10811	----	Proofreaders _DE LA SALLE SERIES_ FIFTH READER [Illustration: WILLIAM McKINLEY PRESIDENT 1897-1901] (REVISED EDITION, 1922) BY THE BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS, ST. JOSEPH'S NORMAL INSTITUTE, POCANTICO HILLS, N.Y. LA SALLE INSTITUTE, GLENCOE, MO. * * * * * CONTENTS _2_ PREFACE _3_ INTRODUCTION _4_ SUGGESTIONS _5_ GUIDE TO PRONUNCIATION _6_ DEFINITIONS _7_ HYMN TO ST. LA SALLE. _Mercedes_ _8_ COLUMBUS AT THE CONVENT. _J.T. Trowbridge_ _9_ THE LITTLE FERN. _Mara L. Pratt_ _10_ HELPING MOTHER. _11_ A CONTENTED WORKMAN. _12_ TWO LABORERS. _Thomas Carlyle_ _13_ THE GRUMBLING PUSS. _14_ THE BROOK SONG. _James Whitcomb Riley_ _15_ THE STORY OF THE SEED-DOWN. _Rydingsvard_ _16_ THE USE OF FLOWERS. _Mary Howitt_ _17_ PIERRE'S LITTLE SONG. _18_ SEPTEMBER. _Helen Hunt Jackson_ _19_ "MY OLD KENTUCKY HOME." _Mrs. T.A. Sherrard_ _20_ THE FIRST MIRACLE OF JESUS. _21_ MY BEADS. _Father Ryan_ _22_ THE HARP THAT ONCE THROUGH TARA'S HALLS. _Thomas Moore_ _23_ A LITTLE LADY. _Louisa M. Alcott_ _24_ WHAT HOUSE TO LIKE. _Anon._ _25_ A SONG OF DUTY. _Denis A. McCarthy_ _26_ AN EVENING WITH THE ANGELS. _27_ MY GUARDIAN ANGEL. _Cardinal Newman_ _28_ LITTLE BELL. _Thomas Westwood_ _29_ A MODEST WIT. _Selleck Osborne_ _30_ WOODMAN, SPARE THAT TREE. _George P. Morris_ _31_ THE BOSTON TEA PARTY. _32_ THE OLD OAKEN BUCKET. _Samuel Woodworth_ _33_ THE BOY AND THE CRICKETS. _Pierre J. Hetzel_ _34_ OUR HEROES. _Phoebe Cary_ _35_ THE MINNOWS WITH SILVER TAILS. _Jean Ingelow_ _36_ THE BROOK. _Tennyson_ _37_ LEARNING TO THINK. _38_ ONE BY ONE. _Adelaide A. Procter_ _39_ THE BIRCH CANOE. _Longfellow_ _40_ PETER OF CORTONA. _41_ To MY DOG BLANCO. _J.G. Holland_ _42_ A STORY OF A MONK. _43_ THE SERMON OF ST. FRANCIS. _Longfellow_ _44_ GLORIA IN EXCELSIS. _Father Ryan_ _45_ THE FIRST CHRISTMAS TREE. _Eugene Field_ _46_ THE HOLY CITY. _47_ THE FEAST OF TONGUES. _Aesop_ _48_ THE NIGHTINGALE AND THE GLOWWORM. _William Cowper_ _49_ JACK FROST. _Hannah F. Gould_ _50_ "GOING! GOING! GONE!" _Helen Hunt Jackson_ _51_ SEVEN TIMES TWO. _Jean Ingelow_ _52_ MY MOTHER'S GRAVE. _53_ THE OLD ARM-CHAIR. _Eliza Cook_ _54_ BREAK, BREAK, BREAK! _Tennyson_ _55_ GOD IS OUR FATHER. _56_ HAPPY OLD AGE. _Robert Southey_ _57_ KIND WORDS. _Father Faber_ _58_ KINDNESS IS THE WORD. _John Boyle O'Reilly_ _59_ DAFFODILS. _William Wordsworth_ _60_ THE STORY OF TARCISIUS. _Cardinal Wiseman_ _61_ LEGEND OF THE WAXEN CIBORIUM. _Eleanor C. Donnelly_ _62_ LITTLE DAFFY-DOWN-DILLY. _Nathaniel Hawthorne_ _63_ IN SCHOOL DAYS _Whittier_ _64_ THE SUN'S FAMILY _65_ WILL AND I _Paul H. Hayne_ _66_ CHRISTMAS DINNER AT THE CRATCHITS'. _Charles Dickens_ _67_ WHICH SHALL IT BE? _Anon_ _68_ ST. DOROTHY, MARTYR. _69_ TO A BUTTERFLY. _William Wordsworth_ _70_ THE PEN AND THE INKSTAND. _Hans Christian Andersen_ _71_ THE WIND AND THE MOON. _George MacDonald_ _72_ ST. PHILIP NERI AND THE YOUTH. _73_ THE WATER LILY. _Jean Ingelow_ _74_ A BUILDER'S LESSON. _John Boyle O'Reilly_ _75_ WASHINGTON AND HIS MOTHER. _76_ WASHINGTON'S BIRTHDAY. _Margaret E. Sangster_ _77_ THE SWORD OF BUNKER HILL. _William R. Wallace_ _78_ THE MARTYR'S BOY. _Cardinal Wiseman_ _79_ THE ANGEL'S STORY. _Adelaide A. Procter_ _80_ GLUCK'S VISITOR. _John Ruskin_ _81_ A VISIT FROM ST. NICHOLAS. _Clement C. Moore_ _82_ COMMODORE JOHN BARRY. _83_ THE BOY OF THE HOUSE. _Jean Blewett_ _84_ BIOGRAPHIES (Transcriber's Note: Although "ABOU BEN ADHEM AND THE ANGEL. _Leigh Hunt_" and "A SIMPLE RECIPE. _James Whitcomb Riley_" were originally shown in the list above, neither work appears in the text.) * * * * * _2_ PREFACE The object of the Christian Brothers in issuing a new series of Readers is to place in the hands of the teachers and pupils of our Catholic schools a set of books embodying the matter and methods best suited to their needs. The matter has been written or chosen with a view to interest and instruct, to cultivate a taste for the best literature, to build up a strong moral character and to imbue our children with an intelligent love of Faith and Country. The methods are those approved by the most experienced and progressive teachers of reading in Europe and America. These Readers have also been specially designed to elicit thought and facilitate literary composition. In furtherance of this idea, class talks, word study, the structure of sentences, drills on certain correct forms of expression, the proper arrangement of ideas, explanation of phrases and literary expressions, oral and written reproductions of narrations and descriptions, and exercises in original composition, all receive the attention which their importance demands. Thus will the pupils, while learning to read and from their earliest years, acquire that readiness in grasping the thoughts of others and that fluency in expressing their own, which are so essential to a good English education. In teaching the art of Reading as well as that of Composition, the principle of order should in a great measure determine the value of the methods to be employed. In the acquisition of knowledge, the child instinctively follows the order of nature. This order is first, _observation_; second, _thought_; third, _expression_. It becomes the duty of the teacher, consequently, to lead the child to observe _accurately_, to think _clearly_, and to express his thoughts _correctly_. And text-books are useful only in so far as they supply the teacher with the material and the system best calculated to accomplish such results. It is therefore hoped that the present new series of Readers, having been planned in accordance with the principle just enunciated, will prove a valuable adjunct in our Catholic schools. * * * * * _3_ INTRODUCTION In this Fifth Reader of the De La Salle Series the plan of the preceding numbers has been continued. The pupil has now mastered the mechanical difficulties of learning to read, and has acquired a fairly good working vocabulary. Hence he is prepared to read intelligently and with some degree of fluency and pleasure. Now is the time to lead him to acquire a taste for good reading. The selections have been drawn mainly from authors whose writings are distinguished for their moral and literary value, and whose style is sure to excite a lasting interest. In addition to giving the pupil practice in reading and forming a basis for oral and written composition work, these selections will raise his ideas of right living, will quicken his imagination, will give him his first knowledge of many things, stimulate his powers of observation, enlarge his vocabulary, and correct and refine his mode of expression. A wholesome reading habit, so important to-day, will thus be easily, pleasantly and unconsciously formed. The following are some of the features of the book: GUIDE TO PRONUNCIATION.--This Guide is to be referred to again and again, and the diacritical marks carefully taught. Instruction in the vowel sounds is an excellent drill in articulation, while a knowledge of the diacritical marks enables the pupil to master these sounds for himself when consulting the dictionary. VARIETY OF MATTER.--In the volume will be found the best sentiments of the best writers. The pupil will find fables, nature studies, tales of travel and adventure, brave deeds from history and fiction, stories of loyalty and heroism, examples of sublime Christian self-sacrifice, and selections that teach industry, contentment, respect for authority, reverence for all things sacred, attachment to home, and fidelity to faith and Country. LANGUAGE STUDY.--If reading is to hold its proper place in the class room, the teaching of it must not be confined to the mere reading of the text. In its truest sense, reading is far more comprehensive. The teacher will question the pupil on what he has read, point out to him the beauties of thought and language, find out what hold the reading has taken upon his memory, how it has aroused his imagination, assisted his judgment, directed his will, and contributed to his fund of general information. To assist in this most important work is the object aimed at in the matter given for Language Study. Such study will also give fuller powers of interpretation and corresponding appreciation of the selection considered simply as literature. RECITATIONS.--There are some selections marked for recitation. The public recitation of these extracts will banish awkwardness of manner, beget self-confidence, and lay the foundation for subsequent elocutionary work. Besides, experience teaches that a single poem or address based upon some heroic or historic event, recited before a class or a school, will often do more to build up a noble character and foster a love of history, than a full term of instruction by question and answer. POETRY.--The numerous poetic selections, some of which are partly analyzed by way of suggestion, will create a love for the highest and purest forms of literature, will broaden the field of knowledge, and emphasize the teachings of some of the prose selections. Many of them have been written by American authors. Every American boy and girl should be acquainted with the works of poets who have done so much for the development of American literature and nationality. MEMORY GEMS.--"The memorizing of choice bits of prose and poetry enriches the vocabulary of the pupils, adorns their memory, suggests delicate and noble thoughts, and puts them in possession of sentences of the best construction. The recitation of these expressive texts accustoms the children to speak with ease, grace and elegance." ("Elements of Practical Pedagogy.") BIOGRAPHIES.--Young children enjoy literature for its own sake, and take little interest in the personality of the writer; but as they grow older, pleasure in the work of an author arouses an interest in the writer himself. Brief biographical sketches are given at the close of the volume as helps in the study of the authors from whom selections are drawn, and to induce the pupils to read further. * * * * * _4_ SUGGESTIONS WORD STUDY.--The pupil should know how to spell and pronounce correctly all the words of the selection he is preparing to read. He should know their ordinary meanings and the special meanings they may have in the text. He should be able to write them correctly from dictation and to use them in sentences of his own. He should examine if they are primitive, derivative, or compound; he should be able to name the prefixes and suffixes and show how the meanings of the original words are modified by their use. He should cultivate the habit of word mastery. What is read will not otherwise be understood. Without it there can be no good reading, speaking or writing. EXPRESSIVE READING.--There should be constant drill to secure correct pronunciation, distinct articulation, proper emphasis, and an agreeable tone of voice, without which there can be no expressive reading. This is a difficult task, and will take much time, trouble and practice; but it has far-reaching results. It enlarges the sympathy of the pupil and lays the foundation for a genuine love of literature. Do not, then, let the reading lesson drift into a dull and monotonous calling of words. On the contrary, let it be intelligent, spirited, enthusiastic. Emotion comes largely from the imagination. The pupil himself must be taught not only to feel what he reads, but to make its meaning clear to others. It is important that children be taught to acquire thought through the ear. CONCERT READING.--Reading in concert is generally of little value, and the time given to it ill-spent. It does not aid the children in getting thought, or in expressing it fluently. As an exercise in teaching reading it is ineffective and often positively harmful. A concert recitation to which special training has been given partakes of the nature of a hymn or a song, and then becomes an element of value. If occasionally there must be concert reading in the class room, it should always be preceded by individual mastery of the selection. POEMS.--In the first lesson, a poem, like a picture, should be presented as a whole, and never dissected. The teacher should first read it through, not stopping for note or comment. He should then read it again, part by part, stopping, for question, explanation and discussion. Lastly, the whole poem, should be read with suitable emotion, so that the final impression may be made by the author's own words. It is important that the pupil get the message which the author intended to give. In teaching a descriptive poem, make the pictures as vivid as possible, and thus awaken the imagination. In dealing with a narrative poem, the sequence of events must first be made clear. When this is done, the aim should be to give fuller meaning to the story by bringing out clearly the causes, motives and results of acts. All this will take time. Be it so. One poem well read, well studied, is worth more than a volume carelessly read over. In reading poetry, be careful that the pupils, while giving the rhythm of the lines, do not fall into the singsong tone so common and so disagreeable. EXPLANATIONS.--Explanations should accompany every reading lesson, without which there can be no serious teaching of the vernacular. By their means the teacher enters into communication with his pupils; he gets them to speak, he corrects their errors, trains their reason, and forms their taste. It has been said that a teacher able to explain selections in prose and poetry "holds his class in the hollow of his hand." The teacher should insist that the pupil express himself clearly and correctly, not only during the reading lesson, but on every subject he has occasion to deal with, either orally or in writing, throughout the day's recitations. REVIEWS.--As the memory of children, though prompt, is weak, frequent reviews should be held. They are necessary for the backward pupils and advantageous for the others. Have an informal talk with the children on what they have read, what they have learned, what they have liked, and what has interested them. Some important parts of the prose and poetry previously studied might, during this exercise, be re-read with profit. COMPOSITION.--Continue oral and written composition. The correct use of written language is best taught by selecting for compositions subject-matter that deeply interests the children. If persevered in, this will secure a good, strong, idiomatic use of English. If the words of a selection that has been studied appear now and then in the children's conversation or writing, it should be a matter for praise; for this means that new words have been added to their vocabulary, and that the children have a new conception of beauty of thought and speech. See that all written work be done neatly and legibly. Slovenly or careless habits should never be allowed in any written work. MEMORY GEMS.--Do not lose sight of the memory gems. Familiarize the pupil with them. Their value to the child lies more in future good resulting from them than in present good. These treasures of thought will live in the memory and influence the daily lives of the children who learn them by heart. THE DICTIONARY.--The use of the dictionary is a necessary part of education. It is a powerful aid in self-education. Its use will double the value of study in connection with reading and language. Every Grammar School, High School and College should be supplied with several copies of a good unabridged dictionary, and every pupil taught how to consult it, and encouraged to do so. The dictionary should be the book of first and last and constant resort. USE OF THE LIBRARY.--The teacher should endeavor to create an interest in those books from which the selections in the Reader are taken, and in others of equal grade and quality. Encourage the children to take books from the library. Direct them in their choice. Encourage home reading. The reading of good books should be a part of regular school work; otherwise little or no true progress can be made in speaking and writing. The best way to learn to speak and write good English is to read good English. For additional suggestions as to the best means of teaching Reading and Language, teachers are referred to Chapters II and IV, Part IV, of "Elements of Practical Pedagogy," by the Christian Brothers, and published by the La Salle Bureau of Supplies, 50 Second Street, New York. * * * * * Acknowledgments are gratefully made to the following authors, publishers, and owners of copyright, who have courteously granted permission to use the selections which bear their names: "Mercedes," Miss Eleanor C. Donnelly, Miss Mary Boyle O'Reilly, Miss Kate Putnam Osgood, Miss P.C. Donnelly, Mrs. Margaret E. Sangster, Mr. Denis A. McCarthy, Mr. James Whitcomb Riley, Mr. George Cooper, Mr. J.T. Trowbridge, "Rev. Richard W. Alexander;" University of Notre Dame; The Ladies' Home Journal; Lothrop, Lee & Shepard Co.; The Educational Publishing Co.; Little, Brown & Co.; The Bobbs-Merrill Co.; P.J. Kenedy & Sons; The Hinds & Noble Co.; Charles Scribner's Sons. The selections from Longfellow, Whittier, Holmes, Hawthorne, Fields, Trowbridge, Phoebe Cary, Charles Dudley Warner, are used by permission of, and by special arrangement with, Houghton, Mifflin & Co., publishers of the works of these authors, and to these gentlemen are tendered expressions of sincere thanks. * * * * * _5_ GUIDE TO PRONUNCIATION NOTE.--This Guide is given to aid the pupil in the use of the dictionary, and will be found to cover all ordinary cases. In the diacritical marking, as in accentuation and syllabication, Webster's International Dictionary has been taken as authority. VOWELS (Transcriber's Note: Equivalent sound shown within round brackets.) [=a] as in gate--g[=a]te [^a] as in care--c[^a]re [)a] as in cat--c[)a]t [.a] as in ask--[.a]sk [a.] ([)o]) as in what--wh[a.]t [:a] as in car--c[:a]r [a:] as in all--[a:]ll ai ([^a]) as in air--[^a]ir ai ([=a]) as in aim--[=a]im au ([:a]) as in aunt--[:a]unt [=e] as in eve--[=e]ve [)e] as in end--[)e]nd [~e] as in her--h[~e]r [^e] as in there--th[^e]re [e=] ([=a]) as in they--th[e=]y ea ([=e]) as in ear--[=e]ar ei ([=e]) as in receive--rec[=e]ive [=i] as in ice--[=i]ce [)i] as in pin--p[)i]n [~i] ([~e]) as in bird--b[~i]rd [:i] ([=e]) as in police--pol[:i]ce i[e=] ([=e]) as in chief--chi[=e]f [=o] as in old--[=o]ld [^o] as in lord--l[^o]rd [)o] as in not--n[)o]t [.o] ([)u]) as in son--s[.o]n [o.] ([u.]) as in wolf--w[o.]lf [o:] ([=oo]) as in do--d[o:] oa ([=o]) as in boat--b[=o]at [=oo] ([o:]) as in moon--m[=oo]n [)oo] ([o.]) as in foot--f[)oo]t [=u] as in pure--p[=u]re [)u] as in cup--c[)u]p [^u] as in burn--b[^u]rn [u.] ([o.]) as in full--f[u.]ll [u:] as in rude--r[u:]de ew ([=u]) as in new [=y] ([=i] as in fly--fl[=y] [)y] ([)i]) as in hymn--h[)y]mn [~y] ([~e]) as in myrrh--m[~y]rrh CONSONANTS c (s) as in cent c (k) as in cat ce (sh) as in ocean ch (k) as in school ch (sh) as in machine ci (sh) as in gracious dg (j) as in edge ed (d) as in burned ed (t) as in baked f (v) as in of g (hard) as in get g (j) as in gem gh (f) as in laugh n (ng) as in ink ph (f) as in sulphur qu (kw) as in queen s (z) as in has s (sh) as in sure s (zh) as in pleasure ssi (sh) as in passion si (zh) as in occasion ti (sh) as in nation wh (hw) as in when x (z) as in Xavier x (ks) as in tax x (gz) as in exist * * * * * _6_ DEFINITIONS LANGUAGE is the expression of thought by means of words. WORDS, with respect to their _origin_, are divided into _primitive_ and _derivative_; and with respect to their _composition_, into _simple_ and _compound_. A PRIMITIVE word is one that is not derived from another word. A DERIVATIVE word is one that is formed from another word by means of prefixes or suffixes, or by some other change. A SIMPLE word is one that consists of a single significant term. A COMPOUND word is one made up of two or more simple words. A SENTENCE is a combination of words which make complete sense. A SYLLABLE is a word or a part of a word pronounced by one effort of the voice. The DIAERESIS is the mark [..] placed over the second of two adjacent vowels, to denote that they are to be pronounced as distinct letters; as _RE�CHO_. RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS The first word of every SENTENCE should begin with a capital. PROPER NAMES, and words derived from them, should begin with capitals. The first word of every LINE OF POETRY should begin with a capital. All names of God and all titles of the DEITY, as well as all pronouns referring to the Deity, should begin with capitals. The words I and O should always be capitals. The first word of a DIRECT QUOTATION should begin with a capital. The names of the DAYS and of the MONTHS should begin with capitals; but not the names of the seasons. * * * * * _7_ HYMN TO ST. LA SALLE. Glorious Patron! low before thee Kneel thy sons, with hearts a-flame! And our voices blend in music, Singing praises to thy name. Saint John Baptist! glorious Patron! Saint La Salle! we sound thy fame. Lover of our Queen and Mother, At her feet didst vow thy heart, Earth, and all its joys, forsaking, Thou didst choose the better part. Saint La Salle, our glorious Father, Pierce our souls with love's own dart. Model of the Christian Teacher! Patron of the Christian youth! Lead us all to heights of glory, As we strive in earnest ruth. Saint La Salle! oh, guard and guide us, As we spread afar the Truth! In this life of sin and sorrow, Saint La Salle, oh, guide our way, In the hour of dark temptation, Father! be our spirit's stay! Take our hand and lead us homeward, Saint La Salle, to Heaven's bright Day! _Mercedes._ [Illustration: ST. JOHN BAPTIST DE LA SALLE.] Founder of the Brothers of the Christian Schools, pointing out the way of salvation to the children of all nations. "Christian Teachers are the sculptors of living angels, moulding and shaping the souls of youth for heaven." _Most Reverend Archbishop Keane, of Dubuque._ * * * * * _8_ due mien fri'ar pri'or Pa'los por'ter con'vent pre'cious grat'i tude COLUMBUS AT THE CONVENT. Dreary and brown the night comes down, Gloomy, without a star. On Palos town the night comes down; The day departs with stormy frown; The sad sea moans afar. A convent gate is near; 'tis late; Tin-gling! the bell they ring. They ring the bell, they ask for bread-- "Just for my child," the father said. Kind hands the bread will bring. White was his hair, his mien was fair, His look was calm and great. The porter ran and called a friar; The friar made haste and told the prior; The prior came to the gate. He took them in, he gave them food; The traveler's dreams he heard; And fast the midnight moments flew. And fast the good man's wonder grew, And all his heart was stirred. The child the while, with soft, sweet smile, Forgetful of all sorrow, Lay soundly sleeping in his bed. The good man kissed him there, and said: "You leave us not to-morrow! "I pray you, rest the convent's guest; This child shall be our own-- A precious care, while you prepare Your business with the court, and bear Your message to the throne." And so his guest he comforted. O wise, good prior! to you, Who cheered the stranger's darkest days, And helped him on his way, what praise And gratitude are due! _J.T. Trowbridge._ By permission of the author. * * * * * Where is Palos? What is it noted for? Who was the "good man" spoken of in the poem? In the line "The traveler's dreams he heard," who was the traveler? Relate the story of his dreams. Why are they called dreams? Did the dreams become facts? In what way? How did the monks of this convent assist Columbus? How did the Queen of Spain assist him? Why is it that in the geography of our country we meet with so many Catholic names? * * * * * Memory Gem: Press on! There's no such word as fail! Push nobly on! The goal is near! Ascend the mountain! Breast the gale! Look upward, onward,--never fear! [Illustration:] * * * * * _9_ THE LITTLE FERN. A great many centuries ago, when the earth was even more beautiful than it is now, there grew in one of the many valleys a dainty little fern leaf. All around the tiny plant were many others, but none of them so graceful and delicate as this one I tell you of. Every day the cheery breezes sought out their playmate, and the merry sunbeams darted in and out, playing hide-and-seek among reeds and rushes; and when the twilight shadows deepened, and the sunbeams had all gone away, the little fern curled itself up for the night with only the dewdrops for company. So day after day went by: and no one knew of, or found the sweet wild fern, or the beautiful valley it grew in. But--for this was a very long time ago--a great change took place in the earth; and rocks and soil were upturned, and the rivers found new channels to flow in. Now, when all this happened, the little fern was quite covered up with the soft moist clay, and perhaps you think it might as well never have lived as to have been hidden away where none could see it. But after all, it was not really lost; for hundreds of years afterwards, when all that clay had become stone, and had broken into many fragments, a very wise and learned man found the bit of rock upon which was all the delicate tracery of the little fern leaf, with outline just as perfect and lovely as when, long, long ago it had swayed to the breezes in its own beautiful valley. And so wonderful did it seem to the wise man, that he took the fern leaf home with him and placed it in his cabinet where all could admire it; and where, if they were thoughtful and clever enough, they could think out the story for themselves and find the lesson which was hidden away with the fern in the bit of rock. Lesson! did I say? Well, let's not call it a lesson, but only a truth which it will do every one of us good to remember; and that is, that none of the beauty in this fair world around us, nor anything that is sweet and lovely in our own hearts, and lives, will ever be useless and lost. For, as the little fern leaf lay hidden away for years and years, and yet finally was found by the wise man and given a place with his other rare and precious possessions where it could still, though silently, aid those who looked upon it; so we, as boys and girls, men and women who are to be, can now, day by day, cultivate all lovely traits of character, making ourselves ready to take our place in the world's work. And when that time comes we shall not only be able to aid others silently, as did the little fern, but may also, by word and deed, lend a hand to each and every one around us. _Mara L. Pratt._ From "Fairyland of Flowers." The Educational Publishing Co. * * * * * Break up the following words into their syllables, and place the accent mark where it belongs in each: outline, tracery, cabinet, delicate, finally, character, hundreds, centuries, remember, beautiful, possessions. Show the correct use of the words in original sentences. The dictionary will help you in the work. Name some of the traits of character that will help a boy or a girl to be truly successful in life. * * * * * Memory Gems: The child is father of the man; And I could wish my days to be Bound each to each by natural piety. _Wordsworth_. Truth alone makes life rich and great. _Emerson_. There is a tongue in every leaf-- A voice in every rill-- A voice that speaketh everywhere-- In flood and fire, through earth and air, A tongue that's never still. _Anon_. * * * * * _10_ blithe whistler mellow replied cheery skylark HELPING MOTHER. As I went down the street to-day, I saw a little lad Whose face was just the kind of face To make a person glad. It was so plump and rosy-cheeked, So cheerful and so bright, It made me think of apple-time. And filled me with delight. I saw him busy at his work, While blithe as skylark's song His merry, mellow whistle rang The pleasant street along. "Oh, that's the kind of lad I like!" I thought as I passed by; "These busy, cheery, whistling boys Make grand men by and by." Just then a playmate came along, And leaned across the gate-- A plan that promised lots of fun And frolic to relate. "The boys are waiting for us now, So hurry up!" he cried; My little whistler shook his head, And "Can't come," he replied. "Can't come? Why not, I'd like to know? What hinders?" asked the other. "Why, don't you see," came the reply, "I'm busy helping mother? She's lots to do, and so I like To help her all I can; So I've no time for fun just now," Said this dear little man. "I like to hear you talk like that," I told the little lad; "Help mother all you can, and make Her kind heart light and glad." It does me good to think of him, And know that there are others Who, like this manly little boy, Take hold and help their mothers. LANGUAGE WORK: Describe the little lad spoken of in the poem. Do you know any boy like him? Tell what this "little man" said to his playmate. When night came, was the boy sorry that he had missed so much fun? What kind of man did he very likely grow up to be? * * * * * _11_ rid' dle brand'-new mys' ter y un rav' el like' ness es A CONTENTED WORKMAN. Once upon a time, Frederick, King of Prussia, surnamed "Old Fritz," took a ride, and saw an old laborer plowing his land by the wayside cheerily singing his song. "You must be well off, old man," said the king. "Does this land on which you are working so hard belong to you?" "No, sir," replied the laborer, who knew not that it was the king; "I am not so rich as that; I plow for wages." "How much do you get a day?" asked the king. "Two dollars," said the laborer. "That is not much," replied the king; "can you get along with that?" "Yes; and have something left." "How is that?" The laborer smiled, and said, "Well, if I must tell you, fifty cents are for myself and wife; with fifty I pay my old debts, fifty I lend, and fifty I give away for the Lord's sake." "That is a mystery which I cannot solve," replied the king. "Then I will solve it for you," said the laborer. "I have two old parents at home, who kept me when I was weak and needed help; and now, that they are weak and need help, I keep them. This is my debt, towards which I pay fifty cents a day. The third fifty cents, which I lend, I spend for my children, that they may receive Christian instruction. This will come handy to me and my wife when we get old. With the last fifty I maintain two sick sisters. This I give for the Lord's sake." The king, well pleased with his answer, said, "Bravely spoken, old man. Now I will also give you something to guess. Have you ever seen me before?" "Never," said the laborer. "In less than five minutes you shall see me fifty times, and carry in your pocket fifty of my likenesses." "That is a riddle which I cannot unravel," said the laborer. "Then I will do it for you," replied the king. Thrusting his hand into his pocket, and counting fifty brand-new gold pieces into his hand, stamped with his royal likeness, he said to the astonished laborer, who knew not what was coming, "The coin is good, for it also comes from our Lord God, and I am his paymaster. I bid you good-day." * * * * * Memory Gems: The working men, whatever their task, Who carve the stone, or bear the hod, They wear upon their honest brows The royal stamp and seal of God; And worthier are their drops of sweat Than diamonds in a coronet. Give fools their gold, and knaves their power; Let fortune's bubbles rise and fall; Who sows a field, or trains a flower, Or plants a tree, is more than all. _Whittier_. [Illustration: LABOR _Millet_.] * * * * * _12_ con' script in dis pen' sa ble im' ple ment in de fea' si bly TWO LABORERS. Two men I honor, and no third. First, the toil worn craftsman, that with earth-made implement laboriously conquers the earth, and makes her man's. Venerable to me is the hard hand, crooked, coarse, wherein, notwithstanding, lies a cunning virtue, indefeasibly royal, as of the scepter of this planet. Venerable, too, is the rugged face, all weather tanned, besoiled, with its rude intelligence; for it is the face of a man living manlike. Oh, but the more venerable for thy rudeness, and even because I must pity as well as love thee! Hardly entreated brother! For us was thy back so bent, for us were thy straight limbs and fingers so deformed. Thou wert our conscript on whom the lot fell and, fighting our battles, wert so marred. Yet toil on, toil on; ... thou toilest for the altogether indispensable,--for daily bread. A second man I honor, and still more highly; him who is seen toiling for the spiritually indispensable; not daily bread, but the bread of life. Is not he, too, in his duty; endeavoring towards inward harmony; revealing this, by act or word, through all his outward endeavors, be they high or low? Highest of all, when his outward and his inward endeavor are one; when we can name him artist; not earthly craftsman only, but inspired thinker, that with heaven-made implement conquers heaven for us! If the poor and humble toil that we may have food, must not the high and glorious toil for him, in return, that he may have light and guidance, freedom, immortality?--these two, in all their degrees, I honor; all else is chaff and dust, which let the wind blow whither it listeth. Unspeakably touching it is, however, when I find both dignities united; and he, that must toil outwardly for the lowest of man's wants, is also toiling inwardly for the highest. Sublimer in this world know I nothing than a peasant saint. Such a one will take thee back to Nazareth itself; thou wilt see the splendor of heaven spring forth from the humblest depths of earth like a light shining in great darkness. _Thomas Carlyle._ * * * * * Laws are like cobwebs, where the small flies are caught, and the great break through. _Bacon_. * * * * * _13_ gust thief mop' ing awk' ward pet' tish ly in dig' nant un bear' a ble med' dle some en light' ened in quis' i tive THE GRUMBLING PUSS. "What's the matter?" said Growler to the gray cat, as she sat moping on the top of the garden wall. "Matter enough," said the cat, turning her head another way, "Our cook is very fond of talking of hanging me. I wish heartily some one would hang _her_." "Why, what _is_ the matter?" repeated Growler. "Hasn't she beaten me, and called me a thief, and threatened to be the death of me?" "Dear, dear!" said Growler; "pray what has brought it about?" "Oh, nothing at all; it is her temper. All the servants complain of it. I wonder they haven't hanged her long ago." "Well, you see," said Growler, "cooks are awkward things to hang; you and I might be managed much more easily." "Not a drop of milk have I had this day!" said the gray cat; "and such a pain in my side!" "But what," said Growler, "what is the cause?" "Haven't I told you?" said the gray cat, pettishly; "it's her temper:--oh, what I have had to suffer from it! Everything she breaks she lays to me; everything that is stolen she lays to me. Really, it is quite unbearable!" Growler was quite indignant; but, being of a reflective turn, after the first gust of wrath had passed, he asked: "But was there no particular cause this morning?" "She chose to be very angry because I--I offended her," said the cat. "How, may I ask?" gently inquired Growler. "Oh, nothing worth telling,--a mere mistake of mine." Growler looked at her with such a questioning expression, that she was compelled to say, "I took the wrong thing for my breakfast." "Oh!" said Growler, much enlightened. "Why, the fact is," said the gray cat, "I was springing at a mouse, and knocked down a dish, and, not knowing exactly what it was, I smelt it, and it was rather nice, and--" "You finished it," hinted Growler. "Well, I believe I should have done so, if that meddlesome cook hadn't come in. As it was, I left the head." "The head of what?" said Growler. "How inquisitive you are!" said the gray cat. "Nay, but I should like to know," said Growler. "Well, then, of a certain fine fish that was meant for dinner." "Then," said Growler, "say what you please; but, now that I've heard the whole story, I only wonder she did _not_ hang you." * * * * * Fill the following blanks with words that will make complete sentences: Mary -- here, and Susan and Agnes -- coming. They -- delayed on the road. Mother -- to come with them, but she and father -- obliged to wait till to-morrow. Puss said to Growler, "I -- not -- a drop of milk to-day, and -- not -- any yesterday." I -- my work well now. Yesterday I -- it fairly well. To-morrow I shall -- it perfectly. The boys -- their best, though they -- the game. John--now the boys he -- last week. He -- not -- them before. NOTE.--Let two pupils read or recite the conversational parts of this selection, omitting the explanatory matter, while the other pupils simply listen. If done with expressive feeling and in a perfectly natural tone, it will prove quite an interesting exercise. To play or act the story of a selection helps to develop the imagination. * * * * * _14_ scared swerve gur' gle rip' ples cur' rent mum' bling ly THE BROOK SONG. Little brook! Little brook! You have such a happy look-- Such a very merry manner, as you swerve and curve and crook-- And your ripples, one and one, Reach each other's hands and run Like laughing little children in the sun! Little brook, sing to me; Sing about the bumblebee That tumbled from a lily bell and grumbled mumblingly, Because he wet the film Of his wings, and had to swim, While the water bugs raced round and laughed at him. Little brook--sing a song Of a leaf that sailed along Down the golden-hearted center of your current swift and strong, And a dragon fly that lit On the tilting rim of it, And rode away and wasn't scared a bit. And sing--how oft in glee Came a truant boy like me, Who loved to lean and listen to your lilting melody, Till the gurgle and refrain Of your music in his brain Wrought a happiness as keen to him as pain. Little brook--laugh and leap! Do not let the dreamer weep: Sing him all the songs of summer till he sink in softest sleep; And then sing soft and low Through his dreams of long ago-- Sing back to him the rest he used to know! _James Whitcomb Riley_. From "Rhymes of Childhood." Used by special permission of the publishers, The Bobbs-Merrill Co. Copyright, 1900. * * * * * [Illustration: BY THE BROOK] RIPPLES, little curling waves FILM, a thin skin or slight covering. CURRENT, the swiftest part of a stream; also applied to _air, electricity_, etc. What do the following expressions mean: tilting rim, lilting melody, softest sleep, gurgle and refrain, a happiness as keen to him as pain? What is a lullaby? Recite a stanza of one. Insert _may_ or _can_ properly where you see a dash in the following: The boy said, "--I leave the room?" "Mother, I--climb the ladder;--I?"--a dog climb a tree?--I ask a favor? Copy the following words--they are often misspelled: loving, using, till, until, queer, fulfil, speech, muscle, quite, scheme, success, barely, college, villain, salary, visitor, remedy, hurried, forty-four, enemies, twelfth, marriage, immense, exhaust. By means of the suffixes, _er, est, ness_, form three new words from each of the following words: happy, sleepy, lively, greedy, steady, lovely, gloomy. Example: From happy,--happier, happiest, happiness. Note the change of _y_ to _i_. * * * * * _15_ rag'ged crin'kly rub'bish fil'tered protect'ed disor'derly disturbed' imme'diately THE STORY OF THE SEED-DOWN. I. High above the earth, over land and sea, floated the seed-down, borne on the autumn wind's strong arms. "Here shall you lie, little seed-down," said he at last, and put it down on the ground, and laid a fallen leaf over it. Then he flew away immediately, because he had much to look after. That was in the dark evening, and the seed could not see where it was placed, and besides, the leaf covered it. Something heavy came now, and pressed so hard that the seed came near being destroyed; but the leaf, weak though it was, protected it. It was a human foot which walked along over the ground, and pressed the downy seed into the earth. When the foot was withdrawn, the earth fell, and filled the little pit it had made. The cold came, and the snow fell several feet deep; but the seed lay quietly down there, waiting for warmth and light. When the spring came, and the snow melted away, the plant shot up out of the earth. There was a little gray cottage beside which it grew up. The tiny plant could not see very far around, because rubbish and brush-heaps lay near it, and the little window was so gray and dusty that it could not peep into the cottage either. "Who lives here?" asked the little thing. "Don't you know that?" asked the ragged shoe, which lay near. "Why, the smith who drinks so much lives here, and his wife who wore me out." And then she told how it looked inside, how life went on there, and it was not cheering; no, but fearfully sad. The shoe knew it all well, and told a whole lot in a few minutes, because she had such a well-hung tongue. Now there came a pair of ragged children, running--the smith's boy and girl; he was six years old and the girl eight, so the shoe said, after they were gone. "Oh, see, what a pretty little plant!" said the girl. "So now, I shall pull it up," said the boy, and the plant trembled to the root's heart. "No, do not do it!" said the girl. "We must let it grow. Do you not see what pretty crinkly leaves it has? It will have lovely flowers, I know, when it grows bigger." And it was allowed to stay there. The children took a stick and dug up the earth round about, so it looked like a plowed field. Then they threw the shoe and the sweepings a little way off, because they thought to make the place look better. "You cannot think," said the shoe, after the children had gone, "you cannot think how in the way folks are!" "The children have to give themselves airs, and pretend to be very orderly," said the half of a coffee-cup; and she broke in another place she was so disturbed. But the sun shone warmly and the rain filtered down in the upturned earth. Then leaf after leaf unfolded, and in a few days the plant was several inches high. "Oh, see!" said the children, who came again; "see how beautiful it is getting!" "Come, father, come! brother and I have discovered such a pretty plant! Come and see it!" begged the girl. The father glanced at it. The plant looked so lovely on the little rough bit of soil which lay between the piles of sweepings. The smith nodded to the children. "It looks very disorderly here," he said to himself, and stopped an instant. "Yes, indeed, it does!" He went along, but thought of the little green spot, with the lovely plant in the midst of it. * * * * * II. pet' als in' mates scrubbed fra' grant The children ran into the house. "Mother," said they, "there is such a rare plant growing right by the window!" The mother wished to glance out, but the window was so thick with dust that she could not do so. She wiped off a little spot. "My! My!" said she, when she noticed how dirty the window looked beside the cleaned spot; so she wiped the whole window. "That is an odd plant," said she, looking at it. "But how dreadfully dirty it is out in the yard!" Now that the sun shone in through the window it became very light in the cottage. The mother looked at the ragged children and at the rubbish in the room, and the blood rushed over her pale cheeks. "It is a perfect shame!" she murmured. "I have never noticed that it was so untidy here." She hurried around, and set the room to rights, and, when that was done, she washed the dirty floor. She scrubbed it so hard that her hands smarted as if she had burned them in the fire; she did not stop until every spot was white. It was evening; the husband came home from work. The wife sat mending the girl's ragged dress. The man stopped in the door. It looked so strange to him within, and the look his wife gave him was brighter than ever before, he thought. "Go--God's peace!" he stammered. It was a long time since such a greeting had been heard in here. "God's peace!" answered she; "wel--welcome home!" She had not said this for many years. The smith stepped forward to the window; on the bed beside it the two children lay sleeping. He looked at them, then he looked out on the mound where the little plant stood. After a few minutes he went out. A deep sigh rose from the woman's breast. She had hoped that he would stay home that evening. Two great tears fell on the little dress. In a few minutes she heard a noise outside. She went to the window to see what it could be. Her husband had not gone away! He was out in the yard clearing up the brush-heaps and rubbish. She became more happy than she had been for a long time. He glanced in through the window and saw her. Then she nodded, he nodded back, and they both smiled. "Be careful, above all, of the little plant!" said she. Warm and sunny days came. The smith stayed at home now every evening. It was green and lovely round the little cottage, and outside the window there was a whole flower-bed, with many blossoms; but in the midst stood the little plant the autumn wind had brought thither. The smith's family stood around the flower-bed, and talked about the flowers. "But the plant that brother and I found is the most beautiful of all," said the girl. "Yes, indeed it is," said the parents. The smith bent down and took one of the leaves in his hand, but very carefully, because he was afraid he might hurt it with his thick, coarse fingers. Then a bell was heard ringing in the distance. The sound floated out over field and lake, and rang so peacefully in the eventide, just as the sun sank behind the tree-tops in the forest. And every one bowed the head, because it was Saturday evening, and it was a sacred voice that sounded. In a little while all was silent in the cottage; the inmates slumbered, more tired, perhaps, than before, after the week's toils, but also much, much happier. And round about, all was calm and peaceful. But when Sunday's sun came up, the plant opened its bud,--and it bore but a single one. When the cottage folks passed the little flower-garden, they all stopped and looked at the beautiful, fragrant blossom. "It shall go with us to the house of God," said the wife, turning to her husband. He nodded, and then she broke off the flower. The wife looked at the husband, and he looked at her, and then their eyes rested on both children; then their eyes grew dim, but became immediately bright again, for the tears were not of sorrow, but of happiness. When the organ's tones swelled and the people sang in the temple, the flower folded its petals, for it had fulfilled its mission; but on the waves of song its perfume floated upwards. And in the sweet fragrance lay a warm thanksgiving from the little seed-down. From "My Lady Legend," translated from the Swedish by Miss Rydingsvärd. Used by the special permission of the publishers, Lothrop, Lee & Shepard Co. * * * * * Memory Gem: I want it to be said of me by those who know me best that I have always plucked a thistle and planted a flower in its place wherever a flower would grow. _Abraham Lincoln._ * * * * * _16_ lux'u ry med'i cine a bun'dant wil'der ness THE USE OF FLOWERS. God might have bade the earth bring forth Enough for great and small, The oak tree, and the cedar tree, Without a flower at all. He might have made enough, enough, For every want of ours; For luxury, medicine, and toil, And yet have made no flowers. The ore within the mountain mine Requireth none to grow, Nor doth it need the lotus flower To make the river flow. The clouds might give abundant rain, The nightly dews might fall, And the herb that keepeth life in man Might yet have drunk them all. Then wherefore, wherefore were they made All dyed with rainbow light, All fashioned with supremest grace, Upspringing day and night-- Springing in valleys green and low, And on the mountains high, And in the silent wilderness, Where no man passeth by? Our outward life requires them not, Then wherefore had they birth? To minister delight to man, To beautify the earth; To whisper hope--to comfort man Whene'er his faith is dim; For whoso careth for the flowers Will care much more for Him! _Mary Howitt._ * * * * * Give the plural forms of the following name-words: tree, leaf, copy, foot, shoe, calf, life, child, tooth, valley. Insert the proper punctuation marks in the following stanza: In the country on every side Where far and wide Like a leopard's tawny hide Stretches the plain To the dry grass and drier grain How welcome is the rain. Memory Gem: Full many a gem of purest ray serene The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear; Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, And waste its sweetness on the desert air. _Stanza from Gray's "Elegy."_ * * * * * _17_ deigned in' va lid lone' li ness smoothed med'i cine be wil'dered gen' ius riv' et ed soul-sub du' ing PIERRE'S LITTLE SONG. In a humble room, in one of the poorer streets of London, little Pierre, a fatherless French boy, sat humming by the bedside of his sick mother. There was no bread in the house; and he had not tasted food all day. Yet he sat humming to keep up his spirits. Still, at times, he thought of his loneliness and hunger, and he could scarcely keep the tears from his eyes; for he knew that nothing would be so welcome to his poor invalid mother as a good sweet orange; and yet he had not a penny in the world. The little song he was singing was his own,--one he had composed, both air and words; for the child was a genius. He went to the window, and, looking out, saw a man putting up a great poster with yellow letters, announcing that Madame Malibran would sing that night in public. "Oh, if I could only go!" thought little Pierre; and then, pausing a moment, he clasped his hands; his eyes sparkled with a new hope. Running to the looking-glass, he smoothed his yellow curls, and, taking from a little box an old, stained paper, he gave one eager glance at his mother, who slept, and ran speedily from the house. * * * * * "Who, do you say, is waiting for me?" said the lady to her servant. "I am already worn out with company." "Only a very pretty little boy, with yellow curls, who says that if he can just see you, he is sure you will not be sorry, and he will not keep you a moment." "Oh, well, let him come!" said the beautiful singer, with a smile; "I can never refuse children." Little Pierre came in, his hat under his arm; and in his hand a little roll of paper. With a manliness unusual in a child, he walked straight up to the lady, and, bowing, said: "I have come to see you, because my mother is very sick, and we are too poor to get food and medicine. I thought that, perhaps, if you would only sing my little song at one of your grand concerts, some publisher might buy it, for a small sum; and so I could get food and medicine for my mother." The beautiful woman rose from her seat; very tall and stately she was;--she took the little roll from his hand, and lightly hummed the air. "Did you compose it?" she asked,--"you, a child! And the words?--Would you like to come to my concert?" she asked, after a few moments of thought. "Oh, yes!" and the boy's eyes grew bright with happiness; "but I couldn't leave my mother." "I will send somebody to take care of your mother for the evening; and here is a crown, with which you may go and get food and medicine. Here is also one of my tickets; come to-night; and that will admit you to a seat near me." Almost beside himself with joy, Pierre bought some oranges, and many a little luxury besides, and carried them home to the poor invalid, telling her, not without tears, of his good fortune. * * * * * When evening came, and Pierre was admitted to the concert hall, he felt that never in his life had he been in so grand a place. The music, the glare of lights, the beauty, the flashing of diamonds and the rustling of silks, completely bewildered him. At last _she_ came; and the child sat with his eyes riveted on her face. Could it be that the grand lady, glittering with jewels, and whom everybody seemed to worship, would really sing his little song? Breathless he waited:--the band, the whole band, struck up a little plaintive melody: he knew it, and clapped his hands for joy! And oh, how she sang it! It was so simple, so mournful, so soul-subduing. Many a bright eye was dimmed with tears, many a heart was moved, by the touching words of that little song. Pierre walked home as if he were moving on the air. What cared he for money now? The greatest singer in Europe had sung his little song, and thousands had wept at his grief. The next day he was frightened by a visit from Madame Malibran. She laid her hand on his yellow curls, and, turning to the sick woman, said: "Your little boy, madam, has brought you a fortune. I was offered, this morning, by the first publisher in London, a large sum for his little song. Madam, thank God that your son has a gift from heaven." The noble-hearted singer and the poor woman wept together. As for Pierre, always mindful of Him who watches over the tried and the tempted, he knelt down by his mother's bedside and uttered a simple prayer, asking God's blessing on the kind lady who had deigned to notice their affliction. The memory of that prayer made the singer even more tender-hearted; and she now went about doing good. And on her early death, he who stood by her bed, and smoothed her pillow, and lightened her last moments by his affection, was the little Pierre of former days,--now rich, accomplished, and one of the most talented composers of the day. All honor to those great hearts who, from their high stations, send down bounty to the widow and the fatherless! * * * * * PIERRE (pe [^a]r'), Peter. MALIBRAN, a French singer and actress. She died in 1836, when only 28 years old. What does "he walked as if moving on air" mean? BREATHLESS = _breath_+_less_, without breath, out of breath; holding the breath on account of great interest. BREATHLESSLY, in a breathless manner. Use _breath, breathless, breathlessly,_ in sentences of your own. Pronounce separately the two similar consonant sounds coming together in the following words and phrases: humming; meanness; is sure; his spirit; send down; this shows; eyes sparkled; wept together; frequent trials. Memory Gems: A single sunbeam is enough to drive away many shadows. _St. Francis of Assisi._ Howe'er it be, it seems to me, 'Tis only noble to be good. Kind hearts are more than coronets, And simple faith than Norman blood. _Tennyson_. * * * * * _18_ SEPTEMBER. The golden-rod is yellow; The corn is turning brown; The trees in apple orchards With fruit are bending down. The gentian's bluest fringes Are curling in the sun; In dusty pods the milkweed Its hidden silk has spun. The sedges flaunt their harvest In every meadow nook; And asters by the brookside Make asters in the brook. From dewy lanes at morning The grapes' sweet odors rise; At noon the roads all flutter With yellow butterflies. By all these lovely tokens September days are here, With summer's best of weather, And autumn's best of cheer. _Helen Hunt Jackson._ [Footnote: Copyright, Little, Brown & Co., Publishers.] [Illustration:] * * * * * sedges, coarse grasses which grow in marshy places. Tell what the following expressions mean: dewy lanes; best of cheer; sedges flaunt their harvest. How do "Asters by the brookside make asters in the brook"? Give in your own words the tokens of September mentioned in the poem. Can you name any others? Memorize the poem. What do you know of the author? * * * * * _19_ tat'ter wreathed Ken tuck' y de scend'ed re cess' home' stead en rap' tured Penn syl va' ni a "MY OLD KENTUCKY HOME." "My Old Kentucky Home" was written by Stephen Collins Foster, a resident of Pittsburg, Pa., while he and his sister were on a visit to his relative, Judge John Rowan, a short distance east of Bardstown, Ky. One beautiful morning while the slaves were at work in the cornfield and the sun was shining with a mighty splendor on the waving grass, first giving it a light red, then changing it to a golden hue, there were seated upon a bench in front of the Rowan homestead two young people, a brother and a sister. High up in the top of a tree was a mocking bird warbling its sweet notes. Over in a hidden recess of a small brush, the thrush's mellow song could be heard. A number of small negro children were playing not far away. When Foster had finished the first verse of the song his sister took it from his hand and sang in a sweet, mellow voice: The sun shines bright on the old Kentucky home; 'Tis summer, the darkies are gay; The corn top's ripe and the meadows in the bloom, While the birds make music all the day. The young folks roll on the little cabin floor, All merry, all happy, all bright; By'n by hard times comes a-knockin' at the door-- Then, my old Kentucky home, good night. On her finishing the first verse the mocking bird descended to a lower branch. The feathery songster drew his head to one side and appeared to be completely enraptured at the wonderful voice of the young singer. When the last note died away upon the air, her fond brother sang in deep bass voice: Weep no more, my lady; oh, weep no more to-day, Well sing one song for the old Kentucky home, For our old Kentucky home far away. A few more days for to tote the weary load, No matter, 'twill never be light; A few more days till we totter on the road-- Then, my old Kentucky home, good night. The negroes had laid down their hoes and rakes; the little tots had placed themselves behind the large, sheltering trees, while the old black women were peeping around the corner of the house. The faithful old house dog never took his eyes off the young singers. Everything was still; not even the stirring of the leaves seemed to break the wonderful silence. Again the brother and sister took hold of the remaining notes, and sang in sweet accents: They hunt no more for the 'possum and the coon On the meadow, the hill and the shore; They sing no more by the glimmer of the moon, On the bench by the old cabin door. The day goes by like a shadow o'er the heart, With sorrow where all was delight: The time has come when the darkies have to part-- Then, my old Kentucky home, good night. The head must bow and the back will have to bend Wherever the darkies may go; A few more days and the trouble all will end In the fields where the sugar cane grow. Then weep no more, my lady; oh, weep no more to-day, We'll sing one song for the old Kentucky home, For our old Kentucky home far away. As the song was finished tears flowed down the old people's cheeks; the children crept from their hiding place behind the trees, their faces wreathed in smiles. The mocking bird and the thrush sought their home in the thicket, while the old house dog still lay basking in the sun. _Mrs. T.A. Sherrard_ Louisville _Courier-Journal._ * * * * * _20_ stew' ard se'quel Gal'i lee ab lu' tions in ter ces' sion THE FIRST MIRACLE OF JESUS. In the first year of our Lord's public life, St. John tells us in his gospel that "there was a marriage in Cana of Galilee, and the Mother of Jesus was there. And Jesus also was invited to the marriage." Mary was invited to be one of the honored guests because she was, no doubt, an intimate friend of the family. She preceded her Son to the wedding in order to lend her aid in the necessary preparations. Jesus also was asked, and He did not refuse the invitation. He went as freely to this house of feasting as He afterwards went pityingly to so many houses of mourning. Though worn and weary with his long fast and struggle in the desert, He was pleased to attend this merry wedding feast, and by this loving and kindly act to sanctify the bond of Marriage, which was to become in His Church one of the seven Sacraments. The feast went gayly onward until an incident occurred that greatly disturbed the host. The wine failed. The host had not calculated rightly, or perhaps he had not counted on so many guests. Mary, with her motherly heart, was the first to notice the confusion of the servants when they discovered that the wine vessels had become empty; and leaning towards her Son, whispered, "They have no wine." "My hour is not yet come," He answered her, meaning that His time for working miracles had not yet arrived. He knew on the instant what the gentle heart of His Mother desired. His words sounded like a refusal of the request which Mary made rather with her eyes than with her tongue; but the sequel shows that the Blessed Mother fully believed that her prayer would be granted. She quietly said to the servants, "Whatsoever He shall say to you, do ye." They had not long to wait. There were standing close at hand six great urns of stone, covered with branches, as is the custom in the East, in order to keep the water cool and fresh. These vessels "containing two or three measures apiece," were kept in readiness for the guests, who were required not only to wash their feet before touching the linen and drapery of the couches, but even during the meal frequently to purify their hands. Already there had been many of these ablutions performed, and the urns were being rapidly emptied. "Fill the waterpots with water," said Jesus to the servants. They filled them up to the brim with clear, fresh water. "Draw out now, and carry to the chief steward of the feast." And they carried it. When the chief steward had tasted the water made wine, and knew not whence it was, he called the bridegroom and said to him: "Every man at first setteth forth good wine, and when men have well drunk then that which is worse; but thou hast kept the good wine until now." The steward had supposed at first that the host had wished to give an agreeable surprise to the company assembled at his table; but the latter, to his amazement, was at once made aware that a wondrous deed had been accomplished--that water had been changed into wine! Jesus had performed His first Miracle. From this beautiful story of the first miracle of Jesus, we learn that Jesus Christ is God, and that Mary, the Mother of God, whose intercession is all-powerful with her Divine Son, has a loving and motherly care over the smallest of our life's concerns. [Illustration: THE FEAST _Veronese_.] * * * * * PRECEDED, went before in order of time. The prefix _pre_- means _before_. Tell what the following words mean: prefix, predict, prepare, prejudge, prescribe, predestine, precaution, precursor, prefigure, prearrange. Read the sentences of the Lesson that express commands. Memory Gems: The conscious water saw its God and blushed. _Richard Crashaw._ But these are written that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God; and that believing you may have life in His Name. _Gospel of St. John._ * * * * * _21_ dec' ades (dek' ads) di' a dem MY BEADS. Sweet blessèd beads! I would not part With one of you for richest gem That gleams in kingly diadem: Ye know the history of my heart. For I have told you every grief In all the days of twenty years, And I have moistened you with tears, And in your decades found relief. Ah! time has fled, and friends have failed, And joys have died; but in my needs Ye were my friends, my blessed beads! And ye consoled me when I wailed. For many and many a time, in grief, My weary fingers wandered round Thy circled chain, and always found In some Hail Mary sweet relief. How many a story you might tell Of inner life, to all unknown; I trusted you and you alone, But ah! ye keep my secrets well. Ye are the only chain I wear-- A sign that I am but the slave, In life, in death, beyond the grave, Of Jesus and His Mother fair. _Father Ryan._ "Father Ryan's Poems." Published by P. J. Kenedy & Sons, New York. * * * * * From the following words make new words by means of the suffix -_ous_: joy, grace, grief, glory, desire, virtue, beauty, courage, disaster, harmony. (Consult the dictionary.) Memory Gem: Mary,--our comfort and our hope,-- O, may that name be given To be the last we sigh on earth,-- The first we breathe in heaven. _Adelaide A. Procter._ * * * * * _22_ THE HARP THAT ONCE THROUGH TARA'S HALLS. The harp that once through Tara's halls The soul of music shed, Now hangs as mute on Tara's walls, As if that soul were fled. So sleeps the pride of former days, So glory's thrill is o'er, And hearts, that once beat high for praise, Now feel that pulse no more. No more to chiefs and ladies bright The harp of Tara swells; The chord alone that breaks at night Its tale of ruin tells. Thus Freedom now so seldom wakes, The only throb she gives Is when some heart indignant breaks, To show that still She lives. _Thomas Moore._ [Illustration: TOM MOORE] * * * * * _23_ ma'am dis suade' re spect'a ble shuf' fled dan' ger ous grate' ful wist' ful ly mit' tens outstretched' res' cue un daunt' ed an' ti qua ted A LITTLE LADY.[001] Going down a very steep street, where the pavement was covered with ice, I saw before me an old woman, slowly and timidly picking her way. She was one of the poor but respectable old ladies who dress in rusty black, wear old-fashioned bonnets, and carry big bags. Some young folks laugh at these antiquated figures; but those who are better bred treat them with respect. They find something touching in the faded suits, the withered faces, and the knowledge that these lonely old ladies have lost youth, friends, and often fortune, and are patiently waiting to be called away from a world that seems to have passed by and forgotten them. Well, as I slipped and shuffled along, I watched the little black bonnet in front, expecting every minute to see it go down, and trying to hurry, that I might offer my help. At the corner, I passed three little school-girls, and heard one say to another, "O, I wouldn't; she will do well enough, and we shall lose our coasting, unless we hurry." "But if she should tumble and break her poor old bones, I should feel so bad," returned the second, a pleasant-faced child, whose eyes, full of a sweet, pitiful expression, followed the old lady. "She's such a funny-looking woman, I shouldn't like to be seen walking with her," said the third, as if she thought it a kind thing to do, but had not the courage to try it. "Well, I don't care; she's old, and ought to be helped, and I'm going to do it," cried the pleasant-faced girl; and, running by me, I saw her overtake the old lady, who stood at a crossing, looking wistfully over the dangerous sheet of ice before her. "Please, ma'am, may I help you, it's so bad here?" said the kind little voice, as the hands in the red mittens were helpfully out-stretched. "O, thank you, dear. I'd no idea the walking was so bad; but I must get home." And the old face lighted up with a grateful smile, which was worth a dozen of the best coasts in Boston. "Take my arm then; I'll help you down the street, for I'm afraid you might fall," said the child, offering her arm. "Yes, dear, so I will. Now we shall get on beautifully. I've been having a dreadful time, for my over-socks are all holes, and I slip at every step." "Keep hold, ma'am, I won't fall. I have rubber boots, and can't tumble." So chatting, the two went safely across, leaving me and the other girls to look after them and wish that we had done the little act of kindness, which now looked so lovely in another. "I think Katy is a very good girl, don't you?" said one child to the other. "Yes, I do; let's wait till she comes back. No matter if we do lose some coasts," answered the child who had tried to dissuade her playmate from going to the rescue. Then I left them; but I think they learned a lesson that day in real politeness; for, as they watched little Katy dutifully supporting the old lady, undaunted by the rusty dress, the big bag, the old socks, and the queer bonnet, both their faces lighted up with new respect and affection for their playmate. _Louisa M. Alcott._ From "Little Women." Little, Brown & Co., Publishers. * * * * * DISSUADE, to advise against; to turn from a purpose by reasons given. ANTIQUATED, grown old; old-fashioned. Tell what each contraction met with in the selection stands for. Use _their_ or _there_ properly in place of the blanks in the following sentences: The girls were on -- way to the Park. -- was an old lady at the crossing. Our home is --. Katy and Mary said -- mother lived --. Memory Gems: Count that day lost Whose low descending sun, Views from thy hands No worthy action done. _Author unknown._ What I must do concerns me, not what people will think. _Emerson_. [Footnote 001: Copyrighted by Little, Brown & Company.] * * * * * _24_ WHAT HOUSE TO LIKE. For Recitation: Some love the glow of outward show, Some love mere wealth and try to win it; The house to me may lowly be If I but like the people in it. What's all the gold that glitters cold, When linked to hard or haughty feeling? Whate'er we're told, the noble gold Is truth of heart and manly dealing. A lowly roof may give us proof That lowly flowers are often fairest; And trees whose bark is hard and dark May yield us fruit and bloom the rarest. There's worth as sure 'neath garments poor As e'er adorned a loftier station; And minds as just as those, we trust, Whose claim is but of wealth's creation. Then let them seek, whose minds are weak, Mere fashion's smile, and try to win it; The house to me may lowly be If I but like the people in it. _Anon_. * * * * * What is meant by "haughty feeling"? What does the author say "the noble gold" is? Is "bloom" in the third stanza an action-word or a name-word? Why? Give in your own words the thought of the fourth stanza. Use _to, too, two,_ properly before each of the following words: hard, win, people, minds, dark, yield. What virtues does the poem recommend? What "lowly flowers are often fairest"? What "lowly" virtue does the following stanza suggest? The bird that sings on highest wing, Builds on the ground her lowly nest; And she that doth most sweetly sing, Sings in the shade when all things rest. _Montgomery_. Name the two birds referred to. * * * * * _25_ sears flecked de signed' strait'ened il lu'mined A SONG OF DUTY. Sorrow comes and sorrow goes; Life is flecked with shine and shower; Now the tear of grieving flows, Now we smile in happy hour; Death awaits us, every one-- Toiler, dreamer, preacher, writer-- Let us then, ere life be done, Make the world a little brighter! Burdens that our neighbors bear, Easier let us try to make them; Chains perhaps our neighbors wear, Let us do our best to break them. From the straitened hand and mind, Let us loose the binding fetter, Let us, as the Lord designed, Make the world a little better! Selfish brooding sears the soul, Fills the mind with clouds of sorrow, Darkens all the shining goal Of the sun-illumined morrow; Wherefore should our lives be spent Daily growing blind and blinder-- Let us, as the Master meant, Make the world a little kinder! _Denis A. McCarthy._ From "Voices from Erin." Angel Guardian Press, Boston, Mass. * * * * * _26_ Sod' om spright' ly the o lo' gi an his' to ry To bi' as cre at' ed pro ceed' ed sep' a ra ted min' is ter Au gus' tine crit' i cise cat' e ehism de ter' mined As cen' sion Res ur rec' tion AN EVENING WITH THE ANGELS. "Well, James," said a kind-voiced mother, "you promised to tell Maggie all about the Catechism you heard this afternoon at school." "All right, mother," answered sprightly James, "anything at all to make Maggie happy. Let's begin right away." "Maggie, you said," continued James, "that you never could find out _when_ the angels were created. Neither could our teacher tell me. And I'm told St. Augustine could only make a guess when they were created. "He thought the angels were created when God separated the light from the darkness. But that's no matter, anyhow. We're sure there are angels; that's the chief point." "Are you quite certain?" asked Maggie. "To be sure I am," said James. "If I met a man in the street I would know he must have a father and a mother, although I had never heard when he was born." "That's so," chimed in the proud mother. "Well, then, mother, many angels have been seen on earth, and they must have been created some time. Let me tell you some of the places where it is said in the Bible that angels have been seen, and where they spoke, too." "Now, James," said the father, "let Maggie see if _she_ can find out some of those places herself. Here is the Bible." With the help of mother and James, Maggie soon found the history of Adam and Eve, where it is recorded that an angel with a flaming sword was placed at the gate of Paradise. "Poor Adam and Eve," said Maggie, "they must have felt very sad." "Yes," answered Father Kennedy, who dropped in just then, and beheld his young theologians with the holy Book before them. "They felt very sorry, indeed, but they were consoled when told that a Savior would come to redeem them." "So you told us last Sunday," chimed in James. "Then you spoke about the angels at Bethlehem who sang glory to God in the highest." "And there was an angel in the desert when our Lord was tempted," proceeded the father. "Oh! did you hear papa say the devil was an angel?" exclaimed James. "Of course the devil is an angel," said Maggie, glad to trip up her big brother, "but he is a bad one." "I say yet that there were angels with our Lord after His forty days' fast," insisted James. "So I say, too," retorted Maggie; "but while only one _bad angel_ tempted our Lord, many good angels came to minister unto Him." "Very well, indeed," said Father Kennedy. "But let's hurry over some other points about the angels. Your turn; Master James, and give only the place and person in each case." "Well, let me see; there were Abraham and the three angels who went to Sodom, and the angels who beat the man that wanted to steal money from the temple, and the angel who took Tobias on a long journey." "Please, Father Kennedy, wasn't it an _Archangel?_" inquired Maggie, still determined to surpass her brother. "Never mind that," said the priest. "Go on, James; 'twill be Maggie's turn soon." "Well, there was an angel in the Garden of Olives, and angels at the Resurrection of our Lord, and angels at His Ascension." Here Maggie exclaimed, "Please, Father Kennedy, may I have till next Sunday to search out some angels? James has taken all mine." "No," mildly said the delighted clergyman, "_your _angel is always with you, and James has his, too." "Father Kennedy, there's a man dying in the block behind the church," said the servant from the half-open parlor door. "Excuse my coming in without knocking. They're in a great hurry." "Good night, children," said the devoted priest, "till next Sunday. May your angels watch over you in the meantime." * * * * * ARCHANGEL ([:a]rk [=a]n' j[)e]l), a chief angel. ARCHBISHOP ([:a]rch bish' [)u]p), a chief bishop. ARCH, as a prefix, means _chief_, and in nearly every case the _ch_ is soft, as in archbishop. In archangel, architect, and in one or two other words, the _ch = k._ ARCH, as a suffix, is pronounced _[:a]rk_, and means _ruler; _ as monarch, a _sole ruler;_ one who _rules alone._ Make a list of all the words of the Lesson that are contractions. Write after each what it is a contraction of. EARTHWARD = earth + ward (w[~e]rd). _ward_ is here a suffix meaning _course, direction to, motion towards._ Add this SUFFIX to the end of each of the following words, and tell the meaning of each new word formed: up, sea, back, down, east, west, land, earth. WHAT word is the opposite in meaning of each of these new words? Memory Gem: The generous heart Should scorn a pleasure which gives others pain. _Tennyson_. * * * * * _27_ ebb' ing spon' sor judg' ments el' e ments tu' te lage MY GUARDIAN ANGEL. My oldest friend, mine from the hour When first I drew my breath; My faithful friend, that shall be mine, Unfailing, till my death. Thou hast been ever at my side; My Maker to thy trust Consign'd my soul, what time He framed The infant child of dust. No beating heart in holy prayer, No faith, inform'd aright, Gave me to Joseph's tutelage, Or Michael's conquering might. Nor patron saint, nor Mary's love,-- The dearest and the best,-- Has known my being as thou hast known, And blest as thou hast blest. Thou wast my sponsor at the font; And thou, each budding year, Didst whisper elements of truth Into my childish ear. And when, ere boyhood yet was gone, My rebel spirit fell, Ah! thou didst see, and shudder too, Yet bear each deed of Hell. And then in turn, when judgments came. And scared me back again, Thy quick soft breath was near to soothe And hallow every pain. Oh! who of all thy toils and cares Can tell the tale complete, To place me under Mary's smile, And Peter's royal feet! And thou wilt hang above my bed, When life is ebbing low; Of doubt, impatience, and of gloom, The jealous, sleepless foe. Mine, when I stand before my Judge; And mine, if spared to stay Within the golden furnace till My sin is burn'd away. And mine, O Brother of my soul, When my release shall come; Thy gentle arms shall lift me then, Thy wings shall waft me home. _Cardinal Newman._ * * * * * [Illustration: THE GUARDIAN ANGEL] Explain the following expressions: Joseph's tutelage; Michael's conquering might; my sponsor at the font; each budding year; my rebel spirit fell; Peter's royal feet. Describe the picture. * * * * * _28_ quoth crooned frisked beech'-wood twain se'rene frol'icked wan'dering LITTLE BELL. Piped the blackbird on the beech-wood spray: "Pretty maid, slow wandering this way, What's your name?" quoth he,-- "What's your name? Oh, stop, and straight unfold, Pretty maid, with showery curls of gold!" "Little Bell," said she. Little Bell sat down beneath the rocks, Tossed aside her gleaming, golden locks. "Bonny bird," quoth she, "Sing me your best song before I go," "Here's the very finest song I know, Little Bell," said he. And the blackbird piped: you never heard Half so gay a song from any bird,-- Full of quips and wiles, Now so round and rich, now soft and slow, All for love of that sweet face below, Dimpled o'er with smiles. And the while the bonny bird did pour His full heart out freely, o'er and o'er, 'Neath the morning skies, In the little childish heart below All the sweetness seemed to grow and grow, And shine forth in happy overflow From the blue, bright eyes. Down the dell she tripped; and through the glade Peeped the squirrel from the hazel shade, And from out the tree Swung, and leaped, and frolicked, void of fear, While bold blackbird piped, that all might hear: "Little Bell!" piped he. Little Bell sat down amid the fern: "Squirrel, squirrel, to your task return; Bring me nuts," quoth she. Up, away, the frisky squirrel hies,-- Golden woodlights glancing in his eyes,-- And adown the tree Great ripe nuts, kissed brown by July sun, In the little lap dropped, one by one. Hark! how blackbird pipes to see the fun! "Happy Bell!" pipes he. Little Bell looked up and down the glade: "Squirrel, squirrel, if you're not afraid, Come and share with me!" Down came squirrel, eager for his fare, Down came bonny blackbird, I declare! Little Bell gave each his honest share; Ah! the merry three! And the while these woodland playmates twain Piped and frisked from bough to bough again, 'Neath the morning skies, In the little childish heart below All the sweetness seemed to grow and grow, And shine out in happy overflow From her blue, bright eyes. By her snow-white cot at close of day Knelt sweet Bell, with folded palms, to pray: Very calm and clear Rose the praying voice to where, unseen, In blue heaven, an angel shape serene Paused awhile to hear. "What good child is this," the angel said, "That, with happy heart, beside her bed Prays so lovingly?" Low and soft, oh! very low and soft, Crooned the blackbird in the orchard croft, "Bell, _dear_ Bell!" crooned he. "Whom God's creatures love," the angel fair Whispered, "God doth bless with angels' care; Child, thy bed shall be Folded safe from harm. Love, deep and kind, Shall watch around, and leave good gifts behind, Little Bell, for thee." _Thomas Westwood_. [Illustration:] A STUDY OF LITTLE BELL croft, a small inclosed field, near a house. croon, to sing in a low tone. quips, quick, smart turns. piping, making a shrill sound like that of a pipe or flute. In the first stanza what are the marks called that enclose _Little Bell?_ Why are these marks used here? Name the words of the poem in which the apostrophe is used. Tell what it denotes in each case. Where does the poem first take us? What do we see there? In what words does the blackbird address the "pretty maid, slowly wandering" his way? Who is she? Seated beneath the rocks, what does Little Bell ask the blackbird to do? Read the lines that describe the blackbird's song. Why did the bird sing so sweetly? What were the effects of his song on "the little childish heart below?" Seated amid the fern, what did Little Bell ask the squirrel to do? Read the lines that tell what the squirrel did. What invitation did the squirrel receive from Little Bell? Where does the poem bring us "at the close of day?" Tell what you see there. Read the lines that tell what the angel asked. Read the angel's words in the first two lines of the last stanza. What is their meaning? What promises did the angel make to this good child? Why did he make such beautiful promises? Tell what the following words and expressions of the poem mean: quoth he; straight unfold; dell; glade; hies; showery curls of gold; bonny bird; hazel shade; void of fear; golden woodlights; adown the tree; playmates twain; with folded palms; an angel shape; with angels' care; the bird did pour his full heart out freely; the sweetness did shine forth in happy overflow. Select a stanza of the poem, and express in your own words the thought it contains. Describe some of the pictures the poem brings to mind. What is the lesson the poet wishes us to learn from this poem? Show how the couplet of the English poet, Coleridge,-- "He prayeth best who loveth best, All things both great and small,"-- is illustrated in the story of Little Bell. Write a composition on the story from the following hints: Where did Little Bell go? In what season of the year? At what time of day? How old was she? How did she look? What companions did she meet? What did the three friends do? How did the little girl close the day? In your composition, use as many words and phrases of the poem as you can. * * * * * Memorize: Prayer is the dew of faith, Its raindrop, night and day, That guards its vital power from death When cherished hopes decay, And keeps it mid this changeful scene, A bright, perennial evergreen. Good works, of faith the fruit, Should ripen year by year, Of health and soundness at the root And evidence sincere. Dear Savior, grant thy blessing free And make our faith no barren tree. _Lydia H. Sigourney._ * * * * * _29_ na'bob ap plaud'ed un as sum'ing sad' dler dif' fi dence sec' re ta ry ob scured' live' li hood su per cil' i ous A MODEST WIT. For Recitation: A supercilious nabob of the East-- Haughty, being great--purse-proud, being rich-- A governor, or general, at the least, I have forgotten which-- Had in his family a humble youth, Who went from England in his patron's suit, An unassuming boy, in truth A lad of decent parts, and good repute. This youth had sense and spirit; But yet with all his sense, Excessive diffidence Obscured his merit. One day, at table, flushed with pride and wine, His honor, proudly free, severely merry, Conceived it would be vastly fine To crack a joke upon his secretary. "Young man," said he, "by what art, craft, or trade, Did your good father gain a livelihood?"-- "He was a saddler, sir," Modestus said, "And in his line was reckoned good." "A saddler, eh? and taught you Greek, Instead of teaching you to sew! Pray, why did not your father make A saddler, sir, of you?" Each flatterer, then, as in duty bound, The joke applauded, and the laugh went round. At length, Modestus, bowing low, Said (craving pardon, if too free he made), "Sir, by your leave, I fain would know _Your_ father's trade!" "_My_ father's _trade?_ Heavens! that's too bad! My father's trade! Why, blockhead, are you mad? My father, sir, did never stoop so low. He was a gentleman, I'd have you know." "Excuse the liberty I take," Modestus said, with archness on his brow, "Pray, why did not your father make A gentleman of you?" _Selleck Osborne._ * * * * * fain, gladly. archness, sly humor free from malice. suit (s[=u]t), the people who attend upon a person of distinction; often written _suite_ (_sw[=e]t_). Write the plural forms of _boy, man, duty, youth, family, secretary._ Copy these sentences, using other words instead of those in italics: He was an _unassuming_ boy, of decent _parts_ and good _repute_. His _diffidence obscured_ his merit. _Excuse_ the _liberty_ I take. Memory Gems: The rank is but the guinea's stamp,-- The man's the gold for a' that! _Burns._ One cannot always be a hero, but one can always be a man. _Goethe_ (_g[^u]' t[=e]_). * * * * * _30_ WOODMAN, SPARE THAT TREE.[002] For Recitation: Woodman, spare that tree! Touch not a single bough! In youth it sheltered me, And I'll protect it now. 'Twas my forefather's hand That placed it near his cot; There, woodman, let it stand, Thy ax shall harm it not! That old familiar tree, Whose glory and renown Are spread o'er land and sea-- And wouldst thou hew it down? Woodman, forbear thy stroke! Cut not its earth-bound ties; Oh! spare that aged oak, Now towering to the skies. When but an idle boy, I sought its grateful shade; In all their gushing joy Here, too, my sisters played. My mother kissed me here; My father pressed my hand;-- Forgive this foolish tear, But let that old oak stand. My heartstrings round thee cling, Close as thy bark, old friend! Here shall the wild bird sing, And still thy branches bend. Old tree! the storm still brave! And, Woodman, leave the spot! While I've a hand to save, Thy ax shall harm it not. _George P. Morris,_ [Footnote 002: NOTE.--Many trees in our country are landmarks, and are valued highly. The early settlers were accustomed to plant trees and dedicate them to liberty. One of these was planted at Cambridge, Mass., and it was under the shade of this venerable Elm that George Washington took command of the Continental army, July 3rd, 1775. There are other trees around whose trunks and under whose boughs whole families of children passed much of their childhood. When one of these falls or is destroyed, it is like the death of some honored citizen. Judge Harris of Georgia, a scholar, and a gentleman of extensive literary culture, regarded "Woodman, Spare that Tree" as one of the truest lyrics of the age. He never heard it sung or recited without being deeply moved.] * * * * * _31_ car' goes em bar' go im mor' tal ized prin' ci ple col' o nists rep re sen ta' tion de ri' sion pa' tri ot ism Phil a del' phi a THE BOSTON TEA PARTY. Shortly before the War of the Revolution broke out, George III, King of England, claimed the right to tax the people of this country, though he did not permit them to take any part in framing the laws under which they lived. He placed a light tax on tea, just to teach Americans that they could not escape taxation altogether. But the colonists were fighting for a principle,--that of no taxation without representation, and would not buy the tea. In New York and Philadelphia the people would not allow the vessels to land their cargoes. The women of America held meetings in many towns, and declared they would drink no tea until the hated tax was removed. The ladies had a hard time of it without their consoling cup of tea, but they stood out nobly. Three shiploads of tea were sent to Boston. On the night of December 16, 1773, a party of young Americans, painted and dressed like Indians, boarded the three vessels lying in the harbor, opened the chests, and emptied all the tea into the water. They then slipped away to their homes, and were never found out by the British. One of the leaders of these daring young men was Paul Revere, whose famous midnight ride has been immortalized by Longfellow. When the news of the Boston Tea Party was carried across the ocean, the anger of the King was aroused, and he sent a strong force of soldiers to Boston to bring the rebels to terms. This act only increased the spirit of patriotism that burned in the breasts of all Americans. [Illustration:] George P. Morris, the poet, describes this Tea Party, and the origin of the tune "Yankee Doodle," in the following verses, which our American boys and girls of to-day will gladly read and sing: Once on a time old Johnny Bull flew in a raging fury, And swore that Jonathan should have no trials, sir, by jury; That no elections should be held, across the briny waters; "And now," said he, "I'll tax the tea of all his sons and daughters." Then down he sate in burly state, and blustered like a grandee, And in derision made a tune called "Yankee doodle dandy." "Yankee doodle"--these are facts--"Yankee doodle dandy;" My son of wax, your tea I'll tax; you Yankee doodle dandy!" John sent the tea from o'er the sea, with heavy duties rated; But whether hyson or bohea, I never heard it stated. Then Jonathan to pout began--he laid a strong embargo-- "I'll drink no tea, by Jove!" so he threw overboard the cargo. Then Johnny sent a regiment, big words and looks to bandy, Whose martial band, when near the land, played "Yankee doodle dandy." "Yankee doodle--keep it up--Yankee doodle dandy-- I'll poison with a tax your cup, you Yankee doodle dandy." A long war then they had, in which John was at last defeated, And "Yankee Doodle" was the march to which his troops retreated. Cute Jonathan, to see them fly, could not restrain his laughter; "That tune," said he, "suits to a T--I'll sing it ever after!" Old Johnny's face, to his disgrace, was flushed with beer and brandy, E'en while he swore to sing no more this Yankee doodle dandy. Yankee doodle,--ho-ha-he--Yankee doodle dandy, We kept the tune, but not the tea--Yankee doodle dandy. I've told you now the origin of this most lively ditty, Which Johnny Bull dislikes as "dull and stupid"--what a pity! With "Hail Columbia" it is sung, in chorus full and hearty-- On land and main we breathe the strain John made for his tea party, No matter how we rhyme the words, the music speaks them handy, And where's the fair can't sing the air of Yankee doodle dandy? Yankee doodle, firm and true--Yankee doodle dandy-- Yankee doodle, doodle do, Yankee doodle dandy! * * * * * The people of the thirteen original colonies adopted as a principle, "No taxation without representation." What did they mean by this? Name the thirteen original colonies. Are the last syllables of the words _principle_ and _principal_ pronounced alike? Use the two words in sentences of your own. What does "with heavy duties rated" mean? Pronounce distinctly the final consonants in the words _colonists, insects, friend, friends, nests, priests, lifts, tempts._ Write the plural forms of the following words: solo, echo, negro, cargo, piano, calico, potato, embargo. How should a word be broken or divided when there is not room for all of it at the end of a line? Illustrate by means of examples found in your Reader. * * * * * _32_ scenes source seized re ceive' poised nec' tar re verts' Ju' pi ter cat' a ract ex' qui site in tru' sive ly THE OLD OAKEN BUCKET. How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood, When fond recollection presents them to view! The orchard, the meadow, the deep-tangled wild-wood, And every loved spot that my infancy knew;-- The wide-spreading pond, and the mill that stood by it; The bridge, and the rock where the cataract fell; The cot of my father, the dairy-house nigh it, And e'en the rude bucket which hung in the well: The old oaken bucket, the ironbound bucket, The moss-covered bucket, which hung in the well. That moss-covered vessel I hailed as a treasure; For often, at noon, when returned from the field, I found it the source of an exquisite pleasure, The purest and sweetest that nature can yield. How ardent I seized it with hands that were glowing, And quick to the white-pebbled bottom it fell; Then soon, with the emblem of truth overflowing, And dripping with coolness, it rose from the well: The old oaken bucket, the ironbound bucket, The moss-covered bucket arose from the well. How sweet from the green mossy brim to receive it, As, poised on the curb, it inclined to my lips! Not a full blushing goblet could tempt me to leave it, Though filled with the nectar that Jupiter sips. And now, far removed from that loved habitation, The tear of regret will intrusively swell, As fancy reverts to my father's plantation, And sighs for the bucket which hangs in the well: The old oaken bucket, the ironbound bucket, The moss-covered bucket, which hangs in the well! _Samuel Woodworth._ [Illustration:] * * * * * Make a list of the describing-words of the poem, and tell what each describes. Use each to describe something else. Make a list of the words of the poem that you never use, and tell what word you would have used in the place of each had you tried to express its meaning. Which word is better, yours or the author's? Why? * * * * * _33_ blouse receipt'ed coun' te nance ab sorbed' con trast' ed for' tu nate ly mir' a cle stock'-still good-hu' mored ly THE BOY AND THE CRICKETS. My friend Jacques went into a baker's shop one day to buy a little cake which he had fancied in passing. He intended it for a child whose appetite was gone, and who could be coaxed to eat only by amusing him. He thought that such a pretty loaf might tempt even the sick. While he waited for his change, a little boy six or eight years old, in poor but perfectly clean clothes, entered the baker's shop. "Ma'am," said he to the baker's wife, "mother sent me for a loaf of bread." The woman climbed upon the counter (this happened in a country town), took from the shelf of four-pound loaves the best one she could find, and put it into the arms of the little boy. My friend Jacques then first observed the thin and thoughtful face of the little fellow. It contrasted strongly with the round, open countenance of the great loaf, of which he was taking the greatest care. "Have you any money?" said the baker's wife. The little boy's eyes grew sad. "No, ma'am," said he, hugging the loaf closer to his thin blouse; "but mother told me to say that she would come and speak to you about it to-morrow." "Run along," said the good woman; "carry your bread home, child." "Thank you, ma'am," said the poor little fellow. My friend Jacques came forward for his money. He had put his purchase into his pocket, and was about to go, when he found the child with the big loaf, whom he had supposed to be halfway home, standing stock-still behind him. "What are you doing there?" said the baker's wife to the child, whom she also had thought to be fairly off. "Don't you like the bread?" "Oh yes, ma'am!" said the child. "Well, then, carry it to your mother, my little friend. If you wait any longer, she will think you are playing by the way, and you will get a scolding." The child did not seem to hear. Something else absorbed his attention. The baker's wife went up to him, and gave him a friendly tap on the shoulder, "What _are_ you thinking about?" said she. "Ma'am," said the little boy, "what is it that sings?" "There is no singing," said she. "Yes!" cried the little fellow. "Hear it! Queek, queek, queek, queek!" My friend and the woman both listened, but they could hear nothing, unless it was the song of the crickets, frequent guests in bakers' houses. "It is a little bird," said the dear little fellow; "or perhaps the bread sings when it bakes, as apples do?" "No, indeed, little goosey!" said the baker's wife; "those are crickets. They sing in the bakehouse because we are lighting the oven, and they like to see the fire." "Crickets!" said the child; "are they really crickets?" "Yes, to be sure," said she good-humoredly. The child's face lighted up. "Ma'am," said he, blushing at the boldness of his request, "I would like it very much if you would give me a cricket." "A cricket!" said the baker's wife, smiling; "what in the world would you do with a cricket, my little friend? I would gladly give you all there are in the house, to get rid of them, they run about so." "O ma'am, give me one, only one, if you please!" said the child, clasping his little thin hands under the big loaf. "They say that crickets bring good luck into houses; and perhaps if we had one at home, mother, who has so much trouble, wouldn't cry any more." "Why does your poor mamma cry?" said my friend, who could no longer help joining in the conversation. "On account of her bills, sir," said the little fellow. "Father is dead, and mother works very hard, but she cannot pay them all." My friend took the child, and with him the great loaf, into his arms, and I really believe he kissed them both. Meanwhile the baker's wife, who did not dare to touch a cricket herself, had gone into the bakehouse. She made her husband catch four, and put them into a box with holes in the cover, so that they might breathe. She gave the box to the child, who went away perfectly happy. When he had gone, the baker's wife and my friend gave each other a good squeeze of the hand. "Poor little fellow!" said they both together. Then she took down her account book, and, finding the page where the mother's charges were written, made a great dash all down the page, and then wrote at the bottom, "Paid." Meanwhile my friend, to lose no time, had put up in paper all the money in his pockets, where fortunately he had quite a sum that day, and had begged the good wife to send it at once to the mother of the little cricket-boy, with her bill receipted, and a note, in which he told her she had a son who would one day be her joy and pride. They gave it to a baker's boy with long legs, and told him to make haste. The child, with his big loaf, his four crickets, and his little short legs, could not run very fast, so that, when he reached home, he found his mother, for the first time in many weeks, with her eyes raised from her work, and a smile of peace and happiness upon her lips. The boy believed that it was the arrival of his four little black things which had worked this miracle, and I do not think he was mistaken. Without the crickets, and his good little heart, would this happy change have taken place in his mother's fortunes? _From the French of Pierre J. Hetzel._ * * * * * Jacques (zh[:a]k), James. In the selection, find ten sentences that ask questions, and five that express commands or requests. What mark of punctuation always follows the first kind? The second? Memorize: In the evening I sit near my poker and tongs, And I dream in the firelight's glow, And sometimes I quaver forgotten old songs That I listened to long ago. Then out of the cinders there cometh a chirp Like an echoing, answering cry,-- Little we care for the outside world, My friend the cricket, and I. For my cricket has learnt, I am sure of it quite, That this earth is a silly, strange place, And perhaps he's been beaten and hurt in the fight, And perhaps he's been passed in the race. But I know he has found it far better to sing Than to talk of ill luck and to sigh,-- Little we care for the outside world, My friend the cricket, and I. * * * * * _34_ For Recitation: OUR HEROES. Here's a hand to the boy who has courage To do what he knows to be right; When he falls in the way of temptation He has a hard battle to fight. Who strives against self and his comrades Will find a most powerful foe: All honor to him if he conquers; A cheer for the boy who says "No!" There's many a battle fought daily The world knows nothing about; There's many a brave little soldier Whose strength puts a legion to rout. And he who fights sin single-handed Is more of a hero, I say, Than he who leads soldiers to battle, And conquers by arms in the fray. Be steadfast, my boy, when you're tempted, And do what you know to be right; Stand firm by the colors of manhood, And you will o'ercome in the fight. "The right!" be your battle cry ever In waging the warfare of life; And God, who knows who are the heroes, Will give you the strength for the strife. _Phoebe Cary._ From "Poems for the Study of Language." Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Publishers. * * * * * Write sentences each containing one of the following words: I, me; he, him; she, her; they, them. Memory Gems: For raising the spirits, for brightening the eyes, for bringing back vanished smiles, for making one brave and courageous, light-hearted and happy, there is nothing like a good Confession. _Father Bearne, S.J._ Heroes must be more than driftwood Floating on a waveless tide. For right is right, since God is God; And right the day must win; To doubt would be disloyalty, To falter would be sin. _Father Faber._ I have fought a good fight, I have finished my course, I have kept the Faith. _St. Paul._ * * * * * _35_ troll cel' er y new' fan gled thatch chink' ing as par' a gus im mense' sauce' pan de mol' ish ing sa' vor y pat' terns ag' gra va ting THE MINNOWS WITH SILVER TAILS. There was a cuckoo clock hanging in Tom Turner's cottage. When it struck one, Tom's wife laid the baby in the cradle, and took a saucepan off the fire, from which came a very savory smell. "If father doesn't come soon," she observed, "the apple dumplings will be too much done." "There he is!" cried the little boy; "he is coming around by the wood; and now he's going over the bridge. O father! make haste, and have some apple dumpling." "Tom," said his wife, as he came near, "art tired to-day?" "Uncommon tired," said Tom, as he threw himself on the bench, in the shadow of the thatch. "Has anything gone wrong?" asked his wife; "what's the matter?" "Matter!" repeated Tom; "is anything the matter? The matter is this, mother, that I'm a miserable, hard-worked slave;" and he clapped his hands upon his knees and uttered in a deep voice, which frightened the children--"a miserable slave!" "Bless us!" said the wife, but could not make out what he meant. "A miserable, ill-used slave," continued Tom, "and always have been." "Always have been?" said his wife: "why, father, I thought thou used to say, at the election time, that thou wast a free-born Briton." "Women have no business with politics," said Tom, getting up rather sulkily. Whether it was the force of habit, or the smell of the dinner, that made him do it, has not been ascertained; but it is certain that he walked into the house, ate plenty of pork and greens, and then took a tolerable share in demolishing the apple dumpling. When the little children were gone out to play, Tom's wife said to him, "I hope thou and thy master haven't had words to-day." "We've had no words," said Tom, impatiently; "but I'm sick of being at another man's beck and call. It's, 'Tom, do this,' and 'Tom do that,' and nothing but work, work, work, from Monday morning till Saturday night. I was thinking as I walked over to Squire Morton's to ask for the turnip seed for master,--I was thinking, Sally, that I am nothing but a poor workingman after all. In short, I'm a slave; and my spirit won't stand it." So saying, Tom flung himself out at the cottage door, and his wife thought he was going back to his work as usual; but she was mistaken. He walked to the wood, and there, when he came to the border of a little tinkling stream, he sat down and began to brood over his grievances. "Now, I'll tell you what," said Tom to himself, "it's much pleasanter sitting here in the shade, than broiling over celery trenches, and thinning wall fruit, with a baking sun at one's back, and a hot wall before one's eyes. But I'm a miserable slave. I must either work or see my family starve; a very hard lot it is to be a workingman." "Ahem," said a voice close to him. Tom started, and, to his great surprise, saw a small man about the size of his own baby, sitting composedly at his elbow. He was dressed in green,--green hat, green coat, and green shoes. He had very bright black eyes, and they twinkled very much as he looked at Tom and smiled. "Servant, sir!" said Tom, edging himself a little farther off. "Miserable slave," said the small man, "art thou so far lost to the noble sense of freedom that thy very salutation acknowledges a mere stranger as thy master?' "Who are you," said Tom, "and how dare you call me a slave?" "Tom," said the small man, with a knowing look, "don't speak roughly. Keep your rough words for your wife, my man; she is bound to bear them." "I'll thank you to let my affairs alone," interrupted Tom, shortly. "Tom, I'm your friend; I think I can help you out of your difficulty. Every minnow in this stream--they are very scarce, mind you--has a silver tail." "You don't say so," exclaimed Tom, opening his eyes very wide; "fishing for minnows and being one's own master would be much pleasanter than the sort of life I've been leading this many a day." "Well, keep the secret as to where you get them, and much good may it do you," said the man in green. "Farewell; I wish you joy in your freedom." So saying, he walked away, leaving Tom on the brink of the stream, full of joy and pride. He went to his master and told him that he had an opportunity for bettering himself, and should not work for him any longer. The next day, he arose with the dawn, and went in search of minnows. But of all the minnows in the world, never were any so nimble as those with silver tails. They were very shy, too, and had as many turns and doubles as a hare; what a life they led him! They made him troll up the stream for miles; then, just as he thought his chase was at an end and he was sure of them, they would leap quite out of the water, and dart down the stream again like little silver arrows. Miles and miles he went, tired, wet, and hungry. He came home late in the evening, wearied and footsore, with only three minnows in his pocket, each with a silver tail. "But, at any rate," he said to himself, as he lay down in his bed, "though they lead me a pretty life, and I have to work harder than ever, yet I certainly am free; no man can now order me about." This went on for a whole week; he worked very hard; but, up to Saturday afternoon, he had caught only fourteen minnows. After all, however, his fish were really great curiosities; and when he had exhibited them all over the town, set them out in all lights, praised their perfections, and taken immense pains to conceal his impatience and ill temper, he, at length, contrived to sell them all, and get exactly fourteen shillings for them, and no more. "Now, I'll tell you what, Tom Turner," said he to himself, "I've found out this afternoon, and I don't mind your knowing it,--that every one of those customers of yours was your master. Why! you were at the beck of every man, woman, and child that came near you;--obliged to be in a good temper, too, which was very aggravating." "True, Tom," said the man in green, starting up in his path. "I knew you were a man of sense; look you, you are all workingmen; and you must all please your customers. Your master was your customer; what he bought of you was your work. Well, you must let the work be such as will please the customer." "All workingmen? How do you make that out?" said Tom, chinking the fourteen shillings in his hand. "Is my master a workingman; and has he a master of his own? Nonsense!" "No nonsense at all; he works with his head, keeps his books, and manages his great mills. He has many masters; else why was he nearly ruined last year?" "He was nearly ruined because he made some newfangled kinds of patterns at his works, and people would not buy them," said Tom. "Well, in a way of speaking, then, he works to please his masters, poor fellow! He is, as one may say, a fellow-servant, and plagued with very awkward masters. So I should not mind his being my master, and I think I'll go and tell him so." "I would, Tom," said the man in green. "Tell him you have not been able to better yourself, and you have no objection now to dig up the asparagus bed." So Tom trudged home to his wife, gave her the money he had earned, got his old master to take him back, and kept a profound secret his adventures with the man in green. _Jean Ingelow._ [Illustration:] "Every minnow in the stream (they are very scarce, mind you) has a silver tail." Here we have a group of words in parenthesis. Read the sentence aloud several times, _omitting_ the group in parenthesis. Now read the _whole_ sentence, keeping in mind the fact that the words in parenthesis are not at all important,--that they are merely thrown in by way of explanation. You notice that you have read the words in parenthesis in a _lower tone_ and _faster time._ Groups of words like the above are not always enclosed by marks of parenthesis; but that makes no difference in the reading of them. The following examples are taken from "The Martyr's Boy," page 243. Practice on them till you believe you have mastered the method. I never heard anything so cold and insipid (I hope it is not wrong to say so) as the compositions read by my companions. Only, I know not why, he seems ever to have a grudge against me. I felt that I was strong enough--my rising anger made me so--to seize my unjust assailant by the throat, and cast him gasping to the ground. Memorize: "Work! and the clouds of care will fly; Pale want will pass away. Work! and the leprosy of crime And tyrants must decay. Leave the dead ages in their urns: The present time be ours, To grapple bravely with our lot, And strew our path with flowers." * * * * * _36_ THE BROOK. I come from haunts of coot and hern, I make a sudden sally, And sparkle out among the fern, To bicker down a valley. By thirty hills I hurry down, Or slip between the ridges, By twenty thorps, a little town, And half a hundred bridges. Till last by Philip's farm I flow To join the brimming river; For men may come, and men may go, But I go on forever. I chatter over stony ways In little sharps and trebles; I bubble into eddying bays; I babble on the pebbles. With many a curve my banks I fret By many a field and fallow. And many a fairy foreland set With willow-weed and mallow. I chatter, chatter, as I flow To join the brimming river; For men may come, and men may go, But I go on forever. I steal by lawns and grassy plots, I slide by hazel covers, I move the sweet forget-me-nots That grow for happy lovers. I slip, I slide, I gloom, I glance, Among my skimming swallows; I make the netted sunbeams dance Against my sandy shallows. I murmur under moon and stars In brambly wildernesses; I linger by my shingly bars; I loiter round my cresses. And out again I curve and flow To join the brimming river; For men may come, and men may go, But I go on forever. _Tennyson_. [Illustration:] * * * * * HAUNTS, places of frequent resort. COOT and hern, water fowls that frequent lakes and other still waters. BICKER, to move quickly and unsteadily, like flame or water. THORP, a cluster of houses; a hamlet. SHARPS and trebles, terms in music. They are here used to describe the sound of the brook. EDDYING, moving in circles. Why are "eddying bays" dangerous to the swimmer? FRETTED BANKS, banks worn away by the action of the water. FALLOW, plowed land, foreland, a point of land running into the sea or other water. MALLOW, a kind of plant. GLOOM, to shine obscurely. SHINGLY, abounding with shingle or loose gravel. BARS, banks of sand or gravel or rock forming a shoal in a river or harbor. CRESSES, certain plants which grow near the water. They are sometimes used as a salad. * * * * * _37_ wits hale borne suit' ed prop' er ly sit u a' tion LEARNING TO THINK. Grandpa Dennis is one of the kindest and gentlest, as well as one of the wisest men I know; and although his step is somewhat feeble, and the few locks that are left him are gray, he is still more hale and hearty than many a younger man. Like all old people whose hearts are in the right place, he is fond of children, whom he likes to amuse and instruct by his pleasant talk, as they gather round his fireside or sit upon his knee. Sometimes he puts questions to the young folks, not only to find out what they know, but also to sharpen their wits and lead them to think. "Tell me, Norman," he said one day, as they sat together, "if I have a cake to divide among three persons, how ought I to proceed?" "Why, cut it into three parts, and give one to each, to be sure," said Norman. "Let us try that plan, and see how it will succeed. Suppose the cake has to be divided among you, Arthur and Winnie. If I cut off a very thin slice for you, and divide what is left between your brother and sister, will that be fair?" "No, that would not be at all fair, Grandpa." "Why not? Did I not divide the cake according to your advice? Did I not cut it into three parts?" "But one was larger than the other, and they ought to have been exactly the same size." "Then you think, that if I had divided the cake into three equal parts, it would have been quite fair?" "Yes; if you had done so, I should have no cause to complain." "Now, Norman, let us suppose that I have three baskets to send to a distance by three persons; shall I act fairly if I give each a basket to carry?" "Stop a minute, Grandpa, I must think a little. No, it might not be fair, for one of the baskets might be a great deal larger than the others." "Come, Norman, I see that you are really beginning to think. But we will take care that the baskets are all of the same size." "Then it would be quite fair for each one to take a basket." "What! if one was full of lead, and the other two were filled with feathers?" "Oh, no! I never thought of that. Let the baskets be of the same weight, and all will be right." "Are you quite sure of that? Suppose one of the three persons is a strong man, another a weak woman, and the third a little child?" "Grandpa! Grandpa! Why, I am altogether wrong. How many things there are to think about." "Well, Norman, I hope you see that if burdens have to be equally borne, they must be suited to the strength of those who have to bear them." "Yes, I see that clearly now. Put one more question to me, Grandpa, and I will try to answer it properly this time." "Well, then, my next question is this: If I want a man to dig for me, and three persons apply for the situation, will it not be fair if I set them to work to try them, and choose the one who does his task in the quickest time?" "Are they all to begin their work at the same time?" "A very proper question, Norman: yes, they shall all start together." "Has one just as much ground to dig as another?" "Exactly the same." "And will each man have a good spade?" "Yes, their spades shall be exactly alike." "But one part of the field may be soft earth, and the other hard and stony." "I will take care of that. All shall be fairly dealt with. The ground shall be everywhere alike." "Well, I think, Grandpa, that he who does his work first, if done as well as that of either of the other two, is the best man." "And I think so, too, Norman; and if you go on in this way it will be greatly to your advantage. Only form the habit of being thoughtful in little things, and you will be sure to judge wisely in important ones." * * * * * In the words _suit_ (s[=u]t) and _soon_ (s[=oo]n), have the marked vowels the same sound? In the two statements,-- I give it to you because it's good; Virtue brings its own reward; why is there an apostrophe in the first "it's," and none in the second? Let your hands be honest and clean-- Let your conscience be honest and clean-- Combine these two sentences by the word _and_; rewrite them, omitting all needless words. Compose two sentences, one having the action-word _learned_; the other the word _taught_. Fill each of the following blank spaces with the correct form of the action-word _bear_: As Christ -- His cross, so must we -- ours. Our cross must be --. "And -- His own cross, He went forth to Calvary." * * * * * _38_ elate' despond' lu' mi nous pil' grim age ONE BY ONE. One by one the sands are flowing, One by one the moments fall; Some are coming, some are going; Do not strive to grasp them all. One by one thy duties wait thee; Let thy whole strength go to each; Let no future dreams elate thee, Learn thou first what these can teach. One by one (bright gifts from Heaven) Joys are sent thee here below; Take them readily when given, Ready, too, to let them go. One by one thy griefs shall meet thee; Do not fear an armed band; One will fade as others greet thee-- Shadows passing through the land. Do not look at life's long sorrow; See how small each moment's pain; God will help thee for to-morrow, So each day begin again. Every hour that fleets so slowly Has its task to do or bear; Luminous the crown, and holy, When each gem is set with care. Do not linger with regretting, Or for passing hours despond; Nor, thy daily toil forgetting, Look too eagerly beyond. Hours are golden links, God's token, Reaching heaven; but one by one Take them, lest the chain be broken Ere the pilgrimage be done. _Adelaide A. Procter._ * * * * * Choose any four lines of the poem, and tell what lesson each line teaches. Name some great works that were done little by little. What does "Rome was not built in a day" mean? Tell what is meant by "He that despiseth small faults shall fall by little and little." What is the real or literal meaning of the word _gem_? Find the word in the poem, and tell what meaning it has there. Explain the line-- "Let no future dreams elate thee." What is meant by "building castles in the air?" Study the whole poem line by line, and try to tell yourself what each line means. Nearly every single line of it teaches an important moral lesson. Find out what that lesson is. Tell what you know of the author. * * * * * _39_ ca noe' sup' ple fi' brous res' in sin' ews tam' a rack ooz' ing bal' sam sol' i ta ry pli' ant fis' sure re sist' ance som' ber crev' ice re splen' dent THE BIRCH CANOE. "Give me of your bark, O Birch Tree! Of your yellow bark, O Birch Tree! Growing by the rushing river, Tall and stately in the valley! I a light canoe will build me, That shall float upon the river, Like a yellow leaf in autumn, Like a yellow water lily! Lay aside your cloak, O Birch Tree! Lay aside your white-skin wrapper, For the summer time is coming, And the sun is warm in heaven, And you need no white-skin wrapper!" Thus aloud cried Hiawatha In the solitary forest, When the birds were singing gayly, In the Moon of Leaves were singing. And the tree with all its branches Rustled in the breeze of morning, Saying, with a sigh of patience, "Take my cloak, O Hiawatha!" With his knife the tree he girdled; Just beneath its lowest branches, Just above the roots, he cut it, Till the sap came oozing outward; Down the trunk, from top to bottom, Sheer he cleft the bark asunder, With a wooden wedge he raised it, Stripped it from the trunk unbroken. "Give me of your boughs, O Cedar! Of your strong and pliant branches, My canoe to make more steady, Make more strong and firm beneath me!" Through the summit of the Cedar Went a sound, a cry of horror, Went a murmur of resistance; But it whispered, bending downward, "Take my boughs, O Hiawatha!" Down he hewed the boughs of cedar Shaped them straightway to a framework, Like two bows he formed and shaped them, Like two bended bows together. "Give me of your roots, O Tamarack! Of your fibrous roots, O Larch Tree! My canoe to bind together, So to bind the ends together, That the water may not enter, That the river may not wet me!" And the Larch with all its fibers Shivered in the air of morning, Touched his forehead with its tassels, Said, with one long sigh of sorrow, "Take them all, O Hiawatha!" From the earth he tore the fibers, Tore the tough roots of the Larch Tree. Closely sewed the bark together, Bound it closely to the framework. "Give me of your balm, O Fir Tree! Of your balsam and your resin, So to close the seams together That the water may not enter, That the river may not wet me!" And the Fir Tree, tall and somber, Sobbed through all its robes of darkness, Rattled like a shore with pebbles, Answered wailing, answered weeping, "Take my balm, O Hiawatha!" And he took the tears of balsam, Took the resin of the Fir Tree, Smeared therewith each seam and fissure, Made each crevice safe from water. "Give me of your quills, O Hedgehog! I will make a necklace of them, Make a girdle for my beauty, And two stars to deck her bosom!" From a hollow tree the Hedgehog, With his sleepy eyes looked at him, Shot his shining quills, like arrows, Saying, with a drowsy murmur, Through the tangle of his whiskers, "Take my quills, O Hiawatha!" From the ground the quills he gathered, All the little shining arrows, Stained them red and blue and yellow, With the juice of roots and berries; Into his canoe he wrought them, Round its waist a shining girdle. Round its bows a gleaming necklace, On its breast two stars resplendent. Thus the Birch Canoe was builded In the valley, by the river, In the bosom of the forest; And the forest's life was in it, All its mystery and its magic, All the lightness of the birch tree, All the toughness of the cedar, All the larch's supple sinews; And it floated on the river, Like a yellow leaf in autumn, Like a yellow water lily. _Longfellow._ From "Song of Hiawatha." Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Publishers. [Illustration:] * * * * * MOON OF LEAVES, month of May. SHEER, straight up and down. TAMARACK, the American larch tree. FISSURE, a narrow opening; a cleft. What does Hiawatha call the bark of the birch tree? Where did he get the balsam and resin? What use did he put these to? What are the drops of balsam called? Why? NOTE.--"The bark canoe of the Indians is, perhaps, the lightest and most beautiful model of all the water craft ever invented. It is generally made complete with the bark of one birch tree, and so skillfully shaped and sewed together with the roots of the tamarack, that it is water-tight, and rides upon the water as light as a cork." * * * * * _40_ pic' tures pal' ace four' teen fa' mous ly scul' lion re past' in hal' ing en chant' ed mat' tress char' coal land' scapes ar' chi tect PETER OF CORTONA. A little shepherd boy, twelve years old, one day gave up the care of the sheep he was tending, and betook himself to Florence, where he knew no one but a lad of his own age, nearly as poor as himself, who had lived in the same village, but who had gone to Florence to be scullion in the house of Cardinal Sachetti. It was for a good motive that little Peter desired to come to Florence: he wanted to be an artist, and he knew there was a school for artists there. When he had seen the town well, Peter stationed himself at the Cardinal's palace; and inhaling the odor of the cooking, he waited patiently till his Eminence was served, that he might speak to his old companion, Thomas. He had to wait a long time; but at length Thomas appeared. "You here, Peter! What have you come to Florence for?" "I am come to learn painting." "You had much better learn kitchen work to begin with; one is then sure not to die of hunger." "You have as much to eat as you want here, then?" replied Peter. "Indeed I have," said Thomas; "I might eat till I made myself ill every day, if I chose to do it." "Then," said Peter, "I see we shall do very well. As you have too much and I not enough, I will bring my appetite, and you will bring the food; and we shall get on famously." "Very well," said Thomas. "Let us begin at once, then," said Peter; "for as I have eaten nothing to-day, I should like to try the plan directly." Thomas then took little Peter into the garret where he slept, and bade him wait there till he brought him some fragments that he was freely permitted to take. The repast was a merry one, for Thomas was in high spirits, and little Peter had a famous appetite. "Ah," cried Thomas, "here you are fed and lodged. Now the question is, how are you going to study?" "I shall study like all artists--with pencil and paper." "But then, Peter, have you money to buy the paper and pencils?" "No, I have nothing; but I said to myself, 'Thomas, who is scullion at his lordship's, must have plenty of money!' As you are rich, it is just the same as if I was." Thomas scratched his head and replied, that as to broken victuals, he had plenty of them; but that he would have to wait three years before he should receive wages. Peter did not mind. The garret walls were white. Thomas could give him charcoal, and so he set to draw on the walls with that; and after a little while somebody gave Thomas a silver coin. With joy he brought it to his friend. Pencils and paper were bought. Early in the morning Peter went out studying the pictures in the galleries, the statues in the streets, the landscapes in the neighborhood; and in the evening, tired and hungry, but enchanted with what he had seen, he crept back into the garret, where he was always sure to find his dinner hidden under the mattress, _to keep it warm,_ as Thomas said. Very soon the first charcoal drawings were rubbed off, and Peter drew his best designs to ornament his friend's room. One day Cardinal Sachetti, who was restoring his palace, came with the architect to the very top of the house, and happened to enter the scullion's garret. The room was empty; but both Cardinal and architect were struck with the genius of the drawings. They thought they were executed by Thomas, and his Eminence sent for him. When poor Thomas heard that the Cardinal had been in the garret, and had seen what he called Peter's daubs, he thought all was lost. "You will no longer be a scullion," said the Cardinal to him; and Thomas, thinking this meant banishment and disgrace, fell on his knees, and cried, "Oh! my lord, what will become of poor Peter?" The Cardinal made him tell his story. "Bring him to me when he comes in to-night," said he, smiling. But Peter did not return that night, nor the next, till at length a fortnight had passed without a sign of him. At last came the news that the monks of a distant convent had received and kept with them a boy of fourteen, who had come to ask permission to copy a painting of Raphael in the chapel of the convent. This boy was Peter. Finally, the Cardinal sent him as a pupil to one of the first artists in Rome. Fifty years afterwards there were two old men who lived as brothers in one of the most beautiful houses in Florence. One said of the other, "He is the greatest painter of our age." The other said of the first, "He is a model for evermore of a faithful friend." * * * * * PETER OF CORTONA, a great Italian painter and architect. He was born in Cortona in the year 1596, and died in Rome, in 1669. EMINENCE, a title of honor, applied to a cardinal. GALLERIES, rooms or buildings where works of art are exhibited. VICTUALS (v[)i]t' 'lz), cooked food for human beings. FORTNIGHT (f[^o]rt' n[=i]t or n[)i]t): This word is contracted from _fourteen nights._ Locate the cities of _Rome_ and _Florence_. Give words that mean the opposite of the following: ill, bade, buy, first, old, begin, empty, enter, cooked, merry, bought, friend, inhale, patient, palace, distant, appeared, disgrace, famous, faithful, morning, enchanted. Recite the words--"Oh, my lord, what will become of poor Peter?"--as Thomas uttered them. Remember he was beseeching a great _cardinal_ in favor of a poor destitute _boy_ whom he loved as a brother. He _felt_ what he said. Do you find any humorous passages in the selection? Read them, and tell wherein the humor lies. Memory Gems: When a friend asketh, there is no to-morrow. _Spanish Proverb._ Diligence overcomes difficulties; sloth makes them. _From "Poor Richard's Proverbs."_ A gift in need, though small indeed, Is large as earth and rich as heaven. _Whittier_. * * * * * _41_ vas' sal roy' al ly beg' gar y hom' age sen' ti nel dif' fer ence TO MY DOG BLANCO.[003] My dear, dumb friend, low lying there, A willing vassal at my feet, Glad partner of my home and fare, My shadow in the street. I look into your great brown eyes, Where love and loyal homage shine, And wonder where the difference lies Between your soul and mine! For all the good that I have found Within myself or human kind, Hath royally informed and crowned Your gentle heart and mind. I scan the whole broad earth around For that one heart which, leal and true, Bears friendship without end or bound, And find the prize in you. I trust you as I trust the stars; Nor cruel loss, nor scoff of pride, Nor beggary, nor dungeon bars, Can move you from my side! As patient under injury As any Christian saint of old, As gentle as a lamb with me, But with your brothers bold; More playful than a frolic boy, More watchful than a sentinel, By day and night your constant joy To guard and please me well. I clasp your head upon my breast-- The while you whine and lick my hand-- And thus our friendship is confessed, And thus we understand! Ah, Blanco! did I worship God As truly as you worship me, Or follow where my Master trod With your humility,-- Did I sit fondly at His feet, As you, dear Blanco, sit at mine, And watch Him with a love as sweet, My life would grow divine! _J.G. Holland_ From "The Complete Poetical Writings of J.G. Holland." [Illustration:] [Footnote 003: Copyright, 1879, 1881, by Charles Scribner's Sons.] * * * * * LEAL (l[=e]l), loyal, faithful. DUNGEON (d[)u]n' j[)u]n), a close, dark prison, commonly underground. Tell what is meant by the terms, dumb friend; willing vassal; glad partner; my shadow; human kind; frolic boy. What duty does Blanco teach his master? Memorize the last two stanzas of the poem. The three great divisions of time are _past, present, future._ Tell what time each of the following action-words expresses: found, find, have found, will find, bears, shall bear, has borne, crowned, will crown, did crown, crowns. * * * * * _42_ ab'bot clois'ter min'ster li'brary chron' i cle A STORY OF A MONK. Many hundreds of years ago there dwelt in a cloister a monk named Urban, who was remarkable for his earnest and fervent piety. He was a studious reader of the learned and sacred volumes in the convent library. One day he read in the Epistles of St. Peter the words, "One day is with the Lord as a thousand years, and a thousand years as one day;" and this saying seemed impossible in his eyes, so that he spent many an hour in meditating upon it. Then one morning it happened that the monk descended from the library into the cloister garden, and there he saw a little bird perched on the bough of a tree, singing sweetly, like a nightingale. The bird did not move as the monk approached her, till he came quite close, and then she flew to another bough, and again another, as the monk pursued her. Still singing the same sweet song, the nightingale flew on; and the monk, entranced by the sound, followed her out of the garden into the wide world. At last he stopped, and turned back to the cloister; but every thing seemed changed to him. Every thing had become larger, more beautiful, and older,--the buildings, the garden; and in the place of the low, humble cloister church, a lofty minster with three towers reared its head to the sky. This seemed very strange to the monk, indeed marvelous; but he walked on to the cloister gate and timidly rang the bell. A porter entirely unknown to him answered his summons, and drew back in amazement when he saw the monk. The latter went in, and wandered through the church, gazing with astonishment on memorial stones which he never remembered to have seen before. Presently the brethren of the cloister entered the church; but all retreated when they saw the strange figure of the monk. The abbot only (but not his abbot) stopped, and stretching a crucifix before him, exclaimed, "In the name of Christ, who art thou, spirit or mortal? And what dost thou seek here, coming from the dead among us, the living?" The monk, trembling and tottering like an old man, cast his eyes to the ground, and for the first time became aware that a long silvery beard descended from his chin over his girdle, to which was still suspended the key of the library. To the monks around, the stranger seemed some marvelous appearance; and, with a mixture of awe and admiration, they led him to the chair of the abbot. There he gave the key to a young monk, who opened the library, and brought out a chronicle wherein it was written that three hundred years ago the monk Urban had disappeared; and no one knew whither he had gone. "Ah, bird of the forest, was it then thy song?" said the monk Urban, with a sigh. "I followed thee for scarce three minutes, listening to thy notes, and yet three hundred years have passed away! Thou hast sung to me the song of eternity which I could never before learn. Now I know it; and, dust myself, I pray to God kneeling in the dust." With these words he sank to the ground, and his spirit ascended to heaven. * * * * * Copy the last paragraph, omitting all marks of punctuation. Close the book, and punctuate what you have written. Compare your work with the printed page. Memory Gems: If thou wouldst live long, live well; for folly and wickedness shorten life. _From "Poor Richard's Proverbs"_ The older I grow--and I now stand upon the brink of eternity--the more comes back to me the sentence in the catechism which I learned when a child, and the fuller and deeper becomes its meaning: "What is the chief end of man? To glorify God, and to enjoy Him forever." _Thomas Carlyle._ * * * * * _43_ dole man' na em' blem re leased' plumes breathe crim' son feath' ered soared dou' bly hom' i ly ser'a phim THE SERMON OF ST. FRANCIS. Up soared the lark into the air, A shaft of song, a wingèd prayer, As if a soul, released from pain, Were flying back to heaven again. St. Francis heard; it was to him An emblem of the Seraphim; The upward motion of the fire, The light, the heat, the heart's desire. Around Assisi's convent gate The birds, God's poor who cannot wait, From moor and mere and darksome wood Came flocking for their dole of food. "O brother birds," St. Francis said, "Ye come to me and ask for bread, But not with bread alone to-day Shall ye be fed and sent away. "Ye shall be fed, ye happy birds With manna of celestial words; Not mine, though mine they seem to be, Not mine, though they be spoken through me. "O, doubly are ye bound to praise The great Creator in your lays; He giveth you your plumes of down, Your crimson hoods, your cloaks of brown. "He giveth you your wings to fly And breathe a purer air on high, And careth for you everywhere, Who for yourselves so little care!" With flutter of swift wings and songs Together rose the feathered throngs, And singing scattered far apart; Deep peace was in St. Francis' heart. He knew not if the brotherhood His homily had understood; He only knew that to one ear The meaning of his words was clear. _Longfellow._ From "Children's Hour and Other Poems." Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Publishers. [Illustration: ST. FRANCIS PREACHING] * * * * * LAYS, songs. ASSISI ([:a]s s[=e]' ze), a town of Italy, where St. Francis was born in 1182. What does "manna of celestial words" mean? What is the singular form of seraphim? Memory Gem: Every word has its own spirit, True or false, that never dies; Every word man's lips have uttered Echoes in God's skies. _Adelaide A. Procter._ * * * * * _44_ GLORIA IN EXCELSIS. Gloria in excelsis! Sound the thrilling song; In excelsis Deo! Roll the hymn along. Gloria in excelsis! Let the heavens ring; In excelsis Deo! Welcome, new-born King. Gloria in excelsis! Over the sea and land, In excelsis Deo! Chant the anthem grand. Gloria in excelsis! Let us all rejoice; In excelsis Deo! Lift each heart and voice. Gloria in excelsis! Swell the hymn on high; In excelsis Deo! Sound it to the sky. Gloria in excelsis! Sing it, sinful earth, In excelsis Deo! For the Savior's birth. _Father Ryan._ "Father Ryan's Poems." Published by P.J. Kenedy & Sons, New York. [Illustration: Artist _Hofmann_.--Caption: "Glory to God in the highest; and on earth peace to men of good will."] * * * * * _45_ plied won' drous ex cite' ment com mo' tion vig' or fo' li age mar' vel ous com pas' sion THE FIRST CHRISTMAS TREE.[004] Once upon a time the Forest was in a great commotion. Early in the evening the wise old Cedars had shaken their heads and told of strange things that were to happen. They had lived in the Forest many, many years; but never had they seen such marvelous sights as were to be seen now in the sky, and upon the hills, and in the distant village. "Pray tell us what you see," pleaded a little Vine; "we who are not so tall as you can behold none of these wonderful things." "The whole sky seems to be aflame," said one of the Cedars, "and the Stars appear to be dancing among the clouds; angels walk down from heaven to the earth and talk with the shepherds upon the hills." The Vine trembled with excitement. Its nearest neighbor was a tiny tree, so small it was scarcely ever noticed; yet it was a very beautiful little tree, and the Vines and Ferns and Mosses loved it very dearly. "How I should like to see the Angels!" sighed the little Tree; "and how I should like to see the Stars dancing among the clouds! It must be very beautiful. Oh, listen to the music! I wonder whence it comes." "The Angels are singing," said a Cedar; "for none but angels could make such sweet music." "And the Stars are singing, too," said another Cedar; "yes, and the shepherds on the hills join in the song." The trees listened to the singing. It was a strange song about a Child that had been born. But further than this they did not understand. The strange and glorious song continued all the night. In the early morning the Angels came to the Forest singing the same song about the Child, and the Stars sang in chorus with them, until every part of the woods rang with echoes of that wondrous song. They were clad all in white, and there were crowns upon their fair heads, and golden harps in their hands. Love, hope, joy and compassion beamed from their beautiful faces. The Angels came through the Forest to where the little Tree stood, and gathering around it, they touched it with their hands, kissed its little branches, and sang even more sweetly than before. And their song was about the Child, the Child, the Child, that had been born. Then the Stars came down from the skies and danced and hung upon the branches of the little Tree, and they, too, sang the song of the Child. When they left the Forest, one Angel remained to guard the little Tree. Night and day he watched so that no harm should come to it. Day by day it grew in strength and beauty. The sun sent it his choicest rays, heaven dropped its sweetest dew upon it, and the winds sang to it their prettiest songs. So the years passed, and the little Tree grew until it became the pride and glory of the Forest. One day the Tree heard some one coming through the Forest. "Have no fear," said the Angel, "for He who comes is the Master." And the Master came to the Tree and placed His Hands upon its smooth trunk and branches. He stooped and kissed the Tree, and then turned and went away. [Illustration: _A. Bida._] Many times after that the Master came to the Forest, rested beneath the Tree and enjoyed the shade of its foliage. Many times He slept there and the Tree watched over Him. Many times men came with the Master to the Forest, sat with Him in the shade of the Tree, and talked with Him of things which the Tree never could understand. It heard them tell how the Master healed the sick and raised the dead and bestowed blessings wherever He walked. But one night the Master came alone into the Forest. His Face was pale and wet with tears. He fell upon His knees and prayed. The Tree heard Him, and all the Forest was still. In the morning there was a sound of rude voices and a clashing of swords. [Illustration: _Hofmann._] Strange men plied their axes with cruel vigor, and the Tree was hewn to the ground. Its beautiful branches were cut away, and its soft, thick foliage was strewn to the winds. The Trees of the Forest wept. The cruel men dragged the hewn Tree away, and the Forest saw it no more. But the Night Wind that swept down from the City of the Great King stayed that night in the Forest awhile to say that it had seen that day a Cross raised on Calvary,--the Tree on which was nailed the Body of the dying Master. _Eugene Field._ From "A Little Book of Profitable Tales." Published by Charles Scribner's Sons. [Footnote 004: Copyright, 1889, by Eugene Field.] * * * * * _46_ THE HOLY CITY. Last night I lay a-sleeping; there came a dream so fair;-- I stood in old Jerusalem, beside the Temple there; I heard the children singing, and ever as they sang Methought the voice of Angels From Heaven in answer rang;-- Methought the voice of Angels From Heaven in answer rang. Jerusalem, Jerusalem, lift up your gates and sing Hosanna in the highest! Hosanna to your King! And then methought my dream was changed;-- The streets no longer rang Hushed were the glad Hosannas the little children sang. The sun grew dark with mystery, The morn was cold and chill, As the shadow of a cross arose upon a lonely hill;-- As the shadow of a cross arose upon a lonely hill. Jerusalem, Jerusalem, hark! how the Angels sing Hosanna in the highest! Hosanna to your King! And once again the scene was changed-- New earth there seemed to be; I saw the Holy City beside the tideless sea; The light of God was on its streets, The gates were open wide, And all who would might enter, And no one was denied. No need of moon or stars by night, Nor sun to shine by day; It was the New Jerusalem, that would not pass away,-- It was the New Jerusalem, that would not pass away. Jerusalem, Jerusalem, sing, for the night is o'er, Hosanna in the highest! Hosanna forevermore! * * * * * _47_ trea' son eu' lo gies de bat' ed phi los' o phy in ge nu' i ty ap pro' pri ate con' sum ma ted THE FEAST OF TONGUES. Xanthus invited a large company to dinner, and Aesop was ordered to furnish the choicest dainties that money could procure. The first course consisted of tongues, cooked in different ways and served with appropriate sauces. This gave rise to much mirth and many witty remarks by the guests. The second course was also nothing but tongues, and so with the third and fourth. This seemed to go beyond a joke, and Xanthus demanded in an angry manner of Aesop, "Did I not tell you to provide the choicest dainties that money could procure?" "And what excels the tongue?" replied Aesop, "It is the channel of learning and philosophy. By it addresses and eulogies are made, and commerce carried on, contracts executed, and marriages consummated. Nothing is equal to the tongue." The company applauded Aesop's wit, and good feeling was restored. "Well," said Xanthus to the guests, "pray do me the favor of dining with me again to-morrow. I have a mind to change the feast; to-morrow," said he, turning to Aesop, "provide us with the worst meat you can find." The next day the guests assembled as before, and to their astonishment and the anger of Xanthus nothing but tongues was provided. "How, sir," said Xanthus, "should tongues be the best of meat one day and the worst another?" "What," replied Aesop, "can be worse than the tongue? What wickedness is there under the sun that it has not a part in? Treasons, violence, injustice, fraud, are debated and resolved upon, and communicated by the tongue. It is the ruin of empires, cities, and of private friendships." The company were more than ever struck by Aesop's ingenuity, and they interceded for him with his master. _From "Aesop's Fables."_ * * * * * XANTHUS, a Greek poet and historian, who lived in the sixth century before Christ. Write the plurals of the following words, and tell how they are formed in each case: dainty, sauce, eulogy, feast, city, chief, calf, day, lily, copy, loaf, roof, half, valley, donkey. What words are made emphatic by contrast in the following sentence: "How should tongues be the best of meat one day and the worst another?" Memorize what Aesop said in praise of the tongue, and what he said in dispraise of it. Memory Gem: "If any man offend not in word, the same is a perfect man. The tongue is a fire, a world of iniquity. By it we bless God and the Father; and by it we curse men who are made after the likeness of God." _From "Epistle of St. James."_ * * * * * _48_ ap' pe tite ha rangued' sus pend' ed min' strel sy THE NIGHTINGALE AND THE GLOWWORM. A nightingale, that all day long Had cheered the village with his song, Nor yet at eve his note suspended, Nor yet when eventide was ended, Began to feel, as well he might, The keen demands of appetite; When, looking eagerly around, He spied far off, upon the ground, A something shining in the dark, And knew the glowworm by his spark; So, stooping down from hawthorn top, He thought to put him in his crop. The worm, aware of his intent, Harangued him thus, right eloquent: "Did you admire my lamp," quoth he, "As much as I your minstrelsy, You would abhor to do me wrong As much as I to spoil your song: For 'twas the self-same Power Divine Taught you to sing and me to shine; That you with music, I with light, Might beautify and cheer the night." The songster heard this short oration, And, warbling out his approbation, Released him, as my story tells, And found a supper somewhere else. _William Cowper._ Why did the nightingale feel "The keen demands of appetite?" Do you admire the eloquent speech that the worm made to the bird? Study it by heart. Copy it from memory. Compare your copy with the printed page as to spelling, capitals and punctuation. Memory Gems: I would not enter on my list of friends (Though graced with polished manners and fine sense, Yet wanting sensibility) the man Who needlessly sets foot upon a worm. An inadvertent step may crush the snail That crawls at evening in the public path; But he that has humanity, forewarned, Will tread aside, and let the reptile live. _William Cowper._ Turn, turn thy hasty foot aside, Nor crush that helpless worm! The frame thy wayward looks deride Required a God to form. The common Lord of all that move. From whom thy being flowed, A portion of His boundless love On that poor worm bestowed. Let them enjoy their little day, Their humble bliss receive; Oh! do not lightly take away The life thou canst not give! _Thomas Gisborne._ * * * * * _49_ mar' gin pitch' er cup' board breathed di' a mond quiv' er ing JACK FROST. Jack Frost looked forth one still, clear night, And whispered, "Now I shall be out of sight; So, through the valley, and over the height, In silence I'll take my way. I will not go on like that blustering train, The wind and the snow, the hail and the rain, Who make so much bustle and noise in vain; But I'll be as busy as they!" Then he flew to the mountain, and powdered its crest; He lit on the trees, and their boughs he dressed In diamond beads; and over the breast Of the quivering lake he spread A coat of mail, that it need not fear The glittering point of many a spear, Which he hung on its margin, far and near, Where a rock could rear its head. He went to the windows of those who slept, And over each pane, like a fairy, crept: Wherever he breathed, wherever he stepped, By the morning light were seen Most beautiful things!--there were flowers and trees; There were bevies of birds, and swarms of bees; There were cities with temples and towers; and these All pictured in silvery sheen! But he did one thing that was hardly fair; He peeped in the cupboard, and finding there That all had forgotten for him to prepare.-- "Now, just to set them a-thinking, I'll bite this basket of fruit," said he; "This costly pitcher I'll burst in three; And the glass of water they've left for me, Shall '_tchick_,' to tell them I'm drinking." _Hannah F. Gould._ * * * * * CREST, top or summit. COAT OF MAIL, a garment of iron or steel worn by warriors in olden times. BEVIES, flocks or companies. SHEEN, brightness. TCHICK a combination of letters whose pronunciation is supposed to resemble the sound of breaking glass. What did Jack Frost do when he went to the mountain? How did he dress the boughs of the trees? What did he spread over the lake? Why? What could be seen after he had worked on "the windows of those who slept?" What mischief did he do in the cupboard, and why? Is Jack Frost an artist? In what kind of weather does he work? Why does he work generally at night? * * * * * _50_ re' al ize pen' du lum dil' i gent ly sig nif' i cance auc tion eer' per sist' ent ly in ex haust' i ble un der stood' hope' less ly nev er the less "GOING! GOING! GONE!" The other day, as I was walking through a side street in one of our large cities, I heard these words ringing out from a room so crowded with people that I could but just see the auctioneer's face and uplifted hammer above the heads of the crowd. "Going! Going! Going! Gone!" and down came the hammer with a sharp rap. I do not know how or why it was, but the words struck me with a new force and significance. I had heard them hundreds of times before, with only a sense of amusement. This time they sounded solemn. "Going! Going! Gone!" "That is the way it is with life," I said to myself;--"with time." This world is a sort of auction-room; we do not know that we are buyers: we are, in fact, more like beggars; we have brought no money to exchange for precious minutes, hours, days, or years; they are given to us. There is no calling out of terms, no noisy auctioneer, no hammer; but nevertheless, the time is "going! going! gone!" The more I thought of it, the more solemn did the words sound, and the more did they seem to me a good motto to remind one of the value of time. When we are young we think old people are preaching and prosing when they say so much about it,--when they declare so often that days, weeks, even years, are short. I can remember when a holiday, a whole day long, appeared to me an almost inexhaustible play-spell; when one afternoon, even, seemed an endless round of pleasure, and the week that was to come seemed longer than does a whole year now. One needs to live many years before one learns how little time there is in a year,--how little, indeed, there will be even in the longest possible life,--how many things one will still be obliged to leave undone. But there is one thing, boys and girls, that you can realize if you will try--if you will stop and think about it a little; and that is, how fast and how steadily the present time is slipping away. However long life may seem to you as you look forward to the whole of it, the present hour has only sixty minutes, and minute by minute, second by second, it is "going! going! gone!" If you gather nothing from it as it passes, it is "gone" forever. Nothing is so utterly, hopelessly lost as "lost time." It makes me unhappy when I look back and see how much time I have wasted; how much I might have learned and done if I had but understood how short is the longest hour. All the men and women who have made the world better, happier or wiser for their having lived in it, have done so by working diligently and persistently. Yet, I am certain that not even one of these, when "looking backward from his manhood's prime, saw not the specter of his mis-spent time." Now, don't suppose I am so foolish as to think that all the preaching in the world can make anything look to young eyes as it looks to old eyes; not a bit of it. But think about it a little; don't let time slip away by the minute, hour, day, without getting something out of it! Look at the clock now and then, and listen to the pendulum, saying of every minute, as it flies,--"Going! going! gone!" _Helen Hunt Jackson._ From "Bits of Talk." Copyright, Little, Brown & Co., Publishers. * * * * * PROSING, talking in a dull way. In the following sentences, instead of the words in italics, use others that have the same general meaning: I heard these words _ringing_ out from a _room_ so _crowded_ with _people_ that I could _but_ just _see_ the man's _face._ How _fast_ and _steadily_ the present time is _slipping_ away! Punctuate the following: Go to the ant thou sluggard consider her ways and be wise. * * * * * _51_ yearn car' ol mus' ing stee' ple mag' ic al SEVEN TIMES TWO. You bells in the steeple, ring, ring out your changes, How many soever they be, And let the brown meadowlark's note, as he ranges, Come over, come over to me! Yet birds' clearest carol, by fall or by swelling, No magical sense conveys; And bells have forgotten their old art of telling The fortune of future days. "Turn again, turn again!" once they rang cheerily, While a boy listened alone; Made his heart yearn again, musing so wearily All by himself on a stone. Poor bells! I forgive you; your good days are over, And mine, they are yet to be; No listening, no longing, shall aught, aught discover: You leave the story to me. The foxglove shoots out of the green matted heather, And hangeth her hoods of snow; She was idle, and slept till the sunshiny weather: Oh, children take long to grow! I wish and I wish that the spring would go faster, Nor long summer bide so late; And I could grow on like the foxglove and aster, For some things are ill to wait. I wait for the day when dear hearts shall discover, While dear hands are laid on my head, "The child is a woman--the book may close over, For all the lessons are said." I wait for my story: the birds cannot sing it, Not one, as he sits on the tree; The bells cannot ring it, but long years, O bring it! Such as I wish it to be. _Jean Ingelow._ * * * * * "TURN AGAIN, TURN AGAIN!" Reference is here made to Dick Whittington, a poor orphan country lad, who went to London to earn a living, and who afterwards rose to be the first Lord Mayor of that city. NOTE.--This poem is the second of a series of seven lyrics, entitled "The Songs of Seven," which picture seven stages in a woman's life. For the first of the series, "Seven Times One," see page 44 of the Fourth Reader. Read it in connection with this. "Seven Times Two" shows the girl standing at the entrance to maidenhood, books closed and lessons said, longing for the years to go faster to bring to her the happiness she imagines is waiting. [Illustration:] * * * * * _52_ man' i fold do mes' tic pet' tish ly in grat' i tude MY MOTHER'S GRAVE. It was thirteen years since my mother's death, when, after a long absence from my native village, I stood beside the sacred mound beneath which I had seen her buried. Since that mournful period, a great change had come over me. My childish years had passed away, and with them my youthful character. The world was altered, too; and as I stood at my mother's grave, I could hardly realize that I was the same thoughtless, happy creature, whose cheeks she so often kissed in an excess of tenderness. But the varied events of thirteen years had not effaced the remembrance of that mother's smile. It seemed as if I had seen her but yesterday--as if the blessed sound of her well-remembered voice was in my ear. The gay dreams of my infancy and childhood were brought back so distinctly to my mind that, had it not been for one bitter recollection, the tears I shed would have been gentle and refreshing. The circumstance may seem a trifling one, but the thought of it now pains my heart; and I relate it, that those children who have parents to love them may learn to value them as they ought. My mother had been ill a long time, and I had become so accustomed to her pale face and weak voice, that I was not frightened at them, as children usually are. At first, it is true, I sobbed violently; but when, day after day, I returned from school, and found her the same, I began to believe she would always be spared to me; but they told me she would die. One day when I had lost my place in the class, I came home discouraged and fretful. I went to my mother's chamber. She was paler than usual, but she met me with the same affectionate smile that always welcomed my return. Alas! when I look back through the lapse of thirteen years, I think my heart must have been stone not to have been melted by it. She requested me to go downstairs and bring her a glass of water. I pettishly asked her why she did not call a domestic to do it. With a look of mild reproach, which I shall never forget if I live to be a hundred years old, she said, "Will not my daughter bring a glass of water for her poor, sick mother?" I went and brought her the water, but I did not do it kindly. Instead of smiling, and kissing her as I had been wont to do, I set the glass down very quickly, and left the room. After playing a short time, I went to bed without bidding my mother good night; but when alone in my room, in darkness and silence, I remembered how pale she looked, and how her voice trembled when she said, "Will not my daughter bring a glass of water for her poor, sick mother?" I could not sleep. I stole into her chamber to ask forgiveness. She had sunk into an easy slumber, and they told me I must not waken her. I did not tell anyone what troubled me, but stole back to my bed, resolved to rise early in the morning and tell her how sorry I was for my conduct. The sun was shining brightly when I awoke, and, hurrying on my clothes, I hastened to my mother's chamber. She was dead! She never spoke more--never smiled upon me again; and when I touched the hand that used to rest upon my head in blessing, it was so cold that it made me start. I bowed down by her side, and sobbed in the bitterness of my heart. I then wished that I might die, and be buried with her; and, old as I now am, I would give worlds, were they mine to give, could my mother but have lived to tell me she forgave my childish ingratitude. But I cannot call her back; and when I stand by her grave, and whenever I think of her manifold kindness, the memory of that reproachful look she gave me will bite like a serpent and sting like an adder. * * * * * Memory Gem: "But O for the touch of a vanished hand, And the sound of a voice that is still!" * * * * * _53_ chide be dewed' em balmed' be tide' lin' gered wor' shiped THE OLD ARM-CHAIR. I love it, I love it; and who shall dare To chide me for loving that old Arm-chair? I've treasured it long as a sainted prize; I've bedewed it with tears, and embalmed it with sighs. 'Tis bound by a thousand bands to my heart; Not a tie will break, not a link will start. Would ye learn the spell?--a mother sat there! And a sacred thing is that old Arm-chair. In Childhood's hour I lingered near The hallowed seat with listening ear; And gentle words that mother would give, To fit me to die, and teach me to live. She told me that shame would never betide, With truth for my creed and God for my guide; She taught me to lisp my earliest prayer, As I knelt beside that old Arm-chair. I sat and watched her many a day, When her eye grew dim and her locks were gray; And I almost worshiped her when she smiled, And turned from her Bible to bless her child. Years rolled on; but the last one sped-- My idol was shattered; my earth-star fled: I learned how much the heart can bear, When I saw her die in that old Arm-chair. 'Tis past, 'tis past, but I gaze on it now With quivering breath and throbbing brow: 'Twas there she nursed me; 'twas there she died; And Memory flows with lava tide. Say it is folly, and deem me weak, While the scalding drops start down my cheek; But I love it, I love it; and cannot tear My soul from a mother's old Arm-chair. _Eliza Cook._ * * * * * SPELL, a verse or phrase or word supposed to have magical power; a charm. HALLOWED, made holy. HOLLOWED, made a hole out of; made hollow. Use these two words in sentences of your own. What is meant by "Memory flows with lava tide?" Write a two-paragraph description of an old arm-chair. Your imagination will furnish you with all needed details. Divide the following words into their syllables, and mark the accented syllable of each: absurd, every, nature, mature, leisure, valuable, safety, again, virtue, ancient, weather, history, poetry, mother, genuine, earliest, fatigued, business. The dictionary will aid you. * * * * * _54_ crags break tongue thoughts ha' ven sail' or state' ly BREAK, BREAK, BREAK! Break, break, break, On thy cold gray stones, O sea! And I would that my tongue could utter The thoughts that arise in me. O well for the fisherman's boy, That he shouts with his sister at play! O well for the sailor lad, That he sings in his boat on the bay! And the stately ships go on To the haven under the hill; But O for the touch of a vanished hand, And the sound of a voice that is still! Break, break, break, At the foot of thy crags, O sea! But the tender grace of a day that is dead Will never come back to me. _Tennyson_. [Illustration: Tennyson] * * * * * _55_ barns deaf en ing i dol' a trous pon' der ca lum' ni ate Be at' i tudes GOD IS OUR FATHER. The Old Law, the Law given to the Jews on Mount Sinai, tended to inspire the fear of God, which is the beginning of wisdom. It was given amidst fire and smoke, thunders and lightnings, and whatever else could fill the minds of the Jews with fear and wonder. Compelled, as it were, by the idolatrous acts of His chosen people, by their repeated rebellions, and their endless murmurings, God showed Himself to them as the almighty Sovereign, the King of kings, the Lord of lords, whose holiness, power, majesty, and severity in punishing sin, filled their minds with awe and dread. It was not thus that the New Law, the Law of grace and love, was given to the world. No dark cloud covered the mount of the Beatitudes from which our Lord preached; no deafening thunders were heard; no angry flashes of lightning were visible. There was nothing forbidding in the voice, words, or appearance of the Divine Lawgiver. In the whole exterior of our Savior there was a something so sweet, so humble, so meek and captivating, that the people were filled with admiration and love. One of the most remarkable features of this first sermon that Christ preached is the fact that He constantly called God our Father. How beautifully His teachings reveal the spirit of the Law of love! Listen to Him attentively, and ponder upon His words: "Take heed that you do not your justice before men, to be seen by them: otherwise you shall not have a reward of your FATHER WHO is in heaven.... But when thou dost alms, let not thy left hand know what thy right hand doth; that thy alms may be in secret, and thy FATHER WHO seeth in secret will repay thee.... Love your enemies; do good to them that hate you; and pray for them that persecute and calumniate you; that you may be the children of your FATHER WHO is in heaven, Who maketh His sun to rise upon the good and bad, and raineth upon the just and the unjust. "Behold the birds of the air, for they neither sow, nor do they reap, nor gather into barns: and your heavenly FATHER feedeth them. Are not you of much more value than they?... If you, then, being evil, know how to give good gifts to your children, how much more will your FATHER WHO is in heaven give good things to them that ask Him.... For if you will forgive men their offenses, your heavenly FATHER will forgive you also your offenses. But if you will not forgive men, neither will your FATHER forgive you your offenses.... Thus therefore shall you pray: OUR FATHER Who art in heaven." From these and many other similar expressions found in the very first sermon which Jesus Christ ever preached, we learn that it is the expressed will of God that we should look upon Him as our loving Father; and that, however unworthy we may be, we should look upon ourselves as His beloved children. There cannot be a possible doubt of this, since it is taught so positively by His only begotten Son, Who is "the Way, the Truth, and the Life." [Illustration: _Henry le Jeune._] * * * * * Sinai (s[=i]' n[=a]), a mountain in Arabia. * * * * * _56_ HAPPY OLD AGE. "You are old, Father William," the young man cried; "The few locks that are left you are gray; You are hale, Father William, a hearty old man; Now, tell me the reason, I pray." "In the days of my youth," Father William replied, "I remembered that youth would fly fast, And abused not my health and my vigor at first, That I never might need them at last." "You are old, Father William," the young man cried, "And life must be hastening away; You are cheerful, and love to converse upon death! Now, tell me the reason, I pray." "I am cheerful, young man," Father William replied; "Let the cause thy attention engage; In the days of my youth I remembered my God! And He hath not forgotten my age." _Robert Southey._ * * * * * Tell the story of the poem in your own words. What are some of the important lessons it teaches? * * * * * _57_ smit' ing el' o quence mes' mer ize ges' ture vin' e gar un dy' ing ly KIND WORDS. Kind words are the music of the world. They have a power which seems to be beyond natural causes, as if they were some angel's song, which had lost its way and come on earth, and sang on undyingly, smiting the hearts of men with sweetest wounds, and putting for the while an angel's nature into us. Let us then think first of all of the power of kind words. In truth, there is hardly a power on earth equal to them. It seems as they could almost do what in reality God alone can do, namely, soften the hard and angry hearts of men. Many a friendship, long, loyal, and self-sacrificing, rested at first on no thicker a foundation than a kind word. Kind words produce happiness. How often have we ourselves been made happy by kind words, in a manner and to an extent which we are unable to explain! And happiness is a great power of holiness. Thus, kind words, by their power of producing happiness, have also a power of producing holiness, and so of winning men to God. If I may use such a word when I am speaking of religious subjects, it is by voice and words that men mesmerize each other. Hence it is that the world is converted by the voice of the preacher. Hence it is that an angry word rankles longer in the heart than an angry gesture, nay, very often even longer than a blow. Thus, all that has been said of the power of kindness in general applies with an additional and peculiar force to kind words. _Father Faber._ From "Spiritual Conferences." * * * * * Explain: Kind words are the music of the world--An angel's song that had lost its way and come on earth--Smiting the hearts of men with sweetest wounds--Putting an angel's nature into us--Hard and angry hearts of men--An angry word rankles longer in the heart than even a blow. Mention some occasions when kind words addressed to you made you very happy. Which will bring a person more happiness,--to have kind words said to him, or for him to say them to another? Memorize the first paragraph of the selection. Memory Gems: Kindness has converted more sinners than either zeal, eloquence, or learning. _Father Faber._ You will catch more flies with a spoonful of honey than with a hundred barrels of vinegar. _St. Francis de Sales._ * * * * * _58_ KINDNESS IS THE WORD. Memorize: "What is the real good?" I asked in musing mood. Order, said the law court; Knowledge, said the school; Truth, said the wise man; Pleasure, said the fool; Love, said the maiden; Beauty, said the page; Freedom, said the dreamer; Home, said the sage; Fame, said the soldier; Equity, said the seer;-- Spake my heart full sadly: "The answer is not here." Then within my bosom Softly this I heard: "Each heart holds the secret: Kindness is the word." _John Boyle O'Reilly._ * * * * * SAGE, a wise man. SEER, one who foresees events; a prophet. EQUITY ([)e]k' w[)i] t[)y]), justice, fairness. * * * * * _59_ va' cant joc' und pen' sive spright' ly sol' i tude daf' fo dils con tin' u ous DAFFODILS. I wandered lonely as a cloud That floats on high o'er vales and hills, When all at once I saw a crowd, A host, of golden daffodils, Beside the lake, beneath the trees, Fluttering and dancing in the breeze. Continuous as the stars that shine And twinkle on the Milky Way, They stretched in never-ending line Along the margin of the bay: Ten thousand saw I at a glance, Tossing their heads in sprightly dance. The waves beside them danced; but they Outdid the sparkling waves in glee: A poet could not but be gay In such a jocund company. I gazed,--and gazed,--but little thought What wealth the show to me had brought: For oft, when on my couch I lie In vacant or in pensive mood, They flash upon that inward eye Which is the bliss of solitude; And then my heart with pleasure fills, And dances with the daffodils. _William Wordsworth._ * * * * * MILKY WAY, the belt of light seen at night in the heavens, and is composed of millions of stars. 1st stanza: Explain, "I wandered lonely." To what does the poet compare his loneliness? What did the poet see "all at once?" Where? What were the daffodils doing? What picture do the first two lines bring to mind? Describe the picture contained in the remaining lines of this stanza. 2d stanza: How does the poet tell what a great crowd of daffodils there were? How would you tell it? How does he say the daffodils were arranged? What does _margin_ mean? How many daffodils did he see? In this stanza, what does he say they were doing? 3d stanza: What is said of the waves? In what did the daffodils surpass the waves? What do the third and fourth lines of this stanza mean? 4th stanza: What does "in vacant mood" mean? "In pensive mood?" "Inward eye?" How does this inward eye make bliss for us in solitude? What feelings did the thought of what he saw awaken in the heart of the poet? What changed the wanderer's loneliness, as told at the beginning of the poem, to gayety, as told towards the end? Commit the poem to memory. [Illustration:] * * * * * _60_ hos' tile en dowed' tu' mult ac' o lyte ep' i taph grav' i ty com' bat ants pref' er ence a maz' ed ly ath let' ic Vi at' i cum in her' it ance cem' e ter y re tal' i ate un flinch' ing ly ir re sist' i ble un vi' o la ted con temp' tu ous ly THE STORY OF TARCISIUS. At the time our story opens, a bloody persecution of the Church was going on, and all the prisons of Rome were filled with Christians condemned to death for the Faith. Some were to die on the morrow, and to these it was necessary to send the Holy Viaticum to strengthen their souls for the battle before them. On this day, when the hostile passions of heathen Rome were unusually excited by the coming slaughter of so many Christian victims, it was a work of more than common danger to discharge this duty. The Sacred Bread was prepared, and the priest turned round from the altar on which it was placed, to see who would be its safest bearer. Before any other could step forward, the young acolyte Tarcisius knelt at his feet. With his hands extended before him, ready to receive the sacred deposit, with a countenance beautiful in its lovely innocence as an angel's, he seemed to entreat for preference, and even to claim it. "Thou art too young, my child," said the kind priest, filled with admiration of the picture before him. "My youth, holy father, will be my best protection. Oh! do not refuse me this great honor." The tears stood in the boy's eyes, and his cheeks glowed with a modest emotion, as he spoke these words. He stretched forth his hands eagerly, and his entreaty was so full of fervor and courage, that the plea was irresistible. The priest took the Divine Mysteries, wrapped up carefully in a linen cloth, then in an outer covering, and put them on his palms, saying-- "Remember, Tarcisius, what a treasure is intrusted to thy feeble care. Avoid public places as thou goest along; and remember that holy things must not be delivered to dogs, nor pearls be cast before swine. Thou wilt keep safely God's sacred gifts?" "I will die rather than betray them," answered the holy youth, as he folded the heavenly trust in the bosom of his tunic, and with cheerful reverence started on his journey. There was a gravity beyond the usual expression of his years stamped upon his countenance, as he tripped lightly along the streets, avoiding equally the more public, and the too low, thoroughfares. As he was approaching the door of a large mansion, its mistress, a rich lady without children, saw him coming, and was struck with his beauty and sweetness, as, with arms folded on his breast, he was hastening on. "Stay one moment, dear child," she said, putting herself in his way; "tell me thy name, and where do thy parents live?" "I am Tarcisius, an orphan boy," he replied, looking up smilingly; "and I have no home, save one which it might be displeasing to thee to hear." "Then come into my house and rest; I wish to speak to thee. Oh, that I had a child like thee!" "Not now, noble lady, not now. I have intrusted to me a most solemn and sacred duty, and I must not tarry a moment in its performance." "Then promise to come to me tomorrow; this is my house." "If I am alive, I will," answered the boy, with a kindled look, which made him appear to her as a messenger from a higher sphere. She watched him a long time, and after some deliberation determined to follow him. Soon, however, she heard a tumult with horrid cries, which made her pause on her way until they had ceased, when she went on again. In the meantime, Tarcisius, with his thoughts fixed on better things than her inheritance, hastened on, and shortly came into an open space, where boys, just escaped from school, were beginning to play. "We just want one to make up the game; where shall we get him?" said their leader. "Capital!" exclaimed another; "here comes Tarcisius, whom I have not seen for an age. He used to be an excellent hand at all sports. Come, Tarcisius," he added, stopping him by seizing his arm, "whither so fast? take a part in our game, that's a good fellow." "I can't now; I really can't. I am going on business of great importance." "But you shall," exclaimed the first speaker, a strong and bullying youth, laying hold of him. "I will have no sulking, when I want anything done. So come, join us at once." "I entreat you," said the poor boy feelingly, "do let me go." "No such thing," replied the other. "What is that you seem to be carrying so carefully in your bosom? A letter, I suppose; well, it will not addle by being for half an hour out of its nest. Give it to me, and I will put it by safe while we play." "Never, never," answered the child, looking up towards heaven. "I _will_ see it," insisted the other rudely; "I will know what is this wonderful secret." And he commenced pulling him roughly about. A crowd of men from the neighborhood soon got round, and all asked eagerly what was the matter. They saw a boy, who, with folded arms, seemed endowed with a supernatural strength, as he resisted every effort of one much bigger and stronger, to make him reveal what he was bearing. Cuffs, pulls, blows, kicks, seemed to have no effect. He bore them all without a murmur, or an attempt to retaliate; but he unflinchingly kept his purpose. "What is it? what can it be?" one began to ask the other; when Fulvius chanced to pass by, and joined the circle round the combatants. He at once recognized Tarcisius, having seen him at the Ordination; and being asked, as a better-dressed man, the same question, he replied contemptuously, as he turned on his heel, "What is it? Why, only a Christian, bearing the Mysteries." This was enough. Heathen curiosity, to see the Mysteries of the Christians revealed, and to insult them, was aroused, and a general demand was made to Tarcisius to yield up his charge. "Never with life," was his only reply. A heavy blow from a smith's fist nearly stunned him, while the blood flowed from the wound. Another and another followed, till, covered with bruises, but with his arms crossed fast upon his breast, he fell heavily on the ground. The mob closed upon him, and were just seizing, him to tear open his thrice-holy trust, when they felt themselves pushed aside right and left by some giant strength. Some went reeling to the further side of the square, others were spun round and round, they knew not how, till they fell where they were, and the rest retired before a tall athletic officer, who was the author of this overthrow. He had no sooner cleared the ground than he was on his knees, and with tears in his eyes raised up the bruised and fainting boy as tenderly as a mother could have done, and in most gentle tones asked him, "Are you much hurt, Tarcisius?" "Never mind me, Quadratus," answered he, opening his eyes with a smile; "but I am carrying the Divine Mysteries; take care of them." The soldier raised the boy in his arms with tenfold reverence, as if bearing, not only the sweet victim of a youthful sacrifice, a martyr's relics, but the very King and Lord of Martyrs, and the divine Victim of eternal salvation. The child's head leaned in confidence on the stout soldier's neck, but his arms and hands never left their watchful custody of the confided gift; and his gallant bearer felt no weight in the hallowed double burden which he carried. No one stopped him, till a lady met him and stared amazedly at him. She drew nearer, and looked closer at what he carried. "Is it possible?" she exclaimed with terror, "is that Tarcisius, whom I met a few moments ago, so fair and lovely?" "Madam," replied Quadratus, "they have murdered him because he was a Christian." The lady looked for an instant on the child's countenance. He opened his eyes upon her, smiled, and expired. From that look came the light of faith--she hastened to be a Christian. The venerable Dionysius could hardly see for weeping, as he removed the child's hands, and took from his bosom, unviolated, the Holy of Holies; and he thought he looked more like an angel now, sleeping the martyr's slumber, than he did when living scarcely an hour before. Quadratus himself bore him to the cemetery of Callistus, where he was buried amidst the admiration of older believers; and later a holy Pope composed for him an epitaph, which no one can read without concluding that the belief in the real presence of Our Lord's Body in the Blessed Eucharist was the same then as now: "Christ's secret gifts, by good Tarcisius borne, The mob profanely bade him to display; He rather gave his own limbs to be torn, Than Christ's Body to mad dogs betray." _Cardinal Wiseman._ From "Fabiola; or, The Church of the Catacombs." ADDLE, to become rotten, as eggs. TUNIC, a loose garment, reaching to the knees, and confined at the waist by a girdle. SUPERNATURAL, = prefix _super_, meaning _above_ or _beyond,_ + _natural_. -ION, a suffix denoting _act, state, condition of_. Define _emotion, objection, dejection, conversion, submission, construction, admiration, persecution, observation, revolution, deliberation._ Write a letter to a friend who has sent you a copy of "Fabiola." Tell him how much you like the book, what you have read in it, and thank him for sending it. Make a list of the characters in the story of Tarcisius, and tell what you like or dislike in each. Memory Gems: The boy, with proud, yet tear-dimmed eyes, Kept murmuring under breath: "Before temptation--sacrifice! Before dishonor--death!" _Margaret J. Preston._ Dare to do right! Dare to be true! Other men's failures can never save you; Stand by your conscience, your honor, your faith; Stand like a hero, and battle till death. _George L. Taylor._ Heroes of old! I humbly lay The laurel on your graves again; Whatever men have done, men may-- The deeds you wrought are not in vain. _Austin Dobson._ * * * * * _61_ a jar' chal' ice a thwart' rap' tur ous sward ter' race jew' eled ci bo' ri um por' tal vil' lain au da' cious sac ri le' gious LEGEND OF THE WAXEN CIBORIUM. A summer night in Remy--strokes of the midnight bell, Like drops of molten silver, athwart the silence fell, Where 'mid the misty meadows, the circling crystal streams, A little village slumber'd,--locked in quiet dreams. A lily, green-embower'd, beside a mossy wood, With golden cross uplifted, the small white chapel stood, But in that solemn hour, the light of moon and star Upon its portal shining, revealed the door ajar! And lo! into the midnight, with noiseless feet, there ran From out the sacred shadows, a mask'd and muffl'd man, Who bore beneath his mantle, with sacrilegious hold, The Victim of the altar within Its vase of gold! To right--to left,--he faltered; then swift across the sward, (Like dusky demon fleeing), he bore the Hidden Lord; By mere and moonlit meadow his rapid passage sped, Till, at an open wicket, he paused with bended head. Behold! a grassy terrace,--a garden, wide and fair, And, 'mid the wealth of roses, a beehive nestling there. Across the flow'ring trellis, the villain cast his cloak, Upon the jeweled chalice, the moonbeams, sparkling, broke! O sacrilegious fingers! your work was quickly done! Within the hive (audacious!) he thrust the Holy One, Then gath'ring up his mantle to hide the treasure bright-- Plunged back into the darkness, and vanish'd in the night. * * * * * Forth in the summer morning, full of the sun and breeze, Into his dewy garden, walks the master of the bees. All silent stands the beehive,--no little buzzing things Among the flowers, flutter, on brown and golden wings. Untasted lies the honey within the roses' hearts,-- The master paces nearer,--he listens--lo! he starts, What sounds of rapturous singing! O heaven! all alive With strange angelic music, is that celestial hive! Upon his knees adoring, the master, weeping, sees Within a honeyed cloister, the Chalice of the bees; For lo! the little creatures have reared a waxen shrine, Wherein reposes safely the Sacred Host Divine!... O little ones, who listen unto this legend old (Upon my shoulder blending your locks of brown and gold), From out the hands of sinners whose hearts are foul to see, Behold! the dear Lord Jesus appeals to you and me. He says: "O loving children! within your hearts prepare A hive of honeyed sweetness where I may nestle fair; Make haste, O pure affections! to welcome Me therein, Out of the world's bright gardens, out of the groves of Sin. "And in the night of sorrow (sweet sorrow), like the bees, Around My Heart shall hover your wingèd ministries, And while ye toil, the angels shall, softly singing come To worship Me, the Captive of Love's Ciborium!" _Eleanor C. Donnelly._ From "The Children of the Golden Sheaf." Published by P.C. Donnelly. * * * * * MERE, a waste place; a marsh. TRELLIS, a frame of latticework. WAXEN, made of wax. _en_ is here a suffix meaning _made of._ Use _golden, leaden, wooden,_ in sentences of your own. Synonyms are words which have very nearly the same meaning. What does _revealed_ mean? _cloister_? Find as many synonyms of these two words as you can. Consult your dictionary. * * * * * _62_ stalked ep'au lets be hind' hand se date' trudg' ing com pos' ed ly fid' dler strut' ted ap pro ba' tion re sumed' af firmed' dis a gree' a ble whith er so ev' er LITTLE DAFFY-DOWN-DILLY. Daffy-down-dilly was so called because in his nature he resembled a flower, and loved to do only what was beautiful and agreeable, and took no delight in labor of any kind. But, while Daffy-down-dilly was yet a little boy, his mother sent him away from his pleasant home, and put him under the care of a very strict schoolmaster, who went by the name of Mr. Toil. Those who knew him best, affirmed that this Mr. Toil was a very worthy character, and that he had done more good, both to children and grown people, than anybody else in the world. Nevertheless, Mr. Toil had a severe countenance; his voice, too, was harsh; and all his ways seemed very disagreeable to our friend Daffy-down-dilly. The whole day long, this terrible old schoolmaster sat at his desk, overlooking the pupils, or stalked about the room with a certain awful birch rod in his hand. Now came a rap over the shoulders of a boy whom Mr. Toil had caught at play; now he punished a whole class who were behindhand with their lessons; and, in short, unless a lad chose to attend constantly to his book, he had no chance of enjoying a quiet moment in the schoolroom of Mr. Toil. "I can't bear it any longer," said Daffy-down-dilly to himself, when he had been at school about a week. "I'll run away, and try to find my dear mother; at any rate, I shall never find anybody half so disagreeable as this old Mr. Toil." So, the very next morning, off started poor Daffy-down-dilly, and began his rambles about the world, with only some bread and cheese for his breakfast, and very little pocket money to pay his expenses. But he had gone only a short distance, when he overtook a man of grave and sedate appearance, who was trudging along the road at a moderate pace. "Good-morning, my fine little lad," said the stranger; "whence do you come so early, and whither are you going?" Daffy-down-dilly hesitated a moment or two, but finally confessed that he had run away from school, on account of his great dislike to Mr. Toil; and that he was resolved to find some place in the world where he should never see nor hear of the old schoolmaster again. "Very well, my little friend," answered the stranger, "we will go together; for I, also, have had a great deal to do with Mr. Toil, and should be glad to find some place where his name was never heard." They had not gone far, when they passed a field where some haymakers were at work, mowing down the tall grass, and spreading it out in the sun to dry. Daffy-down-dilly was delighted with the sweet smell of the new-mown grass, and thought how much pleasanter it must be to make hay in the sunshine, under the blue sky, and with the birds singing sweetly in the neighboring trees and bushes, than to be shut up in a dismal schoolroom, learning lessons all day long, and continually scolded by Mr. Toil. But, in the midst of these thoughts, while he was stopping to peep over the stone wall, he started back, caught hold of his companion's hand, and cried, "Quick, quick! Let us run away, or he will catch us!" "Who will catch us?" asked the stranger. "Mr. Toil, the old schoolmaster!" answered Daffy-down-dilly. "Don't you see him among the haymakers?" "Don't be afraid," said the stranger. "This is not Mr. Toil, the schoolmaster, but a brother of his, who was bred a farmer; and people say he is the more disagreeable man of the two. However, he won't trouble you, unless you become a laborer on the farm." They went on a little farther, and soon heard the sound of a drum and fife. Daffy-down-dilly besought his companion to hurry forward, that they might not miss seeing the soldiers. "Quick step! Forward march!" shouted a gruff voice. Little Daffy-down-dilly started in great dismay; and, turning his eyes to the captain of the company, what should he see but the very image of old Mr. Toil himself, with a smart cap and feather on his head, a pair of gold epaulets on his shoulders, a laced coat on his back, a purple sash round his waist, and a long sword, instead of a birch rod, in his hand! Though he held his head high and strutted like a rooster, still he looked quite as ugly and disagreeable as when he was hearing lessons in the schoolroom. "This is certainly old Mr. Toil," said Daffy-down-dilly, in a trembling voice. "Let us run away, for fear he will make us enlist in his company!" "You are mistaken again, my little friend," replied the stranger, very composedly. "This is not Mr. Toil, the schoolmaster, but a brother of his, who has served in the army all his life. People say he's a very severe fellow, but you and I need not be afraid of him." "Well, well," said Daffy-down-dilly, "but, if you please, sir, I don't want to see the soldiers any more." So the child and the stranger resumed their journey; and, by and by, they came to a house by the roadside, where some people were making merry. Young men and rosy-cheeked girls, with smiles on their faces, were dancing to the sound of a fiddle. "Let us stop here," cried Daffy-down-dilly to his companion; "for Mr. Toil will never dare to show his face where there is a fiddler, and where people are dancing and making merry. We shall be quite safe here." But these last words died away upon Daffy-down-dilly's tongue, for, happening to cast his eyes on the fiddler, whom should he behold again, but the likeness of Mr. Toil, holding a fiddle bow instead of a birch rod. "Oh, dear!" whispered he, turning pale, "it seems as if there was nobody but Mr. Toil in the world. Who could have thought of his playing on a fiddle!" "This is not your old schoolmaster," said the stranger, "but another brother of his, who was bred in France, where he learned the profession of a fiddler. He is ashamed of his family, and generally calls himself Mr. Pleasure; but his real name is Toil, and those who have known him best, think him still more disagreeable than his brother." "Pray let us go a little farther," said Daffy-down-dilly. "I don't like the looks of this fiddler." Thus the stranger and little Daffy-down-dilly went wandering along the highway, and in shady lanes, and through pleasant villages; and, whithersoever they went, behold! there was the image of old Mr. Toil. He stood like a scarecrow in the cornfields. If they entered a house, he sat in the parlor; if they peeped into the kitchen, he was there. He made himself at home in every cottage, and, under one disguise or another, stole into the most splendid mansions. "Oh, take me back!--take me back!" said poor little Daffy-down-dilly, bursting into tears. "If there is nothing but Toil all the world over, I may just as well go back to the schoolhouse." "Yonder it is,--there is the schoolhouse!" said the stranger; for, though he and little Daffy-down-dilly had taken a great many steps, they had traveled in a circle, instead of a straight line. "Come; we will go back to school together." There was something in his companion's voice that little Daffy-down-dilly now remembered; and it is strange that he had not remembered it sooner. Looking up into his face, behold! there again was the likeness of old Mr. Toil; so the poor child had been in company with Toil all day, even while he was doing his best to run away from him. When Daffy-down-dilly became better acquainted with Mr. Toil, he began to think that his ways were not so very disagreeable, and that the old schoolmaster's smile of approbation made his face almost as pleasant as the face of his own dear mother. _Nathaniel Hawthorne._ "Little Daffy-down-dilly and Other Stories." Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Publishers. * * * * * How will the following sentences read if you change the name-words from the singular to the plural form: The old schoolmaster has a rod in his hand. The boy likes his teacher. The girl goes cheerfully on an errand for her mother. The pupil attends to his book, and knows his lesson perfectly. Under the blue sky, and while the bird was singing sweetly in tree and bush, the farmer was making hay in his meadow. The man won't trouble him unless he becomes a laborer on his farm. The captain had a smart cap and feather on his head, a laced coat on his back, a purple sash round his waist, and a long sword instead of a birch rod in his hand. From points furnished by your teacher, write a short composition on "Our School." Be careful as to spelling, capitals, punctuation, paragraphs, margin, penmanship, neatness and general appearance. Memory Gems: Evil is wrought by want of thought, As well as want of heart. _Hood._ It is not where you are, but what you are, that determines your happiness. * * * * * _63_ su' macs char' coal of fi' cial fres' coes in i' tial rest' less ly IN SCHOOL DAYS Still sits the schoolhouse by the road, A ragged beggar sunning; Around it still the sumacs grow And blackberry vines are running. Within, the master's desk is seen, Deep scarred by raps official; The warping floor, the battered seats, The jackknife's carved initial; The charcoal frescoes on its wall; Its door's worn sill, betraying The feet that, creeping slow to school, Went storming out to playing! Long years ago a winter sun Shone over it at setting; Lit up its western window-panes, And low eaves' icy fretting. It touched the tangled golden curls, And brown eyes full of grieving, Of one who still her steps delayed When all the school were leaving. For near her stood the little boy Her childish favor singled; His cap pulled low upon a face Where pride and shame were mingled. Pushing with restless feet the snow To right and left, he lingered; As restlessly her tiny hands The blue-checked apron fingered. He saw her lift her eyes; he felt The soft hand's light caressing, And heard the tremble of her voice, As if a fault confessing: "I'm sorry that I spelt the word; I hate to go above you, Because,"--the brown eyes lower fell,-- "Because, you see, I love you!" Still memory to a gray-haired man That sweet child-face is showing. Dear girl! the grasses on her grave Have forty years been growing! He lives to learn, in life's hard school, How few who pass above him Lament their triumph and his loss, Like her,--because they love him. _Whittier._ From "Child Life in Poetry." Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Publishers. [Illustration: _John G. Whittier._] * * * * * _64_ Mars so' lar (ler) Ve' nus plan' ets Mer' cu ry di am' e ter com' pass es sat' el lite tel' e scope grad' u al ly in' ter est ing cir cum' fer ence THE SUN'S FAMILY "Please tell me a story, Frank" said Philip, as the two boys sat in the shade of a large tree. "I have heard and read many wonderful stories. I will try to recall one," said Frank. "Let me see. Well--perhaps--I think that the most wonderful story I have ever read is that of the solar system, or the sun's family." "Solar system!" repeated Philip. "That certainly sounds hard enough to puzzle even a fairy. Please tell me all about it." "That I should find much too hard" answered Frank. "But I'll try to tell you what little I know. You see the sun there, don't you--the great shining sun? Do you think the sun moves?" "Of course it moves," said Philip. "I always see it in the morning when I am in the garden. It rises first above the bushes, then over the trees and houses; by evening it has traveled across the sky, when it sinks below the houses and trees, out of sight on the other side of the town." "Now that is quite a mistake," said Frank, "You think that the sun is traveling all that way along the sky, whereas it is really we--we on this big ball of earth--who are moving. We are whirling around on the outer surface, rushing on at the rate--let me think--at the rate of more than one thousand miles a minute!" "Frank, what do you mean?" cried Philip. "I mean that the earth is moving many times faster than a ball moves when shot from the mouth of a cannon!" "Do you expect me to believe that, Frank! I can hardly believe that this big, solid earth moves at all; but to think of it with all the cities, towns, and people whirling round and round faster than a ball from the mouth of a cannon, while we never feel that it stirs one inch,--this is much harder to believe than all that the fairies have ever told us." "Yes, but it is quite true for all that," replied Frank. "I have learned much about the motions of the planets, and viewed the stars one night through a telescope. As I looked through this instrument, the stars appeared to me much larger than ever before. The earth is a planet, and there are besides our earth seven large planets and many small ones, which also whirl around the sun. Some of these planets are larger than our world. Some of them also move much faster. "The sun is in the middle with the planets moving around him. The one nearest to the sun is Mercury." "It must be hot there!" cried Philip. "I dare say that if we were in Mercury we should be scorched to ashes; but if creatures live on that planet, God has given them a different nature from ours, so that they may enjoy what would be dreadful to us. "The next planet to Mercury is Venus. Venus is sometimes seen shining so bright after sunset; then she is called the evening star. Some of the time, a little before sunrise, she may be seen in the east; she is then called the morning star. "Venus can never be an evening star and a morning star at the same time of the year. If you are watching her this evening before or after sundown, there is no use getting up early to-morrow to look for her again. For several weeks Venus remains an evening star, then gradually disappears. Two months later you may see her in the east--a bright morning star. "Our earth is the third planet, and Mars is the fourth from the sun. Now let us make a drawing of what we have been talking about. "First open the compasses one inch; describe a circle, and make a dot on its circumference, naming it Mercury. Write on this circle eighty-eight days; this shows the time it takes Mercury to travel around the sun. Make another circle three and one-half inches in diameter and make a dot on it. This represents Venus. It takes Venus two hundred twenty-five days to journey around the sun. "The next circle we have to draw is a very interesting one to us. The compasses must be opened two and one-half inches. The path made represents the journey we take in three hundred sixty-five days. "One more circle must be drawn to complete our little plan. This circle must be eight inches in diameter. You see Mars is much farther from the sun than our earth is. It takes him six hundred eighty-seven days to make the trip around the sun. The other planets are too far away to be put in this plan." "O, Frank, you have missed the biggest of all--the moon!" said Philip. "O, no, no!" exclaimed Frank. "The moon is quite a little ball. It is less than seven thousand miles around her, while our earth is twenty-five thousand miles around." "Is that a little ball, Frank?" "Yes, compared with the sun and the planets. The moon is what is called a satellite--that is, a servant or an attendant. She is a satellite of our earth. She keeps circling round and round our earth, while we go circling round and round the sun. "How fast the moon must travel! If I were to go rushing round a field, and a bird should keep flying around my head, you see that the movements of the bird would be much quicker than mine." "I can't understand it, Frank," said Philip. "The moon always looks so quiet in the sky. If she is darting about like lightning, why is it that she scarcely seems to move more than an inch in ten minutes?" "I suppose," said Frank, after a thoughtful silence, "that what to us seems an inch in the sky is really many miles. You know how very fast the steam cars seem to go when one is quite near them, yet I have seen a train of cars far off which seemed to go so slowly that I could fancy it was painted on the sky." "Yes, that must be the reason; but how do people find out these curious things about the sun and the stars--to know how large they are and how fast they go?" asked Philip. "That is something we shall understand when we are older," said Frank. "We must gain a little knowledge every day." "Is the earth the only planet that has a moon?" asked Philip. "Mercury and Venus have no moons. Mars has two, and Jupiter has four, but we can see them only when we look through a telescope." replied Frank. "Are all the twinkling stars which one sees on a fine clear night, planets?" inquired Philip. "Those that twinkle are not planets; they are fixed stars," said Frank. "A planet does not twinkle. It has no light of its own. It shines just as the moon shines, because the sun gives it light." "But our earth does not shine!" said Philip. "Indeed it does," explained Frank. "Our earth appears to Venus and Mars as a shining planet." "There must be many more fixed stars than planets, then, for almost every star that I can see twinkles and sparkles like a diamond. Do these fixed stars all go around the sun?" asked Philip. "O, Philip! haven't you noticed that they are called fixed stars to show that they do not move like planets? The word _planet_ means to _wander._ These fixed stars are suns themselves, which may have planets of their own. They are so very far away that we cannot know much about them, except that they shine of themselves just as our sun does. "We know that our sun gives light and heat to the planets and satellites with which he is surrounded. We know that without his warm rays there would not be any flowers or birds or any living thing on the earth. So we can easily imagine that all other suns are shining in the same way for the worlds that surround them." * * * * * Make a drawing of the sun and the three planets nearest it, as directed in the lesson. Fill each blank space in the following sentences with the correct form of the action-word _draw_: My boys like to --. Yesterday they -- the picture of an old mill. They are now -- a picture of the solar system. The lines on the blackboard were -- by John. He -- well. * * * * * _65_ dew' y clos'es ca ress' twined wreaths weath'er brook' let togeth'er WILL AND I We roam the hills together, In the golden summer weather, Will and I; And the glowing sunbeams bless us, And the winds of heaven caress us, As we wander hand in hand Through the blissful summer land, Will and I. Where the tinkling brooklet passes Through the heart of dewy grasses, Will and I Have heard the mock-bird singing, And the field lark seen upspringing, In his happy flight afar, Like a tiny winged star-- Will and I. Amid cool forest closes, We have plucked the wild wood-roses, Will and I; And have twined, with tender duty, Sweet wreaths to crown the beauty Of the purest brows that shine With a mother-love divine, Will and I. Ah! thus we roam together, Through the golden summer weather, Will and I; While the glowing sunbeams bless us, And the winds of heaven caress us, As we wander hand in hand O'er the blissful summer land, Will and I. _Paul H. Hayne._ * * * * * CLOSES, small inclosed fields. Write about what you and Will _saw, heard,_ and _did,_ as you roamed together over the hills, through the woods, along the brooklet, on a certain bright, clear day in early summer. You are a country boy and Will is your city cousin. If you begin your composition by saying, "It was a beautiful afternoon towards the end of June," keep the image of the day in mind till the end of the paragraph; tell what _made_ the day beautiful,--such as the sun, the sky, the trees, the grass. In other paragraphs tell the things you saw and heard in the order in which you saw and heard them. Give a paragraph to what you did in the "closes" of the cool forest, and why you plucked the wild flowers. Conclude by telling what a pleasant surprise you gave mother on your return home; and how she surprised you two hungry boys during supper. In your composition, use as many of the words and phrases of the poem as you can. * * * * * _66_ themes her' e sy ramp' ant a chieved' es cort ed po ta'toes trem' u lous lux u' ri ous cre du' li ty in cred' i ble phe nom' e non pre ma ture' ly CHRISTMAS DINNER AT THE CRATCHITS'. [Illustration: Tiny Tim and Bob Cratchit.] Then up rose Mrs. Cratchit, dressed out but poorly in a twice-turned gown, but brave in ribbons, which are cheap; and she laid the cloth, assisted by Belinda Cratchit, second of her daughters, also brave in ribbons; while Master Peter Cratchit plunged a fork into the saucepan of potatoes, and getting the corners of his monstrous shirt-collar (Bob's private property, conferred upon his son and heir in honor of the day) into his mouth, rejoiced to find himself so gallantly attired. And now two smaller Cratchits, boy and girl, came tearing in, screaming that outside the baker's they had smelt the goose, and known it for their own; and, basking in luxurious thoughts of sage and onions, they danced about the table, and exalted Master Peter Cratchit to the skies, while he (not proud, although his collar nearly choked him) blew the fire, until the potatoes, bubbling up, knocked loudly at the saucepan-lid to be let out and peeled. "What has ever kept your precious father, then?" said Mrs. Cratchit. "And your brother, Tiny Tim? And Martha wasn't as late last Christmas Day by half an hour!" "Here's Martha, mother!" cried the two young Cratchits. "Hurrah! There's _such_ a goose, Martha!" "Why, bless your heart alive, my dear, how late you are!" said Mrs. Cratchit, kissing her a dozen times, and taking off her shawl and bonnet for her with officious zeal. "We'd a deal of work to finish up last night, and had to clear away this morning, mother!" "Well, never mind so long as you are come," said Mrs. Cratchit. "Sit ye down before the fire, my dear, and have a warm, Lord bless ye!" "No, no! There's father coming," cried the two young Cratchits, who were everywhere at once. "Hide, Martha, hide!" So Martha hid herself, and in came the father, with at least three feet of comforter, exclusive of the fringe, hanging down before him; and his threadbare clothes darned up and brushed, to look seasonable; and Tiny Tim upon his shoulder. Alas for Tiny Tim, he bore a little crutch, and had his limb supported by an iron frame. "Why, where's our Martha?" cried Bob Cratchit, looking round. "Not coming," said Mrs. Cratchit. "Not coming!" said Bob, with a sudden declension in his high spirits; for he had been Tim's blood-horse all the way from church, and had come home rampant. "Not coming upon Christmas Day!" Martha didn't like to see him disappointed, if it were only in joke; so she came out prematurely from behind the closet door, and ran into his arms, while the two young Cratchits hustled Tiny Tim, and bore him off to the wash-house, that he might hear the pudding singing in the copper. "And how did little Tim behave?" asked Mrs. Cratchit, when she had rallied Bob on his credulity, and Bob had hugged his daughter to his heart's content. "As good as gold," said Bob, "and better. Somehow he gets thoughtful, sitting by himself so much, and thinks the strangest things you ever heard. He told me, coming home, that he hoped the people saw him in the church, because he was a cripple, and it might be pleasant to them to remember, upon Christmas Day, who made lame beggars walk and blind men see." Bob's voice was tremulous when he told them this, and trembled more when he said that Tiny Tim was growing strong and hearty. His active little crutch was heard upon the floor, and back came Tiny Tim before another word was spoken, escorted by his brother and sister to his stool beside the fire; and while Bob compounded some hot mixture in a jug, and put it on the hob to simmer, Master Peter and the two ubiquitous young Cratchits went to fetch the goose, with which they soon returned in high procession. Such a bustle ensued that you might have thought a goose the rarest of all birds; a feathered phenomenon, to which a black swan was a matter of course--and in truth it was something very like it in that house. Mrs. Cratchit made the gravy hissing hot; Master Peter mashed the potatoes with incredible vigor; Miss Belinda sweetened up the apple sauce; Martha dusted the hot plates; Bob took Tiny Tim beside him in a tiny corner at the table; the two young Cratchits set chairs for everybody, not forgetting themselves, and, mounting guard upon their posts, crammed spoons into their mouths, lest they should shriek for goose before their turn came to be helped. At last the dishes were set on, and grace was said. It was succeeded by a breathless pause, as Mrs. Cratchit, looking slowly all along the carving knife, prepared to plunge it in the breast; but when she did, and when the long-expected gush of stuffing issued forth, one murmur of delight arose all round the board, and even Tiny Tim, excited by the two young Cratchits, beat on the table with the handle of his knife, and feebly cried Hurrah! Bob said he didn't believe there ever was such a goose cooked. Its tenderness and flavor, size and cheapness, were the themes of universal admiration. Eked out by apple sauce and mashed potatoes, it was a sufficient dinner for the whole family; indeed, as Mrs. Cratchit said with great delight (surveying one small atom of a bone upon the dish), they hadn't eaten it all at last! Yet every one had had enough, and the youngest Cratchits in particular were steeped in sage and onion to the eyebrows! But now, the plates being changed by Miss Belinda, Mrs. Cratchit left the room alone--too nervous to bear witnesses--to take the pudding up and bring it in. Suppose it should not be done enough! Suppose it should break in turning out! Suppose somebody should have got over the wall of the backyard and stolen it, while they were merry with the goose--a supposition at which the two young Cratchits became livid. All sorts of horrors were supposed. Halloa! A great deal of steam! The pudding was out of the copper. A smell like a washing day! That was the cloth. A smell like an eating house and a pastry cook's next door to each other, with a laundress's next door to that! That was the pudding! In half a minute Mrs. Cratchit entered--flushed, but smiling proudly--with the pudding like a speckled cannon ball, so hard and firm, smoking hot, and bedight with Christmas holly stuck into the top. Oh, a wonderful pudding! Bob Cratchit said, and calmly too, that he regarded it as the greatest success achieved by Mrs. Cratchit since their marriage. Mrs. Cratchit said that, now the weight was off her mind, she would confess she had her doubts about the quantity of flour. Everybody had something to say about it, but nobody said or thought it was at all a small pudding for so large a family. It would have been flat heresy to do so. Any Cratchit would have blushed to hint at such a thing. At last the dinner was all done, the cloth was cleared, the hearth swept, and the fire made up. The compound in the jug being tasted, and considered perfect, apples and oranges were put upon the table, and a shovelful of chestnuts on the fire. Then all the Cratchit family drew round the hearth in what Bob Cratchit called a circle, meaning half a one; and at Bob Cratchit's elbow stood the family display of glass,--two tumblers and a custard cup without a handle. These held the hot stuff from the jug, however, as well as golden goblets would have done; and Bob served it out with beaming looks, while the chestnuts on the fire sputtered and cracked noisily. Then Bob proposed: "A Merry Christmas to us all, my dears. God bless us!" Which all the family re[:e]choed. "God bless us every one!" said Tiny Tim, the last of all. He sat very close to his father's side, upon his little stool. Bob held his withered little hand in his, as if he loved the child, and wished to keep him by his side, and dreaded that he might be taken from him. _Charles Dickens._ [Illustration: Portrait of Dickens.] * * * * * DECLENSION, a falling downward. COPPER, a boiler made of copper. RALLIED, indulged in pleasant humor. UBIQUITOUS (u b[)i]k' w[)i] t[)u]s), appearing to be everywhere at the same time. EKED OUT, added to; increased. BEDIGHT, bedecked; adorned. RE[:E]CHOED (reëchoed): What is the mark placed over the second _ë_ called, and what does it denote? NOTE.--"A Christmas Carol," from which the selection is taken, is considered the best short story that Dickens wrote, and one of the best Christmas stories ever written. The Cratchits were very poor as to the goods of this world, but very rich in love, kindness, and contentment. * * * * * _67_ WHICH SHALL IT BE? Which shall it be? Which shall it be? I looked at John, John looked at me; And when I found that I must speak, My voice seemed strangely low and weak: "Tell me again what Robert said," And then I, listening, bent my head-- This is his letter: "I will give A house and land while you shall live, If in return from out your seven One child to me for aye is given." I looked at John's old garments worn; I thought of all that he had borne Of poverty, and work, and care, Which I, though willing, could not share; I thought of seven young mouths to feed, Of seven little children's need, And then of this. "Come, John," said I, "We'll choose among them as they lie Asleep." So, walking hand in hand, Dear John and I surveyed our band: First to the cradle lightly stepped, Where Lilian, the baby, slept. Softly the father stooped to lay His rough hand down in loving way, When dream or whisper made her stir, And huskily he said: "Not her!" We stooped beside the trundle-bed, And one long ray of lamplight shed Athwart the boyish faces there, In sleep so pitiful and fair; I saw on Jamie's rough, red cheek A tear undried. Ere John could speak, "He's but a baby too," said I, And kissed him as we hurried by. Pale, patient Robbie's angel face Still in his sleep bore suffering's trace-- "No, for a thousand crowns, not him!" He whispered, while our eyes were dim. Poor Dick! bad Dick, our wayward son-- Turbulent, restless, idle one-- Could he be spared? Nay, He who gave Bade us befriend him to the grave; Only a mother's heart could be Patient enough for such as he; "And so," said John, "I would not dare To take him from her bedside prayer." Then stole we softly up above, And knelt by Mary, child of love; "Perhaps for her 'twould better be," I said to John. Quite silently He lifted up a curl that lay Across her cheek in wilful way, And shook his head: "Nay, love, not thee," The while my heart beat audibly. Only one more, our eldest lad, Trusty and truthful, good and glad, So like his father. "No, John, no! I cannot, will not, let him go." And so we wrote in courteous way, We could not give one child away; And afterwards toil lighter seemed, Thinking of that of which we dreamed, Happy in truth that not one face Was missed from its accustomed place, Thankful to work for all the seven, Trusting the rest to One in Heaven! _Anonymous_. * * * * * Write the story of the poem in the form of a composition. Tell of the great affection of parents for their children. Even in the poorest and most numerous families, what parent could think of parting with a child for any sum of money? Tell about the letter John and his wife received from a rich man without children who wished to adopt one of their seven. Tell about the offer the rich man made. What a great temptation this was! The parents considered the offer, looked into each other's faces and asked, "Which shall it be?" Not the baby. Why? Not the two youngest boys. Why? Not the poor helpless little cripple. Why? Not the sweet child, Mary. Why? Not Dick, the wayward son. Why? Not, for worlds, the oldest boy. Why? Tell the answer the parents sent the rich man. * * * * * _68_ Dor'o thy in her'it ance Cap pa do' ci a ob' sti na cy The oph' i lus ex e cu' tion ers ST. DOROTHY, MARTYR The names of St. Catherine and St. Agnes, St. Lucy and St. Cecilia, are familiar to us all; and to many of us, no doubt, their histories are well known also. Young as they were, they despised alike the pleasures and the flatteries of the world. They chose God alone as their portion and inheritance; and He has highly exalted them, and placed their names amongst those glorious martyrs whose memory is daily honored in the holy Sacrifice of the Mass. St. Dorothy was another of these virgin saints. She was born in the city of Cæsarea, and was descended of a rich and noble family. While the last of the ten terrible persecutions, which for three hundred years steeped the Church in the blood of martyrs, was raging, Dorothy embraced the faith of Christ, and, in consequence, was seized and carried before the Roman Prefect of the city. She was put to the most cruel tortures, and, at length, condemned to death. When the executioners were preparing to behead her, the Prefect said, "Now, at least, confess your folly, and pray to the immortal gods for pardon." "I pray," replied the martyr, "that the God of heaven and earth may pardon and have mercy on you; and I will also pray when I reach the land whither I am going." "Of what land do you speak?" asked the judge, who, like most of the pagans, had very little notion of another world. "I speak of that land where Christ, the Son of God, dwells with his saints," replied St. Dorothy. "_There_ is neither night nor sorrow; _there_ is the river of life, and the brightness of eternal glory; and _there_ is a paradise of all delight, and flowers that shall never fade." "I pray you, then," said a young man, named Theophilus, who was listening to her words with pity mingled with wonder, "if these things be so, to send me some of those flowers, when you shall have reached the land you speak of." Dorothy looked at him as he spoke; and then answered: "Theophilus, you shall have the sign you ask for." There was no time for more; the executioner placed her before the block, and, in another moment, with one blow, he struck off the head of the holy martyr. "Those were strange words," said Theophilus to one of his friends, as they were about to leave the court; "but these Christians are not like other people." "Their obstinacy is altogether surprising," rejoined his friend; "death itself will never make them waver. But who is this, Theophilus?" he continued, as a young boy came up to them, of such singular beauty that the eyes of all were fixed upon him with wonder and admiration. He seemed not more than ten years old; his golden hair fell on his shoulders, and in his hand he bore four roses, two white and two red, and of so brilliant a color and rich a fragrance that their like had never before been seen. He held them out to Theophilus. "These flowers are for you," said he; "will you not take them?" "And whence do you bring them, my boy?" asked Theophilus. "From Dorothy," he replied, "and they are the sign you even now asked for." "Roses, and in winter time!" said Theophilus, as he took the flowers; "yea, and such roses as never blossomed in any earthly garden. Prefect, your task is not yet ended; your sword has slain one Christian, but it has made another; I, too, profess the faith for which Dorothy died." Within another hour, Theophilus was condemned to death by the enraged Prefect; and on the spot where Dorothy had been beheaded, he too poured forth his blood, and obtained the crown of martyrdom. * * * * * C�SAREA (s[)e]s [.a] r[=e]' [.a]), an ancient city of Palestine. It is celebrated as being the scene of many events recorded in the New Testament. Memory Gem: Virtue treads paths that end not in the grave. _A line from Lowell's "0de."_ [Illustration:] * * * * * _69_ TO A BUTTERFLY. I've watched you now a full half hour Self-poised upon that yellow flower; And, little butterfly, indeed I know not if you sleep or feed. How motionless!--not frozen seas More motionless!--and then What joy awaits you, when the breeze Hath found you out among the trees, And calls you forth again! This plot of orchard ground is ours; My trees they are, my sister's flowers; Here rest your wings when they are weary; Here lodge as in a sanctuary! Come often to us, fear no wrong; Sit near us on the bough! We'll talk of sunshine and of song, And summer days, when we were young; Sweet childish days, that were as long As twenty days are now! _Wordsworth_. * * * * * SELF-POISED, balanced. What is a sanctuary? In the Temple at Jerusalem, what was the Holy of Holies? Why are the sanctuaries of Catholic churches so supremely holy? Why are "sweet childish days" as long "As twenty days are now?" Tell what you know of the author's life. Memorize the poem. [Illustration:] * * * * * _70_ re tort' ed quizzed in cred' i ble man u fac' ture sat' ire vi o lin' ist com pre hend' me lo' di ous ly hu' mor ex hib' it a chieve' ments for' ests THE PEN AND THE INKSTAND. In the room of a poet, where his inkstand stood upon the table, it was said, "It is wonderful what can come out of an inkstand. What will the next thing be? It is wonderful!" "Yes, certainly," said the Inkstand. "It's extraordinary--that's what I always say," he exclaimed to the pen and to the other articles on the table that were near enough to hear. "It is wonderful what a number of things can come out of me. It's quite incredible. And I really don't myself know what will be the next thing, when that man begins to dip into me. One drop out of me is enough for half a page of paper; and what cannot be contained in half a page? "From me all the works of the poet go forth--all these living men, whom people can imagine they have met--all the deep feeling, the humor, the vivid pictures of nature. I myself don't understand how it is, for I am not acquainted with nature, but it certainly is in me. From me all things have gone forth, and from me proceed the troops of charming maidens, and of brave knights on prancing steeds, and all the lame and the blind, and I don't know what more--I assure you I don't think of anything." "There you are right," said the Pen; "you don't think at all; for if you did, you would comprehend that you only furnish the fluid. You give the fluid, that I may exhibit upon the paper what dwells in me, and what I would bring to the day. It is the pen that writes. No man doubts that; and, indeed, most people have about as much insight into poetry as an old inkstand." "You have but little experience," replied the Inkstand. "You've hardly been in service a week, and are already half worn out. Do you fancy you are the poet? You are only a servant; and before you came I had many of your sorts, some of the goose family, and others of English manufacture. I know the quill as well as the steel pen. Many have been in my service, and I shall have many more when _he_ comes--the man who goes through the motions for me, and writes down what he derives from me. I should like to know what will be the next thing he'll take out of me." "Inkpot!" exclaimed the Pen. Late in the evening the poet came home. He had been to a concert, where he had heard a famous violinist, with whose admirable performances he was quite enchanted. The player had drawn a wonderful wealth of tone from the instrument; sometimes it had sounded like tinkling water-drops, like rolling pearls, sometimes like birds twittering in chorus, and then again it went swelling on like the wind through the fir trees. The poet thought he heard his own heart weeping, but weeping melodiously, like the sound of woman's voice. It seemed as though not only the strings sounded, but every part of the instrument. It was a wonderful performance; and difficult as the piece was, the bow seemed to glide easily to and fro over the strings, and it looked as though every one might do it. The violin seemed to sound of itself, and the bow to move of itself--those two appeared to do everything; and the audience forgot the master who guided them and breathed soul and spirit into them. The master was forgotten; but the poet remembered him, and named him, and wrote down his thoughts concerning the subject: "How foolish it would be of the violin and the bow to boast of their achievements. And yet we men often commit this folly--the poet, the artist, the laborer in the domain of science, the general--we all do it. We are only the instruments which the Almighty uses: to Him alone be the honor! We have nothing of which we should be proud." Yes, that is what the poet wrote down. He wrote it in the form of a parable, which he called "The Master and the Instrument." "That is what you get, madam," said the Pen to the Inkstand, when the two were alone again. "Did you not hear him read aloud what I have written down?" "Yes, what I gave you to write," retorted the Inkstand. "That was a cut at you, because of your conceit. That you should not even have understood that you were being quizzed! I gave you a cut from within me--surely I must know my own satire!" "Ink-pipkin!" cried the Pen. "Writing-stick!" cried the Inkstand. And each of them felt a conviction that he had answered well; and it is a pleasing conviction to feel that one has given a good answer--a conviction on which one can sleep; and accordingly they slept upon it. But the poet did not sleep. Thoughts welled up from within him, like the tones from the violin, falling like pearls, rushing like the storm-wind through the forests. He understood his own heart in these thoughts, and caught a ray from the Eternal Master. To _Him_ be all the honor! _Hans Christian Andersen._ * * * * * PIPKIN, a small pipe; a small jar made of baked clay. Write as many synonyms as you know, or can find, of the words _vivid, exhibit, comprehend_. Consult the dictionary. What one word may you use instead of "laborer in the domain of science?" Seek in your dictionary the definition of the word _parable_. Relate one of our Lord's parables. By means of the prefixes and suffixes that you have learned, form as many words as you can from the following: man, do, late, loud, art, room, blind, easy, heart, humor, vivid, maiden, famous, service, furnished. * * * * * _71_ THE WIND AND THE MOON. Said the Wind to the Moon, "I will blow you out. You stare in the air Like a ghost in a chair, Always looking what I am about, I hate to be watched; I'll blow you out." The Wind blew hard, and out went the Moon. So, deep on a heap Of clouds, to sleep Down lay the Wind and slumbered soon, Muttering low, "I've done for that Moon." He turned in his bed; she was there again! On high in the sky, With her one ghost eye, The Moon shone white and alive and plain. Said the Wind, "I will blow you out again." The Wind blew hard, and the Moon grew dim. "With my sledge and my wedge I have knocked off her edge. If only I blow right fierce and grim, The creature will soon be dimmer than dim." He blew and he blew, and she thinned to a thread: "One puff more's enough To blow her to snuff! One good puff more where the last was bred, And glimmer, glimmer, glum, will go the thread." He blew a great blast, and the thread was gone, In the air nowhere Was a moonbeam bare; Far off and harmless the shy stars shone; Sure and certain the Moon was gone! The Wind he took to his revels once more; On down, in town, Like a merry-mad clown, He leaped and holloed with whistle and roar,-- "What's that?" The glimmering thread once more! He flew in a rage--he danced and he blew; But in vain was the pain Of his bursting brain; For still the broader the moon-scrap grew, The broader he swelled his big cheeks, and blew. Slowly she grew, till she filled the night, And shone on her throne In the sky alone, A matchless, wonderful, silvery light, Radiant and lovely, the Queen of the Night. Said the Wind: "What a marvel of power am I! With my breath, good faith! I blew her to death-- First blew her away right out of the sky, Then blew her in; what a strength am I!" But the Moon she knew nothing about the affair; For, high in the sky, With her one white eye, Motionless, miles above the air, She had never heard the great Wind blare. _George MacDonald._ * * * * * DOWN (7th stanza), a tract of sandy, hilly land near the sea. GLIMMER, fainter. GLUM, dark, gloomy. What is a suffix? What does the suffix _less_ mean? Define _cloudless, matchless, motionless._ What class of people does Mr. Wind remind you of? * * * * * _72_ mi' ter can'on car' di nal dis course' di' a logue cour'te ous ly ST. PHILIP NERI AND THE YOUTH. St. Philip Neri, as old readings say, Met a young stranger in Rome's streets one day, And being ever courteously inclined To give young folks a sober turn of mind, He fell into discourse with him, and thus The dialogue they held comes down to us. _Saint_.--Tell me what brings you, gentle youth, to Rome? _Youth_.--To make myself a scholar, sir, I come. _St_.--And when you are one, what do you intend? _Y_.--To be a priest, I hope, sir, in the end. _St_.--Suppose it so; what have you next in view? _Y_.--That I may get to be a canon too. _St_.--Well; and what then? _Y_.-- Why then, for aught I know, I may be made a bishop. _St_.-- Be it so,-- What next? _Y_.-- Why, cardinal's a high degree; And yet my lot it possibly may be. _St_.--Suppose it was; what then? _Y_.-- Why, who can say But I've a chance of being pope one day? _St_.--Well, having worn the miter and red hat, And triple crown, what follows after that? _Y_.--Nay, there is nothing further, to be sure, Upon this earth, that wishing can procure: When I've enjoyed a dignity so high As long as God shall please, then I must die. _St_.--What! must you die? fond youth, and at the best, But wish, and hope, and may be, all the rest! Take my advice--whatever may betide, For that which _must be_, first of all provide; Then think of that which _may be_; and indeed, When well prepared, who knows what may succeed, But you may be, as you are pleased to hope, Priest, canon, bishop, cardinal, and pope. * * * * * ST. PHILIP NERI, born in Florence, Italy, in 1515. Went to Rome in 1533, where he founded the "Priests of the Oratory," and where he died in 1595. TRIPLE CROWN, the tiara; the crown worn by our Holy Father, the Pope. Use correctly in sentences the words _canon, cannon, cañon._ NOTE.--It will prove interesting if one pupil reads the first six lines of the selection, and two others personate St. Philip and the Youth. The whole selection might be given from memory. * * * * * _73_ mag' ic sta' mens de sert' ed pet' als pic' tures dis cour' aged liq' uid sat' is fied per se ver' ance THE WATER LILY. There was once a little boy who was very fond of pictures. There were not many pictures for him to look at, for he lived long ago near a great American forest. His father and mother had come from England, but his father was dead now. His mother was very poor, but there were still a few beautiful pictures on the walls of her house. The little boy liked to copy these pictures; but as he was not fond of work, he often threw his drawings away before they were half done. He said that he wished that some good fairy would finish them for him. "Child," said his mother, "I don't believe that there are any fairies. I never saw one, and your father never saw one. Mind your books, my child, and never mind the fairies." "Very well, mother," said the boy. "It makes me sad to see you stand looking at the pictures," said his mother another day, as she laid her hand on his curly head. "Why, child, pictures can't feed a body, pictures can't clothe a body, and a log of wood is far better to burn and warm a body." "All that is quite true, mother," said the boy. "Then why do you keep looking at them, child?" but the boy could only say, "I don't know, mother." "You don't know! Nor I, neither! Why, child, you look at the dumb things as if you loved them! Put on your cap and run out to play." So the boy wandered off into the forest till he came to the brink of a little sheet of water. It was too small to be called a lake; but it was deep and clear, and was overhung with tall trees. It was evening, and the sun was getting low. The boy stood still beside the water and thought how beautiful it was to see the sun, red and glorious, between the black trunks of the pine trees. Then he looked up at the great blue sky and thought how beautiful it was to see the little clouds folding over one another like a belt of rose-colored waves. Then he looked at the lake and saw the clouds and the sky and the trees all reflected there, down among the lilies. And he wished that he were a painter, for he said to himself, "I am sure there are no trees in the world with such beautiful leaves as these pines. I am sure there are no clouds in the world so lovely as these. I know this is the prettiest little lake in the world, and if I could paint it, every one else would know it, too." But he had nothing to paint with. So he picked a lily and sat down with it in his hand and tried very hard to make a correct drawing of it. But he could not make a very good picture. At last he threw down his drawing and said to the lily: "You are too beautiful to draw with a pencil. How I wish I were a painter!" As he said these words he felt the flower move. He looked, and the cluster of stamens at the bottom of the lily-cup glittered like a crown of gold. The dewdrops which hung upon the stamens changed to diamonds before his eyes. The white petals flowed together, and the next moment a beautiful little fairy stood on his hand. She was no taller than the lily from which she came, and she was dressed in a robe of the purest white. "Child, are you happy?" she asked. "No," said the boy in a low voice, "because I want to paint and I cannot." "How do you know that you cannot?" asked the fairy. "Oh, I have tried a great many times. It is of no use to try any more." "But I will help you." "Oh," said the boy. "Then I might succeed." "I heard your wish, and I am willing to help you," said the fairy. "I know a charm which will give you success. But you must do exactly as I tell you. Do you promise to obey?" "Spirit of a water lily!" said the boy, "I promise with all my heart." "Go home, then," said the fairy, "and you will find a little key on the doorstep. Take it up and carry it to the nearest pine tree; strike the trunk with it, and a keyhole will appear. Do not be afraid to unlock the door. Slip in your hand, and you will bring out a magic palette. You must be very careful to paint with colors from that palette every day. On this depends the success of the charm. You will find that it will make your pictures beautiful and full of grace. "If you do not break the spell, I promise you that in a few years you shall be able to paint this lily so well that you will be satisfied; and that you shall become a truly great painter." "Can it be possible?" said the boy. And the hand on which the fairy stood trembled for joy. "It shall be so, if only you do not break the charm," said the fairy. "But lest you forget what you owe to me, and as you grow older even begin to doubt that you have ever seen me, the lily you gathered to-day will never fade till my promise is fulfilled." The boy raised his eyes, and when he looked again there was nothing in his hand but the flower. He arose with the lily in his hand, and went home at once. There on the doorstep was the little key, and in the pine tree he found the magic palette. He was so delighted with it and so afraid that he might break the spell that he began to work that very night. After that he spent nearly all his time working with the magic palette. He often passed whole days beside the sheet of water in the forest. He painted it when the sun shone on it and it was spotted all over with the reflections of fleeting white clouds. He painted it covered with water lilies rocking on the ripples. He painted it by moonlight, when but two or three stars in the empty sky shone down upon it; and at sunset, when it lay trembling like liquid gold. So the years passed, and the boy grew to be a man. He had never broken the charm. The lily had never faded, and he still worked every day with his magic palette. But no one cared for his pictures. Even his mother did not like them. His forests and misty hills and common clouds were too much like the real ones. She said she could see as good any day by looking out of her window. All this made the young man very unhappy. He began to doubt whether he should ever be a painter, and one day he threw down his palette. He thought the fairy had deserted him. He threw himself on his bed. It grew dark, and he soon fell asleep; but in the middle of the night he awoke with a start. His chamber was full of light, and his fairy friend stood near. "Shall I take back my gift?" she asked. "Oh, no, no, no!" he cried. He was rested now, and he did not feel so much discouraged. "If you still wish to go on working, take this ring," said the fairy. "My sister sends it to you. Wear it, and it will greatly assist the charm." He took the ring, and the fairy was gone. The ring was set with a beautiful blue stone, which reflected everything bright that came near it; and he thought he saw inside the ring the one word--"Hope." Many more years passed. The young man's mother died, and he went far, far from home. In the strange land to which he went people thought his pictures were wonderful; and he had become a great and famous painter. One day he went to see a large collection of pictures in a great city. He saw many of his own pictures, and some of them had been painted before he left his forest home. All the people and the painters praised them; but there was one that they liked better than the others. It was a picture of a little child, holding in its hands several water lilies. Toward evening the people departed one by one, till he was left alone with his masterpieces. He was sitting in a chair thinking of leaving the place, when he suddenly fell asleep. And he dreamed that he was again standing near the little lake in his native land, watching the rays of the setting sun as they melted away from its surface. The beautiful lily was in his hand, and while he looked at it the leaves became withered, and fell at his feet. Then he felt a light touch on his hand. He looked up, and there on the chair beside him stood the little fairy. "O wonderful fairy!" he cried, "how can I thank you for your magic gift? I can give you nothing but my thanks. But at least tell me your name, so that I may cut it on a ring and always wear it." "My name," replied the fairy, "is Perseverance." _Jean Ingelow._ * * * * * [Illustration:] Name the different objects you see in the picture. What did the artist desire to tell? What is the central object? Where is the scene of the picture placed? What time of the day and of the year does it show? Describe the boy. How old is he? What impresses you most about him? Suppose your teacher took the class to this lake for a day's outing. Write a composition on how the day was spent. * * * * * _74_ A BUILDER'S LESSON. Memorize: "How shall I a habit break?" As you did that habit make. As you gathered, you must lose; As you yielded, now refuse. Thread by thread the strands we twist Till they bind us, neck and wrist; Thread by thread the patient hand Must untwine, ere free we stand. As we builded, stone by stone, We must toil, unhelped, alone, Till the wall is overthrown. But remember, as we try, Lighter every test goes by; Wading in, the stream grows deep Toward the center's downward sweep; Backward turn, each step ashore Shallower is than that before. Ah, the precious years we waste Leveling what we raised in haste: Doing what must be undone Ere content or love be won! First, across the gulf we cast Kite-borne threads, till lines are passed, And habit builds the bridge at last! _John Boyle O'Reilly._ * * * * * Memory Gem: Habit is a cable. Every day we weave a thread, until at last it is so strong we cannot break it. * * * * * _75_ in ured' ru' di ments nine' ti eth ma tur' er ac' cu ra cy in ad vert' ence an' ec dotes e ner' vate in cor' po ra ted dig' ni fied in junc' tion pre var i ca' tion WASHINGTON AND HIS MOTHER. Some of the most interesting anecdotes of the early life of Washington were derived from his mother, a dignified matron who, by the death of her husband, while her children were young, became the sole conductress of their education. To the inquiry, what course she had pursued in rearing one so truly illustrious, she replied, "Only to require obedience, diligence, and truth." These simple rules, faithfully enforced, and incorporated with the rudiments of character, had a powerful influence over his future greatness. He was early accustomed to accuracy in all his statements, and to speak of his faults and omissions without prevarication or disguise. Hence arose that noble openness of soul, and contempt of deceit in others, which ever distinguished him. Once, by an inadvertence of his youth, considerable loss had been incurred, and of such a nature as to interfere with the plans of his mother. He came to her, frankly owning his error, and she replied, while tears of affection moistened her eyes, "I had rather it should be so, than that my son should have been guilty of a falsehood." She was careful not to enervate him by luxury or weak indulgence. He was inured to early rising, and never permitted to be idle. Sometimes he engaged in labors which the children of wealthy parents would now account severe, and thus acquired firmness of frame and a disregard of hardship. The systematic employment of time, which from childhood he had been taught, was of great service when the weight of a nation's concerns devolved upon him. It was then observed by those who surrounded him, that he was never known to be in a hurry, but found time for the transaction of the smallest affairs in the midst of the greatest and most conflicting duties. Such benefit did he derive from attention to the counsels of his mother. His obedience to her commands, when a child, was cheerful and strict; and as he approached to maturer years, the expression of her slightest wish was law. At length, America having secured her independence, and the war being ended, Washington, who for eight years had not tasted the repose of home, hastened with filial reverence to ask his mother's blessing. The hero, "first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen," came to lay his laurels at his mother's feet. This venerable woman continued, till past her ninetieth year, to be respected and beloved by all around. With pious grief, Washington closed her eyes and laid her in the grave which she had selected for herself. We have now seen the man who was the leader of victorious armies, the conqueror of a mighty kingdom, and the admiration of the world, in the delightful attitude of an obedient and affectionate son. She, whom he honored with such filial reverence, said that "he had learned to command others by first learning to obey." Let those, then, who in the morning of life are ambitious of future eminence, cultivate the virtue of filial obedience, and remember that they cannot be either fortunate or happy while they neglect the injunction, "My son, keep thy father's commandments, and forsake not the law of thy mother." [Illustration: _L.E. Fournier._] * * * * * CONDUCTRESS, a woman who leads or directs. The suffix _-ess_ is used to form feminine name-words. Tell what each of the following words means: ab' bess ac' tress duch' ess li' on ess count' ess po' et ess song' stress au' thor ess di rect' ress Use the following homonyms in sentences: air, ere, e'er, heir; oar, ore, o'er; in, inn; four, fore; vain, vein; vale, veil; core, corps; their, there; hear, here; fair, fare; sweet, suite; strait, straight. * * * * * _76_ na' tal a main' toc' sin re count' ed WASHINGTON'S BIRTHDAY. 'Tis splendid to have a record So white and free from stain That, held to the light, it shows no blot, Though tested and tried amain; That age to age forever Repeats its story of love, And your birthday lives in a nation's heart, All other days above. And this is Washington's glory, A steadfast soul and true, Who stood for his country's honor When his country's days were few. And now when its days are many, And its flag of stars is flung To the breeze in radiant glory, His name is on every tongue. Yes, it's splendid to live so bravely, To be so great and strong, That your memory is ever a tocsin To rally the foes of wrong; To live so proudly and purely, That your people pause in their way, And year by year, with banner and drum, Keep the thought of your natal day. _Margaret E. Sangster._ By permission of the author. * * * * * _77_ Brit' on (un) ant' lers wrin' kled vet' er an im mor' tal THE SWORD OF BUNKER HILL. He lay upon his dying bed, His eye was growing dim, When, with a feeble voice, he called His weeping son to him: "Weep not, my boy," the veteran said, "I bow to heaven's high will; But quickly from yon antlers bring The sword of Bunker Hill." The sword was brought; the soldier's eye Lit with a sudden flame; And, as he grasped the ancient blade, He murmured Warren's name; Then said, "My boy, I leave you gold, But what is richer still, I leave you, mark me, mark me well, The sword of Bunker Hill. "'Twas on that dread, immortal day, I dared the Briton's band; A captain raised his blade on me, I tore it from his hand; And while the glorious battle raged, It lightened Freedom's will; For, son, the God of Freedom blessed The sword of Bunker Hill. "Oh! keep this sword," his accents broke,-- A smile--and he was dead; But his wrinkled hand still grasped the blade, Upon that dying bed. The son remains, the sword remains, Its glory growing still, And twenty millions bless the sire And sword of Bunker Hill. _William R. Wallace._ [Illustration:] * * * * * _78_ es' say buoy' ant in sip' id fe quent' ing scowl' ing ly sug ges' tion in tel' li gence sin' gu lar ly so lic' i tude com pet' i tor phi los' o pher ve' he ment ly tre men' dous ly ex pos tu la' tion ig no min' i ous ly THE MARTYR'S BOY. It is a youth full of grace, and sprightliness, and candor, that comes forward with light and buoyant steps across the open court, towards the inner hall; and we shall hardly find time to sketch him before he reaches it. He is about fourteen years old, but tall for that age, with elegance of form and manliness of bearing. His bare neck and limbs are well developed by healthy exercise; his features display an open and warm heart, while his lofty forehead, round which his brown hair naturally curls, beams with a bright intelligence. He wears the usual youth's garment, the short toga, reaching below the knee, and a hollow spheroid of gold suspended round his neck. A bundle of papers and vellum rolls fastened together, and carried by an old servant behind him, shows us that he is just returning home from school. While we have been thus noting him, he has received his mother's embrace, and has sat himself low by her feet. She gazes upon him for some time in silence, as if to discover in his countenance the cause of his unusual delay, for he is an hour late in his return. But he meets her glance with so frank a look, and with such a smile of innocence, that every cloud of doubt is in a moment dispelled, and she addresses him as follows: "What has detained you to-day, my dearest boy? No accident, I trust, has happened to you on the way." "Oh, none, I assure you, sweetest mother; on the contrary, all has been so delightful that I can scarcely venture to tell you." A look of smiling, expostulation drew from the open-hearted boy a delicious laugh, as he continued: "Well, I suppose I must. You know I am never happy if I have failed to tell you all the bad and the good of the day about myself. But, to-day, for the first time, I have a doubt whether I ought to tell you all." Did the mother's heart flutter more than usual, as from a first anxiety, or was there a softer solicitude dimming her eye, that the youth should seize her hand and put it tenderly to his lips, while he thus replied: "Fear nothing, mother most beloved, your son has done nothing that may give you pain. Only say, do you wish to hear _all_ that has befallen me to-day, or only the cause of my late return home?" "Tell me all, dear Pancratius," she answered; "nothing that concerns you can be indifferent to me." "Well, then," he began, "this last day of my frequenting school appears to me to have been singularly blessed. First, I was crowned as the successful competitor in a declamation, which our good master Cassianus set us for our work during the morning hours; and this led, as you will hear, to some singular discoveries. The subject was, 'That the real philosopher should be ever ready to die for the truth.' I never heard anything so cold or insipid (I hope it is not wrong to say so) as the compositions read by my companions. It was not their fault, poor fellows! what truth can they possess, and what inducements can they have to die for any of their vain opinions? But to a Christian, what charming suggestions such a theme naturally makes! And so I felt it. My heart glowed, and all my thoughts seemed to burn, as I wrote my essay, full of the lessons you have taught me, and of the domestic examples that are before me. The son of a martyr could not feel otherwise. But when my turn came to read my declamation, I found that my feelings had nearly betrayed me. In the warmth of my recitation, the word 'Christian' escaped my lips instead of 'philosopher,' and 'faith' instead of 'truth,' At the first mistake, I saw Cassianus start; at the second, I saw a tear glisten in his eye, as bending affectionately towards me, he said, in a whisper, 'Beware, my child, there are sharp ears listening.'" "What, then," interrupted the mother, "is Cassianus a Christian? I chose his school because it was in the highest repute for learning and morality; and now indeed I thank God that I did so. But in these days of danger we are obliged to live as strangers in our own land. Certainly, had Cassianus proclaimed his faith, his school would soon have been deserted. But go on, my dear boy. Were his apprehensions well grounded?" "I fear so; for while the great body of my school-fellows vehemently applauded my hearty declamation, I saw the dark eyes of Corvinus bent scowlingly upon me, as he bit his lip in manifest anger." "And who is he, my child, that was so displeased, and wherefore?" "He is the strongest, but, unfortunately, the dullest boy in the school. But this, you know, is not his fault. Only, I know not why, he seems ever to have had a grudge against me, the cause of which I cannot understand." "Did he say aught to you, or do?" "Yes, and was the cause of my delay. For when we went forth from school into the field by the river, he addressed me insultingly in the presence of our companions, and said, 'Come, Pancratius, this, I understand, is the last time we meet _here_; but I have a long score to demand payment of from you. You have loved to show your superiority in school over me and others older and better than yourself; I saw your supercilious looks at me as you spouted your high-flown declamation to-day; ay, and I caught expressions in it which you may live to rue, and that very soon. Before you leave us, I must have my revenge. If you are worthy of your name let us fairly contend in more manly strife than that of the style and tables. Wrestle with me, or try the cestus against me. I burn to humble you as you deserve, before these witnesses of your insolent triumphs.'" The anxious mother bent eagerly forward as she listened, and scarcely breathed. "And what," she exclaimed, "did you answer, my dear son?" "I told him gently that he was quite mistaken; for never had I consciously done anything that could give pain to him or any of my school-fellows; nor did I ever dream of claiming superiority over them. 'And as to what you propose,' I added, 'you know, Corvinus, that I have always refused to indulge in personal combats, which, beginning in a cool trial of skill, end in an angry strife, hatred, and wish for revenge. How much less could I think of entering on them now, when you avow that you are anxious to begin them with those evil feelings which are usually their bad end?' Our school-mates had now formed a circle round us; and I clearly saw that they were all against me, for they had hoped to enjoy some of the delights of their cruel games; I therefore cheerfully added, 'And now, my comrades, good-by, and may all happiness attend you. I part from you, as I have lived with you, in peace,' 'Not so,' replied Corvinus, now purple in the face with fury; 'but--'" The boy's countenance became crimsoned, his voice quivered, his body trembled, and, half-choked, he sobbed out, "I cannot go on; I dare not tell the rest!" "I entreat you, for God's sake, and for the love you bear your father's memory," said the mother, placing her hand upon her son's head, "conceal nothing from me. I shall never again have rest if you tell me not all. What further said or did Corvinus?" The boy recovered himself by a moment's pause and a silent prayer, and then proceeded: "'Not so!' exclaimed Corvinus, 'not so do you depart! You have concealed your abode from us, but I will find you out; till then bear this token of my determined purpose to be revenged!' So saying, he dealt me a furious blow upon the face, which made me reel and stagger, while a shout of savage delight broke forth from the boys around us." He burst into tears, which relieved him, and then went on: "Oh, how I felt my blood boil at that moment; how my heart seemed bursting within me; and a voice appeared to whisper in my ear the name of 'coward!' It surely was an evil spirit. I felt that I was strong enough--my rising anger made me so--to seize my unjust assailant by the throat, and cast him gasping on the ground. I heard already the shout of applause that would have hailed my victory and turned the tables against him. It was the hardest struggle of my life; never were flesh and blood so strong within me. O God! may they never be again so tremendously powerful." "And what did you do, then, my darling boy?" gasped forth the trembling matron. He replied, "My good angel conquered the demon at my side. I stretched forth my hand to Corvinus, and said, 'May God forgive you, as I freely and fully do; and may He bless you abundantly.' Cassianus came up at that moment, having seen all from a distance, and the youthful crowd quickly dispersed. I entreated him, by our common faith, now acknowledged between us, not to pursue Corvinus for what he had done; and I obtained his promise. And now, sweet mother," murmured the boy, in soft, gentle accents, into his parent's bosom, "do you think I may call this a happy day?" _"Fabiola"--Cardinal Wiseman._ * * * * * SPHEROID (sf[=e]'), a body or figure in shape like a sphere. VELLUM, a fine kind of parchment, made of the skin of a lamb, goat, sheep or young calf, for writing on. THEME, a subject or topic on which a person writes or speaks. SCORE, bill, account, reckoning. SUPERCIL'IOUS, proud, haughty. STYLES AND TABLES, writing implements for schools. The tables or tablets were covered with wax, on which the letters were traced by the sharp point of the style, and erased by its flat top. CESTUS, a covering for the hands of boxers, made of leather bands, and often loaded with lead or iron. "IF YOU ARE WORTHY OF YOUR NAME." Reference is here made by Corvinus to the _pancratium_, an athletic exercise among the Romans, which combined all personal contests, such as boxing, wrestling, etc. CASSIANUS, St. Cassian, who, though a Bishop, opened a school for Roman youths. Having confessed Christ, and refusing to offer sacrifice to the gods, the pagan judge commanded that his own pupils should stab him to death with their iron writing pencils, called styles. AY or AYE, meaning _yes_, is pronounced _[=i]_ or _[:a][)i]_; meaning _ever_, and used only in poetry, it is pronounced _[=a]_. Read carefully two or three times the opening paragraph of the selection, so that the picture conveyed by the words may be clearly impressed on the mind. Then with book closed write out in your own words a description of "The Martyr's Boy." [Illustration:] [Illustration:] * * * * * _79_ THE ANGEL'S STORY. Through the blue and frosty heavens Christmas stars were shining bright; Glistening lamps throughout the City Almost matched their gleaming light; While the winter snow was lying, And the winter winds were sighing, Long ago, one Christmas night. * * * * * Rich and poor felt love and blessing From the gracious season fall; Joy and plenty in the cottage, Peace and feasting in the hall; And the voices of the children Ringing clear above it all. Yet one house was dim and darkened; Gloom, and sickness, and despair, Dwelling in the gilded chambers, Creeping up the marble stair, Even stilled the voice of mourning,-- For a child lay dying there. Silken curtains fell around him, Velvet carpets hushed the tread, Many costly toys were lying All unheeded by his bed; And his tangled golden ringlets Were on downy pillows spread. The skill of all that mighty City To save one little life was vain,-- One little thread from being broken, One fatal word from being spoken; Nay, his very mother's pain And the mighty love within her Could not give him health again. * * * * * Suddenly an unseen Presence Checked those constant moaning cries, Stilled the little heart's quick fluttering, Raised those blue and wondering eyes, Fixed on some mysterious vision With a startled, sweet surprise. For a radiant angel hovered, Smiling, o'er the little bed; White his raiment; from his shoulders Snowy dove-like pinions spread, And a starlike light was shining In a glory round his head. While, with tender love, the angel, Leaning o'er the little nest, In his arms the sick child folding, Laid him gently on his breast, Sobs and wailings told the mother That her darling was at rest. So the angel, slowly rising, Spread his wings, and through the air Bore the child; and, while he held him To his heart with loving care, Placed a branch of crimson roses Tenderly beside him there. While the child, thus clinging, floated Towards the mansions of the Blest, Gazing from his shining guardian To the flowers upon his breast, Thus the angel spake, still smiling On the little heavenly guest: "Know, dear little one, that Heaven Does no earthly thing disdain; Man's poor joys find there an echo Just as surely as his pain; Love, on earth so feebly striving, Lives divine in Heaven again. "Once, in that great town below us, In a poor and narrow street, Dwelt a little sickly orphan; Gentle aid, or pity sweet, Never in life's rugged pathway Guided his poor tottering feet. "All the striving, anxious fore-thought That should only come with age Weighed upon his baby spirit, Showed him soon life's sternest page; Grim Want was his nurse, and Sorrow Was his only heritage." * * * * * "One bright day, with feeble footsteps Slowly forth he tried to crawl Through the crowded city's pathways, Till he reached a garden-wall, Where 'mid princely halls and mansions Stood the lordliest of all. "There were trees with giant branches, Velvet glades where shadows hide; There were sparkling fountains glancing, Flowers, which in luxuriant pride Even wafted breaths of perfume To the child who stood outside. "He against the gate of iron Pressed his wan and wistful face, Gazing with an awe-struck pleasure At the glories of the place; Never had his brightest day-dream Shone with half such wondrous grace. "You were playing in that garden, Throwing blossoms in the air, Laughing when the petals floated Downwards on your golden hair; And the fond eyes watching o'er you, And the splendor spread before you, Told a House's Hope was there. "When your servants, tired of seeing Such a face of want and woe, Turning to the ragged orphan, Gave him coin, and bade him go, Down his cheeks so thin and wasted Bitter tears began to flow. "But that look of childish sorrow On your tender child-heart fell, And you plucked the reddest roses From the tree you loved so well, Passed them through the stern cold grating, Gently bidding him 'Farewell!' "Dazzled by the fragrant treasure And the gentle voice he heard, In the poor forlorn boy's spirit, Joy, the sleeping Seraph, stirred; In his hand he took the flowers, In his heart the loving word. "So he crept to his poor garret; Poor no more, but rich and bright; For the holy dreams of childhood-- Love, and Rest, and Hope, and Light-- Floated round the orphan's pillow Through the starry summer night. "Day dawned, yet the visions lasted; All too weak to rise he lay; Did he dream that none spake harshly,-- All were strangely kind that day? Surely then his treasured roses Must have charmed all ills away. "And he smiled, though they were fading; One by one their leaves were shed; 'Such bright things could never perish, They would bloom again,' he said. When the next day's sun had risen Child and flowers both were dead. "Know, dear little one, our Father Will no gentle deed disdain; Love on the cold earth beginning Lives divine in Heaven again; While the angel hearts that beat there Still all tender thoughts retain." So the angel ceased, and gently O'er his little burden leant; While the child gazed from the shining, Loving eyes that o'er him bent, To the blooming roses by him. Wondering what that mystery meant. Thus the radiant angel answered, And with tender meaning smiled: "Ere your childlike, loving spirit, Sin and the hard world defiled, God has given me leave to seek you,-- I was once that little child!" * * * * * In the churchyard of that city Rose a tomb of marble rare, Decked, as soon as Spring awakened, With her buds and blossoms fair,-- And a humble grave beside it,-- No one knew who rested there. _Adelaide A. Procter_. [Illustration: _Kaulbach_.] * * * * * Enlarge the following brief summary of the Angel's Story into a composition the length of which to be determined by your teacher. Use many of the words and forms of expression you find in the poem. THE ANGEL'S STORY A poor little boy, to whom a child of wealth had in pity given a bunch of "reddest roses," died with the fading flowers. Afterwards he came as a "radiant angel" to visit his dying friend, and in a spirit of gratitude bore him to heaven. * * * * * _80_ al' ti tude as tound' ing ve loc' i ty vag' a bond mus tach' es hes i ta' ting ly par' a lyzed tre men' dous ex tra or' di na ry GLUCK'S VISITOR. It was drawing toward winter, and very cold weather, when one day Gluck's two older brothers had gone out, with their usual warning to little Gluck, who was left to mind the roast, that he was to let nobody in and give nothing out. Gluck sat down quite close to the fire, for it was raining very hard. He turned and turned, and the roast got nice and brown. "What a pity," thought Gluck, "that my brothers never ask anybody to dinner. I'm sure, when they have such a nice piece of mutton as this, it would do their hearts good to have somebody to eat it with them." Just as he spoke there came a double knock at the house door, yet heavy and dull, as though the knocker had been tied up. "It must be the wind," said Gluck; "nobody else would venture to knock double knocks at our door." No; it wasn't the wind. There it came again very hard, and what was particularly astounding the knocker seemed to be in a hurry, and not to be in the least afraid of the consequences. Gluck put his head out the window to see who it was. It was the most extraordinary looking little gentleman he had ever seen in his life. He had a very large nose, slightly brass-colored; his cheeks were very round and very red; his eyes twinkled merrily through long, silky eyelashes; his mustaches curled twice round like a corkscrew on each side of his mouth, and his hair, of a curious mixed pepper-and-salt color, descended far over his shoulders. He was about four feet six in height, and wore a conical pointed cap of nearly the same altitude, decorated with a black feather some three feet long. He wore an enormous black, glossy-looking cloak, which must have been very much too long in calm weather, as the wind carried it clear out from the wearer's shoulders to about four times his own length. Gluck was so perfectly paralyzed by the appearance of his visitor that he remained fixed, without uttering a word, until the old gentleman turned round to look after his fly-away cloak. In so doing he caught sight of Gluck's little yellow head jammed in the window, with its mouth and eyes very wide open indeed. "Hello!" said the little gentleman, "that's not the way to answer the door. I'm wet; let me in." To do the little gentleman justice, he _was_ wet. His feather hung down between his legs like a beaten puppy's tail, dripping like an umbrella; and from the end of his mustaches the water was running into his waistcoat pockets, and out again like a mill stream. "I'm very sorry" said Gluck, "but I really can't." "Can't what?" said the old gentleman. "I can't let you in, sir. My brothers would beat me to death, sir, if I thought of such a thing. What do you want, sir?" "Want?" said the old gentleman. "I want fire and shelter; and there's your great fire there blazing, crackling, and dancing on the walls, with nobody to feel it. Let me in, I say." Gluck had had his head, by this time, so long out of the window that he began to feel it was really unpleasantly cold. When he turned and saw the beautiful fire rustling and roaring, and throwing long, bright tongues up the chimney, as if it were licking its chops at the savory smell of the leg of mutton, his heart melted within him that it should be burning away for nothing. "He does look _very_ wet," said little Gluck; "I'll just let him in for a quarter of an hour." As the little gentleman walked in, there came a gust of wind through the house that made the old chimney totter. "That's a good boy. Never mind your brothers. I'll talk to them." "Pray, sir, don't do any such thing," said Gluck. "I can't let you stay till they come; they'd be the death of me." "Dear me," said the old gentleman, "I'm sorry to hear that. How long may I stay?" "Only till the mutton is done, sir," replied Gluck, "and it's very brown." Then the old gentleman walked into the kitchen and sat himself down on the hob, with the top of his cap up the chimney, for it was much too high for the roof. "You'll soon dry there; sir," said Gluck, and sat down again to turn the mutton. But the old gentleman did _not_ dry there, but went on drip, drip, dripping among the cinders, so that the fire fizzed and sputtered and began to look very black and uncomfortable. Never was such a cloak; every fold in it ran like a gutter. "I beg pardon, sir," said Gluck, at length, after watching the water spreading in long, quicksilver-like streams over the floor; "mayn't I take your cloak?" "No, thank you," said the old gentleman. "Your cap, sir?" "I am all right, thank you," said the old gentleman, rather gruffly. "But--sir--I'm very sorry," said Gluck, hesitatingly, "but--really--sir--you're putting the fire out." "It'll take longer to do the mutton, then." Gluck was very much puzzled by the behavior of his guest; it was such a strange mixture of coolness and humility. "That mutton looks very nice," said the old gentleman. "Can't you give me a little bit?" "Impossible, sir," said Gluck. "I'm very hungry," continued the old gentleman; "I've had nothing to eat yesterday nor to-day. They surely couldn't miss a bit from the knuckle!" He spoke in so very melancholy a tone that it quite melted Gluck's heart. "They promised me one slice to-day, sir," said he; "I can give you that, but no more." "That's a good boy," said the old gentleman again. "I don't care if I do get beaten for it," thought Gluck. Just as he had cut a large slice out of the mutton, there came a tremendous rap at the door. The old gentleman jumped; Gluck fitted the slice into the mutton again, and ran to open the door. "What did you keep us waiting in the rain for?" said Schwartz, as he walked in, throwing his umbrella in Gluck's face. "Aye; what for, indeed, you little vagabond?" said Hans, administering an educational box on the ear, as he followed his brother. "Bless my soul!" said Schwartz, when he opened the door. "Amen," said the little gentleman, who had taken his cap off, and was standing in the middle of the kitchen, bowing with the utmost velocity. "Who's that?" said Schwartz, catching up a rolling-pin, and turning fiercely to Gluck. "I don't know, indeed, brother," said Gluck, in great terror. "How did he get in?" roared Schwartz. "My dear brother, he was so _very_ wet!" The rolling-pin was descending on Gluck's head; but, at that instant, the old gentleman interposed his conical cap, on which it crashed with a shock that shook the water out of it all over the room. What was very odd, the rolling-pin no sooner touched the cap, than it flew out of Schwartz's hand, spinning like a straw in a high wind, and fell into the corner at the farther end of the room. "Who are you sir?" demanded Schwartz. "What's your business?" snarled Hans. "I'm a poor old man, sir," the little gentleman began, very modestly, "and I saw your fire through the window, and begged shelter for a quarter of an hour." "Have the goodness to walk out again, then," said Schwartz. "We've quite enough water in our kitchen, without making it a drying house." "It's a very cold day, sir, to turn an old man out in, sir; look at my gray hairs." "Aye!" said Hans, "there are enough of them to keep you warm. Walk!" "I'm very, very hungry, sir; couldn't you spare me a bit of bread before I go?" "Bread, indeed!" said Schwartz; "do you suppose we've nothing to do with our bread but to give it to such fellows as you?" "Why don't you sell your feather?" said Hans, sneeringly. "Out with you." "A little bit," said the old gentleman. "Be off!" said Schwartz. "Pray, gentlemen." "Off!" cried Hans, seizing him by the collar. But he had no sooner touched the old gentleman's collar than away he went after the rolling-pin, spinning round and round, till he fell into the corner on the top of it. Then Schwartz was very angry, and ran at the old gentleman to turn him out. But he also had hardly touched him, when away he went after Hans and the rolling-pin, and hit his head against the wall as he tumbled into the corner. And so there they lay, all three. Then the old gentleman spun himself round until his long cloak was all wound neatly about him, clapped his cap on his head, very much on one side, gave a twist to his corkscrew mustaches, and replied, with perfect coolness: "Gentlemen, I wish you a very good morning. At twelve o'clock to-night, I'll call again." _John Ruskin._ * * * * * NOTE.--"The King of the Golden River," from which the selection is taken, is a charming story for children. It was written in 1841, for the amusement of a sick child. It is said to be the finest story of its kind in the language. [Illustration:] * * * * * _81_ elf en cir' cled jerk hur' ri cane rein'deer min' i a ture tar' nished A VISIT FROM ST. NICHOLAS. 'Twas the night before Christmas, when all through the house Not a creature was stirring, not even a mouse: The stockings were hung by the chimney with care, In the hope that St. Nicholas soon would be there. The children were nestled all snug in their beds, While visions of sugar-plums danced in their heads; And Mamma in her kerchief, and I in my cap, Had just settled our brains for a long winter's nap, When out on the lawn there rose such a clatter, I sprang from my bed to see what was the matter. Away to the window I flew like a flash, Tore open the shutters, and threw up the sash. The moon on the breast of the new-fallen snow Gave the luster of midday to objects below; When, what to my wondering eyes should appear But a miniature sleigh, and eight tiny reindeer, With a little old driver, so lively and quick, I knew in a moment it must be St. Nick! More rapid than eagles his coursers they came, And he whistled, and shouted and called them by name: "Now, Dasher! now, Dancer! now, Prancer! now, Vixen! On, Comet! on, Cupid! on, Donder and Blitzen! To the top of the porch, to the top of the wall, Now, dash away! dash away! dash away, all!" As dry leaves, that before the wild hurricane fly When they meet with an obstacle, mount to the sky, So, up to the house-top the coursers they flew, With the sleigh full of toys, and St. Nicholas, too; And then, in a twinkling, I heard on the roof The prancing and pawing of each little hoof. As I drew in my head, and was turning around, Down the chimney St. Nicholas came with a bound. He was dressed all in fur from his head to his foot, And his clothes were all tarnished with ashes and soot; A bundle of toys he had flung on his back, And he looked like a peddler just opening his pack; His eyes, how they twinkled! his dimples, how merry! His cheeks were like roses, his nose like a cherry; His droll little mouth was drawn up like a bow, And the beard on his chin was as white as the snow; The stump of a pipe he held tight in his teeth, And the smoke it encircled his head like a wreath; He had a broad face, and a little round belly, That shook, when he laughed, like a bowlful of jelly. He was chubby and plump,--a right jolly old elf-- And I laughed when I saw him, in spite of myself. A wink of his eye and a twist of his head Soon gave me to know I had nothing to dread. He spoke not a word, but went straight to his work, And filled all the stockings; then turned with a jerk, And, laying his finger aside of his nose, And giving a nod, up the chimney he rose. He sprang to his sleigh, to his team gave a whistle, And away they all flew like the down of a thistle; But I heard him exclaim, ere he drove out of sight, "Merry Christmas to all, and to all a good-night!" _Clement C. Moore._ * * * * * _82_ a chieved' es poused' thral' dom al li' ance ter rif' ic Del' a ware Com' mo dore re cip' i ents New' found land can non ad' ing par tic' i pa ted char ac ter is' tic COMMODORE JOHN BARRY. The story of the American Navy is a story of glorious deeds. From the early days of Barry and Jones, when it swept the decks of King George's proud ships with merciless fire, down to the glories achieved by Admirals Dewey and Schley in our war with Spain, the story of our Navy is the pride and glory of our Republic. The glowing track of its victories extends around the world. Of the many distinguished men whose names and whose deeds adorn the pages of our country's history, there is none more deserving of our gratitude and admiration than Commodore John Barry. His name and fame will live in the naval annals of our country as long as the history of America lasts. Commodore Barry, the founder of the American Navy, was born in County Wexford, Ireland, in the year 1745. At the age of fourteen he left home for a life on "The sea, the sea, the open sea, The blue, the fresh, the ever free." On board trading vessels he made several voyages to America. He spent his leisure hours in reading and study, and in this way soon acquired a general and practical education. By fidelity to duty, he advanced so rapidly in his profession that at the age of twenty-five we find him in command of the _Black Prince,_ one of the finest merchant vessels then running between Philadelphia and London. When the Revolution broke out between the Colonies and England, our gallant Commodore gave up the command of his ship, and without delay or hesitation espoused the cause of his adopted country. Congress purchased a few vessels, had them fitted out for war, and placed the little fleet under the command of Captain Barry. His flagship was the _Lexington_, named after the first battle of the Revolution; and Congress having at this time adopted a national flag, the Star-spangled Banner, the _Lexington_ was the first to hoist this ensign of freedom. From the time of the fitting out of the _Lexington_ down to the time of the declaration of peace, which assured the liberation of the Colonies from the thraldom of Great Britain, Commodore Barry was constantly engaged on shore and afloat. Though he actually participated in upwards of twenty sea fights, always against a force superior to his own, he never once struck his flag to the enemy. The field of his operations ranged all the way from the capes of the Delaware to the West Indies, and as far east as the coast of Maine and Newfoundland. His victories were hailed with joy throughout the country, and Barry and his men were publicly thanked by General Washington. During the darkest days of the War, while Washington was spending the winter of 1777 in camp at Valley Forge, with our brave soldiers perishing for want of provisions, blankets, clothing and tents, an incident occurred which shows how supremely loyal and devoted Commodore Barry was to the American cause. The British troops were occupying Philadelphia. Lord Howe, their commander, offered our great sea fighter a bribe of fifty thousand guineas and the command of a ship of war, if he would abandon the American cause and enter the service of England. Barry's indignant reply should be written in letters of gold: "I have engaged in the service of my adopted country, and neither the value nor the command of the whole British fleet can seduce me from it." General Washington had the utmost confidence in the pluck and daring and loyalty of Barry. He selected him as the best and safest man to be trusted with the important mission of carrying our commissioners to France to secure that alliance and assistance which we then so sorely needed. On his homeward trip, it is related that being hailed by a British man-of-war with the usual questions as to the name of his ship, captain, and destination, he gave the following bold and characteristic reply: "This is the United States ship _Alliance_: Jack Barry, half Irishman and half Yankee, commander: who are you?" In the engagement that followed, Barry and his band of heroes performed such deeds of valor that after a few hours of terrific cannonading, the English ship was forced to strike its colors and surrender to the "half Irishman and half Yankee." This illustrious man, who was the first that bore the title of Commodore in the service of our Republic, continued at the head of our infant Navy till his death, which took place in Philadelphia, on the 13th of September, 1803. During life he was generous and charitable, and at his death made the children of the Catholic Orphan Asylum of Philadelphia the chief recipients of his wealth. His remains repose in the little graveyard attached to St. Mary's Catholic church. Through the generous patriotism of the "Friendly Sons of St. Patrick," a society of which General Washington himself was a member, a magnificent monument was erected to the memory of Commodore Barry, in Independence Square, Philadelphia, under the shadow of Independence Hall, the cradle of American liberty. Miss Elise Hazel Hepburn, a great-great-grandniece of the Commodore, had a prominent part at the ceremonies of the unveiling, which took place on Saint Patrick's Day, 1907. * * * * * There are gallant hearts whose glory Columbia loves to name, Whose deeds shall live in story And everlasting fame. But never yet one braver Our starry banner bore Than saucy old Jack Barry, The Irish Commodore. What is meant by the Congress of the U.S.? What two bodies compose it? What is the number of senators, and how are they chosen? Which was the most notable sea fight of Commodore John Paul Jones? Where did Admiral Dewey specially distinguish himself? And Admiral Schley? What countries does the island of Great Britain comprise? What does "never struck his flag" mean? Name the capes of the Delaware. Locate Newfoundland. Recite the two famous replies of Commodore Barry given in the selection. [Illustration: COMMODORE JOHN BARRY] * * * * * _83_ sau' cy ig nored' rev' eled plain' tive dis traught' wea' ri some rol' lick ing mis' chie vous frec'kle-faced THE BOY OF THE HOUSE. He was the boy of the house, you know, A jolly and rollicking lad; He was never tired, and never sick, And nothing could make him sad. Did some one urge that he make less noise, He would say, with a saucy grin, "Why, one boy alone doesn't make much stir-- I'm sorry I am not a twin!" "There are two of twins--oh, it must be fun To go double at everything: To hollo by twos, and to run by twos, To whistle by twos, and to sing!" His laugh was something to make you glad, So brimful was it of joy; A conscience he had, perhaps, in his breast, But it never troubled the boy. You met him out in the garden path, With the terrier at his heels; You knew by the shout he hailed you with How happy a youngster feels. The maiden auntie was half distraught At his tricks as the days went by; "The most mischievous child in the world!" She said, with a shrug and a sigh. His father owned that her words were true, And his mother declared each day Was putting wrinkles into her face, And was turning her brown hair gray. But it never troubled the boy of the house; He reveled in clatter and din, And had only one regret in the world-- That he hadn't been born a twin. * * * * * There's nobody making a noise to-day, There's nobody stamping the floor, There's an awful silence, upstairs and down, There's crape on the wide hall door. The terrier's whining out in the sun-- "Where's my comrade?" he seems to say; Turn your plaintive eyes away, little dog. There's no frolic for you to-day. The freckle-faced girl from the house next door Is sobbing her young heart out; Don't cry, little girl, you'll soon forget To miss the laugh and the shout. How strangely quiet the little form, With the hands on the bosom crossed! Not a fold, not a flower, out of place, Not a short curl rumpled and tossed! So solemn and still the big house seems-- No laughter, no racket, no din, No starting shriek, no voice piping out, "I'm sorry I am not a twin!" There a man and a woman, pale with grief, As the wearisome moments creep; Oh! the loneliness touches everything-- The boy of the house is asleep. _Jean Blewett._ From the Toronto _Globe_. [Illustration:] * * * * * _84_ BIOGRAPHIES COOK, ELIZA, was born in London, England, in the year 1817, and was the most popular poetess of her day. When a young girl, she gave herself so completely up to reading that her father threatened to burn her books. She began to write at an early age, and contributed poems and essays to various periodicals. She is the author of many poems that will live. She died in 1889. COWPER, WILLIAM, is one of the most eminent and popular of all English poets. He was born in the year 1731. His mother dying when he was only six years old, the child was sent away from home to boarding school, where he suffered so much from the cruelty of a bigger boy that he was obliged to leave that school for another. At the completion of his college course he expressed regrets that his education was not received in a school where he could be taught his duty to God. "I have been graduated," he writes, "but I understand neither the law nor the gospel." His longest poem is "The Task," upon which his reputation as a poet chiefly depends. He died in the year 1800. DICKENS, CHARLES, one of the greatest and most popular of the novelists of England, was born in 1812. By hard, persistent work he raised himself from obscurity and poverty to fame and fortune. After only two years of schooling he was obliged to go to work. His first job was pasting labels on blacking-pots, for which he received twenty-five cents a day! He next became office boy in a lawyer's office, and then reporter for a London daily paper. He learned shorthand by himself from a book he found in a public reading-room. In 1841, and again in 1867, he lectured in America. He died suddenly in 1870, and is buried in Westminster Abbey. DONNELLY, ELEANOR CECILIA, began to write verses when she was but eight years old. Her early education was directed by her mother, a gifted and accomplished lady. Her pen has ever been devoted to the cause of Catholic truth and the elevation of Catholic literature. Besides hundreds of charming stories and essays, she has published several volumes of poems. Her writings on sacred subjects display a strong, intelligent faith, and a tender piety. She is a writer whose pathos, originality, grace of diction, sweetness of rhythm, purity of sentiment, and sublimity of thought entitle her to rank among the first of our American poets. Miss Donnelly has lived all her life in her native city of Philadelphia, where she is the center of a cultured circle of admiring friends, and where she edifies all by the practice of every Christian virtue and by a life of devotedness to the honor and glory of Almighty God. GOULD, HANNAH F., an American poetess, has written many pleasant poems for children. "Jack Frost" and "The Winter King" have long been favorites. She was born in Vermont in the year 1789, and died in 1865. HAWTHORNE, NATHANIEL, was born in Salem, Mass., on July 4, 1804. When still quite young he showed a great fondness for reading. At the early age of six his favorite book was Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress." At college he was a classmate of Longfellow. Among his writings are a number of stories for children: "The Tanglewood Tales," "The Snow-Image," "The Wonder Books," and some stories of American history. His volumes of short stories charm old and young alike. His Book, "The Scarlet Letter," has made him famous. It was while he lived at Lenox, Mass., among the Berkshire Hills, that he published "The House of the Seven Gables." He visited Italy in 1857, where he began "The Marble Faun," which is considered his greatest novel. He died in 1864, and is buried in Concord, Mass. Hawthorne possessed a delicate and exquisite humor, and a marvelous felicity in the use of language. His style may be said to combine almost every excellence--elegance, simplicity, grace, clearness and force. HAYNE, PAUL HAMILTON, an American poet, was born in South Carolina in the year 1831. In 1854 he published a volume of poems. His death occurred in 1886. He was a descendant of the American patriot, Isaac Hayne, who, at the siege of Charleston in 1780, fell into the hands of the British, and was hanged by them because he refused to join their ranks and fight against his country. HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT, a popular American author who wrote under the assumed name of _Timothy Titcomb,_ was born in Massachusetts in the year 1819. He began life as a physician, but after a few years of practice gave up his profession and went to Vicksburg, Miss., as Superintendent of Schools. He wrote a number of novels and several volumes of essays. In 1870 he became editor of _Scribner's Magazine._ He died in 1881. HUNT, LEIGH, editor, essayist, critic, and poet, and an intimate friend of Byron, Moore, Keats, and Shelley, was born near London, England, in 1784, and died in 1859. JACKSON, HELEN HUNT, a noted American writer of prose and poetry, and known for years by her pen name of "H.H." (the initials of her name), was born in Massachusetts in the year 1831. She is the author of many charming poems, short stories, and novels. Read her "Bits of Talk" and "Bits of Travel." She lived some years in Colorado, where her life brought to her notice the wrongs done the Indians. In their defense she wrote "A Century of Dishonor," The last book she wrote is "Ramona," an Indian romance, which she hoped would do for the Indian what "Uncle Tom's Cabin" had done for the slave. Mrs. Jackson died in California in 1885. "MERCEDES" is the pen name of an able, zealous, and devoted Sister of one of our great Teaching Communities. She has written several excellent "Plays" for use in Convent Schools which have met the test of successful production. Her "Wild Flowers from the Mountain-side" is a volume of Poems and Dramas that exhibit "the heart and soul and faith of true poetry." A competent critic calls these "Wild Flowers sweet, their hues most delicate, their fragrance most agreeable." Mercedes has also enriched the columns of _The Missionary_ and other publications with several true stories, in attractive prose, of edifying conversions resulting from the missionary zeal of priest and teacher. Her graceful pen is ever at the service of every cause tending to the glory of God and the good of souls. MOORE, THOMAS, was born in the city of Dublin, Ireland, in the year 1779, and was educated at Trinity College. His matchless "Melodies" are the delight of all lovers of music, and are sung all over the world. Archbishop McHale of Tuam translated them into the grand old Celtic tongue. Moore is the greatest of Ireland's song-writers, and one of the world's greatest. As a poet few have equaled him in the power to write poetry which charms the ear by its delightful cadence. His lines display an exquisite harmony, and are perfectly adapted to the thoughts which they express and inspire. His grave is in England, where he spent the later years of his life, and where he died in 1852. In 1896, the Moore Memorial Committee of Dublin erected over his grave a monument consisting of a magnificent and beautiful Celtic cross. MOORE, CLEMENT C., poet and teacher, was born in New York in 1779. In 1821 he was appointed professor in a Seminary founded by his father, who was Bishop Benjamin Moore of the Protestant Episcopal diocese of New York. He died in 1863. MORRIS, GEORGE P., poet and journalist, wrote several popular poems, but is remembered chiefly for his songs and ballads. He was born in Philadelphia in the year 1802, and died in New York in 1864. MCCARTHY, DENIS ALOYSIUS, poet, lecturer and journalist, was born in Carrick-on-Suir, County Tipperary, Ireland, in the year 1871, and made his elementary and intermediate studies in the Christian Brothers' School of his native town. Since his arrival in America in 1886, he has published two volumes of poems which he modestly calls "A Round of Rimes" and "Voices from Erin." "His poetry," says a distinguished critic who is neither Irish nor Catholic, "is soulful and sweet, and sings itself into the heart of anyone who has a bit of sentiment in his make-up." Mr. McCarthy is at present Associate Editor of the _Sacred Heart Review_ of Boston. He lectures on literary and Irish themes, and contributes poems, stories, essays, book reviews, etc., to various papers and magazines. NEWMAN, CARDINAL JOHN HENRY, was born in London in 1801, and studied at Trinity College, Oxford. In 1824 he became a minister of the Church of England, and rose rapidly in his profession. In 1845 he abandoned the English ministry, renounced the errors of Protestantism, and entered the Catholic Church, of which he remained till death a most faithful, devoted, and zealous son. He was ordained priest in 1848, was made Rector of the Catholic University of Dublin in 1854, and in 1879 was raised to the rank of Cardinal by Pope Leo XIII. Cardinal Newman's writings are beyond the grasp of young minds, yet they will profit by and enjoy the perusal of his two great novels, "Loss and Gain" and "Callista." The former is the story of a convert; the latter a tale of the third century, in which the beautiful heroine and martyr, Callista, is presented with a master's art. Newman is the greatest master of English prose. In this field he holds the same rank that Shakespeare does in English poetry. To his style, Augustine Birrell, a noted English essayist, pays the following graceful and eloquent tribute: "The charm of Dr. Newman's style baffles description. As well might one seek to analyze the fragrance of a flower, or to expound in words the jumping of one's heart when a beloved friend unexpectedly enters the room." This great Prince of the Church died the death of the saints in the year 1890. O'REILLY, JOHN BOYLE, patriot, author, poet and journalist, was born on the banks of the famous river Boyne, in County Meath, Ireland, in the year 1844. In 1860 he went over to England as agent of the Fenian Brotherhood, an organization whose purpose was the freedom of Ireland from English rule. In 1863 he joined the English army in order to sow the seeds of revolution among the soldiers. In 1866 he was arrested, tried for treason, and sentenced to death. This was afterwards commuted to twenty years' penal servitude. In 1867 he was transported to Australia to serve out his sentence, whence he escaped in 1869, and made his way to Philadelphia. He became editor of the Boston _Pilot_ in 1874. He is the author of "Songs from the Southern Seas," "Songs, Legends and Ballads," and of other works. He died in 1890. All through life the voice and pen of Boyle O'Reilly were at the service of his Church, his native land, and his adopted country. Kindness was the keynote of his character. In 1896 Boston erected in his honor a magnificent memorial monument. RILEY, JAMES WHITCOMB, called the "Hoosier Poet," was born in Indiana in the year 1852. In many of his poems there is a strong sense of humor. What he writes comes from the heart and goes to the heart. He has written much in dialect. His home is in Indianapolis. RUSKIN, JOHN, one of the most famous of English authors, was born in London in 1819, and educated at Oxford. He spent several years in Italy in the study of art. He wrote many volumes of essays and lectures, chiefly on matters connected with art and art criticism. In his writings we find many beautiful pen-pictures of statues and fine buildings and such things. His "Modern Painters," a treatise on art and nature, established his reputation as the greatest art critic of England. He died in 1900. SANGSTER, MRS. MARGARET E., editor and poet, was born in New Rochelle, N.Y., on the 22d of February, 1838, and educated in Vienna. She has successfully edited such periodicals as _Hearth and Home, Harpers' Young People, and Harpers' Bazaar,_ in which much of her prose and poetry has appeared. She is at present (1909) the editor of _The Woman's Home Companion._ SOUTHEY, ROBERT, an eminent English poet and author, was born in the year 1774. He began to write verse at the age of ten. In 1792 he was expelled from the Westminster School for writing an essay against corporal punishment. He then entered one of the colleges of Oxford University, where he became an intimate friend of Coleridge. While residing at Lisbon he began a special study of Spanish and Portuguese literature. In 1813 he was appointed poet-laureate of England, and in 1835 received a pension from the government. He died in 1843. Southey, Coleridge and Wordsworth are often called "The Lake Poets," because they lived together for years in the lake country of England, and in their writings described the scenery of that beautiful region. TENNYSON, ALFRED, is considered the greatest poet of his age, and one of the great English poets of modern times. He was born in the year 1809, and educated at Cambridge University. In 1850 he gave to the world "In Memoriam," his lament for the loss by death of his friend, Arthur H. Hallam. In 1851 he succeeded Wordsworth as poet-laureate of England. His poems, long and short, are general favorites. His "Idyls of the King," "The Princess," "Maud," and "In Memoriam" are his chief long poems. These are remarkable for beauty of expression and richness of thought, of which Tennyson was master. He died in 1892, lamented by the entire English-speaking world, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Tennyson always loved the sea, the music of whose restless waves awakened an answering echo in his heart. WALLACE, WILLIAM R., was born at Lexington, Ky., in the year 1819. As a poet he is best known as the author of "The Sword of Bunker Hill." WESTWOOD, THOMAS, an English poet, was born in the year 1814, and died in 1888. He wrote several volumes of poetry, one of which was "Beads from a Rosary." WHITTIER, JOHN G., called the "Quaker Poet," was born in Massachusetts in the year 1807. His parents were Quakers and were poor. When young he learned to make shoes, and with the money thus earned he paid his way at school. He was a boy of nineteen when his first verses were published. His poems were inspired by current events, and their patriotic spirit gives them a strong hold upon the public. "Snow-bound" is considered his greatest poem. Whittier loved home so much that he never visited a foreign country, and traveled but little in his own. He gave thirty of the best years of his life to the anti-slavery struggle. While other poets traveled in foreign lands or studied in their libraries, Whittier worked hard for the freedom of the slave. Of this he wrote-- "Forego the dreams of lettered ease, Put thou the scholar's promise by; The rights of man are more than these." Mr. Whittier died in the year 1892. WISEMAN, CARDINAL NICHOLAS PATRICK, was born in the year 1802 in Seville, Spain, of an Irish family settled there. His family returned to Ireland, where he was educated. When he was sixteen he entered the English College, Rome, and was ordained priest in 1825. In 1840 he was appointed Coadjutor Bishop, and in 1850 the Pope named him Archbishop of Westminster, and at the same time created him a Cardinal. He was a profound scholar, an eloquent preacher, and a brilliant writer, and is the author of many able works. He was one of the founders of the _Dublin Review._ He died in 1865. His "Fabiola or the Church of the Catacombs," from which some selections have been taken for this Reader, is one of the classics of our language. It was written in 1854. WOODWORTH, SAMUEL, editor and poet, was born in Massachusetts in 1785, and died in 1842. With George P. Morris, he founded the _New York Mirror._ "The Old Oaken Bucket" is the best known of his poems. For sketches of other authors from whom selections are taken for this book, see the Third and the Fourth Reader of the series. * * * * * 
12390	----	Proofreading Team [Transcriber's notes: Ligature 'oe' is represented by [oe], and the diacritic breve is represented by [)x]] S. P. E _Tract No. III_ A FEW PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS By Logan Pearsall Smith MDCCCCXX EDITORIAL CO-OPERATION OF MEMBERS, ETC. REPORT TO EASTER, 1920 A FEW PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS The principles of the Society for Pure English were stated in general terms in its preliminary pamphlet; since, however, many questions have been asked about the application of these principles, a few suggestions about special points may be found useful. The Society does not attempt to dictate to its members; it does, however, put forward its suggestions as worthy of serious consideration; and, since they have received the approval of the best scientific judgement, it is hoped that they will be generally acceptable. Some of them, when blankly stated, may seem trivial and unimportant; but we neither expect nor desire to make any sudden and revolutionary changes. A language is an established means of communication, sanctioned by the general consent, and cannot be transformed at will. Language is, however, of itself always changing, and if there is hesitation between current usages, then choice becomes possible, and individuals may intervene with good effect; for only by their preferences can the points in dispute be finally settled. It is important, therefore, that these preferences should be guided by right knowledge, and it is this right knowledge which the Society makes it its aim to provide. While, therefore, any particular ruling may seem unimportant, the principle on which that ruling is based is not so; and its application in any special case will help to give it authority and force. The effect of even a small number of successful interventions will be to confirm right habits of choice, which may then, as new opportunities arise, be applied to further cases. Among the cases of linguistic usage which are varying and unfixed at the present time, and in which therefore a deliberate choice is possible, the following may be mentioned: I. _The Naturalization of Foreign Words_. There is no point on which usage is more uncertain and fluctuating than in regard to the words which we are always borrowing from foreign languages. Expression generally lags behind thought, and we are now more than ever handicapped by the lack of convenient terms to describe the new discoveries, and new ways of thinking and feeling by which our lives are enriched and made interesting. It has been our national custom in the past to eke out our native resources by borrowing from other languages, especially from French, any words which we found ready to our needs; and until recent times, these words were soon made current and convenient by being assimilated and given English shapes and sounds. We still borrow as freely as ever; but half the benefit of this borrowing is lost to us, owing to our modern and pedantic attempts to preserve the foreign sounds and shapes of imported words, which make their current use unnecessarily difficult. Owing to our false taste in this matter many words which have been long naturalized in the language are being now put back into their foreign forms, and our speech is being thus gradually impoverished. This process of de-assimilation generally begins with the restoration of foreign accents to such words as have them in French; thus 'role' is now written 'rôle'*[A]; 'debris', 'débris'; 'detour', 'détour'; 'depot', 'dépôt'; and the old words long established in our language, 'levee', 'naivety', now appear as 'levée', and 'naïveté'. The next step is to italicize these words, thus treating them as complete aliens, and thus we often see _rôle_, _dépôt_, &c. The very old English word 'rendezvous' is now printed _rendezvous_, and 'dilettante' and 'vogue' sometimes are printed in italics. Among other words which have been borrowed at various times and more or less naturalized, but which are now being driven out of the language, are the following: confrere, congee, cortege, dishabille, distrait, ensemble, fête, flair, mellay (now _mêlée_), nonchalance, provenance, renconter, &c. On the other hand, it is satisfactory to note that 'employee' appears to be taking the place of 'employé'. [Footnote A: For the words marked with an asterisk see notes on page 10.] The printing in italics and the restoration of foreign accents is accompanied by awkward attempts to revert to the foreign pronunciation of these words, which of course much lessens their usefulness in conversation. Sometimes this, as in _nuance_, or _timbre_* practically deprives us of a word which most of us are unable to pronounce correctly; sometimes it is merely absurd, as in 'envelope', where most people try to give a foreign sound to a word which no one regards as an alien, and which has been anglicized in spelling for nearly two hundred years. Members of our Society will, we hope, do what is in their power to stop this process of impoverishment, by writing and pronouncing as English such words as have already been naturalized, and when a new borrowing appears in two forms they will give their preference to the one which is most English. There are some who may even help to enrich the language by a bolder conquest of useful terms, and although they may suffer ridicule, they will suffer it in a good cause, and will only be sharing the short-lived denunciation which former innovators incurred when they borrowed so many concise and useful terms from France and Italy to enlarge and adorn our English speech. If we are to use foreign words (and, if we have no equivalents, we must use them) it is certainly much better that they should be incorporated in our language, and made available for common use. Words like 'garage' and 'nuance' and 'naivety' had much better be pronounced and written as English words, and there are others, like 'bouleverse' and 'bouleversement', whose partial borrowing might well be made complete; and a useful word like _malaise_ could with advantage reassume the old form 'malease' which it once possessed. II. _Alien Plurals_. The useless and pedantic process of de-assimilation takes other forms, one of the most common of which is the restoring their foreign plural forms to words borrowed from Greek, Latin, and Italian. No common noun is genuinely assimilated into our language and made available for the use of the whole community until it has an English plural, and thousands of indispensable words have been thus incorporated. We no longer write of _ideæ_, _chori_, _asyla_, _musea_, _sphinges_, _specimina_ for _ideas_, _choruses_, _asylums_, _museums_, _sphinxes_, _specimens_, and the notion of returning to such plurals would seem barbarous and absurd. And yet this very process is now going on, and threatens us with deplorable results. _Sanatoria_, _memoranda_, _gymnasia_ are now replacing _sanatorium_, _memorandums_, and _gymnasiums_; _automata_, _formulae_, and _lacunae_ are taking the place of _automatons_, _formulas_, and _lacunas_; _indices_ and _apices_ of _indexes_ and _apexes_, _miasmata_ of _miasmas_ or _miasms_; and even forms like _lexica_, _rhododendra_, and _chimeræ_ have been recently noted in the writings of authors of repute. Some of these words are no doubt exceptions. _Memoranda_ is preferable when used collectively, but the English plural is better in such a phrase as 'two different memorandums'. _Automata_, too, is sometimes collective; and _lacuna_ always carries the suggestion of its classical meaning, which makes half the meaning of the word. So again, when the classical form is a scientific term, it is convenient and well to preserve its differentiation, e.g. _formulae_ in science, or _foci_ and _indices_ in mathematics; but such uses create exceptions, and these should be recognized as exceptions, to a general rule that wherever there is choice then the English form is to be preferred: we should, for instance, say _bandits_ and not _banditti_. III. _ae_ and _oe_. The use of _ae_ and _oe_ in English words of classical origin was a pedantic innovation of the sixteenth century: in most words of common use _ae_ and _oe_ have been replaced by the simple _e_, and we no longer write _prævious_, _æternal_, _æra_, _æmulate_, _c[oe]lestial_, _[oe]conomy_, &c. Since, however, those forms have a learned appearance, they are being now restored in many words which had been freed from them; _medieval_ is commonly written _mediæval_; _primæval_ and _co-æval_ are beginning to make their appearance; _peony_ is commonly written _pæony_, and the forms _sæcular_, _chimæra_, _hyæna_[1] and _præternatural_ have recently been noted. As this is more than a mere change in orthography, being in fact a part of the process of de-assimilation, members of our Society would do well to avoid the use of the archaic forms in all words which have become thoroughly English, and which are used without thought of their etymology. The matter is not so simple with regard to words of Latin or Greek derivation which are only understood by most people through their etymology; and for these it may be well to keep their etymologically transparent spelling, as _ætiology_, _[oe]strus_, &c. Whether learned words of this kind, and classical names such as _Cæsar_, _Æschylus_, &c., should be spelt with vowels ligatured or divided (_Caesar_, _Aeschylus_), is a point about which present usage varies; and that usage does not always represent the taste of the writers who employ it. Mr. Horace Hart, in his _Rules for Compositors and Readers at the University Press, Oxford_, ruled that the combinations _ae_ and _oe_ should each be printed as two letters in Latin and Greek words and in English words of classical derivation, but this last injunction is plainly deduced from the practice of editors of Latin texts, and is an arbitrary rule in the interest of uniformity: it has the sanction and influence of the Clarendon Press, but is not universally accepted. Thus Dr. Henry Bradley writes, 'This question does not seem to me to be settled by the mere fact that all recent classical editors reject the ligatures, just as most of them reject other aids to pronunciation which the ancients had not, such as j, v, for consonantal _i_, _u_. Many printers have conformed the spelling of _English_ words in this respect to the practice of editors of Latin texts. I confess my own preference is for adhering to the English tradition of the ligature, not only in English words, but even in Latin or Greek names quoted in an English context. If we write ae, oe in Philae, Adelphoe, we need the diæresis in Aglaë, Pholoë, and a name like Aeaea looks very funny in an English context. The editors of Latin texts are perfectly right in discarding the ligatures; but so they are also in writing Iuuenalis; Latin is one thing and English is another.' [Footnote 1: Shakespeare would have assisted the Hyena in her attempt to naturalize herself in England: 'I will laugh like a Hyen, and that when thou art inclined to sleep.' _A.Y.L._, IV. i. 156. [ED.]] IV. _Dying Words_. Our language is always suffering another kind of impoverishment which is somewhat mysterious in its causes and perhaps impossible to prevent. This is the kind of blight which attacks many of our most ancient, beautiful, and expressive words, rendering them first of all unsuitable for colloquial use, though they may be still used in prose. Next they are driven out of the prose vocabulary into that of poetry, and at last removed into that limbo of archaisms and affectations to which so many beautiful but dead words of our language have been unhappily banished. It is not that these words lose their lustre, as many words lose it, by hackneyed use and common handling; the process is exactly opposite; by not being used enough, the phosphorescence of decay seems to attack them, and give them a kind of shimmer which makes them seem too fine for common occasions. But once a word falls out of colloquial speech its life is threatened; it may linger on in literature, but its radiance, at first perhaps brighter, will gradually diminish, and it must sooner or later fade away, or live only as a conscious archaism. The fate of many beautiful old words like _teen_ and _dole_ and _meed_ has thus been decided; they are now practically lost to the language, and can probably never be restored to common use.[2] It is, however, an interesting question, and one worthy of the consideration of our members, whether it may be possible, at its beginning, to stop this process of decay; whether a word at the moment when it begins to seem too poetical, might not perhaps be reclaimed for common speech by timely and not inappropriate usage, and thus saved, before it is too late, from the blight of over-expressiveness which will otherwise kill it in the end. [Footnote 2: But concerning the words _dole_ and _meed_ see Tract II _On English Homophones_. Both these words have suffered through homophony. _Dole_ is a terrible example. 1, a portion = deal; 2, grief = Fr. deuil, Lat. _dolor_; 3, deceit, from the Latin _dolus_, Gk. [Greek: dolos]. All three have been in wide use and have good authority; but neither 2 (which is presumably that which the writer intends) nor 3 can be restored, nor is it desirable that they should be, the sound having been specially isolated to a substantive and verb in the sense of No. 1. _Meed_ is likewise lost by homophony with 1 mead = meadow and 2 mead = metheglin: and it is a very serious loss. No. 1 is almost extinct except among farmers and hay merchants, but the absurd ambiguity of No. 2 is effective. _Teen_, the writer's third example, has shown recent signs of renewed vitality in literature. [Ed.]] The usage in regard to these tainted words varies a good deal, though probably not so much as people generally think: some of them, like _delve_ and _dwell_, still linger on in metaphors; and people will still speak of _delving_ into their minds, and _dwelling_ in thought, who would never think of _delving_ in the garden, or _dwelling_ in England; and we will call people _swine_* or _hounds_, although we cannot use these words for the animals they more properly designate. We can speak of a _swift_* punishment, but not a _swift_ bird, or airplane, or steamer, and we _shun_ a thought, but not a bore; and many similar instances could be given. Perhaps words of this kind cannot be saved from the unhappy doom which threatens them. It is not impossible, on the other hand, that, by a slight conscious effort, some of these words might still be saved; and there may be, among our members, persons of sufficient courage to suffer, in a pious cause, the imputation of preciosity and affectation which such attempts involve. To the consideration of such persons we could recommend words like _maid_, _maiden_, _damsel_, _weep_, _bide_, _sojourn_, _seek_, _heinous_, _swift_, _chide_*, and the many other excellent and expressive old words which are now falling into colloquial disuse. There is one curious means by which the life of these words may be lengthened and by which, possibly, they may regain a current and colloquial use. They can be still used humorously and as it were in quotation marks; words like _pelf_, _maiden_, _lad_, _damsel_, and many others are sometimes used in this way, which at any rate keeps them from falling into the limbo of silence. Whether any of them have by this means renewed their life would be an interesting subject of inquiry; it is said that at Eton the good old word _usher_, used first only for humorous effect, has now found its way back into the common and colloquial speech of the school. V. _Dialectal and Popular Words_. Whether words may, by conscious effort, be preserved in colloquial usage is an unsolved question, though perhaps our Society may help to solve it; there is, however, another and more certain benefit which its members, or at any rate such of them as are writers, may confer upon the language. There are many excellent words spoken in uneducated speech and dialect all about us, which would be valuable additions to our standard vocabulary if they could be given currency in it. Many of these are dying words like _bide_, _dight_, _blithe_, _malison_, _vengeance_, and since these are still spoken in other classes, it might be less difficult to restore them to educated speech. Others are old words like _thole_ and _nesh_ and _lew_ and _mense_ and _foison_ and _fash_ and _douce_, which have never been accepted into the standard English, or have long since vanished from it, in spite of their excellence and ancient history, and in spite of the fact that they have long been in current use in various districts. Others are new formations, coined in the ever-active mint of uneducated speech, and many of these, coming as they do full of freshness and vigour out of the vivid popular imagination--words like _harum-scarum_, _gallivant_, _cantankerous_, and _pernickety_--or useful monosyllables and penny pieces of popular speech like _blight_ and _nag_ and _fun_--have already found their way into standard English. But there are many others which might with advantage be given a larger currency. This process of dialectal regeneration, as it is called, has been greatly aided in the past by men of letters, who have given a literary standing to the useful and picturesque vocabulary of their unlettered neighbours, and thus helped to reinforce with vivid terms our somewhat abstract and faded standard speech. We owe, for instance, words like _lilt_ and _outcome_ to Carlyle; _croon_, _eerie_, _gloaming_ have become familiar to us from Burns's poems, and Sir Walter Scott added a large number of vivid local terms both to our written and our spoken language. In the great enrichment of the vocabulary of the romantic movement by means of words like _murk_, _gloaming_, _glamour_, _gruesome_, _eerie_, _eldritch_, _uncanny_, _warlock_, _wraith_--all of which were dialect or local words, we find a good example of the expressive power of dialect speech, and see how a standard language can be enriched by the use of popular sources. All members of our Society can help this process by collecting words from popular speech which are in their opinion worthy of a larger currency; they can use them themselves and call the attention of their friends to them, and if they are writers, they may be able, like the writers of the past, to give them a literary standing. If their suggestions are not accepted, no harm is done; while, if they make a happy hit and bring to public notice a popular term or idiom which the language needs and accepts, they have performed a service to our speech of no small importance. L.P.S. NOTES TO THE ABOVE _Rôle_. The italics and accent may be due to consciousness of _roll_. The French word will never make itself comfortable in English if it is homophonous with _roll_. _Timbre_. This word is in a peculiar condition. In the French it has very various significations, but has come to be adopted in music and acoustics to connote the quality of a musical sound independent of its pitch and loudness, a quality derived from the harmonics which the fundamental note intensifies, and that depends on the special form of the instrument. The article _Clang_ in the Oxford Dictionary quotes Professor Tyndall regretting that we have no word for this meaning, and suggesting that we should imitate the awkward German _klang-farbe_. We have no word unless we forcibly deprive _clangour_ of its noisy associations. We generally use _timbre_ in italics and pronounce it as French; and since the word is used only by musicians this does not cause much inconvenience to them, but it is because of its being an unenglish word that it is confined to specialists: and truly if it were an English word the quality which it denotes would be spoken of more frequently, and perhaps be even more differentiated and recognized, though it is well known to every child. Now how should this word be Englished? Is the spelling or the pronunciation to stand? The English pronunciation of the letters of _timbre_ is forbidden by its homophone--a French girl collecting postage-stamps in England explained that she collected _timberposts_--, whereas our English form of the French sound of the word would be approximately _tamber_; and this would be not only a good English-sounding word like _amber_ and _clamber_, but would be like our _tambour_, which is _tympanum_, which again IS _timbre_. So that if our professors and doctors of music were brave, they would speak and write _tamber_, which would be not only English but perfectly correct etymologically. But this is just where what is called 'the rub' comes in. It would, for a month or two, look so peculiar a word that it might require something like a _coup d'état_ to introduce it. And yet the schools of music in London could work the miracle without difficulty or delay. _Swine_. Americans still use the word _pig_ in its original sense of the young of the hog and sow; though they will say _chickens_ for _poultry_. In England we talk of pigs and chickens when we mean swine and poultry. Chaucer has His swyn his hors his stoor and his pultreye. The verb _to pig_ has kept to its meaning, though it has developed another: the substantive probably got loose through its generic employment in composite words, e.g. guinea-pig, sea-pig, &c.; and having acquired a generic use cannot lose it again. But it might perhaps be worth while to distinguish strictly between the generic and the special use of the word _pig_, and not call a sow a pig, nor a hen a chicken. So _hog_ and _sow_ might still have their _pigs_ and be all of them _swine_. _Swift_. Perhaps it is going too far to say that 'swift' is colloquial only in metaphorical applications, we might speak of 'a swift bowler' without exciting surprise; but it is expedient to restore this word to general use, and avoid the use of _fast_ for denotation of speed. 'To stand fast' is very well, but 'to run fast' is thoroughly objectionable. Such a use destroys the sense of firmness which the word is needed and well qualified to denote. _Chide_. This word probably needs its past tense and participle to be securely fixed before it will be used. It is perhaps wholly the uncertainty of these that has made the word to be avoided. _Chid_ and _chidden_ should be taught, and _chode_ and _chided_ condemned as illiterate. NOTE ON 'DYING WORDS' Diderot in his _Lettre sur les Sourds et Muets_ deplores the loss of good old terms in the French of his day; he writes: 'Je blâme cette noblesse prétendue qui nous a fait exclure de notre langue un grand nombre d'expressions énergiques. Les Grecs, les Latins qui ne connoissoient gueres cette fausse délicatesse, disoient en leur langue ce qu'ils vouloient, et comme ils le vouloient. Pour nous, à force de rafiner, nous avons appauvri la nôtre, & n'ayant souvent qu'un terme propre à rendre une idée, nous aimons mieux affoiblir l'idée que de ne pas employer un terme noble.[3] Quelle perte pour ceux d'entre nos Écrivains qui ont l'imagination forte, que celle de tant de mots que nous revoyons avec plaisir dans Amyot & dans Montagne. Ils ont commencé par être rejettés du beau style, parce qu'ils avoient passé dans le peuple; & ensuite rebutés par le peuple même, qui à la longue est toujours le singe des Grands, ils sont devenus tout-à-fait inusités.'... [ED.] [Footnote 3: _Noble_. _Genteel_ would not be a fair translation, but it gives the meaning. Littré quotes: 'Il ne nommera pas le boulanger de Crésus, le palefrenier de Cyrus, le chaudronnier Macistos; il dit grand panetier, écuyer, armurier, avertissant en note que cela est plus _noble_.'] * * * * * CO-OPERATION OF MEMBERS The method by which this Society proposes to work is to collect expert opinion on matters wherein our present use is indeterminate or unsatisfactory, and thus to arrive at a general understanding and consensus of opinion which might be relied on to influence practice. This method implies the active co-operation of the members of the Society, who, it is presumed, are all interested in our aims; and the purpose of our secretary's paper (printed above) is to suggest topics on which members might usefully contribute facts and opinions. The committee, who have added a few notes to the paper, offer some remarks on the topics suggested. 1. Whether it is advisable to Anglicize the spelling of certain French words, like _timbre_, in order to promote their assimilation. A paper dealing with this question, giving as full a list as possible of the _words that are at present in a precarious condition_, and proposing in each case the curative spelling, is invited; and any single practical contribution to the subject will be welcome. 2. A full list of foreign nouns that are uncertain of their Englished plurals is required. The unreadiness to come to a decided opinion in doubtful cases is due to the absence of any overruling principle; and the lack of a general principle is due to ignorance of all the particulars which it would affect. Inconsistent practice is no doubt in many cases established irrevocably, and yet if all the words about which there is at present any uncomfortable feeling were collected and exhibited, it would then probably appear that the majority of instances indicated a general rule of propriety and convenience, and this would immediately decide all doubtful cases, and these, when once recognized and established in educated practice, would win over many other words that are refractory in the absence of rule. What exceptions remained would be tabulated as definitely recognized exceptions. 3. Besides the class of words indicated in Mr. Pearsall Smith's paper, there is another set of plural forms needing attention, and that is the Greek words that denote the various sciences and arts; there is in these an uncertainty and inconsistency in the use of singular and plural forms. We say Music and Physics, but should we say Ethic or Ethics, Esthetic or Esthetics? Here again agreement on a general rule to govern doubtful cases would be a boon. The experience of writers and teachers who are in daily contact with such words should make their opinions of value, and we invite them to deal with the subject. The corresponding use of Latin plurals taking singular verbs, as _Morals_, should be brought under rule. 4. The question of the use of _ae_ (_æ_) and _oe_ (_[oe]_). Our Society from the first abjured the whole controversy about reforms of spelling, but questions of literary propriety and convenience must sometimes involve the spellings; and this is an instance of it. On the main question of phonetic spelling the Society would urge its members to distinguish the use of phonetic script in _teaching_, from its introduction into English _literature_. The first is absolutely desirable and inevitable: the second is not only undesirable but impracticable, though this would not preclude a good deal of reasonable reform in our literary spelling in a phonetic direction. Those who fear that if phonetics is taught in the schools it will then follow that our books will be commonly printed in phonetic symbols, should read Dr. Henry Bradley's lecture to the British Academy 'On the relations between spoken and written language' (1913), and they will see that the Society's Tract II, on 'English Homophones', illustrates the unpractical nature of any scheme either of pure phonetics in the printing of English books, or even of such a scheme as is offered by 'the Simplified Spelling Society'; because the great number of homophones which are now distinguished by their different spellings would make such a phonetic writing as unutilitarian as our present system is: moreover, if it were adopted it would inevitably lead to the elimination of far more of these homophones than we can afford to lose; since it would enforce by its spelling the law which now operates only by speech, that homophones are self-destructive. 5. Mr. Pearsall Smith has returned to the question of dialectal regeneration mentioned in Tract I, in which we invited contributions on the subject. In response we had a paper sent to us, which we do not print because, though full of learning and interesting detail, it was a curious and general disquisition calculated to divert attention from the practical points. What the Society asks for is not a list of lost words that are interesting in themselves: we need rather definite instances of good dialect words which are not homophones and which would conveniently supply wants. That is, any word proposed for rehabilitation in our practical vocabulary should be not only a good word in itself, but should fall into some definite place and relieve and enrich our speech by its usefulness. It is evident that no one person can be expected to supply a full list of such words, but on the other hand there must be very many of our members who could contribute one or two; and such contributions are invited. Exempli gratia. Here are two words with very different titles and claims, _nesh_ and _hyppish_. _Nesh_, which has two columns in the Oxford Dictionary, begins in A.D. 888, and is still heartily alive in Yorks. and North Derbyshire, where it is used in the sense of being _oversensitive to pain and especially to cold_. In this special signification, to which it has locally settled down after a thousand years of experience, it has no rival; and its restoration to our domestic vocabulary would probably have a wholesome moral and physical effect on our children. _Hyppish_ is the Englished form of hypochondriacal, its suffix carrying its usual diminutive value, so that its meaning is 'somewhat hypochondriacal'. Berkeley, Gray, and Swift used _hyps_ or _the hyp_ for hypochondriasis, and the adjective was apparently common. It would seem that _hypochondria_ was then spoken, as _hypocrisy_ still is, with the correct and pleasant short vowels of the Greek prefix, not as now with a long alien diphthong _haipo-_. It was presumably this short y that accidentally killed _hyppish_; for the word _hipped_ was used of a horse lamed in the hip, and alongside of this _hipped_, and maybe attracted by it, an adjective _hypt_ arose. When once _hyp_ and _hypt_ were confounded with _hip_ and _hipped_, _hyppish_ would suffer and lose definition. But _hypt_ and _hipped_ combined forces, and were probably even from the first in their present uncertain condition, for when nowadays a man says that he is _hipped_, he has no definite notion of what he means except that he is in some way, either in his loins or mind incapacitated and out of sorts. Whether _hypt_ and _hipped_ have mortally wounded each other or are still fighting in the dark may be open to discussion: _hyppish_ has now a fair field, and if people would know what the word means, it might be restored, like _nesh_, to useful domestic activity. 6. The example given of the word _fast_ on p. 12 suggests another matter to which attention might be paid. If one looks up any word in the Oxford Dictionary, one will be almost distressed to see how various the significations are to which it is authoritatively susceptible. A word seems to behave like an animal that goes skirting about discontentedly, in search of a more congenial habitation. It is sometimes successful, and meets with surprising welcome in some strange corner where it establishes itself, forgetful of its old home: sometimes, like the bad spirit in the gospel, it will return to the house whence it came forth. It is, of course, natural and essential to a living language that such shades and varieties of meaning should evolve themselves, although they are incidentally a source of ambiguity and subtle traps for careless logic; but when these varieties so diverge as to arrive ultimately at absurdities and contradictions, then it is advisable to get rid of them. In such extreme cases the surgeon's knife may sometimes save life; it is the only cure; and _to use a word in a deforming or deformed sense should be condemned as a solecism_. Contributions, stating examples of this with the proposed taboo, are invited. 7. This last fault, of damaging a word by wrong use, might come under the general head of 'Abuse of words'. This is a wide and popular topic, as may be seen by the constant small rain of private protests in the correspondence columns of the newspapers. The committee of the S.P.E. would be glad to meet the public taste by expert treatment of offending words if members would supply their pet abominations. There was a good letter on the use of _morale_ in the _Times Literary Supplement_ on February 19. The writer, a member of our Society, permits us to reprint it here as a sample of sound treatment. "MORAL(E) 'Tis the sport to have the engineer hoist with his own petard, and the purizing (so to speak) of the purist has been a tempting game since Lucian baited Lexiphanes; may I yield to the temptation? During the war our amateur and other strategists have suppressed the English word _morale_ and combined to force upon us in its stead the French (or Franco-German?) _moral_. We have submitted, as to Dora, but with the secret hope, as about Dora, that when the war's tyranny was overpast we might be allowed our liberty again. Here are two specimens, from your own columns, of the disciplinary measures to which we have been subject: 'He persistently spells _moral_ (state of mind of the troops, not their morality) with a final _e_, a sign of ignorance of French which is unfortunately so often the mark of the classical scholar'; and again, 'The purist in language might quarrel with Mr. ----'s title for this book on the psychology of war, for he means by _morale_ not "ethics" or "moral philosophy", but "the temper of a people expressing itself in action". But no doubt there is authority for the perversion of the French word.' To such discipline we have all been laudably amenable, and _morale_ has seldom been seen in the London papers since 1914; but it, and not _moral_, is the English word; we once all wrote it without thinking twice about the matter; even in war-time one met it in the local newspapers that had not time to keep up with London's latest tricks, and in those parts of the London Press itself that had to use a tongue understanded of the people. It is very refreshing to see that _morale_ is now beginning to show itself again, timidly and occasionally, even in select quarters. The fact is, these literary drill-sergeants have made a mistake; the English _morale_ is not a 'perversion of _the_ French word'; it is a phonetic respelling, and a most useful one, of _a_ French word. We have never had anything to do with the French word _morale_ (ethics, morality, a moral, &c.); but we found the French word _moral_ (state of discipline and spirit in armies, &c.) suited to our needs, and put an _e_ on to it to keep its sound distinct from that of our own word _moral_, just as we have done with the French _local_ (English _locale_) and the German _Choral_ (English _chorale_), and as, using contrary means for the same end of fixing a sound, we have turned French _diplomate_ into English _diplomat_. Our English _forte_ ('Geniality is not his _forte_,' &c.) is altered from the French _fort_ without even the advantage of either keeping the French sound or distinguishing the spoken word from our _fort_; but who proposes to sacrifice the reader's convenience by correcting the 'ignorant' spelling? In the light of these parallels is it not the patrons of _moral_ who deserve the imputation of ignorance rather than we common folk? We do not indeed profess to know what _moral_ and _morale_ mean in French, but then that knowledge is irrelevant. They do not know the true English method of dealing with borrowings from French; and that knowledge is highly relevant. A fair summary of the matter is perhaps this. The case for the spelling _moral_ is that (1) the French use the word _moral_ for what we used to call _morale_, and therefore we ought to do the same; and (2) the French use _morale_ to mean something different from what we mean by it. The case against _moral_ is (1) that it is a new word, less comprehensible to ordinary people, even now, after its war-time currency, than the old _morale_; (2) that it badly needs to be dressed in italics owing to the occasional danger of confusion with the English word _moral_, and that such artificial precautions are never kept up; (3) that half of us do not know whether to call it m[)o]´ral, mor[)a]´l, or morah´l, and that it is a recognized English custom to resolve such doubts by the addition of _-e_ or other change of spelling. And the right choice is surely to make the English word _morale_, use ordinary type, call it morah´l, and ignore or abstain from the French word _morale_, of which we have no need. The risk of confusion, merely mentioned above, perhaps deserves a paragraph to itself. If we reinstate the once almost universal _morale_, we need no italics, and there is no fear of confusion; if we adopt _moral_, we need italics, and there is no hope of getting them; it is at present printed oftener without than with them. The following five extracts, in some of which the English adjective _moral_, and in some the French noun _moral_, is meant, are printed here exactly as they originally appeared, that is, with _moral_ in the same type as the rest, and they are enough to suggest how easy it is for real doubts to arise about which word is being used--'An astounding increase in the moral discipline and patriotism of German soldiers.' Has, or has not, a comma dropped out after _moral_? 'It is, indeed, a new proof of the failing moral and internal troubles of the German people.' Moral and internal? or moral and troubles? 'A true arbitrator, a man really impartial between two contendants and even indifferent to their opposing morals.' 'The Russian army will recover its moral and fighting power.' 'The need of Poland, not only for moral, but for the material support of the Allies.' H. W. FOWLER." * * * * * 'SPELLING PRONUNCIATIONS' Many writers on English pronunciation are accustomed to pour undiscriminating censure on the growing practice of substituting for the traditional mode of pronouncing certain words an 'artificial' pronunciation which is an interpretation of the written form of the words in accordance with the general rules relating to the 'powers' of the letters. This practice is especially common among imperfectly educated people who are ambitious of speaking correctly, and have unfortunately no better standard of 'correctness' than that of conformity with the spelling. I remember hearing a highly-intelligent working-class orator repeatedly pronounce the word _suggest_ as 'sug jest'. Such vagaries as this are not likely ever to be generally adopted. But a good many 'spelling-pronunciations' have found their way into general educated use, and others which are now condemned as vulgar or affected will probably at some future time be universally adopted. I do not share the sentimental regret with which some philologists regard this tendency of the language. It seems to me that each case ought to be judged on its own merits, and by a strictly utilitarian standard. When a 'spelling-pronunciation' is a mere useless pedantry, it is well that we should resist it as long as we can; if it gets itself accepted, we must acquiesce; and unless the change is not only useless but harmful, we should do so without regret, because the influence of the written on the spoken form of language is in itself no more condemnable than any other of the natural processes that affect the development of speech. There are, however, some 'spelling-pronunciations' that are positively mischievous. Many people, though hardly among those who are commonly reckoned good speakers, pronounce _forehead_ as it is written. To do so is irrelevantly to call attention to the etymology of a word that has no longer precisely its etymological sense. When the thing to be denoted is familiar, we require an _identifying_, not a _descriptive_ word for it; and we obey a sound instinct in disguising by a contracted pronunciation the disturbing fact that _forehead_ is a compound. On the other hand, a 'spelling-pronunciation' may conduce to clearness, and then it ought to be encouraged. I have elsewhere advocated the sounding of the initial _p_ in learned (not in popular) words beginning with _ps_; and many other similar reforms might with advantage be adopted. There are also other reasons besides clearness which sometimes justify the assimilation of sound to spelling. Thus the modern pronunciation of _cucumber_ (instead of 'cowcumber') gets rid of the ridiculous association with the word _cow_; and only a fanatical adherent of the principle 'Whatever was is right' would desire to revive the obsolete form. H.B. 
10294	----	Proofreaders VERSE AND PROSE FOR BEGINNERS IN READING _SELECTED FROM ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE_ 1893 PREFACE. The attentive reader of this little book will be apt to notice very soon that though its title is _Verse and Prose for Beginners in Reading_, the verse occupies nine tenths, the prose being confined to about two hundred proverbs and familiar sayings--some of them, indeed, in rhyme--scattered in groups throughout the book. The reason for this will be apparent as soon as one considers the end in view in the preparation of this compilation. The _Riverside Primer and Reader_, as stated in its Introduction, "is designed to serve as the sole text-book in reading required by a pupil. When he has mastered it he is ready to make the acquaintance of the world's literature in the English tongue." In that book, therefore, the pupil was led by easy exercises to an intelligent reading of pieces of literature, both verse and prose, so that he might become in a slight degree familiar with literature before he parted with his sole text-book. But the largest space had, of necessity, to be given to practice work, which led straight to literature, indeed, though to a small quantity only. The verse offered in that book was drawn from nursery rhymes and from a few of the great masters of poetical form; the prose was furnished by a selection of proverbs, some of the simplest folk stories, and two passages, closing the book, from the Old and New Testaments. The pupil, upon laying down his _Primer and Reader_ and proposing to enter the promised land of literature, could find a volume of prose consisting of _Fables and Folk Stories_, into the pleasures of which he had already been initiated; but until now he could find no volume of poetry especially prepared for him which should fulfill the promise of the verse offered to him in his _Primer and Reader_. Be it remembered that he was not so much to read verse written expressly for him, as to overhear the great poets when they sang so simply, so directly, and yet with so penetrating a note that the burden of their song, full, it may be, to the child's elders, would have an awakening power for the child himself. As so often said, a child can receive and delight in a poem through the ear long before he is able to attain the same pleasure through the eye; and there are many poems in such a book, for example, as Miss Agnes Repplier's _A Book of Famous Verse_, wholly delightful for a child to listen to which yet it would be impossible for him to read to himself. The agreeable task of the editor, therefore, was to search English and American literature for those poems which had fallen from the lips of poets with so sweet a cadence and in such simple notes that they would offer but slight difficulties to a child who had mastered the rudiments of reading. It was by no means necessary that such poems should have had an audience of children in mind nor have taken childhood for a subject, though it was natural that a few of the verses should prove to be suggested by some aspect of child-life. The selection must be its own advocate, but it may be worth while to point out that the plan of the book supposes an easy approach to the more serious poems by means of the light ditties of the nursery; that there is no more reason for depriving a child of honest fun in his verse than there is for condemning the child's elders to grave poetry exclusively; and that it is not necessary or even desirable for a poem to come at once within the reader's comprehension. To take an extreme case, Tennyson's lines "Break, Break, Break!" would no doubt be ruled out of such a book as this by many in sympathy with children; yet the unexplainable power of the poem is not beyond the apprehension of sensitive natures at an early age. The contents have been gleaned from a number of sources, and the editor is glad to mingle with the names of the secure dwellers on Parnassus those of some living Americans and Englishmen. He does not pretend that he has made an exhaustive collection, but he hopes the book may be regarded as the nucleus for an anthology which cannot, in the nature of things, be very large. The prose, as already intimated, is confined to groups of proverbs and familiar sayings. In one aspect these single lines of prose present difficulties to the young reader: they are condensed forms of expression, even though the words may be simple; but they offer the convenient small change of intellectual currency which it is well for one to be supplied with at an early stage of one's journey, and they afford to the teacher a capital opportunity for conversational and other exercises. The order of this book is in a general way from the easy to the more difficult, with an attempt, also, at an agreeable variety. The editor has purposely avoided breaking up the book into lesson portions or giving it the air of a text-book. There is no reason why children should not read books as older people read them, for pleasure, and dissociate them from a too persistent notion of tasks. It is entirely possible that some teachers may find it out of the question to lead their classes straight through this book, but there is nothing to forbid them from judicious skipping, or, what is perhaps more to the point, from helping pupils over a difficult word or phrase when it is encountered; the interest which the child takes will carry him over most hard places. It would be a capital use of the book also if teachers were to draw upon it for poems which their pupils should, in the suggestive phrase, learn by heart. To this purpose the contents are singularly well adapted; for, from the single line proverb to a poem by Wordsworth, there is such a wide range of choice that the teacher need not resort to the questionable device of giving children fragments and bits of verse and prose to commit to memory. One of the greatest services we can do the young mind is to accustom it to the perception of _wholes_, and whether this whole be a lyric or a narrative poem like Evangeline, it is almost equally important that the young reader should learn to hold it as such in his mind. To treat a poem as a mere quarry out of which a particularly smooth stone can be chipped is to misinterpret poetry. A poem is a statue, not a quarry. H.E.S. BOSTON, _October_, 1893. CONTENTS. ALPHABET _Mother Goose_ A DEWDROP _Frank Dempster Sherman_ BEES _Frank Dempster Sherman_ RHYMES. Baa, baa, black sheep Bless you, bless you, burnie bee Bow, wow, wow Bye, baby bunting _Mother Goose_ STAR LIGHT _Unknown_ THE LITTLE MOON _A.B. White_ TO A HONEY-BEE _Alice Gary_ RHYMES. A cat came fiddling A dillar, a dollar As I was going to St. Ives As I was going up Pippen Hill A swarm of bees in May _Mother Goose_ PROVERBS AND POPULAR SAYINGS NONSENSE ALPHABET _Edward Lear_ THE EGG IN THE NEST _Unknown_ RHYMES Hey! diddle diddle Pussy sits beside the fire Ding dong bell _Mother Goose_ DAISIES _Frank Dempster Sherman_ SPINNING TOP _Frank Dempster Sherman_ PROVERBS AND POPULAR SAYINGS RHYMES. Bobby Shafto's gone to sea Every lady in this land Great A, little a Hark, hark Sing a song of sixpence Hickory, dickory dock Hot-cross buns! How does my lady's garden grow? Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall Hush-a-bye, baby, on the tree-top Some little mice sat in a barn to spin If all the world were apple-pie If wishes were horses I have a little sister _Mother Goose_ WHO STOLE THE BIRD'S NEST? _Lydia Maria Child_ RHYMES. I saw a ship a-sailing Jack and Jill went up the hill Little Bo-peep Little boy blue Little girl, little girl Little Jack Horner sat in the corner Little Johnny Pringle had a little pig Little Miss Muffet There was a little man Little Tommy Tacker _Mother Goose_ PROVERBS AND POPULAR SAYINGS HAPPY THOUGHT _Robert Louis Stevenson_ THE SUN'S TRAVELS _Robert Louis Stevenson_ MY BED IS A BOAT _Robert Louis Stevenson_ THE SWING _Robert Louis Stevenson_ RHYMES Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John Mistress Mary, quite contrary Old King Cole Old Mother Hubbard _Mother Goose_ RUNAWAY BROOK _Eliza Lee Fallen_ BED IN SUMMER _Robert Louis Stevenson_ AT THE SEASIDE _Robert Louis Stevenson_ THE MEETING OF THE SHIPS _Thomas Moore_ PROVERBS AND POPULAR SAYINGS Three little kittens Once I saw a little bird One misty, moisty morning Peter Piper Ride a cock-horse to Banbury-cross Three wise men of Gotham See, saw, sacradown Simple Simon met a pieman _Mother Goose_ PRETTY COW _Jane Taylor_ THE STAR _Jane Taylor_ MARY'S LAMB _Sara Josepha Hale_ PROVERBS AND POPULAR SAYINGS RHYMES Solomon Grundy The King of France The man in the wilderness There was a crooked man Tom, Tom, the piper's son There was a little boy There was a man of our town This pig went to market Tom, Tom, of Islington _Mother Goose_ WEE WILLIE WINKIE _William Miller_ SINGING _Robert Louis Stevenson_ THE COW _Robert Louis Stevenson_ GOOD-NIGHT AND GOOD-MORNING _Richard Monckton Milnes_ MOTHER'S EYES _Mary D.B.Hull_ THE LAND OF NOD _Robert Louis Stevenson_ PROVERBS AND POPULAR SAYINGS RHYMES When I was a little boy Where are you going, my pretty maid? Who killed Cock Robin _Mother Goose_ EPITAPH FOR ROBIN REDBREAST _Edith Matilda Thomas_ PLAY WITH ME _Edith Matilda Thomas_ THE PIPER _William Blake_ INFANT JOY _William Blake_ THE LAMB _William Blake_ THE LITTLE BOY LOST _William Blake_ THE LITTLE BOY FOUND _William Blake_ ON THE VOWELS _Jonathan Swift_ LETTERS _Ralph Waldo Emerson_ ON A CIRCLE _Jonathan Swift_ ARIEL'S SONG _William Shakespeare_ PROVERBS AND POPULAR SAYINGS SONG _Thomas Hood_ YOUTH AND AGE _Thomas Hood_ UPON SUSANNA'S FEET _Robert Herrick_ UPON A CHILD THAT DIED _Robert Herrick_ CHERRY-RIPE _Robert Herrick_ ANSWER TO A CHILD'S QUESTION _Samuel Taylor Coleridge_ PROVERBS AND POPULAR SAYINGS "ONE, TWO, THREE!" _Henry Cuyler Bunner_ THE BIRD AND ITS NEST _Alfred Tennyson_ PROVERBS AND POPULAR SAYINGS WINDY NIGHTS _Robert Louis Stevenson_ NONSENSE VERSES _Edward Lear_ PROVERBS AND POPULAR SAYINGS SONG _Robert Burns_ SWEET AND LOW _Alfred Tennyson_ AGAINST IDLENESS AND MISCHIEF _Isaac Watts_ "BREAK, BREAK, BREAK" _Alfred Tennyson_ THE ARROW AND THE SONG _Henry Wadsworth Longfellow_ PROVERBS AND POPULAR SAYINGS THE TABLE AND THE CHAIR _Edward Lear_ THE OWL _Alfred Tennyson_ THE OWL AND THE PUSSY-CAT _Edward Lear_ PROVERBS AND POPULAR SAYINGS FABLE _Ralph Waldo Emerson_ WRITTEN IN MARCH _William Wordsworth_ THOSE EVENING BELLS _Thomas Moore_ TO A BUTTERFLY _William Wordsworth_ PROVERBS AND POPULAR SAYINGS LUCY _William Wordsworth_ LUCY GRAY, OR SOLITUDE _William Wordsworth_ POOR SUSAN _William Wordsworth_ VERSE AND PROSE FOR BEGINNERS IN READING. ALPHABET. A was an apple-pie; B bit it; C cut it; D dealt it; E ate it; F fought for it; G got it; H had it; J joined it; K kept it; L longed for it: M mourned for it; N nodded at it; O opened it; P peeped into it; Q quartered it; R ran for it; S stole it; T took it; V viewed it; W wanted it; X, Y, Z, and amperse-and, All wished for a piece in hand. A DEWDROP. Little drop of dew, Like a gem you are; I believe that you Must have been a star. When the day is bright, On the grass you lie; Tell me then, at night Are you in the sky? BEES. Bees don't care about the snow; I can tell you why that's so: Once I caught a little bee Who was much too warm for me! * * * * * Baa, baa, black sheep, Have you any wool? Yes, marry, have I, Three bags full; One for my master, And one for my dame, But none for the little boy Who cries in the lane. * * * * * Bless you, bless you, burnie bee; Say, when will your wedding be? If it be to-morrow day, Take your wings and fly away. * * * * * Bow, wow, wow, Whose dog art thou? Little Tom Tinker's dog, Bow, wow, wow. * * * * * Bye, baby bunting, Daddy's gone a-hunting, To get a little rabbit skin To wrap the baby bunting in. * * * * * Star light, star bright, First star I see to-night; I wish I may, I wish I might, Have the wish I wish to-night. * * * * * The little moon came out too soon, And in her fright looked thin and white, The stars then shone, And every one Twinkled and winked and laughed and blinked. The great sun now rolled forth in might And drove them all quite out of sight. TO A HONEY-BEE. "Busy-body, busy-body, Always on the wing, Wait a bit, where you have lit, And tell me why you sing." Up, and in the air again, Flap, flap, flap! And now she stops, and now she drops Into the rose's lap. "Come, just a minute come, From your rose so red." Hum, hum, hum, hum-- That was all she said. "Busy-body, busy-body, Always light and gay, It seems to me, for all I see, Your work is only play." And now the day is sinking to The goldenest of eves, And she doth creep for quiet sleep Among the lily-leaves. "Come, just a moment come, From your snowy bed." Hum, hum, hum, hum-- That was all she said. But, the while I mused, I learned The secret of her way: Do my part with cheerful heart, And turn my work to play. * * * * * A cat came fiddling out of a barn, With a pair of bag-pipes under her arm; She could sing nothing but fiddle-de-dee, The mouse has married the bumble-bee; Pipe, cat,--dance, mouse,-- We'll have a wedding at our good house. * * * * * A dillar, a dollar, A ten o'clock scholar, What makes you come so soon? You used to come at ten o'clock, But now you come at noon. * * * * * As I was going to St. Ives, I met a man with seven wives; Every wife had seven sacks, Every sack had seven cats, Every cat had seven kits: Kits, cats, sacks, and wives, How many were there going to St. Ives? * * * * * As I was going up Pippen Hill,-- Pippen Hill was dirty,-- There I met a pretty miss, And she dropped me a curtsy. Little miss, pretty miss, Blessings light upon you; If I had half-a-crown a day, I'd spend it all upon you. * * * * * A swarm of bees in May Is worth a load of hay; A swarm of bees in June Is worth a silver spoon; A swarm of bees in July Is not worth a fly. PROVERBS AND POPULAR SAYINGS. As blind as a bat. As broad as it is long. As cross as two sticks. As dark as pitch. As dead as a door nail. As dead as a herring. As full as an egg is of meat. As hot as toast. As like as two peas. As merry as a cricket. As plain as the nose on a man's face. As quiet as a mouse. As sharp as a razor. As straight as an arrow. As sweet as honey. As true as steel. As weak as water. NONSENSE ALPHABET. A was an ant Who seldom stood still, And who made a nice house In the side of a hill. Nice little ant! B was a bat, Who slept all the day, And fluttered about When the sun went away. Brown little bat! C was a camel: You rode on his hump; And if you fell off, You came down such a bump! What a high camel! D was a duck With spots on his back, Who lived in the water, And always said "Quack!" Dear little duck! E was an elephant, Stately and wise: He had tusks and a trunk, And two queer little eyes. Oh, what funny small eyes! F was a fish Who was caught in a net; But he got out again, And is quite alive yet. Lively young fish! G was a goat Who was spotted with brown: When he did not lie still He walked up and down. Good little goat! H was a hat Which was all on one side; Its crown was too high, And its brim was too wide. Oh, what a hat! I was some ice So white and so nice, But which nobody tasted; And so it was wasted. All that good ice! J was a jug, So pretty and white, With fresh water in it At morning and night. Nice little jug! K was a kite Which flew out of sight, Above houses so high, Quite into the sky. Fly away, kite! L was a lily, So white and so sweet! To see it and smell it Was quite a nice treat. Beautiful lily! M was a man, Who walked round and round; And he wore a long coat That came down to the ground. Funny old man! N was a net Which was thrown In the sea To catch fish for dinner For you and for me. Nice little net! O was an orange So yellow and round: When it fell off the tree, It fell down to the ground. Down to the ground! P was a polly. All red, blue, and green,-- The most beautiful polly That ever was seen. Poor little polly! Q was a quail With a very short tail; And he fed upon corn In the evening and morn. Quaint little quail! R was a rabbit, Who had a bad habit Of eating the flowers In gardens and bowers. Naughty fat rabbit! S was the sugar-tongs, Nippity-nee, To take up the sugar To put in our tea. Nippity-nee! T was a tortoise, All yellow and black: He walked slowly away, And he never came back. Torty never came back! U was an urn All polished and bright, And full of hot water At noon and at night. Useful old urn! V was a veil With a border upon it, And a ribbon to tie it All round a pink bonnet. Pretty green veil! W was a watch, Where, in letters of gold, The hour of the day You might always behold. Beautiful watch! Y was a yew, Which flourished and grew By a quiet abode Near the side of a road. Dark little yew! Z was a zebra, All striped white and black; And if he were tame, You might ride on his back. Pretty striped zebra! THE EGG IN THE NEST. There was a tree stood in the ground, The prettiest tree you ever did see; The tree in the wood, and the wood in the ground, And the green grass growing all around. And on this tree there was a limb, The prettiest limb you ever did see; The limb on the tree, and the tree in the wood, The tree in the wood, and the wood in the ground, And the green grass growing all around. And on this limb there was a bough, The prettiest bough you ever did see; The bough on the limb, and the limb on the tree, The limb on the tree, and the tree in the wood, The tree in the wood, and the wood in the ground, And the green grass growing all around. Now on this bough there was a nest, And in this nest there were some eggs, The prettiest eggs you ever did see; Eggs in the nest, and the nest on the bough, The bough on the limb, and the limb on the tree, The limb on the tree, and the tree in the wood, The tree in the wood, and the wood in the ground, And the green grass growing all around, And the green grass growing all around. * * * * * Hey! diddle, diddle, The cat and the fiddle, The cow jumped over the moon; The little dog laughed To see such sport, And the dish ran away with the spoon. * * * * * Pussy sits beside the fire, How can she be fair? In comes the little dog, "Pussy, are you there? So, so, dear Mistress Pussy, Pray tell me how do you do?" "Thank you, thank you, little dog, I'm very well just now." * * * * * Ding dong bell, The cat's in the well! Who put her in?-- Little Johnny Green. Who pulled her out?-- Big Johnny Stout. What a naughty boy was that To drown poor pussy cat, Who never did him any harm, But killed the mice in his father's barn! DAISIES. At evening when I go to bed I see the stars shine overhead; They are the little daisies white That dot the meadow of the Night. And often while I'm dreaming so, Across the sky the Moon will go; It is a lady, sweet and fair, Who comes to gather daisies there. For, when at morning I arise, There's not a star left in the skies; She's picked them all and dropped them down Into the meadows of the town. SPINNING TOP. When I spin round without a stop And keep my balance like the top, I find that soon the floor will swim Before my eyes; and then, like him, I lie all dizzy on the floor Until I feel like spinning more. PROVERBS AND POPULAR SAYINGS. Every dog has its day. Every horse thinks his own pack heaviest. Every little helps. Every man for himself, and God for us all. Faint heart never won fair lady. Fair words butter no parsnips. Fine feathers make fine birds. Follow the river and you will get to the sea. Fools build houses, and wise men live in them. For every evil under the sun, there is a remedy, or there is none; If there be one, try and find It; if there be none, never mind it. For want of a nail the shoe is lost; for want of a shoe the horse is lost; for want of a horse the rider is lost. * * * * * Bobby Shafto's gone to sea, With silver buckles at his knee; He'll come back and marry me,-- Pretty Bobby Shafto! Bobby Shafto's fat and fair, Combing out his yellow hair, He's my love for evermore,-- Pretty Bobby Shafto! * * * * * Every lady in this land Has twenty nails upon each hand Five and twenty on hands and feet. All this is true without deceit. * * * * * Great A, little a, Bouncing B! The cat's in the cupboard, And she can't see. * * * * * Hark, hark, The dogs do bark, The beggars are coming to town; Some in rags, Some in jags, And some in velvet gowns. * * * * * Sing a song of sixpence, A pocket full of rye; Four and twenty blackbirds Baked in a pie; When the pie was opened, The birds began to sing; Was not that a dainty dish To set before the king? The king was in the parlor, Counting out his money; The queen was in the kitchen, Eating bread and honey; The maid was in the garden, Hanging out the clothes; There came a little blackbird, And snipped off her nose. Jenny was so mad, She didn't know what to do; She put her finger in her ear, And cracked it right in two. * * * * * Hickory, dickory, dock, The mouse ran up the clock, The clock struck one, The mouse ran down; Hickory, dickory, dock. * * * * * Hot-cross buns! Hot-cross buns! One a penny, two a penny. Hot-cross buns! Hot-cross buns! Hot-cross buns! If ye have no daughters, Give them to your sons. * * * * * How does my lady's garden grow? How does my lady's garden grow? With cockle shells, and silver bells, And pretty maids all of a row. * * * * * Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall, Humpty Dumpty had a great fall; Threescore men and threescore more Cannot place Humpty Dumpty as he was before. * * * * * Hush-a-bye, baby, on the tree-top, When the wind blows, the cradle will rock, When the bough bends, the cradle will fall, Down will come baby, bough, cradle, and all. * * * * * Some little mice sat in a barn to spin; Pussy came by, and popped her head in; "Shall I come in, and cut your threads off?" "Oh, no, kind sir, you would snap our heads off." * * * * * If all the world were apple-pie? And all the sea were ink. And all the trees were bread and cheese, What should we have for drink? * * * * * If wishes were horses, Beggars might ride; If turnips were watches, I would wear one by my side. * * * * * I have a little sister, they call her peep, peep; She wades the waters deep, deep, deep; She climbs the mountains high, high, high; Poor little creature, she has but one eye. WHO STOLE THE BIRD'S NEST? "To-whit! to-whit! to-whee! Will you listen to me? Who stole four eggs I laid, And the nice nest I made?" "Not I," said the cow, "Moo-oo! Such a thing I'd never do. I gave you a wisp of hay, But didn't take your nest away. Not I," said the cow, "Moo-oo! Such a thing I'd never do." "To-whit! to-whit! to-whee! Will you listen to me? Who stole four eggs I laid, And the nice nest I made?" "Bob-o'-link! Bob-o'-link! Now what do you think? Who stole a nest away From the plum-tree, to-day?" "Not I," said the dog, "Bow-wow! I wouldn't be so mean, any how! I gave the hairs the nest to make, But the nest I did not take. Not I," said the dog, "Bow-wow! I'm not so mean, anyhow." "To-whit! to-whit! to-whee! Will you listen to me? Who stole four eggs I laid, And the nice nest I made?" "Bob-o'-link! Bob-o'-link! Now what do you think? Who stole a nest away From the plum-tree? to-day?" "Coo-coo! Coo-coo! Coo-coo! Let me speak a word, too! Who stole that pretty nest From little yellow-breast?" "Not I," said the sheep; "oh, no! I wouldn't treat a poor bird so. I gave wool the nest to line, But the nest was none of mine. Baa! Baa!" said the sheep; "oh, no, I wouldn't treat a poor bird so." "To-whit! to-whit! to-whee! Will you listen to me? Who stole four eggs I laid, And the nice nest I made?" "Bob-o'-link! Bob-o'-link! Now what do you think? Who stole a nest away From the plum-tree, to-day?" "Coo-coo! Coo-coo! Coo-coo! Let me speak a word, too! Who stole that pretty nest From little yellow-breast?" "Caw! Caw!" cried the crow; "I should like to know What thief took away A bird's nest to-day?" "Cluck! Cluck!" said the hen; "Don't ask me again, Why, I haven't a chick Would do such a trick. We all gave her a feather, And she wove them together. I'd scorn to intrude On her and her brood. Cluck! Cluck!" said the hen, "Don't ask me again." "Chirr-a-whirr! Chirr-a-whirr! All the birds make a stir! Let us find out his name, And all cry 'for shame!'" "I would not rob a bird," Said little Mary Green; "I think I never heard Of anything so mean." "It is very cruel, too," Said little Alice Neal; "I wonder if he knew How sad the bird would feel?" A little boy hung down his head, And went and hid behind the bed, For he stole that pretty nest From poor little yellow-breast; And he felt so full of shame, He didn't like to tell his name. * * * * * I saw a ship a-sailing, A-sailing on the sea; And oh, it was all laden With pretty things for thee! There were comfits in the cabin, And apples in the hold; The sails were made of silk, And the masts were made of gold! The four and twenty sailors, That stood between the decks, Were four and twenty white mice, With chains about their necks. The captain was a duck, With a packet on his back; And when the ship began to move. The captain said, "Quack! Quack!" * * * * * Jack and Jill went up the hill, To fetch a pail of water; Jack fell down, and broke his crown, And Jill came tumbling after. * * * * * Little Bo-peep has lost her sheep, And can't tell where to find them; Leave them alone, and they'll come home, And bring their tails behind them. Little Bo-peep fell fast asleep, And dreamed she heard them bleating; But when she awoke, she found it a joke, For they were still a-fleeting. Then up she took her little crook, Determined for to find them; She found them indeed, but it made her heart bleed, For they'd left all their tails behind 'em. * * * * * Little boy blue, come blow your horn, The sheep's in the meadow, the cow's in the corn; Where's the little boy that tends the sheep? He's under the haycock, fast asleep. Go wake him, go wake him. Oh, no, not I; For if I awake him, he'll certainly cry. * * * * * Little girl, little girl, where have you been? Gathering roses to give to the queen. Little girl, little girl, what gave she you? She gave me a diamond as big as my shoe. * * * * * Little Jack Horner sat in the corner, Eating a Christmas pie; He put in his thumb, and he took out a plum, And said, "What a good boy am I!" * * * * * Little Johnny Pringle had a little pig; It was very little, so was not very big. As it was playing beneath the shed, In half a minute poor Piggie was dead. So Johnny Pringle he sat down and cried, And Betty Pringle she lay down and died. There is the history of one, two, and three, Johnny Pringle, Betty Pringle, and Piggie Wiggie. * * * * * Little Miss Muffet She sat on a tuffet, Eating of curds and whey; There came a black spider, And sat down beside her, Which frightened Miss Muffet away. * * * * * There was a little man, And he had a little gun, And his bullets were made of lead, lead, lead; He went to the brook. And he saw a little duck, And shot it through the head, head, head. He carried it home To his wife Joan, And bade her a fire to make, make, make, To roast the little duck, He had shot in the brook, And he'd go and fetch the drake, drake, drake. * * * * * Little Tommy Tucker Sing for your supper. What shall I sing? White bread and butter. How shall I cut it Without any knife? How shall I marry Without any wife? PROVERBS AND POPULAR SAYINGS. At sixes and sevens. Beauty is but skin deep. Half a loaf is better than no bread. Better late than never. Better live well than long. Beware of no man more than thyself. Birds of a feather will flock together. Christmas comes but once a year; And when it comes, it brings good cheer; But when it's gone, it's never the near. Brag is a good dog, but Holdfast is a better. By fits and starts. By and by is easily said. Care will kill a cat. Cats hide their claws. Constant dropping wears the stone. Count not your chickens before they are hatched. Debt is the worst poverty. Do not spur a free horse. Don't cry till you are out of the wood. Drive thy business; let not that drive thee. Early to bed, and early to rise, Makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise. East or west, home is best. Enough is as good as a feast. Everybody's business is nobody's business. HAPPY THOUGHT. The world is so full of a number of things, I'm sure we should all be as happy as kings. THE SUN'S TRAVELS. The sun is not abed, when I At night upon my pillow lie; Still round the earth his way he takes, And morning after morning makes. While here at home, in shining day, We round the sunny garden play, Each little Indian sleepy-head Is being kissed and put to bed. And when at eve I rise from tea, Day dawns beyond the Atlantic Sea; And all the children in the West Are getting up and being dressed. MY BED IS A BOAT. My bed is like a little boat; Nurse helps me in when I embark; She girds me in my sailor's coat And starts me in the dark. At night, I go on board and say Good-night to all my friends on shore; I shut my eyes and sail away And see and hear no more. And sometimes things to bed I take, As prudent sailors have to do; Perhaps a slice of wedding-cake, Perhaps a toy or two. All night across the dark we steer; But when the day returns at last, Safe in my room, beside the pier, I find my vessel fast. THE SWING. How do you like to go up in a swing, Up in the air so blue? Oh, I do think it the pleasantest thing Ever a child can do! Up in the air and over the wall, Till I can see so wide, Rivers and trees and cattle and all Over the countryside-- Till I look down on the garden green, Down on the roof so brown-- Up in the air I go flying again, Up in the air and down! * * * * * Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John Guard the bed that I lie on! Four corners to my bed, Four angels round my head; One to watch, one to pray, And two to bear my soul away. * * * * * Mistress Mary, quite contrary, How does your garden grow? With cockle-shells, and silver bells, And pretty maids all in a row. * * * * * Old King Cole Was a merry old soul, And a merry old soul was he; He called for his pipe, And he called for his bowl, And he called for his fiddlers three. Every fiddler, he had a fiddle, And a very fine fiddle had he; Twee tweedle dee, tweedle dee, went the fiddlers. Oh, there's none so rare, As can compare With old King Cole and his fiddlers three! MOTHER HUBBARD AND HER DOG Old Mother Hubbard Went to the cupboard, To get her poor dog a bone; But when she came there, The cupboard was bare, And so the poor dog had none. She went to the baker's To buy him some bread; But when she came back, The poor dog was dead. She went to the joiner's To buy him a coffin; But when she came back. The poor dog was laughing. She took a clean dish To get him some tripe; But when she came back, He was smoking his pipe. She went to the fishmonger's To buy him some fish; And when she came back, He was licking the dish. She went to the ale-house To get him some beer; But when she came back, The dog sat in a chair. She went to the tavern For white wine and red; But when she came back, The dog stood on his head. She went to the hatter's To buy him a hat; But when she came back, He was feeding the cat. She went to the barber's To buy him a wig; But when she came back, He was dancing a jig. She went to the fruiterer's To buy him some fruit; But when she came back, He was playing the flute. She went to the tailor's To buy him a coat; But when she came back, He was riding a goat. She went to the cobbler's To buy him some shoes; But when she came back, He was reading the news. She went to the seamstress To buy him some linen; But when she came back, The dog was spinning. She went to the hosiers To buy him some hose; But when she came back, He was dressed in his clothes. The dame made a curtsy, The dog made a bow; The dame said, Your servant, The dog said; Bow, wow. RUNAWAY BROOK. "Stop, stop, pretty water!" Said Mary one day, To a frolicsome brook, That was running away. "You run on so fast! I wish you would stay; My boat and my flowers You will carry away. "But I will run after: Mother says that I may; For I would know where You are running away." So Mary ran on; But I have heard say, That she never could find Where the brook ran away. BED IN SUMMER. In winter I get up at night And dress by yellow candle-light. In summer, quite the other way, I have to go to bed by day. I have to go to bed and see The birds still hopping on the tree, Or hear the grown-up people's feet Still going past me in the street. And does it not seem hard to you, When all the sky is clear and blue, And I should like so much to play, To have to go to bed by day? AT THE SEASIDE When I was down beside the sea A wooden spade they gave to me To dig the sandy shore. My holes were empty like a cup, In every hole the sea came up, Till it could come no more. THE MEETING OF THE SHIPS. When o'er the silent seas alone, For days and nights we've cheerless gone, Oh, they who've felt it know how sweet, Some sunny morn a sail to meet. Sparkling at once is ev'ry eye, "Ship ahoy! ship ahoy!" our joyful cry; While answering back the sounds we hear, "Ship ahoy! ship ahoy! what cheer? what cheer?" Then sails are back'd, we nearer come, Kind words are said of friends and home; And soon, too soon, we part with pain, To sail o'er silent seas again. PROVERBS AND POPULAR SAYINGS. A barking dog seldom bites. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. A cat may look at a king. A chip of the old block. A day after the fair. A fool and his money are soon parted. A fool may ask more questions in an hour than a wise man can answer in seven years. A fool may make money, but it needs a wise man to spend it. A friend in need is a friend indeed. A good garden may have some weeds. A good workman is known by his chips. A hard beginning makes a good ending. * * * * * Three little kittens lost their mittens, And they began to cry: "O mother dear, we very much fear That we have lost our mittens." "Lost your mittens, you naughty kittens! Then you shall have no pie." "Mee-ow, mee-ow, mee-ow! And we can have no pie. Mee-ow, mee-ow, mee-ow!" * * * * * Once I saw a little bird Come hop, hop, hop; So I cried, "Little bird, Will you stop, stop, stop?" And was going to the window To say, "How do you do?" But he shook his little tail, And far away he flew. * * * * * One misty, moisty morning, When cloudy was the weather, I chanced to meet an old man Clothed all in leather; He began to compliment, And I began to grin,-- "How do you do," and "How do you do," And "How do you do" again! * * * * * Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers; A peck of pickled peppers Peter Piper picked; If Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers, Where's the peck of pickled peppers Peter Piper picked? * * * * * Rid a cock-horse to Banbury-cross To see an old lady upon a white horse, Rings on her fingers, and bells on her toes, And so she makes music wherever she goes. * * * * * Three wise men of Gotham Went to sea in a bowl; If the bowl had been stronger, My song would have been longer. * * * * * See, saw, sacradown, Which is the way to London town? One foot up, the other foot down, And that is the way to London town. * * * * * Simple Simon met a pieman Going to the fair; Says Simple Simon to the pieman, "Let me taste your ware." Says the pieman to Simple Simon, "Show me first your penny;" Says Simple Simon to the pieman, "Indeed, I have not any." Simple Simon went a-fishing For to catch a whale; All the water he had got Was in his mother's pail. Simple Simon went to look If plums grew on a thistle; He pricked his fingers very much, Which made poor Simon whistle. PRETTY COW. Thank you? pretty cow, that made Pleasant milk to soak my bread, Every day and every night, Warm, and fresh, and sweet, and white. Do not chew the hemlock rank, Growing on the weedy bank; But the yellow cowslips eat, That will make it very sweet. Where the purple violet grows, Where the bubbling water flows, Where the grass is fresh and fine. Pretty cow, go there and dine. THE STAR. Twinkle, twinkle, little star; How I wonder what you are! Up above the world so high, Like a diamond in the sky. When the glorious sun is set, When the grass with dew is wet, Then you show your little light, Twinkle, twinkle, all the night. In the dark blue sky you keep, And often through my curtains peep; For you never shut your eye Till the sun is in the sky. As your bright and tiny spark, Lights the traveller in the dark, Though I know not what you are, Twinkle, twinkle, little star. MARY'S LAMB. Mary had a little lamb, Its fleece was white as snow; And everywhere that Mary went, The lamb was sure to go. He followed her to school one day,-- That was against the rule; It made the children laugh and play, To see a lamb at school. So the teacher turned him out, But still he lingered near, And waited patiently about, Till Mary did appear. Then he ran to her, and laid His head upon her arm, As if he said, "I'm not afraid,-- You'll keep me from all harm." "What makes the lamb love Mary so?" The eager children cry. "Oh, Mary loves the lamb, you know," The teacher did reply. PROVERBS AND POPULAR SAYINGS. A watched pot never boils. After dinner sit awhile; after supper walk a mile. All his fingers are thumbs. All is fish that comes to the net. All is not gold that glitters. All's well that ends well. All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy. All your geese are swans. Always taking out of the meal tub, and never putting in, soon comes to the bottom. An inch on a man's nose is much. An old bird is not caught with chaff. An old dog will learn no new tricks. As bare as the back of my hand. * * * * * Solomon Grundy, Born on a Monday, Christened on Tuesday, Married on Wednesday, Took ill on Thursday, Worse on Friday, Died on Saturday, Buried on Sunday: This is the end Of Solomon Grundy. * * * * * The King of France went up the hill, With twenty thousand men; The King of France came down the hill, And ne'er went up again. * * * * * The man in the wilderness asked me, How many strawberries grew in the sea. I answered him, as I thought good, As many red herrings as grew in the wood. * * * * * There was a crooked man, and he went a crooked mile, He found a crooked sixpence against a crooked stile: He bought a crooked cat, which caught a crooked mouse, And they all lived together in a little crooked house. * * * * * Tom, Tom, the piper's son, Stole a pig and away he run! The pig was eat, and Tom was beat, And Tom went roaring down the street. * * * * * There was a little boy went into a barn, And lay down on some hay; An owl came out and flew about, And the little boy ran away. * * * * * There was a man of our town, And he was wondrous wise; He jumped into a bramble bush, And scratched out both his eyes: And when he saw his eyes were out, With all his might and main He jumped into another bush, And scratched 'em in again. * * * * * 1. This pig went to market; 2. This pig stayed at home; 3. This pig had a bit of meat; 4. And this pig had none; 5. This pig said, "Wee, wee, wee! I can't find my way home." * * * * * Tom, Tom, of Islington, Married a wife on Sunday; Brought her home on Monday; Hired a house on Tuesday; Fed her well on Wednesday; Sick was she on Thursday; Dead was she on Friday; Sad was Tom on Saturday, To bury his wife on Sunday. WEE WILLIE WINKIE. Wee Willie Winkie Runs through the town, Upstairs and downstairs, In his night-gown; Tapping at the window, Crying at the lock, "Are the babes in their bed? For it's now ten o'clock." SINGING. Of speckled eggs the birdie sings And nests among the trees; The sailor sings of ropes and things In ships upon the seas. The children sing in far Japan, The children sing in Spain; The organ with the organ man Is singing in the rain. THE COW. The friendly cow all red and white, I love with all my heart; She gives me cream with all her might, To eat with apple-tart. She wanders lowing here and there, And yet she cannot stray, All in the pleasant open air, The pleasant light of day; And blown by all the winds that pass And wet with all the showers. She walks among the meadow grass And eats the meadow flowers. GOOD-NIGHT AND GOOD-MORNING. A fair little girl sat under a tree, Sewing as long as her eyes could see; Then smoothed her work and folded it right And said, "Dear work, good-night, good-night!" Such a number of rooks came over her head, Crying "Caw! Caw!" on their way to bed, She said, as she watched their curious flight, "Little black things, good-night, good-night!" The horses neighed, and the oxen lowed, The sheep's "Bleat! Bleat!" came over the road; All seeming to say, with a quiet delight, "Good little girl, good-night, good-night!" She did not say to the sun, "Good-night!" Though she saw him there like a ball of light; For she knew he had God's time to keep All over the world and never could sleep. The tall pink foxglove bowed his head; The violets curtsied, and went to bed; And good little Lucy tied up her hair, And said, on her knees, her favorite prayer. And while on her pillow she softly lay, She knew nothing more till again it was day; And all things said to the beautiful sun, "Good-morning, good-morning! our work is begun." MOTHER'S EYES. What are the songs the mother sings? Of birds and flowers and pretty things; Baby lies in her arms and spies All his world in the mother's eyes. What are the tales the mother tells? Of gems and jewels and silver bells; Baby lies in her arms and spies All his wealth in the mother's eyes. What are the thoughts in the mother's mind? Of the gentle Saviour, loving and kind; Baby lies in her arms and spies All his heaven in the mother's eyes. THE LAND OF NOD. From breakfast on through all the day At home among my friends I stay, But every night I go abroad Afar into the land of Nod. All by myself I have to go, With, none to tell me what to do-- All alone beside the streams And up the mountain sides of dreams. The strangest things are there for me, Both things to eat and things to see, And many frightening sights abroad, Till morning in the land of Nod. Try as I like to find the way, I never can get back by day, Nor can remember plain and clear The curious music that I hear. PROVERBS AND POPULAR SAYINGS. A lass that has many wooers oft fares the worst. A lazy sheep thinks its wool heavy. A little leak will sink a great ship. A living dog is better than a dead lion. A man of words, and not of deeds, is like a garden full of weeds. A man's house is his castle. A miss is as good as a mile. A penny for your thought. A penny saved is a penny got. A rolling stone will gather no moss. A small spark makes a great fire. A stitch in time saves nine. A tree is known by its fruit. * * * * * When I was a little boy, I lived by myself, And all the bread and cheese I got I put upon the shelf; The rats and the mice did lead me such a life, I was forced to go to London to buy me a wife. The streets were so broad, and the lanes were so narrow, I could not get my wife home without a wheelbarrow; The wheelbarrow broke, my wife got a fall, Down tumbled wheelbarrow, little wife, and all. * * * * * Where are you going, my pretty maid? "I'm going a-milking, sir," she said. May I go with you, my pretty maid? "You're kindly welcome, sir," she said. What is your father, my pretty maid? "My father's a farmer, sir," she said. Say, will you marry me, my pretty maid? "Yes, if you please, kind sir," she said. Will you be constant, my pretty maid? "That I can't promise you, sir," she said. Then I won't marry you, my pretty maid! "Nobody asked you, sir!" she said. * * * * * Who killed Cock Robin? "I," said the Sparrow, "With my bow and arrow, I killed Cock Robin." Who saw him die? "I," said the Fly, "With my little eye, And I saw him die." Who caught his blood? "I," said the Fish, "With my little dish, And I caught his blood." Who made his shroud? "I," said the Beadle, "With my little needle, And I made his shroud." Who shall dig his grave? "I," said the Owl, "With my spade and showl [shovel], And I'll dig his grave." Who'll be the parson? "I," said the Rook, "With my little book, And I'll be the parson" Who'll be the clerk? "I," said the Lark, "If it's not in the dark, And I'll be the clerk." Who'll carry him to the grave? "I," said the Kite, "If 't is not in the night, And I'll carry him to his grave." Who'll carry the link? "I," said the Linnet, "I'll fetch it in a minute, And I'll carry the link." Who'll be the chief mourner? "I," said the Dove, "I mourn for my love, And I'll be chief mourner." Who'll bear the pall? "We," said the Wren, Both the cock and the hen, "And we'll bear the pall." Who'll sing a psalm? "I," said the Thrush, As she sat in a bush, "And I'll sing a psalm." And who'll toll the bell? "I," said the Bull, "Because I can pull;" And so, Cock Robin, farewell. EPITAPH FOR ROBIN REDBREAST. Thou shalt have a little bed Made for thee, and overspread With brown leaves for coverlet, Which the tearful dew has wet. I, among the songs of Spring, Will miss the song thou didst not sing. "PLAY WITH ME!" The kitten came this morning, and said, With a touch of her paw and a turn of her head? "Play, play with me!" And Skye, the terrier, caught my hand, And tried to make me understand,-- "Play, play with me!" And Nelly nipped my shoulder quite hard, And then she went prancing around the yard-- "Play, play with me!" I played with them all! Now, wouldn't you play, If a little child, like me, should say, "Play, play with me?" THE PIPER. Piping down the valleys wild. Piping songs of pleasant glee, On a cloud I saw a child, And he laughing said to me:-- "Pipe a song about a lamb:" So I piped with merry cheer. "Piper, pipe that song again:" So I piped; he wept to hear. "Drop thy pipe, thy happy pipe, Sing thy songs of happy cheer:" So I sung the same again, While he wept with joy to hear. "Piper, sit thee down and write In a book that all may read." So he vanish'd from my sight; And I pluck'd a hollow reed, And I made a rural pen, And I stain'd the water clear, And I wrote my happy songs Every child may joy to hear. INFANT JOY. I have no name-- I am but two days old. What shall I call thee? I happy am, Joy is my name.-- Sweet joy befall thee! Pretty joy! Sweet joy but two days old. Sweet joy I call thee, Thou dost smile, I sing the while, Sweet joy befall thee! THE LAMB. Little lamb, who made thee? Dost thou know who made thee, Gave thee life and bid thee feed By the stream and o'er the mead; Gave thee clothing of delight, Softest cloth, woolly, bright; Gave thee such a tender voice Making all the vales rejoice; Little lamb, who made thee? Dost thou know who made thee? Little lamb, I'll tell thee, Little lamb, I'll tell thee. He is called by thy name, For He calls himself a Lamb: He is meek and he is mild, He became a little child, I a child and thou a lamb, We are called by His name. Little lamb, God bless thee, Little lamb, God bless thee. THE LITTLE BOY LOST. Father! father! where are you going? Oh, do not walk so fast. Speak, father speak to your little boy, Or else I shall be lost. The night was dark, no father was there; The child was wet with dew; The mire was deep and the child did weep, And away the vapor flew. THE LITTLE BOY FOUND. The little boy lost in the lonely fen, Led by the wandering light, Began to cry; but God, ever nigh, Appeared like his father in white; He kissed the child, and by the hand led, And to his mother brought, Who, in sorrow pale, through the lonely dale, Her little boy weeping sought. ON THE VOWELS. We are little airy creatures, All of different voice and features; One of us in glass is set, One of us you'll find in jet. T' other you may see in tin, And the fourth a box within. If the fifth you should pursue, It can never fly from you. LETTERS. Every day brings a ship, Every ship brings a word; Well for those who have no fear, Looking seaward well assured That the word the vessel brings Is the word they wish to hear. ON A CIRCLE. I'm up and down, and round about, Yet all the world can't find me out; Though hundreds have employed their leisure, They never yet could find my measure. I'm found almost in every garden, Nay, in the compass of a farthing. There's neither chariot, coach, nor mill, Can move an inch except I will. ARIEL'S SONG. Where the bee sucks, there suck I; In a cowslip's bell I lie: There I couch, when owls do cry. On the bat's back I do fly, After summer, merrily: Merrily, merrily, shall I live now Under the blossom, that hangs on the bough. PROVERBS AND POPULAR SAYINGS. Forgive and forget. Fortune helps them that help themselves. Give a thief rope enough, and he'll hang himself. Give him an inch, and he'll take an ell. Go farther and fare worse. Good wine needs no bush. Handsome is that handsome does. Happy as a king. Haste makes waste, and waste makes want, and want makes strife between the good-man and his wife. He cannot say boo to a goose. He knows on which side his bread is buttered. SONG. There is dew for the floweret, And honey for the bee, And bowers for the wild bird, And love for you and me. There are tears for the many, And pleasure for the few; But let the world pass on, dear, There's love for me and you. YOUTH AND AGE. Impatient of his childhood, "Ah me!" exclaims young Arthur, Whilst roving in the wild wood, "I wish I were my father!" Meanwhile, to see his Arthur So skip, and play, and run, "Ah me!" exclaims the father, "I wish I were my son!" UPON SUSANNA'S FEET. Her pretty feet Like snails did creep A little out, and then, As if they played at bo-peep, Did soon draw in again. UPON A CHILD THAT DIED. Here she lies, a pretty bud, Lately made of flesh and blood: Who as soon fell fast asleep, As her little eyes did peep. Give her strewings, but not stir The earth that lightly covers her. CHERRY-RIPE. Cherry-ripe, ripe, ripe, I cry, Full and fair ones; come and buy! If so be you ask me where They do grow, I answer, There, Where my Julia's lips do smile; There's the land, or cherry-isle, Whose plantations fully show All the year where cherries grow. ANSWER TO A CHILD'S QUESTION. Do you ask what the birds say? The sparrow, the dove, The linnet and thrush say, "I love and I love!" In the winter they're silent--the wind is so strong; What it says, I don't know; but it sings a loud song. But green leaves, and blossoms, and sunny warm weather, And singing, and loving--all come back together, But the lark is so brimful of gladness and love, The green fields below him, the blue sky above, That he sings, and he sings; and forever sings he-- "I love my Love, and my Love loves me!" PROVERBS AND POPULAR SAYINGS. He sees an inch afore his nose. He takes the bull by the horns. He that fights and runs away may live to fight another day. He that goes a borrowing, goes a sorrowing. He that has but four and spends five has no need of a purse. He that knows not how to hold his tongue knows not how to talk. He that lives on hope has but a slender diet. He that plants trees loves others besides himself. He that will steal a pin will steal a better thing. He was born with a silver spoon in his mouth. He's in clover. His bread is buttered on both sides. His room is better than his company. Hunger is the best sauce. I have other fish to fry. "ONE, TWO, THREE!" It was an old, old, old, old lady, And a boy that was half past three; And the way that they played together Was beautiful to see. She couldn't go running and jumping, And the boy, no more could he; For he was a thin little fellow, With a thin little twisted knee. They sat in the yellow sunlight, Out under the maple-tree; And the game that they played I'll tell you, Just as it was told to me. It was Hide-and-Go-Seek they were playing, Though you'd never have known it to be-- With an old, old, old, old lady, And a boy with a twisted knee. The boy would bend his face down On his one little sound right knee, And he'd guess where she was hiding, In guesses One, Two, Three! "You are in the china-closet!" He would cry, and laugh with glee-- It wasn't the china-closet; But he still had Two and Three. "You are up in Papa's big bedroom, In the chest with the queer old key!" And she said: "You are _warm_ and _warmer_; But you're not quite right," said she. "It can't be the little cupboard Where Mamma's things used to be-- So it must be the clothes-press, Gran'ma!" And he found her with his Three. Then she covered her face with her fingers, That were wrinkled and white and wee, And she guessed where the boy was hiding, With a One and a Two and a Three. And they never had stirred from their places, Right under the maple-tree-- This old, old, old, old lady, And the boy with the lame little knee-- This dear, dear, dear old lady, And the boy who was half past three. THE BIRD AND ITS NEST. What does little birdie say, In her nest at peep of day? "Let me fly," says little birdie; "Mother, let me fly away." "Birdie, rest a little longer, Till the little wings are stronger." So she rests a little longer, Then she flies away. What does little baby say In her bed at peep of day? Baby says, like little birdie, "Let me rise and fly away." "Baby, sleep a little longer, Till the little limbs are stronger." If she sleeps a little longer, Baby, too, shall fly away. PROVERBS AND POPULAR SAYINGS. Tell no tales out of school. The bird that can sing, and won't sing, must be made to sing. You have put the cart before the horse. It is the early bird that catches the worm. There is many a slip 'twixt the cup and the lip. The more haste, the less speed. They who make the best use of their time have none to spare. Those who play with edge tools must expect to be cut. Three removes are as bad as a fire. Through thick and thin. Time and tide wait for no man. To beat about the bush. To break the ice. To buy a pig in a poke. To find a mare's nest. WINDY NIGHTS. Whenever the Moon and stars are set, Whenever the wind is high, All night long in the dark and wet, A man goes riding by. Late in the night when the fires are out Why does he gallop and gallop about? Whenever the trees are crying aloud, And ships are tossed at sea, By, on the highway, low and loud, By, at the gallop goes he. By, at the gallop he goes, and then By, he comes back at the gallop again. NONSENSE VERSES. There was an Old Man with a nose, Who said, "If you choose to suppose That my nose is too long, you are certainly wrong!" That remarkable Man with a nose. There was an Old Man on a hill, Who seldom, if ever, stood still; He ran up and down in his Grandmother's gown, Which adorned that Old Man on a hill. There was an Old Person of Dover, Who rushed through a field of blue clover; But some very large Bees stung his nose and his knees, So he very soon went back to Dover. There was an Old Man who said, "Hush! I perceive a young bird in this bush!" When they said, "Is it small?" he replied, "Not at all; It is four times as big as the bush!" There was an Old Man of the West, Who never could get any rest; So they set him to spin on his nose and his chin, Which cured that Old Man of the West. There was an Old Man who said, "Well! Will nobody answer this bell? I have pulled day and night, till my hair has grown white, But nobody answers this bell!" There was an Old Man with a beard, Who said, "It is just as I feared!-- Two Owls and a Hen, four Larks and a Wren, Have all built their nests in my beard." There was an Old Person of Dean Who dined on one pea and one bean; For he said, "More than that would make me too fat," That cautious Old Person of Dean. There was an Old Man of El Hums, Who lived upon nothing but crumbs, Which he picked off the ground, with the other birds round, In the roads and the lanes of El Hums. PROVERBS AND POPULAR SAYINGS. If wishes were horses beggars would ride. Ill news travels fast. It never rains but it pours. It is a long lane that has no turning. It is an ill wind that blows no man good. It is easier to pull down than to build. It is never too late to mend. Keep thy shop, and thy shop will keep thee. Leave well enough alone. Let every tub stand on its own bottom. Let them laugh that win. Like father, like son. Little and often fills the purse. Look ere you leap. SONG. Oh, were my love yon lilac fair, With purple blossoms to the spring; And I a bird to shelter there. When wearied on my little wing! How I would mourn, when it was torn, By autumn wild, and winter rude! But I would sing, on wanton wing, When youthful May its bloom renewed. SWEET AND LOW. Sweet and low, sweet and low, Wind of the western sea, Low, low, breathe and blow, Wind of the western sea! Over the rolling waters go, Come from the dying moon, and blow, Blow him again to me; While my little one, while my pretty one, sleeps. Sleep and rest, sleep and rest, Father will come to thee soon; Best, rest on mother's breast, Father will come to thee soon; Father will come to his babe in the nest, Silver sails all out of the west Under the silver moon: Sleep, my little one, sleep, my pretty one, sleep. AGAINST IDLENESS AND MISCHIEF. How doth the little busy bee Improve each shining hour, And gather honey all the day From every opening flower! How skilfully she builds her cell, How neat she spreads the wax! And labors hard to store it well With the sweet food she makes. In works of labor or of skill, I would be busy too; For Satan finds some mischief still For idle hands to do. In books, or work, or healthful play, Let my first years be past, That I may give for every day Some good account at last. "BREAK, BREAK, BREAK!" Break, break, break, On thy cold gray stones, O Sea! And I would that my tongue could utter The thoughts that arise in me. Oh, well for the fisherman's boy, That he shouts with his sister at play! Oh, well for the sailor lad, That he sings in his boat on the bay! And the stately ships go on To their haven under the hill; But oh, for the touch of a vanished hand, And the sound of a voice that is still! Break, break, break, At the foot of thy crags, O Sea! But the tender grace of a day that is dead Will never come back to me. THE ARROW AND THE SONG. I shot an arrow into the air, It fell to earth, I knew not where; For, so swiftly it flew, the sight Could not follow it in its flight. I breathed a song into the air, It fell to earth, I knew not where; For who has sight so keen and strong, That it can follow the flight of song? Long, long afterward, in an oak I found the arrow, still unbroke; And the song, from beginning to end, I found again in the heart of a friend. PROVERBS AND POPULAR SAYINGS. Love me little, love me long, Is the burden of my song. Many a true word is spoken in jest. Many hands make light work. Money is a good servant, but a bad master. My mind to me a kingdom is. Never be weary of well doing. No cross, no crown. No man can serve two masters. No news is good news. No smoke without some fire. Not worth a pin. Of two ills choose the least. One cannot be in two places at once. One good turn demands another. THE TABLE AND THE CHAIR. Said the Table to the Chair, "You can hardly be aware How I suffer from the heat And from chilblains on my feet. If we took a little walk, We might have a little talk; Pray let us take the air," Said the Table to the Chair. Said the Chair unto the Table, "Now, you know we are not able: How foolishly you talk, When you know we cannot walk!" Said the Table with a sigh, "It can do no harm to try. I've as many legs as you: Why can't we walk on two?" So they both went slowly down, And walked about the town With a cheerful bumpy sound As they toddled round and round; And everybody cried, As they hastened to their side, "See! the Table and the Chair Have come out to take the air!" But in going down an alley, To a castle in a valley, They completely lost their way, And wandered all the day; Till, to see them safely back, They paid a Ducky-quack, And a Beetle, and a Mouse, Who took them to their house. Then they whispered to each other. "O delightful little brother, What a lovely walk we've taken! Let us dine on beans and bacon." So the Ducky and the leetle Browny-Mousy and the Beetle Dined, and danced upon their heads Till they toddled to their beds. THE OWL. I. When cats run home and the light is come And dew is cold upon the ground, And the far-off stream is dumb, And the whirring sail goes round, And the whirring sail goes round; Alone and warming his five wits, The white owl in the belfry sits. II. When merry milkmaids click the latch, And rarely smells the new-mown hay, And the cock hath sung beneath the thatch Twice or thrice his roundelay, Twice or thrice his roundelay; Alone and warming his five wits, The white owl in the belfry sits. THE OWL THE PUSSY-CAT. The Owl and the Pussy-Cat went to sea In a beautiful pea-green boat: They took some honey and plenty of money Wrapped up In a five-pound note. The Owl looked up to the stars above, And sang to a small guitar, "O lovely Pussy, O Pussy, my love, What a beautiful Pussy you are, You are, You are! What a beautiful Pussy you are!" Pussy said to the Owl, "You elegant fowl, How charmingly sweet you sing! Oh, let us be married; too long we have tarried: But what shall we do for a ring?" They sailed away, for a year and a day, To the land where the bong-tree grows; And there in a wood a Piggy-wig stood, With a ring at the end of his nose, His nose, His nose, With a ring at the end of his nose. "Dear Pig, are you willing to sell for one shilling Your ring?" Said the Piggy, "I will." So they took it away, and were married next day By the Turkey who lives on the hill. They dined on mince and slices of quince, Which they ate with a runcible spoon; And hand in hand, on the edge of the sand, They danced by the light of the moon, The moon, The moon, They danced by the light of the moon. PROVERBS AND POPULAR SAYINGS. One man's meat is another man's poison. Out of debt out of danger. Out of the frying-pan into the fire. Penny wise and pound foolish. Riches have wings. Robin Hood's choice: this or nothing. Rome was not built in a day. Save at the spiggot, and lose at the bung. Second thoughts are best. Set a thief to take a thief. A short horse is soon curried. Take the will for the deed. Take away my good name, take away my life. Take time by the forelock. FABLE. The mountain and the squirrel Had a quarrel, And the former called the latter "Little Prig;" Bun replied, "You are doubtless very big; But all sorts of things and weather Must be taken in together, To make up a year And a sphere. And I think it no disgrace To occupy my place. If I'm not so large as you, You are not so small as I, And not half so spry. I'll not deny you make A very pretty squirrel track; Talents differ; all is well and wisely put; If I cannot carry forests on my back, Neither can you crack a nut." WRITTEN IN MARCH WHILE RESTING ON THE BRIDGE AT THE FOOT OF BROTHER'S WATER. The Cock is crowing, The stream is flowing, The small birds twitter, The lake doth glitter, The green field sleeps in the sun; The oldest and youngest Are at work with the strongest; The cattle are grazing. Their heads never raising; There are forty feeding like one! Like an army defeated The snow hath retreated, And now doth fare ill On the top of the bare hill; The Ploughboy is whooping--anon--anon There's joy in the mountains; There's life in the fountains; Small clouds are sailing, Blue sky prevailing; The rain is over and gone! THOSE EVENING BELLS. Those evening bells! those evening bells! How many a tale their music tells, Of youth, and home, and that sweet time, When last I heard their soothing chime. Those joyous hours are passed away; And many a heart, that then was gay, Within the tomb now darkly dwells, And hears no more those evening bells. And so 't will be when I am gone; That tuneful peal will still ring on, While other bards shall walk these dells, And sing your praise, sweet evening bells. TO A BUTTERFLY. I've watched you now a full half hour Self-poised upon that yellow flower; And, little Butterfly! indeed I know not if you sleep or feed. How motionless!--not frozen seas More motionless!--and then What joy awaits you, when the breeze Hath found you out among the trees, And calls you forth again! This plot of orchard-ground is ours; My trees they are, my Sister's flowers: Here rest your wings when they are weary, Here lodge as in a sanctuary! Come often to us, fear no wrong; Sit near us on the bough! We'll talk of sunshine and of song, And summer days, when we were young; Sweet childish days, that were as long As twenty days are now. PROVERBS AND POPULAR SAYINGS. To follow one's nose. To have a finger in the pie. To hit the nail on the head. To kill two birds with one stone. To make a spoon, or spoil a horn. To pour oil into the fire is not the way to quench it. Two heads are better than one. Waste not, want not. We easily forget our faults when nobody knows them. We never know the worth of water till the well is dry. When Adam delved and Eve span, who was then the gentleman? When the cat is away, the mice will play. Strike when the iron is hot. Where there's a will, there's a way. You cannot eat your cake and have it too. You must take the fat with the lean. LUCY. She dwelt among the untrodden ways Beside the springs of Dove; A maid whom there were none to praise, And very few to love. A violet by a mossy stone Half-hidden from the eye!-- Fair as a star, when only one Is shining in the sky. She lived unknown, and few could know When Lucy ceased to be; But she is in her grave, and oh! The difference to me. LUCY GRAY, OR SOLITUDE. Oft I had heard of Lucy Gray; And, when I crossed the wild, I chanced to see, at break of day, The solitary child. No mate, no comrade Lucy knew; She dwelt on a wide moor,-- The sweetest thing that ever grew Beside a human door! You yet may spy the fawn at play, The hare upon the green; But the sweet face of Lucy Gray Will nevermore be seen. "To-night will be a stormy night,-- You to the town must go; And take a lantern, Child, to light Your mother through the snow." "That, Father! will I gladly do: 'T is scarcely afternoon,-- The minster-clock has just struck two, And yonder is the moon!" At this the father raised his hook, And snapped a fagot-band; He plied his work;--and Lucy took The lantern in her hand. Not blither is the mountain roe; With many a wanton stroke Her feet disperse the powdery snow, That rises up like smoke. The storm came on before its time, She wandered up and down; And many a hill did Lucy climb, But never reached the town. The wretched parents all that night Went shouting far and wide; But there was neither sound nor sight To serve them for a guide. At daybreak on the hill they stood That overlooked the moor; And thence they saw the bridge of wood, A furlong from their door. They wept--and, turning homeward, cried, "In heaven we all shall meet;"-- When in the snow the mother spied The print of Lucy's feet. Then downwards from the steep hill's edge They tracked the footmarks small; And through the broken hawthorn-hedge, And by the long stone-wall. And then an open field they crossed, The marks were still the same; They tracked them on, nor ever lost, And to the bridge they came. They followed from the snowy bank Those footmarks, one by one, Into the middle of the plank: And further there were none! --Yet some maintain that to this day She is a living child, That you may see sweet Lucy Gray Upon the lonesome wild. O'er rough and smooth she trips along, And never looks behind; And sings a solitary song That whistles in the wind. POOR SUSAN. At the corner of Wood Street, when daylight appears, There's a thrush that sings loud,--it has sung for three years; Poor Susan has passed by the spot, and has heard In the silence of morning the song of the bird. 'Tis a note of enchantment; what ails her? She sees A mountain ascending, a vision of trees; Bright volumes of vapor through Lothbury glide, And a river flows on through the vale of Cheapside. Green pastures she views in the midst of the dale, Down which she so often has tripped with her pail; And a single small cottage, a nest like a dove's, The one only dwelling on earth that she loves. She looks, and her heart is in heaven; but they fade,-- The mist and the river, the hill and the shade: The stream will not flow, and the hill will not rise, And the colors all have all passed away from her eyes. 
14640	----	[Transcriber's Notes: Welcome to the schoolroom of 1900. The moral tone is plain. "She is kind to the old blind man." The exercises are still suitable, and perhaps more helpful than some contemporary alternatives. Much is left to the teacher. Explanations given in the text are enough to get started teaching a child to read and write. Counting in Roman numerals is included as a bonus in the form of lesson numbers. Each lesson begins with vocabulary words, followed by the description of a picture (if any) related to the lesson's reading exercise. The lesson then consists of printed text for reading and sometimes script (handwriting) for reading or copying. Don Kostuch ] ECLECTIC EDUCATIONAL SERIES. MCGUFFEY'S [Registered] First ECLECTIC READER Revised Edition McGuffey Edition and Colophon are Trademarks of JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. NEW YORK - CHICHESTER - WEINHEIM - BRISBANE - SINGAPORE - TORONTO SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. This First Reader may be used in teaching reading by any of the methods in common use; but it is especially adapted to the Phonic Method, the Word Method, or a combination of the two. I. Phonic Method.--First teach the elementary sounds and their representative, the letters marked with diacriticals, as they occur in the lessons; then, the formation of words by the combination of these sounds. For instance, teach the pupil to identify the characters a, o, n, d, g, r, and th, in Lesson I, as the representatives of certain elementary sounds; then teach him to form the words at the head of the lesson, then other words, as nag, on, and, etc. Pursue a similar course in teaching the succeeding lessons. Having read a few lessons in this manner, begin to teach the names of the letters and the spelling of words, and require the groups, "a man," "the man," "a pen," to be read as a good reader would pronounce single words. II. When one of the letters in the combinations ou or ow, is marked in the words at the head of the reading exercises, the other is silent. If neither is marked, the two letters represent a diphthong. All other unmarked vowels in the vocabularies, when in combination, are silent letters. In slate or blackboard work, the silent letters may be canceled. III. Word Method.--Teach the pupil to identify at sight the words placed at the head of the reading exercises, and to read these exercises without hesitation. Having read a few lessons, begin to teach the names of the letters and the spelling of words. IV. Word Method and Phonic Method Combined.--Teach the pupil to identify words and read sentences, as above. Having read a few lessons in this manner, begin to use the Phonic Method, combining it with the Word Method, by first teaching the words in each lesson as words; then the elementary sounds, the names of the letters, and spelling. V. Teach the pupil to use script letters in writing, when teaching the names of the letters and the spelling of words. Copyright, 1879, by Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co. Copyright, 1896, by American Book Company. Copyright, 1907 and 1920, by H.H. Vail. EP486 Preface In presenting McGuffey�s Revised First Reader to the public, attention is invited to the following features: 1. Words of only two or three letters are used in the first lessons. Longer and more difficult ones are gradually introduced as the pupil gains aptness in the mastery of words. 2. A proper gradation has been carefully preserved. All new words are placed at the head of each lesson, to be learned before the lesson is read. Their number in the early lessons is very small, thus making the first steps easy. All words in these vocabularies are used in the text immediately following. 3. Carefully engraved script exercises are introduced for a double purpose. These should be used to teach the reading of script; and may also serve as copies in slate work. 4. The illustrations have been designed and engraved specially for the lessons in which they occur. Many of the engravings will serve admirably as the basis for oral lessons in language. 5. The type is large, strong, and distinct. The credit for this revision is almost wholly due to the friends of McGuffey�s Readers,--eminent teachers and scholars, who have contributed suggestions and criticisms gained from their daily work in the schoolroom. Cincinnati, June, 1879. (iii) THE ALPHABET. A a N n B b O o C c P p D d Q q E e R r F f S s G g T t H h U u I i V v J j W w K k X x L l Y y M m Z z [Illustration: Script Alphabet A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S Y U V W X Y Z a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z SCRIPT FIGURES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 ] [Illustration: Dog] McGuffey's FIRST READER. LESSON I. dog the ran a o n d g r th [Illustration: Running dog.] The dog. The dog ran. LESSON II. cat mat is on c t i m s [Illustration: Cat] The cat. The mat. Is the cat on the mat? The cat is on the mat. LESSON III. it his pen hand a in has man p h e [Illustration: Man with glasses writing at a desk.] The man. A pen. The man has a pen. Is the pen in his hand? It is in his hand. LESSON IV. hen fat rat box big run from can f b x u [Illustration: Hen watching a rat.] A fat hen. A big rat. The fat hen is on the box. The rat ran from the box. Can the hen run? LESSON V. Rab Ann hat catch see e ch s [Illustration: Girl chasing dog with hat in his mouth.] See Rab! See Ann! See! Rab has the hat. Can Ann catch Rab? LESSON VI. she pat too now let me sh oo ow l [Illustration: Girl with dog] Ann can catch Rab. See! She has the hat. Now Ann can pat Rab. Let me pat Rab, too. LESSON VII. Ned eggs black left fed nest them get will a black hen the nest w ck [Illustration: Boy feeding a hen.] Ned has fed the hen. She is a black hen. She has left the nest. See the eggs in the nest! Will the hen let Ned get them? LESSON VIII. head he Nat come with and o [Illustration: Three children, boy seated, boy standing with large top hat, followed by girl adjusting the hat.] Let me get the black hat. Now Ned has it on his head, and he is a big man. Come, Nat, see the big man with his black hat. LESSON IX. REVIEW. pat catch has left hat can black eggs Rab Ann fed get Ned is on the box. He has a pen in his hand. A big rat is in the box. Can the dog catch the rat? Come with me, Ann, and see the man with a black hat on his head. The fat hen has left the nest. Run, Nat, and get the eggs. SLATE WORK. [Illustration: Script Exercise: The cat ran. Ann ran. The man has a hat. ] LESSON X. Nell some pan him yes do you have I to i y v o [Illustration: Girl holding eggs.] Do you see Nell? Yes; she has a pan with some eggs in it. Let me have the pan and the eggs, will you, Nell? Has the black hen left the nest? I will now run to catch Rab. Will you run, too? LESSON XI. O whip Ben up still sit if stand Jip o wh j [Illustration: Girl, boy, goat pulling cart.] O Ben! let me get in, will you? Yes, if you will sit still. Stand still, Jip, and let Ann get in. Now, Ben, hand me the whip. Get up, Jip! 1,2. LESSON XII. Kitty nice sweet sing just hang cage then song pet put not k g c a y ng u [Illustration: Girl sitting at window with bird cage.] Kitty has a nice pet. It can sing a sweet song. She has just fed it. She will now put it in the cage, and hang the cage up. Then the cat can not catch it. LESSON XIII. Tom top Kit'ty's at back look good doll think spot th n oo [Illustration: Boy and Dog] Look at Tom and his dog. The dog has a black spot on his back. Do you think he is a good dog? Tom has a big top, too. It is on the box with Kitty's doll. LESSON XIV. sun we how pond stop for go swim her us hot duck e o [Illustration: Man and girl standing by a pond.] The sun is up. The man has fed the black hen and the fat duck. Now the duck will swim in the pond. The hen has run to her nest. Let us not stop at the pond now, for it is hot. See how still it is! We will go to see Tom and his top. LESSON XV. John rock set jump fun must may un'der skip bank but touch O John! the sun has just set. It is not hot, now. Let us run and jump. I think it is fun to run, and skip, and jump. See the duck on the pond! Her nest is up on the bank, under the rock. We must not touch the nest, but we may look at it LESSON XVI. REVIEW. The sun has set, and the pond is still. John, Ned, Ben, Tom, and Nell stand on the bank, and look at the duck. The dog with a black spot on his back, is with Tom. See! Tom has his hat in his hand. He has left his big top on the box. Kitty's doll is on the rock. Nell has put her pet in the cage. It will sing a sweet song. The duck has her nest under the rock. It is not hot now. Let us run, and skip, and jump on the bank. Do you not think it is fun? LESSON XVII. are ink moss this tub up set' a SLATE WORK [Illustration: Script Exercise: The pen and the ink are on the stand. Is this a good pen? The moss is on the rock. This duck can swim. Ben upset the tub. ] LESSON XVIII. nut did shut shall lost fox men met step in'to hunt mud SLATE WORK. [Illustration: Script Exercise: Will the dog hunt a fox? Ben lost his hat. Shall I shut the box? I met him on the step. Did you jump into the mud? I have a nut. I met the man. ] LESSON XIX. Kate old no grass dear likes be drink milk cow out gives a [Illustration: Cow standing in pond.] O Kate! the old cow is in the pond: see her drink! Will she not come out to get some grass? No, John, she likes to be in the pond. See how still she stands! The dear old cow gives us sweet milk to drink. LESSON XX. mam ma' large as pa pa arms ride far barn both Prince trot your [Illustration: Man and girl riding a horse.] Papa, will you let me ride with you on Prince? I will sit still in your arms. See, mamma! We are both on Prince. How large he is! Get up, Prince! You are not too fat to trot as far as the barn. LESSON XXI. of that toss fall well Fan'ny ball wall was pret'ty(prit-) done what a a [Illustration: Two girls standing in meadow play with a ball.] O Fanny, what a pretty ball! Yes; can you catch it, Ann? Toss it to me, and see. I will not let it fall. That was well done Now, Fanny, toss it to the top of the wall, if you can. LESSON XXII. had went call might flag near swam swing [Illustration: Woman and two girls standing by gate in fence.] Did you call us, mamma? I went with Tom to the pond. I had my doll, and Tom had his flag. The fat duck swam to the bank, and we fed her. Did you think we might fall into the pond? We did not go too near, did we, Tom? May we go to the swing, now, mamma? LESSON XXIII. here band hear horse play they pass where front fine hope comes e e [Illustration: Two boy standing on porch as band passes in street.] Here comes the band! Shall we call mamma and Fanny to see it? Let us stand still, and hear the men play as they pass. I hope they will stop here and play for us. See the large man in front of the band, with his big hat. What has he in his hand? How fine he looks! Look, too, at the man on that fine horse. If the men do not stop, let us go with them and see where they go. LESSON XXIV. Bess hap'py make cart tent woods lit'tle ver'y bed Rob'ert gone draw [Illustration: Boy and girl with goat-cart in woods; tent in background.] Bess and Robert are very happy; papa and mamma have gone to the woods with them. Robert has a big tent and a flag, and Bess has a little bed for her doll. Jip is with them. Robert will make him draw Bess and her doll in the cart. LESSON XXV. James Ma'ry made sang my lay sport spade lap dig doll's sand said (sed) y [Illustration: Boy talking to girl sitting on steps with a doll.] "Kate, will you play with me?" said James. "We will dig in the sand with this little spade. That will be fine sport." "Not now James" said Kate; "for I must make my doll's bed. Get Mary to play with you." James went to get Mary to play with him. Then Kate made the doll's bed. She sang a song to her doll, and the doll lay very still in her lap. Did the doll hear Kate sing? LESSON XXVI. its shade brook picks all by help stones glad soft [Illustration: Two girls and boy in the woods.] Kate has left her doll in its little bed, and has gone to play with Mary and James. They are all in the shade, now, by the brook. James digs in the soft sand with his spade, and Mary picks up little stones and puts them in her lap. James and Mary are glad to see Kate. She will help them pick up stones and dig, by the little brook. 1,3. LESSON XXVII. REVIEW "What shall we do?" said Fanny to John. "I do not like to sit still. Shall we hunt for eggs in the barn?" "No" said John; "I like to play on the grass. Will not papa let us catch Prince, and go to the big woods?" "We can put the tent in the cart, and go to some nice spot where the grass is soft and sweet." "That will be fine," said Fanny. "I will get my doll, and give her a ride with us." "Yes," said John, "and we will get mamma to go, too. She will hang up a swing for us in the shade." LESSON XXVIII. peep while take sleep tuck safe oh wet feet chick can't feels wing [Illustration: Girl kneeling by small chicken coop.] Peep, peep! Where have you gone, little chick? Are you lost? Can't you get back to the hen? Oh, here you are! I will take you back. Here, hen, take this little chick under your wing. Now, chick, tuck your little, wet feet under you, and go to sleep for a while. Peep, peep! How safe the little chick feels now! LESSON XXIX. wind time there fence kite high eyes bright flies why day shines [Illustration: Boys playing with kite. A dog stand by the boys.] This is a fine day. The sun shines bright. There is a good wind, and my kite flies high. I can just see it. The sun shines in my eyes; I will stand in the shade of this high fence. Why, here comes my dog! He was under the cart. Did you see him there? What a good time we have had! Are you not glad that we did not go to the woods with John? SLATE WORK. [Illustration: Script Exercise: The pond is still. How it shines in the hot sun! Let us go into the woods where we can sit in the shade. ] LESSON XXX. wish float tie know rope boat try shore give pole don't push drag won't oar fun'ny [Illustration: Two girls standing by fence, one is pulling a small wooden tub with a rope along the path.] "Kate, I wish we had a boat to put the dolls in. Don't you?" "I know what we can do. We can get the little tub, and tie a rope to it, and drag it to the pond. This will float with the dolls in it, and we can get a pole to push it from the shore." "What a funny boat, Kate! A tub for a boat, and a pole for an oar! Won't it upset?" "We can try it, Nell, and see." "Well you get the tub, and I will get a pole and a rope. We will put both dolls in the tub, and give them a ride." SLATE WORK. [Illustration: Script Exercise: The dolls had a nice ride to the pond. A soft wind made the tub float out. Nell let the pole fall on the tub, and upset it. ] LESSON XXXI. bound Rose called got drown found brave came Pon'to jumped mouth a round' brought wa'ter [Illustration: Two girls standing by pond. One girl is using a pole to push a small wooden tub containing dolls. ] "Here, Ponto! Here, Ponto!" Kate called to her dog. "Come, and get the dolls out of the pond." Rose went under, but she did not drown. Bess was still on the top of the water. Ponto came with a bound, and jumped into the pond. He swam around, and got Bess in his mouth, and brought her to the shore. Ponto then found Rose, and brought her out, too. Kate said, "Good, old Ponto! Brave old dog!" What do you think of Ponto? LESSON XXXII. June Lu'cy's air kind trees sing'ing blue when pure says (sez) sky pic'nic u a [Illustration: Woman and girl sitting under a tree.] "What a bright June day! The air is pure. The sky is as blue as it can be. Lucy and her mamma are in the woods. They have found a nice spot, where there is some grass. They sit in the shade of the trees, and Lucy is singing. The trees are not large, but they make a good shade. Lucy's kind mamma says that they will have a picnic when her papa can get a tent. LESSON XXXIII. REVIEW. James and Robert have gone into the shade of a high wall to play ball. Mary and Lucy have come up from the pond near by, with brave old Ponto, to see them play. When they toss the ball up in the air, and try to catch it, Ponto runs to get it in his mouth. Now the ball is lost. They all look for it under the trees and in the grass; but they can not see it. Where can it be? See! Ponto has found it. Here he comes with it. He will lay it at little Lucy's feet, or put it in her hand. LESSON XXXIV. boy our spoil hur rah' own coil noise fourth such join thank a bout' hoist pay Ju ly' playing oi [Illustration: Five boys carrying a large American flag. Man in background is smoking a pipe.] "Papa, may we have the big flag?" said James. "What can my little boy do with such a big flag?" "Hoist it on our tent, papa. We are playing Fourth of July." "Is that what all this noise is about? Why not hoist your own flags?" "Oh! they are too little." "You might spoil my flag." "Then we will all join to pay for it. But we will not spoil it, papa." "Take it, then, and take the coil of rope with it." "Oh! thank you. Hurrah for the flag, boys!" LESSON XXXV. fin'ished bon'net les'son saved white a way' I've am work scam'per read'y gar'den [Illustration: White kitten lapping milk from a bowl.] THE WHITE KITTEN. [Illustration: Script Exercise: Kitty, my pretty, white kitty. Why do you scamper away? I've finished my work and my lesson And now I am ready for play. Come, kitty, my own little kitty. I've saved you some milk come and see. Now drink while I put on my bonnet, And play in the garden with me. ] LESSON XXXVI. care al'ways line Frank row been (bin) keeps home [Illustration: Boy untying a white boat from post in pond.] Frank has a pretty boat. It is white, with a black line near the water. He keeps it in the pond, near his home. He always takes good care of it. Frank has been at work in the garden, and will now row a while. LESSON XXXVII. much one (wun) yet hun'gry seen grand'ma corn would o [Illustration: Two children on porch. Girl is holding a bowl. Boy is seated on the step holding a model sailboat.] "What is that?" said Lucy, as she came out on the steps. "Oh, it is a little boat! What a pretty one it is!" "I will give it to you when it is finished," said John, kindly. "Would you like to have it?" "Yes, very much, thank you, John. Has grandma seen it?" "Not yet; we will take it to her by and by. What have you in your pan, Lucy?" "Some corn for my hens, John; they must be very hungry by this time." LESSON XXXVIII. mar'ket bread bas'ket bought meat tea try'ing tell which [Illustration: Woman and boy walking on path next to fence. Woman is carrying a basket.] James has been to market with his mamma. She has bought some bread, some meat, and some tea, which are in the basket on her arm. James is trying to tell his mamma what he has seen in the market. LESSON XXXIX. reads so wears please could hair fast love eas'y gray chair who glass'es [Illustration: Girl standing by old woman in rocking chair.] See my dear, old grandma in her easy-chair! How gray her hair is! She wears glasses when she reads. She is always kind, and takes such good care of me that I like to do what she tells me. When she says, "Robert, will you get me a drink?" I run as fast as I can to get it for her. Then she says, "Thank you, my boy." Would you not love a dear, good grandma, who is so kind? And would you not do all yon could to please her? LESSON XL. does won'der moth'er oth'er bee hon'ey lis'ten flow'er [Illustration: Girl standing next to woman seated on porch.] "Come here, Lucy, and listen! What is in this flower?" "O mother! it is a bee. I wonder how it came to be shut up in the flower!" "It went into the flower for some honey, and it may be it went to sleep. Then the flower shut it in. "The bee likes honey as well as we do, but it does not like to be shut up in the flower. "Shall we let it out, Lucy?" "Yes; then it can go to other flowers, and get honey." LESSON XLI. best hitched their should or rid'ing live holds hay driv'ing tight ear'ly [Illustration: One boy riding a horse, and another boy riding a cart pulled by a horse.] Here come Frank and James White. Do you know where they live? Frank is riding a horse, and James is driving one hitched to a cart. They are out very early in the day. How happy they are! See how well Frank rides, and how tight James holds the lines! The boys should be kind to their horses. It is not best to whip them. When they have done riding, they will give the horses some hay or corn. Slate Work [Illustration: Script Exercise: Some horses can trot very fast. Would you like to ride fast? One day I saw a dog hitched up a little cart. The cart had some corn in it. ] LESSON XLII. look'ing thought pick'ing heard chirp were told birds search dear'ly young girl loved chil'dren be sides' [Illustration: Girl picking flowers.] A little girl went in search of flowers for her mother. It was early in the day, and the grass was wet. Sweet little birds were singing all around her. And what do you think she found besides flowers? A nest with young birds in it. While she was looking at them, she heard the mother bird chirp, as if she said, "Do not touch my children, little girl, for I love them dearly." The little girl now thought how dearly her own mother loved her. So she left the birds. Then picking some flowers, she went home, and told her mother what she had seen and heard. LESSON XLIII. eight ask aft'er town past ah tick'et right half two train ding light'ning [Illustration: Boy and girl sitting in wicker clothes basket. Woman sitting in chair.] "Mamma, will you go to town?" "What do you ask for a ticket on your train?" "Oh! we will give you a ticket, mamma." "About what time will you get back? " "At half past eight." "Ah! that is after bedtime. Is this the fast train?" "Yes, this is the lightning train." "Oh! that is too fast for me." "What shall we get for you in town, mamma?" "A big basket, with two good little children in it." "All right! Time is up! Ding, ding!" LESSON XLIV. school e'ven (e'vn) three room small book teach'er noon rude read'ing poor [Illustration: Several children in woods. Three are holding books, others are playing with a ball.] It is noon, and the school is out. Do you see the children at play? Some run and jump, some play ball, and three little girls play school under a tree. What a big room for such a small school! Mary is the teacher. They all have books in their hands, and Fanny is reading. They are all good girls, and would not be rude even in playing school. Kate and Mary listen to Fanny as she reads from her book. What do you think she is reading about? I will tell you. It is about a poor little boy who was lost in the woods. When Fanny has finished, the three girls will go home. In a little while, too, the boys will give up their playing. LESSON XLV. ap'ple mew tease crack'er down new sil'ly a sleep' wants calls knew friends up on' flew Poll Pol'ly [Illustration: Girl sitting at dinner table. Parrot is on a perch in the foreground.] Lucy has a new pet. Do you know what kind of bird it is? Lucy calls her Polly. Polly can say, "Poor Poll! Poor Poll! Polly wants a cracker;" and she can mew like a cat. But Polly and the cat are not good friends. One day Polly flew down, and lit upon the cat's back when she was asleep. I think she knew the cat would not like that, and she did it to tease her. When Lucy pets the cat, Polly flies up into the old apple tree, and will not come when she calls her. Then Lucy says, "What a silly bird!" LESSON XLVI. REVIEW. "Well, children, did you have a nice time in the woods?" "Oh yes, mother, such a good time! See what sweet flowers we found, and what soft moss. The best flowers are for grandma. Won't they please her?" "Yes; and it will please grandma to know that you thought of her." [Illustration: Dog sitting by picnic basket in woods. Two dolls are lying next to the basket.] "Rab was such a good dog, mother. We left him under the big tree by the brook, to take care of the dolls and the basket. "When we came back, they were all safe. No one could get them while Rab was there. We gave him some of the crackers from the basket. "O mother, how the birds did sing in the woods! "Fanny said she would like to be a bird, and have a nest in a tree. But I think she would want to come home to sleep." "If she were a bird, her nest would be her home. But what would mother do, I wonder, without her little Fanny?" LESSON XLVII. beach shells these seat waves go'ing ev'er sea watch e'ven ing la'zy side [Illustration: Horses pulling family in wagon.] These boys and girls live near the sea. They have been to the beach. It is now evening, and they are going home. John, who sits on the front seat, found some pretty shells. They are in the basket by his side. Ben White is driving. He holds the lines in one hand, and his whip in the other. Robert has his hat in his hand, and is looking at the horses. He thinks they are very lazy; they do not trot fast. The children are not far from home. In a little while the sun will set, and it will be bedtime. Have you ever been at the seaside? Is it not good sport to watch the big waves, and to play on the wet sand? LESSON XLVIII. log qui'et proud pulled fish stump riv'er fa'ther [Illustration: Father and son fishing from under a tree.] One evening Frank's father said to him, "Frank, would you like to go with me to catch some fish?" "Yes; may I go? and with you, father?" "Yes, Frank, with me." "Oh, how glad I am!" Here they are, on the bank of a river. Frank has just pulled a fine fish out of the water. How proud he feels! See what a nice, quiet spot they have found. Frank has the stump of a big tree for his seat, and his father sits on a log near by. They like the sport. LESSON XLIX. rain out'side of'ten pit'ter say win'dow sound pat'ter drops some'times on'ly mu'sic SLATE WORK [Illustration: Script Exercise: I wish, Mamma you would tell me where the rain comes from. Does it come from the sky? And when the little drops pitter-patter on the window do you think they are playing with me? I can not work or read for I love to listen to them. I often think their sound is pretty music. But the rain keeps children at home and sometimes I do not like that, then. The little raindrops only say, "Pit, pitter, patter, pat; While we play on the out-side, Why can't you play on that?" ] LESSON L. sled throw win'ter hurt ice cov'er Hen'ry next skate ground mer'ry snow sister laugh'ing (laf'ing) pair [Illustration: Children skating and playing in the snow.] I like winter, when snow and ice cover the ground. What fun it is to throw snowballs, and to skate on the ice! See the boys and girls! How merry they are! Henry has his sled, and draws his little sister. There they go! I think Henry is kind, for his sister is too small to skate. Look! Did you see that boy fall down? But I see he is not hurt, for he is laughing. Some other boys have just come to join in the sport. See them put on their skates. Henry says, that he hopes his father will get a pair of skates for his sister next winter. LESSON LI. paw po lite' means isn't speak sir shake Fi'do tricks teach din'ner El'len bow'wow [Illustration: Girl and boy playing with dog. Dog on hind legs, seated on chair, with hat on head.] Ellen, do look at Fido! He sits up in a chair, with my hat on. He looks like a little boy; but it is only Fido. Now see him shake hands. Give me your paw, Fido. How do you do, sir? Will you take dinner with us. Fido? Speak! Fido says, "Bowwow," which means, "Thank you, I will." Isn't Fido a good dog, Ellen? He is always so polite. When school is out, I will try to teach him some other tricks. LESSON LII. puss shed pain way stole saw hid eat Hat'tie suf'fer sor'ry some'thing caught tried Ne'ro [Illustration: Cat sitting on box.] "O Hattie! I just saw a large rat in the shed; and old Nero tried to catch it." "Did he catch it, Frank?" "No; Nero did not; but the old cat did." "My cat?" "No, it was the other one." "Do tell me how she got it, Frank. Did she run after it?" "No, that was not the way. Puss was hid on a big box. The rat stole out, and she jumped at it and caught it." "Poor rat! It must have been very hungry; it came out to get something to eat." "Why, Hattie, you are not sorry puss got the rat, are you?" "No, I can not say I am sorry she got it; but I do not like to see even a rat suffer pain." LESSON LIII. roll build grand'pa hard foam ships hous'es long sail break wood'en blow [Illustration: Two girls play in sand. Man with cane and top hat is seated on beach.] Mary and Lucy have come down to the beach with their grandpa. They live in a town near the sea. Their grandpa likes to sit on the large rock, and watch the big ships as they sail far away on the blue sea. Sometimes he sits there all day long. The little girls like to dig in the sand, and pick up pretty shells. They watch the waves as they roll up on the beach, and break into white foam. They sometimes make little houses of sand, and build walls around them; and they dig wells with their small wooden spades. They have been picking up shells for their little sister. She is too young to come to the beach. I think all children like to play by the seaside when the sun is bright, and the wind does not blow too hard. LESSON LIV. asked want'ed four Wil'lie's night rab'bits lad car'ried cents tell'ing fif'ty mas'ter [Illustration: Two boys playing with rabbits.] One day, Willie's father saw a boy at the market with four little white rabbits in a basket. He thought these would be nice pets for Willie; so he asked the lad how much he wanted for his rabbits. The boy said, "Only fifty cents, sir." Willie's father bought them, and carried them home. Here you see the rabbits and their little master. He has a pen for them, and always shuts them in it at night to keep them safe. He gives them bread and grass to eat. They like grass, and will take it from his hand. He has called in a little friend to see them. Willie is telling him about their funny ways. SLATE WORK. [Illustration: Script Exercise: Some rabbits are as white as snow, some are black, and others have white and black spots. What soft, kind eyes they have. ] LESSON LV. bush cun'ning place show find bro'ken o'ver bring a'gain (a gen') fas'ten (fas' n ) [Illustration: Boy and girl looking over a fence in woods.] "Come here, Rose. Look down into this bush." "O Willie! a bird's nest! What cunning, little eggs! May we take it, and show it to mother? " "What would the old bird do, Rose, if she should come back and not find her nest?" "Oh, we would bring it right back, Willie!" "Yes; but we could not fasten it in its place again. If the wind should blow it over, the eggs would get broken." LESSON LVI. strong round dry bill worked sends claws flit God spring "How does the bird make the nest so strong, Willie?" "The mother bird has her bill and her claws to work with, but she would not know how to make the nest if God did not teach her. Do you see what it is made of?" "Yes, Willie, I see some horse-hairs and some dry grass. The old bird must have worked hard to find all the hairs, and make them into such a pretty, round nest." "Shall we take the nest, Rose?" "Oh no, Willie! We must not take it; but we will come and look at it again, some time." SLATE WORK. [Illustration: Script Exercise: God made the little birds to sing, And flit from tree to tree; 'Tis He who sends them in the spring To sing for you and me. ] LESSON LVII. feathers a go' fly worm crumb feed'ing ug'ly off feed brown guess things [Illustration: Boy and girl examining bird's nest.] "Willie, when I was feeding the birds just now, a little brown bird flew away with a crumb in its bill." "Where did it go, Rose?" "I don't know; away off, somewhere." "I can guess where, Rose. Don't you know the nest we saw some days ago? What do you think is in it now?" "O Willie, I know! Some little brown birds. Let us go and see them." "All right; but we must not go too near. There! I just saw the old bird fly out of the bush. Stand here, Rose. Can you see?" "Why, Willie, what ugly little things! What big mouths they have, and no feathers!" "Keep still, Rose. Here comes the old bird with a worm in her bill. How hard she must work to feed them all!" LESSON LVIII. fallin'g counts woes nigh be gun' griefs stars tear morn'ing Lord each joys [Illustration: Script Exercise: When the stars at set of sun Watch you from on high When the morning has begun Think the Lord is nigh. All you do and all you say, He can see and hear: When you work and when you play, Think the Lord is near. All your joys and griefs He knows Counts each falling tear. When to Him you tell your woes, Know the Lord is near. ] LESSON LIX. whis'tle (whis'l) poc'ket wil'low note filled dead sick walk ev'ery blew lane lame tak'ing cane took [Illustration: Girl holding doll and boy with cane standing in woods.] One day, when Mary was taking a walk down the lane, trying to sing her doll to sleep, she met Frank, with his basket and cane. Frank was a poor, little, lame boy. His father and mother were dead. His dear, old grandma took care of him, and tried to make him happy. Every day, Mary's mother filled Frank's basket with bread and meat, and a little tea for his grandma. "How do you do, Frank?" said Mary. "Don't make a noise; my doll is going to sleep. It is just a little sick to-day." "Well, then, let us whistle it to sleep." And Frank, taking a willow whistle out of his pocket, blew a long note. "Oh, how sweet!" cried Mary. "Do let me try." LESSON LX. turned face cried low al'most soon more cry once(wuns) be cause' [Illustration: Boy and Girl sitting on log.] "Yes, Mary, I will give it to you, because you are so good to my grandma." "Oh! thank you very much." Mary blew and blew a long time. "I can't make it whistle," said she, almost ready to cry. "Sometimes they will whistle, and sometimes they won't," said Frank. "Try again, Mary." She tried once more, and the whistle made a low, sweet sound. "It whistles!" she cried. In her joy, she had turned the doll's face down, and its eyes shut tight, as if it had gone to sleep. "There!" cried Frank, "I told you the way to put a doll to sleep, is to whistle to it." "So it is," said Mary. "Dear, little thing; it must be put in its bed now." So they went into the house. Frank's basket was soon filled, and he went home happy. LESSON LXI. stood him self' flap'ping first twelve flapped walked flap o bey' bet'ter Chip'py food stone be fore' chick'ens kept [Illustration: Hen and chicks.] There was once a big, white hen that had twelve little chickens. They were very small, and the old hen took good care of them. She found food for them in the daytime, and at night kept them under her wings. One day, this old hen took her chickens down to a small brook. She thought the air from the water would do them good. When they got to the brook, they walked on the bank a little while. It was very pretty on the other side of the brook, and the old hen thought she would take her children over there. There was a large stone in the brook: she thought it would be easy for them to jump to that stone, and from it to the other side. So she jumped to the stone, and told the children to come after her. For the first time, she found that they would not obey her. She flapped her wings, and cried, "Come here, all of you! Jump upon this stone, as I did. We can then jump to the other side. Come now!" "O mother! we can't, we can't, we can't!" said all the little chickens. "Yes you can, if you try," said the old hen. "Just flap your wings, as I did, and you can jump over." "I am flapping my wings," said Chippy, who stood by himself; "but I can't jump any better than I could before." LESSON LXII. chirped nev'er in deed' slow'ly re'ally brood be gan' did n't use door bite piece [Illustration: Hen with chicks.] "I never saw such children," said the old hen. "You don't try at all." "We can't jump so far, mother. Indeed we can't, we can't!" chirped the little chickens. "Well," said the old hen, "I must give it up." So she jumped back to the bank, and walked slowly home with her brood. "I think mother asked too much of us," said one little chicken to the others. "Well, I tried," said Chippy. "We didn't," said the others; "it was of no use to try." When they got home, the old hen began to look about for something to eat. She soon found, near the back door, a piece of bread. So she called the chickens, and they all ran up to her, each one trying to get a bite at the piece of bread. "No, no!" said the old hen. "This bread is for Chippy. He is the only one of my children that really tried to jump to the stone." LESSON LXIII. last slates write waste neat taken clean learn read'er par'ents sec'ond [Illustration: Teacher with four students in classroom.] We have come to the last lesson in this book. We have finished the First Reader. You can now read all the lessons in it, and can write them on your slates. Have you taken good care of your book? Children should always keep their books neat and clean. Are you not glad to be ready for a new book? Your parents are very kind to send you to school. If you are good, and if you try to learn, your teacher will love you, and you will please your parents. Be kind to all, and do not waste your time in school. When you go home, you may ask your parents to get you a Second Reader. PHONIC CHART. Long Vocals Sound as in Sound as in a ate e err a care i ice a arm o ode a last u use a all u burn e eve oo fool Short Vocals a am o odd e end u up i in oo look Diphthongs oi oil ou out oy boy ow now Aspirates f fifi t tat h him sh she k kite ch chat p pipe th thick s same wh why Subvocals Sound as in Sound as in b bib v valve d did th this g gig z zin j jug z azure n nine r rare m maim w we ng hang y yet l lull Substitutes Sub for as in Sub for as in a o what y i myth e a there c k can e a feint c a cite i e police ch sh chaise i e sir ch k chaos o u son g j gem o oo to n ng ink o oo wolf s z as o a fork s sh sure o u work x gz exact u oo full gh f laugh u oo rude ph f phlox y i fly qu k pique qu kw quit 
11230	----	Proofreaders MACMILLAN'S READING BOOKS. Book V. STANDARD V. ENGLISH CODE. _For Ordinary Pass_. Improved reading, and recitation of not less than seventy-five lines of poetry. N.B.--The passages for recitation may be taken from one or more standard authors, previously approved by the Inspector. Meaning and allusions to be known, and, if well known, to atone for deficiencies of memory. _For Special Grant (Art. 19, C. 1)._ Parsing, with analysis of a "simple" sentence. SCOTCH CODE. _For Ordinary Pass_. Reading, with expression, a short passage of prose or of poetry, with explanation, grammar, and elementary analysis of simple sentences. Specific Subject--English literature and language, 2nd year. (_Art. 21 and Schedule IV., Scotch Code._) Three hundred lines of poetry, not before brought up, repeated; with knowledge of meaning and allusions, and of the derivations of words. PREFACE TO BOOK V. This seems a fitting place in which to explain the general aim of this series of Reading Books. Primarily, it is intended to provide a systematic course for use in schools which are under State inspection; and, with this view, each Book in the series, after the Primer, is drawn up so as to meet the requirements, as set forth in the English and Scotch codes issued by the Committees of Council on Education, of the Standard to which it corresponds. This special adaptation will not, it is hoped, render the series less useful in other schools. The graduated arrangement of the books, although, perhaps, one to which every teacher may not choose to conform, may yet serve as a test by which to compare the attainments of the pupils in any particular school with those which, according to the codes, may be taken as the average expected from the pupils in schools where the Standard examination is, necessarily, enforced. The general character of the series is literary, and not technical. Scientific extracts have been avoided. The teaching of special subjects is separately recognised by the codes, and provided for by the numerous special handbooks which have been published. The separation of the reading class from such teaching will prove a gain to both. The former must aim chiefly at giving to the pupils the power of accurate, and, if possible, apt and skilful expression; at cultivating in them a good literary taste, and at arousing a desire of further reading. All this, it is believed, can best be done where no special or technical information has to be extracted from the passages read. In the earlier Books the subject, the language, and the moral are all as direct and simple as possible. As they advance, the language becomes rather more intricate, because a studied simplicity, when detected by the pupil, repels rather than attracts him. The subjects are more miscellaneous; but still, as far as possible, kept to those which can appeal to the minds of scholars of eleven or twelve years of age, without either calling for, or encouraging, precocity. In Books II., III., and IV., a few old ballads and other pieces have been purposely introduced; as nothing so readily expands the mind and lifts it out of habitual and sluggish modes of thought, as forcing upon the attention the expressions and the thoughts of an entirely different time. The last, or Sixth Book, may be thought too advanced for its purpose. But, in the first place, many of the pieces given in it, though selected for their special excellence, do not involve any special difficulties; and, in the second place, it will be seen that the requirements of the English Code of 1875 in the Sixth Standard really correspond in some degree to those of the special subject of English literature, formerly recognised by the English, and still recognised by the Scotch Code. Besides this, the Sixth Book is intended to supply the needs of pupil teachers and of higher classes; and to be of interest enough to be read by the scholar out of school-hours, perhaps even after school is done with altogether. To such it may supply the bare outlines of English literature; and may, at least, introduce them to the best English authors. The aim of all the extracts in the book may not be fully caught, as their beauty certainly cannot be fully appreciated, by youths; but they may, at least, serve the purpose of all education--that of stimulating the pupil to know more. The editor has to return his thanks for the kindness by which certain extracts have been placed at his disposal by the following authors and publishers:--Mr. Ruskin and Mr. William Allingham; Mr. Nimmo (for extract from Hugh Miller's works); Mr. Nelson (for poems by Mr. and Mrs. Howitt); Messrs. Edmonston and Douglas (for extract from Dasent's "Tales from the Norse"); Messrs. Chapman and Hall (for extracts from the works of Charles Dickens and Mr. Carlyle); Messrs. Longmans, Green, and Co. (for extracts from the works of Macaulay and Mr. Froude); Messrs. Routledge and Co. (for extracts from Miss Martineau's works); Mr. Murray (for extracts from the works of Dean Stanley); and many others. BOOK V. CONTENTS. _Prose._ PREFACE INTRODUCTION INCIDENT IN THE LIFE OF DR. JOHNSON _Warner's Tour in the Northern Counties._ THE OLD PHILOSOPHER AND THE YOUNG LADY _Jane Taylor_ BARBARA S---- _Charles Lamb_ DR. ARNOLD _Tom Brown's School Days_ BOYHOOD'S WORK [ditto] WORK IN THE WORLD [ditto] CASTLES IN THE AIR _Addison_ THE DEATH OF NELSON _Southey_ LEARNING TO RIDE _T. Hughes_ MOSES AT THE FAIR _Goldsmith_ WHANG THE MILLER [ditto] AN ESCAPE _Defoe's Robinson Crusoe_ NECESSITY THE MOTHER OF INVENTION [ditto] LABRADOR _Southey's Omniana_ GROWTH OF EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY _Robertson_ A WHALE HUNT _Scott_ A SHIPWRECK _Charles Kingsley_ THE BLACK PRINCE _Dean Stanley_ THE ASSEMBLY OF URI _E.A. Freeman_ MY WINTER GARDEN _Charles Kingsley_ ASPECTS OF NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN COUNTRIES _John Ruskin_ COLUMBUS IN SIGHT OF LAND _Washington Irving_ COLUMBUS SHIPWRECKED [ditto] ROBBED IN THE DESERT _Mungo Park_ ARISTIDES _Plutarch's Lives_ THE VENERABLE BEDE _J.R. Green_ THE DEATH OF ANSELM _Dean Church_ THE MURDER OF BECKET _Dean Stanley_ THE DEATH OF ELIZABETH _J.R. Green_ THE BATTLE OF NASEBY _Defoe_ THE PILGRIMS AND GIANT DESPAIR _Bunyan_ A HARD WINTER _Rev. Gilbert White_ A PORTENTOUS SUMMER [ditto] A THUNDERSTORM [ditto] CHARACTER OF SIR WALTER SCOTT _J. Lockhart_ MUMPS'S HALL _Scott_ THE PORTEOUS MOB [ditto] THE PORTEOUS MOB (_continued_) [ditto] JOSIAH WEDGWOOD _Speech by Mr. Gladstone_ THE CRIMEAN WAR _Speech by Mr. Disraeli_ NATIONAL MORALITY _Speech by Mr. Bright_ THE PLEASURES OF A LIFE OF LABOUR _Hugh Miller_ THE FLIGHT OF BIRDS _Rev. Gilbert White_ THE BATTLE OF CORUNNA _Napier_ BATTLE OF ALBUERA _Napier_ CHARGE OF THE LIGHT BRIGADE AT BALAKLAVA _The "Times" Correspondent AFRICAN HOSPITALITY _Mungo Park_ ACROSS THE DESERT OF NUBIA _Bruce's Travels_ A SHIPWRECK ON THE ARABIAN COAST _W.G. Palgrave_ AN ARABIAN TOWN _W.G. Palgrave_ THE QUEST OF THE HOLY GRAIL _Sir Thomas Malory_ VISIT TO SIR ROGER DE COVERLEY'S COUNTRY SEAT _Addison_ THE DEAD ASS _Sterne_ _Poetry_. THE VILLAGE BLACKSMITH _H.W. Longfellow_ MEN OF ENGLAND _Campbell_ A BALLAD _Goldsmith_ MARTYRS _Cowper_ A PSALM OF LIFE _H.W. Longfellow_ THE ANT AND THE CATERPILLAR _Cunningham_ REPORT OF AN ADJUDGED CASE _Couper_ THE INCHCAPE BELL _Southey_ BATTLE OF THE BALME _Campbell_ LOCHINVAR _Scott_ THE CHAMELEON _Merrick_ A WISH _Pope_ A SEA SONG _Cunningham_ ON THE LOSS OF THE 'ROYAL GEORGE' _Cowper_ RULE BRITANNIA _Thomson_ WATERLOO _Byron_ IVRY _Macaulay_ ANCIENT GREECE _Byron_ THE TEMPLE OF FAME _Pope_ A HAPPY LIFE _Sir Henry Wotton_ MAN'S SERVANTS _George Herbert_ VIRTUE _George Herbert_ DEATH THE CONQUEROR _James Shirley_ THE PASSIONS _Collins_ THE VISION OF BELSHAZZAR _Byron_ YE MARINERS OF ENGLAND _Campbell_ A SHIPWRECK _Byron_ THE HAPPY WARRIOR _Wordsworth_ LIBERTY _Cowper_ THE TROSACHS _Scott_ LOCHIEL'S WARNING _Campbell_ REST FROM BATTLE _Pope_ THE SAXON AND THE GAEL _Scott_ THE SAXON AND THE GAEL _(continued)_ _Scott_ THE WINTER EVENING _Cowper_ MAZEPPA _Byron_ HYMN TO DIANA _Ben Jonson_ L'ALLEGRO _Milton_ THE VILLAGE _Goldsmith_ THE MERCHANT OF VENICE _Shakespeare_ IL PENSEROSO _Milton_ COURTESY _Spenser_ NOTES BOOK V. INTRODUCTION. Throughout this book, and the next, you will find passages taken from the writings of the best English authors. But the passages are not all equal, nor are they all such as we would call "the best," and the more you read and are able to judge them for yourselves, the better you will be able to see what is the difference between the best and those that are not so good. By the best authors are meant those who have written most skilfully in prose and verse. Some of these have written in prose, because they wished to tell us something more fully and freely than they could do if they tied themselves to lines of an equal number of syllables, or ending with the same sound, as men do when they write poetry. Others have written in verse, because they wished rather to make us think over and over again about the same thing, and, by doing so, to teach us, gradually, how much we could learn from one thing; if we think sufficiently long and carefully about it; and, besides this, they knew that rhythmical or musical language would keep longest in our memory anything which they wished to remain there; and by being stored up in our mind, would enrich us in all our lives after. In these books you will find pieces taken from authors both in prose and verse. But of the authors who have made themselves famous by the books which they have written in our language, many had to be set aside. Because many writers, though their books are famous, have written so long ago, that the language which they use, though it is really the same language as our own, is yet so old-fashioned that it is not readily understood. By and by, when you are older, you may read these books, and find it interesting to notice how the language is gradually changing; so that, though we can easily understand what our grandfathers or our great grandfathers wrote, yet we cannot understand, without carefully studying it, what was written by our own ancestors a thousand, or even five hundred, years ago. The first thing, however, that you have to do--and, perhaps, this book may help you to do it--is to learn what is the best way of writing or speaking our own language of the present day. You cannot learn this better than by reading and remembering what has been written by men, who, because they were very great, or because they laboured very hard, have obtained a great command over the language. When we speak of obtaining a command over language we mean that they have been able to say, in simple, plain words, exactly what they mean. This is not so easy a matter as you may at first think it to be. Those who write well do not use roundabout ways of saying a thing, or they might weary us; they do not use words or expressions which might mean one or other of two things, or they might confuse us; they do not use bombastic language, or language which is like a vulgar and too gaudy dress, or they might make us laugh at them; they do not use exaggerated language, or, worse than all, they might deceive us. If you look at many books which are written at the present day, or at many of the newspapers which appear every morning, you will find that those who write them often forget these rules; and after we have read for a short time what they have written, we are doubtful about what they mean, and only sure that they are trying to attract foolish people, who like bombastic language as they like too gaudy dress, and are caring little whether what they write is strictly true or not. It is, therefore, very important that you should take as your examples those who have written very well and very carefully, and who have been afraid lest by any idle or careless expression they might either lead people to lose sight of what is true, or might injure our language, which has grown up so slowly, which is so dear to us, and the beauty of which we might, nevertheless, so easily throw away. As you read specimens of what these authors have written, you will find that they excel chiefly in the following ways: First. They tell us just what they mean; neither more nor less. Secondly. They never leave us doubtful as to anything we ought to know in order to understand them. If they tell us a story, they make us feel as if we saw all that they tell us, actually taking place. Thirdly. They are very careful never to use a word unless it is necessary; never to think a word so worthless a thing that it can be dragged in only because it sounds well. Fourthly. When they rouse our feelings, they do so, not that they may merely excite or amuse us, but that they may make us sympathise more fully with what they have to tell. In these matters they are mostly alike; but in other matters you will find that they differ from each other greatly. Our language has come from two sources. One of these is the English language as talked by our remote ancestors, the other is the Latin language, which came to us through French, and from which we borrowed a great deal when our language was getting into the form it now has. Many of our words and expressions, therefore, are Old English, while others are borrowed from Latin. Some authors prefer to use, where they can, old English words and expressions, which are shorter, plainer, and more direct; others prefer the Latin words, which are more ornamental and elaborate, and perhaps fit for explaining what is obscure, and for showing us the difference between things that are very like. This is one great contrast; and there are others which you will see for yourselves as you go on. And while you notice carefully what is good in each, you should be careful not to imitate too exactly the peculiarities, which may be the faults, in any one. * * * * * INCIDENT IN THE LIFE OF DR. JOHNSON. During the last visit Dr. Johnson paid to Lichfield, the friends with whom he was staying missed him one morning at the breakfast-table. On inquiring after him of the servants, they understood he had set off from Lichfield at a very early hour, without mentioning to any of the family whither he was going. The day passed without the return of the illustrious guest, and the party began to be very uneasy on his account, when, just before the supper-hour, the door opened, and the doctor stalked into the room. A solemn silence of a few minutes ensued, nobody daring to inquire the cause of his absence, which was at last relieved by Johnson addressing the lady of the house in the following manner:--"Madam, I beg your pardon for the abruptness of my departure from your house this morning, but I was constrained to it by my conscience. Fifty years ago, madam, on this day, I committed a breach of filial piety, which has ever since lain heavy on my mind, and has not till this day been expiated. My father, as you recollect, was a bookseller, and had long been in the habit of attending Lichfield market, and opening a stall for the sale of his books during that day. Confined to his bed by indisposition, he requested me, this time fifty years ago, to visit the market, and attend the stall in his place. But, madam, my pride prevented me from doing my duty, and I gave my father a refusal. To do away the sin of this disobedience, I this day went in a post-chaise to Lichfield, and going into the market at the time of high business, uncovered my head, and stood with it bare an hour before the stall which my father had formerly used, exposed to the sneers of the standers-by and the inclemency of the weather--a penance by which I hope I have propitiated Heaven for this only instance, I believe, of contumacy towards my father." Warner's _Tour in the Northern Counties_. [Notes: _Dr. Samuel Johnson_, born 1709, died 1784 By hard and unaided toil he won his way to the front rank among the literary men of his day. He deserves the honour of having been the first to free literature from the thraldom of patronage. _Filial piety_. Piety is used here not in a religious sense, but in its stricter sense of dutifulness. In Virgil "the Pious Aneas" means "Aneas who showed dutifulness to his father."] * * * * * THE OLD PHILOSOPHER AND THE YOUNG LADY. "Alas!" exclaimed a silver-headed sage, "how narrow is the utmost extent of human knowledge! I have spent my life in acquiring knowledge, but how little do I know! The farther I attempt to penetrate the secrets of nature, the more I am bewildered and benighted. Beyond a certain limit all is but conjecture: so that the advantage of the learned over the ignorant consists greatly in having ascertained how little is to be known. "It is true that I can measure the sun, and compute the distances of the planets; I can calculate their periodical movements, and even ascertain the laws by which they perform their sublime revolutions; but with regard to their construction, to the beings which inhabit them, their condition and circumstances, what do I know more than the clown?-- Delighting to examine the economy of nature in our own world, I have analyzed the elements, and given names to their component parts. And yet, should I not be as much at a loss to explain the burning of fire, or to account for the liquid quality of water, as the vulgar, who use and enjoy them without thought or examination?--I remark, that all bodies, unsupported, fall to the ground, and I am taught to account for this by the law of gravitation. But what have I gained here more than a term? Does it convey to my mind any idea of the nature of that mysterious and invisible chain which draws all things to a common centre?--Pursuing the track of the naturalist, I have learned to distinguish the animal, the vegetable, and the mineral kingdoms, and to divide these into their distinct tribes and families;--but can I tell, after all this toil, whence a single blade of grass derives its vitality?--Could the most minute researches enable me to discover the exquisite pencil that paints the flower of the field? and have I ever detected the secret that gives their brilliant dye to the ruby and the emerald, or the art that enamels the delicate shell?--I observe the sagacity of animals--I call it instinct, and speculate upon its various degrees of approximation to the reason of man; but, after all, I know as little of the cogitations of the brute as he does of mine. When I see a flight of birds overhead, performing their evolutions, or steering their course to some distant settlement, their signals and cries are as unintelligible to me as are the learned languages to an unlettered mechanic: I understand as little of their policy and laws as they do of 'Blackstone's Commentaries.' "Alas! then, what have I gained by my laborious researches but an humbling conviction of my weakness and ignorance! Of how little has man, at his best estate, to boast! What folly in him to glory in his contracted powers, or to value himself upon his imperfect acquisitions!" * * * * * "Well!" exclaimed a young lady, just returned from school, "my education is at last finished: indeed, it would be strange if, after five years' hard application, anything were left incomplete. Happily, it is all over now, and I have nothing to do but exercise my various accomplishments. "Let me see!--as to French, I am mistress of that, and speak it, if possible, with more fluency than English. Italian I can read with ease, and pronounce very well, as well at least, and better, than any of my friends; and that is all one need wish for in Italian. Music I have learned till I am perfectly sick of it. But, now that we have a grand piano, it will be delightful to play when we have company. And then there are my Italian songs, which everybody allows I sing with taste, and as it is what so few people can pretend to, I am particularly glad that I can. My drawings are universally admired, especially the shells and flowers, which are beautiful, certainly: besides this, I have a decided taste in all kinds of fancy ornaments. And then, my dancing and waltzing, in which our master himself owned that he could take me no farther;--just the figure for it certainly! it would be unpardonable if I did not excel. As to common things, geography, and history, and poetry, and philosophy, thank my stars, I have got through them all! so that I may consider myself not only perfectly accomplished, but also thoroughly well informed. "Well, to be sure, how much I have fagged through; the only wonder is that one head can contain it all!" JANE TAYLOR. [Note: "_Blackstone's Commentaries_" The great standard work on the theory and practice of the English law; written by Sir William Blackstone (1723-1780).] * * * * * THE VILLAGE BLACKSMITH. Under a spreading chestnut tree, The village smithy stands; The smith, a mighty man is he, With large and sinewy hands; And the muscles of his brawny arms Are strong as iron bands. His hair is crisp, and black, and long, His face is like the tan; His brow is wet with honest sweat, He earns whate'er he can, And looks the whole world in the face, For he owes not any man. Week in, week out, from morn till night, You can hear his bellows blow; You can hear him swing his heavy sledge, With measured beat and slow, Like a sexton ringing the village bell, When the evening sun is low. And children coming home from school Look in at the open door; They love to see the flaming forge, And hear the bellows roar, And catch the burning sparks that fly Like chaff from a threshing-floor. He goes on Sunday to the church, And sits among his boys; He hears the parson pray and preach, He hears his daughter's voice Singing in the village choir, And it makes his heart rejoice. It sounds to him like her mother's voice, Singing in Paradise! He needs must think of her once more, How in the grave she lies; And with his hard, rough hand he wipes A tear out of his eyes. Toiling,--rejoicing,--sorrowing, Onward through life he goes; Each morning sees some task begin, Each evening sees it close; Something attempted, something done, Has earned a night's repose. Thanks, thanks to thee, my worthy friend, For the lesson thou hast taught! Thus at the flaming forge of life Our fortunes must be wrought; Thus on its sounding anvil shaped Each burning deed and thought! H.W. LONGFLLLOW. [Notes: _Henry Wadsworth Longfellow_, one of the foremost among contemporary American poets. Born in 1807. His chief poems are 'Evangeline' and 'Hiawatha.' _His face is like the tan. Tan_ is the bark of the oak, bruised and broken for tanning leather. _Thus at the flaming forge of life, &c._ = As iron is softened at the forge and beaten into shape on the anvil, so by the trials and circumstances of life, our thoughts and actions are influenced and our characters and destinies decided. The metaphor is made more complicated by being broken up.] * * * * * MEN OF ENGLAND. Men of England! who inherit Rights that cost your sires their blood! Men whose undegenerate spirit Has been proved on land and flood: By the foes ye've fought uncounted, By the glorious deeds ye've done, Trophies captured--breaches mounted, Navies conquer'd--kingdoms won! Yet remember, England gathers Hence but fruitless wreaths of fame, If the virtues of your fathers Glow not in your hearts the same. What are monuments of bravery, Where no public virtues bloom? What avail in lands of slavery Trophied temples, arch, and tomb? Pageants!--let the world revere us For our people's rights and laws, And the breasts of civic heroes Bared in Freedom's holy cause. Yours are Hampden's Russell's glory, Sydney's matchless shade is your,-- Martyrs in heroic story, Worth a thousand Agincourts! We're the sons of sires that baffled Crown'd and mitred tyranny: They defied the field and scaffold, For their birthrights--so will we. CAMPBELL. [Notes: _Thomas Campbell_, born 1777, died 1844. Author of the 'Pleasures of Hope,' 'Gertrude of Wyoming,' and many lyrics. His poetry is careful, scholarlike and polished. _Men whose undegenerate spirit, &c._ In prose, this would run, "(Ye) men whose spirit has been proved (to be) undegenerate," &c. The word "undegenerate," which is introduced only as an epithet, is the real predicate of the sentence. _By the foes ye've fought uncounted_. "Uncounted" agreeing with "foes." _Fruitless wreaths of fame_. A poetical figure, taken from the wreaths of laurel given as prizes in the ancient games of Greece. "Past history will give fame to a country, but nothing more fruitful than fame, unless its virtues are kept alive." _Trophied temples, i.e.,_ Temples hung (after the fashion of the ancients) with trophies. _Arch, i.e_., the triumphal arch erected by the Romans in honour of victorious generals. _Pageants_ = "these are nought but pageants." _And_ (for) _the beasts of civic heroes_. Civic heroes, those who have striven for the rights of their fellow citizens. _Hampden, i.e_., John Hampden (born 1594, died 1643), the maintainer of the rights of the people in the reign of Charles I. He resisted the imposition of ship-money, and died in a skirmish at Chalgrove during the Civil War. _Russell, i.e_., Lord William Russell, beheaded in 1683, in the reign of Charles II. on a charge of treason. He had resisted the Court in its aims at establishing the doctrine of passive obedience. _Sydney, i.e.,_ Algernon Sydney. The friend of Russell, who met with the same fate in the same year. _Sydney's matchless shade_. Shade = spirit or memory. _Agincourt_. The victory won by Henry V. in France, in 1415. _Crown'd and mitred tyranny_. Explain this.] * * * * * BARBABA S----. On the noon of the 14th of November, 1743, just as the clock had struck one, Barbara S----, with her accustomed punctuality, ascended the long, rabbling staircase, with awkward interposed landing-places, which led to the office, or rather a sort of box with a desk in it, whereat sat the then Treasurer of the Old Bath Theatre. All over the island it was the custom, and remains so I believe to this day, for the players to receive their weekly stipend on the Saturday. It was not much that Barbara had to claim. This little maid had just entered her eleventh year; but her important station at the theatre, as it seemed to her, with the benefits which she felt to accrue from her pious application of her small earnings, had given an air of womanhood her steps and to her behaviour. You would have taken her to have been at least five years older. Till latterly she had merely been employed in choruses, or where children were wanted to fill up the scene. But the manager, observing a diligence and adroitness in her above her age, had for some few months past intrusted to her the performance of whole parts. You may guess the self-consequence of the promoted Barbara. * * * * * The parents of Barbara had been in reputable circumstances. The father had practised, I believe, as an apothecary in the town. But his practice, from causes for which he was himself to blame, or perhaps from that pure infelicity which accompanies some people in their walk through life, and which it is impossible to lay at the door of imprudence, was now reduced to nothing. They were, in fact, in the very teeth of starvation, when the manager, who knew and respected them in better days, took the little Barbara into his company. At the period I commenced with, her slender earnings were the sole support of the family, including two younger sisters. I must throw a veil over some mortifying circumstances. Enough to say, that her Saturday's pittance was the only chance of a Sunday's meal of meat. This was the little starved, meritorious maid, stood before old Ravenscroft, the treasurer, for her Saturday's payment. Ravenscroft was a man, I have heard many old theatrical people besides herself say, of all men least calculated for a treasurer. He had no head for accounts, paid away at random, kept scarce any books, and summing up at the week's end, if he found himself a pound or so deficient, blest himself that it was no more. Now Barbara's weekly stipend was a bare half-guinea. By mistake he popped into her hand a whole one. Barbara tripped away. She was entirely unconscious at first of the mistake: God knows, Ravenscroft would never have discovered it. But when she had got down to the first of those uncouth landing-places she became sensible of an unusual weight of metal pressing her little hand. Now, mark the dilemma. She was by nature a good child. From her parents and those about her she had imbibed no contrary influence. But then they had taught her nothing. Poor men's smoky cabins are not always porticoes of moral philosophy. This little maid had no instinct to evil, but then she might be said to have no fixed principle. She had heard honesty commended, but never dreamed of its application to herself. She thought of it as something which concerned grown-up people, men and women. She had never known temptation, or thought of preparing resistance against it. Her first impulse was to go back to the old treasurer, and explain to him his blunder. He was already so confused with age, besides a natural want of punctuality, that she would have had some difficulty in making him understand it. She saw _that_ in an instant. And then it was such a bit of money: and then the image of a larger allowance of butcher's meat on their table next day came across her, till her little eyes glistened, and her mouth moistened. But then Mr. Ravenscroft had always been so good-natured, had stood her friend behind the scenes, and even recommended her promotion to some of her little parts. But again the old man was reputed to be worth a world of money. He was supposed to have fifty pounds a year clear of the theatre. And then came staring upon her the figures of her little stockingless and shoeless sisters. And when she looked at her own neat white cotton stockings, which her situation at the theatre had made it indispensable for her mother to provide for her, with hard straining and pinching from the family stock, and thought how glad she should be to cover their poor feet with the same, and how then they could accompany her to rehearsals, which they had hitherto been precluded from doing, by reason of their unfashionable attire,--in these thoughts she reached the second landing-place--the second, I mean, from the top--for there was still another left to traverse. Now, virtue, support Barbara! And that never-failing friend did step in; for at that moment a strength not her own, I have heard her say, was revealed to her--a reason above reasoning--and without her own agency, as it seemed (for she never felt her feet to move), she found herself transported back to the individual desk she had just quitted, and her hand in the old hand of Ravenscroft, who in silence took back the refunded treasure, and who had been sitting (good man) insensible to the lapse of minutes, which to her were anxious ages; and from that moment a deep peace fell upon her heart, and she knew the quality of honesty. A year or two's unrepining application to her profession brightened up the feet and the prospects of her little sisters, set the whole family upon their legs again, and released her from the difficulty of discussing moral dogmas upon a landing-place. _Essays of Elia_, by CHARLES LAMB. * * * * * A BALLAD. "Turn, gentle Hermit of the dale, And guide my lonely way To where yon taper cheers the vale With hospitable ray. "For here forlorn and lost I tread, With fainting steps and slow, Where wilds, immeasurably spread, Seem lengthening as I go." "Forbear, my son," the Hermit cries, "To tempt the dangerous gloom; For yonder faithless phantom flies To lure thee to thy doom. "Here to the houseless child of want My door is open still; And, though my portion is but scant, I give it with good will. "Then turn to-night, and freely share Whate'er my cell bestows; My rushy couch and frugal fare, My blessing and repose. "No flocks that range the valley free To slaughter I condemn; Taught by that Power that pities me, I learn to pity them: "But from the mountain's grassy side A guiltless feast I bring; A scrip with herbs and fruits supplied, And water from the spring. "Then, pilgrim turn; thy cares forego; All earth-born cares are wrong: Man wants but little here below, Nor wants that little long." Soft as the dew from heaven descends His gentle accents fell: The modest stranger lowly bends, And follows to the cell. Far in a wilderness obscure The lonely mansion lay, A refuge to the neighbouring poor, And strangers led astray. No stores beneath its humble thatch Required a master's care; The wicket, opening with a latch, Received the harmless pair. And now, when busy crowds retire To take their evening rest, The Hermit trimm'd his little fire, And cheer'd his pensive guest; And spread his vegetable store, And gaily pressed, and smiled; And, skill'd in legendary lore, The lingering hours beguiled. Around, in sympathetic mirth, Its tricks the kitten tries, The cricket chirrups on the hearth, The crackling faggot flies. But nothing could a charm impart To soothe the stranger's woe; For grief was heavy at his heart, And tears began to flow. His rising cares the Hermit spied, With answering care oppress'd; And, "Whence, unhappy youth," he cried, "The sorrows of thy breast?" "From better habitations spurn'd, Reluctant dost thou rove? Or grieve for friendship unreturn'd, Or unregarded love?" "Alas! the joys that fortune brings Are trifling, and decay; And those who prize the paltry things, More trifling still are they." "And what is friendship but a name, A charm that lulls to sleep; A shade that follows wealth or fame, But leaves the wretch to weep?" "And love is still an emptier sound, The modern fair one's jest; On earth unseen, or only found To warm the turtle's nest." "For shame, fond youth, thy sorrows hush, And spurn the sex," he said; But while he spoke, a rising blush His love-lorn guest betray'd. Surprised he sees new beauties rise, Swift mantling to the view; Like colours o'er the morning skies, As bright, as transient too. The bashful look, the rising breast, Alternate spread alarms: The lovely stranger stands confess'd A maid in all her charms. And, "Ah! forgive a stranger rude-- A wretch forlorn," she cried; "Whose feet unhallow'd thus intrude Where Heaven and you reside." "But let a maid thy pity share, Whom love has taught to stray; Who seeks for rest, but finds despair Companion of her way." "My father lived beside the Tyne, A wealthy lord was he; And all his wealth was mark'd as mine, He had but only me." "To win me from his tender arms Unnumber'd suitors came, Who praised me for imputed charms, And felt, or feign'd, a flame." "Each hour a mercenary crowd With richest proffers strove: Amongst the rest, young Edwin bow'd, But never talk'd of love." "In humble, simple habit clad, No wealth nor power had he: Wisdom and worth were all he had, But these were all to me. "And when, beside me in the dale, He caroll'd lays of love, His breath lent fragrance to the gale, And music to the grove. "The blossom opening to the day, The dews of heaven refined, Could nought of purity display To emulate his mind. "The dew, the blossom on the tree, With charms inconstant shine: Their charms were his, but, woe to me, Their constancy was mine. "For still I tried each fickle art, Importunate and vain; And, while his passion touch'd my heart, I triumph'd in his pain: "Till, quite dejected with my scorn, He left me to my pride; And sought a solitude forlorn, In secret, where he died. "But mine the sorrow, mine the fault, And well my life shall pay: I'll seek the solitude he sought, And stretch me where he lay. "And there, forlorn, despairing, hid, I'll lay me down and die; 'Twas so for me that Edwin did, And so for him will I." "Forbid it, Heaven!" the Hermit cried, And clasp'd her to his breast: The wondering fair one turn'd to chide-- 'Twas Edwin's self that press'd! "Turn, Angelina, ever dear, My charmer, turn to see Thy own, thy long-lost Edwin here, Restored to love and thee. "Thus let me hold thee to my heart, And every care resign: And shall we never, never part, My life--my all that's mine? "No, never from this hour to part, We'll live and love so true, The sigh that rends thy constant heart Shall break thy Edwin's too." GOLDSMITH. [Notes: _Oliver Goldsmith_, poet and novelist. The friend and contemporary of Johnson, Burke, and Reynolds. Born 1728, died 1774. This poem is introduced into 'The Vicar of Wakefield,' and Goldsmith there says of it, "It is at least free from the false taste of loading the lines with epithets;" or as he puts it more fully "a string of epithets that improve the sound without carrying on the sense." "_Immeasurably spread_" = spread to an immeasurable length. _No flocks that range the valleys free_. "Free" may be joined either with flocks or with valley. Note the position of the negative, "No flocks that range," &c. = I do not condemn the flocks that range. _Guiltless feast_. Because it does not involve the death of a fellow-creature. _Scrip_. A purse or wallet; a word of Teutonic origin. Distinguish from scrip, a writing or certificate, from the Latin word _scribo_, I write. _Far in a wilderness obscure_. Obscure goes with mansion, not with wilderness. _And gaily pressed_ (him to eat). _With answering care_, i.e., with sympathetic care. _A charm that lulls to sleep_. Charm is here in its proper sense: that of a thing pleasing to the fancy is derivative. _A shade that follows wealth or fame_. A shade = a ghost or phantom. _Swift mantling_, &c. Spreading quickly over, like a cloak or mantle. _Where heaven and you reside_ = where you, whose only thoughts are of Heaven, reside. _Whom love has taught to stray_. This use of the word "taught" for "made" or "forced," is taken from a Latin idiom, as in Virgil, "He _teaches_ the woods to ring with the name of Amaryllis." It is stronger than "made" or "forced," and implies, as here, that she had forgotten all but the wandering life that is now hers. _He had but only me_. But or only is redundant. _To emulate his mind_ = to be equal to his mind in purity. _Their constancy was mine_. This verse has often been accused of violating sense; but, however artificial the expression may be, neither the sense is obscure, nor the way of expressing it inaccurate. It is evidently only another way of saying "in the little they had of constancy they resembled me as they resembled him in their charms."] * * * * * DR. ARNOLD. We listened, as all boys in their better moods will listen (ay, and men too, for the matter of that), to a man whom we felt to be, with all his heart and soul and strength, striving against whatever was mean and unmanly and unrighteous in our little world. It was not the cold, clear voice of one giving advice and warning from serene heights to those who were struggling and sinning below, but the warm, living voice of one who was fighting for us, and by our sides, and calling on us to help him and ourselves and one another. And so, wearily and little by little, but surely and steadily on the whole, was brought home to the young boy, for the first time, the meaning of his life: that it was no fool's or sluggard's paradise into which he had wandered by chance, but a battle-field ordained from of old, where there are no spectators, but the youngest must take his side, and the stakes are life and death. And he who roused this consciousness in them showed them, at the same time, by every word he spoke in the pulpit, and by his whole daily life, how that battle was to be fought; and stood there before them, their fellow-soldier and the captain of their band. The true sort of captain, too, for a boy's army, one who had no misgivings, and gave no uncertain word of command, and, let who would yield or make truce, would fight the fight out (so every boy felt) to the last gasp and the last drop of blood. Other sides of his character might take hold of and influence boys here and there, but it was this thoroughness and undaunted courage which more than anything else won his way to the hearts of the great mass of those on whom he left his mark, and made them believe first in him, and then in his Master. It was this quality, above all others, which moved such boys as Tom Brown, who had nothing whatever remarkable about him except excess of boyishness; by which I mean animal life in its fullest measure; good nature and honest impulses, hatred of injustice and meanness, and thoughtlessness enough to sink a three-decker. And so, during the next two years, in which it was more than doubtful whether he would get good or evil from the school, and before any steady purpose or principle grew up in him, whatever his week's sins and shortcomings might have been, he hardly ever left the chapel on Sunday evenings without a serious resolve to stand by and follow the doctor, and a feeling that it was only cowardice (the incarnation of all other sins in such a boy's mind) which hindered him from doing so with all his heart. _Tom Brown's School Days_. [Note: _Dr. Arnold_, the head-master of Rugby School, died 1842. His life, which gives an account of the work done by him to promote education, has been written by Dean Stanley.] * * * * * MARTYRS Patriots have toil'd, and in their country's cause Bled nobly; and their deeds, as they deserve, Receive proud recompense. We give in charge Their names to the sweet lyre. The Historic Muse, Proud of the treasure, marches with it down To latest times; and Sculpture, in her turn, Gives bond in stone and ever-during brass To guard them, and to immortalize her trust. But fairer wreaths are due--though never paid-- To those who, posted at the shrine of Truth, Have fallen in her defence. A patriot's blood, Well spent in such a strife, may earn indeed, And for a time ensure, to his loved land The sweets of liberty and equal laws; But martyrs struggle for a brighter prize, And win it with more pain. Their blood is shed In confirmation of the noblest claim,-- Our claim to feed upon immortal truth, To walk with God, to be divinely free, To soar and to anticipate the skies.-- Yet few remember them! They lived unknown, Till persecution dragged them into fame, And chased them up to Heaven. Their ashes flew-- No marble tells us whither. With their names No bard embalms and sanctifies his song; And History, so warm on meaner themes, Is cold on this. She execrates indeed The tyranny that doom'd them to the fire, But gives the glorious sufferers little praise. COWPER. [Notes:_William Cowper_ (born 1731, died 1800), the author of 'The Task,' 'Progress of Error,' 'Truth,' and many other poems; all marked by the same pure thought and chaste language. This poem is written in what is called "blank verse," i.e., verse in which the lines do not rhyme, the rhythm depending on the measure of the verse. _To the sweet lyre_ = To the poet, whose lyre (or poetry) is to keep their names alive. _The Historic Muse_. The ancients held that there were nine Muses or Goddesses who presided over the arts and sciences; and of these, one was the Muse of History. _Gives bond in stone, &c._ = Pledges herself. The pith of the phrase is in its almost homely simplicity, the more striking in its contrast with the classical allusions by which it is surrounded. _Her trust_, i.e., what is trusted to her. _To anticipate the skies_ = to ennoble our life and so approach that higher life we hope for after death. _Till persecution dragged them into fame_ = forced them by its cruelty to become famous against their will. _No marble tells us whither_. Because they have no tombstone and no epitaph.] * * * * * A PSALM OF LIFE. Tell me not in mournful numbers, Life is but an empty dream! For the soul is dead that slumbers, And things are not what they seem. Life is real! Life is earnest! And the grave is not its goal; "Dust thou art, to dust returnest;" Was not spoken of the soul. Not enjoyment, and not sorrow, Is our destined end or way; But to act that each to-morrow Finds us farther than to-day. Art is long, and Time is fleeting, And our hearts, though stout and brave, Still like muffled drums are beating Funeral marches to the grave. In the world's broad field of battle, In the Bivouac of life, Be not like dumb, driven cattle! Be a hero in the strife! Trust no Future, howe'er pleasant! Let the dead Past bury its dead! Act--act in the living Present! Heart within, and God o'erhead! Lives of great men all remind us We can make our lives sublime, And, departing, leave behind us Footprints on the sands of time;-- Footprints, that perhaps another, Sailing o'er life's solemn main, A forlorn and shipwrecked brother, Seeing, shall take heart again. Let us, then, be up and doing, With a heart for any fate; Still achieving, still pursuing, Learn to labour and to wait. H.W. LONGFELLOW. [Notes:_Art is long, and time is fleeting_. A translation from the Latin, _Ars longa, vita brevis est._ The metaphor in the last two stanzas in this page is strangely mixed. Footprints could hardly be seen by those sailing over the main.] * * * * * BOYHOOD'S WORK. In no place in the world has individual character more weight than at a public school. Remember this, I beseech you, all you boys who are getting into the upper forms. Now is the time in all your lives, probably, when you may have more wide influence for good or evil in the society you live in than you ever can have again. Quit yourselves like men, then; speak up, and strike out, if necessary, for whatsoever is true, and manly, and lovely, and of good report; never try to be popular, but only to do your duty, and help others to do theirs, and you may leave the tone of feeling in the school higher than you found it, and so be doing good, which no living soul can measure, to generations of your countrymen yet unborn. For boys follow one another in herds like sheep, for good or evil; they hate thinking, and have rarely any settled principles. Every school, indeed, has its own traditionary standard of right and wrong, which cannot be transgressed with impunity, marking certain things as low and blackguard, and certain others as lawful and right. This standard is ever varying, though it changes only slowly, and little by little; and, subject only to such standard, it is the leading boys for the time being who give the tone to all the rest, and make the school either a noble institution for the training of Christian Englishmen, or a place where a young boy will get more evil than he would if he were turned out to make his way in London streets, or anything between these two extremes. * * * * * WORK IN THE WORLD. "I want to be at work in the world," said Tom, "and not dawdling away three years at Oxford." "What do you mean by 'at work in the world?'" said the master, pausing, with his lips close to his saucerful of tea, and peering at Tom over it. "Well, I mean real work; one's profession, whatever one will have really to do, and make one's living by. I want to be doing some real good, feeling that I am not only at play in the world," answered Tom, rather puzzled to find out himself what he really did mean. "You are mixing up two very different things in your head, I think, Brown," said the master, putting down the empty saucer, "and you ought to get clear about them. You talk of 'working to get your living,' and 'doing some real good in the world,' in the same breath. Now, you may be getting a very good living in a profession, and yet doing no good at all in the world, but quite the contrary, at the same time. Keep the latter before you as your one object, and you will be right, whether you make a living or not; but if you dwell on the other, you'll very likely drop into mere money-making, and let the world take care of itself, for good or evil. Don't be in a hurry about finding your work in the world for yourself; you are not old enough to judge for yourself yet, but just look about you in the place you find yourself in, and try to make things a little better and honester there. You'll find plenty to keep your hand in at Oxford, or wherever else you go. And don't be led away to think this part of the world important, and that unimportant. Every corner of the world is important. No man knows whether this part or that is most so, but every man may do some honest work in his own corner." _Tom Brown's School Days_. * * * * * THE ANT AND THE CATERPILLAR As an ant, of his talents superiorly vain, Was trotting, with consequence, over the plain, A worm, in his progress remarkably slow, Cried--"Bless your good worship wherever you go; I hope your great mightiness won't take it ill, I pay my respects with a hearty good-will." With a look of contempt, and impertinent pride, "Begone, you vile reptile," his antship replied; "Go--go, and lament your contemptible state, But first--look at me--see my limbs how complete; I guide all my motions with freedom and ease, Run backward and forward, and turn when I please; Of nature (grown weary) you shocking essay! I spurn you thus from me--crawl out of my way." The reptile, insulted and vex'd to the soul, Crept onwards, and hid himself close in his hole; But nature, determined to end his distress, Soon sent him abroad in a butterfly's dress. Erelong the proud ant, as repassing the road, (Fatigued from the harvest, and tugging his load), The beau on a violet-bank he beheld, Whose vesture, in glory, a monarch's excelled; His plumage expanded--'twas rare to behold So lovely a mixture of purple and gold. The ant, quite amazed at a figure so gay, Bow'd low with respect, and was trudging away. "Stop, friend," says the butterfly; "don't be surprised, I once was the reptile you spurn'd and despised; But now I can mount, in the sunbeams I play, While you must for ever drudge on in your way." CUNNINGHAM. [Note: _Of nature (grown weary) you shocking essay_ = you wretched attempt (= essay) by nature, when she had grown weary.] * * * * * REPORT OF AN ADJUDGED CASE, NOT TO BE FOUND IN ANY OF THE BOOKS. Between Nose and Eyes a strange contest arose. The spectacles set them unhappily wrong; The point in dispute was, as all the world knows, To which the said spectacles ought to belong. So Tongue was the lawyer, and argued the cause, With a great deal of skill, and a wig full of learning, While chief baron Ear sat to balance the laws, So fam'd for his talent in nicely discerning. In behalf of the Nose it will quickly appear, And your lordship, he said, will undoubtedly find, That the nose has had spectacles always in wear, Which amounts to possession time out of mind. Then holding the spectacles up to the court-- Your lordship observes they are made with a straddle, As wide as the ridge of the nose is; in short, Designed to sit close to it, just like a saddle. Again, would your lordship a moment suppose ('Tis a case that has happen'd, and may be again) That the visage or countenance had not a nose, Pray who would, or who could, wear spectacles then? On the whole it appears, and my argument shows, With a reasoning the court will never condemn, That the spectacles plainly were made for the Nose, And the Nose was as plainly intended for them. Then shifting his side as a lawyer knows how, He pleaded again in behalf of the Eyes; But what were his arguments few people know, For the court did not think they were equally wise. So his lordship decreed, with a grave, solemn tone, Decisive and clear, without one _if_ or _but_-- That, whenever the Nose put his Spectacles on, By daylight or candlelight--Eyes should be shut! COWPER. * * * * * CASTLES IN THE AIR. Alnaschar was a very idle fellow, that never would set his hand to any business during his father's life. When his father died he left him to the value of a hundred drachmas in Persian money. Alnaschar, in order to make the best of it, laid it out in bottles, glasses, and the finest earthenware. These he piled up in a large open basket; and, having made choice of a very little shop, placed the basket at his feet, and leaned his back upon the wall in expectation of customers. As he sat in this posture, with his eyes upon the basket, he fell into a most amusing train of thought, and was overheard by one of his neighbours, as he talked to himself in the following manner:--"This basket," says he, "cost me at the wholesale merchant's a hundred drachmas, which is all I had in the world. I shall quickly make two hundred of it by selling it in retail. These two hundred drachmas will in a very little while rise to four hundred; which, of course, will amount in time to four thousand. Four thousand drachmas cannot fail of making eight thousand. As soon as by these means I am master of ten thousand, I will lay aside my trade of a glass-man and turn jeweller. I shall then deal in diamonds, pearls, and all sorts of rich stones. When I have got together as much wealth as I can well desire, I will make a purchase of the finest house I can find, with lands, slaves, and horses. I shall then begin to enjoy myself and make a noise in the world. I will not, however, stop there; but still continue my traffic until I have got together a hundred thousand drachmas. When I have thus made myself master of a hundred thousand drachmas, I shall naturally set myself on the footing of a prince, and will demand the grand vizier's daughter in marriage, after having represented to that minister the information which I have received of the beauty, wit, discretion, and other high qualities which his daughter possesses. I will let him know at the same time that it is my intention to make him a present of a thousand pieces of gold on our marriage day. As soon as I have married the grand vizier's daughter, I must make my father-in-law a visit, with a great train and equipage. And when I am placed at his right hand, which he will do of course, if it be only to honour his daughter, I will give him the thousand pieces of gold which I promised him; and afterwards, to his great surprise, will present him with another purse of the same value, with some short speech: as, 'Sir, you see I am a man of my word: I always give more than I promise.'" "When I have brought the princess to my house, I shall take particular care to breed her in due respect for me. To this end I shall confine her to her own apartments, make her a short visit, and talk but little to her. Her women will represent to me that she is inconsolable by reason of my unkindness; but I shall still remain inexorable. Her mother will then come and bring her daughter to me, as I am seated on a sofa. The daughter, with tears in her eyes, will fling herself at my feet, and beg me to receive her into my favour. Then will I, to imprint her with a thorough veneration for my person, draw up my legs, and spurn her from me with my foot in such a manner that she shall fall down several paces from the sofa." Alnaschar was entirely swallowed up in his vision, and could not forbear acting with his foot what he had in his thoughts: so that, unluckily striking his basket of brittle ware, which was the foundation of all his grandeur, he kicked his glasses to a great distance from him into the street, and broke them into ten thousand pieces. ADDISON. [Note: _Joseph Addison_, born 1672, died 1719. Chiefly famous as a critic and essayist. His calm sense and judgment, and the attraction of his style, have rendered his writings favourites from his own time to ours.] * * * * * THE INCHCAPE BELL. No stir on the air, no swell on the sea, The ship was still as she might be: The sails from heaven received no motion; The keel was steady in the ocean. With neither sign nor sound of shock, The waves flow'd o'er the Inchcape Rock; So little they rose, so little they fell, They did not move the Inchcape Bell. The pious abbot of Aberbrothock Had placed that bell on the Inchcape Rock; On the waves of the storm it floated and swung, And louder and louder its warning rung. When the rock was hid by the tempest swell, The mariners heard the warning bell, And then they knew the perilous rock, And blessed the abbot of Aberbrothock. The float of the Inchcape Bell was seen, A darker spot on the ocean green. Sir Ralph the Rover walked the deck, And he fix'd his eye on the darker speck. His eye was on the bell and float,-- Quoth he, "My men, put down the boat, And row me to the Inchcape Rock,-- I'll plague the priest of Aberbrothock!". The boat was lower'd, the boatmen row, And to the Inchcape Rock they go. Sir Ralph leant over from the boat, And cut the bell from off the float. Down sunk the bell with a gurgling sound; The bubbles rose, and burst around. Quoth he, "Who next comes to the rock Won't bless the priest of Aberbrothock!" Sir Ralph the Rover sail'd away; He scour'd the sea for many a day; And now, grown rich with plunder'd store, He steers his way for Scotland's shore. So thick a haze o'erspread the sky, They could not see the sun on high; The wind had blown a gale all day; At evening it hath died away. "Canst hear," said one, "the breakers roar? For yonder, methinks, should be the shore. Now, where we are, I cannot tell,-- I wish we heard the Inchcape Bell." They heard no sound--the swell is strong, Though the wind hath fallen they drift along: Till the vessel strikes with a shivering shock, "Oh heavens! it is the Inchcape Rock!" Sir Ralph the Rover tore his hair, And cursed himself in his despair; And waves rush in on every side, The ship sinks fast beneath the tide. SOUTHEY. [Notes: _Robert Southey_, born 1774, died 1848. Poet Laureate and author of numerous works in prose and verse.] _Quoth_. Saxon _Cwaethan_, to say. A Perfect now used only in the first and third persons singular of the present indicative; the nominative following the verb. _Till the vessel strikes with a shivering shock_. Notice the effective use of alliteration (_i.e_., the recurrence of words beginning with the same letter), which is the basis of old-English rhythm.] * * * * * THE DEATH OF NELSON. It had been part of Nelson's prayer that the British fleet might be distinguished by humanity in the victory he expected. Setting an example himself, he twice gave orders to cease firing upon the 'Redoubtable,' supposing that she had struck because her great guns were silent; for, as she carried no flag, there was no means of instantly ascertaining the fact. From this ship, which he had thus twice spared, he received his death. A ball, fired from her mizen-top, which, in the then situation of the two vessels, was not more than fifteen yards from that part of the deck where he was standing, struck the epaulette on his left shoulder, about a quarter after one, just in the heat of action. He fell upon his face, on the spot which was covered with his poor secretary's blood. Hardy (his captain), who was a few steps from him, turning round, saw three men raising him up. "They have done for me at last, Hardy," said he. "I hope not," cried Hardy. "Yes," he replied, "my backbone is shot through." Yet even now, not for a moment losing his presence of mind, he observed, as they were carrying him down the ladder, that the tiller ropes, which had been shot away, were not yet replaced, and ordered that new ones should be rove immediately; then, that he might not be seen by the crew, he took out his handkerchief, and covered his face and his stars. Had he but concealed these badges of honour from the enemy, England, perhaps, would not have had cause to receive with sorrow the news of the battle of Trafalgar. The cockpit was crowded with wounded and dying men, over whose bodies he was with some difficulty conveyed, and laid upon a pallet in the midshipmen's berth. It was soon perceived, upon examination, that the wound was mortal. This, however, was concealed from all except Captain Hardy, the chaplain, and the medical attendants. He himself being certain, from the sensation in his back, and the gush of blood he felt momently within his breast, that no human care could avail him, insisted that the surgeon should leave him, and attend to those to whom he might be useful; "For," said he, "you can do nothing for me." All that could be done was to fan him with paper, and frequently to give him lemonade to alleviate his intense thirst. He was in great pain, and expressed much anxiety for the event of the action, which now began to declare itself. As often as a ship struck, the crew of the 'Victory' hurrahed, and at every hurrah a visible expression of joy gleamed in the eyes and marked the countenance of the dying hero. But he became impatient to see Captain Hardy; and as that officer, though often sent for, could not leave the deck, Nelson feared some fatal cause prevented him, and repeatedly cried, "Will no one bring Hardy to me? He must be killed! He is surely dead!" An hour and ten minutes elapsed from the time when Nelson received his wound before Hardy could come to him. They shook hands in silence, Hardy in vain struggling to suppress the feelings of that most painful yet sublimest moment. "Well, Hardy," said Nelson, "how goes the day with us?" "Very well," replied Hardy; "ten ships have struck, but five of the van have tacked, and show an intention to bear down upon the 'Victory.' I have called two or three of our fresh ships round, and have no doubt of giving them a drubbing." "I hope," said Nelson, "none of our ships have struck?" Hardy answered, "There was no fear of that." Then, and not till then, Nelson spoke of himself. "I am a dead man, Hardy," said he; "I am going fast; it will be all over with me soon; come nearer to me." Hardy observed that he hoped Mr. Beattie (the surgeon) could yet hold out some prospect of life. "Oh no," he replied, "it is impossible; my back is shot through--Beattie will tell you so." Captain Hardy then once more shook hands with him, and, with a heart almost bursting, hastened upon deck. By this time all feeling below the breast was gone; and Nelson, having made the surgeon ascertain this, said to him, "You know I am gone; I know it--I feel something rising in my breast (putting his hand on his left side) which tells me so." And upon Beattie's inquiring whether his pain was very great, he replied, "So great, that he wished he were dead." "Yet," said he, in a lower voice, "one would like to live a little longer too!" Captain Hardy, some fifty minutes after he had left the cockpit, returned, and again taking the hand of his dying friend and commander, congratulated him on having gained a complete victory. How many of the enemy were taken, he did not know, as it was impossible to perceive them distinctly, but fourteen or fifteen at least. "That's well," cried Nelson, "but I bargained for twenty." And then, in a stronger voice, he said, "Anchor,! Hardy, anchor." Hardy upon this hinted that Admiral Collingwood would take upon himself the direction of affairs. "Not while I live, Hardy," said the dying Nelson, ineffectually endeavouring to raise himself from the bed; "do you anchor." His previous order for preparing to anchor had shown how clearly he foresaw the necessity of this. Presently, calling Hardy back, he said to him in a low voice, "Don't throw me overboard," and he desired that he might be buried by his parents, unless it should please the king to order otherwise. "Kiss me, Hardy," said he. Hardy knelt down and kissed his cheek, and Nelson said, "Now, I am satisfied. Thank God, I have done my duty." Hardy stood over him in silence for a moment or two, then knelt again and kissed his forehead. "Who is that?" said Nelson; and being informed, he replied, "God bless you, Hardy." And Hardy then left him for ever. SOUTHEY. [Note:_The death of Nelson_ took place at the Battle of Trafalgar, 1805.] * * * * * BATTLE OF THE BALTIC. I. Of Nelson and the North, Sing the glorious day's renown, When to battle fierce came forth All the might of Denmark's crown, And her arms along the deep proudly shone; By each gun the lighted brand, In a bold, determined hand, And the Prince of all the land Led them on. II. Like leviathans afloat, Lay their bulwarks on the brine; While the sign of battle flew On the lofty British line: It was ten of April morn by the chime: As they drifted on their path, There was silence deep as death; And the boldest held his breath For a time. III. But the might of England flushed To anticipate the scene; And her van the fleeter rushed O'er the deadly space between. "Hearts of oak!" our captains cried; when each gun From its adamantine lips Spread a death-shade round the ships. Like the hurricane eclipse Of the sun. IV. Again! again! again! And the havoc did not slack, Till a feebler cheer the Dane To our cheering sent us back;-- Their shots along the deep slowly boom;-- Then cease--and all is wail, As they strike the shattered sail; Or, in conflagration pale, Light the gloom. V. Out spoke the victor then, As he hailed them o'er the wave, "Ye are brothers! ye are men! And we conquer but to save:-- So peace instead of death let us bring; But yield, proud foe, thy fleet, With the crews, at England's feet, And make submission meet To our king." VI. Then Denmark blest our chief That he gave her wounds repose; And the sounds of joy and grief From her people wildly rose, As Death withdrew his shades from the day While the sun looked smiling bright O'er a wide and woeful sight, Where the fires of funeral light Died away. VII. Now joy, Old England, raise! For the tidings of thy might, By the festal cities' blaze, Whilst the wine-cup shines in light; And yet amidst that joy and uproar, Let us think of them that sleep, Full many a fathom deep, By thy wild and stormy steep, Elsinore! VIII. Brave hearts! to Britain's pride Once so faithful and so true, On the deck of fame that died;-- With the gallant good Riou;-- Soft sigh the winds of heaven o'er their grave! While the billow mournful rolls, And the mermaid's song condoles; Singing glory to the souls Of the brave! CAMPBELL [Notes: This is the first specimen of the "ode" in this book. Notice the variety in length between the lines, and draw up a scheme of the rhymes in each stanza. The battle was fought, and Copenhagen bombarded, in April, 1801. _It was ten of April morn by the chime_. It was ten o'clock on the morning in April. _Like the hurricane eclipse_. The eclipse of the sun in storm.] * * * * * LOCHINVAR. Oh, young Lochinvar is come out of the west, Through all the wide border his steed is the best; And, save his good broad-sword, he weapon had none; He rode all unarmed, and he rode all alone! So faithful in love, and so dauntless in war, There never was knight like the young Lochinvar! He stay'd not for brake, and he stopped not for stone, He swam the Eske river where ford there was none-- But, ere he alighted at Netherby gate, The bride had consented, the gallant came late; For a laggard in love, and a dastard in war, Was to wed the fair Ellen of brave Lochinvar! So boldly he entered the Netherby Hall, Among bridesmen, and kinsmen, and brothers, and all!-- Then spoke the bride's father, his hand on his sword-- For the poor craven bridegroom said never a word-- "Oh come ye in peace here, or come ye in war?-- Or to dance at our bridal? young Lord Lochinvar!" "I long woo'd your daughter, my suit you denied: Love swells like the Solway, but ebbs like its tide! And now am I come, with this lost love of mine, To lead but one measure, drink one cup of wine! There be maidens in Scotland, more lovely by far, That would gladly be bride to the young Lochinvar!" The bride kissed the goblet, the knight took it up, He quaffed off the wine, and he threw down the cup! She looked down to blush, and she looked up to sigh-- With a smile on her lip, and a tear in her eye. He took her soft hand, ere her mother could bar-- "Now tread we a measure!" said young Lochinvar, So stately his form, and so lovely her face, That never a hall such a galliard did grace! While her mother did fret, and her father did fume, And the bridegroom stood dangling his bonnet and plume, And the bride-maidens whispered, "'Twere better by far To have matched our fair cousin with young Lochinvar!" One touch to her hand, and one word in her ear, When they reached the hall door, and the charger stood near: So light to the croup the fair lady he swung, So light to the saddle before her he sprung! "She is won! we are gone, over bank, bush, and scaur; They'll have fleet steeds that follow!" cried young Lochinvar. There was mounting 'mong Graemes of the Netherby clan; Forsters, Fenwicks, and Musgraves, they rode and they ran; There was racing and chasing on Cannobie Lea, But the lost bride of Netherby ne'er did they see! So daring in love, and so dauntless in war, Have ye e'er heard of gallant like young Lochinvar? SCOTT. [Notes: _Lochinvar_. The song sung by Dame Heron in 'Marmion,' one of Scott's longest and most famous poems. The fame of Scott (1771-1832) rests partly on these poems, but much more on the novels, in which he is excelled by no one. _He stay'd not for brake_. Brake, a word of Scandinavian origin, means a place overgrown with brambles; from the crackling noise they make as one passes over them. _Love swells like the Solway_. For a scene in which the rapid advance of the Solway tide is described, see the beginning of Scott's novel of 'Redgauntlet.' _Galliard_. A gay rollicker. Used also in Chaucer. _Scaur_. A rough, broken ground. The same word as scar.] * * * * * LEARNING TO RIDE. Some time before my father had bought a small Shetland pony for us, Moggy by name, upon which we were to complete our own education in riding, we had already mastered the rudiments under the care of our grandfather's coachman. He had been in our family thirty years, and we were as fond of him as if he had been a relation. He had taught us to sit up and hold the bridle, while he led a quiet old cob up and down with a leading rein. But, now that Moggy was come, we were to make quite a new step in horsemanship. Our parents had a theory that boys must teach themselves, and that a saddle (except for propriety, when we rode to a neighbour's house to carry a message, or had to appear otherwise in public) was a hindrance rather than a help. So, after our morning's lessons, the coachman used to take us to the paddock in which Moggy lived, put her bridle on, and leave us to our own devices. I could see that that moment was from the first one of keen enjoyment to my brother. He would scramble up on her back, while she went on grazing--without caring to bring her to the elm stool in the corner of the field, which was our mounting place--pull her head up, kick his heels into her sides, and go scampering away round the paddock with the keenest delight. He was Moggy's master from the first day, though she not unfrequently managed to get rid of him by sharp turns, or stopping dead short in her gallop. She knew it quite well; and, just as well, that she was mistress as soon as I was on her back. For weeks it never came to my turn, without my wishing myself anywhere else. George would give me a lift up, and start her. She would trot a few yards, and then begin grazing, notwithstanding my timid expostulations and gentle pullings at her bridle. Then he would run up, and pull up her head, and start her again, and she would bolt off with a flirt of her head, and never be content till I was safely on the grass. The moment that was effected she took to grazing again, and I believe enjoyed the whole performance as much as George, and certainly far more than I did. We always brought her a carrot, or bit of sugar, in our pockets, and she was much more like a great good-tempered dog with us than a pony. _Memoir of a Brother_. T. HUGHES. * * * * * THE CHAMELEON. Oft has it been my lot to mark A proud, conceited, talking spark, With eyes that hardly served at most To guard their master 'gainst a post: Yet round the world the blade has been To see whatever can be seen. Returning from his finished tour, Grown ten times perter than before. Whatever word you chance to drop, The travelled fool your mouth will stop: "Sir, if my judgment you'll allow-- I've seen--and sure I ought to know." So begs you'd pay a due submission And acquiesce in his decision. Two travellers of such a cast, As o'er Arabia's wilds they passed, And on their way in friendly chat, Now talked of this, and now of that: Discoursed a while, 'mongst other matter, Of the chameleon's form and nature. "A stranger animal," cries one, "Sure never lived beneath the sun; A lizard's body, lean and long, A fish's head, a serpent's tongue, Its foot with triple claw disjoined; And what a length of tail behind! How slow its pace! And then its hue-- Who ever saw so fine a blue?"-- "Hold there," the other quick replies, "'Tis green; I saw it with these eyes As late with open mouth it lay, And warmed it in the sunny ray; Stretched at its ease the beast I viewed, And saw it eat the air for food." "I've seen it, sir, as well as you, And must again affirm it blue: At leisure I the beast surveyed Extended in the cooling shade." "'Tis green, 'tis green, sir, I assure you." "Green!" cried the other in a fury: "Why, do you think I've lost my eyes?" "'Twere no great loss," the friend replies, "For if they always serve you thus, You'll find them of but little use." So high at last the contest rose, From words they almost came to blows, When luckily came by a third: To him the question they referred, And begged he'd tell them if he knew, Whether the thing was green or blue? "Sirs," cries the umpire, "cease your pother, The creature's neither one nor t'other. I caught the animal last night, And view'd it o'er by candle-light: I marked it well--'twas black as jet. You stare; but, sirs, I've got it yet: And can produce it"--"Pray, sir, do: I'll lay my life the thing is blue." "And I'll be sworn, that when you've seen The reptile you'll pronounce him green!" "Well, then, at once to ease the doubt," Replies the man, "I'll turn him out: And when before your eyes I've set him, If you don't find him black, I'll eat him," He said, and full before their sight, Produced the beast, and lo!--'twas white. Both stared: the man looked wondrous wise: "My children," the chameleon cries (Then first the creature found a tongue), "You all are right, and all are wrong; When next you tell of what you view, Think others see as well as you! Nor wonder if you find that none Prefers your eyesight to his own." MERRICK. * * * * * MOSES AT THE FAIR All this conversation, however, was only preparatory to another scheme; and indeed I dreaded as much. This was nothing less than that, as we were now to hold up our heads a little higher in the world, it would be proper to sell the colt, which was grown old, at a neighbouring fair, and buy us a horse that would carry us single or double upon an occasion, and make a pretty appearance at church, or upon a visit. This at first I opposed stoutly; but it was stoutly defended. However, as I weakened, my antagonist gained strength, till at last it was resolved to part with him. As the fair happened on the following day, I had intentions of going myself; but my wife persuaded me that I had got a cold, and nothing could prevail upon her to permit me from home. "No, my dear," said she, "our son Moses is a discreet boy, and can buy and sell to a very good advantage: you know all our great bargains are of his purchasing. He always stands out and higgles, and actually tires them till he gets a bargain." As I had some opinion of my son's prudence, I was willing enough to entrust him with this commission; and the next morning I perceived his sisters mighty busy in fitting out Moses for the fair; trimming his hair, brushing his buckles, and cocking his hat with pins. The business of the toilet being over, we had at last the satisfaction of seeing him mounted upon the colt, with a deal box before him to bring home groceries in. He had on a coat made of that cloth they call "thunder-and-lightning," which, though grown too short, was much too good to be thrown away. His waistcoat was of gosling green, and his sisters had tied his hair with a broad black riband. We all followed him several paces from the door, bawling after him, "Good luck! good luck!" till we could see him no longer. *** I changed the subject by seeming to wonder what could keep our son so long at the fair, as it was now almost nightfall. "Never mind our son," cried my wife; "depend upon it, he knows what he is about. I'll warrant we'll never see him sell his hen of a rainy day. I have seen him bring such bargains as would amaze one. I'll tell you a good story about that, that will make you split your sides with laughing. But, as I live, yonder comes Moses, without a horse, and the box on his back." As she spoke, Moses came slowly on foot, and sweating under the deal box, which he had strapped round his shoulders like a pedlar. "Welcome, welcome, Moses! Well, my boy, what have you brought us from the fair?" "I have brought you myself," cried Moses, with a sly look, and resting the box on the dresser. "Ay, Moses," cried my wife, "that we know; but where is the horse?" "I have sold him," cried Moses, "for three pounds five shillings and twopence." "Well done, my good boy," returned she; "I knew you would touch them off. Between ourselves, three pounds five shillings and twopence is no bad day's work. Come, let us have it then." "I have brought back no money," cried Moses again. "I have laid it all out in a bargain, and here it is," pulling out a bundle from his breast; "here they are; a gross of green spectacles, with silver rims and shagreen cases." "A gross of green spectacles!" repeated my wife, in a faint voice. "And you have parted with the colt, and brought us back nothing but a gross of green paltry spectacles!" "Dear mother," cried the boy, "why won't you listen to reason? I had them a dead bargain, or I should not have brought them. The silver rims alone will sell for double the money." "A fig for the silver rims," cried my wife, in a passion: "I dare swear they won't sell for above half the money at the rate of broken silver, five shillings an ounce." "You need be under no uneasiness," cried I, "about selling the rims, for they are not worth sixpence; for I perceive they are only copper varnished over." "What!" cried my wife, "not silver! the rims not silver?" "No," cried I, "no more silver than your saucepan." "And so," returned she, "we have parted with the colt, and have only got a gross of green spectacles, with copper rims and shagreen cases? A murrain take such trumpery! The blockhead has been imposed upon, and should have known his company better." "There, my dear," cried I, "you are wrong; he should not have known them at all." "Marry, hang the idiot!" returned she, "to bring me such stuff: if I had them I would throw them in the fire." "There again you are wrong, my dear," cried I, "for though they be copper, we will keep them by us, as copper spectacles, you know, are better than nothing." By this time the unfortunate Moses was undeceived. He now saw that he had been imposed upon by a prowling sharper, who, observing his figure, had marked him for an easy prey. I therefore asked the circumstances of his deception. He sold the horse, it seems, and walked the fair in search of another. A reverend-looking man brought him to a tent, under pretence of having one to sell. "Here," continued Moses, "we met another man, very well dressed, who desired to borrow twenty pounds upon these, saying that he wanted money, and would dispose of them for a third of the value. The first gentleman, who pretended to be my friend, whispered me to buy them, and cautioned me not to let so good an offer pass. I sent for Mr. Flamborough, and they talked him up as finely as they did me; and so at last we were persuaded to buy the two gross between us." GOLDSMITH. [Note: _Moses at the fair_. This is an incident taken from Goldsmith's novel, 'The Vicar of Wakefield.' The narrator throughout is the Vicar himself, who tells us the simple joys and sorrows of his family, and the foibles of each member of it.] * * * * * A WISH. Happy the man whose wish and care A few paternal acres bound, Content to breathe his native air In his own ground. Whose herds with milk, whose fields with bread, Whose flocks supply him with attire; Whose trees in summer yield him shade, In winter, fire. Blest who can unconcernedly find Hours, days, and years, glide soft away In health of body, peace of mind, Quiet by day, Sound sleep by night; study and ease Together mixed; sweet recreation, And innocence, which most does please, With meditation. Thus let me live, unseen, unknown; Thus unlamented let me die; Steal from the world, and not a stone Tell where I lie. POPE. [Notes: _Alexander Pope_, born 1688, died 1744. The author of numerous poems and translations, all of them marked by the same lucid thought and polished versification. The Essay on Man, the Satires and Epistles, and the translations of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, are amongst the most important. Write a paraphrase of the first two stanzas.] * * * * * WHANG THE MILLER. Whang, the miller, was naturally avaricious; nobody loved money better than he, or more respected those that had it. When people would talk of a rich man in company, Whang would say, "I know him very well; he and I are intimate; he stood for a child of mine." But if ever a poor man was mentioned, he had not the least knowledge of the man; he might be very well for aught he knew; but he was not fond of many acquaintances, and loved to choose his company. Whang, however, with all his eagerness for riches, was in reality poor; he had nothing but the profits of his mill to support him; but though these were small, they were certain; while his mill stood and went, he was sure of eating; and his frugality was such that he every day laid some money by, which he would at intervals count and contemplate with much satisfaction. Yet still his acquisitions were not equal to his desires; he only found himself above want, whereas he desired to be possessed of affluence. One day, as he was indulging these wishes, he was informed that a neighbour of his had found a pan of money under ground, having dreamed of it three nights running before. These tidings were daggers to the heart of poor Whang. "Here am I," says he, "toiling and moiling from morning till night for a few paltry farthings, while neighbour Hunks only goes quietly to bed, and dreams himself into thousands before morning. Oh that I could dream like him! with what pleasure would I dig round the pan; how slily would I carry it home; not even nay wife should see me; and then, oh, the pleasure of thrusting one's hand into a heap of gold up to the elbow!" Such reflections only served to make the miller unhappy; he discontinued his former assiduity; he was quite disgusted with small gains, and his customers began to forsake him. Every day he repeated the wish, and every night laid himself down in order to dream. Fortune, that was for a long time unkind, at last, however, seemed to smile upon his distresses, and indulged him with the wished-for vision. He dreamed that under a certain part of the foundation of his mill there was concealed a monstrous pan of gold and diamonds, buried deep in the ground, and covered with a large flat stone. He rose up, thanked the stars that were at last pleased to take pity on his sufferings, and concealed his good luck from every person, as is usual in money dreams, in order to have the vision repeated the two succeeding nights, by which he should be certain of its veracity. His wishes in this also were answered; he still dreamed of the same pan of money, in the very same place. Now, therefore, it was past a doubt; so, getting up early the third morning, he repairs alone, with a mattock in his hand, to the mill, and began to undermine that part of the wall which the vision directed. The first omen of success that he met was a broken mug; digging still deeper, he turns up a house tile, quite new and entire. At last, after much digging, he came to the broad flat stone, but then so large, that it was beyond one man's strength to remove it. "Here," cried he, in raptures, to himself, "here it is! under this stone there is room for a very large pan of diamonds indeed! I must e'en go home to my wife, and tell her the whole affair, and get her to assist me in turning it up." Away, therefore, he goes, and acquaints his wife with every circumstance of their good fortune. Her raptures on this occasion may easily be imagined; she flew round his neck, and embraced him in an agony of joy: but those transports, however, did not delay their eagerness to know the exact sum; returning, therefore, speedily together to the place where Whang had been digging, there they found--not indeed the expected treasure, but the mill, their only support, undermined and fallen. GOLDSMITH. [Note: _He stood for a child of mine_, i.e., stood as godfather for a child of mine.] * * * * * A SEA SONG. A wet sheet and a flowing sea, A wind that follows fast, And fills the white and rustling sail And bends the gallant mast. And bends the gallant mast, my boys, While, like the eagle free, Away the good ship flies, and leaves Old England on the lee. Oh, for a soft and gentle wind, I heard a fair one cry: But give to me the snoring breeze And white waves heaving high. And white waves heaving high, my lads, A good ship, tight and free, The world of waters is our home, And merry men are we. There's tempest in yon horned moon, And lightning in yon cloud; And hark the music, mariners! The wind is piping loud. The wind is piping loud, my boys, The lightning flashes free; While the hollow oak our palace is, Our heritage the sea. CUNNINGHAM. [Note: _A wet sheet_. The _sheet_ is the rope fastened to the lower corner of a sail to retain it in position.] * * * * * ON THE LOSS OF THE 'ROYAL GEORGE.' Toll for the brave! The brave that are no more; All sunk beneath the wave, Fast by their native shore! Eight hundred of the brave, Whose courage well was tried, Had made the vessel heel, And laid her on her side. A land breeze shook the shrouds, And she was overset; Down went the 'Royal George,' With all her crew complete. Toll for the brave! Brave Kempenfeldt is gone; His last sea-fight is fought; His work of glory done. It was not in the battle; No tempest gave the shock; She sprang no fatal leak; She ran upon no rock. His sword was in its sheath; His fingers held the pen, When Kempenfeldt went down, With twice four hundred men. Weigh the vessel up, Once dreaded by our foes! And mingle with our cup, The tear that England owes. Her timbers yet are sound, And she may float again, Full-charged with England's thunder, And plough the distant main. But Kempenfeldt is gone, His victories are o'er; And he and his eight hundred Shall plough the wave no more. COWPER. [Note: _The Royal George_. A ship of war, which went down with Admiral Kempenfeldt and her crew off Spithead in 1782, while undergoing a partial careening.] * * * * * AN ESCAPE. After we had rowed, or rather driven, about a league and a half, as we reckoned it, a raging wave, mountain-like, came rolling astern of us, and plainly bade us expect our end. In a word, it took us with such a fury that it overset the boat at once; and, separating us as well from the boat as from one another, gave us not time hardly to say, "O God!" for we were all swallowed up in a moment. Nothing can describe the confusion of thought which I felt when I sunk into the water; for though I swam very well, yet I could not deliver myself from the waves, so as to draw breath, till that wave having driven me, or rather carried me a vast way on towards the shore, and having spent itself, went back, and left me upon the land almost dry, but half dead from the water I took in. I had so much presence of mind as well as breath left, that, seeing myself nearer the mainland than I expected, I got upon my feet, and endeavoured to make on towards the land as fast as I could, before another wave should return, and take me up again. But I soon found it was impossible to avoid it; for I saw the sea come after me as high as a great hill, and as furious as an enemy, which I had no means or strength to contend with; my business was to hold my breath, and raise myself upon the water, if I could: and so by swimming to preserve my breathing, and pilot myself towards the shore, if possible; my greatest concern now being, that the sea, as it would carry me a great way towards the shore when it came on, might not carry me back again with it when it gave back towards the sea. The wave that came upon me again, buried me at once twenty or thirty feet deep in its own body; and I could feel myself carried with a mighty force and swiftness towards the shore a very great way; but I held my breath, and assisted myself to swim still forward with all my might. I was ready to burst with holding my breath, when, as I felt myself rising up, so, to my immediate relief, I found my head and hands shoot out above the surface of the water; and though it was not two seconds of time that I could keep myself so, yet it relieved me greatly, gave me breath and new courage. I was covered again with water a good while, but not so long but I held it out; and finding the water had spent itself, and began to return, I struck forward against the return of the waves, and felt ground again with my feet. I stood still a few moments to recover breath, and till the water went from me, and then took to my heels, and run with what strength I had farther towards the shore. But neither would this deliver me from the fury of the sea, which came pouring in after me again, and twice more I was lifted up by the waves, and carried forwards as before, the shore being very flat. The last time of these two had well near been fatal to me; for the sea having hurried me along as before, landed me, or rather dashed me against a piece of a rock, and that with such force as it left me senseless, and indeed helpless, as to my own deliverance; for the blow taking my side and breast, beat the breath, as it were, quite out of my body; and had it returned again immediately, I must have been strangled in the water; but I recovered a little before the return of the waves, and seeing I should be covered again with the water, I resolved to hold fast by a piece of the rock, and so to hold my breath, if possible, till the wave went back; now as the waves were not so high as at first, being near land, I held my hold till the wave abated, and then fetched another run, which brought me so near the shore that the next wave, though it went over me, yet did not so swallow me up as to carry me away, and the next run I took, I got to the main land, where, to my great comfort, I clambered up the clifts of the shore, and sat me down upon the grass, free from danger, and quite out of the reach of the water. DEFOE'S _Robinson Crusoe_. [Notes: _Daniel Defoe_, born 1663, died 1731. He was prominent as a political writer, but his later fame has rested chiefly on his works of fiction, of which 'Robinson Crusoe' (from which this extract is taken) is the most important. "_Gave us not time hardly to say_." This to us has the effect of a double negative. But if we take "hardly" in its strict sense, the sentence is clear: "did not give us time, even with difficulty, to say." (_at foot_)."_As_ I felt myself rising up, _so_ to my immediate relief." Note this use of _as_ and _so_, in a way which now sounds archaic. _Run_. The older form, for which we would use _ran_. "That with such force, _as_ it left me," &c. For _as_, we would now use _that_. _Clifts of the shore_. Like clefts, broken openings in the shore.] * * * * * RULE BRITANNIA. When Britain first, at Heaven's command, Arose from out the azure main, This was the charter of the land, And guardian angels sung this strain: Rule, Britannia, rule the waves, Britons never will be slaves! The nations, not so blessed as thee, Must in their turn to tyrants fall; While thou shalt flourish great and free, The dread and envy of them all. Still more majestic shalt thou rise, More dreadful from each foreign stroke; As the loud blast that tears the skies, Serves but to root thy native oak. Thee haughty tyrants ne'er shall tame: All their attempts to bend thee down Will but arouse thy generous flame; But work their woe and thy renown. To thee belongs the rural reign; Thy cities shall with commerce shine; All thine shall be the subject main: And every shore it circles thine. The Muses, still with freedom found, Shall to thy happy coast repair: Blessed isle! with matchless beauty crowned, And manly hearts to guard the fair: Rule, Britannia, rule the waves, Britons never will be slaves! THOMSON. [Notes: _James Thomson_, born 1700, died 1748. He was educated for the Scotch ministry, but came to London, and commenced his career as a poet by the series of poems called the 'Seasons,' descriptive of scenes in nature. _The Muses, i.e._, the Sciences and Arts, which flourish best where there are free institutions.] * * * * * WATERLOO. There was a sound of revelry by night, And Belgium's capital had gathered then Her Beauty and her Chivalry; and bright The lamps shone o'er fair women and brave men; A thousand hearts beat happily; and when Music arose with its voluptuous swell, Soft eyes look'd love to eyes which spake again, And all went merry as a marriage-bell;-- But hush! hark! a deep sound strikes like a rising knell! Did ye not hear it?--No; 'twas but the wind, Or the car rattling o'er the stony street: On with the dance! let joy be unconfined; No sleep till morn, when Youth and Pleasure meet To chase the glowing Hours with flying feet-- But hark!--That heavy sound breaks in once more, As if the clouds its echo would repeat; And nearer, clearer, deadlier than before! Arm! arm! it is--it is--the cannon's opening roar! Ah! then and there was hurrying to and fro, And gathering tears, and tremblings of distress, And cheeks all pale, which but an hour ago Blush'd at the praise of their own loveliness: And there were sudden partings, such as press The life from out young hearts, and choking sighs Which ne'er might be repeated; who could guess If ever more should meet those mutual eyes, Since upon night so sweet such awful morn could rise? And there was mounting in hot haste: the steed, The mustering squadron, and the clattering car, Went pouring forward with impetuous speed, And swiftly forming in the ranks of war; And the deep thunder peal on peal afar; And near, the beat of the alarming drum Roused up the soldier ere the morning-star; While throng'd the citizens, with terror dumb, Or whispering, with white lips,--"The foe! they come! they come!" And Ardennes waves above them her green leaves, Dewy with nature's tear-drops, as they pass, Grieving, if aught inanimate e'er grieves, Over the unreturning brave,--alas! Ere evening to be trodden like the grass, Which now beneath them, but above shall grow In its next verdure; when this fiery mass Of living valour, rolling on the foe And burning with high hope, shall moulder cold and low! Last noon beheld them full of lusty life, Last eve in Beauty's circle proudly gay, The midnight brought the signal-sound of strife, The morn the marshalling in arms,--the day Battle's magnificently stern array! The thunder-clouds close o'er it, which when rent The earth is cover'd thick with other clay, Which her own clay shall cover--heap'd and pent, Rider and horse,--friend, foe,--in one red burial blent! BYRON. [Notes:_Waterloo_. Fought, 1815, between Napoleon on one side, and Wellington and Blucher (the Prussian General) on the other. Its result was the defeat of Napoleon, and his imprisonment by the Allies in St. Helena. The festivities held at Brussels, the headquarters of the British Army, on the eve of the battle, were rudely disturbed by the news that the action had already begun. _Ardennes_. A district on the frontier of France, bordering on Belgium. _Ivry_. The battle in which Henry IV., in the struggle for the crown of France, completely routed the forces of the Catholic League (1590). _My white plume shine_. The white plume was the distinctive mark of the House of Bourbon. _Oriflamme_, or Auriflamme (lit. Flame of Gold), originally the banner of the Abbey of St. Denis, afterwards appropriated by the crown of France. "Let the helmet of Navarre (Henry's own country) be to-day the Royal Standard of France." _Culverin_. A piece of artillery of long range. _The fiery Duke_ (of Mayenne). _Pricking fast_. Cf. "a gentle knight was pricking o'er the plain" (Spencer). _With all the hireling chivalry of Guelders and Almayne_. The allies of the League. Almayne or Almen, a district in the Netherlands. * * * * * IVRY. The King is come to marshal us, in all his armour drest, And he has bound a snow-white plume upon his gallant crest. He look'd upon his people, and a tear was in his eye: He look'd upon the traitors, and his glance was stern and high, Right graciously he smiled on us, as roll'd from wing to wing, Down all our line a deafening shout, "God save our Lord the King!" "And if my standard-bearer fall, as fall full well he may, For never saw I promise yet of such a bloody fray, Press where ye see my white plume shine, amidst the ranks of war, And be your Oriflamme to-day the helmet of Navarre." Hurrah! the foes are moving. Hark to the mingled din Of fife, and steed, and trump, and drum, and roaring culverin! The fiery Duke is pricking fast across St. André's plain, With all the hireling chivalry of Guelders and Almayne. Now by the lips of those we love, fair gentlemen of France, Charge for the Golden Lilies,--upon them with the lance! A thousand spurs are striking deep, a thousand spears in rest, A thousand knights are pressing close behind the snow-white crest; And in they burst, and on they rush'd, while, like a guiding star, Amidst the thickest carnage blazed the helmet of Navarre. Now, God be praised, the day is ours! Mayenne hath turned his rein. D'Aumale hath cried for quarter. The Flemish Count is slain. Their ranks are breaking like thin clouds before a Biscay gale. The field is heap'd with bleeding steeds, and flags, and cloven mail. And then we thought on vengeance, and, all along our van, "Remember St. Bartholomew!" was pass'd from man to man: But out spake gentle Henry, "No Frenchman is my foe; Down, down, with every foreigner! but let your brethren go." Oh! was there ever such a knight, in friendship or in war, As our Sovereign Lord, King Henry, the soldier of Navarre! Ho! maidens of Vienna; ho! matrons of Lucerne; Weep, weep, and rend your hair for those who never shall return. Ho! Philip, send, for charity, thy Mexican pistoles, That Antwerp monks may sing a mass for thy poor spearmen's souls. Ho! gallant nobles of the League, look that your arms be bright: Ho! burghers of St. Genevieve, keep watch and ward to- night, For our God hath crush'd the tyrant, our God hath raised the slave, And mock'd the counsel of the wise, and the valour of the brave. Then glory to His holy name, from whom all glories are; And glory to our Sovereign Lord, King Henry of Navarre! MACAULAY. [Notes: _D'Aumale_, The Duke of; another leader of the League. _The Flemish Court_. Count Egmont, the son of the Count Egmont, whose death on the scaffold in 1568, in consequence of the resistance he offered to the tyranny of Philip II. of Spain, has made the name famous. The son, on the other hand, was the attached servant of Philip II.; and was unnatural enough to say, when reminded of his father, "Talk not of him, he deserved his death." _Remember St. Bartholomew_, i.e., the massacre of the Protestants on St. Bartholomew's day, 1572. _Maidens of Vienna: matrons of Lucerne_. In reference to the Austrian and Swiss Allies of the League. _Thy Mexican pistoles_. Alluding to the riches gained by the Spanish monarchy from her American colonies. _Ho! burghers of St. Genevieve_ = citizens of Paris, of which St. Genevieve was held to be the patron saint.] * * * * * NECESSITY THE MOTHER OF INVENTION. And now I began to apply myself to make such necessary things as I found I most wanted, as particularly a chair or a table; for without these I was not able to enjoy the few comforts I had in the world; I could not write or eat, or do several things with so much pleasure without a table. So I went to work; and here I must needs observe that, as reason is the substance and original of the mathematics, so by stating and squaring everything by reason, and by making the most rational judgment of things, every man may be in time master of every mechanic art. I had never handled a tool in my life, and yet in time, by labour, application, and contrivance, I found at last that I wanted nothing but I could have made it, especially if I had had tools; however, I made abundance of things, even without tools, and some with no more tools than an adze and a hatchet, which perhaps were never made that way before, and that with infinite labour; for example, if I wanted a board, I had no other way but to cut down a tree, set it on an edge before me, and hew it flat on either side with my axe, till I had brought it to be as thin as a plank, and then dubb it smooth with my adze. It is true, by this method, I could make but one board out of a whole tree, but this I had no remedy for but patience, any more than I had for the prodigious deal of time and labour which it took me up to make a plank or board; but my time or labour was little worth, and so it was as well employed one way as another. However, I made me a table and a chair, as I observed above, in the first place, and this I did out of the short pieces of boards that I brought on my raft from the ship: but when I had wrought out some boards, as above, I made large shelves of the breadth of a foot and a half one over another, all along one side of my cave, to lay all my tools, nails, and iron-work, and in a word, to separate everything at large in their places, that I might come easily at them; I knocked pieces into the wall of the rock to hang my guns and all things that would hang up. So that had my cave been to be seen, it looked like a general magazine of all necessary things, and I had everything so ready at my hand, that it was a great pleasure to me to see all my goods in such order, and especially to find my stock of all necessaries so great. DEFOE'S _Robinson Crusoe._ [Notes: _Reason is the substance and original of the mathematics_. Original here = origin or foundation.] _The most rational judgment_ = the judgment most in accordance with reason.] * * * * * ANCIENT GREECE. Clime of the unforgotten brave! Whose land from plain to mountain-cave Was Freedom's home or Glory's grave! Shrine of the mighty! can it be That this is all remains of thee? Approach, thou craven crouching slave: Say, is not this Thermopylae? These waters blue that round you lave,-- Oh servile offspring of the free!-- Pronounce what sea, what shore is this? The gulf, the rock of Salamis! These scenes, their story not unknown, Arise, and make again your own; Snatch from the ashes of your sires The embers of their former fires; And he who in the strife expires Will add to theirs a name of fear That Tyranny shall quake to hear, And leave his sons a hope, a fame, They too will rather die than shame: For Freedom's battle once begun, Bequeathed by bleeding Sire to Son, Though baffled oft is ever won. Bear witness, Greece, thy living page! Attest it many a deathless age! While kings, in dusty darkness hid, Have left a nameless pyramid, Thy heroes, though the general doom Hath swept the column from their tomb, A mightier monument command, The mountains of their native land! There points thy Muse to stranger's eye The graves of those that cannot die! 'Twere long to tell, and sad to trace, Each step from splendour to disgrace, Enough--no foreign foe could quell Thy soul, till from itself it fell; Yes! Self-abasement paved the way To villain-bonds and despot sway. BYRON. [Notes: _Lord Byron_, born 1788, died 1824. The most powerful English poet of the early part of this century. _Thermapylae._ The pass at which Leonidas and his Spartans resisted the approach of the Persians (B.C. 480). _Salamis_. Where the Athenians fought the great naval battle which destroyed the Persian fleet, and secured the liberties of Greece.] * * * * * THE TEMPLE OF FAME. The Temple shakes, the sounding gates unfold, Wide vaults appear, and roofs of fretted gold, Raised on a thousand pillars wreathed around With laurel-foliage and with eagles crowned; Of bright transparent beryl were the walls, The friezes gold, and gold the capitals: As heaven with stars, the roof with jewels glows, And ever-living lamps depend in rows. Full in the passage of each spacious gate The sage historians in white garments wait: Graved o'er their seats, the form of Time was found, His scythe reversed, and both his pinions bound. Within stood heroes, who through loud alarms In bloody fields pursued renown in arms. High on a throne, with trophies charged, I viewed The youth that all things but himself subdued; His feet on sceptres and tiaras trode, And his horned head belied the Libyan god. There Caesar, graced with both Minervas, shone; Caesar, the world's great master, and his own; Unmoved, superior still in every state, And scarce detested in his country's fate. But chief were those, who not for empire fought, But with their toils their people's safety bought: High o'er the rest Epaminondas stood: Timoleon, glorious in his brother's blood: Bold Scipio, saviour of the Roman state, Great in his triumphs, in retirement great; And wise Aurelius, in whose well-taught mind With boundless power unbounded virtue joined, His own strict judge, and patron of mankind. Much-suffering heroes next their honours claim, Those of less noisy and less guilty fame, Fair Virtue's silent train: supreme of these Here ever shines the godlike Socrates; He whom ungrateful Athens could expel, At all times just but when he signed the shell: Here his abode the martyred Phocion claims, With Agis, not the last of Spartan names: Unconquered Cato shows the wound he tore, And Brutus his ill Genius meets no more. But in the centre of the hallowed choir, Six pompous columns o'er the rest aspire; Around the shrine itself of Fame they stand, Hold the chief honours, and the Fane command. High on the first the mighty Homer shone; Eternal adamant composed his throne; Father of verse! in holy fillets drest, His silver beard waved gently o'er his breast: Though blind, a boldness in his looks appears; In years he seemed, but not impaired by years. The wars of Troy were round the pillar seen: Here fierce Tydides wounds the Cyprian Queen; Here Hector glorious from Patroclus' fall, Here dragged in triumph round the Trojan wall. Motion and life did every part inspire, Bold was the work, and proved the master's fire. A strong expression most he seemed t' affect, And here and there disclosed a brave neglect. A golden column next in rank appeared, On which a shrine of purest gold was reared; Finished the whole, and laboured every part, With patient touches of unwearied art; The Mantuan there in sober triumph sate, Composed his posture, and his look sedate: On Homer still he fixed a reverent eye, Great without pride, in modest majesty, In living sculpture on the sides were spread The Latian wars, and haughty Turnus dead: Eliza stretched upon the funeral pyre, Aeneas bending with his aged sire: Troy flamed in burning gold, and o'er the throne _Arms and the Man_ in golden ciphers shone. Four swans sustain a car of silver bright, With heads advanced, and pinions stretched for flight, Here, like some furious prophet, Pindar rode, And seemed to labour with the inspiring God. Across the harp a careless hand he flings, And boldly sinks into the sounding strings. The figured games of Greece the column grace, Neptune and Jove survey the rapid race. The youths hang o'er their chariots as they run; The fiery steeds seem starting from the stone: The champions in distorted postures threat; And all appeared irregularly great. Here happy Horace tuned th' Ausonian lyre To sweeter sounds, and tempered Pindar's fire; Pleased with Alcaeus' manly rage t' infuse The softer spirit of the Sapphic Muse. The polished pillar different sculptures grace; A work outlasting monumental brass. Here smiling Loves and Bacchanals appear, The Julian star, and great Augustus here: The Doves, that round the infant Poet spread Myrtles and bays, hang hov'ring o'er his head. Here, in a shrine that cast a dazzling light, Sate, fixed in thought, the mighty Stagyrite: His sacred head a radiant zodiac crowned, And various animals his sides surround: His piercing eyes, erect, appear to view Superior worlds, and look all Nature through. With equal rays immortal Tully shone; The Roman rostra decked the Consul's throne: Gathering his flowing robe, he seemed to stand In act to speak, and graceful stretched his hand. Behind, Rome's Genius waits with civic crowns, And the great Father of his country owns. These massy columns in a circle rise, O'er which a pompous dome invades the skies: Scarce to the top I stretched my aching sight, So large it spread, and swelled to such a height. Full in the midst proud Fame's imperial seat With jewels blazed magnificently great: The vivid emeralds there revive the eye, The flaming rubies show their sanguine dye, Bright azure rays from lively sapphires stream, And lucid amber casts a golden gleam, With various coloured light the pavement shone, And all on fire appeared the glowing throne; The dome's high arch reflects the mingled blaze, And forms a rainbow of alternate rays. When on the Goddess first I cast my sight, Scarce seemed her stature of a cubit's height; But swelled to larger size the more I gazed, Till to the roof her towering front she raised; With her the Temple every moment grew, And ampler vistas opened to my view: Upward the columns shoot, the roofs ascend, And arches widen, and long aisles extend, Such was her form, as ancient Bards have told, Wings raise her arms, and wings her feet infold; A thousand busy tongues the Goddess bears, A thousand open eyes, a thousand listening ears. Beneath, in order ranged, the tuneful Nine (Her virgin handmaids) still attend the shrine: With eyes on Fame for ever fixed, they sing; For Fame they raise the voice, and tune the string: With Time's first birth began the heavenly lays, And last eternal through the length of days. Around these wonders, as I cast a look, The trumpet sounded, and the temple shook, And all the nations, summoned at the call, From diff'rent quarters, fill the crowded hall: Of various tongues the mingled sounds were heard; In various garbs promiscuous throngs appeared; Thick as the bees that with the spring renew Their flow'ry toils, and sip the fragrant dew, When the winged colonies first tempt the sky, O'er dusky fields and shaded waters fly; Or, settling, seize the sweets the blossoms yield, And a low murmur runs along the field. Millions of suppliant crowds the shrine attend, And all degrees before the Goddess bend; The poor, the rich, the valiant, and the sage, And boasting youth, and narrative old age. Their pleas were diff'rent, their request the same: For good and bad alike are fond of Fame. Some she disgraced, and some with honours crowned; Unlike successes equal merits found. Thus her blind sister, fickle Fortune, reigns, And, undiscerning, scatters crowns and chains. First at the shrine the Learned world appear, And to the Goddess thus prefer their pray'r: "Long have we sought t' instruct and please mankind, With studies pale, with midnight vigils blind; But thanked by few, rewarded yet by none. We here appeal to thy superior throne: On wit and learning the just prize bestow, For fame is all we must expect below." The Goddess heard, and bade the Muses raise The golden Trumpet of eternal Praise: From pole to pole the winds diffuse the sound That fills the circuit of the world around. Not all at once, as thunder breaks the cloud: The notes, at first, were rather sweet than loud. By just degrees they ev'ry moment rise, Fill the wide earth, and gain upon the skies. At ev'ry breath were balmy odours shed, Which still grew sweeter as they wider spread; Less fragrant scents th' unfolding rose exhales, Or spices breathing in Arabian gales. Next these, the good and just, an awful train, Thus, on their knees, address the sacred fane: "Since living virtue is with envy cursed, And the best men are treated like the worst, Do thou, just Goddess, call our merits forth, And give each deed th' exact intrinsic worth." "Not with bare justice shall your act be crowned," (Said Fame,) "but high above desert renowned: Let fuller notes th' applauding world amaze, And the loud clarion labour in your praise." This band dismissed, behold another crowd Preferred the same request, and lowly bowed; The constant tenour of whose well-spent days No less deserved a just return of praise. But straight the direful Trump of Slander sounds; Through the big dome the doubling thunder bounds; Loud as the burst of cannon rends the skies, The dire report through ev'ry region flies; In ev'ry ear incessant rumours rung, And gath'ring scandals grew on ev'ry tongue. From the black trumpet's rusty concave broke Sulphureous flames, and clouds of rolling smoke; The pois'nous vapour blots the purple skies, And withers all before it as it flies. A troop came next, who crowns and armour wore, And proud defiance in their looks they bore: "For thee" (they cried), "amidst alarms and strife, We sailed in tempests down the stream of life; For thee whole nations filled with flames and blood, And swam to empire through the purple flood. Those ills we dared, thy inspiration own; What virtue seemed was done for thee alone." "Ambitious fools!" (the Queen replied, and frowned): "Be all your acts in dark oblivion drowned; There sleep forgot, with mighty tyrants gone, Your statues mouldered, and your names unknown!" A sudden cloud straight snatched them from my sight, And each majestic phantom sunk in night. Then came the smallest tribe I yet had seen; Plain was their dress, and modest was their mien. "Great idol of mankind! we neither claim The praise of merit, nor aspire to fame! But safe, in deserts, from the applause of men, Would die unheard-of, as we lived unseen. 'Tis all we beg thee, to conceal from sight Those acts of goodness, which themselves requite. O let us still the secret joy partake, To follow virtue ev'n for virtue's sake." "And live there men who slight immortal fame? Who, then, with incense shall adore our name? But, mortals! know, 'tis still our greatest pride To blaze those virtues which the good would hide. Rise! Muses, rise! add all your tuneful breath; These must not sleep in darkness and in death," She said: in air the trembling music floats, And on the winds triumphant swell the notes: So soft, though high; so loud, and yet so clear; Ev'n list'ning angels leaned from heaven to hear: To farthest shores th' ambrosial spirit flies, Sweet to the world, and grateful to the skies. Pope. [Notes: _Alexander Pope_. (See previous note on Pope.) The hint of this poem is taken from one by Chaucer, called 'The House of Fame.' _Depend in rows. Depend_ in its proper and literal meaning, "hang down." _The youth that all things but himself subdued_ = Alexander the Great (356-323 B.C.). _His feet on sceptres and tiaras trod. Tiaras_, in reference to his conquests over the Asiatic monarchies. _His horned head belied the Libyan god_. "The desire to be thought the son of Jupiter Ammon caused him to wear the horns of that god, and to represent the same upon his coins." _(Pope's note_.) Libyan = African. _Caesar graced with both Minervas, i.e.,_ by warlike and literary genius; as the conqueror of Gaul and the writer of the 'Commentaries.' _Scarce detested in his country's fate_. Whom even the enslaving of his country scarce makes us detest. _Epaminondas_ (died 362 B.C.), the maintainer of Theban independence. _Timoleon_, of Corinth, who slew his brother when he found him aspiring to be tyrant in the state (died 337 B.C.). _Scipio_. The conqueror of Carthage, which was long the rival of Rome. _Aurelius, i.e.,_ Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (121-180 A.D.), Emperor of Rome; one of the brightest characters in Roman history. _Socrates_. The great Greek philosopher, who, in maintaining truth, incurred the charge of infecting the young men of Athens with impiety, and was put to death by being made to drink hemlock. His life and teaching are known to us through the writings of his disciple, Plato. _He whom ungrateful Athens_, &c., i.e., Aristides (see page 171), distinguished by the surname of _The Just_. He was unjust, Pope means, only when he signed the shell for his own condemnation. _Phocion_. An Athenian general and statesman (402-318 B.C.), put to death by Polysperchon. He injured rather than helped the liberties of Athens. _Agis_, "King of Sparta, who endeavoured to restore his state to greatness by a radical agrarian reform, was after a mock trial murdered in prison, B.C. 241." _Ward_. _Cato_, who, to escape disgrace amid the evils which befell his country, stabbed himself in 46 B.C. _Brutus his ill Genius meets no more_. See the account of the Eve of Philippi in Book IV. _The wars of Troy_. Described by Homer in his Iliad. _Tydides (Diomede) wounds the Cyprian Queen (Venus)_. A scene described in the Iliad. _Hector_. Slew Patroclus, the friend of Achilles, and in revenge was dragged by him round the walls of Troy. _The Mantuan_, i.e., the Roman poet Virgil, author of the Aeneid, born at Mantua (70-19 B.C.) _Eliza_ = Elissa, or Dido, whose misfortunes are described in the Aeneid. _Aeneas bending with his aged sire_. Aeneas carried his father, Anchises, from the flames of Troy on his shoulders. _Arms and the Man_. The opening words of the Aeneid. _Pindar_. Of Thebes, who holds the first place among the lyric poets of Greece. The character and subjects of his poetry, of which the portions remaining to us are the Triumphal Odes, celebrating victories gained in the great games of Greece, are indicated by the lines that follow. _Happy Horace_ (65-8 B.C.). The epithet is used to describe the lightsome and genial tone of Horace's poetry. _Ausonian lyre_ = Italian song. Ausonia is a poetical name for Italy. _Alcoeus and Sappho_. Two of the early lyric poets of Greece. _A work outlasting monumental brass_. This line is suggested by one of Horace, when he describes his work as "a monument more lasting than brass." _The Julian star, and great Augustus here_. Referring to the Imperial house and its representative, Augustus, Horace's chief patron. _Stagyrite_. Aristotle, the great philosopher of Greece (384-322 B.C.), born at Stagira. Pope here shortens the second syllable by a poetical licence. _Tully_. Marcus Tullius Cicero, the great orator, statesman, and writer of Rome. For saving the city from the conspiracy of Catiline, he was honoured with the title of "Father of his country." _Narrative old age_. Talkative old age. _Unlike successes equal merits found_ = The same desert found now success, now failure.] * * * * * LABRADOR. The following narrative is from the periodical account of the Moravian Missions. It contains some of the most impressive descriptions I ever remember to have read. Brother Samuel Liebiseh was at the time of this occurrence entrusted with the general care of the brethren's missions on the coast of Labrador. The duties of his office required a visit to Okkak, the most northern of our settlements, and about one hundred and fifty English miles distant from Nain, the place where he resided. Brother William Turner being appointed to accompany him, they left Nain together on March the 11th, 1782, early in the morning, with very clear weather, the stars shining with uncommon lustre. The sledge was driven by the baptised Esquimaux Mark, and another sledge with Esquimaux joined company. An Esquimaux sledge is drawn by a species of dogs, not unlike a wolf in shape. Like them, they never bark, but howl disagreeably. They are kept by the Esquimaux in greater or larger packs or teams, in proportion to the affluence of the master. They quietly submit to be harnessed for their work, and are treated with little mercy by the heathen Esquimaux, who make them do hard duty for the small quantity of food they allow them. This consists chiefly in offal, old skins, entrails, such parts of whale-flesh as are unfit for other use, rotten whale-fins, &c.; and if they are not provided with this kind of dog's meat, they leave them to go and seek dead fish or muscles upon the beach. When pinched with hunger they will swallow almost anything, and on a journey it is necessary to secure the harness within the snow-house over night, lest, by devouring it, they should render it impossible to proceed in the morning. When the travellers arrive at their night quarters, and the dogs are unharnessed, they are left to burrow on the snow, where they please, and in the morning are sure to come at their driver's call, when they receive some food. Their strength and speed; even with a hungry stomach, is astonishing. In fastening them to the sledge, care is taken not to let them go abreast. They are tied by separate thongs, of unequal lengths, to a horizontal bar in the fore part of the sledge; an old knowing one leads the way, running ten or twenty paces ahead, directed by the driver's whip, which is of great length, and can be well managed only by an Esquimaux. The other dogs follow like a flock of sheep. If one of them receives a lash, he generally bites his neighbour, and the bite goes round. To return to our travellers. The sledge contained five men, one woman, and a child. All were in good spirits, and appearances being much in their favour, they hoped to reach Okkak in safety in two or three days. The track over the frozen sea was in the best possible order, and they went with ease at the rate of six or seven miles an hour. After they had passed the islands in the bay of Nain, they kept at a considerable distance from the coast, both to gain the smoothest part of the ice, and to weather the high rocky promontory of Kiglapeit. About eight o'clock they met a sledge with Esquimaux turning in from the sea. After the usual salutation, the Esquimaux, alighting, held some conversation, as is their general practice, the result of which was, that some hints were thrown out by the strange Esquimaux that it might be better to return. However, as the missionaries saw no reason whatever for it, and only suspected that the Esquimaux wished to enjoy the company of their friends a little longer, they proceeded. After some time, their own Esquimaux hinted that there was a ground swell under the ice. It was then hardly perceptible, except on lying down and applying the ear close to the ice, when a hollow, disagreeably grating and roaring noise was heard, as if ascending from the abyss. The weather remained clear, except towards the east, where a bank of light clouds appeared, interspersed with some dark streaks. But the wind being strong from the north-west, nothing less than a sudden change of weather was expected. The sun had now reached its height, and there was as yet little or no alteration in the appearance of the sky. But the motion of the sea under the ice had grown more perceptible, so as rather to alarm the travellers, and they began to think it prudent to keep closer to the shore. The ice had cracks and large fissures in many places, some of which formed chasms of one or two feet wide; but as they are not uncommon even in its best state, and the dogs easily leap over them, the sledge following without danger, they are only terrible to new comers. As soon as the sun declined towards the west, the wind increased and rose to a storm, the bank of clouds from the east began to ascend, and the dark streaks to put themselves in motion against the wind. The snow was violently driven about by partial whirlwinds, both on the ice, and from off the peaks of the high mountains, and filled the air. At the same time the ground-swell had increased so much that its effect upon the ice became very extraordinary and alarming. The sledges, instead of gliding along smoothly upon an even surface, sometimes ran with violence after the dogs, and shortly after seemed with difficulty to ascend the rising hill; for the elasticity of so vast a body of ice, of many leagues square, supported by a troubled sea, though in some places three or four yards in thickness, would, in some degree, occasion an undulatory motion not unlike that of a sheet of paper accommodating itself to the surface of a rippling stream. Noises were now likewise distinctly heard in many directions, like the report of cannon, owing to the bursting of the ice at some distance. The Esquimaux, therefore, drove with all haste towards the shore, intending to take up their night-quarters on the south side of the Nivak. But as it plainly appeared that the ice would break and disperse in the open sea, Mark advised to push forward to the north of the Nivak, from whence he hoped the track to Okkak might still remain entire. To this proposal the company agreed; but when the sledges approached the coast, the prospect before them was truly terrific. The ice having broken loose from the rocks, was forced up and down, grinding and breaking into a thousand pieces against the precipices, with a tremendous noise, which, added to the raging of the wind, and the snow driving about in the air, deprived the travellers almost of the power of hearing and seeing anything distinctly. To make the land at any risk was now the only hope left, but it was with the utmost difficulty the frighted dogs could be forced forward, the whole body of ice sinking frequently below the surface of the rocks, then rising above it. As the only moment to land was when it gained the level of the coast, the attempt was extremely nice and hazardous. However, by God's mercy, it succeeded; both sledges gained the shore, and were drawn up the beach with much difficulty. The travellers had hardly time to reflect with gratitude to God on their safety, when that part of the ice from which they had just now made good their landing burst asunder, and the water, forcing itself from below, covered and precipitated it into the sea. In an instant, as if by a signal given, the whole mass of ice, extending for several miles from the coast, and as far as the eye could reach, began to burst and be overwhelmed by the immense waves. The sight was tremendous and awfully grand: the large fields of ice, raising themselves out of the water, striking against each other and plunging into the deep with a violence not to be described, and a noise like the discharge of innumerable batteries of heavy guns. The darkness of the night, the roaring of the wind and sea, and the dashing of the waves and ice against the rocks, filled the travellers with sensations of awe and horror, so as almost to deprive them of the power of utterance. They stood overwhelmed with astonishment at their miraculous escape, and even the heathen Esquimaux expressed gratitude to God for their deliverance. [Note: _But high above desert renowned_ = Let it be renowned high above desert.] * * * * * A HAPPY LIFE. How happy is he born or taught, That serveth not another's will; Whose armour is his honest thought, And simple truth his highest skill. Whose passions not his masters are; Whose soul is still prepared for death; Not tied unto the world with care Of prince's ear, or vulgar breath. Who hath his life from rumours freed; Whose conscience is his strong retreat: Whose state can neither flatterers feed, Nor ruin make oppressors great. Who envies none whom chance doth raise, Or vice: who never understood How deepest wounds are given with praise; Nor rules of state, but rules of good. Who God doth late and early pray More of his grace than gifts to lend; And entertains the harmless day With a well-chosen book or friend. This man is freed from servile bands Of hope to rise or fear to fall; Lord of himself, though not of lands; And having nothing, yet hath all. SIR HENRY WOTTON. [Notes: _Sir Henry Wotton_ (1568-1639). A poet, ambassador, and miscellaneous writer, in the reign of James I. _Born or taught_ = whether from natural character or by training. _Nor ruin make oppressors great_ = nor _his_ ruin, &c. _How deepest wounds are given with praise_. How praise may only cover some concealed injury.] * * * * * MAN'S SERVANTS. For us the winds do blow; The earth doth rest, heaven move, and fountains flow. Nothing we see but means our good, As our delight, or as our treasure: The whole is either cupboard of our food, Or cabinet of pleasure. The stars have us to bed; Night draws the curtain, which the sun withdraws; Music and light attend our head; All things unto our flesh are kind In their descent and being; to our mind In their ascent and cause. More servants wait on Man Than he'll take notice of. In every path He treads down that which doth befriend him, When sickness makes him pale and wan. O mighty love! Man is one world, and hath Another to attend him. Since, then, My God, Thou hast So brave a palace built, O dwell in it, That it may dwell with Thee at last! Till then afford us so much wit That, as the world serves _us_, we may serve _Thee_, And both thy servants be. GEORGE HERBERT. [Notes: _George Herbert_ (1593-1632). A clergyman of the Church of England, the author of many religious works in prose and poetry. His poetry is overfull of conceits, but in spite of these is eminently graceful and rich with fancy. _The stars have its to led, i.e.,_ conduct, or show us to bed. _All things unto our flesh are kind, &c., i.e.,_ as they minister to the needs of our body here below, so they minister to the mind by leading us to think of the Higher Cause that brings them into being. The words _descent_ and _accent_ are not to be pressed; they are rather balanced one against the other, according to the fashion of the day.] * * * * * VIRTUE. Sweet day, so cool, so calm, so bright, The bridal of the earth and sky, The dew shall weep thy fall to-night; For thou must die. Sweet rose, whose hue, angry and brave, Bids the rash gazer wipe his eye, Thy root is ever in its grave, And thou must die. Sweet spring, full of sweet days and roses, A box where sweets compacted lie, My music shows ye have your closes, And all must die. Only a sweet and virtuous soul, Like seasoned timber, never gives; But though the whole world turn to coal, Then chiefly lives. GEORGE HERBERT. [Note:----_The bridal of the earth and sky, i.e.,_ in which all the beauties of sky and earth are united.] * * * * * DEATH THE CONQUEROR. The glories of our blood and state Are shadows, not substantial things; There is no armour against fate: Death lays his icy hand on kings: Sceptre and crown Must tumble down, And in the dust be equal made With the poor crooked scythe and spade. Some men with swords may reap the field, And plant fresh laurels where they kill; But their strong nerves at last must yield, They tame but one another still. Early or late They stoop to fate, And must give up their murmuring breath, When they, pale captives, creep to death. The garlands wither on your brow, Then boast no more your mighty deeds; Upon death's purple altar now See, where the victor-victim bleeds; All heads must come To the cold tomb, Only the actions of the just Smell sweet, and blossom in their dust. JAMES SHIRLEY. [Notes: _James Shirley_ (1594-1666). A dramatic poet. _And plant fresh laurels when they kill_ = even by the death they spread around them in war, they may win new laurel-wreaths by victory. _Purple_. As stained with blood.] * * * * * GROWTH OF EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY. Various improvements in the system of jurisprudence, and administration of justice, occasioned a change in manners, of great importance and of extensive effect. They gave rise to a distinction of professions; they obliged men to cultivate different talents, and to aim at different accomplishments, in order to qualify themselves for the various departments and functions which became necessary in society. Among uncivilized nations there is but one profession honourable, that of arms. All the ingenuity and vigour of the human mind are exerted in acquiring military skill or address. The functions of peace are few and simple, and require no particular course of education or of study as a preparation for discharging them. This was the state of Europe during several centuries. Every gentleman, born a soldier, scorned any other occupation; he was taught no science but that of war; even his exercises and pastimes were feats of martial prowess. Nor did the judicial character, which persons of noble birth were alone entitled to assume, demand any degree of knowledge beyond that which such untutored soldiers possessed. To recollect a few traditionary customs which time had confirmed, and rendered respectable; to mark out the lists of battle with due formality; to observe the issue of the combat; and to pronounce whether it had been conducted according to the laws of arms, included everything that a baron, who acted as a judge, found it necessary to understand. But when the forms of legal proceedings were fixed, when the rules of decision were committed to writing, and collected into a body, law became a science, the knowledge of which required a regular course of study, together with long attention to the practice of courts. Martial and illiterate nobles had neither leisure nor inclination to undertake a task so laborious, as well as so foreign from all the occupations which they deemed entertaining, or suitable to their rank. They gradually relinquished their places in courts of justice, where their ignorance exposed them to contempt. They became, weary of attending to the discussion of cases, which grew too intricate for them to comprehend. Not only the judicial determination of points which were the subject of controversy, but the conduct of all legal business and transactions, was committed to persons trained by previous study and application to the knowledge of law. An order of men, to whom their fellow-citizens had daily recourse for advice, and to whom they looked up for decision in their most important concerns, naturally acquired consideration and influence in society. They were advanced to honours which had been considered hitherto as the peculiar rewards of military virtue. They were entrusted with offices of the highest dignity and most extensive power. Thus, another profession than that of arms came to be introduced among the laity, and was reputed honourable. The functions of civil life were attended to. The talents requisite for discharging them were cultivated. A new road was opened to wealth and eminence. The arts and virtues of peace were placed in their proper rank, and received their due recompense. While improvements, so important with respect to the state of society and the administration of justice, gradually made progress in Europe, sentiments more liberal and generous had begun to animate the nobles. These were inspired by the spirit of chivalry, which, though considered, commonly, as a wild institution, the effect of caprice, and the source of extravagance, arose naturally from the state of society at that period, and had a very serious influence in refining the manners of the European nations. The feudal state was a state of almost perpetual war, rapine, and anarchy, during which the weak and unarmed were exposed to insults or injuries. The power of the sovereign was too limited to prevent these wrongs; and the administration of justice too feeble to redress them. The most effectual protection against violence and oppression was often found to be that which the valour and generosity of private persons afforded. The same spirit of enterprise which had prompted so many gentlemen to take arms in defence of the oppressed pilgrims in Palestine, incited others to declare themselves the patrons and avengers of injured innocence at home. When the final reduction of the Holy Land under the dominion of infidels put an end to these foreign expeditions, the latter was the only employment left for the activity and courage of adventurers. To check the insolence of overgrown oppressors; to rescue the helpless from captivity; to protect or to avenge women, orphans, and ecclesiastics, who could not bear arms in their own defence; to redress wrongs, and to remove grievances, were deemed acts of the highest prowess and merit. Valour, humanity, courtesy, justice, honour, were the characteristic qualities of chivalry. To these was added religion, which mingled itself with every passion and institution during the Middle Ages, and, by infusing a large proportion of enthusiastic zeal, gave them such force as carried them to romantic excess. Men were trained to knighthood by a long previous discipline; they were admitted into the order by solemnities no less devout than pompous; every person of noble birth courted that honour; it was deemed a distinction superior to royalty; and monarchs were proud to receive it from the hands of private gentlemen. This singular institution, in which valour, gallantry, and religion, were so strangely blended, was wonderfully adapted to the taste and genius of martial nobles; and its effects were soon visible in their manners. War was carried on with less ferocity, when humanity came to be deemed the ornament of knighthood no less than courage. More gentle and polished manners were introduced, when courtesy was recommended as the most amiable of knightly virtues. Violence and oppression decreased, when it was reckoned meritorious to check and to punish them. A scrupulous adherence to truth, with the most religious attention to fulfil every engagement, became the distinguishing characteristic of a gentleman, because chivalry was regarded as the school of honour, and inculcated the most delicate sensibility with respect to those points. The admiration of these qualities, together with the high distinctions and prerogatives conferred on knighthood in every part of Europe, inspired persons of noble birth on some occasions with a species of military fanaticism, and led them to extravagant enterprises. But they deeply imprinted on their minds the principles of generosity and honour. These were strengthened by everything that can affect the senses or touch the heart. The wild exploits of those romantic knights who sallied forth in quest of adventures are well known, and have been treated with proper ridicule. The political and permanent effects of the spirit of chivalry have been less observed. Perhaps the humanity which accompanies all the operations of war, the refinements of gallantry, and the point of honour, the three chief circumstances which distinguished modern from ancient manners, may be ascribed in a great measure to this institution, which has appeared whimsical to superficial observers, but by its effects has proved of great benefit to mankind. The sentiments which chivalry inspired had a wonderful influence on manners and conduct during the twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries. They were so deeply rooted, that they continued to operate after the vigour and reputation of the institution itself began to decline. Some considerable transactions recorded in the following history resemble the adventurous exploits of chivalry, rather than the well-regulated operations of sound policy. Some of the most eminent personages, whose characters will be delineated, were strongly tinctured with this romantic spirit. Francis I. was ambitious to distinguish himself by all the qualities of an accomplished knight, and endeavoured to imitate the enterprising genius of chivalry in war, as well as its pomp and courtesy during peace. The fame which the French monarch acquired by these splendid actions, so far dazzled his more temperate rival, that he departed on some occasions from his usual prudence and moderation, and emulated Francis in deeds of prowess or of gallantry. The progress of science and the cultivation of literature had considerable effect in changing the manners of the European nations, and introducing that civility and refinement by which they are now distinguished. At the time when their empire was overturned, the Romans, though they had lost that correct taste which has rendered the productions of their ancestors standards of excellence, and models of imitation for succeeding ages, still preserved their love of letters, and cultivated the arts with great ardour. But rude barbarians were so far from being struck with any admiration of these unknown accomplishments, that they despised them. They were not arrived at that state of society, when those faculties of the human mind which have beauty and elegance for their objects begin to unfold themselves. They were strangers to most of those wants and desires which are the parents of ingenious invention; and as they did not comprehend either the merit or utility of the Roman arts, they destroyed the monuments of them, with an industry not inferior to that with which their posterity have since studied to preserve or to recover them. The convulsions occasioned by the settlement of so many unpolished tribes in the empire; the frequent as well as violent revolutions in every kingdom which they established; together with the interior defects in the form of government which they introduced, banished security and leisure. They prevented the growth of taste, or the culture of science, and kept Europe, during several centuries, in that state of ignorance which has been already described. But the events and institutions which I have enumerated produced great alterations in society. As soon as their operation, in restoring liberty and independence to one part of the community, began to be felt; as soon as they began to communicate to all the members of society some taste of the advantages arising from commerce, from public order, and from personal security, the human mind became conscious of powers which it did not formerly perceive, and fond of occupations or pursuits of which it was formerly incapable. Towards the beginning of the twelfth century, we discern the first symptoms of its awakening from that lethargy in which it had been long sunk, and observe it turning with curiosity and attention towards new objects. ROBERTSON. [Notes: _Francis I_. (1494-1547). King of France; the contemporary of Henry VIII. and of Charles V., Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. The constant rivalry and ever recurring wars between Francis and the latter, occupy a great part of European history during the first half of the 16th century. _His more temperate rival, i.e.,_ Charles V. _At the time when their empire was overturned, the_ _Romans, &c._ In 410 A.D., by the incursions of the Goths.] * * * * * THE PASSIONS. (AN ODE FOR MUSIC.) When Music, heavenly maid, was young, While yet in early Greece she sung, The Passions oft, to hear her shell, Thronged around her magic cell, Exulting, trembling, raging, fainting, Possessed beyond the Muse's painting: By turns they felt the glowing mind Disturbed, delighted, raised, refined,-- Till once, 'tis said, when all were fired, Filled with fury, rapt, inspired, From the supporting myrtles round They snatched her instruments of sound; And, as they oft had heard, apart, Sweet lessons of her forceful art, Each, for Madness ruled the hour, Would prove his own expressive power. First Fear his hand, its skill to try, Amid the chords bewildered laid, And back recoiled, he knew not why, E'en at the sound himself had made. Next Anger rushed: his eyes on fire, In lightnings owned his secret stings; In one rude clash he struck the lyre, And swept with hurried hand the strings. With woful measures, wan Despair-- Low sullen sounds his grief beguiled: A solemn, strange, and mingled air, 'Twas sad by fits, by starts 'twas wild. But thou, O Hope, with eyes so fair, What was thy delighted measure? Still it whispered promised pleasure, And bade the lovely scenes at distance hail; Still would her touch the scene prolong; And from the rocks, the woods, the vale, She called on Echo still through all the song; And, where her sweetest theme she chose, A soft responsive voice was heard at every close; And hope, enchanted, smiled, and waved her golden hair;-- And longer had she sung:--but, with a frown, Revenge impatient rose: He threw his blood-stained sword in thunder down, And, with a withering look, The war-denouncing trumpet took, And blew a blast so loud and dread, Were ne'er prophetic sounds so full of woe! And ever and anon he beat The doubling drum with furious heat: And though sometimes, each dreary pause between, Dejected Pity at his side, Her soul-subduing voice applied, Yet still he kept his wild unaltered mien, While each strained ball of sight seemed bursting from his head. Thy numbers, Jealousy, to nought were fixed; Sad proof of thy distressful state! Of differing themes the veering song was mixed; And now it courted Love, now raving called on Hate. With eyes upraised, as one inspired, Pale Melancholy sat retired; And from her wild sequestered seat, In notes by distance made more sweet, Poured through the mellow horn her pensive soul; And dashing soft from rocks around, Bubbling runnels joined the sound: Through glades and glooms the mingled measure stole, Or, o'er some haunted stream, with fond delay, Round a holy calm diffusing, Love of peace and lonely musing,-- In hollow murmurs died away. But oh, how altered was its sprightlier tone! When Cheerfulness, a nymph of healthiest hue, Her bow across her shoulder flung, Her buskins gemmed with morning dew, Blew an inspiring air, that dale and thicket rung, The hunter's call to Faun and Dryad known! The oak-crowned Sisters and their chaste-eyed Queen, Satyrs and Sylvan boys, were seen Peeping from forth their alleys green. Brown Exercise rejoiced to hear, And Sport leaped up, and seized his beechen spear. Last came Joy's ecstatic trial; He, with viny crown advancing, First to the lively pipe his hand addressed; But soon he saw the brisk awakening viol Whose sweet entrancing voice he loved the best: They would have thought, who heard the strain, They saw in Tempe's vale her native maids, Amidst the festal-sounding shades, To some unwearied minstrel dancing; While, as his flying fingers kissed the strings, Love framed with Mirth a gay fantastic round; Loose were her tresses seen, her zone unbound; And he, amidst his frolic play, As if he would the charming air repay, Shook thousand odours from his dewy wings. O Music! sphere-descended maid, Friend of Pleasure, Wisdom's aid! Why, goddess, why, to us denied, Lay'st thou thy ancient lyre aside? As in that loved, Athenian bower You learned an all-commanding power. Thy mimic soul; O nymph endeared! Can well recall what then it heard. Where is thy native simple heart Devote to Virtue, Fancy, Art? Arise, as in that elder time, Warm, energetic, chaste, sublime! Thy wonders in that god-like age, Fill thy recording Sister's page;-- 'Tis said, and I believe the tale, Thy humblest reed could more prevail, Had more of strength, diviner rage, Than all which charms this laggard age, E'en all at once together found Cecilia's mingled world of sound;-- O bid our vain endeavours cease: Revive the just designs of Greece: Return in all thy simple state! Confirm the tales her sons relate! COLLINS. [Notes: _William Collins_ (1720-1756). A poet, who throughout life struggled with adversity, and who, though he produced little, refined everything he wrote with a most fastidious taste and with elaborate care. _Shell_, according to a fashion common with the poets of the first half of the 18th century, stands for lyre. The Latin word _testudo_, a shell is often so used. _Possessed beyond the Muse's painting_ = enthralled beyond what poetry can describe. _His own expressive power, i.e.,_ his power to express his own feelings. _In lightnings owned his secret stings_ = in lightning-like touches confessed the hidden fury which inspired him. _Veering song_. The ever-changeful song. _Her wild sequestered seat_. Sequestered properly is used of something which, being in dispute, is deposited in a third person's hands: hence of something set apart or in retirement. _Round a holy calm diffusing_ = diffusing around a holy calm. _Buskin_. A boot reaching above the ankle. _Gemmed_ = sparkling as with gems. Faun and Dryad_. Creatures with whom ancient mythology peopled the woods. _Their chaste-eyed Queen_ = Diana. _Brown exercise_. Exercise is here personified and represented as brown and sunburnt. _Viol_. A stringed musical instrument. _In Tempe's vale_. In Thessaly, especially connected with the worship of Apollo, the god of poetry and music. _Sphere-descended maid_. A metaphor common with the poets, and taken from a Greek fancy most elaborately described in Plato's 'Republic,' where the system of the universe is pictured as a series of whorls linked in harmony. _Thy mimic soul_. Thy soul apt to imitate. _Devote_ = devoted. A form more close to that of the Latin participle, from which it is derived. _Thy recording Sister_ = the Muse of History. _Cecilia's mingled world of sound_ = the organ. So St. Cecilia is called in Dryden's Ode, "Inventress of the vocal frame." _The just designs_ = the well-conceived, artistic designs.] * * * * * "A WHALE HUNT." A tide of unusual height had carried the whale over a large bar of sand, into the voe or creek in which he was now lying. So soon as he found the water ebbing, he became sensible of his danger, and had made desperate efforts to get over the shallow water, where the waves broke on the bar but hitherto he had rather injured than mended his condition, having got himself partly aground, and lying therefore particularly exposed to the meditated attack. At this moment the enemy came down upon him. The front ranks consisted of the young and hardy, armed in the miscellaneous manner we have described; while, to witness and animate their efforts, the young women, and the elderly persons of both sexes, took their place among the rocks, which overhung the scene of action. As the boats had to double a little headland, ere they opened the mouth of the voe, those who came by land to the shores of the inlet had time to make the necessary reconnaissances upon the force and situation of the enemy, on whom they were about to commence a simultaneous attack by land and sea. This duty, the stout-hearted and experienced general--for so the Udaller might be termed--would entrust to no eyes but his own; and, indeed, his external appearance, and his sage conduct, rendered him alike qualified for the command which he enjoyed. His gold-laced hat was exchanged for a bearskin cap, his suit of blue broadcloth, with its scarlet lining, and loops, and frogs of bullion, had given place to a red flannel jacket, with buttons of black horn, over which he wore a seal-skin shirt curiously seamed and plaited on the bosom, such as are used by the Esquimaux, and sometimes by the Greenland whale-fishers. Sea-boots of a formidable size completed his dress, and in his hand he held a large whaling-knife, which he brandished, as if impatient to employ it in the operation of _flinching_ the huge animal which lay before them,--that is, the act of separating its flesh from its bones. Upon closer examination, however, he was obliged to confess that the sport to which he had conducted his friends, however much it corresponded with the magnificent scale of his hospitality, was likely to be attended with its own peculiar dangers and difficulties. The animal, upwards of sixty feet in length, was lying perfectly still, in a deep part of the voe into which it had weltered, and where it seemed to await the return of tide, of which it was probably assured by instinct. A council of experienced harpooners was instantly called, and it was agreed that an effort should be made to noose the tail of this torpid leviathan, by casting a cable around it, to be made fast by anchors to the shore, and thus to secure against his escape, in case the tide should make before they were able to dispatch him. Three boats were destined to this delicate piece of service, one of which the Udaller himself proposed to command, while Cleveland and Mertoun were to direct the two others. This being decided, they sat down on the strand, waiting with impatience until the naval part of the force should arrive in the voe. It was during this interval, that Triptolemus Yellowley, after measuring with his eyes the extraordinary size of the whale, observed, that in his poor mind, "A wain[1] with six owsen,[2] or with sixty owsen either, if they were the owsen of the country, could not drag siccan[3] a huge creature from the water, where it was now lying, to the sea-beach." Trifling as this remark may seem to the reader, it was connected with a subject which always fired the blood of the old Udaller, who, glancing upon Triptolemus a quick and stern look, asked him what it signified, supposing a hundred oxen could not drag the whale upon the beach? Mr. Yellowley, though not much liking the tone with which the question was put, felt that his dignity and his profit compelled him to answer as follows:--"Nay, sir; you know yourself, Master Magnus Troil, and every one knows that knows anything, that whales of siccan size as may not be masterfully dragged on shore by the instrumentality of one wain with six owsen, are the right and property of the Admiral, who is at this time the same noble lord who is, moreover, Chamberlain of these isles." "And I tell you, Mr. Triptolemus Yellowley," said the Udaller, "as I would tell your master if he were here, that every man who risks his life to bring that fish ashore, shall have an equal and partition, according to our ancient and lovable Norse custom and wont; nay, if there is so much as a woman looking on, that will but touch the cable, she will be partner with us. All shall share that lend a hand, and never a one else. So you, Master Factor, shall be busy as well as other folk, and think yourself lucky to share like other folk. Jump into that boat" (for the boats had by this time pulled round the headland), "and you, my lads, make way for the factor in the stern-sheets--he shall be the first man this day that shall strike the fish." The three boats destined for this perilous service now approached the dark mass, which lay like an islet in the deepest part of the voe, and suffered them to approach without showing any sign of animation. Silently, and with such precaution as the extreme delicacy of the operation required, the intrepid adventurers, after the failure of their first attempt, and the expenditure of considerable time, succeeded in casting a cable around the body of the torpid monster, and in carrying the ends of it ashore, when a hundred hands were instantly employed in securing them. But ere this was accomplished, the tide began to make fast, and the Udaller informed his assistants that either the fish must be killed or at least greatly wounded ere the depth of water on the bar was sufficient to float him; or that he was not unlikely to escape from their joint prowess. "Wherefore," said he, "we must set to work, and the factor shall have the honour to make the first throw." The valiant Triptolemus caught the word; and it is necessary to say that the patience of the whale, in suffering himself to be noosed without resistance, had abated his terrors, and very much lowered the creature in his opinion. He protested the fish had no more wit, and scarcely more activity, than a black snail; and, influenced by this undue contempt of the adversary, he waited neither for a farther signal, nor a better weapon, nor a more suitable position, but, rising in his energy, hurled his graip with all his force against the unfortunate monster. The boats had not yet retreated from him to the distance necessary to ensure safety, when this injudicious commencement of the war took place. Magnus Troil, who had only jested with the factor, and had reserved the launching the first spear against the whale to some much more skilful hand, had just time to exclaim, "Mind yourselves, lads, or we are all stamped!" when the monster, roused at once from inactivity by the blow of the factor's missile, blew, with a noise resembling the explosion of a steam-engine, a huge shower of water into the air, and at the same time began to lash the waves with its tail in every direction. The boat in which Magnus presided received the shower of brine which the animal spouted aloft; and the adventurous Triptolemus, who had a full share of the immersion, was so much astonished and terrified by the consequences of his own valorous deed, that he tumbled backwards amongst the feet of the people, who, too busy to attend to him, were actively engaged in getting the boat into shoal water, out of the whale's reach. Here he lay for some minutes, trampled on by the feet of the boatmen, until they lay on their oars to bale, when the Udaller ordered them to pull to shore, and land this spare hand, who had commenced the fishing so inauspiciously. While this was doing, the other boats had also pulled off to safer distance, and now, from these as well as from the shore, the unfortunate native of the deep was overwhelmed by all kinds of missiles--harpoons and spears flew against him on all sides--guns were fired, and each various means of annoyance plied which could excite him to exhaust his strength in useless rage. When the animal found that he was locked in by shallows on all sides, and became sensible, at the same time, of the strain of the cable on his body, the convulsive efforts which he made to escape, accompanied with sounds resembling deep and loud groans, would have moved the compassion of all but a practised whale-fisher. The repeated showers which he spouted into the air began now to be mingled with blood, and the waves which surrounded him assumed the same crimson appearance. Meantime the attempts of the assailants were redoubled; but Mordaunt Mertoun and Cleveland, in particular, exerted themselves to the uttermost, contending who should display most courage in approaching the monster, so tremendous in its agonies, and should inflict the most deep and deadly wounds upon its huge bulk. The contest seemed at last pretty well over; for although the animal continued from time to time to make frantic exertions for liberty, yet its strength appeared so much exhausted, that, even with the assistance of the tide, which had now risen considerably, it was thought it could scarcely extricate itself. Magnus gave the signal to venture nearer to the whale, calling out at the same time, "Close in, lads, she is not half so mad now--the Factor may look for a winter's oil for the two lamps at Harfra--pull close in, lads." Ere his orders could be obeyed, the other two boats had anticipated his purpose; and Mordaunt Mertoun, eager to distinguish himself above Cleveland, had with the whole strength he possessed, plunged a half-pike into the body of the animal. But the leviathan, like a nation whose resources appear totally exhausted by previous losses and calamities, collected his whole remaining force for an effort, which proved at once desperate and successful. The wound, last received had probably reached through his external defences of blubber, and attained some very sensitive part of the system; for he roared loud, as he sent to the sky a mingled sheet of brine and blood, and snapping the strong cable like a twig, overset Mertoun's boat with a blow of his tail, shot himself, by a mighty effort, over the bar, upon which the tide had now risen considerably, and made out to sea, carrying with him a whole grove of the implements which had been planted in his body, and leaving behind him, on the waters, a dark red trace of his course. SCOTT. [Notes: [1] Waggon. [2] Oxen. [3] Such.] * * * * * VISION OF BELSHAZZAR. The King was on his throne. The Satraps throng'd the hall: A thousand bright lamps shone O'er that high festival. A thousand cups of gold, In Judah deem'd divine-- Jehovah's vessels hold The godless heathen's wine! In that same hour and hall, The fingers of a hand Came forth against the wall. And wrote as if on sand: The fingers of a man;-- A solitary hand Along the letters ran, And traced them like a wand. The monarch saw, and shook, And bade no more rejoice; All bloodless wax'd his look, And tremulous his voice. "Let the men of lore appear, The wisest of the earth, And expound the words of fear, Which mar our royal mirth." Chaldea's seers are good, But here they have no skill; And the unknown letters stood Untold and awful still. And Babel's men of age Are wise and deep in lore; But now they were not sage, They saw--but knew no more. A captive in the land, A stranger and a youth, He heard the king's command, He saw that writing's truth. The lamps around were bright, The prophecy in view; He read it on that night,-- The morrow proved it true. "Belshazzar's grave is made, His kingdom pass'd away, He, in the balance weigh'd, Is light and worthless clay; The shroud his robe of state, His canopy the stone; The Mede is at his gate! The Persian on his throne!" BYRON. [Notes: _Belshazzar_, the last king of Babylon, lived probably in the 6th century B.C. He was defeated by the Medes and Persians combined. _Satraps_. The governors or magistrates of provinces. _A thousand cups of gold_, &c. Taken in the captivity of Judah. _A captive in the land_ = the Prophet Daniel.] * * * * * YE MARINERS OF ENGLAND. Ye mariners of England, That guard our native seas, Whose flag has braved a thousand years The battle and the breeze! Your glorious standard launch again, To match another foe! And sweep through the deep, While the stormy winds do blow; And the battle rages loud and long, And the stormy winds do blow. The spirit of your fathers Shall start from every wave!-- For the deck it was their field of fame, And ocean was their grave; Where Blake and mighty Nelson fell, Your manly hearts shall glow, As ye sweep through the deep While the stormy winds do blow; While the battle rages loud and long, And the stormy winds do blow. Britannia needs no bulwarks, No towers along the steep; Her march is o'er the mountain-waves, Her home is on the deep. With thunders from her native oak, She quells the floods below, As they roar on the shore, When the stormy winds do blow. While the battle rages loud and long, And the stormy winds do blow. The meteor flag of England Shall yet terrific burn; Till danger's troubled night depart, And the star of peace return. Then, then, ye ocean warriors! Your song and feast shall flow To the fame of your name, When the storm has ceased to blow; When the fiery fight is heard no more, And the storm has ceased to blow. CAMPBELL. [Notes: _Blake_. Robert Blake (1598-1657), an English admiral under Cromwell, chiefly distinguished for his victories over the Dutch.] * * * * * A SHIPWRECK. One morning I can remember well, how we watched from the Hartland Cliffs a great barque, which came drifting and rolling in before the western gale, while we followed her up the coast, parsons and sportsmen, farmers and Preventive men, with the Manby's mortar lumbering behind us in a cart, through stone gaps and track-ways, from headland to headland. The maddening excitement of expectation as she ran wildly towards the cliffs at our feet, and then sheered off again inexplicably;--her foremast and bowsprit, I recollect, were gone short off by the deck; a few rags of sail fluttered from her main and mizen. But with all straining of eyes and glasses, we could discern no sign of man on board. Well I recollect the mingled disappointment and admiration of the Preventive men, as a fresh set of salvors appeared in view, in the form of a boat's crew of Clovelly fishermen; how we watched breathlessly the little black speck crawling and struggling up in the teeth of the gale, under the shelter of the land, till, when the ship had rounded a point into smoother water, she seized on her like some tiny spider on a huge unwieldy fly; and then how one still smaller black speck showed aloft on the main-yard, and another--and then the desperate efforts to get the topsail set--and how we saw it tear out of their hands again, and again, and again, and almost fancied we could hear the thunder of its flappings above the roar of the gale, and the mountains of surf which made the rocks ring beneath our feet;--and how we stood silent, shuddering, expecting every moment to see whirled into the sea from the plunging yards one of those same tiny black specks, in each one of which was a living human soul, with sad women praying for him at home! And then how they tried to get her head round to the wind, and disappeared instantly in a cloud of white spray--and let her head fall back again--and jammed it round again, and disappeared again--and at last let her drive helplessly up the bay, while we kept pace with her along the cliffs; and how at last, when she had been mastered and fairly taken in tow, and was within two miles of the pier, and all hearts were merry with the hopes of a prize which would make them rich, perhaps, for years to come--one-third, I suppose, of the whole value of her cargo--how she broke loose from them at the last moment, and rushed frantically in upon those huge rocks below us, leaping great banks of slate at the blow of each breaker, tearing off masses of ironstone which lie there to this day to tell the tale, till she drove up high and dry against the cliff, and lay, like an enormous stranded whale, grinding and crashing herself to pieces against the walls of her adamantine cage. And well I recollect the sad records of the log-book which was left on board the deserted ship; how she had been waterlogged for weeks and weeks, buoyed up by her timber cargo, the crew clinging in the tops, and crawling down, when they dared, for putrid biscuit-dust and drops of water, till the water was washed overboard and gone; and then notice after notice, "On this day such an one died," "On this day such an one was washed away"--the log kept up to the last, even when there was only that to tell, by the stern business-like merchant skipper, whoever he was; and how at last, when there was neither food nor water, the strong man's heart seemed to have quailed, or perhaps risen, into a prayer, jotted down in the log--"The Lord have mercy on us!"--and then a blank of several pages, and, scribbled with a famine-shaken hand, "Remember thy Creator in the days of thy youth;"--and so the log and the ship were left to the rats, which covered the deck when our men boarded her. And well I remember the last act of that tragedy; for a ship has really, as sailors feel, a personality, almost a life and soul of her own; and as long as her timbers hold together, all is not over. You can hardly call her a corpse, though the human beings who inhabited her, and were her soul, may have fled into the far eternities; and so we felt that night, as we came down along the woodland road, with the north-west wind hurling dead branches and showers of crisp oak-leaves about our heads; till suddenly, as we staggered out of the wood, we came upon such a picture as it would have baffled Correggio, or Rembrandt himself, to imitate. Under a wall was a long tent of sails and spars, filled with Preventive men, fishermen, Lloyd's underwriters, lying about in every variety of strange attitude and costume; while candles, stuck in bayonet-handles in the wall, poured out a wild glare over shaggy faces and glittering weapons, and piles of timber, and rusty iron cable, that glowed red-hot in the light, and then streamed up the glen towards us through the salt misty air in long fans of light, sending fiery bars over the brown transparent oak foliage and the sad beds of withered autumn flowers, and glorifying the wild flakes of foam, as they rushed across the light-stream, into troops of tiny silver angels, that vanished into the night and hid themselves among the woods from the fierce spirit of the storm. And then, just where the glare of the lights and watch-fires was most brilliant, there too the black shadows of the cliff had placed the point of intensest darkness, lightening gradually upwards right and left, between the two great jaws of the glen, into a chaos of grey mist, where the eye could discern no form of sea or cloud, but a perpetual shifting and quivering as if the whole atmosphere was writhing with agony in the clutches of the wind. The ship was breaking up; and we sat by her like hopeless physicians by a deathbed-side, to watch the last struggle,--and "the effects of the deceased." I recollect our literally warping ourselves down to the beach, holding on by rocks and posts. There was a saddened awe-struck silence, even upon the gentleman from Lloyd's with the pen behind his ear. A sudden turn of the clouds let in a wild gleam of moonshine upon the white leaping heads of the breakers, and on the pyramid of the Black-church Rock, which stands in summer in such calm grandeur gazing down on the smiling bay, with the white sand of Braunton and the red cliffs of Portledge shining through its two vast arches; and against a slab of rock on the right, for years afterwards discoloured with her paint, lay the ship, rising slowly on every surge, to drop again with a piteous crash as the wave fell back from the cliff, and dragged the roaring pebbles back with it under the coming wall of foam. You have heard of ships at the last moment crying aloud like living things in agony? I heard it then, as the stumps of her masts rocked and reeled in her, and every plank and joint strained and screamed with the dreadful tension. A horrible image--a human being shrieking on the rack; rose up before me at those strange semi-human cries, and would not be put away--and I tried to turn, and yet my eyes were riveted on the black mass, which seemed vainly to implore the help of man against the stern ministers of the Omnipotent. Still she seemed to linger in the death-struggle, and we turned at last away; when, lo! a wave, huger than all before it, rushed up the boulders towards us. We had just time to save ourselves. A dull, thunderous groan, as if a mountain had collapsed, rose above the roar of the tempest; and we all turned with an instinctive knowledge of what had happened, just in time to see the huge mass melt away into the boiling white, and vanish for evermore. And then the very raving of the wind seemed hushed with awe; the very breakers plunged more silently towards the shore, with something of a sullen compunction; and as we stood and strained our eyes into the gloom, one black plank after another crawled up out of the darkness upon the head of the coming surge, and threw itself at our feet like the corpse of a drowning man, too spent to struggle more. CHARLES KINGSLEY. * * * * * A SHIPWRECK. Then rose from sea to sky the wild farewell,-- Then shrieked the timid, and stood still the brave,-- Then some leaped overboard with dreadful yell, As eager to anticipate their grave; And the sea yawned around her like a hell, And down she sucked with her the whirling wave, Like one who grapples with his enemy, And strives to strangle him before he die. And first one universal shriek there rushed, Louder than the loud ocean, like a crash Of echoing thunder; and then all was hushed, Save the wild wind and the remorseless dash Of billows; but at intervals there gushed, Accompanied with a convulsive splash, A solitary shriek, the bubbling cry Of some strong swimmer in his agony. BYRON. * * * * * THE HAPPY WARRIOR. Who is the happy Warrior? Who is he That every man in arms should wish to be? --It is the generous Spirit, who when brought Among the tasks of real life, hath wrought Upon the plan that pleased his boyish thought: Whose high endeavours are an inward light That makes the path before him always bright: Who, with a natural instinct to discern What knowledge can perform, is diligent to learn: Abides by this resolve, and stops not there, But makes his moral being his prime care; Who, doomed to go in company with Pain, And Fear, and Bloodshed, miserable train! Turns his necessity to glorious gain; In face of these doth exercise a power Which is our human nature's highest dower; Controls them and subdues, transmutes, bereaves Of their bad influence, and their good receives: By objects, which might force the soul to abate Her feeling, rendered more compassionate; Is placable--because occasions rise So often that demand such sacrifice; More skilful in self knowledge, even more pure, As tempted more; more able to endure, As more exposed to suffering and distress; Thence, also, more alive to tenderness. --Tis he whose law is reason; who depends Upon that law as on the best of friends; Whence, in a state where men are tempted still To evil for a guard against worse ill, And what in quality or act is best Doth seldom on a right foundation rest, He labours good on good to fix, and owes To virtue every triumph that he knows: --Who, if he rise to station of command, Rises by open means; and there will stand On honourable terms, or else retire, And in himself possess his own desire; Who comprehends his trust, and to the same Keeps faithful with a singleness of aim; And therefore does not stoop, nor lie in wait For wealth, or honours, or for worldly state: Whom they must follow; on whose head must fall, Like showers of manna, if they come at all; Whose powers shed round him in the common strife, Or mild concerns of ordinary life, A constant influence, a peculiar grace; But who, if he be called upon to face Some awful moment to which Heaven has joined Great issues, good or bad for human kind, Is happy as a Lover; and attired With sudden brightness, like a Man inspired; And, through the heat of conflict, keeps the law In calmness made, and sees what he foresaw: Or if an unexpected call succeed, Come when it will, is equal to the need: --He who, though thus endued as with a sense And faculty for storm and turbulence, Is yet a Soul whose master-bias leans To homefelt pleasures and to gentle scenes; Sweet images! which, wheresoe'er he be, Are at his heart; and such fidelity It is his darling passion to approve; More brave for this, that he hath much to love:-- 'Tis, finally, the Man, who, lifted, high, Conspicuous object in a Nation's eye, Or left unthought of in obscurity,-- Who, with a toward or untoward lot, Prosperous or adverse, to his wish or not-- Plays, in the many games of life, that one Where what he most doth value must be won: Whom neither shape of danger can dismay, Nor thought of tender happiness betray; Who not content that former worth stand fast, Looks forward, persevering to the last, From well to better, daily self-surpassed: Who, whether praise of him must walk the earth For ever, and to noble deeds give birth, Or he must fall, to sleep without his fame, And leave a dead unprofitable name-- Finds comfort in himself and in his cause; And, while the mortal mist is gathering, draws His breath in confidence of Heaven's applause: This is the happy Warrior; this is he That every Man in arms should wish to be. Wordsworth. [Notes: _Turns his necessity to glorious gain_. Turns the necessity which lies on him of fellowship with pain, and fear, and bloodshed, into glorious gain. _More skilful in self knowledge, even more pure, as tempted more_. "His self-knowledge and his purity are all the greater because of the temptations he has had to withstand." _Whose law is reason_ = whose every action is obedient to reason. _In himself possess his own desire_. According to Aristotle, virtuous activity is the highest reward the good man can attain; virtue has no end beyond action; according to the modern proverb, "Virtue is its own reward." _More brave for this, that he hath much to love_. Here also Wordsworth follows Aristotle in his description of the virtue of manliness. The good man, according to Aristotle, is most brave of all in encountering "the awful moment of great issues," in that he has the most to lose by death. _Not content that former worth stand fast_. Not content to rest on the foundation of accomplished good and worthy deeds, solid though it be. _Finds comfort in himself_. Compare: "In himself possess his own desire."] * * * * * THE BLACK PRINCE. He was the first great English captain, who showed what English soldiers were, and what they could do against Frenchmen, and against all the world. He was the first English Prince who showed what it was to be a true gentleman. He was the first, but he was not the last. We have seen how, when he died, Englishmen thought that all their hopes had died with him. But we know that it was not so; we know that the life of a great nation is not bound up in the life of a single man; we know that the valour and the courtesy and the chivalry of England are not buried in the grave of the Plantagenet Prince. It needs only a glance round the country, to see that the high character of an English gentleman, of which the Black Prince was the noble pattern, is still to be found everywhere; and has since his time been spreading itself more and more through classes, which in his time seemed incapable of reaching it. It needs only a glance down the names of our own Cathedral (of Canterbury); and the tablets on the walls, with their tattered flags, will tell you in a moment that he, as he lies up there aloft, with his head resting on his helmet, and his spurs on his feet, is but the first of a long line of English heroes--that the brave men who fought at Sobraon and Feroozeshah are the true descendants of those who fought at Cressy and Poitiers. And not to soldiers only, but to all who are engaged in the long warfare of life, is his conduct an example. To unite in our lives the two qualities expressed in his motto, "High spirit" and "reverent service," is to be, indeed, not only a true gentleman and a true soldier, but a true Christian also. To show to all who differ from us, not only in war but in peace, that delicate forbearance, that fear of hurting another's feelings, that happy art of saying the right thing to the right person, which he showed to the captive king, would indeed add a grace and a charm to the whole course of this troublesome world, such as none can afford to lose, whether high or low. Happy are they, who having this gift by birth and station, use it for its highest purposes; still more happy are they, who having it not by birth and station, have acquired it, as it may be acquired, by Christian gentleness and Christian charity. And, lastly, to act in all the various difficulties of our every-day life, with that coolness, and calmness, and faith in a higher power than his own, which he showed when the appalling danger of his situation burst upon him at Poitiers, would smooth a hundred difficulties, and ensure a hundred victories. We often think that we have no power in ourselves, no advantages of position, to help us against our many temptations, to overcome the many obstacles we encounter. Let us take our stand by the Black Prince's tomb, and go back once more in thought to the distant fields of France. A slight rise in the wild upland plain, a steep lane through vineyards and underwood, this was all that he had, humanly speaking, on his side; but he turned it to the utmost use of which it could be made, and won the most glorious of battles. So, in like manner, our advantages may be slight--hardly perceptible to any but ourselves--let us turn them to account, and the results will be a hundredfold; we have only to adopt the Black Prince's bold and cheering words, when first he saw his enemies, "God is my help. I must fight them as best I can;" adding that lofty, yet resigned and humble prayer, which he uttered when the battle was announced to be inevitable, and which has since become a proverb, "God defend the right." DEAN STANLEY'S _Memorials of Canterbury_. [Notes: _The Black Prince_. Edward, the son of Edward III, and father of Richard II. He not only won for the English the renown of conquest, but befriended the early efforts after liberty. His untimely death plunged England into the evils of a long minority under his son. The one stain on his name is his massacre of the townsfolk of Limoges. "_Reverent service_," or "I serve" (Ich dien), the motto adopted by the Black Prince from the King of Bohemia, his defeated foe. _Poitiers_. His victory won over the French king, John, whom he took prisoner (1356).] * * * * * THE ASSEMBLY OF URI. Let me ask you to follow me in spirit to the very home and birth-place of freedom, to the land where we need not myth or fable to add aught to the fresh and gladdening feeling with which we for the first time tread the soil and drink the air of the immemorial democracy of Uri. It is one of the opening days of May: it is the morning of Sunday; for men then deem that the better the day the better the deed; they deem that the Creator cannot be more truly honoured than in using, in His fear and in His presence, the highest of the gifts which He has bestowed on man. But deem not that, because the day of Christian worship is chosen for the great yearly assembly of a Christian commonwealth, the more direct sacred duties of the day are forgotten. Before we, in our luxurious island, have lifted ourselves from our beds, the men of the mountains, Catholic and Protestant alike, have already paid the morning's worship in God's temple. They have heard the mass of the priest, or they have listened to the sermon of the pastor, before some of us have awakened to the fact that the morn of the holy day has come. And when I saw men thronging the crowded church, or kneeling, for want of space within, on the bare ground beside the open door, and when I saw them marching thence to do the highest duties of men and citizens, I could hardly forbear thinking of the saying of Holy Writ, that "Where the Spirit of the Lord is, there is liberty." From the market-place of Altdorf, the little capital of the Canton, the procession makes its way to the place of meeting at Bozlingen. First marches the little army of the Canton, an army whose weapons can never be used save to drive back an invader from their land. Over their heads floats the banner, the bull's head of Uri, the ensign which led men to victory on the fields of Sempach and Morgarten. And before them all, on the shoulders of men clad in a garb of ages past, are borne the famous horns, the spoils of the wild bull of ancient days, the very horns whose blast struck such dread into the fearless heart of Charles of Burgundy. Then, with their lictors before them, come the magistrates of the commonwealth on horseback, the chief magistrate, the Landammann, with his sword by his side. The people follow the chiefs whom they have chosen to the place of meeting, a circle in a green meadow with a pine forest rising above their heads and a mighty spur of the mountain range facing them on the other side of the valley. The multitude of the freemen take their seats around the chief ruler of the commonwealth, whose term of office comes that day to an end. The Assembly opens; a short space is first given to prayer, silent prayer offered up by each man in the temple of God's own rearing. Then comes the business of the day. If changes in the law are demanded, they are then laid before the vote of the Assembly, in which each citizen of full age has an equal vote and an equal right of speech. The yearly magistrates have now discharged all their duties; their term of office is at an end, the trust which has been placed in their hands falls back into the hands of those by whom it was given, into the hands of the sovereign people. The chief of the commonwealth, now such no longer, leaves his seat of office, and takes his place as a simple citizen in the ranks of his fellows. It rests with the freewill of the Assembly to call him back to his chair of office, or to set another there in his stead. Men who have neither looked into the history of the past, nor yet troubled themselves to learn what happens year by year in their own age, are fond of declaiming against the caprice and ingratitude of the people, and of telling us that under a democratic government neither men nor measures can remain for an hour unchanged. The witness alike of the present and of the past is an answer to baseless theories like these. The spirit which made democratic Athens year by year bestow her highest offices on the patrician Periklês and the reactionary Phôkiôn, still lives in the democracies of Switzerland. The ministers of kings, whether despotic or constitutional, may vainly envy the sure tenure of office which falls to the lot of those who are chosen to rule by the voice of the people. Alike in the whole Confederation and in the single Canton, re-election is the rule; the rejection of the outgoing magistrate is the rare exception. The Landammann of Uri, whom his countrymen have raised to the seat of honour, and who has done nothing to lose their confidence, need not fear that when he has gone to the place of meeting in the pomp of office, his place in the march homeward will be transferred to another against his will. E. A. FREEMAN. [Notes: _Uri._ A Swiss canton which, early in the 14th century, united with Unterwalden and Schwytz to form the Swiss Confederation. _Sempach_ (1386) _and Morgarten_ (1315), both great victories won by the Swiss over the Austrians. ----_Charles the Bold of Burgundy_ was defeated by the Swiss in 1476 at Morat. _ Periklês_. A great orator and statesman, who, in the middle of the 5th century, B.C., guided the policy of Athens, and made her the centre of literature, philosophy, and art. _ Phôkiôn _. An Athenian statesman of the 4th century B.C., who opposed Demosthenes in his efforts to resist Philip of Macedon. His reactionary policy was atoned for by the uprightness of his character.] * * * * * LIBERTY. 'Tis liberty alone that gives the flower Of fleeting life its lustre and perfume; And we are weeds without it. All constraint, Except what wisdom lays on evil men, Is evil: hurts the faculties, impedes Their progress in the road of science: blinds The eyesight of Discovery; and begets, In those that suffer it, a sordid mind Bestial, a meagre intellect, unfit To be the tenant of man's noble form. Thee therefore still, blameworthy as thou art, With all thy loss of empire, and though squeez'd By public exigence, till annual food Fails for the craving hunger of the state, Thee I account still happy, and the chief Among the nations, seeing thou art free, My native nook of earth! Thy clime is rude, Replete with vapours, and disposes much All hearts to sadness, and none more than mine: Thine unadult'rate manners are less soft And plausible than social life requires, And thou hast need of discipline and art, To give thee what politer France receives From nature's bounty--that humane address And sweetness, without which no pleasure is In converse, either starv'd by cold reserve, Or flush'd with fierce dispute, a senseless brawl-- Yet being free, I love thee; for the sake Of that one feature can be well content, Disgrac'd as thou hast been, poor as thou art, To seek no sublunary rest beside. But, once enslav'd, farewell! I could endure Chains nowhere patiently; and chains at home, Where I am free by birthright, not at all. Then what were left of roughness in the grain Of British natures, wanting its excuse That it belongs to freemen, would disgust And shock me. I should then with double pain Feel all the rigour of thy fickle clime; And, if I must bewail the blessing lost, For which our Hampdens and our Sydneys bled, I would at least bewail it under skies Milder, among a people less austere; In scenes, which, having never known me free, Would not reproach me with the loss I felt. Do I forebode impossible events, And tremble at vain dreams? Heaven grant I may! But the age of virtuous politics is past, And we are deep in that of cold pretence. Patriots are grown too shrewd to be sincere, And we too wise to trust them. He that takes Deep in his soft credulity the stamp Design'd by loud declaimers on the part Of liberty, themselves the slaves of lust, Incurs derision for his easy faith, And lack of knowledge, and with cause enough: For when was public virtue to be found, Where private was not? Can he love the whole, Who loves no part? He be a nation's friend, Who is in truth the friend of no man there? Can he be strenuous in his country's cause, Who slights the charities, for whose dear sake That country, if at all, must be beloved? Cowper. [Notes: _Hampden_--_Sydney_. (See previous note on them) _He that takes deep in his soft credulity, &c., i.e.,_ he that credulously takes in the impression which demagogues, who claim to speak on behalf of liberty, intend that he should take. _Delude_. A violent torrent, displacing earth in its course. _Strid_. A yawning chasm between rocks. _The Battle of Culloden_ (1746) closed the Jacobite rebellion of 1745 by the defeat of the Highlanders, and with it the last hopes of the Stuart cause. The Duke of Cumberland was the leader of the Hanoverian army.] * * * * * MY WINTER GARDEN. No one is less inclined to depreciate that magnificent winter-garden at the Crystal Palace: yet let me, if I choose, prefer my own; I argue that, in the first place, it is far larger. You may drive, I hear, through the grand one at Chatsworth for a quarter of a mile. You may ride through mine for fifteen miles on end. I prefer, too, to any glass roof which Sir Joseph Paxton ever planned, that dome above my head some three miles high, of soft dappled grey and yellow cloud, through the vast lattice-work whereof the blue sky peeps, and sheds down tender gleams on yellow bogs, and softly rounded heather knolls, and pale chalk ranges gleaming far away. But, above all, I glory in my evergreens. What winter-garden can compare for them with mine? True, I have but four kinds--Scotch fir, holly, furze, and the heath; and by way of relief to them, only brows of brown fern, sheets of yellow bog-grass, and here and there a leafless birch, whose purple tresses are even more lovely to my eye than those fragrant green ones which she puts on in spring. Well: in painting as in music, what effects are more grand than those produced by the scientific combination, in endless new variety, of a few simple elements? Enough for me is the one purple birch; the bright hollies round its stem sparkling with scarlet beads; the furze-patch, rich with its lacework of interwoven light and shade, tipped here and there with a golden bud; the deep soft heather carpet, which invites you to lie down and dream for hours; and behind all, the wall of red fir-stems, and the dark fir-roof with its jagged edges a mile long, against the soft grey sky. An ugly, straight-edged, monotonous fir-plantation? Well, I like it, outside and inside. I need no saw-edge of mountain peaks to stir up my imagination with the sense of the sublime, while I can watch the saw-edge of those fir peaks against the red sunset. They are my Alps; little ones, it may be: but after all, as I asked before, what is size? A phantom of our brain; an optical delusion. Grandeur, if you will consider wisely, consists in form, and not in size: and to the eye of the philosopher, the curve drawn on a paper two inches long, is just as magnificent, just as symbolic of divine mysteries and melodies, as when embodied in the span of some cathedral roof. Have you eyes to see? Then lie down on the grass, and look near enough to see something more of what is to be seen; and you will find tropic jungles in every square foot of turf; mountain cliffs and debacles at the mouth of every rabbit burrow: dark strids, tremendous cataracts, "deep glooms and sudden glories," in every foot-broad rill which wanders through the turf. All is there for you to see, if you will but rid yourself of "that idol of space;" and Nature, as everyone will tell you who has seen dissected an insect under the microscope, is as grand and graceful in her smallest as in her hugest forms. The March breeze is chilly: but I can be always warm if I like in my winter-garden. I turn my horse's head to the red wall of fir-stems, and leap over the furze-grown bank into my cathedral, wherein if there be no saints, there are likewise no priestcraft and no idols; but endless vistas of smooth red green-veined shafts holding up the warm dark roof, lessening away into endless gloom, paved with rich brown fir-needle--a carpet at which Nature has been at work for forty years. Red shafts, green roof, and here and there a pane of blue sky--neither Owen Jones nor Willement can improve upon that ecclesiastical ornamentation,--while for incense I have the fresh healthy turpentine fragrance, far sweeter to my nostrils than the stifling narcotic odour which fills a Roman Catholic cathedral. There is not a breath of air within: but the breeze sighs over the roof above in a soft whisper. I shut my eyes and listen. Surely that is the murmur of the summer sea upon the summer sands in Devon far away. I hear the innumerable wavelets spend themselves gently upon the shore, and die away to rise again. And with the innumerable wave-sighs come innumerable memories, and faces which I shall never see again upon this earth. I will not tell even you of that, old friend. It has two notes, two keys rather, that Eolian-harp of fir-needles above my head; according as the wind is east or west, the needles dry or wet. This easterly key of to-day is shriller, more cheerful, warmer in sound, though the day itself be colder: but grander still, as well as softer, is the sad soughing key in which the south-west wind roars on, rain-laden, over the forest, and calls me forth--being a minute philosopher--to catch trout in the nearest chalk-stream. The breeze is gone a while; and I am in perfect silence--a silence which may be heard. Not a sound; and not a moving object; absolutely none. The absence of animal life is solemn, startling. That ring-dove, who was cooing half a mile away, has hushed his moan; that flock of long-tailed titmice, which were twinging and pecking about the fir-cones a few minutes since, are gone: and now there is not even a gnat to quiver in the slant sun-rays. Did a spider run over these dead leaves, I almost fancy I could hear his footfall. The creaking of the saddle, the soft step of the mare upon the fir-needles, jar my ears. I seem alone in a dead world. A dead world: and yet so full of life, if I had eyes to see! Above my head every fir-needle is breathing--breathing for ever; currents unnumbered circulate in every bough, quickened by some undiscovered miracle; around me every fir-stem is distilling strange juices, which no laboratory of man can make; and where my dull eye sees only death, the eye of God sees boundless life and motion, health and use. CHARLES KINGSLEY. * * * * * ASPECTS OF NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. The charts of the world which have been drawn up by modern science have thrown into a narrow space the expression of a vast amount of knowledge, but I have never yet seen any pictorial enough to enable the spectator to imagine the kind of contrast in physical character which exists between northern and southern countries. We know the differences in detail, but we have not that broad glance or grasp which would enable us to feel them in their fulness. We know that gentians grow on the Alps, and olives on the Apennines; but we do not enough conceive for ourselves that variegated mosaic of the world's surface which a bird sees in its migration, that difference between the district of the gentian and of the olive which the stork and the swallow see far off, as they lean upon the sirocco wind. Let us, for a moment, try to raise ourselves even above the level of their flight, and imagine the Mediterranean lying beneath us like an irregular lake, and all its ancient promontories sleeping in the sun; here and there an angry spot of thunder, a grey stain of storm, moving upon the burning field; and here and there a fixed wreath of white volcano smoke, surrounded by its circle of ashes; but for the most part a great peacefulness of light, Syria and Greece, Italy and Spain, laid like pieces of a golden pavement into the sea-blue, chased, as we stoop nearer to them, with bossy beaten work of mountain chains, and glowing softly with terraced gardens, and flowers heavy with frankincense, mixed among masses of laurel and orange, and plumy palm, that abate with their grey-green shadows the burning of the marble rocks, and of the ledges of the porphyry sloping under lucent sand. Then let us pass farther towards the north, until we see the orient colours change gradually into a vast belt of rainy green, where the pastures of Switzerland, and poplar valleys of France, and dark forests of the Danube and Carpathians stretch from the mouths of the Loire to those of the Volga, seen through clefts in grey swirls of rain-cloud and flaky veils of the mist of the brooks, spreading low along the pasture lands; and then, farther north still, to see the earth heave into mighty masses of leaden rock and heathy moor, bordering with a broad waste of gloomy purple that belt of field and wood, and splintering into irregular and grisly islands amidst the northern seas beaten by storm, and chilled by ice-drift, and tormented by furious pulses of contending tide, until the roots of the last forests fail from among the hill ravines, and the hunger of the north wind bites their peaks into barrenness; and, at last, the wall of ice, durable like iron, sets, death-like, its white teeth against us out of the polar twilight. And, having once traversed in thought this gradation of the zoned iris of the earth in all its material vastness, let us go down nearer to it, and watch the parallel change in the belt of animal life: the multitudes of swift and brilliant creatures that glance in the air and sea, or tread the sands of the southern zone; striped zebras and spotted leopards, glistening serpents, and birds arrayed in purple and scarlet. Let us contrast their delicacy and brilliancy of colour, and swiftness of motion, with the frost-cramped strength, and shaggy covering, and dusky plumage of the northern tribes; contrast the Arabian horse with the Shetland, the tiger and leopard with the wolf and bear, the antelope with the elk, the bird of Paradise with the osprey; and then, submissively acknowledging the great laws by which the earth and all that it bears are ruled throughout their being, let us not condemn, but rejoice in the expression by man of his own rest in the statues of the lands that gave him birth. Let us watch him with reverence as he sets side by side the burning gems, and smooths with soft sculpture the jasper pillars that are to reflect a ceaseless sunshine, and rise into a cloudless sky; but not with less reverence let us stand by him, when, with rough strength and hurried stroke, he smites an uncouth animation out of the rocks which he has torn from among the moss of the moor-land, and heaves into the darkened air the pile of iron buttress and rugged wall, instinct with work of an imagination as wild and wayward as the northern sea; creations of ungainly shape and rigid limb, but full of wolfish life; fierce as the winds that beat, and changeful as the clouds that shade them. JOHN RUSKIN. * * * * * THE TROSACHS. The western waves of ebbing day Rolled o'er the glen their level way; Each purple peak, each flinty spire, Was bathed in floods of living fire. But not a setting beam could glow Within the dark ravines below, Where twined the path, in shadow hid, Bound many a rocky pyramid, Shooting abruptly from the dell Its thunder-splintered pinnacle; Bound many an insulated mass, The native bulwarks of the pass, Huge as the tower which builders vain Presumptuous piled on Shinar's plain. The rocky summits, split and rent, Formed turret, dome, or battlement. Or seemed fantastically set With cupola or minaret, Wild crests as pagod ever decked, Or mosque of eastern architect. Nor were these earth-born castles bare, Nor lacked they many a banner fair; For, from their shivered brows displayed, Far o'er the unfathomable glade, All twinkling with the dew-drop's sheen, The briar-rose fell in streamers green, And creeping shrubs, of thousand dyes, Waved in the west wind's summer sighs. Boon nature scattered, free and wild, Each plant or flower, the mountain's child. Here eglantine embalmed the air, Hawthorn and hazel mingled there; The primrose pale and violet flower, Found in each cliff a narrow bower; Foxglove and nightshade, side by side, Emblems of punishment and pride, Grouped their dark hues with every stain, The weather-beaten crags retain. With boughs that quaked at every breath, Grey birch and aspen wept beneath; Aloft the ash and warrior oak Cast anchor in the rifted rock; And higher yet the pine tree hung His shatter'd trunk, and frequent flung, Where seemed the cliffs to meet on high, His boughs athwart the narrowed sky Highest of all, where white peaks glanced, Where glistening streamers waved and danced, The wanderer's eye could barely view The summer heaven's delicious blue; So wondrous wild, the whole might seem The scenery of a fairy dream. Onward, amid the copse 'gan peep A narrow inlet still and deep, Affording scarce such breadth of brim, As served the wild duck's brood to swim; Lost for a space, through thickets veering, But broader when again appearing, Tall rocks and tufted knolls their face Could on the dark blue mirror trace; And farther as the hunter stray'd, Still broader sweep its channels made. The shaggy mounds no longer stood, Emerging from entangled wood, But, wave-encircled, seemed to float, Like castle girdled with its moat; Yet broader floods extending still, Divide them from their parent hill, Till each, retiring, claims to be An islet in an inland sea. And now, to issue from the glen, No pathway meets the wanderer's ken, Unless he climb, with footing nice, A far projecting precipice. The broom's tough roots his ladder made, The hazel saplings lent their aid; And thus an airy point he won. Where, gleaming with the setting sun, One burnish'd sheet of living gold, Loch-Katrine lay beneath him rolled; In all her length far winding lay, With promontory, creek, and bay, And islands that, empurpled bright, Floated amid the livelier light; And mountains, that like giants stand, To sentinel enchanted land. High on the south, huge Benvenue Down to the lake in masses threw Crags, knolls, and mounds, confusedly hurled, The fragments of an earlier world; A wildering forest feathered o'er His ruined sides and summit hoar. While on the north, through middle air, Ben-an heaved high his forehead bare. SCOTT. * * * * * LOCHIEL'S WARNING. _Seer_. Lochiel! Lochiel! beware of the day When the Lowlands shall meet thee in battle array! For a field of the dead rushes red on my sight, And the clans of Culloden are scattered in fight; They rally, they bleed, for their kingdom and crown; Wo, wo to the riders that trample them down! Proud Cumberland prances, insulting the slain, And their hoof-beaten bosoms are trod to the plain. But hark! through the fast-flashing lightning of war, What steed to the desert flies frantic and far? 'Tis thine, O Glenullin! whose bride shall await, Like a love-lighted watchfire, all night at the gate. A steed comes at morning; no rider is there; But its bridle is red with the sign of despair. Weep, Albyn, to death and captivity led! O weep, but thy tears cannot number the dead; For a merciless sword on Culloden shall wave, Culloden! that reeks with the blood of the brave. _Lochiel_. Go preach to the coward, thou death- telling seer! Or, if gory Culloden so dreadful appear, Draw, dotard, around thy old wavering sight This mantle, to cover the phantoms of fright. _Seer_. Ha! laugh'st thou, Lochiel, my vision to scorn? Proud bird of the mountain, thy plume shall be torn! Say, rushed the bold eagle exultingly forth From his home, in the dark-rolling clouds of the north? Lo! the death-shot of foemen outspeeding, he rode Companionless, bearing destruction abroad; But down let him stoop from his havoc on high! Ah! home let him speed, for the spoiler is nigh. Why flames the far summit? Why shoot to the blast Those embers, like stars from the firmament cast? 'Tis the fire shower of ruin, all dreadfully driven From his eyrie that beacons the darkness of heaven. Oh, crested Lochiel! the peerless in might, Whose banners arise on the battlements' height, Heaven's fire is around thee, to blast and to burn: Return to thy dwelling! all lonely return! For the blackness of ashes shall mark where it stood, And a wild mother scream o'er her famishing brood. _Lochiel_. False wizard, avaunt! I have marshalled my clan-- Their swords are a thousand, their bosoms are one! They are true to the last of their blood and their breath, And like reapers descend to the harvest of death. Then welcome be Cumberland's steed to the shock! Let him dash his proud foam like a wave on the rock! But we to his kindred, and we to his cause, When Albyn her claymore indignantly draws; When her bonneted chieftains to victory crowd, Clanranald the dauntless, and Moray the proud; All plaided and plumed in their tartan array---- _Seer_.----Lochiel! Lochiel! beware of the day! For, dark and despairing, my sight I may seal, But man cannot cover what God would reveal. 'Tis the sunset of life gives me mystical lore, And coming events cast their shadows before. I tell thee, Culloden's dread echoes shall ring, With the bloodhounds that bark for thy fugitive king. Lo! anointed by heaven with the vials of wrath, Behold, where he flies on his desolate path! Now in darkness and billows he sweeps from my sight; Rise! rise! ye wild tempests, and cover his flight!-- 'Tis finished. Their thunders are hushed on the moors; Culloden is lost, and my country deplores. But where is the iron-bound prisoner? Where? For the red eye of battle is shut in despair. Say, mounts he the ocean-wave, banished, forlorn, Like a limb from his country cast bleeding and torn? Ah, no! for a darker departure is near,-- The war drum is muffled, and black is the bier; His death bell is tolling! Oh, mercy! dispel Yon sight that it freezes my spirit to tell! Life flutters convulsed in his quivering limbs, And his blood-streaming nostril in agony swims; Accursed be the faggots that blaze at his feet, Where his heart shall be thrown, ere it ceases to beat, With the smoke of its ashes to poison the gale---- _Lochiel_. Down, soothless insulter! I trust not the tale: For never shall Albyn a destiny meet So black with dishonour, so foul with retreat. Though my perishing ranks should be strewed in their gore, Like ocean weeds heaped on the surf-beaten shore, Lochiel, untainted by flight or by chains, While the kindling of life in his bosom remains, Shall victor exult, or in death be laid low, With his back to the field, and his feet to the foe! And leaving in battle no blot on his name, Look proudly to heaven from the death-bed of fame. CAMPBELL. [Note: _Life flutters convulsed &c._ Describes the barbarous death which awaited the traitor according to the statute book of England, as it then stood. This was the penalty dealt to the rebels of 1745.] * * * * * COLUMBUS IN SIGHT OF LAND. For three days they stood in this direction, and the further they went the more frequent and encouraging were the signs of land. Flights of small birds of various colours, some of them such as sing in the fields, came flying about the ships, and then continued towards the south-west, and others were heard also flying by in the night. Tunny fish played about the smooth sea, and a heron, a pelican, and a duck, were seen, all bound in the same direction. The herbage which floated by was fresh and green, as if recently from land, and the air, Columbus observes, was sweet and fragrant as April breezes in Seville. All these, however, were regarded by the crews as so many delusions beguiling them on to destruction; and when, on the evening of the third day, they beheld the sun go down upon a shoreless horizon, they broke forth into turbulent clamour. They exclaimed against this obstinacy in tempting fate by continuing on into a boundless sea. They insisted upon turning home, and abandoning the voyage as hopeless. Columbus endeavoured to pacify them by gentle words and promises of large rewards; but finding that they only increased in clamour, he assumed a decided tone. He told them it was useless to murmur; the expedition had been sent by the sovereigns to seek the Indies, and, happen what might, he was determined to persevere, until, by the blessing of God, he should accomplish the enterprise. Columbus was now at open defiance with his crew, and his situation became desperate. Fortunately the manifestations of the vicinity of land were such on the following day as no longer to admit a doubt. Beside a quantity of fresh weeds, such as grow in rivers, they saw a green fish of a kind which keeps about rocks; then a branch of thorn with berries on it, and recently separated from the tree, floated by them; then they picked up a reed, a small board, and, above all, a staff artificially carved. All gloom and mutiny now gave way to sanguine expectation; and throughout the day each one was eagerly on the watch, in hopes of being the first to discover the long-sought-for land. In the evening, when, according to invariable custom on board of the admiral's ship, the mariners had sung the vesper hymn to the Virgin, he made an impressive address to his crew. He pointed out the goodness of God in thus conducting them by soft and favouring breezes across a tranquil ocean, cheering their hopes continually with fresh signs, increasing as their fears augmented, and thus leading and guiding them to a promised land. He now reminded them of the orders he had given on leaving the Canaries, that, after sailing westward seven hundred leagues, they should not make sail after midnight. Present appearances authorized such a precaution. He thought it probable they would make land that very night; he ordered, therefore, a vigilant look-out to be kept from the forecastle, promising to whomsoever should make the discovery a doublet of velvet, in addition to the pension to be given by the sovereigns. The breeze had been fresh all day, with more sea than usual, and they had made great progress. At sunset they had stood again to the west, and were ploughing the waves at a rapid rate, the Pinta keeping the lead from her superior sailing. The greatest animation prevailed throughout the ships; not an eye was closed that night. As the evening darkened, Columbus took his station on the top of the castle or cabin on the high poop of his vessel, ranging his eye along the dusky horizon, and maintaining an intense and unremitting watch. About ten o'clock he thought he beheld a light glimmering at a great distance. Fearing his eager hopes might deceive him, he called to Pedro Gutierrez, gentleman of the king's bedchamber, and inquired whether he saw such a light: the latter replied in the affirmative. Doubtful whether it might not be some delusion of the fancy, Columbus called Rodrigo Sanchez of Segovia, and made the same inquiry. By the time the latter had ascended the round-house, the light had disappeared. They saw it once or twice afterwards in sudden and passing gleams, as if it were a torch in the bark of a fisherman, rising and sinking with the waves, or in the hand of some person on shore, borne up and down as he walked from house to house. So transient and uncertain were these gleams, that few attached any importance to them; Columbus, however, considered them as certain signs of land, and, moreover, that the land was inhabited. They continued their course until two in the morning, when a gun from the Pinta gave the joyful signal of land. It was first descried by a mariner named Rodrigo de Triana; but the reward was afterwards adjudged to the admiral, for having previously perceived the light. The land was now clearly seen about two leagues distant, whereupon they took in sail, and laid to, waiting impatiently for the dawn. The thoughts and feelings of Columbus in this little space of time must have been tumultuous and intense. At length, in spite of every difficulty and danger, he had accomplished his object. The great mystery of the ocean was revealed; his theory, which had been the scoff of sages, was triumphantly established; he had secured to himself a glory durable as the world itself. It is difficult to conceive the feelings of such a man, at such a moment, or the conjectures which must have thronged upon his mind, as to the land before him, covered with darkness. That it was fruitful was evident from the vegetables which floated from its shores. He thought, too, that he perceived the fragrance of aromatic groves. The moving light he had beheld proved it the residence of man. But what were its inhabitants? Were they like those of the other parts of the globe, or were they some strange and monstrous race, such as the imagination was prone in those times to give to all remote and unknown regions? Had he come upon some wild island far in the Indian Sea, or was this the famed Cipango itself, the object of his golden fancies? A thousand speculations of the kind must have swarmed upon him, as, with his anxious crews, he waited for the night to pass away; wondering whether the morning light would reveal a savage wilderness, or dawn upon spicy groves, and glittering fanes, and gilded cities, and all the splendour of oriental civilization. It was on Friday morning, the 12th of October, that Columbus first beheld the New World. As the day dawned he saw before him a level island, several leagues in extent, and covered with trees like a continual orchard. Though apparently uncultivated, it was populous, for the inhabitants were seen issuing from all parts of the woods and running to the shore. They were perfectly naked, and, as they stood gazing at the ships, appeared by their attitudes and gestures to be lost in astonishment. Columbus made signal for the ships to cast anchor, and the boats to be manned and armed. He entered his own boat, richly attired in scarlet, and holding the royal standard; whilst Martin Alonzo Pinzon, and Vincent Yañez his brother, put off in company in their boats, each with a banner of the enterprize emblazoned with a green cross, having on either side the letters F. and Y., the initials of the Castilian monarchs Fernando and Ysabel, surmounted by crowns. As he approached the shore, Columbus, who was disposed for all kinds of agreeable impressions, was delighted with the purity and suavity of the atmosphere, the crystal transparency of the sea, and the extraordinary beauty of the vegetation. He beheld, also, fruits of an unknown kind upon the trees which overhung the shores. On landing he threw himself on his knees, kissed the earth, and returned thanks to God with tears of joy. His example was followed by the rest, whose hearts indeed overflowed with the same feelings of gratitude, Columbus then rising, drew his sword, displayed the royal standard, and assembling round him the two captains, with Rodrigo de Escobedo, notary of the armament, Rodrigo Sanchez, and the rest who had landed, he took solemn possession in the name of the Castilian sovereigns, giving the island the name of San Salvador. Having complied with the requisite forms and ceremonies, he called upon all present to take the oath of obedience to him, as admiral and viceroy, representing the persons of the sovereigns. The feelings of the crew now burst forth in the most extravagant transports. They had recently considered themselves devoted men, hurrying forward to destruction; they now looked upon themselves as favourites of fortune, and gave themselves up to the most unbounded joy. They thronged around the admiral with overflowing zeal, some embracing him, others kissing his hands. Those who had been most mutinous and turbulent during the voyage, were now most devoted and enthusiastic. Some begged favours of him, as if he had already wealth and honours in his gift. Many abject spirits, who had outraged him by their insolence, now crouched at his feet, begging pardon for all the trouble they had caused him, and promising the blindest obedience for the future. WASHINGTON IRVING. [Notes: _Columbus_. Christopher Columbus of Genoa (born 1430, died 1506), the discoverer of America. His first expedition was made in 1492. "_The reward was afterwards adjudged to the admiral_." This has often been alleged, and apparently with considerable reason, as a stain upon the name of Columbus.] * * * * * COLUMBUS SHIPWRECKED. On the morning of the 24th of December, Columbus set sail from Port St. Thomas before sunrise, and steered to the eastward, with an intention of anchoring at the harbour of the cacique Guacanagari. The wind was from the land, but so light as scarcely to fill the sails, and the ships made but little progress. At eleven o'clock at night, being Christmas eve, they were within a league or a league and a half of the residence of the cacique; and Columbus, who had hitherto kept watch, finding the sea calm and smooth, and the ship almost motionless, retired to rest, not having slept the preceding night. He was, in general, extremely wakeful on his coasting voyages, passing whole nights upon deck in all weathers; never trusting to the watchfulness of others where there was any difficulty or danger to be provided against. In the present instance he felt perfectly secure; not merely on account of profound calm, but because the boats on the preceding day, in their visit to the cacique, had reconnoitred the coast, and had reported that there were neither rocks nor shoals in their course. No sooner had he retired, than the steersman gave the helm in charge to one of the ship-boys, and went to sleep. This was in direct violation of an invariable order of the admiral, that the helm should never be intrusted to the boys. The rest of the mariners who had the watch took like advantage of the absence of Columbus, and in a little while the whole crew was buried in sleep. In the meantime the treacherous currents, which run swiftly along this coast, carried the vessel quietly, but with force, upon a sand-bank. The heedless boy had not noticed the breakers, although they made a roaring that might have been heard a league. No sooner, however, did he feel the rudder strike, and hear the tumult of the rushing sea, than he began to cry for aid. Columbus, whose careful thoughts never permitted him to sleep profoundly, was the first on deck. The master of the ship, whose duty it was to have been on watch, next made his appearance, followed by others of the crew, half awake. The admiral ordered them to take the boat and carry out an anchor astern, to warp the vessel off. The master and the sailors sprang into the boat; but, confused as men are apt to be when suddenly awakened by an alarm, instead of obeying the commands of Columbus, they rowed off to the other caravel, about half a league to windward. In the meantime the master had reached the caravel, and made known the perilous state in which he had left the vessel. He was reproached with his pusillanimous desertion; the commander of the caravel manned his boat and hastened to the relief of the admiral, followed by the recreant master, covered with shame and confusion. It was too late to save the ship, the current having set her more upon the bank. The admiral, seeing that his boat had deserted him, that the ship had swung across the stream, and that the water was continually gaining upon her, ordered the mast to be cut away, in the hope of lightening her sufficiently to float her off. Every effort was in vain. The keel was firmly bedded in the sand; the shock had opened several seams; while the swell of the breakers, striking her broadside, left her each moment more and more aground, until she fell over on one side. Fortunately the weather continued calm, otherwise the ship must have gone to pieces, and the whole crew might have perished amidst the currents and breakers. The admiral and her men took refuge on board the caravel. Diego de Arana, chief judge of the armament, and Pedro Gutierrez, the king's butler, were immediately sent on shore as envoys to the cacique Guaeanagari, to inform him of the intended visit of the admiral, and of his disastrous shipwreck. In the meantime, as a light wind had sprung up from shore, and the admiral was ignorant of his situation, and of the rocks and banks that might be lurking around him, he lay to until daylight. The habitation of the cacique was about a league and a half from the wreck. When he heard of the misfortune of his guest, he manifested the utmost affliction, and even shed tears. He immediately sent all his people, with all the canoes, large and small, that could be mustered; and so active were they in their assistance, that in a little while the vessel was unloaded. The cacique himself, and his brothers and relatives, rendered all the aid in their power, both on sea and land; keeping vigilant guard that everything should be conducted with order, and the property secured from injury or theft. From time to time, he sent some one of his family, or some principal person of his attendants, to console and cheer the admiral, assuring him that everything he possessed should be at his disposal. Never, in a civilized country, were the vaunted rites of hospitality more scrupulously observed, than by this uncultivated savage. All the effects landed from the ships were deposited near his dwelling; and an armed guard surrounded them all night, until houses could be prepared in which to store them. There seemed, however, even among the common people, no disposition to take advantage of the misfortune of the stranger. Although they beheld what must in their eyes have been inestimable treasures, cast, as it were, upon their shores, and open to depredation, yet there was not the least attempt to pilfer, nor, in transporting the effects from the ships, had they appropriated the most trifling article. On the contrary, a general sympathy was visible in their countenances and actions; and to have witnessed their concern, one would have supposed the misfortune to have happened to themselves. "So loving, so tractable, so peaceable are these people," says Columbus in his journal, "that I swear to your Majesties, there is not in the world a better nation, nor a better land. They love their neighbours as themselves; and their discourse is ever sweet and gentle, and accompanied with a smile; and though it is true that they are naked, yet their manners are decorous and praiseworthy." WASHINGTON IRVING. [Note: _Cacique_. The chief of an Indian tribe. The word was adopted by the Spaniards from the language of the natives of San Domingo. * * * * * ROBBED IN THE DESERT. I departed from Kooma, accompanied by two shepherds, who were going towards Sibidooloo. The road was very steep and rocky, and as my horse had hurt his feet much, he travelled slowly and with great difficulty; for in many places the ascent was so sharp, and the declivities so great, that if he had made one false step, he must inevitably have been dashed to pieces. The herds being anxious to proceed, gave themselves little trouble about me or my horse, and kept walking on at a considerable distance. It was about eleven o'clock, as I stopped to drink a little water at a rivulet (my companions being near a quarter of a mile before me), that I heard some people calling to each other, and presently a loud screaming, as from a person in great distress. I immediately conjectured that a lion had taken one of the shepherds, and mounted my horse to have a better view of what had happened. The noise, however, ceased; and I rode slowly towards the place from whence I thought it proceeded, calling out, but without receiving any answer. In a little time, however, I perceived one of the shepherds lying among the long grass near the road; and, though I could see no blood upon him, concluded he was dead. But when I came close to him, he whispered to me to stop, telling me that a party of armed men had seized upon his companion, and shot two arrows at himself as he was making his escape. I stopped to consider what course to take, and looking round, saw at a little distance a man sitting upon the stump of a tree; I distinguished also the heads of six or seven more; sitting among the grass, with muskets in their hands. I had now no hopes of escaping, and therefore determined to ride forward towards them. As I approached them, I was in hopes they were elephant hunters, and by way of opening the conversation, inquired if they had shot anything; but, without returning an answer, one of them ordered me to dismount; and then, as if recollecting himself, waved with his hand for me to proceed. I accordingly rode past, and had with some difficulty crossed a deep rivulet, when I heard somebody holloa; and looking back, saw those I took for elephant hunters now running after me, and calling out to me to turn back. I stopped until they were all come up, when they informed me that the King of the Foulahs had sent them on purpose to bring me, my horse, and everything that belonged to me, to Fooladoo, and that therefore I must turn back, and go along with them. Without hesitating a moment, I turned round and followed them, and we travelled together near a quarter of a mile without exchanging a word. When coming to a dark place of the wood, one of them said, in the Mandingo language, "This place will do," and immediately snatched my hat from my head. Though I was by no means free of apprehension, yet I resolved to show as few signs of fear as possible; and therefore told them, unless my hat was returned to me, I should go no farther. But before I had time to receive an answer, another drew his knife, and seizing upon a metal button which remained upon my waistcoat, cut it off, and put it in his pocket. Their intention was now obvious, and I thought that the more easily they were permitted to rob me of everything, the less I had to fear. I therefore allowed them to search my pockets without resistance, and examine every part of my apparel, which they did with scrupulous exactness. But observing that I had one waistcoat under another, they insisted that I should cast them both off; and at last, to make sure work, stripped me quite naked. Even my half-boots (though the sole of one of them was tied to my foot with a broken bridle-rein) were narrowly inspected. Whilst they were examining the plunder, I begged them with great earnestness to return my pocket compass; but when I pointed it out to them, as it was lying on the ground, one of the banditti thinking I was about to take it up, cocked his musket, and swore that he would lay me dead on the spot if I presumed to lay my hand on it. After this some of them went away with my horse, and the remainder stood considering whether they should leave me quite naked, or allow me something to shelter me from the sun. Humanity at last prevailed; they returned me the worst of the two shirts and a pair of trowsers; and, as they went away, one of them threw back my hat, in the crown of which I kept my memorandums; and this was probably the reason they did not wish to keep it. After they were gone, I sat for some time looking around me with amazement and terror; whichever way I turned, nothing appeared but danger and difficulty. I saw myself in the midst of a vast wilderness in the depth of the rainy season, naked and alone, surrounded by savage animals, and men still more savage. I was five hundred miles from the nearest European settlement. All these circumstances crowded at once to my recollection; and I confess that my spirits began to fail me. I considered my fate as certain, and that I had no alternative but to lie down and perish. At this moment, painful as my reflections were, the extraordinary beauty of a small moss irresistibly caught my eye. I mention this to show from what trifling circumstances the mind will sometimes derive consolation; for though the whole plant was not larger than the tip of one of my fingers, I could not contemplate the delicate conformation of its roots, leaves, and capsule without admiration. Can that Being (thought I), who planted, watered, and brought to perfection, in this obscure part of the world, a thing which appears of so small importance, look with unconcern upon the situation and sufferings of creatures formed after his own image?--surely not! Reflections like these would not allow me to despair; I started up, and disregarding both hunger and fatigue, travelled forwards, assured that relief was at hand; and I was not disappointed. In a short time I came to a small village, at the entrance of which I overtook the two shepherds who had come with me from Rooma. They were much surprised to see me, for they said they never doubted that the Foulahs, when they had robbed, had murdered me. Departing from this village, we travelled over several rocky ridges, and at sunset arrived at Sibidooloo, the frontier town of the kingdom of Manding. MUNGO PARK. [Note: _Mungo Park_. Born in Selkirkshire in 1771; set out on his first African exploration in 1795. His object was to explore the Niger; and this he had done to a great extent when he was murdered (as is supposed) by the natives in 1805.] * * * * * REST FROM BATTLE. Now deep in ocean sunk the lamp of light, And drew behind the cloudy veil of night; The conquering Trojans mourn his beams decayed; The Greeks rejoicing bless the friendly shade. The victors keep the field: and Hector calls A martial council near the navy walls: These to Scamander's bank apart he led, Where thinly scattered lay the heaps of dead. The assembled chiefs, descending on the ground, Attend his order, and their prince surround. A massy spear he bore of mighty strength, Of full ten cubits was the lance's length; The point was brass, refulgent to behold, Fixed to the wood with circling rings of gold: The noble Hector on his lance reclined, And bending forward, thus revealed his mind: "Ye valiant Trojans, with attention hear! Ye Dardan bands, and generous aids, give ear! This day, we hoped, would wrap in conquering flame Greece with her ships, and crown our toils with fame. But darkness now, to save the cowards, falls, And guards them trembling in their wooden walls. Obey the night, and use her peaceful hours, Our steeds to forage, and refresh our powers. Straight from the town be sheep and oxen sought, And strengthening bread and generous wine be brought. Wide o'er the field, high blazing to the sky, Let numerous fires the absent sun supply, The flaming piles with plenteous fuel raise, Till the bright morn her purple beam displays; Lest, in the silence and the shades of night, Greece on her sable ships attempt her flight. Not unmolested let the wretches gain Their lofty decks, or safely cleave the main: Some hostile wound let every dart bestow, Some lasting token of the Phrygian foe: Wounds, that long hence may ask their spouses' care, And warn their children from a Trojan war. Now, through the circuit of our Ilion wall, Let sacred heralds sound the solemn call; To bid the sires with hoary honours crowned, And beardless youths, our battlements surround. Firm be the guard, while distant lie our powers, And let the matrons hang with lights the towers: Lest, under covert of the midnight shade, The insidious foe the naked town invade. Suffice, to-night, these orders to obey; A nobler charge shall rouse the dawning day. The gods, I trust, shall give to Hector's hand, From these detested foes to free the land, Who ploughed, with fates averse, the watery way; For Trojan vultures a predestined prey. Our common safety must be now the care; But soon as morning paints the fields of air, Sheathed in bright arms let every troop engage, And the fired fleet behold the battle rage. Then, then shall Hector and Tydides prove, Whose fates are heaviest in the scale of Jove. To-morrow's light (O haste the glorious morn!) Shall see his bloody spoils in triumph borne, With this keen javelin shall his breast be gored, And prostrate heroes bleed around their lord. Certain as this, oh! might my days endure, From age inglorious, and black death secure; So might my life and glory know no bound, Like Pallas worshipped, like the sun renowned! As the next dawn, the last they shall enjoy, Shall crush the Greeks, and end the woes of Troy." The leader spoke. From all his host around Shouts of applause along the shores resound. Each from the yoke the smoking steeds untied, And fixed their headstalls to his chariot-side. Fat sheep and oxen from the town are led, With generous wine, and all-sustaining bread. Full hecatombs lay burning on the shore; The winds to heaven the curling vapours bore; Ungrateful offering to the immortal powers! Whose wrath hung heavy o'er the Trojan towers; Nor Priam nor his sons obtained their grace; Proud Troy they hated, and her guilty race. The troops exulting sat in order round, And beaming fires illumined all the ground. As when the moon, refulgent lamp of night! O'er heaven's clear azure spreads her sacred light, When not a breath disturbs the deep serene, And not a cloud o'ercasts the solemn scene; Around her throne the vivid planets roll, And stars unnumbered gild the glowing pole; O'er the dark trees a yellower verdure shed, And tip with silver every mountain's head. Then shine the vales, the rocks in prospect rise, A flood of glory bursts from all the skies: The conscious swains, rejoicing in the sight, Eye the blue vault, and bless the useful light. So many flames before proud Ilion blaze, And lighten glimmering Xanthus with their rays: The long reflections of the distant fires Gleam on the walls, and tremble on the spires. A thousand piles the dusky horrors gild, And shoot a shady lustre o'er the field. Full fifty guards each flaming pile attend, Whose umbered arms, by fits, thick flashes send, Loud neigh the coursers o'er their heaps of corn, And ardent warriors wait the rising morn. POPE. [Notes:_Rest from battle_. This is part of Pope's translation of the Iliad of Homer (Book 8, l. 605). _Stamander_. One of the rivers in the neighbourhood of Troy. _Dardan bands_. Trojan lands. Dardanus was the mythical ancestor of the Trojans. _Generous aids_ = allies. _Tydides_--Diomede. _From age inglorious and black death secure_ = safe from inglorious age and from black death. _Hecatombs_. Sacrifices of 100 oxen. _Ungrateful offering_ = unpleasing offering. _Xanthus_. The other river in the neighbourhood of Troy. _Umbered_ = thrown into shadow, and glimmering in the darkness.] * * * * * ARISTIDES. Aristides at first was loved and respected for his surname of _the Just_, and afterwards envied as much; the latter, chiefly by the management of Themistocles, who gave it out among the people that Aristides had abolished the courts of judicature, by drawing the arbitration of all causes to himself, and so was insensibly gaining sovereign power, though without guards and the other ensigns of it. The people, elevated with the late victory at Marathon, thought themselves capable of everything, and the highest respect little enough for them. Uneasy, therefore, at finding any one citizen rose to such extraordinary honour and distinction, they assembled at Athens from all the towns in Attica, and banished Aristides by the Ostracism; disguising their envy of his character under the specious pretence of guarding against tyranny. For the _Ostracism_ was not a punishment for crimes and misdemeanours, but was very decently called an humbling and lessening of some excessive influence and power. In reality it was a mild gratification of envy; for by this means, whoever was offended at the growing greatness of another, discharged his spleen, not in anything cruel or inhuman, but only in voting a ten years' banishment. But when it once began to fall upon mean and profligate persons, it was for ever after entirely laid aside; Hyperbolus being the last that was exiled by it. The reason of its turning upon such a wretch was this. Alcibiades and Nicias, who were persons of the greatest interest in Athens, had each his party; but perceiving that the people were going to proceed to the Ostracism, and that one of them was likely to suffer by it, they consulted together, and joining interests, caused it to fall upon Hyperbolus. Hereupon the people, full of indignation at finding this kind of punishment dishonoured and turned into ridicule, abolished it entirely. The Ostracism (to give a summary account of it) was conducted in the following manner. Every citizen took a piece of a broken pot, or a shell, on which he wrote the name of the person he wanted to have banished, and carried it to a part of the market-place that was enclosed with wooden rails. The magistrates then counted the number of the shells; and if it amounted not to six thousand, the Ostracism stood for nothing: if it did, they sorted the shells, and the person whose name was found on the greatest number, was declared an exile for ten years, but with permission to enjoy his estate. At the time that Aristides was banished, when the people were inscribing the names on the shells, it is reported that an illiterate burgher came to Aristides, whom he took for some ordinary person, and, giving him his shell, desired him to write Aristides upon it. The good man, surprised at the adventure, asked him "Whether Aristides had ever injured him?" "No," said he, "nor do I even know him; but it vexes me to hear him everywhere called _the Just_." Aristides made no answer, but took the shell, and having written his own name upon it, returned it to the man. When he quitted Athens, he lifted up his hands towards heaven, and, agreeably to his character, made a prayer, very different from that of Achilles; namely, "That the people of Athens might never see the day which should force them to remember Aristides." _Plutarch's Lives_. [Notes: _Aristides_. A prominent citizen of Athens (about the year 490 B.C.) opposed to the more advanced policy of Themistocles, who wished to make the city rely entirely upon her naval power. He was ostracised in 489, but afterwards restored. _Marathon_. The victory gained over the Persian invaders, 490 B.C.] * * * * * THE VENERABLE BEDE. Baeda--the venerable Bede as later times styled him--was born about ten years after the Synod of Whitby, beneath the shade of a great abbey which Benedict Biscop was rearing by the mouth of the Wear. His youth was trained and his long tranquil life was wholly spent in an offshoot of Benedict's house which was founded by his scholar Ceolfrid. Baeda never stirred from Jarrow. "I spent my whole life in the same monastery," he says, "and while attentive to the rule of my order and the service of the Church, my constant pleasure lay in learning, or teaching, or writing." The words sketch for us a scholar's life, the more touching in its simplicity that it is the life of the first great English scholar. The quiet grandeur of a life consecrated to knowledge, the tranquil pleasure that lies in learning and teaching and writing, dawned for Englishmen in the story of Baeda. While still young, he became teacher, and six hundred monks, besides strangers that flocked thither for instruction, formed his school of Jarrow. It is hard to imagine how, among the toils of the schoolmaster and the duties of the monk, Baeda could have found time for the composition of the numerous works that made his name famous in the West. But materials for study had accumulated in Northumbria through the journeys of Wilfrith and Benedict Biscop, and Archbishop Eegberht was forming the first English library at York. The tradition of the older Irish teachers still lingered to direct the young scholar into that path of scriptural interpretation to which he chiefly owed his fame. Greek, a rare accomplishment in the West, came to him from the school which the Greek Archbishop Theodore founded beneath the walls of Canterbury. His skill in the ecclesiastical chaunt was derived from a Roman cantor whom Pope Vilalian sent in the train of Benedict Biscop. Little by little the young scholar thus made himself master of the whole range of the science of his time; he became, as Burke rightly styled him, "the father of English learning." The tradition of the older classic culture was first revived for England in his quotations of Plato and Aristotle, of Seneca and Cicero, of Lucretius and Ovid. Virgil cast over him the same spell that he cast over Dante; verses from the. Aeneid break his narratives of martyrdoms, and the disciple ventures on the track of the great master in a little eclogue descriptive of the approach of spring. His work was done with small aid from others. "I am my own secretary," he writes; "I make my own notes. I am my own librarian." But forty-five works remained after his death to attest his prodigious industry. In his own eyes and those of his contemporaries, the most important among these were the commentaries and homilies upon various books of the Bible which he had drawn from the writings of the Fathers. But he was far from confining himself to theology. In treatises compiled as text-books for his scholars, Baeda threw together all that the world had then accumulated in astronomy and meteorology, in physics and music, in philosophy, grammar, rhetoric, arithmetic, medicine. But the encyclopaedic character of his researches left him in heart a simple Englishman. He loved his own English tongue, he was skilled in English song, his last work was a translation into English of the gospel of St. John, and almost the last words that broke from his lips were some English rhymes upon death. But the noblest proof of his love of England lies in the work which immortalizes his name. In his 'Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation,' Baeda was at once the founder of medieval history and the first English historian. All that we really know of the century and a half that follows the landing of Augustine, we know from him. Wherever his own personal observation extended, the story is told with admirable detail and force. He is hardly less full or accurate in the portions which he owed to his Kentish friends, Alewine and Nothelm. What he owed to no informant was his own exquisite faculty of story-telling, and yet no story of his own telling is so touching as the story of his death. Two weeks before the Easter of 735 the old man was seized with an extreme weakness and loss of breath. He still preserved, however, his usual pleasantness and gay good-humour, and in spite of prolonged sleeplessness continued his lectures to the pupils about him. Verses of his own English tongue broke from time to time from the master's lip--rude rhymes that told how before the "need-fare," Death's stern "must-go," none can enough bethink him what is to be his doom for good or ill. The tears of Baeda's scholars mingled with his song. "We never read without weeping," writes one of then. So the days rolled on to Ascension-tide, and still master and pupils toiled at their work, for Baeda longed to bring to an end his version of St. John's Gospel into the English tongue, and his extracts from Bishop Isidore. "I don't want my boys to read a lie," he answered those who would have had him rest, "or to work to no purpose, after I am gone." A few days before Ascension-tide his sickness grew upon him, but he spent the whole day in teaching, only saying cheerfully to his scholars, "Learn with what speed you may; I know not how long I may last." The dawn broke on another sleepless night, and again the old man called his scholars round him and bade them write. "There is still a chapter wanting," said the scribe, as the morning drew on, "and it is hard for thee to question thyself any longer." "It is easily done," said Baeda; "take thy pen and write quickly." Amid tears and farewells the day wore on to eventide. "There is yet one sentence unwritten, dear master," said the boy. "Write it quickly," bade the dying man. "It is finished now," said the little scribe at last. "You speak truth," said the master; "all is finished now." Placed upon the pavement, his head supported in his scholar's arms, his face turned to the spot where he was wont to pray, Baeda chaunted the solemn "Glory to God." As his voice reached the close of his song, he passed quietly away. J. R. GREEN. [Note: _Baeda_. The father of literature and learning in England (656-735 A.D.).] * * * * * THE DEATH OF ANSELM. Anselm's life was drawing to its close. The re-enactment and confirmation by the authority of the great Whitsuntide Assembly of the canons of the Synod of London against clerical marriage, and a dispute with two of the Northern bishops--his old friend Ralph Flambard, and the archbishop-elect of York, who, apparently reckoning on Anselm's age and bad health, was scheming to evade the odious obligation of acknowledging the paramount claims of the see of Canterbury--were all that marked the last year of his life. A little more than a year before his own death, he had to bury his old and faithful friend--a friend first in the cloister of Bee, and then in the troubled days of his English primacy--the great builder, Gundulf, Bishop of Rochester. Anselm's last days shall be told in the words of one who had the best right to record the end of him whom he had loved so simply and so loyally--his attendant Eadmer. "During these events (of the last two years of his life) he wrote a treatise 'Concerning the Agreement of Foreknowledge, Predestination, and the Grace of God, with Free Will,' in which contrary to his wont, he found difficulty in composition; for after his illness at Bury St. Edmund's, as long as he was spared to this life, he was weaker than before; so that, when he was moving from place to place, he was from that time carried in a litter, instead of riding on horseback. He was tried, also, by frequent and sharp sicknesses, so that we scarce dared promise him life. He, however, never left off his old way of living, but was always engaged in godly meditations, or holy exhortations, or other good work. "In the third year after King Henry had recalled him from his second banishment, every kind of food by which nature is sustained became loathsome to him. He used to eat, however, putting force on himself, knowing that he could not live without food; and in this way he somehow or another dragged on life through half a year, gradually failing day by day in body, though in vigour of mind he was still the same as he used to be. So being strong in spirit, though but very feeble in the flesh, he could not go to his oratory on foot; but from his strong desire to attend the consecration of the Lord's body, which he venerated with a special feeling of devotion, he caused himself to be carried thither every day in a chair. We who attended on him tried to prevail on him to desist, because it fatigued him so much; but we succeeded, and that with difficulty, only four days before he died. "From that time he took to his bed? and, with gasping breath, continued to exhort all who had the privilege of drawing near him to live to God, each in his own order. Palm Sunday had dawned, and we, as usual, were sitting round him; one of us said to him, 'Lord father, we are given to understand that you are going to leave the world for your Lord's Easter court.' He answered, 'If His will be so, I shall gladly obey His will. But if He willed rather that I should yet remain amongst you, at least till I have solved a question which I am turning in my mind, about the origin of the soul, I should receive it thankfully, for I know not whether any one will finish it after I am gone. Indeed, I hope, that if I could take food, I might yet get well. For I feel no pain anywhere; only, from weakness of my stomach, which cannot take food, I am failing altogether.' "On the following Tuesday, towards evening, he was no longer able to speak intelligibly. Ralph, Bishop of Rochester, asked him to bestow his absolution and blessing on us who were present, and on his other children, and also on the king and queen with their children, and the people of the land who had kept themselves under God in his obedience. He raised his right hand, as if he was suffering nothing, and made the sign of the Holy Cross; and then dropped his head and sank down. The congregation of the brethren were already chanting matins in the great church, when one of those who watched about our father the book of the Gospels and read before him the history of the Passion, which was to be read that day at the mass. But when he came to our Lord's words, 'Ye are they which have continued with me in my temptations, and I appoint unto you a kingdom, as my Father hath appointed unto me, that ye may eat and drink at my table,' he began to draw his breath more slowly. We saw that he was just going, so he was removed from his bed, and laid upon sackcloth and ashes. And thus, the whole family of his children being collected round him, he gave up his last breath into the hands of his Creator, and slept in peace." DEAN CHURCH. [Note:_Anselm_. An Italian by birth (1033-1109), was Abbot of Bee, in Normandy, and afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury, in both succeeding his countryman Lanfranc. He was famous as a scholastic philosopher; and, as a Churchman, he struggled long for the liberties of the Church with William II. and Henry I.] * * * * * THE MURDER OF BECKET. The vespers had already begun, and the monks were singing the service in the choir, when two boys rushed up the nave, announcing, more by their terrified gestures than by their words, that the soldiers were bursting into the palace and monastery. Instantly the service was thrown into the utmost confusion; part remained at prayer, part fled into the numerous hiding-places the vast fabric affords; and part went down the steps of the choir into the transept to meet the little band at the door. "Come in, come in!" exclaimed one of them; "Come in, and let us die together." The Archbishop continued to stand outside, and said, "Go and finish the service. So long as you keep in the entrance, I shall not come in." They fell back a few paces, and he stepped within the door, but, finding the whole place thronged with people, he paused on the threshold, and asked, "What is it that these people fear?" One general answer broke forth, "The armed men in the cloister." As he turned and said, "I shall go out to them," he heard the clash of arms behind. The knights had just forced their way into the cloister, and were now (as would appear from their being thus seen through the open door) advancing along its southern side. They were in mail, which covered their faces up to their eyes, and carried their swords drawn. Three had hatchets. Fitzurse, with the axe he had taken from the carpenters, was foremost, shouting as he came, "Here, here, king's men!" Immediately behind him followed Robert Fitzranulph, with three other knights, and a motley group--some their own followers, some from the town--with weapons, though not in armour, brought up the rear. At this sight, so unwonted in the peaceful cloisters of Canterbury, not probably beheld since the time when the monastery had been sacked by the Danes, the monks within, regardless of all remonstrances, shut the door of the cathedral, and proceeded to barricade it with iron bars. A loud knocking was heard from the terrified band without, who having vainly endeavoured to prevent the entrance of the knights into the cloister, now rushed before them to take refuge in the church. Becket, who had stepped some paces into the cathedral, but was resisting the solicitations of those immediately about him to move up into the choir for safety, darted back, calling aloud as he went, "Away, you cowards! By virtue of your obedience I command you not to shut the door--the church must not be turned into a castle." With his own hands he thrust them away from the door, opened it himself, and catching hold of the excluded monks, dragged them into the building, exclaiming, "Come in, come in--faster, faster!" * * * * * The knights, who had been checked for a moment by the sight of the closed door, on seeing it unexpectedly thrown open, rushed into the church. It was, we must remember, about five o'clock in a winter evening; the shades of night were gathering, and were deepened into a still darker gloom within the high and massive walls of the vast cathedral, which was only illuminated here and there by the solitary lamps burning before the altars. The twilight, lengthening from the shortest day a fortnight before, was but just sufficient to reveal the outline of objects. * * * * * In the dim twilight they could just discern a group of figures mounting the steps of the eastern staircase. One of the knights called out to them, "Stay." Another, "Where is Thomas Becket, traitor to the King?" No answer was returned. None could have been expected by any one who remembered the indignant silence with which Becket had swept by when the same words had been applied by Randulf of Broc at Northampton. Fitzurse rushed forward, and, stumbling against one of the monks on the lower step, still not able to distinguish clearly in the darkness, exclaimed, "Where is the Archbishop?" Instantly the answer came: "Reginald, here I am, no traitor, but the archbishop and priest of God; what do you wish?" and from the fourth step, which he had reached in his ascent, with a slight motion of his head--noticed apparently as his peculiar manner in moments of excitement--Becket descended to the transept. Attired, we are told, in his white rochet, with a cloak and hood thrown over his shoulders, he thus suddenly confronted his assailants. Fitzurse sprang back two or three paces, and Becket passing by him took up his station between the central pillar and the massive wall which still forms the south-west corner of what was then the chapel of St. Benedict. Here they gathered round him, with the cry, "Absolve the bishops whom you have excommunicated." "I cannot do other than I have done," he replied, and turning to Fitzurse, he added, "Reginald, you have received many favours at my hands; why do you come into my church armed?" Fitzurse planted the axe against his breast, and returned for answer, "You shall die--I will tear out your heart." Another, perhaps in kindness, struck him between the shoulders with the flat of his sword, exclaiming, "Fly; you are a dead man." "I am ready to die," replied the primate, "for God and the Church; but I warn you, I curse you in the name of God Almighty, if you do not let my men escape." The well-known horror which in that age was felt at an act of sacrilege, together with the sight of the crowds who were rushing in from the town through the nave, turned their efforts for the next few moments to carrying him out of the church. Fitzurse threw down the axe, and tried to drag him out by the collar of his long cloak, calling, "Come with us--you are our prisoner." "I will not fly, you detestable fellow," was Becket's reply, roused to his usual vehemence, and wrenching the cloak out of Fitzurse's grasp. The three knights struggled violently to put him on Tracy's shoulders. Becket set his back against the pillar, and resisted with all his might, whilst Grim, vehemently remonstrating, threw his arms around him to aid his efforts. In the scuffle, Becket fastened upon Tracy, shook him by his coat of mail, and exerting his great strength, flung him down on the pavement. It was hopeless to carry on the attempt to remove him. And in the final struggle which now began, Fitzurse, as before, took the lead. He approached with his drawn sword, and waving it over his head, cried, "Strike, strike!" but merely dashed off his cap. Tracy sprang forward and struck a more decided blow. * * * * * The blood from the first blow was trickling down his face in a thin streak; he wiped it with his arm, and when he saw the stain, he said, "Into thy hands, O Lord, I commend my spirit." At the third blow, he sank on his knees--his arms falling, but his hands still joined as if in prayer. With his face turned towards the altar of St. Benedict, he murmured in a low voice, "For the name of Jesus, and the defence of the Church, I am willing to die." Without moving hand or foot, he fell fiat on his face as he spoke, and with such dignity that his mantle, which extended from head to foot, was not disarranged. In this posture he received a tremendous blow, aimed with such violence that the scalp or crown of the head was severed from the skull, and the sword snapped in two on the marble pavement. Hugh of Horsea planted his foot on the neck of the corpse, thrust his sword into the ghastly wound, and scattered the brains over the pavement. "Let us go--let us go," he said, in conclusion, "the traitor is dead; he will rise no more." DEAN STANLEY. [Note: _Thomas Becket_ (1119-1170). Chancellor and afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury under Henry II.; maintained a heroic, though perhaps ambitious and undesirable struggle with that king for the independence of the clergy; and ended his life by assassination at the hands of certain of Henry's servants.] * * * * * THE DEATH OF ELIZABETH The triumph of her lieutenant, Mountjoy, flung its lustre over the last days of Elizabeth, but no outer triumph could break the gloom which gathered round the dying queen. Lonely as she had always been, her loneliness deepened as she drew towards the grave. The statesmen and warriors of her earlier days had dropped one by one from her council board; and their successors were watching her last moments, and intriguing for favour in the coming reign. The old splendour of her court waned and disappeared. Only officials remained about her, "the other of the council and nobility estrange themselves by all occasions." As she passed along in her progresses, the people, whose applause she courted, remained cold and silent. The temper of the age, in fact, was changing and isolating her as it changed. Her own England, the England which had grown up around her, serious, moral, prosaic, shrank coldly from this child of earth, and the renascence, brilliant, fanciful, unscrupulous, irreligious. She had enjoyed life as the men of her day enjoyed it, and now that they were gone she clung to it with a fierce tenacity. She hunted, she danced, she jested with her young favourites, she coquetted, and scolded, and frolicked at sixty-seven as she had done at thirty. "The queen," wrote a courtier, a few months before her death, "was never so gallant these many years, nor so set upon jollity." She persisted, in spite of opposition, in her gorgeous progresses from country-house to country-house. She clung to business as of old, and rated in her usual fashion, "one who minded not to giving up some matter of account." But death crept on. Her face became haggard, and her frame shrank almost to a skeleton. At last, her taste for finery disappeared, and she refused to change her dresses for a week together. A strange melancholy settled down on her: "she held in her hand," says one who saw her in her last days, "a golden cup, which she often put to her lips: but in truth her heart seemed too full to need more filling." Gradually her mind gave way. She lost her memory, the violence of her temper became unbearable, her very courage seemed to forsake her. She called for a sword to lie constantly beside her, and thrust it from time to time through the arras, as if she heard murderers stirring there. Food and rest became alike distasteful. She sate day and night propped up with pillows on a stool, her finger on her lip, her eyes fixed on the floor, without a word. If she once broke the silence, it was with a flash of her old queenliness. Cecil asserted that she "must" go to bed, and the word roused her like a trumpet. "Must!" she exclaimed; "is _must_ a word to be addressed to princes? Little man, little man! thy father, if he had been alive, durst not have used that word." Then, as her anger spent itself, she sank into her old dejection. "Thou art so presumptuous," she said, "because thou knowest I shall die." She rallied once more when the ministers beside her bed named Lord Beauchamp, the heir to the Suffolk claim, as a possible successor. "I will have no rogue's son," she cried hoarsely, "in my seat." But she gave no sign, save a motion of the head, at the mention of the King of Scots. She was in fact fast becoming insensible; and early the next morning the life of Elizabeth, a life so great, so strange and lonely in its greatness, passed quietly away. J.R. GREEN. [Notes: _Mountjoy_. The Queen's lieutenant in Ireland, who had had considerable success in dealing with the Irish rebels. _This chill of ... the renascence._ In her irreligion, as well as in her brilliancy and fancy, Elizabeth might fitly be called the child or product of the Pagan renascence or new birth, as the return to the freedom of classic literature, so powerful in the England of her day, was called. _Thy father_ = the great Lord Burghley, who guided the counsels of the Queen throughout all the earlier part of her reign. _The Suffolk claim, i.e.,_ the claim derived from Mary, the sister of Henry VIII., who married Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. James, who succeeded Elizabeth, was descended from the elder sister, Margaret, married to James IV. of Scotland.] * * * * * THE SAXON AND THE GAEL. So toilsome was the road to trace, The guide, abating of his pace, Led slowly through the pass's jaws, And ask'd Fitz-James by what strange cause He sought these wilds? traversed by few, Without a pass from Roderick Dhu. "Brave Gael, my pass, in danger tried, Hangs in my belt, and by my side; Yet sooth to tell," the Saxon said, "I dreamed not now to claim its aid. When here but three days since, I came, Bewildered in pursuit of game, All seemed as peaceful and as still As the mist slumbering on yon hill: Thy dangerous chief was then afar, Nor soon expected back from war." "But, Stranger, peaceful since you came, Bewildered in the mountain game, Whence the bold boast by which you show Vich-Alpine's vowed and mortal foe?" "Warrior, but yester-morn, I knew Nought of thy Chieftain, Roderick Dhu, Save as an outlaw'd desperate man, The chief of a rebellious clan, Who in the Regent's court and sight, With ruffian dagger stabbed a knight; Yet this alone might from his part Sever each true and loyal heart." Wrathful at such arraignment foul, Dark lowered the clansman's sable scowl. A space he paused, then sternly said,-- "And heard'st thou why he drew his blade? Heards't thou that shameful word and blow Brought Roderick's vengeance on his foe? What reck'd the Chieftain if he stood On Highland-heath, or Holy-Rood? He rights such wrong where it is given, If it were in the court of heaven." "Still was it outrage:--yet, 'tis true, Not then claimed sovereignty his due; While Albany, with feeble hand, Held borrowed truncheon of command, The young King mew'd in Stirling tower, Was stranger to respect and power. But then, thy Chieftain's robber life! Winning mean prey by causeless strife, Wrenching from ruined lowland swain His herds and harvest reared in vain, Methinks a soul like thine should scorn The spoils from such foul foray borne." The Gael beheld him grim the while, And answered with disdainful smile,-- "Saxon, from yonder mountain high, I marked thee send delighted eye Far to the south and east, where lay Extended in succession gay, Deep waving fields and pastures green, With gentle slopes and groves between:-- These fertile plains, that softened vale, Were once the birthright of the Gael; The stranger came with iron hand, And from our fathers reft the land. Where dwell we now? See, rudely swell Crag over crag, fell over fell. Ask we this savage hill we tread, For fattened steer or household bread; Ask we for flocks these shingles dry, And well the mountain might reply,-- "To you, as to your sires of yore, Belong the target and claymore! I give you shelter in my breast, Your own good blades must win the rest." Pent in this fortress of the North, Think'st thou we will not sally forth, To spoil the spoiler as we may, And from the robber rend the prey? Aye, by my soul!--While on yon plain The Saxon rears one shock of grain; While of ten thousand herds, there strays But one along yon river's maze,-- The Gael, of plain and river heir, Shall, with strong hand, redeem his share. Where live the mountain Chiefs who hold That plundering Lowland field and fold Is aught but retribution true? Seek other cause 'gainst Roderick Dhu." Answered Fitz-James--"And, if I sought, Think'st thou no other could be brought? What deem ye of my path waylaid, My life given o'er to ambuscade?" "As of a meed to rashness due: Hadst thou sent warning fair and true,-- I seek my hound, or falcon strayed. I seek, good faith, a Highland maid.-- Free hadst thou been to come and go; But secret path marks secret foe. Nor yet, for this, even as a spy, Hadst thou unheard, been doomed to die, Save to fulfil an augury." "Well, let it pass; nor will I now Fresh cause of enmity avow, To chafe thy mood and cloud thy brow. Enough, I am by promise tied To match me with this man of pride: Twice have I sought Clan-Alpine's glen In peace: but when I come again, I come with banner, brand, and bow, As leader seeks his mortal foe. For love-lorn swain, in lady's bower, Ne'er panted for the appointed hour, As I, until before me stand This rebel Chieftain and his band." "Have, then, thy wish!"--he whistled shrill, And he was answered from the hill: Wild as the scream of the curlew, From crag to crag the signal flew. Instant, through copse and heath, arose Bonnets and spears, and bended bows. On right, on left, above, below, Sprung up at once the lurking foe; From shingles grey their lances start, The bracken bush sends forth the dart. The rushes and the willow wand Are bristling into axe and brand, And every tuft of broom gives life To plaided warrior armed for strife. That whistle garrison'd the glen At once with full five hundred men, As if the yawning hill to heaven A subterraneous host had given. Watching their leader's beck and will, All silent there they stood and still. Like the loose crags whose threatening mass Lay tottering o'er the hollow pass, As if an infant's touch could urge Their headlong passage down the verge, With step and weapon forward flung. Upon the mountain-side they hung. The mountaineer cast glance of pride Along Benledi's living side, Then fixed his eye and sable brow Full on Fitz-James--"How says't thou now? These are Clan-Alpine's warriors true, And, Saxon,--I am Roderick Dhu!" Fitz-James was brave:--Though to his heart The life-blood thrilled with sudden start, He mann'd himself with dauntless air, Returned the Chief his haughty stare, His back against a rock he bore, And firmly placed his foot before:-- "Come one, come all! this rock shall fly From its firm base as soon as I." Sir Roderick marked--and in his eyes Respect was mingled with surprise, And the stern joy which warriors feel In foemen worthy of their steel. Short space he stood--then waved his hand; Down sunk the disappearing band: Each warrior vanished where he stood, In broom or bracken, heath or wood: Sunk brand and spear, and bended bow, In osiers pale and copses low; It seemed as if their mother Earth Had swallowed up her warlike birth. The wind's last breath had tossed in air Pennon, and plaid, and plumage fair,-- The next but swept a lone hill-side, Where heath and fern were waving wide; The sun's last glance was glinted back, From spear and glaive, from targe and jack,-- The next, all unreflected, shone On bracken green and cold grey stone. Fitz-James looked round--yet scarce believed The witness that his sight received; Such apparition well might seem Delusion of a dreadful dream. Sir Roderick in suspense he eyed, And to his look the Chief replied, "Fear nought--nay, that I need not say-- But--doubt not aught from mine array. Thou art my guest:--I pledged my word As far as Coilantogle ford: Nor would I call a clansman's brand, For aid against one valiant hand, Though on our strife lay every vale Rent by the Saxon from the Gael. So move we on;--I only meant To show the reed on which you leant, Deeming this path you might pursue Without a pass from Roderick Dhu." * * * * * The Chief in silence strode before, And reached that torrent's sounding shore, Which, daughter of three mighty lakes, From Vennachar in silver breaks Sweeps through the plain, and ceaseless mines, On Bochastle the mouldering lines. Where "Rome, the Empress of the world. Of yore her eagle wings unfurl'd. And here his course the Chieftain staid; Threw down his target and his plaid, And to the Lowland warrior said:-- "Bold Saxon! to his promise just, Vich-Alpine has discharged his trust. This murderous Chief, this ruthless man. This head of a rebellious clan, Hath led thee safe, through watch and ward, Far past Clan-Alpine's outmost guard. Now, man to man, and steel to steel, A Chieftain's vengeance thou shalt feel, See, here, all vantageless, I stand, Armed like thyself, with single brand: For this is Coilantogle ford, And thou must keep thee with thy sword." The Saxon paused:--"I ne'er delayed, When foeman bade me draw my blade; Nay more, brave Chief, I vow'd thy death: Yet sure thy fair and generous faith, And my deep debt for life preserved, A better meed have well deserved:-- Can nought but blood our feud atone? Are there no means?"--"No, stranger, none! And hear,--to fire thy flagging zeal,-- The Saxon cause rests on thy steel; For thus spoke Fate by prophet bred Between the living and the dead: "Who spills the foremost foeman's life, His party conquers in the strife."-- "Then by my word," the Saxon said, "The riddle is already read. Seek yonder brake beneath the cliff,-- There lies Red Murdoch, stark and stiff. Thus Fate has solved her prophecy, Then yield to Fate, and not to me. To James, at Stirling, let us go, When, if thou wilt be still his foe, Or if the King shall not agree To grant thee grace and favour free, I plight mine honour, oath, and word, That, to thy native strengths restored, With each advantage shalt thou stand, That aids thee now to guard thy land."-- Dark lightning flashed from Roderick's eye-- "Soars thy presumption then so high, Because a wretched kern ye slew, Homage to name to Roderick Dhu? He yields not, he, to man nor Fate! Thou add'st but fuel to my hate:-- My clansman's blood demands revenge.-- Not yet prepared?--By Heaven, I change My thought, and hold thy valour light As that of some vain carpet-knight, Who ill-deserved my courteous care, And whose best boast is but to wear A braid of his fair lady's hair."-- "I thank thee, Roderick, for the word! It nerves my heart, it steels my sword; For I have sworn this braid to stain In the best blood that warms thy vein. Now, truce, farewell; and ruth, begone! Yet think not that by thee alone, Proud Chief! can courtesy be shown: Though not from copse, or heath, or cairn, Start at my whistle, clansmen stern, Of this small horn one feeble blast Would fearful odds against thee cast. But fear not--doubt not--which thou wilt-- We try this quarrel hilt to hilt."-- Then each at once his faulchion drew, Each on the ground his scabbard threw, Each looked to sun, and stream, and plain, As what they ne'er might see again: Then foot, and point, and eye opposed, In dubious strife they darkly closed. Ill-fared it then with Roderick Dhu, That on the field his targe he threw, Whose brazen studs and tough bull-hide Had death so often dashed aside: For, trained abroad his arms to wield, Fitz-James's blade was sword and shield. He practised every pass and ward, To thrust, to strike, to feint, to guard; While less expert, though stronger far, The Gael maintained unequal war. Three times in closing strife they stood, And thrice the Saxon blade drank blood: No stinted draught, no scanty tide, The gushing flood the tartans dyed. Fierce Roderick felt the fatal drain, And showered his blows like wintry rain; And, as firm rock or castle-roof, Against the winter shower is proof, The foe invulnerable still Foiled his wild rage by steady skill; Till, at advantage ta'en, his brand Forced Roderick's weapon from his hand, And, backward borne upon the lea, Brought the proud Chieftain to his knee. "Now, yield thee, or, by Him who made The world, thy heart's blood dyes my blade!"-- "Thy threats, thy mercy, I defy! Let recreant yield, who fears to die."-- Like adder darting from his coil, Like wolf that dashes through the toil, Like mountain-cat who guards her young, Full at Fitz-James's throat he sprung, Received, but reck'd not of a wound, And locked his arms his foeman round.-- Now gallant Saxon, hold thine own! No maiden's hand is round thee thrown! That desperate grasp thy frame might feel, Through bars of brass and triple steel!-- They tug, they strain!--down, down they go, The Gael above, Fitz-James below. The Chieftain's gripe his throat compress'd, His knee was planted on his breast; His clotted locks he backward threw, Across his brow his hand he drew, From blood and mist to clear his sight, Then gleam'd aloft his dagger bright! --But hate and fury ill supplied The stream of life's exhausted tide, And all too late the advantage came, To turn the odds of deadly game; For, while the dagger gleam'd on high, Keeled soul and sense, reeled brain and eye, Down came the blow! but in the heath The erring blade found bloodless sheath. The struggling foe may now unclasp The fainting Chief's relaxing grasp; Unbounded from the dreadful close, But breathless all, Fitz-James arose. SCOTT. [Notes: _Fitz-James_ is James V. in disguise. _Holy Rood_, or Holy Cross, where was the royal palace of the Scottish kings. _Albany_. The Duke of Albany, who was regent of Scotland during part of the minority of James V. _Where Rome, the Empress, &c._ And where remnants of Roman encampments are still to be traced.] * * * * * THE BATTLE OF NASEBY. BY five o'clock in the morning, the whole army, in order of battle, began to descry the enemy from the rising grounds about a mile from Naseby, and moved towards them. They were drawn up on a little ascent in a large common fallow-field, in one line, extending from one side of the field to the other, the field something more than a mile over; our army in the same order, in one line, with the reserves. The king led the main battle of foot, Prince Rupert the right wing of the horse, and Sir Marmaduke Langdale the left. Of the enemy Fairfax and Skippon led the body, Cromwell and Roseter the right, and Ireton the left. The numbers of both armies so equal, as not to differ five hundred men, save that the king had most horse by about one thousand, and Fairfax most foot by about five hundred. The number was in each army about eighteen thousand men. The armies coming close up, the wings engaged first. The prince with his right wing charged with his wonted fury, and drove all the parliament's wing of horse, one division excepted, clear out of the field. Ireton, who commanded this wing, give him his due, rallied often, and fought like a lion; but our wing bore down all before them, and pursued them with a terrible execution. Ireton, seeing one division of his horse left, repaired to them, and keeping his ground, fell foul of a brigade of our foot, who coming up to the head of the line, he like a madman charges them with his horse. But they with their pikes tore them to pieces; so that this division was entirely ruined. Ireton himself, thrust through the thigh with a pike, wounded in the face with a halberd, was unhorsed and taken prisoner. Cromwell, who commanded the parliament's right wing, charged Sir Marmaduke Langdale with extraordinary fury; but he, an old tried soldier, stood firm, and received the charge with equal gallantry, exchanging all their shot, carabines, and pistols, and then fell on sword in hand, Roseter and Whaley had the better on the point of the wing, and routed two divisions of horse, pushed them behind the reserves, where they rallied, and charged again, but were at last defeated; the rest of the horse, now charged in the flank, retreated fighting, and were pushed behind the reserves of foot. While this was doing, the foot engaged with equal fierceness, and for two hours there was a terrible fire. The king's foot, backed with gallant officers, and full of rage at the rout of their horse, bore down the enemy's brigade led by Skippon. The old man wounded, bleeding, retreats to their reserves. All the foot, except the general's brigade, were thus driven into the reserves, where their officers rallied them, and brought them on to a fresh charge; and here the horse having driven our horse above a quarter of a mile from the foot, face about, and fall in on the rear of the foot. Had our right wing done thus, the day had been secured; but Prince Rupert, according to his custom, following the flying enemy, never concerned himself with the safety of those behind; and yet he returned sooner than he had done in like cases too. At our return we found all in confusion, our foot broken, all but one brigade, which, though charged in the front, flank, and rear, could not be broken, till Sir Thomas Fairfax himself came up to the charge with fresh men, and then they were rather cut in pieces than beaten; for they stood with their pikes charged every way to the last extremity. In this condition, at the distance of a quarter of a mile, we saw the king rallying his horse, and preparing to renew the fight; and our wing of horse coming up to him, gave him opportunity to draw up a large body of horse; so large, that all the enemy's horse facing us, stood still and looked on, but did not think fit to charge us, till their foot, who had entirely broken our main battle, were put into order again, and brought up to us. The officers about the king advised his majesty rather to draw off; for, since our foot were lost, it would be too much odds to expose the horse to the fury of their whole army, and would be but sacrificing his best troops, without any hopes of success. The king, though with great regret at the loss of his foot, yet seeing there was no other hope, took this advice, and retreated in good order to Harborough, and from thence to Leicester. This was the occasion of the enemy having so great a number of prisoners; for the horse being thus gone off, the foot had no means to make their retreat, and were obliged to yield themselves. Commissary-General Ireton being taken by a captain of foot, makes the captain his prisoner, to save his life, and gives him his liberty for his courtesy before. Cromwell and Roseter, with all the enemy's horse, followed us as far as Leicester, and killed all that they could lay hold on straggling from the body, but durst not attempt to charge us in a body. The king expecting the enemy would come to Leicester, removes to Ashby-de-la-Zouch, where we had some time to recollect ourselves. This was the most fatal action of the whole war; not so much for the loss of our cannon, ammunition, and baggage, of which the enemy boasted so much, but as it was impossible for the king ever to retrieve it. The foot, the best that he was ever master of, could never be supplied; his army in the west was exposed to certain ruin; the north overrun with the Scots; in short, the case grew desperate, and the king was once upon the point of bidding us all disband, and shift for ourselves. We lost in this fight not above two thousand slain, and the parliament near as many, but the prisoners were a great number; the whole body of foot being, as I have said, dispersed, there were four thousand five hundred prisoners, besides four hundred officers, two thousand horses, twelve pieces of cannon, forty barrels of powder; all the king's baggage, coaches, most of his servants, and his secretary; with his cabinet of letters, of which the parliament made great improvement, and, basely enough, caused his private letters between his majesty and the queen, her majesty's letters to the king, and a great deal of such stuff, to be printed. DEFOE. [Note: _The battle of Naseby_, fought on June 14th, 1645. The king's forces were routed, and his cannon and baggage fell into the enemy's hands. Not only was the loss heavy, but it was made more serious by his correspondence falling into the hands of the parliamentary leaders, which exposed his dealings with the Irish Roman Catholics. The most remarkable point about this description is the air of reality which Defoe gives to his account of an event which took place nearly twenty years before his birth.] * * * * * THE PILGRIMS AND GIANT DESPAIR. Now there was, not far from the place where they lay, a castle, called Doubting Castle, the owner whereof was Giant Despair, and it was in his grounds they now were sleeping; wherefore he, getting up in the morning early, and walking up and down in his fields, caught Christian and Hopeful asleep in his grounds. Then with a grim and surly voice he bid them awake, and asked them whence they were, and what they did in his grounds. They told him that they were pilgrims, and that they had lost their way. Then said the giant. You have this night trespassed on me by trampling in and lying on my grounds, and therefore you must go along with me. So they were forced to go, because he was stronger than they. They also had but little to say, for they knew themselves in a fault. The giant, therefore, drove them before him, and put them into his castle, into a very dark dungeon, nasty, and loathsome to the spirits of these two men. Here, then, they lay from Wednesday morning till Saturday night, without one bit of bread or drop of drink, or light, or any to ask how they did; they were, therefore, here in evil case, and were far from friends and acquaintance. Now, in this place Christian had double sorrow, because it was through his unadvised haste that they were brought into this distress. Now Giant Despair had a wife, and her name was Diffidence; so when he was gone to bed, he told his wife what he had done, to wit, that he had taken a couple of prisoners, and cast them into his dungeon for trespassing on his grounds. Then he asked her also what he had best to do further to them. So she asked him what they were, whence they came, and whither they were bound, and he told her. Then she counselled him, that when he arose in the morning he should beat them without mercy. So when he arose, he getteth him a grievous crabtree cudgel, and goes down into the dungeon to them, and there first falls to rating of them as if they were dogs, although they never gave him a word of distaste. Then he falls upon them, and beats them fearfully, in such sort that they were not able to help themselves, or to turn them upon the floor. This done, he withdraws, and leaves them there to condole their misery, and to mourn under their distress: so all that day they spent their time in nothing but sighs and bitter lamentations. The next night, she, talking with her husband further about them, and understanding that they were yet alive, did advise him to counsel them to make away with themselves. So when morning was come, he goes to them in a surly manner, as before, and perceiving them to be very sore with the stripes that he had given them the day before, he told them, that since they were never like to come out of that place, their only way would be forthwith to make an end of themselves, either with knife, halter, or poison; for why, said he, should you choose to live, seeing it is attended with so much bitterness? But they desired him to let them go. With that he looked ugly upon them, and, rushing to them, had doubtless made an end of them himself, but that he fell into one of his fits (for he sometimes, in sunshiny weather, fell into fits), and lost for a time the use of his hands; wherefore he withdrew, and left them as before to consider what to do. Well, towards evening the giant goes down into the dungeon again, to see if his prisoners had taken his counsel. But when he came there, he found them alive; and, truly, alive was all; for now, what for want of bread and water, and by reason of the wounds they received when he beat them, they could do little but breathe. But, I say, he found them alive; at which he fell into a grievous rage, and told them, that seeing they had disobeyed his counsel, it should be worse with them than if they had never been born. At this they trembled greatly, and I think that Christian fell into a swoon: but coming a little to himself again, they renewed their discourse about the giant's counsel, and whether yet they had best take it or no. Now night being come again, and the giant and his wife being in bed, she asked him concerning the prisoners, and if they had taken his counsel; to which he replied. They are sturdy rogues; they choose rather to bear all hardships than to make away with themselves. Then said she, Take them into the castle-yard to-morrow, and show them the bones and skulls of those that thou hast already despatched, and make them believe, ere a week comes to an end, thou wilt tear them in pieces, as thou hast done their fellows before them. So when the morning was come, the giant goes to them again, and takes them into the castle-yard, and shows them as his wife had bidden him. These, said he, were pilgrims as you are once, and they trespassed on my grounds as you have done; and when I thought fit, I tore them in pieces; and so within ten days I will do you. Go get you down to your den again. And with that he beat them all the way thither. They lay therefore all day on Saturday in lamentable case as before. Now when night was come, and when Mrs. Diffidence and her husband the giant were got to bed, they began to renew their discourse of the prisoners; and withal the old giant wondered that he could neither by his blows nor counsel bring them to an end. And with that his wife replied, I fear, said she, that they live in hopes that some will come to relieve them, or that they have picklocks about them, by the means of which they hope to escape. And sayest thou so, my dear? said the giant; I will therefore search them in the morning. Well, on Saturday about midnight, they began to pray, and continued in prayer till almost break of day. Now, a little before it was day, good Christian, as one half amazed, broke out into this passionate speech: What a fool, quoth he, am I, to lie in a dungeon, when I may as well walk at liberty! I have a key in my bosom called Promise, that will, I am persuaded, open any lock in Doubtful Castle. Then said Hopeful, That's good news; good brother, pluck it out of thy bosom and try. Then Christian pulled it out of his bosom, and began to try at the dungeon-door, whose bolt, as he turned the key, gave back, and the door flew open with ease, and Christian and Hopeful both came out. Then he went to the outward door that leads into the castle-yard, and with his key opened that door also. After that he went to the iron gate, for that must be opened too, but that lock went desperately hard, yet the key did open it. Then they thrust open the gate to make their escape with speed; but that gate, as it opened, made such a creaking, that it waked Giant Despair, who, hastily rising to pursue his prisoners, felt his limbs to fail; for his fits took him again, so that he could by no means go after them. Then, they went on, and came to the king's highway again, and so were safe, because they were out of his jurisdiction. BUNYAN. [Note: _John Bunyan_ (1628-1688), the Puritan tinker, author of the 'Pilgrim's Progress,'] * * * * * THE WINTER EVENING. Hark! 'tis the twanging horn o'er yonder bridge, That with its wearisome but needful length Bestrides the wintry flood, in which the moon Sees her unwrinkled face reflected bright!-- He comes, the herald of a noisy world, With spatter'd boots, strapped waist, and frozen locks! News from all nations lumb'ring at his back. True to his charge, the close-pack'd load behind. Yet careless what he brings, his one concern Is to conduct it to the destined inn; And, having dropp'd th' expected bag, pass on. He whistles as he goes, light-hearted wretch, Cold and yet cheerful: messenger of grief Perhaps to thousands, and of joy to some; To him indiff'rent whether grief or joy. Houses in ashes, and the fall of stocks, Births, deaths, and marriages, epistles wet With tears, that trickled down the writer's cheeks Fast as the periods from his fluent quill. Or charged with am'rous sighs of absent swains, Or nymphs responsive, equally affect His horse and him, unconscious of them all. But oh the important budget; usher'd in With such heart-shaking music, who can say What are its tidings? have our troops awak'd? Or do they still, as if with opium drugged, Snore to the murmurs of the Atlantic wave? Is India free? and does she wear her plumed And jewell'd turban with a smile of peace, Or do we grind her still? The grand debate, The popular harangue, the tart reply, The logic, and the wisdom, and the wit, And the loud laugh--I long to know them all; I burn to set the imprison'd wranglers free, And give them voice and utt'rance once again. Now stir the fire, and close the shutters fast, Let fall the curtains, wheel the sofa round, And, while the bubbling and loud hissing urn Throws up a steamy column, and the cups That cheer, but not inebriate, wait on each, So let us welcome peaceful evening in. Not such his evening, who with shining face Sweats in the crowded theatre, and, squeez'd And bor'd with elbow-points through both his sides. Outscolds the ranting actor on the stage; Nor his, who patient stands till his feet throb. And his head thumps, to feed upon the breath Of patriots bursting with heroic rage, Or placemen, all tranquillity and smiles. This folio of four pages, happy work! Which not e'en critics criticise; that holds Inquisitive attention, while I read. Fast bound in chains of silence, which the fair, Though eloquent themselves, yet fear to break: What is it, but a map of busy life, Its fluctuations, and its vast concerns? Here runs the mountainous and craggy ridge, That tempts ambition. On the summit, see, The seals of office glitter in his eyes; He climbs, he pants, he grasps them! At his heels. Close at his heels, a demagogue ascends, And with a dext'rous jerk, soon twists him And wins them, but to lose them in his turn. Here rills of oily eloquence in soft Meanders lubricate the course they take; The modest speaker is asham'd and grieved To engross a moment's notice; and yet begs. Begs a propitious ear for his poor thoughts, However trivial all that he conceives. Sweet bashfulness! it claims at least this praise; The dearth of information and good sense, That it foretells us, always comes to pass. Cataracts of declamation thunder here; There forests of no meaning spread the page, In which all comprehension wanders lost; While fields of pleasantry amuse us there With merry descants on a nation's woes. The rest appears a wilderness of strange But gay confusion; roses for the cheeks, And lilies for the brows of faded age, Teeth for the toothless, ringlets for the bald, Heaven, earth, and ocean, plunder'd of their sweets, Nectareous essences, Olympian dews, Sermons, and city feasts, and fav'rite airs, Ethereal journeys, submarine exploits. And Katerfelto, with his hair on end At his own wonders, wond'ring for his bread. 'Tis pleasant, through the loopholes of retreat, To peep at such a world; to see the stir Of the great Babel, and not feel the crowd; To hear the roar she sends through all her gates At a safe distance, where the dying sound Falls a soft murmur on the uninjur'd ear. Thus sitting, and surveying thus at ease The globe and its concerns, I seem advanc'd To some secure and more than mortal height. That liberates and exempts me from them all It turns submitted to my view, turns round With all its generations; I behold The tumult, and am still. The sound of war Has lost its terrors ere it reaches me; Grieves, but alarms me not. I mourn the pride And avarice that make man a wolf to man; Hear the faint echo of those brazen throats By which he speaks the language of his heart, And sigh, but never tremble at the bound. He travels and expatiates, as the bee From flower to flower, so he from land to land: The manners, customs, policy, of all Pay contribution to the store he gleans; He sucks intelligence in every clinic, And spreads the honey of his deep research At his return--a rich repast for me. He travels, and I too. I tread his deck, Ascend his topmast, through his peering eyes Discover countries, with a kindred heart Suffer his woes, and share in his escapes; While fancy, like the finger of a clock, Runs the great circuit, and is still at home. COWPER. [Note:_Katerfelto_. A quack then exhibiting in London.] * * * * * A HARD WINTER. There were some circumstances attending the remarkable frost of January 1776 so singular and striking, that a short detail of them may not be unacceptable. The most certain way to be exact will be to copy the passages from my journal, which were taken from time to time, as things occurred. But it may be proper previously to remark, that the first week in January was uncommonly wet, and drowned with vast rain from every quarter; from whence may be inferred, as there is great reason to believe is the case, that intense frosts seldom take place till the earth is completely glutted and chilled with water; and hence dry autumns are seldom followed by rigorous winters. January 7th.--Snow driving all the day, which was followed by frost, sleet, and some snow, till the twelfth, when a prodigious mass overwhelmed all the works of men, drifting over the tops of the gates, and filling the hollow lanes. On the 14th, the writer was obliged to be much abroad; and thinks he never before, or since, has encountered such rugged Siberian weather. Many of the narrow roads are now filled above the tops of the hedges; through which the snow was driven in most romantic and grotesque shapes, so striking to the imagination as not to be seen without wonder and pleasure. The poultry dared not stir out of their roosting-places; for cocks and hens are so dazzled and confounded by the glare of the snow, that they would soon perish without assistance. The hares also lay sullenly in their seats, and would not move till compelled by hunger; being conscious, poor animals, that the drifts and heaps treacherously betray their footsteps, and prove fatal to numbers of them. From the 14th, the snow continued to increase, and began to stop the road-waggons and coaches, which could no longer keep in their regular stages; and especially on the western roads, where the fall appears to have been greater than in the south. The company at Bath, that wanted to attend the Queen's birthday, were strangely incommoded; many carriages of persons who got, in their way to town from Bath, as far as Marlborough, after strange embarrassment, here came to a dead stop. The ladies fretted, and offered large rewards to labourers if they would shovel them a track to London; but the relentless heaps of snow were too bulky to be removed; and so the 18th passed over, leaving the company in very uncomfortable circumstances at the _Castle_ and other inns. On the 20th, the sun shone out for the first time since the frost began; a circumstance that has been remarked before, much in favour of vegetation. All this time the cold was not very intense, for the thermometer stood at 29°, 28° 25° and thereabout; but on the 21st it descended to 20°. The birds now began to be in a very pitiable and starving condition. Tamed by the season, sky-larks settled in the streets of towns, because they saw the ground was bare; rooks frequented dung-hills close to houses; hares now came into men's gardens, and scraping away the snow, devoured such plants as they could find. On the 22nd, the author had occasion to go to London; through a sort of Laplandian scene very wild and grotesque indeed. But the metropolis itself exhibited a still more singular appearance than the country; for, being bedded deep in snow, the pavement could not be touched by the wheels or the horses' feet, so that the carriages ran about without the least noise. Such an exemption from din and clatter was strange, but not pleasant; it seemed to convey an uncomfortable idea of desolation. On the 27th, much snow fell all day, and in the evening the frost became very intense. At South Lambeth, for the four following nights, the thermometer fell to 11°, 7°, 0°, 6°; and at Selborne to 7°, 6°, 10°; and on the 31st of January, just before sunrise, with rime on the trees, and on the tube of the glass, the quicksilver sunk exactly to zero, being 32° below freezing point; but by eleven in the morning, though in the shade, it sprung up to 16-1/2°--a most unusual degree of cold this for the south of England. During these four nights the cold was so penetrating that it occasioned ice in warm and protected chambers; and in the day the wind was so keen that persons of robust constitutions could scarcely endure to face it. The Thames was at once so frozen over, both above and below the bridge, that crowds ran about on the ice. The streets were now strangely encumbered with snow, which crumbled and trod dusty, mid, turning gray, resembled bay-salt; what had fallen on the roofs was so perfectly dry, that from first to last it lay twenty-six days on the houses in the city--a longer time than had been remembered by the oldest housekeepers living. According to all appearances, we might now have expected the continuance of this rigorous weather for weeks to come, since every night increased in severity; but behold, without any apparent on the 1st of February a thaw took place, and some rain followed before night; making good the observation, that frosts often go off, as it were, at once, without any gradual declension of cold. On the 2nd of February, the thaw persisted; and on the 3rd, swarms of little insects were frisking and sporting in a court-yard at South Lambeth, as if they had felt no frost. Why the juices in the small bodies and smaller limbs of such minute beings are not frozen, is a matter of curious inquiry. REV. GILBERT WHITE. [Note: _Rev. Gilbert White_ (1720-1793), author of the 'Natural History of Selborne,' one of the most charming books on natural history in the language.] * * * * * A PORTENTOUS SUMMER. The, summer of the year 1783 was an amazing and portentous one, and full of horrible phenomena; for, besides the alarming meteors and tremendous thunder and storms that affrighted and distressed the different counties of this kingdom, the peculiar haze, or smoky fog, that prevailed for many weeks in this island, and in every part of Europe, and even beyond its limits, was a most extraordinary appearance, unlike anything known within the memory of man. By my journal I find that I had noticed this strange occurrence from June 23 to July 20 inclusive, during which period the wind varied to every quarter, without making any alteration in the air. The sun, at noon, looked as black as a clouded moon, and shed a rust-coloured feruginous light on the ground and floors of rooms, but was particularly lurid and blood-coloured at rising and setting. All the time the heat was so intense that butchers' meat could hardly be eaten the day after it was killed; and the flies swarmed so in the lanes and hedges that they rendered the horses half frantic, and riding irksome. The country-people began to look with a superstitious awe at the red, lowering aspect of the sun; and, indeed, there was reason for the most enlightened person to be apprehensive, for all the while Calabria, and part of the isle of Sicily, were torn and convulsed with earthquakes; and about that juncture a volcano sprang out of the sea on the coast of Norway. On this occasion Milton's noble simile of the sun, in his first book of 'Paradise Lost,' frequently occurred to my mind; and it is indeed particularly applicable, because, towards the end, it alludes to a superstitious kind of dread with which the minds of men are always impressed by such strange and unusual phenomena:-- "As when the sun, new risen, Looks through the horizontal, misty air Shorn of his beams; or, from behind the moon. In dim eclipse, disastrous twilight sheds On half the nations, and with fear of change Perplexes monarchs." REV. GILBERT WHITE. * * * * * A THUNDERSTORM. On the 5th of June, 1784, the thermometer in the morning being at 64, and at noon at 70, the barometer at 29.6 1/2, and the wind north, I observed a blue mist, smelling strongly of sulphur, hang along our sloping woods, and seeming to indicate that thunder was at hand. I was called in about two in the afternoon, and so missed seeing the gathering of the clouds in the north, which they who were abroad assured me had something uncommon in its appearance. At about a quarter after two the storm began in the parish of Hartley, moving slowly from north to south; and from thence it came over Norton Farm and so to Grange Farm, both in this parish. It began with vast drops of rain, which were soon succeeded by round hail, and then by convex pieces of ice, which measured three inches in girth. Had it been as extensive as it was violent, and of any continuance (for it was very short), it must have ravaged all the neighbourhood. In the parish of Hartley it did some damage to one farm; but Norton, which lay in the centre of the storm, was greatly injured; as was Grange, which lay next to it. It did but just reach to the middle of the village, where the hail broke my north windows, and all my garden lights and hand-glasses, and many of my neighbours' windows. The extent of the storm was about two miles in length, and one in breadth. We were just sitting down to dinner; but were soon diverted from our repast by the clattering of tiles and the jingling of glass. There fell at the same time prodigious torrents of rain on the farm above mentioned, which occasioned a flood as violent as it was sudden, doing great damage to the meadows and fallows by deluging the one and washing away the soil of the other. The hollow lane towards Alton was so torn and disordered as not to be passable till mended, rocks being removed that weighed two hundredweight. Those that saw the effect which the great hail had on the ponds and pools, say that the dashing of the water made an extraordinary appearance, the froth and spray standing up in the air three feet above the surface. The rushing and roaring of the hail, as it approached, was truly tremendous. Though the clouds at South Lambeth, near London, were at that juncture thin and light, and no storm was in sight, nor within hearing, yet the air was strongly electric; for the bells of an electric machine at that place rang repeatedly, and fierce sparks were discharged. REV. GILBERT WHITE. * * * * * CHARACTER OF SIR WALTER SCOTT. About half-past one P.M. on the 21st of September, 1832, Sir Walter Scott breathed his last, in the presence of all his children. It was a beautiful day--so warm, that every window was wide open--and so perfectly still, that the sound of all others most delicious to his ear, the gentle ripple of the Tweed over its pebbles, was distinctly audible as we knelt around the bed, and his eldest son kissed and closed his eyes. No sculptor ever modelled a more majestic image of repose. It will, I presume, be allowed that no human character, which we have the opportunity of studying with equal minuteness, had fewer faults mixed up in its texture. The grand virtue of fortitude, the basis of all others, was never displayed in higher perfection than in him; and it was, as perhaps true courage always is, combined with an equally admirable spirit of kindness and humanity. His pride, if we must call it so, undebased by the least tincture of mere vanity, was intertwined with a most exquisite charity, and was not inconsistent with true humility. If ever the principle of kindliness was incarnated in a mere man, it was in him; and real kindliness can never be but modest. In the social relations of life, where men are most effectually tried, no spot can be detected in him. He was a patient, dutiful, reverent son; a generous, compassionate, tender husband; an honest, careful, and most affectionate father. Never was a more virtuous or a happier fireside than his. The influence of his mighty genius shadowed it imperceptibly; his calm good sense, and his angelic sweetness of heart and temper, regulated and softened a strict but paternal discipline. His children, as they grew up, understood by degrees the high privilege of their birth; but the profoundest sense of his greatness never disturbed their confidence in his goodness. The buoyant play of his spirits made him sit young among the young; parent and son seemed to live in brotherhood together; and the chivalry of his imagination threw a certain air of courteous gallantry into his relations with his daughters, which gave a very peculiar grace to the fondness of their intercourse. Perhaps the most touching evidence of the lasting tenderness of his early domestic feelings was exhibited to his executors, when they opened his repositories in search of his testament, the evening after his burial. On lifting up his desk we found arranged in careful order a series of little objects, which had obviously been so placed there that his eye might rest on them every morning before he began his tasks. These were the old-fashioned boxes that had garnished his mother's toilet when he, a sickly child, slept in her dressing-room; the silver taper-stand which the young advocate had bought for her with his first five-guinea fee; a row of small packets inscribed with her hand, and containing the hair of those of her offspring that had died before her; his father's snuff-box and pencil-case; and more things of the like sort, recalling the "old familiar faces." The same feeling was apparent in all the arrangement of his private apartment. Pictures of his father and mother were the only ones in his dressing-room. The clumsy antique cabinets that stood there--things of a very different class from the beautiful and costly productions in the public rooms below--had all belonged to the furniture of George's Square. Even his father's rickety washing-stand, with all its cramped appurtenances, though exceedingly unlike what a man of his very scrupulous habits would have selected in these days, kept its ground. Such a son and parent could hardly fail in any of the other social relations. No man was a firmer or more indefatigable friend. I know not that he ever lost one; and a few with whom, during the energetic middle stage of life, from political differences or other accidental circumstances, he lived less familiarly, had all gathered round him, and renewed the full warmth of early affection in his later days. There was enough to dignify the connexion in their eyes; but nothing to chill it on either side. The imagination that so completely mastered him when he chose to give her the rein, was kept under most determined control when any of the positive obligations of active life came into question. A high and pure sense of duty presided over whatever he had to do as a citizen and a magistrate; and, as a landlord, he considered his estate as an extension of his hearth. J. LOCKHART. * * * * * MUMPS'S HALL. There is, or rather I should say there _was_, a little inn, called Mumps's Hall--that is, being interpreted, Beggar's Hotel--near to Gilsland, which had not then attained its present fame as a Spa. It was a hedge alehouse, where the Border farmers of either country often stopped to refresh themselves and their nags, in their way to and from the fairs and trysts in Cumberland, and especially those who came from or went to Scotland, through a barren and lonely district, without either road or pathway, emphatically called the Waste of Bewcastle. At the period when the adventure about to be described is supposed to have taken place, there were many instances of attacks by freebooters, on those who travelled through this wild district; and Mumps's Hall had a bad reputation for harbouring the banditti who committed such depredations. An old and sturdy yeoman belonging to the Scottish side, by surname an Armstrong or Elliot, but well known by his sobriquet of Fighting Charlie of Liddesdale, and still remembered for the courage he displayed in the frequent frays which took place on the Border fifty or sixty years since, had the following adventure in the Waste, one of many which gave its character to the place:-- Charlie had been at Stagshaw-bank fair, had sold his sheep or cattle, or whatever he had brought to market, and was on his return to Liddesdale. There were then no country banks where cash could be deposited, and bills received instead, which greatly encouraged robbery in that wild country, as the objects of plunder were usually fraught with gold. The robbers had spies in the fair, by means of whom they generally knew whose purse was best stocked, and who took a lonely and desolate road homeward--those, in short, who were best worth robbing, and likely to be most easily robbed. All this Charlie knew full well; but he had a pair of excellent pistols, and a dauntless heart. He stopped at Mumps's Hall, notwithstanding the evil character of the place. His horse was accommodated where it might have the necessary rest and feed of corn; and the landlady used all the influence in her power to induce him to stop all night. The landlord was from home, she said, and it was ill passing the Waste, as twilight must needs descend on him before he gained the Scottish side, which was reckoned the safest. But fighting Charlie, though he suffered himself to be detained later than was prudent, did not account Mumps's Hall a safe place to quarter in during the night. He tore himself away, therefore, from Meg's good fare and kind words, and mounted his nag, having first examined his pistols, and tried by the ramrod whether the charge remained in them. He proceeded a mile or two, at a round trot, when, as the Waste stretched black before him, apprehensions began to awaken in his mind, partly arising out of Meg's unusual kindness, which he could not help thinking had rather a suspicious appearance. He therefore resolved to reload his pistols, lest the powder had become damp; but what was his surprise, when he drew the charge, to find neither powder nor ball, while each barrel had been carefully filled with _tow_, up to the space which the loading had occupied! and, the priming of the weapons being left untouched, nothing but actually drawing and examining the charge could have discovered the inefficiency of his arms till the fatal minute arrived when their services were required. Charlie reloaded his pistols with care and accuracy, having now no doubt that he was to be waylaid and assaulted. He was not far engaged in the Waste, which was then, and is now, traversed only by such routes as are described in the text, when two or three fellows, disguised and variously armed, started from a moss-hag, while, by a glance behind him (for, marching, as the Spaniard says, with his beard on his shoulder, he reconnoitred in every direction), Charlie instantly saw retreat was impossible, as other two stout men appeared behind him at some distance. The Borderer lost not a moment in taking his resolution, and boldly trotted against his enemies in front, who called loudly on him to stand and deliver. Charlie spurred on, and presented his pistol. "A fig for your pistol!" said the foremost robber, whom Charlie to his dying day protested he believed to have been the landlord of Mumps's Hall--"A fig for your pistol! I care not a curse for it."--"Ay, lad," said the deep voice of Fighting Charlie, "but the _tow's out now_". He had no occasion to utter another word; the rogues, surprised at finding a man of redoubted courage well armed, instead of being defenceless, took to the moss in every direction, and he passed on his way without further molestation. SCOTT. * * * * * THE PORTEOUS MOB. The magistrates, after vain attempts to make themselves heard and obeyed, possessing no means of enforcing their authority, were constrained to abandon the field to the rioters, and retreat in all speed from the showers of missiles that whistled around their ears. The passive resistance of the Tolbooth-gate promised to do more to baffle the purpose of the mob than the active interference of the magistrates. The heavy sledge-hammers continued to din against it without intermission, and with a noise which, echoed from the lofty buildings around the spot, seemed enough to have alarmed the garrison in the Castle. It was circulated among the rioters that the troops would march down to disperse them, unless they could execute their purpose without loss of time; or that even without quitting the fortress, the garrison might obtain the same end by throwing a bomb or two upon the street. Urged by such motives for apprehension, they eagerly relieved each other at the labour of assailing the Tolbooth door; yet such was its strength, that it still defied their efforts. At length, a voice was heard to pronounce the words, "Try it with fire!" The rioters, with an unanimous shout, called for combustibles, and as all their wishes seemed to be instantly supplied, they were soon in possession of two or three empty tar-barrels. A huge red glaring bonfire speedily arose close to the door of the prison, sending up a tall column of smoke and flame against its antique turrets and strongly-grated windows, and illuminating the ferocious and wild gestures of the rioters who surrounded the place, as well as the pale and anxious groups of those who, from windows in the vicinage, watched the progress of this alarming scene. The mob fed the fire with whatever they could find fit for the purpose. The flames roared and crackled among the heaps of nourishment piled on the fire, and a terrible shout soon announced that the door had kindled, and was in the act of being destroyed. The fire was suffered to decay, but, long ere it was quite extinguished, the most forward of the rioters rushed, in their impatience, one after another, over its yet smouldering remains. Thick showers of sparkles rose high in the air, as man after man bounded over the glowing embers, and disturbed them in their passage. It was now obvious to Butler, and all others who were present, that the rioters would be instantly in possession of their victim, and have it in their power to work their pleasure upon him, whatever that might be. The unhappy object of this remarkable disturbance had been that day delivered from the apprehension of a public execution, and his joy was the greater, as he had some reason to question whether government would have run the risk of unpopularity by interfering in his favour, after he had been legally convicted by the verdict of a jury, of a crime so very obnoxious. Relieved from this doubtful state of mind, his heart was merry within him, and he thought, in the emphatic words of Scripture on a similar occasion, that surely the bitterness of death was past. Some of his friends, however, who had watched the manner and behaviour of the crowd when they were made acquainted with the reprieve, were of a different opinion. They augured, from the unusual sternness and silence with which they bore their disappointment, that the populace nourished some scheme of sudden and desperate vengeance; and they advised Porteous to lose no time in petitioning the proper authorities, that he might be conveyed to the Castle under a sufficient guard, to remain there in security until his ultimate fate should be determined. Habituated, however, by his office to overawe the rabble of the city, Porteous could not suspect them of an attempt so audacious as to storm a strong and defensible prison; and, despising the advice by which he might have been saved, he spent the afternoon of the eventful day in giving an entertainment to some friends who visited him in jail, several of whom, by the indulgence of the Captain of the Tolbooth, with whom he had an old intimacy, arising from their official connection, were even permitted to remain to supper with him, though contrary to the rules of the jail. It was, therefore, in the hour of unalloyed mirth, when this unfortunate wretch was "full of bread," hot with wine, and high in mis-timed and ill-grounded confidence, and, alas! with all his sins full blown, when the first distant shouts of the rioters mingled with the song of merriment and intemperance. The hurried call of the jailor to the guests, requiring them instantly to depart, and his yet more hasty intimation that a dreadful and determined mob had possessed themselves of the city gates and guard-house, were the first explanation of these fearful clamours. Porteous might, however, have eluded the fury from which the force of authority could not protect him, had he thought of slipping on some disguise, and leading the prison along with his guests. It is probable that the jailor might have connived at his escape, or even that, in the hurry of this alarming contingency, he might not have observed it. But Porteous and his friends alike wanted presence of mind to suggest or execute such a plan of escape. The former hastily fled from a place where their own safety seemed compromised, and the latter, in a state resembling stupefaction, awaited in his apartment the termination of the enterprise of the rioters. The cessation of the clang of the instruments with which they had at first attempted to force the door, gave him momentary relief. The flattering hopes that the military had marched into the city, either from the Castle or from the suburbs, and that the rioters were intimidated and dispersing, were soon destroyed by the broad and glaring-light of the flames, which, illuminating through the grated window every corner of his apartment, plainly showed that the mob, determined on their fatal purpose, had adopted a means of forcing entrance equally desperate and certain. The sudden glare of light suggested to the stupefied and astonished object of popular hatred the possibility of concealment or escape. To rush to the chimney, to ascend it at the risk of suffocation, were the only means which seem to have occurred to him; but his progress was speedily stopped by one of those iron gratings, which are, for the sake of security, usually placed across the vents of buildings designed for imprisonment. The bars, however, which impeded his farther progress, served to support him in the situation which he had gained, and he seized them with the tenacious grasp of one who esteemed himself clinging to his last hope of existence. The lurid light, which had filled the apartment, lowered and died away; the sound of shouts was heard within the walls, and on the narrow and winding stair, which, cased within one of the turrets, gave access to the upper apartments of the prison. The huzza of the rioters was answered by a shout wild and desperate as their own, the cry, namely, of the imprisoned felons, who, expecting to be liberated in the general confusion, welcomed the mob as their deliverers. By some of these the apartment of Porteous was pointed out to his enemies. The obstacle of the lock and bolts was soon overcome, and from his hiding-place the unfortunate man heard his enemies search every corner of the apartment, with oaths and maledictions, which would but shock the reader if we recorded them, but which served to prove, could it have admitted of doubt, the settled purpose of soul with which they sought his destruction. A place of concealment so obvious to suspicion and scrutiny as that which Porteous had chosen, could not long screen him from detection. He was dragged from his lurking place, with a violence which seemed to argue an intention to put him to death on the spot. More than one weapon was directed towards him, when one of the rioters, the same whose female disguise had been particularly noticed by Butler, interfered in an authoritative tone. "Are ye mad?" he said, "or would ye execute an act of justice as if it were a crime and a cruelty? This sacrifice will lose half its savour if we do not offer it at the very horns of the altar. We will have him die where a murderer should die, on the common gibbet--we will have him die where he spilled the blood of so many innocents!" A loud shout of applause followed the proposal, and the cry, "To the gallows with the murderer!--to the Grassmarket with him!" echoed on all hands. "Let no man hurt him," continued the speaker; "let him make his peace with God, if he can; we will not kill both his soul and body." "What time did he give better folk for preparing their account?" answered several voices. "Let us mete to him with the same measure he measured to them." But the opinion of the spokesman better suited the temper of those he addressed, a temper rather stubborn than impetuous, sedate though ferocious, and desirous of colouring their cruel and revengeful action with a show of justice and moderation. SCOTT. [Notes: _The Porteous Mob_ occurred in 1736. At the execution of a smuggler named Wilson, a slight commotion amongst the crowd was made by Captain Porteous the occasion for ordering his men who were on guard to fire upon the people. He was tried and sentenced to death, but reprieved by Queen Caroline, then regent in the absence of George II. The reprieve was held so unjust by the people that they stormed the Tolbooth, and hanged Porteous, who was a prisoner there.] * * * * * THE PORTEOUS MOB--_continued._ The tumult was now transferred from the inside to the outside of the Tolbooth. The mob had brought their destined victim forth, and were about to conduct him to the common place of execution, which they had fixed as the scene of his death. The leader, whom they had distinguished by the name of Madge Wildfire, had been summoned to assist at the procession by the impatient shouts of his confederates. "I will ensure you five hundred pounds," said the unhappy man, grasping Wildfire's hand,--"five hundred pounds for to save my life." The other answered in the same undertone, and returning his grasp with one equally convulsive. "Five hundred-height of coined gold should not save you--Remember Wilson!" A deep pause of a minute ensued, when Wildfire added, in a more composed tone, "Make your peace with Heaven. Where is the clergyman?" Butler, who, in great terror and anxiety, had been detained within a few yards of the Tolbooth door, to wait the event of the search after Porteous, was now brought forward, and commanded to walk by the prisoner's side, and to prepare him for immediate death. They had suffered the unfortunate Porteous to put on his night-gown and slippers, as he had thrown off his coat and shoes, in order to facilitate his attempted escape up the chimney. In this garb he was now mounted on the hands of two of the rioters, clasped together, so as to form what is called in Scotland, "The King's Cushion." Butler was placed close to his side, and repeatedly urged to perform a duty always the most painful which can be imposed on a clergyman deserving of the name, and now rendered more so by the peculiar and horrid circumstances of the criminal's case. Porteous at first uttered some supplications for mercy, but when he found that there was no chance that these would be attended to, his military education, and the natural stubbornness of his disposition, combined to support his spirits. The procession now moved forward with a slow and determined pace. It was enlightened by many blazing links and torches; for the actors of this work were so far from affecting any secrecy on the occasion, that they seemed even to court observation. Their principal leaders kept close to the person of the prisoner, whose pallid yet stubborn features were seen distinctly by the torch-light, as his person was raised considerably above the concourse which thronged around him. Those who bore swords, muskets, and battle-axes, marched on each side, as if forming a regular guard to the procession. The windows, as they went along, were filled with the inhabitants, whose slumbers had boon broken by this unusual disturbance. Some of the spectators muttered accents of encouragement; but in general they were so much appalled by a sight so strange and audacious, that they looked on with a sort of stupefied astonishment. No one offered, by act or word, the slightest interruption. The rioters, on their part, continued to act with the same air of deliberate confidence and security which had marked all their proceedings. When the object of their resentment dropped one of his slippers, they stopped, sought for it, and replaced it upon his foot with great deliberation. As they descended the Bow towards the fatal spot where they designed to complete their purpose, it was suggested that there should be a rope kept in readiness. For this purpose the booth of a man who dealt in cordage was forced open, a coil of rope fit for their purpose was selected to serve as a halter, and the dealer next morning found that a guinea had been left on his counter in exchange; so anxious were the perpetrators of this daring action to show that they meditated not the slightest wrong or infraction of law, excepting so far so as Porteous was himself concerned. Leading, or carrying along with them, in this determined and regular manner, the object of their vengeance, they at length reached the place of common execution, the scene of his crime, and destined spot of his sufferings. Several of the rioters (if they should not rather be described as conspirators) endeavoured to remove the stone which filled up the socket in which the end of the fatal tree was sunk when it was erected for its fatal purpose; others sought for the means of constructing a temporary gibbet, the place in which the gallows itself was deposited being reported too secure to be forced, without much loss of time. Butler endeavoured to avail himself of the delay afforded by these circumstances, to turn the people from their desperate design. "For God's sake," he exclaimed, "remember it is the image of your Creator which you are about to deface in the person of this unfortunate man! Wretched as he is, and wicked as he may be, he has a share in every promise of Scripture, and you cannot destroy him in impenitence without blotting his name from the Book of Life--Do not destroy soul and body; give time for preparation." "What time had they," returned a stern voice, "whom he murdered on this very spot?--The laws both of God and man call for his death." "But what, my friends," insisted Butler, with a generous disregard to his own safety--"what hath constituted you his judges?" "We are not his judges," replied the same person; "he has been already judged and condemned by lawful authority. We are those whom Heaven, and our righteous anger, have stirred up to execute judgment, when a corrupt government would have protected a murderer." "I am none," said the unfortunate Porteous: "that which you charge upon me fell out in self-defence, in the lawful exercise of my duty." "Away with him--away with him!" was the general cry. "Why do you trifle away time in making a gallows?--that dyester's pole is good enough for the homicide." The unhappy man was forced to his fate with remorseless rapidity. Butler, separated from him by the press, escaped the last horrors of his struggles. Unnoticed by those who had hitherto detained him as a prisoner, he fled from the fatal spot, without much caring in what direction his course lay. A loud shout proclaimed the stern delight with which the agents of this deed regarded its completion. Butler, then, at the opening into the low street called the Cowgate, cast back a terrified glance, and, by the red and dusky light of the torches, he could discern a figure wavering and struggling as it hung suspended above the heads of the multitude, and could even observe men striking at it with their Lochaberaxes and partisans. The sight was of a nature to double his horror, and to add wings to his flight. SCOTT. * * * * * MAZEPPA. "'Bring forth the horse!'--the horse was brought; In truth, he was a noble steed, A Tartar of the Ukraine breed, Who look'd as though the speed of thought Were in his limbs; but he was wild, Wild as the wild deer, and untaught, With spur and bridle undefiled-- 'T was but a day he had been caught; And snorting, with erected mane, And struggling fiercely, but in vain, In the full foam of wrath and dread To me the desert-born was led: They bound me on, that menial throng; Upon his back with many a thong; Then loosed him with a sudden lash-- Away!--away!--and on we dash! Torrents less rapid and less rash. * * * * * "Away, away, my steed and I, Upon the pinions of the wind, All human dwellings left behind; We sped like meteors through the sky, When with its crackling sound the night Is chequer'd with the northern light: Town--village--none were on our track. But a wild plain of far extent, And bounded by a forest black; And, save the scarce seen battlement On distant heights of some stronghold, Against the Tartars built of old, No trace of man. The year before A Turkish army had march'd o'er; And where the Spahi's hoof hath trod, The verdure flies the bloody sod: The sky was dull, and dim, and gray, And a low breeze crept moaning by-- I could have answered with a sigh-- But fast we fled, away, away, And I could neither sigh nor pray; And my cold sweat-drops fell like rain Upon the courser's bristling mane; But, snorting still with rage and fear, He flew upon his far career: At times I almost thought, indeed, He must have slacken'd in his speed; But no--my bound and slender frame Was nothing to his angry might, And merely like a spur became; Each motion which I made to free My swoln limbs from their agony Increased his fury and affright: I tried my voice,--'t was faint and low. But yet he swerved as from a blow; And, starting to each accent, sprang As from a sudden trumpet's clang: Meantime my cords were wet with gore, Which, oozing through my limbs, ran o'er; And in my tongue the thirst became A something fiercer far than flame. "We near'd the wild wood--'t was so wide, I saw no bounds on either side; 'T was studded with old sturdy trees, That bent not to the roughest breeze Which howls down from Siberia's waste, And strips the forest in its haste,-- But these were few and far between, Set thick with shrubs more young and green. Luxuriant with their annual leaves, Ere strown by those autumnal eves That nip the forest's foliage dead, Discolour'd with a lifeless red, Which stands thereon like stiffen'd gore Upon the slain when battle's o'er, And some long winter's night hath shed Its frost o'er every tombless head, So cold and stark the raven's beak May peck unpierced each frozen cheek: 'T was a wild waste of underwood, And here and there a chestnut stood, The strong oak, and the hardy pine; But far apart--and well it were, Or else a different lot were mine-- The boughs gave way, and did not tear My limbs; and I found strength to bear My wounds, already scarr'd with cold; My bonds forbade to loose my hold. We rustled through the leaves like wind, Left shrubs, and trees, and wolves behind; By night I heard them on the track, Their troop came hard upon our back, With their long gallop, which can tire The hound's deep hate, and hunter's fire: Where'er we flew they follow'd on, Nor left us with the morning sun. Behind I saw them, scarce a rood, At day-break winding through the wood, And through the night had heard their feet Their stealing, rustling step repeat. * * * * * "The wood was past; 'twas more than noon, But chill the air, although in June; Or it might be my veins ran cold-- Prolong'd endurance tames the bold; And I was then not what I seem, But headlong as a wintry stream, And wore my feelings out before I well could count their causes o'er: And what with fury, fear, and wrath, The tortures which beset my path, Cold, hunger, sorrow, shame, distress. Thus bound in nature's nakedness; Sprung from a race whose rising blood, When stirr'd beyond its calmer mood, And trodden hard upon, is like The rattle-snake's, in act to strike, What marvel if this worn-out trunk Beneath its woes a moment sunk? The earth gave way, the skies roll'd round. I seem'd to sink upon the ground; But err'd, for I was fastly bound. My heart turn'd sick, my brain grew sore. And throbb'd awhile, then beat no more: The skies spun like a mighty wheel; I saw the trees like drunkards reel And a slight flash sprang o'er my eyes, Which saw no farther: he who dies Can die no more than then I died. O'ertortured by that ghastly ride, I felt the blackness come and go. "My thoughts came back; where was I? Cold, And numb, and giddy: pulse by pulse Life reassumed its lingering hold, And throb by throb,--till grown a pang Which for a moment would convulse, My blood reflow'd, though thick and chill; My ear with uncouth noises rang, My heart began once more to thrill; My sight return'd, though dim; alas! And thicken'd, as it were, with glass. Methought the dash of waves was nigh; There was a gleam too of the sky, Studded with stars;--it is no dream; The wild horse swims the wilder stream! The bright broad river's gushing tide Sleeps, winding onward, far and wide, And we are half-way, struggling o'er To yon unknown and silent shore. The waters broke my hollow trance, And with a temporary strength My stiffen'd limbs were rebaptized. My courser's broad breast proudly braves, And dashes off the ascending waves. We reach the slippery shore at length, A haven I but little prized, For all behind was dark and drear, And all before was night and fear. How many hours of night or day In those suspended pangs I lay. I could not tell; I scarcely knew If this were human breath I drew. "With glossy skin and dripping mane, And reeling limbs, and reeking flank, The wild steed's sinewy nerves still strain Up the repelling bank. We gain the top: a boundless plain Spreads through the shadow of the night, And onward, onward, onward, seems, Like precipices in our dreams To stretch beyond the sight: And here and there a speck of white, Or scatter'd spot of dusky green. In masses broke into the light. As rose the moon upon my right: But nought distinctly seen In the dim waste would indicate The omen of a cottage gate; No twinkling taper from afar Stood like a hospitable star: Not even an ignis-fatuus rose To make him merry with my woes: That very cheat had cheer'd me then! Although detected, welcome still, Reminding me, through every ill, Of the abodes of men. "Onward we went--but slack and slow; His savage force at length o'erspent, The drooping courser, faint and low, All feebly foaming went. A sickly infant had had power To guide him forward in that hour; But useless all to me: His new-born tameness nought avail'd-- My limbs were bound; my force had fail'd, Perchance, had they been free. With feeble effort still I tried To rend the bonds so starkly tied, But still it was in vain; My limbs were only wrung the more, And soon the idle strife gave o'er, Which but prolonged their pain: The dizzy race seem'd almost done, Although no goal was nearly won: Rome streaks announced the coming sun-- How slow, alas! he came! Methought that mist of dawning gray Would never dapple into day; How heavily it roll'd away-- Before the eastern flame Rose crimson, and deposed the stars, And call'd the radiance from their cars, And fill'd the earth, from his deep throne. "Up rose the sun; the mists were curl'd Back from the solitary world Which lay around, behind, before. What booted it to traverse o'er Plain, forest, river? Man nor brute, Nor dint of hoof, nor print of foot, Lay in the wild luxuriant soil; No sign of travel, none of toil; The very air was mute; And not an insect's shrill small horn. Nor matin bird's new voice was borne From herb nor thicket. Many a werst, Panting as if his heart would burst. The weary brute still stagger'd on: And still we were--or seem'd--alone. At length, while reeling on our way. Methought I heard a courser neigh, From out yon tuft of blackening firs. Is it the wind those branches stirs? No, no! from out the forest prance A trampling troop; I see them come! In one vast squadron they advance! I strove to cry--my lips were dumb. The steeds rush on in plunging pride; But where are they the reins to guide A thousand horse, and none to ride! With flowing tail, and flying mane, Wide nostrils never stretch'd by pain, Mouths bloodless to the bit of rein, And feet that iron never shod, And flanks unscarr'd by spur or rod, A thousand horse, the wild, the free, Like waves that follow o'er the sea, Came thickly thundering on, As if our faint approach to meet; The sight re-nerved my courser's feet, A moment staggering, feebly fleet, A moment, with a faint low neigh, He answer'd, and then fell; With gasps and glaring eyes he lay, And reeking limbs immoveable, His first and last career is done! On came the troop--they saw him stoop, They saw me strangely bound along His back with many a bloody thong: They stop, they start, they snuff the air, Gallop a moment here and there, Approach, retire, wheel round and round, Then plunging back with sudden bound, Headed by one black mighty steed, Who seem'd the patriarch of his breed, Without a single speck or hair Of white upon his shaggy hide; They snort, they foam, neigh, swerve aside. And backward to the forest fly, By instinct, from a human eye. They left me there to my despair, Link'd to the dead and stiffening wretch, Whose lifeless limbs beneath me stretch, Believed from that unwonted weight, From whence I could not extricate Nor him nor me--and there we lay, The dying on the dead! I little deem'd another day Would see my houseless, helpless head. BYRON. [Notes: _Mazeppa_ (1645-1709) was at first in the service of the King of Poland, but on account of a charge brought against him suffered the penalty described in the poem. He afterwards joined the Cossacks and became their leader; was in favour for a time with Peter the Great; but finally joined Charles XII., and died soon after the battle of Pultowa (1709), in which Charles was defeated by Peter. _Ukraine_ ("a frontier"), a district lying on the borders of Poland and Russia. _Werst_. A Russian measure of distance.] * * * * * JOSIAH WEDGWOOD. We make our first introduction to Wedgwood about the year 1741, as the youngest of a family of thirteen children, and as put to earn his bread, at eleven years of age, in the trade of his father, and in the branch of a thrower. Then comes the well-known small-pox: the settling of the dregs of the disease in the lower part of the leg: and the amputation of the limb, rendering him lame for life. It is not often that we have such palpable occasion to record our obligations to the small-pox. But, in the wonderful ways of Providence, that disease, which came to him as a two-fold scourge, was probably the occasion of his subsequent excellence. It prevented him from growing up to the active vigorous English workman, possessed of all his limbs, and knowing right well the use of them; it put him upon considering whether, as he could not be that, he might not be something else, and something greater. It sent his mind inwards; it drove him to meditate upon the laws and secrets of his art. The result was, that he arrived at a perception and a grasp of them which might, perhaps, have been envied, certainly have been owned, by an Athenian potter. Relentless criticism has long since torn to pieces the old legend of King Numa, receiving in a cavern, from the Nymph Egeria, the laws that were to govern Rome. But no criticism can shake the record of that illness and mutilation of the boy Josiah Wedgwood, which made for him a cavern of his bedroom, and an oracle of his own inquiring, searching, meditative, and fruitful mind. From those early days of suffering, weary perhaps to him as they went by, but bright surely in the retrospect both to him and us, a mark seems at once to have been set upon his career. But those, who would dwell upon his history, have still to deplore that many of the materials are wanting. It is not creditable to his country or his art, that the Life of Wedgwood should still remain unwritten. Here is a man, who, in the well-chosen words of his epitaph, "converted a rude and inconsiderable manufacture into an elegant art, and an important branch of national commerce." Here is a man, who, beginning as it were from zero, and unaided by the national or royal gifts which were found necessary to uphold the glories of Sèvres, of Chelsea, and of Dresden, produced works truer, perhaps, to the inexorable laws of art, than the fine fabrics that proceeded from those establishments, and scarcely less attractive to the public taste. Here is a man, who found his business cooped up within a narrow valley by the want of even tolerable communications, and who, while he devoted his mind to the lifting that business from meanness, ugliness, and weakness, to the highest excellence of material and form, had surplus energy enough to take a leading part in great engineering works like the Grand Trunk Canal from the Mersey to the Trent; which made the raw material of his industry abundant and cheap, which supplied a vent for the manufactured article, and opened for it materially a way to the outer world. Lastly, here is a man who found his country dependent upon others for its supplies of all the finer earthenware; but who, by his single strength, reversed the inclination of the scales, and scattered thickly the productions of his factory over all the breadth of the continent of Europe. In travelling from Paris to St. Petersburg, from Amsterdam to the furthest point of Sweden, from Dunkirk to the southern extremity of France, one is served at every inn from English earthenware. The same article adorns the tables of Spain, Portugal, and Italy; it provides the cargoes of ships to the East Indies, the West Indies, and America. _Speech by_ MR. GLADSTONE. * * * * * THE CRIMEAN WAR. There is one point upon which I could have wished that the noble Lord had also touched--I know there were so many subjects that he could not avoid touching that I share the admiration of the House at the completeness with which he seemed to have mastered all his themes; but when the noble Lord recalled to our recollection the deeds of admirable valour and of heroic conduct which have been achieved upon the heights of Alma, of Balaklava, and of Inkermann, I could have wished that he had also publicly recognized that the deeds of heroism in this campaign had not been merely confined to the field of battle. We ought to remember the precious lives given to the pestilence of Varna and to the inhospitable shores of the Black Sea; these men, in my opinion, were animated by as heroic a spirit as those who have yielded up their lives amid the flash of artillery and the triumphant sound of trumpets. No, Sir, language cannot do justice to the endurance of our troops under the extreme and terrible privations which circumstances have obliged them to endure. The high spirit of an English gentleman might have sustained him under circumstances which he could not have anticipated to encounter; but the same proud patience has been found among the rank and file. And it is these moral qualities that have contributed as much as others apparently more brilliant to those great victories which we are now acknowledging. Sir, the noble Lord has taken a wise and gracious course in combining with the thanks which he is about to propose to the British army and navy the thanks also of the House of Commons to the army of our allies. Sir, that alliance which has now for some time prevailed between the two great countries of France and Britain has in peace been productive of advantage, but it is the test to which it has been put by recent circumstances that, in my opinion, will tend more than any other cause to confirm and consolidate that intimate union. That alliance, Sir, is one that does not depend upon dynasties or diplomacy. It is one which has been sanctioned by names to which we all look up with respect or with feelings even of a higher character. The alliance between France and England was inaugurated by the imperial mind of Elizabeth, and sanctioned by the profound sagacity of Cromwell; it exists now not more from feelings of mutual interest than from feelings of mutual respect, and I believe it will be maintained by a noble spirit of emulation. Sir, there is still another point upon which, although with hesitation, I will advert for a moment. I am distrustful of my own ability to deal becomingly with a theme on which the noble Lord so well touched; but nevertheless I feel that I must refer to it. I was glad to hear from the noble Lord that he intends to propose a vote of condolence with the relatives of those who have fallen in this contest. Sir, we have already felt, even in this chamber of public assemblage, how bitter have been the consequences of this war. We cannot throw our eyes over the accustomed benches, where we miss many a gallant and genial face, without feeling our hearts ache, our spirits sadden, and even our eyes moisten. But if that be our feeling here when we miss the long companions of our public lives and labours, what must be the anguish and desolation which now darken so many hearths! Never, Sir, has the youthful blood of this country been so profusely lavished as it has been in this contest,--never has a greater sacrifice been made, and for ends which more fully sanctify the sacrifice. But we can hardly hope now, in the greenness of the wound, that even these reflections can serve as a source of solace. Young women who have become widows almost as soon as they had become wives--mothers who have lost not only their sons, but the brethren of those sons--heads of families who have seen abruptly close all their hopes of an hereditary line--these are pangs which even the consciousness of duty performed, which even the lustre of glory won, cannot easily or speedily alleviate and assuage. But let us indulge at least in the hope, in the conviction, that the time will come when the proceedings of this evening may be to such persons a source of consolation--when sorrow for the memory of those that are departed may be mitigated by the recollection that their death is at least associated with imperishable deeds, with a noble cause, and with a nation's gratitude. _Speech by_ MR. DISRAELI. * * * * * NATIONAL MORALITY. I believe there is no permanent greatness to a nation except it be based upon morality. I do not care for military greatness or military renown. I care for the condition of the people among whom I live. There is no man in England who is less likely to speak irreverently of the Crown and Monarchy of England than I am; but crowns, coronets, mitres, military display, the pomp of war, wide colonies, and a huge empire, are, in my view, all trifles light as air, and not worth considering, unless with them you can have a fair share of comfort, contentment, and happiness among the great body of the people. Palaces, baronial castles, great halls, stately mansions, do not make a nation. The nation in every country dwells in the cottage; and unless the light of your Constitution can shine there, unless the beauty of your legislation and the excellence of your statesmanship are impressed there on the feelings and condition of the people, rely upon it you have yet to learn the duties of government. I have not, as you have observed, pleaded that this country should remain without adequate and scientific means of defence. I acknowledge it to be the duty of your statesmen, acting upon the known opinions and principles of ninety-nine out of every hundred persons in the country, at all times, with all possible moderation, but with all possible efficiency, to take steps which shall preserve order within and on the confines of your kingdom. But I shall repudiate and denounce the expenditure of every shilling, the engagement of every man, the employment of every ship which has no object but intermeddling in the affairs of other countries, and endeavouring to extend the boundaries of an Empire which is already large enough to satisfy the greatest ambition, and I fear is much too large for the highest statesmanship to which any man has yet attained. The most ancient of profane historians has told us that the Scythians of his time were a very warlike people, and that they elevated an old cimeter upon a platform as a symbol of Mars, for to Mars alone, I believe, they built altars and offered sacrifices. To this cimeter they offered sacrifices of horses and cattle, the main wealth of the country, and more costly sacrifices than to all the rest of their gods. I often ask myself whether we are at all advanced in one respect beyond those Scythians. What are our contributions to charity, to education, to morality, to religion, to justice, and to civil government, when compared with the wealth we expend in sacrifices to the old cimeter? Two nights ago I addressed in this hall a vast assembly composed to a great extent of your countrymen who have no political power, who are at work from the dawn of the day to the evening, and who have therefore limited means of informing themselves on these great subjects. Now I am privileged to speak to a somewhat different audience. You represent those of your great community who have a more complete education, who have on some points greater intelligence, and in whose hands reside the power and influence of the district. I am speaking, too, within the hearing of those whose gentle nature, whose finer instincts, whose purer minds, have not suffered as some of us have suffered in the turmoil and strife of life. You can mould opinion, you can create political power,--you cannot think a good thought on this subject and communicate it to your neighbours,--you cannot make these points topics of discussion in your social circles and more general meetings, without affecting sensibly and speedily the course which the Government of your country will pursue. May I ask you, then, to believe, as I do most devoutly believe, that the moral law was not written for men alone in their individual character, but that it was written as well for nations, and for nations great as this of which we are citizens. If nations reject and deride that moral law, there is a penalty which will inevitably follow. It may not come at once, it may not come in our lifetime; but, rely upon it, the great Italian is not a poet only, but a prophet, when he says-- "The sword of heaven is not in haste to smite, Nor yet doth linger." We have experience, we have beacons, we have landmarks enough. We know what the past has cost us, we know how much and how far we have wandered, but we are not left without a guide. It is true, we have not, as an ancient people had, Urim and Thummim--those oraculous gems on Aaron's breast--from which to take counsel, but we have the unchangeable and eternal principles of the moral law to guide us, and only so far as we walk by that guidance can we be permanently a great nation, or our people a happy people. _Speech by_ MR. BRIGHT. * * * * * HYMN TO DIANA. Queen and huntress, chaste and fair, Now the sun is laid to sleep, Seated in thy silver chair. State in wonted manner keep. Hesperus entreats thy light, Goddess excellently bright! Earth, let not thy envious shade Dare itself to interpose; Cynthia's shining orb was made Heaven to clear, when day did close. Bless us then with wishèd sight, Goddess excellently bright! Lay thy bow of pearl apart, And thy crystal-shining quiver: Give unto the flying hart Space to breathe how short soever; Thou that mak'st a day of night, Goddess excellently bright! BEN JONSON. [Notes: _Ben Jonson_ (1574-1637), poet and dramatist; the contemporary and friend of Shakespeare, with more than his learning, but far less than his genius and imagination.] * * * * * L'ALLEGRO. Hence, loathed Melancholy, Of Cerberus and blackest midnight born, In Stygian cave forlorn, 'Mongst horrid shapes, and shrieks, and sights unholy! Find out some uncouth cell, Where brooding darkness spreads his jealous wings, And the night-raven sings; There, under ebon shades, and low-brow'd rocks, As ragged as thy locks, In dark Cimmerian desert ever dwell. But come, thou goddess fair and free, In heaven yclep'd Euphrosyne, And by men, heart-easing Mirth; Whom lovely Venus, at a birth, With two sister Graces more, To ivy-crowned Bacchus bore: * * * * * Haste thee, nymph, and bring with thee Jest, and youthful jollity, Quips, and cranks, and wanton wiles, Nods, and becks, and wreathed smiles, Such as hang on Hebe's cheek, And love to live in dimple sleek; Sport that wrinkled care derides, And laughter holding both his sides. Come, and trip it, as you go, On the light fantastic toe; And in thy right hand lead with thee The mountain-nymph, sweet Liberty; And, if I give thee honour due, Mirth, admit me of thy crew, To live with her, and live with thee, In unreproved pleasures free; To hear the Lark begin his flight, And singing startle the dull night, From his watch-tower in the skies, Till the dappled dawn doth rise; Then to come, in spite of sorrow, And at my window bid good-morrow, Through the sweet-briar, or the vine, Or the twisted eglantine: While the cock, with lively din, Scatters the rear of darkness thin, And to the stack, or the barn-door, Stoutly struts his dames before: Oft listening how the hounds and horn Cheerly rouse the slumbering morn, From the side of some hoar hill, Through the high wood echoing shrill. Sometime walking, not unseen, By hedge-row elms, on hillocks green, Right against the eastern gate, Where the great sun begins his state, Rob'd in flames, and amber light, The clouds in thousand liveries dight; While the ploughman, near at hand, Whistles o'er the furrow'd land, And the milkmaid singeth blithe, And the mower whets his scythe, And every shepherd tells his tale, Under the hawthorn in the dale. Straight mine eye hath caught new pleasures, While the landscape round it measures; Russet lawns, and fallows gray, Where the nibbling flocks do stray Mountains, on whose barren breast, The labouring clouds do often rest; Meadows trim with daisies pied, Shallow brooks, and rivers wide; Towers and battlements it sees Bosom'd high in tufted trees, Where perhaps some beauty lies, The cynosure of neighbouring eyes. Hard by, a cottage chimney smokes From betwixt two aged oaks, Where Corydon and Thyrsis met, Are at their savoury dinner set Of herbs, and other country messes, Which the neat-handed Phillis dresses; And then in haste her bower she leaves, With Thestylis to bind the sheaves; Or, if the earlier season lead, To the tann'd haycock in the mead. Sometimes with secure delight The upland hamlets will invite, When the merry bells ring round, And the jocund rebecks sound To many a youth and many a maid, Dancing in the checker'd shade; And young and old come forth to play On a sun-shine holy-day, Till the live-long day-light fail: Then to the spicy nut-brown ale, With stories told of many a feat, How faery Mab the junkets eat; She was pinch'd, and pull'd, she said; And he, by friar's lantern led. Tells how the drudging goblin sweat To earn his cream-bowl duly set, When in one night, ere glimpse of morn, His shadowy flail hath thresh'd the corn, That ten day-labourers could not end; Then lies him down the lubber fiend, And, stretch'd out all the chimney's length, Basks at the fire his hairy strength; And crop-full out of door he flings, Ere the first cock his matin rings. Thus done the tales, to bed they creep, By whispering winds soon lull'd asleep. Tower'd cities please us then, And the busy hum of men, Where throngs of knights and barons bold, In weeds of peace high triumphs hold. With store of ladies, whose bright eyes Rain influence, and judge the prize Of wit or arms, while both contend To win her grace, whom all commend. There let Hymen oft appear In saffron robe, with taper clear, And pomp, and feast, and revelry, With mask and antique pageantry. Such sights, as youthful poets dream On summer eves by haunted stream. Then to the well-trod stage anon, If Jonson's learned sock be on. Or sweetest Shakspeare, Fancy's child, Warble his native wood-notes wild. And ever, against eating cares, Lap me in soft Lydian airs, Married to immortal verse; Such as the meeting soul may pierce, In notes, with many a winding bout Of linked sweetness long drawn out, With wanton heed and giddy cunning, The melting voice through mazes running, Untwisting all the chains that tie The hidden soul of harmony; That Orpheus' self may heave his head From golden slumber on a bed Of heap'd Elysian flowers, and hear Such strains as would have won the ear Of Pluto, to have quite set free His half-regain'd Eurydice. These delights if thou canst give, Mirth, with thee I mean to live. MILTON. [Notes: _L'Allegro_ the Cheerful man: as Il Penseroso, the Thoughtful man, (the title of the companion poem). _Cerberus_. The dog that guarded the infernal regions. _Cimmerian_. The Cimmerians were a race dwelling beyond the ocean stream, in utter darkness. _Euphrosyne_ Mirth or gladness. _In unreproved pleasures_ = In innocent pleasures. _Then to come_ = Then (admit me) to come. _Corydon and Thyrsis_. Names for a rustic couple taken from the mythology of the Latin poets. So _Phillis and Thestylis_. _Rebecks_. Musical instruments like fiddles. _Junkets_. Pieces of cheese or something of the kind. _By friar's lantern_ = Jack o' Lantern or Will o' the Wisp. _In weeds of peace_ = the dress worn in time of peace. _Hymen_. God of wedlock. _Jonson_. (See previous note to _Ben Jonson_.) _Sock_. The shoe worn on the ancient stage by comedians as the buskin was by tragedians. _Lydian airs_. Soft and soothing, as opposed to the Dorian airs, which expressed the rough and harsh element in ancient music.] * * * * * THE PLEASURES OF A LIFE OF LABOUR. I wish to show you how possible it is to enjoy much happiness in very mean employments. Cowper tells us that labour, though the primal curse, "has been softened into mercy;" and I think that, even had he not done so, I would have found out the fact for myself. It was twenty years last February since I set out a little before sunrise to make my first acquaintance with a life of labour and restraint, and I have rarely had a heavier heart than on that morning. I was but a thin, loose-jointed boy at the time--fond of the pretty intangibilities of romance, and of dreaming when broad awake; and, woful change! I was now going to work at what Burns has instanced in his "Twa Dogs" as one of the most disagreeable of all employments--to work in a quarry. Bating the passing uneasiness occasioned by a few gloomy anticipations, the portion of my life which had already gone by had been happy beyond the common lot. I had been a wanderer among rocks and wood--a reader of curious books when I could get them--a gleaner of old traditionary stories; and now I was going to exchange all my day-dreams, and all my amusements, for the kind of life in which men toil every day that they may be enabled to eat, and eat every day that they may be enabled to toil! The quarry in which I wrought lay on the southern side of a noble inland bay, or frith rather, with a little clear stream on the one side, and a thick fir wood on the other. It had been opened in the old red sandstone of the district, and was overtopped by a huge bank of diluvial clay, which rose over it in some places to the height of nearly thirty feet, and which at this time was rent and shivered, wherever it presented an open front to the weather, by a recent frost. A heap of loose fragments, which had fallen from above blocked up the face of the quarry, and my first employment was to clear them away. The friction of the shovel soon blistered my hands, but the pain was by no means very severe, and I wrought hard and willingly, that I might see how the huge strata below, which presented so firm and unbroken a frontage, were to be torn up and removed. Picks, and wedges, and levers, were applied by my brother workmen; and simple and rude as I had been accustomed to regard these implements, I found I had much to learn in the way of using them. They all proved inefficient, however, and the workmen had to bore into one of the inferior strata, and employ gunpowder. The process was new to me, and I deemed it a highly-amusing one: it had the merit, too, of being attended with some such degree of danger as a boating or rock excursion, and had thus an interest independent of its novelty. We had a few capital shots: the fragments flew in every direction; and an immense mass of the diluvium came toppling down, bearing with it two dead birds, that in a recent storm had crept into one of the deeper fissures, to die in the shelter. I felt a new interest in examining them. The one was a pretty cock goldfinch, with its hood of vermilion, and its wings inlaid with the gold to which it owes its name, as unsoiled and smooth as if it had been preserved for a museum. The other, a somewhat rarer bird, of the woodpecker tribe, was variegated with light blue and a grayish yellow. I was engaged in admiring the poor little things, more disposed to be sentimental, perhaps, than if I had been ten years older, and thinking of the contrast between the warmth and jollity of their green summer haunts and the cold and darkness of their last retreat, when I heard our employer bidding the workmen lay by their tools. I looked up, and saw the sun sinking behind the thick fir-wood beside us, and the long dark shadows of the trees stretching downwards towards the shore. This was no very formidable beginning of the course of life I had so much dreaded. To be sure, my hands were a little sore, and I felt nearly as much fatigued as if I had been climbing among the rocks; but I had wrought and been useful, and had yet enjoyed the day fully as much as usual. It was no small matter, too, that the evening, converted by a rare transmutation into the delicious "blink of rest," which Burns so truthfully describes, was all my own. I was as light of heart next morning as any of my fellow-workmen. There had been a smart frost during the night, and the rime lay white on the grass as we passed onwards through the fields; but the sun rose in a clear atmosphere, and the day mellowed, as it advanced, into one of those delightful days of early spring which give so pleasing an earnest of whatever is mild and genial in the better half of the year! All the workmen rested at mid-day, and I went to enjoy my half-hour alone on a mossy knoll in the neighbouring wood, which commands through the trees a wide prospect of the bay and the opposite shore. There was not a wrinkle on the water, nor a cloud in the sky, and the branches were as moveless in the calm as if they had been traced on canvas. From a wooded promontory that stretched half-way across the frith, there ascended a thin column of smoke. It rose straight as the line of a plummet for more than a thousand yards, and then, on reaching a thinner stratum of air, spread out equally on every side like the foliage of a stately tree. Ben Wyvis rose to the west, white with the yet unwasted snows of winter, and as sharply defined in the clear atmosphere as if all its sunny slopes and blue retiring hollows had been chiselled in marble. A line of snow ran along the opposite hills; all above was white, and all below was purple. They reminded me of the pretty French story, in which an old artist is described as tasking the ingenuity of his future son-in-law by giving him as a subject for his pencil a flower-piece composed of only white flowers, of which the one-half were to bear their proper colour, the other half a deep purple hue, and yet all be perfectly natural; and how the young man resolved the riddle, and gained his mistress, by introducing a transparent purple vase into the picture, and making the light pass through it on the flowers that were drooping over the edge. I returned to the quarry, convinced that a very exquisite pleasure may be a very cheap one, and that the busiest employments may afford leisure enough to enjoy it. The gunpowder had loosened a large mass in one of the inferior strata, and our first employment, on resuming our labours, was to raise it from its bed. I assisted the other workmen in placing it on edge, and was much struck by the appearance of the platform on which it had rested. The entire surface was ridged and furrowed like a bank of sand that had been left by the tide an hour before. I could trace every bend and curvature, every cross-hollow and counter-ridge of the corresponding phenomena; for the resemblance was no half-resemblance--it was the thing itself; and I had observed it a hundred and a hundred times when sailing my little schooner in the shallows left by the ebb. But what had become of the waves that had thus fretted the solid rock, or of what element had they been composed? I felt as completely at fault as Robinson Crusoe did on his discovering the print of the man's foot on the sand. The evening furnished me with still further cause of wonder. We raised another block in a different part of the quarry, and found that the area of a circular depression in the stratum below was broken and flawed in every direction, as if it had been the bottom of a pool, recently dried up, which had shrunk and split in the hardening. Several large stones came rolling down from the diluvium in the course of the afternoon. They were of different qualities from the sandstone below, and from one another; and, what was more wonderful still, they were all rounded and water-worn, as if they had been tossed about in the sea, or the bed of a river, for hundreds of years. There could not, surely, be a more conclusive proof that the bank which had enclosed them so long could not have been created on the rock on which it rested. No workman ever manufactures a half-worn article, and the stones were all half-worn! And if not the bank, why then the sandstone underneath? I was lost in conjecture, and found I had food enough for thought that evening, without once thinking of the unhappiness of a life of labour. HUGH MILLER. * * * * * THE FLIGHT OF BIRDS. A good ornithologist should be able to distinguish birds by their air, as well as by their colours and shape, on the ground as well as on the wing, and in the bush as well as in the hand. For, though it must not be said that every species of birds has a manner peculiar to itself, yet there is somewhat in most kinds at least that at first sight discriminates them, and enables a judicious observer to pronounce upon them with some certainty. Thus, kites and buzzards sail round in circles, with wings expanded and motionless; and it is from their gliding manner that the former are still called, in the north of England, gleads, from the Saxon verb _glidan_, to glide. The kestrel, or windhover, has a peculiar mode of hanging in the air in one place, his wings all the while being briskly agitated. Hen-harriers fly low over heaths or fields of corn, and beat the ground regularly like a pointer or setting-dog. Owls move in a buoyant manner, as if lighter than the air; they seem to want ballast. There is a peculiarity belonging to ravens that must draw the attention even of the most incurious--they spend all their leisure time in striking and cuffing each other on the wing in a kind of playful skirmish; and when they move from one place to another, frequently turn on their backs with a loud croak, and seem to be falling on the ground. When this odd gesture betides them, they are scratching themselves with one foot, and thus lose the centre of gravity. Rooks sometimes dive and tumble in a frolicsome manner; crows and daws swagger in their walk; woodpeckers fly with an undulating motion, opening and closing their wings at every stroke, and so are always rising and falling in curves. All of this kind use their tails, which incline downwards, as a support while they run up trees. Parrots, like all other hooked-clawed birds, walk awkwardly, and make use of their bill as a third foot, climbing and descending with ridiculous caution. Cocks, hens, partridges, and pheasants, etc., parade and walk gracefully, and run nimbly; but fly with difficulty, with an impetuous whirring, and in a straight line. Magpies and jays flutter with powerless wings, and make no dispatch; herons seem encumbered with too much sail for their light bodies; but these vast hollow wings are necessary in carrying burdens, such as large fishes, and the like; pigeons, and particularly the sort called smiters, have a way of clashing their wings, the one against the other, over their backs, with a loud snap; another variety, called tumblers, turn themselves over in the air. The kingfisher darts along like an arrow; fern-owls, or goat-suckers, glance in the dusk over the tops of trees like a meteor; starlings, as it were, swim along, while missel-thrushes use a wild and desultory flight; swallows sweep over the surface of the ground and water, and distinguish themselves by rapid turns and quick evolutions; swifts dash round in circles; and the bank-martin moves with frequent vacillations, like a butterfly. Most of the small birds fly by jerks, rising and falling as they advance. Most small birds hop; but wagtails and larks walk, moving their legs alternately. Skylarks rise and fall perpendicularly as they sing; woodlarks hang poised in the air; and titlarks rise and fall in large curves, singing in their descent. The white-throat uses odd jerks and gesticulations over the tops of hedges and bushes. All the duck kind waddle; divers and auks walk as if fettered, and stand erect on their tails. Geese and cranes, and most wild fowls, move in figured flights, often changing their position. Dabchicks, moorhens, and coots, fly erect, with their legs hanging down, and hardly make any dispatch; the reason is plain, their wings are placed too forward out of the true centre of gravity, as the legs of auks and divers are situated too backward. REV. GILBERT WHITE. * * * * * THE VILLAGE. Sweet was the sound, when oft at evening's close Up yonder hill the village murmur rose. There as I past with careless steps and slow, The mingling notes came softened from below; The swain responsive as the milk-maid sung, The sober herd that lowed to meet their young, The noisy geese that gabbled o'er the pool, The playful children just let loose from school, The watch-dog's voice that bayed the whispering wind, And the loud laugh that spoke the vacant mind; These all in sweet confusion sought the shade, And filled each pause the nightingale had made. But now the sounds of population fail, No cheerful murmurs fluctuate in the gale, No busy steps the grass-grown foot-way tread, For all the bloomy flush of life is fled. All but yon widowed, solitary thing, That feebly bends beside the plashing spring: She, wretched matron, forced in age, for bread, To strip the brook with mantling cresses spread, To pick her wintry faggot from the thorn, To seek her nightly shed, and weep till mom; She only left of all the harmless train, The sad historian of the pensive plain. Near yonder copse, where once the garden smiled, And still, where many a garden-flower grows wild; There, where a few torn shrubs the place disclose, The village preacher's modest mansion rose, A man he was to all the country dear, And passing rich with forty pounds a year; Remote from towns he ran his godly race, Nor e'er had changed, nor wished to change his place; Unpractised he to fawn, or seek for power, By doctrines fashioned to the varying hour; Far other aims his heart had learned to prize, More skilled to raise the wretched than to rise. His house was known to all the vagrant train; He chid their wanderings, but relieved their pain; The long-remember'd beggar was his guest, Whose beard descending swept his aged breast, The ruined spendthrift, now no longer proud, Claimed kindred there, and had his claims allowed; The broken soldier, kindly bade to stay, Sat by his fire, and talked the night away. Wept o'er his wounds or tales of sorrow done, Shouldered his crutch, and showed how fields were won. Pleased with his guests, the good man learned to glow, And quite forgot their vices in their woe; Careless their merits or their faults to scan, His pity gave ere charity began. Thus to relieve the wretched was his pride, And e'en his failings leaned to virtue's side; But in his duty prompt at every call, He watched and wept, he prayed and felt for all; And, as a bird each fond endearment tries To tempt its new-fledged offspring to the skies, He tried each art, reproved each dull delay, Allured to brighter worlds, and led the way. Beside the bed where parting life was laid, And sorrow, guilt, and pain, by turns dismayed, The reverend champion stood. At his control Despair and anguish fled the struggling soul; Comfort came down the trembling wretch to raise, And his last faltering accents whispered praise. At church, with meek and unaffected grace, His looks adorned the venerable place; Truth from his lips prevailed with double sway, And fools, who came to scoff remained to pray. The service past, around the pious man, With steady zeal, each honest rustic ran; E'en children followed with endearing wile, And plucked his gown, to share the good man's smile. His ready smile a parent's warmth expressed; Their welfare pleased him, and their cares distressed: To them his heart, his love, his griefs were given, But all his serious thoughts had rest in heaven. As some tall cliff that lifts its awful form, Swells from the vale, and midway leaves the storm, Though round its breast the rolling clouds are spread, Eternal sunshine settles on its head. Beside yon straggling fence that skirts the way, With blossom'd furze unprofitably gay, There in his noisy mansion, skilled to rule, The village master taught his little school. A man severe he was, and stern to view; I knew him well, and every truant knew; Well had the boding tremblers learned to trace The day's disasters in his morning face; Full well they laughed with counterfeited glee At all his jokes, for many a joke had he; Full well the busy whisper circling round Conveyed the dismal tidings when he frowned, Yet he was kind, or, if severe in aught, The love he bore to learning was in fault; The village all declared how much he knew; 'Twas certain he could write, and cypher too; Lands he could measure, terms and tides presage, And e'en, the story ran, that he could gauge: In arguing, too, the parson owned his skill; For e'en though vanquished, he could argue still; While words of learned length and thundering sound Amazed the gazing rustics ranged around; And still they gazed, and still the wonder grew, That one small head could carry all he knew. GOLDSMITH. * * * * * THE BATTLE OF CORUNNA. All the encumbrances being shipped on the morning of the 16th, it was intended to embark the fighting men in the coming night, and this difficult operation would probably have been happily effected; but a glorious event was destined to give a more graceful, though melancholy, termination to the campaign. About two o'clock a general movement of the French line gave notice of an approaching battle, and the British infantry, fourteen thousand five hundred strong, occupied their position. Baird's division on the right, and governed by the oblique direction of the ridge, approached the enemy; Hope's division, forming the centre and left, although on strong ground abutting on the Mero, was of necessity withheld, so that the French battery on the rocks raked the whole line of battle. One of Baird's brigades was in column behind the right, and one of Hope's behind the left; Paget's reserve posted at the village of Airis, behind the centre, looked down the valley separating the right of the position front the hills occupied by the French cavalry. A battalion detached from the reserve kept these horsemen in check, and was itself connected with the main body by a chain of skirmishers extended across the valley. Fraser's division held the heights immediately before the gates of Corunna, watching the coast road, but it was also ready to succour any point. When Laborde's division arrived, the French force was not less than twenty thousand men, and the Duke of Dalmatia made no idle evolutions of display. Distributing his lighter guns along the front of his position, he opened a fire from the heavy battery on his left, and instantly descended the mountain, with three columns covered by clouds of skirmishers. The British pickets were driven back in disorder, and the village of Elvina was carried by the first French column. The ground about that village was intersected by stone walls and hollow roads; a severe scrambling fight ensued, the French were forced back with great loss, and the fiftieth regiment entering the village with the retiring mass, drove it, after a second struggle in the street, quite beyond the houses. Seeing this, the general ordered up a battalion of the guards to fill the void in the line made by the advance of those regiments; whereupon, the forty-second, mistaking his intention, retired, with exception of the grenadiers; and at that moment, the enemy being reinforced, renewed the fight beyond the village. Major Napier, commanding the fiftieth, was wounded and taken prisoner, and Elvina then became the scene of another contest; which being observed by the Commander-in-Chief, he addressed a few animating words to the forty-second, and caused it to return to the attack. Paget had now descended into the valley, and the line of the skirmishers being thus supported, vigorously checked the advance of the enemy's troops in that quarter, while the fourth regiment galled their flank; at the same time the centre and left of the army also became engaged, Baird was severely wounded, and a furious action ensued along the line, in the valley, and on the hills. General Sir John Moore, while earnestly watching the result of the fight about the village of Elvina, was struck on the left breast by a cannon-shot; the shock threw him from his horse with violence; yet he rose again in a sitting posture, his countenance unchanged, and his steadfast eye still fixed upon the regiments engaged in his front, no sigh betraying a sensation of pain. In a few moments, when he saw the troops were gaining ground, his countenance brightened, and he suffered himself to be taken to the rear. Then was seen the dreadful nature of his hurt. As the soldiers placed him in a blanket, his sword got entangled, and the hilt entered the wound; Captain Hardinge, a staff officer, attempted to take it off, but the dying man stopped him, saying: "It is as well as it is. I had rather it should go out of the field with me;" and in that manner, so becoming to a soldier, Moore was borne from the fight. Notwithstanding this great disaster, the troops gained ground. The reserve overthrowing everything in the valley, forced La Houssaye's dismounted dragoons to retire, and thus turning the enemy, approached the eminence upon which the great battery was posted. In the centre, the obstinate dispute for Elvina terminated in favour of the British; and when the night set in, their line was considerably advanced beyond the original position of the morning, while the French were falling back in confusion. If Fraser's division had been brought into action along with the reserve, the enemy could hardly have escaped a signal overthrow; for the little ammunition Soult had been able to bring up was nearly exhausted, the river Mero was in full tide behind him, and the difficult communication by the bridge of El Burgo was alone open for a retreat. On the other hand, to fight in the dark was to tempt fortune; the French were still the most numerous, their ground strong, and their disorder facilitated the original plan of embarking during the night. Hope, upon whom the command had devolved, resolved therefore, to ship the army, and so complete were the arrangements, that no confusion or difficulty occurred; the pickets kindled fires to cover the retreat, and were themselves withdrawn at daybreak, to embark under the protection of Hill's brigade, which was in position under the ramparts of Corunna. From the spot where he fell, the general was carried to the town by his soldiers; his blood flowed fast, and the torture of the wound was great; yet the unshaken firmness of his mind made those about him, seeing the resolution of his countenance, express a hope of his recovery. He looked steadfastly at the injury for a moment, and said, "No, I feel that to be impossible." Several times he caused his attendants to stop and turn round, that he might behold the field of battle; and when the firing indicated the advance of the British, he discovered his satisfaction and permitted the bearers to proceed. When brought to his lodgings, the surgeons examined his wound; there was no hope, the pain increased, he spoke with difficulty. At intervals, he asked if the French were beaten, and addressing his old friend, Colonel Anderson, said, "You know I always wished to die this way." Again he asked if the enemy were defeated, and being told they were, said, "It is a great satisfaction to me to know we have beaten the French." His countenance continued firm, his thoughts clear; once only when he spoke of his mother he became agitated; but he often inquired after the safety of his friends and the officers of his staff, and he did not even in this moment forget to recommend those whose merit had given them claims to promotion. When life was nearly extinct, with an unsubdued spirit, as if anticipating the baseness of his posthumous calumniators, he exclaimed, "I hope the people of England will be satisfied! I hope my country will do me justice!" In a few minutes afterwards he died; and his corpse, wrapped in a military cloak, was interred by the officers of his staff, in the citadel of Corunna. The guns of the enemy paid his funeral honours, and Soult, with a noble feeling of respect for his valour, raised a monument to his memory on the field of battle. NAPIER. [Note:_Battle of Corunna_. The French army having proclaimed Joseph Buonaparte, King of Spain, the Spanish people rose as one man in protest, and sought and obtained the aid of England. The English armies were at first driven back by Napoleon; but the force under Sir John Moore saved its honour in the fight before Corunna, 16th January, 1809, which enabled it to embark in safety.] * * * * * BATTLE OF ALBUERA. The fourth division was composed of two brigades: one of Portuguese under General Harvey; the other, under Sir William Myers, consisting of the seventh and twenty-third regiments, was called the Fusilier Brigade; Harvey's Portuguese were immediately pushed in between Lumley's dragoons and the hill, where they were charged by some French cavalry, whom they beat off, and meantime Cole led his fusiliers up the contested height. At this time six guns were in the enemy's possession, the whole of Werle's reserves were coming forward to reinforce the front column of the French, the remnant of Houghton's brigade could no longer maintain its ground, the field was heaped with carcasses, the lancers were riding furiously about the captured artillery on the upper parts of the hill, and behind all, Hamilton's Portuguese and Alten's Germans, now withdrawing from the bridge, seemed to be in full retreat. Soon, however, Cole's fusiliers, flanked by a battalion of the Lusitanian legion under Colonel Hawkshawe, mounted the hill, drove off the lancers, recovered five of the captured guns and one colour, and appeared on the right of Houghton's brigade, precisely as Abercrombie passed it on the left. Such a gallant line, issuing from the midst of the smoke, and rapidly separating itself from the confused and broken multitude, startled the enemy's masses, which were increasing and pressing onwards as to an assured victory; they wavered, hesitated, and then vomiting forth a storm of fire, hastily endeavoured to enlarge their front, while a fearful discharge of grape from all their artillery whistled through the British ranks. Myers was killed, Cole and the three colonels, Ellis, Blakeney, and Hawkshawe, fell wounded, and the fusilier battalions, struck by the iron tempest, reeled and staggered like sinking ships; but suddenly and sternly recovering, they closed on their terrible enemies, and then was seen with what a strength and majesty the British soldier fights. In vain did Soult with voice and gesture animate his Frenchmen; in vain did the hardiest veterans break from the crowded columns and sacrifice their lives to gain time for the mass to open out on such a fair field; in vain did the mass itself bear up, and, fiercely striving, fire indiscriminately upon friends and foes, while the horsemen, hovering on the flank, threatened to charge the advancing line. Nothing could stop that astonishing infantry. No sudden burst of undisciplined valour, no nervous enthusiasm weakened the stability of their order, their flashing eyes were bent on the dark columns in their front, their measured tread shook the ground, their dreadful volleys swept away the head of every formation, their deafening shouts overpowered the dissonant cries that broke from all parts of the tumultuous crowd, as slowly and with a horrid carnage it was pushed by the incessant vigour of the attack to the farthest edge of the hill. In vain did the French reserves mix with the struggling multitude to sustain the fight; their efforts only increased the irremediable confusion, and the mighty mass, breaking off like a loosened cliff, went headlong down the steep; the rain flowed after in streams discoloured with blood, and eighteen hundred unwounded men, the remnant of six thousand unconquerable British soldiers, stood triumphant on the fatal hill! NAPIER. [Note: _Battle of Albuera_, in which the English and Spanish armies won a victory over the French under Marshal Soult, on 16th May, 1811.] * * * * * CHARGE OF THE LIGHT BRIGADE AT BALAKLAVA. The whole brigade scarcely made one efficient regiment according to the number of continental armies; and yet it was more than we could spare. As they passed towards the front, the Russians opened on them from the guns in the redoubt on the right with volleys of musketry and rifles. They swept proudly past, glittering in the morning sun in all the pride and splendour of war. We could scarcely believe the evidence of our senses! Surely that handful of men are not going to charge an army in position? Alas! it was but too true; their desperate valour knew no bounds, and far indeed was it removed from its so-called better part--discretion. They advanced in two lines, quickening their pace as they closed towards the enemy. A more fearful spectacle was never witnessed than by those who, without the power to aid, beheld their heroic countrymen rushing to the arms of death. At the distance of twelve hundred yards the whole line of the enemy belched forth, from thirty iron mouths, a flood of smoke and flame through which hissed the deadly balls. Their flight was marked by instant gaps in our ranks, by dead men and horses, by steeds flying wounded or riderless across the plain. The first line is broken, it is joined by the second; they never halt or check their speed for an instant; with diminished ranks, thinned by those thirty guns, which the Russians had laid with the most deadly accuracy, with a halo of flashing steel above their heads, and with a cheer which was many a noble fellow's death-cry, they flew into the smoke of the batteries; but ere they were lost to view the plain was strewn with their bodies and with the carcasses of horses. They were exposed to an oblique fire from the batteries on the hills on both sides, as well as to a direct fire of musketry. Through the clouds of smoke we could see their sabres flashing as they rode up to the guns and dashed between them, cutting down the gunners as they stood. We saw them riding through the guns, as I have said: to our delight we saw them returning, after breaking through a column of Russian infantry, and scattering them like chaff, when the flank fire of the battery on the hill swept them down, scattered and broken as they were. Wounded men and dismounted troopers flying towards us told the sad tale: demigods could not have done what we had failed to do. At the very moment when they were about to retreat, an enormous mass of lancers was hurled on their flank. Colonel Shewell, of the 8th Hussars, saw the danger, and rode his few men straight at them, cutting his way through with fearful loss. The other regiments turned and engaged in a desperate encounter. With courage too great almost for credence, they were breaking their way through the columns which enveloped them, when there took place an act of atrocity without parallel in the modern warfare of civilised nations. The Russian gunners, when the storm of cavalry passed, returned to their guns. They saw their own cavalry mingled with the troopers who had just ridden over them, and, to the eternal disgrace of the Russian name, the miscreants poured a murderous volley of grape and canister on the mass of struggling men and horses, mingling friend and foe in one common ruin. It was as much as our Heavy Cavalry Brigade could do to cover the retreat of the miserable remnants of that band of heroes as they returned to the place they had so lately quitted in all the pride of life. At 11:35 not a British soldier, except the dead and dying, was left in front of the Muscovite guns. _The "Times" Correspondent_. * * * * * THE MERCHANT OF VENICE. SCENE.--_Venice. A Court of Justice. Enter the_ DUKE, _the_ Magnificoes, ANTONIO, BASSANIO, GATIANO, SALARINO, SALANIO, _and others_. _Duke_. What, is Antonio here? _Ant_. Ready, so please your grace. _Duke._ I am sorry for thee; thou art come to answer A stony adversary, an inhuman wretch Uncapable of pity, void and empty From any dram of mercy. _Ant_. I have heard Your grace hath ta'en great pains to qualify His rigorous course; but since he stands obdurate And that no lawful means can carry me Out of his envy's reach, I do oppose My patience to his fury, and am arm'd To suffer, with a quietness of spirit, The very tyranny and rage of his. _Duke_. Go one, and call the Jew into the court, _Salan_. He is ready at the door: he comes, my lord. _Enter_ SHYLOCK. _Duke_. Make room, and let him stand before our face. Shylock, the world thinks, and I think so too, That thou but lead'st this fashion of thy malice To the last hour of act; and then 'tis thought Thou'lt show thy mercy and remorse more strange Than is thy strange apparent cruelty; And where thou now exact'st the penalty, (Which is a pound of this poor merchant's flesh), Thou wilt not only loose the forfeiture, But, touch'd with human gentleness and love, Forgive a moiety of the principal; Glancing an eye of pity on his losses, That have of late so huddled on his back, Enow to press a royal merchant down And pluck commiseration of his state From brassy bosoms and rough hearts of flint, From stubborn Turks and Tartars, never train'd To offices of tender courtesy. We all expect a gentle answer, Jew. _Shy._ I have possess'd your grace of what I purpose; And by our holy Sabbath have I sworn To have the due and forfeit of my bond: If you deny it, let the danger light Upon your charter and your city's freedom. You'll ask me, why I rather choose to have A weight of carrion flesh than to receive Three thousand ducats; I'll not answer that: But, say, it is my humour; is it answer'd? * * * * * _Bass._ This is no answer, thou unfeeling man, To excuse the current of thy cruelty. _Shy_. I am not bound to please thee with my answer. * * * * * _Ant._ I pray you, think you question with the Jew: You may as well go stand upon the beach And bid the main flood bate his usual height; You may as well use question with the wolf Why he hath made the ewe bleat for the lamb; You may as well forbid the mountain pines To wag their high tops and to make no noise, When they are fretted with the gusts of heaven; You may as well do any thing most hard, As seek to soften that--than which what's harder?-- His Jewish heart: therefore, I do beseech you, Make no more offers, use no farther means, But with all brief and plain conveniency Let me have judgment, and the Jew his will. _Bass_. For thy three thousand ducats here is six. _Shy_, If every ducat in six thousand ducats Were in six parts, and every part a ducat, I would not draw them; I would have my bond. _Duke_. How shalt thou hope for mercy, rendering none? _Shy_. What judgment shall I dread, doing no wrong? You have among you many a purchased slave, Which, like your asses and your dogs and mules, You use in abject and in slavish parts, Because you bought them: shall I say to you, Let them be free, marry them to your heirs? Why sweat they under burthens? let their beds Be made as soft as yours, and let their palates Be season'd with such viands? You will answer "The slaves are ours:" so do I answer you; The pound of flesh, which I demand of him, Is dearly bought; 'tis mine, and I will have it: If you deny me, fie upon your law! There is no force in the decrees of Venice: I stand for judgment: answer; shall I have it? _Duke_. Upon my power, I may dismiss this court, Unless Bellario, a learned doctor, Whom I have sent for to determine this, Come here to-day. _Salar_. My lord, here stays without A messenger with letters from the doctor, New come from Padua. _Duke_. Bring us the letters; call the messenger. _Enter_ NERISSA, _dressed like a lawyer's clerk._ _Duke._ Came you from Padua, from Bellario? _Ner_. From both, my lord. Bellario greets your grace. [_Presenting a letter_. _Bass_. Why dost thou whet thy knife so earnestly? _Shy_. To cut the forfeiture from that bankrupt there. _Gra_. Not on thy sole, but on thy soul, harsh Jew, Thou mak'st thy knife keen; but no metal can, No, not the hangman's axe, bear half the keenness Of thy sharp envy. Can no prayers pierce thee? _Shy_. No, none that thou hast wit enough to make. * * * * * _Duke_. This letter from Bellario doth commend A young and learned doctor to our court:-- Where is he? _Ner_. He attendeth here hard by, To know your answer, whether you'll admit him. _Duke_. With all my heart. Some three or four of you, Go give him courteous conduct to this place. * * * * * _Enter_ PORTIA, _dressed like a doctor of laws_. _Duke_. Give me your hand. Came you from old Bellario? _Por_. I did, my lord. _Duke_. You are welcome: take your place. Are you acquainted with the difference That holds this present question in the court? _Por_. I am informed thoroughly of the cause. Which is the merchant here, and which the Jew? _Duke_. Antonio and old Shylock, both stand forth. _Por_. Is your name Shylock? _Shy_. Shylock is my name. _Por_. Of a strange nature is the suit you follow; Yet in such rule that the Venetian law Cannot impugn you as you do proceed. You stand within his danger, do you not? _Ant_. Ay, so he says. _Por_. Do you confess the bond? _Ant_. I do. _Por_. Then must the Jew be merciful. _Shy_. On what compulsion must I? tell me that. _Por_. The quality of mercy is not strain'd; It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven Upon the place beneath: it is twice blest; It blesseth him that gives and him that takes: 'Tis mightiest in the mightiest: it becomes The throned monarch better than his crown; His sceptre shows the force of temporal power, The attribute to awe and majesty, Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings; But mercy is above this scepter'd sway; It is enthroned in the hearts of kings, It is an attribute to God himself: And earthly power doth then show likest God's When mercy seasons justice. Therefore, Jew, Though justice be thy plea, consider this, That, in the course of justice, none of us Should see salvation: we do pray for mercy; And that same prayer doth teach us all to render The deeds of mercy. I have spoke thus much To mitigate the justice of thy plea; Which if thou follow, this strict court of Venice Must needs give sentence 'gainst the merchant there. _Shy_. My deeds upon my head! I crave the law, The penalty and forfeit of my bond. _Por_. Is he not able to discharge the money? _Bass_. Yes, here I tender it for him in the court; Yea, twice the sum: if that will not suffice; I will be bound to pay it ten times o'er, On forfeit of my hands, my head, my heart: If this will not suffice, it must appear That malice bears down truth. And I beseech you, Wrest once the law to your authority: To do a great right, do a little wrong, And curb this cruel devil of his will. _Por_. It must not be; there is no power in Venice Can alter a decree established: 'Twill be recorded for a precedent, And many an error, by the same example, Will rush into the state: it cannot be. _Shy._ A Daniel come to judgment! yea, a Daniel! O wise young judge, how do I honour thee! _Por._ I pray you, let me look upon the bond. _Shy._ Here 'tis, most reverend doctor, here it is. _Por._ Shylock, there's thrice thy money offer'd thee. _Shy._ An oath, an oath, I have an oath in heaven: Shall I lay perjury upon my soul? No, not for Venice. _Por._ Why, this bond is forfeit; And lawfully by this the Jew may claim A pound of flesh, to be by him cut off Nearest the merchant's heart. Be merciful: Take thrice thy money; bid me tear the bond. _Shy._ When it is paid according to the tenour. It doth appear you are a worthy judge; You know the law, your exposition Hath been most sound: I charge you by the law, Whereof you are a well-deserving pillar, Proceed to judgment: by my soul I swear There is no power in the tongue of man To alter me: I stay here on my bond. _Ant._ Most heartily I do beseech the court To give the judgment. _Por._ Why then, thus it is: You must prepare your bosom for his knife. _Shy._ O noble judge! O excellent young man! _Por_. For the intent and purpose of the law Hath full relation to the penalty, Which here appeareth due upon the bond. _Shy_. 'Tis very true: O wise and upright judge! How much more elder art thou than thy looks! _Por_. Therefore lay bare your bosom. _Shy_. Ay, his breast: So says the bond; doth it not, noble judge? "Nearest his heart:" those are the very words. _Por_. It is so. Are there balance here to weigh The flesh? _Shy_. I have them ready. _Por_. Have by some surgeon, Shylock, on your charge, To stop his wounds, lest he do bleed to death. _Shy_. Is it so nominated in the bond? _Por_. It is not so express'd: but what of that? 'Twere good you do so much for charity. _Shy_. I cannot find it; 'tis not in the bond. _Por_. Come, merchant, have you anything to say? _Ant_. But little: I am arm'd and well prepared. Give me your hand, Bassanio: fare you well! Grieve not that I am fallen to this for you; For herein Fortune shows herself more kind Than is her custom: it is still her use To let the wretched man outlive his wealth, To view with hollow eye and wrinkled brow An age of poverty; from which lingering penance Of such a misery doth she cut me off. Commend me to your honourable wife: Tell her the process of Antonio's end; Say how I loved you, speak me fair in death. * * * * * _Shy_. We trifle time: I pray thee, pursue sentence. _Por_. A pound of that same merchant's flesh is thine: The court awards it, and the law doth give it. _Shy_. Most rightful judge! _Por_. And you must cut this flesh from off his breast: The law allows it, and the court awards it. _Shy_. Most learned judge! A sentence; come, prepare. _Por_. Tarry a little; there is something else. This bond doth give thee here no jot of blood; The words expressly are "a pound of flesh:" Take then thy bond, take thou thy pound of flesh; But, in the cutting it, if thou dost shed One drop of Christian blood, thy lands and goods Are, by the laws of Venice, confiscate Unto the state of Venice. _Gra_. O upright judge! Mark, Jew: O learned judge! _Shy_. Is that the law? _Por_. Thyself shalt see the act: For, as thou urgest justice, be assured Thou shalt have justice, more than thou desirest. _Gra_. O learned judge! Mark, Jew; a learned judge! _Shy_. I take this offer, then; pay the bond thrice, And let the Christian go. _Bass_. Here is the money. _Por_. Soft! The Jew shall have all justice; soft! no haste: He shall have nothing but the penalty. _Gra_. O Jew! an upright judge, a learned judge! _Por_. Therefore prepare thee to cut off the flesh. Shed thou no blood, nor cut thou less nor more But just a pound of flesh: if thou cut'st more Or less than a just pound, be it but so much As makes it light or heavy in the substance, Or the division of the twentieth part Of one poor scruple; nay, if the scale do turn But in the estimation of a hair, Thou diest and all thy goods are confiscate. _Gra_. A second Daniel, a Daniel, Jew! Now, infidel, I have thee on the hip. _Por_. Why doth the Jew pause? take thy forfeiture. _Shy_. Give me my principal, and let me go. _Bass_. I have it ready for thee; here it is. _Por_. He hath refused it in the open court: He shall have merely justice and his bond. _Gra_. A Daniel, still say I, a second Daniel! I thank thee, Jew, for teaching me that word. _Shy_. Shall I not have barely my principal? _Por_. Thou shalt have nothing but the forfeiture, To be so taken at thy peril, Jew. _Shy_. Why, then the devil give him good of it! I'll stay no longer question. _Por_. Tarry, Jew: The law hath yet another hold on you. It is enacted in the laws of Venice, If it be proved against an alien, That by direct or indirect attempts He seek the life of any citizen, The party 'gainst the which he doth contrive Shall seize one half his goods; the other half Comes to the privy coffer of the state; And the offender's life lies in the mercy Of the duke only, 'gainst all other voice. In which predicament, I say, thou stand'st; For it appears, by manifest proceeding, That indirectly and directly too Thou hast contrived against the very life Of the defendant; and thou hast incurr'd The danger formerly by me rehearsed. Down, therefore, and beg mercy of the duke. _Gra_. Beg that thou mayst have leave to hang thyself: And yet, thy wealth being forfeit to the state, Thou hast not left the value of a cord; Therefore, thou must be hang'd at the state's charge. _Duke_. That thou shalt see the difference of our spirit, I pardon thee thy life before thou ask it: For half thy wealth, it is Antonio's; The other half comes to the general state, Which humbleness may drive unto a fine. _Por_. Ay, for the state, not for Antonio. _Shy_. Nay, take my life and all; pardon not that: You take my house when you do take the prop That doth sustain my house; you take my life When you do take the means whereby I live. _Por_. What mercy can you render him, Antonio? _Gra_. A halter gratis; nothing else, for God's sake. _Ant_. So please my lord the duke, and all the court To quit the fine for one half of his goods; I am content, so he will let me have The other half in use, to render it, Upon his death, unto the gentleman That lately stole his daughter. * * * * * _Por_. Art thou contented, Jew? what dost thou say? _Shy_. I am content. SHAKESPEARE. [Notes: _Merchant of Venice. Obdurate_, with the second syllable long, which modern usage makes short. _Frellen_--agitated. A form of participial termination frequently found in Shakespeare, as _strucken_, &c. It is preserved in _eaten, given, &c._ _Within his danger_ = in danger of him. _Which humbleness may drive unto a fine_ = which with humility on your part may be commuted for a fine.] * * * * * IL PENSEROSO. Hence vain deluding Joys, The brood of Folly, without father bred! How little you bestead, Or fill the fixèd mind with all your toys! Dwell in some idle brain, And fancies fond with gaudy shapes possess, As thick and numberless As the gay motes that people the sunbeams. Or likest hovering dreams, The fickle pensioners of Morpheus' train. But hail, thou Goddess, sage and holy! Hail, divinest Melancholy! Whose saintly visage is too bright To hit the sense of human sight, And therefore to our weaker view O'erlaid with black, staid Wisdom's hue: Black, but such as in esteem Prince Memnon's sister might beseem Or that starred Ethiop queen that strove To set her beauty's praise above The Sea-Nymphs, and their powers offended; Yet thou art higher far descended; Thee bright-haired Vesta, long of yore To solitary Saturn bore; His daughter she; in Saturn's reign Such mixture was not held a stain: Oft in glimmering bowers and glades He met her, and in secret shades Of woody Ida's inmost grove, While yet there was no fear of Jove. Come, pensive nun, devout and pure, Sober, steadfast, and demure All in a robe of darkest grain, Flowing with majestic train And sable stole of cyprus lawn, Over thy decent shoulders drawn. Come, but keep thy wonted state, With even step and musing gait, And looks commèrcing with the skies, Thy rapt soul sitting in thine eyes; There, held in holy passion still, Forget thyself to marble, till With a sad leaden downward cast, Thou fix them on the earth as fast; And join with thee calm Peace and Quiet, Spare Fast, that oft with gods doth diet. And hears the Muses in a ring Aye round about Jove's altar sing; And add to these retirèd Leisure, That in trim gardens takes his pleasure; But first, and chiefest, with thee bring Him that yon soars on golden wing, Guiding the fiery-wheelèd throne, The cherub Contemplation; And the mute Silence hist along, 'Less Philomel will deign a song In her sweetest, saddest plight, Smoothing the rugged brow of Night, While Cynthia checks her dragon yoke, Gently o'er the accustomed oak; --Sweet bird, that shunn'st the noise of folly, Most musical, most melancholy; Thee, chauntress, oft, the woods among I woo, to hear thy even-song; And missing thee, I walk unseen, On the dry smooth-shaven green, To behold the wandering Moon, Riding near her highest noon, Like one that had been led astray Through the heaven's wide pathless way; And oft, as if her head she bowed, Stooping through a fleecy cloud. Oft, on a plat of rising ground, I hear the far-off Curfew sound Over some wide-watered shore, Swinging slow with sullen roar. Or, if the air will not permit, Some still, removed place will fit, Where glowing embers through the room Teach light to counterfeit a gloom, Far from all resort of mirth, Save the cricket on the hearth, Or the bellman's drowsy charm, To bless the doors from nightly harm. Or let my lamp at midnight hour Be seen on some high lonely tower, Where I may oft out-watch the Bear With thrice-great Hermes, or unsphere The spirit of Plato, to unfold What worlds, or what vast regions hold The immortal mind, that hath forsook Her mansion in this fleshly nook; And of those demons that are found In fire air, flood, or under ground, Whose power hath a true consent With planet, or with element. Sometime let gorgeous Tragedy In sceptered pall come sweeping by, Presenting Thebes, or Pelops' line, Or the tale of Troy divine, Or what (though rare) of later age Ennobled hath the buskined stage. But, O sad Virgin, that thy power Might raise Musaeus from his bower, Or bid the soul of Orpheus sing Such notes as, warbled to the string, Drew iron tears down Pluto's cheek, And made Hell grant what Love did seek! Or call up him that left half-told The story of Cambuscan bold, Of Camball, and of Algarsife, And who had Canace to wife That owned the virtuous ring and glass; And of the wondrous horse of brass On which the Tartar king did ride; And if aught else great bards beside In sage and solemn tunes have sung, Of tourneys and of trophies hung, Of forests and enchantments drear, Where more is meant than meets the ear. Thus Night, oft see me in thy pale career, Till civil-suited Morn appear. Not tricked and frounced as she was wont With the Attic Boy to hunt, But kerchiefed in a comely cloud While rocking winds are piping loud, Or ushered with a shower still, When the gust hath blown his fill, Ending on the rustling leaves, With minute drops from off the eaves. And when the sun begins to fling His flaring beams, me, Goddess, bring To archèd walks of twilight groves, And shadows brown, that Sylvan loves, Of pine or monumental oak, Where the rude axe, with heavèd stroke, Was never heard the nymphs to daunt, Or fright them from their hallowed haunt. There in close covert by some brook Where no profaner eye may look, Hide me from Day's garish eye, While the bee with honeyed thigh, That at her flowery work doth sing, And the waters murmuring, With such concert as they keep, Entice the dewy-feathered Sleep: And let some strange mysterious dream Wave at his wings in airy stream Of lively portraiture displayed, Softly on my eyelids laid: And as I wake sweet music breathe Above, about, or underneath, Sent by some spirit to mortals good, Or the unseen Genius of the wood. But let my due feet never fail, To walk the studious cloister's pale, And love the high embowed roof, With antique pillars massy proof, And storied windows richly dight, Casting a dim religious light. There let the pealing organ blow, To the full-voiced quire below, In service high, and anthems clear, As may with sweetness, through mine ear Dissolve me into ecstasies, And bring all Heaven before mine eyes. And may at last my weary age Find out the peaceful hermitage. The hairy gown and mossy cell Where I may sit and rightly spell Of every star that heaven doth show, And every herb that sips the dew; Till old Experience do attain To something like prophetic strain. These pleasures, Melancholy, give, And I with thee will choose to live. MILTON. [Notes: _Il Penscioso_ = the thoughtful man. _Bestead_ = help, stand in good stead. _Fond_ = foolish; its old meaning. _Pensioners_. A word taken from the name of Elizabeth's body-guard. Compare "the cowslips tall her pensioners be" ('Midsummer Night's Dream'). _Prince Memnon_, of Ethiopia, fairest of warriors, slain by Achilles (Homer's Odyssey, Book xi.). His sister was Hemora. _Starred Ethiop Queen_ = Cassiope, wife of King Cepheus, who was placed among the stars. _Sea-nymphs_ = Nereids. Vesta_, the Goddess of the hearth; here for _Retirement. Saturn_, as having introduced, according to the mythology, civilization, here stands for _culture_. _Commercing_ = holding communion with. Notice the accentuation. _Forget thyself to marble_ = forget thyself till thou are still and silent as marble. _Hist along_ = bring along with a hush. _Hist_ is connected with _hush_. _Philomel_ = the nightingale. _Cynthia_ = the moon. _Dragon yoke_. Compare "Night's swift dragons," ('Midsummer Night's Dream'). _Removed place_ = remote or retired place. Compare "some removed ground" in 'Hamlet.' _Nightly_ = by night. Sometimes it means "every night successively." _Thrice-great Hermes_, a translation of Hermes Trismegistus, a fabulous king of Egypt, held to be the inventor of Alchemy and Astronomy. _Unsphere_, draw from his sphere or station. _The immortal mind_. Plato treats of the immortality of the soul chiefly in the _Phaedo_. The _demon_, with Socrates, is the attendant genius of an individual; with Plato it is more general; and the assigning the demons to the four elements is a notion of the later Platonists. _Sceptered pall_ = royal robe. _Presenting Thebes_, &c. These lines represent the subjects of tragedies by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, the great tragic poets of Athens. _Musaeus_, here for some bard of the distant past, generally. Musaeus, in mythology, is a bard of Thrace, and son of Orpheus. _Half-told the story of Cambuscan bold_. The Squire's Tale in Chaucer, which is broken off in the middle. _Camball_, Cambuscan's son. _Algarsife and Canacé_, his wife and daughter. _Frounced_. Used of hair twisted and curled. _The Attic Boy_ = _Cephalus_, loved by _Eos_, the Morning. _A shower still_ = a soft shower. _Sylvan_ = Pan or Sylvanus. _Cloister's pale_ = cloister's enclosure. _Massy proof_. Massive and proof against the weight above them.] * * * * * AFRICAN HOSPITALITY. As we approached the town, I was fortunate enough to overtake the fugitive Kaartans to whose kindness I had been so much indebted in my journey through Bambarra. They readily agreed to introduce me to the King; and we rode together through some marshy ground where, as I was anxiously looking around for the river, one of them called out, _geo affili_ (see the water), and looking forwards, I saw with infinite pleasure the great object of my mission--the long sought for majestic Niger, glittering to the morning sun, as broad as the Thames at Westminster, and flowing slowly _to the eastward_. I hastened to the brink, and having drank of the water, lifted up my fervent thanks in prayer to the Great Ruler of all things, for having thus far crowned my endeavours with success. The circumstance of the Niger's flowing towards the east, and its collateral points, did not, however, excite my surprise; for although I had left Europe in great hesitation on this subject, and rather believed that it ran in the contrary direction, I had made such frequent inquiries during my progress concerning this river, and received from negroes of different nations such clear and decisive assurance that its general course was _towards the rising sun_, as scarce left any doubt on my mind; and more especially as I knew that Major Houghton had collected similar information in the same manner. I waited more than two hours without having an opportunity of crossing the river; during which time, the people who had crossed carried information to Mansong, the King, that a white man was waiting for a passage, and was coming to see him. He immediately sent over one of his chief men, who informed me that the King could not possibly see me until he knew what had brought me into his country; and that I must not presume to cross the river without the King's permission. He therefore advised me to lodge at a distant village, to which he pointed, for the night; and said that in the morning he would give me further instructions how to conduct myself. This was very discouraging. However, as there was no remedy, I set off for the village; where I found, to my great mortification, that no person would admit me into his house. I was regarded with astonishment and fear, and was obliged to sit all day without victuals in the shade of a tree; and the night threatened to be very uncomfortable, for the wind rose, and there was great appearance of a heavy rain; and the wild beasts are so very numerous in the neighbourhood that I should have been under the necessity of climbing up the tree, and resting among the branches. About sunset, however, as I was preparing to pass the night in this manner, and had turned my horse loose that he might graze at liberty, a woman, returning from the labours of the field, stopped to observe me, and perceiving that I was weary and dejected, inquired into my situation, which I briefly explained to her; whereupon, with looks of great compassion, she took up my saddle and bridle and told me to follow her. Having conducted me into her hut, she lighted up a lamp, spread a mat on the floor, and told me I might remain there for the night. Finding that I was very hungry, she said she would procure me something to eat. She accordingly went out, and returned in a short time with a very fine fish; which having caused to be half broiled upon some embers, she gave me for supper. The rites of hospitality being thus performed towards a stranger in distress, my worthy benefactress (pointing to the mat, and telling me I might sleep there without apprehension), called to the female part of her family, who had stood gazing on me all the while in fixed astonishment, to resume their task of spinning cotton, in which they continued to employ themselves great part of the night. They lightened their labour by songs, one of which was composed extempore; for I was myself the subject of it. It was sung by one of the young women, the rest joining in a sort of chorus. The air was sweet and plaintive, and the words, literally translated, were these:--"The winds roared and the rains fell. The white man, faint and weary, came and sat our tree. He has no mother to bring him milk, no wife to grind his corn." _Chorus_--"Let us pity the white man; no mother has he," etc., etc. Trifling as this recital may appear to the reader, to a person in my situation the circumstance was affecting in the highest degree. I was oppressed by such unexpected kindness, and sleep fled from my eyes. In the morning I presented my compassionate landlady with two of the four brass buttons which remained on my waistcoat; the only recompense I could make her. MUNGO PARK. * * * * * ACROSS THE DESERT OF NUBIA. After a prayer of peace, we committed ourselves to the Desert. Our party consisted of Ismael the Turk, two Greek servants besides Georgis, who was almost blind and useless, two Barbarins, who took care of the camels, Idris, and a young man a relation of his; in all nine persons. We were all well armed with blunderbusses, swords, pistols, and double-barrelled guns, except Idris and his lad, who had lances, the only arms they could use. Five or six naked wretches of the Turcorory joined us at the watering place, much against my will, for I knew that we should probably be reduced to the disagreeable alternative of either seeing them perish of thirst before our eyes, or, by assisting them, running a great risk of perishing along with them. We left Gooz on the 9th of November, at noon, and halted at the little village of Hassa, where we filled our water-skins--an operation which occupied a whole day, as we had to take every means to secure them from leaking or evaporation. While the camels were loading, I bathed myself with infinite pleasure for a long half hour in the Nile, and thus took leave of my old acquaintance, very doubtful if we should ever meet again. We then turned to the north-east, leaving the Nile, and entering into a bare desert of fixed gravel, without trees, and of a very disagreeable whitish colour, mixed with small pieces of white marble, like alabaster. Our camels, we found, were too heavily loaded; but we comforted ourselves with the reflection, that this fault would be remedied by the daily consumption of our provisions. We had been travelling only two days when our misfortunes began, from a circumstance we had not attended to. Our shoes, that had long needed repair, became at last absolutely useless, and our feet were much inflamed by the burning sand. On the 13th, we saw, about a mile to the northwest of us, Hambily, a rock not considerable in size, but, from the plain country in which it is situated, having the appearance of a great tower or castle. South of it were too smaller hills, forming, along with it, landmarks of the utmost consequence to caravans, because they are too considerable in size to be at any time covered by the moving sands. We alighted on the following day among some acacia trees, after travelling about twenty miles. We were here at once surprised and terrified by a sight, surely one of the most magnificent in the world. In that vast expanse of desert, we saw a number of prodigious pillars of sand at different distances, at one time moving with great celerity, at another stalking on with majestic slowness. At intervals we thought they were coming to overwhelm us; and again they would retreat, so as to be almost out of sight, their tops reaching to the very clouds. There the tops often separated from the bodies; and these, once disjoined, dispersed in the air, and did not appear more. Sometimes they were broken near the middle, as if struck with a large cannon shot. About noon, they began to advance with considerable swiftness upon us, the wind being very strong at north. Eleven of them ranged alongside of us, about the distance of three miles. The greatest diameter of the largest appeared to me at that distance as if it would measure ten feet. They retired from us with a wind at S.E., leaving an impression upon my mind to which I can give no name, though surely one ingredient in it was fear, with a considerable deal of wonder and astonishment. It was vain to think of flying; the swiftest horse, or fastest sailing ship, could be of no use to carry us out of this danger; and the full persuasion of this rivetted me to the spot where I stood, and let the camels gain on me so much, that, in my state of lameness, it was with some difficulty I could overtake them. The effect this stupendous sight had upon Idris was to set him to his prayers, or rather to his charms; for, except the names of God and Mahomet, all the rest of his words were mere gibberish and nonsense. Ismael the Turk violently abused him for not praying in the words of the Koran, at the same time maintaining, with great apparent wisdom, that nobody had charms to stop these moving sands but the inhabitants of Arabia Deserta. From this day subordination, though it did not entirely cease, rapidly declined; all was discontent, murmuring, and fear. Our water was greatly diminished, and that terrible death by thirst began to stare us in the face, owing, in a great measure, to our own imprudence. Ismael, who had been left sentinel over the skins of water, had slept so soundly, that a Turcorory had opened one of the skins that had not been touched, in order to serve himself out of it at his own discretion. I suppose that, hearing somebody stir, and fearing detection, the Turcorory had withdrawn himself as speedily as possible, without tying up the month of the girba, which we found in the morning with scarce a quart of water in it. On the 16th, our men, if not gay, were in better spirits than I had seen them since we left Gooz. The rugged top of Chiggre was before us, and we knew that there we would solace ourselves with plenty of good water. As we were advancing, Idris suddenly cried out, "Fall upon your faces, for here is the simoom!" I saw from the southeast a haze come, in colour like the purple part of the rainbow, but not so compressed or thick. It did not occupy twenty yards in breadth, and was about twelve feet high from the ground. It was a kind of blush upon the air, and moved very rapidly, for I scarce could turn to fall upon the ground, with my head to the northward, when I felt the heat of its current plainly upon my face. We all lay flat on the ground, as if dead, till Idris told us it was blown over. The meteor or purple haze which I saw was indeed past, but the light air that still blew was of a heat to threaten suffocation. For my part, I found distinctly in my breast that I had imbibed a part of it, nor was I free from an asthmatic sensation till I had been some months in Italy, at the baths of Poretta, nearly two years afterwards. This phenomenon of the simoom, unexpected by us, though foreseen by Idris, caused us all to relapse into our former despondency. It still continued to blow, so as to exhaust us entirely, though the blast was so weak as scarcely would have raised a leaf from the ground. Towards evening it ceased; and a cooling breeze came from the north, blowing five or six minutes at a time, and then falling calm. We reached Chiggre that night, very much fatigued. BRUCE'S TRAVELS. [Note:_James Bruce_ (born 1730, died 1794), the African traveller; one of the early explorers of the Nile.] * * * * * A SHIPWRECK ON THE ARABIAN COAST. Another hour of struggle! It was past midnight, or thereabout, and the storm, instead of abating, blew stronger and stronger. A passenger, one of the three on the beam astern, felt too numb and wearied out to retain his hold by the spar any longer; he left it, and swimming with a desperate effort up to the boat, begged in God's name to be taken in. Some were for granting his request, others for denying; at last two sailors, moved with pity, laid hold of his arms where he clung to the boat's side, and helped him in. We were now thirteen together, and the boat rode lower down in the water and with more danger than ever: it was literally a hand's breadth between life and death. Soon after another, Ibraheem by name, and also a passenger, made a similar attempt to gain admittance. To comply would have been sheer madness; but the poor wretch clung to the gunwale, and struggled to clamber over, till the nearest of the crew, after vainly entreating him to quit hold and return to the beam, saying, "It is your only chance of life, you must keep to it," loosened his grasp by main force, and flung him back into the sea, where he disappeared for ever. "Has Ibraheem reached you?" called out the captain to the sailor now alone astride of the spar. "Ibraheem is drowned," came the answer across the waves. "Is drowned," all repeated in an undertone, adding, "and we too shall soon be drowned also." In fact, such seemed the only probable end of all our endeavours. For the storm redoubled in violence; the baling could no longer keep up with the rate at which the waves entered; the boat became waterlogged; the water poured in hissing on every side: she was sinking, and we were yet far out in the open sea. "Plunge for it!" a second time shouted the captain. "Plunge who may, I will stay by the boat so long as the boat stays by me," thought I, and kept my place. Yoosef, fortunately for him, was lying like a corpse, past fear or motion; but four of our party, one a sailor and the other three passengers, thinking that all hope of the boat was now over, and that nothing remained them but the spar, jumped into the sea. Their loss saved the remainder; the boat lightened and righted for a moment, the pilot and I baled away desperately; she rose clear once more of the water. Those in her were now nine in all--eight men and a boy, the captain's nephew. Meanwhile the sea was running mountains; and during the paroxysm of struggle, while the boat pitched heavily, the cord attached from her stern to the beam snapped asunder. One man was on the spar. Yet a minute or so the moonlight showed us the heads of the five survivors as they tried to regain the boat; had they done it we were all lost; then a huge wave separated them from us. "May God have mercy on the poor drowning men!" exclaimed the captain: their bodies were washed ashore three or four days later. We now remained sole survivors--if, indeed, we were to prove so. Our men rowed hard, and the night wore on; at last the coast came in full view. Before us was a high black rock, jutting out into the foaming sea, whence it rose sheer like the wall of a fortress; at some distance on the left a peculiar glimmer and a long white line of breakers assured me of the existence of an even and sandy beach. The three sailors now at the oars, and the passenger who had taken the place of the fourth, grown reckless by long toil under the momentary expectation of death, and longing to see an end anyhow to this protracted misery, were for pushing the boat on the rocks, because the nearest land, and thus having it all over as soon as possible. This would have been certain destruction. The captain and pilot, well nigh stupefied by what they had undergone, offered no opposition. I saw that a vigorous effort must be made; so I laid hold of them both, shook them to arouse their attention, and bade them take heed to what the rowers were about; adding that it was sheer suicide, and that our only hope of life was to bear up for the sandy creek, which I pointed out to them at a short distance. Thus awakened from their lethargy, they started up, and joined with me in expostulating with the sailors. But the men doggedly answered that they could hold out no more; that wherever the land was nearest they would make for it, come what might; and with this they pulled on straight towards the cliff. The captain hastily thrust the rudder into the pilot's hand, and springing on one of the sailors, pushed him from the bench and seized his oar, while I did the same to another on the opposite side; and we now got the boat's head round towards the bay. The refractory sailors, ashamed of their own faintheartedness, begged pardon, and promised to act henceforth according to our orders. We gave them back their oars, very glad to see a strife so dangerous, especially at such a moment, soon at an end; and the men pulled for left, though full half an hour's rowing yet remained between us and the breakers; and the course which we had to hold was more hazardous than before, because it laid the boat almost parallel with the sweep of the water: but half an hour! yet I thought we should never come opposite the desired spot. At last we neared it, and then a new danger appeared. The first row of breakers, rolling like a cataract, was still far off shore, at least a hundred yards; and between it and the beach appeared a white yeast of raging waters, evidently ten or twelve feet deep, through which, weary as we all were, and benumbed with the night-chill and the unceasing splash of the spray over us, I felt it to be very doubtful whether we should have strength to struggle. But there was no avoiding it; and when we drew near the long white line which glittered like a watchfire in the night, I called out to Yoosef and the lad, both of whom lay plunged in deathlike stupor, to rise and get ready for the hard swim, now inevitable. They stood up, the sailors laid aside their oars, and a moment after the curling wave capsized the boat, and sent her down as though she had been struck by a cannon-shot, while we remained to fight for our lives in the sea. Confident in my own swimming powers, but doubtful how far those of Yoosef might reach, I at once turned to look for him; and seeing him close by me in the water, I caught hold of him, telling him to hold fast on, and I would help him to land. But, with much presence of mind, he thrust back my grasp, exclaiming, "Save yourself! I am a good swimmer; never fear for me." The captain and the young sailor laid hold of the boy, the captain's nephew, one on either side, and struck out with him for the shore. It was a desperate effort; every wave overwhelmed us in its burst, and carried us back in its eddy, while I drank much more salt water than was at all desirable. At last, after some minutes, long as hours, I touched land, and scrambled up the sandy beach as though the avenger of blood had been behind me. One by one the rest came ashore--some stark naked, having cast off or lost their remaining clothes in the whirling eddies; others yet retaining some part of their dress. Every one looked around to see whether his companions arrived; and when all nine stood together on the beach, all cast themselves prostrate on the sands, to thank Heaven for a new lease of life granted after much danger and so many comrades lost. W.G. PALGRAVE. * * * * * AN ARABIAN TOWN. Perhaps my readers will not think it loss of time to accompany us on a morning visit to the camp and market, to the village gardens and wells; such visits we often paid, not without interest and pleasure. Warm though Raseem is, its mornings, at least at this time of year (the latter part of September), were delightful. In a pure and mistless sky, the sun rises over the measureless plain, while the early breeze is yet cool and invigorating, a privilege enjoyed almost invariably in Arabia, but wanting too often in Egypt in the west, and India in the east. At this hour we would often thread the streets by which we had first entered the town, and go betimes to the Persian camp, where all was already alive and stirring. Here are arranged on the sand, baskets full of eggs and dates, flanked by piles of bread and little round cakes of white butter; bundles of fire-wood are heaped up close by, and pails of goat's or camel's milk abound; and amid all these sit rows of countrywomen, haggling with tall Persians, who in broken Arabic try to beat down the prices, and generally end by paying only double what they ought. The swaggering, broad-faced, Bagdad camel-drivers, and ill-looking, sallow youths stand idle everywhere, insulting those whom they dare, and cringing to their betters like slaves. Persian gentlemen, too, with grand hooked noses, high caps, and quaintly-cut dresses of gay patterns, saunter about, discussing their grievances, or quarrelling with each other, to pass the time, for, unlike an Arab, a Persian shows at once whatever ill-humour he may feel, and has no shame in giving it utterance before whomever may be present; nor does he, with the Arab, consider patience to be and essential point of politeness and dignity. Not a few of the townsmen are here, chatting or bartering; and Bedouins, switch in hand. If you ask any chance individual among these latter what has brought him hither, you may be sure beforehand that the word "camel," in one or other of its forms of detail, will find place in the answer. Criers are going up and down the camp with articles of Persian apparel, cooking pots, and ornaments of various descriptions in their hands, or carrying them off for higher bidding to the town. Having made our morning household purchases at the fair, and the sun being now an hour or more above the horizon, we think it time to visit the market-place of the town, which would hardly be open sooner. We re-enter the city gate, and pass on our way by our house door, where we leave our bundle of eatables, and regain the high street of Berezdah. Before long we reach a high arch across the road; this gate divides the market from the rest of the quarter. We enter. First of all we see a long range of butchers' shops on either side, thickly hung with flesh of sheep and camel, and very dirtily kept. Were not the air pure and the climate healthy, the plague would assuredly be endemic here; but in Arabia no special harm seems to follow. We hasten on, and next pass a series of cloth and linen warehouses, stocked partly with home-manufacture, but more imported; Bagdad cloaks and head-gear, for instance; Syrian shawls and Egyptian slippers. Here markets follow the law general throughout the East, that all shops or stores of the same description should be clustered together; a system whose advantages on the whole outweigh its inconveniences, at least for small towns like these, in the large cities and capitals of Europe, greater extent of locality requires evidently a different method of arrangement: it might be awkward for the inhabitants of Hyde Park were no hatters to be found nearer than the Tower. But what is Berezdah compared even with a second-rate European city? However, in a crowd, it yields to none: the streets at this time of the day are thronged to choking, and, to make matters worse, a huge splay-footed camel every now and then, heaving from side to side like a lubber-rowed boat, with a long beam on his back, menacing the heads of those in the way, or with two enormous loads of fire-wood, each as large as himself, sweeping the road before him of men, women, and children, while the driver, high perched on the hump, regards such trifles with supreme indifference, so long as he brushes his path open. Sometimes there is a whole string of these beasts, the head-rope of each tied to the crupper of his precursor--very uncomfortable passengers when met with at a narrow turning. Through such obstacles we have found or made our way, and are now amid leather and shoemakers' shops, then among copper and iron-smiths, till at last we emerge on the central town-square, not a bad one either, nor very irregular, considering that it is in Raseem. About half one side is taken up by the great mosque, an edifice nearly two centuries old, judging by its style and appearance, but it bears on no part of it either date or inscription. A crack running up one side of the tower bears witness to an earthquake said to have occurred here about thirty years since. Another side of the square is formed by an open gallery. In its shade groups of citizens are seated discussing news or business. The central space is occupied by camels and by bales of various goods, among which the coffee of Yemen, henna, and saffron, bear a large part. From this square several diverging streets run out, each containing a market-place for this or that ware, and all ending in portals dividing them from the ordinary habitations. The vegetable and fruit market is very extensive, and kept almost exclusively by women; so are also the shops for grocery and spices. Rock-salt of remarkable purity and whiteness, from Western Raseem, is a common article of sale, and enormous flakes of it, often beautifully crystallized, lay piled up at the shop doors. Sometimes a Persian stood by, trying his skill at purchase or exchange; but these pilgrims were in general shy of entering the town, where, truly, they were not in the best repute. Well-dressed, grave-looking townsmen abound, their yellow wand of lotus-wood in their hands, and their kerchiefs loosely thrown over their heads. The whole town has an aspect of old but declining prosperity. There are few new houses, but many falling into ruin. The faces, too, of most we meet are serious, and their voices in an undertone. Silk dresses are prohibited by the dominant faction, and tobacco can only be smoked within doors, and by stealth. Enough of the town: the streets are narrow, hot, and dusty; the day, too, advances; but the gardens are yet cool. So we dash at a venture through a labyrinth of byways and crossways till we find ourselves in the wide street that runs immediately along but inside the walls. Here is a side gate, but half ruined, with great folding doors, and no one to open them. The wall of one of the flanking towers has, however, been broken in, and from thence we hope to find outlet on the gardens outside. We clamber in, and after mounting a heap of rubbish, once the foot of a winding staircase, have before us a window looking right on the gardens. Fortunately we are not the first to try this short cut, and the truant boys of the town have sufficiently enlarged the aperture and piled up stones on the ground outside to render the passage tolerably easy; we follow the indication, and in another minute stand in the open air without the walls. The breeze is fresh, and will continue so till noon. Before us are high palm-trees and dark shadows; the ground is velvet-green with the autumn crop of maize and vetches, and intersected by a labyrinth of watercourses, some dry, others flowing, for the wells are at work. These wells are much the same throughout Arabia; their only diversity is in size and depth, but their hydraulic machinery is everywhere alike. Over the well's month is fixed a crossbeam, supported high in air on pillars of wood or stone on either side, and on this beam are from three to six small wheels, over which pass the ropes of as many large leather buckets, each containing nearly twice the ordinary English measure. These are let down into the depth, and then drawn up again by camels or asses, who pace slowly backwards or forwards on an inclined plane leading from the edge of the well itself to a pit prolonged for some distance. When the buckets rise to the verge, they tilt over and pour out their contents by a broad channel into a reservoir hard by, from which part the watercourses that irrigate the garden. The supply thus obtained is necessarily discontinuous, and much inferior to what a little more skill in mechanism affords in Egypt and Syria; while the awkward shaping and not unfrequently the ragged condition of the buckets themselves causes half the liquid to fall back into the well before it reaches the brim. The creaking, singing noise of the wheels, the rush of water as the buckets attain their turning-point, the unceasing splash of their overflow dripping back into the source, all are a message of life and moisture very welcome in this dry and stilly region, and may be heard far off amid the sandhills, a first intimation to the sun-scorched traveller of his approach to a cooler resting-place. W.G. PALGRAVE. * * * * * COURTESY. What virtue is so fitting for a knight, Or for a lady whom a knight should love, As courtesy; to bear themselves aright To all of each degree as doth behove? For whether they be placèd high above Or low beneath, yet ought they well to know Their good: that none them rightly may reprove Of rudeness for not yielding what they owe: Great skill it is such duties timely to bestow. Thereto great help Dame Nature's self doth lend: For some so goodly gracious are by kind, That every action doth them much commend; And in the eyes of men great liking find, Which others that have greater skill in mind, Though they enforce themselves, cannot attain; For everything to which one is inclined Doth best become and greatest grace doth gain; Yet praise likewise deserve good thewes enforced with pain. SPENSER. [Notes: _Edmund Spenser_ (born 1552, died 1599), the poet who, in Elizabeth's reign, revived the poetry of England, which since Chaucer's day, two centuries before, had been flagging. _Gracious are by kind, i.e.,_ by nature. _Kind_ properly means _nature_. _Good thewes_ = good manners or virtues. As _thew_ passes into the meaning "muscle," so _virtue_ (from _vis_, strength) originally means _manlike valour_.] * * * * * THE QUEST OF THE HOLY GRAIL. Then the King and all estates went home unto Camelot, and so went to evensong to the great minster. And so after upon that to supper, and every knight sat in his own place as they were toforehand. Then anon they heard cracking and crying of thunder, that them thought the place should all to-drive. In the midst of this blast entered a sunbeam more clearer by seven times than ever they saw day, and all they were alighted of the grace of the Holy Ghost. Then began every knight to behold other, and either saw other by their seeming fairer than ever they saw afore. Not for then there was no knight might speak one word a great while, and so they looked every man on other, as they had been dumb. Then there entered into the hall the Holy Grail, covered with white samite, but there was none might see it, nor who bare it. And there was all the hall full filled with good odours, and every knight had such meats and drinks as he best loved in this world; and when the Holy Grail had been borne through the hall, then the holy vessel departed suddenly, that they wist not where it became. Then had they all breath to speak. And then the King yielded thankings unto God of His good grace that He had sent them. "Certes," said the King, "we ought to thank our Lord Jesu greatly, for that he hath shewed us this day at the reverence of this high feast of Pentecost." "Now," said Sir Gawaine, "we have been served this day of what meats and drinks we thought on, but one thing beguiled us: we might not see the Holy Grail, it was so preciously covered; wherefore I will make here avow, that to-morn, without longer abiding, I shall labour in the quest of the Sancgreal, that I shall hold me out a twelvemonth and a day, or more if need be, and never shall I return again unto the court till I have seen it more openly than it hath been seen here; and if I may not speed, I shall return again as he that may not be against the will of our Lord Jesu Christ." When they of the Table Round heard Sir Gawaine say so, they arose up the most party, and made such avows as Sir Gawaine had made. Anon as King Arthur heard this he was greatly displeased, for he wist well that they might not again say their avows. "Alas!" said King Arthur unto Sir Gawaine, "ye have nigh slain me with the avow and promise that ye have made. For through you ye have bereft me of the fairest fellowship and the truest of knighthood that ever were seen together in any realm of the world. For when they depart from hence, I am sure they all shall never meet more in this world, for they shall die many in the quest. And so it forethinketh me a little, for I have loved them as well as my life, wherefore it shall grieve me right sore the departition of this fellowship. For I have had an old custom to have them in my fellowship." And therewith the tears filled in his eyes. And then he said, "Gawaine, Gawaine, ye have set me in great sorrow. For I have great doubt that my true fellowship shall never meet here again." "Ah," said Sir Launcelot, "comfort yourself, for it shall be unto us as a great honour, and much more than if we died in any other places, for of death we be sure." "Ah, Launcelot," said the King, "the great love that I have had unto you all the days of my life maketh me to say such doleful words; for never Christian king had never so many worthy men at this table as I have had this day at the Round Table, and that is my great sorrow." When the queen, ladies, and gentlewomen wist these tidings, they had such sorrow and heaviness that there might no tongue tell it, for those knights had holden them in honour and charity. And when all were armed, save their shields and their helms, then they came to their fellowship, which all were ready in the same wise for to go to the minster to hear their service. Then, after the service was done, the King would wit how many had taken the quest of the Holy Grail, and to account them he prayed them all. Then found they by tale an hundred and fifty, and all were knights of the Round Table. And then they put on their helms and departed, and recommended them all wholly unto the queen, and there was weeping and great sorrow. And so they mounted upon their horses and rode through the streets of Camelot, and there was weeping of the rich and poor, and the King turned away, and might not speak for weeping. So within a while they came to a city and a castle that hight Vagon. There they entered into the castle, and the lord of that castle was an old man that hight Vagon, and he was a good man of his living, and set open the gates, and made them all the good cheer that he might. And so on the morrow they were all accorded that they should depart every each from other. And then they departed on the morrow with weeping and mourning cheer, and every knight took the way that him best liked. SIR THOMAS MALORY. [Notes: _The Quest of the Holy Grail_. This is taken from the 'Mort d'Arthur,' written about the end of the fifteenth century by Sir Thomas Malory, and one of the first books printed in England by Caxton. King Arthur was at the head and centre of the company of Knights of the Table Bound. The _Holy Grail_, or the _Sangreal,_ was the dish said to have held the Paschal lamb at the Last Supper, and to have been possessed by Joseph of Arimathea. Notice throughout this piece the archaic phrases used.] * * * * * VISIT TO SIR ROGER DE COVERLEY'S COUNTRY SEAT. Having often received an invitation from my friend Sir Roger de Coverley to pass away a month with him in the country, I last week accompanied him thither, and am settled with him for some time at his country-house, where I intend to form several of my ensuing speculations. Sir Roger, who is very well acquainted with my humour, lets me rise and go to bed when I please, dine at his own table or in my own chamber, as I think fit, sit still and say nothing without bidding me be merry. I am the more at ease in Sir Roger's family, because it consists of sober and staid persons; for, as the knight is the best master in the world, he seldom changes his servants; and as he is beloved by all about, his servants never care for leaving him; by this means his domestics are all in years, and grown old with their master. You would take his _valet de chambre_ for his brother; his butler is grey-headed, his groom is one of the gravest men that I have ever seen, and his coachman has the looks of a Privy Counsellor. You see the goodness of the master even in the old house-dog, and in a grey pad that is kept in the stable with great care and tenderness, out of regard for his past services, though he has been useless for several years. I could not but observe, with a great deal of pleasure, the joy that appeared in the countenance of these ancient domestics upon my friend's arrival at his country-seat. Some of them could not refrain from tears at the sight of their old master; every one of them pressed forward to do something for him, and seemed discouraged if they were not employed. At the same time the good old knight, with a mixture of a father and the master of the family, tempered the inquiries after his own affairs with several kind questions about themselves. This humanity and good-nature engages everybody to him, so that when he is pleasant upon any of them, all his family are in good-humour, and none so much as the person he diverts himself with. On the contrary, if he coughs, or betrays any infirmity of old age, it is easy for a stander-by to observe a secret concern in the looks of all his servants. My chief companion, when Sir Roger is diverting himself in the woods or the fields, is a very venerable man who is ever with Sir Roger, and has lived at his house in the nature of a chaplain above thirty years. This gentleman is a person of good sense and some learning; of a very regular life and obliging conversation: he heartily loves Sir Roger, and knows that he is very much in the old knight's esteem, so that he lives in the family rather as a relation than a dependent. I have observed in several of my papers, that my friend Sir Roger, amidst all his good qualities, is something of a humorist; and that his virtues, as well as imperfections, are, as it were, tinged by a certain extravagance which makes them particularly _his_, and distinguishes them from those of other men. This cast of mind, as it is generally very innocent in itself, so it renders his conversation highly agreeable, and more delightful than the same degree of sense and virtue would appear in their common and ordinary colours. As I was walking with him last night, he asked me how I liked the good man I have just now mentioned? And without staying for an answer, told me, "That he was afraid of being insulted with Latin and Greek at his own table; for which reason he desired a particular friend of his at the University to find him out a clergyman rather of plain sense than much learning; of a good aspect, a clear voice, a sociable temper, and, if possible, a man that understood a little of backgammon. My friend," says Sir Roger, "found me out this gentleman, who, besides the endowments required of him, is, they tell me, a good scholar, though he does not show it. I have given him the parsonage of the parish; and, because I know his value, have settled upon him a good annuity for life. If he outlives me, he shall find that he was higher in my esteem than perhaps he thinks he is. He has now been with me thirty years, and though he does not know I have taken notice of it, has never in all that time asked anything of me for himself, though he is every day soliciting me for something in behalf of one or other of my tenants, his parishioners. There has not been a law-suit in the parish since he has lived among them: if any dispute arises, they apply themselves to him for the decision; if they do not acquiesce in his judgment, which I think never happened above once or twice, at most, they appeal to me. At his first settling with me, I made him a present of all the good sermons that have been printed in English, and only begged of him that every Sunday he would pronounce one of them in the pulpit. Accordingly, he has digested them into such a series, that they follow one another naturally, and make a continued series of practical divinity." ADDISON. * * * * * THE DEAD ASS. "And this," said he, putting the remains of a crust into his wallet, "and this should have been thy portion," said he, "hadst thou been alive to have shared it with me." I thought by the accent it had been an apostrophe to his child; but 'twas to his ass, and to the very ass we had seen dead on the road. The man seemed to lament it much; and it instantly brought into my mind Sancho's lamentation for his; but he did it with more true touches of nature. The mourner was sitting on a stone bench at the door, with the ass's pannel and its bridle on one side, which he took up from time to time--then laid them down--looked at them--and shook his head. He then took his crust of bread out of his wallet again, as if to eat it; held it some time in his hand--then laid it upon the bit of his ass's bridle--looked wistfully at the little arrangement he had made--and then gave a sigh. The simplicity of his grief drew numbers about him, and La Fleur among the rest, whilst the horses were getting ready; as I continued sitting in the postchaise, I could see and hear over their heads. He said he had come last from Spain, where he had been from the farthest borders of Franconia; and he had got so far on his return home, when his ass died. Every one seemed desirous to know what business could have taken so old and poor a man so far a journey from his own home. "It had pleased heaven," he said, "to bless him with three sons, the finest lads in all Germany; but having in one week lost two of them by the small-pox, and the youngest falling ill of the same distemper, he was afraid of being bereft of them all; and made a vow, if Heaven would not take him from him also, he would go in gratitude to St. Iago, in Spain." When the mourner got thus far on his story, he stopped to pay nature her tribute, and wept bitterly. He said Heaven had accepted the conditions, and that he had set out from his cottage, with this poor creature, who had been a patient partner of his journey--that it had eat the same bread with him all the way, and was unto him as a friend. Everybody who stood about heard the poor fellow with concern. La Fleur offered him money; the mourner said he did not want it; it was not the value of the ass, but the loss of him. "The ass," he said, "he was assured, loved him;" and upon this, told them a long story of a mischance upon their passage over the Pyrenean mountains, which had separated them from each other three days; during which time the ass had sought him as much as he had sought the ass, and they had neither scarce eat or drank till they met. "Thou hast one comfort, friend," said I, "at least in the loss of the poor beast; I'm sure thou hast been a merciful master to him." "Alas!" said the mourner, "I thought so when he was alive; but now he is dead I think otherwise. I fear the weight of myself and my afflictions together have been too much for him--they have shortened the poor creature's days, and I fear I have them to answer for." "Shame on the world!" said I to myself. "Did we love each other as this poor soul but loved his ass, 'twould be something." STERNE. 
10073	----	Proofreading Team. Note: Italics indicated by _ Bold print by <...> THE CENTURY HANDBOOK SERIES THE CENTURY HANDBOOK OF WRITING. By Garland Greever and Easley S. Jones. THE CENTURY VOCABULARY BUILDER. By Garland Greever and Joseph M. Bachelor. THE CENTURY DESK BOOK OF GOOD ENGLISH. By Garland Greever and Joseph M. Bachelor. A BUSINESS MAN'S DESK BOOK. By Garland Greever and Joseph M. Bachelor. THE FACTS AND BACKGROUNDS OF LITERATURE, English and American. By George F. Reynolds, University of Colorado, and Garland Greever. PARLIAMENTARY PRACTICE. By General Henry M. Robert. _Other Volumes To Be Arranged_ THE CENTURY VOCABULARY BUILDER. By GARLAND GREEVER and JOSEPH M. BACHELOR TO DANA H. FERRIN WHOM THIS BOOK OWES MORE THAN A MERE DEDICATION CAN ACKNOWLEDGE PREFACE You should know at the outset what this book does _not_ attempt to do. It does not, save to the extent that its own special purpose requires, concern itself with the many and intricate problems of grammar, rhetoric, spelling, punctuation, and the like; or clarify the thousands of individual difficulties regarding correct usage. All these matters are important. Concise treatment of them may be found in THE CENTURY HANDBOOK OF WRITING and THE CENTURY DESK BOOK OF GOOD ENGLISH, both of which manuals are issued by the present publishers. But this volume confines itself to the one task of placing at your disposal the means of adding to your stock of words, of increasing your vocabulary. It does not assume that you are a scholar, or try to make you one. To be sure, it recognizes the ends of scholarship as worthy. It levies at every turn upon the facts which scholarship has accumulated. But it demands of you no technical equipment, nor leads you into any of those bypaths of knowledge, alluring indeed, of which the benefits are not immediate. For example, in Chapter V it forms into groups words etymologically akin to each other. It does this for an end entirely practical--namely, that the words you know may help you to understand the words you do not know. Did it go farther--did it account for minor differences in these words by showing that they sprang from related rather than identical originals, did it explain how and how variously their forms have been modified in the long process of their descent--it would pass beyond its strict utilitarian bounds. This it refrains from doing. And thus everything it contains it rigorously subjects to the test of serviceability. It helps you to bring more and more words into workaday harness--to gain such mastery over them that you can speak and write them with fluency, flexibility, precision, and power. It enables you, in your use of words, to attain the readiness and efficiency expected of a capable and cultivated man. There are many ways of building a vocabulary, as there are many ways of attaining and preserving health. Fanatics may insist that one should be cultivated to the exclusion of the others, just as health-cranks may declare that diet should be watched in complete disregard of recreation, sanitation, exercise, the need for medicines, and one's mental attitude to life. But the sum of human experience, rather than fanaticism, must determine our procedure. Moreover experience has shown that the various successful methods of bringing words under man's sway are not mutually antagonistic but may be practiced simultaneously, just as health is promoted, not by attending to diet one year, to exercise the next, and to mental attitude the third, but by bestowing wise and fairly constant attention on all. Yet it would be absurd to state that all methods of increasing one's vocabulary, or of attaining vigor of physique, are equally valuable. This volume offers everything that helps, and it yields space in proportion to helpfulness. Aside from a brief introductory chapter, a chapter (number X) given over to a list of words, and a brief concluding chapter, the subject matter of the volume falls into three main divisions. Chapters II and III are based on the fact that we must all use words in combination--must fling the words out by the handfuls, even as the accomplished pianist must strike his notes. Chapters IV and V are based on the fact that we must become thoroughly acquainted with individual words--that no one who scorns to study the separate elements of speech can command powerful and discriminating utterance. Chapters VI, VII, VIII, and IX are based on the fact that we need synonyms as our constant lackeys--that we should be able to summon, not a word that will do, but a word that will express the idea with precision. Exercises scattered throughout the book, together with five of the six appendices, provide well-nigh inexhaustible materials for practice. For be it understood, once for all, that this volume is not a machine which you can set going and then sit idly beside, the while your vocabulary broadens. Mastery over words, like worthy mastery of any kind whatsoever, involves effort for yourself. You can of course contemplate the nature and activities of the mechanism, and learn something thereby; but also you must work--work hard, work intelligently. As you cannot acquire health by watching a gymnast take exercise or a doctor swallow medicine or a dietician select food, so you cannot become an overlord of words without first fighting battles to subjugate them. Hence this volume is for you less a labor-saving machine than a collection and arrangement of materials which you must put together by hand. It assembles everything you need. It tags everything plainly. It tells you just what you must do. In these ways it makes your task far easier. _But the task is yours_. Industry, persistence, a fair amount of common sense--these three you must have. Without them you will accomplish nothing. Even with them--let the forewarning be candid--you will not accomplish everything. You cannot learn all there is to be learned about words, any more than about human nature. And what you do achieve will be, not a sudden attainment, but a growth. This is not the dark side of the picture. It is an honest avowal that the picture is not composed altogether of light. But as the result of your efforts an adequate vocabulary will some day be yours. Nor will you have to wait long for an earnest of ultimate success. Just as system will speedily transform a haphazard business into one which seizes opportunities and stops the leakage of profits, so will sincere and well-directed effort bring you promptly and surely into an ever-growing mastery of words. CONTENTS CHAPTERS I. REASONS FOR INCREASING YOUR VOCABULARY. II. WORDS IN COMBINATION: SOME PITFALLS. Tameness Exercise Sovenliness Exercises Wordiness Exercises Verbal Discords Exercise 1. Abstract vs. Concrete Terms; General vs. Specific Terms Exercise 2. Literal vs. Figurative Terms Exercise 3. Connotation Exercise III. WORDS IN COMBINATION: HOW MASTERED Preliminaries: General Purposes and Methods 1. A Ready, an Accurate, or a Wide Vocabulary? 2. A Vocabulary for Speech or for Writing? The Mastery of Words in Combination 1. Mastery through Translation Exercise 2. Mastery through Paraphrasing Exercise 3. Mastery through Discourse at First Hand Exercise 4. Mastery through Adapting Discourse to Audience Exercise IV. INDIVIDUAL WORDS: AS VERBAL CELIBATES What Words to Learn First The Analysis of Your Own Vocabulary Exercise The Definition of Words Exercise How to Look up a Word in the Dictionary Exercise Prying into a Word's Past Exercise V. INDIVIDUAL WORDS: AS MEMBERS OF VERBAL FAMILIES Words Related in Blood Exercise Words Related by Marriage Exercise Prying into a Word's Relationships Exercise Two Admonitions General Exercise for the Chapter (with Lists of Words Containing the Same Key-Syllables) Second General Exercise (with Additional Lists) Third General Exercise Fourth General Exercise Latin Ancestors of English Words Latin Prefixes Greek Ancestors of English Words Greek Prefixes VI. WORDS IN PAIRS. Opposites Exercise Words Often Confused Exercise Parallels (with Lists) Exercise VII. SYNONYMS IN LARGER GROUPS (1) How to Acquire Synonyms Exercise (with Lists) VIII. SYNONYMS IN LARGER GROUPS (2) Exercise (with Lists) IX. MANY-SIDED WORDS Exercise Literal vs. Figurative Applications Exercise Imperfectly Understood Facts and Ideas Exercise X. SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF WORDS Exercise XI. RETROSPECT APPENDICES 1. The Drift of Our Rural Population Cityward (an Editorial) 2. Causes for the American Spirit of Liberty (by Edmund Burke) 3. Parable of the Sower (Gospel of St. Matthew) 4. The Seven Ages of Man (by William Shakespeare) 5. The Castaway (by Daniel Defoe) 6. Reading Lists INDEX CENTURY VOCABULARY BUILDER I REASONS FOR INCREASING YOUR VOCABULARY Sometimes a dexterous use of words appears to us to be only a kind of parlor trick. And sometimes it _is_ just that. The command of a wide vocabulary is in truth an accomplishment, and like any other accomplishment it may be used for show. But not necessarily. Just as a man may have money without "flashing" it, or an extensive wardrobe without sporting gaudy neckties or wearing a dress suit in the morning, so may he possess linguistic resources without making a caddish exhibition of them. Indeed the more distant he stands from verbal bankruptcy, the less likely he is to indulge in needless display. Again, glibness of speech sometimes awakens our distrust. We like actions rather than words; we prefer that character, personality, and kindly feelings should be their own mouthpiece. So be it. But there are thoughts and emotions properly to be shared with other people, yet incapable of being revealed except through language. It is only when language is insincere--when it expresses lofty sentiments or generous sympathies, yet springs from designing selfishness--that it justly arouses misgivings. Power over words, like power of any other sort, is for use, not abuse. That it sometimes is abused must not mislead us into thinking that it should in itself be scorned or neglected. Our contempt and distrust do not mean that our fundamental ideas about language are unsound. Beneath our wholesome dislike for shallow facility and insincerity of speech, we have a conviction that the mastery of words is a good thing, not a bad. We are therefore unwilling to take the vow of linguistic poverty. If we lack the ability to bend words to our use, it is from laziness, not from scruple. We desire to speak competently, but without affectation. We know that if our diction rises to this dual standard, it silently distinguishes us from the sluggard, the weakling, and the upstart. For such diction is not to be had on sudden notice, like a tailor-made suit. Nor can it, like such a suit, deceive anybody as to our true status. A man's utterance reveals what he is. It is the measure of his inward attainment. The assertion has been made that for a man to express himself freely and well in his native language is the surest proof of his culture. Meditate the saying. Can you think of a proof that is surer? But a man's speech does more than lend him distinction. It does more than reveal to others what manner of man he is. It is an instrument as well as an index. It is an agent--oftentimes indeed it is _the_ agent--of his influence upon others. How silly are those persons who oppose words to things, as if words were not things at all but air-born unrealities! Words are among the most powerful realities in the world. You vote the Republican ticket. Why? Because you have studied the issues of the campaign and reached a well-reasoned conclusion how the general interests may be served? Possibly. But nine times in ten it will be because of that _word_ Republican. You may believe that in a given instance the Republican cause or candidate is inferior; you may have nothing personally to lose through Republican defeat; yet you squirm and twist and seek excuses for casting a Republican ballot. Such is the power--aye, sometimes the tyranny--of a word. The word _Republican_ has not been selected invidiously. _Democrat_ would have served as well. Or take religious words--_Catholic, Methodist, Presbyterian, Episcopalian, Baptist, Lutheran,_ or what not. A man who belongs, in person or by proxy, to one of the sects designated may be more indifferent to the institution itself than to the word that represents it. Thus you may attack in his presence the tenets of Presbyterianism, for example, but you must be wary about calling the Presbyterian name. _Mother, the flag_--what sooner than an insult coupled with these terms will rouse a man to fight? But does that man kiss his mother, or salute the flag, or pay much heed to either? Probably not. Words not realities? With what realities must we more carefully reckon? Words are as dangerous as dynamite, as beneficent as brotherhood. An unfortunate word may mean a plea rejected, an enterprise baffled, half the world plunged into war. A fortunate word may open a triple-barred door, avert a disaster, bring thousands of people from jealousy and hatred into coöperation and goodwill. Nor is it solely on their emotional side that men may be affected by words. Their thinking and their esthetic nature also--their hard sense and their personal likes and dislikes--are subject to the same influence. You interview a potential investor; does he accept your proposition or not? A prospective customer walks into your store; does he buy the goods you show him? You enter the drawing room of one of the elite; are you invited again and again? Your words will largely decide--your words, or your verbal abstinence. For be it remembered that words no more than dollars are to be scattered broadcast for the sole reason that you have them. The right word should be used at the right time--and at that time only. Silence is oftentimes golden. Nevertheless there are occasions for us to speak. Frequent occasions. To be inarticulate _then_ may mean only embarrassment. It may--some day it will--mean suffering and failure. That we may make the most of the important occasions sure to come, we must have our instruments ready. Those instruments are words. He who commands words commands events--commands men. II WORDS IN COMBINATION: SOME PITFALLS You wish, then, to increase your vocabulary. Of course you must become observant of words and inquisitive about them. For words are like people: they have their own particular characteristics, they do their work well or ill, they are in good odor or bad, and they yield best service to him who loves them and tries to understand them. Your curiosity about them must be burning and insatiable. You must study them when they have withdrawn from the throng of their fellows into the quiescence of their natural selves. You must also see them and study them in action, not only as they are employed in good books and by careful speakers, but likewise as they fall from the lips of unconventional speakers who through them secure vivid and telling effects. In brief, you must learn word nature, as you learn human nature, from a variety of sources. Now in ordinary speech most of us use words, not as individual things, but as parts of a whole--as cogs in the machine of utterance by which we convey our thoughts and feelings. We do not think of them separately at all. And this instinct is sound. In our expression we are like large-scale manufacturing plants rather than one-man establishments. We have at our disposal, not one worker, but a multitude. Hence we are concerned with our employees collectively and with the total production of which they are capable. To be sure, our understanding of them as individuals will increase the worth and magnitude of our output. But clearly we must have large dealings with them in the aggregate. This chapter and the following, therefore, are given over to the study of words in combination. As in all matters, there is a negative as well as a positive side to be reckoned with. Let us consider the negative side first. <Tameness> Correct diction is too often insipid. There is nothing wrong with it, but it does not interest us--it lacks character, lacks color, lacks power. It too closely resembles what we conceive of the angels as having-- impeccability without the warmth of camaraderie. Speech, like a man, should be alive. It need not, of course, be boisterous. It may be intense in a quiet, modest way. But if it too sedulously observes all the _Thou shalt not's_ of the rhetoricians, it will refine the vitality out of itself and leave its hearers unmoved. That is why you should become a disciple of the pithy, everyday conversationalist and of the rough-and-ready master of harangue as well as of the practitioner of precise and scrupulous discourse. Many a speaker or writer has thwarted himself by trying to be "literary." Even Burns when he wrote classic English was somewhat conscious of himself and made, in most instances, no extraordinary impression. But the pieces he impetuously dashed off in his native Scotch dialect can never be forgotten. The man who begins by writing naturally, but as his importance in the publishing world grows, pays more and more attention to felicities--to "style"--and so spoils himself, is known to the editor of every magazine. Any editorial office force can insert missing commas and semicolons, and iron out blunders in the English; but it has not the time, if indeed the ability, to instil life into a lifeless manuscript. A living style is rarer than an inoffensive one, and the road of literary ambition is strewn with failures due to "correctness." Cultivate readiness, even daring, of utterance. A single turn of expression may be so audacious that it plucks an idea from its shroud or places within us an emotion still quivering and warm. Sustained discourse may unflaggingly clarify or animate. But such triumphs are beyond the reach of those, whether speakers or writers, who are constantly pausing to grope for words. This does not mean that scrutiny of individual words is wasted effort. Such scrutiny becomes the basis indeed of the more venturesome and inspired achievement. We must serve our apprenticeship to language. We must know words as a general knows the men under him--all their ranks, their capabilities, their shortcomings, the details and routine of their daily existence. But the end for which we gain our understanding must be to hurl these words upon the enemy, not as disconnected units, but as battalions, as brigades, as corps, as armies. Dr. Johnson, one of the most effective talkers in all history, resolved early in life that, always, and whatever topic might be broached, he would on the moment express his thoughts and feelings with as much vigor and felicity as if he had unlimited leisure to draw on. And Patrick Henry, one of the few really irresistible orators, was wont to plunge headlong into a sentence and trust to God Almighty to get him out. EXERCISE - Tameness 1. Study Appendix I (The Drift of Our Rural Population Cityward). Do you regard it as written simply, with force and natural feeling? Or does it show lack of spontaneity?--suffer from an unnatural and self- conscious manner of writing? Is the style one you would like to cultivate for your own use? 2. Express, if you can, in more vigorous language of your own, the thought of the editorial. 3. Think of some one you have known who has the gift of racy colloquial utterance. Make a list of offhand, homely, or picturesque expressions you have heard him employ, and ask yourself what it is in these expressions that has made them linger in your memory. With them in mind, and with your knowledge of the man's methods of imparting his ideas vividly, try to make your version of the editorial more forceful still. 4. Study Appendix 2 (Causes for the American Spirit of Liberty) as an example of stately and elaborate, yet energetic, discourse. The speech from which this extract is taken was delivered in Parliament in a vain effort to stay England from driving her colonies to revolt. Some of Burke's turns of phrase are extremely bold and original, as "The religion most prevalent in our northern colonies is a refinement on the principle of resistance; it is the dissidence of dissent and the Protestantism of the Protestant religion." Moreover, with all his fulness of diction, Burke could cleave to the heart of an idea in a few words, as "Freedom is to them [the southern slave-holders] not only an enjoyment, but a kind of rank and privilege." Find other examples of bold or concise and illuminating utterance. 5. Read Appendix 3 (Parable of the Sower). It has no special audacities of phrase, but escapes tameness in various ways--largely through its simple earnestness. 6. Make a list of the descriptive phrases in Appendix 4 (The Seven Ages of Man) through which Shakespeare gives life and distinctness to his pictures. 7. Study Appendix 5 (The Castaway) as a piece of homely, effective narrative. (Defoe wrote for the man in the street. He was a literary jack-of-all-trades whom dignified authors of his day would not countenance, but who possessed genius.) It relies upon directness and plausibility of substance and style rather than temerity of phrase. Yet it never sags into tameness. Notice how everyday expressions ("My business was to hold my breath," "I took to my heels") add subtly to our belief that what Defoe is telling us is true. Notice also that such expressions ("the least capful of wind," "half dead with the water I took in," "ready to burst with holding my breath") without being pretentious may yet be forceful. Notice finally the naturalness and lift of the sinewy idioms ("I fetched another run," "I had no clothes to shift me," "I had like to have suffered a second shipwreck," "It wanted but a little that all my cargo had slipped off"). 8. Once or twice at least, make a mental note of halting or listless expressions in a sermon, a public address, or a conversation. Find more emphatic wording for the ideas thus marred. 9. To train yourself in readiness and daring of utterance, practice impromptu discussion of any of the topics in Activity 1 for EXERCISE - Discourse. <Slovenliness> Though we are to recognize the advantage of working in the undress of speech rather than in stiffly-laundered literary linens, though we are not to despise the accessions of strength and of charm which we may obtain from the homely and familiar, we must never be careless. The man whose speech is slovenly is like the man who chews gum--unblushingly commonplace. We must struggle to maintain our individuality. We must not be a mere copy of everybody else. We must put into our words the cordiality we put into our daily demeanor. If we greeted friend or stranger carelessly, conventionally, we should soon be regarded as persons of no force or distinction. So of our speech and our writing. Nothing, to be sure, is more difficult than to give them freshness without robbing them of naturalness and ease. Yet that is what we must learn to do. We shall not acquire the power in a day. We shall acquire it as a chess or a baseball player acquires his skill--by long effort, hard practice. One thing to avoid is the use of words in loose, or fast-and-loose, senses. Do not say that owning a watch is a fine proposition if you mean that it is advantageous. Do not say that you trembled on the brink of disaster if you were threatened with no more than inconvenience or comparatively slight injury. Do not say you were literally scared to death if you are yet alive to tell the story. EXERCISE - Slovenliness I Give moderate or accurate utterance to the following ideas: The burning of the hen-coop was a mighty conflagration. The fact that the point of the pencil was broken profoundly surprised me. We had a perfectly gorgeous time. It's a beastly shame that I missed my car. It is awfully funny that he should die. The saleslady pulled the washlady's hair. A cold bath is pretty nice of mornings. To go a little late is just the article. Another thing to avoid is the use of words in the wrong parts of speech, as a noun for a verb, or an adjective for an adverb. Sometimes newspapers are guilty of such faults; for journalistic English, though pithy, shows here and there traces of its rapid composition. You must look to more leisurely authorities. The speakers and writers on whom you may rely will not say "to burglarize," "to suspicion," "to enthuse," "plenty rich," "real tired," "considerable discouraged," "a combine," or "humans." An exhaustive list of such errors cannot be inserted here. If you feel yourself uncertain in these details of usage, you should have access to such a volume as _The Century Desk Book of Good English_. EXERCISE - Slovenliness II 1. For each quoted expression in the preceding paragraph compose a sentence which shall contain the correct form, or the grammatical equivalent, of the expression. 2. Correct the following sentences: The tramp suicided. She was real excited. He gestured angry. He was some anxious to get to the eats. All of us had an invite. Them boys have sure been teasing the canine. Another thing to avoid is triteness. The English language teems with phrases once strikingly original but now smooth-worn and vulgarized by incessant repetition. It can scarcely be said that you are to shun these altogether. Now and then you will find one of them coming happily as well as handily into your speech. But you must not use them too often. Above all, you must rid yourself of any dependence upon them. The scope of this book permits only a few illustrations of the kinds of words and phrases meant. But the person who speaks of "lurid flames," or "untiring efforts," or "specimens of humanity"--who "views with alarm," or has a "native heath," or is "to the manner born"--does more than advertise the scantness of his verbal resources. He brands himself mentally indolent; he deprives his thought itself of all sharpness, exactness, and power. EXERCISE - Slovenliness III Replace with more original expressions the trite phrases (italicized) in the following sentences: _Last but not least_, we have _in our midst_ one who began life _poor but honest_. After we had _done justice to a dinner_ and gathered in the drawing room, we listened _with bated breath_ while she _favored us with a selection_. _A goodly number_ of _the fair sex_, perceiving that _the psychological moment_ had come, _applauded him to the echo_. We were _doomed to disappointment; the grim reaper_ had already gathered unto himself _all that was mortal_ of our comrade. _No sooner said than done_. I soon found myself _the proud possessor_ of that for which I had acknowledged _a long-felt want_. After _the last sad rites_ were over and her body was _consigned to earth_, we began talking _along these lines_. With _a few well-chosen words_ he _brought order out of chaos_. The way my efforts were _nipped in the bud_ simply _beggars description_. I am somewhat _the worse for wear. Hoping you are the same_, I remain Yours sincerely, Ned Burke. Finally, to the extent that you use slang at all, be its master instead of its slave. You have many times been told that the overuse of slang disfigures one's speech and hampers his standing with cultivated people. You have also been told that slang constantly changes, so that one's accumulations of it today will be a profitless clutter tomorrow. These things are true, but an even more cogent objection remains. Slang is detrimental to the formation of good intellectual habits. From its very nature it cannot be precise, cannot discriminate closely. It is a vehicle for loose-thinking people, it is fraught with unconsidered general meanings, it moves in a region of mental mists. It could not flourish as it does were fewer of us content to express vague thoughts and feelings instead of those which are sharply and specifically ours. Unless, therefore, you wish your intellectual processes to be as hazy and haphazard as those of mental shirkers and loafers, you must eschew, not necessarily all slang, but all heedless, all habitual use of it. Now and then a touch of slang, judiciously chosen, is effective; now and then it fulfils a legitimate purpose of language. But normally you should express yourself as befits one who has at his disposal the rich treasuries of the dictionary instead of a mere stock of greasy counterfeit phrases. EXERCISE - Slovenliness IV Replace the following slang with acceptable English: We pulled a new wrinkle. He's an easy mark. Oh, you're nutty. Beat it. I have all the inside dope. You can't bamboozle me. What a phiz the bloke has! You're talking through your hat. We had a long confab with the gink. He's loony over that chicken. The prof. told us to vamoose. Take a squint at the girl with the specs. Ain't it fierce the way they swipe umbrellas? Goodnight, how she claws the ivory! Nix on the rough stuff. And there I got pinched by a cop for parking my Tin Lizzie. <Wordiness> As a precaution against tameness you should cultivate spontaneity and daring. As a precaution against slovenliness you should cultivate freshness and accuracy. But to display spontaneity, daring, freshness, accuracy you must have or acquire a large stock, a wide range, of words. Now this possession, like any other, brings with it temptation. If we have words, we like to use them. Nor do we wait for an indulgence in this luxury until we have consciously set to work to amass a vocabulary. Verbosity is, in truth, the besetting linguistic sin. Most people are lavish with words, as most people are lavish with money. This is not to say that in the currency of language they are rich. But even if they lack the means--and the desire--to be extravagant, they yet make their purchases heedlessly or fail to count their linguistic change. The degree of our thrift, not the amount of our income or resources, is what marks us as being or not being verbal spendthrifts. The frugal manager buys his ideas at exactly the purchase price. He does not expend a twenty-dollar bill for a box of matches. Have words by all means, the more of them the better, but use them temperately, sparingly. Do not think that a passage to be admirable must be studded with ostentatious terms. Consider the Gettysburg Address or the Parable of the Prodigal Son. These convey their thought and feeling perfectly, yet both are simple--exquisitely simple. They strike us indeed as being inevitable--as if their phrasing could not have been other than it is. They have, they are, finality. What could glittering phraseology add to them? Nothing; it could only mar them. Yet Lincoln and the Scriptural writers were not afraid to use big words when occasion required. What they sought was to make their speech adequate without carrying a superfluous syllable. "The sun set" is more natural and effective than "The celestial orb that blesses our terrestrial globe with its warm and luminous rays sank to its nocturnal repose behind the western horizon." Great writers--the true masters--have often held "fine writing" and pretentious speaking up to ridicule. Thus Shakespeare has Kent, who has been rebuked for his bluntness, indulge in a grandiloquent outburst: "Sir, in good sooth, in sincere verity, Under the allowance of your grand aspect, Whose influence, like the wreath of radiant fire On flickering Phoebus' front,--" No wonder Kent is interrupted with a "What meanest by this?" Sometimes great writers use ornate utterance for humorous effects. Thus Dickens again and again has Mr. Micawber express a commonplace idea in sounding terms which at length fail him, so that he must interject an "in short" and summarize his meaning in a phrase amusing through its homely contrast. But humor based on ponderous diction is too often wearisome. Better say simply "He died," or colloquially "He kicked the bucket," than "He propelled his pedal extremities with violence against the wooden pail which is customarily employed in the transportation of the aquatic fluid." EXERCISE - Wordiness I Express these ideas in simpler language: The temperature was excessive. The most youthful of his offspring was not remarkable for personal pulchritude. Henry Clay expressed a preference for being on the right side of public questions to occupying the position of President of the United States of America. He who passes at an accelerated pace may nevertheless be capable of perusing. A masculine member of the human race was mounted on an equine quadruped. But the number of the terms we employ, as well as their ostentatiousness, must be considered. Most of us blunder around in the neighborhood of our meaning instead of expressing it briefly and clearly. We throw a handful of words at an idea when one word would suffice; we try to bring the idea down with a shotgun instead of a rifle. Of course one means of correction is that we should acquire accuracy, a quality already discussed. Another is that we should practice condensation. First, let us learn to omit the words which add nothing to the meaning. Thus in the sentence "An important essential in cashing a check is that you should indorse it on the back," several words or groups of words needlessly repeat ideas which are expressed elsewhere. The sentence is as complete in substance, and far terser in form, when it reads "An essential in cashing a check is that you should indorse it." Next, let us, when we may, reduce phrases and even clauses to a word. Thus the clause at the beginning and the phrase at the close of the following sentence constitute sheer verbiage: "Men who have let their temper get the better of them are often in a mood to do harm to somebody." The sentence tells us nothing that may not be told in five words: "Angry men are often dangerous." Finally, let us substitute phrases or clauses for unnecessary sentences. The following series of independent assertions contains avoidable repetitions: "One morning I was riding on the subway to my work. It was always my custom to ride to my work on the subway. This morning I met Harry Blake." The full thought may better be embodied in a single sentence: "One morning, while I was, as usual, riding on the subway to my work, I met Harry Blake." By applying these instructions to any page at hand--one from your own writing, one from a letter some friend has sent you, one from a book or magazine--you will often be able to strike out many of the words without at all impairing the meaning. Another means of acquiring succinct expression is to practice the composition of telegrams and cable messages. You will of course lessen the cost by eliminating every word that can possibly be spared. On the other hand, you must bear it in mind that your punctuation will not be transmitted, and that the recipient must be absolutely safeguarded against reading together words meant to be separated or separating words meant to be read together. That is, your message must be both concise and unmistakably clear. EXERCISE - Wordiness II 1. Condense the editorial (Appendix 1) by eliminating unnecessary words and finding briefer equivalents for roundabout expressions. 2. Try to condense similarly the Parable of the Sower (Appendix 3) and the Seven Ages of Man (Appendix 4). (The task will largely or altogether baffle you, but will involve minute study of tersely written passages.) 3. Condense the following: A man whose success in life was due solely to his own efforts rose in his place and addressed the man who presided over the meeting. A girl who sat in the seat behind me giggled in an irritating manner. We heard the wild shriek of the locomotive. Any sound in that savage region seemed more terrible than it would in civilized surroundings. So as we listened to the shriek of the locomotive, it sounded terrible too. I heard what kind of chauffeur he was. A former employer of his told me. He was a chauffeur who speeded in reckless fashion because he was fond of having all the excitement possible. 4. Condense the following into telegrams of ten words or less: Arrived here in Toledo yesterday morning talked with the directors found them not hostile to us but friendly. Detectives report they think evidence now points to innocence of man arrested and to former employee as the burglar. 5. The following telegrams are ambiguous. Clarify them. Jane escaped illness I feared Charley better. Buy oil if market falls sell cotton. 6. Base a telegraphic night letter of not more than fifty words upon these circumstances: (a) You have been sent to buy, if possible and as cheaply as possible, a majority of the stock in a given company. You find that many of the stockholders distrust or dislike the president and are willing to sell. Some of these ask only $50 a share for their holdings; the owners of 100 shares want as much as $92; the average price asked is $76. By buying out all the president's enemies, which you can now do beyond question, you would secure a bare majority of the stock. But $92 a share seems to you excessive; that is, you think that by working quietly among the president's friends you can get 100 shares at $77 or thereabouts and thus save approximately $1500. On the other hand, should your dealings with the friends of the president give him premature warning, he might stop the sales by these friends and himself begin buying from his enemies, and thus make your purchase of a majority of the stock impossible. Is the $1500 you would save worth the risk you would be obliged to take? You call for instructions. (b) You are telegraphing a metropolitan paper the results of a Congressional election. Philput, the Republican candidate, leads in the cities, from which returns are now complete. Wilkins, the Democratic candidate, leads in the country, from only certain districts of which-- those nearest the cities--returns have been heard. If the present proportionate division of the rural vote is maintained for the total, Philput will be elected by a plurality of three hundred votes. Philput asserts that the proportions will hold. Wilkins points out, however, that he is relatively stronger in the more remote districts and predicts that he will have a plurality of seven hundred votes. Smallbridge, an independent candidate, is apparently making a better race in the country than in the city, but he is so weak in both places that the ballots cast for him can scarcely affect the outcome unless the margin of victory is infinitesimal. 7. Compress 6a and 6b each into a telegram of not more than ten words. 8. (Do not read this assignment until you have composed the night letters and telegrams called for in 6 and 7.) Compare your first night letter in 6 and your first telegram in 7 with the versions given below. Decide where you have surpassed these versions, where you have fallen short of them. _Night letter_: Two factions in company I can buy from enemies president bare majority stock at average seventy-six but hundred of these shares held at ninety-two I could probably get hundred quietly from friends president about seventy-seven but president might detect move and buy majority stock himself wire instructions. (Fifty words.) _Telegram_: Wire whether buy safe or risk control saving fifteen hundred. (Ten words.) A final device for escaping wordiness you will have discovered for yourself while composing telegrams and telegraphic night letters. It is to pass over details not vital to your purpose. Of course you must have due regard for circumstances; details needed for one purpose may be superfluous for another. But all of us are familiar with the person who loses her ideas in a rigmarole of prosaic and irrelevant facts. Such a person is Shakespeare's scatter-brained Dame Quickly. On one occasion this voluble woman is shrilly reproaching Sir John Falstaff for his indebtedness to her. "What is the gross sum that I owe thee?" he inquires. She might answer simply: "If thou wert an honest man, thyself and the money too. Thou didst promise to marry me. Deny it if thou canst." Instead, she plunges into a prolix recital of the circumstances of the engagement, so that the all-important fact that the engagement exists has no special emphasis in her welter of words. "If thou wert an honest man," she cries, "thyself and the money too. Thou didst swear to me upon a parcel-gilt goblet, sitting in my Dolphin-chamber, at the round table, by a sea-coal fire, upon Wednesday in Wheeson week, when the prince broke thy head for liking his father to a singing-man of Windsor, thou didst swear to me then, as I was washing thy wound, to marry me and make me my lady thy wife. Canst thou deny it? Did not goodwife Keech, the butcher's wife, come in then and call me gossip Quickly? coming in to borrow a mess of vinegar; telling us she had a good dish of prawns; whereby thou didst desire to eat some, whereby I told thee they were ill for a green wound? And didst thou not, when she was gone down stairs, desire me to be no more so familiarity with such poor people; saying that ere long they should call me madam? And didst thou not kiss me and bid me fetch thee thirty shillings? I put thee now to thy book-oath; deny it if thou canst." EXERCISE - Wordiness III 1. Study the following paragraph, decide which ideas are important, and strike out the details that merely clog the thought: As I stepped into the room, I heard the clock ticking and that caused me to look at it. It sits on the mantelpiece with some layers of paper under one corner where the mantel is warped. When the papers slip out or we move the clock a little as we're dusting, the ticking stops right away. Of course the clock's not a new one at all, but it's an old one. It has been in the family for many a long year, yes, from even before my father's time. Let me see, it was bought by my grandfather. No, it couldn't have been grandfather that bought it; it was his brother. Oh, yes, I remember now; my mother told me all about it, and I'd forgotten what she said till this minute. But really my grandfather's brother didn't exactly buy it. He just traded for it. He gave two pigs and a saddle, that's what my mother said. You see, he was afraid his hogs might take cholera and so he wanted to get rid of them; and as for the saddle, he had sold his riding-horse and he didn't have any more use for that. Well, it isn't a valuable clock, like a grandfather clock or anything of that sort, though it is antique. As I was saying, when I glanced at it, it read seven minutes to six. I remember the time very well, for just then the factory whistle blew and I remember saying to myself: "It's seven minutes slow today." You see, it's old and we don't keep it oiled, and so it's always losing time. Hardly a day passes but I set it up--sometimes twice a day, as for the matter of that--and I usually go by the factory whistle too, though now and then I go by Dwight's gold watch. Well, anyhow, that tells me what time it was. I'm certain I can't be wrong. 2. Study, on the other hand, The Castaway (Appendix 5) for its judicious use of details. Defoe in his stories is a supreme master of verisimilitude (likeness to truth). As we read him, we cannot help believing that these things actually happened. More than in anything else the secret of his lifelikeness lies in his constant faithfulness to reality. He puts in the little mishaps that would have befallen a man so situated, the things he would have done, the difficulties he might have avoided had he exercised forethought. Though Defoe had little insight into the complexities of man's inner life, he has not been surpassed in his accumulations of naturalistic outer details. These do not cumber his narrative; they contribute to its purpose and add to its effectiveness. In this selection (Appendix 5) observe how plausible are such homely details as Crusoe's seeing no sign of his comrades "except three of their hats, one cap, and two shoes that were not fellows"; as his difficulty in getting aboard the ship again; and as his having his clothes washed away by the rising of the tide. Find half a dozen other such incidents that You consider especially effective. <Verbal Discords> We may pitch our talk or our writing in almost any key we choose. Our mood may be dreamy or eager or hilarious or grim or blustering or somber or bantering or scornful or satirical or whatever we will. But once we have established the tone, we should not--except sometimes for broadly humorous effects--change it needlessly or without clear forewarning. If we do, we create one or the other of two obstacles, or both of them, for whoever is trying to follow what we say. In the first place, we obscure our meaning. For example, we have been speaking ironically and suddenly swerve into serious utterance; or we have been speaking seriously and then incongruously adopt an ironic tone. How are our listeners, our readers to take us? They are puzzled; they do not know. In the second place, we offend--perhaps in insidious, indefinable fashion--the esthetic proprieties; we violate the natural fitness of things. For example, we have been speaking with colloquial freedom, sprinkling our discourse with _shouldn't_ and _won't;_ suddenly we become formal and say _should not_ and _will not_. Our meaning is as obvious as before, but the verbal harmony has been interrupted; our hearers or readers are uneasily aware of a break in the unity of tone. A speaker or writer is a host to verbal guests. When he invites them to his assembly, he gives each the tacit assurance that it will not be brought into fellowship with those which in one or another of a dozen subtle ways will be uncongenial company for it. He must never be forgetful of this unspoken promise. If he is to avoid a linguistic breach, he must constantly have his wits about him; must study out his combinations carefully, and use all his knowledge, all his tact. He will make due use of spontaneous impulse; but that this may be wise and disciplined, he will form the habit of curiosity about words, their stations, their savor, their aptitudes, their limitations, their outspokenness, their reticences, their affinities and antipathies. Thus when he has need of a phrase to fill out a verbal dinner party, he will know which one to select. Certain broad classifications of words are manifest even to the most obtuse user of English. _Shady_, _behead_, and _lying_ are "popular" words, while their synonyms _umbrageous,_ decapitate,_ and _mendacious_ are "learned" words. _Flabbergasted_ and _higgledy-piggledy_ are "colloquial," while _roseate_ and _whilom_ are "literary." _Affidavit_, _allegro_, _lee shore_, and _pinch hit_ are "technical," while _vamp_, _savvy_, _bum hunch_, and _skiddoo_ are "slang." It would be disenchanting indeed were extremes of this sort brought together. But offenses of a less glaring kind are as hard to shut out as February cold from a heated house. Unusual are the speeches or compositions, even the short ones, in which every word is in keeping, is in perfect tune with the rest. For the attainment of this ultimate verbal decorum we should have to possess knowledge almost unbounded, together with unerring artistic instinct. But diction of a kind only measurably inferior to this is possible to us if we are in earnest. To attain it we must study the difference between abstract and concrete terms, and let neither intrude unadvisedly upon the presence or functions of the other; do the same by literal and figurative terms and instruct ourselves in the nature and significance of connotation. Before considering these more detailed matters, however, we may pause for a general exercise on verbal harmony. EXERCISE - Discords 1. Study the editorial in Appendix 1 for unforewarned changes in mood and assemblages of mutually uncongenial words. Rewrite the worst two paragraphs to remove all blemishes of these kinds. 2. Compare Burke's speech (Appendix 2) with Defoe's narrative (Appendix 5) for the difference in tone between them. Does each keep the tone it adopts (that is, except for desirable changes)? 3. Note the changes in tone in the Seven Ages of Man (Appendix 4). Do the changes in substance make these changes in tone desirable? 4. In the following passages, make such changes and omissions as are necessary to unify the tone: How I loved to stroll, on those long Indian summer afternoons, into the quiet meadows where the mild-breathed kine were grazing! An old cow that switches her tail at flies and puts her foot in the bucket when you milk her, I absolutely loathe. How I loved to hear the birds sing, to listen to the fall of ripe autumnal apples! It wasn't the girl yclept Sally. This girl was not so vivacious as Sally, but she had a mug on her that was a lot less ugly to look at. Gee, when she stood there in front of me with those mute, ineffable, sympathetic eyes of hers, I was ready to throw a duck-fit. Old Grimes is dead, that dear old soul; We'll never see him more; He wore a great long overcoat, All buttoned down before. <I. Abstract vs. Concrete Terms; General vs. Specific Terms> Abstract terms convey ideas; concrete terms call up pictures. If we say "Honesty is the best policy," we speak abstractly. Nobody can see or hear or touch the thing _honesty_ or the thing _policy_; the apprehension of them must be purely intellectual. But if we say "The rat began to gnaw the rope," we speak concretely. _Rat_, _gnaw_, and _rope_ are tangible, perceptible things; the words bring to us visions of particular objects and actions. Now when we engage in explanations and discussions of principles, theories, broad social topics, and the like--when we expound, moralize, or philosophize,--our subject matter is general. We approach our readers or hearers on the thinking, the rational side of their natures. Our phraseology is therefore normally abstract. But when, on the other hand, we narrate an event or depict an appearance, our subject matter is specific. We approach our readers or hearers on the sensory or emotional side of their natures. Our phraseology is therefore normally concrete. You should be able to express yourself according to either method. You should be able to choose the words best suited to make people understand; also to choose the words best suited to make people realize vividly and feel. Now to some extent you will adopt the right method by intuition. But if you do not reinforce your intuition with a careful study of words, you will vacillate from one method to the other and strike crude discords of phrasing. Of course if you switch methods intelligently and of purpose, that is quite another matter. An abstract discussion may be enlivened by a concrete illustration. A concrete narrative or portrayal may be given weight and rationalized by generalization. Moreover many things lie on the borderland between the two domains and may properly be attached to either. Thus the abstraction is legitimate when you say or write: "A man wishes to acquire the comforts and luxuries, as well as the necessaries, of life." The concreteness is likewise legitimate when you say or write: "John Smith wishes to earn cake as well as bread and butter." In most instances general terms are the same as abstract, and specific the same as concrete. Some subtle discriminations may, however, be made. Of these the only one that need concern us here is that the wording of a passage may not be abstract and yet be general. Suppose, for example, you were telling the story of the prodigal son and should say: "He was very hungry, and could not obtain food anywhere. When he had come to his senses, he thought, 'I should be better off at home.'" This language is not abstract, but it is general rather than specific. When Jesus told the story, he wished to put the situation as poignantly as possible and therefore avoided both abstract and general terms: "And he would fain have filled his belly with the husks that the swine did eat: and no man gave unto him. And when he came to himself, he said, How many hired servants of my father's have bread enough and to spare, and I perish with hunger!" Many a person who shuns abstractions and talks altogether of the concrete things of life, yet traps out circumstance in general rather than specific terms. To do this is always to sacrifice force. EXERCISE - Abstract 1. Discuss as abstractly as possible such topics as those listed in Activity 1 for EXERCISE - Discourse, or as the following: Is there any such thing as luck? Is the Golden Rule practicable in the modern business world? Is modesty rather than self-assertion regarding his own merits and abilities the better policy for an employee? Are substantial, home-keeping girls or girls rather fast and frivolous the more likely to obtain good husbands? Is it desirable for a young man to take out life insurance? Is self-education better than collegiate training? Should one always tell the truth? 2. Discuss as concretely as possible the topics you have selected from 1. Use illustrations drawn from life. 3. Restate in concrete terms such generalizations as the following: Experience is the best teacher. Self-preservation is the first law of nature. To him who in the love of nature holds Communion with her visible forms, she speaks A various language. Necessity is the mother of invention. The bravest are the tenderest. Vanity of vanities, all is vanity. Pride goeth before destruction. The evil that men do lives after them. 4. Compare the abstract statement "Truths and high ethical principles are received by various men in various ways" with the concrete presentation of the same idea in Appendix 3. Which expression of the thought would be the more easily understood by the average person? Why? Which would you yourself remember the longer? Why? 5. Compare the statement "The second period of a human being's life is that of his reluctant attendance at school" with Shakespeare's picture of the schoolboy in Appendix 4. 6. Burke, near the close of his speech (Appendix 2), presents an idea, first in general terms, and then in specific terms, thus: "No contrivance can prevent the effect of...distance in weakening government. Seas roll, and months pass, between the order and the execution, and the want of a speedy explanation of a single point is enough to defeat a whole system." Find elsewhere in Burke's speech and in the editorial (Appendix I) general assertions which may be made more forceful by restatement in specific terms, and supply these specific restatements. 7. State in your own words the general thought or teaching of the Parable of the Prodigal Son. (_Luke_ 15: 11-24.) 8. Make the following statements more concrete: In front of our house was a tree that at a certain season of the year displayed highly colored foliage. A celebrated orator said: "Give me liberty, or give me death!" On the table were some viands that assailed my nostrils agreeably and others that put into my mouth sensations of anticipated enjoyment. From this window above the street I can hear a variety of noises by day and a variety of different noises by night. As he groped through the pitch-dark room he could feel many articles of furniture. 9. State in general terms the thought of the following sentences: A burnt child dreads the fire. A stitch in time saves nine. A cat may look at a king. A barking dog never bites. If his son ask bread, will he give him a stone? If two men ride a horse, one must ride behind. Stone walls do not a prison make. A merry heart goes all the day. Thrice is he armed that hath his quarrel just. As the twig is bent, so the tree is inclined. 10. Describe a town as seen from a particular point of view, or at a particular time of day, or under particular atmospheric conditions. Make your description as concrete as possible. 11. Compare your description with this from Stevenson: "The town came down the hill in a cascade of brown gables, bestridden by smooth white roofs, and spangled here and there with lighted windows." Stevenson's sentence contains twenty-five words. How many of them are "color" words? How many "motion" words? How many of the first twenty-five words in your description appeal to one or another of the five senses? 12. Narrate as vividly as possible an experience in your own life. Compare what you have written with the account of Crusoe's escape to the island (Appendix 5). Which narrative is the more concrete? How much? <2. Literal vs. Figurative Terms> Phraseology is literal when it says exactly what it means; is figurative when it says one thing, but really means another. Thus "He fought bravely" is literal; "He was a lion in the fight" is figurative. Literal phraseology as a rule appeals to our scientific or understanding faculties; figurative to our emotional faculties. Here again, as with abstraction and concreteness, you should learn to express yourself by either method. Both have their advantages and their drawbacks. We all admire the man who has observed, and can state, accurately. It is upon this belief of ours in the literal that Defoe shrewdly traffics. (See Appendix 5.) He does not stir us as some writers do, but he gains our implicit confidence. Dame Quickly, on the contrary, makes egregious use of the literal. (See paragraph above EXERCISE - Wordiness III above.) Her facts are accurate, yes; but how strictly, how unsparingly accurate! And how many of them are beside the point! She quite convinces us that the devotee of the literal may be dull. An advantage of the figurative also is that it may make meanings lucid. Thus when Burke near the close of his discussion (Appendix 2) wishes to make it clear that by a law of nature the authority of extensive empires is slighter in its more remote territories, he has recourse to a figure of speech: "In large bodies, the circulation of power must be less vigorous at the extremities. Nature has said it." More often, however, the function of the figurative is to drive home a thought or a mood of which a mere statement would leave us unmoved--to make us _feel_ it. Thus Burke said of the Americans "Their love of liberty, as with you, fixed and attached on this specific point of taxing." He added: "Here they felt its pulse, and as they found that beat they thought themselves sick or sound." Had you been one of his Parliamentary hearers, would not that second sentence have made more real and more important the colonial attitude to taxation? The poets of course make frequent and noble use of the figurative. This is how Coleridge tells us that the descent of a tropical night is sudden: "The sun's rim dips; the stars rush out; At one stride comes the dark." The words _rush out_ and _at one stride comes_ convert the stars and the darkness into vast beings or at least vast personal forces; the comparisons are so natural as to seem inevitable; we are transported to the very scene and feel the overwhelming abruptness of the nightfall. But if a figure of speech seems artificial, if it is strained or far-fetched or merely decorative, it subtracts from the effectiveness of the passage. Thus when Tennyson says: "When the breeze of a joyful dawn blew free In the silken sail of infancy." we must stop and ponder before we perceive that what he means is "When I was a happy child." The figure is like an exotic plant rather than a natural outgrowth of the soil; it appears to us something thought up and stuck on; it is a parasite rather than a helper. Of course, as with abstraction and concreteness, you should develop facility in gliding from literalness to figurativeness and back again. But you are always to remember that your gymnastics are not to militate against verbal concord. You must never set words scowling and growling at each other through injudicious combinations like this: "She was five feet, four and three-quarter inches high, had a small, round scar between her nose and her left cheek-bone, and moved with the lissom and radiant grace of a queen." EXERCISE - Literal 1. Give the specifications for a house you intend to build. 2. Make a list of comparisons (as to a nest, a haven, a goal) to show what such a house might mean in the life of a man. Expand as many of these comparisons as you can, but do not carry the process to absurd lengths. (In the figure of the nest you may mention the parent birds, their activities, the nestlings; in the figure of the haven you may mention the quiet, sheltered waters in contrast to the turbulent billows outside; in the figure of the goal you may mention the struggle necessary to reach it.) 3. Describe the looks of the house. Use as many figures of speech as you can. If you can find no appropriate figures, at least make your words specific. 4. Give a surveyor's or a tax assessor's or a conveyancer's description of a piece of land. Then describe the land through figures of speech which will vivify its outward appearance or its emotional significance to the owner. 5. Observe that the Parable of the Sower (Appendix 3) is an extended figure of speech. Is the main figure effective? Are its detailed applications effective? 6. The Seven Ages of Man (Appendix 4) is also an extended figure of speech. Does it, as Shakespeare intends, bring vividly to your consciousness the course, motives, stages, evolution of a human being's life? There are several subsidiary figures. Do these add force, definiteness to the picture Shakespeare is drawing at that moment? 7. Observe from Appendix 3, Appendix 4, and the sentences listed in Activity 9 for EXERCISE - Abstract above, that a thing meant to be concrete is likely to be stated figuratively. 8. Examine The Castaway (Appendix 5) for its proportionate use of literal and figurative elements. See Activity 2 of EXERCISE - Wordiness III above for a statement of Defoe's purpose. Could he have effected this purpose so well had he employed more figures of speech? 9. Examine Appendix 2 for its use of figures. Are the figures appropriate to the subject matter? Are there enough of them? 10. Galvanize the thought of any sentence or paragraph in editorial (Appendix 1) by the use of a figure of speech. 11. Summarize or illustrate your opinion on any of the topics listed in Activity 1 for EXERCISE - Discourse, through the employment of figure of speech. 12. Are these figures effective? Man is born unto trouble, as the sparks fly upward. The flower of our young manhood is scaling the ladder of success. Fair as a star, when only one Is shining in the sky. Silence, like a poultice, comes To heal the blows of sound. In my head Many thoughts of trouble come, Like to flies upon a plum! Let me tell you first about those barnacles that clog the wheels of society by poisoning the springs of rectitude with their upas-like eye. The day is done, and the darkness Falls from the wings of night, As a feather is wafted downward From an eagle in his flight. Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil. Life, like a dome of many-colored glass, Stains the white radiance of eternity. Mountains stood out like pimples or lay like broken welts across the habitable ground. Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player That struts and frets his hour upon the stage, And then is heard no more; it is a tale Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, Signifying nothing. I saw him in Russia, where the infantry of the snow and the cavalry of the wild blast scattered his legions like winter's withered leaves. 13. Recast the following sentences to eliminate the clashing of literal and figurative elements: Life is like a rich treasure entrusted to us, and to sustain it we must have three square meals a day. She glanced at the mirror, but did not really see herself. She was trying to puzzle out the right course, and could only see as through a glass darkly. Arming himself with the sword of zeal and the buckler of integrity, he wrote the letter. He swept the floor every morning, and was a ray of sunshine in the office. He also emptied the waste baskets and cleaned the cuspidors. <3. Connotation> The connotation of a word is the subtle implication, the emotional association it carries--often quite apart from its dictionary definition. Thus the words _house_ and _home_ in large measure overlap in meaning, but emotionally they are not equivalents at all. You can say _house_ without experiencing any sensation whatever, but if you utter the word _home_ it will call back, however slightly, tender and cherished recollections. _Bald heads_ and _gray hair_ are both indicative of age; but you would pronounce the former in disparaging allusion to elderly persons, and the latter with sentiments of veneration. You would say, of a clodpole that he plays the _fiddle_, but of Fritz Kreisler that he plays the _violin_. And just as you unconsciously adapt words to feelings in these obvious instances, you must learn, on peril of striking false notes verbally, to do so when distinctions are less gross. Moreover circumstance as well as sentiment may control the connotation of a word. A word or phrase may have a double or triple connotation, and depend upon vocal inflection, upon gesture, upon the words with which it is linked, upon the experience of speaker or hearer, upon time, place, and external fact, or upon other forces outside it for the sense in which it is to be taken. You may be called "old dog" in an insulting manner, or (especially if a slap on the shoulder accompanies the phrase) in an affectionate manner. You may properly say, "Calhoun had logic on his side"; add, however, the words "but his face was to the past," and you spoil the sentence,--for _face_ gives a reflex connotation to _side_, slight perhaps and momentary, but disconcerting. Think over the funny stories you have heard. Many of them turn, you will find, on the outcropping of new significance in a phrase because of its environment. Thus the anecdote of the servant who had been instructed to summon the visiting English nobleman by tapping on his bedroom door and inquiring, "My lord, have you yet risen?" and who could only stammer, "My God! ain't you up yet?" Or the anecdote of the minister who in a sermon on the Parable of the Prodigal Son told how a young man living dissolutely in a city had been compelled to send to the pawnbroker first his overcoat, next his suit, next his silk shirt, and finally his very underclothing--"and then," added the minister, "he came to himself." Only by unresting vigilance can you evade verbal discords, if not of this magnitude, at least of much frequency and stylistic harm. EXERCISE - Connotation 1. Note the contrast in emotional suggestion that comes to you from hearing the words: "Sodium chloride" and "salt" "A test-tube of H2O" and "a cup of cold water" "A pair of brogans" and "a little empty shoe" "Bump" and "collide" "A brilliant fellow" and "a flashy fellow" "Bungled it" and "did not succeed" "Tumble" and "fall" "Dawn" and "6 A.M." "Licked" and "worsted" "Fat" and "plump" "Wept" and "blubbered" "Cheek" and "self-assurance" "Stinks" and "disagreeable odors" "Steal" and "embezzle" "Thievishness" and "kleptomania" "Educated" and "highbrow" "Job" and "position" "Told a lie" and "fell into verbal inexactitude" "A drunkard" (a stranger) and "a drunkard" (your father). 2. Make a list of your own similar to that in Exercise 1. 3. Read the sentences listed in EXERCISE - Slovenliness III and IV. What do these sentences suggest to you as to the social and mental qualifications of the person who employs them? 4. Read the second paragraph of Appendix 2. What does it suggest to you as to Burke's social and mental qualifications? 5. Suppose you were told that a passage of twenty-eight lines contains the following expressions: "mewling and puking," "whining schoolboy," "satchel," "sighing like furnace," "round belly," "spectacles on nose," "shrunk shank," "sans [without] teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything." Would you believe the passage is poetry?--that its total effect is one of poetic elevation? Read the Seven Ages of Man (Appendix 4). _Is_ it poetry? How does Shakespeare reconcile the general poetic tone with such expressions as those quoted? 6. What is wrong with the connotation of the following? The servant told us that the young ladies were all in. All my poor success is due to you. He insisted on carrying a revolver, and so the college authorities fired him. The carpenter too had his castles in Spain. He rested his old bones by the wayside, and his gaunt dog stood sniffing at them. On the other hand, he had a white elephant to dispose of. When he came to the forks of the road, he showed he was not on the square. Body, for funeral purposes, must be sold at once. City Automobile Agency. 7. Can you express the following ideas in other words without sacrifice of emotional suggestion? Try. The music, yearning like a god in pain. Alone, alone, all, all alone, Alone on a wide, wide sea! But O for the touch of a vanished hand, And the sound of a voice that is still! Old, unhappy, far-off things, And battles long ago. It was night in the lonesome October. How they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle, In the icy air of night! While the stars, that oversprinkle All the heavens, seem to twinkle With a crystalline delight. The moan of doves in immemorial elms, And murmuring of innumerable bees. Ay, but to die, and go we know not where; To lie in cold obstruction and to rot. Merrily, merrily, shall I live now, Under the blossom that hangs on the bough. 'Tis as easy now for the heart to be true As for grass to be green or skies to be blue,-- 'Tis the natural way of living. We are such stuff As dreams are made of, and our little life Is rounded with a sleep. 8. With the most connotative words at your command describe the following: Your first sweetheart A solemn experience A ludicrous experience A terrifying experience A mysterious experience The circus parade you saw in your boyhood A servant girl A dude An odd character you have known The old homestead Your boarding house A scene suggesting the intense heat of a midsummer day Night on the river The rush for the subway car The traffic policeman Your boss Anything listed in the first part of Activity 9 of EXERCISE - Discourse. III WORDS IN COMBINATION: HOW MASTERED The more dangerous pitfalls for those who use words in combination--as all of us do--have been pointed out. The best ways of avoiding these pitfalls have also been indicated. But our work together has thus far been chiefly negative. To be sure, many tasks assigned for your performance have been constructive as well as precautionary; but _the end_ held ever before you has been the avoidance of feeble or ridiculous diction. In the present chapter we must take up those aspects of the mastery of words in combination which are primarily positive. <Preliminaries: General Purposes and Methods> Before coming to specific aspects and assignments, however, we shall do well to consider certain large general purposes and methods. <I. A Ready, an Accurate, or a Wide Vocabulary?> First, what kind of vocabulary do we wish to acquire? A facile, readily used one? An accurate one? Or one as nearly as may be comprehensive? The three kinds do not necessarily coexist. The possession of one may even hinder and retard the acquisition of another. Thus if we seek a ready vocabulary, an accurate vocabulary may cause us to halt and hesitate for words which shall correspond with the shadings of our thought and emotion, and a wide vocabulary may embarrass us with the plenitude of our verbal riches. But _may_ is not _must_. Though the three kinds of vocabulary may interfere with each other, there is no reason, except superficially, why they should. Our purpose should be, therefore, to acquire not a single kind but all three. We should be like the boy who, when asked whether he would have a small slice of apple pie or a small slice of pumpkin pie, replied resolutely, "Thank you, I will take a large piece of both." That the assignments in this chapter may help you develop a vocabulary which shall be promptly responsive to your needs, you should perform some of them rapidly. Your thoughts and feelings regarding a topic may be anything but clear, but you must not pause to clarify them. The words best suited to the matter may not be instantly available, but you must not tarry for accessions of language. Stumble, flounder if you must, yea, rearrange your ideas even as you present them, but press resolutely ahead, comforting yourself with the assurance that in the heat and stress of circumstances a man rarely does his work precisely as he wishes. When you have finished the discussion, repeat it immediately--and with no more loitering than before. You will find that your ideas have shifted and enlarged, and that more appropriate words have become available. Further repetitions will assist you the more. But the goal you should set yourself, as you proceed from topic to topic, is the attainment of the power to be at your best in the first discussion. You may never reach this goal, but at least you may approach it. That the assignments in this chapter may assist you in making your vocabulary accurate, you should perform some of them in another way. When you have selected a topic, you should first of all think it through. In doing this, arrange your ideas as consistently and logically as you can, and test them with your reason. Then set them forth in language which shall be lucid and exact. Tolerate no slipshod diction, no vaguely rendered general meanings. Send every sentence, every word like a skilful drop-kick--straight above the crossbar. When you have done your best with the topic, lay it by for a space. Time is a great revealer of hidden defects, and you must not regard your labors as ended until your achievement is the maturest possible for you. If the quantity of what you accomplish is meager, suffer no distress on that account. The desideratum now is not quantity, but quality. The assignments in this chapter will do less toward making your vocabulary wide than toward making it facile and precise. To be sure, they will now and then set you to hunting for words that are new. Better still, they will give you a mastery over some of your outlying words--words known to your eyes or ears but not to your tongue. But these advantages will be somewhat incidental. Means for the systematic extension of your verbal domain into regions as yet unexplored by you, are reserved for the later chapters of this book. <2. A Vocabulary for Speech or for Writing?> In the second place, are we to develop a vocabulary for oral discourse or a vocabulary for writing? It may be that our chief impediment or our chief ambition lies in one field rather than in the other. Nevertheless we should strive for a double mastery; we ought to speak well _and_ write well. Indeed the two powers so react upon each other that we ought to cultivate both for the sake of either. True, some men, though inexpert as writers, have made themselves proficient as speakers; or though shambling and ineffective as speakers, have made themselves proficient as writers. But this is not natural or normal. Moreover these men might have gleaned more abundantly from their chosen field had they not shut it off from the acres adjacent. Fences waste space and curtail harvests. The assignments in this chapter are of such a nature that you may perform them either orally or in writing. You should speak and write alternately, sometimes on the same topic, sometimes on topics taken in rotation. In your oral discussions you should perhaps absent yourself at first from human auditors. A bedstead or a dresser will not make you self-conscious or in any way distract your attention, and it will permit you to sit down afterward and think out the degree of your failure or success. Ultimately, of course, you must speak to human beings--in informal conversations at the outset, in more ambitious ways later as occasion permits. In your writing you may find it advantageous to make preliminary outlines of what you wish to say. But above all, you must be willing to blot, to revise, to take infinite pains. You should remember the old admonition that easy reading is devilish hard writing. <The Mastery of Words in Combination> These purposes and methods are general. We now come to the specific fields in which we may with profit cultivate words in combination. Of these fields there are four. <I. Mastery through Translation> If you read a foreign language, whether laboriously or with ease, you should make this power assist you to amass a good English vocabulary. Take compositions or parts of compositions written in the foreign tongue, and turn them into idiomatic English. How much you should translate at a given time depends upon your leisure and your adeptness. Employ all the methods--the spontaneous, the carefully perfected, the oral, the written--heretofore explained in this chapter. In your final work on a passage you should aim at a faultless rendition, and should spend time and ransack the lexicons rather than come short of this ideal. The habit of translation is an excellent habit to keep up. For the study of an alien tongue not only improves your English, but has compensations in itself. EXERCISE - Translation 1. Translate from any accessible book in the foreign language you can read. 2. Subscribe for a period of at least two or three months for a newspaper or magazine in that language, if it is a modern one. Translate as before, but give most of your time to rapid oral translation for a real or imaginary American hearer. 3. When you have completed your final written translation of a passage from the foreign language, make yourself master of all the English words you have not previously (1) known or (2) used, but have encountered in your work of translation. <2. Mastery through Paraphrasing> It may be that you are not familiar with a foreign language. At any rate you have some knowledge of English. Put this knowledge to use in paraphrasing; for thus you will enrich your vocabulary and make it surer and more flexible. The process of paraphrasing is simple, though the actual work is not easy. You take passages written in English--the more of them the better, and the more diversified the better--and both reproduce their substance and incarnate their mood in words you yourself shall choose. You may have a passage before you and paraphrase it unit by unit. More often, however, you should follow the plan adopted by Franklin when he emulated Addison by rewriting the _Spectator Papers_. That is, you should steep yourself in the thought and emotion of a piece of writing, and then lay the piece aside until its wording has faded from your memory, when you should reëmbody the substance in language that seems to you natural and fitting. Much of the benefit will come from your comparing your version, as Franklin did his, with the original. When you perceive that you have fallen short, you should consider the respects wherein your inferiority lies--and should make another attempt, and yet another, and another. When you perceive that in any way you have surpassed the original, you should feel a just pride in your achievement--and should resolve that next time your cause for pride shall be greater still. Even after you have desisted from formal paraphrasing, you should cling to the habit, formed at this time, of observing any notable felicities in whatever you read and of comparing them with the expression you yourself would likely have employed. EXERCISE - Paraphrasing 1. Paraphrase the editorial in Appendix 1. You should improve upon the original. Keep trying until you do. 2. Paraphrase the second paragraph in Burke's speech (Appendix 2). Burke lacked the cheap tricks of the ordinary orator, but his discussions were based upon a comprehensive knowledge of facts, a sympathetic understanding of human nature, a vast depth and range of thought, and a well-meditated political philosophy. In short, he is a model for _elaborated_ discussions. Set forth the leading thought of this paragraph; you can give it in fewer words than he employs. But try setting it forth with his full accompaniments of reflection and information; you will be bewildered at his crowding so much into such small compass. 3. Try to rival the pregnant conciseness of the Parable of the Sower (Appendix 3). 4. Paraphrase in prose the Seven Ages of Man (Appendix 4). Catch if possible the mood, the "atmosphere," of each of the pictures painted by Shakespeare. Condense your paraphrase as much as you can. 5. In each of the preceding exercises compare your vocabulary with that of the original as to size, precision, and the grace and ease with which words are put together. Does the original employ terms unfamiliar to you? If so, look up their meaning and make them yours; then observe, when you next paraphrase the passage, whether your mastery of these terms has improved your expression. <3. Mastery through Discourse at First Hand> Models have their use, but you can also work without models. It is imperative that you should. You must learn to discuss, explain, analyze, argue, narrate, and describe for yourself. Here again you should diversify your materials to the utmost, not only that you may become well-rounded and versatile in your ability to set forth ideas and feelings in words, but also that your knowledge and your sensibility may receive stimulation. It is feasible to begin by discussing or explaining. Most of the intercourse conducted through language consists in either discussion or explanation. Analysis, ordinarily, is almost ignored. Argument is indulged in, and so is description (though less freely), but they are of the bluntest and broadest. Narration--the recounting of incidents of everyday existence--is, however, widely employed. In your work of discussion or explanation you may seize upon any current topic--industrial, social, political, or what not--that comes into your mind. Or you may make a list of such topics, writing each on a separate piece of paper; may jumble the slips in a hat; and may thus have always at your elbow a collection of satisfactory themes from which you may take one at random. Or you may invest in language of your own selection the substance of an address or sermon you have heard, or give the burden of some important conversation in which you have participated, or explain the tenor of an article you have read. You should of course try to interest your hearers, and above all, you should impart to what you say complete clarity. In analyzing you should select as your topic a process fairly obscure, the implications of a certain statement or argument, the results to be expected from some action or policy that has been advocated, or the exact matter at issue between two disputants. Any topic for discussion, explanation, or argument may be treated analytically. Your analysis in its final form should be so carefully considered that its soundness cannot be impeached. In arguing you may take any subject under the sun, from baseball to Bolshevism, for all of them are debated with vehemence. Any topic for discussion or explanation becomes, when approached from some particular angle, material for argument. Thus the initial topic in the exercise that follows is "The aeroplane's future as a carrier of mail." You may convert it into a question for debate by making it read: "The aeroplane is destined to supplant the railroad as a carrier of mail," or "The aeroplane is destined to be used increasingly as a carrier of transcontinental mail." In arguing you may propose for yourself either of two objectives: (1) to silence your opponent, (2) to refute, persuade, and win him over fairly. The achievement of the first end calls for bluster and perhaps a grim, barbaric strength; you must do as Johnson did according to Goldsmith's famous dictum--if your pistol misses fire, you must knock your adversary down with the butt end of it. This procedure, though inartistic to be sure, is in some contingencies the only kind that will serve. But you should cultivate procedure of a type more urbane. Let your very reasonableness be the most potent weapon you wield. To this end you should form the habit of looking for good points on both sides of a question. As a still further precaution against contentiousness you should uphold the two sides successively. In narrating you should, as a rule, stick to simple occurrences, though you may occasionally vary your work by summarizing the plot of a novel or giving the gist and drift of big historical events. You should confine yourself, in large part, to incidents in which you have been personally involved, or which you yourself have witnessed, as mishaps, unexpected encounters, bickerings, even rescues or riots. You should omit non-essentials and make the happening itself live for your hearer; if you can so interest him in it that he will not notice your manner of telling it, your success is but the greater. Finally, in describing you should deal for the most part with beings, objects, and appearances familiar to you. Description is usually hard to make vivid. This is because the objects and scenes are likely to be immobile and (at least when told about) to lack distinctiveness. Try, therefore, to lay hold of the peculiar quality of the thing described, and use words suggestive of color and motion. Moreover be brief. Long descriptions are sure to be wearisome. EXERCISE - Discourse 1. Select topics from the following list for discussion or explanation: The aeroplane's future as a carrier of mail The commercial future of the aeroplane A recent scientific (or mechanical or electrical) invention A better type of newspaper--its contents and makeup A better type of newspaper--how it can be secured The connection between the advertising and news departments of a newspaper--the actual condition The connection between the advertising and news departments of a newspaper--the ideal Special features in a newspaper that are popular A single standard for the sexes--is it possible? A single standard for the sexes--how it can be attained (or approximated) Should the divorce laws be made more stringent? Should a divorced person be prohibited from remarrying? What further marriage restrictions should be placed upon the physically or mentally unfit? What further measures should be taken by the cities (states, nation) for the protection of motherhood? Is the division of men into strongly contrasted groups as to wealth one of nature's necessities, or is it the result of a social and economic system? Some shortcomings of the labor unions Are the shortcomings of the labor unions accidental or inherent? Some ways of bettering the condition of the working classes How municipal (state, national) bureaus for finding employment for the laborer may become more serviceable Wrongs committed by big business (or some branch of it) Should a man's income above a stipulated amount be confiscated by the government? Income taxes--what exemptions should be granted? The right basis for business--competition or coöperation? Are the courts equally just to labor and capital? How can legal procedure be changed to enable individuals to secure just treatment from corporations without resorting to prolonged and expensive lawsuits? Where our interests clash with those of Great Britain How our relations with Great Britain may be further improved How our relations with Japan may be further improved How may closer commercial relations with other countries be promoted? What to do about the railroads and railroad rates A natural resource that should be conserved or restored Do high tariffs breed international ill-will? Should we have a high tariff at this juncture? To what extent should osteopathy (chiropractic) be permitted (or protected) by law? What is wrong with municipal government in my city How woman suffrage affects local government How to make rural life more attractive The importance of the rotation of crops The race problem as it affects my community The class problem as it affects my community The school-house as a social center How to Americanize the alien elements in our population To what extent, if at all, should foreign-born citizens of our country be encouraged to preserve their native traditions and culture? Censorship of the moving picture Educational possibilities of the moving picture How to bring about improvement in the quality of the moving picture The effect of the moving picture upon legitimate drama A church that men will attend How young men may be attracted to the churches How far shall doctrine be insisted upon by the churches? To what extent shall the church concern itself with social and economic problems? To what extent, if at all, shall Sunday diversions be restricted? The advantages of using the free public library Can the cities give children in the slums better opportunities for physical (mental, moral) development? Should all cities be required to establish zoölogical gardens, as well as schools, for the children? How my city might improve its system of public parks The most interesting thing about the work I am in Opportunities in the work I am in The qualities called for in the work I am in The ideals of my associates Something I have learned about life Something I have learned about human nature A book that has influenced me, and why A person who has influenced me, and how My favorite sport or recreation Why baseball is so popular What I could do for the people around me What I should like for the people around me to do for me. 2. Discuss or explain the ideas listed in Exercise 3 for 'Abstract vs. Concrete' in "Words in Combination: Some Pitfalls" above. 3. Analyze the debatable questions included in the two preceding exercises or suggested by them. That is, find the issues in each question, and show what each disputant must prove and what he must refute. 4. Analyze the results to be expected from the adoption of some policy or course of action by: A newspaper A business firm The city The farmers The producers in some business or industry The consumers The retail merchants of your city Some group of reformers Some social group Those interested in a social activity, as dancing Your neighbors Yourself. 5. Analyze or explain: The testing of seed grain How to raise potatoes (any other vegetable) How to utilize and apportion the space in your garden How to keep an automobile in good shape How to run an automobile (motor boat) How to make a rabbit trap How to lay out a camp How to catch trout (bass, codfish, tuna fish, lobsters) How to conduct a public meeting How a bill is introduced and passed in a legislative body How food is digested How to extract oxygen from water How a fish breathes How gold is mined How wireless messages are sent How your favorite game is played How to survey a tract of land How stocks are bought and sold on margins How public opinion is formed How a man ought to form his opinions The responsibility of individuals to society The responsibility of society to the individual. 6. Argue one side or the other, or the two successively, of queries contained or implied in Exercises 1 and 2. 7. Argue one side or the other, or the two successively, of queries listed in Exercise 1 in EXERCISE - Abstract. 8. Give a narrative of: The earning of your first dollar How somebody met his match An amusing incident An anxious moment A surprise The touchdown That fatal seventh inning How you got the position Why you missed the train When you were lost Your first trip on the railroad (a motor boat, a merry-go-round, snowshoes, a burro) A mishap How Jenkins skated Your life until the present (a summary) Something you have heard your father tell What happened to your uncle Your partner's (chum's) escapade Meeting an old friend Meeting a bore A conversation you have overheard When Myrtle eavesdropped When the girls didn't know Algy was in the parlor A public happening that interests you An incident you have read in the papers An incident from your favorite novel Backward Ben at the party Something that happened to you today. 9. Describe ... For the mood or general "atmosphere": Anything you deem suitable in Activity 8 in EXERCISE - Connotation. An old, deserted house Your birthplace as you saw it in manhood The view from an eminence A city as seen from a roof garden by night Your mother's Bible A barnyard scene The lonely old negro at the supper table A new immigrant gazing out upon the ocean he has crossed The downtown section at closing hour A scene of quietude A scene of bustle and confusion A richly colored scene A scene of dejection A scene of wild enthusiasm A scene of dulness or stagnation. With attention to homely detail: The old living-room My aunt's dresses Barker's riding-horse The business street of the village A cabin in the mountains The office of a man approaching bankruptcy The Potters' backyard The second-hand store The ugliest man. For general accuracy and vividness: The organ-grinder The signs of an approaching storm The arrival of the train Mail-time at the village post office The crowd at the auction The old fishing-boat A country fair (or a circus) The inside of a theater (or a church) The funeral procession The political rally The choir. <4. Mastery through Adapting Discourse to Audience> For convenience, we have heretofore assumed that ideas and emotions, together with such expression of them as shall be in itself adequate and faithful, comprise the sole elements that have to be reckoned with in the use of words in combination. But as you go out into life you will find that these things, however complete they may seem, are not in practice sufficient. Another factor--the human--must have its place in our equation. You do not speak or write in a vacuum. Your object, your ultimate object at least, in building up your vocabulary is to address men and women; and among men and women the varieties of training, of stations, of outlooks, of sentiments, of prejudices, of caprices are infinite. To gain an unbiased hearing you must take persistent cognizance of flesh and blood. In adapting discourse to audience you must have a supple and attentive mind and an impressionable and swiftly responsive temperament as well as a wide, accurate, and flexible vocabulary. Unless you are a fool, a zealot, or an incorrigible adventurer, you will not broach a subject at all to which your hearers feel absolute indifference or hostility. Normally you should pick a subject capable of interesting them. In presenting it you should pay heed to both your matter and your manner. You should emphasize for your listeners those aspects of the subject which they will most respond to or most need to hear, whether or not the phases be such as you would emphasize with other auditors. You should also speak in the fashion you deem most effective with them, whether or not it be one to which your own natural instincts prompt you. Let us say you are discussing conditions in Europe. You must speak in one way to the man who has traveled and in an entirely different way to the man who has never gone abroad--in one way to the well-read man, in an entirely different way to the ignoramus. Let us say you are discussing urban life, urban problems. You must speak in one way to the man who lives in the city, in another to the man who lives in the country. Let us say you are discussing the labor problem. You must speak in one way to employers, in another to employees, possibly in a third to men thrown out of jobs, possibly in a fourth to the general public. Let us say you are discussing education, or literature, or social tendencies, or mechanical principles or processes, or some great enterprise or movement. You must speak in one way to cultivated hearers and in another to men in the street, and if you are a specialist addressing specialists, you will cut the garment of your discourse to their particular measure. The same principle holds regardless of whether you expound, analyze, argue, recount, or describe. You must always keep a finger on the mental or emotional pulse of those whom you address. But your problem varies slightly with the form of discourse you adopt. In explanation, analysis, and argument the chief barriers you encounter are likely to be those of the mind; you must make due allowance for the intellectual limitations of your auditors, though many who have capacity enough may for some cause or other be unreceptive to ideas. In description you must reckon with the imaginative faculty, with the possibility that your hearers cannot visualize what you tell them--and you must make your words brief. In narration you must vivify emotional torpor; but lest in your efforts to inveigle boredom you yourself should induce it, you must have a wary eye for signals of distress. EXERCISE - Adapting 1. Explain to (a) a rich man, (b) a poor man the blessings of poverty. 2. Discuss before (a) farmers, (b) merchants the idea that farmers (merchants) make a great deal of money. 3. Explain to (a) the initiate, (b) the uninitiate some piece of mechanism, or some phase of a human activity or interest, which you know at first hand and regarding which technical (or at least not generally understood) terms are employed. (The exact subject depends, of course, upon your own observation or experience; you are sure to be familiar with something that most people know hazily, if at all. Bank clerk, chess player, bridge player, stenographer, journalist, truck driver, backwoods-man, mechanic--all have special knowledge of one kind or another and can use the particular terms it calls for.) 4. Explain to (a) a supporter of the winning team, (b) a supporter of the losing team why the baseball game came out as it did. 5. Discuss before (a) a Democratic, (b) a Republican audience your reasons for voting the Democratic (Republican) ticket in the coming election. 6. Explain to (a) your own family, (b) the man who can lend you the money, why you wish to mortgage your house (any piece of property). 7. Explain to the owner of an ill-conducted business why he should sell it, and to a shrewd business man why he should buy it. 8. Discuss before (a) old men, (b) young men, (c) women the desirability of men's giving up their seats in street cars to women. (Also modify the question by requiring only young men to give up their seats, and then only to old people of either sex, to sick people, or to people with children in their arms.) 9. Explain the necessity of restricting immigration to (a) prospective immigrants, (b) immigrants just granted admission to the country, (c) persons just refused admission, (d) exploiters of cheap labor, (e) ordinary citizens. 10. Discuss the taking out of a life insurance policy with (a) a man not interested, (b) a man interested but uncertain what a policy is like, (c) a man interested and informed but doubtful whether he can spare the money, (d) the man's wife (his prospective beneficiary), whose desires will have weight with him. 11. Discuss the necessity of a reduction in wages with (a) unscrupulous employers, (b) kind-hearted employers, (c) the employees. 12. Advocate higher public school taxes before (a) men with children, (b) men without children. 13. Advocate a further regulation of the speed of automobiles before (a) automobile-owners, (b) non-owners. 14. Urge advocacy of some reform upon (a) a clergyman, (b) a candidate for office. 15. Combat before (a) advertisers, (b) a public audience, (c) a lawmaking body, the defacement of landscapes by advertising billboards. 16. Describe life in the slums before (a) a rural audience, (b) charitable persons, (c) rich people in the cities who know little of conditions among the poor. 17. Describe the typical evening of a spendthrift in a city to (a) a poor man, (b) a miser, (c) the spendthrift's mother, (d) his employer, (e) a detective who suspects him of theft. 18. Describe the city of Washington (any other city) to (a) a countryman, (b) a traveler who has not visited this particular city. (If it is Washington you describe, describe it also for children in whom you wish to inculcate patriotism.) 19. Give (a) a youngster, (b) an experienced angler an account of your fishing trip. 20. Recount for (a) a baseball fan, (b) a girl who has never seen a game, the occurrences of the second half of the ninth inning. 21. Describe a fight for (a) your friends, (b) a jury. 22. Narrate for (a) children, (b) an audience of adults some historical event. 23. Give (a) your partner, (b) a reporter an account of a business transaction you have just completed. 24. Narrate an escapade for (a) your father, (b) your cronies in response to a toast at a banquet with them. IV INDIVIDUAL WORDS: AS VERBAL CELIBATES Thus far we have studied words as grouped together into phrases, sentences, paragraphs, whole compositions. We must now enter upon a new phase of our efforts to extend our vocabulary. We must study words as individual entities. You may think the order of our study should be reversed. No great harm would result if it were. The learning of individual words and the combining of them into sentences are parallel rather than successive processes. In our babyhood we do not accumulate a large stock of terms before we frame phrases and clauses. And our attainment of the power of continuous iteration does not check our inroads among individual words. We do the two things simultaneously, each contributing to our success with the other. There are plenty of analogies for this procedure. A good baseball player, for instance, tirelessly studies both the minutiae of his technique (as how to hold a bat, how to stand at the plate) and the big combinations and possibilities of the game. A good musician keeps unremitting command over every possible touch of each key and at the same time seeks sweeping mastery over vast and complex harmonies. So we, if we would have the obedience of our vocabularies, dare not lag into desultory attention to either words when disjoined or words as potentially combined into the larger units of thought and feeling. We might therefore consider either the individuals first or the groups first. But the majority of speakers and writers pay more heed to rough general substance than to separate instruments and items. Hence we have thought best to begin where most work is going on already--with words in combination. As you turn from the groups to the individuals, you must understand that your labors will be onerous and detailed. You must not assume that by nature all words are much alike, any more than you assume that all men are much alike. Of course the similarities are many and striking, and the fundamental fact is that a word is a word as a man is a man. But you will be no adept in handling either the one or the other until your knowledge goes much farther than this. Let us glance first at the human variations. Each man has his own business, and conducts it in his own way--a way never absolutely matched with that of any other mortal being. All this you may see. But besides the man's visible employment, he may be connected in devious fashions with a score of enterprises the public knows nothing about. Furthermore he leads a private life (again not precisely corresponding to that of any other), has his hobbies and aversions, is stamped with a character, a temperament of his own. In short, though in thousands of respects he is like his fellows, he has after all no human counterpart; he is a distinct, individual self. To know him, to use him, to count upon his service in whatsoever contingency it might bestead you, you must deem him something more than a member of the great human family. You must cultivate him personally, cultivate him without weariness or stint, and undergo inconvenience in so doing. Even so with a word. Commonplace enough it may seem. But it has its peculiar characteristics, its activities undisclosed except to the curious, its subtle inclinations, its repugnances, its latent potentialities. There is no precise duplicate for it in all the wide domain of language. To know it intimately and thoroughly, to be on entirely free terms with it, to depend upon it just so far as dependence is safe, to have a sure understanding of what it can do and what it cannot, you must arduously cultivate it. Words, like people, yield themselves to the worthy. They hunger for friendship--and lack the last barrier of reserve which hedges all human communion. Thus, linguistically speaking, you must search out the individuals. You must step aside from your way for the sake of a new acquaintance; in conversations, in sermons, in addresses, in letters, in journalistic columns, in standard literature you must grasp the stranger by the hand and look him straight in the eye. Nor must you treat cavalierly the words you know already. You must study them afresh; you must learn them over and learn them better; you must come to understand them, not only for what they are, but for what they will do. <What Words to Learn First> What, then, is your first task? Somebody has laid down the injunction-- and, as always when anything is enjoined, others have given it currency-- that each day you should learn two new words. So be it,--but which two? The first two in the dictionary, or hitherto left untouched in your systematic conquest of the dictionary? The first two you hear spoken? The first two that stare at you from casual, everyday print? The first two you can ferret from some technical jargon, some special department of human interest or endeavor? In any of these ways you may obey the behest of these mentors. But are not such ways arbitrary, haphazard? And suppose, after doing your daily stint, you should encounter a word it behooves you to know. What then? Are you to sulk, to withhold yourself from further exertion on the plea of a vocabulary-builder's eight-hour day? To adopt any of the methods designated would be like resolving to invest in city lots and then buying properties as you encountered them, with no regard for expenditure, for value in general, or for special serviceability to you. Surely such procedure would be unbusinesslike. If you pay out good money, you meditate well whether that which you receive for it shall compensate you. Likewise if you devote time and effort to gaining ownership of words, you should exercise foresight in determining whether they will yield you commensurate returns. What, then, is the principle upon which, at the outset, you should proceed? What better than to insure the possession of the words regarding which you know this already, that you need them and should make them yours? <The Analysis of Your Own Vocabulary> The natural way, and the best, to begin is with an analysis of your own vocabulary. You are of course aware that of the enormous number of words contained in the dictionary relatively few are at your beck and bidding. But probably you have made no attempt to ascertain the nature and extent of your actual linguistic resources. You should make an inventory of the stock on hand before sending in your order for additional goods. You will speedily discover that your vocabulary embraces several distinct classes of words. Of these the first consists of those words which you have at your tongue's end--which you can summon without effort and use in your daily speech. They are old verbal friends. Numbered with them, to be sure, there may be a few with senses and connotations you are ignorant of-- friends of yours, let us say, with a reservation. Even these you may woo with a little care into uncurbed fraternal abandon. With the exception of these few, you know the words of the first class so well that without thinking about it at all you may rely upon their giving you, the moment you need them, their untempered, uttermost service. You need be at no further pains about them. They are yours already. A second class of words is made up of those you speak on occasions either special or formal--occasions when you are trying, perhaps not to show off, but at least to put your best linguistic foot foremost. Some of them have a meaning you are not quite sure of; some of them seem too ostentatious for workaday purposes; some of them you might have been using but somehow have not. Words of this class are not your bosom friends. They are your speaking acquaintance, or perhaps a little better than that. You must convert them into friends, into prompt and staunch supporters in time of need. That is to say, you must put them into class one. In bringing about this change of footing, you yourself must make the advances. You must say, Go to, I will bear them in mind as I would a person I wished to cultivate. When occasion rises, you must introduce them into your talk. You will feel a bit shy about it, for introductions are difficult to accomplish gracefully; you will steal a furtive glance at your hearer perchance, and another at the word itself, as you would when first labeling a man "my friend Mr. Blank." But the embarrassment is momentary, and there is no other way. Assume a friendship if you have it not, and presently the friendship will be real. You must be steadfast in intention; for the words that have held aloof from you are many, and to unloose all at once on a single victim would well-nigh brand you criminal. But you will make sure headway, and will be conscious besides that no other class of words in the language will so well repay the mastering. For these are words you _do_ use, and need to use more, and more freely--words your own experience stamps as valuable, if not indeed vital, to you. The third class of words is made up of those you do not speak at all, but sometimes write. They are acquaintance one degree farther removed than those of the second class. Your task is to bring them into class two and thence into class one--that is, to introduce them into your more formal speech, and from this gradually into your everyday speech. The fourth class of words is made up of those you recognize when you hear or read them, but yourself never employ. They are acquaintance of a very distant kind. You nod to them, let us say, and they to you; but there the intercourse ends. Obviously, they are not to be brought without considerable effort into a position of tried and trusted friendship. And shall we be absolutely honest?--some of them may not justify such assiduous care as their complete subjugation would call for. But even these you should make your feudal retainers. You should constrain them to membership in class three, and at your discretion in class two. Apart from the words in class four, you will not to this point have made actual additions to your vocabulary. But you will have made your vocabulary infinitely more serviceable. You will be like a man with a host of friends where before, when his necessities were sorest, he found (along with some friends) many distant and timid acquaintance. Outside the bounds of your present vocabulary altogether are the words you encounter but do not recognize, except (it may be) dimly and uncertainly. Some counselors would have you look up all such words in a dictionary. But the task would be irksome. Moreover those who prescribe it are loath to perform it themselves. Your own candid judgment in the matter is the safest guide. If the word is incidental rather than vital to the meaning of the passage that contains it, and if it gives promise of but rarely crossing your vision again, you should deign it no more than a civil glance. Plenty of ways will be left you to expend time wisely in the service of your vocabulary. EXERCISE - Analysis 1. Make a list of the words in class two of your own vocabulary, and similar lists for classes three and four. (To make a list for class one would be but a waste of time.) Procure if you can for this purpose a loose-leaf notebook, and in the several lists reserve a full page for each letter of the alphabet as used initially. Do not scamp the lists, though their proper preparation consume many days, many weeks. Try to make them really exhaustive. Their value will be in proportion to their accuracy and fulness. 2. Con the words in each list carefully and repeatedly. Your task is to transfer these words into a more intimate list--those in class four into class three, those in three into two, those in two into one. You are then to promote again the words in the lower classes, except that (if your judgment so dictates) you may leave the new class three wholly or partially intact. To carry out this exercise properly you must keep these words in mind, make them part and parcel of your daily life. (For a special device for bringing them under subjection, see the next exercise.) 3. To write a word down helps you to remember it. That is why the normal way to transfer a word from class four into class two is to put it temporarily into the intermediary class, three; you first _see_ or _hear_ the word, next _write_ it, afterwards _speak_ it. The mere writing down of your lists has probably done much to bring the words written into the circuit of your memory, where you can more readily lay hold of them. Also it has fortified your confidence in using them; for to write a word out, letter by letter, makes you surer that you have its right form. With many of your words you will likely have no more trouble; they will be at hand, anxious for employment, and you may use them according to your need. But some of your words will still stubbornly withhold themselves from memory. Weed these out from your lists, make a special list of them, copy it frequently, construct short sentences into which the troublesome words fit. By dint of writing the words so often you will soon make them more tractable. 4. Make a fifth list of words--those you hear or see printed, do not understand the meaning of, but yet feel you should know. Obtain and confirm a grasp of them by the successive processes used with words in the preceding lists. <The Definition of Words> Another means of buttressing your command of your present vocabulary is to define words you use or are familiar with. Do not bewilder yourself with words (like _and, the_) which call for ingenuity in handling somewhat technical terms, or with words (like _thing, affair, condition_) which loosely cover a multitude of meanings. (You may, however, concentrate your efforts upon some one meaning of words in the latter group.) Select words with a fairly definite signification, and express this as precisely as you can. You may afterwards consult a dictionary for means of checking up on what you have done. But in consulting it think only of idea, not of form. You are not training yourself in dictionary definitions, but in the sharpness and clarity of your understanding of meanings. About the only rule to be laid down regarding the definition of verbs, adjectives, and adverbs is that you must not define a word in terms of itself. Thus if you define _grudgingly_ as "in a grudging manner," you do not dissipate your hearer's uncertainty as to what the word means. If you define it as "unwillingly" or "in a manner that shows reluctance to yield possession," you give your hearer a clear-cut idea in no wise dependent upon his ability to understand the word that puzzled him in the first place. Normally, in defining a noun you should assign the thing named to a general class, and to its special limits within that class; in other words, you should designate its genus and species. You must take care to differentiate the species from all others comprised within the genus. You will, in most instances, first indicate the genus and then the species, but at your convenience you may indicate the species first. Thus if you affirm, "A cigar is smoking-tobacco in the form of a roll of tobacco-leaves," you name the genus first and later the characteristics of the species. You have given a satisfactory definition. If on the other hand you affirm, "A cigar is a roll of tobacco-leaves meant for smoking," you first designate the species and then merely imply the genus. Again you have given a satisfactory definition; for you have permitted no doubt that the genus is smoking-tobacco, and have prescribed such limits for the species as exclude tobacco intended for a pipe or a cigarette. In defining nouns by the genus-and-species method, restrict the genus to the narrowest possible bounds. You will thus save the need for exclusions later. Had you in your first definition of a cigar begun by saying that it is tobacco, rather than smoking-tobacco, you would have violated this principle; and you would have had to amplify the rest of your definition in order to exclude chewing-tobacco, snuff, and the like. EXERCISE - Definition 1. Define words of your own choosing in accordance with the principles laid down in the preceding section of the text. 2. Define the following adjectives, adverbs, and verbs: Miserable Rebuke Wise Angrily Rapidly Boundless Swim Paint Whiten Haughtily Surly Causelessly 3. So define the following nouns as to prevent any possible confusion with the nouns following them in parentheses: Wages (salary) Ride (drive) Planet (star) Truck (automobile) Watch (clock) Reins (lines) Jail (penitentiary) Iron (steel) Vegetable (fruit) Timber (lumber) Flower (weed) Rope (string) Hail (sleet, snow) Stock (bond) Newspaper (magazine) Street car (railway coach) Cloud (fog) Revolver (rifle, pistol, etc.) Mountain (hill) Creek (river) Letter (postal card) 4. While remembering that the following words are of broad signification and mean different things to different people, define them according to their meaning to you: Gentleman Courage Honesty Beauty Honor Good manners Generosity A good while Charity A little distance Modesty Long ago <How to Look Up a Word in the Dictionary> So much for the words which are already yours, or which you can make yours through your own unaided efforts. For convenience we have grouped with them some words of a nature more baffling--words of which you know perhaps but a single aspect rather than the totality, or upon which you can obtain but a feeble and precarious grip. These slightly known words belong more to the class now to be considered than to that just disposed of. For we have now to deal with words over which you can establish no genuine rulership unless you have outside help. You must own a dictionary, have it by you, consult it carefully and often. Do not select one for purchasing upon the basis of either mere bigness or cheapness. If you do, you may make yourself the owner of an out-of-date reprint from stereotyped plates. What to choose depends partly upon personal preference, partly upon whether your need is for comprehensiveness or compression. If you are a scholar, _Murray's_ many-volumed _New English Dictionary_ may be the publication for you; but if you are an ordinary person, you will probably content yourself with something less expensive and exhaustive. You will find the _Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia_, in twelve volumes, or _Webster's New International Dictionary_ an admirable compilation. The _New Standard Dictionary_ will also prove useful. All in all, if you can afford it, you should provide yourself with one or the other of these three large and authoritative, but not too inclusive, works. Of the smaller lexicons _Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Webster's Secondary School Dictionary_, the _Practical Standard Dictionary_, and the _Desk Standard Dictionary_ answer most purposes well. A dictionary is not for show. You must learn to use it. What ordinarily passes for use is in fact abuse. Wherein? Let us say that you turn to your lexicon for the meaning of a word. Of the various definitions given, you disregard all save the one which enables the word to make sense in its present context, or which fits your preconception of what the word should stand for. Having engaged in this solemn mummery, you mentally record the fact that you have been squandering your time, and enter into a compact with yourself that no more will you so do. At best you have tided over a transitory need, or have verified a surmise. You have not truly _learned_ the word, brought it into a vassal's relationship with you, so fixed it in memory that henceforth, night or day, you can take it up like a familiar tool. This procedure is blundering, farcical, futile, incorrect. To suppose you have learned a word by so cursory a glance at its resources is like supposing you have learned a man through having had him render you some temporary and trivial service, as lending you a match or telling you the time of day. To acquaint yourself thoroughly with a word--or a man-- involves effort, application. You must go about the work seriously, intelligently. One secret of consulting a dictionary properly lies in finding the primary, the original meaning of the word. You must go to the source. If the word is of recent formation, and is native rather than naturalized English, you have only to look through the definitions given. Such a word will not cause you much trouble. But if the word is derived from primitive English or from a foreign language, you must seek its origin, not in one of the numbered subheads of the definition, but in an etymological record you will perceive within brackets or parentheses. Here you will find the Anglo-Saxon (Old English), Latin, Greek, French, German, Italian, Scandinavian, or other word from which sprang the word you are studying, and along with this authentic original you may find cognate words in other languages. These you may examine if you care to observe their resemblance to your word, but the examination is not necessary. It could teach you only the earlier or other _forms_ of your word, whereas what you are after is the original _meaning_. This too is set down within the brackets; if your search is in earnest, you cannot possible miss it. And having discovered this original meaning, you must get it in mind; it is one of the really significant things about the word. Your next step is to find the present import of the word. Look, therefore, through the modern definitions. Of these there may be too many, with too delicate shadings in thought between them, for you to keep all clearly in mind. In fact you need not try. Consider them of course, but out of them seek mainly the drift, the central meaning. After a little practice you will be able to disengage it from the others. You now know the original sense of the word and its central signification today. The two may be identical; they may be widely different; but through reflection or study of the entire definition you will establish some sort of connection between them. When you have done this, you have mastered the word. From the two meanings you can surmise the others, wherever and whenever encountered; for the others are but outgrowths and applications of them. One warning will not be amiss. You must not suppose that the terms used in defining a word are its absolute synonyms, or may be substituted for it indiscriminately. You must develop a feeling for _the limits_ of the word, so that you may perceive where its likeness to the other terms leaves off and its unlikeness begins. Thus if one of the terms employed in defining _command_ is _control_, you must not assume that the two words are interchangeable; you must not say, for instance, that the captain controlled his men to present arms. Such, abstractly stated, is the way to look up a word in the dictionary. Let us now take a concrete illustration. Starting with the word _tension_, let us ascertain what we can about it in the _Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia_. Our first quest is the original meaning. For this we consult the bracketed matter. There we meet the French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian kinsmen of the word, and learn that they are traceable to a common ancestor, the Latin _tensio(n)_, which comes from the Latin verb _tendere_. The meaning of _tensio(n)_ is given as "stretching," that of _tendere_ as "stretch," "extend." Thus we know of the original word that in form it closely resembles the modern word, and that in meaning it involves the idea of stretching. What is the central meaning of the word today? To acquaint ourselves with this we must run through the definitions listed. Here (in condensed form) they are. (1) The act of stretching. (2) In _mechanics_, stress or the force by which something is pulled. (3) In _physics_, a constrained condition of the particles of bodies. (4) In _statical electricity_, surface-density. (5) Mental strain, stress, or application. (6) A strained state of any kind, as political or social. (7) An attachment to a sewing-machine for regulating the strain of the thread. Now of these definitions (2), (3), (4), and (7) are too highly specialized to conduct us, of themselves, into the highway of the word's meaning. They bear out, however, the evidence of (1), (5), and (6), which have as their core the idea of stretching, or of the strain which stretching produces. We must now lay the original meaning alongside the central meaning today, in order to draw our conclusions. We perceive that the two meanings correspond. Yet by prying into them we make out one marked difference between them. The original meaning is literal, the modern largely figurative. To be sure, the figure has been so long used that it is now scarcely felt as a figure; its force and definiteness have departed. Consequently we may speak of being on a tension without having in mind at all a comparison of our nervous system with a stretched garment, or with an outreaching arm, or with a tightly strung musical instrument, or with a taut rope. What, then, is the net result of our investigation? Simply this, that _tension_ means stretching, and that the stretching may be conceived either literally or figuratively. With these two facts in mind, we need not (unless we are experts in mechanics, physics, statical electricity, or the sewing-machine) go to the trouble of committing the special senses of _tension_; for should occasion bid, we can--from our position at the heart of the word--easily grasp their rough purport. And from other persons than specialists no more would be required. EXERCISE - Dictionary For each of the following words find (a) the original meaning, (b) the central meaning today. (Other words are given in the exercises at the end of this chapter.) Bias Supersede Sly Aversion Capital Meerschaum Extravagant Travel Alley Concur Travail Fee Attention Apprehend Superb Magnanimity Lewd Adroit Altruism Instigation Quite Benevolence Complexion Urchin Charity Bishop Thoroughfare Unction Starve Naughty Speed Cunning Moral Success Decent Antic Crafty Handsome Savage Usury Solemn Uncouth Costume Parlor Window Presumption Bombastic Colleague Petty Vixen Alderman Queen Doctor Engage <Prying Into a Word's Past> To thread with minute fidelity the mazes of a word's former history is the task of the linguistic scholar; our province is the practical and the present-day. But words, like men, are largely what they are because of what they have been; and to turn a gossip's eye upon their past is to procure for ourselves, often, not only enlightenment but also entertainment. This fact, though brought out in some part already, deserves separate and fuller discussion. In the first place, curiosity as to words' past experience enables us to read with keener understanding the literature of preceding ages. Of course we should not, even so, go farther back than about three centuries. To read anything earlier than Shakespeare would require us to delve too deeply into linguistic bygones. And to read Shakespeare himself requires effort--but rewards it. Let us see how an insight into words will help us to interpret the Seven Ages of Man (Appendix 4). In line 2 of this passage appears the word _merely_. In Shakespeare's time it frequently meant "altogether" or "that and nothing else." As here used, it may be taken to mean this, or to have its modern meaning, or to stand in meaning midway between the two and to be suggestive of both; there is no way of determining precisely. In line 12 the word _pard_ means leopard. In line 18 _saws_ means "sayings" (compare the phrase "an old saw"); _modern_ means "moderate," "commonplace"; _instances_ means what we mean by it today, "examples," "illustrations." (Line 18 as a whole gives us a vivid sense of the justice's readiness to speak sapiently, after the manner of justices, and to trot out his trite illustrations on the slightest provocation.) The word _pantaloon_ in line 20 is interesting. The patron saint of Venice was St. Pantaleon (the term is from Greek, means "all-lion," and possibly refers to the lion of St. Mark's Cathedral). _Pantaloon_ came therefore to signify (1) a Venetian, (2) a garment worn by Venetians and consisting of breeches and stockings in one. The second sense is preserved, substantially, in our term _pantaloons_. The first sense led to the use of the word (in the mouths of the Venetians' enemies) for "buffoon" and then (in early Italian comedy) for "a lean and foolish old man." It is this stock figure of the stage that Shakespeare evokes. In line 22 _hose_ means the covering for a man's body from his waist to his nether-stock. (Compare the present meaning: a covering for the feet and the _lower_ part of the legs.) In line 27 _mere_ means "absolute." In line 28 _sans_ means "without." Of the words we have examined, only _sans_ is obsolete, though _pard_, _saws_, and _pantaloon_ are perhaps not entirely familiar. That is, only one word in the passage, so far as its outward form goes, is completely alien to our knowledge. But how different the matter stands when we consider meanings! The words are words of today, but the meanings are the meanings of Shakespeare. We should be baffled and misled as to the dramatist's thought if we had made no inquiries into the vehicle therefor. In the second place, to look beyond the present into the more remote signification of words will put us on our guard against the reappearance of submerged or half-forgotten meanings. We have seen that the word _tension_ may be used without conscious connection with the idea of stretching. But if we incautiously place the word in the wrong environment, the idea will be resurrected to our undoing. We associate _ardor_ with strong and eager desire. For ordinary purposes this conception of the word suffices. But _ardor_ is one of the children of fire; its primary sense is "burning" (compare _arson_). Therefore to pronounce the three vocables "overflowing with ardor" is to mix figures of speech absurdly. We should fall into a similar mistake if we said "brilliant fluency," and into a mistake of another kind (that of tautology or repetition of an idea) if we said "heart-felt cordiality," for _cordiality_ means "feelings of the heart." _Appreciate_ means "set a (due) value on." We may perhaps say "really appreciate," but scrupulous writers and speakers do not say "appreciate very much." A _humor_ (compare humid) was once a "moisture"; then one of the four moistures or liquids that entered into the human constitution and by the proportions of their admixture determined human temperament; next a man's outstanding temperamental quality (the thing itself rather than the cause of it); then oddity which people may laugh at; then the spirit of laughter and good nature in general. Normally we do not connect the idea of moisture with the word. We may even speak of "a dry humor." But we should not say "now and then a dry humor crops out," for then too many buried meanings lie in the same grave for the very dead to rest peacefully together. Even apart from reading old literature and from having, when you use words, no ghosts of their pristine selves rise up to damn you, you may profit from a knowledge of how the meaning of a term has evolved. For example, you will meet many tokens and reminders of the customs and beliefs of our ancestors. Thus _coxcomb_ carries you back to the days when every court was amused by a "fool" whose head was decked with a cock's comb; _crestfallen_ takes you back to cockfighting; and _lunatic_ ("moonstruck"), _disaster_ ("evil star"), and "thank your lucky stars" plant you in the era of superstition when human fate was governed by heavenly bodies. Further, you will perceive the poetry of words. Thus to _wheedle is_ to wag the tail and to _patter_ is to hurry through one's prayers (paternoster). What a picture of the frailty of men even in their holiness flashes on us from that word _patter! Breakfast is_ the breaking of the fast of the night. _Routine_ (the most humdrum of words) is travel along a way already broken. _Goodby_ is an abridged form of "God be with you." _Dilapidated_ is fallen stone from stone. _Daisy_ is "the day's eye," _nasturtium_ (from its spicy smell) "the nose-twister," _dandelion_ "the tooth of the lion." _A lord_ is a bread-guard. You will perceive, moreover, that many a dignified word once involved the same idea as some unassuming or even semi-disreputable word or expression involves now. Thus there is little or no difference in figure between understanding a thing and getting on to it; between averting something (turning it aside) and sidetracking it; between excluding (shutting out) and closing the door to; between degrading (putting down a step) and taking down a notch; between accumulating (heaping up) and making one's pile; between taking umbrage (the shadow) and being thrown in the shade; between ejaculating and throwing out a remark; between being on a tension and being highstrung; between being vapid and having lost steam; between insinuating (winding in) and worming in; between investigating and tracking; between instigating (goading on or into) and prodding up; between being incensed (compare _incendiary_) and burning with indignation; between recanting (unsinging) and singing another tune; between ruminating (chewing) and smoking in one's pipe. Nor is there much difference in figure between sarcasm (a tearing of the flesh) and taking the hide off; between sinister (left-handed) and backhanded; between preposterous (rear end foremost) and cart before the horse; between salary (salt-money, an allowance for soldiers) and pin-money; between pedigree (crane's foot, from the appearance of genealogical diagrams) and crowsfeet (about the eyes); between either precocious (early cooked), apricot (early cooked), crude (raw), or recrudescence (raw again) and half-baked. To ponder is literally to weigh; to apprehend an idea is to take hold of it; to deviate is to go out of one's way; to congregate is to flock together; to assail or insult a man is to jump on him; to be precipitate is to go head foremost; to be recalcitrant is to kick. Again, you will perceive that many words once had more literal or more definitely concrete meanings than they have now. To corrode is to gnaw along with others, to differ is to carry apart, to refuse is to pour back. Polite is polished, absurd is very deaf, egregious is taken from the common herd, capricious is leaping about like a goat, cross (disagreeable) is shaped like a cross, wrong is wrung (or twisted). Crisscross is Christ's cross, attention is stretching toward, expression is pressed out, dexterity is right-handedness, circumstances are things standing around, an innuendo is nodding, a parlor is a room to talk in, a nostril is that which pierces the nose (thrill means pierce), vinegar is sharp wine, a stirrup is a rope to mount by, a pastor is a shepherd, a marshal is a caretaker of horses, a constable is a stable attendant, a companion is a sharer of one's bread. On the other hand, you will find that many words were once more general in import than they have since become. _Fond_ originally meant foolish, then foolishly devoted, then (becoming more general again) devoted. _Nostrum_ meant our own, then a medicine not known by other physicians, then a quack remedy. _Shamefast_ meant confirmed in modesty (shame); then through a confusion of _fast_ with _faced_, a betrayal through the countenance of self-consciousness or guilt. _Counterfeit_ meant a copy or a picture, then an unlawful duplication, especially of a coin. _Lust_ meant pleasure of any sort, then inordinate sexual pleasure or desire. _Virtue_ (to trace only a few of its varied activities) meant manliness, then the quality or attribute peculiar to true manhood (with the Romans this was valor), then any admirable quality, then female chastity. _Pen_ meant a feather, then a quill to write with, then an instrument for writing used in the same way as a quill. A _groom_ meant a man, then a stableman (in _bridegroom_, however, it preserves the old signification). _Heathen_ (heath-dweller), _pagan_ (peasant), and _demon_ (a divinity) had in themselves no iniquitous savor until early Christians formed their opinion of the people inaccessible to them and the spirits incompatible with the unity of the Godhead. Words betokening future happenings or involving judgment tend to take a special cast from the fears and anxieties men feel when their fortune is affected or their destiny controlled by external forces. Thus _omen_ (a prophetic utterance or sign) and _portent_ (a stretching forward, a foreseeing, a foretelling) might originally be either benign or baleful; but nowadays, especially in the adjectival forms _ominous_ and _portentous_, they wear a menacing hue. Similarly _criticism_, _censure_, and _doom_, all of them signifying at first mere judgment, have come--the first in popular, the other two in universal, usage--to stand for adverse judgment. The old sense of _doom_ is perpetuated, however, in _Doomsday_, which means the day on which we are all to be, not necessarily sent to hell, but judged. You will furthermore perceive that the exaggerated affirmations people are always indulging in have led to the weakening of many a word. _Fret_ meant eat; formerly to say that a man was fretting was to use a vigorous comparison--to have the man devoured with care. _Mortify_ meant to kill, then killed with embarrassment, then embarrassed. _Qualm_ meant death, but our qualms of conscience have degenerated into mere twinges. Oaths are shorn of their might by overuse; _confound_, once a tremendous malinvocation, may now fall from the lips of respectable young ladies, and _fie_, in its time not a whit less dire, would be scarcely out of place in even a cloister. Words designating immediacy come to have no more strength than soup-meat seven times boiled. _Presently_ meant in the present, _soon_ and _by and by_ meant forthwith. How they have lost their fundamental meaning will be intelligible to you if you have in ordering something been told that it would be delivered "right away," or in calling for a girl have been told that she would be down "in a minute." You will detect in words of another class a deterioration, not in force, but in character; they have fallen into contemptuous or sinister usage. Many words for skill or wisdom have been thus debased. _Cunning_ meant knowing, _artful_ meant well acquainted with one's art, _crafty_ meant proficient in one's craft or calling, _wizard_ meant wise man. The present import of these words shows how men have assumed that mental superiority must be yoked with moral dereliction or diabolical aid. Words indicating the generality--indicating ordinary rank or popular affiliations--have in many instances suffered the same decline. _Trivial_ meant three ways; it was what might be heard at the crossroads or on any route you chanced to be traveling, and its value was accordingly slight. _Lewd_ meant belonging to the laity; it came to mean ignorant, and then morally reprehensible. _Common_ may be used to signify ill-bred; _vulgar_ may be and frequently is used to signify indecent. _Sabotage_, from a French term meaning wooden shoe, has come to be applied to the deliberate and systematic scamping of one's work in order to injure one's employer. _Idiot_ (common soldier) crystallizes the exasperated ill opinion of officers for privates. (_Infantry_--an organization of military infants--has on the contrary sloughed its reproach and now enshrines the dignity of lowliness.) Somewhat akin to words of this type is _knave_, which first meant boy, then servant, then rogue. Terms for agricultural classes seldom remain flattering. Besides such epithets as _hayseed_ and _clodhopper_, contemptuous in their very origin, _villain_ (farm servant), _churl_ (farm laborer), and _boor_ (peasant) have all gathered unto themselves opprobrium; _villain_ now involves a scoundrelly spirit, _churl_ a contumelious manner, _boor_ a bumptious ill-breeding; not one of these words is any longer confined in its application to a particular social rank. Terms for womankind are soon tainted. _Wench_ meant at first nothing worse than girl or daughter, _quean_ than woman, _hussy_ than housewife; even _woman_ is generally felt to be half-slighting. Terms affirming unacquaintance with sin, or abstention from it, tend to be quickly reft of what praise they are fraught with; none of us likes to be saluted as _innocent_, _guileless_, or _unsophisticated_, and to be dubbed _silly_ no longer makes us feel blessed. Besides these and similar classes of words, there are innumerable individual terms that have sadly lost caste. An _imp_ was erstwhile a scion; it then became a boy, and then a mischievous spirit. A _noise_ might once be music; it has ceased to enjoy such possibilities. To live near a piano that is constantly banged is to know how _noise_ as a synonym for music was outlawed. A backward glance over the history of words repays you in showing you the words for what they are, and in having them live out their lives before you. Do you know what an _umpire_ is? He is a non (or num) peer, a not equal man, an odd man--one therefore who can decide disputes. Do you know what a _nickname_ is? It is an eke (also) name, a title bestowed upon one in addition to his proper designation. Do you know what a _fellow_, etymologically speaking, is? He is a fee-layer, a partner, a man who lays his fee (property) alongside yours. Do you know that _matinée_, though awarded to the afternoon, meant primarily a morning entertainment and has traveled so far from its original sense that we call an actual before-noon performance a morning matinée? Do you know the past of such words as _bedlam_, _rival_, _parson_, _sandwich_, _pocket handkerchief?_ _Bedlam_, a corruption of _Bethlehem_, was a hospital for the insane in London; it came to be a general term for great confusion or discord. _Rivals_ were formerly dwellers--that is, neighboring dwellers--on the bank of a stream; disputes over water-rights gave the word its present meaning. A _person_ or _parson_, for the two were the same, was a mask (literally, that through which the sound came); then an actor representing a character in a play; then a representative of any sort; then the representative of the church in a parish. A _sandwich_ was a stratification of bread and meat by the Earl of Sandwich, who was so loath to leave the gaming table that he saved time by having food brought him in this form. A _kerchief_ was originally a cover for the head, and indeed sundry amiable, old-fashioned grandmothers still use it for this purpose. Afterward people carried it in their hands and called it a _handkerchief_; and when they transferred it to the pocket, they called it a _pocket handkerchief_ or pocket hand head-cover. A scrutiny of such words should convince you that the reading of the dictionary, instead of being the dull occupation it is almost proverbially reputed to be, may become an occupation truly fascinating. For clustered about the words recorded in the dictionary are inexhaustible riches of knowledge and of interest for those who have eyes to see. EXERCISE - Past 1. For each of the following words look up (a) the present meaning if you do not know it, (b) the original meaning, (c) any other past meanings you can find. Exposition Corn Cattle Influence Sanguine Turmoil Sinecure Waist Shrew Potential Spaniel Crazy Character Candidate Indomitable Infringe Rascal Amorphous Expend Thermometer Charm Rather Tall Stepchild Wedlock Ghostly Haggard Bridal Pioneer Pluck Noon Neighbor Jimson weed Courteous Wanton Rosemary Cynical Street Plausible Grocer Husband Allow Worship Gipsy Insane Encourage Clerk Disease Astonish Clergyman Boulevard Realize Hectoring Canary Bombast Primrose Diamond Benedict Walnut Abominate Piazza Holiday Barbarous Disgust Heavy Kind Virtu Nightmare Devil Gospel Comfort Whist Mermaid Pearl Onion Enthusiasm Domino Book Fanatic Grotesque Cheat Auction Economy Illegible Quell Cheap Illegitimate Sheriff Excelsior Emasculate Danger Dunce Champion Shibboleth Calico Adieu Essay Pontiff Macadamize Wages Copy Stentorian Quarantine Puny Saturnine Buxom Caper Derrick Indifferent Boycott Mercurial Gaudy Countenance Poniard Majority Camera Chattel. 2. The following words are often used loosely today, some because their original meaning is lost sight of, some because they are confused with other words. Find for each word (a) what the meaning has been and (b) what the correct meaning is now. Nice Awful Atrocious Grand Horrible Pitiful Beastly Transpire Claim Weird Aggravate Uncanny Demean Gorgeous Elegant Fine Noisome Mutual (in "a mutual friend") Lovely Cute Stunning Liable Immense. 3. The following sentences from standard English literature illustrate the use of words still extant and even familiar, in senses now largely or wholly forgotten. The quotations from the Bible and Shakespeare (all the Biblical quotations are from the King James Version) date back a little more than three hundred years, those from Milton a little less than three hundred years, and those from Gray and Coleridge, respectively, about a hundred and seventy-five and a hundred and twenty-five years. Go carefully enough into the past meanings of the italicized words to make sure you grasp the author's thought. And now abideth faith, hope, charity, these three; but the greatest of these is _charity_.(1 _Corinthians_ 13:13) I _prevented_ the dawning of the morning. (_Psalms_ 119:147) Our eyes _wait_ upon the Lord our God. (_Psalms_ 123:2) The times of this ignorance God _winked_ at. (_Acts_ 17:30) And Jesus said, Somebody hath touched me; for I perceive that _virtue_ is gone out of me. (_Luke_ 8:46) To judge the _quick_ and the dead. (1 _Peter_ 4:5) Be not wise in your own _conceits_. (_Romans_ 12:16) In maiden meditation, _fancy_-free. (Shakespeare: _A Midsummer Night's Dream_) Is it so _nominated_ in the bond? (Shakespeare: _The Merchant of Venice_) Would I had met my _dearest_ foe in heaven. (Shakespeare: _Hamlet_) The _extravagant_ and _erring_ spirit. (Said of a spirit wandering from the bounds of purgatory. Shakespeare: _Hamlet_) The _modesty_ of nature. (Shakespeare: _Hamlet_) It is a nipping and an _eager_ air. (Shakespeare: _Hamlet_) _Security_ Is mortals' chiefest enemy. (Shakespeare: _Macbeth_) Most _admired_ disorder. (Shakespeare: _Macbeth_) Upon this _hint_ I spake. (From the account of the wooing of Desdemona. Shakespeare: _Othello_) This Lodovico is a _proper_ man. A very handsome man. (Shakespeare: _Othello_) Mice and rats and such small _deer_. (Shakespeare: _King Lear_) This is no sound That the earth _owes_. (Shakespeare: _The Tempest_) Every shepherd _tells_ his _tale_. (Milton: _L'Allegro_) Bring the _rathe_ primrose that forsaken dies. (_Rathe_ survives only in the comparative form _rather_. Milton: _Lycidas_) Can honor's voice _provoke_ the silent dust? (Gray: _Elegy_) The _silly_ buckets on the deck. (Coleridge: _The Ancient Mariner_) 4. In technical usage or particular phrases a former sense of a word may be embedded like a fossil. The italicized words in the following list retain special senses of this kind. What do these words as thus used mean? Can you add to the list? To _wit_ Might and _main_ Time and _tide_ Christmas_tide_ _Sad_ bread A bank _teller_ To _tell_ one's _beads_ Aid and _abet_ _Meat_ and drink Shop_lifter_ Fishing-_tackle_ Getting off _scot_-free An _earnest_ of future favors A _brave_ old hearthstone _Confusion_ to the enemy! Giving aid and _comfort_ to the enemy Without _let_ or hindrance A _let_ in tennis _Quick_lime Cut to _the quick_ _Neat_-foot oil To _sound in_ tort (Legal phrase) To bid one God_speed_ I had as _lief_ as not The child _favors_ its parents On _pain_ of death Widow's _weeds_ I am _bound_ for the Promised Land To _carry_ a girl to a party (Used only in the South) To give a person so much _to boot_ 5. Each of the subjoined phrases contradicts itself or repeats its idea clumsily. The key to the difficulty lies in the italicized words. What is their true meaning? A weekly _journal_ _Ultimate_ end Final _ultimatum_ _Final_ completion Previous _preconceptions_ _Nauseating_ seasickness _Join_ together _Descend_ down _Prefer_ better _Argent_ silver Completely _annihilate_ _Unanimously_ by all Most _unique_ of all The other _alternative_ _Endorse_ on the back _Incredible_ to believe A _criterion_ to go by An _appetite_ to eat _A panacea_ for all ills _Popular_ with the people _Biography_ of his life _Autobiography_ of his own life _Vitally_ alive A new, _novel_, and ingenious explanation _Mutual_ dislike for each other _Omniscient_ knowledge of all subjects A _material_ growth in mental power _Peculiar_ faults of his own Fly into an _ebullient_ passion To _saturate_ oneself with gold and silver Elected by _acclamation on_ a secret ballot. V. INDIVIDUAL WORDS: AS MEMBERS OF VERBAL FAMILIES Our investigation into the nature, qualities, and fortunes of single words must now merge into a study of their family connections. We do not go far into this new phase of our researches before we perceive that the career of a word may be very complicated. Most people, if you asked them, would tell you that an individual word is a causeless entity--a thing that was never begotten and lacks power to propagate. They would deny the possibility that its course through the world could be other than colorless, humdrum. Now words thus immaculately conceived and fatefully impotent, words that shamble thus listlessly through life, there are. But many words are born in an entirely normal way; have a grubby boyhood, a vigorous youth, and a sober maturity; marry, beget sons and daughters, become old, enfeebled, even senile; and suffer neglect, if not death. In their advanced age they are exempted by the discerning from enterprises that call for a lusty agility, but are drafted into service by those to whom all levies are alike. Indeed in their very prime of manhood their vicissitudes are such as to make them seem human. Some rise in the world some sink; some start along the road of grandeur or obliquity, and then backslide or reform. Some are social climbers, and mingle in company where verbal dress coats are worn; some are social degenerates, and consort with the ragamuffins and guttersnipes of language. Some marry at their own social level, some above them, some beneath; some go down in childless bachelorhood or leave an unkempt and illegitimate progeny. And if you trace their own lineage, you will find for some that it is but decent and middle-class, for some that it is mongrelized and miscegenetic, for some that it is proud, ancient, yea perhaps patriarchal. It is contrary to nature for a word, as for a man, to live the life of a hermit. Through external compulsion or internal characteristics a word has contacts with its fellows. And its most intimate, most spontaneous associations are normally with its own kindred. In our work hitherto we have had nothing to say of verbal consanguinity. But we have not wholly ignored its existence, for the very good reason that we could not. For example, in the latter portions of Chapter IV we proceeded on the hypothesis that at least some words have ancestors. Also in the analysis of the dictionary definition of _tension_ we learned that the word has, not only a Latin forebear, but French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian kinsmen as well. One thing omitted from that analysis would have revealed something further--namely, that the word has its English kinfolks too. For the bracketed part of the dictionary definition mentions two other English words, _tend_ and _tense_, which from their origin involve the same idea as that of _tension_-- the idea of stretching. Now words may be akin in either of two ways. They may be related in blood. Or they may be related by marriage. Let us consider these two kinds of connection more fully. <Words Related in Blood> As an illustration of blood kinships enjoyed by a native English word take the adjective _good_. We can easily call to mind other members of its family: goodly, goodish, goody-goody, good-hearted, good-natured, good- humored, good-tempered, goods, goodness, goodliness, gospel (good story), goodby, goodwill, goodman, goodwife, good-for-nothing, good den (good evening), the Good Book. The connection between these words is obvious. Next consider a group of words that have been naturalized: scribe, prescribe, ascribe, proscribe, transcribe, circumscribe, subscriber, indescribable, scribble, script, scripture, postscript, conscript, rescript, manuscript, nondescript, inscription, superscription, description. It is clear that these words are each other's kith and kin in blood, and that the strain or stock common to all is _scribe_ or (as sometimes modified) _script_. What does this strain signify? The idea of writing. The _scribes_ are a writing clan. Some of them, to be sure, have strayed somewhat from the ancestral calling, for words are as wilful--or as independent--as men. _Ascribe_, for example, does not act like a member of the household of writers, whatever it may look like. We should have to scrutinize it carefully or consult the record for it in that verbal Who's Who, the dictionary, before we could understand how it came by its scribal affiliations honestly. But once we begin to reflect or to probe, we find we have not mistaken its identity. _Ascribe_ is the offspring of _ad_ (to) and _scribo_ (write), both Latin terms. It originally meant writing to a person's name or after it (that is, imputing to the person by means of written words) some quality or happening of which he was regarded as the embodiment, source, or cause. Nowadays we may saddle the matter on him through oral rather than written speech. That is, _ascribe_ has largely lost the writing traits. But all the same it is manifestly of the writing blood. The _scribes_ are of undivided racial stock, Latin. Consider now the _manu_, or _man_, words which sprang from the Latin _manus_, meaning "hand." Here are some of them: manual, manoeuver, mandate, manacle, manicure, manciple, emancipate, manage, manner, manipulate, manufacture, manumission, manuscript, amanuensis. These too are children of the same father; they are brothers and sisters to each other. But what shall we say of legerdemain (light, or sleight, of hand), maintain, coup de main, and the like? They bear a resemblance to the _man's_ and _manu's_, yet one that casual observers would not notice. Is there kinship between the two sets of words? There is. But not the full fraternal or sororal relation. The _mains_ are children of _manus_ by a French marriage he contracted. With this French blood in their veins, they are only half-brothers, half-sisters of the _manu's_ and the _man's_. Your examination of the family trees of words will be practical, rather than highly scholastic, in nature. You need not track every word in the dictionary to the den of its remote parentage. Nor need you bother your head with the name of the distant ancestor. But in the case of the large number of words that have a numerous kindred you should learn to detect the inherited strain. You will then know that the word is the brother or cousin of certain other words of your acquaintance, and this knowledge will apprise you of qualities in it with which you should reckon. To this extent only must you make yourself a student of verbal genealogy. EXERCISE - Blood (Simple exercises in tracing blood relationships among words are given at the end of the chapter. Therefore the exercises assigned here are of a special character.) 1. Each of the following groups is made up of related words, but the relationship is somewhat disguised. Consult the dictionary for each word, and learn all you can as to (a) its source, (b) the influence (as passing through an intermediate language) that gave it its present form, (c) the course of its development into its present meaning. Captain Cathedral Governor Capital Chaise Gubernatorial Decapitate Chair Chef Shay Guardian Chieftain Ward Camp Cavalry Campaign Guarantee Chivalry Champion Warrant Camera Inept Incipient Chamber Apt Receive Serrated Inimical Poor Sierra Enemy Pauper Influence Espionage Work Influenza Spy Wrought Playwright Isolate Insular 2. The variety of sources for modern English is indicated by the following list. Do not seek for blood kinsmen of these particular words, but think of all the additional words you can that have come into English from Indian, Spanish, French, any other language spoken today. Alphabet (Greek) Piano (Italian) Folio (Latin) Car (Norman) Boudoir (French) Rush (German) Binnacle (Portuguese) Sky (Icelandic) Anger (Old Norse) Yacht (Dutch) Isinglass (Low German) Hussar (Hungarian) Slogan (Celtic) Samovar (Russian) Polka (Polish) Chess (Persian) Shekel (Hebrew) Tea (Chinese) Algebra (Arabic) Kimono (Japanese) Puttee (Hindoo) Tattoo (Tahitian) Boomerang (Australian) Voodoo (African) Potato (Haytian) Skunk (American Indian) Guano (Peruvian) Buncombe (American) Renegade (Spanish) <Words Related by Marriage> That words marry and are given in marriage, is too generally overlooked. Any student of a foreign language, German for instance, can recall the thrill of discovery and the lift of reawakened hope that came to him when first he suspected, aye perceived, the existence of verbal matrimony. For weeks he had struggled with words that apparently were made up of fortuitous collocations of letters. Then in some beatific moment these huddles of letters took meaning; in instance after instance they represented, not a word, but words--a linguistic household. Let them be what they might--a harem, the domestic establishment of a Mormon, the dwelling-place of verbal polygamists,--he could at last see order in their relationships. To their morals he was indifferent, absorbed as he was in his joy of understanding. In English likewise are thousands of these verbal marriages. We may not be aware of them; from our very familiarity with words we may overlook the fact that in instances uncounted their oneness has been welded by a linguistic minister or justice of the peace. But to read a single page or harken for thirty seconds to oral discourse with our minds intent on such states of wedlock is to convince ourselves that they abound. Consider this list of everyday words: somebody, already, disease, vineyard, unskilled, outlet, nevertheless, holiday, insane, resell, schoolboy, helpmate, uphold, withstand, rainfall, deadlock, typewrite, football, motorman, thoroughfare, snowflake, buttercup, landlord, overturn. Every term except one yokes a verbal husband with his wife, and the one exception (_nevertheless_) joins a uxorious man with two wives. These marriages are of a simple kind. But the nuptial interlinkings between families of words may be many and complicated. Thus there is a family of _graph_ (or write) words: graphic, lithograph, cerograph, cinematograph, stylograph, telegraph, multigraph, seismograph, dictograph, monograph, holograph, logograph, digraph, autograph, paragraph, stenographer, photographer, biographer, lexicographer, bibliography, typography, pyrography, orthography, chirography, calligraphy, cosmography, geography. There is also a family of _phone_ (or sound) words: telephone, dictaphone, megaphone, audiphone, phonology, symphony, antiphony, euphonious, cacophonous, phonetic spelling. It chances that both families are of Greek extraction. Related to the _graphs_--their cousins in fact--are the _grams_: telegram, radiogram, cryptogram, anagram, monogram, diagram, logogram, program, epigram, kilogram, ungrammatical. Now a representative of the _graphs_ married into the _phone_ family, and we have graphophone. A representative of the _phones_ married into the _graph_ family, and we have phonograph. A representative of the _grams_ married into the _phone_ family, and we have gramophone. A representative of the _phones_ married into the _gram_ family, and we have phonogram. Of such unions children may be born. For example, from the marriage of Mr. Phone with Miss Graph were born phonography, phonographer, phonographist (a rather frail child), phonographic, phonographical, and phonographically. Intermarriage between the _phones_ and the _graphs_ or _grams_ is a wedding of equals. Some families of words, however, are of inferior social standing to other families, and may seek but not hope to be sought in marriage. Compare the _ex's_ with the _ports_. An _ex_, as a preposition, belongs to a prolific family but not one of established and unimpeachable dignity. Hence the _ex's_, though they marry right and left, lead the other words to the altar and are never led thither themselves. Witness exclude, excommunicate, excrescence, excursion, exhale, exit, expel, expunge, expense, extirpate, extract; in no instance does _ex_ fellow its connubial mate--it invariably precedes. The _ports_, on the other hand, are the peers of anybody. Some of them choose to remain single: port, porch, portal, portly, porter, portage. Here and there one marries into another family: portfolio, portmanteau, portable, port arms. More often, however, they are wooed than themselves do the pleading: comport, purport, report, disport, transport, passport, deportment, importance, opportunity, importunate, inopportune, insupportable. From our knowledge of the two families, therefore, we should surmise that if any marriage is to take place between them; an _ex_ must be the suitor. The surmise would be sound. There is such a term as _export_, but not as _portex_. Now it is oftentimes possible to do business with a man without knowing whether he is a man or a bridal couple. And so with a word. But the knowledge of his domestic state and circumstances will not come amiss, and it may prove invaluable. You may find that you can handle him to best advantage through a sagacious use of the influence of his wife. EXERCISE - Marriage 1. For each word in the lists of EXERCISE - Dictionary and Activity 1 for EXERCISE - Past, determine (a) whether it is single or married; (b) if it is married, whether the wedding is one between equals. 2. Make a list of the married words in the first three paragraphs of the selection from Burke (Appendix 2). For each of these words determine the exact nature and extent of the dowry brought by each of the contracting parties to the wedding. <Prying Into a Word's Relationships> Hitherto in our study of verbal relationships we have usually started with the family. Having strayed (as by good luck) into an assembly of kinsmen, we have observed the common strain and the general characteristics, and have then "placed" the individual with reference to these. But we do not normally meet words, any more than we meet men, in the domestic circle. We meet them and greet them hastily as they hurry through the tasks of the day, with no other associates about them than such as chance or momentary need may dictate. If we are to see anything of their family life, it must be through effort we ourselves put forth. We must be inquisitive about their conjugal and blood relationships. How, then, starting with the individual word, can you come into a knowledge of it, not in its public capacity, but in what is even more important, its personal connections? You must form the habit of asking two questions about it: (1) Is it married? (2) Of what family or families was it born? If you can get an understanding answer to these two questions, an answer that will tell you what its relations stand for as well as what their name is, your inquiries will be anything but bootless. Let us illustrate your procedure concretely. Suppose you read or hear the word _conchology_. It is a somewhat unusual word, but see what you can do with it yourself before calling on the dictionary to help you. Observe the word closely, and you will obtain the answer to your first question. _Conchology_ is no bachelor, no verbal old maid; it is a married pair. Your second and more difficult task awaits you; you must ascertain the meaning of the family connections. With Mr. Conch you are on speaking terms; you know him as one of the shells. But the utmost you can recall about his wife is that she is one of a whole flock of _ologies_. What significance does this relationship possess? You are uncertain. But do not thumb the dictionary yet. Pass in mental review all the _ologies_ you can assemble. Wait also for the others that through the unconscious operations of memory will tardily straggle in. Be on the lookout for _ologies_ as you read, as you listen. In time you will muster a sizable company of them. And you will draw a conclusion as to the meaning of the blood that flows through their veins. _Ology_ implies speech or study. _Conchology_, then, must be the study of conches. Your investigations thus far have done more than teach you the meaning of the word you began with. They have brought you some of the by-products of the study of verbal kinships. For you no longer pass the _ologies_ by with face averted or bow timidly ventured. You have become so well acquainted with them that even a new one, wherever encountered, would flash upon you the face of a friend. But now your desires are whetted. You wish to find out how much you _can_ learn. You at last consult the dictionary. Here a huge obstacle confronts you. The _ologies_, like the _ports_ (above), are a haughty clan; they are the wooed, rather than the wooing, members of most marital households that contain them. Now the marriage licenses recorded in the dictionary are entered under the name of the suitor, not of the person sought. Hence you labor under a severe handicap as you take the census of the _ologies_. Let us imagine the handicap the most severe possible. Let us suppose that no _ology_ had ever been the suitor. Even so, you would not be entirely baffled. For you could look up in the dictionary the _ologies_ you your self had been able to recall. To what profit? First, you could verify or correct your surmise as to what the _ological_ blood betokens. Secondly, you could perhaps obtain cross-references to yet other _ologies_ than those you remembered. But you are not reduced to these extremities. The _ologies_, arrogant as they are, sometimes are the applicants for matrimony, and the marriage registry of the dictionary so indicates. To be sure, they do not, when thus appearing at the beginning of words, take the form _ology_. They take the form _log_. But you must be resourceful enough to keep after your quarry in spite of the omission of a vowel or two. Also from some lexicons you may obtain still further help. You may find _ology, logy, logo_, or _log_ listed as a combining form, its meaning given, and examples of its use in compounds cited. By your zeal and persistence you have now brought together a goodly array of the _ologies_--all or most, let us say, of the following: conchology, biology, morphology, phrenology, physiology, osteology, histology, zoology, entomology, bacteriology, ornithology, pathology, psychology, cosmology, eschatology, demonology, mythology, theology, astrology, archeology, geology, meteorology, mineralogy, chronology, genealogy, ethnology, anthropology, criminology, technology, doxology, anthology, trilogy, philology, etymology, terminology, neologism, phraseology, tautology, analogy, eulogy, apology, apologue, eclogue, monologue, dialogue, prologue, epilogue, decalogue, catalogue, travelogue, logogram, logograph, logo-type, logarithms, logic, illogical. (Moreover you may have perceived in some of these words the kinship which exists in all for the _loquy_ group--see (1) Soliloquy below.) Of course you will discard some items from this list as being too learned for your purposes. But you will observe of the others that once you know the meaning of _ology_, you are likely to know the whole word. Thus from your study of _conchology_ you have mastered, not an individual term, but a tribe. In _conchology_ only one element, _ology_, was really dubious at the outset. Let us take a word of which both elements give you pause. Suppose your thought is arrested by the word _eugenics_. You perhaps know the word as a whole, but not its components. For by looking at it and thinking about it you decide that its state is married, that it comprises the household of Mr. Eu and his wife, formerly Miss Gen. But you cannot say offhand just what kind of person either Mr. Eu or the erstwhile Miss Gen is likely to prove. Have you met any of the _Eu's_ elsewhere? You think vaguely that you have, but cannot lay claim to any real acquaintance. To the dictionary you accordingly betake yourself. There you find that Mr. Eu is of a family quite respectable but not prone to marriage. _Euphony, eupepsia, euphemism, euthanasia_ are of his retiring kindred. The meaning of the _eu_ blood, so the dictionary informs you, is well. The _gen_ blood, as you see exemplified in gentle, general, genital, engender, carries with it the idea of begetting, of producing, of birth, or (by extension) of kinship. _Eugenics_, then, is an alliance of well and begotten (or born). Your immediate purpose is fulfilled; but you resolve, let us say, to make the acquaintance of more of the _gens_, whose number you have perceived to be legion. You are duly introduced to the following: genus, generic, genre, gender, genitive, genius, general, Gentile, gentle, gentry, gentleman, genteel, generous, genuine, genial, congeniality, congener, genital, congenital, engender, generation, progeny, progenitor, genesis, genetics, eugenics, pathogenesis, biogenesis, ethnogeny, palingenesis, unregenerate, degenerate, monogeny, indigenous, exogenous, homogeneous, heterogeneous, genealogy, ingenuous, ingenious, ingenue, engine, engineer, hygiene, hydrogen, oxygen, endogen, primogeniture, philoprogeniture, miscegenation. Some of these are professional rather than social; you decide not to leave your card at their doors. Others have assumed a significance somewhat un_gen_-like, though the relationship may be traced if you are not averse to trouble, Thus _engine_ in its superficial aspects seems alien to the idea of born. But it is the child of _ingenious_ (innate, inborn); _ingenious_ is the inborn power to accomplish, and _engine_ is the result of the application of that power. Whether you care to bother with such subtleties or not, enough _gens_ are left to make the family one well worth your cultivation. Thus by studying two words, _conchology_ and _eugenics_, you have for the first time placed yourself on an intimate footing with three verbal families--the _ologies_, the _eu's,_ and the _gens_. Observe that though you studied the _ologies_ apart from the _eu's_ and the _gens_, your knowledge--once you have acquired it--cannot be kept pigeonholed, for the _ologies_ have intermarried with both the other families. Hence you on meeting _eulogy_ can exclaim: "How do you do, Mr. Eu? I am honored in making your acquaintance, Mrs. Eu--I was about to call you by your maiden name; for I am a friend of your sister, the Miss Ology who married Mr. Conch. And you too, Mr. Eu--I cannot regard you as a stranger. I have looked in so often on the family of your brother--the Euphony family, I mean. What a beautiful literary household it is! Yet it has been neglected by the world-yea, even by the people who write. Well, the loss is theirs who do the neglecting." And _genealogy_ you can greet with an equal parade of family lore: "Don't trouble to tell me who you are. I am hob and nob with your folks on both sides of the family, and my word for it, the relationship is written all over you. Mr. Gen, I envy you the pride you must feel in the prominence given nowadays to the _eugenics_ household. And it must delight you, Miss Ology-that-was, that connoisseurs are so keenly interested in _conchology_. How are Grandfather Gen and Grandmother Ology? They were keeping up remarkably the last time I saw them." Do you think words will not respond to cordiality like this? They will work their flattered heads off for you! EXERCISE - Relationships 1. For each of the following words (a) determine what families are intermarried, (b) ascertain the exact contribution to the household by each family represented, and (c) make as complete a list as possible of cognate words. Reject Oppose Convent Defer Omit Produce Expel 2. Test the extent of the intermarriages among these words by successively attaching each of the prefixes to each of the main (or key) syllables. (Thus re-ject, re-fer, re-pel, etc.) <Two Admonitions> In tracing verbal kinships you must be prepared for slight variations in the form of the same key-syllable. Consider these words: wise, wiseacre, wisdom, wizard, witch, wit, unwitting, to wit, outwit, twit, witticism, witness, evidence, providence, invidious, advice, vision, visit, vista, visage, visualize, envisage, invisible, vis-à-vis, visor, revise, supervise, improvise, proviso, provision, view, review, survey, vie, envy, clairvoyance. Perhaps the last six should be disregarded as too exceptional in form to be clearly recognized. And certainly some words, as _prudence_ from _providentia_, are so metamorphosed that they should be excluded from practical lists of this kind. But even in the words left to us there are fairly marked divergences in appearance. Why? Because the key-syllable has descended to us, not through one language, but through several. As good verbal detectives we should be able to penetrate the consequent disguises; for _wis, wiz, wit, vid, vic_, and _vis_ all embody the idea of seeing or knowing. On the other hand, you must take care not to be misled by a superficial resemblance into thinking two unrelated key-syllables identical. Let us consider two sets of words. The first, which is related to the _tain_ group (see <Tain> below), has a key-syllable that means holding: tenant, tenement, tenure, tenet, tenor, tenable, tenacious, contents, contentment, lieutenant, maintenance, sustenance, countenance, appurtenance, detention, retentive, pertinacity, pertinent, continent, abstinence, continuous, retinue. The second has a key-syllable that means stretching: tend, tender, tendon, tendril, tendency, extend, subtend, distend, pretend, contend, attendant, tense, tension, pretence, intense, intensive, ostensible, tent, tenterhook, portent, attention, intention, tenuous, attenuate, extenuate, antenna, tone, tonic, standard. The form of the key-syllable for the first set of words is usually _ten, tent_, or _tin_; that for the second _tend, tens, tent_, or _ten_. You may therefore easily confuse the two groups until you have learned to look past appearances into meanings. Thenceforth the holdings and the stretchings will be distinct in your mind--will constitute two great families, not one. Of course individual words may still puzzle you. You will not perceive that _tender_, for example, belongs with the stretchings until you go back to its primary idea of something stretched thin, or that _tone_ has membership in that family until you connect it with the sound which a stretched chord emits. FIRST GENERAL EXERCISE FOR THE CHAPTER Each of the key-syllables given below is followed by (1) a list of fairly familiar words that embody it, (2) a list of less familiar words that embody it, (3) several sentences containing blank spaces, into each of which you are ultimately to fit the appropriate word from the first list. (The existence of the two lists will show you that learned words may have commonplace kinfolks.) First, however, you are to study each word in both lists for (1) its exact meaning, (2) the influence of the key-syllable upon that meaning, (3) any variation of the key-syllable from its ordinary form. (A few words have been introduced to show how varied the forms may be and yet remain recognizable.) Also, as an aid to your memory, you are to copy each list, underscoring the key-syllable each time you encounter it. (The lists are practical, not meticulously academic. In many instances they contain words derived, not from a single original, but from cognates. No list is exhaustive.) <Ag, act, ig> (carry on, do, drive): (1) agent, agitate, agile, act, actor, actuate, exact, enact, reaction, counteract, transact, mitigate, navigate, prodigal, assay, essay; (2) agenda, pedagogue, synagogue, actuary, redact, castigate, litigation, exigency, ambiguous, variegated, cogent, cogitate. _Sentences_ (inflect forms if necessary; for example, use the past tense, participle, or infinitive of a verb instead of its present tense): It was ____ into law. The legislators had been ____ by honest motives, but the popular ____ was immediate. The ____ of the mining company refused to let us proceed with the ____. Nothing could ____ the offense. The father was ____, the son ____. The student handed in his ____ at the ____ time designated. Though ____ enough on land, he could not ____ a ship. The ____ by missing his cue so ____ the manager that his good work thereafter could not ____ the ill impression. <Burn, brun, brand> (burn): (1 and 2 combined) burn, burnish, brunette, brunt, bruin, brand, brandish, brandy, brown. _Sentences_: He plucked a ____ from the ____. The ____ hair of the ____ was so glossy it seemed ____. He ____ his sword and bore the ____ of the conflict. After drinking so much ____ he saw snakes in his imagination, he staggered off into the woods and met Old ____ in reality. <Cad, cas, cid> (fall): (1) cadence, decadent, case, casual, casualty, occasion, accident, incident, mischance, cheat; (2) casuistry, coincide, occidental, deciduous. _Sentences_: The period was a ____ one. He gave but ____ attention to the ____ of the music. On this ____ an ____ befell him. To the general it was a mere ____ that his ____ were heavy. As a result of this ____ he was accused of trying to ____ them. <Cede, ceed, cess> (go): (1) cede, recede, secede, concede, intercede, procedure, precedent, succeed, exceed, success, recess, concession, procession, intercession, abscess, ancestor, cease, decease; (2) antecedent, precedence, cessation, accessory, predecessor. _Sentences_: He ____ the existence of a ____ that justified such ____. The delegate ____ his authority when he consented to ____ the territory. He would not ____ from his position or ____ for mercy. At ____ the pupils ____ in forming a ____. His ____ was suffering from an ____ at the time the Southern states ____. His agony ____ only with his ____. <Ceive, ceit, cept, cip, cap(t)> (take): (1) receive, deceive, perceive, deceit, conceit, receipt, reception, perception, inception, conception, interception, accept, except, precept, municipal, participate, anticipate, capable, capture, captivate, case (chest, covering), casement, incase, cash, cashier, chase, catch, prince, forceps, occupy; (2) receptacle, recipient, incipient, precipitate, accipiter, capacious, incapacitate. _Sentences_: Though she ____ the officers, she did not prevent the ____ of the fugitive. He ____ that the man was very ____. The mayor skilfully ____ the alderman and proposed that ____ bonds be issued. The sight of the money ____ him and he quickly gave me a ____. He uttered musty ____, which were not always given a friendly ____. From the ____ of the movement he plotted to ____ the leadership in it. The ____ took part in the ____, but failed to ____ any of the game. <Cide, cis(e)> (cut, kill): (1) decide, suicide, homicide, concise, precise, decisive, incision, scissors, chisel, cement; (2) patricide, fratricide, infanticide, regicide, germicide, excision, circumcision, incisors, cesura. _Sentences_: He could not ____ whether to make the ____ with a ____ or a pair of ____. There was ____ evidence that he was the ____. In a few ____ sentences he explained why his friend could never have been a ____. The prim old lady had very ____ manners of speech. <Cur, course> (run): (1) current, currency, incur, concur, occurrence, cursory, excursion, course, discourse, intercourse, recourse; (2) curriculum, precursor, discursive, recurrent, concourse, courier, succor, corridor. _Sentences_: He ____ in the request that payment be made in ____. The ____ was so strong that the ____ by steamer had to be abandoned. In the ____ of his remarks he had ____ to various shifts and evasions. By his ____ with one faction, though it was but ____, he ____ the enmity of the other. It was a disgraceful ____. <Dic, dict> (speak, say): (1) dedicate, vindicate, indication, predicament, predict, addict, verdict, indict, dictionary, dictation, jurisdiction, vindictive, contradiction, benediction, ditto, condition; (2) abdicate, adjudicate, juridical, diction, dictum, dictator, dictaphone, dictograph, edict, interdict, valedictory, malediction, ditty, indite, ipse dixit, on dit. _Sentences_: The man ____ to drugs was ____ for ____ treatment of his wife, and the ____ were that the ____ would be against him. He said, on the contrary, that his character would be ____. The attorney for the defense ____ that the judge would rule that the matter did not lie within his ____. This would leave the prosecution in a ____. But the prosecution issued a strong ____ of this theory, and said ____ were favorable for proving the man guilty. <Duce, duct> (lead): (1) induce, reduce, traduce, seduce, introduce, reproduce, education, deduct, product, production, reduction, conduct, conductor, abduct, subdue; (2) educe, adduce, superinduce, conducive, ducat, duct, ductile, induction, aqueduct, viaduct, conduit, duke, duchy. _Sentences_: We ____ the company to ____ the fare. They ____ ten cents from the wages of each man, an average ____ of four per cent. They ____ us when they say we have wilfully lessened ____. The highwaymen ____ the ____. If you have an ____, you can ____ an idea in other words. <Error> (wander): (1) error, erroneous, erratic, errand; (2) errata, knight errant, arrant knave, aberration. _Sentences_: That ____ fellow came on a special ____ to tell us we had made an ____. And his statement was ____ at that! <Fact, fic(e), fy, fect, feat, feit> (make, do): (1) fact, factory, faction, manufacture, satisfaction, suffice, sacrifice, office, difficult, pacific, terrific, significant, fortification, magnificent, artificial, beneficial, verify, simplify, stupefy, certify, dignify, glorify, falsify, beautify, justify, infect, perfect, effect, affection, defective, feat, defeat, feature, feasible, forfeit, surfeit, counterfeit, affair, fashion; (2) factor, factotum, malefaction, benefaction, putrefaction, facile, facsimile, faculty, certificate, edifice, efficacy, prolific, deficient, proficient, artifice, artificer, beneficiary, versification, unification, exemplification, deify, petrify, rectify, amplify, fructify, liquefy, disaffect, refection, comfit, pontiff, ipso facto, de facto, ex post facto, au fait, fait accompli. _Sentences_: The opposing ____ by incredible ____ had found it ____ to take over the ____ of the goods. By this ____ it ____ what goodwill the owner of the ____ had for it, but it won the ____ of the public. The owner, though seemingly ____ at first, soon ____ a scheme to make the success of the enterprise more ____. By an ____ lowering of the price of his own goods and by ____ that those of his rivals were ____, he hoped to ____ the public mind with unjust suspicions. But all this did not ____. In truth the ____ of it was the hastening of his own ____ and a ____ heightening of the public ____ toward his rivals. His directors, seeing that his policy had failed to ____ itself, met in his ____ and urged him to take a more ____ attitude. <Fer> (bear, carry): (1) transfer, prefer, proffer, suffer, confer, offer, referee, deference, inference, indifferent, ferry, fertile; (2) referendum, Lucifer, circumference, vociferate, auriferous, coniferous, pestiferous. _Sentences_: With real ____ to their wishes he ____ to ____ the goods by ____. The ____ of the sporting writers was that the ____ was ____ to his duties. After ____ apart, the farmers ____ the use of their most ____ acres for this experiment. To be mortal is to ____. <Fide> (trust, believe, have faith): (1) fidelity, confide, confident, diffident, infidel, perfidious, bona fide, defiance, affiance; (2) fiduciary, affidavit, fiancé, auto da fé, Santa Fé. _Sentences_: He was ____ that the man was an ____. He had ____ in a ____ rascal. He had been ____ for years and had proved his ____. Though we are somewhat ____ in making it, you may be sure it is a ____ offer. His attitude toward his father is one of gross ____. <Grade, gress> (walk, go): (1) grade, gradual, graduate, degrade, digress, Congress, aggressive, progressive, degree; (2) gradation, Centigrade, ingress, egress, transgression, retrogression, ingredient. _Sentences_: His failure to ____ from college made him feel ____ especially as his cronies all received their ____. The engine lost speed ____ as it climbed the long ____. I ____ to remark that some members of ____ are more ____ than ____. <Hab, hib> (have, hold): (1) habit, habitation, inhabitant, exhibit, prohibition, ability, debit, debt; (2) habituate, habiliment, habeas corpus, cohabit, dishabille, inhibit. _Sentences_: The ____ of the island ____ an ____ to live without permanent ____. It was his ____ to glance first at the ____ side of his ledger, as he was much worried about his ____. Most women favor ____. <Hale, heal, hol, whole> (sound): (1) hale, hallow, Hallowe'en, heal, health, unhealthy, healthful, holy, holiday, hollyhock, whole, wholesome; (2) halibut, halidom. _Sentences_: Though he lived in a ____ climate, he was ____. The food was ____, the man ____ and hearty. He did not think of a ____ as ____. We had ____ in our garden almost until ____. He wept at hearing the ____ name of his mother. For a ____ month the wound refused to ____. <It> (go): (1) exit, transit, transition, initial, initiative, ambition, circuit, perishable; (2) itinerant, transitory, obituary, sedition, circumambient. _Sentences_: The ____ was broken. It was his ____ shipment of ____ goods, and they suffered a good deal in ____. His ____ was to be regarded as a man of great ____. His ____ was less effective than his entrance. <Ject> (throw): (1) eject, reject, subject, project, objection, injection, dejected, conjecture, jet, jetty; (2) abject, traject, adjective, projectile, interjection, ejaculate, jetsam, jettison. _Sentences_: With ____ mien he watched the waves lash the ____. His scheme was ____ to much ridicule and then ____, and he himself was ____ from the room. From a pipe that ____ from the corner of the building came a ____ of dirty water. He could only ____ what their ____ was. The ____ brought immediate relief. <Jud, jur, just> (law, right): (1) judge, judicious, judicial, prejudice, jurist, jurisdiction, just, justice, justify; (2) judicature, adjudicate, juridical, jurisprudence, justiciary, de jure. _Sentences_: The eminent ____ said the matter did not lie within his ____. Though ____ in most matters, he admitted to ____ in this. The ____ said he would comment in an unofficial rather than a ____ way. She could not ____ her suspicions. He was not only ____ himself, but devoted to ____. <Junct> (join): (1) junction, juncture, injunction, disjunctive, conjugal, adjust; (2) adjunct, conjunction, subjunctive, conjugate. _Sentences_: A ____ force had entered their ____ relationships. At this ____ he gave the ____ that disturbances should cease. The tramp halted at the ____ to eat his lunch and ____ his knapsack. <Jure> (swear): (1 and 2 combined) juror, jury, abjure, adjure, conjurer, perjury. _Sentences_: They ____ their loyalty. He ____ them to remember their duty as ____. The ____ held the ____ guilty of ____. <Leg, lig, lect> (read, choose, pick up): (1) elegant, illegible, college, negligent, diligent, eligible, elect, select, intellect, recollect, neglect, lecturer, collection, coil, cull; (2) legend, legion, legacy, legate, delegate, sacrilegious, dialect, lectern, colleague, lexicon. _Sentences_: In ____ he listened to the ____ and took an occasional note in an ____ hand. She ____ an ____ costume. They ____ the only man who was ____. He did not ____ to take up the ____. He was ____ rather than ____. Her mind was too ____ to ____ all the circumstances. <Lig> (bind): (1 and 2 combined) ligament, ligature, obligation, ally, alliance, allegiance, league, lien, liable, liaison, alloy. _Sentences_: It was a pleasure that knew no ____. To belong to the ____ carries ____. In studying anatomy you learn all about ____ and ____. The two nations were in ____. We may be sure of their ____. We will take a ____ upon your property. As a ____ officer he was ____ for the equipment which our ____ reported lost. <Luc, lum, lus> (light): (1) lucid, translucent, luminous, illuminate, luminary, luster, illustrate, illustrious; (2) lucent, Lucifer, lucubration, elucidate, pellucid, relume, limn. _Sentences_: The ____ author spoke very ____. He gave us a ____ explanation of a very abstruse subject. The material was ____ even to the rays of the feeblest of the heavenly ____. He ____ his theory by the following anecdote. This deed added ____ to his fame. <Mand> (order): (1 and 2 combined) mandate, mandamus, mandatory, demand, remand, countermand, commandment. _Sentences_: The superior court issued a writ of ____. The case was ____ to the lower court. His instructions were not discretionary, but ____. At your ____ the ____ has been issued. The ____ promptly ____ the orders of the offending officer. <Mit, mis, mise> (send): (1) permit, submit, commit, remit, transmit, mission, missile, missionary, remiss, omission, commission, admission, dismissal, promise, surmise, compromise, mass, message; (2) emit, intermittent, missive, commissary, emissary, manumission, inadmissible, premise, demise. _Sentences_: The ____ could only ____ why so many of his people had not attended ____. The ____ contained a ____ that no one would be held ____. The request was ____ that he would please ____. He ____ to his ____ without a protest. A ____ was appointed to investigate whether the territory should be granted ____ as a state. His ____ was such as to ____ him to tarry if he chose. <Move, mote, mob> (move): (1) move, movement, removal, remote, promote, promotion, motion, motive, emotion, commotion, motor, locomotive, mob, mobilize, automobile, moment; (2) immovable, motivate, locomotor ataxia, mobility, immobile, momentum. _Sentences_: The next ____ was his, and his ____ was profound. The ____ of the ____ from across the alley enabled the ____ to surge in a threatening ____ toward the rear of the building. At this ____ the ____ was great. The officer whose ____ had seemed so ____ was now enabled to ____ strong forces for the campaign. The ____ began a slow ____ forward. His exact ____ was not known. <Pass, path> (suffer): (1) passion, passive, impassive, impassioned, compassion, pathos, pathetic, impatient, apathy, sympathy, antipathy; (2) passible, impassible, dispassionate, pathology, telepathy, hydropathy, homeopathy, allopathy, osteopathy, neuropathic, pathogenesis. _Sentences_: With an ____ countenance he spoke of the ____ of our Lord. The ____ of the story moved her to ____. He allowed his ____ no further expression than through that one ____ shrug. With a ____ smile he settled back into dull ____. His plea was ____. <Ped, pod> (foot): (1) pedal, pedestrian, pedestal, expedite, expediency, expedition, quadruped, impediment, biped, tripod, chiropodist, octopus, pew; (2) centiped, pedicle, pedometer, velocipede, sesquipedalian, antipodes, podium, polypod, polyp, Piedmont. _Sentences_: A ____ suggested that we could ____ matters by each mounting a ____. The loss of the ____ was a serious ____ to the rider of the bicycle. The ____ had me place my foot on an artist's ____. The purpose of this nautical ____ was to capture a live ____. The ____ of having so large a ____ for the statue had not occurred to us. A ____ scarcely recognizable as human occupied my ____. <Pell, pulse> (drive): (1) dispel, compel, propeller, repellent, repulse, repulsive, impulse, compulsory, expulsion, appeal; (2) appellate, interpellate. _Sentences_: After the ____ of the attack the mists along the lowlands were ____. His manner was ____, even ____. The revolutions of the ____ soon ____ the boatmen to shove farther off. After his ____ he ____ for a rehearing of his case. The act was ____, but he felt an ____ toward it anyhow. <Pend, pense, pond> (hang, weigh): (1) pending, impending, independent, pendulum, perpendicular, expenditure, pension, suspense, expense, pensive, compensate, ponder, ponderous, preponderant, pansy, poise, pound; (2) pendant, stipend, appendix, compendium, propensity, recompense, indispensable, dispensation, dispensary, avoirdupois. _Sentences_: The veterans felt great ____ while action regarding their ____ was ____. We shall ____ you. An arm of it stood in a position ____ to the ____ mass. He knew that fate was ____, and he watched the ____ swing back and forth slowly. He gave a ____ argument in favor of the ____ of the money. There is ____, that's for thoughts. Let us ____ the question whether the ____ is needful. She was a woman of rare social ____. Penny-wise, ____ foolish. <Pet> (seek): (1 and 2 combined) petition, petulant, impetus, impetuous, perpetuate, repeat, compete, competent, appetite, centripetal. _Sentences_: A great ____ force keeps the planets circling about the sun. The complaints of a ____ woman led him to ____ for the prize. The sexual ____ leads men to ____ the race. The ____ was pronounced upon ____ authority to be ill drawn up. With ____ wrath he ____ the assertion. The ____ became noticeably weaker. <Ply, plic, plicate> (fold): (1) ply, reply, imply, plight, suppliant, explicit, implicit, implicate, supplicate, duplicate, duplicity, complicate, complicity, accomplice, application, plait, display, plot, employee, exploit, simple, supple; (2) pliant, pliable, replica, explication, inexplicable, multiplication, deploy, triple, quadruple, plexus, duplex. _Sentences_: We ____ the thief's ____ with questions. He ____ that others were ____ with him. The king ____ to the ____ that such ____ must never be ____ in the realm thereafter. It would be a ____ matter to ____ the order. The manager had ____ confidence in his ____. She admired his courage in this ____, perceived his ____ in the crime, and deplored his participation in the ____. They ____ him for an ____ promise that mercy would be shown. She was in a ____, for she had not had time to arrange her hair in its usual broad ____. He was ____ of body. The ____ was refused. <Pose, pone> (place): (1) expose, compose, purpose, posture, position, composure, impostor, postpone, post office, positive, deposit, disposition, imposition, deponent, opponent, exponent, component; (2) depose, impost, composite, apposite, repository, preposition, interposition, juxtaposition, decomposition. _Sentences_: The ____ said he would ____ the manner in which the cashier had made away with the ____. The true ____ of the ____ was now known, yet he retained his ____. For you to make yourself an ____ of these wild theories is an ____ on your friends. The closing hour at the ____ is ____ thirty minutes on account of the rush of Christmas mail. He was ____ that his ____ had ____ the letter. One of the ____ elements in his ____ was gloom. <Prise, prehend> (seize): (1) prize, apprise, surprise, comprise, enterprise, imprison, comprehend, apprehension; (a) reprisal, misprision, reprehend, prehensile, apprentice, impregnable, reprieve. _Sentences_: He had no ____ as to what the ____ would ____. His ____ was so great that he could scarcely ____ the fact that the ____ was his. The judge ____ them of the likelihood that they would be ____. <Prob> (prove): (1 and 2 combined) probe, probation, probate, probity, approbation, reprobate, improbable. _Sentences_: The young ____ was placed on ____. The will was brought into the ____ court. It is ____ that such ____ as his will win the ____ of evil-doers. <Rupt> (break): (1 and 2 combined) rupture, abrupt, interrupt, disrupt, eruption, incorruptible, irruption, bankrupt, rout, route, routine. _Sentences_: The volcano was in ____. Though ____, he remained ____. The ____ of the barbarians ____ these reforms. The organization was ____ after having already been put to ____. The ____ he had chosen led to a ____ in their relationships. It was ____ work. <Sed, sid(e), sess> (seat): (1) sedulous, sedentary, supersede, subside, preside, reside, residue, possess, assessment, session, siege; (2) sediment, insidious, assiduous, subsidy, obsession, see (noun), assize. _Sentences_: The ____ was so small that he scarcely noticed he ____ it. The officer was ____ in making the ____ upon every tax-payer fair. During the ____ Congress remained in ____. He ____ in the city and has a ____ occupation. When the officer who ____ is firm, such commotions will quickly ____. He ____ the disgraced commander. <Sequ, secu, sue> (follow): (1) sequel, sequence, consequence, subsequent, consecutive, execute, prosecute, persecute, sue, ensue, suitor, suitable, pursuit, rescue, second; (2) obsequies, obsequious, sequester, inconsequential, non sequitur, executor, suite. _Sentences_: On the ____ day they continued the ____. In the ____ chapter of the ____ the heroine is ____. The ____ of events is hard to follow. The ____ was that her brother began to ____ her ____. The district attorney ____ six ____ offenders, but thought it useless to bring any ____ offender to trial. It was a ____ occasion. <Shear, share, shore> (cut, separate): (1 and 2 combined) shear, sheer, shred, share, shard, scar, score, (sea)shore, shorn, shroud, shire, sheriff. _Sentences_: The ____ had on his face a ____ made by a ____ thrown at him. In that ____ an old custom for every one to ____ in the ____ the sheep. There was, instead of the usual ____, a cliff that rose from the sea. All ____ as the freshman was, he had hardly a ____ of his former dignity. The ____ was very one-sided. A ____ of mist was about him. <Sign> (sign): (1) sign, signal, signify, signature, consign, design, assign, designate, resignation, insignificant; (2) ensign, signatory, insignia. _Sentences_: He ____ his approval of the ____. The disturbance caused by his ____ was ____. He ____ no reason for ____ those particular men. As he could not write his own ____, I ____ the document for him. It was a ____ defeat. <Solve, solu> (loosen): (r) solve, resolve, dissolve, solution, dissolute, resolute, absolute; (2) solvent, absolution, indissoluble, assoil. _Sentences_: On account of his ____ course he had given his parents many a problem to ____. He ____ the powder in a cupful of water and ____ to give it to the patient. This ____ of the difficulty did not win the ____ approval of his employer. The obstacles were many, but he was ____. <Spec(t), spic(e)</b/> (look): (1) spectator, spectacle, suspect, aspect, prospect, expect, respectable, disrespect, inspection, speculate, special, especial, species, specify, specimen, spice, suspicion, conspicuous, despise, despite, spite; (2) specter, spectrum, spectroscope, prospector, prospectus, introspection, retrospect, circumspectly, conspectus, perspective, specie, specification, specious, despicable, auspices, perspicacity, frontispiece, respite. _Sentences_: His ____ was conducted in such a manner as to show the utmost ____. In ____ she noticed an odor of ____. From his ____ you would have taken him to be a ____ of wild animal. The ____ was better than we had ____ it to be. Though you have no ____ fondness for children, you will enjoy the ____ of them playing together. The ____ did not ____ what underhand tactics some of the players were resorting to. In ____ of all this, we made a ____ showing. The ____ is one you cannot ____. ____ this ____ of matters, she did not ____ the cause of her ____, but let him ____ what it might be. <Spire, spirit> (breathe, breath): (1 and 2 combined) spirit, spiritual, perspire, transpire, respire, aspire, conspiracy, inspiration, expiration, esprit de corps. _Sentences_: At the ____ of a few days it ____ that a ____ had actually been formed. The ____ of the division was such that every man ____ to meet the enemy forthwith. He was a man of much ____ and marked powers of ____. As he lay there, he merely ____ and ____; he had no thought whatsoever of things ____. <Sta, sti(t), sist> (stand): (1) stand, stage, statue, stall, stationary, state, reinstate, station, forestall, instant, instance, distance, constant, withstand, understand, circumstance, estate, establish, substance, obstacle, obstinate, destiny, destination, destitute, substitute, superstition, desist, persist, resist, insist, assist, exist, consistent, stead, rest, restore, restaurant, contrast; (2) stature, statute, stadium, stability, instable, static, statistics, ecstasy, stamen, stamina, standard, stanza, stanchion, capstan, extant, constabulary, apostate, transubstantiation, status quo, armistice, solstice, interstice, institute, restitution, constituent, subsistence, pre-existence, presto. _Sentences_: The ____ of the motion was that the student who had been expelled should be ____. He ____ in his ____ resolution to go on the ____. She could not ____ the pleas of ____ people. He ____ her to alight at the ____. In an ____ you shall ____ what the ____ was that drove me to tempt ____ thus. We had gone but a little ____ when I perceived by the hungry working of his jaws that his ____ was the ____ in the next block. No ____ could cause him to ____. She was ____ in a ____ at the bazaar. <Stead> (place): (1 and 2 combined) stead, steadfast, instead, homestead, farmstead, roadstead, bestead. _Sentences_: ____ of resting in a harbor, the ships were tossed about in an open ____. Little did it ____ him to cling to the old ____. A ____ nestled by the highway. To be known as ____ now stood him in good ____. <Strict, string, strain> (bind): (1) district, restrict, strictly, stringent, strain, restrain, constrain; (2) stricture, constriction, boa constrictor, astringent, strait, stress. _Sentences_: We ____ them by means of ____ regulations. He ____ them to this course by his mere example. He attended ____ to his duties. You should not ____ your pleasures in this way. The ____ of long effort was telling on him. <Tact, tang, tain, ting, teg> (touch): (1) tact, contact, intact, intangible, attain, taint, stain, tinge, contingent, integrity, entire, tint; (2) tactile, tactual, tangent, distain, attaint, attainder, integer, disintegrate, contagion, contaminate, contiguous. _Sentences_: His appointment is ____ upon his removing this ____ from his name. His ____ is such that no ____ with evil could leave any ____ upon him. The contents were ____. With ____ he hopes to ____ the ____ approval of his auditors. It was a dark ____. The reason is ____. <Tail> (cut): (1 and 2 combined) detail, curtail, entail, retail, tailor, tally. _Sentences_: He held the property in ____. He kept the reckoning straight by means of ____ cut in a shingle. He resolved to ____ expenses by visiting the ____ less often. We need not go into ____. The profit lies in the difference between wholesale and ____ prices. <Tain> (hold--for related _ten_ group see above under Two Admonitions): (1 and 2 combined) detain, abstain, contain, obtain, maintain, entertain, pertain, appertain, sustain, retain. _Sentences_: Village life and things ____ thereto I shall willingly ____ from. I ____ that precepts of this kind in no sense ____ to public morals. If the gentleman can ____ the consent of his second, the chair will ____ the motion as he restates it. Though your forces may ____ heavy losses, they must ____ their position and ____ the enemy. <Term, termin> (end, bound): (1 and 2 combined) term, terminus, terminal, terminate, determine, indeterminate, interminable, exterminate. _Sentences_: At the ____ of the railroad stands a beautiful ____ station. The manner in which we may ____ the agreement remains ____. He ____ that rather than yield he would make the negotiations ____. During the second ____ they ____ all the rodents about the school. <Tort> (twist): (1) torture, tortoise, retort, contort, distortion, extortionate, torch, (apple) tart, truss, nasturtium; (2) tort, tortuous, torsion, Dry Tortugas. _Sentences_: By the light of the ____ he saw a ____ fowl by the fireside and a ____ in the cupboard. The ____ of his countenance was due to the ____ he was undergoing. ____ his face into a very knowing look, he ____ that a man with a ____ in his buttonhole and ____ shell glasses on his nose had leered at the girls as he passed. <Tract, tra(i)> (draw): (1) tract, tractor, intractable, abstracted, retract, protract, detract, distract, attractive, contractor, trace, trail, train, trait, portray, retreat; (2) traction, tractate, distraught, extraction, subtraction. _Sentences_: In an ____ manner he drove the ____ across a large ____ of ground. He ____ his gaze at the ____ girl. The ____ was now willing to ____ his statement that in the house as it stood there was no ____ of departure from the specifications. Down the weary ____ of the pioneer dashes the palatial modern ____. To be ____ was one of his ____. The artist ____ her as in a ____ state. The ____ of his forces ____ but little from his fame. <Vene, vent> (come): (1) convene, convenient, avenue, revenue, prevent, event, inventor, adventure, convention, circumvent; (2) venire, venue, parvenu, advent, adventitious, convent, preventive, eventuate, intervention. _Sentences_: The legislature ____ in order to pass a measure regarding the public ____. At the ____ the wily old politician was able to ____ his enemies. The ____ saw no means of ____ this infringement of his patent right. In that ____ we are likely to have an ____. Through the long, shaded ____ they strolled together. <Vert, vers(e)> (turn): (1) avert, divert, convert, invert, pervert, advertize, inadvertent, verse, aversion, adverse, adversity, adversary, version, anniversary, versatile, divers, diversity, conversation, perverse, universe, university, traverse, subversive, divorce; (2) vertebra, vertigo, controvert, revert, averse, versus, versification, animadversion, vice versa, controversy, tergiversation, obverse, transverse, reversion, vortex. _Sentences_: Though he carried a large ____ of goods, he was ____ to ____ them. He had ____ forgotten that it was his wedding ____. The ____ was on ____ subjects. They ____ a broad area where nothing had been done to ____ the danger that threatened them. With ____ stubbornness he held to his ____ of the story. He held that the reading of ____ is ____ of masculine qualities. His professors at the ____ soon ____ him to new social and economic theories. Her husband was such a ____ creature that she resolved to secure a ____. Americans are the most ____ people in the ____. The anecdote ____ his ____ himself. Her answer not only was ____, it revealed her ____. He had undergone grave ____ in his time. <Vince, vict> (conquer): (1 and 2 combined) evince, convince, province, invincible, evict, convict, conviction, victorious. _Sentences_: He was ____ that the campaign against the rebels in the ____ could not be ____. He ____ a lively interest in my theory that the fugitive could not be ____. He felt an ____ repugnance to ____ the man, and this in spite of his ____ that the man was guilty. <Voc, voke> (call, voice): (1) vocal, vocation, advocate, irrevocable, vociferous, provoke, revoke, evoke, convoke; (2) vocable, vocabulary, avocation, equivocal, invoke, avouch, vouchsafe. _Sentences_: He was a ____ ____ of the measure, but no sooner was the order issued than he wished it ____. In ____ the assembly he ____ the enthusiasm of his followers. That he should give ____ utterance to this thought ____ me; but the words, once spoken, were ____. <Volve, volute> (roll, turn): (1) involve, devolve, revolver, evolution, revolutionary, revolt, voluble, volume, vault; (2) circumvolve, convolution, convolvulus. _Sentences_: It ____ upon me to put down the ____. In this ____ the heroine is ____ and the hero handy with a ____. He was ____ in a ____ uprising. He had laid the papers away in a ____. The ____ of civilization is a tedious story. SECOND GENERAL EXERCISE Copy both sections (the first consists of fairly familiar terms, the second of less familiar terms) of each of the following word-groups. Find the key-syllable, underscore it in each word, observe any modifications in its form. Decide for yourself what its meaning is; then verify or correct your conclusion by reference to the dictionary. Study the influence of the key-syllable upon the meaning of each separate word; find the word's original signification, its present signification. Add to each word-group as many cognate words as you can (1) think of for yourself, (2) find in the dictionary by looking under the key-syllable. Fill the blanks in the sentences after each word-group with terms chosen from the first section of words in that group. (1) Animosity, unanimous, magnanimity; (2) animate, animadvert, equanimity. _Sentences_: It was the ____ opinion that to so noble a foe ____ should be shown. The spiteful man continued to display his ____. (1) Annual, annuity, anniversary, perennial, centennial, solemn; (2) superannuate, biennial, millennium. _Sentences_: The amateur gardener made the ____ discovery that the plant was a ____. The ____ celebration of the great man's birth took a ____ and imposing form in our city. By a happy coincidence the increase in his ____ came on his wedding ____. (1) Audit, auditor, auditorium, audience, inaudible, obey; (2) aurist, auricular, auscultation. _Sentences_: His voice may not have been ____, but it certainly did not fill the ____. Not one ____ in all that vast ____ but was willing to ____ his slightest suggestion. He was not willing that they should ____ his accounts. (1) Automatic, automobile, autocrat, autobiography; (2) autograph, autonomy. _Sentences_: The ____ dictated to his secretary the third chapter of his ____. The habit of changing gear properly in an ____ becomes almost ____. (1) Cant, descant, incantation, chant, enchant, chanticleer, accent, incentive; (2) canto, canticle, cantata, recant, chantry, chanson, precentor. _Sentences_: He ____ upon this topic in a queer, foreign ____. Such utterances are mere sanctimonious ____; I had rather listen to the ____ of a voodoo conjurer. The little girl from the city was ____ with the crowing of ____. The ____ of the choir somehow gave him the ____ to try again. (1) Cent, per cent, century, centennial; (2) centenary, centime, centurion, centimeter, centigrade. _Sentences_: For nearly a ____ this family has been living on a small ____ of its income. I wouldn't give a ____ for ____ honors; I want my reward now. (1) Chronic, chronological, chronicle; (2) chronometer, synchronize, anachronism. _Sentences_: It is a ____ record of changing activities and ____ ills. This page is a ____ of athletic news. (1) Corps, corpse, corporal, corpulent, corporation, incorporate; (2) corpus, habeas corpus, corporeal, corpuscle, Corpus Christi. _Sentences_: The ____ gentleman said he did not believe in ____ punishment. The hospital ____ carried the ____ into the office of a great ____. He resolved to ____ this idea into the reforms he was introducing. (1 and 2 combined) Creed, credulous, credential, credit, accredit, discredit, incredible. _Sentences_: He was not so ____ as to suppose that his ____ would be accepted and his statements ____ without some investigation. It is to his ____ that he refused to be bound by his former religious ____. That such ____ has been heaped upon him is ____. (1) Crescent, increase, decrease, concrete, recruit, accrue, crew; (2) crescendo, excrescence, accretion, increment. _Sentences_: The ____ now had ____ evidence that military life was not altogether pleasant. In the olden days on the sea deaths from scurvy might bring about a dangerous ____ in the size of the ____. His courage ____ with the profits that ____ to him. The ____ moon rode in the sky. (1) Cure, secure, procure, sinecure, curious, inaccurate; (2) curate, curator. _Sentences_: Occupying the position for a while will ____ you of the notion that it is a ____. He was ____ to know so a bookkeeper had managed to ____ so high a salary. He ____ the equipment required. (1 and 2 combined) Indignity, indignation, undignified, condign, deign, dainty. _Sentences_: We must not be too ____ about visiting ____ punishment upon those responsible for this ____. He did not ____ to express his ____. It was an ____ act. (1) Durable, endure, during, duration, obdurate; (2) durance, duress, indurate, perdurable. _Sentences_: ____ the whole interview she remained ____. It is a ____ cloth; it will ____ all sorts of weather. The session was one of prolonged ____. (1) Finite, infinite, define, definite, confine, final, in fine, unfinished; (2) definitive, infinitesimal. _Sentences_: One cannot ____ the ____. He ____ himself to purely ____ topics. ____ it was a ____ offer and the ____ one he expected to make. The bridge is still ____. (1) Flexibility, inflexible, deflect, inflection, reflection, reflex; (2) circumflex, genuflection. _Sentences_: The ____ influence of this act was great. I did not like the ____ of his voice. After some ____ he decided to remain ____. He was not to be ____ from his purpose. I could but admire the ____ of her tones. (1) Fluent, affluent, influence, influenza, superfluous, fluid, influx, flush (rush of water), fluctuate; (2) confluent, mellifluous, flux, reflux, effluvium, flume. _Sentences_: When you ____ the basin, an ____ of water fills it again. He is an ____ man and a ____ writer. When I had ____, the doctor gave me a disgusting ____ to drink. The wind must have an ____ in making the waves ____ as they do. Any more would be ____. (1) Fort, forte, effort, comfort, fortitude, fortify, fortress; (2) aqua fortis, pianoforte. _Sentences_: The defenders of the ____ held out with great ____. Though a ____ or two stood at important passes, the border was not really ____. His ____ was not public speaking. It was the only by an ____ that he could ____ them. (1) Fraction, infraction, fracture, fragility, fragment, suffrage, frail, infringe; (2) diffract, refractory, frangible. _Sentences_: It was in the course of his ____ of the rules that he suffered the ____ of his collar-bone. He told the committee of ladies that he was as fond of ____ as of ____. It is hardly a proof of ____ that he is so willing to ____ upon the rights of others. The ____ scaffolding bent and swung as he trod it. (1 and 2 combined) Fugitive, fugue, refuge, subterfuge, centrifugal. _Sentences_: Closing his eyes as if to listen better to the ____ was a little ____ of his. The upward movement of the missile was arrested by the ____ attraction of the earth. The ____ took ____ in an abandoned barn. (1) Refund, confound, foundry, confuse, suffuse, profuse, refuse, diffuse; (2) fusion, effusion, transfuse. _Sentences_: With ____ cheeks and ____ utterance he made a ____ apology. The amount we lost through the defective work at your ____ should be ____ to us. Such a blow might ____ but not ____ him. He ____ the appointment. (1) Belligerent, gesture, suggest, congested, digestion, register, jest; (2) gerund, congeries. _Sentences_: As he stopped before the cash ____ he gave a ____ which showed that his ____ was none too good. His look was ____, but he lightly made a ____. Amid the ____ traffic she stopped to ____ that pink would be more becoming than lavender. (1) Relate, translate, legislate, elation, dilated, dilatory; (2) collate, correlate, prelate, oblation, superlative, ablative. _Sentences_: With ____ eyes he ____ the passage for me. The ____ was very ____ in agreeing upon the measure to be passed. He ____ the story with pride and ____. (1) Locate, locality, locomotive, dislocate; (2) locale, allocate, collocation. _Sentences_: In trying to ____ the mine as near the fissure as possible he fell and ____ his hip. It was only ____ in that entire ____. (1) Soliloquy, loquacious, loquacity, colloquial, eloquent, obloquy, circumlocution, elocution; (2) magniloquent, grandiloquent, ventriloquism, interlocutor, locutory, allocution. (For related _log_ and _ology_ words see above under Prying Into a Word's Relationships.) _Sentences_: ____ always, he indulged at this time in a great deal of ____. Though it was mere ____, yet there was something ____ about it. Amid all this ____ he managed to rid himself of a good deal of ____ regarding Standish. Hamlet's ____ on suicide is a famous passage. (1) Allude, elude, delude, ludicrous, illusory, collusion; (2) prelude, postlude, interlude. _Sentences_: Such evidence is ____, and belief in it is ____. He ____ to a possible ____ between them. The more credulous ones he ____, and the skeptical he manages to ____. (1) Metrical, thermometer, barometer, pedometer, diametrically, geometry; (2) millimeter, chronometer, hydrometer, trigonometry, pentameter. _Sentences_: He was careful to consult both the ____ and the ____. He always wore a ____ on these trips. The two were ____ opposed to each other. The poet has great ____ skill. ____ is an exact science. (1) Monotone, monotonous, monoplane, monopoly, monocle, monarchy, monogram, monomania; (2) monosyllable, monochrome, monogamy, monorail, monograph, monolith, monody, monologue, monad, monastery, monk. _Sentences_: His eye held a ____, his gold ring bore a ____ seal, and his voice was a stilted ____. One thing I hate about a ____ is the ____ reference to everything as his majesty's. He had a ____ of the trade in his town. He is suffering, not from madness, but from ____. (1) Mortal, immortality, mortify, postmortem, mortgage, morgue; (2) mortmain, moribund, À la mort. _Sentences_: After a hasty ____ examination, the body was taken to the ____. She was ____ at this reminder of the ____ on her father's property. The ____ shall put on ____. (1 and 2 combined) Mutual, mutation, permutation, commute, transmute, immutable, moult. _Sentences_: As he ____ that morning he reflected upon the ____ and combinations of fortune. We suffer the ____ of this worldly life, but ourselves are not ____. God's love is ____, and our love for each other should be ____. Birds when they ____ are weakened in body and depressed in spirit. (1) Native, prenatal, innate, nature, unnatural, naturalize, nation, pregnant, puny; (2) denatured, nativity, cognate, agnate, nascent, renascence, née. _Sentences_: It was some ____ influence, he thought, that gave him his ____ physique. It was a ____ reply, but its heartlessness was ____. He was not ____ to the country, but ____. ____ in his ____ was the love of his own ____. (1) Note, notion, notable, notice, notorious, cognizant, incognito, recognize, noble, ignoble, ennoble, ignore, ignorance, ignoramus, reconnoiter, quaint, acquaintance; (2) notary, notation, connotation, cognition, prognosticate, reconnaissance, connoisseur. _Sentences_: In complete ____ of the enemy's position, he decided that he would ____ it. ____ himself, he was ____ of what was going on about him. You must ____ the conduct of such an ____. His ____ with this ____ gentleman ____ him. He ____ but would not ____ this ____ fellow. The ____ is a ____ one. He could but ____ how ____ his brother had become. (1) Panacea, panoply, panorama, pantomime, pan-American, pandemonium; (2) pantheist, pantheon. _Sentences_: Arrayed in all the ____ of savages, they acted the scene out in ____. From this point the ____ of the country-side unrolled itself before him. It is no ____ for human ills; any supposition that it is will lead to ____. It is a ____ movement. (1) Peter, petrify, petrol, stormy petrel, petroleum, saltpeter, pier; (2) petrology, parsley, samphire. _Sentences_: As he walked along the ____, he observed the flight of the ____. The English name for gasoline is ____. ____ is used in the manufacture of gunpowder. He was almost ____ at hearing of this enormous stock of ____. The crowing of the cock caused ____ to weep bitterly. (1 and 2 combined) Petty, petite, petit jury, petit larceny, petticoat, pettifogger. _Sentences_: Charged with ____, he was tried by the ____. The contemptible ____ hid behind the ____ of his wife. She was a winsome maiden, dainty and ____. It is a ____ fault. (1 and 2 combined) Philosophy, philanthropy, Philadelphia, bibliophile, Anglophile. _Sentences_: His ____ was generous, but his ____ was not profound. That queer old ____ hangs to the library like a caterpillar. It was the love of humankind that caused Penn to name the city ____. Most Americans are not ____. (1 and 2 combined) Cosmopolitan, metropolitan, politics, policy, police. _Sentences_: Those who engage in ____ lack, as a rule, a ____ outlook. It is merely ____ intolerance of towns and villages. The ____ of the mayor was to increase the ____ force. (1 and 2 combined) Potential, potency, potentate, impotent, omnipotent, plenipotentiary. _Sentences_: So far from being ____, we possess a ____ difficult to estimate. The ____ sent an ambassador ____. A ____ solution of the problem is this. ____ God. (1) Impute, compute, dispute, ill repute, reputation, disreputable; (2) putative, indisputable. _Sentences_: She could not ____ the cost. There was some ____ as to the cause of his ____. Let them ____ to me what motives they will. Though somewhat ____, he was extremely solicitous about his ____. (1) Abrogate, arrogate, interrogate, arrogant, derogatory, prerogative; (2) surrogate, rogation, prorogue. _Sentences_: In an ____ manner he ____ these ____ to himself. To ____ authority is to give opportunity for remarks ____ to one's reputation. He skilfully ____ the witness. (1) Salmon, sally, assail, assault, insult, consult, result, exultation, desultory; (2) salient, salacious, resilient. _Sentences_: After the ____ the firing was ____. The defenders ____ out and ____ us, but the ____ of this effort only added to our ____. We sat there watching the ____ leap over the waterfall and ____ about our arrangements for taking them. To accept the remark as an ____ is to acknowledge the speaker as an equal. (1) Science, conscience, unconscious, prescience, omniscience, nice; (2) sciolist, adscititious, plebiscite. _Sentences_: By his ____ understanding of the issues he was able to gain a reputation for ____. We thought he possessed ____, but he seemed ____ of his erudition. Except under the sharp necessities of ____, he was ruled by a ____ thoroughly tender. (1) Sect, section, non-sectarian, dissect, insect, intersection, sickle, vivisection, segment; (2) bisect, trisect, insection, sector, secant. _Sentences_: He stood at the ____ of the roads, leaning on the shank of a sharp ____. The foreman of the ____ gang is a member of our ____. The boy was ____ an ____ with a butcher knife he had previously used to cut for himself a large ____ of the Sunday cake. It is a ____ movement. He defended the ____ of animals. (1) Sense, consent, assent, resent, sentimental, dissension, sensation, sensibility, sentence, scent, nonsense; (2) sentient, consensus, presentiment. _Sentences_: A woman of her ____ would shrink from a ____ of this sort. He ____ in a single, crisp ____. To be ____ is to be guilty of ____. He had the good ____ to ____ to this course. He ____ such ____ and the causes that produced them. A hound hunts by ____. (1) Despond, respond, correspond, corespondent, sponsor; (2) sponsion, spouse, espouse. _Sentences_: She ____ that her husband had been ____ with the ____. The ____ of the movement could as yet see no reason to ____. (1 and 2 combined) Structure, instructor, construct, obstruct, instrument, destructive, misconstrue. _Sentences_: The student ____ the intentions of his ____. He resolved to ____ every effort to complete the ____. The ____ was one that might easily be turned to ____ work. They ____ a grandstand overlooking the racetrack. (1) Terrace, territory, subterranean, inter, terrier; (2) terrene, tureen, terrestrial, terra cotta, Mediterranean, terra firma, parterre. _Sentences_: The ____ was tearing a great hole in the ____ in order to ____ a bone. He found rich ____ deposits. The discoverers laid claim to the entire ____. (1) Thesis, parenthesis, antithesis, anathema, theme, epithet, treasure; (2) hypothesis, synthesis, metathesis. _Sentences_: To set two ideas in ____ to each other makes both more vivid. By way of ____ he informed me that the subject was ____ to his father. On this ____ he can summon a host of picturesque ____. The ____ is one you will find it hard to establish. He was seeking Captain Kidd's buried ____. (1 and 2 combined) Tumor, tumidity, tumult, tumulus, contumacy. _Sentences_: The ____ of his joints was due to rheumatism. His ____ led to a ____ of opposition. So excited was he at the discovery of the ____ that he did not permit the ____ on his hand to restrain him from beginning the excavation. (1 and 2 combined) Turbid, disturb, perturbation, turbulence, trouble, imperturbable. _Sentences_: His ____ manner gave no hint of the ____ within him. The ____ sweep of the stream caused her not the slightest ____. Do not ____ yourself with the thought that you are putting me to any ____. (1 and 2 combined) Pervade, invade, evasion, vade mecum. _Sentences_: He promised that there would be no ____ of payments. Byron's _Childe Harold_ was my ____ during my travels in Switzerland and Italy. The fragrance of heliotrope ____ the room. You must not ____ my privacy like this. (1) Avail, prevail, prevalent, equivalent, valiant, validity, invalid, invalidate; (2) valetudinarian, valediction, valence. _Sentences_: The ____ of the agreement has been thoroughly established. Our cause is just, and must ____. It is ____ to admitting that the terms are now ____. It was a ____ act and ____ the concessions previously wrested from us. The ____ impression is that mere ingenuity will not ____. (1) Virtue, virile, virgin, virtually; (2) virago, virtuoso, triumvir. _Sentences_: It was ____ a new arrangement. It is ____ soil. To be ____ and daring is every boy's dream. ____ is its own reward. (1) Revive, survival, convivial, vivid, vivify, vivacious, vivisection; (2) vive (le roi), qui vive, bon vivant, tableau vivant. _Sentences_: He has a ____ manner, a ____ spirit. The ____ of the opposition to the ____ of animals is very marked. You cannot ____ a dead cause or scarcely ____ memories of it. The ____ coloring of her cheeks was a sure sign of health, or of skill. THIRD GENERAL EXERCISE Find the key-syllable (in a few instances the key-syllables) of each of the following words. How does it affect the meaning of the word? Does it appear, perhaps in disguised form, in any of the words immediately preceding or following? Can you bring to mind other words that embody it? Innovation Commonwealth Welfare Wayfarer Adjournment Rival Derivation Arrive Denunciation Denomination Ignominy Synonym Patronymic Parliament Dormitory Demented Presumptuous Indent Dandelion Trident Indenture Contemporary Disseminate Annoy Odium Desolate Impugn Efflorescent Arbor vitae Consider Constellation Disaster Suburb Address Dirigible Dirge Indirectly Desperate Inoperative Benevolent Voluntary Offend Enumerate Dilapidate Request Exquisite Exonerate Approximate Insinuate Resurgence Insurrection Rapture Exasperate Complacent Dimension Commensurate Preclude Cloister Turnpike Travesty Atone Incarnate Charnal Etiquette Rejuvenate Eradicate Quiet Requiem Acquiesce Ambidextrous Inoculate Divulge Proper Appropriate Omnivorous Voracious Devour Escritoire Mordant Remorse Miser Hilarious Exhilarate Rudiment Erudite Mark Marquis Libel Libretto Vague Vagabond Extravagant Souse Saucer Oyster Ostracize FOURTH GENERAL EXERCISE With a few exceptions like the Hale-heal group above under Verbal Families, most verbal families of straight English or of Germanic- Scandinavian-English descent are easily recognizable as families. Witness the _Good_ family and the _Stead_ family. The families in which kinship may be overlooked are likely to be of Latin or Greek ancestry, though perhaps with a subsequent infusion of blood from some other foreign language, as French. Hitherto our approach to verbal families has been through the descendants, or through that quality in their blood which holds them together. But we shall also profit from knowing something of the founders of these families--from having some acquaintance with them as individuals. Below (in separate lists) the more prominent of Latin and of Greek progenitors are named, their meaning is given, and two or three of their living representatives (not always direct descendants) are designated. Starred [*] words are those whose progeny has not been in good part assembled in the preceding pages; for these words you should assemble all the living representatives you can. (Inflectional forms are given only where they are needed for tracing English derivatives.) <Latin Ancestors of English Words> _Latin word Meaning English representatives_ Ago, actum do, rouse agile, transact *Alius other alias, inalienable *Alter other alteration, adultery *Altus high altitude, exalt *Ambulo walk perambulator, preamble *Amicus friend amicable, enemy *Amo, amatum love inamorata, amateur, inimical *Anima life animal, inanimate Animus mind animosity, unanimous Annus year annuity, biennial *Aqua water aquarium, aqueduct Audio, auditum hear audience, audit *Bellum war rebel, belligerent *Bene well benefit, benevolence *Bonus good bonanza, bona fide *Brevis short abbreviate, unabridged Cado, casum fall cadence, casual Caedo, cecidi, caesum cut, kill suicide, incision Cano, cantum sing recant, chanticleer Capio, captum take, hold capacious, incipient *Caput, capitis head cape (Cape Cod), decapitate, chapter, biceps Cedo, cessum go concede, accessory Centum hundred per cent, centigrade *Civis citizen civic, uncivilized *Clamo shout acclaim, declamation *Claudo, clausum close, shut conclude, recluse, cloister, sluice Cognosco (see _Nosco_) *Coquo, coxi, coctum cook decoction, precocious *Cor, cordis heart core, discord, courage Corpus body corpse, incorporate Credo, credituin believe creed, discreditable Cresco, cretum grow crescendo, concrete, accrue *Crux, crucis cross crucifix, excruciating Cura care curate, sinecure Curro, cursum run occur, concourse *Derigo, directum direct dirge, dirigible, address *Dexter right, right hand ambidextrous, dexterity Dico speak, say abdicate, verdict *Dies day diary, quotidian Dignus worthy, fitting dignity, condign Do, datum give condone, data *Doceo, doctum teach document, doctor *Dominus lord dominion, danger *Domus house domicile, majordomo *Dormio sleep dormant, dormouse Duco lead traduce, deduction *Duo two dubious, duet Durus hard durable, obdurate Eo, itum go exit, initial Error, erratum wander erroneous, aberration Facio, feci, factum make, do manufacture, affect, sufficient, verify Fero, latum carry transfer, relate Fido trust, believe confide, perfidious Finis end confine, infinity Flecto, flexum bend reflection, inflexible Fluo, fluxum flow influence, reflux Fortis strong fortress, comfort Frango, fractum break infringe, refraction *Frater brother fraternity, fratricide Fugio, fugitum flee centrifugal, fugitive Fundo, fusum pour refund, profuse, fusion Gero, gestum carry belligerent, gesture, digestion Gradior, gressus walk degrade, progress *Gratia favor, pleasure, ingratiate, congratulate, good-will disgrace *Grex, gregis flock segregate, egregious Habeo, habitum have, hold habituate, prohibit Itum (see Eo) Jacio, jeci, jactum throw, hurl reject, interjection Jungo, junctum join conjugal, enjoin, juncture Juro swear abjure, perjury Jus, juris law, right justice, jurisprudence Judex (from jusdico) judge judgment, prejudice *Juvenis young rejuvenate, juvenilia Latum (see Fero) *Laudo, laudatum praise allow, laudatory Lego, lectum read, choose elegant, lecture, dialect *Lex, legis law privilege, illegitimate, legislature *Liber book libel, library *Liber free liberty, deliberate Ligo bind obligation, allegiance, alliance *Linquo, lictum leave delinquent, relict, derelict *Litera letter illiterate, obliterate Locus place collocation, dislocate Loquor, locutus speak soliloquy, elocution Ludo, lusum play prelude, illusory /Lux, lucis light\ lucid, luminary \Lumen, luminis / *Magnus great magnate, magnificent *Malus bad, evil malaria, malnutrition Mando order mandatory, commandment Manus hand manual, manufacture *Mare sea maritime, submarine *Mater mother maternal, alma mater *Medius middle mediocre, intermediate *Mens mind mental, demented *Miror wonder mirror, admirable Mitto, missum send commit, emissary *Mordeo, morsum bite mordant, morsel, remorse Mors, mortis death mortal, mortify Moveo, motum move remove, locomotive *Multus many multiform, multiplex Muto, mutatum change transmute, immutable, moult Nascor, natus be born renascence, cognate *Nihil nothing nihilism, annihilate *Nomen, nominis name denomination, renown *Norma rule abnormal, enormous /Nosco, notum cognosco \ \ cognitum know / notation, incognito *Novus new novelty, renovate *Nuntio announce denounce, renunciation *Opus, operis work magnum opus, inoperative *Pater father patrician, patrimony Patior, passus suffer impatient, passion Pello, pulsum drive propeller, repulse Pendeo, pensum hang pendulum, appendix Pendo, pensum weigh compendium, expense Pes, pedis foot expedite, biped Peto seek impetus, compete *Plaudo, plausum clap, applaud explode, plausible *Plecto, plexum braid perplex, complexion *Pleo, pletum fill complement, expletive *Plus, pluris more surplus, plural Plico, plicatum fold reply, implicate Pono, positum place opponent, deposit Porto carry report, porter Potens, potentis powerful impotent, potential Prendo, prehensum seize comprehend, apprise *Primus, primatis first primary, primate Probo, probatum prove improbable, reprobate *Pugno fight impugn, repugnant Puto think impute, disreputable *Quaero, quaesitum seek require, inquest, exquisite *Rapio, raptum seize enraptured, surreptitious *Rego, rectum rule, lead region, erect *Rideo, risum laugh deride, risible Rogo, rogatum ask prorogue, abrogate Rumpo, ruptum break disrupt, eruption Salio, saltum leap salient, insult *Sanguis blood sang froid, ensanguined Scio, scitum know prescience, plebiscite Scribo, scriptum write prescribe, manuscript, escritoire Seco, sectum cut secant, dissect Sedeo, sessum sit supersede, obsession Sentio, sensum feel presentiment, consensus Sequor, secutus follow sequence, persecute, ensue Signum sign insignia, designate *Solus alone solitude, desolate Solvo, solutum loosen solvent, dissolute *Somnus sleep somnambulist, insomnia *Sono sound consonant, resonance *Sors, sortis lot sort, assortment Specio, spectum look despicable, suspect Spiro, spiratum breathe perspire, conspiracy *Spondeo, sponsum promise respond, espouse Sto, steti, statum stand constant, establish Sisto, stiti, statum cause to stand consistent, superstition Stringo, strictum bind stringent, restrict Struo, structum build construe, destruction Tango, tactum touch intangible, tact Tempus, temporis time temporize, contemporary Tendo, tensum stretch distend, intense Teneo, tentuin hold tenure, detention *Tendo try tentative, attempt Terminus end, boundary terminal, exterminate Terra earth territory, inter Torqueo, tortum twist distort, tortuous Traho, tractum draw extract, subtraction Tumeo, tumidum swell tumor, contumacy Turba tumult, crowd turbulent, disturb *Unus one unify, triune, onion *Urbs city urbane, suburban Vado, vasum go pervade, invasion Valeo, validum be strong prevail, invalid Venio, ventum come intervene, adventure Verto, versum turn divert, adverse *Verus true verdict, veracity *Via way obviate, impervious, trivial Video, visum see provide, revise Vinco, victum conquer province, convict Vir man triumvir, virtue Vivo, victum live vivacious, vivisect Voco, vocatum call revoke, avocation *Volo wish malevolent, voluntary Volvo, volutum turn revolver, evolution Vox voice equivocal, vociferate <Latin Prefixes> _Prefix Meaning English embodiments_ *A, ab from, away avert, abnegation, abstract *Ad to adduce, adjacent, affect, accede *Ante before antediluvian, anteroom *Bi two biped, bicycle *Circum around circumambient, circumference *Cum, com, with, together combine, consort, coadjutor con, co *Contra against contradict, contrast *De from, negative deplete, decry, demerit, declaim down, intensive *Di, dis asunder, away from, divert, disbelief negative *E, ex from, out of evict, excavate *Extra beyond extraordinary, extravagant *In in, into, not innate, instil, insignificant *Inter among, between intercollegiate, interchange *Intro, into, within introduce, intramural intra *Non negative nonage, nondescript *Ob against, before (facing), toward obloquy, obstacle, offer *Per through, extremely persecute, perfervid, pursue, pilgrim, pellucid *Post after postpone, postscript *Pre before prepay, preoccupy *Pro before proceed, proffer *Re back, again return, resound *Retro back, backward retroactive, retrospective *Se apart, aside seclude, secession *Semi half semiannual, semicivilized *Sub under, less than, subscribe, suffer, subnormal, inferior subcommittee *Super above, extremely superfluous, supercritical, soprano *Trans across, through transfer, transparent *Ultra beyond, extremely ultramundane, ultraconservative <Greek Ancestors of English Words> (Scientific terms in English are largely derived from the Greek) _Greek word Meaning English representatives_ *Aner, andros, man, stamen androgynous, philander, anthropos philanthropy *Archos chief, primitive archaic, architect *Astron star asterisk, disaster Autos self autograph, automatic, authentic *Barvs heavy baritone, barites *Biblos book Bible, bibliomania *Bios life biology, autobiography, amphibious *Cheir hand chiropody, chirurgical, surgeon *Chilioi a thousand kilogram, kilowatt *Chroma color chromo, achromatic Chronos time chronic, anachronism *Cosmos world, order cosmopolitan, microcosm *Crypto hide cryptogam, cryptology *Cyclos wheel, circle encyclopedia, cyclone *Deca ten decasyllable, decalogue *Demos people democracy, epidemic *Derma skin epidermis, taxidermist *Dis, di twice, doubly dichromatic, digraph *Didonai, dosis give dose, apodosis, anecdote *Dynamis power dynamite, dynasty *Eidos form, thing seen idol, kaleidoscope, anthropoid *Ethnos race, nation ethnic, ethnology Eu well euphemism, eulogy *Gamos marriage cryptogam, bigamy *Ge earth geography, geometry Genos family, race gentle, engender Gramma writing monogram, grammar Grapho write telegraph, lithograph *Haima blood hematite, hemorrhage, anemia *Heteros other heterodox, heterogeneous *Homos same homonym, homeopathy *Hydor water hydraulics, hydrophobia, hydrant *Isos equal isosceles, isotherm *Lithos stone monolith, chrysolite Logos word, study theology, dialogue Metron measure barometer, diameter *Micros small microscope, microbe Monos one, alone monoplane, monotone *Morphe form metamorphosis, amorphous *Neos new, young neolithic, neophyte *Neuron nerve neuralgia, neurotic Nomos law, science, astronomy, gastronomy, economy management *Onoma name anonymous, patronymic *Opsis view, sight synopsis, thanatopsis, optician *Orthos right orthopedic, orthodox *Osteon bone osteopathy, periosteum *Pais, paidos child paideutics, pedagogue, encyclopedia Pas, pan all diapason, panacea, pantheism Pathos suffering allopathy, pathology Petros rock petroleum, saltpeter *Phaino show, be visible diaphanous, phenomenon, epiphany, fantastic Philos loving bibliophile, Philadelphia *Phobos fear hydrophobia, Anglophobe Phone sound telephone, symphony *Phos light phosphorous, photograph *Physis nature physiognomy, physiology *Plasma form cataplasm, protoplasm *Pneuma air, breath pneumatic, pneumonia Polis city policy, metropolitan *Polys many polyandry, polychrome, polysyllable Pous, pados foot octopus, chiropodist *Protos first protoplasm, prototype *Pseudes false pseudonym, pseudo-classic *Psyche breath, soul, psychology, psychopathy mind *Pyr fire pyrography, pyrotechnics *Scopos watcher scope, microscope *Sophia wisdom philosophy, sophomore *Techne art technicality, architect *Tele far, far off telepathy, telescope {*Temno cut } {*Tomos that which is } epitome, anatomy, tome { cut off } *Theos god theosophy, pantheism *Therme heat isotherm, thermodynamics {Tithenai place } epithet, hypothesis, {Thesis a placing, } anathema { arrangement } *Treis three trichord, trigonometry *Zoon animal zoology, protozoa, zodiac <Greek Prefixes> _Prefix Meaning English embodiments_ *A, an no, not aseptic, anarchy *Amphi about, around, ambidextrous, amphitheater (Latin ambi) both *Ana up, again anatomy, Anabaptist *Anti against, opposite antidote, antiphonal, antagonist *Cata down catalepsy, cataclysm *Dia through, across diameter, dialogue *Epi upon epidemic, epithet, epode, ephemeral *Hyper over, extremely hypercritical, hyperbola *Hypo under, in smaller hypodermic, hypophosphate measure *Meta after, over metaphysics, metaphor *Para beside paraphrase, paraphernalia *Peri around, about periscope, peristyle *Pro before proboscis, prophet *Syn together, with synthesis, synopsis, sympathy VI WORDS IN PAIRS Our first task in this volume was the study of words in combination. Our second was the study of individual words in two of their aspects--first, as they are seen in isolation, next as they are seen in verbal families. Now our third task confronts us. It is the study of words as they are associated, not in actual blood kinship, but in meaning. Such an association in meaning may involve only two words (pairs) or larger groups. In this chapter we shall confine ourselves to the study of pairs. Of the relationship between pairs there are three types. In the first the words are hostile to each other. In the second they may easily be confused with each other. In the third they are parallel with each other. We shall examine the three types successively. But we must make an explanation first. Although we shall, in this and the following chapters, have frequent occasion to give the meanings of individual words, we shall give them without regard to dictionary methods. We shall not attempt formal, water-tight, or exhaustive definitions; our purpose is to convey, in the simplest and most human manner possible, brief general explanations of what the words stand for. <Opposites> Pairs of the first type are made up of words by nature opposite to each other, or else thought of as opposite because they are so often contrasted. Here is a familiar, everyday list: east, west straight, crooked myself, others large, small pretty, ugly major, minor laugh, cry walk, ride light, darkness top, bottom hard, soft friend, enemy sweet, sour clean, dirty temporal, spiritual meat, drink merry, sad means, extremes land, water private, public Jew, Gentile man, woman noisy, quiet independent, dependent old, new general, particular sublime, ridiculous age, youth wholesale, retail give, receive sick, well savage, civilized pride, humility brain, brawn wealth, poverty constructive, destructive soul, body positive, negative None of these words needs explaining. If you think of one of them, you will think of its opposite; at least its opposite will be lurking in the back of your mind. As proof of this fact you have only to glance at the following list, from which the second member of each pair is omitted: hot -- black -- boy -- in -- off -- over -- love -- wrong -- strong -- wet -- first -- day -- long -- fast -- good -- hope -- least -- asleep -- buy -- left -- alive -- winter -- war -- succeed -- creditor -- fat -- internal -- wise -- drunk -- Many words of a more difficult kind are thus pitted against each other, and we learn them, not singly, but in pairs. At least we should. As good verbal hunters we should be alert to the chance of killing two birds with one stone. _Allopath_ and _homeopath_, for example, are difficult opposites. We know of the existence of the two classes of medical practitioners; we know that they use different methods; but beyond this our knowledge is likely to be hazy. Let us set out, then, to _learn_ the two words. The best way is to learn them together. _Allopathy_ means other suffering, _homeopathy_ like suffering. An allopath uses remedies which create within the patient a condition that squarely conflicts with the further progress of the disease. A homeopath prescribes medicines (in small doses) which produce within the patient the same condition that the disease would produce; he "beats the disease to it," so to speak--takes the job himself and leaves the disease nothing to do. The allopath travels around a race-track in the opposite direction from the disease, and thwarts it through a head-on collision. The homeopath travels around the race-track in the same direction as the disease, and thwarts it by pulling at the reins. If we consider the two words together and get these ideas in mind, we shall have no further trouble with allopaths and homeopaths--except, perhaps, when they have rendered their services and presented their bills. _Objective_ and _subjective_ are also a troublesome pair. A thing is objective if it is an actual object or being, if it exists in itself rather than in our surmises. A thing is subjective if it is the creature of a state of mind, if it has its existence in the thought or imagination of some person or other. Thus if I meet a bear in the wilds, that bear is objective; whatever may be the state of my thoughts, _he is there_--and it would be to my advantage to reckon with this fact. But if a child who is sent off to bed alone says there is a bear in the room, the bear is subjective; it is not a living monster that will devour anybody, but a creature called into the mind of the child through dread. EXERCISE - Opposites Study the following words in pairs. Consult the dictionary for actual meanings. Then test your knowledge by embodying each word of each pair in a sentence, or in an illustration like those of the race-track and the bear in the preceding paragraphs. superior, inferior concord, discord export, import domestic, foreign fact, fiction prose, poetry verbal, oral literal, figurative predecessor, successor genuine, artificial positive, negative practical, theoretical optimism, pessimism finite, infinite longitude, latitude evolution, revolution oriental, occidental pathos, bathos sacred, profane military, civil clergy, laity capital, labor ingress, egress element, compound horizontal, perpendicular competition, coöperation predestination, freewill universal, particular extrinsic, intrinsic inflation, deflation dorsal, ventral acid, alkali synonym, antonym prologue, epilogue nadir, zenith amateur, connoisseur anterior, posterior stoic, epicure ordinal, cardinal centripetal, centrifugal stalagmite, stalactite orthodox, heterodox homogeneous, heterogeneous monogamy, polygamy induction, deduction egoism, altruism Unitarian, Trinitarian concentric, eccentric herbivorous, carnivorous deciduous, perennial esoteric, exoteric endogen, exogen vertebrate, invertebrate catalectic, acatalectic <Words Often Confused> Pairs of the second type are made up of words which are often confused by careless writers and speakers, and which should be accurately discriminated. Sometimes the words are actually akin to each other. _Continuous- continual_ and _enormity-enormousness_ are examples. Sometimes they merely look or sound much alike. _Mean-demean_ and _affect- effect_ are examples. Sometimes the things they designate are more or less related, so that the ideas behind the words rather than the words themselves are responsible for the confusion. _Contagious-infectious_ and _knowledge-wisdom_ are examples. Let us distinguish between the two members of each of the pairs named. A thing is _continuous_ if it suffers no interruption whatever, _continual_ if it is broken at regular intervals but as regularly renewed. Thus "a continuous stretch of forest"; "the continual drip of water from the eaves." _Enormity_ pertains to the moral and sometimes the social, _enormousness_ to the physical. Thus "the enormity of the crime," "the enormity of this social offense"; "the enormousness of prehistoric animals." _Demean_ is often used reproachfully because of its supposed relation to _mean_. But it has nothing to do with _mean_. The word with which to connect it is _demeanor_ (conduct). Thus "We observed how he demeaned himself" implies no adverse criticism of either the man or his deportment. Both may be debased to be sure, but they may be exemplary. To _affect_ means to feign or to have an influence upon, to _effect_ to bring to pass. Thus "He affects a fondness for classical music," "The little orphan's story affected those who heard it"; "We effected a compromise." _Affect_ is never properly used as a noun. _Effect_ as a noun means result, consequence, or practical operation. Thus "The shot took instant effect"; "He put this idea into effect." A disease is _contagious_ when the only way to catch it is through direct contact with a person already having it, or through contact with articles such a person has used. A disease is _infectious_ when it is presumably caused, not by contact with a person, but through widespread general conditions, as of climate or sanitation. Our _knowledge_ is our acquaintance with a fact, or the sum total of our information. Our _wisdom_ is our intellectual and spiritual discernment, to which our knowledge is one of the contributors. _Knowledge_ comprises the materials; _wisdom_ the ability to use them to practical advantage and to worthy or noble purpose. _Knowledge_ is mental possession; _wisdom_ is mental and moral power. EXERCISE - Confused 1. Consult the dictionary for the distinction between the members of each of the following pairs. In each blank of the illustrative sentences insert the word appropriate in meaning. <Ability, capacity.> ____ to receive knowledge. ____ to impart knowledge. <Abstain, refrain.> He ____ from laughter. He steadfastly ____ from evil courses. <Abstinence, temperance.> Though he always displayed ____, he did not carry it to the point of ____. <Accept, except.> I shall ____ most of the suggestions, but must ____ the one made by Mr. Wheeler. <Accept, receive>. When the package was ____ at the local post office, Bayard refused to ____ it. <Ache, pain>. The dull ____ of his head. A sharp ____ below shoulder-blade. I have known the ____ of cold hands. "My heart ____, and a drowsy numbness ____ My sense, as though of hemlock I had drunk." <Address, tact>. With firmness and ____ he set about reconciling the factions. Her ____ enabled her to perceive that something was amiss. <Adhere, cohere>. The magnetized iron filings ____. The cold iron ____ to the boy's tongue. <Adherence, adhesion>. The ____ of the heated particles to each other was instantaneous. Amid these trials their ____ to the cause was unshaken. <Admission, admittance>. His ____ to the room was forced. He obtained ____ into a fraternal order. <Admit, confess>. When he ____ that he had a weapon, he practically ____ that he had slain the man. <Adverse, averse>. He was ____ to going. Their answer was ____. <Advice, counsel>. In this emergency he sought ____. He asked my ____ as to the best place to hang the picture. <Aggravate, irritate>. To let these mishaps ____ you is to ____ your suffering. <Allusion, illusion>. It is an ____ to suppose that I made any ____ to you. <Allusion, reference>. It was more than a possible ____; it was an unmistakable ____. <Amateur, novice>. Though we call him a(n) ____, he is in skill by no means the ____ you might think him. <Ambiguous, equivocal>. You are unintentionally ____. These words are deliberately ____. <Anticipate, expect>. Since we ____ the enemy to advance, would it not be wise to ____ him? <Appearance, aspect>. He was handsome in ____. The ____ of the sky was ominous. <Apprehend, comprehend>. "Lovers and madmen have such seething brains, Such shaping fantasies, that ____ More than cool reason ever ____." <Ardor, fervor>. The ____ of the worshipers. The ____ of the soldiers. <Artist, artisan>. The ____ who was decorating the walls called to an ____ who was mixing mortar. <Ascent, ascension>. We easily made the ____ of the slope, and from the summit witnessed the balloon ____. <Ascent, assent.> He gave his ____ when I proposed that we wait for the others to complete the ____ to this point. <Ascribe, impute.> I ____ it to you as a fault rather than ____ it to you as an honor. <Assembly, assemblage.> It was an informal ____. The ____ considered the matters it had been called to discuss. <Assent, consent.> When told that the measure would advance his interests, he ____; but he would not ____ to it. <Avenge, revenge.> The injury was slight, but he ____ it with unsparing malice. "____, O Lord, thy slaughtered saints." <Avocation, vocation.> The lawyer, besides his regular ____, had the collecting of birds' eggs as his ____. <Aware, conscious.> Though not ____ of the seriousness of his malady, he was ____ of the pain it caused him. <Balance, remainder.> Darrell added the ____ of the coins, but not even they brought about the ____ he sought between assets and obligations. <Bashful, modest.> Though ____ socially, he was not what you would term a ____ man. <Behavior, conduct.> His ____ in this time of trial was exemplary. She praised the ____ of the children at the party. <Belief, faith.> He possibly had ____, but not an active ____. <Benignant, benign.> Her social manner was ____. The ____ influence of sunlight. <Beside, besides.> ____ his personal friends, many people he had not even met stood ____ his sickbed. <Blanch, whiten.> At this threat the face of the heroine ____. With a pail of cheap paint he ____ the dingy wall. <Blessing, benediction.> After telling his parishioners to be mindful of their ____, the clergyman pronounced the ____. <Blockade, siege.> Daily attacks on exposed redoubts marked the progress of the ____. The fleet lay there in silent ____ of the port. <Bravery, bravado.> The incident proved that his ____ was not founded in real ____. <Bring, fetch.> When you come, ____ the official documents with you. ____ me the scales you will find in the granary yonder. <Broad, wide.> A man with ____ shoulders stood in the ____, open doorway. <Bury, inter.> After they had solemnly ____ their comrade, they ____ the treasure. They also ____ their comrade's dog. 2. Consult the dictionary for the distinction between the members of each of the following pairs. Determine whether the words are correctly used in the illustrative sentences. (Some are; some are not.) <Can, may.> Can I stay at home this afternoon, papa? Because of the floods, the train beyond doubt may not get through. <Character, reputation.> His character among them was very good. A man's reputation can never be taken from him. <Childish, childlike.> Your conduct is peevish; it is childishly so. Her innocence was childlike. <Cite, quote.> He was always citing snatches of Tennyson. We might quote Hamlet's soliloquy on suicide as an example of Shakespeare's ability to go to the heart of deep questions. <Claim, assert.> He claimed that Jefferson was our third President. He asserted that bears sleep through the winter. <Clothing, costume.> At the masquerade ball we each wore special clothing. The mariner who had swum from the wreck to the desert shore had not a shred of costume. <Comfort, ease.> Comfort after labor. The ease of owning a home. <Commercial, mercantile.> Petty commercial transactions. A mercantile treaty. <Common, mutual.> This pavilion was the common play-house for the children of the neighborhood. Ward and Aker held this property as their mutual possession. <Complement, compliment.> This addition is the complement of our quota. He paid his dancing partner a compliment. <Complement, supplement.> His downrightness is the complement of his uprightness. As a supplement to his wages he received an occasional bonus. <Complete, finish.> He put in the completing touches. He had finished the task. <Composure, equanimity.> His composure was not to be shaken. After this inner tumult came equanimity. <Comprehensible, comprehensive.> Numbers of such magnitude are scarcely comprehensible. That men by the million should die for a cause is a thing not really comprehensive. <Compulsion, obligation.> Who does not feel within him a compulsion to help the weak? It was through obligation, through having slave-drivers stand over them, that these wretched folk built the pyramids. <Congratulate, felicitate.> I congratulated my friend on his appointment to the commission. I also felicitated the stranger on his appointment. <Consecutive, successive.> Three consecutive convictions proved the ability of the prosecuting attorney. The quiet passing of successive summer days. <Contemptible, contemptuous.> Its size was insignificant, even contemptible. He won the prize by a contemptuous trick. <Continuation, continuance.> The investigator was surprised to find the tradition of such long continuation. We waited impatiently for the continuance of the story in the next issue. <Corporal, corporeal.> I am more and more amazed at the perfection of man's corporal frame. His corporeal vigor was unusual. <Correct, rectify.> A man may correct many of his false judgments on current affairs by studying history. The mistake is ours; it shall be rectified. <Cozy, snug.> The cozy fit of a garment. A snug place by the fire. <Crawl, creep.> We crawled forward at dawn to surprise their outposts. In his humility he fairly crept on the earth. <Credible, creditable.> I do not doubt it; it is entirely credible. The success of the antidote seemed scarcely creditable. <Credit, accredit.> Though he is the official and credited ambassador, his assertions are not accredited. <Cure, heal.> I cured the dog's wounds. The physician declared he could heal leprosy. <Custom, habit.> "A custom more honor'd in the breach than the observance." Is it your custom to watch the clock while you eat? The habit in that region was to rise at cockcrow. <Decided, decisive.> A decided battle. A decisive fault in manners. <Definite, definitive.> We still await a definite edition of this author's works. His answer was so definitive that we no longer doubted what he meant. <Demesne, domain.> Clive added India to the British demesne. The king went riding through his personal domain. <Deprecate, depreciate.> The German mark has deprecated in value. He depreciated the praise they were lavishing upon him. <Descent, dissent.> They tied themselves together with a rope in order to make their dissent safer. The dissent to a lower plane of conversation was what he most desired. <Discovery, invention.> The discovery of the wireless telegraph is Marconi's chief claim to remembrance. The invention of a water passage between Tierra del Fuego and the mainland was the work of Magellan. <Discriminate, distinguish.> He could not discriminate individuals at that distance. Any man can distinguish right from wrong. <Disinterested, uninterested.> His course was entirely generous and disinterested. Most visitors to art galleries have an uninterested manner. <Disposal, disposition.> This disposal of the matter is authoritative, final. His disposition of his forces was well-considered. <Dissatisfied, discontented.> Though the colonists were dissatisfied for the moment, they could hardly be called discontented. <Distinct, distinctive.> The distinct quality of his character was aggressiveness. There were four separate and distinctive calls. <Dramatic, theatrical.> An affected, dramatic manner. A truly theatrical situation. <Dry, arid.> A dry plain. An arid place to sleep in. <Dumb, mute.> The man stood dumb with surprise. Always be kind to mute animals. <Durable, lasting.> Our joy is durable. Oak is a lasting wood. 3. Consult the dictionary for the distinction between the members of each of the following pairs. Frame sentences to illustrate the correct use of the words. (Some of the words in this list, as well as some in other parts of the chapter, are considered in larger groups in the chapters following.) earth, world efficiency, efficacy egoism, egotism eldest, oldest elemental, elementary elude, evade emigrate, immigrate enough, sufficient envy, jealousy equable, equitable equal, equivalent essential, necessary esteem, respect euphemism, euphuism evidence, proof exact, precise exchange, interchange excuse, pardon exempt, immune expect, suppose expedite, facilitate facsimile, copy familiar, intimate fancy, imagination farther, further feeling, sentiment feminine, effeminate fervent, fervid fewer, less fluid, liquid first (or last) two, two first (or last) food, feed foreign, alien force, strength forgive, pardon gayety, cheerfulness genius, talent gentle, tame genuine, authentic glance, glimpse grateful, thankful grieve, mourn hanged, hung happen, transpire happiness, pleasure healthy, healthful hear, listen heathen, pagan honorable, honorary horrible, horrid human, humane illegible, unreadable image, effigy imaginary, imaginative impending, approaching imperious, imperial imply, infer in, into inability, disability ingenious, ingenuous intelligent, intellectual insinuation, innuendo instinct, intuition involve, implicate irony, sarcasm irretrievable, irreparable judicious, judicial just, equitable justify, warrant lack, want languor, lassitude later, latter lawful, legal lax, slack leave, let lend, loan liable, likely libel, slander lie, lay like, love linger, loiter look, see loose, lose luxurious, luxuriant majority, plurality marine, maritime martial, military moderate, temperate mood, humor moral, ethical moral, religious mutual, reciprocal myth, legend natal, native nautical, naval near, close necessaries, necessities needy, needful noted, notorious novice, tyro observance, observation observe, perceive obsolete, archaic omnipresent, ubiquitous on, upon oppose, resist opposite, contrary oppress, depress palliate, extenuate passionate, impassioned pathos, pity patron, customer peculiar, unusual perspicuity, perspicacity permeate, pervade permit, allow perseverance, persistence pertain, appertain pictorial, picturesque pitiable, pitiful pity, sympathy pleasant, pleasing politician, statesman practicable, practical precipitous, precipitate precision, preciseness prejudice, bias prelude, overture pride, vanity principal, principle process, procedure procure, secure professor, teacher progress, progression propitious, auspicious proposal, proposition tradition, legend truth, veracity quiet, quiescent raise, rear raise, rise ransom, redeem rare, scarce reason, understanding reasonable, rational recollect, remember regal, royal reliable, trustworthy requirement, requisite restive, restless reverse, inverse ride, drive rime (or rhyme), rhythm sacred, holy salutation, salute scanty, sparse scholar, student science, art scrupulous, conscientious serf, slave shift, expedient sick, ill silent, taciturn sit, set skilled, skilful slender, slim smart, clever sociable, social solicitude, anxiety stay, stop stimulus, stimulation strut, swagger suppress, repress termination, terminus theory, hypothesis tolerate, permit torment, torture tradition, legend truth, veracity unbelief, disbelief unique, unusual varied, various variety, diversity venal, venial vengeance, revenge verse, stanza vindictive, revengeful visit, visitation visitant, visitor wander, stray warn, caution will, volition wit, humor witness, see womanish, womanlike worth, value <Parallels> Pairs of the third type are made up of words parallel in meaning. This class somewhat overlaps the second; many terms that are frequently confused are parallels, and parallelism is of course a cause of confusion. Parallels are words that show likeness in meaning. Likeness, not sameness. Yet at one time actual sameness may have existed, and in many instances did. Nowadays this sameness has been lost, and the words have become differentiated. As a rule they still are closely related in thought; sometimes, however, the divergence between them is wide. Why did words having the same meaning find lodgment in the language in the first place? The law of linguistic economy forbids any such happening, and only through sheer good fortune did English come to possess duplications. The original Anglo-Saxon did not contain them. But the Roman Catholic clergy brought to England the language of religion and of scholarship, Latin. Later the Normans, whose speech as a branch of French was an offshoot of Latin, came to the island as conquerors. For a time, therefore, three languages existed side by side in the country--Anglo- Saxon among the common folk, Latin among the clergy, and Norman-French at the court and among the nobility. The coalescing of the three (or of the two if we count Latin in its direct and indirect contributions as one) was inevitable. But other (mostly cognate) languages also had a part in the speech that was ultimately evolved. The Anglo-Saxon element was augmented by words from Dutch, Scandinavian, and the Germanic tongues in general; and Latin was reinforced by Greek. Thus to imply, as is sometimes done, that modern English is simply a blend of Anglo-Saxon and Latin elements is misleading. _Native_ and _classic_ are the better terms to use, provided both are used broadly. _Native_ must include not only Anglo-Saxon but the other Germanic elements as well, and _classic_ must include French and Greek as well as Latin. The welding of these languages made available two--in some instances more than two--words for a single object or idea. What became of these duplicates? Sometimes one of the words was dropped as needless. Oftentimes, however, both were retained--with such modifications in meaning that thereafter they designated, not the same object or idea, but different forms or aspects of it. Thus they became parallels, and the new language waxed rich with discriminations which neither of the component tongues had possessed. Scott in _Ivanhoe_ gives the basis upon which the unification of the languages proceeded. The jester Wamba in conversation with the swineherd Gurth explains how the Anglo-Saxon term took on the homelier, rougher, more workaday uses and left the more refined and fastidious uses for the Norman-French. A domestic animal, says Wamba, was cared for by the conquered people, and in consequence bore while living a "good Saxon" name--swine, ox, or calf; but it was served at the tables of the conquerors, and therefore when ready for consumption bore a "good Norman-French" name--pork, beef, or veal. "When the brute [a sow] lives, and is in charge of a Saxon slave, she goes by her Saxon name; but becomes Norman and is called pork, when she is carried into the castle hall to feast among the nobles.... He [a calf] is Saxon when he requires tendance, and takes a Norman name [Monsieur de Veau] when he becomes matter of enjoyment." Let us see how Scott's contention fares if we extend his list of terms relative to animal life. As throughout the rest of this chapter, with the single and necessary exception of List B, the first word in each pair is native, the second classic: <LIST A> sheep, mutton deer, venison horse, equine cow, bovine bull, taurine sheep, ovine wolf, lupine hog, porcine bear, ursine fox, vulpine cat, feline dog, canine fish, piscatorial mouse, vermin rat, rodent mankind, humanity man, masculine woman, feminine childish, infantile boyish, puerile A glance at this list will show that, at least as regards animal life, the native word is likely to be the more familiar and unpretentious. But we must not leap to the conclusion that, taking the language as a whole, the simple, easy word is sure to be native, the abstruse word classic. In the following list one word in each pair is simpler, oftentimes much simpler, than the other; yet both are of classic origin. (In some instances the two are doublets; that is, they spring from the same stem.) <LIST B> boil, effervesce plenty, abundance force, coerce clear, transparent sound, reverberate echo, reverberate toil, labor false, perfidious prove, verify join, unite join, annex try, endeavor carry, convey save, preserve save, rescue safe, secure poor, pauper poor, penurious poor, impecunious native, indigenous strange, extraneous excuse, palliate excusable, venial cannon, ordnance corpse, cadaverous parish, parochial fool, stultify fool, idiot rule, govern governor, gubernatorial wages, salary nice, exquisite haughty, arrogant letter, epistle pursue, prosecute use, utility use, utilize rival, competitor male, masculine female, feminine beauty, esthetics beauty, pulchritude beautify, embellish poison, venom vote, franchise vote, suffrage taste, gust tasteful, gustatory tasteless, insipid flower, floral count, compute cowardly, pusillanimous tent, pavilion money, finance monetary, pecuniary trace, vestige face, countenance turn, revolve bottle, vial grease, lubricant oily, unctuous revive, resuscitate faultless, impeccable scourge, flagellate power, puissance barber, tonsorial bishop, episcopal carry, portable fruitful, prolific punish, punitive scar, cicatrix hostile, inimical choice, option cry, vociferate ease, facility peaceful, pacific beast, animal chasten, castigate round, rotunda imprison, incarcerate bowels, viscera boil, ebullient city, municipal color, chromatics nervous, neurotic pleasing, delectable accidental, fortuitous change, mutation lazy, indolent fragrance, aroma pay, compensate face, physiognomy joy, rapture charitable, eleemosynary blame, blaspheme priest, presbyter coy, quiet prudent, provident pupil, disciple story, narrative pause, interval despise, abhor doctor, physician fate, destiny country, rustic aged, senile increase, increment gentle, genteel clear, apparent eagle, aquiline motion, momentum nourishment, nutrition pure, unadulterated closeness, proximity number, notation ancestors, progenitors confirm, corroborate convert, proselyte benediction, benison treasury, thesaurus egotism, megalomania Sometimes the native word is less familiar than the classic: <LIST C> seethe, boil loam, soil fare, travel abide, remain bestow, present bestow, deposit din, noise quern, mill learner, scholar shamefaced, modest hue, color tarnish, stain ween, expect leech, physician shield, protect steadfast, firm withstand, resist straightway, immediately dwelling, residence heft, gravity delve, excavate forthright, direct tidings, report bower, chamber rune, letter borough, city baleful, destructive gainsay, contradict cleave, divide hearten, encourage hoard, treasure Again, the native word is sometimes less emphatic than the classic: <LIST D> fly, soar old, venerable flood, cataclysm steep, precipitous wonder, astonishment speed, velocity sparkle, scintillate stir, commotion stir, agitate strike, collide learned, erudite small, diminutive scare, terrify burn, combustion fire, conflagration fall, collapse uproot, eradicate skin, excoriate hate, abominate work, labor bright, brilliant hungry, famished eat, devour twisted, contorted thin, emaciated sad, lugubrious mirth, hilarity Despite these exceptions, the native word is in general better known and more crudely powerful than the classic. Thus of the pair _sweat-perspiration_, _sweat_ is the plain-spoken, everyday member, _perspiration_ the polite, even learned member. The man of limited vocabulary says _sweat_; even the sophisticated person, unless there is occasion to soften effects, finds _sweat_ the more natural term. No one would say that a horse perspires. No one would say that human beings must eat their bread in the perspiration of their faces. But _sweat_ is a word of connotation too vigorous (though honest withal) for us to use the term in the drawing room. A questionable woman in _The Vicar of Wakefield_ betrays her lack of breeding by the remark that she is in a muck of sweat. The native word, besides being in itself simpler and starker than the classic, makes stronger appeal to our feelings and affections. In nearly every instance the objects and relationships that have woven themselves into the very texture of our lives are designated by native terms. Even if they are not so designated solely, they are so designated in their more cherished aspects. We warm more to the native _fatherly_ than to the classic _paternal_. We have a deeper sentiment for the native _home_ than for the classic _residence_. That the native is the more downright term may be seen from the following words. (These pairs are of course merely illustrative. With them might be grouped a few special pairs, like _devilish-diabolical_ and _church_-_ecclesiastical_, of which the first members are classic in origin but of such early naturalization into English that they may be regarded as native.) <LIST E> belly, stomach belly, abdomen navel, umbilicus suck, nurse naked, nude murder, homicide dead, deceased dead, defunct dying, moribund lust, salacity lewd, libidinous read, peruse lie, prevaricate hearty, cordial following, subsequent crowd, multitude chew, masticate food, pabulum eat, regale meal, repast meal, refection thrift, economy sleepy, soporific slumberous, somnolent live, reside rot, putrefy swelling, protuberant soak, saturate soak, absorb stinking, malodorous spit, saliva spit, expectorate thievishness, kleptomania belch, eructate sticky, adhesive house, domicile eye, optic walker, pedestrian talkative, loquacious talkative, garrulous wisdom, sapience bodily, corporeal name, appellation finger, digit show, ostentation nearness, propinquity wash, lave handwriting, chirography waves, undulations shady, umbrageous fat, corpulent muddy, turbid widow, relict horseback, equestrian weight, avoirdupois blush, erubescence The word of classic origin in many instances survives only or mainly in the form of an adjective; as a noun (or other part of speech) it has completely or largely disappeared. This fact may be observed in lists already given, particularly List A. It may also be observed in the following words: <LIST F> moon, lunar star, stellar star, sidereal sun, solar earth, terrestrial world, mundane heaven, celestial hell, infernal earthquake, seismic ear, aural head, capital hand, manual foot, pedal breast, pectoral heart, cardial hip, sciatic tail, caudal throat, guttural lung, pulmonary bone, osseous hair, hirsute tearful, lachrymose early, primitive sweet, dulcet, sweet, saccharine young, juvenile bloody, sanguinary deadly, mortal red, florid bank, riparian hard, arduous wound, vulnerable written, graphic spotless, immaculate sell, mercenary son, filial salt, saline meal, farinaceous wood, ligneous wood, sylvan cloud, nebulous glass, vitreous milk, lacteal water, aquatic stone, lapidary gold, aureous silver, argent iron, ferric honey, mellifluous loving, amatory loving, erotic loving, amiable wedded, hymeneal plow, arable priestly, sacerdotal arrow, sagittal wholesome, salubrious warlike, bellicose timely, temporary fiery, igneous ring, annular soap, saponaceous nestling, nidulant snore, stertorous window, fenestral twilight, crepuscular soot, fuliginous hunter, venatorial The fact that English is a double-barreled language, and that of parallel terms one is likely to be native and the other classic, is interesting in itself. Our lists of parallels, however, though (with the exception of List B) they are arranged to bring out this duality of origin, have other and more vital uses as material for exercises. For after all it matters little whether we know where a word comes from, provided we know thoroughly the meaning and implications of the word itself. The lists already given and those to follow show the more important words actually yoked as parallels. Your task must be to ascertain the differences in import between the words thus joined. EXERCISE - Parallels <LIST G> Study the discriminations between the members of the following pairs. At each blank in the illustrative sentences insert the appropriate word. <Brotherly, fraternal.> _Brotherly_ is used of actual blood kinship, or indicates close feeling, deep affection, or religious love. _Fraternal_ is used less personally and intimately; it normally betokens that the relations are at least in part formal (as relations within societies). "The sight of the button on the stranger's lapel caused Wilkes to give him the cabalistic sign and ask his ____ assistance." "Though the children of different parents, we bear for each other a true ____ devotion." "Because we both are newspaper men I feel a ____ interest in him." <Daily, diurnal.> _Daily_, the popular word, is often used loosely. We may say that we eat three meals daily without implying that we have never gone dinnerless. _Diurnal_, the scientific term, is used exactly, whether applying to the period of daylight or to the whole twenty-four hours. A diurnal flower closes at night; a diurnal motion is precisely coincident with the astronomical day. In poetry, however, _diurnal_ is often used for _daily_. "Give us this day our ____ bread." "The ____ rotation of the earth on its axis is the cause of our day and night." "Fred and I went for our ____ ramble through the hills." <Cold, frigid.> Which is the more popular word? Let us see. Would the man in the street be more likely to use one than the other? Which one? Does this answer our question? Another question: Which word is the more inclusive in meaning? Again, let us see. A blacksmith is beating iron; does the iron grow cold or frigid? Which term, then, approaches the closer in meaning to the idea of mere coolness? On the other hand, may that same term represent a temperature far beyond mere coolness? Would you speak of a morning as bitterly cold or bitterly frigid? Now think of the term you have not been using. _Can_ it convey as wide meanings, or is it limited in range? Does the word _frigid_ carry for you a geographical suggestion (to the frigid zone)? Do you yourself use the term? If so, do you use it chiefly (perhaps entirely) in connection with human temperament or demeanor? Is _cold_ used thus figuratively also? Which is the more often thus used? "I suffer from ____ hands and feet." "The slopes of Mont Blanc are ____ with eternal snow." "He did not warm to the idea at all. His inclinations are absolutely ____." <Manly, virile>. _Manly_ implies possession of traits or qualities a man should possess; it may be used of immature persons. _Virile_ implies maturity and robust masculinity; it is also used of the power to procreate. "A ____ lad." "A ____ reply." "____ energy." "____ and aggressive." "____ forbearance." <Inner, internal>. _Inner_ is somewhat within, or more within than something else is; it is also used in figurative and spiritual senses. _Internal_ is entirely within. "The ____ organs of the human body." "The ____ layer of the rind." "The injury was ____." "The ____ nature of man." "The ____ meaning of the occurrence." <Height, altitude>. "He was five feet, eleven inches in height." Can you substitute _altitude_? Is _altitude_ used of persons? "At an altitude of eleven feet from the ground." Would _height_ be more natural? Does _altitude_ betoken great height? If so, does Hamlet speak jestingly when he greets the player, "Your ladyship is nearer heaven than when I saw you last, by the altitude of a chopine?" What of the sentence: "The altitude of Galveston was not sufficient to protect it from the tidal wave"? Does the magnitude or importance of the object (Galveston) compensate for its lack of elevation and thus justify _altitude_? Could _height_ be substituted? If so, would the words _above sea-level_ have to follow it? Does this fact give you a further clue as to the distinction between the two words? You are comparing the elevation of two peaks, both plainly visible; you measure them merely by your eye. Do you say "This exceeds the other in height" or "This exceeds the other in altitude"? Suppose the peaks are so distant from each other that the two are not visible simultaneously, and suppose you are speaking from a knowledge of the scientific measurements. Do you say "This exceeds the other in height" or "This exceeds the other in altitude"? <Talk, conversation>. _Talk_ may be one-sided and empty. _Conversation_ requires that at least two shall participate, and it is not spoken of as empty, though it may be trivial. "Our ____ was somewhat desultory." "Thought is less general than ____." "His ____ was so lively that I had no chance to interrupt" "That is meaningless ____." <Homesickness, nostalgia>. All of us have heard physicians call commonplace ailments by extraordinary names. When homesickness reaches the stage where a physician is or might be called in, it becomes nostalgia. The latter term suggests morbid or chronic suffering. A healthy boy away from home for the first time is homesick. An exile who has wasted himself with pining for his native land is nostalgic. "His ____ was more than ____; it had so preyed upon his thoughts that it had grown into ____." Rise, ascend. _Rise_ is the more general term, but it expresses less than _ascend_ in degree or stateliness. "He had foretold to them that he would ____ into heaven." "Do not ____ from your seat." "The diver slowly ____ to the surface." "The travelers ____ the mountain." <Sell, vend>. _Sell_ is the more dignified word socially, but may express greater moral degradation. _Vend_ is used of the petty (as that which can be carried about in a wagon), and may suggest the pettily dishonest. "That man would ____ his country." "We shall ____ a million dollars' worth of goods." "The hucksters ____ their wares." <LIST H> Study the discriminations between the members of the following pairs. Determine whether the words are correctly used in the illustrative sentences. (Some are; some are not.) <Friendly, amicable>. _Friendly_ denotes goodwill positive in quality though perhaps limited in degree; we may be friendly to friends, enemies, or strangers. _Amicable_ is negative, denoting absence of open discord: it is used of those persons between whom some connection already exists. "The newcomer has an amicable manner." "Both sides were cautious, but at last they reached a friendly settlement." "I have only amicable feelings for an enemy who is thus merciful." "The two met, if not in a friendly, at least in an amicable way." <Willing, voluntary>. Both words imply an act of the will; but _willing_ adds positive good-nature, desire, or enthusiasm, whereas _voluntary_ conveys little or nothing of the emotional attitude. _Voluntary_ is often thought of in contrast with _mechanical_. "They made willing submission." "They rendered whole-hearted and voluntary service." "Though torn by desire to return to his mother, he willingly continued his journey away from her." "The sneeze was unwilling." <Greedy, voracious.> _Greedy_ denotes excessiveness (usually habitual) of appetite or, in its figurative uses, of desire; it nearly always carries the idea of selfishness. _Voracious_ denotes intense hunger or the hasty and prolonged consumption of great quantities of food; it may indicate, not habitual selfishness, but the stress of circumstances. "Nobody else I know is so greedy as he." "The young poet was voracious of praise." "Trench, though a capital fellow, was so hungry that he ate voraciously." <Offspring, progeny.> _Offspring_ is likely to be used when our thought is chiefly on the children, _progeny_ when our thought is chiefly on the parents. _Offspring_ may be used of one or many; _progeny_ is used in collective reference to many. "He was third among the progeny who won distinction." "They are the progeny of very rich parents." "Clayton left his offspring well provided for." <Ghost, spirit.> _Ghost_ is the narrower term. It never expresses, as _spirit_ does, the idea of soul or of animating mood or purpose. With reference to incorporeal beings, it denotes (except in the phrase "the Holy Ghost") the reappearance of the dead in disembodied form. _Spirit_ may denote a variety of incorporeal beings--among them angels, fairies (devoid of moral nature), and personalities returned from the grave and manifested--seldom visibly--through spiritualistic tappings and the like. "The superstitious natives thought the spirit of their chief walked in the graveyard." "The ghost of the ancestors survives in the descendants." "I can call spirits from the vasty deep." <Foe, enemy.> Nowadays the chief difference between the two terms is that _foe_ is the more used in poetry, _enemy_ in prose. But _foe_ tends to express the more personal and implacable hostility. We do not think of foes as bearing any friendship for each other; enemies may, or they may be enemies in public affairs but downright friends in their private relations. A man is hardly spoken of as being his own foe, but he may be his own enemy. "For the moment we found ourselves foes." "Suspicion is an enemy to content." "I paid a tribute to my friend, who was the dominant personality among the enemy." <Truth, veracity.> _Truth_ has to do with the accuracy of the statement, of the facts; _veracity_ with the intention of the person to say nothing false. "I cannot vouch for the veracity of the story, but I can for the truth of the teller." "Though he is not a man of veracity, I believe he is now speaking the truth." "Veracity, crushed to earth, will rise again." <Break, fracture>. _Break_ is the broader term. It need not refer clearly to the operation or result of external force, nor need it embody the idea that this force is brought against a hard substance. In these respects it differs from _fracture_, as also in the fact that it may designate a mere interruption. Furthermore it has figurative uses, whereas _fracture_ is narrowly literal. "There was a fracture in the chain of mountains." "The break in his voice was distinct." "The fracture of the bones of his wrist incapacitated him." "The fracture of the rope." <Hug, embrace>. To _hug_ is to clasp violently or enthusiastically, and perhaps ludicrously. To _embrace_ is to clasp in a more dignified, perhaps even in a formal, way; the term also means to include, to comprise. "This topic embraces the other." "Did you see that ardent bumpkin embracing his sweetheart?" "Her sister gave her a graceful but none too cordial hug." "The wounded bear hugged the hunter ferociously." <Shorten, abridge>. The two terms overlap; but there is a fairly strong tendency to use _shorten_ for reduction in length, and _abridge_ for reduction in quantity or mass. Both words are used figuratively as well as literally. "The tyrant shortened the privileges of his subjects." "We shortened the rope." "The teacher abridged the recitation." "The report of the committee appears in abridged form in Volume 2 of our records." <LIST I> With the help of the dictionary discriminate between the members of the following pairs. Determine whether the words are correctly used in the illustrative sentences. (Some are; some are not.) <Fiery, inflammable>. "He delivered a fiery address." "The underbrush was dry and fiery." "Your disposition is too inflammable." <Lean, attenuated>. "The fat man had grown attenuated." "Yon Cassius has a lean and hungry look." "The hot metal was then drawn into an attenuated wire." "Only a lean line of our soldiers faced the dense masses of the enemy." <Home-like, domestic>. "The scene was quiet and domestic." "It is home-like, inexpressibly dear." "To Waltham, heartsick from his wanderings, the room in all its arrangements was thoroughly domestic." <Vigilant, watchful>. "We must be vigilant if we would maintain our liberty." "He was wakeful, even watchful, though not from set purpose." "He was vigilant for evidences of friendship." <Building, edifice>. "It is a big, barn-like building." "Spare yonder sacred edifice." "This is the most imposing building I ever saw." <Hole, aperture>. "I poked a stick into the aperture which the crawfish had made." "Through the aperture of the partly open door I gazed out on the street." "The hole of the hornet's nest was black with the emerging and angry insects." <Farming, agriculture>. "Two hundred students graduated this year from the college of farming." "For long years he had devoted himself to the homely, grinding tasks of agriculture." "I have looked rather carefully into the theories of farming." <Rest, repose>. "He obtained some repose even while standing." "We wished for a moment's rest from our exertions." "Worn out, he was compelled to seek repose." "Lincoln's face in repose was very melancholy." <Help, aid>. "The man was so injured he could do nothing for himself; I had to aid him." "Help, help!" "Aid us, O God, in our sore distress." "The little fellow could not quite get the bundle to his shoulder; a passerby helped him." <Hide, conceal>. "By refraining from comment he hid his connection with the affair." "Wild creatures hide themselves by means of their protective coloring." "The frost on the panes conceals the landscape from you." "Do not hide your misdeeds from your mother." <LIST J> In the following list only the native member of each pair is given. Determine what the classic member is, and frame sentences to illustrate the correct use of the two words. (Make a conscientious effort to find the classic member by means of its parallelism with the native. If, and after, you definitely fail in any instance to find it, obtain a clue to it through study of the words in List G. Every pair in that list is clearly suggestive of one or more pairs in this list.) nightly,-- motherly,-- breadth,-- buy,-- hot,-- fall,-- thought,-- sleeplessness,-- fatherly,-- yearly,-- outer,-- depth,-- womanly,-- speech,-- <LIST K> Discriminate between the members of each of the following pairs, and frame sentences to illustrate the correct use of the two words. freedom, liberty well, cistern freedom, independence give, donate free, acquit happen, occur door, portal lessen, abate begin, commence lessen, diminish behead, decapitate forefathers, ancestors belief, credence friend, acquaintance belief, credulity lead, conduct swear, vow end, finish curse, imprecate end, complete curse, anathema end, terminate die, expire warn, admonish die, perish warn, caution die, succumb rich, affluent lively, vivacious wealthy, opulent walk, ambulate help, assistance leave, depart help, succor leave, abandon answer, reply go with, accompany find out, ascertain go before, precede take, appropriate hasten, accelerate shrewd, astute quicken, accelerate breathe, respire speed, celerity busy, industrious hatred, animadversion growing, crescent fearful, timorous grow, increase <LIST L> Cover with a piece of paper the classic (right-hand) members of the following pairs, and if possible ascertain what they are by studying the native members. Frame sentences to illustrate the correct use of both words in each pair. neighborhood, vicinity hang, impend hang, suspend rash, impetuous flood, inundation drunk, intoxicated harmful, injurious tool, instrument mind, intellect mad, insane birth, nativity sail, navigate sailor, mariner ship, vessel lying, mendacious upright, erect early, premature upright, vertical first, primary shake, vibrate raise, elevate swing, oscillate lift, elevate leaves, foliage greet, salute beg, importune choose, select beggar, mendicant choose, elect smell, odor same, identical sink, submerge name, nominate dip, immerse follow, pursue room, apartment follow, succeed see, perceive teach, instruct see, inspect teach, inculcate sight, visibility teacher, pedagogue sight, vision tiresome, tedious sight, spectacle empty, vacant glasses, spectacles farewell, valediction <LIST M> Cover with a piece of paper the native (left-hand) members of the following pairs, and if possible ascertain what they are by studying the classic members. Frame sentences to illustrate the correct use of both words in each pair. skin, cuticle thunder, fulminate skin, integument sleep-walking, somnambulism hide, epidermis bird, ornithology fleshly, carnal bird, aviary hearer, auditor bee, apiary snake, serpent bending, flexible heap, aggregation wrinkle, corrugation laugh, cachinnation slow, dilatory laughable, risible lime, calcimine fear, trepidation coal, lignite live, exist man, anthropology bridal, nuptial winter, hibernate wed, marry gap, hiatus husband/wife, spouse right, ethical shore, littoral showy, ostentatious forswear, perjure spelling, orthography steal, peculate time, chronology steal, embezzle handbook, manual lockjaw, tetanus hole, cavity mistake, error dig, excavate mistake, erratum boil, tumor wink, nictation tickle, titillate blessing, benediction dry, desiccated wet, humid warm, tepid flirt, coquet forgetfulness, oblivion fiddle, violin sky, firmament sky, empyrean flatter, compliment flee, abscond flight, fugitive forbid, prohibit hinder, impede hold, contain <LIST N> For each of the following pairs frame a sentence which shall contain one of the members. Can the other member be substituted without affecting the meaning of the sentence? Read the discrimination of _Height-altitude_ in EXERCISE - Parallels. Ask yourself similar questions to bring out the distinction between the two words you are considering. threat, menace call, summon talk, commune cleanse, purify short, terse short, concise better, ameliorate lie, recline new, novel straight, parallel lawful, legitimate law, litigation law, jurisprudence flash, coruscate late, tardy watch, chronometer foretell, prognosticate king, emperor winding, sinuous hint, insinuate burn, incinerate fire, incendiarism bind, constrict crab, crustacean fowls, poultry lean, incline flat, level flat, vapid sharpness, acerbity sharpness, acrimony shepherd, pastor word, vocable choke, suffocate stifle, suffocate clothes, raiment witness, spectator beat, pulsate mournful, melancholy beginning, incipient drink, imbibe light, illuminate hall, corridor stair, escalator anger, indignation fight, combat sleight-of-hand, prestidigitation build, construct tree, arbor ask, interrogate wench, virgin frisk, caper fill, replenish water, irrigate silly, foolish coming, advent feeling, sentiment old, antiquated forerunner, precursor sew, embroider unload, exonerate grave, sepulcher readable, legible tell, narrate kiss, osculate nose, proboscis striking, percussion green, verdant stroke, concussion grass, verdure bowman, archer drive, propel greed, avarice book, volume stingy, parsimonious warrior, belligerent bath, ablution owner, proprietor wrong, incorrect bow, obeisance top, summit kneel, genuflection food, nutrition work, occupation seize, apprehend shut, close field, agrarian Turn back to Lists A, B, C, D, E, and F. Discriminate between the members of each pair contained in these lists. Frame sentences to illustrate the correct use of the words. VII SYNONYMS IN LARGER GROUPS (1) In considering pairs we have, without using the word, been studying synonyms. For most pairs are synonyms (or in some instances antonyms) that hunt in couples. We must now deal with synonyms, and incidentally antonyms, as they associate themselves in larger groups. A vocabulary is impoverished. Why? Nine times in ten, because of a disregard of synonyms. Listen to the talk of the average person. Whatever is pleasing is _fine_ or _nice_ or _all to the good_; whatever is displeasing is _bum_ or _awful_ or _a fright_. Life is reflected, not as noble and complex, but as mean and meager. Out of such stereotyped utterance only the general idea emerges. The precise meaning is lazily or incompetently left to the hearer to imagine. The precise meaning? There is none. A person who does not take the trouble to speak clearly has not taken the trouble to think clearly. But the master of synonyms expresses, instead of general, hazy, commonplace conceptions, the subtlest shadings of thought and feeling. He has so trained himself that he selects, it may be unconsciously, from a throng of possible words. One word may be strong, another weak. One may be broad, another narrow. One may present an alternative in meanings, another permit no liberty of choice. One may be suggestive, another literal or colorless. One may penetrate to the core of the idea, another strike only in the environs. With these possibilities the master of synonyms reckons. He must have the right word. He chooses it, not at haphazard, but in conformity with a definite purpose. For synonyms are not words that have the same meaning. They are words that have similar meanings. They may be compared to circles that overlap but do not coincide. Each embraces a common area, but each embraces also an area peculiar to itself. Though many words cluster about a given idea, rarely if ever are even two of these words entirely equivalent to each other. In scope, in suggestion, in emotional nuance, in special usage, or what not, is sure to lurk some denial of perfect correspondence. And of synonyms, so of antonyms. Antonyms are words opposite in meaning; but the opposition, for the same reasons as the likeness, is seldom or never absolute. In your study of synonyms you will find most of the dictionaries previously named of great help. You may also profitably consult the following books of synonyms (heavy, scholastic works not suited for ordinary use are omitted): <Books of Plain Synonyms and Antonyms> Edith B. Ordway: _Synonyms and Antonyms_. A compact, practical volume, with antonyms (in italics for contrast) immediately following synonyms. Louis A. Flemming: _Putnam's Word Book_. A book of the ordinarily used synonyms of words, with antonyms after some of them, and with lists of associated words wherever these are likely to be useful. Samuel Fallows: _100,000 Synonyms and Antonyms_. A handy little volume, with useful lists of various kinds in appendices. Richard Soule: _Dictionary of English Synonyms_ [revised and enlarged by George H. Howison]. A much larger and more expensive book than the others, and less practical for ordinary use, but fuller in treatment of material, with words of more than one meaning carefully divided into their various senses. <Synonyms with Word Discriminations> George Crabb: _English Synonyms_. A standard volume for over 100 years. Has close distinctions, but is somewhat scholarly for ordinary use. Revised edition of 1917, omitting illustrative quotations from literature, not so good as editions before that date. James C. Fernald: _English Synonyms, Antonyms, and Prepositions_. A pleasing book to read, with much information about the use of words and their shades of meaning (with exercises), also with proper prepositions to follow words. Material taken from the _Standard Dictionary_. Peter Mark Roget: _Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases_. Issued in many editions and revisions. Words grouped under general ideas. An excellent book for serious and laborious study, but not for quick use. <How to Acquire Synonyms> The best principle for the extension of one's mastery of synonyms is the principle already used over and over in this book--that of proceeding from the known to the unknown. It is the fundamental principle, indeed, of any kind of successful learning. We should build on what we have, fit each new piece of material into the structure already erected. But normally it is our ill fortune to learn through chance rather than through system. We perceive elucidation here, draw an inference there. These isolated fragments of knowledge may mislead rather than inform us. The principle of proceeding from the known to the unknown may be applied to synonyms in various ways. Two of these--the two of most importance--we must consider here. First, you should reckon with your personal, demonstrated needs. Just as you have already analyzed your working vocabulary for its general limits and shortcomings, so should you analyze it with particular reference to your poverty in synonyms. Watch your actual speech; make a list of the words--nouns, verbs, and adjectives particularly--that you employ again and again. Make each of these words the starting-point for a linguistic exploring expedition. First, write the word down. Then under it write all the synonyms that come forthwith to your mind. These constitute your present available stock; in speaking or writing you could, if you kept yourself mentally alert, summon them on the moment. But the list, as you know, is not exhaustive. Draw a line under it and subjoin such synonyms as come to you after reflection. These constitute a second stock, not instantaneously available, yet to be tagged as among your resources. Next add a list of the synonyms you find through research, through a ransacking of dictionaries and books of synonyms. This third stock, but dimly familiar if familiar at all, is in no practical sense yours. And indeed some of the words are too abstruse, learned, or technical for you to burden your memory with them. But many--most--are worth acquiring. By writing down the words of these three classes you have done something to stamp them upon your memory as associates. You must now make it your business to bring them into use. Never call upon them for volunteers, but like a wise commander summon the individual that can rightly perform a particular service. Thus will your speech, perhaps vague and indolent now, become exact, discriminating, competent, vital. In the second place, you should obtain specific and detailed command of general ideas. Not of out-of-the-way ideas. But of the great basic ideas that are the common possession of all mankind. For through these basic ideas is the most natural and profitable approach to the study of synonyms. Each of them is represented by a generic word. So elementary are idea and word alike that a person cannot have the one in mind without having the other ready and a-quiver on his tongue. Every person is master of both. But it is unsafe to predicate the person's acquaintance with the shades and phases of the idea, or with the corresponding discriminations in language. He may not know them at all, he may know them partially, he may know them through and through. Let us suppose him ignorant of them but determined to learn. His progress, both in the thought and in the language, will be from the general to the specific. His acquaintance with the idea in the large he will gradually extend to an acquaintance with it in detail, and his command of the broad term for it he will little by little supplement with definite terms for its phases. An illustration will make this clear. We are aware that the world is made up of various classes and conditions of men. How did we learn this? Let us go back to the time when our minds were a blank, when we were babes and sucklings, when we had not perceived that men exist, much less that mankind is infinitely complex. A baby comes slowly to understand that all objects in the universe are divisible into two classes, human and non-human, and that a member of the former may be separated from the others and regarded as an individual. It has reached the initial stage of its knowledge on the subject; it has the basic idea, that of the individual human being. As soon as it can speak, it acquires a designating term--not of course the sophisticated _human being_, but the simpler _man_. It uses this word in the generic sense, to indicate _any_ member of the human race; for as yet it knows nothing and cares nothing about differences in species. With increasing enlightenment, however, it discerns five species, and distinguishes among them by swelling this branch of its vocabulary to five words: man (in the sense of adult male), woman, boy, girl, baby. (To be sure, it may chance to have acquired a specific term, as _boy_ or _baby_, before the generic term _man_; but if so, it has attached this term to some particular individual, as the grocer's boy or itself, rather than to the individuals of a species. Its understanding of the species as a species comes after its understanding of the genus.) As time passes, it divides mankind into yet further species by sundry other methods: according to occupation, for example, as doctors, chauffeurs, gardeners; to race or color, as white men; negroes, Malays, Chinese; to disposition, as heroes, gift-givers, teasers, talkers; and so on. It perceives moreover that species are made up of sub-species. Thus instead of lumping all boys together it begins to distinguish them as big boys, little boys, middle-sized boys, boys in long trousers, boys in short trousers, barefoot boys, schoolboys, poor boys, rich boys, sick boys, well boys, friends, enemies, bullies, and what not. It even divides the sub-species. Thus it classifies schoolboys as bright boys, dullards, workers, shirkers, teachers' favorites, scapegoats, athletes, note-throwers, truant-players, and the like. And of these classes it may make yet further sub-divisions, or at least it may separate them into the individuals that compose them. In fine, with its growing powers and experience, it abandons its old conception that all persons are practically alike, and follows human nature through the countless ramifications of man's status, temperament, activities, or fate. And it augments its vocabulary to keep pace, roughly at least, with its expanding ideas. In thought and terminology alike its growth is from genus to species. So it is with all our ideas and with all our words to cap them. We radiate from an ascertained center into new areas of knowledge; we proceed from the broad, fundamental, generic to the precise, discriminatory, specific. Upon this natural law are based the exercises in this chapter and the two to follow. The starting-point is always a word representative of an elementary idea--a word and an idea which everybody knows; the advance is into the unknown or the unused, at any rate into the particular. Now fundamental ideas are not very numerous, and these exercises include the commoner ones. Such a method of studying synonyms must therefore yield large and tangible results. One matter, however, should be explained. Most books of synonyms start with a word and list all the terms in any way related to it. The idea of the compilers is that the more they give the student the more they help him. But oftentimes by giving more than is strictly pertinent they actually hinder and confuse him. They may do this in various ways, of which two must be mentioned. First, they follow an idea too far afield. Thus in listing the synonyms of _love_ they include such terms as _kindness_ and _lenity_, words only through stretched usage connected with _love_. Secondly, they trace, not one meaning of a word, but two or more unrelated meanings when the word chances to possess them. Thus in listing the synonyms of _cry_ they include both the idea of weeping and the idea of calling or screaming. What are the results of these methods? The student finds a clutter where he expects rationalized order; he finds he must exclude many words which lie in the borders and fringes of the meaning. Moreover he finds mere chance associations mingled with marked kinships. In both cases he finds dulled distinctions. This book offers synonyms that are apropos and definite rather than comprehensive. Starting with a basic idea, it finds the generic term; it then disregards dim and distant relationships, confines itself rigorously to one of perhaps two or three legitimate senses, and refuses to consider the peculiar twists and devious ways of subsidiary words when they wander from the idea it is tracing. It thus deliberately blinds itself to much that is interesting. But this partial blindness enables it to concentrate attention upon the matter actually under study, to give sharper distinctions and surer guidance. EXERCISE A After three introductory groups (dealing with thoroughly concrete ideas and words) the synonyms in this exercise are arranged alphabetically according to the first word in each group. This first word is generic. It is immediately followed by a list of its synonyms. These are then informally discriminated or else (in a few instances) questions are asked about them. Perhaps a few less closely related synonyms are then listed for you to discriminate in a similar way. Finally, illustrative sentences are given. Each blank in these you are to fill with the word that conveys the meaning exactly. (To prevent monotony and inattention, the number of illustrative sentences varies. You may have to use a particular word more than once, and another word not at all.) <Walk, plod, trudge, tread, stride, stalk, strut, tramp, march, pace, toddle, waddle, shuffle, mince, stroll, saunter, ramble, meander, promenade, prowl, hobble, limp, perambulate.> Any one may be said to _walk_ who moves along on foot with moderate speed. He _plods_ if he walks slowly and heavily, and perhaps monotonously or spiritlessly as well. He _trudges_ if he walks toilsomely and wearily, as though his feet were heavy. He _treads_ if his walk is suggestive of a certain lightness and caution--if, for instance, he seems half-uncertain whether to proceed and sets one foot down carefully before the other. He _strides_ if he takes long steps, especially in a firm, pompous, or lofty manner. He _stalks_ if there is a certain stiffness or haughtiness in his walking. He _struts_ if he walks with a proud or affectedly dignified gait, especially if he also raises his feet high. He _tramps_ if he goes for a long walk, as for pleasure or enjoyment out-of-doors. He _marches_ if he walks in a measured, ordered way, especially in company with others. He _paces_ if he engages in a measured, continuous walk, as from nervousness, impatience, or anger. He _toddles_ if his steps are short, uneven, and unsteady, like those of a child. He _waddles_ if his movement is ungainly, with a duck-like swaying from side to side. He _shuffles_ if he drags his feet with a scraping noise. He _minces_ if he takes short steps in a prim, precise, or affectedly nice manner. He _strolls_ or _saunters_ if he goes along in an easy, aimless, or idle fashion. He _rambles_ if he wanders about, with no definite aim or toward no definite goal. He _meanders_ if he proceeds slowly and perhaps listlessly in an ever-changing course, as if he were following the windings of the crooked Phrygian river, Meander. He _promenades_ if he walks in a public place, as for pleasure or display. He _prowls_ if he moves about softly and stealthily, as in search of prey or booty. He _hobbles_ if he jerks along unevenly, as from a stiff or crippled condition of body. He _limps_ if he walks lamely. He _perambulates_ when he walks through, perhaps for observation or inspection. _(Perambulates_ is of course a learned word.) _Assignment for further discrimination_: <sneak, shamble, amble, wander, stamp, slouch, gad, gallivant, glide, hike>. _Sentences_: They ____ down the lane in the moonlight. Rip Van Winkle loved to ____ about the mountains. "The plowman homeward ____ his weary way." The old man ____ down the street with his cane. The excavators ____ about the ruins in search of relics. He ____ about the room, almost bursting with importance. The nervous man ____ up and down the station platform. They ____ along the beach at the sea resort. The baby learned to ____ when it was eleven months old. The two of them ____ about the field all day hunting rabbits. A ghost, so they tell me, ____ about the haunted house at midnight. He carefully ____ the plank that spans the abyss. The baby ____ toward us with outstretched arms. The Chinaman ____ out of the back room of the laundry in his carpet slippers. They caught glimpses of gaunt wolves ____ about their campfire. He was terrified when the giant ____ into the room. The fat lady ____ down the aisle of the street car. The sick man will ____ a few steps each day until he is stronger. A turkey cock ____ about the barnyard. A boy with a rag tied around his toe ____ painfully down the street. They reported to the police that a man had been ____ about the place. She held her skirts daintily and ____ along as if she were walking on eggs. The lovers ____ along the banks of the stream. He ____ through the hall like a conqueror. The children wore themselves out by ____ through the snow to school. We ____ through the meadows, often stooping to pick flowers as we went. The soldiers ____ into camp at nightfall. <Laugh, giggle, snicker, titter, chuckle, guffaw, cachinnate.> What differences in human nature, conditions, and disposition are revealed by laughter! If a person gives audible expression to mirth, gayety, or good-humor, the simplest word to apply to what he does is _laugh_. But suppose a girl, with slight or insufficient provocation, engages in silly or foolish though perhaps involuntary laughter. We should say she _giggles_. Suppose a youngster is amused at an inappropriate moment and but partly suppresses his laughter; or suppose he wilfully permits the breaking forth of just enough laughter to indicate disrespect. He _snickers_. Suppose a person gives a little, light laugh; or more especially, suppose a crowd gives such an one as the result of slight, simultaneous amusement. Our word now is _titters_. Suppose we laugh low or gently or to ourselves. We _chuckle_. Suppose some one laughs loudly, boisterously, even coarsely, in a manner befitting a lumber camp rather than a drawing room. That person _guffaws_. Suppose a man engages in explosive and immoderate laughter. He _cachinnates_. _Assignment for further discrimination_: <chortle, roar>. _Second assignment_: Name all the words you can that designate inaudible laughter (for example, <smile, smirk, grin>). _Sentences_: The rough fellow ____ in the lecturer's face. "If you prick us, do we not bleed? if you tickle us, do we not ____?" He kept ____ at the thought of the surprise he would give them. "The swain mistrustless of his smutted face, While secret laughter ____ round the place." The ill-bred fellow was ____ with strident, violent, irritating sounds. "The little dog ____ to see such sport." The audience ____ when the speaker's glasses began to slip from his nose. The girl kept ____ in a way that embarrassed us both. The small boy ____ when the preacher's notes fluttered out of the Bible to the floor. The rude fellows ____ at this evidence of my discomfiture. He ____ very kindly and told me not to feel any regrets. The little maids tried to be polite, but ____ irrepressibly. <Look, glance, gaze, stare, peer, scan, scrutinize, gloat, glare, glower, lower, peek, peep, gape, con, pore, ogle.> A person simply directs his eyes to see. He _looks_. But eyes may speak, we are told, and since this person undergoes many changes of mood and purpose, we shall let his eyes tell us all they will about his different manners of looking. At first he but looks momentarily (as from lack of time) or casually (as from lack of interest). He _glances_. Soon he makes a business of looking, and fastens his eyes for a long time on something he admires or wonders at. He _gazes_. Presently he looks with a blank, perhaps a rude, expression and with eyes opened widely; he may be for the moment overcome with incomprehension, surprise, or fright, or perhaps he wishes to be insolent. He _stares_. Now he is looking narrowly or closely at something that he sees with difficulty. He _peers_. The next moment he looks over something with care or with an encompassing sweep of vision. He _scans_ it. His interest thoroughly enlisted, he looks at it carefully point by point to see that it is right in each detail. He _scrutinizes_ it. He then alters his mood, and looks with scornful or malignant satisfaction upon something he has conquered or has power over. He _gloats_. Anger, perhaps fierceness, takes possession of him, and he looks with piercing eyes. He _glares_. Threat mingles with anger, and in all likelihood he looks scowlingly or frowningly. He _glowers_. An added expression of sullenness or gloom comes into his look. He _lowers_. He throws off his dark spirit and looks slyly and playfully, let us say through a small opening. He _peeks_. Playfulness gives place to curiosity; he looks quickly and furtively, perhaps through some tiny aperture, and probably at something he has no business to see. He _peeps_. The while he looks his mouth falls open, as from stupidity or wonder. He _gapes_. He looks at something a long time to study it. He _cons_ or _pores_. His study is not of the thing itself; it is meditation or reverie. He _pores_. A member of the opposite sex is present; he looks at her with the effort of a flirt to attract attention to himself, or less scrupulous, he directs toward her amorous or inviting glances. He _ogles_. _Assignment for further discrimination_: <leer, view, survey, inspect, regard, watch, contemplate>. _Sentences_: The inspecting officer ____ the men's equipment. The student ____ his lessons carefully. At this unexpected proposal Dobbett merely ____. Jimmie ____ at the fellow who had kicked the pup. The inquisitive maid ____ into all the the closets. He ____ over his fallen adversary. The bookkeeper ____ over his ledger. In the darkened hallway he ____ at the notices on the bulletin board. "The poet's eye, in a fine frenzy rolling, Doth ____ from heaven to earth, from earth to heaven." From the way her father ____ the foolish, young man should have known it was time to go. He ____ long and lovingly upon the scenes he was leaving. The newcomer ____ insolently at his host and ____ the young ladies. <Abandon, desert, forsake.> _Abandon_ denotes absolute giving up, as from force of circumstances or shirking of responsibility. _Desert_ refers to leaving or quitting in violation of obligation, duty, or oath. _Forsake_, which may involve no culpability, usually implies a breaking off of intimate association or attachment. _Sentences_: The sailor ____ his ship. Necessity compelled him to ____ his friends in a time of sore trouble. They hated to ____ their old haunts. A brave man never ____ hope. An unscrupulous man will ____ his principles when it is to his advantage. "When my father and my mother ____ me, then the Lord will take me up." We ____ our attempt to save the ship. <Abase, debase, degrade, humble, humiliate, disgrace.> To _abase_ is to bring down so that the victim feels himself lowered in estate or external condition. To _debase_ is to produce a marked decline in actual worth or in moral quality. To _degrade_ is to lower in rank or status. To _humble_ is to lower in dignity or self-esteem, or as used reflexively, to restrain one's own pride; the word often implies that the person has been over-proud or arrogant. To _humiliate_ is to deprive of self-esteem or to bring into ignominy. To _disgrace_ is to bring actual shame upon. _Sentences_: They ____ the guilty officer from captain to lieutenant. A man should ____ himself before God. He had so ____ himself that I no longer expected good of him. His detection at cheating had ____ him before the students. By successive overlords they had been ____ into a condition of serfdom. The aristocratic old lady was ____ by her loss of social position. The conversion of so much bullion into money had ____ the coinage. <Answer, reply, response, rejoinder, retort, repartee.> An interesting thing about the _answer_ group is that the generic term has a somewhat strong rival in _reply_, itself fairly inclusive. We must therefore discriminate rather fully between _answer_ and _reply_. The former is a return in words to a question, a communication, or an argument. The latter suggests a more or less formal answer, as one carefully prepared or intelligently thought out. We might give an _answer_ offhand, but are less likely to give a _reply_ so. We may give any kind of _answer_ to a question, but if we give a _reply_, the implication is that we have answered it definitely, perhaps satisfactorily. On the other hand, in controversial matters we may, though we by no means always do, imply a more conclusive meeting of objections through _answer_ than through _reply_. A _response_ is an expected answer, one in harmony with the question or assertion, or in some way carrying the thought farther. A _rejoinder_ is a quick reply to something controversial or calling forth opposition. A _retort_ is a short, sharp reply, such as turns back censure or derision, or as springs from anger. A _repartee_ is an immediate and witty reply, perhaps to a remark of similar character which it is intended to surpass in cleverness. _Sentences_: The detailed ____ to our letter should reach us within a week. The plays of Oscar Wilde abound in brilliant ____. The speaker's ____ to the heckler was incisive and scathing. My ____ to that third question in the examination in history was incorrect. The congregation read the ____ in unison. You have enumerated objections to my course; here is their ____. "This is no ____, thou unfeeling man, to excuse the current of thy cruelty." There was silence throughout the chamber as the old statesman rose to make his ____. To the tenderfoot's remark the guide mumbled an indifferent ____. Our appeal for the sufferers elicited but a poor ____. <Ask, inquire, question, interrogate, interpellate, query, quiz, catechize, request, beg, solicit, entreat, beseech, crave, implore, supplicate, importune, petition.> From the general tree of asking grow many branches, different in size, in the direction they take, in the shades of meaning they cast. What can we learn from a rapid scrutiny of each? That to _inquire_ is to ask for specific information. That to _question_ is to keep asking in order to obtain detailed or reluctantly given information. That to _interrogate_ is to question formally, systematically, or thoroughly. That to _interpellate_ is to question as of unchallenged right, as in a deliberative body. That to _query_ is to bring a thing into question because of doubt as to its correctness or truth. That to _quiz_ is to question closely and persistently, as from meddlesomeness, opposition, or curiosity. That to _catechize_ is to question in a minute, perhaps impertinent, manner in order to ascertain one's secrets or the amount of his knowledge or information. That to _request_ is to ask formally and politely. That to _beg_ is to ask for deferentially or humbly, especially on the ground of pity. That to _solicit_ is to ask with urgency. That to _entreat_ is to ask with strong desire and moving appeal. That to _beseech_ is to ask earnestly as a boon or favor. That to _crave_ is to ask humbly and abjectly, as though unworthy of receiving. That to _implore_ is to ask with fervor and intense earnestness. That to _supplicate_ is to ask with urgent or even desperate appeal. (Both _implore_ and _supplicate_ imply humility, as of a prayer to a superior being.) That to _importune_ is to ask for persistently, even wearyingly. That to _petition_ is to ask a superior, usually in writing, for some favor, grant, or right. _Assignment for further discrimination_: <plead, pray>. _Sentences_: The leader of the minority ____ the upholders of the measure sharply as to a secret understanding. I ____ you to keep your promise. I shall ____ that solution for the present. The colonists ____ Great Britain for a redress of grievances. She ____ the governor to grant her husband a pardon. A child is naturally inquisitive and ____ many questions. I ____ you to show mercy. On bended knees he ____ God's forgiveness. "I'm stopp'd by all the fools I meet And ____ in every street." The policeman ____ the suspect closely. The prosecuting attorney ____ the witness. We are ____ funds to aid the famine-stricken people of India. He ____ me about your health. You should ____ at the office about the lost package. She ____ your presence at the party. Every one resents being ____. I ____ you to care for the child after I am gone. A fool can ____ questions a wise man can't answer. She annoyed them by constantly ____ them for favors. The reporter ____ into the causes of the riot. "____ and it shall be given you." I ____ your pardon, though I well know I do not deserve it. The man ____ me to give him some money for food. <Burn, scorch, singe, sear, parch, char, incinerate, cremate, cauterize.> If you consume or injure something by bringing it in contact with fire or heat, you _burn_ it. If you do not consume it but burn it superficially so as to change the texture or color of its surface, you _scorch_ it. If you burn off ends or projections of it, you _singe_ it. If you burn its surface to dryness or hardness, you _sear_ it. If you dry or shrivel it with heat, you _parch_ it. If through heat you reduce it to a state of charcoal, or cinders, you _char_ it. If you burn it to ashes, you _incinerate_ it. (This word is learned and but little used in ordinary discourse.) If you burn a dead body to ashes, you _cremate_ it. If you burn or sear anything with a hot iron or a corrosive substance, you _cauterize_ it. _Sentences_: The hired girl ____ the cloth in ironing it. By getting too close to the fire he ____ the nap of his flannels. The doctor at once ____ the wound. The cook had picked the chicken and now ____ its down over the coals. I used to ____ grains of field corn on the cookstove, while my mother prepared dinner. Shelley's body was ____ on a funeral pyre. The lecturer spoke of the time when the whole earth might be ____. The earth was ____ and all growing things were ____ by the intense summer heat. <Busy, industrious, diligent, assiduous, sedulous.> From much of the talk that we hear nowadays it might be supposed that the earnest devotion of one's self to a task is a thing that has disappeared from the earth. But a good many people are exhibiting this very devotion. Let us see in what different degrees. The man who actively applies himself to something, whether temporarily or habitually, is _busy_. The man who makes continued application to work a principle or habit of life, is _industrious_. The man who applies himself aggressively to the accomplishment of some specific undertaking or pursuit, is _diligent_. The man who quietly and determinedly sticks to a task until it is accomplished, no matter what its difficulties or length, is _assiduous_. The man who makes steady and painstaking application to whatever he is about, is _sedulous_. _Sentences_: Early in life he acquired ____ habits. By patient and ____ study you may overcome those defects of your early education. "How doth the ____ little bee improve each shining hour." The manager gave such ____ attention to details that he made few mistakes. He is ____ at present. Oh, yes, he is always ____. "Nowher so ____ a man has he ther has, And yet he seemed ____ than he was." <Concise, terse, succinct, compendious, compact, sententious, pithy, laconic, curt.> Words descriptive of brief utterance are, in nearly every instance, in their origin figurative. The brevity is brought out by comparison with something that is noticeably short or small. Let us examine the words of our list for their figurative qualities. A _concise_ statement is one that is _cut down_ until a great deal is said in a few words. A _terse_ statement is _rubbed off_, rid of unessentials. A _succinct_ statement has its important thoughts _bound_ into small compass, as by a girdle. A _compendious_ statement _weighs together_ the various thoughts and aspects of a subject; it shows by means of a few effective words just what these amount to, gives a summary of them. A _compact_ statement has its units of thought _fastened together_ into firmness of structure; its brevity is well-knit. A _sententious_ statement gives _feelings_ or _opinions_ in a strikingly pointed or axiomatic way, so that they can be easily grasped and remembered; if _sententious_ is unfavorably used, the statement may be filled with paraded platitudes. A _pithy_ statement gives the very _pith_, the heart of a matter; it is sometimes slightly quaint, always effective and arresting. A _laconic_ statement is made in the manner of _the Spartans_, who hated talk and used as few words as possible. A _curt_ statement is _made short_; its abruptness is oftentimes more or less rude. _Sentences_: "A tale should be judicious, clear, ____, the language plain, and incidents well link'd." "Charles Lamb made the most ____ criticism of Spenser when he called him the poet's poet." With a ____, disdainful answer she turned away. The sermon was filled with ____ sayings. By omitting all irrelevant details, he made his statement of the case ____. It requires great skill to give a ____ statement of what such a treatise contains. A proverb is a ____ statement of a truth. <Death, decease, demise.> Men are as mindful of rank and pretension in their terms for the cessation of life as in their choice of tombstones for the departed. _Death_ is the great, democratic, unspoilable word. It is not too good for a clown or too poor for an emperor. _Decease_ is a more formal word. Its employment is often legal--the death proves to be of sufficient importance for the law (and the lawyers) to take notice. _Demise_, however, is outwardly the most resplendent term of all. It implies that the victim cut a wide swath even in death. It is used of an illustrious person, as a king, who transmits his title to an heir. Ordinary people cannot afford a _demise_. If the term is applied to their shuffling off of this mortal coil, the use is euphemistic and likely to be stilted. _Sentences_: "The crown at the moment of ____ must descend to the next heir." "____ is a fearful thing." "In their ____ they were not divided." At the ____ of his father he inherited the estate. "Each shall take His chamber in the silent halls of ____." "Many a time I have been half in love with easeful ____." <Early, primitive, primeval, primordial, primal, pristine.> _Early_ is the simple word for that which was in, or toward, the beginning. That is _primitive_ which has the old-fashioned or simple qualities characteristic of the beginning. That is _primeval_ which is of the first or earliest ages. That is _primordial_ which is first in origin, formation, or development. That is _primal_ which is first or original. (The word is poetic.) That is _pristine_ which has not been corrupted from its original state. _Assignment for further discrimination_: <aboriginal, prehistoric.> _Sentences_: It was a hardy mountain folk that preserved the ____ virtues. The ____ history of mankind is shrouded in uncertainty. "This is the forest ____." "It hath the ____ eldest curse upon 't, A brother's murder." "A ____ leaf is that which is immediately developed from the cotyledon." As the explorers penetrated farther into the country, they beheld all the ____ beauties of nature. Some countries still use the ____ method of plowing with a stick. <Face, countenance, features, visage, physiognomy.> We hear some one say that he reads faces. How? Through long study of them and what they indicate. The human race as a whole has been reading faces through the centuries. It has felt such need to label certain recurring aspects of them that it has invented the designating terms. Of these terms the simple, inclusive one is of course _face_ itself. If, however, we are thinking of the face as its look or expression reveals thoughts, emotions, or state of mind, our term is _countenance_. If we are thinking of it as distinguished or individualized by the contour, lines, etc., we speak of the _features_. If we are thinking of its external appearance or aspect, we call it the _visage_. If, finally, we are thinking of it as indicative of mind, disposition, or fundamental character, we say _physiognomy._ _Assignment for further discrimination_: <lineaments>. _Sentences_: His grotesque ____ reminded one of a gargoyle. It is said that the ____ of persons living constantly together tend to become alike. "Behind a frowning providence He hides a smiling ____." The teacher told the students to wash their ____ every morning. "A ____ more in sorrow than in anger." The firm but kind ____ of the old statesman shone happily at this ovation. "For now we see through a glass, darkly; but then ____ to ____." She turned an eager ____ up to me as she spoke. One's ____ is moulded by one's thoughts. Cosmetics injure the ____. His clear-cut ____ impressed his employer. <Financial, monetary, pecuniary, fiscal.> _Financial_ is usually applied to money matters of considerable size or moment. _Monetary_ applies to money, coin, or currency as such. _Pecuniary_ refers to practical matters in which money is involved, though not usually in large amounts. _Fiscal_ refers especially to the time when money, receipts, and accounts are balanced or reckoned. _Sentences_: A ____ reward has been offered. We gave the unfortunate man ____ assistance. The ____ system of the country was sound. It was Hamilton who more than any one else shaped the ____ policies of the new government. Experts audit the company's accounts at the end of the ____ year. The ____ interests of the country were behind the bill. <Flee, abscond, decamp.> To _flee_ is to run away from what one would avoid, as danger, arrest, or the like. To _abscond_ is to steal off secretly and hide one's self, as from some disgraceful reason or to avoid arrest. To _decamp_ is to leave suddenly in great haste to get away; the word is often used humorously. _Sentences_: They went to have their money refunded, but the swindler had ____. The bank teller ____ after having squandered most of the deposits. Yes, we were in proximity to a polecat, and without further parley we ____. "Resist the devil, and he will ____ from you." William Wallace, when pursued by the English, ____ into the Highlands. <Foretell, predict, prophesy, forecast, presage, forebode, portend, augur, prognosticate.> _Foretell_ is the general word for stating or perceiving beforehand that which will happen. _Predict_ implies foretelling based on well-founded or precise knowledge. _Prophesy_ often implies supernatural inspiration to foretell correctly. The word is especially so used in connection with the Scriptures; but in the Scriptures themselves it frequently expresses insight and admonition without the element of foretelling. _Forecast_ involves a marked degree of conjecture. _Presage_ usually means to give as a presentiment or warning. _Forebode_ expresses an uncertain foreknowledge of vague impending evil. _Portend_ indicates the likelihood that something will befall which is threatening or evil in its consequences. _Augur_ means foretelling from omens. _Prognosticate_ means foretelling through the study of signs or symptoms. _Sentences_: "For we know in part, and we ____ in part." (Insert in the blank, successively, the terms just distinguished. In each instance how is the meaning affected? Do any of the terms fail to make sense at all? Which term do you think the right one? Bearing in mind the distinctions we have made, frame sentences of your own to embody the terms.) <Get, acquire, obtain, procure, attain, gain, win, earn.> _Get_, the general term, may be used of whatever one comes by whatsoever means to possess, experience, or realize. To _acquire_ is to get into more or less permanent possession, either by some gradual process or by one's determined efforts. To _obtain_ is to get something desired by means of deliberate effort or request. To _procure_ is to get by definitely planned effort something which, in most instances, is of a temporary nature or the possession of which is temporary. To _attain_ is to get through striving that which one has set as a goal or end of his desire or ambition. To _gain_ is to get that which is advantageous. To _win_ is to get as the result of successful competition or the overcoming of opposition. To _earn_ is to get as a deserved reward for one's efforts or exertions. _Sentences_: With such wages as those, he can barely ____ a living. He ____ a pardon by appealing to the governor. The speaker ____ his point by forcing his opponent to admit that the figures were misleading. By buying in June I can ____ a good overcoat at half price. Did you ____ only seven thousand dollars for your house? Walpole believed in ____ one's ends in the surest and easiest way possible. It is illegal to ____ money through false pretences. A junior ____ the prize in the oratorical contest. Kirk ____ his advancement by taking a personal interest in the firm's welfare. The painter ____ a foreign accent while he was studying in Paris. He ____ their gratitude by loyally serving them. It was through sacrifices that he ____ an education. <Give, bestow, grant, confer, present>. We _give_ that which we transfer from our own to another's possession or ownership, usually without compensation. We _bestow_ that which we give gratuitously, or of which the recipient stands in especial need. We _grant_ that which has been requested by one dependent upon us or inferior to us, and which we give with some formality. From a position of superiority we _confer_ as a favor or honor that which we might withhold or deny. We _present_ that which is of importance or value and which we give ceremoniously. _Assignment for further discrimination_: <furnish, supply, impart>. _Sentences_: William the Conqueror ____ English estates upon his followers. The rich man ____ his wonderful art collection to the museum. My application for a leave of absence has been ____. The ticket agent ____ us complete information. Every year he ____ alms upon the poor in that neighborhood. The school board may ____ an increase in the salaries of teachers. Many merchants ____ premiums with the articles they sell. The college ____ an honorary degree upon the distinguished visitor. The Pilgrims ____ thanks to God for their preservation. "Not what we ____, but what we share." <Haste, celerity, speed, hurry, expedition, despatch>. What did John Wesley mean by saying, "Though I am always in _haste_, I am never in a _hurry_"? Does Lord Chesterfield's saying "Whoever is in a _hurry_ shows that the thing he is about is too big for him" help explain the distinction? Explain the distinction (taking _speed_ in the modern sense) in the saying "The more _haste_, ever the worse _speed_." "The tidings were borne with the usual _celerity_ of evil news." Give the well-known saying in four simple words that express the same idea. Which of the two statements is the more forceful? Which is the more literary? Why did Prescott use the former in his _Ferdinand and Isabella_? "_Despatch_," says Lord Chesterfield, "is the soul of business." What does _despatch_ suggest about getting work done that _haste_ or _speed_ does not? In which way would you prefer for your employee to go about his task--with _haste_, with _speed_, or with _despatch_? "With wingéd _expedition_, Swift as the lightning glance, he executes His errand on the wicked." Why is it that this use of _expedition_ in Milton's lines is apt? Would _despatch_ have served as well? If not, why not? <Hate, detest, abhor, loathe, abominate, despise>. To _hate_ involves deep or passionate dislike, sometimes bred of ill-will. To _detest_ involves an intense, vehement, or deep-seated antipathy. To _abhor_ involves utter repugnance or aversion, with an impulse to recoil. To _loathe_ involves disgust because of physical or moral offensiveness. To _abominate_ involves strong moral aversion, as of that which is odious or wicked. To _despise_ is to dislike and look down upon as inferior. _Sentences_: When he had explained his fell purpose, I could only ____ him. Who would not ____ a slimy creature like Uriah Heep? It is natural for us to ____ our enemies. She ____ greasy food. There suddenly in my pathway was the venomous reptile, darting out its tongue; oh, I ____ snakes! A wholesome nature must ____ such principles as these. A child ____ to kiss and make up. The pampered young millionaire ____ those who are simply honest and kind. These daily practices of her associates she ____. <Healthful, wholesome, salutary, salubrious, sanitary, hygienic>. (With this group contrast the _Disease_ group below.) The words of this group are assuredly blessed. Every one of them has to do with the giving, promotion, or preservation of health. But health is of various kinds, and therefore the words apply differently. _Healthful_ is the most inclusive of them; it means that the thing it refers to is full of health for us. _Wholesome_ also is a very broad term; what is wholesome is good for us physically, mentally, or morally. _Salutary_ is confined to that which affects for good our moral (including civic and social) welfare, especially if it counteracts evil influences or propensities. _Salubrious_ is confined to the physical; it is used almost solely of healthful air or climate. _Sanitary_ and _hygienic_ apply to physical well-being as promoted by the eradication of the causes for sickness, disease, or the like; _sanitary_, however, is used of measures and conditions affecting people in general, whereas _hygienic_ connects itself with personal habits. _Assignment for further discrimination_: The word _healthy_ is often confused with _healthful_. You have already discriminated between these two terms, but you should renew your knowledge of the distinction between them. _Sentences_: Colorado is noted for its ____ air. He offered the young people some ____ advice. A person should brush his teeth every day for ____ reasons. In spite of its horrors, the French Revolution has had a ____ effect upon civilization. Damp, low places do not have a ____ climate. Cities in the middle ages were not ____. His is a very ____ way of life. My doctor recommends buttermilk as ____. <Heavy, weighty, burdensome, onerous>. He knew that it was a ____ responsibility. (Insert the four words in the blank space in turn, and analyze the differences in meaning thus produced.) <Liberal, generous, bountiful, munificent>. He made a ____ donation to the endowment fund. (Insert the four words in the blank space in turn, and analyze the differences in meaning.) <Masculine, male, manly, manlike, manful, mannish, virile>. "A man's a man for a' that," sang the poet. So he is, but not all the adjectives allusive to his state are equally complimentary. _Masculine_ betokens the qualities and characteristics belonging to men. _Male_ designates sex and is used of animals as well as human beings. _Manly_ (used of boys as well as men) implies the possession of qualities worthy of a man, as strength, courage, sincerity, honesty, independence, or even tenderness. _Manlike_ refers to qualities, attributes, or foibles characteristically masculine. _Manful_ suggests the valor, prowess, or resolution properly belonging to men. _Mannish_ (a derogatory word) indicates superficial or affected qualities of manhood, especially when inappropriately possessed by a woman. _Virile_ applies to the sturdy and intrepid qualities of mature manhood. _Sentences_: The Chinese especially prize ____ children. He was a ____ little fellow. She walked with a ____ stride. With ____ courage he faced the crisis. It was a ____ defense of an unpopular cause. ____ strength is the complement of female grace. The old sailor still retained the rugged and ____ strength of a man much younger. With ____ bluntness he told her what he thought. Such gentleness is not weak; it is ____. He made a ____ struggle against odds. "His ____ brow Consents to death, but conquers agony." Now isn't that assumption of omniscience ____? <Name, appellation, designation, denomination, title, alias>. A _name_ is the word or words by which a person or thing is called or known. If the name be descriptive or characterizing, even though in a fanciful way, it is an _appellation_. If it particularizes an individual through reference to distinctive quality or nature, perhaps without employing any word the individual is usually known by, it is a _designation_. If it specifies a class, especially a religious sect or a kind of coin, it is a _denomination_. If it is an official or honorary description of rank, office, place within a profession, or the like, it is a _title_. If it is assumed, as to conceal identity, it is an _alias_. _Assignment for further discrimination_: <cognomen, patronymic, nom de plume, pseudonym>. _Sentences_: Yes, it is a five-dollar gold piece, though one doesn't often see a coin of that ____ nowadays. The Little Corporal is the ____ applied to Napoleon by his soldiers. The eldest son of the king of England bears the ____ of the Prince of Wales. The government issues stamps in various ____. "That loafer" was his contemptuous ____ of the man who could not find work. "Duke" is the highest ____ of nobility in England. The crook was known to the police under many ____. At the battle of Bull Run Jackson received the ____ "Stonewall." "What's in a[n] ____? that which we call a rose By any other ____ would smell as sweet." The head of the American government bears the ____ of President. The Mist of Spring was the little Indian maiden's ____. His ____ was Thornberg. <Old, ancient, olden, antique, antiquated, archaic, obsolete, venerable, immemorial, elderly, aged, hoary, decrepit, senile, superannuated>. We reserve the right to judge for ourselves when told that something-- especially a joke--is "the very latest." So may we likewise discriminate among degrees of age. _Old_ is applied to a person or thing that has existed for a long time or that existed in the distant past. The word may suggest a familiarity or sentiment not found in _ancient_, which is used of that which lived or happened in the remote past, or has come down from it. _Olden_ applies almost wholly to time long past. _Antique_ is the term for that which has come down from ancient times or is made in imitation of the style of ancient times, whereas _antiquated_ is the term for that which has gone out of style or fashion. _Archaic_ and _obsolete_ refer to words, customs, or the like, the former to such as savor of an earlier period though they are not yet completely out of use, the latter to such as have passed out of use altogether. _Immemorial_ implies that a thing is so old that it is beyond the time of memory or record. _Elderly_ is applied to persons who are between middle age and old age. _Aged_ is used of one who has lived for an unusually long time. _Hoary_ refers to age as revealed by white hair. _Venerable_ suggests the reverence to be paid to the dignity, goodness, or wisdom of old age. _Decrepit_ conveys a sense of the physical infirmities and weakness which attend old age; _senile_ of the lessening powers of both body and mind that result from old age. _Superannuated_ is applied to a person who on account of old age has been declared incapable of continuing his activities. _Sentences_: He liked to read romances of the ____ days. Dana records that he once saw a man so ____ that he had to raise his eyelids with his fingers. Many writers use ____ words to give quaintness to their work. He liked to sit around in his ____ clothes. "The moping owl does to the moon complain Of such as, wandering near her secret bower, Molest her ____ solitary reign." Some of these ____ sequoia trees were old before the white man discovered this continent. They are building the church in the ____ Roman style of architecture. "Be not ... the last to lay the ____ aside." Many of Chaucer's words, being ____, cannot possibly be understood without a glossary. Most churches now have funds for ____ ministers. A man is as ____ as he feels; a woman is as ____ as she looks. The ____ old man could scarcely hobble across the room. What better proof that he is ____ do you ask than that he babbles constantly about what happened when he was young? "I am a very foolish fond ____ man, Fourscore and upward." They revered the ____ locks of the old hero. At sixty a man is considered a[n] ____ person. That the earth is flat is a[n] ____ idea. The young warriors listened respectfully to the ____ chief's advice. They unearthed a[n] ____ vase. "____ wood best to burn, ____ wine to drink, ____ friends to trust, and ____ authors to read." His favorite study was ____ history. "Grow ____ along with me." "The most ____ heavens, through thee, are fresh and strong." <Pay, compensate, recompense, remunerate, requite, reimburse, indemnify>. Most men are willing to receive what is due them. They might even be persuaded to receive a bit more. Why should they not be as scrupulous to receive what they are entitled to in the medium of language as of money? Sometimes they are. Offering to _pay_ some people instead of to _compensate_ them is like offering a tip to the wrong person. Why? Because there is a social implication in _compensate_ which is not contained in _pay_. To _pay_ is simply to give what is due, as in wages (or even salary), price, or the like. To _compensate_ is to make suitable return for service rendered. Does _compensate_ not sound the more soothing? But save in exceptional circumstances the downrightness of _pay_ has no hint of vulgarity. To _recompense_ is to make a return, especially if it is not monetary, for work, pains, trouble, losses, or suffering; or some quality or blessing (as affection or happiness) may be said to recompense one. To _remunerate_ is to disburse a large amount to a person, or to give it to him as a reward, or otherwise to make him a return in a matter of importance. To _requite_ is to put a just value upon one's work, deeds, or merit and to make payment strictly in accordance with his deserts. To _reimburse_ is to make good what some one has spent for you. To _indemnify_ is to secure some one against loss or to make restitution for damages he has sustained. _Assignment for further discrimination_: <disburse, reward>. _Sentences_: Let us ____ him for his efforts in our behalf. Let us ____ their kindness with kindness, their cruelty with cruelty. To ____ them adequately for such patriotic sacrifices is of course impossible. The government demanded that it be ____ for the injury to its citizens. I shall ____ you for all sums expended. He ____ the bill by a check. The success of her children ____ a mother for her sacrifices for them. Wages are ____ to laborers; salaries are ____ to judges. <Proud, arrogant, presumptuous, haughty, supercilious, insolent, insulting>. Most persons feel in their hearts that their claims and merits are superior to those of other people. But they do not like for you, in describing them, to imply that their self-appraisal is too high. "Comparisons are odious," and therefore in comparing their fancied with their real selves you must choose your terms carefully. Of the words that suggest an exaggerated estimate of one's merits or privileges the broadest, as well as the least offensive, is _proud_. In fact this word need not carry the idea of exaggeration. A proud man may but hold himself in justifiable esteem, or wish to measure up to the demands of his station or to the expectations of others. On the other hand, he may overvalue his attainments, possessions, connections, etc. To say that the man is _arrogant_ means that he combines with pride a contempt for others, that he claims for himself greater attention, consideration, or respect than he is entitled to. To say that he is _presumptuous_ makes him an inferior (or at least not a superior) who claims privileges or takes liberties improperly. To say that he is _haughty_ means that he assumes a disdainful superiority to others, especially through fancied or actual advantage over them in birth or social position. To say that he is _supercilious_ means that he maintains toward others an attitude of lofty indifference or sneering contempt. To say that he is _insolent_ means that he is purposely and perhaps coarsely disrespectful toward others, especially toward his superiors. To say that he is _insulting_ means that he gives or offers personal affront, probably in scornful or disdainful speech. _Assignment for further discrimination_: <scornful, imperious, contumelious, impudent, impertinent>. _Sentences_: He was ____ in replying to the questions. She paid no attention to his words, but kept looking at him with a[n] ____ smile. He was ____ in acting as if he were their equal. The hot-tempered fellow answered this ____ remark with a blow. She resented his presuming to speak to her, and turned away in a[n] ____ manner. The servant was ____ to her mistress. Are you not very ____ of your family connections? The old man was so ____ that he expected people to raise their hats to him and not to sit down till he gave permission. <Punish, chastise, chasten>. To _punish_ a person is to inflict pain or penalty upon him as a retribution for wrong-doing. There may be, usually is, no intention to improve the offender. To _chastise_ him is to inflict deserved corporal punishment upon him for corrective purposes. To _chasten_ him is to afflict him with trouble for his reformation or spiritual betterment. The word is normally employed in connection with such affliction from God. _Assignment for further discrimination_: <castigate, scourge>. _Sentences_: "Hearing oftentimes The still, sad music of humanity, Nor harsh nor grating, though of ample power To ____ and subdue." Ichabod Crane freely used his ferule in ____ his pupils. "Whom the Lord loveth he ____." A naughty child should be ____. <Rich, wealthy, affluent, opulent>. "It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God." Substitute _wealthy_ for _rich_. Is the meaning exactly the same? Is Goldsmith's description of the village preacher--"passing rich with forty pounds a year"--as effective if _wealthy_ is substituted? What is the difference between _riches_ and _wealth_? Which implies the greater degree of possession, which the more permanence and stability? Which word suggests the more personal relationship with money? Which word the more definitely denotes money or its immediate equivalent? Why do we say "get-rich-quick schemes" rather than "get-wealthy-quick schemes"? What besides the possession of wealth does _affluent_ suggest? Could we say that a rich miser lives in affluence? If not, why not? A poor clerk who has ten dollars to spend as he pleases may feel affluent. A rich banker may be a man of affluence in his town. What power does this suggest that he has besides the possession of a great deal of money? Explain all that Swift implies by the word _opulence_ in the quotation "There in full opulence a banker dwelt, Who all the joys and pangs of riches felt." If you substitute _affluence_, what different impression do you get? <Rural, rustic, pastoral, bucolic>. "The _rural_ inhabitants of a country." Are the people being spoken of favorably, unfavorably, or neutrally? How would the meaning be affected if they were called _rustic_ inhabitants? Would you ordinarily speak of the _rural_ or the _rustic_ population to distinguish it from the urban? Would you speak of _rural_ or _rustic_ activities? _rural_ or _rustic_ manners? When the two adjectives may be employed, is one of them unflattering? Is a _rustic_ bridge something to be ashamed of? a _rustic_ chair? a _rustic_ gate? What, then, is the degree of reproach that attaches to each of the two adjectives? the degree of commendation? Wherein do _pastoral_ scenes differ from _rural_? _pastoral_ amusements from _rustic_? Can you trace a connection between the _pastor_ of a church and a _pastoral_ life? Do you often hear the word _bucolic_? In what mood is it oftenest uttered? Which of the four adjectives best fits into Goldsmith's dignified lament: "And ____ mirth and manners are no more"? <Silent, reserved, uncommunicative, reticent, taciturn>. (This group may be contrasted with the _Talkative_ group, below.) We pass through a crowded room and notice that some of its occupants are not adding their voices to the chatter. We resolve to study these unspeaking persons. Some of them merely have nothing to say, or are timid or preoccupied; or it may be they deliberately have set themselves not to talk. These are _silent_. Some plainly desire not to talk, it may be in general or it may be upon some particular topic; they may (but need not) regard themselves as superior to their associates, or for some other reason let aloofness or coldness creep into their manner. These are _reserved_. Others withhold information that persons about them are, or would be, interested in. These are _uncommunicative_. Others maintain their own counsel; they neglect opportunities to reveal their thoughts, plans, and the like. These are _reticent_. Others are disinclined--and habitually, we perceive--to talking. These are _taciturn_. _Sentences_: The ____ prisoner evaded all questions. He was as ____ as nature itself; he never gave his views upon any subject. He was ____ about the firm's affairs, especially toward persons who seemed inquisitive. We knew there had been a love affair in his life, but he was ____ on the subject. She sat ____ throughout the discussion. If to be ____ is golden, Lucas should have been a billionaire. <Sing, chant, carol, warble, troll, yodel, croon, hum, chirp, chirrup>. You hear a "concord of sweet sounds," not instrumental but vocal, and wish to tell me so. You say that some person _sings_. Then you recall that I am something of an expert in music, and you cast about for the word that shall state specifically the kind of singing that is being done. Does the person sing solemnly in a more or less uniform tone? You tell me that he _chants_. Does he sing gladly, spontaneously, high-spiritedly, as if his heart were pouring over with joy? You say that he _carols_. Does he sing with vibratory notes and little runs, as in bird-music? You say that he _warbles_. Does he sing loudly and freely? You say that he _trolls_. Does he sing with peculiar modulations from the regular into a falsetto voice? You say that he _yodels_. Does he sing a simple, perhaps tender, song in a low tone (as a lullaby to an infant)? You say that he _croons_. Does he sing with his lips closed? You say that he _hums_. Does he utter the short, perhaps sharp, notes of certain birds and insects? You say that he _chirps_ or _chirrups_. _Assignment for further discrimination_: <trill, pipe, quaver, peep, cheep, twitter>. _Sentences_: A cricket ____ in the grass outside the door. He abstractedly gazed out of the window and ____ a few strains of an old song. Listen, they are ____ the Te Deum. "And ____ still dost soar, and soaring ever ____." A strange, uncanny blending of false and true notes it is when the Swiss mountaineers are ____. Negroes, as a race, love to ____. As she soothes the child to sleep she ____ a "rock-a-bye-baby." <Suave, bland, unctuous, fulsome, smug>. _Suave_ implies agreeable persuasiveness or smooth urbanity. _Bland_ suggests a soothing or coaxing kindness of manner, one that is sometimes lacking in sincerity. _Unctuous_ implies excessive smoothness, as though one's manner were oiled. The word carries a decided suggestion of hypocrisy. _Fulsome_ suggests such gross flattery as to be annoying or cloying. _Smug_ suggests an effeminate self-satisfaction, usually not justified by merit or achievement. _Assignment for further discrimination_: <complaisant, elegant, trim, dapper, spruce, genteel, urbane, well-bred, gracious, affable, benign>. _Sentences_: He thought his answer exceedingly brilliant and settled back into his chair with ____ complacency. "____ the smile that like a wrinkling wind On glassy water drove his cheek in lines." They were irritated by his ____ praise. Although he disliked them, he greeted them with ____ cordiality. "A bankrupt, a prodigal, ... that used to come so ____ upon the mart; let him look to his bond." ____ as a diplomat. <Talkative, loquacious, garrulous, fluent, voluble, glib>. (This group may be contrasted with the _Silent_ group, above.) A little while ago you were in a crowded room and made a study of the persons disposed to silence. But your study was carried on under difficulties, for many of those about you showed a tendency to copious or excessive speech. One woman entered readily into conversation with you and convinced you that her natural disposition was to converse a great deal. She was _talkative_. From her you escaped to a man who soon proved that he talked too much and could run on with an incessant flow of words, perhaps employing many of them where a few would have sufficed. He was _loquacious_. The two of you were joined by an old gentleman who forthwith began to talk wordily, tediously, continuously, with needless repetitions and in tiresome detail; you suspected that he had suffered a mental decline from age, and that he might be excessively fond, in season and out of season, of talking about himself and his opinions. He was _garrulous_. You broke away from these two and fell into the hands of a much more agreeable interlocutor. He talked with a ready, easy command of words, so that his discourse _flowed_ smoothly. He was _fluent_. He introduced you to a lady whose speech possessed smoothness and ease in too great degree; it fairly _rolled_ along, as a hoop does downhill. The lady was _voluble_. Into your triangular group broke a newcomer whose speech had in it a flippant, or at least a superficially clever, fluency. He was _glib_. Leaving these three to fight (or talk) it out as best they might, you grabbed your hat and hurried outside for a fresh whiff of air. _Assignment for further discrimination_: <chattering, long-winded, prolix, wordy, verbose>. _Sentences_: The insurance agent was so ____ a talker that I was soothed into sleepiness by his voice. The ____ old man could talk forever about the happenings of his boyhood. Through ____ descriptions of life in the city the dapper summer boarder entranced the simple country girl. I met a ____ fellow on the train, and we had a long conversation. She was so ____ that I spent half the afternoon with her and learned nothing. <Weak, debilitated, feeble, infirm, decrepit, impotent>. _Weak_ is the general word for that which is deficient in strength. _Debilitated_ is used of physical weakness, in most instances brought on by excesses and abuses. _Feeble_ denotes decided or extreme weakness, which may excite pity or contempt. _Infirm_ is applied to a person whose weakness or feebleness is due to age. _Decrepit_ is used in reference to a person broken down or worn out by infirmities, age, or sickness. _Impotent_ implies such loss or lack of strength or vitality as to render ineffective or helpless. _Assignment for further discrimination_: <enervated, languid, frail>. _Sentences_: "Here I stand, your slave, A poor, ____, weak, and despis'd old man." A[n] ____ old man shuffled along with the aid of a cane. Though still in his youth, he was ____ from intemperance and fast living. A fellow who does that has a[n] ____ mind. He staggered about trying to strike his opponent, but rage and his wound rendered him for the time ____. The grasp of the old man was so ____ that the cup trembled in his hand. "Like rich hangings in a homely house, So was his will in his old ____ body." After his long illness he was as ____ as a child. He made but a[n] ____ attempt to defend himself. <Wise, learned, erudite, sagacious, sapient, sage, judicious, prudent, provident, discreet>. (Compare the distinction between _knowledge_ and _wisdom_ under Words Often Confused above.) _Wise_ implies sound and discriminating judgment, resulting from either learning or experience. _Learned_ denotes the past acquisition of much information through study. _Erudite_ means characterized by extensive or profound knowledge. _Sagacious_ implies far-sighted judgment and intuitive discernment, especially in practical matters. _Sapient_ is now of infrequent use except as applied ironically or playfully to one having or professing wisdom. _Sage_ implies deep wisdom that comes from age or experience. _Judicious_ denotes sound judgment or careful discretion in weighing a matter with reference to its merits or its consequences. _Prudent_ conveys a sense of cautious foresight in judging the future and planning for it upon the basis of the circumstances at hand. _Provident_ suggests practical foresight and careful economy in preparing for future needs. _Discreet_ denotes care or painstakingness in doing or saying the right thing at the right time, and the avoidance thereby of errors or unpleasant results. _Sentences_: Against the time when his children would be going to college he had been ____. "Most ____ judge!" The ____ old warrior could not be deceived by any such ruse. "Be ye therefore as ____ as serpents, and harmless as doves." The ____ advice of his elders was wasted on him. The course was ____, not rash. He was ____ in avoiding all reference to the subject. "Type of the ____, who soar but never roam, True to the kindred points of heaven and home." Even by those scholars, those specialists, he was deemed ____. How ____ the young man is! "Where ignorance is bliss, 'Tis folly to be ____." Is it ____ to spend money thus lavishly? He considered the matter well and gave a most ____ answer. To spend every cent of one's income is surely not to be ____. <Work, labor, toil, drudgery>. All of us, at times anyhow, get out of as much work as we can. We even use the word _work_ and its synonyms loosely and indolently. Perhaps this is a literary aspect of the labor problem. If, however, we can shake off our sluggishness and exert ourselves in discriminating our terms, we shall use _work_ as a general word for effort, physical or mental, to some purposive end; _labor_ for hard, physical work; _toil_ for wearying or exhaustive work; and _drudgery_ for tedious, monotonous, or distasteful work, especially of a low or menial kind. _Sentences_: It required the ____ of thousands of men to complete the tunnel. To be condemned to the galleys meant a life of unending ____. The man who enjoys his ____ will succeed. Twenty years of incessant ____ had extinguished in him every spark of ambition. He was weary after the ____ of the day. All ____ and no play makes Jack a dull boy. Through the heart-breaking ____ of thousands the pyramids were built to commemorate a few. He was sentenced to hard ____. VIII SYNONYMS IN LARGER GROUPS (2) You have now seen enough of the method of discriminating synonyms to take more of the responsibility for such work upon yourself. In this chapter, therefore, the plan followed in Exercise A is abandoned and no discriminations are supplied you. EXERCISE B For some of the generic words in Exercise A you will find antonyms in Exercise C. Here is a list: In Exercise A: walk, laugh, busy, hate, masculine, old In Exercise C: run, cry, idle, love, feminine, young. Now each of the generic terms in C is followed by a list of its synonyms. But for the six generic terms just given let us see how many synonyms you can find for yourself. Simply study each word in turn, think of all the synonyms for it you can summon, strike out those you consider far-fetched. Then compare your list with the list under the antonym in Exercise A; if possible, improve your list by means of this comparison. Finally, compare your revised list with the list in Exercise C. In Exercise C are two generic terms that carry the same idea (but not in the same part of speech) as generic terms in Exercise A. They are as follows: In Exercise A: sing, death In Exercise C: song, die. Take _song_ and _die_. First, find all the satisfactory synonyms you can for yourself. Then if possible improve your list by studying the list under the corresponding word in Exercise A. Finally, compare your revised list with the one in Exercise C. EXERCISE C After three introductory groups (dealing with thoroughly concrete ideas and words) the synonyms in this exercise are arranged alphabetically according to the first word in each group. Discriminate the words in each group, and fill each blank in the illustrative sentences with the word that conveys the meaning exactly. <See, perceive, descry, distinguish, espy, discern, note, notice, watch, observe, witness, behold, view>. _Sentences_: The intruder he ____ in the early dawn-light might have been man or beast; he could not have ____ one from the other. After a long search I ____ on the map the name of the town. The teacher ____ the throwing of the paper wad, but thought best not to ____ it. "He that hath eyes to ____, let him ____." I ____ the encounter. "I hope to ____ my Pilot face to face When I have crossed the bar." "When my eyes turn to ____ for the last time the sun in heaven." I sat by the flower and ____ the bee plunder it. The scrawl on the paper was meaningless, but at length by close attention he ____ secret writing. "Your young men shall ____ visions, and your old men shall dream dreams." He had ____ human nature manifesting itself under various conditions. <Kill, slay, slaughter, massacre, butcher, murder, assassinate, execute, hang, electrocute, guillotine, lynch, despatch, decimate, crucify>. _Sentences_: With the jawbone of an ass Samson ____ a thousand of his enemies. It was his duty as sheriff to ____ the criminal, and the method decreed by the state was that he should ____ him. Previously the method of carrying out a sentence of death had been to ____ the criminal. On our left wing we lost one man in ten: thus our lines were literally ____ On our right wing, where we advanced to the attack in the open, our men were simply ____. After the garrison had laid down its arms the Indians ____ men, women, and children. "I would not ____ thy soul." During the French Revolution many of the nobility were ____. In the country late fall is the time to ____ hogs. Thinking that his accomplice was no longer of use, he quietly ____ him. The anarchist who had ____ the governor was taken by a mob and ____. <Sleep, slumber, repose, nap, doze, drowze, lethargy, dormancy, coma, trance, siesta>. _Sentences_: Since he had not exerted himself beforehand, his state was one of ____ rather than one of ____. The sultry heat of the day put him into a ____. "Not poppy, nor mandragora, Nor all the ____ syrops of the world, Shall ever medicine thee to that sweet ____ Which thou ow[n]edst yesterday." Light and pleasant be thy ____. "And still she slept an azure-lidded ____." From the ____ induced by his injury the physicians were unable to arouse him. "Oh ____! it is a gentle thing, Beloved from pole to pole!" "The poppied warmth of ____ oppress'd Her soothéd limbs, and soul fatigued away." In Spanish-speaking South American countries every one expects to take his ____. He lay down under the tree for a short ____ and had just fallen into a preliminary ____ when the picnic party arrived. "Macbeth does murder ____, the innocent ____, ____ that knits up the ravel'd sleave of care." <Abolish, repeal, rescind, revoke, abrogate, annul, nullify, cancel, reverse>. _Sentences_: A declaration of war would of course ____ the treaty. The legislature has the right to ____ old laws as well as to enact new ones. Because they left his grounds littered with paper, he ____ their privilege of holding picnics there. The king ____ the decree that the conspirators should be exiled. Slavery was ____ by the Emancipation Proclamation. The emperor ____ many of the ancient rights of the people. They ____ the mortgage when he paid the money. The violation of these provisions has ____ the contract. It was an ill day for France when the Edict of Nantes was ____ by Louis XIV. The Supreme Court ____ the decision of the lower tribunal. The Mormons have officially ____ polygamy. The codicil ____ some of the earlier provisions in his will. <Acquit, exculpate, exonerate, absolve>. _Sentences_: He ____ himself from all blame. The king ____ them from their allegiance. The teacher ____ the student who had been suspected of theft. The father confessor ____ the penitent. The jury ____ the man on the first ballot. <Afraid, fearful, frightened, alarmed, scared, aghast, terrified, timid, timorous.> (This group may be compared with the _Fear group_, below.) _Sentences_: One child was too ____ to speak to the strangers; the other too ____ to do anything but squall. "If Caesar hide himself, shall they not whisper 'Lo, Caesar is ____'?" Any one might have been ____ by this noise in a room said to be haunted; and for my part, I stood ____. <Allay, alleviate, mitigate, assuage, mollify, relieve.> _Sentences_: The judge ____ the severity of the punishment. They collected funds to ____ the sufferings of the poor. He could not ____ the wrath of the angry man. Shall we try to ____ their fears by telling them the accident may have been less calamitous than they have heard? A mustard plaster ____ the pain. The grief of the mother was ____ by the presence of her child. This experience had by no means ____ his temper. <Allow, permit, suffer, tolerate.> _Sentences_: Visitors are not ____ to see the king. The over-running of my yard by the neighbors' chickens is a nuisance I shall not ____. "____ little children to come unto me." The use of bicycles and velocipedes on the pavement, though not ____ by the city, is good-naturedly ____ by most of the citizens. She ____ her children to play in the street. <Ascribe, attribute, impute.> _Sentences_: I ____ my failure to poor judgment. He ____ sinister motives for their actions. So many ideal characteristics have been ____ to Washington that it is difficult to think of him as a man. <Awkward, clumsy, ungainly, gawky, lanky.> _Sentences_: An elephant is ____ in its movements. Some ____ countrymen hung around the circus entrance. He was tall and ____; he seemed to be a mere prop on which clothes were hung. Isn't that man ____ in his carriage? The fingers of the ball-players might as well have been thumbs, so ____ were they from the cold. Girls throw a ball in a[n] ____ manner. <Bite, nibble, gnaw, chew, masticate, champ>. _Sentences_: Fletcher taught people to ____ their food well. The mouse ____ the cheese, but the trap did not spring. A horse ____ his bits. When I ____ into the apple, I found that it was sour. The rat ____ a hole through the board. <Break, crack, fracture, sever, rend, burst, smash, shatter, shiver, splinter, sunder, rive, crush, batter, demolish, rupture>. (After discriminating these terms for yourself, see the treatment of _break, fracture_ under <Break, fracture> above under Parallels.) _Sentences_: "____ my timbers!" the old salt exclaimed. The anaconda is an immense serpent that wraps itself about its victim and ____ it. The child blew the soap bubble wider and wider till it ____. "You may ____, you may ____ the vase if you will." Looking closely at the eggs, she perceived that one of them was ____. With a board the thoughtless child ____ the anthill. During a violent fit of coughing he ____ a blood vessel. The thick cloud was ____ and the sunshine streamed through. <Careful, cautious, wary, circumspect, canny>. _Sentences_: A mouse must be ____ lest it be caught in a trap. He had learned to be ____ in advancing his radical opinions. The man was a Scot and therefore ____. With a ____ movement I opened the door to investigate the strange noise. He was ____ in checking up the accounts. Be extremely ____ in your behavior, for they are watching to criticize you. <Condescend, deign, vouchsafe>. _Sentences_: The king ____ them safe conduct through the country. He would not ____ to touch the money that had been gained dishonestly. His ____ manner irritated them. The master ____ to hear the complaints of the servants. <Confirm, corroborate, substantiate, verify_. _Sentences_: He ____ the charge with positive proof. The finding of Desdemona's handkerchief ____ Othello's belief that she was guilty. The other witnesses ____ his testimony. The doctor ____ the appointment his assistant had made for him. He ____ his results by repeating the experiment a number of times. <Courage, bravery, resolution, dauntlessness, gallantry, boldness, intrepidity, daring, valor, prowess, fortitude, heroism>. (With this group contrast the _Fear_ group, below.) _Sentences_: It seemed they must be driven from their works but they held to them with the utmost ____. He had the ____ to fight an aggressive battle, but not the ____ to stand for long days upon the defensive; less still did he have the ____ to disregard unjust criticism. The silent ____ of the women who bide at home surpasses the ____ the warriors who engage in battle. He had the dashing ____ of a cavalry officer. <Cruel, brutal, ferocious, fierce, savage, barbarous, truculent, merciless, unmerciful, pitiless, ruthless, fell>. (With this group contrast the _Kind_ group, below.) _Sentences_: "But with the whiff and wind of his ____ sword The unnerved father falls." "Poor naked wretches, wheresoe'er you are, That bide the pelting of this ____ storm." The ____ fellow could cause suffering to a child without the least tinge of remorse. Such conduct is unheard of in civilized communities; it is ____, it is ____. "I must be ____ only to be kind." <Cry, weep, sob, snivel, whimper, blubber, bawl, squall, howl, wail>. _Sentences_: "____ no more, woeful shepherds; ____ no more." The woman covered her face with her hands and ____, while the children ____. He ____ a forced regret at the death of his uncle, and asked that the will be read, "Rachel ____ for her children." "Rejoice with them that do rejoice, and ____ with them that ____." "I could lie down like a tired child And ____ away this life of care Which I have borne and yet must bear." "An infant ____ in the night." "What's Hecuba to him or he to Hecuba That he should ____ for her?" I was disgusted at the sight of that overgrown boy standing in the corner ____. "You think I'll ____; No, I'll not ____: I have full cause of ____, but this heart Shall break into a hundred thousand flaws Or ere I'll ____." <Cut, cleave, hack, haggle, notch, slash, gash, split, chop, hew, lop, prune, reap, mow, clip, shear, trim, dock, crop, shave, whittle, slice, slit, score, lance, carve, bisect, dissect, amputate, detruncate, syncopate.> _Sentences_: "I'll ____ around your heart with my razor, And shoot you with my shotgun too." "O Hamlet! thou hast ____ my heart in twain." By the pressure of his hands he could ____ an apple. With his new hatchet George began ____ at the cherry tree. He carelessly ____ off a branch or two. The horses were ____ the rank grass. An old form of punishment was to ____ the nose of the offender. The nobleman ordered the groom to ____ the tails of the carriage horses. You should ____ your meadows in the summer and ____ your grapevines in the late fall or early winter. "Do you," asked the barber, "wish your hair ____ or ____?" ____ to the line. It is painful to see Dodwell trying to ____ a turkey. In geometry we learned to ____ angles, in biology to ____ cats. The bad man in the West ____ his gunstock each time he shot a tenderfoot. Betty, will you ____ this cucumber? "'Mark's way,' said Mark, and ____ him thro' the brain." <Deadly, mortal, fatal, lethal>. _Sentences_: He has a ____ disease. The spirit of Virgil guided Dante through the ____ shades. Cyanide of potassium is a ____ poison. He struck a ____ blow. <Defeat, subdue, conquer, overcome, vanquish, subjugate, suppress>. _Sentences_: Napoleon ____ his enemies in many battles, but he was not able to ____ them. The new governor general ____ the uprising. He was ____ in the election. Caesar ____ many countries and made them swear allegiance to Rome. "Who ____ by force Hath ____ but half his foe." The militia ____ the rioters. <Deny, contravene, controvert, refute, confute>. _Sentences_: He produced evidence to ____ the charge. They could not ____ the facts we presented. It is difficult to ____ those who are spreading these rumors, yet all right-minded people think the rumors false. "I put thee now to thy book-oath; ____ it if thou canst." Either admit or ____ the truth of this allegation. Such a law ____ the first principles of justice. <Destroy, demolish, raze, annihilate, exterminate, eradicate, extirpate, obliterate.> _Sentences_: All the ferocious wild animals are gradually being ____. As weeds from a field, so is it difficult to ____ all the faults from man's nature. But how shall we ____ the cause of this disease? Fire ____ the bank. The wrecking crew ____ the building. She tried to ____ the terrible scene from her memory. "____ all that's made To a green thought in a green shade." The cyclone ____ the church. The Spanish Inquisition tried to ____ heresy. "____ out the written troubles of the brain." The army was not only defeated; it was ____. "A bold peasantry, their country's pride, When once ____, can never be supplied." <Die, expire, perish, decease, succumb.> _Sentences_: All men are mortal and must ____. "As wax melteth before the fire, so let the wicked ____ at the presence of God." "I still had hopes, my long vexations past, Here to return, and ____ at home at last." The late ____ Mr. Brown left all his property to his family. "Cowards ____ many times before their deaths." "The poor beetle, that we tread upon, In corporal sufferance finds a pang as great As when a giant giant ____." "Government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not ____ from the earth." "Thus on Maeander's flowery margin lies Th' ____ swan, and as he sings he dies." Over a thousand people ____ in the fire at the theater. "To ____, to sleep; to sleep: perchance to dream." He ____ to a lingering disease. "Aye, but to ____, and go we know not where; To lie in cold obstruction and to rot." "Wind my thread of life up higher, Up, through angels' hands of fire! I aspire while I ____." <Dip, douse, duck, plunge, immerge, immerse, submerge, sink, dive.> _Sentences_: He ____ his head under the hydrant. The Baptists ____ at baptism. She ____ the cloth into the dye. The sophomores ____ the freshmen into the icy water of the lake. Paul Jones could not ____ the enemy's ship; he therefore resolved to board it. The wreck lay ____ in forty fathoms of water. Uncle Tom ____ overboard to rescue the child. When the gun is discharged, the loon does not rise from the water; it ____. Lewis became badly strangled when the other boys ____ him. <Disease, sickness, illness, indisposition, ailment, affection, complaint, disorder, distemper, infirmity, malady.> (With this group contrast the _healthful_ group.) _Sentences_: He was suffering the ____ of age. Cancer is still in many instances an incurable ____ The ____ of the lady ended as soon as the maid told her the callers had gone away. It was an old ____ of the tonsils, but this time the child's ____ was slight. "To help me through this long ____, my life." <Disloyal, false, unfaithful, faithless, traitorous, treasonable, treacherous, perfidious.> _Sentences_: The king discovered many ____ schemes among those who pretended to be his loyal supporters. England's enemies have long called her "____ Albion." They were afraid the Indian guide would betray them by some ____ action. "O you beast! O ____ coward! O dishonest wretch!" He was ____ to his adopted country. "Bloody, bawdy villain! Remorseless, ____, lecherous, kindless villain! O! vengeance!" <Do, perform, execute, accomplish, achieve, effect.> _Sentences_: An officer ____ the orders with despatch. He ____ a mighty name for himself. "If it were ____ when 'tis ____ then 'twere well It were ____ quickly." Constant efforts will ____ miracles. The student ____ the problems quickly. The doctor hopes his new treatment will ____ a cure. "God moves in a mysterious way His wonders to ____." He persevered till he ____ his purpose. He always ____ more than was expected of him. <Dress, clothes, clothing, garments, apparel, raiment, habiliments, vestments, attire, garb, habit, costume, uniform.> _Sentences_: The spy concealed his identity by wearing the ____ of a monk. The soldiers wore blue ____. She was an excellent horsewoman, and rode in a fashionable ____. "No man putteth a piece of new cloth unto an old ____." Millions of men left farms and factories and shops to don the ____ of war. The invitation specified that the men should wear evening ____. The store specialized in women's wearing ____. A person should wear warm ____ in winter. The king appeared in his royal ____. He always wore expensive ____. The bishop entered in his clerical ____. "The ____ oft proclaims the man." The theatrical ____ was full of spangles. One's ____ should never be conspicuous. <Drink, imbibe, sip, sup, swallow, quaff, tipple, tope, guzzle, swig.> _Sentences_: "She who, as they voyaged, ____ With Tristram that spiced magic draught." Plants ____ moisture through their roots. "A little learning is a dang'rous thing; ____ deep, or taste not the Pierian spring." He ____ down the liquor in a couple of huge draughts. On the fan was a picture of Japanese maidens daintily ____ tea. "____ to me only with thine eyes." His red nose betrayed the fact that he constantly ____. <Elicit, extract, exact, extort.> _Sentences_: They ____ payment to the last cent. The police ____ a confession from the prisoner by intimidating him. This terrible suffering ____ our sympathy. His resolve to begin again after his failure ____ their admiration. "But lend it rather to thine enemy; Who if he break, thou mayst with better face ____ the penalty." They ____ all the information they could by questioning the child. <Embarrass, disconcert, discompose, discomfit, confuse, confound, agitate, abash, mortify, chagrin, humiliate.> _Sentences_: The annoying little raids ____ the enemy. Such conclusive proof of his lies completely ____ him. His sudden proposal ____ her. He stood ____ in the presence of the king. The traveler was ____ by the many turns in the road. She was ____ by the delay in having dinner ready. She was ____ by her husband's ill manners. The possibility that her daughter might have been in the accident ____ her. I was ____ at being so cleverly outwitted. <Excuse, pardon, forgive, condone.> _Sentences_: We should ____ even those who do us wrong. "Father, ____ them; for they know not what they do." I trust you will ____ my being late. Ignorance ____ no one before the law. The governor ____ the convict. He thought it better to ____ the offense than to try to punish it. <Explain, expound, interpret, elucidate.> _Sentences_: The minister ____ the doctrine of predestination. The tribesman ____ his chief's words for us. He ____ his meaning by giving clear examples. Joseph was called upon to ____ Pharaoh's dream. Can you ____ the reason for your absence? Various scholars have ____ the passage differently. <Fat, fleshy, stout, plump, buxom, corpulent, obese, portly, pursy, burly, pudgy, chubby.> _Sentences_: "There live not three good men unhanged in England, and one of them is ____ and grows old." A[n] ____ rosy-faced child walking beside a girl just pleasantly ____ came past the garden. The ____ lady was talking with a[n] ____, ill-conditioned man. "So ____, blithe, and debonair." "He's ____ and scant of breath." The ruffian was a[n] ____ fellow. They were ____ in varying degrees: one was ____, one ____, and one downright ____. <Fear, dread, fright, apprehension, affright, alarm, dismay, timidity, consternation, panic, terror, horror, misgiving, anxiety, scare, tremor, trepidation.> (With this group compare the _Afraid_ group, above, and contrast the _Courage_ group, also above.) _Sentences_: "Like one, that on a lonesome road Doth walk in ____ and ____." "His scepter shows the force of temporal power, The attribute to awe and majesty, Wherein doth sit the ____ and ____ of kings." ____ changed to ____ when we perceived the corpse. Washington felt some ____ as to the loyalty of Charles Lee, but was amazed to find his force retreating in ____, indeed almost in a[n] ____. <Feminine, female, womanly, womanlike, womanish, effeminate, ladylike.> _Sentences_: She possessed every ____ charm. He gave a[n] ____ start of curiosity. The pistil is considered the ____ organ of a flower. It was once not thought ____ for a woman to ride astride a horse. He inherited the throne through the ____ line. Patience is one of the greatest of ____ virtues. The hired girl in her finery minced along with a[n] ____ step. Some people consider it ____ to wear a wrist watch. Her ____ heart was touched at the sight. It is ____ to jump at the sight of a mouse. <Fight, combat, struggle, scuffle, fray, affray, attack, engagement, assault, onslaught, brawl, melee, tournament, battle, conflict, strife, clash, collision, contest, skirmish, encounter, brush, bout, set-to.> _Sentences_: "A darkling plain Swept with confused alarms of ____ and flight." The ____ upon Fort Sumter was the direct cause of the Civil War. The ____ between our forces and theirs was brief and trivial; it was only a cavalry ____. There is an excellent account of a knightly ____ in _Ivanhoe_. We repelled their general ____; then ourselves advanced; the ____ of our lines with theirs soon resulted in an inextricable ____. A chance ____ of small forces at Gettysburg brought on a terrible ____. There had long been ____ between the two factions within the party. Angered by what had begun as a playful ____, one of the men challenged the other to ____. <Fleeting, transient, transitory, ephemeral, evanescent.> _Sentences_: It is the lot of every one to endure many sorrows in this ____ life. They saw for a short while a[n] ____ comet. The ____ glories of dawn had merged into the sordid realities of daytime. The remark made but a[n] ____ impression upon him. The ____ moments sped away. "Art is long, and time is ____." Joy is ____. Much of the popular literature of the day is ____ in character. <Frank, candid, open, artless, guileless, ingenuous, unsophisticated, naive.> _Sentences_: It was a[n] ____ excuse. It was a pleasure to meet a person so simple and ____. He was ____ to say that he did not like the arrangement. "Who, mindful of the unhonored dead, Dost in these lines their ____ tale relate." "The Moor is of a free and ____ nature." He gave them his ____ opinion. <Frustrate, foil, thwart, counteract, circumvent, balk, baffle, outwit.> _Sentences_: The schemers were themselves ____. He was ____ by the many contradictory clues. Circumstances ____ all his plans to get rich. The parents ____ the attempt of the couple to elope. The guard ____ the prisoner's attempt to escape. He was ____ at every turn. They put forth a statement to ____ the influence of their opponents' propaganda. By slipping away during the night, Washington ____ the enemy. The politician by his shrewdness ____ the attempt to discredit him. <Glad, happy, cheerful, mirthful, joyful, joyous, blithe, gay, frolicsome, merry, jolly, sportive, jovial, jocular, jocose, jocund.> _Sentences_: "The milkmaid singeth ____." "And all went ____ as a marriage bell." "How beautiful are the feet of them that preach the gospel of peace, and bring ____ tidings of good things." A ____ Lothario. "So buxom, ____, and debonair." As ____ as a fawn. He kept smiling, for he was in ____ mood. "You are sad Because you are not ____; and 'twere as easy For you to laugh and leap, and say you are ____, Because you are not sad." He longed for the ____ life of a ____ English squire. <Habit, custom, usage, practice, wont.> _Sentences_: ____ makes perfect. The immigrants kept up many of the ____ of their native land. "God fulfils himself in many ways, Lest one good ____ should corrupt the world." It was his ____ to walk among the ruins. An old ____ permits a man to kiss a girl who is standing under mistletoe. ____ establishes many peculiar idioms in a language. He acquired the ____ of smoking. "It is a ____ more honor'd in the breach than the observance." De Quincey was a victim of the opium ____. "Age cannot wither her, nor ____ stale Her infinite variety." "'Tis not his ____ to be the hindmost man." <Harass, annoy, irritate, vex, fret, worry, plague, torment, molest, tease, tantalize.> _Sentences_: The merchant ____ about his financial losses. "Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player That struts and ____ his hour upon the stage, And then is heard no more." The children never lost an opportunity to ____ the teacher. The other pupils ____ him because he was the teacher's favorite. The newcomer was ____ by their frequent questions. Don't ____ the child by holding the grapes beyond its reach. "He was met even now As mad as the ____ sea." Ah, but I am ____ by doubts and fears. "The moping owl does to the moon complain Of such as, wand'ring near her secret bower, ____ her ancient, solitary reign." The child ____ because the rain kept it indoors. When the joke was discovered, they almost ____ the life out of him. I was ____ at their discovering my predicament. "You may as well forbid the mountain pines To wag their high tops, and to make no noise When they are ____ with the gusts of heaven." <Hinder, restrain, obstruct, impede, hamper, retard, check, curb, clog, encumber, forestall, suppress, repress, prevent.> _Sentences_: Baggage ____ the progress of an army. It is the purpose of modern medicine to ____ disease. The accumulations of dust and grease ____ the machine. "My tears must stop, for every drop ____ needle and thread." By acknowledging his fault he hoped to ____ criticism. Though before she had been unable to ____ her tears, she could now scarcely ____ a yawn. A fallen tree ____ his further progress. The horse was ____ with a heavy burden, and the unsure footing of the trail further ____ the ascent. His jealous colleagues ____ his plans in every way they could. <Hole, cavity, excavation, pit, cache, cave, cavern, hollow, depression, perforation, puncture, rent, slit, crack, chink, crevice, cranny, breach, cleft, chasm, fissure, gap, opening, interstice, burrow, crater, eyelet, pore, bore, aperture, orifice, vent, concavity, dent, indentation. > _Sentences_: The explorers, having eaten all the provisions they had carried with them, hurried back to their ____. The battering-ram at last made a[n] ____ in the walls. The ____ in the log had been caused by the intense heat. He tore off the check along the line of the ____. The ____ in the earth gradually deepened and narrowed into a[n] ____. Pyramus and Thisbe made love to each other through a[n] ____ in a wall. "Once more unto the ____, dear friends, once more." The ____ in the mountain ranges of Virginia influenced strategy during the Civil War. Several ____ in the toe of one of his shoes apprised me that he had a sore foot. The supposed ____ in the rock turned out to be a[n] ____ that led into a dark but spacious ____. He suffered a[n] ____ of one of his tires near the place where the laborers were making the ____. It was a gun of very large ____. The ____ in the percolator was made by a flatiron aimed at Mr. Wiggins' head. <Idle, inert, lazy, indolent, sluggish, slothful.> _Sentences_: "He also that is ____ in his work is brother to him that is a great waster." "The ____ singer of an empty day." Mighty, ____ forces lie locked up in nature, waiting for man to release them. He was a[n] ____, good-for-nothing fellow whose whole business in life was to keep out of work. "For Satan finds some mischief still For ____ hands to do." He was too ____ to do his work well. "The ____ yawning drone." His steps were so ____ one would almost think he was not moving. "As ____ as a painted ship Upon a painted ocean." "I talk of dreams, Which are the children of an ____ brain, Begot of nothing but vain fantasy." <Ignorant, illiterate, uninformed, uneducated, untutored, unlettered, unenlightened.> _Sentences_: Without public schools most children would be ____; without missionaries many barbarous tribes would remain ____. Andrew Jackson was ____ that peace had been declared when he fought the battle of New Orleans. Even the wisest men are ____ upon some subjects. "Lo, the poor Indian, whose ____ mind Sees God in clouds or hears Him in the wind!" The mountain whites, though often totally ____, are nevertheless a shrewd folk. "Their name, their years, spelt by th' ____ muse, The place of fame and elegy supply." The percentage of ____ persons is constantly decreasing in America. <Incline, tip, lean, cant, slant, slope, tilt, list, careen, dip.> _Sentences_: He ____ the bucket of water over. The vessel ____ to the stern and began to sink. The ship ____ to larboard. He ____ the top of the picture away from the wall. The sprinter ____ forward and touched the tips of his fingers against the ground. The gable ____ sharply. The hill ____ gently. The cowboy had ____ his hat fetchingly. <Journey, voyage, tour, pilgrimage, trip, jaunt, excursion, junket, outing, expedition.> _Sentences_: The people protested the expenditure of money for a Congressional ____ to investigate the Philippine Islands. Each Sunday there is a[n] ____ at half fare between the two cities. He conducted a party on a summer ____ through Europe. Last summer I took a[n] ____ to the Yellowstone National Park. It was a long ____ from Philadelphia to Boston by stage coach. They hurriedly arranged for a[n] ____ to the woods. Magellan was the first man to make a[n] ____ around the globe. The scientific body organized a[n] ____ to explore the polar regions. Thousands of Mohammedans make an annual ____ to Mecca. <Kind, compassionate, merciful, lenient, benignant, benign, clement, benevolent, charitable, gracious, humane, sympathetic.> (With this group compare the _Cruel_ group, above.) _Sentences_: The weather was ____. She was as ____ as a queen. "Thou dost wear The Godhead's most ____ grace." Cowper was too ____ to tread upon a worm needlessly. A judge in sentencing a convicted man may be as ____ as circumstances and the law allow. ____ neutrality. "Blessed are the ____." "She was so ____ and so pitous She wolde wepe if that she sawe a mous Caught in a trappe." "____ hearts are more than coronets." <Love, affection, attachment, fondness, infatuation, devotion, predilection, liking.> _Sentences_: Between the two young people had grown a[n] ____ which now ripened into ____. "The course of true ____ never did run smooth." The mad ____ of Mark Antony for Cleopatra was the cause of his downfall. She had only a[n] ____ for him, but he an unqualified ____ for her. "Man's ____ is of his life a thing apart; 'Tis woman's whole existence." He shows a marked ____ for the companionship of women. My ____ for the tart was enhanced by my ____ for the girl who baked it. That boy shows a[n] ____ for horses, and a positive ____ for dogs. <Margin, edge, limit, border, boundary, bound, bourn, brim, rim, brink, verge, skirt, confine.> _Sentences_: He had reached the ____ of endurance. In writing, leave a wide ____ on the left side of the page. "Borrowing dulls the ____ of husbandry." "The extravagant and erring spirit hies To his ____." Within the ____ of reason. He stood on the ____ of ruin. The rock at the ____ of the cañon is called the ____ rock. I was on the ____ of doing a very indiscreet thing. "The undiscover'd country from whose ____ No traveler returns." Fill your glasses to the ____. <Matrimonial, conjugal, connubial, nuptial, marital.> _Sentences_: "However old a ____ union, it still garners some sweetness." A court of ____ relations. "Contented toil, and hospitable care, And kind ____ tenderness are there." "To the ____ bower I led her, blushing like the morn." She finally decided that he had no ____ intentions. "And hears the unexpressive ____ song In the blest kingdoms meek of joy and love." <Occupation, employment, calling, pursuit, vocation, avocation, profession, business, trade, craft.> _Sentences_: He gave his life to literary ____. My brother found ____ as a tutor in a rich family. Colleges are trying to direct their students into the ____ they are best fitted for. Andrew Johnson was a tailor by ____. Medicine is a very ancient ____. The shoemaker was very skilled at his ____. After losing his hand he could no longer engage in his ____ as telegrapher. The grocer carries on only a wholesale ____. He considered his ____ to the ministry a sacred duty. "Sir, 'tis my ____ to be plain." Do you find collecting coins a pleasant ____? <Pacify, appease, placate, propitiate, conciliate, mollify>. _Sentences_: We ____ our hunger when we reached the inn. In olden times men tried to ____ the offended gods by offering human sacrifices. They ____ the angry man by promising to hear his grievances immediately. The premier thought he could ____ this particular faction by offering its leader a seat in the cabinet. "Chiron ____ his cruel mind With art, and taught his warlike hands to wind The silver strings of his melodious lyre." A friendly word will usually ____ one's enemies. <Part, piece, portion, section, subdivision, fraction, instalment element, component, constituent, ingredient, share, lot, allotment>. _Sentences_: One ____ in his success was his courage. She was studying the ____ of the pie; he the chances of getting another ____. Is it ____ and ____ alike? "I live not in myself, but I become ____ of that around me." "Act well your ____; there all the honor lies." He owned a[n] ____ of land near the city limits; a speculator bought a[n] ____ of this and divided it into city lots. "I am a[n] ____ of all that I have met." The purchaser, having only a[n] ____ of this sum in ready money, offered to pay in ____. <Pay, hire, salary, wages, fee, stipend, honorarium>. _Sentences_: Give the manager his ____, the workmen their ____. "The laborer is worthy of his ____." He received his weekly ____ from the parsimonious old man. The ____ for enrolment is ten dollars. "This is ____ and ____, not revenge." <Polite, civil, obliging, courteous, courtly, urbane, affable, complaisant, gracious>. _Sentences_: He was ____ enough, but not definitely ____. "So ____ that he ne'er ____." Though he had never lived in a city, much less in the circle of royalty, his manners were ____, even ____. Your desire to please is shown in your ____ greeting. "Damn with faint praise, assent with ____ leer, And without sneering teach the rest to sneer." <Quarrel, altercation, disagreement, contention, controversy, breach, rupture, dispute, dissension, bickering, wrangle, broil, squabble, row, rumpus, ruction, spat, tiff, fuss, jar, feud.> _Sentences_: It was only a little ____ between lovers. The ____ between the partners was over the right of the senior to make contracts for the firm; it grew into an angry ____. It was a long-drawn political ____. At the meeting of our committee the chairman and one of the members had a sharp ____ over a point of order. A[n] ____ in some minor matters led to a[n] ____ in their friendship. "Thrice is he armed that hath his ____ just." Those chattering, choleric fellows are always engaged in ____; last night they on meeting had a[n] ____ which brought on a long-drawn ____, and when their friends joined in, there was a noisy ____. I have seen all sorts of ____, from a trivial childish ____ to a grim ____ of mountaineers. <Raise, lift, heave, hoist, erect, rear, elevate, exalt, enhance.> _Sentences_: Let the Lord be ____. "As some tall cliff that ____ its awful form." Because of this success his reputation was ____. The horse ____ when the machine began to ____ the huge block of stone by means of a crane. "I will ____ up mine eyes unto the hills, from whence cometh my help." The load was too heavy for him to carry; in fact he just managed to ____ it into the wagon. <Relinquish, waive, renounce, surrender, forego, resign, abdicate.> _Sentences_: The defense ____ objection to the first of these points. The refugee was willing to ____ his right to resist extradition. The teacher ____ her position at the end of the year. The king ____ when the people rose in revolt. He ____ his command of the army. Do you ____ your claim in this mine? The bankrupt ____ his property to the receiver to help pay his debts. <Renounce, abjure, forswear, recant, retract, repudiate>. _Sentences_: He ____ the statement. Thereupon Henry Esmond ____ his allegiance to the House of Stuart. It is a serious matter for a government to ____ its debts. Did the heretic ____? Do you ____ the devil and all his works? "The wounded gladiator ____ all fighting, but soon forgetting his former wounds resumes his arms." He had broken his solemn oath; he was ____. <Reprove, rebuke, reprimand, admonish, chide, upbraid, reproach, scold, rate, berate>. _Sentences_: "He ____ their wanderings but relieved their pain." "Many a time and oft In the Rialto you have ____ me About my moneys and my usances." They ____ the man who had taken the savings of the poor, and ____ him against such schemes thereafter. The general ____ his subordinate. <Robber, bandit, brigand, ladrone, desperado, buccaneer, freebooter, pirate, corsair, raider, burglar, footpad, highwayman, depredator, spoiler, despoiler, forager, pillager, plunderer, marauder, myrmidon>. (With this group compare the _Steal_ group, below.) _Sentences_: Every boy has his period of wanting to be a ____. _Treasure Island_ is one of the best ____ stories ever written. The ____ lurks in dark passageways and steals upon his victim. The fierce followers of Achilles were called ____. The men sent out by the army as ____ seemed to the people of the countryside more like ____. The fearless ____ had soon gathered about him a band of ____. Robin Hood was no ____ of poor folk. The outcast became a ____ among the mountaineers of northern Italy. Every, boy likes to read of the bold ____ who sailed the Spanish Main. Union plans were often upset by daring Confederate ____, such as Stuart, Morgan, and Forrest. <Run, scamper, scurry, scuttle, scud, scour, pace, gallop, trot, lope, sprint, sweep>. _Sentences_: Swift horsemen ____ the country in search of the fugitive. Wherever they came, the inhabitants ____ for shelter. "The dish ____ away with the spoon." For his horse to ____ made difficult riding, to ____ made comfortable riding, to ____ made exhilarating riding. "He may ____ that readeth it." The old sailing-boat ____ before the wind. "Haste me to know't, that I, with wings as swift As meditation or the thoughts of love, May ____ to my revenge." The rats ____ across the floor. "He who fights and ____ away May live to fight another day." <Say, utter, pronounce, announce, state, declare, affirm, aver, asseverate, allege, assert, avouch, avow, maintain, claim, depose, predicate, swear, suggest, insinuate, testify>. (With this group compare the _Speak_ and _Talk_ groups, below.) _Sentences_: It was something I merely ____ in passing; I would not ____ to it. I could not ____ in court, and therefore had to ____ before a notary. The scientist ____ that a seismograph will infallibly record earthquakes. He solemnly ____ that he would not ____ exemption from the draft. <Shine, beam, gleam, glisten, glister, glitter, glare, flare, flash, sparkle, twinkle, dazzle, glimmer, glow, radiate, scintillate, coruscate>. _Sentences_: The gorgeous parade ____ the boy. "____, ____, little star." He was witty that night; he fairly ____. At this compliment the old lady ____. "Now fades the ____ landscape on the sight." A rocket ____ in the darkness. She ____ her elderly wooer a look of defiance; then her eyes softened and ____ with amusement. "All that ____ is not gold." "How far that little candle throws his beams! So ____ a good deed in a naughty world." The old man ____ into sudden anger. <Slander, defame, asperse, calumniate, traduce, vilify, malign, libel, backbite>. _Sentences_: A newspaper must be careful not to ____ any one. Too many supposedly religious people ____ their fellow believers. I do not ____ your motives. He ____ the character of everybody who chances to possess one. <Smell, odor, savor, scent, fragrance, aroma, perfume, redolence, tang, stench>. _Sentences_: The ____ of the flowers in the vase mingled with the ____ of boiling cabbage in the kitchen. The ____ of spring is on the meadows. So keen was the hound's sense of ____ that he quickly picked up the ____ again. Any smoker likes the ____ of a good cigar. The ____ of the handkerchief was delicate. Though it was a disagreeable ____, I should hardly call it a[n] ____. The ____ of spices told him that his mother was baking his favorite cake, and he also detected the ____ of coffee. The ____ of the ocean was in the air. He sniffed the ____ of frying bacon. <Song, ballad, ditty, lullaby, hymn, anthem, dirge, chant, paean, lay, carol, lilt>. _Sentences_: "They learn in suffering what they teach in ____." The mother crooned a[n] ____ to her babe. The Highland girl sang a moving old ____. The worshipers sang a[n] ____ of praise. Charles Wesley wrote many ____. As I approached the cathedral, I could hear the ____ of larks outside and the ____ of the choir within. "Our sweetest ____ are those that tell of saddest thought." "A[n] ____ for her the doubly dead in that she died so young." <Speak, discourse, expatiate, descant, comment, argue, persuade, plead, lecture, preach, harangue, rant, roar, spout, thunder, declaim, harp>. (With this group compare the _Say_ group, above, and the _Talk_ group, below.) _Sentences_: "His virtues Will ____ like angels trumpet-tongu'd against The deep damnation of his taking-off." "Here, under leave of Brutus and the rest, ... Come I to ____ in Caesar's funeral." "Ay me! what act, That ____ so loud and ____ in the index?" "Hadst thou thy wits and didst ____ revenge, It could not move thus." "Thou canst not ____ of that thou dost not feel." "Nay, if thou'lt mouth, I'll ____ as well as thou." While the politician ____ in the senate chamber upon theoretical ills, the agitator outside ____ the mob about actual ones. "For murder, though it have no tongue, will ____ With most miraculous organ." <Spend, expend, disburse, squander, waste, lavish>. _Sentences_: Large sums were ____ in rebuilding the devastated regions of France. ____ your money, but do not ____ it. One should not ____ more than one earns. The king ____ great sums upon his favorites. The political boss ____ the money among his henchmen. "The younger son ... ____ his substance with riotous living." <Spot, blotch, speckle, fleck, dapple, smear, smutch, brand, defacement, blemish, stain, discoloration, speck, mark, smudge, flaw, defect, blot>. _Sentences_: A ____ in the crystal. The ____ of Cain. A life free from ____. "Thou turn'st mine eyes into my very soul; And there I see such black and grained ____ As will not leave their tinct." From the standpoint of theatrical effectiveness _A ____ in the 'Scutcheon_ is one of the best of Browning's plays. An eruption of the skin made a yellow ____ on his right hand. Dragging my sleeve across the fresh ink had made a ____ upon the page. The ____ of foam by the roadside proved that his horse had been going fast. The ____ at the end of his fingers told me he was a cigarette-smoker. On the left foreleg of the horse was a slight ____. <Stay, tarry, linger, stop, sojourn, remain, abide, live, reside, dwell, lodge.> _Sentences_: The Israelites ____ in Egypt. He ____ to chat with us, but could not ____ overnight. I ____ in a wretched tavern. "I can ____, I can ____ but a night." "I did love the Moor to ____ with him." "He that shall come will come, and will not ____." "I will ____ in the house of the Lord forever." "If ye ____ in me, and my words ____ in you, ye shall ask what ye will, and it shall be done unto you." "I would rather be a doorkeeper in the house of my God, than to ____ in the tents of wickedness." The guests ____ in the cheerful drawing-room. <Steal, abstract, pilfer, filch, purloin, peculate, swindle, plagiarize, poach>. (With this group, which excludes the idea of violence, compare the _Robber_ group, above.) _Sentences_: I am afraid that our son ____ the purse from the gentleman. No one knows how long the cashier has been ____ the funds of the bank. To take our money on such unsound security is to ____ us. He slyly ____ a handkerchief or two. This paragraph is clearly ____. "Thou shalt not ____." Many government employees seem to think that to ____ is their privilege and prerogative. The crown jewels have been ____. She ____ a number of petty articles. A well-known detective story by Poe is called _The ____ Letter._ "Who ____ my purse ____ trash.... But he that ____ from me my good name Robs me of that which not enriches him, And makes me poor indeed." "A cut-purse of the empire and the rule, That from a shelf the precious diadem ____, And put it in his pocket!" <Strike, hit, smite, thump, beat, cuff, buffet, knock, whack, belabor, pommel, pound, cudgel, slap, rap, tap, box.> _Sentences_: ____ him into the middle of next week. He ____ and ____ the poor beast unmercifully. "As of some one gently ____, ____ at my chamber door." "Unto him that ____ thee on the one cheek offer also the other." "Bid them come forth and hear me, Or at their chamber door I'll ____ the drum Till it cry sleep to death." "One whom I will ____ into clamorous whining." "____ for your altars and your fires!" By means of heavy stones the squaws ____ the corn into meal. <Sullen, surly, sulky, crabbed, cross, gruff, grum, glum, morose, dour, crusty, cynical, misanthropic, saturnine, splenetic.> _Sentences_: "Between us and our hame [home], Where sits our ____, ____ dame, Gathering her brows like gathering storm, Nursing her wrath to keep it warm." A ____ old bachelor. A ____ Scotchman. He hated all men; he was truly ____. He sat ____ and silent all day; by nightfall he was truly ____. <Talk, chat, chatter, prate, prattle, babble, gabble, jabber, tattle, twaddle, blab, gossip, palaver, parley, converse, mumble, mutter, stammer, stutter.> (With this group compare the _Say_ and _Speak_ groups, above.) _Sentences_: It was a queer assembly, and from it arose a queer medley of sounds: the baby was ____, the old crone ____, the gossip ____, the embarrassed young man ____, the child ____ the tale-bearer ____, the hostess ____ with the most distinguished guest, and the trickster ____ with his intended victim. "Blest with each talent and each art to please, And born to write, ____, and live with ease." "I wonder that you will still be ____, Signor Benedick; nobody marks you." <Tear, rend, rip, lacerate, mangle.> _Sentences_: The explosion of the shell ____ his flesh. The tailor ____ the garment along the seam. I'll ____ this paper into bits. Those savages would ____ you limb from limb. She ____ her dress on a nail. The cogs caught his hand and ____ it. How could such reproaches fail to ____ my feelings? <Throw, pitch, hurl, dash, fling, cast, toss, flip, chuck, sling, heave, launch, dart, propel, project.> _Sentences_: Suddenly he ____ the glittering coins away. Goliath learned to his cost that David could ____ a stone. The explosion of the gunpowder ____ the bullet from the gun. "____ down your cups of Samian wine!" The children amused themselves by ____ the ball back and forth. He ____ himself dejectedly into a seat. The thief ____ a glance beside him. The mischievous boy ____ a stone through the window. They ____ some of the cargo overboard to lighten the boat. The eager fisherman ____ the fly for the trout. The untidy fellow ____ the towel in a corner. <Whip, chastise, castigate, flagellate, scourge, lash, trounce, thrash, flog, maul, drub, switch, spank, bastinado.> (This group limits the field of the _Punish_ group in Exercise A, and extends the list of synonyms.) _Sentences_: The drunken driver ____ the excited horses. The zealot was accustomed to ____ himself. The ruler bade that the Christians be ____. The teacher ____ the small children gently, but he unsparingly ____ the big ones. "My father hath ____ you with whips, but I will ____ you with scorpions." The bully was always ____ men smaller than himself till one of them turned on him and ____ him thoroughly. <Wicked, sinful, felonious, illegal, immoral, heinous, flagitious, iniquitous, criminal, vicious, vile.> _Sentences_: "I am fled From this ____ world, with ____ worms to dwell." A[n] ____ assault. "The ____ prize itself Buys out the law." It was, though not a[n] ____ act, a most ____ one. "There the ____ cease from troubling; and there the weary be at rest." <Young, youthful, boyish, girlish, juvenile, puerile, immature, callow, adolescent.> _Sentences_: The plan had all the faults of ____ judgment. Many great authors have written books of ____ fiction. The bird, which was still ____, was of course unable to fly. "Such sights as ____ poets dream On summer eves by haunted stream." He was in that ____ stage of development when one is neither a boy nor a man. "I was so ____, I loved him so, I had No mother, God forgot me, and I fell." He made a[n] ____ attempt to impress them with his importance. "Bacchus ever fair, and ever ____." A red necktie gave him a more ____ appearance. The self-satisfied air of a[n] ____ youth is often trying to his elders. EXERCISE D In this exercise each group of synonyms is followed by quotations from authoritative writers in which the words are discriminatingly employed. Find the meaning of each italicized word in these quotations, and differentiate the word accurately from the others in that group. Substitute for it other words from the group, and observe precisely how the meaning is affected. (So many of the quotations are from poetry that these will be printed as verse rather than, as in the preceding exercises, in continuous lines like prose.) <Affront, insult, indignity.> A moral, sensible, and well-bred man Will not _affront_ me,--and no other can. An old _affront_ will stir the heart Through years of rankling pain. The way to procure _insults_ is to submit to them. A man meets with no more respect than he exacts. It is often better not to see an _insult_ than to avenge it. Even a hare, the weakest of animals, may _insult_ a dead lion. To a native of rank, arrest was not merely a restraint, but a foul personal _indignity_. <Dishonor, disgrace, ignominy, infamy, obloquy, opprobrium>. His honor rooted in _dishonor_ stood, And faith unfaithful kept him falsely true. It is hard to say which of the two we ought most to lament,--the unhappy man who sinks under the sense of his _dishonor_, or him who survives it. Could he with reason murmur at his case Himself sole author of his own _disgrace_? Whatever _disgrace_ we may have deserved, it is almost always in our power to re-establish our character. When in _disgrace_ with fortune and men's eyes I all alone beweep my outcast state. Their generals have been received with honor after their defeat; yours with _ignominy_ after conquest. Wilful perpetuations of unworthy actions brand with most indelible characters of _infamy_ the name and memory to posterity. And when his long public life, so singularly chequered with good and evil, with glory and _obloquy_, had at length closed forever, it was to Daylesford that he retired to die. Great _opprobrium_ has been thrown on her name. <Fame, honor, renown, glory, distinction, reputation, repute, celebrity, eminence, notoriety>. Let _fame_, that all hunt after in their lives, Live register'd upon our brazen tombs. Men have a solicitude about _fame_; and the greater share they have of it, the more afraid they are of losing it. _Fame_ is no plant that grows on mortal soil, . . . . . . . . But lives and spreads aloft by those pure eyes And perfect witness of all-judging Jove; As he pronounces lastly on each deed, Of so much _fame_ in heaven expect thy meed. When faith is lost, when _honor_ dies, The man is dead. Act well your part; there all the _honor_ lies. The Athenians erected a large statue of Aesop, and placed him, though a slave, on a lasting pedestal, to show that the way to _honor_ lies open indifferently to all. I could not love thee, dear, so much, Loved I not _honor_ more. That nation is worthless which does not joyfully stake everything on her _honor_. By heaven methinks it were an easy leap To pluck bright _honor_ from the pale-fac'd moon. That merit which gives greatness and _renown_ diffuses its influence to a wide compass, but acts weakly on every single breast. Speak no more of his _renown_, Lay your earthly fancies down, And in the vast cathedral leave him, God accept him, Christ receive him. The young warrior did not fly; but met death as he went forward in his strength. Happy are they who dies in youth, when their _renown_ is heard! The paths of _glory_ lead but to the grave. _Glory_ long has made the sages smile; 'tis something, nothing, words, illusion, wind. Not once or twice in our rough island-story The path of duty was the way to _glory_. He was a charming fellow, clever, urbane, free-handed, with all that fortunate quality in his appearance which is known as _distinction._ Never get a _reputation_ for a small perfection if you are trying for _fame_ in a loftier area. One may be better than his _reputation_ or his conduct, but never better than his principles. I see my _reputation_ is at stake My _fame_ is shrewdly gor'd. CASSIO. _Reputation, reputation, reputation!_ O! I have lost my reputation. I have lost the immortal part of myself, and what remains is bestial. My reputation, Iago, my reputation! IAGO. As I am an honest man, I thought you had received some bodily wound. You have a good _repute_ for gentleness and wisdom. _Celebrity_ sells dearly what we think she gives. Kings climb to _eminence_ Over men's graves. _Notoriety_ is short-lived; _fame_ is lasting. <Hatred, hate, animosity, ill-will, enmity, hostility, bitterness, malice, malevolence, malignity, rancor, resentment, dudgeon, grudge, spite>. The _hatred_ we bear our enemies injures their happiness less than our own. _Hate_ is like fire; it makes even light rubbish deadly. He generously forgot all feeling of _animosity_, and determined to go in person to his succor. That thereby he may gather The ground of your _ill-will_, and so remove it. No place is so propitious to the formation either of close friendships or of deadly _enmities_ as an Indiaman. There need be no _hostility_ between evolutionist and theologian. Shall we be thus afflicted in his wreaks, His fits, his frenzy, and his _bitterness?_ Speak of me as I am; nothing extenuate, Nor set down aught in _malice_. Every obstacle which partisan _malevolence_ could create he has had to encounter. His flight is occasioned rather by the _malignity_ of his countrymen than by the enmity of the Egyptians. Where the soul sours, and gradual _rancor_ grows, Imbitter'd more from peevish day to day. Peace in their mouthes, and all _rancor_ and vengeance in their hartes [hearts]. For them the gracious Duncan have I murder'd; Put _rancors_ in the vessel of my peace Only for them. Her _resentment_ against the king seems not to have abated. Mrs. W. was in high _dudgeon_; her heels clattered on the red-tiled floor, and she whisked about the house like a parched pea upon a drum-head. If I can catch him once upon the hip, I will feed fat the ancient _grudge_ I bear him. Men of this character pursue a _grudge_ unceasingly, and never forget or forgive. And since you ne'er provoked their _spite_, Depend upon't their judgment's right. <Marriage, matrimony, wedlock>. (With this group compare the _matrimonial_ group in Exercise C, above.) _Marriages_ are made in heaven. Hasty _marriage_ seldom proveth well. A man finds himself seven years older the day after his _marriage_. Let me not to the _marriage_ of true minds Admit impediments. _Marriage_ is the best state for man in general; and every man is a worse man in proportion as he is unfit for the married state. _Matrimony_--the high sea for which no compass has yet been invented. _Wedlock's_ a lane where there is no turning. What is _wedlock_ forced, but a hell, An age of discord and continual strife? <Mercy, clemency, lenity, leniency, lenience, forbearance>. Teach me to feel another's woe, To hide the fault I see; That _mercy_ I to others show, That _mercy_ show to me. The quality of _mercy_ is not strain'd, It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven Upon the place beneath: it is twice bless'd; It blesseth him that gives and him that takes; * * * * * And earthly power doth then show likest God's When _mercy_ seasons justice. _Clemency_ is the surest proof of a true monarch. _Lenity_ will operate with greater force, in some instances, than vigor. All the fellows tried to persuade the Master to greater _leniency_, but in vain. It will be necessary that this acceptance should be followed up by measures of the utmost _lenience_. There is however a limit at which _forbearance_ ceases to be a virtue. <Pity, sympathy, compassion, commiseration, condolence>. Careless their merits or their faults to scan, His _pity_ gave ere charity began. For _pity_ melts the mind to love. For _pitee_ renneth [runneth] soon in gentle herte [heart]. Our _sympathy_ is cold to the relation of distant misery. Man may dismiss _compassion_ from his heart, but God will never. It is unworthy a religious man to view an irreligious one either with alarm or aversion; or with any other feeling than regret, and hope, and brotherly _commiseration_. Their congratulations and their _condolences_ are equally words of course. <Poverty, want, need, destitution, indigence, penury>. Is there for honest _poverty_ That hings [hangs] his head, and a' that? Not to be able to bear _poverty_ is a shameful thing, but not to know how to chase it away by work is a more shameful thing yet. Stitch! stitch! stitch! In _poverty_, hunger, and dirt, And still with a voice of dolorous pitch, Would that its tone could reach the Rich, She sang this "Song of the Shirt!" _Poverty_ is dishonorable, not in itself, but when it is a proof of laziness, intemperance, luxury, and carelessness; whereas in a person that is temperate, industrious, just and valiant, and who uses all his virtues for the public good, it shows a great and lofty mind. _Want_ is a bitter and hateful good, Because its virtues are not understood; Yet many things, impossible to thought, Have been by _need_ to full perfection brought. Hundreds would never have known _want_ if they had not first known waste. O! reason not the _need_; our basest beggars Are in the poorest thing superfluous: Allow not nature more than nature needs, Man's life is cheap as beast's. The Christian inhabitants of Thessaly would be reduced to _destitution_. It is the care of a very great part of mankind to conceal their _indigence_ from the rest. Chill _penury_ repress'd their noble rage, And froze the genial current of the soul. Chill _penury_ weighs down the heart itself; and though it sometimes be endured with calmness, it is but the calmness of despair. Where _penury_ is felt the thought is chain'd, And sweet colloquial pleasures are but few. <Regret, compunction, remorse, contrition, penitence, repentance>. _Regrets_ over the past should chasten the future. He acknowledged his disloyalty to the king with expressions of great _compunction_. Through no disturbance of my soul, Or strong _compunction_ in me wrought, I supplicate for thy control. God speaks to our hearts through the voice of _remorse_. To err is human; but _contrition_ felt for the crime distinguishes the virtuous from the wicked. Christian _penitence_ is something more than a thought or an emotion or a tear; it is action. _Repentance_ must be something more than mere _remorse_ for sins; it comprehends a change of nature befitting heaven. <Stubborn, obstinate, pertinacious, intractable, refractory, contumacious>. For fools are _stubborn_ in their way, As coins are harden'd by th' allay; And _obstinacy's_ ne'er so stiff As when 'tis in a wrong belief. They may also laugh at their _pertinacious_ and incurable obstinacy. He who is _intractable_, he whom nothing can persuade, may boast himself invincible. There is a law in each well-order'd nation To curb those raging appetites that are Most disobedient and _refractory_. He then dissolved Parliament, and sent its most _refractory_ members to the Tower. If he were _contumacious_, he might be excommunicated, or, in other words, be deprived of all civil rights and imprisoned for life. EXERCISE E The following list of synonyms is given for the convenience of those who wish additional material with which to work. This is a selected list and makes no pretense to completeness. It is suggested that you discriminate the words within each of the following groups, and use each word accurately in a sentence of your own making. Abettor, accessory, accomplice, confederate, conspirator. Acknowledge, admit, confess, own, avow. Active, agile, nimble, brisk, sprightly, spry, bustling. Advise, counsel, admonish, caution, warn. Affecting, moving, touching, pathetic. Agnostic, skeptic, infidel, unbeliever, disbeliever. Amuse, entertain, divert. Announce, proclaim, promulgate, report, advertise, publish, bruit, blazon, trumpet, herald. Antipathy, aversion, repugnance, disgust, loathing. Artifice, ruse, trick, dodge, manoeuver, wile, stratagem, subterfuge, finesse. Ascend, mount, climb, scale. Associate, colleague, partner, helper, collaborator, coadjutor, companion, helpmate, mate, team-mate, comrade, chum, crony, consort, accomplice, confederate. Attach, affix, annex, append, subjoin. Attack, assail, assault, invade, beset, besiege, bombard, cannonade, storm. Begin, commence, inaugurate, initiate, institute, originate, start, found. Belief, faith, persuasion, conviction, tenet, creed. Belittle, decry, depreciate, disparage. Bind, secure, fetter, shackle, gyve. Bit, jot, mite, particle, grain, atom, speck, mote, whit, iota, tittle, scintilla. Bluff, blunt, outspoken, downright, brusk, curt, crusty. Boast, brag, vaunt, vapor, gasconade. Body, corpse, remains, relics, carcass, cadaver, corpus. Bombastic, sophomoric, turgid, tumid, grandiose, grandiloquent, magniloquent. Boorish, churlish, loutish, clownish, rustic, ill-bred. Booty, plunder, loot, spoil. Brittle, frangible, friable, fragile, crisp. Building, edifice, structure, house. Call, clamor, roar, scream, shout, shriek, vociferate, yell, halloo, whoop. Calm, still, motionless, tranquil, serene, placid. Care, concern, solicitude, anxiety. Celebrate, commemorate, observe. Charm, amulet, talisman. Charm, enchant, fascinate, captivate, enrapture, bewitch, infatuate, enamor. Cheat, defraud, swindle, dupe. Choke, strangle, suffocate, stifle, throttle. Choose, pick, select, cull, elect. Coax, wheedle, cajole, tweedle, persuade, inveigle. Color, hue, shade, tint, tinge, tincture. Combine, unite, consolidate, merge, amalgamate, weld, incorporate, confederate. Comfort, console, solace. Complain, grumble, growl, murmur, repine, whine, croak. Confirmed, habitual, inveterate, chronic. Connect, join, link, couple, attach, unite. Continual, continuous, unceasing, incessant, endless, uninterrupted, unremitting, constant, perpetual, perennial. Contract, agreement, bargain, compact, covenant, stipulation. Copy, duplicate, counterpart, likeness, reproduction, replica, facsimile. Corrupt, depraved, perverted, vitiated. Costly, expensive, dear. Coterie, clique, cabal, circle, set, faction, party. Critical, judicial, impartial, carping, caviling, captious, censorious. Crooked, awry, askew. Cross, fretful, peevish, petulant, pettish, irritable, irascible, angry. Crowd, throng, horde, host, mass, multitude, press, jam, concourse. Curious, inquisitive, prying, meddlesome. Dainty, delicate, exquisite, choice, rare. Danger, peril, jeopardy, hazard, risk. Darken, obscure, bedim, obfuscate. Dead, lifeless, inanimate, deceased, defunct, extinct. Decay, decompose, putrefy, rot, spoil. Deceit, deception, double-dealing, duplicity, chicanery, guile, treachery. Deceptive, deceitful, misleading, fallacious, fraudulent. Decorate, adorn, ornament, embellish, deck, bedeck, garnish, bedizen, beautify. Decorous, demure, sedate, sober, staid, prim, proper. Deface, disfigure, mar, mutilate. Defect, fault, imperfection, disfigurement, blemish, flaw. Delay, defer, postpone, procrastinate. Demoralize, deprave, debase, corrupt, vitiate. Deportment, demeanor, bearing, port, mien. Deprive, divest, dispossess, strip, despoil. Despise, contemn, scorn, disdain. Despondency, despair, desperation. Detach, separate, sunder, sever, disconnect, disjoin, disunite. Determined, persistent, dogged. Devout, religious, pious, godly, saintly. Difficulty, hindrance, obstacle, impediment, encumbrance, handicap. Difficulty, predicament, perplexity, plight, quandary, dilemma, strait. Dirty, filthy, foul, nasty, squalid. Discernment, perception, penetration, insight, acumen. Disgraceful, dishonorable, shameful, disreputable, ignominious, opprobrious, scandalous, infamous. Disgusting, sickening, repulsive, revolting, loathsome, repugnant, abhorrent, noisome, fulsome. Dispel, disperse, dissipate, scatter. Dissatisfied, discontented, displeased, malcontent, disgruntled. Divide, distribute, apportion, allot, allocate, partition. Doctrine, dogma, tenet, precept. Dream, reverie, vision, fantasy. Drip, dribble, trickle. Drunk, drunken, intoxicated, inebriated. Dry, arid, parched, desiccated. Eat, bolt, gulp, gorge, devour. Encroach, infringe, intrench, trench, intrude, invade, trespass. End, conclude, terminate, finish, discontinue, close. Enemy, foe, adversary, opponent, antagonist, rival. Enough, adequate, sufficient. Entice, inveigle, allure, lure, decoy, seduce. Erase, expunge, cancel, efface, obliterate. Error, mistake, blunder, slip. Estimate, value, appreciate. Eternal, everlasting, endless, deathless, imperishable, immortal. Examination, inquiry, inquisition, investigation, inspection, scrutiny, research, review, audit, inquest, autopsy. Example, sample, specimen, instance. Exceed, excel, surpass, transcend, outdo. Expand, dilate, distend, inflate. Expel, banish, exile, proscribe, ostracize. Experiment, trial, test. Explicit, exact, precise, definite. Faculty, gift, endowment, aptitude, attribute, talent, predilection, bent. Failing, shortcoming, defect, fault, foible, infirmity. Famous, renowned, celebrated, noted, distinguished, eminent, illustrious. Fashion, mode, style, vogue, rage, fad. Fast, rapid, swift, quick, fleet, speedy, hasty, celeritous, expeditious, instantaneous. Fasten, tie, hitch, moor, tether. Fate, destiny, lot, doom. Fawn, truckle, cringe, crouch. Feign, pretend, dissemble, simulate, counterfeit, affect, assume. Fiendish, devilish, diabolical, demoniacal, demonic, satanic. Fertile, fecund, fruitful, prolific. Fit, suitable, appropriate, proper. Flame, blaze, flare, glare, glow. Flat, level, even, plane, smooth, horizontal. Flatter, blandish, beguile, compliment, praise. Flexible, pliable, pliant, supple, limber, lithe, lissom. Flit, flutter, flicker, hover. Flock, herd, bevy, covey, drove, pack, brood, litter, school. Flow, pour, stream, gush, spout. Follow, pursue, chase. Follower, adherent, disciple, partisan, henchman. Fond, loving, doting, devoted, amorous, enamored. Force, strength, power, energy, vigor, might, potency, cogency, efficacy. Force, compulsion, coercion, constraint, restraint. Free, liberate, emancipate, manumit, release, disengage, disentangle, disembarrass, disencumber, extricate. Freshen, refresh, revive, renovate, renew. Friendly, amicable, companionable, hearty, cordial, neighborly, sociable, genial, complaisant, affable. Frighten, affright, alarm, terrify, terrorize, dismay, appal, daunt, scare. Frown, scowl, glower, lower. Frugal, sparing, saving, economical, chary, thrifty, provident, prudent. Game, play, amusement, pastime, diversion, fun, sport, entertainment. Gather, accumulate, amass, collect, levy, muster, hoard. Ghost, spirit, specter, phantom, apparition, shade, phantasm. Gift, present, donation, grant, gratuity, bequest, boon, bounty, largess, fee, bribe. Grand, magnificent, gorgeous, splendid, superb, sublime. Greet, hail, salute, address, accost. Grief, sorrow, distress, affliction, trouble, tribulation, woe. Grieve, lament, mourn, bemoan, bewail, deplore, rue. Guard, defend, protect, shield, shelter, screen, preserve. Habitation, abode, dwelling, residence, domicile, home. Harmful, injurious, detrimental, pernicious, deleterious, baneful, noxious. Have, possess, own, hold. Headstrong, wayward, wilful, perverse, froward. Help (noun), aid, assistance, succor. Help (verb), assist, aid, succor, abet, second, support, befriend. Hesitate, falter, vacillate, waver. Hide, conceal, secrete. High, tall, lofty, elevated, towering. Hint, intimate, insinuate. Hopeful, expectant, sanguine, optimistic, confident. Hopeless, despairing, disconsolate, desperate. Holy, sacred, hallowed, sanctified, consecrated, godly, pious, saintly, blessed. Impolite, discourteous, inurbane, uncivil, rude, disrespectful, pert, saucy, impertinent, impudent, insolent. Importance, consequence, moment. Impostor, pretender, charlatan, masquerader, mountebank, deceiver, humbug, cheat, quack, shyster, empiric. Imprison, incarcerate, immure. Improper, indecent, indecorous, unseemly, unbecoming, indelicate. Impure, tainted, contaminated, polluted, defiled, vitiated. Inborn, innate, inbred, congenital. Incite, instigate, stimulate, impel, arouse, goad, spur, promote. Inclose, surround, encircle, circumscribe, encompass. Increase, grow, enlarge, magnify, amplify, swell, augment. Indecent, indelicate, immodest, shameless, ribald, lewd, lustful, lascivious, libidinous, obscene. Insane, demented, deranged, crazy, mad. Insanity, dementia, derangement, craziness, madness, lunacy, mania, frenzy, hallucination. Insipid, tasteless, flat, vapid. Intention, intent, purpose, plan, design, aim, object, end. Interpose, intervene, intercede, interfere, mediate. Irreligious, ungodly, impious, godless, sacrilegious, blasphemous, profane. Irritate, exasperate, nettle, incense. Join, connect, unite, couple, combine, link, annex, append. Kindle, ignite, inflame, rouse. Lack, want, need, deficiency, dearth, paucity, scarcity, deficit. Lame, crippled, halt, deformed, maimed, disabled. Large, great, big, huge, immense, colossal, gigantic, extensive, vast, massive, unwieldy, bulky. Laughable, comical, comic, farcical, ludicrous, ridiculous, funny, droll. Lead, guide, conduct, escort, convoy. Lengthen, prolong, protract, extend. Lessen, decrease, diminish, reduce, abate, curtail, moderate, mitigate, palliate. Lie (noun), untruth, falsehood, falsity, fiction, fabrication, mendacity, canard, fib, story. Lie (verb), prevaricate, falsify, equivocate, quibble, shuffle, dodge, fence, fib. Likeness, resemblance, similitude, similarity, semblance, analogy. Limp, flaccid, flabby, flimsy. List, roll, catalogue, register, roster, schedule, inventory. Loud, resonant, clarion, stentorian, sonorous. Low, base, abject, servile, slavish, menial. Loyal, faithful, true, constant, staunch, unwavering, steadfast. Lurk, skulk, slink, sneak, prowl. Make, create, frame, fashion, mold, shape, form, forge, fabricate, invent, construct, manufacture, concoct. Manifest, plain, obvious, clear, apparent, patent, evident, perceptible, noticeable, open, overt, palpable, tangible, indubitable, unmistakable. Many, various, numerous, divers, manifold, multitudinous, myriad, countless, innumerable. Meaning, significance, signification, import, purport. Meet, encounter, collide, confront, converge. Meeting, assembly, assemblage, congregation, convention, conference, concourse, gathering, mustering. Melt, thaw, fuse, dissolve, liquefy. Memory, remembrance, recollection, reminiscence, retrospection. Misrepresent, misinterpret, falsify, distort, warp. Mix, compound, amalgamate, weld, combine, blend, concoct. Model, pattern, prototype, criterion, standard, exemplar, paragon, archetype, ideal. Motive, incentive, inducement, desire, purpose. Move, actuate, impel, prompt, incite. Near, nigh, close, neighboring, adjacent, contiguous. Neat, tidy, orderly, spruce, trim, prim. Needful, necessary, requisite, essential, indispensable. Negligence, neglect, inattention, inattentiveness, inadvertence, remissness, oversight. New, novel, fresh, recent, modern, late, innovative, unprecedented. Nice, fastidious, dainty, finical, squeamish. Noisy, clamorous, boisterous, hilarious, turbulent, riotous, obstreperous, uproarious, vociferous, blatant, brawling. Noticeable, prominent, conspicuous, salient, signal. Order (noun), command, mandate, behest, injunction, decree. Order (verb), command, enjoin, direct, instruct. Oversight, supervision, direction, superintendence, surveillance. Pale, pallid, wan, colorless, blanched, ghastly, ashen, cadaverous. Patience, forbearance, resignation, longsuffering. Penetrate, pierce, perforate. Place, office, post, position, situation, appointment. Plan, design, project, scheme, plot. Playful, mischievous, roguish, prankish, sportive, arch. Plentiful, plenteous, abundant, bounteous, copious, profuse, exuberant, luxuriant. Plunder, rifle, loot, sack, pillage, devastate, despoil. Pretty, beautiful, comely, handsome, fair. Profitable, remunerative, lucrative, gainful. Prompt, punctual, ready, expeditious. Pull, draw, drag, haul, tug, tow. Push, shove, thrust. Puzzle, perplex, mystify, bewilder. Queer, odd, curious, quaint, ridiculous, singular, unique, bizarre, fantastic, grotesque. Rash, incautious, reckless, foolhardy, adventurous, venturous, venturesome. Rebellion, insurrection, revolt, mutiny, riot, revolution, sedition. Recover, regain, retrieve, recoup, rally, recuperate. Reflect, deliberate, ponder, muse, meditate, ruminate. Relate, recount, recite, narrate, tell. Replace, supersede, supplant, succeed. Repulsive, unsightly, loathsome, hideous, grewsome. Requital, retaliation, reprisal, revenge, vengeance, retribution. Responsible, answerable, accountable, amenable, liable. Reveal, disclose, divulge, manifest, show, betray. Reverence, veneration, awe, adoration, worship. Ridicule, deride, mock, taunt, flout, twit, tease. Ripe, mature, mellow. Rise, arise, mount, ascend. Rogue, knave, rascal, miscreant, scamp, sharper, villain. Round, circular, rotund, spherical, globular, orbicular. Rub, polish, burnish, furbish, scour. Sad, grave, sober, moody, doleful, downcast, dreary, woeful, somber, unhappy, woebegone, mournful, depressed, despondent, gloomy, melancholy, heavy-spirited, sorrowful, dismal, dejected, disconsolate, miserable, lugubrious. Satiate, sate, surfeit, cloy, glut, gorge. Scoff, jeer, gibe, fleer, sneer, mock, taunt. Secret, covert, surreptitious, furtive, clandestine, underhand, stealthy. Seep, ooze, infiltrate, percolate, transude, exude. Sell, barter, vend, trade. Shape, form, figure, outline, conformation, configuration, contour, profile. Share, partake, participate, divide. Sharp, keen, acute, cutting, trenchant, incisive. Shore, coast, littoral, beach, strand, bank. Shorten, abridge, abbreviate, curtail, truncate, syncopate. Show (noun), display, ostentation, parade, pomp, splurge. Show, exhibit, display, expose, manifest, evince. Shrink, flinch, wince, blench, quail. Shun, avoid, eschew. Shy, bashful, diffident, modest, coy, timid, shrinking. Sign, omen, auspice, portent, prognostic, augury, foretoken, adumbration, presage, indication. Simple, innocent, artless, unsophisticated, naive. Skilful, skilled, expert, adept, apt, proficient, adroit, dexterous, deft, clever, ingenious. Skin, hide, pelt, fell. Sleepy, drowsy, slumberous, somnolent, sluggish, torpid, dull, lethargic. Slovenly, slatternly, dowdy, frowsy, blowzy. Sly, crafty, cunning, subtle, wily, artful, politic, designing. Smile, smirk, grin. Solitary, lonely, lone, lonesome, desolate, deserted, uninhabited. Sour, acid, tart, acrid, acidulous, acetose, acerbitous, astringent. Speech, discourse, oration, address, sermon, declamation, dissertation, exhortation, disquisition, harangue, diatribe, tirade, screed, philippic, invective, rhapsody, plea. Spruce, natty, dapper, smart, chic. Stale, musty, frowzy, mildewed, fetid, rancid, rank. Steep, precipitous, abrupt. Stingy, close, miserly, niggardly, parsimonious, penurious, sordid, Storm, tempest, whirlwind, hurricane, tornado, cyclone, typhoon Straight, perpendicular, vertical, plumb, erect, upright. Strange, singular, peculiar, odd, queer, quaint, outlandish. Strong, stout, robust, sturdy, stalwart, powerful. Stupid, dull, obtuse, stolid, doltish, sluggish, brainless, bovine. Succeed, prosper, thrive, flourish, triumph. Succession, sequence, series. Supernatural, preternatural, superhuman, miraculous. Suppose, surmise, conjecture, presume, imagine, fancy, guess, think, believe. Surprise, astonish, amaze, astound. Swearing, cursing, profanity, blasphemy, execration, imprecation. Teach, instruct, educate, train, discipline, drill, inculcate, instil, indoctrinate. Thoughtful, contemplative, meditative, reflective, pensive, wistful. Tire, weary, fatigue, exhaust, jade, fag. Tool, implement, instrument, utensil. Trifle, dally, dawdle, potter. Try, endeavor, essay, attempt. Trust, confidence, reliance, assurance, faith. Turn, revolve, rotate, spin, whirl, gyrate. Ugly, homely, uncomely, hideous. Unwilling, reluctant, disinclined, loath, averse. Watchful, vigilant, alert. Wave (noun), billow, breaker, swell, ripple, undulation. Wave (verb), brandish, flourish, flaunt, wigwag. Weariness, languor, lassitude, enervation, exhaustion. Wearisome, tiresome, irksome, tedious, humdrum. Wet (adjective), humid, moist, damp, dank, sodden, soggy. Wet (verb), moisten, dampen, soak, imbrue, saturate, drench Whim, caprice, vagary, fancy, freak, whimsey, crotchet. Wind, breeze, gust, blast, flaw, gale, squall, flurry. Wind, coil, twist, twine, wreathe. Winding, tortuous, serpentine, sinuous, meandering. Wonderful, marvelous, phenomenal, miraculous. Workman, laborer, artisan, artificer, mechanic, craftsman. Write, inscribe, scribble, scrawl, scratch. Yearn, long, hanker, pine, crave. EXERCISE F Write three synonyms for each of the following words. Discriminate the three, and embody each of them in a sentence. Accomplish Conduct (noun) Humble Scream Agree Conspicuous Indifferent Shrewd Anger Cringe Misfortune Shudder Attempt Difficult Obey Skill Big Disconnect Object (noun) Soft Brute Erratic Object (verb) Splash Business Flash Obligation Success Careless Fragrant Occupied Sweet Climb Gain Oppose Trick Collect Generous Persist Wash Commanding Grim Revise Worship Compel Groan Room EXERCISE G Supply eight or ten intervening words between each of the following pairs. Arrange the intervening words in an ascending scale. Dark, bright Wet, dry Savage, civilized Beautiful, ugly Friend, enemy Hope, despair Wise, foolish Love, hate Enormous, minute Admirable, abominable Curse, bless Pride, humility IX MANY-SIDED WORDS In Chapter VII you made a study of printed distinctions between synonyms. In Chapter VIII you were given lists of synonyms and made the distinctions yourself. Near the close of Chapter VIII you were given words and discovered for yourself what their synonyms are. This third stage might seem to reveal to you the full joys and benefits of your researches in this subject. Certainly to find a new word for an old one is an exhilarating sort of mental travel. And to find a new word which expresses exactly what an old one expressed but approximately is a real acquisition in living. But you are not yet a perfectly trained hunter of synonyms. Some miscellaneous tasks remain; they will involve hard work and call your utmost powers into play. Of these tasks the most important is connected with the hint already given that many words, especially if they be generic words, have two or more entirely different meanings. Let us first establish this fact, and afterwards see what bearing it has on our study of synonyms. My friend says, "I hope you will have a good day." Does he mean an enjoyable one in general? a profitable or lucrative one, in case I have business in hand? a successful one, if I am selling stocks or buying a house? Possibly he means a sunshiny day if I intend to play golf, a snowy day if I plan to go hunting, a rainy day if my crops are drying up. The ideas here are varied, even contradictory, enough; yet _good_ may be used of every one of them. _Good_ is in truth so general a term that we must know the attendant circumstances if we are to attach to it a signification even approximately accurate. This does not at all imply that _good_ is a term we may brand as useless. It implies merely that when our meaning is specific we must set _good_ aside (unless circumstances make its sense unmistakable) in favor of a specific word. _Things_ is another very general term. In "Let us wash up the things" it likely means dishes or clothes. In "Hang your things in the closet" it likely means clothes. In "Put the things in the tool-box" it likely means tools. In "Put the things in the sewing-basket" it likely means thread, needles, and scissors. In "The trenches are swarming with these things" it likely means cooties. A more accurate word is usually desirable. Yet we may see the value of the generality in the saying "A place for everything, and everything in its place." _Good_ and _things_ are not alone in having multitudinous meanings. There are in the language numerous many-sided words. These words should be studied carefully. True, they are not always employed in ambiguous ways. For example, _right_ in the sense of correct is seldom likely to be mistaken for _right_ in the sense of not-left, but a reader or hearer may frequently mistake it for _right_ in the sense of just or of honorable. In the use of such words, therefore, we cannot become too discriminating. EXERCISE H This exercise concerns itself with common words that have more than one meaning. Make your procedure as follows. First, look up the word itself. Under it you will find a number of defining words. Then look up each of these in turn, until you have the requisite number and kind of synonyms. (The word is sure to have more synonyms than are called for.) You will have to use your dictionary tirelessly. <Bare.> Find three synonyms for _bare_ as applied to the body; three for it as applied to a room. <Bear.> Give three other words that might be used instead of _bear_ in the sentence "The pillar bears a heavy weight"; three in the sentence "He bore a heavy load on his back"; three in the sentence "He bore the punishment that was unjustly meted out to him"; three in the sentence "He bore a grudge against his neighbor"; two in the sentence "The field did not bear a crop last year." <Bold.> Give ten synonyms for _bold_ as applied to a warrior; ten as applied to a young girl. Observe that the synonyms in the first list are favorable in import and suggest the idea of bravery, whereas those in the second list are unfavorable and suggest the idea of brazenness. How do you account for this fact? Can you think of circumstances in which a young girl might be so placed that the favorable synonyms might be applied to her? <Bright.> Give as many words as you can, at least twelve, that can be used instead of _bright_ as applied to a light, a diamond, a wet pavement, or a live coal. Give three words for _bright_ as applied to a child of unusual intelligence; two as applied to an occasion that promises to turn out well; two as applied to a career that has been signally successful. <Clear.> Give five synonyms for clear as applied to water; ten as applied to a fact or a statement; three as applied to the sky or atmosphere; three as applied to the voice; two as applied to a passageway or a view; three as applied to one's judgment or thinking. <Close.> Give three words that could be substituted for _close_ as applied to the atmosphere in a room; four as applied to a person who is uninclined to talk about a matter; three as applied to something not far off; four as applied to a friend; five as applied to a person who is reluctant to spend money; five as applied to a translation; five as applied to attention or endeavor. <Discharge.> Substitute in turn four words for _discharge_ in the sentence "The judge discharged the prisoner"; two in the sentence "The foreman discharged the workman"; two in the sentence "The hunter discharged the gun"; three in the sentence "The sore discharged pus"; two in the sentence "My neighbor discharged the debt"; two in the sentence "He discharged his duty." <Dull>. Name three words besides _dull_ that could be applied to a blade or a point; five to a person with slow intellect; three to indifference toward others; two to a color; three to a day that is not cheerful; five to talk or discourse that is not interesting. <Fair>. Substitute five words for _fair_ in the sentence "He gave a fair judgment in the case"; three in the sentence "The son made a fair showing in his studies"; four in the sentence "She had a fair face"; two in the sentence "Her complexion was fair"; three in the sentence "Let no shame ever fall upon your fair name." <False>. Find two words that you can substitute for _false_ as applied to a signature, to a report or a piece of news, to jewels or money, to a friend. <Fast>. Name two words I might substitute for _fast_ in the sentence "Drive the stake until it is fast in the ground"; three in the sentence "He made a fast trip for the doctor"; six in the sentence "By leading a fast life he soon squandered his inheritance." <Firm>. Substitute four words for _firm_ in the sentence "I made the board firm by nailing it to the wall"; three in the sentence "The water froze into a firm mass"; five in the sentence "He was firm in his determination to proceed." <Flat>. Instead of _flat_ use in turn four other words in the sentence "This is a flat piece of ground"; five in the sentence "It was as flat a story as ever wearied company"; three in the sentence "The cook having forgotten the salt, the soup was flat"; four in the sentence "I am surprised by your flat refusal." <Free>. _Free_ may be applied to a person not subject to a tax or a disease, to a person who has been released from confinement or restraint, to a person who is not reserved or formal in his relations to others, to a person who is willing to give. Out of your own resources substitute as many words as you can for _free_ in each of these sentences. Now look up _free_ in a dictionary or book of synonyms. What proportion of its synonyms were you able to think up unaided? <Great>. Give three synonyms for _great_ as applied to size, to number, to a man widely known for notable achievement, to an error or crime, to price. <Hard>. Give six synonyms for _hard_ as applied to a rock; six as applied to a task or burden; six as applied to a problem or situation; ten as applied to one's treatment of others. <Harsh>. Give three words that can be applied instead of _harsh_ to a sound; three that can be applied instead of _harsh_ to the voice; five that can be applied to one's treatment of others; five that can be applied to one's disposition or nature. <Just>. Substitute five words for _just_ in the sentence "You are just in your dealings with others"; three in the sentence "A just punishment was meted out to him"; three in the sentence "They made a just division of the property"; two in the sentence "He had a just claim to the title." <Plain>. Give six words that can be substituted for _plain_, as applied to a fact or statement; four as applied to the decorations of a room; two as applied to the countenance; four as applied to a surface; three as applied to a statement or reply. <Poor>. Give five words that can be used instead of _poor_ as applied to a person who is without money or resources; ten as applied to a person lacking in flesh; three as applied to clothing that is worn out; five as applied to land that will bear only small crops or no crops at all; two as applied to an occasion that does not promise to turn out well. <Quick>. Give six words that could be used instead of _quick_ as applied to a train or a horse in travel; six as applied to the movements of a person about a room or to his actions in the performance of his work; four to a disposition or temper that is easily irritated. <Serious>. Give five synonyms for _serious_ as applied to one's countenance or expression; three as applied to a problem or undertaking; two as applied to a disease or to sickness. <Sharp>. Give two synonyms for _sharp_ as applied to a blade or a point; six as applied to a pain or to grief; four as applied to a remark or reply; ten as applied to one's mind or intellect; three as applied to temper or disposition; three as applied to an embankment; three as applied to the seasoning of food; three as applied to a cry or scream. <Stiff>. Give six synonyms for _stiff_ as applied to an iron rod; three as applied to an adversary; six as applied to one's manner or bearing; two as applied to one's style of writing or speaking. <Strong>. Give three synonyms for _strong_ as applied to a person in regard to his health; ten as applied to him in regard to his muscularity of physique; four as applied to a fortress; three as applied to a plea or assertion; three as applied to an argument or reason; three as applied to determination; two as applied to liquor; three as applied to a light; two as applied to corrective measures; two as applied to an odor. <Vain>. Give five synonyms for vain as applied to a man who overvalues himself or his accomplishments; six as applied to an attempt that comes to nothing; three as applied to hopes that have little chance of fulfilment. <Weak>. Substitute five synonyms for _weak_ in the sentence "I was very weak after my illness"; four in the sentence "The fortress was especially weak on the side toward the plain"; three in the sentence "He made a weak attempt to defend his actions"; three in the sentence "Many of these arguments are weak"; three in the sentence "Hamlet is usually interpreted as being weak of will"; three in the sentence "The liquor was so weak it had no taste"; three in the sentence "The lace was weak and soon tore." <Wild>. Give two words instead of _wild_ as applied to animals; two as applied to land; three as applied to people who have not been civilized; three as applied to a storm, an uncontrolled temper, or a mob; three as applied to a scheme that has no basis in reason or practicality. EXERCISE I In Exercise H you started with ideas and objects, and had to find words of a given meaning that could be applied to them. In this exercise you start with the words, and must find the ideas and objects. <Base>. To what is _base_ applied when inferior, cheap, worthless could be used as its synonyms? To what is it applied when debased, impure, spurious, alloyed, counterfeit could be used? When mean, despicable, contemptible, shameful, disgraceful, dishonorable, discreditable, scandalous, infamous, villainous, low-minded could be used? When ignoble, servile, slavish, groveling, menial could be used? When plebeian, obscure, untitled, vulgar, lowly, nameless, humble, unknown could be used? <Mortal>. Can you properly contrast mortal with immortal existence? mortal with porcine existence? Is porcine existence also mortal? Is mortal existence also porcine? What adjective pertaining to mankind forms a true contrast to _porcine_? What is a synonym for _mortal_ in its broad sense? in its narrow sense? <Severe>. To what is _severe_ applied when harsh, stern, rigorous, drastic, austere, hard could be substituted for it? When plain, unembellished, unadorned, chaste could be substituted? When acute, violent, extreme, intense, sharp, distressing, afflictive could be substituted? When keen, cutting, biting, stinging, caustic, critical, trenchant could be substituted? EXERCISE J Reread the discussion of _good_ and _things_ in Many-sided Words. Then for each of the words listed below collect or compose twenty or more sentences in which the word is used. As largely as possible, take them from actual experience. In doing this you must listen to the use of the word in everyday talk. After you have made your list of sentences as varied and extensive as you can, try to substitute synonyms that will express the idea more accurately. Note whether a knowledge of the attendant circumstances is necessary to an understanding of the original word, to an understanding of the word substituted for it. Bad Fine Matter Affair Nice Common Case Boost EXERCISE K Analyze each of the words given below into its various uses or applications. Then for it in each of these applications assemble as many synonyms as you can unaided. Finally, have recourse to a dictionary or book of synonyms for the further extension of your lists. (By way of illustration, let us take the word _quiet_. Through meditation and analysis we discover that it may be applied (a) to water or any liquid not in motion, (b) to a place that is without sound, (c) to a place shut off from activity or bustle, (d) to a person who is not demonstrative or forward in manner. We then think of all the words we can that can be substituted for it in each of these uses. No matter how incompletely or unsatisfactorily we feel we are performing this task, we must not give it over until we have found every word we can summon. Then we turn to a dictionary or book of synonyms. Thus for _quiet_ we shall assemble such synonyms as (a) calm, still, motionless, placid, tranquil, serene, smooth, unruffled, undisturbed, pacific, stagnant; (b) silent, still, noiseless, mute, hushed, voiceless; (c) secluded, sequestered, solitary, isolated, unfrequented, unvisited, peaceful, untrodden, retired; (d) demure, sedate, staid, reserved, meek, gentle, retiring, unobtrusive, modest, unassuming, timid, shrinking, shy.) Barren Keep Pure Solid Certain Liberal Rare Sorry Cold Light (adjective) Rich Spread Cool Light (noun) Right Straight Deep Long Rude Still Dry Low Short Sure Easy Mean Simple Thick Foul Narrow Slow Thin Full New Small Tender Gentle Obscure Smooth True Grand Odd Sober Warm Heavy Particular Soft Yield Keen <Literal vs. Figurative Applications> One of the most interesting things to watch in the study of words is their development from a literal to a figurative application. The first man who broke away from the confines of the literal meaning of a word and applied the word to something that only in a figurative sense had qualities analogous to the original meaning, was creating poetry. He was making an imaginative flight comparable in daring to the Wright brothers' first aeronautic flight. But as the word was used over and over in this figurative way the imaginative flight became more and more commonplace. At last it ceased to be imaginative at all; through frequent repetition it had settled into the matter of course. A glance back at the _Concise_ group above will show you that with time the comparison which was once the basis and the life of the figurative use of words is dulled, obscured, even lost. As a further enforcement of this fact, let us analyze the word _rough_. In its literal application, it may designate any surface that has ridges, projections, or inequalities and is therefore uneven, jagged, rugged, scraggy, or scabrous. Now frequently a man's face or head is rough because unshaved or uncombed; also the fur of an animal is rough. Hence the term could be used for unkempt, disheveled, shaggy, hairy, coarse, bristly. "The child ran its hand over its father's rough cheek" and "The bear had a rough coat" are sentences that even the most unimaginative mind can understand. We speak of rough timber because its surface has not been planed or made smooth. We speak of a rough diamond because it is unpolished, uncut. Note that all these uses are literal, that in each instance some unevenness of surface is referred to. But man, urged on by the desire to say what he means with more novelty, strikingness, or force, applied the word to ideas that have no surfaces to be uneven. He imagined what these ideas would be like if they had surfaces. Of course in putting these conceptions into language he was creating figures of speech, some of them startlingly apt, some of them merely far-fetched. He said a man had a _rough_ voice, as though the voice were like a cactus in its prickly irregularities. By _rough_ he meant what his fellows meant when they spoke of the voice as harsh, grating, jarring, discordant, inharmonious, strident, raucous, or unmusical. Going farther, that early poet said the weather was _rough_. He thought of clement weather as being smooth and even, but of inclement, severe, stormy, tempestuous, or violent weather as being full of projections to rend and harass one. Thus an everyday use of the term today was once wrenched and immoderate speech. Possibly the first man who heard of rough weather was puzzled for a moment, then amused or delighted as he caught the figure. It did not require great originality to think of a crowd as _rough_ in its movements. But our poet applied the idea to an individual. To him a rude, uncivil, impolite, ungracious, uncourteous, unpolished, uncouth, boorish, blunt, bluff, gruff, brusk, or burly person was as the unplaned lumber or the unpolished gem; and we imitative moderns still call such a man _rough_. But we do not think of the man as covered with projections that need to be taken off, unless forsooth we receive _rough_ treatment at his hands. And note how far we have journeyed from the original idea of the word when we say "I gave the report a _rough_ glance," meaning cursory, hasty, superficial, or incomplete consideration. Many very simple words, including several of those already treated in this chapter, are two-sided in that they are both literal and figurative. EXERCISE L Trace each of the following words from its literal to its figurative applications, giving synonyms for each of its uses. Open Bright Stiff Hard Low Cool Sharp Flat Keen Strong Dull Raw Small Odd Warm Deep Eccentric <Imperfectly Understood Facts and Ideas> Thus far in this chapter we have been considering many-sided words. We must now turn to a certain class of facts and ideas that deserve better understanding and closer analysis than we usually accord them. These facts and ideas are supposed to be matters of common knowledge. And in their broad scope and purport they are. Because acquaintance with them is taken for granted it behooves us to know them. Yet they are in reality complicated, and when we attempt to deal with them in detail, our assurance forsakes us. All of us have our "blind sides" intellectually-- quake to have certain areas of discussion entered, because we foresee that we must sit idly by without power to make sensible comment. Unto as many as possible of these blind sides of ourselves we should pronounce the blessed words, "Let there be light." We have therefore to consider certain matters and topics which are supposed to belong to the common currency of social information, but with which our familiarity is less thoroughgoing than it should be. What are these facts and topics? Take for illustration the subject of aeronautics. Suppose we have but the vaguest conception of the part played or likely to be played by aircraft in war, commerce, and pleasure. Suppose we are not aware that some craft are made to float and others to be driven by propellers. Suppose such terms as Zeppelin, blimp, monoplane, biplane, hydroplane, dirigible have no definite import for us. Does not our knowledge fall short of that expected of well-informed men in this present age? Or take military terms. Everybody uses them--clergymen, pacifists, clubmen, social reformers, novelists, tramps, brick-layers, Big-Stickers. We cannot escape them if we would. We ourselves use them. But do we use them with precise and masterly understanding? You call one civilian colonel and another major; which have you paid the higher compliment? You are uncertain whether a given officer is a colonel or a major, and you wish to address him in such fashion as will least offend his sensitiveness as to rank and nomenclature; which title--colonel or major--is the less perilous? You are told that a major has command of a battalion; does that tell you anything about him? You are told that he has command of a squadron, of a brigade, of a platoon; do these changes in circumstances have any import for you? If not, you have too faltering a grasp upon military facts and terminology. The best remedy for such shortcomings is to be insatiably curious on all subjects. This of course is the ideal; nobody ever fully attains it. Nevertheless Exercise M will set you to groping into certain broad matters relevant to ordinary needs. Thereafter, if your purpose be strong enough, you will carry the same methods there acquired into other fields of knowledge. You may object that all this is as much mental as linguistic--that what is proposed will result in as large accessions of general information as of vocabulary. Let this be admitted. Deficiencies of language are often, perhaps almost invariably, linked with deficiencies of knowledge. To repair the one we must at the same time repair the other. This may seem a hard saying to those who seek, or would impart, mere glibness of phrase without regard for the substance--who worship "words, words, words" without thought of "the matter." There is such a thing as froth of utterance, but who has respect therefor or is deceived thereby? Speech that is not informed is like a house without a foundation. You should not desire to possess it. Abroad in this world of ours already are too many people who darken counsel by words without knowledge. EXERCISE M A second lieutenant is the commissioned officer of lowest grade in the United States army. Name all the grades from second lieutenant to the grade that is highest. An admiral is the officer of highest grade in the United States navy. Name all the grades down to that which is lowest. Name as many as possible of the different ranks of the clergy in the Roman Catholic Church, in the Church of England. Give ascendingly the five titles in the British nobility. Name the different kinds of vehicles. Name the different kinds of schools. Name all the different kinds of boats and ships (both ancient and modern) you can think of. Give the nautical term for the right side of a ship, for the left side of a ship, for the front, for the rear, for the forward portion, for the rear portion. Name the various kinds of bodies of water (oceans, rivers, lagoons, etc.) Give all the terms of relationship of persons, both by blood and by marriage. What relation to you is your grandfather's brother? your cousin's daughter? Name all the bones of the human head. Give the names of the different parts of a typical flower. Name as many elements as you can. What is the number usually given? What was the last element discovered, and by whom? Name the elements of which water is composed. Name the principal elements in the composition of the air. Make as long a list as possible (up to thirty) of words that appeal to the sense of sight (especially color words and motion words), to the sense of hearing, of smell, of taste, of touch. Find words descriptive of various expressions in the human face. Name all the terms you can associated with law, with medicine, with geology. Name the planets, the signs of the zodiac, as many constellations as you can. Name the seven colors of the spectrum, and for each name give all the synonyms you can. What are the primary colors? the secondary colors? Give the various races into which mankind has been divided, and the color of each. Name every kind of tree you can think of, every kind of flower, every kind of animal, every kind of bird. X SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF WORDS You have already mastered many words, but a glance at any page of the dictionary will convince you that you have not mastered all. Nor will you, ever. Their number is too great, and too many of them are abstrusely technical. Nevertheless there remain many words that you should bring into your vocabulary. Most of them are not extremely usual; on the other hand they are not so unusual that you would encounter them but once in a lifetime. The majority of them are familiar to you, perhaps; that is, you will have a general feeling that you have seen them before. But this is not enough. Do you know exactly what they mean? Can you, when the occasion comes, use them?-use them promptly and well? This is the test. Many of the words are absolutely new so far as this book is concerned. They have not been discussed or attached to any list. Many are not entirely new. They have appeared, but not received such emphasis that they are sure to stand fast in your memory. Or some cognate form of them may have been mastered, yet they themselves may remain unknown. Thus you may know _commendation_ but not _commendatory_, _credulous_ but not _incredulity_, _invalid_ but not _invalidate_ or _invalidity_. One of the best of all ways to extend your vocabulary is to make each word of your acquaintance introduce you to its immediate kinsmen, those grouped with it on the same page of the dictionary. This chapter puts you on your mettle. Hitherto you have been given instructions as to the way to proceed, Now you must shift for yourself. The words, to be sure, are corraled for you. But you must tame them and break them, in order that on them you may ride the ranges of human intercourse. If you have not yet learned how to subdue them to your will and use, it would be futile to tell you how. You have been put in the way of mastering words. The task that henceforth confronts you is your own. You must have at it unaided. It is true that, in the exercise that follows, specific help is given you on a limited number of the words. But this help is only toward discovering the words for yourself before you have seen them in a list. And for most of the words not even this meager assistance is given. EXERCISE - Supplementary Each of the following groups of words is preceded by sentences in which blanks should be filled by words from that group. But do your best to fill these blanks properly before you consult the group at all. You must learn to think of, or think up, the right word instead of having it pointed out to you. These benefits were not inherent in the course he had taken; they were purely ____. Anything which existed before Noah's flood is called ____. His left hand, which had ceased to grow during his childhood, was now withered from its long ____. Certain books once belonging to the Bible have been discarded by the Protestants as ____. When Shakespeare makes Hector quote Aristotle, who lived long after the siege of Troy, he is guilty of an ____. Whatever causes the lips to pucker, as alum or a green persimmon, is spoken of as ____. Abash, abbreviate, abduct, aberrant, aberration, abeyance, abhorrent, abject, abjure, aboriginal, abortive, abrade, abrasion, abrogate, absolution, abstemious, abstention, abstruse, accelerate, accentuate, acceptation, accessary, accession, accessory, acclamation, acclivity, accolade, accomplice, accost, acerbity, acetic, achromatic, acidulous, acme, acolyte, acoustics, acquiescence, acquisitive, acrimonious, acumen, adage, adamantine, addict, adduce, adhesive, adipose, adjudicate, adolescence, adulation, adulterate, advent, adventitious, aerial, affability, affidavit, affiliate, affinity, agglomerate, agglutinate, aggrandizement, agnostic, alignment, aliment, allegorical, alleviate, altercation, altruistic, amalgamate, amatory, ambiguity, ambrosial, ameliorate, amenable, amenity, amity, amnesty, amulet, anachronism, analytical, anathema, anatomy, animadversion, annotate, anomalous, anonymous, antediluvian, anterior, anthology, anthropology, antinomy, antiquarianism, antiseptic, aphorism, apocryphal, aplomb, apostasy, apparatus, apparition, appellate, appertain, appetency, apposite, approbation, appurtenance, aquatic, aqueous, aquiline, arbitrary, archaic, arduous, aromatic, arrear, articulate, ascetic, asperity, asphyxiate, asseverate, assiduity, assimilate, astringent, astute, atrophy, attenuate, auditory, augury, auscultation, austerity, authenticate, authenticity, auxiliary, avidity. The man wished to fight; he was in ____ mood. There is only a handful of these things; yes, a mere ____. Slight mishaps like these lead to quips and mutual ____. His conduct is odd, grotesque, ____. Baccalaureate, badinage, bagatelle, baleful, ballast, banality, baneful, beatitude, bellicose, belligerent, benefaction, beneficent, benison, betide, bibulous, bigotry, bizarre, bombastic, burlesque. This effect was not obtained all at once; it was ____. These subjects belong to the same general field of knowledge as those; the two sets are ____. He is a skilled judge of art, a ____. The Southern states were unwilling to remain in the Union; they could be kept only by ____. Monks take upon themselves the vow of ____. No, this animal does not live on vegetation; it is a ____ animal. Cacophonous, cadaverous, cadence, callow, calumny, capillary, captious, cardinal, carnal, carnivorous, castigate, cataclysm, catastrophe, category, causality, cavernous, celebrity, celibacy, censorious, ceramics, cerebration, certitude, cessation, charlatan, chimerical, chronology, circuitous, circumlocution, citation, clandestine, clarify, clemency, coadjutor, coagulate, coalesce, coercion, cogency, cognizant, cohesion, coincidence, collusion, colossal, comatose, combustible, commendatory, commensurate, commiserate, communal, compatibility, compendium, complaisant, comport, composite, compulsive, compulsory, computation, concatenate, concentric, concessive, concomitant, condign, condiment, condolence, confiscatory, confute, congeal, congenital, conglomerate, congruity, connivance, connoisseur, connubial, consensus, consistence, consort, constriction, construe, contentious, context, contiguity, contiguous, contingent, contortion, contravene, contumacious, contumacy, contumelious, convergent, conversant, convivial, correlate, corrigible, corroborate, corrosive, cosmic, covenant, crass, credence, crescent, criterion, critique, crucial, crucible, cryptic, crystalline, culmination, culpable, cumulative, cupidity, cursive, cursory, cutaneous, cynosure. His course was not prescribed for him by superiors; his powers were ____. The suppression of these anarchistic tendencies has required ____ measures. She was just entering society, and was proving herself a popular ____. Yes, this tree loses its leaves every year; it is a ____ tree. He pretends that his ____ are sound, because he can read the stars. Debilitate, debonair, debutante, decadence, decapitate, deciduous, declivity, decompose, decorous, dedicatory, deduction, deferential, deficiency, deglutition, dehiscence, delectable, delete, deleterious, delineate, deliquescent, demarcation, demimonde, demoniac, denizen, denouement, deprecate, depreciate, derelict, derogatory, despicable, desuetude, desultory, deteriorate, diacritical, diagnosis, diaphanous, diatribe, didactic, diffusive, dilatory, dilettante, dipsomania, dirigible, discommode, discretionary, discursive, disintegrate, disparity, dispensable, disseminate, dissimulation, dissonant, distain, divagation, divination, divulge, dolor, dorsal, drastic, dubiety, duress, dynamic. These facts do not circulate except among a limited group of people; they are therefore ____. The departure of the children of Israel from Egypt was a general ____. His philosophy, instead of conforming to a single system, was ____. Lamb wrote admirable letters; he has a delightful ____ style. The period at which our days and nights are of equal length is the ____ period. Ebullient, ecclesiastical, echelon, eclectic, ecstatic, edict, eerie, effervescent, efficacious, effrontery, effulgence, effusion, egregious, eleemosynary, elicit, elite, elucidate, embellish, embryonic, emendation, emissary, emission, emollient, empiric, empyreal, emulous, encomium, endue, enervate, enfilade, enigmatic, ennui, enunciate, environ, epicure, epigram, episode, epistolary, epitome, equestrian, equilibrium, equinoctial, equity, equivocate, eradicate, erosion, erotic, erudition, eruptive, eschew, esoteric, espousal, estrange, ethereal, eulogistic, euphonious, evanescent, evangelical, evict, exacerbate, excerpt, excommunicate, excoriate, excruciate, execrable, exegesis, exemplary, exhalation, exhilarate, exigency, exodus, exonerate, exorbitant, exotic, expectorate, expeditious, explicable, explicit, expunge, extant, extemporaneous, extrinsic. He deceives himself by this argument, for the argument is utterly ____. No complicated action can be planned in absolute detail; much must depend on ____ circumstance. Fabricate, fabulous, facetious, factitious, fallacious, fallible, fastidious, fatuous, feasible, feculence, fecundity, felicitous, felonious, fetid, feudal, fiducial, filament, filtrate, finesse, flaccid, flagitious, floriculture, florid, fluctuate, foible, forfeiture, fortuitous, fractious, franchise, frangible, frontal, froward, furtive. The advice was both unasked and unwelcome; it was purely ____. Throughout the World War the ____ of Germany over the other Central European powers was unquestioned. Buffaloes naturally go together in herds; they are ____. Galaxy, galleon, garrulity, gesticulate, gormand, granivorous, grandiloquent, gravamen, gratuitous, gregarious, habitue, hallucination, harbinger, hardihood, heckle, hectic, hedonist, hegemony, heinous, herbivorous, heretic, hermaphrodite, heterodox, heterogeneous, hibernate. histrionic, hoidenism, homiletics, homogeneous, hydraulic, hypothesis. We cannot understand God's ways; they are ____. Nor need we expect to change them; they are ____. If an animal has no backbone, it is ____. A boy so confirmed in his faults that we cannot correct them is ____. Idiosyncrasy, illicit, immaculate, immanent, imminent, immobile, immure, immutable, impalpable, impeccable, impecunious, imperturbable, impervious, implacable, implicit, impolitic, imponderable, importunate, imprecation, impromptu, improvise, imputation, inadvertent, inamorata, inanity, incarcerate, inchoate, incidence, incision, incongruent, inconsequential, incontinent, incorporeal, incorrigible, incredulity, incumbent, indecorous, indigenous, indigent, indite, indomitable, ineluctable, inexorable, inexplicable, inferential, infinitesimal, infinitude, infraction, infusion, inhibit, innocuous, innuendo, inopportune, insatiable, inscrutable, insidious, inspissated, insulate, intangible, integral, integument, interdict, internecine, intractable, intransigent, intrinsic, inure, invalidate, inveigh, inveigle, invertebrate, invidious, irrefragable, irrefutable, irrelevant, irreparable, irrevocable, iterate. He overpraised people; he was always engaged in extravagant ____ of somebody or other. The small man who has written a book becomes pretentious at once and regards himself as one of the ____. Thatcher is always engaged in lawsuits; he is the most ____ man I ever saw. Jocose, jocund, jurisprudence, juxtaposition, kaleidoscopic, labyrinth, lacerate, lackadaisical, lacrimal, laity, lambent, lampoon, largess, lascivious, laudable, laudation, lavation, legionary, lethargic, licentious, lineal, lingual, literati, litigious, loquacity, lubricity, lucent, lucre, lucubration, lugubrious. Those soldiers are fighting, not for principle, but for pay; they are ____. Iron that is not heated cannot be hammered into shape; it is not ____. Machination, macrocosm, magisterial, magniloquent, maladroit, malfeasance, malignity, malleable, mandate, matutinal, medieval, mephitic, mercenary, mercurial, meretricious, metamorphose, meticulous, microcosm, misanthropic, misogyny, misprision, mitigate, monitor, mortuary, mundane, mutable. It is a government by the few; therefore an ____. All the men of influence in the state give offices to their kinsmen; the system is one of ____. Yes, grandfather is eighty years old today; he has become an ____. Nebulous, nefarious, negation, neophyte, nepotism, neurotic, noisome, nomenclature, nonchalant, non sequitur, nucleus, nugatory, obdurate, objurgation, obligatory, obloquy, obsequious, obsession, obsolete, obstreperous, obtrusive, obtuse, obverse, obviate, occult, octogenarian, officious, olfactory, oleaginous, oligarchy, ominous, onomatopceia, opacity, opaque, opprobrious, oracular, orthodox, oscillate, osculate, ostensible, ostentation, ostracize, outré, ovation, overture. In England the eldest son inherits the title and the estate, but Americans do not take to a system of ____. You are always putting off until tomorrow what you could do today; do you think it pays to ____ thus? An ambassador whose powers are unlimited is called an ambassador ____. Beasts or men that are given to plundering are ____. Pabulum, pageantry, paginate, palatial, palliate, palpable, panacea, panegyric, panorama, paradoxical, paramount, parasite, parochial, paroxysm, parsimonious, parturition, patois, patriarchal, patrician, patrimony, peccadillo, pecuniary, pedantic, pellucid, pendulous, penultimate, penurious, peregrination, perfunctory, peripatetic, periphery, persiflage, perspicacious, perspicuity, pertinacious, pharmaceutic, phenomenal, phlegmatic, phraseology, pictorial, piquant, pique, plagiarize, platitudinous, platonic, plebeian, plenipotentiary, plethora, pneumatic, poignant, polity, poltroon, polyglot, pontifical, portentous, posterior, posthumous, potent, potential, pragmatic, preamble, precarious, precocious, precursor, predatory, predestination, predicament, preemptory, prelate, preliminary, preposterous, prerequisite, prerogative, presentiment, primogeniture, probation, probity, proclivity, procrastinate, prodigal, prodigious, prodigy, profligate, progenitor, proletarian, prolific, prolix, promiscuous, promissory, propaganda, propensity, prophylactic, propinquity, propitiatory, propitious, proprietary, prorogue, proselyte, prototype, protuberant, provender, proximity, prurient, psychical, psychological, puerile, pugnacious, puissant, punctilious, pungent, punitive, pusillanimous, putrescent, pyrotechnics. The coil of wire, being ____, instantly resumed its original shape. Some one must arrange these papers for publication; will you be their ____? Poe's mind had a bent toward ____: it could reason out a whole chain of circumstances from one or two known facts. He showed a disposition not to comply with these instructions; yes, he was ____. Rabbinical, rancorous, rapacious, ratiocination, rational, raucous, recalcitrant, recant, recapitulate, recession, reciprocal, reciprocate, recluse, recondite, recreant, recrudescence, rectilinear, rectitude, recumbent, redactor, redress, redound, refractory, refulgent, rejuvenate, relevant, rendezvous, rendition, reparation, repercussion, repertory, replenish, replete, replevin, reprehend, reprobate, repulsive, requisite, rescind, residue, residuum, resilient, resplendent, resurgence, resuscitate, reticulate, retribution, retrograde, retrospect, rigorous, risible, rodomontade, rudimentary, ruminate. His position carries no responsibility; it is a ____. The moon revolves about the earth, and is therefore the earth's ____. His work keeps him at his desk all day; it is ____ work. Your words incite men to disorder and rebellion; they are ____. Saccharine, sacerdotal, sacrament, sacrilege, salient, salubrious, sardonic, satellite, saturnine, schism, scurrilous, sectarian, secular, sedative, sedentary, seditious, sedulous, segregate, seismograph, senescent, sententious, septuagenarian, sequester, sibilant, similitude, sinecure, sinuous, solicitous, solstice, somnolent, sophisticated, sophistry, sorcery, spasmodic, specious, spirituelle, splenetic, spontaneity, sporadic, spurious, stipend, stipulate, stoical, stricture, stringency, stultify, stupendous, sublimity, suborn, subpoena, subsidiary, subsidy, substratum, subtend, subterfuge, subterranean, subvention, subvert, sudorific, supercilious, supernal, supervene, supine, supposititious, surreptitious, surrogate, surveillance, susceptible, sustenance, sycophantic, syllogism, sylvan, symmetrical, symposium, synchronize, synonymous, synopsis, synthesis. The small stream flows into the larger one and is its ____. The thick glass roof lets through sufficient light for us to see by; it is ____. You will not find him hard to manage; he has spirit enough, yet is ____. Tactile, tangible, tantamount, temerity, tenable, tenacious, tentative, tenuous, termagant, terrestrial, testimentary, thaumaturgic, therapeutic, titular, torso, tortuous, tractable, traduce, transcendent, transfiguration, transient, transitory, translucent, transverse, travesty, tribulation, tributary, truculent, truncate, turbid, turpitude, tyro. He is so extravagantly fond of his wife that I should call him ____. Christ died for others; it was a ____ death. The most notable quality in Defoe's narrative is its likeness to actual facts, or in a word, its ____. Ubiquity, ulterior, ululation, umbrage, unanimous, undulate, urbanity, usurious, uxorious, vacillate, vacuous, vandalism, variegate, velocity, venal, venereal, venial, venous, veracious, verdant, verisimilitude, vernacular, versatile, vestal, vibratory, vicarious, vicissitude, virulence, viscid, viscous, vitiate, vitreous, vituperate, vivacious, volatile, volition, voluminous, voluptuary, voluptuous, voracious, votive, vulnerable, whimsical, zealot. XI RETROSPECT DO you never, while occupying a dental chair and deploring the necessity that drives you to that uncomfortable seat, admire the skill of the dentist in the use of his instruments? A great many of these instruments lie at his hand. To you they appear bewildering, so slightly different are they from each other. Yet with unerring readiness the dentist lays hold of the one he needs. Now this facility of his is not a blessing with which a gracious heaven endowed him. It is the consequence and reward of hard study, and above all of work, hard work. You have been ambitious of like skill in the manipulation of words. Had you not been, you would never have undertaken this study. You have perceived that when you speak or write, words are your instruments. You have wished to learn how to use them. Now for every idea you shall ever have occasion to express await throngs of vocables, each presenting its claims as a fit medium. These you must pass in instantaneous review, these you must expertly appraise, out of these you must choose the words that will best serve your purpose. With practice, you will make your selections unconsciously. You will never, of course, quite attain the infallibility of the dentist; for linguistic instruments are more numerous than dental, and far more complex. But you will more and more nearly approximate the ideal, will more and more nearly find that right expression has become second nature with you. All this is conditioned upon labor faithful and steadfast. Without labor you will never be adept. At the outset of our study together we warned you that, though we should gather the material and point the way, you yourself must do the work. This book is not one to glance through. It is one to dwell with, to toil with. It exacts much of you--makes you, for each page you turn, pay with the sweat of your brain. But, assuming that you have done your part, what have you gained? Without answering this question at all fully, we may at this juncture engage in a brief retrospect. First of all, you have rid yourself of the notion that words are dead things, unrealities worthy of no more than wooden and mechanical employment. As much as anything else in the world, words are alive and responsive, are fraught with unmeasured possibilities of good or ill. You have taken due cognizance of the fact that words must be considered in the aggregate as well as individually, and have reckoned with the pitfalls and dangers as well as with the advantages of their use in combination. But the basis of everything is a keener knowledge of words severally. You have therefore come to study words with the zest and insight you exhibit (or should exhibit) in studying men. Incidentally, you have acquired the habit of looking up dictionary definitions, not merely to satisfy a present need, but also to add permanently to your linguistic resources. You have carried the study of individuals farther. You have come to know words inside and out. Such knowledge not only assists you in your dealings with your contemporaries; it illuminates for you great literature of the past that otherwise would remain obscure. How much keener, for example, is your understanding of Shakespeare's passage on the Seven Ages of Man because of your thorough acquaintance with the single word _pantaloon_! How quickly does the awe for big words slip from you when you perceive that _precocious_ is in origin the equivalent of _half-baked_! What intimacy of insight into words you feel when you find that a _companion_ is a _sharer of one's bread_! What a linking of language with life you discover when you learn the original signification of _presently_, of _idiot_, of _rival_, of _sandwich_, of _pocket handkerchief_! And what revelations as into a mystic fraternalism with words do you obtain when you confront such a phrase as "the bank _teller_" or "cut to the _quick_"! Not only have words become more like living beings to you; you have learned to think of them in relations analogous to the human. You can detect the blood kinship, for example, between _prescribe_ and _manuscript_, and know that the strain of _fact_ or _fie_ or _fy_ in a word is pretty sure to betoken making or doing. You know that there are elaborate intermarriages among words. You recognize _phonograph_, for example, as a married couple; you even have confidential word as to the dowry brought by each of the contracting parties to the new verbal household. You have discovered, further, that the language actually swarms with "pairs"--words joined with each other not in blood or by marriage but through meaning. You have so familiarized yourself with hundreds of these pairs that to think of one word is to call the other to mind. Finally, and in many respects most important of all, you have acquired a vast stock of synonyms. You have had it brought to your attention that the number of basic ideas in the world is surprisingly small; that for each of these ideas there is in our language one generic word; that most people use this one word constantly instead of seeking the subsidiary term that expresses a particular phase of the idea; and that you as a builder of your vocabulary must, while holding fast to the basic idea with one hand, reach out with the other for the fit, sure material of specific words. Nor have you rested in the mere perception of theory. You have had abundant practice, have yourself covered the ground foot by foot. You can therefore proceed with reasonable freedom from the commoner ideas of the human mind to that expression of definite aspects of them which is anything but common. You have not, of course, achieved perfection. There still is much for you to do. There always will be. Nevertheless in the ways just reviewed, and in various other ways not mentioned in this chapter, you have made yourself verbally rich. You are one of the millionaires of language. When you speak, it is not with stammering incompetence, but with confident readiness. When you write, it is with energy and assurance in the very flow of the ink. Where you had long been a slave, you have become a freeman and can look your fellows in the eye. You have the best badge of culture a human being can possess. You have power at your tongue's end. You have the proud satisfaction of having wrought well, and the inspiration of knowing that whatever verbal need may arise, you are trained and equipped to grapple with it triumphantly. APPENDICES _Appendix I_ THE DRIFT OF OUR RURAL POPULATION CITYWARD (An editorial) To an individual who from whatever motives of personal advantage or mere curiosity has made himself an observer of current tendencies, the drift of our rural population cityward gives food for serious reflection. This drift is one of the most pronounced of the social and economic phenomena of the day. Its consequences upon the life, welfare, and future of the great nation to which we are proud to acknowledge our whole-hearted allegiance are matters of such paramount importance to all concerned that we should turn aside more often than we do from the distracting exactions of our ordinary activities to give them prolonged and earnest consideration. A generation or so ago human beings were content to spend the full term of their earthly existence amid rural surroundings, or if in their declining days they longed for more of the comforts and associations which are among the cravings of mortality, it was an easy proposition to move to the nearest village or, if they were too high and mighty for this simple measure to satisfy them, they could indulge in the more grandiose performance of residing in the county seat. But nowadays our people want more. Rich or poor, tall or dumpy, tottering grandmothers or babies in swaddling-clothes, they long for ampler pastures. Their brawny arms or hoary heads must bedeck nothing less than the metropolis itself, and perchance put shoulders to the wheel in the incessant grind of the urban treadmill. Can you beat it? Unquestioned profit does not attend the migration. It stands to reason that some of the very advantages sought have been sacrificed on the altar of the drift cityward. Let us say you have your individual domicile or the cramped and sunless apartment you dub your habitation within corporate limits. Does that mean that the privileges of the city are at your disposal, so that you have merely to reach forth your hand and pluck them? Well, hardly! You certainly do not reside in the downtown section, or if you do, you wish to heaven you didn't. And you can reach this section only with delay and inconvenience, whether in the hours of business or in the subsequent period devoted to the glitter of nocturnal revelry and amusement. But whatever the disadvantages of the city, the people who endure them are convinced that to go back to the vines and figtrees of their native heath would be jumping out of the frying pan into the fire. Why? Well, for one thing, there is no such thing as leisure in the areas that lie beyond those vast aggregations of humanity which constitute our cities. Not only are there innumerable and seemingly interminable chores that must follow the regular occupations of the day, but a thousand emergencies due to chance, weather, or the natural cussedness of things must be disposed of as they arise, regardless of what plans the rustic swain cherishes for the use of his spare time. Urban laborers have contrived by one means or another to bring about a limitation of the number of hours per diem they are forced to toil. To the farmers such an alleviation of their hardships is not within the realm of practicability. They kick about it of course. They say it's a blooming nuisance. But neither their heartburnings nor their struggles can efface it as a fact. Again, the means of entertainment are more limited, and that by a big lot, with the farmer than with those who dwell in the cities. It is all very well to talk about the blessings of the rural telephone, rural free delivery, and the automobile. These things do make communication easier than it used to be, but after all they're only a drop in the bucket and do little to stop the drift cityward. We may remark just here that if you live a thousand miles from nowhere and are willing to drive your Tin Lizzie into town for "the advantages," you aren't likely to get much even along the line of the movies, and you'll get less still if what you're after is an A-1 school for your progeny. Finally, the widespread impression that the farmer is a bloated and unscrupulous profiteer has done much to disgust him with his station and employment in life. We don't say he's the one and only when it comes to the virtues. Maybe he hasn't sprouted any wings yet. What if he hasn't? The cities, with their brothels, their big business, and their municipal governments--you wouldn't have the face to say that there's anything wrong with them, now would you? Oh, no! Of course not! The farmer pays high for his machinery and goes clear to the bottom of his pocketbook when he has to buy shoes or a sack of flour, but let him have a steer's hide or a wagon load of wheat to sell, and it's somebody else's ox that's gored. Consumers pay big prices for farm products, goodness knows, but they don't pay them to the farmer. Not on your tintype. The middleman gets his, you needn't question that. We beg pardon a thousand times. We mean the middle_men_. There's no end to those human parasites. And so farmer after farmer breaks up the old homestead and contributes his mite to the drift cityward. What will be the result that comes out of it all? The effect upon the farmer deserves an editorial all to itself. Here we must limit ourselves to the effects on the future of our beloved American nation. And even these we can now do no more than mention; we lack space to elaborate them. One effect, if the tendency continues, will be such a reduction in home-produced foodstuffs that we shall have to import from other countries lying abroad a good portion of the means of our physical sustenance, and shall face such an increase in the cost of the same that thousands and thousands of our people will find it increasingly harder as the years pass by to maintain their relative economic position. Another effect will be that our civilization, which to this point has sprawled over broad acres, will become an urban civilization, penned in amid conditions, restraints, privations, and perhaps also opportunities unprecedented in our past history and unknown to the experience we have had hitherto. A final effect will be that our most conservative class, the rural populace, will no longer present resistance that is formidable to the innovations which those who hold extreme views are forever exhorting us to embrace; and the result may well be that the disintegration of this staying and stabilizing element in our citizenship--one that retards and mollifies if it does not inhibit change--will produce consequences in its train which may be as dire as they are difficult to foretell. _Appendix_ 2 CAUSES FOR THE AMERICAN SPIRIT OF LIBERTY (From the _Speech on Conciliation with the Colonies_) By EDMUND BURKE In this character of the Americans, a love of freedom is the predominating feature which marks and distinguishes the whole; and as an ardent is always a jealous affection, your Colonies become suspicious, restive, and untractable whenever they see the least attempt to wrest from them by force, or shuffle from them by chicane, what they think the only advantage worth living for. This fierce spirit of liberty is stronger in the English Colonies probably than in any other people of the earth, and this from a great variety of powerful causes; which, to understand the true temper of their minds and the direction which this spirit takes, it will not be amiss to lay open somewhat more largely. First, the people of the Colonies are descendants of Englishmen. England, Sir, is a nation which still, I hope, respects, and formerly adored, her freedom. The Colonists emigrated from you when this part of your character was most predominant; and they took this bias and direction the moment they parted from your hands. They are therefore not only devoted to liherty, but to liberty according to English ideas, and on English principles. Abstract liberty, like other mere abstractions, is not to be found. Liberty inheres in some sensible object; and every nation has formed to itself some favorite point, which by way of eminence becomes the criterion of their happiness. It happened, you know, Sir, that the great contests for freedom in this country were from the earliest times chiefly upon the question of taxing. Most of the contests in the ancient commonwealths turned primarily on the right of election of magistrates; or on the balance among the several orders of the state. The question of money was not with them so immediate. But in England it was otherwise. On this point of taxes the ablest pens, and most eloquent tongues, have been exercised; the greatest spirits have acted and suffered. In order to give the fullest satisfaction concerning the importance of this point, it was not only necessary for those who in argument defended the excellence of the English Constitution to insist on this privilege of granting money as a dry point of fact, and to prove that the right had been acknowledged in ancient parchments and blind usages to reside in a certain body called a House of Commons. They went much farther; they attempted to prove, and they succeeded, that in theory it ought to be so, from the particular nature of a House of Commons as an immediate representative of the people, whether the old records had delivered this oracle or not. They took infinite pains to inculcate, as a fundamental principle, that in all monarchies the people must in effect themselves, mediately or immediately, possess the power of granting their own money, or no shadow of liberty can subsist. The Colonies draw from you, as with their life-blood, these ideas and principles. Their love of liberty, as with you, fixed and attached on this specific point of taxing. Liberty might be safe, or might be endangered, in twenty other particulars, without their being much pleased or alarmed. Here they felt its pulse; and as they found that beat, they thought themselves sick or sound. I do not say whether they were right or wrong in applying your general arguments to their own case. It is not easy, indeed, to make a monopoly of theorems and corollaries. The fact is, that they did thus apply those general arguments; and your mode of governing them, whether through lenity or indolence, through wisdom or mistake, confirmed them in the imagination that they, as well as you, had an interest in these common principles. They were further confirmed in this pleasing error by the form of their provincial legislative assemblies. Their governments are popular in an high degree; some are merely popular; in all, the popular representative is the most weighty; and this share of the people in their ordinary government never fails to inspire them with lofty sentiments, and with a strong aversion from whatever tends to deprive them of their chief importance. If anything were wanting to this necessary operation of the form of government, religion would have given it a complete effect. Religion, always a principle of energy, in this new people is no way worn out or impaired; and their mode of professing it is also one main cause of this free spirit. The people are Protestants; and of that kind which is the most adverse to all implicit submission of mind and opinion. This is a persuasion not only favorable to liberty, but built upon it. I do not think, Sir, that the reason of this averseness in the dissenting churches from all that looks like absolute government is so much to be sought in their religious tenets, as in their history. Every one knows that the Roman Catholic religion is at least coeval with most of the governments where it prevails; that it has generally gone hand in hand with them, and received great favor and every kind of support from authority. The Church of England too was formed from her cradle under the nursing care of regular government. But the dissenting interests have sprung up in direct opposition to all the ordinary powers of the world, and could justify that opposition only on a strong claim to natural liberty. Their very existence depended on the powerful and unremitted assertion of that claim. All Protestantism, even the most cold and passive, is a sort of dissent. But the religion most prevalent in our Northern Colonies is a refinement on the principle of resistance; it is the dissidence of dissent, and the protestantism of the Protestant religion. This religion, under a variety of denominations agreeing in nothing but in the communion of the spirit of liberty, is predominant in most of the Northern Provinces, where the Church of England, notwithstanding its legal rights, is in reality no more than a sort of private sect, not composing most probably the tenth of the people. The Colonists left England when this spirit was high, and in the emigrants was the highest of all; and even that stream of foreigners which has been constantly flowing into these Colonies has, for the greatest part, been composed of dissenters from the establishments of their several countries, who have brought with them a temper and character far from alien to that of the people with whom they mixed. Sir, I can perceive by their manner that some gentlemen object to the latitude of this description, because in the Southern Colonies the Church of England forms a large body, and has a regular establishment. It is certainly true. There is, however, a circumstance attending these Colonies which, in my opinion, fully counterbalances this difference, and makes the spirit of liberty still more high and haughty than in those to the northward. It is that in Virginia and the Carolinas they have a vast multitude of slaves. Where this is the case in any part of the world, those who are free are by far the most proud and jealous of their freedom. Freedom is to them not only an enjoyment, but a kind of rank and privilege. Not seeing there, that freedom, as in countries where it is a common blessing and as broad and general as the air, may be united with much abject toil, with great misery, with all the exterior of servitude; liberty looks, amongst them, like something that is more noble and liberal. I do not mean, Sir, to commend the superior morality of this sentiment, which has at least as much pride as virtue in it; but I cannot alter the nature of man. The fact is so; and these people of the Southern Colonies are much more strongly, and with an higher and more stubborn spirit, attached to liberty than those to the northward. Such were all the ancient commonwealths; such were our Gothic ancestors; such in our days were the Poles; and such will be all masters of slaves, who are not slaves themselves. In such a people the haughtiness of domination combines with the spirit of freedom, fortifies it, and renders it invincible. Permit me, Sir, to add another circumstance in our Colonies which contributes no mean part towards the growth and effect of this untractable spirit. I mean their education. In no country perhaps in the world is the law so general a study. The profession itself is numerous and powerful; and in most provinces it takes the lead. The greater number of the deputies sent to the Congress were lawyers. But all who read, and most do read, endeavor to obtain some smattering in that science. I have been told by an eminent bookseller, that in no branch of his business, after tracts of popular devotion, were so many books as those on the law exported to the Plantations. The Colonists have now fallen into the way of printing them for their own use. I hear that they have sold nearly as many of Blackstone's Commentaries in America as in England. General Gage marks out this disposition very particularly in a letter on your table. He states that all the people in his government are lawyers, or smatterers in law; and that in Boston they have been enabled, by successful chicane, wholly to evade many parts of one of your capital penal constitutions. The smartness of debate will say that this knowledge ought to teach them more clearly the rights of legislature, their obligations to obedience, and the penalties of rebellion. All this is mighty well. But my honorable and learned friend on the floor, who condescends to mark what I say for animadversion, will disdain that ground. He has heard, as well as I, that when great honors and great emoluments do not win over this knowledge to the service of the state, it is a formidable adversary to government. If the spirit be not tamed and broken by these happy methods, it is stubborn and litigious. _Abeunt studia in mores_. This study renders men acute, inquisitive, dexterous, prompt in attack, ready in defence, full of resources. In other countries, the people, more simple, and of a less mercurial cast, judge of an ill principle in government only by an actual grievance; here they anticipate the evil, and judge of the pressure of the grievance by the badness of the principle. They augur misgovernment at a distance, and snuff the approach of tyranny in every tainted breeze. The last cause of this disobedient spirit in the Colonies is hardly less powerful than the rest, as it is not merely moral, but laid deep in the natural constitution of things. Three thousand miles of ocean lie between you and them. No contrivance can prevent the effect of this distance in weakening government. Seas roll, and months pass, between the order and the execution; and the want of a speedy explanation of a single point is enough to defeat a whole system. You have, indeed, winged ministers of vengeance, who carry your bolts in their pounces to the remotest verge of the sea. But there a power steps in that limits the arrogance of raging passions and furious elements, and says, _So far shalt thou go, and no farther_. Who are you, that you should fret and rage, and bite the chains of nature? Nothing worse happens to you than does to all nations who have extensive empire; and it happens in all the forms into which empire can be thrown. In large bodies the circulation of power must be less vigorous at the extremities. Nature has said it. The Turk cannot govern Egypt and Arabia and Kurdistan as he governs Thrace; nor has he the same dominion in Crimea and Algiers which he has at Brusa and Smyrna. Despotism itself is obliged to truck and huckster. The Sultan gets such obedience as he can. He governs with a loose rein, that he may govern at all; and the whole of the force and vigor of his authority in his center is derived from a prudent relaxation in all his borders. Spain, in her provinces, is, perhaps, not so well obeyed as you are in yours. She complies, too; she submits; she watches times. This is the immutable condition, the eternal law of extensive and detached empire. Then, Sir, from these six capital sources--of descent, of form of government, of religion in the Northern Provinces, of manners in the Southern, of education, of the remoteness of situation from the first mover of government-from all these causes a fierce spirit of liberty has grown up. It has grown with the growth of the people in your Colonies, and increased with the increase of their wealth; a spirit that unhappily meeting with an exercise of power in England which, however lawful, is not reconcilable to any ideas of liberty, much less with theirs, has kindled this flame that is ready to consume us. _Appendix 3_ PARABLE OF THE SOWER (Matthew 13:3,8 and 18-23) And he spake many things unto them in parables, saying, Behold, a sower went forth to sow; And when he sowed, some seeds fell by the way side, and the fowls came and devoured them up: Some fell upon stony places, where they had not much earth: and forthwith they sprung up, because they had no deepness of earth: And when the sun was up, they were scorched; and because they had no root, they withered away. And some fell among thorns; and the thorns sprung up, and choked them: But other fell into good ground, and brought forth fruit, some an hundredfold, some sixtyfold, some thirtyfold. Hear ye therefore the parable of the sower. When any one heareth the word of the kingdom, and understandeth it not, then cometh the wicked one, and catcheth away that which was sown in his heart. This is he which received seed by the way side. But he that received the seed into stony places, the same is he that heareth the word, and anon with joy receiveth it. Yet he hath not root in himself, but dureth for a while: for when tribulation or persecution ariseth because of the word, by and by he is offended. He also that received seed among the thorns is he that heareth the word; and the care of this world, and the deceitfulness of riches, choke the word, and he becometh unfruitful. But he that received seed into the good ground is he that heareth the word, and understandeth it; which also beareth fruit, and bringeth forth, some an hundredfold, some sixty, some thirty. _Appendix 4_ THE SEVEN AGES OF MAN _(As You Like It, II, vii, 139-166)_ By WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players: They have their exits and their entrances; And one man in his time plays many parts, His acts being seven ages. At first the infant, Mewling and puking in the nurse's arms. And then the whining school-boy, with his satchel, And shining morning face, creeping like snail Unwillingly to school. And then the lover, Sighing like furnace, with a woful ballad Made to his mistress' eyebrow. Then a soldier, Full of strange oaths, and bearded like the pard Jealous in honor, sudden and quick in quarrel, Seeking the bubble reputation Even in the cannon's mouth. And then the justice, In fair round belly with good capon lin'd, With eyes severe, and beard of formal cut, Full of wise saws and modern instances; And so he plays his part. The sixth age shifts Into the lean and slipper'd pantaloon, With spectacles on nose and pouch on side, His youthful hose well say'd, a world too wide For his shrunk shank; and his big manly voice, Turning again toward childish treble, pipes And whistles in his sound. Last scene of all, That ends this strange eventful history, Is second childishness and mere oblivion, Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything. _Appendix 5_ THE CASTAWAY (From _Robinson Crusoe_) By Daniel Defoe And now our case was very dismal indeed; for we all saw plainly that the sea went so high that the boat could not escape, and that we should be inevitably drowned. As to making sail, we had none, nor, if we had, could we have done anything with it; so we worked at the oar towards the land, though with heavy hearts, like men going to execution; for we all knew that when the boat came near the shore, she would be dashed in a thousand pieces by the beach of the sea. However, we committed our souls to God in the most earnest manner; and the wind driving us towards the shore, we hastened our destruction with our own hands, pulling as well as we could towards land. What the shore was, whether rock or sand, whether steep or shoal, we knew not; the only hope that could rationally give us the least shadow of expectation, was if we might happen into some bay or gulf, or the mouth of some river, where by great chance we might have run our boat in, or got under the lee of the land, and perhaps made smooth water. But there was nothing of this appeared; but as we made nearer and nearer the shore, the land looked more frightful than the sea. After we had rowed, or rather driven, about a league and a half, as we reckoned it, a raging wave, mountain-like, came rolling astern of us, and plainly bade us expect the _coup de grâce_. In a word, it took us with such a fury that it overset the boat at once; and separating us as well from the boat as from one another, gave us not time hardly to say, "O God!" for we were all swallowed up in a moment. Nothing can describe the confusion of thought which I felt, when I sank into the water; for though I swam very well, yet I could not deliver myself from the waves so as to draw breath, till that wave having driven me, or rather carried me, a vast way on towards the shore, and having spent itself, went back, and left me upon the land almost dry, but half dead with the water I took in. I had so much presence of mind, as well as breath left, that seeing myself nearer the mainland than I expected, I got upon my feet, and endeavored to make on towards the land as fast as I could, before another wave should return and take me up again; but I soon found it was impossible to avoid it; for I saw the sea come after me as high as a great hill, and as furious as an enemy, which I had no means or strength to contend with: my business was to hold my breath, and raise myself upon the water, if I could; and so by swimming to preserve my breathing, and pilot myself towards the shore if possible; my greatest concern now being that the wave, as it would carry me a great way toward the shore when it came on, might not carry me back again with it when it gave back towards the sea. The wave that came upon me again buried me at once twenty or thirty feet deep in its own body, and I could feel myself I carried with a mighty force and swiftness towards the shore a very great way; but I held my breath, and assisted myself to swim still forward with all my might. I was ready to burst with holding my breath, when as I felt myself rising up, so, to my immediate relief, I found my head and hands shoot out above the surface of the water; and though it was not two seconds of time that I could keep myself so, yet it relieved me greatly, gave me breath and new courage. I was covered again with water a good while, but not so long but I held it out; and finding the water had spent itself, and began to return, I struck forward against the return of the waves, and felt ground again with my feet. I stood still a few moments to recover breath, and till the waters went from me, and then took to my heels, and ran with what strength I had, farther towards the shore. But neither would this deliver me from the fury of the sea, which came pouring in after me again; and twice more I was lifted up by the waves and carried forwards as before, the shore being very flat. The last time of these two had well-nigh been fatal to me; for the sea having hurried me along, as before, landed me, or rather dashed me, against a piece of a rock, and that with such force as it left me senseless, and indeed helpless, as to my own deliverance; for the blow, taking my side and breast, beat the breath as it were quite out of my body; and had it returned again immediately, I must have been strangled in the water; but I recovered a little before the return of the waves, and seeing I should be covered again with the water, I resolved to hold fast by a piece of the rock, and so to hold my breath, if possible, till the wave went back. Now, as the waves were not so high as at first, being nearer land, I held my hold till the wave abated, and then fetched another run, which brought me so near the shore that the next wave, though it went over me, yet did not so swallow me up as to carry me away; and the next run I took I got to the mainland; where, to my great comfort, I clambered up the cliffs of the shore, and sat me down upon the grass, free from danger and quite out of the reach of the water. I was now landed, and safe on shore, and began to look up and thank God that my life was saved, in a case wherein there was some minutes before scarce any room to hope. I believe it is impossible to express, to the life, what the ecstasies and transports of the soul are when it is so saved, as I may say, out of the very grave: and I do not wonder now at that custom, when a malefactor, who has the halter about his neck, is tied up, and just going to be turned off, and has a reprieve brought to him--I say, I do not wonder that they bring a surgeon with it, to let him blood that very moment they tell him of it, that the surprise may not drive the animal spirits from the heart, and overwhelm him. "For sudden joys, like griefs, confound at first." I walked about on the shore, lifting up my hands, and my whole being, as I may say, wrapt up in a contemplation of my deliverance; making a thousand gestures and motions, which I cannot describe; reflecting upon all my comrades that were drowned, and that there should not be one soul saved but myself; for, as for them, I never saw them afterwards, or any sign of them, except three of their hats, one cap, and two shoes that were not fellows. I cast my eyes to the stranded vessel, when, the breach and froth of the sea being so big, I could hardly see it, it lay so far off; and considered, Lord! how was it possible I could get on shore? After I had solaced my mind with the comfortable part of my condition, I began to look round me, to see what kind of place I was in, and what was next to be done: and I soon found my comforts abate, and that, in a word, I had a dreadful deliverance: for I was wet, had no clothes to shift me, nor anything either to eat or drink, to comfort me; neither did I see any prospect before me but that of perishing with hunger, or being devoured by wild beasts: and that which was particularly afflicting to me was, that I had no weapon, either to hunt and kill any creature for my sustenance, or to defend myself against any other creature that might desire to kill me for theirs. In a word, I had nothing about me but a knife, a tobacco-pipe, and a little tobacco in a box. This was all my provision; and this threw me into terrible agonies of mind, that for awhile I ran about like a madman. Night coming upon me, I began with a heavy heart, to consider what would be my lot if there were any ravenous beasts in that country, seeing at night they always come abroad for their prey. All the remedy that offered to my thoughts, at that time, was to get up into a thick busby tree, like a fir, but thorny, which grew near me, and where I resolved to sit all night, and consider the next day what death I should die, for as yet I saw no prospect of life. I walked about a furlong from the shore, to see if I could find any fresh water to drink, which I did to my great joy; and having drunk, and put a little tobacco in my mouth to prevent hunger, I went to the tree, and getting up into it, endeavored to place myself so that if I should sleep I might not fall. And having cut me a short stick, like a truncheon, for my defense, I took up my lodging; and being excessively fatigued, I fell fast asleep, and slept as comfortably as, I believe, few could have done in my condition, and found myself more refreshed with it than I think I ever was on such an occasion. When I waked it was broad day, the weather clear, and the storm abated, so that the sea did not rage and swell as before; but that which surprised me most was, that the ship was lifted off in the night from the sand where she lay, by the swelling of the tide, and was driven up almost as far as the rock which I at first mentioned, where I had been so bruised by the wave dashing me against it. This being within about a mile from the shore where I was, and the ship seeming to stand upright still, I wished myself on board, that at least I might save some necessary things for my use. When I came down from my apartment in the tree, I looked about me again, and the first thing I found was the boat, which lay, as the wind and sea had tossed her up, upon the land, about two miles on my right hand. I walked as far as I could upon the shore to have got to her; but found a neck, or inlet, of water between me and the boat, which was about half a mile broad; so I came back for the present, being more intent upon getting at the ship, where I hoped to find something for my present subsistence. A little after noon I found the sea very calm and the tide ebbed so far out, that I could come within a quarter of a mile of the ship. And here I found a fresh renewing of my grief; for I saw evidently that if we had kept on board, we had been all safe: that is to say, we had all got safe on shore, and I had not been so miserable as to be left entirely destitute of all comfort and company, as I now was. This forced tears to my eyes again; but as there was little relief in that, I resolved, if possible, to get to the ship-, so I pulled off my clothes, for the weather was hot to extremity, and took the water. But when I came to the ship, my difficulty was still greater to know how to get on board; for, as she lay aground, and high out of the water, there was nothing within my reach to lay hold of. I swam round her twice, and the second time I espied a small piece of rope, which I wondered I did not see at first, hanging down by the fore-chains so low that, with great difficulty, I got hold of it, and by the help of that rope got up into the forecastle of the ship. Here I found that the ship was bulged, and had a great deal of water in her hold; but that she lay so on the side of a bank of hard sand, or rather earth, that her stern lay lifted up upon the bank, and her head low, almost to the water. By this means all her quarter was free, and all that was in that part was dry; for you may be sure my first work was to search, and to see what was spoiled and what was free. And, first, I found that all the ship's provisions were dry and untouched by the water, and being very well disposed to eat, I went to the bread-room, and filled my pockets with biscuit, and ate it as I went about other things, for I had no time to lose. I also found some rum in the great cabin, of which I took a large dram, and which I had, indeed, need enough of to spirit me for what was before me. Now I wanted nothing but a boat, to furnish myself with many things which I foresaw would be very necessary to me. It was in vain to sit still and wish for what was not to be had; and this extremity roused my application. We had several spare yards, and two or three large spars of wood, and a spare topmast or two in the ship: I resolved to fall tp work with these, and I flung as many of them overboard as I could manage for their weight, tying every one with a rope, that they might not drive away. When this was done I went down the ship's side, and pulling them to me I tied four of them together at both ends, as well as I could, in the form of a raft, and laying two or three short pieces of plank upon them, crossways, I found I could walk upon it very well, but that it was not able to bear any great weight, the pieces being too light. So I went to work, and with the carpenter's saw I cut a spare topmast into three lengths, and added them to my raft, with a great deal of labor and pains. But the hope of furnishing myself with necessaries encouraged me to go beyond what I should have been able to have done upon another occasion. My raft was now strong enough to bear any reasonable weight. My next care was what to load it with, and how to preserve what I laid upon it from the surf of the sea: but I was not long considering this. I first laid all the planks or boards upon it that I could get, and having considered well what I most wanted, I first got three of the seamen's chests, which I had broken open and emptied, and lowered them down upon my raft; the first of these I filled with provisions--viz., bread, rice, three Dutch cheeses, five pieces of dried goat's flesh (which we lived much upon), and a little remainder of European corn, which had been laid by for some fowls which we brought to sea with us, but the fowls were killed. There had been some barley and wheat together; but, to my great disappointment, I found afterwards that the rats had eaten or spoiled it all. As for liquors, I found several cases of bottles belonging to our skipper, in which were some cordial waters; and, in all, about five or six gallons of arrack. These I stowed by themselves, there being no need to put them into the chest, nor any room for them. While I was doing this, I found the tide began to flow, though very calm; and I had the mortification to see my coat, shirt, and waistcoat, which I had left on shore upon the sand, swim away. As for my breeches, which were only linen, and open-kneed, I swam on board in them and my stockings. However, this put me upon rummaging for clothes, of which I found enough, but took no more than I wanted for present use, for I had other things which my eye was more upon; as, first, tools to work with on shore: and it was after long searching that I found out the carpenter's chest, which was indeed a very useful prize to me, and much more valuable than a ship-lading of gold would have been at that time. I got it down to my raft, whole as it was, without losing time to look into it, for I knew in general what it contained. My next care was for some ammunition and arms. There were two very good fowling-pieces in the great cabin, and two pistols. These I secured first, with some powder-horns, a small bag of shot, and two old rusty swords. I knew there were three barrels of powder in the ship, but knew not where our gunner had stowed them; but with much search I found them, two of them dry and good, the third had taken water. Those two I got to my raft, with the arms. And now I thought myself pretty well freighted, and began to think how I should get to shore with them, having neither sail, oar, nor rudder; and the least capful of wind would have overset all my navigation. I had three encouragements: first, a smooth, calm sea; secondly, the tide rising, and setting in to the shore; thirdly, what little wind there was blew me towards the land. And thus, having found two or three broken oars, belonging to the boat, and besides the tools which were in the chest, two saws, an axe, and a hammer, with this cargo I put to sea. For a mile, or thereabouts, my raft went very well, only that I found it drive a little distant from the place where I had landed before: by which I perceived that there was some indraught of the water, and consequently, I hoped to find some creek or river there, which I might malze use of as a port to get to land with my cargo. As I imagined, so it was. There appeared before me a little opening of the land. I found a strong current of the tide set into it; so I guided my raft as well as I could, to keep in the middle of the stream. But here I had like to have suffered a second shipwreck, which, if I had, I think verily would have broken my heart; for, knowing nothing of the coast, my raft ran aground at one end of it upon a shoal, and not being aground at the other end, it wanted but a little that all my cargo had slipped off towards the end that was afloat, and so fallen into the water. I did my utmost, by setting my back against the chests, to keep them in their places, but could not thrust off the raft with all my strength; neither durst I stir from the posture I was in; but holding up the chests with all my might, I stood in that manner near half an hour, in which time the rising of the water brought me a little more upon a level; and a little after, the water still rising, my raft floated again, and I thrust her off with the oar I had into the channel, and then driving up higher, I at length found myself in the mouth of a little river, with land on both sides, and a strong current or tide running up. I looked on both sides for a proper place to get to shore, for I was not willing to be driven too high up the river; hoping in time to see some ship at sea, and therefore resolved to place myself as near the coast as I could. At length I spied a little cove on the right shore of the creek, to which, with great pain and difficulty, I guided my raft, and at last got so near, that reaching ground with my oar, I could thrust her directly in. But here I had like to have dipped all my cargo into the sea again; for that shore lying pretty steep-that is to say, sloping--there was no place to land but where one end of my float, if it ran on shore, would lie so high, and the other sink lower, as before, that it would endanger my cargo again. All that I could do was to wait till the tide was at the highest, keeping the raft with my oar like an anchor, to hold the side of it fast to the shore, near a flat piece of ground, which I expected the water would flow over; and so it did. As soon as I found water enough, for my raft drew about a foot of water, I thrust her upon that flat piece of ground, and there fastened or moored her, by sticking my two broken oars into the ground-one on one side, near one end, and one on the other side, near the other end; and thus I lay till the water ebbed away, and left my raft and all my cargo safe on shore. _Appendix 6_ READING LISTS One of the best ways to _know_ words is through seeing them used by the masters. For this reason, as well as for many others, you should read extensively in good literature. The following lists of prose works may prove useful for your guidance. They are not intended to be exclusive, not intended to designate "the hundred best books." Rather do they name some good books of fairly varied types. These are not all of equal merit, even in their use of words. Some use words with nice discrimination, some with splendid vividness and force. For each author only one or two books are named, but in many instances you will wish to read further in the author, perhaps indeed his entire works. <Biography and Autobiography> Boswell, James: _Life of Samuel Johnson_ Bradford, Gamaliel: _Lee the American; American Portraits, 1875-1900_ Franklin, Benjamin: _Autobiography_ Grant, U. S.: _Personal Memoirs_ Irving, Washington: _Life of Goldsmith_ Paine, A. B.: _Life of Mark Twain_ Walton, Izaak: _Lives_ <Essays, Adventure, etc.> Addison, Joseph: _Spectator Papers_ Bryce, Sir James: _The American Commonwealth_ Burke, Edmund: _Speech on Conciliation_ Burroughs, John: _Wake Robin_ Chesterton, G. K.: _Heretics_ Crothers, S. M.: _The Gentle Reader_ Dana, R. H., Jr.: Two _Years Before the Mast_ Darwin, Charles: _Origin of Species_ Emerson, R. W.: _Essays_ Irving, Washington: _Sketch Book_ Lincoln, Abraham: _Speeches and Addresses_ Lucas, E. V.: _Old Lamps for New_ Macaulay, T. B.: _Essays_ Muir, John: _The Mountains of California_ Thoreau, H. D.: _Walden_ Twain, Mark: _Life on the Mississippi_ <Fiction> Allen, James Lane: _The Choir Invisible_ Austen, Jane: _Pride and Prejudice_ Barrie, Sir James M.: _Sentimental Tommie_ Bennett, Arnold: _The Old Wives' Tale_ Blackmore, R. D.: _Lorna Doone_ Bunyan, John: _Pilgrim's Progress_ Cable, G. W.: _Old Creole Days_ Conrad, Joseph: _The Nigger of the Narcissus_ Defoe, Daniel: _Robinson Crusoe_ Dickens, Charles: _David Copperfield_ Eliot, George: _Adam Bede_ Galsworthy, John: _The Patrician_ Goldsmith, Oliver: _The Vicar of Wakefield_ Hardy, Thomas: _The Return of the Native_ Harte, Bret: _The Luck of Roaring Camp_ (short story) Hawthorne, Nathaniel: _The Scarlet Letter_ Hergesheimer, Joseph: _Java Head_ Hudson, W. H.: _Green Mansions_ Kingsley, Charles: _Westward Ho_! Kipling, Rudyard: _Plain Tales from the Hills_ (short stories) London, Jack: _The Call of the Wild_ Merrick, Leonard: _The Man Who Understood Women (volume of short stories); _The Actor Manager_ Mitchell, S. Weir: _Hugh Wynne, Free Quaker_ Norris, Frank: _The Octopus_ Poe, Edgar Allan: _The Fall of the House of Usher_ (short story) Poole, Ernest: _The Harbor_ Scott, Sir Walter: _Ivanhoe_ Smith, F. Hopkinson: _Colonel Carter of Cartersville_ Stevenson, R. L.: _Treasure Island_ Tarkington, Booth: _Monsieur Beaucaire_ Thackeray, W. M.: _Vanity Fair_ Twain, Mark: _Huckleberry Finn_ Wells, H. G.: _Tono Bungay_ Wharton, Edith: _Ethan Frome_ Wister, Owen: _The Virginian_ INDEX. The index comprises, besides miscellaneous items, four large classes of matter: (1) topics, including many minor ones not given separate textual captions; (2) all individual words and members of pairs explained or commented on in the text; (3) the key syllables, but not the separate words, of family groups; (4) the first or generic term, but not the other terms, in all assemblies of synonyms; hence, this book can be used as a handbook of ordinarily used synonyms. _Abandon_, Synonyms of, _Abase_, Synonyms of, _Abettor_, Synonyms of, _Abolish_, Synonyms of, _Abridge_ Abstract vs. concrete terms. Also see _Words_ _Absurd_ _Accumulate_ _Acknowledge_, Synonyms of, _Acquit_, Synonyms of, _Act_ family _Active_, Synonyms of, _Advise_, Synonyms of, Aeronautics, Familiar terms in, _Affair_ _Affect_ _Affecting_, Synonyms of, _Affront_, Synonyms of, _Afraid_, Synonyms of, _Ag_ family _Agnostic_, Synonyms of, _Allay_, Synonyms of, _Allopath_ _Allow_, Synonyms of, _Altitude_ _Amicable_ _Amuse_, Synonyms of, Analysis. See _Vocabulary_ and _Synonyms_ Analysis, Rhetorical, Anglo-Saxon words in modern English. See _Native words_ _Anim_ family _Anni, annu_ family _Announce_, Synonyms of, _Answer_, Synonyms of, _Antipathy_, Synonyms of, Antonyms _Appreciate_ _Apprehend_ _Apricot_ _Ardor_ _Argument_ _Artful_ _Artifice_, Synonyms of, _Ascend_ _Ascend_, Synonyms of, _Ascribe_ _Ascribe_, Synonyms of, _Ask_, Synonyms of, _Assail_ _Associate_, Synonyms of, _Attach_, Synonyms of, _Attack_; Synonyms of, _Attention_ _Audi, auri_ family Audience, Adapting discourse to, _Auto_ family _Avert_ _Awkward_, Synonyms of, _Backhanded_ _Bald heads_ _Bare_ _Base_ _Bear_ _Bedlam_ _Beef_ _Begin_, Synonyms of, _Belief_, Synonyms of, _Belittle_, Synonyms of, _Bind_, Synonyms of, _Bit_, Synonyms of, _Bite_, Synonyms of, Blood relationships between words. Small groups of words so related. Also see _Words_ _Bluff_, Synonyms of, _Boast_, Synonyms of, _Body_, Synonyms of, _Bold_ _Bombastic_, Synonyms of, Books of synonyms, List of, _Boor_ _Boorish_, Synonyms of, _Booty_, Synonyms of, Boys, Kinds of, _Brand, brun_ family _Break_ _Break_, Synonyms of, _Breakfast_ _Bridegroom_ _Bright_ _Brittle_, Synonyms of, _Brotherly_ _Building_, Synonyms of, Burke, Edmund. See _Causes for the American Spirit of Liberty_ _Burn_ family _Burn_, Synonyms of, _Burn with indignation_ _Busy_, Synonyms of, _By and by_ _Cad_ family _Calf_ _Call_, Synonyms of, _Calm_, Synonyms of, _Cant_ family _Cap(t)_ family _Capricious_ _Care_, Synonyms of, _Careful_, Synonyms of, _Cart before the horse_, _Cas_ family "Castaway, The" (Defoe). Comments and assignments on, "Causes for the American Spirit of Liberty" (Burke). Comments and assignments on, _Cede, ceed, cess_ family _Ceive, ceit, cept_ family _Celebrate_, Synonyms of, Celibates, Verbal, _Censure_ _Cent_ family _Cent_ family _Charm_ (noun), Synonyms of, _Charm_ (verb), Synonyms of, _Chant_ family _Cheat_, Synonyms of, Child. See _How a child becomes acquainted_, etc. _Choke_, Synonyms of, _Choose_, Synonyms of, _Chron_ family _Church_ _Churl_ _Cid_ family _Cide_ family _Cigar_ _Cip_ family _Circumstances_ _Cis(e)_ family Classes of words, in general, (also see _Words_); in your own vocabulary, Classic words, distinguished from native; in modern English, _Clear_ _Clodhopper_ _Close_ _Close the door to_, _Coax_, Synonyms of, _Cold_ Coleridge, S. T., Quotation from, _Color_, Synonyms of, _Combine_, Synonyms of, _Comfort_, Synonyms of, _Common_ _Companion_ _Complain_, Synonyms of, _Conchology_ _Concise_, Synonyms of, _Condescend_, Synonyms of, _Condition_ _Confirm_, Synonyms of, _Confirmed_, Synonyms of, _Confound_ _Congregate_ _Connect_, Synonyms of, Connotation _Constable_ _Contagious_ _Continual_, Synonyms of, _Continuous, continual_ _Contract_, Synonyms of, _Conversation_ _Copy_, Synonyms of, _Cordiality_ _Corp(s)_ family _Corrode_ _Corrupt_, Synonyms of, _Costly_, Synonyms of, _Coterie_, Synonyms of, _Counterfeit_ _Courage_, Synonyms of, _Course_ family _Coxcomb_ _Crafty_ _Crease, cresce, cret, crue_ family _Cred, creed_ family _Crestfallen_ _Crisscross_ _Critical_, Synonyms of, _Criticism_ _Crooked_, Synonyms of, _Cross_ _Cross_, Synonyms of, _Crowd_, Synonyms of, _Crowsfeet_ _Crude_ _Cruel_, Synonyms of, _Cry_ _Cry_, Synonyms of, _Cunning_ _Cur_ family _Cure_ family _Curious_, Synonyms of, _Cut_, Synonyms of, _Daily_ _Dainty_, Synonyms of, _Daisy_ _Dandelion_ _Danger_, Synonyms of, _Darken_, Synonyms of, _Dead_, Synonyms of, _Deadly_, Synonyms of, _Death_, Synonyms of, _Decay_, Synonyms of, _Deceit_, Synonyms of, _Deceptive_, Synonyms of, _Decorate_, Synonyms of, _Decorous_, Synonyms of, _Deface_, Synonyms of, _Defeat_, Synonyms of, _Defect_, Synonyms of, Definitions, of words; Dictionary vs. informal; How to look up in a dictionary, Defoe, Daniel. See _The Castaway_ _Degrade_ _Delay_, Synonyms of, _Demean_ _Democrat_ _Demon_ _Demoralize_, Synonyms of, _Deny_, Synonyms of, _Deportment_, Synonyms of, _Deprive_, Synonyms of, Description _Despise_, Synonyms of, _Despondency_, Synonyms of, _Destroy_, Synonyms of, _Detach_, Synonyms of, _Determined_, Synonyms of, _Deviate_ _Devilish_ _Devout_, Synonyms of, _Dexterity_ _Dic, dict_ family Dictionaries, List of; How to use, _Die_, Synonyms of, _Differ_ _Difficulty_, Synonyms of, _Dign_ family _Dilapidated_ _Dip_, Synonyms of, _Dirty_, Synonyms of, _Disaster_ _Discernment_, Synonyms of, _Discharge_ Discords, Verbal Discourse, at first hand; adapted to audience, _Disease_, Synonyms of, _Disgraceful_, Synonyms of, _Disgusting_, Synonyms of, _Dishonor_, Synonyms of, _Disloyal_, Synonyms of, _Dispel_, Synonyms of, _Dissatisfied_, Synonyms of, _Diurnal_ _Divide_, Synonyms of, _Do_, Synonyms of, _Doctrine_, Synonyms of, _Doom, Doomsday_ _Dream_, Synonyms of, _Dress_, Synonyms of, "Drift of Our Rural Population Cityward, The" (Editorial), Comments and assignments, _Drink_, Synonyms of, _Drip_, Synonyms of, _Drunk_, Synonyms of, _Dry_, Synonyms of, _Duc, duct_ family _Dull_ _Dur(e)_ family _Early_, Synonyms of, _Eat_, Synonyms of, Editorial. See _The Drift of Our Rural Population Cityward_ _Effect_ _Egregious_ _Ejaculate_ _Elicit_, Synonyms of, _Embarrass_, Synonyms of, _Embrace_ _Encroach_, Synonyms of, _End_, Synonyms of, _Enemy_ _Enemy_, Synonyms of, _Engine_ _Enni_ family _Enormity, enormousness_ _Enough_, Synonyms of, _Entice_, Synonyms of, _Erase_, Synonyms of, _Error_ family _Error_, Synonyms of, _Estimate_, Synonyms of, _Eternal_, Synonyms of, _Eu_ family _Eugenics_ _Ex_ family _Examination_ _Example_, Synonyms of, _Exceed_, Synonyms of, _Exclude_ _Excuse_, Synonyms of, _Expand_, Synonyms of, _Expel_, Synonyms of, _Experiment_, Synonyms of, _Explain_, Synonyms of, Explanation (Exposition) _Explicit_, Synonyms of, _Expression_ _Face_, Synonyms of, _Fact_ family _Faculty_, Synonyms of, _Failing_, Synonyms of, _Fair_ _False_ _Fame_, Synonyms of, Families, Verbal, _Famous_, Synonyms of, _Fashion_, Synonyms of, _Fast_ _Fast_, Synonyms of, _Fasten_ Synonyms of, _Fat_, Synonyms of, _Fate_, Synonyms of, _Fatherly_ _Fawn_, Synonyms of, _Fear_, Synonyms of, _Feat, fect, feit_ family _Feign_, Synonyms of, _Fellow_ _Feminine_, Synonyms of, _Fer_ family _Fertile_, Synonyms of, _Fic(e)_ family _Fiddle_ _Fiendish_, Synonyms of, _Fight_, Synonyms of, _Financial_, Synonyms of, _Fin(e)_ family _Firm_ _Fit_, Synonyms of, _Flag, The_ _Flame_, Synonyms of, _Flat_ _Flat_, Synonyms of, _Flatter_, Synonyms of, _Flect, flex_ family _Flee_, Synonyms of, _Fleeting_, Synonyms of, _Flexible_, Synonyms of, _Flit_, Synonyms of, _Flock_, Synonyms of, _Flock together_ _Flow_, Synonyms of, _Flu, fluence, flux_ family _Foe_ _Follow_, Synonyms of, _Follower_, Synonyms of, _Fond_ _Fond_, Synonyms of, _Force_, Synonyms of, _Foretell_, Synonyms of, _Fort_ family Fossils in modern English, List of, _Found_ family _Fract, frag_ family _Fracture_ _Frank_, Synonyms of, Franklin, Benjamin, and _Spectator Papers_, _Fraternal_ _Free_ _Free_, Synonyms of French and Norman-French words occurring in modern English _Freshen_, Synonyms of, _Fret_ _Friendly_ _Friendly_, Synonyms of, _Frighten_, Synonyms of, _Frigid_ _Frown_, Synonyms of, _Frugal_, Synonyms of, _Frustrate_, Synonyms of, _Fug(e)_ family _Fuse_ family _Fy_ family _Game_, Synonyms of, _Gather_, Synonyms of, _Gen_ family General facts and ideas with which acquaintance assumed, General ideas, as best basis for study of synonyms, General vs. specific terms. Also see _Words_ Genus and species _Ger, gest_ family Germanic words in modern English _Get_, Synonyms of, _Get on to_ "Gettysburg Address" (Lincoln); Comments on, _Ghost_ _Ghost_, Synonyms of, _Gift_, Synonyms of, _Give_, Synonyms of, _Glad_, Synonyms of, _Go out of one's way_ _Good_ _Good_ family _Goodby_ _Grade_ family _Gram_ family _Grand_, Synonyms of, _Graph_ family _Gray hair_ _Great_ _Greedy_ Greek prefixes List of, Greek stems, List of, Greek words in modern English _Greet_, Synonyms of, _Gress_ family _Grief_, Synonyms of, _Grieve_, Synonyms of, _Groom_ _Grudgingly_ _Guard_, Synonyms of, _Guileless_ _Hab_ family _Habit_, Synonyms of, _Habitation_, Synonyms of, _Hale_ family _Half-baked_ _Harass_, Synonyms of, _Hard_ _Harmful_, Synonyms of, _Harsh_ _Haste_, Synonyms of, _Hate_, Synonyms of, _Hatred_, Synonyms of, _Have_, Synonyms of, _Hayseed_ _Head foremost_ _Headstrong_, Synonyms of, _Heal_ family _Healthful_, Synonyms of, _Heathen_ _Heavy_, Synonyms of, _Height_ _Help_ (noun), Synonyms of, _Help_ (verb), Synonyms of, _Hesitate_, Synonyms of, _Hib_ family _Hide_, Synonyms of, _High_, Synonyms of, _Highstrung_ _Hinder_ Synonyms of, _Hint_, Synonyms of, _Hot_ family _Hole_, Synonyms of, _Holy_, Synonyms of, _Home_ _Homeopath_ _Homesickness_ _Hopeful,_ Synonyms of, _Hopeless_, Synonyms of, _Hose_ _House_ How a child becomes acquainted with the complexity of life and language _Hug_, _Humor_ _Hussy_ _Idiot_ _Idle_ _Ig_ family _Ignorant_, Synonyms of, _Imp_ Imperfectly understood facts and ideas _Impolite_, Synonyms of, _Importance_, Synonyms of, _Imposter_, Synonyms of, _Imprison_, Synonyms of, _Improper_, Synonyms of, _Impure_, Synonyms of, _In a minute_ _Inborn_, Synonyms of, _Incense_ _Incite_, Synonyms of, _Incline_, Synonyms of, _Inclose_, Synonyms of, _Increase_, Synonyms of, _Indecent_, Synonyms of, _Infantry_ _Infectious_ _Ingenious_ _Inner_ _Innocent_ _Innuendo_ _Insane_, Synonyms of, _Insanity_, Synonyms of, _Insinuate_ _Insipid_, Synonyms of, _Instances_ _Instigate_ _Insult_ _Intention_, Synonyms of, _Internal_ _Interpose_, Synonyms of, _Investigate_ _Irreligious_, Synonyms of, _Irritate_, Synonyms of, _It_ family "Ivanhoe" (Scott), Quotation from, _Ject_ family _Join_, Synonyms of, _Journey_, Synonyms of, _Jud_ family _Jump on_ _Junct_ family _Jur, jus_ family _Jure_ family _Just_ Key-syllables, Variations in form of; Misleading resemblance between; Lists of, _Kick_ _Kill_, Synonyms of, _Kind_, Synonyms of, _Kindle_, Synonyms of, Kinships between words. See _Blood relationships between words; Marriages between words; Words_ _Knave_ _Knowledge_ _Lack_, Synonyms of, _Lame_, Synonyms of, _Large_, Synonyms of, _Late_ family Latin prefixes, List of, Latin stems, List of, Latin words in modern English. See _Classic words_ _Laugh_, Synonyms of, _Laughable_, Synonyms of, _Lead_, Synonyms of, _Lect, leg_ family _Lengthen_, Synonyms of, _Lessen,_ Synonyms of, _Lewd_ _Liberal_, Synonyms of, _Lie_ (noun), Synonyms of, _Lie_ (verb), Synonyms of, _Lig_ family _Likeness_, Synonyms of, _Limp_, Synonyms of, _List_, Synonyms of, Literal vs. figurative terms and applications. Also see _Words_ _Loc, loco, local, locate_ family _Locu_ family _Log_ family _Look_, Synonyms of, Loose use of words _Loquy_ family _Lord_ _Lose steam_ _Loud_, Synonyms of, _Love_ _Love_, Synonyms of, _Low,_ Synonyms of, _Loyal_, Synonyms of, _Luc, lum, lus_ family _Lude, lus_ family _Lunatic_ _Lurk_, Synonyms of, _Lust_ _Make_, Synonyms of, _Make one's pile_ _Man_, as a generic term, _Man, manu_ family _Mand_ family _Manifest_, Synonyms of, _Manly_ _Many_, Synonyms of, Many-sided words _Margin_, Synonyms of, _Marriage_, Synonyms of, Marriages between words. Also see _Words_ _Marshal_ _Masculine_, Synonyms of, _Matinée_ _Matrimonial_, Synonyms of, _Meaning_, Synonyms of, _Meet_, Synonyms of, _Meeting_, Synonyms of, _Melt_, Synonyms of, _Memory_, Synonyms of, _Mercy_, Synonyms of, _Mere, merely_ _Meter, metri_ family Military terms, Familiar _Mis(e), mit_ family _Misrepresent_, Synonyms of, _Mix_, Synonyms of, _Mob_ family _Model_, Synonyms of, _Modern_ _Mono_ family _Mort_ family _Mortal_ _Mortify_ _Mot(e)_ family _Mother_ _Motive_, Synonyms of, _Move_ family _Move_, Synonyms of, _Mot(e)_ family _Name_, Synonyms of, Narration _Nasturtium_ _Nat(e)_ family Native words, distinguished from classic; in modern English, _Near_, Synonyms of, _Neat_, Synonyms of, _Needful_, Synonyms of, _Negligence_, Synonyms of, _New_, Synonyms of, _Nice_, Synonyms of, _Nickname_ _Noble_ family _Noise_ _Noisy_, Synonyms of, _Nostalgia_ _Nostril_ _Nostrum_ _Not(e), nor(e)_ family _Noticeable_, Synonyms of, _Objective_ _Occupation_, Synonyms of, _Offspring_ _Old_, Synonyms of, _Ology_ family _Omen, ominous_ Opposites _Order_ (noun), Synonyms of, _Order_ (verb), Synonyms of, _Oversight_, Synonyms of, _Ox_ _Pacify_, Synonyms of, _Pagan_ Pairs, Three types of; Lists of or assignments in; as Synonyms, _Pale_, Synonyms of, _Pan_ family _Pantaloon_ "Parable of the Sower"; Comments and assignments on, "Parable of the Prodigal Son"; Comments on, Parallels Paraphrasing _Pard_ _Parlor_ _Parson_ _Part_, Synonyms of, Parts of Speech, Wrong, _Pass, path_ family _Pastor_ _Paternal_ _Patience_, Synonyms of, _Patter_ _Pay_ (noun), Synonyms of, _Pay_ (verb), Synonyms of, _Ped_ family _Pen_ _Pend, pense_ family _Penetrate_, Synonyms of, _Perspiration_ _Pet_ family _Petit, petty_ family _Petr, peter_ family _Phil(e)_ family _Phone_ family _Pin-money_ _Pity_, Synonyms of, _Place_, Synonyms of, _Plain_ _Plan_, Synonyms of, _Playful_, Synonyms of, _Plentiful_, Synonyms of, _Plic(ate), ply_ family _Plunder_, Synonyms of, _Pocket handkerchief_ _Pod_ family _Poli_ family _Polite_ _Polite_, Synonyms of, _Pond_ family _Ponder_ _Pone, pose_ family _Poor_ _Porcine_ _Pork_ _Port_ family _Portent, portentous_ _Poten(t)_ family _Poverty_, Synonyms of, _Precocious_ _Prehend_ family _Preposterous_ _Presbyterian_ _Presently_ _Pretty_, Synonyms of, _Prise_ family _Prob_ family _Prod up_ _Profitable_, Synonyms of, _Progeny_ _Prompt_, Synonyms of, _Proud_, Synonyms of, _Pull_, Synonyms of, _Pulse_ family _Punish_, Synonyms of, _Push_, Synonyms of, _Put(e)_ family _Puzzle_, Synonyms of, _Qualm_ _Quarrel_, Synonyms of, _Quean_ _Queer_, Synonyms of, _Quick_ Quickly, Dame _Quiet_ Quotations from literature, embodying old senses of words _Raise_, Synonyms of, _Rash_, Synonyms of, Reading Lists _Rebellion_, Synonyms of, _Recant_ _Recover_, Synonyms of, _Recrudescence_ _Reflect_, Synonyms of, _Refuse_ _Regret_, Synonyms of, _Relate_, Synonyms of, _Relinquish_, Synonyms of, _Renounce_, Synonyms of, _Replace_, Synonyms of, _Reprove_, Synonyms of, _Republican_ _Repulsive_, Synonyms of, _Requital_, Synonyms of, _Residence_ _Responsible_, Synonyms of, _Reveal_, Synonyms of, _Reverence_, Synonyms of, _Rich_, Synonyms of, _Ridicule_, Synonyms of, _Right_ _Ripe_, Synonyms of, _Rise_ _Rise_, Synonyms of, _Rival_ _Robber_, Synonyms of, _Rog, rogate_ family _Rogue_, Synonyms of, _Rough_ _Round_, Synonyms of, _Routine_ _Rub_, Synonyms of, _Ruminate_ _Run_, Synonyms of, _Rapt_ family _Rural_, Synonyms of, _Sabotage_ _Sad_, Synonyms of, _Sal, sail_ family _Salary_ _Sandwich_ _Sans_ _Sarcasm_ _Satiate_, Synonyms of, _Saws_ _Say_, Synonyms of, Scandinavian words in modern English _Science, scit(e)_ family _Scoff_, Synonyms of, Scott, Sir Walter, Quotation from, _Scribe, script_ family _Secret_, Synonyms of, _Sect_ family _Secu, sequ_ family _Sed_ family _See_, Synonyms of, _Seep_, Synonyms of, _Sell_ _Sell_, Synonyms of, _Sens(e), sent_ family _Serious_ "Seven Ages of Man, The" (Shakespeare); Comments and assignments on, _Severe_ Shakespeare, William. See _The Seven Ages of Man_ _Shamefaced_ _Shape_, Synonyms of, _Share_, Synonyms of, _Sharp_ _Sharp_, Synonyms of, _Shear_ family _Shine_, Synonyms of, _Shore_ family _Shore_, Synonyms of, _Shorten_ _Shorten_, Synonyms of, _Show_ (noun), Synonyms of, _Show_ (verb), Synonyms of, _Shrink_, Synonyms of, _Shun_, Synonyms of, _Shy_, Synonyms of, _Side_ _Sid(e)_ family _Sidetrack_ _Sign_ family _Sign_, Synonyms of, _Silent_, Synonyms of, _Silly_ _Simple_, Synonyms of, _Sing_, Synonyms of, _Sing another tune_ _Sinister_ _Sist_ family _Skilful_, Synonyms of, _Skin_, Synonyms of, _Slander_, Synonyms of, Slang _Sleep_, Synonyms of, _Sleepy_, Synonyms of, Slovenliness _Slovenly_, Synonyms of, _Sly_, Synonyms of, _Smell_, Synonyms of, _Smile_, Synonyms of, _Smoke in one's pipe_ _Solitary_, Synonyms of, _Solve, solu_ family _Song_, Synonyms of, _Soon_ Sources for modern English, Variety of, _Sour_, Synonyms of, _Sow_ _Speak_, Synonyms of, _Spect, spic(e)_ family "Spectator Papers, The" (Addison) _Speech_, Synonyms of, _Spend_, Synonyms of, _Spire, spirit_ family _Spirit_ _Spond, spons(e)_ family _Spot_, Synonyms of, _Spruce_, Synonyms of, _Sta, sti_ family _Stale_, Synonyms of, _Stay_, Synonyms of, _Stead_ family _Steal_, Synonyms of, _Steep_, Synonyms of, _Stiff_ _Stingy_, Synonyms of, _Stirrup_ _Storm_, Synonyms of, _Straight_, Synonyms of, _Strain, string, strict_ family _Strange_, Synonyms of, _Strike_, Synonyms of, _Strong_ _Strong_, Synonyms of, _Struct, stru(e)_ family _Stubborn_, Synonyms of, _Stupid_, Synonyms of, _Suave_, Synonyms of, _Subjective_ _Succeed_, Synonyms of, _Succession_, Synonyms of, _Sue_ family _Sullen_, Synonyms of, _Sult_ family; Superfluous details, _Supernatural_, Synonyms of, _Suppose_, Synonyms of, _Surprise_, Synonyms of, _Swearing_, Synonyms of, _Sweat_ _Swine_ Synonyms, Necessity for; Similar not identical in meaning; List of books of; How to acquire; Analysis of your use of; Progress from the general to the specific; Pertinent rather than comprehensive; Lists of, or assignments in, (also see _Pairs_) _Tact_ family _Tail_ family _Tain_ family _Take down a notch_ _Take hold of_ _Take the hide off_ _Take umbrage_ _Talk_ (noun) _Talk_ (verb), Synonyms of, _Talkative_, Synonyms of; Tameness, _Tang_ family _Teach_, Synonyms of, _Tear_, Synonyms of, Telegrams and night letters _Ten, tent_ family _Tend, tens, tent, ten_ family _Tender_ Tennyson, Alfred, Quotation from, _Tension_ _Term, termin_ family _Ter(re), terra_ family _Thank your lucky stars_ _Thesis, theme_ family Thing(s) _Thoughtful_, Synonyms of, _Throw_, Synonyms of, _Throw in the shade_ _Throw out a remark_ _Tin_ family _Tire_, Synonyms of, _Tool_, Synonyms of, _Tone_ Tone, Unity of. See _Discords, Verbal_ _Tort_ family _Track_ _Tract, tra(i)_ family Translation _Trifle_, Synonyms of, Triteness _Trivial_ _Trust_, Synonyms of, _Truth_ _Try_, Synonyms of, _Tum_ family _Turb_ family _Turn_, Synonyms of, _Ugly_, Synonyms of, _Umpire_ _Understood_ _Unsophisticated_ _Unwilling_, Synonyms of, _Vade, vasion_ family _Vail, vol(e)_ family _Vain_ _Vapid_ _Veal, veau_ _Vend_ _Vene, vent_ family _Veracity_ _Vers(e), vert_ family _Vid_ family _Villain_ _Vince, vict_ family _Vinegar_ _Violin_ _Vir_ family _Virile_ _Virtue_ _Vis_ family _Viv(e)_ family _Voc, voke_ family Vocabulary, Ready, wide, or accurate; Speaking or writing; Analysis of your own _Volve, volute_ family _Voluntary_ _Voracious_ Vulgar _Walk_. Synonyms of, _Watchful_, Synonyms of, Wave (noun), Synonyms of, Wave (verb), Synonyms of, _Weak_ _Weak_, Synonyms of, _Weariness_, Synonyms of, _Wearisome_, Synonyms of, _Classes of words, Abstract vs. _Wench_ _Wet_ (adjective), Synonyms of, _Wet_ (verb), Synonyms of, _Wheedle_ Whim,_ Synonyms of, Whip, Synonyms of, Whole_ family _Wicked_, Synonyms of, _Wild_ _Willing_ _Wind_, Synonyms of, _Wind_ (verb), Synonyms of, _Winding_, Synonyms of, _Wis, wit_ family Wisdom _Wise_, Synonyms of, _Wizard_ _Wonderful_, Synonyms of, Wordiness Words, as realities; as instruments; to be learned in various ways; like people; in combination; Individual; to learn first; The past of; Buried meanings of; Poetry of; Dignified and unassuming; Literal, concrete, and specifc; General; Exaggerative; Debased; as celibates; related in blood or by marriage; examined for relationships; related in meaning; often confused; Native and classic; Many-sided; Supplementary list of. Also see _concrete terms, Literal vs. figurative terms, General vs. specific terms, Slang, Vocabulary, Synonyms, Fossils, Loose use of words _Work_, synonyms of, _Workman_, Synonyms of, _Worm in_ _Write_, Synonyms of, Writing as an aid to memory _Wrong_ _Yearn_, Synonyms of, Young, Synonyms of, THE END 
12421	----	PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH BY HUBER GRAY BUEHLER MASTER IN ENGLISH IN THE HOTCHKISS SCHOOL ARRANGED FOR USE WITH ADAMS SHERMAN HILL'S "FOUNDATIONS OF RHETORIC" NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY Copyright, 1895, by Harper & Brothers All rights reserved. W.P. 17 PREFACE The art of using one's native tongue correctly and forcibly is acquired for the most part through imitation and practice, and is not so much a matter of knowledge as of habit. As regards English, then, the first duty of our schools is to set before pupils excellent models, and, in all departments of school-work, to keep a watchful eye on the innumerable acts of expression, oral and written, which go to form habit. Since, however, pupils come to school with many of their habits of expression already formed on bad models, our schools must give some attention to the special work of pointing out common errors of speech, and of leading pupils to convert knowledge of these errors into new and correct habits of expression. This is the branch of English teaching in which this little book hopes to be useful. All the "Exercises in English" with which I am acquainted consist chiefly of "sentences to be corrected." To such exercises there are grave objections. If, on the one hand, the fault in the given sentence is not seen at a glance, the pupil is likely, as experience has shown, to pass it by and to change something that is not wrong. If, on the other hand, the fault is obvious, the exercise has no value in the formation of habit. Take, for example, two "sentences for correction" which I select at random from one of the most widely used books of its class: "I knew it was him," and "Sit the plates on the table." A pupil of any wit will at once see that the mistakes must be in "him" and "sit," and knowing that the alternatives are "he" and "set," he will at once correct the sentences without knowing, perhaps, why one form is wrong, the other right. He has not gained anything valuable; he has simply "slid" through his exercise. Moreover, such "sentences for correction" violate a fundamental principle of teaching English by setting before the impressionable minds of pupils bad models. Finally, such exercises are unnatural, because the habit which we hope to form in our pupils is not the habit of correcting mistakes, but the habit of avoiding them. Correct English is largely a matter of correct choice between two or more forms of expression, and in this book an attempt has been made, as a glance at the pages will show, to throw the exercises, whenever possible, into a form consistent with this truth. Though a pupil may _change_ "who" to "whom" without knowing why, he cannot repeatedly _choose_ correctly between these forms without strengthening his own habit of correct expression. This book has been prepared primarily as a companion to Professor A.S. Hill's "Foundations of Rhetoric," in answer to the request of many teachers for exercises to use with that admirable work.[1] Without the friendly encouragement of Professor Hill the task would not have been undertaken, and to him above all others I am indebted for assistance in completing it. He has permitted me to draw freely on his published works; he has provided me with advance sheets of the revised edition of "Principles of Rhetoric;" he has put at my disposal much useful material gleaned from his own experience; he has read the manuscript and proofs, and, without assuming any responsibility for shortcomings, he has suggested many improvements. I am also indebted to Mr. E.G. Coy, Headmaster of the Hotchkiss School, for many valuable suggestions, and to my colleague, Mr. J.E. Barss, for assistance in the proof-reading. The quotations from "The Century Dictionary" are made under an arrangement with the owners of the copyright of that work. I am also indebted to Professor Barrett Wendell, Messrs. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., and Messrs. Macmillan & Co. for permission to use brief quotations from their works. H.G.B. LAKEVILLE, CONN., _September_, 1895. [1] See Appendix: Suggestions to Teachers. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. GOOD USE 3 II. ARTICLES 12 III. NOUNS 16 IV. PRONOUNS 43 V. VERBS 61 VI. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 109 VII. PREPOSITIONS 134 VIII. CONJUNCTIONS 142 APPENDIX 151 INDEX 153 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH * * * * * CHAPTER I. OF GOOD USE Why is it that for the purposes of English composition one word is not so good as another? To this question we shall get a general answer if we examine the effect of certain classes of expressions. PRESENT USE.--Let us examine first the effect produced by three passages in the authorized version of the English Bible--a version made by order of King James in 1611:-- "For these two years hath the famine been in the land, and yet there are five years, in the which there shall neither be _earing_ nor harvest" (Gen. xlv. 6). "O ye sons of men, how long will ye turn my glory into shame? how long will ye love vanity, and seek after _leasing_?" (Psa. iv. 2). "Now I would not have you ignorant, brethren, that oftentimes I purposed to come unto you, but was _let_ hitherto" (Rom. i. 18). See also Gen. xxv. 29; Matt. iii 8; Acts viii. 3; 1 Thess. iv. 15. An ordinary reader of our time cannot without assistance fully understand these passages, because the words "earing," "leasing," and "let" convey to his mind either no idea at all or a wrong idea. Two hundred and eighty years ago, when this translation of the Bible was made, these words were common words with plain meanings; but "earing" and "leasing" have since dropped out of common use, and "let" has acquired a different meaning; consequently an ordinary reader of the present time must consult a dictionary before he can be sure what the passages mean. Words and meanings which have gone out of use are called _obsolete_. There is not much temptation to use obsolete words; but the temptation sometimes comes. Therefore we note, as our first conclusion, that a person who wishes to be understood must avoid expressions and meanings which are not in _present use_. NATIONAL USE.--A boy from southern Pennsylvania was visiting in New York State. In the midst of some preparations for a fishing excursion he said to his host, "Shall I take my _gums_ along?" His host burst out laughing and said, "Of course; did you think of taking them out of your mouth and leaving them at home?"[2] Unconsciously the boy had used a good English word in a sense peculiar to the district in which he lived; his host had understood the word in its proper sense. On another occasion a gentleman who had just arrived at a hotel in Kennebunkport, Me., agreed to a proposal to "go down to the beach in the _barge_." Going to his room, he prepared for a little excursion on the river which flowed by the hotel. When he returned, he was greatly surprised to find his friends about to start for the beach in _a large omnibus_. Another gentleman once asked a young lady to go "_riding_" with him. At the appointed hour he drove to her house in a buggy, and she came down to meet him in her riding habit. These incidents show that if we use expressions that are only local, or use words in local senses, we are liable either to be misunderstood or not to be understood at all. Obscurity also arises from the use of words in senses which are peculiar to a certain class or profession. For example, to a person who is not familiar with commercial slang, this sentence from the market columns of a newspaper is a puzzle:-- "Java coffees are _dull_ and _easy_, though they are _statistically strong_." The following directions for anchoring in a gale of wind are taken from a book called "How to Sail a Boat":-- "When everything is ready, bring the yacht _to the wind_, and let the sails shake _in the wind's eye_; and, so soon as she gets _stern-way_, let go the _best bower_ anchor, taking care not to _snub her_ too quickly, but to let considerable of the cable run out before checking her; then take a turn or two around the _knight-heads_," etc. If a landsman's safety depended on his understanding these directions, there would not be much hope for him. The following extract is from a newspaper report of a game of ball:-- "In the eighth inning Anson jumped from one box into the other and whacked a wide one into extreme right. It was a three-base jolt and was made when Gastright intended to force the old man to first. The Brooklyns howled and claimed that Anson was out, but McQuaid thought differently. Both teams were crippled. Lange will be laid up for a week or so. One pitcher was batted out of the box." This narrative may seem commonplace to school-boys, but to their mothers and sisters it must seem alarming. Our second conclusion, therefore, is that a person who wishes to be understood must avoid words and phrases that are not understood, and understood in the same sense, in every part of the country, and in every class or profession.[3] REPUTABLE USE.--Let us examine now the effect produced by a third kind of expression, namely, words and phrases "not used by writers and speakers of established reputation."[4] Let us take as our illustrations the familiar expressions, "He _done_ it" and "Please _set_ in this seat." Each of these expressions is common at the present time, and its meaning is instantly clear to any one who speaks English. But these expressions, not being used by well-informed and careful speakers, produce in the mind of a well-informed bearer an impression of vulgarity like that which we get from seeing a person eat with his knife. In language, as in manners and fashions, the law is found in the custom of the best people; and persons who wish to be classed as cultivated people must speak and write like cultivated people. There is no moral wrong in a person's saying "Please _set_ in this seat," and if he does say it he will probably be understood; but persons who use this or any other expression which is not in reputable use run the risk of being classed as ignorant, affected, or vulgar. GOOD USE.--It appears, therefore, that words and phrases, in order to be proper expressions for use in English prose, (1) must be in common use at the present time; (2) they must be used, and used in the same sense, in every part of the country, and in every class and profession; (3) they must be expressions used by writers and speakers of established reputation. In other words, our expressions must be in _present, national_, and _reputable_ use. Expressions which fulfil these three conditions are said to be in _good use_. The next question that presents itself to one who wishes to use English correctly is, How am I to know what words and expressions are in good use? CONVERSATION AND GOOD USE.--Good use cannot be determined solely by observing the conversation of our associates; for the chances are that they use many local expressions, some slang, and possibly some vulgarisms. "You often hear it" is not proof that an expression is in good use. NEWSPAPERS AND GOOD USE.--Nor can good use be learned from what we see in newspapers. Newspapers of high rank contain from time to time, especially in their editorial columns, some of the best modern prose, and much literature that has become standard was first printed in periodicals; but most of the prose in newspapers is written necessarily by contributors who do not belong to the class of "speakers or writers whom the world deems the best." As the newspaper in its news records the life of every day, so in its style it too frequently records the slang of daily life and the faults of ordinary conversation. A newspaper contains bits of English prose from hundreds of different pens, some skilled, some unskilled; and this jumble of styles does not determine good use. NO ONE BOOK OR WRITER DECISIVE.--Nor is good use to be learned from our favorite author, unsupported by other authority; not even, as we have seen, from the English Bible, when it stands alone. No writer, even the greatest, is free from occasional errors; but these accidental slips are not to be considered in determining good use. Good use is decided by the prevailing usage of the writers whose works make up permanent English literature, not by their inadvertencies. "The fact that Shakspere uses a word, or Sir Walter Scott, or Burke, or Washington Irving, or whoever happens to be writing earnestly in Melbourne or Sidney, does not make it reputable. The fact that all five of these authorities use the word in the same sense would go very far to establish the usage. On the other hand, the fact that any number of newspaper reporters agree in usage does not make the usage reputable. The style of newspaper reporters is not without merit; it is very rarely unreadable; but for all its virtue it is rarely a well of English undefiled."[5] "Reputable use is fixed, not by the practice of those whom A or B deems the best speakers or writers, but by the practice of those whom the world deems the best,--those who are in the best repute, not indeed as to thought, but as to expression, the manner of communicating thought. The practice of no one writer, however high he may stand in the public estimation, is enough to settle a point; but the uniform or nearly uniform practice of reputable speakers or writers is decisive."[6] GOOD READING THE FOUNDATION OF GOOD SPEAKING AND WRITING.--To the question how to become familiar with good use the first answer is, read the best literature. Language, like manners, is learned for the most part by imitation; and a person who is familiar with the language of reputable writers and speakers will use good English without conscious effort, just as a child brought up among refined people generally has good manners without knowing it. Good reading is indispensable to good speaking or writing. Without this, rules and dictionaries are of no avail. In reading the biographies of eminent writers, it is interesting to note how many of them were great readers when they were young; and teachers can testify that the best writers among their pupils are those who have read good literature or who have been accustomed to hear good English at home. The student of expression should begin at once to make the acquaintance of good literature. THE USE OF DICTIONARIES.--To become acquainted with good literature, however, takes a long time; and to decide, by direct reference to the usage of the best writers, every question that arises in composition, is not possible for beginners. In certain cases beginners must go to dictionaries to learn what good use approves. Dictionaries do not make good use, but by recording the facts learned by professional investigators they answer many questions regarding it. To one who wishes to speak and write well a good dictionary is indispensable. "THE FOUNDATIONS OF RHETORIC."--Dictionaries, however, are not always a sufficient guide; for, being records, they aim to give _all_ the senses in which a word is used, and do not always tell which sense is approved by the best usage. Large dictionaries contain many words which have gone out of good use and other words which have not yet come into good use. Moreover, they treat of words only, not of constructions and long expressions. Additional help in determining good use is required by beginners, and this help is to be found in such books as Professor A.S. Hill's "Foundations of Rhetoric." The investigations of a specialist are there recorded in a convenient form, with particular reference to the needs of beginners and of those who have been under the influence of bad models. Common errors are explained and corrected, and the fundamental merits of good expression are set forth and illustrated. PURPOSE OF THESE EXERCISES.--In the following exercises, which are intended for drill on some of these elements of good expression, care has been taken to put the questions into the forms in which they arise in actual composition. The notes which precede the exercises are only hints; for full discussions of the principles involved the student must consult larger works. SOME CONVENIENT NAMES /Phrases that have gone out of use, said | to be ARCHAIC or OBSOLETE. | | Brand-new words which have not become | established in good use: as, "burglarize," | "enthuse," "electrocute." | BARBARISMS: Words and | Phrases introduced from foreign countries phrases not English; _i.e.,_ | (called FOREIGNISMS, ALIENISMS), or not authorized by good | peculiar to some district or province English use. The name < (called PROVINCIALISMS). A phrase introduced comes from a Greek | from France is called a _Gallicism_; word meaning "foreign," | from England, an _Anglicism_. A "strange." | phrase peculiar to America is called an | _Americanism_. Similarly we have the | terms _Latinism, Hellenism, Teutonism_, | etc. All these names may be applied | also to certain kinds of Improprieties \and Solecisms. IMPROPRIETIES: Good \ English words or phrases | Most errors in the use of English used in wrong senses: | are Improprieties, which are far more as, "I _guess_ I'll go to > common than Barbarisms and Solecisms. bed;" "He is _stopping_ | No classification of them is here for a week at the Berkshire | attempted. Inn." / SOLECISMS: Constructions not English, commonly called cases of "bad grammar" or "false syntax": as, "She invited Mrs. Roe and _I_ to go driving with her." "Solecism" is derived from _Soli_, the name of a Greek tribe who lived in Cilicia and spoke bad Greek. SLANG is a general name for current, vulgar, unauthorized language. It may take the form of barbarism, impropriety, or solecism. A COLLOQUIALISM is an expression peculiar to familiar conversation. A VULGARISM is an expression peculiar to vulgar or ignorant people. [2] This and the two following incidents are from the writer's own observation. [3] A.S. Hill: Foundations of Rhetoric, p. 28. [4] Ibid., p. 20. [5] Barrett Wendell: English Composition, p. 21. [6] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 16. EXERCISE I. 1. Make a list of the provincial expressions you can think of, and give their equivalents in national English. 2. Make a list of the slang or vulgar expressions you can think of, and give their equivalents in reputable English. 3. Make a list of the words, forms, and phrases not in present use which you can find in the second chapter of the Gospel of Matthew, authorized version, and give their equivalents in modern English. EXERCISE II. Which word in the following pairs should an American prefer? Consult Hill's "Foundations of Rhetoric," pp. 28-29: Coal, coals; jug, pitcher; street railway, tramway; post-card, postal-card; dep�´t, station. EXERCISE III. 1. Arrange the following words in two columns, putting in the first column words that are in good use, in the second, words that are not in good use. Consult Hill's "Foundations of Rhetoric," pp. 27-29: Omnibus, succotash, welkin, ere, n�©e, dep�´t, veto, function (in the sense of social entertainment), to pan out, twain, on the docket, kine, gerrymander, carven, caucus, steed, to coast (on sled or bicycle), posted (informed), to watch out, right (very). 2. Give good English equivalents for the words which are not in good use. CHAPTER II. OF ARTICLES A or AN.[7]--The choice between these forms is determined by sound, not by spelling. Before a consonant sound "a" is used; before a vowel sound "an" is used. [7] "Foundations," pp. 32-36. EXERCISE IV. _Put the proper form, "a" or "an," before each of these expressions_:--Elephant, apple, egg, union of states, uniform, uninformed person, universal custom, umpire, Unitarian church, anthem, unfortunate man, united people, American, European, Englishman, one, high hill, horse, honorable career, hypocrite, humble spirit, honest boy, hypothesis, history, historical sketch, heir, hundred, hereditary disease, household. THE or A.[8]--"The" is a broken-down form of the old English _thoet_, from which we also get "that," and is used to point out some particular person, thing, or class: as, "_The_ headmaster of _the_ school gave _the_ boys permission." When "the" is used before the name of a particular class of persons or things it is called the "generic" article (from _genus_, "a class"): as, "None but _the_ brave deserve _the_ fair"; "_The_ eagle is our national bird." "An" ("a") is a broken-down form of the old English word _ane_, meaning "one." It is properly used when the object is thought of as one of a class: as, "There is _an_ eagle in the zoological garden." It cannot properly be used before a word which is used as a class name, because a class name includes in its meaning more than "one." SUPERFLUOUS and OMITTED ARTICLES.[9]--The use of a superfluous "a" or "an" before a class name, especially after the words "sort" and "kind," is a common and obstinate error. We may say, "This is an eagle," meaning "one eagle." But we may not say, "_An_ eagle is our national bird," "This is a rare kind of _an_ eagle," or, "It is not worthy of the name of _an_ eagle"; because in these sentences "eagle" is used as the name, not of a single bird, but of a class of birds, and includes in its meaning all the birds which belong to the class called "eagle." The sentences are equivalent to: "The kind of bird called 'eagle' is our national bird;" "This is a rare species of the class of birds called 'eagle;'" "It is not worthy of the name given to the birds which belong to the class called 'eagle.'" [8] Ibid., pp. 33-34. EXERCISE V. _Tell the difference in meaning between_:-- 1. The (a) house is on fire. 2. Yes, I heard (the) shouts in the street. 3. About eight o'clock (the) guests began to come. 4. Yes, I heard (the) noises in the next room. 5. The (an) elephant stood on a cask, and the (a) clown sat on the elephant's back. 6. The President has appointed a commission to investigate the cause of (the) strikes. 7. Will he let us look at (the) stars through the (a) telescope? 8. (The) teacher and (the) pupil are interested in this question. 9. He told us about an (the) accident. 10. Fire is beautiful. The fire is beautiful. 11. He was a better scholar than (an) athlete. 12. A young and (a) delicate girl. 13. He liked the bread and (the) butter. 14. A pink and (a) lavender gown. 15. The wise and (the) good. 16. Wanted, a cook and (a) housemaid. 17. The black and (the) white cow. 18. The athlete, (the) soldier, (the) statesman, and (the) poet. 19. A secretary and (a) treasurer. 20. The corresponding and (the) recording secretary. 21. The honest, (the) wise, and (the) patriotic senators voted against the bill. 22. A cotton and (a) silk umbrella. 23. The tenth and (the) last chapter. [9] "Foundations," pp. 34-39. EXERCISE VI. _Insert the proper article ("a," "an," or "the") in each blank place in the following, if an article is needed; if no article is needed, leave the place blank_:-- 1. I began to suffer from ---- want of food. 2. There are two articles, the definite and ---- indefinite. 3. He did not say what kind of ---- horse he wanted to buy. 4. Did Macaulay die of ---- heart disease? 5. Nouns have two numbers, ---- singular and ---- plural. 6. ---- third and ---- fourth page are to be learned. 7. ---- third and ---- fourth pages are to be learned. 8. Many names of ---- states are derived from ---- Indian tongues. 9. This is a curious species of ---- rose. 10. Study carefully ---- first and ---- second chapters. 11. A black and ---- white boy were walking together. 12. ---- violet is my favorite flower; ---- robin, my favorite bird. 13. There is an impenetrable veil between ---- visible and ---- invisible world. 14. ---- lion is ---- king of beasts. 15. Thackeray was a greater writer than ---- artist. Thackeray was greater as ---- writer than as ---- artist. 16. The bank closed its doors from ---- lack of ready money. 17. I despise not ---- giver, but ---- gift. 18. ---- whole is greater than any of its parts. 19. He is entitled to the name of ---- scholar. 20. I do not use that sort of ---- pen. 21. In ---- warm weather you do not need so many wraps as in ---- cold weather. 22. The Queen conferred on Tennyson the title of ---- baron. 23. It does not matter what kind of ---- man is appointed. 24. It is found in both ---- old and ---- new editions. 25. The fourth and ---- fifth verse. 26. The fourth and ---- fifth verses. 27. Abraham Lincoln was ---- great and ---- good man. 28. ---- families of ---- strikers are sadly in ---- need of food. 29. Here are two bottles, ---- one empty, ---- other full of ---- red liquid. 30. Ariel had ---- power to control ---- sea. 31. Evangeline travelled far in ---- search of Gabriel. 33. Illustrate by an original sentence ---- preterite and ---- past participle of the following verbs. 33. To ---- student of Latin or Greek a knowledge of ---- difference in meaning in English between ---- indicative and ---- subjunctive is especially important. 34. In the verb "to be" ---- present and ---- past subjunctives have different forms. 35. ---- life in Madras in ---- time of Clive was different from what it is now. 36. I like so many sports that it is hard to tell which I like ---- best. I like swimming, foot-ball, and riding more than ---- others, but I do not know which of these three I like ---- best. CHAPTER III. OF NOUNS HOW TO FORM THE POSSESSIVE CASE.[10]--As a rule, the possessive of nouns in the SINGULAR number is formed by adding an apostrophe and "s" ('s): as, "The _boy's_ coat." Often the pronunciation of the added "s" makes a new syllable; and if this additional syllable makes an unpleasant sound, the possessive is indicated by the apostrophe alone ('): as, "For _goodness'_ sake." The putting in or the leaving out of the "s" in such cases is chiefly a matter of taste. If the "s" is sounded, it is always written; and whenever there is doubt, it is well to follow the regular rule: as, "_Horace's_ odes," "_Charles's_ ball," "_Dickens's_ David Copperfield." In the PLURAL number, when the nominative plural ends in "s," the possessive case is formed by adding an apostrophe alone ('). If the nominative plural does not end in "s," an apostrophe and an "s" ('s) are both added, as in the singular: as, "_Men's_ and _boys'_ shoes." The possessive case of COMPOUND nouns and expressions used as compound nouns is formed by adding the proper sign of the possessive to the end of the compound: as, "That is my _sister-in-law's_ pony," "This is the _Prince of Wales's_ palace." [10] "Foundations," pp. 41-43. EXERCISE VII.[11] 1. _Write the possessive case, singular and plural, of:_ Actor, king, fairy, calf, child, goose, lady, monkey, mouse, ox, woman, deer, eagle, princess, elephant, man, witness, prince, fox, farmer, countess, mouth, horse, day, year, lion, wolf, thief, Englishman. 2. _Write the possessive case of:_ James, Dickens, his sister Mary, Miss Austen, the Prince of Wales, Frederick the Great, Harper and Brothers, father-in-law, Charles, Jones, William the Conqueror, Henry the Eighth, man-of-war, Douglas, Eggleston and Company. USE and MISUSE of the POSSESSIVE CASE.[12]--It is sometimes a question whether to use the possessive form or the preposition _of_. "As a general rule, the possessive case should be confined to cases of possession."[13] [11] TO THE TEACHER.--To have its full value this should be given as a dictation exercise. [12] "Foundations," pp. 43-44. [13] Ibid., p. 44. EXERCISE VIII. _Express relation between the words in the following pairs by putting one of them in the possessive case or by using the preposition "of," as may seem best:--_ Charles the Second, reign; witness, testimony; horse, hoof; the President, public reception; Partridge, restaurant; aide-de-camp, horse; General Armistead, death; Henry the Eighth, wives; Napoleon, Berlin decree; teacher, advice; eagle, talons; enemy, repulse;[14] book, cover; princess, evening gowns; France, army; Napoleon, defeat; Napoleon, camp-chest; Major Andr�©, capture; Demosthenes, orations; gunpowder, invention; mountain, top; summer, end; Washington, sword; Franklin, staff; torrent, force; America, metropolis; city, streets; strike, beginning; church, spire; we (our, us), midst; year, events; Guiteau, trial; sea, bottom; Essex, death; Adams, administration; six months, wages; world, government. [14] There is, properly, no "objective possessive" in English corresponding to the "objective genitive" in other languages. It seems best to say "The siege of Paris," rather than "Paris's siege." EXERCISE IX. _Distinguish between the following:--_ 1. The President's reception. The reception of the President. 2. Mother's love. Love of mother. 3. A sister's care. Care of a sister. 4. A brother's picture. The picture of a brother. 5. Clive's reception in London. The reception of Clive in London. 6. Charles and Harry's toys. Charles's and Harry's toys. 7. Let me tell you a story of Doctor Brown (Brown's). EXERCISE X. _Correct the following, giving the reason for each correction:--_ 1. A dog and a cat's head are differently shaped. 2. Whose Greek grammar do you prefer--Goodwin or Hadley? 3. It is neither the captain nor the manager's duty. 4. I consulted Webster, Stormonth, and Worcester's dictionary. 5. I like Hawthorne better than Irving's style. 6. John, Henry and William's nose resembled one another. 7. The novel is one of Scott. 8. I have no time to listen to either John or Joseph's talk. SINGULAR and PLURAL.[15]--In modern English most nouns form the plural by adding "s" to the singular. The following variations from this rule are important:-- 1. When the added sound of "s" makes an additional syllable, "es" is used: as, box, boxes; church, churches. 2. NOUNS ENDING IN "O." If the final "o" is preceded by a vowel, the plural is formed regularly, i.e., by adding "s": as, cameo, cameos. If the final "o" is preceded by a consonant, the tendency of modern usage is to form the plural by adding "es": as, hero, heroes; potato, potatoes. The following common words, however, seem still to form the plural by adding "s" alone:-- canto lasso proviso torso duodecimo memento quarto tyro halo octavo solo junto piano stiletto 3. NOUNS ENDING IN "Y." If the "y" is preceded by a vowel, the plural is regular: as, valley, valleys. If the "y" is preceded by a consonant, "y" is changed to "i" and "es" is added to form the plural: as, lady, ladies; city, cities. 4. PROPER NOUNS are changed as little as possible: as, Henry, Henrys; Mary, Marys; Cicero, Ciceros; Nero, Neros. 5. Most COMPOUND NOUNS form the plural by adding the proper sign of the plural to the fundamental part of the word, i.e., to the part which is described by the rest of the phrase: as, ox-cart, ox-carts; court-martial, courts-martial; aide-de-camp, aides-de-camp. Note the difference between the _plural_ and the _possessive_ of compound nouns,--forms which are often confounded. See page 16. 6. Letters, figures, and other symbols are made plural by adding an apostrophe and "s" ('s): as, "There are more _e's_ than _a's_ in this word"; "Dot your _i's_ and cross your _t's_." 7. Some nouns have two plurals, which differ in meaning:-- _Singular. Plural_. brother brothers (by birth), brethren (of a society). die dies (for coining or stamping), dice (for play). fish fishes (separate fish), fish (collective). index indexes (in books), indices (in algebra). penny pennies (separate coins), pence (sum of money). shot shots (discharges), shot (balls). staff staves (poles), staffs (bodies of assistants). [15] "Foundations," pp. 45-47. EXERCISE XI.[16] _Write the plural of_: Lash, cage, race, buffalo, echo, canto, volcano, portfolio, ally, money, solo, memento, mosquito, bamboo, ditch, chimney, man, Norman,[17] Mussulman, city, negro, baby, calf, man-of-war, attorney, goose-quill, canon, quail, mystery, turkey, wife, body, snipe, knight-errant,[17] donkey, spoonful, aide-de-camp, Ottoman, commander-in-chief, major-general, pony, reply, talisman, court-martial, father-in-law, court-yard, man-trap, Brahman, journey, Henry, stepson, deer, mouthful, Miss Clark,[18] Mr. Jones, Dr. Brown, Dutchman, German, forget-me-not, poet-laureate, minister-plenipotentiary, hero, fish, trout, Mary, George, bill-of-fare. [16] To THE TEACHER.--To have its full value this should be given as a dictation exercise. [17] Consult a dictionary for this and similar nouns. [18] Proper names preceded by a title are made plural by changing either the name or the title, and using "the" before the expression. We may say "the Miss Smiths" or "the Misses Smith," "the Doctors Young" or "the Doctor Youngs." EXERCISE XII. _Distinguish between_:-- 1. Two dice (dies) were found in the prisoner's pockets. 2. He was always kind to his brothers (brethren). 3. How many shot (shots) did you count? 4. He carried two pailfuls (pails full) of water up the hill. 5. I have two handfuls (hands full) of gold-dust. 6. He gave the beggar six pennies (pence). 7. There are serious errors in the indexes (indices) in this new Algebra. 8. Ten shot (shots) were fired from the gun in fifteen minutes. EXERCISE XIII. _Which of the following forms should be used? Consult Hill's "Foundations," pp. 45-47:_-- 1. The members of the committee were greatly alarmed at this (these) news. 2. Tidings was (were) brought to them of the massacre on Snake River. 3. The endowment of the college was greatly increased by this (these) means. 4. The widow's means was (were) at first large, but it was (they were) soon exhausted by the prodigality of her son. 5. The assets of the company are (is) $167,000. 6. The dregs in the cup was (were) found to be very bitter. 7. The eaves of the new house are (is) thirty-two feet above the ground. 8. Athletics are (is) run into the ground in many schools. 9. Politics is (are) like a stone tied around the neck of literature. 10. The nuptials of Gratiano and Nerissa were (was) celebrated at the same time as those (that) of Bassanio and Portia. 11. Ethics are (is) becoming more and more prominent in the discussions of political economists. 12. Have you seen my pincers? I have mislaid it (them). 13. The proceeds was (were) given to the hospital. 14. His riches took to themselves (itself) wings. 15. This (these) scissors is (are) not sharp. 16. Please pour this (these) suds on the rose plants in the oval flowerbed. 17. His tactics was (were) much criticised by old generals. 18. The United States has (have) informed Spain that it (they) will not permit Spanish interference in the affairs of Central America. NOUNS of FOREIGN ORIGIN.[19]--The following is a list of nouns of foreign origin in common use which have peculiar number forms:-- _Singular. Plural_. alumnus (masculine) alumni alumna (feminine) alumn�¦ analysis analyses bacterium bacteria beau beaux cherub cherubim (or cherubs) crisis crises curriculum curricula datum data genus (meaning "class") genera genius {geniuses (persons or great ability) {genii (spirits) hypothesis hypotheses oasis oases parenthesis parentheses phenomenon phenomena seraph seraphim (or seraphs) stratum strata tableau tableaux thesis theses [19] "Foundations," pp. 47-48. EXERCISE XIV.[20] 1. _Write the plural of_: Alumna, analysis, beau, cherub, crisis, curriculum, genus, genius, hypothesis, nebula, oasis, parenthesis, phenomenon, synopsis, seraph, stratum, tableau. 2. _Write the singular of_: Alumni, curricula, data, bacteria, cherubim, oases, phenomena, seraphim, strata, theses. GENDER.--The following nouns of different genders are sometimes confounded or otherwise misused:-- _Masculine_. _Feminine_. abbot abbess actor actress bachelor spinster, maid buck doe (fallow deer) bullock heifer czar czarina drake duck duke duchess earl countess Francis Frances gander goose hero heroine lion lioness marquis, marquess marchioness monk nun ram ewe stag, hart hind (red deer) sultan sultana tiger tigress wizard witch [20] TO THE TEACHER.--To have any value this must be given as a dictation exercise. EXERCISE XV.[21] 1. _Write the feminine word corresponding to:_ Abbot, actor, bachelor, buck, bullock, czar, duke, drake, earl, Francis, hero, lion, marquis, monk, ram, stag, sultan, hart, tiger. 2. _Write the masculine word corresponding to:_ Spinster, duck, doe, Frances, goose, heifer, ewe, hind, witch. [21] TO THE TEACHER.--This should be used as a dictation exercise. EXERCISE XVI. _Correct the following sentences:_-- 1. The marquess was the executor of her husband's estate. 2. He married a beautiful actor. 3. The tiger broke from its cage. 4. The duck was pluming his feathers after his swim, and the goose had wandered from his companions across the meadows. 5. The baby girl in "The Princess" may be called the real hero of the tale. ABBREVIATIONS.--For the following exercise consult Hill's Foundations of Rhetoric, pp. 49-50. EXERCISE XVII. _Which of these words are in good use?_-- Pianist, harpist, poloist, violinist, phiz, ad, co-ed, curios, exam, cab, chum, gent, hack, gym, pants, mob, phone, proxy, photo, prelim, van, prof, varsity. MISUSED NOUNS.[22]--Many errors in English consist in using words in senses which are not authorized. Sometimes the use of a word in a wrong sense makes the speaker's meaning obscure. Sometimes it makes him seem ridiculous, as when a person of the writer's acquaintance told a friend to clean an oil-painting by washing it in "torpid" water. In every case the misuse of a word leaves an unpleasant impression on the mind of a cultivated person, and, like all bad English, should be avoided as we avoid bad manners. In the following definitions and exercises a few nouns[23] are selected for study. The distinctions given are not always observed by reputable authors, but they indicate the _tendency_ of the best modern usage. I. A RESEMBLANCE IN SENSE MISLEADS.[24] HOUSE, HOME.--A _house_ is a building. _Home_ means one's habitual abode, "the abiding place of the affections." It may or may not be in a house, and it may include the surroundings of a house. PERSON, PARTY.--A _person_ is an individual, a _party_ is a company of persons, or, in legal usage, a person who is concerned in a contention or agreement. SERIES, SUCCESSION.--A _series_ is a succession of similar things mutually related according to some law. _Succession_ is properly used of several things following one after the other; it denotes order of occurrence only, and does not imply any connection. STATEMENT, ASSERTION.--A _statement_ is a formal setting forth of fact or opinion; an _assertion_ is simply an affirmation of fact or opinion. VERDICT, TESTIMONY.--A _verdict_ is a decision made by a number of men acting as a single body. _Testimony_ is an expression of individual knowledge or belief. THE WHOLE, ALL.--_The whole_ is properly used of something which is considered as one thing. When a number of persons or things are spoken of, the proper word is _all._ [22] TO THE TEACHER.--It may not be desirable to drill pupils on all the words whose meanings are discriminated here and in chapters V. and VI. In that case it will be easy to select for study those words which the pupils are most likely to misuse. The words discriminated in this book are for the most part those which are mentioned in the "Foundations of Rhetoric," and they have been arranged in the same order. A few other words often misused by my pupils have been added. [23] For misused _verbs_ and _adjectives_ see pages 92 and 119. [24] "Foundations," pp. 50-53. EXERCISE XVIII. _Tell the difference in meaning between the following:--_ 1. Mr. Roscoe has no house (home). 2. The hotel clerk says he expects three more parties (persons) on the six o'clock train. 3. There are three persons (parties) concerned in this contract. 4. A succession (series) of delays. 5. This morning's papers publish an assertion (a statement) by Mr. Pullman, which throws new light on the strike. EXERCISE XIX. _Insert the proper word in each blank, and give the reason for your choice.--_ HOUSE, HOME. 1. Whenever a tramp comes to our ----, the dog is untied. 2. His new ---- will be finished in November. 3. Mr. S. owns a beautiful ---- and has a happy ----. 4. One can build a very good ---- for $6000. 5. ----s are built to live in, not to look on. PARTY, PERSON. 6. There is another ---- coming on the evening train, but he will leave to-morrow. 7. A cross-looking ---- alighted from the stage-coach and entered the inn. 8. The cause of both ----s shall come before the court. 9. Is the ---- that wants a carriage at dinner or in his room? 10. He is attached to the king's ----. 11. Who was that fat old ---- who kept us all laughing? SERIES, SUCCESSION. 12. The ---- of Presidents is a long one. 13. This stamp belongs to the ---- of 1864. 14. A ---- of calamitous events followed this mistake in policy. 15. A ---- of accidents prevented the sailing of the yacht. STATEMENT, ASSERTION. 16. The last ---- of the bank has been examined. 17. ---- unsupported by fact is worthless. 18. The Declaration of Independence contained a clear ---- of grievances. 19. The orator's ---- was shown to be false. VERDICT, TESTIMONY. 20. The ---- of history is that Christianity has improved the condition of women. 21. Let us await the ---- of the public. 22. The early Christian martyrs sealed their ---- with their blood. 23. The ---- of those who saw the murder was contradictory. THE WHOLE, ALL. 24. ---- (of) the dishes came tumbling to the floor. 25. Tell ---- (the) truth. 26. Then you and I and ---- of us fell down. 27. Washington was respected by ---- (the) people. 28. We sold ---- (of) our apples at sixty cents a bushel. 29. He has already packed ---- of his books. 30. ---- (the) adornments took an appropriate and sylvan character. 31. He readily confided to her ---- (the) papers concerning the intrigue. 32. In the afternoon ---- of them got into a boat and rowed across the lake. II. A RESEMBLANCE IN SOUND MISLEADS.[25] ACCEPTANCE, ACCEPTATION.--_Acceptance_ is the "act of accepting"; also "favorable reception": as, "The acceptance of a gift," "She sang with marked acceptance." _Acceptation_ now means "the sense in which an expression is generally understood or accepted." ACCESS, ACCESSION.--_Access_ has several meanings authorized by good use: (1) outburst; (2) admission; (3) way of entrance. _Accession_ means (1) the coming into possession of a right; or (2) an addition. ACTS, ACTIONS.--"_Acts_, in the sense of 'things done,' is preferable to _actions_, since _actions_ also means 'processes of doing.'"[26] ADVANCE, ADVANCEMENT.--_Advance_ is used in speaking of something as moving forward; _advancement_, as being moved forward. ALLUSION, ILLUSION, DELUSION.--An _allusion_ is an indirect reference to something not definitely mentioned. Roughly speaking, an _illusion_ is an error of vision; _delusion_, of judgment. "In literary and popular use an _illusion_ is an unreal appearance presented in any way to the bodily or the mental vision; it is often pleasing, harmless, or even useful.... A _delusion_ is a mental error or deception, and may have regard to things actually existing, as well as to _illusions_. _Delusions_ are ordinarily repulsive and discreditable, and may even be mischievous."[27] AVOCATION, VOCATION.--"_Vocation_ means 'calling' or 'profession'; _avocation_, 'something aside from one's regular calling, a by-work.'"[28] COMPLETION, COMPLETENESS.--_Completion_ is "the act of completing"; _completeness_ is "the state of being complete." OBSERVATION, OBSERVANCE.--_Observation_ contains the idea of "looking at"; _observance_, of "keeping," "celebrating." "We speak of the _observation_ of a fact, of a star; of the _observance_ of a festival, of a rule."[29] PROPOSAL, PROPOSITION.--"A _proposal_ is something proposed to be done, which may be accepted or rejected. A _proposition_ is something proposed for discussion, with a view to determining the truth or wisdom of it."[30] RELATIONSHIP, RELATION.--_Relationship_ properly means "the state of being related by kindred or alliance": as, "A relationship existed between the two families." _Relation_ is a word of much broader meaning. It does not necessarily imply kinship. SOLICITUDE, SOLICITATION.--_Solicitude_ is "anxiety"; _solicitation_ is "the act of soliciting or earnestly asking." STIMULATION, STIMULUS, STIMULANT.--_Stimulation_ is "the act of stimulating or inciting to action"; _stimulus_, originally "a goad," now denotes that which stimulates, the means by which one is incited to action; _stimulant_ has a medical sense, being used of that which stimulates the body or any of its organs. We speak of ambition as a _stimulus_, of alcohol as a _stimulant_. [25] "Foundations," pp. 53-56. [26] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 18. [27] The Century Dictionary. [28] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 39. [29] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 39. [30] The Century Dictionary. EXERCISE XX. _Tell the difference in meaning between_-- 1. The acceptance (acceptation) of this word is doubtful. 2. The acts (actions) of Napoleon were carefully observed. 3. The colonel's advance (advancement) was not long delayed. 4. Literature has been Dr. Holmes's avocation (vocation). 5. The list of African dialects is approaching completeness (completion). 6. The completion (completeness) of this new dictionary of the Latin language will make scholars glad. 7. The professor advised me, when I went to Rome, to be especially careful in my observation (observance) of the religious ceremonies of Passion Week. 8. This proposal (proposition) made both Republican and Democratic senators indignant. 9. His mother's solicitude (solicitation) induced Washington when he was a boy to give up his intention of going to sea. 10. Shall I give your son a stimulus (stimulant)? EXERCISE XXI. _Insert the proper word in each blank, and give the reason for your choice_:-- ACCEPTANCE, ACCEPTATION. 1. The word "livery" is used in its original ----. 2. This is a true saying and worthy of ----. 3. The ---- of a trust brings grave responsibility. 4. He sent to the President a formal ---- of the position. 5. The assertion finds ---- in every rank of society. 6. In its common ---- "philosophy" signifies "the search after wisdom." 7. The probability of this theory justifies its full ----. ACCESS, ACCESSION. 8. We are denied ---- to the king. 9. An ---- of fever occurred at nightfall. 10. The emperor at his ---- takes an oath to maintain the constitution. 11. ---- to the outer court was through a massive door. 12. The only ---- which the Roman Empire received was the province of Britain. 13. A sudden ---- of violent, burning fever had laid Peter's mother-in-law prostrate. 14. Victoria married after her ---- to the throne. 15. This allusion led to a fresh ---- of feeling. ACT, ACTION. 16. I cannot do so cruel an ----. 17. Another mode of ---- was proposed by Henry Clay. 18. The fifth book of the New Testament records the ----s of the Apostles. 19. To attempt resistance would be the ---- of a madman. 20. The monkey imitates the ----s of its master. ADVANCE, ADVANCEMENT. 21. The ---- of the expedition was impeded by bad roads. 22. ---- in the army is slow. 23. The Don and his companions, in their eager ----, had got entangled in deep glens. 24. My old position offered no hope of ----. 25. His hopes of ---- in England failing, Swift returned to Ireland. ALLUSION, ILLUSION, DELUSION. 26. There were two ----s in his sermon to the riots. 27. The cleverest, acutest men are often under an (a) ---- about women. 28. Longfellow's "Footsteps of Angels" contains ----s to the death of his wife. 29. Our judgment of people is liable to be warped by ----s of the imagination. 30. Those other words of ---- and folly, Liberty first and Union afterward. AVOCATION, VOCATION. 31. Surgeons in the army are allowed by the enemy to pursue their ---- unmolested. 32. The young lawyer, surrounded by his law-books, took up his ---- with enthusiasm. 33. Let your base-ball be a pastime, not a trade; let it be your ----, not your ----. 34. Heaven is a pious man's ----, and therefore he counts earthly employments ----s. 35. It seems that after his return, his disciples left him and returned to their ordinary ----s. COMPLETION, COMPLETENESS. 36. The ---- of the railroad was celebrated by a general illumination in the village. 37. The comfort of passengers is secured by the ---- of the equipment of the steamers of this line. 38. We hope for the ---- of our new building by September. 39. We were surprised at the ---- of the collection of minerals. OBSERVATION, OBSERVANCE. 40. The ---- of a few simple rules of health would have prolonged his life. 41. The North American Indian has great powers of ----. 42. He insisted on the prompt ---- of the regulations. 43. The Pharisees were strict in their ---- of religious festivals. 44. He is arranging for a careful ---- of the eclipse. PROPOSAL, PROPOSITION. 45. I submit two ----s for consideration by the assembly. 46. The ---- that each of us relinquish something was accepted. 47. Sealed ----s for building the cottage were handed in by three contractors. 48. He made a ---- of marriage to her. 49. I dissent from that ----. 50. A nation dedicated to the ---- that all men are created equal. SOLICITUDE, SOLICITATION. 51. He made frequent ---- for money and clothes. 52. My mother watched over my infancy with tender ----. 53. Coriolanus yielded at the ---- of his mother. STIMULUS, STIMULANT, STIMULATION. 54. He worked hard under the ---- of a desire to get rich. 55. The providential ---- of conscience is always present. 56. The doctor came and administered a gentle ---- to the patient. III. ADDITIONAL NOUNS SOMETIMES MISUSED.[31] ABILITY, CAPACITY.--_Ability_ is the power of doing; _capacity_, the power of containing, of understanding, of acquiring. ADHERENCE, ADHESION.--_Adherence_ is used of moral relations, _adhesion_, of physical connection. We speak of the _adhesion_ of glue to wood, of a man's _adherence_ to the principles of his party. AMOUNT, QUANTITY, NUMBER.--_Amount_ means "sum total," and is used of numbers or quantities; _quantity_ is used of things which are measured; _number_, of things which are counted. ARGUMENT, PLEA.--"_Plea_ (in the legal sense) is properly used of the pleadings or the arraignment before a trial, not of the _argument_ at a trial. A _plea_ is always addressed to the court; an _argument_ may be addressed either to the court or to the jury. A similar remark applies to the verbs _plead_ and _argue_."[32] BALANCE, REST, REMAINDER.--_Balance_, meaning "the difference between two sides of an account," is a commercial term, and cannot properly be used for _rest_ or _remainder. Rest_ is used of persons or things, and of large as well as of small parts. _Remainder_ is used only of things, and denotes a comparatively small part. CENTRE, MIDDLE.--The _centre_ is a point, or a definite place; the _middle_ is a line, or a space, and is less definite than _centre_. CHARACTER, REPUTATION.--_Character_ is what a man is; _reputation_ is the prevailing opinion of his character. COMPLEMENT, COMPLIMENT.--A _complement_ is a "full quantity or number" or "that which is needed to complete"; a _compliment_ is "an expression of praise." CONSCIENCE, CONSCIOUSNESS.--_Conscience_ is that within us which distinguishes right from wrong. _Consciousness_ is the state of being aware of one's existence, thoughts, and surroundings. COUNCIL, COUNSEL.--A _council_ is "a body of persons convened for consultation." _Counsel_ denotes "advice," or "a person, as a lawyer, engaged to give advice." CUSTOM, HABIT.--_Custom_ denotes the frequent repetition of the same act, and may be used of a number of persons taken together. _Habit_ is the effect of custom in a person. _Custom_ is voluntary; _habit_ is involuntary, often uncontrollable, sometimes unconscious. DECEPTION, DECEIT.--_Deception_ is "the act of deceiving"; _deceit_ is "deceitfulness," a trait of character; or a "trick," an "artifice." EGOISTS, EGOISM, EGOTISM.--"The disciples of Descartes were _egoists_, the _ego_ being the basis of their philosophy." _Egoism_ is the name of their system. _Egoism_ is sometimes used also in the sense of undue admiration of self, the outward expression of which is _egotism_. But "_egotism_, in the sense of 'self-worship,' is preferable to _egoism_, since _egoism_ also designates a system of philosophy."[33] EMIGRATION, IMMIGRATION.--_Emigration_ is the moving out from a country; _immigration_, the moving into it. Foreigners who come to live in America are _emigrants_ from their fatherland, _immigrants_ to America. ENORMITY, ENORMOUSNESS.--"_Enormity_ is used of deeds of unusual horror; _enormousness_, of things of unusual size. We speak of the _enormity_ of C�¦sar Borgia's crimes, of the _enormousness_ of the Rothschilds' wealth."[34] ESTEEM, ESTIMATE, ESTIMATION.--_Esteem_ as a noun seems to be going out of use; the word now commonly used in the sense of "opinion" or "regard" is _estimation_. An _estimate_ is "an approximate judgment, based on considerations of probability, of the number, amount, magnitude, or position of anything." FALSITY, FALSENESS.--"_Falsity_, in the sense of 'non-conformity to truth,' without any suggestion of blame, is preferable to _falseness_, since _falseness_ usually implies blame."[35] IDENTITY, IDENTIFICATION.--_Identity_ is "the state of being the same." _Identification_ denotes "the act of determining what a given thing, or who a given person, is." IMPORT, IMPORTANCE.--_Import_, in the sense of "meaning," must be distinguished from _importance_, "the quality of being important." INVENTION, DISCOVERY.--We _invent_ something new, contrived or produced for the first time. We _discover_ what existed before, but remained unknown. LIMIT, LIMITATION.--_Limit_, in the sense of "bound," is preferable to _limitation_, since _limitation_ also means "the act of limiting," or a "restriction." LOT, NUMBER.--_Lot_ denotes "a distinct part or parcel": as, "The auctioneer sold the goods in ten _lots_." The word does not mean "a great number"; therefore it is improperly used in the sentences: "He has _lots_ of money," and "I know a _lot_ of people in New York." MAJORITY, PLURALITY.--A _majority_ is more than half the whole number; a _plurality_ is the excess of votes given for one candidate over those given for another, and is not necessarily a _majority_ when there are more than two candidates. NEGLIGENCE, NEGLECT.--"_Negligence_ is used of a habit or trait; _neglect_, of an act or succession of acts."[36] NOVICE, NOVITIATE.--_Novice_ properly means one who is new in any business or calling; _novitiate_, the state or time of being a _novice_. ORGANISM, ORGANIZATION.--An _organism_ is a "living body composed of a number of essential parts." _Organization_ denotes "the act of organizing," or "an organized body of persons," as a literary society. PART, PORTION.--"_Part_ is the general word for that which is less than the whole: as, the whole is equal to the sum of all its _parts_.... _Portion_ is often used in a stilted way where _part_ would be simpler and better; _portion_ has always some suggestion of allotment or assignment: as, this is my _portion_; a _portion_ of Scripture. 'Father, give me the _portion_ of goods that falleth to me.'"[37] PLENTY, ABUNDANCE.--_Plenty_ is enough; _abundance_, more than enough. PRODUCE, PRODUCT, PRODUCTION.--_Produce_ is always collective, and is used only of raw products: as, the _produce_ of the soil, of the flock. _Product_ denotes the result of some operation, usually physical labor. _Production_, meaning "the act of producing," is also applied to a work of literature or art, as a book, a statue, or a painting. "_Product_, in the sense of 'thing produced,' is preferable to _production_, since _production_ is also used in an abstract sense."[38] PROMINENCE, PREDOMINANCE.--_Prominence_ means "a standing out from something, so as to be conspicuous." _Predominance_ denotes "ascendency," "a superiority in strength or influence," "an over-ruling." There may be many _prominent_ traits in a person's character; there can be only one _predominant_ trait. RECEIPT, RECIPE.--"_Receipt_, in the sense of 'formula for a pudding, etc.,' is preferable to _recipe_, since _recipe_ is commonly restricted to medical prescriptions."[38] RELATIVE, RELATION.--"_Relative_, in the sense of 'member of a family,' is preferable to _relation_, since _relation_ is also used in an abstract sense."[38] REQUIREMENT, REQUISITE, REQUISITION.--A _requirement_ is something required by a person or persons. A _requisite_ is something required by the nature of the case. A _requisition_ is an authoritative demand or official request for a supply of something. RESORT, RECOURSE, RESOURCE.--_Resort_ denotes "the act of going to some person or thing"; or "that which is resorted to or habitually visited." _Recourse_ means "resort for help or protection." _Resource_ denotes "something which is a source of help or support." SECRETING, SECRETION.--_Secreting_ is the act of hiding; _secretion_, a physiological process or fluid. SEWAGE, SEWERAGE.--_Sewage_ means the contents, _sewerage_, the system, of sewers. SITUATION, SITE.--"_Situation_ embraces all the local aspects and relationships[39] in which a thing is placed. The _site_ is confined to the ground on which it is erected or reposes."[40] SPECIALITY, SPECIALTY.--"_Speciality_, in the sense of 'distinctive quality,' is preferable to _specialty_, since _specialty_ is also used in the sense of 'distinctive thing.'"[41] UNION, UNITY.--_Union_ is "the joining of two or more things into one." _Unity_ means "oneness," "harmony." VISITANT, VISITOR.--_Visitant_ was formerly used to denote a supernatural being; _visitor_, a human one. _Visitant_ seems now to be going out of use, _visitor_ being used in both senses. [31] "Foundations," p. 56. If it seem undesirable to drill pupils on all the words which are here discriminated, the teacher may select those words which they are most likely to misuse. See note 2, p. 22. [32] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 40. [33] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 19. [34] Ibid., p. 38. [35] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 19. [36] Ibid., p. 39. [37] The Century Dictionary. [38] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 19. [39] Is "relationships" the proper word here? [40] Smith's Synonyms Discriminated. [41] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 19. EXERCISE XXII. _Tell the difference in meaning between_-- 1. He is a person of great ability (capacity). 2. A good character (reputation) is a precious possession. 3. The man seemed to be without conscience (consciousness). 4. The counsel (council) was not wise. 5. It is John's custom (habit) to speak slowly. 6. Her deceit (deception) amazed me. 7. This man is an egoist (egotist). 8. The government does not encourage immigration (emigration). 9. In Mr. E.'s estimate (estimation) the cost of lumber and paint is low. 10. It was only yesterday that I heard of the identification (identity) of the men who robbed Mr. Jones and Mr. Smith. 11. Mr. Gladstone's remark at the banquet was an utterance of great import (importance). 12. This is a remarkable discovery (invention). 13. Calhoun was nominated by a majority (plurality). 14. His death was caused by his own neglect (negligence). 15. The privileges of a novice (novitiate) are not many. 16. What a queer organism (organization)! 17. The expedition has plenty (an abundance) of provisions. 18. He proposes to lay a tax on all English produce (products, productions). 19. He quickly attained prominence (predominance) in the committee. 20. Please copy this receipt (recipe). 21. My relatives (relations) here are charming. 22. Wanted, a boy to do light work in a first-class store. Ability to read and write is a requirement (requisite). 23. The sewage (sewerage) of inland cities presents problems of great difficulty. 24. The site (situation) of the temple is not known. 25. Unity (union) of religious denominations is hoped for by many. EXERCISE XXIII. _Insert the proper word in each blank, and give the reason for your choice_:-- ABILITY, CAPACITY. 1. The ---- of the room is not great. 2. They gave, each according to his ----. 3. What is ---- but the power of doing a thing? 4. Let me drink of Thee according to my ----. (From a prayer.) 5. Some students do not have ---- to master Greek; but what most need is ---- to work persistently. 6. My father does not think Judge X. has much--as a lawyer. ADHERENCE, ADHESION. 7. The ---- of the parts which were cemented together is still perfect. 8. He showed an obstinate ---- to false rules of conduct. 9. Marks on the blackboard depend on the ---- of chalk to the slate. 10. Professor A.'s ---- to the doctrines of Adam Smith is seen in his last book. AMOUNT, NUMBER, QUANTITY. 11. Our monthly expenditures vary in ----. 12. You could see any ---- of cabs standing in front of the theatre. 13. A great ---- of books and papers covered the table. 14. Gulliver asked the king of Lilliput for a large ---- of iron bars and a considerable ---- of rope. 15. What ---- of paper is needed for one issue of _Harper's Weekly_? 16. Such a (an) ---- of sheep as we saw to-day! 17. There is a large ---- of silver bullion in the Treasury waiting to be coined. ARGUMENT, PLEA. 18. Every whisper in the court-room was hushed as Mr. N. rose before the jury and began his--in behalf of the prisoner. 19. The ---- of Smith, when arraigned before the court, was that he had acted in self-defence. 20. The only ---- available with an east wind is to put on your overcoat. BALANCE, REMAINDER, REST. 21. The ---- of the hour is spent in the study of some poem. 22. I have a ---- at my banker's. 23. The ---- of the boys went home. 24. For the ---- of the week we stayed at home. 25. The account shows a ---- of $12.46. 26. Give John and Horace four of the six apples; you may have the ----. 27. Give the ---- of our dinner to Tommy, our cat. CENTRE, MIDDLE. 28. There is a crack running down the ---- of the wall. 29. A table stood in the ---- of the room. 30. A path runs through the ---- of the park. 31. In the ---- of the garden was a fountain. 32. He parts his hair in the ----. 33. The arrow struck the ---- of the target. CHARACTER, REPUTATION. 34. This man has an excellent ---- for honesty. 35. Every one admires the ---- of Washington. 36. Mr. Arnold won great ---- as a critic. 37. Oh, I have lost my ----. 38. The outlaws of Yorkshire were men of loose ----. 39. A distinguished general may lose his ---- through a single blunder. 40. ---- is an idle and most false imposition; oft got without merit, and lost without deserving. COMPLEMENT, COMPLIMENT. 41. Present my ----s to your father. 42. The ship has its ---- of stores. 43. The ---- of an angle is the difference between the angle and a right angle. 44. "True friendship loathes such oily ----." 45. In the sentence, "He is ill," "ill" is the ---- of the verb "is." 46. "This barren verbiage, current among men, Light coin, the tinsel clink of ----." CONSCIENCE, CONSCIOUSNESS. 47. The ---- of the purity of his motives consoled him for his unpopularity. 48. My ---- hath a thousand several tongues. 49. I felt a shock, I saw the car topple over, and then I lost ----. COUNCIL, COUNSEL. 50. "No man will take ----, but every man will take money; therefore money is better than ----."--_Swift._ 51. The members of the cabinet form a sort of secret ---- of the President. 52. Webster was one of the ---- in the trial of the Knapps for the murder of Captain White. CUSTOM, HABIT. 53. De Quincey acquired the ---- of using opium from first using it to relieve neuralgic pains. 54. Dancing round a May-pole is a ---- many hundreds of years old. 55. As his ---- was, he went to the synagogue on the Sabbath. 56. Man is a bundle of ----s. 57. Those national ----s are best which lead to good ----s among the people. 58. A loose life brings a man into ----s of dissipation. 59. It was the ---- of Scotch Highlanders to go bareheaded. 60. It is a good ---- to rise early, because this will soon become a ----. DECEPTION, DECEIT. 61. He was guilty of a long course of ----. 62. Her character would be charming if it were not for her ----. 63. He won my confidence by base ----. 64. Deceivers seldom profit by their ----. 65. ---- Is of the very nature and essence of sin. EGOTIST, EGOIST. 66. He is an ----, for he is always talking about himself. 67. ----s are the pest of society; they are always obtruding their ailments on others. EMIGRATION, IMMIGRATION. 68. The increase in Chinese ---- is a matter for serious consideration by the United States Senate. 69. The Chinese government encourages ---- to America. 70. ---- is one cause of the rapid growth of our population. 71. The ---- of the French nobility at the time of the French Revolution was a political blunder. ENORMITY, ENORMOUSNESS. 72. The ---- of the cost of the civil war startles the student of history. 73. Burke drew such a vivid picture of the ---- of the Nabob of Arcot's crimes that ladies in the audience fainted. 74. Visitors do not at first realize the ---- of St. Peter's, at Rome. ESTEEM, ESTIMATE, ESTIMATION. 75. In what ---- is he held by his townsmen? 76. In my ---- she is the best of women. 77. We can form an ---- of the amount of water in the air. FALSENESS, FALSITY. 78. We have already seen the ---- of that hypothesis. 79. Arnold was despised for his ----. 80. Piety is opposed to hypocrisy and ----. 81. The prince is in danger of betrayal through the ---- of his servant. 82. The ---- of this reasoning is evident. IDENTITY, IDENTIFICATION. 83. The bodies were so disfigured that their ---- was difficult. 84. In no form of government is there absolute ---- of interest between the people and their rulers. IMPORT, IMPORTANCE. 85. He heard the tolling of the bell and trembled at its ----. 86. The oath of the President contains three words, all of equal ----; namely, that he will "preserve, protect, and defend" the Constitution. 87. He was engaged in business of the highest ----. 88. You misunderstood the ---- of my remarks. INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 89. Newton's ---- of the law of gravitation. 90. The ---- of the telescope was made by Galileo. 91. The ---- of the properties of the magnetic needle is said to have been made by the Chinese; also, the ---- of gunpowder. 92. The ---- of the circulation of blood was made by Harvey. 93. The steam-engine is one of the greatest ----s of this age. 94. The ---- of the telephone is claimed by several persons. LIMIT, LIMITATION. 95. All kinds of knowledge have their ----s. 96. Titus Quintius was appointed to the command of the army without any ----s. 97. Athens insisted upon ---- of the right to vote. 98. The prisoners were free to roam within certain ----s, but their employments were subject to ----. MAJORITY, PLURALITY. 99. If A has 21 votes, B 18, and C 10, A is elected by a ----, not a ----. 100. Smith had 37 of the 52 votes, a good ----. 101. Jones had 20 votes, Smith 14, and Brown 11; Jones therefore was elected by a safe ----. NEGLIGENCE, NEGLECT. 102. "Without blame Or our ---- we lost her as we came."--_Comus._ 103. Through ---- to do what ought to be done we soon acquire habits of ----. 104. Rescue my poor remains from vile ----. 105. The gate has fallen from its hinges, the wooden steps are rotted, and the house shows similar signs of ----. 106. ---- is a grave fault. NOVICE, NOVITIATE. 107. For most men a ---- of silence is profitable before they enter on the business of life. 108. I am young, a ---- in the trade. 109. It was in this abbey that I served my ----. 110. When I was a ---- in this place, there was here a pious monk. ORGANISM, ORGANIZATION. 111. Germs of microscopic ----s exist abundantly on the surface of all fruits. 112. Lieutenant Peary has completed the ---- of his arctic expedition. 113. The Jacobin club was a political ----. 114. What a complex ---- the human body is! PART, PORTION. 115. A ---- of my work is done. 116. The younger ---- of the community. 117. The priests had a ---- of land assigned them by Pharaoh. 118. The whole is equal to the sum of all its ----s. 119. Each received his ---- of the estate. 120. The lower ----s of his body were cold. 121. "This," said he, "is a ---- of the true cross." PLENTY, ABUNDANCE. 122. If you do not waste your money, you will have ---- for your expenses. 123. They did cast in of their ----; but she of her want. 124. The expedition has ---- of provisions, but none to spare. 125. Last year there was ---- of corn; it was estimated that we had enough to feed the whole nation for two years. PRODUCE, PRODUCT, PRODUCTION. 126. The manufacturers brought their ----s to market. 127. The farmers bring their ---- to town or haul it to the nearest railway station. 128. The apple is especially an American ----. 129. Lowell's "Commemoration Ode" is a noble ----. 130. Great Britain exports chiefly manufactured ----. 131. The component elements of ---- are labor and capital. PROMINENCE, PREDOMINANCE. 132. The Indian race is marked by a ---- of the cheek-bones. 133. The English settlers were _prominent (predominant)_ in the New World. 134. "Childe Harold" brought Byron into ---- as a poet. 135. As a man Byron had many _prominent (predominant)_ faults; it is not easy to say which one was _prominent (predominant)._ RECIPE, RECEIPT. 136. Please send me your ---- for making chocolate ice-cream. 137. Paracelsus furnished a ---- for making a fairy, but had the delicacy to refrain from using it. 138. He gave me a ---- for a liniment, which he said was excellent for sprains. RELATIVE, RELATION. 139. He has no ---- in this part of the country. 140. I am the nearest ---- he has in the world. REQUIREMENT, REQUISITION, REQUISITE. 141. One of the ----s in a great commander is coolness. 142. The ----s for admission to college vary. 143. One of the ----s in a United States minister to France is that he be wealthy, for the salary paid is insufficient to defray the expenses of the minister's social obligations. 144. That locomotive engineers be not color-blind is a just ----. 145. The wars of Napoleon were marked by the enormous ----s which were made on invaded countries. RESORT, RESOURCE, RECOURSE. 146. The woods were her favorite--. 147. The United States has unlimited--s. 148. Asheville has long been a--of wealthy society people. 149. When women engage in any art or trade, it is usually as a last ----. 150. General Lee had--to stratagem. SECRETION, SECRETING. 151. Jailers are watchful to prevent the ---- of poison in letters sent to condemned prisoners. 153. Saliva is a ----. SEWAGE, SEWERAGE. 153. The water of rivers that have received ---- is not good to drink. 154. The vast and intricate ---- of Paris is described by Victor Hugo in "Les Miserables." SITUATION, SITE. 155. The ---- of Samaria is far more beautiful than the ---- of Jerusalem, though not so grand and wild. 156. Dr. Schliemann made excavations to discover the ---- of Troy. 157. Our school buildings have a fine ----. 158. Has the ---- of Professor Richard's house been fixed? 159. One of Nebuchadnezzar's temples is thought to have stood on the ---- of the Tower of Babel. SPECIALTY, SPECIALITY. 160. It is the ---- of vice that it is selfishly indifferent to the injurious consequences of actions. 161. Diseases of the throat are Dr. Hall's ----. 162. Fountain-pens a ----. 163. "Toughness" is the ---- of Salisbury iron; therefore Salisbury iron is much in demand for car-wheels. UNION, UNITY. 164. How good and how pleasant it is for brethren to dwell together in ----. 165. The ---- of soul and body is ended by death. 166. In the temper of Lord Bacon there was a singular ---- of audacity and sobriety. 167. This composition lacks ----; the writer treats of several distinct subjects. EXERCISE XXIV. _Tell why the italicized words in the following sentences are misused, and substitute for them better expressions:_-- 1. The West End Railway Company is the _factor_[42] which can remedy all this. 2. Addison's "Cato" was _a success._ 3. Decoration Day is a fitting _observance_ of those who gave their lives for their country. 4. At the end of each day the _teams_[43] are so broken up that they have to go into the repair-shop, where the carpenter and blacksmith are able to fix any part of them. 5. The _majority_ of the news is unfavorable. 6. Search-lights would be an indispensable _factor_ in a night attack. 7. Bishop Hatto lived in a country where all the _productions_ were spoiled by the weather. 8. The _whole_ of the stupid boys in Germany struggle to pass this test. 9. The police are looking for the guilty _parties_. 10. A _lot_ of men from the country came to town to see the circus. 11. In the shed is a _mixture_[44] of oars, seats, sails, rudders, booms, and gaffs. 12. They had to take the _balance_ of his arm off. 13. Addison's essays were a great _factor_ in improving the morals of his age. 14. General Manager Payson Tucker at once sent detectives to the scene, and every effort will be made to secure the guilty _parties_. 15. For a few days Coxey's army was _a success_ as a show. 16. If it were not for him and a few others of his _ilk_ the matter would have been settled long ago. [42] "Foundations," p. 51. [43] Ibid., p. 52. [44] Consult a good dictionary. EXERCISE XXV.[45] _Illustrate by original sentences the correct use of these words:_-- Home, party, series, statement, verdict, acceptation, actions, advance, advancement, avocation, completion, allusion, illusion, observation, observance, proposal, proposition, solicitude, solicitation, stimulus, stimulant, capacity, adherence, adhesion, amount, quantity, number, centre, middle, character, complement, compliment, conscience, consciousness, council, counsel, custom, habit, deception, deceit, egoist, emigration, immigration, enormity, enormousness, esteem, estimate, falsity, falseness, import, invention, discovery, limitation, majority, plurality, negligence, neglect, novitiate, organization, organism, produce, product, production, prominence, predominance, recipe, requirement, requisition, requisite, resort, resource, secretion, sewage, sewerage, situation, site, speciality, specialty, union, unity. [45] TO THE TEACHER.--It is easy to underestimate the difficulty which this exercise presents to pupils. In assigning the lesson care must be taken not to call for more of this kind of work than can be done well. Constructing a sentence to illustrate the correct use of a word is a valuable exercise, but it is a difficult one; and persons who know the correct use of a word may be put to their wit's end to illustrate that use. It will be well to assign this exercise little by little, while the class works through the definitions and exercises on pages 23-41; or else to select from the list the words on which the class needs most drill. With some pupils it may be wise to omit the exercise entirely. CHAPTER IV OF PRONOUNS POSSESSIVE FORMS.[46]--No apostrophe is used in forming the possessive case of personal pronouns. We write "ours," "yours," "hers," "its," "theirs." "It's" is a contraction for "it is." [46] "Foundations," p. 60. EXERCISE XXVI. _Write from dictation_-- 1. John's hat is old, yours is new. 2. The bear was lying on its side, dead. 3. The Browns' house is larger than ours, but ours is more convenient than theirs. 4. Yours very respectfully, John Smith. 5. See the yacht! it's coining into the harbor under full sail. 6. Show Mary your doll; it should not grieve you that yours is not so pretty as hers. 7. That fault was not yours. 8. Helen's eyes followed the direction of hers. NOMINATIVE OR OBJECTIVE CASE.[47]--There are only seven words in the English language that now have different forms for the nominative and objective cases; therefore it is only in the use of these words that we need to observe any rules about "nominative" or "objective." Since, however, these seven words are more frequently used than any other words, the possibilities of error in choosing between the nominative and the objective are many. Mistakes of this kind are common, and produce a very unpleasant effect on cultivated people. The seven words that have different forms for the nominative and objective cases are the following pronouns[48]:-- _Nominative. Objective._ I me we us thou thee he him she her they them who whom It is taken for granted that the student has already learned the following principles of syntax:-- 1. _Words used absolutely_ and the _subjects of finite verbs_ should in English be put in the NOMINATIVE form. 2. The _subjects of infinitives_ and the _objects_ of verbs and prepositions should be in the OBJECTIVE form. 3. Words in _apposition_ should be in the same case. 4. The verb "_to be,"_ or any of its forms _(am, is, are, were,_ etc.), does not take an object, but, being equivalent in meaning to the symbol "=," takes the same case after it as before it: the nominative, if the form is "finite"; the objective, if the form is "infinitive" and has a subject of its own. "I know it is _he_," "I know it to be _him,"_ and "The stranger is thought to be _he_" are grammatically correct. Sentences like "She invited Mrs. R. and _I_ to go driving" are common, even among people generally well-informed. Such mistakes will be avoided if the speaker stops to think what the form would be if the pronoun were not coupled with a noun. No one would think of saying, "She invited _I_ to go driving." Persons who are in doubt as to which form of the pronoun to use often try to avoid the difficulty by using one of the pronouns ending in "-self"--pronouns which have the same form for both the nominative and the objective case. Thus many persons, uncertain whether to use "I" or "me" in the sentence quoted above, would say instead, "She invited Mrs. R. and _myself_ to go driving." This is no better than "Mrs. R. and _I_," or "her and _I_." The pronouns in "-self" are properly used only for emphasis or in a reflexive sense.[49] It is right to say: "I will go _myself_"; "Carrie _herself_ went to the door"; "God helps those who help _themselves_." It would be wrong to say, "Harry and _myself_ have bought a horse together." When a pronoun in "-self" is used reflexively, it refers to the subject of the clause in which it stands. In sentences like "This advice is free to _whoever_ will take it," the word ending in "-ever" is the subject of the verb "will take," not the object of the preposition "to." The right form, therefore, is "whoever," not "whomever." The object or, better, the "base" of the preposition "to" is the whole clause, "whoever will take it." [47] Ibid., pp. 61-62. [48] I omit _ye, you,_ because they are used interchangeably. I omit also compounds of _who, whom._ [49] "Foundations," p. 64. EXERCISE XXVII. _Insert the proper form of pronoun in each blank, and give the reason for your choice:--_ I I, ME, MYSELF. 1. Taking a carriage, my brother and--drove to the east end of Cape Elizabeth. 2. Mr. C. and--walked around the lake by moonlight. 3. The walk gave pleasure to both Mr. C. and--. 4. Between you and--, affairs look dark. 5. The _Star_ contains a paper on "Our Streets," which was written by--. > 6. He is taller than--.[50] 7. There is, you remember, an old agreement between you and-- 8. May John and--go to the ball-game? 9. Please let John and--go to the ball-game. 10. They met Robert and--in the village. 11. Who is there? Only--. 12. To send--away, and for a whole year, too,--, who had never been away from home, was not easy for mother. 13. Will you let Brown and--have your boat? 14. Dr. Holmes shook hands with the girls,--among the rest. 15. Next month my brother and--are going to Bar Harbor. 16. It was--who called to you. 17. I was beside--. 18. Would you go, if you were--? 19. Father bought brother and--tickets for the concert. 20. He said he would bring some flowers to Frances and--. 21. You suffer from headache more than--. 22. We shall soon see which is the better boxer, you or--. 23. Who rang the bell?--. 24. The taller man was supposed to be--. 25. Every one has gone except you and--. 26. The world will rest content with such poor things as you and--. 27. He was a sublimer poet than--. 28. Was it--that you saw? 29. How can you thus address me,--, who am your friend? 30. Let you and--go for berries alone, if he will not go with us. 31. There is no one here but you and--. 32. Is it--you wish to see? 33. He said that you and--might ao. 34. Oh, no; it couldn't have been--. 35. Harry left word for you and--to come to his room. 36. Other girls have books as well as--. 37. Its being--should make no difference. 38. Young Macdonald and--went to New York last Thursday. 39. She knew it to be--by my gait. [50] In sentences like this the correct form will become evident if the speaker mentally completes the sentence thus: He is taller than--_am._ The greater part of the clause after "than" or "as" is generally omitted. II. We, us, ourselves. 1. Our friends and--are going out to-night. 2. He has come to take our friends and--driving. 3. They are wiser than--, since they are older. 4. They will lose more than--by the failure of the bank. 5. The Germans are better plodders than--. 6. It may have been--who (whom) you saw. 7.--boys are having a fine time. 8. Have you seen the picture of--three girls in a boat, taken by Mr. B.? 9. There are five hundred miles between father and--. 10. They know that as well as--. 11. They don't succeed any better than--. 12. They as well as--were disappointed. 13. --ought not to get angry when others criticise--for faults which--freely acknowledge. 14. "It is not fit for such as -- To sit with rulers of the land." III. Thou, thee, thyself. 1. I will not learn my duty from such as ----. 2. If they rob only such as ----, I hold them right honest folk. 3. Love ---- last. 4. "The nations not so blest as ---- Must in their turn to tyrants fall." 5. "Wife, dost ---- know that all the world seems queer except ---- and me; and sometimes I think even ---- art a little queer?" 6. "Hail to ----, blithe spirit; Bird ---- never wert." IV. He, him, himself. 1. There is a difference between an employer and--who (whom) he employs. 2. John ---- wrote that letter. 3. You are nearly as tall as ----. 4. All wore dress suits except Charles and--. 5. I know that it was ----. 6. I knew it to be ----. 7. ---- being young, they tried to deceive him. 8. It was either ---- or his brother that called. 9. What were you and ---- talking about? 10. I can run as fast as ----. 11. ---- who had always protected her, she now saw dead at her feet. 12. ---- and his father are in business together. 13. She is as good as ----. 14. I should never have imagined it to be ----. 15. Boys like you and ---- are expected to do what is right without being told. 16. Yes, I told them what you said, ---- among the rest. 17. I did as well as ----. 18. It was Joseph, ---- whom Pharaoh made prime-minister. 19. Let ---- who made thee answer that. 20. Whom can I trust, if not ----? V. SHE, HER, HERSELF. 1. Before leaving Mary we saw ---- and her baggage safe on the train. 2. ---- and her two cousins have been visiting us. 3. I would not go to town alone, if I were ----. 4. It was not ---- but her sister that you met yesterday. 5. You are as old as ----. 6. ---- and I are not in the same class. 7. Was it ---- that did it? 8. I cannot let you and ---- sit together. 9. You play the violin better than ----. 10. Such girls as ---- are not good companions. 11. I am certain that it was ----. 12. Girls like ---- are not good company. 13. If any one is embarrassed, it will not be ----. 14. If any one is late it will be sure to be ----. VI. THEY, THEM, THEMSELVES. 1. ---- and their children have left town. 2. We shall soon be as poor as ----. 3. Yes, it was ----. 4. I do not know whether the Macdonalds are Scotch or Irish but I thought the Scotch family alluded to might be ----. 5. The mischievous boys you speak of could not have been ---- for ---- were at home. VII. WHO, WHOM, WHOEVER, WHOMEVER. 1. ---- are you going to give that to? 2. ---- do men say that I am? 3. ---- do men think me to be? 4. ---- am I supposed to be? 5. ---- do you think will be elected? 6. ---- do you think they will select? 7. I do not know ---- to compare him to. 8. Tell me in sadness ---- is she you love? 9. ---- are you going to call on next? 10. How can we tell ---- to trust? 11. ---- is that for? 12. Elect ---- you like. 13. ---- did you see at the village? 14. ---- did you say went with you? 15. Do you know ---- you can get to take my trunk? 16. ---- were you talking to just now? 17. I do not know ---- you mean. 18. Do you remember ---- he married? 19. We will refer the question to ---- you may select as arbitrator. 20. ---- can this letter be from? 21. He is a man ---- I know is honest.[51] 22. He is a man ---- I know to be honest.[51] 23. ---- do you take me to be? 24. ---- did you expect to see? 25. Can't you remember ---- you gave it to? 26. I saw a man ---- I have no hesitation in saying was Julian H. 27. We like to be with those ---- we love and ---- we know love us, let them be ---- they may. 28. ---- do you think it was that called? 29. He confided his plan to those ---- he thought were his friends. 30. He confided his plan to those ---- he thought he could trust. 31. We recommend only those ---- we think can pass the examinations, and ---- we know will do their best. 32. ---- do you think she looks like? 33. One letter was from an applicant ---- I afterwards learned had been out of a position for two years. 34. ---- did you suppose it was? 35. Opposite him was a handsome man--John knew must be Kathleen's uncle. 36. A witness ---- the counsel for the defence expected would be present was kept away by illness. 37. A witness ---- the counsel expected to be present was kept away. 38. Give it to ---- seems to need it most. 39. ---- does he think it could have been? 40. They have found the child ---- they thought was stolen. 41. Mr. Morton, ----, it is announced, the President has appointed minister to France, has a house at Saratoga. 42. Miss C. married an old gentleman ---- they say is very wealthy. 43. The king offered to give his daughter in marriage to ---- would kill the terrible monster. 44. ---- do you think I saw in Paris? 45. ---- are you going to vote for? 46. They left me ignorant as to ---- it was. 47. We were betrayed by those ---- we thought would die for us. 48. I don't know ---- to ask for. 49. I know ---- it is I serve. 50. The President has appointed Mr. L., ---- he thinks will show himself well fitted for the position. 51. One member of the committee was absent ----, it was asserted by the minority, would have voted in the negative. 52. The officer addressed the woman, ---- he plainly saw to be very much out of place there. 53. ---- did he refer to, he (him) or I (me)? 54. Ariel was a spirit ---- a certain witch had shut up in a tree. 55. If she did not take after Anne, ---- did she take after? PRONOUNS BEFORE VERBAL NOUNS.[52]--Grammarians distinguish three kinds of words formed from verbs by the adding of "-ing." 1. "We found Katharine _singing_ a merry song." In this sentence "singing"--equivalent to "who was singing"--describes Katharine, and is therefore used as an adjective; but it also partakes of the nature of a verb, for it has a direct object, "song." Such words, partaking of the nature of both adjective and verb, are called PARTICIPLES. 2. "Blithely _singing_ pretty songs keeps one's spirits up." Here "singing" is a noun, the subject of the sentence; yet it has a direct object, "songs," and is modified by the adverb "blithely." Such words, partaking of the nature of both noun and verb, are called GERUNDS. A noun or a pronoun used before a gerund to denote the subject of the action should be put in the possessive case. The reason for this becomes evident if, in the sentence "Do you remember _Katharine (Katharine's) singing?"_ we substitute for the noun "singing" another noun, "song;" thus, "Do you remember _Katharine (Katharine's) song?"_ The direct object of "remember" is "singing," which is described by the possessive "Katharine's." 3. "Katharine's blithe _singing_ of merry songs helps to make home happy." Here, too, "singing" is a noun; but now its verbal character has disappeared, for it is modified by an adjective "blithe," and instead of a direct object we have the prepositional phrase "of merry songs." Such words derived from verbs are ABSTRACT VERBAL NOUNS. When a word in "-ing" is modified by "the" or some other adjective, it is an abstract verbal noun, and cannot have an object. Conversely, if it, is followed by "of" and a noun instead of by a direct object, it should be modified by "the" or some other adjective. [51] In the first of these sentences the pronoun to be supplied is the subject of "is honest," and "I know" is parenthetical. In the second sentence, the pronoun to be supplied is the subject of "to be honest," which is the complement of "I know." [52] "Foundations," pp. 62-64. EXERCISE XXVIII. _Which of the following forms is preferable? Give the reason:_-- 1. I heard of him (his) coming home. 2. What do you think of Marguerite (Marguerite's) studying Latin? 3. Have you any doubt of Kathleen (Kathleen's) being happy? 4. We saw the lady (lady's) crossing the street. 5. Do you remember my (me) speaking to you about your penmanship? 6. We saw the old miser (miser's) sitting alone in front of his hut. 7. What is the good of your (you) going now? 8. There was no doubt of him (his) being promoted. 9. Trust to me (my) being on time. 10. Are you surprised at it (its) being him (he)? 11. No doubt his example will be followed by others, with the consequence of the country (country's) being overrun by tramps. 12. Look at him (his) reading a book. 13. The delay was caused by us (our) missing the train. 14. I found him (his) reading Idyls of the King. 15. This may lead to Harry (Harry's) getting a position. 16. We did not see the house (house's) burning. 17. You (your) writing the letter so neatly secured for you the position. 18. The man's (man) breaking jail is evidence of his guilt. 19. What do you think about this cloth (cloth's) wearing well? 20. We must insist upon every man (man's) doing his duty. 21. Mr. R.'s (Mr. R.) having come to town will soon be known. 22. There is prospect of the Senate (Senate's) passing the tariff bill. 23. What use is there in a man (man's) swearing? 24. His parents are opposed to him (his) playing football. 25. No one ever saw fat men (men's) heading a riot. 26. A fierce struggle ensued, ending in the intruder (intruder's) being worsted. 27. Professor C. relies on us (our) passing our examinations. 28. I felt my heart (heart's) beating faster. 29. There is no use in me (my) trying to learn Hebrew. 30. I enjoy nothing more than the sight of a yacht (yacht's) sailing in a stiff breeze. 31. Brown (Brown's) being a manufacturer prevented his election. EXERCISE XXIX. _Distinguish in meaning between the following sentences:_-- 1. The man (man's) asking to be allowed to vote started a quarrel. 2. Did you see him (his) riding? 3. I had to laugh at John (John's) riding a bicycle. 4. Think of me (my) eating frogs' legs. 5. Much depends on the teacher (teacher's) correcting the papers. 6. Did you watch him (his) entering the room? 7. Did you hear Ruth (Ruth's) singing? 8. No one ever heard of that man (man's) running for office. EXERCISE XXX. _Explain the faults in the following sentences and correct them in several ways:--_ 1. He read the parable about the sowing the seed. 2. Good writing depends on reading of good books. 3. Youth is the time for the forming the character. 4. "In building of chaises, I tell you what, There is always somewhere a weakest spot." 5. He would not aid me so much as by the lifting a hand. 6. Groaning of prisoners and clanking of chains were heard. 7. By the obtaining wisdom you will command esteem. 8. By reading of good books his style was improved. 9. The taking things by force is apt to make trouble. 10. A more careful guarding the prisoners would have prevented this accident. CHOICE OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS.[53]--_Who_ is now used only of persons; _which_, of things; _that_, of either persons or things. As a rule, euphony decides between _who_ or _which_ and _that_. "_Who_ is used chiefly of persons (though also often of the higher animals), _which_ almost only of animals and things (in old English also of persons), and _that_ indifferently of either, except after a preposition, where only _who_ [_whom_] or _which_ can stand. Some recent authorities teach that only _that_ should be used when the relative clause is limiting or defining: as, the man _that_ runs fastest wins the race; but _who_ or _which_ when it is descriptive or co-ordinating: as, this man, _who_ ran fastest, won the race; but, though present usage is perhaps tending in the direction of such a distinction, it neither has been nor is a rule of English speech, nor is it likely to become one, especially on account of the impossibility of setting _that_ after a preposition; for to turn all relative clauses into the form 'the house _that_ Jack lived _in_' (instead of 'the house _in which_ Jack lived') would be intolerable. In good punctuation the defining relative is distinguished (as in the examples above) by never taking a comma before it, whether it be _who_ or _which_ or _that_. Wherever _that_ could be properly used, but only there, the relative may be, and very often is, omitted altogether; thus, the house Jack built or lived in; the man he built it for."[54] When the antecedent includes both persons and things, _that_ is preferable to _who_ or _which_. "When the antecedent is a neuter noun not personified, a writer should prefer _of which_ to _whose_, unless euphony requires the latter."[55] _What_, as a relative pronoun, is equivalent to "that which." It is never used with an antecedent, since the antecedent is included in the meaning of the word. The word _as_ is a relative pronoun only after "such" or "same." After "such" the proper relative is "as"; after "same" it is "as" or "that." "_Same as_ usually expresses identity of kind, _same that_ absolute identity, except in contracted sentences where _same as_ is alone found: cf. 'he uses the same books _as_ you do,' 'he uses the same books _that_ you do,' he uses the same books as you.'"[56] [53] "Foundations," pp. 60, 65, 67-69. [54] The Century Dictionary. [55] "Foundations," p. 68. [56] Murray's Dictionary. EXERCISE XXXI. _Insert the proper relative pronoun in the blanks in the following sentences, giving the reason for your choice:--_ 1. Man is the only animal ---- can talk. 2. There are many persons ----, though they be starving, will not beg. 3. This is the malt ---- lay in the house ---- Jack built. 4. I will have no such son-in-law ---- thinks himself better than I (me).[57] 5. Tennyson, ---- was the foremost poet of England, died in 1892. 6. Time ---- is lost is never found again. 7. There are many ---- saw him fall. 8. The soldiers and cannon ---- you saw belong to the French army. 9. Who ---- hears Professor C. read the court scene from "Pick wick" does not go away delighted? 10. She is the same girl since her marriage ---- she was before it. 11. The dog dropped the bone, ---- then fell into the water. 12. He ---- does all ---- he can does all ---- can be expected. 13. Her hair, ---- was dark brown, was gathered in a Grecian knot. 14. Tears, such ---- angels weep, burst forth. 15. I have a water spaniel, ---- follows me everywhere. 16. The horse ---- ran away with Harry belonged to Mr. H. 17. Such ---- I have I give you. 18. This is the same man ---- I spoke of. 19. The diamond, ---- is so highly prized, is pure carbon, ---- in the form of charcoal is familiar to all. 20. All the men and horses ---- were on the transports were drowned when the vessels sank. 21. The murdered innocents at Bethlehem were martyrs ---- died for a king ---- they had never seen. 22. What pleased me most, and ---- has been most frequently mentioned by visitors to the fair, was the beauty of the buildings. 23. I trusted to my dog, ---- knew the way better than I did. 24. Dr. A.'s report shows the same record of efficiency ---- has always characterized his conduct. 25. Shakespeare was the greatest poet ---- the English race has produced. 26. He spends all ---- he earns. 27. The review of the National Guard of Pennsylvania by Sheridan was the largest military display ---- I have seen. 28. Was it you or the wind ---- made those noises? 29. We have invited the same girls ---- were here yesterday. 30. It was the cat, not I or the wind, ---- frightened you. 31. The dog ---- my brother gave me ran away. 32. Do you know that man ---- is just entering the car? 33. Such eloquence ---- was heard in the Senate in those days! 34. He held the same political opinions ---- his illustrious friend. 35. "Nature ever faithful is To such ---- trust her faithfulness." 36. Is this a dagger ---- I see before me? 37. We saw the men and arms ---- were captured. EITHER or ANY ONE, NEITHER or NO ONE.[58]--_Either_ means "one of the two"; _neither_, "no one of the two." When more than two persons or things are spoken of, "any one" is preferable to "either," and "no one" to "neither." [57] See note, p. 45. [58] "Foundations," pp. 69-70. EXERCISE XXXII. _Insert the proper word or words ("either," "neither," "any one," "no one") in each blank in the following sentences:--_ 1. Only three persons saw the fight, and ---- of them would testify. 2. Has ---- of you two gentlemen a fountain-pen? 3. I defy any candid and clear thinker to deny in the name of inductive science ---- of these six propositions. 4. When two persons disagree, it is not likely that ---- is altogether wrong. 5. Has ---- of you who have just come from the ball-field seen Julian? 6. I have several histories of France, ---- of which will give you the information. 7. Here come Harry and Arthur; ---- will go to get it for you. 8. Give it to the six successful students or to ---- of them. EACH or ALL.[59]--_Each_ denotes every one of any number taken one by one; _all_ denotes the entire number taken together. [59] "Foundations," p. 70. EXERCISE XXXIII. _Insert the proper word ("each," "all") in each blank:--_ 1. ---- gave me his (their) hand(s). 2. ---- of the workmen received two dollars a day. 3. ---- of the children has (have) his (their) peculiar traits. 4. ---- of the members is (are) entitled to a vote. 5. He gave an apple to ---- of us. 6. Did your father bring the boat to Harry? No, he brought it to ---- of us. 7. ---- of them did his (their) duty. CHANGE OF PRONOUN.[60]--In referring to the same person or thing a writer should not change from one pronoun to another. The possessive of "one" is "one's" (not "his"), except in such expressions as "every one," "no one," "many a one." The reflexive is "one's self." It is a common but serious fault to begin to write in the third person, and then to change to the first or second. [60] Ibid., pp. 72-74. EXERCISE XXXIV. _Fill the blanks with the proper pronouns:--_ 1. The Second Regiment of the National Guard, ---- was sent to Pittsburg during the strike, and ---- is now in camp at Gettysburg, has six hundred members. 2. John started to school last Monday; we wish ---- success. 3. Proud damsel, ---- shalt be proudly met. I withdraw my pretensions to ---- hand until I return from the war. 4. As ---- hast said, ---- lands are not endangered. But hear me before I leave ----. 5. The cat was crouching on the piazza and we were watching ----. Suddenly ---- tail twitched nervously and ---- prepared to spring. 6. "Ere you remark another's sin, Bid ---- conscience look within." 7. At first one is likely to wonder where the boats are, since on entering the grove ---- is (are) able to see only a small cabin. 8. Dost ---- talk of revenge? ---- conscience, it seems, has grown dull. 9. As a Christian ---- art obliged to forgive ---- enemy. 10. Did you never bear false witness against ---- neighbor? 11. The shepherd ran after a sheep and caught ---- just as ---- was jumping over a hedge. 12. The hen gathered ---- brood under ---- wing. 13. This is a book which I have never read, but one ---- is recommended by Mrs. M. EXERCISE XXXV. 1. Write the following note in clear and correct form, using the third person:-- "Mr. Smith presents his compliments to Mr. Jones, and finds he has a cap which isn't mine. So, if you have a cap which isn't his, no doubt they are the ones."[61] 2. Write a formal note in the third person, asking an acquaintance to dine with you at a certain hour in order that you may consult with him about some matter of importance. 3. Write a note in the third person accepting or declining this invitation. 4. Write a formal note in the third person to some gentleman to whom you have a letter of introduction, asking when it will be convenient to have you call. 5. Write a notice in the third person offering a reward for the recovery of a lost article. SINGULAR or PLURAL PRONOUNS.[62]--The rule that a pronoun should be in the same number as its antecedent is violated most commonly in connection with such expressions as "any one," "each," "either," "every," "man after man," "neither," "nobody." Grammatically such expressions are singular. "He" ("his," "him") may stand for mankind in general and include women as well as men. [61] Quoted in "Foundations," p. 74. [62] "Foundations," pp. 75-76. EXERCISE XXXVI. _Fill the blanks with the proper pronouns:_-- 1. Many a brave man met ---- death in the war. 2. Has everybody finished ---- exercise? 3. If any one has not finished let ---- hold up ---- hand. 4. It is true that this is a free country; but that does not mean that every one may do as ---- please (pleases). 5. Either John or Harry will let you look on ---- book. 6. Let each take ---- turn. 7. If anybody but John had come, we would not have admitted ----. 8. Any one who wishes may have a ribbon to wear in ---- button-hole. 9. Neither Bois-Guilbert nor Front de Boeuf found himself (them selves) a match for the unknown knight who challenged ----. 10. Every kind of animal has ---- own proper food. 11. Not an officer, not a private escaped getting ---- clothes wet. 12. The Senate has (have) instructed ---- conferees to yield to the demand of the conferees of the House of Representatives. 13. Everybody has possessions of some kind which ---- prize (prizes) highly. 14. It is a shame that each of the men, when ---- draw (draws) ---- pay, take (takes) it to the tavern. 15. Will either of you gentlemen lend me ---- (third person) pencil? 16. Two men saw the deed; but neither would tell what ---- saw. 17. Every one should be careful of the feelings of those around ----. 18. Each of the pupils has (have) ---- own dictionary. 19. Nobody went out of ---- way to make her feel at home. 20. Neither Charles nor his brother ate ---- breakfast this morning. 21. Everybody goes to bed when ---- please (pleases). 22. The committee has handed in ---- report. 23. The senior class has elected ---- class-day speakers. 24. If any one wishes to see me let ---- call at my office. 25. Either Florence or Grace will lend you ---- fan. 26. Every one must judge of ---- own feelings. 27. Whoever loves ---- school should do ---- best to elevate the school tone. 28. A person who is rude in ---- table manners will be disliked. 29. Nobody in ---- senses ever thinks of doing that. 30. Each one as before will chase ---- favorite phantom. 31. She laughs like one out of ---- mind. 32. Everybody was on deck amusing ----self (selves) as best ---- could. 33. No one should marry unless ---- has (have) the means of supporting ---- self (selves) and ---- family. 34. Probably everybody is eloquent at least once in ---- life. 35. Everybody rises early and goes on deck, where ---- inhale (inhales) the fresh salt air. 36. Bach of the gentlemen offered ---- assistance. 37. Nobody but a fool would have left ---- money in such a place. 38. Anybody wishing to sell ---- bicycle will please call at No. 267. 39. Franklin and Collins started off together, each with very little money in ---- pockets. 40. In the time of Franklin's great-great-grandfather, if a person was caught using an English Bible ---- was (were) treated as a heretic. 41. Nobody should praise ----self (selves). 42. Neither the merchant nor the lawyer made ----self (selves) rich. 43. Every man and every boy received ---- wages. 44. When the carnival comes off everybody who owns a boat, or who can borrow one, decorates it as best ---- can with lanterns and trimmings. 45. Every cowboy carries a pistol and knows how to use it very quickly; ---- also has (have) a knife stuck in ---- belt, in the use of which ---- is (are) very expert. 46. Everybody's heart is open, you know, when ---- has (have) recently escaped from severe pain. OMITTED PRONOUNS.[63]--The omission of necessary pronouns--an omission especially common in business letters--cannot be justified on the ground of brevity. [63] "Foundations," pp. 77, 78. EXERCISE XXXVII. _Insert the omitted pronouns in_-- 1. After twenty-two years' experience announce the opening of my new store. Hope to serve the public better by presenting new ideas. Would invite inspection. 2. Have received manuscript, but not had time to examine. Will take up in a few days. If good, will publish. 3. Dr. Jones and wife occupy the front room. 4. My inability to get employment, and destitute condition, depressed me. 5. She didn't trouble to make any excuse to her husband. 6. Accept thanks for lovely present. Hope we may have the pleasure of using together in the near future. REDUNDANT PRONOUNS.--A vulgarism not often seen in writing, but common in conversation, consists in the use of an unnecessary pronoun after the subject of a sentence. Thus, _Teacher_: Who was Benjamin Franklin? _Pupil_: Benjamin Franklin, _he_ was a great American philosopher and statesman. CHAPTER V. OF VERBS CORRECT and INCORRECT FORMS.[64]--It is not enough to learn by heart the "principal parts" of a verb; the habit of using them correctly should be acquired. The following verb-forms are often misused:-- _Present. Past Indicative. Past Participle._ awake (intransitive) awoke awaked begin began begun beseech besought besought blow blew blown bid ("to order," "to greet") b��de bidden or bid bid (at auction) bid bidden or bid break broke broken[65] burst burst burst choose chose chosen come came come dive dived dived do did done drive drove driven eat ate eaten flee fled fled fly flew flown freeze froze frozen forget forgot forgotten get got got[66] go went gone hang hung, hanged[67] hung, hanged[67] lay ("to cause to lie") laid laid lie ("to recline") lay lain plead pleaded pleaded prove proved proved[68] ride rode ridden rise (intransitive) rose risen raise (transitive) raised raised run ran run see saw seen set ("to put"; of the sun, set set moon, etc., "to sink") sit sat sat shake shook shaken shoe shod shod show showed shown speak spoke spoken slay slew slain steal stole stolen take took taken throw threw thrown wake (transitive) woke waked write wrote written In using the verbs _drink, ring, shrink, sing, sink, spring, swim,_ it seems better to confine the forms in "a" to the preterite tense, and the forms in "u" to the past participle: as, "The bell _rang_ five minutes ago"; "Yes, the bell has _rung_."[69] The following forms also should be distinguished:-- _Present. Past. Participle._ alight ("to get down from," alighted alighted "to dismount") light ("to ignite," lighted[7] lighted[70] "to shed light on") light ("to settle down as lighted or lit lighted or lit a bird from flight," or "to come upon by chance") [64] "Foundations," pp.78-81, 91-93. [65] "Broke," as a form of the past participle, is still found in verse. [66] "Gotten" is an old form not sanctioned by the best modern usage. [67] "Clothes are 'hung' on the line; men are 'hanged' on the gallows."--"Foundations," p. 79. [68] "'Proven' is borrowed from the Scotch legal dialect."--"Foundations," p.92 [69] Ibid., p. 91. [70] "'Lighted' seems preferable to 'lit'; but 'lit' is used by some writers of reputation."--Ibid., p. 92. EXERCISE XXXVIII. _Change the italicized verbs in these sentences to the past tense_ 1. The guests _begin_ to go home. 2. I _beseech_ you to hear me. 3. The wind _blows_ furiously. 4. The steward _bids_ me say that supper is ready. 5. Mr. O. _bids_ forty-two dollars for the picture. 6. George _dives_ better than any other boy in the crowd. 7. I _do_ it myself. 8. They _eat_ their supper as if they were half starved.. 9. The enemy _flee_ before us. 10. The door _flies_ open. 11. The wild goose _flies_ southward in the autumn. 12. He _flees_ at the smell of powder. 13. The Susquehanna river _overflows_ its banks. 14. The workmen _lay_ the rails for the track with great care. 15. Obedient to the doctor's directions, she _lies_ down an hour every day. 16. Our cat _lies_ on the rug by the hour watching for mice. 17. The cows _lie_ under the trees in the meadow. 18. Helen _comes_ in and _lays_ her coat on a chair. 19. The envoys _plead_ with Caesar earnestly. 20. Both short-stop and pitcher _run_ for the ball. 21. He _runs_ up to Mr. C. as if to strike him. 22. I _see_ two cannon and a company of infantry. 23. Harry _sees_ me coming. 24. The negro women _set_ their baskets on their heads. 25. They _sit_ in the third pew from the front. 26. Mr. N. always _shoes_ my pony. 27. The savages who _live_ on this island _slay_ their captives. 28. The catcher often _throws_ the ball to the second base. 29. The sun _wakes_ me early. 30. The bell _rings_ at seven o'clock. 31. The stag _drinks_ his fill. 32. She _sings_ sweetly. 33. Armed men _spring_ up on all sides. 34. Tom _swims_ very well indeed. 35. The vessel _sinks_ with all on board. 36. The colonel and his staff _alight_ in front of the general's tent. 37. He _lights_ the lamp with a splint. 38. On the trees a crested peacock _lights_. EXERCISE XXXIX. _Change these sentences so that the italicized, verbs will be either in the perfect tense or in the passive voice:--_ 1. The sleeper _awakes_. 2. The Gauls _beseech_ Caesar to be merciful. 3. The wind _blows_ my papers off the table. 4. Ethel _broke_ her arm. 5. His wrongdoing _breaks_ my heart. 6. The pressure of the water _breaks_ the pipes. 7. They _choose_ Mr. W. to be their chairman. 8. The enemy _come_ in force. 9. The boys _dive_ three times. 10. John _is driving_ the cows out of the corn. 11. The boys _are eating_ their supper. 12. An absconding cashier _flees_ to Canada. 13. A robin _flies_ to the vines by my window. 14. The Ohio river _overflows_ its banks. 15. The water in my pitcher _froze_. 16. I _forget_ his name 17. He _gets_ along fairly well. 18. They _go_ by steamer. 19. The sheriff _hangs_ the condemned man. 20. The maid _hangs_ up my cloak. 21. I _lie_ on the couch twenty minutes to rest. 22. Tramps _lie_ by the road below the gate. 23. Boys _lay_ traps for hares. 24. They _lay_ burdens on me greater than I can bear. 25. They _plead_ their cause well. 26. This _proves_ the truth of my assertion. 27. He _rides_ alone from Litchfield to Waterbury 28. A mist _rises_ before my eye. 29. I _see_ the President often. 30. I _set_ the lamp on the table. 31. He _sits_ by the hour talking politics. 32. Rab _shakes_ the little dog by the neck. 33. He _is shoeing_ my horse. 34. This fact clearly _shows_ the prisoner's guilt. 35. He _speaks_ his declamation well. 36. They _slay_ their prisoners. 37. He _stole_ my watch. 38. Some one _takes_ my hat. 39. He _throws_ cold water on my plan. 40. He _writes_ home. 41. He _wakes_ me every night by his restlessness. NOTE.--If the teacher thinks that the class needs more drill of this kind, Exercises XXXVIII. and XXXIX. may be reversed, that is, the verbs in XXXVIII. may be changed to perfect or passive forms; the verbs in XXXIX. to the past tense. If this is done, some of the sentences will have to be slightly recast. In the next exercise drill on the same forms is continued in a different way. EXERCISE XL. _Insert the proper form in each of the blanks in the following sentences:--_ AWAKE, WAKE. 1. I--at six o'clock this morning; I have--at about the same time ever since I came to school. 2. Lord Byron one morning--to find himself famous. A certain Mr. Peck--one day last week to find that the _Nation_ had made him notorious. 3. A few nights ago Mr. Michael Dixon was--by a burglar in his bedroom. 4. He--me an hour before time. 5. Have you--your brother? 6. He--as I opened the door. BEGIN. 7. He had--his speech before we arrived. 8. The Senators--to ask him questions. Then he--to be confused. BID. 9. When the Major passed us he--us good-morning very politely. 10. Father has for--us to go there. BLOW. 11. Before the sunset gun was fired the bugler--a strain on his bugle. 12. The top-mast of the sloop was--away. BREAK. 13. Did you hear that Waldo has--his leg? 14. The window was--by Jack. BURST. 15. When the South Sea bubble--, thousands of families were made poor. 16. The cannon was--by an overcharge of powder. CHOOSE. 17. If they had--him, they would have--more wisely. 18. A better day for a drive could not have been--. COME. 19. Harry--running up to me and asked me to lend him my cap. DIVE. 20. The loon saw the flash of my gun and--. 21. It had--several times before. DO. 22. I know he--it; for it could not have been--by any one else. 23. Ask him why he--it. DRIVE. 24. He was--out of town by his indignant neighbors. 25. This stake has been--in deep. EAT. 26. The scraps were--up by the dog. 27. The men have--their dinner. FLEE, FLY, FLOW. 28. During the night the river had over--its banks. 29. Benedict Arnold was forced to--the country. He--to England. 30. The birds have--away. 31. The guilty man has--. He--with his family to Mexico. 32. Our meadow was over--during the freshet. 33. The yacht--like a bird before the wind. 34. The lotus-eaters watched the gleaming river as it--seaward. 35. It had--through the same channel hundreds of years. 36. The terrified savages--to the mountains. 37. They shall--from the wrath to come. 38. The plantations along the Mississippi are over--. FORGET. 39. Once Sydney Smith, being asked his name by a servant, found to his dismay that he had--his own name. 40. Maude is late; she must have--the time. FREEZE. 41. I thought my ears were--. 42. He would have--to death if he had not been found by the St. Bernard dogs. GET. 43. They have--home. 44. Whenever any milk was wanted it could be--from the magic pitcher. 45. Grace has--three seats for to-night. 46. Franklin asked the boy where he had--the bread. GO. 47. The price of coal has--up since last year. 48. He would have--with us if he had been invited. HANG. 49. Judas, overwhelmed with remorse, went and,--himself. 50. In olden times in England a man was--for stealing a sheep. LAY, LIE. 51. Two men--under the hay-stack all yesterday morning. They must have--there all night. 52.--down and rest. 53. He came in and--his books on his desk. 54. After he--down he remembered that he had left his pocket-book--ing by the open window. 55. He played until he was so tired that he had to--down. 56. He has--himself at full length on the grass. 57. You had better--down for a while after dinner. 58. I have--down, and I feel rested. 59. I--down an hour ago to take a nap. 60. The scene of "The Lady of the Lake" is--in the lake region of Scotland. 61. The tired lambs--down to rest. 62. Darkness settled down while the soldiers--behind the breast-works. 63. Had you not better--down a while? 64. After they had been--ing silent for an hour, the command was given to prepare for a march; afterward the men ---- down again and waited for the next order. 65. When Romeo saw Juliet ---- ing in the casket, he ---- down by her side and drank the poison. When Juliet awoke, seeing Romeo ---- ing beside her dead, she took a sword which ---- near and killed herself. PLEAD. 66. He ---- tearfully to be set free, but his captors were firm. 67. Yesterday he ---- "not guilty." PROVE. 68. It cannot be ---- that Mars is inhabited. 69. He thinks that the prisoner's innocence has been ----. RIDE. 70. We had ---- only a short distance when rain began to fall. 71. Have you ever ---- on a bicycle? RISE, RAISE. 72. She could not get her bread to ----. 73. The price of corn has ----. 74. I ---- so that I might look around. 75. The students ---- him upon their shoulders. RUN. 76. You look as if you had ---- all the way home. 77. He ---- up to me and asked what time it was. 78. He said some thief had taken his coat and had ---- away with it. SEE. 79. Charlie, who has just come in, says he ---- two suspicious looking men near the barn. 80. Yes, I ---- him an hour ago. 81. That is the best dog I ever ----. SET, SIT. 82. Please ---- still while I try to find her. 83. The old man was ----ting in his easy-chair. 84. He ---- out for Boston day before yesterday. 85. ---- down and talk awhile. 86. The sun ----s at six o'clock twice a year. 87. I ---- the basket on a rock while I went to the spring. 88. We ---- with our friends at the table for over an hour. 89. In which seat did you ----? 90. I am--ting in my study by the window. 91. The children are dreadfully sunburnt; yesterday they--in the sun on the beach all the morning. 92. Just--down, till I call her. 93. Annie, I have--the pitcher on the table. 94. He has--there all the evening. 95. We were all--ting round the fire. 96. I had to--up all night. 97. The farmer after felling the tree found that it had fell (fallen) on a--ting hen that had laid (lain) her eggs under its branches. SHAKE. 98. All the restraints of home had been--off long before. 99. John--the tree; Lida picked up the nuts. 100. After they had--off the dust, they entered the house. SHOE. 101. Go, ask Mr. N. whether he has--the horses yet. 102. He says he--them an hour ago. SHOW. 103. They have--their good intention. 104. Has Edward--you his yacht? Yes, he--it to me this morning. SPEAK. 105. English is--in many parts of the world. 106. After he had--a half-hour we had to leave. SLAY. 107. David--Goliath with a pebble. 108. A brave man never boasts of having--his thousands. STEAL. 109. He thinks the horse was--. 110. Some one has--my purse. TAKE. 111. I found upon inquiry that I had mis--the house 112. Yesterday she--me home with her. 113. You look as if you had--root there. THROW. 114. He--the ball to me and I--it back. 115. The Governor's son was--from his pony this morning. WRITE. 116. I think he should have--and told us. 117. He--for the book two days ago. 118. She has--for samples. * * * * * DRINK. 119. The toast was--with great enthusiasm. 120. Then they--to the health of the President. 121. He had once--sour wine and slept in the secret chamber at Wolf's Crag. RING. 122. The fire bell--twice last night. It had not--for two months before. 123. Has the last bell--? SING. 124. The choir boys--the "Hallelujah Chorus" from "The Messiah." It seemed to me that they had never--so well. SINK. 125. The steamer struck an iceberg and--with all on board. 126. They have--two wells, but have got (gotten) no water. SPRING. 127. The grass--up like magic last night. 128. Homer describes a race of men who--from the gods. SWIM. 129. I once--three-quarters of a mile without stopping. 130. Having--the river, the fugitives plunged into the forest. EXERCISE XLI. _Illustrate by original sentences the proper use of the past indicative and the past participle of each of the following verbs, thus: A swallow FLEW into my room, but before I recovered from my surprise it had FLOWN out again. Give to the sentences variety:_-- Awake, beat, begin, beseech, blow, bid (to order), bid (to offer), break, burst, choose, come, dive, do, drive, eat, flee, fly, flow, forget, freeze, get, go, hang, lay, lie (to recline), plead, prove, ride, rise, run, see, set, sit, shake, shoe, show, speak, slay, steal, take, throw, wake, write. CONTRACTIONS.[71]--Some writers hold that in careful writing contracted forms should be avoided; but all are agreed that in conversation some contractions, if correctly used, are natural and proper. The conversation of a person who never said "can't" for "can not," "don't" for "do not," or "doesn't" for "does not," would seem stiff. Care should, however, be taken not to use plural contractions for singular, or singular for plural. _Don't_ is a contraction of "do not," _doesn't_ of "does not." The proper contraction of "is not" is _isn't;_ of "are not," _aren't. Daresn't_, if used at all, should be used only when "dares not" might be substituted. _Ain't_ is a gross vulgarism. [71] "Foundations," pp. 81-82. EXERCISE XLII. _Insert the proper contraction (doesn't, don't) in each of the blank places_:-- 1. It--- seem possible. 2. The captain--- know what it is to be afraid. 3. John says he--- understand the problem on page 266. 4. Why--- she come? 5.--- it seem strange that they--- come? 6. Waldo--- improve in penmanship as fast as he should. 7. It--- look like pure water. 8. Why--- he answer? 9. The boy will fail, but he--- seem to care much. MAY (MIGHT) or CAN (COULD).[72]--_Can_ and _could_, which denote "ability" or "possibility," are often wrongly used in the place of _may_ and _might_, which are the proper words to denote "permission." [72] Ibid., pp. 82-83. EXERCISE XLIII. _Fill the blanks with the right words:_-- 1. ---- I leave the room? 2. You ---- go to the concert, but I doubt whether you ---- get a seat. 3. ---- we by searching find out God? 4. ---- I have some more lemonade? 5. ---- I have another piece of cake? 6. ---- you tell me which is Mr. Ames's house? 7. Mother says I--invite the girls to tea. 8. A man who knows himself to be right ---- afford to await the judgment of posterity. 9. ---- I write at your desk? 10. You ---- come to see me whenever you ---- find time. 11. They asked whether they ---- have a holiday. 12. They were wondering whether they ---- be recognized in their disguises. 13. ---- I have the use of your sled? 14. ---- I trouble you to get me a glass of water? WILL OR SHALL.[73]--Some grammarians teach that the future tense of "go" is: "I _shall_ or _will_ go," "You _shall_ or _will_ go," "He _shall_ or _will_ go," etc. The fact seems to be that there is only one form for the future; the other form, often given as an alternative, expresses something more than futurity, and is somewhat like a distinct mode. A help to the proper use of _shall_ and _will_ is found in the original meaning of the words. At first _shall_ and _will_ were notional verbs,[74] _shall_ meaning "to owe," "to be obliged," and _will_ meaning "to wish:" as, "That faith I _shall_ (owe) to God."[75] At present _shall_ and _will_ often retain some trace of their original meaning, _will_ implying a reference to the will of the subject, and _shall_ implying obligation or compulsion: as, "I _will_ follow him to the end;" "He _shall_ be brought to justice;" sometimes they are mere auxiliaries, with no trace of their original meaning: as, "It _will_ rain to-day;" "I _shall_ be glad." [73] "Foundations," pp. 83-88. [74] By "notional verb" is meant a verb that has some distinct idea or notion of its own: as, "I _have_ a ball." Here "have" expresses the idea of possession. In the sentence "I _have_ lost my ball," the word "have" does not express a distinct idea; it only helps to form a tense of the verb "lose": that is, it is not notional, but auxiliary. [75] Chaucer. For practical purposes the distinction between _shall_ and _will_ may be exhibited as follows:-- I. IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES. _Simple Futurity. Volition,_ implying that the matter is within the control of the speaker. I (we) _shall_ \ I (we) _will_ \ you _will_[76] } go. you _shall_ } go. he (they) _will_/ he (they) _shall_[77]/ [76] Sometimes used in a courteous command to a subordinate officer. [77] Also used in speaking of what is destined to take place, or of what is willed by some ruling power. II. IN DEPENDENT SENTENCES. In noun clauses introduced by "that," expressed or understood, if the noun clause and the principal clause have _different subjects,_ the distinction between _shall_ and _will_ is the same as in independent sentences: as, My sister says (that) Dorothy _will_ be glad to go with us. (Futurity; the same as, "Dorothy _will_ be glad to go with us.") My sister says (that) Dorothy _shall_ not be left behind. (Volition; the same as, "Dorothy _shall_ not be left behind.") In all other dependent clauses, _shall_ is in all persons the proper auxiliary to express simple futurity; _will_ in all persons implies an exercise of will on the part of the subject of the clause: as, Dorothy says (that) she _shall_ (futurity) be able to go with us. She says (that) she _will_ (volition) meet us at the corner. If Bessie _will_ come (volition), we will try to make her visit pleasant. When He _shall_ appear (futurity) we shall be like Him. REMARK.--It is worthy of notice that in noun clauses introduced by "that"--clauses which are really indirect quotations--the same auxiliary is generally used that would be used were the quotation in the direct form: as, "My sister says, 'Dorothy _will_ be glad to go with you,'" "My sister says that Dorothy _will_ be glad to go with us;" "Dorothy says, 'I _shall_ be glad to go with you,'" "Dorothy says that she _shall_ be glad to go with us." This remark, however, is not an adequate statement of the best usage, for it is not true of such sentences as 21, p. 76, and 8, 22, p. 77. III. IN QUESTIONS. In _the first person_ "will" is never proper, except when it repeats a question asked by another person. "Will I go?" would mean, "Is it my intention to go?"--a useless question, since the speaker must know his own will without asking. In the _second and third persons_ the auxiliary which is expected in the answer should be used. Will you dine with me to-morrow? I will. (Volition.) Shall you be glad to come? I shall. (Futurity.) Will your brother be there, too? He will. (Futurity.) WOULD OR SHOULD.[78]--"_Should_ and _would_ follow the same rules as _shall_ and _will_, but they have in addition certain meanings peculiarly their own. "_Should_ is sometimes used in its original sense of 'ought,' as in 'You should not do that.' "_Would_ is sometimes used to signify habitual action, as in 'The 'Squire would sometimes fall asleep in the most pathetic part of my sermon;' and to express a wish, as, 'Would God I had died for thee, O Absalom, my son, my son!'"[79] [78] "Foundations," pp. 88-90. [79] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p 63. EXERCISE XLIV. _Distinguish in meaning between the following sentences:_-- 1. I will (shall) meet you in the village. 2. I will (shall) be obeyed. 3. Will he come? Shall he come? 4. You will (shall) repent of this. 5. He will (shall) not see me. 6. You will (shall) have a new suit to-morrow. 7. Shall (will) you stay at home to-night? 8. We will (shall) not be left alone. 9. She will (shall) have a reward if she continues faithful. 10. He would (should) start in spite of the danger. 11. Shall (will) you be a candidate? 12. He said he would (should) not go. 13. I shall (will) never see him again. 14. You will (shall) know to-morrow the result of the examination. 15. Will (shall) he who fails be allowed to try again? 16. Will (shall) the admission fee be twenty-five or fifty cents? 17. He thought there would (should) be a charge. 18. I will (shall) be the last to go. 19. He thought I would (should) wait. 20. He says that she will (shall) not eat watermelon. 21. If she disobeyed she would (should) be punished. 22. Do you think I should (would) go under the circumstances? 23. If they would (should) come, the danger would be averted. 24. If I would (should) say so, he would dislike me. 25. He says he will (shall) not come, since she forgot him at first. 26. We will (shall) come as soon as we can. 27. I will (shall) not endure his rudeness. 28. John says he will (shall) stay to see the game. EXERCISE XLV. _Insert the proper auxiliary (will, shall) in each blank in the following sentences:_-- 1. I ---- be drowned; nobody ---- help me. 2. You ---- have a wet day for your journey. 3. He says he ---- not be able to come. 4. We ---- not soon forget this picnic. 5. He ---- repent of his folly when it is too late. 6. We ---- be pleased to have you call. 7. The gathering ---- be informal; therefore I ---- not need my dress suit 8. We ---- have occasion to test the wires to-night. 9. I ---- be obliged to you for your autograph. 10. He ---- be obliged to you. 11. The managers have agreed that the race ---- be rowed again. 12. Do you think we ---- have rain? 13. If the fire is not put out soon, we ---- have the whole town to rebuild. 14. Do not fear; we ---- be all right. 15. A prize is offered to whoever ---- guess this conundrum. 16. We ---- find ourselves much mistaken. 17. The time is coming when we ---- have to go elsewhere for lumber. 18. Are you not afraid that you ---- miss the train? 19. Yes, I fear that I ---- miss the train. 20. He is afraid that he ---- miss the train. 21. They say I ---- find picture-galleries in every city. 22. Think what a happy life we ---- live. 23. If you will call for me, I ---- be glad to go with you. 24. I ---- be sixteen in May. 25. John thinks he ---- be sick to-morrow. 26. He says James ---- be sick to-morrow. 27. Howard thinks he ---- probably live to old age. 28. Howard thinks his brother ---- probably live to old age. 29. He tells me that he--be ten next month. 30. We ---- be all right if Congress will (shall) adjourn without tampering with the tariff. 31. If we examine the falling snow, we ---- find that each flake consists of particles of ice. 32. He has resolved that he ---- not answer the letter. 33. She has resolved that her daughter ---- not answer his letter. 34. I ---- feel greatly obliged if you ---- tell me. 35. When He--appear, we ---- be like Him. 36. I hope we ---- be in time to get good seats. 37. When ---- I come to get my paper? 38. ---- I put more coal on the fire? 39. ---- you be sorry to leave Boston? 40. ---- you be elected? 41. When ---- we three meet again? 42. ---- I fetch a chair for you? 43. ---- you be surprised to hear it? 44. ---- you do me the favor to reply by return mail? 45. ---- we have time to get our tickets? 46. ---- you have time to get your ticket? 47. ---- he have time to get his ticket? 48. ---- there be time to get our tickets? 49. ---- you be at leisure after dinner? 50. ---- I find you at home? 51. When ---- we have peace? 52. ---- he find gold there? ---- we find any? 53. ---- we hear a good lecture if we go? 54. If I fail on this examination,---- I be allowed to take it over again? EXERCISE XLVI. _Insert the proper auxiliary (would, should) in each blank in the following sentences_:-- 1. I ---- like to know who he is. 2. We ---- prefer to go by boat from Rhinebeck. 3. He ---- prefer to go by boat from Poughkeepsie. 4. He ---- be sorry to miss his train. 5. I ---- be sorry to lose this umbrella. 6. I ---- feel hurt if he ---- abuse my hospitality in that way. 7. Were I to go, I ---- get tired. 8. He ought to have known that we ---- be ruined. 9. I ---- think he ---- know they are fooling him. 10. The head-master decided that you ---- be promoted. 11. Ralph said he ---- (volition) not stay at the hotel if it were not better kept. 12. Though I ---- die for it, yet ---- I do it. 13. I was afraid she ---- not come. 14. If I knew where she is, I ---- write to her. 15. We ---- have been paid, if the treasurer had been at home. 16. They ---- have been paid, if the treasurer had been at home. 17. I said nothing lest she ---- feel hurt. 18. I asked her whether she ---- come again. 19. He promised that it ---- not occur again. 20. If it ---- rain, we would not start. 21. Queen Isabella offered a reward to the first man who ---- discover land. 22. Cornelia was afraid that we ---- miss the train. 23. I expected that they ---- accept the proposal. 24. He said Miss Anderson ---- not return to the stage. 25. Franklin resolved that Collins ---- row. Collins said that he ---- not row, but that Franklin ---- row in his place. 26. At first I did not think I ---- enjoy seeing the World's Fair. 27. What ---- we do without our friends? 28. If he ---- come to-day, would (should) you be ready? QUESTIONS OF TENSE.[80]--The tense of a verb should correctly express the time referred to. Most errors in the use of tenses are violations of some one of the following principles, which are established by good usage:-- 1. Principal verbs referring to the same time should be in the same tense. 2. The _perfect indicative_ represents something as now completed--as begun in the past but continuing till the present, at least in its consequences: as, "I _have lost_ my book" (so that now I do not have it); "This house _has stood_ for ninety years" (it is still standing); "Bishop Brooks _has died,_ but he _has left_ us his example" (he is not now among us, but we have his example). 3. The tense of the verb in a dependent clause varies with the tense of the principal verb:[81] as, I _know_ he _will_ come. I _knew_ he _would_ come. I _have taken_ the first train, that I _may_ arrive early. I _had taken_ the first train, that I _might_ arrive early. Blanche _will be_ frightened if she _sees_ the bat. Blanche _would be_ frightened if she _saw_ the bat. Blanche _would have been_ frightened if she _had seen_ the bat. Present facts and unchangeable truths, however, should be expressed in the present tense, regardless of the tense of the principal verb: as, "What did you say his name _is_?" 4. The _perfect infinitive_ is properly used to denote action which is completed at the time denoted by the principal verb: as, "I am glad _to have seen_ Niagara Falls;" "He felt sorry _to have hurt_ your feelings." EXCEPTION.--_Ought, must, need,_ and _should_ (in the sense of "ought") have no distinctive form to denote past time; with these verbs present time is denoted by putting the complementary infinitive in the present tense, past time is denoted by putting the complementary infinitive in the perfect tense: as, "You ought _to go_," "You ought _to have gone_;" "He should _be_ careful," "He should _have been_ careful." A similar change from the present to the perfect infinitive is found after _could_ and _might_ in some of their uses: as, "I could _go_," "I could _have gone_;" "You might _have answered_." [80] "Foundations," pp. 93-98. [81] This is sometimes called the "Law of the Sequence of Tenses." EXERCISE XLVII. _Distinguish in meaning between the following_:-- 1. The house stood (has stood) twenty years. 2. The messenger came (has come). 3. He should stay (have stayed). 4. It rained (has rained) for two weeks. 5. He was believed to live (to have lived) a happy life. 6. He ought to go (to have gone). 7. He deposited (has deposited) the money in bank. 8. I am sure I could go (have gone) alone. 9. Yesterday at three o'clock I completed (had completed) my work. 10. He must be (have been) weary. 11. He appeared to be (have been) crying. 12. He need not go. He need not have gone. 13. The horse jumped (had jumped) into the field, and began (had begun) to eat the corn. 14. Achilles is said to be (have been) buried at the foot of this hill. EXERCISE XLVIII. _Which of the italicized forms is right_?-- 1. Where did you say Pike's Peak _is_ (_was_)? 2. I intended _to do_ (_to have done_) it yesterday. 3. Atlas _is_ (_was_) a mythical giant who was supposed _to hold_ (_to have held_) the sky on his shoulders. 4. I do not think that any one would say that winter _is_ (_was_) preferable to spring. 5. Cadmus was supposed _to build_ (_to have built_) Thebes. 6. Your father grieves _to hear_ (_to have heard_) of your bad conduct. 7. Would he have been willing _to go_ (_to have gone_) with you? 8. I meant _to write_ (_to have written_) yesterday. 9. He tried to learn how far it _is_ (_was_) from New York to Syracuse. 10. He hardly knew that two and two _make_ (_made_) four. 11. His experience proved that there _is_ (_was_) many a slip 'twixt the cup and the lip. 12. Carrie knew that water _is_ (_was_) composed of two gases. 13. It was their duty to _prevent_ (_to have prevented_) this outrage. 14. He was reported _to rescue_ (_to have rescued_) the drowning man. 15. It would have been unkind _to refuse_ (_to have refused_) _to help_ (_to have helped_) him. 16. It would not have been difficult _to prevent_ (_to have prevented_) the disaster. 17. Where did you say Gettysburg _is_ (_was_)? 18. It was as true as that he _is_ (_was_) listening to me when I said it. 19. It was harder than I expected it would _be_ (_have been_). 20. Homer is supposed _to be_ (_to have been_) born about 850 B.C. 21. When I came I intended _to buy_ (_to have bought_) all Paris. 22. Washington is known _to have_ (_to have had_) many narrow escapes. 23 If you would only wait, your success _will_ (_would_) be certain. 24. Is he very sick? I should say he _is_ (_was_). 25. Who first asserted that virtue _is_ (_was_) its own reward? 26. We have done no more than it was our duty _to do_ (_to have done_). 27. What building _is_ (_was_) that which we just passed? 28. He impressed on us the truth that honesty _is_ (_was_) the best policy. 29. He expected _to see_ (_to have seen_) you to-morrow. 30. He expected _to win_ (_to have won_) the suit, and was astonished at the decision of the court. 31. The result of such constant reading by poor light would have been _to destroy_ (_to have destroyed_) his sight. 32. It would have given me great satisfaction _to relieve_ (_to have relieved_) him from his distress. 33. Who would have thought it possible _to receive_ (_to have received_) a reply from India so soon? 34. It would have been better _to wait_ (_to have waited_). 35. I should like _to hear_ (_to have heard_) the speeches of Hayne and Webster. 36. The furniture was _to be_ (_to have been_) sold at auction. 37. It was a pity I was the only child, for my mother had fondness of heart enough _to spoil_ (_to have spoiled_) a dozen children. 38. I am writing to him so that he _may_ (_might_) be ready for us. 39. I have written to him so that he _may_ (_might_) be ready for us. 40. I wrote to him so that he _may_ (_might_) be ready for us. EXERCISE XLIX. _Examine the tenses in the following sentences, explain any errors which you find, and correct them_:-- 1. I knew him since boyhood. 2. It was a superstition among the Mexicans that a bullet will not kill a man unless it has his name stamped on it. 3. Being absent from the last recitation, I am unable to write on the subject assigned this morning. 4. Soon after Oliver reached home a servant announces the presence of Charles. 5. "'Got any luck?' says I. 'No,' says he. 'Well,' says I, 'I've got the finest string of trout ever was seen.'" 6. Be virtuous and you would be happy. 7. Stackhouse believed that he solved the problem he had so long studied over, and yesterday afternoon he started from his house, No. 2446 North Tenth Street, to make a test. 8. This beautiful little bird that appears to the king and tries to warn him, was not an ordinary bird. 9. Next September I shall be at school three years. 10. I know very little about the "Arabian Nights," for I have never read any of the stories before I came to this school. 11. If he received your instructions he would have obeyed them. 12. Before he was going to have the sign printed he submitted it to his friends for corrections. 13. The Balloon Society recently invited Mr. Gould to read before them a paper on yachting. Mr. Gould, in reply, has expressed regret that the shortness of his visit will prevent him from accepting the invitation. 14. I should be obliged to him if he will gratify me in that respect. 15. While he was in England the British had given him very honorable positions in America in order to have his help if they had any trouble with the colonies. 16. Up and down the engines pounded. It is a good twenty-one knots now, and the upper deck abaft the chart-house began rapidly to fill. 17. Mr. and Mrs. Lincoln regret that a previous engagement, will prevent them from accepting Mrs. Black's kind invitation for Thursday. 18. Mr. Rockwell will accept with pleasure the invitation of Mr. and Mrs. Pembroke for Tuesday evening, December 3d. 19. I am sure that he has been there and did what was required of him. 20. He might probably have been desirous, in the first place, to have dried his clothes and refreshed himself. 21. He could not have failed to have aroused suspicion. 22. When, on the return of Dr. Primrose's son Moses from the Fair, the family had discovered how he had been cheated, we are shown an admirable picture of home life. 23. Apart from his love, Orlando was also a noble youth. When old Adam, at last overcome by fatigue, sank in the footsteps of Orlando, Orlando tries to encourage and assist him. 24. The increase in tonnage was not so rapid as it would have been were it not for the Act of 1790. INDICATIVE OR SUBJUNCTIVE.[82]--The modern tendency to drop the subjunctive is unfortunate, for the distinction between the subjunctive and the indicative is too useful to be abandoned.[83] A knowledge of the difference between these modes in English is especially important in view of the difficulty which pupils complain of in mastering the uses of the Latin subjunctive or the Greek subjunctive and optative.[84] For these reasons more space is given to the subjunctive in this book than would be called for by a mere discussion of modern English usage. FORMS of the SUBJUNCTIVE--In form the English subjunctive differs from the indicative in several ways:-- 1. In the single case of the verb _to be_ there are distinct forms for the present and past tenses, namely:-- _Present_. _Past_ I, we \ I _were_, we \ thou, you } _be_. thou _wert_, you } _were_. he, they/ he _were_, they/ EXAMPLES.--"See that my room _be_[85] got ready at once." "I will work you a banner if you _be_[85] victorious." "The headsman feels if the axe _be_[85] sharp." "Take care lest you _be_ deceived." "Judge not that ye _be_ not judged." "I will beard them, though they _be_[85] more fanged than wolves and bears." "If I _were_ you, I would not say that." "If you _were_ more studious, you would rank high." "Would that my parents _were_ here!" 2. In _other verbs_ the subjunctive form is distinguishable from the indicative in the second and third persons singular by the absence of the personal endings _-th,-s_, or _-st_: as, _Present Indicative_: I have, thou hast, he has (hath). _Subjunctive_: I have, thou have, he have. _Past Indicative_: I had, thou hadst, he had. _Subjunctive_: I had, thou had, he had. _Present Indicative_: I come, thou comest, he comes (cometh). _Subjunctive_: I come, thou come, he come. _Past Indicative_: I came, thou earnest, he came. _Subjunctive_: I came, thou came, he came. [82] "Foundations," pp. 98-101. [83] "Some people seem to think that the subjunctive mood is as good as lost, that it is doomed, and that its retention is hopeless. If its function were generally appreciated, it might even now be saved.... If we lose the Subjunctive Verb, it will certainly be a grievous impoverishment to our literary language, were it only for its value in giving variation to diction--and I make bold to assert that the writer who helps to keep it up deserves public gratitude."--John Earle: English Prose, its Elements, History, and Usage, p. 172. [84] "The lecturer also put in a plea for more vitality in the teaching of English, which ought to be made the gate to other languages. Many of the difficult questions of Latin syntax might be examined in the field of English, if only we were careful to treat our English critically. Whereas most grammars cut the ground from under them by denying the existence of a Subjunctive Mood. Until teachers recognize generally that, in such a sentence as 'If he had done it, it had been better,' we have a Subjunctive in both clauses, and a sentence essentially different from 'If he had loved her before, he now adored her,' English must forfeit half its value, both as a mental discipline and as a means of approach to Latin, Greek, and German."--From a report of a Lecture by Prof. Sonnenschein, of the Mason College, quoted in Earle's "English Prose," p. 55. [85] In such sentences the indicative would be, according to modern usage, correct, and it is more common. EXAMPLES.--"Long _live_ the king!" "If thou _go_, see that thou _offend_ not." "It is better he _die_." "Though he _slay_ me, yet will I trust him." "Unless he _behave_[86] better, he will be punished." "If I will that he _tarry_ till I come, what is that to thee?" "Govern well thy appetite, lest sin _surprise_ thee." "If my sister _saw_ this snake, she would be frightened." "I wish I _knew_ where Charles is." The perfect and pluperfect subjunctives are of course formed by means of the subjunctive present and past tenses of "have." 3. Very often, instead of the simple subjunctive forms, we use auxiliary verbs--_may_ (past, _might_) and _would_ or _should_--to express the subjunctive idea. "May" ("might") is common as an equivalent for the subjunctive mode in clauses denoting a purpose, a wish, a hope, or a fear: as, "Bring him the book, that he _may read_ to us;" "_May_ he _rest_ in peace;" "I hope you _may succeed_;" "They were afraid we _might lose_ the way." "Would" and "should" are common substitutes for all tenses of the subjunctive: as, "Walk carefully lest you (stumble) _should stumble_;" "If he (come) _should come_, he will find me at home;" "It (were) _would be_ better if he (went) _should go_ alone;" "If my sister had seen this mouse, she (had been) _would have been_ frightened." In these sentences either the form in parenthesis or the italicized form is correct, though the latter is more common. NOTE.--It does not follow that the verbs "may," "would," and "should" always express the subjunctive idea. In the following sentences, for instance, they express the indicative idea: "You _may_ (_i.e_., are permitted to) stay an hour;" "You _should_ (_i.e_., ought to) be punctual;" "Edith _would_ not (_i.e_., was unwilling to) come." In such sentences "may," "should," and "would" make simple statements of fact. USES of the SUBJUNCTIVE.--The indicative form is used in expressing a fact or what is assumed to be a fact: as "He _thinks_ he _is_ ill;" the subjunctive form indicates some uncertainty or doubt in the speaker's mind: as, "Whether it _rain_ or not, I will go." The subjunctive idea occurs most frequently, perhaps, in _conditional sentences_. A conditional sentence is one that contains a condition or supposition. A supposition may refer to present, past, or future time. If it refers to present or past time, it may be viewed by the speaker as true, untrue, or as a mere supposition with nothing implied as to its truth; if it refers to the future, it may be viewed as either likely or unlikely. A supposition which is assumed to be true, or which is made without any hint as to its correctness, is expressed by the indicative. A supposition which is viewed by the speaker as untrue or unlikely is expressed by the subjunctive or a periphrase[87] for the subjunctive. When the character of the supposition makes the conclusion untrue or unlikely, the conclusion also is expressed by the subjunctive or a periphrase[87] for the subjunctive. The use of tenses is peculiar, as will be seen from the following table of a few common forms of conditional sentences. The tenses should be carefully noted:-- PRESENT: If it _rains_ (_is raining_) now, I am sorry. _Present indicative_: A simple supposition without any hint as to its correctness. If it _rained_ (_were raining_), I _should be_ sorry. _Past subjunctive, both clauses_: The speaker implies that it is not raining. PAST: If it _rained_ (_was raining_), I was sorry. _Past indicative_: No suggestion of doubt. If it _had rained_, I _should have been_ sorry. _Past perfect subjunctive, both clauses_: The speaker implies that it did not rain. FUTURE: If it _rains_, I shall be sorry. _Present indicative_: The common, though inexact, form of a simple future supposition. If it _rain_, I shall be sorry. _Present subjunctive_: Less common, but more exact. The future is uncertain. If it _should_ (_were to_) _rain_, I _should be_ sorry. _Subjunctive, both clauses_: The uncertainty is emphasized by the auxiliary form; the chances of rain seem more remote. NOTE 1.--When _if_ is equivalent to "whenever", the condition is called "general", to distinguish it from "particular" conditions, which refer to some particular act at some particular time. General conditions always take the indicative: as, "If (whenever) it _rains_, I stay at home." NOTE 2.--Sometimes there is no "if", and then the verb or a part of the verb precedes the subject: as, "Were it raining, I should be sorry;" "Had it been raining, I should have been sorry." NOTE 3.--In such sentences as "If thou hadst been here, my brother had not died," it may perhaps be questioned whether "had not died" is indicative, as in the Greek, or subjunctive, as in the Latin, idiom. NOTE 4.--Clauses introduced by _though_ and _unless_ take the same forms as clauses introduced by _if_. _Wishes_ are naturally expressed in the subjunctive. The _present_ subjunctive denotes a wish for the future: as, "Thy kingdom _come_." The _past_ subjunctive denotes a wish for the present which is unfulfilled: as, "I wish I _were_ a bird." The _past perfect_ subjunctive denotes a wish contrary to a past fact: as, "I wish you _had been_ there." [86] In such sentences the indicative would be, according to modern usage, correct, and it is more common. [87] See paragraph 3, page 84. The forms in "would" and "should" in conditional sentences, though they express the subjunctive idea, can hardly be called the "subjunctive mood". Sometimes they are called the "conditional mood." EXERCISE L. _Tell the time referred to in each of the following sentences, and whether the speaker regards the condition as true, untrue, or uncertain_:-- 1. If all men did their duty, there would be less misery in the world. 2. Had I heard of the affair sooner, this misfortune would not have happened. 3. Were it true, I would say so. 4. I would go with you if I could spare the time. 5. She could sing if she would. 6. If love be rough with you, be rough with love. 7. If all the year were playing holidays, to play would be as tedious as to work. 8. If thou warn the wicked, and he turn not from his wickedness, he shall die in his iniquity. 9. He brags as if he were of note. 10. If the natural course of this stream be obstructed, the water will make a new channel. 11. If the natural course of a stream is obstructed, the water will make a new channel. 12. If the book was in my library, some one must have borrowed it. 13. If he knows the way, he does not need a guide. 14. If he still wishes to go, he may take my horse. 15. Had he followed my advice, he would be rich. 16. Had she lived a twelvemonth more She had not died to-day. 17. Though gods they were, as men they died. 18. Though the law is severe, we must obey it. 19. If the law be severe, we must change it. 20. Though the vase were made of steel, the servant would break it. 21. Though the vase was made of steel, the servant broke it. EXERCISE LI. _Tell the difference in meaning between the italicized forms_:-- 1. If he _is_ (_were_) studious, he _will_ (_would_) excel. 2. If he _was_ (_had been_) studious, he _excelled_ (_would have excelled_). 3. Oh, that you _may be_ (_were, had been_) blameless. 4. Though he _deceive_ (_deceives_) me, yet will I trust him. 5. Though he deceived me, yet _will_ (_would_) I trust him. 6. Though he _deceived_ (_had deceived_) me, yet would I trust him 7. Though the boy's coat _was_ (_were_) made of silk, he _soiled_ (_would soil_) it. EXERCISE LII. _Which, of the italicized forms is preferable? Give the reason_:-- 1. They act as if it _was_ (_were_) possible to deceive us. 2. If I _was_ (_were_) in his place, I would go. 3. I wish my mother _was_ (_were_) here. 4. See that no one _is_ (_be_) forgotten. 5. If this _is_ (_be_) treason, make the most of it. 6. If it _rain_ (_rains_), the work is delayed. 7. If it _rain_ (_rains_), the work will be delayed. 8. Take care lest you _are_ (_be_) carried away by your feelings. 9. If he _acquire_ (_acquires_) riches, they may make him worldly. 10. I could jump across the stream if it _was_ (_were_) necessary. 11. If to-morrow _is_ (_be_) breezy, we will go sailing. 12. If my father _was_ (_were_) here, he would enjoy this. 13. If she _was_ (_were_) at the reception, I did not see her. 14. If he _speak_ (_speaks_) only to display his talents, he is unworthy of attention. 15. I wish I _was_ (_were_) at home. 16. Though this _seem_ (_seems_) improbable, it is true. 17. I should be surprised if this marriage _take_ (_took, will take, should take_) place. 18. If the book _was_ (_were_) in my library, I would send it. 19. I will see that he _obey_ (_obeys_) you. 20. If a man _smite_ (_smites_) his servant and the servant _die_ (_dies_), the man shall surely be put to death. 21. Though he _is_ (_be_) poor and helpless now, you may rest assured that he will not remain so. 22. I wish I _was_ (_were_) a musician. 23. Make haste lest your ardor _cool_ (_cools_). 24. He will continue his course, though it _cost_ (_costs_) him his life. 25. Though a liar _speak_ (_speaks_) the truth, he will hardly be believed. 26. Govern well thy appetite, lest sin _surprise_ (_surprises_) thee. 27. Though gold _is_ (_be_) more precious than iron, iron is more useful than gold. 28. Whether he _go_ (_goes_) or not, it is your duty to go. 29. If he _was_ (_were, should be_) elected, it would be his ruin. 30. If a picture _is_ (_be_) admired by none but painters, the picture is bad. 31. If one _went_ (_should go_) unto them from the dead, they would repent. 32. If an animal of any kind _was_ (_were_) kept shut up in a box, it would surely die. 33. They will not believe, though one _rose_ (_rise_) from the dead. 34. Clerk wanted. It is indispensable that he _write_ (_writes_) a good hand and _have_ (_has_) some knowledge of book-keeping. 35. If the debtor _pay_ (_pays_) the debt, he shall be discharged. 36. If my sister _go_ (_goes_), which I think is doubtful, she will surely call for you. 37. The most glorious hero that ever desolated nations might have mouldered into oblivion _did_ (_had_) not some historian _take_ (_taken_) him into favor. 38. He will see his error if he _substitute_ (_substitutes_) "that which" for "what." 39. Though Dorothy _is_ (_be_) young, she is tall. 40. Unless he _take_ (_takes_) better care of his health, his constitution will break down. 41. If I lend you my horse, I _shall_ (_should_) have to borrow one myself. 42. I hope that if any of my readers _comes_ (_come, should come_) to New Haven, he may find the city just as I have described it. SINGULAR or PLURAL.[88]--The following principles, established by good usage, writers or speakers are liable to forget:-- 1. The expressions _each, every, many a, either_, and _neither_ are singular. 2. When the subject consists of singular nouns or pronouns connected by _or, either_--_or_, or _neither_--_nor_, the verb must be singular. 3. Words joined to the subject by _with, together with, in addition to_, or _as well as_, are not a part of the grammatical subject, but are parenthetical, and therefore do not affect the number of the verb. 4. Since a relative pronoun has the number and person of its antecedent, a verb whose subject is a relative pronoun agrees in person and number with the antecedent of the relative. 5. "When the subject though plural in form is singular in sense, the verb should be singular; when the subject though singular in form is plural in sense, the verb should be plural:"[89] as, "'Gulliver's Travels' _was_ written by Swift;" "Five hundred dollars _is_ a large sum;" "Half of them _are_ gone." 6. "A collective noun, when it refers to the collection as a whole, is singular in sense, and therefore requires a singular verb; when it refers to the individual persons or things of the collection, it is plural and requires a plural verb."[90] [88] "Foundations," pp, 101-108. [89] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 56. [90] Ibid., p. 57. EXERCISE LIII. _Insert the proper form of the verb "to be" in each of the blank places_:-- 1. "Horses" ---- a common noun. 2. Such phenomena ---- very strange. 3. The ship with all her crew ---- lost. 4. No less than fifty dollars ---- paid for what was not worth twenty. 5. Homer, as well as Virgil, ---- once students (a student) on the banks of the Rhine. 6. The committee ---- divided in its (their) judgment. 7. The genii who ---- expected to be present ---- deaf to every call. 8. France was once divided into a number of kingdoms, each of which ---- ruled by a duke. 9. Sir Richard Steele lived in the reign of Queen Anne, when the tone of gentlemen's characters ---- very low. 10. Each man employed in this department ---- paid for his (their) work. 11. Mathematics ---- my hardest study. 12. There ---- once two boys who were so exactly alike in appearance that they could not be distinguished. 13. Each of the heads of the Chimera ---- able to spit fire. 14. The jury ---- eating dinner. 15. "Plutarch's Lives" ---- an interesting book. 16. One of the most beautiful features of Kennebunkport ---- the tremendous rocks all along the coast. 17. The richness of her arms and apparel ---- conspicuous in the foremost ranks. 18. My robe and my integrity to heaven ---- all I dare now call my own. 19. Refreshing as springs in the desert to their long-languishing eyes ---- the sight of his white cravat and his boots of Parisian polish. 20. The "Arabian Nights" in complete form comprise (comprises) twenty volumes and ---- written by different men. 21. Fifty dollars a month ---- paid by the government to the widow of the colonel. 22. Ten minutes ---- spent in a writing exercise. 23. ---- either of you going to the village? 24. Our happiness or our sorrow ---- largely due to our own actions. 25. The guidance as well as the love of a mother ---- wanting. 26. Every one of these books ---- mine. 27. General Custer with his whole force ---- massacred by Indians. 28. Three times three ---- nine. 29. Nearly three hundred yards of the track ---- under water. 30. To admit the existence of God and then to refuse to worship him ---- inconsistent. 31. The ebb and flow of the tides ---- caused by the attraction of the moon. 32. Six dollars a week ---- all he earns. 33. Nine-tenths of his time ---- wasted. 34. Three quarts of oats ---- enough for a horse's meal. 35. "Tales of a Wayside Inn" ---- written by Longfellow. 36. The rest of the Republican ticket ---- elected. EXERCISE LIV. _Which of the italicized forms is preferable_?-- 1. A variety of pleasing objects _charm_ (_charms_) the eye. 2. Already a train or two _has_ (_have_) come in. 3. Each day and each hour _bring_ (_brings_) contrary blessings. 4. The Senate _has_ (_have_) adjourned. 5. No monstrous height, or length, or breadth _appear_ (_appears_). 6. I am the general who _command_ (_commands_) you. 7. Many a captain with all his crew _has_ (_have_) been lost at sea. 8. The jury _who_ (_which_) _was_ (_were_) out all night _has_ (_have_) just returned a verdict. 9. He _dare_ (_dares_) not touch a hair of Catiline. 10. The ambition and activity of this railroad _has_ (_have_) done much towards the civilization of the world. 11. Thackeray's "English Humorists" _treat_ (_treats_) not of the writings of the humorists so much as of their characters and lives. 12. Addison was one of the best writers that _has_ (_have_) ever lived. 13. This is one of the books that _give_ (_gives_) me pleasure. 14. Give me one of the books that _is_ (_are_) lying on the table. 15. This is one of the most important questions that _has_ (_have_) come up. 16. Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits _delight_ (_delights_) some persons. 17. Six months' interest _is_ (_are_) due. 18. You are not the first one that _has_ (_have_) been deceived in that way. 19. My room is one of those that _overlook_ (_overlooks_) the garden. 20. A committee _was_ (_were_) appointed to investigate the matter. 21. The greater part of the audience _was_ (_were_) pleased. 22. The public _is_ (_are_) respectfully invited. 23. The jury _was_ (_were_) not unanimous. 24. Generation after generation _pass_ (_passes_) away. 25. A glimpse of gable roof and red chimneys _add_ (_adds_) far more to the beauty of such a scene than could the grandest palace. 26. The society _hold_ (_holds_) _their_ (_its_) meetings weekly. 27. What _is_ (_are_) the gender, the number, and the person of the following words? 28. He made one of the best speeches that _has_ (_have_) been delivered before the school. 29. He is one of those persons who _is_ (_are_) quick to take offence. 30. _This_ (_these_) scanty data _is_ (_are_) all we have. 31. If the meaning of these passages is not carefully explained, some of the congregation may think that Matthew or Paul _is_ (_are_) guilty of some unorthodox opinions. MISUSED VERBS.--See the remarks under "Misused Nouns." I. A RESEMBLANCE IN SOUND MISLEADS. ACCREDIT, CREDIT.--'To _accredit_ means 'to invest with credit or authority,'[91] or 'to send with letters credential;' _to credit_ means 'to believe,'[92] or "to put to the credit of." ARISE, RISE.--"The choice between these words was primarily, and still often is, a matter of rhythm [euphony]. The literal meanings, however, or those which seem literal, have become more associated with _rise_, and the consciously figurative with _arise_: as, he _rose_ from the chair; the sun _rose_; the provinces _rose_ in revolt: trouble _arose;_ 'music _arose_ with its voluptuous swell.'"[93] CAPTIVATE, CAPTURE.--_To captivate_ means "to fascinate"; _to capture_, "to take prisoner." DEPRECIATE, DEPRECATE.--_To depreciate_ means "to bring down in value," "to disparage;" _to deprecate_ means "to argue earnestly against" or "to express regret for." IMPUGN, IMPUTE.--_To impugn_ means "to call in question;" _to impute_ means "to ascribe to." Loan, lend.--The use of _loan_ as a verb is not sanctioned by good use. Properly the word is a noun. A _loan_ is money which a person _lends_. [91] "Foundations," p. 109. [92] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 38. [93] The Century Dictionary. EXERCISE LV. _Tell the difference in meaning between_-- 1. The Amazon _captivated (captured)_ our hero. 2. The king _depreciated (deprecated)_ Napoleon's effort to raise a new army. 3. The readiness with which men _impute (impugn)_ motives is much to be regretted. EXERCISE LVI. _Insert the proper word in each blank, and give the reason for your choice:--_ ACCREDIT, CREDIT. 1. Mr. Lowell was ----ed as Minister Plenipotentiary to England. 2. These reasons will ---- his opinion. 3. He did not ---- the strange report. 4. The contribution of five dollars previously ----ed to Mr. Williams came from Mr. Brown. 5. Mr. Sherman is well ----ed as a writer on finance. 6. The bank has not ----ed me with the interest on the deposit. ARISE, RISE. 7. The court ---- at four o'clock. 8. At the discharge of a gun whole flocks of quail would ----. 9. The idea of a reward did not ---- in his mind. 10. Most of these appalling accidents ---- from negligence. 11. The men ---- against their officers. 12. Other cases of mutiny may ----. CAPTIVATE, CAPTURE. 13. Her husband was ----d in the battle of Gettysburg. 14. Mr. S. was ----d by the young widow's beauty. 15. Let us attack them now and try to ---- the whole squad. 16. It is not merely what Chaucer has to say, but even more the agreeable way he has of saying it, that ----s our attention and gives him an assured place in literature. DEPRECIATE, DEPRECATE. 17. Financial panics are likely to follow a--d currency. 18. His purpose was--d by all who knew it. 19. Both parties--war. 20. It is natural for those who have not succeeded to--the work of those who have. 21. He--s his daughter's desire to earn her own living. 22. An injurious consequence of asceticism was a tendency to--the character and the position of woman. IMPUGN, IMPUTE. 23. We cannot deny the conclusion of a proposition of Euclid without--ing the axioms which are the basis of its demonstration. 24. The gentleman--s my honesty. 25. The power of fortune is confessed only by the miserable, for the happy--all their success to prudence and merit. 26. Mr.X. is uncharitable; he always--s bad motives. II. A RESEMBLANCE IN SENSE MISLEADS.[94] ANTAGONIZE, OPPOSE.--To _antagonize_ means properly "to struggle against," "to oppose actively," or "to counteract." "In England, antagonizing forces must be of the same kind, but in the political phraseology of the United States a person may antagonize (i.e., oppose) a measure."[95] CALCULATE, INTEND.--To _calculate_ means properly "to compute mathematically," or "to adjust or adapt" for something. In the sense of _intend_ it is not in good use. CARRY, BRING, FETCH.--To _carry_ means "to take along in going;" to _bring_ means "to take along in coming;" to _fetch_ means "to go, get, and bring." CHAMPION, SUPPORT.--The word _champion_ is very much overworked, being often used in the general sense of "support." It should be restricted to cases in which there is the idea of entering the lists as champion of a cause. CLAIM, ASSERT, ALLEGE, MAINTAIN, DECLARE, AFFIRM, STATE.--To _claim_ means properly "to demand as one's own or one's due." It is often loosely used, especially in the United States, for "assert," "allege," "maintain," "declare," or "affirm." To _assert_ is "to say or declare in the face of implied denial or doubt." To _allege_ is "to assert without proof." To _maintain_ is "to uphold by argument." To _declare_ is "to say publicly, clearly, or emphatically." To _affirm_ is "to assert on one's reputation for knowledge or truthfulness." To _state_, which is also often misused in the sense of "say," "assert," "allege," "declare," or "affirm," means properly "to express formally and in detail;" it always implies detail. (See "Foundations," pp. 113, 114, and "Practical Exercises," p. 99.) CONFESS, ADMIT.--"_Admit_, in cases into which the idea of confession does not enter, is preferable to _confess_. On grounds of idiom, however, 'I must confess' and the parenthetical 'I confess' are exempt from the operation of this rule."[96] DEMAND, ASK.--_To demand_ means "_to ask_ for with authority or with insistence." The use of "demand" in the sense of "ask" is borrowed, possibly, from the French use of _demander_. HIRE, LET, LEASE.--_To hire_ means "to obtain the use of;" _to let_, "to give the use of." _To lease_ means "to give the use of by lease." The owner of a house _leases_ it; the person who occupies it _takes a lease_ of it. LEARN, TEACH.--_Learn_ means to "acquire" knowledge, not to "impart" it. In the latter sense the proper word is _teach_. "I have more information to-day than I had before," said Mr. Sheehan. "This has learned you something," said Mr. Goff. "Oh no," replied Mr. Sheehan, "it has taught me something."[97] LIKE, LOVE.--_Like_ and _love_ differ greatly in strength or warmth, and may differ in kind. _Like_ may be feeble and cool, and it never has the intensity of _love_. We may _like_ or even _love_ a person; we only _like_ the most palatable kind of food. With an infinitive, _like_ is the common word, _love_ being appropriate only in the hyperbole of poetical or rhetorical feeling.[98] MATERIALIZE, APPEAR.--_To materialize_ properly means "to make or to become physically perceptible;" as, "by means of letters we materialize our ideas and make them as lasting as ink and paper;" "the ideas of the sculptor materialize in marble." PLEAD, ARGUE.--See _plea, argument,_ p. 29. STAY, STOP.--"_Stay,_ as in 'At what hotel are you staying?' is preferable to _stop_, since _stop_ also means 'to stop without staying.'"[99] TRANSPIRE, HAPPEN.--_To transpire_ means properly "to escape from secrecy to notice," "to leak out;" it should not be used in the sense of _to happen._ [94] "Foundations," pp. 110-114. [95] Murray's Dictionary. [96] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 18. [97] Newspaper report. [98] See the Century Dictionary. [99] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 19. EXERCISE LVII. _Tell the difference in meaning between--_ 1. Please _bring (fetch)_ a chair from the next room. 2. You had better _carry (bring)_ an umbrella with you. 3. He _asserts (alleges, maintains, declares, affirms, says)_ that he has been robbed. 4. Mr. A. _stated (declared)_ his opinion. 5. He _admits (confesses)_ the fault. 6. The grocer _asks for (demands)_ his money. 7. He has _let (hired)_ the boat for the afternoon. 8. We have _leased (taken a lease of)_ the cottage. 9. He is _learning (teaching)_ the alphabet. 10. Dorothy _likes (loves)_ Helen. 11. Washington _stayed (stopped)_ at this house on his way to Philadelphia. 12. It _transpired (happened)_ that we disagreed. EXERCISE LVIII. _Insert the proper word in each blank, and give the reason for your choice:--_[100] ANTAGONIZE, OPPOSE. 1. Ex-Secretary Windom ----d ex-Secretary Sherman's bill. 2. The body is balanced by an incessant shifting of the muscles, one group ----ing the other. 3. I am too weak to ---- your cunning. CALCULATE, INTEND. 4. To-morrow he ----s to hunt the boar. 5. Bradley was able to ---- the velocity of light. 6. He ----s to go. CARRY, FETCH, BRING. 7. Farmers ---- their potatoes to market. 8. What shall I ---- you from Paris? 9. Harry, please ---- a chair from the hall. 10. Go to the flock and ---- me two young lambs. 11. The Spartan was to ---- his shield home, or to be borne home on it. 12. When he dieth, he shall ---- nothing away. CHAMPION, SUPPORT. 13. The Republican party ----ed this measure. 14. He ----ed the policy of the administration. 15. Gareth ----ed the cause of Lynette in the combats with the craven knights. CLAIM, ASSERT, ALLEGE, MAINTAIN, DECLARE, AFFIRM, STATE, SAY. 16. The heavens ---- the glory of God. 17. Rhoda constantly ----d that it was even so. 18. I have endeavored to ---- nothing but what I have good authority for. 19. Nay, if my Lord ----d that black was white, My word was this, your honour's in the right. 20. She ----s her innocence in the strongest terms. 21. I will ---- what He hath done for my soul. 22. What if Nemesis ---- repayment? 23. It is not directly ----d, but it seems to be implied. 24. That such a report existed in Claudian's time cannot now be ----d. 25. Geologists ---- that before there were men on earth this immense gulf was a forest. 26. He fared on in haste to ---- his kingdom. 27. Will Mr. L. ---- his reasons for disagreeing with the rest of the committee? 28. He ----s that he will not come. 29. Both sides ---- the victory. 30. There is another point which ----s our attention. 31. He ----d that he had been robbed by A., but he showed no proofs. 32. He ----s that the thief attacked him on Third Street. 33. Please ---- all the particulars of the disaster. 34. The woman ----s that she left Bangor Thursday night, and was put off the train at Hermon for not paying her fare. CONFESS, ADMIT. 35. He ----s that his opponent is a good man. 36. I ---- that I spoke too hastily. 37. I ---- that John was a thief. 38. Every man must ---- that he has occasional fits of bad temper. 39. The problem, I ----, is difficult. DEMAND, ASK. 40. He ----s why I will not go with him. 41. The highwayman ----ed their purses. 42. The pound of flesh which I---- of him I dearly bought; 'tis mine, and I will have it. 43. He ----ed the way to Chester. HIRE, LET, LEASE. 44. Boats to ----; twenty-five cents an hour. 45. We will ---- our country-house during the winter. 46. ---- us some fair chamber for the night. 47. Bathing suits to ----. LIKE, LOVE. 48. I ---- to go rowing. 49. He ----s to talk of the days before the war. 50. All children ---- their mothers. 51. She ----s her blue gown. 52. Don't you ----strawberry short-cake? 53. A maid whom there were none to praise And very few to ----. MATERIALIZE, APPEAR. 54. The representatives of the other colleges did not ----. 55. His hopes have not ----ed. STAY, STOP. 56. The King of Denmark ----s there during the summer. 57. ---- a few moments longer. 58. She is very kind to ask me to ---- overnight. 59. I am very tired; let us ---- here and rest. 60. I've been ----ing with my mother for a week. TRANSPIRE, HAPPEN, ELAPSE. 61. After a considerable time had ----d, he returned to the office. 62. Silas takes an interest in everything that ----s. 63. Presently it ----d that Henry Roscoe was the obstinate juryman. 64. Many things have ----d since the war was ended. III. ADDITIONAL MISUSED VERBS.[101] ACCEPT, EXCEPT.--_To accept_ means "to take something offered;" _to except_ means "to make an exception of." ADVERTISE, ADVISE.--_To advertise_ is "to announce to the public" _to advise_ is "to give counsel or information to a person." AFFECT, EFFECT.--_To affect_ is "to act upon," "to influence;" _to effect_ is "to bring about." ALLEVIATE, RELIEVE.--_To alleviate_ pain is "to lighten" it; _to relieve_ it is to go further, and "to remove it in a large measure or altogether." ALLOW, ADMIT, THINK.--_Allow_ properly means to "grant" or "permit," not to "admit," "think" or "intend." ALLUDE TO, REFER TO, MENTION.--We _mention_ a thing when we name it directly. We _refer_ to it when we speak of it less directly. We _allude_ to it when we refer to it in a delicate or slight way. ARGUE, AUGUR.--_To argue_ is "to bring forward reasons;" _to augur_ is "to foretell," "to forebode." COMPARE WITH, COMPARE TO, CONTRAST.--"Two things are _compared_ in order to note the points of resemblance and difference between them; they are _contrasted_ in order to note the points of difference only. When one thing is _compared to_ another, it is to show that the first is like the second; when one thing is _compared with_ another, it is to show either difference or similarity, especially difference."[102] CONSTRUE, CONSTRUCT.--"_To construe_ means 'to interpret,' 'to show the meaning;' _to construct_ means 'to build;' we may _construe_ a sentence as in translation, or _construct_ it as in composition."[103] CONVINCE, CONVICT.--"_To convince_ is 'to satisfy the understanding;' _to convict_, 'to pronounce guilty.' 'The jury having been _convinced_ of the prisoner's guilt, he was _convicted_.'" DETECT, DISCRIMINATE.--_To detect_ is "to find out;" _to discriminate_ is "to distinguish between." DISCLOSE, DISCOVER.--To _disclose_ is "to uncover," "to reveal;" _to discover_ is, in modern usage, "to find." DOMINATE, DOMINEER.--_To dominate_ is "to rule;" _to domineer_ is "to rule in an overbearing manner." DRIVE, RIDE.--We go _driving_ in carriages, _riding_ in saddles. We _drive_ behind horses, we _ride_ on them. ELIMINATE, ELICIT.--_To eliminate_ is "to remove," "to get rid of;" _to elicit_ is "to draw out." ESTIMATE, ESTEEM.--_To estimate_ is "to judge the value of;" _to esteem_ is "to set a high value on," especially of persons. EXPOSE, EXPOUND.--_To expose_ is "to lay bare to view;" _to expound_ is "to explain the meaning of." FRIGHTEN.--_Frighten_ is a transitive verb, and is used correctly in "The locomotive _frightened_ the horse;" "The horse _was frightened_ by the locomotive;" "The horse became _frightened_." It should not be used intransitively, as in the sentence "The _horse frightened_ at the locomotive." INQUIRE, INVESTIGATE.--To _inquire_ is "to ask for information;" _to investigate_ is "to make a thorough examination." INSURE, SECURE.--_Secure_, in the sense of "to guard from danger," "to make safe," is preferable to _insure_, since _insure_ also means "to guarantee indemnity for future loss or damage." LET, LEAVE.--_Let_ means "to permit;" _leave_, "to let remain," or "to go away from." LOCATE, FIND.--_Locate_ properly means "to place in a particular position," or "to designate the site of," as of a new building or purchased lands; it does not mean _to find_. PERSUADE, ADVISE.--_To persuade_ is "to induce," "to convince;" _to advise_ is "to give counsel or information." PREDICATE, PREDICT.--_To predicate_ is "to affirm as an attribute or quality;" _to predict_ is "to foretell." PRESCRIBE, PROSCRIBE.--_To prescribe_ is "to lay down as a rule or a remedy;" _to proscribe_ is "to condemn to death or to loss of rights." PURPOSE, PROPOSE.--"The verb _purpose_, in the sense of 'intend,' is preferable to _propose_, since _to propose_ also means 'to offer for consideration:' the noun answering to the former is _purpose_; to the latter, _proposal_ or _proposition_."[104] REPULSE, REPEL.--_Repulse_ usually implies hostility; _repel_ is a milder term. We _repulse_ an enemy or an assailant; we _repel_ an officious person or the unwelcome advances of a lover. START, BEGIN, COMMENCE.--To _start_ is "to set out" or "to set going," and is not followed by an infinitive. Before an infinitive, "begin" or "commence" is used. "_Begin_ is preferred in ordinary use; _commence_ has more formal associations with law and procedure, combat, divine service, and ceremonial."[105] SUSPECT, EXPECT, ANTICIPATE.--_To suspect_ is "to mistrust," "to surmise." _Expect_, in the sense of "look forward to," is preferable to _anticipate_, since _anticipate_ also means "take up, perform, or realize beforehand;" as, "Some real lives do actually _anticipate_ the happiness of heaven." [100] In some of the sentences one verb or another is allowable, according to the meaning intended. [101] "Foundations," p. 115. [102] The Century Dictionary. [103] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 38. [104] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 19. [105] Murray's Dictionary. EXERCISE LIX. _Tell the difference in meaning between_-- 1. I _accept_ (_except_) him. 2. Telegraphic communication was _affected_ (_effected_). 3. The medicine _alleviated_ (_relieved_) her suffering. 4. He _alluded to_ (_referred to, mentioned_) the battle of Gettysburg. 5. The first sentence was not well _construed_ (_constructed_). 6. Mr. Fox was _convinced_ (_convicted_). 7. Blanche of Devon _disclosed_ (_discovered_) the treachery of Murdock. 8. We are going _riding_ (_driving_) this afternoon. 9. He _rides_ (_drives_) well. 10. I will _inquire about_ (_investigate_) the business methods of the building association. 11. The furniture has been _secured_ (_insured_). 12. _Let_ (_leave_) me alone. 13. He _advised_ (_persuaded_) me to have my life insured. 14. He _purposed_ (_proposed_) to divide the class. 15. Did you _suspect_ (_expect_) us? EXERCISE LX. _Insert the proper word in each blank, and give the reason for your choice_:--[106] ACCEPT, EXCEPT. 1. Let us ---- the terms which they propose. 2. In saying that the Alexandrians have a bad character, I ---- a few persons. 3. Why did you not ---- the gift? 4. He was ----ed from the general condemnation. 5. It gives me pleasure to ---- your invitation. ADVERTISE, ADVISE. 6. The procession was ----d to start at half-past two o'clock. 7. Under these circumstances we ---- total abstinence. 8. The merchants were ----d of the risk. 9. When I return, I shall ---- you. AFFECT, EFFECT. 10. She was greatly ----ed by the news. 11. When a man is hardened in crime, no fear can ---- him. 12. They sailed away without ----ing their purpose. 13. What he planned, he ----ed. 14. Bodily exercise indirectly ----s all the organs of the body. 15. The loud crash ----ed my hearing for a while. 16. Severe cold will ---- peach-trees. 17. The invention of the telephone was not ----ed without great labor. ALLEVIATE, RELIEVE. 18. Some fruits are excellent to ---- thirst. 19. He gave me an opiate to ---- my pain. 20. His charity went far to ---- the wants of the poor. 21. My cares were ----ed by his friendship. ALLOW, ADMIT, THINK. 22. He ----(ed) it would rain to-day. 23. He would not ---- her to come. 24. I ---- she will come. 25. He at last ----s that I was right. ALLUDE TO, REFER TO, MENTION. 26. A Latin inscription ----ing (to) the name of the road is cut on the rock. 27. The people of the country, ----ing (to) the whiteness of its foam, call the cascade "Sour-milk Falls." 28. I proceed to another affection of our nature which bears strong testimony to our being born for religion. I ---- (to) the emotion which leads us to revere what is higher than we. 29. He ----s (to) enterprises which he cannot reveal but with the hazard of his life. ARGUE, AUGUR. 30. It ----s ill for an army when there are dissensions at headquarters. 31. Not to know me ----s yourself unknown. 32. E'en though vanquished he could ---- still. COMPARE TO, COMPARE WITH, CONTRAST. 33. The generosity of one person is most strongly felt when ----d to (with) the meanness of another. 34. In Luke xv. the sinner is ----d to (with) a sheep. 35. Solon ----d the people to (with) the sea, and orators to (with) the winds; because the sea would be quiet if the winds did not trouble it. 36. It appears no unjust simile to ---- the affairs of this great continent to (with) the mechanism of a clock. 37. Goethe ----s translators to (with) carriers who convey good wine to market, though it gets unaccountably watered by the way. 38. To ---- the goodness of God to (with) our rebellion will tend to make us humble and thankful. 39. He who ----s his own condition to (with) that of others will see that he has many reasons to consider himself fortunate. 40. The treatment of the Indians by Penn may be ----d to (with) the treatment of them by other colonists. 41. Burke ----s the parks of a city to (with) the lungs of the body. CONSTRUE, CONSTRUCT. 42. We might ---- his words in a bad sense. 43. How is this passage in Virgil to be ----d? 44. That sentence is obscure; it is not well ----ed. CONVINCE, CONVICT. 45. The jury, having been ----d of the prisoner's guilt, ----d him. 46. I hope you may succeed in ----ing him of his error. DETECT, DISCRIMINATE. 47. I cannot ---- the error in the account. 48. The chemist ----d the presence of arsenic in the coffee. DISCOVER, DISCLOSE. 49. Events have ----d the designs of the government. 50. We often ---- our mistakes when it is too late. DOMINATE, DOMINEER. 51. Three powers there are that ---- the world: Fraud, Force, and Right. 52. No true gentleman ----s his servants. DRIVE, RIDE. 53. While Mrs. A. and her children were ----ing in the park the horses ran away and overturned the carriage. 54. Will you go ----ing with me in my new pony-cart. 55. While ----ing in the park Mr. C. was thrown from his horse. ELICIT, ELIMINATE. 56. Discussion is a good way to ---- truth. 57. His bearing under the trying circumstances ----d the approval of all high-minded men. 58. It is the duty of a statesman to try to ---- the worst elements of society and to retain the best. 59. Let us try to ---- the true facts from this mass of evidence. ESTIMATE, ESTEEM. 60. I ---- him for his own sake. 61. Men do not ---- highly the virtues of their enemies. 62. The shell of the hawksbill turtle is much ----d for making combs. 63. At what amount do you ---- the cost of the journey. EXPOSE, EXPOUND. 64. Daniel Webster ----d the Constitution of the United States. 65. Daniel Webster ----d the villany of the Knapps. 66. The text was well ----d in the sermon. 67. It is the business of the police to ---- vice. INSURE, SECURE. 68. Will you ---- my factory against fire? 69. For woods before and hills behind --it both from rain and wind. 70. The cargoes of ocean steamers are generally fully ----d. 71. The city is ----d by strong fortifications. 72. How are we to ---- to labor its due honor? 73. To enjoy the benefits which the liberty of the press ----s, we must submit to the evils which it creates. INVESTIGATE, INQUIRE. 74. A committee was appointed to ---- the needs of the laboring classes. 75. I will ---- his name and rank. 76. Edison has been busy ---- ing the nature of electricity. 77. A commission was appointed to ---- the causes of the strike. LET, LEAVE. 78. Please ---- me take you to town. 79. We ---- that to the judgment of the umpire. 80. Pharaoh said, "I will ---- you go." 81. Why do you--- your house go to ruin? 82. Peace I ---- with you. 83. I will ---- you know my decision to-morrow. 84. Please ---- me out at the corner of Twenty-third Street. 85. ---- us free to act. 86. ---- go! 87. ---- the beggar in. 88. ---- us ---- him to himself. 89. He ---- the cat out of the bag. LOCATE, FIND. 90. The missing man has at last been ----d by the police in Kansas City. 91. The part of the city in which the mint is ----d. PERSUADE, ADVISE. 92. Almost thou ----st me to be a Christian. 93. I ----d him to take a walk every day, but I could not ---- him to do it. 94. Columbus was ----d to give up the thought of sailing westward in search of the Indies. 95. When in mid-ocean, Columbus was ----d to alter his course. PREDICATE, PREDICT. 96. This very result was ----d two years ago. 97. Ambition may be ----d us the predominant trait in Napoleon's character. 98. He ----s that the month of July will be rainy. 99. Disaster to the voyage was ----d by the enemies of Columbus. PRESCRIBE, PROSCRIBE. 100. Sylla and Marius ----d each other's adherents. 101. The doctor ----d quinine in doses of four grains each. 102. It is easier to ---- principles of conduct than to follow them. 103. The Puritans ----d theatres. 104. The number of electors is ----d by law. PURPOSE, PROPOSE. 105. I don't ---- to let you escape so easily. 106. I ---- that we go boating. 107. We ---- d to go to-morrow, but I fear the rain will prevent us. 108. I ---- to work hard this year. 109. Bassanio ----d to pay the bond thrice over, but Shylock declined the offer, for he ----d, if possible, to lake Antonio's life. REPULSE, REPEL. 110. He gently ---- their entreaties. 111. The charge of Pickett's troops at Gettysburg was ----d. START, BEGIN, COMMENCE. 112. Rosalind tells Orlando to ---- his courtship, and he wishes to ---- with a kiss. 113. The _Spectator_ was ----(d) by Steele. 114. We have ----(d) Homer's "Iliad." 115. We have ----(d) to find out our ignorance. 116. We ----d to feel that perhaps Darcy is not very bad, after all. 117. We ----(d) in an omnibus at seven o'clock. 118. She has ----(d) to study French. 119. Franklin's voyage was ----(d) under unpleasant circumstances. 120. It ----(d) to rain in torrents. 121. The play has ----(d). 122. Hostilities have ----(d). 123. The people of Philadelphia were so much pleased with Franklin's pavement that they ----(d) paving all the streets. SUSPECT, EXPECT, ANTICIPATE. 124. I ---- that my grandfather was a wild lad. 125. I ---- great pleasure from our association in this work. 126. The burglars ---- that detectives are on their tracks, but they ---- to elude the officers by hiding in the country. 127. I was determined to ---- their fury by first falling into a passion myself. 128. I ---- that my father will come on a late train to-night. 129. I ---- that the rogue thinks himself safe from detection. 130. The death of the general is hourly ----ed. [106] In some of the sentences one verb or another is allowable, according to the meaning intended. EXERCISE LXI. _Tell why the italicized words in the following sentences are misused, and substitute for them better expressions_:-- 1. The death of his son greatly _effected_ him. 2. The Prince of Wales does not _propose_ to send a challenge to the owner of the yacht Puritan. 3. He is _learning_ me to ride a bicycle. 4. I cannot _predicate_ what may hereafter happen. 5. Will you _loan_ me your sled for this afternoon? 6. It is even _stated_ on the best of authority that the Minneapolis is capable of attaining a speed of twenty-four knots an hour, and of keeping it up. 7. Miss Duhe _claims_ that the clairvoyant divulged many things that were known to her only. 8. It is evident that whatever _transpired_ during the interview was informal and private. 9. There is little in the "Elegy" to _locate_ the church-yard which is referred to. 10. He says he cannot _except_ the invitation. 11. Is the Governor's wife _stopping_ at the Springs Hotel? 12. Dr. H.'s well-known views have led him to _champion_ the cause of Dr. B. 13. I do not propose to _disrespect_[1] the Sabbath. 14. Macaulay says Voltaire _gestured_[1] like a monkey. 15. I _love_ to see kittens play. 16. I _expect_ he must have arrived last night. 17. I _calculate_ it will rain soon. 18. This dry weather _argues_ ill for the corn crop. 19. Mrs. Dennett broke open the door, and found a startling state of affairs. In the hallway her daughter Grace was lying prostrate, and seemed to be in an unconscious state. She _awoke_ her daughter, who, after she had regained her senses, related what had _transpired_. 20. Elizabeth _allowed_ that he had given a very rational account of it. 21. He _calculates_ to go to-morrow morning. 22. The Abbe was beheaded, not _hung_. 23. I am looking for a fault which I cannot exactly _locate_. 24. James W. Reed, who mysteriously disappeared several weeks ago, has been _located_ in England. 25. I _expect_ you feel tired after your long walk. 26. The strike of the tailors, which it was _claimed_ would _transpire_ yesterday, failed to _materialize_. 27. Do you _allow_ to go to town to-day? 28. She tried to _locate_ the places whence the sounds came. 29. Floods in all directions. Middle and New England States _enjoy_ their annual freshets.[107] 30. I had hard work to _restrain_[108] from taking some. [107] Heading in a newspaper. [108] Consult a dictionary. EXERCISE LXII.[109] _Illustrate by original sentences the proper use of each of these verbs_:-- Allow, learn, leave, let, loan, locate, accede, accredit, credit, arise, rise, captivate, depreciate, deprecate, impugn, impute, like, love, antagonize, champion, calculate, bring, carry, fetch, claim, assert, allege, maintain, admit, confess, demand, hire, let, lease, materialize, plead, argue, state, stop, transpire, accept, except, advertise, advise, affect, effect, alleviate, relieve, augur, compare to, compare with, contrast, construe, construct, convince, convict, detect, discriminate, disclose, discover, dominate, domineer, drive, ride, eliminate, elicit, insure, secure, esteem, estimate, expose, expound, investigate, persuade, convince, predicate, predict, prescribe, proscribe, purpose, propose, repulse, start, suspect, expect, anticipate. [109] See Note to Teacher, p. 41. CHAPTER VI. OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS AN ADJECTIVE is a word joined by way of description or limitation to a noun or a pronoun. An ADVERB is a word joined by way of limitation or emphasis to a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. VULGARISMS.[110]--Every educated person is expected to know the correct use of the following words:-- GOOD, WELL.--_Good_ is an adjective: the adverb corresponding to it is _well_. We say, "He had a _good_ sleep;" "He slept _well_." _Well_ is sometimes an adjective, as in "You look _well_." LIKELY, PROBABLY, LIKE.--_Likely_ is now used as an adjective only, except in the phrase "As _likely_ as not;" ad the corresponding adverb is _probably_. We say, "He is _likely_ to come;" "He will _probably_ come." _Like_ as an adjective means "similar," as, "Men of _like_ excellence;" "He looks _like_ his grandfather;" "He was a man of _like_ passions as we are." In the sense of "in the same manner as" _like_ is followed by a noun or a pronoun in the objective case, and is called by some an adverb, by others a preposition: as, "He talks _like_ her." LESS, FEWER, SMALLER.--_Less_ refers to quantity, _fewer_ to number, _smaller_ to size. MOST, ALMOST.--_Most_ denotes "the greatest number, quantity, or degree." It is always superlative and never means "nearly," which is the proper meaning of _almost_. We say, "_Most_ of the boys are here; the time has _almost_ come." NEAR, NEARLY.--_Near_ is an adjective; the corresponding adverb is _nearly_. PLENTY is now in good use as a noun only, as "_Plenty_ of corn and wine."[111] Shakespeare used the word as an adjective in "Reasons as _plenty_ as blackberries," but this use is obsolete. The use of _plenty_ as an adverb, as "The food is _plenty_ good enough," is a vulgarism. SOME, SOMEWHAT, SOMETHING.--_Some_ is an adjective, as, "_Some_ water;" "_Some_ brighter clime." _Somewhat_ is an adverb, as, "He is _somewhat_ better." "Somewhat" is occasionally used as a noun, as, "_Somewhat_ of doubt remains," but in this sense _something_ is more common. THIS, THESE; THAT, THOSE.--_This_ (plural _these_) and _that_ (plural _those_) are the only adjectives in English that have distinct forms for the plural. A common mistake is to use the plural forms with singular collective nouns, as "kind," "class," "sort." FIRST, SECOND, SECONDLY, etc.--_First_ is both adjective and adverb. _Second, third_ etc., are adjectives only; the corresponding adverbs are _secondly, thirdly_, etc. _Firstly_ is a vulgarism. _Everywheres, illy, lesser, light-complected, muchly, nowhere near, unbeknown_ are not in reputable use. [110] "Foundations," pp. 118-120. [111] See page 32. EXERCISE LXIII _Insert the proper word in each blank, and give the reason for your choice_:-- GOOD, WELL. 1. George played ---- in the football game this afternoon; he is a ---- runner. 2. She embroiders very ----. 3. The draperies do not hang as ---- as I thought they would. 4. Your coat fits you very ----. 5. He always behaves ----. 6. This pen will not write ----. 7. He did the work as ---- as I could expect. 8. This is a ---- picture; the artist paints ----. 9. Mr. A. is a ---- workman. See how ---- he has laid this hearth. 10. George writes ----. 11. Charles does not look ---- to-day. 12. He says he does not feel ----. Likely, probably, like. 13. It became evident that the duke was not ---- to have his own way in the assembly. 14. There is a difference between what may possibly and what may ---- be done. 15. Just as ---- as not you will meet him on the road. 16. He is ---- to die of hunger. 17. He will ---- die of hunger. 18. It seems ---- that he will be elected. 19. ---- he will be elected. 20. Japan will ---- defeat China.. 21. If a man does not care for himself, it is not ---- that he will care much for others. 22. They are as ---- as two peas. 23. Tell me who is married, and who is ---- to be. 24. This is a ---- story. 25. As ---- as not you love her yourself. LESS, FEWER, SMALLER. 26. A proper fraction is ---- than a unit, because it expresses ---- parts than a unit contains. 27. I caught seven fish; Carl caught a ---- number. 28. Look for no ---- punishment than death. 29. I saw not ---- than twenty beggars to-day. 30. Rebellion is sometimes a ---- evil than endurance. 31. Not ---- than twelve banks in New York failed to-day. 32. We have ---- than a half a ton of coal left. 33. People who live in the country have ---- things to talk about than city people. 34. He received ---- good than he conferred. 35. I have ---- books than you. 36. There were ---- people there than I expected. MOST, ALMOST. 37. I have ---- finished my lesson. 38. You will find me in my office ---- any day. 39. ---- men dread death. 40. We come here ---- every summer. 41. We have ---- done. 42. This wheat is ---- too thick. 43. Though I saw ---- everything else, I failed to see Hagenbeck's trained animals. 44. ---- everybody has imperfect eyes. 45. The old man's strength is ---- gone. 46. ---- boys like play. 47. It rains in some places ---- every day. 48. ---- all flowers are beautiful. NEAR, NEARLY. 49. It isn't ---- finished yet. 50. We are ---- the end of the lesson. 51. I am ---- suffocated. 52. We are not ---- through our work. 53. He is not ---- so young as I. 54. I will answer you as ---- as I can remember. 55. We are ---- the end of the term; our school-days are ---- over. 56. Mr. Patterson came very ---- breaking the greatest record ever made in America. SOME, SOMEWHAT, SOMETHING. 57. Thank you, I feel ---- better this morning. 58. ---- attempted, ---- done, has earned a night's repose. 59. He resembles his father ----. 60. She felt ---- encouraged by this (these) news. 61. ---- evil beast hath devoured him. 62. He knows ---- of Arabic. 63. We came back ---- sooner than we intended. 64. If a man thinketh himself to be ---- when he is nothing, he deceiveth himself. 65. Dorothy looks ---- like her mother. 66. Yes, I'm ---- frightened, I admit. 67. It provoked me ----. 68. A widow, ---- old, and very poor. THIS, THESE; THAT, THOSE. 69. You will always see ---- kind of man lounging in front of taverns. 70. Take up ---- ashes. 71. ---- pile of clothes is (are) to be carried to the laundry. 72. ---- kind of tree is (are) common in Pennsylvania. 73. ---- brass tongs cost three dollars. 74. ---- class will be graduated in June. 75. In New England there is not one country-house in fifty which has not its walls ornamented with half a score of poems of ---- sort. 76. How do you like ---- style of shoe? 77. Do you like ---- sort of pen? 78. ---- sort of person is always entertaining. 79. Look at ---- assortment of knives. 80. Beware of ---- kind of dog. 81. Problems of ---- sort are very easy to solve. 82. Young ladies should let ---- sort of thing alone. FIRST, SECOND, SECONDLY, ETC. 83. I shall ---- show why we should worship God, and ---- explain how we should worship him. 84. Adam was formed ----, then Eve. 85. Let us consider ---- what the young ruler desired; ---- what he had; ---- what he lacked. 86. My ---- proposition is that the measure is unnecessary; my ---- that it is unjust; my ---- that it is unconstitutional. 87. I will not lie; I will die ----. 88. I like the old English ballads because, ----, they are very quaint; ----, they show the derivations of many of our words; and, ----, they show different steps which our language has taken in becoming what it is. ADJECTIVE or ADVERB.[112]--Illiterate persons often forget that adjectives go with nouns and pronouns, but adverbs with verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Even cultivated persons are sometimes in doubt whether to use an adjective or an adverb after certain verbs, as "grow," "look," "sound," "smell," "taste." If the added word applies to the subject of the verb, it should be an adjective; if to the verb, it should be an adverb. We say "We feel _warm_" when we mean that we are warm; we say "We feel _warmly_ on this subject," when we mean that our feeling is warm. "As a rule, it is proper to use an adjective whenever some form of the verb 'to be' or 'to seem' may be substituted for the verb, an adverb when no such substitution can be made."[113] Thus, "He looked _angry_; he spoke _angrily_." Sometimes we may use either adjective or adverb with no difference in meaning: as, "We were sitting _quiet_ (_quietly_) round the fire." Regarding the _form_ of adverbs, ill-taught pupils often suppose that all words ending in "-ly" are adverbs, and that all adverbs end in "-ly." A glance at the italicized words in the following expressions will remove this delusion: "Come _here_;" "_very_ pretty;" "he _then_ rose;" "lay it _lengthwise_;" "he fell _backward_;" "run _fast_;" "_now_ it is done;" "a _friendly_ Indian;" "a buzzing _fly_." Though no comprehensive rule can be given for the form of adverbs, which must be learned for the most part by observation, it may be helpful to know that most "adjectives of quality," like _gentle, true,_ take the suffix "-ly" to make a corresponding adverb; and that the comparative and superlative degrees of adverbs ending in "-ly" usually prefix _more_ and _most_. [112] "Foundations," pp. 120-128. [113] Ibid., p. 121. EXERCISE LXIV. 1. Write _careful (carefully)_. 2. His teacher spoke _cold (coldly)_ to him after she found he had acted _dishonorable (dishonorably)_. 3. Speak _slow (slowly)_ and _distinct (distinctly)_. 4. He behaved _bad (badly)_. 5. He is a _remarkable (remarkably)_ good shot. 6. They were in a _terrible (terribly)_ dangerous position. 7. I am only _tolerable (tolerably)_ well, sir. 8. He acted very _different (differently)_ from his brother. 9. It is discouraging to see how _bad (badly)_ the affairs of our nation are sometimes managed. 10. He writes _plainer (more plainly)_ than he once did. 11. You are _exceeding (exceedingly)_ kind. 12. He struggled _manful (manfully)_ against the waves. 13. You have been _wrong (wrongly)_ informed. 14. _Sure (surely)_ he is a fine gentleman. 15. She dresses _suitable (suitably)_ to her station. 16. That part of the work was managed _easy (easily)_ enough. 17. You behaved very _proper (properly)_. 18. I can read _easier (more easily)_ than I can write. 19. She knew her lesson _perfect (perfectly)_ to-day. 20. I live _free (freely)_ from care. 21. Lessons are _easiest (most easily)_ learned in the morning. 22. Walk as _quiet (quietly)_ as you can. 23. He acted _independent (independently)_. 24. He spoke quite _decided (decidedly)_. 25. We ought to value our privileges _higher (more highly)_. 26. He was _ill (illy)_ equipped for the journey.[114] 27. _Relative (relatively)_ to its size, an ant is ten times stronger than a man. 28. That will _ill (illy)_ accord with my notions.[114] 29. He is an _exceeding (exceedingly)_ good boy. 30. One can _scarce (scarcely)_ help smiling at the blindness of this critic. 31. I had studied grammar _previous (previously)_ to his instructing me, but to no purpose. [114] See page 110. EXERCISE LXV. _Distinguish between--_ 1. We found the way easy (easily). 2. The prunes are boiling soft (softly). 3. He appeared prompt (promptly). 4. It looks good (well). 5. We arrived safe (safely). EXERCISE LXVI. _Which of the italicized words is preferable? Give the reason:--_ 1. Velvet feels _smooth (smoothly)_. 2. Clouds sail _slow (slowly)_ through the air. 3. This carriage rides _easy (easily)_. 4. How _sweet (sweetly)_ these roses smell! 5. They felt very _bad (badly)_ at being beaten.[115] 6. Your piano sounds _different (differently)_ from ours. 7. The storm is raging _furious (furiously)_. 8. This milk tastes _sour (sourly)_. 9. The soldiers fought _gallant (gallantly)_. 10. She looked _cold (coldly)_ on his offer of marriage. 11. Ethel looks _sweet (sweetly)_ in a white gown. 12. How _beautiful (beautifully)_ the stars appear to-night! 13. This coat goes on _easy (easily)_. 14. How _beautiful (beautifully)_ Katharine looks this morning. 15. Luther stood _firm (firmly)_ in spite of abuse. 16. It looks _strange (strangely)_ to see you here. 17. Deal _gentle (gently)_ with them. 18. The cry sounded _shrill (shrilly)_. 19. Larks sing _sweet (sweetly)_. 20. He felt _awkward (awkwardly)_ in the presence of ladies. 21. He has acted _strange (strangely)_. 22. The water feels _warm (warmly)_. 23. We feel _warm (warmly)_ on that subject. 24. The dead warrior looked _fierce (fiercely)_. 25. The wind blows very _cold (coldly)_ to-day. 26. War clouds rolling _dim (dimly)_. 27. The shutters are painted _green (greenly)_. 28. She works _good (well)_ and _neat (neatly)_. 29. Protestants believe that the bread of the Lord's supper is not _real (really)_ changed, but remains _real (really)_ bread. 30. Homer says the blood of the gods is not _real (really)_ blood, but only something like it. 31. _Real (really)_ kings hide away their crowns in their wardrobes, and affect a plain and poor exterior. ALONE, ONLY.--"In the Bible and earlier English _alone_ is often used for the adverb _only_, but it is now becoming restricted to its own sense of 'solitary,' 'unaccompanied by other persons or things';"[116] as, "He rode all unarmed, and he rode all _alone." Only_ is both adjective and adverb. [115] See "Foundations," p. 121. [116] The Century Dictionary. EXERCISE LXVII. _Fill each blank with the proper word ("only," "alone"):--_ 1. She ---- of all the family had courage to go ---- into that darkened room. 2. These books are sold in sets ----. 3. Man cannot live on bread ----. 4. This fault ---- is enough to make her disagreeable. 5. By chance ---- did he escape the gallows. 6. Not ---- at Ephesus, but throughout all Asia, Paul persuaded many people. 7. To be successful a school paper must be supported, not ---- with subscriptions, but also with contributions. OMITTED ADVERBS.[117]--Adverbs necessary to the sense should not be omitted. This fault is especially common after _so, too,_ and _very_--words which, as they express degree, properly qualify adjectives or adverbs, and not verbs or participles; also after _behave_, which, like the noun "behavior," requires a qualifying word to determine the meaning. [117] "Foundations," p. 123. EXERCISE LXVIII. _Supply the omitted adverbs:--_ 1. He was very struck by what she said. 2. I wish you would behave. 3. The king was very dissatisfied with his wife. 4. I have too trusted to my own wild wants. 5. If you cannot behave yourself, you had better stay at home. 6. We are very pleased to see you. REDUNDANT ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS.[118]--A word that is not needed is said to be "redundant." Redundant expressions should be carefully avoided. [118] Ibid., pp. 123-125. EXERCISE LXIX. _Strike out the useless adjectives and adverbs:--_ 1. From thence they marched twenty miles. 2. Which do you prefer most, apples or oranges? 3. Whenever I meet him he always stops me. 4. Celia wished to accompany Rosalind; therefore they both set out together. 5. The view from the top is simply beautiful. 6. Finally Rosalind disclosed her true identity. 7. The exercises are appointed for 2 P.M. to-morrow afternoon. 8. There are numerous mountain streams all throughout this region which abound in brook trout. 9. The central pith of the report is as follows. 10. Secluded and alone, he now partook of his solitary repast, which he entirely consumed. 11. Out of the second term I took out the factor _x_. 12. Right in behind East Rock we have a beautiful lake. 13. When everything was all ready they started off. 14. He was a boy of eighteen years old. 15. If the ground is uneven they just level it off with a shovel. 16. Once the two twins were shipwrecked while on a sailing voyage. 17. The purple bird was once a royal king named Picus. 18. A large search-light will show a sail at a distance of three or four miles away. 19. Each of the provinces was ruled over by a duke. 20. When he returned he entered into the printing business. 21. He had a good chance to shift off the sky to the shoulders of Hercules. 22. The mud falls off from the wheels and makes the street dirty. 23. An old merchant of Syracuse, named ��geon, had two twin sons. 24. He was almost universally admired and respected by all who knew him. 25. Pretty soon the man's hands began to get all blistered. 26. Before you go you must first finish your work. 27. He did it equally as well as his friends. 28. It must be ten years ago since he left town. 29. Collect together all the fragments. 30. The play opens up with a scene in a forest. 31. He has the universal good-will of everybody. 32. Please raise up the window. 33. The story ends up happily. 34. They always entered school together every morning. 35. Out of the entire pack only two dogs remained. 36. He went away, but soon reappeared again. 37. A monstrous large snake crawled out from under the identical stone on which you are this very minute sitting. 38. I was deceived by false misrepresentations. 39. This question opened up the whole subject. 40. Let us, however, endeavor to trace up some of this hearsay evidence as far towards its source as we are able. 41. I will see you later on. MISUSED ADJECTIVES and ADVERBS.[119]--See the remarks under "Misused Nouns." An amusing illustration of misused adjectives was furnished by an illiterate man who introduced his second wife to a friend as "My _late_ wife." I. AGGRAVATING, IRRITATING.--In good use _aggravating_ means "making heavier, more grave, worse in some way." It is often misused for _irritating, exasperating,_ or _provoking_. ALL, THE WHOLE.--See page 120. APT, LIKELY, LIABLE.--_Apt_ implies a natural predisposition, an habitual tendency. "_Likely_ implies a probability of whatever character; _liable_, an unpleasant probability."[120] One is _apt_ to speak quickly, _likely_ to hear good news, _liable_ to be hurt. BOTH, EACH, EVERY.--_Both_, meaning "the two, and not merely one of them," groups objects, as, "_Both_ were men of hot temper." _Each_ means "all of any number, considered one by one," as, "_Each_ boy recited in his turn." _Every_ means "all of any number, considered as composing a group or class," as, "_Every_ pupil should have a dictionary and use it freely." "_Every_ directs attention chiefly to the totality, _each_ chiefly to the individuals composing it. It may also be observed that _each_ usually refers to a numerically definite group.... Thus, 'Each theory is open to objection' relates to an understood enumeration of theories, but 'Every theory is open to objection' refers to all theories that may exist."[121] MANY, MUCH.--_Many_ refers to number, _much_ to quantity. MUTUAL, COMMON.--_Mutual_ properly means "reciprocal," "interchanged." It is often misused for _common_ in the sense of "belonging equally to both or all," especially in the phrase, "A _mutual_ friend." PARTLY, PARTIALLY.--"_Partly_, in the sense of 'in part,' is preferable to _partially_, since _partially_ also means 'with partiality.'"[122] QUITE, VERY.--_Quite_ properly means "entirely"; in the sense of "very" or "to a considerable degree" it is not in good use. SO-AS, AS-AS.--Both _so_ and _as_ are used as adverbs of degree correlative with the conjunction "as": unless there is a negative in the clause _as_ is generally used; with a negative _so_ is preferable to _as_. We say "It is _as_ cold as ice," "It is not _so_ good as it looks." [119] "Foundations," p. 125. [120] Ibid., p. 128. [121] Murray's Dictionary. [122] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 19. EXERCISE LXX. _Tell the difference in meaning between_-- 1. The circumstances of the offense are aggravating (exasperating). 2. She gave an orange to both (each) of them. 3. Each (every) man has his faults. 4. I had a call from both (each) of the boys. 5. He is apt (likely) to win the race. 6. A mutual (common) friendship. 7. The weekly reports are partially (partly) made out. EXERCISE LXXI. _Insert the proper word in each blank:_-- AGGRAVATING, IRRITATING. 1. Some of his remarks were ----. 2. The prisoner said his wife's conduct had been very ----. 3. He has an ---- manner. 4. He was too ---- by half. 5. The murder was committed under ---- circumstances. ALL, THE WHOLE. 6. ---- (of) the boys were sent off at a day's notice to their homes. [For additional exercises, see page 125]. APT, LIKELY, LIABLE. 7. An industrious man is ---- to succeed. 8. The ship was ---- to founder at any moment. 9. Bad books are ---- to corrupt the reader, 10. If a man does not care for himself, he is not ---- to care much for other people. 11. Youth is ---- to err. 12. Any kind of taxation is ---- to be looked on as a grievance. 13. We are constantly ---- to accidents. 14. Men are ---- to think well of themselves, their nation, their courage, and their strength. BOTH, EACH, EVERY. 15. ---- of them has (have) taken a different course. 16. ---- went his way. 17. He told me to invite ---- brother and sister. 18. He gave his hand to ---- of them. 19. In ---- cheek (cheeks) appears a pretty dimple. 20. I am feeling better in ---- way. 21. The oak and the elm have ---- a distinct character. 22. He'll be hanged yet, though ---- drop of water swear against it. 23. ---- soldier has a musket, and ---- one fires as fast as he can. 24. ---- inhabitant, male or female, young or old, was there. 25. In ---- ten women that the gods make, the devils mar five. 26. There is a row of beautiful elm-trees on ---- side(s) of the road. MANY, MUCH. 27. We saw as ---- as twenty tramps. 28. He blames his uncle for ---- of his misfortune. 29. I found that ---- of the accidents on this railroad are caused by negligence. 30. How ---- of your peaches have you sold? MUTUAL, COMMON. 31. Charles and his wife were happy in their ---- love. 32. They parted with ---- good feeling. 33. We have a ---- friend in Mr. Phelps. 34. I find, Miss Vernon, that we have some ---- friends. PARTLY, PARTIALLY. 35. Beware of acting ----. 36. All men are ---- buried in the grave of custom. 37. This is ---- true. 38. The city of York is ---- surrounded by a wall. QUITE, VERY. 39. The country is ---- open. 40. The snow has ---- covered the ground. 41. Books ---- worthless are ---- harmless. 42. The island is ---- close to the mainland. 43. He was ---- dead when they found him. 44. You are ---- mistaken. 45. He is ---- ill. SO-AS, AS-AS. 46. She is ---- amiable as she is beautiful. 47. He is ---- tall as his brother, but not ---- tall as I. 48. You have never ---- much as answered my letter. 49. Come ---- quickly as you can. 50. No other country suffered ---- much as England. II. APPARENTLY, EVIDENTLY, MANIFESTLY.--"_Apparently_ is properly used of that which seems, but may not be, real; _evidently_, of that which both seems and is real."[123] _Manifestly_ is stronger than _evidently_. AVERAGE, ORDINARY.--_Average_ implies an arithmetical computation; if four persons lose respectively $10, $20, $30, and $40, the _average_ loss is $25. The word is used figuratively by Dr. O.W. Holmes in "The _average_ intellect of five hundred persons, taken as they come, is not very high." In the sense of "usual," "common in occurrence," "of the usual standard," _ordinary_ is preferable to _average_. BOUND, DETERMINED.--_Bound_ properly means "obliged," "fated," or "under necessity": as, "A man is _bound_ by his word;" "We hold ourselves in gratitude _bound_ to receive ... all such persons." In the sense of "determined" _hound_ is not in good use. In the sense of "sure" it is in colloquial, but not in literary, use. CONTINUAL, CONTINUOUS.--"_Continual_ is used of frequently repeated acts, as, 'Continual dropping wears away a stone;' _continuous_, of uninterrupted action, as, 'the continuous flowing of a river.'"[125] DEADLY, DEATHLY.--"_Deathly_, in the sense of 'resembling death,' as, 'She was deathly pale,' is preferable to _deadly_, since _deadly_ also means 'inflicting death.'"[124] DECIDED, DECISIVE.--"A _decided_ opinion is a strong opinion, which perhaps decides nothing; a _decisive_ opinion settles the question at issue. A lawyer may have _decided_ views on a case; the judgment of a court is _decisive_."[125] DUMB, STUPID.--_Dumb_ properly means "mute," "silent." Its misuse for _stupid_ is partly due, especially in Pennsylvania, to its resemblance to the German _dumm_. EXISTING, EXTANT.--That is _extant_ which has escaped the ravages of time (used chiefly of books, manuscripts, etc.); that is _existing_ which has existence. FUNNY, ODD.--_Funny_ means "comical;" in the sense of "strange" or "odd" it is not in good use. HEALTHY, HEALTHFUL, WHOLESOME.--That is _healthy_ which is in good health; that is _healthful_ or _wholesome_ which produces health. _Wholesome_ commonly applies to food. HUMAN, HUMANE.--_Human_ denotes what pertains to man as man; as, "_human_ nature," "_human_ sacrifices." _Humane_ means "compassionate." LATEST, LAST.--_Latest_, like the word "late," contains a distinct reference to time; that is _latest_ which comes after all others in time: as, "The _latest_ news;" "The _latest_ fashion." _Last_, which was originally a contraction of "latest," is now used without any distinct reference to time, and denotes that which comes after all others in space or in a series: as, "The _last_ house on the street;" "The _Last_ of the Mohicans." LENGTHY, LONG.--_Lengthy_ is said to have originated in the United States, but the earliest quotations found are from British authors. In the introduction to the second series of The Biglow Papers, Mr. Lowell wrote: "We have given back to England the excellent adjective _lengthy_ ... thus enabling their journalists to characterize our President's messages by a word civilly compromising between _long_ and _tedious_, so as not to endanger the peace of the two countries by wounding our national sensitiveness to British criticism." _Lengthy_ is used chiefly of discourses or writings, and implies tediousness. _Long_ is used of anything that has length. MAD, ANGRY.--_Mad_ means "insane;" in the sense of "angry" it is not in good use. NEW, NOVEL.--That is _new_ which is not old; that is _novel_ which is both new and strange. ORAL, VERBAL.--"_Oral_, in the sense of 'in spoken words,' is preferable to _verbal_, since _verbal_ means 'in words' whether spoken or written."[126] PITIABLE, PITIFUL.--"_Pitiable,_ in the sense of 'deserving pity,' is preferable to _pitiful,_ since _pitiful_ also means 'compassionate,' as, 'The Lord is very pitiful, and of tender mercy.'"[126] PRACTICABLE, PRACTICAL.--That is _practicable_ which can be done; that is _practical_ which is not theoretical only: as, "a _practicable_ plan," "a _practical_ electrician." PROMINENT, EMINENT.--_Prominent_ means "conspicuous," "standing out so as to be easily seen;" _eminent_ means "distinguished in character or rank." REAL, REALLY, VERY.--_Real_ is properly an adjective, meaning "not imaginary or counterfeit," as, "_real_ diamonds." Its misuse for the adverbs _really_ and _very_, as, "This is _real_ pretty," is a vulgarism. SCARED, AFRAID.--The participle _scared_ means "frightened;" _afraid_ is an adjective meaning "in fear." Before "of," the proper word is _afraid_: as, "She is _afraid_ of horses." _Scared of_ is not in good use. GRAND, GORGEOUS, AWFUL, SPLENDID, ELEGANT, LOVELY, MAGNIFICENT.--_Grand_ properly implies "grandeur;" _gorgeous_, "splendid colors;" _awful_, "awe;" _elegant_, "elegance;" _splendid_, "splendor;" _lovely,_ "surpassing loveliness;" _magnificent_, "magnificence." "We talk, sometimes, with people whose conversation would lead you to suppose that they had lived in a museum, where all the objects were monsters and extremes.... They use the superlative of grammar: 'most perfect,' 'most exquisite,' 'most horrible.' Like the French, they are enchanted, they are desolate, because you have got or have not got a shoestring or a wafer you happen to want--not perceiving that superlatives are diminutives and weaken.... All this comes of poverty. We are unskilful definers. From want of skill to convey quality, we hope to move admiration by quantity. Language should aim to describe the fact.... 'Tis very wearisome, this straining talk, these experiences all exquisite, intense, and tremendous."[127] [123] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 39. [124] Ibid., p. 18. [125] Ibid., p. 38. [126] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 19. [127] R.W. Emerson; The Superlative. EXERCISE LXXII. _Tell the difference in meaning between_-- 1. The average (ordinary) yield of wheat. 2. He is bound (determined) to come. 3. There was continual (continuous) fighting for three days. 4. It was deadly (deathly) cold in the cave. 5. A decided (decisive) victory. 6. The boy is dumb (stupid). 7. His story is apparently (evidently, manifestly) true. 8. The existing (extant) portraits of Milton. 9. His actions were very funny (odd). 10. This is a healthy (wholesome) plant. 11. A human (humane) being. 12. His latest (last) attempt. 13. Long (lengthy) explanations. 14. She became mad (angry). 15. A new (novel) style. 16. An oral (verbal) message. 17. A pitiable (pitiful) man. 18. Your purpose seems practical (practicable). 19. A prominent (an eminent) man. 20. He was really (very) glad to see us. EXERCISE LXXIII. _Insert the proper word in each blank:--_ APPARENTLY, EVIDENTLY, MANIFESTLY. 1. The motion which--- belongs to the sun, really belongs to the earth. 2. The stranger was--- in the prime of manhood. 3. The _apparent (evident)_ discrepancy between the two narratives is not real. 4. Our country is--- growing in wealth. 5. A straight line is--- the shortest distance between two points. AVERAGE, ORDINARY. 6. To be excited is not the--- state of the mind. 7. This picture has only--- merit. 8.--- conversation is not instructive. 9. The--- American is not wealthy. 10. The--- expenses per man of the Yale class of '95 during Freshman year were $912. 11. The life of the--- man is safer and more comfortable than it was a century ago. 12. The--- age of the signers of the Declaration of Independence was nearly forty-four. 13. Their--- duties were easy. BOUND, DETERMINED. 14. He worked hard at his piece, for he was--- to speak it well. 15. We have promised, therefore we are--- to go. 16. I am--- to win, if I can. 17. They were--- that they would see the end of the play, even though they should miss their train. CONTINUAL, CONTINUOUS. 18. He was exposed to--- interruptions. 19. A--- line in space. 20. ---- victory makes leaders insolent. 21. A ---- siege of six months. 22. The power of abstract study or of ---- thought is rare. DEADLY, DEATHLY. 23. A ---- stillness. 24. The ---- bite of the rattlesnake. 25. My wound is ----. 26. Her hands were ---- cold. 27. She, poor thing, was looking ---- pale. 28. Many savages have seen a musket kill small animals and yet have not known how ---- an instrument it is. DECIDED, DECISIVE. 29. He felt a ---- aversion to company. 30. Smith spoke out boldly in a ---- tone. 31. Creasy's "Fifteen ---- Battles of the World." 32. The nature of lightning was not known until Franklin made his ---- experiment. DUMB, STUPID 33. A man who cannot write with wit on a proper subject is dull and ----. 34. A deaf and ---- person. 35. I was struck ---- with astonishment. 36. Judging from his recitations, I should say that John is either lazy or ----. EXTANT, EXISTING. 37. God created all ---- things. 38. Only two authentic portraits of Shakespeare are ----. 39. There are ---- seven hundred and sixty-five of Cicero's letters. 40. Every citizen should exert himself to remove ---- evils. FUNNY, ODD. 41. It is ---- he never told me of his marriage. 42. He made the boys laugh by drawing ---- pictures on his slate. 43. You must have thought it ---- we didn't send for you. 44. He amused us with ---- stories. HEALTHY, HEALTHFUL, WHOLESOME. 45. Tomatoes are said to be a very ---- food. 46. If a ---- body contributes to the health of the mind, so also a ---- mind keeps the body well. 47. Gardening is a ---- recreation for a man of study or business. 48. ---- food in a ---- climate makes a ---- man. 49. A ---- situation. A ---- constitution.- ----diet. HUMAN, HUMANE. 50. A--- disposition is not cruel. 51. To err is---; to forgive, divine. 52. In the time of Abraham--- sacrifices were common among his heathen neighbors. 53. The Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals is a ---- organization. LATEST, LAST. 54. The--- men in the procession. 55. The--- news. 56. The--- of the Incas. 57. Have you read the--- novel? 58. The--- foot-ball game of the season will be played with the Yale Freshmen. LENGTHY, LONG. 59. Cotton Mather wrote many--- dissertations. 60. It is a--- ride from Ellen's Isle to Stirling. 61. A--- line of ancestors. 63. We were wearied by his--- explanations. MAD, ANGRY. 63. His sarcastic manner makes me---. 64. That is nothing to get--- at. 65. I have heard my grandsire say full oft, Extremity of griefs would make men ---. NEW, NOVEL. 66. We have a--- horse. 67. A--- feature of the entertainment was the "Broom Drill." 68. At the World's Fair we saw many--- sights, especially in the Midway Plaisance. 69. Alice had many--- experiences in Wonder Land. ORAL, VERBAL. 70. Some slight--- changes have been made in the new edition of this book. 71. Were your instructions--- or written. PITIABLE, PITIFUL. 72. The condition of the poor in our great cities is---. 73. Be gentle unto griefs and needs, Be --- as woman should. 74. The wretched girl was in a--- plight. 75. A--- sight. PRACTICABLE, PRACTICAL. 76. We have hired a ---- gardener. 77. This plan of campaign is not ----. 78. We found the road not ---- because of the heavy rains. 79. A victory may be a ---- defeat. PROMINENT, EMINENT. 80. Censure is the tax a man pays to the public for being ----. 81. The figure of a man is ---- in the picture. 82. Frogs have ---- eyes. 83. Washington was a (an) ---- man. 84. John Quincy Adams was the ---- son of a (an) ---- father. REAL, REALLY, VERY. 85. She came home looking ---- well after her long visit. 86. Protestants believe that the bread of the Lord's supper is not ---- changed, but remains ---- bread. 87. Homer tells us that the blood of the gods is not ---- blood, but only something like it. 88. I am ---- glad you have come. 89. He is ---- dead. 90. It was ---- kind in you to send me flowers. 91. Yes, I am ---- old; I am sixty. 92. He speaks ---- well, doesn't he? 93. ---- kings hide away their crowns in their wardrobes, and affect a plain and poor exterior. 94. This is ---- pretty. 95. We came on a ---- fast train. 96. She seemed ---- glad to see us. 97. The hotel is situated ---- near the sea. SCARED, AFRAID. 98. She was badly ---- when her horse ran away. 99. Harry is ---- of tramps. 100. Helen was ---- of the cows in the meadow. EXERCISE LXXIV.[128] _Illustrate by original sentences the correct use of each of these words:_ --Both, each, every, aggravating, liable, likely, apt, mutual, partially, quite, average, bound, continual, continuous, deadly, deathly, decided, decisive, dumb, apparently, evidently, extant, funny, healthy, healthful, wholesome, human, humane, latest, last, lengthy, mad, novel, verbal, pitiable, pitiful, practicable, practical, prominent, eminent, real, really, scared, grand, gorgeous, awful, splendid, elegant, lovely, magnificent. USE of the COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE.--The comparative degree is preferable when two things or sets of things are compared, the superlative when three or more are compared. To say "Iron is more useful than _any_ metal" is clearly incorrect, because iron is included in "any metal," and of course iron is not more useful than itself. We must in thought set iron off in a class by itself, which we can do by inserting "other" after "any." "Iron is more useful than _any other_ metal" is correct. After comparatives accompanied by "than," the words "any" and "all" should be followed by "other." To say "Iron is the most useful of _any_ (or, _any other_) metal" is also clearly incorrect, because we mean that iron is the most useful, not of "one metal (no matter which)" or of "some metals (no matter which)," but of all metals. We should therefore omit the word "any," saying simply "Iron is the most useful of (all) metals." It is also incorrect to say "Iron is the most useful of all _other_ metals," for iron is not one of the "other metals." Beware of using "any" or "other" with superlatives followed by "of." [128] See note To the Teacher, p. 41. EXERCISE LXXV. _Which of the italicized forms is preferable?_-- 1. Of London and Paris, London is the _wealthier (wealthiest)._ 2. Of two evils, choose the _less (least)._ 3. The _older (oldest)_ of the three boys was sent to college. 4. Which can run the _faster (fastest),_ your horse or mine? 5. Of the two Latin poets, Virgil and Horace, the _first (former)_ is the _better (best)_ known. 6. Which is the _better (best)_ of the two? 7. Which is the _farther (farthest)_ east, Boston New York, or Philadelphia? 8. There is no doubt about _him (his)_ being the _better (best)_ in the little group of friends. 9. Which is the _larger (largest)_ number, the minuend or the subtrahend? EXERCISE LXXVI. _Explain and correct the errors in the following sentences:_-- 1. This picture is, of all others, the one I like best. 2. This engraving of mine I like better than any picture I have. 3. London is more crowded than any city in Great Britain. 4. London is the most crowded of any city in Great Britain. 5. She of all other girls ought to be the last to complain. 6. Our grammar lessons are the hardest of any we have. 7. St. Peter's is larger than any church in the world. 8. St. Peter's is the largest of any church in the world. 9. Noah and his family outlived all the people who lived before the flood. 10. Solomon was wiser than all men. 11. This State exports more cotton than all the states. 12. A cowboy is the most picturesque of any men. 13. Tabby has the worst temper of any cat I know. 14. He thinks Gettysburg has the prettiest girls of any town of its size. 15. The proposed method of Mr. F.G. Jackson, the English arctic explorer, appears to be the most practical and business-like of any yet undertaken for exploring the polar regions. EXERCISE LXXVII. _Construct sentences comparing the following things, using first a comparative, then a superlative form:_-- 1. The large population of China; the smaller populations of other countries. EXAMPLE.--China has a larger population than any other country. Of all countries, China has the largest population in the world. 2. John, who is very mischievous; other boys, who are less mischievous. 3. Eve, who was exceedingly fair; her daughters (female descendants), who are less fair. 4. Smith, the best athlete; the other boys in the school. 5. Mary's recitations; the poorer recitations of her classmates. 6. The population of London; the population of the other cities in the world. 7. The circulation of the "Star;" the smaller circulation of other newspapers in the county. 8. Ethel's eyes; the eyes of her playmates, which are not so bright. 9. The examination papers of Professor A.; the easier papers set by other teachers. 10. Philip; his classmates, who are less bright. 11. Solomon, the wisest king; other kings. 12. Samson, the strongest man; other men. 13. Jacob's love for Joseph; his love for his other children. 14. Youth; the other periods of life, which are less important. 15. Demosthenes; the other and inferior orators of Greece. 16. The books read by Fannie; the fewer books read by her classmates. 17. This shady grove; other groves I know, which are less shady. 18. The reign of Louis XIV.; the shorter reigns of other French kings. 19. Shakespeare; other English poets, all of whom are inferior to him. 20. The Falls of Niagara; other falls in the United States. ADJECTIVES and ADVERBS INCAPABLE OF COMPARISON.[129]-- Some adjectives and adverbs have meanings which do not vary in degree: as, _dead, perfect, wooden._ Such adjectives cannot properly be compared or modified by the words "more," "most," "so," "too," and "very." [129] "Foundations," p. 135. EXERCISE LXXVIII. _Which of the following adjectives and adverbs do not vary in degree?_-- Absolutely, brave, cloudless, cold, conclusively, continually, entirely, essentially, extreme, faultless, French, fundamental, golden, happy, impregnable, inaudible, incessant, incredible, indispensable, insatiate, inseparable, intangible, intolerable, invariable, long, masterly, round, sharp, square, sufficient, unanimous, unbearable, unbounded, unerring, unique, universally, unparalleled, unprecedented. MISPLACED ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS.[130]--A word, a phrase, or a clause used as an adjective or an adverb should come next to the word, or words, which it modifies. The word _only_ requires special care. Observe how the position of _only_ affects the meaning in the following sentences: "Only he lost his hat;" "He only lost his hat;" "He lost only his hat," or "He lost his hat only;" "He lost his only hat." [130] "Foundations," p. 136. EXERCISE LXXIX. _Correct the errors of position in the following sentences_:-- 1. Metal reflectors are only used now for cheap search-lights. 2. I will only mention some of the best. 3. I only had time to read "King Lear." 4. He only spoke to me, not to you. 5. Coons are only killed with the help of dogs. The coon only comes out in the night-time. 6. Lost, a Scotch terrier, by a gentleman, with his ears cut close. 7. Canteens were issued to the soldiers with short necks. 8. We all went to the sea-shore for a little fresh air from the city. 9. At one time Franklin was seen bringing some paper to his printing-office from the place where he had purchased it in a wheelbarrow. 10. He went to Germany to patronize the people in the little German villages from which he came with his great wealth. 11. The three young men set out and finally arrived at the college dressed in girls' clothes. 12. The maskers were nearly dressed alike. 13. Erected to the memory of John Smith accidentally shot as a mark of affection by his brother. 14. Lost, an umbrella by a gentleman with an ivory head. 15. A piano for sale by a lady about to cross the channel in an oak case with carved legs. 16. He blew out his brains after bidding his wife good-bye with a gun. 17. The Moor, seizing a bolster, full of rage and jealousy, smothered Desdemona. 18. Wanted, a handsome Shetland pony suitable for a child with a long mane and tail. 19. Wolsey left many buildings which he had begun at his death in an unfinished state. 20. My cousin caught a crab and took it home in a pail of water which we had for our tea. 21. I scarcely ever remember to have had a rougher walk. ADVERBS between TO and THE INFINITIVE.--"A careful writer will do well to avoid the construction which places the adverb between _to_ and the infinitive. It is true that the construction is a common one; but it is also true that those who are most addicted to the practice are not those who count most as authorities on questions of good usage."[131] [131] "Foundations," p. 140. EXERCISE LXXX. _Improve the arrangement in the following sentences_-- 1. Hermes caused the milk pitcher of the old couple to never be empty. 2. His political enemies tried to in this way impeach the courage of the President. 3. He promises to earnestly try to do better. 4. To really know the man we must read his books. 5. Another project is to in some way modify the power of the House of Lords. 6. She dwelt upon what was comforting, though conscious that there was little to veritably console. 7. He proposed to either largely decrease the appropriation or to wholly do away with it. CHAPTER VII. OF PREPOSITIONS MISUSED PREPOSITIONS.[132]--A writer, in choosing the proper preposition to express his meaning, must rely chiefly on his sense of idiom, that is, his knowledge of English usage, but he may find the following notes helpful. AMONG, BETWEEN.--"_Among_ is the proper word when the reference is to more than two persons or things, or groups of persons or things; _between_, when the reference is to two only."[133] AT, IN.--Before names of places to denote "where," _at_ is used when the place is so small as to be treated as a mere point, or when, although large, it is viewed as a mere point; _in_ is used when it is desired to make prominent the idea "within the bounds of:" as, "He arrived _at_ Liverpool in the morning and remained _in_ that city two days." Before the name of the place in which the speaker dwells, if the place is of any size, _in_ is generally preferred to _at_, unless the place is so remote that it dwindles in the mental vision to a point. BACK OF.--_Back of_, though frequently heard in conversation and sometimes seen in print, is not in good use. BESIDE, BESIDES.--_Beside_ means "by the side of;" _besides_ is now used only in the sense of "in addition to," "other than:" as, "Who sits _beside_ you?" "Who _besides_ us knows this?" BY, WITH.--To introduce the agent of an action _by_ is now commonly used; the material instrument or tool is usually introduced by _with_: as, "Duncan was murdered _by_ Macbeth _with_ a dagger." DIFFERENT FROM, DIFFERENT TO.--_Different from_ is preferable to _different to_ and _different than_. IN, INTO.--"_In_ implies presence inside of, or within; _into_ implies movement to the inside of. Before a man can move _in_ a room, he must already have moved _into_ it."[134] IN, ON.--Before names of streets, _in_ implies some reference to surroundings; _on_ is less definite, indicating location only. ON TO, ONTO.--"Good use does not support either _on to_ or _onto_."[135] WAIT FOR, WAIT ON.--_To wait for_ means "to await," as, "We will _wait for_ you at the corner." _To wait on_ means "to attend on," as, "At dinner the women _waited on_ the men." [132] "Foundations," pp. 142-148. [133] Ibid., p. 143. [134] Ibid., p. 145. [135] "Foundations," p. 146. EXERCISE LXXXI. _Insert the proper preposition in each blank_:-- AMONG, BETWEEN. 1. He divided the apples ---- the five boys. 2. There was a generous rivalry ---- the two friends. 3. I have no preference ---- many of Tennyson's poems. 4. There is bad feeling ---- China and Japan. 5. The money was divided ---- the six heirs. AT, IN. 6. Napoleon died ---- Longwood, a villa on the island of St. Helena; Byron died ---- Missolonghi, ---- Greece. 7. Did he graduate ---- Oxford or ---- Cambridge? 8. He is now ---- Ireland. 9. Milton was educated ---- Christ's College. 10. When shall we arrive ---- Rome? 11. I am eager to visit a hundred places ---- Florence. 12. We live ---- New York. 13. Macaulay lived ---- London. BESIDE, BESIDES. 14. Have you nothing to tell us ---- what we have already heard? 15. The boy stood ---- her. 16. ---- the large planets, there are hundreds of smaller planets called "asteroids." 17. Let me sit ---- you. BY, WITH. 18. The door was fastened ---- nails ---- the carpenter. 19. The Great Charter was signed ---- King John. 20. Thebes was founded ---- Cadmus. 21. Truth finds an easy entrance into the mind when she is introduced ---- Desire and attended ---- Pleasure. 22. He entertained us ---- a story. 23. He struck me ---- his cane. IN, INTO. 24. The dog is ---- the water. 25. Come ---- the house. 26. Look ---- my desk. 27. Put more life ---- your speaking. 28. Throw it ---- the fire. 29. What put this idea ---- your head? 30. Carry the basket ---- the kitchen. 31. She threw herself ---- a chair. IN, ON. 32. The cable cars ---- Broadway. 33. Ellen and Harry are playing ---- the street. 34. The Murray Hill Hotel is ---- Fourth Avenue. 35. They carry on their business ---- William Street. "With certain words good use requires special prepositions. Among these words are the following:-- abhorrence of. absolve from. accord with. acquit of. adapted to or for. affinity between, to, or with. agree with (a person). agree to (a proposal). averse from or to. bestow upon. change for (a thing). change with (a person). comply with. center on (= give to). confer with (= talk with). confide in (= trust in). confide to (= intrust to). conform to. in conformity with or to. convenient for or to. conversant with. correspond to or with (a thing). correspond with (a person). dependent on (but independent of). derogatory to. differ from (a person or thing). differ from or with (in opinion). disappointed of (what we cannot get). disappointed in (what we have). dissent from. glad at or of. involve in. martyr for or to. need of. part from or with. profit by. reconcile to or with. taste of (food). taste for (art). Thirst for or after."[136] [136] "Foundations," p. 148. EXERCISE LXXXII. I. _Tell the difference in meaning between_-- 1. She confides in (to) her sister. 2. He differs from (with) me. 3. We are disappointed of (in) our guests. 4. He is in (_at_) New York. 5. He waited on (for) his mother. II. _Tell what prepositions are required with these words_: Abhorrence, absolve, accord, acquit, adapted, affinity, agree, agreeable, averse, bestow, change (verb), comply, confer, confide, conform, in conformity, convenient, conversant, correspond, dependent, derogatory, differ, different, disappointed, dissent (verb), eager, exception, expert, glad, independent, involve, martyr, need (noun), part (verb), profit (verb), reconcile, taste (noun), thirst (noun), worthy. EXERCISE LXXXIII. _Insert the proper preposition in each blank_:--[137] 1. Please wait ---- me; I will come as soon as I can. 2. She married him ---- her father's consent. 3. The cathedral was rich ---- all kinds of golden vessels. 4. Moses received the laws ---- the people on Mount Sinai. 5. Evangeline died ---- Philadelphia. 6. ---- whom did they rent the house? 7. ---- whom can I rely? 8. The boy went in search ---- his sister. 9. The streams ---- this region abound ---- trout. 10. The traces of a struggle were seen ---- the tree. 11. They got ---- the carriage and rode away. 12. He has moved ---- New York, where he lives ---- an elegant mansion. 13. He thought that he put the money ---- his pocket, but he found it ---- his shoe. 14. The paper was cut ---- small strips. 15. We stood ---- the landing. 16. The firemen went ---- the roof of the house. 17. He is down ---- the village. 18. What was the matter ---- him? 19. He died ---- a fever. 20. When we were ---- Rome we stayed ---- a small hotel. 21. He lives ---- a frame house ---- Cambridge. 22. Her unladylike behavior gave occasion ---- many unpleasant remarks. 23. Caterpillars change ---- butterflies. 24. She lives ---- College Street, ---- No. 1009. 25. It was conducive ---- my comfort. 26. The calm was followed ---- a sudden storm. 27. The soil of Virginia is adapted ---- the production of hemp and tobacco. 28. The flower is excellently adapted ---- catching insects. 29. Congress consists ---- a Senate and a House of Representatives. 30. ---- what does happiness consist? 31. ---- some sentences the conjunction is omitted. 32. A judge who has an interest in a case is disqualified ---- hearing it. 33. He was accused ---- robbery. 34. He died ---- starvation, she ---- pneumonia. 35. You may rely ---- what I say, and confide ---- my honesty. 36. The bird flew ---- the tree. 37. He let the knife fall ---- the creek. 38. What is my grief in comparison ---- that which she bears? 39. Most persons feel an abhorrence ---- snakes. 40. He aspires ---- political distinction. 41. We were disappointed ---- the pleasure of seeing you. 42. There is need ---- great watchfulness. 43. I have been ---- New Orleans, and I am now going ---- New York. 44. We lived ---- a little village ---- the South. 45. I find no difficulty ---- keeping up with my class. 46. ---- every class of people selfishness prevails. 47. He divided his estate ---- his son, his daughter, and his nephew. 48. He is very different ---- his brother. 49. This was different ---- what I expected. 50. Compare your work ---- his, and you will see the difference. 51. My old yacht was small in comparison ---- this. 52. He is adapted ---- an out-door life. 53. His disobedience was attended ---- serious consequences. 54. His mother was overcome ---- grief. 55. We were accompanied ---- our parents. 56. A man should try to rid himself ---- prejudice. 57. He will profit ---- his experience. 58. The room was redolent ---- the perfume. 59. You must conform ---- the rules. 60. Fondness ---- horses was his leading trait. 61. We felt the need ---- some adviser. 62. I cannot reconcile this assertion ---- your other one. 63. Let us cut it ---- three equal parts. 64. He is acquitted ---- all blame. 65. The Pope absolved him ---- his oath of allegiance. 66. This fact does not accord ---- her declaration. 67. I do not agree ---- you; therefore I cannot agree ---- your proposal. 68. The queen bestowed ---- Tennyson the title of baron. 69. The college has conferred ---- my uncle the degree of Doctor of Divinity. 70. The two emperors conferred ---- each other for an hour. 71. He is conversant ---- many languages. 72. They were independent ---- each other. 73. His sisters are dependent ---- him. 74. That is not derogatory ---- their character. 75. I dissent ---- that proposition. 76. We are glad ---- his promotion. 77. He has a taste ---- poetry; she, a thirst ---- knowledge. 78. In 1842 he emerged ---- obscurity. 79. His property was merged ---- the common stock. 80. She often went ---- town shopping. 81. He plunged ---- the deepest part of the lake. 82. These bands of Indians were accompanied ---- settlers from Detroit. 83. The settlers were in company ---- Indians. 84. His proposal is likely to stir up ill-will ---- the various classes. 85. The Greeks, fearing that they would be surrounded, wheeled about and halted, with the river ---- their backs. 86. We are within three miles ---- Salisbury. OMITTED PREPOSITIONS.[138]--"Beware of omitting a preposition that is needed to make the meaning clear or the sentence grammatical."[139] "Before 'home' the preposition 'at' should never be omitted, but the preposition 'to' is always omitted: _e.g.,_ 'I am going home.'"[138] [137] In this exercise the pupil must rely chiefly on his knowledge of English usage or on a dictionary. In some of the sentences more than one preposition is allowable, according to the sense. [138] "Foundations," p. 149. [139] Ibid., p. 150. EXERCISE LXXXIV. _Insert the necessary prepositions in the following sentences:_-- 1. What use is this piece of ribbon? 2. The oak was five feet diameter. 3. My business prevented me attending the last meeting of the committee. 4. I could not refrain shedding tears. 5. The remark is worthy the fool that made it. 6. It is unworthy your notice. 7. He lives the other side the river. 8. He fled the country, and went either to England or France. 9. Ignorance is the mother of fear as well as admiration. 10. Religion is a comfort in youth as well as old age. 11. It's no use to give up. 12. This side the mountain the country is thickly settled; the other side there are few inhabitants. 13. I wrote Mr. Knapp to come Wednesday, and promised that he should find us home. 14. Wealth is more conducive to worldliness than piety. 15. He is not home, but I think he is coming home to-night. REDUNDANT PREPOSITIONS.[140]--Beware of inserting prepositions which are not needed. [140] Ibid., p. 150. EXERCISE LXXXV. _Strike out the redundant prepositions:_-- 1. He met a boy of about eighteen years old. 2. Cadmus stood pondering upon what he should do. 3. Let a gallows be erected of fifty cubits high. 4. Hercules was very willing to take the world off from his shoulders and give it to Atlas again. 5. No one can help from loving her. 6. From thence in two days the Greeks marched twenty miles. 7. There was much of wisdom in their plan. 8. A workman fell off of the ladder. 9. On one day I caught five trout, on another twelve. 10. We must examine into this subject more carefully. 11. A child copies after its parents. 12. The proposal to go to the woods was approved of by all of the boys. 13. At about what time will father return? 14. After having heard his story, I gave him a dollar. 15. The spring is near to the house. 16. Bruno followed on after his master. 17. Wanted, a young man of from sixteen to twenty-one years of age. 18. They went on to the steamer soon after dinner. 19. Look out of the window. CHAPTER VIII. OF CONJUNCTIONS VULGARISMS.[141]--Every educated person is expected to know the correct use of the following words:-- LIKE, AS.--In good use _like_ is never a conjunction, and therefore it cannot be used instead of _as_ to introduce a clause. It is incorrect to say, "Walk _like_ I walk," but one may say, "He walks _like_ me," or "He looks _like_ his grandfather."[142] EXCEPT, WITHOUT, UNLESS.--_Except_, which was originally a past-participle, was once in good use as a conjunction; but in modern use it has been displaced as a conjunction by _unless_, and is now a preposition only. We may say, "All went _except_ me," but we may not say, "_Except_ you go with me, I will stay at home." Another word not in good use as a conjunction, but often heard instead of "unless," is _without_. [141] "Foundations," p. 152. [142] See page 109. EXERCISE LXXXVI. _Insert the proper word in each blank:_-- LIKE, AS. 1. Do ---- I do. 2. She fears a chicken ---- you fear a snake. 3. Thin bushy hair falls down on each side of his face somewhat ---- Longfellow's hair did in his later life. 4. I wish I could sing ---- she can. 5. I will be a lawyer ---- my father. 6. I will be a lawyer ---- my father was. 7. She looks ---- (if) she were crying. 8. He acted ---- (if) he were guilty. 9. Our snow-tunnel looked ---- we imagined Aladdin's cave looked. 10. He treated me ---- a cat treats a mouse. 11. Seventy-five cents a day will not feed those men ---- they wish to be fed. 12. The lines in this stanza are not forced ---- in other stanzas. 13. If I were a boy ---- Ralph is, I would try to stop the thing. EXCEPT, WITHOUT, UNLESS. 14. I do not know how my horse got away ---- somebody untied him. 15. Do not come ---- you hear from me. 16. I will not go ---- father is willing. 17. I will not go ---- father's consent. 18. ---- you study better, you will be dropped. 19. It will be cool to-morrow ---- a hot wave comes. 20. I cannot go ---- money. 21. I cannot go ---- father sends me some money. 22. I will be there promptly ---- I hear from you. 23. Do not write ---- you feel in the mood for it. 24. She has no fault ---- diffidence. 25. She has no fault ---- it be diffidence. 26. He cannot enlist ---- with his guardian's consent. MISUSED CONJUNCTIONS.[143]--Conjunctions are few in number and are more definite in their meanings than prepositions. Most errors in using them spring from confused thinking or hasty writing. "A close reasoner and a good writer in general may be known by his pertinent use of connectives."[144] AND.--_And_ has, generally speaking, the meaning of "in addition to." BUT.--_But_ implies some exception, opposition, or contrast. Equivalent, or nearly equivalent, expressions are "however," "on the other hand," "yet," "nevertheless." AS.--"_As_ has so many meanings that it is better, when possible, to use a conjunction that covers less ground."[145] BECAUSE, FOR, SINCE.--The difference between these words is chiefly a difference in emphasis. "We will not go, _because_ it is raining" is the strongest way of expressing the relation of cause and effect. In "_Since_ it is raining, we will not go," the emphasis is shifted from the cause to the effect, which becomes the prominent idea. In "We will not go, _for_ it is raining," the reason, "it is raining," is announced as itself a bit of news. Often the choice between these words is decided by the ear. HOW.--_How_ properly means "in what manner" or "to what extent." It is often misused for "that" to introduce an object clause. NOR, OR.--_Nor_ is the correlative of _neither_, sometimes of other negatives. _Or_ is the correlative of _either_. THEREFORE, SO.--In the sense of "for this reason," _therefore_ is preferable to _so_, since _so_ has other meanings. THOUGH.--_Though_ means "notwithstanding," "in spite of the fact that." AS IF, AS THOUGH.--"_As if_ is, on the whole, preferable to _as though."[146] WHEN, WHILE.--_When_ means "at the time that;" _while_, "during the time that," "as long as." "_When_ fixes attention on a date or period; _while_ fixes attention on the lapse of time."[147] [143] "Foundations," p.152. [144] Coleridge: Table Talk. Quoted by A.S. Hill in Principles of Rhetoric. [145] "Foundations," p. 153. [146] "Foundations," p. 156. [147] Ibid., p. 157. EXERCISE LXXXVII. _Insert the proper conjunction in each blank, if a conjunction is needed. Do not confine your choice to those mentioned above:_-- 1. Roland was mild and modest, ---- Charles was coarse and boastful. 2. ---- they were without provisions, they thought they should starve. 3. In Addison's day innumerable vices were prevalent, ---- chief among them was the custom of drinking. 4. Charles was a large, brawny fellow, ---- Orlando was a slender youth. 5. When the barn was full of people, the doors were suddenly shut and bolted ---- the barn was set on fire. 6. Hereward's men wanted booty, ---- Hereward took them to the Golden Borough. 7. He read a short ---- interesting account of "Theobald's." 8. Longfellow received a good education ---- he was not a poor boy. 9. He was disappointed in the speed of his yacht, ---- he had expected her to be very fast. 10. The man said "to sell" was not needed on the sign ---- no one would expect the hats to be given away. 11. There is no doubt ---- the earth is spherical. 12. I know very little about the "Arabian Nights" ---- I have never read that book. 13. When Gulliver began to pull, the ships would not move ---- their anchors held them. 14. He had to be cautious in using his Bible ---- at that time reading it was prohibited; ---- he fastened it with tapes on the underside of a stool. 15. The Liberal Arts Building at Chicago had twice as much iron in its frame ---- the Brooklyn Bridge. 16. The lumbermen must keep open a road to the railroad, ---- all their provisions must be brought from the city. 17. Scarcely had I thrown in my line ---- I felt a nibble. 18. The fly seems to have been created for no other purpose ---- to purify the air. 19. At first you wonder where the boats are, ---- on entering the grove you can see only a small cabin. 20. I do not doubt ---- he will succeed. 21. I cannot deny ---- he is honest. 22. He was dismissed, not so much because he was too young ---- because he was indolent. 23. The land is equally adapted to farming ---- to pasturage. 24. Proportion is ---- simple ---- compound. 25. I wonder ---- he will come. 26. The last of the horses had scarcely crossed the bridge ---- the head of the third battalion appeared on the other side. 27. He looked as ---- he could play football. 28. ---- I saw her, she was young ---- beautiful. 29. Bruce spoke of himself as being neither Scotch ---- English. 30. I could ---- buy ---- borrow it. 31. He has no love ---- veneration for his superiors. 32. There was no place so hidden ---- so remote ---- the plague did not find it. 33. We need not, ---- do not, complain of our lot. 34. He could not deny ---- he had borrowed money. 35. There is no question ---- the universe has bounds. 36. A corrupt government is nothing else ---- a reigning sin. 37. She thinks, I regret to say, of little else ---- clothes. 38. O fairest flower, no sooner blown ---- blasted. 39. There is no other hat here ---- mine. 40. ---- you have come, I will go with you. 41. ---- Virgil was the better artist, Homer was the greater genius. 42. He has not decided ---- he will let me go to college. 43. Sheep are white ---- black. 44. The King has no arbitrary power; your Lordships have not ---- the Commons; ---- the whole Legislature. 45. No tie of gratitude ---- of honor could bind him. 46. She had no sooner arrived ---- she prepared to go boating. 47. Scarcely had she left the house ---- she returned. 48. He was punished, ---- he was guilty. 49. He was punished, ---- he was not guilty. 50. We cannot go ---- we finish our task. 51. ---- the rain came down in torrents, we started for the lake. 52. She could ---- dance ---- sing, ---- she played the piano. 53. I do not know ---- I shall walk ---- ride. 54. Hardly had he left the room ---- the prisoner attempted to escape. 55. The chances are ten to one ---- he will forget it. 56. Stand up so ---- you can be seen. OMITTED CONJUNCTIONS.--Careless writers sometimes omit conjunctions that are necessary either to the grammar or to the sense. A common form of this fault is illustrated in "This is as good if not better than that"--a sentence in which "as" is omitted after "as good." The best way to correct the sentence is to recast it, thus: "This is as good as that, if not better." EXERCISE LXXXVIII. _Correct the faults in these sentences:_-- 1. Ralph is as young or younger than Harry. 2. Cedar is more durable but not so hard as oak. 3. I never heard any one speak more fluently or so wittily as he. 4. She is fairer but not so amiable as her sister. 5. Though not so old, he is wiser than his brother. REDUNDANT CONJUNCTIONS.--[148] Careless writers sometimes insert conjunctions that are useless or worse than useless. A common form of this fault is the use in certain cases of "and" or "but" before the words "who," "which," "when," or "where," which are themselves connectives: as, "The challenge was accepted by Orlando, a young man little known up to that time, _but_ to _whom_ Rosalind had taken a great liking." If the relative clause introduced by "who," "which," "when," or "where" is to be joined to a preceding relative clause, the conjunction is proper: as, "The challenge was accepted by Orlando, a young man _who_ was little known at that time, _but_ to whom Rosalind had taken a great liking." [148] See "Foundations," pp. 208-211. EXERCISE LXXXIX. _Which conjunctions in these sentences are redundant_?-- 1. I have again been so fortunate as to obtain the assistance of Dr. Jones, a teacher of great experience, and whose ideas are quite in harmony with my own. 2. Franklin had noticed for some time the extreme dirtiness of the streets, and especially of the street that he lived on. 3. This animal was considered as irresistible. 4. But how to get him there was a problem. But it was decided to convey him on one of the wagons used in carrying the Emperor's men-of-war from the woods, where they were made, to the water. 5. He forgot to pay for the wine--a shortness of memory common with such men, and which his host did not presume to correct. 6. Next came Louis, Duke of Orleans, the first prince of the blood royal, and to whom the attendants rendered homage as the future king. 7. So from all this you can see that such things are not impossible. 8. Her expression of countenance induced most persons to address her with a deference inconsistent with her station, and which nevertheless she received with easy composure. 9. Our escort consisted of MacGregor, and five or six of the handsomest, best armed, and most athletic mountaineers of his band, and whom he had generally in immediate attendance upon his own person. 10. The little town of Lambtos, Mrs. Gardiner's former home, and where she had lately learned that some acquaintance still remained. 11. He spoke in a deep and low tone, but which nevertheless was heard from one end of the hall to the other. MISPLACED CORRELATIVES.--When conjunctions are used as correlatives, as "both-and," "either-or," each of the correlated words should be so placed as to indicate clearly what ideas are to be connected in thought. This principle is violated in "He _not only_ visited Paris, _but_ Berlin _also._" In this sentence the position of "not only" before the verb "visited" leads one to expect some corresponding verb in the second part of the sentence; in fact, however, the two connected words are "Paris" and "Berlin;" "visited" applies to both. This meaning is clearly indicated by putting "not only" before "Paris:" thus, "He visited _not only_ Paris, _but_ Berlin _also_." As a rule the word after the first correlative should be the same part of speech as the word after the second correlative. EXERCISE XC. _Correct the errors of position in_-- 1. Few complaints were made either by the men or the women. 2. Search-lights are not useful only on ships, but also on land. 3. Adversity both teaches to think and to be patient. 4. My uncle gave me not only the boat, but also taught me to row it. 5. The prisoner was not only accused of robbery, but of treason. 6. The wise ruler does not aim at the punishment of offenders, but at the prevention of offences. 7. The king was weak both in body and mind. 8. He either is stupid or insolent. 9. He worked not to provide for the future, but the present. 10. Every composition is liable to criticism both in regard to its design and to its execution. 11. The gods are either angry or nature is too powerful. 12. We are neither acquainted with the Doctor nor with his family. 13. In estimating the work of Luther, we must neither forget the temper of the man nor the age in which he lived. 14. The wise teacher should not aim to repress, but to encourage his pupils. 15. Such rules are useless both for teachers and pupils. 16. Her success is neither the result of cleverness nor of studiousness. APPENDIX SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS The following suggestions are made in answer to many inquiries from teachers who perceive the rare excellence of the "Foundations of Rhetoric," but who do not clearly see, because of the novel method of the book, how to turn its merits to account in their class-rooms. The suggestions outline one way in which the book has been used to great advantage. It should never be forgotten that the illustrative sentences in the "Foundations" have no value except as they help the student to grasp a principle that he can apply in his own use of language. In every case the emphasis should be laid on the principle which is announced or illustrated. Merely learning the corrected sentences by heart is useless and should not be permitted. In taking a class over PART I., which treats of words, it is the writer's practice to assign a short lesson--from one to three pages--in connection with every recitation in English. The leading ideas and most typical sentences in each lesson are privately marked in the teacher's book with colored pencil, so that they may readily catch his eye, and from five to twelve minutes of each recitation period are taken up with a rapid questioning on these leading ideas and typical sentences. Corrections or answers unaccompanied by reasons are not accepted. Attention is always fixed, not on the form of the illustrative sentence, but on the principle of usage under discussion. Pupils would rather commit to memory the sentences than trouble themselves about reasons; but they will master reasons when they find they must. After principles have been mastered, exercises in the choice of forms and words are needed in order that knowledge may be converted into habit. In PARTS II. and III. the lessons are equally short and the emphasis is unceasingly laid on the question "Why?" If the subject is difficult, it is desirable, at the time that the lesson is assigned, to lead the class over the text and some of the illustrative sentences in order to open, as it were, the eyes of the pupils. Since these parts of the book treat not of single words, but of sentences and paragraphs, recitations on them seem to call for the use of pencil or chalk. One successful teacher conducts the recitation with books open, requiring her pupils to cover the correct sentences with a strip of paper while they explain and correct the faults in the incorrect sentences. The writer's practice is to paste the faulty sentences on cards of convenient size and thickness--the arrangement of columns is such that the sentences can all be cut from _one_ old book--and to distribute them among eight or ten pupils at the beginning of the recitation hour. While other matters are being attended to, these pupils write the sentences in correct form on the blackboard, and, when the time comes, give their reasons for the changes which they have made. Their work is discussed, if necessary, by the whole class. Reviews and written tests should be frequent. As fast as the various principles explained and illustrated in PARTS II. and III. are studied, the attention of pupils should be immediately turned to their own writing. It will be far more profitable for them to correct their own offences against clearness, force, ease, and unity than to correct similar offences committed by others. For this reason the PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH contains no exercises on the subjects discussed in PARTS II. and III. of the "Foundations." INDEX _A, an_, or _the_, 12. _Abbot_, feminine corresponding to, 21. Abbreviations, 22. _Ability, capacity_, distinguished, 29. _Abundance, plenty_, distinguished, 32. _Accept, except_, distinguished, 99. _Acceptance, acceptation_, distinguished, 25. _Access, accession_, distinguished, 25. _Accredit, credit_, distinguished, 92. _Actor_, feminine corresponding to, 21. _Acts, actions_, distinguished, 25. _Adherence, adhesion_, distinguished, 29. ADJECTIVES, 109-133; defined, 109; vulgarisms in the use of, 109-113; singular and plural, 110; adjective or adverb, 113-116; redundant, 117-118; misused, 119-129; use of the comparative and superlative degrees, 129-131; adjectives incapable of comparison, 131-132; misplaced, 132-133. _Admit, confess_, distinguished, 95. _Advance, advancement_, distinguished, 25. ADVERBS, 109-133; defined,109; vulgarisms in the use of, 109-113; adverb or adjective, 113-116; redundant, 117-118; misused, 119-129; use of the comparative and superlative degrees, 129-131; adverbs incapable of comparison, 131-132; misplaced, 132-133; between _to_ and the infinitive, 133. _Advise_ distinguished from _advertise_, 99; from _persuade_, 100. _Affect, effect_, distinguished, 99. _Affirm, claim, maintain_, distinguished, 94-95. _Afraid, scared_, distinguished, 124. _Aggravating, irritating_, distinguished, 119. _Ain't_, 71. Alienisms, defined, 10. _Alight, light_, distinguished, 62. _All_ distinguished from _the whole_, 23; from _each_, 56; after comparatives, 129. _Allege, affirm, assert_, etc., distinguished, 94. _Alleviate, relieve_, distinguished, 99. _Allow, admit, think_, distinguished, 99. _Allude_ to, _refer_ to, _mention_, distinguished, 99. _Allusion, illusion, delusion_, distinguished, 25. _Almost, most_, distinguished, 109. _Alone, only_, distinguished, 116. _Alumnus, alumna_, plural of, 20. Americanisms, defined, 10. _Among, between_, distinguished, 134. _Amount, quantity, number_, distinguished, 29. _Analysis_, plural of, 20. _And_, 143. Anglicisms, defined, 10. _Angry, mad_, distinguished, 123. _Antagonize, oppose_, distinguished, 94. _Anticipate, expect, suspect_, distinguished, 101. _Any_, with comparatives and superlatives, 129. _Any one_, number of, 58; distinguished from _either_, 55-56. _Apparently, evidently, manifestly_, distinguished, 122. _Appear, materialize_, distinguished, 95. _Apt, likely, liable_, distinguished, 119. Archaic, defined, 10. _Aren't_, 71. _Argue, augur_, distinguished, 99. _Argument, plea_, distinguished, 29. _Arise, rise_, distinguished, 92. ARTICLES, 12-15; meaning of, 12; generic, 12; superfluous and omitted, 13. _As_, clause after, often omitted in part, 45 note 2; a relative pronoun, 54; distinguished from _that_ after _same_, 54; from so when correlative with as, 119-120; from _like_, 142. _As if_ preferred to _as though_, 144. _As well as_, words joined to the subject by, 89. _Ask, demand_, distinguished, 95. _Assert, allege, declare_, etc., distinguished, 94-95. _Assertion, statement_, distinguished, 23. _At, in_, before names of places, distinguished, 134. _Augur, argue_, distinguished, 99. Auxiliary verbs, defined, 72. _Average, ordinary_, distinguished, 122. _Avocation, vocation_, distinguished, 25. _Awake_, principal parts of, 61. _Awful_, 124. _Bachelor_, feminine corresponding to, 21. _Back of_, 134. _Bacterium_, plural of, 20. _Balance, rest, remainder_, distinguished, 29. Barbarism, defined, 10. _Barge_, for _omnibus_, 4. _Beau_, plural of, 21. _Because, for, since_, distinguished, 143. _Began, begun_, distinguished, 61. _Begin_, principal parts of, 61; distinguished from _commence, start_, 100-101. _Beseech_, principal parts of, 61. _Beside, besides_, distinguished, 134. _Between, among_, distinguished, 134. BIBLE, quoted, 3. _Bid_, principal parts of, 61. _Blow_, principal parts of, 61. _Bound, determined_, distinguished, 122. _Both, each, every_, distinguished, 119. _Break_, principal parts of, 61. _Bring, fetch, carry_, distinguished, 94. _Broke, broken_, distinguished, 61. _Buck_, feminine corresponding to, 21. _Bullock_, feminine corresponding to, 21. _Burglarize_, 10. _Burst_, principal parts of, 61. _But_, 143. _By, with_, distinguished, 134. _Calculate, intend_, distinguished, 94. _Can_ or _may_, 71. _Can't_, 71. _Canto_, plural of, 18. _Capacity, ability_, distinguished, 29. _Captivate, capture_, distinguished, 92. _Carry, fetch, bring_, distinguished, 94. Case, possessive, of nouns, 17; of pronouns, 43; nominative or objective, 43-50. _Centre, middle_, distinguished, 30. CENTURY DICTIONARY, quoted, 25, 26, 32, 54, 92, 99, 116. _Champion, support_, distinguished, 94. Change of pronoun, 56-58. _Character, reputation_, distinguished, 30. CHAUCER, quoted, 72. _Cherub_, plural of, 21. _Choose_, principal parts of, 61. _Claim, assert, allege_, etc., distinguished, 94-95. COLERIDGE, S.T., quoted, 143. Colloquialisms, defined, 10. _Come_, principal parts of, 61. _Commence, begin, start_, distinguished, 100-101. _Common, mutual_, distinguished, 119. _Compare with, compare to, contrast_, distinguished, 99. Comparative and superlative, use of the, 129-131. Comparison, adjectives and adverbs incapable of, 131-132. _Complement, compliment_, distinguished, 30. _Completion, completeness_, distinguished, 26. Compound nouns, possessive of, 16; plural of, 18. Conditional mood, 85; sentences, 85-86. _Confess, admit_, distinguished, 95. CONJUNCTIONS, 142-149; vulgarisms in the use of, 142--143; misused, 143-146; omitted, 146.; redundant, 146-148; misplaced correlatives, 148-149. _Conscience, consciousness_, distinguished, 30. _Construe, construct_, distinguished, 99. _Continual, continuous_, distinguished, 122. Contractions, 43, 71. _Contrast, compare to, compare with_, distinguished, 99. Conversation and good use, 7. _Convince, convict_, distinguished, 99. _Could_, distinguished from _might_, 71-72; tense of the infinitive with, 79. _Council, counsel_, distinguished, 30. _Countess_, masculine corresponding to, 21. _Credit, accredit_, distinguished, 92. _Crisis_, plural of, 21. _Curriculum_, plural of, 21. _Custom, habit_, distinguished, 30. _Czar_, feminine corresponding to, 21. _Daresn't_, 71. _Datum_, plural of, 21. _Deadly, deathly_, distinguished, 122. _Deception, deceit_, distinguished, 30. _Declare, assert, claim_, etc., distinguished, 94-95. _Decided, decisive_, distinguished, 122. _Delusion, illusion, allusion_, distinguished, 25. _Demand, ask_, distinguished, 95. Dependent clauses, _will_ or _shall_ in, 73; tenses in, 78. _Depreciate, deprecate_, distinguished, 92-93. _Detect, discriminate_, distinguished,99. _Determined, bound_, distinguished, 122. Dictionaries, usefulness of, 9; quoted, see CENTURY and MURRAY. _Die_ (noun), plurals of, 19. _Different from, different to_, 134. _Disclose, discover_, distinguished, 99. _Discover, invent_, distinguished, 31. _Discriminate, detect_, distinguished, 99. _Dive_, principal parts of, 61. _Do_, principal parts of, 61. _Doe_, masculine corresponding to, 21. _Doesn't_, 71. _Dominate, domineer_, distinguished, 99. _Don't_, 71. _Drake_, feminine corresponding to, 21. _Drank, drunk_, distinguished, 62. _Drive_, principal parts of, 61; distinguished from _ride_, 99. _Duck_, masculine corresponding to, 21. _Duke_, feminine corresponding to, 21. _Dumb, stupid_, distinguished, 122. _Duodecimo_, plural of, 18. _Each_, distinguished from _all_, 56; from _every and both_, 119; number of, 58, 89. _Earl_, feminine corresponding to, 21. EARLE, JOHN, quoted, 82. _Eat_, principal parts of, 61. _Effect, affect_, distinguished, 99. _Egoists, egotists; egoism, egotism_, distinguished, 30. _Either_, distinguished from _any one,_ 55-56; number of, 58, 89. _Either_--_or_, number of the verb with singular subjects connected by, 89. _Electrocute_, 10. _Elegant_, 124. _Elicit, eliminate_, distinguished, 100. EMERSON, R.W., quoted, 124. _Emigration, immigration_, distinguished, 30. _Eminent, prominent_, distinguished, 123. _Enormity, enormousness_, distinguished, 30. _Enthuse_, 10. _Esteem, estimate, estimation_, distinguished, nouns, 30; verbs, 100. _Every_, number of, 58, 89; distinguished from _each_ and _both_, 119. _Everywheres_, 110. _Evidently, apparently, manifestly_, distinguished, 122. _Ewe_, masculine corresponding to, 21. _Except, accept_, distinguished, 99. _Except, without, unless_, distinguished, 142. _Existing, extant_, distinguished, 122. _Expect, suspect, anticipate_, distinguished, 101. _Expose, expound_, distinguished, 100. _Extant, existing_, distinguished, 122. _Falsity, falseness_, distinguished, 31. _Fetch, bring, carry_, distinguished, 94. _Fewer, less, smaller_, distinguished, 109. Figures, plural of, 19. _Find, locate_, distinguished, 100. _Fish_, plurals of, 19. _Flee_, principal parts of, 61. _Fled, flew, flown_, distinguished, 61. _Fly_, principal parts of, 61. _For, because, since_, distinguished, 143-144. _For, on_, after _wait_, distinguished, 135. Foreign origin, plural of nouns of, 20-21. Foreignisms, defined, 10. _Forget_, principal parts of, 61. FOUNDATIONS OF RHETORIC, A.S. Hill's, 9; quoted, 6, 17, 54, 67, 61, 62, 113, 119, 133, 134, 135, 136, 143, 144. _Frances, Francis_, distinguished, 21. _Freeze_, principal parts of, 61. _Frighten_, 100. _Froze, frozen_, distinguished, 61. _Funny, odd_, distinguished, 122. Gallicisms, defined, 10. _Gander_, feminine corresponding to, 21. Gender, nouns of different, 21. _Genius_, plural of, 21. _Genus_, plural of, 21. Gerunds, 50-51. _Get_, principal parts of, 61. _Go_, principal parts of, 61. Good reading, the foundation of good writing and speaking, 8. GOOD USE, 3-11; defined, 6; conversation and, 7; newspapers and, 7; not to be learned from any one book or writer, 7; to be learned from good reading, 8; and from dictionaries, 9; and from books like the "Foundations of Rhetoric," 9. _Good, well_, distinguished, 109. _Goose_, masculine corresponding to, 21. _Gorgeous_, 124. _Gotten_ for _got_, 61. _Grand_, 124. _Gums_ for _overshoes_, 4. _Habit, custom_, distinguished, 30. _Halo_, plural of, 18. _Hang_, principal parts of, 61. _Happen, transpire_, distinguished, 96. _Hart_, feminine of, 21. _He, him, himself_, proper choice among, 43-45. _He, his, him_, for mankind in general, 58. _Healthy, healthful, wholesome_, distinguished, 122-123. _Heifer_, masculine corresponding to, 21. _Her, herself, she_, proper choice among, 43-45. _Hero_, feminine corresponding to, 21. HILL, A.S., quoted, 6, 8, 17, 25, 26, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 54, 61, 62, 74, 89, 92, 95, 99, 100, 113, 119, 122, 123, 133, 134, 135, 140, 143, 144. _Him, his_, before verbal nouns, 61. _Him, himself, he_, proper choice among, 43-45. _Hind_, masculine corresponding to, 21. _Hire, let, lease_, distinguished, 95. _His, him_, before verbal nouns, 51. _Home_, distinguished from _house_, 23; preposition before, 140. _How_, 144. _Human, humane_, distinguished, 123. _Hung, hanged_, distinguished, 61. _Hypothesis_, plural of, 21. _I, me, myself_, proper choice among, 43-45. _Identity, identification_, distinguished, 31. _Illusion, allusion, delusion_, distinguished, 25. _Illy_, 110. _Immigration, emigration_, distinguished, 30. _Import, importance_, distinguished, 81. Improprieties, defined, 10. _Impugn, impute_, distinguished, 93. _In, at, into, on_, distinguished, 134-135. _In addition to_, words joined to the subject by, 89. _Index_, plurals of, 19. Indicative, use of the perfect, 78; indicative or subjunctive, 82-89. Infinitive, tenses of the, 78-79; adverbs between _to_ and the, 133. _Inquire, investigate_, distinguished, 100. _Insure, secure_, distinguished, 100. _Intend, calculate_, distinguished, 94. _Invent, discover_, distinguished, 31. _Investigate, inquire_, distinguished, 100. _It, its_, before verbal nouns, 51. _Junto_, plural of, 18. _Laid, lay, lain_, distinguished, 61-62. _Lasso_, plural of, 18. _Last, latest_, distinguished, 123. _Lay, lie, laid, lain_, distinguished, 61-62. _Learn, teach_, distinguished, 95. _Lease, let, hire_, distinguished, 95. _Leave, let_, distinguished, 100. _Lend, loan_, distinguished, 93. _Lengthy, long_, distinguished, 123. _Less, fewer, smaller_, distinguished, 109. _Lesser_, 110. _Let, leave_, distinguished, 100. _Let, lease, hire_, distinguished, 95. Letters, plural of, 19. _Liable, likely, apt_, distinguished, 119. _Lie, lay_, distinguished, 61-62; principal parts of, 62. _Light, alight_, distinguished, 62. _Light-complected_, 110. _Lighted, lit_, distinguished, 62. _Like, as_, distinguished, 142. _Like, likely, probably_, distinguished, 109. _Like, love_, distinguished, 95. _Likely, liable, apt_, distinguished, 119. _Limit, limitation_, distinguished, 31. _Lion_, feminine of, 21. _Loan, lend_, distinguished, 93. _Locate, find_, distinguished, 100. _Long, lengthy_, distinguished, 123. _Lot, number_, distinguished, 31. _Love, like_, distinguished, 95. _Lovely_, 124. _Mad, angry_, distinguished, 128. _Magnificent_, 124. _Manifestly, evidently, apparently_, distinguished, 122. _Maintain, assert, allege_, etc., distinguished, 94-95. _Majority, plurality_, distinguished, 31. _Man after man_, number of, 58. _Many, much_, distinguished, 119. _Many a_, number of, 89. _Marquis_, feminine of, 21. _Materialize, appear_, distinguished, 95. _May, can_, distinguished, 71. _Me, myself, I_, proper choice among, 43-45. _Me, my_, before verbal nouns, 51. _Memento_, plural of, 18. _Mention, refer_ to, _allude_ to, distinguished, 99. _Middle, centre_, distinguished, 30. _Might_, distinguished from _could_, 71; tense of the infinitive with, 79. Misplaced adjectives and adverbs, 132-133; correlatives, 148-149. Misused nouns, 22-42; verbs, 92-108; adjectives and adverbs, 119-129; prepositions, 134-139; conjunctions, 143-146. _Monk_, feminine corresponding to, 21. _Most, almost_, distinguished, 109. _Much, many_, distinguished, 119. _Muchly_, 110. MURRAY'S DICTIONARY, quoted, 54, 94, 101, 119. _Must_, tense of the infinitive with, 78-79. _Mutual, common_, distinguished, 119. _My, me_, before verbal nouns, 51, 52. _Myself, me, I_, proper choice among, 43-45. National use, 4-6. _Near, nearly_, distinguished, 109. _Need_, tense of the infinitive with, 78-79. _Negligence, neglect_, distinguished, 31. _Neither_, number of, 58, 89; distinguished from _no one_, 55-66. _Neither_--_nor_, number of the verb with singular subjects joined by, 89. _New, novel_, distinguished, 123. Newspapers and good use, 7. _Nobody_, number of, 58. Nominative or objective, 43-50. _No one, neither_, choice between,55-56. _Nor, or_, choice between, 144. Notional verbs, defined, 72. Nouns, 16-42; form of the possessive case, 16-17; use and misuse of the possessive case, 17-18; singular and plural, 18-21; plural forms of foreign origin, 20; gender, 21; abbreviations, 22; misused, 22-42; gerunds and verbal nouns, 50-51. _Novel, new_, distinguished, 123. _Novice, novitiate_, distinguished, 31. _Nowhere near_, 110. Number, singular and plural, of nouns, 18-21; of pronouns, 58-60; of verbs, 89-92; of adjectives, 110. _Number_, distinguished from _quantity_ and _amount_, 29; from _lot_, 81. _Number, quantity, amount_, distinguished, 29. _Nun_, masculine corresponding to, 21. _Oasis_, plural of, 21. Objective case, 43-50. _Observance, observation_, distinguished, 26. Obsolete, defined, 4, _Octavo_, plural of, 18. _Odd, funny_, distinguished, 122. _Of_ after verbal nouns, 51. _Of which, whose_, choice between, 54. Omitted articles, 13; pronouns, 60; adverbs, 117; prepositions, 140; conjunctions, 146. _On, in_, before names of streets, distinguished, 135. _On, for_, after _wait_, distinguished, 135. _One_, possessive and reflexive of, 56-57. _Only_, distinguished from _alone_, 116; position of, 132. _Onto_, 135. _Oppose, antagonize_, distinguished, 94. _Or, nor_, use of, 144. _Oral, verbal_, distinguished, 123. _Ordinary, average_, distinguished, 122. _Organism_, organization, distinguished, 31. _Other_, with comparatives and superlatives, 129. _Ought_, tense of the infinitive with, 78-79. _Our, us_, before verbal nouns, 51. _Ourselves, we, us_, proper choice among, 43-46. _Parenthesis_, plural of, 21. _Part, portion_, distinguished, 31. Participle, defined, 50. _Partly, partially_, distinguished, 119. Parts of verbs, principal, 61-62. _Party, person_, distinguished, 23. _Penny_, plurals of, 19. Perfect indicative, 78; infinitive, 78-79. Person, change from one to another in pronouns, 56-57. _Person, party_, distinguished, 23. _Persuade, advise_, distinguished, 100. _Phenomenon_, plural of, 21. _Piano_, plural of, 18. _Pitiable, pitiful_, distinguished, 123. _Plea, argument_, distinguished, 29. _Plead_, principal parts of, 62. _Plenty_, distinguished from _abundance_, 32; as adjective and adverb, 109-110. Plural of nouns, 18-21; of pronouns, 58-60; of verbs, 89-92; of adjectives, 110. _Plurality, majority_, distinguished, 31. _Portion, part_, distinguished, 31. Possessive case, of nouns, 16; of pronouns, 43. _Practicable, practical_, distinguished, 123. _Predicate, predict_, distinguished, 100. _Predominance, prominence_, distinguished, 32. PREPOSITIONS, 134-141; misused, 134-139; omitted, 140; redundant, 140. _Prescribe, proscribe_, distinguished, 100. Present use, 3-4. Principal parts of verbs, 61-62. _Probably, likely, like_, distinguished, 109. _Produce, product, production_, distinguished, 32. _Prominence, predominance_, distinguished, 32. _Prominent, eminent_, distinguished, 123. PRONOUNS, 43--60; possessive case of, 43, 56; in "self," 44-45; before verbal nouns, 50-61; choice of relative, 53-55; omission of, 53-54; change of, 56-57; singular or plural, 58; omitted, 60; redundant, 60. Proper nouns, plural of, 18; 19 note 3. _Proposal, proposition_, distinguished, 26. _Propose, purpose_, distinguished, 100. _Proscribe, prescribe_, distinguished, 100. _Prove_, principal parts of, 62. Provincialisms, defined, 10. _Proviso_, plural of, 18. Punctuation of relative clauses, 53. _Purpose, propose_, distinguished, 100. _Quantity, number, amount_, distinguished, 29. _Quarto_, plural of, 18. _Quite, very_, distinguished, 119. _Raise_, principal parts of, 62; distinguished from _rise_, 62. _Ram_, feminine corresponding to, 21. _Rang, rung_, distinguished, 62. _Real, really, very_, distinguished, 124. _Receipt, recipe_, distinguished, 32. _Recourse, resource, resort_, distinguished, 32. Redundant articles, 13; pronouns, 60; adjectives and adverbs, 117; prepositions, 140; conjunctions, 146-147. _Refer_ to, _allude_ to, _mention_, distinguished, 99. Reflexive pronouns, 45, 57. _Relation, relationship_, distinguished, 26. _Relative, relation_, distinguished, 32. Relative pronouns, 53-54. _Relieve, alleviate_, distinguished, 99. _Remainder, rest, balance_, distinguished, 29. _Repel, repulse_, distinguished, 100. Reputable use, 6. _Reputation, character_, distinguished, 30. _Requirement, requisite, requisition_, distinguished, 32. _Resort, resource, recourse_, distinguished, 32. _Rest, remainder, balance_, distinguished, 29. _Ride_, principal parts of, 62; distinguished from _drive_, 4, 99. _Rise_, principal parts of, 62; distinguished from _raise_, 62; from _arise_, 92. _Run_, principal parts of, 62. _Same as, same that_, distinguished, 64. _Sang, sung_, distinguished, 62. _Sank, sunk_, distinguished, 62. _Sat, set, sit_, 62. _Scared, afraid_, distinguished, 124. _Second, secondly_, distinguished, 110. _Secreting, secretion_, distinguished, 32. _Secure, insure_, distinguished, 100. _See_, principal parts of, 62. _Self_, pronouns in, 44-45, 57. Sequence of tenses, 78. _Seraph_, plural of, 21. _Series, succession_, distinguished, 23. _Set_, principal parts of, 62; distinguished from _sit_, 62. _Sewage, sewerage_, distinguished, 32. _Shake_, principal parts of, 62. _Shall or will_, 72-77. _She, her, herself_, proper choice among, 43-45. _Shoe_, principal parts of, 62. _Shot_, plurals of, 19. _Should_ distinguished from _would_, 74, 77; in sense of ought, tense of the infinitive with, 78-79. _Show_, principal parts of, 62. _Shrank, shrunk_, distinguished, 62. _Since, for, because_, distinguished, 143. Singular and plural, nouns, 18-21; pronouns, 58-60; verbs, 89, 92; adjectives, 110. _Sit_, principal parts of, 62; distinguished from _set_ and _sat_, 62. _Situation, site_, distinguished, 32. Slang, defined, 10. _Slay_, principal parts of, 62. _Slew, Slain_, distinguished, 62. _Smaller, fewer Jess_, distinguished, 109. _So_ or _as_, correlative to as, 119-120. _So, therefore_, distinguished, 144. Solecisms, defined, 10. _Solicitude, solicitation_, distinguished, 26. _Solo_, plural of, 18. _Some, somewhat, something_, distinguished, 110. SONNENSCHEIN, PROFESSOR, quoted, 83. _Speak_, principal parts of, 62. _Speciality, specialty_, distinguished, 33. _Splendid_, 124. _Spoke, spoken_, distinguished, 62. _Sprang, sprung_, distinguished, 62. _Staff_, plurals of, 19. _Staff_, feminine corresponding to, 21. _Start, begin, commence_, distinguished, 100-101. _State, declare, assert_, etc., distinguished, 94-95. _Statement, assertion_, distinguished, 23. _Stay, stop_, distinguished, 95, _Steal_, principal parts of, 62. _Stiletto_, plural of, 18. _Stimulant, stimulation, stimulus_, distinguished, 26. _Stole, stolen_, distinguished, 62. _Stop, stay_, distinguished, 95. _Stratum_, plural of, 21. _Stupid, dumb_, distinguished, 122. Subjunctive, 82-89; forms of, 83-84; uses of, 84-86; in conditional sentences, 85-86; in wishes, 86. _Succession, scries_, distinguished, 23. Suggestions to teachers, 151. _Sultan_, feminine of, 21. Superfluous articles, 13; pronouns, 60; adjectives and adverbs, 117-118; prepositions, 140; conjunctions, 146-147. _Superlative_, use of the, 129-131. _Support, champion_, distinguished, 94. _Suspect, expect, anticipate_, distinguished, 101. _Swam, swum_, distinguished, 62. Symbols, plural of, 19. _Tableau_, plural of, 21. _Take_, principal parts of, 62. _Teach, learn_, distinguished, 95. Teachers, suggestions to, 151-152. Tense, questions of, 78-82; in conditional sentences, 85; in wishes, 86. _Testimony, verdict_, distinguished, 23. _Than_, clause after, often omitted in part, 45 note 2. _That_ distinguished from as after _same_, 54. _That, those_, 110. _That, who, which_, as relatives, 53-54. _The_ or a, 12. _The_ before verbal nouns, 51. _Thee, thyself, thou_, proper choice among, 43-45. _Their, them_, before verbal nouns, 51. _Them, themselves, they_, proper choice among, 43-45. _Therefore, so_, choice between, 144. _These, this_, 110. _Thesis_, plural of, 21. _They, them, themselves_, proper choice among, 43-45. _This, these_, 110. _Those, that_, 110. _Thou, thee, thyself_, proper choice among, 43-45. _Though_, 144; verbs in clauses introduced by, 86. _Throw_, principal parts of, 62. _Thyself, thee, thou_, proper choice among, 43-45. _Tiger_, feminine of, 21. _Together with_, words joined to the subject by, 89. _Torso_, plural of, 18. _Transpire, happen_, distinguished, 96. _Tyro_, plural of, 18. _Unbeknown_, 110. _Union, unity_, distinguished, 33. _Unless_, verbs in clauses introduced by, 86; distinguished from _without_ and _except_, 142. _Us_ or _our_ before verbal nouns, 51. _Us, ourselves, we_, pro per choice among, 43-45. USE 3-11; defined, 6; conversation and, 7; newspapers and, 7; no one book or writer decisive of, 7-8; relation of dictionaries to, 9. Use, present, 3-4; national, 4-6; reputable, 6. Verbal nouns, construction with, 50-51. _Verbal, oral_, distinguished, 123. VERBS, 61-108; principal parts often misused, 61-70; contractions, 71; _may or can_, 71; _will or shall_, 72-76; notional and auxiliary, defined, 72; _would_ or _should_, 74-77; questions of tense, 78-82; indicative or subjunctive, 82-89; singular or plural, 89-92; misused, 92-108. _Verdict, testimony_, distinguished, 23. _Very_, distinguished from _quite_, 119; from _real, really_, 124. _Visitor, visitant_, 33. _Vocation, avocation_, distinguished, 25-26. Vulgarisms, defined, 10; in the use of adjectives and adverbs, 109-113; of conjunctions, 142-143. _Wait for, wait on_, distinguished, 135. _Wake_, principal parts of, 62. _We, us, ourselves_, proper choice among, 43-45. _Well, good_, distinguished, 109. WENDELL, BARRETT, quoted, 7-8. _Went, gone_, distinguished, 61. _What_ as a relative pronoun, 54. _When, while_, distinguished, 144. _Which, who, that_ (relative), proper choice among, 53-55. _Who, whom_, choice between, 43-45. _Who, which, that_ (relative), proper choice among, 53-55. _Whoever, whomever_, choice between, 45. _Whole, all_, distinguished, 23. _Wholesome, healthy, healthful_, distinguished, 122-123. _Whose, of which_, choice between, 54. _Will_ or _shall_, 72-76. Wishes, moods and tenses in, 86. _Witch_, masculine corresponding to, 21. _With_, words joined to the subject by, 89; distinguished from _by_, 134. _Without, except, unless_, distinguished 142. _Wizard_, feminine corresponding to 21. _Would_ or _should_, 74-77. _Write_, principal parts of, 62. THE END 
13910	----	[Transcribers note: subscripts in the text are represented by _{X} markup] A BOOK OF EXPOSITION EDITED BY HOMER HEATH NUGENT LAFLIN INSTRUCTOR IN ENGLISH AT THE RENSSELAER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE 1922 PREFACE It is a pleasure to acknowledge indebtedness to my wife for assistance in editing and to Dr. Ray Palmer Baker, Head of the Department of English at the Institute, for suggestions and advice without which this collection would hardly have been made. CONTENTS INTRODUCTION THE EXPOSITION OF A MECHANISM THE LEVERS OR THE HUMAN BODY. SIR ARTHUR KEITH THE EXPOSITION OF A MACHINE THE MERGENTHALER LINOTYPE. PHILIP T. DODGE THE EXPOSITION OF A PROCESS IN NATURE THE PEA WEEVIL. JEAN HENRI FABRE. Translated by Bernard Miall THE EXPOSITION OF A MANUFACTURING PROCESS MODERN PAPER-MAKING. J. W. BUTLER PAPER COMPANY THE EXPOSITION OF AN IDEA THE GOSPEL OF RELAXATION. WILLIAM JAMES SCIENCE AND RELIGION. CHARLES PROTEUS STEINMETZ BIOGRAPHICAL AND CRITICAL NOTES INTRODUCTION The articles here presented are modern and unhackneyed. Selected primarily as models for teaching the methods of exposition employed in the explanation of mechanisms, processes, and ideas, they are nevertheless sufficiently representative of certain tendencies in science to be of intrinsic value. Indeed, each author is a recognized authority. Another feature is worthy of mention. Although the material covers so wide a field--anatomy, zoölogy, physics, psychology, and applied science--that the collection will appeal to instructors in every type of college and technical school, the selections are related in such a way as to produce an impression of unity. This relation is apparent between the first selection, which deals with the student's body, and the third, which deals with another organism in nature. The second and fourth selections deal with kindred aspects of modern industry--the manufacture of paper and the Linotype machine, by which it is used. The fifth selection is a protest against certain developments of the industrial regime; the last, an attempt to reconcile the spirit of science with that of religion. While monotony has been avoided, the essays form a distinct unit. In most cases, selections are longer than usual, long enough in fact to introduce a student to each field. As a result, he can be made to feel that every subject is of importance and to realize that every chapter contains a fund of valuable information. Instead of confusing him by having him read twenty selections in, let us say, six weeks, it is possible by assigning but six in the same period, to impress him definitely with each. The text-book machinery has been sequestered in the Biographical and Critical Notes at the end of the book. Their character and position are intended to permit instructors freedom of treatment. Some may wish to test a student's ability in the use of reference books by having him report on allusions. Some may wish to explain these themselves. A few may find my experience helpful. For them suggestions are included in the Critical Notes. In general, I have assumed that instructors will prefer their own methods and have tried to leave them unhampered. THE EXPOSITION OF A MECHANISM THE LEVERS OF THE HUMAN BODY[1] _Sir Arthur Keith_ In all the foregoing chapters we have been considering only the muscular engines of the human machine, counting them over and comparing their construction and their mechanism with those of the internal-combustion engine of a motor cycle. But of the levers or crank-pins through which muscular engines exert their power we have said nothing hitherto. Nor shall we get any help by now spending time on the levers of a motor cycle. We have already confessed that they are arranged in a way which is quite different from that which we find in the human machine. In the motor cycle all the levers are of that complex kind which are called wheels, and the joints at which these levers work are also circular, for the joints of a motor cycle are the surfaces between the axle and the bushes, which have to be kept constantly oiled. No, we freely admit that the systems of levers in the human machine are quite unlike those of a motor cycle. They are more simple, and it is easy to find in our bodies examples of all the three orders of levers. The joints at which bony levers meet and move on each other are very different from those we find in motor cycles. Indeed, I must confess they are not nearly so simple. And, lastly, I must not forget to mention another difference. These levers we are going to study are living--at least, are so densely inhabited by myriads of minute bone builders that we must speak of them as living. I want to lay emphasis on that fact because I did not insist enough on the living nature of muscular engines. [Illustration: Fig. 1.--Showing a chisel 10 inches long used as a lever of the first order.] We are all well acquainted with levers. We apply them every day. A box arrives with its lid nailed down; we take a chisel, use it as a lever, pry the lid open, and see no marvel in what we have done (Fig. 1). And yet we thereby did with ease what would have been impossible for us even if we had put out the whole of our unaided strength. The use of levers is an old discovery; more than 1500 years before Christ, Englishmen, living on Salisbury Plain, applied the invention when they raised the great stones at Stonehenge and at Avebury; more than 2000 years earlier still, Egyptians employed it in raising the pyramids. Even at that time men had made great progress; they were already reaping the rewards of discoveries and inventions. But none, I am sure, surprised them more than the discovery of the lever; by its use one man could exert the strength of a hundred men. They soon observed that levers could be used in three different ways. The instance already given, the prying open of a lid by using a chisel as a lever, is an example of one way (Fig. 1); it is then used as a lever of the first order. Now in the first order, one end of the lever is applied to the point of resistance, which in the case just mentioned was the lid of the box. At the other end we apply our strength, force, or power. The edge of the box against which the chisel is worked serves as a fulcrum and lies between the handle where the power is applied and the bevelled edge which moves the resistance or weight. A pair of ordinary weighing scales also exemplifies the first order of levers. The knife edge on which the beam is balanced serves as a fulcrum; it is placed exactly in the middle of the beam, which we shall suppose to be 10 inches long. If we place a 1-lb. weight in one scale to represent the resistance to be overcome, the weight will be lifted the moment that a pound of sugar has been placed in the opposite scale--the sugar thus representing the power. If, however, we move the knife-edge or fulcrum so that it is only 1 inch from the sugar end of the beam and 9 inches from the weight end, then we find that we have to pour in 9 lb. of sugar to equalise the 1-lb. weight. The chisel used in prying open the box lid was 10 inches long; it was pushed under the lid for a distance of 1 inch, leaving 9 inches for use as a power lever. By using a lever in this way, we increased our strength ninefold. The longer we make the power arm, the nearer we push the fulcrum towards the weight or resistance end, the greater becomes our power. This we shall find is a discovery which Nature made use of many millions of years ago in fashioning the body of man and of beast. When we apply our force to the long end of a lever, we increase our power. We may also apply it, as Nature has done in our bodies, for another purpose. We have just noted that if the weight end of the beam of a pair of scales is nine times the length of the sugar end, that a 1-lb. weight will counterpoise 9 lb. of sugar. We also see that the weight scale moves at nine times the speed of the sugar scale. Now it often happens that Nature wants to increase, not the power, but the speed with which a load is lifted. In that case the "sugar scale" is placed at the long end of the beam and the "weight scale" at the short end; it then takes a 9-lb. weight to raise a single pound of sugar, but the sugar scale moves with nine times the speed of the weight scale. Nature often sacrifices power to obtain speed. The arm is used as a lever of this kind when a cricket ball is thrown. Nothing could look less like a pair of scales than a man's head or skull, and yet when we watch how it is poised and the manner in which it is moved, we find that it, too, acts as a lever of the first order. The fulcrum on which it moves is the atlas--the first vertebra of the spine (Fig. 2). When a man stands quite erect, with the head well thrown back, the ear passages are almost directly over the fulcrum. It will be convenient to call that part of the head which is behind the ear passages the _post-fulcral,_ and the part which is in front the _pre-fulcral._ Now the face is attached to the pre-fulcral part of the lever and represents the weight or load to be moved, while the muscles of the neck, which represent the power, are yoked to the post-fulcral end of the lever. The hinder part of the head serves as a crank-pin for seven pairs of neck muscles, but in Fig. 2 only the chief pair is drawn, known as the _complex_ muscles. When that pair is set in action, the post-fulcral end of the head lever is tilted downwards, while the pre-fulcral end, on which the face is set, is turned upwards. [Illustration: Fig. 2.--The skull as a lever of the first order.] The complex muscles thus tilt the head backwards and the face upwards, but where are the muscles which serve as their opponents or antagonists and reverse the movement? In a previous chapter it has been shown that every muscle has to work against an opponent or antagonist muscle. Here we seem to come across a defect in the human machine, for the _greater straight_ muscles in the front of the neck, which serve as opposing muscles, are not only much smaller but at a further disadvantage by being yoked to the pre-fulcral end of the lever, very close to the cup on which the head rocks. However, if the _greater straight_ muscles lose power by working on a very short lever, they gain, in speed; we set them quickly and easily into action when we give a nod of recognition. All the strength or power is yoked to the post-fulcral end of the head; the pre-fulcral end of its lever is poorly guarded. Japanese wrestlers know this fact very well, and seek to gain victory by pressing up the poorly guarded pre-fulcral lever of the head, thus producing a deadly lock at the fulcral joint. Indeed, it will be found that those who use the jiu-jitsu method of fighting have discovered a great deal about the construction and weaknesses of the levers of the human body. Merely to poise the head on the atlas may seem to you as easy a matter as balancing the beam of a pair of scales on an upright support. I am now going to show that a great number of difficulties had to be overcome before our heads could be safely poised on our necks. The head had to be balanced in such a way that through the pivot or joint on which it rests a safe passageway could be secured for one of the most delicate and most important of all the parts or structures of the human machine. We have never found a good English name for this structure, so we use its clumsy Latin one--_Medulla oblongata_--or medulla for short. In the medulla are placed offices or centres which regulate the vital operations carried on by the heart and by the lungs. It has also to serve as a passageway for thousands of delicate gossamer-like nerve fibres passing from the brain, which fills the whole chamber of the skull, to the spinal cord, situated in the canal of the backbone. By means of these delicate fibres the brain dispatches messages which control the muscular engines of the limbs and trunk. Through it, too, ascend countless fibres along which messages pass from the limbs and trunk to the brain. In creating a movable joint for the head, then, a safe passage had to be obtained for the medulla--that part of the great nerve stem which joins the brain to the spinal cord. The medulla is part of the brain stem. This was only one of the difficulties which had to be overcome. The eyes are set on the pre-fulcral lever of the head. For our safety we must be able to look in all directions--over this shoulder or that. We must also be able to turn our heads so that our ears may discover in which direction a sound is reaching us. In fashioning a fulcral joint for the head, then, two different objects had to be secured: free mobility for the head, and a safe transit for the medullary part of the brain stem. How well these objects have been attained is known to all of us, for we can move our heads in the freest manner and suffer no damage whatsoever. Indeed, so strong and perfect is the joint that damage to it is one of the most uncommon accidents of life. Let us see, then, how this triumph in engineering has been secured. In her inventive moods Nature always hits on the simplest plan possible. In this case she adopted a ball-and-socket joint--the kind by which older astronomers mounted their telescopes. By such a joint the telescope becomes, just as the head is, a lever of the first order. The eyeglass is placed at one end of the lever, while the object-glass, which can be swept across the face of the heavens, is placed at the other or more distant end. In the human body the first vertebra of the backbone--the atlas--is trimmed to form a socket, while an adjacent part of the base of the skull is shaped to play the part of ball. The kind of joint to be used having been hit upon, the next point was to secure a safe passage for the brain stem. That, too, was worked out in the simplest fashion. The central parts of both ball and socket were cut away, or, to state the matter more exactly, were never formed. Thus a passage was obtained right through the centre of the fulcral joint of the head. The centre of the joint was selected because when a lever is set in motion the part at the fulcrum moves least, and the medulla, being placed at that point, is least exposed to disturbance when we bend our heads backwards, forwards, or from side to side. When we examine the base of the skull, all that we see of the ball of the joint are two knuckles of bone (Fig. 3, A), covered by smooth slippery cartilage or gristle, to which anatomists give the name of occipital condyles. If we were to try to complete the ball, of which they form a part, we should close up the great opening--the _foramen magnum_--which provides a passageway for the brain stem on its way to the spinal canal. All that is to be seen of the socket or cup is two hollows on the upper surface of the atlas into which the occipital condyles fit (Fig. 3, B). Merely two parts of the brim of the cup have been preserved to provide a socket for the condyles or ball. [Illustration: Fig. 3.--A, The opening in the base of the skull, by which the brain stem passes to the spinal canal. The two occipital condyles represent part of the ball which fits into the cup formed by the atlas. B, The parts of the socket on the ring of the atlas.] As we bend our heads, the occipital condyles revolve or glide on the sockets of the atlas. But what will happen if we roll our heads backwards to such an extent that the bony edge of the opening in the base of the skull is made to press hard against the brain stem and crush it? That, of course, would mean instant death. Such an accident has been made impossible (1) by making the opening in the base of the skull so much larger than the brain stem that in extreme movements there can be no scissors-like action; (2) the muscles which move the head on the atlas arrest all movements long before the danger-point is reached; (3) even if the muscles are caught off their guard, as they sometimes are, certain strong ligaments--fastenings of tough fibres--are so set as automatically to jam the joint before the edge of the foramen can come in contact with the brain stem. These are only some of the devices which Nature had to contrive in order to secure a safe passageway for the brain stem. But in obtaining safety for the brain stem, the movements of the head on the atlas had to be limited to mere nodding or side-to-side bending. The movements which are so necessary to us, that of turning our heads so that we can sweep our eyes along the whole stretch of the skyline from right to left, and from left to right, were rendered impossible. This defect was also overcome in a simple manner. The joints between the first and second vertebrae--the atlas and axis--were so modified that a turning movement could take place between them instead of between the atlas and skull. When we turn or rotate our heads, the atlas, carrying the skull upon it, swings or turns on the axis. When we search for the manner in which this has been accomplished, we see again that Nature has made use of the simplest means at her disposal. When we examine a vertebra in the course of construction within an unborn animal, we see that it is really made up by the union of four parts (see Fig. 4): a central block which becomes the "body" or supporting part; a right and a left arch which enclose a passage for the spinal cord; and, lastly, a fourth part in front of the central block which becomes big and strong only in the first vertebra--the atlas. When we look at the atlas (Fig. 4), we see that it is merely a ring made up of three of the parts--the right and left arches and the fourth element,--but the body is missing. A glance at Fig. 4, B, will show what has become of the body of the atlas. It has been joined to the central block of the second vertebra--the axis--and projects upwards within the front part of the ring of the atlas, and thus forms a pivot round which rotatory movements of the head can take place. Here we have in the atlas an approach to the formation of a wheel--a wheel which has its axle or pivot placed at some distance from its centre, and therefore a complete revolution of the atlas is impossible. A battery of small muscles is attached to the lateral levers of the atlas and can swing it freely, and the head which it carries, a certain number of degrees to both right and left. The extent of the movements is limited by stout check ligaments. Thus, by the simple expedient of allowing the body of the atlas to be stolen by the axis, a pivot was obtained round which the head could be turned on a horizontal plane. [Illustration: Fig. 4.--A, The original parts of the first or atlas vertebra. B, Showing the "body" of the first vertebra fixed to the second, thus forming the pivot on which the head turns.] Nature thus set up a double joint for the movements of the head, one between the atlas and axis for rotatory movements, another between the atlas and skull for nodding and side-to-side movements. And all these she increased by giving flexibility to the whole length of the neck. Makers of modern telescopes have imitated the method Nature invented when fixing the human head to the spine. Their instruments are mounted with a double joint--one for movements in a horizontal plane, the other for movements in a vertical plane. We thus see that the young engineer, as well as the student of medicine, can learn something from the construction of the human body. In low forms of vertebrate animals like the fish and frog, the head is joined directly to the body, there being no neck. No matter what part of the human body we examine, we shall find that its mechanical work is performed by means of bony levers. Having seen how the head is moved as a lever of the first order, we are now to choose a part which will show us the plan on which levers of the second order work, and there are many reasons why we should select the foot. It is a part which we are all familiar with; every day we can see it at rest and in action. The foot, as we have already noted, serves as a lever in walking. It is a bent or arched lever (Fig. 6); when we stand on one foot, the whole weight of our body rests on the summit of the arch. We are thus going to deal with a lever of a complex kind. [Illustration: Fig. 5.--Showing a chisel used as a lever of the second order.] In using a chisel to pry open the lid of a box, we may use it as a lever either of the first or of the second order. We have already seen (Fig. 1) that, in using it as a lever of the first order, we pushed the handle downwards, while the bevelled end was raised, forcing open the lid. The edge of the box served as a rest or fulcrum for the chisel. If, however, after inserting the bevelled edge under the lid, we raise the handle instead of depressing it, we change the chisel into a lever of the second order. The lid is not now forced up on the bevelled edge, but is raised on the side of the chisel, some distance from the bevelled edge, which thus comes to represent the fulcrum. By using a chisel in this way, we reverse the positions of the weight and fulcrum and turn it into a lever of the second order. Suppose we push the side of the chisel--which is 10 inches long--under the lid to the extent of 1 inch, then the advantage we gain in power is as 1 to 10; we thereby increase our strength tenfold. If we push the chisel under the lid for half its length, then our advantage stands as 10 to 5; our strength is only doubled. If we push it still further for two-thirds of its length, then our gain in strength is only as 10 to 6.6; our power is increased by only one-third. Now this has an important bearing on the problem we are going to investigate, for the weight of our body falls on the foot, so that only about one-third of the lever--that part of it which is formed by the heel--projects behind the point on which the weight of the body rests. The strength of the muscles which act on the heel will be increased only by about one-third. We have already seen that a double engine, made up of the _gastrocnemius_ and _soleus_, is the power which is applied to the heel when we walk, and that the pad of the foot, lying across the sole in line with the ball of the great toe, serves as a fulcrum or rest. The weight of the body falls on the foot between the fulcrum in front and the power behind, as in a lever of the second order. We have explained why the power of the muscles of the calf is increased the more the weight of the body is shifted towards the toes, but it is also evident that the speed and the extent to which the body is lifted are diminished. If, however, the weight be shifted more towards the heel, the muscles of the calf, although losing in power, can lift their load more quickly and to a greater extent. We must look closely at the foot lever if we are to understand it. It is arched or bent; the front pillar of the arch stretches from the summit or keystone, where the weight of the body is poised, to the pad of the foot or fulcrum (Fig. 6); the posterior pillar, projecting as the heel, extends from the summit to the point at which the muscular power is applied. A foot with a short anterior pillar and a long posterior pillar or heel is one designed for power, not speed. It is one which will serve a hill-climber well or a heavy, corpulent man. The opposite kind, one with a short heel and a long pillar in front, is well adapted for running and sprinting--for speed. Now, we do find among the various races of mankind that some have been given long heels, such as the dark-skinned natives of Africa and of Australia, while other races have been given relatively short, stumpy heels, of which sort the natives of Europe and of China may be cited as examples. With long heels less powerful muscular engines are required, and hence in dark races the calf of the leg is but ill developed, because the muscles which move the heel are small. We must admit, however, that the gait of dark-skinned races is usually easy and graceful. We Europeans, on the other hand, having short heels, need more powerful muscles to move them, and hence our calves are usually well developed, but our gait is apt to be jerky. [Illustration: Fig. 6.--The bones forming the arch of the foot, seen from the inner side.] If we had the power to make our heels longer or shorter at will, we should be able, as is the case in a motor cycle, to alter our "speed-gear" according to the needs of the road. With a steep hill in front of us, we should adopt a long, slow, powerful heel; while going down an incline a short one would best suit our needs. With its four-change speed-gear a motor cycle seems better adapted for easy and economical travelling than the human machine. If, however, the human machine has no change of gear, it has one very marvellous mechanism--which we may call a _compensatory_ mechanism, for want of a short, easy name. The more we walk, the more we go hill-climbing, the more powerful do the muscular engines of the heel become. It is quite different with the engine of a motor cycle; the more it is used, the more does it become worn out. It is because a muscular engine is living that it can respond to work by growing stronger and quicker. I have no wish to extol the human machine unduly, nor to run down the motor cycle because of certain defects. There is one defect, however, which is inherent in all motor machines which man has invented, but from which the human machine is almost completely free. We can illustrate the defect best by comparing the movements of the heel with those of the crank-pin of an engine. One serves as the lever by which the gastrocnemius helps to propel the body; the other serves the same purpose in the propulsion of a motor cycle. On referring to Fig. 7, A, the reader will see that the piston-rod and the crank-pin are in a straight line; in such a position the engine is powerless to move the crank-pin until the flywheel is started, thus setting the crank-pin in motion. Once started, the leverage increases, until the crank-pin stands at right angles to the piston-rod--a point of maximum power which is reached when the piston is in the position shown in Fig. 7, B. Then the leverage decreases until the second dead centre is reached (Fig. 7, C); from that point the leverage is increased until the second maximum is reached (Fig. 7, D), whereafter it decreases until the arrival at the first position completes the cycle. Thus, in each revolution there are two points where all leverage or power is lost, points which are surmounted because of the momentum given by the flywheel. Clearly we should get most out of an engine if it could be kept working near the points of maximum leverage--with the lever as nearly as possible at right angles to the crank-pin. [Illustration: Fig. 7.--Showing the crank-pin of an engine at: A, First dead centre. B, First maximum leverage. C, Second dead centre. D, Second maximum leverage.] Now, we have seen that the tendon of Achilles is the piston cord, and the heel the crank-pin, of the muscular engine represented by the gastrocnemius and soleus. In the standing posture the heel slopes downwards and backwards, and is thus in a position, as regards its piston cord, considerably beyond the point of maximum leverage. As the heel is lifted by the muscles, it gradually becomes horizontal and at right angles to its tendon or piston cord. As the heel rises, then, it becomes a more effective lever; the muscles gain in power. The more the foot is arched, the more obliquely is the heel set and the greater is the strength needed to start it moving. Hence, races like the European and Mongolian, which have short as well as steeply set heels, need large calf muscles. It is at the end of the upward stroke that the heel becomes most effective as a lever, and it is just then that we most need power to propel our bodies in a forward direction. It will be noted that the heel, unlike the crank-pin of an engine, never reaches, never even approaches, that point of powerlessness known to engineers as a dead centre. Work is always performed within the limits of the most effective working radius of the lever. It is a law for all the levers of the body; they are set and moved in such a way as to avoid the occurrence of dead centres. Think what our condition would have been were this not so; why, we should require revolving fly-wheels set in all our joints! [Illustration: Fig. 8.--The arch of the foot from the inner side, showing some of the muscles which maintain it.] Another property is essential in a lever: it must be rigid; otherwise it will bend, and power will be lost. Now, if the foot were a rigid lever, there would be missing two of its most useful qualities. It could no longer act as a spring or buffer to the body, nor could it adapt its sole to the various kinds of surfaces on which we have to tread or stand. Nature, with her usual ingenuity, has succeeded in combining those opposing qualities--rigidity, suppleness, and elasticity or springiness--by resorting to her favorite device, the use of muscular engines. The arch is necessarily constructed of a number of bones which can move on each other to a certain extent, so that the foot may adapt itself to all kinds of roads and paths. It is true that the bones of the arch are loosely bound together by passive ties or ligaments, but as these cannot be lengthened or shortened at will, Nature had to fall back on the use of muscular engines for the maintenance of the foot as an arched lever. Some of these are shown in Fig. 8. The foot, then, is a lever of a very remarkable kind; all the time we stand or walk, its rigidity, its power to serve as a lever, has to be maintained by an elaborate battery of muscular engines all kept constantly at work. No wonder our feet and legs become tired when we have to stand a great deal. Some of these engines, the larger ones, are kept in the leg, but their tendons or piston cords descend below the ankle-joint to be fixed to various parts of the arch, and thus help to keep it up (Fig. 8). Within the sole of the foot has been placed an installation of seventeen small engines, all of them springing into action when we stand up, thus helping to maintain the foot as a rigid yet flexible lever. We have already seen why our muscles are so easily exhausted when we stand stock-still; they then get no rest at all. Now, it sometimes happens in people who have to stand for long periods at a stretch that these muscular engines which maintain the arch are overtaxed; the arch of the foot gives way. The foot becomes flat and flexible, and can no longer serve as a lever. Many men and women thus become permanently crippled; they cannot step off their toes, but must shuffle along on the inner sides of their feet. But if the case of the overworked muscles which maintain the arch is hard in grown-up people, it is even harder in boys and girls who have to stand quite still for a long time, or who have to carry such burdens as are beyond their strength. When we are young, the bony levers and muscular engines of our feet have not only their daily work to do, but they have continually to effect those wonderful alterations which we call growth. Hence, the muscular engines of young people need special care; they must be given plenty of work to do, but that kind of active action which gives them alternate strokes of work and rest. Even the engine of a motor cycle has three strokes of play for one of work. Our engines, too, must have a liberal supply of the right kind of fuel. But even with all those precautions, we have to confess that the muscular engines of the foot do sometimes break down, and the leverage of the foot becomes threatened. Nor have we succeeded in finding out why they are so liable to break down in some boys and girls and not in others. Some day we shall discover this too. We are now to look at another part of the human machine so that we may study a lever of the third order. The lever formed by the forearm and hand will suit our purpose very well. It is pivoted or jointed at the elbow; the elbow is its fulcrum (Fig. 9 B). At the opposite end of the lever, in the, upturned palm of the hand, we shall place a weight of 1 lb. to represent the load to be moved. The power which we are to yoke to the lever is a strong muscular engine we have not mentioned before, called the _brachialis anticus_, or front brachial muscle. It lies in the upper arm, where it is fixed to the bone of that part--the humerus. It is attached to one of the bones of the forearm--the ulna--just beyond the elbow. In the second order of lever, we have seen that the muscle worked on one end, while the weight rested on the lever somewhere between the muscular attachment and the fulcrum. In levers of the third order, the load is placed at the end of the lever, and the muscle is attached somewhere between the load and the fulcrum (Fig. 9 A). In the example we are considering, the brachial muscle is attached about half an inch beyond the fulcrum at the elbow, while the total length of the lever, measured from the elbow to the palm, is 12 inches. Now, it is very evident that the muscle or power being attached so close to the elbow, works under a great disadvantage as regards strength. It could lift a 24-lb. weight placed on the forearm directly over its attachment as easily as a single pound weight placed on the palm. But, then, there is this advantage: the 1-lb. weight placed in the hand moves with twenty-four times the speed of the 24-lb. weight situated near the elbow. What is lost in strength is gained in speed. Whenever Nature wishes to move a light load quickly, she employs levers of the third order. [Illustration: Fig. 9A.--A chisel used as a lever of the third order. W, weight; P, power; F, fulcrum.] We have often to move our forearm very quickly, sometimes to save our lives. The difference of one-hundredth of a second may mean life or death to us on the face of a cliff when we clutch at a branch or jutting rock to save a fall. The quickness of a blow we give or fend depends on the length of our reach. A long forearm and hand are ill adapted for lifting heavy burdens; strength is sacrificed if they are too long. Hence, we find that the laboring peoples of the world--Europeans and Mongolians--have usually short forearms and hands, while the peoples who live on such bounties as Nature may provide for them have relatively long forearms and hands. [Illustration: Fig. 9B.--The forearm and hand as a lever of the third order.] Now, man differs from anthropoid apes, which are distant cousins of his, in having a forearm which is considerably shorter than the upper arm; whereas in anthropoid apes the forearm is much the longer. That fact surprises us at first, especially when we remember that anthropoids spend most of their lives amongst trees and use their arms much more than their legs in swinging the weight of their heavy bodies from branch to branch and from tree to tree. A long forearm and hand give them a long and quick reach, so that they can seize distant branches and swing themselves along safely and at a good pace. Our first thought is to suppose that a long forearm, being a weak lever, will be ill adapted for climbing. But when you look at Fig. 10, the explanation becomes plain. When a branch is seized by the hand, and the whole weight of the body is supported from it, the entire machinery of the arm changes its action. The forearm is no longer the lever which the brachial muscle moves (Fig. 10), but now becomes the base from which it acts. The part which was its piston cord now serves as its base of fixation, and what was its base of fixation to the humerus becomes its piston cord. The humerus has become a lever of the third order; its fulcrum is at the elbow; the weight of the body is attached to it at the shoulder and represents the load which has to be lifted. We also notice that the brachial muscle is attached a long way up the humerus, thus increasing its power very greatly, although the rate at which it helps in lifting the body is diminished. We can see, then, why the humerus is short and the forearm long in anthropoid apes; shortening the humerus makes it more powerful as a lever for lifting the body. That is why anthropoids are strong and agile tree-climbers. But then watch them use those long hands and forearms for the varied and precise movements we have to perform in our daily lives, and you will see how clumsy they are. [Illustration: Fig. 10.--Showing the action of the brachialis anticus in the arm of an anthropoid ape.] In the human machine the levers of the arm have been fashioned, not for climbing, but for work of another kind--the kind which brings us a livelihood. We must have perfect control over our hands; the longer the lever of the forearm is made, the more difficult does control of the hand become. Hence, in the human machine the forearm is made relatively short and the upper arm long. We have just seen that the brachial muscle could at one time move the forearm and hand, but that when they are fixed it could then use the humerus as a lever and thereby lift the weight of the body. What should we think of a metal engine which could reverse its action so that it could act through its piston-rod at one time and through its cylinder at another? Yet that is what a great number of the muscular engines of the human machine do every day. There is another little point, but an important one, which I must mention before this chapter is finished. I have spoken of the forearm and hand as if they formed a single solid lever. Of course that is not so; there are joints at the wrist where the hand can be moved on the forearm. But when a weight is placed in the hand, these joints became fixed by the action of muscles. The fixing muscles are placed in the forearm, both in front and behind, and are set in action the moment the hand is loaded. The wrist joint is fixed just in the same way as the joints of the foot are made rigid by muscles when it has to serve as a lever. Even when we take a pen in our hand and write, these engines which balance and fix the wrist have to be in action all the time. The steadiness of our writing depends on how delicately they are balanced. Like the muscles of the foot, the fixers of the wrist may become overworked and exhausted, as occasionally happens in men and women who do not hold their pens correctly and write for long spells day after day. The break-down which happens in them is called "writer's cramp," but it is a disaster of the same kind as that which overtakes the foot when its arch collapses, and its utility as a lever is lost. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 1: From _The Engines of the Human Body_, Chapters VI and VII. J.B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia, 1920; Williams and Norgate, London, 1920.] THE EXPOSITION OF A MACHINE THE MERGENTHALER LINOTYPE[2] _Philip T. Dodge_ The Mergenthaler Linotype machine appeared in crude form about 1886. This machine differs widely from all others in that it is adapted to produce the type-faces for each line properly justified on the edge of a solid slug or linotype. These slugs, automatically produced and assembled by the machine, are used in the same manner as other type-forms, whether for direct printing or for electrotyping, and are remelted after use. GENERAL ORGANIZATION The general organization of the machine will first be described. After this the details will be more fully explained and attention plainly directed to the various parts which require special consideration. [Illustration: Fig. 1.] The machine contains, as the vital element, about sixteen hundred matrices, such as are shown in Fig. 1, each consisting of a small brass plate having in one edge the female character or matrix proper, and in the upper end a series of teeth, used as hereinafter explained for distributing the matrices after use to their proper places in the magazine of the machine. There are in the machine a number of matrices for each letter and also matrices representing special characters, and spaces or quadrats of different thicknesses for use in table-work. There is a series of finger keys representing the various characters and spaces, and the machine is so organized that on manipulating the keys it selects the matrices in the order in which their characters are to appear in print, and assembles them in a line, with wedge-shaped spaces or justifiers between the words. The series of matrices thus assembled in line forms a line matrix, or, in other words, a line of female dies adapted to mold or form a line of raised type on a slug cast against the matrices. After the matrix line is composed, it is automatically transferred to the face of a slotted mold into which molten type-metal is delivered to form a slug or linotype against the matrices. This done, the matrices are returned to the magazine and distributed, to be again composed in new relations for succeeding lines. [Illustration: Fig. 2.] Fig. 2 illustrates the general organization of the machine. _A_ represents an inclined channelled magazine in which the matrices are stored. Each channel has at the lower end an escapement _B_ to release the matrices one at a time. Each of these escapements is connected by a rod _C_ and intermediate devices to one of the finger-keys in the keyboard _D_. These keys represent the various characters as in a typewriter. The keys are depressed in the order in which the characters and spaces are to appear, and the matricies, released successively from the lower end of the magazine, descend between the guides _E_ to the surface of an inclined travelling belt _F_, by which they are carried downward and delivered successively into a channel in the upper part of the assembling elevator _G_, in which they are advanced by a star-shaped wheel, seen at the right. The wedge-shaped spaces or justifiers _I_ are held in a magazine _H_, from which they are delivered at proper intervals by finger-key _J_ in the keyboard, so that they may pass downward and assume their proper positions in the line of matrices. When the composition of the line is completed, the assembling elevator _G_ is raised and the line is transferred, as indicated by dotted lines, first to the left and then downward to the casting position in front of the slotted mold seated in and extending through the vertical wheel _K_, as shown in Figs. 2 and 3. The line of matrices is pressed against and closes the front of the mold, the characters on the matrices standing directly opposite the slot in the mold, as shown. The back of the mold communicates with and is closed by the mouth of a melting-pot _M_, containing a supply of molten metal and heated by a Bunsen burner underneath. Within the pot is a vertical pump-plunger which acts at the proper time to drive the molten metal through the perforated mouth of the pot into the mold and into all the characters in the matrices. The metal, solidifying, forms a slug or linotype bearing on its edge, in relief, type-characters produced from the matrices. The matrices and the pot are immediately separated from the mold, and the mold wheel rotates until the slug contained in the mold is presented in front of an ejector blade, where the slug is ejected from the mold through a pair of knives, which trim the sides to the required size, into the receiving galley, as shown in Fig. 4. [Illustration: Fig. 3.] [Illustration: Fig. 4.] After the line of matrices and spaces has served its purpose, it is raised from the casting position and moved to the right, as shown by the dotted lines and arrows in Fig. 2. The teeth in the upper ends of the matrices are engaged with a toothed bar _R_, known as the second elevator. This elevator swings upward, as shown by dotted lines, carrying the matrices to the level of the upper end of the magazine, and leaving the spaces or justifiers behind to be transferred to their magazine _H_. The distributing mechanism consists essentially of a fixed bar _T_, lying in a horizontal position above the upper end of the magazine, and having along its lower edge, as shown in Fig. 2, horizontal teeth to engage the teeth in the upper end of the matrices and hold them in suspension. The teeth of the matrix for each letter differ in number or arrangement, or both, from the teeth of matrices bearing other letters, and the teeth on the lower edge of the distributor bar are correspondingly varied in arrangement at different points in the length of the bar. (See Fig. 2.) The matrices are moved forward into engagement with the distributor bar and also into engagement with the threads of horizontal screws _U_, which are extended parallel with the distributor bar and constantly rotated so that they cause the matrices to travel one after another along the distributor and over the mouths of the channels in the magazines. Each matrix is held in suspension until it arrives over its proper channel, where for the first time its teeth bear such relation to those of the bar that it is released and permitted to fall into the magazine. The speed of the machine, which is commonly from four to five thousand ems per hour, but which has reached ten thousand and upward in competitive trials, is due to the fact that the matrices pursue a circulatory course, leaving the magazine at the lower end, passing thence to the line and to the casting mechanism, and finally returning to the top of the magazine. This permits the composition of one line, the casting of another, and the distribution of a third to proceed simultaneously. ASSEMBLING AND KEYBOARD MECHANISMS The matrices pass through the magazine by gravity. Their release is effected by mechanisms shown in Figs. 5 and 6, which are vertical sections through the magazine, the keyboard, and intermediate connections. Under each channel of the magazine, there is an escapement _B_, consisting of a small lever rocking at its centre on a horizontal pivot, and carrying at its opposite ends two dogs or pawls _b, b_, which are projected up alternately into the magazine by the motion of the lever. The key-rod _C_, suspended from the rear end of the escapement _B_, tends to hold the lower pawl _b_ in an elevated position, as shown in Fig. 5, so that it engages under the upper ear of the foremost matrix to prevent its escape. [Illustration: Fig. 5.] When the escapement _B_ is rocked, it withdraws the lower pawl _b_, as shown in Fig. 6, at the same time raising the upper pawl, so that it engages and momentarily arrests the next matrix. As soon as the first matrix has escaped, the escapement resumes its original position, the upper pawl falling, while the lower one rises so as to hold the second matrix, which assumes the position previously occupied by the one released. [Illustration: Fig. 6.] Thus it is that the alternate rising and falling of the two escapement pawls permits the matrices to escape one at a time. It is evident that the escapements could be operated directly by rods connected with the finger-keys, but this direct connection is objectionable because of the labor required on the part of the operator, and the danger that the keys may not be fully depressed. Moreover, it is essential that the escapements should act individually with moderate speed to the end that the matrices may be properly engaged and disengaged by the pawls. For these reasons, and to secure easy and uniform action of the parts, the mechanism shown in Figs. 5 and 6 is introduced between the finger-keys and escapements. The vertical rods _C_, which actuate the escapements, are guided in the main frame, and each is urged downward by a spring _c_. Each rod _C_ terminates directly over one end of a rising and falling yoke-bar _c2_, turning on a pivot _c3_ at the opposite end. Each of the yokes _c2_ is slotted vertically to admit an eccentric _c4_ turning on a pivot therein. A constantly rotating rubber-covered roll _c5_ is extended across the entire keyboard beneath the cams, which stand normally as shown in Fig. 5, out of contact with the roll. When the parts are in this position, the cam-yoke is sustained at its free end by the yoke-trigger _c8_, and a cross-bar in the cam engages a vertical pin _c7_ on the frame, whereby the cam is prevented from falling on to the roller, as it has a tendency to do. Each of the yoke-triggers _c6_ is connected with a vertical bar _c8_, which is in turn connected to the rear end of a finger-key lever _D_. The parts stand normally at rest in the position shown in Fig. 5, the roll _c5_ turning freely under the cam without effect upon it. When the finger-key is depressed, it raises the bar _c8_, which in turn trips the yoke-trigger _c6_ from under the cam-yoke _c2_, permitting the latter to fall, thereby lowering the cam _c4_ into peripheral engagement with the rubber roll, at the same time disengaging the cam from the stop-pin _c7_. The roll, engaging frictionally with the cam, causes the latter to turn on its centre in the direction indicated by the arrow in Fig. 6. Owing to the eccentric shape of the cam, its rotation while resting on the roller causes it to lift the yoke _c2_ above its original position, so that it acts upon the escapement rod _C_, lifting it and causing it to reverse the position of the escapement _B_, to release the matrix, as plainly seen in Fig. 6. While this is taking place, the yoke-trigger _c6_ resumes its first position, as shown in dotted lines in Fig. 6, so that as the rotating cam lowers the yoke, it is again supported in its first position, the cam at the same time turning forward by momentum out of engagement with the roll until arrested in its original position by the pin _c7_. It will be observed that the parts between each key lever and escapement operate independently of the others, so that a number of cams may be in engagement with the rollers at one time, and a number of escapements at different stages of their action at one time. The matrices falling from the magazine descend through the front channels and are received on the inclined belt _F_, on which they are carried over and guided on the upper rounding surface of the assembler entrance-block _f1_, by which they are guided downward in front of the star-wheel _f2_, which pushes them forward one after another. The spaces or justifiers _I_, released from their magazine _H_, as heretofore described, descend into the assembler _G_ in front of the star-wheel in the same manner as the matrices. The line in course of composition is sustained at its front end by a yielding finger or resistant _g_, secured to a horizontal assembler slide _g2_, the purpose of these parts being to hold the line together in compact form. [Illustration: Fig. 7.] As the matrices approach the line, their upper ends are carried over a spring _g3_, projecting through the assembler face-plate from the rear, as shown in Fig. 7, its purpose being to hold the matrices forward and prevent them from falling back in such a manner that succeeding matrices and spaces or justifiers will pass improperly ahead of them. The descending matrices also pass beneath a long depending spring _g4_, which should be so adjusted as barely to permit the passage of the thickest matrix. [Illustration: Fig. 8.] [Illustration: Fig. 9.] After the composition of the line is completed in the assembling elevator _G_, as shown in Fig. 8, the elevator is raised as shown in Fig. 9, so as to present the line between the depending fingers of the transfer-carriage _N_, which then moves to the left to the position shown by dotted lines in Fig. 9, thereby bringing the line into the first elevator _O_, which then descends, carrying the line of matrices downwards, as shown in Fig. 10, to its position in front of the mold and between the confining jaws _P_, _P_, mounted in the main frame, which determine the length of the line. Figs. 11 and 12 show the casting mechanism in vertical section from front to rear. When the first elevator _O_ lowers the line, as just described, the mold and the pot _M_ stand in their rearward positions, as shown in Fig. 11. [Illustration: Fig. 10.] [Illustration: Fig. 11.] The mold-carrying wheel is sustained by a horizontal slide, and as soon as the matrix line is lowered to the casting position, a cam at the rear pushes the slide and mold wheel forward until the front face of the mold is closed tightly against the rear face of the matrix line, as shown in Fig. 12. [Illustration: Fig. 12.] While this is taking place, the pot, having its supporting legs mounted on a horizontal shaft, swings forward until its mouth is closed tightly against the back of the mold, as shown in Fig. 12. While the parts are in this position, the justifying bar _Q_ is driven up and pushes the spaces or justifiers upward through the line of matrices until the line is expanded or elongated to fill completely the gap between jaws _P_, _P_. In order to secure exact alignment of the matrices vertically and horizontally, the bar _Q_ acts repeatedly on the spaces, and the line is slightly unlocked endwise and relocked. This is done that the matrices may be temporarily released to facilitate the accurate adjustment demanded. While the justified line is locked fast between the jaws, the elevator, and the mold, the plunger _m2_ in the pot descends and drives the molten metal before it through the spout or mouth of the pot into the mold, which is filled under pressure, so that a solid slug is produced against the matrices. The pot then retreats, and its mouth breaks away from the back of the slug in the mold, while, at the same time, the mold retreats to draw the type-characters on the contained slug out of the matrices. The mold wheel now revolves, carrying the rear edge of the slug past a stationary trimming-knife, not shown, and around to the position in front of the ejector, as previously described and shown in Fig. 4, whereupon the ejector advances and drives the slug between two side trimming-knives into the galley at the front. DISTRIBUTION After the casting action the first elevator _O_ rises and carries the matrix line above the original or composing level, as shown in Fig. 13. The line is then drawn horizontally to the right until the teeth of the matrices engage the toothed elevator bar _R_, which swings upward with the matrices, thus separating the matrices from the spaces or justifiers _I_, which remain suspended in the frame, so that they may be pushed to the right, as indicated by the arrow, into their magazine. [Illustration: Fig. 13.] [Illustration: Fig. 14.] When the line of matrices is raised to the distributor, it is necessary that the matrices shall be separated and presented one at a time to the distributor bar, between the threads of the horizontal carrier-screws. This is accomplished as shown in Figs. 14 and 15. A horizontal pusher or line-shifter _S_ carries the line of matrices forward from the elevator bar _R_ into the so-called distributor box, containing at its opposite sides two rails _u_, having near their forward ends shoulders _u2_, against which the forward matrix abuts so as to prevent further advance of the line, which is urged constantly forward by the follower or line-shifter _S_. A vertically reciprocating lifting finger _V_ has its upper end shouldered to engage beneath the foremost matrix, so as to push it upward until its upper ears are lifted above the detaining shoulder _u2_, so that they may ride forward on the upwardly inclined inner ends of the rails, as shown in Fig. 14. The matrices thus lifted are engaged by the screws and carried forward, and, as they move forward, they are gradually raised by the rails until the teeth finally engage themselves on the distributor bar _T_, from which they are suspended as they are carried forward, over the mouth of the magazine, until they fall into their respective channels, as shown in Fig. 15. The distributor box also contains on opposite sides shorter rails, _u4_, adapted to engage the lower ends of the matrices, to hold them in position as they are lifted. The lifting finger _V_ is mounted on a horizontal pivot in one end of an elbow lever mounted on pivot _v2_ and actuated by a cam on the end of one of the carrier-screws, as shown in Figs. 2 and 15. TRIMMING-KNIVES In practice there is occasionally found a slight irregularity in the thickness of slugs, and thin fins are sometimes cast around the forward edges. For the purpose of reducing them to a uniform thickness, they are driven on their way to the galley between two vertical knives, as shown in Figs. 4 and 16. The inner knife is stationary, but the outer knife is adjustable in order that it may accommodate slugs of different thicknesses. This adjustment is made by the knife being seated at its outer edge against a supporting bar or wedge, having at opposite ends two inclined surfaces seated against supporting screws in the knife-block. A lever engages a pin on the wedge for the purpose of moving it endwise; when moving in one direction, it forces the knife inward toward the stationary knife, and when moved in the other direction, it forces it to retreat under the influence of a spring seated in the block. The wedge is provided with a series of teeth engaged by a spring-actuated pin or dog, whereby the wedge and the knife are stopped in proper positions to insure the exact space required between the two knives. [Illustration: Fig. 15.] The back knife, secured to the frame for trimming the base of the slug as it is carried past by the revolving wheel, should be kept moderately sharp and adjusted so as to fit closely against the back of the passing mold. Particular attention should be paid to this feature. The edge of the knife must bear uniformly across the face of the mold. [Illustration: Fig. 16.] The front knives, between which the slug is ejected, should not be made too sharp. After being sharpened, the thin edge can be advantageously removed by the use of a thin oilstone applied against the side face; that is, against the face past which the slug is carried. The stationary or left-hand knife should be so adjusted as to align exactly with the inner side of the mold. Under proper conditions this knife does not trim the side face of the slug, but acts only to remove any slight fins or projections at the front edge. The right-hand knife, adjustable by means of a wedge and lever, should stand exactly parallel with the stationary knife. It trims the side of the slug on which the ribs are formed, and it serves to bring the slug to the exact thickness required. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 2: From Theodore L. De Vinne's _Modern Methods of Book Composition_, pp. 403-425. The Century Company, New York, 1904.] THE EXPOSITION OF A PROCESS IN NATURE THE PEA WEEVIL[3] _Jean Henri Fabre_ Peas are held in high esteem by mankind. From remote ages man has endeavored, by careful culture, to produce larger, tenderer, and sweeter varieties. Of an adaptable character, under careful treatment the plant has evolved in a docile fashion, and has ended by giving us what the ambition of the gardener desired. To-day we have gone far beyond the yield of the Varrons and Columelles, and further still beyond the original pea; from the wild seeds confided to the soil by the first man who thought to scratch up the surface of the earth, perhaps with the half-jaw of a cave-bear, whose powerful canine tooth would serve him as a ploughshare! Where is it, this original pea, in the world of spontaneous vegetation? Our own country has nothing resembling it. Is it to be found elsewhere? On this point botany is silent, or replies only with vague probabilities. We find the same ignorance elsewhere on the subject of the majority of our alimentary vegetables. Whence comes wheat, the blessed grain which gives us bread? No one knows. You will not find it here, except in the care of man; nor will you find it abroad. In the East, the birthplace of agriculture, no botanist has ever encountered the sacred ear growing of itself on unbroken soil. Barley, oats, and rye, the turnip and the beet, the beetroot, the carrot, the pumpkin, and so many other vegetable products, leave us in the same perplexity; their point of departure is unknown to us, or at most suspected behind the impenetrable cloud of the centuries. Nature delivered them to us in the full vigor of the thing untamed, when their value as food was indifferent, as to-day she offers us the sloe, the bullace, the blackberry, the crab; she gave them to us in the state of imperfect sketches, for us to fill out and complete; it was for our skill and our labor patiently to induce the nourishing pulp which was the earliest form of capital, whose interest is always increasing in the primordial bank of the tiller of the soil. As storehouses of food the cereal and the vegetable are, for the greater part, the work of man. The fundamental species, a poor resource in their original state, we borrowed as they were from the natural treasury of the vegetable world; the perfected race, rich in alimentary materials, is the result of our art. If wheat, peas, and all the rest are indispensable to us, our care, by a just return, is absolutely necessary to them. Such as our needs have made them, incapable of resistance in the bitter struggle for survival, these vegetables, left to themselves without culture, would rapidly disappear, despite the numerical abundance of their seeds, as the foolish sheep would disappear were there no more sheep-folds. They are our work, but not always our exclusive property. Wherever food is amassed, the consumers collect from the four corners of the sky; they invite themselves to the feast of abundance, and the richer the food the greater their numbers. Man, who alone is capable of inducing agrarian abundance, is by that very fact the giver of an immense banquet at which legions of feasters take their place. By creating more juicy and more generous fruits, he calls to his enclosures, despite himself, thousands and thousands of hungry creatures, against whose appetites his prohibitions are helpless. The more he produces, the larger is the tribute demanded of him. Wholesale agriculture and vegetable abundance favor our rival, the insect. This is the immanent law. Nature, with an equal zeal, offers her mighty breast to all her nurslings alike; to those who live by the goods of others no less than to the producers. For us, who plough, sow, and reap, and weary ourselves with labor, she ripens the wheat; she ripens it also for the little Calender-beetle, which, although exempted from the labor of the fields, enters our granaries none the less, and there, with its pointed beak, nibbles our wheat, grain by grain, to the husk. For us, who dig, weed, and water, bent with fatigue and burned by the sun, she swells the pods of the pea; she swells them also for the weevil, which does no gardener's work, yet takes its share of the harvest at its own hour, when the earth is joyful with the new life of spring. Let us follow the manoeuvres of this insect which takes its tithe of the green pea. I, a benevolent rate-payer, will allow it to take its dues; it is precisely to benefit it that I have sown a few rows of the beloved plant in a corner of my garden. Without other invitation on my part than this modest expenditure of seed-peas, it arrives punctually during the month of May. It has learned that this stony soil, rebellious at the culture of the kitchen-gardener, is bearing peas for the first time. In all haste therefore it has hurried, an agent of the entomological revenue system, to demand its dues. Whence does it come? It is impossible to say precisely. It has come from some shelter, somewhere, in which it has passed the winter in a state of torpor. The plane-tree, which sheds its rind during the heats of the summer, furnishes an excellent refuge for homeless insects under its partly detached sheets of bark. I have often found our weevil in such a winter refuge. Sheltered under the dead covering of the plane, or otherwise protected while the winter lasts, it awakens from its torpor at the first touch of a kindly sun. The almanac of the instincts has aroused it; it knows as well as the gardener when the pea-vines are in flower, and seeks its favorite plant, journeying thither from every side, running with quick, short steps, or nimbly flying. A small head, a fine snout, a costume of ashen grey sprinkled with brown, flattened wing-covers, a dumpy, compact body, with two large black dots on the rear segment--such is the summary portrait of my visitor. The middle of May approaches, and with it the van of the invasion. They settle on the flowers, which are not unlike white-winged butterflies. I see them at the base of the blossom or inside the cavity of the "keel" of the flower, but the majority explore the petals and take possession of them. The time for laying the eggs has not yet arrived. The morning is mild; the sun is warm without being oppressive. It is the moment of nuptial flights; the time of rejoicing in the splendor of the sunshine. Everywhere are creatures rejoicing to be alive. Couples come together, part, and re-form. When towards noon the heat becomes too great, the weevils retire into the shadow, taking refuge singly in the folds of the flowers whose secret corners they know so well. To-morrow will be another day of festival, and the next day also, until the pods, emerging from the shelter of the "keel" of the flower, are plainly visible, enlarging from day to day. A few gravid females, more pressed for time than the others, confide their eggs to the growing pod, flat and meager as it issues from its floral sheath. These hastily laid batches of eggs, expelled perhaps by the exigencies of an ovary incapable of further delay, seem to me in serious danger; for the seed in which the grub must establish itself is as yet no more than a tender speck of green, without firmness and without any farinaceous tissue. No larva could possibly find sufficient nourishment there, unless it waited for the pea to mature. But is the grub capable of fasting for any length of time when once hatched? It is doubtful. The little I have seen tells me that the newborn grub must establish itself in the midst of its food as quickly as possible, and that it perishes unless it can do so. I am therefore of opinion that such eggs as are deposited in immature pods are lost. However, the race will hardly suffer by such a loss, so fertile is the little beetle. We shall see directly how prodigal the female is of her eggs, the majority of which are destined to perish. The important part of the maternal task is completed by the end of May, when the shells are swollen by the expanding peas, which have reached their final growth, or are but little short of it. I was anxious to see the female Bruchus at work in her quality of Curculionid, as our classification declares her.[4] The other weevils are Rhyncophora, beaked insects, armed with a drill with which to prepare the hole in which the egg is laid. The Bruchus possesses only a short snout or muzzle, excellently adapted for eating soft tissues, but valueless as a drill. The method of installing the family is consequently absolutely different. There are no industrious preparations as with the Balinidae, the Larinidae, and the Rhynchitides. Not being equipped with a long oviscapt, the mother sows her eggs in the open, with no protection against the heat of the sun and the variations of temperature. Nothing could be simpler, and nothing more perilous to the eggs, in the absence of special characteristics which, would enable them to resist the alternate trials of heat and cold, moisture and drought. In the caressing sunlight of ten o'clock in the morning, the mother runs up and down the chosen pod, first on one side, then on the other, with a jerky, capricious, unmethodical gait. She repeatedly extrudes a short oviduct, which oscillates right and left as though to graze the skin of the pod. An egg follows, which is abandoned as soon as laid. A hasty touch of the oviduct, first here, then there, on the green skin of the pea-pod, and that is all. The egg is left there, unprotected, in the full sunlight. No choice of position is made such as might assist the grub when it seeks to penetrate its larder. Some eggs are laid on the swellings created by the peas beneath; others in the barren valleys which separate them. The first are close to the peas, the second at some distance from them. In short, the eggs of the Bruchus are laid at random, as though on the wing. We observe a still more serious vice: the number of eggs is out of all proportion to the number of peas in the pod. Let us note at the outset that each grub requires one pea; it is the necessary ration, and is largely sufficient for one larva, but is not enough for several, nor even for two. One pea to each grub, neither more nor less, is the unchangeable rule. We should expect to find signs of a procreative economy which would impel the female to take into account the number of peas contained in the pod which she has just explored; we might expect her to set a numerical limit on her eggs in conformity with that of the peas available. But no such limit is observed. The rule of one pea to one grub is always contradicted by the multiplicity of consumers. My observations are unanimous on this point. The number of eggs deposited on one pod always exceeds the number of peas available, and often to a scandalous degree. However meager the contents of the pod, there is a superabundance of consumers. Dividing the sum of the eggs upon such or such a pod by that of the peas contained therein, I find there are five to eight claimants for each pea; I have found ten, and there is no reason why this prodigality should not go still further. Many are called, but few are chosen! What is to become of all these supernumeraries, perforce excluded from the banquet for want of space? The eggs are of a fairly bright amber yellow, cylindrical in form, smooth, and rounded at the ends. Their length is at most a twenty-fifth of an inch. Each is affixed to the pod by means of a slight network of threads of coagulated albumen. Neither wind nor rain can loosen their hold. The mother not infrequently emits them two at a time, one above the other; not infrequently, also, the uppermost of the two eggs hatches before the other, while the latter fades and perishes. What was lacking to this egg, that it should fail to produce a grub? Perhaps a bath of sunlight; the incubating heat of which the outer egg has robbed it. Whether on account of the fact that it is shadowed by the other egg, or for other reasons, the elder of the eggs in a group of two rarely follows the normal course, but perishes on the pod, dead without having lived. There are exceptions to this premature end; sometimes the two eggs develop equally well; but such cases are exceptional, so that the Bruchid family would be reduced to about half its dimensions if the binary system were the rule. To the detriment of our peas and to the advantage of the beetle, the eggs are commonly laid one by one and in isolation. A recent emergence is shown by a little sinuous ribbon-like mark, pale or whitish, where the skin of the pod is raised and withered, which starts from the egg and is the work of the newborn larva; a sub-epidermic tunnel along which the grub works its way, while seeking a point from which it can escape into a pea. This point once attained, the larva, which is scarcely a twenty-fifth of an inch in length, and is white with a black head, perforates the envelope and plunges into the capacious hollow of the pod. It has reached the peas and crawls upon the nearest. I have observed it with the magnifier. Having explored the green globe, its new world, it begins to sink a well perpendicularly into the sphere. I have often seen it halfway in, wriggling its tail in the effort to work the quicker. In a short time the grub disappears and is at home. The point of entry, minute, but always easily recognizable by its brown coloration on the pale green background of the pea, has no fixed location; it may be at almost any point on the surface of the pea, but an exception is usually made of the lower half; that is, the hemisphere whose pole is formed by the supporting stem. It is precisely in this portion that the germ is found, which will not be eaten by the larva, and will remain capable of developing into a plant, in spite of the large aperture made by the emergence of the adult insect. Why is this particular portion left untouched? What are the motives that safeguard the germ? It goes without saying that the Bruchus is not considering the gardener. The pea is meant for it and for no one else. In refusing the few bites that would lead to the death of the seed, it has no intention of limiting its destruction. It abstains from other motives. Let us remark that the peas touch laterally, and are pressed one against the other, so that the grub, when searching for a point of attack, cannot circulate at will. Let us also note that the lower pole expands into the umbilical excrescence, which is less easy of perforation than those parts protected by the skin alone. It is even possible that the umbilicum, whose organization differs from that of the rest of the pea, contains a peculiar sap that is distasteful to the little grub. Such, doubtless, is the reason why the peas exploited by the Bruchus are still able to germinate. They are damaged, but not dead, because the invasion was conducted from the free hemisphere, a portion less vulnerable and more easy of access. Moreover, as the pea in its entirety is too large for a single grub to consume, the consumption is limited to the portion preferred by the consumer, and this portion is not the essential portion of the pea. With other conditions, with very much smaller or very much larger seeds, we shall observe very different results. If too small, the germ will perish, gnawed like the rest by the insufficiently provisioned inmate; if too large, the abundance of food will permit of several inmates. Exploited in the absence of the pea, the cultivated vetch and the broad bean afford us an excellent example; the smaller seed, of which all but the skin is devoured, is left incapable of germination; but the large bean, even though it may have held a number of grubs, is still capable of sprouting. Knowing that the pod always exhibits a number of eggs greatly in excess of the enclosed peas, and that each pea is the exclusive property of one grub, we naturally ask what becomes of the superfluous grubs. Do they perish outside when the more precocious have one by one taken their places in their vegetable larder? or do they succumb to the intolerant teeth of the first occupants? Neither explanation is correct. Let us relate the facts. On all old peas--they are at this stage dry--from which the adult Bruchus has emerged, leaving a large round hole of exit, the magnifying-glass will show a variable number of fine reddish punctuations, perforated in the centre. What are these spots, of which I count five, six, and even more on a single pea? It is impossible to be mistaken: they are the points of entry of as many grubs. Several grubs have entered the pea, but of the whole group only one has survived, fattened, and attained the adult age. And the others? We shall see. At the end of May, and in June, the period of egg-laying, let us inspect the still green and tender peas. Nearly all the peas invaded show us the multiple perforations already observed on the dry peas abandoned by the weevils. Does this actually mean that there are several grubs in the pea? Yes. Skin the peas in question, separate the cotyledons, and break them up as may be necessary. We shall discover several grubs, extremely youthful, curled up comma-wise, fat and lively, each in a little round niche in the body of the pea. Peace and welfare seem to reign in the little community. There is no quarrelling, no jealousy between neighbors. The feast has commenced; food is abundant, and the feasters are separated one from another by the walls of uneaten substance. With this isolation in separate cells no conflicts need be feared; no sudden bite of the mandibles, whether intentional or accidental. All the occupants enjoy the same rights of property, the same appetite, and the same strength. How does this communal feast terminate? Having first opened them, I place a number of peas which are found to be well peopled in a glass test-tube. I open others daily. In this way I keep myself informed as to the progress of the various larvae. At first nothing noteworthy is to be seen. Isolated in its narrow chamber, each grub nibbles the substance around it, peacefully and parsimoniously. It is still very small; a mere speck of food is a feast; but the contents of one pea will not suffice the whole number to the end. Famine is ahead, and all but one must perish. Soon, indeed, the aspect of things is entirely changed. One of the grubs--that which occupies the central position in the pea--begins to grow more quickly than the others. Scarcely has it surpassed the others in size when the latter cease to eat, and no longer attempt to burrow forwards. They lie motionless and resigned; they die that gentle death which comes to unconscious lives. Henceforth the entire pea belongs to the sole survivor. Now what has happened that these lives around the privileged one should be thus annihilated? In default of a satisfactory reply, I will propose a suggestion. In the centre of the pea, less ripened than the rest of the seed by the chemistry of the sun, may there not be a softer pulp, of a quality better adapted to the infantile digestion of the grub? There, perhaps, being nourished by tenderer, sweeter, and perhaps, more tasty tissues, the stomach becomes more vigorous, until it is fit to undertake less easily digested food. A nursling is fed on milk before proceeding to bread and broth. May not the central portion of the pea be the feeding-bottle of the Bruchid? With equal rights, fired by an equal ambition, all the occupants of the pea bore their way towards the delicious morsel. The journey is laborious, and the grubs must rest frequently in their provisional niches. They rest; while resting they frugally gnaw the riper tissues surrounding them; they gnaw rather to open a way than to fill their stomachs. Finally one of the excavators, favored by the direction taken, attains the central portion. It establishes itself there, and all is over; the others have only to die. How are they warned that the place is taken? Do they hear their brother gnawing at the walls of his lodging? can they feel the vibration set up by his nibbling mandibles? Something of the kind must happen, for from that moment they make no attempt to burrow further. Without struggling against the fortunate winner, without seeking to dislodge him, those which are beaten in the race give themselves up to death. I admire this candid resignation on the part of the departed. Another condition--that of space--is also present as a factor. The pea weevil is the largest of our Bruchidae. When it attains the adult stage, it requires a certain amplitude of lodging, which the other weevils do not require in the same degree. A pea provides it with a sufficiently spacious cell; nevertheless, the cohabitation of two in one pea would be impossible; there would be no room, even were the two to put up with a certain discomfort. Hence the necessity of an inevitable decimation, which will suppress all the competitors save one. Now the superior volume of the broad bean, which is almost as much beloved by the weevil as the pea, can lodge a considerable community, and the solitary can live as a cenobite. Without encroaching on the domain of their neighbors, five or six or more can find room in the one bean. Moreover, each grub can find its infant diet; that is, that layer which, remote from the surface, hardens only gradually and remains full of sap until a comparatively late period. This inner layer represents the crumb of a loaf, the rest of the bean being the crust. In a pea, a sphere of much less capacity, it occupies the central portion; a limited point at which the grub develops, and lacking which it perishes; but in the bean it lines the wide adjoining faces of the two flattened cotyledons. No matter where the point of attack is made, the grub has only to bore straight down when it quickly reaches the softer tissues. What is the result? I have counted the eggs adhering to a bean-pod and the beans included in the pod, and comparing the two figures I find that there is plenty of room for the whole family at the rate of five or six dwellers in each bean. No superfluous larvae perish of hunger when barely issued from the egg; all have their share of the ample provision; all live and prosper. The abundance of food balances the prodigal fertility of the mother. If the Bruchus were always to adopt the broad bean for the establishment of her family, I could well understand the exuberant allowance of eggs to one pod; a rich foodstuff easily obtained evokes a large batch of eggs. But the case of the pea perplexes me. By what aberration does the mother abandon her children to starvation on this totally insufficient vegetable? Why so many grubs to each pea when one pea is sufficient only for one grub? Matters are not so arranged in the general balance-sheet of life. A certain foresight seems to rule over the ovary so that the number of mouths is in proportion to the abundance or scarcity of the food consumed. The Scarabaeus, the Sphex, the Necrophorus, and other insects which prepare and preserve alimentary provision for their families, are all of a narrowly limited fertility, because the balls of dung, the dead or paralyzed insects, or the buried corpses of animals on which their offspring are nourished are provided only at the cost of laborious efforts. The ordinary bluebottle, on the contrary, which lays her eggs upon butcher's meat or carrion, lays them in enormous batches. Trusting in the inexhaustible riches represented by the corpse, she is prodigal of offspring, and takes no account of numbers. In other cases the provision is acquired by audacious brigandage, which exposes the newly born offspring to a thousand mortal accidents. In such cases the mother balances the chances of destruction by an exaggerated flux of eggs. Such is the case with the Meloides, which, stealing the goods of others under conditions of the greatest peril, are accordingly endowed with a prodigious fertility. The Bruchus knows neither the fatigues of the laborious, obliged to limit the size of her family, nor the misfortunes of the parasite, obliged to produce an exaggerated number of offspring. Without painful search, entirely at her ease, merely moving in the sunshine over her favorite plant, she can insure a sufficient provision for each of her offspring; she can do so, yet is foolish enough to over-populate the pod of the pea; a nursery insufficiently provided, in which the great majority will perish of starvation. This ineptitude is a thing I cannot understand; it clashes too completely with the habitual foresight of the maternal instinct. I am inclined to believe that the pea is not the original food plant of the Bruchus. The original plant must rather have been the bean, one seed of which is capable of supporting a dozen or more larvae. With the larger cotyledon the crying disproportion between the number of eggs and the available provision disappears. Moreover, it is indubitable that the bean is of earlier date than the pea. Its exceptional size and its agreeable flavor would certainly have attracted the attention of man from the remotest periods. The bean is a ready-made mouthful, and would be of the greatest value to the hungry tribe. Primitive man would at an early date have sown it beside his wattled hut. Coming from Central Asia by long stages, their wagons drawn by shaggy oxen and rolling on the circular discs cut from the trunks of trees, the early immigrants would have brought to our virgin land, first the bean, then the pea, and finally the cereal, that best of safeguards against famine. They taught us the care of herds, and the use of bronze, the material of the first metal implement. Thus the dawn of civilization arose over France. With the bean did those ancient teachers also involuntarily bring us the insect which to-day disputes it with us? It is doubtful; the Bruchidae seem to be indigenous. At all events, I find them levying tribute from various indigenous plants, wild vegetables which have never tempted the appetite of man. They abound in particular upon the great forest vetch (_Lathyrus latifolius_), with its magnificent heads of flowers and long handsome pods. The seeds are not large, being indeed smaller than the garden pea; but, eaten to the very skin, as they invariably are, each is sufficient to the needs of its grub. We must not fail to note their number. I have counted more than twenty in a single pod, a number unknown in the case of the pea, even in the most prolific varieties. Consequently this superb vetch is in general able to nourish without much loss the family confided to its pod. Where the forest vetch is lacking, the Bruchus, none the less, bestows its habitual prodigality of eggs upon another vegetable of similar flavor, but incapable of nourishing all the grubs: for example, the travelling vetch (_Vicia peregrina_) or the cultivated vetch (_Vicia saliva_). The number of eggs remains high even upon insufficient pods, because the original food-plant offered a copious provision, both in the multiplicity and the size of the seeds. If the Bruchus is really a stranger, let us regard the bean as the original food-plant; if indigenous, the large vetch. Sometime in the remote past we received the pea, growing it at first in the prehistoric vegetable garden which already supplied the bean. It was found a better article of diet than the broad bean, which to-day, after such good service, is comparatively neglected. The weevil was of the same opinion as man, and without entirely forgetting the bean and the vetch it established the greater part of its tribe upon the pea, which from century to century was more widely cultivated. To-day we have to share our peas; the Bruchidae take what they need, and bestow their leavings on us. This prosperity of the insect which is the offspring of the abundance and equality of our garden products is from another point of view equivalent to decadence. For the weevil, as for ourselves, progress in matters of food and drink is not always beneficial. The race would profit better if it remained frugal. On the bean and the vetch the Bruchus founded colonies in which the infant mortality was low. There was room for all. On the pea-vine, delicious though its fruits may be, the greater part of its offspring die of starvation. The rations are few, and the hungry mouths are multitudinous. We will linger over this problem no longer. Let us observe the grub which has now become the sole tenant of the pea by the death of its brothers. It has had no part in their death; chance has favored it, that is all. In the centre of the pea, a wealthy solitude, it performs the duty of a grub, the sole duty of eating. It nibbles the walls enclosing it, enlarging its lodgment, which is always entirely filled by its corpulent body. It is well shaped, fat, and shining with health. If I disturb it, it turns gently in its niche and sways its head. This is its manner of complaining of my importunities. Let us leave it in peace. It profits so greatly and so swiftly by its position that by the time the dog-days have come it is already preparing for its approaching liberation. The adult is not sufficiently well equipped to open for itself a way out through the pea, which is now completely hardened. The larva knows of this future helplessness, and with consummate art provides for its release. With its powerful mandibles it bores a channel of exit, exactly round, with extremely clean-cut sides. The most skilful ivory-carver could do no better. To prepare the door of exit in advance is not enough; the grub must also provide for the tranquillity essential to the delicate processes of nymphosis. An intruder might enter by the open door and injure the helpless nymph. This passage must therefore remain closed. But how? As the grub bores the passage of exit, it consumes the farinaceous matter without leaving a crumb. Having come to the skin of the pea, it stops short. This membrane, semi-translucid, is the door to the chamber of metamorphosis, its protection against the evil intentions of external creatures. It is also the only obstacle which the adult will encounter at the moment of exit. To lessen the difficulty of opening it, the grub takes the precaution of gnawing at the inner side of the skin, all round the circumference, so as to make a line of least resistance. The perfect insect will only have to heave with its shoulder and strike a few blows with its head in order to raise the circular door and knock it off like the lid of a box. The passage of exit shows through the diaphanous skin of the pea as a large circular spot, which is darkened by the obscurity of the interior. What passes behind it is invisible, hidden as, it is behind a sort of ground-glass window. A pretty invention, this little closed porthole, this barricade against the invader, this trap-door raised by a push when the time has come for the hermit to enter the world. Shall we credit it to the Bruchus? Did the ingenious insect conceive the undertaking? Did it think out a plan and work out a scheme of its own devising? This would be no small triumph for the brain of a weevil. Before coming to a conclusion, let us try an experiment. I deprive certain occupied peas of their skin, and I dry them with abnormal rapidity, placing them in glass test-tubes. The grubs prosper as well as in the intact peas. At the proper time the preparations for emergence are made. If the grub acts on its own inspiration, if it ceases to prolong its boring directly it recognizes that the outer coating, auscultated from time to time, is sufficiently thin, what will it do under the conditions of the present test? Feeling itself at the requisite distance from the surface, it will stop boring; it will respect the outer layer of the bare pea, and will thus obtain the indispensable protecting screen. Nothing of the kind occurs. In every case the passage is completely excavated; the entrance gapes wide open, as large and as carefully executed as though the skin of the pea were in its place. Reasons of security have failed to modify the usual method of work. This open lodging has no defence against the enemy; but the grub exhibits no anxiety on this score. Neither is it thinking of the outer enemy when it bores down to the skin when the pea is intact, and then stops short. It suddenly stops because the innutritious skin is not to its taste. We ourselves remove the parchment-like skins from a mess of pease-pudding, as from a culinary point of view they are so much waste matter. The larva of the Bruchus, like ourselves, dislikes the skin of the pea. It stops short at the horny covering, simply because it is checked by an uneatable substance. From this aversion a little miracle arises; but the insect has no sense of logic; it is passively obedient to the superior logic of facts. It obeys its instinct, as unconscious of its act as is a crystal when it assembles, in exquisite order, its battalions of atoms. Sooner or later during the month of August we see a shadowy circle form on each inhabited pea; but only one on each seed. These circles of shadow mark the doors of exit. Most of them open in September. The lid, as though cut out with a punch, detaches itself cleanly and falls to the ground, leaving the orifice free. The Bruchus emerges, freshly clad, in its final form. The weather is delightful. Flowers are abundant, awakened by the summer showers; and the weevils visit them in the lovely autumn weather. Then, when the cold sets in, they take up their winter quarters in any suitable retreat. Others, still numerous, are less hasty in quitting the native seed. They remain within during the whole winter, sheltered behind the trap-door, which they take care not to touch. The door of the cell will not open on its hinges, or, to be exact, will not yield along the line of least resistance, until the warm days return. Then the late arrivals will leave their shelter and rejoin the more impatient, and both will be ready for work when the pea-vines are in flower. To take a general view of the instincts in their inexhaustible variety is, for the observer, the great attraction of the entomological world, for nowhere do we gain a clearer sight of the wonderful way in which the processes of life are ordered. Thus regarded, entomology is not, I know, to the taste of everybody; the simple creature absorbed in the doings and habits of insects is held in low esteem. To the terrible utilitarian, a bushel of peas preserved from the weevil is of more importance than a volume of observations which bring no immediate profit. Yet who has told you, O man of little faith, that what is useless to-day will not be useful to-morrow? If we learn the customs of insects or animals, we shall understand better how to protect our goods. Do not despise disinterested knowledge, or you may rue the day. It is by the accumulation of ideas, whether immediately applicable or otherwise, that humanity has done, and will continue to do, better to-day than yesterday, and better to-morrow than to-day. If we live on peas and beans, which we dispute with the weevil, we also live by knowledge, that mighty kneading-trough in which the bread of progress is mixed and leavened. Knowledge is well worth a few beans. Among other things, knowledge tells us: "The seedsman need not go to the expense of waging war upon the weevil. When the peas arrive in the granary, the harm is already done; it is irreparable, but not transmissible. The untouched peas have nothing to fear from the neighborhood of those which have been attacked, however long the mixture is left. From the latter the weevils will issue when their time has come; they will fly away from the storehouse if escape is possible; if not, they will perish without in any way attacking the sound peas. No eggs, no new generation will ever be seen upon or within the dried peas in the storehouse; there the adult weevil can work no further mischief." The Bruchus is not a sedentary inhabitant of granaries: it requires the open air, the sun, the liberty of the fields. Frugal in everything, it absolutely disdains the hard tissues of the vegetable; its tiny mouth is content with a few honeyed mouthfuls, enjoyed upon the flowers. The larvae, on the other hand, require the tender tissues of the green pea growing in the pod. For these reasons the granary knows no final multiplication on the part of the despoiler. The origin of the evil is in the kitchen-garden. It is there that we ought to keep a watch on the misdeeds of the Bruchus, were it not for the fact that we are nearly always weaponless when it comes to fighting an insect. Indestructible by reason of its numbers, its small size, and its cunning, the little creature laughs at the anger of man. The gardener curses it, but the weevil is not disturbed; it imperturbably continues its trade of levying tribute. Happily we have assistants more patient and more clear-sighted than ourselves. During the first week of August, when the mature Bruchus begins to emerge, I notice a little Chalcidian, the protector of our peas. In my rearing-cages it issues under my eyes in abundance from the peas infested by the grub of the weevil. The female has a reddish head and thorax; the abdomen is black, with a long augur-like oviscapt. The male, a little smaller, is black. Both sexes have reddish claws and thread-like antennae. In order to escape from the pea, the slayer of the weevil makes an opening in the centre of the circular trap-door which the grub of the weevil prepared in view of its future deliverance. The slain has prepared the way for the slayer. After this detail the rest may be divined. When the preliminaries to the metamorphosis are completed, when the passage of escape is bored and furnished with its lid of superficial membrane, the female Chalcidian arrives in a busy mood. She inspects the peas, still on the vine, and enclosed in their pods; she auscultates them with her antennae; she discovers, hidden under the general envelope, the weak points in the epidermic covering of the peas. Then, applying her oviscapt, she thrusts it through the side of the pod and perforates the circular trap-door. However far withdrawn into the centre of the pea, the Bruchus, whether larvae or nymph, is reached by the long oviduct. It receives an egg in its tender flesh, and the thing is done. Without possibility of defence, since it is by now a somnolent grub or a helpless pupa, the embryo weevil is eaten until nothing but skin remains. What a pity that we cannot at will assist the multiplication of this eager exterminator! Alas! our assistants have got us in a vicious circle, for if we wished to obtain the help of any great number of Chalcidians we should be obliged in the first place to breed a multiplicity of Bruchidae. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 3: From _Social Life in the Insect World_, translated by Bernard Miall, Chapter XVIII. The Century Company, New York, 1913.] [Footnote 4: This classification is now superseded; the Pea and Bee Weevils--_Bruchus pisi_ and _Bruchus lenti_--are classed as Bruchidae, in the series of Phytophaga. Most of the other weevils are classed as Curculionidae, series Rhyncophora.--(Trans.)] THE EXPOSITION OF A MANUFACTURING PROCESS MODERN PAPER-MAKING[5] _J.W. Butler Paper Company_ Though the steady march of progress and invention has given to the modern paper-maker marvelous machines by which the output is increased a thousandfold over that of the old, slow methods, he still has many of the same difficulties to overcome that confronted his predecessor. While the use of wood pulp has greatly changed the conditions as regards the cheaper grades of this staple, the ragman is to-day almost as important to the manufacturer of the higher grades as he was one hundred years ago when the saving of rags was inculcated as a domestic virtue and a patriotic duty. Methods have changed, but the material remains the same. In a complete modern mill making writing and other high-grade papers, the process begins with unsightly rags as the material from which to form the white sheets that are to receive upon their spotless polished surface the thoughts of philosophers and statesmen, the tender messages of affection, the counsels and admonitions of ministers, the decisions of grave and learned judges, and all the Wisdom of things, mysterious, divine, that Illustriously doth on paper shine, as was duly set forth in rhyme by the _Boston News Letter_ in 1769. "The bell cart will go through Boston about the end of next month," it announced, and appealed to the inhabitants of that modern seat of learning and philosophy to save their rags for the occasion, and thus encourage the industry. The rags do not come to the mammoth factories of to-day in bell carts, but by the carload in huge bales gathered from all sections of this great Republic, as well as from lands beyond the eastern and western oceans. The square, compact, steam-compressed bundles are carried by elevators well up toward the top of the building, where they await the knife of the "opener." When they have been opened, the "feeder" throws the contents by armfuls into the "thrasher." The novice or layman, ignorant of the state in which rags come to the mill, will find their condition a most unpleasant surprise, especially disagreeable to his olfactory nerves. Yet the unsavory revelation comes with more force a little farther on, in the "assorting-room." The "thrasher" is a great cylindrical receptacle, revolving rapidly, which is supplied with long wooden beaters or arms passing through a wooden cylinder and driven by power. When the rags have been tossed in, there ensues a great pounding and thrashing, and the dust is carried off in suction air-tubes, while the whipped rags are discharged and carried to the "sorting" and "shredding" room. Here the rags are assorted as to size, condition, and the presence of buttons, hooks and eyes, or other material that must be removed. Then those that need further attention are passed on to the "shredders," these as well as the "sorters" being women. The "shredders" stand along a narrow counter; in front of each one there is fastened a long scythe-blade with its back toward the operator and its point extending upward, the shank being firmly fixed to the table or operating board. Here buttons, hard seams, and all similar intruders are disposed of, and the larger pieces of rags are cut into numerous small ones on the scythe-blades. The rags thus prepared are tossed by the women into receptacles in the tables. The work in this room is the most disagreeable and unwholesome in the entire process of manufacture, and this despite the fact that these rags, too, have been thrashed, and freed from an amount of dust and dirt beyond belief. While one is watching the operations carried on here, it is impossible to repress the wish that rags might be bought otherwise than by the pound, for, unfortunately, filth, dust, and dirt weigh, and to wash rags only reduces the weight. While this is a true reflection of the condition in the average mill, it is pleasant to know, however, there are others of the higher class that are decided exceptions as far as dust and dirt are concerned. Such are the mills making high-grade ledger and bond papers, as well as the mill manufacturing the paper that is used for the printing of our "greenbacks," to which further reference will be made later. In these exceptional mills everything is neat and perfectly clean, all the stock used being new and fresh from the cotton or linen mills, or from factories producing cloth goods, like shirt and corset factories, and others of the same sort. The sorting and shredding room is always large and light, with windows on all sides, and well ventilated, offering a decided contrast in many respects to the less cleanly mills first referred to where the women must wear bonnets or hoods for the protection of the hair. In either case the process is certainly an improvement over the old plan of leaving the rags to decay in a cellar to expedite the removal of the glutinous matter from them. From the "sorting" and "shredding" room the rags are conveyed to the "cutter," where they are cut and chopped by revolving knives, leaving them in small pieces and much freer from dust and grit. Various ingenious devices are employed for removing metal and other hard and injurious matter, magnetic brushes serving this purpose in some mills. When the "cutter" has finished its work, the still very dirty rags go for a further cleansing to the "devil," or "whipper," a hollow cone with spikes projecting within, against which work the spikes of a drum, dashing the rags about at great speed. Human lives are often freed of their baser elements and restored to purity and beauty through the chastening influences of tribulation or adversity; in like manner the "whipper" carries the rags forward a step in the process of purification that is necessary before they can be brought to their highest usefulness. But the cleansing process, which is only a preparation for what is to follow, does not end with the "whipper," which has served merely to loosen, not to dislodge, a great deal of dust and dirt. The final operation in the preliminary cleaning is performed by the "duster" proper, which is a conical revolving sieve. As the mass of rags is tossed and shaken about, the loosened dust is carried away by the suction of the air, which draws the dust particles into tubes furnished with suction fans. In most modern mills the rags are carried forward from the "duster" on an endless belt, and a careful watch is kept upon them as they emerge to detect the presence of unchopped pieces, buttons, or other foreign substances. The journey of the rags over this endless belt or conveyor terminates in a receiving-room, in the floor of which there are several openings, and immediately below these the mouths of the "digesters," which are in a room beneath. The "digesters," as they are suggestively and appropriately termed, are huge revolving boilers, usually upright, which often have as great a diameter as eight feet, with a height of twenty-two feet and a digestive capacity of upward of five tons of rags each. The rags that are to be "cooked" are fed in to the "digesters" through the openings in the floor, and the great movable manhole plates are then put in place and closed, hermetically sealing the openings or mouths through which the boilers have been fed, these having first been charged with a mixed solution of lime and soda and with live hot steam in lieu of gastric juice as a digesting fluid and force. In some mills the boilers are placed in a horizontal position, while in others they are in the form of a large ball or globe, in either case being operated in the manner described; those of upright form, however, are most commonly in use. The rags are boiled under steam pressure of about forty pounds to the square inch, and the cooking is continued from twelve to fourteen hours. It is here that the process of cleaning begins in earnest; and as the mass of rags is tumbled about in its scalding bath of steam-heated lime-water, or "milk of lime," the coloring and glutinous matters, as well as all other impurities, are loosened from the fibers, which are in the end so cleansed and purified as to come forth unstained and of virgin purity. Having been sufficiently boiled and digested, the mushy material, still looking dark and forbidding, is emptied onto the floor below or into receptacles placed directly beneath the boilers, where the color and dirt are allowed to drain off. The mass is then conveyed to the "washers," great tub-like receptacles, which are known as "Hollanders," from the fact that these rag engines were invented in Holland about the year 1750 A.D. They are oval-shaped tubs, about twenty feet long, nine feet wide, and three feet high, varying somewhat according to the conditions. Each tub is divided for two-thirds of its length by an upright partition, or "mid-feather," as it is called, which makes a narrow course around the vat. On one side of the partition, the tub is raised in a half-circle, close to which revolves an iron roll about three or four feet in diameter, and covered with knives; in the bottom of the tub, and directly under the revolving roll, is another set of knives called a "bed-plate," which is stationary, and against which the roll can be lowered. But let us not anticipate. When the emptyings from the boiler have been thrown into the "washer," a continuous stream of water is turned in at one end, the knife-roll having been adjusted so as to open up the rags as they are set in motion. These then begin a lively chase around the edge of the vat, through the race-course formed by the "mid-feather," and under the rag-opening knives, where the water is given a chance to wash out all impurities, then on up the incline over the "back-fall," so-called from the elevation in the tub. A cylinder of wire-cloth, partly immersed in the moving mass, holds back the now rapidly whitening fibers, while the dirty water escapes into buckets inside the wire-cloth drum, and is discharged into and through an escape-spout. The heavy particles of dirt settle into what is termed a "sand-trap" at the bottom of the tub. As the water clears, the roll is lowered closer and closer to the bottom of the bed-plate, in order to open up the fibers more thoroughly for the free circulation of the water among them. When the several agencies of the "washer" have accomplished their purpose and the water runs clear and unsullied, a bleaching material is put into the mass, which in the course of from two to six hours becomes as white as milk. The dirty offscourings of all ragdom, first seen in the original bales, and gathered from the four corners of the globe, have endured many buffetings, many bruisings and tribulations, and having been washed come forth pure, sweet, and clean. From the washers the rags are precipitated through a trap into drainers, which are chambers made of stone and brick, with a false bottom through which the water is allowed to drain. This rag pulp, now called half stock, is kept in this receptacle until the water and liquor are thoroughly drained off, when it becomes a white and compact mass of fibers. The rags should stand in the drainers for at least one week, though better results are obtained if they are left for a period two or three times as long, as the fibers become more subdued. The process of paper-making as it has already been described, applies more particularly to papers made from rags. To-day, a very large proportion of the cheaper papers are made from wood, either entirely or in part, and these wood-made papers are subjected to a different treatment, to which further reference will be made. From the drainer the mass is carted to the beating engine, or "beater," which is very similar in construction to the washer just described. The knives on the roll in the beater are grouped three together instead of two, and are placed nearer the bottom or bed-plate in order to separate more thoroughly the fibers. In the beater are performed many and varying manipulations, designed not only to secure a more perfect product but also to produce different varieties of paper. It is the theory of the beating process that the fibers are not cut, but are drawn out to their utmost extent. In watching the operations of the "beater," one notices on the surface of the slowly revolving mass of fibers, floating bluing, such as the thrifty housewife uses to whiten fine fabrics. This familiar agency of the laundry is introduced into the solution of fibers with the same end in view that is sought in the washtub--to give the clear white color that is so desirable. Many of the inventions and discoveries by which the world has profited largely have been due primarily to some fortunate accident, and according to a pretty story upon which paper-makers have set the seal of their belief for more than one hundred and fifty years, the use of bluing was brought about in the same way. About the year 1746, so runs the story, a Mrs. Buttonshaw, the wife of an English paper-maker, accidentally dropped into a tub of pulp the bag of bluing, or its contents, which she was about to use in a washing of fine linen. Frightened at what she had done and considering it the part of wisdom to keep silence, she discreetly held her peace and awaited results. But when her husband had expressed great wonder and admiration over the paper made from that particular pulp, and had sold it in London at an advance of several shillings over the price of his other paper, which had not met with any such accident, she realized that the time for silence had passed. Her account of the happy accident led her grateful husband to purchase a costly scarlet cloak for her on his next visit to London town. This accident brought about another result which was to prove of inestimable value to the future paper-maker--the use of bluing in paper when especial whiteness is desired. Important as the bluing or coloring is, however, it is only one of the numerous operations or manipulations that take place in the beater. Many of these, such as engine-sizing and body-coloring, require skill and constant watchfulness. Here, too, if anywhere, adulteration takes place. It is sometimes necessary to secure a fine-appearing paper at small cost, and it is profitable to add to its weight. In such cases a process of "loading" takes place here, and clay or cheap, heavy fibers are added. Clay is of value not only to increase the weight but also to render the paper more opaque, so as to prevent type or illustrations from showing through, while at the same time it makes possible a smoother surface by filling the pores in the paper. But while it adds to the weight, clay must, of necessity, weaken the paper. In engine-sizing, which is done in the beater, the size is thoroughly incorporated with the fibers as these revolve or flow around the engine. This sizing renders the paper more nearly impervious to moisture. The difference between a paper that is sized and that has a repellent surface which prevents the ink from settling into it when it is written upon, and an ordinary blotting-paper with its absorbent surface, is due entirely to the fact that the former is most carefully treated with sizing both in the beating engine and in the size tub or vat referred to later, whereas in the latter paper it is omitted. If the paper is to be tinted or body-colored, colors made from aniline are generally used. Only in the highest grade of writing-paper and in some few papers that demand colors fast to the light is any other order of coloring matter employed. As may be easily imagined, considerable skill is required to secure exactly the desired tint, and to get the coloring matter so evenly mixed that each small fiber shall receive its proper tint, and thus to insure that the paper when finished shall be of uniform color and not present a mottled appearance. When the operations of the beating engine have been completed, a most interesting process begins which marks a vast advance over the earlier method of forming the sheets of paper with mould and deckel, straining off the water, and shaking the frame with a quick motion to mat the fibers together. The patient striving toward something better which has marked all the centuries since man first learned to carve his rude records, finds its consummation in the process of making paper in a continuous web. This result is accomplished by a machine first invented by Louis Robert, a workman in a mill at Enonnes, France, who obtained a French patent, with a bounty of eight thousand francs for its development. This he later sold to M. Didot, the proprietor of the mill, who crossed the Channel into England, where, with the aid of a skilled mechanic, the machine was in a measure perfected, and then sold to Henry and Sealy Fourdrinier. They, with the further aid of Bryan Donkin, their employee and expert engineer, made many additional improvements, and sank in the enterprise some sixty thousand pounds sterling, for which their only reward was blighted hopes and embittered lives. In 1847 the London _Times_ made a fruitless appeal on behalf of the surviving brother, who was eighty years of age and in great poverty. It is seldom that the world voluntarily makes return to those who have bestowed upon it great material or moral benefits, though it is ever ready to expend its treasure for engines of destruction and to magnify and reward those who have been most successful in destroying human life. The first "machine" mill was started at Frogmore, Hertz, England, in 1803, which was the year of the great Louisiana Purchase by the United States, and it is not difficult to say which event has been productive of the greater and more beneficial results to this nation. Through this invention and its improvements, the modern newspaper and magazine, with their tens and hundreds of thousands of copies daily, have been made possible, and men of all classes have been brought in touch with the best thought of the day. Whatever makes for greater intelligence and enlightenment throughout a nation makes for the greater stability of the national life, and gives new emphasis to Bulwer's words: Take away the sword; States can be saved without it--bring the pen. If to-day the power of the pen over the sword is greater than it has ever been before, its increased and increasing influence must be credited in large measure to the inventive genius and the public-spirited enterprise that has made possible the great output of our modern paper-mills. So thoroughly did these forces do their work in the beginning that in the century that has elapsed since the Fourdrinier brothers sacrificed themselves and their means in the perfecting of their machine, there have been really no changes in the fundamental principle. Those that have been made have been in the nature of further development and improvement, such as increasing the speed and widening the web, thereby multiplying the product many fold. But let us resume the interesting journey of the rags, which had reached a state of purification and perfection as pulp, and which we left in the beaters. In some grades of paper the perfected and prepared pulp is taken from the beaters and passed through what is known as a "refining" or "Jordan" engine for the purpose of more thoroughly separating the fibers and reducing them to extreme fineness. The refining engines are, however, used only in the manufacture of certain grades of paper. The pulp is next taken from the beater or refining engine, as the case may be, to what is called a "stuff-chest," an inclosed vat partly filled with water, in which a contrivance for shaking and shifting, properly called an "agitator," keeps the fibers in suspension. From the stuff-chest the mixture is pumped into what is known as the "mixing" or "regulating" box. Here the stream first passes over the "sand-tables" in a continuous flow. These are composed of little troughs with cross-pieces, and are covered at the bottom with long-haired felt, to catch any sand or dirt that may still adhere after the numerous operations to which the pulp has been subjected. The flow is then forced through the "screen," which is a horizontal piece of metal pierced with slots. For very fine paper these slots are so small as to be only one one-hundredth of an inch in width. They are usually about a quarter of an inch apart. Through these tiny apertures the fibers must find their way, leaving behind in their difficult passage all lumps, dirt, or knotted fibers which would mar the perfection of the product toward which they are tending. A vibrating motion is given to the screen as the flow passes over it, or revolving strainers may be used. When the screen has finished its work, the water carrying the pulp in solution flows in an even stream, the volume of which varies according to the width of the web of paper to be produced, through a discharge-cock onto the Fourdrinier or cylinder machine, as the case may be, each of which will be duly described. This stream has a filmy appearance and is of diverse color, depending upon the shade of paper to be produced. From its consistency, which is about that of milk, it is difficult to imagine that it floats separate particles of fiber in such quantities as, when gathered on the wire cloth and passed to a felt blanket and then pressed between rollers, to form in a second of time a broad web of embryo paper sufficiently strong and firm to take definite form. Man's mastery of the process by which this startling and wonderful change is effected has come as one of the rewards of his long and patient study. The Fourdrinier machine, which preserves at least the name of the enterprising developers of the invention, takes up the work that was formerly done by the molder. The wire cloth upon which the fibers are discharged is an endless belt, the full width of the paper machine. Upon this the fibers spread out evenly, being aided by a fan-shaped rubber or oil cloth, which delivers the smooth stream under a gate regulated to insure perfect evenness and to fix uniformly the fibers of the web now commencing its final formation. Deckel-straps of india-rubber are fastened on both sides of the wire screen, and move with it, thus holding the watery pulp in place. The deckel-straps are adjustable and fix or regulate the width of the paper. These and the gate, or "slicer," are attached to what is termed the deckel-frame, which corresponds to the deckel used by paper-makers in the days when the manufacture was carried on by hand. As the stream flows onto the endless belt of wire cloth, the water which has borne the fibers filters into the trough beneath. Being charged with very fine fibers, size, coloring matter, and other similar ingredients, it is carried back into the pulp-chest to save these materials, as well as to contribute again to the extra supply of water needed. For this reason the trough into which it falls from the revolving "wire" is called the "save-all." A shaking motion is imparted to the "wire" from the frame upon which rest the rolls that keep it in its never-ending round. This aids in draining away the water and mats or interlaces the fibers together. At the end of the "save-all," where the fibers are to leave the "wire" for the next stage of their journey, suction-boxes are placed, provided with an air-pump to take up the surplus water that has not yet found its way through the meshes. Between these suction-boxes above the wire is a wire-covered roll which impresses the newly formed sheet; this impression cylinder is called a "dandy roll," and it is from this that the web receives the markings or impressions that characterize different papers. All watermarks, patterns, and designs which it is desired to have appear in the paper are put upon this roll and here impressed upon the soft sheet, which is clarified and left transparent at the point of contact. Thus the impression is permanently fixed in the fiber, so that it can be seen at any time by holding the sheet to the light. The power of suggestiveness is a quality which is highly esteemed wherever it is found, and which frequently furnishes a standard of judgment. Judged by such a criterion, the impression cylinder, or "dandy roll," has an added value, for in all probability its operation suggested the idea of printing from cylinders, as in our present web or perfecting presses. The matted pulp, now having sufficient body, passes on between two rolls covered with felt which deliver the web of damp paper upon an endless belt of moist felt, while the "wire" passes under and back to continue a fresh supply. The paper is as yet too fragile to travel alone, and the web felt carries it between two metal rolls called the first press-rolls. These squeeze out more water, give a greater degree of compactness to the fibers, smooth the upper surface, and finally deliver the web of paper to a second felt apron which carries it under and to the back of the second press-rolls. In this way the under surface comes to the top, and is in its turn subjected to the smoothing process. A delicate scraper or blade, the length of the press-rolls, is so placed on each roll that should the endless web from any cause be broken, the blade may operate with sufficient force to prevent the wet paper from clinging to the rolls and winding about them. From this point the paper travels alone, having become firm and strong enough to sustain its own weight; passing above the second press-rolls, it resumes its onward journey around the drying cylinders, passing over and under and over and under. The drying cylinders are hollow and heated by steam, their temperature being regulated according to requirements. These driers, made from iron or steel, are usually from three to four feet in diameter and vary in length according to the width of the machine. There are from twelve to fifty of these cylinders, their number depending upon the character and weight of the paper to be produced, very heavy sheets requiring many more drying cylinders than sheets of lighter weight. Strange, almost phenomenal, conditions come about in the transformation from filmy pulp to finished paper. A sheet which, though formed, is at the first press-roll too fragile to carry its own weight, becomes possessed of a final strength and power that is almost incredible. The myriad of minute fibers composing the sheet, upon drying uniformly, possesses great aggregate strength. A sheet of paper yields readily to tearing, but the same sheet, when a perfectly even tension is applied, will demonstrate that it is possessed of wonderful resisting power. In evidence may be cited an instance that seems almost beyond belief. Through some curious mishap a web of heavy paper, in fact, bristol board, which had been thoroughly formed, was suddenly superheated and then cooled while still on the driers. This was caused by a difference in temperature of the driers and resulted in the sudden contraction of the web of bristol; the strain on the machine was so great that not only were the driving-cogs broken on two of the driers around which the paper was at the moment passing, but the driers themselves were actually lifted out of place, showing a resisting power in the paper of at least several tons. The paper now passes to the upright stack of rolls which are known as "calenders." The word is derived from calendra; a corruption of cylindrus, a roller or cylinder. They are simply rollers revolving in contact, and heated from the interior by steam. These calenders are used for giving to the paper a smooth and even surface, and are also employed in the smoothing and finishing of cloth. The speed with which the paper passes through these cylinders is remarkable, from one hundred to five hundred feet running through and over the machine in a minute; and in some of the most recent mills the web is as wide as one hundred and fifty-six inches (thirteen feet); this is very nearly double the average machine width of a very few years ago, while the speed has increased in proportionate ratio; only a few years ago the maximum speed was from two hundred and fifty to three hundred feet per minute; at this writing (1900) there are machines in operation which run as high as five hundred feet per minute. But great as has been the increase in the production of paper, the demand has kept pace steadily. The wonderful product of the rag-bag holds an invincible position in the world's economy. For machine-finished book and print papers, as well as for other cheaper grades, the process ends with the calenders, after which the paper is slit into required widths by disc-knives which are revolving, and so cut continuously. Paper intended for web newspaper presses is taken off in continuous rolls of the widths required, varying from seventeen to seventy-six inches, according to the size of the paper to be printed. These reels contain from fifteen to twenty-five thousand lineal feet of paper, or from three to five miles. The amount of paper used in disseminating the news of the day is enormous; sometimes one or two mills are required to manufacture the supply for a single metropolitan daily, while one New York newspaper claims to have used four hundred and fifty tons of paper in one Christmas edition, which is about four times the amount of its regular daily consumption. After having been slit into the proper widths by the revolving knives, ordinary flat and book papers are cut into sheets by a straight knife revolving at proper intervals on a horizontal drum. The paper, in sheets, is carried by a travelling apron to a receiving table at the end of the machine, where the sheets as they fall are carefully examined by experts, usually women, who remove any that may be imperfect. The entire length of a paper machine, from the screens to the calenders, is about one hundred and twenty-five feet, while the height varies, the average being about ten feet. The machines, while necessarily of the finest adjustment, are ponderous and heavy, weighing in some cases as much as four hundred tons, this being the weight of the machine itself, exclusive of its foundations. The machine-room is of necessity well lighted and thoroughly ventilated, and should be kept clean throughout, as cleanliness is an essential factor in the making of good paper. While the same general process applies to all classes of paper made, the particular character of any paper that is to be produced determines exactly the details of the process through which it shall pass and regulates the deviations to be made from the general operations in order to secure special results. For example, some papers are wanted with a rough or "antique" finish, as it is called; in such cases calendering is omitted. Another special process is that by which the paper is made with a ragged or "deckel-edge;" this result is obtained in some mills by playing a stream of water upon the edge of the pulp, crushing and thinning it, and thus giving it a jagged appearance. At the present time this "deckel-edge" paper is being quite extensively used in high-class bookwork. In the case of writing papers, as has already been stated in the description of the beating engines, a vegetable sizing made from resinous matter is introduced into the paper pulp while it is still in solution, and mixes with it thoroughly, thus filling more or less completely the pores of the pulp fibers. This is found sufficient for all ordinary book-papers, for papers that are to be printed upon in the usual way, and for the cheapest grades of writing-paper, where the requirements are not very exacting and where a curtailment of expense is necessary. For the higher grades of writing-paper, however, a distinctly separate and additional process is required. These papers while on the machine in web form are passed through a vat which is called the size-tub, and which is filled with a liquid sizing made of gelatine from clippings of the horns, hides, and hoofs of cattle, this gelatine or glue being mixed with dissolved alum and made fluid in the vat. Papers which are treated in this way are known as "animal," or "tub-sized." We have duly described machine-dried papers, but these higher grades of writing-papers are dried by what is known as the loft, or pole-dried process. Such paper is permitted to dry very slowly in a loft specially constructed for the purpose, where it is hung on poles several days, during which time the loft is kept at a temperature of about 100° Fahrenheit. Another detail of considerable importance is that of the "finish" or surface of the paper. When paper with a particularly high or glossy surface is desired, it is subjected to a separate process, after leaving the paper machine, known as supercalendering. "Supercalendering" is effected by passing the web through a stack of rolls which are similar to the machine calenders already described. These rolls are composed of metal cylinders, alternating with rolls made of solidified paper or cotton, turned exactly true, the top and bottom rolls being of metal and heavier than the others; a stack of supercalenders is necessarily composed of an odd number of rolls, as seven, nine, or eleven. The paper passes and repasses through these calenders until the requisite degree of smoothness and polish has been acquired. The friction in this machine produces so much electricity that ground wires are often used to carry it off in order that the paper may not become so highly charged as to attract dust or cause the sheets to cling together. When the fine polish has been imparted, the rolls of paper go to the cutting machines, which are automatic in action, cutting regular sheets of the required length as the paper is fed to them in a continuous web. In the manufacture of some high grades of paper, such as linens and bonds, where an especially fine, smooth surface is required, the sheets after being cut are arranged in piles of from twelve to fifteen sheets, plates of zinc are inserted alternately between them, and they are subjected to powerful hydraulic pressure. This process is termed "plating," and is, of course, very much more expensive than the process of supercalendering described above. From the cutters, the sheets are carried to the inspectors, who are seated in a row along an extended board table before two divisions with partitions ten or twelve inches high, affording spaces for the sheets before and after sorting. The work of inspection is performed by women, who detect almost instantly any blemish or imperfection in the finished product as it passes through their hands. If the paper is to be ruled for writing purposes, it is then taken to the ruling machines, where it is passed under revolving discs or pens, set at regular intervals. These convey the ruling ink to the paper as it passes on through the machine, and thus form true and continuous lines. If the paper is to be folded after ruling, as in the case of fine note-papers, the sheets pass on from the ruling machine to the folding machines, which are entirely automatic in their action. The paper is stacked at the back of the first folding guide and is fed in by the action of small rubber rollers which loosen each sheet from the one beneath, and push it forward until it is caught by the folding apparatus. Man's mechanical ingenuity has given to the machines of his invention something that seems almost like human intelligence, and in the case of the folding machine, the action is so regular and perfect that there seems to be no need of an attendant, save to furnish a constant supply of sheets. The folding completed, cutting machines are again brought into requisition, to cut and trim the sheets to the size of folded note or letter-paper, which is the final operation before they are sent out into the world on their mission of usefulness. The finished paper may or may not have passed through the ruling and folding process, but in either case it goes from the cutters to the wrappers and packers, and then to the shipping-clerks, all of whom perform the duties indicated by their names. The wonderful transformation wrought by the magic wand of science and human invention is complete, and what came into the factory as great bales of offensive rags, disgusting to sight and smell, goes forth as delicate, beautiful, perfected paper, redeemed from filth, and glorified into a high and noble use. Purity and beauty have come from what was foul and unwholesome; the highly useful has been summoned forth from the seemingly useless; a product that is one of the essential factors in the world's progress, and that promises to serve an ever-increasing purpose, has been developed from a material that apparently held not the slightest promise. Well might the _Boston News Letter_ of 1769 exclaim in quaint old rhyme: Rags are as beauties which concealèd lie, But when in paper, charming to the eye! Pray save your rags, new beauties to discover, For of paper truly every one's a lover; By the pen and press such knowledge is displayed As would not exist if paper was not made. And well may man pride himself on this achievement, this marvelous transformation, which represents the fruitage of centuries of striving and endeavor! Up to this point the reference has been almost entirely to paper made from rags, but radical improvements have been made, caused by the introduction of wood pulp, and these are of such importance that the account would not be complete without some mention of them. These changes are mainly in the methods of manipulating the wood to obtain the pulp, for when that is ready, the process from and including the "washers" and "beaters," is very similar to that already described. All papers, whether made from rags or wood, depend upon vegetable fiber for their substance and fundamental base, and it is found that the different fibers used in paper-making, when finally subdued, do not differ, in fact, whether obtained from rags or from the tree growing in the forest. In the latter case the raw wood is subjected to chemical treatment which destroys all resinous and foreign matters, leaving merely the cellular tissue, which, it is found, does not differ in substance from the cell tissue obtained after treating rags. In either case this cellular tissue, through the treatment to which the raw material is subjected, becomes perfectly plastic or moldable, and while the paper made from one differs slightly in certain characteristics from the paper made from the other, they are nevertheless very similar, and it might be safe to predict that further perfecting of processes will eventually make them practically alike. The woods used for this purpose are principally poplar and spruce, and there are three classes of the wood pulp: (1) mechanical wood, (2) soda process wood, and (3) sulphite wood pulp. The first method was invented in Germany in 1844. The logs are hewn in the forest, roughly barked, and shipped to the factory, where the first operation is to cut them up by steam saws into blocks about two feet in length. Any bark that may still cling to the log is removed by a rapidly revolving corrugated wheel of steel, while the larger blocks are split by a steam splitter. The next stage of their journey takes these blocks to a great millstone set perpendicularly instead of horizontally. Here a very strong and ingenious machine receives one block at a time, and with an automatically elastic pressure holds it sidewise against the millstone, which, like the mills of the gods, "grinds exceeding fine," and with the aid of constantly flowing water rapidly reduces these blocks to a pulpy form. This pulp is carried into tanks, from which it is passed between rollers, which leave it in thick, damp sheets, which are folded up evenly for shipment, or for storage for future use. If a paper-mill is operated in connection with the pulp-mill, the wood pulp is not necessarily rolled out in sheets, but is pumped directly from the tanks to the beaters. In the preparation of pulp by the other processes, the blocks are first thrown into a chipping machine with great wheels, the short, slanting knives of which quickly cut the blocks into small chips. In the soda process, invented by M. Meliner in France in 1865, the chips from spruce and poplar logs are boiled under pressure in a strong solution of caustic soda. When sulphite wood pulp is to be prepared, the chips are conveyed from the chipper into hoppers in the upper part of the building. Here they are thrown into great upright iron boilers or digesters charged with lime-water and fed with the fumes of sulphur which is burned for the purpose in a furnace adjoining the building and which thus forms acid sulphide of lime. The sulphite process was originally invented by a celebrated Philadelphia chemist, but was perfected in Europe. The "cooking," or boiling, to which the wood is subjected in both the soda and sulphite processes, effects a complete separation of all resinous and foreign substances from the fine and true cell tissue, or cellulose, which is left a pure fiber, ready for use as described. In the case of all fibers, whether rag or wood, painstaking work counts, and the excellence of the paper is largely dependent upon the time and care given to the reduction of the pulp from the original raw material. Chemical wood pulp of the best quality makes an excellent product, and is largely used for both print and book paper; it is frequently mixed with rag pulp, making a paper that can scarcely be distinguished from that made entirely from fine rags, though it is not of the proper firmness for the best flat or writing papers. All ordinary newspapers, as well as some of the cheaper grades of book and wrapping paper, are made entirely from wood, the sulphite or soda process supplying the fiber, and ground wood being used as a filler. In the average newspaper of to-day's issue, twenty-five per cent of sulphite fiber is sufficient to carry seventy-five per cent of the ground wood filler. The value of the idea is an economical one entirely, as the ground wood employed costs less than any other of the component parts of a print-paper sheet. The cylinder machine, to which reference was made earlier in the chapter, was patented in 1809 by a prominent paper-maker of England, Mr. John Dickinson. In this machine, a cylinder covered with wire cloth revolves with its lower portion dipping into a vat of pulp, while by suction a partial vacuum is maintained in the cylinder, causing the pulp to cling to the wire until it is conveyed to a covered cylinder, which takes it up and carries it forward in a manner similar to the system already described. This machine is employed in making straw-board and other heavy and cheap grades of paper. Generous Mother Nature, who supplies man's wants in such bountiful fashion, has furnished on her plains and in her forests an abundance of material that may be transformed into this fine product of human ingenuity. Esparto, a Spanish grass grown in South Africa, has entered largely into the making of print-paper in England. Mixed with rags it makes an excellent product, but the chemicals required to free it from resin and gritty silica are expensive, while the cost of importation has rendered its use in America impractical. Flax, hemp, manila, jute and straw, and of course old paper that has been once used, are extensively employed in this manufacture, the process beginning with the chemical treatment and boiling that are found necessary in the manipulation of rags. The successful use of these materials has met demands that would not otherwise have been supplied. As a result, the price has been so cheapened that the demand for paper has greatly increased, and its use has been extended to many and various purposes. Many additional items of interest might be described in connection with the methods of manufacturing paper, but as this work is intended for the general reader, rather than for the manufacturer, those wishing further information are referred to technical works on the subject. The best linen rags are used for the highest grades of writing and bond papers, while ordinary note, letter, and flat papers are made from cotton rags. In some mills, such as the government mill at Dalton, Massachusetts, where the government paper is made for banknotes, and in others where the finest ledger papers are manufactured, none but new, clean rags are used. These come from the remnants left in the making of linen goods. In the government mill where is made the paper for our national currency, or "greenbacks," there is a special attachment on the machine for introducing into the paper the silk threads that are always to be seen in our paper money. This attachment is just above the "wire" on the machine, and consists of a little conducting trough, through which flows, from a receptacle near the machine, a stream of water holding the silk threads in solution. The trough extends across the machine, and is provided at intervals with openings through which the short pieces of silk thread are automatically released, and sprinkled continuously onto the web of pulp as it passes beneath. The paper is thus distinguished, and infringement and possible counterfeiting are made extremely difficult by the fact that the government absolutely forbids the making of paper by others under a similar process, as well as the production of any paper containing these silk threads. The laws of the United States pertaining to anything that borders on infringement of our various money issues, both metal and currency, are most rigid; anything approaching a similarity of impression is prohibited, and a cut, stamp, or impression of any character that approaches in its appearance any money issue of our government is considered a violation of the law against counterfeiting, and is dealt with severely. The government takes the same uncompromising position in regard to the fabrics used in printing its paper-money issues, and it will be quickly seen that the silk thread process described above it is so great a variation from anything required in the mercantile world that it would be difficult to produce a paper at all similar without an ulterior purpose being at once apparent. For this reason the silk thread interspersion is in reality a very effective medium in preventing counterfeiting, not only on account of its peculiar appearance but also because of the elaborate methods necessary in its production. In those mills making the finest grades of paper, much of the process of thrashing, beating, dusting, and cleaning necessary in the ordinary mill is omitted. The cleanliness and brightness which are reached only at the "washer" and "beater" engines in the process of manufacturing the lower grades of paper from cheaper rags, prevail at every step in these higher grade mills. One of the first requisites in making good paper, especially the better grades, is an abundance of pure water, and spring-water, where available, is preferred. The effort has been made in the description given to cover the process of making paper from the crudest rags. In enumerating the several kinds of paper in another chapter, brief reference will be made to the varying methods required in their manufacture. In this chapter, no attempt has been made to cover more than the principal divisions or varieties of paper--writing, print, and wrapping papers. The United States, with characteristic enterprise, leads the world in paper-making, supplying about one-third of all that is used on the globe. The city of Holyoke, in Massachusetts, is the greatest paper center in the world, turning out each working-day some two hundred tons of paper, nearly one-half of which is "tub-sized," "loft-dried" writings. The region in the vicinity of Holyoke is dotted with paper-mills, and within a few miles of the city is made about one-half of all the "loft-dried" writings produced in the United States. The tiny acorn planted two centuries ago has waxed with the years, gaining strength and vigor with the increasing strength of the nation, till now it has become a giant oak, whose branches extend to the lands beyond the seas. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 5: From _The Story of Paper-making_, Chapter V.J.W. Butler Paper Company, Chicago, 1901.] THE EXPOSITION OF AN IDEA THE GOSPEL OF RELAXATION[6] _William James_ I wish in the following hour to take certain psychological doctrines and show their practical applications to mental hygiene,--to the hygiene of our American life more particularly. Our people, especially in academic circles, are turning towards psychology nowadays with great expectations; and, if psychology is to justify them, it must be by showing fruits in the pedagogic and therapeutic lines. The reader may possibly have heard of a peculiar theory of the emotions, commonly referred to in psychological literature as the Lange-James theory. According to this theory, our emotions are mainly due to those organic stirrings that are aroused in us in a reflex way by the stimulus of the exciting object or situation. An emotion of fear, for example, or surprise, is not a direct effect of the object's presence on the mind, but an effect of that still earlier effect, the bodily commotion which the object suddenly excites; so that, were this bodily commotion suppressed, we should not so much _feel_ fear as call the situation fearful; we should not feel surprise, but coldly recognize that the object was indeed astonishing. One enthusiast has even gone so far as to say that when we feel sorry it is because we weep, when we feel afraid it is because we run away, and not conversely. Some of you may perhaps be acquainted with the paradoxical formula. Now, whatever exaggeration may possibly lurk in this account of our emotions (and I doubt myself whether the exaggeration be very great), it is certain that the main core of it is true, and that the mere giving way to tears, for example, or to the outward expression of an anger-fit, will result for the moment in making the inner grief or anger more acutely felt. There is, accordingly, no better known or more generally useful precept in the moral training of youth, or in one's personal self-discipline, than that which bids us pay primary attention to what we do and express, and not to care too much for what we feel. If we only check a cowardly impulse in time, for example, or if we only _don't_ strike the blow or rip out with the complaining or insulting word that we shall regret as long as we live, our feelings themselves will presently be the calmer and better, with no particular guidance from us on their own account. Action seems to follow feeling, but really action and feeling go together; and by regulating the action, which is under the more direct control of the will, we can indirectly regulate the feeling, which is not. Thus the sovereign voluntary path to cheerfulness, if our spontaneous cheerfulness be lost, is to sit up cheerfully, to look round cheerfully, and to act and speak as if cheerfulness were already there. If such conduct does not make you soon feel cheerful, nothing else on that occasion can. So to feel brave, act as if we _were_ brave, use all our will to that end, and a courage-fit will very likely replace the fit of fear. Again, in order to feel kindly toward a person to whom we have been inimical, the only way is more or less deliberately to smile, to make sympathetic inquiries, and to force ourselves to say genial things. One hearty laugh together will bring enemies into a closer communion of heart than hours spent on both sides in inward wrestling with the mental demon of uncharitable feeling. To wrestle with a bad feeling only pins our attention on it, and keeps it still fastened in the mind; whereas, if we act as if from some better feeling, the old bad feeling soon folds its tent like an Arab, and silently steals away. The best manuals of religious devotion accordingly reiterate the maxim that we must let our feelings go, and pay no regard to them whatever. In an admirable and widely successful little book called _The Christian's Secret of a Happy Life_, by Mrs. Hannah Whitall Smith, I find this lesson on almost every page. _Act_ faithfully, and you really have faith, no matter how cold and even how dubious you may feel. "It is your purpose God looks at," writes Mrs. Smith, "not your feelings about that purpose; and your purpose, or will, is therefore the only thing you need attend to.... Let your emotions come or let them go, just as God pleases, and make no account of them either way.... They really have nothing to do with the matter. They are not the indicators of your spiritual state, but are merely the indicators of your temperament or of your present physical condition." But you all know these facts already, so I need no longer press them on your attention. From our acts and from our attitudes ceaseless inpouring currents of sensation come, which help to determine from moment to moment what our inner states shall be: that is a fundamental law of psychology which I will therefore proceed to assume. A Viennese neurologist of considerable reputation has recently written about the _Binnenleben,_ as he terms it, or buried life of human beings. No doctor, this writer says, can get into really profitable relations with a nervous patient until he gets some sense of what the patient's _Binnenleben_ is, of the sort of unuttered inner atmosphere in which his consciousness dwells alone with the secrets of its prison-house. This inner personal tone is what we can't communicate or describe articulately to others; but the wraith and ghost of it, so to speak, are often what our friends and intimates feel as our most characteristic quality. In the unhealthy-minded, apart from all sorts of old regrets, ambitions checked by shames and aspirations obstructed by timidities, it consists mainly of bodily discomforts not distinctly localized by the sufferer, but breeding a general self-mistrust and sense that things are not as they should be with him. Half the thirst for alcohol that exists in the world exists simply because alcohol acts as a temporary anaesthetic and effacer to all these morbid feelings that never ought to be in a human being at all. In the healthy-minded, on the contrary, there are no fears or shames to discover; and the sensations that pour in from the organism only help to swell the general vital sense of security and readiness for anything that may turn up. Consider, for example, the effects of a well-toned _motor-apparatus,_ nervous and muscular, on our general personal self-consciousness, the sense of elasticity and efficiency that results. They tell us that in Norway the life of the women has lately been entirely revolutionized by the new order of muscular feelings with which the use of the _ski_, or long snow-shoes, as a sport for both sexes, has made the women acquainted. Fifteen years ago the Norwegian women were even more than the women of other lands votaries of the old-fashioned ideal of femininity, "the domestic angel," the "gentle and refining influence" sort of thing. Now these sedentary fireside tabby-cats of Norway have been trained, they say, by the snow-shoes into lithe and audacious creatures, for whom no night is too dark or height too giddy, and who are not only saying good-bye to the traditional feminine pallor and delicacy of constitution, but actually taking the lead in every educational and social reform. I cannot but think that the tennis and tramping and skating habits and the bicycle-craze which are so rapidly extending among our dear sisters and daughters in this country are going also; to lead to a sounder and heartier moral tone, which will send its tonic breath through all our American life. I hope that here in America more and more the ideal of the well-trained and vigorous body will be maintained neck by neck with that of the well-trained and vigorous mind as the two coequal halves of the higher education for men and women alike. The strength of the British Empire lies in the strength of character of the individual Englishman, taken all alone by himself. And that strength, I am persuaded, is perennially nourished and kept up by nothing so much as by the national worship, in which all classes meet, of athletic outdoor life and sport. I recollect, years ago, reading a certain work by an American doctor on hygiene and the laws of life and the type of future humanity. I have forgotten its author's name and its title, but I remember well an awful prophecy that it contained about the future of our muscular system. Human perfection, the writer said, means ability to cope with the environment; but the environment will more and more require mental power from us, and less and less will ask for bare brute strength. Wars will cease, machines will do all our heavy work, man will become more and more a mere director of nature's energies, and less and less an exerter of energy on his own account. So that, if the _homo sapiens_ of the future can only digest his food and think, what need will he have of well-developed muscles at all? And why, pursued this writer, should we not even now be satisfied with a more delicate and intellectual type of beauty than that which pleased our ancestors? Nay, I have heard a fanciful friend make a still further advance in this "new-man" direction. With our future food, he says, itself prepared in liquid form from the chemical elements of the atmosphere, pepsinated or half-digested in advance, and sucked up through a glass tube from a tin can, what need shall we have of teeth, or stomachs even? They may go, along with our muscles and our physical courage, while, challenging even more and more our proper admiration, will grow the gigantic domes of our crania, arching over our spectacled eyes, and animating our flexible little lips to those floods of learned and ingenious talk which will constitute our most congenial occupation. I am sure that your flesh creeps at this apocalyptic vision. Mine certainly did so; and I cannot believe that our muscular vigor will ever be a superfluity. Even if the day ever dawns in which it will not be needed for fighting the old heavy battles against Nature, it will still always be needed to furnish the background of sanity, serenity, and cheerfulness to life, to give moral elasticity to our disposition, to round off the wiry edge of our fretfulness, and make us good-humored and easy to approach. Weakness is too apt to be what the doctors call irritable weakness. And that blessed internal peace and confidence, that _acquiescentia in seipso_, as Spinoza used to call it, that wells up from every part of the body of a muscularly well-trained human being, and soaks the indwelling soul of him with satisfaction, is, quite apart from every consideration of its mechanical utility, an element of spiritual hygiene of supreme significance. And now let me go a step deeper into mental hygiene, and try to enlist your insight and sympathy in a cause which I believe is one of paramount patriotic importance to us Yankees. Many years ago a Scottish medical man, Dr. Clouston, a mad-doctor as they call him there, or what we should call an asylum physician (the most eminent one in Scotland), visited this country, and said something that has remained in my memory ever since. "You Americans," he said, "wear too much expression on your faces. You are living like an army with all its reserves engaged in action. The duller countenances of the British population betoken a better scheme of life. They suggest stores of reserved nervous force to fall back upon, if any occasion should arise that requires it. This inexcitability, this presence at all times of power not used, I regard," continued Dr. Clouston, "as the great safeguard of our British people. The other thing in you gives me a sense of insecurity, and you ought somehow to tone yourselves down. You really do carry too much expression, you take too intensely the trivial moments of life." Now Dr. Clouston is a trained reader of the secrets of the soul as expressed upon the countenance, and the observation of his which I quote seems to me to mean a great deal. And all Americans who stay in Europe long enough to get accustomed to the spirit, that reigns and expresses itself there, so unexcitable as compared with ours, make a similar observation when they return to their native shores. They find a wild-eyed look upon their compatriots' faces, either of too desperate eagerness and anxiety or of too intense responsiveness and good-will. It is hard to say whether the men or the women show it most. It is true that we do not all feel about it as Dr. Clouston felt. Many of us, far from deploring it, admire it. We say: "What intelligence it shows! How different from the stolid cheeks, the codfish eyes, the slow, inanimate demeanor we have been seeing in the British Isles!" Intensity, rapidity, vivacity of appearance, are indeed with us something of a nationally accepted ideal; and the medical notion of "irritable weakness" is not the first thing suggested by them to our mind, as it was to Dr. Clouston's. In a weekly paper not very long ago I remember reading a story in which, after describing the beauty and interest of the heroine's personality, the author summed up her charms by saying that to all who looked upon her an impression as of "bottled lightning" was irresistibly conveyed. Bottled lightning, in truth, is one of our American ideals, even of a, young girl's character! Now it is most ungracious, and it may seem to some persons unpatriotic, to criticise in public the physical peculiarities of one's own people, of one's own family, so to speak. Besides, it may be said, and said with justice, that there are plenty of bottled-lightning temperaments in other countries, and plenty of phlegmatic temperaments here; and that, when all is said and done, the more or less of tension about which I am making such a fuss is a small item in the sum total of a nation's life, and not worth solemn treatment at a time when agreeable rather than disagreeable things should be talked about. Well, in one sense the more or less of tension in our faces and in our unused muscles _is_ a small thing: not much mechanical work is done by these contractions. But it is not always the material size of a thing that measures its importance: often it is its place and function. One of the most philosophical remarks I ever heard made was by an unlettered workman who was doing some repairs at my house many years ago. "There is very little difference between one man and another," he said, "when you go to the bottom of it. But what little there is, is very important." And the remark certainly applies to this case. The general over-contraction may be small when estimated in foot-pounds, but its importance is immense on account of its _effects on the over-contracted person's spiritual life_. This follows as a necessary consequence from the theory of our emotions to which I made reference at the beginning of this article. For by the sensations that so incessantly pour in from the over-tense excited body the over-tense and excited habit of mind is kept up; and the sultry, threatening, exhausting, thunderous inner atmosphere never quite clears away. If you never wholly give yourself up to the chair you sit in, but always keep your leg- and body-muscles half contracted for a rise; if you breathe eighteen or nineteen instead of sixteen times a minute, and never quite breathe out at that,--what mental mood _can_ you be in but one of inner panting and expectancy, and how can the future and its worries possibly forsake your mind? On the other hand, how can they gain admission to your mind if your brow be unruffled, your respiration calm and complete, and your muscles all relaxed? Now what is the cause of this absence of repose, this bottled-lightning quality in us Americans? The explanation of it that is usually given is that it comes from the extreme dryness of our climate and the acrobatic performances of our thermometer, coupled with the extraordinary progressiveness of our life, the hard work, the railroad speed, the rapid success, and all the other things we know so well by heart. Well, our climate is certainly exciting, but hardly more so than that of many parts of Europe, where nevertheless no bottled-lightning girls are found. And the work done and the pace of life are as extreme in every great capital of Europe as they are here. To me both of these pretended causes are utterly insufficient to explain the facts. To explain them, we must go not to physical geography, but to psychology and sociology. The latest chapter both in sociology and in psychology to be developed in a manner that approaches adequacy is the chapter on the imitative impulse. First Bagehot, then Tarde, then Royce and Baldwin here, have shown that invention and imitation, taken together, form, one may say, the entire warp and woof of human life, in so far as it is social. The American over-tension and jerkiness and breathlessness and intensity and agony of expression are primarily social, and only secondarily physiological, phenomena. They are _bad habits_, nothing more or less, bred of custom and example, born of the imitation of bad models and the cultivation of false personal ideals. How are idioms acquired, how do local peculiarities of phrase and accent come about? Through an accidental example set by some one, which struck the ears of others, and was quoted and copied till at last every one in the locality chimed in. Just so it is with national tricks of vocalization or intonation, with national manners, fashions of movement and gesture, and habitual expressions of face. We, here in America, through following a succession of pattern-setters whom it is now impossible to trace, and through influencing each other in a bad direction, have at last settled down collectively into what, for better or worse, is our own characteristic national type,--a type with the production of which, so far as these habits go, the climate and conditions have had practically nothing at all to do. This type; which we have thus reached by our imitativeness, we now have fixed upon us, for better or worse. Now no type can be _wholly_ disadvantageous; but, so far as our type follows the bottled-lightning fashion, it cannot be wholly good. Dr. Clouston was certainly right in thinking that eagerness, breathlessness, and anxiety are not signs of strength: they are signs of weakness and of bad co-ordination. The even forehead, the slab-like cheek, the codfish eye, may be less interesting for the moment; but they are more promising signs than intense expression is of what we may expect of their possessor in the long run. Your dull, unhurried worker gets over a great deal of ground, because he never goes backward or breaks down. Your intense, convulsive worker breaks down and has bad moods so often that you never know where he may be when you most need his help,--he may be having one of his "bad days." We say that so many of our fellow-countrymen collapse, and have to be sent abroad to rest their nerves, because they work so hard. I suspect that this is an immense mistake. I suspect that neither the nature nor the amount of our work is accountable for the frequency and severity of our breakdowns, but that their cause lies rather in those absurd feelings of hurry and having no time, in that breathlessness and tension, that anxiety of feature and that solicitude for results, that lack of inner harmony and ease, in short, by which with us the work is so apt to be accompanied, and from which a European who should do the same work would nine times out of ten be free. These perfectly wanton and unnecessary tricks of inner attitude and outer manner in us, caught from the social atmosphere, kept up by tradition, and idealized by many as the admirable way of life, are the last straws that break the American camel's back, the final overflowers of our measure of wear and tear and fatigue. The voice, for example, in a surprisingly large number of us has a tired and plaintive sound. Some of us are really tired (for I do not mean absolutely to deny that our climate has a tiring quality); but far more of us are not tired at all, or would not be tired at all unless we had got into a wretched trick of feeling tired, by following the prevalent habits of vocalization and expression. And if talking high and tired, and living excitedly and hurriedly, would only enable us to _do_ more by the way, even while breaking us down in the end, it would be different. There would be some compensation, some excuse, for going on so. But the exact reverse is the case. It is your relaxed and easy worker, who is in no hurry, and quite thoughtless most of the while of consequences, who is your efficient worker; and tension and anxiety, and present and future, all mixed up together in our mind at once, are the surest drags upon steady progress and hindrances to our success. My colleague, Professor Münsterberg, an excellent observer, who came here recently, has written some notes on America to German papers. He says in substance that the appearance of unusual energy in America is superficial and illusory, being really due to nothing but the habits of jerkiness and bad co-ordination for which we have to thank the defective training of our people. I think myself that it is high time for old legends and traditional opinions to be changed; and that, if any one should begin to write about Yankee inefficiency and feebleness, and inability to do anything with time except to waste it, he would have a very pretty paradoxical thesis to sustain, with a great many facts to quote, and a great deal of experience to appeal to in its proof. Well, my friends, if our dear American character is weakened by all this over-tension,--and I think, whatever reserves you may make, that you will agree as to the main facts,--where does the remedy lie? It lies, of course, where lay the origins of the disease. If a vicious fashion and taste are to blame for the thing, the fashion and taste must be changed. And, though it is no small thing to inoculate seventy millions of people with new standards, yet, if there is to be any relief, that will have to be done. We must change ourselves from a race that admires jerk and snap for their own sakes, and looks down upon low voices and quiet ways as dull, to one that, on the contrary, has calm for its ideal, and for their own sakes loves harmony, dignity, and ease. So we go back to the psychology of imitation again. There is only one way to improve ourselves, and that is by some of us setting an example which the others may pick up and imitate till the new fashion spreads from east to west. Some of us are in more favorable positions than others to set new fashions. Some are much more striking personally and imitable, so to speak. But no living person is sunk so low as not to be imitated by somebody. Thackeray somewhere says of the Irish nation that there never was an Irishman so poor that he didn't have a still poorer Irishman living at his expense; and, surely, there is no human being whose example doesn't work contagiously in _some_ particular. The very idiots at our public institutions imitate each other's peculiarities. And, if you should individually achieve calmness and harmony in your own person, you may depend upon it that a wave of imitation will spread from you, as surely as the circles spread outward when a stone is dropped into a lake. Fortunately, we shall not have to be absolute pioneers. Even now in New York they have formed a society for the improvement of our national vocalization, and one perceives its machinations already in the shape of various newspaper paragraphs intended to stir up dissatisfaction with the awful thing that it is. And, better still than that, because more radical and general, is the gospel of relaxation, as one may call it, preached by Miss Annie Payson Call, of Boston, in her admirable little volume called _Power Through Repose_, a book that ought to be in the hands of every teacher and student in America of either sex. You need only be followers, then, on a path already opened up by others. But of one thing be confident: others still will follow you. And this brings me to one more application of psychology to practical life, to which I will call attention briefly, and then close. If one's example of easy and calm ways is to be effectively contagious, one feels by instinct that the less voluntarily one aims at getting imitated, the more unconscious one keeps in the matter, the more likely one is to succeed. _Become the imitable thing,_ and you may then discharge your minds of all responsibility for the imitation. The laws of social nature will take care of that result. Now the psychological principle on which this precept reposes is a law of very deep and widespread importance in the conduct of our lives, and at the same time a law which we Americans most grievously neglect. Stated technically, the law is this: that _strong feeling about one's self tends to arrest the free association of one's objective ideas and motor processes._ We get the extreme example of this in the mental disease called melancholia. A melancholic patient is filled through and through with intensely painful emotion about himself. He is threatened, he is guilty, he is doomed, he is annihilated, he is lost. His mind is fixed as if in a cramp on these feelings of his own situation, and in all the books on insanity you may read that the usual varied flow of his thoughts has ceased. His associative processes, to use the technical phrase, are inhibited; and his ideas stand stock-still, shut up to their one monotonous function of reiterating inwardly the fact of the man's desperate estate. And this inhibitive influence is not due to the mere fact that his emotion is _painful_. Joyous emotions about the self also stop the association of our ideas. A saint in ecstasy is as motionless and irresponsive and one-idea'd as a melancholiac. And, without going as far as ecstatic saints, we know how in every one a great or sudden pleasure may paralyze the flow of thought. Ask young people returning from a party or a spectacle, and all excited about it, what it was. "Oh, it was _fine!_ it was _fine!_ it was _fine!_" is all the information you are likely to receive until the excitement has calmed down. Probably every one of my hearers has been made temporarily half-idiotic by some great success or piece of good fortune. "_Good!_ GOOD! GOOD!" is all we can at such times say to ourselves until we smile at our own very foolishness. Now from all this we can draw an extremely practical conclusion. If, namely, we wish our trains of ideation and volition to be copious and varied and effective, we must form the habit of freeing them from the inhibitive influence of reflection upon them, of egoistic pre-occupation about their results. Such a habit, like other habits, can be formed. Prudence and duty and self-regard, emotions of ambition and emotions of anxiety, have, of course, a needful part to play in our lives. But confine them as far as possible to the occasions when you are making your general resolutions and deciding on your plan of campaign, and keep them out of the details. When once a decision is reached and execution is the order of the day, dismiss absolutely all responsibility and care about the outcome. _Unclamp_, in a word, your intellectual and practical machinery, and let it run free; and the service it will do you will be twice as good. Who are the scholars who get "rattled" in the recitation-room? Those who think of the possibilities of failure and feel the great importance of the act. Who are those who do recite well? Often those who are most indifferent. _Their_ ideas reel themselves out of their memory of their own accord. Why do we hear the complaint so often that social life in New England is either less rich and expressive or more fatiguing than it is in some other parts of the world? To what is the fact, if fact it be, due unless to the over-active conscience of the people, afraid of either saying something too trivial and obvious, or something insincere, or something unworthy of one's interlocutor, or something in some way or other not adequate to the occasion? How can conversation possibly steer itself through such a sea of responsibilities and inhibitions as this? On the other hand, conversation does flourish and society is refreshing, and neither dull on the one hand nor exhausting from its efforts on the other, wherever people forget their scruples and take the brakes off their hearts, and let their tongues wag as automatically and irresponsibly as they will. They talk much in pedagogic circles to-day about the duty of the teacher to prepare for every lesson in advance. To some extent this is useful. But we Yankees are assuredly not those to whom such a general doctrine should be preached. We are only too careful as it is. The advice I should give to most teachers would be in the words of one who is herself an admirable teacher. Prepare yourself in the _subject so well that it shall be always on tap_: then in the class-room trust your spontaneity and fling away all further care. My advice to students, especially to girl-students, would be somewhat similar. Just as a bicycle-chain may be too tight, so may one's carefulness and conscientiousness be so tense as to hinder the running of one's mind. Take, for example, periods when there are many successive days of examination pending. One ounce of good nervous tone in an examination is worth many pounds of anxious study for it in advance. If you want really to do your best at an examination, fling away the book the day before, say to yourself, "I won't waste another minute on this miserable thing, and I don't care an iota whether I succeed or not." Say this sincerely and feel it; and go out and play, or go to bed and sleep, and I am sure the results next day will encourage you to use the method permanently. I have heard this advice given to a student by Miss Call, whose book on muscular relaxation I quoted a moment ago. In her later book, entitled _As a Matter of Course_, the gospel of moral relaxation, of dropping things from the mind, and not "caring," is preached with equal success. Not only our preachers, but our friends the theosophists and mind-curers of various religious sects are also harping on this string. And with the doctors, the Delsarteans, the various mind-curing sects, and such writers as Mr. Dresser, Prentice Mulford, Mr. Horace Fletcher, and Mr. Trine to help, and the whole band of schoolteachers and magazine-readers chiming in, it really looks as if a good start might be made in the direction of changing our American mental habit into something more indifferent and strong. Worry means always and invariably inhibition of associations and loss of effective power. Of course, the sovereign cure for worry is religious faith; and this, of course, you also know. The turbulent billows of the fretful surface leave the deep parts of the ocean undisturbed, and to him who has a hold on vaster and more permanent realities the hourly vicissitudes of his personal destiny seem relatively insignificant things. The really religious person is accordingly unshakable and full of equanimity, and calmly ready for any duty that the day may bring forth. This is charmingly illustrated by a little work with which I recently became acquainted, "The Practice of the Presence of God, the Best Ruler of a Holy Life, by Brother Lawrence, being Conversations and Letters of Nicholas Herman of Lorraine, Translated from the French."[7] I extract a few passages, the conversations being given in indirect discourse. Brother Lawrence was a Carmelite friar, converted at Paris in 1666. "He said that he had been footman to M. Fieubert, the Treasurer, and that he was a great awkward fellow, who broke everything. That he had desired to be received into a monastery, thinking that he would there be made to smart for his awkwardness and the faults he should commit, and so he should sacrifice to God his life, with its pleasures; but that God had disappointed him, he having met with nothing but satisfaction in that state.... "That he had long been troubled in mind from a certain belief that he should be damned; that all the men in the world could not have persuaded him to the contrary; but that he had thus reasoned with himself about it: _I engaged in a religious life only for the love of God, and I have endeavored to act only for Him; whatever becomes of me, whether I be lost or saved, I will always continue to act purely for the love of God. I shall have this good at least, that till death I shall have done all that is in me to love Him ..._ That since then he had passed his life in perfect liberty and continual joy. "That when an occasion of practicing some virtue offered, he addressed himself to God, saying, 'Lord, I cannot do this unless Thou enablest me'; and that then he received strength more than sufficient. That, when he had failed in his duty, he only confessed his fault, saying to God, 'I shall never do otherwise, if You leave me to myself: it is You who must hinder my failing, and mend what is amiss.' That after this he gave himself no further uneasiness about it. "That he had been lately sent into Burgundy to buy the provision of wine for the society, which was a very unwelcome task for him, because he had no turn for business, and because he was lame, and could not go about the boat but by rolling himself over the casks. That, however, he gave himself no uneasiness about it, nor about the purchase of the wine. That he said to God, 'It was his business he was about,' and that he afterward found it well performed. That he had been sent into Auvergne, the year before, upon the same account; that he could not tell how the matter passed, but that it proved very well. "So, likewise, in his business in the kitchen (to which he had naturally a great aversion), having accustomed himself to do everything there for the love of God, and with prayer upon all occasions, for his grace to do his work well, he had found everything easy during fifteen years that he had been employed there. "That he was very well pleased with the post he was now in, but that he was as ready to quit that as the former, since he was always pleasing himself in every condition, by doing little things for the love of God. "That the goodness of God assured him He would not forsake him utterly, and that He would give him strength to bear whatever evil He permitted to happen to him; and, therefore, that he feared nothing, and had no occasion to consult with anybody about his state. That, when he had attempted to do it, he had always come away more perplexed." The simple-heartedness of the good Brother Lawrence, and the relaxation of all unnecessary solicitudes and anxieties in him is a refreshing spectacle. * * * * * The need of feeling responsible all the livelong day has been preached long enough in our New England. Long enough exclusively, at any rate,--and long enough to the female sex. What our girl-students and women-teachers most need nowadays is not the exacerbation, but rather the toning-down of their moral tensions. Even now I fear that some one of my fair hearers may be making an undying resolve to become strenuously relaxed, cost what it will, for the remainder of her life. It is needless to say that that is not the way to do it. The way to do it, paradoxical as it may seem, is genuinely not to care whether you are doing it or not. Then, possibly, by the grace of God, you may all at once find that you _are_ doing it, and, having learned what the trick feels like, you may (again by the grace of God) be enabled to go on. And that something like this may be the happy experience of all my hearers is, in closing, my most earnest wish. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 6: From _Talks to Teachers on Psychology and to Students on Some of Life's Problems_. Henry Holt and Company, New York, 1902.] [Footnote 7: Fleming H. Revell Company, New York (AUTHOR).] SCIENCE AND RELIGION[8] _Charles Proteus Steinmetz_ The problem of religion--that is, of the relations of man with the supernatural, with God and immortality, with the soul, our personality or the ego, and its existence or nonexistence after death--is the greatest and deepest which ever confronted mankind. In the present state of human knowledge, science can give no definite and final conclusions on these subjects, because of the limitations inherent in science. We must realize that all our knowledge and information and the entire structure of science are ultimately derived from the perceptions of our senses and thereby limited in the same manner and to the same extent as our sense perceptions and our intellect are limited. The success or failure of scientific achievement largely depends on the extent to which we can abstract--that is, make our observations and conclusions independent of the limitations of the human mind. But there are limitations inherent in the human mind beyond which our intellect cannot reach, and therefore science does not and cannot show us the world as it actually is, with its true facts and laws, but only as it appears to us within the inherent limitations of the human mind. The greatest limitation of the human mind is that all its perceptions are finite, and our intellect cannot grasp the conception of infinity. The same limitation therefore applies to the world as it appears to our reasoning intellect, and in the world of science there is no infinity, and conceptions such as God and the immortality of the ego are beyond the realm of empirical science. Science deals only with finite events in finite time and space, and the farther we pass onward in space or time, the more uncertain becomes the scientific reasoning, until, in trying to approach the infinite, we are lost in the fog of unreasonable contradiction, "beyond science"--that is, "transcendental". Thus, we may never know and understand the infinite, whether in nature, in the ultimate deductions from the laws of nature in time and in space, or beyond nature, on such transcendental conceptions as God and immortality. But we may approach these subjects as far as the limitations of our mind permit, reach the border line beyond which we cannot go, and so derive some understanding of how far these subjects may appear nonexisting or unreasonable, merely because they are beyond the limitations of our intellect. There appear to me two promising directions of approach--first, from the complex of thought and research, which in physics has culminated in the theory of relativity; and, second, in a study of the gaps found in the structure of empirical science and what they may teach us. All events of nature occur in space and in time. Whatever we perceive, whatever record we receive through our senses, always is attached to, and contained in, space and time. But are space and time real existing things? Have they an absolute reality outside of our mind, as a part or framework of nature, as entities--that is, things that are? Or are they merely a conception of the human mind, a form given by the character of our mind to the events of nature--that is, to the hypothetical cause of our sense perceptions? Kant, the greatest and most critical of all philosophers, in his _Critique of Pure Reason (Kritik der Reinen Vernunft)_, concludes that space and time have no absolute existence, but are categories--that is, forms in which the human mind conceives his relation to nature. The same idea is expressed by the poet-philosopher Goethe in his dramatic autobiography _Faust_ (in the second part), when he refers to the "Mütter," to the marriage of Achilles and Helena "outside of all time." It is found in ancient time. So Revelation speaks of "there should be time no longer" (hoti chronos ouketi estai). The work of the great mathematicians of the nineteenth century--Gauss, Riemann, Lobatschefsky, Bolyai--offered further evidence that space is not an empirical deduction from nature, but a conception of the mind, by showing that various forms of space can be conceived, differing from one another and from the form in which the mind has cast the events of nature (the "Euclidean" space). Finally, physical science, in the theory of relativity, has deduced the same conclusions: space and time do not exist in nature by themselves, as empty space and empty time, but their existence is only due to things and events as they occur in nature. They are relative in the relation between us and the events of nature, so much so that they are not fixed and invariable in their properties, but depend upon the observer and the conditions of observation. We can get an idea of how utterly our perception of nature depends on the particular form of our time conception by picturing to ourselves how nature would look if our time perception were 100,000 times faster, or 100,000 times slower. In the first case, with our sense perceptions 100,000 times faster, all events in nature would appear to us 100,000 times slower. This would then be a stationary and immovable world. The only motion which we could see with our eyes would be that of the cannon ball, which would crawl slowly along, at less than a snail's pace. The express train going at sixty miles per hour would appear to stand still, and deliberate experiment be required to discover its motion. By noting its position on the track, and noting it again after a period of time as long as five minutes appears to us now, we should find its position changed by three inches. It would be a dangerous world, as there would be many objects--not distinguishable to the senses from other harmless objects--contact with which would be dangerous, even fatal; and one and the same object (as the express train) might sometimes be harmless (when at rest), sometimes dangerous (when in motion), without our senses being able to see any difference. On the other hand, with our sense perceptions 100,000 times slower, all events in nature would appear to us to occur 100,000 times faster. There would be little rest in nature, and we should see plants, and even stones, move. We should observe, in a period of time not longer than a minute or two appear to us now, a plant start from seed, grow up, flower, bring fruit, and die. Sun and moon would be luminous bands traversing the sky; day and night alternate seconds of light and darkness. Much of nature, all moving things, would be invisible to us. If I moved my arm, it would disappear, to reappear again when I held it still. It would be a usual occurrence to have somebody suddenly appear and just as suddenly disappear from our midst, or to see only a part of a body. The vanishing and the appearance of objects would be common occurrences in nature; and we should speak of "vanishing" and "appearing," instead of "moving" and "stopping." Collisions, usually harmless, with invisible objects would be common occurrences. As seen, nature and its laws would appear to us very different from what we find them now, with our present time perception. Thus philosophy, mathematics, and physical science agree that space and time cannot be entities, but are conceptions of the human mind in its relation to nature. But what does this mean, and what conclusions follow from it? The space of our conception is three-dimensional--that is, extended in three directions. For instance, the north-south direction, the east-west direction, and the up-down direction. Any place or "point" in space thus is located, relative to some other point, by giving its three distances from the latter, in three (arbitrarily chosen) directions. Time has only one dimension--that is, extends in one direction only, from the past to the future--and a moment or "point" in time thus is located, with reference to another point in time, by one time distance. But there is a fundamental difference between our space conception and our time conception, in that we can pass through time only in one direction, from the past to the future, while we can pass through space in any direction, from north to south, as well as from south to north--that is, time is irreversible, flows uniformly in one direction, while space is reversible, can be traversed in any direction. This means that when we enter a thing in space, as a house, we can approach it, pass through it, leave it, come back to it, and the thing therefore appears permanent to us, and we know, even when we have left the house and do not see it any more, that it still exists, and that we can go back to it again and enter it. Not so with time. On approaching a thing in time, an event such as a human life, it extends from a point in time--birth--over a length of time--the life--to an end point in time--death--just as the house in space extends from a point in space--say the north wall--over a length of space--its extent--to an end point in space--say the south wall. But when we pass beyond the end point of an event in time--the death of a life--we cannot go back to the event any more; the event has ceased, ended, the life is extinct. But let us imagine that the same irreversibility applied to the conception of space--that is, that we could move through space only from north to south, and not in the opposite direction. Then a thing in space, as a house, would not exist for us until we approached it. When we were approaching it, it would first appear indistinctly, and more and more distinctly the nearer we approached it, just as an event in time does not exist until we reach the point of its beginning, but may appear in anticipation, in time perspective, when we approach it, the more distinctly, the closer we approach it, until we reach the threshold of the time span covered by the event, and the event begins to exist, the life is born. So to us, if we could move only from north to south, the house would begin to exist only when we reached its north door. That point would be the "birth" of the house. Passing through the span of space covered by the house--this would for us be its existence, its "life," and when we stepped out of the south door the house would cease to exist for us, we could never enter it and turn back to it again--that is, it would be dead and extinct, just as the life when we pass beyond its end point in time. Thus birth and death, appearance and extinction of an event in time, as our life, are the same as the beginning and end point of a thing in space, like a house. But the house appears to us to exist permanently, whether we are in it, within the length between beginning and end point, or not; while the event in time, our life, appears to us to exist only during the length of time when we are between its beginning and its end point in time, and before and after it does not exist for us, because we cannot go back to it or ahead into it. But assume time were reversible, like space--that is, we could go through it in any direction. There would then be no such thing as birth or origin, and death or extinction, but our life would exist permanently, as a part or span of time, just as the house exists as a part or section of space, and the question of immortality, of extinction or nonextinction by death, would then be meaningless. We should not exist outside of the span of time covered by our life, just as we do not exist outside of the part of space covered by our body in space, and to reach an event, as our life, we should have to go to the part of space and to the part of time where it occurs; but there would be no more extinction of the life by going beyond its length in time as there is extinction of a house by going outside of its door, and everything, like a human being, would have four extensions or dimensions--three extensions in space and one in time.[9] If space and time, and therefore the characteristics of space and time, are not real things or entities, but conceptions of the human mind, then those transcendental questions, as that of immortality after death and existence before birth, are not problems of fact in nature or outside of nature, but are meaningless, just as the question whether a house exists for an observer outside of the space covered by it. In other words, the questions of birth and death, of extinction or immortality, are merely the incidental results of the peculiarity of our conceptions of time, the peculiarity that the time of our conceptions is irreversible, flows continuously at a uniform rate in the same direction from the past to the future. But if time has no reality, is not an existing entity, then these transcendental problems resulting from our time conception, of extinction or immortality, have no real existence, but are really phenomena of the human mind, and cease to exist if we go beyond the limitations of our mind, beyond our peculiar time conception. It is interesting to realize that the modern development of science, in the relativity theory, has proved not only that time is not real, but a conception, but also has proved that the time of our conception does not flow uniformly at constant rate from past to future, but that the rate of the flow of time varies with the conditions; the rate of time flow of an event slows down with the motion relative to the event. But the conception of a reversal of the flow of time is no more illogical than the conception of a change of the rate of the flow of time. It is inconceivable, because it is beyond the limitations of our mind. Thus we see that the questions of life and death, of extinction and immortality, are not absolute problems, but merely the result of the limitations of our mind in its conception of time, and have no existence outside of us. After all, to some extent we conceive time as reversible, in the conception of historical time. In history we go back in time at our will, and traverse with the mind's eye the times of the past, and we then find that death and extinction do not exist in history, but the events of history, the lives of those who made history, exist just as much outside of the span of time of their physiological life--that is, are immortal in historical time. They may fade and become more indistinct with the distance in time, just as things in space become more indistinct with the distance in space, but they can be brought back to full clearness and distinction by again approaching the things and events, the former moving through space, the latter moving through the historical time--that is, by looking up and studying the history of the time. THE ENTITY "X" Scientifically, life is a physico-chemical process. Transformations of matter, with which the chemist deals, and transformations of energy, with which the physicist deals, are all that is comprised in the phenomenon of life; and mind, intellect, soul, personality, the ego, are mere functions of the physico-chemical process of life, vanishing when this process ceases, but are not a part of the transformations of matter and of energy. If you thus speak of "mental energy," it scientifically is a misnomer, and mind is not energy in the physical sense. It is true that mental effort, intellectual work, is accompanied by transformations of matter, chemical changes in the brain, and by transformations of energy. But the mental activity is not a part of the energy or of the matter which is transformed, but the balance of energy and of matter closes. In the energy transformations accompanying mental activity, just as much energy of one form appears as energy of some other form is consumed, and the mental activity is no part of the energy. In the transformations of matter accompanying mental activity, just as much matter of one form appears as matter of some other form is consumed, and the mental activity is no part of either--that is, neither energy nor matter has been transformed into mental activity, nor has energy or matter been produced by mental activity. All attempts to account for the mental activity as produced by the expenditure of physical energy, or as producing physical energy--that is, exerting forces and action--have failed and must fail, and so must any attempt to record or observe and measure mental activity by physical methods--that is, methods sensitive to the action of physical forces. But what, then, is mind? Is it a mere phenomenon, accompanying the physico-chemical reactions of life and vanishing with the end of the reaction, just as the phenomenon of a flame may accompany a chemical reaction, and vanish when the reaction is completed? Or is mind an entity, just like the entity energy and the entity matter, but differing from either of them--in short, a third entity? We have compared mind with the phenomenon of a flame accompanying a chemical reaction; but, after all, the flame is not a mere phenomenon, but is an entity, is energy. More than once, in the apparently continuous and unbroken structure of science, wide gaps have been discovered into which new sections of knowledge fitted, sections the existence of which had never been suspected. So in Mendelejeff's _Periodic System of the Elements_ all chemical elements fitted in without gaps--in a continuous series (except a few missing links, which were gradually discovered and filled in). Nevertheless, the whole group of six noble gases, from helium to emanium, were discovered and fitted into the periodic system at a place where nobody had suspected a gap. One of the most interesting of such unsuspected gaps in the structure of science is the following, because of its pertinency to the subject of our discussion. In studying the transformations of matter, the chemist records them by equations of the form: (1) 2H_{2} + O_{2} = 2H_{2}O, which means: Two gram molecules of hydrogen H_{2}(2 X 2 = 4 grams) and 1 gram molecule of oxygen O_{2}(1 X 32 grams), combine to 2 gram molecules of water vapor H_{2}O (2 X 18 = 36 grams). For nearly a hundred years chemists wrote and accepted this equation; innumerable times it has been experimentally proved by combining 4 parts of hydrogen and 32 parts of oxygen to 36 parts of water vapor; so that this chemical equation would appear as correct and unquestionable as anything can be. Nevertheless, it is wrong, or rather incomplete. It does not give the whole event, but omits an essential part of it, and now we write it: (2) 2H_{2} + O_{2} = 2H_{2}O + 293,000 J., which means: The matter _and energy_ of 2 gram molecules of hydrogen, and the matter _and energy_ of 1 gram molecule of oxygen, combine to the matter _and energy_ of 2 gram molecules of water vapor and 293,000 joules, or units, of _free energy_. For a hundred years the chemists thus saw only the material transformation as represented by equation (1), but overlooked and did not recognize the energy transformation coincident with the transformation of matter, though every time the experiment was made, the 293,000 J. of energy in equation (2) made themselves felt as flame, as heat and mechanical force, sometimes even explosively shattering the container in which the experiment was made. But the flame and the explosion appeared only as an incidental phenomenon without significance, as it represents and contains no part of the matter, but equation (1) gives the complete balance of matter in transformation. It was much later that the scientists realized the significance of the flame accompanying the material transformation as not a mere incidental phenomenon, but as the manifestation of the entity energy, permanent and indestructible, like matter, and the complete equation (2) appeared, giving the balance of energy as well as the balance of matter--that is, coincident with the transformation of matter is a transformation of energy, and both are indissoluble from each other, either involves the other, and both may be called different aspects of the same phenomenon. But we have seen, when mental activity occurs in our mind, chemical and physical transformations accompany it, are coincident with it, and apparently indissoluble from it. Does there possibly exist the same relation between mental activity and the transformations of energy and matter, as we have seen to exist between the latter two? Are mental activity, energy transformation, and transformation of matter three aspects of the same biochemical phenomenon? If for nearly a hundred years equation (1) was considered complete, until we found that one side was incomplete, and arrived at the more complete equation (2), the question may well be raised: Is equation (2) complete, dealing as it does with two entities, matter and energy, or is it not possibly still incomplete, and a third entity should appear in the equation, an entity "X," as I may call it, differing from energy and from matter, just as energy and matter differ from each other, and therefore not recognizable and measurable by the means which measure energy or matter, just as energy cannot be measured by the same means as matter? That is, the complete equation of transformation would read: (3) 2H_{2} + O_{2} = 2H_{2}O + 293,000 J. + X, involving all three entities, matter, energy, and mind, pertaining, respectively, to the realm of chemistry, of physics, and of psychology, or possibly a broader science of which psychology is one branch. There is no scientific evidence whatsoever of the existence of such a third entity, "X," but all our deductions have been by analogy, which proves nothing--that is, by speculation, dreaming, and unavoidably so--since in these conceptions we are close to the border line of the human mind where logical reasoning loses itself in the fog of contradiction. But at the same time there is no evidence against the conception of an entity "X"; it is not illogical, at least no more so than all such general conceptions, no more so than, for instance, that of energy or of matter. As empirical science deals with energy and matter, and entity "X" is neither, it could not be observed by any of the methods of experimental physics or chemistry. If mind is a third entity, correlated with the entities of energy and of matter, we should expect that mental activity, or entity "X," should occur not only in the highly complex transformations of energy and of matter taking place in the brains of the highest orders of living beings, but that entity "X" should appear in all physico-chemical reactions, just as energy transformations always occur in transformations of matter, and inversely. But this seems not so, and in most of the transformations of energy and of matter entity "X" does not appear. However, we have no satisfactory means of recognizing entity "X," no methods of studying it. Therefore, it may well be that it is noticed only in those rare instances when it appears of high intensity, but in most reactions entity "X" may be so small or appear in such way as to escape observation by the means and by the methods now available. Like energy or matter, entity "X" may have many forms in which it is not recognized by us, just as for a long time the flame was not recognized as the entity energy. To illustrate, again by analogy: In many transformations of matter, indeed, in most of the more complex ones of the organic world, the concurrent energy transformation is of such slowness and of such low intensity that it appears nonexisting, and can be discovered and measured only by the delicate experiments devised by science. Furthermore, the energy may appear in different forms. Thus the 293,000 J. of energy in equation (2) may appear as heat, or as electrical energy, or as a combination of heat, light, sound, and mechanical energy. Now assume that we could observe and notice only one of the forms of energy--for instance, only electrical energy. We should then find that in the equation (1) we only sometimes get energy--that is, electrical energy--under special peculiar conditions, but usually do not seem to get any of the entity energy, simply because we do not recognize it in the form in which it appears. Analogously, there might be a term of entity "X" in all transformations, even such simple ones as equation (3), but entity "X" may appear in a far different, simpler form. It would mean that "mind" is only one form of entity "X," perhaps the high-grade form, as it appears in highly complex reactions. In the simpler physico-chemical processes of nature, entity "X" also would appear, but in other, simpler forms. It would mean that things such as mind and intellect are not limited to the higher living beings, but characteristics akin thereto would be found grading down throughout all living and inanimate nature. This does not appear unreasonable when we consider that some characteristics of life are found throughout all nature, even in the crystal which, in its mother liquor, repairs a lesion, "heals a wound," or which, in the colloidal solution, may be "poisoned" by prussic acid. Assume, then, that mind, intellect, personality, the ego, were forms of a third entity, an entity "X," correlated in nature with the entities energy and matter. Then, just as energy and matter continuously change their forms, so with the transformations of energy and of matter, entity "X" would continuously change, disappear in one form and reappear in another form. Entity "X" could therefore not exist permanently in one and the same form, and the permanency of the ego--that is, immortality--would still be illogical, would not exist within the realm of science, but would carry us beyond the limitations of the human mind into the unknowable. Permanency of the ego--that is, individual immortality--would require a form of entity "X," in which it is not further transformable. This would be the case if the transformations of entity "X" are not completely reversible, but tend one definite direction, from lower-grade to higher-grade forms, and the latter thus would gradually build up to increasing permanency. There is nothing unreasonable in this, but a similar condition--in the reverse direction--exists with the transformations of energy. They also are not completely reversible, but tend in a definite direction, from higher- to lower-grade form--unavailable heat energy (the increase of entropy by the second law of thermodynamics). Thus in infinite time the universe should come to a standstill, in spite of the law of conservation of energy, by all energy becoming unavailable for further transformation--that is, becoming dead energy. If entity "X" existed, could it not also have become unavailable for further transformation by reaching its maximum high-grade form and thus become not susceptible to further change--that is, "immortal"--just as the unavailable heat of the physicist is "immortal," and not capable of further transformation? Here we are again in the fog of illogic, beyond the limitations. However, it sounds familiar to the Nirvana of the Buddhist. Physics and chemistry obviously could not deal with entity "X," and the most delicate and sensitive physical or chemical instruments could get no indication of it, and all attempts at investigation by physical or chemical means thus must be doomed to failure. But such investigations of entity "X" belong to the realm of the science of psychology, or, rather, a broader science, of which psychology is one branch dealing with one form of entity "X," mind, just as, for instance, electro-physics is one branch of the broader science of physics, dealing with electrical energy, while physics deals with all forms of energy. In concluding, I wish to say that nothing in the preceding speculations can possibly encourage spiritism or other pseudo-science. On the contrary, from the preceding it is obvious that the alleged manifestations of spiritism must be fake or self-deception, since they are manifestations of energy. Entity "X," if it exists, certainly is not energy, and therefore could not manifest itself as such. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 8: From _Harpers Magazine_ for February, 1922.] [Footnote 9: It is interesting to note that the relativity theory leads to the conception of a symmetrical four-dimensional world space (Minkowski), in which in general each of the four dimensions comprises space and time conceptions, and the segregation into three dimensions of space and one dimension of time occurs only under special conditions of observation. (AUTHOR.)] BIOGRAPHICAL AND CRITICAL NOTES SIR ARTHUR KEITH, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., born in Aberdeen, 1866, was educated at the University of Aberdeen; at University College, London; and at the University of Leipzig. From 1899 to 1902, he was Secretary of the Anatomical Society of Great Britain, and was President of the Royal Anthropological Institute from 1912 to 1914. At present he is Hunterian Professor and Conservator of Museum, Royal College of Surgeons, London, and also holds the Fullerian Professorship of Physiology, Royal Institution of Great Britain and Ireland. Beginning with his _Introduction to the Study of Anthropoid Apes_ in 1896, he has produced some ten volumes. Among them are _Human Embryology and Morphology_ (1901); _Ancient Types of Man_ (1911); _The Human Body_ (1912); _Menders of the Maimed_ (1919); and _Nationality and Race_ (1920). He was knighted in 1921. "The Levers of the Human Body" is helpful in illustrating the value of diagrams and of analogy in the exposition of a mechanism. It may be used also for teaching the student to adapt his work to the audience, for, although prepared at first for an immature audience, its material has since been so adapted that in addition to the general reader it is of particular interest to the physician and to the engineer. The series of volumes in which _Modern Methods of Book Composition_ appears, is but one of the distinguished services in improving the practice of typography rendered by THEODORE LOW DE VINNE (1828-1914). At his invitation, the chapter, "Mechanical Composition," was contributed by PHILIP T. DODGE, President of the Mergenthaler Linotype Company. "The Mergenthaler Linotype," which is taken from Mr. Dodge's chapter, is well adapted for teaching the correlation of diagrams and text in the exposition of mechanisms and machines. Some idea of the length of JEAN HENRI FABRE'S life (1823-1915) may be obtained when we recall that his place as a scientist was established early enough for Victor Hugo to refer to him as the "insects' Homer" and for Darwin to refer to him in _The Origin of Species_ as "that incomparable observer." By 1841, Fabre had escaped from the poverty of his boyhood and had qualified as a pupil teacher at the Normal College at Vaucluse. Later, he became Professor of Physics and Chemistry at the _lycée_ of Ajaccio and, by 1852, held a similar position at Avignon. The greater part of his life was spent in the study of insects. The results are recorded in several volumes. An interesting _Life_, written by the Abbé Augustin Fabre and translated by Mr. Miall, was published in 1921. "The Pea Weevil," which offers an example of the exposition of a process achieved by impersonal narration, should prove especially helpful in showing the student how interest may be secured in such work. The J.W. BUTLER PAPER COMPANY, which published the little volume from which the selection is taken, is recognized as an important factor in the industry. "Modern Paper-making" may be utilized in teaching the emphasis placed on chronological order in the impersonal narration of a process; the explanation of machines by generalized description in such narration; and the methods employed in explaining alternate or parallel steps in the process. WILLIAM JAMES (1842-1910), like his equally distinguished brother, received his elementary education in New York City and in Europe. From 1861 to 1863, he studied at the Lawrence Scientific School, Harvard University, leaving to join the Thayer Expedition to Brazil. He was graduated in 1870 from the Harvard Medical School and, two years later, was appointed Instructor in Anatomy and Physiology. In 1885, while Assistant Professor of Physiology at the Medical School, he was appointed Assistant Professor of Philosophy at Harvard University. His later work at the University is well-known. Among his published works are his _Principles of Psychology_ (1889); _The Will to Believe_ (1897); _The Varieties of Religious Experience_ (1902); _Pragmatism_ (1907); _Memories and Studies_ (1911); and _Essays in Radical Empiricism_ (1912). His _Letters_, edited by his son, appeared in 1920. "The Gospel of Relaxation" offers a model in the adaptation of scientific material to a lay audience, through the way in which the author makes clear the Lange-James Theory by concrete examples and practical applications. CHARLES PROTEUS STEINMETZ (1865-), born in Breslau, Germany, was educated at Breslau, Berlin, and Zurich. For twenty-five years he has been Consulting Engineer to the General Electric Company, and for twenty years Professor of Electro-physics at Union University. Besides several authoritative volumes on subjects within his field, he is the author of _America and the New Epoch_ (1906) and is a frequent contributor to literary as well as to technical journals. "Science and Religion" may be used to show the student how even so technical a topic as the Einstein Theory may be rendered concrete for the general reader through analogy and specific examples. 
1490	----	None 
14227	----	Proofreading Team. Transcriber's Note: Phonetic characters are represented by the following symbols: [e] = upside-down "e" = schwa [er] = italicized inverted "e" = r-colored schwa [a] = lower-case alpha [o] = open "o" (appears as upside-down "c") = open-mid back rounded vowel [ng] = "eng" character = velar nasal [n.] = "n" with inferior dot = devoiced "n" [=u] = "u" with macron [s] = "esh" (or long "s") character = voiceless palatoalveolar (or postalveolar) fricative [z] = "ezh" (or "yogh") character = voiced palatoalveolar (or postalveolar) fricative [ts] = t + "esh" = voiceless palatoalveolar (or postalveolar) affricate [dz] = d + "ezh" = voiced palatoalveolar (or postalveolar) affricate _S.P.E._ _TRACT NO. II_ ON ENGLISH HOMOPHONES BY ROBERT BRIDGES MDCCCCXIX * * * * * ENGLISH HOMOPHONES [Sidenote: Definition of homophone.] When two or more words different in origin and signification are pronounced alike, whether they are alike or not in their spelling, they are said to be homophonous, or homophones of each other. Such words if spoken without context are of ambiguous signification. Homophone is strictly a relative term, but it is convenient to use it absolutely, and to call any word of this kind a homophone.[1] [Footnote 1: Homophone is a Greek word meaning 'same-sounding', and before using the relative word in this double way I have preferred to make what may seem a needless explanation. It is convenient, for instance, to say that _son_ and _heir_ are both homophones, meaning that each belongs to that particular class of words which without context are of ambiguous signification: and it is convenient also to say that _son_ and _sun_ and _heir_ and _air_ are homophones without explaining that it is meant that they are mutually homophonous, which is evident. A physician congratulating a friend on the birth of his first-born might say, 'Now that you have a son and heir, see that he gets enough sun and air'.] Homophony is between words as _significant_ sounds, but it is needful to state that homophonous words must be _different_ words, else we should include a whole class of words which are not true homophones. Such words as _draft_, _train_, _board_, have each of them separate meanings as various and distinct as some true homophones; for instance, a draught of air, the miraculous draught of fishes, the draught of a ship, the draft of a picture, or a draught of medicine, or the present draft of this essay, though it may ultimately appear medicinal, are, some of them, quite as distinct objects or notions as, for instance, _vane_ and _vein_ are: but the ambiguity of _draft_, however spelt, is due to its being the name of anything that is _drawn_; and since there are many ways of drawing things, and different things are drawn in different ways, the _same word_ has come to carry very discrepant significations. Though such words as these[2] are often inconveniently and even distressingly ambiguous, they are not homophones, and are therefore excluded from my list: they exhibit different meanings of one word, not the same sound of different words: they are of necessity present, I suppose, in all languages, and corresponding words in independent languages will often develop exactly corresponding varieties of meaning. But since the ultimate origin and derivation of a word is sometimes uncertain, the scientific distinction cannot be strictly enforced. [Footnote 2: Such words have no technical class-name; they are merely extreme examples of the ambiguity common to most words, which grows up naturally from divergence of meaning. True homophones are separate words which have, or have acquired, an illogical fortuitous identity.] [Sidenote: False homophones.] Now, wherever the same derivation of any two same-sounding words is at all doubtful, such words are practically homophones:--and again in cases where the derivation is certainly the same, yet, if the ultimate meanings have so diverged that we cannot easily resolve them into one idea, as we always can _draft_, these also may be practically reckoned as homophones. _Continent_, adjective and substantive, is an example of absolute divergence of meaning, inherited from the Latin; but as they are different parts of speech, I allow their plea of identical derivation and exclude them from my list. On the other hand, the substantive _beam_ is an example of such a false homophone as I include. _Beam_ may signify a balk of timber, or a ray of light. Milton's address to light begins O first created beam and Chaucer has As thikke as motes in the sonne-beam, and this is the commonest use of the word in poetry, and probably in literature: Shelley has Then the bright child the plumèd seraph came And fixed its blue and beaming eyes on mine. But in Tyndal's gospel we read Why seest thou a mote in thy brother's eye and perceivest not the beam that is in thine own eye? The word beam is especially awkward here,[3] because the beam that is proper to the eye is not the kind of beam which is intended. The absurdity is not excused by our familiarity, which Shakespeare submitted to, though he omits the incriminating eye: You found his mote; the king your mote did see, But I a beam do find in each of three. [Footnote 3: It is probable that in Tyndal's time the awkwardness was not so glaring: for 'beam' as a ray of light seems to have developed its connexion with the eye since his date, in spite of his proverbial use of it in the other sense.] And yet just before he had written So sweet a kiss the golden sun gives not To those fresh morning drops upon the rose, As thy eye-beams when their fresh rays have smote The night of dew that on my cheeks down flows. Let alone the complication that _mote_ is also a homophone, and that outside Gulliver's travels one might as little expect to find a house-beam as a castle-moat in a man's eye, the confusion of _beam_ is indefensible, and the example will serve three purposes: first to show how different significations of the same word may make practical homophones, secondly the radical mischief of all homophones, and thirdly our insensibility towards an absurdity which is familiar: but the absurdity is no less where we are accustomed to it than where it is unfamiliar and shocks us. [Sidenote: Tolerance due to habit.] And we are so accustomed to homophones in English that they do not much offend us; we do not imagine their non-existence, and most people are probably unaware of their inconvenience. It might seem that to be perpetually burdened by an inconvenience must be the surest way of realizing it, but through habituation our practice is no doubt full of unconscious devices for avoiding these ambiguities: moreover, inconveniences to which we are born are very lightly taken: many persons have grown up to manhood blind of one eye without being aware of their disability; and others who have no sense of smell or who cannot hear high sounds do not miss the sense that they lack; and so I think it may be with us and our homophones. But since if all words were alike in sound there would be no spoken language, the differentiation of the sound of words is of the essence of speech, and it follows that the more homophones there are in any language, the more faulty is that language as a scientific and convenient vehicle of speech. This will be illustrated in due course: the actual condition of English with respect to homophones must be understood and appreciated before the nature of their growth and the possible means of their mitigation will seem practical questions. [Sidenote: Great number.] The first essential, then, is to know the extent and nature of the mischief; and this can only be accomplished by setting out the homophones in a table before the eye. The list below is taken from a 'pronouncing dictionary' which professes not to deal with obsolete words, and it gives over 800 ambiguous sounds; so that, since these must be at least doublets, and many of them are triplets or quadruplets, we must have something between 1,600 and 2,000 words of ambiguous meaning in our ordinary vocabulary.[4] [Footnote 4: In Skeat's _Etymological Dictionary_ there is a list of _homonyms_, that is words which are ambiguous to the eye by similar spellings, as homophones are to the ear by similar sounds: and that list, which includes obsolete words, has 1,600 items. 1,600 is the number of homophones which our list would show if they were all only doublets.] Now it is variously estimated that 3,000 to 5,000 words is about the limit of an average educated man's talking vocabulary, and since the 1,600 are, the most of them, words which such a speaker will use (the reader can judge for himself) it follows that he has a foolishly imperfect and clumsy instrument. As to what proportion 1,700 (say) may be to the full vocabulary of the language--it is difficult to estimate this because the dictionaries vary so much. The word _homophone_ is not recognized by Johnson or by Richardson: Johnson under _homo-_ has six derivatives of Herbert Spencer's favourite word _homogeneous_, but beside these only four other words with this Greek affix. Richardson's dictionary has an even smaller number of such entries. Jones has 11 entries of _homo-_, and these of only five words, but the Oxford dictionary, besides 50 words noted and quoted beginning with _homo-_, has 64 others with special articles. Dr. Richard Morris estimated the number of words in an English dictionary as 100,000: Jones has 38,000 words, exclusive of proper names, and I am told that the Oxford dictionary will have over 300,000. Its 114 _homo-_ words will show how this huge number is partly supplied. Before the reader plunges into the list, I should wish to fortify his spirit against premature despair by telling him that in my tedious searching of the dictionary for these words I was myself cheered to find how many words there were which are _not_ homophones. LIST OF HOMOPHONES This list, the object of which is to make the reader easily acquainted with the actual defect of the language in this particular, does not pretend to be complete or scientific; and in the identification of doubtful words the clue was dictated by brevity. _s._, _v._, and _adj._ mean _substantive_, _verb_, and _adjective_. The sections were made to aid the conspectus. The main indictment is contained in sections i, ii, and iii. These three sections contain 505 entries, involving some 1,075 words. The homophones in the other sections, iv, v, vi, vii, viii and ix, are _generally_ of such a kind that they would not of themselves constitute a very peculiar case against the English language; but their addition to the main list does very much strengthen the case. One intention in isolating them from the main list was to prevent their contaminating it with their weaker quality; but their separate classification crosses and sometimes overrides that more general distinction. Section iv has some literary interest; vi is inconsistent; the other sections are more or less scientific. These six sections contain some 330 entries involving about 700 words, so that the total of words involved is about 1,775. The order in this section is that of the phonetic alphabet. I. THE MAIN LIST OF HOMOPHONES. arc, ark. arm (_limb_), arm (_weapon_). alms, arms. aunt, ant, arn't. arch (_s._), arch (_adj._). eye, ay, I. idol, idle, idyll. aisle, isle, I'll. eyelet, islet. our, hour. bark (_dog_), bark (_tree_), bark (_boat_). balm, barm. bite, bight. buy, by, bye. bough, bow, bow (_of ship_). bound (_leap_), bound (_limit_), bound (fr. _bind_). bank (_ground_), bank (_money_). barren, baron. barrow (_hill_), barrow (_wheel-b._). bat (_club_), bat (_vespertilio_). batter (_s._), batter (_v._). buck (_various roots and senses_). bustle (_hurry_), bustle (_dress_). but, butt (_tub_), butt (_v._). bale (ill), bale (_pack_), bail (_bis_). base, bass. bate, bait. beck (_and nod_), beck (_a brook_). bell, belle. bury, berry. bear (_s._), bare (_adj._), bear, bare (_v._). berth, birth. bee, be. beat, beet. beetle (_insect_), beetle (_hammer_). beach, beech. bier, beer. blow (_a stroke_), blow (_of wind_). bow, beau. bogy, bogie. bole, bowl. bolt (_a weapon_), bolt (_sift_), bolt (_run_). bore (_perforate_), bore (_tidal_), bore (fr. _bear_), boar. board, bawd, bored. ball, bawl. born, borne. boy, buoy. boil (_s._), boil (_v._). box (_tree_), box (_receptacle_), box (_v._). bridal, bridle. bray (_of donkey_), bray (_to pound_), brae. break, brake (_fern_), brake (_of carriages, bis_). braze (_to solder_), braze (_to brazen_), braise (_to stew_), braes. breach, breech. breeze (_the wind_), breeze (_a fly_), breeze (_cinders_). broach, brooch. hue, hew. die (_v._), dye, die (_cast_). down (_dune_), down (_fluff_), down (_adv._). doubt, dout. dam (_mother_), dam (_obstruct_), damn. duck (_bird_), duck (_dear_), duck (_stuff_), duck (_v._). dun (_colour_), dun (_importune_), done. date (_fruit_), date (_datum_). dean, dene. deer, dear. desert, dessert. due, dew. doe, dough. dock (_plant_), dock (_basin_), dock (_shear_). drill (_sow_), drill (_bore_), drill (_training_). drupe, droop. jar (_vase_), jar (_discord_). jamb, jam. jet (_mineral_), jet (_squirt_). gin (_drink_), gin (_snare_), jinn. there, their. the, thee. eh! aye (_ever_). ale, ail. eight, ait or eyot, ate (fr. _eat_). egg, egg (_to incite_). elder (_tree_), elder (_senior_). air, heir, ere, e'er. airship, heirship. aery, airy. earn, urn, erne (_eagle_). alight (_adj._), alight (_v._). ascent, assent. foul, fowl. fallow (_untilled_), fallow (_colour_). fane, feign, fain. faint, feint. fast (_eccl._), fast (_adj. various_). fate, fête. fell (_fierce_), fell (_skin_), fell (_hill_), fell (fr. _fall_). fellow, felloe. ferule, ferrule. fair, fare [_doublet_], phare. fir, fur. feet, feat (_s._), feat (_adj. obs._). filter, philtre. fit (_befit_), fit (_conflict_), fytte [_obs._]. flag (_v._), flag (_ensign_), flag (_plant_), flag (_-stone_). flee, flea. flow, floe. flock (_herd_), flock (_of wool_). flue (_chimney_), flue (_velu_), flew (fr. _fly_). fluke (_fish_), fluke (_of anchor_), fluke (_slang word_). fold (_wrap_), fold (_of sheep_), foaled. four, fore, for. forego, forgo, and other compounds. fourth, forth. foil (_s._), foil (_v._), foil (_fencer's_). fray (_ravel_), fray (_combat_). fret (_eat away_), fret (_adorn_), fret (_on lute_). freeze, frieze (_archt._), frieze (_cloth_), frees (fr. _free_). gamble, gambol, gum (_resin_), gum (_teeth_). gage, gauge, gate, gait. gird (_encircle_), gird (_revile_). guild, gild. guilt, gilt. glare, glair (_white of egg_), + glary, glairy. gore (_pierce_), gore (_triangle_), gore (_blood_). groin, groyne (_breakwater_). great, grate (_s._), grate (_v._). heart, hart. high, hie. hide (_v._), hide (_skin_), hied. hack (_hew_), hack (_hackney_). hamper (_impede_), hamper (_hanaper_). hail! hail (_snow_), hale (_adj._), hale (_haul_). helm (_of ship_), helm (_helmet_). hair, hare. heel, heal, he'll. here, hear. hymn, him. hole, whole, + holy, wholly, holey. home, holm. hoar, whore, haw. hoard, horde, hawk (_bird_), hawk (_v. of hawker_), hawk (_hoquet_). hall, haul. halt (_v._), halt (_adj._). horse, hoarse. hock (_of horse_), hock (_wine_). hop (_jump_), hop (_plant_). hue, hew. humorous, humerus. even (_s._), even (_adj._). ear, ear (_plough_), ear (_of corn_). yoke, yolk. yew, ewe, you. ure, ewer, your. card (_s._), card (_v._). cask, casque. cast, caste. cart, carte, quart (_cards and fencing_). count (_s._), count (_v._). counter (_opp._), counter (_of shop_), counter (_in games_), &c. couch (_coucher_), couch (_grass_). caddy (_lad_), caddy (_box_). can (_s._), can (_v._). cannon, canon _bis._ currant, current. curry (_food_), curry (_comb_). colonel, kernel. cape (_dress_), cape (_headland_). caper (_skip_), caper (_plant_). case (_event_), case (_receptacle_). cashier (_s._), cashier (_v._). key, quay. keen (_adj._), keen (_v._). cue, queue. climb, clime. cleek, clique. coal, cole. cope (_v._), cope (_s._). coat, cote. core, corps, caw. cork, caulk. call, caul. corn (_grain_), corn (_horny growth_). course, coarse, corse. cobble (_to patch_), cobble (_boat_), cobble (_-stones_). cock (s. and _v._), cock (_of hay_). cockle (_v._), cockle (_s. var._). creak, creek. cricket (_insect_), cricket (_game_). cruel, crewel. cruise, cruse, crews. coombe (_valley_), coom (_dry measure_). choir, quire (_of paper_). quiver (_v._), quiver (_s._). queen, quean [_obs._]. last (_adj._, _verb_), last (_s._) lye (_s._), lie (_v._), lie (_s. and n._). lyre, liar. lichen, liken. light (_s._), light (_not heavy_), and hence lighten, lighten. lack, lac, lakh. lap (_lick up_), lap (_fold_), lap (_knees_). lay (_s., bis_), lay (_v._). lake (_pond_), lake (_colour_). let (_allow_), let (_lease, v._), let (_hinder, obs._). lee, lea. leaf, lief. league (_s._), league (_v. and s._) leak, leek. lean (_v._), lean (_adj._). leech (_sucker and doctor_), leech (_of sail_). leave (quit), leave (permit). limp (adj.), limp (v.). link (chain), link (torch), also golf-links, list (listen), list (heel over), list (of flannel). liver (organ), liver (who lives). lo! low (adj.), low (of cow's voice). load, lode, lowed, lone, loan. lock (of door), lock (of hair), loch. long (adj.), long (v.). lorn, lawn, lute, loot. mast (_of ship_), mast (_beech-m._). march (_step_), march (_boundary_), March (_month_). mine (_s._), mine (_poss. pron._). mite, might (_s._), might (_v._), [_and adj. -y_]. mitre (_headdress_), mitre (_carpentry, &c._). mass (_quantity_), mass (_office_). match (_equal_), match (_mèche_). muff (_dress_), muff (_a stupid_). may (_month_), may (_maid, obs._), may (_v._). male, mail (_coat of_), mail (_post_). mane, main. mace (_staff_), mace (_spice_). maze, maize, Mays (_pl. of month_). mare, mayor. meed, mead (_meadow_), mead (_drink_). mean (_intend_), mean (_intermediate_), mean (_poor_), mien (_countenance_). meet, meat, mete (_adj. and v._). mere (_pool_), mere (_adj._). mint (_herb_), mint (_coining_). miss (_fail_), Miss. mew (_cage_), mew (_bird_), mew (_of cat_). mute (_adj._), mute (_of birds_). muse (_think_), Muse, mews (_stable_), mews (fr. _mew_). mote, moat. mow (_various senses_), mot (_French_). mole (_animal_), mole (_of skin_), mole (_breakwater_). mould (_to model_), mould (_earth_), mould (_rust_). maul (_disfigure_), Mall (_place_), mahl (_-stick_). morn, mourn, and morning. moor (_country_), Moor (_race_) night, knight. none, nun. need, knead, knee'd. neat (_s._), neat (_adj._). no, know. not, knot. oar, ore, or, o'er, awe. augur, auger. all, awl, orle (_heraldry_). altar, alter. oral, aural. ought (_zero_), ought (_pp. of owe_), ort [_obs._]. par, pas (_faus_). pie (_pica_), pie (_dish_). pale (_pole_), pale (_pallid_), pail. pile (_heap_), pile (_stake_), pile (_hair_). pine (_v._), pine (_tree_). pound (_weight_), pound (_enclosure_), pound (_to bruise_). pounce (_v._), pounce (=_pumice_). pallet, palette, palate. paten, patten, pattern. pulse (_beat_), pulse (_pease_). punch (_strike_), punch (_drink_), Punch (_and Judy_). page (_of bk._), page (_boy_). pane, pain. peck (_measure_), peck (_v._). pelt (_to throw_), pelt (_skin_). pen (_writing_), pen (_inclose_). pair, pear, pare. pearl, purl (_flow_), purl (_knitting_). pique, peak. peal, peel. peep (_to look_), peep (_chirp_). piece, peace. peach (_fruit_), peach (_impeach_). peer (_to look_), peer (_s._), pier. pill (_ball_), pill (_to pillage_). pink (_a flower_), pink (_a colour_), pink (_to pierce_). pip (_a seed_), pip (_a disease_), pip (_on cards_). pitch (_s._), pitch (_to fall, &c._). plight (_pledge_), plight or plite (_to plait_), and 'sad plight'. plat (_of ground_), plait. plum, plumb. plump (_adj._), plump (_to fall heavily_). plane (_tree_), plain [_both various_]. plot (_of ground_), plot (_stratagem_), + verbs. pole, poll. poach, (_eggs_), poach (_steal game_). pore (_of skin_), pore (_top. over_), paw. potter (_v._), potter (_s._). pall (_v._), pall (_cloak_), pawl (_mechanics_). pry (_inquisitive_), pry (_to prise open_). prise, prize. pray, prey. prune (_fruit_), prune (_s._). rye, wry. rime, rhyme. right, write, wright, rite. rabbit, rabbet (_carpentry_). rack [_various_], wrack. racket, racquet. rally (_assemble_), rally (=_raillery_). rank (_s._), rank (_rancid_). rap, wrap. rash (_s._), rash (_adj._). ruff, rough. rum (_queer_), rum (_drink_), rhumb (_naut._). rung (_s._), and past pp. rung, wrung. rush (_s._), rush (_v._). rape (_seed_), rape (_ravish_), rape (_divn. of county, obs._). race (_family_), race (_root_), race (_that is run_). rate (_proportion_), rate (_to chide_). rut (_furrow_), rut (_of animals_). rake (_tool_), rake (_a prodigal_), rake (_of a ship_). rail (_fence_), rail (_bird_). rain, reign, rein. raise, raze. reck, wreck. rent (_paymt._), rent (_s., tear_), rent (fr. _rend_). rest (_repose_), rest (_remainder_), wrest. reed, read. reef (_of rocks_), reef (_of sails_). reek, wreak. reel (_highland-_), reel (_cotton-_). reach, retch. reave, reeve (_naut._), reeve (_bailiff, obs._). rifle (_ransack_), rifle (_s.v., groove_). rear (_raise_), rear (_arrière_). rig (_of ship_), rig (_prank, riggish_), rig (_-s of barley_). rick (_of corn_), rick wrick (_strain_). ring, wring. repair (_mend_), repair (_resort, v._). row (_oaring_), row (_s. of things in line_), roe (_of fish_), roe (_fem. deer_). roll [_various_], rôle. rock (_stone_), rock (_v._), roc. rocket (_plant_), rocket (_firework_). rue (_plant_), rue (_v. of ruth_). rude (_adj._), rood (_s._), rued (fr. _rue_). room, rheum. root, route. rout, route (_military_). sign, sine (_trigonom._). site, sight, cite. size (_magnitude_), size (_glue_). sough, sow. sound (_noise_), sound (_to fathom_), sound (_adj._), sound (_strait of sea_), sound (_fish bladder_). sack (_bag_), sack (_to plunder_), sack (_wine_). swallow (_a willow_), sallow (_pale colour_). sap (_of trees_), sap (_mine_). sum, some. sun, son + sunny, sonnie. sage (_plant_), sage (_adj._). sale, sail. sell, cell. sense, cense. censual, sensual. surge, serge. surf, serf. scent, cent, sent (fr. _send_). session, cession. sea, see. seed, cede. seal (_animal_), ciel or ceil, seal (_sign_). seam, seem. sear, sere, cere, seer. serial, cereal. signet, cygnet. cist (_box_), cyst (_tumour, Gr._). scar (_of wound_), scar (_a rock_). skull, scull. scale (_shell_), scale (_of balance_), scale (_of stairs_). scald (_burn_), skald (_poet, Norse_). scrub (_of shrubs_), scrub (_v._). sledge (_vehicle_), sledge (_-hammer_). slight, sleight. slay, sleigh (_sledge_). slate (_s._), slate (_v., abuse_). sloe, slow. slop (_puddle_), slop (_loose garment_). slot (_track_), slot (_bar_). sole (_adj._), soul, sole (_a fish_). sow, sew. saw (_tool_), soar, sore, saw (_maxim_), saw (fr. _see_). soil (_ground_), soil (_defile_), soil (_v., of horses_). spar (_beam_), spar (_mineral_), spar (_to box_). salter (_who salts_), psalter. source, sauce. spell (_incantation_), spell (_letters_), spell (_turn of work_). spill (_upset_), spill (_match_). spit (_v._), spit (_roasting_), spit (_of land_). spray (_drizzle_), spray (_= sprig_). spruce (_tree_), spruce (_adj._) style, stile. stud (_nail_), stud (_of horses_). stake (_post_), steak, stake (_deposit_). step, steppe. stair, stare. stern (_adj._), stern (_of ship_). steal, steel, stele. steep (_adj._), steep (_v._). steer (_direct_), steer (_young ox_). still (_tranquil_), still (_distil_). stalk (_stem_), stalk (_v._), stork. story, storey. strand (_shore_), strand (_fibre_). strain (_v. and s._), strain (_a breed_). strait (_narrow_), straight (_upright_). stroke (_a blow_), stroke (_fondle_). stoup, stoop. shed (_scatter_), shed (_shelter_). tart (_adj._), tart (_a pie_). tyre (_of wheel_), tire (_fatigue_), tire (_attire_), + tier (_who ties_). time, thyme. tap (_to strike_), tap (_short pipe_). tale, tail, tail (_estate in t._). tender (_adj._), tender (_s., attender_). tent (_pavilion_), tent (_plug of lint, s. and v._), tent (_wine_). tare, tear (_v._). teem, team. tear (_eye_), tier. tick (_bedding_), tick (_sheep_), tick (_clock_), tic (_spasm_), tick (_credit_). till (_cash drawer_), till (_until_). tilt (_v., to make aslant_), tilt (_tourney_), tilt (_of caravan_). tip (_top_), tip (_make to slant_), tip (_a gift_). toe, tow (_hemp_), tow (_draw a boat_). two, too, to. toll (_lax_), toll (_of bells_). taut, taught, tort. toil (_labour_), toil (_a snare_). top (_summit_), top (_a toy_). truck (_vehicle_), truck (_naut._), truck (_barter_). trump (_trumpet_), trump (_at cards_). trunk (_box_), trunk (_of tree_), trunk (_of elephant_). tray, trait. trace (_track_), trace (_strap_). chair, chare. chap (_crack_), chap (_chapman_), chap (_cheek_). char (_burn_), char (_fish_), char (_-woman_). chop (_with hatchet_), chop (_and change_). chuck (_chick_), chuck (_strike gently_). chase (_hunt_), chase (_enchase_), chase (_printer's case_), chase (_groove_). vice (_depravity_), vice (_clench_), vice (_deputy_). valley, valet. van (_front of army_), van (_fan_), van (_caravan_). vale, vail, veil. vain, vein, vane. won, one. wake (_awake_), wake (_watch_), wake (_of ship_). wain, wane. waste, waist. wait, weight. wave, waive. well (_good_), well (_spring_). wee, we. weak, week. ween, wean. war, wore. would, wood. II. ALL THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLES INVOLVE _WH. > W._[5] ware (_earthen-_), ware (_aware_), wear, where, were. way, weigh, whey. weal (_wealth_), weal (_a swelling_), wheel. weald, wield, wheeled. while, wile. whine, wine, white, wight. whether, weather. whither, wither. whig, wig. whit, wit. what, wot. whet, wet. whirr, were = wer'. whin, win. whist, wist. which, witch, wych (_elm_). III. GROUP OF HOMOPHONES CAUSED BY LOSS OF TRILLED R.[6] ion, iron. father, farther. lava, larva. halm, harm. calve, carve. talk, torque. daw, door. flaw, floor. yaw, yore. law, lore. laud, lord. maw, more, gnaw, nor. raw, roar. shaw, shore. IV. THE NAME OF A SPECIES (OF ANIMALS, PLANTS, &C.) IS OFTEN A HOMOPHONE. WHERE THERE IS ONLY ONE ALTERNATIVE MEANING, THIS CAUSES SO LITTLE INCONVENIENCE THAT THE FOLLOWING NAMES (BEING IN THAT CONDITION) HAVE BEEN EXCLUDED FROM LIST I.[7] bleak (_fish_), bleak (_adj._). dace, dais. gull (_bird_), gull (_s. and v._). carp, carp (_v._). cod, cod (_husk_). codling, coddling (fr. _coddle_). flounder (_fish_), flounder (_v._). quail (_bird_), quail (_v._). lark (_bird_), lark (_fun_). ling (_fish_), ling (_heather_). mussel, muscle. nit, knit. awk, orc. oriole, aureole. pike (_fish_), pike (_weapon_). pout (_fish_), pout (_v._). perch (_fish_), perch (_alight_). plaice, place. ray (_fish_), ray (_of light_). rook (_bird_), rook (_v._). skua, skewer. skate (_fish_), skate (_on ice_). smelt (_fish_), smelt (fr. _smell_). swift (_bird_), swift (_adj._). swallow (_bird_), swallow (_throat_). tapir, taper. tern, turn. teal (_fish_), teil (_tree_). thrush (_bird_), thrush (_disease_). [Footnote 5: The following words in List 1 involve _wr_ > _w_, write, wrach, wrap, wring, wrung, wreck, wrest, wreak, wrick.] [Footnote 6: Other similar words occurring in other sections are--awe, awl, ought, bawd, fought, gaud, gauze, haw, caw, cause, caught, lawn, paw, saw, sauce, sought, taut, caulk, stalk, alms, balm;--their correspondents being, oar, orle, ort (_obs._), board, fort, gored, gores, hoar, core, cores, court, lorn, pore, sore, source, sort, tort, cork, stork, arms, barm.] [Footnote 7: Other similar proper names of species, &c., which occur in some one of the other sections of the list: ant, bat, bear, bee, beet, beetle, beech, box, breeze, date, dock, daw, duck, deer, elder, erne, fir, flea, flag, fluke, hare, horse, hawk, hop, caper, carrot, couch, cricket, currant, leech, lichen, mace, maize, mint, mole, pear, peach, pink, pie, pine, plum, plane, pulse, rabbit, rye, rush, rape, rail, reed, roe, roc, rue, sage, seal, sloe, sole, spruce, stork, thyme, char, whale, whin, yew. Also cockle.] V. THE SUFFIX _ER_ ADDED TO A ROOT OFTEN MAKES HOMOPHONES. THE FOLLOWING ARE EXAMPLES. (AND SEE IN LIST VI.) byre, buyer (_who buys_). butter (_s._), butter (_who butts_). better (_adj._), better (_who bets_). border, boarder. dire, dyer. founder (_v._), founder (_who founds_). geyser, gazer. greater, grater (_nutmeg_). canter (_pace_), canter (_who cants_). medlar, meddler. moulder (_v._), moulder (_who moulds_). pitcher (_vessel_), pitcher (_who pitches_). pillar, piller. platter, plaiter. plumper (_adj._), plumper (_s._). sounder (_adj._), sounder (_who sounds_). cellar, seller, &c. VI. WORDS EXCLUDED FROM THE MAIN LIST FOR VARIOUS REASONS, THEIR HOMOPHONY BEING RIGHTLY QUESTIONED BY MANY SPEAKERS. actor, acta (_sanctorum_). brute, bruit. direst, diarist. descent, dissent. deviser, divisor. dual, duel. goffer, golfer. carrot, carat. caudle, caudal. choler, collar. compliment, complement. lumber, lumbar. lesson, lessen. literal, littoral. marshal, martial. minor, miner. manor, manner. medal, meddle. metal, mettle. missal, missel (_thrush_). orphan, often. putty, puttee. pedal, peddle. police, pelisse. principal, principle. profit, prophet. rigour, rigger. rancour, ranker. succour, sucker. sailor, sailer. cellar, seller. censor, censer. surplus, surplice. symbol, cymbal. skip, skep. tuber, tuba. whirl, whorl. wert, wort (_herb, obs._). vial, viol. verdure, verger (_in Jones_). VII. HOMOPHONES DUE ONLY TO AN INFLECTED FORM OF A WORD. COMPARATIVES OF ADJECTIVES, &C. adze, adds. art (_s._), art (_v._). bard, barred. band, banned. battels, battles (_bis_). baste, based. baize, bays (_bis_). bent, bent (_pp. bend_). bean, been. blue, blew. bode, bowed. bold, bowled, bolled (_obs._). bald, bawled. braid, brayed. bread, bred. brood, brewed. bruise, brews. depose, dépôts. divers (_adj._), divers (_plu._). dug (_teat_), dug (fr. _dig_). duct, ducked. dust, dost. daze, days. daisies, dazes (_both inflected_). doze, does (_plu. of doe_). aloud, allowed. fort, fought. found (_v._), found (fr. _find_) phase, fays (_pl. of fay_). felt (_stuff_), felt (fr. _feel_) furze, firs, and furs. feed (_s. and v._), fee'd. flatter (_v._), flatter (_adj._). phlox, flocks. phrase, frays. guise, guys (_plu._). gaud, gored. gauze, gores. guest, guessed. glose, glows. ground (_s._), ground (fr. _grind_). graze, greys. greaves, grieves. groan, grown. grocer, grosser. hire, higher. herd, heard. hist, hissed. hose, hoes. hawse (_naut._), haws, &c. eaves, eves. use (_v._), ewes, yews. candid, candied. clove (_s._), clove (fr. _cleave_). clause, claws. cold, coaled. courser, coarser. court, caught. cause, cores, caws. coir, coyer (fr. _coy_). crew (_s._), crew (fr. _crow_). quartz, quarts. lighter (_s._), lighter (fr. _light, adj._). lax, lacks, &c. lapse, laps, &c. lade (_v._), laid. lane, lain. lead (_mineral_), led. left (_adj._), left (fr. _leave_). Lent, leant, lent (fr. _lend_). least, leased. lees (_of wine_), leas, &c. lynx, links. mind, mined. madder (_plant_), madder (fr. _mad_). mustard, mustered. maid, made. mist, missed. mode, mowed. moan, mown. new, knew, &c. nose, knows, noes. aught (_a whit_), ought (fr. _owe_). pact, packed. paste, paced. pervade, purveyed. pyx, picks. please, pleas. pause, paws, pores. pride, pried [_bis_]. prize, pries. praise, prays, preys. rouse, rows. rasher (_bacon_), rasher (fr. _rash_). raid, rayed. red, read (_p. of to read_). rex, wrecks, recks. road, rode, rowed. rote, wrote. rove (_v. of rover_), rove (fr. _reeve_). rose, rows (_var._), roes (_var._), rose (_v._). ruse, rues (fr. _rue_). side, sighed. size, sighs. scene, seen. seize, seas, sees. sold, soled (_both inflected_). sword, soared. sort, sought. span (_length_), span (fr. _spin_). spoke (_of wheel_), spoke (fr. _speak_). stole (_s._), stole (fr. _steal_). stove (_s._), stove (fr. _stave_). tide, tied. tax, tacks (_various_). tact, tacked. tease, teas, tees. toad, towed, toed. told, tolled. tract, tracked. trust, trussed. chaste, chased (_various_). choose, chews. throne, thrown. through, threw. wild, wiled. wind (_roll_), whined. wax, whacks. wade, weighed. weld, welled. word, whirred. wilt (_wither_), wilt (fr. _will_). ward, warred. wont, won't. warn, worn. VIII. 'FALSE HOMOPHONES' [SEE P. 4], DOUBTFUL DOUBLETS, &C. beam, beam (_of light_). bit (_horse_), bit (_piece_), bit (fr. _bite_). brace, brace. diet, diet. deck (_cover_), deck (_adorn_). deal (_various_). dram (_drink_), drachm. drone (_insect_), drone (_sound_). jest, gest (_romance, and obs. senses_). jib (_sail_), jib (_of horses_). fine (_adj., v. senses_), fine (_mulct_). flower, flour. fleet (_s._), fleet (_adj._), Fleet (_stream_). grain (_corn_), grain (_fibre_). indite, indict. incense (_v. =cense_), incense (_incite_). kind (_adj._), kind (_s._). canvas, canvass. cuff (_sleeve_), cuff (_strife_). cousin, cozen. cord, chord (_music_). coin, coign. cotton (_s._), cotton (_v._). crank (_s._), crank (_adj._). quaver (_v._), quaver (_music_). levy, levee. litter (_brood_), litter (_straw_). mantle (_cloak_), mantle (_shelf_). mess (_confusion_), mess (_table_). mussel, muscle. nail (_unguis_), nail (_clavus_). patent (_open_), patent (_monopoly_). pommel (_s._), pummel (_v._). refrain (_v._), refrain (_s., in verse_). retort (_reply_), retort (_chemical vessel_). second (_number_), second (_of time_). squall (_v._), squall (_a gale_). slab (_s._), slab (_adj._). smart (_s. and v., sting_), smart (_adj._). stave (_of barrel_), stave (_of music_), [_stave in (v.)_]. stick (_s._), stick (_v._). stock (_stone_), stock (_in trade_), &c. strut (_a support_), strut (_to walk_). share (_division_), share (_plough_). sheet (_sail and clew_), sheet (_-anchor_). shear (_clip_), sheer (_clear_), sheer off (_deviate_). tack (_various_), tack (_naut._). ton, tun. wage (_earnings_), wage (_of war_). IX. THE FOLLOWING WORDS WERE NOT ADMITTED INTO THE MAIN CLASS CHIEFLY ON ACCOUNT OF THEIR UNIMPORTANCE. ah! are. arse, ass. ask, aske (_newt_) ayah, ire. bah! bar, baa. barb, barb (_horse_). bask, basque. barn, barne = bairn. budge, budge (_stuff_). buff, buff. buffer, buffer. berg, burgh (_suffixes_). bin, bin = been. broke (_v._ of _broke_), broke (fr. _break_). broom, brume (_fog_). darn, darn. fizz, phiz. few, feu. forty, forte. hay, heigh! hem (_sew_), hem (_v._, _haw_). hollow, hollo (_v._). inn, in. yawl (_boat_), yawl (_howl_). coup, coo. lamb, lam (_bang_). loaf, loaf (_v. laufen_). marry! marry (_v._). nag (_pony_), nag (_to gnaw_), knag. nap (_of cloth_), nap (_sleep_). nay, neigh. oh! owe. ode, owed. oxide, ox-eyed. pax, packs. pants, pants (fr. _pant_). prose, pros (_and cons_). sink (_var._), cinque. swayed, suede (_kid_). ternary, turnery. tea, tee (_starting point_). taw (_to dress skins_), taw (_game, marbles_), tore (fr. _tear_). cheap, cheep. tool, tulle, we! woe. ho! hoe. The facts of the case being now sufficiently supplied by the above list, I will put my attitude towards those facts in a logical sequence under separate statements, which thus isolated will, if examined one by one, avoid the confusion that their interdependence might otherwise occasion. The sequence is thus: 1. Homophones are a nuisance. 2. They are exceptionally frequent in English. 3. They are self-destructive, and tend to become obsolete. 4. This loss impoverishes the language. 5. This impoverishment is now proceeding owing to the prevalence of the Southern English standard of speech. 6. The mischief is being worsened and propagated by the phoneticians. 7. The Southern English dialect has no claim to exclusive preference. 1. _THAT HOMOPHONES ARE A NUISANCE._ An objector who should plead that homophones are not a nuisance might allege the longevity of the Chinese language, composed, I believe, chiefly of homophones distinguished from each other by an accentuation which must be delicate difficult and precarious. I remember that Max Müller [1864] instanced a fictitious sentence ba bà bâ bá, 'which (he wrote) is said to mean if properly accented _The three ladies gave a box on the ear to the favourite of the princess._' This suggests that the bleating of sheep may have a richer significance than we are accustomed to suppose; and it may perhaps illustrate the origin as well as the decay of human speech. The only question that it raises for us is the possibility of distinguishing our own homophones by accentuation or by slight differentiation of vowels; and this may prove to be in some cases the practical solution, but it is not now the point in discussion, for no one will deny that such delicate distinctions are both inconvenient and dangerous, and should only be adopted if forced upon us. I shall assume that common sense and universal experience exonerate me from wasting words on the proof that homophones are mischievous, and I will give my one example in a note[8]; but it is a fit place for some general remarks. [Footnote 8: The homophones sun = son. There is a Greek epigram on Homer, wherein, among other fine things, he is styled, [Greek: Ellanon biotae deuteron aelion] which Mackail translates 'a second sun on the life of Greece'. But _second son_ in English means the second male child of its parents. It is plain that the Greek is untranslatable into English because of the homophone. _The thing cannot be said._ Donne would take this bull by the horns, pretending or thinking that genuine feeling can be worthily carried in a pun. So that in his impassioned 'hymn to God the Father', deploring his own sinfulness, his climax is But swear by thyself that at my death Thy Sonne Shall shine as he shines now, the only poetic force of which seems to lie in a covert plea of pitiable imbecility. Dr. Henry Bradley in 1913 informed the International Historical Congress that the word _son_ had ceased to be vernacular in the dialects of many parts of England. 'I would not venture to assert (he adds) that the identity of sound with _sun_ is the only cause that has led to the widespread disuse of _son_ in dialect speech, but I think it has certainly contributed to the result.'] The objections to homophones are of two kinds, either scientific and utilitarian, or æsthetic. The utilitarian objections are manifest, and since confusion of words is not confined to homophones, the practical inconvenience that is sometimes occasioned by slight similarities may properly be alleged to illustrate and enforce the argument. I will give only one example. [Sidenote: Utilitarian objections not confined to homophones.] The telephone, which seems to lower the value of differentiating consonants, has revealed unsuspected likenesses. For instance the ciphers, if written somewhat phonetically as usually pronounced, are thus: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 nawt wun too three fawr faiv six sev'n eit nain by which it will be seen that the ten names contain eight but only eight different vowels, 0 and 4 having the same vowel _aw_, while 5 and 9 have _ai_. Both these pairs caused confusion; the first of them was cured by substituting the name of the letter O for the name of the zero cipher, which happens to be identical with it in form,[9] and this introduced a ninth vowel sound _ou_ (= owe), but the other pair remained such a constant source of error, that persons who had their house put on the general telephonic system would request the Post Office to give them a number that did not contain a 9 or a 5; and it is pretty certain that had not the system of automatic dialling, which was invented for quite another purpose, got rid of the trouble, one of these two ciphers would have changed its name at the Post Office. [Footnote 9: There is a coincidence of accidents--that the Arabic sign for zero is the same with our letter O, and that the name of our letter O (= owe) is the same as the present tense of _ought_, which is the vulgar name (for nought) of the Arabic zero, and that its vowel does not occur in the name of any cipher.] [Sidenote: Æsthetic objections.] In the effect of uniformity it may be said that utilitarian and æsthetic considerations are generally at one; and this blank statement must here suffice, for the principle could not be briefly dealt with: but it follows from it that the proper æsthetic objections to homophones are never clearly separable from the scientific. I submit the following considerations. Any one who seriously attempts to write well-sounding English will be aware how delicately sensitive our ear is to the repetition of sounds. He will often have found it necessary to change some unimportant word because its accented vowel recalled and jarred with another which was perhaps as far as two or three lines removed from it: nor does there seem to be any rule for this, since apparently similar repetitions do not always offend, and may even be agreeable. The relation of the sound to the meaning is indefinable, but in homophones it is blatant; for instance the common expression _It is well_ could not be used in a paragraph where the word well (= well-spring) had occurred. Now, this being so, it is very inconvenient to find the omnipresent words _no_ and _know_ excluding each other: and the same is true of _sea_ and _see_; if you are writing of the _sea_ then the verb _to see_ is forbidden, or at least needs some handling. I see the deep's untrampled floor With green and purple seaweeds strewn: here _seaweeds_ is risky, but _I see the sea's untrampled floor_ would have been impossible: even the familiar The sea saw that and fled is almost comical, especially because 'sea saw' has a most compromising joint-tenant in the children's rocking game See saw Margery daw. The awkwardness of these English homophones is much increased by the absence of inflection, and I suppose it was the richness of their inflections which made the Greeks so indifferent (apparently) to syllabic recurrences that displease us: moreover, the likeness in sound between their similar syllables was much obscured by a verbal accent which respected the inflection and disregarded the stem, whereas our accent is generally faithful to the root.[10] This sensitiveness to the sound of syllables is of the essence of our best English, and where the effect is most magical in our great poets it is impossible to analyse. [Footnote 10: Wherever this is not so--as in _rhétoric_, _rhetórical_, _rhetorícian_, _cómpany_, _compánion_, &c.--we have a greater freedom in the use of the words. Such words, as Dr. Bradley points out, giving _Cánada_, _Canádian_ as example, are often phonetic varieties due to an imported foreign syntax, and their pronunciation implies familiarity with literature and the written forms: but very often they are purely the result of our native syllabising, not only in displacement of accent (as in the first example above) but also by modification of the accented vowel according to its position in the word, the general tendency being to make long vowels in monosyllables and in penultimate accents, but short vowels in antepenultimate accents. Thus come such differences of sound between _opus_ and _opera_, _omen_ and _ominous_, _virus_ and _virulent_, _miser_ and _miserable_, _nation_ and _national_, _patron_ and _patronage_, _legal_ and _legislate_, _grave_ and _gravity_, _globe_ and _globular_, _grade_ and _gradual_, _genus_ and _general_, _female_ and _feminine_, _fable_ and _fabulous_, &c. In such disguising of the root-sound the main effect, as Dr. Bradley says, is the power to free the derivative from an intense meaning of the root; so that, to take his very forcible example, the adjective Christian, the derivative of Christ, has by virtue of its shortened vowel been enabled to carry a much looser signification than it could have acquired had it been phonetically indissociable from the intense signification of the name Christ. This freedom of the derivative from the root varies indefinitely in different words, and it very much complicates my present lesser statement of the literary advantage of phonetic variety in inflexions and derivatives. The examples above are all Latin words, and since Latin words came into English through different channels, these particular vowels can have different histories.] Once become sensible of such beauty, and of the force of sounds, a writer will find himself in trouble with _no_ and _know_. These omnipresent words are each of them essentially weakened by the existence of the other, while their proximity in a sentence is now damaging. It is a misfortune that our Southern dialect should have parted entirely with all the original differentiation between them; for after the distinctive _k_ of the verb was dropped, the negative still preserved (as it in some dialects still preserves) its broad open vowel, more like _law_ than _toe_ or _beau_, and unless that be restored I should judge that the verb _to know_ is doomed. The third person singular of its present tense is _nose_, and its past tense is _new_, and the whole inconvenience is too radical and perpetual to be received all over the world. We have an occasional escape by using _nay_ for _no_, since its homophone _neigh_ is an unlikely _neigh_bour; but that can serve only in one limited use of the word, and is no solution. [Sidenote: Punnage.] In talking with friends the common plea that I have heard for homophones is their usefulness to the punster. 'Why! would you have no puns?' I will not answer that question; but there is no fear of our being insufficiently catered for; whatever accidental benefit be derivable from homophones, we shall always command it fully and in excess; look again at the portentous list of them! And since the essential jocularity of a pun (at least when it makes me laugh) lies in a humorous incongruity, its farcical gaiety may be heightened by a queer pronunciation. I cannot pretend to judge a sophisticated taste; but, to give an example, if, as I should urge, the _o_ of the word _petrol_ should be preserved, as it is now universally spoken, not having yet degraded into _petr'l_, a future squire will not be disqualified from airing his wit to his visitors by saying, as he points to his old stables, 'that is where I store my petrel', and when the joke had been illustrated in _Punch_, its folly would sufficiently distract the patients in a dentist's waiting-room for years to come, in spite of gentlemen and chauffeurs continuing to say _petrol_, as they do now; nor would the two _petr'ls_ be more dissimilar than the two _mys_. [Sidenote: Play on words.] Puns must of course be distinguished from such a play on words as John of Gaunt makes with his own name in Shakespeare's _King Richard II_. _K._ What comfort man? How is't with aged Gaunt? _G._ O, how that name befits my composition! Old Gaunt indeed, and gaunt in being old, &c. where, as he explains, Misery makes sport to mock itself. This is a humorous indulgence of fancy, led on by the associations of a word; a pun is led off by the _sound_ of a word in pursuit of nonsense; though the variety of its ingenuity may refuse so simple a definition. [Sidenote: An indirect advantage of homophones.] It is true that a real good may sometimes come indirectly from a word being a homophone, because its inconvenience in common parlance may help to drive it into a corner where it can be retained for a special signification: and since the special significance of any word is its first merit, and the coinage of new words for special differentiation is difficult and rare, we may rightly welcome any fortuitous means for their provision. Examples of words specialized thus from homophones are _brief_ (a lawyer's brief), _hose_ (water-pipe), _bolt_ (of door), _mail_ (postal), _poll_ (election), &c.[11] [Footnote 11: It would follow that, supposing there were any expert academic control, it might be possible to save some of our perishing homophones by artificial specialization. Such words are needed, and if a homophone were thus specialized in some department of life or thought, then a slight differential pronunciation would be readily adopted. Both that and its defined meaning might be true to its history.] 2. _THAT ENGLISH IS EXCEPTIONALLY BURDENED WITH HOMOPHONES._ This is a reckless assertion; it may be that among the languages unknown to me there are some that are as much hampered with homophones as we are. I readily grant that with all our embarrassment of riches, we cannot compete with the Chinese nor pretend to have outbuilt their Babel; but I doubt whether the statement can be questioned if confined to European languages. I must rely on the evidence of my list, and I would here apologize for its incompleteness. After I had patiently extracted it from the dictionary a good many common words that were missing occurred to me now and again, and though I have added these, there must be still many omissions. Nor must it be forgotten that, had obsolete words been included, the total would have been far higher. That must plainly be the case if, as I contend, homophony causes obsolescence, and reference to the list from Shakespeare in my next section will provide examples of such words. Otto Jespersen[12] seems to think that the inconvenience of homophones is so great that a language will naturally evolve some phonetic habit to guard itself against them, although it would otherwise neglect such distinction. I wish that this admirable instinct were more evident in English. He writes thus of the lists of words which he gives 'to show what pairs of homonyms [homophones] would be created if distinctions were abolished that are now maintained: they [the lists] thus demonstrate the force of resistance opposed to some of the sound-changes which one might imagine as happening in the future. A language can tolerate only a certain number of ambiguities arising from words of the same sound having different significations, and therefore the extent to which a language has utilized some phonetic distinction to keep words apart, has some influence in determining the direction of its sound-changes. In French, and still more in English, it is easy to enumerate long lists of pairs of words differing from each other only by the presence or absence of voice in the last sound; therefore final _b_ and _p_, _d_ and _t_, _g_ and _k_, are kept rigidly apart; in German, on the other hand, there are very few such pairs, and thus nothing counterbalances the natural tendency to unvoice final consonants.' [Footnote 12: _A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles_, by Otto Jespersen, Heidelberg, 1909. Streitberg's _Germanische Bibliothek_, vol. i, p. 441.] 3. _That homophones are self-destructive and tend to become obsolete._ For the contrary contention, namely, that homophones do _not_ destroy themselves, there is prima facie evidence in the long list of survivors, and in the fact that a vast number of words which have not this disadvantage are equally gone out of use. [Sidenote: Causes of obsolescence.] Words fall out of use for other reasons than homophony, therefore one cannot in any one case assume that ambiguity of meaning was the active cause: indeed the mere familiarity of the sound might prolong a word's life; and homophones are themselves frequently made just in this way, for uneducated speakers will more readily adapt a familiar sound to a new meaning (as when my gardener called his Pomeranian dog a Panorama) than take the trouble to observe and preserve the differentiation of a new sound. There is no rule except that any loss of distinction may be a first step towards total loss.[13] [Footnote 13: To give an example of this. In old Greek _we_ and _you_ were [Greek: aemeis] and [Greek: umeis]: and those words became absolutely homophonous, so that one of them had to go. The first person naturally held on to its private property, and it invented _sets_ for outsiders. Now the first step towards this absurdest of all homophonies, the identity of _meum_ and _tuum_, was no doubt the modification of the true full _u_ to _ii_. The ultimate convenience of the result may in itself be applauded; but it is inconceivable that modern Greek should ever compensate itself for its inevitable estrangement from its ancient glories.] It is probable that the working machinery of an average man's brain sets a practical limit to his convenient workable vocabulary; that is to say, a man who can easily command the spontaneous use of a certain number of words cannot much increase it without effort. If that is so, then, as he learns new words, there will be a tendency, if not a necessity, for him to lose hold of a corresponding number of his old words; and the words that will first drop out will be those with which he had hitherto been uncomfortable; and among those words will be the words of ambiguous meaning. [Sidenote: No direct proof] It is plain that only general considerations can be of value, unless there should be very special evidence in any special case; and thus the caution of Dr. Henry Bradley's remarks in note on page 19. I remember how I first came to recognize this law; it was from hearing a friend advocating the freer use of certain old words which, though they were called obsolete and are now rarely heard, yet survive in local dialects. I was surprised to find how many of them were unfit for resuscitation because of their homophonic ambiguity, and when I spoke of my discovery to a philological friend, I found that he regarded it as a familiar and unquestioned rule. But to prove this rule is difficult; and as it is an impossible task to collect all the obsolete words and classify them, I am proposing to take two independent indications; first to separate out the homophones from the other obsolete words in a Shakespearian glossary, and secondly, to put together a few words that seem to be actually going out of use in the present day, that is, strictly obsolescent words caught in the act of flitting. [Sidenote: Obsolescence defined.] Obsolescence in this connexion must be understood only of common educated speech, that is, the average speaker's vocabulary. Obsolescent words are old words which, when heard in talk, will sound literary or unusual: in literature they can seem at home, and will often give freshness without affectation; indeed, any word that has an honourable place in Shakespeare or the Bible can never quite die, and may perhaps some day recover its old vitality. [Sidenote: Evidence of obsolescence.] The best evidence of the obsolescence of any word is that it should still be frequently heard in some proverb or phrase, but never out of it. The homophonic condition is like that of _aural_ and _oral_, of which it is impossible to make practical use.[14] We speak of an _aural surgeon_ and of _oral teaching_, but out of such combinations the words have no sense. It happens that oral teaching must be aural on the pupil's side, but that only adds to the confusion. [Footnote 14: The words _aural_ and _oral_ are distinguished in the pronunciation of the North Midlands and in Scotland, and the difference between the first syllables is shown in the Oxford dictionary. In Southern English no trace of differentiation remains.] In deciding whether any obsolete homophone has been lost by its homophony, I should make much of the consideration whether the word had supplied a real need, by naming a conception that no other word so fitly represented; hence its survival in a proverb is of special value, because the words of proverbs are both apt and popular; so that for the disuse of such a word there would seem to be no other cause so likely and sufficient as damage to its signification. The glossary is relied on to contain, besides its other items, all the obsolete words: the homophones separated out from these will show various grades of obsolescence, and very different values as examples bearing on the question at issue. _Table of homophones taken from among the obsolete words in Cunliffe's 'A New Shakespearean Dictionary,' Blackie_, 1910.] ANCIENT: replaced by ensign. BATE = remit. BECK = a bow of the head: preserved in 'becks and nods', mutual loss with beck = rivulet. BOOT = to profit: Sh. puns on it, showing that its absurdity was recognized. BOTTLE (of hay): preserved in proverb. BOURNE = streamlet: preserved in sense of limit by the line of Sh. which perhaps destroyed it. BREEZE = gadfly. BRIEF (_subs._): now only as a lawyer's brief. BROOK (_verb_). BUCK = to steep (linen) in lye. COTE: as in sheepcote. DOLE = portion, and dole = sorrow: probably active mutual destruction; we still retain 'to dole out'. DOUT. DUN (_adj._): now only in combination as dun-coloured. EAR = to plough. FAIN and FEIGN: prob. mutual loss due to undefined sense of FAIN. n.b. FANE also obsolete. FEAT (_adj._) and FEATLY: well lost. FERE. FIT = section of a poem. FLAW: now confined to a flaw in metal, &c. FLEET (_verb_) and FLEETING, as in the sun-dial motto, 'Time like this shade doth fleet and fade.' FOIL: common verb, obsolete. GEST: lost in _jest_. GIRD = to scoff: an old well-established word. GOUT = a drop of liquor. GUST = taste (well lost). HALE = haul (well lost). HIGHT = named. HOAR: only kept in combination, hoar-frost, hoar hairs. HOSE: lost, though hosier remains, but specialized in _garden-hose, &c._ HUE: not now used of colour. IMBRUED (with blood): prob. lost in _brewed_. JADE: almost confined to _jaded_(?). KEEL = cool. LIST: as in 'as you list'. MAIL: now only in combination, coat of mail, &c. MARRY! MATED = confused in mind (well lost). MEED: lost in _mead_ = meadow (also obs.) _and mead=metheglin_. METE and METELY = fitting, also METE in 'mete it out', both lost in _meet_ and _meat_. MERE (_subs._). MOUSE (_verb_): to bite and tear. MOW = a grimace. MUSE = to wonder: lost in _amuse_ and _Muse_. NEAT = ox. OUNCE = pard. PALL = to fail. PEAK: survives only in 'peak and pine' and in _peaky_. PELTING = paltry, also PELT = a skin, lost. PILL = to plunder. PINK = ornamental slashing of dress. POKE = pocket. POLL = to cut the hair. QUARRY (as used in sport). QUEAN = a woman. RACK (of clouds). RAZE (to the ground). The meaning being the very opposite of _raise_, the word _raze_ is intolerable. REDE = counsel, n.b. change of meaning. RHEUM: survives in rheumatic, &c. SCALD = scurvy (_adj._). SLEAVE = a skein of silk, 'The ravelled sleave of care', usually misinterpreted, the equivocal alternative making excellent sense. SOUSE _(verb):_ of a bird of prey swooping. SPEED: as in 'St. Francis be thy speed' = help, aid. STALE = bait or decoy (well lost). TARRE: to 'tarre a dog on' = incite. TICKLE = unstable. TIRE = to dress (the hair, &c.). VAIL = to let fall. WREAK. Besides the above may be noted WONT (_sub._): lost in _won't_ = will not. FAIR: Though we still speak of 'a fair complexion' the word has lost much of its old use: and the verb TO FARE has suffered; we still say 'Farewell', but scarcely 'he fares ill'; also TO FARE FORTH is obsolete. BOLT = to sift, has gone out, also BOLT in the sense of a missile weapon; but the weapon may have gone first; we still preserve it in 'a bolt from the blue', a thunder-bolt, and 'a fool's bolt is soon shot', and we shoot the bolt of a door. BARM: this being the name of an object which would be familiar only to brewers and bakers, probably suffered from the discontinuance of family brewing and baking. It would no longer be familiar, and may possibly have felt the blurring effect of the ill-defined BALM, which word also seems rarely used. In the South of England few persons now know what barm is. ARCH: _adj._, probably obsolescent. There are also examples of words with the affix a-, or initials simulating that affix, thus: ABY: lost in _abide_, with which it was confused. ABODE = bode (? whether ever in common use). ACCITE: lost in _excite_. ASSAY: quite a common word, lost in _say_ (?) ATONE: lost in _tone_. and thus _attempt_, _attaint_, _attest_, _avail_, all suffered from _tempt_, _taint_, _test_, _veil_, whereas _attend_ seems to have destroyed _tend_. _Table of homophones that may seem to be presently falling out of use._[15] ail. alms. ascent. augur (_v._). barren. bate. bier. bray (_pound_). bridal. broach. casque. cede. cession. cite. clime. corse. cruse. dene. dun (_colour_). desert. fain. fallow. feign. fell (_skin_). flue (_velu_). fray (_sub._). fry (_small-_). gait. gambol. gin (_snare_). gird (_abuse_). gore (_blood_). hart. horde. hue (_colour_). isle. lea. lessen. let (_hinder_). lief. main. march (_boundary_). meed. mien. mote. mourn. mute (_of birds_). neat (_animal_). ore. pale (_enclosure_). pall (_v._). pen (_enclose_). pelt (_skin_). pile (_hair_). pink (_v._). pulse (_pease_). quean. rail (_chide_). raze. reave. reck. repair (_resort_). rheum. rood. rue. sack (_v._). sage (_adj._). sallow (_willow_). sere. soar. spray (_sprig_). still (_adj._ n.b. _keep still_). stoup. surge. swift. teem. toil (_snare_). vane. van (_fan_). vail (_v._). wage (_war_). wain. ween. whit. wight. wile. wrack. wreak. wot. aught. [Footnote 15: Some of the words in this table are also in the last list. This list is an attempt to tabulate words falling out of use or seldom heard now in the conversation of average educated persons who talk Southern English or what is called P.S.P. (see p. 38); to some of them the word may be unknown, and if it is known, they avoid using it because it sounds to them strange or affected. It is difficult to _prove_ that any particular word is in this condition, and the list is offered tentatively. It is made from Jones' dictionary, which is therefore allowed to rule whether the word is obsolescent rather than obsolete: some of these seem to be truly obsolete. Some will appear to be convincing examples of obsolescence, others not; but it must be remembered that the fact of a word being still commonly heard in some district or trade (though that may seem to show that it is in 'common use') is no evidence that it is not dying out; it is rather evidence that it was lately more living, which is the same as being obsolescent.] 4. _THAT THE LOSS DUE TO HOMOPHONY THREATENS TO IMPOVERISH THE LANGUAGE._ New words are being added to the dictionary much faster than old words are passing out of use, but it is not a question of numbers nor of dictionaries. A chemist told me that if the world were packed all over with bottles as close as they could stand, he could put a different substance into each one and label it. And science is active in all her laboratories and will print her labels. If one should admit that as many as ninety-nine per cent. of these artificial names are neither literary nor social words, yet some of them are, since everything that comes into common use must have a name that is frequently spoken. Thus _baik_, _sackereen_, and _mahjereen_ are truly new English word-sounds; and it may be, if we succumb to anarchical communism, that margarine and saccharine will be lauded by its dissolute mumpers as enthusiastically as men have hitherto praised and are still praising butter and honey. 'Bike' certainly would have already won a decent place in poetry had it been christened more gracefully and not nicknamed off to live in backyards with cab and bus. The whole subject of new terms is too vast to be parenthetically handled, and I hope that some one will deal with it competently in an early publication of the S.P.E. The question must here remain to be determined by the evidence of the words in the table of obsoletes, which I think is convincing; my overruling contention being that, however successful we may be in the coinage of new words (and we have no reason to boast of success) and however desirable it is to get rid of some of the bad useless homophones, yet we cannot afford to part with any old term that can conveniently be saved. We have the best Bible in the world, and in Shakespeare the greatest poet; we have been suckled on those twin breasts, and our children must have degenerated if they need asses' milk. Nor is it only because the old is better than the new that we think thus. If we speak more proudly of Trafalgar than of Zeebrugge, it is not because Trafalgar is so far finer a sounding word than Zeebrugge, as indeed it is, nor because we believe that the men of Nelson's time were better than our men of to-day, we know they were not, but because the spirit that lives on ideals will honour its parents; and it is thinking in this way that makes noble action instinctive and easy. Nelson was present at Zeebrugge leading our sailors, as Shakespeare is with us leading our writers, and no one who neglects the rich inheritance to which Englishmen are born is likely ever to do any credit to himself or his country. 5. _THAT THE SOUTH ENGLISH DIALECT IS A DIRECT AND CHIEF CAUSE OF HOMOPHONES._ [Sidenote: Evidence of Jones' dictionary.] Evidence of the present condition of our ruling educated speech in the South of England I shall take from Mr. Daniel Jones' dictionary,[16] the authority of which cannot, I think, be disputed. It is true that it represents a pronunciation so bad that its slovenliness is likely to be thought overdone, but there is no more exaggeration than any economical system of phonetic spelling is bound to show. It is indeed a strong and proper objection to all such simplifications that they are unable to exhibit the finer distinctions; but this must not imply that Mr. Jones' ear is lacking in delicate perception, or that he is an incompetent observer. If he says, as he does say, that the second syllable in the words _obloquy_ and _parasite_ are spoken by educated Londoners with the same vowel-sound (which he denotes by [e], that is the sound of _er_ in the word _danger_), then it is true that they are so pronounced, or at least so similarly that a trained ear refuses to distinguish them [óbl_er_quy, pár_er_site]. [Footnote 16: _A Phonetic Dictionary of the English Language_, by Hermann Michaelis, Headmaster of the Mittelschule in Berlin, and Daniel Jones, M.A., Lecturer on Phonetics at University College, London, 1913. There is a second edition of this book in which the words are in the accustomed alphabetical order of their literary spelling.] To this an objector might fairly reply that Mr. Jones could distinguish the two sounds very well if it suited him to do so; but that, as it is impossible for him to note them in his defective phonetic script, he prefers to confuse them. I shall not lose sight of this point,[17] but here I will only say that, if there really is a difference between these two vowels in common talk, then if Mr. Jones can afford to disregard it it must be practically negligible, and other phoneticians will equally disregard it, as the Oxford Press has in its smaller dictionary. [Footnote 17: I am not likely to forget it or to minimize it, for it is my own indictment against Mr. Jones' system, and since his practice strongly supports my contention I shall examine it and expose it (see p. 43); but the objection here raised is not really subversive of my argument here, as may be judged from the fact that the Oxford University Press has adopted or countenanced Mr. Jones' standard in their small popular edition of the large dictionary.] [Sidenote: Its trustworthiness.] I suppose that thirty years ago it would have been almost impossible to find any German who could speak English so well as to pass for a native: they spoke as Du Maurier delighted to represent them in _Punch_. During the late war, however, it has been no uncommon thing for a German soldier to disguise himself in English uniform and enter our trenches, relying on his mastery of our tongue to escape suspicion; and it was generally observed how many German prisoners spoke English _like a native_. Now this was wholly due to their having been taught Southern English on Mr. Jones' model and method. Again, those who would repudiate the facts that I am about to reveal, and who will not believe that in their own careless talk they themselves actually pronounce the words very much as Mr. Jones prints them,[18] should remember that the sounds of speech are now mechanically recorded and reproduced, and the records can be compared; so that it would betray incompetence for any one in Mr. Jones' position to misrepresent the facts, as it would be folly in him to go to the trouble and expense of making such a bogus book as his would be were it untrue; nor could he have attained his expert reputation had he committed such a folly. [Footnote 18: This is a very common condition. The habitual pronunciation is associated in the mind with the familiar eye-picture of the literary printed spelling so closely that it is difficult for the speaker to believe that he is not uttering the written sounds; but he is not competent to judge his own speech. For instance, almost all Englishmen believe that the vowel which we write _u_ in _but_, _ugly_, _unknown_, &c., is really a _u_, like the _u_ in _full_, and not a disguised _a_; and because the written _s_ is sometimes voiced they cannot distinguish between _s_ and _z_, nor without great difficulty separate among the plural terminations those that are spoken with an _s_ from those that are spoken with a _z_. I was shocked when I first discovered my own delusions in such matters, and I still speak the bad Southern English that I learnt as a child and at school. I can hardly forgive my teachers and would not myself be condemned in a like reprobation.] Again, and in support of the trustworthiness of the records, I am told by those concerned in the business that for some years past no Englishman could obtain employment in Germany as teacher of English unless he spoke the English vowels according to the standard of Mr. Jones' dictionary; and it was a recognized device, when such an appointment was being considered, to request the applicant to speak into a machine and send the record by post to the Continent; whereupon he was approved or not on that head by the agreement of the record with the standard which I am about to illustrate from the dictionary. All these considerations make a strong case for the truth of Mr. Jones' representation of our 'standard English', and his book is the most trustworthy evidence at my disposal: but before exhibiting it I would premise that our present fashionable dialect is not to be considered as the wanton local creator of all the faults that Mr. Jones can parade before the eye. Its qualities have come together in various ways, nor are the leading characteristics of recent origin. I am convinced that our so-called standard English sprang actively to the fore in Shakespeare's time, that in the Commonwealth years our speech was in as perilous a condition as it is to-day, and at the Restoration made a self-conscious recovery, under an impulse very like that which is moving me at the present moment; for I do not look upon myself as expressing a personal conviction so much as interpreting a general feeling, shared I know by almost all who speak our tongue, Americans, Australians, Canadians, Irish, New Zealanders, and Scotch, whom I range alphabetically lest I should be thought to show prejudice or bias in any direction. But this is beyond the present purpose, which is merely to exhibit the tendency which this so-called degradation has to create homophones. [Sidenote: Mauling of words.] As no one will deny that homophones are to be made by mauling words, I will begin by a selection of words from Mr. Jones' dictionary showing what our Southern English is doing with the language. I shall give in the first column the word with its literary spelling, in the second Mr. Jones' phonetic representation of it, and in the third column an attempt to represent that sound to the eye of those who cannot read the phonetic script, using such makeshift spellings as may be found in any novel where the pronunciation of the different speakers is differentiated. _Examples from Mr. Jones' Pronouncing Dictionary._[19] parsonage. p[a]:s[n.]i[dz] [-sn-] pahs'nidge _or_ pahsnidge. picture. pik[ts][e] pictsher. scriptural. skrip[ts][er]r[er]l scriptshererl _or_ scriptshrl. temperature. tempri[ts][e] tempritsher. interest. intrist intrist. senator. senit[e] _and_ senniter _and_ sen[e]tor sennertor. blossoming. bl[o]s[e]mi[ng] blosserming. natural. næ[ts]r[er]l natshrerl _or_ natshrl. orator. [o]r[e]t[e] orrerter. rapturous. ræp[ts][er]r[e]s raptsherers _or_ raptshrers. parasite. pær[e]sait parrersite. obloquy. [o]bl[e]kwi oblerquy. syllogise. sil[e][dz]aiz sillergize. equivocal. ikwiv[e]k[er]l ikwívverk'l. immaterial. im[e]ti[e]ri[e]l immertierierl. miniature. mini[ts][e] minnitsher. extraordinary. ikstr[o]:dnri ikstrordnry. salute. s[e]lu:t [-lju:-] serloot _and_ serlute. solution. s[e]lu:[s][e]n [-lju:-] serloosh'n _and_ serl[=u]sh'n. subordinate (_adj._). s[e]b[o]:d[n.]it serbord'nit. sublime. s[e]blaim serblime. [Footnote 19: The dictionary allows mitigated variants of some of these words.] In culling these flowers of speech I was not blind to their great picturesque merits, but they must not be taken for jokes, at least they must not be thought of as conjuring smiles on the faces of Messrs. Jones, Michaelis and Rippmann: they are deadly products of honest study and method, and serious evidence whereby any one should be convinced that such a standard of English pronunciation is likely to create homophones: and yet in searching the dictionary I have not found it guilty of many new ones.[20] For examples of homophones due to our 'standard' speech one might take first the 20 _wh_- words (given on page 14) which have lost their aspirate, and with them the 9 _wr_- words: next the 36 words in table iv and note, which have lost their trilled _R_: and then the 41 words from table vi on page 15; and that would start us with some 100 words, the confusion of which is due to our Southern English pronunciation, since the differentiation of all these words is still preserved in other dialects. The differentiation of these 100 words would of course liberate their twins, so the total number of gains should be doubled. [Footnote 20: A fair list might no doubt be made; the most amusing item would be--_Ophelia_ = _aphelia_: then _illusion_ = _elusion_, _paten_ = _pattern_, _seaman_ = _seamen_, _phial_ = _file_, _custody_ = _custardy_, and of course _verdure_ = _verger_ and _fissure_ = _fisher_. It would also allow _partition_ = _petition_, _proscribe_ = _prescribe_, and _upbraid_ = _abrade_! I take these from the first edition.] [Sidenote: Example of one class.] But number is not so important as the quality and frequency of the words involved, so I will instance one class in detail, namely the words in which _aw_ and _or_ are confused. Here are a dozen of them: core = caw. door = daw*. floor = flaw*. hoar* = haw. lore* = law. more = maw*. oar, ore = awe*. pore = paw. roar = raw. soar, sore = saw, saw. tore = taw. yore* = yaw. Of these 12 words, 6 exhibit stages or symptoms of obsolescence. I should think it extremely unlikely that _yore_ has been in any way incommoded by _yaw_; and _flaw_, which is now more or less cornered to one of its various meanings, was probably affected more by its own ambiguities than by _floor_; but others seem to be probable examples: _shaw_ and _lore_, and I think _maw_, are truly obsoletes, while _hoar_ and _daw_ are heard only in combination. _Awe_ is heard only in _awful_, and has there lost its significance. I should guess that this accident has strengthened its severity in literature, where it asserts its aloofness sometimes with a full spelling [_aweful_] as in speech two pronunciations are recognized, _awful_ and _awf'l_. Now how do these words appear in Jones' dictionary? If there is to be any difference between the _aw_ and _ore_ sounds either the _R_ must be trilled as it still is in the north, or some vestige of it must be indicated, and such indication would be a lengthening of the _o_ (=_aw_) sound by the vestigial voicing of the lost trill, such as is indicated in the word _o'er_, and might be roughly shown to the eye by such a spelling as _shawer_ for _shore_ [thus _shaw_ would be [s][o]: and _shore_ would be [s][o]:[e]] and such distinction is still made by our more careful Southern English speakers, and is recognized as an existent variant by Jones. Since the circumflex accent properly indicates a rise and fall of voice-pitch on a vowel-sound such as almost makes a disyllable of a monosyllable (e.g. in Milton's verse the word _power_ may fill either one or two places in the line) I will adopt it here to denote this fuller and differentiating pronunciation of _ore_. Now to all these words, and to the finals of such words as _ad[ore]_, _impl[ore]_, _ign[ore]_, Jones gives the diphthongal _aw_ as the normal South English pronunciation, and he allows the longer _[ore]_ sound only as a variant, putting this variant in the second place. Hence, all these _[ore]_ words are being encouraged to cast off the last remnant of their differentiation, which it is admitted that they have not yet quite lost.[21] [Footnote 21: The two editions of Jones' dictionary do not exactly correspond, e.g. in the first edition the words _boar_ and _bore_ are under _baw_, and no other pronunciation is mentioned. But in the second edition _b[ore]_ and _b[oar]_ are allowed as variants. In the first edition _four_, _fore_ and _for_ are all under _faw_ [f[e]:], and I find _pour_, _pore_, and _poor_ all under _paw_, though in every case there are variants, and on p. 404 he records that _shore_ and _sure_ may be pronounced alike. Again, in the first edition, _yerr_ [j[e]:] is one normal for _year_ and also dialectal for _ear_ (!), while in the second edition only _y[ear]_ [ji:] is given for _year_, and _yerr_ is not mentioned at all. As I am sure that this sort of stuff must be almost more tedious and annoying to read than it is to write, I desist from further details, but cannot resist the opportunity of pointing out that in their English pronunciation of Latin our classical teachers and professors have wantonly introduced this mischievous homophony of _au_ and _or_ into Latin, although the proper pronunciation of the 'diphthong' _au_ in Latin is not like our _awe_, but like the _ou_ of _out_. Thus with them _corda_ and _cauda_ are similar sounds, and the sacred _Sursum corda_ means 'Cock your tail' just as much as it means 'Lift up your hearts'.] 6. _THAT THE MISCHIEF IS BEING PROPAGATED BY PHONETICIANS._ [Sidenote: The use of phonetics in education.] The phoneticians are doing useful work in supplying an educational need. By the phonetic system any spoken language can now be learned quickly and easily, just as by the _sol-fa_ system the teaching of music was made easy and simple. If a clergyman who had no practical knowledge of music were offered the post of minor canon in a cathedral, he would find it very difficult to qualify himself passably, whereas any village schoolboy could learn all the music necessary for such an office, and learn that solidly too and soundly and durably, in a few lessons, truly in a few hours, by the _sol-fa_ method. The principle is the same in music and in speech, namely to have a distinct symbol for every separate sound; in music it is a name, the idea of which quickly becomes indissociable from the note of the scale which it indicates; in phonetics it is a written letter, which differs from the units of our literary alphabet only in this, that it has but one meaning and interpretation, and really is what all letters were originally intended to be. When you see it you know what it means. [Sidenote: Its general adoption certain.] The principle is but common sense, and practice confirms its validity. I am persuaded that as soon as competition has exposed the advantages which it ensures, not only in the saving of time, but in the rescuing of English children from the blighting fog through which their tender minds are now forced to struggle on the first threshold of life,[22] then all spoken languages will be taught on that method. What now chiefly hinders its immediate introduction is not so much the real difficulty of providing a good simple system, as the false fear that all our literature may take on the phonetic dress; and this imagination is frightful enough to be a bugbear to reasonable people, although, so far as one can see, there is no more danger of this result than there is of all music appearing in sol-fa notation. [Footnote 22: This is no exaggeration. Let a humane teacher think what an infant's mind is, the delicate bud of intelligence opening on the world, eager to adjust its awakening wonder to the realities of life, absolutely simple, truthful, and receptive, reaching out its tender faculties like the sensitive antennae of a new-born insect, that feel forth upon the unknown with the faultless instinct of eternal mind--one has only to imagine that condition to realize that the most ingenious malignity could hardly contrive anything to offer it so perplexing, cramping, and discouraging as the unintelligible and unreasonable absurdities of English literary spelling. That it somehow generally wrestles through is only a demonstration of the wrong that is done to it; and I would say, better leave it alone to find its own way, better teach it nothing at all, than worry it with the incomprehensible, indefensible confusion of such nonsense.] [Sidenote: Demand of the market.] Now here is a promising field for adventure. Not only is the creation of a new fount of type an elaborate and expensive process, but the elaboration of a good system and its public recognition when produced involve much time; so that any industrial company that is early in the market with a complete apparatus and a sufficient reputation will carry all before it, and be in a position to command and secure great monetary profit. There is no doubt that the field is now strongly held by the Anglo-Prussian society which Mr. Jones represents.[23] [Footnote 23: The peril that we are in of having Mr. Jones' degraded pronunciation thus sprung upon us in England and taught in all our schools is really threatening. Indeed, as things are, there is little prospect of escaping from it, supposing the democracy should once awake to the commercial and spiritual advantages of teaching language phonetically: and that would seem to be only a question of time: the demand may come at any moment, and a complete machinery which has been skilfully prepared to meet the demand will offer practical conveniences to outbalance every other consideration. Even supposing the authorities in the Education Department sufficiently alive to the situation which it is the purpose of this section of my essay to bring to the fore, yet even then, were they all unanimous, they could not give effect to their convictions, because-- They are forbidden to recommend or give preference to any particular book. They may not order or prohibit the use of any book, however good or bad they may know it to be, and they probably desire to avoid the suspicion of favouring the authors of books that have the advantage of national circulation. However that may be, it is a lamentable situation that our high-salaried Board of Education, composed of the best trained intelligence of the country, should not be allowed to exercise its discretion efficiently. The people, no doubt, cannot be agreed as to the principles on which they desire to be educated, whether political, official, or religious, and they deprecate official control in such matters. Every one objecting to some principle, they consent in requiring that the central authority should have no principle at all; but this lack of principle should not be extended to paralyse action in questions that demand expert knowledge and judgement, such as this question of phonetic teaching--and it shows that the public by grudging authority to their own officers may only fall under a worse tyranny, which they will suffer just because it has no authority.] In the preceding section Mr. Jones' dictionary was taken as authority for the actual condition of Southern English pronunciation. It must now be considered in its other aspect, namely as the authoritative phonetic interpretation of our speech; my contention being that it is a wrong and mischievous interpretation. It is difficult to keep these two questions quite apart. The first, which was dealt with in Section 5, was that Southern English is actively productive of homophones. This present Section 6 is contending that the mischief is being encouraged and propagated by the phoneticians, and Mr. Jones' books are taken as an example of their method. [Sidenote: Fault of Mr. Jones' method.] The reason why the work of these phoneticians is so mischievous is that they have chosen too low a standard of pronunciation. The defence that they would make would be something like this. They might argue with some confidence, and not without a good show of reason, that the actual 'vernacular' talk of the people is the living language of any country: they would allege that a spoken language is always changing, and always will change; that the actual condition of it is the only scientific, and indeed the only possible basis for any system of tuition; and that it is better to be rather in advance of change than behind it, since the changes proceed inevitably by laws which education has no power to resist, nay, so inevitably that science can in some measure foresee the future. This would, I suppose, fairly represent Mr. Jones' contention. Indeed, he plainly asserts that his work is merely a record of existing facts, and he even says that he chose Southern English because it is most familiar and observable, and therefore capable of providing him with sufficient phenomena: and he might say that what I call 'low' in his standard is only the record of a stage of progression which I happen to dislike or have not nearly observed. And yet the argument is full of fallacies: and the very position that he assumes appears to me to be unsound. It is well enough to record a dialect, nor will any one grudge him credit for his observation and diligence, but to reduce a dialect to theoretic laws and then impose those laws upon the speakers of it is surely a monstrous step. And in this particular instance the matter is complicated by the fact that Southern English is not truly a natural dialect; Mr. Jones himself denotes it as P.S.P.=Public School Pronunciation, and that we know to be very largely a social convention dependent on fashion and education, and inasmuch as it is a product of fashion and education it is not bound by the theoretical laws which Mr. Jones would attribute to it; while for the same reason it is unfortunately susceptible of being affected by them, if they should be taught with authority. These phoneticians would abuse a false position which they have unwarrantably created. This Southern English, this P.S.P., is a 'fashionable' speech, fashionable that is in two senses; and Mr. Jones would fashion it. [Sidenote: judged by practical effects.] But I wish to put my case practically, and, rather than argue, I would ask what are the results of learning English on Mr. Jones' system? What would be the condition of a man who had learnt in this way? [Sidenote: His three styles.] I shall assume that the pupil has learnt his pronunciation from the dictionary, the nature of which is now known to my readers: but they should also know that Mr. Jones recognizes and teaches three different styles, which he calls the A, B, and C styles, 'A, the pronunciation suitable for recitation or reading in public; B, the pronunciation used in careful conversation, or reading aloud in private; and C, the pronunciation used in rapid conversation.' In a polemic against Mr. Jones his adversary has therefore to combat a dragon with three heads, and the heroic method would be to strike all three of them off at one blow. To effect this it seems to me that one has only to remark that a system which is forced to teach a dialect [a dialect, observe, not a language] in three forms where one is sufficient, is _ipso facto_ condemned. This objection I will establish presently; at present I am content to confine my attention to one head, for I maintain that in practice those who will take the trouble to learn three forms of one speech must be a negligible number; the practical pupils will generally be content to master one, and that will, no doubt, be the highly recommended style B, and its corresponding dictionary; they will rule out A and C as works of supererogation; and indeed those would be needless if B were satisfactory. [Sidenote: In deliberate repititions.] So, then, we are asking what is the condition of a man who has learned the dictionary standard? (1) In common talk if we speak so indistinctly as not to be understood, we repeat our sentence with a more careful articulation. As Sweet used to say, the only security against the decay of language through careless articulation into absolute unintelligibility is the personal inconvenience of having to repeat your words when you are indistinctly heard. 'What' leaps out from the dictionary with a shout to the rescue of all his fellows. And when you have experienced this warcry 'what? what?' oftener than you like, you will raise the standard of your pronunciation (just as you would raise your voice to a deaf listener) merely to save yourself trouble, even though you were insensible to the shame of the affront. [Sidenote: In asseveration.] And this more careful articulation obtains also in all _asseveration_. A speaker who wishes to provoke attention to any particular statement or sentiment will speak the words by which he would convey it more slowly and with more careful articulation than the rest of his utterance. Under both these common conditions the man who has learned only the vernacular of Mr. Jones' phonetics has no resource but to emphasize with all their full horrors words like _seprit_, _sin'kerpate_, _din'ersty_, _ernoin't_, _mis'ernthrope_, _sym'perthy_, _mel'ernkerly_, _mel'erdy_, _serspe'ct_, _erno'y_, &c.[24], which when spoken indistinctly in careless talk may pass muster, but when accurately articulated are not only vulgar and absurd, but often unrecognizable. [Footnote 24: Writing _er_, always unaccented, for [e].] [Sidenote: In public speaking.] (2) Again, public speakers use a pronunciation very different from that in the dictionary, and Mr. Jones admits this and would teach it _sepritly_ as 'style A'. But it is wrong to suppose that its characteristics are a mere fashion or a pedantic regard for things obsolete, or a nice rhetorical grace, though Mr. Jones will have it to be mostly artificial, 'due to well-established, though perhaps somewhat arbitrary rules laid down by teachers of elocution'. The basis of it is the need of being heard and understood, together with the experience that style B will not answer that purpose. The main service, no doubt, of a teacher of elocution is to instruct in the management of the voice (clergyman's sore throat is a recognized disease of men who use their voice wrongly); but a right pronunciation is almost equally necessary and important. Now if public speakers really have to learn something different from their habitual pronunciation, Mr. Jones is right in making a separate style of it, and he is also justified in the degraded forms of his style B, for those are what these speakers have to unlearn; nor is any fault to be found with his diligent and admirable analysis. These two practical considerations expose the situation sufficiently: we may now face the triple-tongued dragon and exhibit how a single whiff of common sense will tumble all his three heads in the dust. [Sidenote: The natural right method.] The insideoutness, topsy-turviness, and preposterousness of Mr. Jones' method is incredible. In the natural order of things, children would be taught a careful 'high standard' articulation as a part of their elemental training, when in their pliant age they are mastering the co-ordinations which are so difficult to acquire later. Then when they have been educated to speak correctly, their variation from that full pronunciation is a natural carelessness, and has the grace of all natural behaviour, and it naturally obeys whatever laws have been correctly propounded by phoneticians; since it is itself the phenomena from which those laws are deduced. This carelessness or ease of speech will vary naturally _in all degrees_ according to occasion, and being dependent on mood and temper will never go wrong. It is warm and alive with expression of character, and may pass quite unselfconsciously from the grace of negligence to the grace of correctness, for it has correctness at command, having learned it, and its carelessness has not been doctored and bandaged; and this ease of unselfconsciousness is one of the essentials of human intercourse: a man talking fluently does not consider what words he will use, he does not often remember exactly what words he has used, nor will he know at all how he pronounces them; his speech flows from him as his blood flows when his flesh is wounded. [Sidenote: What Mr. Jones would substitute.] What would Mr. Jones' system substitute for this natural grace? In place of a wide scale of unconscious variation he provides his pupils with 'three styles', three different fixed grades of pronunciation,[25] which they must apply consciously as suits the occasion. At dinner you might be called on to talk to a bishop across the table in your best style B, or to an archbishop even in your A1, when you were talking to your neighbours in your best C.--Nature would no doubt assert herself and secure a fair blend; but none the less, the three styles are plainly alternatives and to some extent mutually exclusive, whereas natural varieties are harmoniously interwoven and essentially one. [Footnote 25: Of course Mr. Jones knows that these are not and cannot be fixed. He must often bewail in secret the exigencies of his 'styles'.] Argumentative analogies are commonly chosen because they are specious rather than just; but there is one here which I cannot forbear. If a system like Mr. Jones' were adopted in teaching children to write, we should begin by collecting and comparing all the careless and hasty handwritings of the middle class and deduce from them the prevalent forms of the letters in that state of degradation. From this we should construct in our 'style B' the alphabet which we should contend to be the genuine natural product of inevitable law, and hallowed by 'general use', and this we should give to our children to copy and learn, relegating the more carefully formed writing to a 'style A, taught by writing masters', explaining that its 'peculiarities' were 'modifications produced involuntarily as the result of writing more slowly or endeavouring to write more distinctly', &c.[26] [Footnote 26: _Phonetic Transcriptions of English_, by D. Jones, 1907, Introd., p. v, 'The peculiarities of Style A as compared with Style B are especially marked. These differences are partly natural, i.e. modifications produced involuntarily as the result of speaking more slowly or of endeavouring to speak more distinctly, and partly artificial, i.e. modifications due to the well-established though perhaps somewhat arbitrary rules laid down by teachers of elocution,' &c., and Mr. Jones is quite right in complaining that his pupils make fools of themselves when they try to speak slower.] I believe that there has never been in Europe a fluent script so beautiful and legible as that of our very best English writers of to-day. But their æsthetic mastery has come from loving study of the forms that conscious artistry had perfected, and through a constant practice in their harmonious adaptation. Finally, it may be worth while to raise the question how it can be that a man of Mr. Jones' extreme competence in his science should commit himself to a position that appears so false and mischievous. [Sidenote: Reason of present discredit of phonetics.] The unpopularity of phonetics is not wholly undeserved: from its early elements, the comfortably broad distinctions of convincing importance, it has progressed to a stage of almost infinite differentiations and subtleties; and when machinery was called in to dispose of controversy, a new and unsuspected mass of baffling detail was revealed. The subject cannot be treated parenthetically, nor am I capable of summarizing it; but it seems clear that the complexity of the science has driven off public sympathy and dashed the confidence of scholars, withdrawing thereby some of the wholesome checks that common sense might else have imposed on its practical exponents. The experts thus left to themselves in despair of any satisfactory solution, are likely enough to adopt the simplifications most agreeable to their present ideas, and measure the utility of such simplifications by the accidental conveniences of their own science, independently of other considerations. [Sidenote: The practical difficulty.] The main practical difficulty which they have to meet in providing a reasonably satisfactory phonetic script or type for the English language is this, that the symbols of their alphabet must not greatly exceed in number those of the literary alphabet, whereas the sounds that they have to indicate do greatly exceed. This discrepancy might be overcome by the use of what are called 'diacritical' marks, but here the universal prejudice against accents in English is forbidding, and it is true that even if printers did not rebel against them, they are yet distasteful and deterrent to readers out of all proportion to their complexity. [Sidenote: The result of Mr. Jones' solution.] [Sidenote: The true condition of modified vowels, &c.] Mr. Jones no doubt allowed himself as much liberty as he could venture on, but to what has this paucity and choice of symbols led him? It has led him to assert and teach that an unaccented vowel in English retains no trace of its proper quality[27]: that is, that you cannot, or at least do not, modify an unaccented vowel; you either pronounce _a_, _e_, _o_, _u_, distinctly, or you must substitute an alien sound, generally 'er', or in some consonantal positions a short 'i'. Thus we have _parersite_, _oblerquy_, _ikse'pt_, _ikspre'ss_, _iqua'ter_, _peri'sherner_, _perli'ce_, _spe'sherlize_, _pin'erkl_, _Mes'esperta'mier_, &c., and one of his examples, which he advances with the confidence of complete satisfaction, is the name _Margate_, which he asserts is pronounced _Margit_,[28] that is, with a short _i_. The vowel is no doubt short, and its shortness is enforced by its being closed by a _t_: but it is not a short _i_, it is an extremely hastened and therefore disguised form of the original and proper diphthong _ei_ (heard in _bait_ and _gate_); and the true way to write it phonetically would be _ei_, with some diacritical sign to show that it was obscured. There is no long vowel or diphthong in English which cannot in some positions be pronounced short; and when hurried over between accents it is easy to see that there is nothing, except an obstacle of consonants, which can prevent the shortening of any syllable; for long and short are relative, and when you are speaking very slowly 'short' sounds actually occupy as much time as 'long' sounds do when you are speaking quickly. You have therefore only to suppose a speed of utterance somewhat out of scale; and this is just what happens. In the second syllable of _Margate_ the diphthong is hastened and obscured, but a trace of its quality remains, and will more distinctly appear as you speak the word slower. And so in the case of unaccented short vowels that are hurried over between the accents in talking, they are disguised and lose quality, but in good speakers a trace of the original sound will remain (as in _parasite_ and _obloquy_), where, on the ground of indistinctness, Mr. Jones introduces the symbol of an _alien unrelated_ sound, a sound, that is, which is _distinctly wrong instead of being indistinctly right_: and this fault vitiates all his books. Economy of symbols has led him to perversity of pronunciation.[29] [Footnote 27: I do not deny that he allows some exceptions: and these, few as they are, concede the principle for which I contend.] [Footnote 28: His own words are, 'Thus Margate trippers now generally speak of Ma:geit instead of Ma:git: teachers in London elementary schools now often say eksept for iksept 'except', ekstr[e][o]:din[er]ri for ikstr[o]dnri 'extraordinary', often for [o]:fn 'often'. We feel that such artificialities cannot but impair the beauty of the language.' Dictionary, 1st edition, Preface, p.v.] [Footnote 29: In the first edition of the Dictionary [1913] [e] has only one interpretation, the illustration being the _a_ of _about_. In the _Phonetic Transcriptions_ [1907] it was the _er_ of _over_, but in the new Dictionary [1917] [e] has three interpretations with the following explanation: '[e] varies noticeably according to its position in the word and in the sentence. In final positions it is often replaced (_sic_) by "[Greek: L]" [=_u_ of _up_], in other positions its quality varies considerably according to the nature of the surrounding sounds; the variations extend from almost "[Greek: L]" to the half-close mixed position. Three different values may be heard in the words _china_, _cathedral_: in the latter word the second "[e]" has a lower and more retracted tongue-position than the first [e].' The value of [e] when Mr. Jones first substituted it for a disguised unaccented vowel, was that the speaker might know what sound he had to produce. It was wrong, but it was definite. Mr. Jones would now make it less wrong by making it less definite. That is, in the place of something distinctly wrong we are offered something which has an offchance of being nearly right: but as it has entirely ousted and supplanted the original vowel I do not see how there is any means of interpreting it correctly. The _er_ of _over_ is a definite sound, and to print it where it was out of place was a definite error--to give it three interpretations makes it cover more ground: but its usurpations are still indefensible.] 7. _ON THE CLAIM THAT SOUTHERN ENGLISH HAS TO REPRESENT ALL BRITISH SPEECH._ On this head certainly I can write nothing worth reading. Whether there is any one with so wide a knowledge of all the main different forms of English now spoken, their historic development and chief characteristics, as to be able to summarize the situation convincingly, I do not know. I can only put a few of the most evident phenomena in the relation in which they happen to affect my judgement. And first of all I put the small local holding which the Southern English dialect can claim on the map of the British Empire. It is plain that with such a narrow habitat it must show proof that it possesses very great relative superiorities before it can expect to be allowed even a hearing: and such a claim must lie in its superiority in some practical or ideal quality: further than that it might allege that it was the legitimate heir of our great literature, and in possession of the citadel, and in command of an extensive machinery for its propaganda. Now, in my opinion it could not establish any one of these claims except the last, namely its central position and wide machinery. I do not pretend to foresee the future, nor even to desire it in any particular form; but it seems to me probable that if the 'P.S.P.' continues its downward course as indicated by Mr. Jones, then, unless everything else worsens with it, so that it might maintain its relative flotation in a general confusion, it must fall to be disesteemed and repudiated, and give place to one or more other dialects which, by having better preserved the distinctions of pronunciation, will be not only more convenient vehicles of intercourse, but more truthful and intelligible interpreters of our great literature; and I believe this to be well illustrated by the conditions of our 'S.E.' homophones: and that something better should win the first place, I hold to be the most desirable of possible events. But perhaps our 'S.E.' is not yet so far committed to the process of decay as to be incapable of reform, and the machinery that we use for penetration may be used as well for organizing a reform and for enforcing it. There is as much fashion as inevitable law in our 'P.S.P.' or 'S.E.' talk, and if the fashion for a better, that is a more distinct and conservative, pronunciation should set in, then at the cost of a little temporary self-consciousness we might, in one generation, or at least in two, have things again very much as they were in Shakespeare's day. It is true that men are slaves to the naturalness of what is usual with them, and unable to imagine that the actual living condition of things in their own time is evanescent: nor do even students and scholars see that in the Elizabethan literature we have a perdurable gigantic picture which, among all stages of change, will persistently reassert itself, while any special characteristics of our own day, which seem so unalterable to us, are only a movement, which may no doubt be determining the next movement, but will leave no other trace of itself, at least no more than the peculiarities of the age of Queen Anne have left to us. I have been told that the German experts believe that the Cockney form of English will eventually prevail. This surprising opinion may rest on scientific grounds, but it seems to me that Cockney speech will be too universally unintelligible; and, should it actively develop, will be so out of relation with other and older forms of English as to be unable to compete. I wish and hope that the subject of this section may provoke some expert to deal thoroughly with it. The strong feeling in America, in Australia, and in New Zealand, to say nothing of the proud dialects of our own islands, is in support of the common-sense view of the matter which I have here expressed. SUMMARY When I consented to write this inaugural paper, I knew that my first duty would be to set an example of the attitude which the Society had proposed to take and hopes to maintain. This Society was called into existence by the widespread interest in linguistic subjects which is growing on the public, and by the lamentable lack of any organized means for focussing opinion. It responds to that interest, and would supply that want.[30] There is no doubt that public opinion is altogether at sea in these matters, and its futility is betrayed and encouraged by the amateurish discussions and _obiter dicta_ that are constantly appearing and reappearing in the newspapers. Our belief is that if facts and principles were clearly stated and thoroughly handled by experts, it would then be possible not only to utilize this impulse and gratify a wholesome appetite, but even to attract and organize a consensus of sound opinion which might influence and determine the practice of our best writers and speakers. [Footnote 30: Neither the British Academy nor the Academic Committee of the Royal Society of Literature has shown any tendency to recognize their duties and responsibilities in this department.] The Society absolutely repudiates the assumption of any sort of Academic authority or orthodoxy; it relies merely on statement of fact and free expression of educated opinion to assure the verdict of common sense; and it may illustrate this method to recapitulate the various special questions that have arisen from following it in this particular discussion concerning English homophones. The main points are of course (1) The actual condition of the English language with respect to homophones. [This is an example of statement of fact.] (2) The serious nature of their inconvenience. (3) The evidence that we are unconsciously increasing them. (4) The consequent impoverishment of the language. From these considerations the question must arise (5) Whether it is not our duty to take steps to prevent the continuance and growth of this evil. [To give an example--the word _mourn_. If we persist in mispronouncing this word as _morn_, and make no distinction between _mourning_ and _morning_, then that word will perish. We cannot afford to lose it: it is a good example of our best words, as may be seen by looking it up in the concordances to Shakespeare and the Bible: and what is true of this word is true of hundreds of others.] (6) It is pointed out that our fashionable Southern English dialect, our Public School Pronunciation, is one chief source of this damage. (7) Attention is called to the low standard of pronunciation adopted by our professional phoneticians, and to the falsity of their orthodox teaching. (8) The damage to the language which is threatened by their activity is exposed. (9) It is questioned how far it is possible to adopt living dialectal forms to save words that would otherwise perish. (10) Respect for the traditions of neglected dialects is advocated. (11) As to what differentiations of words should be insisted on [e.g. the _lore_ = _law_ class]. (12) The necessity of observing vowel distinctions in unaccented syllables, [e.g. Every one now pronounces the _o_ in the new word _petrol_, and yet almost every one thinks it impossible to pronounce the _o_ in the old word _symbol_; which is absurd.] (13) The necessity for better phonetic teaching in our schools. (14) The quality of the new words introduced into the language; and the distinction between mere scientific labels, and those names of common new objects which must be constantly spoken. (15) The claims of the Southern English dialect to general acceptance is questioned. (16) The general consideration that the spread of the English language over the world must accelerate the disuse and loss of the most inconvenient homophones. These matters invite expert discussion, and it is our hope that every such question will receive due treatment from some one whose knowledge qualifies him to handle it; and that when any principle or detail is definitely recognized as desirable, then the consensus of good writers and speakers will adopt it. This implies wide recognition, support, and co-operation; and though the Society has already gone far to secure this, it may yet seem that the small aristocracy of letters will be insufficient to carry through such a wide reform of habit: but it should be remembered that they are the very same persons whose example maintains the existing fashions. And, again, when it is urged against us that the democratic Press is too firmly established in its traditions to be moved by such an influence, it is overlooked that the great majority of those who write for the Press, and maintain or even create the style by which it holds the public ear, are men of good education, whose minds are thoroughly susceptible to all intellectual notions, and often highly sensitive to æsthetic excellence. They are all of them in a sense trained experts, and though working under tyrannous conditions are no less alive in pride and self respect than those who command more leisure, and they will readily and eagerly follow where their circumstances might forbid them to lead. The conviction too that they are honourably assisting in preserving the best traditions of our language will add zest to their work; while the peculiar field of it will provide a wholesome utilitarian test, which must be of good service to us by checking the affectations and pedantries into which it may be feared that such a society as the S.P.E. would conceivably lapse. Their co-operation is altogether desirable, and we believe attainable if it be not from the first assured. R.B. 
12358	----	Post-Proofer; the Online Distributed Proofreaders Team _SOCIETY for PURE ENGLISH_ (_S.P.E_). _TRACT No. I_ Preliminary Announcement & List of Members Oct. 1919 _At the Clarendon Press_ MDCCCCXIX SOCIETY for PURE ENGLISH (S.P.E.) The Society was founded in 1913, and was preparing to enter on its activities, when the declaration of war in Aug. 1914 determined the Committee to suspend proceedings until the national distraction should have abated. They met again after the Armistice in 1918 and agreed to announce their first issues for October 1919. Although present conditions are not as favourable as could be wished, it would seem that the public are disposed to attend to literary matters, and that the war has even quickened the interest and increased the number of those to whom the special objects of the Society will be most intelligible and attractive. A false start is a misfortune, and recovery from its confusion must have an awkward appearance, for which it is needless to make further apology or explanation. 1. THE TITLE OF THE SOCIETY. In calling itself the Society for Pure English it was not overlooked that the word Pure might carry a wrong suggestion. It should be explained that it does not denote, as it is sometimes used to denote, the idea that words of foreign origin are _impurities_ in English; it rather assumes that they are not; and the Committee, whether wisely or unwisely, thought a short title of general import was preferable to a definition which would misrepresent their purpose by its necessary limitations. 2. FINANCIAL. The founders were originally confident that they could carry on their work without asking for any subscription from the members; and although the conditions of prices and commodities are now wholly changed and altogether unfavourable, they still hope that they may be able to keep to their scheme. If the publications of the Society are of sufficient merit, their profits should cover the expenses of an unsalaried staff; and though it shall be optional for their authors to retain a share of such prospective profits, it is hoped that most of those who contribute their work will be willing to allow all the profits to go into the funds of the Society. In the place of a small subscription, which it is as inconvenient regularly to collect as it is to pay, the secretary invites donations of any amount, great or small, which will be duly acknowledged and deposited in the Society's banking account. The sympathetic response to their prospectus warrants the belief that more donations will be forthcoming. The Society having a finite aim may, after a few years of activity, consider its usefulness to be at an end; and if, when it is wound up, it should have a balance in hand, the present Committee undertake to pay such a balance into the Pension Fund of the Society of Authors. 3. PUBLICATIONS. The Society undertakes to publish a series of tracts on the subjects which it is founded to deal with. It is impossible to foresee the quality or amount of such expert contributions; but the Committee intend to issue at least a quarterly paper which shall contain a report of proceedings up to date. Meanwhile the two first tracts are sent gratis to all the present members. Later issues will be announced in the literary journals, and members will be expected to buy them unless they shall pre-contract to have them supplied as they are issued, which may be done by a donation to the Society at the rate of 10s. a year. The tracts will be issued by the Oxford University Press. 4. MANAGEMENT. The original Committee will continue to carry on until it is convenient to call a meeting of the members to relieve them of their responsibility; and it is their plan that the members should ultimately decide the constitution of the Society. Meanwhile they guarantee the general soundness of the books and publications which will be advertised on their pages; but under no circumstances do they make the Society responsible for all the opinions of its contributors; they desire full discussion of all questions. 5. MEMBERSHIP. The Committee invite the membership of all those who are genuinely interested in the objects of the Society and willing to assist in its work. They should send application for membership to the Honorary Secretary, Mr. L. Pearsall Smith, 11 St. Leonards Terrace, London, S.W.3. 6. ORIGINAL PROSPECTUS. The following is a reprint of the original prospectus as issued Oct. 1913:-- Literary education in England would seem in one grave respect to lack efficiency, for it does not inspire writers with a due sense of responsibility towards their native speech. In most European countries men of letters, and the better class of journalists, are trained to observe the changes of the language, and to assist consciously in its development, being guided by acknowledged principles of tradition and taste. But the English language, which is now rapidly spreading over the world, is subject to no such guidance, and to very little intelligent criticism. There is indeed occasional discussion, both in the journals and in table-talk, concerning the choice and use of special words and the standards of style; but this is mostly conducted by irresponsible persons, who have no knowledge of the history of English, and are even without any definite ideal or right conception of what the essentials of a good language must be. It is therefore proposed that a few men of letters, supported by the scientific alliance of the best linguistic authorities, should form a group or free association, and agree upon a modest and practical scheme for informing popular taste on sound principles, for guiding educational authorities, and for introducing into practice certain slight modifications and advantageous changes. The promoters of this association (which calls itself the 'Society for Pure English') are of course well aware of the danger of affectation, which constitutes the chief objection to any conscious reform of language. They are fully on their guard against this; and they think that the scheme of activity which they propose must prevent their being suspected of foolish interference with living developments. The ideal of their proposed association is both conservative and democratic. It would aim at preserving all the richness of differentiation in our vocabulary, its nice grammatical usages, its traditional idioms, and the music of its inherited pronunciation: it would oppose whatever is slipshod and careless, and all blurring of hard-won distinctions, but it would no less oppose the tyranny of schoolmasters and grammarians, both in their pedantic conservatism, and in their ignorant enforcing of newfangled 'rules', based not on principle, but merely on what has come to be considered 'correct' usage. The ideal of the Society is that our language in its future development should be controlled by the forces and processes which have formed it in the past; that it should keep its English character, and that the new elements added to it should be in harmony with the old; for by this means our growing knowledge would be more widely spread, and the whole nation brought into closer touch with the national medium of expression. The Society, therefore, will place itself in opposition to certain tendencies of modern taste; which taste it hopes gradually to modify and improve. Its object will be best exhibited by stating a few definite proposals which may be regarded as typical. I. Literary taste at the present time, with regard to foreign words recently borrowed from abroad, is on wrong lines, the notions which govern it being scientifically incorrect, tending to impair the national character of our standard speech, and to adapt it to the habits of classical scholars. On account of these alien associations our borrowed terms are now spelt and pronounced, not as English, but as foreign words, instead of being assimilated, as they were in the past, and brought into conformity with the main structure of our speech. And as we more and more rarely assimilate our borrowings, so even words that were once naturalized are being now one by one made un-English, and driven out of the language back into their foreign forms; whence it comes that a paragraph of serious English prose may be sometimes seen as freely sprinkled with italicized French words as a passage of Cicero is often interlarded with Greek. The mere printing of such words in italics is an active force towards degeneration. The Society hopes to discredit this tendency, and it will endeavour to restore to English its old reactive energy; when a choice is possible we should wish to give an English pronunciation and spelling to useful foreign words, and we would attempt to restore to a good many words the old English forms which they once had, but which are now supplanted by the original foreign forms. Other foreign denizens which are claiming naturalization we would encourage on the principle of preferring their more English forms. It would plainly be useful for writers to be acquainted with such matters; and a list of all such words with their English history would be a good example of the sort of academic service which this Society might render. II. The large and necessary importation of foreign words into the English language has undoubtedly weakened its ancient word-making powers; and while all fantastic and awkward inventions and ill-sounding compounds should be avoided, it seems desirable to give at least a fair chance to words formed out of English material. Such new English words, especially new English compounds, need, it would seem, to be used for some little time before we can overcome our dislike of them, while terms of Greek and Latin origin, however cumbrous and unsuitable they may be, are accepted almost without question. We would discourage such unimaginative and artificial formations, and on principle prefer terms made of English material, which are easily understood and naturally spoken by English-speaking people. III. Until recent years English writers were in the habit of experimenting somewhat freely in language, and to their word-coining activity we owe many of our current and most useful terms. But since Carlyle there have been until lately few experiments of this kind. Many words are added every year to the English vocabulary, but they are for the most part the deliberate creations of scientific writers; while the very men who should concern themselves with this matter stand aloof, and leave it to those who by nature and profession are least sensitive to the aesthetic requirements. We would therefore encourage those who possess the word-making faculty to exercise it freely; and we hope in the future that suggestions from our members may help men of science and inventors in their search for new and appropriate names. IV. Although men of letters may occasionally add to the resources of the language by word-coinage, their main activity is and must be one of selection. They are forced, for the most part, to choose their vocabulary from the supplies at hand, and by their choice they do much to give prevalence to the words which meet with their approval. Now, believing that language is or should be democratic both in character and origin, and that its best word-makers are the uneducated, and not the educated classes, we would prefer vivid popular terms to the artificial creations of scientists. We shall often do better by inquiring, for instance, not what name the inventor gave to his new machine, but what it is called by the workmen who handle it; and in adopting their homespun terms and giving them literary currency, we shall help to preserve the living and popular character of our speech. V. The present spread of education, and the enforcement of a uniform and town-bred standard of speech throughout the schools of the country, is destroying dialects and local forms with great rapidity. These have been studied by specialists, and their value is fully recognized; but the attitude of the educated classes towards them is still contemptuous or indifferent. This ignorant contempt is to be regretted for many reasons. Not only is some knowledge of dialects needful for any true understanding of the history and character of our language, but the standard speech has in the past derived much enrichment and what is called 'regeneration' from the picturesque vocabularies of local vernaculars. The drying-up of these sources cannot but be regarded as a misfortune. We shall therefore actively encourage educated people, and, above all, teachers in country schools, to take a more sympathetic interest in the forms and usages of local speech. The Scotch Education Board has recently ordered that dialect should not be unduly discouraged in Scottish schools, and advised that children should be allowed some use of their natural speech in class. We hope that this example may be followed all over the country. We also believe that a knowledge of provincial pronunciation, and a familiarity with the richness and beauty of the vowel sounds which it often preserves, especially in the North, would be of value to those who speak the standard language, and would certainly lead to some correction of the slurred and indistinct way of speaking which is now regarded as correct English, and deliberately taught as such on the Continent. VI. As to idiomatic pronunciation involving speech-rhythm. The literary taste of the eighteenth century, as typified in Dr. Johnson, consciously discredited idioms which it held to be ungrammatical; and this error persists. A simple instance is the growing loss of our enclitics. The negative _not_ was enclitic after the verb, and this gave us our _shan't_, _don't_, _won't,_ &c. Dr. Johnson held the _not_ to be too important a qualification to leave unaccented. Again, where prepositions made a pronoun enclitic, the old accent is perishing. _For it_, which used to be pronounced _forrit_ as one word, is now generally spoken _faw it_, as two. The result of such conscious pedantries is not only a great damage to the rhythmic beauty of our older literature, actually teaching the folk to misread the admirable prose of our Bible, but it is a bungling interference with the natural evolution of our sentences, as we mould them to our convenience. We would trust the general ear in such questions of syllabic rhythm, and would protect as far as possible the old harmonious cadences of our traditional speech. We have no present intention of engaging in the vexed question of the illogical and often absurd orthography of English. Members of the Society would perhaps desire some relaxation of these bonds, but we think it better to concentrate on other profounder modifications of the language which, though of first importance, are receiving no special attention. We are aware that proposals for violent change often defeat their own end, and make all reform impossible. We shall therefore not insist on any doubtful or disputable detail as a rule of correctness; but we shall rely on suggestion, believing that we shall attain the best results by causing those who lead the fashion to consider the problems and think them out for themselves. We are convinced that by this means an ideal of self-harmonized speech will be gradually approved, and will spontaneously create a better standard of national taste, to which the future developments of the language may be safely entrusted. These proposals will be distributed and privately circulated from hand to hand. Sympathizers, especially writers and teachers, who find themselves in agreement with the main principles of the Society, and are willing, as far as convenience and current usage allow, to promote its aims by their example, can, for the present at least, join it by invitation from one of its members. There will be no money subscription to this Society. A list of members, with their addresses, will be printed under the Society's initials; and this will be from time to time posted to all members, who may also obtain copies of the proposals to show to friends. With so little machinery, it may be inquired how it is expected to accomplish anything. The idea is that all members will be guided by the principles of the Society, and committed by their membership to _active_ promotion of its objects, one of which will be enrolment of recruits. Many of our members will be in a position to influence public opinion directly and daily. The fact that there will be a body of united opinion seems to us all that is needed: it is only required to marshal the forces. Should the Society find sufficient support, it would be proposed that a small journal or occasional fly-leaves should be printed, in which questions of literary usage could be discussed in detail. The printing and distribution of useful papers by members able to help in this way could be easily arranged for by a small committee, which would be formed for dealing with this and other activities of the Society. 7. ORIGINAL COMMITTEE. HENRY BRADLEY ROBERT BRIDGES SIR WALTER RALEIGH L. PEARSALL SMITH 8. REPRINT OF LIST OF MEMBERS, 1914. (* deceased) Rev. E.A. ABBOTT, D.D., &c. LASCELLES ABERCROMBIE W.A. AIKIN J.G. ANDERSON, Editor, Modern Language Teaching S.O. ANDREW, Head Master, Whitgift Grammar School, Croydon *Rt. Hon. Sir WILLIAM R. ANSON, Bt., D.C.L., M.P., Warden, All Souls College, Oxford Rt. Hon. A. J. BALFOUR, LL.D., F.R.S., M.P., &c. *Very Rev. H. C. BEECHING, D.D., Dean of Norwich BERNHARD BERENSON GORDON BOTTOMLEY A.C. BRADLEY, LL.D., F.B.A., HENRY BRADLEY, F.B.A., Ph.D., Joint Editor, Oxford English Dictionary, &c. CLOUDESLEY BRERETON ROBERT BRIDGES, F.R.C.P., LL.D., &c., Poet Laureate H.H. BRINDLEY, M.A. JAMES BRITTEN, K.S.G. GILBERT CANNAN T. COBDEN-SANDERSON W.A. CRAIGIE, LL.D., &c., Joint Editor, Oxford English Dictionary WALTER DE LA MARE G. LOWES DICKINSON JAMES MAIN DIXON, L.H.D. HENRY AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D., &c. HUGH E. EGERTON, Beit Professor of Colonial History, Oxford J. FITZMAURICE-KELLY, F.B.A., Litt.D., &c. *JAMES ELROY FLECKER W. WARDE FOWLER, D.Litt., &c. Rt. Hon. Sir EDWARD FRY, G.C.B., F.R.S., &c. ROGER FRY WILFRED WILSON GIBSON LADY GLENCONNER EDMUND GOSSE, C.B., LL.D., &c. Rev. CECIL GRANT, Head Master, St. George's School, Harpenden H.J.C. GRIERSON, Professor of English Literature, Aberdeen W.H. HADOW, D.Mus., Principal, Armstrong College, Newcastle THOMAS HARDY, LL.D., O.M. Miss JANE HARRISON, LL.D., &c. *HORACE HART, Hon. M.A., Controller of the University Press, Oxford MAURICE HEWLETT F.J.H. JENKINSON, Litt.D., Librarian, Cambridge University W.P. KER, F.B.A., Professor of English Literature, University College, London W.M. LINDSAY, F.B.A., LL.D., &c., Professor of Humanity, St. Andrews R.W. MACAN, D.Litt., &c., Master of University College, Oxford DESMOND MACCARTHY J.W. MACKAIL, LL.D., &c. FREDERICK MANNING E. MARSH, C.M.G. ALAN MOORE, M.B. NORMAN MOORE, F.R.C.P. *F.W. MOORMAN, Ph.D., Professor of English Language and Literature, Leeds WALTER MORRISON GILBERT MURRAY, D.Litt., LL.D., F.B.A., Regius Professor of Greek, Oxford *Sir JAMES A. H. MURRAY, D.C.L., &c., Editor, Oxford English Dictionary HENRY NEWBOLT Rev. A. SMYTHE PALMER, D.D. Rt. Hon. Sir FREDERICK POLLOCK, Bt., D.C.L., &c. Miss ETHEL PORTAL Sir ARTHUR QUILLER-COUCH, Litt.D., &c., Professor of English Literature, Cambridge Sir WALTER RALEIGH, Professor of English Literature, Oxford Rev. G. H. RENDALL, Litt.D. BRUCE L. RICHMOND FRANK ROSCOE Sir RONALD ROSS, K.C.B., F.R.S. W.H.D. ROUSE, Litt.D., &c., Head Master, Perse Grammar School, Cambridge GEORGE SAINTSBURY, LL.D., &c., Professor of Rhetoric and English Literature, Edinburgh University E.B. SARGANT JOHN SARGEAUNT *Miss EDITH SICHEL J.A. SMITH, Waynflete Professor of Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy, Oxford G.C. MOORE SMITH, Litt,D., Professor of English Language and Literature, Sheffield L. PEARSALL SMITH J.A. SPENDER, Editor, Westminster Gazette CHRISTOPHER STONE LADY STRACHEY *R.J.E. TIDDY, University Lecturer in English, Oxford R.C. TREVELYAN Rev. A. W. UPCOTT, D.D., Head Master, Christ's Hospital HUGH WALPOLE Mrs. HUMPHRY WARD T. HERBERT WARREN, D.C.L., LL.D., &c., President of Magdalen College, Professor of Poetry, Oxford Mrs. WHARTON H.C.K. WYLD, B.Litt., Professor of English Language and Philology, Liverpool University ISRAEL ZANGWILL 9. ADDITIONAL MEMBERS. Hon. MAURICE BARING ARNOLD BENNETT Prince ANTOINE BIBESCO R.W. CHAPMAN HAROLD COX A. CLUTTON-BROCK W.M. DIXON, Professor of English Literature, Glasgow OLIVER ELTON, Professor of English Literature, Liverpool E.M. FOSTER F.G. FOWLER H.W. FOWLER G.S. GORDON, Professor of English Literature, Leeds Miss MAUD HAVILAND, Newnham College C.H. HERFORD, Litt.D., Professor of English Literature, Manchester PERCY LUBBOCK GEOFFREY MADAN P.E. MATHESON H.S. MILFORD J.C. SQUIRE Rev. H.F. STEWART, B.D. Miss C.L. THOMSON Mrs. M.L. WOODS J. WRIGHT, D.C.L., F.B.A., Professor of Comparative Philology, Oxford Mrs. JOSEPH WRIGHT 
11921	----	by the Internet Archive Children's Library and University of Florida. THE ILLUSTRATED LONDON READING BOOK LONDON: PRINTED AND PUBLISHED AT THE OFFICE OF THE ILLUSTRATED LONDON NEWS, 198, STRAND. 1851. THIRD EDITION, WITH ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS * * * * * [Illustration: PRINCE ALBERT IN HIS ROBES AS CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE.] * * * * * INTRODUCTION. [Illustration: INTRODUCTION.] To read and speak with elegance and ease, Are arts polite that never fail to please; Yet in those arts how very few excel! Ten thousand men may read--not one read well. Though all mankind are speakers in a sense, How few can soar to heights of eloquence! The sweet melodious singer trills her lays, And listening crowds go frantic in her praise; But he who reads or speaks with feeling true, Charms and delights, instructs, and moves us too. Browne. To deprive Instruction of the terrors with which the young but too often regard it, and strew flowers upon the pathways that lead to Knowledge, is to confer a benefit upon all who are interested in the cause of Education, either as Teachers or Pupils. The design of the following pages is not merely to present to the youthful reader some of the masterpieces of English literature in prose and verse, arranged and selected in such a manner as to please as well as instruct, but to render them more agreeable to the eye and the imagination by Pictorial Representations, in illustration of the subjects. It is hoped that this design has not been altogether unsuccessful, and that the ILLUSTRATED LONDON READING BOOK will recommend itself both to old and young by the appropriateness of the selections, their progressive arrangement, the fidelity of their Illustrations, and the very moderate price at which it is offered to the public. It has not been thought necessary to prefix to the present Volume any instructions in the art of Elocution, or to direct the accent or intonation of the student by the abundant use of italics or of large capitals. The principal, if not the only secrets of good reading are, to speak slowly, to articulate distinctly, to pause judiciously, and to feel the subject so as, if possible, "to make all that passed in the mind of the Author to be felt by the Auditor," Good oral example upon these points is far better for the young Student than the most elaborate written system. A series of Educational Works, in other departments of study, _similarly illustrated,_ and at a price equally small, is in preparation. Among the earliest to be issued, may be enumerated a Sequel and Companion to the ILLUSTRATED LONDON READING BOOK, designed for a more advanced class of Students, and consisting of extracts from English Classical Authors, from the earliest periods of English Literature to the present day, with a copious Introductory Chapter upon the arts of Elocution and Composition. The latter will include examples of Style chosen from the beauties of the best Authors, and will also point out by similar examples the Faults to be avoided by all who desire to become, not simply good Readers and Speakers, but elegant Writers of their native language. Amongst the other works of which the series will be composed, may be mentioned, profusely Illustrated Volumes upon Geographical, Astronomical, Mathematical, and General Science, as well as works essential to the proper training of the youthful mind. _January_, 1850. [Illustration] CONTENTS. Abbey, Account of Strata Florida Adam and Eve in Paradise (MILTON) Alfred, Anecdote of King (BEAUTIES OF HISTORY) Alfred, Character of King (HUME) Angling, Lines on (DOUBLEDAY) Antioch, The Siege of (POPULAR DELUSIONS) Artillery Tactics Athens, Present Appearance of Attock, Description of the Fort of Bacon, Remarks on Lord (D'ISRAELI) Balloons, Account of Baltic, Battle of the (CAMPBELL) Beetle, The Bell, The Founding of the (MACKAY) Bible, Value of the (BUCK) Birds, Appropriateness of the Songs of (DR. JENNER) Bower-Birds, Description of the Bridges, Account of Tubular Railway Bunyan's Wife, Anecdote of (LORD CAMPBELL) Bushmen, Account of the Caesar, Character of Julius (MIDDLETON) Canada, Intense Cold of (SIR F. HEAD) Canary, Account of the Charity (PRIOR) Chatterton, Lines by Cheerfulness, Description of (ADDISON) China, Account of the Great Wall of Christian Freedom (POLLOCK) Clarendon, Account of Lord Cobra di Capello, Description of the Condors, Account of Cruelty to Animals, Wickedness of (JENYNS) Culloden Battle-field, Description of (HIGHLAND NOTE-BOOK) Cyprus, Description of Danish Encampment, Account of a Deity, Omniscience of the (ADDISON) Dogs, A Chapter on Dove, Return of the (MACKAY) Edward VI., Character of (BURNET) Elegy in a Country Churchyard (GRAY) Elizabeth (Queen), at Tilbury Fort (ENGLISH HISTORY) Envy, Wickedness of (DR. JOHNSON) Faith's Guiding Star (ELIZA COOK) Farewell (BARTON) Filial Love (DR. DODD) Fortitude (BLAIR) Fox, Description of the Long-eared Frederick of Prussia and his Page (BEAUTIES OF HISTORY) Gambier Islanders, Account of Gelert (W. SPENCER) Gentleness, Character of (BLAIR) Goldsmith, Remarks on the Style of (CAMPBELL) Goliah Aratoo, Description of the Greece, Isles of (BYRON) Greece, The Shores of (BYRON) Gresham, Account of Sir Thomas Grief, The First (MRS. HEMANS) Grouse, Description of the Hagar and Ishmael, Story of Hampden, Account of John Hercules, The Choice of (TATLER) Holly Bough (MACKAY) Hope (CAMPBELL) Iguana, Description of the Industry, Value of (BLAIR) Integrity (DR. DODD) Ivy in the Dungeon (MACKAY) "Jack The Giant Killer," Origin of (CARLYLE) Jalapa, Description of Jewels, Description of the Crown Joppa, Account of Jordan, Description of the River Jordan's Banks (BYRON) Juggernaut, Account of the Car of Kaffir Chiefs, Account of Kaffir Letter-carrier, Account of Kangaroo, Description of the Knowledge, on the Attainment of (DR. WATTS) Leopard, Description of the Black Lighthouse, Description of Hartlepool Lilies (MRS. HEMANS) Mangouste, Description of the Mariana (TENNYSON) Mariners of England (CAMPBELL) Martello Towers, Account of Mary's (Queen) Bower, at Chatsworth Microscope, Revelations of the (DR. MANTELL) Midnight Thoughts (YOUNG) Mill-stream, Lines on a (MARY HOWITT) Music, Remarks on (USHER) Napoleon, Character of (GENERAL FOY) Nature and its Lord Nature, The Order of (POPE) Naval Tactics Nests of Birds, Construction of (STURM) Niagara, Account of the Falls of (SIR JAMES ALEXANDER) Nightingale and Glowworm (COWPER) Olive, Description of the Othello's History (SHAKESPEARE) Owls, Account of Owls, (Two) and the Sparrow (GAY) Palm-Tree, Account of the Palm-Tree, Lines on a (MRS. HEMANS) Parrot, Lines on a (CAMPBELL) Patmos, Description of the Isle of Paul and Virginia, Supposed Tombs of Pekin, Description of Peter the Hermit Preaching the First Crusade (POPULAR DELUSIONS) Poetry, Rise of, among the Romans (SPENCE) Polar Regions, Description of the Pompeii, Account of Poor, The Afflicted (CRABBE) Pyramid Lake, Account of the Railway Tunnels, Difficulties of Rainbow, Account of a Lunar Rattlesnake, Account of the (F.T. BUCKLAND) Rome, Lines on (ROGERS) Rookery, Dialogue about a (EVENINGS AT HOME) Sardis, Description of Schoolboy's Pilgrimage (JANE TAYLOR) Seasons (THOMSON) Shakspeare, Remarks on Sheep, Description of Thibetan Sierra Nevada, Description of the (FREMONT'S TRAVEL) Siloam, Account of the Pool of Sleep, Henry IV.'s Soliloquy on (SHAKSPEARE) Sloth, Description of the Smyrna, Description of Staffa, Description of (HIGHLAND NOTE-BOOK) Stag, The hunted (SIR W. SCOTT) Starling, Story of a (STERNE) St. Bernard, Account of the Dogs of (THE MENAGERIES) St. Cecilia, Ode to (DRYDEN) Stepping-stones, The (WORDSWORTH) Stony Cross, Description of Stream, the Nameless (MACKAY) Study, Remarks on (LORD BACON) Sun Fish, Capture of a (CAPTAIN BEDFORD, R.N.) Sydney, Generosity of Sir Philip (BEAUTIES of HISTORY) Tabor, Description of Mount Tapir, Description of the Telegraph, Account of the Electric (SIR F. HEAD) Time, What is it? (REV. J. MARSDEN) Turkish Customs Tyre, the Siege of (LANGHORNE'S PLUTARCH) Una and the Lion (SPENSER) Universe, Grandeur of the (ADDISON) Vocabulary Waterloo, Description of the Field of Winter Thoughts (THOMSON) Writing, On Simplicity in (HUME) * * * * * THE ILLUSTRATED LONDON READING BOOK * * * * * THE SCHOOLBOY'S PILGRIMAGE. [Illustration: Letter N.] Nothing could be more easy and agreeable than my condition when I was first summoned to set out on the road to learning, and it was not without letting fall a few ominous tears that I took the first step. Several companions of my own age accompanied me in the outset, and we travelled pleasantly together a good part of the way. We had no sooner entered upon our path, than we were accosted by three diminutive strangers. These we presently discovered to be the advance-guard of a Lilliputian army, which was seen advancing towards us in battle array. Their forms were singularly grotesque: some were striding across the path, others standing with their arms a-kimbo; some hanging down their heads, others quite erect; some standing on one leg, others on two; and one, strange to say, on three; another had his arms crossed, and one was remarkably crooked; some were very slender, and others as broad as they were long. But, notwithstanding this diversity of figure, when they were all marshalled in line of battle, they had a very orderly and regular appearance. Feeling disconcerted by their numbers, we were presently for sounding a retreat; but, being urged forward by our guide, we soon mastered the three who led the van, and this gave us spirit to encounter the main army, who were conquered to a man before we left the field. We had scarcely taken breath after this victory, when, to our no small dismay, we descried a strong reinforcement of the enemy, stationed on the opposite side. These were exactly equal in number to the former army, but vastly superior in size and stature; they were, in fact, a race of giants, though of the same species with the others, and were capitally accoutred for the onset. Their appearance discouraged us greatly at first, but we found their strength was not proportioned to their size; and, having acquired much skill and courage by the late engagement, we soon succeeded in subduing them, and passed off the field in triumph. After this we were perpetually engaged with small bands of the enemy, no longer extended in line of battle, but in small detachments of two, three, and four in company. We had some tough work here, and now and then they were too many for us. Having annoyed us thus for a time, they began to form themselves into close columns, six or eight abreast; but we had now attained so much address, that we no longer found them formidable. After continuing this route for a considerable way, the face of the country suddenly changed, and we began to enter upon a vast succession of snowy plains, where we were each furnished with a certain light weapon, peculiar to the country, which we flourished continually, and with which we made many light strokes, and some desperate ones. The waters hereabouts were dark and brackish, and the snowy surface of the plain was often defaced by them. Probably, we were now on the borders of the Black Sea. These plains we travelled across and across for many a day. Upon quitting this district, the country became far more dreary: it appeared nothing but a dry and sterile region, the soil being remarkably hard and slatey. Here we saw many curious figures, and we soon found that the inhabitants of this desert were mere ciphers. Sometimes they appeared in vast numbers, but only to be again suddenly diminished. Our road, after this, wound through a rugged and hilly country, which was divided into nine principal parts or districts, each under a different governor; and these again were reduced into endless subdivisions. Some of them we were obliged to decline. It was not a little puzzling to perceive the intricate ramifications of the paths in these parts. Here the natives spoke several dialects, which rendered our intercourse with them very perplexing. However, it must be confessed that every step we set in this country was less fatiguing and more interesting. Our course at first lay all up hill; but when we had proceeded to a certain height, the distant country, which is most richly variegated, opened freely to our view. I do not mean at present to describe that country, or the different stages by which we advance through its scenery. Suffice it to say, that the journey, though always arduous, has become more and more pleasant every stage; and though, after years of travel and labour, we are still very far from the Temple of Learning, yet we have found on the way more than enough to make us thankful to the kindness of the friends who first set us on the path, and to induce us to go forward courageously and rejoicingly to the end of the journey. JANE TAYLOR. * * * * * PEKIN. Pekin, or Peking, a word which in Chinese means "Northern Capital," has been the chief city of China ever since the Tartars were expelled, and is the residence of the Emperor. The tract of country on which it stands is sandy and barren; but the Grand Canal is well adapted for the purpose of feeding its vast population with the produce of more fertile provinces and districts. A very large portion of the centre of the part of Pekin called the Northern City is occupied by the Emperor with his palaces and gardens, which are of the most beautiful description, and, surrounded by their own wall, form what is called the "Prohibited City." [Illustration: GRAND CANAL AT THE ENTRANCE TO PEKIN.] The Grand Canal, which runs about five hundred miles, without allowing for windings, across the kingdom of China, is not only the means by which subsistence is brought to the inhabitants of the imperial city, but is of great value in conveying the tribute, a large portion of the revenue being paid in kind. Dr. Davis mentions having observed on it a large junk decorated with a yellow umbrella, and found on enquiry that it had the honour of bearing the "Dragon robes," as the Emperor's garments are called. These are forwarded annually, and are the peculiar tribute of the silk districts. The banks of the Grand Canal are, in many parts through which it flows, strongly faced with stone, a precaution very necessary to prevent the danger of inundations, from which some parts of this country are constantly suffering. The Yellow River so very frequently overflows its banks, and brings so much peril and calamity to the people, that it has been called "China's Sorrow;" and the European trade at Canton has been very heavily taxed for the damage occasioned by it. The Grand Canal and the Yellow River, in one part of the country, run within four or five miles of each other, for about fifty miles; and at length they join or cross each other, and then run in a contrary direction. A great deal of ceremony is used by the crews of the vessels when they reach this point, and, amongst other customs, they stock themselves abundantly with live cocks, destined to be sacrificed on crossing the river. These birds annoy and trouble the passengers so much by their incessant crowing on the top of the boats, that they are not much pitied when the time for their death arrives. The boatmen collect money for their purchase from the passengers, by sending red paper petitions called _pin_, begging for aid to provide them with these and other needful supplies. The difficulties which the Chinese must have struggled against, with their defective science, in this junction of the canal and the river, are incalculable; and it is impossible to deny them the praise they deserve for so great an exercise of perseverance and industry. * * * * * THE GOLIAH ARATOO. The splendid family of parrots includes about one hundred and sixty species, and, though peculiar to the warmer regions of the world, they are better known in England than any other foreign bird. From the beauty of their plumage, the great docility of their manners, and the singular faculty they possess of imitating the human voice, they are general favourites, both in the drawingroom of the wealthy and the cottage of humble life. The various species differ in size, as well as in appearance and colour. Some (as the macaws) are larger than the domestic fowl, and some of the parakeets are not larger than a blackbird or even a sparrow. The interesting bird of which our Engraving gives a representation was recently brought alive to this country by the captain of a South-seaman (the _Alert_), who obtained it from a Chinese vessel from the Island of Papua, to whom the captain of the _Alert_ rendered valuable assistance when in a state of distress. In size this bird is one of the largest of the parrot tribe, being superior to the great red Mexican Macaw. The whole plumage is black, glossed with a greenish grey; the head is ornamented with a large crest of long pendulous feathers, which it erects at pleasure, when the bird has a most noble appearance; the orbits of the eyes and cheeks are of a deep rose-colour; the bill is of great size, and will crack the hardest fruit stones; but when the kernel is detached, the bird does not crush and swallow it in large fragments, but scrapes it with the lower mandible to the finest pulp, thus differing from other parrots in the mode of taking food. In the form of its tongue it differs also from other birds of the kind. A French naturalist read a memoir on this organ before the Academy of Sciences at Paris, in which he aptly compared it, in its uses, to the trunk of an elephant. In its manners it is gentle and familiar, and when approached raises a cry which may be compared to a hoarse croaking. In its gait it resembles the rook, and walks much better than most of the climbing family. [Illustration: GOLIAH ARATOO.] From the general conformation of the parrots, as well as the arrangement and strength of their toes, they climb very easily, assisting themselves greatly with their hooked bill, but walk rather awkwardly on the ground, from the shortness and wide separation of their legs. The bill of the parrot is moveable in both mandibles, the upper being joined to the skull by a membrane which acts like a hinge; while in other birds the upper beak forms part of the skull. By this curious contrivance they can open their bills widely, which the hooked form of the beak would not otherwise allow them to do. The structure of the wings varies greatly in the different species: in general they are short, and as their bodies are bulky, they cannot consequently rise to any great height without difficulty; but when once they gain a certain distance they fly easily, and some of them with rapidity. The number of feathers in the tail is always twelve, and these, both in length and form, are very varied in the different species, some being arrow or spear-shaped, others straight and square. In eating, parrots make great use of the feet, which they employ like hands, holding the food firmly with the claws of one, while they support themselves on the other. From the hooked shape of their bills, they find it more convenient to turn their food in an outward direction, instead of, like monkeys and other animals, turning it towards their mouths. The whole tribe are fond of water, washing and bathing themselves many times during the day in streams and marshy places; and having shaken the water from their plumage, seem greatly to enjoy spreading their beautiful wings to dry in the sun. * * * * * THE PARROT. A DOMESTIC ANECDOTE. [Illustration: Letter T.] The deep affections of the breast, That Heaven to living things imparts, Are not exclusively possess'd By human hearts. A parrot, from the Spanish Main, Full young, and early-caged, came o'er, With bright wings, to the bleak domain Of Mulla's shore. To spicy groves, where he had won His plumage of resplendent hue-- His native fruits, and skies, and sun-- He bade adieu. For these he changed the smoke of turf, A heathery land and misty sky; And turn'd on rocks and raging surf His golden eye. But, petted, in our climate cold, He lived and chatter'd many a day; Until, with age, from green and gold His wings grew grey. At last, when blind and seeming dumb, He scolded, laugh'd, and spoke no more, A Spanish stranger chanced to come To Mulla's shore. He hail'd the bird in Spanish speech, The bird in Spanish speech replied: Flapt round his cage with joyous screech-- Dropt down and died. CAMPBELL. * * * * * THE STARLING. [Illustration: Letter T.] 'Tis true, said I, correcting the proposition--the Bastile is not an evil to be despised; but strip it of its towers, fill the fosse, unbarricade the doors, call it simply a confinement, and suppose it is some tyrant of a distemper, and not a man which holds you in it, the evil vanishes, and you bear the other half without complaint. I was interrupted in the heyday of this soliloquy, with a voice which I took to be of a child, which complained "It could not get out." I looked up and down the passage, and seeing neither man, woman, or child, I went out without further attention. In my return back through the passage, I heard the same words repeated twice over; and looking up, I saw it was a starling, hung in a little cage; "I can't get out, I can't get out," said the starling. I stood looking at the bird; and to every person who came through the passage, it ran fluttering to the side towards which they approached it with the same lamentation of its captivity. "I can't get out," said the starling. "Then I will let you out," said I, "cost what it will;" so I turned about the cage to get at the door--it was twisted and double twisted so fast with wire there was no getting it open without pulling the cage to pieces; I took both hands to it. The bird flew to the place where I was attempting his deliverance, and thrusting his head through the trellis, pressed his breast against it, as if impatient. "I fear, poor creature," said I, "I cannot set thee at liberty." "No," said the starling; "I can't get out, I can't get out," said the starling. [Illustration: STARLING.] I vow, I never had my affections more tenderly awakened; nor do I remember an incident in my life, where the dissipated spirits to which my reason had been a bubble were so suddenly called home. Mechanical as the notes were, yet so true in tune to nature were they chaunted, that in one moment they overthrew all my systematic reasonings upon the Bastile, and I heavily walked up-stairs unsaying every word I had said in going down them. STERNE. * * * * * THE CAR OF JUGGERNAUT. [Illustration: Letter J.] Juggernaut is the principal idol worshipped by the Hindoos, and to his temple, which is at Pooree, are attached no less than four thousand priests and servants; of these one set are called Pundahs. In the autumn of the year they start on a journey through India, preaching in every town and village the advantages of a pilgrimage to Juggernaut, after which they conduct to Pooree large bodies of pilgrims for the Rath Justra, or Car Festival, which takes place in May or June. This is the principal festival, and the number of devotees varies from about 80,000 to 150,000. No European, Mussulman, or low cast Hindoo is admitted into the temple; we can therefore only speak from report of what goes on inside. Mr. Acland, in his manners and customs of India, gives us the following amusing account of this celebrated idol:-- "Juggernaut represents the ninth incarnation of Vishnoo, a Hindoo deity, and consists of a mere block of sacred wood, in the centre of which is said to be concealed a fragment of the original idol, which was fashioned by Vishnoo himself. The features and all the external parts are formed of a mixture of mud and cow-dung, painted. Every morning the idol undergoes his ablutions; but, as the paint would not stand the washing, the priests adopt a very ingenious plan--they hold a mirror in front of the image and wash his reflection. Every evening he is put to bed; but, as the idol is very unwieldy, they place the bedstead in front of him, and on that they lay a small image. Offerings are made to him by pilgrims and others, of rice, money, jewels, elephants, &c., the Rajah of Knoudah and the priests being his joint treasurers. On the day of the festival, three cars, between fifty and sixty feet in height, are brought to the gate of the temple; the idols are then taken out by the priests, Juggernaut having golden arms and diamond eyes for that one day, and by means of pulleys are hauled up and placed in their respective carriages: to these enormous ropes are attached, and the assembled thousands with loud shouts proceed to drag the idols to Juggernaut's country-house, a small temple about a mile distant. This occupies several days, and the idols are then brought back to their regular stations. The Hindoos believe that every person who aids in dragging the cars receives pardon for all his past sins; but the fact that people throw themselves under the wheels of the cars, appears to have been an European conjecture, arising from the numerous deaths that occur from accidents at the time the immense cars are in progress." [Illustration: CAR OF JUGGERNAUT.] These cars have an imposing air, from their great size and loftiness: the wheels are six feet in diameter; but every part of the ornament is of the meanest and most paltry description, save only the covering of striped and spangled broad-cloth, the splendid and gorgeous effect of which makes up in a great measure for other deficiencies. During the period the pilgrims remain at Pooree they are not allowed to eat anything but what has been offered to the idol, and that they have to buy at a high price from the priests. * * * * * CYPRUS. [Illustration: Letter C.] Cyprus, an island in the Levant, is said to have taken its name from the number of shrubs of that name with which it once abounded. From this tall shrub, the cypress, its ancient inhabitants made an oil of a very delicious flavour, which was an article of great importance in their commerce, and is still in great repute among Eastern nations. It once, too, abounded with forests of olive trees; and immense cisterns are still to be seen, which have been erected for the purpose of preserving the oil which the olive yielded. Near the centre of the island stands Nicotia, the capital, and the residence of the governor, who now occupies one of the palaces of its ancient sovereigns. The palaces are remarkable for the beauty of their architecture, but are abandoned by their Turkish masters to the destructive hand of time. The church of St. Sophia, in this place, is built in the Gothic style, and is said to have been erected by the Emperor Justinian. Here the Christian Kings of Cyprus were formerly crowned; but it is now converted into a mosque. The island was formerly divided into nine kingdoms, and was famous for its superb edifices, its elegant temples, and its riches, but can now boast of nothing but its ruins, which will tell to distant times the greatness from which it has fallen. The southern coast of this island is exposed to the hot winds from all directions. During a squall from the north-east, the temperature has been described as so scorching, that the skin instantly peeled from the lips, a tendency to sneeze was excited, accompanied with great pain in the eyes, and chapping of the hands and face. The heats are sometimes so excessive, that persons going out without an umbrella are liable to suffer from _coup de soleil_, or sun-stroke; and the inhabitants, especially of the lower class, in order to guard against it, wrap up their heads in a large turban, over which in their journeys they plait a thick shawl many times folded. They seldom, however, venture out of their houses during mid-day, and all journeys, even those of caravans, are performed in the night. Rains are also rare in the summer season, and long droughts banish vegetation, and attract numberless columns of locusts, which destroy the plants and fruits. [Illustration: CYPRUS.] The soil, though very fertile, is rarely cultivated, the Greeks being so oppressed by their Turkish masters that they dare not cultivate the rich plains which surround them, as the produce would be taken from them; and their whole object is to collect together during the year as much grain as is barely sufficient to pay their tax to the Governor, the omission of which is often punished by torture or even by death. The carob, or St. John's bread-tree, is plentiful; and the long thick pods which it produces are exported in considerable quantities to Syria and Egypt. The succulent pulp which the pod contains is sometimes employed in those countries instead of sugar and honey, and is often used in preserving other fruits. The vine grows here perhaps in greater perfection than in any other part of the world, and the wine of the island is celebrated all over the Levant. * * * * * THE RATTLESNAKE. [Illustration: Letter T.] This terrible reptile is found in great abundance on the continent of America; and if its instinct induced it to make use of the dreadful means of destruction and self-defence which it possesses, it would become so great a scourge as to render the parts in which it is found almost uninhabitable: but, except when violently irritated, or for the purpose of self-preservation, it seldom employs the fatal power bestowed upon it. The rattlesnake inserts its poison in the body of its victim by means of two long sharp-pointed teeth or fangs, which grow one on each side of the forepart of the upper jaw. The construction of these teeth is very singular; they are hollow for a portion of their length, and in each tooth is found a narrow slit communicating with the central hollow; the root of the fang rests on a kind of bag, containing a certain quantity of a liquid poison, and when the animal buries his teeth in his prey, a portion of this fluid is forced through these openings and lodged at the bottom of the wound. Another peculiarity of these poison teeth is, that when not in use they turn back, as it were, upon a hinge, and lie flat in the roof of the animal's mouth. The name of rattlesnake is given to it on account of the singular apparatus with which the extremity of its tail is furnished. This consists of a series of hollow horn-like substances, placed loosely one behind the other in such a manner as to produce a kind of rattling noise when the tail is shaken; and as the animal, whenever it is enraged, always carries its tail raised up, and produces at the same time a tremulous motion in it, this provision of nature gives timely notice of its dangerous approach. The number of pieces of which this rattle is formed points out the age of the snake, which acquires a fresh piece every year. Some specimens have been found with as many as from forty to fifty, thus indicating a great age. [Illustration: RATTLESNAKE AND YOUNG.] The poison of the Viper consists of a yellowish liquid, secreted in a glandular structure (situated immediately below the skin on either side of the head), which is believed to represent the parotid gland of the higher animals. If a viper be made to bite something solid, so as to avoid its poison, the following are the appearances under the microscope:--At first nothing is seen but a parcel of salts nimbly floating in the liquor, but in a very short time these saline particles shoot out into crystals of incredible tenuity and sharpness, with something like knots here and there, from which these crystals seem to proceed, so that the whole texture in a manner represents a spider's web, though infinitely finer and more minute. These spiculae, or darts, will remain unaltered on the glass for some months. Five or six grains of this viperine poison, mixed with half an ounce of human blood, received in a warm glass, produce no visible effects, either in colour or consistence, nor do portions of this poisoned blood, mixed with acids or alkalies, exhibit any alterations. When placed on the tongue, the taste is sharp and acrid, as if the tongue had been struck with something scalding or burning; but this sensation goes off in two or three hours. There are only five cases on record of death following the bite of the viper; and it has been observed that the effects are most virulent when the poison has been received on the extremities, particularly the fingers and toes, at which parts the animal, when irritated (as it were, by an innate instinct), always takes its aim. F.T. BUCKLAND * * * * * ORIGIN OF "JACK THE GIANT-KILLER." [Illustration: Letter A.] After various adventures, Thor, accompanied by Thialfi and Loke, his servants, entered upon Giantland, and wandered over plains--wild uncultivated places--among stones and trees. At nightfall they noticed a house; and as the door, which indeed formed one whole side of the house, was open, they entered. It was a simple habitation--one large hall, altogether empty. They stayed there. Suddenly, in the dead of the night, loud voices alarmed them. Thor grasped his hammer, and stood in the doorway, prepared for fight. His companions within ran hither and thither, in their terror, seeking some outlet in that rude hall: they found a little closet at last, and took refuge there. Neither had Thor any battle; for lo! in the morning it turned out that the noise had been only the snoring of a certain enormous, but peaceable, giant--the giant Skrymir, who lay peaceably sleeping near by; and this, that they took for a house, was merely his glove thrown aside there: the door was the glove-wrist; the little closet they had fled into was the thumb! Such a glove! I remark, too, that it had not fingers, as ours have, but only a thumb, and the rest undivided--a most ancient rustic glove! Skrymir now carried their portmanteau all day; Thor, however, who had his suspicions, did not like the ways of Skrymir, and determined at night to put an end to him as he slept. Raising his hammer, he struck down into the giant's face a right thunderbolt blow, of force to rend rocks. The giant merely awoke, rubbed his cheek, and said, "Did a leaf fall?" Again Thor struck, as soon as Skrymir again slept, a better blow than before; but the giant only murmured, "Was that a grain of sand!" Thor's third stroke was with both his hands (the "knuckles white," I suppose), and it seemed to cut deep into Skrymir's visage; but he merely checked his snore, and remarked, "There must be sparrows roosting in this tree, I think." At the gate of Utgard--a place so high, that you had to strain your neck bending back to see the top of it--Skrymir went his way. Thor and his companions were admitted, and invited to take a share in the games going on. To Thor, for his part, they handed a drinking-horn; it was a common feat, they told him, to drink this dry at one draught. Long and fiercely, three times over, Thor drank, but made hardly any impression. He was a weak child, they told him; could he lift that cat he saw there? Small as the feat seemed, Thor, with his whole godlike strength, could not: he bent up the creature's back, could not raise its feet off the ground--could at the utmost raise one foot. "Why, you are no man," said the Utgard people; "there is an old woman that will wrestle you." Thor, heartily ashamed, seized this haggard old woman, but could not throw her. [Illustration: THE GIANT SKRYMIR.] And now, on their quitting Utgard--the chief Jotun, escorting them politely a little way, said to Thor--"You are beaten, then; yet, be not so much ashamed: there was deception of appearance in it. That horn you tried to drink was the sea; you did make it ebb: but who could drink that, the bottomless? The cat you would have lifted--why, that is the Midgard Snake, the Great World Serpent--which, tail in mouth, girds and keeps up the whole created world. Had you torn that up, the world must have rushed to ruin. As for the old woman, she was Time, Old Age, Duration: with her what can wrestle? No man, nor no god, with her. Gods or men, she prevails over all! And then, those three strokes you struck--look at these valleys--your three strokes made these." Thor looked at his attendant Jotun--it was Skrymir. It was, say old critics, the old chaotic rocky earth in person, and that glove house was some earth cavern! But Skrymir had vanished. Utgard, with its sky-high gates, when Thor raised his hammer to smite them, had gone to air--only the giant's voice was heard mocking; "Better come no more to Jotunheim!" CARLYLE. * * * * * VALUE OF THE BIBLE. What an invaluable blessing it is to have the Bible in our own tongue. It is not only the oldest, but the best book in the world. Our forefathers rejoiced when they were first favoured with the opportunity of reading it for themselves. Infidels may reject, and the licentious may sneer; but no one who ever wished to take away this foundation-stone, could produce any other equal to it, on which the structure of a pious mind, a solid hope, a comfortable state, or wise conduct, could be raised. We are told, that when Archbishop Crammer's edition of the Bible was printed in 1538, and fixed to a desk in all parochial churches, the ardour with which men flocked to read it was incredible. They who could, procured it; and they who could not, crowded to read it, or to hear it read in churches. It was common to see little assemblies of mechanics meeting together for that purpose after the labour of the day. Many even learned to read in their old age, that they might have the pleasure of instructing themselves from the Scriptures. It is recorded of Edward VI., that upon a certain occasion, a paper which was called for in the council-chamber happened to be out of reach; the person concerned to produce it took a Bible that lay near, and, standing upon it, reached down the paper. The King, observing what was done, ran to the place, and taking the Bible in his hands kissed it, and laid it up again. This circumstance, though trifling in itself, showed his Majesty's great reverence for that _best of all books_; and his example is a striking reproof to those who suffer their Bibles to lie covered with dust for months together, or who throw them about as if they were only a piece of useless lumber. BUCK'S _Anecdotes_. * * * * * NATURE AND ITS LORD. [Illustration: Letter T.] There's not a leaf within the bower, There's not a bird upon the tree, There's not a dew-drop on the flower, But bears the impress, Lord, of Thee! Thy hand the varied leaf design'd, And gave the bird its thrilling tone; Thy power the dew-drops' tints combined, Till like a diamond's blaze they shone! Yes, dew-drops, leaves, and buds, and all-- The smallest, like the greatest things-- The sea's vast space, the earth's wide ball, Alike proclaim thee King of Kings. But man alone to bounteous heaven Thanksgiving's conscious strains can raise; To favour'd man alone 'tis given, To join the angelic choir in praise! * * * * * THE STEPPING-STONES. The struggling rill insensibly is grown Into a brook of loud and stately march, Cross'd ever and anon by plank or arch; And for like use, lo! what might seem a zone Chosen for ornament--stone match'd with stone In studied symmetry, with interspace [Illustration] For the clear waters to pursue their race Without restraint. How swiftly have they flown-- Succeeding, still succeeding! Here the child Puts, when the high-swoll'n flood runs fierce and wild, His budding courage to the proof; and here Declining manhood learns to note the sly And sure encroachments of infirmity-- Thinking how fast time runs--life's end how near. WORDSWORTH. * * * * * HUMANITY. During the retreat of the famous King Alfred at Athelney, in Somersetshire, after the defeat of his forces by the Danes, the following circumstance happened, which shows the extremities to which that great man was reduced, and gives a striking proof of his pious and benevolent disposition:--A beggar came to his little castle, and requested alms. His Queen informed him that they had only one small loaf remaining, which was insufficient for themselves and their friends, who were gone abroad in quest of food, though with little hopes of success. But the King replied, "Give the poor Christian the one half of the loaf. He that could feed live thousand with five loaves and two fishes, can certainly make that half of the loaf suffice for more than our necessities." Accordingly the poor man was relieved; and this noble act of charity was soon recompensed by a providential store of fresh provisions, with which his people returned. Sir Philip Sydney, at the battle near Zutphen, displayed the most undaunted courage. He had two horses killed under him; and, whilst mounting a third, was wounded by a musket-shot out of the trenches, which broke the bone of his thigh. He returned about mile and a half on horseback to the camp; and being faint with the loss of blood, and parched with thirst from the heat of the weather, he called for drink. It was presently brought him; but, as he was putting the vessel to his mouth, a poor wounded soldier, who happened to be carried along at that instant, looked up to it with wistful eyes. The gallant and generous Sydney took the flagon from his lips, just when he was going to drink, and delivered it to the soldier, saying, "Thy necessity is greater than mine." Frederick, King of Prussia, one day rang his bell and nobody answered; on which he opened the door and found his page fast asleep in an elbow-chair. He advanced toward him, and was going to awaken, him, when he perceived a letter hanging out of his pocket. His curiosity prompting him to know what it was, he took it out and read it. It was a letter from the young man's mother, in which she thanked him for having sent her part of his wages to relieve her in her misery, and finished with telling; him that God would reward him for his dutiful affection. The King, after having read it, went back softly into his chamber, took a bag full of ducats, and slipped it with the letter into the page's pocket. Returning to his chamber, he rang the bell so violently that he awakened the page, who instantly made his appearance. "You have had a sound sleep," said the King. The page was at a loss how to excuse himself and, putting his hand into his pocket by chance, to his utter astonishment he there found a purse of ducats. He took it out, turned pale, and looking at the bag, burst into tears without being able to utter a single word. "What is that?" said the King; "what is the matter?" "Ah, sire!" said the young man, throwing himself on his knees, "somebody seeks my ruin! I know nothing of this money which I have just found in my pocket!" "My young friend," replied Frederick, "God often does great things for us even in our sleep. Send that to your mother, salute her on my part, and assure her that I will take care of both her and you." _Beauties of History_. * * * * * THE SPANIELS OF THE MONKS OF ST. BERNARD. The convent of the Great St. Bernard is situated near the top of the mountain known by that name, near one of the most dangerous passes of the Alps, between Switzerland and Savoy. In these regions the traveller is often overtaken by the most severe weather, even after days of cloudless beauty, when the glaciers glitter in the sunshine, and the pink flowers of the rhododendron appear as if they were never to be sullied by the tempest. But a storm suddenly comes on; the roads are rendered impassable by drifts of snow; the avalanches, which are huge loosened masses of snow or ice, are swept into the valleys, carrying trees and crags of rock before them. [Illustration: CONVENT OF MONT ST. BERNARD.] The hospitable monks, though their revenue is scanty, open their doors to every stranger that presents himself. To be cold, to be weary, to be benighted, constitutes the title to their comfortable shelter, their cheering meal, and their agreeable converse. But their attention to the distressed does not end here. They devote themselves to the dangerous task of searching for those unhappy persons who may have been overtaken by the sudden storm, and would perish but for their charitable succour. Most remarkably are they assisted in these truly Christian offices. They have a breed of noble dogs in their establishment, whose extraordinary sagacity often enables them to rescue the traveller from destruction. Benumbed with cold, weary in the search of a lost track, his senses yielding to the stupefying influence of frost, the unhappy man sinks upon the ground, and the snow-drift covers him from human sight. It is then that the keen scent and the exquisite docility of these admirable dogs are called into action. Though the perishing man lie ten or even twenty feet beneath the snow, the delicacy of smell with which they can trace him offers a chance of escape. They scratch away the snow with their feet; they set up a continued hoarse and solemn bark, which brings the monks and labourers of the convent to their assistance. To provide for the chance that the dogs, without human help, may succeed in discovering the unfortunate traveller, one of them has a flask of spirits round his neck, to which the fainting man may apply for support; and another has a cloak to cover him. Their wonderful exertions are often successful; and even where they fail of restoring him who has perished, the dogs discover the body, so that it may be secured for the recognition of friends; and such is the effect of the cold, that the dead features generally preserve their firmness for the space of two years. One of these noble creatures was decorated with a medal, in commemoration of his having saved the lives of twenty-two persons, who, but for his sagacity, must have perished. Many travellers, who have crossed the pass of St. Bernard, have seen this dog, and have heard, around the blazing fire of the monks, the story of his extraordinary career. He perished about the year 1816, in an attempt to convey a poor traveller to his anxious family. _The Menageries._ [Illustration: HEAD OF ST. BERNARD DOG.] * * * * * JOPPA. Joppa is the principal sea-port town of Palestine and it is very often mentioned in Scripture. Hiram, King of Tyre, is said to have sent cedars of Lebanon by sea to Joppa, for the building of Solomon's Temple; and from Joppa the disobedient Jonah embarked, when ordered by God to go and preach to the people of Nineveh. It was at Joppa that the apostle Peter lived, for some time, with one Simon, a tanner, whose house was by the sea-shore; and it was on the flat roof of this dwelling that he saw the wonderful vision, which taught him not to call any man common or unclean. [Illustration: JOPPA.] Tabitha or Dorcas, the pious woman who spent all her life in working for the poor, and in giving alms to those who needed relief, lived in Joppa; and here it pleased God that she should be taken ill and die, and her body was laid out in the usual manner before burial, in an upper chamber of the house where she lived. The apostle Peter, to whom this pious woman had been well known, was then at Lydda, not far from Joppa, and the disciples sent to tell him of the heavy loss the Church had met with in the death of Dorcas, and begged that he would come and comfort them. The apostle directly left Lydda and went over to Joppa. He was, by his own desire, taken to the room where the corpse lay, and was much moved when he saw the tears of the poor women who had been fed and clothed by the charity of Dorcas, and who were telling each other how much good she had been the means of doing them. Peter desired to be left alone with the body, and then he knelt down and prayed, and, receiving strength from God, he turned to the body and cried, "Tabitha, arise!" She then, like one awaking from sleep, opened her eyes, and when she saw Peter she sat up. He then took her by the hand, and she arose and was presented alive to those who, thinking she was dead, had so lately been mourning for her loss. This was the first miracle performed by the apostles, and it greatly surprised the people of Joppa, who began one and all to believe that Peter was really a preacher sent by God. The name of Joppa signified beautiful. It was built upon the side of a rocky mountain, which rises from the sea-shore, and all around it were lovely gardens, full of vines, figs, and other fruits. * * * * * THE AMERICAN TAPIR. There are but three known species of the Tapir, two of which--the Peccary and the Tapir--are natives of South America, the other of Sumatra and Malacca. Its anatomy is much like that of the rhinoceros, while in general form the tapir reminds us of the hog. It is a massive and powerful animal, and its fondness for the water is almost as strong as that displayed by the hippopotamus. It swims and dives admirably, and will remain submerged for many minutes, rising to the surface for breath, and then again plunging in. When hunted or wounded, it always, if possible, makes for the water; and in its nightly wanderings will traverse rivers and lakes in search of food, or for pleasure. The female is very attentive to her young one, leading it about on the land, and accustoming it at an early period to enter the water, where it plunges and plays before its parent, who seems to act as its instructress, the male taking no share in the work. The tapir is very common in the warm regions of South America, where it inhabits the forests, leading a solitary life, and seldom stirring from its retreat during the day, which it passes in a state of tranquil slumber. During the night, its season of activity, it wanders forth in search of food, which consists of water-melons, gourds, young shoots of brushwood, &c.; but, like the hog, it is not very particular in its diet. Its senses of smell and hearing are extremely acute, and serve to give timely notice of the approach of enemies. Defended by its tough thick hide, it is capable of forcing its way through the thick underwood in any direction it pleases: when thus driving onwards, it carries its head low, and, as it were, ploughs its course. The most formidable enemy of this animal, if we except man, is the jaguar; and it is asserted that when that tiger of the American forest throws itself upon the tapir, the latter rushes through the most dense and tangled underwood, bruising its enemy, and generally succeeds in dislodging him. The snout of the tapir greatly reminds one of the trunk of the elephant; for although it is not so long, it is very flexible, and the animal makes excellent use of it as a crook to draw down twigs to the mouth, or grasp fruit or bunches of herbage: it has nostrils at the extremity, but there is no finger-like appendage. In its disposition the tapir is peaceful and quiet, and, unless hard pressed, never attempts to attack either man or beast; when, however, the hunter's dogs surround it, it defends itself very vigorously with its teeth, inflicting terrible wounds, and uttering a cry like a shrill kind of whistle, which is in strange contrast with the massive bulk of the animal. [Illustration: AMERICAN TAPIR.] The Indian tapir greatly resembles its American relative; it feeds on vegetables, and is very partial to the sugar-cane. It is larger than the American, and the snout is longer and more like the trunk of the elephant. The most striking difference, however, between the eastern and western animal is in colour. Instead of being the uniform dusky-bay tint of the American, the Indian is strangely particoloured. The head, neck, fore-limbs, and fore-quarters are quite black; the body then becomes suddenly white or greyish-white, and so continues to about half-way over the hind-quarters, when the black again commences abruptly, spreading over the legs. The animal, in fact, looks just as if it were covered round the body with a white horse-cloth. Though the flesh of both the Indian and American tapir is dry and disagreeable as an article of food, still the animal might be domesticated with advantage, and employed as a beast of burthen, its docility and great strength being strong recommendations. * * * * * THE FIELD OF WATERLOO. Waterloo is a considerable village of Belgium, containing about 1600 inhabitants; and the Field of Waterloo, so celebrated as the scene of the battle between two of the greatest generals who ever lived, is about two miles from it. It was very far from a strong position to be chosen for this purpose, but, no doubt, was the best the country afforded. A gently rising ground, not steep enough in any part to prevent a rush of infantry at double-quick time, except in the dell on the left of the road, near the farm of La Haye Sainte; and along the crest of the hill a scrubby hedge and low bank fencing a narrow country road. This was all, except La Haye Sainte and Hougoumont. This _chateau_, or country-seat, one of those continental residences which unite in them something of the nature of a castle and a farm-house, was the residence of a Belgic gentleman. It stands on a little eminence near the main road leading from Brussels to Nivelles. The buildings consisted of an old tower and a chapel, and a number of offices, partly surrounded by a farm-yard. The garden was enclosed by a high and strong wall; round the garden was a wood or orchard, which was enclosed by a thick hedge, concealing the wall. The position of the place was deemed so important by the Duke of Wellington, that he took possession of the Château of Goumont, as it was called, on the 17th of June, and the troops were soon busily preparing for the approaching contest, by perforating the walls, making loop-holes for the fire of the musketry, and erecting scaffolding for the purpose of firing from the top. The importance of this place was also so well appreciated by Bonaparte, that the battle of the 18th began by his attacking Hougoumont. This name, which was bestowed upon it by the mistake of our great commander, has quite superseded the real one of Château Goumont. The ruins are among the most interesting of all the points connected with this memorable place, for the struggle there was perhaps the fiercest. The battered walls, the dismantled and fire-stained chapel, which remained standing through all the attack, still may be seen among the wreck of its once beautiful garden; while huge blackened beams, which have fallen upon the crumbling heaps of stone and plaster, are lying in all directions. On the field of battle are two interesting monuments: one, to the memory of the Hon. Sir Alexander Gordon, brother to the Earl of Aberdeen, who there terminated a short but glorious career, at the age of twenty-nine, and "fell in the blaze of his fame;" the other, to some brave officers of the German Legion, who likewise died under circumstances of peculiar distinction. There is also, on an enormous mound, a colossal lion of bronze, erected by the Belgians to the honour of the Prince of Orange, who was wounded at, or near, to the spot. Against the walls of the church of the village of Waterloo are many beautiful marble tablets, with the most affecting inscriptions, records of men of various countries, who expired on that solemn and memorable occasion in supporting a common cause. Many of these brave men were buried in a cemetery at a short distance from the village. [Illustration: FIELD OF WATERLOO] * * * * * THE TWO OWLS AND THE SPARROW. [Illustration: Letter T.] Two formal Owls together sat, Conferring thus in solemn chat: "How is the modern taste decay'd! Where's the respect to wisdom paid? Our worth the Grecian sages knew; They gave our sires the honour due: They weigh'd the dignity of fowls, And pry'd into the depth of Owls. Athens, the seat of earned fame, With gen'ral voice revered our name; On merit title was conferr'd, And all adored th' Athenian bird." "Brother, you reason well," replies The solemn mate, with half-shut eyes: "Right: Athens was the seat of learning, And truly wisdom is discerning. Besides, on Pallas' helm we sit, The type and ornament of wit: But now, alas! we're quite neglected, And a pert Sparrow's more respected." A Sparrow, who was lodged beside, O'erhears them sooth each other's pride. [Illustration] And thus he nimbly vents his heat: "Who meets a fool must find conceit. I grant you were at Athens graced, And on Minerva's helm were placed; But ev'ry bird that wings the sky, Except an Owl, can tell you why. From hence they taught their schools to know How false we judge by outward show; That we should never looks esteem, Since fools as wise as you might seem. Would you contempt and scorn avoid, Let your vain-glory be destroy'd: Humble your arrogance of thought, Pursue the ways by Nature taught: So shall you find delicious fare, And grateful farmers praise your care; So shall sleek mice your chase reward, And no keen cat find more regard." GAY. * * * * * THE BEETLE. See the beetle that crawls in your way, And runs to escape from your feet; His house is a hole in the clay, And the bright morning dew is his meat. But if you more closely behold This insect you think is so mean, You will find him all spangled with gold, And shining with crimson and green. Tho' the peacock's bright plumage we prize, As he spreads out his tail to the sun, The beetle we should not despise, Nor over him carelessly run. They both the same Maker declare-- They both the same wisdom display, The same beauties in common they share-- Both are equally happy and gay. And remember that while you would fear The beautiful peacock to kill, You would tread on the poor beetle here, And think you were doing no ill. But though 'tis so humble, be sure, As mangled and bleeding it lies, A pain as severe 'twill endure, As if 'twere a giant that dies. [Illustration] * * * * * THE FOUNDING OF THE BELL. [Illustration: Letter H.] Hark! how the furnace pants and roars, Hark! how the molten metal pours, As, bursting from its iron doors, It glitters in the sun. Now through the ready mould it flows, Seething and hissing as it goes, And filling every crevice up, As the red vintage fills the cup-- _Hurra! the work is done!_ Unswathe him now. Take off each stay That binds him to his couch of clay, And let him struggle into day! Let chain and pulley run, With yielding crank and steady rope, Until he rise from rim to cope, In rounded beauty, ribb'd in strength, Without a flaw in all his length-- _Hurra! the work is done!_ The clapper on his giant side Shall ring no peal for blushing bride, For birth, or death, or new-year tide, Or festival begun! A nation's joy alone shall be The signal for his revelry; And for a nation's woes alone His melancholy tongue shall moan-- _Hurra! the work is done!_ Borne on the gale, deep-toned and clear, His long, loud summons shall we hear, When statesmen to their country dear Their mortal race have run; When mighty Monarchs yield their breath, And patriots sleep the sleep of death, Then shall he raise his voice of gloom, And peal a requiem o'er their tomb-- _Hurra! the work is done!_ Should foemen lift their haughty hand, And dare invade us where we stand, Fast by the altars of our land We'll gather every one; And he shall ring the loud alarm, To call the multitudes to arm, From distant field and forest brown, And teeming alleys of the town-- _Hurra! the work is done!_ And as the solemn boom they hear, Old men shall grasp the idle spear, Laid by to rust for many a year, And to the struggle run: Young men shall leave their toils or books, Or turn to swords their pruning-hooks; And maids have sweetest smiles for those Who battle with their country's foes-- _Hurra! the work is done!_ And when the cannon's iron throat Shall bear the news to dells remote, And trumpet blast resound the note-- That victory is won; When down the wind the banner drops, And bonfires blaze on mountain tops, His sides shall glow with fierce delight, And ring glad peals from morn to night-- _Hurra! the work is done!_ But of such themes forbear to tell-- May never War awake this bell To sound the tocsin or the knell-- Hush'd be the alarum gun. Sheath'd be the sword! and may his voice But call the nations to rejoice That War his tatter'd flag has furl'd, And vanish'd from a wiser world-- _Hurra! the work is done!_ Still may he ring when struggles cease-- Still may he ring for joy's increase, For progress in the arts of peace, And friendly trophies won; When rival nations join their hands, When plenty crowns the happy lands, When Knowledge gives new blessings birth, And Freedom reigns o'er all the earth-- _Hurra! the work is done!_ MACKAY. [Illustration: FOUNDING OF THE BELL.] * * * * * NAPOLEON. With his passions, and in spite of his errors, Napoleon was, taking him all in all, the greatest warrior of modern times. He carried into battle a stoical courage, a profoundly calculated tenacity, a mind fertile in sudden inspirations, which, by unlooked-for resources, disconcerted the plans of his enemy. Let us beware of attributing a long series of success to the organic power of the masses which he set in motion. The most experienced eye could scarcely discover in them any thing but elements of disorder. Still less, let it be said, that he was a successful captain because he was a mighty Monarch. Of all his campaigns, the most memorable are the campaign of the Adige, where the general of yesterday, commanding an army by no means numerous, and at first badly appointed, placed himself at once above Turenne, and on a level with Frederick; and the campaign in France in 1814, when, reduced to a handful of harrassed troops, he combated a force of ten times their number. The last flashes of Imperial lightning still dazzled the eyes of our enemies; and it was a fine sight to see the bounds of the old lion, tracked, hunted down, beset--presenting a lively picture of the days of his youth, when his powers developed themselves in the fields of carnage. Napoleon possessed, in an eminent degree, the faculties requisite for the profession of arms; temperate and robust; watching and sleeping at pleasure; appearing unawares where he was least expected: he did not disregard details, to which important results are sometimes attached. The hand which had just traced rules for the government of many millions of men, would frequently rectify an incorrect statement of the situation of a regiment, or write down whence two hundred conscripts were to be obtained, and from what magazine their shoes were to be taken. A patient, and an easy interlocutor, he was a home questioner, and he could listen--a rare talent in the grandees of the earth. He carried with him into battle a cool and impassable courage. Never was mind so deeply meditative, more fertile in rapid and sudden illuminations. On becoming Emperor he ceased not to be the soldier. If his activity decreased with the progress of age, that was owing to the decrease of his physical powers. In games of mingled calculation and hazard the greater the advantages which a man seeks to obtain the greater risks he must run. It is precisely this that renders the deceitful science of conquerors so calamitous to nations. [Illustration: NAPOLEON.] Napoleon, though naturally adventurous, was not deficient in consistency or method; and he wasted neither his soldiers nor his treasures where the authority of his name sufficed. What he could obtain by negotiations or by artifice, he required not by force of arms. The sword, although drawn from the scabbard, was not stained with blood unless it was impossible to attain the end in view by a manoeuvre. Always ready to fight, he chose habitually the occasion and the ground: out of fifty battles which he fought, he was the assailant in at least forty. Other generals have equalled him in the art of disposing troops on the ground; some have given battle as well as he did--we could mention several who have received it better; but in the manner of directing an offensive campaign he has surpassed all. The wars in Spain and Russia prove nothing in disparagement of his genius. It is not by the rules of Montecuculi and Turenne, manoeuvring on the Renchen, that we ought to judge of such enterprises: the first warred to such or such winter quarters; the other to subdue the world. It frequently behoved him not merely to gain a battle, but to gain it in such a manner as to astound Europe and to produce gigantic results. Thus political views were incessantly interfering with the strategic genius; and to appreciate him properly, we must not confine ourselves within the limits of the art of war. This art is not composed exclusively of technical details; it has also its philosophy. To find in this elevated region a rival of Napoleon, we must go back to the times when the feudal institutions had not yet broken the unity of the ancient nations. The founders of religion alone have exercised over their disciples an authority comparable with that which made him the absolute master of his army. This moral power became fatal to him, because he strove to avail himself of it even against the ascendancy of material force, and because it led him to despise positive rules, the long violation of which will not remain unpunished. When pride was bringing Napoleon towards his fall, he happened to say, "France has more need of me than I have of France." He spoke the truth: but why had he become necessary? Because he had committed the destiny of France to the chances of an interminable war: because, in spite of the resources of his genius, that war, rendered daily more hazardous by his staking the whole of his force and by the boldness of his movements, risked, in every campaign, in every battle, the fruits of twenty years of triumph: because his government was so modelled that with him every thing must be swept away, and that a reaction, proportioned to the violence of the action, must burst forth at once both within and without. But Napoleon saw, without illusion, to the bottom of things. The nation, wholly occupied in prosecuting the designs of its chief, had previously not had time to form any plans for itself. The day on which it should have ceased to be stunned by the din of arms, it would have called itself to account for its servile obedience. It is better, thought he, for an absolute prince to fight foreign armies than to have to struggle against the energy of the citizens. Despotism had been organized for making war; war was continued to uphold despotism. The die was cast--France must either conquer Europe, or Europe subdue France. Napoleon fell--he fell, because with the men of the nineteenth century he attempted the work of an Attila and a Genghis Khan; because he gave the reins to an imagination directly contrary to the spirit of his age; with which, nevertheless, his reason was perfectly acquainted; because he would not pause on the day when he felt conscious of his inability to succeed. Nature has fixed a boundary, beyond which extravagant enterprises cannot be carried with prudence. This boundary the Emperor reached in Spain, and overleaped in Russia. Had he then escaped destruction, his inflexible presumption would have caused him to find elsewhere a Bayleu and a Moscow. GENERAL FOY. * * * * * ROME. [Illustration] I am in Rome! Oft as the morning ray Visits these eyes, waking at once, I cry, Whence this excess of joy? What has befallen me? And from within a thrilling voice replies-- Thou art in Rome! A thousand busy thoughts Rush on my mind--a thousand images; And I spring up as girt to run a race! Thou art in _Rome!_ the city that so long Reign'd absolute--the mistress of the world! The mighty vision that the Prophet saw And trembled; that from nothing, from the least, The lowliest village (what, but here and there A reed-roof'd cabin by a river side?) Grew into everything; and, year by year, Patiently, fearlessly working her way O'er brook and field, o'er continent and sea; Not like the merchant with his merchandise, Or traveller with staff and scrip exploring; But hand to hand and foot to foot, through hosts, Through nations numberless in battle array, Each behind each; each, when the other fell, Up, and in arms--at length subdued them all. Thou art in _Rome!_ the city where the Gauls, Entering at sun-rise through her open gates, And through her streets silent and desolate Marching to slay, thought they saw gods, not men; The city, that by temperance, fortitude, And love of glory tower'd above the clouds, Then fell--but, falling, kept the highest seat, And in her loveliness, her pomp of woe, Where now she dwells, withdrawn into the wild, Still o'er the mind maintains, from age to age, Its empire undiminish'd. There, as though Grandeur attracted grandeur, are beheld All things that strike, ennoble; from the depths Of Egypt, from the classic fields of Greece-- Her groves, her temples--all things that inspire Wonder, delight! Who would not say the forms. Most perfect most divine, had by consent Flock'd thither to abide eternally Within those silent chambers where they dwell In happy intercourse? ROGERS. * * * * * THE ROOKERY [Illustration: Letter I.] Is that a rookery, papa? _Mr. S._ It is. Do you hear what a cawing the birds make? _F_. Yes; and I see them hopping about among the boughs. Pray, are not rooks the same with crows? _Mr. S._ They are a species of crow. But they differ from the carrion crow and raven, in not feeding upon dead flesh, but upon corn and other seeds and grass, though, indeed, they pick up beetles and other insects and worms. See what a number of them have alighted on yonder ploughed field, almost blackening it over. They are searching for grubs and worms. The men in the field do not molest them, for they do a great deal of service by destroying grubs, which, if suffered to grow to winged insects, would injure the trees and plants. _F_. Do all rooks live in rookeries? _Mr. S._ It is their nature to associate together, and they build in numbers of the same, or adjoining trees. They have no objection to the neighbourhood of man, but readily take to a plantation of tall trees, though it be close to a house; and this is commonly called a rookery. They will even fix their habitations on trees in the midst of towns. _F_. I think a rookery is a sort of town itself. _Mr. S._ It is--a village in the air, peopled with numerous inhabitants; and nothing can be more amusing than to view them all in motion, flying to and fro, and busied in their several occupations. The spring is their busiest time. Early in the year they begin to repair their nests, or build new ones. [Illustration: CROW.] _F_. Do they all work together, or every one for itself? _Mr. S._ Each pair, after they have coupled, builds its own nest; and, instead of helping, they are very apt to steal the materials from one another. If both birds go out at once in search of sticks, they often find at their return the work all destroyed, and the materials carried off. However, I have met with a story which shows that they are not without some sense of the criminality of thieving. There was in a rookery a lazy pair of rooks, who never went out to get sticks for themselves, but made a practice of watching when their neighbours were abroad, and helping themselves from their nests. They had served most of the community in this manner, and by these means had just finished their own nest; when all the other rooks, in a rage, fell upon them at once, pulled their nest in pieces, beat them soundly, and drove them from their society. _F_. But why do they live together, if they do not help one another? _Mr. S._ They probably receive pleasure from the company of their own kind, as men and various other creatures do. Then, though they do not assist one another in building, they are mutually serviceable in many ways. If a large bird of prey hovers about a rookery for the purpose of carrying away the young ones, they all unite to drive him away. And when they are feeding in a flock, several are placed as sentinels upon the trees all round, to give the alarm if any danger approaches. _F_. Do rooks always keep to the same trees? _Mr. S._ Yes; they are much attached to them, and when the trees happen to be cut down, they seem greatly distressed, and keep hovering about them as they are falling, and will scarcely desert them when they lie on the ground. _F_. I suppose they feel as we should if our town was burned down, or overthrown by an earthquake. _Mr. S._ No doubt. The societies of animals greatly resemble those of men; and that of rooks is like those of men in the savage state, such as the communities of the North American Indians. It is a sort of league for mutual aid and defence, but in which every one is left to do as he pleases, without any obligation to employ himself for the whole body. Others unite in a manner resembling more civilised societies of men. This is the case with the heavers. They perform great public works by the united efforts of the whole community--such as damming up streams and constructing mounds for their habitations. As these are works of great art and labour, some of them probably act under the direction of others, and are compelled to work, whether they will or not. Many curious stories are told to this purpose by those who have observed them in their remotest haunts, where they exercise their full sagacity. _F_. But are they all true? _Mr. S._ That is more than I can answer for; yet what we certainly know of the economy of bees may justify us in believing extraordinary things of the sagacity of animals. The society of bees goes further than that of beavers, and in some respects beyond most among men themselves. They not only inhabit a common dwelling, and perform great works in common, but they lay up a store of provision, which is the property of the whole community, and is not used except at certain seasons and under certain regulations. A bee-hive is a true image of a commonwealth, where no member acts for himself alone, but for the whole body. _Evenings at Home._ [Illustration: A HERONRY.] * * * * * PALMS. These beautiful trees may be ranked among the noblest specimens of vegetation; and their tall, slender, unbranched stems, crowned by elegant feathery foliage, composed of a cluster of gigantic leaves, render them, although of several varieties, different in appearance from all other trees. In some kinds of palm the stem is irregularly thick; in others, slender as a reed. It is scaly in one species, and prickly in another. In the _Palma real_, in Cuba, the stem swells out like a spindle in the middle. At the summit of these stems, which in some cases attain an altitude of upwards of 180 feet, a crown of leaves, either feathery or fan-shaped (for there is not a great variety in their general form), spreads out on all sides, the leaves being frequently from twelve to fifteen feet in length. In some species the foliage is of a dark green and shining surface, like that of a laurel or holly; in others, silvery on the under-side, as in the willow; and there is one species of palm with a fan-shaped leaf, adorned with concentric blue and yellow rings, like the "eyes" of a peacock's tail. [Illustration: PALMS OF ARIMATHEA.] The flowers of most of the palms are as beautiful as the trees. Those of the _Palma real_ are of a brilliant white, rendering them visible from a great distance; but, generally, the blossoms are of a pale yellow. To these succeed very different forms of fruit: in one species it consists of a cluster of egg-shaped berries, sometimes seventy or eighty in number, of a brilliant purple and gold colour, which form a wholesome food. South America contains the finest specimens, as well as the most numerous varieties of palm: in Asia the tree is not very common; and of the African palms but little is yet known, with the exception of the date palm, the most important to man of the whole tribe, though far less beautiful than the other species. * * * * * THE PALM-TREE. [Illustration: Letter I.] It waved not through an Eastern sky, Beside a fount of Araby; It was not fann'd by Southern breeze In some green isle of Indian seas; Nor did its graceful shadow sleep O'er stream of Afric, lone and deep. But fair the exiled Palm-tree grew, 'Midst foliage of no kindred hue: Through the laburnum's dropping gold Rose the light shaft of Orient mould; And Europe's violets, faintly sweet, Purpled the moss-beds at its feet. Strange look'd it there!--the willow stream'd Where silv'ry waters near it gleam'd; The lime-bough lured the honey-bee To murmur by the Desert's tree, And showers of snowy roses made A lustre in its fan-like shade. There came an eve of festal hours-- Rich music fill'd that garden's bowers; Lamps, that from flow'ring branches hung, On sparks of dew soft colours flung; And bright forms glanced--a fairy show, Under the blossoms to and fro. But one, a lone one, 'midst the throng, Seem'd reckless all of dance or song: He was a youth of dusky mien, Whereon the Indian sun had been; Of crested brow, and long black hair-- A stranger, like the Palm-tree, there. And slowly, sadly, moved his plumes, Glittering athwart the leafy glooms: He pass'd the pale green olives by, Nor won the chesnut flowers his eye; But when to that sole Palm he came, Then shot a rapture through his frame. To him, to him its rustling spoke; The silence of his soul it broke. It whisper'd of his own bright isle, That lit the ocean with a smile. Aye to his ear that native tone Had something of the sea-wave's moan. His mother's cabin-home, that lay Where feathery cocoos fringe the bay; The dashing of his brethren's oar, The conch-note heard along the shore-- All through his wak'ning bosom swept: He clasp'd his country's tree, and wept. Oh! scorn him not. The strength whereby The patriot girds himself to die; The unconquerable power which fills The foeman battling on his hills: These have one fountain deep and clear, The same whence gush'd that child-like tear!-- MRS. HEMANS. * * * * * A CHAPTER ON DOGS. [Illustration: Letter N.] Newfoundland Dogs are employed in drawing sledges laden with fish, wood, and other articles, and from their strength and docility are of considerable importance. The courage, devotion, and skill of this noble animal in the rescue of persons from drowning is well known; and on the banks of the Seine, at Paris, these qualities have been applied to a singular purpose. Ten Newfoundland dogs are there trained to act as servants to the Humane Society; and the rapidity with which they cross and re-cross the river, and come and go, at the voice of their trainer, is described as being most interesting to witness. Handsome kennels have been erected for their dwellings on the bridges. * * * * * DALMATIAN DOG. There is a breed of very handsome dogs called by this name, of a white colour, thickly spotted with black: it is classed among the hounds. This species is said to have been brought from India, and is not remarkable for either fine scent or intelligence. The Dalmatian Dog is generally kept in our country as an appendage to the carriage, and is bred up in the stable with the horses; it consequently seldom receives that kind of training which is calculated to call forth any good qualities it may possess. [Illustration: DALMATIAN DOG.] * * * * * TERRIER. The Terrier is a valuable dog in the house and farm, keeping both domains free from intruders, either in the shape of thieves or vermin. The mischief effected by rats is almost incredible; it has been said that, in some cases, in the article of corn, these little animals consume a quantity in food equal in value to the rent of the farm. Here the terrier is a most valuable assistant, in helping the farmer to rid himself of his enemies. The Scotch Terrier is very common in the greater part of the Western Islands of Scotland, and some of the species are greatly admired. Her Majesty Queen Victoria possesses one from Islay--a faithful, affectionate creature, yet with all the spirit and determination that belong to his breed. [Illustration: HEAD OF THE SCOTCH TERRIER.] * * * * * THE GREYHOUND. The modern smooth-haired Greyhound of England is a very elegant dog, not surpassed in speed and endurance by that of any other country. Hunting the deer with a kind of greyhound of a larger size was formerly a favourite diversion; and Queen Elizabeth was gratified by seeing, on one occasion, from a turret, sixteen deer pulled down by greyhounds upon the lawn at Cowdry Park, in Sussex. [Illustration: HEAD OF THE GREYHOUND.] * * * * * OLD ENGLISH HOUND. The dog we now call the Staghound appears to answer better than any other to the description given to us of the old English Hound, which was so much valued when the country was less enclosed, and the numerous and extensive forests were the harbours of the wild deer. This hound, with the harrier, were for many centuries the only hunting dogs. [Illustration: HEAD OF THE OLD ENGLISH HOUND.] * * * * * SHEPHERD'S DOG. Instinct and education combine to fit this dog for our service: the pointer will act without any great degree of instruction, and the setter will crouch; but the Sheep Dog, especially if he has the example of an older one, will, almost without the teaching of his master, become everything he could wish, and be obedient to every order, even to the slightest motion of the hand. If the shepherd's dog be but with his master, he appears to be perfectly content, rarely mingling with his kind, and generally shunning the advances of strangers; but the moment duty calls, his eye brightens, he springs up with eagerness, and exhibits a sagacity, fidelity, and devotion rarely equalled even by man himself. [Illustration: HEAD OF THE SHEPHERDS DOG.] * * * * * BULL-DOG. Of all dogs, none surpass in obstinacy and ferocity the Bull-dog. The head is broad and thick, the lower jaw generally projects so that the under teeth advance beyond the upper, the eyes are scowling, and the whole expression calculated to inspire terror. It is remarkable for the pertinacity with which it maintains its hold of any animal it may have seized, and is, therefore, much used in the barbarous practice of bull-baiting, so common in some countries, and but lately abolished in England. [Illustration: HEAD OF THE BULL-DOG.] [Illustration] * * * * * LORD BACON. [Illustration: Letter I.] In those prescient views by which the genius of Lord Bacon has often anticipated the institutions and the discoveries of succeeding times, there was one important object which even his foresight does not appear to have contemplated. Lord Bacon did not foresee that the English language would one day be capable of embalming all that philosophy can discover, or poetry can invent; that his country would at length possess a national literature of its own, and that it would exult in classical compositions, which might be appreciated with the finest models of antiquity. His taste was far unequal to his invention. So little did he esteem the language of his country, that his favourite works were composed in Latin; and he was anxious to have what he had written in English preserved in that "universal language which may last as long as books last." It would have surprised Bacon to have been told that the most learned men in Europe have studied English authors to learn to think and to write. Our philosopher was surely somewhat mortified, when, in his dedication of the Essays, he observed, that, "Of all my other works, my Essays have been most current; for that, as it seems, they come home to men's business and bosoms." It is too much to hope to find in a vast and profound inventor, a writer also who bestows immortality on his language. The English language is the only object, in his great survey of art and of nature, which owes nothing of its excellence to the genius of Bacon. He had reason, indeed, to be mortified at the reception of his philosophical works; and Dr. Rowley, even, some years after the death of his illustrious master, had occasion to observe, "His fame is greater, and sounds louder in foreign parts abroad than at home in his own nation; thereby verifying that Divine sentence, 'A Prophet is not without honour, save in his own country and in his own house,'" Even the men of genius, who ought to have comprehended this new source of knowledge thus opened to them, reluctantly entered into it: so repugnant are we to give up ancient errors, which time and habit have made a part of ourselves. D'ISRAELI. [Illustration: STATUE OF LORD BACON.] * * * * * THE LILIES OF THE FIELD. [Illustration: SYRIAN LILY.] Flowers! when the Saviour's calm, benignant eye Fell on your gentle beauty; when from you That heavenly lesson for all hearts he drew. Eternal, universal as the sky; Then in the bosom of your purity A voice He set, as in a temple shrine, That Life's quick travellers ne'er might pass you by Unwarn'd of that sweet oracle divine. And though too oft its low, celestial sound By the harsh notes of work-day care is drown'd, And the loud steps of vain, unlist'ning haste, Yet the great lesson hath no tone of power, Mightier to reach the soul in thought's hush'd hour, Than yours, meek lilies, chosen thus, and graced. MRS. HEMANS. * * * * * POMPEII. [Illustration: Letter T.] The earliest and one of the most fatal eruptions of Mount Vesuvius that is mentioned in history took place in the year 79, during the reign of the Emperor Titus. All Campagna was filled with consternation, and the country was overwhelmed with devastation in every direction; towns, villages, palaces, and their inhabitants were consumed by molten lava, and hidden from the sight by showers of volcanic stones, cinders, and ashes. Pompeii had suffered severely from an earthquake sixteen years before, but had been rebuilt and adorned with many a stately building, particularly a magnificent theatre, where thousands were assembled to see the gladiators when this tremendous visitation burst upon the devoted city, and buried it to a considerable depth with the fiery materials thrown from the crater. "Day was turned to night," says a classic author, "and night into darkness; an inexpressible quantity of dust and ashes was poured out, deluging land, sea, and air, and burying two entire cities, Pompeii and Herculaneum, whilst the people were sitting in the theatre." [Illustration: POMPEII--APARTMENT IN "THE HOUSE OF THE HUNTER"] Many parts of Pompeii have, at various times, been excavated, so as to allow visitors to examine the houses and streets; and in February, 1846, the house of the Hunter was finally cleared, as it appears in the Engraving. This is an interesting dwelling, and was very likely the residence of a man of wealth, fond of the chase. A painting on the right occupies one side of the large room, and here are represented wild animals, the lion chasing a bull, &c. The upper part of the house is raised, where stands a gaily-painted column--red and yellow in festoons; behind which, and over a doorway, is a fresco painting of a summer-house perhaps a representation of some country-seat of the proprietor, on either side are hunting-horns. The most beautiful painting in this room represents a Vulcan at his forge, assisted by three dusky, aged figures. In the niche of the outward room a small statue was found, in _terra cotta_ (baked clay). The architecture of this house is singularly rich in decoration, and the paintings, particularly those of the birds and vases, very bright vivid. [Illustration: PORTABLE KITCHEN, FOUND AT POMPEII.] At this time, too, some very perfect skeletons were discovered in a house near the theatre, and near the hand of one of them were found thirty-seven pieces of silver and two gold coins; some of the former were attached to the handle of a key. The unhappy beings who were perished may have been the inmates of the dwelling. We know, from the account written by Pliny, that the young and active had plenty of time for escape, and this is the reason why so few skeletons have been found in Pompeii. In a place excavated at the expense of the Empress of Russia was found a portable kitchen (represented above), made of iron, with two round holes for boiling pots. The tabular top received the fire for placing other utensils upon, and by a handle in the front it could be moved when necessary. * * * * * THE NIGHTINGALE AND GLOWWORM. A Nightingale that all day long Had cheer'd the village with his song, Nor yet at eve his note suspended, Nor yet when even-tide was ended-- Began to feel, as well he might, The keen demands of appetite: When, looking eagerly around, He spied, far off upon the ground, A something shining in the dark, And knew the glowworm by his spark: So stooping down from hawthorn top, He thought to put him in his crop. The worm, aware of his intent, Harangued him thus, right eloquent:-- "Did you admire my lamp," quoth he, "As much as I your minstrelsy, You would abhor to do me wrong, As much as I to spoil your song; For 'twas the self-same power Divine Taught you to sing and me to shine, That you with music, I with light, Might beautify and cheer the night." The songster heard his short oration, And, warbling out his approbation, Released him, as my story tells, And found a supper somewhere else. COWPER. * * * * * THE INVISIBLE WORLD REVEALED BY THE MICROSCOPE. A fact not less startling than would be the realisation of the imaginings of Shakespeare and of Milton, or of the speculations of Locke and of Bacon, admits of easy demonstration, namely, that the air, the earth, and the waters teem with numberless myriads of creatures, which are as unknown and as unapproachable to the great mass of mankind, as are the inhabitants of another planet. It may, indeed, be questioned, whether, if the telescope could bring within the reach of our observation the living things that dwell in the worlds around us, life would be there displayed in forms more diversified, in organisms more marvellous, under conditions more unlike those in which animal existence appears to our unassisted senses, than may be discovered in the leaves of every forest, in the flowers of every garden, and in the waters of every rivulet, by that noblest instrument of natural philosophy, the Microscope. [Illustration: LARVA OF THE COMMON GNAT. A. The body and head of the larva (magnified). B. The respiratory apparatus, situated in the tail. C. Natural size.] To an intelligent person, who has previously obtained a general idea of the nature of the Objects about to be submitted to his inspection, a group of living animalcules, seen under a powerful microscope for the first time, presents a scene of extraordinary interest, and never fails to call forth an expression of amazement and admiration. This statement admits of an easy illustration: for example, from some water containing aquatic plants, collected from a pond on Clapham Common, I select a small twig, to which are attached a few delicate flakes, apparently of slime or jelly; some minute fibres, standing erect here and there on the twig, are also dimly visible to the naked eye. This twig, with a drop or two of the water, we will put between two thin plates of glass, and place under the field of view of a microscope, having lenses that magnify the image of an object 200 times in linear dimensions. Upon looking through the instrument, we find the fluid swarming with animals of various shapes and magnitudes. Some are darting through the water with great rapidity, while others are pursuing and devouring creatures more infinitesimal than themselves. Many are attached to the twig by long delicate threads, several have their bodies inclosed in a transparent tube, from one end of which the animal partly protrudes and then recedes, while others are covered by an elegant shell or case. The minutest kinds, many of which are so small that millions might be contained in a single drop of water, appear like mere animated globules, free, single, and of various colours, sporting about in every direction. Numerous species resemble pearly or opaline cups or vases, fringed round the margin with delicate fibres, that are in constant oscillation. Some of these are attached by spiral tendrils; others are united by a slender stem to one common trunk, appearing like a bunch of hare-bells; others are of a globular form, and grouped together in a definite pattern, on a tabular or spherical membranous case, for a certain period of their existence, and ultimately become detached and locomotive, while many are permanently clustered together, and die if separated from the parent mass. They have no organs of progressive motion, similar to those of beasts, birds, or fishes; and though many species are destitute of eyes, yet possess an accurate perception of the presence of other bodies, and pursue and capture their prey with unerring purpose. [Illustration: FOOT OF COMMON HOUSE-FLY.] [Illustration: HAIR, GREATLY MAGNIFIED. A. Hairs of the Bat. B. Of the Mole. C. Of the Mouse.] _Mantell's Thoughts on Animalcules._ * * * * * THE CANARY. This bird, which is now kept and reared throughout the whole of Europe, and even in Russia and Siberia, on account of its pretty form, docility, and sweet song, is a native of the Canary Isles. On the banks of small streams, in the pleasant valleys of those lovely islands, it builds its nest in the branches of the orange-trees, of which it is so fond, that even in this country the bird has been known to find its way into the greenhouse, and select the fork of one of the branches of an orange-tree on which to build its nest, seeming to be pleased with the sweet perfume of the blossoms. [Illustration: CANARY.] The bird has been known in Europe since the beginning of the sixteenth century, when a ship, having a large number of canaries on board destined for Leghorn, was wrecked on the coast of Italy. The birds having regained their liberty, flew to the nearest land, which happened to be the island of Elba, where they found so mild a climate that they built their nests there and became very numerous. But the desire to possess such beautiful songsters led to their being hunted after, until the whole wild race was quite destroyed. In Italy, therefore, we find the first tame canaries, and here they are still reared in great numbers. Their natural colour is grey, which merges into green beneath, almost resembling the colours of the linnet; but by means of domestication, climate, and being bred with other birds, canaries may now be met with of a great variety of colours. But perhaps there is none more beautiful than the golden-yellow, with blackish-grey head and tail. The hen canary lays her eggs four or five times a year, and thus a great number of young are produced. As they are naturally inhabitants of warm climates, and made still more delicate by constant residence in rooms, great care should be taken in winter that this favourite bird be not exposed to cold air, which, however refreshing to it in the heat of summer, is so injurious in this season that it causes sickness and even death. To keep canaries in a healthy and happy state, it is desirable that the cage should be frequently hung in brilliant daylight, and, if possible, placed in the warm sunshine, which, especially when bathing, is very agreeable to them. The more simple and true to-nature the food is, the better does it agree with them; and a little summer rapeseed mixed with their usual allowance of the seed to which they have given their name, will be found to be the best kind of diet. As a treat, a little crushed hempseed or summer cabbage-seed may be mixed with the canary-seed. The beautiful grass from which the latter is obtained is a pretty ornament for the garden; it now grows very abundantly in Kent. The song of the canary is not in this country at all like that of the bird in a state of nature, for it is a kind of compound of notes learned from other birds. It may be taught to imitate the notes of the nightingale, by being placed while young with that bird. Care must be taken that the male parent of the young canary be removed from the nest before the young ones are hatched, or it will be sure to acquire the note of its parent. The male birds of all the feathered creation are the only ones who sing; the females merely utter a sweet chirrup or chirp, so that from the hen canary the bird will run no risk of learning its natural note. * * * * * INDUSTRY AND APPLICATION. Diligence, industry, and proper improvement of time are material duties of the young. To no purpose are they endowed with the best abilities, if they want activity for exerting them. Unavailing, in this case, will be every direction that can be given them, either for their temporal or spiritual welfare. In youth the habits of industry are most easily acquired; in youth the incentives to it are strong, from ambition and from duty, from emulation and hope, from all the prospects which the beginning of life affords. If, dead to these calls, you already languish in slothful inaction, what will be able to quicken the more sluggish current of advancing years? Industry is not only the instrument of improvement, but the foundation of pleasure. Nothing is so opposite to the true enjoyment of life as the relaxed and feeble state of an indolent mind. He who is a stranger to industry, may possess, but he cannot enjoy. For it is labour only which gives the relish to pleasure. It is the appointed vehicle of every good man. It is the indispensable condition of our possessing a sound mind in a sound body. Sloth is so inconsistent with both, that it is hard to determine whether it be a greater foe to virtue or to health and happiness. Inactive as it is in itself, its effects are fatally powerful. Though it appear a slowly-flowing stream, yet it undermines all that is stable and flourishing. It not only saps the foundation of every virtue, but pours upon you a deluge of crimes and evils. It is like water which first putrefies by stagnation, and then sends up noxious vapours and fills the atmosphere with death. Fly, therefore, from idleness, as the certain parent both of guilt and of ruin. And under idleness I include, not mere inaction only, but all that circle of trifling occupations in which too many saunter away their youth; perpetually engaged in frivolous society or public amusements, in the labours of dress or the ostentation of their persons. Is this the foundation which you lay for future usefulness and esteem? By such accomplishments do you hope to recommend yourselves to the thinking part of the world, and to answer the expectations of your friends and your country? Amusements youth requires: it were vain, it were cruel, to prohibit them. But, though allowable as the relaxation, they are most culpable as the business, of the young, for they then become the gulf of time and the poison of the mind; they weaken the manly powers; they sink the native vigour of youth into contemptible effeminacy. BLAIR. * * * * * THE RIVER JORDAN. [Illustration] The river Jordan rises in the mountains of Lebanon, and falls into the little Lake Merom, on the banks of which Joshua describes the hostile Kings as pitching to fight against Israel. After passing through this lake, it runs down a rocky valley with great noise and rapidity to the Lake of Tiberias. In this part of its course the stream is almost hidden by shady trees, which grow on each side. As the river approaches the Lake of Tiberias it widens, and passes through it with a current that may be clearly seen during a great part of its course. It then reaches a valley, which is the lowest ground in the whole of Syria, many hundred feet below the level of the Mediterranean Sea. It is so well sheltered by the high land on both sides, that the heat thus produced and the moisture of the river make the spot very rich and fertile. This lovely plain is five or six miles across in parts, but widens as it nears the Dead Sea, whose waters cover the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah, destroyed for the wickedness of their inhabitants. * * * * * ON JORDAN'S BANKS. On Jordan's banks the Arab camels stray, On Sion's hill the False One's votaries pray-- The Baal-adorer bows on Sinai's steep; Yet there--even there--O God! thy thunders sleep: There, where thy finger scorch'd the tablet stone; There, where thy shadow to thy people shone-- Thy glory shrouded in its garb of fire (Thyself none living see and not expire). Oh! in the lightning let thy glance appear-- Sweep from his shiver'd hand the oppressor's spear! How long by tyrants shall thy land be trod? How long thy temple worshipless, O God! BYRON. * * * * * FORTITUDE. Without some degree of fortitude there can be no happiness, because, amidst the thousand uncertainties of life, there can be no enjoyment of tranquillity. The man of feeble and timorous spirit lives under perpetual alarms. He sees every distant danger and tremble; he explores the regions of possibility to discover the dangers that may arise: often he creates imaginary ones; always magnifies those that are real. Hence, like a person haunted by spectres, he loses the free enjoyment even of a safe and prosperous state, and on the first shock of adversity he desponds. Instead of exerting himself to lay hold on the resources that remain, he gives up all for lost, and resigns himself to abject and broken spirits. On the other hand, firmness of mind is the parent of tranquillity. It enables one to enjoy the present without disturbance, and to look calmly on dangers that approach or evils that threaten in future. Look into the heart of this man, and you will find composure, cheerfulness, and magnanimity; look into the heart of the other, and you will see nothing but confusion, anxiety, and trepidation. The one is a castle built on a rock, which defies the attacks of surrounding waters; the other is a hut placed on the shore, which every wind shakes and every wave overflows. BLAIR. * * * * * THE IVY IN THE DUNGEON. [Illustration: Letters "The".] The Ivy in a dungeon grew Unfed by rain, uncheer'd by dew; Its pallid leaflets only drank Cave-moistures foul, and odours dank. But through the dungeon-grating high There fell a sunbeam from the sky: It slept upon the grateful floor In silent gladness evermore. The ivy felt a tremor shoot Through all its fibres to the root; It felt the light, it saw the ray, It strove to issue into day. It grew, it crept, it push'd, it clomb-- Long had the darkness been its home; But well it knew, though veil'd in night, The goodness and the joy of light. Its clinging roots grew deep and strong; Its stem expanded firm and long; And in the currents of the air Its tender branches flourish'd fair. It reach'd the beam--it thrill'd, it curl'd, It bless'd the warmth that cheers the world; It rose towards the dungeon bars-- It look'd upon the sun and stars. It felt the life of bursting spring, It heard the happy sky-lark sing. It caught the breath of morns and eves, And woo'd the swallow to its leaves. By rains, and dews, and sunshine fed, Over the outer wall it spread; And in the daybeam waving free, It grew into a steadfast tree. Upon that solitary place Its verdure threw adorning grace. The mating birds became its guests, And sang its praises from their nests. Wouldst know the moral of the rhyme? Behold the heavenly light, and climb! Look up, O tenant of the cell, Where man, the prisoner, must dwell. To every dungeon comes a ray Of God's interminable day. On every heart a sunbeam falls To cheer its lonely prison walls. The ray is TRUTH. Oh, soul, aspire To bask in its celestial fire; So shalt thou quit the glooms of clay, So shaft thou flourish into day. So shalt thou reach the dungeon grate, No longer dark and desolate; And look around thee, and above, Upon a world of light and love. MACKAY. [Illustration] * * * * * THE NESTS OF BIRDS. [Illustration: Letter H.] How curious is the structure of the nest of the goldfinch or chaffinch! The inside of it is lined with cotton and fine silken threads; and the outside cannot be sufficiently admired, though it is composed only of various species of fine moss. The colour of these mosses, resembling that of the bark of the tree on which the nest is built, proves that the bird intended it should not be easily discovered. In some nests, hair, wool, and rushes are dexterously interwoven. In some, all the parts are firmly fastened by a thread, which the bird makes of hemp, wool, hair, or more commonly of spiders' webs. Other birds, as for instance the blackbird and the lapwing, after they have constructed their nest, plaster the inside with mortar, which cements and binds the whole together; they then stick upon it, while quite wet, some wool or moss, to give it the necessary degree of warmth. The nests of swallows are of a very different construction from those of other birds. They require neither wood, nor hay, nor cords; they make a kind of mortar, with which they form a neat, secure, and comfortable habitation for themselves and their family. To moisten the dust, of which they build their nest, they dip their breasts in water and shake the drops from their wet feathers upon it. But the nests most worthy of admiration are those of certain Indian birds, which suspend them with great art from the branches of trees, to secure them from the depredations of various animals and insects. In general, every species of bird has a peculiar mode of building; but it may be remarked of all alike, that they always construct their nests in the way that is best adapted to their security, and to the preservation and welfare of their species. [Illustration: SWALLOW PREPARING A WALL FOR HER NEST.] [Illustration: BLACKBIRD BUILDING HER NEST.] Such is the wonderful instinct of birds with respect to the structure of their nests. What skill and sagacity! what industry and patience do they display! And is it not apparent that all their labours tend towards certain ends? They construct their nests hollow and nearly round, that they may retain the heat so much the better. They line them with the most delicate substances, that the young may lie soft and warm. What is it that teaches the bird to place her nest in a situation sheltered from the rain, and secure against the attacks of other animals? How did she learn that she should lay eggs--that eggs would require a nest to prevent them from falling to the ground and to keep them warm? Whence does she know that the heat would not be maintained around the eggs if the nest were too large; and that, on the other hand, the young would not have sufficient room if it were smaller? By what rules does she determine the due proportions between the nest and the young which are not yet in existence? Who has taught her to calculate the time with such accuracy that she never commits a mistake, in producing her eggs before the nest is ready to receive them? Admire in all these things the power, the wisdom, and the goodness of the Creator! STURM. * * * * * THE BUSHMEN. [Illustration: Letter T.] The Bosjesmans, or Bushmen, appear to be the remains of Hottentot hordes, who have been driven, by the gradual encroachments of the European colonists, to seek for refuge among the inaccessible rocks and sterile desert of the interior of Africa. Most of the hordes known in the colony by the name of Bushmen are now entirely destitute of flocks or herds, and subsist partly by the chase, partly on the wild roots of the wilderness, and in times of scarcity on reptiles, grasshoppers, and the larvae of ants, or by plundering their hereditary foes and oppressors, the frontier Boers. In seasons when every green herb is devoured by swarms of locusts, and when the wild game in consequence desert the pastures of the wilderness, the Bushman finds a resource in the very calamity which would overwhelm an agricultural or civilized community. He lives by devouring the devourers; he subsists for weeks and months on locusts alone, and also preserves a stock of this food dried, as we do herrings or pilchards, for future consumption. The Bushman retains the ancient arms of the Hottentot race, namely, a javelin or assagai, similar to that of the Caffres, and a bow and arrows. The latter, which are his principal weapons both for war and the chase, are small in size and formed of slight materials; but, owing to the deadly poison with which the arrows are imbued, and the dexterity with which they are launched, they are missiles truly formidable. One of these arrows, formed merely of a piece of slender reed tipped with bone or iron, is sufficient to destroy the most powerful animal. But, although the colonists very much dread the effects of the Bushman's arrow, they know how to elude its range; and it is after all but a very unequal match for the fire-lock, as the persecuted natives by sad experience have found. The arrows are usually kept in a quiver, formed of the hollow stalk of a species of aloe, and slung over the shoulder; but a few, for immediate use, are often stuck in a band round the head. A group of Bosjesmans, comprising two men, two women, and a child, were recently brought to this country and exhibited at the Egyptian Hall, in Piccadilly. The women wore mantles and conical caps of hide, and gold ornaments in their ears. The men also wore a sort of skin cloak, which hung down to their knees, over a close tunic: the legs and feet were bare in both. Their sheep-skin mantles, sewed together with threads of sinew, and rendered soft and pliable by friction, sufficed for a garment by day and a blanket by night. These Bosjesmans exhibited a variety of the customs of their native country. Their whoops were sometimes so loud as to be startling, and they occasionally seemed to consider the attention of the spectators as an affront. [Illustration: BUSHMEN.] * * * * * CHARACTER OF ALFRED, KING OF ENGLAND. The merit of this Prince, both in private and public life, may with advantage be set in opposition to that of any Monarch or citizen which the annals of any age or any nation can present to us. He seems, indeed, to be the realisation of that perfect character, which, under the denomination of a sage or wise man, the philosophers have been fond of delineating, rather as a fiction of their imagination than in hopes of ever seeing it reduced to practice; so happily were all his virtues tempered together, so justly were they blended, and so powerfully did each prevent the other from exceeding its proper bounds. He knew how to conciliate the most enterprising spirit with the coolest moderation; the most obstinate perseverance with the easiest flexibility; the most severe justice with the greatest lenity; the greatest rigour in command with the greatest affability of deportment; the highest capacity and inclination for science, with the most shining: talents for action. His civil and his military virtues are almost equally the objects of our admiration, excepting only, that the former, being more rare among princes, as well as more useful, seem chiefly to challenge our applause. Nature also, as if desirous that so bright a production of her skill should be set in the fairest light, had bestowed on him all bodily accomplishments, vigour of limbs, dignity of shape and air, and a pleasant, engaging, and open countenance. Fortune alone, by throwing him into that barbarous age, deprived him of historians worthy to transmit his fame to posterity; and we wish to see him delineated in more lively colours, and with more particular strokes, that we may at least perceive some of those small specks and blemishes, from which, as a man, it is impossible he could be entirely exempted. HUME. * * * * * THE FIRST GRIEF. [Illustration: Letter O.] Oh! call my brother back to me, I cannot play alone; The summer comes with flower and bee-- Where is my brother gone? The butterfly is glancing bright Across the sunbeam's track; I care not now to chase its flight-- Oh! call my brother back. The flowers run wild--the flowers we sow'd Around our garden-tree; Our vine is drooping with its load-- Oh! call him back to me. "He would not hear my voice, fair child-- He may not come to thee; The face that once like spring-time smiled, On earth no more thou'lt see [Illustration] "A rose's brief bright life of joy, Such unto him was given; Go, thou must play alone, my boy-- Thy brother is in heaven!" And has he left the birds and flowers, And must I call in vain, And through the long, long summer hours, Will he not come again? And by the brook, and in the glade, Are all our wand'rings o'er? Oh! while my brother with me play'd, Would I had loved him more!-- MRS. HEMANS. * * * * * ON CRUELTY TO INFERIOR ANIMALS [Illustration: Letter M.] Man is that link of the chain of universal existence by which spiritual and corporeal beings are united: as the numbers and variety of the latter his inferiors are almost infinite, so probably are those of the former his superiors; and as we see that the lives and happiness of those below us are dependant on our wills, we may reasonably conclude that our lives and happiness are equally dependant on the wills of those above us; accountable, like ourselves, for the use of this power to the supreme Creator and governor of all things. Should this analogy be well founded, how criminal will our account appear when laid before that just and impartial judge! How will man, that sanguinary tyrant, be able to excuse himself from the charge of those innumerable cruelties inflicted on his unoffending subjects committed to his care, formed for his benefit, and placed under his authority by their common Father? whose mercy is over all his works, and who expects that his authority should be exercised, not only with tenderness and mercy, but in conformity to the laws of justice and gratitude. But to what horrid deviations from these benevolent intentions are we daily witnesses! no small part of mankind derive their chief amusements from the deaths and sufferings of inferior animals; a much greater, consider them only as engines of wood or iron, useful in their several occupations. The carman drives his horse, and the carpenter his nail, by repeated blows; and so long as these produce the desired effect, and they both go, they neither reflect or care whether either of them have any sense of feeling. The butcher knocks down the stately ox, with no more compassion than the blacksmith hammers a horseshoe; and plunges his knife into the throat of the innocent lamb, with as little reluctance as the tailor sticks his needle into the collar of a coat. If there are some few who, formed in a softer mould, view with pity the sufferings of these defenceless creatures, there is scarce one who entertains the least idea that justice or gratitude can be due to their merits or their services. The social and friendly dog is hanged without remorse, if, by barking in defence of his master's person and property, he happens unknowingly to disturb his rest; the generous horse, who has carried his ungrateful master for many years with ease and safety, worn out with age and infirmities, contracted in his service, is by him condemned to end his miserable days in a dust-cart, where the more he exerts his little remains of spirit, the more he is whipped to save his stupid driver the trouble of whipping some other less obedient to the lash. Sometimes, having been taught the practice of many unnatural and useless feats in a riding-house, he is at last turned out and consigned to the dominion of a hackney-coachman, by whom he is every day corrected for performing those tricks, which he has learned under so long and severe a discipline. The sluggish bear, in contradiction to his nature, is taught to dance for the diversion of a malignant mob, by placing red-hot irons under his feet; and the majestic bull is tortured by every mode which malice can invent, for no offence but that he is gentle and unwilling to assail his diabolical tormentors. These, with innumerable other acts of cruelty, injustice, and ingratitude, are every day committed, not only with impunity, but without censure and even without observation; but we may be assured that they cannot finally pass away unnoticed and unretaliated. The laws of self-defence undoubtedly justify us in destroying those animals who would destroy us, who injure our properties, or annoy our persons; but not even these, whenever their situation incapacitates them from hurting us. I know of no right which we have to shoot a bear on an inaccessible island of ice, or an eagle on the mountain's top; whose lives cannot injure us, nor deaths procure us any benefit. We are unable to give life, and therefore ought not wantonly to take it away from the meanest insect, without sufficient reason; they all receive it from the same benevolent hand as ourselves, and have therefore an equal right to enjoy it. God has been pleased to create numberless animals intended for our sustenance; and that they are so intended, the agreeable flavour of their flesh to our palates, and the wholesome nutriment which it administers to our stomachs, are sufficient proofs: these, as they are formed for our use, propagated by our culture, and fed by our care, we have certainly a right to deprive of life, because it is given and preserved to them on that condition; but this should always be performed with all the tenderness and compassion which so disagreeable an office will permit; and no circumstances ought to be omitted, which can render their executions as quick and easy as possible. For this Providence has wisely and benevolently provided, by forming them in such a manner that their flesh becomes rancid and unpalateable by a painful and lingering death; and has thus compelled us to be merciful without compassion, and cautious of their sufferings, for the sake of ourselves: but, if there are any whose tastes are so vitiated, and whose hearts are so hardened, as to delight in such inhuman sacrifices, and to partake of them without remorse, they should be looked upon as demons in human shape, and expect a retaliation of those tortures which they have inflicted on the innocent, for the gratification of their own depraved and unnatural appetites. So violent are the passions of anger and revenge in the human breast, that it is not wonderful that men should persecute their real or imaginary enemies with cruelty and malevolence; but that there should exist in nature a being who can receive pleasure from giving pain, would be totally incredible, if we were not convinced, by melancholy experience, that there are not only many, but that this unaccountable disposition is in some manner inherent in the nature of man; for, as he cannot be taught by example, nor led to it by temptation, or prompted to it by interest, it must be derived from his native constitution; and it is a remarkable confirmation of what revelation so frequently inculcates--that he brings into the world with him an original depravity, the effects of a fallen and degenerate state; in proof of which we need only to observe, that the nearer he approaches to a state of nature, the more predominant this disposition appears, and the more violently it operates. We see children laughing at the miseries which they inflict on every unfortunate animal which comes within their power; all savages are ingenious in contriving, and happy in executing, the most exquisite tortures; and the common people of all countries are delighted with nothing so much as bull-baitings, prize-fightings, executions, and all spectacles of cruelty and horror. Though civilization may in some degree abate this native ferocity, it can never quite extirpate it; the most polished are not ashamed to be pleased with scenes of little less barbarity, and, to the disgrace of human nature, to dignify them with the name of sports. They arm cocks with artificial weapons, which nature had kindly denied to their malevolence, and with shouts of applause and triumph see them plunge them into each other's hearts; they view with delight the trembling deer and defenceless hare, flying for hours in the utmost agonies of terror and despair, and, at last, sinking under fatigue, devoured by their merciless pursuers; they see with joy the beautiful pheasant and harmless partridge drop from their flight, weltering in their blood, or, perhaps, perishing with wounds and hunger, under the cover of some friendly thicket to which they have in vain retreated for safety; they triumph over the unsuspecting fish whom they have decoyed by an insidious pretence of feeding, and drag him from his native element by a hook fixed to and tearing out his entrails; and, to add to all this, they spare neither labour nor expense to preserve and propagate these innocent animals, for no other end but to multiply the objects of their persecution. What name would we bestow on a superior being, whose whole endeavours were employed, and whose whole pleasure consisted in terrifying, ensnaring, tormenting, and destroying mankind? whose superior faculties were exerted in fomenting animosities amongst them, in contriving engines of destruction, and inciting them to use them in maiming and murdering each other? whose power over them was employed in assisting the rapacious, deceiving the simple, and oppressing the innocent? who, without provocation or advantage, should continue from day to day, void of all pity and remorse, thus to torment mankind for diversion, and at the same time endeavour with his utmost care to preserve their lives and to propagate their species, in order to increase the number of victims devoted to his malevolence, and be delighted in proportion to the miseries he occasioned. I say, what name detestable enough could we find for such a being? yet, if we impartially consider the case, and our intermediate situation, we must acknowledge that, with regard to inferior animals, just such a being is a sportsman. JENYNS. * * * * * PETER THE HERMIT, AND THE FIRST CRUSADE. It was in Palestine itself that Peter the Hermit first conceived the grand idea of rousing the powers of Christendom to rescue the Christians of the East from the thraldom of the Mussulman, and the Sepulchre of Jesus from the rude hands of the Infidel. The subject engrossed his whole mind. Even in the visions of the night he was full of it. One dream made such an impression upon him, that he devoutly believed the Saviour of the world Himself appeared before him, and promised him aid and protection in his holy undertaking. If his zeal had ever wavered before, this was sufficient to fix it for ever. Peter, after he had performed all the penances and duties of his pilgrimage, demanded an interview with Simeon, the Patriarch of the Greek Church at Jerusalem. Though the latter was a heretic in Peter's eyes, yet he was still a Christian, and felt as acutely as himself for the persecutions heaped by the Turks upon the followers of Jesus. The good prelate entered fully into his views, and, at his suggestion, wrote letters to the Pope, and to the most influential Monarchs of Christendom, detailing the sorrows of the faithful, and urging them to take up arms in their defence. Peter was not a laggard in the work. Taking an affectionate farewell of the Patriarch, he returned in all haste to Italy. Pope Urban II. occupied the apostolic chair. It was at that time far from being an easy seat. His predecessor, Gregory, had bequeathed him a host of disputes with the Emperor Henry IV., of Germany; and he had made Philip I., of France, his enemy. So many dangers encompassed him about that the Vatican was no secure abode, and he had taken refuge in Apulia, under the protection of the renowned Robert Guiscard. Thither Peter appears to have followed him, though the spot in which their meeting took place is not stated with any precision by ancient chroniclers or modern historians. Urban received him most kindly, read with tears in his eyes the epistle from the Patriarch Simeon, and listened to the eloquent story of the Hermit with an attention which showed how deeply he sympathised with the woes of the Christian Church. [Illustration: PETER THE HERMIT PREACHING THE FIRST CRUSADE.] Enthusiasm is contagious, and the Pope appears to have caught it instantly from one whose zeal was so unbounded. Giving the Hermit full powers, he sent him abroad to preach the Holy War to all the nations and potentates of Christendom. The Hermit preached, and countless thousands answered to his call. France, Germany, and Italy started at his voice, and prepared for the deliverance of Zion. One of the early historians of the Crusade, who was himself an eye-witness of the rapture of Europe, describes the personal appearance of the Hermit at this time. He says that there appeared to be something of divine in everything which he said or did. The people so highly reverenced him, that they plucked hairs from the mane of his mule, that they might keep them as relics. While preaching, he wore, in general, a woollen tunic, with a dark-coloured mantle which fell down to his heels. His arms and feet were bare, and he ate neither flesh nor bread, supporting himself chiefly upon fish and wine. "He set out," said the chronicler, "from whence I know not; but we saw him passing through towns and villages, preaching everywhere, and the people surrounding him in crowds, loading him with offerings, and celebrating his sanctity with such great praises, that I never remember to have seen such honours bestowed upon any one." Thus he went on, untired, inflexible, and full of devotion, communicating his own madness to his hearers, until Europe was stirred from its very depths. _Popular Delusions._ * * * * * FAITH'S GUIDING STAR. [Illustration: Letter W.] We find a glory in the flowers When snowdrops peep and hawthorn blooms; We see fresh light in spring-time hours, And bless the radiance that illumes. The song of promise cheers with hope, That sin or sorrow cannot mar; God's beauty fills the daisyed slope, And keeps undimm'd Faith's guiding star. We find a glory in the smile That lives in childhood's happy face, Ere fearful doubt or worldly guile Has swept away the angel trace. The ray of promise shineth there, To tell of better lands afar; God sends his image, pure and fair, To keep undimm'd Faith's guiding star. We find a glory in the zeal Of doating breast and toiling brain; Affection's martyrs still will kneel, And song, though famish'd, pour its strain. They lure us by a quenchless light, And point where joy is holier far; They shed God's spirit, warm and bright, And keep undimm'd Faith's guiding star. We muse beside the rolling waves; We ponder on the grassy hill; We linger by the new-piled graves, And find that star is shining still. God in his great design hath spread, Unnumber'd rays to lead afar; They beam the brightest o'er the dead, And keep undimm'd Faith's guiding star. ELIZA COOK. * * * * * QUEEN ELIZABETH'S ADDRESS TO HER ARMY AT TILBURY FORT, IN 1588. My loving people! we have been persuaded by some that are careful of our safety, to take heed how we commit ourself to armed multitudes, for fear of treachery; but, I assure you, I do not desire to live to distrust my faithful and loving people. Let tyrants fear: I have always so behaved myself, that, under God, I have placed my chief strength and safeguard in the loyal hearts and good-will of my subjects. And, therefore, I am come among you at this time, not for my recreation or sport, but being resolved, in the midst and heat of the battle, to live or die among you all, and to lay down for my God, and for my kingdom, and for my people, my honour and my blood--even in the dust. I know I have the body of a weak and feeble woman; but I have the heart of a King, and the heart of a King of England, too! and think foul scorn, that Parma, or Spain, or any Prince of Europe, should dare to invade the borders of my realms; to which, rather than dishonour should grow by me, I myself will take up arms--I myself will be your general, your judge, and the rewarder of every one of your virtues in the field. I know already, by your forwardness, that you have deserved rewards and crowns; and we do assure you, on the word of a Prince, they shall be duly paid you. In the meantime, my Lieutenant-General shall be in my stead, than whom never Prince commanded more noble and worthy subject; nor do I doubt, by your obedience to my General, by your concord in the camp, and your valour in the field, we shall shortly have a famous victory over the enemies of my God, my kingdom, and my people. _English History._ [Illustration] * * * * * JALAPA. [Illustration: Letter T.] The city of Jalapa, in Mexico, is very beautifully situated at the foot of Macultepec, at an elevation of 4335 feet above the level of the sea; but as this is about the height which the strata of clouds reach, when suspended over the ocean, they come in contact with the ridge of the Cordillera Mountains; this renders the atmosphere exceedingly humid and disagreeable, particularly in north-easterly winds. In summer, however, the mists disappear; the climate is perfectly delightful, as the extremes of heat and cold are never experienced. On a bright sunny day, the scenery round Jalapa is not to be surpassed. Mountains bound the horizon, except on one side, where a distant view of the sea adds to the beauty of the scene. Orizaba, with its snow-capped peak, appears so close, that one imagines that it is within a few hours' reach, and rich evergreen forests clothe the surrounding hills. In the foreground are beautiful gardens, with fruits of every clime--the banana and fig, the orange, cherry, and apple. The town is irregularly built, but very picturesque; the houses are in the style of the old houses of Spain, with windows down to the ground, and barred, in which sit the Jalapenas ladies, with their fair complexions and black eyes. Near Jalapa are two or three cotton factories, under the management of English and Americans: the girls employed are all Indians, healthy and good-looking; they are very apt in learning their work, and soon comprehend the various uses of the machinery. In the town there is but little to interest the stranger, but the church is said to have been founded by Cortez, and there is also a Franciscan convent. The vicinity of Jalapa, although poorly cultivated, produces maize, wheat, grapes, and jalap, from which plant the well-known medicine is prepared, and the town takes its name. A little lower down the Cordillera grows the vanilla, the bean of which is so highly esteemed for its aromatic flavour. [Illustration: TOWN OF JALAPA, IN MEXICO] The road from Jalapa to the city of Mexico constantly ascends, and the scenery is mountainous and grand; the villages are but few, and fifteen or twenty miles apart, with a very scanty population. No signs of cultivation are to be seen, except little patches of maize and chilé, in the midst of which is sometimes to be seen an Indian hut formed of reeds and flags. The mode of travelling in this country is by diligences, but these are continually attacked and robbed; and so much is this a matter of course, that the Mexicans invariably calculate a certain sum for the expenses of the road, including the usual fee for the banditti. Baggage is sent by the muleteers, by which means it is ensured from all danger, although a long time on the road. The Mexicans never think of resisting these robbers, and a coach-load of eight or nine is often stopped and plundered by one man. The foreigners do not take matters so quietly, and there is scarcely an English or American traveller in the country who has not come to blows in a personal encounter with the banditti at some period or other of his adventures. * * * * * CONDORS. [Illustration: Letter C.] Condors are found throughout the whole range of the Cordilleras, along the south-west coast of South America, from the Straits of Magellan to the Rio Negro. Their habitations are almost invariably on overhanging ledges of high and perpendicular cliffs, where they both sleep and breed, sometimes in pairs, but frequently in colonies of twenty or thirty together. They make no nest, but lay two large white eggs on the bare rock. The young ones cannot use their wings for flight until many months after they are hatched, being covered, during that time, with only a blackish down, like that of a gosling. They remain on the cliff where they were hatched long after having acquired the full power of flight, roosting and hunting in company with the parent birds. Their food consists of the carcases of guanacoes, deer, cattle, and other animals. The condors may oftentimes be seen at a great height, soaring over a certain spot in the most graceful spires and circles. Besides feeding on carrion, the condors will frequently attack young goats and lambs. Hence, the shepherd dogs are trained, the moment the enemy passes over, to run out, and, looking upwards, to bark violently. The people of Chili destroy and catch great numbers. Two methods are used: one is to place a carcase within an inclosure of sticks on a level piece of ground; and when the condors are gorged, to gallop up on horseback to the entrance, and thus inclose them; for when this bird has not space to run, it cannot give its body sufficient momentum to rise from the ground. The second method is to mark the trees in which, frequently to the number of five or six together, they roost, and then at night to climb up and noose them. They are such heavy sleepers that this is by no means a difficult task. The condor, like all the vulture tribe, discovers his food from a great distance; the body of an animal is frequently surrounded by a dozen or more of them, almost as soon as it has dropped dead, although five minutes before there was not a single bird in view. Whether this power is to be attributed to the keenness of his olfactory or his visual organs, is a matter still in dispute; although it is believed, from a minute observation of its habits in confinement, to be rather owing to its quickness of sight. [Illustration: CONDORS.] * * * * * OMNISCIENCE AND OMNIPRESENCE OF THE DEITY. I was yesterday, about sun-set, walking in the open fields, till the night insensibly fell upon me. I at first amused myself with all the richness and variety of colours which appeared in the western parts of heaven; in proportion as they faded away and went out, several stars and planets appeared one after another, till the whole firmament was in a glow. The blueness of the ether was exceedingly heightened and enlivened by the season of the year, and the rays of all those luminaries that passed through it. The Galaxy appeared in its most beautiful white. To complete the scene, the full moon rose at length in that clouded majesty which Milton takes notice of, and opened to the eye a new picture of nature, which was more finely shaded, and disposed among softer lights, than that which the sun had before discovered to us. As I was surveying the moon walking in her brightness, and taking her progress among the constellations, a thought arose in me, which I believe very often perplexes and disturbs men of serious and contemplative natures. David himself fell into it in that reflection, "When I consider the heavens the work of thy fingers, the moon and the stars which thou hast ordained, what is man that though art mindful of him, and the son of man that thou regardest him!" In the same manner, when I consider that infinite host of stars, or, to speak more philosophically, of suns, which were then shining upon me, with those innumerable sets of planets or worlds, which were moving round their respective suns; when I still enlarged the idea, and supposed another heaven of suns and worlds rising still above this which we discovered, and these still enlightened by a superior firmament of luminaries, which are planted at so great a distance, that they may appear to the inhabitants of the former as the stars do to us; in short, while I pursued this thought, I could not but reflect on that little insignificant figure which I myself bore amidst the immensity of God's works. Were the sun, which enlightens this part of the creation, with all the host of planetary worlds that move about him, utterly extinguished and annihilated, they would not be missed more than a grain of sand upon the sea-shore. The space they possess is so exceedingly little in comparison of the whole, it would scarce make a blank in creation. The chasm would be imperceptible to an eye that could take in the whole compass of nature, and pass from one end of creation to the other; as it is possible there may be such a sense in ourselves hereafter, or in creatures which are at present more exalted than ourselves. We see many stars by the help of glasses, which we do not discover with our naked eyes; and the finer our telescopes are, the more still are our discoveries. Huygenius carries this thought so far, that he does not think it impossible there may be stars whose light is not yet travelled down to us since their first creation. There is no question but the universe has certain bounds set to it; but when we consider that it is the work of infinite power, prompted by infinite goodness, with an infinite space to exert itself in, how can our imagination set any bounds to it? To return, therefore, to my first thought, I could not but look upon myself with secret horror, as a being that was not worth the smallest regard of one who had so great a work under his care and superintendency. I was afraid of being overlooked amidst the immensity of nature, and lost among that infinite variety of creatures, which in all probability swarm through all these immeasurable regions of matter. In order to recover myself from this mortifying thought, I considered that it took its rise from those narrow conceptions which we are apt to entertain of the Divine nature. We ourselves cannot attend to many different objects at the same time. If we are careful to inspect some things, we must of course neglect others. This imperfection which we observe in ourselves is an imperfection that cleaves in some degree to creatures of the highest capacities, as they are creatures, that is, beings of finite and limited natures. The presence of every created being is confined to a certain measure of space, and consequently his observation is stinted to a certain number of objects. The sphere in which we move, and act, and understand, is of a wider circumference to one creature than another, according as we rise one above another in the scale of existence. But the widest of these our spheres has its circumference. When therefore we reflect on the Divine nature, we are so used and accustomed to this imperfection in ourselves, that we cannot forbear in some measure ascribing it to Him in whom there is no shadow of imperfection. Our reason indeed assures us that his attributes are infinite; but the poorness of our conceptions is such, that it cannot forbear setting bounds to every thing it contemplates, till our reason comes again to our succour and throws down all those little prejudices which rise in us unawares, and are natural to the mind of man. We shall, therefore, utterly extinguish this melancholy thought of our being overlooked by our Maker in the multiplicity of his works, and the infinity of those objects among which He seems to be incessantly employed, if we consider, in the first place, that He is omnipresent; and in the second, that He is omniscient. If we consider Him in his omnipresence; his being passes through, actuates, and supports the whole frame of nature. His creation, and every part of it, is full of Him. There is nothing He has made that is either so distant, so little, or so inconsiderable, which He does not essentially inhabit. His substance is within the substance of every being, whether material or immaterial, and as intimately present to it as that being is to itself. It would be an imperfection in Him, were He able to move out of one place into another, or to draw himself from any thing He has created, or from any part of that space which He diffused and spread abroad to infinity. In short, to speak of Him in the language of the old philosophers, He is a being whose centre is everywhere and his circumference nowhere. In the second place, He is omniscient as well as omnipresent. His omniscience indeed necessarily and naturally flows from his omnipresence. He cannot but be conscious of every motion that arises in the whole material world which He thus essentially pervades; and of every thought that is stirring in the intellectual world, to every part of which He is thus intimately united. Several moralists have considered the creation as the temple of God, which He has built, with his own hands, and which is filled with his presence. Others have considered infinite space as the receptacle, or rather the habitation of the Almighty; but the noblest and most exalted way of considering this infinite space, is that of Sir Isaac Newton, who calls it the _se sorium_ of the Godhead. Brutes and men have their _sensoriola_, or little _sensoriums_, by which they apprehend the presence and perceive the actions of a few objects that lie contiguous to them. Their knowledge and observation turn within a very narrow circle. But, as God Almighty cannot but perceive and know everything in which He resides, infinite space gives room to infinite knowledge, and is, as it were, an organ to omniscience. Were the soul separate from the body, and with one glance of thought should start beyond the bounds of the creation, should it millions of years continue its progress through infinite space with the same activity, it would still find itself within the embrace of its Creator, and encompassed round with the immensity of the Godhead. While we are in the body, He is not less present with us, because He is concealed from us. "Oh, that I knew where I might find Him!" says Job. "Behold I go forward, but He is not there; and backward, but I cannot perceive Him; on the left hand, where He does work, but I cannot behold Him; He hideth himself on the right hand, that I cannot see Him." In short, reason as well as revelation assures us that He cannot be absent from us, notwithstanding He is undiscovered by us. In this consideration of God Almighty's omnipresence and omniscience, every uncomfortable thought vanishes. He cannot but regard everything that has being, especially such of his creatures who fear they are not regarded by Him. He is privy to all their thoughts, and to that anxiety of heart in particular, which is apt to trouble them on this occasion; for, as it is impossible He should overlook any of his creatures, so we may be confident that He regards, with an eye of mercy, those who endeavour to recommend themselves to his notice, and in unfeigned humility of heart think themselves unworthy that He should be mindful of them. _Spectator_. * * * * * THE MILL STREAM. [Illustration] Long trails of cistus flowers Creep on the rocky hill, And beds of strong spearmint Grow round about the mill; And from a mountain tarn above, As peaceful as a dream, Like to a child unruly, Though school'd and counsell'd truly, Roams down the wild mill stream! The wild mill stream it dasheth In merriment away, And keeps the miller and his son So busy all the day. Into the mad mill stream The mountain roses fall; And fern and adder's-tongue Grow on the old mill wall. The tarn is on the upland moor, Where not a leaf doth grow; And through the mountain gashes, The merry mill stream dashes Down to the sea below. But in the quiet hollows The red trout groweth prime, For the miller and the miller's son To angle when they've time. Then fair befall the stream That turns the mountain mill; And fair befall the narrow road That windeth up the hill! And good luck to the countryman, And to his old grey mare, That upward toileth steadily, With meal sacks laden heavily, In storm as well as fair! And good luck to the miller, And to the miller's son; And ever may the mill-wheel turn While mountain waters run! MARY HOWITT. * * * * * ENVY. [Illustration: Letter E.] Envy is almost the only vice which is practicable at all times, and in every place--the only passion which can never lie quiet for want of irritation; its effects, therefore, are everywhere discoverable, and its attempts always to be dreaded. It is impossible to mention a name, which any advantageous distinction has made eminent, but some latent animosity will burst out. The wealthy trader, however he may abstract himself from public affairs, will never want those who hint with Shylock, that ships are but boards, and that no man can properly be termed rich whose fortune is at the mercy of the winds. The beauty adorned only with the unambitious graces of innocence and modesty, provokes, whenever she appears, a thousand murmurs of detraction and whispers of suspicion. The genius, even when he endeavours only to entertain with pleasing; images of nature, or instruct by uncontested principles of science, yet suffers persecution from innumerable critics, whose acrimony is excited merely by the pain of seeing others pleased--of hearing applauses which another enjoys. The frequency of envy makes it so familiar that it escapes our notice; nor do we often reflect upon its turpitude or malignity, till we happen to feel its influence. When he that has given no provocation to malice, but by attempting to excel in some useful art, finds himself pursued by multitudes whom he never saw with implacability of personal resentment; when he perceives clamour and malice let loose upon him as a public enemy, and incited by every stratagem of defamation; when he hears the misfortunes of his family or the follies of his youth exposed to the world; and every failure of conduct, or defect of nature, aggravated and ridiculed; he then learns to abhor those artifices at which he only laughed before, and discovers how much the happiness of life would be advanced by the eradication of envy from the human heart. Envy is, indeed, a stubborn weed of the mind, and seldom yields to the culture of philosophy. There are, however, considerations which, if carefully implanted, and diligently propagated, might in time overpower and repress it, since no one can nurse it for the sake of pleasure, as its effects are only shame, anguish, and perturbation. It is, above all other vices, inconsistent with the character of a social being, because it sacrifices truth and kindness to very weak temptations. He that plunders a wealthy neighbour, gains as much as he takes away, and improves his own condition in the same proportion as he impairs another's; but he that blasts a flourishing reputation, must be content with a small dividend of additional fame, so small as can afford very little consolation to balance the guilt by which it is obtained. I have hitherto avoided mentioning that dangerous and empirical morality, which cures one vice by means of another. But envy is so base and detestable, so vile in its original, and so pernicious in its effects, that the predominance of almost any other quality is to be desired. It is one of those lawless enemies of society, against which poisoned arrows may honestly be used. Let it therefore be constantly remembered, that whoever envies another, confesses his superiority; and let those be reformed by their pride, who have lost their virtue. Almost every other crime is practised by the help of some quality which might have produced esteem or love, if it had been well employed; but envy is a more unmixed and genuine evil; it pursues a hateful end by despicable means, and desires not so much its own happiness as another's misery. To avoid depravity like this, it is not necessary that any one should aspire to heroism or sanctity; but only that he should resolve not to quit the rank which nature assigns, and wish to maintain the dignity of a human being. DR. JOHNSON. * * * * * THE OLIVE. No tree is more frequently mentioned by ancient authors, nor was any more highly honoured by ancient nations, than the olive. By the Greeks it was dedicated to the goddess of wisdom, and formed the crown of honour given to their Emperors and great men, as with the Romans. It is a tree of slow growth, but remarkable for the great age it attains; never, however, becoming a very large tree, though sometimes two or three stems rise from the same root, and reach the height of from twenty to thirty feet. The leaves grow in pairs, lanceolate in shape, of a dull green on the upper, and hoary on the under side. Hence, in countries where the olive is extensively cultivated, the scenery is of a dull character, from this colour of the foliage. The fruit is oval in shape, with a hard strong kernel, and remarkable from the outer fleshy part being that in which much oil is lodged, and not, as is usual, in the seed. It ripens from August to September. Of the olive-tree two varieties are particularly distinguished: the long-leafed, which is cultivated in the south of France and in Italy; and the broad-leafed in Spain, which has its fruit much longer than that of the former kind. [Illustration: OLIVE TREES, GETHSEMANE.] That the olive grows to a great age, has long been known. Pliny mentions one which the Athenians of his time considered to be coëval with their city, and therefore 1600 years old; and near Terni, in the vale of the cascade of Marmora, there is a plantation of very old trees, supposed to consist of the same plants that were growing there in the time of Pliny. Lady Calcott states that on the mountain road between Tivoli and Palestrina, there is an ancient olive-tree of large dimensions, which, unless the documents are purposely falsified, stood as a boundary between two possessions even before the Christian era. Those in the garden of Olivet or Gethsemane are at least of the time of the Eastern Empire, as is proved by the following circumstance:--In Turkey every olive-tree found standing by the Mussulmans, when they conquered Asia, pays one medina to the treasury, while each of those planted since the conquest is taxed half its produce. The eight olives of which we are speaking are charged only eight medinas. By some it is supposed that these olive-trees may have been in existence even in the time of our Saviour; the largest is about thirty feet in girth above the roots, and twenty-seven feet high. * * * * * ACCORDANCE BETWEEN THE SONGS OF BIRDS AND THE DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF THE DAY. [Illustration: Letter T.] There is a beautiful propriety in the order in which Nature seems to have directed the singing-birds to fill up the day with their pleasing harmony. The accordance between their songs and the external aspect of nature, at the successive periods of the day at which they sing, is quite remarkable. And it is impossible to visit the forest or the sequestered dell, where the notes of the feathered tribes are heard to the greatest advantage, without being impressed with the conviction that there is design in the arrangement of this sylvan minstrelsy.-- [Illustration: THE ROBIN.] First the robin (and not the lark, as has been generally imagined), as soon as twilight has drawn its imperceptible line between night and day, begins his lovely song. How sweetly does this harmonise with the soft dawning of the day! He goes on till the twinkling sun-beams begin to tell him that his notes no longer accord with the rising scene. Up starts the lark, and with him a variety of sprightly songsters, whose lively notes are in perfect correspondence with the gaiety of the morning. The general warbling continues, with now and then an interruption by the transient croak of the raven, the scream of the jay, or the pert chattering of the daw. The nightingale, unwearied by the vocal exertions of the night, joins his inferiors in sound in the general harmony. The thrush is wisely placed on the summit of some lofty tree, that its loud and piercing notes may be softened by distance before they reach the ear; while the mellow blackbird seeks the inferior branches. [Illustration: THE LARK.] [Illustration: THE LINNET.] Should the sun, having been eclipsed by a cloud, shine forth with fresh effulgence, how frequently we see the goldfinch perch on some blossomed bough, and hear its song poured forth in a strain peculiarly energetic; while the sun, full shining on his beautiful plumes, displays his golden wings and crimson crest to charming advantage. The notes of the cuckoo blend with this cheering concert in a pleasing manner, and for a short time are highly grateful to the ear. But sweet as this singular song is, it would tire by its uniformity, were it not given in so transient a manner. At length evening advances, the performers gradually retire, and the concert softly dies away. The sun is seen no more. The robin again sends up his twilight song, till the more serene hour of night sets him to the bower to rest. And now to close the scene in full and perfect harmony; no sooner is the voice of the robin hushed, and night again spreads in gloom over the horizon, than the owl sends forth his slow and solemn tones. They are more than plaintive and less than melancholy, and tend to inspire the imagination with a train of contemplations well adapted to the serious hour. Thus we see that birds bear no inconsiderable share in harmonizing some of the most beautiful and interesting scenes in nature. DR. JENNER. * * * * * CHARACTER OF EDWARD VI. Thus died Edward VI., in the sixteenth year of his age. He was counted the wonder of his time; he was not only learned in the tongues and the liberal sciences, but he knew well the state of his kingdom. He kept a table-book, in which he had written the characters of all the eminent men of the nation: he studied fortification, and understood the mint well. He knew the harbours in all his dominions, with the depth of the water, and way of coming into them. He understood foreign affairs so well, that the ambassadors who were sent into England, published very extraordinary things of him in all the courts of Europe. He had great quickness of apprehension, but being distrustful of his memory, he took notes of everything he heard that was considerable, in Greek characters, that those about him might not understand what he writ, which he afterwards copied out fair in the journal that he kept. His virtues were wonderful; when he was made to believe that his uncle was guilty of conspiring the death of the other councillors, he upon that abandoned him. Barnaby Fitzpatrick was his favourite; and when he sent him to travel, he writ oft to him to keep good company, to avoid excess and luxury, and to improve himself in those things that might render him capable of employment at his return. He was afterwards made Lord of Upper Ossory, in Ireland, by Queen Elizabeth, and did answer the hopes this excellent King had of him. He was very merciful in his nature, which appeared in his unwillingness to sign the warrant for burning the Maid of Kent. He took great care to have his debts well paid, reckoning that a Prince who breaks his faith and loses his credit, has thrown up that which he can never recover, and made himself liable to perpetual distrust and extreme contempt. He took special care of the petitions that were given him by poor and opprest people. But his great zeal for religion crowned all the rest--it was a true tenderness of conscience, founded on the love of God and his neighbour. These extraordinary qualities, set off with great sweetness and affability, made him universally beloved by his people. BURNET. * * * * * THE HUNTED STAG. [Illustration: Letter W.] What sounds are on the mountain blast, Like bullet from the arbalast? Was it the hunted quarry past Right up Ben-ledi's side? So near, so rapidly, he dash'd, Yon lichen'd bough has scarcely plash'd Into the torrent's tide. Ay! the good hound may bay beneath, The hunter wind his horn; He dared ye through the flooded Teith, As a warrior in his scorn! Dash the red rowel in the steed! Spur, laggards, while ye may! St. Hubert's staff to a stripling reed, He dies no death to-day! "Forward!" nay, waste not idle breath, Gallants, ye win no greenwood wreath; His antlers dance above the heath, Like chieftain's plumed helm; Right onward for the western peak, Where breaks the sky in one white streak, See, Isabel, in bold relief, To Fancy's eye, Glenartney's chief, Guarding his ancient realm. So motionless, so noiseless there, His foot on rock, his head in air, Like sculptor's breathing stone: Then, snorting from the rapid race, Snuffs the free air a moment's space, Glares grimly on the baffled chase, And seeks the covert lone. Hunting has been a favourite sport in Britain for many centuries. Dyonisius (B.C. 50) tells us that the North Britons lived, in great part, upon the food they procured by hunting. Strabo states that the dogs bred in Britain were highly esteemed on the Continent, on account of their excellent qualities for hunting; and Caesar tells us that venison constituted a great portion of the food of the Britons, who did not eat hares. Hunting was also in ancient times a Royal and noble sport: Alfred the Great hunted at twelve years of age; Athelstan, Edward the Confessor, Harold, William the Conqueror, William Rufus, and John were all good huntsmen; Edward II. reduced hunting to a science, and established rules for its practice; Henry IV. appointed a master of the game; Edward III. hunted with sixty couples of stag-hounds; Elizabeth was a famous huntswoman; and James I. preferred hunting to hawking or shooting. The Bishops and Abbots of the middle ages hunted with great state. Ladies also joined in the chase from the earliest times; and a lady's hunting-dress in the fifteenth century scarcely differed from the riding-habit of the present day. SIR WALTER SCOTT. [Illustration: THE DEER-STALKER'S RETURN.] * * * * * JOHN BUNYAN AND HIS WIFE. [Illustration: Letter E.] Elizabeth his wife, actuated by his undaunted spirit, applied to the House of Lords for his release; and, according to her relation, she was told, "they could do nothing; but that his releasement was committed to the Judges at the next assizes." The Judges were Sir Matthew Hale and Mr. Justice Twisden; and a remarkable contrast appeared between the well-known meekness of the one, and fury of the other. Elizabeth came before them, and, stating her husband's case, prayed for justice: "Judge Twisden," says John Bunyan, "snapt her up, and angrily told her that I was a convicted person, and could not be released unless I would promise to preach no more. _Elizabeth_: 'The Lords told me that releasement was committed to you, and you give me neither releasement nor relief. My husband is unlawfully in prison, and you are bound to discharge him.' _Twisden_: 'He has been lawfully convicted.' _Elizabeth_: 'It is false, for when they said "Do you confess the indictment?" he answered, "At the meetings where he preached, they had God's presence among them."' _Twisden_: 'Will your husband leave preaching? if he will do so, then send for him.' _Elizabeth_: 'My Lord, he dares not leave off preaching as long as he can speak. But, good my Lords, consider that we have four small children, one of them blind, and that they have nothing to live upon while their father is in prison, but the charity of Christian people.' _Sir Matthew Hale_: 'Alas! poor woman.' _Twisden_: 'Poverty is your cloak, for I hear your husband is better maintained by running up and down a-preaching than by following his calling?' _Sir Matthew Hale_: 'What is his calling?' _Elizabeth_: 'A tinker, please you my Lord; and because he is a tinker, and a poor man, therefore he is despised and cannot have justice.' _Sir Matthew Hale_: 'I am truly sorry we can do you no good. Sitting here we can only act as the law gives us warrant; and we have no power to reverse the sentence, although it may be erroneous. What your husband said was taken for a confession, and he stands convicted. There is, therefore, no course for you but to apply to the King for a pardon, or to sue out a writ of error; and, the indictment, or subsequent proceedings, being shown to be contrary to law, the sentence shall be reversed, and your husband shall be set at liberty. I am truly sorry for your pitiable case. I wish I could serve you, but I fear I can do you no good.'" Little do we know what is for our permanent good. Had Bunyan then been discharged and allowed to enjoy liberty, he no doubt would have returned to his trade, filling up his intervals of leisure with field-preaching; his name would not have survived his own generation, and he could have done little for the religious improvement of mankind. The prison doors were shut upon him for twelve years. Being cut off from the external world, he communed with his own soul; and, inspired by Him who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire, he composed the noblest of allegories, the merit of which was first discovered by the lowly, but which is now lauded by the most refined critics, and which has done more to awaken piety, and to enforce the precepts of Christian morality, than all the sermons that have been published by all the prelates of the Anglican Church. LORD CAMPBELL'S _Lives of the Judges._ * * * * * THE LONG-EARED AFRICAN FOX. This singular variety of the Fox was first made known to naturalists in 1820, after the return of De Laland from South Africa. It is an inhabitant of the mountains in the neighbourhood of the Cape of Good Hope, but it is so rare that little is known of its habits in a state of nature. The Engraving was taken from a specimen which has been lately placed in the Zoological Society's gardens in the Regent's Park. It is extremely quick of hearing, and there is something in the general expression of the head which suggests a resemblance to the long-eared bat. Its fur is very thick, and the brush is larger than that of our common European fox. The skin of the fox is in many species very valuable; that of another kind of fox at the Cape of Good Hope is so much in request among the natives as a covering for the cold season, that many of the Bechuanas are solely employed in hunting the animal down with dogs, or laying snares in the places to which it is known to resort. [Illustration] In common with all other foxes, those of Africa are great enemies to birds which lay their eggs upon the ground; and their movements are, in particular, closely watched by the ostrich during the laying season. When the fox has surmounted all obstacles in procuring eggs, he has to encounter the difficulty of getting at their contents; but even for this task his cunning finds an expedient, and it is that of pushing them forcibly along the ground until they come in contact with some substance hard enough to break them, when the contents are speedily disposed of. The natives, from having observed the anxiety of the ostrich to keep this animal from robbing her nest, avail themselves of this solicitude to lure the bird to its destruction; for, seeing that it runs to the nest the instant a fox appears, they fasten a dog near it, and conceal themselves close by, and the ostrich, on approaching to drive away the supposed fox, is frequently shot by the real hunter. The fur of the red fox of America is much valued as an article of trade, and about 8000 are annually imported into England from the fur countries, where the animal is very abundant, especially in the wooded parts. Foxes of various colours are also common in the fur countries of North America, and a rare and valuable variety is the black or silver fox. Dr. Richardson states that seldom more than four or five of this variety are taken in a season at one post, though the hunters no sooner find out the haunts of one, than they use every art to catch it, because its fur fetches six times the price of any other fur produced in North America. This fox is sometimes found of a rich deep glossy black, the tip of the brush alone being white; in general, however, it is silvered over the end of each of the long hairs of the fur, producing a beautiful appearance. The Arctic fox resembles greatly the European species, but is considerably smaller; and, owing to the great quantity of white woolly fur with which it is covered, is somewhat like a little shock dog. The brush is very large and full, affording an admirable covering for the nose and feet, to which it acts as a muff when the animal sleeps. The fur is in the greatest perfection during the months of winter, when the colour gradually becomes from an ashy grey to a full and pure white, and is extremely thick, covering even the soles of the feet. Captain Lyon has given very interesting accounts of the habits of this animal, and describes it as being cleanly and free from any unpleasant smell: it inhabits the most northern lands hitherto discovered. [Illustration: SYRIAN FOX.] * * * * * MOUNT TABOR. The Plain of Esdraelon, in Palestine, is often mentioned in sacred history, as the great battle-field of the Jewish and other nations, under the names of the Valley of Mejiddo and the Valley of Jizreel, and by Josephus as the Great Plain. The convenience of its extent and situation for military action and display has, from the earliest periods of history down to our own day, caused its surface at certain intervals to be moistened with the blood, and covered with the bodies of conflicting warriors of almost every nation under heaven. This extensive plain, exclusive of three great arms which stretch eastward towards the Valley of the Jordan, may be said to be in the form of an acute triangle, having the measure of 13 or 14 miles on the north, about 18 on the east, and above 20 on the south-west. Before the verdure of spring and early summer has been parched up by the heat and drought of the late summer and autumn, the view of the Great Plain is, from its fertility and beauty, very delightful. In June, yellow fields of grain, with green patches of millet and cotton, chequer the landscape like a carpet. The plain itself is almost without villages, but there are several on the slopes of the inclosing hills, especially on the side of Mount Carmel. On the borders of this plain Mount Tabor stands out alone in magnificent grandeur. Seen from the south-west its fine proportions present a semi-globular appearance; but from the north-west it more resembles a truncated cone. By an ancient path, which winds considerably, one may ride to the summit, where is a small oblong plain with the foundations of ancient buildings. The view from the summit is declared by Lord Nugent to be the most splendid he could recollect having ever seen from any natural height. The sides of the mountain are mostly covered with bushes and woods of oak trees, with occasionally pistachio trees, presenting a beautiful appearance, and affording a welcome and agreeable shade. There are various tracks up its sides, often crossing each other, and the ascent generally occupies about an hour. The crest of the mountain is table-land, 600 or 700 yards in height from north to south, and about half as much across, and a flat field of about an acre occurs at a level of some 20 or 25 feet lower than the eastern brow. There are remains of several small ruined tanks on the crest, which still catch the rain water dripping through the crevices of the rock, and preserve it cool and clear, it is said, throughout the year. [Illustration: MOUNT TABOR.] The tops of this range of mountains are barren, but the slopes and valleys afford pasturage, and are capable of cultivation, from the numerous springs which are met with in all directions. Cultivation is, however, chiefly found on the seaward slopes; there many flourishing villages exist, and every inch of ground is turned to account by the industrious natives. [Illustration: FIG TREE.] [Illustration: SYCAMORE.] Here, amidst the crags of the rocks, are to be seen the remains of the renowned cedars with which Lebanon once abounded; but a much larger proportion of firs, sycamores, mulberry trees, fig trees, and vines now exist. * * * * * UNA AND THE LION. [Illustration: Letter S.] She, that most faithful lady, all this while, Forsaken, woful, solitary maid, Far from the people's throng, as in exile, In wilderness and wasteful deserts stray'd To seek her knight; who, subtlely betray'd By that false vision which th' enchanter wrought, Had her abandon'd. She, of nought afraid, Him through the woods and wide wastes daily sought, Yet wish'd for tidings of him--none unto her brought. One day, nigh weary of the irksome way, From her unhasty beast she did alight; And on the grass her dainty limbs did lay In secret shadow, far from all men's sight: From her fair head her fillet she undight, And laid her stole aside; her angel face, As the great eye that lights the earth, shone bright, And made a sunshine in that shady place, That never mortal eye beheld such heavenly grace. It fortun'd that, from out the thicket wood A ramping lion rushed suddenly, And hunting greedy after savage blood, The royal virgin helpless did espy; At whom, with gaping mouth full greedily To seize and to devour her tender corse, When he did run, he stopp'd ere he drew nigh, And loosing all his rage in quick remorse, As with the sight amazed, forgot his furious force. Then coming near, he kiss'd her weary feet, And lick'd her lily hand with fawning tongue, As he her wronged innocence did meet: Oh! how can beauty master the most strong, And simple truth subdue intent of wrong! His proud submission, and his yielded pride, Though dreading death, when she had marked long, She felt compassion in her heart to slide, And drizzling tears to gush that might not be denied. And with her tears she pour'd a sad complaint, That softly echoed from the neighbouring wood; While sad to see her sorrowful constraint, The kingly beast upon her gazing stood: With pity calm'd he lost all angry mood. At length, in close breast shutting up her pain, Arose the virgin born of heavenly brood, And on her snowy palfrey rode again To seek and find her knight, if him she might attain. The lion would not leave her desolate, But with her went along, as a strong guard Of her chaste person, and a faithful mate Of her sad troubles and misfortunes hard: Still when she slept, he kept both watch and ward, And when she waked, he waited diligent With humble service to her will prepared. From her fair eyes he took commandment, And ever by her looks conceived her intent. SPENSER. * * * * * DANISH ENCAMPMENT. [Illustration: Letter S.] Seven miles from the sea-port of Boston, in Lincolnshire, lies the rural town of Swineshead, once itself a port, the sea having flowed up to the market-place, where there was a harbour. The name of Swineshead is familiar to every reader of English history, from its having been the resting-place of King John, after he lost the whole of his baggage, and narrowly escaped with his life, when crossing the marshes from Lynn to Sleaford, the castle of which latter place was then in his possession. The King halted at the Abbey, close to the town of Swineshead, which place he left on horseback; but being taken ill, was moved in a litter to Sleaford, and thence to his castle at Newark, where he died on the following day, in the year 1216. Apart from this traditional interest, Swineshead has other antiquarian and historical associations. The circular Danish encampment, sixty yards in diameter, surrounded by a double fosse, was, doubtless, a post of importance, when the Danes, or Northmen, carried their ravages through England in the time of Ethelred I., and the whole country passed permanently into the Danish hands about A.D. 877. The incessant inroads of the Danes, who made constant descents on various parts of the coast, burning the towns and villages, and laying waste the country in all directions, led to that stain upon the English character, the Danish massacre. The troops collected to oppose these marauders always lost courage and fled, and their leaders, not seldom, set them the example. In 1002, peace was purchased for a sum of £24,000 and a large supply of provisions. Meantime, the King and his councillors resolved to have recourse to a most atrocious expedient for their future security. It had been the practice of the English Kings, from the time of Athelstane, to have great numbers of Danes in their pay, as guards, or household troops; and these, it is said, they quartered on their subjects, one on each house. The household troops, like soldiers in general, paid great attention to their dress and appearance, and thus became very popular with the generality of people; but they also occasionally behaved with great insolence, and were also strongly suspected of holding secret intelligence with their piratical countrymen. It was therefore resolved to massacre the Hus-carles, as they were called, and their families, throughout England. Secret orders to this effect were sent to all parts, and on St. Brice's day, November 13th, 1002, the Danes were everywhere fallen on and slain. The ties of affinity (for many of them had married and settled in the country) were disregarded; even Gunhilda, sister to Sweyn, King of Denmark, though a Christian, was not spared, and with her last breath she declared that her death would bring the greatest evils upon England. The words of Gunhilda proved prophetic. Sweyn, burning for revenge and glad of a pretext for war, soon made his appearance on the south coast, and during four years he spread devastation through all parts of the country, until the King Ethelred agreed to give him £30,000 and provisions as before for peace, and the realm thus had rest for two years. But this short peace was but a prelude to further disturbances; and indeed for two centuries, dating from the reign of Egbert, England was destined to become a prey to these fierce and fearless invaders. [Illustration: DANISH ENCAMPMENT AT SWINESHEAD, LINCOLNSHIRE.] The old Abbey of Swineshead was demolished in 1610, and the present structure, known as Swineshead Abbey, was built from the materials. * * * * * THE NAMELESS STREAM [Illustration: Letter B.] Beautiful stream! By rock and dell There's not an inch in all thy course I have not track'd. I know thee well: I know where blossoms the yellow gorse; I know where waves the pale bluebell, And where the orchis and violets dwell. I know where the foxglove rears its head, And where the heather tufts are spread; I know where the meadow-sweets exhale, And the white valerians load the gale. I know the spot the bees love best, And where the linnet has built her nest. I know the bushes the grouse frequent, And the nooks where the shy deer browse the bent. I know each tree to thy fountain head-- The lady birches, slim and fair; [Illustration] The feathery larch, the rowans red, The brambles trailing their tangled hair; And each is link'd to my waking thought By some remembrance fancy-fraught. [Illustration] Yet, lovely stream, unknown to fame, Thou hast oozed, and flow'd, and leap'd, and run, Ever since Time its course begun, Without a record, without a name. I ask'd the shepherd on the hill-- He knew thee but as a common rill; I ask'd the farmer's blue-eyed daughter-- She knew thee but as a running water; I ask'd the boatman on the shore (He was never ask'd to tell before)-- Thou wert a brook, and nothing more. Yet, stream, so dear to me alone, I prize and cherish thee none the less That thou flowest unseen, unpraised, unknown, In the unfrequented wilderness. Though none admire and lay to heart How good and beautiful thou art, Thy flow'rets bloom, thy waters run, And the free birds chaunt thy benison. Beauty is beauty, though unseen; And those who love it all their days, Find meet reward in their soul serene, And the inner voice of prayer and praise. * * * * * STAFFA. [Illustration: Letter H.] Having surveyed the various objects in Iona, we sailed for a spot no less interesting. Thousands have described it. Few, however, have seen it by torch or candle light, and in this respect we differ from most tourists. All description, however, of this far-famed wonder must be vain and fruitless. The shades of night were fast descending, and had settled on the still waves and the little group of islets, called the Treshnish Isles, when our vessel approached the celebrated Temple of the Sea. We had light enough to discern its symmetry and proportions; but the colour of the rock--a dark grey--and the minuter graces of the columns, were undistinguishable in the evening gloom. The great face of the rock is the most wonderful production of nature we ever beheld. It reminded us of the west front of York or Lincoln cathedral--a resemblance, perhaps, fanciful in all but the feelings they both excite--especially when the English minster is seen by moonlight. The highest point of Staffa at this view is about one hundred feet; in its centre is the great cave, called Fingal's Cave, stretching up into the interior of the rock a distance of more than 200 feet. After admiring in mute astonishment the columnar proportions of the rock, regular as if chiselled by the hand of art, the passengers entered a small boat, and sailed under the arch. The boatmen had been brought from Iona, and they instantly set themselves to light some lanterns, and form torches of old ropes and tar, with which they completely illuminated the ocean hall, into which we were ushered. The complete stillness of the scene, except the low plashing of the waves; the fitful gleams of light thrown first on the walls and ceiling, as the men moved to and fro along the side of the stupendous cave; the appearance of the varied roof, where different stalactites or petrifactions are visible; the vastness and perfect art or semblance of art of the whole, altogether formed a scene the most sublime, grand, and impressive ever witnessed. The Cathedral of Iona sank into insignificance before this great temple of nature, reared, as if in mockery of the temples of man, by the Almighty Power who laid the beams of his chambers on the waters, and who walketh upon the wings of the wind. Macculloch says that it is with the morning sun only that the great face of Staffa can be seen in perfection; as the general surface is undulating and uneven, large masses of light or shadow are thus produced. We can believe, also, that the interior of the cave, with its broken pillars and variety of tints, and with the green sea rolling over a dark red or violet-coloured rock, must be seen to more advantage in the full light of day. Yet we question whether we could have been more deeply sensible of the beauty and grandeur of the scene than we were under the unusual circumstances we have described. The boatmen sang a Gaelic _joram_ or boat-song in the cave, striking their oars very violently in time with the music, which resounded finely through the vault, and was echoed back by roof and pillar. One of them, also, fired a gun, with the view of producing a still stronger effect of the same kind. When we had fairly satisfied ourselves with contemplating the cave, we all entered the boat and sailed round by the Clamshell Cave (where the basaltic columns are bent like the ribs of a ship), and the Rock of the Bouchaille, or the herdsman, formed of small columns, as regular and as interesting as the larger productions. We all clambered to the top of the rock, which affords grazing for sheep and cattle, and is said to yield a rent of £20 per annum to the proprietor. Nothing but the wide surface of the ocean was visible from our mountain eminence, and after a few minutes' survey we descended, returned to the boat, and after regaining the steam-vessel, took our farewell look of Staffa, and steered on for Tobermory. _Highland Note-Book_. [Illustration: FINGAL'S CAVE, STAFFA.] * * * * * ON CHEERFULNESS. [Illustration: Letter I.] I have always preferred cheerfulness to mirth. The latter I consider as an act, the former as a habit of the mind. Mirth is short and transient, cheerfulness fixed and permanent. Those are often raised into the greatest transports of mirth, who are subject to the greatest depressions of melancholy: on the contrary, cheerfulness, though it does not give the mind such an exquisite gladness, prevents us from falling into any depths of sorrow. Mirth is like a flash of lightning, that breaks through a gloom of clouds, and glitters for a moment; cheerfulness keeps up a kind of daylight in the mind, and fills it with a steady and perpetual serenity. Men of austere principles look upon mirth as too wanton and dissolute for a state of probation, and as filled with a certain triumph and insolence of heart that is inconsistent with a life which is every moment obnoxious to the greatest dangers. Writers of this complexion have observed, that the sacred Person who was the great pattern of perfection, was never seen to laugh. Cheerfulness of mind is not liable to any of these exceptions; it is of a serious and composed nature; it does not throw the mind into a condition improper for the present state of humanity, and is very conspicuous in the characters of those who are looked upon as the greatest philosophers among the heathen, as well as among those who have been deservedly esteemed as saints and holy men among Christians. If we consider cheerfulness in three lights, with regard to ourselves, to those we converse with, and the great Author of our being, it will not a little recommend itself on each of these accounts. The man who is possessed of this excellent frame of mind, is not only easy in his thoughts, but a perfect master of all the powers and faculties of the soul; his imagination is always clear, and his judgment undisturbed; his temper is even and unruffled, whether in action or solitude. He comes with a relish to all those goods which nature has provided for him, tastes all the pleasures of the creation which are poured about him, and does not feel the full weight of those accidental evils which may befall him. If we consider him in relation to the persons whom he converses with, it naturally produces love and good-will towards him. A cheerful mind is not only disposed to be affable and obliging, but raises the same good-humour in those who come within its influence. A man finds himself pleased, he does not know why, with the cheerfulness of his companion: it is like a sudden sunshine, that awakens a secret delight in the mind, without her attending to it. The heart rejoices of its own accord, and naturally flows out into friendship and benevolence towards the person who has so kindly an effect upon it. When I consider this cheerful state of mind in its third relation, I cannot but look upon it as a constant, habitual gratitude to the great Author of nature. There are but two things which, in my opinion, can reasonably deprive us of this cheerfulness of heart. The first of these is the sense of guilt. A man who lives in a state of vice and impenitence, can have no title to that evenness and tranquillity of mind which is the health of the soul, and the natural effect of virtue and innocence. Cheerfulness in an ill man deserves a harder name than language can furnish us with, and is many degrees beyond what we commonly call folly or madness. Atheism, by which I mean a disbelief of a Supreme Being, and consequently of a future state, under whatsoever title it shelters itself, may likewise very reasonably deprive a man of this cheerfulness of temper. There is something so particularly gloomy and offensive to human nature in the prospect of non-existence, that I cannot but wonder, with many excellent writers, how it is possible for a man to outlive the expectation of it. For my own part, I think the being of a God is so little to be doubted, that it is almost the only truth we are sure of, and such a truth as we meet with in every object, in every occurrence, and in every thought. If we look into the characters of this tribe of infidels, we generally find they are made up of pride, spleen, and cavil: it is indeed no wonder that men who are uneasy to themselves, should be so to the rest of the world; and how is it possible for a man to be otherwise than uneasy in himself, who is in danger every moment of losing his entire existence and dropping into nothing? The vicious man and Atheist have therefore no pretence to cheerfulness, and would act very unreasonably should they endeavour after it. It is impossible for any one to live in good-humour and enjoy his present existence, who is apprehensive either of torment or of annihilation--of being miserable or of not being at all. After having mentioned these two great principles, which are destructive of cheerfulness in their own nature, as well as in right reason, I cannot think of any other that ought to banish this happy temper from a virtuous mind. Pain and sickness, shame and reproach, poverty and old age; nay, death itself, considering the shortness of their duration and the advantage we may reap from them, do not deserve the name of evils. A good mind may bear up under them with fortitude, with indolence, and with cheerfulness of heart. The tossing of a tempest does not discompose him, which he is sure will bring him to a joyful harbour. A man who uses his best endeavours to live according to the dictates of virtue and right reason, has two perpetual sources of cheerfulness, in the consideration of his own nature and of that Being on whom he has a dependence. If he looks into himself, he cannot but rejoice in that existence which is so lately bestowed upon him, and which, after millions of ages, will be still new and still in its beginning. How many self-congratulations naturally arise in the mind when it reflects on this its entrance into eternity, when it takes a view of those improvable faculties which in a few years, and even at its first setting out, have made so considerable a progress, and which will be still receiving an increase of perfection, and consequently an increase of happiness! The consciousness of such a being spreads a perpetual diffusion of joy through the soul of a virtuous man, and makes him look upon himself every moment as more happy than he knows how to conceive. The second source of cheerfulness to a good mind is its consideration of that Being on whom we have our dependence, and in whom, though we behold Him as yet but in the first faint discoveries of his perfections, we see every thing that we can imagine as great, glorious, and amiable. We find ourselves every where upheld by his goodness and surrounded with an immensity of love and mercy. In short, we depend upon a Being whose power qualifies Him to make us happy by an infinity of means, whose goodness and truth engage Him to make those happy who desire it of Him, and whose unchangeableness will secure us in this happiness to all eternity. Such considerations, which every one should perpetually cherish in his thoughts, will banish from us all that secret heaviness of heart which unthinking men are subject to when they lie under no real affliction, all that anguish which we may feel from any evil that actually oppresses us, to which I may likewise add those little cracklings of mirth and folly, that are apter to betray virtue than support it; and establish in us such an even and cheerful temper, as makes us pleasing to ourselves, to those with whom we converse, and to Him whom we are made to please. ADDISON. * * * * * STONY CROSS. [Illustration: Letter T.] This is the place where King William Rufus was accidentally shot by Sir Walter Tyrrel. There has been much controversy on the details of this catastrophe; but the following conclusions, given in the "Pictorial History of England," appear to be just:--"That the King was shot by an arrow in the New Forest; that his body was abandoned and then hastily interred, are facts perfectly well authenticated; but some doubts may be entertained as to the precise circumstances attending his death, notwithstanding their being minutely related by writers who were living at the time, or who flourished in the course of the following century. Sir Walter Tyrrel afterwards swore, in France, that he did not shoot the arrow; but he was, probably, anxious to relieve himself from the odium of killing a King, even by accident. It is quite possible, indeed, that the event did not arise from chance, and that Tyrrel had no part in it. The remorseless ambition of Henry might have had recourse to murder, or the avenging shaft might have been sped by the desperate hand of some Englishman, tempted by a favourable opportunity and the traditions of the place. But the most charitable construction is, that the party were intoxicated with the wine they had drunk at Malwood-Keep, and that, in the confusion consequent on drunkenness, the King was hit by a random arrow." In that part of the Forest near Stony Cross, at a short distance from Castle Malwood, formerly stood an oak, which tradition affirmed was the tree against which the arrow glanced that caused the death of Rufus. Charles II. directed the tree to be encircled by a paling: it has disappeared; but the spot whereon the tree grew is marked by a triangular stone, about five feet high, erected by Lord Delaware, upwards of a century ago. The stone has since been faced with an iron casting of the following inscription upon the three sides:-- "Here stood the oak-tree on which an arrow, shot by Sir Walter Tyrrel at a stag, glanced and struck King William II., surnamed Rufus, on the breast; of which stroke he instantly died, on the 2nd of August, 1100. "King William II., surnamed Rufus, being slain, as before related, was laid in a cart belonging to one Purkess, and drawn from hence to Winchester, and buried in the cathedral church of that city. "That where an event so memorable had happened might not hereafter be unknown, this stone was set up by John Lord Delaware, who had seen the tree growing in this place, anno 1745." Stony Cross is a favourite spot for pic-nic parties in the summer. It lies seven miles from Ringwood, on a wide slope among the woods. From the road above, splendid views over the country present themselves. [Illustration: STONY CROSS, NEW FOREST.] * * * * * GELERT. [Illustration: Letter T.] The spearman heard the bugle sound, And cheerily smiled the morn; And many a brach, and many a hound, Attend Llewellyn's horn. And still he blew a louder blast, And gave a louder cheer: "Come, Gelert! why art thou the last Llewellyn's horn to hear? "Oh, where does faithful Gelert roam-- The flower of all his race! So true, so brave--a lamb at home, A lion in the chase?" That day Llewellyn little loved The chase of hart or hare; And scant and small the booty proved, For Gelert was not there. Unpleased Llewellyn homeward hied, When, near the portal-seat, His truant Gelert he espied, Bounding his lord to greet. But when he gained the castle-door, Aghast the chieftain stood; The hound was smear'd with gouts of gore-- His lips and fangs ran blood! Llewellyn gazed with wild surprise, Unused such looks to meet; His favourite check'd his joyful guise, And crouch'd and lick'd his feet. Onward in haste Llewellyn pass'd (And on went Gelert too), And still where'er his eyes were cast, Fresh blood-gouts shock'd his view! O'erturn'd his infant's bed he found, The blood-stain'd cover rent, And all around the walls and ground With recent blood besprent. He call'd his child--no voice replied; He search'd--with terror wild; Blood! blood! he found on every side, But nowhere found the child! "Hell-hound! by thee my child's devour'd!" The frantic father cried, And to the hilt his vengeful sword He plunged in Gelert's side! His suppliant, as to earth he fell, No pity could impart; But still his Gelert's dying yell Pass'd heavy o'er his heart. Aroused by Gelert's dying yell, Some slumberer waken'd nigh: What words the parent's joy can tell, To hear his infant cry! Conceal'd beneath a mangled heap, His hurried search had miss'd: All glowing from his rosy sleep, His cherub boy he kiss'd! Nor scratch had he, nor harm, nor dread; But the same couch beneath Lay a great wolf, all torn and dead-- Tremendous still in death! [Illustration: SYRIAN WOLF.] Ah! what was then Llewellyn's pain, For now the truth was clear; The gallant hound the wolf had slain To save Llewellyn's heir. Vain, vain was all Llewellyn's woe-- "Best of thy kind, adieu! The frantic deed which laid thee low, This heart shall ever rue!" And now a gallant tomb they raise, With costly sculpture deck'd; And marbles, storied with his praise, Poor Gelert's bones protect. Here never could the spearman pass, Or forester, unmoved; Here oft the tear-besprinkled grass Llewellyn's sorrow proved. And here he hung his horn and spear; And oft, as evening fell, In fancy's piercing sounds would hear Poor Gelert's dying yell. W. SPENCER. * * * * * THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA. [Illustration: Letter T.] The important feature which the Great Wall makes in the map of China, entitles this vast barrier to be considered in a geographical point of view, as it bounds the whole north of China along the frontiers of three provinces. It was built by the first universal Monarch of China, and finished about 205 years before Christ: the period of its completion is an historical fact, as authentic as any of those which the annals of ancient kingdoms have transmitted to posterity. It was built to defend the Chinese Empire from the incursions of the Tartars, and is calculated to be 1500 miles in length. The rapidity with which this work was completed is as astonishing as the wall itself, for it is said to have been done in five years, by many millions of labourers, the Emperor pressing three men out of every ten, in his dominions, for its execution. For about the distance of 200 leagues, it is generally built of stone and brick, with strong square towers, sufficiently near for mutual defence, and having besides, at every important pass, a formidable and well-built fortress. In many places, in this line and extent, the wall is double, and even triple; but from the province of Can-sih to its eastern extremity, it is nothing but a terrace of earth, of which the towers on it are also constructed. The Great Wall, which has now, even in its best parts, numerous breaches, is made of two walls of brick and masonry, not above a foot and a half in thickness, and generally many feet apart; the interval between them is filled up with earth, making the whole appear like solid masonry and brickwork. For six or seven feet from the earth, these are built of large square stones; the rest is of blue brick, the mortar used in which is of excellent quality. The wall itself averages about 20 feet in height, 25 feet in thickness at the base, which diminishes to 15 feet at the platform, where there is a parapet wall; the top is gained by stairs and inclined planes. The towers are generally about 40 feet square at the base, diminishing to 30 feet a the top, and are, including battlements, 37 feet in height. At some spots the towers consist of two stories, and are thus much higher. The wall is in many places carried over the tops of the highest and most rugged rocks; and one of these elevated regions is 5000 feet above the level of the sea. [Illustration: MILITARY MANDARIN.] [Illustration: THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA.] Near each of the gates is a village or town; and at one of the principal gates, which opens on the road towards India, is situated Sinning-fu, a city of large extent and population. Here the wall is said to be sufficiently broad at the top to admit six horsemen abreast, who might without inconvenience ride a race. The esplanade on its top is much frequented by the inhabitants, and the stairs which give ascent are very broad and convenient. [Illustration: CHINESE SOLDIER.] * * * * * THE TOMBS OF PAUL AND VIRGINIA. [Illustration: Letter T.] This delicious retreat in the island of Mauritius has no claims to the celebrity it has attained. It is not the burial-place of Paul and Virginia; and the author of "Recollections of the Mauritius" thus endeavours to dispel the illusion connected with the spot:-- [Illustration: TOMBS OF PAUL AND VIRGINIA.] "After having allowed his imagination to depict the shades of Paul and Virginia hovering about the spot where their remains repose--after having pleased himself with the idea that he had seen those celebrated tombs, and given a sigh to the memory of those faithful lovers, separated in life, but in death united--after all this waste of sympathy, he learns at last that he has been under a delusion the whole time--that no Virginia was there interred--and that it is a matter of doubt whether there ever existed such a person as Paul! What a pleasing illusion is then dispelled! How many romantic dreams, inspired by the perusal of St. Pierre's tale, are doomed to vanish when the truth is ascertained! The fact is, that these tombs have been built to gratify the eager desire which the English have always evinced to behold such interesting mementoes. Formerly only one was erected; but the proprietor of the place, finding that all the English visitors, on being conducted to this, as the tomb of Virginia, always asked to see that of Paul also, determined on building a similar one, to which he gave that appellation. Many have been the visitors who have been gratified, consequently, by the conviction that they had looked on the actual burial-place of that unfortunate pair. These 'tombs' are scribbled over with the names of the various persons who have visited them, together with verses and pathetic ejaculations and sentimental remarks. St. Pierre's story of the lovers is very prettily written, and his description of the scenic beauties of the island are correct, although not even his pen can do full justice to them; but there is little truth in the tale. It is said that there was indeed a young lady sent from the Mauritius to France for education, during the time that Monsieur de la Bourdonnais was governor of the colony--that her name was Virginia, and that she was shipwrecked in the _St. Geran_. I heard something of a young man being attached to her, and dying of grief for her loss; but that part of the story is very doubtful. The 'Bay of the Tomb,' the 'Point of Endeavour,' the 'Isle of Amber,' and the 'Cape of Misfortune,' still bear the same names, and are pointed out as the memorable spots mentioned by St. Pierre." [Illustration: Letter O.] Oh! gentle story of the Indian Isle! I loved thee in my lonely childhood well, On the sea-shore, when day's last purple smile Slept on the waters, and their hollow swell And dying cadence lent a deeper spell Unto thine ocean pictures. 'Midst thy palms And strange bright birds my fancy joy'd to dwell, And watch the southern Cross through midnight calms, And track the spicy woods. Yet more I bless'd Thy vision of sweet love--kind, trustful, true-- Lighting the citron-groves--a heavenly guest-- With such pure smiles as Paradise once knew. Even then my young heart wept o'er this world's power, To reach and blight that holiest Eden flower. MRS. HEMANS. * * * * * THE MANGOUSTE. The Mangoustes, or Ichneumons, are natives of the hotter parts of the Old World, the species being respectively African and Indian. In their general form and habits they bear a great resemblance to the ferrets, being bold, active, and sanguinary, and unrelenting destroyers of birds, reptiles, and small animals, which they take by surprise, darting rapidly upon them. Beautiful, cleanly, and easily domesticated, they are often kept tame in the countries they naturally inhabit, for the purpose of clearing the houses of vermin, though the poultry-yard is not safe from their incursions. The Egyptian mangouste is a native of North Africa, and was deified for its services by the ancient Egyptians. Snakes, lizards, birds, crocodiles newly hatched, and especially the eggs of crocodiles, constitute its food. It is a fierce and daring animal, and glides with sparkling eyes towards its prey, which it follows with snake-like progression; often it watches patiently for hours together, in one spot, waiting the appearance of a mouse, rat, or snake, from its lurking-place. In a state of domestication it is gentle and affectionate, and never wanders from the house or returns to an independent existence; but it makes itself familiar with every part of the premises, exploring every hole and corner, inquisitively peeping into boxes and vessels of all kinds, and watching every movement or operation. [Illustration: THE MANGOUSTE.] The Indian mangouste is much less than the Egyptian, and of a beautiful freckled gray. It is not more remarkable for its graceful form and action, than for the display of its singular instinct for hunting for and stealing eggs, from which it takes the name of egg-breaker. Mr. Bennett, in his account of one of the mangoustes kept in the Tower, says, that on one occasion it killed no fewer than a dozen full-grown rats, which were loosened to it in a room sixteen feet square, in less than a minute and a half. Another species of the mangouste, found in the island of Java, inhabiting the large teak forests, is greatly admired by the natives for its agility. It attacks and kills serpents with excessive boldness. It is very expert in burrowing in the ground, which process it employs ingeniously in the pursuit of rats. It possesses great natural sagacity, and, from the peculiarities of its character, it willingly seeks the protection of man. It is easily tamed, and in its domestic state is very docile and attached to its master, whom it follows like a dog; it is fond of caresses, and frequently places itself erect on its hind legs, regarding every thing that passes with great attention. It is of a very restless disposition, and always carries its food to the most retired place to consume it, and is very cleanly in its habits; but it is exclusively carnivorous and destructive to poultry, employing great artifice in surprising chickens. * * * * * CULLODEN. [Illustration: Letter C.] Culloden Moor--the battle-field--lies eastward about a mile from Culloden House. After an hour's climbing up the heathy brae, through a scattered plantation of young trees, clambering over stone dykes, and jumping over moorland rills and springs, oozing from the black turf and streaking its sombre surface with stripes of green, we found ourselves on the table-land of the moor--a broad, bare level, garnished with a few black huts, and patches of scanty oats, won by patient industry from the waste. We should premise, however, that there are some fine glimpses of rude mountain scenery in the course of the ascent. The immediate vicinage of Culloden House is well wooded; the Frith spreads finely in front; the Ross-shire hills assume a more varied and commanding aspect; and Ben Wyvis towers proudly over his compeers, with a bold pronounced character. Ships were passing and re-passing before us in the Frith, the birds were singing blithely overhead, and the sky was without a cloud. Under the cheering influence of the sun, stretched on the warm, blooming, and fragrant heather, we gazed with no common interest and pleasure on this scene. On the moor all is bleak and dreary--long, flat, wide, unvarying. The folly and madness of Charles and his followers, in risking a battle on such ground, with jaded, unequal forces, half-starved, and deprived of rest the preceding night, has often been remarked, and is at one glance perceived by the spectator. The Royalist artillery and cavalry had full room to play, for not a knoll or bush was there to mar their murderous aim. Mountains and fastnesses were on the right, within a couple of hours' journey, but a fatality had struck the infatuated bands of Charles; dissension and discord were in his councils; and a power greater than that of Cumberland had marked them for destruction. But a truce to politics; the grave has closed over victors and vanquished: "Culloden's dread echoes are hush'd on the moors;" and who would awaken them with the voice of reproach, uttered over the dust of the slain? The most interesting memorials of the contest are the green grassy mounds which mark the graves of the slain Highlanders, and which are at once distinguished from the black heath around by the freshness and richness of their verdure. One large pit received the Frasers, and another was dug for the Macintoshes. _Highland Note-Book_. [Illustration] * * * * * ATHENS. The most striking object in Athens is the Acropolis, or Citadel--a rock which rises abruptly from the plain, and is crowned with the Parthenon. This was a temple dedicated to the goddess Minerva, and was built of the hard white marble of Pentelicus. It suffered from the ravages of war between the Turks and Venetians, and also more recently in our own time. The remnant of the sculptures which decorated the pediments, with a large part of the frieze, and other interesting remains, are now in what is called the Elgin collection of the British Museum. During the embassy of Lord Elgin at Constantinople, he obtained permission from the Turkish government to proceed to Athens for the purpose of procuring casts from the most celebrated remains of sculpture and architecture which still existed at Athens. Besides models and drawings which he made, his Lordship collected numerous pieces of Athenian sculpture in statues, capitals, cornices, &c., and these he very generously presented to the English Government, thus forming a school of Grecian art in London, to which there does not at present exist a parallel. In making this collection he was stimulated by seeing the destruction into which these remains were sinking, through the influence of Turkish barbarism. Some fine statues in the Parthenon had been pounded down for mortar, on account of their affording the whitest marble within reach, and this mortar was employed in the construction of miserable huts. At one period the Parthenon was converted into a powder magazine by the Turks, and in consequence suffered severely from an explosion in 1656, which carried away the roof of the right wing. [Illustration: ATHENS.] At the close of the late Greek war Athens was in a dreadful state, being little more than a heap of ruins. It was declared by a Royal ordinance of 1834 to be the capital of the new kingdom of Greece, and in the March of that year the King laid the foundation-stone of his palace there. In the hill of Areopagus, where sat that famous tribunal, we may still discover the steps cut in the rock by which it was ascended, the seats of the judges, and opposite to them those of the accuser and accused. This hill was converted into a burial-place for the Turks, and is covered with their tombs. Ancient of days! august Athena! where, Where are thy men of might--thy grand in soul? Gone, glimmering through the dream of things that were-- First in the race that led to Glory's goal; They won, and passed away. Is this the whole? A schoolboy's tale, the wonder of an hour! The warrior's weapon and the sophist's stole Are sought in vain, and o'er each mouldering tower, Dim with the mist of years, gray flits the shade of power. Here let me sit, upon this massy stone, The marble column's yet unshaken base; Here, son of Saturn, was thy fav'rite throne-- Mightiest of many such! Hence let me trace The latent grandeur of thy dwelling-place. It may not be--nor ev'n can Fancy's eye Restore what time hath labour'd to deface: Yet these proud pillars, claiming sigh, Unmoved the Moslem sits--the light Greek carols by. BYRON. [Illustration: THE PNYX AT ATHENS.] * * * * * THE ISLES OF GREECE. [Illustration: Letter T.] The Isles of Greece! the Isles of Greece! Where burning Sappho loved and sung-- Where grew the arts of war and peace, Where Delos rose and Phoebus sprung! Eternal summer gilds them yet, But all except their sun is set. The Scian and the Teian muse, The hero's harp, the lover's lute, Have found the fame your shores refuse; Their place of birth alone is mute, To sounds which echo further west Than your sires' "Islands of the Blest." The mountains look on Marathon-- And Marathon looks on the sea; And musing there an hour alone, I dream'd that Greece might still be free; For standing on the Persian's grave, I could not deem myself a slave. A King sat on the rocky brow, Which looks o'er sea-born Salamis; And ships by thousands lay below, And men in nations--all were his! He counted them at break of day-- And when the sun set, where were they? And where were they? and where art thou, My country? On thy voiceless shore The heroic lay is tuneless now-- The heroic bosom beats no more! And must thy lyre, so long divine, Degenerate into hands like mine? 'Tis something, in the dearth of fame, Though link'd among a fetter'd race, To feel at least a patriot's shame, Even as I sing, suffuse my face; For what is left the poet here? For Greeks a blush--for Greece a tear. Must _we_ but weep o'er days more blest? Must _we_ but blush?--Our fathers bled Earth! render back from out thy breast A remnant of our Spartan dead! Of the three hundred grant but three, To make a new Thermopylae! What! silent still? and silent all? Ah! no!--the voices of the dead Sound like a distant torrent's fall, And answer, "Let one living head-- But one--arise! we come, we come!" 'Tis but the living who are dumb. In vain--in vain: strike other chords; Fill high the cup with Samian wine! Leave battles to the Turkish hordes, And shed the blood of Scio's vine! Hark! rising to the ignoble call-- How answers each bold Bacchanal? You have the Pyrrhic dance as yet; Where is the Pyrrhic phalanx gone? Of two such lessons, why forget The nobler and the manlier one? You have the letters Cadmus gave-- Think ye he meant them for a slave? Fill high the bowl with Samian wine! We will not think of themes like these! It made Anacreon's song divine; He served--but served Polycrates-- A tyrant: but our masters then Were still at least our countrymen. The tyrant of the Chersonese Was freedom's best and bravest friend-- That tyrant was Miltiades! Oh! that the present hour would lend Another despot of the kind! Such chains as his were sure to bind. Fill high the bowl with Samian wine! On Suli's rock and Perga's shore Exists the remnant of a line Such as the Doric mothers bore; And there, perhaps, some seed is sown, The Heracleidian blood might own. Trust not for freedom to the Franks-- They have a King who buys and sells; In native swords and native ranks, The only hope of courage dwells: But Turkish force and Latin fraud Would break your shield, however broad. Fill high the bowl with Samian wine! Our virgins dance beneath the shade-- I see their glorious black eyes shine; But gazing on each glowing maid, My own the burning tear drop laves, To think such breasts must suckle slaves! Place me on Sunium's marble steep, Where nothing, save the waves and I, May hear our mutual murmurs sweep; There swan-like let me sing and die: A land of slaves shall ne'er be mine-- Dash down yon cup of Samian wine! BYRON. [Illustration: CORINTH.] * * * * * THE SIEGE OF ANTIOCH. [Illustration: Letter B.] Baghasihan, the Turkish Prince, or Emir of Antioch, had under his command an Armenian of the name of Phirouz, whom he had entrusted with the defence of a tower on that part of the city wall which overlooked the passes of the mountains. Bohemund, by means of a spy, who had embraced the Christian religion, and to whom he had given his own name at baptism, kept up a daily communication with this captain, and made him the most magnificent promises of reward if he would deliver up his post to the Crusaders. Whether the proposal was first made by Bohemund or by the Armenian, is uncertain, but that a good understanding soon existed between them is undoubted; and a night was fixed for the execution of the project. Bohemund communicated the scheme to Godfrey and the Count of Toulouse, with the stipulation that, if the city were won, he, as the soul of the enterprise, should enjoy the dignity of Prince of Antioch. The other leaders hesitated: ambition and jealousy prompted them to refuse their aid in furthering the views of the intriguer. More mature consideration decided them to acquiesce, and seven hundred of the bravest knights were chosen for the expedition, the real object of which, for fear of spies, was kept a profound secret from the rest of the army. [Illustration: ANTIOCH.] Everything favoured the treacherous project of the Armenian captain, who, on his solitary watch-tower, received due intimation of the approach of the Crusaders. The night was dark and stormy: not a star was visible above; and the wind howled so furiously as to overpower all other sounds. The rain fell in torrents, and the watchers on the towers adjoining to that of Phirouz could not hear the tramp of the armed knights for the wind, nor see them for the obscurity of the night and the dismalness of the weather. When within bow-shot of the walls, Bohemund sent forward an interpreter to confer with the Armenian. The latter urged them to make haste and seize the favourable interval, as armed men, with lighted torches, patrolled the battlements every half-hour, and at that instant they had just passed. The chiefs were instantly at the foot of the wall. Phirouz let down a rope; Bohemund attached to it a ladder of hides, which was then raised by the Armenian, and held while the knights mounted. A momentary fear came over the spirits of the adventurers, and every one hesitated; at last Bohemund, encouraged by Phirouz from above, ascended a few steps on the ladder, and was followed by Godfrey, Count Robert of Flanders, and a number of other knights. As they advanced, others pressed forward, until their weight became too great for the ladder, which, breaking, precipitated about a dozen of them to the ground, where they fell one upon the other, making a great clatter with their heavy coats of mail. For a moment they thought all was lost; but the wind made so loud a howling, as it swept in fierce gusts through the mountain gorges, and the Orontes, swollen by the rain, rushed so noisily along, that the guards heard nothing. The ladder was easily repaired, and the knights ascended, two at a time, and reached the platform in safety. When sixty of them had thus ascended, the torch of the coming patrol was seen to gleam at the angle of the wall. Hiding themselves behind a buttress, they awaited his coming in breathless silence. As soon as he arrived at arm's length, he was suddenly seized; and before he could open his lips to raise an alarm, the silence of death closed them up for ever. They next descended rapidly the spiral staircase of the tower, and, opening the portal, admitted the whole of their companions. Raymond of Toulouse, who, cognizant of the whole plan, had been left behind with the main body of the army, heard at this instant the signal horn, which announced that an entry had been effected, and advancing with his legions, the town was attacked from within and from without. Imagination cannot conceive a scene more dreadful than that presented by the devoted city of Antioch on that night of horror. The Crusaders fought with a blind fury, which fanaticism and suffering alike incited. Men, women, and children were indiscriminately slaughtered, till the streets ran in gore. Darkness increased the destruction; for, when the morning dawned the Crusaders found themselves with their swords at the breasts of their fellow-soldiers, whom they had mistaken to be foes. The Turkish commander fled, first to the citadel, and, that becoming insecure, to the mountains, whither he was pursued and slain, and his gory head brought back to Antioch as a trophy. At daylight the massacre ceased, and the Crusaders gave themselves up to plunder. _Popular Delusions_. * * * * * ANGLING. [Illustration: Letter G.] Go, take thine angle, and with practised line, Light as the gossamer, the current sweep; And if thou failest in the calm, still deep, In the rough eddy may a prize be thine. Say thou'rt unlucky where the sunbeams shine; Beneath the shadow where the waters creep Perchance the monarch of the brook shall leap-- For Fate is ever better than Design. Still persevere; the giddiest breeze that blows For thee may blow with fame and fortune rife. Be prosperous; and what reck if it arose Out of some pebble with the stream at strife, Or that the light wind dallied with the boughs: Thou art successful--such is human life. DOUBLEDAY. * * * * * MARIANA. Mariana in the moated grange.--_Measure for Measure_. [Illustration] With blackest moss the flower-plots Were thickly crusted, one and all; The rusted nails fell from the knots That held the peach to the garden wall. The broken sheds look'd sad and strange-- Uplifted was the clinking latch, Weeded and worn the ancient thatch, Upon the lonely moated grange. She only said, "My life is dreary-- He cometh not," she said; She said, "I am aweary, weary, I would that I were dead!" Her tears fell with the dews at even-- Her tears fell ere the dews were dried; She could not look on the sweet heaven, Either at morn or eventide. After the flitting of the bats, When thickest dark did trance the sky, She drew her casement-curtain by, And glanced athwart the glooming flats. She only said, "The night is dreary-- He cometh not," she said; She said, "I am aweary, weary, I would that I were dead!" Upon the middle of the night, Waking, she heard the night-fowl crow: The cock sung out an hour ere light; From the dark fen the oxen's low Came to her. Without hope of change, In sleep she seem'd to walk forlorn, Till cold winds woke the gray-eyed morn About the lonely moated grange. She only said, "The day is dreary He cometh not," she said; She said, "I am aweary, weary, I would that I were dead!" About a stone-cast from the wall A sluice with blacken'd waters slept; And o'er it many, round and small, The cluster'd marish-mosses crept. Hard by, a poplar shook alway, All silver-green with gnarled bark; For leagues, no other tree did dark The level waste, the rounding gray. She only said, "My life is dreary-- He cometh not," she said; She said, "I am aweary, weary, I would that I were dead!" And ever, when the moon was low, And the shrill winds were up and away In the white curtain, to and fro She saw the gusty shadow sway. But when the moon was very low, And wild winds bound within their cell, The shadow of the poplar fell Upon her bed, across her brow. She only said, "The night is dreary-- He cometh not," she said; She said, "I am aweary, weary, I would that I were dead!" All day, within the dreary house, The doors upon their hinges creak'd; The blue-fly sang i' the pane; the mouse Behind the mould'ring wainscot shriek'd, Or from the crevice peer'd about. Old faces glimmer'd through the doors; Old footsteps trod the upper floors; Old voices called her from without: She only said, "My life is dreary-- He cometh not," she said; She said, "I am aweary, weary, I would that I were dead!" The sparrow's chirrup on the roof, The slow clock ticking, and the sound Which to the wooing wind aloof The poplar made, did all confound Her sense; but most she loathed the hour When the thick-moated sunbeam lay Athwart the chambers, and the day Was sloping towards his western bower. Then said she, "I am very dreary-- He will not come," she said; She wept, "I am aweary, weary, I would that I were dead!" TENNYSON. * * * * * RISE OF POETRY AMONG THE ROMANS. The Romans, in the infancy of their state, were entirely rude and unpolished. They came from shepherds; they were increased from the refuse of the nations around them; and their manners agreed with their original. As they lived wholly on tilling their ground at home, or on plunder from their neighbours, war was their business, and agriculture the chief art they followed. Long after this, when they had spread their conquests over a great part of Italy, and began to make a considerable figure in the world--even their great men retained a roughness, which they raised into a virtue, by calling it Roman spirit; and which might often much better have been called Roman barbarity. It seems to me, that there was more of austerity than justice, and more of insolence than courage, in some of their most celebrated actions. However that be, this is certain, that they were at first a nation of soldiers and husbandmen: roughness was long an applauded character among them; and a sort of rusticity reigned, even in their senate-house. [Illustration: ANCIENT ROMAN CENTURION.] In a nation originally of such a temper as this, taken up almost always in extending their territories, very often in settling the balance of power among themselves, and not unfrequently in both these at the same time, it was long before the politer arts made any appearance; and very long before they took root or flourished to any degree. Poetry was the first that did so; but such a poetry as one might expect among a warlike, busied, unpolished people. Not to enquire about the songs of triumph mentioned even in Romulus's time, there was certainly something of poetry among them in the next reign, under Numa; a Prince who pretended to converse with the Muses as well as with Egeria, and who might possibly himself have made the verses which the Salian priests sang in his time. Pythagoras, either in the same reign, or if you please some time after, gave the Romans a tincture of poetry as well as of philosophy; for Cicero assures us that the Pythagoreans made great use of poetry and music; and probably they, like our old Druids, delivered most of their precepts in verse. Indeed, the chief employment of poetry in that and the following ages, among the Romans, was of a religious kind. Their very prayers, and perhaps their whole liturgy, was poetical. They had also a sort of prophetic or sacred writers, who seem to have written generally in verse; and were so numerous that there were above two thousand of their volumes remaining even to Augustus's time. They had a kind of plays too, in these early times, derived from what they had seen of the Tuscan actors when sent for to Rome to expiate a plague that raged in the city. These seem to have been either like our dumb-shows, or else a kind of extempore farces--a thing to this day a good deal in use all over Italy and in Tuscany. In a more particular manner, add to these that extempore kind of jesting dialogues begun at their harvest and vintage feasts, and carried on so rudely and abusively afterwards as to occasion a very severe law to restrain their licentiousness; and those lovers of poetry and good eating, who seem to have attended the tables of the richer sort, much like the old provincial poets, or our own British bards, and sang there to some instrument of music the achievements of their ancestors, and the noble deeds of those who had gone before them, to inflame others to follow their great examples. [Illustration: ANCIENT ROMAN SHOES.] [Illustration: ANCIENT ROMAN TORCHES.] [Illustration: ANCIENT ROMAN DRINKING-BOTTLE.] [Illustration: ANCIENT ALABASTER BOX.] The names of almost all these poets sleep in peace with all their works; and, if we may take the word of the other Roman writers of a better age, it is no great loss to us. One of their best poets represents them as very obscure and very contemptible; one of their best historians avoids quoting them as too barbarous for politer ears; and one of their most judicious emperors ordered the greatest part of their writings to be burnt, that the world might be troubled with them no longer. All these poets, therefore, may very well be dropped in the account, there being nothing remaining of their works, and probably no merit to be found in them if they had remained. And so we may date the beginning of the Roman poetry from Livius Andronicus, the first of their poets of whom anything does remain to us; and from whom the Romans themselves seem to have dated the beginning of their poetry, even in the Augustan age. [Illustration: ANCIENT ROMAN MILL.] The first kind of poetry that was followed with any success among the Romans, was that for the stage. They were a very religious people; and stage plays in those times made no inconsiderable part in their public devotions; it is hence, perhaps, that the greatest number of their oldest poets, of whom we have any remains, and, indeed, almost all of them, are dramatic poets. SPENCE. * * * * * CHARACTER OF JULIUS CAESAR. [Illustration: Letter C.] Caesar was endowed with every great and noble quality that could exalt human nature, and give a man the ascendant in society. Formed to excel in peace as well as war; provident in council; fearless in action, and executing what he had resolved with an amazing celerity; generous beyond measure to his friends; placable to his enemies; and for parts, learning, and eloquence, scarce inferior to any man. His orations were admired for two qualities, which are seldom found together, strength and elegance: Cicero ranks him among the greatest orators that Rome ever bred; and Quintilian says, that he spoke with the same force with which he fought; and if he had devoted himself to the bar, would have been the only man capable of rivalling Cicero. Nor was he a master only of the politer arts; but conversant also with the most abstruse and critical parts of learning; and, among other works which he published, addressed two books to Cicero on the analogy of language, or the art of speaking and writing correctly. He was a most liberal patron of wit and learning, wheresoever they were found; and out of his love of those talents, would readily pardon those who had employed them against himself; rightly judging, that by making such men his friends, he should draw praises from the same fountain from which he had been aspersed. His capital passions were ambition and love of pleasure, which he indulged in their turns to the greatest excess; yet the first was always predominant--to which he could easily sacrifice all the charms of the second, and draw pleasure even from toils and dangers, when they ministered to his glory. For he thought Tyranny, as Cicero says, the greatest of goddesses; and had frequently in his mouth a verse of Euripides, which expressed the image of his soul, that if right and justice were ever to be violated, they were to be violated for the sake of reigning. This was the chief end and purpose of his life--the scheme that he had formed from his early youth; so that, as Cato truly declared of him, he came with sobriety and meditation to the subversion of the republic. He used to say, that there were two things necessary to acquire and to support power--soldiers and money; which yet depended mutually upon each other: with money, therefore, he provided soldiers, and with soldiers extorted money, and was, of all men, the most rapacious in plundering both friends and foes; sparing neither prince, nor state, nor temple, nor even private persons who were known to possess any share of treasure. His great abilities would necessarily have made him one of the first citizens of Rome; but, disdaining the condition of a subject, he could never rest till he made himself a Monarch. In acting this last part, his usual prudence seemed to fail him; as if the height to which he was mounted had turned his head and made him giddy; for, by a vain ostentation of his power, he destroyed the stability of it; and, as men shorten life by living too fast, so by an intemperance of reigning he brought his reign to a violent end. MIDDLETON. [Illustration: COIN OF CAESAR AUGUSTUS.] [Illustration: COIN OF THE EMPEROR TIBERIUS.] * * * * * SIEGE OF TYRE. It appeared to Alexander a matter of great importance, before he went further, to gain the maritime powers. Upon application, the Kings of Cyprus and Phoenicea made their submission; only Tyre held out. He besieged that city seven months, during which time he erected vast mounds of earth, plied it with his engines, and invested it on the side next the sea with two hundred gallies. He had a dream in which he saw Hercules offering him his hand from the wall, and inviting him to enter; and many of the Tyrians dreamt "that Apollo declared he would go over to Alexander, because he was displeased with their behaviour in the town," Hereupon, the Tyrians, as if the God had been a deserter taken in the fact, loaded his statue with chains, and nailed the feet to the pedestal, not scrupling to call him an _Alexandrist_. In another dream, Alexander thought he saw a satyr playing before him at some distance, and when he advanced to take him, the savage eluded his grasp. However, at last, after much coaxing and taking many circuits round him, be prevailed with him to surrender himself. The interpreters, plausibly enough, divided the Greek name for _satyr_ into two, _Sa Tyros_, which signifies _Tyre is thine_. They still show us a fountain near which Alexander is said to have seen that vision. [Illustration: CITY OF TYRE.] About the middle of the siege, he made an excursion against the Arabians who dwelt about Anti-Libanus. Here he ran a great risk of his life, on account of his preceptor Lysimachus, who insisted on attending him--being, as he alleged, neither older nor less valiant than Phoenix; but when they came to the hills and quitted their horses to march up on foot, the rest of the party got far before Alexander and Lysimachus. Night came on, and, as the enemy was at no great distance, the King would not leave his preceptor, borne down with fatigue and with the weight of years. Therefore, while he was encouraging and helping him forward, he was insensibly separated from the troop, and had a cold and dark night to pass in an exposed and dismal situation. In this perplexity, he observed at a distance a number of scattered fires which the enemy had lighted; and depending upon his swiftness and activity as well as being accustomed to extricate the Macedonians out of every difficulty, by taking a share in the labour and danger, he ran to the next fire. After having killed two of the barbarians who watched it, he seized a lighted brand and hastened with it to his party, who soon kindled a great fire. The sight of this so intimidated the enemy, that many of them fled, and those who ventured to attack him were repulsed with considerable slaughter. By this means he passed the night in safety, according to the account we have from Charis. [Illustration: COIN OF TYRE.] As for the siege, it was brought to a termination in this manner: Alexander had permitted his main body to repose themselves after the long and severe fatigues they had undergone, and ordered only some small parties to keep the Tyrians in play. In the meantime, Aristander, his principal soothsayer, offered sacrifices; and one day, upon inspecting the entrails of the victim, he boldly asserted among those around him that the city would certainly be taken that month. As it happened to be the last day of that month, his assertion was received with ridicule and scorn. The King perceiving he was disconcerted, and making it a point to bring the prophecies of his minister to completion, gave orders that the day should not be called the 30th, but the 28th of the month; at the same time he called out his forces by sound of trumpet, and made a much more vigorous assault than he at first intended. The attack was violent, and those who were left behind in the camp quitted it, to have a share in it and to support their fellow-soldiers, insomuch that the Tyrians were forced to give out, and the city was taken that very day. LANGHORNE'S _Plutarch_. * * * * * THE FALLS OF NIAGARA. [Illustration: Letter T.] The river Niagara takes its rise in the western extremity of Lake Erie, and, after flowing about thirty-four miles, empties itself into Lake Ontario. It is from half a mile to three miles broad; its course is very smooth, and its depth considerable. The sides above the cataract are nearly level; but below the falls, the stream rushes between very lofty rocks, crowned by gigantic trees. The great body of water does not fall in one complete sheet, but is separated by islands, and forms three distinct falls. One of these, called the Great Fall, or, from its shape, the Horse-shoe Fall, is on the Canadian side. Its beauty is considered to surpass that of the others, although its height is considerably less. It is said to have a fall of 165 feet; and in the inn, which is about 300 yards from the fall, the concussion of air caused by this immense cataract is so great, that the window-frames, and, indeed, the whole house, are continually in a tremulous motion, and in winter, when the wind drives the spray in the direction of the buildings, the whole scene is coated with sheets of ice. [Illustration: THE FALLS OF NIAGARA.] The great cataract is seen by few travellers in its winter garb. I had seen it several years before in all the glories of autumn, its encircling woods, happily spared by the remorseless hatchet, and tinted with the brilliant hues peculiar to the American "Fall." Now the glory had departed; the woods were still there, but were generally black, with occasional green pines; beneath the grey trunks was spread a thick mantle of snow, and from the brown rocks inclosing the deep channel of the Niagara River hung huge clusters of icicles, twenty feet in length, like silver pipes of giant organs. The tumultuous rapids appeared to descend more regularly than formerly over the steps which distinctly extended across the wide river. The portions of the British, or Horse-shoe Fall, where the waters descend in masses of snowy whiteness, were unchanged by the season, except that vast sheets of ice and icicles hung on their margin; but where the deep waves of sea-green water roll majestically over the steep, large pieces of descending ice were frequently descried on its surface. No rainbows were now observed on the great vapour-cloud which shrouds for ever the bottom of the Fall; but we were extremely fortunate to see now plainly what I had looked for in vain at my last visit, the _water-rockets_, first described by Captain Hall, which shot up with a train of vapour singly, and in flights of a dozen, from the abyss near Table Rock, curved towards the east, and burst and fell in front of the cataract. Vast masses of descending fluid produce this singular effect, by means of condensed air acting on portions of the vapour into which the water is comminuted below. Altogether the appearance was most startling. It was observed at 1 P.M. from the gallery of Mr. Barnett's museum. The broad sheet of the American Fall presented the appearance of light-green water and feathery spray, also margined by huge icicles. As in summer, the water rushing from under the vapour-cloud of the two Falls was of a milky whiteness as far as the ferry, when it became dark and interspersed with floating masses of ice. Here, the year before, from the pieces of ice being heaped and crushed together in great quantities, was formed a thick and high bridge of ice, completely across the river, safe for passengers for some time; and in the middle of it a Yankee speculator had erected a shanty for refreshments. Lately, at a dinner party, I heard a staff-officer of talent, but who was fond of exciting wonder by his narratives, propose to the company a singular wager,--a bet of one hundred pounds that he would go over the Falls of Niagara and come out alive at the bottom! No one being inclined to take him up, after a good deal of discussion as to how this perilous feat was to be accomplished, the plan was disclosed. To place on Table Rock a crane, with a long arm reaching over the water of the Horse-shoe Fall; from this arm would hang, by a stout rope, a large bucket or cask; this would be taken up some distance above the Fall, where the mill-race slowly glides towards the cataract; here the adventurer would get into the cask, men stationed on the Table Rock would haul in the slack of the rope as he descended, and the crane would swing him clear from the cataract as he passed over. Here is a chance for any gentleman sportsman to immortalize himself! SIR JAMES ALEXANDER. * * * * * THE SLOTH. [Illustration] The Sloth, in its wild condition, spends its whole life on the trees, and never leaves them but through force or accident; and, what is more extraordinary, it lives not _upon_ the branches, like the squirrel and the monkey, but _under_ them. Suspended from the branches, it moves, and rests, and sleeps. So much of its anatomical structure as illustrates this peculiarity it is necessary to state. The arm and fore-arm of the sloth, taken together, are nearly twice the length of the hind legs; and they are, both by their form and the manner in which they are joined to the body, quite incapacitated from acting in a perpendicular direction, or in supporting it upon the earth, as the bodies of other quadrupeds are supported by their legs. Hence, if the animal be placed on the floor, its belly touches the ground. The wrist and ankle are joined to the fore-arm and leg in an oblique direction; so that the palm or sole, instead of being directed downwards towards the surface of the ground, as in other animals, is turned inward towards the body, in such a manner that it is impossible for the sloth to place the sole of its foot flat down upon a level surface. It is compelled, under such circumstances, to rest upon the external edge of the foot. This, joined to other peculiarities in the formation, render it impossible for sloths to walk after the manner of ordinary quadrupeds; and it is indeed only on broken ground, when he can lay hold of stones, roots of grass, &c., that he can get along at all. He then extends his arms in all directions in search of something to lay hold of; and when he has succeeded, he pulls himself forward, and is then enabled to trail himself along in the exceedingly awkward and tardy manner which has procured for him his name. Mr. Waterton informs us that he kept a sloth for several months in his room, in order to have an opportunity of observing his motions. If the ground were rough he would pull himself forward in the manner described, at a pretty good pace; and he invariably directed his course towards the nearest tree. But if he was placed upon a smooth and well-trodden part of the road, he appeared to be in much distress. Within doors, the favourite position of this sloth was on the back of a chair; and after getting all his legs in a line on the topmost part of it, he would hang there for hours together, and often with a low and plaintive cry would seem to invite the notice of his master. The sloth does not suspend himself head downward, like the vampire bat, but when asleep he supports himself from a branch parallel to the earth. He first seizes the branch with one arm, and then with the other; after which he brings up both his legs, one by one, to the same branch; so that, as in the Engraving, all the four limbs are in a line. In this attitude the sloth has the power of using the fore paw as a hand in conveying food to his mouth, which he does with great address, retaining meanwhile a firm hold of the branch with the other three paws. In all his operations the enormous claws with which the sloth is provided are of indispensable service. They are so sharp and crooked that they readily seize upon the smallest inequalities in the bark of the trees and branches, among which the animal usually resides, and also form very powerful weapons of defence. The sloth has been said to confine himself to one tree until he has completely stripped it of its leaves; but Mr. Waterton says, "During the many years I have ranged the forests, I have never seen a tree in such a state of nudity; indeed, I would hazard a conjecture, that, by the time the animal had finished the last of the old leaves, there would be a new crop on the part of the tree it had stripped first, ready for him to begin again--so quick is the process of vegetation in these countries. There is a saying among the Indians, that when the wind blows the sloth begins to travel. In calm weather he remains tranquil, probably not liking to cling to the brittle extremities of the branches, lest they should break with him in passing from one tree to another; but as soon as the wind arises, and the branches of the neighbouring trees become interwoven, the sloth then seizes hold of them and travels at such a good round pace, that any one seeing him, as I have done, pass from tree to tree, would never think of calling him a sloth." * * * * * SIERRA NEVADA, OR SNOWY RANGE OF CALIFORNIA. "The dividing ridge of the Sierra Nevada is in sight from this encampment. Accompanied by Mr. Preuss, I ascended to-day the highest peak to the right, from which we had a beautiful view of a mountain lake at our feet, about 15 miles in length, and so entirely surrounded by mountains that we could not discover an outlet. We had taken with us a glass, but though we enjoyed an extended view, the valley was half hidden in mist, as when we had seen it before. Snow could be distinguished on the higher parts of the coast mountains; eastward, as far as the eye could extend, it ranged over a terrible mass of broken snowy mountains, fading off blue in the distance. The rock composing the summit consists of a very coarse, dark, volcanic conglomerate: the lower parts appeared to be of a very slatey structure. The highest trees were a few scattered cedars and aspens. From the immediate foot of the peak we were two hours in reaching the summit, and one hour and a quarter in descending. The day had been very bright, still, and clear, and spring seems to be advancing rapidly. While the sun is in the sky the snow melts rapidly, and gushing springs cover the face of the mountain in all the exposed places, but their surface freezes instantly with the disappearance of the sun. "The Indians of the Sierra make frequent descents upon the settlements west of the Coast Range, which they keep constantly swept of horses; among them are many who are called Christian Indians, being refugees from Spanish missions. Several of these incursions occurred while we were at Helvetia. Occasionally parties of soldiers follow them across the Coast Range, but never enter the Sierra." [Illustration: SIERRA NEVADA, UPPER CALIFORNIA.] The party had not long before passed through a beautiful country. The narrative says:--"During the earlier part of the day our ride had been over a very level prairie, or rather a succession of long stretches of prairie, separated by lines and groves of oak timber, growing along dry gullies, which are tilled with water in seasons of rain; and perhaps, also, by the melting snows. Over much of this extent the vegetation was spare; the surface showing plainly the action of water, which, in the season of flood, the Joaquin spreads over the valley. About one o'clock, we came again among innumerable flowers; and, a few miles further, fields of beautiful blue-flowering _lupine_, which seems to love the neighbourhood of water, indicated that we were approaching a stream. We here found this beautiful shrub in thickets, some of them being twelve feet in height. Occasionally, three or four plants were clustered together, forming a grand bouquet, about ninety feet in circumference, and ten feet high; the whole summit covered with spikes of flowers, the perfume of which is very sweet and grateful. A lover of natural beauty can imagine with what pleasure we rode among these flowering groves, which filled the air with a light and delicate fragrance. We continued our road for about half a mile, interspersed through an open grove of live oaks, which, in form, were the most symmetrical and beautiful we had yet seen in this country. The ends of their branches rested on the ground, forming somewhat more than a half sphere of very full and regular figure, with leaves apparently smaller than usual. The Californian poppy, of a rich orange colour, was numerous to-day. Elk and several bands of antelope made their appearance. Our road now was one continued enjoyment; and it was pleasant riding among this assemblage of green pastures, with varied flowers and scattered groves, and, out of the warm, green spring, to look at the rocky and snowy peaks where lately we had suffered so much." Again, in the Sierra Nevada:--"Our journey to-day was in the midst of an advanced spring, whose green and floral beauty offered a delightful contrast to the sandy valley we had just left. All the day snow was in sight on the butt of the mountain, which frowned down upon us on the right; but we beheld it now with feelings of pleasant security, as we rode along between green trees and on flowers, with humming-birds and other feathered friends of the traveller enlivening the serene spring air. As we reached the summit of this beautiful pass, and obtained a view into the eastern country, we saw at once that here was the place to take leave of all such pleasant scenes as those around us. The distant mountains were now bald rocks again; and, below, the land had any colour but green. Taking into consideration the nature of the Sierra Nevada, we found this pass an excellent one for horses; and, with a little labour, or, perhaps, with a more perfect examination of the localities, it might be made sufficiently practicable for waggons." FREMONT'S _Travels_. * * * * * THE GROUSE. [Illustration: Letter W.] We have but few European birds presenting more points of interest in their history than the Grouse, a species peculiar to the northern and temperate latitudes of the globe. Dense pine forests are the abode of some; others frequent the wild tracts of heath-clad moorland, while the patches of vegetation scattered among the rocky peaks of the mountains, afford a congenial residence to others. Patient of cold, and protected during the intense severities of winter by their thick plumage, they give animation to the frozen solitude long after all other birds have retired from the desolate scenery. Their food consists of the tender shoots of pines, the seeds of plants, the berries of the arbutus and bilberry, the buds of the birch and alder, the buds of the heather, leaves, and grain. The nest is very simply constructed, consisting of dried grasses placed upon the ground and sheltered among the herbage. Two species of this bird, called forest grouse, are indigenous in England: one is the black grouse, common in the pine woods of Scotland and of the northern part of England, and elsewhere; the other is the capercailzie or cock of the woods. Formerly, in Ireland, and still more recently in Scotland, this noble bird, the most magnificent of the whole of the grouse tribe, was abundant in the larger woods; but it gradually disappeared, from the indiscriminate slaughter to which it was subject. Selby informs us that the last individual of this species in Scotland was killed about forty years ago, near Inverness. It still abounds in the pine forests of Sweden and Norway, and an attempt has been made by the Marquis of Breadalbane to re-introduce it into Scotland. The red grouse, or moor grouse, is found in Scotland; and it is somewhat singular that this beautiful bird should not be known on the Continent, abundant as it is on the moorlands of Scotland, England, and Ireland. The breeding season of the red grouse is very early in spring, and the female deposits her eggs, eight or ten in number, in a high tuft of heather. The eggs are peculiarly beautiful, of a rich brown colour, spotted with black, and both herself and her mate attend the young with great assiduity. The brood continue in company during the winter, and often unite with other broods, forming large packs, which range the high moorlands, being usually shy and difficult of approach. Various berries, such as the cranberry, the bilberry, together with the tender shoots of heath, constitute the food of this species. The plumage is a rich colouring of chestnut, barred with black. The cock grouse in October is a very handsome bird, with his bright red comb erected above his eyes, and his fine brown plumage shining in the sun. [Illustration: GROUSE.] The ptarmigan grouse is not only a native of Scotland but of the higher latitudes of continental Europe, and, perhaps, the changes of plumage in none of the feathered races are more remarkable than those which the ptarmigans undergo. Their full summer plumage is yellow, more or less inclining to brown, beautifully barred with zig-zag lines of black. Their winter dress is pure white, except that the outer tail-feathers, the shafts of the quills, and a streak from the eye to the beak are black. This singular change of plumage enables it, when the mountains are covered with snow, to escape the observation of the eagle, Iceland falcon, and the snowy owl: the feathers become much fuller, thicker, and more downy; the bill is almost hidden, and the legs become so thickly covered with hair-like feathers, as to resemble the legs of some well-furred quadruped. * * * * * PATMOS. [Illustration: Letter P.] Patmos affords one of the few exceptions which are to be found to the general beauty and fertility of the islands of the Aegean Sea. Its natural advantages, indeed, are very few, for the whole of the island is little else than one continued rock, rising frequently into hills and mountains. Its valleys are seldom susceptible of cultivation, and scarcely ever reward it. Almost the only spot, indeed, in which it has been attempted, is a small valley in the west, where the richer inhabitants have a few gardens. On account of its stern and desolate character, the island was used, under the Roman Empire, as a place of banishment; and here the Apostle St. John, during the persecution of Domitian, was banished, and wrote the book of the Revelations. The island now bears the name of Patino and Palmosa, but a natural grotto in the rock is still shown as the place where St. John resided. "In and around it," says Mr. Turner, "the Greeks have dressed up one of their tawdry churches; and on the same site is a school attached to the church, in which a few children are taught reading and writing." [Illustration: PATMOS.] Patmos used to be a famous resort of pirates. Dr. Clarke, after describing with enthusiasm the splendid scene which he witnessed in passing by Patmos, with feelings naturally excited by all the circumstances of local solemnity, and "the evening sun behind the towering cliffs of Patmos, gilding the battlements of the Monastery of the Apocalypse with its parting rays; the consecrated island, surrounded by inexpressible brightness, seeming to float upon an abyss of fire, while the moon, in milder splendour, was rising full over the opposite expanse," proceeds to remark, "How very different were the reflections caused upon leaving the deck, by observing a sailor with a lighted match in his hand, and our captain busied in appointing an extraordinary watch for the night, as a precaution against the pirates who swarm in these seas." These wretches, as dastardly as they were cruel, the instant they boarded a vessel, put every individual of the crew to death. They lurked about the isle of Fouri, to the north of Patmos, in great numbers, taking possession of bays and creeks the least frequented by other mariners. After they had plundered a ship, they bored a hole through her bottom, and took to their boats again. The knights of Malta were said to be amongst the worst of these robbers. In the library of the Monastery, which is built on the top of a mountain, and in the middle of the chief town, may be seen bulls from two of the Popes, and a protection from the Emperor Charles the Sixth, issued to protect the island from their incursions. Though deficient in trees, Patmos now abounds in flowering plants and shrubs. Walnuts and other fruit trees grow in the orchards; and the wine of Patmos is the strongest and best flavoured of any in the Greek islands. The view of Patmos from the highest point is said to be very curious. The eye looks down on nothing but mountains below it; and the excessive narrowness of the island, with the curious form of its coast, have an extraordinary appearance. * * * * * SHAKSPEARE. [Illustration: Letter M.] Memorable in the history of genius is the 23rd of April, as being at once the day of the birth and death of Shakspeare; and these events took place on the same spot, for at Stratford-upon-Avon this illustrious dramatist was born, in the year 1564, and here he also died, in 1616. It has been conjectured, that his first dramatic composition was produced when he was but twenty-five years old. He continued to write for the stage for a great number of years; occasionally, also, appearing as a performer: and at length, having, by his exertions, secured a fortune of two or three hundred a year, retired to his native town, where he purchased a small estate, and spent the remainder of his days in ease and honour. [Illustration: THE CHANDOS PORTRAIT OF SHAKESPEARE.] When Washington Irving visited Stratford-upon-Avon, he was led to make the following elegant reflections on the return of the poet to his early home:--"He who has sought renown about the world, and has reaped a full harvest of worldly favours, will find, after all, that there is no love, no admiration, no applause, so sweet to the soul as that which springs up in his native place. It is there that he seeks to be gathered in peace and honour among his kindred and his early friends. And when the weary heart and failing head begin to warn him that the evening of life is drawing on, he turns as fondly as does the infant to the mother's arms, to sink in sleep in the bosom of the scene of his childhood. How would it have cheered the spirit of the youthful bard, when, wandering forth in disgrace upon a doubtful world, he cast a heavy look upon his pastoral home, could he have foreseen that, before many years, he should return to it covered with renown; that his name should become the boast and glory of his native place; that his ashes should be religiously guarded as its most precious treasure; and that its lessening spire, on which his eyes were fixed in tearful contemplation, should one day become the beacon, towering amidst the gentle landscape, to guide the literary pilgrim of every nation to his tomb!" The accredited birth-place of Shakspeare has always been regarded with great interest: it is situate in a street in Stratford, retaining its ancient name of Henley, being the road to Henley-in-Arden. In 1574, here stood two houses, with a garden and orchard attached to each; and these houses were then purchased by John Shakspeare, whose son William was born in one of them, which still remains, though altered according to modern fashion. Its gable roofs are destroyed. Divided and subdivided into smaller tenements, part was converted into a little inn; part, the residence of a female who formerly showed the room where Shakspeare first saw the light, and the low-roofed kitchen where his mother taught him to read. The walls of the room in which he was born are literally covered with thousands of names, inscribed in homage by pilgrims from every region where the glory of Shakspeare is known. At the time when Shakspeare's father bought this house, it was, no doubt, quite a mansion, as compared with the majority of the houses in Stratford; but he little guessed the fame that would attach itself to this birth-place of his gifted son; long, we trust, to be preserved for the gratification of future generations of visitors to the hallowed spot. Besides his plays, Shakspeare was the author of several other poetical productions, and especially of a collection of sonnets. [Illustration: SHAKSPEARE'S HOUSE, STRATFORD-UPON-AVON.] * * * * * THE RETURN OF THE DOVE. [Illustration] There hope in the Ark at the dawning of day, When o'er the wide waters the Dove flew away; But when ere the night she came wearily back With the leaf she had pluck'd on her desolate track, The children of Noah knelt down and adored, And utter'd in anthems their praise to the Lord. Oh bird of glad tidings! oh joy in our pain! Beautiful Dove! thou art welcome again. When peace has departed the care-stricken breast, And the feet of the weary one languish for rest; When the world is a wide-spreading ocean of grief, How blest the return of the Bird and the Leaf! Reliance on God is the Dove to our Ark, And Peace is the olive she plucks in the dark. The deluge abates, there is sun after rain-- Beautiful Dove! thou art welcome again! MACKAY. [Illustration: SYRIAN DOVE.] * * * * * COBRA DI CAPELLO--HOODED SNAKE. [Illustration: Letter T.] There are several varieties of this venomous serpent, differing in point of colour; and the aspic of Egypt, with which Cleopatra destroyed herself, is said to be a very near ally to this species; but the true cobra is entirely confined to India. The danger which accompanies the bite of this reptile, its activity when excited, the singularity of its form, and the gracefulness of its action, combine to render it one of the most remarkable animals of the class to which it belongs. When in its ordinary state of repose the neck is of the same diameter as the head; but when surprised or irritated, the skin expands laterally in a hood-like form, which is well known to the inhabitants of India as the symptom of approaching danger. Notwithstanding the fatal effects of the bite of these serpents, the Indian jugglers are not deterred from capturing and taming them for exhibition, which they do with singular adroitness, and with fearful interest to the unpractised observer. They carry the reptiles from house to house in a small round basket, from which they issue at the sound of a sort of flute, and execute certain movements in cadence with the music. The animal from which our Engraving was taken is now in the menagerie of the Zoological Society in the Regent's Park, and is probably one of the finest which has ever reached England alive. The Indian mangouste is described to be the most deadly enemy of the cobra di capello, and the battles between them have been frequently described. The serpent, when aware of the approach of the mangouste, rises on its tail, and with neck dilated, its head advanced, and eyes staring, awaits with every look of rage and fear the attack of its foe. The mangouste steals nearer and nearer, and creeping round, endeavours to get an opportunity of springing on the serpent's back; and whenever it misses its purpose and receives a bite, it runs perhaps some distance, to eat the mangouste-grass, which is an antidote against the poison: it then returns to the attack, in which it is commonly victorious. The bite of the cobra di capello is not so immediately fatal as is commonly supposed; fowls have been known to live two days after being bitten, though they frequently die within half an hour. The snake never bites while its hood is closed, and as long as this is not erected the animal may be approached, and even handled with impunity; even when the hood is spread, while the creature continues silent, there is no danger. The fearful hiss is at once the signal of aggression and of peril. Though the cobra is so deadly when under excitement, it is, nevertheless, astonishing to see how readily it is appeased, even in the highest state of exasperation, and this merely by the droning music with which its exhibitors seem to charm it. [Illustration: COBRA DI CAPELLO.] The natives of India have a superstitious feeling with regard to this snake; they conceive that it belongs to another world, and when it appears in this, it is only as a visitor. In consequence of this notion they always avoid killing it, if possible. * * * * * THE PYRAMID LAKE. [Illustration: Letter P.] Perhaps of all the localities of the Oregon territory so vividly described in Captain Fremont's adventurous narrative, the Pyramid Lake, visited on the homeward journey from the Dallas to the Missouri river, is the most beautiful. The exploring party having reached a defile between mountains descending rapidly about 2000 feet, saw, filling up all the lower space, a sheet of green water some twenty miles broad. "It broke upon our eyes," says the narrator, "like the ocean: the neighbouring peaks rose high above us, and we ascended one of them to obtain a better view. The waves were curling to the breeze, and their dark green colour showed it to be a body of deep water. For a long time we sat enjoying the view, for we had become fatigued with mountains, and the free expanse of moving waves was very grateful. It was like a gem in the mountains, which, from our position, seemed to enclose it almost entirely. At the eastern end it communicated with the line of basins we had left a few days since; and on the opposite side it swept a ridge of snowy mountains, the foot of the great Sierra. We followed a broad Indian trail or tract along the shore of the lake to the southward. For a short space we had room enough in the bottom, but, after travelling a short distance, the water swept the foot of the precipitous mountains, the peaks of which are about 3000 feet above the lake. We afterwards encamped on the shore, opposite a very remarkable rock in the lake, which had attracted our attention for many miles. It rose according to our estimation 600 feet above the level of the water, and, from the point we viewed it, presented a pretty exact outline of the great pyramid of Cheops. Like other rocks along the shore, it seemed to be encrusted with calcareous cement. This striking feature suggested a name for the lake, and I called it Pyramid Lake. Its elevation above the sea is 4890 feet, being nearly 700 feet higher than the Great Salt Lake, from which it lies nearly west." The position and elevation of Pyramid Lake make it an object of geographical interest. It is the nearest lake to the western river, as the Great Salt Lake is to the eastern river, of the great basin which lies between the base of the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada, and the extent and character of which it is so desirable to know. Many parts of the borders of this lake appear to be a favourite place of encampment for the Indians, whose number in this country is estimated at 140,000. They retain, still unaltered, most of the features of the savage character. They procure food almost solely by hunting; and to surprise a hostile tribe, to massacre them with every exercise of savage cruelty, and to carry off their scalps as trophies, is their highest ambition. Their domestic behaviour, however, is orderly and peaceable; and they seldom kill or rob a white man. Considerable attempts have been made to civilize them, and with some success; but the moment that any impulse has been given to war and hunting, they have instantly reverted to their original habits. [Illustration: PYRAMID LAKE, OREGON TERRITORY.] * * * * * ADAM AND EVE IN PARADISE. Now came still evening on, and twilight grey Had in her sober livery all things clad. Silence accompanied: for beast and bird, They to their grassy couch, these to their nests, Were slunk--all but the wakeful nightingale: She, all night long, her am'rous descant sung. Silence was pleased. Now glow'd the firmament With living sapphires: Hesperus, that led The starry host, rode brightest; till the moon, Rising in clouded majesty, at length, Apparent queen, unveil'd her peerless light, And o'er the dark her silver mantle threw-- When Adam thus to Eve: "Fair consort, the hour Of night, and all things now retired to rest, 'Mind us of like repose: since God hath set Labour and rest, as day and night, to men Successive; and the timely dew of sleep, Now falling with soft slumberous weight, Inclines our eyelids."-- [Illustration] To whom thus Eve, with perfect beauty adorn'd: "My author and disposer, what thou bidst Unargued I obey. So God ordains. With thee conversing I forget all time, All seasons and their change: all please alike. Sweet is the breath of morn--her rising sweet, With charm of earliest birds; pleasant the sun, When first on this delightful land he spreads His orient beams on herb, tree, fruit, and flower, Glistering with dew; fragrant the fertile earth After short show'rs; and sweet the coming on Of grateful evening mild--then silent night, With this her solemn bird, and this fair moon, And these the gems of heav'n, her starry train: But neither breath of morn, when she ascends With charm of earliest birds; nor rising sun On this delightful land; nor herb, fruit, flower Glistering with dew, nor fragrance after showers, Nor grateful evening mild; nor silent night, With this her solemn bird; nor walk by moon Or glitt'ring starlight, without thee is sweet."-- Thus talking, hand in hand alone they pass'd On to their blissful bower. Thus at their shady lodge arrived, both stood, Both turn'd, and under open sky adored The God that made both sky, air, earth, and heaven, Which they beheld, the moon's resplendent globe, And starry pole. "Thou also madest the night, Maker Omnipotent! and Thou the day, Which we, in our appointed work employ'd, Have finish'd; happy in our mutual help And mutual love, the crown of all our bliss Ordain'd by thee, and this delicious place, For us too large, where thy abundance wants Partakers, and uncropt, falls to the ground. But Thou hast promised from us two a race To fill the earth, who shall with us extol Thy goodness infinite, both when we wake, And when we seek, as now, thy gift of sleep." MILTON. * * * * * OLIVER GOLDSMITH. [Illustration: Letter G.] Goldsmith's poetry enjoys a calm and steady popularity. It inspires us, indeed, with no admiration of daring design or of fertile invention; but it presents within its narrow limits a distinct and unbroken view of poetical delightfulness. His descriptions and sentiments have the pure zest of nature. He is refined without false delicacy, and correct without insipidity. Perhaps there is an intellectual composure in his manner, which may, in some passages, be said to approach to the reserved and prosaic; but he unbends from this graver strain of reflection to tenderness, and even to playfulness, with an ease and grace almost exclusively his own; and connects extensive views of the happiness and interests of society with pictures of life that touch the heart by their familiarity. He is no disciple of the gaunt and famished school of simplicity. He uses the ornaments which must always distinguish true poetry from prose; and when he adopts colloquial plainness, it is with the utmost skill to avoid a vulgar humility. There is more of this sustained simplicity, of this chaste economy and choice of words, in Goldsmith than in any other modern poet, or, perhaps, than would be attainable or desirable as a standard for every writer of rhyme. In extensive narrative poems, such a style would be too difficult. There is a noble propriety even in the careless strength of great poems, as in the roughness of castle walls; and, generally speaking, where there is a long course of story, or observation of life to be pursued, such excursite touches as those of Goldsmith would be too costly materials for sustaining it. His whole manner has a still depth of feeling and reflection, which gives back the image of nature unruffled and minutely. His chaste pathos makes him an insulating moralist, and throws a charm of Claude-like softness over his descriptions of homely objects, that would seem only fit to be the subjects of Dutch painting; but his quiet enthusiasm leads the affections to humble things without a vulgar association, and he inspires us with a fondness to trace the simplest recollections of Auburn, till we count the furniture of its ale-house, and listen to the varnished clock that clicked behind the door. CAMPBELL. * * * * * HAGAR AND ISHMAEL. [Illustration: Letter H.] Hagar and Ishmael departed early on the day fixed for their removal, Abraham furnishing them with the necessary supply of travelling provisions. "And Abraham arose up early in the morning, and took bread and a bottle of water, and gave it unto Hagar, putting it on her shoulder, and she went away." The bottle here mentioned was probably made of the skin of a goat, sewn up, leaving an opening in one of the legs to serve as a mouth. Such skin bottles are still commonly used in Western Asia for water, and are borne slung across the shoulders, just as that of Hagar was placed. It seems to have been the intention of Hagar to return to her native country, Egypt; but, in spite of the directions she received, the two travellers lost their way in the southern wilderness, and wandered to and fro till the water, which was to have served them on the road, was altogether spent. The lad, unused to hardship, was soon worn out. Overcome by heat and thirst, he seemed at the point of death, when the afflicted mother laid him down under one of the stunted shrubs of this dry and desert region, in the hope of his getting some relief from the slight damp which the shade afforded. The burning fever, however, continued unabated; and the poor mother, forgetting her own sorrow, destitute and alone in the midst of a wilderness, went to a little distance, unable to witness his lingering sufferings, and then "she lifted up her voice and wept." But God had not forgotten her: a voice was heard in the solitude, and an Angel of the Lord appeared, uttering words of comfort and promises of peace. He directed her to a well of water, which, concealed by the brushwood, had not been seen by her. Thus encouraged, Hagar drew a refreshing draught, and hastening to her son, "raised him by the hand," and gave him the welcome drink, which soon restored him. This well, according to the tradition of the Arabs, who pay great honour to the memory of Hagar, is Zemzem, near Mecca. [Illustration: HAGAR AND ISHMAEL.] After this, we have no account of the history of Ishmael, except that he established himself in the wilderness of Paran, near Mount Sinai, and belonged to one of the tribes by which the desert was frequented. He was married, by his mother, to a countrywoman of her own, and maintained himself and his family by the produce of his bow. Many of the Arabian tribes have been proud to trace their origin to this son of the Patriarch Abraham. * * * * * THE HOLLY BOUGH. [Illustration: Letter Y.] Ye who have scorn'd each other, Or injured friend or brother, In this fast fading year; Ye who, by word or deed, Have made a kind heart bleed, Come gather here. Let sinn'd against, and sinning, Forget their strife's beginning, And join in friendship now; Be links no longer broken, Be sweet forgiveness spoken Under the Holly-bough. Ye who have loved each other, Sister and friend and brother, In this fast fading year; Mother and sire and child, Young man and maiden mild, Come gather here; And let your hearts grow fonder, As Memory shall ponder Each past unbroken vow: Old loves and younger wooing Are sweet in the renewing Under the Holly-bough. Ye who have nourish'd sadness. Estranged from hope and gladness, In this fast fading year; Ye with o'erburden'd mind, Made aliens from your kind, Come gather here. Let not the useless sorrow Pursue you night and morrow, If e'er you hoped, hope now-- Take heart, uncloud your faces, And join in our embraces Under the Holly-bough. MACKAY [Illustration: THE HOLLY CART.] * * * * * THE UNIVERSE. To us who dwell on its surface, the earth is by far the most extensive orb that our eyes can any where behold; but, to a spectator placed on one of the planets, it looks no larger than a spot. To beings who dwell at still greater distances, it entirely disappears. That which we call alternately the morning and the evening star, as in the one part of the orbit she rides foremost in the procession of night, in the other ushers in and anticipates the dawn, is a planetary world, which, with the five others that so wonderfully vary their mystic dance, are in themselves dark bodies, and shine only by reflection; have fields, and seas, and skies of their own; are furnished with all accommodations for animal subsistence, and are supposed to be the abodes of intellectual life. All these, together with our earthly habitation, are dependent on the sun, receive their light from his rays, and derive their comfort from his benign agency. The sun, which seems to us to perform its daily stages through the sky, is, in this respect, fixed and immovable; it is the great axle about which the globe we inhabit, and other more spacious orbs, wheel their stated courses. The sun, though apparently smaller than the dial it illuminates, is immensely larger than this whole earth, on which so many lofty mountains rise, and such vast oceans roll. A line extending from side to side through the centre of that resplendent orb, would measure more than 800,000 miles: a girdle formed to go round its circumference, would require a length of millions. Are we startled at these reports of philosophers? Are we ready to cry out in a transport of surprise, "How mighty is the Being who kindled such a prodigious fire, and keeps alive from age to age such an enormous mass of flame!" Let us attend our philosophic guides, and we shall be brought acquainted with speculations more enlarged and more inflaming. The sun, with all its attendant planets, is but a very little part of the grand machine of the universe; every star, though in appearance no bigger than the diamond that glitters upon a lady's ring, is really a vast globe like the sun in size and in glory; no less spacious, no less luminous, than the radiant source of the day: so that every star is not barely a world, but the centre of a magnificent system; has a retinue of worlds irradiated by its beams, and revolving round its attractive influence--all which are lost to our sight. That the stars appear like so many diminutive points, is owing to their immense and inconceivable distance. Immense and inconceivable indeed it is, since a ball shot from a loaded cannon, and flying with unabated rapidity, must travel at this impetuous rate almost 700,000 years, before it could reach the nearest of these twinkling luminaries. While beholding this vast expanse I learn my own extreme meanness, I would also discover the abject littleness of all terrestrial things. What is the earth, with all her ostentatious scenes, compared with this astonishingly grand furniture of the skies? What, but a dim speck hardly perceptible in the map of the universe? It is observed by a very judicious writer, that if the sun himself, which enlightens this part of the creation, were extinguished, and all the host of planetary worlds which move about him were annihilated, they would not be missed by an eye that can take in the whole compass of nature any more than a grain of sand upon the sea-shore. The bulk of which they consist, and the space which they occupy, are so exceedingly little in comparison of the whole, that their loss would leave scarce a blank in the immensity of God's works. If, then, not our globe only, but this whole system, be so very dimunitive, what is a kingdom or a country? What are a few lordships, or the so-much-admired patrimonies of those who are styled wealthy? When I measure them with my own little pittance, they swell into proud and bloated dimensions; but when I take the universe for my standard, how scanty is their size, how contemptible their figure; they shrink into pompous nothings! ADDISON. * * * * * ODE TO ST. CECILIA. [Illustration] Now strike the golden lyre again: A louder yet, and yet a louder strain. Break his bands of sleep asunder, And rouse him, like a rattling peal of thunder. Hark, hark, the horrid sound Has raised up his head, As awaked from the dead, And amazed, he stares around. Revenge, revenge, Timotheus cries, See the Furies arise: See the snakes that they rear, How they hiss in their hair, And the sparkles that flash from their eyes! Behold a ghastly band, Each a torch in his hand! Those are Grecian ghosts, that in battle were slain, And unburied remain Inglorious on the plain. Give the vengeance due To the valiant crew. Behold how they toss their torches on high, How they point to the Persian abodes, And glitt'ring temples of their hostile gods! The Princes applaud, with a furious joy; And the King seized a flambeau, with zeal to destroy; Thais led the way, To light him to his prey, And, like another Helen, fired another Troy. Thus, long ago, Ere heaving bellows learn'd to blow, While organs yet were mute; Timotheus, to his breathing flute And sounding lyre, Could swell the soul to rage, or kindle soft desire. At last divine Cecilia came, Inventress of the vocal frame; The sweet enthusiast, from the sacred store, Enlarged the former narrow bounds, And added length to solemn sounds, With nature's mother-wit, and arts unknown before. Let old Timotheus yield the prize, Or both divide the crown: He raised a mortal to the skies; She drew an angel down. DRYDEN * * * * * SATIN BOWER-BIRDS. The Satin Bower-Bird was one of the earliest known species in the Australian fauna, and probably received the name of _Satin Grakle_, by which it was described in Latham's "General History of Birds," from the intensely black glossy plumage of the adult male. But, although the existence of this bird was noticed by most of the writers on the natural history of Australia subsequent to Latham, it appears that no suspicion of its singular economy had extended beyond the remotest settlers, until Mr. Gould, whose great work on the "Birds of Australia" is known to every one, unravelled the history of the _bowers_, which had been discovered in many parts of the bush, and which had been attributed to almost every possible origin but the right one. The bower, as will be seen by the Illustration, is composed of twigs woven together in the most compact manner, and ornamented with shells and feathers, the disposition of which the birds are continually altering. They have no connexion with the nest, and are simply playing-places, in which the birds divert themselves during the months which precede nidification. [Illustration: BOWER BIRDS.] The birds themselves are nearly as large as a jackdaw. The female is green in colour, the centre of the breast feathers yellowish; the unmoulted plumage of the male is similar: the eyes of both are brilliant blue. * * * * * THE POOL OF SILOAM. [Illustration: Letter T.] The fountain and pool of Siloam, whose surplus waters flow in a little streamlet falling into the lake Kedron, is situate near the ancient walls of the city of Jerusalem. Mr. Wild tells us "that the fountain of Siloam is a mineral spring of a brackish taste, and somewhat of the smell of the Harrowgate water, but in a very slight degree." It is said to possess considerable medicinal properties, and is much frequented by pilgrims. "Continuing our course," says he, "around the probable line of the ancient walls, along the gentle slope of Zion, we pass by the King's gardens, and arrive at the lower pool of Siloam, placed in another indentation in the wall. It is a deep square cistern lined with masonry, adorned with columns at the sides, and having a flight of steps leading to the bottom, in which there was about two feet of water. It communicates by a subterraneous passage with the fountain, from which it is distant about 600 yards. The water enters the pool by a low arched passage, into which the pilgrims, numbers of whom are generally to be found around it, put their heads, as part of the ceremony, and wash their clothes in the purifying stream that rises from it." During a rebellion in Jerusalem, in which the Arabs inhabiting the Tillage of Siloam were the ringleaders, they gained access to the city by means of the conduit of this pool, which again rises within the mosque of Omar. This passage is evidently the work of art, the water in it is generally about two feet deep, and a man may go through it in a stooping position. When the stream leaves the pool, it is divided into numbers of little aqueducts, for the purpose of irrigating the gardens and pleasure-grounds which lie immediately beneath it in the valley, and are the chief source of their fertility, for, as they are mostly formed of earth which has been carried from other places, they possess no original or natural soil capable of supporting vegetation. As there is but little water in the pool during the dry season, the Arabs dam up the several streams in order to collect a sufficient quantity in small ponds adjoining each garden, and this they all do at the same time, or there would be an unfair division of the fertilizing fluid. These dams are generally made in the evening and drawn off in the morning, or sometimes two or three times a day; and thus the reflux of the water that they hold gives the appearance of an ebb and flow, which by some travellers has caused a report that the pool of Siloam is subject to daily tides. [Illustration: THE POOL OF SILOAM.] There are few towns, and scarcely any metropolitan town, in which the natural supply of water is so inadequate as at Jerusalem; hence the many and elaborate contrivances to preserve the precious fluid, or to bring it to the town by aqueducts. * * * * * WINTER THOUGHTS. [Illustration: Letter A.] Ah! little think the gay licentious proud, Whom pleasure, pow'r, and affluence surround-- They who their thoughtless hours in giddy mirth, And wanton, often cruel, riot waste; Ah! little think they, while they dance along How many feel this very moment death, And all the sad variety of pain: How many sink in the devouring flood, Or more devouring flame! how many bleed By shameful variance betwixt man and man! How many pine in want and dungeon glooms, Shut from the common air, and common use Of their own limbs! how many drink the cup Of baleful grief, or eat the bitter bread Of misery! Sore pierced by wintry winds, How many shrink into the sordid hut Of cheerless poverty! How many shake With all the fiercer tortures of the mind, Unbounded passion, madness, guilt, remorse, Whence tumbled headlong from the height of life, They furnish matter for the Tragic Muse! Even in the vale where Wisdom loves to dwell, With Friendship, Peace, and Contemplation join'd, How many, rack'd with honest passions, droop In deep retired distress. How many stand Around the death-bed of their dearest friends, And point the parting anguish! Thought fond man Of these, and all the thousand nameless ills, That one incessant struggle render life-- One scene of toil, of suffering, and of fate, Vice in its high career would stand appall'd, And heedless, rambling impulse learn to think; The conscious heart of Charity would warm, And her wide wish Benevolence dilate; The social tear would rise, the social sigh, And into clear perfection gradual bliss, Refining still, the social passions work. THOMSON. * * * * * BRITISH TROOPS IN CANADA. [Illustration: Letter R.] Really winter in Canada must be felt to be imagined; and when felt can no more be described by words, than colours to a blind man or music to a deaf one. Even under bright sun-shine, and in a most exhilirating air, the biting effect of the cold upon the portion of our face that is exposed to it resembles the application of a strong acid; and the healthy grin which the countenance assumes, requires--as I often observed on those who for many minutes had been in a warm room waiting to see me--a considerable time to relax. In a calm, almost any degree of cold is bearable, but the application of successive doses of it to the face by wind, becomes, occasionally, almost unbearable; indeed, I remember seeing the left cheek of nearly twenty of our soldiers simultaneously frost-bitten in marching about a hundred yards across a bleak open space, completely exposed to a strong and bitterly cold north-west wind that was blowing upon us all. The remedy for this intense cold, to which many Canadians and others have occasionally recourse, is--at least to my feelings it always appeared--infinitely worse than the disease. On entering, for instance, the small parlour of a little inn, a number of strong, able-bodied fellows are discovered holding their hands a few inches before their faces, and sitting in silence immediately in front of a stove of such excruciating power, that it really feels as if it would roast the very eyes in their sockets; and yet, as one endures this agony, the back part is as cold as if it belonged to what is called at home "Old Father Christmas." As a further instance of the climate, I may add, that several times, while my mind was very warmly occupied in writing my despatches, I found my pen full of a lump of stuff that appeared to be honey, but which proved to be frozen ink; again, after washing in the morning, when I took up some money that had lain all night on my table, I at first fancied it had become sticky, until I discovered that the sensation was caused by its freezing to my fingers, which, in consequence of my ablutions, were not perfectly dry. [Illustration: WINTER DRESS OF BRITISH TROOPS IN CANADA.] Notwithstanding, however, this intensity of cold, the powerful circulation of the blood of large quadrupeds keeps the red fluid, like the movement of the waters in the great lakes, from freezing; but the human frame not being gifted with this power, many people lose their limbs, and occasionally their lives, from cold. I one day inquired of a fine, ruddy, honest-looking man, who called upon me, and whose toes and instep of each foot had been truncated, how the accident happened? He told me that the first winter he came from England he lost his way in the forest, and that after walking for some hours, feeling pain in his feet, he took off his boots, and from the flesh immediately swelling, he was unable to put them on again. His stockings, which were very old ones, soon wore into holes; and as rising on his insteps he was hurriedly proceeding he knew not where, he saw with alarm, but without feeling the slightest pain, first one toe and then another break off, as if they had been pieces of brittle stick, and in this mutilated state he continued to advance till he reached a path which led him to an inhabited log house, where he remained suffering great pain till his cure was effected. Although the sun, from the latitude, has considerable power, it appears only to illuminate the sparkling snow, which, like the sugar on a bridal cake, conceals the whole surface. The instant, however, the fire of heaven sinks below the horizon, the cold descends from the upper regions of the atmosphere with a feeling as if it were poured down upon the head and shoulders from a jug. SIR FRANCIS HEAD. * * * * * BALLOONS. The idea of constructing a machine which should enable us to rise into and sail through the air, seems often to have occupied the attention of mankind, even from remote times, but it was never realised until within the last sixty or seventy years. The first public ascent of a fire-balloon in France, in 1783, led to an experiment on the part of Joseph Mongolfier. He constructed a balloon of linen, lined with paper, which, when inflated by means of burning chopped straw and coal, was found to be capable of raising 500 pounds weight. It was inflated in front of the Palace at Versailles, in the presence of the Royal family, and a basket, containing a sheep, a duck, and a cock, was attached to it. It was then liberated, and ascended to the height of 1500 feet. It fell about two miles from Versailles; the animals were uninjured, and the sheep was found quietly feeding near the place of its descent. Monsieur Mongolfier then constructed one of superior strength, and a M. de Rozier ventured to take his seat in the car and ascend three hundred feet, the height allowed by the ropes, which were not cut. This same person afterwards undertook an aerial voyage, descending in safety about five miles from Paris, where the balloon ascended. But this enterprising voyager in the air afterwards attempted to travel in a balloon with sails. This was formed by a singular combination of balloons--one inflated with hydrogen gas, and the other a fire-balloon. The latter, however, catching fire, the whole apparatus fell from the height of about three-quarters of a mile, with the mangled bodies of the voyagers attached to the complicated machinery. [Illustration: GREEN'S BALLOON, ASCENDING FROM VAUXHALL GARDENS.] A Frenchman named Tester, in 1786, also made an excursion in a balloon with sails; these sails or wings aided in carrying his balloon so high, that when he had reached an elevation of 3000 feet, fearing his balloon might burst, he descended into a corn-field in the plain of Montmorency. An immense crowd ran eagerly to the spot; and the owner of the field, angry at the injury his crop had sustained, demanded instant indemnification. Tester offered no resistance, but persuaded the peasants that, having lost his wings, he could not possibly escape. The ropes were seized by a number of persons, who attempted to drag the balloon towards the village; but as, during the procession, it had acquired considerable buoyancy, Tester suddenly cut the cords, and, rising in the air, left the disappointed peasants overwhelmed in astonishment. After being out in a terrible thunder-storm, he descended uninjured, about twelve hours from the time of his first ascent. * * * * * SIR THOMAS GRESHAM. [Illustration: Letter A.] Among the worthies of this country who, after a successful and honourable employment of their talent in life, have generously consulted the advantage of generations to come after them, few names appear more conspicuous than that of Sir Thomas Gresham, the founder of Gresham College, and of the Royal Exchange, London. He was born in that city about the year 1518, the second son of Sir Richard Gresham, who served the office of sheriff in 1531, and that of Lord Mayor in 1537. He received a liberal education at the University, and is mentioned in high terms as having distinguished himself at Cambridge, being styled "that noble and most learned merchant." His father at this time held the responsible position of King's merchant, and had the management of the Royal monies at Antwerp, then the most important seat of commerce in Europe; and when his son Sir Thomas succeeded him in this responsible appointment, he not only established his fame as a merchant, but secured universal respect and esteem. After the accession of Queen Elizabeth, his good qualities attracted the peculiar notice of her Majesty, who was pleased to bestow on him the honour of knighthood; and at this time he built the noble house in Bishopsgate-street, which after his death was converted to the purposes of a College of his own foundation. In the year 1564, Sir Thomas made an offer to the Corporation of London, that, if the City would give him a piece of ground, he would erect an Exchange at his own expense; and thus relieve the merchants from their present uncomfortable mode of transacting business in the open air. The liberal offer being accepted, the building, which was afterwards destroyed in the Great Fire of London, was speedily constructed, at a very great expense, and ornamented with a number of statues. Nor did Gresham's persevering benevolence stop here: though he had so much to engross his time and attention, he still found leisure to consider the claims of the destitute and aged, and in his endowment of eight alms-houses with a comfortable allowance for as many decayed citizens of London, displayed that excellent grace of charity which was his truest ornament. In person Sir Thomas was above the middle height, and handsome when a young man, but he was rendered lame by a fall from his horse during one of his journeys in Flanders. Sir Thomas Gresham's exemplary life terminated suddenly on the 21st of November, 1579, after he had just paid a visit to the noble building which he had so generously founded. [Illustration: SIR THOMAS GRESHAM.] * * * * * ON THE ATTAINMENT OF KNOWLEDGE. Let the enlargement of your knowledge be one constant view and design in life; since there is no time or place, no transactions, occurrences, or engagements in life, which exclude us from this method of improving the mind. When we are alone, even in darkness and silence, we may converse with our own hearts, observe the working of our own spirits, and reflect upon the inward motions of our own passions in some of the latest occurrences in life; we may acquaint ourselves with the powers and properties, the tendencies and inclinations both of body and spirit, and gain a more intimate knowledge of ourselves. When we are in company, we may discover something more of human nature, of human passions and follies, and of human affairs, vices and virtues, by conversing with mankind, and observing their conduct. Nor is there any thing more valuable than the knowledge of ourselves and the knowledge of men, except it be the knowledge of God who made us, and our relation to Him as our Governor. When we are in the house or the city, wheresoever we turn our eyes, we see the works of men; when we are abroad in the country, we behold more of the works of God. The skies and the ground above and beneath us, and the animal and vegetable world round about us, may entertain our observation with ten thousand varieties. Fetch down some knowledge from the clouds, the stars, the sun, the moon, and the revolutions of all the planets. Dig and draw up some valuable meditations from the depths of the earth, and search them through the vast oceans of water. Extract some intellectual improvement from the minerals and metals; from the wonders of nature among the vegetables and herbs, trees and flowers. Learn some lessons from the birds and the beasts, and the meanest insect. Read the wisdom of God, and his admirable contrivance in them all: read his almighty power, his rich and various goodness, in all the works of his hands. From the day and the night, the hours and the flying minutes, learn a wise improvement of time, and be watchful to seize every opportunity to increase in knowledge. From the vices and follies of others, observe what is hateful in them; consider how such a practice looks in another person, and remember that it looks as ill or worse in yourself. From the virtue of others, learn something worthy of your imitation. From the deformity, the distress, or calamity of others, derive lessons of thankfulness to God, and hymns of grateful praise to your Creator, Governor, and Benefactor, who has formed you in a better mould, and guarded you from those evils. Learn also the sacred lesson of contentment in your own estate, and compassion to your neighbour under his miseries. From your natural powers, sensations, judgment, memory, hands, feet, &c., make this inference, that they were not given you for nothing, but for some useful employment to the honour of your Maker, and for the good of your fellow-creatures, as well as for your own best interest and final happiness. DR. WATTS. * * * * * THIBETAN SHEEP. The enterprising traveller, Moorcroft, during his journey across the vast chain of the Himalaya Mountains, in India, undertaken with the hope of finding a passage across those mountains into Tartary, noticed, in the district of Ladak, the peculiar race of sheep of which we give an Engraving. Subsequent observations having confirmed his opinion as to the quality of their flesh and wool, the Honourable East India Company imported a flock, which were sent for a short time to the Gardens of the Zoological Society, Regent's Park. They were then distributed among those landed proprietors whose possessions are best adapted, by soil and climate, for naturalising in the British Islands this beautiful variety of the mountain sheep. The wool, the flesh, and the milk of the sheep appear to have been very early appreciated as valuable products of the animal: with us, indeed, the milk of the flock has given place to that of the herd; but the two former still retain their importance. Soon after the subjugation of Britain by the Romans, a woollen manufactory was established at Winchester, situated in the midst of a district then, as now, peculiarly suited to the short-woolled breed of sheep. So successful was this manufacture, that British cloths were soon preferred at Rome to those of any other part of the Empire, and were worn by the most opulent on festive and ceremonial occasions. From that time forward, the production of wool in this island, and the various manufactures connected with it, have gone on increasing in importance, until it has become one of the chief branches of our commerce. [Illustration: THIBETAN SHEEP.] * * * * * NAVAL TACTICS. [Illustration: Letter O.] On being told the number and size of the sails which a vessel can carry (that is to say, can sail with, without danger of being upset), the uninitiated seldom fail to express much surprise. This is not so striking in a three-decker, as in smaller vessels, because the hull of the former stands very high out of the water, for the sake of its triple rank of guns, and therefore bears a greater proportion to its canvas than that of a frigate or a smaller vessel. The apparent inequality is most obvious in the smallest vessels, as cutters: and of those kept for pleasure, and therefore built for the purpose of sailing as fast as possible, without reference to freight or load, there are many the hull of which might be entirely wrapt up in the mainsail. It is of course very rarely, if ever, that a vessel carries at one time all the sail she is capable of; the different sails being usually employed according to the circumstances of direction of wind and course. The sails of a ship, when complete, are as follows:-- The lowermost sail of the mast, called thence the _mainsail_, or _foresail_; the _topsail_, carried by the _topsail-yard_; the _top-gallant-sail_; and above this there is also set a _royal_ sail, and again above this, but only on emergencies, a sail significantly called a _sky-sail_. Besides all this, the three lowermost of these are capable of having their surface to be exposed to the wind increased by means of _studding_ sails, which are narrow sails set on each side beyond the regular one, by means of small _booms_ or yards, which can be slid out so as to extend the lower yards and topsail-yards: the upper parts of these additional sails hang from small yards suspended from the principal ones, and the boom of the lower studding-sails is hooked on to the chains. Thus each of the two principal masts, the fore and main, are capable of bearing no less than thirteen distinct sails. If a ship could be imagined as cut through by a plane, at right angles to the keel, close to the mainmast, the _area_, or surface, of all the sails on this would be five or six times as great as that of the section or profile of the hull! The starboard studding-sails are on the fore-mast, and on both sides of the main-top-gallant and main-royal; but, in going nearly before a wind, there is no advantage derived from the stay-sails, which, accordingly, are not set. The flying-jib is to be set to assist in steadying the motion. The mizen-mast, instead of a lower square-sail like the two others, has a sail like that of a cutter, lying in the plane of the keel, its bottom stretched on a boom, which extends far over the taffarel, and the upper edge carried by a _gaff_ or yard sloping upwards, supported by ropes from the top of the mizen-mast. All these sails, the sky-sails excepted, have four sides, as have also the sprit-sails on the bowsprit, jib-boom, &c.; and all, except the sail last mentioned on the mizen, usually lie across the ship, or in planes forming considerable angles with the axis or central line of the ship. There are a number of sails which lie in the same plane with the keel, being attached to the various _stays_ of the masts; these are triangular sails, and those are called _stay-sails_ which are between the masts: those before the fore-mast, and connected with the bowsprit, are the _fore stay-sail_, the _fore-topmast-stay-sail_, the _jib_, sometimes a _flying jib_, and another called a _middle jib_, and there are two or three others used occasionally. Thus it appears that there are no less than fifty-three different sails, which are used at times, though, we believe, seldom more than twenty are _set_ at one time, for it is obviously useless to extend or set a sail, if the wind is prevented from filling it by another which intercepts the current of air. The higher the wind, the fewer the sails which a ship can carry; but as a certain number, or rather quantity, of canvas is necessary in different parts of the ship to allow of the vessel being steered, the principal sails, that is, the _courses_ or lower sails, and the top-sails, admit of being reduced in extent by what is termed _reefing_: this is done by tying up the upper part of the sail to the yard by means of rows of strings called _reef-points_ passing through the canvas; this reduces the depth of the sail, while its width is unaltered on the yard, which is therefore obliged to be lowered on the mast accordingly. [Illustration: SHORTENING SAIL IN A STORM.] [Illustration: PREPARING TO MAKE SAIL.] [Illustration: LOOSED SAILS.] Ships are principally distinguished as those called merchantmen, which belong to individuals or companies, and are engaged in commerce; and men-of-war, or the national ships, built for the purposes of war. The latter receive their designation from the number of their decks, or of the guns which they carry. The largest are termed ships of the line, from their forming the line of battle when acting together in fleets; and are divided into first-rates, second-rates, third-rates, &c. First-rates include all those carrying 100 guns and upwards, with a company of 850 men and upwards; second-rates mount 90 to 100 guns, and so on, down to the sixth-rates; but some ships of less than 44 guns are termed frigates. [Illustration: TOP-GALLANT-SAILS HOME.] [Illustration: SAIL ON THE STARBOARD TACK.] [Illustration: REEFING TOPSAILS.] [Illustration: DOUBLE-REEFED TOPSAILS.] There are three principal masts in a complete ship: the first is the main-mast, which stands in the centre of the ship; at a considerable distance forward is the fore-mast; and at a less distance behind, the mizen-mast. These masts, passing through the decks, are fixed firmly in the keel. There are added to them other masts, which can be taken down or raised--hoisted, as it is termed at sea--at pleasure: these are called top-masts, and, according to the mast to which each is attached--main, fore, or mizen-topmast. When the topmast is carried still higher by the addition of a third, it receives the name of top-gallant-mast. The yards are long poles of wood slung across the masts, or attached to them by one end, and having fixed to them the upper edge of the principal sails. They are named upon the same plan as the masts; for example, the main-yard, the fore-top-sail-yard, and so on. The bowsprit is a strong conical piece of timber, projecting from the stem of a ship, and serving to support the fore-mast, and as a yard or boom on which certain sails are moveable. According as the wind blows from different points, in regard to the course the ship is sailing, it is necessary that the direction of the yards should be changed, so as to form different angles with the central line or with the keel; this is effected by ropes brought from the ends of the yards to the mast behind that to which these belong, and then, passing through blocks, they come down to the deck: by pulling one of these, the other being slackened, the yard is brought round to the proper degree of inclination; this is termed bracing the yards, the ropes being termed braces. * * * * * THE CHOICE OF HERCULES. When Hercules was in that part of his youth in which it was natural for him to consider what course of life he ought to pursue, he one day retired into a desert, where the silence and solitude of the place very much favoured his meditations. As he was musing on his present condition, and very much perplexed in himself on the state of life he should choose, he saw two women, of a larger stature than ordinary, approaching towards him. One of them had a very noble air, and graceful deportment; her beauty was natural and easy, her person clean and unspotted, her eyes cast towards the ground with an agreeable reserve, her motion and behaviour full of modesty, and her raiment as white as snow. The other had a great deal of health and floridness in her countenance, which she had helped with an artificial white and red; and she endeavoured to appear more graceful than ordinary in her mien, by a mixture of affectation in all her gestures. She had a wonderful confidence and assurance in her looks, and all the variety of colours in her dress, that she thought were the most proper to shew her complexion to advantage. She cast her eyes upon herself, then turned them on those that were present, to see how they liked her, and often looked on the figure she made in her own shadow. Upon her nearer approach to Hercules, she stepped before the other lady, who came forward with a regular, composed carriage, and running up to him, accosted him after the following manner:-- "My dear Hercules!" says she, "I find you are very much divided in your thoughts upon the way of life that you ought to choose; be my friend, and follow me; I will lead you into the possession of pleasure, and out of the reach of pain, and remove you from all the noise and disquietude of business. The affairs of either war or peace shall have no power to disturb you. Your whole employment shall be to make your life easy, and to entertain every sense with its proper gratifications. Sumptuous tables, beds of roses, clouds of perfume, concerts of music, crowds of beauties, are all in readiness to receive you. Come along with me into this region of delights, this world of pleasure, and bid farewell for ever to care, to pain, to business." Hercules, hearing the lady talk after this manner, desired to know her name, to which she answered--"My friends, and those who are well acquainted with me, call me Happiness; but my enemies, and those who would injure my reputation, have given me the name of Pleasure." By this time the other lady was come up, who addressed herself to the young hero in a very different manner:--"Hercules," says she, "I offer myself to you because I know you are descended from the gods, and give proofs of that descent by your love of virtue and application to the studies proper for your age. This makes me hope you will gain, both for yourself and me, an immortal reputation. But before I invite you into my society and friendship, I will be open and sincere with you, and must lay this down as an established truth, that there is nothing truly valuable which can be purchased without pains and labour. The gods have set a price upon every real and noble pleasure. If you would gain the favour of the Deity, you must be at the pains of worshipping Him; if the friendship of good men, you must study to oblige them; if you would be honoured by your country, you must take care to serve it; in short, if you would be eminent in war or peace, you must become master of all the qualifications that can make you so. These are the only terms and conditions upon which I can propose happiness." The Goddess of Pleasure here broke in upon her discourse:--"You see," said she, "Hercules, by her own confession, the way to her pleasures is long and difficult; whereas that which I propose is short and easy." "Alas!" said the other lady, whose visage glowed with passion, made up of scorn and pity, "what are the pleasures you propose? To eat before you are hungry; drink before you are athirst; sleep before you are tired; to gratify appetites before they are raised, and raise such appetites as Nature never planted. You never heard the most delicious music, which is the praise of one's-self; nor saw the most beautiful object, which is the work of one's own hands. Your votaries pass away their youth in a dream of mistaken pleasures, while they are hoarding up anguish, torment, and remorse for old age. As for me, I am the friend of gods and of good men; an agreeable companion to the artizan; an household guardian to the fathers of families; a patron and protector of servants; an associate in all true and generous friendships. The banquets of my votaries are never costly, but always delicious; for none eat or drink of them who are not invited by hunger or thirst. Their slumbers are sound, and their wakings cheerful. My young men have the pleasure of hearing themselves praised by those who are in years; and those who are in years, of being honoured by those who are young. In a word, my followers are favoured by the gods, beloved by their acquaintance, esteemed by their country, and after the close of their labours honoured by posterity." We know, by the life of this memorable hero, to which of these two ladies he gave up his heart; and I believe every one who reads this will do him the justice to approve his choice. _Tatler_. * * * * * STRATA FLORIDA ABBEY. [Illustration] The remains of Strata Florida Abbey, in South Wales, are most interesting in many points of view, more especially as the relics of a stately seminary for learning, founded as early as the year 1164. The community of the Abbey were Cistercian monks, who soon attained great celebrity, and acquired extensive possessions. A large library was founded by them, which included the national records from the earliest periods, the works of the bards and the genealogies of the Princes and great families in Wales. The monks also compiled a valuable history of the Principality, down to the death of Llewellyn the Great. When Edward I. invaded Wales, he burned the Abbey, but it was rebuilt A.D. 1294. Extensive woods once flourished in the vicinity of Strata Florida, and its burial-place covered no less than 120 acres. A long list of eminent persons from all parts of Wales were here buried, and amongst them David ap Gwillim, the famous bard. The churchyard is now reduced to small dimensions; but leaden coffins, doubtless belonging to once celebrated personages, are still found, both there and at a distance from the cemetery. A few aged box and yew-trees now only remain to tell of the luxuriant verdure which once grew around the Abbey; and of the venerable pile itself little is left, except an arch, and the fragment of a fine old wall, about forty feet high. A small church now stands within the enclosure, more than commonly interesting from having been built with the materials of the once celebrated Abbey of Strata Florida. * * * * * KAFFIR CHIEFS. [Illustration] In the warm summer months a thin kind of petticoat constitutes the sole bodily attire of the Kaffir Chiefs; but in winter a cloak is used, made of the skins of wild beasts, admirably curried. The head, even in the hottest weather, is never protected by any covering, a fillet, into which a feather of the ostrich is stuck, being generally worn; and they seldom wear shoes, except on undertaking a long journey, when they condescend to use a rude substitute for them. The bodies of both sexes are tattooed; and the young men, like the fops of more civilized nations, paint their skins and curl their hair. Their arms are the javelin, a large shield of buffalo-hide, and a short club. The women exhibit taste in the arrangement of their dress, particularly for that of the head, which consists of a turban made of skin, and profusely ornamented with beads, of which adornment both men and women are very fond. A mantle of skin, variously bedecked with these and other showy trinkets, is worn; and the only distinction between the dress of the chieftains' wives and those of a lower rank consists in a greater profusion of ornaments possessed by the former, but of which all are alike vain. There is no change of dress, the whole wardrobe of the female being that which she carries about with her and sleeps in, for bed-clothes they have none. The grain which they chiefly cultivate is a kind of millet: a small quantity of Indian corn and some pumpkins are likewise grown; but a species of sugar-cane is produced in great abundance, and of this they are extremely fond. Their diet, however, is chiefly milk in a sour curdled state. They dislike swine's flesh, keep no poultry, are averse to fish, but indulge in eating the flesh of their cattle, which they do in a very disgusting way. Although naturally brave and warlike, they prefer an indolent pastoral life, hunting being an occasional pastime. Much light was thrown on the condition and future prospects of this people in 1835, by some papers relative to the Cape of Good Hope, which were laid before the English Government. From these it appeared that a system of oppression and unjustifiable appropriation on the part of the whites, have from time to time roused the savage energies of the Kaffirs, and impelled them to make severe reprisals upon their European spoilers. The longing of the Cape colonists for the well-watered valleys of the Kaffirs, and of the latter for the colonial cattle, which are much superior to their own, still are, as they have always been, the sources of irritation. Constant skirmishes took place, until, at length, in 1834, the savages poured into the colony in vast numbers, wasted the farms, drove off the cattle, and murdered not a few of the inhabitants. An army of 4000 men was marched against the invaders, who were driven far beyond the boundary-line which formerly separated Kaffirland from Cape Colony, and not only forced to confine themselves within the new limits prescribed, but to pay a heavy fine. Treaties have been entered into, and tracts of country assigned to the Kaffir chiefs of several families, who acknowledge themselves to be subjects of Great Britain, and who are to pay a fat ox annually as a quit-rent for the lands which they occupy. Macomo, one of the Kaffir Chiefs, is a man of most remarkable character and talent, and succeeded his father, Gaika, who had been possessed of much greater power and wider territories than the son, but had found himself compelled to yield up a large portion of his lands to the colonists. Macomo received no education; all the culture which his mind ever obtained being derived from occasional intercourse with missionaries, after he had grown to manhood. From 1819, the period of Gaika's concessions, up to the year 1829, he with his tribe dwelt upon the Kat river, following their pastoral life in peace, and cultivating their corn-fields. Suddenly they were ejected from their lands by the Kat river, on the plea that Gaika had ceded these lands to the colony. Macomo retired, almost without a murmur, to a district farther inland, leaving the very grain growing upon his fields. He took up a new position on the banks of the river Chunice, and here he and his tribe dwelt until 1833, when they were again driven out to seek a new home, almost without pretence. On this occasion Macomo did make a remonstrance, in a document addressed to an influential person of the colony. "In the whole of this savage Kaffir's letter, there is," says Dr. Philip, "a beautiful simplicity, a touching pathos, a confiding magnanimity, a dignified remonstrance, which shows its author to be no common man. It was dictated to an interpreter." [Illustration] "As I and my people," writes Macomo, "have been driven back over the Chunice, without being informed why, I should be glad to know from the Government what evil we have done. I was only told that we _must_ retire over the Chunice, but for what reason I was not informed. It was agreed that I and my people should live west of the Chunice, as well as east of it. When shall I and my people be able to get rest?" * * * * * RAILWAY TUNNELS. [Illustration: Letter O.] Of the difficulties which occasionally baffle the man of science, in his endeavours to contend with the hidden secrets of the crust of the earth which we inhabit, the Kilsby Tunnel of the London and North-western Railway presents a striking example. The proposed tunnel was to be driven about 160 feet below the surface. It was to be, as indeed it is, 2399 yards in length, with two shafts of the extraordinary size of sixty feet in diameter, not only to give air and ventilation, but to admit light enough to enable the engine-driver, in passing through it with a train, to see the rails from end to end. In order correctly to ascertain, and honestly to make known to the contractors the nature of the ground through which this great work was to pass, the engineer-in-chief sank the usual number of what are called "trial shafts;" and, from the result, the usual advertisements for tenders were issued, and the shafts, &c. having been minutely examined by the competing contractors, the work was let to one of them for the sum of £99,000. In order to drive the tunnel, it was deemed necessary to construct eighteen working shafts, by which, like the heavings of a mole, the contents of the subterranean gallery were to be brought to the surface. This interesting work was in busy progress, when, all of a sudden, it was ascertained, that, at about 200 yards from the south end of the tunnel, there existed, overlaid by a bed of clay, forty feet thick, a hidden quicksand, which extended 400 yards into the proposed tunnel, and which the trial shafts on each side of it had almost miraculously just passed without touching. Overwhelmed at the discovery, the contractor instantly took to his bed; and though he was justly relieved by the company from his engagement, the reprieve came too late, for he actually died. The general opinion of the several eminent engineers who were consulted was against proceeding; but Mr. R. Stephenson offered to undertake the responsibility of the work. His first operation was to lower the water with which he had to contend, and it was soon ascertained that the quicksand in question covered several square miles. The tunnel, thirty feet high by thirty feet broad, was formed of bricks, laid in cement, and the bricklayers were progressing in lengths averaging twelve feet, when those who were nearest the quicksand, on driving into the roof, were suddenly almost overwhelmed by a deluge of water, which burst in upon them. As it was evident that no time was to be lost, a gang of workmen, protected by the extreme power of the engines, were, with their materials, placed on a raft; and while, with the utmost celerity, they were completing the walls of that short length, the water, in spite of every effort to keep it down, rose with such rapidity, that, at the conclusion of the work, the men were so near being jammed against the roof, that the assistant-engineer jumped overboard, and then swimming, with a rope in his mouth, he towed the raft to the nearest working shaft, through which he and his men were safely lifted to daylight, or, as it is termed by miners, "to grass." The water now rose in the shaft, and, as it is called, "drowned the works" but, by the main strength of 1250 men, 200 horses, and thirteen steam-engines, not only was the work gradually completed, but, during day and night for eight months, the almost incredible quantity of 1800 gallons of water per minute was raised, and conducted away. The time occupied from the laying of the first brick to the completion was thirty months. [Illustration: DEEP CUTTING NEAR THE TUNNEL.] * * * * * SUN FISH. While lying in Little Killery Bay, on the coast of Connemara, in her Majesty's surveying ketch _Sylvia_, we were attracted by a large fin above the surface, moving with an oscillatory motion, somewhat resembling the action of a man sculling at the stern of a boat; and knowing it to be an unusual visitor, we immediately got up the harpoon and went in chase. In the meantime, a country boat came up with the poor animal, and its crew inflicted upon it sundry blows with whatever they could lay their hands on--oars, grappling, stones, &c.--but were unsuccessful in taking it; and it disappeared for some few minutes, when it again exhibited its fin on the other side of the Bay. The dull and stupid animal permitted us to place our boat immediately over it, and made no effort to escape. The harpoon never having been sharpened, glanced off without effect; but another sailor succeeded in securing it by the tail with a boat-hook, and passing the bight of a rope behind its fins, we hauled it on shore, under Salrock House, the residence of General Thompson, who, with his family, came down to inspect this strange-looking inhabitant of the sea. We were well soused by the splashing of its fins, ere a dozen hands succeeded in transporting this heavy creature from its native abode to the shore, where it passively died, giving only an occasional movement with its fins, or uttering a kind of grunt. [Illustration: SIDE VIEW OF SUN FISH.] [Illustration: FRONT VIEW OF SUN FISH.] This animal, I believe, is a specimen of the Sun-fish (_Orthagoriscus_). It has no bony skeleton; nor did we, in our rather hasty dissection, discover any osseous structure whatever, except (as we were informed by one who afterwards inspected it) that there was one which stretched between the large fins. Its jaws also had bony terminations, unbroken into teeth, and parrot-like, which, when not in use, are hidden by the envelopement of the gums. The form of the animal is preserved by an entire cartilaginous case, of about three inches in thickness, covered by a kind of shagreen skin, so amalgamated with the cartilage as not to be separated from it. This case is easily penetrable with a knife, and is of pearly whiteness, more resembling cocoa-nut in appearance and texture than anything else I can compare it with. The interior cavity, containing the vital parts, terminates a little behind the large fins, where the cartilage was solid, to its tapered extremity, which is without a caudal fin. Within, and around the back part, lay the flesh, of a coarse fibrous texture, slightly salmon-coloured. The liver was such as to fill a common pail, and there was a large quantity of red blood. The nostril, top of the eye, and top of the gill-orifice are in line, as represented in the Engraving. The dimensions are as under:-- Eye round, and like that of an ox, 2-1/4 inches diameter. Gill-orifice, 4 inches by 2-1/4 inches. Dorsal and anal fins equal, 2 ft. 2 in. long, by 1 ft. 3 in. wide. Pectoral fins, 10 in. high by 8 broad. Length of fish, 6 ft. Depth, from the extremities of the large fins, 7 ft. 4 in. Extreme breadth at the swelling under the eye, only 20 in. Weight, 6 cwt. 42 lb. CAPTAIN BEDFORD, R.N. * * * * * BATTLE OF THE BALTIC. [Illustration: Letter O.] Of Nelson and the North Sing the glorious day's renown, When to battle fierce came forth All the might of Denmark's crown, And her arms along the deep proudly shone; By each gun the lighted brand, In a bold determined hand-- And the Prince of all the land Led them on. Like Leviathans afloat Lay their bulwarks on the brine; While the sign of battle flew On the lofty British line; It was ten of April morn, by the chime, As they drifted on their path: There was silence deep as death, And the boldest held his breath For a time. But the might of England flush'd To anticipate the scene; And her van the fleeter rush'd O'er the deadly space between. "Hearts of Oak!" our Captains cried; when each gun From its adamantine lips Spread a death-shade round the ships, Like the hurricane eclipse Of the sun. Again! again! again! And the havoc did not slack, Till a feeble cheer the Dane To our cheering sent us back-- Their shots along the deep slowly boom: Then ceased, and all is wail As they strike the shatter'd sail, Or, in conflagration pale, Light the gloom. Out spoke the victor then, As he hail'd them o'er the wave, "Ye are brothers! ye are men! And we conquer but to save; So peace instead of death let us bring. But yield, proud foe, thy fleet, With their crews, at England's feet, And make submission meet To our King." Then Denmark bless'd our chief, That he gave her wounds repose; And the sounds of joy and grief From her people wildly rose, As Death withdrew his shades from the day, While the sun look'd smiling bright O'er a wide and woeful sight, Where the fires of funeral light Died away. Now joy, old England, raise! For the tidings of thy might, By the festal cities' blaze, Whilst the wine-cup shines in light; And yet, amidst that joy and uproar, Let us think of them that sleep, Full many a fathom deep, By thy wild and stormy steep-- Ellsinore! Brave hearts! to Britain's pride, Once so faithful and so true, On the deck of fame that died With the gallant, good Riou-- Soft sigh the winds of Heaven o'er their grave: While the billow mournful rolls, And the mermaid's song condoles, Singing glory to the souls Of the brave. CAMPBELL. * * * * * ARTILLERY TACTICS. [Illustration: Letter C.] Cannon took their name from the French word _Canne_, a reed. Before their invention, machines were used for throwing enormous stones. These were imitated from the Arabs, and called _ingenia_, whence engineer. The first cannon were made of wood, wrapped up in numerous folds of linen, and well secured by iron hoops. The true epoch of the use of metallic cannon cannot be ascertained; it is certain, however, that they were in use about the middle of the 14th century. The Engraving beneath represents a field-battery gun taking up its position in a canter. The piece of ordnance is attached, or "limbered up" to an ammunition carriage, capable of carrying two gunners, or privates, whilst the drivers are also drilled so as to be able to serve at the gun in action, in case of casualties. [Illustration: TAKING UP POSITION.] Having reached its destination, and been detached or "unlimbered" from the front carriage, we next see the action of loading; the ramrod having at its other extremity a sheep-skin mop, larger than the bore of the piece, and called "a sponge." This instrument, before loading, is invariably used, whilst the touch-hole or "vent" is covered by the thumb of the gunner especially numbered off for this important duty; and the air being thus excluded, the fire, which often remains within the bore, attached to either portions of cartridge-case or wadding, is extinguished. Serious accidents have been known to occur from a neglect of this important preliminary to loading; as a melancholy instance, a poor fellow may be seen about the Woolwich barracks, _both_ of whose arms were blown off above the elbow joint, whilst ramming home a cartridge before the sponge had been properly applied. [Illustration: LOADING.] [Illustration: FIRING IN RETREAT.] If it is deemed essential to keep up a fire upon the enemy during a temporary retreat, or in order to avoid an overwhelming body of cavalry directed against guns unsupported by infantry, in that case the limber remains as close as possible to the field-piece, as shown in the Engraving above. Skilful provisions are made against the various contingencies likely to occur in action. A wheel may he shattered by the enemy's shot, and the gun thereby disabled for the moment: this accident is met by supporting the piece upon a handspike, firmly grasped by one or two men on each side, according to the weight of the gun, whilst a spare wheel, usually suspended at the back of "the tumbril," or ammunition waggon, is obtained, and in a few moments made to remedy the loss, as represented above. [Illustration: DISABLED WHEEL.] [Illustration: DISMANTLING A GUN.] The extraordinary rapidity with which a gun can be dislodged from its carriage, and every portion of its complicated machinery scattered upon the ground, is hardly to be believed unless witnessed; but the wonder is increased tenfold, on seeing with what magical celerity the death-dealing weapon can be put together again. These operations will be readily understood by an examination of the Illustrations. In that at the foot of page 175 the cannon is lying useless upon the earth; one wheel already forms the rude resting-place of a gunner, whilst the other is in the act of being displaced. By the application of a rope round the termination of the breech, and the lifting of the trail of the carriage, care being previously taken that the trunnions are in their respective sockets, a very slight exertion of manual labour is required to put the gun into fighting trim. That we may be understood, we will add that the trunnions are the short round pieces of iron, or brass, projecting from the sides of the cannon, and their relative position can be easily ascertained by a glance at the gun occupying the foreground of the Illustration where the dismantling is depicted. To perform the labour thus required in managing cannon, is called to serve the guns. [Illustration: MOUNTING A GUN.] Cannon are cast in a solid mass of metal, either of iron or brass; they are then bored by being placed upon a machine which causes the whole mass to turn round very rapidly. The boring tool being pressed against the cannon thus revolving, a deep hole is made in it, called the bore. * * * * * THE TREE KANGAROO AND BLACK LEOPARD. The ordinary mode in which the Kangaroos make their way on the ground, as well as by flight from enemies, is by a series of bounds, often of prodigious extent. They spring from their hind limbs alone, using neither the tail nor the fore limbs. In feeding, they assume a crouching, hare-like position, resting on the fore paws as well as on the hinder extremities, while they browse on the herbage. In this attitude they hop gently along, the tail being pressed to the ground. On the least alarm they rise on the hind limbs, and bound to a distance with great rapidity. Sometimes, when excited, the old male of the great kangaroo stands on tiptoe and on his tail, and is then of prodigious height. It readily takes to the water, and swims well, often resorting to this mode of escape from its enemies, among which is the dingo, or wild dog of Australia. [Illustration: TREE KANGAROO, AND BLACK LEOPARD.] Man is, however, the most unrelenting foe of this inoffensive animal. It is a native of New Holland and Van Diemen's Land, and was first discovered by the celebrated navigator Captain Cook, in 1770, while stationed on the coast of New South Wales. In Van Diemen's Land the great kangaroo is regularly hunted with fox-hounds, as the deer or fox in England. The Tree Kangaroo, in general appearance, much resembles the common kangaroo, having many of that animal's peculiarities. It seems to have the power of moving very quickly on a tree; sometimes holding tight with its fore feet, and bringing its hind feet up together with a jump; at other times climbing ordinarily. * * * * * In the island of Java a black variety of the Leopard is not uncommon, and such are occasionally seen in our menageries; they are deeper than the general tint, and the spots show in certain lights only. Nothing can exceed the grace and agility of the leopards; they bound with astonishing ease, climb trees, and swim, and the flexibility of the body enables them to creep along the ground with the cautious silence of a snake on their unsuspecting prey. In India the leopard is called by the natives the "tree-tiger," from its generally taking refuge in a tree when pursued, and also from being often seen among the branches: so quick and active is the animal in this situation, that it is not easy to take a fair aim at him. Antelopes, deer, small quadrupeds, and monkeys are its prey. It seldom attacks a man voluntarily, but, if provoked, becomes a formidable assailant. It is sometimes taken in pitfalls and traps. In some old writers there are accounts of the leopard being taken in trap, by means of a mirror, which, when the animal jump against it, brings a door down upon him. * * * * * CHARITY. [Illustration: Letter D.] Did sweeter sounds adorn my flowing tongue, Than ever man pronounced or angel sung; Had I all knowledge, human and divine That thought can reach, or science can define; And had I power to give that knowledge birth, In all the speeches of the babbling earth, Did Shadrach's zeal my glowing breast inspire, To weary tortures, and rejoice in fire; Or had I faith like that which Israel saw, When Moses gave them miracles and law: Yet, gracious Charity, indulgent guest, Were not thy power exerted in my breast, Those speeches would send up unheeded pray'r; That scorn of life would be but wild despair; A cymbal's sound were better than my voice; My faith were form, my eloquence were noise. [Illustration] Charity, decent, modest, easy, kind, Softens the high, and rears the abject mind; Knows with just reins, and gentle hand, to guide Betwixt vile shame and arbitrary pride. Not soon provoked, she easily forgives; And much she suffers, as she much believes. Soft peace she brings wherever she arrives; She builds our quiet, as she forms our lives; Lays the rough paths of peevish nature even, And opens in each heart a little heaven. Each other gift, which God on man bestows, Its proper bounds, and due restriction knows; To one fix'd purpose dedicates its power; And finishing its act, exists no more. Thus, in obedience to what Heaven decrees, Knowledge shall fail, and prophecy shall cease; But lasting Charity's more ample sway, Nor bound by time, nor subject to decay, In happy triumph shall for ever live, And endless good diffuse, and endless praise receive. As through the artist's intervening glass, Our eye observes the distant planets pass, A little we discover, but allow That more remains unseen than art can show; So whilst our mind its knowledge would improve, Its feeble eye intent on things above, High as we may we lift our reason up, By faith directed, and confirm'd by hope; Yet are we able only to survey Dawnings of beams and promises of day; Heav'n's fuller effluence mocks our dazzled sight-- Too great its swiftness, and too strong its light. But soon the mediate clouds shall be dispell'd; The Son shall soon be face to face beheld, In all his robes, with all his glory on, Seated sublime on his meridian throne. Then constant Faith, and holy Hope shall vie, One lost in certainty, and one in joy: Whilst thou, more happy pow'r, fair Charity, Triumphant sister, greatest of the three, Thy office, and thy nature still the same, Lasting thy lamp, and unconsumed thy flame, Shall still survive-- Shall stand before the host of heav'n confest, For ever blessing, and for ever blest. PRIOR. * * * * * SARDIS. [Illustration: Letter S.] Sardis, the ancient capital of the kingdom of Lydia, is situated on the river Pactolus, in the fertile plain below Mount Tmolus. Wealth, pomp, and luxury characterised this city from very ancient times. The story of Croesus, its last King, is frequently alluded to by historians, as affording a remarkable example of the instability of human greatness. This Monarch considered himself the happiest of human beings, but being checked by the philosopher Solon for his arrogance, he was offended, and dismissed the sage from his Court with disgrace. Not long afterwards, led away by the ambiguous answers of the oracles, he conducted a large army into the field against Cyrus, the future conqueror of Babylon, but was defeated, and obliged to return to his capital, where he shut himself up. Hither he was soon followed and besieged by Cyrus, with a far inferior force; but, at the expiration of fourteen days, the citadel, which had been deemed impregnable, was taken by a stratagem, and Croesus was condemned to the flames. When the sentence was about to be executed, he was heard to invoke the name of Solon, and the curiosity of Cyrus being excited, he asked the cause; and, having heard his narrative, ordered him to be set free, and subsequently received him into his confidence. [Illustration: SARDIS.] Under the Romans, Sardis declined in importance, and, being destroyed by an earthquake, for some time lay desolate, until it was rebuilt by the Roman Emperor Tiberius. The situation of Sardis is very beautiful, but the country over which it looks is almost deserted, and the valley is become a swamp. The hill of the citadel, when seen from the opposite bank of the Hermus, appears of a triangular form; and at the back of it rise ridge after ridge of mountains, the highest covered with snow, and many of them bearing evident marks of having been jagged and distorted by earthquakes. The citadel is exceedingly difficult of ascent; but the magnificent view which it commands of the plain of the Hermus, and other objects of interest, amply repays the risk and fatigue. The village, small as it is, boasts of containing one of the most remarkable remains of antiquity in Asia; namely, the vast Ionic temple of the heathen goddess Cybele, or the earth, on the banks of the Pactolus. In 1750, six columns of this temple were standing, but four of them have since been thrown down by the Turks, for the sake of the gold which they expected to find in the joints. Two or three mills and a few mud huts, inhabited by Turkish herdsmen, contain all the present population of Sardis. * * * * * MARTELLO TOWERS. [Illustration: Letter A.] At a time when there appeared to be good reason for believing that the invasion of England was contemplated, the Government turned their attention to the defence of such portions of the coast as seemed to present the greatest facility for the landing of a hostile force. As the Kentish coast, from East Were Bay to Dymchurch, seemed more especially exposed, a line of Martello Towers was erected between these two points, at a distance from each other of from one-quarter to three-quarters of a mile. Other towers of the same kind were erected on various parts of the coast where the shore was low, in other parts of England, but more particularly in the counties of Sussex and Suffolk. Towers of this construction appear to have been adopted, owing to the resistance that was made by the Tower of Martella, in the Island of Corsica, to the British forces under Lord Hood and General Dundas, in 1794. This tower which was built in the form of an obtruncated cone--like the body of a windmill--was situated in Martella, or Martle Bay. As it rendered the landing of the troops difficult, Commodore Linzee anchored in the bay to the westward, and there landed the troops on the evening of the 7th of February, taking possession of a height that commanded the tower. As the tower impeded the advance of the troops, it was the next day attacked from the bay by the vessels _Fortitude_ and _Juno_; but after a cannonade of two hours and a half, the ships were obliged to haul off, the _Fortitude_ having sustained considerable damage from red-hot shot discharged from the tower. The tower, after having been cannonaded from the height for two days, surrendered; rather, it would appear, from the alarm of the garrison, than from any great injury that the tower had sustained. The English, on taking possession of the fort, found that the garrison had originally consisted of thirty-three men, of whom two only were wounded, though mortally. The walls were of great thickness, and bomb-proof; and the parapet consisted of an interior lining of rush matting, filled up to the exterior of the parapet with sand. The only guns they had were two 18-pounders. The towers erected between East Were Bay and Dymchurch (upwards of twenty) were built of brick, and were from about 35 feet to 40 feet high: the entrance to them was by a low door-way, about seven feet and a half from the ground; and admission was gained by means of a ladder, which was afterwards withdrawn into the interior. A high step of two feet led to the first floor of the tower, a room of about thirteen feet diameter, and with the walls about five feet thick. Round this room were loopholes in the walls, at such an elevation, that the men would be obliged to stand on benches in the event of their being required to oppose an attack of musketry. Those benches were also used as the sleeping-places of the garrison. On this floor there was a fire-place, and from the centre was a trap-door leading downwards to the ammunition and provision rooms. The second floor was ascended by similar means. [Illustration: MARTELLO TOWER ON THE KENTISH COAST.] * * * * * TURKISH CUSTOMS. [Illustration: Letter C.] Characteristically indolent, the fondness for a sedentary life is stronger, perhaps, with the Turks, than with any other people of whom we read. It is difficult to describe the gravity and apathy which constitute the distinguishing features of their character: everything in their manners tends to foster in them, especially in the higher classes, an almost invincible love of ease and luxurious leisure. The general rule which they seem to lay down for their guidance, is that taking the trouble to do anything themselves which they can possibly get others to do for them; and the precision with which they observe it in some of the minutest trifles of domestic life is almost amusing. A Turkish gentleman, who has once composed his body upon the corner of a sofa, appears to attach a certain notion of grandeur to the keeping of it there, and it is only something of the gravest importance that induces him to disturb his position. If he wishes to procure anything that is within a few steps of him, he summons his slaves by clapping his hands (the Eastern mode of "ringing the bell"), and bids them bring it to him: his feelings of dignity would be hurt by getting up to reach it himself. Of course, this habit of inaction prevails equally with the female sex: a Turkish lady would not think of picking up a fallen handkerchief, so long as she had an attendant to do it for her. As may be supposed, the number of slaves in a Turkish household of any importance is very great. [Illustration: TURKISH FEMALE SLAVE.] The position of women in Eastern countries is so totally unlike that which they hold in our own happy land, that we must refer expressly to it, in order that the picture of domestic life presented to us in the writings of all travellers in the East may be understood. Amongst all ranks, the wife is not the friend and companion, but the slave of her husband; and even when treated with kindness and affection, her state is still far below that of her sisters in Christian lands. Even in the humblest rank of life, the meal which the wife prepares with her own hands for her husband, she must not partake of with him. The hard-working Eastern peasant, and the fine lady who spends most of her time in eating sweet-meats, or in embroidery, are both alike dark and ignorant; for it would be accounted a folly, if not a sin, to teach them even to read. Numerous carriers, or sellers of water, obtain their living in the East by supplying the inhabitants with it. They are permitted to fill their water-bags, made of goat-skins, at the public fountains. This goat-skin of the carrier has a long brass spout, and from this the water is poured into a brass cup, for any one who wishes to drink. Many of these are employed by the charitable, to distribute water in the streets; and they pray the thirsty to partake of the bounty offered to them in the name of God, praying that Paradise and pardon may be the lot of him who affords the refreshing gift. [Illustrated: TURKISH WATER-CARRIER] The Dancing Dervises are a religious order of Mohamedans, who affect a great deal of patience, humility, and charity. Part of their religious observance consists in dancing or whirling their bodies round with the greatest rapidity imaginable, to the sound of a flute; and long practice has enabled them to do this without suffering the least inconvenience from the strange movement. In Eastern countries, the bread is generally made in the form of a large thin cake, which is torn and folded up, almost like a sheet of paper; it can then be used (as knives and forks are not employed by the Orientals) for the purpose of rolling together a mouthful of meat, or supping up gravy and vegetables, at the meals. [Illustration: DANCING DERVISE.] * * * * * ON STUDY. Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. The chief use for delight is in privateness and retiring; for ornament, is in discourse; and for ability, is in the judgment and disposition of business. For expert men can execute, and perhaps judge of particulars one by one; but the general counsels, and the plots, and marshalling of affairs, come best from those that are learned. To spend too much time in studies, is sloth; to use them too much for ornament, is affectation; to make judgment wholly by their rules, is the humour of a scholar. They perfect nature, and are perfected by experience; for natural abilities are like natural plants, that need pruning by duty; and studies themselves do give forth directions too much at large, except they be bounded in by experience. Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them: for they teach not their own use, but that is a wisdom without them, and above them, won by observation. Read not to contradict and confute, nor to believe and take for granted; not to find talk and discourse, but to weigh and consider. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested: that is, some books are to be read only in parts; others to be read, but not curiously; and some few to be read wholly, and with diligence and attention. Some books also may be read by deputy, and extracts made of them by others; but that should be only in the less important arguments, and the meaner sorts of books; else distilled books are like common distilled waters, flashy things. Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man. And, therefore, if a man write little, he had need have a great memory; if he confer little, he had need have a present wit; and if he read little, he had need have much cunning, to seem to know that he doth not. BACON. * * * * * THE SHORES OF GREECE. He who hath bent him o'er the dead Ere the first day of death is fled; The first dark day of nothingness. The last of danger and distress: Before Decay's effacing fingers, Have swept the lines where beauty lingers, And mark'd the mild, angelic air, The rapture of repose that's there; The fix'd, yet tender traits that streak The languor of the placid cheek. And, but for that sad shrouded eye, That fires not--wins not--weeps not--now; And, but for that chill, changeless brow, Whose touch thrills with mortality, And curdles to the gazer's heart, As if to him it could impart The doom he dreads, yet dwells upon: Yes, but for these, and these alone Some moments--ay, one treacherous hour-- He still might doubt the tyrant's power; So fair, so calm, so softly seal'd, The first, last look by death reveal'd. Such is the aspect of this shore; 'Tis Greece, but living Greece no more! So coldly sweet--so deadly fair-- We start, for soul is wanting there: Hers is the loveliness in death That parts not quite with parting breath; But beauty, with that fearful bloom, That hue which haunts it to the tomb: Expression's last receding ray, A gilded halo hovering round decay, The farewell beam of feeling past away! Spark of that flame--perchance of Heavenly birth, Which gleams, but warms no more its cherish'd earth! BYRON. [Illustration: SUBTERRANEAN CHAPEL, GREECE.] * * * * * THE FORT OF ATTOCK. [Illustration: Letter A.] Attock is a fort and small town in the Punjaub, on the left or east bank of the Indus, 942 miles from the sea, and close below the place where it receives the water of the Khabool river, and first becomes navigable. The name, signifying _obstacle_, is supposed to have been given to it under the presumption that no scrupulous Hindoo would proceed westward of it; but this strict principle, like many others of similar nature, is little acted on. Some state that the name was given by the Emperor Akbar, because he here found much difficulty in crossing the river. The river itself is at this place frequently by the natives called Attock. Here is a bridge, formed usually of from twenty to thirty boats, across the stream, at a spot where it is 537 feet wide. In summer, when the melting of the snows in the lofty mountains to the north raises the stream so that the bridge becomes endangered, it is withdrawn, and the communication is then effected by means of a ferry. The banks of the river are very high, so that the enormous accession which the volume of water receives during inundation scarcely affects the breadth, but merely increases the depth. The rock forming the banks is of a dark-coloured slate, polished by the force of the stream, so as to shine like black marble. Between these, "one clear blue stream shot past." The depth of the Indus here is thirty feet in the lowest state, and between sixty and seventy in the highest, and runs at the rate of six miles an hour. There is a ford at some distance above the confluence of the river of Khabool; but the extreme coldness and rapidity of the water render it at all times very dangerous, and on the slightest inundation quite impracticable. The bridge is supported by an association of boatmen, who receive the revenue of a village allotted for this purpose by the Emperor Akbar, and a small daily pay as long as the bridge stands, and also levy a toll on all passengers. On the right bank, opposite Attock, is Khyrabad--a fort built, according to some, by the Emperor Akbar, according to others by Nadir Shah. This locality is, in a military and commercial point of view, of much importance, as the Indus is here crossed by the great route which, proceeding from Khabool eastward through the Khyber Pass into the Punjaub, forms the main line of communication between Affghanistan and Northern India. The river was here repeatedly crossed by the British armies, during the late military operations in Affghanistan; and here, according to the general opinion, Alexander, subsequently Timur, the Tartar conqueror, and, still later, Nadir Shah, crossed; but there is much uncertainty on these points. [Illustration: THE FORT OF ATTOCK.] The fortress was erected by the Emperor Akbar, in 1581 to command the passage; but, though strongly built of stone on the high and steep bank of the river, it could offer no effectual resistance to a regular attack, being commanded by the neighbouring heights. Its form is that of a parallelogram: it is 800 yards long and 400 wide. The population of the town, which is inclosed within the walls of the fort, is estimated at 2000. * * * * * THE ORDER OF NATURE. [Illustration: Letter S.] See through this air, this ocean, and this earth, All matter quick, and bursting into birth. Above, how high progressive life may go! Around, how wide! how deep extend below! Vast chain of Being! which from God began, Natures ethereal, human, angel, man, Beast, bird, fish, insect, what no eye can see No glass can reach; from Infinity to thee From thee to Nothing.--On superior pow'rs Were we to press, inferior might on ours; Or in the full creation leave a void, Where one step broken the great scale's destroyed From Nature's chain whatever link you strike, Tenth or ten-thousandth, breaks the chain alike. And, if each system in gradation roll Alike essential to th' amazing whole, The least confusion but in one, not all That system only, but the whole must fall. Let earth unbalanc'd from her orbit fly, Planets and suns run lawless through the sky; Let ruling angels from their spheres be hurl'd, Being on being wreck'd, and world on world, Heav'n's whole foundations to the centre nod, And Nature trembles to the throne of God: All this dread Order break--for whom? for thee? Vile worm!--Oh, madness! pride! impiety! What if the foot, ordain'd the dust to tread, Or hand to toil, aspired to be the head? What if the head, the eye, or ear, repined To serve--mere engines to the ruling Mind? Just as absurd for any part to claim To be another, in this general frame: Just as absurd to mourn the tasks or pains, The great directing Mind of All ordains. All are but parts of one stupendous whole Whose body Nature is, and God the Soul: That changed through all, and yet in all the same, Great is in earth as in th' ethereal frame, Warms in the sun, refreshes in the breeze, Glows in the stars, and blossoms in the trees, Lives through all life, extends through all extent, Spreads undivided, operates unspent; Breathes in our soul, informs our mortal part, As full, as perfect, in a hair as heart; As full, as perfect, in vile man that mourns, As the rapt seraph that adores and burns: To him no high, no low, no great, no small; He fills, he bounds, connects, and equals all. Cease then, nor Order Imperfection name: Our proper bliss depends on what we blame. Know thy own point: This kind, this due degree Of blindness, weakness, Heav'n bestows on thee. Submit--in this, or any other sphere, Secure to be as blest as thou canst bear: Safe in the hand of one disposing Pow'r Or in the natal, or the mortal hour. All Nature is but Art, unknown to thee; All Chance, Direction which thou canst not see; All Discord, Harmony not understood; All partial Evil, universal Good: And, spite of Pride, in erring Reason's spite, One truth is clear, WHATEVER is, is RIGHT. POPE. * * * * * LORD CLARENDON. [Illustration: Letter T.] This celebrated statesman, who flourished in the reigns of Charles I. and II., took a prominent part in the eventful times in which he lived. He was not of noble birth, but the descendant of a family called Hyde, which resided from a remote period at Norbury, in Cheshire. He was originally intended for the church, but eventually became a lawyer, applying himself to the study of his profession with a diligence far surpassing that of the associates with whom he lived. In 1635, he attracted the notice of Archbishop Laud, which may be regarded as the most fortunate circumstance of his life, as it led to his introduction to Charles I. In consequence of the ability displayed by him in the responsible duties he was called to perform, that Monarch offered him the office of Solicitor-General. But this Hyde declined, preferring, as he said, to serve the King in an unofficial capacity. After the battle of Naseby, Hyde was appointed one of the council formed to attend, watch over, and direct the Prince of Wales. After hopelessly witnessing for many months a course of disastrous and ill-conducted warfare in the West, the council fled with the Prince, first to the Scilly Islands, near Cornwall, and thence to Jersey. From this place, against the wishes of Hyde, the Prince, in 1640, repaired to his mother, Henrietta, at Paris, leaving Hyde at Jersey, where he remained for two years, engaged in the composition of his celebrated "History of the Rebellion." In May, 1648, Hyde was summoned to attend the Prince at the Hague; and here they received the news of the death of Charles I., which is said to have greatly appalled them. After faithfully following the new King in all his vicissitudes of fortune, suffering at times extreme poverty, he attained at the Restoration the period of his greatest power. In 1660, his daughter Anne was secretly married to the Duke of York; but when, after a year, it was openly acknowledged, the new Lord Chancellor received the news with violent demonstrations of indignation and grief. Hyde, in fact, never showed any avidity for emoluments or distinction; but when this marriage was declared, it became desirable that some mark of the King's favour should be shown, and he was created Earl of Clarendon. He subsequently, from political broils, was compelled to exile himself from the Court, and took up his residence at Montpellier, where, resuming his literary labours, he completed his celebrated History, and the memoir of his life. After fruitlessly petitioning King Charles II. for permission to end his days in England, the illustrious exile died at Rouen, in 1674, in the sixty-fifth year of his age. [Illustration: STATUE OF LORD CLARENDON.] * * * * * OWLS. [Illustration: Letter I.] It is now generally known that the Owl renders the farmer important service, by ridding him of vermin, which might otherwise consume the produce of his field; but in almost every age and country it has been regarded as a bird of ill omen, and sometimes even as the herald of death. In France, the cry or hoot is considered as a certain forerunner of misfortune to the hearer. In Tartary, the owl is looked upon in another light, though not valued as it ought to be for its useful destruction of moles, rats, and mice. The natives pay it great respect, because they attribute to this bird the preservation of the founder of their empire, Genghis Khan. That Prince, with his army, happened to be surprised and put to flight by his enemies, and was forced to conceal himself in a little coppice. An owl settled on the bush under which he was hid, and his pursuers did not search there, as they thought it impossible the bird would perch on a place where any man was concealed. Thenceforth his countrymen held the owl to be a sacred bird, and every one wore a plume of its feathers on his head. One of the smallest of the owl tribe utters but one melancholy note now and then. The Indians in North America whistle whenever they chance to hear the solitary note; and if the bird does not very soon repeat his harmless cry, the speedy death of the superstitious hearer is foreboded. It is hence called the death bird. The voices of all carnivorous birds and beasts are harsh, and at times hideous; and probably, like that of the owl, which, from the width and capacity of its throat, is in some varieties very powerful, may be intended as an alarm and warning to the birds and animals on which they prey, to secure themselves from the approach of their stealthy foe. Owls are divided into two groups or families--one having two tufts of feathers on the head, which have been called ears or horns, and are moveable at pleasure, the others having smooth round heads without tufts. The bills are hooked in both. There are upwards of sixty species of owls widely spread over almost every part of the known world; of these we may count not fewer than eight as more or less frequenting this country. One of the largest of the tribe is the eagle hawk, or great horned owl, the great thickness of whose plumage makes it appear nearly as large as the eagle. Some fine preserved specimens of this noble-looking bird may be seen in the British Museum. It is a most powerful bird; and a specimen was captured, with great difficulty, in 1837, when it alighted upon the mast-head of a vessel off Flamborough-head. The amiable naturalist, Mr. Waterton, who took especial interest in the habits of the owl, writes thus on the barn owl:--"This pretty aerial wanderer of the night often comes into my room, and, after flitting to and fro, on wing so soft and silent that he is scarcely heard, takes his departure from the same window at which he had entered. I own I have a great liking for the bird; and I have offered it hospitality and protection on account of its persecutions, and for its many services to me; I wish that any little thing I could write or say might cause it to stand better with the world than it has hitherto done." [Illustration: OWLS IN A CASTLE KEEP.] * * * * * CHATTERTON. [Illustration] This gifted young poet was the son of a schoolmaster at Bristol, where he was born, in 1752. On the 24th of August, 1770, he was found dead, near a table covered with the scraps of writings he had destroyed, in a miserable room in Brook-street, Holborn. In Redcliffe churchyard, Bristol, a beautiful monument has been erected to the memory of the unfortunate poet. O God! whose thunders shake the sky, Whose eye this atom globe surveys, To Thee, my only rock, I fly-- Thy mercy in thy justice praise. Oh, teach me in the trying hour, When anguish swells the dewy tear, To still my sorrows, own Thy power, Thy goodness love, Thy justice fear. Ah! why, my soul, dost thou complain, Why, drooping, seek the dark recess? Shake off the melancholy chain, For God created all to bless. But, ah! my breast is human still: The rising sigh, the falling tear, My languid vitals' feeble rill, The sickness of my soul declare. CHATTERTON. * * * * * SMYRNA. [Illustration: Letter T.] This city and sea-port of Natolia, in Asia, is situate towards the northern part of a peninsula, upon a long and winding gulf of the same name, which is capable of containing the largest navy in the world. The city is about four miles round, presenting a front of a mile long to the water; and when approached by sea, it resembles a capacious amphitheatre with the ruins of an ancient castle crowning its summit. The interior of the city, however, disappoints the expectations thus raised, for the streets are narrow, dirty, and ill-paved, and there is now scarcely a trace of those once splendid edifices which rendered Smyrna one of the finest cities in Asia Minor. The shops are arched over, and have a handsome appearance: in spite of the gloom which the houses wear, those along the shore have beautiful gardens attached to them, at the foot of which are summer-houses overhanging the sea. The city is subject to earthquakes and the plague, which latter, in 1814, carried off above 50,000 of the inhabitants. About midnight, in July, 1841, a fire broke out at Smyrna, which, from the crowded state of the wooden houses, the want of water, and the violence of the wind, was terribly destructive. About 12,000 houses were destroyed, including two-thirds of the Turkish quarter, most of the French and the whole of the Jewish quarters, with many bazaars and several mosques, synagogues, and other public buildings. It was calculated that 20,000 persons were deprived of shelter and food, and the damage was estimated at two millions sterling. [Illustration: SMYRNA.] The fine port of Smyrna is frequented by ships from all nations, freighted with valuable cargoes, both outward and inward. The greater part of the trading transactions is managed by Jews, who act as brokers, the principals meeting afterwards to conclude the bargains. In 1402 Smyrna was taken by Tamerlane, and suffered very severely. The conqueror erected within its walls a tower constructed of stones and the heads of his enemies. Soon after, it came under the dominion of the Turks, and has been subsequently the most flourishing city in the Levant, exporting and importing valuable commodities to and from all parts of the world. * * * * * GENTLENESS. [Illustration: Letter I.] I begin with distinguishing true gentleness from passive tameness of spirit, and from unlimited compliance with the manners of others. That passive tameness which submits, without opposition, to every encroachment of the violent and assuming, forms no part of Christian duty; but, on the contrary, is destructive of general happiness and order. That unlimited complaisance, which on every occasion falls in with the opinions and manners of others, is so far from being a virtue, that it is itself a vice, and the parent of many vices. It overthrows all steadiness of principle; and produces that sinful conformity with the world which taints the whole character. In the present corrupted state of human manners, always to assent and to comply is the very worst maxim we can adopt. It is impossible to support the purity and dignity of Christian morals without opposing the world on various occasions, even though we should stand alone. That gentleness, therefore, which belongs to virtue, is to be carefully distinguished from the mean spirit of cowards, and the fawning assent of sycophants. It renounces no just right from fear. It gives up no important truth from flattery. It is indeed not only consistent with a firm mind, but it necessarily requires a manly spirit, and a fixed principle, in order to give it any real value. Upon this solid ground only, the polish of gentleness can with advantage be superinduced. It stands opposed, not to the most determined regard for virtue and truth, but to harshness and severity, to pride and arrogance, to violence and oppression. It is properly that part of the great virtue of charity, which makes us unwilling to give pain to any of our brethren. Compassion prompts us to relieve their wants. Forbearance prevents us from retaliating their injuries. Meekness restrains our angry passions; candour, our severe judgments. Gentleness corrects whatever is offensive in our manners, and, by a constant train of humane attentions, studies to alleviate the burden of common misery. Its office, therefore, is extensive. It is not, like some other virtues, called forth only on peculiar emergencies; but it is continually in action, when we are engaged in intercourse with men. It ought to form our address, to regulate our speech, and to diffuse itself over our whole behaviour. We must not, however, confound this gentle "wisdom which is from above" with that artificial courtesy, that studied smoothness of manners, which is learned in the school of the world. Such accomplishments the most frivolous and empty may possess. Too often they are employed by the artful as a snare; too often affected by the hard and unfeeling as a cover to the baseness of their minds. We cannot, at the same time, avoid observing the homage, which, even in such instances, the world is constrained to pay to virtue. In order to render society agreeable, it is found necessary to assume somewhat that may at least carry its appearance. Virtue is the universal charm. Even its shadow is courted, when the substance is wanting. The imitation of its form has been reduced into an art; and in the commerce of life, the first study of all who would either gain the esteem or win the hearts of others, is to learn the speech and to adopt the manners of candour, gentleness, and humanity. But that gentleness which is the characteristic of a good man has, like every other virtue, its seat in the heart; and let me add, nothing except what flows from the heart can render even external manners truly pleasing. For no assumed behaviour can at all times hide the real character. In that unaffected civility which springs from a gentle mind there is a charm infinitely more powerful than in all the studied manners of the most finished courtier. True gentleness is founded on a sense of what we owe to HIM who made us, and to the common nature of which we all share. It arises from reflections on our own failings and wants, and from just views of the condition and the duty of man. It is native feeling heightened and improved by principle. It is the heart which easily relents; which feels for every thing that is human, and is backward and slow to inflict the least wound. It is affable in its address, and mild in its demeanour; ever ready to oblige, and willing to be obliged by others; breathing habitual kindness towards friends, courtesy to strangers, long-suffering to enemies. It exercises authority with moderation; administers reproof with tenderness; confers favours with ease and modesty. It is unassuming in opinion, and temperate in zeal. It contends not eagerly about trifles; slow to contradict, and still slower to blame; but prompt to allay dissension and to restore peace. It neither intermeddles unnecessarily with the affairs, nor pries inquisitively into the secrets of others. It delights above all things to alleviate distress; and if it cannot dry up the falling tear, to sooth at least, the grieving heart. Where it has not the power of being useful, it is never burdensome. It seeks to please rather than to shine and dazzle, and conceals with care that superiority, either of talent or of rank, which is oppressive to those who are beneath it. In a word, it is that spirit and that tenour of manners which the Gospel of Christ enjoins, when it commands us "to bear one another's burdens; to rejoice with those who rejoice, and to weep with those who weep; to please every one his neighbour for his good; to be kind and tender-hearted; to be pitiful and courteous; to support the weak, and to be patient towards all men." BLAIR. * * * * * THE IGUANA. The Iguana (_Cyclura colei_) is not only of singular aspect, but it may be regarded as the type of a large and important group in the Saurian family, which formed so conspicuous a feature in the ancient fauna of this country. The iguana attains a large size in Jamaica, whence the present specimen was obtained, not unfrequently approaching four feet in length. In colour it is a greenish grey. It is entirely herbivorous, as are all its congeners. Its principal haunt in Jamaica is the low limestone chain of hills, along the shore from Kingston Harbour and Goat Island, on to its continuation in Vere. [Illustration: THE IGUANA.] The iguanas which are occasionally taken in the savannahs adjacent to this district are considered by Mr. Hill (an energetic correspondent of the Zoological Society who resides in Spanish Town, and who has paid great attention to the natural history of the island) to be only stray visitants which have wandered from the hills. The allied species of _Cyclura_, which are found on the American continent, occur in situations of a very different character, for they affect forests on the bank of rivers, and woods around springs, where they pass their time in trees and in the water, living on fruits and leaves. This habit is preserved by the specimen in the Zoological Society's Gardens, which we have seen lying lazily along an elevated branch. Its serrated tail is a formidable weapon of defence, with which, when alarmed or attacked, it deals rapid blows from side to side. When unmolested it is harmless and inoffensive, and appears to live in perfect harmony with the smaller species of lizards which inhabit the same division of the house. * * * * * HENRY IV.'S SOLILOQUY ON SLEEP. How many thousands of my poorest subjects Are at this hour asleep! O gentle Sleep, Nature's soft nurse, how have I frighted thee, That thou no more wilt weigh my eyelids down, And steep my senses in forgetfulness; Why rather, Sleep, liest thou in smoky cribs, Upon uneasy pallets stretching thee, And hush'd with buzzing night-flies to thy slumber, Than in the perfumed chambers of the great, Under the canopies of costly state, And lull'd with sounds of sweetest melody? O thou dull God! why liest thou with the vile In loathsome beds, and leav'st the kingly couch, A watch-case to a common larum-bell? Wilt thou, upon the high and giddy mast, Seal up the shipboy's eyes, and rock his brains In cradle of the rude imperious surge; And in the visitation of the winds, Who take the ruffian billows by the top, Curling their monstrous heads, and hanging them With deaf'ning clamours in the slipp'ry shrouds, That with the hurly Death itself awakes: Can'st thou, O partial Sleep! give thy repose To the wet seaboy in an hour so rude, And in the calmest and the stillest night, With all appliances and means to boot, Deny it to a King? Then, happy lowly clown! Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. SHAKSPEARE * * * * * ELEGY, WRITTEN IN A COUNTRY CHURCHYARD. [Illustration] The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, The lowing herds Mind slowly o'er the lea, The ploughman homeward plods his weary way And leaves the world to darkness and to me. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight, And all the air a solemn stillness holds, Save where the beetle wheels his drony flight, And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds; Save that from yonder ivy-mantled tower, The moping owl does to the moon complain Of such as, wand'ring near her secret bower, Molest her ancient solitary reign. Beneath those rugged elms, that yew-tree's shade, Where heaves the turf in many a mould'ring heap, Each in his narrow cell for ever laid, The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. The breezy call of incense-breathing morn, The swallow twitt'ring from the straw-built shed, The cock's shrill clarion, or the echoing horn, No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed. For them no more the blazing hearth shall burn, Or busy housewife ply her evening care; No children run to lisp their sire's return, Or climb his knees the envied kiss to share. Oft did the harvest to their sickle yield, Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke: How jocund did they drive their team afield! How bow'd the woods beneath their sturdy stroke! [Illustration] Let not Ambition mock their useful toil, Their homely joys, and destiny obscure; Nor Grandeur hear with a disdainful smile The short and simple annals of the poor. The boast of Heraldry, the pomp of Pow'r, And all that Beauty, all that Wealth e'er gave, Await alike th' inevitable hour-- The paths of glory lead but to the grave. Nor you, ye proud, impute to these the fault, If Mem'ry o'er their tombs no trophies raise, Where through the long-drawn aisle, and fretted vault, The pealing anthem swells the note of praise. Can storied urn or animated bust Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath? Can Honour's voice provoke the silent dust, Or Flatt'ry sooth the dull, cold ear of Death? Perhaps in this neglected spot is laid Some heart once pregnant with celestial fire; Hands that the rod of empire might have sway'd, Or waked to ecstasy the living lyre. But Knowledge to their eyes her ample page, Rich with the spoils of time, did ne'er unroll; Chill Penury repress'd their noble rage, And froze the genial current of the soul. Full many a gem of purest ray serene The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear: Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, And waste its sweetness on the desert air. Some village Hampden, that with dauntless breast The little tyrant of his fields withstood; Some mute inglorious Milton, here may rest, Some Cromwell guiltless of his country's blood. Th' applause of list'ning senates to command, The threats of pain and ruin to despise, To scatter plenty o'er a smiling land, And read their hist'ry in a nation's eyes, Their lot forbade: nor circumscribed alone Their growing virtues, but their crimes confined; Forbade to wade through slaughter to a throne, And shut the gates of mercy on mankind; The struggling pangs of conscious truth to hide, To quench the blushes of ingenuous shame, Or heap the shrine of Luxury and Pride With incense kindled at the Muse's flame. Far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife Their sober wishes never learn'd to stray; Along the cool sequester'd vale of life They kept the noiseless tenour of their way. Yet ev'n these bones from insult to protect, Some frail memorial still erected nigh, With uncouth rhymes and shapeless sculpture deck'd, Implores the passing tribute of a sigh. Their names, their years, spelt by th' unletter'd Muse, The place of fame and elegy supply; And many a holy text around she strews, That teach the rustic moralist to die. For who, to dumb forgetfulness a prey, This pleasing anxious being e'er resign'd, Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day, Nor cast one longing, ling'ring look behind? On some fond breast the parting soul relies, Some pious drops the closing eye requires; Ev'n from the tomb the voice of Nature cries, Ev'n in our ashes live their wonted fires. For thee, who, mindful of th' unhonour'd dead, Dost in these lines their artless tale relate; If chance, by lonely Contemplation led, Some kindred spirit shall inquire thy fate, [Illustration] Haply some hoary-headed swain may say, "Oft have we seen him at the peep of dawn, Brushing with hasty steps the dew away, To meet the sun upon the upland lawn. "There, at the foot of yonder nodding beech, That wreathes its old fantastic roots so high, His listless length at noontide would he stretch, And pore upon the brook that bubbles by. "Hard by yon wood, now smiling as in scorn, Mutt' ring his wayward fancies he would rove; Now drooping, woful, wan, like one forlorn, Or crazed with care, or cross'd in hopeless lore. "One morn, I miss'd him on th' accustom'd hill, Along the heath, and near his fav'rite tree; Another came, nor yet beside the rill, Nor up the lawn, nor at the wood was he; "The next, with dirges due, in sad array, Slow through the churchway path we saw him borne. Approach and read (for thou can'st read) the lay, Graved on the stone beneath yon aged thorn." [Illustration: THE EPITAPH.] Here rests his head upon the lap of Earth-- Youth to Fortune and to Fame unknown: Fair Science frown'd not on his humble birth, And Melancholy mark'd him for her own. Large was his bounty, and his soul sincere, Heav'n did a recompense as largely send: He gave to Mis'ry all he had--a tear; He gain'd from Heav'n, 'twas all he wish'd--a friend. No farther seek his merits to disclose, Or draw his frailties from their dread abode; (There they alike in trembling hope repose) The bosom of his Father and his God. GRAY. * * * * * THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. [Illustration: Letter M.] Marvellous indeed have been the productions of modern scientific investigations, but none surpass the wonder-working Electro-magnetic Telegraphic Machine; and when Shakspeare, in the exercise of his unbounded imagination, made _Puck_, in obedience to _Oberon's_ order to him-- "Be here again Ere the leviathan can swim a league." reply-- "I'll put a girdle round the earth In forty minutes"-- how little did our immortal Bard think that this light fanciful offer of a "fairy" to "the King of the Fairies" would, in the nineteenth century, not only be substantially realised, but surpassed as follows:-- The electric telegraph would convey intelligence more than twenty-eight thousand times round the earth, while Puck, at his vaunted speed, was crawling round it only ONCE! On every instrument there is a dial, on which are inscribed the names of the six or eight stations with which it usually communicates. When much business is to be transacted, a boy is necessary for each of these instruments; generally, however, one lad can, without practical difficulty, manage about three; but, as the whole of them are ready for work by night as well as by day, they are incessantly attended, in watches of eight hours each, by these satellite boys by day and by men at night. As fast as the various messages for delivery, flying one after another from the ground-floor up the chimney, reach the level of the instruments, they are brought by the superintendent to the particular one by which they are to be communicated; and its boy, with the quickness characteristic of his age, then instantly sets to work. His first process is by means of the electric current to sound a little bell, which simultaneously alarms all the stations on his line; and although the attention of the sentinel at each is thus attracted, yet it almost instantly evaporates from all excepting from that to the name of which he causes the electric needle to point, by which signal the clerk at that station instantly knows that the forthcoming question is addressed to _him_; and accordingly, by a corresponding signal, he announces to the London boy that he is ready to receive it. By means of a brass handle fixed to the dial, which the boy grasps in each hand, he now begins rapidly to spell off his information by certain twists of his wrists, each of which imparts to the needles on his dial, as well as to those on the dial of his distant correspondent, a convulsive movement designating the particular letter of the telegraphic alphabet required. By this arrangement he is enabled to transmit an ordinary-sized word in three seconds, or about twenty per minute. In the case of any accident to the wire of one of his needles, he can, by a different alphabet, transmit his message by a series of movements of the single needle, at the reduced rate of about eight or nine words per minute. While a boy at one instrument is thus occupied in transmitting to--say Liverpool, a message, written by its London author in ink which is scarcely dry, another boy at the adjoining instrument is, by the reverse of the process, attentively reading the quivering movements of the needles of his dial, which, by a sort of St. Vitus's dance, are rapidly spelling to him a message, _viâ_ the wires of the South Western Railway, say from Gosport, which word by word he repeats aloud to an assistant, who, seated by his side, writes it down (he receives it about as fast as his attendant can conveniently write it); on a sheet of; paper, which, as soon as the message is concluded, descends to the "booking-office." When inscribed in due form, it is without delay despatched to its destination, by messenger, cab, or express, according to order. SIR F.B. HEAD. [Illustration: WORKING THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH.] * * * * * THE RAINBOW. How glorious is thy girdle cast O'er mountain, tower, and town, Or mirror'd in the ocean vast-- A thousand fathoms down! As fresh in yon horizon dark, As young thy beauties seem, As when the eagle from the ark First sported in thy beam. For faithful to its sacred page, Heaven still rebuilds thy span, Nor let the type grow pale with age, That first spoke peace to man. CAMPBELL. [Illustration: A LUNAR RAINBOW.] The moon sometimes exhibits the extraordinary phenomenon of an iris or rainbow, by the refraction of her rays in drops of rain during the night-time. This appearance is said to occur only at the time of full moon, and to be indicative of stormy and rainy weather. One is described in the _Philosophical Transactions_ as having been seen in 1810, during a thick rain; but, subsequent to that time, the same person gives an account of one which perhaps was the most extraordinary of which we have any record. It became visible about nine o'clock, and continued, though with very different degrees of brilliancy, until past two. At first, though a strongly marked bow, it was without colour, but afterwards became extremely vivid, the red, green, and purple being the most strongly marked. About twelve it was the most splendid in appearance. The wind was very high at the time, and a drizzling rain falling occasionally. * * * * * HOPE [Illustration: THOMAS CAMPBELL, "THE BARD OF HOPE."] At summer eve, when Heaven's ethereal bow Spans with bright arch the glittering hills below, Why to yon mountain turns the musing eye, Whose sunbright summit mingles with the sky? Why do those cliffs of shadowy tint appear More sweet than all the landscape smiling near? 'Tis distance lends enchantment to the view, And robes the mountain in its azure hue. Thus, with delight, we linger to survey, The promised joys of life's unmeasured way; Thus from afar each dim-discovered scene More pleasing seems than all the past hath been; And every form that fancy can repair From dark oblivion, glows divinely there. Auspicious Hope! in thy sweet garden, grow Wreaths for each toil, a charm for every woe. Won by their sweets, in nature's languid hour, The way-worn pilgrim seeks thy summer bower; Then, as the wild bee murmurs on the wing, What peaceful dreams thy handmaid spirits bring! What viewless forms th' Eolian organ play, And sweep the furrow'd lines of anxious care away! Angel of life! thy glittering wings explore Earth's loneliest bounds and ocean's wildest shore. Lo! to the wintry winds the pilot yields His bark, careering o'er unfathom'd fields; Now on Atlantic waves he rides afar Where Andes, giant of the western star, With meteor-standard to the winds unfurl'd, Looks from his throne of clouds o'er half the world. Poor child of danger, nursling of the storm, Sad are the woes that wreck thy manly form! Rocks, waves, and winds the shatter'd bark delay-- Thy heart is sad, thy home is far away. But Hope can here her moonlight vigils keep, And sing to charm the spirit of the deep. Swift as yon streamer lights the starry pole, Her visions warm the watchman's pensive soul. His native hills that rise in happier climes; The grot that heard his song of other times; His cottage home, his bark of slender sail, His glassy lake, and broomwood-blossom'd vale, Rush in his thought; he sweeps before the wind, And treads the shore he sigh'd to leave behind! _Pleasures of Hope._ * * * * * LIGHTHOUSES. [Illustration: Letter H.] Hartlepool Lighthouse is a handsome structure of white freestone--the building itself being fifty feet in height; but, owing to the additional height of the cliff, the light is exhibited at an elevation of nearly eighty-five feet above high-water mark. On the eastern side of the building is placed a balcony, supporting a lantern, from which a small red light is exhibited, to indicate that state of the tide which will admit of the entrance of ships into the harbour; the corresponding signal in the daytime being a red ball hoisted to the top of the flag-staff. The lighthouse is furnished with an anemometer and tidal gauge; and its appointments are altogether of the most complete description. It is chiefly, however, with regard to the system adopted in the lighting arrangements that novelty presents itself. The main object, in the instance of a light placed as a beacon to warn mariners of their proximity to a dangerous coast, is to obtain the greatest possible intensity and amount of penetrating power. A naked or simple light is therefore seldom, if ever employed; but whether it proceed from the combustion of oil or gas, it is equally necessary that it should be combined with some arrangement of optical apparatus, in order that the rays emitted may be collected, and projected in such a direction as to render them available to the object in view; and in all cases a highly-polished metal surface is employed as a reflector. [Illustration: HARTLEPOOL LIGHTHOUSE.] In the Hartlepool Lighthouse the illuminative medium is _gas_. The optical apparatus embraces three-fourths of the circumference of the circle which encloses the light, and the whole of the rays emanating from that part of the light opposed to the optical arrangement are reflected or refracted (as the case may be), so that they are projected from the lighthouse in such a direction as to be visible from the surface of the ocean. * * * * * INTEGRITY. [Illustration: Letter C.] Can anything (says Plato) be more delightful than the hearing or the speaking of truth? For this reason it is that there is no conversation so agreeable that of a man of integrity, who hears without any intention to betray, and speaks without any intention to deceive. As an advocate was pleading the cause of his client in Rome, before one of the praetors, he could only produce a single witness in a point where the law required the testimony of two persons; upon which the advocate insisted on the integrity of the person whom he had produced, but the praetor told him that where the law required two witnesses he would not accept of one, though it were Cato himself. Such a speech, from a person who sat at the head of a court of justice, while Cato was still living, shows us, more than a thousand examples, the high reputation this great man had gained among his contemporaries on account of his sincerity. [Illustration] 2. As I was sitting (says an ancient writer) with some senators of Bruges, before the gate of the Senate-House, a certain beggar presented himself to us, and with sighs and tears, and many lamentable gestures, expressed to us his miserable poverty, and asked our alms, telling us at the same time, that he had about him a private maim and a secret mischief, which very shame restrained him from discovering to the eyes of men. We all pitying the case of the poor man, gave him each of us something, and departed. One, however, amongst us took an opportunity to send his servant after him, with orders to inquire of him what that private infirmity might be which he found such cause to be ashamed of, and was so loth to discover. The servant overtook him, and delivered his commission: and after having diligently viewed his face, breast, arms, legs, and finding all his limbs in apparent soundness, "Why, friend," said he, "I see nothing whereof you have any such reason to complain." "Alas! sir," said the beggar, "the disease which afflicts me is far different from what you conceive, and is such as you cannot discern; yet it is an evil which hath crept over my whole body: it has passed through my very veins and marrow in such a manner that there is no member of my body that is able to work for my daily bread. This disease is by some called idleness, and by others sloth." The servant, hearing this singular apology, left him in great anger, and returned to his master with the above account; but before the company could send again to make further inquiry after him, the beggar had very prudently withdrawn himself. 3. Action, we are assured, keeps the soul in constant health; but idleness corrupts and rusts the mind; for a man of great abilities may by negligence and idleness become so mean and despicable as to be an incumbrance to society and a burthen to himself. When the Roman historians described an extraordinary man, it generally entered into his character, as an essential, that he was _incredibili industriâ, diligentiâ singulari_--of incredible industry, of singular diligence and application. And Cato, in Sallust, informs the Senate, that it was not so much the arms as the industry of their ancestors, which advanced the grandeur of Rome, and made her mistress of the world. DR. DODD. * * * * * RAFT OF GAMBIER ISLANDERS The group in the Pacific Ocean called the Gambier Islands are but thinly inhabited, but possess a good harbour. Captain Beechey, in his "Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Behring's Straits," tells us that several of the islands, especially the largest, have a fertile appearance. The Captain gives an interesting account of his interview with some of the natives, who approached the ship in rafts, carrying from sixteen to twenty men each, as represented in the Engraving. [Illustration: RAFT OF GAMBIER ISLANDERS.] "We were much pleased," says the Captain, "with the manner of lowering their matting sail, diverging on different courses, and working their paddles, in the use of which they had great power, and were well skilled, plying them together, or, to use a nautical phrase, 'keeping stroke.' They had no other weapons but long poles, and were quite naked, with the exception of a banana leaf cut into strips, and tied about their loins; and one or two persons wore white turbans." They timidly approached both the ship and the barge, but would upset any small boats within their reach; not, however, from any malicious intention, but from thoughtlessness and inquisitiveness. Captain Beechey approached them in the gig, and gave them several presents, for which they, in return, threw him some bundles of paste, tied up in large leaves, which was the common food of the natives. They tempted the Captain and his crew with cocoa-nuts and roots, and invited their approach by performing ludicrous dances; but, as soon as the visitors were within reach, all was confusion. A scuffle ensued, and on a gun being fired over their heads, all but four instantly plunged into the sea. The inhabitants of these islands are stated to be well-made, with upright and graceful figures. Tattooing seems to be very commonly practised, and some of the patterns are described as being very elegant. * * * * * CHRISTIAN FREEDOM. "He is the freeman whom the truth makes free," Who first of all the bands of Satan breaks; Who breaks the bands of sin, and for his soul, In spite of fools, consulteth seriously; In spite of fashion, perseveres in good; In spite of wealth or poverty, upright; Who does as reason, not as fancy bids; Who hears Temptation sing, and yet turns not Aside; sees Sin bedeck her flowery bed, And yet will not go up; feels at his heart The sword unsheathed, yet will not sell the truth; Who, having power, has not the will to hurt; Who feels ashamed to be, or have a slave, Whom nought makes blush but sin, fears nought but God; Who, finally, in strong integrity Of soul, 'midst want, or riches, or disgrace Uplifted, calmly sat, and heard the waves Of stormy Folly breaking at his feet, Nor shrill with praise, nor hoarse with foal reproach, And both despised sincerely; seeking this Alone, the approbation of his God, Which still with conscience witness'd to his peace. This, this is freedom, such as Angels use, And kindred to the liberty of God! POLLOCK. * * * * * THE POLAR REGIONS. The adventurous spirit of Englishmen has caused them to fit out no less than sixty expeditions within the last three centuries and a half, with the sole object of discovering a north-west passage to India. Without attempting even to enumerate these baffled essays, we will at once carry our young readers to these dreary regions--dreary, merely because their capabilities are unsuited to the necessities which are obvious to all, yet performing their allotted office in the economy of the world, and manifesting the majesty and the glory of our great Creator. [Illustration: SIR JAMES ROSS'S SHIPS BESET IN A PACK OF ICE.] Winter in the Arctic Circle is winter indeed: there is no sun to gladden with his beams the hearts of the voyagers; but all is wrapt in darkness, day and night, save when the moon chances to obtrude her faint rays, only to make visible the desolation of the scene. The approach of winter is strongly marked. Snow begins to fall in August, and the ground is covered to the depth of two or three feet before October. As the cold augments, the air bears its moisture in the form of a frozen fog, the icicles of which are so sharp as to be painful to the skin. The surface of the sea steams like a lime-kiln, caused by the water being still warmer than the superincumbent atmosphere. The mist at last clears, the water having become frozen, and darkness settles on the land. All is silence, broken only by the bark of the Arctic fox, or by the loud explosion of bursting rocks, as the frost penetrates their bosoms. The crews of exploring vessels, which are frozen firmly in the ice in winter, spend almost the whole of their time in their ships, which in Sir James Ross's expedition (in 1848-49) were well warmed and ventilated. Where there has not been sufficient warmth, their provisions--even brandy--became so frozen as to require to be cut by a hatchet. The mercury in a barometer has frozen so that it might be beaten on an anvil. As Sir James Ross went in search of Sir John Franklin, he adopted various methods of letting him know (if alive) of assistance being at hand. Provisions were deposited in several marked places; and on the excursions to make these deposits, they underwent terrible fatigue, as well as suffered severely from what is termed "snow blindness." But the greatest display of ingenuity was in capturing a number of white foxes, and fastening copper collars round their necks, on which was engraved a notice of the position of the ships and provisions. It was possible that these animals, which are known to travel very far in search of food, might be captured by the missing voyagers, who would thus be enabled to avail themselves of the assistance intended for them by their noble countrymen. The little foxes, in their desire to escape, sometimes tried to gnaw the bars of their traps; but the cold was so intense, that their tongues froze to the iron, and so their captors had to kill them, to release them from their misery, for they were never wantonly destroyed. The great Painter of the Universe has not forgotten the embellishment of the Pole. One of the most beautiful phenomena in nature is the Aurora Borealis, or northern lights. It generally assumes the form of an arch, darting flashes of lilac, yellow, or white light towards the heights of heaven. Some travellers state that the aurora are accompanied by a crackling or hissing noise; but Captain Lyon, who listened for hours, says that this is not the case, and that it is merely that the imagination cannot picture these sudden bursts of light as unaccompanied by noise. We will now bid farewell to winter, for with returning summer comes the open sea, and the vessels leave their wintry bed. This, however, is attended with much difficulty and danger. Canals have to be cut in the ice, through which to lead the ships to a less obstructed ocean; and, after this had been done in Sir James Ross's case, the ships were hemmed in by a pack of ice, fifty miles in circumference, and were carried along, utterly helpless, at the rate of eight or ten miles daily, for upwards of 250 miles--the navigators fearing the adverse winds might drive them on the rocky coast of Baffin's Bay. At length the wind changed, and carried them clear of ice and icebergs (detached masses of ice, sometimes several hundred feet in height) to the open sea, and back to their native land. With all its dreariness, we owe much to the ice-bound Pole; to it we are indebted for the cooling breeze and the howling tempest--the beneficent tempest, in spite of all its desolation and woe. Evil and good in nature are comparative: the same thing does what is called harm in one sense, but incalculable good in another. So the tempest, that causes the wreck, and makes widows of happy wives and orphans of joyous children, sets in motion air that would else be stagnant, and become the breath of pestilence and the grave. [Illustration: MIDSUMMER NIGHT IN THE ARCTIC REGIONS.] * * * * * THE CROWN JEWELS. [Illustration: Letter A.] All the Crown Jewels, or Regalia, used by the Sovereign on great state occasions, are kept in the Tower of London, where they have been for nearly two centuries. The first express mention made of the Regalia being kept in this palatial fortress, occurs in the reign of Henry III., previously to which they were deposited either in the Treasury of the Temple, or in some religious house dependent upon the Crown. Seldom, however, did the jewels remain in the Tower for any length of time, for they were repeatedly pledged to meet the exigences of the Sovereign. An inventory of the jewels in the Tower, made by order of James I., is of great length; although Henry III., during the Lincolnshire rebellion, in 1536, greatly reduced the value and number of the Royal store. In the reign of Charles II., a desperate attempt was made by Colonel Blood and his accomplices to possess themselves of the Royal Jewels. The Regalia were originally kept in a small building on the south side of the White Tower; but, in the reign of Charles I., they were transferred to a strong chamber in the Martin Tower, afterwards called the Jewel Tower. Here they remained until the fire in 1840; when being threatened with destruction from the flames which were raging near them, they were carried away by the warders, and placed for safety in the house of the Governor. In 1841 they were removed to the new Jewel-House, which is much more commodious than the old vaulted chamber in which they were previously shown. [Illustration: QUEEN'S CROWN.] The QUEEN'S, or IMPERIAL CROWN was made for the coronation of her present Majesty. It is composed of a cap of purple velvet, enclosed by hoops of silver, richly dight with gems, in the form shown in our Illustration. The arches rise almost to a point instead of being depressed, are covered with pearls, and are surmounted by an orb of brilliants. Upon this is placed a Maltese or cross pattee of brilliants. Four crosses and four _fleurs-de-lis_ surmount the circlet, all composed of diamonds, the front cross containing the "inestimable sapphire," of the purest and deepest azure, more than two inches long, and an inch broad; and, in the circlet beneath it, is a rock ruby, of enormous size and exquisite colour, _said_ to have been worn by the Black Prince at the battle of Cressy, and by Henry V. at the battle of Agincourt. The circlet is enriched with diamonds, emeralds, sapphires, and rubies. This crown was altered from the one constructed expressly for the coronation of King George IV.: the superb diadem then weighed 5-1/2 lb., and was worn by the King on his return in procession from the Abbey to the Hall at Westminster. [Illustration: OLD IMPERIAL CROWN.] The OLD IMPERIAL CROWN (St. Edward's) is the one whose form is so familiar to us from its frequent representation on the coin of the realm, the Royal arms, &c. It was made for the coronation of Charles II., to replace the one broken up and sold during the Civil Wars, which was said to have been worn by Edward the Confessor. It is of gold, and consists of two arches crossing at the top, and rising from a rim or circlet of gold, over a cap of crimson velvet, lined with white taffeta, and turned up with ermine. The base of the arches on each side is covered by a cross pattee; between the crosses are four _fleurs-de-lis_ of gold, which rise out of the circle: the whole of these are splendidly enriched with pearls and precious stones. On the top, at the intersection of the arches, which are somewhat depressed, are a mound and cross of gold the latter richly jewelled, and adorned with three pearls, one on the top, and one pendent at each limb. [Illustration: PRINCE OF WALES'S CROWN.] The PRINCE OF WALES'S CROWN is of pure gold, unadorned with jewels. On occasions of state, it is placed before the seat occupied by the Heir-Apparent to the throne in the House of Lords. [Illustration: QUEEN'S DIADEM.] [Illustration: TEMPORAL SCEPTRE.] The QUEEN'S DIADEM was made for the coronation of Marie d'Este, consort of James II., it is adorned with large diamonds, and the upper edge of the circlet is bordered with pearls. The TEMPORAL SCEPTRE of Queen Victoria is of gold, 2 feet 9 inch in length; the staff is very plain, but the pommel is ornamented with rubies, emeralds, and diamonds. The _fleurs-de-lis_ with which this sceptre was originally adorned have been replaced by golden leaves, bearing the rose, shamrock, and thistle. The cross is variously jewelled, and has in the centre a large table diamond. [Illustration: SPIRITUAL SCEPTRE.] Her Majesty's SPIRITUAL SCEPTRE, Rod of Equity, or Sceptre with the Dove, is also of gold, 3 feet 7 inches long, set with diamonds and other precious stones. It is surmounted by an orb, banded with rose diamonds, bearing a cross, on which is the figure of a dove with expanded wings. The QUEEN'S IVORY SCEPTRE was made for Maria d'Este, consort of James II. It is mounted in gold, and terminated by a golden cross, bearing a dove of white onyx. [Illustration: AMPULLA.] The ampulla is an antique vessel of pure gold, used for containing the holy oil at coronations. It resembles an eagle with expanded wings, and is finely chased: the head screws off at the middle of the neck for pouring in the oil; and the neck being hollow to the beak the latter serves as a spout, through which the consecrated oil is poured into [Illustration: ANOINTING SPOON.] The ANOINTING SPOON, which is also of pure gold: it has four pearls in the broadest part of the handle, and the bowl of the spoon is finely chased within and without; by its extreme thinness, it appears to be ancient. [Illustration: QUEEN'S CORONATION BRACELETS.] The ARMILLAE, or BRACELETS, are of solid fine gold, chased, 1-1/2 inch in breadth, edged with rows of pearls. They open by a hinge, and are enamelled with the rose, _fleur-de-lis_, and harp. [Illustration: IMPERIAL ORB.] The IMPERIAL ORB, or MOUND, is an emblem of sovereignty, said to have been derived from Imperial Rome, and to have been first adorned with the cross by Constantine, on his conversion to Christianity. It first appears among the Royal insignia of England on the coins of Edward the Confessor. This orb is a ball of gold, 6 inches in diameter, encompassed with a band of gold, set with emeralds, rubies, and pearls. On the top is a remarkably fine amethyst, nearly 1-1/2 inch high, which serves as the foot or pedestal of a rich cross of gold, 32 inches high, encrusted with diamonds; having in the centre, on one side, a sapphire, and an emerald on the other; four large pearls at the angles of the cross, a large pearl at the end of each limb, and three at the base; the height of the orb and cross being 11 inches. The QUEEN'S ORB is of smaller dimensions than the preceding, but of similar materials and fashion. [Illustration: GOLDEN SALT-CELLAR OF STATE.] [Illustration: STATE SALT-CELLARS.] The SALT-CELLARS are of singular form and rich workmanship. The most noticeable is--the _Golden Salt-cellar of State,_ which is of pure gold, richly adorned with jewels, and grotesque figures in chased work. Its form is castellated: and the receptacles for the salt are formed by the removal of the tops of the turrets. In the same chamber with the Crowns, Sceptres, and other Regalia used in the ceremonial of the Coronation, is a very interesting collection of plate, formerly used at Coronation festivals; together with fonts, &c. Amongst these are The QUEEN'S BAPTISMAL FONT, which is of silver, gilt, tastefully chased, and surmounted by two figures emblematical of the baptismal rite: this font was formerly used at the christening of the Royal family; but a new font of more picturesque design, has lately be n manufactured for her Majesty. [Illustration: QUEEN'S BAPTISMAL FONT.] There are, besides, in the collection, a large Silver Wine Fountain, presented by the corporation of Plymouth to Charles II.; two massive Coronation Tankards, of gold; a Banqueting Dish, and other dishes and spoons of gold, used at Coronation festivals; besides a beautifully-wrought service of Sacramental Plate, employed at the Coronation, and used also in the Chapel of St. Peter in the Tower. * * * * * WHAT IS TIME? [Illustration: Letter I.] I ask'd an aged man, a man of cares, Wrinkled and curved, and white with hoary hairs: "Time is the warp of life," he said; "Oh tell The young, the fair, the gay, to weave 't well!" I ask'd the ancient, venerable dead-- Sages who wrote, and warriors who bled: From the cold grave a hollow murmur flow'd-- "Time sow'd the seed we reap in this abode!" I ask'd a dying sinner, ere the tide Of life had left his veins: "Time?" he replied, "I've lost it! Ah, the treasure!" and he died. I ask'd the golden sun and silver spheres, Those bright chronometers of days and years: They answer'd: "Time is but a meteor's glare," And bade me for Eternity prepare. I ask'd the Seasons, in their annual round, Which beautify or desolate the ground; And they replied (no oracle more wise): "'Tis Folly's blank, and Wisdom's highest prize!" I ask'd a spirit lost, but oh! the shriek That pierced my soul! I shudder while I speak. It cried, "A particle! a speck! a mite Of endless years--duration infinite!" Of things inanimate, my dial I Consulted, and it made me this reply: "Time is the season fair of living well-- The path of glory, or the path of hell." I ask'd my Bible, and methinks it said: "Time is the present hour--the past is fled: Live! live to-day; to-morrow never yet On any human being rose or set." I ask'd old Father Time himself at last, But in a moment he flew swiftly past-- His chariot was a cloud, the viewless wind His noiseless steeds, which left no trace behind. I ask'd the mighty Angel who shall stand One foot on sea, and one on solid land; "By Heaven!" he cried, "I swear the mystery's o'er; Time was," he cried, "but time shall be no more!" REV. J. MARSDEN. * * * * * SIMPLICITY IN WRITING. [Illustration: Letter F.] Fine writing, according to Mr. Addison, consists of sentiments which are natural without being obvious. There cannot be a juster and more concise definition of fine writing. Sentiments which are merely natural affect not the mind with any pleasure, and seem not worthy to engage our attention. The pleasantries of a waterman, the observations of a peasant, the ribaldry of a porter or hackney-coachman; all these are natural and disagreeable. What an insipid comedy should we make of the chit-chit of the tea-table, copied faithfully and at full length! Nothing can please persons of taste but nature drawn with all her graces and ornament--_la belle nature_; or, if we copy low life, the strokes must be strong and remarkable, and must convey a lively image to the mind. The absurd _naïveté_ of Sancho Panza is represented in such inimitable colours by Cervantes, that it entertains as much as the picture of the most magnanimous hero or softest lover. The case is the same with orators, philosophers, critics, or any author who speaks in his own person without introducing other speakers or actors. If his language be not elegant, his observations uncommon, his sense strong and masculine, he will in vain boast his nature and simplicity. He may be correct, but he never will be agreeable. 'Tis the unhappiness of such authors that they are never blamed nor censured. The good fortune of a book and that of a man are not the same. The secret deceiving path of life, which Horace talks of--_fallentis semita vitae_--may be the happiest, lot of the one, but is the greatest misfortune that the other can possibly fall into. On the other hand, productions which are merely surprising, without being natural, can never give any lasting entertainment to the mind. To draw chimaeras is not, properly speaking, to copy or imitate. The justness of the representation is lost, and the mind is displeased to find a picture which bears no resemblance to any original. Nor are such excessive refinements more agreeable in the epistolary or philosophic style, than in the epic or tragic. Too much ornament is a fault in every kind of production. Uncommon expressions, strong flashes of wit, pointed similes, and epigrammatic turns, especially when laid too thick, are a disfigurement rather than any embellishment of discourse. As the eye, in surveying a Gothic building, is distracted by the multiplicity of ornaments, and loses the whole by its minute attention to the parts; so the mind, in perusing a work overstocked with wit, is fatigued and disgusted with the constant endeavour to shine and surprise. This is the case where a writer over-abounds in wit, even though that wit should be just and agreeable. But it commonly happens to such writers, that they seek for their favourite ornaments even where the subject affords them not; and by that means have twenty insipid conceits for one thought that is really beautiful. There is no subject in critical learning more copious than this of the just mixture of simplicity and refinement in writing; and, therefore, not to wander in too large a field, I shall confine myself to a few general observations on that head. First, I observe, "That though excesses of both kinds are to be avoided, and though a proper medium ought to be studied in all productions; yet this medium lies not in a point, but admits of a very considerable latitude." Consider the wide distance, in this respect, between Mr. Pope and Lucretius. These seem to lie in the two greatest extremes of refinement and simplicity which a poet can indulge himself in, without being guilty of any blameable excess. All this interval may be filled with poets, who may differ from each other, but may be equally admirable, each in his peculiar style and manner. Corneille and Congreve, who carry their wit and refinement somewhat farther than Mr. Pope (if poets of so different a kind can be compared together), and Sophocles and Terence, who are more simple than Lucretius, seem to have gone out of that medium wherein the most perfect productions are to be found, and are guilty of some excess in these opposite characters. Of all the great poets, Virgil and Racine, in my opinion, lie nearest the centre, and are the farthest removed from both the extremities. My second observation on this head is, "That it is very difficult, if not impossible, to explain by words wherein the just medium betwixt the excesses of simplicity and refinement consists, or to give any rule by which we can know precisely the bounds betwixt the fault and the beauty." A critic may not only discourse very judiciously on this head without instructing his readers, but even without understanding the matter perfectly himself. There is not in the world a finer piece of criticism than Fontenelle's "Dissertation on Pastorals;" wherein, by a number of reflections and philosophical reasonings, he endeavours to fix the just medium which is suitable to that species of writing. But let any one read the pastorals of that author, and he will be convinced, that this judicious critic, notwithstanding his fine reasonings, had a false taste, and fixed the point of perfection much nearer the extreme of refinement than pastoral poetry will admit of. The sentiments of his shepherds are better suited to the toilets of Paris than to the forests of Arcadia. But this it is impossible to discover from his critical reasonings. He blames all excessive painting and ornament, as much as Virgil could have done had he written a dissertation on this species of poetry. However different the tastes of men may be, their general discourses on these subjects are commonly the same. No criticism can be very instructive which descends not to particulars, and is not full of examples and illustrations. 'Tis allowed on all hands, that beauty, as well as virtue, lies always in a medium; but where this medium is placed is the great question, and can never be sufficiently explained by general reasonings. I shall deliver it as a third observation on this subject, "That we ought to be more on our guard against the excess of refinement than that of simplicity; and that because the former excess is both less beautiful and more dangerous than the latter." It is a certain rule that wit and passion are entirely inconsistent. When the affections are moved, there is no place for the imagination. The mind of man being naturally limited, it is impossible all his faculties can operate at once; and the more any one predominates, the less room is there for the others to exert their vigour. For this reason a greater degree of simplicity is required in all compositions, where men and actions and passions are painted, than in such as consist of reflections and observations. And as the former species of writing is the more engaging and beautiful, one may safely, upon this account, give the preference to the extreme of simplicity above that of refinement. We may also observe, that those compositions which we read the oftenest, and which every man of taste has got by heart, have the recommendation of simplicity, and have nothing surprising in the thought when divested of that elegance of expression and harmony of numbers with which it is cloathed. If the merit of the composition lies in a point of wit, it may strike at first; but the mind anticipates the thought in the second perusal, and is no longer affected by it. When I read an epigram of Martial, the first line recalls the whole; and I have no pleasure in repeating to myself what I know already. But each line, each word in Catullus has its merit; and I am never tired with the perusal of him. It is sufficient to rim over Cowley once; but Parnel, after the fiftieth reading, is fresh as at the first. Besides, it is with books as with women, where a certain plainness of manner and of dress is more engaging than that glare of paint and airs and apparel which may dazzle the eye but reaches not the affections. Terence is a modest and bashful beauty, to whom we grant every thing, because he assumes nothing, and whose purity and nature make a durable though not a violent impression upon us. But refinement, as it is the less beautiful, so it is the more dangerous extreme, and what we are the aptest to fall into. Simplicity passes for dulness when it is not accompanied with great elegance and propriety. On the contrary, there is something surprising in a blaze of wit and conceit. Ordinary readers are mightily struck with it, and falsely imagine it to be the most difficult, as well as most excellent way of writing. Seneca abounds with agreeable faults, says Quinctilian--_abundat dulcibus vitiis_; and for that reason is the more dangerous and the more apt to pervert the taste of the young and inconsiderate. I shall add, that the excess of refinement is now more to be guarded against than ever; because it is the extreme which men are the most apt to fall into, after learning has made great progress, and after eminent writers have appeared in every species of composition. The endeavour to please by novelty leads men wide of simplicity and nature, and fills their writings with affectation and conceit. It was thus that the age of Claudius and Nero became so much inferior to that of Augustus in taste and genius; and perhaps there are at present some symptoms of a like degeneracy of taste, in France as well as in England. HUME. * * * * * JOHN HAMPDEN. The celebrated patriot, John Hampden, was descended from an ancient family in Buckinghamshire, where he was born in 1594. On leaving the University, he entered the inns of court, where he made considerable progress in the study of the law. He was chosen to serve in the Parliament which assembled at Westminster, February, 1626, and served in all the succeeding Parliaments in the reign of Charles I. That Monarch having quarrelled with his Parliament, was obliged to have recourse to the open exercise of his prerogative in order to supply himself with money. From the nobility he desired assistance; from the City of London he required a loan of £100,000. The former contributed but slowly; the latter at length gave a flat denial. To equip a fleet, an apportionment was made, by order of the Council, amongst all the maritime towns, each of which was required, with the assistance of the adjoining counties, to furnish a certain number of vessels or amount of shipping. The City of London was rated at twenty ships. And this was the first appearance in the present reign of ship-money--a taxation which had once been imposed by Elizabeth, on a great emergency, but which, revived and carried further by Charles, produced the most violent discontent. [Illustration: STATUE OF JOHN HAMPDEN.] In 1636, John Hampden became universally known by his intrepid opposition to the ship-money, as an illegal tax. Upon this he was prosecuted, and his conduct throughout the transaction gained him great credit and reputation. When the Long Parliament began, the eyes of all were fixed upon him as the father of his country. On the 3rd of January, 1642, the King ordered articles of high treason, and other misdemeanours, to be prepared against Lord Kimbolton, Mr. Hampden, and four other members of the House of Commons, and went to the House to seize them, but they had retired. Mr. Hampden afterwards made a celebrated speech in the House to clear himself from the charge brought against him. In the beginning of the civil war Hampden commanded a regiment of foot, and did good service at the battle of Edgehill; but he received a mortal wound in an engagement with Prince Rupert, in Chalgrave-field, in Oxfordshire, and died in 1648. Hampden is said to have possessed in a high degree talents for gaining and preserving popular influence, and great courage, industry, and strength of mind, which procured him great ascendancy over other men. * * * * * OTHELLO'S HISTORY. [Illustration: Letter H.] Her father loved me; oft invited me; Still question'd me the story of my life, From year to year: the battles, sieges, fortunes, That I have past. I ran it through, even from my boyish days To the very moment that he bade me tell it. Wherein I spake of most disastrous chances, Of moving incidents by flood and field, Of hair-breadth 'scapes in the imminent deadly breach, Of being taken by the insolent foe, And sold to slavery; of my redemption thence, And 'portance in my travels' history; Wherein of antres vast, and deserts idle, Rough quarries, rocks, and hills whose heads touch heaven, It was my hint to speak--such was the process; And of the cannibals that each other eat-- The Anthropophagi--and men whose heads Do grow beneath their shoulders. These things to bear Would Desdemona seriously incline: still the house affairs would draw her thence; Which ever as she could with haste dispatch, She'd come again, and with a greedy ear Devour up my discourse; which I observing, Took once a pliant hour, and found good means To draw from her a prayer of earnest heart, That I would all my pilgrimage relate, Whereof by parcels she had something heard But not intentively: I did consent; And often did beguile her of her tears, When I did speak of some distressful stroke That my youth suffer'd. My story being done, She gave me for my pains a world of sighs; She swore--in faith 'twas strange, 'twas passing strange; 'Twas pitiful, 'twas wondrous pitiful; She wish'd she had not heard it; yet she wish'd That Heaven had made her such a man: she thank'd me; And bade me if I had a friend that loved her, I should but teach him how to tell my story, And that would woo her. Upon this hint I spake; She loved me for the dangers I had pass'd, And I loved her that she did pity them. This only is the witchcraft I have used: Here comes the lady; let her witness it. SHAKSPEARE. * * * * * FILIAL LOVE. [Illustration: Letter V.] Verily duty to parents is of the first consequence; and would you, my young friends, recommend yourselves to the favour of your God and Father, would you imitate the example of your adorable Redeemer, and be made an inheritor of his precious promises; would you enjoy the peace and comforts of this life, and the good esteem of your fellow-creatures--Reverence your parents; and be it your constant endeavour, as it will be your greatest satisfaction, to witness your high sense of, and to make some returns for the obligations you owe to them, by every act of filial obedience and love. Let their commands be ever sacred in your ears, and implicitly obeyed, where they do not contradict the commands of God: pretend not to be wiser than they, who have had so much more experience than yourselves; and despise them not, if haply you should be so blest as to have gained a degree of knowledge or of fortune superior to them. Let your carriage towards them be always respectful, reverent, and submissive; let your words be always affectionate and humble, and especially beware of pert and ill-seeming replies; of angry, discontented, and peevish looks. Never imagine, if they thwart your wills, or oppose your inclinations, that this ariseth from any thing but love to you: solicitous as they have ever been for your welfare, always consider the same tender solicitude as exerting itself, even in cases most opposite to your desires; and let the remembrance of what they have done and suffered for you, ever preserve you from acts of disobedience, and from paining those good hearts which have already felt so much for you, their children. The Emperor of China, on certain days of the year, pays a visit to his mother, who is seated on a throne to receive him; and four times on his feet, and as often on his knees, he makes her a profound obeisance, bowing his head even to the ground. Sir Thomas More seems to have emulated this beautiful example; for, being Lord Chancellor of England at the same time that his father was a Judge of the King's Bench, he would always, on his entering Westminster Hall, go first to the King's Bench, and ask his father's blessing before he went to sit in the Court of Chancery, as if to secure success in the great decisions of his high and important office. DR. DODD. * * * * * QUEEN MARY'S BOWER, CHATSWORTH. [Illustration: Letter W.] When the widowed Mary, Queen of Scots, left France, where she had dwelt since her fifth year--where she had shared in the education of the French King's own daughters, in one of the convents of the kingdom, and been the idol of the French Court and people, it is said that, as the coast of the happy land faded from her view, she continued to exclaim, "Farewell, France! farewell, dear France--I shall never see thee more!" And her first view of Scotland only increased the poignancy of these touching regrets. So little pains had been taken to "cover over the nakedness and poverty of the land," that tears sprang into her eyes, when, fresh from the elegant luxurious Court of Paris, she saw the wretched ponies, with bare, wooden saddles, or dirty and ragged trappings, which had been provided to carry her and her ladies from the water-side to Holyrood. And then the palace itself; how different from the palaces in which she had lived in France! Dismal and small, it consisted only of what is now the north wing. The state-room and the bed-chamber which were used by her yet remain, with the old furniture, and much of the needle-work there is said to have been the work of her hands. During her long and melancholy imprisonment in England, the art of needle-work and reading were almost her only mode of relieving the dreary hours. From the moment Mary of Scotland took the fatal resolution of throwing herself upon the supposed kindness and generosity of Elizabeth, her fate was sealed, and it was that of captivity, only to be ended by death. She was immediately cut off from all communication with her subjects, except such as it was deemed proper to allow; and was moved about from place to place, the better to ensure her safety. The hapless victim again and again implored Elizabeth to deal generously and justly with her. "I came," said she, in one of her letters, "of mine own accord; let me depart again with yours: and if God permit my cause to succeed, I shall be bound to you for it." But her rival was unrelenting, and, in fact, increased the rigours of her confinement. Whilst a prisoner at Chatsworth, she had been permitted the indulgence of air and exercise; and the bower of Queen Mary is still shown in the noble grounds of that place, as a favourite resort of the unfortunate captive. But even this absolutely necessary indulgence was afterwards denied; she was wholly confined to the Castle of Fotheringay, and a standing order was issued that "she should be shot if she attempted to escape, or if others attempted to rescue her." [Illustration: QUEEN MARY'S BOWER, AT CHATSWORTH.] Burns, in his "Lament of Mary, Queen of Scots," touchingly expresses the weary feelings that must have existed in the breast of the Royal captive:-- "Oh, soon to me may summer suns Nae mair light up the morn! Nae mair to me the autumn winds Wave o'er the yellow corn! And in the narrow house of death, Let winter round me rave; And the next flowers that deck the spring, Bloom on my peaceful grave." * * * * * TUBULAR RAILWAY BRIDGES. In the year 1850, a vast line of railway was completed from Chester to Holyhead, for the conveyance of the Royal mails, of goods and passengers, and of her Majesty's troops and artillery, between London and Dublin--Holyhead being the most desirable point at which to effect this communication with Ireland. Upon this railway are two stupendous bridges, which are the most perfect examples of engineering skill ever executed in England, or in any other country. The first of these bridges carries the railway across the river Conway, close to the ancient castle built by Edward I. in order to bridle his new subjects, the Welsh. The Conway bridge consists of a tube, or long, huge chest, the ends of which rest upon stone piers, built to correspond with the architecture of the old castle. The tube is made of wrought-iron plates, varying in thickness from a quarter of an inch to one inch, riveted together, and strengthened by irons in the form of the letter T; and, to give additional strength to the whole, a series of cells is formed at the bottom and top of the tube, between an inner ceiling and floor and the exterior plates; the iron plates which form the cells being riveted and held in their places by angle irons. The space between the sides of the tube is 14 feet; and the height of the whole, inclusive of the cells, is 22 feet 3-1/2 inches at the ends, and 25 feet 6 inches at the centre. The total length of the tube is 412 feet. One end of the tube is fixed to the masonry of the pier; but the other is so arranged as to allow for the expansion of the metal by changes of the temperature of the atmosphere, and it therefore, rests upon eleven rollers of iron, running upon a bed-plate; and, that the whole weight of the tube may not be carried by these rollers, six girders are carried over the tube, and riveted to the upper parts of its sides, which rest upon twelve balls of gun-metal running in grooves, which are fixed to iron beams let into the masonry. The second of these vast railway bridges crosses the Menai Straits, which separate Caernarvon from the island of Anglesey. It is constructed a good hundred feet above high-water level, to enable large vessels to sail beneath it; and in building it, neither scaffolding nor centering was used. The abutments on either side of the Straits are huge piles of masonry. That on the Anglesey side is 143 feet high, and 173 feet long. The wing walls of both terminate in splendid pedestals, and on each are two colossal lions, of Egyptian design; each being 25 feet long, 12 feet high though crouched, 9 feet abaft the body, and each paw 2 feet 1 inches. Each weighs 30 tons. The towers for supporting the tube are of a like magnitude with the entire work. The great Britannia Tower, in the centre of the Straits, is 62 feet by 52 feet at its base; its total height from the bottom, 230 feet; it contains 148,625 cubic feet of limestone, and 144,625 of sandstone; it weighs 20,000 tons; and there are 387 tons of cast iron built into it in the shape of beams and girders. It sustains the four ends of the four long iron tubes which span the Straits from shore to shore. The total quantity of stone contained in the bridge is 1,500,000 cubic feet. The side towers stand at a clear distance of 460 feet from the great central tower; and, again, the abutments stand at a distance from the side towers of 230 feet, giving the entire bridge a total length of 1849 feet, corresponding with the date of the year of its construction. The side or land towers are each 62 feet by 52 feet at the base, and 190 feet high; they contain 210 tons of cast iron. [Illustration: CONWAY CASTLE AND TUBULAR BRIDGE.] The length of the great tube is exactly 470 feet, being 12 feet longer than the clear space between the towers, and the greatest span ever yet attempted. The greatest height of the tube is in the centre--30 feet, and diminishing towards the end to 22 feet. Each tube consists of sides, top and bottom, all formed of long, narrow wrought-iron plates, varying in length from 12 feet downward. These plates are of the same manufacture as those for making boilers, varying in thickness from three-eighths to three-fourths of an inch. Some of them weigh nearly 7 cwt., and are amongst the largest it is possible to roll with any existing machinery. The connexion between top, bottom, and sides is made much more substantial by triangular pieces of thick plate, riveted in across the corners, to enable the tube to resist the cross or twisting strain to which it will be exposed from the heavy and long-continued gales of wind that, sweeping up the Channel, will assail it in its lofty and unprotected position. The rivets, of which there are 2,000,000--each tube containing 327,000--are more than an inch in diameter. They are placed in rows, and were put in the holes red hot, and beaten with heavy hammers. In cooling, they contracted strongly, and drew the plates together so powerfully that it required a force of from 1 to 6 tons to each rivet, to cause the plates to slide over each other. The weight of wrought iron in the great tube is 1600 tons. Each of these vast bridge tubes was constructed on the shore, then floated to the base of the piers, or bridge towers, and raised to its proper elevation by hydraulic machinery, the largest in the world, and the most powerful ever constructed. For the Britannia Bridge, this consisted of two vast presses, one of which has power equal to that of 30,000 men, and it lifted the largest tube six feet in half an hour. The Britannia tubes being in two lines, are passages for the up and down trains across the Straits. Each of the tubes has been compared to the Burlington Arcade, in Piccadilly; and the labour of placing this tube upon the piers has been assimilated to that of raising the Arcade upon the summit of the spire of St. James's Church, if surrounded with water. Each line of tube is 1513 feet in length; far surpassing in size any piece of wrought-iron work ever before put together; and its weight is 5000 tons, being nearly equal to that of two 120-gun ships, having on board, ready for sea, guns, provisions, and crew. The plate-iron covering of the tubes is not thicker than the hide of an elephant, and scarcely thicker than the bark of an oak-tree; whilst one of the large tubes, if placed on its end in St. Paul's churchyard, would reach 107 feet higher than the cross of the cathedral. [Illustration: CONSTRUCTING THE BRITANNIA TUBULAR BRIDGE.] * * * * * THE MARINERS OF ENGLAND. Ye mariners of England! Who guard our native seas, Whose flag has braved a thousand years The battle and the breeze, Your glorious standard launch again, To match another foe, And sweep through the deep While the stormy tempests blow; While the battle rages long and loud, And the stormy tempests blow. The spirits of your fathers Shall start from every wave! For the deck it was their field of fame, And Ocean was their grave; Where Blake and mighty Nelson fell, Your manly hearts shall glow, As ye sweep through the deep, While the stormy tempests blow; While the battle rages long and loud, And the stormy tempests blow. Britannia needs no bulwarks, No towers along the steep; Her march is o'er the mountain waves, Her home is on the deep: With thunders from her native oak, She quells the floods below, As they roar on the shore, When the stormy tempests blow; When the battle rages long and loud, And the stormy tempests blow. The meteor-flag of England Shall yet terrific burn, Till danger's troubled night depart, And the star of peace return. Then, then, ye ocean-warriors! Our song and feast shall flow To the fame of your name, When the storm has ceased to blow; When the fiery fight is heard no more, And the storm has ceased to blow. CAMPBELL. * * * * * KAFFIR LETTER-CARRIER. "I knew" (says the pleasing writer of "Letters from Sierra Leone") "that the long-looked-for vessel had at length furled her sails and dropped anchor in the bay. She was from England, and I waited, expecting every minute to feast my eyes upon at least one letter; but I remembered how unreasonable it was to suppose that any person would come up with letters to this lonely place at so late an hour, and that it behoved me to exercise the grace of patience until next day. However, between ten and eleven o'clock, a loud shouting and knocking aroused the household, and the door was opened to a trusty Kroo messenger, who, although one of a tribe who would visit any of its members in their own country with death, who could 'savey white man's book,' seemed to comprehend something of our feelings at receiving letters, as I overheard him exclaim, with evident glee, 'Ah! massa! here de right book come at last.' Every thing, whether a brown-paper parcel, a newspaper, an official despatch, a private letter or note is here denominated a 'book,' and this man understood well that newspapers are never received so gladly amongst 'books' from England as letters." The Kaffir, in the Engraving, was sketched from one employed to convey letters in the South African settlements; he carries his document in a split at the end of a cane. [Illustration: KAFFIR LETTER-CARRIER.] It is a singular sight in India to see the catamarans which put off from some parts of the coast, as soon as ships come in sight, either to bear on board or to convey from thence letters or messages. These frail vessels are composed of thin cocoa-tree logs, lashed together, and big enough to carry one, or, at most, two persons. In one of these a small sail is fixed, and the navigator steers with a little paddle; the float itself is almost entirely sunk in the water, so that the effect is very singular--a sail sweeping along the surface with a man behind it, and apparently nothing to support them. Those which have no sails are consequently invisible and the men have the appearance of treading the water and performing evolutions with a racket. In very rough weather the men lash themselves to their little rafts but in ordinary seas they seem, though frequently washed off, to regard such accidents as mere trifles, being naked all but a wax cloth cap in which they keep any letters they may have to convey to ships in the roads, and swimming like fish. Their only danger is from sharks, which are said to abound. These cannot hurt them while on their floats; but woe be to them if they catch them while separated from that defence. Yet, even then, the case is not quite hopeless, since the shark can only attack them from below; and a rapid dive, if not in very deep water, will sometimes save them. * * * * * THE SEASONS. SPRING. [Illustration: Letter C.] Come, gentle Spring, ethereal mildness, come, And from the bosom of yon dropping cloud, While music wakes around, veil'd in a shower Of shadowing roses, on our plains descend. * * * * * Hail! Source of Being! Universal Soul Of heaven and earth! Essential Presence, hail; To Thee I bend the knee; to Thee my thought Continual climb; who, with a master hand. Hast the great whole into perfection touch'd. By Thee the various vegetative tribes, Wrapt in a filmy net, and clad with leaves, Draw the live ether, and imbibe the dew: By Thee disposed into congenial soils, Stands each attractive plant, and sucks and swells The juicy tide--a twining mass of tubes. At thy command the vernal sun awakes The torpid sap, detruded to the root By wintry winds, that now in fluent dance, And lively fermentation, mounting, spreads All this innumerous-colour'd scene of things. As rising from the vegetable world My theme ascends, with equal wing ascend My panting Muse! And hark! how loud the woods Invite you forth in all your gayest trim. Lend me your song, ye nightingales! oh, pour The mazy running soul of melody Into my varied verse! while I deduce From the first note the hollow cuckoo sings, The symphony of spring, and touch a theme Unknown to fame, the passion of the groves. [Illustration: SPRING.] SUMMER. [Illustration: Letter F.] From bright'ning fields of ether fair disclosed, Child of the Sun, refulgent Summer comes, In pride of youth, and felt through nature's depth: He comes attended by the sultry hours, And ever-fanning breezes on his way; While from his ardent look the turning Spring Averts his blushing face, and earth and skies, All-smiling, to his hot dominion leaves. * * * * * Cheer'd by the milder beam, the sprightly youth Speeds to the well-known pool, whose crystal depth A sandy bottom shows. Awhile he stands Gazing the inverted landscape, half afraid To meditate the blue profound below; Then plunges headlong down the circling flood. His ebon tresses, and his rosy cheek, Instant emerge: and through the obedient wave, At each short breathing by his lip repell'd, With arms and legs according well, he makes, As humour leads, an easy-winding path; While from his polish'd sides a dewy light Effuses on the pleased spectators round. This is the purest exercise of health. The kind refresher of the Summer heats: Nor, when cold Winter keens the brightening flood, Would I, weak-shivering, linger on the brink. Thus life redoubles, and is oft preserved By the bold swimmer, in the swift elapse Of accident disastrous. [Illustration: SUMMER.] AUTUMN. [Illustration: Letter C.] Crown'd with the sickle and the wheaten sheaf, While Autumn nodding o'er the yellow plain Comes jovial on, the Doric reed once more, Well pleased, I tune. Whatever the wintry frost Nitrous prepared, the various-blossom'd Spring Put in white promised forth, and Summer suns Concocted strong, rush boundless now to view, Full, perfect all, and swell my glorious theme. * * * * * Hence from the busy, joy-resounding fields In cheerful error let us tread the maze Of Autumn, unconfined; and taste, revived, The breath of orchard big with bending fruit. Obedient to the breeze and beating ray, From the deep-loaded bough a mellow shower Incessant melts away. The juicy pear Lies in a soft profusion scatter'd round. A various sweetness swells the gentle race, By Nature's all-refining hand prepared; Of tempered sun, and water, earth, and air, In ever-changing composition mix'd. Such, falling frequent through the chiller night, The fragrant stores, the wide projected heaps Of apples, which the lusty-handed year, Innumerous, o'er the blushing orchard shakes. [Illustration: AUTUMN.] WINTER. [Illustration: Letter S.] See, Winter comes to rule the varied year, Sullen and sad, with all his rising train-- Vapours, and clouds, and storms. Be these my theme, These--that exalt the soul to solemn thought And heavenly musing. Welcome, kindred glooms; Congenial horrors, hail: with frequent foot, Pleased have I, in my cheerful morn of life, When nursed by careless solitude I lived, And sung of nature with unceasing joy; Pleased have I wander'd through your rough domain, Trod the pure virgin snows, myself as pure; Heard the winds roar, and the big torrent burst, Or seen the deep-fermenting tempest brew'd In the grim evening sky. * * * * * Nature! great parent! whose unceasing hand Rolls round the seasons of the changeful year, How mighty, how majestic are thy works! With what a pleasing dread they swell the soul, That sees astonish'd, and astonish'd sings! Ye, too, ye winds! that now begin to blow With boisterous sweep, I raise my voice to you. Where are your stores, ye powerful beings, say, Where your aerial magazines reserved To swell the brooding terrors of the storm? In what far distant region of the sky, Hush'd in deep silence, sleep ye when 'tis calm? * * * * * 'Tis done; dread Winter spreads his latest glooms, And reigns tremendous o'er the conquer'd year. How dead the vegetable kingdom lies! How dumb the tuneful! Horror wide extends His desolate domain. Behold, fond man! See here thy pictured life! Pass some few years Thy flowering spring, thy summer's ardent strength, And sober autumn fading into age, The pale concluding winter comes at last The shuts the scene. Ah! whither now are fled Those dreams of greatness? those unsolid hopes Of happiness? those longings after fame? Those restless cares? those busy bustling days? Those gay-spent festive nights? those veering thoughts, Lost between good and ill, that shared thy life? All now are vanish'd; virtue sole survives, Immortal, never-failing friend of man-- His guide to happiness on high. THOMSON. [Illustration: WINTER.] [Illustration: AND PALE CONCLUDING WINTER COMES AT LAST, AND SHUTS THE SCENE.] * * * * * ON MUSIC. [Illustration: Letter T.] There are few who have not felt the charms of music, and acknowledged its expressions to be intelligible to the heart. It is a language of delightful sensations, that is far more eloquent than words: it breathes to the ear the clearest intimations; but how it was learned, to what origin we owe it, or what is the meaning of some of its most affecting strains, we know not. We feel plainly that music touches and gently agitates the agreeable and sublime passions; that it wraps us in melancholy, and elevates us to joy; that it dissolves and inflames; that it melts us into tenderness, and rouses into rage: but its strokes are so fine and delicate, that, like a tragedy, even the passions that are wounded please; its sorrows are charming, and its rage heroic and delightful. As people feel the particular passions with different degrees of force, their taste of harmony must proportionably vary. Music, then, is a language directed to the passions; but the rudest passions put on a new nature, and become pleasing in harmony: let me add, also, that it awakens some passions which we perceive not in ordinary life. Particularly the most elevated sensation of music arises from a confused perception of ideal or visionary beauty and rapture, which is sufficiently perceivable to fire the imagination, but not clear enough to become an object of knowledge. This shadowy beauty the mind attempts, with a languishing curiosity, to collect into a distinct object of view and comprehension; but it sinks and escapes, like the dissolving ideas of a delightful dream, that are neither within the reach of the memory, nor yet totally fled. The noblest charm of music, then, though real and affecting, seems too confused and fluid to be collected into a distinct idea. Harmony is always understood by the crowd, and almost always mistaken by musicians. The present Italian taste for music is exactly correspondent to the taste for tragi-comedy, that about a century ago gained ground upon the stage. The musicians of the present day are charmed at the union they form between the grave and the fantastic, and at the surprising transitions they make between extremes, while every hearer who has the least remainder of the taste of nature left, is shocked at the strange jargon. If the same taste should prevail in painting, we must soon expect to see the woman's head, a horse's body, and a fish's tail, united by soft gradations, greatly admired at our public exhibitions. Musical gentlemen should take particular care to preserve in its full vigour and sensibility their original natural taste, which alone feels and discovers the true beauty of music. If Milton, Shakspeare, or Dryden had been born with the same genius and inspiration for music as for poetry, and had passed through the practical part without corrupting the natural taste, or blending with it any prepossession in favour of sleights and dexterities of hand, then would their notes be tuned to passions and to sentiments as natural and expressive as the tones and modulations of the voice in discourse. The music and the thought would not make different expressions; the hearers would only think impetuously; and the effect of the music would be to give the ideas a tumultuous violence and divine impulse upon the mind. Any person conversant with the classic poets, sees instantly that the passionate power of music I speak of, was perfectly understood and practised by the ancients--that the Muses of the Greeks always sung, and their song was the echo of the subject, which swelled their poetry into enthusiasm and rapture. An inquiry into the nature and merits of the ancient music, and a comparison thereof with modern composition, by a person of poetic genius and an admirer of harmony, who is free from the shackles of practice, and the prejudices of the mode, aided by the countenance of a few men of rank, of elevated and true taste, would probably lay the present half-Gothic mode of music in ruins, like those towers of whose little laboured ornaments it is an exact picture, and restore the Grecian taste of passionate harmony once more to the delight and wonder of mankind. But as from the disposition of things, and the force of fashion, we cannot hope in our time to rescue the sacred lyre, and see it put into the hands of men of genius, I can only recall you to your own natural feeling of harmony and observe to you, that its emotions are not found in the laboured, fantastic, and surprising compositions that form the modern style of music: but you meet them in some few pieces that are the growth of wild unvitiated taste; you discover them in the swelling sounds that wrap us in imaginary grandeur; in those plaintive notes that make us in love with woe; in the tones that utter the lover's sighs, and fluctuate the breast with gentle pain; in the noble strokes that coil up the courage and fury of the soul, or that lull it in confused visions of joy; in short, in those affecting strains that find their way to the inmost recesses of the heart, Untwisting all the chains that tie The hidden soul of harmony.--_Milton_. USHER. * * * * * THE AFFLICTED POOR. Say ye--oppress'd by some fantastic woes, Some jarring nerve that baffles your repose, Who press the downy couch while slaves advance With timid eye to read the distant glance; Who with sad pray'rs the weary doctor tease, To name the nameless, ever new disease; Who with mock patience dire complaint endure, Which real pain, and that alone, can cure: How would ye bear in real pain to lie, Despised, neglected, left alone to die? How would ye bear to draw your latest breath, Where all that's wretched paves the way for death? Such is that room which one rude beam divides, And naked rafters form the sloping sides; Where the vile bands that bind the thatch are seen, And lath and mud are all that lie between, Save one dull pane that coarsely patch'd gives way To the rude tempest, yet excludes the day: There, on a matted flock with dust o'erspread, The drooping wretch reclines his languid head! For him no hand the cordial cup supplies, Nor wipes the tear which stagnates in his eyes; No friends, with soft discourse, his pangs beguile. Nor promise hope till sickness wears a smile. CRABBE. [Illustration: GEORGE CRABBE.] * * * * * MIDNIGHT THOUGHTS. [Illustration: Letter T.] Thou, who didst put to flight Primeval silence, when the morning stars, Exulting, shouted o'er the rising ball: O Thou! whose word from solid darkness struck That spark, the sun, strike wisdom from my soul; My soul which flies to thee, her trust her treasure, As misers to their gold, while others rest: Through this opaque of nature and of soul, This double night, transmit one pitying ray, To lighten and to cheer. Oh, lead my mind, (A mind that fain would wander from its woe,) Lead it through various scenes of life and death, And from each scene the noblest truths inspire. Nor less inspire my conduct, than my song; Teach my best reason, reason; my best will Teach rectitude; and fix my firm resolve Wisdom to wed, and pay her long arrear; Nor let the phial of thy vengeance, pour'd On this devoted head, be pour'd in vain. The bell strikes One. We take no note of time But from its loss; to give it then a tongue Is wise in man. As if an angel spoke, I feel the solemn sound. If heard aright, It is the knell of my departed hours. Where are they? with the years beyond the flood! It is the signal that demands dispatch: How much is to be done! My hopes and fears Start up alarm'd, and o'er life's narrow verge Look down--on what? A fathomless abyss! A dread eternity! How surely mine! And can eternity belong to me, Poor pensioner on the bounties of an hour? How poor, how rich, how abject, how august, How complicate, how wonderful is man! How passing wonder He who made him such! Who center'd in our make such strange extremes-- From different natures, marvellously mix'd: Connexion exquisite! of distant worlds Distinguish'd link in being's endless chain! Midway from nothing to the Deity; A beam ethereal--sullied and absorpt! Though sullied and dishonour'd, still divine! Dim miniature of greatness absolute! An heir of glory! a frail child of dust! Helpless immortal! insect infinite! A worm! a god! I tremble at myself, And in myself am lost. At home a stranger. Thought wanders up and down, surprised, aghast, And wondering at her own. How reason reels! Oh, what a miracle to man is man! Triumphantly distress'd! what joy! what dread Alternately transported and alarm'd! What can preserve my life, or what destroy? An angel's arm can't snatch me from the grave; Legions of angels can't confine me there. 'Tis past conjecture; all things rise in proof. While o'er my limbs sleep's soft dominion spread, What though my soul fantastic measures trod O'er fairy fields, or mourn'd along the gloom Of pathless woods, or down the craggy steep Hurl'd headlong, swam with pain the mantled pool, Or scaled the cliff, or danced on hollow winds With antic shapes, wild natives of the brain! Her ceaseless flight, though devious, speaks her nature Of subtler essence than the trodden clod: Active, aerial, towering, unconfined, Unfetter'd with her gross companion's fall. Even silent night proclaims my soul immortal: Even silent night proclaims eternal day! For human weal Heaven husbands all events; Dull sleep instructs, nor sport vain dreams in vain. YOUNG. * * * * * FAREWELL. [Illustration: Letter N.] Nay, shrink not from that word "Farewell!" As if 'twere friendship's final knell-- Such fears may prove but vain: So changeful is life's fleeting day, Whene'er we sever, Hope may say, We part to meet again! E'en the last parting earth can know, Brings not unutterable woe To souls that heav'nward soar: For humble Faith, with steadfast eye, Points to a brighter world on high, Where hearts, that here at parting sigh, May meet--to part no more! BARTON. [Illustration] * * * * * VOCABULARY OF WORDS USED IN THE ILLUSTRATED LONDON READING BOOK. * * * * * [We have considered that it would be useful to the young reader to have a ready means of reference, in the READING BOOK itself, to all unusual words of one syllable, and all the words of two syllables and above, that occur in the various lessons. In the following pages will be found, properly accentuated, all the more difficult polysyllables, with their meanings, derived from Johnson, Walker, and other competent authorities.] * * * * * ABA'NDON, _v.a._ give up; resign, or quit; forsake; leave ABI'LITY, _s._ capacity; qualification; power A'BJECT, _a._ mean; being of no hope or regard; destitute ABLU'TION, _s._ the act of cleansing or washing clean; water used in washing ABO'LISH, _v.a._ make void; put an end to; destroy ABO'UND, _v.n._ have in great plenty; be in great plenty ABRE'AST, _ad._ side by side ABRU'PTLY, _ad._ hastily; suddenly; without the due forms of preparation A'BSOLUTE, _a._ positive; certain; unlimited A'BSTRACT, _s._ the smaller quantity containing the virtue or power of the greater ABSTRU'SE, _a._ hidden; difficult ABU'NDANT, _a._ plentiful ABU'TMENT, _s._ that which borders upon another ACA'DEMY, _s._ (from _Academus_, an Athenian, who founded a public school at Athens, which after him was called Academia, _Latin_), place of education; an assembly or society of men, uniting for the promotion of some art A'CCENT, _s._ the sound of a syllable; a modification of the voice expressive of the passions or sentiments; the marks made upon syllables to regulate their pronunciation A'CCIDENT, _s._ that which happens unforeseen; chance ACCO'MPANY, _v.n._ associate with; become a companion to ACCO'MPLICE, _s._ an associate; partner ACCO'MPLISHMENT, _s._ ornament of mind or body; acquirement ACCO'ST, _v.a._ speak to; address; salute ACCO'UNT, _s._ the state or result of a computation--as, the _account_ stands thus between us; narrative; value ACCO'UTRE, _v.a._ dress; equip A'CCURACY, _s._ exactness; nicety ACCU'STOM, _v._ to habituate; to inure ACQUI'RE, _v.a._ gain; obtain; attain A'CRID, _a._ having a hot biting taste; bitter A'CRIMONY, _s._ sharpness; severity; bitterness of thought or language ACRO'POLIS, _s._ a citadel; the highest part of a city ACTI'VITY, _s._ quickness; nimbleness ACU'TE, _a._ sharp, not blunt; sharp, not dull; not stupid; vigorous; powerful in operation ADAMA'NTINE, _a._ made of adamant; having the qualities of adamant, viz. hardness, indissolubility ADA'PT, _v.a._ admit, justify; yield; permit ADIEU', _ad._ used elliptically for _à Dieu je vous commende_, at the parting of friends; farewell A'DMIRABLE, _a._ to be admired; of power to excite wonder ADMIRA'TION, _s._ wonder ADMI'T, _v.a._ suffer to enter; allow ADO'PT, _v.a._ take a son by choice; make him a son who is not so by birth; place any person or thing in a nearer relation than they have by nature or something else ADRO'ITNESS, _s._ dexterity; readiness ADU'LT, _s._ a person above the age of boyhood or girlhood ADVA'NCE, _v.a._ improve; forward; propose ADVA'NTAGE, _s._ superiority; opportunity ADVE'NTURE, _s._ chance; hazard; an enterprise in which something must be left to hazard ADVE'NTURER, _s._ he that puts himself into the hands of chance ADVE'NTUROUS, _a._ bold; daring; courageous; inclined to adventures ADVE'RSITY, _s._ affliction; calamity; misfortune; the public misery ADVE'RTISEMENT, _s._ something advertised; the public notice of a thing A'DVOCATE, _s._ he that pleads a cause AE'OLIAN, _a._ an epithet applied to lyric poetry, because Sappho and Alcaeus were natives of Lesbos in Aeolia, and wrote in the Aeolic dialect AE'RIAL, _a._ belonging to the air; lofty AFFABI'LITY, _s._ civility; condescension; easiness of manners AFFE'CT, _v.a._ act upon; produce effect in any other thing; move the passions; aim at; aspire to AFFECTA'TION, _s._ an elaborate appearance; false pretence AFFE'CTION, _s._ state of being affected by any cause or agent; love; kindness; good-will to some person; passionate regard AFFE'CTIONATE, _a._ full of affection; fond; tender; warm; benevolent AFFI'NITY, _s._ connection with AGGRE'SSION, _s._ first act of injury A'GONY, _s._ the pangs of death; any violent pain in body or mind AGRE'EABLE, _a._ suitable to; pleasing A'GRICULTURE, _s._ the science of making land productive A'LABASTER, _s._ a kind of soft marble, easier to cut and less durable than the other kinds ALA'RUM, _s._ notice of any approaching danger; any tumult or disturbance A'LIEN, _s._ foreigner; stranger A'LKALI, _s._ any substance which, when mingled with acid, produces effervescence and fermentation ALLEGO'RY, _s._ a figurative discourse, in which something is contained other than is literally understood ALLE'VIATE, _v.a._ make light; ease; soften ALLO'W, _v.a._ permit; give leave A'LPHABET, _s._ the order of the letters, or elements of speech ALTERA'TION, _s._ the act of changing; the change made A'LTITUDE, _s._ height of place; space measured upward AL'TOGETHER, _ad._ completely; without exception AMA'LGAMATE, _v.a._ to unite metals with silver AMA'ZEMENT, _s._ height of admiration; astonishment AMBI'GUOUS, _a._ using doubtful expressions; doubtful; having two meanings AMBI'TION, _s._ the desire of preferment or honour; the desire of anything great or excellent AMBI'TIOUS, _a._ fond of power; desirous of power AME'RICAN, _s._ native of America A'METHYST, _s._ a precious stone of a violet colour A'MIABLE, _a._ kind; gentle; good natured; loving; not selfish AMMUNI'TION, _s._ military stores, applied to artillery AMPHITHE'ATRE, _s._ a building in a circular or oval form, having its area encompassed with rows of seats one above another AMPU'LLA, _s._ (pronounced _am-poo-la_) a vessel of pure gold, used for containing the holy oil at coronations AMU'SE, _v.a._ entertain with tranquillity; draw on from time to time ANA'LOGY, _s._ resemblance between things with regard to some circumstances or effects ANATO'MICAL, _a._ relating or belonging to anatomy ANA'TOMY, _s._ the art of dissecting the body; the doctrine of the structure of the body A'NCESTOR, _s._ one from whom a person descends A'NCIENT, _a._ old; past; former A'NECDOTE, _s._ something yet unpublished; biographical history; personal history ANEMO'METER, _s._ an instrument to measure the force of the wind ANGE'LIC, _a._ resembling angels; belonging to angels A'NIMAL, _s._ a living creature ANIMA'LCULE, _s._ a small animal, generally applied to those which cannot be seen without a microscope ANIMO'SITY, _s._ vehemence of hatred; passionate malignity ANNIHILATE, _v.a._ reduce to nothing; destroy ANNO'Y, _v.a._ incommode; vex; tease; molest A'NNUAL, _a._ that comes yearly A'NTELOPE, _s._ a goat with curled or wreathed horns ANTHROPO'PHAGI, _s._ man-eaters; cannibals ANTI'CIPATE, _v.a._ take an impression of something which is not yet as if it really was A'NTIQUARY, _s._ a man studious of antiquity ANTI'QUE, _a._ ancient; old; odd; of old fashion ANTI'QUITY, _s._ old times; remains of old times A'NTRE, _s._ a cavern ANXI'ETY, _s._ perplexity; lowness of spirits ANXIOUS, _a._ disturbed about some uncertain event A'PATHY, _s._ exemption from feeling or passion APO'CALYPSE, _s._ the Book of Revelations APO'LOGY, _s._ defence; excuse APO'STLE, _s._ a person sent with commands, particularly applied to those whom our Saviour deputed to preach the Gospel APOSTO'LIC, _a._ delivered or taught by the Apostles APPARA'TUS, _s._ tools; furniture; show; instruments APPE'AR, _v.n._ be visible; in sight APPEARANCE, _s._ the act of coming into sight; phenomenon; apparition; presence APPE'NDAGE, _s._ something added to another thing without being necessary to its essence A'PPETITE _s._ hunger; violent longing APPLA'USE _s._ approbation loudly expressed; praise APPLICATION, _s._ close study; intenseness of thought; attention; the act of applying; the act of applying anything to another. APPORTIONMENT, _s._ dividing into portions APPRECIATE, _v.a._ set a price on anything; esteem APPRO'ACH, _v n._ draw near; somewhat resemble APPROBATION, _s._ the act of approving, or expressing himself pleased, or satisfied; support APPRO'PRIATENESS, _s._ a fitness to be appropriated APPROPRIATION, _s._ the application of something to a certain purpose AQUA'TIC, _a._ that inhabits the water; that grows in the water A'QUEDUCT, _s._ a conveyance, tunnel, or way made for carrying water ARA'TOO, _s._ a bird of the parrot kind AR'BALIST, _s._ a naturalist who make trees his study A'RBITRABY, _o._ despotic; absolute; depending on no rule ARBU'TUS, _s._ a strawberry tree ARCA'DE, _s._ a continued arch; a walk arched over ARCHBI'SHOP, _s._ a bishop of the first class, who superintends the conduct of other bishops ARCHITE'CTURE, _s._ the art or science of building A'RCTIC, _a._ northern; lying under the Arctos or Bear A'RDUOUS, _a._ lofty; difficult ARI'SE, _v.n._ mount upward; get up; proceed ARMI'LLA, _s._ a bracelet, or jewel worn on the arm A'RMY, _s._ collection of armed men; a great number AROMA'TIC, _a._ spicy; fragrant; strong-scented ARRI'VE, _v.n._ reach any place; happen ARRA'NGE, _v.a._ put in the proper order for any purpose ARRA'NGEMENT, _s._ the act of putting In proper order, the state of being put in order ARRA'Y, _s._ order, chiefly of war; dress A'RROGANCE, _s._ the act or quality of taking much upon one's self A'RROW, _s._ the pointed weapon which is shot from a bow A'RTICLE, _s._ a part of speech; a single clause of an account; term ARTI'CULATE, _v.a._ form words; speak as a man; draw up in articles; make terms A'RTIFICE, _s._ trick; fraud; stratagem; art; trade ARTIFI'CIAL, _a._ made by art; not natural ARTI'LLERY, _s._ weapons of war; cannon; great ordinance A'RTISAN, _s._ professor of any art ASCE'NDANCY, _s._ influence; power ASPE'RSE, _v.a._ bespatter with censure or calumny A'SPIC, _s._ the name of a small serpent ASSA'ILANT, _s._ one that assails ASSE'MBLY, _s._ a company met together ASSE'RT, _v.a._ to declare positively; maintain; to defend either by words or actions; claim ASSIDU'ITY, _s._ diligence ASSI'MILATE, _v.a._ bring to a likeness; turn to its own nature by digestion ASSISTANCE, _s._ help ASSISTANT, _s._ a helper ASSI'ZE, _s._ a jury; any court of justice; the ordinance or statute ASSO'CIATE, _s._ a partner; a confederate; a companion ASSU'RE, _v.a._ give confidence by a firm promise ASTO'NISHMENT, _s._ amazement ASTRO'NOMY, _s._ the science of the motions, distances, &c. of the stars A'THEISM, _s._ the disbelief of a god ATHE'NIAN, _s._ a native of Athens A'TMOSPHERE, _s._ the air that encompasses the solid earth on all sides ATRO'CIOUS, _a._ wicked in a high degree; enormous ATTA'CH, _v.a._ arrest; fix one's interest; win; lay hold on ATTA'CK, _v.a._ to make an assault ATTA'IN, _v.a._ gain; procure; reach ATTAINMENT, _s._ an acquisition; an accomplishment ATTE'MPT, _v.a._ venture upon; try; endeavour ATTE'NDANT, _s._ one that attends; one that is present at anything ATTENTION, _s._ the act of attending; the act of bending the mind upon it ATTE'NTIVE, _a._ regardful; full of attention ATTI'RE, _s._ clothing; dress; equipment A'TTITUDE, _s._ position; expression ATTRA'CT, _v.a._ draw to something; allure; invite ATTRA'CTIVE, _a._ having the power to draw anything; inviting ATTRIBUTE, _v.a._ to ascribe; to yield as due; to impute as a cause AU'DITOR, _s._ a hearer AURO'RA-BOREA'LIS, _a._ electrical light streaming in the night from the north; the northern lights or streamers AUSTE'RITY, _s._ severity; cruelty AUTHENTIC, _a._ genuine AU'THOR, _s._ the first beginner or mover of anything; a writer in general AUTHO'RITY, _s._ power; rule; influence; support; legal power AU'TUMN, _s._ the season of the year between summer and winter AVAILABLE, _a._ profitable; powerful; advantageous AVALA'NCHE, _s._ immense mass of snow or ice A'VERAGE, _s._ a middle proportion AVI'DITY, _s._ eagerness; voracity; greediness AVO'ID, _v.a._ shun; shift off; quit AWA'KE, _v.a._ rouse out of sleep; put into new action AW'KWARD, _a._ clumsy; inelegant; unready A'ZURE, _s._ blue; faint blue ** BA'CCHANALS, _s._ the drunken feasts of Bacchus; fabulous personages who assisted at the festivals of Bacchus BALCO'NY, _s._ a frame before the window of a room BALLO'ON, _s._ a large hollow ball of silk, filled with gas, which makes it rise in the air BA'NDIT, _s._ a man outlawed BA'NISH, _v.a._ condemn to leave one's country; drive away BA'NISHMENT, _s._ the act of banishing another; the state of being banished BARBA'RIAN, _s._ a savage; a man uncivilized BA'RBAROUS, _a._ savage; ignorant; cruel BA'RREN, _a._ unfruitful; sterile; scanty BARRIC'ADE, _v.a._ stop up a passage; hinder by stoppage BASA'LT, _s._ a variety of trap rock BASA'LTIC, _a._ relating to basalt BASTI'LE, _s._ (pronounced _basteel_) a jail; formerly the state prison of France BA'TTER, _v.a._ beat; shatter; beat down BA'TTLE, _s._ a fight; an encounter between opposite enemies BEA'CON, _s._ something raised on an eminence to direct BEA'RABLE, _a._ that which is capable of being borne BEAU'TY, _s._ a particular grace or feature; a beautiful person BECO'ME, _v.a._ befit; be suitable to the person BEDE'CK, _v.a._ to deck; to adorn; to grace BE'DSTEAD, _s._ the frame on which the bed is placed BEHI'ND, _ad._ out of sight; not yet in view; remaining BEHO'VE, _v.n._ to be fit BELI'EVE, _v.n._ to have a firm persuasion of anything BENEFA'CTOR, _s._ one that does good BE'NEFIT, _s._ a kindness; a favour conferred; an advantage BENE'VOLENT, _a._ kind; having good-will BENI'GHT, _v.a._ involve in darkness; surprise with the coming on of night BENI'GNANT, _a._ kind; generous; liberal BE'NISON, _s._ a blessing BENU'MB, _v.a._ make torpid; stupify BESIE'GE, _v.a._ to beleaguer; to lay siege to BESPRE'NT, _v. def._ besprinkled BESTO'W, _v.a._ give; confer upon; lay up BETWE'EN, _prep._ in the middle space; from one to another; noting difference of one from another BI'LBERRY, _s._ the fruit of a plant so called BO'ATMAN, _s._ he that manages a boat BO'DY, _s._ material substance of an animal; matter; person; collective mass; main part; main army BO'RDER, _s._ edge; edge of a country; a bank raised round a garden and set with flowers BO'UNTEOUS, _a._ liberal; kind; generous BOUQUE'T, _s._ (pronounced _boo-kay_) a nosegay BOWSPRI'T, _s._ (a sea term) the mast that runs out at the bow of a ship BRA'CELET, _s._ an ornament for the arms BRA'CH, _s._ a she hound BRA'CKISH, _a._ salt; somewhat salt BRI'LLIANCY, _s._ brightness; lustre BRI'LLIANT, _s._ a diamond of the finest cut BRI'LLIANT, _a._ shining; sparkling; full of lustre BU'BBLE, _s._ a small bladder of water; anything which wants solidity and firmness BU'LKY, _a._ of great size or stature BU'LWARK, _s._ a fortification; a security BUO'YANCY, _s._ the quality of floating BU'RDENSOME, _a._ grievous BU'RIAL, _s._ interment; the act of putting anything under earth or water BU'RY, _v.a._ inter; put in the grave; conceal BU'TTRESS, _s._ a prop; a wall built to support another CA'DENCE, _s._ the fall of the voice; state of sinking, decline CALA'MITY, _s._ misfortune; cause of misery; distress CA'LCULATE, _v.a._ reckon; adjust CAL'CULA'TION, _s._ a practice or manner of reckoning; a reckoning CA'LEDO'NIANS, _s._ the ancient inhabitants of Scotland CAMPA'IGN, _s._ a large, open, level tract of land; the time for which any army keeps the field CA'NADA, _s._ a province of the British possessions in America CANA'L, _s._ any course of water made by art; a passage through which any of the juices of the body flow CANA'RY, _s._ an excellent singing-bird--so called from its native place, the Canary Islands CA'NNIBAL, _s._ a savage that eats his fellow-men taken in war CA'PABLE, _a._ susceptible; intelligent; qualified for; able to receive; capacious; able to understand CAPA'CIOUS, _a._ wide; large CAPA'CITY, _s._ power; ability; state; condition; character CAPERCA'ILZIE, _s._ (pronounced _cap-per-kail-zeh_) cock of the wood CA'PITAL, _s._ the upper part of a pillar; the chief city of a nation or kingdom CA'PITAL, _a._ applied to letters--large, such as are written at the beginning or heads of books CA'PTAIN, _s._ a chief commander CA'PTIVE, _s._ a prisoner CAPTI'VITY, _s._ imprisonment; subjection by the fate of war; bondage; slavery; servitude CA'PTURE, _v.a._ take prisoner; bring into a condition of servitude CA'RAVAN, _s._ a conveyance; a troop or body of merchants or pilgrims, as they travel in the East CARE'ER, _s._ a course; full speed; course of action CA'RGO, _s._ the lading of a ship CARNI'VOROUS, _a._ flesh-eating CA'ROB, _s._ a plant bearing a nutritious fruit so called CA'RRIAGE, _s._ the act of carrying or transporting; vehicle; conduct CA'RRION, _s._ the carcase of something not proper for food CA'RRONA'DE, _s._ a short iron cannon CA'RRY, _v.a._ convey from a place; transport; bring forward; bear CAR'TILAGE, _s._ a smooth and solid body, softer than a bone, but harder than a ligament CARTILA'GINOUS, _a._ consisting of cartilages CA'RTRIDGE, _s._ a case of paper or parchment filled with gunpowder, used for greater expedition in loading CASCA'DE, _s._ a cataract; a waterfall CA'STELLATED, _a._ that which is turretted or built in the form of a castle CATAMARA'N, _s._ a rude species of boat CA'TARACT, _s._ a waterfall CATA'STROPHE, _s._ a final event CATHE'DRAL, _s._ the head church of a diocese CA'VALRY, _s._ horse soldiery CA'VERN, _s._ a hollow place in the ground CA'VIL, _s._ a false or frivolous objection CA'VITY, _s._ a hole; a hollow place CE'DAR, _s._ a kind of tree; it is evergreen, and produces flowers CE'LEBRATE, _v.a._ praise; commend; mention in a set or solemn manner CELE'BRITY, _s._ transaction publicly splendid CELE'RITY, _s._ quickness CELE'STIAL, _a._ heavenly CE'METERY, _s._ a place where the dead are deposited CE'NTRE, _s._ the middle CE'NTURY, _s._ a hundred years CEREMO'NIOUS, _a._ full of ceremony CE'REMONY, _s._ form in religion; form of civility CE'RTAIN, _a._ sure; unquestionable; regular; particular kind CHAO'TIC, _a._ confused CHA'PTER, _s._ a division of a book; the place in which assemblies of the clergy are held CHARACTERI'SE, _v.a._ to give a character of the particular quality of any man CHARACTERI'STIC, _s._ that which constitutes the character CHARACTERI'STICALLY, _ad._ constituting the character CHA'RITY, _s._ kindness; love; good-will; relief given to the poor CHA'TEAU, _s._ (pronounced _shat-oh_) a castle CHA'TTER, _v.a._ make a noise by collision of the teeth; talk idly or carelessly CHE'RUB, _s._ a celestial spirit, next in order to the seraphim CHRI'STENDOM, _s._ the collective body of Christianity CHRI'STIAN, _s._ a professor of the religion of Christ CHRO'NICLE, _s._ a register of events in order of time; a history CHRO'NICLER, _s._ a writer of chronicles; a historian CHRONO'METER, _s._ an instrument for the exact measuring of time CI'PHER, _s._ a figure, as 1, 2 CI'RCUIT, _s._ a circular band CI'RCUIT, _s._ ring; round; stated journey repeated at intervals CIRCU'MFERENCE, _s._ the space enclosed in a circle CIRCUMSCRI'BE, _v.a._ enclose in certain lines or boundaries; bound; Limit CI'RCUMSTANCE, _s._ something relative to a fact; incident; event CI'STERN, _s._ a receptacle of water for domestic uses; reservoir CI'STUS, _s._ rock-rose CI'TADEL, _s._ a fortress; a place of defence CI'TIZEN, _s._ a freeman of a city; townsman CI'TY, _s._ a corporate town that hath a bishop CI'VIL, _a._ political; not foreign; gentle; well bred; polite CIVI'LITY, _s._ politeness; complaisance CI'VILIZA'TION, _s._ civilising manners CI'VILIZE, _v.a._ reclaim from savageness and brutality CLA'MOUR, _s._ noise; tumult; disturbance CLA'RION, _s._ a trumpet CLI'MATE, _s._ a region, or tract of land, differing from another by the temperature of the air CLU'STER, _s._ a bunch CO'GNIZANCE, _s._ trial; a badge by which one is known COLLE'CT, _v.a._ gather together; bring into one place; gain from observation COLLO'QUIAL, _a._ that relates to common conversation COLO'NIAL, _a._ that which relates to a colony CO'LONIST, _s._ one that colonises; one that dwells in a colony COLO'SSAL, _a._ of enormous magnitude; large CO'LOUR, _s._ the appearance of bodies to the eye only; hue; appearance CO'LUMN, _s._ a round pillar; a long file or row of troops; half a page, when divided into two equal parts by a line passing down the middle COLU'MNAR, _a._ formed in columns COMBINA'TION, _s._ a union; a joining together CO'MFORTABLE, _a._ admitting comfort; dispensing comfort COMMA'NDER, _s._ a general; chief; leader COMMEMORA'TION, _s._ an act of public celebration COMME'NCE, _v.a._ to begin CO'MMERCE, _s._ intercourse; exchange of one thing for another; trade COMME'RCIAL, _a._ that which relates to commerce CO'MMINUTE, _v.a._ to grind; to pulverise COMMO'DITY, _s._ wares; merchandise COMMONWE'ALTH, _s._ a polity; an established form of civilized life; public; republic COMMU'NICATE, _v.a._ impart knowledge; reveal COMMU'NITY, _s._ the commonwealth; the body politic; common possession COMPA'NION, _s._ a partner; an associate CO'MPANY, _s._ persons assembled together; a band; a subdivision of a regiment of foot CO'MPARABLE, _a._ capable of being compared; of equal regard COMPA'RE, _v.n._ make one thing the measure of another; find a likeness of one thing with another COMPA'RISON, _s._ the act of comparing; state of being compared; comparative estimate COMPE'TE, _v.a._ to vie; to contend; to strive; to endeavour to outstrip COMPLA'INT, _s._ representation of pains or injuries; malady; remonstrance against COMPLAI'SANCE, _s._ civility; desire of pleasing COMPLE'TION, _s._ accomplishment; act of fulfilling COMPLI'ANCE, _s._ the act of yielding to any design or demand CO'MPLICATE, _v.a._ to render difficult and incomprehendable; to join one with another COMPOSI'TION, _s._ a mass formed by mingling different ingredients; written work COMPREHE'ND, _v.a._ comprise; include; conceive; understand CONCE'AL, _v.a._ hide; keep secret; cover CONCE'IT, _s._ vain pride CONCE'NTRIC, _a._ having one common centre CONCE'PTION, _s._ the act of conceiving; state of being conceived; notion; sentiment CONCE'SSION, _s._ the act of granting or yielding CONCI'LIATE, _v.a._ to gain; to win; to reconcile CONCI'SE, _a._ short; brief; not longer than is really needful CONCO'CT, _v.a._ to devise CO'NCORD, _s._ agreement between persons or things; peace; union; a compact CONCU'SSION, _s._ the state of being shaken CONDE'NSE, _v.n._ to grow close and weighty CONDI'TION, _s._ rank; property; state CO'NDOR, _s._ a monstrous bird in America CONDU'CT, _v.a._ lend; accompany; manage CONE, _s._ a solid body, of which the base is circular, but which ends in a point CONFE'R, _v.a._ compare; give; bestow; contribute; conduce CO'NFERENCE, _s._ formal discourse; an appointed meeting for discussing some point by personal debate CONFE'SS, _v.a._ acknowledge a crime; own; avow; grant CONFI'NEMENT, _s._ imprisonment; restraint of liberty CO'NFLUENCE, _s._ the joining together of rivers; a concourse; the act of joining together CONFORMA'TION, _s._ the form of things as relating to each other; the act of producing suitableness or conformity to anything CONFO'RMITY, _s._ similitude; consistency CONGE'NER, _s._ a thing of the same kind or nature CONGE'NIAL, _a._ partaking of the same genius CONGLO'MERATE, _v.a._ to gather into a ball, like a ball of thread CO'NICAL, _a._ in the shape of a cone CONJE'CTURE, _s._ guess; imperfect knowledge; idea CONNEC'TION, _s._ union CO'NQUER, _v.a._ gain by conquest; win; subdue CO'NQUEROR, _s._ a victor; one that conquers CO'NQUEST, _s._ a victory CO'NSCIENCE, _s._ the faculty by which we judge of the goodness or wickedness of ourselves CO'NSCIOUS, _a._ endowed with the power of knowing one's own thoughts and actions; bearing witness by the dictates of conscience to anything CONSCRI'PTION, _s._ an enrolling or registering CO'NSECRATE, _v.a._ to make sacred; to canonize CO'NSEQUENCE, _s._ that which follows from any cause or principle; effect of a cause CO'NSEQUENT, _a._ following by rational deduction; following as the effect of a cause CONSI'DERABLE, _a._ worthy of consideration; important; valuable CONSI'ST, _v.n._ subsist; be composed; be comprised CONSI'STENCE, _s._ state with respect to material existence; degree of denseness or rarity CONSI'STENCY, _s._ adhesion; agreement with itself or with any other thing CONSPI'CUOUS, _a._ obvious to the sight CO'NSTANT, _a._ firm; fixed; certain; unvaried CONSTELLA'TION, _s._ a cluster of fixed stars; an assemblage of splendours CONSTERNA'TION, _s._ astonishment; amazement; wonder CO'NSTITUTE, _v.a._ give formal existence; produce; erect; appoint another in an office CONSTRU'CT, _v.a._ build; form; compile CONSTRU'CTION, _s._ the act of building; structure; form of building CONSTR'UCTIVE, _a._ by construction CONSU'MPTION, _s._ the act of consuming; waste; a disease; a waste of muscular flesh CO'NTACT, _s._ touch; close union CONTA'GIOUS, _a._ infectious; caught by approach CONTA'IN, _v.a._ hold; comprehend; restrain CONTE'MPLATE, _v.a._ study; meditate; muse; think studiously with long attention CONTEMPLA'TION, _s._ meditation; studious thought CONTE'MPLATIVE, _a._ given to thought or study CONTE'MPORARY, _s._ one who lives at the same time with another CONTE'MPTIBLE, _a._ worthy of contempt, of scorn; neglected; despicable CO'NTEST, _s._ dispute; difference; debate CONTE'ST, _v.a._ to strive; to vie; to contend CONTI'GUOUS, _a._ meeting so as to touch CO'NTINENT, _s._ land not disjoined by the sea from other lands; that which contains anything; one of the quarters of the globe CONTI'NGENCY, _s._ accidental possibility CONTI'NUE, _v.n._ remain in the same state; last; persevere CONTRA'CT, _v.a._ to shrink up; to grow short; to bargain CO'NTRARY, _a._ opposite; contradictory; adverse CONTRI'VANCE, _s._ the act of contriving; scheme; plan; plot CONVE'NIENCE, _s._ fitness; ease; cause of ease CONVE'NIENT, _a._ fit; suitable; proper; well adapted CO'NVENT, _s._ an assembly of religious persons; a monastery; a nunnery CO'NVERSE, _s._ conversation; acquaintance; familiarity CONVE'RSION, _s._ change from one state to another CONVE'RT, _v.a._ change into another substance; change from one religion to another; turn from a bad to a good life; apply to any use CONVE'Y, _v.a._ carry; transport from one place to another; bring; transfer CONVU'LSIVE, _a._ that gives twitches or spasms CO'PIOUS, _a._ plentiful; abundant CO'PPICE, _s._ a low wood; a place overrun with brushwood CO'RDIAL, _a._ reviving; hearty; sincere CORONA'TION, _s._ the act of crowning a King CORPORA'TION, _s._ a body politic, constituted by Royal charter CORPO'REAL, _a._ having a body; material; not spiritual CORRE'CT, _v.a._ punish; discipline; remark faults; take away fault CORRESPONDENCE, _s._ intercourse; relation; friendship CO'UNCILLOR, _s._ one that gives counsel COU'NTENANCE, _s._ the form of the face; air; look; calmness of look; patronage CO'UNTRY, _s._ a tract of land; a region; rural parts CO'URAGE, _s._ bravery; boldness CO'VERING, _s._ dress; anything spread over another CRA'FTY, _a._ cunning; knowing; scheming; politic CRA'TER, _s._ the bowl, opening, or funnel of a volcano CREA'TION, _s._ the act of creating; universe CREA'TOR, _s._ the Divine Being that created all things CRE'ATURE, _s._ a being created; a general term for man CRE'VICE, _s._ a crack; a cleft; a narrow opening CRI'MINAL, _s._ a man accused; a man guilty of a crime CRI'MINA'LITY, _s._ the act of being guilty of a crime CRI'TIC, _s._ a judge; otherwise a censurer CRI'TICAL, _a._ relating to criticism CRO'CODILE, _s._ an amphibious voracious animal, in shape like a lizard CROO'KED, _a._ bent; winding; perverse CRU'ELTY, _s._ inhumanity; savageness; act of intentional affliction CRU'SADE, _s._ an expedition against the infidels; a holy war CRY'STAL, _s._ crystals are hard, pellucid, and naturally colourless bodies, of regular angular figures CU'LPABLE, _a._ criminal; guilty; blamable CU'LTIVATE, _v.a._ forward or improve the product of the earth by manual industry; improve CULTIVA'TION, _s._ improvement in general CU'POLA, _s._ a dome CU'RFEW, _s._ an evening peal, by which the Conqueror willed that every man should rake up his fire and put out his light CURIO'SITY, _s._ inquisitiveness; nice experiment; an object of curiosity; rarity CU'RIOUS, _a._ inquisitive; desirous of information; difficult to please; diligent about; elegant; neat; artful CU'RRENT, _a._ passing from hand to hand; authoritative; common; what is now passing CU'STOM, _s._ habit; fashion; practice of buying of certain persons CY'MBAL, _s._ a kind of musical instrument CY'PRESS, _s._ a tall straight tree. It is the emblem of mourning DALMA'TIA, _s._ a province of Austria DALMA'TIAN, _a._ belonging to Dalmatia DA'MAGE, _s._ mischief; hurt; loss DA'NGER, _s._ risk; hazard; peril DA'NGEROUS, _a._ hazardous; perilous DA'STARDLY, _ad._ cowardly; mean; timorous DA'UNTED, _a._ discouraged DECE'PTION, _s._ the act or means of deceiving; cheat; fraud; the state of being deceived DECLI'NE, _v.a._ shun; avoid; refuse; bring down DE'CORATE, _v.a._ adorn; embellish; beautify DECORA'TION, _s._ ornament; added beauty DE'DICATE, _v.a._ to inscribe DEFA'CE, _v.a._ destroy; raze; ruin; disfigure DEFE'CTIVE, _a._ wanting the just quantity; full of defects; imperfect; faulty DEFE'NCE, _s._ guard; protection; resistance DEFI'CIENCY, _s._ want; something less than is necessary; imperfection DEGE'NERACY, _s._ departure from the virtue of our ancestors DEGE'NERATE, _a._ unworthy; base DE'ITY, _s._ divinity; the nature and essence of God; fabulous Rod; the supposed divinity of a heathen god DE'LICACY, _s._ daintiness; softness; feminine beauty; nicety; gentle treatment; smallness DE'LICATE, _s._ fine; soft; pure; clear; unable to bear hardships; effeminate DELI'CIOUS, _a._ sweet; delicate; agreeable DELI'GHT, _v.a._ please; content; satisfy DELI'NEATE, _v.a._ to paint; to represent; to describe DELI'VER, _v.a._ set free; release; give; save; surrender DE'LUGE, _v.a._ flood DE'LUGE, _v.a._ drown; lay totally under water; overwhelm; cause to sink DEME'ANOUR, _s._ carriage; behaviour DEMO'LISH, _v.a._ raze; destroy; swallow up DEMONSTRA'TION, _s._ the highest degree of argumental evidence DENO'MINATE, _v.a._ to name anything DEPA'RTMENT, _s._ separate allotment; province or business assigned to a particular person DEPO'RTMENT, _s._ carriage; bearing DEPO'SIT, _s._ a pledge; anything given as a security DEPO'SIT, _v.a._ lay up; lay aside DEPRA'VITY, _s._ corruption DE'PREDA'TION, _s._ a robbing; a spoiling; waste DEPRI'VE, _v.a._ bereave one of a thing; hinder; debar from DE'RVISE, _s._ a Turkish priest DESCE'NDANT, _s._ the offspring of an ancestor DESCRI'BE, _v.a._ mark out; define DESCRI'PTION, _s._ the sentence or passage in which anything is described DESCRY', _v.a._ give notice of anything suddenly discovered; detect; discover DE'SERT, _s._ a wilderness; solitude; waste country DESE'RVE, _v.a._ be entitled to reward or punishment DESI'GN, _s._ an intention; a purpose; a scheme DESIGNA'TION, _s._ appointment; direction; intention to design DESI'RE, _v.a._ wish; long for; intreat DE'SOLATE, _a._ without inhabitants; solitary; laid waste DESPA'TCH, _s._ to send away hastily; to do business quickly; to put to death DE'SPERATE, _a._ without hope; rash; mad; furious DE'SPICABLE, _a._ worthy of scorn; contemptible DESPI'SE, _v.a._ scorn; condemn; slight; abhor DE'SPOTISM, _s._ absolute power DESTINA'TION, _s._ the place where it was our destiny to go; fate; doom DE'STINE, _v.a._ doom; devote DE'STINY, _s._ doom; fate DE'STITUTE, _a._ forsaken; abject; in want of DESTRO'Y, _v.a._ lay waste; make desolate; put an end to DESTRU'CTION, _s._ the act of destroying; the state of being destroyed; ruin DETA'CH, _v.a._ separate; disengage DETA'CHMENT, _s._ a body of troops sent out from the main army DETE'R, _v.a._ fright from anything DETERMINA'TION, _s._ absolute direction to a certain end; the result of deliberation; judicial decision DETE'RMINE, _v.a._ fix; settle; resolve; decide DETE'STABLE, _a._ hateful; abominable; odious DETRA'CTION, _s._ the withdrawing or taking off from a thing DETRU'DE, _v.a._ thrust down; force into a lower place DEVASTA'TION, _s._ waste; havoc; desolation; destruction DEVE'LOP, _v.a._ to disentangle; to disengage from something that enfolds and conceals DEVIA'TION, _s._ the act of quitting the right way; wandering DEVO'TE, _v.a._ dedicate; consecrate DE'VOTEE, _s._ one erroneously or superstitiously religious; a bigot DEVO'TION, _s._ piety; prayer; strong affection; power DE'XTEROUS, _a._ subtle; full of expedients; expert; active; ready DIABO'LICAL, _a._ devilish DI'ADEM, _s._ the mark of Royalty worn on the head DI'AL, _s._ a plate marked with lines, where a hand or shadow shows the hour DI'ALECT, _s._ subdivision of a language; style; manner of expression DI'ALOGUE, _s._ a discussion between two persons DIA'METER, _s._ the straight line which, passing through the centre of a circle, divides it into two equal parts DI'AMOND, _s._ the most valuable and hardest of all the gems; a brilliant DI'FFER, _v.n._ be distinguished from; contend; be of a contrary opinion DI'FFERENT, _a._ distinct; unlike; dissimilar DIFFICULTY, _s._ hardness; something hard to accomplish; distress; perplexity in affairs DI'GNITY, _s._ rank of elevation; grandeur of mien; high place DILA'TE, _v n._ widen; grow wide; speak largely DI'LIGENCE, _s._ industry; assiduity DIMI'NISH, _v.a._ to make less DIMI'NUTIVE, _a._ small; narrow; contracted DIRE'CT, _v.a._ aim at a straight line; regulate; order; command; adjust; mark out a certain course DIRE'CTION, _s._ tendency of motion impressed by a certain impulse; order; command; prescription DIRE'CTLY, _ad._ immediately; apparently; in a straight line DISAGRE'EABLE, _a._ unpleasing; offensive DISA'STROUS, _a._ calamitous DISCI'PLE, _s._ a scholar; one that professes to receive instruction from another DISCIPLINE, _s._ education; the art of cultivating the mind; a state of subjection DISCONCE'RT, _v.a._ unsettle the mind; discompose DISCOU'RAGE, _v.a._ depress; deprive of confidence DISCO'VER, _v.a._ disclose; bring to light; find out DISCO'VERY, _s._ the act of finding anything hidden DISCRI'MINATION, _s._ the state of being distinguished from other persons or things; the mark of distinction DISHO'NOUR, _s._ reproach; disgrace; ignominy DISLO'DGE, _v.a._ to go to another place; to drive or remove from a place DISMA'NTLE, _v.a._ strip; deprive of a dress; strip a town of its outworks; loose DISMA'Y, _s._ fall of courage; desertion of mind DISOBE'DIENCE, _s._ the act of disobeying; inattention to the words of those who have right to command DISO'RDER, _s._ irregularity; tumult; sickness DISPA'RAGEMENT, _s._ reproach; disgrace; indignity DISPLA'Y, _v.a._ exhibit; talk without restraint DISPOSI'TION, _s._ order; method; temper of mind DISQUI'ETUDE, _s._ uneasiness DI'SREGARD, _v.a._ to slight; to neglect DI'SSIPATE, _v.a._ scatter every way; disperse; scatter the attention DISSO'LVE, _v.n._ be melted; fall to nothing DISTANCE, _s._ remoteness in place; retraction of kindness; reserve DISTE'MPER, _s._ disease; malady; bad constitution of the mind DISTI'NCTION, _s._ the act of discerning one as preferable to the other; note of difference; honourable note of superiority; discernment DISTINCTLY, _ad._ not confusedly; plainly; clearly DISTRE'SS, _s._ calamity; misery; misfortune DISTRI'BUTE, _v.a._ to deal out; to dispensate DI'STRICT, _s._ region; country; territory DIVE'RGE, _v.n._ send various ways from one point DIVE'RSIFY, _v.a._ make different from another DIVE'RSION, _s._ the act of turning anything off from its course DIVE'RSITY, _s._ difference; dissimilitude; unlikeness; variety DIVI'DE, _v.a._ part one whole in different pieces; separate; deal out DI'VIDEND, _s._ a share DO'CILE, _a._ teachable; easily instructed; tractable DOMA'IN, _s._ dominion; possession; estate; empire DOME'STIC, _a._ belonging to the house; private DOME'STICATE, _v.a._ make domestic; withdraw from the public DOMI'NION, _s._ sovereign authority; power; territory DO'RSAL, _a._ pertaining to the back DO'UBLE, _a._ two of a sort; in pairs; twice as much DRAMA'TIC, _a._ representable by action DRA'MATIST, _s._ author of dramatic compositions DRAW'INGROOM, _s._ a room to which company withdraw--originally withdrawing-room DRE'ADFUL, _a._ terrible; frightful DRE'ARINESS, _s._ gloominess; sorrowfulness DRE'ARY, _a._ sorrowful; gloomy; dismal; horrid DU'CAT, _s._ a coin struck by Dukes; in silver valued at about four shillings and sixpence, in gold at nine shillings and sixpence DURA'TION, _s._ power of continuance; length of continuance DU'RING, _prep._ for the time of the continuance EA'RLY, _ad._ soon; betimes EA'RTHQUAKE, _s._ tremour or convulsion of the earth EA'STERN, _a._ belonging to the east; lying to the east; oriental EA'SY, _a._ not difficult; ready; contented; at rest ECLI'PSE, _s._ an obscuration of the heavenly luminaries; darkness; obscuration ECO'NOMY, _s._ frugality; discretion of expense; system of matter E'DIFICE, _s._ a fabric; a building EDI'TION, _s._ publication of anything, particularly of a book EDUCA'TION, _s._ formation of manners in youth EFFE'CT, _s._ that which is produced by an operating cause; success; purpose; meaning; consequence EFFE'CTUAL, _a._ productive of effects; expressive of facts EFFE'MINACY, _s._ softness; unmanly delicacy E'FFLUENCE, _s._ what issues from some other principle E'FFULGENCE, _s._ lustre; brightness; splendour EFFU'SE, _v.a._ to pour out; to spill, to shed EJA'CULATION, _s._ an exclamation ELA'BORATE, _a._ finished with care ELE'CTRIC, _a._ relating to electricity ELE'CTRO-MA'GNETISM, _s._ a branch of electrical science E'LEGANCE, _s._ beauty, rather soothing than striking; beauty without grandeur E'LEGY, _s._ a mournful song; short poem without points or turns E'LEPHANT, _s._ a large quadruped E'LEVA'TED, _a._ exalted; raised up; progressed in rank ELEVA'TION, _s._ the act of raising up aloft; exaltation ELOCU'TION, _s._ the power of fluent speech; the power of expression; eloquence; flow of language E'LOQUENCE, _s._ the power or speaking with fluency and elegance ELU'DE, _v.a._ to mock by unexpected escape E'MANATE, _v.a._ to issue; to flow from something else EMBA'LM, _v.a._ impregnate a body with aromatics, that it may resist putrefaction EMBA'RK, _v.n._ to go on board a ship; to engage in any affair EMBROI'DERY, _s._ variegated work; figures raised upon a ground E'MERALD, _s._ a precious stone of a green colour EME'RGE, _v.n._ to issue; to proceed; to rise EME'RGENCY, _s._ the act of rising into view; any sudden occasion; pressing necessity E'MINENCE, _s._ loftiness; height; summit; distinction E'MINENT, _a._ celebrated; renowned EMI'T, _v.a._ to send forth; to let fly; to dart EMO'LUMENT, _s._ profit; advantage E'MPEROR, _s._ a monarch of title and dignity superior to a king EMPLO'Y, _v.a._ busy; keep at work; use as materials; trust with the management of any affairs; use as means E'MULATE, _v.a._ to vie EMULA'TION, _s._ rivalry; desire of superiority ENA'BLE, _v.a._ make able; confer power ENCA'MPMENT, _s._ the act of encamping or pitching tents; a camp ENCHA'NTMENT, _s._ magical charms; spells; irresistible influence ENCI'RCLING, _a._ environing; surrounding ENCLO'SE, _v.a._ part from things or grounds common by a fence; surround; encompass ENCOU'NTER, _v.a._ meet face to face; attack ENCRO'ACHMENT, _s._ an unlawful gathering in upon another man; advance into the territories or rights of another ENDA'NGER, _v.a._ put in hazard; incur the danger of ENDU'RANCE, _s._ continuance; lastingness; delay E'NEMY, _s._ foe; antagonist; any one who regards another with malevolence ENERGE'TIC, _a._ operative; active; vigorous E'NERGY, _s._ activity; quickness; vigour ENGA'GE, _v.a._ employ; stake; unite; enlist; induce; fight ENGINE'ER, _s._ one who manages engines; one who directs the artillery of an army ENGRA'VER, _s._ a cutter in wood or other matter ENGRA'VING, _s._ the work of an engraver ENGRO'SS, _v.a._ thicken; increase in bulk; fatten; to copy in a large hand ENJO'Y, _v.a._ feel or perceive with pleasure; please; delight ENLA'RGEMENT, _s._ increase; copious discourse ENNO'BLE, _v.a._ to dignify; to exalt; to make famous ENO'RMOUS, _a._ wicked beyond the common measure; exceeding in bulk the common measure ENQUI'RY, _s._ interrogation; examination; search ENRA'GE, _v.a._ irritate; make furious ENSNA'RE, _v.a._ entrap; entangle in difficulties or perplexities E'NTERPRISE, _s._ an undertaking of hazard; an arduous attempt E'NTERPRISING, _a._ fond of enterprise ENTHU'SIASM, _s._ a vain belief of private revelation; beat of imagination; elevation of fancy E'NTRAILS, _s._ the intestines; internal parts ENU'MERATE, _v.a._ reckon up singly; number ENVE'LOPEMENT, _s._ covering; inwrapment E'PIC, _a._ narrative EPI'STLE, _s._ a letter EPI'STOLARY, _a._ transacted by letters; relating to letters E'QUAL, _a._ even; uniform; in just proportion EQUITY, _s._ justice; impartiality ERE'CT, _a._ upright; bold; confident ERE'CT, _v.a._ raise; build; elevate; settle E'RMINE, _s._ an animal found in cold countries, of which the fur is valuable, and used for the adornment of the person. A fur worn by judges in England ERRO'NEOUS, _a._ wrong; unfounded; false; misled by error ERU'PTION, _s._ the act of bursting out; sudden excursion of a hostile kind ESCO'RT, _v.a._ convoy; guard from place to place ESPE'CIAL, _a._ principal; chief ESPE'CIALLY, _ad._ principally; chiefly; in an uncommon degree ESPLANA'DE, _s._ the empty space between a citadel and the outskirts of a town ESSE'NTIAL, _a._ necessary to the constitution or existence of anything; important in the highest degree ESTA'BLISHMENT, _s._ settlement; fixed state ESTRA'NGE, _v.a._ keep at a distance; withdraw ETE'RNAL, _a._ without beginning or end; perpetual; unchanging ETE'RNALLY, _ad._ incessantly; for evermore ETE'RNITY, _s._ duration without beginning or end ETHE'REAL, _a._ belonging to the higher regions EVA'PORATE, _v.a._ to drive away in fumes E'VENING, _s._ the close of the day; beginning of night EVE'NTUALLY, _ad._ in the event; in the last result E'VIDENT, _a._ plain; notorious EXA'CT, _a._ nice; not deviating from rule; careful EXA'MINE, _v.a._ search into; make inquiry into EXA'MPLE, _s._ copy or pattern E'XCAVATE, _v.a._ hollow; cut into hollows EXCE'L, _v.a._ to outgo in good qualities; to surpass E'XCELLENCE, _s._ the state of abounding in any good quality; dignity; goodness E'XCELLENT, _a._ eminent in any good quality; of great value EXCE'PT, _prep._ exclusively of; unless EXCE'SSIVE, _a._ beyond the common proportion EXCI'TE, _v.a._ rouse; animate EXCLU'DE, _v.a._ shut out; debar EXCLU'SIVE, _a._ having the power of excluding or denying admission EXCRU'CIATE, _v.a._ torture; torment EXCU'RSION, _s._ an expedition into some distant part EXCU'RSIVE, _a._ rambling; deviating EXECU'TION, _s._ performance; practice; slaughter EXE'MPLARY, _a._ such as may give warning to others; such as may attract notice and imitation E'XERCISE, _s._ labour of the mind or body EXE'RTION, _s._ the act of exerting; effort EXHI'BIT, _v.a._ to offer to view; show; display EXHIBI'TION, _s._ the act of exhibiting; display EXHI'LARATE, _v.a._ make cheerful; cheer; enliven EXI'STENCE, _s._ state of being EXPA'ND, _v.a._ to spread; to extend on all sides EXPA'NSE, _s._ a body widely extended without inequalities EXPE'DIENT, _s._ that which helps forward as means to an end EXPEDI'TION, _s._ an excursion EXPE'L, _v.a._ drive away; banish; eject EXPE'RIENCE, _s._ knowledge gained by practice EXPE'RIENCED, _a._ wise by long practice EXPE'RIMENT, _s._ a trial of anything EXPI'RE, _v.a._ breathe out; close; bring to an end EXPLO'SION, _s._ an outburst; a sudden crash EXPO'RT, _v.a._ carry out of a country EXPO'SE, _v.a._ lay open; make bare; put in danger EXPRE'SSION, _s._ the form of language in which any thoughts are uttered; the act of squeezing out anything E'XQUISITE, _a._ excellent; consummate; complete EXTE'MPORE, _ad._ without premeditation; suddenly EXTE'ND, _v.a._ stretch out; diffuse; impart EXTE'NSIVE, _a._ large; wide; comprehensive EXTE'RIOR, _a._ outward; external EXTE'RNAL, _a._ outward EXTI'NGUISH, _v.a._ put out; destroy; obscure EXTI'RPATE, _v.a._ root out; eradicate E'XTRACT, _s._ the chief parts drawn from anything EXTRAO'RDINARY, _a._ different from common order and method; eminent; remarkable EXTRA'VAGANT, _a._ wasteful; not saving; otherwise, improbable, false EXTRE'MELY, _ad._ greatly; very much; in the utmost degree EXTRE'MITY, _s._ the utmost point; highest degree; parts at the greatest distance FACI'LITY, _s._ ease; dexterity; affability FA'CTORY, _s._ a house or district inhabited by traders in a distant country; traders embodied in one place FA'CULTY, _s._ the power of doing anything; ability FAMI'LIAR, _a._ domestic; free; well known; common; unceremonious FAMI'LIARITY, _s._ easiness of conversation; acquaintance FA'MILY, _s._ those who live in the same house; household; race; clans FA'MOUS, _a._ renowned; celebrated FANA'TICISM, _s._ madness; frenzy; insanity FANTA'STIC, _a._ whimsical; fanciful; imaginary FA'RTHER, _ad._ at a greater distance; beyond this FA'SHION, _v.a._ form; mould; figure; make according to the rule prescribed by custom FA'TAL, _a._ deadly; mortal; appointed by destiny FATI'GUE, _s._ weariness FATI'GUE, _v.a._ tire; weary FAUN, _s._ a kind of rural deity FA'VOURITE, _s._ a person or thing beloved; one regarded with favour FE'ATHER, _s._ plume of birds FE'ATURE, _s._ the cast or make of the face; any lineament or single part of the face FE'ELING, _s._ the sense of touch; sensibility; tenderness; perception FERMENTA'TION, _s._ a slow motion of the particles of a mixed body, arising usually from the operation of some active acid matter; as when leaven or yeast ferments bread or wort FERO'CITY, _s._ savageness; wildness; fierceness FE'RTILE, _a._ fruitful; abundant; plenteous FERTI'LITY, _s._ abundance; fruitfulness FE'STAL, _a._ festive; joyous; gay FE'STIVAL, _a._ time of feast; anniversary-day of civil or religious joy FESTO'ON, _s._ In architecture, an ornament of carved work in the form of a wreath or garland of flowers or leaves twisted together FEU'DAL, _a._ dependant; held by tenure FI'BRE, _s._ a small thread or string FI'CTION, _s._ a fanciful invention; a probable or improbable invention; a falsehood; a lie FIDE'LITY, _s._ honesty; faithful adherence FI'GURE, _s._ shape; person; stature; the form of anything as terminated by the outline FI'LIAL, _a._ pertaining to a son; befitting a son; becoming the relation of a son FI'RMAMENT, _s._ sky; heavens FLA'GON, _s._ a vessel with a narrow mouth FLA'MBEAU, _s._ (pronounced _flam-bo_) a lighted torch FLA'VOUR, _s._ power of pleasing the taste; odour FLEUR-DE-LIS, _s._ (French for a lily, pronounced _flúr-de-lee_) a term applied in architecture and heraldry FLE'XIBLE, _a._ capable of being bent; pliant; not brittle; complying: obsequious; ductile; manageable FLOAT, _v.n._ to swim on the surface of water; to move without labour in a fluid; to pass with a light irregular course; _v.a._ to cover with water FLO'RIDNESS, _s._ freshness of colour FLO'URISH, _v.a._ and _v.n._ yield; prosper; wield; adorn FLU'CTUATE, _v.n._ roll to and again, as water in agitation; be in an uncertain state FLU'ID, _a._ anything not solid FLU'TTER, _v.n._ move irregularly; take short flights with great agitation of the wines FO'LIAGE, _s._ leaves; tuft of leaves FO'LLOWING, _a._ coming after another FOME'NT, _v.a._ cherish with heat; encourage FO'REFATHER, _s._ ancestor FO'REIGN, _a._ not in this country; not domestic; remote; not belonging to FO'REPART, _s._ anterior part FO'REST, _s._ a wild uncultivated tract of ground, with wood FO'RMER, _a._ before another in time; the first of two FO'RMIDABLE, _a._ terrible; dreadful; tremendous FORTIFICA'TION, _s._ the science of military architecture; a place built for strength FO'RTITUDE, _s._ courage; bravery; strength FO'RWARD, _v.a._ hasten; quicken; advance FO'RWARD, _a._ warm; earnest; quick; ready FO'RWARD, _ad._ onward; straight before FO'RWARDNESS, _s._ eagerness; ardour; quickness; confidence FOSSE, _s._ a ditch; a moat FOUNDA'TION, _s._ the basis or lower parts of an edifice; the act of fixing the basis; original; rise FRA'GMENT, _s._ a part broken from the whole; an imperfect piece FRA'NTIC, _a._ mad; deprived of understanding FREE'STONE, _s._ stone commonly used in building, so called because it can be cut freely in all directions FREIGHT, _s._ anything with which a ship is loaded; the money due for transportation of goods FRE'QUENT, _a._ often done; often seen; often occurring FRE'SCO, _s._ coolness; shade; duskiness; a picture not drawn in glaring light, but in dusk FRI'CTION, _s._ the act of rubbing two bodies together FRI'VOLOUS, _a._ trifling; wasteful; dawdling FRO'NTIER, _s._ the limit; the utmost verge of any territory FU'RNACE, _s._ a large fire FU'RNISH, _v.a._ supply with what is necessary; fit up; equip; decorate GA'BLE, _s._ the sloping roof of a building GA'LAXY, _s._ the Milky Way GA'LLANT, _a._ brave; daring; noble G'ALLEY, _a._ a vessel used in the Mediterranean GA'RDEN, _s._ piece of ground enclosed and cultivated GA'RMENT, _s._ anything by which the body is covered GA'RRISON, _s._ fortified place, stored with soldiers GAUGE, _s._ a measure; a standard GENEA'LOGY, _s._ history of the succession of families GE'NERAL, _a._ common; usual; extensive, though not universal; public GENERA'TION, _s._ a family; a race; an age GE'NEROUS, _a._ noble of mind; magnanimous; open of heart GE'NIAL, _a._ that gives cheerfulness, or supports life; natural; native GE'NTLE, _a._ soft; mild; tame; meek; peaceable GEOGRA'PHICAL, _a._ that which relates to geography GEO'GRAPHY, _s._ knowledge of the earth GE'STURE, _s._ action or posture expressive of sentiment GI'ANT, _s._ a man of size above the ordinary rate of men; a man unnaturally large GIGA'NTIC, _a._ suitable to a giant; enormous GLA'CIER, _s._ a mountain of ice GLA'NDULAR, _a._ having glands GLI'STER, _v.n._ shine; to be bright GLO'BULE, _s._ a small particle of matter of a round figure, as the red particles of the blood GLO'RIOUS, _a._ noble; excellent; illustrious GLO'SSY, _a._ shiny; smoothly polished GO'RGEOUS, _a._ fine; magnificent; gaudy; showy GO'SLING, _s._ a young goose; a catkin on nut-trees and pines GO'SSAMER, _s._ the web of a male spider GOUT, _s._ a disease attended with great pain GO'VERNOR, _s._ one who has the supreme direction; a tutor GRADA'TION, _s._ regular progress from one degree to another; order; arrangement GRA'DUALLY, _ad._ by degrees; step by step GRA'NDEUR, _s._ splendour of appearance; magnificence GRANGE, _s._ a farm GRATIFICA'TION, _s._ pleasure; something gratifying GRA'TITUDE, _s._ duty to benefactors; desire to return benefits GRA'VITY, _s._ weight; tendency to the centre; seriousness; solemnity GROTE'SQUE, _a._ distorted of figure; unnatural GUARD, _s._ part of the hilt of a sword; a man or body of men whose business is to watch GUIDE, _s._ director; regulator HABITATION, _s._ place of abode; dwelling HABI'TUALLY, _ad._ customarily; by habit HA'GGARD, _a._ deformed; ugly HARA'NGUE, _v.n._ make a speech HA'RMONIZE, _v.a._ to adjust in fit proportion HARPO'ON, _s._ a bearded dart, with a line fastened to the handle, with which whales are struck and caught HA'ZARDOUS, _a._ perilous, dangerous HE'AVY, _a._ weighty; burdened; depressed HE'RALDRY, _s._ the art or office of a herald; registers of genealogies HE'RBAGE, _s._ grass; pasture; herbs collectively HERBI'VOROUS, _a._ that eats herbs HERE'DITARY, _a._ possessed or claimed by right of inheritance; descending by inheritance HE'RETIC, _s._ one who propagates his private opinions in opposition to the Catholic Church HE'YDAY, _s._ frolic; wildness HI'DEOUS, _a._ frightful; ugly HIPPOPO'TAMUS, _s._ a large animal--the river horse HISTO'RIAN, _s._ a writer of facts and events HISTO'RICAL, _a._ that which relates to history HI'STORY, _s._ narration; the knowledge of facts and events HO'LLOW, _a._ excavated; not solid; not sound HO'NEY, _s._ a sweet substance produced by bees HO'NOUR, _s._ dignity; fame; reputation; glory HO'RIZON, _s._ the line that terminates the view HO'SPITABLE, _a._ giving entertainment to strangers; kind to strangers HO'TTENTO'T, _s._ a native of the south of Africa HOWE'VER, _ad._ in whatsoever manner; at all events; happen what will; yet HOWI'TZER, _s._ a kind of bomb HU'MAN, _a._ having the qualities of a man; belonging to man HUMA'NITY, _s._ the nature of man; benevolence HU'MBLE, _a._ not proud; modest; low HU'MID, _a._ wet; moist; watery HUMI'LITY, _s._ freedom from pride; modesty HU'NDRED, _s._ a company or body consisting of a hundred. HU'RRICANE, _s._ a blast; a tempest HYDRAU'LIC, _a._ relating to the conveyance of water through pipes HY'DROGEN, _s._ a gas, one of the component parts of the atmosphere I'CEBERG, _s._ a hill of ice; a moving island of ice I'CICLE, _s._ a pendent shoot of ice I'DOL, _s._ an image worshipped as God; one loved or honoured to adoration IGNO'BLE, _a._ mean of birth; worthless IGUA'NA, _s._ a reptile of the lizard species ILLE'GAL, _a._ unlawful ILLUMINA'TION, _s._ brightness; splendour ILLU'MINATIVE, _a._ having the power to give light ILLU'SION, _s._ mockery; false show ILLU'STRATE, _v.a._ brighten with light; brighten with honour; explain; clear ILLUSTRA'TION, _s._ explanation; example; exposition ILLU'STRIOUS, _a._ conspicuous; noble; eminent I'MAGE, _s._ a statue; a picture; an idol; a copy IMA'GINARY, _a._ fanciful; poetical IMAGINATION, _s._ fancy; conception; contrivance; scheme I'MITATE, _v.a._ copy; counterfeit; resemble IMMATE'RIAL, _a._ incorporeal; unimportant IMMEA'SURABLE, _a._ immense; not to be measured IMME'DIATELY, _ad._ without the intervention of any other cause or event IMME'NSE, _a._ unlimited; unbounded; infinite I'MMINENT, _a._ unavoidable; perilous IMMO'RTALISE, _v.a._ to render immortal IMMORTA'LITY, _s._ exemption from death; life never to end IMPA'RT, _v.a._ grant; give; communicate IMPA'RTIAL, _a._ indifferent; disinterested; just IMPA'SSABLE, _a._ not to be passed; not admitting passage IMPA'SSIBLE, _a._ incapable of suffering IMPA'TIENT, _a._ not able to endure; hasty; eager IMPERCE'PTIBLE, _a._ not to be discovered; not to be perceived; small IMPERFE'CTION, _s._ defect; failure; fault IMPE'RIAL, _a._ belonging to an emperor, king, or queen; regal; monarchical IMPE'RIOUS, _a._ commanding; powerful IMPE'TUOUS, _a._ violent; forcible; vehement IMPLA'CABILITY, _s._ irreconcileable enmity IMPLI'CITLY, _ad._ with unreserved confidence IMPO'RT, _v.a._ carry into any country from abroad IMPO'RTANCE, _s._ thing imported, or implied; consequence; matter IMPO'RTANT, _a._ momentous; weighty; of great consequence; forcible IMPO'SE, _v.a._ lay on as a burden or penalty; deceive; fix on IMPO'SSIBLE, _a._ that which cannot be; that which cannot be done IMPRE'GNABLE, _a._ invincible; unsubdueable IMPRE'SSION, _s._ the act of pressing one body upon another; mark made by pressure; image fixed in the mind IMPULSE, _s._ communicated love; the effect of one body upon another IMPU'NITY, _s._ freedom from punishment; exemption from punishment INABI'LITY, _s._ want of power; impotence INACCE'SSIBLE, _a._ not to be reached or approached INA'CTIVE, _a._ sluggish; slothful; not quick INCA'LCULABLE, _a._ that which cannot be counted INCAPA'CITATE, _v.a._ disable; weaken; disqualify INCARNA'TION, _s._ the act of assuming body INCE'NTIVE, _s._ that which kindles; that which provokes; that which encourages; spur INCE'SSANT, _a._ unceasing; continual I'NCIDENT, _s._ something happening beside the main design; casualty INCLO'SURE, _s._ a place surrounded or fenced in INCLU'DE, _v.a._ comprise; shut INCONCE'IVABLE, _a._ incomprehensible INCONSI'DERABLE, _a._ unworthy of notice; unimportant INCONSI'STENT, _a._ contrary; absurd; incompatible INCRE'DIBLE, _a._ surpassing belief; not to be credited INCU'LCATE, _v.a._ impress by frequent admonitions INCU'RSION, _s._ an expedition INDENTA'TION, _s._ an indenture; having a wavy figure I'NDICATE, _v.a._ show; point out INDI'CTMENT, _s._ an accusation presented in a court of justice INDIGNA'TION, _s._ wrath; anger INDISCRI'MINATE, _a._ without choice; impartially INDISPE'NSABLE, _a._ not to be spared; necessary INDIVI'DUAL, _a._ single; numerically one; undivided; separate from others of the same species INDU'CE, _v.a._ persuade; enforce; bring into view INDU'LGENCE, _s._ fond kindness; tenderness; favour granted INDU'STRIOUS, _a._ diligent; laborious I'NDUSTRY, _s._ diligence; cheerful labour INEQUA'LITY, _s._ difference of comparative quantity INE'VITABLE, _a._ unavoidable INEXHA'USTIBLE, _a._ not to be spent or consumed; incapable of being spent INEXPRE'SSIBLE, _a._ not to be told; unutterable I'NFANTRTY, _s._ a body of foot soldiers; foot soldiery INFA'TUATE, _v.a._ to strike with folly; to deprive of understanding INFE'RIOR, _a._ lower in place, station, or value I'NFIDEL, _s._ an unbeliever; a Pagan; one who rejects Christianity I'NFINITE, _a._ unbounded; unlimited; immense INFINITE'SSIMAL, _a._ infinitely divided INFI'NITY, _s._ immensity; endless number INFI'RMITY, _s._ weakness of age or temper; weakness; malady INFLA'TE, _v.a._ to swell; to make larger INFLE'XIBLE, _a._ not to be bent; immoveable; not to be changed INFLI'CT, _v.a._ to impose as a punishment I'NFLUENCE, _s._ power of directing or modifying INFLUE'NTIAL, _a._ exerting influence or power INGE'NIOUS, _a._ witty; inventive INGENU'ITY, _s._ wit; invention; genius; subtlety INGLO'RIOUS, _a._ void of honour; mean; without glory INGRA'TITUDE, _s._ unthankfulness INHA'BITANT, _s._ dweller; one that lives in a place INHE'RENT, _a._ existing in something else, so as to be inseparable from it; innate INI'MITABLE, _a._ not able to be imitated; that which is incapable of imitation INJU'RIOUS, _a._ hurtful; baneful; capable of injuring; that which injures; destructive INJU'STICE, _s._ iniquity; wrong INNU'MEROUS, _a._ innumerable; too many to be counted INQUI'SITIVE, _a._ curious; busy in search; active to pry into everything INSCRI'PTION, _s._ something written or engraved; title I'NSECT, _s._ a small animal. Insects are so called from a separation in the middle of their bodies, whereby they are cut into two parts, which are joined together by a small ligature, as we see in wasps and common flies INSE'NSIBLY, _ad._ imperceptibly; in such a manner as is not discovered by the senses INSE'RT, _v.a._ place in or among other things INSI'DIOUS, _a._ sly; diligent to entrap; treacherous INSI'GNIA, _s._ ensigns; arms INSIGNI'FICANT, _a._ unimportant INSI'PID, _a._ tasteless; void of taste INSIPI'DITY, _s._ want of taste; want of life or spirit I'NSOLENCE, _s._ petulant contempt INSPE'CT, _v.a._ to examine; to look over INSPE'CTION, _s._ prying examination; superintendence INSPIRA'TION, _s._ infusion of ideas into the mind by divine power; the act of drawing breath INSTABI'LITY, _s._ inconstancy; fickleness I'NSTANT, _a._ _instant_ is such a part of duration wherein we perceive no succession; present or current month I'NSTANTLY, _ad._ immediately I'NSTINCT, _s._ natural desire or aversion; natural tendency INSTITU'TION, _s._ establishment; settlement; positive law INSTRU'CT, _v.a._ teach; form by precept; form authoritatively; educate; model; form INSTRU'CTION, _s._ the act of teaching; information INSUFFI'CIENT, _a._ inadequate to any need, use, or purpose; unfit INTE'GRITY, _s._ honesty; straightforwardness; uprightness INTELLE'CTUAL, _a._ relating to the understanding; mental; transacted by the understanding INTE'LLIGENCE, _s._ commerce of information; spirit; understanding INTE'LLIGIBLE, _a._ possible to be understood INTE'MPERANCE, _s._ the act of overdoing something INTE'NSE, _a._ excessive; very great INTE'R, _v.a._ cover under ground; to bury INTERCE'PT, _v.a._ to hinder; to stop I'NTERCOURSE, _s._ commerce; communication I'NTEREST, _s._ concern; advantage; good; influence over others INTERE'ST, _v.n._ affect; move; touch with passion INTERLO'CUTOR, _s._ a dialogist; one that talks with another INTERME'DIATE, _a._ intervening; interposed INTE'RMINABLE, _a._ immense; without limits INTE'RPRETER, _s._ one that interprets INTERRU'PT, _v.a._ hinder the process of anything by breaking in upon it INTERSE'CTION, _s._ point where lines cross each other I'NTERSPACE, _s._ space between INTERSPE'RSE, _v.a._ to scatter here and there among other things INTERVE'NE, _v.n._ to come between I'NTERVIEW, _s._ mutual sight; sight of each other INTERWE'AVE, _v.a._ to intermingle; to mix one with another in a regular texture I'NTIMATE, _a._ inmost; inward; near; familiar INTONA'TION, _s._ the act of thundering INTO'XICATE, _v.a._ to inebriate; to make drunk I'NTRICATE, _a._ entangled; perplexed; obscure INTRI'GUER, _s._ one that intrigues INTRI'NSIC, _a._ inward; real; true INTRODU'CTION, _s._ the act of bringing anything into notice or practice; the preface or part of a book containing previous matter INTRU'DER, _s._ one who forces himself into company or affairs without right or welcome INUNDA'TION, _s._ the overflow of waters; the flood; a confluence of any kind INVA'LUABLE, _a._ precious above estimation INVA'RIABLE, _a._ unchangeable; constant INVESTIGATION, _s._ the act of investigating; the state of being investigated INVI'NCIBLE, _a._ not capable of being conquered INVI'SIBLE, _a._ not to be seen I'RIS, _s._ the rainbow; the circle round the pupil of the eye IRRA'DIATE, _v.a._ brighten; animate by heat or light; illuminate IRRE'GULAR, _a._ deviating from rule, custom, or nature I'RRIGATE, _v.a._ wet; moisten; water I'RRITATE, _v.a._ provoke; tease; agitate IRRITA'TION, _s._ provocation; stimulation I'SLAND, _s._ a tract of land surrounded by water I'SSUE, _v.a._ send forth ITA'LIC, _s._ a letter in the Italian character JA'VELIN, _s._ a spear; a dart; an implement of war JE'ALOUSY, _s._ suspicion in love; suspicious fear; suspicious caution JE'WEL, _s._ a precious stone; a teem JO'CUND, _a._ merry; gay; lively JO'URNEY, _s._ the travel of a day; passage from place to place JO'YOUS, _a._ glad; gay; merry; giving joy JUDI'CIOUS, _a._ prudent; wise; skilful JU'GGLER, _s._ one who practises sleight of hand JU'NCTION, _s._ union; coalition JU'STIFY, _v.a._ clear from imputed guilt; maintain KANGARO'O, _s._ an animal found in Australia KE'RNEL, _s._ anything included in a husk; the seeds of pulpy fruits KI'NGDOM, _s._ the territories subject to a monarch; a different class or order of beings, as the mineral kingdom; a region KNI'GHTHOOD, _s._ the character or dignity of a knight KNO'WLEDGE, _s._ information KNU'CKLE, _s._ joints of the fingers, protuberant when the fingers close LABU'RNUM, _s._ a kind of tree LA'MENTABLE, _a._ deplorable LAMENTA'TION, _s._ expression of sorrow; audible grief LA'NCEOLATE, _a._ in a lance-like form LA'NDSCAPE, _s._ the prospect of a country; a picture of the prospect of a country LA'NGUAGE, _s._ human speech; style; manner of expression LA'NGUOR, _s._ faintness; softness; inattention LA'RVA, _s._ an insect in the caterpillar state LA'TENT, _a._ concealed; invisible LA'TERALLY, _ad._ by the side LA'TITUDE, _s._ latent diffusion; a certain degree reckoned from the Equator LA'TTER, _a._ lately done or past; mentioned last of two LA'VA, _s._ molten substance projected from volcanoes LE'AFLET, _s._ a small leaf LE'GION, _s._ a body of Roman soldiers, consisting of about five thousand; military force; a great number LE'NITY, _s._ mildness; gentleness LENS, _s._ a glass spherically convex on both sides LEVA'NT, _s._ east, particularly those coasts of the Mediterranean east of Italy LEVI'ATHAN, _s._ a water-animal mentioned in the Book of Job LI'ABLE, _a._ subject; not exempt LI'BERAL, _a._ not mean; generous; bountiful LI'BERATE, _v.a._ free from confinement LI'BERTY, _s._ freedom, as opposed to slavery; privilege; permission LICE'NTIOUSNESS, _s._ boundless liberty; contempt of just restraint LI'CHEN, _s._ moss LIEUTE'NANT, _s._ a deputy; in war, one who holds the next rank to a superior of any denomination LI'GHTHOUSE, _s._ a house built either upon a rock or some other place of danger, with a light, in order to warn ships of danger LI'NEAR, _a._ composed of lines; having the form of lines LI'QUID, _a._ not solid; fluid; soft; clear LI'QUOR, _s._ anything liquid; strong drink, in familiar language LI'STEN, _v.a._ hear; attend LI'TERALLY, _ad._ with close adherence to words LI'TERARY, _a._ respecting letters; regarding learning LI'TERATURE, _s._ learning; skill in letters LI'TURGY, _s._ form of prayer LOCA'LITY, _s._ existence in place LOCOMO'TIVE, _a._ changing place; having the power of removing or changing place LO'CUST, _s._ a devouring insect LU'DICROUS, _a._ fantastic; laughable; whimsical LU'MINARY, _a._ any body which gives light LU'MINOUS, _a._ shining; enlightened LU'NAR, _a._ that which relates to the moon LU'PINE, _s._ a kind of pulse LUXU'RIANT, _a._ superfluously plentiful MACHINE, _s._ an engine; any complicated work in which one part contributes to the motion of another MACHI'NERY, _s._ enginery; complicated workmanship MAGAZI'NE, _s._ a storehouse MA'GICAL, _a._ acted or performed by secret and invisible powers MAGNANI'MITY, _s._ greatness of mind MAGNA'NIMOUS, _a._ of great mind; of open heart MAGNI'FICENT, _a._ grand in appearance; splendid; otherwise, pompous MAJE'STIC, _a._ august; having dignity; grand MAJO'RITY, _s._ the state of being greater; the greater number; the office of a major MALE'VOLENCE, _s._ ill-will; inclination to hurt others MA'LICE, _s._ hatred; enmity; desire of hurting MALI'CIOUS, _a._ desirous of hurting; with wicked design MALI'GNANT, _a._ envious; malicious; mischievous MALI'GNITY, _s._ ill-will; enmity MA'NDIBLE, _s._ a jaw MA'NKIND, _s._ the race or species of human beings MA'NNER, _s._ form; method; way; mode; sort MANUFA'CTORY, _s._ a place where a manufacture is carried on MANOEUVRE, _s._ a stratagem; a trick MARA'UDER, _s._ a soldier that roves in quest of plunder MA'RGIN, _s._ the brink; the edge MA'RINER, _s._ a seaman MA'RITIME, _a._ that which relates to the sea MA'RSHAL, _v.a._ arrange; rank in order MA'RTYR, _s._ one who by his death bears witness to the truth MA'RVELLOUS, _a._ wonderful; strange; astonishing MA'SONRY, _s._ the craft or performance of a mason MA'SSACRE, _s._ butchery; murder MA'SSIVE, _a._ heavy; weighty; ponderous; bulky; continuous MA'STERPIECE, _s._ chief excellence MATE'RIAL, _a._ consisting of matter; not spiritual; important MATHEMA'TICS, _s._ that science which contemplates whatever is capable of being numbered or measured MA'XIM, _s._ general principle; leading truth ME'ASURE, _s._ that by which anything is measured; proportion; quantity; time; degree MECHA'NIC, _s._ a workman MECHA'NICAL, _a._ constructed by the laws of mechanics ME'DAL, _s._ a piece of metal stamped in honour of some remarkable performance MEDI'CINAL, _a._ having the power of healing; belonging to physic MEDITA'TION, _s._ deep thought; contemplation ME'DIUM, _s._ the centre point between two extremes ME'LANCHOLY, _a._ gloomy; dismal; sorrowful ME'LLOW, _a._ soft with ripeness; soft; unctuous MELO'DIOUS, _a._ musical; harmonious ME'MBRANE, _s._ a web of several sorts of fibres, interwoven for the wrapping up some parts; the fibres give them an elasticity, whereby they can contract and closely grasp the parts they contain MEMBRA'NOUS, _a._ consisting of membranes ME'MOIR, _s._ an account of anything ME'MORABLE, _a._ worthy of memory; not to be forgotten ME'MORY, _s._ the power of retaining or recollecting things past; recollection MENA'GERIE, _s._ a place for keeping foreign birds and other curious animals ME'NTION, _v.a._ to express in words or in writing ME'RCHANDISE, _s._ commerce; traffic; wares; anything to be bought or sold ME'RCHANTMAN, _s._ a ship of trade META'LLIC, _a._ partaking of metal; consisting of metal ME'TEOR, _s._ any body in the air or sky that is of a transitory nature ME'TRICAL, _a._ pertaining to metre or numbers; consisting of verses METROPO'LITAN, _a._ belonging to a metropolis MI'CROSCOPE, _s._ an optical instrument, contrived to give to the eye a large appearance of many objects which could not otherwise be seen MI'LITARY, _a._ engaged in the life of a soldier; soldierlike warlike; pertaining to war; affected by soldiers MIND, _s._ intellectual capacity; memory; opinion MI'NERAL, _s._ fossil body; something dug out of mines MI'NSTER, _s._ a monastery; a cathedral church MI'NSTRELSY, _s._ music; instrumental harmony MINU'TE, _a._ small; little; slender MI'RACLE, _s._ a wonder; something above human power MIRA'CULOUS, _a._ done by miracle MI'RROR, _s._ a looking-glass MI'SERY, _s._ wretchedness; calamity; misfortune MISFO'RTUNE, _s._ calamity; ill-luck MI'SSILE, _s._ something thrown by the hand MI'SSIONARY, _s._ one sent to propagate religion MI'XTURE, _s._ the act of mixing; that which is added and mixed MO'ATED, _a._ surrounded with canals by way of defence MO'DERATE, _a._ temperate; not excessive MODERA'TION, _s._ state of keeping a due mean between extremities MO'DESTY, _s._ decency; purity of manners MODULA'TION, _s._ the act of forming anything to certain proportion; harmony MO'LTEN, _part. pass._ the state of being melted MO'MENT, _s._ an individual particle of time; force; importance MOME'NTUM, _s._ the quantity of motion in a moving body MO'NARCH, _s._ a sovereign; a ruler; a king or queen MO'NASTERY, _s._ a residence of monks MO'NEY, _s._ metal coined for the purposes of commerce MO'NKEY, _s._ an animal bearing some resemblance to man; a word of contempt, or slight kindness MO'NUMENT, _s._ anything by which the memory of persons or things is preserved; a memorial; a tomb MO'RALIST, _s._ one who teaches the duties of life MORA'LITY, _s._ the doctrine of the duties of life MO'RNING, _s._ the first part of the day MO'RTAR, _s._ a cement for fixing bricks together; otherwise, a kind of cannon for firing bomb-shells; a kind of vessel in which anything is broken by a pestle MO'RTIFY, _v.a._ destroy vital properties, or active powers; vex; humble; depict; corrupt; die away MO'SLEM, _s._ a Mussulman; relating to the Mahometan form of religion MOSQUE, _s._ a Mahometan temple MO'TION, _s._ the act of changing place; action; agitation; proposal made MO'ULDED, _v.n._ be turned to dust; perish in dust MO'UNTAINOUS, _a._ hilly; full of mountains; huge MO'VEABLE, _a._ capable of being moved; portable MULETE'ER, _s._ mule-driver; horse-boy MULTIPLI'CITY, _s._ more than one of the same kind; state of being many MU'LTITUDE, _s._ a large crowd of people; a vast assembly MU'RMUR, _v.n._ grumble; utter secret and sullen discontent MU'SSULMAN, _s._ a Mahometan believer MU'TILATE, _v.a._ deprive of some essential part MU'TUALLY, _ad._ reciprocally; in return MY'RIAD, _s._ the number of ten thousand; proverbially any great number NA'RROW, _a._ not broad or wide; small; close; covetous; near NA'TION, _s._ a people distinguished from another people NA'TIVE, _a._ original; natural NA'TIVE, _s._ one born in any place NA'TURAL, _a._ produced or effected by nature; not forced; tender NA'TURALIST, _s._ one who studies nature, more especially as regards inferior animals, plants, &c. NA'TURE, _s._ constitution of an animated body; regular course of things; disposition of mind; native state or properties of anything; sort; species NAU'TICAL, _a._ that which relates to a sailor NA'VIGABLE, _a._ capable of being passed by ships or boats NAVIGA'TOR, _s._ a sailor; seaman NE'CESSARY, _a._ needful NECE'SSITY, _s._ compulsion; want; need; poverty NEGO'TIATION, _s._ treaty of business NEI'GHBOURHOOD, _s._ vicinity; place adjoining NE'ITHER, _pron._ not either; nor one nor other NICHE, _s._ a hollow hi which a statue may be placed NIDIFICA'TION, _s._ the act of building nests NI'MBLY, _ad._ quickly; speedily; actively NI'TROUS, _a._ impregnated with nitre NOBI'LITY, _s._ high-mindedness; the highest class of people in civilized life NO'BLE, _a._ magnificent; great; illustrious NO'TICE, _s._ remark; heed; regard; information NOTWITHSTA'NDING, _conj._ although; nevertheless NO'XIOUS, _a._ hurtful; harmful; baneful; guilty NU'MBER, _s._ many; more than one. NU'MBERLESS, _a._ more than can be reckoned NU'MEROUS, _a._ containing many; consisting of many NU'TRIMENT, _s._ food OBE'DIENCE, _s._ submission to authority OBE'ISANCE, _s._ courtesy O'BJECT, _s._ that about which any power or faculty is employed OBJE'CTION, _s._ adverse argument; criminal charge; fault found; the act of opposing anything OBLI'QUE, _a._ not direct; not parallel; not perpendicular OBLI'VION, _s._ forgetfulness OBNO'XIOUS, _a._ hateful; hurtful; injurious OBSERVA'TION, _s._ the act of observing, noticing, or remarking; note; remark OBSE'RVE, _v.a._ watch; regard attentively note; obey; follow O'BSTINACY, _s._ stubbornness OBSTRU'CT, _v.a._ block up; oppose; hinder OCCA'SION, _s._ occurrence; casualty; incident; opportunity; convenience OCCA'SION, _v.a._ cause; produce; influence O'CCUPY, _v.a._ possess; keep; take up; employ; use OFFE'NSIVE, _a._ displeasing; disgusting; injurious O'FFER, _v.a._ present itself; be at hand; be present O'FFER, _v.a._ propose; present; sacrifice O'FFICE, _s._ a public charge or employment; agency; business OLFA'CTORY, _a._ having the sense of smelling O'LIVE, _s._ a plant producing oil; the fruit of the tree; the emblem of peace O'MINOUS, _a._ exhibiting bad tokens of futurity OMI'SSION, _s._ neglect of duty; neglect to do something OMNI'POTENT, _s._ the Almighty OMNIPRE'SENCE, _s._ unbounded presence OMNI'SCIENCE, _s._ boundless knowledge; infinite wisdom O'NSET, _s._ attack; storm; assault O'PAL, _s._ a precious stone O'PALINE, _a._ resembling opal OPPORTU'NITY, _s._ convenience; suitableness of circumstances to any end OPPRE'SS, _v.a._ crush by hardship or unreasonable severity; overpower; subdue OPPRE'SSOR, _s._ one who harasses others with unreasonable or unjust severity O'PTICAL, _a._ relating to the science of optics O'PTICS, _s._ the science of the nature and laws of vision O'PULENT, _a._ rich O'RACLE, _s._ something delivered by supernatural wisdom; the place where, or persons of whom, the determinations of heaven are inquired O'RAL, _a._ delivered by mouth; not written O'RATOR, _s._ a public speaker; a man of eloquence O'RBIT, _s._ a circle; path of a heavenly body O'RCHARD, _s._ a garden of fruit trees O'RCHIS, _s._ a kind of flowering plant O'RDER, _s._ method; regularity; command; a rank or class; rule O'RDINANCE, _s._ law; rule; appointment O'RDINARY, _a._ established; regular; common; of low rank O'RDNANCE, _s._ cannon; great guns O'RGAN, _s._ natural instrument: as the tongue is the organ of speech. A musical instrument ORGA'NIC, _a._ consisting of various parts co-operating with each other O'RGANISM, _s._ organic structure O'RIENT, _a._ eastern; oriental; bright; gaudy ORI'GINAL, _a._ primitive; first O'RNAMENT, _v.a._ embellish; decorate OSCILLA'TION, _a._ the act of moving backward or forward like a pendulum O'SSEOUS, _a._ bony; resembling bone OSTENTA'TION, _s._ outward show; pride of riches or power OSTRICH, _s._ a large bird OTHERWISE, _ad._ in a different manner; by other causes; in other respects OU'TLET, _s._ passage outward OU'TSET, _s._ setting out; departure OU'TWARD, _a._ external; opposed to _inward_. OVERFLO'W, _v.a._ deluge; drown; overrun; fill beyond the brim OVERTA'KE, _v.a._ catch anything by pursuit; come up to something going before OVERTHRO'W, _v.a._ turn upside down; throw down; ruin; defeat; destroy OVERWHE'LM, _v.a._ crush underneath something violent and weighty; overlook gloomily PACI'FIC, _a._ mild; gentle; appeasing PA'LACE, _a._ a royal house PA'LTRY, _a._ worthless; contemptible; mean PA'RADISE, _s._ the blissful region in which the first pair were placed; any place of felicity PA'RALLEL, _a._ extending in the same direction; having the same tendency PARALLE'LOGRAM, _s._ in geometry, a right-lined four-sided figure, whose opposite sides are parallel and equal PA'RAPET, _s._ a wall breast high PA'RCEL, _s._ a small bundle; a part of a whole PA'RDON, _s._ forgiveness PARO'CHIAL, _a._ belonging to a parish PARO'TIDA-SA'LIVART, _a._ glands so named because near the ear PA'RTICLE, _s._ any small quantity of a greater substance; a word unvaried by inflection PARTICULAR, _s._ a single instance; a minute detail of things singly enumerated. IN PARTICULAR, peculiarly; distinctly PARTICULARLY, _ad._ in an extraordinary degree; distinctly PA'SSAGE, _s._ act of passing; road; way; entrance or exit; part of a book PA'SSENGER, _s._ traveller; a wayfarer; one who hires in any vehicle the liberty of travelling PA'SSIONATE, _a._ moved by passion; easily moved to anger PA'SSIVE, _a._ unresisting; suffering; not acting PA'STORAL, _a._ rural; rustic; imitating shepherds PATHE'TIC, _a._ affecting the passions; moving PA'THOS, _s._ passion; warmth; affection of the mind PA'THWAY, _s._ a road; a narrow way to be passed on foot. PA'TIENCE, _s._ the power of suffering; perseverance PA'TIENTLY, _ad._ with steadfast resignation; with hopeful confidence PA'TRIARCH, _a._ one who governs by paternal right; the father and ruler of a family PA'THIMONY, _s._ an estate possessed by inheritance PA'TRIOT, _s._ one who loves his country PA'TRON, _s._ one who countenances, supports, or protects; defender PEA'CEABLE, _a._ not quarrelsome; not turbulent PE'CTORAL, _a._ belonging to the breast PECU'LIAR, _a._ appropriate; not common to other things; particular PECULIARITY, _s._ particularity; something found only in one PE'DESTAL, _a._ the lower member of a pillar; the basis of a statue PE'DIMENT, _s._ an ornament that finishes the fronts of buildings, and serves as a decoration over gates PE'NANCE, _s._ infliction, either public or private, suffered as an expression of repentance for sin PE'NDULOUS, _a._ hanging PE'NETRATE, _v.a._ enter beyond the surface; make way into a body; affect the mind PENINSULA, _s._ laud almost surrounded by water PE'NURY, _s._ poverty; indigence PE'OPLE, _s._ a nation; the vulgar PERCEI'VE, _v.a._ discover by some sensible effects; know; observe PERCE'PTIBLE, _a._ such as may be known or observed PERFECTION, _s._ the state of being perfect PERFO'RM, _v.a._ execute; do; accomplish PE'RFORATE, _v.a._ pierce with a tool; bore PERHA'PS, _ad._ peradventure; may be PE'RIL, _s._ danger; hazard; jeopardy PE'RIOD, _s._ length of duration; a complete sentence from one full stop to another; the end or conclusion PE'RISIH, _v.n._ die; be destroyed; be lost; come to nothing PE'RMANENT, _a._ durable; unchanged; of long continuance PERNI'CIOUS, _a._ destructive; baneful PERPENDICULAR, _a._ a straight line up and down PERPE'TUAL, _a._ never-ceasing; continual PERPLE'X, _v.a._ disturb; distract; tease; plague PERPLE'XITY, _s._ anxiety; entanglement PE'RSECUTE, _v.a._ to harass or pursue with malignity PERSEVE'RANCE, _s._ persistence in any design or attempt; constancy in progress PERTINA'CITY, _s._ obstinacy; stubbornness; constancy PERTURBA'TION, _s._ restlessness; disturbance PERU'SAL, _s._ the act of reading PETI'TION, _s._ request; entreaty; single branch or article of prayer PHA'LANX, _s._ a troop of men closely embodied PHENO'MENON, _s._ appearance PHILOSOPHER, _s._ a man deep in knowledge PHILOSOPHICAL, _a._ belonging to philosophy PHILO'SOPHY, _s._ moral or natural knowledge PHY'SICAL, _a._ relating to nature or to natural philosophy; medicinal; relating to health PICTO'RIAL, _a._ produced by a painter PIC'TURESQUE, _a._ beautiful; magnificent PI'LCHARD, _s._ a kind of fish PI'LGRIMAGE, _s._ a long journey PI'OUS, _a._ careful of the duties owed by created beings to God; godly; religious PI'RATE, _s._ a sea robber PISTA'CHIO, _s._ a dry fruit of an oblong figure PI'TIABLE, _a._ that which deserves pity PLA'CABLE, _a._ willing or able to be appeased PLA'INTIVE, _a._ complaining; lamenting; expressive of sorrow PLA'NETARY, _a._ pertaining to the planets; produced by the planets PLANTATION, _s._ a place planted; a colony PLAU'SIBLY, _ad._ with fair show PLEA'SANT, _a._ delightful; cheerful; merry PLEA'SANTRY, _s._ merriment; lively talk PLEA'SURE, _s._ delight PLE'NTIFUL, _a._ copious; fruitful; abundant PLI'ABLE, _a._ flexible; easy to be bent; easy to be persuaded; capable of being plied PLI'ANT, _a._ bending; flexible; easy to take a form PLU'MAGE, _s._ feathers; suit of feathers PNY'X, _s._ a place where assemblies of the people were held PO'ETRY, _s._ sublime thought expressed in sublime language POI'GNANCY, _s._ power of irritation; sharpness POI'SON, _s._ that which taken into the body destroys or injures life; anything infectious or malignant POLI'TE, _a._ glossy; smooth; elegant of manners POLITICAL, _a._ that which relates to politics; that which relates to public affairs; also cunning, skilful PO'PULAR, _a._ vulgar; familiar; well known POPULARITY, _a._ state of being favoured by the people; representation suited to vulgar conception POPULA'TION, _s._ the state of a country with respect to numbers of people PO'RTABLE, _a._ manageable by the hand; supportable PO'RTION, _s._ a part; an allotment PORTMA'NTEAU, _s._ a chest, or bag, in which clothes are carried POSI'TION, _s._ state of being placed; situation PO'SITIVE, _o._ absolute; particular; real; certain POSSE'SS, _v.a._ have as an owner; be master of; seize; obtain POSSESSION, _s._ property; the thing possessed POSSIBLE, _a._ having the power to be or to be done; not contrary to the nature of things POSTE'RITY, _s._ succeeding generations PO'TENTATE, _s._ monarch; prince; sovereign PO'WER, _s._ command; authority; ability; strength; faculty of the mind PRACTICABLE, _a._ capable of being practised PRA'CTICAL, _o._ relating to action; not merely speculative. PRAE'TOR, _s._ a functionary among the ancient Romans PRAI'RIE, _s._ a meadow PRECAUTION, _s._ preservative caution; preventive measures PRECE'PTOR, _s._ a teacher; an Instructor PRE'CINCT, _s._ outward limit; boundary PRECI'PITOUS, _a._ headlong; steep PREDECE'SSOR, _s._ one who was in any state or place before another; ancestor PREDOMINANCE, _s._ prevalence; ascendancy PREDOMINANT, _a._ prevalent; ascendant; supreme influence PREDOMINATE, _v.n._ prevail; be supreme in influence PREFI'X, _v.a._ appoint beforehand; settle; establish; put before another thing PRELI'MINARY, _a._ previous; introductory PREJUDICE, _s._ prepossession; judgment formed beforehand; mischief; injury PREPARATION, _s._ anything made by process of operation; previous measures PREROGATIVE, _s._ an exclusive or peculiar privilege PRE'SCIENT, _a._ foreknowing; prophetic PRESENT, _a._ not past; not future; ready at hand; not absent; being face to face; being now in view PRESE'NT, _v.a._ offer; exhibit PRESE'RVE, _v.a._ save; keep; defend from destruction or any evil PRESU'MPTION, _s._ arrogance; blind confidence PREVE'NT, _v.a._ hinder; obviate; obstruct PRINCIPAL, _a._ chief; capital; essential; important; considerable PRINCIPLE, _s._ constituent part; original cause PRO'BABLE, _a._ likely PRO'BABLY, _a._ very likely PROBA'TION, _s._ proof; trial; noviciate PROCEE'D, _v.n._ pass from one thing or place to another; go forward; issue; arise; carry on; act; transact PRO'CESS, _s._ course of law; course PROCE'SSION, _s._ a train marching in ceremonious solemnity PRODI'GIOUS, _a._ enormous; amazing; monstrous PRO'DUCE, _s._ amount; profit; that which anything yields or brings PRODU'CE, _v.a._ offer to the view or notice; bear; cause; effect PRODU'CTION, _s._ the act of producing; fruit; product; composition PROFESSION, _s._ vocation; known employment PROFU'SE, _a._ lavish; too liberal PROFUSION, _s._ extravagance; abundance PRO'GRESS, _s._ course; advancement; motion forward PROHI'BIT, _v.a._ forbid; debar; hinder PROJE'CT, _v.a._ throw out; scheme; contrive; form in the mind PRO'PAGATE, _v.a._ extend; widen; promote PRO'PER, _a._ fit; exact; peculiar PRO'PHECY, _s._ a declaration of something to come PROPHE'TIC, _a._ foreseeing or foretelling future events PROPORTION, _s._ symmetry; form; size; ratio PROPOSITION, _s._ one of the three parts of a regular argument, in which anything is affirmed or denied; proposal PROPRIETOR, _s._ possessor in his own right PROPRI'ETY, _s._ accuracy; justness PROSA'IC, _a._ belonging to or resembling prose PROTE'CTOR, _s._ defender; supporter; guardian PROTRU'DE, _v.a._ thrust forward PROVI'DE, _v.a._ procure; furnish; supply; stipulate PROVIDE'NTIAL, _a._ effected by Providence; referrible to Providence PRO'VINCE, _s._ a conquered country; a region PROVINCIAL, _a._ that which relates to provinces PROVISION, _s._ the act of providing beforehand; measures taken beforehand; stock collected; victuals PROVOCATION, _s._ an act or cause by which anger is raised; an appeal to a judge PROXI'MITY, _s._ nearness PTA'RMIGAN, _s._ (pronounced _tár-mi-gan_) a bird of the grouse species PU'BLIC, _s._ the people; general view; open view PU'LLEY, _s._ a small wheel turning on a pivot, with a furrow on its outside, in which a rope runs PU'NISH, _v.a._ to chastise; to afflict with penalties or death for some crime PU'NISHED, _a._ chastised PU'PIL, _s._ a scholar; one under the care of a tutor PU'RCHASE, _v.a._ acquire; buy for a price PU'RITY, _s._ clearness; freedom from foulness or dirt; freedom from guilt; innocence PU'RPOSE, _v.t._ intention; design; instance PU'TRIFY, _v.n._ to rot PU'ZZLE, _v.a._ perplex; confound; tease; entangle PY'RAMID, _s._ a solid figure, whose base is a polygon and whose sides are plain triangles, their several points meeting in one PYTHA'GORAS, _s._ the originator of the present system universe PYTHAGORE'ANS, _s._ followers of Pythagoras QUALIFICATION, _s._ accomplishment; that which makes any person or thing fit for anything QUA'NTITY, _s._ any indeterminate weight or measure; bulk or weight; a portion; a part QUA'RRY, _s._ game flown at by a hawk; a stone mine RA'DIANT, _a._ shining; emitting rays RAMIFICA'TION, _s._ division or separation into branches; small branches; branching out RA'NCID, _a._ strong scented RAPA'CIOUS, _a._ given to plunder; seizing by violence RAPI'DITY, _s._ celerity; velocity; swiftness RA'PTURE, _s._ transport; haste RA'TTLE, _s._ a quick noise nimbly repeated; empty and loud talk; a plant RA'TTLESNAKE, _s._ a kind of serpent, which has a rattle at the end of its tail REA'CTION, _s._ the reciprocation of any impulse or force impressed, made by the body on which such an impression is made RE'ALISE, _v.a._ bring into being or act; convert money into land. REA'SON, _s._ the power by which man deduces one proposition from another; cause; ground or principle; motive; moderation REASONABLENESS, _s._ the faculty of reason REASONING, _s._ an argument REBE'LLION, _s._ insurrection against lawful authority RECE'DE, _v.n._ fall back; retreat; desist RECEI'VE, _v.a._ obtain; admit; entertain as a guest RE'CENT, _a._ new; late; fresh RECE'PTACLE, _s._ a vessel or place into which anything is received RECOGNITION, _s._ review; renovation of knowledge; acknowledgment; memorial RECOLLE'CTION, _s._ recovery of notion; revival in the memory RECOMME'ND, _v.a._ make acceptable; praise another; commit with prayers RECOMMENDA'TION, _s._ the act of recommending; that which secures to one a kind reception from another RE'COMPENSE, _s._ reward; compensation RECOMPENSE, _v.a._ repay; reward; redeem RE'CORD, _s._ register; authentic memorial RECREA'TION, _s._ relief after toil or pain; amusement; diversion RE'CTIFY, _v.a._ to make right RE'CTITUDE, _s._ straightness; rightness; uprightness REDE'MPTION, _s._ ransom; relief; purchase of God's favour by the death of Christ REDU'CE, _v.a._ bring back; subdue; degrade REFLECTION, _s._ that which is reflected; thought thrown back upon the past; attentive consideration REFLE'CTOR, _s._ considerer REFRA'CT, _v.n._ break the natural course of rays REFU'LGENT, _a._ bright; splendid REGA'LIA, _s._ ensigns of Royalty REGA'RD, _v.a._ observe; remark; pay attention to RE'GIMENT, _s._ a body of soldiers under one colonel RE'GION, _s._ tract of land; country RE'GULAR, _a._ methodical; orderly REINFO'RCE, _v.a._ strengthen again REJE'CT, _v.a._ cast off; refuse; throw aside RE'LATIVE, _s._ a near friend; a relation; a kinsman RE'LATIVE, _a._ having relation RELAXATION, _s._ the act of loosening RELA'XED, _a._ slackened; loosened; let loose; diverted; eased; refreshed RELEA'SE, _v.a._ quit; let go; slacken; free from RELE'NT, _v.n._ slacken; remit; soften; melt RE'LIC, _s._ that which remains RELIE'VE, _v.a._ ease pain or sorrow; succour by assistance; support; assist RELI'GION, _s._ a system of divine faith and worship RELU'CTANT, _a._ unwilling; acting with repugnance REMAI'N, _v.n._ continue; endure; be left REMAINDER, _s._ the part left REMA'RKABLE, _a._ observable; worthy of note RE'MEDY, _s._ a medicine by which any illness is cured; that which counteracts any evil; reparation REME'MBER, _v.a._ bear in mind; not to REMO'NSTRANCE, _s._ strong representation REMO'RSELESS, _a._ without remorse RE'NDER, _v.a._ restore; give back; represent; exhibit; give REPEA'T, _v.a._ use again; do again; speak again REPO'RT, _s._ rumour; popular fame; sound; loud noise RE'PRESENT, _v.a._ exhibit; describe; personate; exhibit to show REPRESENTA'TION, _s._ image; likeness; public exhibition REPRIE'VE, _s._ respite after sentence of death REPRI'SAL, _s._ something seized by way of retaliation for robbery or injury RE'PTILE, _s._ an animal that creeps on many feet REPU'BLIC, _s._ commonwealth; a government without a King or other hereditary head REPU'GNANT, _a._ disobedient; contrary; opposite REPU'LSE, _v.a._ beat back; drive off REPUTA'TION, _s._ character of good or bad; credit REPU'TE, _s._ character; reputation REQUE'ST, _s._ petition; entreaty; demand RE'QUIEM, _s._ a hymn, in which they ask for the dead, requiem or rest REQUISITE, _a._ necessary RE'SCUE, _v.a._ set free from any violence, confinement, or danger RESE'MBLE, _v. a_ to be like; to compare; to represent as like something else RESE'NTMENT, _s._ anger; deep sense of injury RE'SERVOIR, _s._ a receiver; a large basin which receives water RESIDENCE, _s._ dwelling; place of abode RESOU'RCE, _s._ resort; expedient RESPECTIVE, _a._ particular; relating to particular persons or things RESPIRA'TION, _s._ the act of breathing; relief from toil RESPLENDENT, _a._ bright; shining; having a beautiful lustre RESPONSIBLE, _a._ answerable; accountable RESTRAINT, _s._ abridgment of liberty; prohibition; restriction RETALIATION, _s._ requital; return of like for like RETA'RD, _v.a._ hinder; delay RE'TINUE, _s._ a number attending upon a principal person; train RETROSPECTION, _s._ act or faculty of looking backward RETU'RN, _s._ the act of coming back to the same place; act of restoring or giving back REVELA'TION, _s._ discovery; communication; apocalypse; the prophecy of St. John, revealing future things REVE'NUE, _s._ income; annual profits received from lands or other funds RE'VERENCE, _s._ veneration; respect; title of the clergy REVE'RSE, _v.a._ turn upside down; overturn RHINO'CERUS, _s._ a large animal with a horn on its nose RHODODE'NDRON, _s._ the rose-bay RI'BALDRY, _s._ mean, lewd, brutal language RI'DICULE, _s._ contemptive mockery RI'VET, _v.a._ fasten strongly RI'VULET, _s_ a small river; streamlet; brook ROMA'NTIC, _a._ wild; fanciful ROO'KERY, _s._ a nursery of rooks ROYA'LIST, _s._ adherent to a King RU'BY, _s._ a precious stone of a red colour RU'DIMEMT, _s._ the first principle RU'GGED, _a._ rough; uneven; rude RU'STIC, _a._ rough; rude; pertaining to the country RUSTI'CITY, _s._ rural appearance; simplicity SA'CRAMENT, _s._ an oath; an outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace SA'CRED, _a._ immediately relating to God; holy SA'CRIFICE, _v.a._ offer to heaven; destroy or give up for the sake of something else; destroy; kill SAGA'CITY, _a._ quickness of scent; acuteness of discovery SA'LINE, _a._ consisting of salt; constituting bait SA'NCTITY, _s._ holiness; goodness; purity SA'NGUINARY, _a._ cruel; bloody; murderous SA'PPHIRE, _s._ a precious stone, of a blue colour SAU'RIAN, _s._ a reptile belonging to the order of Sauris or lizards SAVA'NNAH, _s._ an open meadow without wood SCABBARD, _s._ the sheath of a sword or dagger SCE'NERY, _s._ the appearances of places or things; the background of the scenes of a play SCE'PTRE, _s._ the ensign of royalty borne in the hand SCI'ENCE, _s._ knowledge; certainty grounded, on demonstration SCIENTIFIC, _a._ producing demonstrative knowledge SCREECH, _s._ cry of horror and anguish; harsh cry SCRI'PTURE, _s._ sacred writing; the Bible SCU'RRY, _a._ mean; vile; dirty; worthless SCU'LPTURE, _s._ carved work SE'AMAN, _s._ a sailor SE'ASON, _s._ one of the four parts of the year; a fit time SE'CRET, _s._ something studiously hidden; privacy; solitude; a thing unknown SECRE'TE, _v.a._ put aside; hide SECU'RITY, _s._ protection; safety; certainty SEE'MING, _s._ appearance; show; opinion SELE'CT, _v.a._ choose in preference to others rejected SELE'CTION, _s._ the act of choosing; choice SE'MI-GLO'BULAR, _a._ half circular SE'MINARY, _s._ place of education SE'NATOR, _s._ a public counsellor SENSA'TION, _s._ perception by means of the senses SENSIBI'LITY, _s._ quickness of sensation; delicacy SENSORIO'LA, _s. plur._ little sensoriums SENSO'RIUM, _s._ the seat of sense; organ of sensation SE'NTINEL, _s._ one who watches or keeps guard, to prevent surprise SEPARATION, _s._ the act of separating; disunion SE'QUEL, _s._ conclusion; consequence; event SEQUE'STER, _v.a._ separate from others for the sake of privacy; remove; withdraw SERE'NITY, _s._ calmness; mild temperature; peace; coolness of mind SE'RIES, _s._ sequence; order; succession; course SERRA'TED, _a._ formed with jags or indentures, like the edge of a saw SE'RVANT, _s._ one who attends another, and acts at his command SERVICEABLE, _a._ active; diligent; officious; useful; beneficial SE'VERAL, _a._ different; divers; many SHA'NTY, _s._ a temporary wooden building SHE'LTER, _s._ cover; protection SI'GNAL, _s._ a notice given by a sign; a sign that gives notice SI'GNIFY, _v.a._ to declare; to make known; to declare by some token or sign; to express; to mean SILT, _s._ mud; slime; consisting of mud SI'MILAR, _a._ like; having resemblance SIMPLICITY, _s._ plainness; not cunning; silliness SIMULTANEOUS, _a._ acting together; existing at the same time SINCE'RITY, _s._ honesty of intention SI'NGER, _s._ one that tings; one whose profession or business is to sing SI'NGULAR, _a._ single; particular SI'TUATE, _part. a._ placed with respect to anything else; consisting SKE'LETON, _a._ the bones of the body preserved together, as much as can be, in their natural situation SKI'RMISH, _s._ slight fight; contest SLA'TY, _a._ having the nature of slate SLEIGHT, _s._ artful trick; dexterous practice SLU'GGISH, _a._ slow; slothful; lazy, inactive SOBRI'ETY, _s._ soberness; calmness; gravity SOCI'ETY, _s._ company; community SO'CKET, _s._ a hollow pipe; the receptacle of the eye SO'LDIER, _s._ a fighting man; a warrior SO'LEMN, _a._ religiously grave; awful; grave SOLE'MNITY, _s._ gravity; religious ceremony SOLI'CITOUS, _a._ anxious; careful; concerned SOLI'CITUDE, _s._ anxiety; carefulness SO'LID, _a._ not liquid; not fluid; not hollow; compact; strong; firm; sound; true; profound; grave SOLI'LOQUY, _s._ a discourse made by one in solitude to himself SO'LITARY, _a._ living alone; not having company SO'LITUDE, _s._ loneliness; a lonely place SO'RROW, _s._ grief; pain for something past; sadness SOU'THERN, _a._ belonging to the south SO'VEREIGN, _s._ supreme lord. SPA'NGLE, _s._ any little thing sparkling and shining SPA'NIEL, _s._ a dog used for sport in the field, remarkable for tenacity and obedience SPEA'KER, _s._ one that speaks; the prolocutor of the Commons SPE'CIES, _s._ a sort; class of nature; show SPECIMEN, _s._ sample; a part of any thing exhibited, that the rest may be known SPE'CTACLE, _s._ a show; sight SPECTA'TOR, _s._ a looker-on; a beholder SPECULA'TION, _s._ examination by the eye; view; spy SPHE'RICAL, _a._ round; globular SPI'CULA, _s. plur._ little spikes SPI'CY, _a._ producing spice; aromatic SPI'DER, _s._ the animal that spins a web for flies SPI'RAL, _a._ curved; winding; circularly involved SPI'RIT, _s._ breath; soul of man; apparition; temper SPI'RITUAL, _a._ that which regards divinity; that which regards the soul; not temporal SPLE'NDID, _a._ showy; magnificent; pompous STABI'LITY, _s._ steadiness; strength to stand STA'GNANT, _a._ motionless; still STA'GNATE, _v.a._ lie motionless; have no stream STA'NDARD, _s._ an ensign in war; a settled rate STA'RLING, _s._ a bird that may be taught to whistle, and articulate words STA'TESMAN, _s._ a politician; one employed in public affairs STA'TION, _v.a._ place in a certain post or place STA'TUE, _s._ an image; solid representation of any living being STA'TURE, _s._ the height of any animal STE'RIL, _a._ barren; unfruitful STO'IC, _s._ an ancient philosopher of a particular sect, that met under the _Stoa_ or portico of the temple STO'ICAL, _a._ pertaining to the Stoics STRA'TAGEM, _s._ an artifice in war; a trick by which some advantage is gained STRU'CTURE, _s._ building; form STRU'GGLE, _v.n._ labour; strive; contend STU'DENT, _s._ a bookish man; a scholar STUPE'NDOUS, _a._ wonderful; amazing; astonishing STU'PIFY, _v.a._ make stupid; deprive of sensibility SUB-DIVI'DE, _v.a._ to divide a part into more parts SUBDIVI'SION, _s._ the act of subdividing; the parts distinguished by a second division SUBDU'E, _v.a._ crush; oppress; conquer; tame SUB'JECT, _s._ one who lives under the dominion of another; that on which any operation is performed SUBME'RGE, _v.a._ to put under water; to drown SUBMI'SSIVE, _a._ humble SU'BSEQUENT, _a._ following in train SUBSI'STENCE, _s._ competence; means of supporting life; inherence in something else SU'BSTANCE, _s._ something real, not imaginary; wealth; means of life S'UBSTITUTE, _s._ one placed by another to act with delegated power SUBTERRA'NEOUS, _a._ living under the earth SUBVE'RSION, _s._ overthrow; ruin SU'CCEED, _v.a._ follow; prosper SUCCE'SSFUL, _a._ prosperous; happy; fortunate SUCCE'SSION, _s._ a series of persons or things following one another; a lineage SU'CCOUR, _s._ aid; assistance; help in distress SU'CCULENT, _a._ juicy; moist SU'DDEN, _a._ coming unexpectedly; hasty; violent SU'FFER, _v.a._ bear; undergo; endure; permit SUFFI'CE, _v.n._ be enough; be sufficient; be equal to the end, or purpose SUFFI'CE, _v.a._ afford; supply; satisfy SUFFI'CIENT, _a._ equal to any end or purpose SU'LLY, _v.a._ spoil; tarnish; dirty; spot SU'LTRY, _a._ hot and close SU'MMON, _v.a._ call up; raise; admonish to appear SU'MPTUOUS, _a._ costly; expensive; splendid SUPE'RB, _a._ grand; pompous; lofty; magnificent SUPERINCU'MBENT, _a._ lying on the top of something else SUPERINDU'CE, _v.a._ bring in as an addition to something else SUPERINTE'NDENCE, _s._ superior care; the act of overseeing with authority SUPERINTEN'DENT, _s._ one who overlooks others authoritatively SUPE'RIOR, _a._ higher; greater in dignity or excellence; preferable; upper SUPERIO'RITY, _s._ pre-eminence; the quality of being greater or higher than another SUPERSE'DE, _v.a._ make void by superior power SUPERSTI'TIOUS, _a._ full of idle fancies or scruples with regard to religion SUPPLY', _v.n._ fill up a deficiency; yield; afford; accommodate; furnish SUPPLY', _s._ relief of want; cure of deficiencies SUPPO'RT, _s._ act or power of sustaining; prop SUPPO'RT, _v.a._ sustain; prop; endure SUPPO'SE, _v.a._ admit without proof; imagine SU'RFACE, _s._ superficies; outside S'URPLUS, _s._ overplus; what remains when use is satisfied SURROU'ND, _v.a._ environ; encompass; enclose on all sides SURVE'Y, _v.a._ view as examining; measure and estimate land; overlook SUSCE'PTIBLE, _a._ capable of anything SUSPI'CION, _s._ the act of suspecting; imagination of something ill without proof SWA'LLOW, _v.n._ take down the throat; take in SY'CAMORE, _s._ a tree SY'COPHANT, _s._ tale-bearer SY'MMETRY, _s._ adaptation of parts to each other; proportion; harmony SY'MPHONY, _s._ harmony of mingled sounds SY'NAGOGUE, _s._ a Jewish place of worship SY'STEM, _s._ any combination of many things acting together SYSTEMA'TIC, _a._ methodical; written or formed with regular subordination of one part to another TA'BLET, _s._ a small level surface; a surface written on or painted TA'BULAR, _a._ set in the form of tables or synopses TA'CTICS, _s._ the art of ranging men on the field of battle TA'FFETA, _s._ a thin silk TA'NKARD, _s._ a large vessel with a cover for strong drink TA'PER, _v.n._ grow gradually smaller TA'TTOO, _v.a._ mark by staining on the skin TA'WDRY, _a._ meanly showy; showy without elegance TA'XATION, _s._ the act of loading with taxes; accusation TE'CHNICAL, _a._ belonging to the arts; not in common or popular use TE'LESCOPE, _s._ a long glass by which distant objects are viewed TEA'CHER, _s._ one who teaches; an instructor TE'MPERANCE, _s._ moderation in meat and drink; free from ardent passion TE'MPERATE, _a._ moderate in meat and drink; free from ardent passion; not excessive TE'MPERATURE, _s._ constitution of nature; degree of any qualities; moderation TE'MPLE, _s._ a place appropriated to acts of religion; the upper part of the sides of the head TE'MPORAL, _a._ measured by time secular; not spiritual TEMPTA'TION, _s._ the act of tempting TENA'CITY, _s._ adhesion of one part to another TE'NDENCY, _s._ direction or course toward any place, object, inference, or result TE'NDER, _a._ soft; sensible; delicate; gentle; mild; young; weak, as _tender_ age TE'NDRIL, _s._ the clasp of a vine or other climbing plant TE'NEMENT, _s._ anything held by a tenant TENU'ITY, _s._ thinness; smallness; poverty TE'RMINATE, _v.n._ have an end; be limited; end TERMINA'TION, _s._ the end TERRE'STRIAL, _a._ earthly TE'RRIBLE, _a._ dreadful; formidable; causing fear TE'RRIER, _s._ a kind of dog TE'RRITORY, _s._ land; country TE'RROR, _s._ fear communicated; fear received; the cause of fear TE'XTURE, _s._ the act of weaving; a web; a thing woven; combination of parts THE'REFORE, _ad._ for this reason; consequently THOU'SAND, _a._ or _s._ the number of ten hundred TIDE, _s._ time; alternate ebb and flow of the sea TI'MID, _a._ fearful; wanting courage TI'MOROUS, _a._ fearful; terrified; susceptible of fear; capable of being frightened TI'TLE, _s._ a general head comprising particulars; an appellation of honour; claim of right; the first page of a book, telling its name, and generally its subject TO'CSIN, _s._ an alarm-bell TO'RPID, _a._ motionless; sluggish TO'RTURE, _s._ torments judicially inflicted; pain by which guilt is punished, or confession extorted TO'RTURE, _v.a._ punish with tortures; torment TOUR, _s._ (pronounced _toor_) a journey for pleasure TOU'RIST, _s._ one who travels for pleasure TO'WARD, _prep._ in a direction to; near to TOW'ER, _s._ high building; fortress; an elevation TRADI'TIONAL, _a._ delivered by tradition TRA'GEDY, _s._ any mournful or dreadful event TRA'GIC, _a._ mournful, calamitous TRA'GI-CO'MEDY, _s._ a drama compounded of merry and serious things TRAIN, _v.a._ draw along; entice; educate TRA'NQUIL, _a._ quiet; peaceful TRANQUI'LLITY, _a._ quietness; peace; freedom from trouble or annoyance TRANSA'CT, _v.a._ manage; negotiate; perform TRANSA'CTION, _s._ negotiation; management TRA'NSIENT, _a._ short; momentary TRANSI'TION, _s._ removal; passage from one to another; change TRANSMI'T, _v.a._ send from one place to another TRANSPA'RENT, _a._ clear; translucent TRA'VEL, _s._ journey; labour; toil TRA'VEL, _v.n._ make travels; move; go TRA'VERSE, _v.a._ to cross; to lay athwart; to cross by way of opposition; to wander over TREA'CHEROUS, _a._ faithless; guilty of deserting or betraying TREA'CHERY, _s._ perfidy; breach of faith TREA'SURER, _s._ one who has the care of money; one who has the charge of treasure TRE'LLIS, _s._ a structure of iron, wood, or osier, the parts crossing each other like a lattice TREME'NDOUS, _a._ dreadful; horrible TRE'MOUR, _s._ the state of trembling or quivering TRE'MULOUS, _a._ trembling; fearful; quivering TREPIDA'TION, _s._ fear; terror; hurry; confused haste; terrified flight TRI'ANGLE, _s._ a figure of three angles TRIBU'NAL, _s._ the seat of a judge; a court of justice TRI'BUTE, _s._ payment in acknowledgment; subjection TRI'PLE, _a._ threefold; treble TRI'UMPH, _s._ victory; conquest TRIU'MPHANT, _a._ victorious; celebrating a victory TRO'PHY, _s._ something shown or treasured up in proof of victory TRO'UBLE, _v.n._ disturb; afflict; tease; disorder TRU'NCATE, _v.a._ maim; cut short TRU'NNIONS, _s._ the knobs or bunchings of a gun, that bear it on the checks of a carriage TUBE, _s._ a pipe; a long hollow body TU'BULAR, _a._ resembling a pipe or trunk TUMU'LTUOUS, _a._ uproarious; noisy TU'NIC, _s._ part of the Roman dress, natural covering; tunicle TU'NNEL, _s._ funnel; shaft of a chimney; passage underground TU'RBAN, _s._ the covering worn by the Turks on their heads TU'RPITUDE, _s._ shamefulness; baseness TY'RANNY, _s._ severity; rigour TY'RANT, _s._ an absolute monarch governing imperiously; a cruel and severe master; an oppressor U'LTIMATE, _a._ intended as the last resort UNABA'TED, _part._ not lessened in force or intensity UNACCOU'NTABLE, _a._ not explicable; not to be solved by reason; not subject UNA'LTERABLE, _a._ unchangeable; immutable UNAPRROA'CHED, _a._ inaccessible UNAWA'RE, _ad._ unexpectedly; without thought UNCE'RTAINTY, _s._ want of certainty; inaccuracy UNCHA'NGEABLE, _a._ not subject to variation UNCO'MFORTABLE, _a._ affording no comfort; gloomy UNCU'LTIVATED, _a._ not instructed; uncivilised UNDAU'NTED, _a._ unsubdued by fear; not depressed UNDERGO', _v.a._ suffer; sustain; support UNDERMI'NE, _v.a._ to excavate under UNDIMI'NISHED, _a._ not to be lessened; incapable of being lessened UNDISCO'VERED, _a._ not seen; not found out UNDISTI'NGUISHABLE, _a._ not to be distinguished UNFO'RTUNATE, _a._ unsuccessful; unprosperous U'NIFORM, _a._ conforming to one rule; similar to itself UNIFO'RMITY, _s._ conforming to one pattern UNINHA'BITABLE, _a._ unfit to be inhabited UNINI'TIATED, _part._ ignorant of; not conversant with UNIVE'RSAL, _s._ the whole U'NIVERSE, _s._ the general system of things UNJU'STIFIABLE, _a._ not to be defended UNMO'ULTED, _part._ unchanged in feather UNPA'LATEABLE, _a._ nauseous, disgusting UNRETA'LIATED, _part._ unreturned, applied to injuries UNSA'Y, _v.a._ retract; deny what has been said UNSUCCE'SSFUL, _a._ not having the wished event UNSWA'THE, _v.a._ unbandage UNVI'TIATED, _part._ pure; not defiled UNWIE'LDY, _a._ unmanageable; not easily moving, or moved URGE, _v.a._ press; incite; provoke; solicit U'SHER, _s._ an under-teacher; one whose business it is to introduce strangers, or walk before a person of high rank UTE'NSIL, _s._ an instrument for any use, such as the vessels of the kitchen, or tools of a trade VALE'RIAN, _s._ a plant VA'LLEY, _s._ low ground; a hollow between two hills VA'LUABLE, _a._ precious; worthy VA'LUE, _s._ price; worth; rate VAN, _s._ the front of an army; the first line VANI'LLA, _s._ a plant, the fruit of which is used to scent chocolate VA'NISH, _v.n._ lose perceptible existence; disappear; be lost; pass away VA'RIANCE, _s._ discord; disagreement VA'RIEGATE, _v.a._ diversify; stain with different colours VA'RIOUS, _a._ different; several; diversified VA'RY, _v.a._ change; change to something else VA'TICAN, _s._ the palace of the Pope at Rome VEGETA'TION, _s._ the power of producing the growth of plants VEGETA'TIVE, _a._ having the power to produce growth in plants VE'HICLE, _s._ a conveyance VE'NERABLE, _a._ old; to be treated with reverence VE'NISON, _s._ game; the flesh of deer VENTILA'TION, _s._ the act of fanning VENTILA'TOR, _s._ an instrument contrived to supply close places with fresh air VE'NTURE, _v.n._ dare; run hazard; engage in VE'RIFY, _v.n._ justify against the charge of falsehood; confirm; to prove true VE'RILY, _ad._ in truth; certainly VE'SSEL, _s._ any capacity; anything containing; the containing parts of an animal body VESU'VIUS, _s._ a burning mountain near Naples VICI'NITY, _s._ nearness; state of being near VICI'SSITUDE, _s._ regular change; revolution VI'CTIM, _s._ sacrifice; something destroyed VI'CTORY, _s._ conquest; triumph VI'GIL, _s._ watch; a fast kept before a holiday VI'GOROUS, _a._ full of strength and life VI'GOROUSLY, _ad._ energetically; forcibly; with force; without weakness VI'LLAGE, _s._ a small collection of houses VI'NDICATE, _v.a._ justify; clear; assert; revenge VI'NTAGE, _s._ the produce of the vine for the year; the time in which grapes are gathered VI'OLATION, _s._ infringement of a law VI'OLENT, _a._ forcible; unseasonably vehement VI'PER, _s._ a serpent; anything mischievous VI'PERINE, _a._ belonging to a viper VI'RULENT, _a._ poisonous; venomous; poisoned in the mind; malignant VI'SIBLE, _a._ perceptible by the eye; apparent VI'SION, _s._ sight; the faculty of seeing; the act of seeing; a supernatural appearance; a spectre; a phantom; a dream; something shown in a dream VI'SUAL, _a._ using the power of sight VI'TIATE, _v.a._ deprave; spoil; make less pure VOLCA'NO, _s._ a burning mountain VO'TARY, _s._ one devoted, as by a vow, to any particular service, worship, study, or state of life VU'LTURE, _s._ a large bird of prey WA'NTONLY, _ad._ sportively; carelessly WEA'PON, _s._ an instrument of offence; something with which one is armed to hurt another WI'LDERNESS, _s._ a desert WI'STFUL, _a._ attentive; earnest; full of thought WO'NDERFUL, _a._ admirable; strange; astonishing WO'RSHIP, _v.a._ adore; honour; venerate ZEST, _s._ relish ZOOLO'GICAL, _a._ that which relates to animals THE END. 
14668	----	[Transcriber's Notes: Welcome to the schoolroom of 1900. The moral tone is plain. "She is kind to the old blind man." The exercises are still suitable, and perhaps more helpful than some contemporary alternatives. Much is left to the teacher. Explanations given in the text are enough to get started teaching a child to read and write. Counting in Roman numerals is included as a bonus in the form of lesson numbers. The author, not listed in the text is William Holmes McGuffey. Don Kostuch ] ECLECTIC EDUCATIONAL SERIES. MCGUFFEY'S® SECOND ECLECTIC READER. REVISED EDITION. McGuffey Editions and Colophon are Trademarks of JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc.. New York - Chichester-Weinheim-Brisbane-Singapore-Toronto Copyright, 1879, by Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co. Copyright, 1896, by American Book Company Copyright, 1907 and 1920, by H. H. Vail. EP316 Preface In this book, as well as in the others of the Revised Series, most of the favorite drill selections, which constituted one of the leading excellences of MCGUFFEY'S READERS, have been retained. New selections have been inserted only when they seemed manifest improvements on those formerly used. The plan of this Reader is a continuation and extension of that pursued in the First Reader. If the pupil is not familiar with the diacritical marks, he should be carefully drilled, as suggested on page 7, until the marked letter instantly suggests the correct sound. He is then prepared to study his reading lessons without any assistance from the teacher. All new words are given at the head of each lesson. When these are mastered, the main difficulties left for the pupil are those of expression. In the latter portion of the book the simpler derivatives,--such as are formed by adding one or two letters,--possessives, plurals, verbal forms, etc.,--are omitted if the primitive word has been given. In this way the pupil is gradually led to the mastery of words as ordinarily printed. A few of the most usual abbreviations have been introduced,--such as Mr., Mrs., etc. These should be carefully explained, not only as to their meaning and use, but as to the reason for their use. Great care has been taken to have the illustrations worthy of the reputation MCGUFFEY'S READERS have attained, and some of the foremost designers of this country have contributed to the embellishment of the book. Many of these pictures will serve admirably for lessons in language, in extension and explanation of the text. The imagination of the artist has, in some cases, filled in details not found in the text. The thanks of the publishers are due to very many experienced teachers, who have contributed their valuable suggestions. June, 1879. INTRODUCTORY MATTER. ARTICULATION PUNCTUATION SELECTIONS IN PROSE AND POETRY. Lessons. 1. Evening at Home 2. Bubbles 3. Willie's Letter (Script) 4. The Little Star 5. Two Dogs 6. Afraid in the Dark 7. Baby Bye 8. Puss and her Kittens 9. Kittie and Mousie 10. At Work 11. What a Bird Taught 12. Susie Sunbeam 13. If I were a Sun beam 14. Henry, the Bootblack 15. Don't Wake the Baby (Script) 16. A Kind Brother 17. My Good-far-nothing 18. The Kingbird 19. Evening Hymn 20. The Quarrel 21. The Bee 22. The Song of the Bee 23. The Torn Doll 24. Sheep-shearing 25. The Clouds 26. Patty and the Squirrel 27. The Sparrow 28. Sam and Harry 29. The Little Rill 30. The Boat Upset 31. Mary's Letter (Script) 32. The Tiger 33. The Fireside 34. Birdie's Morning Song 35. Willie and Bounce 36. Willie and Bounce 37. The Kitchen Clock 38. The New Scales 39. The Bear and the Children 40. The Little Harebell (Script) 41. The Fishhawk 42. What the Leaf said 43. The Wind and the Leaves 44. Mamma's Present 45. Mary's Story 46. Ralph Wick 47. Coasting down the Hill (Script) 48. The Fox and the Ducks 49. Pretty is that Pretty does 50. The Story-teller 51. The Story-teller 52. The Owl 53. The Owl 54. Grandfather's Story 55. God is Great and Good 56. A Good Old Man 57. The Greedy Girl 68. A Place for Everything 69. My Mother (Script) 60. The Broken Window 61. The Broken Window 62. Frank and the Hourglass 63. March 64. Jenny's Call 65. Poor Davy 66. Alice's Supper 67. A Snowstorm 68. Bessie 69. Bessie 70. Cheerfulness (Script) 71. Lullaby ARTICULATION. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS.-Thorough and frequent drills on the elementary sounds are useful in correcting vicious habits of pronunciation and in strengthening the vocal organs. As a rule, only one or two sounds should be employed at one lesson. Care should be taken that the pupils observe and practice these sounds correctly in their reading. TABLE OF VOCALS. Long Sounds Sound as in Sound as in a ate e err a care i ice a arm o ode a last u use a all u burn e eve oo fool SHORT SOUNDS. Sound as in Sound as in a am o odd e end u up i in oo look DIPHTHONGS. Sound as in Sound as in oi oil ou out oy boy ow now TABLE OF SUBVOCALS. Sound as in Sound as in b bib v valve d did th this g gig z zin j jug z azure n nine r rare m maim w we ng hang y yet l lull TABLE 0F ASPIRATES. Sound as in Sound as in f fifi t tat h him sh she k kite ch chat p pipe th thick s same wh why TABLE OF SUBSTITUTES. Sub for as in Sub for as in a o what y i myth e a there c k can e a feint c a cite i e police ch sh chaise i e sir ch k chaos o u son g j gem o oo to n ng ink o oo wolf s z as o a fork s sh sure o u work x gz exact u oo full gh f laugh u oo rude ph f phlox y i fly qu k pique qu kw quit PUNCTUATION. Punctuation Marks are used to make the sense more clear. A Period (.) is used at the end of a sentence, and after an abbreviation; as, James was quite sick. Dr. Jones was called to see him. An Interrogation Mark (?) is used at the end of a question; as, Where is John going? An Exclamation Mark (!) is used after words or sentences expressing some strong feeling; as, Alas, my noble boy! that thou shouldst die! The Comma (,), Semicolon (;), and Colon (:) are used to separate the parts of a sentence. The Hyphen (-) is used to join the parts of a compound word; as, text-book: it is also used at the end of a line in print or script, when a word is divided; as in the word "sentence," near the bottom of page 9. [Illustration: Bird perched on tree branch.] MCGUFFEY'S SECOND READER. LESSON I. news'paper cold or'der seem through stock'ings chat sto'ry light Har'ry branch'es kiss burns Mrs. e vents' an oth'er Mr. stool lamp mends [Illustration: Family at evening; father reading newspaper, mother sewing, boy and girl reading.] EVENING AT HOME. 1. It is winter. The cold wind whistles through the branches of the trees. 2. Mr. Brown has done his day's work, and his children, Harry and Kate, have come home from school. They learned their lessons well to-day, and both feel happy 3. Tea is over. Mrs. Brown has put the little sitting room in order. The fire burns brightly. One lamp gives light enough for all. On the stool is a basket of fine apples. They seem to say, "Won't you have one?" 4. Harry and Kate read a story in a new book. The father reads his newspaper, and the mother mends Harry's stockings. 5. By and by, they will tell one another what they have been reading about, and will have a chat over the events of the day. 6. Harry and Kate's bedtime will come first. I think I see them kiss their dear father and mother a sweet good night. 7. Do you not wish that every boy and girl could have a home like this? LESSON II. beau'ti ful porch rain'bow burst bub'bling same biggest sneeze col'ors main soap wash red ma'ny (men'y) [Illustration: Three children playing with bubbles and cat.] BUBBLES. 1. The boys have come out on the porch to blow bubbles. The old cat is asleep on the mat by the door. 2. "Ha! ha!" laughs Robert, as a bubble comes down softly on the old cat's back, and does not burst. 3. Willie tries to make his bubble do the same. This time it comes down on the cat's face, and makes her sneeze. 4. "She would rather wash her face without soap," says Harry. "Now let us see who can make the biggest bubble." 5. "Mine is the biggest," says Robert. "See how high it floats in the air! I can see--ah! it has burst." 6. "I can see the house and the trees and the sky in mine," says Willie; "and such beautiful colors." 7. "How many, Willie?" 8. "Red, one; blue, two; there--they are all out. Let us try again." 9. "I know how many colors there are," says Harry. "Just as many as there are in the rainbow." 10. "Do you know how many that is?" LESSON III. rub'ber gun par'lor street num'ber ten o'clock' shoot WILLIE'S LETTER. [Illustration: Script Exercise: New York, Dec. 10, 1878. Dear Santa Claus: Papa is going to give me a Christmas tree, and he says that you will put nice things on it if I ask you. I would like a gun that will shoot, and a rubber ball that I can throw hard, and that will not break Mamma's windows or the big glass in the parlor. Now, please don't forget to come. I live on Fourth St., number ten. I will go to bed at eight o'clock, and shut my eyes tight. I will not look, indeed I won't. Your little boy, Willie. ] LESSON IV. a bove' world dark oft nev'er spark dew till di'a mond twin'kle blaz'ing The Little Star 1. Twinkle, twinkle, little star; How I wonder what you are, Up above the world so high, Like a diamond in the sky! 2. When the blazing sun is set, And the grass with dew is wet, Then you show your little light; Twinkle, twinkle, all the night. 3. Then, if I were in the dark, I would thank you for your spark. I could not see which way to go, If you did not twinkle so. 4. And when I am sound asleep, Oft you through my window peep; For you never shut your eye, Till the sun is in the sky. LESSON V. be hind' to geth'er nob'le Scotch Dodg'er min'utes crib wag'on ter'ri er coun'try scold fel'low shag'gy frisk'i ly fits cel'lar guards New'found land yard har'ness [Illustration: Two dogs, one large, the other a small puppy.] TWO DOGS. 1. James White has two dogs. One is a Newfoundland dog, and the other is a Scotch terrier. 2. The Newfoundland is a large, noble fellow. He is black, with a white spot, and with long, shaggy hair. His name is Sport. 3. Sport is a good watchdog, and a kind playfellow. Every night he guards the house while James and his father are asleep. 4. In the daytime, James often uses Sport for his horse. He has a little wagon, and a set of small harness which just fits the dog. 5. He hitches Sport to this wagon, and drives over the country. In this way, he can go almost as fast as his father with the old family horse. 6. The name of James's Scotch terrier is Dodger. He is called Dodger because he jumps about so friskily. He is up on a chair, under the table, behind the door, down cellar, and out in the yard,--all in a minute. 7. Dodger has very bright eyes, and he does many funny things. He likes to put his paws up on the crib, and watch the baby. 8. The other day he took baby's red stocking, and had great fun with it; but he spoiled it in his play, and James had to scold him. 9. Everyone likes to see James White with his two dogs. They always seem very happy together. LESSON VI. bet ween' bu'reau (-ro) stairs nee'dle a fraid' shad'ow held stir AFRAID IN THE DARK. 1. "Willie, will you run upstairs, and get my needle book from the bureau?" 2. But Willie did not stir. "Willie!" said mamma. She thought he had not heard. 3. "I'm afraid," said Willie. 4. "Afraid of what?" 5. "It's dark up there." 6. "What is the dark?" asked mamma. "See! It is nothing but a shadow." And she held her hand between the lamp and the workbasket on the table. [Illustration: Mother, seated in rocking chair, kerosene lamp on table, boy standing, examining his shadow on the wall.] 7. "Now it is dark in the basket; but as soon as I take my hand away, it is light." 8. "Come and stand between the lamp and the wall, Willie. See! There is your shadow on the wall. Can your shadow hurt you?" 9. "Oh no, mamma! I am sure it can not hurt me." 10. "Well, the dark is only a big shadow over everything." 11. "What makes the big shadow, mamma?" 12. "I will tell you all about that, Willie, when you are a little older. But now, I wish you would find me a brave boy who is not afraid of shadows, to run upstairs and get my needlebook." 13. "I am bravo, mamma. I will go. --Here it is." 14. "Thank you, my brave little man. You see the dark didn't hurt you." SLATE WORK. [Illustration: Script Exercise: Beautiful faces are they that wear The light of a pleasant spirit there; Beautiful hands are they that do Deeds that are noble good and true; Beautiful feet are they that go Swiftly to lighten another's woe. ] LESSON VII. spi'ders tick'ling stay neck nose se'cret crawls legs beck ope goes toes speck choose dot nod shoes spread be lieve' six [Illustration: Mother and baby watching fly on the wall.] BABY BYE. 1. Baby Bye, Here's a fly; We will watch him, you and I. How he crawls Up the walls, Yet he never falls! I believe with six such legs You and I could walk on eggs. There he goes On his toes, Tickling Baby's nose. 2. Spots of red Dot his head; Rainbows on his back are spread; That small speck Is his neck; See him nod and beck! I can show you, if you choose, Where to look to find his shoes, Three small pairs, Made of hairs; These he always wears. 3. Flies can see More than we; So how bright their eyes must be! Little fly, Ope your eye; Spiders are near by. For a secret I can tell, Spiders never use flies well; Then away, Do not stay. Little fly, good day. 24 ECLECTIC SERIES. LESSON VIII. serv'ant sud'den ly lon'ger re turned' lived tired since five anx'ious trou'ble cer'tain nea'ly doz'en sev'en at'tic strange great prop'er coal seemed [Illustration: Cat carrying kitten up stairs by the scruff of the neck.] PUSS AND HER KITTENS. 1. Puss, with her three kittens, had lived in the coal cellar; but one day she thought she would carry them to the attic. 2. The servant thought that was not the proper place for them; so she carried them back to the cellar. 3. Puss was certain that she wanted them in the attic; so she carried them there again and again, five, six, seven, --yes, a dozen times; for each time the servant took them back to the cellar. 4. Poor puss was nearly tired out, and could carry them no longer. 5. Suddenly she went away. Where do you think she went? 6. She was gone a long time. When she returned, she had a strange cat with her that we had never seen before. 7. She seemed to tell him all about her great trouble, and he listened to her story. 8. Then the strange cat took the little kittens, one by one, and carried them to the attic. After this he went away, and we have never seen him since. 9. The servant then left the kittens in the attic, for she saw how anxious puss was to have them stay there. 10. Was not the strange cat kind to puss? This lesson should teach children to be ever ready to help one another. LESSON IX. nine mous'ie fro frol'ic bit slipped spied crow teeth pearl used [Illustration: White cat sneaking up on a mouse.] KITTY AND MOUSIE. 1. Once there was a little kitty, White as the snow; In a barn he used to frolic, Long time ago. 2. In the barn a little mousie Ran to and fro; For she heard the little kitty, Long time ago. 3. Two black eyes had little kitty, Black as a crow; And they spied the little mousie, Long time ago. 4. Four soft paws had little kitty, Paws soft as snow; And they caught the little mousie, Long time ago. 5. Nine pearl teeth had little kitty, All in a row; And they bit the little mousie, Long time ago. 6. When the teeth bit little mousie, Mousie cried out "Oh!" But she slipped away from kitty, Long time ago. LESSON X. washed hours(ours) pre'cious game harm a'ny (en'y) brushed end AT WORK. 1. A little play does not harm any one, but does much good. After play, we should be glad to work. 2. I knew a boy who liked a good game very much. He could run, swim, jump, and play ball; and was always merry when out of school. 3. But he knew that time is not all for play; that our minutes, hours, and days are very precious. 4. At the end of his play, he would go home. After he had washed his face and hands, and brushed his hair, he would help his mother, or read in his book, or write upon his slate. 5. He used to say, "One thing at a time." When he had done with work, he would play; but he did not try to play and to work at the same time. LESSON XI. twit-twee bough (bow) twit-twit top'most lock spray mate close'ly ros'y an'swer (an'ser) [Illustration: Bird perched on tree branch.] WHAT A BIRD TAUGHT. 1. Why do you come to my apple tree, Little bird so gray? Twit-twit, twit-twit, twit-twit-twee! That was all he would say. 2. Why do you lock your rosy feet So closely round the spray? Twit-twit, twit-twit, twit-tweet! That was all he would say. 3. Why on the topmost bough do you get, Little bird so gray? Twit-twit-twee! twit-twit-twit! That was all he would say. 4. Where is your mate? come, answer me, Little bird so gray. Twit-twit-twit! twit-twit-twee! That was all he would say. Alice Cary. LESSON XII. bright'ness pleas'ant learned dress play'mates un kind' rag'ged word ques'tions smil'ing crowed child Sun'beam cheered Sus'ie gave glad'ness un less' name gate SUSIE SUNBEAM. 1. Susie Sunbeam was not her real name; that was Susan Brown. But every one called her Susie Sunbeam, because she had such a sweet, smiling face, and always brought brightness with her when she came. [Illustration: Older girls playing with younger girl. Three children standing in background.] 2. Her grandfather first gave her this name, and it seemed to fit the little girl so nicely that soon it took the place of her own. 3. Even when a baby, Susie laughed and crowed from morning till night. No one ever heard her cry unless she was sick or hurt. 4. When she had learned to walk, she loved to go about the house and get things for her mother, and in this way save her as many steps as she could. 5. She would sit by her mother's side for an hour at a time, and ask her ever so many questions, or she would take her new book and read. 6. Susie was always pleasant in her play with other children. She never used an unkind word, but tried to do whatever would please her playmates best. 7. One day, a poor little girl with a very ragged dress was going by and Susie heard some children teasing her and making fun of her. 8. She at once ran out to the gate, and asked the poor little girl to come in. "What are you crying for?" Susie asked. 9. "Because they all laugh at me," she said. 10. Then Susie took the little girl into the house. She cheered her up with kind words, and gave her a nice dress and a pair of shoes. 11. This brought real joy and gladness to the poor child, and she, too, thought that Susie was rightly called Sunbeam. LESSON XIII. wood'lands di vine' raised un til' droop'ing blessed whose seek up'ward hov'els in'ner steal heav'en hearts lil'ies die roam'ing IF I WERE A SUNBEAM. 1. "If I were a sunbeam, I know what I'd do; I would seek white lilies, Roaming woodlands through. I would steal among them, Softest light I'd shed, Until every lily Raised its drooping head. 2. "If I were a sunbeam, I know where I'd go; Into lowly hovels, Dark with want and woe: Till sad hearts looked upward, I would shine and shine; Then they'd think of heaven, Their sweet home and mine." 3. Are you not a sunbeam, Child, whose life is glad With an inner brightness Sunshine never had? Oh, as God has blessed you, Scatter light divine! For there is no sunbeam But must die or shine. SECOND READER. 35 LESSON XIV. sup port' a long' boots be long' dol'lar years man'age taught cor'ner no'tice mon'ey black'ing gen'tle men hon'est (on'est) quite buy earned [Illustration: Boy offering to shine man's shoes.] HENRY, THE BOOTBLACK. 1. Henry was a kind, good boy. His father was dead, and his mother was very poor. He had a little sister about two years old. 2. He wanted to help his mother, for she could not always earn enough to buy food for her little family. 3. One day, a man gave him a dollar for finding a pocketbook which he had lost. 4. Henry might have kept all the money, for no one saw him when he found it. But his mother had taught him to be honest, and never to keep what did not belong, to him. 5. With the dollar he bought a box, three brushes, and some blacking. He then went to the corner of the street, and said to every one whose boots did not look nice, "Black your boots, sir, please?" 6. He was so polite that gentlemen soon began to notice him, and to let him black their boots. The first day he brought home fifty cents, which he gave to his mother to buy food with. 7. When he gave her the money, she said, as she dropped a tear of joy, "You are a dear, good boy, Henry. I did not know how I could earn enough to buy bread with, but now I think we can manage to get along quite well," 8. Henry worked all the day, and went to school in the evening. He earned almost enough to support his mother and his little sister. LESSON XV. tread whis'per soft'ly talk cheer ful' care'ful DON'T WAKE THE BABY. [Illustration: Script Exercise: Baby sleeps, so we must tread Softly round her little bed, And be careful that our toys Don not fall and make a noise. We must not talk, but whisper low, Mother wants to work, we know, That, when father comes to tea, All may neat and cheerful be. ] LESSON XVI. full load heav'y mid'dle heav'i er slip wrong han'dle broth'er de ceived' [Illustration: Two boys carrying a basket on a pole between them.] A KIND BROTHER. 1. A boy was once sent from home to take a basket of things to his grandmother. 2. The basket was so full that it was very heavy. So his little brother went with him, to help carry the load. 3. They put a pole under the handle of the basket, and each then took hold of an end of the pole. In this way they could carry the basket very nicely. 4. Now the older boy thought, "My brother Tom does not know about this pole. 5. "If I slip the basket near him, his side will be heavy, and mine light; but if the basket is in the middle of the pole, it will be as heavy for me as it is for him. 6. "Tom does not know this as I do. But I will not do it. It would be wrong, and I will not do what is wrong." 7. Then he slipped the basket quite near his own end of the pole. His load was now heavier than that of his little brother. 8. Yet he was happy; for he felt that he had done right. Had he deceived his brother, he would not have felt at all happy. LESSON XVII. bus'y (biz'zy) mis'chief looked un'to glee con triv'ing ring'lets nod'dle drew nun press'ing fin'gers car'pet wise lips em brace' pon'der lash'es climb true MY GOOD-FOR-NOTHING. 1. "What are you good for, my brave little man? Answer that question for me, if you can,-- You, with your fingers as white as a nun,-- You, with your ringlets as bright as the sun. All the day long, with your busy contriving, Into all mischief and fun you are driving; See if your wise little noddle can tell What you are good for. Now ponder it well." 2. Over the carpet the dear little feet Came with a patter to climb on my seat; Two merry eyes, full of frolic and glee, Under their lashes looked up unto me; Two little hands pressing soft on my face, Drew me down close in a loving embrace; Two rosy lips gave the answer so true, "Good to love you, mamma, good to love you." Emily Huntington Miller. LESSON XVIII. ber'ries strikes rob'in ea'gle short king rid foe dart fails sharp hawk worms ac'tive [Illustration: Bird perched on branch.] THE KINGBIRD. 1. The kingbird is not bigger than a robin. 2. He eats flies, and worms, and bugs, and berries. 3. He builds his nest in a tree, near some house. 4. When there are young ones in the nest, he sits on the top of a tree near them. 5. He watches to see that no bird comes to hurt them or their mother. 6. If a hawk, a crow, or even an eagle comes near, he makes a dash at it. 7. Though he is so small, he is brave, and he is also very active. 8. He never fails to drive off other birds from his nest. 9. He flies around and around the eagle, and suddenly strikes him with his sharp bill. 10. He strikes at his eye, and then darts away before the eagle can catch him. 11. Or he strikes from behind, and is off again before the eagle can turn round. 12. In a short time, the great eagle is tired of such hard blows, and flies away. He is very glad to get rid of his foe. 13. Is not the little fellow a brave bird? 14. Because he can drive off all other birds, he is called the KINGBIRD. LESSON XIX. watch'ing gath'ers an'gels be gin' dark'ness a cross' lone'ly beasts [Illustration: Sunset;lake in foreground, town in background.] EVENING HYMN. 1. Now the day is over, Night is drawing nigh, Shadows of the evening Steal across the sky. 2. Now the darkness gathers, Stars begin to peep; Birds, and beasts, and flowers Soon will be asleep. 3. Through the lonely darkness, May the angels spread Their white wings above me, Watching round my bed. LESSON XX. di vid'ed quar'rel a gree' thus sey'tle set'tling ker'nel e'qual apt parts THE QUARREL. 1. Under a great tree in the woods, two boys saw a fine, large nut, and both ran to get it. 2. James got to it first, and picked it up. 3. "It is mine," said John, "for I was the first to see it." 4. "No, it is mine" said James, "for I was the first to pick it up." [Illustration: Three boys standing by a fence, one older than the others.] 5. Thus, they at once began to quarrel about the nut. 6. As they could not agree whose it should be, they called an older boy, and asked him. 7. The older boy said, "I will settle this quarrel." 8. He took the nut, and broke the shell. He then took out the kernel, and divided the shell into two parts, as nearly equal as he could. 9. "This half of the shell," said he, "belongs to the boy who first saw the nut. 10. "And this half belongs to the boy who picked it up. 11. "The kernel of the nut, I shall keep as my pay for settling the quarrel. 12. "This is the way," said he, laughing, "in which quarrels are very apt to end." LESSON XXI. crea'tures drones in'side hive i'dle de fense' driv'en killed cells size work'ers queen stings shape wax THE BEE. 1. Bees live in a house that is called a hive. They are of three kinds,--workers, drones, and queens. 2. Only one queen can live in each hive. If she is lost or dead, the other bees will stop their work. [Illustration: Three bee-hives; wooden boxes about two feet square and four feet high, with a sloped roof.] 3. They are very wise and busy little creatures. They all join together to build cells of wax for their honey. 4. Each bee takes its proper place, and does its own work. Some go out and gather honey from the flowers; others stay at home and work inside the hive. 5. The cells which they build, are all of one shape and size, and no room is left between them. 6. The cells are not round, but have six sides. 7. Did you ever look into a glass hive to see the bees while at work? It is pleasant to see how busy they always are. 8. But the drones do not work. Before winter comes, all the drones are driven from the hive or killed, that they may not eat the honey which they did not gather. 9. It is not quite safe for children to handle bees. They have sharp stings that they know well how to use in their defense. SLATE WORK. [Illustration: Script Exercise: How doth the little busy bee Improve each shining hour. And gather honey all the day From every opening flower! ] LESSON XXII. blos'soms drear'y wea'ry pinks smell'ing toil'ing lev'ies buzz fra'grant this'tle weeds scent treas'ure yel'low mead'ow tax sum'mer clo'ver cloud'y dai'sy daf'fo dil lies columbine humming [Illustration: Flowers] THE SONG OF THE BEE. 1. Buzz! buzz! buzz! This is the song of the bee. His legs are of yellow; A jolly, good fellow, And yet a great worker is he. 2. In days that are sunny He's getting his honey; In days that are cloudy He's making his wax: On pinks and on lilies, And gay daffodillies, And columbine blossoms, He levies a tax! 3. Buzz! buzz! buzz! The sweet-smelling clover, He, humming, hangs over; The scent of the roses Makes fragrant his wings: He never gets lazy; From thistle and daisy, And weeds of the meadow, Some treasure he brings. 4. Buzz! buzz! buzz! From morning's first light Till the coming of night, He's singing and toiling The summer day through. Oh! we may get weary, And think work is dreary; 'Tis harder by far To have nothing to do. Marian Douglas. LESSON XXIII. un hap'py prom'ised heed'less be came' grow'ing care'less harsh'ly leav'ing eas'i ly ef fects' an noy' ma'am blame worse torn hard'ly nic'est spend hab'it e'vil [Illustration: Mother and daughter sitting under a tree.] THE TORN DOLL. 1. Mary Armstrong was a pretty little girl, but she was heedless about some things. 2. Her way of leaving her books and playthings just where she had used them last, gave her mother much trouble in picking them up and putting them in their proper places. 3. She had often told Mary the evil effects of being so careless. Her books became spoiled, and her toys broken. 4. But worse than this was the growing habit of carelessness, which would be of great harm to her all her life. It would make her unhappy, and would annoy her friends. 5. One day Mary and her mother went out into their pleasant yard, to spend an hour in the open air. Mrs. Armstrong took her work with her. 6. Mary ran about and played with Dash, her pet dog, and was having a happy time. 7. But in a corner of the yard she found her nicest doll all torn and broken, and its dress covered with mud. 8. She knew, at once, that Dash had done this, and she scolded him harshly. 9. Carrying the broken doll to her mamma. she showed it to her, and could hardly keep from crying. 10. Mrs. Armstrong asked Mary if she had not left the doll on the porch where Dash could easily get it; and Mary had to answer, "Yes, ma'am." 11. "Then you must not blame the dog, Mary, for he does not know it is wrong for him to play with your doll. I hope this will be a lesson to you hereafter, to put your things away when you are through playing." 12. "I will try," said Mary. And her mother promised to mend the doll as well as she could. LESSON XXIV. thor'ough ly month dried dyed cuts shear'er sheep those spun dirt oth'er wise wov'en cloth wool rub [Illustration: Two men shearing sheep.] SHEEP-SHEARING. 1. Sheep are washed and sheared some time in the month of June. This should be done quite early in the month, before the hot days begin. 2. It is fine sport for those who look on, but not much fun for the sheep. 3. It is best for the sheep to have the wool taken off; otherwise they would suffer in the summer time. 4. When the time comes for washing the sheep, they are driven to a pond or a little river. 5. Then they are thrown into the water, one at a time. The men who are in the water catch them, and squeeze the wet wool with their hands to get the dirt all out of it. 6. Then the wool is thoroughly dried, the sheep are taken to the shearer; and he cuts off the wool with a large pair of shears. 7. It is then dyed, spun, and woven into cloth. 8. In a short time, before the cold winter comes, new wool grows out on the sheep. By the corning of spring there is so much, that it must be cut off again. LESSON XXV. bear'ers earth warm sul'try wan'der rays grain clouds o'er we're THE CLOUDS 1. "Clouds that wander through the sky, Sometimes low and sometimes high; In the darkness of the night, In the sunshine warm and bright. Ah! I wonder much if you Have any useful work to do." 2. "Yes, we're busy night and day, As o'er the earth we take our way. We are bearers of the rain To the grasses, and flowers, and grain; We guard you from the sun's bright rays, In the sultry summer days." LESSON XXVI. peo'ple for'est squir'rel cool near'est tame hol'low snug shoul'der miles sticks gen'tly though Pat'ty [Illustration: Girl sitting under tree, play with squirrel.] PATTY AND THE SQUIRREL. 1. Little Patty lives in a log house near a great forest. She has no sisters, and her big brothers are away all day helping their father. 2. But Patty is never lonely; for, though the nearest house is miles away, she has many little friends. Here are two of them that live in the woods. 3. But how did Patty teach them to be so tame? Patty came to the woods often, and was always so quiet and gentle that the squirrels soon found they need not be afraid of her. 4. She brought her bread and milk to eat under the trees, and was sure to leave crumbs for the squirrels. 5. When they came near, she sat very still and watched them. So, little by little, she made them her friends, till, at last, they would sit on her shoulder, and eat from her hand. 6. Squirrels build for themselves summer houses. Those are made of leaves, and sticks, and moss. They are nice and cool for summer, but would never do for the winter cold and snow. 7. So these wise little people find a hollow in an old tree. They make it warm and snug with soft moss and leaves; and here the squirrels live all through the long winter. LESSON XXVII. fright'ened int end' wheat Thom'as com plains' plums choose shock'ing spar'row rip'est rob'bing break'fast plen'ty share treat tales wait [Illustration: Sparrow perched on snow-covered branch.] THE SPARROW. 1. Glad to see you, little bird; 'Twas your little chirp I heard: What did you intend to say? "Give me something this cold day"? 2. That I will, and plenty, too; All the crumbs I saved for you. Don't be frightened--here's a treat: I will wait and see you eat. 3. Shocking tales I hear of you; Chirp, and tell me, are they true? Robbing all the summer long; Don't you think it very wrong? 4. Thomas says you steal his wheat; John complains, his plums you eat-- Choose the ripest for your share, Never asking whose they are. 5. But I will not try to know What you did so long ago: There's your breakfast, eat away; Come to see me every day. LESSON XXVIII. aft'er noon sup'per deep length car'riage threw hedge stood tru'ly road few sad [Illustration: Woman and boy riding in carriage pulled by horse. Man in foreground holding gate open for carriage.] SAM AND HARRY. 1. One fine summer afternoon, Sam was walking home from school. He went along slowly, reading a book. 2. Sam had spent all his money for the book, but he was a happy boy. 3. At length he came into the highroad, where there was a gate. A blind man stood, holding it open. 4. The poor man said, "Please give me a few cents to buy some bread!" But Sam gave him nothing. 5. What! did Sam give the poor blind man nothing? Yes; for, as I told you, he had spent all his money. 6. So Sam walked on, very sad. Soon after, a fine carriage came up, and in it were Harry and his mother. 7. The blind man stood, and held out his hat. "Let us give the poor man something," said Harry to his mother. 8. His mother gave him some cents. Harry took them, but did not put them into the man's hat. 9. He threw them into the hedge as far as he could. The poor man could not find them, for, you know, ho was blind. 10. Sam had turned back to look at the fine carriage. He saw Harry throw the cents into the hedge; so he came back at once, and looked for the money until he found it all for the blind man. 11. This took so long a time, that he almost lost his supper. 12. Which of the boys do you think was truly kind to the poor man? 13. I know which he thanked most in his heart. LESSON XXIX. rip'pling fringe stray thou mill vil'lage brink clear wild hill course bathe tiny pool rill THE LITTLE HILL. 1. Run, run, thou tiny rill; Run, and turn the village mill; Run, and fill the deep, clear pool In the woodland's shade so cool, Where the sheep love best to stray In the sultry summer day; Where the wild birds bathe and drink, And the wild flowers fringe the brink. [Illustration: Mill, with mill pond in foreground.] 2. Run, run, thou tiny rill, Round the rocks, and down the hill; Sing to every child like me; The birds will join you, full of glee: And we will listen to the song You sing, your rippling course along. LESSON XXX. has'tened pos'si ble bal'ance Ed'gar save boat'man dan'ger quick'ly move trip stretched sev'er al start'ed folks fell THE BOAT UPSET. 1. "Sit still, children. Do not move about in the boat," said Mr. Rose to the young folks he was taking for a trip on the water. 2. The boat was a large one, and could not easily be upset. There were in it Mr. and Mrs. Rose, the boatman, and several little boys and girls. 3. "Keep still, please, young gentlemen," said the boatman, when Edgar Rose and Thomas Read began to move from one side to the other. 4. They kept quiet for a short time only. Edgar soon wanted a stick which Thomas held in his hand. He lost his balance in trying to get the stick, and fell into the water. [Illustration: Overturned boat, people clinging to boat and debris. Another boat approaching.] 5. Mr. and Mrs. Rose both started up, and stretched out their arms to save him; but in so doing, they upset the boat. 6. Every one fell into the water, and all were in the greatest danger of being drowned. 7. Another boat was near, with but one man in it. He hastened to them as quickly as possible, and saved them from drowning. 8. Children should always be careful and quiet when they are in a boat on the water, and should obey what older people tell them. LESSON XXXI. MARY'S LETTER. [Illustration: Script Exercise: Forest Hill, June 25, 1878 My Dear Fanny: This morning while out rowing, we all came near being drowned. Brother Ed, in trying to take a stick from Tom Reed, tripped and fell out of the boat. Papa and Mamma caught at him to save him, and before we knew it we were all in the water. The boat upset and how we were all saved I can hardly tell. A man in another boat which was near, picked us up. Had it not been for this, you would to-day have no cousin. Mary Rose. ] LESSON XXXII. li'on bod'y stripes de light' Eng'lish prey ti'ger col'lar ti'gress fright'ful seize chain un like' swift'est an'i mals roar gi'ant slight'est of'fi cers whisk'ers [Illustration: Tigress carrying cub away from tent. Playing card scattered on ground.] THE TIGER. 1. The tiger is a giant cat. His body is nearly covered with black stripes. 2. Unlike the lion, he runs so fast that the swiftest horse can not overtake him. He goes over the ground by making bounds or springs, one after another. 3. By night, as well as by day, the tiger watches for his prey. With a frightful roar, he will seize a man, and carry him off. 4. Have you ever thought what use whiskers are to cats? Lions have great whiskers, and so have tigers and all other animals of the cat kind. 5. Whenever you find an animal with whiskers like the cat's, you may be sure that animal steals softly among branches and thick bushes. 6. By the slightest touch on the tiger's whiskers, he knows when there is anything in his road. 7. A few years ago, some English officers went out to hunt. When coming home from their day's sport, they found a little tiger kitten. 8. They took it with them and tied it, with a collar and chain, to the pole of their tent. It played about, to the delight of all who saw it. 9. One evening, just as it was growing dark, they heard a sound that frightened them greatly. It was the roar of a tiger. 10. The kitten pulled at the chain, and tried to break away. With a sharp cry, it answered the voice outside. 11. All at once, a large tigress bounded into the middle of the tent. She caught her kitten by the neck, and broke the chain which bound it. 12. Then turning to the door of the tent, she dashed away as suddenly as she had come. LESSON XXXIII. then u'su al cous'in fire'side sew'ing (so-) Ka'tie bet'ter crac'kle knit'ting per haps' Jane rea'son to-night' hap'pi er in struct'ive THE FIRESIDE. 1. One winter night, Mrs. Lord and her two little girls sat by a bright fire in their pleasant home. The girls were sewing, and their mother was busy at her knitting. [Illustration: Mother and two girls sewing under a lamp.] 2. At last, Katie finished her work, and, looking up, said, "Mother, I think the fire is brighter than usual. How I love to hear it crackle!" 3. "And I was about to say," cried Mary, "that this is a better light than we had last night." 4. "My dears," said their mother, "it must be that you feel happier than usual to-night. Perhaps that is the reason why you think the fire better, and the light brighter." 5. "But, mother," said Mary, "I do not see why we are happier now than we were then; for last night cousin Jane was here, and we played 'Puss in the corner' and 'Blind man' until we all were tired." 6. "I know! I know why!" said Katie. "It is because we have all been doing something useful to-night. We feel happy because we have been busy." 7. "You are right, my dear," said their mother. "I am glad you have both learned that there may be something more pleasant than play, and, at the same time, more instructive." LESSON XXXIV. dew'drops hop'ping la'zi est bends sung pa'tience in stead' dar'ling ought rest slum'ber my self ' re ply' miss lose BIRDIE'S MORNING SONG. 1. Wake up, little darling, the birdies are out, And here you are still in your nest! The laziest birdie is hopping about; You ought to be up with the rest. Wake up, little darling, wake up! [Illustration: Three birds perched in bush.] 2. Oh, see what you miss when you slumber so long-- The dewdrops, the beautiful sky! I can not sing half what you lose in my song; And yet, not a word in reply. Wake up, little darling, wake up! 3. I've sung myself quite out of patience with you, While mother bends o'er your dear head; Now birdie has done all that birdie can do: Her kisses will wake you instead! Wake up, little darling, wake up! George Cooper. LESSON XXXV. sent store Bounce float'ing load cir'cle rip'ples catch'ing cake blocks strolled how ev'er WILLIE AND BOUNCE. 1. Two fast friends were Willie Brown and his little dog Bounce. Willie could never think of taking a walk without Bounce. Cake and play were equally shared between them. 2. Willie taught his dog many cunning tricks, and often said that Bounce could do almost anything in the world but talk. 3. There came a time, however, when Bounce really told Willie's father something, though he could not talk. Let me tell you how he did this. [Illustration: Boy and dog walking through forest.] 4. It was on a bright summer afternoon. Willie had strolled with Bounce down to the river, which was not more than two blocks from his father's store. 5. Willie began to throw stones into the water, and to watch the ripples as they made one circle after another. 6. Bounce lay on the grass, watching the flies that buzzed around his nose, and catching any that came too near. 7. There were some logs floating in the river near the shore. Willie jumped upon one of them, to see if he could throw a stone across the river. 8. He drew back, and sent the stone with all his might. just as it left his hand, the log turned, and he fell into the water. 9. He was very much frightened, for he did not know how to swim, and there was no one to hear, though he called as loud as he could for help. LESSON XXXVI. yelp loud'ly against look'ing bark'ing spring clothes o'pened dis'tress scratched WILLIE AND BOUNCE. (CONCLUDED.) 1. Poor little Bounce gave a great yelp of distress. If he had been a big water dog, he could have jumped in and brought his master out. [Illustration: Boy in water clinging to log. Dog yelping.] 2. He ran up and down the bank two or three times, barking, looking first at Willie and then around. Then he started, as fast as he could run, up the street to the store. 3. When he got there the door was shut, but he scratched against it and barked loudly, until some one came and opened it. 4. He caught hold of Mr. Brown's clothes, then ran to the door, then back again, catching at him, barking, and jumping. 5. A friend who was in the store said to Mr. Brown, "Something must be wrong; I would put on my hat, and go with the dog." Bounce, seeing Mr. Brown take his hat, started for the river. 6. Then Mr. Brown thought of Willie. As he came to the river, he saw Willie's hat floating on the water, and his small arm thrown up. 7. He sprang in and caught him just as he was going down for the last time, and quickly carried him to the bank. "Willie soon got over his fright, and no one seemed to be more delighted than Bounce. [Illustration: Father carrying boy from water.] LESSON XXXVII. talk'a tive im prove' o bli'ging writ'ten tick-tock clock truth'ful it self' kitch'en fear reach'es most [Illustration: Girl holding younger sister, both watching clock.] THE KITCHEN CLOCK. 1. Listen to the kitchen clock! To itself it ever talks, From its place it never walks; "Tick-tock-tick-tock: " Tell me what it says. 2. "I'm a very patient clock, Never moved by hope or fear, Though I've stood for many a year; Tick-tock-tick-tock: " That is what it says. 3. "I'm a very truthful clock: People say about the place, Truth is written on my face; Tick-tock-tick-tock: " That is what it says. 4. "I'm a most obliging clock; If you wish to hear me strike, You may do it when you like; Tick-tock-tick-tock: " That is what it says. 5. "I'm a very friendly clock; For this truth to all I tell, Life is short, improve it well; Tick-tock-tick-tock: " That is what it says. 6. What a talkative old clock! Let us see what it will do When the hour hand reaches two; "Ding-ding--tick-tock: " That is what it says. LESSON XXXVIII. Her'bert or'ange find post inch'es thread beam thick pine next groove scales hole peel gim'let rib'bon [Illustration: Boy and girl near table holding balance scale.] THE NEW SCALES. I. "Herbert, will you please peel my orange?" said Lucy. Herbert was reading his new book, but he put it down at once, and took the orange from his little sister. 2. "Shall I make a pair of scales, Lucy, for you to use when you play store?" 3. "Oh yes! but how can you do that'!" 4. "I'll show you. First, we must take the peel off in two little cups, one just as large as the other. While I do this, see if you can find me two nice sticks about ten inches long." 5. Lucy ran out to the woodhouse to find the sticks.--" Will these do?" 6. "No, they are too hard. Find some pine sticks if you can." 7. "Here are some." 8. "These will do nicely. Now I must make a scale beam and a post. Can you find me a little block for a post, Lucy'!" 9. "Will a ribbon block do, Herbert?" 10. "Yes, if it is not too thick." 11. "Here is one an inch thick." 12. "That will be just right. Now get the little gimlet." [Footnote: gimlet: Hand tool with a spiraled shank, a screw tip, and a cross handle; used for boring holes.] 13. Herbert worked away until he had made the beam and the post. Then he made a hole in the middle of the block, and put the post in. Next, he put the beam into a little groove at the top of the post, so that it would balance nicely. 14. "Now, Lucy, we must have a needle and some thread. We must put four threads to each cup; then we will tie the threads to the ends of the beam. 15. "There, Lucy, what do you think of that?" 16. "Why, Herbert, that is just as nice as the real scales in father's store; and you may have all my orange for making them." [Illustration: Orange halves and other parts of the scale.] LESSON XXXIX. smelt hide crept laid floor inn bear fur young'est danced joy'ful ly marched sol'diers bad'ly run'ning eld'est [Illustration: Three children and a bear; surprised woman in background.] THE BEAR AND THE CHILDREN. 1. In the parlor of an inn in a small town, sat a man who had been going about with a bear. He was waiting for his supper, and the bear was tied up in the yard. 2. Up in the attic, three little children were playing together. The eldest might have been six years old; the youngest, not more than two. 3. Stump! stump! stump! Some one was coming up the stairs. 4. The door flew open suddenly, and there stood the great, shaggy bear. He had got tired of waiting, and had found his way to the stairs. 5. The children were badly frightened. Each one crept into a corner, but the bear found them all out, and smelt their clothes, but did not hurt them. 6. "This must be a great dog," they said, and they began to pat him. 7. Then the bear lay down on the floor, and the youngest boy climbed on his back, hid his head in the shaggy fur, and played at "hide and seek." 8. The eldest boy took his drum and began to strike it, when the bear rose on his hind legs and danced. At that the children gave a merry shout. 9. The two younger boys took their wooden guns, and gave the bear one. Away they all marched around the room, keeping step. 10. Now the frightened mother of the children came to the door. But the youngest boy shouted, joyfully. "See, we are playing soldiers!" 11. Then the bear's master came running up, and took the bear away. LESSON XL. fair la'dy drear cling'ing hare'bell fled ne'er de spair' nod'ding bloom'ing [Footnote: harebell: Perennial with slender stems, dense clusters of leaves, and bell-shaped blue or white flowers -- bluebell.] THE LITTLE HAREBELL. "Tell me, little harebell, Are you lonely here. Blooming in the shadow On this rock so drear?" "Clinging to this bit of earth, As if in mid-air, With your sweet face turned to me, Looking strangely fair?" "Lady" said the harebell, Nodding low its head, "Though this spot seem dreary, Thought the sunlight's fled. "Know that I'm not lonely That I ne'er despair. God is in the shadow God is everywhere." [Illustration: Flowers on hillside.] LESSON XLI. rough (ruf) of'ten (of'n) be neath' fierce'ly sea'side twen'ty tim'id ly com pels' rob'ber breast spots mode os'prey hook'ed [Illustration: Osprey catching fish.] THE FISHHAWK. 1. The fishhawk, or osprey, is not so large as the eagle; but he has, like the eagle, a hooked bill and sharp claws. 2. His color is a dark brown, with black and white spots, and his length is from twenty to twenty-two inches. His breast is mostly white. His tail and wings are long. 3. The fishhawk is often found sitting upon a tree over a pond, or lake, or river. He is also found by the seaside. 4. He watches the fish as they swim in the water beneath him; then he darts down suddenly and catches one of them. 5. When he catches a fish in his sharp, rough claws, he carries it off to eat, and, as he flies away with it for his dinner, an eagle sometimes meets him. 6. The eagle flies at him fiercely with his sharp bill and claws, and compels the hawk to drop the fish. 7. Then the eagle catches the fish as it falls, before it reaches the ground, and carries it off. 8. The poor fish hawk, with a loud cry, timidly flies away. He must go again to the water and catch another fish for his dinner. 9. Thus you see, that the eagle is a robber. He robs fishhawks, whose only mode of getting a living is by catching fish. LESSON XLII. leaf task twice sigh'ing hol'i days gay twig meant stopped dif'fer ent puff edge mat'ter au'tumn hun'dreds lead grew rus'tled Oc to'ber trem'bling [Illustration: Several large trees; fence in foreground.] WHAT THE LEAF SAID. 1. Once or twice a little leaf was heard to cry and sigh, as leaves often do, when a gentle wind is blowing. And the twig said, "What is the matter, little leaf?" 2. "The wind," said the leaf, "just told me that one day it would pull me off, and throw me on the ground to die." 3. The twig told it to the branch, and the branch told it to the tree. When the tree heard it, it rustled all over, and sent word back to the trembling leaf. 4. "Do not be afraid," it said; "hold on tight, and you shall not go off till you are ready." 5. So the leaf stopped sighing, and went on singing and rustling. It grew all the summer long till October. And when the bright days of autumn came, the leaf saw all the leaves around growing very beautiful. 6. Some were yellow, some were brown, and many were striped with different colors. Then the leaf asked the tree what this meant. 7. The tree said, "All these leaves are getting ready to fly away, and they have put on these colors because of their joy." 8. Then the little leaf began to want to go, and grew very beautiful in thinking of it. When it was gay in colors, it saw that the branches of the tree had no bright colors on them. 9. So the leaf said, "O branch! why are you lead- colored while we are all beautiful and golden?" 10. "We must keep on our working clothes," said the tree, "for our work is not yet done; but your clothes are for holidays, because your task is now over." 11. Just then a little puff of wind came, and the leaf let go without thinking, and the wind took it up and turned it over and over. 12. Then it fell gently down under the edge of the fence, among hundreds of leaves, and has never waked to tell us what it dreamed about. LESSON XLIII. gold lambs fond'ly crick'et whirl'ing fields leaves flee'cy fare'well cov'er let glade vale dream con tent' flut'ter ing [Illustration: Large tree.] THE WIND AND THE LEAVES. 1. "Come, little leaves," said the wind one day. "Come o'er the meadows with me, and play; Put on your dress of red and gold Summer is gone, and the days grow cold." 2. Soon as the leaves heard the wind's loud call, Down they came fluttering, one and all; Over the brown fields they danced and flew, Singing the soft little songs they knew. 3. "Cricket, good-by, we've been friends so long; Little brook, sing us your farewell song,-- Say you are sorry to see us go; Ah! you will miss us, right well we know. 4. "Dear little lambs, in your fleecy fold, Mother will keep you from harm and cold; Fondly we've watched you in vale and glade; Say, will you dream of our loving shade?" 5. Dancing and whirling, the little leaves went; Winter had called them, and they were content. Soon fast asleep in their earthy beds, The snow laid a coverlet over their heads. George Cooper. LESSON XLIV. wore green joke Jessie pres'ents jol'ly deal trim ex pect' leg'gings MAMMA'S PRESENT. 1. Jessie played a good joke on her mamma. This is the way she did it. 2. Jessie had gone to the woods with Jamie and Joe to get green branches to trim up the house for Christmas. She wore her little cap, her white furs, and her red leggings. [Illustration: Three girls carrying a small Christmas tree.] 3. She was a merry little girl, indeed; but she felt sad this morning because her mother had said, "The children will all have Christmas presents, but I don't expect any for myself. We are too poor this year." 4. When Jessie told her brothers this, they all talked about it a great deal. "Such a good, kind mamma, and no Christmas present! It's too bad." 5. "I don't like it," said little Jessie, with a tear in her eye. 6. "Oh, she has you," said Joe. 7. "But I am not something new," said Jessie. 8. "Well, you will be new, Jessie," said Joe, "when you get back. She has not seen you for an hour." 9. Jessie jumped and laughed. "Then put me in the basket, and carry me to mamma, and say, 'I am her Christmas present.' " 10. So they set her in the basket, and put green branches all around her. It was a jolly ride. They set her down on the doorstep, and went in and said, "There's a Christmas present out there for you, mamma." 11. Mamma went and looked, and there, in a basket of green branches, sat her own little laughing girl. 12. "Just the very thing I wanted most," said mamma. 13. "Then, dear mamma," said Jessie, bounding out of her leafy nest, "I should think it would be Christmas for mammas all the time, for they see their little girls every day." LESSON XLV. pur'ple plumes pail hap'pened coat shal'low wad'ed Charles nap yes'ter day [Illustration: Two girls playing in water; two boats are beached on the sand behind them.] MARY'S STORY. 1. Father, and Charles, and Lucy, and I went to the beach yesterday. We took our dinner, and stayed all day. 2. Father and Charles went out a little way from the shore in a boat, and fished, while Lucy and I gathered sea mosses. 3. We took off our shoes and stockings, and waded into the shallow water. We had a pail to put our seaweeds in. 4. We found such beautiful ones. Some wore purple, some pink, and some brown. When they were spread out in the water, the purple ones looked like plumes, and the brown ones like little trees. 5. Such a funny thing happened to Lucy. She slipped on a stone, and down she went into the water. How we both laughed! But the wind and sun soon dried Lucy's dress. 6. Then father came and took us in the boat for a row. After that we had a picnic dinner in the woods. 7. Then father spread his coat on the grass, and took a nap while we children played on the beach. LESSON XLVI. bid sore smile Ralph for get' hay stem shone Wick scream tore point pluck thorns snatched [Illustration: Mother and boy walking in hay field.] RALPH WICK. 1. Ralph Wick was seven years old. In most things he was a fine boy, but he was too apt to cry. 2. When he could not have what. he wanted, he would cry for it and say, "I will have it." 3. If he was told that it would hurt him, and he could not have it, he would begin to tease and cry. 4. One day, he went with his mother into the fields. The sun shone. The grass was cut. The flowers were in bloom. 5. Ralph thought he was, for once, a good boy. A smile was on his face. He wished to do as he was told. 6. He said, "Mother, I will be good now. I will do as you bid me. Please let me toss this hay." 7. "That I will," said his mother. So they threw the hay, as Ralph wished, and he was very happy. 8. "Now you must be tired," said his mother. "Sit down here, and I will get a nice red rose for you." 9. "I would like to have one," said Ralph. So his mother brought the red rose to him. 10. "Thank you, mother," he said. "But you have a white one, also. Please give me that." [Illustration: Mother and boy sitting in field.] 11. "No, my dear," said his mother. "See how many thorns it has on its stem. You must not touch it. If you should try to pluck a rose like this, you would be sure to hurt your hand." 12. When Ralph found that he could not have the white rose, he began to scream, and snatched it. But he was soon very sorry. The thorns tore his hand. It was so sore he could not use it for some time. 13. Ralph did not soon forget this. When he wanted what he should not have, his mother would point to his sore hand. He at last learned to do as he was told. LESSON XLVII. slope voic'es rush'ing beam'ing track cheeks flood'ing laugh'ter health a glow' coast'ing trudg'ing frost'y Is'a bel pleas'ure land'scape [Illustration: Several children sledding down snowy hill.] COASTING DOWN THE HILL. [Illustration: Script Exercise: Frosty is the morning; But the sun is bright, Flooding all the landscape With its golden light. Hark the sounds of laughter And the voices shrill! See the happy children Coasting down the hill. There are Tom and Charley, And their sister Nell; There are John and Willie, Kate and Isabel,-- Eyes with pleasure beaming, Cheeks with health aglow; Bless the merry children, Trudging through the snow! Now I hear them shouting, "Ready! Clear the track!" Down the slope they're rushing, Now they're trotting back. Full of fun and frolic, Thus they come and go. Coating down the hillside, Trudging through the snow. ] LESSON XLVIII. heed sight sly'ly stream drift'ing flock flight snaps hid'den cir'cling THE FOX AND THE DUCKS. 1. On a summer day, a man sitting on the bank of a river, in the shade of some bushes, watched a flock of ducks on the stream. 2. Soon a branch with leaves came drifting among them, and they all took wing. After circling in the air for a little time, they settled down again on their feeding ground. [Illustration: Fox watching ducks from a distance.] 3. Soon another branch came drifting down among them, and again they took flight from the river; but when they found the branch had drifted by and done them no harm, they flew down to the water as before. 4. After four or five branches had drifted by in this way, the ducks gave little heed to them. At length, they hardly tried to fly out of their way, even when the branches nearly touched them. 5. The man who had been watching all this, now began to wonder who had set these branches adrift. He looked up the stream, and spied a fox slyly watching the ducks. "What will he do next?" thought the man. 6. When the fox saw that the ducks were no longer afraid of the branches, he took a much larger branch than any he had yet used, and stretched himself upon it so as to be almost hidden. Then he set it afloat as he had the others. 7. Right among the flock drifted the sly old fox, and, making quick snaps to right and left, he seized two fine young ducks, and floated off with them. 8. The rest of the flock flew away in fright, and did not come back for a long time. 9. The fox must have had a fine dinner to pay him for his cunning, patient work. LESSON XLIX. saint silk'en sim'ple pov'er ty plain sin'ner spin'ner splen'dor worth stead'y mur'der plan'ning sil'ver ten'der prov'erb re mem'ber [Illustration: Spider spinning web.] PRETTY IS THAT PRETTY DOES. 1. The spider wears a plain brown dress, And she is a steady spinner; To see her, quiet as a mouse, Going about her silver house, You would never, never, never guess The way she gets her dinner. 2. She looks as if no thought of ill In all her life had stirred her; But while she moves with careful tread, And while she spins her silken thread, She is planning, planning, planning still The way to do some murder. 3. My child, who reads this simple lay, With eyes down-dropt and tender, Remember the old proverb says That pretty is which pretty does, And that worth does not go nor stay For poverty nor splendor. 4. 'Tis not the house, and not the dress, That makes the saint or sinner. To see the spider sit and spin, Shut with her walls of silver in, You would never, never, never guess The way she gets her dinner. Alice Cary. LESSON L. civil Pe'ter Tow'ser ap pear' a lone' Pin'dar per'sons trav'el ers [Illustration: Man telling story to several children.] THE STORY-TELLER 1. Peter Pindar was a great storyteller. One day, as he was going by the school, the children gathered around him. 2. They said, "Please tell us a story we have never heard." Ned said, "'Tell us something about boys and dogs." 3. "Well," said Peter, "I love to please good children, and, as you all appear civil, I will tell you a new story; and it shall be about a boy and some dogs, as Ned asks. 4. "But before we begin, let us sit down in a cool, shady place. And now, John, you must be as still as a little mouse. Mary, you must not let Towser bark or make a noise. 5. "A long way from this place, there is a land where it is very cold, and much snow falls. 6. "The hills are very high there, and traveler's are often lost among them. There are men there who keep large dogs. These are taught to hunt for people lost in the snow. 7. "The dogs have so fine a scent, that they can find persons by that alone. 8. "Sometimes it is so dark, that they can not see anything. Those who are lost often lie hid in the snowdrifts. " LESSON LI. lain weak stiff shrill rode bleak [Illustration: Dog searching on snowy mountain-side for lost traveler.] THE STORY TELLER (CONCLUDED) 1. "One cold, bleak night, the snow fell fast, and the wind blew loud and shrill. It was quite dark. Not a star was to be seen in the sky. 2. "These good men sent out a dog, to hunt for those who might want help. In an hour or two, the dog was heard coming back. 3. "On looking out, they saw him with a boy on his back. The poor child was stiff with cold. He could but just hold on to the dog's back. 4. "He had lain for a long time in the snow, and was too weak to walk. 5. "He felt something pull him by the coat, and heard the bark of a dog. He put out his hand, and felt the dog. The dog gave him another pull. 6. "This gave the poor boy some hope, and he took hold of the dog. He drew himself out of the snow, but ho could not stand or walk. 7. "He got on the dog's back, and put his arms round the dog's neck, and held on. He felt sure that the dog did not mean to do him any harm. 8. "Thus he rode all the way to the good men's house. 9. "They took care of him, till the snow was gone. Then they sent him to his home." LESSON LII. oak dusk fight squeak ruf'fled bag Fred whoo a wake' creep'ing THE OWL. 1. "Where did you get that owl, Harry?" 2. "Fred and I found him in the old, hollow oak." 3. "How did you know he was there?" 4. "I'll tell you. Fred and I were playing 'hide and seek' round the old barn, one night just at dusk. 5. "I was just creeping round the corner, when I heard a loud squeak, and a big bird flew up with something in his claws. 6. "I called Fred, and we watched him as he flew to the woods. Fred thought the bird was an owl, and that he had a nest in the old oak. 7. "The next day we went to look for him, and, sure enough, he was there." 8. "But how did you catch him? I should think he could fight like a good fellow with that sharp bill." 9. "He can when he is wide awake; but owls can't see very well in the daytime, and he was taking a nap. 10. "He opened his great eyes, and ruffled up his feathers, and said, "Whoo! Whoo!' 'Never mind who,' Fred said, and slipped him into a bag." LESSON LIII. while bones scarce'ly mous'er mice rolled sur prised' swal'lows wink'ing com'ic al duck'lings cap'ture [Illustration: Boy catching owl in tree.] THE OWL. (CONCLUDED.) 1. "What are you going to do with him, Harry?" 2. "Let him go. He doesn't like this cage half so well as his old oak tree. A young owl can be tamed easily, but this one is too old to tame." 3. "But won't he catch all your ducklings and little chickens?" 4. "No, not while there are any rats or mice around. Father says an owl is a good mouser, and can catch more mice than half a dozen cats." 5. "I'm glad I had a look at him before you let him go. What soft feathers he has!" 6. "Yes, he can fly so softly that you can scarcely hear him, and for this reason he can easily surprise and capture his prey." 7. "How comical he looks, winking his big eyes slowly, and turning his head from side to side!" [Illustration: Two boys talking.] 8. "Yes; he is watching your dog. Be still. Bounce! 9. "We have just found out a funny thing about his way of eating. He breaks the bones of a mouse, and then swallows it whole. After an hour or two, he throws up the bones and fur rolled up in a little ball." LESSON LIV. broad knee fig fresh city trout un der neath' fought (fawt) sur prised' clap'ping gar'den car'ry ing fight'ing [Illustration: Old man with cane talking to young girl.] GRANDFATHER'S STORY. 1. "Come and sit by my knee, Jane, and grandfather will tell you a strange story. 2. "One bright Summer day, I was in a garden in a city, with a friend. "We rested underneath a fig tree. The broad leaves were green and fresh. 3. "We looked up at the ripe, purple figs. And what do you think came down through the branches of the fig tree over our heads?" 4. "Oh, a bird, grandfather, a bird!" said little Jane, clapping her hands. 5. "No, not a bird. It was a fish; a trout, my little girl." 6. "Not a fish, grandfather! A trout come through the branches of a tree in the city'! I am sure you must be in fun." 7. "No, Jane, I tell you the truth. My friend and I were very much surprised to see a fish falling from a fig tree. 8. "But we ran from under the tree, and saw a fishhawk flying, and an eagle after him. 9. "The hawk had caught the fish, and was carrying it home to his nest, when the eagle saw it and wanted it. 10. "They fought for it. The fish was dropped, and they both lost it. So much for fighting!" LESSON LV. flow wide steep lakes twin'kling [Illustration: Lake in foreground; mountain in background.] GOD IS GREAT AND GOOD. 1. I know God made the sun To fill the day with light; He made the twinkling stars To shine all through the night. 2. He made the hills that rise So very high and steep; He made the lakes and seas, That are so broad and deep. 3. He made the streams so wide, That flow through wood and vale; He made the rills so small, That leap down hill and dale. 4. He made each bird that sings So sweetly all the day; He made each flower that springs So bright, so fresh, so gay. 5. And He who made all these, He made both you and me; Oh, let us thank Him, then, For great and good is He. LESSON LVI. hoe grave knock ex cept' droll hymn prayed cot'tage [Illustration: Old man holding two little girls.] A GOOD OLD MAN. 1. There once lived an old man in a snug, little cottage. It had two rooms and only two windows. A small garden lay just behind it. 2. Old as the poor man was, he used to work in the fields. Often he would come home very tired and weak, with his hoe or spade on his shoulder. 3. And who do you think met him at the door! Mary and Jane, his two little grandchildren. 4. They were too young to work, except to weed in the garden, or bring water from the spring. 5. In winter, as they were too poor to buy much wood or coal, they had little fire; so they used to sit close together to keep warm. Mary would sit on one of the old man's knees, and Jane on the other. 6. Sometimes their grandfather would tell them a droll story. Sometimes he would teach them a hymn. 7. He would often talk to them of their father, who had gone to sea, or of their good, kind mother, who was in her grave. Every night he prayed God to bless them, and to bring back their father in safety. 8. The old man grew weaker every year; but the little girls were glad to work for him, who had been so good to them. [Illustration: Girls and grandfather greeting father at door.] 9. One cold, windy night, they heard a knock at the door. The little girls ran and opened it. Oh, joy to them! There stood their father. 10. He had been at sea a long time. He had saved some money, and had now come home to stay. 11. After this the old man did not have to work. His son worked for him, and his grandchildren took care of him. Many happy days they spent together. LESSON LVII. hoe grave knock ex cept' droll hymn prayed cot'tage THE GREEDY GIRL. 1. Laura English is a greedy little girl. Indeed, she is quite a glutton. Do you know what a glutton is? A glutton is one who eats too much, because the food tastes well. 2. Laura's mother is always willing she should have as much to eat as is good for her; but sometimes, when her mother is not watching, she eats so much that it makes her sick. 3. I do not know why she is so silly. Her kitten never eats more than it needs. It leaves the nice bones on the plate, and lies down to sleep when it has eaten enough. 4. The bee is wiser than Laura. It flies all day among the flowers to gather honey, and might eat the whole time if it pleased. But it eats just enough, and carries all the rest to its hive. [Illustration: Heavy girl eating two apples. Plate on floor with food scraps. Cat lying on footstool.] 5. The squirrel eats a few nuts or acorns, and frisks about as gayly as if he had dined at the king's table. 6. Did you ever see a squirrel with a nut in his paws? How bright and lively he looks as he eats it! 7. If he lived in a house made of acorns, he would never need a doctor. He would not eat an acorn too much. 8. I do not love little girls who eat too much. Do you, my little readers? 9. I do not think they have such rosy cheeks, or such bright eyes, or such sweet, happy tempers as those who eat less. LESSON LVIII. lend Sa'rah com'fort a shamed' your wil'ling thim'ble else'where us'ing bor'row of fend'ed de pend'ed A PLACE FOR EVERYTHING. Mary. I wish you would lend me your thimble, Sarah. I can never find my own. Sarah. Why is it, Mary, you can never find it? Mary. How can I tell? But if you will not lend me yours, I can borrow one elsewhere. Sarah. I am willing to lend mine to you, Mary. But I would very much like to know why you come to me to borrow so often. [Illustration: Two girls seated, talking.] Mary. Because you never lose any of your things, and always know where to find them. Sarah. And why do I always know where to find my things? Mary. I do not know why, I am sure. If I did know, I might sometimes find my own. Sarah. I will tell you the secret. I have a place for everything, and I put everything in its place when I have done using it. Mary. O Sarah! who wants to run and put away a thing as soon as she has used it, as if her life depended upon it? Sarah. Our life does not depend upon it, but our comfort does, surely. How much more time will it take to put a thing in its place, than to hunt for it or to borrow whenever you want to use it ? Mary. Well, Sarah, I will never borrow of you again, you may depend upon it. Sarah. You are not offended with me, I hope. Mary. No, but I am ashamed. Before night, I will have a place for everything, and then I will keep everything in its place. You have taught me a lesson that I shall remember. LESSON LIX. con'stant lead'ing ear lull didst meek hark thee none mild thine nurse ease thy re joice' fret'ful [Illustration: Mother rocking daughter.] MY MOTHER. [Illustration: Script Exercise: Hark! My mother's voice I hear, Sweet that voice is to my ear; Ever soft, it seems to tell, Dearest child, I love thee well. Love me, mother? Yes, I know None can love so well as thou. Was it not upon thy breast I was taught to sleep and rest? Didst thou not, in hours of pain, Lull this head to ease again? With the music of thy voice, Bid my little heart rejoice? Ever gentle, meek and mild, Thou didst nurse thy fretful child. Teach these little feet the road Leading on to heaven and God. What return then can I make? This fond heart, dear mother take; Thine its, in word and thought, Thine by constant kindness bought. ] LESSON LX. skip'ping mean George gift en gaged' Mason El'let THE BROKEN WINDOW. 1. George Ellet had a bright silver dollar for a New-year gift. 2. He thought of all the fine things he might buy with it. 3. The ground was all covered with snow; but the sun shone out bright, and everything looked beautiful. 4. So George put on his hat, and ran into the street. As he went skipping along, he met some boys throwing snowballs. George soon engaged in the sport. 5. He sent a ball at James Mason, but it missed him, and broke a window on the other side of the street. 6. George feared some one would come out of the house and find him. So he ran off as fast as he could. [Illustration: Boy throwing snowball through window.] 7. As soon as he got round the next corner, George stopped, because he was very sorry for what he had done. 8. He said to himself, "I have no right to spend my silver dollar, now. I ought to go back, and pay for the glass I broke with my snowball." 9. He went up and down the street, and felt very sad. He wished very much to buy something nice. He also wished to pay for the broken glass. 10. At last he said, "It was wrong to break the window, though I did not mean to do it. I will go and pay for it, if it takes all my money, I will try not to be sorry. I do not think the man will hurt me if I pay for the mischief I have done." LESSON LXI. mer'chant hon'est ly rang mind part'ner with out' rich bell THE BROKEN WINDOW. (CONCLUDED.) 1. George started off, and felt much happier for having made up his mind to do what was right. 2. He rang the doorbell. When the man came out, George said, "Sir, I threw a snowball through your window. But I did not intend to do it. I am very sorry, and wish to pay you. Here is the dollar my father gave me as a New- year gift." 3. The gentleman took the dollar, and asked George if he had no more money. George said he had not. "Well," said he, "this will do." [Illustration: George paying for broken window.] 4. So, after asking George his name, and where he lived, he called him an honest boy, and shut the door. 5. George went home at dinner time, with a face as rosy, and eyes as bright, as if nothing had gone wrong. At dinner, Mr. Ellet asked him what he had bought with his money. 6. George very honestly told him all about the broken window, and said he felt very well without any money to spend. 7. When dinner was over, Mr. Ellet told George to go and look in his cap. He did so, and found two silver dollars there. 8. The man, whose window had been broken, had been there, and told Mr. Ellet about it. He gave back George's dollar and another besides. 9. A short time after this, the man came and told Mr. Ellet that he wanted a good boy to stay in his store. 10. As soon as George left school, he went to live with this man, who was a rich merchant. In a few years he became the merchant's partner. LESSON LXII. line fig'ure sec'ond grain verse per'fect ly ad vice' im pa'tient stud'y bus'i ly fol'lowed un der stand' [Illustration: Mother talking to small boy. Hour-glass and flowers on table between them.] FRANK AND THE HOURGLASS. 1. Frank was a very talkative little boy. He never saw a new thing without asking a great many questions about it. 2. His mother was very patient and kind. When it was proper to answer his questions, she would do so. 3. Sometimes she would say, "You are not old enough to understand that, my son. When you are ten years old, you may ask me about it, and I will tell you." 4. When his mother said this, he never teased any more. He knew she always liked to answer him when he asked proper questions. 5. The first time Frank saw an hourglass, he was very much amused; but he did not know what it was. 6. His mother said, "An hourglass is made in the shape of the figure 8. The sand is put in at one end, and runs through a small hole in the middle. As much sand is put into the glass as will run through in an hour." 7. Frank watched the little stream of sand. He was impatient, because it would not run faster. "Let me shake it, mother," said he; "it is lazy, and will never get through." 8. "Oh yes, it will, my son," said his mother, "The sand moves by little and little, but it moves all the time. 9. "When you look at the hands of the clock, you think they go very slowly, and so they do; but they never stop. 10, "While you are at play the sand is running, grain by grain, The hands of the clock are moving, second by second. 11. "At night, the sand in the hourglass has run through twelve times. The hour hand of the clock has moved all around its great face. 12. "This because they keep work every minute. They do not stop to think how much they have to do, and how long it will take them to do it." 13. Now, Frank's mother wanted him to learn a little hymn; but he said "Mother, I can never learn it." 14. His mother said, "Study all the time. Never stop to ask how long it will take to learn it. You will be able to say it very soon." 15. Frank followed his mother's advice. He studied line after line, very busily; and in one hour and a half he knew the hymn perfectly. LESSON LXIII. sleet cheer'ly cru'el taps free [Illustration: Road through forest.] MARCH. 1. In the snowing and the blowing, In the cruel sleet, Little flowers begin their growing Far beneath our feet. 2. Softly taps the Spring, and cheerly,-- "Darlings, are you here?" Till they answer, "We are nearly, Nearly ready, dear." 3. "Where is Winter, with his snowing? Tell us, Spring," they say. Then she answers, "He is going, Going on his way. 4. "Poor old Winter does not love you; But his time is past; Soon my birds shall sing above you;-- Set you free at last." Mary Mapes Dodge. LESSON LXIV. late straw Jen'ny snort'ed Tem'plar aunt rogue re port' graz'ing di rect'ly ditch act'ed ser'vice sup pose' ca ressed' hired e rect' pricked mo'ment gro'cer ies JENNY'S CALL. 1. "It's of no use, Mrs. Templar; I have been trying the greater part of an hour to catch that rogue of a horse. She won't be caught." [Illustration: Man and boy chasing horse.] 2. Such was the report the hired man brought in to Mrs. Templar one pleasant May morning, when she had been planning a ride. 3. "I suppose it can not be helped, but I wanted her very much," she said, as she turned away. 4. "What was it you wanted, mother?" asked Jenny Templar, a bright, brown-haired, brown-eyed girl of twelve, who had just come into the room. 5. "Fanny," said the mother. "It is such a beautiful morning, I meant to drive down to the village, get some groceries, then call for your Aunt Ann, have a nice ride up the river road, and bring her home to dinner. 6. "But father is away for all day, and the men have been trying nearly an hour to catch Fanny; one of the men says she can't be caught." 7. "Maybe she can't by him," said Jenny, with a merry laugh. "But, get ready, mother; you shall go if you like. I'll catch Fanny, and harness her, too." 8. "Why, my child, they say she jumped the ditch three or four times, and acted like a wild creature. You'll only be late at school, and tire yourself for nothing." 9. "It won't take me long, mother. Fanny will come to me," said Jenny, cheerily. She put on her wide straw hat, and was off in a moment, down the hill, to the field where the horse was grazing. 10. The moment Fanny heard the rustle of Jenny's dress, she pricked up her ears, snorted, and, with head erect, seemed ready to bound away again. [Illustration: Girl leading horse.] 11. "Fanny! O Fanny!" called Jenny, and the beautiful creature turned her head. That gentle tone she well knew, and, glad to see her friend, she carne directly to the fence, and rubbed her head on the girl's shoulder. As soon as the gate was opened, she followed Jenny to the barn. 12. The men had treated her roughly, and she remembered it. But she knew and loved the voice that was always kind, and the hand that often fed and caressed her. She gave love for love, and willing service for kindness. LESSON LXV. rung Da'vy vi'o let re cess' ar range' ferns ma'ple dain'ty lin'gered pret'ti est POOR DAVY. 1. It was recess time at the village school. The bell had rung, and the children had run out into the bright sunshine, wild with laughter and fun. 2. All but poor Davy. He came out last and very slowly, but he did not laugh. He was in trouble, and the bright, golden sunlight did not make him glad. 3. He walked across the yard, and sat down on a stone behind the old maple. A little bird on the highest branch sang just to make him laugh. 4. But Davy did not notice it. He was thinking of the cruel words that had been said about his ragged clothes. The tears stole out of his eyes, and ran down his cheeks. [Illustration: Boy sitting alone under tree in schoolyard. Other children playing in background.] 5. Poor Davy had no father, and his mother had to work hard to keep him at school. 6. That night, he went home by the path that led across the fields and through the woods. He still felt sad. 7. Davy did not wish to trouble his mother; so he lingered a while among the trees, and at last threw himself on the green moss under them. [Illustration: Woman talking to boy.] 8. Just then his teacher came along. She saw who it was, and stopped, saying kindly, "What is the matter, Davy?" 9. He did not speak, but the tears began again to start. 10. "Won't you tell me? Perhaps I can help you." 11. Then he told her all his trouble. When he ended, she said, cheerily, "I have a plan, Davy, that I think will help you." 12. "Oh, what is it?" he said, sitting up with a look of hope, while a tear fell upon a blue violet. l3. "Well, how would you like to be a little flower merchant?" 14. "And earn money?" said Davy. "That would be jolly. But where shall I get my flowers?" 15. "Right in these woods, and in the fields," said his teacher. " Here are lovely blue violets, down by the brook are white ones, and among the rocks are ferns and mosses. Bring them all to my house, and I will help you arrange them." 16. So, day after day, Davy hunted the woods for the prettiest flowers, and the most dainty ferns and mosses. After his teacher had helped to arrange them, he took them to the city that was near, and sold them. 17. He soon earned money enough to buy new clothes. Now the sunshine and the bird's songs make him glad. LESSON LXVI. deep flour dough mill'er wheth'er cook a far' dust'y cra'dles grind'ing glow doth val'ley reap'ers a-knead'ing ALICE'S SUPPER. 1. Far down in the valley the wheat grows deep, And the reapers are making the cradles sweep; And this is the song that I hear them sing, While cheery and loud their voices ring: "'Tis the finest wheat that ever did grow! And it is for Alice's supper--ho! ho!" 2. Far down by the river the old mill stands, And the miller is rubbing his dusty hands; And these are the words of the miller's lay, As he watches the millstones grinding away: "'Tis the finest flour that money can buy, And it is for Alice's supper--hi! hi!" 3. Downstairs in the kitchen the fire doth glow, And cook is a-kneading the soft, white dough; And this is the song she is singing to-day, As merry and busy she's working away: "'Tis the finest dough, whether near or afar, And it is for Alice's supper--ha! ha!" [Illustration: Mother serving supper to small girl seated at table.] 4. To the nursery now comes mother, at last, And what in her hand is she bringing so fast? 'Tis a plateful of something, all yellow and white, And she sings as she comes, with her smile so bright: "'Tis the best bread and butter I ever did see, And it is for Alice's supper--he! he!" LESSON LXVII. tall hung storm pick'et firs north gowns spar'ked roof flakes fair'ies cap'tains A SNOWSTORM. 1. Last night, the cold north wind blew great snow clouds over the sky. Not a star, not a bit of blue sky could be seen. 2. Soon the tiny flakes floated softly down, like flocks of little white birds. Faster and faster they came, till they filled the air. They made no noise, but they were busy all night long. 3. They covered all the ground with a soft, white carpet. They hung beautiful plumes on the tall, green firs. The little bushes, they put to sleep in warm nightgowns and caps. [Illustration: Snow covering house, shed, and road. Children playing.] 4. They hid the paths so that the boys might have the fun of digging new ones. They turned the old picket fence into a row of soldiers, and the gate posts into captains, with tall white hats on. 5. The old corn basket that was left out by the barn, upside down, they made into a cunning little snow house with a round roof. 6. When the busy little flakes had done their work, the sun came up to see what they had been about. 7. He must have been pleased with what he saw, for he smiled such a bright, sweet smile, that the whole white world sparkled as if it were made of little stars. 8. Who would have thought that the black clouds could hide the little fairies that made the earth so beautiful! LESSON LXVIII. dug roots thump of fense' toad spool heaped smoothed forth a'pron clos'ets dan'de li ons BESSIE. 1. One day, Bessie thought how nice it would be to have a garden with only wild flowers in it. So into the house she ran to find her Aunt Annie, and ask her leave to go over on the shady hillside, across the brook, where the wild flowers grew thickest. [Illustration: Girl planting small garden. Toad sitting in garden.] 2. " Yes, indeed, you may go," said Aunt Annie; "but what will you put the roots and earth in while you are making the garden?" 3. "Oh," said Bessie, "I can take my apron." 4. Her aunt laughed, and said, "A basket will be better, I think." So they looked in the closets and the attic, everywhere; but some of the baskets were full, and some broken; not one could they find that would do. 5. Then Aunt Annie turned out the spools and the bags from a nice large workbasket, and gave that to Bessie. "You may have this for your own," she said, "to fill with earth, or flowers, or anything you like." 6. "Oh I thank you," said Bessie, and she danced away through the garden. She slipped through the gate, out into the field all starred with dandelions, down in the hollow by the brook, then up on the hillside out of sight among the shady trees. 7. How she worked that afternoon! She heaped up the dark, rich earth, and smoothed it over with her hands. Then she dug up violets, and spring-beauties, and other flowers,--running back and forth, singing all the while. 8. The squirrels peeped out of their holes at Bessie. The birds sang in the branches overhead. Thump, came something all at once into the middle of the bed. Bessie jumped and upset the basket, and away it rolled down the hill. 9. How Bessie laughed when she saw a big, brown toad winking his bright eyes at her, as if he would say, "No offense, I hope." 10. Just then Bessie heard a bell ringing loudly. She knew it was calling her home; but how could she leave her basket? She must look for that first. 11. "Waiting, waiting, waiting," all at once sang a bird out of sight among the branches; "waiting, Bessie." 12. "Sure enough," said Bessie; "perhaps I'm making dear mother or auntie wait; and they are so good to me. I'd better let the basket wait. Take care of it, birdie; and don't jump on my flowers, Mr. Toad." LESSON LXIX. visit soaked o be'di ent ru'ined [Illustration: Girl on couch looking out window.] BESSIE. (CONCLUDED.) 1. She was back at the house in a few minutes, calling, "Mother! mother! auntie! Who wants me?" 2. "I, dear," said her mother. "I am going away for a long visit, and if you had not come at once, I could not have said good-by to my little girl." 3. Then Bessie's mother kissed her, and told her to obey her kind aunt while she was gone. 4. The next morning, Bessie waked to find it raining hard. She went into her aunt's room with a very sad face. "O auntie! this old rain!" 5, "This new, fresh, beautiful rain, Bessie! How it will make our flowers grow, and what a good time we can have together in the house!" 6. "I know it, auntie; but you will think me so careless!" 7. "To let it rain?" 8. "No; don't laugh, Aunt Annie; to leave your nice basket out of doors all night; and now it will be soaked and ruined in this--this--beautiful rain." Bessie did not look as if the beautiful rain made her very happy. 9. "You must be more careful, dear, another time," said her aunt, gently. "But come, tell me all about it." 10. So Bessie crept very close to her auntie's side, and told her of her happy time the day before; of the squirrel, and the toad, and how the basket rolled away down the hill; and then how the bell rang, and she could not stop to find the basket. 11. "And you did quite right," said her aunt. "If you had stopped, your mother must have waited a whole day, or else gone without seeing you. When I write, I will tell her how obedient you were, and that will please her more than anything else I can say." LESSON LXX. sought sure'ly (shu) wel'come light'some loft'y maid'en cher'ished in tro duce' CHEERFULNESS. [Illustration: Script Exercise: There is a little maiden-- Who is she? Do you know? Who always has a welcome, Wherever she may go. Her face is like the May time, Her voice is like the bird's; The sweetest of all music Is in her lightsome words. Each spot she makes the brighter, As if she were the sun; And she is sought and cherished And loved by everyone; By old folks and by children, By loft and by low; Who is this little maiden? Does anybody know? You surely must have met her. You certainly can guess; What! I must introduce her? Her name is Cheeerfulness. Marian Douglas ] LESSON LXXI. west'ern breathe dy'ing moon babe sails LULLABY. 1. Sweet and low, sweet and low, Wind of the western sea, Low, low, breathe and blow, Wind of the western sea! Over the rolling waters go, Come from the dying moon, and blow, Blow him again to me; While my little one, while my pretty one sleeps. 2. Sleep and rest, sleep and rest, Father will come to thee soon; Rest, rest, on mother's breast, Father will come to thee soon; Father will come to his babe in the nest, Silver sails all out of the west, Under the silver moon; Sleep, my little one, sleep, my pretty one, sleep. Tennyson. 
15755	----	{Transcriber's Note: All square brackets [] are from the original text. Braces {} ("curly brackets") are supplied by the transcriber. Characters that could not be fully expressed are "unpacked" and shown within braces, top to bottom: {oe} oe ligature {)o} o with breve (short-vowel sign) } CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS London: Fetter Lane, E.C. C. F. CLAY, Manager {Illustration: Coat of Arms} Edinburgh: 100, Princes Street Berlin: A. Asher and Co. Leipzig: F.A. Brockhaus New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons Bombay and Calcutta: Macmillan and Co., Ltd _All rights reserved_ * * * * * {Illustration: Decorative Title Page encompassing all text from "English Dialects" through "1912"} ENGLISH DIALECTS From the Eighth Century to the Present Day by the REV. WALTER W. SKEAT, Litt.D., D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D., F.B.A. Elrington and Bosworth Professor of Anglo-Saxon and Fel- low of Christ's College. Founder and formerly Director of the English Dialect Society "English in the native garb;" _K. Henry V._ V. 1. 80 Cambridge at the University Press 1912 * * * * * With the exception of the coat of arms at the foot, the design on the title page is a reproduction of one used by the earliest known Cambridge printer, John Siberch, 1521 _First Edition_ 1911. _Reprinted_ 1912. * * * * * PREFACE The following brief sketch is an attempt to present, in a popular form, the history of our English dialects, from the eighth century to the present day. The evidence, which is necessarily somewhat imperfect, goes to show that the older dialects appear to have been few in number, each being tolerably uniform over a wide area; and that the rather numerous dialects of the present day were gradually developed by the breaking up of the older groups into subdialects. This is especially true of the old Northumbrian dialect, in which the speech of Aberdeen was hardly distinguishable from that of Yorkshire, down to the end of the fourteenth century; soon after which date, the use of it for literary purposes survived in Scotland only. The chief literary dialect, in the earliest period, was Northumbrian or "Anglian," down to the middle of the ninth century. After that time our literature was mostly in the Southern or Wessex dialect, commonly called "Anglo-Saxon," the dominion of which lasted down to the early years of the thirteenth century, when the East Midland dialect surely but gradually rose to pre-eminence, and has now become the speech of the empire. Towards this result the two great universities contributed not a little. I proceed to discuss the foreign elements found in our dialects, the chief being Scandinavian and French. The influence of the former has long been acknowledged; a due recognition of the importance of the latter has yet to come. In conclusion, I give some selected specimens of the use of the modern dialects. I beg leave to thank my friend Mr P. Giles, M.A., Hon. LL.D. of Aberdeen, and University Reader in Comparative Philology, for a few hints and for kindly advice. W. W. S. Cambridge 3 March 1911 TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE I. DIALECTS AND THEIR VALUE. The meaning of _dialect_. Phonetic decay and dialectic regeneration. The words _twenty_, _madam_, _alms_. Keats; use of _awfully_. Tennyson and Ben Jonson; use of _flittermouse_. Shakespeare; use of _bolter_ and _child_. Sir W. Scott; use of _eme_. The English _yon_. _Hrinde_ in Beowulf. II. DIALECTS IN EARLY TIMES. The four old dialects. Meaning of "Anglo-Saxon." Documents in the Wessex dialect. III. THE DIALECTS OF NORTHUMBRIA; TILL A.D. 1300. The Anglian period. Beda's History and "Death-song." The poet Cædmon. Cædmon's hymn. The Leyden Riddle. The Ruth well Cross. Liber Vitæ. The Durham Ritual. The Lindisfarne and Rushworth MSS. Meaning of a "gloss." Specimen. IV. THE DIALECTS OF NORTHUMBRIA; A.D. 1300-1400. The Metrical Psalter; with an extract. Cursor Mundi. Homilies in Verse. Prick of Conscience. Minot's Poems. Barbour's Bruce; with an extract. Great extent of the Old Northern dialect; from Aberdeen to the Humber. Lowland Scotch identical with the Yorkshire dialect of Hampole. Lowland Scotch called "Inglis" by Barbour, Henry the Minstrel, Dunbar, and Lyndesay; first called "Scottis" by G. Douglas. Dr Murray's account of the Dialect of the Southern Counties of Scotland. V. NORTHUMBRIAN IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. Northumbrian of Scotland and of England in different circumstances. Literature of the fifteenth century; poems, romances, plays, and ballads. List of Romances. Caxton. Rise of the Midland dialect. "Scottish" and "English." Jamieson's Dictionary. "Middle Scots." Quotation from Dunbar. VI. THE SOUTHERN DIALECT. Alfred the Great. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Old English Homilies. The Brut. St Juliana. The Ancren Riwle. The Proverbs of Alfred. The Owl and the Nightingale. A Moral Ode. Robert of Gloucester. Early history of Britain. The South-English Legendary. The Harleian MS. 2253. The Vernon MS. John Trevisa. The Testament of Love. VII. THE SOUTHERN DIALECT OF KENT. Quotation from Beda. Extract from an Old Kentish Charter. Kentish Glosses. Kentish Sermons. William of Shoreham; with an extract. The Ayenbite of Inwyt. The Apostles' Creed in Old Kentish. The use of _e_ for A.S. _y_ in Kentish. Use of Kentish by Gower and Chaucer. Kentish forms in modern English. VIII. THE MERCIAN DIALECT. East Midland. Old Mercian Glossaries of the eighth century. The Lorica Prayer. The Vespasian Psalter. The Rushworth MS. Old Mercian and Wessex compared. Laud MS. of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The Ormulum. The English Proclamation of Henry III. (_see the facsimile_). Robert Mannyng of Brunne (Bourn). West Midland. The Prose Psalter. William of Palerne. The Pearl and Alliterative Poems. Sir Gawayne and the Grene Knight. IX. FOREIGN ELEMENTS IN THE DIALECTS. Words from Norman, Italian, Spanish, Dutch, etc. Celtic. List of Celtic words. Examples of Latin words. Greek words. Hebrew words. List of Scandinavian words. French words. Anglo-French words; _gauntree_. Literary French words, as used in dialects. X. LATER HISTORY OF THE DIALECTS. Spenser. John Fitzherbert. Thomas Tusser. Skinner's Etymologicon (Lincolnshire words). John Ray. Dialect glossaries. Dr Ellis on Early English Pronunciation. The English Dialect Society. The English Dialect Dictionary. The English Dialect Grammar. XI. THE MODERN DIALECTS. Prof. Wright's account of the modern English Dialects. XII. A FEW SPECIMENS. Some writers in dialect. Specimens: Scottish (Aberdeen, Ayrshire, Edinburgh). Northern England (Westmorland). Midland (Lincoln, S.E. Lancashire, Sheffield, Cheshire). Eastern (N. Essex, Norfolk). Western (S.W. Shropshire). Southern (Wiltshire, Isle of Wight, Sussex). BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX FACSIMILE. The only English Proclamation of Henry III. Oct. 18, 1258 *** _For a transcription of the Facsimile see_ pp. 75-6. {Transcriber's Note: The Facsimile is not included in this e-text.} CHAPTER I DIALECTS AND THEIR VALUE According to the New English Dictionary, the oldest sense, in English, of the word _dialect_ was simply "a manner of speaking" or "phraseology," in accordance with its derivation from the Greek _dialectos_, a discourse or way of speaking; from the verb _dialegesthai_, to discourse or converse. The modern meaning is somewhat more precise. In relation to a language such as English, it is used in a special sense to signify "a local variety of speech differing from the standard or literary language." When we talk of "speakers of dialect," we imply that they employ a provincial method of speech to which the man who has been educated to use the language of books is unaccustomed. Such a man finds that the dialect-speaker frequently uses words or modes of expression which he does not understand or which are at any rate strange to him; and he is sure to notice that such words as seem to be familiar to him are, for the most part, strangely pronounced. Such differences are especially noticeable in the use of vowels and diphthongs, and in the mode of intonation. The speaker of the "standard" language is frequently tempted to consider himself as the dialect-speaker's superior, unless he has already acquired some elementary knowledge of the value of the science of language or has sufficient common sense to be desirous of learning to understand that which for the moment lies beyond him. I remember once hearing the remark made--"What is the good of dialects? Why not sweep them all away, and have done with them?" But the very form of the question betrays ignorance of the facts; for it is no more possible to do away with them than it is possible to suppress the waves of the sea. English, like every other literary language, has always had its dialects and will long continue to possess them in secluded districts, though they are at the present time losing much of that archaic character which gives them their chief value. The spread of education may profoundly modify them, but the spoken language of the people will ever continue to devise new variations and to initiate developments of its own. Even the "standard" language is continually losing old words and admitting new ones, as was noted long ago by Horace; and our so-called "standard" pronunciation is ever imperceptibly but surely changing, and never continues in one stay. In the very valuable _Lectures on the Science of Language_ by Professor F. Max Müller, the second Lecture, which deserves careful study, is chiefly occupied by some account of the processes which he names respectively "phonetic decay" and "dialectic regeneration"; processes to which all languages have always been and ever will be subject. By "phonetic decay" is meant that insidious and gradual alteration in the sounds of spoken words which, though it cannot be prevented, at last so corrupts a word that it becomes almost or wholly unmeaning. Such a word as _twenty_ does not suggest its origin. Many might perhaps guess, from their observation of such numbers as _thirty, forty_, etc., that the suffix _-ty_ may have something to do with _ten_, of the original of which it is in fact an extremely reduced form; but it is less obvious that _twen-_ is a shortened form of _twain_. And perhaps none but scholars of Teutonic languages are aware that _twain_ was once of the masculine gender only, while _two_ was so restricted that it could only be applied to things that were feminine or neuter. As a somewhat hackneyed example of phonetic decay, we may take the case of the Latin _mea domina_, i.e. my mistress, which became in French _ma dame_, and in English _madam_; and the last of these has been further shortened to _mam_, and even to _'m_, as in the phrase "Yes, 'm." This shows how nine letters may be reduced to one. Similarly, our monosyllable _alms_ is all that is left of the Greek _ele{-e}mosyn{-e}_. Ten letters have here been reduced to four. This irresistible tendency to indistinctness and loss is not, however, wholly bad; for it has at the same time largely contributed, especially in English, to such a simplification of grammatical inflexions as certainly has the practical convenience of giving us less to learn. But in addition to this decay in the forms of words, we have also to reckon with a depreciation or weakening of the ideas they express. Many words become so hackneyed as to be no longer impressive. As late as in 1820, Keats could say, in stanza 6 of his poem of _Isabella_, that "His heart beat awfully against his side"; but at the present day the word _awfully_ is suggestive of schoolboys' slang. It is here that we may well have the benefit of the principle of "dialectic regeneration." We shall often do well to borrow from our dialects many terms that are still fresh and racy, and instinct with a full significance. Tennyson was well aware of this, and not only wrote several poems wholly in the Lincolnshire dialect, but introduced dialect words elsewhere. Thus in _The Voyage of Maeldune_, he has the striking line: "Our voices were thinner and fainter than any flittermouse-shriek." In at least sixteen dialects a _flittermouse_ means "a bat." I have mentioned Tennyson in this connexion because he was a careful student of English, not only in its dialectal but also in its older forms. But, as a matter of fact, nearly all our chief writers have recognised the value of dialectal words. Tennyson was not the first to use the above word. Near the end of the Second Act of his _Sad Shepherd_, Ben Jonson speaks of: Green-bellied snakes, blue fire-drakes in the sky, And giddy flitter-mice with leather wings. Similarly, there are plenty of "provincialisms" in Shakespeare. In an interesting book entitled _Shakespeare, his Birthplace and its Neighbourhood_, by J.R. Wise, there is a chapter on "The Provincialisms of Shakespeare," from which I beg leave to give a short extract by way of specimen. "There is the expressive compound 'blood-boltered' in _Macbeth_ (Act IV, Sc. 1), which the critics have all thought meant simply blood-stained. Miss Baker, in her _Glossary of Northamptonshire Words_, first pointed out that 'bolter' was peculiarly a Warwickshire word, signifying to clot, collect, or cake, as snow does in a horse's hoof, thus giving the phrase a far greater intensity of meaning. And Steevens, too, first noticed that in the expression in _The Winter's Tale_ (Act III, Sc. 3), 'Is it a boy or a child?'--where, by the way, every actor tries to make a point, and the audience invariably laughs--the word 'child' is used, as is sometimes the case in the midland districts, as synonymous with girl; which is plainly its meaning in this passage, although the speaker has used it just before in its more common sense of either a boy or a girl." In fact, the _English Dialect Dictionary_ cites the phrase "is it a lad or a child?" as being still current in Shropshire; and duly states that, in Warwickshire, "dirt collected on the hairs of a horse's leg and forming into hard masses is said to _bolter_." Trench further points out that many of our pure Anglo-Saxon words which lived on into the formation of our early English, subsequently dropped out of our usual vocabulary, and are now to be found only in the dialects. A good example is the word _eme_, an uncle (A.S. _{-e}am_), which is rather common in Middle English, but has seldom appeared in our literature since the tune of Drayton. Yet it is well known in our Northern dialects, and Sir Walter Scott puts the expression "Didna his _eme_ die" in the mouth of Davie Deans (_Heart of Midlothian_, ch. XII). In fact, few things are more extraordinary in the history of our language than the singularly capricious manner in which good and useful words emerge into or disappear from use in "standard" talk, for no very obvious reason. Such a word as _yonder_ is common enough still; but its corresponding adjective _yon_, as in the phrase "yon man," is usually relegated to our dialects. Though it is common in Shakespeare, it is comparatively rare in the Middle English period, from the twelfth to the fifteenth century. It only occurs once in Chaucer, where it is introduced as being a Northern word; and it absolutely disappears from record in the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth centuries. Bosworth's _Anglo-Saxon Dictionary_ gives no example of its use, and it was long supposed that it would be impossible to trace it in our early records. Nevertheless, when Dr Sweet printed, for the first time, an edition of King Alfred's translation of Pope Gregory's _Pastoral Care_, an example appeared in which it was employed in the most natural manner, as if it were in everyday use. At p. 443 of that treatise is the sentence--"Aris and gong to geonre byrg," i.e. Arise and go to yon city. Here the A.S. _geon_ (pronounced like the modern _yon_) is actually declined after the regular manner, being duly provided with the suffix _-re_, which was the special suffix reserved only for the genitive or dative feminine. It is here a dative after the preposition _to_. There is, in fact, no limit to the good use to which a reverent study of our dialects may be put by a diligent student. They abound with pearls which are worthy of a better fate than to be trampled under foot. I will content myself with giving one last example that is really too curious to be passed over in silence. It so happens that in the Anglo-Saxon epic poem of _Beowulf_, one of the most remarkable and precious of our early poems, there is a splendid and graphic description of a lonely mere, such as would have delighted the heart of Edgar Allan Poe, the author of _Ulalume_. In Professor Earle's prose translation of this passage, given in his _Deeds of Beowulf_, at p. 44, is a description of two mysterious monsters, of whom it is said that "they inhabit unvisited land, wolf-crags, windy bluffs, the dread fen-track, where the mountain waterfall amid precipitous gloom vanisheth beneath--flood under earth. Not far hence it is, reckoning by miles, that the Mere standeth, and over it hang rimy groves; a wood with clenched roots overshrouds the water." The word to be noted here is the word _rimy_, i.e. covered with rime or hoar-frost. The original Anglo-Saxon text has the form _hrinde_, the meaning of which was long doubtful. Grein, the great German scholar, writing in 1864, acknowledged that he did not know what was intended, and it was not till 1880 that light was first thrown upon the passage. In that year Dr Morris edited, for the first time, some Anglo-Saxon homilies (commonly known as the _Blickling Homilies_, because the MS. is in the library of Blickling Hall, Norfolk); and he called attention to a passage (at p. 209) where the homilist was obviously referring to the lonely mere of the old poem, in which its overhanging groves were described as being _hrimige_, which is nothing but the true old spelling of _rimy_. He naturally concluded that the word _hrinde_ (in the MS. of Beowulf) was miswritten, and that the scribe had inadvertently put down _hrinde_ instead of _hrimge_, which is a legitimate contraction of _hrimige_. Many scholars accepted this solution; but a further light was yet to come, viz. in 1904. In that year, Dr Joseph Wright printed the fifth volume of the _English Dialect Dictionary_, showing that in the dialects of Scotland, Northumberland, Durham, and Yorkshire, the word for "hoarfrost" is not _rime_, but _rind_, with a derived adjective _rindy_, which has the same sense as _rimy_. At the same time, he called attention yet once more to the passage in _Beowulf_. It is established, accordingly, that the suspected mistake in the MS. is no mistake at all; that the form _hrinde_ is correct, being a contraction of _hrindge_ or _hrindige_, plural of the adjective _hrindig_, which is preserved in our dialects, in the form _rindy_, to this very day. In direct contradiction of a common popular error that regards our dialectal forms as being, for the most part, "corrupt," it will be found by experience that they are remarkably conservative and antique. CHAPTER II DIALECTS IN EARLY TIMES The history of our dialects in the earliest periods of which we have any record is necessarily somewhat obscure, owing to the scarcity of the documents that have come down to us. The earliest of these have been carefully collected and printed in one volume by Dr Sweet, entitled _The Oldest English Texts_, edited for the Early English Text Society in 1885. Here we already find the existence of no less than four dialects, which have been called by the names of Northumbrian, Mercian, Wessex (or Anglo-Saxon), and Kentish. These correspond, respectively, though not quite exactly, to what we may roughly call Northern, Midland, Southern, and Kentish. Whether the limits of these dialects were always the same from the earliest times, we cannot tell; probably not, when the unsettled state of the country is considered, in the days when repeated invasions of the Danes and Norsemen necessitated constant efforts to repel them. It is therefore sufficient to define the areas covered by these dialects in quite a rough way. We may regard the Northumbrian or Northern as the dialect or group of dialects spoken to the north of the river Humber, as the name implies; the Wessex or Southern, as the dialect or group of dialects spoken to the south of the river Thames; the Kentish as being peculiar to Kent; and the Mercian as in use in the Midland districts, chiefly to the south of the Humber and to the north of the Thames. The modern limits are somewhat different, but the above division of the three chief dialects (excluding Kentish) into Northern, Midland, and Southern is sufficient for taking a broad general view of the language in the days before the Norman Conquest. The investigation of the differences of dialect in our early documents only dates from 1885, owing to the previous impossibility of obtaining access to these oldest texts. Before that date, it so happened that nearly all the manuscripts that had been printed or examined were in one and the same dialect, viz. the Southern (or Wessex). The language employed in these was (somewhat unhappily) named "Anglo-Saxon"; and the very natural mistake was made of supposing that this "Anglo-Saxon" was the sole language (or dialect) which served for all the "Angles" and "Saxons" to be found in the "land of the Angles" or England. This is the reason why it is desirable to give the more general name of "Old English" to the oldest forms of our language, because this term can be employed collectively, so as to include Northumbrian, Mercian, "Anglo-Saxon" and Kentish under one designation. The name "Anglo-Saxon" was certainly rather inappropriate, as the speakers of it were mostly Saxons and not Angles at all; which leads up to the paradox that they did not speak "English"; for that, in the extreme literal sense, was the language of the Angles only! But now that the true relationship of the old dialects is known, it is not uncommon for scholars to speak of the Wessex dialect as "Saxon," and of the Northumbrian and Mercian dialects as "Anglian"; for the latter are found to have some features in common that differ sharply from those found in "Saxon." Manuscripts in the Southern dialect are fairly abundant, and contain poems, homilies, land-charters, laws, wills, translations of Latin treatises, glossaries, etc.; so that there is considerable variety. One of the most precious documents is the history known as the _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, which was continued even after the Conquest till the year 1154, when the death and burial of King Stephen were duly recorded. But specimens of the oldest forms of the Northern and Midland dialects are, on the other hand, very much fewer in number than students of our language desire, and are consequently deserving of special mention. They are duly enumerated in the chapters below, which discuss these dialects separately. Having thus sketched out the broad divisions into which our dialects may be distributed, I shall proceed to enter upon a particular discussion of each group, beginning with the Northern or Northumbrian. CHAPTER III THE DIALECTS OF NORTHUMBRIA; TILL A.D. 1000 In Professor Earle's excellent manual on Anglo-Saxon Literature, chapter V is entirely occupied with "the Anglian Period," and begins thus:--"While Canterbury was so important a seminary of learning, there was, in the Anglian region of Northumbria, a development of religious and intellectual life which makes it natural to regard the whole brilliant period from the later seventh to the early ninth century as the Anglian Period.... Anglia became for a century the light-spot of European history; and we here recognise the first great stage in the revival of learning, and the first movement towards the establishment of public order in things temporal and spiritual." Unfortunately for the student of English, though perhaps fortunately for the historian, the most important book belonging to this period was written in Latin. This was the _Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum_, or the Church History of the Anglian People. The writer was Beda, better known as "the Venerable Bede," who was born near Wearmouth (Durham) in 672, and lived for the greater part of his life at Jarrow, where he died in 735. He wrote several other works, also in Latin, most of which Professor Earle enumerates. It is said of Beda himself that he was "learned in our native songs," and it is probable that he wrote many things in his native Northumbrian or Durham dialect; but they have all perished, with the exception of one precious fragment of five lines, printed by Dr Sweet (at p. 149) from the St Gall MS. No. 254, of the ninth century. It is usually called Beda's Death-song, and is here given: Fore there neidfaerae naenig uuiurthit thonc-snotturra than him thar[f] sie, to ymbhycggannae, aer his hin-iong[a]e, huaet his gastae, godaes aeththa yflaes, aefter deoth-daege doemid uueorth[a]e. Literally translated, this runs as follows: Before the need-journey no one becomes more wise in thought than he ought to be, (in order) to contemplate, ere his going hence, what for his spirit, (either) of good or of evil, after (his) death-day, will be adjudged. It is from Beda's _Church History_, Book IV, chap. 24 (or 22), that we learn the story of Cædmon, the famous Northumbrian poet, who was a herdsman and lay brother in the abbey of Whitby, in the days of the abbess Hild, who died in 680, near the close of the seventh century. He received the gift of divine song in a vision of the night; and after the recognition by the abbess and others of his heavenly call, became a member of the religious fraternity, and devoted the rest of his life to the composition of sacred poetry. He sang (says Beda) the Creation of the world, the origin of the human race, and all the history of Genesis; the departure of Israel out of Egypt and their entrance into the land of promise, with many other histories from holy writ; the incarnation, passion, and resurrection of our Lord, and His ascension into heaven; the coming of the Holy Spirit and the teaching of the Apostles. Likewise of the terror of the future judgement, the horror of punishment in hell, and the bliss of the heavenly kingdom he made many poems; and moreover, many others concerning divine benefits and judgements; in all which he sought to wean men from the love of sin, and to stimulate them to the enjoyment and pursuit of good action. It happens that we still possess some poems which answer more or less to this description; but they are all of later date and are only known from copies written in the Southern dialect of Wessex; and, as the original Northumbrian text has unfortunately perished, we have no means of knowing to what extent they represent Cædmon's work. It is possible that they preserve some of it in a more or less close form of translation, but we cannot verify this possibility. It has been ascertained, on the other hand, that a certain portion (but by no means all) of these poems is adapted, with but slight change, from an original poem written in the Old Saxon of the continent. Nevertheless, it so happens that a short hymn of nine lines has been preserved nearly in the original form, as Cædmon dictated it; and it corresponds closely with Beda's Latin version. It is found at the end of the Cambridge MS. of Beda's _Historia Ecclesiastica_ in the following form: Nu scylun hergan hefaenricaes uard, metudæs maecti end his modgidanc, uerc uuldurfadur; sue he uundra gihuaes, eci Dryctin, or astelidæ. He aerist scop aelda barnum heben til hrofe, haleg scepen[d]. Tha middungeard moncynnæs uard, eci Dryctin, æfter tiadæ firum fold[u], frea allmectig. I here subjoin a literal translation. Now ought we to praise the warden of heaven's realm, the Creator's might and His mind's thought, the works of the Father of glory; (even) as He, of every wonder, (being) eternal Ruler, established the beginning. He first (of all) shaped, for the sons of men, heaven as (their) roof, (He) the holy Creator. The middle world (He), mankind's warden, eternal Ruler, afterwards prepared, the world for men--(being the) Almighty Lord. The locality of these lines is easily settled, as we may assign them to Whitby. Similarly, Beda's Death-song may be assigned to the county of Durham. A third poem, extending to fourteen lines, may be called the "Northumbrian Riddle." It is called by Dr Sweet the "Leiden Riddle," because the MS. that contains it is now at Leyden, in Holland. The locality is unknown, but we may assign it to Yorkshire or Durham without going far wrong. There is another copy in a Southern dialect. These three brief poems, viz. Beda's Death-song, Cædmon's Hymn, and the Riddle, are all printed, accessibly, in Sweet's _Anglo-Saxon Reader_. There is another relic of Old Northumbrian, apparently belonging to the middle of the eighth century, which is too remarkable to be passed over. I refer to the famous Ruthwell cross, situate not far to the west of Annan, near the southern coast of Dumfriesshire, and near the English border. On each of its four faces it bears inscriptions; on two opposite faces in Latin, and on the other two in runic characters. Each of the latter pair contains a few lines of Northern poetry, selected from a poem (doubtless by the poet Cynewulf) which is preserved in full in a much later Southern (or Wessex) copy in a MS. at Vercelli in Piedmont (Italy). On the side which Professor Stephens calls _the front_ of the cross, the runic inscriptions give us two quotations, both imperfect at the end; and the same is true of the opposite side or _back_. The MS. helps us to restore letters that are missing or broken, and in this way we can be tolerably sure of the correct readings. The two quotations in front are as follows: it will be seen that the cross itself is supposed to be the speaker. 1. [on]geredæ hinæ god almechttig tha he walde on galgu gistiga, modig fore allæ men; buga [ic ni darstæ.] 2. [ahof] ic riicnæ kyningc, heafunæs hlafard; hælda ic ni darstæ. bismæradu ungket men ba æt-gadre. ic wæs mith blodæ bistemid bigoten of [his sidan.] The two quotations at the back are these: 3. Crist wæs on rodi; hwethræ ther fusæ fearran cwomu æththilæ til anum; ic thæt al biheald. sare ic wæs mith sorgum gidr{oe}fid; hnag [ic hwethræ tham secgum til handa.] 4. mith strelum giwundad alegdun hiæ hinæ limw{oe}rignæ; gistoddum him æt his licæs heafdum, bihealdun hiæ ther heafun[æs hlafard.] The literal meaning of the lines is as follows: 1. God almighty stripped Himself when He would mount upon the gallows (the cross), courageous before all men; I (the cross) durst not bow down 2. I (the cross) reared up the royal King, the Lord of heaven; I durst not bend down. men reviled us two (the cross and Christ) both together. I was moistened with the blood poured forth from His side. 3. Christ was upon the cross; howbeit, thither came eagerly from afar princes to (see) that One; I beheld all that. sorely was I afflicted with sorrows; I submitted however to the men's hands. 4. wounded with arrows, they laid Him down, weary in His limbs. they stood beside Him, at the head of His corpse. they beheld there the Lord of heaven. In the late MS. it is the cross that is wounded by arrows; whereas in the runic inscription it seems to be implied that it was Christ Himself that was so wounded. The allusion is in any case very obscure; but the latter notion makes the better sense, and is capable of being explained by the Norse legend of Balder, who was frequently shot at by the other gods in sport, as he was supposed to be invulnerable; but he was slain thus one day by a shaft made of mistletoe, which alone had power to harm him. There is also extant a considerable number of very brief inscriptions, such as that on a column at Bewcastle, in Cumberland; but they contribute little to our knowledge except the forms of proper names. The _Liber Vitæ_ of Durham, written in the ninth century, contains between three and four thousand such names, but nothing else. Coming down to the tenth century, we meet with three valuable documents, all of which are connected with Durham, generally known as the Durham Ritual and the Northumbrian Gospels. The Durham Ritual was edited for the Surtees Society in 1840 by the Rev. J. Stevenson. The MS. is in the Cathedral library at Durham, and contains three distinct Latin service-books, with Northumbrian glosses in various later hands, besides a number of unglossed Latin additions. A small portion of the MS. has been misplaced by the binder; the Latin prose on pp. 138-145 should follow that on p. 162. Mr Stevenson's edition exhibits a rather large number of misreadings, most of which (I fear not quite all) are noted in my "Collation of the Durham Ritual" printed in the _Philological Society's Transactions_, 1877-9, Appendix II. I give, by way of specimen, a curious passage (at p. 192), which tells us all about the eight pounds of material that went to make up the body of Adam. aehto pundo of thæm aworden is Adam pund lames of thon Octo pondera de quibus factus est Adam. Pondus limi, inde aworden is flæsc pund fyres of thon read is blod and hat factus est caro; pondus ignis, inde rubeus est sanguis et calidus; pund saltes of thon sindon salto tehero pund deawes of thon pondus salis, inde sunt salsae lacrimae; pondus roris, unde aworden is swat pund blostmes of thon is fagung egena factus est sudor; pondus floris, inde est uarietas oculorum; pund wolcnes of thon is unstydfullnisse _vel_ unstatholfæstnisse pondus nubis, inde est instabilitas thohta mentium; pund windes of thon is oroth cald pund gefe of thon is pondus uenti, inde est anhela frigida: pondus gratiae, id est thoht monnes sensus hominis. We thus learn that Adam's flesh was made of a pound of loam; his red and hot blood, of fire; his salt tears, of salt; his sweat, of dew; the colour of his eyes, of flowers; the instability of his thoughts, of cloud; his cold breath, of wind; and his intelligence, of grace. The Northumbrian glosses on the four Gospels are contained in two MSS., both of remarkable interest and value. The former of these, sometimes known as the Lindisfarne MS., and sometimes as the Durham Book, is now MS. Cotton, Nero D. 4 in the British Museum, and is one of the chief treasures in our national collection. It contains a beautifully executed Latin text of the four Gospels, written in the isle of Lindisfarne, by Eadfrith (bishop of Lindisfarne in 698-721), probably before 700. The interlinear Northumbrian gloss is two and a half centuries later, and was made by Aldred, a priest, about 950, at a time when the MS. was kept at Chester-le-Street, near Durham, whither it had been removed for greater safety. Somewhat later it was again removed to Durham, where it remained for several centuries. The second MS. is called the Rushworth MS., as it was presented to the Bodleian Library (Oxford) by John Rushworth, who was deputy-clerk to the House of Commons during the Long Parliament. The Latin text was written, probably in the eighth century, by a scribe named Macregol. The gloss, written in the latter half of the tenth century, is in two hands, those of Farman and Owun, whose names are given. Farman was a priest of Harewood, on the river Wharfe, in the West Riding of Yorkshire. He glossed the whole of St Matthew's Gospel, and a very small portion of St Mark. It is worthy of especial notice, that his gloss, throughout St Matthew, is not in the Northumbrian dialect, but in a form of Mercian. But it is clear that when he had completed this first Gospel, he borrowed the Lindisfarne MS. as a guide to help him, and kept it before him when he began to gloss St Mark. He at once began to copy the glosses in the older MS., with slight occasional variations in the grammar; but he soon tired of his task, and turned it over to Owun, who continued it to the end. The result is that the Northumbrian glosses in this MS., throughout the three last Gospels, are of no great value, as they tell us little more than can be better learnt from the Durham book; on the other hand, Farman's Mercian gloss to St Matthew is of high value, but need not be considered at present. Hence it is best in this case to rely, for our knowledge of Old Northumbrian, on the Durham book _alone_. It must be remembered that a gloss is not quite the same thing as a free translation that observes the rules of grammar. A gloss translates the Latin text word by word, in the order of that text; so that the glossator can neither observe the natural English order nor in all cases preserve the English grammar; a fact which somewhat lessens its value, and must always be allowed for. It is therefore necessary, in all cases, to ascertain the Latin text. I subjoin a specimen, from Matt, v 11-15. eadge aron ge mith thy yfle hia gecuoethas iuh and mith thy 11. Beati estis cum maledixerunt uobis et cum oehtas iuih and cuoethas eghwelc yfel with iuih persecuti uos fuerint et dixerint omne malum aduersum uos gesuicas _vel_ wæges fore mec gefeath and wynnsumiath forthon mentientes propter me. 12. gaudete et exultate quoniam mearda iuere monigfalde is _vel_ sint merces uestra copiosa est in heofnum suæ _vel_ suelce ec forthon in caelis sic enim ge-oehton tha witgo tha the weron ær iuih gee persecuti sunt prophetas qui fuerunt ante uos. 13. Uos sint salt eorthes thæt gif salt forworthes in thon gesælted bith to estis sal terrae quod si sal euanuerit in quo sallietur ad nowihte _vel_ nænihte mæge ofer thæt nihilum ualet ultra buta thæt gesended bith _vel_ geworpen út nisi ut mittatur foras and getreden bith from monnum et conculcetur ab hominibus gie aron _vel_ sint leht middangeardes 14. Uos estis lux mundi ne mæg burug _vel_ ceastra gehyda _vel_ gedeigla ofer mor geseted non potest ciuitas abscondi supra monte posita. ne ec bernas thæccille _vel_ leht-fæt 15. neque accendunt lucernam and settas tha _vel_ hia unther mitte et ponunt eam sub _vel_ under sestre ah ofer leht-isern and lihteth allum tha the in modio sed super candelabrum et luceat omnibus qui in hus bithon _vel_ sint domo sunt. The history of the Northern dialect during the next three centuries, from the year 1000 to nearly 1300, with a few insignificant exceptions, is a total blank. CHAPTER IV THE DIALECTS OF NORTHUMBRIA; A.D. 1300-1400 A little before 1300, we come to a _Metrical English Psalter_, published by the Surtees Society in 1843-7. The language is supposed to represent the speech of Yorkshire. It is translated (rather closely) from the Latin Vulgate version. I give a specimen from Psalm xviii, 14-20. 14. He sent his arwes, and skatered tha; Felefalded levening, and dreved tham swa. 15. And schewed welles of watres ware, And groundes of ertheli world unhiled are, For thi snibbing, Laverd myne; For onesprute of gast of wreth thine. 16. He sent fra hegh, and uptoke me; Fra many watres me nam he. 17. He out-toke me thare amang Fra my faas that war sa strang, And fra tha me that hated ai; For samen strenghthed over me war thai 18. Thai forcome me in daie of twinging, And made es Layered mi forhiling. 19. And he led me in brede to be; Sauf made he me, for he wald me; 20. And foryhelde to me Laverd sal After mi rightwisenes al. And after clensing of mi hende Sal he yhelde to me at ende. The literal sense is:--"He sent His arrows and scattered them; multiplied (His) lightning and so afflicted them. And the wells of waters were shown, and the foundations of the earthly world are uncovered because of Thy snubbing (rebuke), O my Lord! because of the blast (Lat. _inspiratio_) of the breath of Thy wrath. He sent from on high, and took me up; from many waters He took me. He took me out there-among from my foes that were so strong, and from those that alway hated me; for they were strengthened together over me. They came before me in the day of affliction, and the Lord is made my protection. And He led me (so as) to be in a broad place; He made me safe, because He desired (lit. would) me; and the Lord shall requite me according to all my righteousness, and according to the cleanness of my hands shall He repay me in the end." In this specimen we can already discern some of the chief characteristics which are so conspicuous in Lowland Scotch MSS. of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The most striking is the almost total loss of the final _-e_ which is so frequently required to form an extra syllable when we try to scan the poetry of Chaucer. Even where a final _-e_ is written in the above extract, it is wholly silent. The words _ware_ (were), _are_ (are), _myne_, _thine_, _toke_, _made_, _brede_, _hende_, _ende_, are all monosyllabic; and in fact the large number of monosyllabic words is very striking. The words _onesprute_, _forcome_, _foryhelde_ are, in like manner, dissyllabic. The only suffixes that count in the scansion are _-en_, _-ed_, and _-es_; as in _sam-en_, _skat'r-èd_, _drev-èd_, _hat-èd_, etc., and _arw-ès_, _well-ès_, _watr-ès_, etc. The curious form _sal_, for "shall," is a Northern characteristic. So also is the form _hende_ as the plural of "hand"; the Southern plural was often _hond-en_, and the Midland form was _hond-ès_ or _hand-ès_. Note also the characteristic long _a_; as in _swa_ for _swo_, so; _gast_, ghost; _fra_, fro; _faas_, foes. It was pronounced like the _a_ in _father_. A much longer specimen of the _Metrical English Psalter_ will be found in _Specimens of Early English_, ed. Morris and Skeat, Part II, pp. 23-34, and is easily accessible. In the same volume, the Specimens numbered VII, VIII, X, XI, and XVI are also in Northumbrian, and can easily be examined. It will therefore suffice to give a very brief account of each. VII. _Cursor Mundi_, or _Cursor o Werld_, i.e. Over-runner of the World; so called because it rehearses a great part of the world's history, from the creation onwards. It is a poem of portentous length, extending to 29,655 lines, and recounts many of the events found in the Old and New Testaments, with the addition of legends from many other sources, one of them, for example, being the _Historia Scholastica_ of Peter Comestor. Dr Murray thinks it may have been written in the neighbourhood of Durham. The specimen given (pp. 69-82) corresponds to lines 11373-11796. VIII. _Sunday Homilies in Verse_; about 1330. The extracts are taken from _English Metrical Homilies_, edited by J. Small (Edinburgh, 1862) from a MS. in Edinburgh. The Northern dialect is well marked, but I do not know to what locality to assign it. X. Richard Rolle, of Hampole, near Doncaster, wrote a poem called _The Prick of Conscience_, about 1340. It extends to 9624 lines, and was edited by Dr Morris for the Philological Society in 1863. The Preface to this edition is of especial value, as it carefully describes the characteristics of Northumbrian, and practically laid the foundation of our knowledge of the old dialects as exhibited in MSS. Lists are given of orthographical differences between the Northern dialect and others, and an analysis is added giving the grammatical details which determine its Northern character. Much of this information is repeated in the Introduction to the _Specimens of English_, Part II, pp. xviii-xxxviii. XI. _The Poems of Laurence Minot_ belong to the middle of the fourteenth century. He composed eleven poems in celebration of events that occurred between the years 1333 and 1352. They were first printed by Ritson in 1795; and subsequently by T. Wright, in his _Political Poems and Songs_ (London, 1859); and are now very accessible in the excellent and cheap (second) edition by Joseph Hall (Oxford University Press). There is also a German edition by Dr Wilhelm Scholle. The poet seems to have been connected with Yorkshire, and the dialect is not purely Northern, as it shows a slight admixture of Midland forms. XVI. _The Bruce_; by John Barbour; partly written in 1375. It has been frequently printed, viz. in 1616, 1620, 1670, 1672, 1715, 1737, and 1758; and was edited by Pinkerton in 1790, by Jamieson in 1820, and by Cosmo Innes in 1866; also by myself (for the Early English Text Society) in 1870-89; and again (for the Scottish Text Society) in 1893-5. Unfortunately, the two extant MSS. were both written out about a century after the date of composition. Nevertheless, we have the text of more than 260 lines as it existed in 1440, as this portion was quoted by Andro of Wyntown, in his _Cronykil of Scotland_, written at that date. I quote some lines from this portion, taken from _The Bruce_, Book i, 37-56, 91-110; with a few explanations in the footnotes. Qwhen Alysandyre oure kyng wes dede, That Scotland had to stere{1} and lede, The land sex yhere and mayr perfay{2} Wes desolate efftyr his day. The barnage{3} off Scotland, at the last, Assemblyd thame, and fandyt{4} fast To chess{5} a kyng, thare land to stere, That off awncestry cummyn were Off kyngis that aucht{6} that reawté{7}, And mast{8} had rycht thare kyng to be. But inwy{9}, that is sa fellowne{10}, Amang thame mad dissensiown: For sum wald have the Ballyolle kyng, For he wes cumyn off that ofspryng That off the eldest systere was; And other sum nyt{11} all that cas, And sayd, that he thare kyng suld be, That wes in als nere{12} degre, And cummyn wes off the nerrast male In thai{13} brawnchys collateralle... {Footnotes: 1: _govern_ 2: _more, by my faith_ 3: _nobility_ 4: _endeavoured_ 5: _choose_ 6: _possessed_ 7: _royalty_ 8: _most_ 9: _envy_ 10: _wicked_ 11: _others denied_ 12: _as near_ 13: _those_ } A! blynd folk, fulle off all foly, Had yhe wmbethowcht{14} yowe inkkyrly{15} Quhat peryle to yowe mycht appere, Yhe had noucht wroucht on this manèr. Had yhe tane kepe{16}, how that that kyng Off Walys, forowtyn sudiowrnyng{17}, Trawaylyd{18} to wyn the senyhowry{19}, And throw his mycht till occupy Landys, that ware till hym marchand{20}, As Walys was, and als Irland, That he put till sic threllage{21}, That thai, that ware off hey parage{22}, Suld ryn on fwte, as rybalddale{23}, Quhen ony folk he wald assale. Durst nane of Walis in batale ryd, Na yhit, fra evyn fell{24}, abyde Castell or wallyd towne within, Than{25} he suld lyff and lymmys tyne{26}. Into swylk thryllage{27} thame held he That he owre-come with his powsté{28}. {Footnotes: 14: _bethought_ 15: _especially_ 16: _taken heed_ 17: _without delay_ 18: _laboured_ 19: _sovereignty_ 20: _bordering_ 21: _such subjection_ 22: _high rank_ 23: _rabble_ 24: _after evening fell_ 25: _but_ 26: _lose_ 27: _thraldom_ 28: _power_ } In this extract, as in that from the _Metrical Psalter_ above, there is a striking preponderance of monosyllables, and, as in that case also, the final _-e_ is invariably silent in such words as _oure_, _stere_, _lede_, _yhere_, _thare_, _were_, etc., just as in modern English. The grammar is, for the most part, extremely simple, as at the present day. The chief difficulty lies in the vocabulary, which contains some words that are either obsolete or provincial. Many of the obsolete words are found in other dialects; thus _stere_, to control, _perfay_, _fonden_ (for _fanden_), _chesen_, to choose, _feloun_, adj. meaning "angry," _take kepe_, _soiourne_, to tarry, _travaile_, to labour, _parage_, rank, all occur in Chaucer; _barnage_, _reauté_, in _William of Palerne_ (in the Midland dialect, possibly Shropshire); _oughte_, owned, possessed, _tyne_, to lose, in _Piers the Plowman_; _umbethinken_, in the _Ormulum_; _enkerly_ (for _inkkyrly_), in the alliterative _Morte Arthure_; _march_, to border upon, in _Mandeville_; _seignorie_, in _Robert of Gloucester_. Barbour is rather fond of introducing French words; _rybalddale_ occurs in no other author. _Threllage_ or _thryllage_ may have been coined from _threll_ (English _thrall_), by adding a French suffix. As to the difficult word _nyt_, see _Nite_ in the _N.E.D._ In addition to the poems, etc., already mentioned, further material may be found in the prose works of Richard Rolle of Hampole, especially his translation and exposition of the Psalter, edited by the Rev. H.R. Bramley (Oxford, 1884), and the Prose Treatises edited by the Rev. G.G. Perry for the Early English Text Society. Dr Murray further calls attention to the Early Scottish Laws, of which the vernacular translations partly belong to the fourteenth century. I have now mentioned the chief authorities for the study of the Northern dialect from early times down to 1400. Examination of them leads directly to a result but little known, and one that is in direct contradiction to general uninstructed opinion; namely that, down to this date, the varieties of Northumbrian are much fewer and slighter than they afterwards became, and that the written documents are practically all in one and the same dialect, or very nearly so, from the Humber as far north as Aberdeen. The irrefragable results noted by Dr Murray will probably come as a surprise to many, though they have now been before the public for more than forty years. The Durham dialect of the _Cursor Mundi_ and the Aberdeen Scotch of Barbour are hardly distinguishable by grammatical or orthographical tests; and both bear a remarkable resemblance to the Yorkshire dialect as found in Hampole. What is now called Lowland Scotch is so nearly descended from the Old Northumbrian that the latter was invariably called "Ingliss" by the writers who employed it; and they reserved the name of "Scottish" to designate Gaelic or Erse, the tongue of the original "Scots," who gave their name to the country. Barbour (_Bruce_, IV 253) calls his own language "Ynglis." Andro of Wyntown does the same, near the beginning of the Prologue to his _Cronykil_. The most striking case is that of Harry the Minstrel, who was so opposed to all Englanders, from a political point of view, that his whole poem breathes fury and hatred against them; and yet, in describing Wallace's French friend, Longueville, who knew no tongue but his own, he says of him (_Wallace_, IX 295-7): Lykly he was, manlik of contenance, _Lik to the Scottis_ be mekill governance _Saiff off his tong_, for _Inglis_ had he nane. Later still, Dunbar, near the conclusion of his _Golden Targe_, apostrophises Chaucer as being "in _oure Tong_ ane flouir imperiall," and says that he was "_of oure Inglisch_ all the lycht." It was not till 1513 that Gawain Douglas, in the Prologue to the first book of his translation of Virgil, claimed to have "writtin in the langage of Scottis natioun"; though Sir David Lyndesay, writing twenty-two years later, still gives the name of the "Inglisch toung" to the vulgar tongue of Scotland, in his _Satyre of the three Estaitis_. We should particularly notice Dr Murray's statement, in his essay on _The Dialect of the Southern Counties of Scotland_, at p. 29, that "Barbour at Aberdeen, and Richard Rolle de Hampole near Doncaster, wrote for their several countrymen in the same identical dialect." The division between the English of the Scottish Lowlands and the English of Yorkshire was purely political, having no reference to race or speech, but solely to locality; and yet, as Dr Murray remarks, the struggle for supremacy "made every one either an Englishman or a Scotchman, and made English and Scotch names of division and bitter enmity." So strong, indeed, was the division thus created that it has continued to the present day; and it would be very difficult even now to convince a native of the Scottish Lowlands--unless he is a philologist--that he is likely to be of Anglian descent, and to have a better title to be called an "Englishman" than a native of Hampshire or Devon, who, after all, may be only a Saxon. And of course it is easy enough to show how widely the old "Northern" dialect varies from the difficult Southern English found in the Kentish _Ayenbite of Inwyt_, or even from the Midland of Chaucer's poems. To quote from Dr Murray once more (p. 41): "the facts are still far from being generally known, and I have repeatedly been amused, on reading passages from _Cursor Mundi_ and Hampole to men of education, both English and Scotch, to hear them all pronounce the dialect 'Old Scotch.' Great has been the surprise of the latter especially on being told that Richard the Hermit [i.e. of Hampole] wrote in the extreme south of Yorkshire, within a few miles of a locality so thoroughly English as Sherwood Forest, with its memories of Robin Hood. Such is the difficulty which people have in separating the natural and ethnological relations in which national names originate from the accidental values which they acquire through political complications and the fortunes of crowns and dynasties, that oftener than once the protest has been made-- 'Then he must have been a Scotchman settled there!'" The retort is obvious enough, that Barbour and Henry the Minstrel and Dunbar and Lyndesay have all recorded that their native language was "Inglis" or "Inglisch"; and it is interesting to note that, having regard to the pronunciation, they seem to have known, better than we do, how that name ought to be spelt. CHAPTER V NORTHUMBRIAN IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY The subject of the last chapter was one of great importance. When it is once understood that, down to 1400 or a little later, the men of the Scottish Lowlands and the men of the northern part of England spoke not only the same language, but the same dialect of that language, it becomes easy to explain what happened afterwards. There was, nevertheless, one profound difference between the circumstances of the language spoken to the north of the Tweed and that spoken to the south of it. In Scotland, the Northumbrian dialect was spoken by all but the Celts, without much variety; the minor differences need not be here considered. And this dialect, called Inglis (as we have seen) by the Lowlanders themselves, had no rival, as the difference between it and the Erse or Gaelic was obvious and immutable. To the South of the Tweed, the case was different. England already possessed three dialects at least, viz. Northumbrian, Mercian, and Saxon, i.e. Northern, Midland, and Southern; besides which, Midland had at the least two main varieties, viz. Eastern and Western. Between all these there was a long contention for supremacy. In very early days, the Northern took the lead, but its literature was practically destroyed by the Danes, and it never afterwards attained to anything higher than a second place. From the time of Alfred, the standard language of literature was the Southern, and it kept the lead till long after the Conquest, well down to 1200 and even later, as will be explained hereafter. But the Midland dialect, which is not without witness to its value in the ninth century, began in the thirteenth to assume an important position, which in the fourteenth became dominant and supreme, exalted as it was by the genius of Chaucer. Its use was really founded on practical convenience. It was intermediate between the other two, and could be more or less comprehended both by the Northerner and the Southerner, though these could hardly understand each other. The result was, naturally, that whilst the Northumbrian to the north of the Tweed was practically supreme, the Northumbrian to the south of it soon lost its position as a literary medium. It thus becomes clear that we must, during the fifteenth century, treat the Northumbrian of England and that of Scotland separately. Let us first investigate its position in England. But before this can be appreciated, it is necessary to draw attention to the fact that the literature of the fifteenth century, in nearly all the text-books that treat of the subject, has been most unjustly underrated. The critics, nearly all with one accord, repeat the remark that it is a "barren" period, with nothing admirable about it, at any rate in England; that it shows us the works of Hoccleve and Lydgate near the beginning, _The Flower and the Leaf_ near the middle (about 1460), and the ballad of _The Nut-brown Maid_ at the end of it, and nothing else that is remarkable. In other words, they neglect its most important characteristic, that it was the chief period of the lengthy popular romances and of the popular plays out of which the great dramas of the succeeding century took their rise. To which it deserves to be added that it contains many short poems of a fugitive character, whilst a vast number of very popular ballads were in constant vogue, sometimes handed down without much change by a faithful tradition, but more frequently varied by the fancy of the more competent among the numerous wandering minstrels. To omit from the fifteenth century nearly all account of its romances and plays and ballads is like omitting the part of Hamlet the Dane from Shakespeare's greatest tragedy. The passion for long romances or romantic poems had already arisen in the fourteenth century, and, to some extent, in the thirteenth. Even just before 1300, we meet with the lays of _Havelok_ and _Horn_. In the fourteenth century, it is sufficient to mention the romances of _Sir Guy of Warwick_ (the earlier version), _Sir Bevis of Hamtoun_, and _Libeaus Desconus_, all mentioned by Chaucer; _Sir Launfal_, _The Seven Sages_ (earlier version, as edited by Weber); _Lai le Freine_, _Richard Coer de Lion_, _Amis and Amiloun_, _The King of Tars_, _William of Palerne_, _Joseph of Arimathea_ (a fragment), _Sir Gawain and the Grene Knight_, _Alisaunder of Macedoine_ and _Alexander and Dindimus_ (two fragments of one very long poem), _Sir Ferumbras_, and _Sir Isumbras_. The spirited romance generally known as the alliterative _Morte Arthure_ must also belong here, though the MS. itself is of later date. The series was actively continued during the fifteenth century, when we find, besides others, the romances of _Iwain and Gawain_, _Sir Percival_, and _Sir Cleges_; _The Sowdon_ (Sultan) _of Babylon_; _The Aunturs_ (Adventures) _of Arthur_, _Sir Amadas_, _The Avowing of Arthur_, and _The Life of Ipomidoun_; _The Wars of Alexander_, _The Seven Sages_ (later version, edited by Wright); _Torrent of Portugal_, _Sir Gowther_, _Sir Degrevant_, _Sir Eglamour_, _Le Bone Florence of Rome_, and _Partonope of Blois_; the prose version of _Merlin_, the later version of _Sir Guy of Warwick_, and the verse Romance, of immense length, of _The Holy Grail_; _Emare_, _The Erl of Tolous_, and _The Squire of Low Degree_. Towards the end of the century, when the printing-press was already at work, we find Caxton greatly busying himself to continue the list. Not only did he give us the whole of Sir Thomas Malory's _Morte D'Arthur_, "enprynted and fynysshed in thabbey Westmestre the last day of Iuyl, the yere of our lord MCCCCLXXXV"; but he actually translated several romances into very good English prose on his own account, viz. _Godefroy of Boloyne_ (1481), _Charles the Grete_ (1485), _The Knight Paris and the fair Vyene_ (1485), _Blanchardyn and Eglantine_ (about 1489), and _The Four Sons of Aymon_ (about 1490). We must further put to the credit of the fifteenth century the remarkable English version of the _Gesta Romanorum_, and many more versions by Caxton, such as _The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye_, _The Life of Jason_, _Eneydos_ (which is Virgil's _Æneid_ in the form of a prose romance), _The Golden Legend_ or Lives of Saints, and _Reynard the Fox_. When all these works are considered, the fifteenth century emerges with considerable credit. It remains to look at some of the above-named romances a little more closely, in order to see if any of them are in the dialect of Northern England. Some of them are written by scribes belonging to other parts, but there seems to be little doubt that the following were in that dialect originally, viz. (1) _Iwain and Gawain_, printed in Ritson's _Ancient Metrical Romances_, and belonging to the very beginning of the century, extant in the same MS. as that which contains Minot's _Poems_: (2) _The Wars of Alexander_ (Early English Text Society, 1886), edited by myself; see the Preface, pp. xv, xix, for proofs that it was originally written in a pure Northumbrian dialect, which the better of the two MSS. very fairly preserves. Others exhibit strong traces of a Northern dialect, such as _The Aunturs of Arthur_, _Sir Amadas_, and _The Avowing of Arthur_, but they may be in a West Midland dialect, not far removed from the North. In the preface to _The Sege of Melayne_ (Milan) _and Roland and Otuel_, edited for the Early English Text Society by S.J. Herrtage, it is suggested that both these poems were by the author of _Sir Percival_, and that all three were originally in the dialect of the North of England. _Iwain and Gawain_ and _The Wars of Alexander_ belong to quite the beginning of the fifteenth century, and they appear to be among the latest examples of the literary use of dialect in the North of England considered as a vehicle for romances; but we must not forget the "miracle plays," and in particular _The Towneley Mysteries_ or plays acted at or near Wakefield in Yorkshire, and _The York Plays_, lately edited by Miss Toulmin Smith. Examples of Southern English likewise come to an end about the same time; it is most remarkable how very soon, after the death of Chaucer, the Midland dialect not only assumed a leading position, but enjoyed that proud position almost alone. The rapid loss of numerous inflexions, soon after 1400, made that dialect, which was already in possession of such important centres as London, Oxford, and Cambridge, much easier to learn, and brought its grammar much nearer to that in use in the North. It even compromised, as it were, with that dialect by accepting from it the general use of such important words as _they_, _their_, _them_, the plural verb _are_, and the preposition _till_. There can be little doubt that one of the causes of the cessation of varying forms of words in literary use was the civil strife known as the Wars of the Roses, which must for a brief period have been hostile to all literary activity; and very shortly afterwards the printing-presses of London all combined to recognise, in general, one dialect only. Hence it came about, by a natural but somewhat rapid process, that the only dialect which remained unaffected by the triumph of the Midland variety was that portion of the Northern dialect which still held its own in Scotland, where it was spoken by subjects of another king. As far as literature was concerned, only two dialects were available, the Northumbrian of Scotland and the East Midland in England. It is obvious that the readiest way of distinguishing between the two is to call the one "Scottish" and the other "English," ignoring accuracy for the sake of practical convenience. This is precisely what happened in course of time, and the new nomenclature would have done no harm if the study of Middle English had been at all general. But such was not the case, and the history of our literature was so much neglected that even those who should have been well informed knew no better than others. The chief modern example is the well-known case of that most important and valuable book entitled _An Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, by John Jamieson, D.D., first published in Edinburgh in 1808. There is no great harm in the title, if for "Language" we read "Dialect"; but this great and monumental work was unluckily preceded by a "Dissertation on the Origin of the Scottish Language," in which wholly mistaken and wrongheaded views are supported with great ingenuity and much show of learning. In the admirable new edition of "Jamieson" by Longmuir and Donaldson, published at Paisley in 1879, this matter is set right. They quite rightly reprint this "Dissertation," which affords valuable testimony as to the study of English in 1808, but accompany it with most judicious remarks, which are well worthy of full repetition. "That once famous Dissertation can now be considered only a notable feat of literary card-building; more remarkable for the skill and ingenuity of its construction than for its architectural correctness, strength and durability, or practical usefulness. That the language of the Scottish Lowlands is in all important particulars the same as that of the northern counties of England, will be evident to any unbiassed reader who takes the trouble to compare the Scottish Dictionary with the Glossaries of Brockett, Atkinson, and Peacock. And the similarity is attested in another way by the simple but important fact, that regarding some of our Northern Metrical Romances it is still disputed whether they were composed to the north or the south of the Tweed.... And to this conclusion all competent scholars have given their consent." For those who really understand the situation there is no harm in accepting the distinction between "Scottish" and "English," as explained above. Hence it is that the name of "Middle Scots" has been suggested for "the literary language of Scotland written between the latter half of the fifteenth century and the early decades of the seventeenth." Most of this literature is highly interesting, at any rate much more so than the "English" literature of the same period, as has been repeatedly remarked. Indeed, this is so well known that special examples are needless; I content myself with referring to the _Specimens of Middle Scots_, by G. Gregory Smith, Edinburgh and London, 1902. These specimens include extracts from such famous authors as Henryson, Dunbar, Gawain (or Gavin) Douglas, Sir David Lyndesay, John Knox, and George Buchanan. Perhaps it is well to add that "Scottis" or "Scots" is the Northern form of "Scottish" or "Scotch"; just as "Inglis" is the Northern form of "English." "Middle Scots" implies both "Old Scots" and "Modern Scots." "Old Scots" is, of course, the same thing as Northumbrian or Northern English of the Middle English Period, which may be roughly dated as extant from 1300 to 1400 or 1450. "Modern Scots" is the dialect (when they employ dialect) illustrated by Allan Ramsay, Alexander Ross, Robert Tannahill, John Galt, James Hogg (the Ettrick Shepherd), Robert Burns, Sir Walter Scott, and very many others. I conclude this chapter with a characteristic example of Middle Scots. The following well-known passage is from the conclusion to Dunbar's _Golden Targe_. And as I did awake of my sweving{1}, The ioyfull birdis merily did syng For myrth of Phebus tendir bemës schene{2}; Swete war the vapouris, soft the morowing{3}, Halesum the vale, depaynt wyth flouris ying{4}; The air attemperit, sobir, and amene{5}; In quhite and rede was all the feld besene{6} Throu Naturis nobil fresch anamalyng{7}, In mirthfull May, of eviry moneth Quene. O reverend Chaucere, rose of rethoris{8} all, As in oure tong ane flour{9} imperiall, That raise{10} in Britane evir, quho redis rycht, Thou beris of makaris{11} the tryúmph riall; Thy fresch anamalit termës celicall{12} This mater coud illumynit have full brycht; Was thou noucht of oure Inglisch all the lycht, Surmounting eviry tong terrestriall Als fer as Mayis morow dois mydnycht? O morall Gower, and Ludgate laureate, Your sugurit lippis and tongis aureate{13} Bene to oure eris cause of grete delyte; Your angel mouthis most mellifluate{14} Oure rude langage has clere illumynate, And faire our-gilt{15} oure speche, that imperfýte Stude, or{16} your goldyn pennis schupe{17} to wryte; This ile before was bare, and desolate Of rethorike, or lusty{18} fresch endyte{19}. {Footnotes: 1: _dream_ 2: _bright_ 3: _morn_ 4: _young_ 5: _pleasant_ 6: _arrayed_ 7: _enamelling_ 8: _orators_ 9: _flower_ 10: _didst rise_ 11: _poets_ 12: _heavenly_ 13: _golden_ 14: _honeyed_ 15: _overgilt_ 16: _ere_ 17: _undertook_ 18: _pleasant_ 19: _composition_} CHAPTER VI THE SOUTHERN DIALECT We have seen that the earliest dialect to assume literary supremacy was the Northern, and that at a very early date, namely, in the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries; but its early documents have nearly all perished. If, with the exception of one short fragment, any of Cædmon's poems have survived, they only exist in Southern versions of a much later date. The chief fosterer of our rather extensive Wessex (or Southern) literature, commonly called Anglo-Saxon, was the great Alfred, born at Wantage in Berkshire, to the south of the Thames. We may roughly define the limits of the Old Southern dialect by saying that it formerly included all the counties to the south of the Thames and to the west and south-west of Berkshire, including Wiltshire, Dorsetshire, Somersetshire, and Devonshire, but excluding Cornwall, in which the Cornish dialect of Celtic prevailed. It was at Athelney in Somersetshire, near the junction of the rivers Tone and Parrett, that Alfred, in the memorable year 878, when his dominions were reduced to a precarious sway over two or three counties, established his famous stronghold; from which he issued to inflict upon the foes of the future British empire a crushing and decisive defeat. And it was near Athelney, in the year 1693, that the ornament of gold and enamel was found, with its famous legend--ÆLFRED MEC HEHT GEWYRCAN--"Ælfred commanded (men) to make me." From his date to the Norman Conquest, the MSS. in the Anglo-Saxon or Southern dialect are fairly numerous, and it is mainly to them that we owe our knowledge of the grammar, the metre, and the pronunciation of the older forms of English. Sweet's _Anglo-Saxon Primer_ will enable any one to begin the study of this dialect, and to learn something valuable about it in the course of a month or two. The famous _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, beginning with a note concerning the year 1, when Augustus was emperor of Rome, not only continues our history down to the Conquest, but for nearly a century beyond it, to the year 1154. The language of the latter part, as extant in the (Midland) Laud MS., belongs to the twelfth century, and shows considerable changes in the spelling and grammar as compared with the Parker MS., which (not counting in a few later entries) ends with the year 1001. After the Conquest, the Southern dialect continued to be the literary language, and we have several examples of it. Extracts from some of the chief works are given in Part I of Morris's _Specimens of Early English_. They are selected from the following: (1) _Old English Homilies_, 1150-1200, as printed for the Early English Text Society, and edited by Dr Morris, 1867-8. (2) _Old English Homilies, Second Series_, before 1200, ed. Morris (E.E.T.S.), 1873. (3) _The Brut_, being a versified chronicle of the legendary history of Britain, compiled by Layamon, a Worcestershire priest, and extending to 32,240 (short) lines; in two versions, the date of the earlier being about 1205. (4) _A Life of St Juliana_, in two versions, about 1210; ed. Cockayne and Brock (E.E.T.S.), 1872. (5) _The Ancren Riwle_, or Rule of anchorite nuns (Camden Society), ed. Morton, 1853; the date of composition is about 1210. (6) _The Proverbs of Alfred_, about 1250; printed in Dr Morris's _Old English Miscellany_ (E.E.T.S.), 1872. A later edition, by myself, was printed at Oxford in 1907. (7) A poem by Nicholas de Guildford, entitled _The Owl and the Nightingale_, about 1250; ed. Rev. J. Stevenson, 1838; ed. T. Wright, 1843; ed. F.H. Stratmann, of Krefeld, 1868. (8) A curious poem of nearly 400 long lines, usually known as _A Moral Ode_, which seems to have been originally written at Christchurch, Hampshire, and frequently printed; one version is in Morris's _Old English Homilies_, and another in the Second Series of the same. (9) _The Romance of King Horn_; before 1300, here printed in full. Just at the very end of the century we meet with two Southern poems of vast length. _The Metrical Chronicle_ of Robert of Gloucester, comprising the History of Britain from the Siege of Troy to the year 1272, the date of the accession of Edward I, and written in the dialect of Gloucester, was completed in 1298. It must seem strange to many to find that our history is thus connected with the Siege of Troy; but it must be remembered that our old histories, including Layamon's poem of _The Brut_ mentioned above, usually included the fabulous history of very early Britain as narrated by Geoffrey of Monmouth; and it is useful to remember that we owe to this circumstance such important works as Shakespeare's _King Lear_ and _Cymbeline_, as well as the old play of _Locrine_, once attributed to Shakespeare. According to Robert's version of Geoffrey's story, Britain was originally called Brutain, after Brut or Brutus, the son of Æneas. Locrin was the eldest son of Brutus and his wife Innogen, and defeated Humber, king of Hungary, in a great battle; after which Humber was drowned in the river which still bears his name. Locrin's daughter Averne (or Sabre in Geoffrey) was drowned likewise, in the river which was consequently called Severn. The British king Bathulf (or, in Geoffrey, Bladud) was the builder of Bath; and the son of Bladud was Leir, who had three daughters, named Gornorille, Began, and Cordeille. Kymbel (in Geoffrey, Kymbelinus), who had been brought up by Augustus Cæsar, was king of Britain at the time of the birth of Christ; his sons were Guider and Arvirag (Guiderius and Arviragus). Another king of Britain was King Cole, who gave name (says Geoffrey falsely) to Colchester. We come into touch with authentic history with the reign of Vortigern, when Hengist and Horsa sailed over to Britain. An extract from Robert of Gloucester is given in _Specimens of Early English_, Part II. The other great work of the same date is the vast collection edited for the Early English Text Society by Dr Horstmann in 1887, entitled, _The Early South-English Legendary_, or Lives of Saints. It is extant in several MSS., of which the oldest (MS. Laud 108) originally contained 67 Lives; with an Appendix, in a later hand, containing two more. The eleventh Life is that of St Dunstan, which is printed in _Specimens of Early English_, Part II, from another MS. Soon after the year 1300 the use of the Southern dialect becomes much less frequent, with the exception of such pieces as belong particularly to the county of Kent and will be considered by themselves. There are two immense manuscript collections of various poems, originally in various dialects, which are worth notice. One of these is the Harleian MS. No. 2253, in the British Museum, the scribe of which has reduced everything into the South-Western dialect, though it is plain that, in many cases, it is not the dialect in which the pieces were originally composed; this famous manuscript belongs to the beginning of the fourteenth century. Many poems were printed from it, with the title of _Altenglische Dichtungen_, by Dr K. Böddeker, in 1878. Another similar collection is contained in the Vernon MS. at Oxford, and belongs to the very end of the same century; the poems in it are all in a Southern dialect, which is that of the scribe. It contains, e.g., a copy of the earliest version of _Piers the Plowman_, which would have been far more valuable if the scribe had retained the spelling of his copy. This may help us to realise one of the great difficulties which beset the study of dialects, namely, that we usually find copies of old poems reduced to the scribe's _own_ dialect; and it may easily happen that such a copy varies considerably from the correct form. It has already been shown that the rapid rise and spread of the Midland dialect during the fourteenth century practically put an end to the literary use of Northern not long after 1400, except in Scotland. It affected Southern in the same way, but at a somewhat earlier date; so that (even in Kent) it is very difficult to find a Southern work after 1350. There is, however, one remarkable exception in the case of a work which may be dated in 1387, written by John Trevisa. Trevisa (as the prefix Tre- suggests) was a native of Cornwall, but he resided chiefly in Gloucestershire, where he was vicar of Berkeley, and chaplain to Thomas Lord Berkeley. The work to which I here refer is known as his translation of Higden. Ralph Higden, a Benedictine monk in the Abbey of St Werburg at Chester, wrote in Latin a long history of the world in general, and of Britain in particular, with the title of the _Polychronicon_, which achieved considerable popularity. The first book of this history contains 60 chapters, the first of which begins with P, the second with R, and so on. If all these initials are copied out in their actual order, we obtain a complete sentence, as follows:--"Presentem cronicam compilavit Frater Ranulphus Cestrensis monachus"; i.e. Brother Ralph, monk of Chester, compiled the present chronicle. I mention this curious device on the part of Higden because another similar acrostic occurs elsewhere. It so happens that Higden's _Polychronicon_ was continued, after his death, by John Malverne, who brought down the history to a later date, and included in it an account of a certain Thomas Usk, with whom he seems to have been acquainted. Now, in a lengthy prose work of about 1387, called _The Testament of Love_, I one day discovered that its author had adopted a similar device--no doubt imitating Higden--and had so arranged that the initial letters of his chapters should form a sentence, as follows:--"Margarete of virtw, have merci on Thsknvi." There is no difficulty about the expression "Margarete of virtw," because the treatise itself explains that it means Holy Church, but I could make nothing of _Thsknvi_, as the letters evidently require rearrangement. But Mr Henry Bradley, one of the editors of the _New English Dictionary_, discovered that the chapters near the end of the treatise are out of order; and when he had restored sense by putting them as they should be, the new reading of the last seven letters came out as "thin vsk," i.e. "thine Usk"; and the attribution of this treatise to Thomas Usk clears up every difficulty and fits in with all that John Malverne says. This, in fact, is the happy solution of the authorship of _The Testament of Love_, which was once attributed to Chaucer, though it is obviously not his at all. But it is time to return to John Trevisa, Higden's translator. This long translation is all in the Southern dialect, originally that of Gloucestershire, though there are several MSS. that do not always agree. A fair copy of it, from a MS. in the library of St John's College, Cambridge, is given side by side with the original Latin in the edition already noticed. It is worth adding that Caxton printed Trevisa's version, altering the spelling to suit that of his own time, and giving several variations of reading. Trevisa was also the author of some other works, of which the most important is his translation into English, from the original Latin, of _Bartholomæus de Proprietatibus Rerum_. I am not aware of any important work in the Southern dialect later than these translations by Trevisa. But in quite modern times, an excellent example of it has appeared, viz. in the _Poems of Rural Life, in the Dorset Dialect_, by William Barnes. CHAPTER VII THE SOUTHERN DIALECT OF KENT Though the Kentish dialect properly belongs to Southern English, from its position to the south of the Thames, yet it shows certain peculiarities which make it desirable to consider it apart from the rest. In Beda's _Ecclesiastical History_, Bk I, ch. 15, he says of the Teutonic invaders: "Those who came over were of the three most powerful nations of Germany--Saxons, Angles, and Jutes. From the Jutes are descended the people of Kent, and of the Isle of Wight, and those also in the province of the West-Saxons who are to this day called Jutes, seated opposite to the Isle of Wight"; a remark which obviously implies the southern part of Hampshire. This suggests that the speech of Kent, from the very first, had peculiarities of its own. Dr Sweet, in his _Second Anglo-Saxon Reader, Archaic and Dialectal_, gives five very brief Kentish charters of the seventh and eighth centuries, but the texts are in Latin, and only the names of persons and places appear in Kentish forms. In the ninth century, however, there are seven Kentish charters, of a fuller description, from the year 805 to 837. In one of these, dated 835, a few lines occur that may be quoted: Ic bidde and bebeode swælc monn se thæt min lond hebbe thæt he ælce gere agefe them higum æt Folcanstane l. ambra maltes, and vi. ambra gruta, and iii. wega spices and ceses, and cccc. hlafa, and an hrithr, and vi. scep.... Thæm higum et Cristes cirican of thæm londe et Cealflocan: thæt is thonne thritig ombra alath, and threo hund hlafa, theara bith fiftig hwitehlafa, an weg spices and ceses, an ald hrithr, feower wedras, an suin oththe sex wedras, sex gosfuglas, ten hennfuglas, thritig teapera, gif hit wintres deg sie, sester fulne huniges, sester fulne butran, sester fulne saltes. That is to say: I ask and command, whosoever may have my land, that he every year give to the domestics at Folkestone fifty measures of malt, and six measures of meal, and three weys [_heavy weights_] of bacon and cheese, and four hundred loaves, and one rother [_ox_], and six sheep.... To the domestics at Christ's church, from the land at Challock: that is, then, thirty vessels of ale, and three hundred loaves, of which fifty shall be white loaves, one wey of bacon and cheese, one old rother, four wethers, one swine or six wethers, six goose-fowls, ten hen-fowls, thirty tapers, if it be a day in winter, a jar full of honey, a jar full of butter, and a jar full of salt. At pp. 152-175 of the same volume, Dr Sweet gives 1204 Kentish glosses of a very early date. No. 268 is: "_Cardines_, hearran"; and in several modern dialects, including Hampshire, the upright part of a gate to which the hinges are fastened is called a _harr_. Several years ago, M. Paul Mayer found five short sermons in a Kentish dialect in MS. Laud 471, in the Bodleian Library, along with their French originals. They are printed in Morris's _Old English Miscellany_, and two of them will be found in _Specimens of Early English_, Part I, p. 141. The former of these is for the Epiphany, the text being taken from Matt. ii 1. The date is just before 1250. I give an extract. The kinges hem wenten and hi seghen the sterre thet yede bifore hem, alwat hi kam over tho huse war ure loverd was; and alswo hi hedden i-fonden ure loverd, swo hin an-urede, and him offrede hire offrendes, gold, and stor, and mirre. Tho nicht efter thet aperede an ongel of hevene in here slepe ine metinge, and hem seide and het, thet hi ne solde ayen wende be herodes, ac be an other weye wende into hire londes. That is: The kings went (them), and they saw the star that went before them until it came over the house where our Lord was; and as-soon-as they had found our Lord, so (they) honoured him, and offered him their offerings, gold, and frankincense, and myrrh. The night after that (there) appeared an angel from heaven in their sleep, in a dream, and said to-them and commanded, that they should not wend again near Herod, but by another way wend to their lands. In the days of Edward II (1307-27) flourished William of Shoreham, named from Shoreham (Kent), near Otford and Sevenoaks, who was appointed vicar of Chart-Sutton in 1320. He translated the Psalter into English prose, and wrote some religious poems, chiefly relating to church-services, which were edited by T. Wright for the Percy Society in 1849. His poem "On Baptism" is printed in _Specimens of Early English_, Part II. I give an extract: In water ich wel the cristny her{1} As Gode him-self hyt dightë{2}; For mide to wesschë{3} nis{4} nothynge That man cometh to so lightë{5} In londë{6}; Nis non that habben hit ne may{7} That habbe hit wilë foundë{8}. This bethe{9} the wordës of cristning By thyse Englísschë costës{10}-- "Ich{11} cristni the{12} ine the Vader{13} name And Sone and Holy Gostes"-- And more, "Amen!" wane hit{14} is ised{15} thertoe, Confermeth thet ther-to-fore{16}. {Footnotes: 1: _I desire thee to christen here_ 2: _ordaine it_ 3: _to wash with_ 4: _is not_ 5: _easily_ 6: _in (the) land_ 7: _there is noe that may not have it_ 8: _that will try to have it_ 9: _these are_ 10: _coasts, regions_ 11: _I_ 12: _thee_ 13: _Father's_ 14: _when it_ 15: _said_ 16: _that which precedes_ } In the year 1340, Dan Michel of Northgate (Kent) translated into English a French treatise on Vices and Virtues, under the title _The Ayenbite of Inwyt_, literally, "The Again-biting of In-wit," i.e. Remorse of Conscience. This is the best specimen of the Kentish dialect of the fourteenth century, and is remarkable for being much more difficult to make out than other pieces of the same period. The whole work was edited by Dr Morris for the Early English Text Society in 1866. A sermon of the same date and in the same dialect, and probably by the same author, is given in _Specimens of Early English_, Part II. The sermon is followed by the Lord's Prayer, the Ave Maria, and the "Credo" or Apostles' Creed, all in the same dialect; and I here give the last of these, as being not difficult to follow: Ich leve ine God, Vader almighti, makere of hevene and of erthe. And ine Iesu Crist, His zone onlepi [_only son_], oure lhord, thet y-kend [_conceived_] is of the Holy Gost, y-bore of Marie mayde, y-pyned [_was crucified_, lit. _made to suffer_] onder Pouns Pilate, y-nayled a rode [_on a cross_], dyad, and be-bered; yede [_went_] doun to helle; thane thridde day aros vram the dyade; steay [_rose, ascended_] to hevenes; zit [_sitteth_] athe [_on the_] right half of God the Vader almighti; thannes to comene He is, to deme the quike and the dyade. Ich y-leve ine the Holy Gost; holy cherche generalliche; Mennesse of halyen [_communion of holy-ones_]; Lesnesse of zennes [_remission of sins_]; of vlesse [_flesh, body_] arizinge; and lyf evrelestinde. Zuo by hyt [_so be it_]. A few remarks may well be made here on some of the peculiarities of Southern English that appear here. The use of _v_ for _f_ (as in _vader_, _vram_, _vlesshe_), and of _z_ for _s_ (as in _zone_, _zit_, _zennes_) are common to this day, especially in Somersetshire. The spelling _lhord_ reminds us that many Anglo-Saxon words began with _hl_, one of them being _hl{-a}fweard_, later _hl{-a}ford_, a lord; and this _hl_ is a symbol denoting the so-called "whispered _l_," sounded much as if an aspirate were prefixed to the _l_, and still common in Welsh, where it is denoted by _ll_, as in _llyn_, a lake. In every case, modern English substitutes for it the ordinary _l_, though _lh_ (= _hl_) was in use in 1340 in Southern. The prefix _y-_, representing the extremely common A.S. (Anglo-Saxon) prefix _ge-_, was kept up in Southern much longer than in the other dialects, but has now disappeared; the form _y-clept_ being archaic. The plural suffix _-en_, as in _haly-en_, holy ones, saints, is due to the fact that Southern admitted the use of that suffix very freely, as in _cherch-en_, churches, _sterr-en_, stars, etc.; whilst Northern only admitted five such plurals, viz. _egh-en_, _ey-en_, eyes (Shakespeare's _eyne_), _hos-en_, stockings, _ox-en_, _shoo-n_, shoes, and _f{-a}-n_, foes; _ox-en_ being the sole survivor, since _shoon_ (as in _Hamlet_, IV iv 26) is archaic. The modern _child-r-en_, _breth-r-en_, are really double plurals; Northern employed the more original forms _childer_ and _brether_, both of which, and especially the former, are still in dialectal use. _Evrelest-inde_ exhibits the Southern _-inde_ for present participles. But the word _zennes_, sins, exhibits a peculiarity that is almost solely Kentish, and seldom found elsewhere, viz. the use of _e_ for _i_. The explanation of this rests on an elementary lesson in Old English phonology, which it will do the reader no harm to acquire. The modern symbol _i_ (when denoting the _short_ sound, as in _pit_) really does double duty. It sometimes represents the A.S. short _i_, as in _it_ (A.S. _hit_), _sit_ (A.S. _sittan_), _bitten_ (A.S. _b{)i}ten_), etc.; and sometimes the A.S. short _y_, as in _pyt_, a pit. The sound of the A.S. short _i_ was much the same as in modern English; but that of the short _y_ was different, as it denoted the "mutated" form of short _u_ for which German has a special symbol, viz. _ü_, the sound intended being that of the German _ü_ in _schützen_, to protect. In the latter case, Kentish usually has the vowel _e_, as in the modern Kentish _pet_, a pit, and in the surname _Petman_ (at Margate), which means _pitman_; and as the A.S. for "sin" was _synn_ (dat. _synne_), the Kentish form was _zenne_, since Middle English substantives often represent the A.S. dative case. The Kentish plural had the double form, _zennes_ and _zennen_, both of which occur in the _Ayenbite_, as might have been expected. The poet Gower, who completed what may be called the first edition of his poem named the _Confessio Amantis_ (or Confession of a Lover) in 1390, was a Kentish man, and well acquainted with the Kentish dialect. He took advantage of this to introduce, occasionally, Kentish forms into his verse; apparently for the sake of securing a rime more easily. See this discussed at p. ci of vol. II of Macaulay's edition of Gower. I may illustrate this by noting that in _Conf. Amant._ i 1908, we find _pitt_ riming with _witt_, whereas in the same, v 4945, _pet_ rimes with _let_. We know that, in 1386, the poet Chaucer was elected a knight of the shire for Kent, and in 1392-3 he was residing at Greenwich. He evidently knew something of the Kentish dialect; and he took advantage of the circumstance, precisely as Gower did, for varying his rimes. The earliest example of this is in his _Book of the Duchess_, l. 438, where he uses the Kentish _ken_ instead of _kin_ (A.S. _cynn_) in order to secure a rime for _ten_. In the _Canterbury Tales_, E 1057, he has _kesse_, to kiss (A.S. _cyssan_), to rime with _stedfastnesse_. In the same, A 1318, he has _fulfille_, to fulfil (cf. A.S. _fyllan_, to fill), to rime with _wille_; but in Troilus, iii 510, he changes it to _fulfelle_, to rime with _telle_; with several other instances of a like kind. It is further remarkable that some Kentish forms seem to have established themselves in standard English, as when we use _dent_ with the sense of _dint_ (A.S. _dynt_). When we speak of _the left hand_, the form _left_ is really Kentish, and occurs in the _Ayenbite of Inwyt_; the Midland form is properly _lift_, which is common enough in Middle English; see the _New English Dictionary_, s.v. _Left_, adj. _Hemlock_ is certainly a Kentish form; cf. A.S. _hymlice_, and see the _New English Dictionary_. So also is _kernel_ (A.S. _cyrnel_); _knell_ (A.S. _cnyllan_, verb); _merry_ (A.S. _myrge_, _myrige_); and perhaps _stern_, adj. (A.S. _styrne_). There are some excellent remarks upon the vocalism of the Kentish dialect in Middle English by W. Heuser, in the German periodical entitled _Anglia_, vol XVII pp. 73-90. CHAPTER VIII THE MERCIAN DIALECT I. EAST MIDLAND The Mercian district lies between the Northern and Southern, occupying an irregular area which it is very difficult to define. On the east coast it reached from the mouth of the Humber to that of the Thames. On the western side it seems to have included a part of Lancashire, and extended from the mouth of the Lune to the Bristol Channel, exclusive of a great part of Wales. There were two chief varieties of it which differed in many particulars, viz. the East Midland and the West Midland. The East Midland included, roughly speaking, the counties of Lincoln, Rutland, Northampton, and Buckingham, and all the counties (between the Thames and Humber) to the east of these, viz. Cambridge, Huntingdon, Bedford, Hertford, Middlesex, Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex. We must also certainly include, if not Oxfordshire, at any rate the city of Oxford. This is by far the most important group of counties, as it was the East Midland that finally prevailed over the rest, and was at last accepted as a standard, thus rising from the position of a dialect to be the language of the Empire. The Midland prevailed over the Northern and Southern dialects because it was intermediate between them, and so helped to interpret between North and South; and the East Midland prevailed over the Western because it contained within its area all three of the chief literary centres, namely, Oxford, Cambridge, and London. It follows from this that the Old Mercian dialect is of greater interest than either the Northumbrian or Anglo-Saxon. Unfortunately, the amount of extant Old Mercian, before the Conquest, is not very large, and it is only of late years that the MSS. containing it have been rightly understood. Practically, the study of it dates only from 1885, when Dr Sweet published his _Oldest English Texts_. But there is more Mercian to be found than was at first suspected; and it is desirable to consider this question. An important discovery was that the language of the oldest Glossaries seems to be Mercian. We have extant no less than four Glossaries in MSS. of as early a date as the eighth century, named respectively, the Epinal, Erfurt, Corpus, and Leyden Glossaries. The first is now at Epinal, in France (in the department Vosges); the second, at Erfurt, near Weimar, in Germany; the third, in Corpus Christi College, Cambridge; and the fourth, at Leyden, in Holland. The Corpus MS. may be taken as typical of the rest. It contains an enumeration of a large number of difficult words, arranged, but imperfectly, in alphabetical order; and after each of these is written its gloss or interpretation. Thus the fifth folio begins as follows: Abminiculum . adiutorium. Abelena . haeselhnutu. Abiecit . proiecit. Absida . sacrarium. Abies . etspe. Ab ineunte ætate . infantia. The chief interest of these Glossaries lies in the fact that a small proportion of the hard words is explained, not in Latin, but in Mercian English, of which there are two examples in the six glosses here quoted. Thus Abelena, which is another spelling of Abellana or Avellana, "a filbert," is explained as "haeselhnutu"; which is a perfectly familiar word when reduced to its modern form of "hazel-nut." And again, Abies, which usually means "a fir-tree," is here glossed by "etspe." But this is certainly a false spelling, as we see by comparing it with the following glosses in Epinal and Erfurt (Nos. 37, 1006):--"Abies. saeppae--sæpae"; and "Tremulus. aespae--espæ." This shows that the scribe ought to have explained Abies by "saeppae," meaning the tree full of sap, called in French _sapin_; but he confused it with another tree, the "trembling" tree, of which the Old Mercian name was "espe" or "espæ," or "aespae," and he miswrote _espe_ as _etspe_, inserting a needless _t_. This last tree is the one which Chaucer called the _asp_ in l. 180 of his _Parliament of Fowls_, but in modern times the adjectival suffix _-en_ (as in _gold-en_, _wood-en_) has been tacked on to it, and it is now the _aspen_. The interpretation of these ancient glosses requires very great care, but they afford a considerable number of interesting results, and are therefore valuable, especially as they give us spellings of the eighth century, which are very scarce. One of the oldest specimens of Old Mercian that affords intelligible sentences is known as the "Lorica Prayer," because it occurs in the same MS. (Ll. 1. 10 in the Cambridge University Library) as the "Lorica Glosses," or the glosses which accompany a long Latin prayer, really a charm, called "lorica" or "breast-plate," because it was recited thrice a day to protect the person who used it from all possible injury and accident. I give this Prayer as illustrating the state of our language about A.D. 850. And the georne gebide gece and miltse fore alra his haligra gewyrhtum and ge-earningum and boenum be [hiwe]num, tha the _domino deo_ gelicedon from fruman middan-geardes; thonne gehereth he thec thorh hiora thingunge. Do thonne fiorthan sithe thin hleor thriga to iorthan, fore alle Godes cirican, and sing thas fers: _domini est salus, saluum fac populum tuum, domine, praetende misericordiam tuam_. Sing thonne _pater noster_. Gebide thonne fore alle geleaffulle menn _in mundo_. Thonne bistu thone deg dael-niomende thorh Dryhtnes gefe alra theara goda the ænig monn for his noman gedoeth, and thec alle soth-festæ fore thingiath _in caelo et in terra_. _Amen_.{1} {Footnote 1: I write _hiwenum_ in l. 2 in place of an illegible word.} That is:-- And earnestly pray for-thyself for help and mercy by-reason-of the deeds and merits and prayers of all his saints on-behalf-of the [households] that have pleased the Lord God from the beginning of the world; then will He hear thee because-of their intercession. Bow-down then, at the fourth time, thy face thrice to the earth before all God's church, and sing these verses: The Lord is my salvation, save Thy people, O Lord: show forth Thy mercy. Sing then a pater-noster. Pray then for all believing men in the world. Then shalt thou be, on that day, a partaker, by God's grace, of all the good things that any man doth for His name, and all true-men will intercede for thee in heaven and in earth. Amen. Another discovery was the assignment of a correct description to the glosses found in a document known as the _Vespasian Psalter_; so called because it is an early Latin Psalter, or book of Psalms, contained in a Cotton MS. in the British Museum, marked with the class-mark "Vespasian, A. 1." This Psalter is accompanied throughout with glosses which were at first mistakenly thought to be in a Northumbrian dialect, and were published as such by the Surtees Society in 1843. They were next, in 1875, wrongly supposed to be Kentish; but since they were printed by Sweet in 1885 it has been shown that they are really Mercian. This set of glosses is very important for the study of Old Mercian, because they are rather extensive; they occupy 213 pages of the _Oldest English Texts_, and are followed by 20 more pages of similar glosses to certain Latin canticles and hymns that occur in the same MS. There are also a few Charters extant in the Mercian dialect, but the earliest contain little else than old forms of the names of persons and places. There are, however, some later Charters, from 836 to 1058 in the Mercian dialect, which contain some boundaries of lands and afford other information. Most of these relate to Worcestershire. But the most interesting Mercian glosses are those to be found in the Rushworth MS., which has already been mentioned as containing Northumbrian glosses of the Latin Gospels of St Mark, St Luke, and St John. For the Gospel of St Matthew was glossed by the scribe Farman, who was a priest of Harewood, situate on the river Wharfe, in the West Riding of Yorkshire; whose language, accordingly, was Mercian. In my _Principles of English Etymology, First Series_ (second edition, 1892), p. 44, I gave a list of words selected from these glosses, in order to show how much nearer they stand, as a rule, to modern English than do the corresponding Anglo-Saxon forms. I here repeat this list, as it is very instructive. The references, such as "5. 15," are to the chapters and verses of St Matthew's Gospel, as printed in my edition of _The Holy Gospels, in Anglo-Saxon, Northumbrian, and Old Mercian Versions, synoptically arranged_ (Cambridge, 1871-87). The first column below gives the Modern English form, the second the Old Mercian form (with references), and the third the Anglo-Saxon or Wessex form: MODERN OLD MERCIAN WESSEX (A.S.) all all, 5. 15 eall are arun, 19. 28 (_not used_) betwixt betwix, 27. 56 betweox cheek c{-e}ke, 5. 39 c{-e}ace 5 cold cald, 10. 42 ceald eke {-e}k, 5. 39 {-e}ac eleven enlefan, 28. 16 endlufon eye {-e}ge, 5. 29 {-e}age falleth falleth, 10. 29 fealleth 10 fell, _pt.t.pl._ fellun, 7. 25 f{-e}ollon -fold -fald, 19. 29 -feald (_in_ ten-fold) gall, _sb._ galla, 27. 34 gealla half, _sb._ half, 20. 23 healf halt, _adj._ halt, 11. 5 healt 15 heard, _pt.t.s._ (ge)h{-e}rde, 2. 3 (ge)h{-i}erde lie l{-i}gan, 5. 11 l{-e}ogan (_tell lies_) light, _sb._ l{-i}ht, 5. 16 l{-e}oht light, _adj._ liht, 11. 30 leoht narrow naru, 7. 14 nearu 20 old áld, 9. 16 eald sheep sc{-e}p, 25. 32 sc{-e}ap shoes sc{-o}as, 10. 10 sc{-e}os, sc{-y} silver sylfur, 10. 9 seolfor slept, _pt.t.pl._ sleptun, 13. 25 sl{-e}pon 25 sold, _pp._ sald, 10. 19 seald spit, _vb._ spittan, 27. 30 sp{-æ}tan wall wall, 21. 33 weall yard (_rod_) ierd, 10. 10 gyrd yare (_ready_) iara, 22. 4 gearo 30 yoke ioc, 11. 29 geoc youth iuguth, 19. 20 geoguth In l.5, the scribe Farman miswrote _caldas_ as _galdas_, in Matt. x 42; but it is a mere mistake. In l. 20, the accent over the _a_ in _áld_ is marked in the MS., though the vowel was not originally long. Even a glance at this comparative table reveals a peculiarity of the Wessex dialect which properly belongs neither to Mercian nor to Modern English, viz. the use of the diphthong _ea_ (in which each vowel was pronounced separately) instead of simple _a_, before the sounds denoted by _l_, _r_, _h_, especially when another consonant follows. We find accordingly such Wessex forms as _eall_, _ceald_, _fealleth_, _-feald_, _gealla_, _healf_, _healt_, _nearu_, _eald_, _seald_, _weall_, _gearo_, where the Old Mercian has simply _all_, _cald_, _falleth_, _-fald_, _galla_, _half_, _halt_, _naru_, _ald_, _sald_, _wall_, _iara_. Similarly, Wessex has the diphthongs _{-e}a_, _{-e}o_, in which the former element is long, where the Old Mercian has simply _{-e}_ or _{-i}_. We find accordingly the Wessex _c{-e}ace_, _{-e}ac_, _{-e}age_, _sc{-e}ap_, as against the Mercian _c{-e}ke_, _{-e}k_, _{-e}ge_, _sc{-e}p_; and the Wessex _l{-e}ogan_, _l{-e}oht_, as against the Mercian _l{-i}gan_, _l{-i}ht_. I have now mentioned nearly all the examples of Old Mercian to be found before the Conquest. After that event it was still the Southern dialect that prevailed, and there is scarcely any Mercian (or Midland) to be found except in the Laud MS. of the _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, which was written at Peterborough. See the extract, describing the miserable state of England during the reign of Stephen, in _Specimens of Early English_, Part I. It was about the year 1200 that the remarkable work appeared that is known by the name of _The Ormulum_, written in the North-East Midland of Lincolnshire, which is the first clear example of the form which our literary language was destined to assume. It is an extremely long and dreary poem of about 10,000 long lines, written in a sadly monotonous unrimed metre; and it contains an introduction, paraphrases relating to the gospels read in the church during the year, and homilies upon the same. It was named _Ormulum_ by the author after his own name, which was Orm; and the sole existing MS. is probably in the handwriting of Orm himself, who employed a phonetic spelling of his own invention which he strongly recommends. Owing to this circumstance and to the fact that his very regular metre leaves no doubt as to his grammatical forms, this otherwise uninviting poem has a high philological value. In my book entitled _The Chaucer Canon_, published at Oxford in 1900, I quote 78 long lines from the _Ormulum_, reduced to a simpler system of spelling, at pp. 9-14; and, at pp. 15-18, I give an analysis of the suffixes employed by Orm to mark grammatical inflexions. At pp. 30-41, I give an analysis of similar inflexions as employed by Chaucer, who likewise employed the East Midland dialect, but with such slight modifications of Orm's language as were due to his living in London instead of Lincolnshire, and to the fact that he wrote more than 150 years later. The agreement, as to grammatical usages, of these two authors is extremely close, allowing for lapse of time; and the comparison between them gives most indubitable and valuable results. There is no better way of learning Chaucer's grammar. As East Midland was spread over a wide area, there are, as might be expected, some varieties of it. The dialects of Lincolnshire and of Norfolk were not quite the same, and both differed somewhat from that of Essex and Middlesex; but the general characteristics of all three sub-dialects are very much alike. As time went on, the speech of the students of Oxford and Cambridge was closely assimilated to that of the court as held in London; and this "educated" type was naturally that to which Caxton and the great writers of the sixteenth century endeavoured to conform. We have one ancient specimen of the London dialect which is eminently authentic and valuable, and has the additional advantage of being exactly dated. This is the document known as "The only English Proclamation of Henry III," issued on Oct. 18, 1258. Its intention was to confirm to the people the "Provisions of Oxford," a charter of rights that had been wrested from the king, from which we may conclude that the Proclamation was issued by Henry rather by compulsion than by his own free will. There is a note at the end which tells us that a copy was sent to every shire in England and to Ireland. If every copy had been preserved, we should have a plentiful supply. As it is, only two copies have survived. One is the copy which found its way to Oxford; and the other is the original from which the copies were made, which has been carefully preserved for six centuries and a half in the Public Record Office in London. I here give the contents of the original, substituting _y_ (at the beginning of a word) or _gh_ (elsewhere) for the symbol _{g}_, and _th_ for the symbol _þ_, and _v_ for _u_ when between two vowels. ¶ Henri, thurgh Godes fultume king on Engleneloande, Lhoaverd on Yrloande, Duk on Norm(andi), on Aquitaine, and Eorl on Aniow, send igretinge to alle hise holde ilærde and ileawede on Huntendoneschire: thæt witen ye wel alle, thæt we willen and unnen thæt, thæt ure rædesmen alle, other the moare dæl of heom thæt beoth ichosen thurgh us and thurgh thæt loandes folk on ure kuneriche, habbeth idon and schullen don in the worthnesse of Gode and on ure treowthe, for the freme of the loande, thurgh the besighte of than to-foren iseide redesmen, beo stedefaest and ilestinde in alle thinge, abuten ænde. And we hoaten alle ure treowe, in the treowthe thæt heo us ogen, thæt heo stedefæstliche healden, and swerien to healden and to werien, tho isetnesses thæt beon imakede and beon to makien, thurgh than to-foren iseide rædesmen, other thurgh the moare dæl of hem, alswo also hit is biforen iseid; And thæt æhc other helpe thæt for to done bi than ilche othe, ayenes alle men, right for to done and to foangen. And noan ne nime of loande ne of eghte, wherthurgh this besighte mughe beon ilet other iwersed on onie wise. And yif oni other onie cumen her onyenes, we willen and hoaten thæt alle ure treowe heom healden deadliche ifoan. And for thæt we willen thæt this beo stedefæst and lestinde, we senden yew this writ open, iseined with ure seel, to halden a-manges yew me hord. Witnesse us selven æt Lundene, thane eghtetenthe day on the monthe of Octobre, in the two and fowertighthe yeare of ure cruninge. And this wes idon ætforen ure isworene redesmen, Boneface archebischop on Kanterburi, Walter of Cantelow, bischop on Wirechestre, Simon of Muntfort, eorl on Leirchestre, Richard of Clare, eorl on Glowchestre and on Hurtforde, Roger Bigod, eorl on Northfolke and marescal on Engleneloande, Perres of Sauveye, Willelm of Fort, eorl on Aubemarle, Iohan of Pleisseiz, eorl on Warewike, Iohan Geffreës sune, Perres of Muntfort, Richard of Grey, Roger of Mortemer, James of Aldithel; and ætforen othre inoghe. ¶ And al on tho ilche worden is isend in-to ævrihce othre shcire over al thære kuneriche on Engleneloande, and ek in-tel Irelonde. This document presents at first sight many unfamiliar forms, but really differs from Modern English mainly in the spelling, which of course represents the pronunciation of that period. The grammar is perfectly intelligible, and this is the surest mark of similarity of language; we may, however, note the use of _send_ as a contraction of _sendeth_, and of _oni_ for "any man" in the singular, while _onie_, being plural, represents "any men." The other chief variations are in the vocabulary or word-list, due to the fact that this Proclamation is older than the reigns of the first three Edwards, which was the period when so many words of Anglo-Norman origin entered our language, displacing many words of native origin that thus became obsolete; though some were exchanged for other _native_ words. We may notice, for example, _fultume_, "assistance"; _holde_, "faithful"; _ilærde and ileawede_, "learned and unlearned"; _unnen_, "grant"; _rædesmen_, "councillors"; _kuneriche_, "kingdom"; and so on. I subjoin a closely literal translation, retaining awkward expressions. ¶ Henry, through God's assistance, king in England, Lord in Ireland, Duke in Normandy, in Aquitaine, and Earl in Anjou, sendeth greeting to all his faithful, learned and unlearned, in Huntingdonshire; that wit ye well all, that we will and grant that which our councillors all, or the more deal (_part_) of them, that be chosen through us and through the land's folk in our kingdom, have done and shall do in the worship of God and in our truth, for the benefit of the land, through the provision of the beforesaid councillors, be steadfast and lasting in all things without end. And we command all our true-men, in the truth that they us owe, that they steadfastly hold, and swear to hold and to defend, the statutes that be made and be to make, through the aforesaid councillors, or through the more deal of them, even as it is before said; and that each help other that for to do, by the same oath, against all men, right for to do and to receive. And (let) none take of land nor of property, wherethrough this provision may be let or worsened in any wise. And if any-man or any-men come here-against, we will and command that all our true-men hold them (as) deadly foes. And for that we will that thi bes steadfast and lasting, we send you this writ open, signed with our seal, to hold amongst you in hoard. Witness us-selves at London, the eighteenth day in the month of October, in the two and fortieth year of our crowning. And this was done before our sworen councillors, Boneface, archbishop of Canterbury, Walter of Cantelow, bishop of Worcester, Simon of Muntfort, earl of Leicester, ... and before others enough. ¶ And all in the same words is sent into every other shire over all the kingdom in England, and eke into Ireland. In the year 1303, Robert Manning, of Bourn in Lincolnshire, translated a French poem entitled _Manuel des Pechiez_ (Manual of Sins) into very fair East Midland verse, giving to his translation the title of _Handling Synne_. Many of the verses are easy and smooth, and the poem clearly shows us that the East Midland dialect was by this time at least the equal of the others, and that the language was good enough to be largely permanent. When we read such lines as: Than seyd echone that sate and stode, Here comth Pers, that never dyd gode-- we have merely to modernise the spelling, and we at once have: Then said each one that sat and stood, Here cometh Pierce, that never did good, These are lines that could be written now. An extract from Manning's _Handlyng Synne_ is given in _Specimens of Early English_, Part II, most of which can be read with ease. The obsolete words are not very numerous, and we meet now and then with half a dozen consecutive lines that would puzzle no one. It is needless to pursue the history of this dialect further. It had, by this time, become almost the standard language, differing from Modern English chiefly in date, and consequently in pronunciation. We pass on from Manning to Chaucer, from Chaucer to Lydgate and Caxton, and from Caxton to Lord Surrey and Sackville and Spenser, without any real change in the actual dialect employed, but only in the form of it. II. WEST MIDLAND We have seen that there are two divisions of the Mercian dialect, into East and West Midland. The West Midland does not greatly differ from the East Midland, but it approaches more nearly, in some respects, to the Northumbrian. The greatest distinction seems to be in the present and past participles of verbs. In the West Midland, the present participle frequently ends in _-and_, as in Northumbrian, especially in the Northern part of the Midland area. The East Midland usually employs _-ende_ or _-inge_ instead. In the West Midland, the prefix _i-_ or _y-_ is seldom used for the past participle, whilst the East Midland admits it more freely. In the third person singular of the present tense, the West Midland favours the Northern suffix _-es_ or _-is_; whilst the East Midland favours the Southern suffix _-eth_. The suffix _-us_ appears to be altogether peculiar to West Midland, in which it occurs occasionally; and the same is true of _-ud_ for _-ed_ in the preterite of a weak verb. There is a rather early West Midland _Prose Psalter_, belonging to the former half of the fourteenth century, which was edited for the Early English Text Society by Dr Karl Bulbring in 1891. The curious poem called _William of Palerne_ (Palermo) or _William and the Werwolf_, written in alliterative verse about 1350-60, and edited by me for the E.E.T.S. in 1867, seems to be in a form of West Midland, and has been claimed for Shropshire; nothing is known as to its author. The very remarkable poem called _The Pearl_, and three _Alliterative Poems_ by the same author, were first edited by Dr Morris for the E.E.T.S. in 1864; with a preface in which the peculiarities of the dialect were discussed. Dr Morris showed that the grammatical forms are uniform and consistent throughout, and may be safely characterised as being West Midland. Moreover, they are frequently very like Northumbrian, and must belong to the Northern area of the West Midland dialect. "Much," says Dr Morris, "may be said in favour of their Lancashire origin." The MS. which contains the above poems also contains the excellent alliterative romance-poem named _Sir Gawayne and the Green Knight_, evidently written by the same author; so that this poem also may be considered as a specimen of West Midland. For further particulars, see the "Grammatical Details" given in Dr Morris's preface to _The Pearl_, etc., pp. xxviii-xl. _Sir Gawayne_ was likewise edited by Morris in 1864. It would not be easy to trace the history of this dialect at a later date, and the task is hardly necessary. It was soon superseded in literary use by the East Midland, with which it had much in common. CHAPTER IX FOREIGN ELEMENTS IN THE DIALECTS There is a widely prevalent notion that the speakers of English Dialects employ none but native words; and it is not uncommon for writers who have more regard for picturesque effect than for accuracy to enlarge upon this theme, and to praise the dialects at the expense of the literary language. Of course there is a certain amount of truth in this, but it would be better to look into the matter a little more closely. A very little reflection will show that dialect-speakers have always been in contact with some at least of those who employ words that belong rather, or once belonged, to foreign nations. Even shopkeepers are familiar with such words as _beef_, _mutton_, _broccoli_, _soda_, _cork_, _sherry_, _brandy_, _tea_, _coffee_, _sugar_, _sago_, and many more such words that are now quite familiar to every one. Yet _beef_ and _mutton_ are Norman; _broccoli_ and _soda_ are Italian; _cork_ and _sherry_ are Spanish; _brandy_ is Dutch; _tea_ is Chinese; _coffee_ is Arabic; _sugar_ is of Sanskrit origin; and _sago_ is Malay. It must be evident that many similar words, having reference to very various useful things, have long ago drifted into the dialects from the literary language. Hence the purity of the dialects from contamination with foreign influences is merely comparative, not absolute. Our modern language abounds with words borrowed from many foreign tongues; but a large number of them have come to us since 1500. Before that date the chief languages from which it was possible for us to borrow words were British or Gaelic, Irish, Latin, Greek (invariably through the medium of Latin), Hebrew (in a small degree, through the medium of Latin), Arabic (very slightly, and indirectly), Scandinavian, and French. A few words as to most of these are sufficient. It is not long since a great parade was made of our borrowings from "Celtic"; it was very easy to give a wild guess that an obscure word was "Celtic"; and the hardihood of the guesser was often made to take the place of evidence. The fact is that there is no such language as "Celtic"; it is the name of a group of languages, including "British" or Welsh, Cornish, Breton, Manx, Gaelic, and Irish; and it is now incumbent on the etymologist to cite the exact forms in one or more of these on which he relies, so as to adduce some semblance of proof. The result has been an extraordinary shrinkage in the number of alleged Celtic words. The number, in fact, is extremely small, except in special cases. Thus we may expect to find a few Welsh words in the dialects of Cheshire, Shropshire, or Herefordshire, on the Welsh border; and a certain proportion of Gaelic words in Lowland Scotch; though we have no reliable lists of these, and it is remarkable that such words have usually been borrowed at no very early date, and sometimes quite recently. The legacy of words bequeathed to us by the ancient Britons is surprisingly small; indeed, it is very difficult to point to many clear cases. The question is considered in my _Principles of English Etymology, Series I_, pp. 443-452, to which I may refer the reader; and a list of words of (probably) Celtic origin is given in my larger _Etymological Dictionary_, ed. 1910, p. 765. It is also explained, in my _Primer of English Etymology_ that, in the fifth century, the time of Hengist's invasion, "the common language of the more educated classes among the British was Latin, which was in use as a literary language and as the language of the British Christian Church. Hence, the Low German tribes [of invaders] found no great necessity for learning ancient British; and this explains the fact, which would otherwise be extraordinary, that modern English contains but a very small Celtic element." Of the Celts that remained within the English pale, it is certain that, in a very short time, they accepted the necessity of learning Anglian or Saxon, and lost their previous language altogether. Hence, in many dialects, as for example, in the East Midland district, the amount of words of "British" origin is practically _nil_. For further remarks on this subject, see Chapter V of _Anglo-Saxon Britain_, by Grant Allen, London, n.d. I here give a tentative list of some Celtic words found in dialects. Their etymologies are discussed in my _Etymological Dictionary_ (1910), as they are also found in literary use; and the words are fully explained in the _English Dialect Dictionary_, which gives all their senses, and enumerates the counties in which they are found. It is doubtless imperfect, as I give only words that are mostly well known, and can be found, indeed, in the _New English Dictionary_. I give only one sense of each, and mark it as N., M., or S. (Northern, Midland, or Southern), as the case may be. The symbol "gen." means "in general use"; and "Sc." means Lowland Scotch. _Art_, or _airt_, Sc., a direction of the wind; _banshee_, Irish, a female spirit who warns families of a death; _beltane_, N., the first of May; _bin_, M., a receptacle; _boggart_, _bogle_, N., M., a hobgoblin; _bragget_, N., M., a drink made of honey and ale; _brat_, N., M., a cloth, clout; _brock_, gen., a badger; _bug_, N., a bogy; _bugaboo_, N., M., a hobgoblin; _capercailyie_, Sc., a bird; _cateran_, Sc., a Highland robber; _char_, N., a fish; _clachan_, Sc., a hamlet; _clan_, N., M., a class, set of people; _claymore_, Sc., a two-handed sword; _colleen_, Irish, a young girl; _combe_, gen., the head of a valley; _coracle_, M., a wicker boat; _coronach_, Sc., a dirge; _corrie_, Sc., a circular hollow in a hill-side; _cosher_, Irish, a feast; _crag_, _craig_, N., a rock; _crowd_, N., S., a fiddle; _dulse_, N., an edible sea-weed; _dun_, gen., brown, greyish; _duniwassal_, Sc., a gentleman of secondary rank; _fillibeg_, Sc., a short kilt; _flummery_, Sc., M., oatmeal boiled in water; _gallowglass_, Sc., Irish, an armed foot-soldier; _galore_, gen., in abundance; _gillie_, Sc., a man-servant; _gull_, a name of various birds; _hubbub_, _hubbaboo_, Irish, a confused clamour; _inch_, Sc., Irish, a small island; _ingle_, N., M., fire, fire-place; _kelpie_, Sc., a water-spirit; _kibe_, gen., a chilblain; _linn_, N., a pool; _loch_, N., _lough_, Irish, a lake; _metheglin_, M., S., beer made from honey; _omadhaun_, Irish, a simpleton; _pose_, gen. (but perhaps obsolete), a catarrh; _rapparee_, Sc., Irish, a vagabond; _shillelagh_, Irish, a cudgel; _skain_, _skean_, Sc., Irish, a knife, dagger; _sowens_, _sowans_, Sc., a dish made from oatmeal-husks steeped in water (from Gael, _sùghan_, the juice of sowens); _spalpeen_, Irish, a rascal; _spleuchan_, Sc., Irish, a pouch, a purse; _strath_, N., a valley; _strathspey_, Sc., a dance, named from the valley of the river Spey; _tocher_, N., a dowry; _usquebaugh_, Sc., Irish, whiskey; _wheal_, Cornish, a mine. Latin is a language from which English has borrowed words in every century since the year 600. In my _Principles of English Etymology, First Series_, Chap. XXI, I give a list of Latin words imported into English before the Norman Conquest. Several of these must be familiar in our dialects; we can hardly suppose that country people do not know the meaning of ark, beet, box, candle, chalk, cheese, cook, coulter, cup, fennel, fever, font, fork, inch, kettle, kiln, kitchen, and the like. Indeed, _ark_ is quite a favourite word in the North for a large wooden chest, used for many purposes; and Kersey explains it as "a country word for a large chest to put fruit or corn in." _Candle_ is so common that it is frequently reduced to _cannel_; and it has given its name to "cannel coal." Every countryman is expected to be able to distinguish "between chalk and cheese." _Coulter_ appears in ten dialect forms, and one of the most familiar agricultural implements is a pitch-_fork_. The influence of Latin requires no further illustration. I also give a list of early words of Greek origin; some of which are likewise in familiar use. I may instance alms, angel, bishop, butter, capon, chest, church, clerk, copper, devil, dish, hemp, imp, martyr, paper (ultimately of Egyptian origin), plaster, plum, priest, rose, sack, school, silk, treacle, trout. Of course the poor old woman who says she is "a martyr to tooth-ache" is quite unconscious that she is talking Greek. Probably she is not without some smattering of Persian, and knows the sense of lilac, myrtle, orange, peach, and rice; of Sanskrit, whence pepper and sugar-candy; of Arabic, whence coffee, cotton, jar, mattress, senna, and sofa; and she will know enough Hebrew, partly from her Bible, to be quite familiar with a large number of biblical names, such as Adam and Abraham and Isaac, and very many more, not forgetting the very common John, Joseph, Matthew, and Thomas, and the still more familiar Jack and Jockey; and even with a few words of Hebrew origin, such as alleluia, balm, bedlam, camel, cider, and sabbath. The discovery of the New World has further familiarised us all with chocolate and tomato, which are Mexican; and with potato, which is probably old Caribbean. These facts have to be borne in mind when it is too rashly laid down that words in English dialects are of English origin. Foreign words of this kind are, however, not very numerous, and can easily be allowed for. And, as has been said, our vocabulary admits also of a certain amount of Celtic. It remains to consider what other sources have helped to form our dialects. The two most prolific in this respect are Scandinavian and French, which require careful consideration. It is notorious that the Northern dialect admits Scandinavian words freely; and the same is true, to a lesser degree, of East Midland. They are rare in Southern, and in the Southern part of West Midland. The constant invasions of the Danes, and the subjection of England under the rule of three Danish kings, Canute and his two successors, have very materially increased our vocabulary; and it is remarkable that they have perhaps done more for our dialects than for the standard language. The ascendancy of Danish rule was in the eleventh century; but (with a few exceptions) it was long before words which must really have been introduced at that time began to appear in our literature. They must certainly have been looked upon, at the first, as being rustic or dialectal. I have nowhere seen it remarked, and I therefore call attention to the fact, that a certain note of rustic origin still clings to many words of this class; and I would instance such as these: bawl, bloated, blunder, bungle, clog, clown, clumsy, to cow, to craze, dowdy, dregs, dump, and many more of a like character. I do not say that such words cannot be employed in serious literature; but they require skillful handling. For further information, see the chapter on "The Scandinavian Element in English," in my _Principles of English Etymology, Series I_. With regard to dialectal Scandinavian, see the List of English Words, as compared with Icelandic, in my Appendix to Cleasby and Vigfusson's _Icelandic Dictionary_. In this long list, filling 80 columns, the dialectal words are marked with a dagger {+*}. But the list of these is by no means exhaustive, and it will require a careful search through the pages of the _English Dialect Dictionary_ to do justice to the wealth of this Old Norse element. There is an excellent article on this subject by Arnold Wall, entitled "A Contribution towards the Study of the Scandinavian element in the English Dialects," printed in the German periodical entitled _Anglia, Neue Folge_, Band VIII, 1897. I now give a list, a mere selection, of some of the more remarkable words of Scandinavian origin that are known to our dialects. For their various uses and localities, see the _English Dialect Dictionary_; and for their etymologies, see my Index to Cleasby and Vigfusson. Many of these words are well approved and forcible, and may perhaps be employed hereafter to reinforce our literary language. _Addle_, to earn; _and_ (in Barbour, _aynd_) sb., breath; _arder_, a ploughing; _arr_, a scar; _arval_, a funeral repast; _aund_, fated, destined; _bain_, ready, convenient; _bairns' lakings_, children's playthings; _beck_, a stream; _big_, to build; _bigg_, barley; _bing_, a heap; _birr_, impetus; _blaeberry_, a bilberry; _blather_, _blether_, empty noisy talk; _bouk_, the trunk of the body; _boun_, ready; _braid_, to resemble, to take after; _brandreth_, an iron framework over a fire; _brant_, steep; _bro_, a foot-bridge with a single rail; _bule_, _bool_, the curved handle of a bucket; _busk_, to prepare oneself, dress; _caller_, fresh, said of fish, etc.; _carle_, a rustic, peasant; _carr_, moist ground; _cleck_, to hatch (as chickens); _cleg_, a horse-fly; _coup_, to exchange, to barter; _dag_, dew; _daggle_, to trail in the wet; _dowf_, dull, heavy, stupid; _dump_, a deep pool. _Elding_, _eliding_, fuel; _ettle_, to intend, aim at; _feal_, to hide; _fell_, a hill; _fey_, doomed, fated to die; _flake_, a hurdle; _force_, a water-fall; _gab_, idle talk; _gain_, adj., convenient, suitable; _gait_, a hog; _gar_, to cause, to make; _garn_, yarn; _garth_, a field, a yard; _gate_, a way, street; _ged_, a pike; _gilder_, a snare, a fishing-line; _gilt_, a young sow; _gimmer_, a young ewe; _gloppen_, to scare, terrify; _glare_, to stare, to glow; _goam_, _gaum_, to stare idly, to gape, whence _gomeril_, a blockhead; _gowk_, a cuckoo, a clown; _gowlan_, _gollan_, a marigold; _gowpen_, a double handful; _gradely_, respectable; _graithe_, to prepare; _grice_, a young pig; _haaf_, the open sea; _haver_, oats; _how_, a hillock, mound; _immer-goose_, _ember-goose_, the great Northern diver; _ing_, a lowlying meadow; _intake_, a newly enclosed or reclaimed portion of land; _keld_, a spring of water; _kenning_, knowledge, experience; _kilp_, _kelp_, the iron hook in a chimney on which pots are hung; _kip_, to catch fish in a particular way; _kittle_, to tickle; _lain_, _lane_, to conceal; _lair_, a muddy place, a quick-sand; _lait_, to seek; _lake_, to play; _lathe_, a barn; _lax_, a salmon; _lea_, a scythe; _leister_, a fish-spear with prongs and barbs; _lift_, the air, sky; _lig_, to lie down; _lispund_, a variable weight; _lit_, to dye; _loon_, the Northern diver; _lowe_, a flame, a blaze. _Mense_, respect, reverence, decency, sense; _mickle_, great; _mirk_, dark; _morkin_, a dead sheep; _muck_, dirt; _mug_, fog, mist, whence _muggy_, misty, close, dull; _neif_, _neive_, the fist; _ouse_, _ouze_, to empty out liquid, to bale out a boat; _paddock_, a frog, a toad; _quey_, a young heifer; _rae_, a sailyard; _rag_, hoarfrost, rime; _raise_, a cairn, a tumulus; _ram_, _rammish_, rank, rancid; _rip_, a basket; _risp_, to scratch; _rit_, to scratch slightly, to score; _rawk_, _roke_, a mist; _roo_, to pluck off the wool of sheep instead of shearing them; _roose_, to praise; _roost_, _roust_, a strong sea-current, a race. _Sark_, a shirt; _scarf_, a cormorant; _scopperil_, a teetotum; _score_, a gangway down to the sea-shore; _screes_, rough stones on a steep mountain-side, really for _screethes_ (the _th_ being omitted as in _clothes_), from Old Norse _skriða_, a land-slip on a hill-side; _scut_, a rabbit's tail; _seave_, a rush; _sike_, a small rill, gutter; _sile_, a young herring; _skeel_, a wooden pail; _skep_, a basket, a measure; _skift_, to shift, remove, flit; _skrike_, to shriek; _slocken_, to slake, quench; _slop_, a loose outer garment; _snag_, a projecting end, a stump of a tree; _soa_, a large round tub; _spae_, to foretell, to prophesy; _spean_, a teat, (as a verb) to wean; _spelk_, a splinter, thin piece of wood; _steg_, a gander; _storken_, to congeal; _swale_, a shady place; _tang_, the prong of a fork, a tongue of land; _tarn_, a mountain pool; _tath_, manure, _tathe_, to manure; _ted_, to spread hay; _theak_, to thatch; _thoft_, a cross-bench in a boat; _thrave_, twenty-four sheaves, or a certain measure of corn; _tit_, a wren; _titling_, a sparrow; _toft_, a homestead, an old enclosure, low hill; _udal_, a particular tenure of land; _ug_, to loathe; _wadmel_, a species of coarse cloth; _wake_, a portion of open water in a frozen lake or stream; _wale_, to choose; _wase_, a wisp or small bundle of hay or straw; _whauve_, to cover over, especially with a dish turned upside down; _wick_, a creek, bay; _wick_, a corner, angle. Another source of foreign supply to the vocabulary of the dialects is French; a circumstance which seems hitherto to have been almost entirely ignored. The opinion has, I think, been expressed more than once, that dialects are almost, if not altogether, free from French influence. Some, however, have called attention, perhaps too much attention, to the French words found in Lowland Scotch; and it is common to adduce always the same set of examples, such as _ashet_, a dish (F. _assiette_, a trencher, plate: Cotgrave), _gigot_, a leg of mutton, and _petticoat-tails_, certain cakes baked with butter (ingeniously altered from _petits gastels_, old form of _petits gâteaux_), by way of illustration. Indeed, a whole book has been written on this subject; see _A Critical Enquiry into the Scottish Language_, by Francisque-Michel, 4to, Edinburgh, 1882. But the importance of the borrowings, chiefly in Scotland, from Parisian French, has been much exaggerated, as in the work just mentioned; and a far more important source has been ignored, viz. Anglo-French, which I here propose to consider. By Anglo-French is meant the highly important form of French which is largely peculiar to England, and is of the highest value to the philologist. The earliest forms of it were Norman, but it was afterwards supplemented by words borrowed from other French dialects, such as those of Anjou and Poitou, as well as from the Central French of Paris. It was thus developed in a way of its own, and must always be considered, in preference to Old Continental French, when English etymologies are in question. It is true that it came to an end about 1400, when it ceased to be spoken; but at an earlier date it was alive and vigorous, and coined its own peculiar forms. A very simple example is our word _duty_, which certainly was not borrowed from the Old French _devoir_, but from the Anglo-French _duetee_, a word familiar in Old London, but absolutely unknown to every form of continental French. The point which I have here to insist upon is that not only does our literary language abound with Anglo-French words, but that they are also common enough in our dialects; a point which, as far as I know, is almost invariably overlooked. Neither have our dialects escaped the influence of the Central French of Paris, and it would have been strange if they had; for the number of French words in English is really very large. It is not always possible to discriminate between the Old French of France and of England, and I shall here consider both sources together, though the Old Norman words can often be easily discerned by any one who is familiar with the Norman peculiarities. Of such peculiarities I will instance three, by way of example. Thus Anglo-French often employs _ei_ or _ey_ where Old French (i.e. of the continent) has _oi_ or _oy_; and English has retained the old pronunciations of _ch_ and _j_. Hence, whilst _convoy_ is borrowed from French, _convey_ is Anglo-French. _Machine_ is French, because the _ch_ is pronounced as _sh_; but _chine_, the backbone, is Anglo-French. _Rouge_ is French, because of the peculiar pronunciation of the final _ge_; but _rage_ is Anglo-French; and _jaundice_ is Anglo-French, as it has the old _j_. See Chapters III-VI of my _Principles of English Etymology, Second Series_. A good example of a dialect word is _gantry_ or _gauntree_, a wooden stand for barrels, known in varying forms in many dialects. It is rightly derived, in the _E.D.D._, from _gantier_, which must have been an A.F. (Anglo-French) form, though now only preserved in the Rouchi dialect, spoken on the borders of France and Belgium, and nearly allied to Norman; in fact, M. Hécart, the author of the _Dictionnaire_ _Rouchi-Français_, says he had heard the word in Normandy, and he gives a quotation for it from Olivier Basselin, a poet who lived in Normandy at the beginning of the fifteenth century. The Parisian form is _chantier_, which Cotgrave explains as "a Gauntrey... for hogs-heads to stand on." Here is a clear example of a word which is of Norman, or A.F., origin; and there must be many more such of which the A.F. form is lost. There is no greater literary disgrace to England than the fact that there is no reasonable Dictionary in existence of Anglo-French, though it contains hundreds of highly important legal terms. It ought, in fact, to have been compiled before either the _English Dialect Dictionary_ or the _New English Dictionary_, both of which have suffered from the lack of it. It would indeed be tedious to enumerate the vast number of French words in our dialects. Many are literary words used in a peculiar sense, often in one that has otherwise been long obsolete; such as _able_, rich; _access_, an ague-fit; _according_, comparatively; _to act_, to show off, be ridiculous; _afraid_, conj., for fear that; _agreeable_, willing; _aim_, to intend; _aisle_, a central thoroughfare in a shop, etc.; _alley_, the aisle of a church; _allow_, to suppose; _anatomy_, a skeleton; _ancient_, an ensign, flag; _anguish_, inflammation; _annoyance_, damage; _anointed_, notoriously vicious; _apron_, the diaphragm of an animal; _apt_, sure; _arbitrary_, impatient of restraint; _archangel_, dead nettle; _argue_, to signify; _arrant_, downright; _auction_, an untidy place, a crowd; _avise_ (for _advise_), to inform. It is needless to go through the rest of the alphabet. Moreover, dialect-speakers are quite capable of devising new forms for themselves. It is sufficient to instance _abundation_, abundance; _ablins_, possibly (made from _able_); _argle_, _argie-bargie_, _argle-bargle_, _argufy_, all varieties of the verb _to argue_; and so on. The most interesting words are those that have survived from Middle English or from Tudor English times. Examples are _aigre_, sour, tart, which is Shakespeare's _eagre_, _Hamlet_, I, v 69; _ambry_, _aumbry_, cupboard, spelt _almarie_ in _Piers the Plowman_, B XIV 246; _arain_, a spider, spelt _yreyn_ in Wyclif's translation of Psalm XC 10, which, after all, is less correct; _arles_, money paid on striking a bargain, a highly interesting word, spelt _erles_ in the former half of the thirteenth century; _arris_, the angular edge of a cut block of stone, etc., from the O.F. _areste_, L. _arista_, which has been revived by our Swiss mountain-climbers in the form _aréte_; _a-sew_, dry, said of cows that give no milk (cf. F. _essuyer_, to dry); _assoilyie_, to absolve, acquit, and _assith_, to compensate, both used by Sir W. Scott; _astre_, _aistre_, a hearth, a Norman word found in 1292; _aunsel_, a steelyard, of which the etymology is given in the _E.D.D._; _aunter_, an adventure, from the A.F. _aventure_; _aver_, a beast of burden, horse, used by Burns, from the A.F. _aveir_, property, cattle; _averous_, A.F. _averous_, avaricious, in Wyclif's translation of 1 Cor. vi 10. Here is ample proof of the survival of Anglo-French in our dialects. Indeed, their chief philological use consists in the great antiquity of many of the terms, which often preserve Old English and Anglo-French forms with much fidelity. The charge often brought against dialect speakers of using "corrupt" forms is only occasionally and exceptionally true. Much worse "corruptions" have been made by antiquaries, in order to suit their false etymologies. CHAPTER X LATER HISTORY OF THE DIALECTS With the ascendancy of East Midland, and its acceptance as the chief literary language, the other dialects practically ceased to be recorded, with the exception (noted above) of the Scottish Northumbrian. Of English Northumbrian, the sixteenth century tells us nothing beyond what we can glean from belated copies of Northern ballads or such traces of a Northern (apparently a Lancashire) dialect as appear in Spenser's _Shepherd's Calendar_. Fitzherbert's _Boke of Husbandry_ (1534) was reprinted for the E.D.S. in 1882. It was written, not by Sir Anthony Fitzherbert, as I erroneously said in the Preface, but by his brother, John Fitzherbert, as has been subsequently shown. It contains a considerable number of dialectal words. Thomas Tusser (1525-1580), born in Essex, wrote _A Hundreth Good Pointes of Husbandrie_ (1557), and _Fiue Hundred Pointes of Good Husbandrie_ (1573); see the edition by Payne and Herrtage, E.D.S., 1878. He employs many country words, presumably Essex. The dialect assumed by Edgar in Shakespeare's _King Lear_ is not to be taken as being very accurate; he talks somewhat like a Somersetshire peasant, but I suppose his speech to be in a conventional stage dialect, such as we find also in _The London Prodigall_, Act II, Sc. 4, where Olyver, "a Devonshire Clothier," uses similar expressions, viz. _chill_ for _Ich will_, I will; and _chy vor thee_, I warn thee. Towards the end of the seventeenth century, the value of dialectal words as helping to explain our English vocabulary began to be recognised. Particular mention may be made of the _Etymologicon Linguæ Anglicanæ_, by Stephen Skinner, London, 1671; and it should be noted that this is the Dictionary upon which Dr Johnson relied for the etymology of native English words. At the same time, we must not forget to note two Dictionaries of a much earlier date, which are of high value. The former of these is the _Promptorium Parvulorum_, completed in 1440, published by the Camden Society in 1865; which contains a rather large proportion of East Anglian words. The second is the _Catholicon Anglicum_, dated 1483, ed. S.J. Herrtage, E.E.T.S., 1881, which is distinctly Northern (possibly of Yorkshire origin). We find in Skinner occasional mention of Lincolnshire words, with which he was evidently familiar. Examples are: _boggle-boe_, a spectre; _bratt_, an apron; _buffet-stool_, a hassock; _bulkar_, explained by Peacock as "a wooden hutch in a workshop or a ship." The study of modern English Dialects began with the year 1674, when the celebrated John Ray, Fellow of the Royal Society, botanist, zoologist, and collector of local words and proverbs, issued his _Collection of English Words not generally used_; of which a second edition appeared in 1691. See my reprint of these; E.D.S., 1874. This was the first general collection, and one of the best; and after this date (1674) many dialect words appeared in English Dictionaries, such as those of Elisha Coles (1676, and four subsequent editions); John Kersey (1708, etc.); Nathaniel Bailey (1721, etc.); N. Bailey's _Dictionary_, Part II, a distinct work (1727, etc.). The celebrated _Dictionary_ by Dr Johnson, 2 vols., folio, London, 1755, owed much to Bailey. Later, we may notice the _Dictionary_ by John Ash, London, 1775; and Todd's edition of Johnson, London, 1818. It is needless to mention later works; see the Complete List of Dictionaries, by H.B. Wheatley, reprinted in the E.D.S. Bibliographical List (1877), pp. 3-11; and the long List of Works which more particularly relate to English Dialects in the same, pp. 11-17. Among the latter may be mentioned _A Provincial Glossary_, by F. Grose, London, 1787, second edition 1790; _Supplement to the same_, by the late S. Pegge, F.S.A., London, 1814; and _Glossary of Archaic and Provincial_ _Words_, by the late Rev. J. Boucher, ed. Hunter and Stevenson, 1832-3. The last of these was attempted on a large scale, but never got beyond the word _Blade_; so that it was practically a failure. The time for producing a real Dialect Dictionary had not yet come; but the valuable _Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, by J. Jamieson, published at Edinburgh in 4 vols., 4to, in 1808-25, made an excellent beginning. The nineteenth century not only accumulated for our use a rather large number of general works on Dialects, but also a considerable quantity of works illustrating them separately. I may instance those on the dialect of Bedfordshire, by T. Batchelor, 1809; of Berkshire, by Job Lousley, 1852; Cheshire, by R. Wilbraham, 1820, 1826; East Anglia, by R. Forby, 1830, and by Nall, 1866; Teesdale, co. Durham, by F.T. Dinsdale, 1849; Herefordshire, by G.C. Lewis, 1839; Lincolnshire, by J.E. Brogden, 1866; Northamptonshire, by Miss A.E. Baker, 2 vols., 1854; the North Country, by J.T. Brockett, 1825, 1846; Somersetshire, by J. Jennings, 1825, 1869; Suffolk, by E. Moor, 1823; Sussex, by W.D. Cooper, 1836, 1853; Wiltshire, by J.Y. Akerman, 1842; the Cleveland dialect (Yorks.), by J.C. Atkinson, 1868; the Craven dialect, by W. Carr, 1824; and many more of the older type that are still of value. We have also two fairly good general dictionaries of dialect words; that by T. Wright, 1857, 1869; and that by J.O. Halliwell, 2 vols., 1847, 11th ed., 1889. See the exhaustive Bibliographical List of all works connected with our dialects in the _E.D.D._, pp. 1-59, at the end of vol. VI. In 1869 appeared Part I of Dr A.J. Ellis's great work on _Early English Pronunciation_, with especial reference to Shakespeare and Chaucer; followed by Part II of the same, on the Pronunciation of the thirteenth and previous centuries, of Anglo-Saxon, Icelandic, Old Norse, and Gothic. In 1871 appeared Part III of the same, on the Pronunciation of the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries. Part IV was then planned to include the Pronunciation of the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries, including the Phonology of the Dialects; and for this purpose it was necessary to gain particulars such as could hardly be accomplished without special research. It was partly with this in view, and partly in order to collect material for a really comprehensive dictionary, that, in 1873, I founded the English Dialect Society, undertaking the duties of Secretary and Director. The Society was brought to an end in 1896, after producing 80 publications and collecting much material. Mr Nodal, of Manchester, was Secretary from 1876 to 1893; and from 1893 to 1896 the headquarters of the Society were in Oxford. Besides this, I raised a fund in 1886 for collecting additional material in manuscript, and thus obtained a considerable quantity, which the Rev. A. Smythe Palmer, D.D., in the course of two years and a half, arranged in fair order. But even in 1889 more was required, and the work was then taken in hand by Dr Joseph Wright, who gives the whole account of the means by which, in 1898, he was enabled to issue Vol. I of the _English Dialect Dictionary_. The sixth and concluding volume of this most valuable work was issued in 1905. To this I refer the reader for all further information, which is there given in a very complete form. At the beginning is a Preface explaining the history of the book; followed by lists of voluntary readers, of unprinted MS. collections, and of correspondents consulted; whilst Vol. VI, besides a Supplement of 179 pages, gives a Bibliography of Books and MSS. quoted, with a full Index; to which is added the _English Dialect Grammar_. This _English Dialect Grammar_ was also published, in 1905, as a separate work, and contains a full account of the phonology of all the chief dialects, the very variable pronunciation of a large number of leading words being accurately indicated by the use of a special set of symbols; the Table of Vowel-sounds is given at p. 13. The Phonology is followed by an Accidence, which discusses the peculiarities of dialect grammar. Next follows a rather large collection of important words, that are differently pronounced in different counties; for example, more than thirty variations are recorded of the pronunciation of the word _house_. The fulness of the Vocabulary in the Dictionary, and the minuteness of the account of the phonology and accidence in the Grammar, leave nothing to desire. Certainly no other country can give so good an account of its Dialects. CHAPTER XI THE MODERN DIALECTS It has been shown that, in the earliest period, we can distinguish three well-marked dialects besides the Kentish, viz. Northumbrian, Mercian, and Anglo-Saxon; and these, in the Middle English period, are known as Northern, Midland, and Southern. The modern dialects are very numerous, but can be arranged under five divisions, two of which may be called Northern and Southern, as before; whilst the other three arise from a division of the widely spread Midland into subdivisions. These may be called, respectively, West Midland, Mid Midland (or simply Midland), and East Midland; and it has been shown that similar subdivisions appear even in the Middle English period. This arrangement of the modern dialects under five divisions is that adopted by Prof. Wright, who further simplifies the names by using Western in place of West Midland, and Eastern in place of East Midland. This gives us, as a final result, five divisions of English dialects, viz. Northern, Western, Midland, Eastern, and Southern; to which we must add the dialects of modern Scotland (originally Northern), and the dialects of Ireland, viz. of Ulster (a kind of Northern), Dublin, and Wexford (a kind of Southern). No map of dialects is here given in illustration, because it is practically impossible to define their boundaries accurately. Such a map was once given by Dr Ellis, but it is only arbitrary; and Prof. Wright expressly says that, in his work also, the boundaries suggested are inexact; they are only given for convenience, as an approximation to the truth. He agrees with Dr Ellis in most of the particulars. Many of the counties are divided between two, or even three, dialects; I somewhat simplify matters by omitting to mention some of them, so as to give merely a general idea of the chief dialectal localities. For fuller information, see the _Dialect Grammar_. I. The dialects of Scotland may be subdivided into nine groups: 1. Shetland and Orkney. 2. Caithness. 3. Nairn, Elgin, Banff, Aberdeen. 4. E. Forfar, Kincardine. 5. W. Forfar, most of Perth, parts of Fife and Stirling. 6. S. Ayr, W. Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, Wigton. 7. S.E. Argyle, N. Ayr, Renfrew, Lanark. 8. Kinross, Clackmannan, Linlithgow, Edinburgh, Haddington, Berwick, Peebles. 9. E. Dumfries, Selkirk, Roxburgh. II. Ireland.--Ulster, Dublin, Wexford. III. England and Wales, in five divisions: (_a_) Northern; (_b_) Midland; (_c_) Eastern; (_d_) Western; (_e_) Southern. (_a_) Three groups: 1. Northumberland, N. Durham. 2. S. Durham; most of Cumberland, Westmoreland, N. Lancashire, hilly parts of W. Riding of Yorkshire. 3. N. and E. Ridings of Yorkshire. (_b_) Ten groups: 1. Lincolnshire. 2. S.E. Lancashire, N.E. Cheshire, N.W. Derby. 3. S.W. Lancashire, S. of the Ribble. 4. Mid Lancashire, Isle of Man. 5. S. Yorkshire; to the S.W. of the Wharfe. 6. Most of Cheshire, N. Staffordshire. 7. Most of Derby. 8. Nottingham. 9. Flint, Denbigh. 10. E. Shropshire, S. Stafford, most of Warwickshire, S. Derby, Leicestershire. (_c_) Five groups: 1. Cambridge, Rutland, N.E. Northampton. 2. Most of Essex and Hertford, Huntingdon, Bedford, Mid Northampton. 3. Norfolk and Suffolk. 4. Most of Buckingham. 5. Middlesex, S.E. Buckingham, S. Hertford, S.W. Essex. N.B. S.W. Northampton is Southern; see (_e_), 4. (_d_) Two groups: 1. W. and S. Shropshire (W. of Severn). 2. Hereford (except E.), Radnor, E. Brecknock. (_e_) Ten groups. 1. Parts of Pembroke and Glamorgan. 2. Wiltshire, Dorset, N. and E. Somerset, most of Gloucester, S.W. Devon. 3. Most of Hampshire, Isle of Wight, most of Berkshire, S. Surrey, W. Sussex. 4. N. Gloucester, E. Hereford, Worcester, S. Warwick, N. Oxford, S.W. Northampton. 5. Most of Oxford. 6. N. Surrey, N.W. Kent. 7. Most of Kent, E. Sussex. 8. W. Somerset, N.E. Devon. 9. Most of Devon, E. Cornwall. 10. W. Cornwall. CHAPTER XII A FEW SPECIMENS There is a great wealth of modern dialect literature, as indicated by the lists in the _E.D.D._ Some of these dialect books are poor and inaccurate, and they are frequently spelt according to no intelligible phonetic principles. Yet it not unfrequently happens, as in the works of Sir Walter Scott and Charles Dickens, that the dialectal scraps indicate the pronunciation with tolerable fidelity, which is more than can be said of such portions of their works as are given in the normal spelling. It is curious to notice that writers in dialect are usually, from a phonetic point of view, more careful and consistent in their modes of indicating sounds than are the rest of us. Sometimes their spelling is, accordingly, very good. Those who are interested in this subject may follow up this hint with advantage. It is impossible to mention even a tithe of the names of our better dialect writers. In Scotland alone there is a large number, some of the more recent bearing such well-known names as those of R.L. Stevenson, George Macdonald (Aberdeen), J.M. Barrie (Forfarshire), and S.R. Crockett (Galloway). Dean Ramsay's humorous _Reminiscences of Scottish Life and Character_ must not be passed over. For Ireland we have William Carleton's _Traits and Stories of the Irish Peasantry_, and the novels by Lever and Lover. Cumberland has its delightful stories of _Joe and the Geologist_, and _Bobby Banks' Bodderment_. Cornwall has its _Tales_, by J.T. Tregellas. Devon can boast of R.D. Blackmore, Dorset of Hardy and Barnes, and Lincoln of Tennyson. The literature of Lancashire is vast; it suffices to mention John Collier (otherwise Tim Bobbin), author of _Tummus and Meary_, Ben Brierley, John Byrom, J.P. Morris, author of _T' Lebby Beck Dobby_, and Edwin Waugh, prose author and poet. _Giles's Trip to London_, and the other sketches by the same author, are highly characteristic of Norfolk. Northamptonshire has its poet, John Clare; and Suffolk can boast of Robert Bloomfield. According to her own statement, printed in the Preface (p. viii) to the E.D.S. _Bibliographical List_, George Eliot, when writing _Adam Bede_, had in mind "the talk of N. Staffordshire and the neighbouring part of Derbyshire"; whilst, in _Silas Marner_, "the district imagined is in N. Warwickshire." Southey wrote _T' Terrible Knitters e' Dent_ in the Westmoreland dialect. Yorkshire, like Lancashire, has a large literature, to which the _E.D.D._ Booklist can alone do justice. SCOTTISH (Group 3): ABERDEEN. The following extract is from Chapter XVIII of _Johnny Gibb of Gushetneuk_, by W. Alexander, LL.D., fifteenth edition, Edinburgh, 1908. One special peculiarity of the dialect is the use of _f_ for _wh_, as in _fat_, what, _fan_, when. The extract describes how the speaker and his friends went to hear a bellman make a proclamation about the appointment of a new minister to a church. It's a vera stiff brae, an' ere we wan up to the kirk, it was gyaun upon eleyven o'clock. "Hooever," says the mannie, "we'll be in braw time; it's twal ere the sattlement begin, an' I'se warran they sanna apen the kirk-doors till's till than." So we tak's a luik roun' for ony kent fowk. They war stannin' aboot a'gate roun' aboot the kirk, in scores an' hunners, fowk fae a' the pairis'es roun' aboot, an' some fae hyne awa' as far doon's Marnoch o' the tae han' an' Kintore o' the tither, aw believe; some war stampin' their feet an' slappin' their airms like the yauws o' a win'mill to keep them a-heat; puckles wus sittin' o' the kirk-yard dyke, smokin' an' gyaun on wi' a' kin' o' orra jaw aboot the minaisters, an' aye mair gedderin' in aboot--it was thocht there wus weel on to twa thoosan' there ere a' was deen. An' aye a bit fudder was comin' up fae the manse aboot fat the Presbytery was deein--they war chaumer't there, ye see, wi' the lawvyers an' so on. "Nyod, they maun be sattlin' 'im i' the manse," says ane, "we'll need a' gae doon an' see gin we can win in." "Na, na," says anither, "a bit mair bather aboot thair dissents an' appales bein' ta'en; muckle need they care, wi' sic a Presbytery, fat they try. But here's Johnny Florence, the bellman, at the lang length, I'se be at the boddom o' fat they're at noo." And wi' that he pints till a carlie comin' across the green, wi' a bit paper in's han', an' a gryte squad o' them 't hed been hingin' aboot the manse-door at's tail. "Oo, it's Johnny gyaun to read the edick," cries a gey stoot chap, an' twa three o' them gya a roar o' a lauch.... "Speek oot, min!" cries ane. "I think ye mith pronunce some better nor that, Johnny," says anither; an' they interrupit 'im fan he was tryin' to read wi' a' kin' of haivers, takin' the words oot o's mou, an' makin' the uncoest styte o't 't cud be. Notes.--_brae_, hill; _wan up_, got up; _gyaun upon_, going close upon; _braw_, excellent; _twal_, twelve; _sattlement_, decision; _I'se_, I will (lit. I shall); _sanna_, will not; _till's_, for us; _kent fowk_, known people, acquaintances; _a'gate_, in all ways; _hunners_, hundreds; _fae_, from; _hyne awa'_, hence away, as far off; _the tae_, the one; _the tither_, the other; _yauws_, sails; _puckles_, numbers, many; _dyke_, stone fence; _orra jaw_, various loud talk; _mair gedderin'_, more gathering; _on to_, near; _deen_, done; _bit fudder_, bit of a rumour (lit. gust of wind); _fae_, from; _fat_, what; _deein_, doing; _chaumer't_, chambered, shut up; _nyod_, a disguised oath; _we'll need_, we must; _gin_, if; _win in_, get in: _bather_, bother; _at the lang length_, at last; _carlie_, churl; _gryte squad_, great crowd; _gey stoot_, rather stout; _twa three_, two or three; _gya_, gave; _mith_, might; _nor that_, than that; _haivers_, foolish talk; _mou_, mouth; _uncoest_, most uncouth, strangest; _styte_, nonsense. SCOTTISH (Group 7): AYRSHIRE. The following lines are quoted from a well-known poem by Robert Burns (1759-1796). The Twa Dogs (Cæsar and Luath). _Cæs_. "I've notic'd, on our Laird's court-day, An' mony a time my heart's been wae, Poor tenant bodies, scant o' cash, How they maun thole a factor's snash He'll stamp an' threaten, curse an' swear, He'll apprehend them, poind their gear; While they maun stan', wi' aspect humble, An' hear it a', an' fear and tremble! I see how folk live that hae riches; But surely poor folk maun be wretches." _Lu._ "They're no sae wretched's are wad think; Tho' constantly on poortith's brink, They're sae accustom'd wi' the sight, The view o't gies them little fright.... The dearest comfort o' their lives, Their grushie weans an' faithfu' wives: The prattling things are just their pride, That sweetens a' their fire-side.... That merry day the year begins, They bar the door on frosty win's; The nappy reeks wi' mantling ream, An' sheds a heart-inspiring steam; The luntin' pipe an' sneeshin-mill Are handed round wi' right good will; The cantie auld folks crackin' crouse, The young anes ranting thro' the house-- My heart has been sae fain to see them That I, for joy, hae barkit wi' them!"... By this, the sun was out o' sight, An' darker gloamin' brought the night: The bum-clock humm'd wi' lazy drone, The kye stood rowtin' i' the loan; When up they gat, an' shook their lugs, Rejoic'd they were na _men_ but _dogs_; An' each took aff his several way, Resolv'd to meet some ither day. Notes.--_wae_, sorrowful; _maun thole_, must endure, must put up with; _factor's snash_, agent's abuse; _poind_, seize upon, sequester; _gear_, property; _hae_, have; _no sae_, not so; _wad_, would; _poortith_, poverty; _grushie_, of thriving growth, well-grown; _weans_, children; _win's_, winds; _nappy_, foaming ale; _reeks_, smokes; _ream_, cream; _luntin'_, smoking, emitting smoke; _sneeshin-mill_, snuff box; _cantie_, merry; _crackin'_, conversing; _crouse_, with good spirits; _ranting_, running noisily; _fain_, glad; _gloamin'_, twilight; _bum-clock_, beetle (that booms); _kye_, cows; _rowtin'_, lowing; _loan_, milking-place; _lugs_, ears. SCOTTISH (Group 8): EDINBURGH. The following stanzas are from _The Farmer's Ingle_, a poem by Robert Fergusson (1750-1774), a native of Edinburgh. Whan gloming grey out o'er the welkin keeks, Whan Batie ca's his owsen to the byre, Whan Thrasher John, sair dung, his barn-door steeks, And lusty lasses at the dighting tire: What bangs fu' leal the e'enings coming cauld, And gars snaw-tappit winter freeze in vain, Gars dowie mortals look baith blythe and bauld, Nor fley'd wi' a' the poortith o' the plain; Begin, my Muse, and chant in hamely strain. Frae the big stack, weel-winnow't on the hill, Wi' divets theekit frae the weet and drift, Sods, peats, and heath'ry trufs the chimley fill, And gar their thick'ning smeek salute the lift; The gudeman, new come hame, is blythe to find, Whan he out o'er the halland flings his een, That ilka turn is handled to his mind, That a' his housie looks sae cosh and clean; For cleanly house lo'es he, tho' e'er sae mean. Weel kens the gudewife that the pleughs require A heartsome meltith, and refreshing synd O' nappy liquor, o'er a bleezing fire; Sair wark and poortith downa weel be join'd. Wi' buttered bannocks now the girdle reeks; I' the far nook the bowie briskly reams; The readied kail stands by the chimley-cheeks, And hauds the riggin het wi' welcome streams; Whilk than the daintiest kitchen nicer seems.... Then a' the house for sleep begin to grien, Their joints to slack frae industry a while; The leaden god fa's heavy on their een, And hafflins steeks them frae their daily toil; The cruizy too can only blink and bleer, The restit ingle's done the maist it dow; Tackman and cottar eke to bed maun steer, Upo' the cod to clear their drumly pow, Till waukened by the dawning's ruddy glow. Notes.--_Ingle_, chimney-corner. _Gloming_, twilight; _keeks_, peeps; _ca's_, drives (lit. calls); _owsen_, oxen; _byre_, cow-house; _sair dung_, sorely tired; _steeks_, shuts; _dighting_, winnowing; _bangs fu' leal_, defeats right well; _gars_, makes; _-tappit_, crested; _dowie_, melancholy; _fley'd_, frighted; _poortith_, poverty. _Divets_, turfs; _theekit_, thatched; _weet_, wet; _sods, peats, and heath'ry trufs_, various turf fuels; _chimley_, fire-place; _gar_, make; _smeek_, smoke; _lift_, sky; _halland_, partition forming a screen; _een_, eyes; _ilka_, each; _cosh_, cosy; _lo'es_, loves. _Kens_, knows; _meltith_, meal-tide, meal; _synd_, wash-down, draught; _nappy_, heady, strong; _downa_, cannot; _bannocks_, cakes; _girdle_, hot-plate; _reeks_, smokes; _bowie_, cask, beer-barrel; _reams_, foams; _readied kail_, (dish of) cooked greens; _by_, beside; _hauds... het_, keeps... hot; _riggin_, roof over the open hearth; _whilk_, which. _Grien_, yearn, long; _hafflins steeks_, half shuts; _cruizy_, oil-lamp; _bleer_, bedim (the sight); _restit ingle_, made up fire; _dow_, can; _tackman_, lease-holder, farmer; _cod_, pillow; _drumly pow_, confused head. NORTHERN (ENGLAND); Group 2: WESTMORELAND. The following extract is from a remarkable tract entitled _A Bran New Wark, by William De Worfat_; Kendal, 1785. The author was the Rev. William Hutton, Rector of Beetham in Westmoreland, 1762-1811, and head of a family seated at Overthwaite (here called Worfat) in that parish. It was edited by me for the E.D.S. in 1879. Last Saturday sennet, abaut seun in the evening (twas lownd and fraaze hard) the stars twinkled, and the setting moon cast gigantic shadows. I was stalking hameward across Blackwater-mosses, and whistling as I tramp'd for want of thought, when a noise struck my ear, like the crumpling of frosty murgeon; it made me stop short, and I thought I saw a strange form before me: it vanished behint a windraw; and again thare was nought in view but dreary dykes, and dusky ling. An awful silence reigned araund; this was sean brokken by a skirling hullet; sure nivver did hullet, herrensue, or miredrum, mak sic a noise before. Your minister [_himself_] was freetned, the hairs of his head stood an end, his blead storkened, and the haggard creature moving slawly nearer, the mirkiness of the neet shew'd her as big again as she was... She stoup'd and drop'd a poak, and thus began with a whining tone. "Deary me! deary me! forgive me, good Sir, but this yance, I'll steal naa maar. This seek is elding to keep us fra starving!"... [_The author visits the poor woman's cottage_.] She sat on a three-legg'd steal, and a dim coal smook'd within the rim of a brandreth, oor which a seety rattencreak hung dangling fra a black randletree. The walls were plaister'd with dirt, and a stee, with hardly a rung, was rear'd into a loft. Araund the woman her lile ans sprawl'd on the hearth, some whiting speals, some snottering and crying, and ya ruddy-cheek'd lad threw on a bullen to make a loww, for its mother to find her loup. By this sweal I beheld this family's poverty. Notes.--_Sennet_, seven nights, week; _seun_, seven; _lownd_, still, calm; _murgeon_, rubbish earth cut up and thrown aside in order to get peat; _windraw_, heap of dug earth; _ling_, kind of heather; _skirling hullet_, shrieking owlet; _herrensue_, young heron; _miredrum_, bittern; _blead storkened_, blood congealed; _neet_, night; _poak_, bag; _yance_, once; _seck_, sack, i.e. contents of this sack; _elding_, fuel; _steal_, stool; _brandreth_, iron frame over the fire; _seaty_, sooty; _rattencreak_, potcrook, pothook; _randletree_, a beam from which the pothook hangs; _stee_, ladder; _loft_, upper room; _lile ans_, little ones; _whiting speals_, whittling small sticks; _snottering_, sobbing; _ya_, one; _bullen_, hempstalk; _loww_, flame; _loup_, loop, stitch in knitting; _sweal_, blaze. MIDLAND (Group I): LINCOLN. I here give a few quotations from the Glossary of Words used in the Wapentakes of Manley and Corringham, Lincolnshire, by E. Peacock, F.S.A.; 2nd ed., E.D.S., 1889. The illustrative sentences are very characteristic. _Beal_, to bellow.--Th' bairn beäled oot that bad, I was clëan scar'd, but it was at noht bud a battle-twig 'at hed crohlëd up'n hisairm. (_Battle-twig_, earwig; _airm_, arm.) _Cart, to get into_, to get into a bad temper.--Na, noo, thoo neädn't get into th' cart, for I weän't draw thee. _Cauf_, a calf, silly fellow.--A gentleman was enlarging to a Winterton lad on the virtues of Spanish juice [liquorice water]. "Ah,then, ye'll ha' been to th' mines, wheäre thaay gets it," the boy exclaimed; whereupon the mother broke in with--"A greät cauf! Duz he think 'at thaay dig it oot o' th' grund, saäme as thaay do sugar?" _Chess_, a tier.--I've been tell'd that e' plaaces wheäre thaay graw silk-worms, thaay keäps 'em on traays, chess aboon chess, like cheney i' a cupboard. (_E'_ in; _cheney_, china.) _Clammer_, to climb.--Oor Uriah's clammered into th' parson's cherry-tree, muther, an' he is swalla'in on 'em aboon a bit. I shouldn't ha tell'd ye nobbut he weänt chuck me ony doon. (_Nobbut_, only.) _Cottoner_, something very striking.--Th' bairn hed been e' mischief all daay thrif; at last, when I was sidin' awaay th' teä-things, what duz he do but tum'le i'to th' well. So, says I, Well, this is a cottoner; we shall hev to send for Mr Iveson (the coroner) noo, I reckon. (_Thrif_, through; _sidin' awaay_, putting away.) _Ducks_.--A girl said to the author, of a woman with whom she had been living for a short time as servant, "I'd raather be nibbled to deäd wi' ducks then live with Miss P. She's alus a natterin'." (_Deäd_, death; _alus_, always; _natterin'_, nagging.) _Good mind_, strong intention.--She said she'd a good mind to hing her-sen, soä I ax'd if I mud send for Mr Holgate (the coroner), to be ready like. (_Hing_, hang; _mud_, might.) _Jaup_, senseless talk.--Ho'd the jaup wi' th{(e}; dos't ta want ivery body to knaw how soft thoo is? (_Ho'd_, hold; _soft_, foolish.) MIDLAND (Group 2): S.E. LANCASHIRE. The following poem is from _Poems and Songs_ by Edwin Waugh; 3rd ed., London, 1870. Owd Pinder. Owd Pinder were a rackless foo, An' spent his days i' spreein'; At th' end ov every drinkin-do, He're sure to crack o' deein'; "Go, sell my rags, an' sell my shoon, Aw's never live to trail 'em; My ballis-pipes are eawt o' tune, An' th' wynt begins to fail 'em! Eawr Matty's very fresh an' yung;-- 'T would any mon bewilder;-- Hoo'll wed again afore it's lung, For th' lass is fond o' childer; My bit o' brass'll fly--yo'n see-- When th' coffin-lid has screen'd me-- It gwos again my pluck to dee, An' lev her wick beheend me. Come, Matty, come, an' cool my yed; Aw'm finish'd, to my thinkin';" Hoo happed him nicely up, an' said, "Thae'st brought it on wi' drinkin'."-- "Nay, nay," said he, "my fuddle's done, We're partin' tone fro tother; So promise me that, when aw'm gwon, Thea'll never wed another!" "Th' owd tale," said hoo, an' laft her stoo; "It's rayly past believin'; Thee think o' th' world thea'rt goin' to, An' lev this world to th' livin'; What use to me can deeod folk be? Thae's kilt thisel' wi' spreein"; An' iv that's o' thae wants wi' me, Get forrud wi' thi deein'!" Notes.--_Owd_, old; _rackless foo_, reckless fool; _spreein'_, merry-making, drinking; _-do_, bout; _He're_, he would be; _crack o' deein'_ , hint at dying; _Aw's_, I shall; _trail_, walk in; _ballis-pipes_, bellows-pipes, lungs; _eawt_, out; _wynt_, wind. _Eawr_, our, my; _Hoo_, she; _brass_, money; _yo'n_, you will; _lev_, leave; _wick_, quick, i.e. alive. _Yed_, head; _happed_, covered; _fuddle_, drinking-bout; _tone fro tother_, the one from the other. _Stoo_, stool; _Thee think_, do thou think; _deeod_, dead; _o'_, all; _get forrud_, get on, go on. MIDLAND (Group 5): SHEFFIELD. The following extract is from A. Bywater's _Sheffield Dialect_, 3rd ed, 1877; as quoted in S.O. Addy's _Sheffield Glossary_, E.D.S., 1888, p. xv. _Jerra Flatback._ Hah, they'n better toimes on't nah, booath e heitin and clooas; we'n had menni a mess a nettle porridge an brawls on a Sunda mo'nin, for us brekfast... Samma, dusta remember hah menni names we had for sahwer wotcake? _Oud Samma Squarejoint._ O kno'n't, lad; bur o think we'd foive or six. Let's see: Slammak wer won, an' Flat-dick wer anuther; an't tuther wor--a dear, mo memra fails ma--Flannel an' Jonta; an-an-an-an--bless me, wot a thing it is tubbe oud, mo memra gers war for ware, bur o kno heah's anuther; o'st think on enah.-- A, Jerra, heah's menni a thahsand dogs nah days, at's better dun too nor we wor then; an them were t'golden days a Hallamshoir, they sen. An they happen wor, for't mesters. Hofe at prentis lads e them days wor lether'd whoile ther skin wor skoi-blue, and clam'd whoile ther booans wer bare, an work'd whoile they wor as knock-kneed as oud Nobbletistocks. Thah nivver sees nooa knock-kneed cutlers nah: nou, not sooa; they'n better mesters nah, an they'n better sooat a wark anole. They dooant mezher em we a stick, as oud Natta Hall did. But for all that, we'd none a yer wirligig polishin; nor Tom Dockin scales, wit bousters comin off; nor yer sham stag, nor sham revvits, an sich loik. T' noives wor better made then, Jerra. _Jerra_: Hah, they wor better made; they made t' noives for yuse then, but they mayn em to sell nah. Notes.--Observe _'n_ for _han_ (plural), have; _on't nah_, of it now; _e heitin_, in eating; _mess a_, dish of, meal of; _brawis_, brose, porridge; _hah_, how; _sahwer wotcake_, leavened oatcake; _bur o_, but I; _mo_, my; _ma_, me; _tubbe oud_, to be old; _gers_, gets; _war for ware_, worse for wear; _o'st_, I shall; _think on_, remember; _enah_, presently; _nah days_, nowadays; _at's_, that are; _dun too_, treated; _nor we_, than we; _Hallamshoir_, Hallamshire, the district including Sheffield and the neighbourhood; _sen_, say; _happen_, perhaps; _for't_, for the; _hofe at_, half of the; _e them_, in those; _lether'd_, beaten; _whoile_, till; _clam'd_ (for _clamm'd_), starved; _sooat a_, sort of; _anole_, and all; _we_, with; _wirligig_, machine; _Tom Dockin scales_, scales cut out of thin rolled iron instead of being forged; _bousters_, bolsters (a _bolster_ is a lump of metal between the tang and the blade of a knife); _stag_, stag-horn handle (?); _mayn_, pl. make. MIDLAND (Group 6): CHESHIRE. The following extract is from "Betty Bresskittle's Pattens, or Sanshum Fair," by J.C. Clough; printed with Holland's _Cheshire Glossary_, E.D.S. (1886), p. 466. Sanshum or Sanjem Fair is a fair held at Altrincham on St James's Day. Jud sprung upo' th' stage leet as a buck an' bowd as a dandycock, an' th' mon what were playingk th' drum (only it wer'nt a gradely drum) gen him a pair o' gloves. Jud began a-sparringk, an' th' foaks shaouted, "Hooray! Go it, owd Jud! Tha'rt a gradely Cheshire mon!" Th' black felly next gen Jud a wee bit o' a bang i' th' reet ee, an Jud git as weild as weild, an hit reet aht, but some hah he couldna git a gradely bang at th' black mon. At-aftur two or three minutes th' black felly knocked Jud dahn, an t'other chap coom and picked him up, an' touch'd Jud's faace wi' th' spunge everywheer wheer he'd getten a bang, but th' spunge had getten a gurt lot o' red ruddle on it, so that it made gurt red blotches upo' Jud's faace wheer it touched it; an th' foaks shaouted and shaouted, "Hooray, Jud! Owd mon! at em agen!" An Jud let floy a good un, an th' mon wi' th' spunge had to pick th' blackeymoor up this toime an put th' ruddle upo' his faace just at-under th'ee. "Hooray, Jud! hooray, owd mon!" shaouted Jock Carter o' Runjer; "tha'rt game, if tha'rt owd!" Just at that vary minit Jud's weife, bad as hoo were wi' th' rheumatic, pushed her rooäd through th' foaks, and stood i' th' frunt o' th' show. "Go it agen, Jud! here's th' weife coom t'see hah gam tha art!" shaouted Jonas. Jud turn'd rahnd an gurned at th' frunt o' th' show wi' his faace aw ruddle. "Tha girt soo! I'll baste thi when aw get thi hwom, that aw will!" shaouted Betty Bresskittle; "aw wunder tha artna ashamed o' thisen, to stond theer a-feightingk th' deevil hissel!" Notes.--_Jud_, for George; _leet_, light; _bowd_, bold; _dandycock_, Bantam cock; _gradely_, proper; _gen_, gave; _owd_, old; _reet ee_, right eye; _git_, got; _as weild as weild_, as wild as could be; _aht_, out; _at-aftur_, after; _gurt_, great; _em_, him; _floy_, fly; _Runjer_, Ringway; _game_ (also _gam_), full of pluck; _hoo_, she; _rooad_, road, way; _gurned_, grinned; _soo_, sow (term of abuse); _hwom_, home; _thisen_, thyself. EASTERN (Group 2): N. ESSEX. The following extract is from _John Noakes and Mary Styles_, by Charles Clark, of Great Totham; London, 1839. Reprinted for the E.D.S., 1895. As Great Totham is to the North of Maldon, I take this specimen to belong to Prof. Wright's "Division 2" rather than to the S.W. Essex of "Division 5." The use of _w_ for initial _v_ occurs frequently, as in _werry_, very, etc. At Tottum's Cock-a-Bevis Hill, A sput surpass'd by few, Where toddlers ollis haut to eye The proper pritty wiew, Where people crake so ov the place, Leas-ways, so I've hard say; An' frum its top yow, sarteny, Can see a monsus way. But no sense ov a place, some think, Is this here hill so high,-- 'Cos there, full oft, 'tis nation coad, But that don't argufy. As sum'dy, 'haps, when nigh the sput, May ha' a wish to see 't,-- From Mauldon toun to Keldon 'tis, An' 'gin a four-releet. At Cock-a Bevis Hill, too, the Wiseacres show a tree Which if you clamber up, besure, A precious way yow see. I dorn't think I cud clime it now, Aldoe I uster cud; I shudn't warsley loike to troy, For gulch cum down I shud. My head 'ood swim,--I 'oodn't do't Nut even fur a guinea; A naarbour ax'd me, t'other day; "Naa, naa," says I, "nut quinny." Notes.--_Sput_, spot; _toddlers_, walkers; _ollis_, always; _haut_, halt; _wiew_, view. _Crake_, boast; _leas(t)ways_, at least; _sarteny_, certainly; _monsus_, monstrous, very long. _No sense ov a_, poor, bad; _coad_, cold; _argufy_, prove (anything). _Sum'dy_, somebody; _from M._, between Maldon and Kelvedon; _'gin_, against, near; _four-releet_ (originally _four-e leet_, lit. "ways of four," _four-e_ being the genitive plural, hence) meeting of four roads. _Dorn't_, don't; _aldoe_, although; _uster cud_ (for _us'd to could_), used to be able; _warsley_, vastly, much; _loike_, like; _gulch_, heavily, with a bang. _'Ood_, would; _nut_, not; _ax'd_, asked; _naa_, no; _nut quinny_, not quite, not at all. EASTERN (Group 3): NORFOLK. The following extract from "A Norfolk Dialogue" is from a work entitled _Erratics by a Sailor_, printed anonymously at London in 1800, and written by the Rev. Joshua Larwood, rector of Swanton Morley, near East Dereham. Most of the words are quite familiar to me, as I was curate of East Dereham in 1861-2, and heard the dialect daily. The whole dialogue was reprinted in _Nine Specimens of English Dialects_; E.D.S., 1895. The Dialogue was accompanied by "a translation," as here reprinted. It renders a glossary needless. Original Vulgar Norfolk. _Narbor Rabbin and Narbor Tibby._ Translation. _Neighbour Robin and Neighbour Stephen._ _R._ Tibby, d'ye know how the knacker's mawther Nutty du? _R._ Stephen, do you know how the collar-maker's daughter Ursula is? _T._ Why, i' facks, Rabbin, she's nation cothy; by Goms, she is so snasty that I think she is will-led. _S._ Why, in fact, Robin, she is extremely sick; by (_obsolete_), she is so snarlish, that I think she's out of her mind. _R._ She's a fate mawther, but ollas in dibles wi' the knacker and thackster; she is ollas a-ating o' thapes and dodmans. The fogger sa, she ha the black sap; but the grosher sa, she have an ill dent. _R._ She's a clever girl, but always in troubles with the collar-maker and thatcher; she is always eating gooseberries and snails. The man at the chandler's shop says she has a consumption: but the grocer says she's out of her senses. _T._ Why, ah! tother da she fared stounded: she pluck'd the pur from the back-stock, and copped it agin the balk of the douw-pollar, and barnt it; and then she hulled [it] at the thackster, and hart his weeson, and huckle-bone. There was northing but cadders in the douw-pollar, and no douws: and so, arter she had barnt the balk, and the door-stall, and the plancher, she run into the par-yard, thru the pytle, and then swounded behinn'd a sight o' gotches o' beergood. _S._ Why, aye! the other day she appeared struck mad: she snatched the poker from the back of the stove, and flung it against the beam of the pigeon-house, and burnt it; and then she throwed it at the thatcher, and hurt his throat and hip-bone. There were no pigeons in the pigeon-house, and nothing but jack-daws; and so, after she had burned the beam, and the door-frame and the floor, she ran into the cowyard, through the small field, and fainted behind several pitchers of yeast. _R._ Ah, the shummaker told me o' that rum rig; and his nevvey sa, that the beer-good was fystey; and that Nutty was so swelter'd, that she ha got a pain in spade-bones. The bladethacker wou'd ha gin har some doctor's gear in a beaker; but he sa she'll niver moize agin. _R._ Aye, the shoemaker told me of that comical trick; and his nephew says, that the yeast was musty; and that Ursula [was so] smothered, that she has got a pain in her bones. The thatcher would have given her some doctor's medicine in a tumbler; but he says, she will never recover. Notes.--Pronounce _du_ like E. _dew_. _Snasty_, pron. _snaisty_, cross. _Fate, fait_ (cf. E. _feat_), suitable, clever. _Mawther_, a young girl; Norw. _moder_. _Dibles_: the _i_ is long. _Sa_, says; _ha_, _have_, has; note the absence of final _s_ in the third person singular. _Cadder_, for _caddow_; from _caa-daw_, cawing daw. _Douw_, for _dow_, a dove. _Par_: for _parrock_, a paddock. _Fystey_: with long _y_, from _foist_, a fusty smell. _Sweltered_, over-heated, in profuse perspiration. _Moize_, thrive, mend. WESTERN (Group 1): S.W. SHROPSHIRE. The following specimen is given in Miss Jackson's _Shropshire Word- book_, London, 1879, p. xciv. It describes how Betty Andrews, of Pulverbatch, rescued her little son, who had fallen into the brook. I 'eärd a scrike, ma'am, an' I run, an' theer I sid Frank 'ad pecked i' the bruck an' douked under an' wuz drowndin', an' I jumped after 'im an' got 'out on 'im an' lugged 'im on to the bonk all sludge, an' I got 'im wham afore our Sam comen in--a good job it wuz for Sam as 'e wunna theer an' as Frank wunna drownded, for if 'e 'ad bin I should 'a' tore our Sam all to winder-rags, an' then 'e 'd a bin djed an' Frank drownded an' I should a bin 'anged. I toud Sam wen 'e t{)o}{)o}k the 'ouse as I didna like it.--"Bless the wench," 'e sed, "what'n'ee want? Theer's a tidy 'ouse an' a good garden an' a run for the pig." "Aye," I sed, "an' a good bruck for the childern to peck in;" so if Frank 'ad bin drownded I should a bin the djeth uv our Sam. I wuz that frittened, ma'am, that I didna spake for a nour after I got wham, an' Sam sed as 'e 'adna sid me quiet so lung sence we wun married, an' that wuz eighteen 'ear. Notes.--Miss Jackson adds the pronunciation, in glossic notation. There is no sound of initial _h_. _Scrike_, shriek; _sid_, seed, i.e. saw; _pecked_, pitched, fallen headlong; _bruck_, brook; _douked_, ducked; _'out_, hold; _bonk_, bank; _wham_, home; _wunna_, was not; _winder-rags_, shreds; _djed_, dead; _toud_, told; _what'n'ee_, what do you; _a nour_, an hour; _sid_, seen; _lung_, long; _wun_, were. SOUTHERN (Group 2): WILTSHIRE. The following well-known Wiltshire fable is from _Wiltshire Tales_, by J. Yonge Akerman (1853). I give it as it stands in the Preface to Halliwell's Dictionary; omitting the "Moral." The Harnet and the Bittle. A harnet zet in a hollur tree-- A proper spiteful twoad was he; And a merrily zung while he did zet His stinge as shearp as a bagganet; Oh, who so vine and bowld as I? I vears not bee, nor wapse, nor vly! A bittle up thuck tree did clim, And scarnvully did look at him; Zays he, "Zur harnet, who giv thee A right to zet in thuck there tree? Vor ael you zengs so nation vine, I tell 'e 'tis a house o' mine!" The harnet's conscience velt a twinge, But grawin' bowld wi' his long stinge, Zays he, "Possession's the best laaw; Zo here th' sha'sn't put a claaw! Be off, and leave the tree to me, The mixen's good enough for thee!" Just then a yuckel, passin' by, Was axed by them the cause to try; "Ha! ha! I zee how 'tis!" zays he, "They'll make a vamous munch vor me!" His bill was shearp, his stomach lear, Zo up a snapped the caddlin' pair! Notes.--Observe _z_ and _v_ for initial _s_ and _f_; _harnet_, hornet; _bittle_, beetle; _zet_, sat; _proper_, very; _twoad_, toad, wretch; _a_, he; _stinge_, sting; _bagganet_, bayonet. _Thuck_, that; _clim_, climb; _giv_, gave; _zet_, sit; _ael_, all. _Th' sha'sn't_, thou shalt not; _mixen_, dung-heap. _Yuckel_, woodpecker; _axed_, asked; _vamous munch_, excellent meal; _lear_, empty; _caddlin'_, quarrelsome. SOUTHERN (Group 3): ISLE OF WIGHT. The following colloquy is quoted in the _Glossary of Isle of Wight Words_, E.D.S., 1881, at p. 50. I recollect perfectly the late Mr James Phillips of Merston relating a dialogue that occurred between two of his labourers relative to the word _straddle-bob_, a beetle.... At the time of luncheon, one of them, on taking his _bren-cheese_ (bread and cheese) out of a little bag, saw something that had found its way there; which led to the following discourse. _Jan._ What's got there, you? _Will._ A straddlebob craalun about in the nammut-bag. _J._ Straddlebob? Where ded'st leyarn to caal 'n by that neyam? _W._ Why, what shoud e caal 'n? 'Tes the right neyam, esn ut? _J._ Right neyam? No! Why, ye gurt zote vool, casn't zee 'tes a dumbledore? _W._ I know 'tes; but vur aal that, straddlebob's zo right a neyam vor 'n as dumbledore ez. _J._ Come, I'll be blamed if I doant laay thee a quart o' that. _W._ Done! and I'll ax Meyastur to-night when I goos whoam, bee't how't wool. Accordingly, Meyastur was applied to by Will, who made his decision known to Jan the next morning. _W._ I zay, Jan! I axed Meyastur about that are last night. _J._ Well, what ded ur zay? _W._ Why, a zed one neyam ez jest zo vittun vor'n as tother; and he lowz a ben caal'd straddlebob ever zunce the Island was vust meyad. _J._ Well, if that's the keeas, I spooas I lost the quart. _W._ That thee hast, lucky; and we'll goo down to Arreton to the Rid Lion and drink un ater we done work. Notes.--Observe _z_ for _s_, and _v_ for _f_ initially. _What's_, What hast thou; _nammut_ (lit. noon-meat), luncheon, usually eaten at 9 A.M. (_n{-o}na h{-o}ra_); _leyarn_, learn; _esn_, is not; _gurt_, great; _zote_, soft, silly; _casn't_, canst not; _laay_, lay, wager; _how't wool_, how it will; _that are_, that there; _lowz_ (lit. allows), opines; _zunce_, since; _vust meyad_, first made; _keeas_, case; _lucky_, look ye! SOUTHERN (Group 7): EAST SUSSEX. The following quotations are from the _Dictionary of the Sussex Dialect_, by the Rev. W.D. Parish, Vicar of Selmeston; E.D.S. 1875. The Glossary refers rather to E. than to W. Sussex, Selmeston being between Lewes and Eastbourne. _Call over_, to abuse. "He come along here a-cadging, and fancy he just did call me over, because I told him as I hadn't got naun to give him." (_Naun_, nothing.) _Clocksmith_, a watchmaker. "I be quite lost about time, I be; for I've been forced to send my watch to the clocksmith. I couldn't make no sense of mending it myself; for I'd iled it and I'd biled it, and then I couldn't do more with it." _Cocker-up_, to spoil; to gloss over with an air of truth. "You see this here chap of hers, he's cockered-up some story about having to goo away somewheres up into the sheeres; and I tell her she's no call to be so cluck over it; and for my part I dunno but what I be very glad an't, for he was a chap as was always a-cokeing about the cupboards, and cogging her out of a Sunday." (_The sheeres_, any shire of England except Kent and Sussex; _call_, reason; _cluck_, out of spirits; _coke_, to peep; _cog_, to entice.) _Joy_, a jay. "Poor old Master Crockham, he's in terrible order, surelý! The meece have taken his peas, and the joys have got at his beans, and the snags have spilt all his lettuce." (_Order_, bad temper; _meece_, mice; _snags_, snails; _spilt_, spoilt.) _Kiddle_, to tickle. "Those thunder-bugs did kiddle me so that I couldn't keep still no hows." (_Thunder-bug_, a midge.) _Lawyer_, a long bramble full of thorns, so called because, "when once they gets a holt an ye, ye doänt easy get shut of 'em." _Leetle_, a diminutive of little. "I never see one of these here gurt men there's s'much talk about in the peapers, only once, and that was up at Smiffle Show adunnamany years agoo. Prime minister, they told me he was, up at London; a leetle, lear, miserable, skinny-looking chap as ever I see. 'Why,' I says, 'we doänt count our minister to be much, but he's a deal primer-looking than what yourn be.'" (_Gurt_, great; _Smiffle_, Smithfield; _adunnamany_, I don't know how many; _lear_, thin, hungry; _see_, saw.) _Sarment_, a sermon. "I likes a good long sarment, I doos; so as when you wakes up it ain't all over." _Tempory_ (temporary), slight, badly finished. "Who be I? Why, I be John Carbury, that's who I be! And who be you? Why, you ain't a man at all, you ain't! You be naun but a poor tempory creetur run up by contract, that's what you be!" _Tot_, a bush; a tuft of grass. "There warn't any grass at all when we fust come here; naun but a passel o' gurt old tots and tussicks. You see there was one of these here new-fashioned men had had the farm, and he'd properly starved the land and the labourers, and the cattle and everything, without it was hisself." (_Passel_, parcel; _tussicks_, tufts of rank grass.) _Twort_ (for _thwart_), pert and saucy. "She's terrible twort--she wants a good setting down, she do; and she'll get it too. Wait till my master comes in!" _Winterpicks_, blackthorn berries. _Winter-proud_, cold. "When you sees so many of these here winterpicks about, you may be pretty sure 'twill be middlin' winter-proud." BIBLIOGRAPHY Ancren Riwle; ed. Jas. Morton. Camden Soc., 1873. (About 1230.) Anglo-Saxon and Early English Psalter. Surtees Society. London, 1843-7. 2 vols. (See p. 25.) Beda.--Venerabilis Bedae Historiae Ecclesiasticae Gentis Anglorum Libri III, IV; ed. J.E.B. Mayor, M.A. and J.R. Lumby, B.D. Cambridge, 1878. ---- The Venerable Bede's Ecclesiastical History; also the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (both in English). Ed. J.A. Giles, D.C.L. London, 1859. (In Bohn's Library.) Dictionaries containing dialect words. (See p. 100.) Durham Ritual.--Rituale Ecclesiæ Dunelmensis. Surtees Society. London, 1840. Earle, Rev. J.; Anglo-Saxon Literature. London, S.P.C.K., 1884. E.D.D.--English Dialect Dictionary (to which is appended the English Dialect Grammar); ed. Dr Joseph Wright. Oxford, 1898-1905. E.D.S.--English Dialect Society, publications of the. London, 1873-96. E.E.T.S.--Early English Text Society, publications of the. London, 1864-1910. (Contains Alliterative Poems, Ayenbite of Inwyt, Barbour's Bruce, Sir Gawayne and the Grene Knight, St Juliana, Kentish Sermons, Lyndesay's Works, etc.) Jackson, Miss.--Shropshire Wordbook, by Georgina F. Jackson. London, 1879. Jamieson's Scottish Dictionary. A new edition, ed. J. Longmuir and D. Donaldson. Paisley, 1879-87. 4to. 4 vols. and Supplement. Layamon's Brut; ed. Sir F. Madden. London, 1847. 3 vols. Minot's Poems; ed. J. Hall. Oxford, 1887. Morris, Rev. R., LL.D.; The Blickling Homilies. (E.E.T.S.) London, 1880. ---- Old English Miscellany. (E.E.T.S.) London, 1872. ---- Old English Homilies, Series I and II. (E.E.T.S.) London, 1867 and 1873. ---- Specimens of Early English. Part I. 1150-1300. Second Edition. Oxford, 1885. Morris, Rev. R. and Skeat, Rev. W.W.; Specimens of Early English. Part II. Third edition. Oxford, 1894. Murray, Sir James A.H. The Dialect of the Southern Counties of Scotland. (Phil. Soc.) London, 1873. N.E.D.--The New English Dictionary; by Sir James A.H. Murray, H. Bradley, and W.A. Craigie. Oxford, 1888-. Ormulum; ed. R.M. White. Oxford, 1852. 2 vols. Pricke of Conscience, by Richard Rolle de Hampole; ed. R. Morris. (Phil. Soc.) London, 1863. Psalter, by R. Rolle de Hampole; ed. Rev. H.R. Bramley. Oxford, 1884. Robert of Gloucester; ed. W. Aldis Wright. (Record Series.) London, 1887. 2 vols. Skeat, Rev. Walter W.; The Chaucer Canon. Oxford, 1900. ---- Etymological English Dictionary. New edition. Oxford, 1910. ---- The Holy Gospels, in Anglo-Saxon, Northumbrian, and Mercian Versions. Cambridge, 1871-87. ---- Primer of English Etymology. Fifth edition. Oxford, 1910. ---- Principles of English Etymology, Series I. Second edition. Oxford, 1892. Sweet, H.; An Anglo-Saxon Reader. Seventh edition. Oxford, 1894. ---- A Second Anglo-Saxon Reader, Archaic and Dialectal. Oxford, 1887. ---- The Oldest English Texts. (E.E.T.S.) London, 1885. Trevisa.--Higden's Polychronicon; with Trevisa's English Version; ed. C. Babington, B.D., and the Rev. J.R. Lumby, D.D. (Record Series.) 9 vols. London, 1865-86. Wise, J.R.; Shakspere, his Birthplace and its Neighbourhood. London, 1861. INDEX Aberdeen dialect, 112, 113 Adam's body, materials of, 21, 22 Alfred, King, 47, 48 Allen, Grant, _Anglo-Saxon Britain_, 85 _Alliterative Poems_, ed. Morris, 80 _Altenglische Dichtungen_, 52 Ambry, aumbry, 97 _Ancren Riwle_, 49 Anglian period, 14 Anglo-French words in dialects, 94-96 Anglo-Saxon, 10, 11, 12 _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, 12, 48 Laud MS., 73 Arain, arles, arris, asew, assith, 97 Assoilyie, astre, aunsel, aunter, aver, averous, 97, 98 Atkinson's (Cleveland) Glossary, 44 Awfully, 4 _Ayenbite of Inwyt_, 59, 60 Ayrshire dialect, 113, 114 Baker, Miss, 5 Barnes, William, 55, 111 Beda, 15 his "death-song," 15 his _History_, 14, 15, 17, 56 Beowulf, 7-9 Bewcastle column, 20 Bladud, King, 50, 51 Blood-boltered, 5 Bolter, 5, 6 Boucher, Rev. J., Dialect Dictionary, 101, 102 Boy or child, 5 Brockett's Glossary, 44 _Bruce_, by Barbour, 29-34 Brut, romance of, 49, 50, 51 Burns, Robert, 45, 113 Cædmon, 15, 16 his hymn, 17 Caxton, 40 Celtic words in dialects, 83-86 list of, 85, 86 Charters, Kentish, 56, 57 Mercian, 70 Chaucer, use of Kentish by, 63 use of _yon_, 7 use of _asp_, 68 Cheshire dialect, 122, 123 Child (girl), 5, 6 Cole, King, 51 Corpus Glossary, 67 _Cursor Mundi_, 27, 28, 35 _Cymbeline_, 50 Dialect defined, 1 Dialect glossaries, 102-103 Dialect writers, 111 Dialects, foreign elements in the, 82-98 four old, 10,11 groups of, 107 modern, 106-109 specimens of, 110, etc. Dialectic regeneration, 3 Dictionaries by Coles, Kersey, Bailey, Dr Johnson, and Ash, 101 old, Promptorium and Catholicon, 100 Douglas, Gawain, 34 Dunbar, 33, 35 quoted, 45 Dunstan, St, Life of, 51 Durham, _Liber Vitæ_, 20 Ritual, 21 Eagre, 97 Earle, Prof., 14 Edinburgh dialect, 115, 116 Eliot _see_ George Ellis, A.J., _Early English Pronunciation_, 103 Erne, 6 English, the old name for Lowland Scotch, 33-35 _English Dialect Dictionary_, 85, 90, 104 _English Dialect Grammar_, 104 English Dialect Society, 103 _English Metrical Homilies_, 28 Essex dialect, 123, 124, 125 Fitzherbert, J., _Boke of Husbandry_, 99 Flittermouse, 4, 5 _Flower and the Leaf_, 38 French words in dialects, 93 list of, 96-98 Galt, John, 45 Gauntree, 95 _Gawayne and the Grene Knight_, 81 George Eliot, use of dialect by, 111 Gloss, meaning of, 23 Glossaries of dialectal words, 102, 103 Old English, 66, 67 _Golden Targe_, by Dunbar, 45 Gower, use of Kentish by, 62, 63 Greek words in dialects, 87 Grose, F., _Provincial Glossary_, 101 Hampole, R. Rolle of, 28, 32, 35 _Handlyng Synne_, quoted, 78, 79 Harleian MS. 2253, 52 Hebrew words in dialects, 88 Henry III., Proclamation of, 75-78 Henry the Minstrel, 33, 35 Higden, Ralph, 53 Hild, Abbess, 16 Hoccleve, 38 Hogg, James, 45 _Homilies in Verse_, 28 _Horn, romance of_, 50 Horstmann, Dr, 51 Hrinde (A.S.), 8, 9 Inglis, or Inglisch, 33-35 Isle of Wight dialect, 129, 130 Jamieson's Dictionary, 43, 44 Jonson, Ben, 5 Juliana, St, 49 Jutes, 56 Keats, 4 Kentish, 10, 11, 12 dialect, 56-64 glosses, 57 sermons, 58 Kentish _e_ (A.S. _y_), 61-64 _King Lear_, 50 Lancashire dialect, 119, 120 Latin words in dialects, 87 Layamon's _Brut_, 49 Leyden Riddle, 18 _Liber Vitæ_, 20 Lincolnshire dialect, 118, 119 words, 100, 101 _Locrine_, 50 London dialect, 74-78 Lorica Prayer, 68, 69 Lydgate, 38 Lyndesay, Sir David, 34, 35 Madam, 'm, 3 Malory, Sir Thomas, 40 Manning, Robert, 78, 79 Mercian dialect, 10, 11, 36, 37, 65-81 glosses, 70-72 spellings, 71-72 Michel, Dan, 59, 60 Midland dialect, 65-81 rise of, 37, 42 _Psalter_, 80 East, 65-79 West, 79-81 Minot's Poems, 29 _Moral Ode_, 49 Morris, Dr, _Blickling Homilies_, 8 _Old English Miscellany_, 49, 58 _Old English Homilies_, 49 _Specimens of Early English_, 58 Morris, Dr, on dialects, 81 Morris and Skeat, _Specimens_, etc., 27-29, 59, 60 Murray, Dr, on the Dialect of Scotland, 28, 32-5 Müller, Prof. Max, _Lectures_, 3 _New English Dictionary_, 85 Norfolk dialect, 125-127 Northern dialect, great extent of, 32-35 Northumbrian, 10, 11, 12, 14-46 glosses, 22-24 riddle, 18 _Nut-brown Maid_, 38 _Old English Homilies_, 49 _Ormulum, The_, 73, 74 _Owl and Nightingale_, 49 Peacock's (Lincolnshire) Glossary, 44 _Pearl, The_, 80 Phonetic decay, 3 Plays, early, 41 Plurals, Southern, 61 _Prick of Conscience_, 28 _Proverbs of Alfred_, 49 Psalter, by Hampole, 32 Prose Treatises, by the same, 32 Psalter, Northumbrian, 25-27 West Midland, 80 Ramsay, Allan, 45 Ray, John, collection of dialectal words, 101 Rimy, 8, 9 rind, 9 Robert of Gloucester, 50 Rolle, of Hampole, 28, 32, 35 Romances, dialect of, 44 list of, 38-40 Ross, Alexander, 45 Rushworth MS., 22, 23, 70-72 Ruthwell Cross, 18, 19, 20 Scandinavian words in dialects, 88-93 list of, 90-93 Scots, Middle, 44, 45 Scott, Sir Walter, 6, 45 Scottish and English, 43, 44 Scottish Laws, early, 32 Shakespeare, 5, 6, 50 use of dialect, 100 Sheffield dialect, 121, 122 Shoreham, Wm. of, 58 quoted, 59 Shropshire dialect, 127-128 Skeat, _Chaucer Canon_, 73 _Etymological Dictionary_, 84-85 _Gospels in Anglo-Saxon_, 71 Index to _Icelandic Dictionary_, 89 _Primer of English Etymology_, 84 _Principles of English Etymology_, 70, 87, 89 Skinner, S., _Etymologicon_, 100 Smith, G. Gregory, _Specimens of Middle Scots_, 44, 45 _South English Legendary_, 51 Southern dialect, 47-55 Southey, R., his use of dialect, 111 _Specimens of Early English_ Part I., 49, 50 Part II., 51, 79. _See_ Morris Spenser's _Shepherd's Calendar_, 99 Stephens, Prof., 18 Sussex dialect, 130-132 Sweet, Dr, 15 _Anglo-Saxon Primer_, 48 _Anglo-Saxon Reader_, 18 _Anglo-Saxon Reader, Dialectal_, 56-57 _Oldest English Texts_, 10, 15, 19, 66 Gregory's _Pastoral Care_, 7 Tannahill, Robert, 45 Tennyson, 4, 111 _Testament of Love_, 53, 54 Trevisa, John, 53, 55 Tusser, T., _Pointes of Husbandrie_, 99 Twenty, 3 Usk, Thomas, 53, 54 Vernon MS., 52 _Vespasian Psalter_, 69, 70 Wessex _see_ Anglo-Saxon Westmoreland dialect, 117, 118 William of Palerne, 80 Wiltshire dialect, 128-129 Wise, J.R., 5 Wright, Dr J., _English Dialect Dictionary_, 9, 85, 90, 104 Wright, T., _Political Songs_, 29 Wyntoun, 29, 33 Yon, 6, 7 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * {Transcriber's Correction: Chapter III: courageous before all men; I (the cross) durst not bow down _text reads_ ... bow dow } 
12025	----	Proofreaders ENGLISH PROSE A SERIES OF RELATED ESSAYS FOR THE DISCUSSION AND PRACTICE OF THE ART OF WRITING SELECTED AND EDITED BY FREDERICK WILLIAM ROE, PH.D. OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN AND GEORGE ROY ELLIOTT, PH.D. OF BOWDOIN COLLEGE 1913 PREFACE The selections in the present volume, designed primarily for the discussion and practice in college classes of the art of composition, have been arranged under a scheme which the editors believe to be new. There are nine related groups. Each successive group represents a different phase of life, beginning with character and personality, and concluding with art and literature. The whole together, as the table of contents will show, thus presents a body of ideas that includes practically all the great departments of human thought and interest. It is evident that certain ideals of teaching composition underlie the scheme. The editors believe heartily with Pater that "the chief stimulus of good style is to possess a full, rich, complex matter to grapple with". Instruction in writing, it is to be feared, too often neglects this sound doctrine and places an emphasis upon formal matters that seems disproportionate, especially when form is made to appear as a thing apart. Form and content go together and one must not suffer at the expense of the other. But a sustained interest in the ways and means of correct expression is aroused only when the student feels that he has something to express. Instructors often contend indeed that the ideas of undergraduates are far to seek, and that most of the time in the class-room is therefore best spent upon formal exercises and drill. The editors do not share this view. They believe that there is no class of people more responsive to new ideas and impressions than college students, and none more eager, when normally stimulated, to express themselves in writing. They have therefore aimed to present a series of related selections that would arouse thought and provoke oral discussion in the class-room, as well as furnish suitable models of style. In most cases the pieces are too long to be adequately handled in one class hour. A live topic may well be discussed for several hours, until its various sides have been examined and students are awakened to the many questions at issue. The editors have aimed, also, to supply selections so rich and vital in content that instructors themselves will feel challenged to add to the class discussion from their own knowledge and experience, and so turn a stream of fresh ideas upon "stock notions". Thus English composition, which in many courses in our larger institutions is now almost the only non-special study, can be made a direct means of liberalization in the meaning and art of life, as well as an instrument for correct and effective writing. The present volume therefore differs from others in the same field. Many recent collections contain pieces too short and unrelated to satisfy the ideals suggested above--ideals which, the editors feel sure, are held by an increasing number of teachers. And older and newer collections alike have been constructed primarily with the purpose of illustrating the conventional categories,--description, narration, exposition. Teachers of composition everywhere are becoming distrustful of an arrangement which is frankly at variance with the actual practice of writing, and are of the opinion that it is better to set the student to the task of composition without confining him too narrowly to one form of discourse. The editors have deliberately avoided, however, the other extreme, which is reflected in one or two recent volumes, of choosing pieces of one type to the exclusion of all others. In collections of this kind variety in form and subject-matter is fully as important as richness of content. Instructors who believe in the use of the types of discourse as the most practicable means of instruction, will find all the types liberally represented in the present volume. And in order to meet their requirements even more adequately, the editors have included two short stories at the end, as examples of narration with a plot. Much attention has been given to the suggestions at the end of the volume with the aim of making them practically serviceable and, at the same time, as free as possible from duplication of class work. This aim, the editors came to believe, could best be attained by providing for each group of selections definite suggestions of theme-subjects to be derived by the student from supplementary readings closely related to that group. F.W.R. G.R.E. MADISON, WISCONSIN, May, 1913. CONTENTS I. THE PERSONAL LIFE. 1. Self-Reliance...............RALPH WALDO EMERSON 2. Early Education at Herne Hill.............JOHN RUSKIN 3. A Crisis in My Mental History............JOHN STUART MILL 4. Old China...................CHARLES LAMB II. EDUCATION. 5. What is Education?..........THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY 6. Knowledge Viewed in Relation to Learning .....JOHN HENRY NEWMAN 7. Literature and Science......MATTHEW ARNOLD 8. How to Read.................FREDERIC HARRISON III. RECREATION AND TRAVELS. 9. On Going a Journey..........WILLIAM HAZLITT 10. Regrets of a Mountaineer....LESLIE STEPHEN IV. SOCIAL LIFE AND MANNERS. 11. Behavior....................RALPH WALDO EMERSON 12. Manners and Fashion.........HERBERT SPENCER 13. Talk and Talkers............ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON V. PUBLIC AFFAIRS. 14. The Social Value of the College-bred.......WILLIAM JAMES 15. The Law of Human Progress............HENRY GEORGE 16. The Morals of Trade.........HERBERT SPENCER VI. SCIENCE. 17. The Physical Basis of Life...................THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY 18. Mental Powers of Men and Animals...........CHARLES DARWIN 19. The Importance of Dust......ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE VII. NATURE. 20. The Battle of the Ants......HENRY DAVID THOREAU 21. A Windstorm in the Forests............JOHN MUIR 22. Walden Pond.................HENRY DAVID THOREAU 23. Extracts from Modern Painters...........JOHN RUSKIN VIII. CONDUCT AND INNER LIFE. 24. The Stoics.. .............WILLIAM EDWARD HARTPOLE LECKY 25. Enthusiasm of Humanity......JOHN ROBERT SEELEY 26. Loyalty and Insight.........JOSIAH ROYCE IX. LITERATURE AND ART. 27. Poetry for Poetry's Sake.... A.C. BRADLEY 28. Greek Tragedy................G. LOWES DICKINSON 29. Shakespeare..................THOMAS CARLYLE 30. Charles Lamb.................WALTER PATER 31. Dr. Heidegger's Experiment...NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE 32. Markheim.....................ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON SUPPLEMENTARY READINGS. With some topics for Discussion and Composition. ENGLISH PROSE SELF-RELIANCE[1] RALPH WALDO EMERSON I read the other day some verses written by an eminent painter which were original and not conventional. Always the soul hears an admonition in such lines, let the subject be what it may. The sentiment they instil is of more value than any thought they may contain. To believe your own thought, to believe that what is true for you in your private heart is true for all men,--that is genius. Speak your latent conviction, and it shall be the universal sense; for always the inmost becomes the outmost--and our first thought is rendered back to us by the trumpets of the Last Judgment. Familiar as the voice of the mind is to each, the highest merit we ascribe to Moses, Plato and Milton is that they set at naught books and traditions, and spoke not what men, but what they thought. A man should learn to detect and watch that gleam of light which flashes across his mind from within, more than the luster of the firmament of bards and sages. Yet he dismisses without notice his thought, because it is his. In every work of genius we recognize our own rejected thoughts; they come back to us with a certain alienated majesty. Great works of art have no more affecting lesson for us than this. They teach us to abide by our spontaneous impression with good-humored inflexibility then most when the whole cry of voices is on the other side. Else to-morrow a stranger will say with masterly good sense precisely what we have thought and felt all the time, and we shall be forced to take with shame our own opinion from another. There is a time in every man's education when he arrives at the conviction that envy is ignorance; that imitation is suicide; that he must take himself for better for worse as his portion; that though the wide universe is full of good, no kernel of nourishing corn can come to him but through his toil bestowed on that plot of ground which is given to him to till. The power which resides in him is new in nature, and none but he knows what that is which he can do, nor does he know until he has tried. Not for nothing one face, one character, one fact, makes much impression on him, and another none. It is not without preestablished harmony, this sculpture in the memory. The eye was placed where one ray should fall, that it might testify of that particular ray. Bravely let him speak the utmost syllable of his confession. We but half express ourselves, and are ashamed of that divine idea which each of us represents. It may be safely trusted as proportionate and of good issues, so it be faithfully imparted, but God will not have his work made manifest by cowards. It needs a divine man to exhibit anything divine. A man is relieved and gay when he has put his heart into his work and done his best; but what he has said or done otherwise shall give him no peace. It is a deliverance which does not deliver. In the attempt his genius deserts him; no muse befriends; no invention, no hope. Trust thyself: every heart vibrates to that iron string. Accept the place the divine providence has found for you, the society of your contemporaries, the connection of events. Great men have always done so, and confided themselves childlike to the genius of their age, betraying their perception that the Eternal was stirring at their heart, working through their hands, predominating in all their being. And we are now men, and must accept in the highest mind the same transcendent destiny; and not pinched in a corner, not cowards fleeing before a revolution, but redeemers and benefactors, pious aspirants to be noble clay under the Almighty effort let us advance on Chaos and the Dark. What pretty oracles nature yields us on this text in the face and behavior of children, babes, and even brutes. That divided and rebel mind, that distrust of a sentiment because our arithmetic has computed the strength and means opposed to our purpose, these have not. Their mind being whole, their eye is as yet unconquered, and when we look in their faces, we are disconcerted. Infancy conforms to nobody; all conform to it; so that one babe commonly makes four or five out of the adults who prattle and play to it. So God has armed youth and puberty and manhood no less with its own piquancy and charm, and made it enviable and gracious and its claims not to be put by, if it will stand by itself. Do not think the youth has no force, because he cannot speak to you and me. Hark! in the next room who spoke so clear and emphatic? Good Heaven! it is he! it is that very lump of bashfulness and phlegm which for weeks has done nothing but eat when you were by, and now rolls out these words like bell-strokes. It seems he knows how to speak to his contemporaries. Bashful or bold then, he will know how to make us seniors very unnecessary. The nonchalance of boys who are sure of a dinner, and would disdain as much as a lord to do or say aught to conciliate one, is the healthy attitude of human nature. How is a boy the master of society!--independent, irresponsible, looking out from his corner on such people and facts as pass by, he tries and sentences them on their merits, in the swift, summary way of boys, as good, bad, interesting, silly, eloquent, troublesome. He cumbers himself never about consequences, about interests; he gives an independent, genuine verdict. You must court him; he does not court you. But the man is as it were clapped into jail by his consciousness. As soon as he has once acted or spoken with éclat he is a committed person, watched by the sympathy or the hatred of hundreds, whose affections must now enter into his account. There is no Lethe for this. Ah, that he could pass again into his neutral, godlike independence! Who can thus lose all pledge and, having observed, observe again from the same unaffected, unbiased, unbribable, unaffrighted innocence, must always be formidable, must always engage the poet's and the man's regards. Of such an immortal youth the force would be felt. He would utter opinions on all passing affairs, which being seen to be not private but necessary, would sink like darts into the ear of men and put them in fear. These are the voices which we hear in solitude, but they grow faint and inaudible as we enter into the world. Society everywhere is in conspiracy against the manhood of every one of its members. Society is a joint-stock company, in which the members agree, for the better securing of his bread to each shareholder, to surrender the liberty and culture of the eater. The virtue in most request is conformity. Self-reliance is its aversion. It loves not realities and creators, but names and customs. Whoso would be a man, must be a nonconformist. He who would gather immortal palms must not be hindered by the name of goodness, but must explore if it be goodness. Nothing is at last sacred but the integrity of our own mind. Absolve you to yourself, and you shall have the suffrage of the world. I remember an answer which when quite young I was prompted to make to a valued adviser who was wont to importune me with the deaf old doctrines of the church. On my saying, What have I to do with the sacredness of traditions, if I live wholly from within? my friend suggested,--"But these impulses may be from below, not from above." I replied, "They do not seem to me to be such; but if I am the devil's child, I will live then from the devil." No law can be sacred to me but that of my nature. Good and bad are but names very readily transferable to that or this; the only right is what is after my constitution; the only wrong what is against it. A man is to carry himself in the presence of all opposition as if every thing were titular and ephemeral but he. I am ashamed to think how easily we capitulate to badges and names, to large societies and dead institutions. Every decent and well-spoken individual affects and sways me more than is right. I ought to go upright and vital, and speak the rude truth in all ways. If malice and vanity wear the coat of philanthropy, shall that pass? If an angry bigot assumes this bountiful cause of Abolition, and comes to me with his last news from Barbadoes, why should I not say to him, "Go love thy infant; love thy wood-chopper; be good-natured and modest; have that grace; and never varnish your hard, uncharitable ambition with this incredible tenderness for black folk a thousand miles off. Thy love afar is spite at home." Rough and graceless would be such greeting, but truth is handsomer than the affectation of love. Your goodness must have some edge to it,--else it is none. The doctrine of hatred must be preached, as the counteraction of the doctrine of love, when that pules and whines. I shun father and mother and wife and brother when my genius calls me. I would write on the lintels of the door-post, _Whim_. I hope it is somewhat better than whim at last, but we cannot spend the day in explanation. Expect me not to show cause why I seek or why I exclude company. Then, again, do not tell me, as a good man did to-day, of my obligation to put all poor men in good situations. Are they _my_ poor? I tell thee, thou foolish philanthropist, that I grudge the dollar, the dime, the cent I give to such men as do not belong to me and to whom I do not belong. There is a class of persons to whom by all spiritual affinity I am bought and sold; for them I will go to prison if need be; but your miscellaneous popular charities; the education at college of fools; the building of meeting-houses to the vain end to which many now stand; alms to sots, and the thousandfold Relief Societies;--though I confess with shame I sometimes succumb and give the dollar, it is a wicked dollar, which by-and-by I shall have the manhood to withhold. Virtues are, in the popular estimate, rather the exception than the rule. There is the man _and_ his virtues. Men do what is called a good action, as some piece of courage or charity, much as they would pay a fine in expiation of daily non-appearance on parade. Their works are done as an apology or extenuation of their living in the world,--as invalids and the insane pay a high board. Their virtues are penances. I do not wish to expiate, but to live. My life is not an apology, but a life. It is for itself and not for a spectacle. I much prefer that it should be of a lower strain, so it be genuine and equal, than that it should be glittering and unsteady. I wish it to be sound and sweet, and not to need diet and bleeding. My life should be unique; it should be an alms, a battle, a conquest, a medicine. I ask primary evidence that you are a man, and refuse this appeal from the man to his actions. I know that for myself it makes no difference whether I do or forbear those actions which are reckoned excellent. I cannot consent to pay for a privilege where I have intrinsic right. Few and mean as my gifts may be, I actually am, and do not need for my own assurance or the assurance of my fellows any secondary testimony. What I must do is all that concerns me, not what the people think. This rule, equally arduous in actual and in intellectual life, may serve for the whole distinction between greatness and meanness. It is the harder because you will always find those who think they know what is your duty better than you know it. It is easy in the world to live after the world's opinion; it is easy in solitude to live after our own; but the great man is he who in the midst of the crowd keeps with perfect sweetness the independence of solitude. The objection to conforming to usages that have become dead to you is that it scatters your force. It loses your time and blurs the impression of your character. If you maintain a dead church, contribute to a dead Bible Society, vote with a great party either for the Government or against it, spread your table like base housekeepers,--under all these screens I have difficulty to detect the precise man you are. And of course so much force is withdrawn from your proper life. But do your thing, and I shall know you. Do your work, and you shall reinforce yourself. A man must consider what a blindman's-bluff is this game of conformity. If I know your sect I anticipate your argument. I hear a preacher announce for his text and topic the expediency of one of the institutions of his church. Do I not know beforehand that not possibly can he say a new and spontaneous word? Do I not know that with all this ostentation of examining the grounds of the institution he will do no such thing? Do I not know that he is pledged to himself not to look but at one side, the permitted side, not as a man, but as a parish minister? He is a retained attorney, and these airs of the bench are the emptiest affectation. Well, most men have bound their eyes with one or another handkerchief, and attached themselves to some one of these communities of opinion. This conformity makes them not false in a few particulars, authors of a few lies, but false in all particulars. Their every truth is not quite true. Their two is not the real two, their four not the real four: so that every word they say chagrins us and we know not where to begin to set them right. Meantime nature is not slow to equip us in the prison-uniform of the party to which we adhere. We come to wear one cut of face and figure, and acquire by degrees the gentlest asinine expression. There is a mortifying experience in particular, which does not fail to wreak itself also in the general history; I mean "the foolish face of praise," the forced smile which we put on in company where we do not feel at ease, in answer to conversation which does not interest us. The muscles, not spontaneously moved but moved by a low usurping wilfulness, grow tight about the outline of the face, and make the most disagreeable sensation; a sensation of rebuke and warning which no brave young man will suffer twice. For non-conformity the world whips you with its displeasure. And therefore a man must know how to estimate a sour face. The bystanders look askance on him in the public street or in the friend's parlor. If this aversation had its origin in contempt and resistance like his own he might well go home with a sad countenance; but the sour faces of the multitude, like their sweet faces, have no deep cause,--disguise no god, but are put on and off as the wind blows and a newspaper directs. Yet is the discontent of the multitude more formidable than that of the senate and the college. It is easy enough for a firm man who knows the world to brook the rage of the cultivated classes. Their rage is decorous and prudent, for they are timid, as being very vulnerable themselves. But when to their feminine rage the indignation of the people is added, when the ignorant and the poor are aroused, when the unintelligent brute force that lies at the bottom of society is made to growl and mow, it needs the habit of magnanimity and religion to treat it godlike as a trifle of no concernment. The other terror that scares us from self-trust is our consistency; a reverence for our past act or word because the eyes of others have no other data for computing our orbit than our past acts, and we are loath to disappoint them. But why should you keep your head over your shoulder? Why drag about this monstrous corpse of your memory, lest you contradict somewhat you have stated in this or that public place? Suppose you should contradict yourself; what then? It seems to be a rule of wisdom never to rely on your memory alone, scarcely even in acts of pure memory, but to bring the past for judgment into the thousand-eyed present, and live ever in a new day. Trust your emotion. In your metaphysics you have denied personality to the Deity, yet when the devout motions of the soul come, yield to them heart and life, though they should clothe God with shape and color. Leave your theory, as Joseph his coat in the hand of the harlot, and flee. A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds, adored by little statesmen and philosophers and divines. With consistency a great soul has simply nothing to do. He may as well concern himself with his shadow on the wall. Out upon your guarded lips! Sew them up with packthread, do. Else if you would be a man speak what you think to-day in words as hard as cannon balls, and to-morrow speak what to-morrow thinks in hard words again, though it contradict every thing you said to-day. Ah, then, exclaim the aged ladies, you shall be sure to be misunderstood! Misunderstood! It is a right fool's word. Is it so bad then to be misunderstood? Pythagoras was misunderstood, and Socrates, and Jesus, and Luther, and Copernicus, and Galileo, and Newton, and every pure and wise spirit that ever took flesh. To be great is to be misunderstood. I suppose no man can violate his nature. All the sallies of his will are rounded in by the law of his being, as the inequalities of Andes and Himmaleh are insignificant in the curve of the sphere. Nor does it matter how you gauge and try him. A character is like an acrostic or Alexandrian stanza;--read it forward, backward, or across, it still spells the same thing. In this pleasing contrite wood-life which God allows me, let me record day by day my honest thought without prospect or retrospect, and, I cannot doubt, it will be found symmetrical, though I mean it not and see it not. My book should smell of pines and resound with the hum of insects. The swallow over my window should interweave that thread or straw he carries in his bill into my web also. We pass for what we are. Character teaches above our wills. Men imagine that they communicate their virtue or vice only by overt actions, and do not see that virtue or vice emit a breath every moment. Fear never but you shall be consistent in whatever variety of actions, so they be each honest and natural in their hour. For of one will, the actions will be harmonious, however unlike they seem. These varieties are lost sight of when seen at a little distance, at a little height of thought. One tendency unites them all. The voyage of the best ship is a zigzag line of a hundred tacks. This is only microscopic criticism. See the line from a sufficient distance, and it straightens itself to the average tendency. Your genuine action will explain itself and will explain your other genuine actions. Your conformity explains nothing. Act singly, and what you have already done singly will justify you now. Greatness always appeals to the future. If I can be great enough now to do right and scorn eyes, I must have done so much right before as to defend me now. Be it how it will, do right now. Always scorn appearances and you always may. The force of character is cumulative. All the foregone days of virtue work their health into this. What makes the majesty of the heroes of the senate and the field, which so fills the imagination? The consciousness of a train of great days and victories behind. There they all stand and shed an united light on the advancing actor. He is attended as by a visible escort of angels to every man's eye. That is it which throws thunder into Chatham's voice, and dignity into Washington's port, and America into Adams's eye. Honor is venerable to us because it is no ephemeris. It is always ancient virtue. We worship it to-day because it is not of to-day. We love it and pay it homage because it is not a trap for our love and homage, but is self-dependent, self-derived, and therefore of an old immaculate pedigree, even if shown in a young person. I hope in these days we have heard the last of conformity and consistency. Let the words be gazetted and ridiculous henceforward. Instead of the gong for dinner, let us hear a whistle from the Spartan fife. Let us bow and apologize never more. A great man is coming to eat at my house. I do not wish to please him; I wish that he should wish to please me. I will stand here for humanity, and though I would make it kind, I would make it true. Let us affront and reprimand the smooth mediocrity and squalid contentment of the times, and hurl in the face of custom and trade and office, the fact which is the upshot of all history, that there is a great responsible Thinker and Actor moving wherever moves a man; that a true man belongs to no other time or place, but is the center of things. Where he is, there is nature. He measures you and all men and all events. You are constrained to accept his standard. Ordinarily, every body in society reminds us of somewhat else, or of some other person. Character, reality, reminds you of nothing else; it takes place of the whole creation. The man must be so much that he must make all circumstances indifferent--put all means into the shade. This: all great men are and do. Every true man is a cause, a country, and an age; requires infinite spaces and numbers and time fully to accomplish his thought;--and posterity seem to follow his steps as a procession. A man Caesar is born, and for ages after we have a Roman Empire. Christ is born, and millions of minds so grow and cleave to his genius that he is confounded with virtue and the possible of man. An institution is the lengthened shadow of one man; as, the Reformation, of Luther; Quakerism, of Fox; Methodism, of Wesley; Abolition, of Clarkson. Scipio, Milton called "the height of Rome;" and all history resolves itself very easily into the biography of a few stout and earnest persons. Let a man then know his worth, and keep things under his feet. Let him not peep or steal, or skulk up and down with the air of a charity-boy, a bastard, or an interloper in the world which exists for him. But the man in the street, finding no worth in himself which corresponds to the force which built a tower or sculptured a marble god, feels poor when he looks on these. To him a palace, a statue, or a costly book has an alien and forbidding air, much like a gay equipage, and seems to say like that, "Who are you, sir?" Yet they all are his, suitors for his notice, petitioners to his faculties that they will come out and take possession. The picture waits for my verdict; it is not to command me, but I am to settle its claim to praise. That popular fable of the sot who was picked up dead drunk in the street, carried to the duke's house, washed and dressed and laid in the duke's bed, and, on his waking, treated with all obsequious ceremony like the duke, and assured that he had been insane--owes its popularity to the fact that it symbolizes so well the state of man, who is in the world a sort of sot, but now and then wakes up, exercises his reason and finds himself a true prince. Our reading is mendicant and sycophantic. In history our imagination makes fools of us, plays us false. Kingdom and lordship, power and estate, are a gaudier vocabulary than private John and Edward in a small house and common day's work: but the things of life are the same to both: the sum total of both is the same. Why all this deference to Alfred and Scanderbeg and Gustavus? Suppose they were virtuous; did they wear out virtue? As great a stake depends on your private act to-day as followed their public and renowned steps. When private men shall act with original views, the luster will be transferred from the actions of kings to those of gentlemen. The world has indeed been instructed by its kings, who have so magnetized the eyes of nations. It has been taught by this colossal symbol the mutual reverence that is due from man to man. The joyful loyalty with which men have everywhere suffered the king, the noble, or the great proprietor to walk among them, by a law of his own, make his own scale of men and things and reverse theirs, pay for benefits not with money but with honor, and represent the Law in his person, was the hieroglyphic by which they obscurely signified their consciousness of their own right and comeliness, the right of every man. The magnetism which all original action exerts is explained when we inquire the reason of self-trust. Who is the Trustee? What is the aboriginal Self, on which a universal reliance may be grounded? What is the nature and power of that science-baffling star, without parallax, without calculable elements, which shoots a ray of beauty even into trivial and impure actions, if the least mark of independence appear? The inquiry leads us to that source, at once the essence of genius, the essence of virtue, and the essence of life, which we call Spontaneity or Instinct. We denote this primary wisdom as Intuition, whilst all later teachings are tuitions. In that deep force, the last fact behind which analysis cannot go, all things find their common origin. For the sense of being which in calm hours rises, we know not how, in the soul, is not diverse from things, from space, from light, from time, from man, but one with them and proceedeth obviously from the same source whence their life and being also proceedeth. We first share the life by which things exist and afterward see them as appearances in nature and forget that we have shared their cause. Here is the fountain of action and the fountain of thought. Here are the lungs of that inspiration which giveth man wisdom, of that inspiration of man which cannot be denied without impiety and atheism. We lie in the lap of immense intelligence, which makes us organs of its activity and receivers of its truth. When we discern justice, when we discern truth, we do nothing of ourselves, but allow a passage to its beams. If we ask whence this comes, if we seek to pry into the soul that causes--all metaphysics, all philosophy is at fault. Its presence or its absence is all we can affirm. Every man discerns between the voluntary acts of his mind and his involuntary perceptions. And to his involuntary perceptions: he knows a perfect respect is due. He may err in the expression of them, but he knows that these things are so, like day and night, not to be disputed. All my wilful actions and acquisitions are but roving;--the most trivial reverie, the faintest native emotion, are domestic and divine. Thoughtless people contradict as readily the statement of perceptions as of opinions, or rather much more readily; for they do not distinguish between perception and notion. They fancy that I choose to see this or that thing. But perception is not whimsical, but fatal. If I see a trait, my children will see it after me, and in course of time all mankind,--although it may chance that no one has seen it before me. For my perception of it is as much a fact as the sun. The relations of the soul to the divine spirit are so pure that it is profane to seek to interpose helps. It must be that when God speaketh he should communicate, not one thing, but all things; should fill the world with his voice; should scatter forth light, nature, time, souls, from the center of the present thought; and new date and new create the whole. Whenever a mind is simple and receives a divine wisdom, then old things pass away,--means, teachers, texts, temples fall; it lives now, and absorbs past and future into the present hour. All things are made sacred by relation to it,--one thing as much as another. All things are dissolved to their center by their cause, and in the universal miracle petty and particular miracles disappear. This is and must be. If therefore a man claims to know and speak of God and carries you backward to the phraseology of some old moldered nation in another country, in another world, believe him not. Is the acorn better than the oak which is its fulness and completion? Is the parent better than the child into whom he has cast his ripened being? Whence then this worship of the past? The centuries are conspirators against the sanity and majesty of the soul. Time and space are but physiological colors which the eye maketh, but the soul is light; where it is, is day; where it was, is night; and history is an impertinence and an injury if it be any thing more than a cheerful apologue or parable of my being and becoming. Man is timid and apologetic; he is no longer upright; he dares not say "I think," "I am," but quotes some saint or sage. He is ashamed before the blade of grass or the blowing rose. These roses under my window make no reference to former roses or to better ones; they are for what they are; they exist with God to-day. There is no time to them. There is simply the rose; it is perfect in every moment of its existence. Before a leaf-bud has burst, its whole life acts; in the full-blown flower there is no more; in the leafless root there is no less. Its nature is satisfied and it satisfies nature in all moments alike. There is no time to it. But man postpones or remembers; he does not live in the present, but with reverted eye laments the past, or, heedless of the riches that surround him, stands on tiptoe to foresee the future. He cannot be happy and strong until he too lives with nature in the present, above time. This should be plain enough. Yet see what strong intellects dare not yet hear God himself unless he speak the phraseology of I know not what David, or Jeremiah, or Paul. We shall not always set so great a price on a few texts, on a few lives. We are like children who repeat by rote the sentences of grandames and tutors, and, as they grow older, of the men of talents and character they chance to see,--painfully recollecting the exact words they spoke; afterward, when they come into the point of view which those had who uttered these sayings, they understand them and are willing to let the words go; for at any time they can use words as good when occasion comes. So was it with us, so will it be, if we proceed. If we live truly, we shall see truly. It is as easy for the strong man to be strong, as it is for the weak to be weak. When we have new perception, we shall gladly disburden the memory of its hoarded treasures as old rubbish. When a man lives with God, his voice shall be as sweet as the murmur of the brook and the rustle of the corn. And now at last the highest truth on this subject remains unsaid; probably cannot be said; for all that we say is the far off remembering of the intuition: That thought, by what I can now nearest approach to say it, is this: When good is near you, when you have life in yourself,--it is not by any known or appointed way; you shall not discern the foot-prints of any other; you shall not see the face of man; you shall not hear any name;--the way, the thought, the good, shall be wholly strange and new. It shall exclude all other being. You take the way from man, not to man. All persons that ever existed are its fugitive ministers. There shall be no fear in it. Fear and hope are alike beneath it. It asks nothing. There is somewhat low even in hope. We are then in vision. There is nothing that can be called gratitude, nor properly joy. The soul is raised over passion. It seeth identity and eternal causation. It is a perceiving that Truth and Right are. Hence it becomes a Tranquillity out of the knowing that all things go well. Vast spaces of nature; the Atlantic Ocean, the South Sea; vast intervals of time, years, centuries, are of no account. This which I think and feel underlay that former state of life and circumstances, as it does underlie my present and will always all circumstances, and what is called life and what is called death. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 1: From Essays, First Series, 1841; the second half of the essay has here been omitted.] EARLY EDUCATION AT HERNE HILL[2] JOHN RUSKIN When I was about four years old my father found himself able to buy the lease of a house on Herne Hill, a rustic eminence four miles south of the "Standard in Cornhill"; of which the leafy seclusion remains, in all essential points of character, unchanged to this day: certain Gothic splendours, lately indulged in by our wealthier neighbours, being the only serious innovations; and these are so graciously concealed by the fine trees of their grounds, that the passing viator remains unappalled by them; and I can still walk up and down the piece of road between the Fox tavern and the Herne Hill station, imagining myself four years old. Our house was the northernmost of a group which stand accurately on the top or dome of the hill, where the ground is for a small space level, as the snows are, (I understand), on the dome of Mont Blanc; presently falling, however, in what may be, in the London clay formation, considered a precipitous slope, to our valley of Chamouni (or of Dulwich) on the east; and with a softer descent into Cold Harbor lane on the west: on the south, no less beautifully declining to the dale of the Effra, (doubtless shortened from Effrena, signifying the "Unbridled" river; recently, I regret to say, bricked over for the convenience of Mr. Biffin, chemist, and others); while on the north, prolonged indeed with slight depression some half mile or so, and receiving, in the parish of Lambeth, the chivalric title of "Champion Hill," it plunges down at last to efface itself in the plains of Peckham, and the rural barbarism of Goose Green. The group, of which our house was the quarter, consisted of two precisely similar partner-couples of houses, gardens and all to match; still the two highest blocks of buildings seen from Norwood on the crest of the ridge; so that the house itself, three-storied, with garrets above, commanded, in those comparatively smokeless days, a very notable view from its garret windows, of the Norwood hills on one side, and the winter sunrise over them; and of the valley of the Thames on the other, with Windsor telescopically clear in the distance, and Harrow, conspicuous always in fine weather to open vision against the summer sunset. It had front and back garden in sufficient proportion to its size; the front, richly set with old evergreens, and well-grown lilac and laburnum; the back, seventy yards long by twenty wide, renowned over all the hill for its pears and apples, which had been chosen with extreme care by our predecessor, (shame on me to forget the name of a man to whom I owe so much!)--and possessing also a strong old mulberry tree, a tall white-heart cherry tree, a black Kentish one, and an almost unbroken hedge, all round, of alternate gooseberry and currant bush; decked, in due season, (for the ground was wholly beneficent), with magical splendour of abundant fruit: fresh green, soft amber, and rough-bristled crimson bending the spinous branches; clustered pearl and pendent ruby joyfully discoverable under the large leaves that looked like vine. The differences of primal importance which I observed between the nature of this garden, and that of Eden, as I had imagined it, were, that, in this one, _all_ the fruit was forbidden; and there were no companionable beasts: in other respects the little domain answered every purpose of paradise to me; and the climate, in that cycle of our years, allowed me to pass most of my life in it. My mother never gave me more to learn than she knew I could easily get learnt, if I set myself honestly to work, by twelve o'clock. She never allowed anything to disturb me when my task was set; if it was not said rightly by twelve o'clock, I was kept in till I knew it, and in general, even when Latin Grammar came to supplement the Psalms, I was my own master for at least an hour before half-past one dinner, and for the rest of the afternoon. My mother, herself finding her chief personal pleasure in her flowers, was often planting, or pruning beside me, at least if I chose to stay beside _her_. I never thought of doing anything behind her back which I would not have done before her face; and her presence was therefore no restraint to me; but, also, no particular pleasure, for, from having always been left so much alone, I had generally my own little affairs to see after; and, on the whole, by the time I was seven years old, was already getting too independent, mentally, even of my father and mother; and, having nobody else to be dependent upon, began to lead a very small, perky, contented, conceited, Cock-Robinson-Crusoe sort of life, in the central point which it appeared to me, (as it must naturally appear to geometrical animals), that I occupied in the universe. This was partly the fault of my father's modesty; and partly of his pride. He had so much more confidence in my mother's judgment as to such matters than in his own, that he never ventured even to help, much less to cross her, in the conduct of my education; on the other hand, in the fixed purpose of making an ecclesiastical gentleman of me, with the superfinest of manners, and access to the highest circles of fleshly and spiritual society, the visits to Croydon, where I entirely loved my aunt, and young baker-cousins, became rarer and more rare: the society of our neighbours on the hill could not be had without breaking up our regular and sweetly selfish manner of living; and on the whole, I had nothing animate to care for, in a childish way, but myself, some nests of ants, which the gardener would never leave undisturbed for me, and a sociable bird or two; though I never had the sense or perseverance to make one really tame. But that was partly because, if ever I managed to bring one to be the least trustful of me, the cats got it. Under these circumstances, what powers of imagination I possessed, either fastened themselves on inanimate things,--the sky, the leaves, and pebbles, observable within the walls of Eden,--or caught at any opportunity of flight into regions of romance, compatible with the objective realities of existence in the nineteenth century, within a mile and a quarter of Camberwell Green. Herein my father, happily, though with no definite intention other than of pleasing me, when he found he could do so without infringing any of my mother's rules, became my guide. I was particularly fond of watching him shave; and was always allowed to come into his room in the morning (under the one in which I am now writing), to be the motionless witness of that operation. Over his dressing-table hung one of his own water-colour drawings, made under the teaching of the elder Nasmyth; I believe, at the High School of Edinburgh. It was done in the early manner of tinting, which, just about the time when my father was at the High School, Dr. Munro was teaching Turner; namely, in gray under-tints of Prussian blue and British ink, washed with warm colour afterwards on the lights. It represented Conway Castle, with its Frith, and, in the foreground, a cottage, a fisherman, and a boat at the water's edge. When my father had finished shaving, he always told me a story about this picture. The custom began without any initial purpose of his, in consequence of my troublesome curiosity whether the fisherman lived in the cottage, and where he was going to in the boat. It being settled, for peace' sake, that he _did_ live in the cottage, and was going in the boat to fish near the castle, the plot of the drama afterwards gradually thickened; and became, I believe, involved with that of the tragedy of Douglas, and of the Castle Specter, in both of which pieces my father had performed in private theatricals, before my mother, and a select Edinburgh audience, when he was a boy of sixteen, and she, at grave twenty, a model housekeeper, and very scornful and religiously suspicious of theatricals. But she was never weary of telling me, in later years, how beautiful my father looked in his Highland dress, with the high black feathers. In the afternoons, when my father returned (always punctually) from his business, he dined, at half-past four, in the front parlour, my mother sitting beside him to hear the events of the day, and give counsel and encouragement with respect to the same;--chiefly the last, for my father was apt to be vexed if orders for sherry fell the least short of their due standard, even for a day or two. I was never present at this time, however, and only avouch what I relate by hearsay and probable conjecture; for between four and six it would have been a grave misdemeanour in me if I so much as approached the parlour door. After that, in summer time, we were all in the garden as long as the day lasted; tea under the white-heart cherry tree; or in winter and rough weather, at six o'clock in the drawing-room,--I having my cup of milk, and slice of bread-and-butter, in a little recess, with a table in front of it, wholly sacred to me; and in which I remained in the evenings as an Idol in a niche, while my mother knitted, and my father read to her,--and to me, so far as I chose to listen. The series of the Waverley novels, then drawing towards its close, was still the chief source of delight in all households caring for literature; and I can no more recollect the time when I did not know them than when I did not know the Bible; but I have still a vivid remembrance of my father's intense expression of sorrow mixed with scorn, as he threw down Count Robert of Paris, after reading three or four pages; and knew that the life of Scott was ended: the scorn being a very complex and bitter feeling in him,--partly, indeed, of the book itself, but chiefly of the wretches who were tormenting and selling the wrecked intellect, and not a little, deep down, of the subtle dishonesty which had essentially caused the ruin. My father never could forgive Scott his concealment of the Ballantyne partnership. Such being the salutary pleasures of Herne Hill, I have next with deeper gratitude to chronicle what I owe to my mother for the resolutely consistent lessons which so exercised me in the Scriptures as to make every word of them familiar to my ear in habitual music,--yet in that familiarity reverenced, as transcending all thought, and ordaining all conduct. This she effected, not by her own sayings or personal authority; but simply by compelling me to read the book thoroughly, for myself. As soon as I was able to read with fluency, she began a course of Bible work with me, which never ceased till I went to Oxford. She read alternate verses with me, watching, at first, every intonation of my voice, and correcting the false ones, till she made me understand the verse, if within my reach, rightly, and energetically. It might be beyond me altogether; that she did not care about; but she made sure that as soon as I got hold of it at all, I should get hold of it by the right end. In this way she began with the first verse of Genesis, and went straight through, to the last verse of the Apocalypse; hard names, numbers, Levitical law, and all; and began again at Genesis the next day. If a name was hard, the better the exercise in pronunciation,--if the chapter was tiresome, the better lesson in patience,--if loathsome, the better lesson in faith that there was some use in its being so outspoken. After our chapters, (from two to three a day, according to their length, the first thing after breakfast, and no interruption from servants allowed,--none from visitors, who either joined in the reading or had to stay upstairs,--and none from any visitings or excursions, except real travelling), I had to learn a few verses by heart, or repeat, to make sure I had not lost, something of what was already known; and, with the chapters thus gradually possessed from the first word to the last, I had to learn the whole body of the fine old Scottish paraphrases, which are good, melodious, and forceful verse; and to which, together with the Bible itself, I owe the first cultivation of my ear in sound. It is strange that of all the pieces of the Bible which my mother thus taught me, that which cost me most to learn, and which was, to my child's mind, chiefly repulsive--the 119th Psalm--has now become of all the most precious to me, in its overflowing and glorious passion of love for the Law of God, in opposition to the abuse of it by modern preachers of what they imagine to be His gospel. But it is only by deliberate effort that I recall the long morning hours of toil, as regular as sunrise,--toil on both sides equal,--by which, year after year, my mother forced me to learn these paraphrases, and chapters, (the eighth of 1st Kings being one--try it, good reader, in a leisure hour!) allowing not so much as a syllable to be missed or misplaced; while every sentence was required to be said over and over again till she was satisfied with the accent of it. I recollect a struggle between us of about three weeks, concerning the accent of the "of" in the lines "Shall any following spring revive The ashes of the urn?"-- I insisting, partly in childish obstinacy, and partly in true instinct for rhythm, (being wholly careless on the subject both of urns and their contents), on reciting it with an accented _of_. It was not, I say, till after three weeks' labor, that my mother got the accent lightened on the "of" and laid on the "ashes," to her mind. But had it taken three years she would have done it, having once undertaken to do it. And, assuredly, had she not done it,--well, there's no knowing what would have happened; but I'm very thankful she _did_. I have just opened my oldest (in use) Bible,--a small, closely, and very neatly printed volume it is, printed in Edinburgh by Sir D. Hunter Blair and J. Bruce, Printers, to the King's Most Excellent Majesty, in 1816. Yellow, now, with age, and flexible, but not unclean, with much use, except that the lower corners of the pages at 8th of 1st Kings, and 32d Deuteronomy, are worn somewhat thin and dark, the learning of these two chapters having cost me much pains. My mother's list of the chapters with which, thus learned, she established my soul in life, has just fallen out of it. I will take what indulgence the incurious reader can give me, for printing the list thus accidentally occurrent: Exodus, chapters 15th and 20th. 2 Samuel, " 1st, from 17th verse to end. 1 Kings, " 8th. Psalms, " 23d, 32d, 90th, 91st, 103d, 112th, 119th, 139th. Proverbs, " 2d, 3d, 8th, 12th. Isaiah, " 58th. Matthew, " 5th, 6th, 7th. Acts, " 26th. 1 Corinthians, " 13th, 15th. James, " 4th. Revelation, " 5th, 6th. And, truly, though I have picked up the elements of a little further knowledge--in mathematics, meteorology, and the like, in after life,--and owe not a little to the teaching of many people, this maternal installation of my mind in that property of chapters, I count very confidently the most precious, and, on the whole, the one _essential_ part of all my education. And it is perhaps already time to mark what advantage and mischief, by the chances of life up to seven years old, had been irrevocably determined for me. I will first count my blessings (as a not unwise friend once recommended me to do, continually; whereas I have a bad trick of always numbering the thorns in my fingers and not the bones in them). And for best and truest beginning of all blessings, I had been taught the perfect meaning of Peace, in thought, act, and word. I never had heard my father's or mother's voice once raised in any question with each other; nor seen an angry, or even slightly hurt or offended, glance in the eyes of either. I had never heard a servant scolded; nor even suddenly, passionately, or in any severe manner, blamed. I had never seen a moment's trouble or disorder in any household matter; nor anything whatever either done in a hurry, or undone in due time. I had no conception of such a feeling as anxiety; my father's occasional vexation in the afternoons, when he had only got an order for twelve butts after expecting one for fifteen, as I have just stated, was never manifested to _me_; and itself related only to the question whether his name would be a step higher or lower in the year's list of sherry exporters; for he never spent more than half his income, and therefore found himself little incommoded by occasional variations in the total of it. I had never done any wrong that I knew of--beyond occasionally delaying the commitment to heart of some improving sentence, that I might watch a wasp on the window pane, or a bird in the cherry tree; and I had never seen any grief. Next to this quite priceless gift of Peace, I had received the perfect understanding of the natures of Obedience and Faith. I obeyed word, or lifted finger, of father or mother, simply as a ship her helm; not only without idea of resistance, but receiving the direction as a part of my own life and force, a helpful law, as necessary to me in every moral action as the law of gravity in leaping. And my practice in Faith was soon complete: nothing ever threatened me that was not inflicted, and nothing ever told me that was not true. Peace, obedience, faith; these three for chief good; next to these, the habit of fixed attention with both eyes and mind--on which I will not further enlarge at this moment, this being the main practical faculty of my life, causing Mazzini to say of me, in conversation authentically reported, a year or two before his death, that I had "the most analytic mind in Europe." An opinion in which, so far as I am acquainted with Europe, I am myself entirely disposed to concur. Lastly, an extreme perfection in palate and all other bodily senses, given by the utter prohibition of cake, wine, comfits, or, except in carefulest restriction, fruit; and by fine preparation of what food was given me. Such I esteem the main blessings of my childhood;--next, let me count the equally dominant calamities. First, that I had nothing to love. My parents were--in a sort--visible powers of nature to me, no more loved than the sun and the moon: only I should have been annoyed and puzzled if either of them had gone out; (how much, now, when both are darkened!)--still less did I love God; not that I had any quarrel with Him, or fear of Him; but simply found what people told me was His service, disagreeable; and what people told me was His book, not entertaining. I had no companions to quarrel with, neither; nobody to assist, and nobody to thank. Not a servant was ever allowed to do anything for me, but what it was their duty to do; and why should I have been grateful to the cook for cooking, or the gardener for gardening,--when the one dared not give me a baked potato without asking leave, and the other would not let my ants' nests alone, because they made the walks untidy? The evil consequence of all this was not, however, what might perhaps have been expected, that I grew up selfish or unaffectionate; but that, when affection did come, it came with violence utterly rampant and unmanageable, at least by me, who never before had anything to manage. For (second of chief calamities) I had nothing to endure. Danger or pain of any kind I knew not: my strength was never exercised, my patience never tried, and my courage never fortified. Not that I was ever afraid of anything,--either ghosts, thunder, or beasts; and one of the nearest approaches to insubordination which I was ever tempted into as a child, was in passionate effort to get leave to play with the lion's cubs in Wombwell's menagerie. Thirdly, I was taught no precision nor etiquette of manners; it was enough if, in the little society we saw, I remained unobtrusive, and replied to a question without shyness: but the shyness came later, and increased as I grew conscious of the rudeness arising from the want of social discipline, and found it impossible to acquire, in advanced life, dexterity in any bodily exercise, skill in any pleasing accomplishment, or ease and tact in ordinary behaviour. Lastly, and chief of evils. My judgment of right and wrong, and powers of independent action, were left entirely undeveloped; because the bridle and blinkers were never taken off me. Children should have their times of being off duty, like soldiers; and when once the obedience, if required, is certain, the little creature should be very early put for periods of practice in complete command of itself; set on the barebacked horse of its own will, and left to break it by its own strength. But the ceaseless authority exercised over my youth left me, when cast out at last into the world, unable for some time to do more than drift with its vortices. My present verdict, therefore, on the general tenor of my education at that time, must be, that it was at once too formal and too luxurious; leaving my character, at the most important moment for its construction, cramped indeed, but not disciplined; and only by protection innocent, instead of by practice virtuous. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 2: From "Praeterita," _1885, Vol. I, Chapter II_.] A CRISIS IN MY MENTAL HISTORY[3] JOHN STUART MILL From the winter of 1821, when I first read Bentham, and especially from the commencement of the Westminster Review, I had what might truly be called an object in life; to be a reformer of the world. My conception of my own happiness was entirely identified with this object. The personal sympathies I wished for were those of fellow labourers in this enterprise. I endeavoured to pick up as many flowers as I could by the way; but as a serious and permanent personal satisfaction to rest upon, my whole reliance was placed on this; and I was accustomed to felicitate myself on the certainty of a happy life which I enjoyed, through placing my happiness in something durable and distant, in which some progress might be always making, while it could never be exhausted by complete attainment. This did very well for several years, during which the general improvement going on in the world and the idea of myself as engaged with others in struggling to promote it, seemed enough to fill up an interesting and animated existence. But the time came when I awakened from this as from a dream. It was in the autumn of 1826. I was in a dull state of nerves, such as everybody is occasionally liable to; unsusceptible to enjoyment or pleasurable excitement; one of those moods when what is pleasure at other times, becomes insipid or indifferent; the state, I should think, in which converts to Methodism usually are, when smitten by their first "conviction of sin." In this frame of mind it occurred to me to put the question directly to myself: "Suppose that all your objects in life were realised; that all the changes in institutions and opinions which you are looking forward to, could be completely effected at this very instant: would this be a great joy and happiness to you?" And an irrepressible self-consciousness distinctly answered, "No!" At this my heart sank within me: the whole foundation on which my life was constructed fell down. All my happiness was to have been found in the continual pursuit of this end. The end had ceased to charm, and how could there ever again be any interest in the means? I seemed to have nothing left to live for. At first I hoped that the cloud would pass away of itself; but it did not. A night's sleep, the sovereign remedy for the smaller vexations of life, had no effect on it. I awoke to a renewed consciousness of the woful fact. I carried it with me into all companies, into all occupations. Hardly anything had power to cause me even a few minutes' oblivion of it. For some months the cloud seemed to grow thicker and thicker. The lines in Coleridge's "Dejection"--I was not then acquainted with them--exactly describe my case: "A grief without a pang, void, dark and drear, A drowsy, stifled, unimpassioned grief, Which finds no natural outlet or relief In word, or sigh, or tear." In vain I sought relief from my favourite books; those memorials of past nobleness and greatness from which I had always hitherto drawn strength and animation. I read them now without feeling, or with the accustomed feeling _minus_ all its charm; and I became persuaded, that my love of mankind, and of excellence for its own sake, had worn itself out. I sought no comfort by speaking to others of what I felt. If I had loved any one sufficiently to make confiding my griefs a necessity, I should not have been in the condition I was. I felt, too, that mine was not an interesting, or in any way respectable distress. There was nothing in it to attract sympathy. Advice, if I had known where to seek it, would have been most precious. The words of Macbeth to the physician often occurred to my thoughts. But there was no one on whom I could build the faintest hope of such assistance. My father, to whom it would have been natural to me to have recourse in any practical difficulties, was the last person to whom, in such a case as this, I looked for help. Everything convinced me that he had no knowledge of any such mental state as I was suffering from, and that even if he could be made to understand it, he was not the physician who could heal it. My education, which was wholly his work, had been conducted without any regard to the possibility of its ending in this result; and I saw no use in giving him the pain of thinking that his plans had failed, when the failure was probably irremediable, and, at all events, beyond the power of _his_ remedies. Of other friends, I had at that time none to whom I had any hope of making my condition intelligible. It was, however, abundantly intelligible to myself; and the more I dwelt upon it, the more hopeless it appeared. My course of study had led me to believe, that all mental and moral feelings and qualities, whether of a good or of a bad kind, were the results of association; that we love one thing, and hate another, take pleasure in one sort of action or contemplation, and pain in another sort, through the clinging of pleasurable or painful ideas to those things, from the effect of education or of experience. As a corollary from this, I had always heard it maintained by my father, and was myself convinced, that the object of education should be to form the strongest possible associations of the salutary class; associations of pleasure with all things beneficial to the great whole, and of pain with all things hurtful to it. This doctrine appeared inexpugnable; but it now seemed to me, on retrospect, that my teachers had occupied themselves but superficially with the means of forming and keeping up these salutary associations. They seemed to have trusted altogether to the old familiar instruments, praise and blame, reward and punishment. Now, I did not doubt that by these means, begun early, and applied unremittingly, intense associations of pain and pleasure, especially of pain, might be created, and might produce desires and aversions capable of lasting undiminished to the end of life. But there must always be something artificial and casual in associations thus produced. The pains and pleasures thus forcibly associated with things, are not connected with them by any natural tie; and it is therefore, I thought, essential to the durability of these associations, that they should have become so intense and inveterate as to be practically indissoluble, before the habitual exercise of the power of analysis had commenced. For I now saw, or thought I saw, what I had always before received with incredulity--that the habit of analysis has a tendency to wear away the feelings: as indeed it has, when no other mental habit is cultivated, and the analysing spirit remains without its natural complements and correctives. The very excellence of analysis (I argued) is that it tends to weaken and undermine whatever is the result of prejudice; that it enables us mentally to separate ideas which have only casually clung together: and no associations whatever could ultimately resist this dissolving force, were it not that we owe to analysis our clearest knowledge of the permanent sequences in nature; the real connections between Things, not dependent on our will and feelings; natural laws, by virtue of which, in many cases, one thing is inseparable from another in fact; which laws, in proportion as they are clearly perceived and imaginatively realised, cause our ideas of things which are always joined together in Nature, to cohere more and more closely in our thoughts. Analytic habits may thus even strengthen the associations between causes and effects, means and ends, but tend altogether to weaken those which are, to speak familiarly, a _mere_ matter of feeling. They are therefore (I thought) favourable to prudence and clear-sightedness, but a perpetual worm at the root both of the passions and of the virtues; and, above all, fearfully undermine all desires, and all pleasures, which are the effects of association, that is, according to the theory I held, all except the purely physical and organic; of the entire insufficiency of which to make life desirable, no one had a stronger conviction than I had. These were the laws of human nature, by which, as it seemed to me, I had been brought to my present state. All those to whom I looked up, were of opinion that the pleasure of sympathy with human beings, and the feelings which made the good of others, and especially of mankind on a large scale, the object of existence, were the greatest and surest sources of happiness. Of the truth of this I was convinced, but to know that a feeling would make me happy if I had it, did not give me the feeling. My education, I thought, had failed to create these feelings in sufficient strength to resist the dissolving influence of analysis, while the whole course of my intellectual cultivation had made precocious and premature analysis the inveterate habit of my mind. I was thus, as I said to myself, left stranded at the commencement of my voyage, with a well-equipped ship and a rudder, but no sail; without any real desire for the ends which I had been so carefully fitted out to work for: no delight in virtue, or the general good, but also just as little in anything else. The fountains of vanity and ambition seemed to have dried up within me, as completely as those of benevolence. I had had (as I reflected) some gratification of vanity at too early an age: I had obtained some distinction, and felt myself of some importance, before the desire of distinction and of importance had grown into a passion: and little as it was which I had attained, yet having been attained too early, like all pleasures enjoyed too soon, it had made me _blasé_ and indifferent to the pursuit. Thus neither selfish nor unselfish pleasures were pleasures to me. And there seemed no power in nature sufficient to begin the formation of my character anew, and create in a mind now irretrievably analytic, fresh associations of pleasure with any of the objects of human desire. These were the thoughts which mingled with the dry heavy dejection of the melancholy winter of 1826-7. During this time I was not incapable of my usual occupations. I went on with them mechanically, by the mere force of habit. I had been so drilled in a certain sort of mental exercise, that I could still carry it on when all the spirit had gone out of it. I even composed and spoke several speeches at the debating society, how, or with what degree of success, I know not. Of four years' continual speaking at that society, this is the only year of which I remember next to nothing. Two lines of Coleridge, in whom alone of all writers I have found a true description of what I felt, were often in my thoughts, not at this time (for I had never read them), but in a later period of the same mental malady: "Work without hope draws nectar in a sieve, And hope without an object cannot live." In all probability my case was by no means so peculiar as I fancied it, and I doubt not that many others have passed through a similar state; but the idiosyncrasies of my education had given to the general phenomenon a special character, which made it seem the natural effect of causes that it was hardly possible for time to remove. I frequently asked myself, if I could, or if I was bound to go on living, when life must be passed in this manner. I generally answered to myself, that I did not think I could possibly bear it beyond a year. When, however, not more than half that duration of time had elapsed, a small ray of light broke in upon my gloom. I was reading, accidentally, Marmontel's "Memoires," and came to the passage which relates his father's death, the distressed position of the family, and the sudden inspiration by which he, then a mere boy, felt and made them feel that he would be everything to them--would supply the place of all that they had lost. A vivid conception of the scene and its feelings came over me, and I was moved to tears. From this moment my burden grew lighter. The oppression of the thought that all feeling was dead within me, was gone. I was no longer hopeless: I was not a stock or a stone. I had still, it seemed, some of the material out of which all worth of character, and all capacity for happiness, are made. Relieved from my ever present sense of irremediable wretchedness, I gradually found that the ordinary incidents of life could again give me some pleasure; that I could again find enjoyment, not intense, but sufficient for cheerfulness, in sunshine and sky, in books, in conversation, in public affairs; and that there was, once more, excitement, though of a moderate kind, in exerting myself for my opinions, and for the public good. Thus the cloud gradually drew off, and I again enjoyed life: and though I had several relapses, some of which lasted many months, I never again was as miserable as I had been. The experiences of this period had two very marked effects on my opinions and character. In the first place, they led me to adopt a theory of life, very unlike that on which I had before acted, and having much in common with what at that time I certainly had never heard of, the anti-self-consciousness theory of Carlyle. I never, indeed, wavered in the conviction that happiness is the test of all rules of conduct, and the end of life. But I now thought that this end was only to be attained by not making it the direct end. Those only are happy (I thought) who have their minds fixed on some object other than their own happiness; on the happiness of others, on the improvement of mankind, even on some art or pursuit, followed not as a means, but as itself an ideal end. Aiming thus at something else, they find happiness by the way. The enjoyments of life (such was now my theory) are sufficient to make it a pleasant thing, when they are taken _en passant_, without being made a principal object. Once make them so, and they are immediately felt to be insufficient. They will not bear a scrutinising examination. Ask yourself whether you are happy, and you cease to be so. The only chance is to treat, not happiness, but some end external to it, as the purpose of life. Let your self-consciousness, your scrutiny, your self-interrogation, exhaust themselves on that; and if otherwise fortunately circumstanced you will inhale happiness with the air you breathe, without dwelling on it or thinking about it, without either forestalling it in imagination, or putting it to flight by fatal questioning. This theory now became the basis of my philosophy of life. And I still hold to it as the best theory for all those who have but a moderate degree of sensibility and of capacity for enjoyment, that is, for the great majority of mankind. The other important change which my opinions at this: time underwent, was that I, for the first time, gave its proper place, among the prime necessities of human well-being, to the internal culture of the individual. I ceased to attach almost exclusive importance to the ordering of outward circumstances, and the training of the human being for speculation and for action. I had now learnt by experience that the passive susceptibilities needed to be cultivated as well as the active capacities, and required to be nourished and enriched as well as guided. I did not, for an instant, lose sight of, or undervalue, that part of the truth which I had seen before; I never turned recreant to intellectual culture, or ceased to consider the power and practice of analysis as an essential condition both of individual and of social improvement. But I thought that it had consequences which required to be corrected, by joining other kinds of cultivation with it. The maintenance of a due balance among the faculties, now seemed to me of primary importance. The cultivation of the feelings became one of the cardinal points in my ethical and philosophical creed. And my thoughts and inclinations turned in an increasing degree towards whatever seemed capable of being instrumental to that object. I now began to find meaning in the things which I had read or heard about the importance of poetry and art as instruments of human culture. But it was some time longer before I began to know this by personal experience. The only one of the imaginative arts in which I had from childhood taken great pleasure, was music; the best effect of which (and in this it surpasses perhaps every other art) consists in exciting enthusiasm; in winding up to a high pitch those feelings of an elevated kind which are already in the character, but to which this excitement gives a glow and a fervour, which, though transitory at its utmost height, is precious for sustaining them at other times. This effect of music I had often experienced; but like all my pleasurable susceptibilities it was suspended during the gloomy period. I had sought relief again and again from this quarter, but found none. After the tide had turned, and I was in process of recovery, I had been helped forward by music, but in a much less elevated manner. I at this time first became acquainted with Weber's Oberon, and the extreme pleasure which I drew from its delicious melodies did me good, by showing me a source of pleasure to which I was as susceptible as ever. The good, however, was much impaired by the thought, that the pleasure of music (as is quite true of such pleasure as this was, that of mere tune) fades with familiarity, and requires either to be revived by intermittence, or fed by continual novelty. And it is very characteristic both of my then state, and of the general tone of my mind at this period of my life, that I was seriously tormented by the thought of the exhaustibility of musical combinations. The octave consists only of five tones and two semi-tones, which can be put together in only a limited number of ways, of which but a small proportion are beautiful: most of these, it seemed to me, must have been already discovered, and there could not be room for a long succession of Mozarts and Webers, to strike out, as these had done, entirely new and surpassingly rich veins of musical beauty. This source of anxiety may, perhaps, be thought to resemble that of the philosophers of Laputa, who feared lest the sun should be burnt out. It was, however, connected with the best feature in my character, and the only good point to be found in my very unromantic and in no way honourable distress. For though my dejection, honestly looked at, could not be called other than egotistical, produced by the ruin, as I thought, of my fabric of happiness, yet the destiny of mankind in general was ever in my thoughts, and could not be separated from my own. I felt that the flaw in my life, must be a flaw in life itself; that the question was, whether, if the reformers of society and government could succeed in their objects, and every person in the community were free and in a state of physical comfort, the pleasures of life, being no longer kept up by struggle and privation, would cease to be pleasures. And I felt that unless I could see my way to some better hope than this for human happiness in general my dejection must continue; but that if I could see such an outlet, I should then look on the world with pleasure; content as far as I was myself concerned, with any fair share of the general lot. This state of my thoughts and feelings made the fact of my reading Wordsworth for the first time (in the autumn of 1828), an important event in my life. I took up the collection of his poems from curiosity, with no expectation of mental relief from it, though I had before resorted to poetry with that hope. In the worst period of my depression, I had read through the whole of Byron (then new to me), to try whether a poet, whose peculiar department was supposed to be that of the intenser feelings, could rouse any feeling in me. As might be expected, I got no good from this reading, but the reverse. The poet's state of mind was too like my own. His was the lament of a man who had worn out all pleasures, and who seemed to think that life, to all who possess the good things of it, must necessarily be the vapid, uninteresting thing which I found it. His Harold and Manfred had the same burden on them which I had; and I was not in a frame of mind to desire any comfort from the vehement sensual passion of his Giaours, or the sullenness of his Laras. But while Byron was exactly what did not suit my condition, Wordsworth was exactly what did. I had looked into the Excursion two or three years before, and found little in it; and I should probably have found as little, had I read it at this time. But the miscellaneous poems, in the two-volume edition of 1815 (to which little of value was added in the latter part of the author's life), proved to be the precise thing for my mental wants at that particular juncture. In the first place, these poems addressed themselves powerfully to one of the strongest of my pleasurable susceptibilities, the love of rural objects and natural scenery; to which I had been indebted not only for much of the pleasure of my life, but quite recently for relief from one of my longest relapses into depression. In this power of rural beauty over me, there was a foundation laid for taking pleasure in Wordsworth's poetry; the more so, as his scenery lies mostly among mountains, which, owing to my early Pyrenean excursion, were my ideal of natural beauty. But Wordsworth would never have had any great effect on me, if he had merely placed before me beautiful pictures of natural scenery. Scott does this still better than Wordsworth, and a very second-rate landscape does it more effectually than any poet. What made Wordsworth's poems a medicine for my state of mind, was that they expressed, not mere outward beauty, but states of feeling, and of thought coloured by feeling, under the excitement of beauty. They seemed to be the very culture of the feelings which I was in quest of. In them I seemed to draw from a source of inward joy, of sympathetic and imaginative pleasures, which could be shared in by all human beings; which had no connection with struggle or imperfection, but would be made richer by every improvement in the physical or social condition of mankind. From them I seemed to learn what would be the perennial sources of happiness, when all the greater evils of life shall have been removed. And I felt myself at once better and happier as I came under their influence. There have certainly been, even in our own age, greater poets than Wordsworth; but poetry of deeper and loftier feeling could not have done for me at that time what his did. I needed to be made to feel that there was real, permanent happiness in tranquil contemplation. Wordsworth taught me this, not only without turning away from, but with a greatly increased interest in the common feelings and common destiny of human beings. And the delight which these poems gave me, proved that with culture of this sort, there was nothing to dread from the most confirmed habit of analysis. At the conclusion of the Poems came the famous Ode, falsely called Platonic, "Intimations of Immortality:" in which, along with more than his usual sweetness of melody and rhythm, and along with the two passages of grand imagery but bad philosophy so often quoted, I found that he too had had similar experience to mine; that he also had felt that the first freshness of youthful enjoyment of life was not lasting; but that he had sought for compensation, and found it, in the way in which he was now teaching me to find it. The result was that I gradually, but completely, emerged from my habitual depression, and was never again subject to it. I long continued to value Wordsworth less according to his intrinsic merits, than by the measure of what he had done for me. Compared with the greatest poets, he may be said to be the poet of unpoetical natures, possessed of quiet and contemplative tastes. But unpoetical natures are precisely those which require poetic cultivation. This cultivation Wordsworth is much more fitted to give, than poets who are intrinsically far more poets than he. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 3: From Chapter V of the Autobiography, 1874.] OLD CHINA[4] CHARLES LAMB I have an almost feminine partiality for old china. When I go to see any great house, I inquire for the china-closet, and next for the picture-gallery. I cannot defend the order of preference, but by saying that we have all some taste or other, of too ancient a date to admit of our remembering distinctly that it was an acquired one. I can call to mind the first play, and the first exhibition, that I was taken to; but I am not conscious of a time when china jars and saucers were introduced into my imagination. I had no repugnance then--why should I now have?--to those little, lawless, azure-tinctured grotesques, that, under the notion of men and women, float about, uncircumscribed by any element in that world before perspective--a china tea-cup. I like to see my old friends, whom distance cannot diminish, figuring up in the air (so they appear to our optics), yet on _terra firma_ still--for so we must in courtesy interpret that speck of deeper blue, which the decorous artist, to prevent absurdity, had made to spring up beneath their sandals. I love the men with women's faces, and women, if possible, with still more womanish expressions. Here is a young and courtly Mandarin, handing tea to a lady from a salver--two miles off. See how distance seems to set off respect! And here the same lady, or another--for likeness is identity on tea-cups--is stepping into a little fairy boat, moored on the hither side of this calm garden river, with a dainty mincing foot, which in a right angle of incidence (as angles go in our world) must infallibly land her in the midst of a flowery mead--a furlong off on the other side of the same strange stream! Further on--if far or near can be predicated of their world--see horses, trees, pagodas, dancing the hays.[5] Here--a cow and rabbit couchant, and coextensive--so objects show, seen through the lucid atmosphere of fine Cathay. I was pointing out to my cousin last evening, over our Hyson (which we are old-fashioned enough to drink unmixed still of an afternoon), some of these _speciosa miracula_[6] upon a set of extraordinary old blue china (a recent purchase) which we were now for the first time using; and could not help remarking, how favourable circumstances had been to us of late years, that we could afford to please the eye sometimes with trifles of this sort--when a passing sentiment seemed to overshade the brows of my companion. I am quick at detecting these summer clouds in Bridget. "I wish the good old times would come again," she said, "when we were not quite so rich. I do not mean that I want to be poor; but there was a middle state,"--so she was pleased to ramble on,--"in which I am sure we were a great deal happier. A purchase is but a purchase, now that you have money enough and to spare. Formerly it used to be a triumph. When we coveted a cheap luxury (and, oh! how much ado I had to get you to consent in those times!) we were used to have a debate two or three days before, and to weigh the _for_ and _against_, and think what we might spare it out of, and what saving we could hit upon, that should be an equivalent. A thing was worth buying then, when we felt the money that we paid for it. "Do you remember the brown suit, which you made to hang upon you, till your friends cried shame upon you, it grew so threadbare--and all because of that folio _Beaumont and Fletcher_, which you dragged home late at night from Barker's in Covent-garden? Do you remember how we eyed it for weeks before we could make up our minds to the purchase, and had not come to a determination till it was near ten o'clock of the Saturday night, when you set off from Islington, fearing you should be too late--and when the old bookseller with some grumbling opened his shop, and by the twinkling taper (for he was setting bed-ward) lighted out the relic from his dusty treasures--and when you lugged it home, wishing it were twice as cumbersome--and when you presented it to me--and when we were exploring the perfectness of it (_collating_ you called it)--and while I was repairing some of the loose leaves with paste, which your impatience would not suffer to be left till daybreak--was there no pleasure in being a poor man? or can those neat black clothes which you wear now, and are so careful to keep brushed, since we have become rich and finical, give you half the honest vanity with which you flaunted it about in that overworn suit--your old corbeau--for four or five weeks longer than you should have done, to pacify your conscience for the mighty sum of fifteen--or sixteen shillings was it?--a great affair we thought it then--which you had lavished on the old folio. Now you can afford to buy any book that pleases you, but I do not see that you ever bring me home any nice old purchases now. "When you came home with twenty apologies for laying out a less number of shillings upon that print after Lionardo which we christened the 'Lady Blanch'; when you looked at the purchase, and thought of the money--and thought of the money, and looked again at the picture--was there no pleasure in being a poor man? Now, you have nothing to do but to walk into Colnaghi's, and buy a wilderness of Lionardos. Yet do you? "Then, do you remember our pleasant walks to Enfield, and Potter's bar, and Waltham, when we had a holiday--holidays and all other fun are gone now we are rich--and the little handbasket in which I used to deposit our day's fare of savory cold lamb and salad--and how you would pry about at noon-tide for some decent house, where we might go in and produce our store--only paying for the ale that you must call for--and speculate upon the looks of the landlady, and whether she was likely to allow us a tablecloth--and wish for such another honest hostess as Izaak Walton has described many a one on the pleasant banks of the Lea, when he went a fishing--and sometimes they would prove obliging enough, and sometimes they would look grudgingly upon us--but we had cheerful looks still for one another, and would eat our plain food savorily, scarcely grudging Piscator[7] his Trout Hall? Now, when we go out a day's pleasuring, which is seldom, moreover, we _ride_ part of the way, and go into a fine inn, and order the best of dinners, never debating the expense, which, after all, never has half the relish of those chance country snaps, when we were at the mercy of uncertain usage, and a precarious welcome. "You are too proud to see a play anywhere now but in the pit. Do you remember where it was we used to sit, when we saw the _Battle of Hexham_, and the _Surrender of Calais_, and Bannister and Mrs. Bland in the _Children in the Wood_--when we squeezed out our shilling apiece to sit three or four times in a season in the one-shilling gallery--where you felt all the time that you ought not to have brought me--and more strongly I felt obligation to you for having brought me--and the pleasure was the better for a little shame--and when the curtain drew up, what cared we for our place in the house, or what mattered it where we were sitting, when our thoughts were with Rosalind in Arden, or with Viola at the Court of Illyria? You used to say that the gallery was the best place of all for enjoying a play socially; that the relish of such exhibitions must be in proportion to the infrequency of going; that the company we met there, not being in general readers of plays, were obliged to attend the more, and did attend, to what was going on on the stage, because a word lost would have been a chasm which it was impossible for them to fill up. With such reflections we consoled our pride then, and I appeal to you whether, as a woman, I met generally with less attention and accommodation than I have done since in more expensive situations in the house? The getting in, indeed, and the crowding up those inconvenient staircases, was bad enough,--but there was still a law of civility to woman recognised to quite as great an extent as we ever found in the other passages--and how a little difficulty overcome heightened the snug seat, and the play, afterward! Now we can only pay our money, and walk in. You cannot see, you say, in the galleries now. I am sure we saw, and heard too, well enough then--but sight, and all, I think, is gone with our poverty. "There was pleasure in eating strawberries, before they became quite common--in the first dish of peas, while they were yet dear--to have them for a nice supper, a treat. What treat can we have now? If we were to treat ourselves now--that is, to have dainties a little above our means, it would be selfish and wicked. It is the very little more that we allow ourselves beyond what the actual poor can get at, that makes what I call a treat--when two people living together, as we have done, now and then indulge themselves in a cheap luxury, which both like; while each apologises, and is willing to take both halves of the blame to his single share. I see no harm in people making much of themselves in that sense of the word. It may give them a hint how to make much of others. But now--what I mean by the word--we never _do_ make much of ourselves. None but the poor can do it. I do not mean the veriest poor of all, but persons as we were, just above poverty. "I know what you were going to say, that it is mighty pleasant at the end of the year to make all meet,--and much ado we used to have every Thirty-first Night of December to account for our exceedings--many a long face did you make over your puzzled accounts, and in contriving to make it out how we had spent so much--or that we had not spent so much--or that it was impossible we should spend so much next year--and still we found our slender capital decreasing--but then, betwixt ways, and projects, and compromises of one sort or another and talk of curtailing this charge, and doing without that for the future--and the hope that youth brings, and laughing spirits (in which you were never poor till now), we pocketed up our loss, and in conclusion, with 'lusty brimmers' (as you used to quote it out of _hearty, cheerful Mr. Cotton_[8], as you called him), we used to welcome in the 'coming guest.' Now we have no reckoning at all at the end of the old year; no flattering promises about the new year doing better for us." Bridget is so sparing of her speech, on most occasions, that when she gets into a rhetorical vein, I am careful how I interrupt it. I could not help, however, smiling at the phantom of wealth which her dear imagination had conjured up out of a clear income of poor ---- hundred pounds a year. "It is true we were happier when we were poorer, but we were also younger, my cousin. I am afraid we must put up with the excess, for if we were to shake the superflux into the sea, we should not much mend ourselves. That we had much to struggle with, as we grew up together, we have reason to be most thankful. It strengthened and knit our compact closer. We could never have been what we have been to each other, if we had always had the sufficiency which you now complain of. The resisting power, those natural dilations of the youthful spirit, which circumstances can not straiten--with us are long since passed away. Competence to age is supplementary youth, a sorry supplement indeed, but I fear the best that is to be had. We must ride where we formerly walked: live better and lie softer--and shall be wise to do so--than we had means to do in those good old days you speak of. Yet could those days return, could you and I once more walk our thirty miles a day, could Bannister and Mrs. Bland again be young, and you and I be young to see them, could the good old one shilling gallery days return--they are dreams, my cousin, now, but could you and I at this moment, instead of this quiet argument, by our well-carpeted fireside, sitting on this luxurious sofa--be once more struggling up those inconvenient staircases, pushed about and squeezed, and elbowed by the poorest rabble of poor gallery scramblers--could I once more hear those anxious shrieks of yours, and the delicious _Thank God, we are safe_, which always followed, when the topmost stair, conquered, let in the first light of the whole cheerful theatre down beneath us--I know not the fathom line that ever touched a descent so deep as I would be willing to bury more wealth in than Croesus had, or the great Jew R---- is supposed to have, to purchase it. And now do just look at that merry little Chinese waiter holding an umbrella, big enough for a bed-tester, over the head of that pretty insipid half-Madonna-ish chit of a lady in that very blue summer-house." FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 4: From "Last Essays of Elia," 1833.] [Footnote 5: The hays: an old English dance.] [Footnote 6: Speciosa miracula: beautiful marvels.] [Footnote 7: Piscator: The Angler--the author's spokesman in Walton's "The Complete Angler."] [Footnote 8: Charles Cotton, a humorist of the seventeenth century.] WHAT IS EDUCATION?[9] THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY What is education? Above all things, what is our ideal of a thoroughly liberal education?--of that education which, if we could begin life again, we would give ourselves--of that education which, if we could mould the fates to our own will, we would give our children? Well, I know not what may be your conceptions upon this matter, but I will tell you mine, and I hope I shall find that our views are not very discrepant. Suppose it were perfectly certain that the life and fortune of every one of us would, one day or other, depend upon his winning or losing a game of chess. Don't you think that we should all consider it to be a primary duty to learn at least the names and the moves of the pieces; to have a notion of a gambit, and a keen eye for all the means of giving and getting out of check? Do you not think that we should look with a disapprobation amounting to scorn, upon the father who allowed his son, or the state which allowed its members, to grow up without knowing a pawn from a knight? Yet it is a very plain and elementary truth, that the life, the fortune, and the happiness of every one of us, and, more or less, of those who are connected with us, do depend upon our knowing something of the rules of a game infinitely more difficult and complicated than chess. It is a game which has been played for untold ages, every man and woman of us being one of the two players in a game of his or her own. The chess-board is the world, the pieces are the phenomena of the universe, the rules of the game are what we call the laws of Nature. The player on the other side is hidden from us. We know that his play is always fair, just and patient. But also we know, to our cost, that he never overlooks a mistake, or makes the smallest allowance for ignorance. To the man who plays well, the highest stakes are paid, with that sort of overflowing generosity with which the strong shows delight in strength. And one who plays ill is checkmated--without haste, but without remorse. My metaphor will remind some of you of the famous picture in which Retzsch has depicted Satan playing at chess with man for his soul. Substitute for the mocking fiend in that picture a calm, strong angel who is playing for love, as we say, and would rather lose than win--and I should accept it as an image of human life. Well, what I mean by Education is learning the rules of this mighty game. In other words, education is the instruction of the intellect in the laws of Nature, under which name I include not merely things and their forces, but men and their ways; and the fashioning of the affections and of the will into an earnest and loving desire to move in harmony with those laws. For me, education means neither more nor less than this. Anything which professes to call itself education must be tried by this standard, and if it fails to stand the test, I will not call it education, whatever may be the force of authority, or of numbers, upon the other side. It is important to remember that, in strictness, there is no such thing as an uneducated man. Take an extreme case. Suppose that an adult man, in the full vigour of his faculties, could be suddenly placed in the world, as Adam is said to have been, and then left to do as he best might. How long would he be left uneducated? Not five minutes. Nature would begin to teach him, through the eye, the ear, the touch, the properties of objects. Pain and pleasure would be at his elbow telling him to do this and avoid that; and by slow degrees the man would receive an education which, if narrow, would be thorough, real, and adequate to his circumstances, though there would be no extras and very few accomplishments. And if to this solitary man entered a second Adam, or, better still, an Eve, a new and greater world, that of social and moral phenomena, would be revealed. Joys and woes, compared with which all others might seem but faint shadows, would spring from the new relations. Happiness and sorrow would take the place of the coarser monitors, pleasure and pain; but conduct would still be shaped by the observation of the natural consequences of actions; or, in other words, by the laws of the nature of man. To every one of us the world was once as fresh and new as to Adam. And then, long before we were susceptible of any other modes of instruction, Nature took us in hand, and every minute of waking life brought its educational influence, shaping our actions into rough accordance with Nature's laws, so that we might not be ended untimely by too gross disobedience. Nor should I speak of this process of education as past for any one, be he as old as he may. For every man the world is as fresh as it was at the first day, and as full of untold novelties for him who has the eyes to see them. And Nature is still continuing her patient education of us in that great university, the universe, of which we are all members--Nature having no Test-Acts. Those who take honours in Nature's university, who learn the laws which govern men and things and obey them, are the really great and successful men in this world. The great mass of mankind are the "Poll,"[10] who pick up just enough to get through without much discredit. Those who won't learn at all are plucked; and then you can't come up again. Nature's pluck means extermination. Thus the question of compulsory education is settled so far as Nature is concerned. Her bill on that question was framed and passed long ago. But, like all compulsory legislation, that of Nature is harsh and wasteful in its operation. Ignorance is visited as sharply as wilful disobedience--incapacity meets with the same punishment as crime. Nature's discipline is not even a word and a blow, and the blow first; but the blow without the word. It is left to you to find out why your ears are boxed. The object of what we commonly call education--that education in which man intervenes and which I shall distinguish as artificial education--is to make good these defects in Nature's methods; to prepare the child to receive Nature's education, neither incapably nor ignorantly, nor with wilful disobedience; and to understand the preliminary symptoms of her pleasure, without waiting for the box on the ear. In short, all artificial education ought to be an anticipation of natural education. And a liberal education is an artificial education which has not only prepared a man to escape the great evils of disobedience to natural laws, but has trained him to appreciate and to seize upon the rewards, which Nature scatters with as free a hand as her penalties. That man, I think, has had a liberal education who has been so trained in youth that his body is the ready servant of his will, and does with ease and pleasure all the work that, as a mechanism, it is capable of; whose intellect is a clear, cold, logic engine, with all its parts of equal strength, and in smooth working order; ready, like a steam engine, to be turned to any kind of work, and spin the gossamers as well as forge the anchors of the mind; whose mind is stored with a knowledge of the great and fundamental truths of Nature and of the laws of her operations; one who, no stunted ascetic, is full of life and fire, but whose passions are trained to come to heel by a vigorous will, the servant of a tender conscience; who has learned to love all beauty, whether of Nature or of art, to hate all vileness, and to respect others as himself. Such an one and no other, I conceive, has had a liberal education; for he is, as completely as a man can be, in harmony with Nature. He will make the best of her, and she of him. They will get on together rarely; she as his ever beneficent mother; he as her mouthpiece, her conscious self, her minister and interpreter. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 9: From "A Liberal Education; and Where to Find It," 1868.] [Footnote 10: Poll (a slang term used at Cambridge University): those who take a degree without honours.] KNOWLEDGE VIEWED IN RELATION TO LEARNING[11] JOHN HENRY NEWMAN It were well if the English, like the Greek language, possessed some definite word to express, simply and generally, intellectual proficiency or perfection, such as "health," as used with reference to the animal frame, and "virtue," with reference to our moral nature. I am not able to find such a term;--talent, ability, genius, belong distinctly to the raw material, which is the subject-matter, not to that excellence which is the result of exercise and training. When we turn, indeed, to the particular kinds of intellectual perfection, words are forthcoming for our purpose, as, for instance, judgment, taste, and skill; yet even these belong, for the most part, to powers or habits bearing upon practice or upon art, and not to any perfect condition of the intellect, considered in itself. Wisdom, again, is certainly a more comprehensive word than any other, but it has a direct relation to conduct, and to human life. Knowledge, indeed, and science express purely intellectual ideas but still not a state or quality of the intellect; for knowledge, in its ordinary sense, is but one of its circumstances, denoting a possession or a habit; and science has been appropriated to the subject-matter of the intellect, instead of belonging in English, as it ought to do, to the intellect itself. The consequence is that, on an occasion like this, many words are necessary, in order, first, to bring out and convey what surely is no difficult idea in itself,--that of the cultivation of the intellect as an end; next, in order to recommend what surely is no unreasonable object; and lastly, to describe and make the mind realise the particular perfection in which that object consists. Every one knows practically what are the constituents of health or of virtue; and every one recognises health and virtue as ends to be pursued; it is otherwise with intellectual excellence, and this must be my excuse, if I seem to anyone to be bestowing a good deal of labour on a preliminary matter. In default of a recognised term, I have called the perfection or virtue of the intellect by the name of philosophy, philosophical knowledge, enlargement of mind, or illumination, terms which are not uncommonly given to it by writers of this day: but, whatever name we bestow on it, it is, I believe, as a matter of history, the business of a university to make this intellectual culture its direct scope, or to employ itself in the education of the intellect,--just as the work of a hospital lies in healing the sick or wounded, of a riding or fencing school, or of a gymnasium, in exercising the limbs, of an almshouse, in aiding and solacing the old, of an orphanage, in protecting innocence, of a penitentiary, in restoring the guilty. I say, a university, taken in its bare idea, and before we view it as an instrument of the church, has this object and this mission; it contemplates neither moral impression nor mechanical production; it professes to exercise the mind neither in art nor in duty; its function is intellectual culture; here it may leave its scholars, and it has done its work when it has done as much as this. It educates the intellect to reason well in all matters, to reach out towards truth, and to grasp it. This, I said in my foregoing discourse, was the object of a university, viewed in itself, and apart from the Catholic Church, or from the state, or from any other power which may use it; and I illustrated this in various ways. I said that the intellect must have an excellence of its own, for there was nothing which had not its specific good; that the word "educate" would not be used of intellectual culture, as it is used, had not the intellect had an end of its own; that, had it not such an end, there would be no meaning in calling certain intellectual exercises "liberal," in contrast with "useful," as is commonly done; that the very notion of a philosophical temper implied it, for it threw us back upon research and system as ends in themselves, distinct from effects and works of any kind; that a philosophical scheme of knowledge, or system of sciences, could not, from the nature of the case, issue in any one definite art or pursuit, as its end; and that, on the other hand, the discovery and contemplation of truth, to which research and systematising led, were surely sufficient ends, though nothing beyond them were added, and that they had ever been accounted sufficient by mankind. Here then I take up the subject; and having determined that the cultivation of the intellect is an end distinct and sufficient in itself, and that, so far as words go, it is an enlargement or illumination. I proceed to inquire what this mental breadth, or power, or light, or philosophy consists in. A hospital heals a broken limb or cures a fever: what does an institution effect, which professes the health, not of the body, not of the soul, but of the intellect? What is this good, which in former times, as well as our own, has been found worth the notice, the appropriation of the Catholic Church? I have then to investigate, in the discourses which follow, those qualities and characteristics of the intellect in which its cultivation issues or rather consists; and, with a view of assisting myself in this undertaking, I shall recur to certain questions which have already been touched upon. These questions are three: viz. the relation of intellectual culture, first, to _mere_ knowledge; secondly, to _professional_ knowledge; and thirdly, to _religious_ knowledge. In other words, are _acquirements_ and _attainments_ the scope of a university education? or _expertness in particular arts_ and _pursuits_? or _moral and religious proficiency_? or something besides these three? These questions I shall examine in succession, with the purpose I have mentioned; and I hope to be excused, if, in this anxious undertaking, I am led to repeat what, either in these discourses or elsewhere, I have already put upon paper. And first, of _mere knowledge_, or learning, and its connection with intellectual illumination or philosophy. I suppose the _prima-facie_[12] view which the public at large would take of a university, considering it as a place of education, is nothing more or less than a place for acquiring a great deal of knowledge on a great many subjects. Memory is one of the first developed of the mental faculties; a boy's business when he goes to school is to learn, that is, to store up things in his memory. For some years his intellect is little more than an instrument for taking in facts, or a receptacle for storing them; he welcomes them as fast as they come to him; he lives on what is without; he has his eyes ever about him; he has a lively susceptibility of impressions; he imbibes information of every kind; and little does he make his own in a true sense of the word, living rather upon his neighbours all around him. He has opinions, religious, political and literary, and, for a boy, is very positive in them and sure about them; but he gets them from his schoolfellows, or his masters, or his parents, as the case may be. Such as he is in his other relations, such also is he in his school exercises; his mind is observant, sharp, ready, retentive; he is almost passive in the acquisition of knowledge. I say this in no disparagement of the idea of a clever boy. Geography, chronology, history, language, natural history, he heaps up the matter of these studies as treasures for a future day. It is the seven years of plenty with him: he gathers in by handfuls, like the Egyptians, without counting; and though, as time goes on, there is exercise for his argumentative powers in the elements of mathematics, and for his taste in the poets and orators, still, while at school, or at least, till quite the last years of his time, he acquires, and little more; and when he is leaving for the university, he is mainly the creature of foreign influences and circumstances, and made up of accidents, homogeneous or not, as the case may be. Moreover, the moral habits, which are a boy's praise, encourage and assist this result; that is, diligence, assiduity, regularity, despatch, persevering application; for these are the direct conditions of acquisition, and naturally lead to it. Acquirements, again, are emphatically producible, and at a moment; they are a something to show, both for master and scholar; an audience, even though ignorant themselves of the subjects of an examination, can comprehend when questions are answered and when they are not. Here again is a reason why mental culture is in the minds of men identified with the acquisition of knowledge. The same notion possesses the public mind, when it passes on from the thought of a school to that of a university: and with the best of reasons so far as this, that there is no true culture without acquirements, and that philosophy presupposes knowledge. It requires a great deal of reading, or a wide range of information, to warrant us in putting forth our opinions on any serious subject; and without such learning the most original mind may be able indeed to dazzle, to amuse, to refute, to perplex, but not to come to any useful result or any trustworthy conclusion. There are indeed persons who profess a different view of the matter, and even act upon it. Every now and then you will find a person of vigorous or fertile mind, who relies upon his own resources, despises all former authors, and gives the world, with the utmost fearlessness, his views upon religion, or history, or any other popular subject. And his works may sell for a while; he may get a name in his day; but this will be all. His readers are sure to find on the long run that his doctrines are mere theories, and not the expression of facts, that they are chaff instead of bread, and then his popularity drops as suddenly as it rose. Knowledge then is the indispensable condition of expansion of mind, and the instrument of attaining to it; this cannot be denied, it is ever to be insisted on; I begin with it as a first principle; however, the very truth of it carries men too far, and confirms to them the notion that it is the whole of the matter. A narrow mind is thought to be that which contains little knowledge; and an enlarged mind, that which holds a great deal; and what seems to put the matter beyond dispute is, the fact of the great number of studies which are pursued in a university, by its very profession. Lectures are given on every kind of subject; examinations are held; prizes awarded. There are moral, metaphysical, physical professors; professors of languages, of history, of mathematics, of experimental science. Lists of questions are published, wonderful for their range and depth, variety and difficulty; treatises are written, which carry upon their very face the evidence of extensive reading or multifarious information; what then is wanting for mental culture to a person of large reading and scientific attainments? what is grasp of mind but acquirement? where shall philosophical repose be found, but in the consciousness and enjoyment of large intellectual possessions? And yet this notion is, I conceive, a mistake, and my present business is to show that it is one, and that the end of a liberal education is not mere knowledge, or knowledge considered in its _matter_; and I shall best attain my object, by actually setting down some cases, which will be generally granted to be instances of the process of enlightenment or enlargement of mind, and others which are not, and thus, by the comparison, you will be able to judge for yourselves, gentlemen, whether knowledge, that is, acquirement, is after all the real principle of the enlargement or whether that principle is not rather something beyond it. For instance, let a person, whose experience has hitherto been confined to the more calm and unpretending scenery of these islands, whether here or in England, go for the first time into parts where physical nature puts on her wilder and more awful forms, whether at home or abroad, as into mountainous districts; or let one, who has ever lived in a quiet village, go for the first time to a great metropolis,--then I suppose he will have a sensation which perhaps he never had before. He has a feeling not in addition or increase of former feelings, but of something different in its nature. He will perhaps be borne forward, and find for a time that he has lost his bearings. He has made a certain progress, and he has a consciousness of mental enlargement; he does not stand where he did, he has a new centre, and a range of thoughts to which he was before a stranger. Again, the view of the heavens which the telescope opens upon us, if allowed to fill and possess the mind, may almost whirl it round and make it dizzy. It brings in a flood of ideas, and is rightly called an intellectual enlargement, whatever is meant by the term. And so again, the sight of beasts of prey and other foreign animals, their strangeness, the originality (if I may use the term) of their forms and gestures and habits, and their variety and independence of each other, throw us out of ourselves into another creation, and as if under another Creator, if I may so express the temptation which may come on the mind. We seem to have new faculties, or a new exercise for our faculties, by this addition to our knowledge; like a prisoner, who, having been accustomed to wear manacles or fetters, suddenly finds his arms and legs free. Hence physical science generally, in all its departments, as bringing before us the exuberant riches and resources, yet the orderly course, of the universe, elevates and excites the student, and at first, I may say, almost takes away his breath, while in time it exercises a tranquillising influence upon him. Again the study of history is said to enlarge and enlighten the mind, and why? because, as I conceive, it gives it a power of judging of passing events and of all events, and a conscious superiority over them, which before it did not possess. And in like manner, what is called seeing the world, entering into active life, going into society, travelling, gaining acquaintance with the various classes of the community, coming into contact with the principles and modes of thought of various parties, interests, and races, their views, aims, habits and manners, their religious creeds and forms of worship,--gaining experience how various yet how alike men are, how low-minded, how bad, how opposed, yet how confident in their opinions; all this exerts a perceptible influence upon the mind, which it is impossible to mistake, be it good or be it bad, and is popularly called its enlargement. And then again, the first time the mind comes across the arguments and speculations of unbelievers, and feels what a novel light they cast upon what he has hitherto accounted sacred; and still more, if it gives in to them and embraces them, and throws off as so much prejudice what it has hitherto held, and, as if waking from a dream, begins to realise to its imagination that there is now no such thing as law and the transgression of law, that sin is a phantom, and punishment a bugbear, that it is free to sin, free to enjoy the world and the flesh; and still further, when it does enjoy them, and reflects that it may think and hold just what it will, that "the world is all before it where to choose," and what system to build up as its own private persuasion; when this torrent of wilful thoughts rushes over and inundates it, who will deny that the fruit of the tree of knowledge, or what the mind takes for knowledge, has made it one of the gods, with a sense of expansion and elevation,--an intoxication in reality, still, so far as the subjective state of the mind goes, an illumination? Hence the fanaticism of individuals or nations, who suddenly cast off their Maker. Their eyes are opened; and, like the judgment-stricken king in the tragedy, they see two suns, and a magic universe, out of which they look back upon their former state of faith and innocence with a sort of contempt and indignation, as if they were then but fools, and the dupes of imposture. On the other hand, religion has its own enlargement, and an enlargement, not of tumult, but of peace. It is often remarked of uneducated persons, who have hitherto thought little of the unseen world, that, on their turning to God, looking into themselves, regulating their hearts, reforming their conduct, and meditating on death and judgment, heaven and hell, they seem to become, in point of intellect, different beings from what they were. Before, they took things as they came, and thought no more of one thing than another. But now every event has a meaning; they have their own estimate of whatever happens to them; they are mindful of times and seasons, and compare the present with the past; and the world, no longer dull, monotonous, unprofitable, and hopeless, is a various and complicated drama, with parts and an object, and an awful moral. Now from these instances, to which many more might be added, it is plain, first, that the communication of knowledge certainly is either a condition or the means of that sense of enlargement or enlightenment, of which at this day we hear so much in certain quarters: this cannot be denied; but next, it is equally plain, that such communication is not the whole of the process. The enlargement consists, not merely in the passive reception into the mind of a number of ideas hitherto unknown to it, but in the mind's energetic and simultaneous action upon and towards and among those new ideas, which are rushing in upon it. It is the action of a formative power, reducing to order and meaning the matter of our acquirements; it is a making the objects of our knowledge subjectively our own, or, to use a familiar word, it is a digestion of what we receive, into the substance of our previous state of thought; and without this no enlargement is said to follow. There is no enlargement, unless there be a comparison of ideas one with another, as they come before the mind, and a systematising of them. We feel our minds to be growing and expanding _then_, when we not only learn, but refer what we learn to what we know already. It is not the mere addition to our knowledge that is the illumination; but the locomotion, the movement onwards, of that mental centre, to which both what we know, and what we are learning, the accumulating mass of our acquirements, gravitates. And therefore a truly great intellect, and recognised to be such by the common opinion of mankind, such as the intellect of Aristotle, or of St. Thomas, or of Newton, or of Goethe (I purposely take instances within and without the Catholic pale, when I would speak of the intellect as such), is one which takes a connected view of old and new, past and present, far and near, and which has an insight into the influence of all these one on another; without which there is no whole and no centre. It possesses the knowledge, not only of things, but also of their mutual and true relations; knowledge, not merely considered as acquirement but as philosophy. Accordingly, when this analytical, distributive, harmonising process is away, the mind experiences no enlargement, and is not reckoned as enlightened or comprehensive, whatever it may add to its knowledge. For instance, a great memory, as I have already said, does not make a philosopher, any more than a dictionary can be called a grammar. There are men who embrace in their minds a vast multitude of ideas, but with little sensibility about their real relations towards each other. These may be antiquarians, annalists, naturalists; they may be learned in the law; they may be versed in statistics; they are most useful in their own place; I should shrink from speaking disrespectfully of them; still, there is nothing in such attainments to guarantee the absence of narrowness of mind. If they are nothing more than well-read men, or men of information, they have not what specially deserves the name of culture of mind, or fulfils the type of liberal education. In like manner, we sometimes fall in with persons who have seen much of the world, and of the men who, in their day, have played a conspicuous part in it, but who generalise, nothing, and have no observation, in the true sense of the word. They abound in information in detail, curious and entertaining, about men and things; and, having lived under the influence of no very clear or settled principles, religious or political, they speak of every one and every thing, only as so many phenomena, which are complete in themselves, and lead to nothing, not discussing them, or teaching any truth, or instructing the hearer, but simply talking. No one would say that these persons, well informed as they are, had attained to any great culture of intellect or to philosophy. The case is the same still more strikingly where the persons in question are beyond dispute men of inferior powers and deficient education. Perhaps they have been much in foreign countries, and they receive, in a passive, otiose, unfruitful way, the various facts which are forced upon them there. Seafaring men, for example, range from one end of the earth to the other; but the multiplicity of external objects, which they have encountered, forms no symmetrical and consistent picture upon their imagination; they see the tapestry of human life, as it were on the wrong side, and it tells no story. They sleep, and they rise up, and they find themselves, now in Europe, now in Asia; they see visions of great cities and wild regions; they are in the marts of commerce, or amid the islands of the South; they gaze on Pompey's Pillar, or on the Andes; and nothing which meets them carries them forward or backward, to any idea beyond itself. Nothing has a drift or relation; nothing has a history or a promise. Every thing stands by itself, and comes and goes in its turn, like the shifting scenes of a show, which leave the spectator where he was. Perhaps you are near such a man on a particular occasion, and expect him to be shocked or perplexed at something which occurs; but one thing is much the same to him as another, or, if he is perplexed, it is as not knowing what to say, whether it is right to admire, or to ridicule or to disapprove, while conscious that some expression of opinion is expected from him; for in fact he has no standard of judgment at all, and no landmarks to guide him to a conclusion. Such is mere acquisition, and, I repeat, no one would dream of calling it philosophy. Instances, such as these, confirm, by the contrast, the conclusion I have already drawn from those which preceded them. That only is true enlargement of mind which is the power of viewing many things at once as one whole, of referring them severally to their true place in the universal system, of understanding their respective values, and determining their mutual dependence. Thus is that form of universal knowledge, of which I have on a former occasion spoken, set up in the individual intellect, and constitutes its perfection. Possessed of this real illumination, the mind never views any part of the extended subject-matter of knowledge without recollecting that it is but a part, or without the associations which spring from this recollection. It makes everything in some sort lead to everything else; it would communicate the image of the whole to every separate portion, till that whole becomes in imagination like a spirit, everywhere pervading and penetrating its component parts, and giving them one definite meaning. Just as our bodily organs, when mentioned, recall their function in the body, as the word "creation" suggests the Creator, and "subjects" a sovereign, so, in the mind of the philosopher as we are abstractedly conceiving of him, the elements of the physical and moral world, sciences, arts, pursuits, ranks, offices, events, opinions, individualities, are all viewed as one with correlative functions, and as gradually by successive combinations converging, one and all, to the true centre. To have even a portion of this illuminative reason and true philosophy is the highest state to which nature can aspire, in the way of intellect; it puts the mind above the influences of chance and necessity, above anxiety, suspense, unsettlement, and superstition, which is the lot of the many. Men, whose minds are possessed with some one object, take exaggerated views of its importance, are feverish in the pursuit of it, make it the measure of things which are utterly foreign to it, and are startled and despond if it happens to fail them. They are ever in alarm or in transport. Those on the other hand who have no object or principle whatever to hold by, lose their way every step they take. They are thrown out, and do not know what to think or say, at every fresh juncture; they have no view of persons, or occurrences, or facts, which come suddenly upon them, and they hang upon the opinion of others for want of internal resources. But the intellect, which has been disciplined to the perfection of its powers, which knows, and thinks while it knows, which has learned to leaven the dense mass of facts and events with the elastic force of reason, such an intellect cannot be partial, cannot be exclusive, cannot be impetuous, cannot be at a loss, cannot but be patient, collected, and majestically calm, because it discerns the end in every beginning, the origin in every end, the law in every interruption, the limit in each delay; because it ever knows where it stands, and how its path lies from one point to another. It is the [Greek: tetragonos][13] of the Peripatetic, and has the _nil admirari_[14] of the Stoic,-- Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas, Atque metus omnes, et inexorabile fatum Subjecit pedibus, strepitumque Acherontis avari.[15] There are men who, when in difficulties, originate at the moment vast ideas or dazzling projects; who, under the influence of excitement, are able to cast a light, almost as if from inspiration, on a subject or course of action which comes before them; who have a sudden presence of mind equal to any emergency, rising with the occasion, and an undaunted magnanimous bearing, and an energy and keenness which is but made intense by opposition. This is genius, this is heroism; it is the exhibition of a natural gift, which no culture can teach, at which no institution can aim: here, on the contrary, we are concerned, not with mere nature, but with training and teaching. That perfection of the intellect, which is the result of education, and its _beau ideal_, to be imparted to individuals in their respective measures, is the clear, calm, accurate vision and comprehension of all things, as far as the finite mind can embrace them, each in its place, and with its own characteristics upon it. It is almost prophetic from its knowledge of history; it is almost heart-searching from its knowledge of human nature; it has almost supernatural charity from its freedom from littleness and prejudice; it has almost the repose of faith, because nothing can startle it; it has almost the beauty and harmony of heavenly contemplation, so intimate is it with the eternal order of things and the music of the spheres. And now, if I may take for granted that the true and adequate end of intellectual training and of a university is not learning or acquirement, but rather, is thought or reason exercised upon knowledge, or what may be called philosophy, I shall be in a position to explain the various mistakes which at the present day beset the subject of university education. I say then, if we would improve the intellect, first of all, we must ascend; we cannot gain real knowledge on a level; we must generalise, we must reduce to method, we must have a grasp of principles, and group and shape our acquisitions by means of them. It matters not whether our field of operation be wide or limited; in every case, to command it, is to mount above it. Who has not felt the irritation of mind and impatience created by a deep, rich country, visited for the first time, with winding lanes, and high hedges, and green steeps, and tangled woods, and every thing smiling indeed, but in a maze? The same feeling comes upon us in a strange city, when we have no map of its streets. Hence you hear of practised travellers, when they first come into a place, mounting some high hill or church tower, by way of reconnoitering its neighbourhood. In like manner, you must be above your knowledge, not under it, or it will oppress you; and the more you have of it, the greater will be the load. The learning of a Salmasius or a Burman, unless you are its master, will be your tyrant. _Imperat aut servit_;[16] if you can wield it with a strong arm, it is a great weapon; otherwise, Vis consili expers Mole ruit suâ.[17] You will be overwhelmed, like Tarpeia, by the heavy wealth which you have exacted from tributary generations. Instances abound; there are authors who are as pointless as they are inexhaustible in their literary resources. They measure knowledge by bulk, as it lies in the rude block, without symmetry, without design. How many commentators are there on the classics, how many on Holy Scripture, from whom we rise up, wondering at the learning which has passed before us, and wondering why it passed! How many writers are there of Ecclesiastical history, such as Mosheim or Du Pin, who, breaking up their subject into details, destroy its life, and defraud us of the whole by their anxiety about the parts! The sermons, again, of the English divines in the seventeenth century, how often are they mere repertories of miscellaneous and officious learning! Of course Catholics also may read without thinking; and in their case, equally as with Protestants, it holds good, that such knowledge is unworthy of the name, knowledge which they have not thought through, and thought out. Such readers are only possessed by their knowledge, not possessed of it; nay, in matter of fact they are often even carried away by it, without any volition of their own. Recollect, the memory can tyrannise, as well as the imagination. Derangement, I believe, has been considered as a loss of control over the sequence of ideas. The mind, once set in motion, is henceforth deprived of the power of initiation, and becomes the victim of a train of associations, one thought suggesting another, in the way of cause and effect, as if by a mechanical process, or some physical necessity. No one, who has had experience of men of studious habits, but must recognise the existence of a parallel phenomenon in the case of those who have over-stimulated the memory. In such persons reason acts almost as feebly and as impotently as in the madman; once fairly started on any subject whatever, they have no power of self-control; they passively endure the succession of impulses which are evolved out of the original exciting cause; they are passed on from one idea to another and go steadily forward, plodding along one line of thought in spite of the amplest concessions of the hearer, or wandering from it in endless digression in spite of his remonstrances. Now, if, as is very certain, no one would envy the madman the glow and originality of his conceptions, why must we extol the cultivation of that intellect which is the prey, not indeed of barren fancies but of barren facts, of random intrusions from without, though not of morbid imaginations from within? And in thus speaking, I am not denying that a strong and ready memory is in itself a real treasure; I am not disparaging a well-stored mind, though it be nothing besides, provided it be sober, any more than I would despise a bookseller's shop:--it is of great value to others, even when not so to the owner. Nor am I banishing, far from it, the possessors of deep and multifarious learning from my ideal University; they adorn it in the eyes of men; I do but say that they constitute no type of the results at which it aims; that it is no great gain to the intellect to have enlarged the memory at the expense of faculties which are indisputably higher. Nor indeed am I supposing that there is any great danger, at least in this day, of over-education; the danger is on the other side. I will tell you, gentlemen, what has been the practical error of the last twenty years,--not to load the memory of the student with a mass of undigested knowledge, but to force upon him so much that he has rejected all. It has been the error of distracting and enfeebling the mind by an unmeaning profusion of subjects; of implying that a smattering in a dozen branches of study is not shallowness, which it really is, but enlargement, which it is not; of considering an acquaintance with the learned names of things and persons and the possession of clever duodecimos, and attendance on eloquent lecturers, and membership with scientific institutions, and the sight of the experiments of a platform and the specimens of a museum, that all this was not dissipation of mind, but progress. All things now are to be learned at once, not first one thing, then another, not one well, but many badly. Learning is to be without exertion, without attention, without toil; without grounding, without advance, without finishing. There is to be nothing individual in it; and this, forsooth, is the wonder of the age. What the steam engine does with matter, the printing press is to do with the mind; it is to act mechanically, and the population is to be passively, almost unconsciously enlightened, by the mere multiplication and dissemination of volumes. Whether it be the school boy, or the school girl, or the youth at college, or the mechanic in the town, or the politician in the senate, all have been the victims in one way or other of this most preposterous and pernicious of delusions. Wise men have lifted up their voices in vain; and at length, lest their own institutions should be outshone and should disappear in the folly of the hour, they have been obliged, as far as they could with a good conscience, to humour a spirit which they could not withstand, and make temporising concessions at which they could not but inwardly smile. It must not be supposed that, because I so speak, therefore I have some sort of fear of the education of the people: on the contrary, the more education they have, the better, so that it is really education. Nor am I an enemy to the cheap publication of scientific and literary works, which is now in vogue: on the contrary, I consider it a great advantage, convenience, and gain; that is, to those to whom education has given a capacity for using them. Further, I consider such innocent recreations as science and literature are able to furnish will be a very fit occupation of the thoughts and the leisure of young persons, and may be made the means of keeping them from bad employments and bad companions. Moreover, as to that superficial acquaintance with chemistry, and geology, and astronomy, and political economy, and modern history, and biography, and other branches of knowledge, which periodical literature and occasional lectures and scientific institutions diffuse through the community, I think it a graceful accomplishment, and a suitable, nay, in this day a necessary accomplishment, in the case of educated men. Nor, lastly, am I disparaging or discouraging the thorough acquisition of any one of these studies, or denying that, as far as it goes, such thorough acquisition is a real education of the mind. All I say is, call things by their right names, and do not confuse together ideas which are essentially different. A thorough knowledge of one science and a superficial acquaintance with many, are not the same thing; a smattering of a hundred things or a memory for detail, is not a philosophical or comprehensive view. Recreations are not education; accomplishments are not education. Do not say, the people must be educated, when, after all, you only mean amused, refreshed, soothed, put into good spirits and good humour, or kept from vicious excesses. I do not say that such amusements, such occupations of mind, are not a great gain; but they are not education. You may as well call drawing and fencing education as a general knowledge of botany or conchology. Stuffing birds or playing stringed instruments is an elegant pastime, and a resource to the idle, but it is not education; it does not form or cultivate the intellect. Education is a high word; it is the preparation for knowledge, and it is the imparting of knowledge in proportion to that preparation. We require intellectual eyes to know withal, as bodily eyes for sight. We need both objects and organs intellectual; we cannot gain them without setting about it; we cannot gain them in our sleep, or by haphazard. The best telescope does not dispense with eyes; the printing press or the lecture room will assist us greatly, but we must be true to ourselves, we must be parties in the work. A university is, according to the usual designation, an alma mater, knowing her children one by one, not a foundry, or a mint, or a treadmill. I protest to you, gentlemen, that if I had to choose between a so-called university, which dispensed with residence and tutorial superintendence, and gave its degrees to any person who passed an examination in a wide range of subjects, and a university which had no professors or examinations at all, but merely brought a number of young men together for three or four years, and then sent them away as the University of Oxford is said to have done some sixty years since, if I were asked which of these two methods was the better discipline of the intellect,--mind, I do not say which is morally the better, for it is plain that compulsory study must be a good and idleness an intolerable mischief,--but if I must determine which of the two courses was the more successful in training, moulding, enlarging the mind, which sent out men the more fitted for their secular duties, which produced better public men, men of the world, men whose names would descend to posterity, I have no hesitation in giving the preference to that university which did nothing, over that which exacted of its members an acquaintance with every science under the sun. And, paradox as this may seem, still if results be the test of systems, the influence of the public schools and colleges of England, in the course of the last century, at least will bear out one side of the contrast as I have drawn it. What would come, on the other hand, of the ideal systems of education which have fascinated the imagination of this age, could they ever take effect, and whether they would not produce a generation frivolous, narrow-minded, and resourceless, intellectually considered, is a fair subject for debate; but so far is certain, that the universities and scholastic establishments, to which I refer, and which did little more than bring together first boys and then youths in large numbers, these institutions, with miserable deformities on the side of morals, with a hollow profession of Christianity, and a heathen code of ethics,--I say, at least they can boast of a succession of heroes and statesmen, of literary men and philosophers, of men conspicuous for great natural virtues, for habits of business, for knowledge of life, for practical judgment, for cultivated tastes, for accomplishments, who have made England what it is,--able to subdue the earth, able to domineer over Catholics. How is this to be explained? I suppose as follows: When a multitude of young men, keen, open-hearted, sympathetic, and observant, as young men are, come together and freely mix with each other, they are sure to learn one from another, even if there be no one to teach them; the conversation of all is a series of lectures to each, and they gain for themselves new ideas and views, fresh matter of thought, and distinct principles for judging and acting, day by day. An infant has to learn the meaning of the information which its senses convey to it, and this seems to be its employment. It fancies all that the eye presents to it to be close to it, till it actually learns the contrary, and thus by practice does it ascertain the relations and uses of those first elements of knowledge which are necessary for its animal existence. A parallel teaching is necessary for our social being, and it is secured by a large school or a college; and this effect may be fairly called in its own department an enlargement of mind. It is seeing the world on a small field with little trouble; for the pupils or students come from very different places, and with widely different notions, and there is much to generalise, much to adjust, much to eliminate, there are inter-relations to be defined, and conventional rules to be established, in the process, by which the whole assemblage is moulded together, and gains one tone and one character. Let it be clearly understood, I repeat it, that I am not taking into account moral or religious considerations; I am but saying that that youthful community will constitute a whole, it will embody a specific idea, it will represent a doctrine, it will administer a code of conduct, and it will furnish principles of thought and action. It will give birth to a living teaching, which in course of time will take the shape of a self-perpetuating tradition, or a _genius loci_,[18] as it is sometimes called; which haunts the home where it has been born, and which imbues and forms more or less, and one by one, every individual who is successively brought under its shadow. Thus it is that, independent of direct instruction on the part of superiors, there is a sort of self-education in the academic institutions of Protestant England; a characteristic tone of thought, a recognised standard of judgment is found in them, which, as developed in the individual who is submitted to it, becomes a twofold source of strength to him, both from the distinct stamp it impresses on his mind, and from the bond of union which it creates between him and others,--effects which are shared by the authorities of the place, for they themselves have been educated in it, and at all times are exposed to the influence of its ethical atmosphere. Here then is a real teaching, whatever be its standards and principles, true or false; and it at least tends towards cultivation of the intellect; it at least recognises that knowledge is something more than a sort of passive reception of scraps and details; it is a something, and it does a something, which never will issue from the most strenuous efforts of a set of teachers with no mutual sympathies and no intercommunion, of a set of examiners with no opinions which they dare profess, and with no common principles, who are teaching or questioning a set of youths who do not know them, and do not know each other, on a large number of subjects, different in kind, and connected by no wide philosophy, three times a week, or three times a year, or once in three years, in chill lecture-rooms or on a pompous anniversary. Nay, self-education in any shape, in the most restricted sense, is preferable to a system of teaching which, professing so much, really does so little for the mind. Shut your college gates against the votary of knowledge, throw him back upon the searchings and the efforts of his own mind; he will gain by being spared an entrance into your babel. Few indeed there are who can dispense with the stimulus and support of instructors, or will do anything at all, if left to themselves. And fewer still (though such great minds are to be found), who will not, from such unassisted attempts, contract a self-reliance and a self-esteem, which are not only moral evils, but serious hindrances to the attainment of truth. And next to none, perhaps, or none, who will not be reminded from time to time of the disadvantage under which they lie, by their imperfect grounding, by the breaks, deficiencies, and irregularities of their knowledge, by the eccentricity of opinion and the confusion of principle which they exhibit. They will be too often ignorant of what every one knows and takes for granted, of that multitude of small truths which fall upon the mind like dust, impalpable and ever accumulating; they may be unable to converse, they may argue perversely, they may pride themselves on their worst paradoxes or their grossest truisms, they may be full of their own mode of viewing things, unwilling to be put out of their way, slow to enter into the minds of others;--but, with these and whatever other liabilities upon their heads, they are likely to have more thought, more mind, more philosophy, more true enlargement, than those earnest but ill-used persons who are forced to load their minds with a score of subjects against an examination, who have too much on their hands to indulge themselves in thinking or investigation, who devour premise and conclusion together with indiscriminate greediness, who hold whole sciences on faith, and commit demonstrations to memory, and who too often, as might be expected, when their period of education is passed, throw up all they have learned in disgust, having gained nothing really by their anxious labours, except perhaps the habit of application. Yet such is the better specimen of the fruit of that ambitious system which has of late years been making way among us: for its result on ordinary minds, and on the common run of students, is less satisfactory still; they leave their place of education simply dissipated and relaxed by the multiplicity of subjects, which they have never really mastered, and so shallow as not even to know their shallowness. How much better, I say, it is for the active and thoughtful intellect, where such is to be found, to eschew the college and the university altogether, than to submit to a drudgery so ignoble, a mockery so contumelious! How much more profitable for the independent mind, after the mere rudiments of education, to range through a library at random, taking down books as they meet him, and pursuing the trains of thought which his mother wit suggests! How much healthier to wander into the fields, and there with the exiled prince to find "tongues in the trees, books in the running brooks!" How much more genuine an education is that of the poor boy in the poem[19]--a poem, whether in conception or execution, one of the most touching in our language--who, not in the wide world, but ranging day by day around his widowed mother's home, "a dextrous gleaner" in a narrow field and with only such slender outfit as the village school and books a few Supplied, contrived from the beach, and the quay, and the fisher's boat, and the inn's fireside, and the tradesman's shop, and the shepherd's walk, and the smuggler's hut, and the mossy moor, and the screaming gulls, and the restless waves, to fashion for himself a philosophy and a poetry of his own! But in a large subject, I am exceeding my necessary limits. Gentlemen, I must conclude abruptly; and postpone any summing up of my argument, should that be necessary, to another day. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 11: Discourse VI in "The Idea of a University," 1852.] [Footnote 12: Prima-facie: based on one's first impression.] [Footnote 13: Four-square.] [Footnote 14: To be moved by nothing.] [Footnote 15: Happy is he who has come to know the sequences of things, and is thus above all fear and the dread march of fate and the roar of greedy Acheron.] [Footnote 16: It rules or it serves.] [Footnote 17: Brute force without intelligence falls by its own weight.] [Footnote 18: Genius loci: spirit of the place.] [Footnote 19: Crabbe's _Tales of the Hall_. This poem, let me say, I read on its first publication, above thirty years ago, with extreme delight, and have never lost my love of it; and on taking it up lately, found I was even more touched by it than heretofore. A work which can please in youth and age, seems to fulfil (in logical language) the _accidental definition_ of a classic. (A further course of twenty years has passed, and I bear the same witness in favour of this poem.)] LITERATURE AND SCIENCE[20] MATTHEW ARNOLD Practical people talk with a smile of Plato and of his absolute ideas; and it is impossible to deny that Plato's ideas do often seem unpractical and impracticable, and especially when one views them in connection with the life of a great workaday world like the United States. The necessary staple of the life of such a world Plato regards with disdain; handicraft and trade and the working professions he regards with disdain; but what becomes of the life of an industrial modern community if you take handicraft and trade and the working professions out of it? The base mechanic arts and handicrafts, says Plato, bring about a natural weakness in the principle of excellence in a man, so that he cannot govern the ignoble growths in him, but nurses them, and cannot understand fostering any other. Those who exercise such arts and trades, as they have their bodies, he says, marred by their vulgar businesses, so they have their souls, too, bowed and broken by them. And if one of these uncomely people has a mind to seek self-culture and philosophy, Plato compares him to a bald little tinker, who has scraped together money, and has got his release from service, and has had a bath, and bought a new coat, and is rigged out like a bridegroom about to marry the daughter of his master who has fallen into poor and helpless estate. Nor do the working professions fare any better than trade at the hands of Plato. He draws for us an inimitable picture of the working lawyer, and of his life of bondage; he shows how this bondage from his youth up has stunted and warped him, and made him small and crooked of soul, encompassing him with difficulties which he is not man enough to rely on justice and truth as means to encounter, but has recourse, for help out of them, to falsehood and wrong. And so, says Plato, this poor creature is bent and broken, and grows up from boy to man without a particle of soundness in him, although exceedingly smart and clever in his own esteem. One cannot refuse to admire the artist who draws these pictures. But we say to ourselves that his ideas show the influence of a primitive and obsolete order of things, when the warrior caste and the priestly caste were alone in honour, and the humble work of the world was done by slaves. We have now changed all that; the modern majority consists in work, as Emerson declares; and in work, we may add, principally of such plain and dusty kind as the work of cultivators of the ground, handicraftsmen, men of trade and business, men of the working professions. Above all is this true in a great industrious community such as that of the United States. Now education, many people go on to say, is still mainly governed by the ideas of men like Plato, who lived when the warrior caste and the priestly or philosophical class were alone in honour, and the really useful part of the community were slaves. It is an education fitted for persons of leisure in such a community. This education passed from Greece and Rome to the feudal communities of Europe, where also the warrior caste and the priestly caste were alone held in honour, and where the really useful and working part of the community, though not nominally slaves as in the pagan world, were practically not much better off than slaves, and not more seriously regarded. And how absurd it is, people end by saying, to inflict this education upon an industrious modern community, where very few indeed are persons of leisure, and the mass to be considered has not leisure, but is bound, for its own great good, and for the great good of the world at large, to plain labour and to industrial pursuits, and the education in question tends necessarily to make men dissatisfied with these pursuits and unfitted for them! That is what is said. So far I must defend Plato, as to plead that his view of education and studies is in the general, as it seems to me, sound enough, and fitted for all sorts and conditions of men, whatever their pursuits may be. "An intelligent man," says Plato, "will prize those studies which result in his soul getting soberness, righteousness, and wisdom, and will less value the others." I cannot consider _that_ a bad description of the aim of education, and of the motives which should govern us in the choice of studies, whether we are preparing ourselves for a hereditary seat in the English House of Lords or for the pork trade in Chicago. Still I admit that Plato's world was not ours, that his scorn of trade and handicraft is fantastic, that he had no conception of a great industrial community such as that of the United States, and that such a community must and will shape its education to suit its own needs. If the usual education handed down to it from the past does not suit it, it will certainly before long drop this and try another. The usual education in the past has been mainly literary. The question is whether the studies which were long supposed to be the best for all of us are practically the best now; whether others are not better. The tyranny of the past, many think, weighs on us injuriously in the predominance given to letters in education. The question is raised whether, to meet the needs of our modern life, the predominance ought not now to pass from letters to science; and naturally the question is nowhere raised with more energy than here in the United States. The design of abasing what is called "mere literary instruction and education," and of exalting what is called "sound, extensive, and practical scientific knowledge," is, in this intensely modern world of the United States, even more perhaps than in Europe, a very popular design, and makes great and rapid progress. I am going to ask whether the present movement for ousting letters from their old predominance in education, and for transferring the predominance in education to the natural sciences; whether this brisk and flourishing movement ought to prevail, and whether it is likely that in the end it really will prevail. An objection may be raised which I will anticipate. My own studies have been almost wholly in letters, and my visits to the field of the natural sciences have been very slight and inadequate, although those sciences have always strongly moved my curiosity. A man of letters, it will perhaps be said, is not competent to discuss the comparative merits of letters and natural science as means of education. To this objection I reply, first of all, that his incompetence if he attempts the discussion but is really incompetent for it, will be abundantly visible; nobody will be taken in; he will have plenty of sharp observers and critics to save mankind from that danger. But the line I am going to follow is, as you will soon discover, so extremely simple, that perhaps it may be followed without failure even by one who for a more ambitious line of discussion would be quite incompetent. Some of you may possibly remember a phrase of mine which has been the object of a good deal of comment; an observation to the effect that in our culture, the aim being _to know ourselves and the world_, we have, as the means to this end, _to know the best which has been thought and said in the world._ A man of science, who is also an excellent writer and the very prince of debaters, Professor Huxley, in a discourse at the opening of Sir Josiah Mason's College at Birmingham, laying hold of this phrase, expanded it by quoting some more words of mine, which are these: "The civilised world is to be regarded as now being, for intellectual and spiritual purposes, one great confederation, bound to a joint action and working to a common result; and whose members have for their proper outfit a knowledge of Greek, Roman, and Eastern antiquity, and of one another. Special local and temporary advantages being put out of account, that modern nation will in the intellectual and spiritual sphere make most progress, which most thoroughly carries out this programme." Now on my phrase, thus enlarged, Professor Huxley remarks that when I speak of the above-mentioned knowledge as enabling us to know ourselves and the world, I assert _literature_ to contain the materials which suffice for thus making us know ourselves and the world. But it is not by any means clear, says he, that after having learned all which ancient and modern literatures have to tell us, we have laid a sufficiently broad and deep foundation for that criticism of life, that knowledge of ourselves and the world, which constitutes culture. On the contrary, Professor Huxley declares that he finds himself "wholly unable to admit that either nations or individuals will really advance, if their outfit draws nothing from the stores of physical science. An army without weapons of precision, and with no particular base of operations, might more hopefully enter upon a campaign on the Rhine, than a man, devoid of a knowledge of what physical science has done in the last century, upon a criticism of life." This shows how needful it is for those who are to discuss any matter together, to have a common understanding as to the sense of the terms they employ,--how needful, and how difficult. What Professor Huxley says, implies just the reproach which is so often brought against the study of _belles lettres_, as they are called: that the study is an elegant one, but slight and ineffectual; a smattering of Greek and Latin and other ornamental things, of little use for any one whose object is to get at truth, and to be a practical man. So, too, M. Renan talks of the "superficial humanism" of a school course which treats us as if we were all going to be poets, writers, preachers, orators, and he opposes this humanism to positive science, or the critical search after truth. And there is always a tendency in those who are remonstrating against the predominance of letters in education, to understand by letters _belles lettres_, and by _belles lettres_ a superficial humanism, the opposite of science or true knowledge. But when we talk of knowing Greek and Roman antiquity, for instance, which is the knowledge people have called the humanities, I for my part mean a knowledge which is something more than a superficial humanism, mainly decorative. "I call all teaching _scientific_," says Wolf, the critic of Homer, "which is systematically laid out and followed up to its original sources. For example: a knowledge of classical antiquity is scientific when the remains of classical antiquity are correctly studied in the original languages." There can be no doubt that Wolf is perfectly right; that all learning is scientific which is systematically laid out and followed up to its original sources, and that a genuine humanism is scientific. When I speak of knowing Greek and Roman antiquity, therefore, as a help to knowing ourselves and the world, I mean more than a knowledge of so much vocabulary, so much grammar, so many portions of authors in the Greek and Latin languages; I mean knowing the Greeks and Romans, and their life and genius, and what they were and did in the world; what we get from them, and what is its value: That, at least, is the ideal; and when we talk of endeavouring to know Greek and Roman antiquity, as a help to knowing ourselves and the world, we mean endeavouring so to know them as to satisfy this ideal, however much we may still fall short of it. The same also as to knowing our own and other modern nations, with the like aim of getting to understand ourselves and the world. To know the best that has been thought and said by the modern nations, is to know, says Professor Huxley, "only what modern _literatures_ have to tell us; it is the criticism of life contained in modern literature." And yet "the distinctive character of our times," he urges, "lies in the vast and constantly increasing part which is played by natural knowledge." And how, therefore, can a man, devoid of knowledge of what physical science has done in the last century, enter hopefully upon a criticism of modern life? Let us, I say, be agreed about the meaning of the terms we are using. I talk of knowing the best which has been thought and uttered in the world; Professor Huxley says this means knowing _literature_. Literature is a large word; it may mean everything written with letters or printed in a book. Euclid's _Elements_ and Newton's _Principia_ are thus literature. All knowledge that reaches us through books is literature. But by literature Professor Huxley means _belles lettres_. He means to make me say, that knowing the best which has been thought and said by the modern nations is knowing their _belles lettres_ and no more. And this is no sufficient equipment, he argues, for a criticism of modern life. But as I do not mean, by knowing ancient Rome, knowing merely more or less of Latin _belles lettres_, and taking no account of Rome's military, and political, and legal, and administrative work in the world; and as, by knowing ancient Greece, I understand knowing her as the giver of Greek art, and the guide to a free and right use of reason and to scientific method, and the founder of our mathematics and physics and astronomy and biology,--I understand knowing her as all this, and not merely knowing certain Greek poems, and histories, and treatises, and speeches,--so as to the knowledge of modern nations also. By knowing modern nations, I mean not merely knowing their _belles lettres_, but knowing also what has been done by such men as Copernicus, Galileo, Newton, Darwin. "Our ancestors learned," says Professor Huxley, "that the earth is the centre of the visible universe, and that man is the cynosure of things terrestrial; and more especially was it inculcated that the course of nature has no fixed order, but that it could be, and constantly was, altered." But for us now, continues Professor Huxley, "the notions of the beginning and the end of the world entertained by our forefathers are no longer credible. It is very certain that the earth is not the chief body in the material universe, and that the world is not subordinated to man's use. It is even more certain that nature is the expression of a definite order, with which nothing interferes." "And yet," he cries, "the purely classical education advocated by the representatives of the humanists in our day gives no inkling of all this!" In due place and time I will just touch upon that vexed question of classical education; but at present the question is as to what is meant by knowing the best which modern nations have thought and said. It is not knowing their _belles lettres_ merely which is meant. To know Italian _belles lettres_ is not to know Italy, and to know English _belles lettres_ is not to know England. Into knowing Italy and England there comes a great deal more, Galileo and Newton amongst it. The reproach of being a superficial humanism, a tincture of _belles lettres_, may attach rightly enough to some other disciplines; but to the particular discipline recommended when I proposed knowing the best that has been thought and said in the world, it does not apply. In that best I certainly include what in modern times has been thought and said by the great observers and knowers of nature. There is, therefore, really no question between Professor Huxley and me as to whether knowing the great results of the modern scientific study of nature is not required as a part of our culture, as well as knowing the products of literature and art. But to follow the processes by which those results are reached, ought, say the friends of physical science, to be made the staple of education for the bulk of mankind. And here there does arise a question between those whom Professor Huxley calls with playful sarcasm "the Levites of culture," and those whom the poor humanist is sometimes apt to regard as its Nebuchadnezzars. The great results of the scientific investigation of nature we are agreed upon knowing, but how much of our study are we bound to give to the processes by which those results are reached? The results have their visible bearing on human life. But all the processes, too, all the items of fact by which those results are reached and established, are interesting. All knowledge is interesting to a wise man, and the knowledge of nature is interesting to all men. It is very interesting to know, that, from the albuminous white of the egg, the chick in the egg gets the materials for its flesh, bones, blood, and feathers; while, from the fatty yolk of the egg, it gets the heat and energy which enable it at length to break its shell and begin the world. It is less interesting, perhaps, but still it is interesting, to know that when a taper burns, the wax is converted into carbonic acid and water. Moreover, it is quite true that the habit of dealing with facts, which is given by the study of nature, is, as the friends of physical science praise it for being, an excellent discipline. The appeal, in the study of nature, is constantly to observation and experiment; not only is it said that the thing is so, but we can be made to see that it is so. Not only does a man tell us that when a taper burns the wax is converted into carbonic acid and water, as a man may tell us, if he likes, that Charon is punting his ferry boat on the river Styx, or that Victor Hugo is a sublime poet, or Mr. Gladstone the most admirable of statesmen; but we are made to see that the conversion into carbonic acid and water does actually happen. This reality of natural knowledge it is, which makes the friends of physical science contrast it, as a knowledge of things, with the humanist's knowledge, which is, they say, a knowledge of words. And hence Professor Huxley is moved to lay it down that, "for the purpose of attaining real culture, an exclusively scientific education is at least as effectual as an exclusively literary education." And a certain President of the Section for Mechanical Science in the British Association is, in Scripture phrase, "very bold," and declares that if a man, in his mental training, "has substituted literature and history for natural science, he has chosen the less useful alternative." But whether we go these lengths or not, we must all admit that in natural science the habit gained of dealing with facts is a most valuable discipline, and that every one should have some experience of it. More than this, however, is demanded by the reformers. It is proposed to make the training in natural science the main part of education, for the great majority of mankind at any rate. And here, I confess, I part company with the friends of physical science, with whom up to this point I have been agreeing. In differing from them, however, I wish to proceed with the utmost caution and diffidence. The smallness of my own acquaintance with the disciplines of natural science is ever before my mind, and I am fearful of doing these disciplines an injustice. The ability and pugnacity of the partisans of natural science make them formidable persons to contradict. The tone of tentative inquiry, which befits a being of dim faculties and bounded knowledge, is the tone I would wish to take and not to depart from. At present it seems to me, that those who are for giving to natural knowledge, as they call it, the chief place in the education of the majority of mankind, leave one important thing out of their account: the constitution of human nature. But I put this forward on the strength of some facts not at all recondite, very far from it; facts capable of being stated in the simplest possible fashion, and to which, if I so state them, the man of science will, I am sure, be willing to allow their due weight. Deny the facts altogether, I think, he hardly can. He can hardly deny, that when we set ourselves to enumerate the powers which go to the building up of human life, and say that they are the power of conduct, the power of intellect and knowledge, the power of beauty, and the power of social life and manners--he can hardly deny that this scheme, though drawn in rough and plain lines enough, and not pretending to scientific exactness, does yet give a fairly true representation of the matter. Human nature is built up by these powers; we have the need for them all. When we have rightly met and adjusted the claims of them all, we shall then be in a fair way for getting soberness and righteousness, with wisdom. This is evident enough, and the friends of physical science would admit it. But perhaps they may not have sufficiently observed another thing: namely, that the several powers just mentioned are not isolated, but there is, in the generality of mankind, a perpetual tendency to relate them one to another in divers ways. With one such way of relating them I am particularly concerned now. Following our instinct for intellect and knowledge, we acquire pieces of knowledge; and presently, in the generality of men, there arises the desire to relate these pieces of knowledge to our sense for conduct, to our sense for beauty,--and there is weariness and dissatisfaction if the desire is balked. Now in this desire lies, I think, the strength of that hold which letters have upon us. All knowledge is, as I said just now, interesting; and even items of knowledge which from the nature of the case cannot well be related, but must stand isolated in our thoughts, have their interest. Even lists of exceptions have their interest. If we are studying Greek accents, it is interesting to know that _pais_ and _pas_, and some other monosyllables of the same form of declension, do not take the circumflex upon the last syllable of the genitive plural, but vary, in this respect, from the common rule. If we are studying physiology, it is interesting to know that the pulmonary artery carries dark blood and the pulmonary vein carries bright blood, departing in this respect from the common rule, for the division of labour between the veins and the arteries. But every one knows how we seek naturally to combine the pieces of our knowledge together, to bring them under general rules, to relate them to principles; and how unsatisfactory and tiresome it would be to go on forever learning lists of exceptions, or accumulating items of fact which must stand isolated. Well, that same need of relating our knowledge, which operates here within the sphere of our knowledge itself, we shall find operating, also, outside that sphere. We experience, as we go on learning and knowing,--the vast majority of us experience,--the need of relating what we have learned and known to the sense which we have in us for conduct, to the sense which we have in us for beauty. A certain Greek prophetess of Mantineia in Arcadia, Diotima by name, once explained to the philosopher Socrates that love, and impulse, and bent of all kinds, is, in fact, nothing else but the desire in men that good should forever be present to them. This desire for good, Diotima assured Socrates, is our fundamental desire, of which fundamental desire every impulse in us is only some one particular form. And therefore this fundamental desire it is, I suppose,--this desire in men that good should be forever present to them,--which acts in us when we feel the impulse for relating our knowledge to our sense for conduct and to our sense for beauty. At any rate, with men in general the instinct exists. Such is human nature. And the instinct, it will be admitted, is innocent, and human nature is preserved by our following the lead of its innocent instincts. Therefore, in seeking to gratify this instinct in question, we are following the instinct of self-preservation in humanity. But, no doubt, some kinds of knowledge cannot be made to directly serve the instinct in question, cannot be directly related to the sense for beauty, to the sense for conduct. These are instrument-knowledges; they lead on to other knowledges, which can. A man who passes his life in instrument-knowledges is a specialist. They may be invaluable as instruments to something beyond, for those who have the gift thus to employ them; and they may be disciplines in themselves wherein it is useful for every one to have some schooling. But it is inconceivable that the generality of men should pass all their mental life with Greek accents or with formal logic. My friend Professor Sylvester, who is one of the first mathematicians in the world, holds transcendental doctrines as to the virtue of mathematics, but those doctrines are not for common men. In the very Senate House and heart of our English Cambridge I once ventured, though not without an apology for my profaneness, to hazard the opinion that for the majority of mankind a little of mathematics, even, goes a long way. Of course this is quite consistent with their being of immense importance as an instrument to something else; but it is the few who have the aptitude for thus using them, not the bulk of mankind. The natural sciences do not, however, stand on the same footing with these instrument-knowledges. Experience shows us that the generality of men will find more interest in learning that, when a taper burns, the wax is converted into carbonic acid and water, or in learning the explanation of the phenomenon of dew, or in learning how the circulation of the blood is carried on, than they find in learning that the genitive plural of _pais_ and _pas_ does not take the circumflex on the termination. And one piece of natural knowledge is added to another, and others are added to that, and at last we come to propositions so interesting as Mr. Darwin's famous proposition that "our ancestor was a hairy quadruped furnished with a tail and pointed ears, probably arboreal in his habits." Or we come to propositions of such reach and magnitude as those which Professor Huxley delivers, when he says that the notions of our forefathers about the beginning and the end of the world were all wrong and that nature is the expression of a definite order with which nothing interferes. Interesting, indeed, these results of science are, important they are, and we should all of us be acquainted with them. But what I now wish you to mark is, that we are still, when they are propounded to us and we receive them, we are still in the sphere of intellect and knowledge. And for the generality of men there will be found, I say, to arise, when they have duly taken in the proposition that their ancestor was "a hairy quadruped furnished with a tail and pointed ears, probably arboreal in his habits," there will be found to arise an invincible desire to relate this proposition to the sense in us for conduct, and to the sense in us for beauty. But this the men of science will not do for us, and will hardly even profess to do. They will give us other pieces of knowledge, other facts, about other animals and their ancestors, or about plants, or about stones, or about stars; and they may finally bring us to those great "general conceptions of the universe, which are forced upon us all," says Professor Huxley, "by the progress of physical science." But still it will be _knowledge_ only which they give us; knowledge not put for us into relation with our sense for conduct, our sense for beauty, and touched with emotion by being so put; not thus put for us, and therefore, to the majority of mankind, after a certain while, unsatisfying, wearying. Not to the born naturalist, I admit. But what do we mean by a born naturalist? We mean a man in whom the zeal for observing nature is so uncommonly strong and eminent, that it marks him off from the bulk of mankind. Such a man will pass his life happily in collecting natural knowledge and reasoning upon it, and will ask for nothing, or hardly anything, more. I have heard it said that the sagacious and admirable naturalist whom we lost not very long ago, Mr. Darwin, once owned to a friend that for his part he did not experience the necessity for two things which most men find so necessary to them,--religion and poetry; science and the domestic affections, he thought, were enough. To a born naturalist, I can well understand that this should seem so. So absorbing is his occupation with nature, so strong his love for his occupation, that he goes on acquiring natural knowledge and reasoning upon it, and has little time or inclination for thinking about getting it related to the desire in man for conduct, the desire in man for beauty. He relates it to them for himself as he goes along, so far as he feels the need; and he draws from the domestic affections all the additional solace necessary. But then Darwins are extremely rare. Another great and admirable master of natural knowledge, Faraday, was a Sandemanian. That is to say, he related his knowledge to his instinct for conduct and to his instinct for beauty, by the aid of that respectable Scottish sectary, Robert Sandeman. And so strong, in general, is the demand of religion and poetry to have their share in a man, to associate themselves with his knowing, and to relieve and rejoice it, that probably, for one man amongst us with the disposition to do as Darwin did in this respect, there are at least fifty with the disposition to do as Faraday. Education lays hold upon us, in fact, by satisfying this demand. Professor Huxley holds up to scorn mediaeval education, with its neglect of the knowledge of nature, its poverty even of literary studies, its formal logic devoted to "showing how and why that which the Church said was true must be true." But the great mediaeval universities were not brought into being, we may be sure, by the zeal for giving a jejune and contemptible education. Kings have been their nursing fathers, and queens have been their nursing mothers, but not for this. The mediaeval universities came into being, because the supposed knowledge, delivered by Scripture and the Church, so deeply engaged men's hearts, by so simply, easily, and powerfully relating itself to their desire for conduct, their desire for beauty. All other knowledge was dominated by this supposed knowledge and was subordinated to it, because of the surpassing strength of the hold which it gained upon the affections of men, by allying itself profoundly with their sense for conduct, their sense for beauty. But now, says Professor Huxley, conceptions of the universe fatal to the notions held by our forefathers have been forced upon us by physical science. Grant to him that they are thus fatal, that the new conceptions must and will soon become current everywhere, and that every one will finally perceive them to be fatal to the beliefs of our forefathers. The need of humane letters, as they are truly called, because they serve the paramount desire in men that good should be forever present to them,--the need of humane letters to establish a relation between the new conceptions, and our instinct for beauty, our instinct for conduct, is only the more visible. The middle age could do without humane letters, as it could do without the study of nature, because its supposed knowledge was made to engage its emotions so powerfully. Grant that the supposed knowledge disappears, its power of being made to engage the emotions will of course disappear along with it,--but the emotions themselves, and their claim to be engaged and satisfied, will remain. Now if we find by experience that humane letters have an undeniable power of engaging the emotions, the importance of humane letters in a man's training becomes not less, but greater, in proportion to the success of modern science in extirpating what it calls "mediaeval thinking." Have humane letters, then, have poetry and eloquence, the power here attributed to them of engaging the emotions, and do they exercise it? And if they have it and exercise it, _how_ do they exercise it, so as to exert an influence upon man's sense for conduct, his sense for beauty? Finally, even if they both can and do exert an influence upon the senses in question, how are they to relate to them the results,--the modern results,--of natural science? All these questions may be asked. First, have poetry and eloquence the power of calling out the emotions? The appeal is to experience. Experience shows that for the vast majority of men, for mankind in general, they have the power. Next, do they exercise it? They do. But then, _how_ do they exercise it so as to affect man's sense for conduct, his sense for beauty? And this is perhaps a case for applying the Preacher's words: "Though a man labor to seek it out, yet he shall not find it; yea, further, though a wise man think to know it, yet shall he not be able to find it."[21] Why should it be one thing, in its effect upon the emotions, to say, "Patience is a virtue," and quite another thing, in its effect upon the emotions, to say with Homer, [Greek: tlaeton gar Moirai thumon thesan anthropoisin--[22]] "for an enduring heart have the destinies appointed to the children of men"? Why should it be one thing, in its effect upon the emotions, to say with philosopher Spinoza, _Felicitas in eo consistit quod homo suum esse conservare potest_--"Man's happiness consists in his being able to preserve his own essence," and quite another thing, in its effect upon the emotions, to say with the Gospel, "What is a man advantaged, if he gain the whole world, and lose himself, forfeit himself?" How does this difference of effect arise? I cannot tell, and I am not much concerned to know; the important thing is that it does arise, and that we can profit by it. But how, finally, are poetry and eloquence to exercise the power of relating the modern results of natural science to man's instinct for conduct, his instinct for beauty? And here again I answer that I do not know _how_ they will exercise it, but that they can and will exercise it I am sure. I do not mean that modern philosophical poets and modern philosophical moralists are to come and relate for us, in express terms, the results of modern scientific research to our instinct for conduct, our instinct for beauty. But I mean that we shall find, as a matter of experience, if we know the best that has been thought and uttered in the world, we shall find that the art and poetry and eloquence of men who lived, perhaps, long ago, who had the most limited natural knowledge, who had the most erroneous conceptions about many important matters, we shall find that this art, and poetry, and eloquence, have in fact not only the power of refreshing and delighting us, they have also the power,--such is the strength and worth, in essentials, of their authors' criticism of life,--they have a fortifying, and elevating, and quickening, and suggestive power, capable of wonderfully helping us to relate the results of modern science to our need for conduct, our need for beauty. Homer's conceptions of the physical universe were, I imagine, grotesque; but really, under the shock of hearing from modern science that "the world is not subordinated to man's use, and that man is not the cynosure of things terrestrial," I could, for my own part, desire no better comfort than Homer's line which I quoted just now, [Greek: tlaeton gar Moirai thumon thesan anthropoisin--] "for an enduring heart have the destinies appointed to the children of men!" And the more that men's minds are cleared, the more that the results of science are frankly accepted, the more that poetry and eloquence come to be received and studied as what in truth they really are,--the criticism of life by gifted men, alive and active with extraordinary power at an unusual number of points;--so much the more will the value of humane letters, and of art also, which is an utterance having a like kind of power with theirs, be felt and acknowledged, and their place in education be secured. Let us therefore, all of us, avoid indeed as much as possible any invidious comparison between the merits of humane letters, as means of education, and the merits of the natural sciences. But when some President of a Section for Mechanical Science insists on making the comparison, and tells us that "he who in his training has substituted literature and history for natural science has chosen the less useful alternative," let us make answer to him that the student of humane letters only, will, at least, know also the great general conceptions brought in by modern physical science; for science, as Professor Huxley says, forces them upon us all. But the student of the natural sciences only, will, by our very hypothesis, know nothing of humane letters; not to mention that in setting himself to be perpetually accumulating natural knowledge, he sets himself to do what only specialists have in general the gift for doing genially. And so he will probably be unsatisfied, or at any rate incomplete, and even more incomplete than the student of humane letters only. I once mentioned in a school report, how a young man in one of our English training colleges having to paraphrase the passage in _Macbeth_ beginning, Canst thou not minister to a mind diseased? turned this line into, "Can you not wait upon the lunatic?" And I remarked what a curious state of things it would be, if every pupil of our national schools knew, let us say, that the moon is two thousand one hundred and sixty miles in diameter, and thought at the same time that a good paraphrase for Canst thou not minister to a mind diseased? was, "Can you not wait upon the lunatic?" If one is driven to choose, I think I would rather have a young person ignorant about the moon's diameter, but aware that "Can you not wait upon the lunatic?" is bad, than a young person whose education had been such as to manage things the other way. Or to go higher than the pupils of our national schools. I have in my mind's eye a member of our British Parliament who comes to travel here in America, who afterwards relates his travels, and who shows a really masterly knowledge of the geology of this great country and of its mining capabilities, but who ends by gravely suggesting that the United States should borrow a prince from our Royal Family, and should make him their king, and should create a House of Lords of great landed proprietors after the pattern of ours; and then America, he thinks, would have her future happily and perfectly secured. Surely, in this case, the President of the Section for Mechanical Science would himself hardly say that our member of Parliament, by concentrating himself upon geology and mineralogy, and so on, and not attending to literature and history, had "chosen the more useful alternative." If then there is to be separation and option between humane letters on the one hand, and the natural sciences on the other, the great majority of mankind, all who have not exceptional and overpowering aptitudes for the study of nature, would do well, I cannot but think, to choose to be educated in humane letters rather than in the natural sciences. Letters will call out their being at more points, will make them live more. I said that before I ended I would just touch on the question of classical education, and I will keep my word. Even if literature is to retain a large place in our education, yet Latin and Greek, say the friends of progress, will certainly have to go. Greek is the grand offender in the eyes of these gentlemen. The attackers of the established course of study think that against Greek, at any rate, they have irresistible arguments. Literature may perhaps be needed in education, they say; but why on earth should it be Greek literature? Why not French or German? Nay, "has not an Englishman models in his own literature of every kind of excellence?" As before, it is not on any weak pleadings of my own that I rely for convincing the gainsayers; it is on the constitution of human nature itself, and on the instinct of self-preservation in humanity. The instinct for beauty is set in human nature, as surely as the instinct for knowledge is set there, or the instinct for conduct. If the instinct for beauty is served by Greek literature and art as it is served by no other literature and art, we may trust to the instinct of self-preservation in humanity for keeping Greek as part of our culture. We may trust to it for even making the study of Greek more prevalent than it is now. Greek will come, I hope, some day to be studied more rationally than at present; but it will be increasingly studied as men increasingly feel the need in them for beauty, and how powerfully Greek art and Greek literature can serve this need. Women will again study Greek, as Lady Jane Grey did; I believe that in that chain of forts, with which the fair host of the Amazons are now engirdling our English universities,--I find that here in America, in colleges like Smith College in Massachusetts, and Vassar College in the State of New York, and in the happy families of the mixed universities out West,--they are studying it already. _Defuit una mihi symmetria prisca_,--"The antique symmetry was the one thing wanting to me," said Leonardo da Vinci; and he was an Italian. I will not presume to speak for the Americans, but I am sure that, in the Englishman, the want of this admirable symmetry of the Greeks is a thousand times more great and crying than in any Italian. The results of the want show themselves most glaringly, perhaps, in our architecture, but they show themselves, also, in all our art. _Fit details strictly combined, in view of a large general result nobly conceived_; that is just the beautiful _symmetria prisca_ of the Greeks, and it is just where we English fail, where all our art fails. Striking ideas we have, and well-executed details we have; but that high symmetry which, with satisfying and delightful effect, combines them, we seldom or never have. The glorious beauty of the Acropolis at Athens did not come from single fine things stuck about on that hill, a statue here, a gateway there;--no, it arose from all things being perfectly combined for a supreme total effect. What must not an Englishman feel about our deficiencies in this respect, as the sense for beauty, whereof this symmetry is an essential element, awakens and strengthens within him! what will not one day be his respect and desire for Greece and its _symmetria prisca_, when the scales drop from his eyes as he walks the London streets, and he sees such a lesson in meanness as the Strand, for instance, in its true deformity! But here we are coming to our friend Mr. Ruskin's province, and I will not intrude upon it, for he is its very sufficient guardian. And so we at last find, it seems, we find flowing in favor of the humanities the natural and necessary stream of things, which seemed against them when we started. The "hairy quadruped furnished with a tail and pointed ears, probably arboreal in his habits," this good fellow carried hidden in his nature, apparently, something destined to develop into a necessity for humane letters. Nay, more: we seem finally to be even led to the further conclusion that our hairy ancestor carried in his nature, also, a necessity for Greek. And therefore, to say the truth, I cannot really think that humane letters are in much actual danger of being thrust out from their leading place in education, in spite of the array of authorities against them at this moment. So long as human nature is what it is, their attractions will remain irresistible. As with Greek, so with letters generally: they will some day come, we may hope, to be studied more rationally, but they will not lose their place. What will happen will rather be that there will be crowded into education other matters besides, far too many; there will be, perhaps, a period of unsettlement and confusion and false tendency; but letters will not in the end lose their leading place. If they lose it for a time, they will get it back again. We shall be brought back to them by our wants and aspirations. And a poor humanist may possess his soul in patience, neither strive nor cry, admit the energy and brilliancy of the partisans of physical science, and their present favor with the public, to be far greater than his own, and still have a happy faith that the nature of things works silently on behalf of the studies which he loves, and that, while we shall all have to acquaint ourselves with the great results reached by modern science, and to give ourselves as much training in its disciplines as we can conveniently carry, yet the majority of men will always require humane letters; and so much the more, as they have the more and the greater results of science to relate to the need in man for conduct, and to the need in him for beauty. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 20: From "Discourses in America," 1885.] [Footnote 21: From Ecclesiastes, viii. 17.] [Footnote 22: From the "Iliad," xxiv. 49.] HOW TO READ[23] FREDERIC HARRISON It is the fashion for those who have any connection with letters to expatiate on the infinite blessings of literature, and the miraculous achievements of the press: to extol, as a gift above price, the taste for study and the love of reading. Far be it from me to gainsay the inestimable value of good books, or to discourage any man from reading the best; but I often think that we forget that other side to this glorious view of literature--the misuse of books, the debilitating waste of brain in aimless, promiscuous, vapid reading, or even, it may be, in the poisonous inhalation of mere literary garbage and bad men's worst thoughts. For what can a book be more than the man who wrote it? The brightest genius seldom puts the best of his own soul into his printed page; and some famous men have certainly put the worst of theirs. Yet are all men desirable companions, much less teachers, able to give us advice, even of those who get reputation and command a hearing? To put out of the question that writing which is positively bad, are we not, amidst the multiplicity of books and of writers, in continual danger of being drawn off by what is stimulating rather than solid, by curiosity after something accidentally notorious, by what has no intelligible thing to recommend it, except that it is new? Now, to stuff our minds with what is simply trivial, simply curious, or that which at best has but a low nutritive power, this is to close our minds to what is solid and enlarging, and spiritually sustaining. Whether our neglect of the great books comes from our not reading at all, or from an incorrigible habit of reading the little books, it ends in just the same thing. And that thing is ignorance of all the greater literature of the world. To neglect all the abiding parts of knowledge for the sake of the evanescent parts is really to know nothing worth knowing. It is in the end the same, whether we do not use our minds for serious study at all, or whether we exhaust them by an impotent voracity for desultory "information"--a thing as fruitful as whistling. Of the two evils I prefer the former. At least, in that case, the mind is healthy and open. It is not gorged and enfeebled by excess in that which cannot nourish, much less enlarge and beautify our nature. But there is much more than this. Even to those who resolutely avoid the idleness of reading what is trivial, a difficulty is presented--a difficulty every day increasing by virtue even of our abundance of books. What are the subjects, what are the class of books we are to read, in what order, with what connection, to what ultimate use or object? Even those who are resolved to read the better books are embarrassed by a field of choice practically boundless. The longest life, the greatest industry, joined to the most powerful memory, would not suffice to make us profit from a hundredth part of the world of books before us. If the great Newton said that he seemed to have been all his life gathering a few shells on the shore, whilst a boundless ocean of truth still lay beyond and unknown to him, how much more to each of us must the sea of literature be a pathless immensity beyond our powers of vision or of reach--an immensity in which industry itself is useless without judgment, method, discipline; where it is of infinite importance what we can learn and remember, and of utterly no importance what we may have once looked at or heard of. Alas! the most of our reading leaves as little mark even in our own education as the foam that gathers round the keel of a passing boat! For myself, I am inclined to think the most useful help to reading is to know what we should not read, what we can keep out from that small cleared spot in the overgrown jungle of "information," the corner which we can call our ordered patch of fruit-bearing knowledge. The incessant accumulation of fresh books must hinder any real knowledge of the old; for the multiplicity of volumes becomes a bar upon our use of any. In literature especially does it hold--that we cannot see the wood for the trees. How shall we choose our books? Which are the best, the eternal, indispensable books? To all to whom reading is something more than a refined idleness these questions recur, bringing with them the sense of bewilderment; and a still, small voice within us is for ever crying out for some guide across the Slough of Despond of an illimitable and ever-swelling literature. How many a man stands beside it, as uncertain of his pathway as the Pilgrim, when he who dreamed the immortal dream heard him "break out with a lamentable cry; saying, what shall I do?" And this, which comes home to all of us at times, presses hardest upon those who have lost the opportunity of systematic education, who have to educate themselves, or who seek to guide the education of their young people. Systematic reading is but little in favour even amongst studious men; in a true sense it is hardly possible for women. A comprehensive course of home study, and a guide to books, fit for the highest education of women, is yet a blank page remaining to be filled. Generations of men of culture have laboured to organise a system of reading and materials appropriate for the methodical education of men in academic lines. Teaching equal in mental calibre to any that is open to men in universities, yet modified for the needs of those who must study at home, remains in the dim pages of that melancholy volume entitled _Libri valde desiderati._[24] I do not aspire to fill one of those blank pages; but I long to speak a word or two, as the Pilgrim did to Neighbour Pliable, upon the glories that await those who will pass through the narrow wicket-gate. On this, if one can find anything useful to say, it may be chiefly from the memory of the waste labour and pitiful stumbling in the dark which fill up so much of the travail that one is fain to call one's own education. We who have wandered in the wastes so long, and lost so much of our lives in our wandering, may at least offer warnings to younger wayfarers, as men who in thorny paths have borne the heat and burden of the day might give a clue to their journey to those who have yet a morning and a noon. As I look back and think of those cataracts of printed stuff which honest compositors set up, meaning, let us trust, no harm, and which at least found them in daily bread,--printed stuff which I and the rest of us, to our infinitely small profit, have consumed with our eyes, not even making an honest living of it, but much impairing our substance,--I could almost reckon the printing press as amongst the scourges of mankind. I am grown a wiser and a sadder man, importunate, like that Ancient Mariner, to tell each blithe wedding guest the tale of his shipwreck on the infinite sea of printers' ink, as one escaped by mercy and grace from the region where there is water, water, everywhere, and not a drop to drink. A man of power, who has got more from books than most of his contemporaries, once said: "Form a habit of reading, do not mind what you read; the reading of better books will come when you have a habit of reading the inferior." We need not accept this _obiter dictum_[25] of Lord Sherbrooke. A habit of reading idly debilitates and corrupts the mind for all wholesome reading; the habit of reading wisely is one of the most difficult habits to acquire, needing strong resolution and infinite pains; and reading for mere reading's sake, instead of for the sake of the good we gain from reading, is one of the worst and commonest and most unwholesome habits we have. And so our inimitable humorist has made delightful fun of the solid books,--which no gentleman's library should be without,--the Humes, Gibbons, Adam Smiths, which, he says, are not books at all, and prefers some "kindhearted play-book," or at times the _Town and County Magazine_. Poor Lamb has not a little to answer for, in the revived relish for garbage unearthed from old theatrical dungheaps. Be it jest or earnest, I have little patience with the Elia-tic philosophy of the frivolous. Why do we still suffer the traditional hypocrisy about the dignity of literature--literature, I mean, in the gross, which includes about equal parts of what is useful and what is useless? Why are books as books, writers as writers, readers as readers, meritorious, apart from any good in them, or anything that we can get from them? Why do we pride ourselves on our powers of absorbing print, as our grandfathers did on their gifts in imbibing port, when we know that there is a mode of absorbing print which makes it impossible that we can ever learn anything good out of books? Our stately Milton said in a passage which is one of the watchwords of the English race, "as good almost kill a Man as kill a good Book." But has he not also said that he would "have a vigilant eye how Bookes demeane themselves, as well as men; and do sharpest justice on them as malefactors"?... Yes! they do kill the good book who deliver up their few and precious hours of reading to the trivial book; they make it dead for them; they do what lies in them to destroy "the precious life-blood of a master-spirit, imbalm'd and treasured up on purpose to a life beyond life;" they "spill that season'd life of man preserv'd and stor'd up in Bookes." For in the wilderness of books most men, certainly all busy men, _must_ strictly choose. If they saturate their minds with the idler books, the "good book," which Milton calls "an immortality rather than a life," is dead to them: it is a book sealed up and buried. It is most right that in the great republic of letters there should be freedom of intercourse and a spirit of equality. Every reader who holds a book in his hand is free of the inmost minds of men past and present; their lives both within and without the pale of their uttered thoughts are unveiled to him; he needs no introduction to the greatest; he stands on no ceremony with them; he may, if he be so minded, scribble "doggrel" on his Shelley, or he may kick Lord Byron, if he please, into a corner. He hears Burke perorate, and Johnson dogmatise, and Scott tell his border tales, and Wordsworth muse on the hillside, without the leave of any man, or the payment of any toll. In the republic of letters there are no privileged orders or places reserved. Every man who has written a book, even the diligent Mr. Whitaker, is in one sense an author; "a book's a book although there's nothing in't;" and every man who can decipher a penny journal is in one sense a reader. And your "general reader," like the grave-digger in Hamlet, is hail-fellow with all the mighty dead; he pats the skull of the jester; batters the cheek of lord, lady, or courtier; and uses "imperious Caesar" to teach boys the Latin declensions. But this noble equality of all writers--of all writers and of all readers--has a perilous side to it. It is apt to make us indiscriminate in the books we read, and somewhat contemptuous of the mighty men of the past. Men who are most observant as to the friends they make, or the conversation they share, are carelessness itself as to the books to whom they entrust themselves, and the printed language with which they saturate their minds. Yet can any friendship or society be more important to us than that of the books which form so large a part of our minds and even of our characters? Do we in real life take any pleasant fellow to our homes and chat with some agreeable rascal by our firesides, we who will take up any pleasant fellow's printed memoirs, we who delight in the agreeable rascal when he is cut up into pages and bound in calf? If any person given to reading were honestly to keep a register of all the printed stuff that he or she consumes in a year--all the idle tales of which the very names and the story are forgotten in a week, the bookmaker's prattle about nothing at so much a sheet, the fugitive trifling about silly things and empty people, the memoirs of the unmemorable, and lives of those who never really lived at all--of what a mountain of rubbish would it be the catalogue: Exercises for the eye and the memory, as mechanical as if we set ourselves to learn the names, ages, and family histories of every one who lives in our own street, the flirtations of their maiden aunts, and the circumstances surrounding the birth of their grandmother's first baby. It is impossible to give any method to our reading till we get nerve enough to reject. The most exclusive and careful amongst us will (in literature) take boon companions out of the street, as easily as an idler in a tavern. "I came across such and such a book that I never heard mentioned," says one, "and found it curious, though entirely worthless." "I strayed on a volume by I know not whom, on a subject for which I never cared." And so on. There are curious and worthless creatures enough in any pot-house all day long; and there is incessant talk in omnibus, train, or street by we know not whom, about we care not what. Yet if a printer and a bookseller can be induced to make this gabble as immortal as print and publication can make it, then it straightway is literature, and in due time it becomes "curious." I have no intention to moralise or to indulge in a homily against the reading of what is deliberately evil. There is not so much need for this now, and I am not discoursing on the whole duty of man. I take that part of our reading which by itself is no doubt harmless, entertaining, and even gently instructive. But of this enormous mass of literature how much deserves to be chosen out, to be preferred to all the great books of the world, to be set apart for those precious hours which are all that the most of us can give to solid reading? The vast proportion of books are books that we shall never be able to read. A serious percentage of books are not worth reading at all. The really vital books for us we also know to be a very trifling portion of the whole. And yet we act as if every book were as good as any other, as if it were merely a question of order which we take up first, as if any book were good enough for us, and as if all were alike honourable, precious, and satisfying. Alas! books cannot be more than the men who write them; and as a fair proportion of the human race now write books, with motives and objects as various as human activity, books, as books, are entitled _à priori_, until their value is proved, to the same attention and respect as houses, steam-engines, pictures, fiddles, bonnets, and other products of human industry. In the shelves of those libraries which are our pride, libraries public or private, circulating or very stationary, are to be found those great books of the world _rari nantes in gurgite vasto_,[26] those books which are truly "the precious life-blood of a master-spirit." But the very familiarity which their mighty fame has bred in us makes us indifferent; we grow weary of what every one is supposed to have read; and we take down something which looks a little eccentric, some worthless book, on the mere ground that we never heard of it before. Thus the difficulties of literature are in their way as great as those of the world, the obstacles to finding the right friends are as great, the peril is as great of being lost in a Babel of voices and an ever-changing mass of beings. Books are not wiser than men, the true books are not easier to find than the true men, the bad books or the vulgar books are not less obtrusive and not less ubiquitous than the bad or vulgar men are everywhere; the art of right reading is as long and difficult to learn as the art of right living. Those who are on good terms with the first author they meet, run as much risk as men who surrender their time to the first passer in the street; for to be open to every book is for the most part to gain as little as possible from any. A man aimlessly wandering about in a crowded city is of all men the most lonely; so he who takes up only the books that he "comes across" is pretty certain to meet but few that are worth knowing. Now this danger is one to which we are specially exposed in this age. Our high-pressure life of emergencies, our whirling industrial organisation or disorganisation have brought us in this (as in most things) their peculiar difficulties and drawbacks. In almost everything vast opportunities and gigantic means of multiplying our products bring with them new perils and troubles which are often at first neglected. Our huge cities, where wealth is piled up and the requirements and appliances of life extended beyond the dreams of our forefathers, seem to breed in themselves new forms of squalor, disease, blights, or risks to life such as we are yet unable to master. So the enormous multiplicity of modern books is not altogether favourable to the knowing of the best. I listen with mixed satisfaction to the paeans that they chant over the works which issue from the press each day: how the books poured forth from Paternoster Row might in a few years be built into a pyramid that would fill the dome of St. Paul's. How in this mountain of literature am I to find the really useful book? How, when I have found it, and found its value, am I to get others to read it? How am I to keep my head clear in the torrent and din of works, all of which distract my attention, most of which promise me something, whilst so few fulfil that promise? The Nile is the source of the Egyptian's bread, and without it he perishes of hunger. But the Nile may be rather too liberal in his flood, and then the Egyptian runs imminent risk of drowning. And thus there never was a time, at least during the last two hundred years, when the difficulties in the way of making an efficient use of books were greater than they are to-day, when the obstacles were more real between readers and the right books to read, when it was practically so troublesome to find out that which it is of vital importance to know; and that not by the dearth, but by the plethora of printed matter. For it comes to nearly the same thing whether we are actually debarred by physical impossibility, from getting the right book into our hand, or whether we are choked off from the right book by the obtrusive crowd of the wrong books; so that it needs a strong character and a resolute system of reading to keep the head cool in the storm of literature around us. We read nowadays in the market-place--I would rather say in some large steam factory of letter-press, where damp sheets of new print whirl round us perpetually--if it be not rather some noisy book-fair where literary showmen tempt us with performing dolls, and the gongs of rival booths are stunning our ears from morn till night. Contrast with this pandemonium of Leipsic and Paternoster Row the sublime picture of our Milton in his early retirement at Horton, when, musing over his coming flight to the epic heaven, practising his pinions, as he tells Diodati, he consumed five years of solitude in reading the ancient writers--"_Et totum rapiunt me, mea vita, libri_."[27] Who now reads the ancient writers? Who systematically reads the great writers, be they ancient or modern, whom the consent of ages has marked out as classics: typical, immortal, peculiar teachers of our race? Alas! the _Paradise Lost_ is lost again to us beneath an inundation of graceful academic verse, sugary stanzas of ladylike prettiness, and ceaseless explanations in more or less readable prose of what John Milton meant or did not mean, or what he saw or did not see, who married his great-aunt, and why Adam or Satan is like that, or unlike the other. We read a perfect library about the _Paradise Lost_, but the _Paradise Lost_ itself we do not read. I am not presumptuous enough to assert that the larger part of modern literature is not worth reading in itself, that the prose is not readable, entertaining, one may say highly instructive. Nor do I pretend that the verses which we read so zealously in place of Milton's are not good verses. On the contrary, I think them sweetly conceived, as musical and as graceful as the verse of any age in our history. A great deal of our modern literature is such that it is exceedingly difficult to resist it, and it is undeniable that it gives us real information. It seems perhaps unreasonable to many to assert that a decent readable book which gives us actual instruction can be otherwise than a useful companion and a solid gain. Possibly many people are ready to cry out upon me as an obscurantist for venturing to doubt a genial confidence in all literature simply as such. But the question, which weighs upon me with such really crushing urgency is this: What are the books that in our little remnant of reading time it is most vital for us to know? For the true use of books is of such sacred value to us that to be simply entertained is to cease to be taught, elevated, inspired by books; merely to gather information of a chance kind is to close the mind to knowledge of the urgent kind. Every book that we take up without a purpose is an opportunity lost of taking up a book with a purpose--every bit of stray information which we cram into our heads without any sense of its importance, is for the most part a bit of the most useful information driven out of our heads and choked off from our minds. It is so certain that information, i.e., the knowledge, the stored thoughts and observations of mankind, is now grown to proportions so utterly incalculable and prodigious, that even the learned whose lives are given to study can but pick up some crumbs that fall from the table of truth. They delve and tend but a plot in that vast and teeming kingdom, whilst those whom active life leaves with but a few cramped hours of study can hardly come to know the very vastness of the field before them, or how infinitesimally small is the corner they can traverse at the best. We know all is not of equal value. We know that books differ in value as much as diamonds differ from the sand on the seashore, as much as our living friend differs from a dead rat. We know that much in the myriad-peopled world of books--very much in all kinds--is trivial, enervating, inane, even noxious. And thus, where we have infinite opportunities of wasting our efforts to no end, of fatiguing our minds without enriching them, of clogging the spirit without satisfying it, there, I cannot but think, the very infinity of opportunities is robbing us of the actual power of using them. And thus I come often, in my less hopeful moods, to watch the remorseless cataract of daily literature which thunders over the remnants of the past, as if it were a fresh impediment to the men of our day in the way of systematic knowledge and consistent powers of thought, as if it were destined one day to overwhelm the great inheritance of mankind in prose and verse. I remember, when I was a very young man at college, that a youth, in no spirit of paradox, but out of plenary conviction, undertook to maintain before a body of serious students, the astounding proposition that the invention of printing had been one of the greatest misfortunes that had ever befallen mankind. He argued that exclusive reliance on printed matter had destroyed the higher method of oral teaching, the dissemination of thought by the spoken word to the attentive ear. He insisted that the formation of a vast literary class looking to the making of books as a means of making money, rather than as a social duty, had multiplied books for the sake of the writers rather than for the sake of the readers; that the reliance on books as a cheap and common resource had done much to weaken the powers of memory; that it destroyed the craving for a general culture of taste, and the need of artistic expression in all the surroundings of life. And he argued, lastly, that the sudden multiplication of all kinds of printed matter had been fatal to the orderly arrangement of thought, and had hindered a system of knowledge and a scheme of education. I am far from sharing this immature view. Of course I hold the invention of printing to have been one of the most momentous facts in the whole history of man. Without it universal social progress, true democratic enlightenment, and the education of the people would have been impossible, or very slow, even if the cultured few, as is likely, could have advanced the knowledge of mankind without it. We place Gutenberg amongst the small list of the unique and special benefactors of mankind, in the sacred choir of those whose work transformed the conditions of life, whose work, once done, could never be repeated. And no doubt the things which our ardent friend regarded as so fatal a disturbance of society were all inevitable and necessary, part of the great revolution of mind through which men grew out of the mediaeval incompleteness to a richer conception of life and of the world. Yet there is a sense in which this boyish anathema against printing may become true to us by our own fault. We may create for ourselves these very evils. For the art of printing has not been a gift wholly unmixed with evils; it must be used wisely if it is to be a boon to man at all; it entails on us heavy responsibilities, resolution to use it with judgment and self-control, and the will to resist its temptations and its perils. Indeed, we may easily so act that we may make it a clog on the progress of the human mind, a real curse and not a boon. The power of flying at will through space would probably extinguish civilisation and society, for it would release us from the wholesome bondage of place and rest. The power of hearing every word that had ever been uttered on this planet would annihilate thought, as the power of knowing all recorded facts by the process of turning a handle would annihilate true science. Our human faculties and our mental forces are not enlarged simply by multiplying our materials of knowledge and our facilities for communication. Telephones, microphones, pantoscopes, steam-presses, and ubiquity-engines in general may, after all, leave the poor human brain panting and throbbing under the strain of its appliances, no bigger and no stronger than the brains of the men who heard Moses speak, and saw Aristotle and Archimedes pondering over a few worn rolls of crabbed manuscript. Until some new Gutenberg or Watt can invent a machine for magnifying the human mind, every fresh apparatus for multiplying its work is a fresh strain on the mind, a new realm for it to order and to rule. And so, I say it most confidently, the first intellectual task of our age is rightly to order and make serviceable the vast realm of printed material which four centuries have swept across our path. To organise our knowledge, to systematise our reading, to save, out of the relentless cataract of ink, the immortal thoughts of the greatest--this is a necessity, unless the productive ingenuity of man is to lead us at last to a measureless and pathless chaos. To know anything that turns up is, in the infinity of knowledge, to know nothing. To read the first book we come across, in the wilderness of books, is to learn nothing. To turn over the pages of ten thousand volumes is to be practically indifferent to all that is good. But this warns me that I am entering on a subject which is far too big and solemn. It is plain that to organise our knowledge, even to systematise our reading, to make a working selection of books for general study, really implies a complete scheme of education. A scheme of education ultimately implies a system of philosophy, a view of man's duty and powers as a moral and social being--a religion. Before a problem so great as this, on which readers have such different ideas and wants, and differ so profoundly on the very premises from which we start, before such a problem as a general theory of education, I prefer to pause. I will keep silence even from good words. I have chosen my own part, and adopted my own teacher. But to ask men to adopt the education of Auguste Comte, is almost to ask them to adopt Positivism itself. Nor will I enlarge on the matter for thought, for foreboding, almost for despair, that is presented to us by the fact of our familiar literary ways and our recognised literary profession. That things infinitely trifling in themselves: men, events, societies, phenomena, in no way otherwise more valuable than the myriad other things which flit around us like the sparrows on the housetop, should be glorified, magnified, and perpetuated, set under a literary microscope and focussed in the blaze of a literary magic-lantern--not for what they are in themselves, but solely to amuse and excite the world by showing how it can be done--all this is to me so amazing, so heart-breaking, that I forbear now to treat it, as I cannot say all that I would. The Choice of Books is really the choice of our education, of a moral and intellectual ideal, of the whole duty of man. But though I shrink from any so high a theme, a few words are needed to indicate my general point of view in the matter. In the first place, when we speak about books, let us avoid the extravagance of expecting too much from books, the pedant's habit of extolling books as synonymous with education. Books are no more education than laws are virtue; and just as profligacy is easy within the strict limits of law, a boundless knowledge of books may be found with a narrow education. A man may be, as the poet saith, "deep vers'd in books, and shallow in himself." We need to know in order that we may feel rightly and act wisely. The thirst after truth itself may be pushed to a degree where indulgence enfeebles our sympathies and unnerves us in action. Of all men perhaps the book-lover needs most to be reminded that man's business here is to know for the sake of living, not to live for the sake of knowing. A healthy mode of reading would follow the lines of a sound education. And the first canon of a sound education is to make it the instrument to perfect the whole nature and character. Its aims are comprehensive, not special; they regard life as a whole, not mental curiosity; they have to give us, not so much materials, as capacities. So that, however moderate and limited the opportunity for education, in its way it should be always more or less symmetrical and balanced, appealing equally in turn to the three grand intellectual elements--imagination, memory, reflection: and so having something to give us in poetry, in history, in science, and in philosophy. And thus our reading will be sadly one-sided, however voluminous it be, if it entirely close to us any of the great types and ideals which the creative instinct of man has produced, if it shut out from us either the ancient world, or other European poetry, as important almost as our own. When our reading, however deep, runs wholly into "pockets," and exhausts itself in the literature of one age, one country, one type, then we may be sure that it is tending to narrow or deform our minds. And the more it leads us into curious byways and nurtures us into indifference for the beaten highways of the world, the sooner we shall end, if we be not specialists and students by profession, in ceasing to treat our books as the companions and solace of our lifetime, and in using them as the instruments of a refined sort of self-indulgence. A wise education, and so judicious reading, should leave no great type of thought, no dominant phase of human nature, wholly a blank. Whether our reading be great or small, so far as it goes, it should be general. If our lives admit of but a short space for reading, all the more reason that, so far as may be, it should remind us of the vast expanse of human thought, and the wonderful variety of human nature. To read, and yet so to read that we see nothing but a corner of literature, the loose fringe, or flats and wastes of letters, and by reading only deepen our natural belief that this island is the hub of the universe, and the nineteenth century the only age worth notice, all this is really to call in the aid of books to thicken and harden our untaught prejudices. Be it imagination, memory, or reflection that we address--that is, in poetry, history, science, or philosophy, our first duty is to aim at knowing something at least of the best, at getting some definite idea of the mighty realm whose outer rim we are permitted to approach. But how are we to know the best; how are we to gain this definite idea of the vast world of letters? There are some who appear to suppose that the "best" are known only to experts in an esoteric way, who may reveal to inquirers what schoolboys and betting-men describe as "tips." There are no "tips" in literature; the "best" authors are never dark horses; we need no "crammers" and "coaches" to thrust us into the presence of the great writers of all time. "Crammers" will only lead us wrong. It is a thing far easier and more common than many imagine, to discover the best. It needs no research, no learning, and is only misguided by recondite information. The world has long ago closed the great assize of letters and judged the first places everywhere. In such a matter the judgment of the world, guided and informed by a long succession of accomplished critics, is almost unerring. When some Zoilus finds blemishes in Homer, and prefers, it may be, the work of some Apollonius of his own discovering, we only laugh. There may be doubts about the third and fourth rank; but the first and the second are hardly open to discussion. The gates which lead to the Elysian fields may slowly wheel back on their adamantine hinges to admit now and then some new and chosen modern. But the company of the masters of those who know, and in especial degree of the great poets, is a roll long closed and complete, and they who are of it hold ever peaceful converse together. Hence we may find it a useful maxim that, if our reading be utterly closed to the great poems of the world, there is something amiss with our reading. If you find Milton, Dante, Calderon, Goethe, so much "Hebrew-Greek" to you; if your Homer and Virgil, your Molière and Scott, rest year after year undisturbed on their shelves beside your school trigonometry and your old college text-books; if you have never opened the _Cid, the Nibelungen, Crusoe_, and _Don Quixote_ since you were a boy, and are wont to leave the Bible and the Imitation for some wet Sunday afternoon--know, friend, that your reading can do you little real good. Your mental digestion is ruined or sadly out of order. No doubt, to thousands of intelligent educated men who call themselves readers, the reading through a Canto of _The Purgatorio_, or a Book of the _Paradise Lost_, is a task as irksome as it would be to decipher an ill-written manuscript in a language that is almost forgotten. But, although we are not to be always reading epics, and are chiefly in the mood for slighter things, to be absolutely unable to read Milton or Dante with enjoyment, is to be in a very bad way. Aristophanes, Theocritus, Boccaccio, Cervantes, Molière are often as light as the driven foam; but they are not light enough for the general reader. Their humour is too bright and lovely for the groundlings. They are, alas! "classics," somewhat apart from our everyday ways; they are not banal enough for us; and so for us they slumber "unknown in a long night," just _because_ they are immortal poets, and are not scribblers of to-day. When will men understand that the reading of great books is a faculty to be acquired, not a natural gift, at least not to those who are spoiled by our current education and habits of life? _Ceci tuera cela_,[28] the last great poet might have said of the first circulating library. An insatiable appetite for new novels makes it as hard to read a masterpiece as it seems to a Parisian boulevardier to live in a quiet country. Until a man can truly enjoy a draft of clear water bubbling from a mountain side, his taste is in an unwholesome state. And so he who finds the Heliconian spring insipid should look to the state of his nerves. Putting aside the iced air of the difficult mountain tops of epic, tragedy, or psalm, there are some simple pieces which may serve as an unerring test of a healthy or a vicious taste for imaginative work. If the _Cid_, the _Vita Nuova_, the _Canterbury Tales_, Shakespeare's _Sonnets_, and _Lycidas_ pall on a man; if he care not for Malory's _Morte d'Arthur_ and the _Red Cross Knight_; if he thinks _Crusoe_ and the _Vicar_ books for the young; if he thrill not with _The Ode to the West Wind_, and _The Ode to a Grecian Urn_; if he have no stomach for _Christabel_ or the lines written on _The Wye above Tintern Abbey_, he should fall on his knees and pray for a cleanlier and quieter spirit. The intellectual system of most of us in these days needs "to purge and to live cleanly." Only by a course of treatment shall we bring our minds to feel at peace with the grand pure works of the world. Something we ought all to know of the masterpieces of antiquity, and of the other nations of Europe. To understand a great national poet, such as Dante, Calderon, Corneille, or Goethe, is to know other types of human civilisation in ways which a library of histories does not sufficiently teach. The great masterpieces of the world are thus, quite apart from the charm and solace they give us, the master instruments of a solid education. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 23: From "The Choice of Books," 1891. Printed here by permission of The Macmillan Company.] [Footnote 24: Books intensely desired.] [Footnote 25: Thing said in passing.] [Footnote 26: Floating scattered on the vast abyss.] [Footnote 27: "And here my books--my life--absorb me whole," Cowper's translation of Milton's Latin Epistle to Diodati.] [Footnote 28: This will destroy that.] ON GOING A JOURNEY[29] WILLIAM HAZLITT One of the pleasantest things in the world is going a journey; but I like to go by myself. I can enjoy society in a room; but out of doors, nature is company enough for me. I am then never less alone than when alone. "The fields his study, nature was his book." I cannot see the wit of walking and talking at the same time. When I am in the country, I wish to vegetate like the country. I am not for criticising hedge-rows and black cattle. I go out of town in order to forget the town and all that is in it. There are those who for this purpose go to watering-places, and carry the metropolis with them. I like more elbow-room, and fewer encumbrances. I like solitude, when I give myself up to it, for the sake of solitude; nor do I ask for ------"a friend in my retreat, Whom I may whisper solitude is sweet." The soul of a journey is liberty, perfect liberty, to think, feel, do just as one pleases. We go a journey chiefly to be free of all impediments and of all inconveniences; to leave ourselves behind, much more to get rid of others. It is because I want a little breathing-space to muse on indifferent matters, where Contemplation "May plume her feathers and let grow her wings, That in the various bustle of resort Were all too ruffled, and sometimes impair'd," that I absent myself from the town for a while, without feeling at a loss the moment I am left by myself. Instead of a friend in a postchaise or in a Tilbury, to exchange good things with, and vary the same stale topics over again, for once let me have a truce with impertinence. Give me the clear blue sky over my head, and the green turf beneath my feet, a winding road before me, and a three hours' march to dinner--and then to thinking! It is hard if I cannot start some game on these lone heaths. I laugh, I run, I leap, I sing for joy. From the point of yonder rolling cloud, I plunge into my past being, and revel there, as the sunburnt Indian plunges headlong into the wave that wafts him to his native shore. Then long-forgotten things, like "sunken wrack and sumless treasuries," burst upon my eager sight, and I begin to feel, think, and be myself again. Instead of an awkward silence, broken by attempts at wit or dull commonplaces, mine is that undisturbed silence of the heart which alone is perfect eloquence. No one likes puns, alliterations, antitheses, arguments, and analysis better than I do; but I sometimes had rather be without them. "Leave, oh, leave me to my repose!" I have just now other business in hand, which would seem idle to you, but is with me "very stuff of the conscience." Is not this wild rose sweet without a comment? Does not this daisy leap to my heart set in its coat of emerald. Yet if I were to explain to you the circumstance that has so endeared it to me, you would only smile. Had I not better then keep it to myself, and let it serve me to brood over, from here to yonder craggy point, and from thence onward to the far-distant horizon? I should be but bad company all that way, and therefore prefer being alone. I have heard it said that you may, when the moody fit comes on, walk or ride on by yourself, and indulge your reveries. But this looks like a breach of manners, a neglect of others, and you are thinking all the time that you ought to rejoin your party. "Out upon such half-faced fellowship," say I. I like to be either entirely to myself, or entirely at the disposal of others; to talk or be silent, to walk or sit still, to be sociable or solitary. I was pleased with an observation of Mr. Cobbett's that "he thought it a bad French custom to drink our wine with our meals, and that an Englishman ought to do only one thing at a time." So I cannot talk and think, or indulge in melancholy musing and lively conversation by fits and starts. "Let me have a companion of my way," says Sterne, "were it but to remark how the shadows lengthen as the sun declines." It is beautifully said: but in my opinion, this continual comparing of notes interferes with the involuntary impression of things upon the mind, and hurts the sentiment. If you only hint what you feel in a kind of dumb show, it is insipid: if you have to explain it, it is making a toil of a pleasure. You cannot read the book of nature, without being perpetually put to the trouble of translating it for the benefit of others. I am for the synthetical method on a journey, in preference to the analytical. I am content to lay in a stock of ideas then, and to examine and anatomise them afterwards. I want to see my vague notions float like the down of the thistle before the breeze, and not to have them entangled in the briars and thorns of controversy. For once, I like to have it all my own way; and this is impossible unless you are alone, or in such company as I do not covet. I have no objection to argue a point with any one for twenty miles of measured road, but not for pleasure. If you remark the scent of a beanfield crossing the road, perhaps your fellow-traveller has no smell. If you point to a distant object, perhaps he is short-sighted, and has to take out his glass to look at it. There is a feeling in the air, a tone in the colour of a cloud which hits your fancy, but the effect of which you are unable to account for. There is then no sympathy, but an uneasy craving after it, and a dissatisfaction which pursues you on the way, and in the end probably produces ill humour. Now I never quarrel with myself, and take all my own conclusions for granted till I find it necessary to defend them against objections. It is not merely that you may not be of accord on the objects and circumstances that present themselves before you--these may recall a number of objects, and lead to associations too delicate and refined to be possibly communicated to others. Yet these I love to cherish, and sometimes still fondly clutch them, when I can escape from the throng to do so. To give way to our feelings before company, seems extravagance or affectation; and on the other hand, to have to unravel this mystery of our being at every turn, and to make others take an equal interest in it (otherwise the end is not answered) is a task to which few are competent. We must "give it an understanding, but no tongue." My old friend C----, however, could do both. He could go on in the most delightful explanatory way over hill and dale, a summer's day, and convert a landscape into a didactic poem or a Pindaric ode. "He talked far above singing." If I could so clothe my ideas in sounding and flowing words, I might perhaps wish to have some one with me to admire the swelling theme; or I could be more content, were it possible for me still to hear his echoing voice in the woods of All-Foxden. They had "that fine madness in them which our first poets had;" and if they could have been caught by some rare instrument, would have breathed such strains as the following. ------"Here be woods as green As any, air likewise as fresh and sweet As when smooth Zephyrus plays on the fleet Face of the curled stream, with flow'rs as many As the young spring gives, and as choice as any; Here be all new delights, cool streams and wells, Arbours o'ergrown with woodbine, caves and dells; Choose where thou wilt, while I sit by and sing, Or gather rushes to make many a ring For thy long fingers; tell thee tales of love, How the pale Phoebe, hunting in a grove, First saw the boy Endymion, from whose eyes She took eternal fire that never dies; How she convey'd him softly in a sleep, His temples bound with poppy, to the steep Head of old Latmos, where she stoops each night, Gilding the mountain with her brother's light, To kiss her sweetest."------ FAITHFUL SHEPHERDESS. Had I words and images at command like these, I would attempt to wake the thoughts that lie slumbering on golden ridges in the evening clouds: but at the sight of nature my fancy, poor as it is, droops and closes up its leaves, like flowers at sunset. I can make nothing out on the spot:--I must have time to collect myself.-- In general, a good thing spoils out-of-door prospects: it should be reserved for Table-talk. L---- is for this reason, I take it, the worst company in the world out of doors; because he is the best within. I grant, there is one subject on which it is pleasant to talk on a journey; and that is, what one shall have for supper when we get to our inn at night. The open air improves this sort of conversation or friendly altercation, by setting a keener edge on appetite. Every mile of the road heightens the flavour of the viands we expect at the end of it. How fine it is to enter some old town, walled and turreted, just at the approach of nightfall, or to come to some straggling village, with the lights streaming through the surrounding gloom; and then after inquiring for the best entertainment that the place affords, to "take one's ease at one's inn!" These eventful moments in our lives' history are too precious, too full of solid, heartfelt happiness to be frittered and dribbled away in imperfect sympathy. I would have them all to myself, and drain them to the last drop: they will do to talk of or to write about afterwards. What a delicate speculation it is, after drinking whole goblets of tea, "The cups that cheer, but not inebriate," and letting the fumes ascend into the brain, to sit considering what we shall have for supper--eggs and a rasher, a rabbit smothered in onions, or an excellent veal-cutlet! Sancho[30] in such a situation once fixed upon cow-heel; and his choice, though he could not help it, is not to be disparaged. Then in the intervals of pictured scenery and Shandean contemplation, to catch the preparation and the stir in the kitchen--_Procul, O procul este profani!_[31] These hours are sacred to silence and to musing, to be treasured up in the memory, and to feed the source of smiling thoughts hereafter. I would not waste them in idle talk; or if I must have the integrity of fancy broken in upon, I would rather it were by a stranger than a friend. A stranger takes his hue and character from the time and place; he is a part of the furniture and costume of an inn. If he is a Quaker, or from the West Riding of Yorkshire, so much the better. I do not even try to sympathise with him, and he breaks no squares. I associate nothing with my travelling companion but present objects and passing events. In his ignorance of me and my affairs, I in a manner forget myself. But a friend reminds one of other things, rips up old grievances, and destroys the abstraction of the scene. He comes in ungraciously between us and our imaginary character. Something is dropped in the course of conversation that gives a hint of your profession and pursuits; or from having some one with you that knows the less sublime portions of your history, it seems that other people do. You are no longer a citizen of the world: but your "unhoused free condition is put into circumscription and confine." The _incognito_ of an inn is one of its striking privileges--"lord of one's self, uncumber'd with a name." Oh! it is great to shake off the trammels of the world and of public opinion--to lose our importunate, tormenting, everlasting personal identity in the elements of nature, and become the creature of the moment, clear of all ties--to hold to the universe only by a dish of sweet-breads, and to owe nothing but the score of the evening--and no longer seeking for applause and meeting with contempt, to be known by no other title than _the Gentleman in the parlour_! One may take one's choice of all characters in this romantic state of uncertainty as to one's real pretensions, and become indefinitely respectable and negatively rightworshipful. We baffle prejudice and disappoint conjecture; and from being so to others, begin to be objects of curiosity and wonder even to ourselves. We are no more those hackneyed commonplaces that we appear in the world: an inn restores us to the level of nature, and quits scores with society! I have certainly spent some enviable hours at inns--sometimes when I have been left entirely to myself, and have tried to solve some metaphysical problem, as once at Witham-common, where I found out the proof that likeness is not a case of the association of ideas--at other times, when there have been pictures in the room, as at St. Neot's (I think it was) where I first met with Gribelin's engravings of the Cartoons, into which I entered at once, and at a little inn on the borders of Wales, where there happened to be hanging some of Westall's drawings, which I compared triumphantly (for a theory that I had, not for the admired artist) with the figure of a girl who had ferried me over the Severn, standing up in the boat between me and the twilight--at other times I might mention luxuriating in books, with a peculiar interest in this way, as I remember sitting up half the night to read Paul and Virginia, which I picked up at an inn at Bridgewater, after being drenched in the rain all day; and at the same place I got through two volumes of Madame D'Arblay's Camilla. It was on the tenth of April, 1798, that I sat down to a volume of the New Eloise, at the inn at Llangollen, over a bottle of sherry and a cold chicken. The letter I chose was that in which St. Preux describes his feelings as he first caught a glimpse from the heights of the Jura of the Pays de Vaud, which I had brought with me as a _bon bouche_[32], to crown the evening with. It was my birthday, and I had for the first time come from a place in the neighbourhood to visit this delightful spot. The road to Llangollen turns off between Chirk and Wrexham; and on passing a certain point, you come all at once upon the valley, which opens like an amphitheatre, broad, barren hills rising in majestic state on either side, with "green upland swells that echo to the bleat of flocks" below, and the river Dee babbling over its stony bed in the midst of them. The valley at this time "glittered green with sunny showers," and a budding ash-tree dipped its tender branches in the chiding stream. How proud, how glad I was to walk along the high road that overlooks the delicious prospect, repeating the lines which I have just quoted from Mr. Coleridge's poems! But besides the prospect which opened beneath my feet, another also opened to my inward sight, a heavenly vision, on which were written, in letters large as Hope could make them, these four words, LIBERTY, GENIUS, LOVE, VIRTUE; which have since faded into the light of common day, or mock my idle gaze. "The beautiful is vanished, and returns not." Still I would return some time or other to this enchanted spot; but I would return to it alone. What other self could I find to share that influx of thoughts, of regret, and delight, the fragments of which I could hardly conjure up to myself, so much have they been broken and defaced! I could stand on some tall rock, and overlook the precipice of years that separates me from what I then was. I was at that time going shortly to visit the poet whom I have above named. Where is he now? Not only I myself have changed; the world, which was then new to me, has become old and incorrigible. Yet will I turn to thee in thought, O sylvan Dee, in joy, in youth and gladness as thou then wert; and thou shalt always be to me the river of Paradise, where I will drink of the waters of life freely! There is hardly any thing that shows the short-sightedness or capriciousness of the imagination more than travelling does. With change of place we change our ideas; nay, our opinions and feelings. We can by an effort indeed transport ourselves to old and long-forgotten scenes, and then the picture of the mind revives again; but we forget those that we have just left. It seems that we can think but of one place at a time. The canvas of the fancy is but of a certain extent, and if we paint one set of objects upon it, they immediately efface every other. We cannot enlarge our conceptions, we only shift our point of view. The landscape bares its bosom to the enraptured eye, we take our fill of it, and seem as if we could form no other image of beauty or grandeur. We pass on, and think no more of it: the horizon that shuts it from our sight, also blots it from our memory like a dream. In travelling through a wild barren country, I can form no idea of a woody and cultivated one. It appears to me that all the world must be barren, like what I see of it. In the country we forget the town, and in town we despise the country. "Beyond Hyde Park," says Sir Fopling Flutter, "all is a desert." All that part of the map that we do not see before us is a blank. The world in our conceit of it is not much bigger than a nutshell. It is not one prospect expanded into another, county joined to county, kingdom to kingdom, lands to seas, making an image voluminous and vast;--the mind can form no larger idea of space than the eye can take in at a single glance. The rest is a name written in a map, a calculation of arithmetic. For instance, what is the true signification of that immense mass of territory and population, known by the name of China, to us? An inch of paste-board on a wooden globe, of no more account than a China orange! Things near us are seen of the size of life: things at a distance are diminished to the size of the understanding. We measure the universe by ourselves, and even comprehend the texture of our own being only piecemeal. In this way, however, we remember an infinity of things and places. The mind is like a mechanical instrument that plays a great variety of tunes, but it must play them in succession. One idea recalls another, but it at the same time excludes all others. In trying to renew old recollections, we cannot as it were unfold the whole web of our existence; we must pick out the single threads. So in coming to a place where we have formerly lived and with which we have intimate associations, every one must have found that the feeling grows more vivid the nearer we approach the spot, from the mere anticipation of the actual impression: we remember circumstances, feelings, persons, faces, names, that we had not thought of for years; but for the time all the rest of the world is forgotten! To return to the question I have quitted above. I have no objection to go to see ruins, aqueducts, pictures, in company with a friend or a party, but rather the contrary, for the former reason reversed. They are intelligible matters, and will bear talking about. The sentiment here is not tacit, but communicable and overt. Salisbury Plain is barren of criticism, but Stonehenge will bear a discussion antiquarian, picturesque, and philosophical. In setting out on a party of pleasure, the first consideration always is where we shall go to; in taking a solitary ramble, the question is what we shall meet with by the way. "The mind is its own place;" nor are we anxious to arrive at the end of our journey. I can myself do the honours indifferently well to works of art and curiosity. I once took a party to Oxford with no mean _éclat_--showed them that seat of the Muses at a distance, "With glistering spires and pinnacles adorn'd"-- descanted on the learned air that breathes from the grassy quadrangles and stone walls of halls and colleges--was at home in the Bodleian; and at Blenheim quite superseded the powdered Ciceroni that attended us, and that pointed, in vain with his wand to commonplace beauties in matchless pictures.--As another exception to the above reasoning, I should not feel confident in venturing on a journey in a foreign country without a companion. I should want at intervals to hear the sound of my own language. There is an involuntary antipathy in the mind of an Englishman to foreign manners and notions that requires the assistance of social sympathy to carry it off. As the distance from home increases, this relief, which was at first a luxury, becomes a passion and an appetite. A person would almost feel stifled to find himself in the deserts of Arabia without friends and countrymen: there must be allowed to be something in the view of Athens or old Rome that claims the utterance of speech; and I own that the Pyramids are too mighty for any single contemplation. In such situations, so opposite to all one's ordinary train of ideas, one seems a species by one's self, a limb torn off from society, unless one can meet with instant fellowship and support.--Yet I did not feel this want or craving very pressing once, when I first set my foot on the laughing shores of France. Calais was peopled with novelty and delight. The confused, busy murmur of the place was like oil and wine poured into my ears; nor did the mariners' hymn, which was sung from the top of an old crazy vessel in the harbour, as the sun went down, send an alien sound into my soul. I only breathed the air of general humanity. I walked over "the vine-covered hills and gay regions of France," erect and satisfied; for the image of man was not cast down and chained to the foot of arbitrary thrones: I was at no loss for language, for that of all the great schools of painting was open to me. The whole is vanished like a shade. Pictures, heroes, glory, freedom, all are fled: nothing remains but the Bourbons and the French people!--There is undoubtedly a sensation in travelling into foreign parts that is to be had nowhere else: but it is more pleasing at the time than lasting. It is too remote from our habitual associations to be a common topic of discourse or reference, and, like a dream or another state of existence, does not piece into our daily modes of life. It is an animated but a momentary hallucination. It demands an effort to exchange our actual for our ideal identity; and to feel the pulse of our old transports revive very keenly, we must "jump" all our present comforts and connections. Our romantic and itinerant character is not to be domesticated. Dr. Johnson remarked how little foreign travel added to the facilities of conversation in those who had been abroad. In fact, the time we have spent there is both delightful and in one sense instructive; but it appears to be cut out of our substantial, downright existence, and never to join kindly on to it. We are not the same, but another, and perhaps more enviable individual, all the time we are out of our own country. We are lost to ourselves, as well as our friends. So the poet somewhat quaintly sings, "Out of my country and myself I go." Those who wish to forget painful thoughts, do well to absent themselves for a while from the ties and objects that recall them: but we can be said only to fulfil our destiny in the place that gave us birth. I should on this account like well enough to spend the whole of my life in travelling abroad, if I could any where borrow another life to spend afterwards at home! FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 29: From "Table-Talk," 1821-2.] [Footnote 30: Sancho Panza, a character in Cervantes' romance, "Don Quixote."] [Footnote 31: Aloof, O keep aloof, ye uninitiated!] [Footnote 32: A titbit.] THE REGRETS OF A MOUNTAINEER[33] LESLIE STEPHEN I have often felt a sympathy, which almost rises to the pathetic, when looking on at a cricket-match or boat-race. Something of the emotion with which Gray regarded the "distant spires and antique towers" rises within me. It is not, indeed, that I feel very deeply for the fine ingenuous lads who, as somebody says, are about to be degraded into tricky, selfish Members of Parliament. I have seen too much of them. They are very fine animals; but they are rather too exclusively animal. The soul is apt to be in too embryonic a state within these cases of well-strung bone and muscle. It is impossible for a mere athletic machine, however finely constructed, to appeal very deeply to one's finer sentiments. I can scarcely look forward with even an affectation of sorrow for the time when, if more sophisticated, it will at least have made a nearer approach to the dignity of an intellectual being. It is not the boys who make me feel a touch of sadness; their approaching elevation to the dignity of manhood will raise them on the whole in the scale of humanity; it is the older spectators whose aspect has in it something affecting. The shaky old gentleman, who played in the days when it was decidedly less dangerous to stand up to bowling than to a cannon-ball, and who now hobbles about on rheumatic joints, by the help of a stick; the corpulent elder, who rowed when boats had gangways down their middle, and did not require as delicate a balance as an acrobat's at the top of a living pyramid--these are the persons whom I cannot see without an occasional sigh. They are really conscious that they have lost something which they can never regain; or, if they momentarily forget it, it is even more forcibly impressed upon the spectators. To see a respectable old gentleman of sixty, weighing some fifteen stone, suddenly forget a third of his weight and two-thirds of his years, and attempt to caper like a boy, is indeed a startling phenomenon. To the thoughtless, it may be simply comic; but, without being a Jaques, one may contrive also to suck some melancholy out of it. Now, as I have never caught a cricket-ball, and, on the contrary, have caught numerous crabs in my life, the sympathy which I feel for these declining athletes is not due to any great personal interest in the matter. But I have long anticipated that a similar day would come for me, when I should no longer be able to pursue my favourite sport of mountaineering. Some day I should find that the ascent of a zigzag was as bad as a performance on the treadmill; that I could not look over a precipice without a swimming in the head; and that I could no more jump a crevasse than the Thames at Westminster. None of these things have come to pass. So far as I know, my physical powers are still equal to the ascent of Mont Blanc or the Jungfrau. But I am no less effectually debarred--it matters not how--from mountaineering. I wander at the foot of the gigantic Alps, and look up longingly to the summits, which are apparently so near, and yet know that they are divided from me by an impassable gulf. In some missionary work I have read that certain South Sea Islanders believed in a future paradise where the good should go on eating for ever with insatiable appetites at an inexhaustible banquet. They were to continue their eternal dinner in a house with open wickerwork sides; and it was to be the punishment of the damned to crawl outside in perpetual hunger and look in through the chinks as little boys look in through the windows of a London cookshop. With similar feelings I lately watched through a telescope the small black dots, which were really men, creeping up the high flanks of Mont Blanc or Monte Rosa. The eternal snows represented for me the Elysian fields, into which entrance was sternly forbidden, and I lingered about the spot with a mixture of pleasure and pain, in the envious contemplation of my more fortunate companions. I know there are those who will receive these assertions with civil incredulity. Some persons assume that every pleasure with which they cannot sympathise is necessarily affectation, and hold, as a particular case of that doctrine, that Alpine travellers risk their lives merely from fashion or desire of notoriety. Others are kind enough to admit that there is something genuine in the passion, but put it on a level with the passion for climbing greased poles. They think it derogatory to the due dignity of Mont Blanc that he should be used as a greased pole, and assure us that the true pleasures of the Alps are those which are within reach of the old and the invalids, who can only creep about villages and along high-roads. I cannot well argue with such detractors from what I consider a noble sport. As for the first class, it is reduced almost to a question of veracity. I say that I enjoy being on the top of a mountain, or, indeed, halfway up a mountain; that climbing is a pleasure to me, and would be so if no one else climbed and no one ever heard of my climbing. They reply that they don't believe it. No more argument is possible than if I were to say that I liked eating olives, and some one asserted that I really eat them only out of affectation. My reply would be simply to go on eating olives; and I hope the reply of mountaineers will be to go on climbing Alps. The other assault is more intelligible. Our critics admit that we have a pleasure; but assert that it is a puerile pleasure--that it leads to an irreverent view of mountain beauty, and to oversight of that which should really most impress a refined and noble mind. To this I shall only make such an indirect reply as may result from a frank confession of my own regrets at giving up the climbing business--perhaps for ever. I am sinking, so to speak, from the butterfly to the caterpillar stage, and, if the creeping thing is really the highest of the two, it will appear that there is something in the substance of my lamentations unworthy of an intellectual being. Let me try. By way of preface, however, I admit that mountaineering, in my sense of the word, is a sport. It is a sport which, like fishing or shooting, brings one into contact with the sublimest aspects of nature; and, without setting their enjoyment before one as an ultimate end or aim, helps one indirectly to absorb and be penetrated by their influence. Still it is strictly a sport--as strictly as cricket, or rowing, or knurr and spell--and I have no wish to place it on a different footing. The game is won when a mountain-top is reached in spite of difficulties; it is lost when one is forced to retreat; and, whether won or lost, it calls into play a great variety of physical and intellectual energies, and gives the pleasure which always accompanies an energetic use of our faculties. Still it suffers in some degree from this undeniable characteristic, and especially from the tinge which has consequently been communicated to narratives of mountain adventures. There are two ways which have been appropriated to the description of all sporting exploits. One is to indulge in fine writing about them, to burst out in sentences which swell to paragraphs, and in paragraphs which spread over pages; to plunge into ecstasies about infinite abysses and overpowering splendours, to compare mountains to archangels lying down in eternal winding-sheets of snow, and to convert them into allegories about man's highest destinies and aspirations. This is good when it is well done. Mr. Ruskin has covered the Matterhorn, for example, with a whole web of poetical associations, in language which, to a severe taste, is perhaps a trifle too fine, though he has done it with an eloquence which his bitterest antagonists must freely acknowledge. Yet most humble writers will feel that if they try to imitate Mr. Ruskin's eloquence they will pay the penalty of becoming ridiculous. It is not every one who can with impunity compare Alps to archangels. Tall talk is luckily an object of suspicion to Englishmen, and consequently most writers, and especially those who frankly adopt the sporting view of the mountains, adopt the opposite scheme: they affect something like cynicism; they mix descriptions of scenery with allusions to fleas or to bitter beer; they shrink with the prevailing dread of Englishmen from the danger of overstepping the limits of the sublime into its proverbial opposite; and they humbly try to amuse us because they can't strike us with awe. This, too, if I may venture to say so, is good in its way and place; and it seems rather hard to these luckless writers when people assume that, because they make jokes on a mountain, they are necessarily insensible to its awful sublimities. A sense of humour is not incompatible with imaginative sensibility; and even Wordsworth might have been an equally powerful prophet of nature if he could sometimes have descended from his stilts. In short, a man may worship mountains, and yet have a quiet joke with them when he is wandering all day in their tremendous solitudes. Joking, however, is, it must be admitted, a dangerous habit. I freely avow that, in my humble contributions to Alpine literature, I have myself made some very poor and very unseasonable witticisms. I confess my error, and only wish that I had no worse errors to confess. Still I think that the poor little jokes in which we mountaineers sometimes indulge have been made liable to rather harsh constructions. We are accused, in downright earnest, not merely of being flippant, but of an arrogant contempt for all persons whose legs are not as strong as our own. We are supposed seriously to wrap ourselves in our own conceit, and to brag intolerably of our exploits. Now I will not say that no mountaineer ever swaggers: the quality called by the vulgar "bounce" is unluckily confined to no profession. Certainly I have seen a man intolerably vain because he could raise a hundred-weight with his little finger; and I dare say that the "champion bill-poster," whose name is advertised on the walls of this metropolis, thinks excellence in bill-posting the highest virtue of a citizen. So some men may be silly enough to brag in all seriousness about mountain exploits. However, most lads of twenty learn that it is silly to give themselves airs about mere muscular eminence; and especially is this true of Alpine exploits--first, because they require less physical prowess than almost any other sport, and secondly, because a good amateur still feels himself the hopeless inferior of half the Alpine peasants whom he sees. You cannot be very conceited about a game in which the first clodhopper you meet can give you ten minutes' start in an hour. Still a man writing in a humorous vein naturally adopts a certain bumptious tone, just as our friend "Punch" ostentatiously declares himself to be omniscient and infallible. Nobody takes him at his word, or supposes that the editor of "Punch" is really the most conceited man in all England. But we poor mountaineers are occasionally fixed with our own careless talk by some outsider who is not in the secret. We know ourselves to be a small sect, and to be often laughed at; we reply by: assuming that we are the salt of the earth, and that our amusement is the first and noblest of all amusements. Our only retort to the good-humoured ridicule with which we are occasionally treated is to adopt an affected strut, and to carry it off as if we were the finest fellows in the world. We make a boast of our shame, and say, if you laugh we must crow. But we don't really mean anything: if we did, the only word which the English language would afford wherewith to describe us would be the very unpleasant antithesis to wise men, and certainly I hold that we have the average amount of common sense. When, therefore, I see us taken to task for swaggering, I think it a trifle hard that this merely playful affectation of superiority should be made a serious fault. For the future I would promise to be careful, if it were worth avoiding the misunderstanding of men who won't take a joke. Meanwhile, I can only state that when Alpine travellers indulge in a little swagger about their own performances and other people's incapacity, they don't mean more than an infinitesimal fraction of what they say, and that they know perfectly well that when history comes to pronounce a final judgment upon the men of the time, it won't put mountain-climbing on a level with patriotism, or even with excellence in the fine arts. The reproach of real _bonâ fide_ arrogance is, so far as I know, very little true of Alpine travellers. With the exception of the necessary fringe hanging on to every set of human beings--consisting of persons whose heads are weaker than their legs--the mountaineer, so far as my experience has gone, is generally modest enough. Perhaps he sometimes flaunts his ice-axes and ropes a little too much before the public eye at Chamonix, as a yachtsman occasionally flourishes his nautical costume at Cowes; but the fault may be pardoned by those not inexorable to human weaknesses. This opinion, I know, cuts at the root of the most popular theory as to our ruling passion. If we do not climb the Alps to gain notoriety, for what purpose can we possibly climb them? That same unlucky trick of joking is taken to indicate that we don't care much about the scenery; for who, with a really susceptible soul, could be facetious under the cliffs of Jungfrau or the ghastly precipices of the Matterhorn? Hence people who kindly excuse us from the blame of notoriety-hunting generally accept the "greased-pole" theory. We are, it seems, overgrown schoolboys, who, like other schoolboys, enjoy being in dirt, and danger, and mischief, and have as much sensibility for natural beauty as the mountain mules. And against this, as a more serious complaint, I wish to make my feeble protest, in order that my lamentations on quitting the profession may not seem unworthy of a thinking being. Let me try to recall some of the impressions which mountaineering has left with me, and see whether they throw any light upon the subject. As I gaze at the huge cliffs where I may no longer wander, I find innumerable recollections arise--some of them dim, as though belonging to a past existence; and some so brilliant that I can scarcely realise my exclusion from the scenes to which they belong. I am standing at the foot of what, to my mind, is the most glorious of all Alpine wonders--the huge Oberland precipice, on the slopes of the Faulhorn or the Wengern Alp. Innumerable tourists have done all that tourists can do to cocknify (if that is the right derivative from cockney) the scenery; but, like the Pyramids or a Gothic cathedral, it throws off the taint of vulgarity by its imperishable majesty. Even on turf strewn with sandwich-papers and empty bottles, even in the presence of hideous peasant-women singing "Stand-er auf" for five centimes, we cannot but feel the influence of Alpine beauty. When the sunlight is dying off the snows, or the full moon lighting them up with ethereal tints, even sandwich-papers and singing women may be forgotten. How does the memory of scrambles along snow arêtes, of plunges--luckily not too deep--into crevasses, of toil through long snowfields, towards a refuge that seemed to recede as we advanced--where, to quote Tennyson with due alteration, to the traveller toiling in immeasurable snow-- Sown in a wrinkle of the monstrous hill The châlet sparkles like a grain of salt;-- how do such memories as these harmonise with the sense of superlative sublimity? One element of mountain beauty is, we shall all admit, their vast size and steepness. That a mountain is very big, and is faced by perpendicular walls of rock, is the first thing which strikes everybody, and is the whole essence and outcome of a vast quantity of poetical description. Hence the first condition towards a due appreciation of mountain scenery is that these qualities should be impressed upon the imagination. The mere dry statement that a mountain is so many feet in vertical height above the sea, and contains so many tons of granite, is nothing. Mont Blanc, is about three miles high. What of that? Three miles is an hour's walk for a lady--an eighteen-penny cab-fare--the distance from Hyde Park Corner to the Bank--an express train could do it in three minutes, or a racehorse in five. It is a measure which we have learnt to despise, looking at it from a horizontal point of view; and accordingly most persons, on seeing the Alps for the first time, guess them to be higher, as measured in feet, than they really are. What, indeed, is the use of giving measures in feet to any but the scientific mind? Who cares whether the moon is 250,000 or 2,500,000 miles distant? Mathematicians try to impress upon us that the distance of the fixed stars is only expressible by a row of figures which stretches across a page; suppose it stretched across two or across a dozen pages, should we be any the wiser, or have, in the least degree, a clearer notion of the superlative distances? We civilly say, "Dear me!" when the astronomer looks to us for the appropriate stare, but we only say it with the mouth; internally our remark is, "You might as well have multiplied by a few more millions whilst you were about it." Even astronomers, though not a specially imaginative race, feel the impotence of figures, and try to give us some measure which the mind can grasp a little more conveniently. They tell us about the cannon-ball which might have been flying ever since the time of Adam, and not yet have reached the heavenly body, or about the stars which may not yet have become visible, though the light has been flying to us at a rate inconceivable by the mind for an inconceivable number of years; and they succeed in producing a bewildering and giddy sensation, although the numbers are too vast to admit of any accurate apprehension. We feel a similar need in the case of mountains. Besides the bare statement of figures, it is necessary to have some means for grasping the meaning of the figures. The bare tens and thousands must be clothed with some concrete images. The statement that a mountain is 15,000 feet high is, by itself, little more impressive, than that it is 3,000; we want something more before we can mentally compare Mont Blanc and Snowdon. Indeed, the same people who guess of a mountain's height at a number of feet much exceeding the reality, show, when they are cross-examined, that they fail to appreciate in any tolerable degree the real meaning of the figures. An old lady one day, about 11 A.M., proposed to walk from the Aeggischhorn to the Jungfrau-Joch, and to return for luncheon--the distance being a good twelve hours' journey for trained mountaineers. Every detail of which the huge mass is composed is certain to be underestimated. A gentleman the other day pointed out to me a grand ice-cliff at the end of a hanging glacier, which must have been at least 100 feet high, and asked me whether that snow was three feet deep. Nothing is more common than for tourists to mistake some huge pinnacle of rock, as big as a church tower, for a traveller. The rocks of the Grands Mulets, in one corner of which the châlet is hidden, are often identified with a party ascending Mont Blanc; and I have seen boulders as big as a house pointed out confidently as chamois. People who make these blunders must evidently see the mountains as mere toys, however many feet they may give them at a random guess. Huge overhanging cliffs are to them steps within the reach of human legs; yawning crevasses are ditches to be jumped; and foaming waterfalls are like streams from penny squirts. Everyone knows the avalanches on the Jungfrau, and the curiously disproportionate appearance of the little puffs of white smoke, which are said to be the cause of the thunder; but the disproportion ceases to an eye that has learnt really to measure distance, and to know that these smoke-puffs, represent a cataract of crashing blocks of ice. Now the first merit of mountaineering is that it enables one to have what theologians would call an experimental faith in the size of mountains--to substitute a real living belief for a dead intellectual assent. It enables one, first, to assign something like its true magnitude to a rock or snow-slope; and, secondly, to measure that magnitude in terms of muscular exertion instead of bare mathematical units. Suppose that we are standing upon the Wengern Alp; between the Mönch and the Eiger there stretches a round white bank, with a curved outline, which we may roughly compare to the back of one of Sir E. Landseer's lions. The ordinary tourists--the old man, the woman, or the cripple, who are supposed to appreciate the real beauties of Alpine scenery--may look at it comfortably from their hotel. They may see its graceful curve, the long straight lines that are ruled in delicate shading down its sides, and the contrast of the blinding white snow with the dark blue sky above; but they will probably guess it to be a mere bank--a snowdrift, perhaps, which has been piled by the last storm. If you pointed out to them one of the great rocky teeth that projected from its summit, and said that it was a guide, they would probably remark that he looked very small, and would fancy that he could jump over the bank with an effort. Now a mountaineer knows, to begin with, that it is a massive rocky rib, covered with snow, lying at a sharp angle, and varying perhaps from 500 to 1,000 feet in height. So far he might be accompanied by men of less soaring ambition; by an engineer who had been mapping the country, or an artist who had been carefully observing the mountains from their bases. They might learn in time to interpret correctly the real meaning of shapes at which the uninitiated guess at random. But the mountaineer can go a step further, and it is the next step which gives the real significance to those delicate curves and lines. He can translate the 500 or 1,000 feet of snow-slope into a more tangible unit of measurement. To him, perhaps, they recall the memory of a toilsome ascent, the sun beating on his head for five or six hours, the snow returning the glare with still more parching effect; a stalwart guide toiling all the weary time, cutting steps in hard blue ice, the fragments hissing and spinning down the long straight grooves in the frozen snow till they lost themselves in the yawning chasm below; and step after step taken along the slippery staircase, till at length he triumphantly sprang upon the summit of the tremendous wall that no human foot had scaled before. The little black knobs that rise above the edge represent for him huge impassable rocks, sinking on one side in scarped slippery surfaces towards the snow-field, and on the other stooping in one tremendous cliff to a distorted glacier thousands of feet below. The faint blue line across the upper névé, scarcely distinguishable to the eye, represents to one observer nothing but a trifling undulation; a second, perhaps, knows that it means a crevasse; the mountaineer remembers that it is the top of a huge chasm, thirty feet across, and perhaps ten times as deep, with perpendicular sides of glimmering blue ice, and fringed by thick rows of enormous pendent icicles. The marks that are scored in delicate lines, such as might be ruled by a diamond on glass, have been cut by innumerable streams trickling in hot weather from the everlasting snow, or ploughed by succeeding avalanches that have slipped from the huge upper snowfields above. In short, there is no insignificant line or mark that has not its memory or its indication of the strange phenomena of the upper world. True, the same picture is painted upon the retina of all classes of observers; and so Porson and a schoolboy and a peasant might receive the same physical impression from a set of black and white marks on the page of a Greek play; but to one they would be an incoherent conglomeration of unmeaning and capricious lines, to another they would represent certain sounds more or less corresponding to some English words; whilst to the scholar they would reveal some of the noblest poetry in the world, and all the associations of successful intellectual labour. I do not say that the difference is quite so great in the case of the mountains; still I am certain that no one can decipher the natural writing on the face of a snow-slope or a precipice who has not wandered amongst their recesses, and learnt by slow experience what is indicated by marks which an ignorant observer would scarcely notice. True, even one who sees a mountain for the first time may know that, as a matter of fact, a scar on the face of a cliff means, for example, a recent fall of a rock; but between the bare knowledge and the acquaintance with all which that knowledge implies--the thunder of the fall, the crash of the smaller fragments, the bounding energy of the descending mass--there is almost as much difference as between hearing that a battle has been fought and being present at it yourself. We have all read descriptions of Waterloo till we are sick of the subject; but I imagine that our emotions on seeing the shattered well of Hougomont are very inferior to those of one of the Guard who should revisit the place where he held out for a long day against the assaults of the French army. Now to an old mountaineer the Oberland cliffs are full of memories; and, more than this, he has learnt the language spoken by every crag and every wave of glacier. It is strange if they do not affect him rather more powerfully than the casual visitor who has never been initiated by practical experience into their difficulties. To him, the huge buttress which runs down from the Mönch is something more than an irregular pyramid, purple with white patches at the bottom and pure white at the top. He fills up the bare outline supplied by the senses with a thousand lively images. He sees tier above tier of rock, rising in a gradually ascending scale of difficulty, covered at first by long lines of the débris that have been splintered by frost from the higher wall, and afterwards rising bare and black and threatening. He knows instinctively which of the ledges has a dangerous look--where such a bold mountaineer as John Lauener might slip on the polished surface, or be in danger of an avalanche from above. He sees the little shell-like swelling at the foot of the glacier crawling down the steep slope above, and knows that it means an almost inaccessible wall of ice; and the steep snowfields that rise towards the summit are suggestive of something very different from the picture which might have existed in the mind of a German student, who once asked me whether it was possible to make the ascent on a mule. Hence, if mountains owe their influence upon the imagination in a great degree to their size and steepness, and apparent inaccessibility--as no one can doubt that they do, whatever may be the explanation of the fact that people like to look at big, steep, inaccessible objects--the advantages of the mountaineer are obvious. He can measure those qualities on a very different scale from the ordinary traveler. He measures the size, not by the vague abstract term of so many thousand feet, but by the hours of labour, divided into minutes--each separately felt--of strenuous muscular exertion. The steepness is not expressed in degrees, but by the memory of the sensation produced when a snow-slope seems to be rising up and smiting you in the face; when, far away from all human help, you are clinging like a fly to the slippery side of a mighty pinnacle in mid air. And as for the inaccessibility, no one can measure the difficulty of climbing a hill who has not wearied his muscles and brain in struggling against the opposing obstacles. Alpine travellers, it is said, have removed the romance from the mountains by climbing them. What they have really done is to prove that there exists a narrow line by which a way may be found to the top of any given mountain; but the clue leads through innumerable inaccessibilities; true, you can follow one path, but to right and left are cliffs which no human foot will ever tread, and whose terrors can only be realised when you are in their immediate neighbourhood. The cliffs of the Matterhorn do not bar the way to the top effectually, but it is only by forcing a passage through them that you can really appreciate their terrible significance. Hence I say that the qualities which strike every sensitive observer are impressed upon the mountaineer with tenfold force and intensity. If he is as accessible to poetical influences as his neighbours--and I don't know why he should be less so--he has opened new avenues of access between the scenery and his mind. He has learnt a language which is but partially revealed to ordinary men. An artist is superior to an unlearned picture-seer, not merely because he has greater natural sensibility, but because he has improved it by methodical experience; because his senses have been sharpened by constant practice, till he can catch finer shades of colouring, and more delicate inflexions of line; because, also, the lines and colours have acquired new significance, and been associated with a thousand thoughts with which the mass of mankind has never cared to connect them. The mountaineer is improved by a similar process. But I know some sceptical critics will ask, does not the way in which he is accustomed to regard mountains rather deaden their poetical influence? Doesn't he come to look at them as mere instruments of sport, and overlook their more spiritual teaching? Does not all the excitement of personal adventure and the noisy apparatus of guides, and ropes, and axes, and tobacco, and the fun of climbing, rather dull his perceptions and incapacitate him from perceiving The silence that is in the starry sky, The sleep that is among the lonely hills? Well, I have known some stupid and unpoetical mountaineers; and, since I have been dismounted from my favourite hobby, I think I have met some similar specimens among the humbler class of tourists. There are persons, I fancy, who "do" the Alps; who look upon the Lake of Lucerne as one more task ticked off from their memorandum book, and count up the list of summits visible from the Görnergrat without being penetrated with any keen sense of sublimity. And there are mountaineers who are capable of making a pun on the top of Mont Blanc--and capable of nothing more. Still I venture to deny that even punning is incompatible with poetry, or that those who make the pun can have no deeper feeling in their bosoms which they are perhaps too shamefaced to utter. The fact is that that which gives its inexpressible charm to mountaineering is the incessant series of exquisite natural scenes, which are for the most part enjoyed by the mountaineer alone. This is, I am aware, a round assertion; but I will try to support it by a few of the visions which are recalled to me by these Oberland cliffs, and which I have seen profoundly enjoyed by men who perhaps never mentioned them again, and probably in describing their adventures scrupulously avoided the danger of being sentimental. Thus every traveller has occasionally done a sunrise, and a more lamentable proceeding than the ordinary view of a sunrise can hardly be imagined. You are cold, miserable, breakfastless; have risen shivering from a warm bed, and in your heart long only to creep into bed again. To the mountaineer all this is changed. He is beginning a day full of the anticipation of a pleasant excitement. He has, perhaps, been waiting anxiously for fine weather, to try conclusions with some huge giant not yet scaled. He moves out with something of the feeling with which a soldier goes to the assault of a fortress, but without the same probability of coming home in fragments; the danger is trifling enough to be merely exhilatory, and to give a pleasant tension to the nerves; his muscles feel firm and springy, and his stomach--no small advantage to the enjoyment of scenery--is in excellent order. He looks at the sparkling stars with keen satisfaction, prepared to enjoy a fine sunrise with all his faculties at their best, and with the added pleasure of a good omen for his day's work. Then a huge dark mass begins to mould itself slowly out of the darkness, the sky begins to form a background of deep purple, against which the outline becomes gradually more definite; one by one, the peaks catch the exquisite Alpine glow, lighting up in rapid succession, like a vast illumination; and when at last the steady sunlight settles upon them, and shows every rock and glacier, without even a delicate film of mist to obscure them, he feels his heart bound, and steps out gaily to the assault--just as the people on the Rigi are giving thanks that the show is over and that they may go to bed. Still grander is the sight when the mountaineer has already reached some lofty ridge, and, as the sun rises, stands between the day and the night--the valley still in deep sleep, with the mists lying between the folds of the hills, and the snow-peaks standing out clear and pale white just before the sun reaches them, whilst a broad band of orange light runs all round the vast horizon. The glory of sunsets is equally increased in the thin upper air. The grandest of all such sights that live in my memory is that of a sunset from the Aiguille du Goûté. The snow at our feet was glowing with rich light, and the shadows in our footsteps a vivid green by the contrast. Beneath us was a vast horizontal floor of thin level mists suspended in mid air, spread like a canopy over the whole boundless landscape, and tinged with every hue of sunset. Through its rents and gaps we could see the lower mountains, the distant plains, and a fragment of the Lake of Geneva lying in a more sober purple. Above us rose the solemn mass of Mont Blanc in the richest glow of an Alpine sunset. The sense of lonely sublimity was almost oppressive, and although half our party was suffering from sickness, I believe even the guides were moved to a sense of solemn beauty. These grand scenic effects are occasionally seen by ordinary travellers, though the ordinary traveller is for the most part out of temper at 3 A.M. The mountaineer can enjoy them, both because his frame of mind is properly trained to receive the natural beauty, and because he alone sees them with their best accessories, amidst the silence of the eternal snow, and the vast panoramas visible from the loftier summits. And he has a similar advantage in most of the great natural phenomena of the cloud and the sunshine. No sight in the Alps is more impressive than the huge rocks of a black precipice suddenly frowning out through the chasms of a storm-cloud. But grand as such a sight may be from the safe verandahs of the inn at Grindelwald, it is far grander in the silence of the Central Alps amongst the savage wilderness of rock and snow. Another characteristic effect of the High Alps often presents itself when one has been climbing for two or three hours, with nothing in sight but the varying wreaths of mist that chased each other monotonously along the rocky ribs up whose snow-covered backbone we were laboriously fighting our way. Suddenly there is a puff of wind, and looking round we find that we have in an instant pierced the clouds, and emerged, as it were, on the surface of the ocean of vapour. Beneath us stretches for hundreds of miles the level fleecy floor, and above us shines out clear in the eternal sunshine every mountain, from Mont Blanc to Monte Rosa and the Jungfrau. What, again, in the lower regions, can equal the mysterious charm of gazing from the edge of a torn rocky parapet into an apparently fathomless abyss, where nothing but what an Alpine traveller calls a "strange formless wreathing of vapour" indicates the storm-wind that is raging below us? I might go on indefinitely recalling the strangely impressive scenes that frequently startle the traveller in the waste upper world; but language is feeble indeed to convey even a glimmering of what is to be seen to those who have not seen it for themselves, whilst to them it can be little more than a peg upon which to hang their own recollections. These glories, in which the mountain Spirit reveals himself to his true worshippers, are only to be gained by the appropriate service of climbing--at some risk, though a very trifling risk, if he is approached with due form and ceremony--into the furthest recesses of his shrines. And without seeing them, I maintain that no man has really seen the Alps. The difference between the exoteric and the esoteric school of mountaineers may be indicated by their different view of glaciers. At Grindelwald, for example, it is the fashion to go and "see the glaciers"--heaven save the mark! Ladies in costumes, heavy German professors, Americans doing the Alps at a gallop, Cook's tourists, and other varieties of a well-known genus, go off in shoals and see--what? A gigantic mass of ice, strangely torn with a few of the exquisite blue crevasses, but denied and prostrate in dirt and ruins. A stream foul with mud oozes out from the base; the whole mass seems to be melting fast away; the summer sun has evidently got the best of it in these lower regions, and nothing can resist him but the great mounds of decaying rock that strew the surface in confused lumps. It is as much like the glacier of the upper regions as the melting fragments of snow in a London street are like the surface of the fresh snow that has just fallen in a country field. And by way of improving its attractions a perpetual picnic is going on, and the ingenious natives have hewed a tunnel into the ice, for admission to which they charge certain centimes. The unlucky glacier reminds me at his latter end of a wretched whale stranded on a beach, dissolving into masses of blubber, and hacked by remorseless fishermen, instead of plunging at his ease in the deep blue water. Far above, where the glacier begins his course, he is seen only by the true mountaineer. There are vast amphitheatres of pure snow, of which the glacier known to tourists is merely the insignificant drainage, but whose very existence they do not generally suspect. They are utterly ignorant that from the top of the icefall which they visit you may walk for hours on the eternal ice. After a long climb you come to the region where the glacier is truly at its noblest; where the surface is a spotless white; where the crevasses are enormous rents sinking to profound depths, with walls of the purest blue; where the glacier is torn and shattered by the energetic forces which mould it, but has an expression of superabundant power, like a full stream fretting against its banks and plunging through the vast gorges that it has hewn for itself in the course of centuries. The bases of the mountains are immersed in a deluge of cockneyism--fortunately a shallow deluge--whilst their summits rise high into the bracing air, where everything is pure and poetical. The difference which I have thus endeavoured to indicate is more or less traceable in a wider sense. The mountains are exquisitely beautiful, indeed, from whatever points of view we contemplate them; and the mountaineer would lose much if he never saw the beauties of the lower valleys, of pasturages deep in flowers, and dark pine-forests with the summits shining from far off between the stems. Only, as it seems to me, he has the exclusive prerogative of thoroughly enjoying one--and that the most characteristic, though by no means only, element of the scenery. There may be a very good dinner spread before twenty people; but if nineteen of them were teetotalers, and the twentieth drank his wine like a man, he would be the only one to do it full justice; the others might praise the meat or the fruits, but he would alone enjoy the champagne; and in the great feast which Nature spreads before us (a stock metaphor, which emboldens me to make the comparison), the high mountain scenery acts the part of the champagne. Unluckily, too, the teetotalers are very apt, in this case also, to sit in judgment upon their more adventurous neighbours. Especially are they pleased to carp at the views from high summits. I have been constantly asked, with a covert sneer, "Did it repay you?"--a question which involves the assumption that one wants to be repaid, as though the labour were not itself part of the pleasure, and which implies a doubt that the view is really enjoyable. People are always demonstrating that the lower views are the most beautiful; and at the same time complaining that mountaineers frequently turn back without looking at the view from the top, as though that would necessarily imply that they cared nothing for scenery. In opposition to which I must first remark that, as a rule, every step of an ascent has a beauty of its own, which one is quietly absorbing even when one is not directly making it a subject of contemplation, and that the view from the top is generally the crowning glory of the whole. It will be enough if I conclude with an attempt to illustrate this last assertion: and I will do it by still referring to the Oberland. Every visitor with a soul for the beautiful admires the noble form of the Wetterhorn--the lofty snow-crowned pyramid rising in such light and yet massive lines from its huge basement of perpendicular cliffs. The Wetterhorn has, however, a further merit. To my mind--and I believe most connoisseurs of mountain tops agree with me--it is one of the most impressive summits in the Alps. It is not a sharp pinnacle like the Weisshorn, or a cupola like Mont Blanc, or a grand rocky tooth like the Monte Rosa, but a long and nearly horizontal knife-edge, which, as seen from either end, has of course the appearance of a sharp-pointed cone. It is when balanced upon this ridge--sitting astride of the knife-edge on which one can hardly stand without giddiness--that one fully appreciates an Alpine precipice. Mr. Justice Wills has admirably described the first ascent, and the impression it made upon him, in a paper which has become classical for succeeding adventurers. Behind you the snow-slope sinks with perilous steepness towards the wilderness of glacier and rock through which the ascent has lain. But in front the ice sinks with even greater steepness for a few feet or yards. Then it curves over and disappears, and the next thing that the eye catches is the meadowland of Grindelwald, some 9,000 feet below. I have looked down many precipices, where the eye can trace the course of every pebble that bounds down the awful slopes, and where I have shuddered as some dislodged fragment of rock showed the course which, in case of accident, fragments of my own body would follow. A precipice is always, for obvious reasons, far more terrible from above than from below. The creeping, tingling sensation which passes through one's limbs--even when one knows oneself to be in perfect safety--testifies to the thrilling influence of the sight. But I have never so realised the terrors of a terrific cliff as when I could not see it. The awful gulf which intervened between me and the green meadows struck the imagination by its invisibility. It was like the view which may be seen from the ridge of a cathedral roof, where the eaves have for their immediate background the pavement of the streets below; only this cathedral was 9,000 feet high. Now, any one standing at the foot of the Wetterhorn may admire their stupendous massiveness and steepness; but, to feel their influence enter in the very marrow of one's bones, it is necessary to stand at the summit, and to fancy the one little slide down the short ice-slope, to be followed apparently by a bound into clear air and a fall down to the houses, from heights where only the eagle ventures to soar. This is one of the Alpine beauties, which, of course, is: beyond the power of art to imitate, and which people are therefore apt to ignore. But it is not the only one to be seen on the high summits. It is often said that these views are not "beautiful"--apparently because they won't go into a picture, or, to put it more fairly, because no picture: can in the faintest degree imitate them. But without quarrelling about words, I think that, even if "beautiful" be not the most correct epithet, they have a marvellously stimulating effect upon the imagination. Let us look round from this wonderful pinnacle in mid air, and note one or two of the most striking elements of the scenery. You are, in the first place, perched on a cliff, whose presence is the more felt because it is unseen. Then you are in a region over which eternal silence is brooding. Not a sound ever comes there, except the occasional fall of a splintered fragment of rock, or a layer of snow; no stream is heard trickling, and the sounds of animal life are left thousands of feet below. The most that you can hear is some mysterious noise made by the wind eddying round the gigantic rocks; sometimes a strange flapping sound, as if an unearthly flag were shaking its invisible folds in the air. The enormous tract of country over which your view extends--most of it dim and almost dissolved into air by distance--intensifies the strange influence of the silence. You feel the force of the line I have quoted from Wordsworth-- The sleep that is among the lonely hills. None of the travellers whom you can see crawling at your feet has the least conception of what is meant by the silent solitudes of the High Alps. To you, it is like a return to the stir of active life, when, after hours of lonely wandering, you return to hear the tinkling of the cow-bells below; to them the same sound is the ultimate limit of the habitable world. Whilst your mind is properly toned by these influences, you become conscious of another fact, to which the common variety of tourists is necessarily insensible. You begin to find out for the first time what the mountains really are. On one side, you look back upon the huge reservoirs from which the Oberland glaciers descend. You see the vast stores from which the great rivers of Europe are replenished, the monstrous crawling masses that are carving the mountains into shape, and the gigantic bulwarks that separate two great quarters of the world. From below these wild regions are half invisible; they are masked by the outer line of mountains; and it is not till you are able to command them from some lofty point that you can appreciate the grandeur of the huge barriers, and the snow that is piled within their folds. There is another half of the view equally striking. Looking towards the north, the whole of Switzerland is couched at your feet; the Jura and the Black Forest lie on the far horizon. And then you know what is the nature of a really mountainous country. From below everything is seen in a kind of distorted perspective. The people of the valley naturally think that the valley is everything--that the country resembles old-fashioned maps, where a few sporadic lumps are distributed amongst towns and plains. The true proportions reveal themselves as you ascend. The valleys, you can now see, are nothing but narrow trenches scooped out amidst a tossing waste of mountain, just to carry off the drainage. The great ridges run hither and thither, having it all their own way, wild and untamable regions of rock or open grass or forest, at whose feet the valleys exist on sufferance. Creeping about amongst the roots of the hills, you half miss the hills themselves; you quite fail to understand the massiveness of the mountain chains, and, therefore, the wonderful energy of the forces that have heaved the surface of the world into these distorted shapes. And it is to a half-conscious sense of the powers that must have been at work that a great part of the influence of mountain scenery is due. Geologists tell us that a theory of catastrophes is unphilosophical; but, whatever may be the scientific truth, our minds are impressed as though we were witnessing the results of some incredible convulsion. At Stonehenge we ask what human beings could have erected these strange grey monuments, and in the mountains we instinctively ask what force can have carved out the Matterhorn, and placed the Wetterhorn on its gigantic pedestal. Now, it is not till we reach some commanding point that we realise the amazing extent of country over which the solid ground has been shaking and heaving itself in irresistible tumult. Something, it is true, of this last effect may be seen from such mountains as the Rigi or the Faulhorn. There, too, one seems to be at the centre of a vast sphere, the earth bending up in a cup-like form to meet the sky, and the blue vault above stretching in an arch majestical by its enormous extent. There you seem to see a sensible fraction of the world at your feet. But the effect is far less striking when other mountains obviously look down upon you; when, as it were, you are looking at the waves of the great ocean of hills merely from the crest of one of the waves themselves, and not from some lighthouse that rises far over their heads; for the Wetterhorn, like the Eiger, Mönch, and Jungfrau, owes one great beauty to the fact that it is on the edge of the lower country, and stands between the real giants and the crowd of inferior, though still enormous, masses in attendance upon them. And, in the next place, your mind is far better adapted to receive impressions of sublimity when you are alone, in a silent region, with a black sky above and giant cliffs all round; with a sense still in your mind, if not of actual danger, still of danger that would become real with the slightest relaxation of caution, and with the world divided from you by hours of snow and rock. I will go no further, not because I have no more to say, but because descriptions of scenery soon become wearisome, and because I have, I hope, said enough to show that the mountaineer may boast of some intellectual pleasures; that he is not a mere scrambler, but that he looks for poetical impressions, as well as for such small glory as his achievements may gain in a very small circle. Something of what he gains fortunately sticks by him: he does not quite forget the mountain language; his eye still recognises the space and the height and the glory of the lofty mountains. And yet there is some pain in wandering ghostlike among the scenes of his earlier pleasures. For my part, I try in vain to hug myself in a sense of comfort. I turn over in bed when I hear the stamping of heavily nailed shoes along the passage of an inn about 2 A.M. I feel the skin of my nose complacently when I see others returning with a glistening tight aspect about that unluckily prominent feature, and know that in a day or two it will be raw and blistered and burning. I think, in a comfortable inn at night, of the miseries of those who are trying to sleep in damp hay, or on hard boards of châlets, at once cold and stuffy and haunted by innumerable fleas. I congratulate myself on having a whole skin and unfractured bones, and on the small danger of ever breaking them over an Alpine precipice. But yet I secretly know that these consolations are feeble. It is little use to avoid early rising and discomfort, and even fleas, if one also loses the pleasures to which they were the sauce--rather too _piquante_ a sauce occasionally, it must be admitted. The philosophy is all very well which recommends moderate enjoyment, regular exercise, and a careful avoidance of risk and over-excitement. That is, it is all very well so long as risk and excitement and immoderate enjoyment are out of your power; but it does not stand the test of looking on and seeing them just beyond your reach. In time, no doubt, a man may grow calm; he may learn to enjoy the pleasures and the exquisite beauties of the lower regions--though they, too, are most fully enjoyed when they have a contrast with beauties of a different, and pleasures of a keener excitement. When first debarred, at any rate, one feels like a balloon full of gas, and fixed by immovable ropes to the prosaic ground. It is pleasant to lie on one's back in a bed of rhododendrons, and look up to a mountain top peering at one from above a bank of cloud; but it is pleasantest when one has qualified oneself for repose by climbing the peak the day before and becoming familiar with its terrors and its beauties. In time, doubtless, one may get reconciled to anything; one may settle down to be a caterpillar, even after one has known the pleasures of being a butterfly; one may become philosophical, and have one's clothes let out; and even in time, perhaps--though it is almost too terrible to contemplate--be content with a mule or a carriage, or that lowest depth to which human beings can sink, and for which the English language happily affords no name, a _chaise à porteurs:_ and even in such degradation the memory of better times may be pleasant; for I doubt much whether it is truth the poet sings-- That a sorrow's crown of sorrow is remembering happier things. Certainly, to a philosophical mind, the sentiment is doubtful. For my part, the fate which has cut me off, if I may use the expression, in the flower of my youth, and doomed me to be a non-climbing animal in future, is one which ought to exclude grumbling. I cannot indicate it more plainly, for I might so make even the grumbling in which I have already indulged look like a sin. I can only say that there are some very delightful things in which it is possible to discover an infinitesimal drop of bitterness, and that the mountaineer who undertakes to cut himself off from his favourite pastime, even for reasons which he will admit in his wildest moods to be more than amply sufficient, must expect at times to feel certain pangs of regret, however quickly they may be smothered. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 33: From "The Playground of Europe," 1871.] BEHAVIOR[34] RALPH WALDO EMERSON The soul which animates nature is not less significantly published in the figure, movement, and gesture of animated bodies, than in its last vehicle of articulate speech. This silent and subtle language is Manners; not _what_, but _how_. Life expresses. A statue has no tongue, and needs none. Good tableaux do not need declamation. Nature tells every secret once. Yes, but in man she tells it all the time, by form, attitude, gesture, mien, face, and parts of the face, and by the whole action of the machine. The visible carriage or action of the individual, as resulting from his organization and his will combined, we call manners. What are they but thought entering the hands and feet, controlling the movements of the body, the speech and behavior? There is always a best way of doing everything, if it be to boil an egg. Manners are the happy ways of doing things; each once a stroke of genius or of love,--now repeated and hardened into usage. They form at last a rich varnish, with which the routine of life is washed, and its details adorned. If they are superficial, so are the dew-drops which give such a depth to the morning meadows. Manners are very communicable: men catch them from each other. Consuelo, in the romance, boasts of the lessons she had given the nobles in manners, on the stage: and, in real life, Talma taught Napoleon the arts of behavior. Genius invents fine manners, which the baron and the baroness copy very fast, and, by the advantage of a palace, better the instruction. They stereotype the lesson they have learned into a mode. The power of manners is incessant,--an element as unconcealable as fire. The nobility cannot in any country be disguised, and no more in a republic or a democracy than in a kingdom. No man can resist their influence. There are certain manners which are learned in good society, of that force, that, if a person have them, he or she must be considered, and is everywhere welcome, though without beauty, or wealth, or genius. Give a boy address and accomplishments, and you give him the mastery of palaces and fortunes where he goes. He has not the trouble of earning or owning them; they solicit him to enter and possess. We send girls of a timid, retreating disposition to the boarding-school, to the riding-school, to the ballroom, or wheresoever they can come into acquaintance and nearness of leading persons of their own sex; where they might learn address, and see it near at hand. The power of a woman of fashion to lead, and also to daunt and repel, derives from their belief that she knows resources and behaviors not known to them; but when these have mastered her secret, they learn to confront her, and recover their self-possession. Every day bears witness to their gentle rule. People who would obtrude, now do not obtrude. The mediocre circle learns to demand that which belongs to a high state of nature or of culture. Your manners are always under examination, and by committees little suspected,--a police in citizen's clothes,--but are awarding or denying you very high prizes when you least think of it. We talk much of utilities,--but 'tis our manners that associate us. In hours of business, we go to him who knows, or has, or does this or that which we want, and we do not let our taste or feeling stand in the way. But this activity over, we return to the indolent state, and wish for those we can be at ease with; those who will go where we go, whose manners do not offend us, whose social tone chimes with ours. When we reflect on their persuasive and cheering force; how they recommend, prepare, and draw people together; how, in all clubs, manners make the members; how manners make the fortune of the ambitious youth; that, for the most part, his manners marry him, and, for the most part, he marries manners; when we think what keys they are, and to what secrets; what high lessons and inspiring tokens of character they convey; and what divination is required in us, for the reading of this fine telegraph; we see what range the subject has, and what relations to convenience, power, and beauty. Their first service is very low,--when they are the minor morals; but 'tis the beginning of civility,--to make us, I mean, endurable to each other. We prize them for their rough-plastic, abstergent force; to get people out of the quadruped state; to get them washed, clothed, and set up on end; to slough their animal husks and habits; compel them to be clean; overawe their spite and meanness, teach them to stifle the base, and choose the generous expression, and make them know how much happier the generous behaviors are. Bad behavior the laws cannot reach. Society is invested with rude, cynical, restless, and frivolous persons who prey upon the rest, and whom a public opinion concentrated into good manners, forms accepted by the sense of all, can reach;--the contradictors and railers at public and private tables, who are like terriers, who conceive it the duty of a dog of honor to growl at any passer-by, and do the honors of the house by barking him out of sight;--I have seen men who neigh like a horse when you contradict them, or say something which they do not understand;--then the overbold, who make their own invitation to your hearth; the persevering talker, who gives you his society in large, saturating doses; the pitiers of themselves,--a perilous class; the frivolous Asmodeus, who relies on you to find him in ropes of sand to twist; the monotones; in short, every stripe of absurdity;--these are social inflictions which the magistrate cannot cure or defend you from, and which must be intrusted to the restraining force of custom, and proverbs, and familiar rules of behavior impressed on young people in their school-days. In the hotels on the banks of the Mississippi, they print, or used to print, among the rules of the house, that "No gentleman can be permitted to come to the public table without his coat;" and in the same country, in the pews of the churches, little placards plead with the worshipper against the fury of expectoration. Charles Dickens self-sacrificingly undertook the reformation of our American manners in unspeakable particulars. I think the lesson was not quite lost; that it held bad manners up, so that the churls could see the deformity. Unhappily, the book had its own deformities. It ought not to need to print in a reading room a caution to strangers not to speak loud; nor to persons who look over fine engravings, that they should be handled like cobwebs and butterflies' wings; nor to persons who look at marble statues, that they shall not smite them with canes. But, even in the perfect civilization of this city, such cautions are not quite needless in the Athenaeum and City Library. Manners are factitious, and grow out of circumstances as well as out of character. If you look at the pictures of patricians and of peasants, of different periods and countries, you will see how well they match the same classes in our towns. The modern aristocrat not only is well drawn in Titian's Venetian doges, and in Roman coins and statues, but also in the pictures which Commodore Perry brought home of dignitaries in Japan. Broad lands and great interests not only arrive to such heads as can manage them, but form manners of power. A keen eye, too, will see nice gradations of rank, or see in the manners the degree of homage the party is wont to receive. A prince who is accustomed every day to be courted and deferred to by the highest grandees, acquires a corresponding expectation, and a becoming mode of receiving and replying to this homage. There are always exceptional people and modes. English grandees affect to be farmers. Claverhouse is a fop, and, under the finish of dress, and levity of behavior, hides the terror of his war. But Nature and Destiny are honest, and never fail to leave their mark, to hang out a sign for each and for every quality. It is much to conquer one's face, and perhaps the ambitious youth thinks he has got the whole secret when he has learned that disengaged manners are commanding. Don't be deceived by a facile exterior. Tender men sometimes have strong wills. We had, in Massachusetts, an old statesman, who had sat all his life in courts and in chairs of state, without overcoming an extreme irritability of face, voice, and bearing: when he spoke, his voice would not serve him; it cracked, it broke, it wheezed, it piped;--little cared he; he knew that it had got to pipe, or wheeze, or screech his argument and his indignation. When he sat down, after speaking, he seemed in a sort of fit, and held on to his chair with both hands: but underneath all this irritability was a puissant will, firm and advancing, and a memory in which lay in order and method, like geologic strata, every fact of his history, and under the control of his will. Manners are partly factitious, but, mainly, there must be capacity for culture in the blood. Else all culture is vain. The obstinate prejudice in favor of blood, which lies at the base of the feudal and monarchical fabrics of the old world, has some reason in common experience. Every man,--mathematician, artist, soldier, or merchant,--looks with confidence for some traits and talents in his own child, which he would not dare to presume in the child of a stranger. The Orientalists are very orthodox on this point. "Take a thorn-bush," said the emir Abdel-Kader, "and sprinkle it for a whole year with water, it will yield nothing but thorns. Take a date-tree, leave it without culture, and it will always produce dates. Nobility is the date-tree, and the Arab populace is a bush of thorns." A main fact in the history of manners is the wonderful expressiveness of the human body. If it were made of glass, or of air, and the thoughts were written on steel tablets within, it could not publish more truly its meaning than now. Wise men read very sharply all your private history in your look and gait and behavior. The whole economy of nature is bent on expression. The tell-tale body is all tongues. Men are like Geneva watches with crystal faces which expose the whole movement. They carry the liquor of life flowing up and down in these beautiful bottles, and announcing to the curious how it is with them. The face and eyes reveal what the spirit is doing, how old it is, what aims it has. The eyes indicate the antiquity of the soul, or through how many forms it has already ascended. It almost violates the proprieties, if we say above the breath here what the confessing eyes do not hesitate to utter to every street passenger. Man cannot fix his eye on the sun, and so far seems imperfect. In Siberia, a late traveller found men who could see the satellites of Jupiter with their unarmed eye. In some respects the animals excel us. The birds have a longer sight, beside the advantage by their wings of a higher observatory. A cow can bid her calf, by secret signal, probably of the eye, to run away, or to lie down and hide itself. The jockeys say of certain horses, that "they look over the whole ground." The outdoor life, and hunting, and labor, give equal vigor to the human eye. A farmer looks out at you as strong as the horse; his eye-beam is like the stroke of a staff. An eye can threaten like a loaded and levelled gun, or can insult like hissing or kicking; or, in its altered mood, by beams of kindness, it can make the heart dance with joy. The eye obeys exactly the action of the mind. When a thought strikes us, the eyes fix, and remain gazing at a distance; in enumerating the names of persons or of countries, as France, Germany, Spain, Turkey, the eyes wink at each new name. There is no nicety of learning sought by the mind, which the eyes do not vie in acquiring. "An artist," said Michael Angelo, "must have his measuring tools not in the hand, but in the eye;" and there is no end to the catalogue of its performances, whether in indolent vision (that of health and beauty) or in strained vision (that of art and labor). Eyes are bold as lions,--roving, running, leaping, here and there, far and near. They speak all languages. They wait for no introduction; they are no Englishmen; ask no leave of age or rank; they respect neither poverty nor riches, neither learning nor power, nor virtue, nor sex, but intrude, and come again, and go through and through you, in a moment of time. What inundation of life and thought is discharged from one soul into another through them! The glance is natural magic. The mysterious communication established across a house between two entire strangers moves all the springs of wonder. The communication by the glance is in the greatest part not subject to the control of the will. It is the bodily symbol of identity of nature. We look into the eyes to know if this other form is another self, and the eyes will not lie, but make a faithful confession what inhabitant is there. The revelations are sometimes terrific. The confession of a low, usurping devil is there made, and the observer shall seem to feel the stirring of owls, and bats, and horned hoofs, where he looked for innocence and simplicity. 'Tis remarkable, too, that the spirit that appears at the windows of the house does at once invest himself in a new form of his own to the mind of the beholder. The eyes of men converse as much as their tongues, with the advantage, that the ocular dialect needs no dictionary, but is understood all the world over. When the eyes say one thing, and the tongue another, a practised man relies on the language of the first. If the man is off his center, the eyes show it. You can read in the eyes of your companion, whether your argument hits him, though his tongue will not confess it. There is a look by which a man shows he is going to say a good thing, and a look when he has said it. Vain and forgotten are all the fine offers and offices of hospitality, if there is no holiday in the eye. How many furtive inclinations avowed by the eye, though dissembled by the lips! One comes away from a company, in which, it may easily happen, he has said nothing, and no important remark has been addressed to him, and yet, if in sympathy with the society he shall not have a sense of this fact, such a stream of life has been flowing into him, and out from him, through the eyes. There are eyes, to be sure, that give no more admission into the man than blue-berries. Others are liquid and deep,--wells that a man might fall into;--others are aggressive and devouring, seem to call out the police, take all too much notice, and require crowded Broadways, and the security of millions, to protect individuals against them. The military eye I meet, now darkly sparkling under clerical, now under rustic brows. 'Tis the city of Lacedaemon; 'tis a stack of bayonets. There are asking eyes, asserting eyes, prowling eyes; and eyes full of fate,--some of good, and some of sinister omen. The alleged power to charm down insanity, or ferocity in beasts, is a power behind the eye. It must be a victory achieved in the will before it can be signified in the eye. 'Tis very certain that each man carries in his eye the exact indication of his rank in the immense scale of men, and we are always learning to read it. A complete man should need no auxiliaries to his personal presence. Whoever looked on him would consent to his will, being certified that his aims were generous and universal. The reason why men do not obey us, is because they see the mud at the bottom of our eye. If the organ of sight is such a vehicle of power, the other features have their own. A man finds room in the few square inches of the face for the traits of all his ancestors; for the expression of all his history, and his wants. The sculptor, and Winckelmann, and Lavater, will tell you how significant a feature is the nose; how its forms express strength or weakness of will, and good or bad temper. The nose of Julius Caesar, of Dante, and of Pitt, suggest "the terrors of the beak." What refinement, and what limitations, the teeth betray! "Beware you don't laugh," said the wise mother, "for then you show all your faults." Balzac left in manuscript a chapter, which he called "_Théorie de la démarche_,"[35] in which he says: "The look, the voice, the respiration, and the attitude or walk, are identical. But, as it has not been given to man, the power to stand guard, at once, over these four different simultaneous expressions of his thought, watch that one which speaks out the truth, and you will know the whole man." Palaces interest us mainly in the exhibition of manners, which, in the idle and expensive society dwelling in them, are raised to a high art. The maxim of courts is, that manner is power. A calm and resolute bearing, a polished speech, an embellishment of trifles, and the art of hiding all uncomfortable feeling, are essential to the courtier: and Saint Simon, and Cardinal de Retz, and Roederer, and an encyclopaedia of _Mémoires_, will instruct you, if you wish, in those potent secrets. Thus, it is a point of pride with kings to remember faces and names. It is reported of one prince, that his head had the air of leaning downwards, in order not to humble the crowd. There are people who come in ever like a child with a piece of good news. It was said of the late Lord Holland, that he always came down to breakfast with the air of a man who had just met with some signal good-fortune. In _Notre Dame_, the grandee took his place on the dais, with the look of one who is thinking of something else. But we must not peep and eavesdrop at palace-doors. Fine manners need the support of fine manners in others. A scholar may be a well-bred man, or he may not. The enthusiast is introduced to polished scholars in society, and is chilled and silenced by finding himself not in their element. They all have somewhat which he has not, and, it seems, ought to have. But if he finds the scholar apart from his companions, it is then the enthusiast's turn, and the scholar has no defence, but must deal on his terms. Now they must fight the battle out on their private strengths. What is the talent of that character so common,--the successful man of the world,--in all marts, senates, and drawing-rooms? Manners: mariners of power; sense to see his advantage, and manners up to it. See him approach his man. He knows that troops behave as they are handled at first;--that is his cheap secret; just what happens to every two persons who meet on any affair,--one instantly perceives that he has the key of the situation, that his will comprehends the other's will, as the cat does the mouse; and he has only to use courtesy, and furnish good-natured reasons to his victim to cover up the chain, lest he be shamed into resistance. The theater in which this science of manners has a formal importance is not with us a court, but dress-circles, wherein, after the close of the day's business, men and women meet at leisure, for mutual entertainment, in ornamented drawing-rooms. Of course, it has every variety of attraction and merit; but, to earnest persons, to youths or maidens who have great objects at heart, we cannot extol it highly. A well-dressed, talkative company, where each is bent to amuse the other,--yet the high-born Turk who came hither fancied that every woman seemed to be suffering for a chair; that all the talkers were brained and exhausted by the deoxygenated air; it spoiled the best persons: it put all on stilts. Yet here are the secret biographies written and read. The aspect of that man is repulsive; I do not wish to deal with him. The other is irritable, shy, and on his guard. The youth looks humble and manly: I choose him. Look on this woman. There is not beauty, nor brilliant sayings, nor distinguished power, to serve you; but all see her gladly; her whole air and impression are healthful. Here come the sentimentalists, and the invalids. Here is Elise, who caught cold in coming into the world, and has always increased it since. Here are creep-mouse manners, and thievish manners. "Look at Northcote," said Fuseli; "he looks like a rat that has seen a cat." In the shallow company, easily excited, easily tired, here is the columnar Bernard: the Alleghanies do not express more repose than his behavior. Here are the sweet following eyes of Cecile: it seemed always that she demanded the heart. Nothing can be more excellent in kind than the Corinthian grace of Gertrude's manners, and yet Blanche, who has no manners, has better manners than she; for the movements of Blanche are the sallies of a spirit which is sufficient for the moment, and she can afford to express every thought by instant action. Manners have been somewhat cynically defined to be a contrivance of wise men to keep fools at a distance. Fashion is shrewd to detect those who do not belong to her train, and seldom wastes her attentions. Society is very swift in its instincts, and, if you do not belong to it, resists and sneers at you; or quietly drops you. The first weapon enrages the party attacked; the second is still more effective, but is not to be resisted, as the date of the transaction is not easily found. People grow up and grow old under this infliction, and never suspect the truth, ascribing the solitude which acts on them very injuriously to any cause but the right one. The basis of good manners is self-reliance. Necessity is the law of all who are not self-possessed. Those who are not self-possessed, obtrude, and pain us. Some men appear to feel that they belong to a Pariah caste. They fear to offend, they bend and apologize, and walk through life with a timid step. As we sometimes dream that we are in a well-dressed company without any coat, so Godfrey acts ever as if he suffered from some mortifying circumstance. The hero should find himself at home, wherever he is; should impart comfort by his own security and good-nature to all beholders. The hero is suffered to be himself. A person of strong mind comes to perceive that for him an immunity is secured so long as he renders to society that service which is native and proper to him,--an immunity from all the observances, yea, and duties, which society so tyrannically imposes on the rank and file of its members. "Euripides," says Aspasia, "has not the fine manners of Sophocles; but,"--she adds good-humoredly, "the movers and masters of our souls have surely a right to throw out their limbs as carelessly as they please on the world that belongs to them, and before the creatures they have animated."[36] Manners require time, as nothing is more vulgar than haste. Friendship should be surrounded with ceremonies and respects, and not crushed into corners. Friendship requires more time than poor busy men can usually command. Here comes to me Roland, with a delicacy of sentiment leading and inwrapping him like a divine cloud or holy ghost. Tis a great destitution to both that this should not be entertained with large leisures, but, contrariwise, should be balked by importunate affairs. But through this lustrous varnish the reality is ever shining. 'Tis hard to keep the _what_ from breaking through this pretty painting of the _how_. The core will come to the surface. Strong will and keen perception overpower old manners and create new; and the thought of the present moment has a greater value than all the past. In persons of character, we do not remark manners, because of their instantaneousness. We are surprised by the thing done, out of all power to watch the way of it. Yet nothing is more charming than to recognize the great style which runs through the actions of such. People masquerade before us in their fortunes, titles, offices, and connections, as academic or civil presidents, or senators, or professors, or great lawyers, and impose on the frivolous, and a good deal on each other, by these fames. At least, it is a point of prudent good manners to treat these reputations tenderly, as if they were merited. But the sad realist knows these fellows at a glance, and they know him; as when in Paris the chief of the police enters a ballroom, so many diamonded pretenders shrink and make themselves as inconspicuous as they can, or give him a supplicating look as they pass. "I had received," said a sybil, "I had received at birth the fatal gift of penetration:"--and these Cassandras are always born. Manners impress as they indicate real power. A man who is sure of his point, carries a broad and contented expression, which everybody reads. And you cannot rightly train one to an air and manner, except by making him the kind of man of whom that manner is the natural expression. Nature for ever puts a premium on reality. What is done for effect, is seen to be done for effect; what is done for love, is felt to be done for love. A man inspires affection and honor, because he was not lying in wait for these. The things of a man for which we visit him, were done in the dark and the cold. A little integrity is better than any career. So deep are the sources of this surface-action, that even the size of your companion seems to vary with his freedom of thought. Not only is he larger, when at ease, and his thoughts generous, but everything around him becomes variable with expression. No carpenter's rule, no rod and chain, will measure the dimensions of any house or house-lot: go into the house: if the proprietor is constrained and deferring, 'tis of no importance how large his house, how beautiful his grounds,--you quickly come to the end of all; but if the man is self-possessed, happy, and at home, his house is deep-founded, indefinitely large and interesting, the roof and dome buoyant as the sky. Under the humblest roof, the commonest person in plain clothes sits there massive, cheerful, yet formidable, like the Egyptian colossi. Neither Aristotle, nor Leibnitz, nor Junius, nor Champollion has set down the grammar-rules of this dialect, older than Sanscrit; but they who cannot yet read English, can read this. Men take each other's measure when they meet for the first time,--and every time they meet. How do they get this rapid knowledge, even before they speak, of each other's power and dispositions? One would say, that the persuasion of their speech is not in what they say,--or, that men do not convince by their argument,--but by their personality, by who they are, and what they said and did heretofore. A man already strong is listened to, and everything he says is applauded. Another opposes him with sound argument, but the argument is scouted, until by-and-by it gets into the mind of some weighty person; then it begins to tell on the community. Self-reliance is the basis of behavior, as it is the guaranty that the powers are not squandered in too much demonstration. In this country, where school education is universal, we have a superficial culture, and a profusion of reading and writing and expression. We parade our nobilities in poems and orations, instead of working them up into happiness. There is a whisper out of the ages to him who can understand it,--"Whatever is known to thyself alone, has always very great value." There is some reason to believe, that, when a man does not write his poetry, it escapes by other vents through him, instead of the one vent of writing; clings to his form and manners, whilst poets have often nothing poetical about them except their verses. Jacobi said that, "when a man has fully expressed his thought, he has somewhat less possession of it." One would say, the rule is,--What a man is irresistibly urged to say, helps him and us. In explaining his thought to others, he explains it to himself: but when he opens it for show, it corrupts him. Society is the stage on which manners are shown; novels are their literature. Novels are the journal or record of manners; and the new importance of these books derives from the fact, that the novelist begins to penetrate the surface, and treats this part of life more worthily. The novels used to be all alike, and had a quite vulgar tone. The novels used to lead us on to a foolish interest in the fortunes of the boy and girl they described. The boy was to be raised from a humble to a high position. He was in want of a wife and a castle, and the object of the story was to supply him with one or both. We watched sympathetically, step by step, his climbing, until, at last, the point is gained, the wedding day is fixed, and we follow the gala procession home to the castle, when the doors are slammed in our face, and the poor reader is left outside in the cold, not enriched by so much as an idea, or a virtuous impulse. But the victories of character are instant, and victories for all. Its greatness enlarges all. We are fortified by every heroic anecdote. The novels are as useful as Bibles, if they teach you the secret, that the best of life is conversation, and the greatest success is confidence, or perfect understanding between sincere people. 'Tis a French definition of friendship, _rien que s'entendre_, good understanding. The highest compact we can make with our fellow is,--"Let there be truth between us two for evermore." That is the charm in all good novels, as it is the charm in all good histories, that the heroes mutually understand, from the first, and deal loyally, and with a profound trust in each other. It is sublime to feel and say of another, I need never meet, or speak, or write to him: we need not reinforce ourselves, or send tokens of remembrance: I rely on him as on myself: if he did thus or thus, I know it was right. In all the superior people I have met, I notice directness, truth spoken more truly, as if everything of obstruction, of malformation, had been trained away. What have they to conceal? What have they to exhibit? Between simple and noble persons, there is always a quick intelligence: they recognize at sight, and meet on a better ground than the talents and skills they may chance to possess, namely, on sincerity and uprightness. For, it is not what talents or genius a man has, but how he is to his talents, that constitutes friendship and character. The man that stands by himself, the universe stands by him also. It is related of the monk Basle, that, being excommunicated by the Pope, he was, at his death, sent in charge of an angel to find a fit place of suffering in hell; but, such was the eloquence and good-humor of the monk, that, wherever he went, he was received gladly, and civilly treated, even by the most uncivil angels: and, when he came to discourse with them, instead of contradicting or forcing him, they took his part, and adopted his manners: and even good angels came from far to see him, and take up their abode with him. The angel that was sent to find a place of torment for him, attempted to remove him to a worse pit, but with no better success; for such was the contented spirit of the monk, that he found something to praise in every place and company, though in hell, and made a kind of heaven of it. At last the escorting angel returned with his prisoner to them that sent him, saying, that no phlegethon could be found that would burn him; for that, in whatever condition, Basle remained incorrigibly Basle. The legend says, his sentence was remitted, and he was allowed to go into heaven, and was canonized as a saint. There is a stroke of magnanimity in the correspondence of Bonaparte with his brother Joseph, when the latter was King of Spain, and complained that he missed in Napoleon's letters the affectionate tone which had marked their childish correspondence. "I am sorry," replies Napoleon, "you think you shall find your brother again only in the Elysian Fields. It is natural that at forty he should not feel towards you as he did at twelve. But his feelings towards you have greater truth and strength. His friendship has the features of his mind." How much we forgive to those who yield us the rare spectacle of heroic manners! We will pardon them the want of books, of arts, and even of the gentler virtues. How tenaciously we remember them! Here is a lesson which I brought along with me in boyhood from the Latin School, and which ranks with the best of Roman anecdotes. Marcus Scaurus was accused by Quintus Varius Hispanus, that he had excited the allies to take arms against the Republic. But he, full of firmness and gravity, defended himself in this manner: "Quintus Varius Hispanus alleges that Marcus Scaurus, President of the Senate, excited the allies to arms: Marcus Scaurus, President of the Senate, denies it. There is no witness. Which do you believe, Romans?" "_Utri creditis, Quirites?_" When he had said these words, he was absolved by the assembly of the people. I have seen manners that make a similar impression with personal beauty; that give the like exhilaration, and refine us like that; and, in memorable experiences, they are suddenly better than beauty, and make that superfluous and ugly. But they must be marked by fine perception, the acquaintance with real beauty. They must always show self-control: you shall not be facile, apologetic, or leaky, but king over your word; and every gesture and action shall indicate power at rest. Then they must be inspired by the good heart. There is no beautifier of complexion, or form, or behavior, like the wish to scatter joy and not pain around us. 'Tis good to give a stranger a meal, or a night's lodging. 'Tis better to be hospitable to his good meaning and thought, and give courage to a companion. We must be as courteous to a man as we are to a picture, which we are willing to give the advantage of a good light. Special precepts are not to be thought of: the talent of well-doing contains them all. Every hour will show a duty as paramount as that of my whim just now; and yet I will write it,--that there is one topic peremptorily forbidden to all well-bred, to all rational mortals, namely, their distempers. If you have not slept, or if you have slept, or if you have headache, or sciatica, or leprosy, or thunder-stroke, I beseech you, by all angels, to hold your peace, and not pollute the morning, to which all the housemates bring serene and pleasant thoughts, by corruption and groans. Come out in the azure. Love the day. Do not leave the sky out of your landscape. The oldest and the most deserving person should come very modestly into any newly awaked company, respecting the divine communications, out of which all must be presumed to have newly come. An old man who added an elevating culture to a large experience of life, said to me, "When you come into the room, I think I will study how to make humanity beautiful to you." As respects the delicate question of culture, I do not think that any other than negative rules can be laid down. For positive rules, for suggestion, nature alone inspires it. Who dare assume to guide a youth, a maid, to perfect manners?--the golden mean is so delicate, difficult,--say frankly unattainable. What finest hands would not be clumsy to sketch the genial precepts of the young girl's demeanor? The chances seem infinite against success; and yet success is continually attained. There must not be secondariness, and 'tis a thousand to one that her air and manner will at once betray that she is not primary, but that there is some other one or many of her class, to whom she habitually postpones herself. But nature lifts her easily, and without knowing it, over these impossibilities, and we are continually surprised with graces and felicities not only unteachable, but undescribable. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 34: Chapter V of "The Conduct of Life," 1860.] [Footnote 35: Theory of gait and demeanor.] [Footnote 36: From Landor's "Pericles and Aspasia."] MANNERS AND FASHION[37] HERBERT SPENCER Some who shun drawing-rooms do so from inability to bear the restraints prescribed by a genuine refinement, and they would be greatly improved by being kept under these restraints. But it is not less true that, by adding to the legitimate restraints, which are based on convenience and a regard for others, a host of factitious restraints based only on convention, the refining discipline, which would else have been borne with benefit, is rendered unbearable, and so misses its end. Excess of government invariably defeats itself by driving away those to be governed. And if over all who desert its entertainments in disgust either at their emptiness or their formality, society thus loses its salutary influence--if such not only fail to receive that moral culture which the company of ladies, when rationally regulated, would give them, but, in default of other relaxation, are driven into habits and companionships which often end in gambling and drunkenness; must we not say that here, too, is an evil not to be passed over as insignificant? Then consider what a blighting effect these multitudinous preparations and ceremonies have upon the pleasures they profess to subserve. Who, on calling to mind the occasions of his highest social enjoyments, does not find them to have been wholly informal, perhaps impromptu? How delightful a picnic of friends, who forget all observances save those dictated by good nature! How pleasant the little unpretended gatherings of book-societies, and the like; or those purely accidental meetings of a few people well known to each other! Then, indeed, we may see that "a man sharpeneth the countenance of his friend." Cheeks flush, and eyes sparkle. The witty grow brilliant, and even the dull are excited into saying good things. There is an overflow of topics; and the right thought, and the right words to put it in, spring up unsought. Grave alternates with gay: now serious converse, and now jokes, anecdotes, and playful raillery. Everyone's best nature is shown, everyone's best feelings are in pleasurable activity; and, for the time, life seems well worth having. Go now and dress for some half-past eight dinner, or some ten o'clock "at home;" and present yourself in spotless attire, with every hair arranged to perfection. How great the difference! The enjoyment seems in the inverse ratio of the preparation. These figures, got up with such finish and precision, appear but half alive. They have frozen each other by their primness; and your faculties feel the numbing effects of the atmosphere the moment you enter it. All those thoughts, so nimble and so apt awhile since, have disappeared--have suddenly acquired a preternatural power of eluding you. If you venture a remark to your neighbour, there comes a trite rejoinder, and there it ends. No subject you can hit upon outlives half a dozen sentences. Nothing that is said excites any real interest in you; and you feel that all you say is listened to with apathy. By some strange magic, things that usually give pleasure seem to have lost all charm. You have a taste for art. Weary of frivolous talk, you turn to the table, and find that the book of engravings and the portfolio of photographs are as flat as the conversation. You are fond of music. Yet the singing, good as it is, you hear with utter indifference; and say "Thank you" with a sense of being a profound hypocrite. Wholly at ease though you could be, for your own part, you find that your sympathies will not let you. You see young gentlemen feeling whether their ties are properly adjusted, looking vacantly round, and considering what they shall do next. You see ladies sitting disconsolately, waiting for some one to speak to them, and wishing they had the wherewith to occupy their fingers. You see the hostess standing about the doorway, keeping a factitious smile on her face, and racking her brain to find the requisite nothings with which to greet her guests as they enter. You see numberless traits of weariness and embarrassment; and, if you have any fellow-feeling, these cannot fail to produce a feeling of discomfort. The disorder is catching; and do what you will you cannot resist the general infection. You struggle against it; you make spasmodic efforts to be lively; but none of your sallies or your good stories do more than raise a simper or a forced laugh: intellect and feeling are alike asphyxiated. And when, at length, yielding to your disgust, you rush away, how great is the relief when you get into the fresh air, and see the stars! How you "Thank God, that's over!" and half resolve to avoid all such boredom for the future! What, now, is the secret of this perpetual miscarriage and disappointment? Does not the fault lie with all these needless adjuncts--these elaborate dressings, these set forms, these expensive preparations, these many devices and arrangements that imply trouble and raise expectation? Who that has lived thirty years in the world has not discovered that Pleasure is coy; and must not be too directly pursued, but must be caught unawares? An air from a street-piano, heard while at work, will often gratify more than the choicest music played at a concert by the most accomplished musicians. A single good picture seen in a dealer's window, may give keener enjoyment than a whole exhibition gone through with catalogue and pencil. By the time we have got ready our elaborate apparatus by which to secure happiness, the happiness is gone. It is too subtle to be contained in these receivers, garnished with compliments, and fenced round with etiquette. The more we multiply and complicate appliances, the more certain are we to drive it away. The reason is patent enough. These higher emotions to which social intercourse ministers, are of extremely complex nature; they consequently depend for their production upon very numerous conditions; the more numerous the conditions, the greater the liability that one or other of them will be disturbed, and the emotions consequently prevented. It takes a considerable misfortune to destroy appetite; but cordial sympathy with those around may be extinguished by a look or a word. Hence it follows, that the more multiplied the _unnecessary_ requirements with which social intercourse is surrounded, the less likely are its pleasures to be achieved. It is difficult enough to fulfil continuously all the _essentials_ to a pleasurable communion with others: how much more difficult, then, must it be continuously to fulfil a host of _non-essentials_ also! It is, indeed, impossible. The attempt inevitably ends in the sacrifice of the first to the last--the essentials to the non-essentials. What chance is there of getting any genuine response from the lady who is thinking of your stupidity in taking her in to dinner on the wrong arm? How are you likely to have agreeable converse with the gentleman who is fuming internally because he is not placed next to the hostess? Formalities, familiar as they may become, necessarily occupy attention--necessarily multiply the occasions for mistake, misunderstanding, and jealousy, on the part of one or other--necessarily distract all minds from the thoughts and feelings that should occupy them--necessarily, therefore, subvert those conditions under which only any sterling intercourse is to be had. And this indeed is the fatal mischief which these conventions entail--a mischief to which every other is secondary. They destroy those highest of our pleasures which they profess to subserve. All institutions are alike in this, that however useful, and needful even, they originally were, they not only in the end cease to be so, but become detrimental. While humanity is growing, they continue fixed; daily get more mechanical and unvital; and by and by tend to strangle what they before preserved. It is not simply that they become corrupt and fail to act; they become obstructions. Old forms of government finally grow so oppressive, that they must be thrown off even at the risk of reigns of terror. Old creeds end in being dead formulas, which no longer aid but distort and arrest the general mind; while the State-churches administering them, come to be instruments for subsidising conservatism and repressing progress. Old schemes of education, incarnated in public schools and colleges, continue filling the heads of new generations with what has become relatively useless knowledge, and, by consequence, excluding knowledge which is useful. Not an organisation of any kind--political, religious, literary, philanthropic--but what, by its ever-multiplying regulations, its accumulating wealth, its yearly addition of officers, and the creeping into it of patronage and party feeling, eventually loses its original spirit, and sinks into a mere lifeless mechanism, worked with a view to private ends--a mechanism which not merely fails of its first purpose, but is a positive hindrance to it. Thus is it, too, with social usages. We read of the Chinese that they have "ponderous ceremonies transmitted from time immemorial," which make social intercourse a burden. The court forms prescribed by monarchs for their own exaltation, have, in all times and places, ended in consuming the comfort of their lives. And so the artificial observances of the dining-room and saloon, in proportion as they are many and strict, extinguish that agreeable communion which they were originally intended to secure. The dislike with which people commonly speak of society that is "formal," and "stiff," and "ceremonious," implies the general recognition of this fact; and this recognition, logically developed, involves that all usages of behaviour which are not based on natural requirements, are injurious. That these conventions defeat their own ends is no new assertion. Swift, criticising the manners of his day, says--"Wise men are often more uneasy at the over-civility of these refiners than they could possibly be in the conversation of peasants and mechanics." But it is not only in these details that the self-defeating action of our arrangements is traceable: it is traceable in the very substance and nature of them. Our social intercourse, as commonly managed, is a mere semblance of the reality sought. What is it that we want? Some sympathetic converse with our fellow-creatures: some converse that shall not be mere dead words, but the vehicle of living thoughts and feelings--converse in which the eyes and the face shall speak, and the tones of the voice be full of meaning--converse which shall make us feel no longer alone, but shall draw us closer to another, and double our own emotions by adding another's to them. Who is there that has not, from time to time, felt how cold and flat is all this talk about politics and science, and the new books and the new men, and how a genuine utterance of fellow-feeling outweighs the whole of it? Mark the words of Bacon:--"For a crowd is not a company, and faces are but a gallery of pictures, and talk but a tinkling cymbal, where there is no love." If this be true, then it is only after acquaintance has grown into intimacy, and intimacy has ripened into friendship, that the real communion which men need becomes possible. A rationally-formed circle must consist almost wholly of those on terms of familiarity and regard, with but one or two strangers. What folly, then, underlies the whole system of our grand dinners, our "at homes," our evening parties--assemblages made up of many who never met before, many others who just bow to each other, many others who though familiar feel mutual indifference, with just a few real friends lost in the general mass! You need, but look round at the artificial expression of face, to see at once how it is. All have their disguises on; and how can there be sympathy between masks? No wonder that in private every one exclaims against the stupidity of these gatherings. No wonder that hostesses get them up rather because they must than because they wish. No wonder that the invited go less from the expectation of pleasure than from fear of giving offence. The whole thing is a gigantic mistake--an organised disappointment. And then note, lastly, that in this case, as in all others, when an organisation has become effete and inoperative for its legitimate purpose, it is employed for quite other ones--quite opposite ones. What is the usual plea put in for giving and attending these tedious assemblies? "I admit that they are stupid and frivolous enough," replies every man to your criticisms; "but then, you know, one must keep up one's connections." And could you get from his wife a sincere answer, it would be--"Like you, I am sick of these frivolities; but then, we must get our daughters married." The one knows that there is a profession to push, a practice to gain, a business to extend: or parliamentary influence, or county patronage, or votes, or office, to be got: position, berths, favours, profit. The other's thoughts run upon husbands and settlements, wives and dowries. Worthless for their ostensible purpose of daily bringing human beings into pleasurable relations with each other, these cumbrous appliances of our social intercourse are now perseveringly kept in action with a view to the pecuniary and matrimonial results which they indirectly produce. Who then shall say that the reform of our system of observances is unimportant? When we see how this system induces fashionable extravagance, with its entailed bankruptcy and ruin--when we mark how greatly it limits the amount of social intercourse among the less wealthy classes--when we find that many who most need to be disciplined by mixing with the refined are driven away by it, and led into dangerous and often fatal courses--when we count up the many minor evils it inflicts, the extra work which its costliness entails on all professional and mercantile men, the damage to public taste in dress and decoration by the setting up of its absurdities as standards for imitation, the injury to health indicated in the faces of its devotees at the close of the London season, the mortality of milliners and the like, which its sudden exigencies yearly involve;--and when to all these we add its fatal sin, that it blights, withers up, and kills that high enjoyment it professedly ministers to--that enjoyment which is a chief end of our hard struggling in life to obtain--shall we not conclude that to reform our system of etiquette and fashion, is an aim yielding to few in urgency? There needs, then, a protestantism in social usages. Forms that have ceased to facilitate and have become obstructive--whether political, religious, or other--have ever to be swept away; and eventually are so swept away in all cases. Signs are not wanting that some change is at hand. A host of satirists, led on by Thackeray, have been for years engaged in bringing our sham-festivities, and our fashionable follies, into contempt; and in their candid moods, most men laugh at the frivolities with which they and the world in general are deluded. Ridicule has always been a revolutionary agent. That which is habitually assailed with sneers and sarcasms cannot long survive. Institutions that have lost their roots in men's respect and faith are doomed; and the day of their dissolution is not far off. The time is approaching, then, when our system of social observances must pass through some crisis, out of which it will come purified and comparatively simple. How this crisis will be brought about, no one can with any certainty say. Whether by the continuance and increase of individual protests, or whether by the union of many persons for the practice and propagation of some better system, the future alone can decide. The influence of dissentients acting without cooperation, seems, under the present state of things, inadequate. Standing severally alone, and having no well-defined views; frowned on by conformists, and expostulated with even by those who secretly sympathise with them; subject to petty persecutions, and unable to trace any benefit produced by their example; they are apt, one by one, to give up their attempts as hopeless. The young convention-breaker eventually finds that he pays too heavily for his nonconformity. Hating, for example, everything that bears about it any remnant of servility, he determines, in the ardour of his independence, that he will uncover to no one. But what he means simply as a general protest, he finds that ladies interpret into a personal disrespect. Though he sees that, from the days of chivalry downwards, these marks of supreme consideration paid to the other sex have been but a hypocritical counterpart to the actual subjection in which men have held them--a pretended submission to compensate for a real domination; and though he sees that when the true dignity of women is recognised, the mock dignities given to them will be abolished, yet he does not like to be thus misunderstood, and so hesitates in his practice. In other cases, again, his courage fails him. Such of his unconventionalities as can be attributed only to eccentricity, he has no qualms about: for, on the whole, he feels rather complimented than otherwise in being considered a disregarder of public opinion. But when they are liable to be put down to ignorance, to ill-breeding, or to poverty, he becomes a coward. However clearly the recent innovation of eating some kinds of fish with knife and fork proves the fork-and-bread practice to have had little but caprice for its basis, yet he dares not wholly ignore that practice while fashion partially maintains it. Though he thinks that a silk handkerchief is quite as appropriate for drawing-room use as a white cambric one, he is not altogether at ease in acting out his opinion. Then, too, be begins to perceive that his resistance to prescription brings round disadvantageous results which he had not calculated upon. He had expected that it would save him from a great deal of social intercourse of a frivolous kind--that it would offend the fools, but not the sensible people; and so would serve as a self-acting test by which those worth knowing would be separated from those not worth knowing. But the fools prove to be so greatly in the majority that, by offending them, he closes against himself nearly all the avenues through which the sensible people are to be reached. Thus he finds that his nonconformity is frequently misinterpreted; that there are but few directions in which he dares to carry it consistently out; that the annoyances and disadvantages which it brings upon him are greater than he anticipated; and that the chances of his doing any good are very remote. Hence he gradually loses resolution, and lapses, step by step, into the ordinary routine of observances. Abortive as individual protests thus generally turn out, it may possibly be that nothing effectual will be done until there arises some organised resistance to this invisible despotism, by which our modes and habits are dictated. It may happen, that the government of Manners and Fashion will be rendered less tyrannical, as the political and religious governments have been, by some antagonistic union. Alike in Church and State, men's first emancipations from excess of restriction were achieved by numbers, bound together by a common creed, or a common political faith. What remained undone while there were but individual schismatics or rebels, was effected when there came to be many acting in concert. It is tolerably clear that these earliest instalments of freedom could not have been obtained in any other way; for so long as the feeling of personal independence was weak and the rule strong, there could never have been a sufficient number of separate dissentients to produce the desired results. Only in these later times, during which the secular and spiritual controls have been growing less coercive, and the tendency towards individual liberty greater, has it become possible for smaller and smaller sects and parties to fight against established creeds and laws; until now men may safely stand even alone in their antagonism. The failure of individual nonconformity to customs, as above illustrated, suggests that an analogous series of changes may have to be gone through in this case also. It is true that the _lex non scripta_ differs from the _lex scripta_ in this, that, being unwritten, it is more readily altered; and that it has, from time to time, been quietly ameliorated. Nevertheless, we shall find that the analogy holds substantially good. For in this case, as in the others, the essential revolution is not the substituting of any one set of restraints for any other, but the limiting or abolishing the authority which prescribes restraints. Just as the fundamental change inaugurated by the Reformation, was not a superseding of one creed by another, but an ignoring of the arbiter who before dictated creeds--just as the fundamental change which Democracy long ago commenced, was not from this particular law to that, but from the despotism of one to the freedom of all; so, the parallel change yet to be wrought out in this supplementary government of which we are treating, is not the replacing of absurd usages by sensible ones, but the dethronement of that secret, irresponsible power which now imposes our usages, and the assertion of the right of all individuals to choose their own usages. In rules of living, a West-end clique is our Pope; and we are all papists, with but a mere sprinkling of heretics. On all who decisively rebel, comes down the penalty of excommunication, with its long catalogue of disagreeable and, indeed, serious consequences. The liberty of the subject asserted in our constitution, and ever on the increase, has yet to be wrested from this subtler tyranny. The right of private judgment, which our ancestors wrung from the church, remains to be claimed from this dictator of our habits. Or, as before said, to free us from these idolatries and superstitious conformities, there has still to come a protestantism in social usages. Parallel, therefore, as is the change to be wrought out, it seems not improbable that it may be wrought out in an analogous way. That influence which solitary dissentients fail to gain, and that perseverance which they lack, may come into existence when they unite. That persecution which the world now visits upon them from mistaking their nonconformity for ignorance or disrespect, may diminish when it is seen to result from principle. The penalty which exclusion now entails may disappear when they become numerous enough to form visiting circles of their own. And when a successful stand has been made, and the brunt of the opposition has passed, that large amount of secret dislike to our observances which now pervades society, may manifest itself with sufficient power to effect the desired emancipation. Whether such will be the process, time alone can decide. That community of origin, growth, supremacy, and decadence which we have found among all kinds of government, suggests a community in modes of change also. On the other hand, Nature often performs substantially similar operations, in ways apparently different. Hence these details can never be foretold. Society, in all its developments, undergoes the process of exuviation. These old forms which it successively throws off, have all been once vitally united with it--have severally served as the protective envelopes within which a higher humanity was being evolved. They are cast aside only when they become hindrances--only when some inner and better envelope has been formed; and they bequeath to us all that there was in them of good. The periodical abolitions of tyrannical laws have left the administration of justice not only uninjured, but purified. Dead and buried creeds have not carried with them the essential morality they contained, which still exists, uncontaminated by the sloughs of superstition. And all that there is of justice and kindness and beauty, embodied in our cumbrous forms of etiquette, will live perennially when the forms themselves have been forgotten. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 37: From "Illustrations of Universal Progress," 1864.] TALK AND TALKERS[38] ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON "Sir, we had a good talk."--JOHNSON. "As we must account for every idle word, so we must for every idle silence."--FRANKLIN. There can be no fairer ambition than to excel in talk; to be affable, gay, ready, clear and welcome; to have a fact, a thought, or an illustration, pat to every subject; and not only to cheer the flight of time among our intimates, but bear our part in that great international congress, always sitting, where public wrongs are first declared, public errors first corrected, and the course of public opinion shaped, day by day, a little nearer to the right. No measure comes before Parliament but it has been long ago prepared by the grand jury of the talkers; no book is written that has not been largely composed by their assistance. Literature in many of its branches is no other than the shadow of good talk; but the imitation falls far short of the original in life, freedom, and effect. There are always two to a talk, giving and taking, comparing experience and according conclusions. Talk is fluid, tentative, continually "in further search and progress;" while written words remain fixed, become idols even to the writer, found wooden dogmatisms, and preserve flies of obvious error in the amber of the truth. Last and chief, while literature, gagged with linsey-woolsey, can only deal with a fraction of the life of man, talk goes fancy free and may call a spade a spade. It cannot, even if it would, become merely aesthetic or merely classical like literature. A jest intervenes, the solemn humbug is dissolved in laughter, and speech runs forth out of the contemporary groove into the open fields of nature, cheery and cheering, like schoolboys out of school. And it is in talk alone that we can learn our period and ourselves. In short, the first duty of a man is to speak; that is his chief business in this world; and talk, which is the harmonious speech of two or more, is by far the most accessible of pleasures. It costs nothing in money; it is all profit; it completes our education, founds and fosters our friendships, and can be enjoyed at any age and in almost any state of health. The spice of life is battle; the friendliest relations are still a kind of contest; and if we would not forego all that is valuable in our lot, we must continually face some other person, eye to eye, and wrestle a fall whether in love or enmity. It is still by force of body, or power of character or intellect, that we attain to worthy pleasures. Men and women contend for each other in the lists of love, like rival mesmerists; the active and adroit decide their challenges in the sports of the body; and the sedentary sit down to chess or conversation. All sluggish and pacific pleasures are, to the same degree, solitary and selfish; and every durable bond between human beings is founded in or heightened by some element of competition. Now, the relation that has the least root in matter is undoubtedly that airy one of friendship; and hence, I suppose, it is that good talk most commonly arises among friends. Talk is, indeed, both the scene and instrument of friendship. It is in talk alone that the friends can measure strength, and enjoy that amicable counter-assertion of personality which is the gauge of relations and the sport of life. A good talk is not to be had for the asking. Humours must first be accorded in a kind of overture or prologue; hour, company and circumstance be suited; and then, at a fit juncture, the subject, the quarry of two heated minds, springs up like a deer out of the wood. Not that the talker has any of the hunter's pride, though he has all and more than all his ardour. The genuine artist follows the stream of conversation as an angler follows the windings of a brook, not dallying where he fails to "kill." He trusts implicitly to hazard; and he is rewarded by continual variety, continual pleasure, and those changing prospects of the truth that are the best of education. There is nothing in a subject, so called, that we should regard it as an idol, or follow it beyond the promptings of desire. Indeed, there are few subjects; and so far as they are truly talkable, more than the half of them may be reduced to three: that I am I, that you are you, and that there are other people dimly understood to be not quite the same as either. Wherever talk may range, it still runs half the time on these eternal lines. The theme being set, each plays on himself as on an instrument; asserts and justifies himself; ransacks his brain for instances and opinions, and brings them forth new-minted, to his own surprise and the admiration of his adversary. All natural talk is a festival of ostentation; and by the laws of the game each accepts and fans the vanity of the other. It is from that reason that we venture to lay ourselves so open, that we dare to be so warmly eloquent, and that we swell in each other's eyes to such a vast proportion. For talkers, once launched, begin to overflow the limits of their ordinary selves, tower up to the height of their secret pretensions, and give themselves out for the heroes, brave, pious, musical, and wise, that in their most shining moments they aspire to be. So they weave for themselves with words and for a while inhabit a palace of delights, temple at once and theatre, where they fill the round of the world's dignities, and feast with the gods, exulting in Kudos.[39] And when the talk is over, each goes his way, still flushed with vanity and admiration, still trailing clouds of glory; each declines from the height of his ideal orgy, not in a moment, but by slow declension. I remember, in the _entr'acte_ of an afternoon performance, coming forth into the sunshine, in a beautiful green, gardened corner of a romantic city; and as I sat and smoked, the music moving in my blood, I seemed to sit there and evaporate _The Flying Dutchman_ (for it was that I had been hearing) with a wonderful sense of life, warmth, well-being, and pride; and the noises of the city, voices, bells and marching feet, fell together in my ears like a symphonious orchestra. In the same way, the excitement of a good talk lives for a long while after in the blood, the heart still hot within you, the brain still simmering, and the physical earth swimming around you with the colours of the sunset. Natural talk, like ploughing, should turn up a large surface of life, rather than dig mines into geological strata. Masses of experience, anecdote, incident, cross-lights, quotation, historical instances, the whole flotsam and jetsam of two minds forced in and in upon the matter in hand from every point of the compass, and from every degree of mental elevation and abasement--these are the material with which talk is fortified, the food on which the talkers thrive. Such argument as is proper to the exercise should still be brief and seizing. Talk should proceed by instances; by the apposite, not the expository. It should keep close along the lines of humanity, near the bosoms and businesses of men, at the level where history, fiction and experience intersect and illuminate each other. I am I, and You are You, with all my heart; but conceive how these lean propositions change and brighten when, instead of words, the actual you and I sit cheek by jowl, the spirit housed in the live body, and the very clothes uttering voices to corroborate the story in the face. Not less surprising is the change when we leave off to speak of generalities--the bad, the good, the miser, and all the characters of Theophrastus--and call up other men, by anecdote or instance, in their very trick and feature; or trading on a common knowledge, toss each other famous names, still glowing with the hues of life. Communication is no longer by words, but by the instancing of whole biographies, epics, systems of philosophy, and epochs of history, in bulk. That which is understood excels that which is spoken in quantity and quality alike; ideas thus figured and personified, change hands, as we may say, like coin; and the speakers imply without effort the most obscure and intricate thoughts. Strangers who have a large common ground of reading will, for this reason, come the sooner to the grapple of genuine converse. If they know Othello and Napoleon, Consuelo and Clarissa Harlowe, Vautrin and Steenie Steenson, they can leave generalities and begin at once to speak by figures. Conduct and art are the two subjects that arise most frequently and that embrace the widest range of facts. A few pleasures bear discussion for their own sake, but only those which are most social or most radically human; and even these can only be discussed among their devotees. A technicality is always welcome to the expert, whether in athletics, art, or law; I have heard the best kind of talk on technicalities from such rare and happy persons as both know and love their business. No human being ever spoke of scenery for above two minutes at a time, which makes me suspect we hear too much of it in literature. The weather is regarded as the very nadir and scoff of conversational topics. And yet the weather, the dramatic element in scenery, is far more tractable in language, and far more human both in import and suggestion than the stable features of the landscape. Sailors and shepherds, and the people generally of coast and mountain, talk well of it; and it is often excitingly presented in literature. But the tendency of all living talk draws it back and back into the common focus of humanity. Talk is a creature of the street and market-place, feeding on gossip; and its last resort is still in a discussion on morals. That is the heroic form of gossip; heroic in virtue of its high pretensions; but still gossip, because it turns on personalities. You can keep no men long, nor Scotchmen at all, off moral or theological discussion. These are to all the world what law is to lawyers; they are everybody's technicalities; the medium through which all consider life, and the dialect in which they express their judgments. I knew three young men who walked together daily for some two months in a solemn and beautiful forest and in cloudless summer weather; daily they talked with unabated zest, and yet scarce wandered that whole time beyond two subjects--theology and love. And perhaps neither a court of love[40] nor an assembly of divines would have granted their premises or welcomed their conclusions. Conclusions, indeed, are not often reached by talk any more than by private thinking. That is not the profit. The profit is in the exercise, and above all in the experience; for when we reason at large on any subject, we review our state and history in life. From time to time, however, and specially, I think, in talking art, talk becomes effective, conquering like war, widening the boundaries of knowledge like an exploration. A point arises; the question takes a problematical, a baffling, yet a likely air; the talkers begin to feel lively presentiments of some conclusion near at hand; towards this they strive with emulous ardour, each by his own path, and struggling for first utterance; and then one leaps upon the summit of that matter with a shout, and almost at the same moment the other is beside him; and behold they are agreed. Like enough, the progress is illusory, a mere cat's cradle having been wound and unwound out of words. But the sense of joint discovery is none the less giddy and inspiriting. And in the life of the talker such triumphs, though imaginary, are neither few nor far apart; they are attained with speed and pleasure, in the hour of mirth; and by the nature of the process, they are always worthily shared. There is a certain attitude combative at once and deferential, eager to fight yet most averse to quarrel, which marks out at once the talkable man. It is not eloquence, not fairness, not obstinacy, but a certain proportion of all of these that I love to encounter in my amicable adversaries. They must not be pontiffs holding doctrine, but huntsmen questing after elements of truth. Neither must they be boys to be instructed, but fellow-teachers with whom I may wrangle and agree on equal terms. We must reach some solution, some shadow of consent; for without that, eager talk becomes a torture. But we do not wish to reach it cheaply, or quickly, or without the tussle and effort Wherein pleasure lies. The very best talker, with me, is one whom I shall call Spring-Heel'd Jack. I say so, because I never knew any one who mingled so largely the possible ingredients of converse. In the Spanish proverb, the fourth man necessary to compound a salad, is a madman to mix it: Jack is that madman. I know not which is more remarkable: the insane lucidity of his conclusions, the humorous eloquence of his language, or his power of method, bringing the whole of life into the focus of the subject treated, mixing the conversational salad like a drunken god. He doubles like the serpent, changes and flashes like the shaken kaleidoscope, transmigrates bodily into the views of others, and so, in the twinkling of an eye and with a heady rapture, turns questions inside out and flings them empty before you on the ground, like a triumphant conjuror. It is my common practice when a piece of conduct puzzles me, to attack it in the presence of Jack with such grossness, such partiality and such wearing iteration, as at length shall spur him up in its defence. In a moment he transmigrates, dons the required character, and with moonstruck philosophy justifies the act in question. I can fancy nothing to compare with the _vim_ of these impersonations, the strange scale of language, flying from Shakespeare to Kant, and from Kant to Major Dyngwell-- "As fast as a musician scatters sounds Out of an instrument--" the sudden, sweeping generalisations, the absurd irrelevant particularities, the wit, wisdom, folly, humour, eloquence and bathos, each startling in its kind, and yet all luminous in the admired disorder of their combination. A talker of a different calibre, though belonging to the same school, is Burly. Burly is a man of great presence; he commands a larger atmosphere, gives the impression of a grosser mass of character than most men. It has been said of him that his presence could be felt in a room you entered blindfold; and the same, I think, has been said of other powerful constitutions condemned to much physical inaction. There is something boisterous and piratic in Burly's manner of talk which suits well enough with this impression. He will roar you down, he will bury his face in his hands, he will undergo passions of revolt and agony; and meanwhile his attitude of mind is really both conciliatory and receptive; and after Pistol has been out-Pistol'd, and the welkin rung for hours, you begin to perceive a certain subsidence in these spring torrents, points of agreement issue, and you end arm-in-arm, and in a glow of mutual admiration. The outcry only serves to make your final union the more unexpected and precious. Throughout there has been perfect sincerity, perfect intelligence, a desire to hear although not always to listen, and an unaffected eagerness to meet concessions. You have, with Burly, none of the dangers that attend debate with Spring-Heel'd Jack; who may at any moment turn his powers of transmigration on yourself, create for you a view you never held, and then furiously fall on you for holding it. These, at least, are my two favourites, and both are loud, copious, intolerant talkers. This argues that I myself am in the same category; for if we love talking at all, we love a bright, fierce adversary, who will hold his ground, foot by foot, in much our own manner, sell his attention dearly, and give us our full measure of the dust and exertion of battle. Both these men can be beat from a position, but it takes six hours to do it; a high and hard adventure, worth attempting. With both you can pass days in an enchanted country of the mind, with people, scenery and manners of its own; live a life apart, more arduous, active and glowing than any real existence; and come forth again when the talk is over, as out of a theatre or a dream, to find the east wind still blowing and the chimney-pots of the old battered city still around you. Jack has the far finer mind, Burly the far more honest; Jack gives us the animated poetry, Burly the romantic prose, of similar themes; the one glances high like a meteor and makes a light in darkness; the other, with many changing hues of fire, burns at the sea-level, like a conflagration; but both have the same humour and artistic interests, the same unquenched ardour in pursuit, the same gusts of talk and thunderclaps of contradiction. Cockshot[41] is a different article, but vastly entertaining, and has been meat and drink to me for many a long evening. His manner is dry, brisk and pertinacious, and the choice of words not much. The point about him is his extraordinary readiness and spirit. You can propound nothing but he has either a theory about it ready-made, or will have one instantly on the stocks, and proceed to lay its timbers and launch it in your presence. "Let me see," he will say. "Give me a moment. I _should_ have some theory for that." A blither spectacle than the vigour with which he sets about the task, it were hard to fancy. He is possessed by a demoniac energy, welding the elements for his life, and bending ideas, as an athlete bends a horseshoe, with a visible and lively effort. He has, in theorising, a compass, an art; what I would call the synthetic gusto; something of a Herbert Spencer, who should see the fun of the thing. You are not bound, and no more is he, to place your faith in these brand-new opinions. But some of them are right enough, durable even for life; and the poorest serve for a cock-shy--as when idle people, after picnics, float a bottle on a pond and have an hour's diversion ere, it sinks. Whichever they are, serious opinions or humours of the moment, he still defends his ventures with indefatigable wit and spirit, hitting savagely himself, but taking punishment like a man. He knows and never forgets that people talk, first of all, for the sake of talking; conducts himself in the ring, to use the old slang, like a thorough "glutton," and honestly enjoys a telling facer from his adversary. Cockshot is bottled effervescency, the sworn foe of sleep. Three-in-the-morning Cockshot, says a victim. His talk is like the driest of all imaginable dry champagnes. Sleight of hand and inimitable quickness are the qualities by which he lives. Athelred, on the other hand, presents you with the spectacle of a sincere and somewhat slow nature thinking aloud. He is the most unready man I ever knew to shine in conversation. You may see him sometimes wrestle with a refractory jest for a minute or two together, and perhaps fail to throw it in the end. And there is something singularly engaging, often instructive, in the simplicity with which he thus exposes the process as well as the result, the works as well as the dial of the clock. Withal he has his hours of inspiration. Apt words come to him as if by accident, and, coming from deeper down, they smack the more personally, they have the more of fine old crusted humanity, rich in sediment and humour. There are sayings of his in which he has stamped himself into the very grain of the language; you would think he must have worn the words next his skin and slept with them. Yet it is not as a sayer of particular good things that Athelred is most to be regarded, rather as the stalwart woodman of thought. I have pulled on a light cord often enough, while he has been wielding the broad-axe; and between us, on this unequal, division, many a specious fallacy has fallen. I have known him to battle the same question night after night for years, keeping it in the reign of talk, constantly applying it and re-applying it to life with humorous or grave intention, and all the while, never hurrying, nor flagging, nor taking an unfair advantage of the facts. Jack at a given moment, when arising, as it were, from the tripod, can be more radiantly just to those from whom he differs; but then the tenor of his thoughts is even calumnious; while Athelred, slower to forge excuses, is yet slower to condemn, and sits over the welter of the world, vacillating but still judicial, and still faithfully contending with his doubts. Both the last talkers deal much in points of conduct and religion studied in the "dry light" of prose. Indirectly and as if against his will the same elements from time to time appear in the troubled and poetic talk of Opalstein. His various and exotic knowledge, complete although unready sympathies, and fine, full, discriminative flow of language, fit him out to be the best of talkers; so perhaps he is with some, not _quite_ with me--_proxime accessit_,[42] I should say. He sings the praises of the earth and the arts, flowers and jewels, wine and music, in a moonlight, serenading manner, as to the light guitar; even wisdom comes from his tongue like singing; no one is, indeed, more tuneful in the upper notes. But even while he sings the song of the Sirens, he still hearkens to the barking of the Sphinx. Jarring Byronic notes interrupt the flow of his Horatian humours. His mirth has something of the tragedy of the world for its perpetual background; and he feasts like Don Giovanni to a double orchestra, one lightly sounding for the dance, one pealing Beethoven in the distance. He is not truly reconciled either with life or with himself; and this instant war in his members sometimes divides the man's attention. He does not always, perhaps not often, frankly surrender himself in conversation. He brings into the talk other thoughts than those which he expresses; you are conscious that he keeps an eye on something else, that he does not shake off the world, nor quite forget himself. Hence arise occasional disappointments; even an occasional unfairness for his companions, who find themselves one day giving too much, and the next, when they are wary out of season, giving perhaps too little. Purcel is in another class from any I have mentioned. He is no debater, but appears in conversation, as occasion rises, in two distinct characters, one of which I admire and fear, and the other love. In the first, he is radiantly civil and rather silent, sits on a high, courtly hilltop, and from that vantage-ground drops you his remarks like favours. He seems not to share in our sublunary contentions; he wears no sign of interest; when on a sudden there falls in a crystal of wit, so polished that the dull do not perceive it, but so right that the sensitive are silenced. True talk should have more body and blood, should be louder, vainer and more declaratory of the man; the true talker should not hold so steady an advantage over whom he speaks with; and that is one reason out of a score why I prefer my Purcel in his second character, when he unbends into a strain of graceful gossip, singing like the fireside kettle. In these moods he has an elegant homeliness that rings of the true Queen Anne. I know another person who attains, in his moments, to the insolence of a Restoration comedy, speaking, I declare, as Congreve wrote; but that is a sport of nature, and scarce falls under the rubric, for there is none, alas! to give him answer. One last remark occurs: It is the mark of genuine conversation that the sayings can scarce be quoted with their full effect beyond the circle of common friends. To have their proper weight they, should appear in a biography, and with the portrait of the speaker. Good talk is dramatic; it is like an impromptu piece of acting where each should represent himself to the greatest advantage; and that is the best kind of talk where each speaker is most fully and candidly himself, and where, if you were to shift the speeches, round from one to another, there would be the greatest loss in significance and perspicuity. It is for this reason that talk depends so wholly on our company. We should like to introduce Falstaff and Mercutio, or Falstaff and Sir Toby; but Falstaff in talk with Cordelia seems even painful. Most of us, by the Protean quality of man, can talk to some degree with all; but the true talk, that strikes out all the slumbering best of us, comes only with the peculiar brethren of our spirits, is founded as deep as love in the constitution of our being, and is a thing to relish with all our energy, while yet we have it, and to be grateful for forever. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 38: The first of two papers on this subject written in 1881-2; reprinted here, by permission of the publishers, from "Memories and Portraits" in the Biographical Edition of Stevenson's Works, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1907.] [Footnote 39: Kudos (Greek): glory.] [Footnote 40: Court of love: a mediaeval institution for the discussion of questions of chivalry.] [Footnote 41: The Late Fleeming Jenkin--Author's note.] [Footnote 42: Proxime accessit: he comes very close to it.] THE SOCIAL VALUE OF THE COLLEGE-BRED[43] WILLIAM JAMES Of what use is a college training? We who have had it seldom hear the question raised--we might be a little nonplussed to answer it offhand. A certain amount of meditation has brought me to this as the pithiest reply which I myself can give: The best claim that a college education can possibly make on your respect, the best thing it can aspire to accomplish for you, is this: that it should _help you to know a good man when you see him_. This is as true of women's as of men's colleges; but that it is neither a joke nor a one-sided abstraction I shall now endeavor to show. What talk do we commonly hear about the contrast between college education and the education which business or technical or professional schools confer? The college education is called higher because it is supposed to be so general and so disinterested. At the "schools" you get a relatively narrow practical skill, you are told, whereas the "colleges" give you the more liberal culture, the broader outlook, the historical perspective, the philosophic atmosphere, or something which phrases of that sort try to express. You are made into an efficient instrument for doing a definite thing, you hear, at the schools; but, apart from that, you may remain a crude and smoky kind of petroleum, incapable of spreading light. The universities and colleges, on the other hand, although they may leave you less efficient for this or that practical task, suffuse your whole mentality with something more important than skill. They redeem you, make you well-bred; they make "good company" of you mentally. If they find you with a naturally boorish or caddish mind, they cannot leave you so, as a technical school may leave you. This, at least, is pretended; this is what we hear among college-trained people when they compare their education with every other sort. Now, exactly how much does this signify? It is certain, to begin with, that the narrowest trade or professional training does something more for a man than to make a skillful practical tool of him--it makes him also a judge of other men's skill. Whether his trade be pleading at the bar or surgery or plastering or plumbing, it develops a critical sense in him for that sort of occupation. He understands the difference between second-rate and first-rate work in his whole branch of industry; he gets to know a good job in his own line as soon as he sees it; and getting to know this in his own line, he gets a faint sense of what good work may mean anyhow, that may, if circumstances favor, spread into his judgments elsewhere. Sound work, clean work, finished work; feeble work, slack work, sham work--these words express an identical contrast in many different departments of activity. In so far, then, even the humblest manual trade may beget in one a certain small degree of power to judge of good work generally. Now, what is supposed to be the line of us who have the higher college training? Is there any broader line--since our education claims primarily not to be "narrow"--in which we also are made good judges between what is first-rate and what is second-rate only? What is especially taught in the colleges has long been known by the name of the "humanities," and these are often identified with Greek and Latin. But it is only as literatures, not as languages, that Greek and Latin have any general humanity-value; so that in a broad sense the humanities mean literature primarily, and in a still broader sense the study of masterpieces in almost any field of human endeavor. Literature keeps the primacy; for it not only _consists_ of masterpieces, but is largely _about_ masterpieces, being little more than an appreciative chronicle of human master-strokes, so far as it takes the form of criticism and history. You can give humanistic value to almost anything by teaching it historically. Geology, economics, mechanics, are humanities when taught with reference to the successive achievements of the geniuses to which these sciences owe their being. Not taught thus, literature remains grammar, art a catalogue, history a list of dates, and natural science a sheet of formulas and weights and measures. The sifting of human creations!--nothing less than this is what we ought to mean by the humanities. Essentially this means biography; what our colleges should teach is, therefore, biographical history, not that of politics merely, but of anything and everything so far as human efforts and conquests are factors that have played their part. Studying in this way, we learn what type's of activity have stood the test of time; we acquire standards of the excellent: and durable. All our arts and sciences and institutions are but so many quests of perfection on the part of men; and when we see how diverse the types of excellence may be, how various the tests, how flexible the adaptations, we gain a richer sense of what the terms "better" and "worse" may signify in general. Our critical sensibilities grow both more acute and less fanatical. We sympathize with men's mistakes even in the act of penetrating them; we feel the pathos of lost causes and misguided epochs even while we applaud what overcame them. Such words are vague and such ideas are inadequate, but their meaning is unmistakable. What the colleges--teaching humanities by examples which may be special, but which must be typical and pregnant--should at least try to give us, is a general sense of what, under various disguises, _superiority_ has always signified and may still signify. The feeling for a good human job anywhere, the admiration of the really admirable, the disesteem of what is cheap and trashy and impermanent--this is what we call the critical sense, the sense for ideal values. It is the better part of what men know as wisdom. Some of us are wise in this way naturally and by genius; some of us never become so. But to have spent one's youth at college, in contact with the choice and rare and precious, and yet still to be a blind prig or vulgarian, unable to scent out human excellence or to divine it amid its accidents, to know it only when ticketed and labeled and forced on us by others, this indeed should be accounted the very calamity and shipwreck of a higher education. The sense for human superiority ought, then, to be considered our line, as boring subways is the engineer's line and the surgeon's is appendicitis. Our colleges ought to have lit up in us a lasting relish for the better kind of man, a loss of appetite for mediocrities, and a disgust for cheap-jacks. We ought to smell, as it were, the difference of quality in men and their proposals when we enter the world of affairs about us. Expertness in this might well atone for some of our awkwardness at accounts, for some of our ignorance of dynamos. The best claim we can make for the higher education, the best single phrase in which we can tell what it ought to do for us, is, then, exactly what I said: it should enable us to _know a good man when we see him_. That the phrase is anything but an empty epigram follows from the fact that if you ask in what line it is most important that a democracy like ours should have its sons and daughters skillful, you see that it is this line more than any other. "The people in their wisdom"--this is the kind of wisdom most needed by the people. Democracy is on its trial, and no one knows how it will stand the ordeal. Abounding about us are pessimistic prophets. Fickleness and violence used to be, but are no longer, the vices which they charge to democracy. What its critics now affirm is that its preferences are inveterately for the inferior. So it was in the beginning, they say, and so it will be world without end. Vulgarity enthroned and institutionalized, elbowing everything superior from the highway, this, they tell us, is our irremediable destiny; and the picture papers of the European continent are already drawing Uncle Sam with the hog instead of the eagle for his heraldic emblem. The privileged aristocracies of the foretime, with all their iniquities, did at least preserve some taste for higher human quality and honor certain forms of refinement by their enduring traditions. But when democracy is sovereign, its doubters say, nobility will form a sort of invisible church, and sincerity and refinement, stripped of honor, precedence, and favor, will have to vegetate on sufferance in private corners. They will have no general influence. They will be harmless eccentricities. Now, who can be absolutely certain that this may not be the career of democracy? Nothing future is quite secure; states enough have inwardly rotted; and democracy as a whole may undergo self-poisoning. But, on the other hand, democracy is a kind of religion, and we are bound not to admit its failure. Faiths and Utopias are the noblest exercise of human reason, and no one with a spark of reason in him will sit down fatalistically before the croaker's picture. The best of us are filled with the contrary vision of a democracy stumbling through every error till its institutions glow with justice and its customs shine with beauty. Our better men _shall_ show the way and we _shall_ follow them; so we are brought round again to the mission of the higher education in helping us to know the better kind of man whenever we see him. The notion that a people can run itself and its affairs anonymously is now well known to be the silliest of absurdities. Mankind does nothing save through initiatives on the part of inventors, great or small, and imitation by the rest of us--these are the sole factors active in human progress. Individuals of genius show the way, and set the patterns, which common people then adopt and follow. _The rivalry of the patterns is the history of the world_. Our democratic problem thus is statable in ultra-simple terms: Who are the kind of men from whom our majorities shall take their cue? Whom shall they treat as rightful leaders? We and our leaders are the _x_ and the _y_ of the equation here; all other historic circumstances, be they economical, political, or intellectual, are only the background of occasion on which the living drama works itself out between us. In this very simple way does the value of our educated class define itself: we more than others should be able to divine the worthier and better leaders. The terms here are monstrously simplified, of course, but such a bird's-eye view lets us immediately take our bearings. In our democracy, where everything else is so shifting, we alumni and alumnae of the colleges are the only permanent presence that corresponds to the aristocracy in older countries. We have continuous traditions, as they have; our motto, too, is _noblesse oblige_; and, unlike them, we stand for ideal interests solely, for we have no corporate selfishness and wield no powers of corruption. We ought to have our own class-consciousness. "Les intellectuels!" What prouder club name could there be than this one, used ironically by the party of "red blood," the party of every stupid prejudice and passion, during the anti-Dreyfus craze, to satirize the men in France who still retained some critical sense and judgment! Critical sense, it has to be confessed, is not an exciting term, hardly a banner to carry in processions. Affections for old habit, currents of self-interest, and gales of passion are the forces that keep the human ship moving; and the pressure of the judicious pilot's hand upon the tiller is a relatively insignificant energy. But the affections, passions, and interests are shifting, successive, and distraught; they blow in alternation while the pilot's hand is steadfast. He knows the compass, and, with all the leeways he is obliged to tack toward, he always makes some headway. A small force, if it never lets up, will accumulate effects more considerable than those of much greater forces if these work inconsistently. The ceaseless whisper of the more permanent ideals, the steady tug of truth and justice, give them but time, _must_ warp the world in their direction. This bird's-eye view of the general steering function of the college-bred amid the driftings of democracy ought to help us to a wider vision of what our colleges themselves should aim at. If we are to be the yeast cake for democracy's dough, if we are to make it rise with culture's preferences, we must see to it that culture spreads broad sails. We must shake the old double reefs out of the canvas into the wind and sunshine, and let in every modern subject, sure that any subject will prove humanistic, if its setting be kept only wide enough. Stevenson says somewhere to his reader: "You think you are just making this bargain, but you are really laying down a link in the policy of mankind." Well, your technical school should enable you to make your bargain splendidly; but your college should show you just the place of that kind of bargain--a pretty poor place, possibly--in the whole policy of mankind. That is the kind of liberal outlook, of perspective, of atmosphere, which should surround every subject as a college deals with it. We of the colleges must eradicate a curious notion which numbers of good people have about such ancient seats of learning as Harvard. To many ignorant outsiders, that name suggests little more than a kind of sterilized conceit and incapacity for being pleased. In Edith Wyatt's exquisite book of Chicago sketches called "Every One his Own Way," there is a couple who stand for culture in the sense of exclusiveness, Richard Elliot and his feminine counterpart--feeble caricatures of mankind, unable to know any good thing when they see it, incapable of enjoyment unless a printed label gives them leave. Possibly this type of culture may exist near Cambridge and Boston, there may be specimens there, for priggishness is just like painters' colic or any other trade disease. But every good college makes its students immune against this malady, of which the microbe haunts the neighborhood-printed pages. It does so by its general tone being too hearty for the microbe's life. Real culture lives by sympathies and admirations, not by dislikes and disdains--under all misleading wrappings it pounces unerringly upon the human core. If a college, through the inferior human influences that have grown regnant there, fails to catch the robuster tone, its failure is colossal, for its social function stops: democracy gives it a wide berth, turns toward it a deaf ear. "Tone," to be sure, is a terribly vague word to use, but there is no other, and this whole meditation is over questions of tone. By their tone are all things human either lost or saved. If democracy is to be saved it must catch the higher, healthier tone. If we are to impress it with our preferences, we ourselves must use the proper tone, which we, in turn, must have caught from our own teachers. It all reverts in the end to the action of innumerable imitative individuals upon each other and to the question of whose tone has the highest spreading power. As a class, we college graduates should look to it that _ours_ has spreading power. It ought to have the highest spreading power. In our essential function of indicating the better men, we now have formidable competitors outside. _McClure's Magazine,_ the _American Magazine, Collier's Weekly_, and, in its fashion, the _World's Work_, constitute together a real popular university along this very line. It would be a pity if any future historian were to have to write words like these: "By the middle of the twentieth century the higher institutions of learning had lost all influence over public opinion in the United States. But the mission of raising the tone of democracy, which they had proved themselves so lamentably unfitted to exert, was assumed with rare enthusiasm and prosecuted with extraordinary skill and success by a new educational power; and for the clarification of their human sympathies and elevation of their human preferences, the people at large acquired the habit of resorting exclusively to the guidance of certain private literary adventures, commonly designated in the market by the affectionate name of ten-cent magazines." Must not we of the colleges see to it that no historian shall ever say anything like this? Vague as the phrase of knowing a good man when you see him may be, diffuse and indefinite as one must leave its application, is there any other formula that describes so well the result at which our institutions _ought_ to aim? If they do that, they do the best thing conceivable. If they fail to do it, they fail in very deed. It surely is a fine synthetic formula. If our faculties and graduates could once collectively come to realize it as the great underlying purpose toward which they have always been more or less obscurely groping, great clearness would be shed over many of their problems; and, as for their influence in the midst of our social system, it would embark upon a new career of strength. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 43: First published in 1908. Reprinted by permission from _Memories and Studies_, 1911. (Messrs. Longmans, Green and Co.)] THE LAW OF HUMAN PROGRESS[44] HENRY GEORGE What, then, is the law of human progress--the law under which civilization advances? It must explain clearly and definitely, and not by vague generalities or superficial analogies, why, though mankind started presumably with the same capacities and at the same time, there now exist such wide differences in social development. It must account for the arrested civilizations and for the decayed and destroyed civilizations; for the general facts as to the rise of civilization, and for the petrifying or enervating force which the progress of civilization has heretofore always evolved. It must account for retrogression a well as for progression; for the differences in general character between Asiatic and European civilizations; for the difference between classical and modern civilizations; for the different rates at which progress goes on; and for those bursts, and starts, and halts of progress which are so marked as minor phenomena. And, thus, it must show us what are the essential conditions of progress, and what social adjustments advance and what retard it. It is not difficult to discover such a law. We have but to look and we may see it. I do not pretend to give it scientific precision, but merely to point it out. The incentives to progress are the desires inherent in human nature--the desire to gratify the wants of the animal nature, the wants of the intellectual nature, and the wants of the sympathetic nature; the desire to be, to know, and to do--desires that short of infinity can never be satisfied, as they grow by what they feed on. Mind is the instrument by which man advances, and by which each advance is secured and made the vantage ground for new advances. Though he may not by taking thought add a cubit to his stature, man may by taking thought extend his knowledge of the universe and his power over it, in what, so far as we can see, is an infinite degree. The narrow span of human life allows the individual to go but a short distance, but though each generation may do but little, yet generations, succeeding to the gain of their predecessors, may gradually elevate the status of mankind, as coral polyps, building one generation upon the work of the other, gradually elevate themselves from the bottom of the sea. Mental power is, therefore, the motor of progress, and men tend to advance in proportion to the mental power expended in progression--the mental power which is devoted to the extension of knowledge, the improvement of methods, and the betterment of social conditions. Now mental power is a fixed quantity--that is to say, there is a limit to the work a man can do with his mind, as there is to the work he can do with his body; therefore, the mental power which can be devoted to progress is only what is left after what is required for non-progressive purposes. These non-progressive purposes in which mental power is consumed may be classified as maintenance and conflict. By maintenance I mean, not only the support of existence, but the keeping up of the social condition and the holding of advances already gained. By conflict I mean not merely warfare and preparation for warfare, but all expenditure of mental power in seeking the gratification of desire at the expense of others, and in resistance to such aggression. To compare society to a boat. Her progress through the water will not depend upon the exertion of her crew, but upon the exertion devoted to propelling her. This will be lessened by any expenditure of force required for bailing, or any expenditure of force in fighting among themselves, or in pulling in different directions. Now, as in a separated state the whole powers of man are required to maintain existence, and mental power is set free for higher uses only by the association of men in communities, which permits the division of labor and all the economies which come with the co-operation of, increased numbers, association is the first essential of progress. Improvement becomes possible as men come together in peaceful association, and the wider and closer the association, the greater the possibilities of improvement. And as the wasteful expenditure of mental power in conflict becomes greater or less as the moral law which accords to each an equality of rights is ignored or is recognized, equality (or justice) is the second essential of progress. Thus association in equality is the law of progress. Association frees mental power for expenditure in improvement, and equality, or justice, or freedom--for the terms here signify the same thing, the recognition of the moral law--prevents the dissipation of this power in fruitless struggles. Here is the law of progress, which will explain all diversities, all advances, all halts, and retrogressions. Men tend to progress just as they come closer together, and by co-operation with each other increase the mental power that may be devoted to improvement; but just as conflict is provoked, or association develops inequality of condition and power, this tendency to progression is lessened, checked, and finally reversed. Given the same innate capacity, and it is evident that social development will go on faster or slower, will stop or turn back, according to the resistances it meets. In a general way these obstacles to improvement may, in relation to the society itself, be classed as external and internal--the first operating with greater force in the earlier stages of civilization, the latter becoming more important in the later stages. Man is social in his nature. He does not require to be caught and tamed in order to induce him to live with his fellows. The utter helplessness with which he enters the world, and the long period required for the maturity of his powers, necessitate the family relation; which, as we may observe, is wider, and in its extensions stronger, among the ruder than among the more cultivated peoples. The first societies are families, expanding into tribes, still holding a mutual blood relationship, and even when they have become great nations claiming a common descent. Given beings of this kind, placed on a globe of such diversified surface and climate as this, and it is evident that, even with equal capacity, and an equal start, social development must be very different. The first limit or resistance to association will come from the conditions of physical nature, and as these greatly vary with locality, corresponding differences in social progress must show themselves. The net rapidity of increase, and the closeness with which men, as they increase, can keep together, will, in the rude state of knowledge in which reliance for subsistence must be principally upon the spontaneous offerings of nature, very largely depend upon climate, soil, and physical conformation. Where much animal food and warm clothing are required; where the earth seems poor and niggard; where the exuberant life of tropical forests mocks barbarous man's puny efforts to control; where mountains, deserts, or arms of the sea separate and isolate men; association, and the power of improvement which it evolves, can at first go but a little way. But on the rich plains of warm climates, where human existence can be maintained with a smaller expenditure of force, and from a much smaller area, men can keep closer together, and the mental power which can at first be devoted to improvement is much greater. Hence civilization naturally first arises in the great valleys and table-lands where we find its earliest monuments. But these diversities in natural conditions, not merely thus directly produce diversities in social development, but, by producing diversities in social development, bring out in man himself an obstacle, or rather an active counterforce, to improvement. As families and tribes are separated from each other, the social feeling ceases to operate between them, and differences arise in language, custom, tradition, religion--in short, in the whole social web which each community, however small or large, constantly spins. With these differences, prejudices grow, animosities spring up, contact easily produces quarrels, aggression begets aggression, and wrong kindles revenge.[45] And so between these separate social aggregates arises the feeling of Ishmael and the spirit of Cain, warfare becomes the chronic and seemingly natural relation of societies to each other, and the powers of men are expended in attack or defense, in mutual slaughter and mutual destruction of wealth, or in warlike preparations. How long this hostility persists, the protective tariffs and the standing armies of the civilized world to-day bear witness; how difficult it is to get over the idea that it is not theft to steal from a foreigner, the difficulty in procuring an international copyright act will show. Can we wonder at the perpetual hostilities of tribes and clans? Can we wonder that when each community was isolated from the others--when each, uninfluenced by the others, was spinning its separate web of social environment, which no individual can escape, that war should have been the rule and peace the exception? "They were even as we are." Now, warfare is the negation of association. The separation of men into diverse tribes, by increasing warfare, thus checks improvement; while in the localities where a large increase in numbers is possible without much separation; civilization gains the advantage of exemption from tribal war, even when the community as a whole is carrying on warfare beyond its borders. Thus, where the resistance of nature to the close association of men is slightest, the counterforce of warfare is likely at first to be least felt; and in the rich plains where civilization first begins, it may rise to a great height while scattered tribes are yet barbarous. And thus, when small, separated communities exist in a state of chronic warfare which forbids advance, the first step to their civilization is the advent of some conquering tribe or nation that unites these smaller communities into a larger one, in which internal peace is preserved. Where this power of peaceable association is broken up, either by external assaults or internal dissensions, the advance ceases and retrogression begins. But it is not conquest alone that has operated to promote association, and, by liberating mental power from the necessities of warfare, to promote civilization. If the diversities of climate, soil, and configuration of the earth's surface operate at first to separate mankind, they also operate to encourage exchange. And commerce, which is in itself a form of association or co-operation, operates to promote civilization, not only directly, but by building up interests which are opposed to warfare, and dispelling the ignorance which is the fertile mother of prejudices and animosities. And so of religion. Though the forms it has assumed and the animosities it has aroused have often sundered men and produced warfare, yet it has at other times been the means of promoting association. A common worship has often, as among the Greeks, mitigated war and furnished the basis of union, while it is from the triumph of Christianity over the barbarians of Europe that modern civilization springs. Had not the Christian Church existed when the Roman Empire went to pieces, Europe, destitute of any bond of association, might have fallen to a condition not much above that of the North American Indians or only received civilization with an Asiatic impress from the conquering scimiters of the invading hordes which had been welded into a mighty power by a religion which, springing up in the deserts of Arabia, had united tribes separated from time immemorial, and, thence issuing, brought into the association of a common faith a great part of the human race. Looking over what we know of the history of the world, we thus see civilization everywhere springing up where men are brought into association, and everywhere disappearing as this association is broken up. Thus the Roman civilization, spread over Europe by the conquests which insured internal peace, was overwhelmed by the incursions of the northern nations that broke society again into disconnected fragments; and the progress that now goes on in our modern civilization began as the feudal system again began to associate men in larger communities, and the spiritual supremacy of Rome to bring these communities into a common relation, as her legions had done before. As the feudal bonds grew into national autonomies, and Christianity worked the amelioration of manners, brought forth the knowledge that during the dark days she had hidden, bound the threads of peaceful union in her all-pervading organization, and taught association in her religious orders, a greater progress became possible, which, as men have been brought into closer and closer association and co-operation, has gone on with greater and greater force. But we shall never understand the course of civilization, and the varied phenomena which its history presents, without a consideration of what I may term the internal resistances, or counter forces, which arise in the heart of advancing society, and which can alone explain how a civilization once fairly started should either come of itself to a halt or be destroyed by barbarians. The mental power, which is the motor of social progress, is set free by association, which is,--what, perhaps, it may be more properly called,--an integration. Society in this process becomes more complex; its individuals more dependent upon each other. Occupations and functions are specialized. Instead of wandering, population becomes fixed. Instead of each man attempting to supply all of his wants, the various trades and industries are separated--one man acquires skill in one thing, and another in another thing. So, too, of knowledge, the body of which constantly tends to become vaster than one man can grasp, and is separated into different parts, which different individuals acquire and pursue. So, too, the performance of religious ceremonies tends to pass into the hands of a body of men specially devoted to that purpose, and the preservation of order, the administration of justice, the assignment of public duties and the distribution of awards, the conduct of war, etc., to be made the special functions of an organized government. In short, to use the language in which Herbert Spencer has defined evolution, the development of society is, in relation to its component individuals, the passing from an indefinite, incoherent homogeneity to a definite, coherent heterogeneity. The lower the stage of social development, the more society resembles one of those lowest of animal organisms which are without organs or limbs, and from which a part may be cut and yet live. The higher the stage of social development, the more society resembles those higher organisms in which functions and powers are specialized, and each member is vitally dependent on the others. Now, this process of integration, of the specialization of functions and powers, as it goes on in society, is, by virtue of what is probably one of the deepest laws of human nature, accompanied by a constant liability to inequality. I do not mean that inequality is the necessary result of social growth, but that it is the constant tendency of social growth if unaccompanied by changes in social adjustments, which, in the new conditions that growth produces, will secure equality. I mean, so to speak, that the garment of laws, customs, and political institutions, which each society weaves for itself, is constantly tending to become too tight as the society develops. I mean, so to speak, that man, as he advances, threads a labyrinth, in which, if he keeps straight ahead, he will infallibly lose his way, and through which reason and justice can alone keep him continuously in an ascending path. For, while the integration which accompanies growth tends in itself to set free mental power to work improvement, there is, both with increase of numbers and with increase in complexity of the social organization, a counter tendency set up to the production of a state of inequality, which wastes mental power, and, as it increases, brings improvement to a halt. To trace to its highest expression the law which thus operates to evolve with progress the force which stops progress, would be, it seems to me, to go far to the solution of a problem deeper than that of the genesis of the material universe--the problem of the genesis of evil. Let me content myself with pointing out the manner in which, as society develops, there arise tendencies which check development. There are two qualities of human nature which it will be well, however, to first call to mind. The one is the power of habit:--the tendency to continue to do things in the same way; the other is the possibility of mental and moral deterioration. The effect of the first in social development is to continue habits, customs, laws and methods, long after they have lost their original usefulness, and the effect of the other is to permit the growth of institutions and modes of thought from which the normal perceptions of men instinctively revolt. Now the growth and development of society not merely tend to make each more and more dependent upon all, and to lessen the influence of individuals, even over their own conditions, as compared with the influence of society; but the effect of association or integration is to give rise to a collective power which is distinguishable from the sum of individual powers. Analogies, or, perhaps, rather illustrations of the same law, may be found in all directions. As animal organisms increase in complexity, there arise, above the life and power of the parts, a life and power of the integrated whole; above the capability of involuntary movements, the capability of voluntary movements. The actions and impulses of bodies of men are, as has often been observed, different from those which, under the same circumstances, would be called forth in individuals. The fighting qualities of a regiment may be very different from those of the individual soldiers. But there is no need of illustrations. In our inquiries into the nature and rise of rent, we traced the very thing to which I allude. Where population is sparse, land has no value; just as men congregate together, the value of land appears and rises--a clearly distinguishable thing from the values produced by individual effort; a value which springs from association, which increases as association grows greater, and disappears as association is broken up. And the same thing is true of power in other forms than those generally expressed in terms of wealth. Now, as society grows, the disposition to continue previous, social adjustments tends to lodge this collective power, as it arises, in the hands of a portion of the community; and this unequal distribution of the wealth and power gained as society advances tends to produce greater inequality, since aggression grows by what it feeds on, and the idea of justice is blurred by the habitual toleration of injustice. In this way the patriarchal organization of society can easily grow into hereditary monarchy, in which the king is as a god on earth, and the masses of the people mere slaves of his caprice. It is natural that the father should be the directing head of the family, and that at his death the eldest son, as the oldest and most experienced member of the little community, should succeed to the headship. But to continue this arrangement as the family expands, is to lodge power in a particular line, and the power thus lodged necessarily continues to increase, as the common stock becomes larger and larger, and the power of the community grows. The head of the family passes into the hereditary king, who comes to look upon himself and to be looked upon by others as a being of superior rights. With the growth of the collective power as compared with the power of the individual, his power to reward and to punish increases, and so increase the inducements to flatter and to fear him; until finally, if the process be not disturbed, a nation grovels at the foot of a throne, and a hundred thousand men toil for fifty years to prepare a tomb for one of their own mortal kind. So the war-chief of a little band of savages is but one of their number, whom they follow as their bravest and most wary. But when large bodies come to act together, personal selection becomes more difficult, a blinder obedience becomes necessary and can be enforced, and from the very necessities of warfare when conducted on a large scale absolute power arises. And so of the specialization of function. There is a manifest gain in productive power when social growth has gone so far that instead of every producer being summoned from his work for fighting purposes, a regular military force can be specialized; but this inevitably tends to the concentration of power in the hands of the military class or their chiefs. The preservation of internal order, the administration of justice, the construction and care of public works, and, notably, the observances of religion, all tend in similar manner to pass into the hands of special classes, whose disposition it is to magnify their function and extend their power. But the great cause of inequality is in the natural monopoly which is given by the possession of land. The first perceptions of men seem always to be that land is common property; but the rude devices by which this is at first recognized--such as annual partitions or cultivation in common--are consistent with only a low stage of development. The idea of property, which naturally arises with reference to things of human production, is easily transferred to land, and an institution which when population is sparse merely secures to the improver and user the due reward of his labor, finally, as population becomes dense and rent arises, operates to strip the producer of his wages. Not merely this, but the appropriation of rent for public purposes, which is the only way in which, with anything like a high development, land can be readily retained as common property, becomes, when political and religious power passes into the hands of a class, the ownership of the land by that class, and the rest of the community become merely tenants. And wars and conquests, which tend to the concentration of political power and to the institution of slavery, naturally result, where social growth has given land a value, in the appropriation of the soil. A dominant class, who concentrate power in their hands, will likewise soon concentrate ownership of the land. To them will fall large partitions of conquered land, which the former inhabitants will till as tenants or serfs, and the public domain, or common lands, which in the natural course of social growth are left for a while in every country, and in which state the primitive system of village culture leaves pasture and woodland, are readily acquired, as we see by modern instances. And inequality once established, the ownership of land tends to concentrate as development goes on. I am merely attempting to set forth the general fact that as a social development goes on, inequality tends to establish itself, and not to point out the particular sequence, which must necessarily vary with different conditions. But this main fact makes intelligible all the phenomena of petrifaction and retrogression. The unequal distribution of the power and wealth gained by the integration of men in society tends to check, and finally to counterbalance, the force by which improvements are made and society advances. On the one side, the masses of the community are compelled to expend their mental powers in merely maintaining existence. On the other side, mental power is expended in keeping up and intensifying the system of inequality, in ostentation, luxury, and warfare. A community divided into a class that rules and a class that is ruled--into the very rich and the very poor--may "build like giants and finish like jewelers;" but it will be monuments of ruthless pride and barren vanity, or of a religion turned from its office of elevating man into an instrument for keeping him down. Invention may for a while to some degree go on; but it will be the invention of refinements in luxury, not the inventions that relieve toil and increase power. In the arcana of temples or in the chambers of court physicians knowledge may still be sought; but it will be hidden as a secret thing, or if it dares come out to elevate common thought or brighten common life, it will be trodden down as a dangerous innovator. For as it tends to lessen the mental power devoted to improvement, so does inequality tend to render men adverse to improvement. How strong is the disposition to adhere to old methods among the classes who are kept in ignorance by being compelled to toil for a mere existence, is too well known to require illustration, and on the other hand the conservatism of the classes to whom the existing social adjustment gives special advantages is equally apparent. This tendency to resist innovation, even though it be improvement, is observable in every special organization--in religion, in law, in medicine, in science, in trade guilds; and it becomes intense just as the organization is close. A close corporation has always an instinctive dislike of innovation and innovators, which is but the expression of an instinctive fear that change may tend to throw down the barriers which hedge it in from the common herd, and so rob it of importance and power; and it is always disposed to guard carefully its special knowledge or skill. It is in this way that petrifaction succeeds progress. The advance of inequality necessarily brings improvement to a halt, and as it still persists or provokes unavailing reactions, draws even upon the mental power necessary for maintenance, and retrogression begins. These principles make intelligible the history of civilization. In the localities where climate, soil, and physical conformation tended least to separate men as they increased, and where, accordingly, the first civilizations grew up, the internal resistances to progress would naturally develop in a more regular and thorough manner than where smaller communities, which in their separation had developed diversities, were afterward brought together into a closer association. It is this, it seems to me, which accounts for the general characteristics of the earlier civilizations as compared with the later civilizations of Europe. Such homogeneous communities, developing from the first without the jar of conflict between different customs, laws, religions, etc., would show a much greater uniformity. The concentrating and conservative forces would all, so to speak, pull together. Rival chieftains would not counterbalance each other, nor diversities of belief hold the growth of priestly influence in check. Political and religious power, wealth and knowledge, would thus tend to concentrate in the same centres. The same causes which tended to produce the hereditary king and hereditary priest would tend to produce the hereditary artisan and laborer, and to separate society into castes. The power which association sets free for progress would thus be wasted, and barriers to further progress be gradually raised. The surplus energies of the masses would be devoted to the construction of temples, palaces, and pyramids; to ministering to the pride and pampering the luxury of their rulers; and should any disposition to improvement arise among the classes of leisure it would at once be checked by the dread of innovation. Society developing in this way must at length stop in a conservatism which permits no further progress. How long such a state of complete petrifaction, when once reached, will continue, seems to depend upon external causes, for the iron bonds of the social environment which grows up repress disintegrating forces as well as improvement. Such a community can be most easily conquered, for the masses of the people are trained to a passive acquiescence in a life of hopeless labor. If the conquerors merely take the place of the ruling class, as the Hyksos did in Egypt and the Tartars in China, everything will go on as before. If they ravage and destroy, the glory of palace and temple remains but in ruins, population becomes sparse, and knowledge and art are lost. European civilization differs in character from civilizations of the Egyptian type because it springs not from the association of a homogeneous people developing from the beginning, or at least for a long time, under the same conditions, but from the association of peoples who in separation had acquired distinctive social characteristics, and whose smaller organizations longer prevented the concentration of power and wealth in one centre. The physical conformation of the Grecian peninsula is such as to separate the people at first into a number of small communities. As those petty republics and nominal kingdoms ceased to waste their energies in warfare, and the peaceable co-operation of commerce extended, the light of civilization blazed up. But the principle of association was never strong enough to save Greece from inter-tribal war, and when this was put an end to by conquest, the tendency to inequality, which had been combated with various devices by Grecian sages and statesmen, worked its result, and Grecian valor, art, and literature became things of the past. And so in the rise and extension, the decline and fall, of Roman civilization, may be seen the working of these two principles of association and equality, from the combination of which springs progress. Springing from the association of the independent husbandmen and free citizens of Italy, and gaining fresh strength from conquests which brought hostile nations into common relations, the Roman power hushed the world in peace. But the tendency to inequality, checking real progress from the first, increased as the Roman civilization extended. The Roman civilization did not petrify as did the homogeneous civilizations where the strong bonds of custom and superstition that held the people in subjection probably also protected them, or at any rate kept the peace between rulers and ruled: it rotted, declined and fell. Long before Goth or Vandal had broken through the cordon of the legions, even while her frontiers were advancing, Rome was dead at the heart. Great estates had ruined Italy. Inequality had dried up the strength and destroyed the vigor of the Roman world. Government became despotism, which even assassination could not temper; patriotism became servility; vices the most foul flouted themselves in public; literature sank to puerilities; learning was forgotten; fertile districts became waste without the ravages of war--everywhere inequality produced decay, political, mental, moral, and material. The barbarism which overwhelmed Rome came not from without, but from within. It was the necessary product of the system which had substituted slaves and colonii for the independent husbandmen of Italy, and carved the provinces into estates of senatorial families. Modern civilization owes its superiority to the growth of equality with the growth of association. Two great causes contributed to this--the splitting up of concentrated power into innumerable little centers by the influx of the Northern nations, and the influence of Christianity. Without the first there would have been the petrifaction and slow decay of the Eastern Empire, where church and state were closely married and loss of external power brought no relief of internal tyranny. And but for the other there would have been barbarism without principle of association or amelioration. The petty chiefs and allodial lords who everywhere grasped local sovereignty held each other in check. Italian cities recovered their ancient liberty, free towns were founded, village communities took root, and serfs acquired rights in the soil they tilled. The leaven of Teutonic ideas of equality worked through the disorganized and disjointed fabric of society. And although society was split up into an innumerable number of separated fragments, yet the idea of closer association was always present--it existed in the recollections of a universal empire; it existed in the claims of a universal church. Though Christianity became distorted and alloyed in percolating through a rotting civilization; though pagan gods were taken into her pantheon, and pagan forms into her ritual, and pagan ideas into her creed; yet her essential idea of the equality of men was never wholly destroyed. And two things happened of the utmost moment to incipient civilization--the establishment of the papacy and the celibacy of the clergy. The first prevented the spiritual power from concentrating in the same lines as the temporal power; and the latter prevented the establishment of a priestly caste, during a time when all power tended to hereditary form. In her efforts for the abolition of slavery; in her Truce of God; in her monastic orders; in her councils which united nations, and her edicts which ran without regard to political boundaries; in the low-born hands in which she placed a sign before which the proudest knelt; in her bishops who by consecration became the peers of the greatest nobles; in her "Servant of Servants," for so his official title ran, who, by virtue of the ring of a simple fisherman, claimed the right to arbitrate between nations, and whose stirrup was held by kings; the Church, in spite of everything, was yet a promoter of association, a witness for the natural equality of men; and by the Church herself was nurtured a spirit that, when her early work of association and emancipation was well-nigh done--when the ties she had knit had become strong, and the learning she had preserved had been given to the world--broke the chains with which she would have fettered the human mind, and in a great part of Europe rent her organization. The rise and growth of European civilization is too vast and complex a subject to be thrown into proper perspective and relation in a few paragraphs; but in all its details, as in its main features, it illustrates the truth that progress goes on just as society tends toward closer association and greater equality. Civilization is co-operation. Union and liberty are its factors. The great extension of association--not alone in the growth of larger and denser communities, but in the increase of commerce and the manifold exchanges which knit each community together and link them with other though widely separated communities; the growth of international and municipal law; the advances in security of property and of person, in individual liberty, and towards democratic government--advances, in short, towards the recognition of the equal rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness--it is these that make our modern civilization so much greater, so much higher, than any that has gone before. It is these that have set free the mental power which has rolled back the veil of ignorance which hid all but a small portion of the globe from men's knowledge; which has measured the orbits of the circling spheres and bids us see moving, pulsing life in a drop of water; which has opened to us the antechamber of nature's mysteries and read the secrets of a long-buried past; which has harnessed in our service physical forces beside which man's efforts are puny; and increased productive power by a thousand great inventions. In that spirit of fatalism to which I have alluded as pervading current literature, it is the fashion to speak even of war and slavery as means of human progress. But war, which is the opposite of association, can aid progress only when it prevents further war or breaks down antisocial barriers which are themselves passive war. As for slavery, I cannot see how it could ever have aided in establishing freedom, and freedom, the synonym of equality is, from the very rudest state in which man can be imagined, the stimulus and condition of progress. Auguste Comte's idea that the institution of slavery destroyed cannibalism is as fanciful as Elia's humorous notion of the way mankind acquired a taste for roast pig. It assumes that a propensity that has never been found developed in man save as the result of the most unnatural conditions--the direst want or the most brutalizing superstitions[46]--is an original impulse, and that he, even in his lowest state the highest of all animals, has natural appetites which the nobler brutes do not show. And so of the idea that slavery began civilization by giving slave owners leisure for improvement. Slavery never did and never could aid improvement. Whether the community consist of a single master and a single slave, or of thousands of masters and millions of slaves, slavery necessarily involves a waste of human power; for not only is slave labor less productive than free labor, but the power of masters is likewise wasted in holding and watching their slaves, and is called away from directions in which real improvement lies. From first to last, slavery, like every other denial of the natural equality of men, has hampered and prevented progress. Just in proportion as slavery plays an important part in the social organization does improvement cease. That in the classical world slavery was so universal, is undoubtedly the reason why the mental activity which so polished literature and refined art never hit on any of the great discoveries and inventions which distinguish modern civilization. No slave-holding people ever were an inventive people. In a slave-holding community the upper classes may become luxurious and polished; but never inventive. Whatever degrades the laborer and robs him of the fruits of his toil stifles the spirit of invention and forbids the utilization of inventions and discoveries even when made. To freedom alone is given the spell of power which summons the genii in whose keeping are the treasures of earth and the viewless forces of the air. The law of human progress, what is it but the moral law? Just as social adjustments promote justice, just as they acknowledge the equality of right between man and man, just as they insure to each the perfect liberty which is bounded only by the equal liberty of every other, must civilization advance. Just as they fail in this, must advancing civilization come to a halt and recede. Political economy and social science cannot teach any lessons that are not embraced in the simple truths that were taught to poor fishermen and Jewish peasants by One who eighteen hundred years ago was crucified--the simple truths which, beneath the warpings of selfishness and the distortions of superstition, seem to underlie every religion that has ever striven to formulate the spiritual yearnings of man. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 44: Chapter III, Book X, of "Progress and Poverty;" copyright, 1907, by Henry George, Richard F. George, and Anna G. de Mille. The chapter is here reprinted by permission of Mr. Henry George, Junior, and the publishers, Messrs. Doubleday, Page and Company.] [Footnote 45: How easy it is for ignorance to pass into contempt and dislike; how natural it is for us to consider any difference in manners, customs, religion, etc., as proof of the inferiority of those who differ from us, any one who has emancipated himself in any degree from prejudice, and who mixes with different classes, may see in civilized society. In religion, for instance, the spirit of the hymn-- "I'd rather be a Baptist, and wear a shining face, Than for to be a Methodist and always fall from grace," is observable in all denominations. As the English Bishop said, "Orthodoxy is my doxy, and heterodoxy is any other doxy," while the universal tendency is to classify all outside of the orthodoxies and heterodoxies of the prevailing religion as heathens or atheists. And the like tendency is observable as to all other differences.--Author's note.] [Footnote 46: The Sandwich Islanders did honor to their good chiefs by eating their bodies. Their bad and tyrannical chiefs they would not touch. The New Zealanders had a notion that by eating their enemies they acquired their strength and valor. And this seems to be the general origin of eating prisoners of war.--Author's note.] THE MORALS OF TRADE[47] HERBERT SPENCER On all sides we have found the result of long personal experience, to be the conviction that trade is essentially corrupt. In tones of disgust or discouragement, reprehension or derision, according to their several natures, men in business have one after another expressed or implied this belief. Omitting the highest mercantile classes, a few of the less common trades, and those exceptional cases where an entire command of the market has been obtained, the uniform testimony of competent judges is, that success is incompatible with strict integrity. To live in the commercial world it appears necessary to adopt its ethical code: neither exceeding nor falling short of it--neither being less honest nor more honest. Those who sink below its standard are expelled; while those who rise above it are either pulled down to it or ruined. As, in self-defence, the civilised man becomes savage among savages; so, it seems that in self-defence, the scrupulous trader is obliged to become as little scrupulous as his competitors. It has been said that the law of the animal creation is--"Eat and be eaten;" and of our trading community it may be similarly said that its law is--Cheat and be cheated. A system of keen competition, carried on, as it is, without adequate moral restraint, is very much a system of commercial cannibalism. Its alternatives are--Use the same weapons as your antagonists, or be conquered and devoured. Of questions suggested by these facts, one of the most obvious is--Are not the prejudices that have ever been entertained against trade and traders, thus fully justified? do not these meannesses and dishonesties, and the moral degradation they imply, warrant the disrespect shown to men in business? A prompt affirmative answer will probably be looked for; but we very much doubt whether it should be given. We are rather of opinion that these delinquencies are products of the average English character placed under special conditions. There is no good reason for assuming that the trading classes are intrinsically worse than other classes. Men taken at random from higher and lower ranks, would, most likely, if similarly circumstanced, do much the same. Indeed the mercantile world might readily recriminate. Is it a solicitor who comments on their misdoings? They may quickly silence him by referring to the countless dark stains on the reputation of his fraternity. Is it a barrister? His frequent practice of putting in pleas which he knows are not valid; and his established habit of taking fees for work that he does not perform; make his criticism somewhat suicidal. Does the condemnation come through the press? The condemned may remind those who write, of the fact that it is not quite honest to utter a positive verdict on a book merely glanced through, or to pen glowing eulogies on the mediocre work of a friend while slighting the good one of an enemy; and may further ask whether those who, at the dictation of an employer, write what they disbelieve, are not guilty of the serious offence of adulterating public opinion. Moreover, traders might contend that many of their delinquencies are thrust on them by the injustice of their customers. They, and especially drapers, might point to the fact that the habitual demand for an abatement of price, is made in utter disregard of their reasonable profits; and that to protect themselves against attempts to gain by their loss, they are obliged to name prices greater than those they intend to take. They might also urge that the strait to which they are often brought by the non-payment of accounts due from their wealthier customers, is itself a cause of their malpractices: obliging them, as it does, to use all means, illegitimate as well as legitimate, for getting the wherewith to meet their engagements. In proof of the wrongs inflicted on them by the non-trading classes, they might instance the well-known cases of large shopkeepers in the West-end, who have been either ruined by the unpunctuality of their customers, or have been obliged periodically to stop payment, as the only way of getting their bills settled. And then, after proving that those without excuse show this disregard of other men's claims, traders might ask whether they, who have the excuse of having to contend with a merciless competition, are alone to be blamed if they display a like disregard in other forms. Nay, even to the guardians of social rectitude--members of the legislature--they might use the _tu quoque_ argument: asking whether bribery of a customer's servant, is any worse than bribery of an elector? or whether the gaining of suffrages by claptrap hustings-speeches, containing insincere professions adapted to the taste of the constituency, is not as bad as getting an order for goods by delusive representations respecting their quality? No; it seems probable that close inquiry would show few if any classes to be free from immoralities that are as great, _relatively to the temptations_, as those which we have been exposing. Of course they will not be so petty or so gross where the circumstances do not prompt pettiness or grossness; nor so constant and organised where the class-conditions have not tended to make them habitual. But, taken with these qualifications, we think that much might be said for the proposition that the trading classes, neither better nor worse intrinsically than other classes, are betrayed into their flagitious habits by external causes. Another question, here naturally arising, is--"Are not these evils growing worse?" Many of the facts we have cited seem to imply that they are. And yet there are many other facts which point as distinctly the other way. In weighing the evidence, we must bear in mind, that the much greater public attention at present paid to such matters, is itself a source of error--is apt to generate the belief that evils now becoming recognised, are evils that have recently arisen; when in truth they have merely been hitherto disregarded, or less regarded. It has been clearly thus with crime, with distress, with popular ignorance; and it is very probably thus with trading-dishonesties. As it is true of individual beings, that their height in the scale of creation may be measured by the degree of their self-consciousness; so, in a sense, it is true of societies. Advanced and highly-organised societies are distinguished from lower ones by the evolution of something that stands for a _social self-consciousness_--a consciousness in each citizen, of the state of the aggregate of citizens. Among ourselves there has, happily, been of late years a remarkable growth of this social self-consciousness; and we believe that to this is chiefly ascribable the impression that commercial malpractices are increasing. Such facts as have come down to us respecting the trade of past times, confirm this view. In his "Complete English Tradesman," Defoe mentions, among other manoeuvres of retailers, the false lights which they introduced into their shops, for the purpose of giving delusive appearances to their goods. He comments on the "shop rhetorick," the "flux of falsehoods," which tradesmen habitually uttered to their customers; and quotes their defence as being that they could not live without lying. He says, too, that there was scarce a shopkeeper who had not a bag of spurious or debased coin, from which he gave change whenever he could; and that men, even the most honest, triumphed in their skill in getting rid of bad money. These facts show that the mercantile morals of that day were, at any rate, not better than ours; and if we call to mind the numerous Acts of Parliament passed in old times to prevent frauds of all kinds, we perceive the like implication. As much may, indeed, be safely inferred from the general state of society. When, reign after reign, governments debased the coinage, the moral tone of the middle classes could scarcely have been higher than now. Among generations whose sympathy with the claims of fellow-creatures was so weak, that the slave-trade was not only thought justifiable, but the initiator of it was rewarded by permission to record the feat in his coat of arms, it is hardly possible that men respected the claims of their fellow-citizens more than at present. Times characterized by an administration of justice so inefficient that there were in London nests of criminals who defied the law, and on all high roads robbers who eluded it, cannot have been distinguished by just mercantile dealings. While, conversely, an age which, like ours, has seen so many equitable social changes thrust on the legislature by public opinion, is very unlikely to be an age in which the transactions between individuals have been growing more inequitable. Yet, on the other hand, it is undeniable that many of the dishonesties we have described are of modern origin. Not a few of them have become established during the last thirty years; and others are even now arising. How are the seeming contradictions to be reconciled? We believe the reconciliation is not difficult. It lies in the fact that while the _great_ and _direct_ frauds have been diminishing, the _small_ and _indirect_ frauds have been increasing: alike in variety and in number. And this admission we take to be quite consistent with the opinion that the standard of commercial morals is higher than it was. For, if we omit, as excluded from the question, the penal restraints--religious and legal--and ask what is the ultimate moral restraint to the aggression of man on man, we find it to be--sympathy with the pain inflicted. Now the keenness of the sympathy, depending on the vividness with which this pain is realised, varies with the conditions of the case. It may be active enough to check misdeeds which will cause great suffering; and yet not be active enough to check misdeeds which will cause but slight annoyance. While sufficiently acute to prevent a man from doing that which will entail immediate injury on a given person, it may not be sufficiently acute to prevent him from doing that which will entail remote injuries on unknown persons. And we find the facts to agree with this deduction, that the moral restraint varies according to the clearness with which the evil consequences are conceived. Many a one who would shrink from picking a pocket does not scruple to adulterate his goods; and he who never dreams of passing base coin, will yet be a party to joint-stock-bank deceptions. Hence, as we say, the multiplication of the more subtle and complex forms of fraud, is consistent with a general progress in morality; provided it is accompanied with a decrease in the grosser forms of fraud. But the question which most concerns us is, not whether the morals of trade are better or worse than they have been, but rather--why are they so bad? Why in this civilised state of ours, is there so much that betrays the cunning selfishness of the savage? Why, after the careful inculcations of rectitude during education, comes there in afterlife all this knavery? Why, in spite of all the exhortations to which the commercial classes listen every Sunday, do they next morning recommence their evil deeds? What is this so potent agency which almost neutralises the discipline of education, of law, of religion? Various subsidiary causes that might be assigned, must be passed over, that we may have space to deal with the chief cause. In an exhaustive statement, something would have to be said on the credulity of consumers, which leads them to believe in representations of impossible advantages; and something, too, on their greediness, which, ever prompting them to look for more than they ought to get, encourages the sellers to offer delusive bargains. The increased difficulty of living consequent on growing pressure of population, might perhaps come in as a part cause; and that greater cost of bringing up a family, which results from the higher standard of education, might be added. But all these are relatively insignificant. The great inciter of these trading malpractices is, intense desire for wealth. And if we ask--Why this intense desire? the reply is--It results from the _indiscriminate respect paid to wealth_. To be distinguished from the common herd--to be somebody--to make a name, a position--this is the universal ambition; and to accumulate riches, is alike the surest and the easiest way of fulfilling this ambition. Very early in life all learn this. At school, the court paid to one whose parents have called in their carriage to see him, is conspicuous; while the poor boy, whose insufficient stock of clothes implies the small means of his family, soon has burnt into his memory the fact that poverty is contemptible. On entering the world, the lessons that may have been taught about the nobility of self-sacrifice, the reverence due to genius, the admirableness of high integrity, are quickly neutralised by experience: men's actions proving that these are not their standards of respect. It is soon perceived that while abundant outward marks of deference from fellow-citizens, may almost certainly be gained by directing every energy to the accumulation of property, they are but rarely to be gained in any other way; and that even in the few cases where they are otherwise gained, they are not given with entire unreserve; but are commonly joined with a more or less manifest display of patronage. When, seeing this, the young man further sees that while the acquisition of property is quite possible with his mediocre endowments, the acquirement of distinction by brilliant discoveries, or heroic acts, or high achievements in art, implies faculties and feelings which he does not possess; it is not difficult to understand why he devotes himself heart and soul to business. We do not mean to say that men act on the consciously reasoned-out conclusions thus indicated; but we mean that these conclusions are the unconsciously-formed products of their daily experience. From early childhood, the sayings and doings of all around them have generated the idea that wealth and respectability are two sides of the same thing. This idea, growing with their growth, and strengthening with their strength, becomes at last almost what we may call an organic conviction. And this organic conviction it is, which prompts the expenditure of all their energies in money-making. We contend that the chief stimulus is not the desire for the wealth itself; but for the applause and position which the wealth brings. And in this belief, we find ourselves at one with various intelligent traders with whom we have talked on the matter. It is incredible that men should make the sacrifices, mental and bodily, which they do, merely to get the material benefits which money purchases. Who would undertake an extra burden of business for the purpose of getting a cellar of choice wines for his own drinking? He who does it, does it that he may have choice wines to give his guests and gain their praises. What merchant would spend an additional hour at his office daily, merely that he might move into a larger house in a better quarter? In so far as health and comfort are concerned, he knows he will be a loser by the exchange; and would never be induced to make it, were it not for the increased social consideration which the new house will bring him. Where is the man who would lie awake at nights devising means of increasing his income in the hope of being able to provide his wife with a carriage, were the use of the carriage the sole consideration? It is because of the _éclat_ which the carriage will give, that he enters on these additional anxieties. So manifest, so trite, indeed, are these truths, that we should be ashamed of insisting on them, did not our argument require it. For if the desire for that homage which wealth brings, is the chief stimulus to these strivings after wealth, then is the giving of this homage (when given, as it is, with but little discrimination) the chief cause of the dishonesties into which these strivings betray mercantile men. When the shopkeeper, on the strength of a prosperous year and favourable prospects, has yielded to his wife's persuasions, and replaced the old furniture with new, at an outlay greater than his income covers--when, instead of the hoped-for increase, the next year brings a decrease in his returns--when he finds that his expenses are out-running his revenue; then does he fall under the strongest temptation to adopt some newly-introduced adulteration or other malpractice. When, having by display gained a certain recognition, the wholesale trader begins to give dinners appropriate only to those of ten times his income, with expensive other entertainments to match--when, having for a time carried on this style at a cost greater than he can afford, he finds that he cannot discontinue it without giving up his position: then is he most strongly prompted to enter into larger transactions; to trade beyond his means; to seek undue credit; to get into that ever-complicating series of misdeeds, which ends in disgraceful bankruptcy. And if these are the facts--the undeniable facts--then is it an unavoidable conclusion that the blind admiration which society gives to mere wealth, and the display of wealth, is the chief source of these multitudinous immoralities. Yes, the evil is deeper than appears--draws its nutriment from far below the surface. This gigantic system of dishonesty, branching out into every conceivable form of fraud, has roots that run underneath our whole social fabric, and, sending fibres into every house, suck up strength from our daily sayings and doings. In every dining-room a rootlet finds food, when the conversation turns on So-and-so's successful speculations, his purchase of an estate, his probable worth--on this man's recent large legacy, and the other's advantageous match; for being thus talked about is one form of that tacit respect which men struggle for. Every drawing-room furnishes nourishment, in the admiration awarded to costliness--to silks that are "rich," that is, expensive; to dresses that contain an enormous quantity of material, that is, are expensive; to laces that are handmade, that is, expensive; to diamonds that are rare, that is, expensive; to china that is old, that is, expensive. And from scores of small remarks and minutiae of behaviour, which, in all circles, hourly imply how completely the idea of respectability involves that of costly externals, there is drawn fresh pabulum. We are all implicated. We all, whether with self-approbation or not, give expression to the established feeling. Even he who disapproves this feeling, finds himself unable to treat virtue in threadbare apparel with a cordiality as great as that which he would show to the same virtue endowed with prosperity. Scarcely a man is to be found who would not behave with more civility to a knave in broadcloth than to a knave in fustian. Though for the deference which they have shown to the vulgar rich, or the dishonestly successful, men afterwards compound with their consciences by privately venting their contempt; yet when they again come face to face with these imposing externals covering worthlessness, they do as before. And so long as imposing worthlessness gets the visible marks of respect, while the disrespect felt for it is hidden, it naturally flourishes. Hence, then, is it that men persevere in these evil practices which all condemn. They can so purchase a homage, which if not genuine, is yet, so far as appearances go, as good as the best. To one whose wealth has been gained by a life of frauds, what matters it that his name is in all circles a synonym of roguery? Has he not been conspicuously honoured by being twice elected mayor of his town? (we state a fact) and does not this, joined to the personal consideration shown him, outweigh in his estimation all that is said against him: of which he hears scarcely anything? When, not many years after the exposure of his inequitable dealing, a trader attains to the highest civic distinction which the kingdom has to offer; and that, too, through the instrumentality of those who best know his delinquency; is not the fact an encouragement to him, and to all others, to sacrifice rectitude to aggrandisement? If, after listening to a sermon that has by implication denounced the dishonesties he has been guilty of, the rich ill-doer finds, on leaving church, that his neighbours cap to him; does not this tacit approval go far to neutralise the effect of all he has heard? The truth is, that with the great majority of men, the visible expression of social opinion is far the most efficient of incentives and restraints. Let any one who wishes to estimate the strength of this control, propose to himself to walk through the streets in the dress of a dustman, or hawk vegetables from door to door. Let him feel, as he probably will, that he had rather do something morally wrong than commit such a breach of usage, and suffer the resulting derision. And he will then better estimate how powerful a curb to men is the open disapproval of their fellows; and how, conversely, the outward applause of their fellows is a stimulus surpassing all others in intensity. Fully realising which facts, he will see that the immoralities of trade are in great part traceable to an immoral public opinion. Let none infer, from what has been said, that the payment of respect to wealth rightly acquired and rightly used, is deprecated. In its original meaning, and in due degree, the feeling which prompts such respect is good. Primarily, wealth is the sign of mental power; and this is always respectable. To have honestly-acquired property, implies intelligence, energy, self-control; and these are worthy of the homage that is indirectly paid to them by admiring their results. Moreover, the good administration and increase of inherited property, also requires its virtues; and therefore demands its share of approbation. And besides being applauded for their display of faculty, men who gain and increase wealth are to be applauded as public benefactors. For he who as manufacturer or merchant, has, without injustice to others, realised a fortune, is thereby proved to have discharged his functions better than those who have been less successful. By greater skill, better judgment, or more economy than his competitors, he has afforded the public greater advantages. His extra profits are but a share of the extra produce obtained by the same expenditure: the other share going to the consumers. And similarly, the landowner who, by judicious outlay, has increased the value (that is, the productiveness) of his estate, has thereby added to the stock of national capital. By all means, then, let the right acquisition and proper use of wealth, have their due share of admiration. But that which we condemn as the chief cause of commercial dishonesty, is the _indiscriminate_ admiration of wealth--an admiration that has little or no reference to the character of the possessor. When, as very generally happens, the external signs are reverenced, where they signify no internal worthiness--nay, even where they cover internal unworthiness; then does the feeling become vicious. It is this idolatry which worships the symbol apart from the thing symbolised, that is the root of all these evils we have been exposing. So long as men pay homage to those social benefactors who have grown rich honestly, they give a wholesome stimulus to industry; but when they accord a share of their homage to those social malefactors who have grown rich dishonestly, then do they foster corruption--then do they become accomplices in all these frauds of commerce. As for remedy, it manifestly follows that there is none save a purified public opinion. When that abhorrence which society now shows to direct theft, is shown to theft of all degrees of indirectness, then will these mercantile vices disappear. When not only the trader who adulterates or gives short measure, but also the merchant who over-trades, the bank-director who countenances an exaggerated report, and the railway-director who repudiates his guarantee, come to be regarded as of the same genus as the pickpocket, and are treated with like disdain; then will the morals of trade become what they should be. We have little hope, however, that any such higher tone of public opinion will shortly be reached. The present condition of things appears to be, in great measure, a necessary accompaniment of our present phase of progress. Throughout the civilised world, especially in England, and above all in America, social activity is almost wholly expended in material development. To subjugate Nature, and bring the powers of production and distribution to their highest perfection, is the task of our age; and probably of many future ages. And as in times when national defence and conquest were the chief desiderata, military achievement was honoured above all other things; so now, when the chief desideratum is industrial growth, honour is most conspicuously given to that which generally indicates the aiding of industrial growth. The English nation at present displays what we may call the commercial diathesis; and the undue admiration for wealth appears to be its concomitant--a relation still more conspicuous in the worship of "the almighty dollar" by the Americans. And while the commercial diathesis, with its accompanying standard of distinction, continues, we fear the evils we have been delineating can be but partially cured. It seems hopeless to expect that men will distinguish between that wealth which represents personal superiority and benefits done to society, from that which does not. The symbols, the externals, have all the world through swayed the masses; and must long continue to do so. Even the cultivated, who are on their guard against the bias of associated ideas, and try to separate the real from the seeming, cannot escape the influence of current opinion. We must, therefore, content ourselves with looking for a slow amelioration. Something, however, may even now be done by vigorous protest against adoration of mere success. And it is important that it should be done, considering how this vicious sentiment is being fostered. When we have one of our leading moralists preaching, with increasing vehemence, the doctrine of sanctification by force--when we are told that while a selfishness troubled with qualms of conscience is contemptible, a selfishness intense enough to trample down every thing in the unscrupulous pursuit of its ends, is worthy of all admiration--when we find that if it be sufficiently great, power, no matter of what kind or how directed, is held up for our reverence; we may fear lest the prevalent applause of mere success, together with the commercial vices which it stimulates, should be increased rather than diminished. Not at all by this hero-worship grown into brute-worship, is society to be made better; but by exactly the opposite--by a stern criticism of the means through which success has been achieved; and by according honour to the higher and less selfish modes of activity. And happily the signs of this more moral public opinion are already showing themselves. It is becoming a tacitly-received doctrine that the rich should not, as in by-gone times, spend their lives in personal gratification; but should devote them to the general welfare. Year by year is the improvement of the people occupying a larger share of the attention of the upper classes. Year by year are they voluntarily devoting more and more energy to furthering the material and mental progress of the masses. And those among them who do not join in the discharge of these high functions, are beginning to be looked upon with more or less contempt by their own order. This latest and most hopeful fact in human history--this new and better chivalry--promises to evolve a higher standard of honour; and so to ameliorate many evils: among others those which we have detailed. When wealth obtained by illegitimate means inevitably brings nothing but disgrace--when to wealth rightly acquired is accorded only its due share of homage, while the greatest homage is given to those who consecrate their energies and their means to the noblest ends; then may we be sure that along with other accompanying benefits, the morals of trade will be greatly purified. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 47: From "Essays: Moral, Political and Aesthetic," 1864.] ON THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF LIFE[48] THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY In order to make the title of this discourse generally intelligible, I have translated the term "Protoplasm," which is the scientific name of the substance of which I am about to speak, by the words "the physical basis of life." I suppose that, to many, the idea that there is such a thing as a physical basis, or matter, of life may be novel--so widely spread is the conception of life as a something which works through matter, but is independent of it; and even those who are aware that matter and life are inseparably connected, may not be prepared for the conclusion plainly suggested by the phrase, "_the_ physical basis or matter of life," that there is some one kind of matter which is common to all living beings, and that their endless diversities are bound together by a physical, as well as an ideal, unity. In fact, when first apprehended, such a doctrine as this appears almost shocking to common sense. What, truly, can seem to be more obviously different from one another, in faculty, in form, and in substance, than the various kinds of living beings? What community of faculty can there be between the brightly-coloured lichen, which so nearly resembles a mere mineral incrustation of the bare rock on which it grows, and the painter, to whom it is instinct with beauty, or the botanist, whom it feeds with knowledge? Again, think of the microscopic fungus--a mere infinitesimal ovoid particle, which finds space and duration enough to multiply into countless millions in the body of a living fly; and then of the wealth of foliage, the luxuriance of flower and fruit, which lies between this bald sketch of a plant and the giant pine of California, towering to the dimensions of a cathedral spire, or the Indian fig, which covers acres with its profound shadow, and endures while nations and empires come and go around its vast circumference. Or, turning to the other half of the world of life, picture to yourselves the great Finner whale, hugest of beasts that live, or have lived, disporting his eighty or ninety feet of bone, muscle, and blubber, with easy roll, among waves in which the stoutest ship that ever left dockyard would flounder hopelessly; and contrast him with the invisible animalcules--mere gelatinous specks, multitudes of which could, in fact, dance upon the point of a needle with the same ease as the angels of the Schoolmen could, in imagination. With these images before your minds, you may well ask, what community of form, or structure, is there between the animalcule and the whale; or between the fungus and the fig-tree? And, _à fortiori_[49], between all four? Finally, if we regard substance, or material composition, what hidden bond can connect the flower which a girl wears in her hair and the blood which courses through her youthful veins; or, what is there in common between the dense and resisting mass of the oak, or the strong fabric of the tortoise, and those broad disks of glassy jelly which may be seen pulsating through the waters of a calm sea, but which drain away to mere films in the hand which raises them out of their element? Such objections as these must, I think, arise in the mind of every one who ponders, for the first time, upon the conception of a single physical basis of life underlying all the diversities of vital existence; but I propose to demonstrate to you that, notwithstanding these apparent difficulties, a threefold unity--namely, a unity of power or faculty, a unity of form, and a unity of substantial composition--does pervade the whole living world. No very abstruse argumentation is needed, in the first place, to prove that the powers, or faculties, of all kinds of living matter, diverse as they may be in degree, are substantially similar in kind. Goethe has condensed a survey of all powers of mankind into the well-known epigram:-- "Warum treibt sich das Volk so und schreit? Es will sich ernähren, Kinder zeugen, und die nähren so gut es vermag. * * * * * Weiter bringt es kein Mensch, stell' er sich wie er auch will."[50] In physiological language this means, that all the multifarious and complicated activities of man are comprehensible under three categories. Either they are immediately directed towards the maintenance and development of the body, or they effect transitory changes in the relative positions of parts of the body, or they tend towards the continuance of the species. Even those manifestions of intellect, of feeling, and of will, which we rightly name the higher faculties, are not excluded from this classification, inasmuch as to every one but the subject of them, they are known only as transitory changes in the relative positions of parts of the body. Speech, gesture, and every other form of human action are, in the long run, resolvable into muscular contraction, and muscular contraction is but a transitory change in the relative positions of the parts of a muscle. But the scheme which is large enough to embrace the activities of the highest form of life, covers all those of the lower creatures. The lowest plant, or animalcule, feeds, grows, and reproduces its kind. In addition, all animals manifest those transitory changes of form which we class under irritability and contractility; and it is more than probable that when the vegetable world is thoroughly explored, we shall find all plants in possession of the same powers, at one time or other of their existence. I am not now alluding to such phenomena, at once rare and conspicuous, as those exhibited by the leaflets of the sensitive plants, or the stamens of the barberry, but to much more widely spread, and at the same time, more subtle and hidden, manifestions of vegetable contractility. You are doubtless aware that the common nettle owes its stinging property to the innumerable stiff and needle-like, though exquisitely delicate, hairs which cover its surface. Each stinging-needle tapers from a broad base to a slender summit, which, though rounded at the end, is of such microscopic fineness that it readily penetrates, and breaks off in, the skin. The whole hair consists of a very delicate outer case of wood, closely applied to the inner surface of which is a layer of semi-fluid matter, full of innumerable granules of extreme minuteness. This semi-fluid lining is protoplasm, which thus constitutes a kind of bag, full of a limpid liquid, and roughly corresponding in form with the interior of the hair which it fills. When viewed with a sufficiently high magnifying power, the protoplasmic layer of the nettle hair is seen to be in a condition of unceasing activity. Local contractions of the whole thickness of its substance pass slowly and gradually from point to point, and give rise to the appearance of progressive waves, just as the bending of successive stalks of corn by a breeze produces the apparent billows of a corn-field. But, in addition to these movements, and independently of them, the granules are driven, in relatively rapid streams, through channels in the protoplasm which seem to have a considerable amount of persistence. Most commonly, the currents in adjacent parts of the protoplasm take similar directions; and, thus, there is a general stream up one side of the hair and down the other. But this does not prevent the existence of partial currents which take different routes; and sometimes trains of granules may be seen coursing swiftly in opposite directions within a twenty-thousandth of an inch of one another; while, occasionally, opposite streams come into direct collision, and, after a longer or shorter struggle, one predominates. The cause of these currents seems to lie in contractions of the protoplasm which bounds the channels in which they flow, but which are so minute that the best microscopes show only their effects, and not themselves. The spectacle afforded by the wonderful energies prisoned within the compass of the microscopic hair of a plant, which we commonly regard as a merely passive organism, is not easily forgotten by one who has watched its display, continued hour after hour, without pause or sign of weakening. The possible complexity of many other organic forms, seemingly as simple as the protoplasm of the nettle, dawns upon one; and the comparison of such a protoplasm to a body with an internal circulation, which has been put forward by an eminent physiologist, loses much of its startling character. Currents similar to those of the hairs of the nettle have been observed in a great multitude of very different plants, and weighty authorities have suggested that they probably occur, in more or less perfection, in all young vegetable cells. If such be the case, the wonderful noonday silence of a tropical forest is, after all, due only to the dullness of our hearing; and could our ears catch the murmur of these tiny Maelstroms, as they whirl in the innumerable myriads of living cells which constitute each tree, we should be stunned, as with the roar of a great city. Among the lower plants, it is the rule rather than the exception, that contractility should be still more openly manifested at some periods of their existence. The protoplasm of _Algae_ and _Fungi_ becomes, under many circumstances, partially, or completely, freed from its woody case, and exhibits movements of its whole mass, or is propelled by the contractility of one, or more, hair-like prolongations of its body, which are called vibratile cilia. And, so far as the conditions of the manifestation of the phenomena of contractility have yet been studied, they are the same for the plant as for the animal. Heat and electric shocks influence both, and in the same way, though it may be in different degrees. It is by no means my intention to suggest that there is no difference in faculty between the lowest plant and the highest, or between plants and animals. But the difference between the powers of the lowest plant, or animal, and those of the highest, is one of degree, not of kind, and depends, as Milne-Edwards long ago so well pointed out, upon the extent to which the principle of the division of labour is carried out in the living economy. In the lowest organism all parts are competent to perform all functions, and one and the same portion of protoplasm may successfully take on the function of feeding, moving, or reproducing apparatus. In the highest, on the contrary, a great number of parts combine to perform each function, each part doing its allotted share of the work with great accuracy and efficiency, but being useless for any other purpose. On the other hand, notwithstanding all the fundamental resemblances which exist between the powers of the protoplasm in plants and in animals, they present a striking difference (to which I shall advert more at length presently), in the fact that plants can manufacture fresh protoplasm out of mineral compounds, whereas animals are obliged to procure it ready made, and hence, in the long run, depend upon plants. Upon what condition this difference in the powers of the two great divisions of the world of life depends, nothing is at present known. With such qualifications as arise out of the last-mentioned fact, it may be truly said that the acts of all living things are fundamentally one. Is any such unity predicable of their forms? Let us seek in easily verified facts for a reply to this question. If a drop of blood be drawn by pricking one's finger, and viewed with proper precautions, and under a sufficiently high microscopic power, there will be seen, among the innumerable multitude of little, circular, discoidal bodies, or corpuscles, which float in it and give it its colour, a comparatively small number of colourless corpuscles, of somewhat larger size and very irregular shape. If the drop of blood be kept at the temperature of the body, these colourless corpuscles will be seen to exhibit a marvellous activity, changing their forms with great rapidity, drawing in and thrusting out prolongations of their substance, and creeping about as if they were independent organisms. The substance which is thus active is a mass of protoplasm, and its activity differs in detail, rather than in principle, from that of the protoplasm of the nettle. Under sundry circumstances the corpuscle dies and becomes distended into a round mass, in the midst of which is seen a smaller spherical body, which existed, but was more or less hidden, in the living corpuscle, and is called its _nucleus_. Corpuscles of essentially similar structure are to be found in the skin, in the lining of the mouth, and scattered through the whole framework of the body. Nay, more: in the earliest condition of the human organism, in that state in which it has but just become distinguishable from the egg in which it arises, it is nothing but an aggregation of such corpuscles, and every organ of the body was, once, no more than such an aggregation. Thus a nucleated mass of protoplasm turns out to be what may be termed the structural unit of the human body. As a matter of fact, the body, in its earliest state, is a mere multiple of such units; and in its perfect condition, it is a multiple of such units, variously modified. But does the formula which expresses the essential structural character of the highest animal cover all the rest, as the statement of its powers and faculties covered that of all others? Very nearly. Beast and fowl, reptile and fish, mollusk, worm, and polype, are all composed of structural units of the same character, namely, masses of protoplasm with a nucleus. There are sundry very low animals, each of which, structurally, is a mere colourless blood-corpuscle, leading an independent life. But, at the very bottom of the animal scale, even this simplicity becomes simplified, and all the phenomena of life are manifested by a particle of protoplasm without a nucleus. Nor are such organisms insignificant by reason of their want of complexity. It is a fair question whether the protoplasm of those simplest forms of life, which people an immense extent of the bottom of the sea, would not outweigh that of all the higher living beings which inhabit the land put together. And in ancient times, no less than at the present day, such living beings as these have been the greatest of rock builders. What has been said of the animal world is no less true of plants. Imbedded in the protoplasm at the broad, or attached, end of the nettle hair, there lies a spheroidal nucleus. Careful examination further proves that the whole substance of the nettle is made up of a repetition of such masses of nucleated protoplasm, each contained in a wooden case, which is modified in form, sometimes into a woody fibre, sometimes into a duct or spiral vessel, sometimes into a pollen grain, or an ovule. Traced back to its earliest state, the nettle arises as the man does, in a particle of nucleated protoplasm. And in the lowest plants, as in the lowest animals, a single mass of such protoplasm may constitute the whole plant, or the protoplasm may exist without a nucleus. Under these circumstances it may well be asked, how is one mass of non-nucleated protoplasm to be distinguished from another? why call one "plant" and the other "animal"? The only reply is that, so far as form is concerned, plants and animals are not separable, and that, in many cases, it is a mere matter of convention whether we call a given organism an animal or a plant. There is a living body called _Aethalium septicum_, which appears upon decaying vegetable substances, and, in one of its forms, is common upon the surfaces of tan-pits. In this condition it is, to all intents and purposes, a fungus, and formerly was always regarded as such; but the remarkable investigations of De Bary have shown that, in another condition, the _Aethalium_ is an actively locomotive creature, and takes in solid matters, upon which, apparently, it feeds, thus exhibiting the most characteristic feature of animality. Is this a plant; or is it an animal? Is it both; or is it neither? Some decide in favour of the last supposition, and establish an intermediate kingdom, a sort of biological No Man's Land for all these questionable forms. But, as it is admittedly impossible to draw any distinct boundary line between this no man's land and the vegetable world on the one hand, or the animal on the other, it appears to me that this proceeding merely doubles the difficulty which, before, was single. Protoplasm, simple or nucleated, is the formal basis of all life. It is the clay of the potter: which, bake it and paint it as he will, remains clay, separated by artifice, and not by nature, from the commonest brick or sun-dried clod. Thus it becomes clear that all living powers are cognate, and that all living forms are fundamentally of one character. The researches of the chemist have revealed a no less striking uniformity of material composition in living matter. In perfect strictness, it is true that chemical investigation can tell us little or nothing, directly, of the composition of living matter, inasmuch as such matter must needs die in the act of analysis,--and upon this very obvious ground, objections, which I confess seem to me to be somewhat frivolous, have been raised to the drawing of any conclusions whatever respecting the composition of actually living matter, from that of the dead matter of life, which alone is accessible to us. But objectors of this class do not seem to reflect that it is also, in strictness, true that we know nothing about the composition of any body whatever, as it is. The statement that a crystal of calc-spar consists of carbonate of lime, is quite true, if we only mean that, by appropriate processes, it may be resolved into carbonic acid and quicklime. If you pass the same carbonic acid over the very quicklime thus obtained, you will obtain carbonate of lime again; but it will not be calc-spar, nor anything like it. Can it, therefore, be said that chemical analysis teaches nothing about the chemical composition of calc-spar? Such a statement would be absurd; but it is hardly more so than the talk one occasionally hears about the uselessness of applying the results of chemical analysis to the living bodies which have yielded them. One fact, at any rate, is out of reach of such refinements, and this is, that all the forms of protoplasm which have yet been examined contain the four elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, in very complex union, and that they behave similarly towards several reagents. To this complex combination, the nature of which has never been determined with exactness, the name of Protein has been applied. And if we use this term with such caution as may properly arise out of our comparative ignorance of the things for which it stands, it may be truly said that all protoplasm is proteinaceous, or, as the white, or albumen, of an egg is one of the commonest examples of a nearly pure proteine matter, we may say that all living matter is more or less albuminoid. Perhaps it would not yet be safe to say that all forms of protoplasm are affected by the direct action of electric shocks; and yet the number of cases in which the contraction of protoplasm is shown to be affected by this agency increases every day. Nor can it be affirmed with perfect confidence, that all forms of protoplasm are liable to undergo that peculiar coagulation at a temperature of 40°-50° Centigrade, which has been called "heat-stiffening," though Kühne's beautiful researches have proved this occurrence to take place in so many and such diverse living beings, that it is hardly rash to expect that the law holds good for all. Enough has, perhaps, been said, to prove the existence of a general uniformity in the character of the protoplasm, or physical basis, of life, in whatever group of living beings it may be studied. But it will be understood that this general uniformity by no means excludes any amount of special modifications of the fundamental substance. The mineral, carbonate of lime, assumes an immense diversity of characters, though no one doubts that, under all these Protean changes, is one and the same thing. And now, what is the ultimate fate, and what the origin, of the matter of life? Is it, as some of the older naturalists supposed, diffused throughout the universe in molecules, which are indestructible and unchangeable in themselves; but, in endless transmigration, unite in innumerable permutations, into the diversified forms of life we know? Or, is the matter of life composed of ordinary matter, differing from it only in the manner in which its atoms are aggregated? Is it built up of ordinary matter, and again resolved into ordinary matter when its work is done? Modern science does not hesitate a moment between these alternatives. Physiology writes over the portals of life-- "Debemur morti nos nostraque,"[51] with a profounder meaning than the Roman poet attached to that melancholy line. Under whatever disguise it takes refuge, whether fungus or oak, worm or man, the living protoplasm not only ultimately dies and is resolved into its mineral and lifeless constituents, but is always dying, and, strange as the paradox may sound, could not live unless it died. In the wonderful story of the _Peau de Chagrin_, the hero becomes possessed of a magical wild ass' skin, which yields him the means of gratifying all his wishes. But its surface represents the duration of the proprietor's life; and for every satisfied desire the skin shrinks in proportion to the intensity of fruition, until at length life and the last handbreath of the _peau de chagrin_, disappear with the gratification of a last wish. Balzac's studies had led him over a wide range of thought and speculation, and his shadowing forth of physiological truth in this strange story may have been intentional. At any rate, the matter of life is a veritable _peau de chagrin_, and for every vital act it is somewhat the smaller. All work implies waste, and the work of life results, directly or indirectly, in the waste of protoplasm. Every word uttered by a speaker costs him some physical loss; and, in the strictest sense, he burns that others may have light--so much eloquence, so much of his body resolved into carbonic acid, water, and urea. It is clear that this process of expenditure cannot go on forever. But, happily, the protoplasmic _peau de chagrin_ differs from Balzac's in its capacity of being repaired, and brought back to its full size, after every exertion. For example, this present lecture, whatever its intellectual worth to you, has a certain physical value to me, which is, conceivably, expressible by the number of grains of protoplasm and other bodily substance wasted in maintaining my vital processes during its delivery. My _peau de chagrin_ will be distinctly smaller at the end of the discourse than it was at the beginning. By and by, I shall probably have recourse to the substance commonly called mutton, for the purpose of stretching it back to its original size. Now this mutton was once the living protoplasm, more or less modified, of another animal--a sheep. As I shall eat it, it is the same matter altered, not only by death, but by exposure to sundry artificial operations in the process of cooking. But these changes, whatever be their extent, have not rendered it incompetent to resume its old functions as matter of life. A singular inward laboratory, which I possess, will dissolve a certain portion of the modified protoplasm; the solution so formed will pass into my veins; and the subtle influences to which it will then be subjected will convert the dead protoplasm into living protoplasm, and transubstantiate sheep into man. Nor is this all. If digestion were a thing to be trifled with, I might sup upon lobster, and the matter of life of the crustacean would undergo the same wonderful metamorphosis into humanity. And were I to return to my own place by sea, and undergo shipwreck, the crustacean might, and probably would, return the compliment, and demonstrate our common nature by turning my protoplasm into living lobster. Or, if nothing better were to be had, I might supply my wants with mere bread, and I should find the protoplasm of the wheat-plant to be convertible into man with no more trouble than that of the sheep, and with far less, I fancy, than that of the lobster. Hence it appears to be a matter of no great moment what animal, or what plant, I lay under contribution for protoplasm, and the fact speaks volumes for the general identity of that substance in all living beings. I share this catholicity of assimilation with other animals, all of which, so far as we know, could thrive equally well on the protoplasm of any of their fellows, or of any plant; but here the assimilative powers of the animal world cease. A solution of smelling-salts in water, with an infinitesimal proportion of some other saline matters, contains all the elementary bodies which enter into the composition of protoplasm; but, as I need hardly say, a hogshead of that fluid would not keep a hungry man from starving, nor would it save any animal whatever from a like fate. An animal cannot make protoplasm, but must take it ready-made from some other animal, or some plant--the animal's highest feat of constructive chemistry being to convert dead protoplasm into that living matter of life which is appropriate to itself. Therefore, in seeking for the origin of protoplasm, we must eventually turn to the vegetable world. A fluid containing carbonic acid, water, and nitrogenous salts, which offers such a Barmecide feast[52] to the animal, is a table richly spread to multitudes of plants; and, with a due supply of only such materials, many a plant will not only maintain itself in vigour, but grow and multiply until it has increased a million-fold, or a million million-fold, the quantity of protoplasm which it originally possessed; in this way building up the matter of life, to an indefinite extent, from the common matter of the universe. Thus, the animal can only raise the complex substance of dead protoplasm to the higher power, as one may say, of living protoplasm; while the plant can raise the less complex substances--carbonic acid, water, and nitrogenous salts--to the same stage of living protoplasm, if not to the same level. But the plant also has its limitations. Some of the fungi, for example, appear to need higher compounds to start with; and no known plant can live upon the uncompounded elements of protoplasm. A plant supplied with pure carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, and the like, would as infallibly die as the animal in his bath of smelling-salts, though it would be surrounded by all the constituents of protoplasm. Nor, indeed, need the process of simplification of vegetable food be carried so far as this, in order to arrive at the limit of the plant's thaumaturgy. Let water, carbonic acid, and all the other needful constituents be supplied except nitrogenous salts, and an ordinary plant will still be unable to manufacture protoplasm. Thus the matter of life, so far as we know it (and we have no right to speculate on any other), breaks up, in consequence of that continual death which is the condition of its manifesting vitality, into carbonic acid, water, and nitrogenous compounds, which certainly possess no properties but those of ordinary matter. And out of these same forms of ordinary matter, and from none which are simpler, the vegetable world builds up all the protoplasm which keeps the animal world a-going. Plants are the accumulators of the power which animals distribute and disperse. But it will be observed, that the existence of the matter of life depends on the pre-existence of certain compounds; namely, carbonic acid, water, and certain nitrogenous bodies. Withdraw any one of these three from the world, and all vital phenomena come to an end. They are as necessary to the protoplasm of the plant, as the protoplasm of the plant is to that of the animal. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are all lifeless bodies. Of these, carbon and oxygen unite in certain proportions and under certain conditions, to give rise to carbonic acid; hydrogen and oxygen produce water; nitrogen and other elements give rise to nitrogenous salts. These new compounds, like the elementary bodies of which they are composed, are lifeless. But when they are brought together, under certain conditions, they give rise to the still more complex body, protoplasm, and this protoplasm exhibits the phenomena of life. I see no break in this series of steps in molecular complication, and I am unable to understand why the language which is applicable to any one term of the series may not be used to any of the others. We think fit to call different kinds of matter carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, and to speak of the various powers and activities of these substances as the properties of the matter of which they are composed. When hydrogen and oxygen are mixed in a certain proportion, and an electric spark is passed through them, they disappear, and a quantity of water, equal in weight to the sum of their weights, appears in their place. There is not the slightest parity between the passive and active powers of the water and those of the oxygen and hydrogen which have given rise to it. At 32° Fahrenheit, and far below that temperature, oxygen and hydrogen are elastic gaseous bodies, whose particles tend to rush away from one another with great force. Water, at the same temperature, is a strong though brittle solid, whose particles tend to cohere into definite geometrical shapes, and sometimes build up frosty imitations of the most complex forms of vegetable foliage. Nevertheless we call these, and many other strange phenomena, the properties of the water, and we do not hesitate to believe that, in some way or another, they result from the properties of the component elements of the water. We do not assume that a something called "aquosity" entered into and took possession of the oxidated hydrogen as soon as it was formed, and then guided the aqueous particles to their places in the facets of the crystal, or amongst the leaflets of the hoar-frost. On the contrary, we live in the hope and in the faith that, by the advance of molecular physics, we shall by and by be able to see our way as clearly from the constituents of water to the properties of water, as we are now able to deduce the operations of a watch from the form of its parts and the manner in which they are put together. Is the case in any way changed when carbonic acid, water, and nitrogenous salts disappear, and in their place, under the influence of pre-existing living protoplasm, an equivalent weight of the matter of life makes its appearance? It is true that there is no sort of parity between the properties of the components and the properties of the resultant, but neither was there in the case of the water. It is also true that what I have spoken of as the influence of pre-existing living matter is something quite unintelligible; but does anybody quite comprehend the _modus operandi_[53] of an electric spark, which traverses a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen? What justification is there, then, for the assumption of the existence in the living matter of a something which has no representative, or correlative, in the not living matter which gave rise to it? What better philosophical status has "vitality" than "aquosity"? And why should "vitality" hope for a better fate than the other "itys" which have disappeared since Martinus Scriblerus accounted for the operation of the meat-jack by its inherent "meat-roasting quality," and scorned the "materialism" of those who explained the turning of the spit by a certain mechanism worked by the draught of the chimney? If scientific language is to possess a definite and constant signification whenever it is employed, it seems to me that we are logically bound to apply to the protoplasm, or physical basis of life, the same conceptions as those which are held to be legitimate elsewhere. If the phenomena exhibited by water are its properties, so are those presented by protoplasm, living or dead, its properties. If the properties of water may be properly said to result from the nature and disposition of its component molecules, I can find no intelligible ground for refusing to say that the properties of protoplasm result from the nature and disposition of its molecules. But I bid you beware that, in accepting these conclusions, you are placing your feet on the first rung of a ladder which, in most people's estimation, is the reverse of Jacob's and leads to the antipodes of heaven. It may seem a small thing to admit that the dull vital actions of a fungus, or a foraminifer, are the properties of their protoplasm, and are the direct results of the nature of the matter of which they are composed. But if, as I have endeavoured to prove to you, their protoplasm is essentially identical with, and most readily converted into, that of any animal, I can discover no logical halting-place between the admission that such is the case, and the further concession that all vital action may, with equal propriety, be said to be the result of the molecular forces of the protoplasm which displays it. And if so, it must be true, in the same sense and to the same extent, that the thoughts to which I am now giving utterance, and your thoughts regarding them, are the expression of molecular changes in that matter of life which is the source of our other vital phenomena. Past experience leads me to be tolerably certain that, when the propositions I have just placed before you are accessible to public comment and criticism, they will be condemned by many zealous persons, and perhaps by some few of the wise and thoughtful. I should not wonder if "gross and brutal materialism" were the mildest phrase applied to them in certain quarters. And, most undoubtedly, the terms of the propositions are distinctly materialistic. Nevertheless two things are certain: the one, that I hold the statements to be substantially true; the other, that I, individually, am no materialist, but, on the contrary, believe materialism to involve grave philosophical error. This union of materialistic terminology with the repudiation of materialistic philosophy I share with some of the most thoughtful men with whom I am acquainted. And, when I first undertook to deliver the present discourse, it appeared to me to be a fitting opportunity to explain how such a union is not only consistent with, but necessitated by, sound logic. I purposed to lead you through the territory of vital phenomena to the materialistic slough in which you find yourselves now plunged, and then to point out to you the sole path by which, in my judgment, extrication is possible. * * * * * Let us suppose that knowledge is absolute, and not relative, and therefore, that our conception of matter represents that which it really is. Let us suppose, further, that we do know more of cause and effect than a certain definite order of succession among facts, and that we have a knowledge of the necessity of that succession--and hence, of necessary laws--and I, for my part, do not see what escape there is from utter materialism and necessarianism. For it is obvious that our knowledge of what we call the material world is, to begin with, at least as certain and definite as that of the spiritual world, and that our acquaintance with law is of as old a date as our knowledge of spontaneity. Further, I take it to be demonstrable that it is utterly impossible to prove that anything whatever may not be the effect of a material and necessary cause, and that human logic is equally incompetent to prove that any act is really spontaneous. A really spontaneous act is one which, by the assumption, has no cause; and the attempt to prove such a negative as this is, on the face of the matter, absurd. And while it is thus a philosophical impossibility to demonstrate that any given phenomenon is not the effect of a material cause, any one who is acquainted with the history of science will admit, that its progress has, in all ages, meant, and now, more than ever, means, the extension of the province of what we call matter and causation, and the concomitant gradual banishment from all regions of human thought of what we call spirit and spontaneity. I have endeavoured, in the first part of this discourse, to give you a conception of the direction towards which modern physiology is tending; and I ask you, what is the difference between the conception of life as the product of a certain disposition of material molecules, and the old notion of an Archaeus[54] governing and directing blind matter within each living body, except this--that here, as elsewhere, matter and law have devoured spirit and spontaneity? And as surely as every future grows out of past and present, so will the physiology of the future gradually extend the realm of matter and law until it is co-extensive with knowledge, with feeling, and with action. The consciousness of this great truth weighs like a nightmare, I believe, upon many of the best minds of these days. They watch what they conceive to be the progress of materialism, in such fear and powerless anger as a savage feels when, during an eclipse, the great shadow creeps over the face of the sun. The advancing tide of matter threatens to drown their souls; the tightening grasp of law impedes their freedom; they are alarmed lest man's moral nature be debased by the increase of his wisdom. If the "New Philosophy" be worthy of the reprobation with which it is visited, I confess their fears seem to me to be well founded. While, on the contrary, could David Hume be consulted, I think he would smile at their perplexities, and chide them for doing even as the heathen, and falling down in terror before the hideous idols their own hands have raised. For, after all, what do we know of this terrible "matter," except as a name for the unknown and hypothetical cause of states of our own consciousness? And what do we know of that "spirit" over whose threatened extinction by matter a great lamentation is arising, like that which was heard at the death of Pan, except that it is also a name for an unknown and hypothetical cause, or condition, of states of consciousness? In other words, matter and spirit are but names for the imaginary substrata of groups of natural phenomena. And what is the dire necessity and "iron" law under which men groan? Truly, most gratuitously invented bugbears. I suppose if there be an "iron" law, it is that of gravitation; and if there be a physical necessity, it is that a stone, unsupported, must fall to the ground. But what is all we really know, and can know, about the latter phenomenon? Simply, that, in all human experience, stones have fallen to the ground under these conditions; that we have not the smallest reason for believing that any stone so circumstanced will not fall to the ground; and that we have, on the contrary, every reason to believe that it will so fall. It is very convenient to indicate that all the conditions of belief have been fulfilled in this case, by calling the statement that unsupported stones will fall to the ground, "a law of Nature." But when, as commonly happens, we change _will_ into _must_, we introduce an idea of necessity which most assuredly does not lie in the observed facts, and has no warranty that I can discover elsewhere. For my part, I utterly repudiate and anathematise the intruder. Fact I know; and Law I know; but what is this Necessity save an empty shadow of my own mind's throwing? But, if it is certain that we can have no knowledge of the nature of either matter or spirit, and that the notion of necessity is something illegitimately thrust into the perfectly legitimate conception of law, the materialistic position that there is nothing in the world but matter, force, and necessity, is as utterly devoid of justification as the most baseless of theological dogmas. The fundamental doctrines of materialism, like those of spiritualism, and most other "isms," lie outside "the limits of philosophical inquiry," and David Hume's great service to humanity is his irrefragable demonstration of what these limits are. Hume called himself a sceptic, and therefore others cannot be blamed if they apply the same title to him; but that does not alter the fact that the name, with its existing implications, does him gross injustice. If a man asks me what the politics of the inhabitants of the moon are, and I reply that I do not know; that neither I, nor any one else, has any means of knowing; and that, under these circumstances, I decline to trouble myself about the subject at all; I do not think he has any right to call me a sceptic. On the contrary, in replying thus, I conceive that I am simply honest and truthful, and show a proper regard for the economy of time. So Hume's strong and subtle intellect takes up a great many problems about which we are naturally curious, and shows us that they are essentially questions of lunar politics, in their essence incapable of being answered, and therefore not worth the attention of men who have work to do in the world. And he thus ends one of his essays:-- "If we take in hand any volume of Divinity, or school metaphysics, for instance, let us ask, _Does it contain any abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number?_ No. _Does it contain any experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence?_ No. Commit it then to the flames; for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion."[55] Permit me to enforce this most wise advice. Why trouble ourselves about matters of which, however important they may be, we do know nothing, and can know nothing? We live in a world which is full of misery and ignorance, and the plain duty of each and all of us is to try to make the little corner he can influence somewhat less miserable and somewhat less ignorant than it was before he entered it. To do this effectually it is necessary to be fully possessed of only two beliefs: the first, that the order of Nature is ascertainable by our faculties to an extent which is practically unlimited; the second, that our volition[56] counts for something as a condition of the course of events. Each of these beliefs can be verified experimentally, as often as we like to try. Each, therefore, stands upon the strongest foundation upon which any belief can rest, and forms one of our highest truths. If we find that the ascertainment of the order of nature is facilitated by using one terminology, or one set of symbols, rather than another, it is our clear duty to use the former; and no harm can accrue, so long as we bear in mind that we are dealing merely with terms and symbols. In itself it is of little moment whether we express the phenomena of matter in terms of spirit; or the phenomena of spirit in terms of matter: matter may be regarded as a form of thought, thought may be regarded as a property of matter--each statement has a certain relative truth. But with a view to the progress of science, the materialistic terminology is in every way to be preferred. For it connects thought with the other phenomena of the universe, and suggests inquiry into the nature of those physical conditions, or concomitants of thought, which are more or less accessible to us, and a knowledge of which may, in future, help us to exercise the same kind of control over the world of thought as we already possess in respect of the material world; whereas, the alternative, or spiritualistic, terminology is utterly barren, and leads to nothing but obscurity and confusion of ideas. Thus there can be little doubt, that the further science advances, the more extensively and consistently will all the phenomena of Nature be represented by materialistic formulae and symbols. But the man of science, who, forgetting the limits of philosophical inquiry, slides from these formulae and symbols into what is commonly understood by materialism, seems to me to place himself on a level with the mathematician who should mistake the x's and y's with which he works his problems, for real entities--and with this further disadvantage, as compared with the mathematician, that the blunders of the latter are of no practical consequence, while the errors of systematic materialism may paralyse the energies and destroy the beauty of a life. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 48: The substance of this paper was contained in an address which was delivered in Edinburgh in 1868. The paper was published in "Lay Sermons," 1870.] [Footnote 49: _à fortiori:_ with stronger reason.] [Footnote 50: Why does the populace rush so and make clamor? It wishes to eat, bring forth children, and feed these as well as it may.... No man can do better, strive how he will.] [Footnote 51: We and ours must die.] [Footnote 52: In one of the Arabian Nights stories, a nobleman called Barmecide set before a beggar a number of empty dishes supposed to contain a feast.] [Footnote 53: Mode of working.] [Footnote 54: Archaeus: a spirit, having essentially the same form as the body within which it resided.] [Footnote 55: Hume's Essay "Of the Academical or Sceptical Philosophy," in the _Inquiry concerning the Human Understanding._--[Many critics of this passage seem to forget that the subject-matter of Ethics and Aesthetics consists of matters of fact and existence.--1892.]--Author's note.] [Footnote 56: Or, to speak more accurately, the physical state of which volition is the expression.--1892.--Author's note.] COMPARISON OF THE MENTAL POWERS OF MAN AND THE LOWER ANIMALS[57] CHARLES DARWIN My object in this chapter is to show that there is no fundamental difference between man and the higher mammals in their mental faculties. Each division of the subject might have been extended into a separate essay, but must here be treated briefly. As no classification of the mental powers has been universally accepted, I shall arrange my remarks in the order most convenient for my purpose; and will select those facts which have struck me most, with the hope that they may produce some effect on the reader. As man possesses the same senses as the lower animals, his fundamental intuitions must be the same. Man has also some few instincts in common, as that of self-preservation, sexual love, the love of the mother for her new-born offspring, the desire possessed by the latter to suck, and so forth. But man, perhaps, has somewhat fewer instincts: than those possessed by the animals which come next to him in the series. The orang in the Eastern islands and the chimpanzee in Africa build platforms on which they sleep; and as both species follow the same habit, it might be argued that this was due to instinct, but we cannot feel sure that it is not the result of both animals having similar wants and possessing similar powers of reasoning. These apes, as we may assume, avoid the many poisonous fruits of the tropics, and man has no such knowledge; but as our domestic animals, when taken to foreign lands, and when first turned out in the spring, often eat poisonous herbs, which they afterward avoid, we cannot feel sure that the apes do not learn from their own experience or from that of their parents what fruits to select. It is, however, certain, as we shall presently see, that apes have an instinctive dread of serpents, and probably of other dangerous animals. The fewness and the comparative simplicity of the instincts in the higher animals are remarkable in contrast with those of the lower animals. Cuvier maintained that instinct and intelligence stand in an inverse ratio to each other; and some have thought that the intellectual faculties of the higher animals have been gradually developed from their instincts. But Pouchet, in an interesting essay, has shown that no such inverse ratio really exists. Those insects which possess the most wonderful instincts are certainly the most intelligent. In the vertebrate series, the least intelligent members, namely fishes and amphibians, do not possess complex instincts; and among mammals the animal most remarkable for its instincts, namely the beaver, is highly intelligent, as will be admitted by every one who has read Mr. Morgan's excellent work.[58] But although, as we learn from the above-mentioned insects and the beaver, a high degree of intelligence is certainly compatible with complex instincts, and although actions, at first learned voluntarily, can soon through habit be performed with the quickness and certainty of a reflex action, yet it is not improbable that there is a certain amount of interference between the development of free intelligence and of instinct, since the latter implies some inherited modification of the brain. Little is known about the functions of the brain, but we can perceive that as the intellectual powers become highly developed the various parts of the brain must be connected by very intricate channels of the freest intercommunication; and as a consequence each separate part would perhaps tend to be less well fitted to answer to particular sensations or associations in a definite and inherited--that is, instinctive--manner. There seems even to exist some relation between a low degree of intelligence and a strong tendency to the formation of fixed, though not inherited, habits; for as a sagacious physician remarked to me, persons who are slightly imbecile tend to act in everything by routine or habit; and they are rendered much happier if this is encouraged. I have thought this digression worth giving, because we may easily underrate the mental powers of the higher animals, and especially of man, when we compare their actions founded on the memory of past events, on foresight, reason and imagination, with exactly similar actions instinctively performed by the lower animals; in this latter case the capacity of performing such actions has been gained, step by step, through the variability of the mental organs and natural selection, without any conscious intelligence on the part of the animal during each successive generation. No doubt, as Mr. Wallace has argued, much of the intelligent work done by man is due to imitation and not to reason; but there is this great difference between his actions and many of those performed by the lower animals, namely, that man cannot, on his first trial, make, for instance, a stone hatchet or a canoe, through his power of imitation. He has to learn his work by practice; a beaver, on the other hand, can make its dam or canal, and a bird its nest, as well, or nearly as well, and a spider its wonderful web quite as well, the first time it tries as when old and experienced. To return to our immediate subject: the lower animals, like man, manifestly feel pleasure and pain, happiness and misery. Happiness is never better exhibited than by young animals, such as puppies, kittens, lambs, etc., when playing together, like our own children. Even insects play together, as has been described by that excellent observer, P. Huber, who saw ants chasing and pretending to bite each other, like so many puppies. The fact that the lower animals are excited by the same emotions as ourselves is so well established that it will not be necessary to weary the reader by many details. Terror acts in the same manner on them as on us, causing the muscles to tremble, the heart to palpitate, the sphincters to be relaxed, and the hair to stand on end. Suspicion, the offspring of fear, is eminently characteristic of most wild animals. It is, I think, impossible to read the account given by Sir E. Tennent, of the behaviour of the female elephants used as decoys, without admitting that they intentionally practise deceit, and well know what they are about. Courage and timidity are extremely variable qualities in the individuals of the same species, as is plainly seen in our dogs. Some dogs and horses are ill-tempered and easily turn sulky; others are good-tempered; and these qualities are certainly inherited. Every one knows how liable animals are to furious rage and how plainly they show it. Many, and probably true, anecdotes have been published on the long-delayed and artful revenge of various animals. The accurate Rengger and Brehm[59] state that the American and African monkeys which they kept tame certainly revenged themselves. Sir Andrew Smith, a zoologist whose scrupulous accuracy was known to many persons, told me the following story of which he was himself an eye-witness: At the Cape of Good Hope an officer had often plagued a certain baboon, and the animal, seeing him approaching one Sunday for parade, poured water into a hole and hastily made some thick mud, which he skilfully dashed over the officer as he passed by, to the amusement of many bystanders. For long afterwards the baboon rejoiced and triumphed whenever he saw his victim. The love of a dog for his master is notorious; as an old writer quaintly says: "A dog is the only thing on this earth that luvs you more than he luvs himself." In the agony of death a dog has been known to caress his master, and every one has heard of the dog suffering under vivisection, who licked the hand of the operator; this man, unless the operation was fully justified by an increase of our knowledge, or unless he had a heart of stone, must have felt remorse to the last hour of his life. As Whewell has well asked: "Who that reads the touching instances of maternal affection, related so often of the women of all nations and of the females of all animals, can doubt that the principle of action is the same in the two cases?" We see maternal affection exhibited in the most trifling details; thus, Rengger observed an American monkey (a Cebus) carefully driving away the flies which plagued her infant; and Duvaucel saw a Hylobates washing the face of her young ones in a stream. So intense is the grief of female monkeys for the loss of their young that it invariably caused the death of certain kinds kept under confinement by Brehm in N. Africa. Orphan monkeys were always adopted and carefully guarded by the other monkeys, both males and females. One female baboon had so capacious a heart that she not only adopted young monkeys of other species, but stole young dogs and cats, which she continually carried about. Her kindness, however, did not go so far as to share her food with her adopted offspring, at which Brehm was surprised, as his monkeys always divided everything quite fairly with their own young ones. An adopted kitten scratched this affectionate baboon, who certainly had a fine intellect, for she was much astonished at being scratched, and immediately examined the kitten's feet, and without more ado bit off the claws.[60] In the Zoological Gardens I heard from the keeper that an old baboon (C. chacma) had adopted a Rhesus monkey; but when a young drill and mandrill were placed in the cage she seemed to perceive that these monkeys, though distinct species, were her nearer relatives, for she at once rejected the Rhesus and adopted both of them. The young Rhesus, as I saw, was greatly discontented at being thus rejected, and it would, like a naughty child, annoy and attack the young drill and mandrill whenever it could do so with safety; this conduct exciting great indignation in the old baboon. Monkeys will also, according to Brehm, defend their master when attacked by any one, as well as dogs to whom they are attached, from the attacks of other dogs. But we here trench on the subjects of sympathy and fidelity to which I shall recur. Some of Brehm's monkeys took much delight in teasing a certain old dog whom they disliked, as well as other animals, in various ingenious ways. Most of the more complex emotions are common to the higher animals and ourselves. Every one has seen how jealous a dog is of his master's affections if lavished on any other creature; and I have observed the same fact with monkeys. This shows that animals not only love, but have a desire to be loved. Animals manifestly feel emulation. They love approbation or praise; and a dog carrying a basket for his master exhibits in a high degree self-complacency or pride. There can, I think, be no doubt that a dog feels shame, as distinct from fear, and something very like modesty when begging too often for food. A great dog scorns the snarling of a little dog, and this may be called magnanimity. Several observers have stated that monkeys certainly dislike being laughed at; and they sometimes invent imaginary offenses. In the Zoological Gardens I saw a baboon who always got into a furious rage when his keeper took out a letter or book and read it aloud to him; and his rage was so violent that, as I witnessed on one occasion, he bit his own leg till the blood flowed. Dogs show what may be fairly called a sense of humour as distinct from mere play; if a bit of stick or other such object be thrown to one, he will often carry it away for a short distance; and then squatting down with it on the ground close before him, will wait until his master comes quite close to take it away. The dog will then seize it and rush away in triumph, repeating the same maneuver, and evidently enjoying the practical joke. We will now turn to the more intellectual emotions and faculties, which are very important, as forming the basis for the development of the higher mental powers. Animals manifestly enjoy excitement, and suffer from ennui, as may be seen with dogs, and, according to Rengger, with monkeys. All animals feel _Wonder_ and many exhibit _Curiosity_. They sometimes suffer from this latter quality, as when the hunter plays antics and thus attracts them; I have witnessed this with deer, and so it is with the wary chamois, and with some kinds of wild ducks. Brehm gives a curious account of the instinctive dread, which his monkeys exhibited, for snakes; but their curiosity was so great that they could not desist from occasionally satiating their horror in a most human fashion by lifting up the lid of the box in which the snakes were kept. I was so much surprised at his account that I took a stuffed and coiled-up snake into the monkey-house at the Zoological Gardens, and the excitement thus caused was one of the most curious spectacles which I ever beheld. Three species of Cercopithecus were the most alarmed; they dashed about their cages and uttered sharp signal cries of danger, which were understood by the other monkeys. A few young monkeys and one old Anubis baboon alone took no notice of the snake. I then placed the stuffed specimen on the ground in one of the larger compartments. After a time all the monkeys collected round it in a large circle, and, staring intently, presented a most ludicrous appearance. They became extremely nervous; so that when a wooden ball, with which they were familiar as a plaything, was accidentally moved in the straw, under which it was partly hidden, they all instantly started away. These monkeys behaved very differently when a dead fish, a mouse, a living turtle, and other new objects were placed in their cages; for though at first frightened, they soon approached, handled, and examined them. I then placed a live snake in a paper bag, with the mouth loosely closed, in one of the larger compartments. One of the monkeys immediately approached, cautiously opened the bag a little, peeped in, and instantly dashed away. Then I witnessed what Brehm has described; for monkey after monkey, with head raised high and turned on one side, could not resist taking a momentary peep into the upright bag, at the dreadful object lying quietly at the bottom. It would almost appear as if monkeys had some notion of zoological affinities, for those kept by Brehm exhibited a strange, although mistaken, instinctive dread of innocent lizards and frogs. An orang, also, has been known to be much alarmed at the first sight of a turtle. The principle of _Imitation_ is strong in man, and especially, as I have myself observed, with savages. In certain morbid states of the brain this tendency is exaggerated to an extraordinary degree; some hemiplegic patients and others, at the commencement of inflammatory softening of the brain, unconsciously imitate every word which is uttered, whether in their own or a foreign language, and every gesture or action which is performed near them. Desor has remarked that no animal voluntarily imitates an action performed by man, until, in the ascending scale, we come to monkeys, which are well known to be ridiculous mockers. Animals, however, sometimes imitate each other's actions; thus two species of wolves, which had been reared by dogs, learned to bark, as does sometimes the jackal, but whether this can be called voluntary imitation is another question. Birds imitate the songs of their parents, and sometimes of other birds; and parrots are notorious imitators of any sound which they often hear. Dureau de la Malle gives an account of a dog reared by a cat, who learned to imitate the well-known action of a cat licking her paws, and thus washing her ears and face; this was also witnessed by the celebrated naturalist Audouin. I have received several confirmatory accounts; in one of these, a dog had not been suckled by a cat, but had been brought up with one, together with kittens, and had thus acquired the above habit, which he ever afterward practised during his life of thirteen years. Dureau de la Malle's dog likewise learned from the kittens to play with a ball by rolling it about with his fore-paws and springing on it. A correspondent assures me that a cat in his house used to put her paws into jugs of milk having too narrow a mouth for her head. A kitten of this cat soon learned the same trick, and practised it ever afterward whenever there was an opportunity. The parents of many animals, trusting to the principle of imitation in their young, and more especially to their instinctive or inherited tendencies, may be said to educate them. We see this when a cat brings a live mouse to her kittens; and Dureau de la Malle has given a curious account (in the paper above quoted) of his observations on hawks which taught their young dexterity, as well as judgment of distances, by first dropping through the air dead mice and sparrows, which the young generally failed to catch, and then bringing them live birds and letting them loose. Hardly any faculty is more important for the intellectual progress of man than _Attention_. Animals clearly manifest this power, as when a cat watches by a hole and prepares to spring on its prey. Wild animals sometimes become so absorbed when thus engaged that they may be easily approached. Mr. Bartlett has given me a curious proof of how variable this faculty is in monkeys. A man who trains monkeys to act in plays used to purchase common kinds from the Zoological Society at the price of five pounds for each; but he offered to give double the price if he might keep three or four of them for a few days in order to select one. When asked how he could possibly learn so soon whether a particular monkey would turn out a good actor, he answered that it all depended on their power of attention. If when he was talking and explaining anything to a monkey its attention was easily distracted, as by a fly on the wall or other trifling object, the case was hopeless. If he tried by punishment to make an inattentive monkey act, it turned sulky. On the other hand, a monkey which carefully attended to him could always be trained. It is almost superfluous to state that animals have excellent _memories_ for persons and places. A baboon at the Cape of Good Hope, as I have been informed by Sir Andrew Smith, recognised him with joy after an absence of nine months. I had a dog who was savage and averse to all strangers, and I purposely tried his memory after an absence of five years and two days. I went near the stable where he lived and shouted to him in my old manner; he showed no joy, but instantly followed me out walking, and obeyed me exactly as if I had parted with him only half an hour before. A train of old associations, dormant during five years, had thus been instantaneously awakened in his mind. Even ants, as P. Huber has clearly shown, recognised their fellow-ants belonging to the same community after a separation of four months. Animals can certainly by some means judge of the intervals of time between recurrent events. The _Imagination_ is one of the highest prerogatives of man. By this faculty he may unite former images and ideas, independently of the will, and thus create brilliant and novel results. A poet, as Jean Paul Richter remarks, "who must reflect whether he shall make a character say yes or no--to the devil with him; he is only a stupid corpse." The value of the products of our imagination depends of course on the number, accuracy, and clearness of our impressions, on our judgment and taste in selecting or rejecting the involuntary combinations, and to a certain extent on our power of voluntarily combining them. As dogs, cats, horses, and probably all the higher animals, even birds, have vivid dreams, and this is shown by their movements and the sounds uttered, we must admit that they possess some power of imagination. There must be something special which causes dogs to howl in the night, and especially during moonlight, in that remarkable and melancholy manner called baying. All dogs do not do so; and, according to Houzeau, they do not then look at the moon, but at some fixed point near the horizon. Houzeau thinks that their imaginations are disturbed by the vague outlines of the surrounding objects, and conjure up before them fantastic images; if this be so, their feelings may almost be called superstitious. Of all the faculties of the human mind, it will, I presume, be admitted that _Reason_ stands at the summit. Only a few persons now dispute that animals possess some power of reasoning. Animals may constantly be seen to pause, deliberate, and resolve. It is a significant fact, that the more the habits of any particular animal are studied by a naturalist, the more he attributes to reason and the less to unlearned instincts. In future chapters we shall see that some animals extremely low in the scale apparently display a certain amount of reason. No doubt it is often difficult to distinguish between the power of reason and that of instinct. For instance, Dr. Hayes, in his work on "The Open Polar Sea," repeatedly remarks that his dogs, instead of continuing to draw the sledges in a compact body, diverged and separated when they came to thin ice, so that their weight might be more evenly distributed. This was often the first warning which the travellers received that the ice was becoming thin and dangerous. Now, did the dogs act thus from the experience of each individual, or from the example of the older and wiser dogs, or from an inherited habit, that is from instinct? This instinct may possibly have arisen since the time, long ago, when dogs were first employed by the natives in drawing their sledges; or the Arctic wolves, the parent-stock of the Esquimau dog, may have acquired an instinct impelling them not to attack their prey in a close pack, when on thin ice. We can only judge by the circumstances under which actions are performed, whether they are due to instinct, or to reason, or to the mere association of ideas; this latter principle, however, is intimately connected with reason. A curious case has been given by Professor Möbius, of a pike, separated by a plate of glass from an adjoining aquarium stocked with fish, and who often dashed himself with such violence against the glass in trying to catch the other fishes, that he was sometimes completely stunned. The pike went on thus for three months, but at last learned caution, and ceased to do so. The plate of glass was then removed, but the pike would not attack these particular fishes, though he would devour others which were afterward introduced; so strongly was the idea of a violent shock associated in his feeble mind with the attempt on his former neighbours. If a savage who had never seen a large plate-glass window, were to dash himself even once against it, he would for a long time afterward associate a shock with a window-frame; but, very differently from the pike, he would probably reflect on the nature of the impediment, and be cautious under analogous circumstances. Now with monkeys, as we shall presently see, a painful or merely a disagreeable impression, from an action once performed, is sometimes sufficient to prevent the animal from repeating it. If we attribute this difference between the monkeys and the pike solely to the association of ideas being so much stronger and more persistent in the one than the other, though the pike often received much the more severe injury, can we maintain in the case of man that a similar difference implies the possession of a fundamentally different mind? Houzeau relates that, while crossing a wide and arid plain in Texas, his two dogs suffered greatly from thirst, and that between thirty and forty times they rushed down the hollows to search for water. These hollows were not valleys, and there were no trees in them, or any other difference in the vegetation, and as they were absolutely dry, there could have been no smell of damp earth. The dogs behaved as if they knew that a dip in the ground offered them the best chance of finding water, and Houzeau has often witnessed the same behaviour in other animals. I have seen, as I dare say have others, that when a small object is thrown on the ground beyond the reach of one of the elephants in the Zoological Gardens, he blows through his trunk on the ground beyond the object, so that the current reflected on all sides may drive the object within his reach. Again, a well-known ethnologist, Mr. Westropp, informs me that he observed in Vienna a bear deliberately making with his paw a current in some water, which was close to the bars of his cage, so as to draw a piece of floating bread within his reach. These actions of the elephant and bear can hardly be attributed to instinct or inherited habit, as they would be of little use to an animal in a state of nature. Now, what is the difference between such actions, when performed by an uncultivated man, and by one of the higher animals? The savage and the dog have often found water at a low level, and the coincidence under such circumstances has become associated in their minds. A cultivated man would perhaps make some general proposition on the subject; but from all that we know of savages it is extremely doubtful whether they would do so, and a dog would certainly not. But a savage, as well as a dog, would search in the same way, though frequently disappointed, and in both it seems to be equally an act of reason, whether or not any general proposition on the subject is consciously placed before the mind. The same would apply to the elephant and the bear making currents in the air or water. The savage would certainly neither know nor care by what law the desired movements were effected; yet his act would be guided by a rude process of reasoning, as surely as would a philosopher in his longest chain of deductions. There would no doubt be this difference between him and one of the higher animals, that he would take notice of much slighter circumstances and conditions, and would observe any connection between them after much less experience, and this would be of paramount importance. I kept a daily record of the actions of one of my infants, and when he was about eleven months old, and before he could speak a single word, I was continually struck with the greater quickness with which all sorts of objects and sounds were associated together in his mind, compared with that of the most intelligent dogs I ever knew. But the higher animals differ in exactly the same way in this power of association from those low in the scale, such as the pike, as well as in that of drawing inferences and of observation. The promptings of reason, after very short experience, are well shown by the following actions of American monkeys, which stand low in their order. Rengger, a most careful observer, states that when he first gave eggs to his monkeys in Paraguay they smashed them and thus lost much of their contents; afterward they gently hit one end against some hard body, and picked off the bits of shell with their fingers. After cutting themselves only once with any sharp tool, they would not touch it again, or would handle it with the greatest caution. Lumps of sugar were often given them wrapped up in paper; and Rengger sometimes put a live wasp in the paper, so that in hastily unfolding it they got stung; after this had once happened they always held the packet to their ears to detect any movement within. The following cases relate to dogs. Mr. Colquhoun winged two wild ducks, which fell on the farther side of a stream; his retriever tried to bring over both at once, but could not succeed; she then, though never before known to ruffle a feather, deliberately killed one, brought over the other, and returned for the dead bird. Colonel Hutchinson relates that two partridges were shot at once, one being killed, the other wounded; the latter ran away and was caught by the retriever, who on her return came across the dead bird: "She stopped, evidently greatly puzzled, and after one or two trials, finding she could not take it up without permitting the escape of the winged bird, she considered a moment, then deliberately murdered it by giving it a severe crunch, and afterward brought away both together. This was the only known instance of her ever having wilfully injured any game." Here we have reason, though not quite perfect, for the retriever might have brought the wounded bird first and then returned for the dead one, as in the case of the two wild-ducks. I give the above cases as resting on the evidence of two independent witnesses and because in both instances the retrievers, after deliberation, broke through a habit which is inherited by them (that of not killing the game retrieved), and because they show how strong their reasoning faculty must have been to overcome a fixed habit. I will conclude by quoting a remark by the illustrious Humboldt. "The muleteers in South America say, 'I will not give you the mule whose step is easiest, but _la mas racional_--the one that reasons best;'" and, as he adds, "this popular expression, dictated by long experience, combats the system of animated machines better perhaps than all the arguments of speculative philosophy." Nevertheless some writers even yet deny that the higher animals possess a trace of reason; and they endeavour to explain away, by what appears to be mere verbiage, all such facts as those above given. It has, I think, now been shown that man and the higher animals, especially the Primates, have some few instincts in common. All have the same senses, intuitions, and sensations--similar passions, affections, and emotions, even the more complex ones, such as jealousy, suspicion, emulation, gratitude and magnanimity; they practise deceit and are revengeful; they are sometimes susceptible to ridicule, and even have a sense of humour; they feel wonder and curiosity; they possess the same faculties of imitation, attention, deliberation, choice, memory, imagination, the association of ideas, and reason, though in very different degrees. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 57: From Chapter III of "The Descent of Man," 1871. All except three of the author's foot-notes have been omitted.] [Footnote 58: "The American Beaver and his Works," 1868.--Author's note.] [Footnote 59: All the following statements, given on the authority of these two naturalists, are taken from Rengger's "Naturgesch. der Säugethiere von Paraguay," 1830, s. 41-57, and from Brehm's "Thierleben," B.i. s. 10-87.--Author's note.] [Footnote 60: A critic, without any grounds ("Quarterly Review," July, 1871, p. 72), disputes the possibility of this act as described by Brehm, for the sake of discrediting my work. Therefore I tried, and found that I could readily seize with my own teeth the sharp little claws of a kitten nearly five weeks old.--Author's note.] THE IMPORTANCE OF DUST: A SOURCE OF BEAUTY AND ESSENTIAL TO LIFE[61] ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE The majority of persons, if asked what were the uses of dust, would reply that they did not know it had any, but they were sure it was a great nuisance. It is true that dust, in our towns and in our houses, is often not only a nuisance but a serious source of disease: while in many countries it produces ophthalmia, often resulting in total blindness. Dust, however, as it is usually perceived by us, is, like dirt, only matter in the wrong place, and whatever injurious or disagreeable effects it produces are largely due to our own dealings with nature. So soon as we dispense with horsepower and adopt purely mechanical means of traction and conveyance, we can almost wholly abolish disease-bearing dust from our streets, and ultimately from all our highways; while another kind of dust, that caused by the imperfect combustion of coal, may be got rid of with equal facility so soon as we consider pure air, sunlight, and natural beauty to be of more importance to the population as a whole than are the prejudices or the vested interests of those who produce the smoke. But though we can thus minimize the dangers and the inconveniences arising from the grosser forms of dust, we cannot wholly abolish it; and it is, indeed, fortunate we cannot do so, since it has now been discovered that it is to the presence of dust we owe much of the beauty, and perhaps even the very habitability of the earth we live upon. Few of the fairy tales of science are more marvelous than these recent discoveries as to the varied effects and important uses of dust in the economy of nature. The question why the sky and the deep ocean are both blue did not much concern the earlier physicists. It was thought to be the natural color of pure air and water, so pale as not to be visible when small quantities were seen, and only exhibiting its true tint when we looked through great depth of atmosphere or of organic water. But this theory did not explain the familiar facts of the gorgeous tints seen at sunset and sunrise, not only in the atmosphere and on the clouds near the horizon, but also in equally resplendent hues when the invisible sun shines upon Alpine peaks and snowfields. A true theory should explain all these colors, which comprise almost every tint of the rainbow. The explanation was found through experiments on the visibility or non-visibility of air, which were made by the late Professor Tyndall about the year 1868. Everyone: has seen the floating dust in a sunbeam when sunshine enters a partially darkened room; but it is not generally known that if there was absolutely no dust in the air the path of the sunbeam would be totally black and invisible, while if only very little dust was present in very minute particles the air would be as blue as the summer sky. This was proved by passing a ray of electric light lengthways through a long glass cylinder filled with air of varying degrees of purity as regards dust. In the air of an ordinary room, however clean and well ventilated, the interior of the, cylinder appears brilliantly illuminated. But if the cylinder is exhausted and then filled with air which is passed slowly through a fine gauze of intensely heated platinum wire, so as to burn up all the floating dust particles, which are mainly organic, the light will pass through the cylinder without illuminating the interior, which, viewed laterally, will appear as if filled with a dense black cloud. If, now, more air is passed into the cylinder through the heated gauze, but so rapidly that the dust particles are not wholly consumed, a slight blue haze will begin to appear, which will gradually become a pure blue, equal to that of a summer sky. If more and more dust particles are allowed to enter, the blue becomes paler, and gradually changes to the colourless illumination of the ordinary air. The explanation of these phenomena is that the number of dust particles in ordinary air is so great that they reflect abundance of light of all wave-lengths, and thus cause the interior of the vessel containing them to appear illuminated with white light. The air which is passed slowly over white-hot platinum has had the dust particles destroyed, thus showing that they were almost wholly of organic origin, which is also indicated by their extreme lightness, causing them to float permanently in the atmosphere. The dust being thus got rid of, and pure air being entirely transparent, there is nothing in the cylinder to reflect the light, which is sent through its centre in a beam of parallel rays so that none of it strikes against the sides; hence the inside of the cylinder appears absolutely dark. But when the larger dust particles are wholly or partially burnt, so that only the very smallest fragments remain, a blue light appears, because these are so minute as to reflect chiefly the more refrangible rays, which are of shorter wave-length--those at the blue end of the spectrum--and which are thus scattered in all directions, while the red and yellow rays pass straight on as before. We have seen that the air near the earth's surface is full of rather coarse particles which reflect all the rays, and which therefore produce no one colour. But higher up the particles necessarily become smaller and smaller, since the comparatively rare atmosphere will support only the very smallest and lightest. These exist throughout a great thickness of air, perhaps from one mile to ten miles high or, even more, and blue or violet rays being reflected from the innumerable particles in this great mass of air, which is nearly uniform in all parts of the world as regards the presence of minute dust particles, produces the constant and nearly uniform tint we call sky-blue. A certain amount of white or yellow light is no doubt reflected from the coarser dust in the lower atmosphere, and slightly dilutes the blue and renders it not quite so deep and pure as it otherwise would be. This is shown by the increasing depth of the sky-colour when seen from the tops of lofty mountains, while from the still greater heights attained in balloons the sky appears of a blue-black colour, the blue reflected from the comparatively small amount of dust particles being seen against the intense black of stellar space. It is for the same reason that the "Italian skies" are of so rich a blue, because the Mediterranean Sea on one side and the snowy Alps on the other do not furnish so large a quantity of atmospheric dust in the lower strata of air as in less favorably situated countries, thus leaving the blue reflected by the more uniformly distributed fine dust of the higher strata undiluted. But these Mediterranean skies are surpassed by those of the central Pacific ocean, where, owing to the small area of land, the lower atmosphere is more free from coarse dust than in any other part of the world. If we look at the sky on a perfectly fine summer's day, we shall find that the blue colour is the most pure and intense overhead, and when looking high up in a direction opposite to the sun. Near the horizon it is always less bright, while in the region immediately around the sun it is more or less yellow. The reason of this is that near the horizon we look through a very great thickness of the lower atmosphere, which is full of the larger dust particles reflecting white light, and this dilutes the pure blue of the higher atmosphere seen beyond. And in the vicinity of the sun a good deal of the blue light is reflected back into space by the finer dust, thus giving a yellowish tinge to that which reaches us reflected chiefly from the coarse dust of the lower atmosphere. At sunset and sunrise, however, this last effect is greatly intensified, owing to the great thickness of the strata of air through which the light reaches us. The enormous amount of this dust is well shown by the fact that, then only, we can look full at the sun, even when the whole sky is free from clouds and there is no apparent mist. But the sun's rays then reach us after having passed, first, through an enormous thickness of the higher strata of the air, the minute dust of which reflects most of the blue rays away from us, leaving the complementary yellow light to pass on. Then, the somewhat coarser dust reflects the green rays, leaving a more orange coloured light to pass on; and finally some of the yellow is reflected, leaving almost pure red. But owing to the constant presence of air currents, arranging both the dust and vapour in strata of varying extent and density, and of high or low clouds, which both absorb and reflect the light in varying degrees, we see produced all those wondrous combinations of tints and those gorgeous ever-changing colours, which are a constant source of admiration and delight to all who have the advantage of an uninterrupted view to the west, and who are accustomed to watch for these not unfrequent exhibitions of nature's kaleidoscopic colour-painting. With every change in the altitude of the sun the display changes its character; and most of all when it has sunk below the horizon, and, owing to the more favourable angles, a larger quantity of the coloured light is reflected toward us. Especially is this the case when there is a certain amount of cloud. The clouds, so long as the sun is above the horizon, intercept much of the light and colour; but, when the great luminary has passed away from our direct vision, his light shines more directly on the under sides of all the clouds and air strata of different densities; a new and more brilliant light flushes the western sky, and a display of gorgeous ever-changing tints occurs which are at once the delight of the beholder and the despair of the artist. And all this unsurpassable glory we owe to--dust! A remarkable confirmation of this theory was given during the two or three years after the great eruption of Krakatoa, near Java. The volcanic débris was shot up from the crater many miles high, and the heavier portion of it fell upon the sea for several hundred miles around, and was found to be mainly composed of very thin flakes of volcanic glass. Much of this was of course ground to impalpable dust by the violence of the discharge, and was carried up to a height of many miles. Here it was caught by the return currents of air continually flowing northward and southward above the equatorial zone; and since, when these currents reach the temperate zone, where the surface rotation of the earth is less rapid, they continually flow eastward, the fine dust was thus carried at a great altitude completely around the earth. Its effects were traced some months after the eruption in the appearance of brilliant sunset glows of an exceptional character, often flushing with crimson the whole western half of the visible sky. These glows continued in diminishing splendour for about three years; they were seen all over the temperate zone; and it was calculated that, before they finally disappeared, some of this fine dust must have travelled three times round the globe. The same principle is thought to explain the exquisite blue colour of the deep seas and oceans and of many lakes and springs. Absolutely pure water, like pure air, is colourless, but all seas and lakes, however clear and translucent, contain abundance of very finely divided matter, organic or inorganic, which, as in the atmosphere, reflects the blue rays in such quantity as to overpower the white or coloured light-reflected from the fewer and more rapidly sinking particles of larger size. The oceanic dust is derived from many sources. Minute organisms are constantly dying near the surface, and their skeletons, or fragments of them, fall slowly to the bottom. The mud brought down by rivers, though it cannot be traced on the ocean floor more than about 150 miles from land, yet no doubt furnishes many particles of organic matter which are carried by surface currents to enormous distances and are ultimately dissolved before they reach the bottom. A more important source of finely divided matter is to be found in volcanic dust which, as in the case of Krakatoa, may remain for years in the atmosphere, but which must ultimately fall upon the surface of the earth and ocean. This can be traced in all the deep-sea oozes. Finally there is meteoric dust, which is continually falling to the surface of the earth, but in such minute quantities and in such a finely-divided state that it can be detected only in the oozes of the deepest oceans, where both inorganic and organic débris is almost absent. The blue of the ocean varies in different parts from a pure blue somewhat lighter than that of the sky, as seen about the northern tropic in the Atlantic, to a deep indigo tint, as seen in the north temperate portions of the same ocean: owing, probably, to differences in the nature, quantity, and distribution of the solid matter which causes the colour. The Mediterranean, and the deeper Swiss lakes, are also a blue of various tints, due also to the presence of suspended matter, which Professor Tyndall thought might be so fine that it would require ages of quiet subsidence to reach the bottom. All the evidence goes to show, therefore, that the exquisite blue tints of sky and ocean, as well as all the sunset hues of sky and cloud, of mountain peak and Alpine snows, are due to the finer particles of that very dust which, in its coarser forms, we find so annoying and even dangerous. But if this production of colour and beauty were the only useful function of dust, some persons might be disposed to dispense with it in order to escape its less agreeable effects. It has, however, been recently discovered that dust has another part to play in nature; a part so important that it is doubtful whether we could even live without it. To the presence of dust in the higher atmosphere we owe the formation of mists, clouds, and gentle beneficial rains, instead of water spouts and destructive torrents. It is barely twenty years ago since the discovery was made, first in France by Coulier and Mascart, but more thoroughly worked out by Mr. John Aitken in 1880. He found that if a jet of steam is admitted into two large glass receivers,--one filled with ordinary air, the other with air which has been filtered through cotton wool so as to keep back all particles of solid matter,--the first will be instantly filled with condensed vapour in the usual cloudy form, while the other vessel will remain quite transparent. Another experiment was made, more nearly reproducing what occurs in nature. Some water was placed in the two vessels prepared as before. When the water had evaporated sufficiently to saturate the air the vessels were slightly cooled; a dense cloud was at once formed in the one while the other remained quite clear. These experiments, and many others, show that the mere cooling of vapour in air will not condense it into mist clouds or rain, unless _particles of solid matter_ are present to form _nuclei_ upon which condensation can begin. The density of the cloud is proportionate to the number of the particles; hence the fact that the steam issuing from the safety-valve or the chimney of a locomotive forms a dense white cloud, shows that the air is really full of dust particles, most of which are microscopic but none the less serving as centres of condensation for the vapour. Hence, if there were no dust in the air, escaping steam would remain invisible; there would be no cloud in the sky; and the vapour in the atmosphere, constantly accumulating through evaporation from seas and oceans and from the earth's surface, would have to find some other means of returning to its source. One of these modes would be the deposition of dew, which is itself an illustration of the principle that vapour requires solid or liquid surfaces to condense upon; dew forms most readily and abundantly on grass, on account of the numerous centres of condensation this affords. Dew, however, is now formed only on clear cold nights after warm or moist days. The air near the surface is warm and contains much vapour, though below the point of saturation. But the innumerable points and extensive surfaces of grass radiate heat quickly, and becoming cool, lower the temperature of the adjacent air, which then reaches saturation point and condenses the contained atmosphere on the grass. Hence, if the atmosphere at the earth's surface became super-saturated with aqueous vapour, dew would be continuously deposited, especially on every form of vegetation, the result being that everything, including our clothing, would be constantly dripping wet. If there were absolutely no particles of solid matter in the upper atmosphere, all the moisture would be returned to the earth in the form of dense mists, and frequent and copious dews, which in forests would form torrents of rain by the rapid condensation on the leaves. But if we suppose that solid particles were occasionally carried higher up through violent winds or tornadoes, then on those occasions the super-saturated atmosphere would condense rapidly upon them, and while falling would gather almost all the moisture in the atmosphere in that locality, resulting in masses or sheets of water, which would be so ruinously destructive by the mere weight and impetus of their fall that it is doubtful whether they would not render the earth almost wholly uninhabitable. The chief mode of discharging the atmospheric vapour in the absence of dust would, however, be by contact with the higher slopes of all mountain ranges. Atmospheric vapour, being lighter than air, would accumulate in enormous quantities in the upper strata of the atmosphere, which would be always super-saturated and ready to condense upon any solid or liquid surfaces. But the quantity of land comprised in the upper half of all the mountains of the world is a very small fraction of the total surface of the globe, and this would lead to very disastrous results. The air in contact with the higher mountain slopes would rapidly discharge its water, which would run down the mountain sides in torrents. This condensation on every side of the mountains would leave a partial vacuum which would set up currents from every direction to restore the equilibrium, thus bringing in more super-saturated air to suffer condensation and add its supply of water, again increasing the in-draught of more air. The result would be that winds would be constantly blowing toward every mountain range from all directions, keeping up the condensation and discharging, day and night and from one year's end to another, an amount of water equal to that which falls during the heaviest tropical rains. All of the rain that now falls over the whole surface of the earth and ocean, with the exception of a few desert areas, would then fall only on rather high mountains or steep isolated hills, tearing down their sides in huge torrents, cutting deep ravines, and rendering all growth of vegetation impossible. The mountains would therefore be so devastated as to be uninhabitable, and would be equally incapable of supporting either vegetable or animal life. But this constant condensation on the mountains would probably check the deposit on the lowlands in the form of dew, because the continual up-draught toward the higher slopes would withdraw almost the whole of the vapour as it arose from the oceans, and other water-surfaces, and thus leave the lower strata over the plains almost or quite dry. And if this were the case there would be no vegetation, and therefore no animal life, on the plains and lowlands, which would thus be all arid deserts cut through by the great rivers formed by the meeting together of the innumerable torrents from the mountains. Now, although it may not be possible to determine with perfect accuracy what would happen under the supposed condition of the atmosphere, it is certain that the total absence of dust would so fundamentally change the meteorology of our globe as, not improbably, to render it uninhabitable by man, and equally unsuitable for the larger portion of its existing animal and vegetable life. Let us now briefly summarise what we owe to the universality of dust, and especially to that most finely divided portion of it which is constantly present in the atmosphere up to the height of many miles. First of all it gives us the pure blue of the sky, one of the most exquisitely beautiful colours in nature. It gives us also the glories of the sunset and the sunrise, and all those brilliant hues seen in high mountain regions. Half the beauty of the world would vanish with the absence of dust. But, what is far more important than the colour of sky and beauty of sunset, dust gives us also diffused daylight, or skylight, that most equable, and soothing, and useful, of all illuminating agencies. Without dust the sky would appear absolutely black, and the stars would be visible even at noonday. The sky itself would therefore give us no light. We should have bright glaring sunlight or intensely dark shadows, with hardly any half-tones. From this cause alone the world would be so totally different from what it is that all vegetable and animal life would probably have developed into very different forms, and even our own organisation would have been modified in order that we might enjoy life in a world of such harsh and violent contrasts. In our houses we should have little light except when the sun shone directly into them, and even then every spot out of its direct rays would be completely dark, except for light reflected from the walls. It would be necessary to have windows all around and the walls all white; and on the north side of every house a high white wall would have to be built to reflect the light and prevent that side from being in total darkness. Even then we should have to live in a perpetual glare, or shut out the sun altogether and use artificial light as being a far superior article. Much more important would be the effects of a dust-free atmosphere in banishing clouds, or mist, or the "gentle rain of heaven," and in giving us in their place perpetual sunshine, desert lowlands, and mountains devastated by unceasing floods and raging torrents, so as, apparently, to render all life on the earth impossible. There are a few other phenomena, apparently due to the same general causes, which may here be referred to. Everyone must have noticed the difference in the atmospheric effects and general character of the light in spring and autumn, at times when the days are of the same length, and consequently when the sun has the same altitude at corresponding hours. In spring we have a bluer sky and greater transparency of the atmosphere; in autumn, even on very fine days, there is always a kind of yellowish haze, resulting in a want of clearness in the air and purity of colour in the sky. These phenomena are quite intelligible when we consider that during winter less dust is formed, and more is brought down to the earth by rain and snow, resulting in the transparent atmosphere of spring, while exactly opposite conditions during summer bring about the mellow autumnal light. Again, the well-known beneficial effects of rain on vegetation, as compared with any amount of artificial watering, though, no doubt, largely due to the minute quantity of ammonia which the rain brings down with it from the air, must yet be partly derived from the organic or mineral particles which serve as the nuclei of every raindrop, and which, being so minute, are the more readily dissolved in the soil and appropriated as nourishment by the roots of plants. It will be observed that all these beneficial effects of dust are due to its presence in such quantities as are produced by natural causes, since both gentle showers as well as ample rains and deep blue skies are present throughout the vast equatorial forest districts, where dust-forming agencies seem to be at a minimum. But in all densely-populated countries there is an enormous artificial production of dust--from our ploughed fields, from our roads and streets, where dust is continually formed by the iron-shod hoofs of innumerable horses, but chiefly from our enormous combustion of fuel pouring into the air volumes of smoke charged with unconsumed particles of carbon. This superabundance of dust, probably many times greater than that which would be produced under the more natural conditions which prevailed when our country was more thinly populated, must almost certainly produce some effect on our climate; and the particular effect it seems calculated to produce is the increase of cloud and fog, but not necessarily any increase of rain. Rain depends on the supply of aqueous vapour by evaporation; on temperature, which determines the dew point; and on changes in barometric pressure, which determine the winds. There is probably always and everywhere enough atmospheric dust to serve as centres of condensation at considerable altitudes, and thus to initiate rainfall when the other conditions are favourable; but the presence of increased quantities of dust at the lower levels must lead to the formation of denser clouds, although the minute water-vesicles cannot descend as rain, because, as they pass down into warmer and dryer strata of air, they are again evaporated. Now, there is much evidence to show that there has been a considerable increase in the amount of cloud, and consequent decrease in the amount of sunshine, in all parts of our country. It is an undoubted fact that in the Middle Ages England was a wine-producing country, and this implies more sunshine than we have now. Sunshine has a double effect, in heating the surface soil and thus causing more rapid growth, besides its direct effect in ripening the fruit. This is well seen in Canada, where, notwithstanding a six months' winter of extreme severity, vines are grown as bushes in the open ground, and produce fruit equal to that of our ordinary greenhouses. Some years back one of our gardening periodicals obtained from gardeners of forty or fifty years' experience a body of facts clearly indicating a comparatively recent change of climate. It was stated that in many parts of the country, especially in the north, fruits were formerly grown successfully and of good quality in gardens where they cannot be grown now; and this occurred in places sufficiently removed from manufacturing centres to be unaffected by any direct deleterious influence of smoke. But an increase of cloud, and consequent diminution of sunshine, would produce just such a result; and this increase is almost certain to have occurred owing to the enormously increased amount of dust thrown into the atmosphere as our country has become more densely populated, and especially owing to the vast increase of our smoke-producing manufactories. It seems highly probable, therefore, that to increase the wealth of our capitalist-manufacturers we are allowing the climate of our whole country to be greatly deteriorated in a way which diminishes both its productiveness and its beauty, thus injuriously affecting the enjoyment and the health of the whole population, since sunshine is itself an essential condition of healthy life. When this fact is thoroughly realised we shall surely put a stop to such a reckless and wholly unnecessary production of injurious smoke and dust. In conclusion, we find that the much-abused and all-pervading dust, which, when too freely produced, deteriorates our climate and brings us dirt, discomfort, and even disease, is, nevertheless, under natural conditions, an essential portion of the economy of nature. It gives us much of the beauty of natural scenery, as due to varying atmospheric effects of sky, and cloud, and sunset tints, and thus renders life more enjoyable; while, as an essential condition of diffused daylight and of moderate rainfalls combined with a dry atmosphere, it appears to be absolutely necessary for our existence upon the earth, perhaps even for the very development of terrestrial, as opposed to aquatic life. The overwhelming importance of the small things, and even of the despised things, of our world has never, perhaps, been so strikingly brought home to us as in these recent investigations into the wide-spread and far-reaching beneficial influences of Atmospheric Dust. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 61: Chapter IX of "The Wonderful Century," copyright, 1898, by Dodd, Mead and Company. The chapter is here reprinted by permission of the author, Dr. Wallace, and of the publishers.] THE BATTLE OF THE ANTS[62] HENRY DAVID THOREAU One day when I went out to my wood-pile, or rather my pile of stumps, I observed two large ants, the one red, the other much larger, nearly half an inch long, and black, fiercely contending with one another. Having once got hold they never let go, but struggled and wrestled and rolled on the chips incessantly. Looking farther, I was surprised to find that the chips were covered with such combatants, that it was not a _duellum_, but a _bellum_, a war between two races of ants, the red always pitted against the black, and frequently two red ones to one black. The legions of these Myrmidons covered all the hills and vales in my wood-yard, and the ground was already strewn with the dead and dying, both red and black. It was the only battle which I have ever witnessed, the only battlefield I ever trod while the battle was raging; internecine war; the red republicans on the one hand, and the black imperialists on the other. On every side they were engaged in deadly combat, yet without any noise that I could hear, and human soldiers never fought so resolutely. I watched a couple that were fast locked in each other's embraces, in a little sunny valley amid the chips, now at noon-day prepared to fight till the sun went down, or life went out. The smaller red champion had fastened himself like a vice to his adversary's front, and through all the tumblings on that field never for an instant ceased to gnaw at one of his feelers near the root, having already caused the other to go by the board; while the stronger black one dashed him from side to side, and, as I saw on looking nearer, had already divested him of several of his members. They fought with more pertinacity than bull-dogs. Neither manifested the least disposition to retreat. It was evident that their battle-cry was Conquer or Die. In the meanwhile there came along a single red ant on the hill-side of this valley, evidently full of excitement, who either had despatched his foe, or had not yet taken part in the battle; probably the latter, for he had lost none of his limbs; whose mother had charged him to return with his shield or upon it. Or perchance he was some Achilles, who had nourished his wrath apart, and had now come to avenge or rescue his Patroclus.[63] He saw this unequal combat from afar,--for the blacks were nearly twice the size of the reds; he drew near with rapid pace till he stood on his guard within half an inch of the combatants; then, watching his opportunity, he sprang upon the black warrior, and commenced his operations near the root of his right foreleg, leaving the foe to select among his own members; and so there were three united for life, as if a new kind of attraction had been invented which put all other locks and cements to shame. I should not have wondered by this time to find that they had their respective musical bands stationed on some eminent chip, and playing their national airs the while, to excite the slow and cheer the dying combatants. I was myself excited somewhat even as if they had been men. The more you think of it, the less the difference. And certainly there is not the fight recorded in Concord history, at least, if in the history of America, that will bear a moment's comparison with this, whether for the numbers engaged in it, or for the patriotism and heroism displayed. For numbers and for carnage it was an Austerlitz or Dresden. Concord Fight! Two killed on the patriots' side, and Luther Blanchard wounded! Why here every ant was a Buttrick,--"Fire! for God's sake, fire!"--and thousands shared the fate of Davis and Hosmer. There was not one hireling there. I have no doubt that it was a principle they fought for, as much as our ancestors, and not to avoid a three-penny tax on their tea; and the results of this battle will be as important and memorable to those whom it concerns as those of the battle of Bunker Hill, at least. I took up the chip on which the three I have particularly described were struggling, carried it into my house, and placed it under a tumbler on my window-sill, in order to see the issue. Holding a microscope to the first-mentioned red ant, I saw that, though he was assiduously gnawing at the near fore-leg of his enemy, having severed his remaining feeler, his own breast was all torn away, exposing what vitals he had there to the jaws of the black warrior, whose breast-plate was apparently too thick for him to pierce; and the dark carbuncles of the sufferer's eyes shone with ferocity such as war only could excite. They struggled half an hour longer under the tumbler, and when I looked again the black soldier had severed the heads of his foes from their bodies, and the still living heads were hanging on either side of him like ghastly trophies at his saddlebow, still apparently as firmly fastened as ever, and he was endeavoring with feeble struggles, being without feelers and with only the remnant of a leg, and I know not how many other wounds, to divest himself of them; which at length, after half an hour more, he accomplished. I raised the glass, and he went off over the window-sill in that crippled state. Whether he finally survived that combat, and spent the remainder of his days in some Hotel des Invalides, I do not know; but I thought that his industry would not be worth much thereafter. I never learned which party was victorious, nor the cause of the war; but I felt for the rest of that day as if I had had my feelings excited and harrowed by witnessing the struggle, the ferocity and carnage, of a human battle before my door. Kirby and Spence tell us that the battles of ants have long been celebrated and the date of them recorded, though they say that Huber is the only modern author who appears to have witnessed them. "Aeneas Sylvius," say they, "after giving a very circumstantial account of one contested with great obstinacy by a great and small species on the trunk of a pear tree," adds that "'This action was fought in the pontificate of Eugenius the Fourth, in the presence of Nicholas Pistoriensis, an eminent lawyer, who related the whole history of the battle with the greatest fidelity.' A similar engagement between great and small ants is recorded by Olaus Magnus, in which the small ones being victorious, are said to have buried the bodies of their own soldiers, but left those of their giant enemies a prey to the birds. This event happened previous to the expulsion of the tyrant Christiern the Second from Sweden." The battle which I witnessed took place in the Presidency of Polk, five years before the passage of Webster's Fugitive-Slave Bill. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 62: From Chapter XII of "Walden," 1854.] [Footnote 63: Patroclus, in Homer's Iliad, was the friend whose death at the hands of the Trojans roused Achilles to action.] A WIND-STORM IN THE FORESTS[64] JOHN MUIR The mountain winds, like the dew and rain, sunshine and snow, are measured and bestowed with love on the forests, to develop their strength and beauty. However restricted the scope of other forest influences, that of the winds is universal. The snow bends and trims the upper forests every winter, the lightning strikes a single tree here and there, while avalanches mow down thousands at a swoop as a gardener trims out a bed of flowers. But the winds go to every tree, fingering every leaf and branch and furrowed hole; not one is forgotten: the Mountain Pine towering with outstretched arms on the rugged buttresses of the icy peaks, the lowliest and most retiring tenant of the dells--they seek and find them all, caressing them tenderly, bending them in lusty exercise, stimulating their growth, plucking off a leaf or limb as required, or removing an entire tree or grove, now whispering and cooing through the branches like a sleepy child, now roaring like the ocean; the winds blessing the forests, the forests the winds, with ineffable beauty and harmony as the sure result. After one has seen pines six feet in diameter bending like grasses before a mountain gale, and ever and anon some giant falling with a crash that shakes the hills, it seems astonishing that any, save the lowest thick-set trees, could ever have found a period sufficiently stormless to establish themselves; or once established, that they should not sooner or later have been blown down. But when the storm is over, and we behold the same forests tranquil again, towering fresh and unscathed in erect majesty, and consider what centuries of storms have fallen upon them since they were first planted: hail, to break the tender seedlings; lightning, to scorch and shatter; snow, winds, and avalanches, to crush and overwhelm,--while the manifest result of all this wild storm-culture is the glorious perfection we behold: then faith in Nature's forestry is established, and we cease to deplore the violence of her most destructive gales, or of any other storm implement whatsoever. There are two trees in the Sierra forests that are never blown down, so long as they continue in sound health. These are the Juniper and the Dwarf Pine of the summit peaks. Their stiff, crooked roots grip the storm-beaten ledges like eagles' claws; while their lithe, cord-like branches bend round compliantly, offering but slight holds for winds, however violent. The other alpine conifers--the Needle Pine, Mountain Pine, Two-leaved Pine, and Hemlock Spruce--are never thinned out by this agent to any destructive extent, on account of their admirable toughness and the closeness of their growth. In general the same is true of the giants of the lower zones. The kingly Sugar Pine, towering aloft to a height of more than two hundred feet, offers a fine mark to storm-winds; but it is not densely foliaged, and its long horizontal arms swing round compliantly in the blast, like tresses of green, fluent algae in a brook: while the Silver Firs in most places keep their ranks well together in united strength. The Yellow or Silver Pine is more frequently overturned than any other tree on the Sierra, because its leaves and branches form a larger mass in proportion to its height; while in many places it is planted sparsely, leaving open lanes through which storms may enter with full force. Furthermore, because it is distributed along the lower portion of the range, which was the first to be left bare on the breaking up of the ice-sheet at the close of the glacial winter, the soil it is growing upon has been longer exposed to post-glacial weathering, and consequently is in a more crumbling, decayed condition than the fresher soils farther up the range, and therefore offers a less secure anchorage for the roots. While exploring the forest zones of Mount Shasta, I discovered the path of a hurricane strewn with thousands of pines of this species. Great and small had been uprooted or wrenched off by sheer force, making a clean gap, like that made by a snow avalanche. But hurricanes capable of doing this class of work are rare in the Sierra; and when we have explored the forests from one extremity of the range to the other, we are compelled to believe that they are the most beautiful on the face of the earth, however we may regard the agents that have made them so. There is always something deeply exciting, not only in the sounds of winds in the woods, which exert more or less influence over every mind, but in their varied water-like flow as manifested by the movements of the trees, especially those of the conifers. By no other trees are they rendered so extensively and impressively visible; not even by the lordly tropic palms or tree-ferns responsive to the gentlest breeze. The waving of a forest of the giant Sequoias is indescribably impressive and sublime; but the pines seem to me the best interpreters of winds. They are mighty waving golden-rods, ever in tune, singing and writing wind-music all their long century lives. Little, however, of this noble tree-waving and tree-music will you see or hear in the strictly alpine portion of the forests. The burly Juniper whose girth sometimes more than equals its height, is about as rigid as the rocks on which it grows. The slender lash-like sprays of the Dwarf Pine stream out in wavering ripples, but the tallest and slenderest are far too unyielding to wave even in the heaviest gales. They only shake in quick, short vibrations. The Hemlock Spruce, however, and the Mountain Pine, and some of the tallest thickets of the Two-leaved species, bow in storms with considerable scope and gracefulness. But it is only in the lower and middle zones that the meeting of winds and woods is to be seen in all its grandeur. One of the most beautiful and exhilarating storms I ever enjoyed in the Sierra occurred in December, 1874, when I happened to be exploring one of the tributary valleys of the Yuba River. The sky and the ground and the trees had been thoroughly rain-washed and were dry again. The day was intensely pure: one of those incomparable bits of California winter, warm and balmy and full of white sparkling sunshine, redolent of all the purest influences of the spring, and at the same time enlivened with one of the most bracing wind-storms conceivable. Instead of camping out, as I usually do, I then chanced to be stopping at the house of a friend. But when the storm began to sound, I lost no time in pushing out into the woods to enjoy it. For on such occasions Nature has always something rare to show us, and the danger to life and limb is hardly greater than one would experience crouching deprecatingly beneath a roof. It was still early morning when I found myself fairly adrift. Delicious sunshine came pouring over the hills, lighting the tops of the pines, and setting free a steam of summery fragrance that contrasted strangely with the wild tones of the storm. The air was mottled with pine-tassels and bright green plumes, that went flashing past in the sunlight like birds pursued. But there was not the slightest dustiness; nothing less pure than leaves, and ripe pollen, and flecks of withered bracken and moss. I heard trees falling for hours at the rate of one every two or three minutes: some uprooted, partly on account of the loose, water-soaked condition of the ground; others broken straight across, where some weakness caused by fire had determined the spot. The gestures of the various trees made a delightful study. Young Sugar Pines, light and feathery as squirrel-tails, were bowing almost to the ground; while the grand old patriarchs, whose massive boles had been tried in a hundred storms, waved solemnly above them, their long, arching branches streaming fluently on the gale, and every needle thrilling and ringing and shedding off keen lances of light like a diamond. The Douglas Spruces, with long sprays drawn out in level tresses, and needles massed in a gray, shimmering glow, presented a most striking appearance as they stood in bold relief along the hilltops. The madroños in the dells, with their red bark and large glossy leaves tilted every way, reflected the sunshine in throbbing spangles like those one so often sees on the rippled surface of a glacier lake. But the Silver Pines were now the most impressively beautiful of all. Colossal spires two hundred feet in height waved like supple golden-rods chanting and bowing low as if in worship; while the whole mass of their long, tremulous foliage was kindled into one continuous blaze of white sun-fire. The force of the gale was such that the most steadfast monarch of them all rocked down to its roots, with a motion plainly perceptible when one leaned against it. Nature was holding high festival, and every fiber of the most rigid giants thrilled with glad excitement. I drifted on through the midst of this passionate music and motion, across many a glen, from ridge to ridge; often halting in the lee of a rock for shelter, or to gaze and listen. Even when the grand anthem had swelled to its highest pitch, I could distinctly hear the varying tones of individual trees--Spruce, and Fir, and Pine, and leafless Oak--and even the infinitely gentle rustle of the withered grasses at my feet. Each was expressing itself in its own way--singing its own song, and making its own peculiar gestures--manifesting a richness of variety to be found in no other forest I have yet seen. The coniferous woods of Canada and the Carolinas and Florida, are made up of trees that resemble one another about as nearly as blades of grass, and grow close together in much the same way. Coniferous trees, in general, seldom possess individual character, such as is manifest among Oaks and Elms. But the California forests are made up of a greater number of distinct species than any other in the world. And in them we find, not only a marked differentiation into special groups, but also a marked individuality in almost every tree, giving rise to storm effects indescribably glorious. Toward midday, after a long, tingling scramble through copses of hazel and ceanothus, I gained the summit of the highest ridge in the neighborhood; and then it occurred to me that it would be a fine thing to climb one of the trees, to obtain a wider outlook and get my ear close to the Aeolian music of its topmost needles. But under the circumstances the choice of a tree was a serious matter. One whose instep was not very strong seemed in danger of being blown down, or of being struck by others in case they should fall; another was branchless to a considerable height above the ground, and at the same time too large to be grasped with arms and legs in climbing; while others were not favorably situated for clear views. After cautiously casting about, I made choice of the tallest of a group of Douglas Spruces that were growing close together like a tuft of grass, no one of which seemed likely to fall unless all the rest fell with it. Though comparatively young, they were about a hundred feet high, and their lithe, brushy tops were rocking and swirling in wild ecstasy. Being accustomed to climb trees in making botanical studies, I experienced no difficulty in reaching the top of this one; and never before did I enjoy so noble an exhilaration of motion. The slender tops fairly flapped and swished in the passionate torrent, bending and swirling backward and forward, round and round, tracing indescribable combinations of vertical and horizontal curves, while I clung with muscles firm-braced, like a bobolink on a reed. In its widest sweeps my tree-top described an arc of from twenty to thirty degrees; but I felt sure of its elastic temper, having seen others of the same species still more severely tried--bent almost to the ground indeed, in heavy snows--without breaking a fiber. I was therefore safe, and free to take the wind into my pulses and enjoy the excited forest from my superb outlook. The view from here must be extremely beautiful in any weather. Now my eye roved over the piny hills and dales as over fields of waving grain, and felt the light running in ripples and broad swelling undulations across the valleys from ridge to ridge, as the shining foliage was stirred by corresponding waves of air. Oftentimes these waves of reflected light would break one another in regular order, they would seem to bend forward in concentric curves, and disappear on some hillside, like sea waves on a shelving shore. The quantity of light reflected from the bent needles was so great as to make whole groves appear as if covered with snow, while the black shadows beneath the trees greatly enhanced the effect of the silvery splendor. Excepting only the shadows, there was nothing somber in all this wild sea of pines. On the contrary, notwithstanding this was the winter season, the colors were remarkably beautiful. The shafts of the pine and libocedrus were brown and purple, and most of the foliage was well tinged with yellow; the laurel groves, with the pale under sides of their leaves turned upward, made masses of gray; and then there was many a dash of chocolate color from clumps of manzanita, and jet of vivid crimson from the bark of the madroños; while the ground on the hillsides, appearing here and there through openings between the groves, displayed masses of pale purple and brown. The sounds of the storm corresponded gloriously with this wild exuberance of light and motion. The profound bass of the naked branches and boles booming like waterfalls; the quick, tense vibrations of the pine-needles, now rising to a shrill, whistling hiss, now falling to a silky murmur; the rustling of laurel groves in the dells, and the keen metallic click of leaf on leaf--all this was heard in easy analysis when the attention was calmly bent. The varied gestures of the multitude were seen to find advantage, so that one could recognize the different species at a distance of several miles by this means alone, as well as by their forms and colors and the way they reflected the light. All seemed strong and comfortable, as if really enjoying the storm, while responding to its most enthusiastic greetings. We hear much nowadays concerning the universal struggle for existence, but no struggle in the common meaning of the word was manifest here; no recognition of danger by any tree; no deprecation; but rather an invincible gladness, as remote from exultation as from fear. I kept my lofty perch for hours, frequently closing my eyes to enjoy the music by itself, or to feast quietly on the delicious fragrance that was streaming past. The fragrance of the woods was less marked than that produced during warm rain, when so many balsamic buds and leaves are steeped like tea; but from the chafing of resiny branches against each other, and the incessant attrition of myriads of needles, the gale was spiced to a very tonic degree. And besides the fragrance from these local sources, there were traces of scents brought from afar. For this wind came first from the sea, rubbing against its fresh, briny waves, then distilled through the redwoods, threading rich ferny gulches, and spreading itself in broad undulating currents over many a flower-enameled ridge of the coast mountains, then across the golden plains, up the purple foot-hills, and into these piny woods with the varied incense gathered by the way. Winds are advertisements of all they touch, however much or little we may be able to read them; telling their wanderings even by their scents alone. Mariners detect the flowery perfume of land-winds far at sea, and sea-winds carry the fragrance of dulce and tangle far inland, where it is quickly recognized, though mingled with the scents of a thousand land-flowers. As an illustration of this, I may tell here that I breathed sea-air on the Firth of Forth, in Scotland, while a boy; then was taken to Wisconsin, where I remained nineteen years; then, without in all this time having breathed one breath of the sea, I walked quietly, alone, from the middle of the Mississippi Valley to the Gulf of Mexico, on a botanical excursion; and while in Florida, far from the coast, my attention wholly bent on the splendid tropical vegetation about me, I suddenly recognized a sea-breeze, as it came sifting through the palmettos and blooming vine-tangles, which at once awakened and set free a thousand dormant associations, and made me a boy again in Scotland, as if all the intervening years had been annihilated. Most people like to look at mountain rivers, and bear them in mind; but few care to look at the winds, though far more beautiful and sublime, and though they become at times about as visible as flowing water. When the north winds in winter are making upward sweeps over the curving summits of the High Sierra, the fact is sometimes published with flying snow-banners a mile long. Those portions of the winds thus embodied can scarce be wholly invisible, even to the darkest imagination. And when we look around over an agitated forest, we may see something of the wind that stirs it, by its effects upon the trees. Yonder it descends in a rush of water-like ripples, and sweeps over the bending pines from hill to hill. Nearer, we see detached plumes and leaves, now speeding by on level currents, now whirling in eddies, or escaping over the edges of the whirls, soaring aloft on grand, upswelling domes of air, or tossing on flame-like crests. Smooth, deep currents, cascades, falls, and swirling eddies, sing around every tree and leaf, and over all the varied topography of the region with telling changes of form, like mountain rivers conforming to the features of their channels. After tracing the Sierra streams from their fountains to the plains, marking where they bloom white in falls, glide in crystal plumes, surge gray and foam-filled in bowlder-choked gorges, and slip through the woods in long, tranquil reaches--after thus learning their language and forms in detail, we may at length hear them chanting all together in one grand anthem, and comprehend them all in clear inner vision, covering the range like lace. But even this spectacle is far less sublime and not a whit more substantial than what we may behold of these storm-streams of air in the mountain woods. We all travel the Milky Way together, trees and men; but it never occurred to me until this storm day, while swinging in the wind, that trees are travelers, in the ordinary sense. They make many journeys; not extensive ones, it is true; but our own little journeys, away and back again, are only little more than tree-wavings--many of them not so much. When the storm began to abate, I dismounted and sauntered down through the calming woods. The storm-tones died away, and turning toward the east, I beheld the countless hosts of the forests hushed and tranquil, towering above one another on the slopes of the hills like a devout audience. The setting sun filled them with amber light, and seemed to say, while they listened, "My peace I give unto you." As I gazed on the impressive scene, all the so-called ruin of the storm was forgotten; and never before did these noble woods appear so fresh, so joyous, so immortal. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 64: From "The Mountains of California," copyright 1894. Printed here by permission of the Century Company.] WALDEN POND[65] HENRY DAVID THOREAU Occasionally, after my hoeing was done for the day, I joined some impatient companion who had been fishing on the pond since morning, as silent and motionless as a duck or a floating leaf, and, after practising various kinds of philosophy, had concluded commonly, by the time I arrived, that he belonged to the ancient sect of Coenobites. There was one older man, an excellent fisher and skilled in all kinds of woodcraft, who was pleased to look upon my house as a building erected for the convenience of fishermen; and I was equally pleased when he sat in my doorway to arrange his lines. Once in a while we sat together on the pond, he at one end of the boat, and I at the other; but not many words passed between us, for he had grown deaf in his later years, but he occasionally hummed a psalm, which harmonized well enough with my philosophy. Our intercourse was thus altogether one of unbroken harmony, far more pleasing to remember than if it had been carried on by speech. When, as was commonly the case, I had none to commune with, I used to raise the echoes by striking with a paddle on the side of my boat, filling the surrounding woods with circling and dilating sound, stirring them up as the keeper of a menagerie his wild beasts, until I elicited a growl from every wooded vale and hillside. In warm evenings I frequently sat in the boat playing the flute, and saw the perch, which I seemed to have charmed, hovering around me, and the moon travelling over the ribbed bottom, which was strewed with the wrecks of the forest. Formerly I had come to this pond adventurously, from time to time, in dark summer nights, with a companion, and making a fire close to the water's edge, which we thought attracted the fishes, we caught pouts with a bunch of worms strung on a thread; and when we had done, far in the night, threw the burning brands high into the air like sky-rockets, which, coming down into the pond, were quenched with a loud hissing, and we were suddenly groping in total darkness. Through this, whistling a tune, we took our way to the haunts of men again. But now I had made my home by the shore. Sometimes, after staying in a village parlor till the family had all retired, I have returned to the woods, and, partly with a view to the next day's dinner, spent the hours of midnight fishing from a boat by moonlight, serenaded by owls and foxes, and hearing, from time to time, the creaking note of some unknown bird close at hand. These experiences were very memorable and valuable to me,--anchored in forty feet of water, and twenty or thirty rods from the shore, surrounded sometimes by thousands of small perch and shiners, dimpling the surface with their tails in the moonlight, and communicating by a long flaxen line with mysterious nocturnal fishes which had their dwelling forty feet below, or sometimes dragging sixty feet of line about the pond as I drifted in the gentle night breeze, now and then feeling a slight vibration along it, indicative of some life prowling about its extremity, of dull uncertain blundering purpose there, and slow to make up its mind. At length you slowly raise, pulling hand over hand, some homed pout squeaking and squirming to the upper air. It was very queer, especially in dark nights, when your thoughts had wandered to vast and cosmogonal themes in other spheres, to feel this faint jerk, which came to interrupt your dreams and link you to Nature again. It seemed as if I might next cast my line upward into the air, as well as downward into this element which was scarcely more dense. Thus I caught two fishes as it were with one hook. The scenery of Walden is on a humble scale, and, though very beautiful, does not approach to grandeur, nor can it much concern one who has not long frequented it, or lived by its shore; yet this pond is so remarkable for its depth and purity as to merit a particular description. It is a clear and deep green well, half a mile long and a mile and three quarters in circumference, and contains about sixty-one and a half acres; a perennial spring in the midst of pine and oak woods, without any visible inlet or outlet except by the clouds and evaporation. The surrounding hills rise abruptly from the water to the height of forty to eighty feet, though on the southeast and east they attain to about one hundred and one hundred and fifty feet respectively, within a quarter and a third of a mile. They are exclusively woodland. All our Concord waters have two colors at least, one when viewed at a distance, and another, more proper, close at hand. The first depends more on the light, and follows the sky. In clear weather, in summer, they appear blue at a little distance, especially if agitated, and at a great distance all appear alike. In stormy weather they are sometimes of a dark slate color. The sea, however, is said to be blue one day and green another without any perceptible change in the atmosphere. I have seen our river, when, the landscape being covered with snow, both water and ice were almost as green as grass. Some consider blue "to be the color of pure water, whether liquid or solid." But looking directly down into our waters from a boat, they are seen to be of very different colors. Walden is blue at one time and green at another, even from the same point of view. Lying between the earth and the heavens, it partakes of the color of both. Viewed from a hilltop it reflects the color of the sky, but near at hand it is of a yellowish tint next the shore where you can see the sand, then a light green, which gradually deepens to a uniform dark green in the body of the pond. In some lights, viewed even from a hilltop, it is of a vivid green next the shore. Some have referred this to the reflection of the verdure; but it is equally green there against the railroad sand-bank, and in the spring, before the leaves are expanded, and it may be simply the result of the prevailing blue mixed with the yellow of the sand. Such is the color of its iris. This is that portion, also, where in the spring, the ice being warmed by the heat of the sun reflected from the bottom, and also transmitted through the earth, melts first and forms a narrow canal about the still frozen middle. Like the rest of our waters, when much agitated, in clear weather, so that the surface of the waves may reflect the sky at the right angle, or because there is more light mixed with it, it appears at a little distance of a darker blue than the sky itself; and at such a time, being on its surface, and looking with divided vision, so as to see the reflection, I have discerned a matchless and indescribable light blue, such as watered or changeable silks and sword blades suggest, more cerulean than the sky itself, alternating with the original dark green on the opposite sides of the waves, which last appeared but muddy in comparison. It is a vitreous greenish blue, as I remember it, like those patches of the winter sky seen through cloud vistas in the west before sundown. Yet a single glass of its water held up to the light is as colorless as an equal quantity of air. It is well-known that a large plate of glass will have a green tint, owing, as the makers say, to its "body," but a small piece of the same will be colorless. How large a body of Walden water would be required to reflect a green tint I have never proved. The water of our river is black or a very dark brown to one looking directly down on it, and like that of most ponds, imparts to the body of one bathing in it a yellowish tinge; but this water is of such crystalline purity that the body of the bather appears of an alabaster whiteness, still more unnatural, which, as the limbs are magnified and distorted withal, produces a monstrous effect, making fit studies for a Michael Angelo. The water is so transparent that the bottom can easily be discerned at the depth of twenty-five or thirty feet. Paddling over it, you may see many feet beneath the surface the schools of perch and shiners, perhaps only an inch long, yet the former easily distinguished by their transverse bars, and you think that they must be ascetic fish that find a subsistence there. Once, in the winter, many years ago, when I had been cutting holes through the ice in order to catch pickerel, as I stepped ashore I tossed my axe back on to the ice, but, as if some evil genius had directed it, it slid four or five rods directly into one of the holes, where the water was twenty-five feet deep. Out of curiosity, I lay down on the ice and looked through the hole, until I saw the axe a little on one side, standing on its head, with its helve erect and gently swaying to and fro with the pulse of the pond; and there it might have stood erect and swaying till in the course of time the handle rotted off, if I had not disturbed it. Making another hole directly over it with an ice chisel which I had, and cutting down the longest birch which I could find in the neighborhood with my knife, I made a slip-noose, which I attached to its end, and, letting it down carefully, passed it over the knob of the handle, and drew it by a line along the birch, and so pulled the axe out again. The shore is composed of a belt of smooth rounded white stones like paving stones, excepting one or two short sand beaches, and is so steep that in many places a single leap will carry you into water over your head; and were it not for its remarkable transparency, that would be the last to be seen of its bottom till it rose on the opposite side. Some think it is bottomless. It is nowhere muddy, and a casual observer would say that there were no weeds at all in it; and of noticeable plants, except in the little meadows recently overflowed, which do not properly belong to it, a closer scrutiny does not detect a flag nor a bulrush, nor even a lily, yellow or white, but only a few small heart-leaves and potamogetons, and perhaps a water-target or two; all which however a bather might not perceive; and these plants are clean and bright like the element they grow in. The stones extend a rod or two into the water, and then the bottom is pure sand, except in the deepest parts, where there is usually a little sediment, probably from the decay of the leaves, which have been wafted on to it so many successive falls, and a bright green weed is brought up on anchors even in midwinter. We have one other pond just like this, White Pond in Nine Acre Corner, about two and a half miles westerly; but, though I am acquainted with most of the ponds within a dozen miles of this center, I do not know a third of this pure and well-like character. Successive nations perchance have drunk at, admired, and fathomed it, and passed away, and still its water is green and pellucid as ever. Not an intermitting spring! Perhaps on that spring morning when Adam and Eve were driven out of Eden, Walden Pond was already in existence, and even then breaking up in a gentle spring rain accompanied with mist and a southerly wind, and covered with myriads of ducks and geese, which had not heard of the fall, when still such pure lakes sufficed them. Even then it had commenced to rise and fall, and had clarified its waters and colored them of the hue they now wear, and obtained a patent of heaven to be the only Walden Pond in the world and distiller of celestial dews. Who knows in how may unremembered nations' literatures this has been the Castalian Fountain?[66] or what nymphs presided over it in the Golden Age? It is a gem of the first water which Concord wears in her coronet. Yet perchance the first who came to this well have left some trace of their footsteps. I have been surprised to detect encircling the pond, even where a thickwood has just been cut down on the shore, a narrow shelf-like path in the steep hillside, alternately rising and falling, approaching and receding from the water's edge, as old probably as the race of man here, worn by the feet of aboriginal hunters, and still from time to time unwittingly trodden by the present occupants of the land. This is particularly distinct to one standing on the middle of the pond in winter, just after a light snow has fallen, appearing as a clear undulating white line, unobscured by weeds and twigs, and very obvious a quarter of a mile off in many places where in summer it is hardly distinguishable close at hand. The snow reprints it, as it were, in clear white type alto-relievo. The ornamented grounds of villas which will one day be built here may still preserve some trace of this. The pond rises and falls, but whether regularly or not, and within what period, nobody knows, though, as usual, many pretend to know. It is commonly higher in the winter and lower in the summer, though not corresponding to the general wet and dryness. I can remember when it was a foot or two lower, and also when it was at least five feet higher, than when I lived by it. There is a narrow sand-bar running into it, very deep water on one side, on which I helped boil a kettle of chowder, some six rods from the main shore, about the year 1824, which it has not been possible to do for twenty-five years; and on the other hand, my friends used to listen with incredulity when I told them that a few years later I was accustomed to fish from a boat in a secluded cove in the woods, fifteen rods from the only shore they knew, which place was long since converted into a meadow. But the pond has risen steadily for two years, and now, in the summer of '52, is just five feet higher than when I lived there, or as high as it was thirty years ago, and fishing goes on again in the meadow. This makes a difference of level, at the outside, of six or seven feet; and yet the water shed by the surrounding hills is insignificant in amount, and this overflow must be referred to causes which affect the deep springs. This same summer the pond has begun to fall again. It is remarkable that this fluctuation, whether periodical or not, appears thus to require many years for its accomplishment. I have observed one rise and a part of two falls, and I expect that a dozen or fifteen years hence the water will again be as low as I have ever known it. Flint's Pond, a mile eastward, allowing for the disturbance occasioned by its inlets and outlets, and the smaller intermediate ponds also, sympathize with Walden, and recently attained their greatest height at the same time with the latter. The same is true, as far as my observation goes, of White Pond. This rise and fall of Walden at long intervals serves this use at least: the water standing at this great height for a year or more, though it makes it difficult to walk round it, kills the shrubs and trees which have sprung up about its edge since the last rise, pitch-pines, birches, alders, aspens, and others, and, falling again, leaves an unobstructed shore; for, unlike many ponds, and all waters which are subject to a daily tide, its shore is cleanest when the water is lowest. On the side of the pond next my house, a row of pitch-pines fifteen feet high has been killed and tipped over as if by a lever, and thus a stop put to their encroachments; and their size indicates how many years have elapsed since the last rise to this height. By this fluctuation the pond asserts its title to a shore, and thus the _shore_ is _shorn_, and the trees cannot hold it by right of possession. These are the lips of the lake on which no beard grows. It licks its chaps from time to time. When the water is at its height, the alders, willows, and maples send forth a mass of fibrous red roots several feet long from all sides of their stems in the water, and to the height of three or four feet from the ground, in the effort to maintain themselves; and I have known the high blueberry bushes about the shore, which commonly produce no fruit, bear an abundant crop under these circumstances. Some have been puzzled to tell how the shore became so regularly paved. My townsmen have all heard the tradition--the oldest people tell me that they heard it in their youth--that anciently the Indians were holding a pow-wow upon a hill here, which rose as high into the heavens as the pond now sinks deep into the earth, and they used much profanity, as the story goes, though this vice is one of which the Indians were never guilty, and while they were thus engaged the hill shook and suddenly sank, and only one old squaw, named Walden, escaped, and from her the pond was named. It has been conjectured that when the hill shook, these stones rolled down its side and became the present shore. It is very certain, at any rate, that once there was no pond here, and now there is one; and this Indian fable does not in any respect conflict with the account of that ancient settler whom I have mentioned, who remembers so well when he first came here with his divining-rod, saw a thin vapor rising from the sward, and the hazel pointed steadily downward, and he concluded to dig a well here. As for the stones, many still think that they are hardly to be accounted for by the action of the waves on these hills; but I observe that the surrounding hills are remarkably full of the same kind of stones, so that they have been obliged to pile them up in walls on both sides of the railroad cut nearest the pond; and, moreover, there are most stones where the shore is most abrupt; so that, unfortunately, it is no longer a mystery to me. I detect the paver. If the name was not derived from that of some English locality--Saffron Walden, for instance--one might suppose that is was called, originally, _Walled-in_ Pond. The pond was my well ready dug. For four months in the year its water is as cold as it is pure at all times; and I think that it is then as good as any, if not the best, in the town. In the winter, all water which is exposed to the air is colder than springs and wells which are protected from it. The temperature of the pond water which had stood in the room where I sat from five o'clock in the afternoon till noon the next day, the sixth of March, 1846, the thermometer having been up to 65° or 70° some of the time, owing partly to the sun on the roof, was 42°, or one degree colder than the water of one of the coldest wells in the village just drawn. The temperature of the Boiling Spring the same day was 45°, or the warmest of any water tried, though it is the coldest that I know of in summer, when, besides, shallow and stagnant surface water is not mingled with it. Moreover, in summer, Walden never becomes so warm as most water which is exposed to the sun, on account of its depth. In the warmest weather I usually placed a pailful in my cellar, where it became cool in the night, and remained so during the day; though I also resorted to a spring in the neighborhood. It was as good when a a week old as the day it was dipped, and had no taste of the pump. Whoever camps for a week in summer by the shore of a pond, needs only bury a pail of water a few feet deep in the shade of his camp to be independent of the luxury of ice. There have been caught in Walden, pickerel, one weighing seven pounds, to say nothing of another which carried off a reel with great velocity, which the fisherman safely set down at eight pounds because he did not see him, perch and pouts, some of each weighing over two pounds, shiners, chivins or roach (_Leucisus pulchellus_), a very few breams, and a couple of eels, one weighing four pounds--I am thus particular because the weight of a fish is commonly its only title to fame, and these are the only eels I have heard of here; also, I have a faint recollection of a little fish some five inches long, with silvery sides and a greenish back, somewhat dace-like in its character, which I mention here chiefly to link my facts to fable. Nevertheless, this pond is not very fertile in fish. Its pickerel, though not abundant, are its chief boast. I have seen at one time lying on the ice pickerel of at least three different kinds: a long and shallow one, steel-colored, most like those caught in the river; a bright golden kind, with greenish reflections and remarkably deep, which is the most common here; and another, golden-colored, and shaped like the last, but peppered on the sides with small dark brown or black spots, intermixed with a few faint blood-red ones very much like a trout. The specific name _reticulatus_[67] would not apply to this; it should be _guttatus_[68] rather. These are all very firm fish, and weigh more than their size promises. The shiners, pouts, and perch, also, and indeed all the fishes which inhabit this pond, are much cleaner, handsomer, and firmer fleshed than those in the river and most other ponds, as the water is purer, and they can easily be distinguished from them. Probably many ichthyologists would make new varieties of some of them. There are also a clean race of frogs and tortoises, and a few mussels in it; muskrats and minks leave their traces about it, and occasionally a travelling mud-turtle visits it. Sometimes, when I pushed off my boat in the morning, I disturbed a great mud-turtle which had secreted himself under the boat in the night. Ducks and geese frequent it in the spring and fall, the white-bellied swallows (_Hirundo bicolor_) skim over it, and the peetweets (_Totanus macularius_) "teter" along its stony shores all summer. I have sometimes disturbed a fishhawk sitting on a white-pine over the water; but I doubt if it is ever profaned by the wing of a gull, like Fair-Haven. At most, it tolerates one annual loon. These are all the animals of consequence which frequent it now. You may see from a boat, in calm weather, near the sandy eastern shore, where the water is eight or ten feet deep, and also in some other parts of the pond, some circular heaps half a dozen feet in diameter by a foot in height, consisting of small stones less than a hen's egg in size, where all around is bare sand. At first you wonder if the Indians could have formed them on the ice for any purpose, and so, when the ice melted, they sank to the bottom; but they are too regular and some of them plainly too fresh for that. They are similar to those found in rivers; but as there are no suckers or lampreys here, I know not by what fish they could be made. Perhaps they are the nests of the chivin. These lend a pleasing mystery to the bottom. The shore is irregular enough not to be monotonous. I have in my mind's eye the western indented with deep bays, the bolder northern, and the beautifully scalloped southern shore, where successive capes overlap each other and suggest unexplored coves between. The forest has never so good a setting, nor is so distinctly beautiful, as when seen from the middle of a small lake amid hills which rise from the water's edge; for the water in which it is reflected not only makes the best foreground in such a case, but, with its winding shore, the most natural and agreeable boundary to it. There is no rawness nor imperfection in its edge there, as where the axe has cleared a part, or a cultivated field abuts on it. The trees have ample room to expand on the water side, and each sends forth its most vigorous branch in that direction. There Nature has woven a natural selvage, and the eye rises by just gradations from the low shrubs of the shore to the highest trees. There are few traces of man's hand to be seen. The water laves the shore as it did a thousand years ago. A lake is the landscape's most beautiful and expressive feature. It is earth's eye; looking into which the beholder measures the depth of his own nature. The fluviatile trees next the shore are the slender eyelashes which fringe it, and the wooded hills and cliffs around are its overhanging brows. Standing on the smooth sandy beach at the east end of the pond, in a calm September afternoon, when a slight haze makes the opposite shore line indistinct, I have seen whence came the expression, "the glassy surface of a lake." When you invert your head, it looks like a thread of finest gossamer stretched across the valley, and gleaming against the distant pine woods, separating one stratum of the atmosphere from another. You would think that you could walk dry under it to the opposite hills, and that the swallows which skim over might perch on it. Indeed, they sometimes dive below the line, as it were by mistake, and are undeceived. As you look over the pond westward you are obliged to employ both your hands to defend your eyes against the reflected as well as the true sun, for they are equally bright; and if, between the two, you survey its surface critically, it is literally as smooth as glass, except where the skater insects, at equal intervals scattered over its whole extent, by their motions in the sun produce the finest imaginable sparkle on it, or, perchance, a duck plumes itself, or, as I have said, a swallow skims so low as to touch it. It may be that in the distance a fish describes an arc of three or four feet in the air, and there is one bright flash where it emerges, and another where it strikes the water; sometimes the whole silvery arc is revealed; or here and there, perhaps, is a thistle-down floating on its surface, which the fishes dart at and so dimple it again. It is like molten glass cooled but not congealed, and the few motes in it are pure and beautiful like the imperfections in glass. You may often detect a yet smoother and darker water, separated from the rest as if by an invisible cobweb, boom of the water nymphs, resting on it. From a hilltop you can see a fish leap in almost any part; for not a pickerel or shiner picks an insect from this smooth surface but it manifestly disturbs the equilibrium of the whole lake. It is wonderful with what elaborateness this simple fact is advertised--this piscine murder will out--and from my distant perch I distinguish the circling undulations when they are half a dozen rods in diameter. You can even detect a water-bug (_Gyrinus_) ceaselessly progressing over the smooth surface a quarter of a mile off; for they furrow the water slightly, making a conspicuous ripple bounded by two diverging lines, but the skaters glide over it without rippling it perceptibly. When the surface is considerably agitated there are no skaters nor water-bugs on it, but apparently, in calm days, they leave their havens and adventurously glide forth from the shore by short impulses till they completely cover it. It is a soothing employment, on one of those fine days in the fall when all the warmth of the sun is fully appreciated, to sit on a stump on such a height as this, overlooking the pond, and study the dimpling circles which are incessantly inscribed on its otherwise invisible surface amid the reflected skies and trees. Over this great expanse there is no disturbance but it is thus at once gently smoothed away and assuaged, as, when a vase of water is jarred, the trembling circles seek the shore and all is smooth again. Not a fish can leap or an insect fall on the pond but it is thus reported in circling dimples, in lines of beauty, as it were the constant welling up of its fountain, the gentle pulsing of its life, the heaving of its breast. The thrills of joy and thrills of pain are undistinguishable. How peaceful the phenomena of the lake! Again the works of man shine as in the spring. Ay, every leaf and twig and stone and cobweb sparkles now at mid-afternoon as when covered with dew in a spring morning. Every motion of an oar or an insect produces a flash of light; and if an oar falls, how sweet the echo! In such a day in September or October, Walden is a perfect forest mirror, set round with stones as precious to my eye as if fewer or rarer. Nothing so fair, so pure, and at the same time so large, as a lake, perchance, lies on the surface of the earth. Sky water. It needs no fence. Nations come and go without defiling it. It is a mirror which no stone can crack, whose quicksilver will never wear off, whose gilding Nature continually repairs; no storms, no dust, can dim its surface ever fresh--a mirror in which all impurity presented to it sinks, swept and dusted by the sun's hazy brush--this the light dust-cloth--which retains no breath that is breathed on it, but sends its own to float as clouds high above its surface, and be reflected in its bosom still. A field of water betrays the spirit that is in the air. It is continually receiving new life and motion from above. It is intermediate in its nature between land and sky. On land only the grass and trees wave, but the water itself is rippled by the wind. I see where the breeze dashes across it by the streaks or flakes of light. It is remarkable that we can look down on its surface. We shall, perhaps, look down thus on the surface of air at length, and mark where a still subtler spirit sweeps over it. The skaters and water-bugs finally disappear in the latter part of October, when the severe frosts have come; and then and in November, usually, on a calm day, there is absolutely nothing to ripple the surface. One November afternoon, in the calm at the end of a rain storm of several days' duration, when the sky was still completely overcast and the air was full of mist, I observed that the pond was remarkably smooth, so that it was difficult to distinguish its surface; though it no longer reflected the bright tints of October, but the somber November colors of the surrounding hills. Though I passed over it as gently as possible, the slight undulations produced by my boat extended almost as far as I could see, and gave a ribbed appearance to the reflections. But, as I was looking over the surface, I saw here and there at a distance a faint glimmer, as if some skater insects which had escaped the frosts might be collected there, or, perchance, the surface, being so smooth, betrayed where a spring welled up from the bottom. Paddling gently to one of these places, I was surprised to find myself surrounded by myriads of small perch, about five inches long, of a rich bronze color in the green water, sporting there and constantly rising to the surface and dimpling it, sometimes leaving bubbles on it. In such transparent and seemingly bottomless water, reflecting the clouds, I seemed to be floating through the air as in a balloon, and their swimming impressed me as a kind of flight or hovering, as if they were a compact flock of birds passing just beneath my level on the right or left, their fins, like sails, set all around them. There were many such schools in the pond, apparently improving the short season before winter would draw an icy shutter over their broad skylight, sometimes giving to the surface an appearance as if a slight breeze struck it, or a few rain-drops fell there. When I approached carelessly and alarmed them, they made a sudden plash and rippling with their tails, as if one had struck the water with a brushy bough, and instantly took refuge in the depths. At length the wind rose, the mist increased, and the waves began to run, and the perch leaped much higher than before, half out of water, a hundred black points, three inches long, at once above the surface. Even as late as the fifth of December, one year, I saw some dimples on the surface, and thinking it was going to rain hard immediately, the air being full of mist, I made haste to take my place at the oars and row homeward; already the rain seemed rapidly increasing, though I felt none on my cheek, and I anticipated a thorough soaking. But suddenly the dimples ceased, for they were produced by the perch, which the noise of my oars had scared into the depths, and I saw their schools dimly disappearing; so I spent a dry afternoon after all. An old man who used to frequent this pond nearly sixty years ago, when it was dark with surrounding forests, tells me that in those days he sometimes saw it all alive with ducks and other water fowl, and that there were many eagles about it. He came here a-fishing, and used an old log canoe which he found on the shore. It was made of two white-pine logs dug out and pinned together, and was cut off square at the ends. It was very clumsy, but lasted a great many years before it became water-logged and perhaps sank to the bottom. He did not know whose it was; it belonged to the pond. He used to make a cable for his anchor of strips of hickory bark tied together. An old man, a potter, who lived by the pond before the Revolution, told him once that there was an iron chest at the bottom, and that he had seen it. Sometimes it would come floating up to the shore; but when you went toward it, it would go back into deep water and disappear. I was pleased to hear of the old log canoe, which took the place of an Indian one of the same material but more graceful construction, which perchance had first been a tree on the bank, and then, as it were, fell into the water, to float there for a generation, the most proper vessel for the lake. I remember that when I first looked into these depths there were many large trunks to be seen indistinctly lying on the bottom, which had either been blown over formerly, or left on the ice at the last cutting, when wood was cheaper; but now they have mostly disappeared. When I first paddled a boat on Walden, it was completely surrounded by thick and lofty pine and oak woods, and in some of its coves grape vines had run over the trees next the water and formed bowers under which a boat could pass. The hills which form its shores are so steep, and the woods on them were then so high, that, as you looked down from the west end, it had the appearance of an amphitheatre for some kind of sylvan spectacle. I have spent many an hour, when I was younger, floating over its surface as the zephyr willed, having paddled my boat to the middle, and lying on my back across the seats, in a summer forenoon, dreaming awake, until I was aroused by the boat touching the sand, and I arose to see what shore my fates had impelled me to; days when idleness was the most attractive and productive industry. Many a forenoon have I stolen away, preferring to spend thus the most valued part of the day; for I was rich, if not in money, in sunny hours and summer days, and spent them lavishly; nor do I regret that I did not waste more of them in the workshop or at the teacher's desk. But since I left those shores the wood-choppers have still further laid them waste, and now for many a year there will be no more rambling through the aisles of the wood, with occasional vistas through which you see the water. My Muse may be excused if she is silent henceforth. How can you expect the birds to sing when their groves are cut down? Now the trunks of trees on the bottom, and the old log canoe, and the dark surrounding woods, are gone, and the villagers, who scarcely know where it lies, instead of going to the pond to bathe or drink, are thinking to bring its water, which should be as sacred as the Ganges at least, to the village in a pipe, to wash their dishes with!--to earn their Walden by the turning of a cock or drawing of a plug! That devilish Iron Horse, whose ear-rending neigh is heard throughout the town, has muddied the Boiling Spring with his foot, and he it is that has browsed off all the woods on Walden shore; that Trojan horse, with a thousand men in his belly, introduced by mercenary Greeks! Where is the country's champion, the Moore of Moore Hall,[69] to meet him at the Deep Cut and thrust an avenging lance between the ribs of the bloated pest? Nevertheless, of all the characters I have known, perhaps Walden wears best, and best preserves its purity. Many men have been likened to it, but few deserve that honor. Though the wood-choppers have laid bare first this shore and then that, and the Irish have built their sties by it, and the railroad has infringed on its border, and the ice-men have skimmed it once, it is itself unchanged, the same water which my youthful eyes fell on; all the change is in me. It has not acquired one permanent wrinkle after all its ripples. It is perennially young, and I may stand and see a swallow dip apparently to pick an insect from its surface as of yore. It struck me again to-night, as if I had not seen it almost daily for more than twenty years--Why, here is Walden, the same woodland lake that I discovered so many years ago; where a forest was cut down last winter another is springing up by its shore as lustily as ever; the same thought is welling up to its surface that was then; it is the same liquid joy and happiness to itself and its Maker, ay, and it _may_ be to me. It is the work of a brave man, surely, in whom there was no guile! He rounded this water with his hand, deepened and clarified it in his thought, and in his will bequeathed it to Concord. I see by its face that it is visited by the same reflection; and I can almost say, Walden, is it you? It is no dream of mine, To ornament a line; I cannot come nearer to God and Heaven Than I live to Walden even. I am its stony shore, And the breeze that passes o'er; In the hollow of my hand Are its water and its sand, And its deepest resort Lies high in my thought. The cars never pause to look at it; yet I fancy that the engineers and firemen and brakemen, and those passengers who have a season ticket and see it often, are better men for the sight. The engineer does not forget at night, or his nature does not, that he has beheld this vision of serenity and purity once at least during the day. Though seen but once, it helps to wash out State-street and the engine's soot. One proposes that it be called "God's Drop." I have said that Walden has no visible inlet or outlet, but it is on the one hand distantly and indirectly related to Flint's Pond, which is more elevated, by a chain of small ponds coming from that quarter, and on the other directly and manifestly to Concord River, which is lower, by a similar chain of ponds through which in some other geological period it may have flowed; and by a little digging, which God forbid, it can be made to flow thither again. If by living thus reserved and austere, like a hermit in the woods, so long, it has acquired such wonderful purity, who would not regret that the comparatively impure waters of Flint's Pond should be mingled with it, or itself should ever go to waste its sweetness in the ocean wave? FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 65: From Chapter IX of "Walden," 1854.] [Footnote 66: The Castalian Fountain on Mount Parnassus was sacred to Apollo and the Muses.] [Footnote 67: With net-like markings.] [Footnote 68: Speckled.] [Footnote 69: The hero of an old ballad.] SELECTIONS FROM RUSKIN A. LEAFAGE OF TREES[70] One of the most remarkable characters of natural leafage is the constancy with which, while the leaves are arranged on the spray with exquisite regularity, that regularity is modified in their actual effect. For as in every group of leaves some are seen sideways, forming merely long lines, some foreshortened, some crossing each other, every one differently turned and placed from all the others, the forms of the leaves, though in themselves similar, give rise to a thousand strange and differing forms in the group; and the shadows of some, passing over the others, still farther disguise and confuse the mass until the eye can distinguish nothing but a graceful and flexible disorder of innumerable forms, with here and there a perfect leaf on the extremity, or a symmetrical association of one or two, just enough to mark the specific character and to give unity and grace, but never enough to repeat in one group what was done in another, never enough to prevent the eye from feeling that, however regular and mathematical may be the structure of parts, what is composed out of them is as various and infinite as any other part of nature. Nor does this take place in general effect only. Break off an elm bough three feet long, in full leaf, and lay it on the table before you, and try to draw it, leaf for leaf. It is ten to one if in the whole bough (provided you do not twist it about as you work) you find one form of leaf exactly like another; perhaps you will not even have _one_ complete. Every leaf will be oblique, or foreshortened, or curled, or crossed by another, or shaded by another, or have something or other the matter with it; and though the whole bough will look graceful, and symmetrical, you will scarcely be able to tell how or why it does so, since there is not one line of it like another.... But if Nature is so various when you have a bough on the table before you, what must she be when she retires from you, and gives you her whole mass and multitude? The leaves then at the extremities become as fine as dust, a mere confusion of points and lines between you and the sky, a confusion which you might as well hope to draw sea-sand particle by particle, as to imitate leaf for leaf. This, as it comes down into the body of the tree, gets closer, but never opaque; it is always transparent, with crumbling lights in it letting you through to the sky; then, out of this, come, heavier and heavier, the masses of illumined foliage, all dazzling and inextricable, save here and there a single leaf on the extremities; then, under these, you get deep passages of broken irregular gloom, passing into transparent, green-lighted, misty hollows; the twisted stems glancing through them in their pale and entangled infinity, and the shafted sunbeams, rained from above, running along the lustrous leaves for an instant; then lost, then caught again on some emerald bank or knotted root, to be sent up again with a faint reflex on the white under-sides of dim groups of drooping foliage, the shadows of the upper boughs running in grey network down the glossy stems, and resting in quiet chequers upon the glittering earth; but all penetrable and transparent, and, in proportion, inextricable and incomprehensible, except where across the labyrinth and the mystery of the dazzling light and dream-like shadow, falls, close to us, some solitary spray, some wreath of two or three motionless, large leaves, the type and embodying of all that in the rest we feel and imagine, but can never see. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 70: From "Modern Painters," Vol. I, 1843, Pt. II, Sec. VI Chapter I.] B. WATER[71] Of all inorganic substances, acting in their own proper nature, and without assistance or combination, water is the most wonderful. If we think of it as the source of all the changefulness and beauty which we have seen in clouds; then as the instrument by which the earth we have contemplated was modelled into symmetry, and its crags chiselled into grace; then as, in the form of snow, it robes the mountains it has made, with that transcendent light which we could not have conceived if we had not seen; then as it exists in the foam of the torrent, in the iris which spans it, in the morning mist which rises from it, in the deep crystalline pools which mirror its hanging shore, in the broad lake and glancing river; finally, in that which is to all human minds the best emblem of unwearied, unconquerable power, the wild, various, fantastic, tameless unity of the sea; what shall we compare to this mighty, this universal element, for glory and for beauty? or how shall we follow its eternal changefulness of feeling? It is like trying to paint a soul. To suggest the ordinary appearance of calm water, to lay on canvas as much evidence of surface and reflection as may make us understand that water is meant, is, perhaps, the easiest task of art; and even ordinary running or falling water may be sufficiently rendered, by observing careful curves of projection with a dark ground, and breaking a little white over it, as we see done with judgment and truth by Ruysdael. But to paint the actual play of hue on the reflective surface, or to give the forms and fury of water when it begins to show itself; to give the flashing and rocket-like velocity of a noble cataract, or the precision and grace of the sea wave, so exquisitely modelled, though so mockingly transient, so mountainous in its form, yet so cloudlike in its motion, with its variety and delicacy of colour, when every ripple and wreath has some peculiar passage of reflection upon itself alone, and the radiating and scintillating sunbeams are mixed with the dim hues of transparent depth and dark rock below--to do this perfectly is beyond the power of man; to do it even partially has been granted to but one or two, even of those few who have dared to attempt it.... The fact is that there is hardly a road-side pond or pool which has not as much landscape _in_ it as above it. It is not the brown, muddy, dull thing we suppose it to be; it has a heart like ourselves, and in the bottom of that there are the boughs of the tall trees, and the blades of the shaking grass, and all manner of hues of variable pleasant light out of the sky. Nay, the ugly gutter, that stagnates over the drain-bars in the heart of the foul city, is not altogether base; down in that, if you will look deep enough, you may see the dark serious blue of far-off sky, and the passing of pure clouds. It is at your own will that you see in that despised stream either the refuse of the street, or the image of the sky. So it is with almost all other things that we unkindly despise. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 71: From "Modern Painters," Vol. I, Pt. II, Sec. V, Chapter I.] C. THE MOUNTAIN GLORY[72] The best image which the world can give of Paradise is in the slope of the meadows, orchards, and corn-fields on the sides of a great Alp, with its purple rocks and eternal snows above; this excellence not being in any wise a matter referable to feeling, or individual preferences, but demonstrable by calm enumeration of the number of lovely colours on the rocks, the varied grouping of the trees, and quantity of noble incidents in stream, crag, or cloud, presented to the eye at any given moment. For consider, first, the difference produced in the whole tone of landscape colour by the introductions of purple, violet, and deep ultramarine blue, which we owe to mountains. In an ordinary lowland landscape we have the blue of the sky; the green of grass, which I will suppose (and this is an unnecessary concession to the lowlands) entirely fresh and bright; the green of trees; and certain elements of purple, far more rich and beautiful than we generally should think, in their bark and shadows (bare hedges and thickets, or tops of trees, in subdued afternoon sunshine, are nearly perfect purple, and of an exquisite tone), as well as in ploughed fields, and dark ground in general. But among mountains, in addition to all this, large unbroken spaces of pure violet and purple are introduced in their distances; and even near, by films of cloud passing over the darkness of ravines or forests, blues are produced of the most subtle tenderness; these azures and purples passing into rose-colour of otherwise wholly unattainable delicacy among the upper summits, the blue of the sky being at the same time purer and deeper than in the plains. Nay, in some sense, a person who has never seen the rose-colour of the rays of dawn crossing a blue mountain twelve or fifteen miles away, can hardly be said to know what _tenderness_ in colour means at all; _bright_ tenderness he may, indeed, see in the sky or in a flower, but this grave tenderness of the faraway hill-purples he cannot conceive. Together with this great source of pre-eminence in _mass_ of colour, we have to estimate the influence of the finished inlaying and enamel-work of the colour-jewellery on every stone; and that of the continual variety in species of flower; most of the mountain flowers being, besides, separately lovelier than the lowland ones. The wood hyacinth and the wild rose are, indeed, the only _supreme_ flowers that the lowlands can generally show; and the wild rose is also a mountaineer, and more fragrant in the hills, while the wood hyacinth, at its best, cannot match even the dark bell-gentian, leaving the light-blue star-gentian in its uncontested queenliness, and the Alpine rose and Highland heather wholly without similitude. The violet, lily of the valley, crocus, and wood anemone are, I suppose, claimable partly by the plains as well as the hills; but the large orange lily and narcissus I have never seen but on hill pastures, and the exquisite oxalis is pre-eminently a mountaineer. To this supremacy in mosses and flowers we have next to add an inestimable gain in the continual presence and power of water. Neither in its clearness, its colour, its fantasy of motion, its calmness of space, depth, and reflection, or its wrath, can water be conceived by a lowlander, out of sight of sea. A sea wave is far grander than any torrent--but of the sea and its influences we are not now speaking; and the sea itself, though it _can_ be clear, is never calm, among our shores, in the sense that a mountain lake can be calm. The sea seems only to pause; the mountain lake to sleep, and to dream. Out of sight of the ocean a lowlander cannot be considered ever to have seen water at all. The mantling of the pools in the rock shadows, with the golden flakes of light sinking down through them like falling leaves, the ringing of the thin currents among the shallows, the flash and the cloud of the cascade, the earthquake and foam-fire of the cataract, the long lines of alternate mirror and mist that lull the imagery of the hills reversed in the blue of morning,--all these things belong to those hills as their undivided inheritance. To this supremacy in wave and stream is joined a no less manifest pre-eminence in the character of trees. It is possible among plains, in the species of trees which properly belong to them, the poplars of Amiens, for instance, to obtain a serene simplicity of grace, which, as I said, is a better help to the study of gracefulness, as such, than any of the wilder groupings of the hills; so, also, there are certain conditions of symmetrical luxuriance developed in the park and avenue, rarely rivalled in their way among mountains; and yet the mountain superiority in foliage is, on the whole, nearly as complete as it is in water: for exactly as there are some expressions in the broad reaches of a navigable lowland river, such as the Loire or Thames, not, in their way, to be matched among the rock rivers, and yet for all that a lowlander cannot be said to have truly seen the element of water at all; so even in the richest parks and avenues he cannot be said to have truly seen trees. For the resources of trees are not developed until they have difficulty to contend with; neither their tenderness of brotherly love and harmony, till they are forced to choose their ways of various life where there is contracted room for them, talking to each other with their restrained branches. The various action of trees rooting themselves in inhospitable rocks, stooping to look into ravines, hiding from the search of glacier winds, reaching forth to the rays of rare sunshine, crowding down together to drink at sweetest streams, climbing hand in hand among the difficult slopes, opening in sudden dances round the mossy knolls, gathering into companies at rest among the fragrant fields, gliding in grave procession over the heavenward ridges--nothing of this can be conceived among the unvexed and unvaried felicities of the lowland forest: while to all these direct sources of greater beauty are added, first the power of redundance,--the mere quantity of foliage visible in the folds and on the promontories of a single Alp being greater than that of an entire lowland landscape (unless a view from some cathedral tower); and to this charm of redundance, that of clearer _visibility_,--tree after tree being constantly shown in successive height, one behind another, instead of the mere tops and flanks of masses, as in the plains; and the forms of multitudes of them continually defined against the clear sky, near and above, or against white clouds entangled among their branches, instead of being confused in dimness of distance. Finally, to this supremacy in foliage we have to add the still less questionable supremacy in clouds. There is no effect of sky possible in the lowlands which may not in equal perfection be seen among the hills; but there are effects by tens of thousands, for ever invisible and inconceivable to the inhabitant of the plains, manifested among the hills in the course of one day. The mere power of familiarity with the clouds, of walking with them and above them, alters and renders clear our whole conception of the baseless architecture of the sky; and for the beauty of it, there is more in a single wreath of early cloud, pacing its way up an avenue of pines, or pausing among the points of their fringes, than in all the white heaps that fill the arched sky of the plains from one horizon to the other. And of the nobler cloud manifestations,--the breaking of their troublous seas against the crags, their black spray sparkling with lightning; or the going forth of the morning along their pavements of moving marble, level-laid between dome and dome of snow;--of these things there can be as little imagination or understanding in an inhabitant of the plains as of the scenery of another planet than his own. And, observe, all these superiorities are matters plainly measurable and calculable, not in any wise to be referred to estimate of _sensation_. Of the grandeur or expression of the hills I have not spoken; how far they are great, or strong, or terrible, I do not for the moment consider, because vastness, and strength, and terror, are not to all minds subjects of desired contemplation. It may make no difference to some men whether a natural object be large or small, whether it be strong or feeble. But loveliness of colour, perfectness of form, endlessness of change, wonderfulness of structure, are precious to all undiseased human minds; and the superiority of the mountains in all these things to the lowland is, I repeat, as measurable as the richness of a painted window matched with a white one, or the wealth of a museum compared with that of a simply furnished chamber. They seem to have been built for the human race, as at once their schools and cathedrals; full of treasures of illuminated manuscript for the scholar, kindly in simple lessons to the worker, quiet in pale cloisters for the thinker, glorious in holiness for the worshipper. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 72: From "Modern Painters," Vol. IV, 1856, Chapter XX.] D. SPLENDOURS OF SUNSET[73] We have been speaking hitherto of what is constant and necessary in nature, of the ordinary effects of daylight on ordinary colours, and we repeat again that no gorgeousness of the pallet can reach even these. But it is a widely different thing when Nature herself takes a colouring fit, and does something extraordinary, something really to exhibit her power. She has a thousand ways and means of rising above herself, but incomparably the noblest manifestations of her capability of colour are in these sunsets among the high clouds. I speak especially of the moment before the sun sinks, when his light turns pure rose-colour, and when this light falls upon a zenith covered with countless cloud-forms of inconceivable delicacy, threads and flakes of vapour, which would in common daylight be pure snow-white, and which give, therefore, fair field to the tone of light. There is, then, no limit to the multitude, and no check to the intensity, of the hues assumed. The whole sky from the zenith to the horizon becomes one molten mantling sea of colour and fire; every black bar turns into massy gold, every ripple and wave into unsullied shadowless crimson, and purple, and scarlet, and colours for which there are no words in language, and no ideas in the mind--things which can only be conceived while they are visible; the intense hollow blue of the upper sky melting through it all, showing here deep, and pure, and lightless; there, modulated by the filmy formless body of the transparent vapour, till it is lost imperceptibly in its crimson and gold. The concurrence of circumstances necessary to produce the sunsets of which I speak does not take place above five or six times in a summer, and then only for a space of from five to ten minutes, just as the sun reaches the horizon. Considering how seldom people think of looking for a sunset at all, and how seldom, if they do, they are in a position from which it can be fully seen, the chances that their attention should be awake, and their position favourable, during these few flying instants of the year, are almost as nothing. What can the citizen, who can see only the red light on the canvas of the wagon at the end of the street, and the crimson colour of the bricks of his neighbour's chimney, know of the flood of fire which deluges the sky from the horizon to the zenith? What can even the quiet inhabitant of the English lowlands, whose scene for the manifestation of the fire of heaven is limited to the tops of hayricks, and the rooks' nests in the old elm trees, know of the mighty passages of splendour which are tossed from Alp to Alp over the azure of a thousand miles of champaign? Even granting the constant vigour of observation, and supposing the possession of such impossible knowledge, it needs but a moment's reflection to prove how incapable the memory is of retaining for any time the distinct image of the sources even of its most vivid impressions. What recollection have we of the sunsets which delighted us last year? We may know that they were magnificent, or glowing, but no distinct image of colour or form is retained--nothing of whose _degree_ (for the great difficulty with the memory is to retain, not facts, but _degrees_ of fact) we could be so certain as to say of anything now presented to us, that it is like it. If we did say so, we should be wrong; for we may be quite certain that the energy of an impression fades from the memory, and becomes more and more indistinct every day; and thus we compare a faded and indistinct image with the decision and certainty of one present to the senses. How constantly do we affirm that the thunderstorm of last week was the most terrible one we ever saw in our lives, because we compare it, not with the thunderstorm of last year, but with the faded and feeble recollection of it. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 73: From "Modern Painters," Vol. I, Pt. II, Sec. II, Chapter II.] THE STOICS[74] WILLIAM EDWARD HARTPOLE LECKY The Stoics asserted two cardinal principles--that virtue was the sole legitimate object to be aspired to, and that it involved so complete an ascendancy of the reason as altogether to extinguish the affections. The Peripatetics and many other philosophers, who derived their opinions chiefly from Plato, endeavoured to soften down the exaggeration of these principles. They admitted that virtue was an object wholly distinct from interest, and that it should be the leading motive of life; but they maintained that happiness was also a good, and a certain regard for it legitimate. They admitted that virtue consisted in the supremacy of the reason over the affections, but they allowed the exercise of the latter within restricted limits. The main distinguishing features, however, of stoicism, the unselfish ideal and the controlling reason, were acquiesced in, and each represents an important side of the ancient conception of excellence which we must now proceed to examine. In the first we may easily trace the intellectual expression of the high spirit of self-sacrifice which the patriotic enthusiasm had elicited. The spirit of patriotism has this peculiar characteristic, that while it has evoked acts of heroism which are both very numerous and very sublime, it has done so without presenting any prospect of personal immortality as a reward. Of all the forms of human heroism, it is probably the most unselfish. The Spartan and the Roman died for his country because he loved it. The martyr's ecstasy of hope had no place in his dying hour. He gave up all he had, he closed his eyes, as he believed, for ever, and he asked for no reward in this world or in the next. Even the hope of posthumous fame--the most refined and supersensual of all that can be called reward--could exist only for the most conspicuous leaders. It was examples of this nature that formed the culminations or ideals of ancient systems of virtue, and they naturally led men to draw a very clear and deep distinction between the notions of interest and of duty. It may indeed be truly said, that while the conception of what constituted duty was often very imperfect in antiquity, the conviction that duty, as distinguished from every modification of selfishness, should be the supreme motive of life, was more clearly enforced among the Stoics than in any later society. The reader will probably have gathered from the last chapter that there are four distinct motives which moral teachers may propose for the purpose of leading men to virtue. They may argue that the disposition of events is such that prosperity will attend a virtuous life, and adversity a vicious one--a proposition they may prove by pointing to the normal course of affairs, and by asserting the existence of a special Providence in behalf of the good in the present world, and of rewards and punishments in the future. As far as these latter arguments are concerned, the efficacy of such teaching rests upon the firmness with which certain theological tenets are held, while the force of the first considerations will depend upon the degree and manner in which society is organised, for there are undoubtedly some conditions of society in which a perfectly upright life has not even a general tendency to prosperity. The peculiar circumstances and dispositions of individuals will also influence largely the way in which they receive such teaching, and, as Cicero observed, "what one utility has created, another will often destroy." They may argue, again, that vice is to the mind what disease is to the body, and that a state of virtue is in consequence a state of health. Just as bodily health is desired for its own sake, as being the absence of a painful or at least displeasing state, so a well-ordered and virtuous mind may be valued for its own sake, and independently of all the external good to which it may lead, as being a condition of happiness; and a mind distracted by passion and vice may be avoided, not so much because it is an obstacle in the pursuit of prosperity, as because it is in itself essentially painful and disturbing. This conception of virtue and vice as states of health or sickness, the one being in itself a good, and the other in itself an evil, was a fundamental proposition in the ethics of Plato. It was admitted, but only to a subsidiary place, by the Stoics, and has passed more or less into all the succeeding systems. It is especially favourable to large and elevating conceptions of self-culture, for it leads men to dwell much less upon isolated acts of virtue or vice than upon the habitual condition of mind from which they spring. It is possible, in the third place, to argue in favour of virtue by offering as a motive that sense of pleasure which follows the deliberate performance of a virtuous act. This emotion is a distinct and isolated gratification following a distinct action, and may therefore be easily separated from that habitual placidity of temper which results from the extinction of vicious and perturbing impulses. It is this theory which is implied in the common exhortations to enjoy "the luxury of doing good," and though especially strong in acts of benevolence, in which case sympathy with the happiness created intensifies the feeling, this pleasure attends every kind of virtue. These three motives of action have all this common characteristic, that they point as their ultimate end to the happiness of the agent. The first seeks that happiness in external circumstances; the second and third in psychological conditions. There is, however, a fourth kind of motive which may be urged, and which is the peculiar characteristic of the intuitive school of moralists and the stumbling-block of its opponents. It is asserted that we are so constituted that the notion of duty furnishes in itself a natural motive of action of the highest order, and wholly distinct from all the refinements and modifications of self-interest. The coactive force of this motive is altogether independent of surrounding circumstances, and of all forms of belief. It is equally true for the man who believes and for the man who rejects the Christian faith, for the believer in a future world and for the believer in the mortality of the soul. It is not a question of happiness or unhappiness, of reward or punishment, but of a generically different nature. Men feel that a certain course of life is the natural end of their being, and they feel bound, even at the expense of happiness, to pursue it. They feel that certain acts are essentially good and noble, and others essentially base and vile, and this perception leads them to pursue the one and to avoid the other, irrespective of all considerations of enjoyment. The school of philosophy we are reviewing furnishes the most perfect of all historical examples of the power which the higher of these motives can exercise over the mind. The coarser forms of self-interest were in stoicism absolutely condemned. It was one of the first principles of these philosophers that all things that are not in our power should be esteemed indifferent; that the object of all mental discipline should be to withdraw the mind from all the gifts of fortune, and that prudence must in consequence be altogether excluded from the motives of virtue. To enforce these principles they continually dilated upon the vanity of human things, and upon the majesty of the independent mind, and they indulged, though scarcely more than other sects, in many exaggerations about the impassive tranquillity of the sage. In the Roman empire stoicism flourished at a period which, beyond almost any other, seemed most unfavourable to such teaching. There were reigns when, in the emphatic words of Tacitus, "virtue was a sentence of death." In no period had brute force more completely triumphed, in none was the thirst for material advantages more intense, in very few was vice more ostentatiously glorified. Yet in the midst of all these circumstances the Stoics taught a philosophy which was not a compromise, not an attempt to moderate the popular excesses, but which in its austere sanctity was the extreme antithesis of all that the prevailing examples and their own interests could dictate. And these men were no impassioned fanatics, fired with the prospect of coming glory. They were men from whose motives of action the belief in the immortality of the soul was resolutely excluded. In the scepticism that accompanied the first introduction of philosophy into Rome, in the dissolution of the old fables about Tartarus and the Styx, and the dissemination of Epicureanism among the people, this doctrine, notwithstanding the beautiful reasonings of Cicero and the religious faith of a few who clung like Plutarch to the mysteries in which it was perpetuated, had sunk very low. An interlocutor in Cicero expressed what was probably a common feeling, when he acknowledged that, with the writings of Plato before him, he could believe and realise it; but when he closed the book, the reasonings seemed to lose their power, and the world of spirits grew pale and unreal. If Ennius could elicit the plaudits of a theatre when he proclaimed that the gods took no part in human affairs, Caesar could assert in the senate, without scandal and almost without dissent, that death was the end of all things. Pliny, perhaps the greatest of all the Roman scholars, adopting the sentiment of all the school of Epicurus, describes the belief in a future life as a form of madness, a puerile and a pernicious illusion. The opinions of the Stoics were wavering and uncertain. Their first doctrine was that the soul of man has a future and independent, but not an eternal existence, that it survives until the conflagration that was to destroy the world when all finite things would be absorbed in the all-pervading soul of nature. Chrysippus, however, restricted to the best and noblest souls this future existence, which Cleanthes had awarded to all, and among the Roman Stoics even this was greatly doubted. The belief that the human soul is a detached fragment of the Deity, naturally led to the belief that after death it would be reabsorbed in the parent Spirit. The doctrine that there is no real good but virtue deprived the Stoics of the argument for a future world derived from unrequited merit and unpunished crimes, and the earnestness with which they contended that a good man should act irrespectively of reward, inclined them, as it is said to have inclined some Jewish thinkers, to the denial of the existence of the reward. Panaetius, the founder of Roman stoicism, maintained that the soul perished with the body, and his opinion was followed by Epictetus and Cornutus. Seneca contradicted himself on the subject. Marcus Aurelius never rose beyond a vague and mournful aspiration. Those who believed in a future world believed it faintly and uncertainly, and even when they accepted it as a fact, they shrank from proposing it as a motive. The whole system of stoical ethics, which carried self-sacrifice to a point that has scarcely been equalled, and exercised an influence which has rarely been surpassed, was evolved without any assistance from the doctrine of a future life. Pagan antiquity has bequeathed us few nobler treatises of morals than the "De Officiis" of Cicero, which was avowedly an expansion of a work of Panaetius. It has left us no grander example than that of Epictetus, the sickly, deformed slave of a master who was notorious for his barbarity, enfrancished late in life, but soon driven into exile by Domitian, who, while sounding the very abyss of human misery, and looking forward to death as to simple decomposition, was yet so filled with the sense of the Divine presence, that his life was one continued hymn to Providence, and his writings and his example, which appeared to his contemporaries almost the ideal of human goodness, have not lost their consoling power through all the ages and the vicissitudes they have survived. There was, however, another form of immortality which exercised a much greater influence among the Roman moralists. The desire for reputation, and especially for posthumous reputation--that "last infirmity of noble minds"--assumed an extraordinary prominence among the springs of Roman heroism, and was also the origin of that theatrical and overstrained phraseology which the greatest of ancient moralists rarely escaped. But we should be altogether in error if we inferred, as some have done, that paganism never rose to the conception of virtue concealing itself from the world, and consenting voluntarily to degradation. No characters were more highly appreciated in antiquity than those of men who, through a sense of duty, opposed the strong current of popular favour; of men like Fabius, who consented for the sake of their country to incur the reputation that is most fatal to a soldier; of men like Cato, who remained unmoved among the scoffs, the insults, and the ridicule of an angry crowd. Cicero, expounding the principles of stoicism, declared that no one has attained to true philosophy who has not learnt that all vice should be avoided, "though it were concealed from the eyes of gods and men," and that no deeds are more laudable than those which are done without ostentation, and far from the sight of men. The writings of the Stoics are crowded with sentences to the same effect. "Nothing for opinion, all for conscience." "He who wishes his virtue to be blazed abroad is not labouring for virtue but for fame." "No one is more virtuous than the man who sacrifices the reputation of a good man rather than sacrifice his conscience." "I do not shrink from praise, but I refuse to make it the end and term of right." "If you do anything to please men, you have fallen from your estate." "Even a bad reputation nobly earned is pleasing." "A great man is not the less great when he lies vanquished and prostrate in the dust." "Never forget that it is possible to be at once a divine man, yet a man unknown to all the world." "That which is beautiful is beautiful in itself; the praise of man adds nothing to its quality." Marcus Aurelius, following an example that is ascribed to Pythagoras, made it a special object of mental discipline, by continually meditating on death, and evoking, by an effort of the imagination, whole societies that had passed away, to acquire a realised sense of the vanity of posthumous fame. The younger Pliny painted faithfully the ideal of stoicism when he described one of his friends as a man "who did nothing for ostentation but all for conscience; who sought the reward of virtue in itself, and not in the praise of man." Nor were the Stoics less emphatic in distinguishing the obligation from the attraction of virtue. It was on this point that they separated from the more refined Epicureans, who were often willing to sublimate to the highest degree the kind of pleasure they proposed as an object, provided only it were admitted that pleasure is necessarily the ultimate end of our actions. But this the Stoics firmly denied. "Pleasure," they argued, "is the companion, not the guide, of our course." "We do not love virtue because it gives us pleasure, but it gives us pleasure because we love it." "The wise man will not sin, though both gods and men should overlook the deed, for it is not through the fear of punishment or of shame that he abstains from sin. It is from the desire and obligation of what is just and good." "To ask to be paid for virtue is as if the eye demanded a recompense for seeing, or the feet for walking." In doing good, man "should be like the vine which has produced grapes, and asks for nothing more after it has produced its proper fruit." His end, according to these teachers, is not to find peace either in life or in death. It is to do his duty, and to tell the truth. The second distinguishing feature of stoicism I have noticed was the complete suppression of the affections to make way for the absolute ascendency of reason. There are two great divisions of character corresponding very nearly to the stoical and epicurean temperaments I have described--that in which the will predominates, and that in which the desires are supreme. A good man of the first class is one whose will, directed by a sense of duty, pursues the course he believes to be right, in spite of strong temptations to pursue an opposite course, arising either from his own passions and tendencies, or from the circumstances that surround him. A good man of the second class is one who is so happily constituted that his sympathies and desires instinctively tend to virtuous ends. The first character is the only one to which we can, strictly speaking, attach the idea of merit, and is also the only one which is capable of rising to high efforts of continuous and heroic self-sacrifice; but on the other hand, there is a charm in the spontaneous action of the unforced desires which disciplined virtue can perhaps never attain. The man who is consistently generous through a sense of duty, when his natural temperament impels him to avarice, and when every exercise of benevolence causes him a pang, deserves in the very highest degree our admiration; but he whose generosity costs him no effort, but is the natural gratification of his affections, attracts a far larger measure of our love. Corresponding to these two casts of character, we find two distinct theories of education, the aim of the one being chiefly to strengthen the will, and that of the other to guide the desires. The principal examples of the first are the Spartan and stoical systems of antiquity, and, with some modifications, the asceticism of the Middle Ages. The object of these systems was to enable men to endure pain, to repress manifest and acknowledged desires, to relinquish enjoyments, to establish an absolute empire over their emotions. On the other hand, there is a method of education which was never more prevalent than in the present day, which exhausts its efforts in making virtue attractive, in associating it with all the charms of imagination and of prosperity, and in thus insensibly drawing the desires in the wished for direction. As the first system is especially suited to a disturbed and military society, which requires and elicits strong efforts of the will, and is therefore the special sphere of heroic virtues, so the latter belongs naturally to a tranquil and highly organised civilisation, which is therefore very favourable to the amiable qualities, and it is probable that as civilisation advances, the heroic type will, in consequence, become more and more rare, and a kind of self-indulgent goodness more common. The circumstances of the ancient societies led them to the former type, of which the Stoics furnished the extreme expression in their doctrine that the affections are of the nature of a disease--a doctrine which they justified by the same kind of arguments as those which are now often employed by metaphysicians to prove that love, anger and the like, can only be ascribed by a figure of speech to the Deity. Perturbation, they contended, is necessarily imperfection, and none of its forms can in consequence be ascribed to a perfect being. We have a clear intuitive perception that reason is the highest, and should be the directing power of an intelligent being; but every act which is performed at the instigation of the emotions is withdrawn from the empire of reason. Hence it was inferred that while the will should be educated to act habitually in the direction of virtue, even the emotions that seem most fitted to second it should be absolutely proscribed. Thus Seneca has elaborated at length the distinction between clemency and pity, the first being one of the highest virtues, and the latter a positive vice. Clemency, he says, is an habitual disposition to gentleness in the application of punishments. It is that moderation which remits something of an incurred penalty; it is the opposite of cruelty, which is an habitual disposition to rigour. Pity, on the other hand, bears to clemency the same kind of relation as superstition to religion. It is the weakness of a feeble mind that flinches at the sight of suffering. Clemency is an act of judgment, but pity disturbs the judgment. Clemency adjudicates upon the proportion between suffering and guilt. Pity contemplates only suffering, and gives no thoughts to its cause. Clemency, in the midst of its noblest efforts, is perfectly passionless; pity is unreasoning emotion. Clemency is an essential characteristic of the sage; pity is only suited for weak women and for diseased minds. "The sage will console those who weep, but without weeping with them; he will succour the shipwrecked, give hospitality to the proscribed, and alms to the poor, ... restore the son to the mother's tears, save the captive from the arena, and even bury the criminal; but in all, his mind and his countenance will be alike untroubled. He will feel no pity. He will succour, he will do good, for he is born to assist his fellows, to labour for the welfare of mankind, and to offer each one his part. His countenance and his soul will betray no emotion as he looks upon the withered legs, the tattered rags, the bent and emaciated frame of the beggar. But he will help those who are worthy, and, like the gods, his leaning will be towards the wretched.... It is only diseased eyes that grow moist in beholding tears in other eyes, as it is no true sympathy, but only weakness of nerves, that leads some to laugh always when others laugh, or to yawn when others yawn." Cicero, in a sentence which might be adopted as the motto of stoicism, said that Homer "attributed human qualities to the gods; it would have been better to have imparted divine qualities to men." The remarkable passage I have just cited serves to show the extremes to which the Stoics pushed this imitation. And indeed, if we compare the different virtues that have flourished among Pagans and Christians, we invariably find that the prevailing type of excellence among the former is that in which the will and judgment, and among the latter, that in which the emotions are most prominent. Friendship rather than love, hospitality rather than charity, magnanimity rather than tenderness, clemency rather than sympathy, are the characteristics of ancient goodness. The Stoics, who carried the suppression of the emotions farther than any other school, laboured with great zeal to compensate the injury thus done to the benevolent side of our nature, by greatly enlarging the sphere of reasoned and passionless philanthropy. They taught, in the most emphatic language, the fraternity of all men, and the consequent duty of each man consecrating his life to the welfare of others. They developed this general doctrine in a series of detailed precepts, which, for the range, depth, and beauty of their charity, have never been surpassed. They even extended their compassion to crime, and adopting the paradox of Plato, that all guilt is ignorance, treated it as an involuntary disease, and declared that the only legitimate ground of punishment is prevention. But however fully they might recognise in theory their principles with the widest and most active benevolence, they could not wholly counteract the practical evil of a system which declared war against the whole emotional side of our being, and reduced human virtue to a kind of majestic egotism; proposing as examples such men as Anaxagoras, who when told that his son had died, simply observed, "I never supposed that I had begotten an immortal," or as Stilpo, who when his country had been ruined, his native city captured, and his daughters carried away as slaves or as concubines, boasted that he had lost nothing, for the sage is independent of circumstances. The framework or theory of benevolence might be there, but the animating spirit was absent. Men who taught that the husband or the father should look with perfect indifference on the death of his wife or his child, and that the philosopher, though he may shed tears of pretended sympathy in order to console his suffering friend, must suffer no real emotion to penetrate his breast, could never found a true or lasting religion of benevolence. Men who refused to recognise pain and sickness as evils were scarcely likely to be very eager to relieve them in others. In truth, the Stoics, who taught that all virtue was conformity to nature, were, in this respect, eminently false to their own principle. Human nature, as revealed to us by reason, is a composite thing, a constitution of many parts differing in kind and dignity, a hierarchy in which many powers are intended to co-exist, but in different positions of ascendency or subordination. To make the higher part of our nature our whole nature is not to restore but to mutilate humanity, and this mutilation has never been attempted without producing grave evils. As philanthropists, the Stoics, through their passion for unity, were led to the extirpation of those emotions which nature intended as the chief springs of benevolence. As speculative philosophers, they were entangled by the same desire in a long train of pitiable paradoxes. Their famous doctrines that all virtues are equal, or, more correctly, are the same, that all vices are equal, that nothing is an evil which does not affect our will, and that pain and bereavement are, in consequence, no ills, though partially explained away and frequently disregarded by the Roman Stoics, were yet sufficiently prominent to give their teaching something of an unnatural and affected appearance. Prizing only a single object, and developing only a single side of their nature, their minds became narrow and their views contracted. Thus, while the Epicureans, urging men to study nature in order to banish superstition, endeavoured to correct the ignorance of physical science which was one of the chief impediments to the progress of the ancient mind, the Stoics for the most part disdained a study which was other than the pursuit of virtue. While the Epicurean poet painted in magnificent language the perpetual progress of mankind, the Stoic was essentially retrospective, and exhausted his strength in vain efforts to restore the simplicity of a by-gone age. While, too, the school of Zeno produced many of the best and greatest men who have ever lived, it must be acknowledged that its records exhibit a rather unusual number of examples of high professions falsified in action, and of men who, displaying in some forms the most undoubted and transcendent virtue, fell in others far below the average of mankind. The elder Cato, who, though not a philosopher, was a model of philosophers, was conspicuous for his inhumanity to his slaves. Brutus was one of the most extortionate usurers of his time, and several citizens of Salamis died of starvation, imprisoned because they could not pay the sum he demanded. No one eulogised more eloquently the austere simplicity of life which stoicism advocated than Sallust, who in a corrupt age was notorious for his rapacity. Seneca himself was constitutionally a nervous and timid man, endeavouring, not always with success, to support himself by a sublime philosophy. He guided, under circumstances of extreme difficulty, the cause of virtue, and his death is one of the noblest antiquity records; but his life was deeply marked by the taint of flattery, and not free from the taint of avarice, and it is unhappily certain that, after its accomplishment, he lent his pen to conceal or varnish one of the worst crimes of Nero. The courage of Lucan failed signally under torture, and the flattery which he bestowed upon Nero, in his "Pharsalia," ranks with the Epigrams of Martial as probably the extreme limit of sycophancy to which Roman literature descended. While, too, the main object of the Stoics was to popularise philosophy, the high standard of self-control they exacted rendered their system exceedingly unfit for the great majority of mankind, and for the ordinary condition of affairs. Life is history, not poetry. It consists mainly of little things, rarely illumined by flashes of great heroism, rarely broken by great dangers, or demanding great exertions. A moral system, to govern society, must accommodate itself to common characters and mingled motives. It must be capable of influencing natures that can never rise to an heroic level. It must tincture, modify, and mitigate where it cannot eradicate or transform. In Christianity there are always a few persons seeking by continual and painful efforts to reverse or extinguish the ordinary feelings of humanity, but in the great majority of cases the influence of the religious principle upon the mind, though very real, is not of a nature to cause any serious strain or struggle. It is displayed in a certain acquired spontaneity of impulse. It softens the character, purifies and directs the imagination, blends insensibly with the habitual modes of thought, and, without revolutionising, gives a tone and bias to all the forms of action. But stoicism was simply a school of heroes. It recognised no gradations of virtue or vice. It condemned all emotions, all spontaneity, all mingled motives, all the principles, feelings, and impulses upon which the virtue of common men mainly depends. It was capable of acting only on moral natures that were strung to the highest tension, and it was therefore naturally rejected by the multitude. The central conception of this philosophy of self-control was the dignity of man. Pride, which looks within, making man seek his own approbation, as distinguished from vanity, which looks without, and shapes its conduct according to the opinions of others, was not only permitted in stoicism, it was its leading moral agent. The sense of virtue, as I have elsewhere observed, occupies in this system much the same place as the sense of sin in Christianity. Sin, in the conception of the ancients, was simply disease, and they deemed it the part of a wise man to correct it, but not to dwell upon its circumstances. In the many disquisitions which Epictetus and others have left us concerning the proper frame of mind in which man should approach death, repentance for past sin has absolutely no place, nor do the ancients appear to have ever realised the purifying and spiritualising influence it exercises upon the character. And while the reality of moral disease was fully recognised, while an ideal of lofty and indeed unattainable excellence was continually proposed, no one doubted the essential excellence of human nature, and very few doubted the possibility of man acquiring by his own will a high degree of virtue. The doctrine of suicide was the culminating point of Roman stoicism. The proud, self-reliant, unbending character of the philosopher, could only be sustained when he felt that he had a sure refuge against the extreme forms of suffering or of despair. Although virtue is not a mere creature of interest, no great system has ever yet flourished which did not present an ideal of happiness as well as an ideal of duty. Stoicism taught men to hope little, but to fear nothing. It did not array death in brilliant colours, as the path to positive felicity, but it endeavoured to divest it, as the end of suffering, of every terror. Life lost much of its bitterness when men had found a refuge from the storms of fate, a speedy deliverance from dotage and pain. Death ceased to be terrible when it was regarded rather as a remedy than as a sentence. Life and death in the stoical system were attuned to the same key. The deification of human virtue, the total absence of all sense of sin, the proud stubborn will that deemed humiliation the worst of stains, appeared alike in each. The type of its own kind was perfect. All the virtues and all the majesty that accompany human pride, when developed to the highest point, and directed to the noblest ends, were here displayed. All those which accompany humility and self-abasement were absent. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 74: From Chapter II, Vol. I, of "History of European Morals," 1869. The author's foot-notes have been omitted.] THE ENTHUSIASM OF HUMANITY[75] JOHN ROBERT SEELEY The first method of training this passion which Christ employed was the direct one of making it a point of duty to feel it. To love one's neighbour as oneself was, he said, the first and greatest _law_. And in the Sermon on the Mount he requires the passion to be felt in such strength as to include those whom we have most reason to hate--our enemies and those who maliciously injure us--and delivers an imperative precept, "Love your enemies." It has been shown that to do this is not, as might at first appear, in the nature of things impossible, but the further question suggests itself, Can it be done to order? Has the verb to love really an imperative mood? Certainly, to say that we can love at pleasure, and by a mere effort of will summon up a passion which does not arise of itself, is to take up a paradoxical and novel position. Yet if this position be really untenable, how is it possible to obey Christ's commands? The difficulty seems to admit of only one solution. We are not commanded to create by an effort of will a feeling of love in ourselves which otherwise would have had no existence; the feeling must arise naturally or it cannot arise at all. But a number of causes which are removable may interfere to prevent the feeling from arising or to stifle it as it arises, and we are commanded to remove these hindrances. It is natural to man to love his kind, and Christ commands us only to give nature play. He does not expect us to procure for ourselves hearts of some new supernatural texture, but merely the heart of flesh for the heart of stone. What, then, are the causes of this paralysis of the heart? The experience of human life furnishes us readily with the answer. It constantly happens that one whose affections were originally not less lively than those of most men is thrown into the society of persons destitute of sympathy or tenderness. In this society each person is either totally indifferent to his neighbour or secretly endeavouring to injure or overreach him. The new-comer is at first open-hearted and cordial; he presumes every one he meets to be a friend, and is disposed to serve and expects to be served by all alike. But his advances are met by some with cautious reserve, by others with icy coldness, by others with hypocritical warmth followed by treacherous injury, by others with open hostility. The heart which naturally grew warm at the mere sight of a human being, under the operation of this new experience slowly becomes paralysed. There seats itself gradually in the man's mind a presumption concerning every new face that it is the face of an enemy, and a habit of gathering himself into an attitude of self-defence whenever he deals with a fellow-creature. If when this new disposition has grown confirmed and habitual, he be introduced into a society of an opposite kind and meet with people as friendly and kind as he himself was originally, he will not at first be able to believe in their sincerity, and the old kindly affections from long disuse will be slow to rouse themselves within him. Now to such a person the imperative mood of the verb to love may fairly be used. He may properly be told to make an effort, to shake off the distrust that oppresses him,--not to suffer unproved suspicions, causeless jealousies, to stifle by the mere force of prejudice and mistaken opinion the warmth of feeling natural to him. But we shall have a closer illustration if we suppose the cold-hearted society itself to be addressed by a preacher who wishes to bring them to a better mind. He too may fairly use the imperative mood of the verb to love. For he may say, "Your mutual coldness does not spring from an original want of the power of sympathy. If it did, admonitions would indeed be useless. But it springs from a habit of thought which you have formed, a maxim which has been received among you, that all men are devoted to self-interest, that kindness is but feebleness and invites injury. If you will at once and by a common act throw off this false opinion of human nature, and adopt a new plan of life for yourselves and new expectations of each other, you will find the old affections natural to all of you, weakened indeed and chilled, but existing and capable of being revived by an effort." Such a preacher might go further and say, "If but a small minority are convinced by my words, yet let that minority for itself abandon the selfish theory, let it renounce the safety which that theory affords in dealing with selfish men, let it treat the enemy as if he were indeed the friend he ought to be, let it dare to forego retaliation and even self-defence. By this means it will shame many into kindness; by despising self-interest for itself it will sometimes make it seem despicable to others; by sincerity and persistency it will gradually convert the majority to a higher law of intercourse." The world has been always more or less like this cold-hearted society; the natural kindness and fellow-feeling of men have always been more or less repressed by low-minded maxims and cynicism. But in the time of Christ, and in the last decrepitude of ethnic morality, the selfishness of human intercourse was much greater than the present age can easily understand. That system of morality, even in the times when it was powerful and in many respects beneficial, had made it almost as much a duty to hate foreigners as to love fellow-citizens. Plato congratulates the, Athenians on having shown in their relations to Persia, beyond all the other Greeks, "a pure and heartfelt hatred of the foreign nature."[76] Instead of opposing, it had sanctioned and consecrated the savage instinct which leads us to hate whatever is strange or unintelligible, to distrust those who live on the further side of a river, to suppose that those whom we hear talking together in a foreign tongue must be plotting some mischief against ourselves. The lapse of time and the fusion of races doubtless diminished this antipathy considerably, but at the utmost it could but be transformed into an icy indifference, for no cause was in operation to convert it into kindness. On the other hand, the closeness of the bond which united fellow-citizens was considerably relaxed. Common interests and common dangers had drawn it close; these in the wide security of the Roman Empire had no longer a place. It had depended upon an imagined blood-relationship; fellow-citizens could now no longer feel themselves to be united by the tie of blood. Every town was full of resident aliens and emancipated slaves, persons between whom and the citizens nature had established no connection, and whose presence in the city had originally been barely tolerated from motives of expediency. The selfishness of modern times exists in defiance of morality, in ancient times it was approved, sheltered, and even in part enjoined by morality. We are therefore to consider the ancient world as a society of men in whom natural humanity existed but had been, as it were, crusted or frosted over. Inveterate feuds and narrow-minded local jealousies, arising out of an isolated position or differences of language and institutions, had created endless divisions between man and man. And as the special virtues of antiquity, patriotism and all that it implies, had been in a manner caused and fostered by these very divisions, they were not regarded as evils but rather cherished as essential to morality. Selfishness, therefore, was not a mere abuse or corruption arising out of the infirmity of human nature, but a theory and almost a part of moral philosophy. Humanity was cramped by a mistaken prejudice, by a perverse presumption of the intellect. In a case like this it was necessary and proper to prescribe humanity by direct authoritative precept. Such a precept would have been powerless to create the feeling, nor would it have done much to protect it from being overpowered by the opposite passion, but the opposite passion of selfishness was at this period justified by authority and claimed to be on the side of reason and law. Precept is fairly matched against precept, and what the law of love and the golden rule did for mankind was to place for the first time the love of man as man distinctly in the list of virtues, to dissipate the exclusive prejudices of ethnic morality, and to give selfishness the character of sin. When a theory of selfishness is rife in a whole community, it is a bold and hazardous step for a part of the community to abandon it. For in the society of selfish people selfishness is simply self-defence; to renounce it is to evacuate one's entrenched position, to surrender at discretion to the enemy. If society is to disarm, it should do so by common consent. Christ, however, though he confidently expected ultimately to gather all mankind into his society, did not expect to do so soon. Accordingly he commands his followers not to wait for this consummation but, in spite of the hazardous nature of the step, to disarm at once. They are sent forth "as sheep in the midst of wolves." Injuries they are to expect, but they are neither to shun nor to retaliate them. Harmless they are to be as _doves_. The discipline of suffering will wean them more and more from self, and make the channels of humanity freer within them; and sometimes their patience may shame the spoiler; he may grow weary of rapacity which meets with no resistance, and be induced to envy those who can forego without reluctance that which he devotes every thought to acquire. But we shall soon be convinced that Christ could not design by a mere edict, however authoritative, to give this passion of humanity strength enough to make it a living and infallible principle of morality in every man, when we consider, first, what an ardent enthusiasm he demanded from his followers, and secondly, how frail and tender a germ this passion naturally is in human nature. Widely diffused indeed it is, and seldom entirely eradicated; but for the most part, at least in the ancient world, it was crushed under a weight of predominant passions and interests; it had seldom power enough to dictate any action, but made itself felt in faint misgivings and relentings, which sometimes restrained men from extremes of cruelty. Like Enceladus under Aetna, it lay fettered at the bottom of human nature, now and then making the mass above it quake by an uneasy change of posture. To make this outraged and enslaved passion predominant, to give it, instead of a veto rarely used, the whole power of government, to train it from a dim misgiving into a clear and strong passion, required much more than a precept. The precept had its use; it could make men feel it right to be humane and desire to be so, but it could never inspire them with an enthusiasm of humanity. From what source was this inspiration to be derived? Humanity, we have already observed, is neither a love for the whole human race, nor a love for each individual of it, but a love for the race, or for the ideal of man, in each individual. In other and less pedantic words, he who is truly humane considers every human being as such interesting and important, and without waiting to criticise each individual specimen, pays in advance to all alike the tribute of good wishes and sympathy. Now this favourable presumption with regard to human beings is not a causeless prepossession, it is no idle superstition of the mind, nor is it a natural instinct. It is a feeling founded on the actual observation and discovery of interesting and noble qualities in particular human beings, and it is strong or weak in proportion as the person who has the feeling has known many or few noble and amiable human beings. There are men who have, been so unfortunate as to live in the perpetual society of the mean and the base; they have never, except in a few faint glimpses, seen anything glorious or good in human nature. With these the feeling of humanity has a perpetual struggle for existence, their minds tend by a fatal gravitation to the belief that the happiness or misery of such a paltry race is wholly unimportant; they may arrive finally at a fixed condition, in which it may be said of them without qualification, that "man delights not them, nor woman neither." In this final stage they are men who, beyond the routine of life, should not be trusted, being "fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils." On the other hand, there are those whose lot it has been from earliest childhood to see the fair side of humanity, who have been surrounded with clear and candid countenances, in the changes of which might be traced the working of passions strong and simple, the impress of a firm and tender nature, wearing when it looked abroad the glow of sympathy, and when it looked within the bloom of modesty. They have seen, and not once or twice, a man forget himself; they have witnessed devotion, unselfish sorrow, unaffected delicacy, spontaneous charity, ingenuous self-reproach; and it may be that on seeing a human being surrender for another's good not something but his uttermost all, they have dimly suspected in human nature a glory connecting it with the divine. In these the passion of humanity is warm and ready to become on occasion a burning flame; their whole minds are elevated, because they are possessed with the dignity of that nature they share, and of the society in the midst of which they move. But it is not absolutely necessary to humanity that a man shall have seen _many_ men whom he can respect. The most lost cynic will get a new heart by learning thoroughly to believe in the virtue of _one_ man. Our estimate of human nature is in proportion to the best specimen of it we have witnessed. This then it is which is wanted to raise the feeling of humanity into an enthusiasm; when the precept of love has been given, an image must be set before the eyes of those who are called upon to obey it, an ideal or type of man which may be noble and amiable enough to raise the whole race and make the meanest member of it sacred with reflected glory. Did not Christ do this? Did the command to love go forth to those who had never seen a human being they could revere? Could his followers turn upon him and say, How can we love a creature so degraded, full of vile wants and contemptible passions, whose little life is most harmlessly spent when it is an empty round of eating and sleeping; a creature destined for the grave and for oblivion when his allotted term of fretfulness and folly has expired? Of this race Christ himself was a member, and to this day is it not the best answer to all blasphemers of the species, the best consolation when our sense of its degradation is keenest, that a human brain was behind his forehead and a human heart beating in his breast, and that within the whole creation of God nothing more elevated or more attractive has yet been found than he? And if it be answered that there was in his nature something exceptional and peculiar, that humanity must not be measured by the stature of Christ, let us remember that it was precisely thus that he wished it to be measured, delighting to call himself the Son of Man, delighting to call the meanest of mankind his brothers. If some human beings are abject and contemptible, if it be incredible to us that they can have any high dignity or destiny, do we regard them from so great a height as Christ? Are we likely to be more pained by their faults and deficiencies than he was? Is our standard higher than his? And yet he associated by preference with these meanest of the race; no contempt for them did he ever express, no suspicion that they might be less dear than the best and wisest to the common Father, no doubt that they were naturally capable of rising to a moral elevation like his own. There is nothing of which a man may be prouder than of this; it is the most hopeful and redeeming fact in history; it is precisely what was wanting to raise the love of man as man to enthusiasm. An eternal glory has been shed upon the human race by the love Christ bore to it. And it was because the Edict of Universal Love went forth to men whose hearts were in no cynical mood but possessed with a spirit of devotion to a man, that words which at any other time, however grandly they might sound, would have been but words, penetrated so deeply, and along with the law of love the power of Jove was given. Therefore also the first Christians were enabled to dispense with philosophical phrases, and instead of saying that they loved the ideal of man in man could simply say and feel that they loved Christ in every man. We have here the very kernel of the Christian moral scheme. We have distinctly before us the end Christ proposed to himself, and the means he considered adequate to the attainment of it. His object was, instead of drawing up, after the example of previous legislators, a list of actions prescribed, allowed, and prohibited, to give his disciples a universal test by which they might discover what it was right and what it was wrong to do. Now as the difficulty of discovering what is right arises commonly from the prevalence of self-interest in our minds, and as we commonly behave rightly to anyone for whom we feel affection or sympathy, Christ considered that he who could feel sympathy for all would behave rightly to all. But how to give to the meagre and narrow hearts of men such enlargement? How to make them capable of a universal sympathy? Christ believed it possible to bind men to their kind, but on one condition--that they were first bound fast to himself. He stood forth as the representative of men, he identified himself with the cause and with the interests of all human beings, he was destined, as he began before long obscurely to intimate, to lay down his life for them. Few of us sympathise originally and directly with this devotion; few of us can perceive in human nature itself any merit sufficient to evoke it. But it is not so hard to love and venerate him who felt it. So vast a passion of love, a devotion so comprehensive, elevated, deliberate and profound, has not elsewhere been in any degree approached save by some of his imitators. And as love provokes love, many have found it possible to conceive for Christ an attachment the closeness of which no words can describe, a veneration so possessing and absorbing the man within them, that they have said, "I live no more, but Christ lives in me." Now such a feeling carries with it of necessity the feeling of love for all human beings. It matters no longer what quality men may exhibit; amiable or unamiable, as the brothers of Christ, as belonging to his sacred and consecrated kind, as the objects of his love in life and death, they must be dear to all to whom he is dear. And those who would for a moment know his heart and understand his life must begin by thinking of the whole race of man, and of each member of the race, with awful reverence and hope. Love, wheresoever it appears, is in its measure a law-making power. "Love is _dutiful_ in thought and deed." And as the lover of his country is free from the temptation to treason, so is he who loves Christ secure from the temptation to injure any human being, whether it be himself or another. He is indeed much more than this. He is bound and he is eager to benefit and bless to the utmost of his power all that bear his Master's nature, and that not merely with the good gifts of the earth, but with whatever cherishes and trains best the Christ within them. But for the present we are concerned merely with the power of this passion to lift the man out of sin. The injuries he committed lightly when he regarded his fellow-creatures simply as animals who added to the fierceness of the brute an ingenuity and forethought that made them doubly noxious, become horrible sacrilege when he sees in them no longer the animal but the Christ. And that other class of crimes which belongs more especially to ages of civilisation, and arises out of a cynical contempt for the species, is rendered equally impossible to the man who hears with reverence the announcement, "The good deeds you did to the least of these my brethren you did to me." There are two objections which may suggest themselves at this point, the one to intellectual, the other to practical men. The intellectual man may say, "To discover what it is right to do in any given case is not the province of any feeling or passion however sublime, but requires the application of the same intellectual power which solves mathematical problems. The common acts of life may no doubt be performed correctly by unintellectual people, but this is because these constantly recurring problems have been solved long ago by clever people, and the vulgar are now in possession of the results. Whenever a new combination occurs it is a matter for casuists; the best intentions will avail little; there is doubtless a great difference between a good man and a bad one; the one will do what is right when he knows it, and the other will not; but in respect for the power of ascertaining what it is right to do, supposing their knowledge of casuistry to be equal, they are on a par. Goodness or the passion of humanity, or Christian love, may be a motive inducing men to keep the law, but it has no right to be called the law-making power. And what has Christianity added to our theoretic knowledge of morality? It may have made men practically more moral, but has it added anything to Aristotle's Ethics?" Certainly Christianity has no ambition to invade the provinces of the moralist or the casuist. But the difficulties which beset the discovery of the right moral course are of two kinds. There are the difficulties which arise, from the blinding and confusing effect of selfish passions, and which obscure from the view the end which should be aimed at in action; when these have been overcome there arises a new set of difficulties concerning the means by which the end should be attained. In dealing with your neighbour the first thing to be understood is that his interest is to be considered as well as your own; but when this has been settled, it remains to be considered what his interest is. The latter class of difficulties requires to be dealt with by the intellectual or calculating faculty. The former class can only be dealt with by the moral force of sympathy. Now it is true that the right action will not be performed without the operation of both these agencies. But the moral agency is the dominant one throughout; it is that without which the very conception of law is impossible; it overcomes those difficulties which in the vast majority of practical cases are the most serious. The calculating casuistical faculty is, as it were, in its employ, and it is no more improper to call it the law-making power, although it does not ultimately decide what action is to be performed, than to say that a house was built by one who did not with his own hands lay the bricks and spread the mortar. The objection which practical men take is a very important one, as the criticisms of such men always are, being founded commonly upon large observation and not perverted by theory. They say that the love of Christ does not in practice produce the nobleness and largeness of character which has been represented as its proper and natural result; that instead of inspiring those who feel it with reverence and hope for their kind, it makes them exceedingly narrow in their sympathies, disposed to deny and explain away even the most manifest virtues displayed by men, and to despair of the future destiny of the great majority of their fellow-creatures; that instead of binding them to their kind, it divides them from it by a gulf which they themselves proclaim to be impassable and eternal, and unites them only in a gloomy conspiracy of misanthropy with each other; that it is indeed a law-making power, but that the laws it makes are little-minded and vexatious prohibitions of things innocent, demoralising restraints upon the freedom of joy and the healthy instincts of nature; that it favours hypocrisy, moroseness, and sometimes lunacy; that the only vice it has power to check is thoughtlessness, and its only beneficial effect is that of forcing into activity, though not always into healthy activity, the faculty of serious reflection. This may be a just picture of a large class of religious men, but it is impossible in the nature of things that such effects should be produced by a pure personal devotion to Christ. We are to remember that nothing has been subjected to such multiform and grotesque perversion as Christianity. Certainly the direct love of Christ, as it was felt by its first followers, is a rare thing among modern Christians. His character has been so much obscured by scholasticism, as to have lost in a great measure its attractive power. The prevalent feeling towards him now among religious men is an awful fear of his supernatural greatness, and a disposition to obey his commands arising partly from dread of future punishment and hope of reward, and partly from a nobler feeling of loyalty, which, however, is inspired rather by his office than his person. Beyond this we may discern in them an uneasy conviction that he requires a more personal devotion, which leads to spasmodic efforts to kindle the feeling by means of violent raptures of panegyric and by repeating over and getting by rote the ardent expressions of those who really had it. That is wanting for the most part which Christ held to be all in all, spontaneous warmth, free and generous devotion. That the fruits of a Christianity so hollow should be poor and sickly is not surprising. But that Christ's method, when rightly applied, is really of mighty force may be shown by an argument which the severest censor of Christians will hardly refuse to admit. Compare the ancient with the modern world: "Look on this picture and on that." One broad distinction in the characters of men forces itself into prominence. Among all the men of the ancient heathen world there were scarcely one or two to whom we might venture to apply the epithet "holy." In other words, there were not more than one or two, if any, who besides being virtuous in their actions were possessed with an unaffected enthusiasm of goodness, and besides abstaining from vice regarded even a vicious thought with horror. Probably no one will deny that in Christian countries this higher-toned goodness, which we call holiness, has existed. Few will maintain that it has been exceedingly rare. Perhaps the truth is, that there has scarcely been a town in any Christian country since the time of Christ where a century has passed without exhibiting a character of such elevation that his mere presence has shamed the bad and made the good better, and has been felt at times like the presence of God Himself. And if this be so, has Christ failed? or can Christianity die? FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 75: Chapter XIV of "Ecce Homo, a Survey of the Life and work of Jesus Christ," 1865.] [Footnote 76: Plato, Menexenus.--Author's note.] LOYALTY AND INSIGHT[77] JOSIAH ROYCE Upon an occasion like this, when the children, the servants, and the friends of this institution meet for their annual festival, there is one word that best expresses the spirit of the occasion. It is the word "loyalty,"--loyalty to your College, to its ideals, to its life, and to the unity and effectiveness of this life. And amongst the ideals that inspire the life of your College, and make that life effective and united, there is one which is prominent in all your minds, whatever your special studies, your practical aims, or your hopes. It is the ideal of furthering, in all your minds, what we may call insight,--the ideal of learning to see life as it is, to know the world as we men need to know it, and to guide our purposes as we ought to guide them. It is also the ideal of teaching to others the art of just such insight. These two words, then, "loyalty" and "insight," name, one of them, the spirit in which, upon such occasions as this, we all meet; the other, the ideal that determines the studies and the researches of any modern institution of learning. Upon each day of its year of work your College says to its children and to its servants and to its community: "Let us know, let us see, let us comprehend, let us guide life by wisdom, and in turn let us discover new wisdom for the sake of winning new life." But upon a day like the present one, the work of the year being laid aside, your College asks and receives your united expression of loyalty to its cause. Perhaps some of you may feel that for just this moment you have left behind, at least temporarily, the task of winning insight. You enjoy, for the hour, the fruits of toil. Study and research cease, you may say, for to-day, while the spirit of loyalty finds its own free expression and takes content in its holiday. I agree that the holidays and the working days have a different place in our lives. But it is my purpose in this address to say something about the connections between the spirit which rules this occasion--the spirit of loyalty--and the ideal by which the year's work has to be guided,--the ideal of furthering true insight. The loyalty that now fills your minds is merely one expression of a certain spirit which ought to pervade all our lives--not only in our studies, but in our homes, in our offices, in our political and civic life--not merely upon holidays, or upon other great occasions, but upon our working days; and most of all when our tasks seem commonplace and heavy. And, on the other hand, the insight which you seek to get whenever, in the academic world, you work in the laboratory or in the field, in the library or in the classroom or alone in your study, the insight that you try both to embody in your practical life and to enrich through your researches,--just this insight, I say, is best to be furthered by a right cultivation of the spirit of loyalty. I suppose that when I utter these words, you will easily give to them a certain general assent. But I want to devote this address to making just such words mean more to you than at first they may appear to mean. First, then, let me tell you what I myself mean by the term "loyalty." Then let me deal with my principal thesis, which is that the true spirit of loyalty is not merely a proper accompaniment of all serious work, but is an especially important source of a very deep insight into the meaning of life, and, as I personally believe, into the nature of the whole universe. Three sorts of persons, I have noticed, are fond of using the term "loyalty." These are quite different types of persons; or, in any case, they use the word upon very different occasions. But these very differences are to my mind important. The first type of those who love to use the term "loyalty" consists of those who employ it to express a certain glow of enthusiastic devotion, the type of the lovers, of the students when the athletic contests are near, of the partisans in the heat of a political contest, or of the friends of an institution upon a day like this. To such persons, or at least at such moments, loyalty is conceived as something brilliantly emotional, as a passion of devotion. The second class of those who are fond of the word "loyalty" are the warriors and their admirers. To such persons loyalty means a willingness to do dangerous service, to sacrifice life, to toil long and hard for the flag that one follows. But for a third type of those who employ the word, loyalty especially means steady, often unobtrusive, fidelity to more or less formal obligations, such as the business world and the workshop impose upon us. Such persons think of loyalty as, first of all, faithfulness in obeying the law of the land, or in executing the plans of one's official superiors, or in serving one's employer or one's client or one's chief, or one's fraternity or other social union. In this sense the loyal servant may be obscure and unemotional. But he is trustworthy. Now, a word which thus so forcibly appeals to the lovers who want to express their passionate devotion, and also to the soldiers who want to name that obstinate following of the flag which makes victory possible; a word which business men also sometimes use to characterize the quietly and industriously faithful employee who obeys orders, who betrays no secrets, and who regards the firm's interest as his own;--well, such a word, I think, is not as much ambiguous as deep in its meaning. For, after all, loyal emotions, loyal sacrifice of life, loyal steadiness in obscure service, are but various symptoms of a certain spirit which lies beneath all its various expressions. This spirit is a well-known one. All the higher life of society depends upon it. It may manifest itself as enthusiasm upon an occasion like this, or as contempt for death upon the battle field, or as quiet service when the toil of life is grim, or as the cool fidelity that pursues the daily routine of office or of workshop or of kitchen with a steady persistence and with a simple acceptance of traditional duties or of the day's toil. But the spirit thus manifested is not exhausted by any of its symptoms. The appearances of loyalty are manifold. Its meaning is one. And I myself venture to state what the true spirit of loyalty is by defining the term thus: By loyalty I mean the thorough-going, the voluntary, and the practical devotion of a self to a cause. And by a cause I mean something of the nature that the true lover has in mind when he is wisely devoted to his love; that the faithful member of a family serves when the family itself is the cause dear to him; that the member of a fraternity, or the child of a college, or the devoted professional man, or the patriot, or the martyr, or the faithful workman conceives when he thinks of that to which he gives his life. As all these illustrations suggest, the cause to which one can be loyal is never a mere collection of individuals; nor is it ever a mere abstract principle. This cause, whether in the church or the army or the workshop, in the home or in the friendship, is some sort of unity whereby many persons are joined in one common life. The cause to which a loyal man is devoted is of the nature of an institution, or of a home life, or of a fraternity, wherein two or more persons aim to become one; or of a religion, wherein the unity of the spirit is sought through the communion of the faithful. Loyalty respects individuals, but aims to bring them together into one common life. Its command to the loyal is: "Be 'one undivided soul of many a soul'". It recognizes that, when apart, individuals fail; but that when they try to unite their lives into one common higher selfhood, to live as if they were the expressions, the instruments, the organs of one ideally beautiful social group, they win the only possible fulfillment of the meaning of human existence. Through loyalty to such a cause, through devotion to an ideally united social group, and only through such loyalty, can the problems of human personality be solved. By nature, and apart from some cause to which we are loyal, each of us is but a mass of caprices, a chaos of distracting passions, a longing for happiness that is never fulfilled, a seeking for success which never attains its goal. Meanwhile, no merely customary morality ever adequately guides our lives. Mere social authority never meets our needs. But a cause, some unity of many lives in one, some call upon the individual to give himself over to the service of an idealized community--this gives sense to life. This, when we feel its presence, as we do upon this occasion, we love, as the lovers love the common life of friendship that is to make them one, or as the mothers delight in the life that is to unite themselves and their children in the family, or as the devout feel that through their communion in the life of their church they become one with the Divine Spirit. For such a cause we can make sacrifices, such as the soldier makes in following the flag. For what is the fortune of any detached self as compared with the one cause of the whole country? And just such a voluntary devotion to a cause can ennoble the routine of the humblest daily business, in the office, in the household, in the school, at the desk, or in the market place, if one only finds the cause that can hold his devotion--be this cause his business firm or his profession or his household or his country or his church, or all these at once. For all these causes have their value in this: that through the business firm, or the household, or the profession, or the spiritual community, the lives of many human selves are woven into one, so that our fortunes and interests are no longer conceived as detached and private, but as a giving of ourselves in order that the social group to which we are devoted should live its own united life. With this bare indication of what I mean by loyalty, I may now say that of late years I have attempted to show in detail, in various discussions of our topic, that the spirit of loyalty, rightly understood, and practically applied, furnishes an adequate solution for all the problems of the moral life. The whole moral law can be summed up in the two commandments: first, Be loyal; and secondly, So choose, so serve, and so unify the life causes to which you yourself are loyal that, through your choice, through your service, through your example, and through your dealings with all men, you may, as far as in you lies, help other people to be loyal to their own causes; may avoid cheating them of their opportunities for loyalty; may inspire them with their own best type of loyalty, and may so best serve the one great cause of the spread of loyalty among mankind. Or, if I may borrow and adapt for a worthy end Lincoln's immortal words, the moral law is this: Let us so live, so love, and so serve, that loyalty "of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth," but shall prosper and abound. The scheme of life thus suggested is, I believe, adequate. I next want to tell what bearing the spirit of loyalty has upon insight. The insight that all of us most need and desire is an insight, first, into the business of life itself, and next into the nature and meaning of the real world in which we live. Our forefathers used to center all their views of life and of the world about their religion. Many of the leading minds of to-day center their modern insight about the results of science. In consequence, what I may call the general problems of insight, and the views of life and of the world which most of us get from our studies, have come of late to appear very different from the views and the problems which our own leading countrymen a century ago regarded as most important. The result is that the great problem of the philosophy of life to-day may be defined as the effort to see whether, and how, you can cling to a genuinely ideal and spiritual interpretation of your own nature and of your duty, while abandoning superstition, and while keeping in close touch with the results of modern knowledge about man and nature. Let me briefly indicate what I mean by this problem of a modern philosophy of life. From the modern point of view great stress has been laid upon the fact that man, as we know man, appears to be subject to the laws of the natural world. Modern knowledge makes these laws appear very far-reaching, very rigid, and very much of the type that we call mechanical. We have, therefore, most of us, learned not to expect miraculous interferences with the course of nature as aids in our human conflict with destiny. We have been taught to regard ourselves as the products of a long process of natural evolution. We have come to think that man's control over nature has to take the general form which our industrial arts illustrate, and which our recent contests with disease, such as the wars with tuberculosis and with yellow fever, exemplify. Man, we have been led to say, wins his way only by studying nature and by applying his carefully won empirical knowledge to the guidance of his arts. The business of life--so we have been moved to assert--must therefore be guided simply by an union of plain common sense with the scientific study of nature. The real world, we have been disposed to say, is, on the whole, so far as we can know it, a mechanism. Therefore the best ideal of life involves simply the more or less complete control of this mechanism for useful and humane ends. Such, I say, is one very commonly accepted result to which modern knowledge seems to have led men. The practical view of life and of its business which expresses this result has been, for many of us, twofold. First, we have been led to this well-known precept: If you want to live wisely, you must, at all events, avoid superstition. That is, you must not try to guide human life by dealing with such supernatural powers, good and evil, as the mythologies of the past used to view as the controlling forces of human destiny. You must take natural laws as you find them. You must believe about the real world simply what you can confirm by the verdict of human experience. You must put no false hopes either in magic arts or in useless appeals to the gods. You must, for instance, fight tuberculosis not by prayer, but by knowing the conditions that produce it and the natural processes that tend to destroy its germs. And so, in general, in order to live well and wisely you must be a naturalist and not a supernaturalist. Or in any case you must conform your common sense not to the imagination that in the past peopled the dream world of humanity with good and evil spirits, but to the carefully won insight that has shown us that our world is one where natural law reigns unyielding, defying equally our magic arts and our prayerful desires for divine aid. But secondly, side by side with this decidedly positive advice, many of us have been brought to accept a practical attitude towards the world which has seemed to us negative and discouraging. This second attitude may be expressed in the sad precept: Hope not to find this world in any universal sense a world of ideal values. Nature is indifferent to values. Values are human, and merely human. Man can indeed give to his own life much of what he calls value, if he uses his natural knowledge for human ends. But when he sets out upon this task, he ought to know that, however sweet and ideal human companionship may be as it exists among men, humanity as a whole must fight its battle with nature and with the universe substantially alone, comfortless except for the comforts that it wins precisely as it builds its houses; namely, by using the mechanisms of nature for its own purposes. The world happens, indeed, to give man some power to control natural conditions. But even this power is due to the very fact that man also is one of nature's products,--a product possessing a certain stability, a certain natural plasticity and docility, a limited range of natural initiative. As a rock may deflect a stream, so man, himself a natural mechanism, may turn the stream of nature's energies into paths that are temporarily useful for human purposes. But from the modern point of view the ancient plaint of the Book of Job remains true, both for the rock and for the man: "The waters wear away stones, And the hope of frail man thou destroyest." In the end, our relations to the universe thus seem to remain relations to an essentially foreign power, which cares for our ideals as the stormy sea cares for the boat, and as the bacteria care for the human organism upon which they prey. If we ourselves, as products of nature, are sufficiently strong mechanisms, we may be able to win, while life lasts, many ideal goods. But just so, if the boat is well enough built, it may weather one or another passing storm. If the body is well knit, it may long remain immune to disease. Yet in the end the boat and the human body fail. And in no case, so this view asserts, does the real world essentially care for or help or encourage our ideals. Our ideals are as foreign to the real natural world as the interests of the ship's company are to the ocean that may tolerate, but also may drown them. Be free from superstition, then; and next: avoid false hopes. Such are the two theses that seem to embody for many minds the essentially modern view of things and the essential result for the philosophy of life of what we have now learned. But hereupon the question arises whether this is indeed the last word of insight; whether this outcome of modern knowledge does indeed tell the whole story of our relations to the real world. That this modern view has its own share of deeper truth we all recognize. But is this the whole truth? Have we no access whatever to any other aspect of reality than the one which this naturalistic view emphasizes? And again, the question still arises: Is there any place left for a religion that can be free from superstition, that can accept just so much of the foregoing modern results as are indeed established, and that can yet supplement them by an insight which may show the universe to be, after all, something more than a mechanism? In sum, are we merely stones that deflect the stream for a while, until the waters wear them away? Or are there spiritual hopes of humanity which the mechanism of nature cannot destroy? Is the philosophy of life capable of giving us something more than a naturalism--humanized merely by the thought that man, being, after all, a well-knit and plastic mechanism, can for a time mold nature to his ends? So much for the great problem of modern insight. Let us turn to consider the relation of the spirit of loyalty to this problem. What light can a study of the spirit of loyalty, as I just defined loyalty--what light, I say, can such a study throw upon this problem? Very little--so some of you may say; for any discussion of the spirit of loyalty can tell us nothing to make nature's mechanism more comprehensible. One who favors loyalty as a way of solving life's problems tells us about a certain ideal of human life,--an ideal which, as I have asserted, does tend to solve our personal moral problems precisely in so far as we are able to express this ideal in our practical lives. In order to be loyal you indeed have no need to believe in any of the well-known miracles of popular tradition. And equally, in order to be loyal, you have no need, first, to decide whether nature is or is not a mechanism; or whether the modern view of reality, as just summarized, is or is not adequate; or whether the gods exist; or whether man is or is not one of nature's products and temporarily well-knit and plastic machines. Our doctrine of loyalty is founded not upon a decision about nature's supposed mechanism, but upon a study of man's own inner and deeper needs. It is a doctrine about the plan and the business of human life. It seems, therefore, to be neutral as to every so-called conflict between science and religion. But now, in answer to these remarks, I have to show that the doctrine of loyalty, once rightly understood, has yet a further application. It is a doctrine that, when more fully interpreted, helps us toward a genuine insight, not only into the plan of life, but into the nature of things. The philosophy of loyalty has nothing to say against precisely so much of naturalism as is indeed an established result of common sense and of the scientific study of nature. The theory of the loyal life involves nothing superstitious--no trust in magic, no leaning upon the intervention of such spiritual agencies as the old mythologies conceived. And yet, as I shall insist, nobody can understand and practise the loyal spirit without tending thereby to get a true view of the nature of things, a genuine touch with reality, which cannot be gained without seeing that, however much of a mechanism nature may appear to be, the real world is something much more than a mechanism, and much more significant than are the waters which wear away stones. Let me indicate what I mean by repeating in brief my doctrine of loyalty--with reference to the spirit which it involves, and with reference to the view of the realities of human life which it inevitably includes. Whoever is loyal has found some cause, I have said,--a cause to which, by his inner interests, he is indeed attracted so that the cause is fascinating to his sentiments. But the cause is also one to which the loyal man is meanwhile practically and voluntarily devoted, so that his loyalty is no mere glow of enthusiasm, but is an affair of his deeds as well as of his emotions. Loyalty I therefore defined as the thorough-going and practical devotion of a self to a cause. Why loyalty is a duty; how loyalty is possible for every normal human being; how it can appear early in youth, and then grow though life; how it can be at once faithful to its own, and yet can constantly enlarge its scope; how it can become universally human in its interests without losing its concreteness, and without failing to keep in touch with the personal affections and the private concerns of the loyal person; how loyalty is a virtue for all men, however humble and however exalted they may be; how the loyal service of the tasks of a single possibly narrow life can be viewed as a service of the cause of universal loyalty, and so of the interests of all humanity; how all special duties of life can be stated in terms of a duly generalized spirit of loyalty; and how moral conflicts can be solved, and moral divisions made, in the light of the principle of loyalty; all this I have asserted, although here is indeed no time for adequate discussion. But hereupon I want to concentrate our whole attention, not upon the consequences and applications of the doctrine of loyalty, but upon the most central characteristic of the loyal spirit. This central characteristic of the loyal spirit consists in the fact that it conceives and values its cause as a reality, as an object that has a being of its own; while the type of reality which belongs to a cause is different from the type of reality which we ascribe either to a thing in the physical world or to a law of nature. A cause is never a mere mechanism. It is an essentially spiritual reality. If the loyal human being is right in the account which he gives of his cause, then the real world contains beings which are not mere natural objects, and is subject to laws which, without in the least running counter to the laws of outer nature, are the laws of an essentially spiritual realm, whose type of being is superior to that possessed by the order of nature which our industrial arts use. Either, then, loyalty is altogether a service of myths, or else the causes which the loyal serve belong to a realm of real being which is above the level of mere natural fact and natural law. In the latter case the real world is not indifferent to our human search for values. The modern naturalistic and mechanical views of reality are not, indeed, false within their own proper range, but they are inadequate to tell us the whole truth. And reality contains, further, and is characterized by, an essentially spiritual order of being. I have been speaking to persons who, as I have trusted, well know, so far as they have yet had time to learn the lessons of life, something of what loyalty means. Come, then, let us consider what is the sort of object that you have present to your mind when you are loyal to a cause. If your cause is a reality, what kind of a being is it? If causes are realities, then in what sort of a real world do you live? I have already indicated that, while loyalty always includes personal affections, while you can never be loyal to what you take to be a merely abstract principle, nevertheless, it is equally true that you can never be genuinely loyal merely to an individual human being, taken just as this detached creature. You can, indeed, love your friend, viewed just as this individual. But love for an individual is so far just a fondness for a fascinating human presence, and is essentially capricious, whether it lasts or is transient. You can be, and should be, loyal to your friendship, to the union of yourself and your friend, to that ideal comradeship which is neither of you alone, and which is not the mere doubleness that consists of you and your friend taken as two detached beings who happen to find one another's presence agreeable. Loyalty to a friendship involves your willingness actively and practically to create and maintain a life which is to be the united life of yourself and your friend--not the life of your friend alone, nor the life of yourself and your friend as you exist apart, but the common life, the life above and inclusive of your distinctions, the one life that you are to live as friends. To the tie, to the unity, to the common life, to the union of friends, you can be loyal. Without such loyalty friendship consists only of its routine of more or less attractive private sentiments and mere meetings, each one of which is one more chance experience, heaped together with other chance experiences. But with such true loyalty your friendship becomes, at least in ideal, a new life--a life that neither of you could have alone; a life that is not a mere round of separate private amusements, but that belongs to a new type of dual yet unified personality. Nor are you loyal to your friendship merely as to an abstraction. You are loyal to it as to the common better self of both of you, a self that lives its own real life. Either such a loyalty to your friendship is a belief in myths, or else such a type of higher and unified dual personality actually possesses a reality of its own,--a reality that you cannot adequately describe by reporting, as to the taker of a census, that you and your friend are two creatures, with two distinct cases of a certain sort of fondness to be noted down, and with each a separate life into which, as an incident, some such fondness enters. No; were a census of true friendship possible, the census taker should be required to report: Here are indeed two friends; but here is also the ideal and yet, in some higher sense, real life of their united personality present,--a life which belongs to neither of them alone, and which also does not exist merely as a parcel of fragments, partly in one, partly in the other of them. It is the life of their common personality. It is a new spiritual person on a higher level. Or again, you are loyal to some such union as a family or a fraternity represents. Or you are loyal to your class, your college, your community, your country, your church. In all these cases, with endless variety in the details, your loyalty has for its object each time, not merely a group of detached personalities, but some ideally significant common life; an union of many in one; a community which also has the value of a person, and which, nevertheless, cannot be found distributed about in a collection of fragments found inside the detached lives of the individual members of the family, the club, the class, the college, the country, the church. If this common life to which you are loyal is a reality, then the real human world does not consist of separate creatures alone, of the mere persons who flock in the streets and who live in the different houses. The human world, if the loyal are right, contains personality that is not merely shut up within the skin, now of this, now of that, human creature. It contains personalities that no organism confines within its bounds; that no single life, that no crowd of detached lives, comprises. Yet this higher sort of common personality, if the loyal are right, is as real as we separate creatures are real. It is no abstraction. It lives. It loves, and we love it. We enter into it. It is ours, and we belong to it. It works through us, the fellow servants of the common cause. Yet we get our worth through it,--the goal of our whole moral endeavor. For those who are not merely loyal, but also enlightened, loyalty, never losing the definiteness and the concreteness of its devotion to some near and directly fascinating cause, sees itself to be in actual spiritual unity with the common cause of all the loyal, whoever they are. The great cause for all the loyal is in reality the cause of the spread and the furtherance of the cause of the universal loyalty of all mankind: a cause which nobody can serve except by choosing his own nearer and more appreciated cause--the private cause which is directly his own--his family, his community, his friendship, his calling, and the calling of those who serve with him. Yet such personal service--your special life cause, your task, your vocation--is your way of furthering the ends of universal humanity. And if you are enlightened, you know this fact. Through your loyalty you, then, know yourself to be kin to all the loyal. You hereupon conceive the loyal as one brotherhood, one invisible church for which and in which you live. The spirit dwells in this invisible church,--the holy spirit that wills the unity of all in fidelity and in service. Hidden from you by all the natural estrangements of the present life, this common life of all the loyal, this cause which is the one cause of all the loyal, is that for which you live. In spirit you are really sundered from none of those who themselves live in the spirit. All this, I say, is what it is the faith of all the loyal to regard as the real life in which we live and move and have our being, precisely in so far as men come to understand what loyalty is. Thus, then, in general, to be loyal is to believe that there are real causes. And to be universally loyal is to believe that the one cause of loyalty itself, the invisible church of all the loyal, is a reality; something as real as we are. But causes are never detached human beings; nor are causes ever mere crowds, heaps, collections, aggregations of human beings. Causes are at once personal (if by person you mean the ordinary human individual in his natural character) and _super_-personal. Persons they are, because only where persons are found can causes be defined. Super-personal they are, because no mere individual human creature, and no mere pairs or groups or throngs of human beings, can ever constitute unified causes. You cannot be loyal to a crowd as a crowd. A crowd can shout, as at a game or a political convention. But only some sort of organized unity of social life can either do the work of an unit or hold the effective loyalty of the enlightened worker who does not merely shout with the throng. And so when you are really loyal to your country, your country does not mean to you merely the crowd, the mass of your separate fellow citizens. Still less does it mean the mere organs, or the separate servants of the country,--the custom house, the War Department, the Speaker of the House, or any other office or official. When you sing "My country, 'tis of thee," you do not mean, "My post-office, 'tis of thee," nor yet, "My fellow citizens, 'tis of you, just as the creatures who crowd the street and who overfill the railway cars," that I sing. If the poet continues in his own song to celebrate the land, the "rocks and rills," the "woods and templed hills," he is still speaking only of symbols. What he means is the country as an invisible but, in his opinion, perfectly real spiritual unity. General Nogi, in a recent Japanese publication about Bushido, expressed his own national ideal beautifully in the words: "Here the sovereign and the people are of one family and have together endured the joys and sorrows of thousands of years." It is that sort of being whereof one speaks when one expresses true loyalty to the country. The country is the spiritual entity that is none of us and all of us--none of us because it is our unity; all of us because in it we all find our patriotic unity. Such, then, is the idea that the loyal have of the real nature of the causes which they serve. I repeat, If the loyal are right, then the real world contains other beings than mechanisms and individual human and animal minds. It contains spiritual unities which are as real as we are, but which certainly do not belong to the realm of a mere nature mechanism. Does not all this put the problems of our philosophy of life in a new light? But I have no doubt that you may at once reply: All this speech about causes is after all merely more or less pleasing metaphor. As a fact, human beings are just individual natural creatures. They throng and struggle for existence, and love and hate and enjoy and sorrow and die. These causes are, after all, mere dreams, or at best entities as we have just described. The friends like to talk of being one; but there are always two or more of them, and the unity is a pretty phrase. The country is, in the concrete, the collection of the countrymen, with names, formulas, songs, and so on, attached, by way of poetical license or of convenient abbreviation or of pretty fable. The poet really meant simply that he was fond of the landscape, and was not wholly averse to a good many of his countrymen, and was in any case fond of a good song. Loyalty, like the rest of human life, is an illusion. Nature is real. The unity of the spirit is a fancy. This, I say, may be your objection. But herewith we indeed stand in the presence of a certain very deep philosophical problem concerning the true definition of what we mean by reality. Into this problem I have neither time nor wish to enter just now. But upon one matter I must, nevertheless, stoutly insist. It is a matter so simple, so significant, so neglected, that I at once need and fear to mention it to you,--need to mention it, because it puts our philosophy into a position that quite transforms the significance of that whole modern view of nature upon which I have been dwelling since the outset of this lecture; fear to mention it, because the fact that it is so commonly neglected shows how hard to be understood it has proved. That disheartening view of the foreign and mechanical nature of the real world which our sciences and our industrial arts have impressed upon the minds of so many of us; that contempt for superstition; that denial of the supernatural, which seems to the typical modern man the beginning of wisdom;--to what is all this view of reality due? To the results, and, as I believe, to the really important results, of the modern study of natural science. But what is the study of natural science? Practically considered, viewed as one of the great moral activities of mankind, _the study of science is a very beautiful and humane expression of a certain exalted form of loyalty_. Science is, practically considered, the outcome of the absolutely devoted labors of countless seekers for natural truth. But how do we human beings get at what we call natural truth? By observation--so men say--and by experience. But by whose experience? By the united, by the synthesized, by the revised, corrected, rationally criticized, above all by the common, experience of many individuals. The possibility of science rests upon the fact that human experience may be progressively treated so as to become more and more an unity. The detached individual records the transit of a star, observes a precipitate in a test tube, stains a preparation and examines it under a microscope, collects in the field, takes notes in a hospital--and loyally contributes his little fragment of a report to the ideally unified and constantly growing totality called scientific human experience. In doing this he employs his memory, and so conceives his own personal life as an unity. But equally he aims--and herein consists his scientific loyalty--to bring his personal experience into unity with the whole course of human experience in so far as it bears upon his own science. The collection of mere data is never enough. It is in the unity of their interpretation that the achievements of science lie. This unity is conceived in the form of scientific theories; is verified by the comparative and critical conduct of experiments. But in all such work how manifold are the presuppositions which we make when we attempt such unification! Here is no place to enumerate these presuppositions. Some of them you find discussed in the textbooks of the logic of science. Some of them are instinctive, and almost never get discussed at all. But it is here enough to say that we all presuppose _that human experience has, or can by the loyal efforts of truth seekers be made to possess, a real unity, superior in its nature and significance to any detached observer's experience, more genuinely real than is the mere collection of the experiences of any set of detached observers, however large_. The student of natural science is loyal to the cause of the enlargement of this organized and criticized realm of the common human experience. Unless this unity of human experience is a genuine reality, unless all the workers are living a really common life, unless each man is, potentially at least, in a live spiritual unity with his fellows, science itself is a mere metaphor, its truth is an illusion, its results are myths. For science is conceived as true only by conceiving the experiences of countless observers as the sharing of a common realm of experience. If, as we all believe, the natural sciences do throw a real, if indeed an inadequate, light upon the nature of things, then they do so because no one man's experience is disconnected from the real whole of human experience. They do so because the cause to which the loyal study of science is devoted, the cause of the enlargement of human experience, is a cause that has a supernatural, or, as Professor Münsterberg loves to say, an over-individual, type of reality. Mankind is not a mere collection of detached individuals, or man could possess no knowledge of any unity of scientific truth. If men are really only many, and if they have no such unity of conscious experience as loyalty everywhere presupposes, then the cause of science also is a vain illusion, and we have no unified knowledge of nature, only various private fancies about nature. If we know, however ill, nature's mechanism, we do so because human experience is not merely a collection of detached observations, but forms an actual spiritual unity, whose type is not that of a mechanism, whose connections are ideally significant, whose constitution is essentially that which the ideal of unified truth requires. So, then, I insist, the dilemma is upon our hands. Either the sciences constitute a progressive, if imperfect, insight into real truth--and then the cause of the unity of human experience is a real cause that really can be served exactly as the lover means to be loyal to his friendship and the patriot to his country; and then also human life really possesses such unity as the loyal presuppose--or else none of this is so. But then loyalty and science alike deal with metaphors and with myths. In the first case the spiritual unity of the life that we lead is essentially vindicated. Causes such as the loyal serve are real. The cause of science also is real. But in that case an essentially spiritual realm, that of the rational unity of human experience, is real; and possesses a grade both of reality and of worth which is superior to the grade of reality that the phenomena of nature's mechanism exhibit to us. In the other case the sciences whose results are supposed to be discouraging and unspiritual vanish, with all their facts, into the realm of fable, together with the world that all the loyal, including the faithful followers of the sciences, believe to be real. I have here no time to discuss the paradoxes of a totally skeptical philosophy. It is enough to say that such a total skepticism is, indeed, self-refuting. The only rational view of life depends upon maintaining that what the loyal always regard as a reality, namely, their cause, is, indeed, despite all special illusions of this or of that form of imperfect loyalty, essentially a type of reality which rationally survives all criticisms and underlies all doubts. "They reckon ill who leave me out; When me thy fly, I am the wings." This is what the genuine object of loyalty, the unity of the spiritual life, always says to us when we examine it in the right spirit. But the one source of our deepest insight into this unity of the spirit which underlies all the varieties, and which leads us upward to itself past all the sunderings and doubts of existence, is the loyal spirit itself. Loyalty asserts: "My cause is real. I know that my cause liveth." But the cause, however imperfectly interpreted, is always some sort of unity of the spiritual life in which we learn to share whenever we begin to be loyal. The more we grow in loyalty and in insight into the meaning of our loyalty, the more we learn to think of some vast range of the unity of spiritual life as the reality to which all the other realities accessible to us are in one way or another subordinate, so that they express this unity, and show more or less what it means. I believe that a sound critical philosophy justifies the view that the loyal, precisely in so far as they view their cause as real, as a personal, but also as an over-individual, realm of genuine spiritual life, are comprehending, as far as they go, the deepest nature of things. Religion, in its higher sense, always involves a practical relation to a spiritual world which, in its significance, in its inclusiveness, in its unity, and in its close and comforting touch with our most intense personal concerns, fulfils in a supreme degree the requirements which loyalty makes when it seeks for a worthy cause. One may have a true religion without knowing the reason why it is true. One may also have false religious beliefs. But in any case the affiliation of the spirit of the higher religion with the spirit of loyalty has been manifest, I hope, from the outset of this discussion of loyalty. By religious insight one may very properly mean any significant and true view of an object of religious devotion which can be obtained by any reasonable means. In speaking of loyalty and insight I have also given an indication of that source of religious insight which I believe to be, after all, the surest, the most accessible, the most universal, and, in its deepest essence, the most rational. The problem of the modern philosophy of life is, we have said, the problem of keeping the spirit of religion, without falling a prey to superstition. At the outset of this lecture I told briefly why, in the modern world, we aim to avoid superstition. The true reason for this aim you now see better than at first I could state that reason. We have learned, and wisely learned, that the great cause of the study of nature by scientific methods is one of the principal special causes to which man can be devoted; for nothing serves more than the pursuit of the sciences serves to bind into unity the actual work of human civilization. To this cause of scientific study we have all learned to be, according to our lights, loyal. But the study of science makes us averse to the belief in magic arts, in supernatural interferences, in special providences. The scientific spirit turns from the legends and the superstitions that in the past have sundered men, have inflamed the religious wars, have filled the realm of imagination with good and evil spirits. Turns from these--to what? To a belief in a merely mechanical reality? To a doctrine that the real world is foreign to our ideals? To an assurance that life is vain? No; so to view the mission of the study of science is to view that mission falsely. The one great lesson of the triumph of science is the lesson of the vast significance of loyalty to the cause of science. And this loyalty depends upon acknowledging the reality of a common, a rational, a significant unity of human experience, a genuine cause which men can serve. When the sciences teach us to get rid of superstition, they do this by virtue of a loyalty to the pursuit of truth which is, as a fact, loyalty to the cause of the spiritual unity of mankind: an unity which the students of science conceive in terms of an unity of our human experience of nature, but which, after all, they more or less unconsciously interpret just as all the other loyal souls interpret their causes; namely, as a genuine living reality, a life superior in type to the individual lives which we lead--worthy of devoted service, significant, and not merely an incidental play of a natural mechanism. This unity of human experience reveals to us nature's mechanisms, but is itself no part of the mechanism which it observes. If, now, we do as our general philosophy of loyalty would require: if we take all our loyalties, in whatever forms they may appear, as more or less enlightened but always practical revelations that there is an unity of spiritual life which is above our present natural level, which is worthy of our devotion, which can give sense to life, and which consists of facts that are just as genuinely real as are the facts and the laws of outer nature--well, can we not thus see our way towards a religious insight which is free from superstition, which is indifferent to magic and to miracle, which accepts all the laws of nature just in so far as they are indeed known, but which nevertheless stoutly insists: "This world is no mere mechanism; it is full of a spiritual unity that transcends mere nature?" I believe that we can do this. I believe that what I have merely hinted to you is capable of a much richer development than I have here given to these thoughts. I believe, in brief, that in our loyalties we find our best sources of a genuinely religious insight. Men have often said, "The true source of religious insight is revelation; for these matters are above the powers of human reason." Now, I am not here to discuss or to criticize anybody's type of revelation. But this I know, and this the believers in various supposed revelations have often admitted--that unless the aid of some interior spiritual insight comes to be added to the merely external revelation, one can be left in doubt by all possible signs and wonders whereby the revelation undertakes to give us convincing external evidence. Religious faith, indeed, relates to that which is above us, but it must arise from that which is within us. And any faith which has indeed a worthy religious object is either merely a mystic ecstasy, which must then be judged, if at all, only by its fruits, or else it is a loyalty, which never exists without seeking to bear fruit in works. Now my thesis is that loyalty is essentially adoration with service, and that there is no true adoration without practical loyalty. If I am right, all of the loyal are grasping in their own ways, and according to their lights, some form and degree of religious truth. They have won religious insight; for they view something, at least, of the genuine spiritual world in its real unity, and they devote themselves to that unity, to its enlargement and enrichment. And therefore they approach more and more to the comprehension of that true spiritual life whereof, as I suppose, the real world essentially consists. Therefore I find in the growth of the spirit of loyalty which normally belongs to any loyal life the deepset source of a genuinely significant religious insight which belongs to just that individual in just his stage of development. In brief: Be loyal; grow in loyalty. Therein lies the source of a religious insight free from superstition. Therein also lies the solution of the problems of the philosophy of life. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 77: Commencement address delivered at Simmons College, Boston. Published in "William James and Other Essays," copyright, 1911. Printed here by permission of The Macmillan Company.] POETRY FOR POETRY'S SAKE[78] A.C. BRADLEY The words "Poetry for poetry's sake" recall the famous phrase "Art for Art." It is far from my purpose to examine the possible meanings of that phrase, or all the questions it involves. I propose to state briefly what I understand by "Poetry for poetry's sake," and then, after guarding against one or two misapprehensions of the formula, to consider more fully a single problem connected with it. And I must premise, without attempting to justify them, certain explanations. We are to consider poetry in its essence, and apart from the flaws which in most poems accompany their poetry. We are to include in the idea of poetry the metrical form, and not to regard this as a mere accident or a mere vehicle. And, finally, poetry being poems, we are to think of a poem as it actually exists; and, without aiming here at accuracy, we may say that an actual poem is the succession of experiences--sounds, images, thoughts, emotions--through which we pass when we are reading as poetically as we can. Of course this imaginative experience--if I may use the phrase for brevity--differs with every reader and every time of reading: a poem exists in innumerable degrees. But that insurmountable fact lies in the nature of things and does not concern us now. What then does the formula "Poetry for poetry's sake" tell us about this experience? It says, as I understand it, these things. First, this experience is an end in itself, is worth having on its own account, has an intrinsic value. Next, its _poetic_ value is this intrinsic worth alone. Poetry may have also an ulterior value as a means to culture or religion; because it conveys instruction, or softens the passions, or furthers a good cause; because it brings the poet fame or money or a quiet conscience. So much the better: let it be valued for these reasons too. But its ulterior worth neither is nor can directly determine its poetic worth as a satisfying imaginative experience; and this is to be judged entirely from within. And to these two positions the formula would add, though not of necessity, a third. The consideration of ulterior ends, whether by the poet in the act of composing or by the reader in the act of experiencing, tends to lower poetic value. It does so because it tends to change the nature of poetry by taking it out of its own atmosphere. For its nature is to be not a part, nor yet a copy, of the real world (as we commonly understand that phrase), but to be a world by itself, independent, complete, autonomous; and to possess it fully you must enter that world, conform to its laws, and ignore for the time the beliefs, aims, and particular conditions which belong to you in the other world of reality. Of the more serious misapprehensions to which these statements may give rise I will glance only at one or two. The offensive consequences often drawn from the formula "Art for Art" will be found to attach not to the doctrine that Art is an end in itself, but to the doctrine that Art is the whole or supreme end of human life. And as this latter doctrine, which seems to me absurd, is in any case quite different from the former, its consequences fall outside my subject. The formula "Poetry is an end in itself" has nothing to say on the various questions of moral judgment which arise from the fact that poetry has its place in a many-sided life. For anything it says, the intrinsic value of poetry might be so small, and its ulterior effects so mischievous, that it had better not exist. The formula only tells us that we must not place in antithesis poetry and human good, for poetry is one kind of human good; and that we must not determine the intrinsic value of this kind of good by direct reference to another. If we do, we shall find ourselves maintaining what we did not expect. If poetic value lies in the stimulation of religious feelings, _Lead kindly Light_ is no better poem than many a tasteless version of a Psalm: if in the excitement of patriotism, why is _Scots, wha hae_ superior to _We don't want to fight?_ if in the mitigation of the passions, the Odes of Sappho will win but little praise: if in instruction, Armstrong's _Art of preserving Health_ should win much. Again, our formula may be accused of cutting poetry away from its connection with life. And this accusation raises so huge a problem that I must ask leave to be dogmatic as well as brief. There is plenty of connection between life and poetry, but it is, so to say, a connection underground. The two may be called different forms of the same thing: one of them having (in the usual sense) reality, but seldom fully satisfying imagination; while the other offers something which satisfies imagination but has not full "reality." They are parallel developments which nowhere meet, or, if I may use loosely a word which will be serviceable later, they are analogues. Hence we understand one by help of the other, and even, in a sense, care for one because of the other; but hence also, poetry neither is life, nor, strictly speaking, a copy of it. They differ not only because one has more mass and the other a more perfect shape, but because they have different _kinds_ of existence. The one touches us as beings occupying a given position in space and time, and having feelings, desires, and purposes due to that position: it appeals to imagination, but appeals to much besides. What meets us in poetry has not a position in the same series of time and space, or, if it has or had such a position, it is taken apart from much that belonged to it there; and therefore it makes no direct appeal to those feelings, desires, and purposes, but speaks only to contemplative imagination--imagination the reverse of empty or emotionless, imagination saturated with the results of "real" experience, but still contemplative. Thus, no doubt, one main reason why poetry has poetic value for us is that it presents to us in its own way something which we meet in another form in nature or life; and yet the test of its poetic value for us lies simply in the question whether it satisfies our imagination; the rest of us, our knowledge or conscience, for example, judging it only so far as they appear transmuted in our imagination. So also Shakespeare's knowledge or his moral insight, Milton's greatness of soul, Shelley's "hate of hate" and "love of love", and that desire to help men or make them happier which may have influenced a poet in hours of meditation--all these have, as such, no poetical worth: they have that worth only when, passing through the unity of the poet's being, they reappear as qualities of imagination, and then are indeed mighty powers in the world of poetry. I come to a third misapprehension, and so to my main subject. This formula, it is said, empties poetry of its meaning: it is really a doctrine of form for form's sake. "It is of no consequence what a poet says, so long as he says the thing well. The _what_ is poetically indifferent: it is the _how_ that counts. Matter, subject, content, substance, determines nothing; there is no subject with which poetry may not deal: the form, the treatment, is everything. Nay, more: not only is the matter indifferent, but it is the secret of Art to 'eradicate the matter by means of the form,'"--phrases and statements like these meet us everywhere in current criticism of literature and the other arts. They are the stock-in-trade of writers who understand of them little more than the fact that somehow or other they are not "bourgeois." But we find them also seriously used by writers whom we must respect, whether they are anonymous or not; something like one or another of them might be quoted, for example, from Professor Saintsbury, the late R.A.M. Stevenson, Schiller, Goethe himself; and they are the watchwords of a school in the one country where Aesthetics has flourished. They come, as a rule, from men who either practise one of the arts, or, from study of it, are interested in its methods. The general reader--a being so general that I may say what I will of him--is outraged by them. He feels that he is being robbed of almost all that he cares for in a work of art. "You are asking me," he says, "to look at the Dresden Madonna as if it were a Persian rug. You are telling me that the poetic value of _Hamlet_ lies solely in its style and versification, and that my interest in the man and his fate is only an intellectual or moral interest. You allege that, if I want to enjoy the poetry of _Crossing the Bar_, I must not mind what Tennyson says there, but must consider solely his way of saying it. But in that case I can care no more for a poem than I do for a set of nonsense verses; and I do not believe that the authors of _Hamlet_ and _Crossing the Bar_ regarded their poems thus." These antitheses of subject, matter, substance on the one side, form, treatment, handling on the other, are the field through which I especially want, in this lecture, to indicate a way. It is a field of battle; and the battle is waged for no trivial cause; but the cries of the combatants are terribly ambiguous. Those phrases of the so-called formalist may each mean five or six different things. Taken in one sense they seem to me chiefly true; taken as the general reader not unnaturally takes them, they seem to me false, and mischievous. It would be absurd to pretend that I can end in a few minutes a controversy which concerns the ultimate nature of Art, and leads perhaps to problems not yet soluble; but we can at least draw some plain distinctions which, in this controversy, are too often confused. In the first place, then, let us take "subject" in one particular sense; let us understand by it that which we have in view when, looking at the title of an unread poem, we say that the poet has chosen this or that for his subject. The subject in this sense, so far as I can discover, is generally something real or imaginary, as it exists in the minds of fairly cultivated people. The subject of _Paradise Lost_ would be the story of the Fall as that story exists in the general imagination of a Bible-reading people. The subject of Shelley's stanzas _To a Skylark_ would be the ideas which arise in the mind of an educated person when, without knowing the poem, he hears the word "skylark." If the title of a poem conveys little or nothing to us, the "subject" appears to be either what we should gather by investigating the title in a dictionary or other book of the kind, or else such a brief suggestion as might be offered by a person who had read the poem, and who said, for example, that the subject of _The Ancient Mariner_ was a sailor who killed an albatross and suffered for his deed. Now the subject, in this sense (and I intend to use the word in no other), is not, as such, inside the poem, but outside it. The contents of the stanzas _To a Skylark_ are not the ideas suggested by the word "skylark" to the average man; they belong to Shelley just as much as the language does. The subject, therefore, is not the matter _of_ the poem at all; and its opposite is not the _form_ of the poem, but the whole poem. The subject is one thing; the poem, matter and form alike, another thing. This being so, it is surely obvious that the poetic value cannot lie in that subject, but lies entirely in its opposite, the poem. How can the subject determine the value when on one and the same subject poems may be written of all degrees of merit and demerit; or when a perfect poem may be composed on a subject so slight as a pet sparrow, and, if Macaulay may be trusted, a nearly worthless poem on a subject so stupendous as the omnipresence of the Deity? The "formalist" is here perfectly right. Nor is he insisting on something unimportant. He is fighting against our tendency to take the work of art as a mere copy or reminder of something already in our heads, or at the best as a suggestion of some idea as little removed as possible from the familiar. The sightseer who promenades a picture-gallery, remarking that this portrait is so like his cousin, or that landscape the very image of his birthplace, or who, after satisfying himself that one picture is about Elijah, passes on rejoicing to discover the subject, and nothing but the subject, of the next--what is he but an extreme example of this tendency? Well, but the very same tendency vitiates much of our criticism, much criticism of Shakespeare, for example, which, with all its cleverness and partial truth, still shows that the critic never passed from his own mind into Shakespeare's; and it may be traced even in so fine a critic as Coleridge, as when he dwarfs the sublime struggle of Hamlet into the image of his own unhappy weakness. Hazlitt by no means escaped its influence. Only the third of that great trio, Lamb, appears almost always to have rendered the conception of the composer. Again, it is surely true that we cannot determine beforehand what subjects are fit for Art, or name any subject on which a good poem might not possibly be written. To divide subjects into two groups, the beautiful or elevating, and the ugly or vicious, and to judge poems according as their subjects belong to one of these groups or the other, is to fall into the same pit, to confuse with our pre-conceptions the meaning of the poet. What the thing is in the poem he is to be judged by, not by the thing as it was before he touched it; and how can we venture to say beforehand that he cannot make a true poem out of something which to us was merely alluring or dull or revolting? The question whether, having done so, he ought to publish his poem; whether the thing in the poet's work will not be still confused by the incompetent Puritan or the incompetent sensualist with the thing in _his_ mind, does not touch this point; it is a further question, one of ethics, not of art. No doubt the upholders of "Art for art's sake" will generally be in favour of the courageous course, of refusing to sacrifice the better or stronger part of the public to the weaker or worse; but their maxim in no way binds them to this view. Rossetti suppressed one of the best of his sonnets, a sonnet chosen for admiration by Tennyson, himself extremely sensitive about the moral effect of poetry; suppressed it, I believe, because it was called fleshly. One may regret Rossetti's judgment and at the same time respect his scrupulousness; but in any case he judged in his capacity of citizen, not in his capacity of artist. So far then the "formalist" appears to be right. But he goes too far, I think, if he maintains that the subject is indifferent and that all subjects are the same to poetry. And he does not prove his point by observing that a good poem might be written on a pin's head, and a bad one on the Fall of Man. That truth shows that the subject _settles_ nothing, but not that it counts for nothing. The Fall of Man is really a more favourable subject than a pin's head. The Fall of Man, that is to say, offers opportunities of poetic effects wider in range and more penetrating in appeal. And the fact is that such a subject, as it exists in the general imagination, has some aesthetic value before the poet touches it. It is, as you may choose to call it, an inchoate poem or the débris of a poem. It is not an abstract idea or a bare isolated fact, but an assemblage of figures, scenes, actions, and events, which already appeal to emotional imagination; and it is already in some degree organized and formed. In spite of this a bad poet would make a bad poem on it; but then we should say he was unworthy of the subject. And we should not say this if he wrote a bad poem on a pin's head. Conversely, a good poem on a pin's head would almost certainly transform its subject far more than a good poem on the Fall of Man. It might revolutionize its subject so completely that we should say, "The subject may be a pin's head, but the substance of the poem has very little to do with it." This brings us to another and a different antithesis. Those figures, scenes, events, that form part of the subject called the Fall of Man, are not the substance of Paradise Lost; but in Paradise Lost there are figures, scenes, and events resembling them in some degree. These, with much more of the same kind, may be described as its substance, and may then be contrasted with the measured language of the poem, which will be called its form. Subject is the opposite not of form but of the whole poem. Substance is within the poem, and its opposite, form, is also within the poem. I am not criticizing this antithesis at present, but evidently it is quite different from the other. It is practically the distinction used in the old-fashioned criticism of epic and drama, and it flows down, not unsullied, from Aristotle. Addison, for example, in examining _Paradise Lost_ considers in order the fable, the characters, and the sentiments; these will be the substance: then he considers the language, that is, the style and numbers; this will be the form. In like manner, the substance or meaning of a lyric may be distinguished from the form. Now I believe it will be found that a large part of the controversy we are dealing with arises from a confusion between these two distinctions of substance and form, and of subject and poem. The extreme formalist lays his whole weight on the form because he thinks its opposite is the mere subject. The general reader is angry, but makes the same mistake, and gives to the subject praises that rightly belong to the substance. I will read an example of what I mean. I can only explain the following words of a good critic by supposing that for the moment he has fallen into this confusion: "The mere matter of all poetry--to wit, the appearances of nature and the thoughts and feelings of men--being unalterable, it follows that the difference between poet and poet will depend upon the manner of each in applying language, metre, rhyme, cadence, and what not, to this invariable material." What has become here of the substance of _Paradise Lost_--the story, scenery, characters, sentiments as they are in the poem? They have vanished clean away. Nothing is left but the form on one side, and on the other not even the subject, but a supposed invariable material, the appearances of nature and the thoughts and feelings of men. Is it surprising that the whole value should then be found in the form? So far we have assumed that this antithesis of substance and form is valid, and that it always has one meaning. In reality it has several, but we will leave it in its present shape, and pass to the question of its validity. And this question we are compelled to raise, because we have to deal with the two contentions that the poetic value lies wholly or mainly in the substance, and that it lies wholly or mainly in the form. Now these contentions, whether false or true, may seem at least to be clear; but we shall find, I think, that they are both of them false, or both of them nonsense: false if they concern anything outside the poem, nonsense if they apply to something in it. For what do they evidently imply? They imply that there are in a poem two parts, factors, or components, a substance and a form; and that you can conceive them distinctly and separately, so that when you are speaking of the one you are not speaking of the other. Otherwise how can you ask the question, In which of them does the value lie? But really in a poem, apart from defects, there are no such factors or components; and therefore it is strictly nonsense to ask in which of them the value lies. And on the other hand, if the substance and the form referred to are not in the poem, then both the contentions are false, for its poetic value lies in itself. What I mean is neither new nor mysterious; and it will be clear, I believe, to any one who reads poetry poetically and who closely examines his experience. When you are reading a poem, I would ask--not analysing it, and much less criticizing it, but allowing it, as it proceeds, to make its full impression on you through the exertion of your recreating imagination--do you then apprehend and enjoy as one thing a certain meaning or substance, and as another thing certain articulate sounds, and do you somehow compound these two? Surely you do not, any more than you apprehend apart, when you see some one smile, those lines in the face which express a feeling, and the feeling that the lines express. Just as there the lines and their meaning are to you one thing, not two, so in poetry the meaning and the sounds are one: there is, if I may put it so, a resonant meaning, or a meaning resonance. If you read the line, "The sun is warm, the sky is clear," you do not experience separately the image of a warm sun and clear sky, on the one side, and certain unintelligible rhythmical sounds on the other; nor yet do you experience them together, side by side; but you experience the one _in_ the other. And in like manner when you are really reading _Hamlet_, the action and the characters are not something which you conceive apart from the words; you apprehend them from point to point _in_ the words, and the words as expressions of them. Afterwards, no doubt, when you are out of the poetic experience but remember it, you may by analysis decompose this unity, and attend to a substance more or less isolated, and a form more or less isolated. But these are things in your analytic head, not in the poem, which is _poetic_ experience. And if you want to have the poem again, you cannot find it by adding together these two products of decomposition; you can only find it by passing back into poetic experience. And then what you recover is no aggregate of factors, it is a unity in which you can no more separate a substance and a form than you can separate living blood and the life in the blood. This unity has, if you like, various "aspects" or "sides," but they are not factors or parts; if you try to examine one, you find it is also the other. Call them substance and form if you please, but these are not the reciprocally exclusive substance and form to which the two contentions _must_ refer. They do not "agree," for they are not apart: they are one thing from different points of view, and in that sense identical. And this identity of content and form, you will say, is no accident; it is of the essence of poetry in so far as it is poetry, and of all art in so far as it is art. Just as there is in music not sound on one side and a meaning on the other, but expressive sound, and if you ask what is the meaning you can only answer by pointing to the sounds; just as in painting there is not a meaning _plus_ paint, but a meaning _in_ paint, or significant paint, and no man can really express the meaning in any other way than in paint and in _this_ paint; so in a poem the true content and the true form neither exist nor can be imagined apart. When then you are asked whether the value of a poem lies in a substance got by decomposing the poem, and present, as such, only in reflective analysis, or whether the value lies in a form arrived at and existing in the same way, you will answer, "It lies neither in one, nor in the other, nor in any addition of them, but in the poem, where they are not." We have then, first, an antithesis of subject and poem. This is clear and valid; and the question in which of them does the value lie is intelligible; and its answer is, In the poem. We have next a distinction of substance and form. If the substance means ideas, images, and the like taken alone, and the form means the measured language taken by itself, this is a possible distinction, but it is a distinction of things not in the poem, and the value lies in neither of them. If substance and form mean anything _in_ the poem, then each is involved in the other, and the question in which of them the value lies has no sense. No doubt you may say, speaking loosely, that in this poet or poem the aspect of substance is the more noticeable, and in that the aspect of form; and you may pursue interesting discussions on this basis, though no principle or ultimate question of value is touched by them. And apart from that question, of course, I am not denying the usefulness and necessity of the distinction. We cannot dispense with it. To consider separately the action or the characters of a play, and separately its style or versification, is both legitimate and valuable, so long as we remember what we are doing. But the true critic in speaking of these apart does not really think of them apart; the whole, the poetic experience, of which they are but aspects, is always in his mind; and he is always aiming at a richer, truer, more intense repetition of that experience. On the other hand, when the question of principle, of poetic value, is raised, these aspects _must_ fall apart into components, separately conceivable; and then there arise two heresies, equally false, that the value lies in one of two things, both of which are outside the poem, and therefore where its value cannot lie. On the heresy of the separable substance a few additional words will suffice. This heresy is seldom formulated, but perhaps some unconscious holder of it may object: "Surely the action and the characters of _Hamlet_ are in the play; and surely I can retain these, though I have forgotten all the words. I admit that I do not possess the whole poem, but I possess a part, and the most important part." And I would answer: "If we are not concerned with any question of principle, I accept all that you say except the last words, which do raise such a question. Speaking loosely, I agree that the action and characters, as you perhaps conceive them, together with a great deal more, are in the poem. Even then, however, you must not claim to possess all of this kind that is in the poem; for in forgetting the words you must have lost innumerable details of the action and the characters. And, when the question of value is raised, I must insist that the action and characters, as you conceive them, are not in _Hamlet_ at all. If they are, point them out. You cannot do it. What you find at any moment of that succession of experiences called Hamlet is words. In these words, to speak loosely again, the action and characters (more of them than you can conceive apart) are focussed; but your experience is not a combination of them, as ideas, on the one side, with certain sounds on the other; it is an experience of something in which the two are indissolubly fused. If you deny this, to be sure I can make no answer, or can only answer that I have reason to believe that you cannot read poetically, or else are misinterpreting your experience. But if you do not deny this, then you will admit that the action and characters of the poem, as you separately imagine them, are no part of it, but a product of it in your reflective imagination, a faint analogue of one aspect of it taken in detachment from the whole. Well, I do not dispute, I would even insist, that, in the case of so long a poem as _Hamlet_, it may be necessary from time to time to interrupt the poetic experience, in order to enrich it by forming such a product and dwelling on it. Nor, in a wide sense of 'poetic,' do I question the poetic value of this product, as you think of it apart from the poem. It resembles our recollections of the heroes of history or legend, who move about in our imaginations, 'forms more real than living man,' and are worth much to us though we do not remember anything they said. Our ideas and images of the 'substance' of a poem have this poetic value, and more, if they are at all adequate. But they cannot determine the poetic value of the poem, for (not to speak of the competing claims of the 'form') nothing that is outside the poem can do that, and they, as such, are outside it." Let us turn to the so-called form--style and versification. There is no such thing as mere form in poetry. All form is expression. Style may have indeed a certain aesthetic worth in partial abstraction from the particular matter it conveys, as in a well-built sentence you may take pleasure in the build almost apart from the meaning. Even so style is expressive--presents to sense, for example, the order, ease, and rapidity with which ideas move in the writer's mind--but it is not expressive of the meaning of that particular sentence. And it is possible, interrupting poetic experience, to decompose it and abstract for comparatively separate consideration this nearly formal element of style. But the aesthetic value of style so taken is not considerable; you could not read with pleasure for an hour a composition which had no other merit. And in poetic experience you never apprehend this value by itself; the style is here expressive also of a particular meaning, or rather is one aspect of that unity whose other aspect is meaning. So that what you apprehend may be called indifferently an expressed meaning or a significant form. Perhaps on this point I may in Oxford appeal to authority, that of Matthew Arnold and Walter Pater, the latter at any rate an authority whom the formalist will not despise. What is the gist of Pater's teaching about style, if it is not that in the end the one virtue of style is truth or adequacy; that the word, phrase, sentence, should express perfectly the writer's perception, feeling, image, or thought; so that, as we read a descriptive phrase of Keats's, we exclaim, "That is the thing itself"; so that, to quote Arnold, the words are "symbols equivalent with the thing symbolized," or, in our technical language, a form identical with its content? Hence in true poetry it is, in strictness, impossible to express the meaning in any but its own words, or to change the words without changing the meaning. A translation of such poetry is not really the old meaning in a fresh dress; it is a new product, something like the poem, though, if one chooses to say so, more like it in the aspect of meaning than in the aspect of form. No one who understands poetry, it seems to me, would dispute this, were it not that, falling away from his experience, or misled by theory, he takes the word "meaning" in a sense almost ludicrously inapplicable to poetry. People say, for instance, "steed" and "horse" have the same meaning; and in bad poetry they have, but not in poetry that _is_ poetry. "Bring forth the horse!" The horse was brought: In truth he was a noble steed! says Byron in _Mazeppa_. If the two words mean the same here, transpose them: "Bring forth the steed!" The steed was brought: In truth he was a noble horse! and ask again if they mean the same. Or let me take a line certainly very free from "poetic diction:" To be or not to be, that is the question. You may say that this means the same as "What is just now occupying my attention is the comparative disadvantages of continuing to live or putting an end to myself." And for practical purposes--the purpose, for example, of a coroner--it does. But as the second version altogether misrepresents the speaker at that moment of his existence, while the first does represent him, how can they for any but a practical or logical purpose be said to have the same sense? Hamlet was well able to "unpack his heart with words," but he will not unpack it with our paraphrases. These considerations apply equally to versification. If I take the famous line which describes how the souls of the dead stood waiting by the river, imploring a passage from Charon: Tendebantque manus ripae ulterioris amore, and if I translate it, "and were stretching forth their hands in longing for the further bank," the charm of the original has fled. Why has it fled? Partly (but we have dealt with that) because I have substituted for five words, and those the words of Virgil, twelve words, and those my own. In some measure because I have turned into rhythmless prose a line of verse which, as mere sound, has unusual beauty. But much more because in doing so I have also changed the _meaning_ of Virgil's line. What that meaning is _I_ cannot say: Virgil has said it. But I can see this much, that the translation conveys a far less vivid picture of the outstretched hands and of their remaining outstretched, and a far less poignant sense of the distance of the shore and the longing of the souls. And it does so partly because this picture and this sense are conveyed not only by the obvious meaning of the words, but through the long-drawn sound of "tendebantque," through the time occupied by the five syllables and therefore by the idea of "ulterioris," and through the identity of the long sound "or" in the penultimate syllables of "ulterioris amore"--all this, and much more, apprehended not in this analytical fashion, nor as _added_ to the beauty of mere sound and to the obvious meaning, but in unity with them and so as expressive of the poetic meaning of the whole. It is always so in fine poetry. The value of versification, when it is indissolubly fused with meaning, can hardly be exaggerated. The gift for feeling it, even more perhaps than the gift for feeling the value of style, is the _specific_ gift for poetry, as distinguished from other arts. But versification, taken, as far as possible, all by itself, has a very different worth. Some aesthetic worth it has; how much you may experience by reading poetry in a language of which you do not understand a syllable. The pleasure is quite appreciable, but it is not great; nor in actual poetic experience do you meet with it, as such, at all. For, I repeat, it is not _added_ to the pleasure of the meaning when you read poetry that you do understand: by some mystery the music is then the music _of_ the meaning, and the two are one. However fond of versification you might be, you would tire very soon of reading verses in Chinese; and before long of reading Virgil and Dante if you were ignorant of their languages. But take the music as it is _in_ the poem, and there is a marvellous change. Now It gives a very echo to the seat Where Love is throned; or "carries far into your heart," almost like music itself, the sound Of old, unhappy, far-off things And battles long ago. What then is to be said of the following sentence of the critic quoted before: "But when any one who knows what poetry is reads-- Our noisy years seem moments in the being Of the eternal silence, he sees that, quite independently of the meaning, ... there is one note added to the articulate music of the world--a note that never will leave off resounding till the eternal silence itself gulfs it?" I must think that the writer is deceiving himself. For I could quite understand his enthusiasm, if it were an enthusiasm for the music of the meaning; but as for the music, "quite independently of the meaning," so far as I can hear it thus (and I doubt if any one who knows English can quite do so), I find it gives some pleasure, but only a trifling pleasure. And indeed I venture to doubt whether, considered as mere sound, the words are at all exceptionally beautiful, as Virgil's line certainly is. When poetry answers to its idea and is purely or almost purely poetic, we find the identity of form and content; and the degree of purity attained may be tested by the degree in which we feel it hopeless to convey the effect of a poem or passage in any form but its own. Where the notion of doing so is simply ludicrous, you have quintessential poetry. But a great part even of good poetry, especially in long works, is of a mixed nature; and so we find in it no more than a partial agreement of a form and substance which remain to some extent distinct. This is so in many passages of Shakespeare (the greatest of poets when he chose, but not always a conscientious poet); passages where something was wanted for the sake of the plot, but he did not care about it or was hurried. The conception of the passage is then distinct from the execution, and neither is inspired. This is so also, I think, wherever we can truly speak of merely decorative effect. We seem to perceive that the poet had a truth or fact--philosophical, agricultural, social--distinctly before him, and then, as we say, clothed it in metrical and coloured language. Most argumentative, didactic, or satiric poems are partly of this kind; and in imaginative poems anything which is really a mere "conceit" is mere decoration. We often deceive ourselves in this matter, for what we call decoration has often a new and genuinely poetic content of its own; but wherever there is mere decoration, we judge the poetry to be not wholly poetic. And so when Wordsworth inveighed against poetic diction, though he hurled his darts rather wildly, what he was rightly aiming at was a phraseology, not the living body of a new content, but the mere worn-out body of an old one. In pure poetry it is otherwise. Pure poetry is not the decoration of a preconceived and clearly defined matter: it springs from the creative impulse of a vague imaginative mass pressing for development and definition. If the poet already knew exactly what he meant to say, why should he write the poem? The poem would in fact already be written. For only its completion can reveal, even to him, exactly what he wanted. When he began and while he was at work, he did not possess his meaning; it possessed him. It was not a fully formed soul asking for a body: it was an inchoate soul in the inchoate body of perhaps two or three vague ideas and a few scattered phrases. The growing of this body into its full stature and perfect shape was the same thing as the gradual self-definition of the meaning. And this is the reason why such poems strike us as creations, not manufactures, and have the magical effect which mere decoration cannot produce. This is also the reason why, if we insist on asking for the meaning of such a poem, we can only be answered "It means itself." And so at last I may explain why I have troubled myself: and you with what may seem an arid controversy about mere words. It is not so. These heresies which would make poetry a compound of two factors--a matter common to it with the merest prose, _plus_ a poetic form, as the one heresy says: a poetical substance _plus_ a negligible form, as the other says--are not only untrue, they are injurious to the dignity of poetry. In an age already inclined to shrink from those higher realms where poetry touches religion and philosophy, the formalist heresy encourages men to taste poetry as they would a fine wine, which has indeed an aesthetic value, but a small one. And then the natural man, finding an empty form, hurls into it the matter of cheap pathos, rancid sentiment, vulgar humour, bare lust, ravenous vanity--everything which, in Schiller's phrase, the form should extirpate, but which no mere form can extirpate. And the other heresy--which is indeed rather a practice than a creed--encourages us in the habit so dear to us of putting our own thoughts or fancies into the place of the poet's creation. What he meant by _Hamlet_, or the _Ode to a Nightingale_, or _Abt Vogler_, we say, is this or that which we knew already; and so we lose what he had to tell us. But he meant what he said, and said what he meant. Poetry in this matter is not, as good critics of painting and music often affirm, different from the other arts; in all of them the content is one thing with the form. What Beethoven meant by his symphony, or Turner by his picture, was not something which you can name, but the picture and the symphony. Meaning they have, but _what_ meaning can be said in no language but their own: and we know this, though some strange delusion makes us think the meaning has less worth because we cannot put it into words. Well, it is just the same with poetry. But because poetry is words, we vainly fancy that some other words than its own will express its meaning. And they will do so no more--or, if you like to speak loosely, only a little more--than words will express the meaning of the Dresden Madonna. Something a little like it they may indeed express. And we may find analogues of the meaning of poetry outside it, which may help us to appropriate it. The other arts, the best ideas of philosophy or religion, much that nature and life offer us or force upon us, are akin to it. But they are only akin. Nor is it the expression of them. Poetry does not present to imagination our highest knowledge or belief, and much less our dreams and opinions; but it, content and form in unity, embodies in its own irreplaceable way something which embodies itself also in other irreplaceable ways, such as philosophy or religion. And just as each of these gives a satisfaction which the other cannot possibly give, so we find in poetry, which cannot satisfy the needs they meet, that which by their natures they cannot afford us. But we shall not find it fully if we look for something else. And now, when all is said, the question will still recur, though now in quite another sense, What does poetry mean? This unique expression, which cannot be replaced by any other, still seems to be trying to express something beyond itself. And this, we feel, is also what the other arts, and religion, and philosophy are trying to express: and that is what impels us to seek in vain to translate the one into the other. About the best poetry, and not only the best, there floats an atmosphere of infinite suggestion. The poet speaks to us of one thing, but in this one thing there seems to lurk the secret of all. He said what he meant, but his meaning seems to beckon away beyond itself, or rather to expand into something boundless, which is only focussed in it; something also which, we feel, would satisfy not only the imagination, but the whole of us; that something within us, and without, which everywhere makes us seem To patch up fragments of a dream, Part of which comes true, and part Beats and trembles in the heart. Those who are susceptible to this effect of poetry find it not only, perhaps not most, in the ideals which she has sometimes described, but in a child's song by Christina Rossetti about a mere crown of wind-flowers, and in tragedies like _Lear_, where the sun seems to have set for ever. They hear this spirit murmuring its undertone through the _Aeneid_, and catch its voice in the song of Keats's nightingale, and its light upon the figures on the Urn, and it pierces them no less in Shelley's hopeless lament, _O world, O life, O time_, than in the rapturous ecstasy of his _Life of Life_. This all-embracing perfection cannot be expressed in poetic words or words of any kind, nor yet in music or in colour, but the suggestion of it is in much poetry, if not all, and poetry has in this suggestion, this "meaning," a great part of its value. We do it wrong, and we defeat our own purposes when we try to bend it to them: We do it wrong, being so majestical, To offer it the show of violence; For it is as the air invulnerable, And our vain blows malicious mockery. It is a spirit. It comes we know not whence. It will not speak at our bidding, nor answer in our language. It is not our servant; it is our master. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 78: From "Oxford Lectures on Poetry," 1909. Printed by courtesy of The Macmillan Company.] GREEK TRAGEDY[79] G. LOWES DICKINSON The character of Greek tragedy was determined from the very beginning by the fact of its connection with religion. The season at which it was performed was the festival of Dionysus; about his altar the chorus danced; and the object of the performance was the representation of scenes out of the lives of ancient heroes. The subject of the drama was thus strictly prescribed; it must be selected out of a cycle of legends familiar to the audience; and whatever freedom might be allowed to the poet in his treatment of the theme, whatever the reflections he might embroider upon it, the speculative or ethical views, the criticism of contemporary life, all must be subservient to the main object originally proposed, the setting forth, for edification as well as for delight, of some episodes in the lives of those heroes of the past who were considered not only to be greater than their descendants, but to be the sons of gods and worthy themselves of worship as divine. By this fundamental condition the tragedy of the Greeks is distinguished sharply, on the one hand from the Shakespearian drama, on the other from the classical drama of the French. The tragedies of Shakespeare are devoid, one might say, or at least comparatively devoid, of all preconceptions. He was free to choose what subject he liked and to treat it as he would; and no sense of obligation to religious or other points of view, no feeling for traditions descended from a sacred past and not lightly to be handled by those who were their trustees for the future, sobered or restrained for evil or for good his half-barbaric genius. He flung himself upon life with the irresponsible ardour of the discoverer of a new continent; shaped and re-shaped it as he chose; carved from it now the cynicism of _Measure for Measure_, now the despair of _Hamlet_ and of _Lear_, now the radiant magnanimity of _The Tempest_, and departed leaving behind him not a map or chart, but a series of mutually incompatible landscapes. What Shakespeare gave, in short, was a many-sided representation of life; what the Greek dramatist gave was an interpretation. But an interpretation not simply personal to himself, but representative of the national tradition and belief. The men whose deeds and passions he narrated were the patterns and examples on the one hand, on the other the warnings of his race; the gods who determined the fortunes they sang, were working still among men; the moral laws that ruled the past ruled the present too; and the history of the Hellenic race moved, under a visible providence, from its divine origin onward to an end that would be prosperous or the reverse according as later generations should continue to observe the worship and traditions of their fathers descended from heroes and gods. And it is the fact that in this sense it was representative of the national consciousness, that distinguishes the Greek tragedy from the classical drama of the French. For the latter, though it imitated the ancients in outward form, was inspired with a totally different spirit. The kings and heroes whose fortunes it narrated were not the ancestors of the French race; they had no root in its affections, no connection with its religious beliefs, no relation to its ethical conceptions. The whole ideal set forth was not that which really inspired the nation, but at best that which was supposed to inspire the court; and the whole drama, like a tree transplanted to an alien soil, withers and dies for lack of the nourishment which the tragedy of the Greeks unconsciously imbibed from its encompassing air of national tradition. Such then was the general character of the Greek tragedy--an interpretation of the national ideal. Let us now proceed to follow out some of the consequences involved in this conception. In the first place, the theme represented is the life and fate of ancient heroes--of personages, that is to say, greater than ordinary men, both for good and for evil, in their qualities and in their achievements, pregnant with fateful issues, makers or marrers of the fortunes of the world. Tragic and terrible their destiny may be, but never contemptible or squalid. Behind all suffering, behind sin and crime, must lie redeeming magnanimity. A complete villain, says Aristotle, is not a tragic character, for he has no hold upon the sympathies; if he prosper, it is an outrage on common human feeling; if he fall into disaster, it is merely what he deserves. Neither is it admissible to represent the misfortunes of a thoroughly good man, for that is merely painful and distressing; and least of all is it tolerable gratuitously to introduce mere baseness, or madness, or other aberrations from human nature. The true tragic hero is a man of high place and birth who having a nature not ignoble has fallen into sin and pays in suffering the penalty of his act. Nothing could throw more light on the distinguishing characteristics of the Greek drama than these few remarks of Aristotle, and nothing could better indicate how close, in the Greek mind, was the connection between aesthetic and ethical judgments. The canon of Aristotle would exclude as proper themes for tragedy the character and fate, say, of Richard III--the absolutely bad man suffering his appropriate desert; or of Kent and Cordelia--the absolutely good, brought into unmerited affliction; and that not merely because such themes offend the moral sense, but because by so offending they destroy the proper pleasure of the tragic art. The whole aesthetic effect is limited by ethical presuppositions; and to outrage these is to defeat the very purpose of tragedy. Specially interesting in this connection are the strictures passed on Euripides in the passage of the _Frogs_ of Aristophanes to which allusion has already been made. Euripides is there accused of lowering the tragic art by introducing--what? Women in love! The central theme of modern tragedy! It is the boast of Aeschylus that there is not one of his plays which touches on this subject: "I never allow'd of your lewd Sthenoboeas Or filthy detestable Phaedras--not I! Indeed I should doubt if my drama throughout Exhibit an instance of woman in love!"[80] And there can be little doubt that with a Greek audience this would count to him as a merit, and that the shifting of the centre of interest by Euripides from the sterner passions of heroes and of kings to this tenderer phase of human feeling would be felt even by those whom it charmed to be a declension from the height of the older tragedy. And to this limitation of subject corresponds a limitation of treatment. The Greek tragedy is composed from a definite point of view, with the aim not merely to represent but also to interpret the theme. Underlying the whole construction of the plot, the dialogue, the reflections, the lyric interludes, is the intention to illustrate some general moral law, some common and typical problem, some fundamental truth. Of the elder dramatists at any rate, Aeschylus and Sophocles, one may even say that it was their purpose--however imperfectly achieved--to "justify the ways of God to man." To represent suffering as the punishment of sin is the constant bent of Aeschylus; to justify the law of God against the presumption of man is the central idea of Sophocles. In either case the whole tone is essentially religious. To choose such a theme as Lear, to treat it as Shakespeare has treated it, to leave it, as it were, bleeding from a thousand wounds, in mute and helpless entreaty for the healing that is never to be vouchsafed--this would have been repulsive, if not impossible, to a Greek tragedian. Without ever descending from concrete art to the abstractions of mere moralising, without ever attempting to substitute a verbal formula for the full and complex perception that grows out of a representation of life, the ancient dramatists were nevertheless, in the whole apprehension of their theme, determined by a more or less conscious speculative bias; the world to them was not merely a splendid chaos, it was a divine plan; and even in its darkest hollows, its passes most perilous and bleak, they have their hand, though doubtful perhaps and faltering, upon the clue that is to lead them up to the open sky. It is consonant with this account of the nature of Greek tragedy that it should have laid more stress upon action than upon character. The interest was centred on the universal bearing of certain acts and situations, on the light which the experience represented threw on the whole tendency and course of human life, not on the sentiments and motives of the particular personages introduced. The characters are broad and simple, not developing for the most part, but fixed, and fitted therefore to be the mediums of direct action, of simple issues, and typical situations. In the Greek tragedy the general point of view predominates over the idiosyncrasies of particular persons. It is human nature that is represented in the broad, not this or that highly specialised variation; and what we have indicated as the general aim, the interpretation of life, is never obscured by the predominance of exceptional and so to speak, accidental characteristics. Man is the subject of the Greek drama; the subject of the modern novel is Tom and Dick. Finally, to the realisation of this general aim, the whole form of the Greek drama was admirably adapted. It consisted very largely of conversations between two persons, representing two opposed points of view, and giving occasion for an almost scientific discussion of every problem of action raised in the play; and between these conversations were inserted lyric odes in which the chorus commented on the situation, bestowed advice or warning, praise or blame, and finally summed up the moral of the whole. Through the chorus, in fact, the poet could speak in his own person, and impose upon the whole tragedy any tone which he desired. Periodically he could drop the dramatist and assume the preacher; and thus ensure that his play should be, what we have seen was its recognised ideal, not merely a representation but an interpretation of life. But this without ceasing to be a work of art. In attempting to analyse in abstract terms the general character of the Greek tragedy we have necessarily thrown into the shade what after all was its primary and most essential aspect; an aspect, however, of which a full appreciation could only be attained not by a mere perusal of the test, but by what is unfortunately for ever beyond our power, the witnessing of an actual representation as it was given on the Greek stage. For from a purely aesthetic point of view the Greek drama must be reckoned among the most perfect of art forms. Taking place in the open air, on the sunny slope of a hill, valley and plain or islanded sea stretching away below to meet the blazing blue of a cloudless sky, the moving pageant, thus from the first set in tune with nature, brought to a focus of splendour the rays of every separate art. More akin to an opera than to a play it had, as its basis, music. For the drama had developed out of the lyric ode, and retained throughout what was at first its only element, the dance and song of a mimetic chorus. By this centre of rhythmic motion and pregnant melody the burden of the tale was caught up and echoed and echoed again, as the living globe divided into spheres of answering song, the clear and precise significance of the plot, never obscure to the head, being thus brought home in music to the passion of the heart, the idea embodied in lyric verse, the verse transfigured by song, and song and verse reflected as in a mirror to the eye by the swing and beat of the limbs they stirred to consonance of motion. And while such was the character of the odes that broke the action of the play, the action itself was an appeal not less to the ear and to the eye than to the passion and the intellect. The circumstances of the representation, the huge auditorium in the open air, lent themselves less to "acting" in our sense of the term, than to attitude and declamation. The actors raised on high boots above their natural height, their faces hidden in masks and their tones mechanically magnified, must have relied for their effects not upon facial play, or rapid and subtle variations of voice and gesture, but upon a certain statuesque beauty of pose, and a chanting intonation of that majestic iambic verse whose measure would have been obscured by a rapid and conversational delivery. The representation would thus become moving sculpture to the eye, and to the ear, as it were, a sleep of music between the intenser interludes of the chorus; and the spectator without being drawn away by an imitative realism from the calm of impassioned contemplation into the fever and fret of a veritable actor on the scene, received an impression based throughout on that clear intellectual foundation, that almost prosaic lucidity of sentiment and plot, which is preserved to us in the written text, but raised by the accompanying appeal to the sense, made as it must have been made by such artists as the Greeks, by the grouping of forms and colours, the recitative, the dance and the song, to such a greatness and height of aesthetic significance as can hardly have been realised by any other form of art production. The nearest modern analogy to what the ancient drama must have been is to be found probably in the operas of Wagner, who indeed was strongly influenced by the tragedy of the Greeks. It was his ideal like theirs, to combine the various branches of art, employing not only music but poetry, sculpture, painting and the dance, for the representation of his dramatic theme; and his conception also to make art the interpreter of life, reflecting in a national drama the national consciousness, the highest action and the deepest passion and thought of the German race. To consider how far in this attempt he falls short of or goes beyond the achievement of the Greeks, and to examine the wide dissimilarities that underlie the general identity of aim, would be to wander too far afield from our present theme. But the comparison may be recommended to those who are anxious to form a concrete idea of what the effect of a Greek tragedy may have been, and to clothe in imagination the dead bones of the literary text with the flesh and blood of a representation to the sense. Meantime, to assist the reader to realise with somewhat greater precision the bearing of the foregoing remarks, it may be worth while to give an outline sketch of one of the most celebrated of the Greek tragedies, the _Agamemnon_ of Aeschylus. The hero of the drama belongs to that heroic house whose tragic history was among the most terrible and the most familiar to a Greek audience. Tantalus, the founder of the family, for some offence against the gods, was suffering in Hades the punishment which is christened by his name. His son Pelops was stained with the blood of Myrtilus. Of the two sons of the next generation, Thyestes seduced the wife of his brother Atreus; and Atreus in return killed the sons of Thyestes, and made the father unwittingly eat the flesh of the murdered boys. Agamemnon, son of Atreus, to propitiate Artemis, sacrificed his daughter Iphigenia, and in revenge was murdered by Clytemnestra his wife. And Clytemnestra was killed by Orestes, her son, in atonement for the death of Agamemnon. For generations the race had been dogged by crime and punishment; and in choosing for his theme the murder of Agamemnon the dramatist could assume in his audience so close a familiarity with the past history of the House that he could call into existence by an allusive word that sombre background of woe to enhance the terrors of his actual presentation. The figures he brought into vivid relief joined hands with menacing forms that faded away into the night of the future and the past; while above them hung, intoning doom, the phantom host of Furies. Yet at the outset of the drama all promises well. The watchman on the roof of the palace, in the tenth year of his watch, catches sight at last of the signal fire that announces the capture of Troy and the speedy return of Agamemnon. With joy he proclaims to the House the long-delayed and welcome news; yet even in the moment of exultation lets slip a doubtful phrase hinting at something behind, which he dares not name, something which may turn to despair the triumph of victory. Hereupon enter the chorus of Argive elders, chanting as they move to the measure of a stately march. They sing how ten years before Agamemnon and Menelaus had led forth the host of Greece, at the bidding of the Zeus who protects hospitality, to recover for Menelaus Helen his wife, treacherously stolen by Paris. Then, as they take their places and begin their rhythmic dance, in a strain of impassioned verse that is at once a narrative and a lyric hymn, they tell, or rather present in a series of vivid images, flashing as by illumination of lightning out of a night of veiled and sombre boding, the tale of the deed that darkened the starting of the host--the sacrifice of Iphigenia to the goddess whose wrath was delaying the fleet at Aulis. In verse, in music, in pantomime, the scene lives again--the struggle in the father's heart, the insistence of his brother chiefs, the piteous glance of the girl, and at last the unutterable end; while above and through it all rings like a knell of fate the refrain that is the motive of the whole drama: "Sing woe, sing woe, but may the Good prevail." At the conclusion of the ode enters Clytemnestra. She makes a formal announcement to the chorus of the fall of Troy; describes the course of the signal-fire from beacon to beacon as it sped, and pictures in imagination the scenes even then taking place in the doomed city. On her withdrawal the chorus break once more into song and dance. To the music of a solemn hymn they point the moral of the fall of Troy, the certain doom of violence and fraud descended upon Paris and his House. Once more the vivid pictures flash from the night of woe--Helen in her fatal beauty stepping lightly to her doom, the widower's nights of mourning haunted by the ghost of love, the horrors of the war that followed, the slain abroad and the mourners at home, the change of living flesh and blood for the dust and ashes of the tomb. At last with a return to their original theme, the doom of insolence, the chorus close their ode and announce the arrival of a messenger from Troy. Talthybius, the herald, enters as spokesman of the army and king, describing the hardships they have suffered and the joy of the triumphant issue. To him Clytemnestra announces, in words of which the irony is patent to the audience, her sufferings in the absence of her husband and her delight at the prospect of his return. He will find her, she says, as he left her, a faithful watcher of the home, her loyalty sure, her honour undefiled. Then follows another choral ode, similar in theme to the last, dwelling on the woe brought by the act of Paris upon Troy, the change of the bridal song to the trump of war and the dirge of death; contrasting, in a profusion of splendid tropes, the beauty of Helen with the curse to which it is bound; and insisting once more on the doom that attends insolence and pride. At the conclusion of this song the measure changes to a march, and the chorus turn to welcome the triumphant king. Agamemnon enters, and behind him the veiled and silent figure of a woman. After greeting the gods of his House, the King, in brief and stilted phrase, acknowledges the loyalty of the chorus, but hints at much that is amiss which it must be his first charge to set right. Hereupon enters Clytemnestra, and in a speech of rhetorical exaggeration tells of her anxious waiting for her lord and her inexpressible joy at his return. In conclusion she directs that purple cloth be spread upon his path that he may enter the house as befits a conqueror. After a show of resistance, Agamemnon yields the point, and the contrast at which the dramatist aims is achieved. With the pomp of an eastern monarch, always repellent to the Greek mind, the King steps across the threshold, steps, as the audience knows, to his death. The higher the reach of his power and pride the more terrible and swift is the nemesis; and Clytemnestra follows in triumph with the enigmatic cry upon her lips: "Zeus who art god of fulfilment, fulfil my prayers." As she withdraws the chorus begin a song of boding fear, the more terrible that it is still indefinite. Something is going to happen--the presentiment is sure. But what, but what? They search the night in vain. Meantime, motionless and silent waits the figure of the veiled woman. It is Cassandra, the prophetess, daughter of Priam of Troy, whom Agamemnon has carried home as his prize. Clytemnestra returns to urge her to enter the house; she makes no sign and utters no word. The queen changes her tone from courtesy to anger and rebuke; the figure neither stirs nor speaks; and Clytemnestra at last with an angry threat leaves her and returns to the palace. Then, and not till then, a cry breaks from the stranger's lips, a passionate cry to Apollo who gave her her fatal gift. All the sombre history of the House to which she has been brought, the woe that has been and the woe that is to come, passes in pictures across her inner sense. In a series of broken ejaculations, not sentences but lyric cries, she evokes the scenes of the past and of the future. Blood drips from the palace; in its chambers the Furies crouch; the murdered sons of Thyestes wail in its haunted courts; and ever among the visions of the past that one of the future floats and fades, clearly discerned, impossible to avert, the murder of a husband by a wife; and in the rear of that, most pitiful of all, the violent death of the seer who sees in vain and may not help. Between Cassandra and the Chorus it is a duet of anguish and fear; in the broken lyric phrases a phantom music wails; till at last, at what seems the breaking-point, the tension is relaxed, and dropping into the calmer iambic recitative, Cassandra tells her message in plainer speech and clearly proclaims the murder of the King. Then, with a last appeal to the avenger that is to come, she enters the palace alone to meet her death.--The stage is empty. Suddenly a cry is heard from within; again, and then again; while the chorus hesitate the deed is done; the doors are thrown open, and Clytemnestra is seen standing over the corpses of her victims. All disguise is now thrown off; the murderess avows and triumphs in her deed; she justifies it as vengeance for the sacrifice of Iphigenia, and sees in herself not a free human agent but the incarnate curse of the House of Tantalus. And now for the first time appears the adulterer Aegisthus, who has planned the whole behind the scenes. He too is an avenger, for he is the son of that Thyestes who was made to feed on his own children's flesh. The murder of Agamemnon is but one more link in the long chain of hereditary guilt; and with that exposition of the pitiless law of punishment and crime this chapter of the great drama comes to a close. But the _Agamemnon_ is only the first of a series of three plays closely connected and meant to be performed in succession; and the problem raised in the first of them, the crime that cries for punishment and the punishment that is itself a new crime, is solved in the last by a reconciliation of the powers of heaven and hell, and the pardon of the last offender in the person of Orestes. To sketch, however, the plan of the other dramas of the trilogy would be to trespass too far upon our space and time. It is enough to have illustrated, by the example of the _Agamemnon_, the general character of a Greek tragedy; and those who care to pursue the subject further must be referred to the text of the plays themselves. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 79: From "The Greek View of Life," 1909 (sixth edition). By permission of Messrs. Doubleday, Page & Co.] [Footnote 80: From Aristophanes' "Frogs," l. 1043. Translated by Frere.] SHAKESPEARE[81] THOMAS CARLYLE As Dante, the Italian man, was sent into our world to embody musically the Religion of the Middle Ages, the Religion of our Modern Europe, its Inner Life; so Shakespeare, we may say, embodies for us the Outer Life of our Europe as developed then, its chivalries, courtesies, humours, ambitions, what practical way of thinking, acting, looking at the world, men then had. As in Homer we may still construe Old Greece; so in Shakespeare and Dante, after thousands of years, what our modern Europe was, in Faith and in Practice, will still be legible. Dante has given us the Faith or soul; Shakespeare, in a not less noble way, has given us the Practice or body. This latter also we were to have; a man was sent for it, the man Shakespeare. Just when that chivalry way of life had reached its last finish, and was on the point of breaking down into slow or swift dissolution, as we now see it everywhere, this other sovereign Poet, with his seeing eye, with his perennial singing voice, was sent to take note of it, to give long-enduring record of it. Two fit men: Dante, deep, fierce as the central fire of the world; Shakespeare, wide, placid, far-seeing, as the Sun, the upper light of the world. Italy produced the one world-voice; we English had the honour of producing the other. Curious enough how, as it were by mere accident, this man came to us. I think always, so great, quiet, complete and self-sufficing is this Shakespeare, had the Warwickshire Squire not prosecuted him for deer-stealing, we had perhaps never heard of him as a Poet! The woods and skies, the rustic Life of Man in Stratford there, had been enough for this man! But indeed that strange outbudding of our whole English Existence, which we call the Elizabethan Era, did not it too come as of its own accord? The "Tree Igdrasil" buds and withers by its own laws,--too deep for our scanning. Yet it does bud and wither, and every bough and leaf of it is there, by fixed eternal laws; not a Sir Thomas Lucy but comes at the hour fit for him. Curious, I say, and not sufficiently considered: how everything does co-operate with all; not a leaf rotting on the highway but is indissoluble portion of solar and stellar systems; no thought, word or act of man but has sprung withal out of all men, and works sooner or later, recognisably or irrecognisably, on all men! It is all a Tree: circulation of sap and influences, mutual communication of every minutest leaf with the lowest talon of a root, with every other greatest and minutest portion of the whole. The Tree Igdrasil, that has its roots down in the Kingdoms of Hela and Death, and whose boughs overspread the highest Heaven! In some sense it may be said that this glorious Elizabethan Era with its Shakespeare, as the outcome and flowerage of all which had preceded it, is itself attributable to the Catholicism of the Middle Ages. The Christian Faith, which was the theme of Dante's Song, had produced this Practical Life which Shakespeare was to sing. For Religion then, as it now and always is, was the soul of Practice; the primary vital fact in men's life. And remark here, as rather curious, that Middle-Age Catholicism was abolished, so far as Acts of Parliament could abolish it, before Shakespeare, the noblest product of it, made his appearance. He did make his appearance nevertheless. Nature at her own time, with Catholicism or what else might be necessary, sent him forth; taking small thought of Acts of Parliament. King-Henrys, Queen-Elizabeths go their way; and Nature too goes hers. Acts of Parliament, on the whole, are small, notwithstanding the noise they make. What Act of Parliament, debate at St. Stephen's,[82] on the hustings or elsewhere, was it that brought this Shakespeare into being? No dining at Freemasons' Tavern, opening subscription-lists, selling of shares, and infinite other jangling and true or false endeavouring! This Elizabethan Era, and all its nobleness and blessedness, came without proclamation, preparation of ours. Priceless Shakespeare was the free gift of Nature; given altogether silently; received altogether silently, as if it had been a thing of little account. And yet, very literally, it is a priceless thing. One should look at that side of matters too. Of this Shakespeare of ours, perhaps the opinion one sometimes hears a little idolatrously expressed is, in fact, the right one; I think the best judgment not of this country only: but of Europe at large, is slowly pointing to the conclusion, That Shakespeare is the chief of all Poets hitherto; the greatest intellect who, in our recorded world, has left record of himself in the way of Literature. On the whole, I know not such a power of vision, such a faculty of thought, if we take all the characters of it, in any other man. Such a calmness of depth; placid joyous strength; all things imaged in that great soul of his so true and clear, as in a tranquil unfathomable sea! It has been said, that in the constructing of Shakespeare's Dramas there is, apart from all other "faculties" as they are called, an understanding manifested, equal to that in Bacon's _Novum Organum_. That is true; and it is not a truth that strikes every one. It would become more apparent if we tried, any of us for himself, how, out of Shakespeare's dramatic materials, _we_ could fashion such a result! The built house seems all so fit,--everyway as it should be, as if it came there by its own law and the nature of things,--we forget the rude disorderly quarry it was shaped from. The very perfection of the house, as if Nature herself had made it, hides the builder's merit. Perfect, more perfect than any other man, we may call Shakespeare in this: he discerns, knows as by instinct, what condition he works under, what his materials are, what his own force and its relation to them is. It is not a transitory glance of insight that will suffice; it is deliberate illumination of the whole matter; it is a calmly _seeing_ eye; a great intellect, in short. How a man, of some wide thing that he has witnessed, will construct a narrative, what kind of picture and delineation he will give of it--is the best measure you could get of what intellect is in the man. Which circumstance is vital and shall stand prominent; which unessential, fit to be suppressed; where is the true _beginning_, the true sequence and ending? To find out this, you task the whole force of insight that is in the man. He must _understand_ the thing; according to the depth of his understanding, will the fitness of his answer be. You will try him so. Does like join itself to like; does the spirit of method stir in that confusion, so that its embroilment becomes order? Can the man say, _Fiat lux_, Let there be light; and out of chaos make a world? Precisely as there is _light_ in himself, will he accomplish this. Or indeed we may say again, it is in what I called Portrait-painting, delineating of men and things, especially of men, that Shakespeare is great. All the greatness of the man comes out decisively here. It is unexampled, I think, that calm creative perspicacity of Shakespeare. The thing he looks at reveals not this or that face of it, but its inmost heart, and generic secret: it dissolves itself as in light before him, so that he discerns the perfect structure of it. Creative, we said: poetic creation, what is this too but _seeing_ the thing sufficiently? The _word_ that will describe the thing, follows of itself from such clear intense sight of the thing. And is not Shakespeare's _morality_, his valour, candour, tolerance, truthfulness; his whole victorious strength and greatness, which can triumph over such obstructions, visible there too? Great as the world! No _twisted_, poor convex-concave mirror, reflecting all objects with its own convexities and concavities; a perfectly _level_ mirror--that is to say withal, if we will understand it, a man justly related to all things and men, a good man. It is truly a lordly spectacle how this great soul takes-in all kinds of men and objects, a Falstaff, an Othello, a Juliet, a Coriolanus; sets them all forth to us in their round completeness; loving, just, the equal brother of all. _Novum Organum_, and all the intellect you will find in Bacon, is of a quite secondary order; earthy, material, poor in comparison with this. Among modern men, one finds, in strictness, almost nothing of the same rank. Goethe alone, since the days of Shakespeare, reminds me of it. Of him too you say that he _saw_ the object; you may say what he himself says of Shakespeare: "His characters are like watches with dial-plates of transparent crystal; they show you the hour like others, and the inward mechanism also is all visible." The seeing eye! It is this that discloses the inner harmony of things; what Nature meant, what musical idea Nature has wrapped-up in these often rough embodiments. Something she did mean. To the seeing eye that something were discernible. Are they base, miserable things? You can laugh over them, you can weep over them; you can in some way or other genially relate yourself to them--you can, at lowest, hold your peace about them, turn away your own and others' face from them, till the hour come for practically exterminating and extinguishing them! At bottom, it is the Poet's first gift, as it is all men's, that he have intellect enough. He will be a Poet if he have: a Poet in word; or failing that, perhaps still better, a Poet in act. Whether he write at all, and if so, whether in prose or in verse, will depend on accidents: who knows on what extremely trivial accidents,--perhaps on his having had a singing-master, on his being taught to sing in his boyhood! But the faculty which enables him to discern the inner heart of things, and the harmony that dwells there (for whatsoever exists has a harmony in the heart of it, or it would not hold together and exist), is not the result of habits or accidents, but the gift of Nature herself; the primary outfit for a Heroic Man in what sort soever. To the Poet, as to every other, we say first of all _See_. If you cannot do that, it is of no use to keep stringing rhymes together, jingling sensibilities against each other, and _name_ yourself a Poet; there is no hope for you. If you can, there is, in prose or verse, in action or speculation, all manner of hope. The crabbed old Schoolmaster used to ask, when they brought him a new pupil, "But are ye sure he's _not a dunce_?" Why, really one might ask the same thing, in regard to every man proposed for whatsoever function; and consider it as the one inquiry needful: Are ye sure he's not a dunce? There is, in this world, no other entirely fatal person. For, in fact, I say the degree of vision that dwells in a man is a correct measure of the man. If called to define Shakespeare's faculty, I should say superiority of Intellect, and think I had included all under that. What indeed are faculties? We talk of faculties as if they were distinct, things separable; as if a man had intellect, imagination, fancy, etc., as he has hands, feet and arms. That is a capital error. Then again, we hear of a man's "intellectual nature," and of his "moral nature," as if these again were divisible, and existed apart. Necessities of language do perhaps prescribe such forms of utterance; we must speak, I am aware, in that way, if we are to speak at all. But words ought not to harden into things for us. It seems to me, our apprehension of this matter is, for most part, radically falsified thereby. We ought to know withal, and to keep forever in mind, that these divisions are at bottom but _names_; that man's spiritual nature, the vital Force which dwells in him, is essentially one and indivisible; that what we call imagination, fancy, understanding, and so forth, are but different figures of the same Power of Insight, all indissolubly connected with each other, physiognomically related; that if we knew one of them, we might know all of them. Morality itself, what we call the moral quality of a man, what is this but another _side_ of the one vital Force whereby he is and works? All that a man does is physiognomical of him. You may see how a man would fight, by the way in which he sings; his courage, or want of courage, is visible in the word he utters, in the opinion he has formed, no less than in the stroke he strikes. He is _one_; and preaches the same Self abroad in all these ways. Without hands a man might have feet, and could still walk: but, consider it--without morality, intellect were impossible for him; a thoroughly immoral _man_ could not know anything at all! To know a thing, what we can call knowing, a man must first _love_ the thing, sympathise with it: that is, be _virtuously_ related to it. If he have not the justice to put down his own selfishness at every turn, the courage to stand by the dangerous true at every turn, how shall he know? His virtues, all of them, will lie recorded in his knowledge. Nature, with her truth, remains to the bad, to the selfish and the pusillanimous forever a sealed book: what such can know of Nature is mean, superficial, small; for the uses of the day merely. But does not the very Fox know something of Nature? Exactly so: it knows where the geese lodge! The human Reynard, very frequent everywhere in the world, what more does he know but this and the like of this? Nay, it should be considered too, that if the Fox had not a certain vulpine _morality_, he could not even know where the geese were, or get at the geese! If he spent his time in splenetic atrabiliar reflections on his own misery, his ill usage by Nature, Fortune and other Foxes, and so forth; and had not courage, promptitude, practicality, and other suitable vulpine gifts and graces, he would catch no geese. We may say of the Fox too, that his morality and insight are of the same dimensions; different faces of the same internal unity of vulpine life! These things are worth stating; for the contrary of them acts with manifold very baleful perversion, in this time: what limitations, modifications they require, your own candour will supply. If I say, therefore, that Shakespeare is the greatest of Intellects, I have said all concerning him. But there is more in Shakespeare's intellect than we have yet seen. It is what I call an unconscious intellect; there is more virtue in it than he himself is aware of. Novalis beautifully remarks of him, that those Dramas of his are Products of Nature too, deep as Nature herself. I find a great truth in this saying. Shakespeare's Art is not Artifice; the noblest worth of it is not there by plan or precontrivance. It grows-up from the deeps of Nature, through this noble sincere soul, who is a voice of Nature. The latest generations of men will find new meanings in Shakespeare, new elucidations of their own human being; "new harmonies with the infinite structure of the Universe; concurrences with later ideas, affinities with the higher powers and senses of man." This well deserves meditating. It is Nature's highest reward to a true simple great soul, that he get thus to be _a part of herself_. Such a man's works, whatsoever he with utmost conscious exertion and forethought shall accomplish, grow up withal _un_consciously, from the unknown deeps in him;--as the oak-tree grows from the Earth's bosom, as the mountains and waters shape themselves; with a symmetry grounded on Nature's own laws, conformable to all Truth whatsoever. How much in Shakespeare lies hid; his sorrows, his silent struggles known to himself; much that was not known at all, not speakable at all: like _roots_, like sap and forces working underground! Speech is great; but Silence is greater. Withal the joyful tranquillity of this man is notable. I will not blame Dante for his misery: it is as battle without victory; but true battle,--the first, indispensable thing. Yet I call Shakespeare greater than Dante, in that he fought truly, and did conquer. Doubt it not, he had his own sorrows: those _Sonnets_ of his will even testify expressly in what deep waters he had waded, and swum struggling for his life--as what man like him ever failed to have to do? It seems to me a heedless notion, our common one, that he sat like a bird on the bough; and sang forth, free and offhand, never knowing the troubles of other men. Not so; with no man is it so. How could a man travel forward from rustic deer-poaching to such tragedy-writing, and not fall-in with sorrows by the way? Or, still better, how could a man delineate a Hamlet, a Coriolanus, a Macbeth, so many suffering heroic hearts, if his own heroic heart had never suffered?--And now, in contrast with all this, observe his mirthfulness, his genuine overflowing love of laughter! You would say, in no point does he _exaggerate_ but only in laughter. Fiery objurgations, words that pierce and burn, are to be found in Shakespeare; yet he is always in measure here; never what Johnson would remark as a specially "good hater." But his laughter seems to pour from him in floods; he heaps all manner of ridiculous nicknames on the butt he is bantering, tumbles and tosses him in all sorts of horse-play; you would say, with his whole heart laughs. And then, if not always the finest, it is always a genial laughter. Not at mere weakness, at misery or poverty; never. No man who _can_ laugh, what we call laughing, will laugh at these things. It is some poor character only _desiring_ to laugh, and have the credit of wit, that does so. Laughter means sympathy; good laughter is not "the crackling of thorns under the pot." Even at stupidity and pretension this Shakespeare does not laugh otherwise than genially. Dogberry and Verges tickle our very hearts; and we dismiss them covered with explosions of laughter: but we like the poor fellows only the better for our laughing; and hope they will get on well there, and continue Presidents of the City-watch. Such laughter, like sunshine on the deep sea, is very beautiful to me. We have no room to speak of Shakespeare's individual works; though perhaps there is much still waiting to be said on that head. Had we, for instance, all his plays reviewed as _Hamlet_, in _Wilhelm Meister_, is! A thing which might, one day, be done. August Wilhelm Schlegel has a remark on his Historical Plays, _Henry Fifth_ and the others, which is worth remembering. He calls them a kind of National Epic. Marlborough, you recollect, said, he knew no English History but what he had learned from Shakespeare. There are really, if we look to it, few as memorable Histories. The great salient points are admirably seized; all rounds itself off, into a kind of rhythmic coherence; it is, as Schlegel says, _epic_;--as indeed all delineation by a great thinker will be. There are right beautiful things in those Pieces, which indeed together form one beautiful thing. That battle of Agincourt strikes me as one of the most perfect things, in its sort, we anywhere have of Shakespeare's. The description of the two hosts: the wornout, jaded English; the dread hour, big with destiny, when the battle shall begin; and then that deathless valour: "Ye good yeomen, whose limbs were made in England!" There is a noble Patriotism in it--far other than the "indifference" you sometimes hear ascribed to Shakespeare. A true English heart breathes, calm and strong, through the whole business; not boisterous, protrusive; all the better for that. There is a sound in it like the ring of steel. This man too had a right stroke in him, had it come to that! But I will say, of Shakespeare's works generally, that we have no full impress of him there; even as full as we have of many men. His works are so many windows, through which we see a glimpse of the world that was in him. All his works seem, comparatively speaking, cursory, imperfect, written under cramping circumstances; giving only here and there a note of the full utterance of the man. Passages there are that come upon you like splendour out of Heaven; bursts of radiance, illuminating the very heart of the thing: you say, "That is _true_, spoken once and forever; wheresoever and whensoever there is an open human soul, that will be recognised as true!" Such bursts, however, make us feel that the surrounding matter is not radiant; that it is in part, temporary, conventional. Alas, Shakespeare had to write for the Globe Playhouse: his great soul had to crush itself, as it could, into that and no other mould. It was with him, then, as it is with us all. No man works save under conditions. The sculptor, cannot set his own free Thought before us; but his Thought as he could translate it into the stone that was given, with the tools that were given. _Disjecta membra_[83] are all that we find of any Poet, or of any man. Whoever looks intelligently at this Shakespeare may recognise that he too was a _Prophet_, in his way; of an insight analogous to the Prophetic, though he took it up in another strain. Nature seemed to this man also divine; _un_speakable, deep as Tophet, high as Heaven: "We are such stuff as Dreams are made of!" That scroll in Westminster Abbey,[84] which few read with understanding, is of the depth of any seer. But the man sang; did not preach, except musically. We called Dante the melodious Priest of Middle-Age Catholicism. May we not call Shakespeare the still more melodious Priest of a _true_ Catholicism, the "Universal Church" of the Future and of all times? No narrow superstition, harsh asceticism, intolerance, fanatical fierceness or perversion: a Revelation, so far as it goes, that such a thousandfold hidden beauty and divineness dwells in all Nature; which let all men worship as they can! We may say without offence, that there rises a kind of universal Psalm out of this Shakespeare too; not unfit to make itself heard among the still more sacred Psalms. Not in disharmony with these, if we understood them, but in harmony!--I cannot call this Shakespeare a "Sceptic," as some do; his indifference to the creeds and theological quarrels of his time misleading them. No: neither unpatriotic, though he says little about his Patriotism; nor sceptic, though he says little about his Faith. Such "indifference" was the fruit of his greatness withal: his whole heart was in his own grand sphere of worship (we may call it such); these other controversies, vitally important to other men, were not vital to him. But call it worship, call it what you will, is it not a right glorious thing, and set of things, this that Shakespeare has brought us? For myself, I feel that there is actually a kind of sacredness in the fact of such a man being sent into this Earth. Is he not an eye to us all; a blessed heaven-sent Bringer of Light?--and, at bottom, was it not perhaps far better that this Shakespeare, everyway an unconscious man, was _conscious_ of no Heavenly message? He did not feel, like Mahomet, because he saw into those internal Splendours, that he specially was the "Prophet of God:" and was he not greater than Mahomet in that? Greater; and also, if we compute strictly, as we did in Dante's case, more successful. It was intrinsically an error that notion of Mahomet's, of his supreme Prophethood; and has come down to us inextricably involved in error to this day; dragging along with it such a coil of fables, impurities, intolerances, as makes it a questionable step for me here and now to say, as I have done, that Mahomet was a true Speaker at all, and not rather an ambitious charlatan, perversity and simulacrum; no Speaker, but a Babbler! Even in Arabia, as I compute, Mahomet will have exhausted himself and become obsolete, while this Shakespeare, this Dante may still be young;--while this Shakespeare may still pretend to be a Priest of Mankind, of Arabia as of other places, for unlimited periods to come! Compared with any speaker or singer one knows, even with Aeschylus or Homer, why should he not, for veracity and universality, last like them? He is _sincere_ as they; reaches deep down like them, to the universal and perennial. But as for Mahomet, I think it had been better for him _not_ to be so conscious! Alas, poor Mahomet; all that he was _conscious_ of was a mere error; a futility and triviality--as indeed such ever is. The truly great in him too was the unconscious: that he was a wild Arab lion of the desert, and did speak-out with that great thunder-voice of his, not by words which he _thought_ to be great, but by actions, by feelings, by a history which _were_ great! His Koran has become a stupid piece of prolix absurdity; we do not believe, like him that God wrote that! The Great Man here too, as always' is a Force of Nature: whatsoever is truly great in him springs-up from the _in_articulate deeps. Well: this is our poor Warwickshire Peasant, who rose to be Manager of a Playhouse, so that he could live without begging; whom the Earl of Southampton cast some kind glances on; whom Sir Thomas Lucy, many thanks to him, was for sending to the Treadmill! We did not account him a god, like Odin, while he dwelt with us;--on which point there were much to be said. But I will say rather, or repeat: In spite of the sad state Hero-worship now lies in, consider what this Shakespeare has actually become among us. Which Englishman we ever made, in this land of ours, which million of Englishmen, would we not give-up rather than the Stratford Peasant? There is no regiment of highest Dignitaries that we would sell him for. He is the grandest thing we have yet done. For our honour among foreign nations, as an ornament to our English Household, what item is there that we would not surrender rather than him? Consider now, if they asked us, Will you give-up your Indian Empire or your Shakespeare, you English; never have had any Indian Empire, or never have had any Shakespeare? Really it were a grave question. Official persons would answer doubtless in official language; but we, for our part too, should not we be forced to answer: Indian Empire, or no Indian Empire; we cannot do without Shakespeare! Indian Empire will go, at any rate, some day; but this Shakespeare does not go, he lasts forever with us; we cannot give-up our Shakespeare! Nay, apart from spiritualities; and considering him merely as a real, marketable, tangibly-useful possession. England, before long, this Island of ours, will hold but a small fraction of the English: in America, in New Holland,[85] east and west to the very Antipodes, there will be a Saxondom covering great spaces of the Globe. And now, what is it that can keep all these together into virtually one Nation, so that they do not fall-out and fight, but live at peace, in brotherlike intercourse, helping one another? This is justly regarded as the greatest practical problem, the thing all manner of sovereignties and governments are here to accomplish: what is it that will accomplish this? Acts of Parliament, administrative prime-ministers cannot. America is parted from us, so far as Parliament could part it. Call it not fantastic, for there is much reality in it: Here, I say, is an English King, whom no time or chance, Parliament or combination of Parliaments, can dethrone! This King Shakespeare, does not he shine, in crowned sovereignty, over us all, as the noblest, gentlest, yet strongest of rallying-signs; _in_destructible; really more valuable in that point of view than any other means or appliance whatsoever? We can fancy him as radiant aloft over all the Nations of Englishmen, a thousand years hence. From Paramatta, from New York, wheresoever, under what sort of Parish-Constable soever, English men and women are, they will say to one another: "Yes, this Shakespeare is ours; we produced him, we speak and think by him; we are of one blood and kind with him." The most common-sense politician, too, if he pleases, may think of that. Yes, truly, it is a great thing for a Nation that it get an articulate voice; that it produce a man who will speak-forth melodiously what the heart of it means! Italy, for example, poor Italy lies dismembered, scattered asunder, not appearing in any protocol or treaty as a unity at all; yet the noble Italy is actually _one_: Italy produced its Dante; Italy can speak! The Czar of all the Russias, he is strong, with so many bayonets, Cossacks and cannons; and does a great feat in keeping such a tract of Earth politically together; but he cannot yet speak. Something great in him, but it is a dumb greatness. He has had no voice of genius, to be heard of all men and times. He must learn to speak. He is a great dumb monster hitherto. His cannons and Cossacks will all have rusted into nonentity, while that Dante's voice is still audible. The Nation that has a Dante is bound together as no dumb Russia can be. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 81: From Lecture III, "The Hero as Poet," in "Heroes and Hero-Worship," 1841.] [Footnote 82: St. Stephen's: House of Commons.] [Footnote 83: Scattered pieces.] [Footnote 84: The passage in Shakespeare's "Tempest" from which the words quoted in the preceding sentence are taken, is inscribed on the scroll in the hand of Shakespeare's statue in Westminster Abbey.] [Footnote 85: New Holland: Australia.] CHARLES LAMB[86] WALTER PATER Those English critics who at the beginning of the present century introduced from Germany, together with some other subtleties of thought transplanted hither not without advantage, the distinction between the _Fancy_ and the _Imagination_, made much also of the cognate distinction between _Wit_ and _Humour_, between that unreal and transitory mirth, which is as the crackling of thorns under the pot, and the laughter which blends with tears and even with the sublimities of the imagination, and which, in its most exquisite motives, is one with pity--the laughter of the comedies of Shakespeare, hardly less expressive than his moods of seriousness or solemnity, of that deeply stirred soul of sympathy in him, as flowing from which both tears and laughter are alike genuine and contagious. This distinction between wit and humour, Coleridge and other kindred critics applied, with much effect, in their studies of some of our older English writers. And as the distinction between imagination and fancy, made popular by Wordsworth, found its best justification in certain essential differences of stuff in Wordsworth's own writings, so this other critical distinction, between wit and humour, finds a sort of visible interpretation and instance in the character and writings of Charles Lamb;--one who lived more consistently than most writers among subtle literary theories, and whose remains are still full of curious interest for the student of literature as a fine art. The author of the _English Humourists of the Eighteenth Century,_ coming to the humourists of the nineteenth, would have found, as is true pre-eminently of Thackeray himself, the springs of pity in them deepened by the deeper subjectivity, the intenser and closer living with itself, which is characteristic of the temper of the later generation; and therewith, the mirth also, from the amalgam of which with pity humour proceeds, has become, in Charles Dickens, for example, freer and more boisterous. To this more high-pitched feeling, since predominant in our literature, the writings of Charles Lamb, whose life occupies the last quarter of the eighteenth century and the first quarter of the nineteenth, are a transition; and such union of grave, of terrible even, with gay, we may note in the circumstances of his life, as reflected thence into his work. We catch the aroma of a singular, homely sweetness about his first years, spent on Thames' side, amid the red bricks and terraced gardens, with their rich historical memories of old-fashioned legal London. Just above the poorer class, deprived, as he says, of the "sweet food of academic institution," he is fortunate enough to be reared in the classical languages at an ancient school, where he becomes the companion of Coleridge, as at a later period he was his enthusiastic disciple. So far, the years go by with less than the usual share of boyish difficulties; protected, one fancies, seeing what he was afterwards, by some attraction of temper in the quaint child, small and delicate, with a certain Jewish expression in his clear, brown complexion, eyes not precisely of the same colour, and a slow walk adding to the staidness of his figure; and whose infirmity of speech, increased by agitation, is partly engaging. And the cheerfulness of all this, of the mere aspect of Lamb's quiet subsequent life also, might make the more superficial reader think of him as in himself something slight, and of his mirth as cheaply bought. Yet we know that beneath this blithe surface there was something of the fateful domestic horror, of the beautiful heroism and devotedness too, of old Greek tragedy. His sister Mary, ten years his senior, in a sudden paroxysm of madness, caused the death of her mother, and was brought to trial for what an overstrained justice might have construed as the greatest of crimes. She was released on the brother's pledging himself to watch over her; and to this sister, from the age of twenty-one, Charles Lamb sacrificed himself, "seeking thenceforth," says his earliest biographer, "no connection which could interfere with her supremacy in his affections, or impair his ability to sustain and comfort her." The "feverish, romantic tie of love" he cast away in exchange for the "charities of home." Only, from time to time, the madness returned, affecting him too, once; and we see the brother and sister voluntarily yielding to restraint. In estimating the humour of _Elia_, we must no more forget the strong undercurrent of this great misfortune and pity, than one could forget it in his actual story. So he becomes the best critic, almost the discoverer, of Webster, a dramatist of genius so sombre, so heavily coloured, so _macabre._[87] _Rosamund Grey_ written in his twenty-third year, a story with something bitter and exaggerated, an almost insane fixedness of gloom perceptible in it, strikes clearly this note in his work. For himself, and from his own point of view, the exercise of his gift, of his literary art, came to gild or sweeten a life of monotonous labour, and seemed, as far as regarded others, no very important thing; availing to give them a little pleasure, and inform them a little, chiefly in a retrospective manner, but in no way concerned with the turning of the tides of the great world. And yet this very modesty, this unambitious way of conceiving his work, has impressed upon it a certain exceptional enduringness. For of the remarkable English writers contemporary with Lamb, many were greatly preoccupied with ideas of practice--religious, moral, political--ideas which have since, in some sense or other, entered permanently into the general consciousness; and, these having no longer any stimulus for a generation provided with a different stock of ideas, the writings of those who spent so much of themselves in their propagation have lost, with posterity, something of what they gained by them in immediate influence. Coleridge, Wordsworth, Shelley even--sharing so largely in the unrest of their own age, and made personally more interesting thereby, yet, of their actual work, surrender more to the mere course of time than some of those who may have seemed to exercise themselves hardly at all in great matters, to have been little serious, or a little indifferent, regarding them. Of this number of the disinterested servants of literature, smaller in England than in France, Charles Lamb is one. In the making of prose he realises the principle of art for its own sake, as completely as Keats in the making of verse. And, working ever close to the concrete, to the details, great or small, of actual things, books, persons, and with no part of them blurred to his vision by the intervention of mere abstract theories, he has reached an enduring moral effect also, in a sort of boundless sympathy. Unoccupied, as he might seem, with great matters, he is in immediate contact with what is real, especially in its caressing littleness, that littleness in which there is much of the whole woeful heart of things, and meets it more than half-way with a perfect understanding of it. What sudden, unexpected touches of pathos in him!--bearing witness how the sorrow of humanity, the _Weltschmerz_, the constant aching of its wounds, is ever present with him: but what a gift also for the enjoyment of life in its subtleties, of enjoyment actually refined by the need of some thoughtful economies and making the most of things! Little arts of happiness he is ready to teach to others. The quaint remarks of children which another would scarcely have heard, he preserves--little flies in the priceless amber of his Attic wit--and has his "Praise of chimney-sweepers" (as William Blake has written, with so much natural pathos, the Chimney-sweeper's Song), valuing carefully their white teeth, and fine enjoyment of white sheets in stolen sleep at Arundel Castle, as he tells the story, anticipating something of the mood of our deep humourists of the last generation. His simple mother-pity for those who suffer by accident, or unkindness of nature, blindness for instance, or fateful disease of mind like his sister's, has something primitive in its largeness; and on behalf of ill-used animals he is early in composing a _Pity's Gift._ And if, in deeper or more superficial sense, the dead _do_ care at all for their name and fame, then how must the souls of Shakespeare and Webster have been stirred, after so long converse with things that stopped their ears, whether above or below the soil, at his exquisite appreciations of them; the souls of Titian and of Hogarth too; for, what has not been observed so generally as the excellence of his literary criticism, Charles Lamb is a fine critic of painting also. It was as loyal, self-forgetful work for others, for Shakespeare's self first, for instance, and then for Shakespeare's readers, that that too was done: he has the true scholar's way of forgetting himself in his subject. For though "defrauded," as we saw, in his young years, "of the sweet food of academic institution," he is yet essentially a scholar, and all his work mainly retrospective, as I said; his own sorrows, affections, perceptions, being alone real to him of the present. "I cannot make these present times," he says once, "present to _me_." Above all, he becomes not merely an expositor, permanently valuable, but for Englishmen almost the discoverer of the old English drama. "The book is such as I am glad there should be," he modestly says of the _Specimens of English Dramatic Poets who lived about the time of Shakespeare_; to which, however, he adds in a series of notes the very quintessence of criticism, the choicest savour and perfume of Elizabethan poetry being sorted, and stored here, with a sort of delicate intellectual epicureanism, which has had the effect of winning for these, then almost forgotten, poets, one generation after another of enthusiastic students. Could he but have known how fresh a source of culture he was evoking there for other generations, through all those years in which, a little wistfully, he would harp on the limitation of his time by business, and sigh for a better fortune in regard to literary opportunities! To feel strongly the charm of an old poet or moralist, the literary charm of Burton, for instance, or Quarles, or The Duchess of Newcastle; and then to interpret that charm, to convey it to others--he seeming to himself but to hand on to others, in mere humble ministration, that of which for them he is really the creator--this is the way of his criticism; cast off in a stray letter often, or passing note, or lightest essay or conversation. It is in such a letter, for instance, that we come upon a singularly penetrative estimate of the genius and writings of Defoe. Tracking, with an attention always alert, the whole process of their production to its starting-point in the deep places of the mind, he seems to realise the but half-conscious intuitions of Hogarth or Shakespeare, and develops the great ruling unities which have swayed their actual work; or "puts up," and takes, the one morsel of good stuff in an old, forgotten writer. Even in what he says casually there comes an aroma of old English; noticeable echoes, in chance turn and phrase, of the great masters of style, the old masters. Godwin, seeing in quotation a passage from _John Woodvil_, takes it for a choice fragment of an old dramatist, and goes to Lamb to assist him in finding the author. His power of delicate imitation in prose and verse reaches the length of a fine mimicry even, as in those last essays of Elia on Popular Fallacies, with their gentle reproduction or caricature of Sir Thomas Browne, showing, the more completely, his mastery, by disinterested study, of those elements of the man which were the real source of style in that great, solemn master of old English, who, ready to say what he has to say with fearless homeliness, yet continually overawes one with touches of a strange utterance from worlds afar. For it is with the delicacies of fine literature especially, its gradations of expression, its fine judgment, its pure sense of words, of vocabulary--things, alas! dying out in the English literature of the present, together with the appreciation of them in our literature of the past--that his literary mission is chiefly concerned. And yet, delicate, refining, daintily epicurean, as he may seem, when he writes of giants such as Hogarth or Shakespeare, though often but in a stray note, you catch the sense of veneration with which those great names in past literature and art brooded over his intelligence, his undiminished impressibility by the great effects in them. Reading, commenting on Shakespeare, he is like a man who walks alone under a grand stormy sky, and among unwonted tricks of light, when powerful spirits might seem to be abroad upon the air; and the grim humour of Hogarth, as he analyses it, rises into a kind of spectral grotesque; while he too knows the secret of fine, significant touches like theirs. There are traits, customs, characteristics of houses and dress, surviving morsels of old life, such as Hogarth has transferred so vividly into _The Rake's Progress_, or _Marriage a la Mode_, concerning which we well understand how, common, uninteresting, or even worthless in themselves, they have come to please us at last as things picturesque, being set in relief against the modes of our different age. Customs, stiff to us, stiff dresses, stiff furniture--types of cast-off fashions, left by accident, and which no one ever meant to preserve--we contemplate with more than good-nature, as having in them the veritable accent of a time, not altogether to be replaced by its more solemn and self-conscious deposits; like those tricks of individuality which we find quite tolerable in persons, because they convey to us the secret of lifelike expression, and with regard to which we are all to some extent humourists. But it is part of the privilege of the genuine humourists to anticipate this pensive mood with regard to the ways and things of his own day; to look upon the tricks in manner of the life about him with that same refined, purged sort of vision, which will come naturally to those of a later generation, in observing whatever may have survived by chance of its mere external habit. Seeing things always by the light of an understanding more entire than is possible for ordinary minds, of the whole mechanism of humanity, and seeing also the manner, the outward mode or fashion, always in strict connection with the spiritual condition which determined it, a humourist such as Charles Lamb anticipates the enchantment of distance; and the characteristics of places, ranks, habits of life, are transfigured for him, even now and in advance of time, by poetic light; justifying what some might condemn as mere sentimentality, in the effort to hand on unbroken the tradition of such fashion or accent. "The praise of beggars," "the cries of London," the traits of actors just grown "old," the spots in "town" where the country, its fresh green and fresh water, still lingered on, one after another, amidst the bustle; the quaint, dimmed, just played-out farces, he had relished so much, coming partly through them to understand the earlier English theatre as a thing once really alive; those fountains and sundials of old gardens, of which he entertains such dainty discourse:--he feels the poetry of these things, as the poetry of things old indeed, but surviving as an actual part of the life of the present, and as something quite different from the poetry of things flatly gone from us and antique, which come back to us, if at all, as entire strangers, like Scott's old Scotch-border personages, their oaths and armour. Such gift of appreciation depends, as I said, on the habitual apprehension of men's life as a whole--its organic wholeness, as extending even to the least things in it--of its outward manner in connection with its inward temper; and it involves a fine perception of the congruities, the musical accordance between humanity and its environment of custom, society, personal intercourse; as if all this, with its meetings, partings, ceremonies, gesture, tones of speech, were some delicate instrument on which an expert performer is playing. These are some of the characteristics of Elia, one essentially an essayist, and of the true family of Montaigne, "never judging," as he says, "system-wise of things, but fastening on particulars;" saying all things as it were on chance occasion only, and by way of pastime, yet succeeding thus, "glimpse-wise," in catching and recording more frequently than others "the gayest, happiest attitude of things;" a casual writer for dreamy readers, yet always giving the reader so much more than he seemed to propose. There is something of the follower of George Fox about him, and the Quaker's belief in the inward light coming to one passive, to the mere wayfarer, who will be sure at all events to lose no light which falls by the way--glimpses, suggestions, delightful half-apprehensions, profound thoughts of old philosophers, hints of the innermost reason in things, the full knowledge of which is held in reserve; all the varied stuff, that is, of which genuine essays are made. And with him, as with Montaigne, the desire of self-portraiture is, below all more superficial tendencies, the real motive in writing at all--a desire closely connected with that intimacy, that modern subjectivity, which may be called the _Montaignesque_ element in literature. What he designs is to give you himself, to acquaint you with his likeness; but must do this, if at all, indirectly, being indeed always more or less reserved, for himself and his friends; friendship counting for so much in his life, that he is jealous of anything that might jar or disturb it, even to the length of a sort of insincerity, to which he assigns its quaint "praise;" this lover of stage plays significantly welcoming a little touch of the artificiality of play to sweeten the intercourse of actual life. And, in effect, a very delicate and expressive portrait of him does put itself together for the duly meditative reader. In indirect touches of his own work, scraps of faded old letters, what others remembered of his talk, the man's likeness emerges; what he laughed and wept at, his sudden elevations, and longings after absent friends, his fine casuistries of affection and devices to jog sometimes, as he says, the lazy happiness of perfect love, his solemn moments of higher discourse with the young, as they came across him on occasion, and went along a little way with him, the sudden surprised apprehension of beauties in old literature, revealing anew the deep soul of poetry in things, and withal the pure spirit of fun, having its way again; laughter, that most short-lived of all things (some of Shakespeare's even being grown hollow) wearing well with him. Much of all this comes out through his letters, which may be regarded as a department of his essays. He is an old-fashioned letter-writer, the essence of the old fashion of letter-writing lying, as with true essay-writing, in the dexterous availing oneself of accident and circumstance, in the prosecution of deeper lines of observation; although, just as with the record of his conversation, one loses something, in losing the actual tones of the stammerer, still graceful in his halting, as he halted also in composition, composing slowly and by fits, "like a Flemish painter," as he tells us, so "it is to be regretted," says the editor of his letters, "that in the printed letters the reader will lose the curious varieties of writing with which the originals abound, and which are scrupulously adapted to the subject." Also, he was a true "collector," delighting in the personal finding of a thing, in the colour an old book or print gets for him by the little accidents which attest previous ownership. Wither's _Emblems_, "that old book and quaint," long-desired, when he finds it at last, he values none the less because a child had coloured the plates with his paints. A lover of household warmth everywhere, of that tempered atmosphere which our various habitations get by men's living within them, he "sticks to his favourite books as he did to his friends," and loved the "town," with a jealous eye for all its characteristics, "old houses" coming to have souls for him. The yearning for mere warmth against him in another, makes him content, all through life, with pure brotherliness, "the most kindly and natural species of love," as he says, in place of the _passion_ of love. Brother and sister, sitting thus side by side, have, of course, their anticipations how one of them must sit at last in the faint sun alone, and set us speculating, as we read, as to precisely what amount of melancholy really accompanied for him the approach of old age, so steadily foreseen; make us note also with pleasure, his successive wakings up to cheerful realities, out of a too curious musing over what is gone and what remains, of life. In his subtle capacity for enjoying the more refined points of earth, of human relationship, he could throw the gleam of poetry or humour on what seemed common or threadbare; has a care for the sighs, and the weary, humdrum preoccupations of very weak people, down to their little pathetic "gentilities," even; while, in the purely human temper, he can write of death, almost like Shakespeare. And that care, through all his enthusiasm of discovery, for what is accustomed, in literature, connected thus with his close clinging to home and the earth, was congruous also with that love for the accustomed in religion, which we may notice in him. He is one of the last votaries of that old-world sentiment, based on the feelings of hope and awe, which may be described as the religion of men of letters (as Sir Thomas Browne has his _Religion of the Physician_), religion as understood by the soberer men of letters in the last century, Addison, Gray, and Johnson; by Jane Austen and Thackeray, later. A high way of feeling developed largely by constant intercourse with the great things of literature, and extended in its turn to those matters greater still, this religion lives, in the main retrospectively, in a system of received sentiments and beliefs; received, like those great things of literature and art, in the first instance, on the authority of a long tradition, in the course of which they have linked themselves in a thousand complex ways to the conditions of human life, and no more questioned now than the feeling one keeps by one of the greatness--say! of Shakespeare. For Charles Lamb, such form of religion becomes the solemn background on which the nearer and more exciting objects of his immediate experience relieve themselves, borrowing from it an expression of calm; its necessary atmosphere being indeed a profound quiet, that quiet which has in it a kind of sacramental efficacy, working, we might say, on the principle of the _opus operatum,_[88] almost without any co-operation of one's own, towards the assertion of the higher self. And, in truth, to men of Lamb's delicately attuned temperament mere physical stillness has its full value; such natures seeming to long for it sometimes, as for no merely negative thing, with a sort of mystical sensuality. The writings of Charles Lamb are an excellent illustration of the value of reserve in literature. Below his quiet, his quaintness, his humour, and what may seem the slightness, the occasional or accidental character of his work, there lies, as I said at starting, as in his life, a genuinely tragic element. The gloom, reflected at its darkest in those hard shadows of _Rosamund Grey_, is always there, though not always realised either for himself or his readers, and restrained always in utterance. It gives to those lighter matters on the surface of life and literature among which he for the most part moved, a wonderful force of expression, as if at any moment these slight words and fancies might pierce very far into the deeper soul of things. In his writing, as in his life, that quiet is not the low-flying of one from the first drowsy by choice, and needing the prick of some strong passion or worldly ambition, to stimulate him into all the energy of which he is capable; but rather the reaction of nature, after an escape from fate, dark and insane as in old Greek tragedy, following upon which the sense of mere relief becomes a kind of passion, as with one who, having narrowly escaped earthquake or shipwreck, finds a thing for grateful tears in just sitting quiet at home, under the wall, till the end of days. He felt the genius of places; and I sometimes think he resembles the places he knew and liked best, and where his lot fell--London, sixty-five years ago, with Covent Garden and the old theatres, and the Temple gardens still unspoiled, Thames gliding down, and beyond to north and south the fields at Enfield or Hampton, to which, "with their living trees," the thoughts wander "from the hard wood of the desk"--fields fresher, and coming nearer to town then, but in one of which the present writer remembers, on a brooding early summer's day, to have heard the cuckoo for the first time. Here, the surface of things is certainly humdrum, the streets dingy, the green places, where the child goes a-maying, tame enough. But nowhere are things more apt to respond to the brighter weather, nowhere is there so much difference between rain and sunshine, nowhere do the clouds roll together more grandly; those quaint suburban pastorals gather a certain quality of grandeur from the background of the great city, with its weighty atmosphere, and portent of storm in the rapid light on dome and bleached stone steeples. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 86: From "Appreciations," 1889.] [Footnote 87: Macabre: very grim.] [Footnote 88: Opus operatum (a phrase from Catholic theology): the work performed through the sacraments--baptism, confirmation, etc.--the efficacy of which is not dependent on the participants.] DR. HEIDEGGER'S EXPERIMENT[89] NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE That very singular man, old Dr. Heidegger, once invited four venerable friends to meet him in his study. There were three white-bearded gentlemen, Mr. Medbourne, Colonel Killigrew, and Mr. Gascoigne, and a withered gentlewoman, whose name was the Widow Wycherly. They were all melancholy old creatures, who had been unfortunate in life, and whose greatest misfortune it was, that they were not long ago in their graves. Mr. Medbourne, in the vigor of his age, had been a prosperous merchant, but had lost his all by a frantic speculation, and was now little better than a mendicant. Colonel Killigrew had wasted his best years, and his health and substance, in the pursuit of sinful pleasures, which had given birth to a brood of pains, such as the gout, and divers other torments of soul and body. Mr. Gascoigne was a ruined politician, a man of evil fame, or at least had been so, till time had buried him from the knowledge of the present generation, and made him obscure instead of infamous. As for the Widow Wycherly, tradition tells us that she was a great beauty in her day; but, for a long while past, she had lived in deep seclusion, on account of certain scandalous stories, which had prejudiced the gentry of the town against her. It is a circumstance worth mentioning, that each of these three old gentlemen, Mr. Medbourne, Colonel Killigrew, and Mr. Gascoigne, were early lovers of the Widow Wycherly, and had once been on the point of cutting each others' throats for her sake. And, before proceeding further, I will merely hint, that Dr. Heidegger and all his four guests were sometimes thought to be a little beside themselves; as is not unfrequently the case with old people, when worried either by present troubles or woeful recollections. "My dear old friends," said Dr. Heidegger, motioning them to be seated, "I am desirous of your assistance in one of those little experiments with which I amuse myself here in my study." If all stories were true, Dr. Heidegger's study must have been a very curious place. It was a dim, old-fashioned chamber festooned with cobwebs, and besprinkled with antique dust. Around the walls stood several oaken bookcases, the lower shelves of which were filled with rows of gigantic folios, and black-letter quartos, and the upper with little parchment-covered duodecimos. Over the central bookcase was a bronze bust of Hippocrates, with which, according to some authorities, Dr. Heidegger was accustomed to hold consultations, in all difficult cases of his practice. In the obscurest corner of the room stood a tall and narrow oaken closet, with its door ajar, within which doubtfully appeared a skeleton. Between two of the bookcases hung a looking-glass, presenting its high and dusty plate within a tarnished gilt frame. Among many wonderful stories related of this mirror, it was fabled that the spirits of all the doctor's deceased patients dwelt within its verge, and would stare him in the face whenever he looked thitherward. The opposite side of the chamber was ornamented with the full-length portrait of a young lady, arrayed in the faded magnificence of silk, satin, and brocade, and with a visage as faded as her dress. Above half a century ago Dr. Heidegger had been on the point of marriage with this young lady; but, being affected with some slight disorder, she had swallowed one of her lover's prescriptions, and died on the bridal evening. The greatest curiosity of the study remains to be mentioned; it was a ponderous folio volume, bound in black leather, with massive silver clasps. There were no letters on the back, and nobody could tell the title of the book. But it was well known to be a book of magic; and once, when a chambermaid had lifted it, merely to brush away the dust, the skeleton had rattled in its closet, the picture of the young lady had stepped one foot upon the floor, and several ghastly faces had peeped forth from the mirror; while the brazen head of Hippocrates frowned, and said--"Forbear!" Such was Dr. Heidegger's study. On the summer afternoon of our tale, a small round table, as black as ebony, stood in the center of the room sustaining a cut-glass vase of beautiful form and elaborate workmanship. The sunshine came through the window, between the heavy festoons of two faded damask curtains, and fell directly across this vase, so that a mild splendor was reflected from it on the ashen visages of the five old people who sat around. Four champagne glasses were also on the table. "My dear old friends," repeated Dr. Heidegger, "may I reckon on your aid in performing an exceedingly curious experiment?" Now Dr. Heidegger was a very strange old gentleman, whose eccentricity had become the nucleus for a thousand fantastic stories. Some of these fables, to my shame be it spoken, might possibly be traced back to mine own veracious self; and if any passage of the present tale should startle the reader's faith, I must be content to bear the stigma of a fiction monger. When the doctor's four guests heard him talk of his proposed experiment, they anticipated nothing more wonderful than the murder of a mouse in an air pump, or the examination of a cobweb by the microscope, or some similar nonsense, with which he was constantly in the habit of pestering his intimates. But without waiting for a reply, Dr. Heidegger hobbled across the chamber, and returned with the same ponderous folio, bound in black leather, which common report affirmed to be a book of magic. Undoing the silver clasps, he opened the volume, and took from among its black-letter pages a rose, or what was once a rose, though now the green leaves and crimson petals had assumed one brownish hue, and the ancient flower seemed ready to crumble to dust in the doctor's hands. "This rose," said Dr. Heidegger, with a sigh, "this same withered and crumbling flower, blossomed five and fifty years ago. It was given me by Sylvia Ward, whose portrait hangs yonder; and I meant to wear it in my bosom at our wedding. Five and fifty years it has been treasured between the leaves of this old volume. Now, would you deem it possible that this rose of half a century could ever bloom again?" "Nonsense!" said the Widow Wycherly, with a peevish toss of her head. "You might as well ask whether an old woman's wrinkled face could ever bloom again." "See!" answered Dr. Heidegger. He uncovered the vase, and threw the faded rose into the water which it contained. At first, it lay lightly on the surface of the fluid, appearing to imbibe none of its moisture. Soon, however, a singular change began to be visible. The crushed and dried petals stirred, and assumed a deepening tinge of crimson, as if the flower were reviving from a death-like slumber; the slender stalk and twigs of foliage became green; and there was the rose of half a century, looking as fresh as when Sylvia Ward had first given it to her lover. It was scarcely full blown; for some of its delicate red leaves curled modestly around its moist bosom, within which two or three dewdrops were sparkling. "That is certainly a very pretty deception," said the doctor's friends; carelessly, however, for they had witnessed greater miracles at a conjurer's show; "pray how was it effected?" "Did you never hear of the 'Fountain of Youth'?" asked Dr. Heidegger, "which Ponce De Leon, the Spanish adventurer, went in search of two or three centuries ago?" "But did Ponce De Leon ever find it?" said the Widow Wycherly. "No," answered Dr. Heidegger, "for he never sought it in the right place. The famous Fountain of Youth, if I am rightly informed, is situated in the southern part of the Floridian peninsula, not far from Lake Macaco. Its source is overshadowed by several gigantic magnolias, which, though numberless centuries old, have been kept as fresh as violets, by the virtues of this wonderful water. An acquaintance of mine, knowing my curiosity in such matters, has sent me what you see in the vase." "Ahem!" said Colonel Killigrew, who believed not a word of the doctor's story; "and what may be the effect of this fluid on the human frame?" "You shall judge for yourself, my dear Colonel," replied Dr. Heidegger; "and all of you, my respected friends, are welcome to so much of this admirable fluid, as may restore to you the bloom of youth. For my own part, having had much trouble in growing old, I am in no hurry to grow young again. With your permission, therefore, I will merely watch the progress of the experiment.". While he spoke, Dr. Heidegger had been filling the four champagne glasses with the water of the Fountain of Youth. It was apparently impregnated with an effervescent gas, for little bubbles were continually ascending from the depths of the glasses, and bursting in silvery spray at the surface. As the liquor diffused a pleasant perfume, the old people doubted not that it possessed cordial and comfortable properties; and, though utter sceptics as to its rejuvenescent power, they were inclined to swallow it at once. But Dr. Heidegger besought them to stay a moment. "Before you drink, my respectable old friends," said he, "it would be well that, with the experience of a lifetime to direct you, you should draw up a few general rules for your guidance, in passing a second time through the perils of youth. Think what a sin and shame it would be, if, with your peculiar advantages, you should not become patterns of virtue and wisdom to all the young people of the age!" The doctor's four venerable friends made him no answer, except by a feeble and tremulous laugh; so very ridiculous was the idea, that, knowing how closely repentance treads behind the steps of error, they should ever go astray again. "Drink, then," said the doctor, bowing; "I rejoice that I have so well selected the subjects of my experiment." With palsied hands, they raised the glasses to their lips. The liquor, if it really possessed such virtues as Dr. Heidegger imputed to it, could not have been bestowed on four human beings who needed it more wofully. They looked as if they had never known what youth or pleasure was, but had been the offspring of Nature's dotage, and always the gray, decrepit, sapless, miserable creatures, who now sat stooping round the doctor's table, without life enough in their souls or bodies to be animated even by the prospect of growing young again. They drank off the water, and replaced their glasses on the table. Assuredly there was an almost immediate improvement in the aspect of the party, not unlike what might have been produced by a glass of generous wine, together with a sudden glow of cheerful sunshine, brightening over all their visages at once. There was a healthful suffusion on their cheeks, instead of the ashen hue that had made them look so corpse-like. They gazed at one another, and fancied that some magic power had really begun to smooth away the deep and sad inscriptions which Father Time had been so long engraving on their brows. The Widow Wycherly adjusted her cap, for she felt almost like a woman again. "Give us more of this wondrous water!" cried they, eagerly. "We are younger--but we are still too old! Quick--give us more!" "Patience, patience!" quoth Dr. Heidegger, who sat watching the experiment, with philosophic coolness. "You have been a long time growing old. Surely, you might be content to grow young in half an hour! But the water is at your service." Again he filled their glasses with the liquor of youth, enough of which still remained in the vase to turn half the old people in the city to the age of their own grandchildren. While the bubbles were yet sparkling on the brim, the doctor's four guests snatched their glasses from the table, and swallowed the contents at a single gulp. Was it delusion? Even while the draught was passing down their throats, it seemed to have wrought a change on their whole systems. Their eyes grew clear and bright; a dark shade deepened among their silvery locks; they sat around the table, three gentlemen, of middle age, and a woman, hardly beyond her buxom prime. "My dear widow, you are charming!" cried Colonel Killigrew, whose eyes had been fixed upon her face, while the shadows of age were flitting from it like darkness from the crimson daybreak. The fair widow knew, of old, that Colonel Killigrew's compliments were not always measured by sober truth; so she started up and ran to the mirror, still dreading that the ugly visage of an old woman would meet her gaze. Meanwhile, the three gentlemen behaved in such a manner as proved that the water of the Fountain of Youth possessed some intoxicating qualities; unless, indeed, their exhilaration of spirits were merely a lightsome dizziness, caused by the sudden removal of the weight of years. Mr. Gascoigne's mind seemed to run on political topics, but whether relating to the past, present, or future, could not easily be determined, since the same ideas and phrases have been in vogue these fifty years. Now he rattled forth full-throated sentences about patriotism, national glory, and the people's right; now he muttered some perilous stuff or other, in a sly and doubtful whisper, so cautiously that even his own conscience could scarcely catch the secret; and now, again, he spoke in measured accents, and a deeply deferential tone, as if a royal ear were listening to his well-turned periods. Colonel Killigrew all this time had been trolling forth a jolly bottle song, and ringing his glass in symphony with the chorus, while his eyes wandered toward the buxom figure of the Widow Wycherly. On the other side of the table, Mr. Medbourne was involved in a calculation of dollars and cents, with which was strangely intermingled a project for supplying the East Indies with ice, by harnessing a team of whales to the polar icebergs. As for the Widow Wycherly, she stood before the mirror courtesying and simpering to her own image, and greeting it as the friend whom she loved better than all the world beside. She thrust her face close to the glass, to see whether some long-remembered wrinkle or crow's-foot had indeed vanished. She examined whether the snow had so entirely melted from her hair, that the venerable cap could be safely thrown aside. At last, turning briskly away, she came with a sort of dancing step to the table. "My dear old doctor," cried she, "pray favor me with another glass!" "Certainly, my dear madam, certainly!" replied the complaisant doctor; "see! I have already filled the glasses." There, in fact, stood the four glasses, brimful of this wonderful water, the delicate spray of which, as it effervesced from the surface, resembled the tremulous glitter of diamonds. It was now so nearly sunset, that the chamber had grown duskier than ever; but a mild and moonlight splendor gleamed from within the vase, and rested alike on the four guests and on the doctor's venerable figure. He sat in a high-backed, elaborately-carved, oaken arm-chair, with a gray dignity of aspect that might have well befitted that very Father Time, whose power had never been disputed, save by this fortunate company. Even while quaffing the third draught of the Fountain of Youth, they were almost awed by the expression of his mysterious visage. But, the next moment, the exhilarating gush of young life shot through their veins. They were now in the happy prime of youth. Age, with its miserable train of cares, and sorrows, and diseases, was remembered only as the trouble of a dream, from which they had joyously awoke. The fresh gloss of the soul, so early lost, and without which the world's successive scenes had been but a gallery of faded pictures, again threw its enchantment over all their prospects. They felt like new-created beings, in a new-created universe. "We are young! We are young!" they cried exultingly. Youth, like the extremity of age, had effaced the strongly-marked characteristics of middle life, and mutually assimilated them all. They were a group of merry youngsters, almost maddened with the exuberant frolicsomeness of their years. The most singular effect of their gayety was an impulse to mock the infirmity and decrepitude of which they had so lately been the victims. They laughed loudly at their old-fashioned attire, the wide-skirted coats and flapped waistcoats of the young men, and the ancient cap and gown of the blooming girl. One limped across the floor, like a gouty grandfather; one set a pair of spectacles astride of his nose, and pretended to pore over the black-letter pages of the book of magic; a third seated himself in an arm-chair, and strove to imitate the venerable dignity of Dr. Heidegger. Then all shouted mirthfully, and leaped about the room. The Widow Wycherly--if so fresh a damsel could be called a widow--tripped up to the doctor's chair, with a mischievous merriment in her rosy face. "Doctor, you dear old soul," cried she, "get up and dance with me!" And then the four young people laughed louder than ever to think what a queer figure the poor old doctor would cut. "Pray excuse me," answered the doctor, quietly. "I am old and rheumatic, and my dancing days were over long ago. But either of these gay young gentlemen will be glad of so pretty a partner." "Dance with me, Clara!" cried Colonel Killigrew. "No, no, I will be her partner!" shouted Mr. Gascoigne. "She promised me her hand fifty years ago!" exclaimed Mr. Medbourne. They all gathered round her. One caught both her hands in his passionate grasp--another threw his arm about her waist--the third buried his hand among the glossy curls that clustered beneath the widow's cap. Blushing, panting, struggling, chiding, laughing, her warm breath fanning each of their faces by turns, she strove to disengage herself, yet still remained in their triple embrace. Never was there a livelier picture of youthful rivalship, with bewitching beauty for the prize. Yet, by a strange deception, owing to the duskiness of the chamber, and the antique dresses which they still wore, the tall mirror is said to have reflected the figures of the three old, gray, withered grand-sires, ridiculously contending for the skinny ugliness of a shrivelled grandam. But they were young: their burning passions proved them so. Inflamed to madness by the coquetry of the girl-widow, who neither granted nor quite withheld her favors, the three rivals began to interchange threatening glances. Still keeping hold of the fair prize, they grappled fiercely at one another's throats. As they struggled to and fro, the table was overturned, and the vase dashed into a thousand fragments. The precious Water of Youth flowed in a bright stream across the floor, moistening the wings of a butterfly, which, grown old in the decline of summer, had alighted there to die. The insect fluttered lightly through the chamber, and settled on the snowy head of Dr. Heidegger. "Come, come gentlemen!--come, Madame Wycherly," exclaimed the doctor, "I really must protest against this riot." They stood still, and shivered; for it seemed as if gray Time were calling them back from their sunny youth, far down into the chill and darksome vale of years. They looked at old Dr. Heidegger, who sat in his carved arm-chair, holding the rose of half a century, which he had rescued from among the fragments of the shattered vase. At the motion of his hand, the four rioters resumed their seats; the more readily because their violent exertions had wearied them, youthful though they were. "My poor Sylvia's rose!" ejaculated Dr. Heidegger, holding it in the light of the sunset clouds; "it appears to be fading again." And so it was. Even while the party were looking at it, the flower continued to shrivel up, till it became as dry and fragile as when the doctor had first thrown it into the vase. He shook off the few drops of moisture which clung to its petals. "I love it as well thus, as in its dewy freshness," observed he, pressing the withered rose to his withered lips. While he spoke, the butterfly fluttered down from the doctor's snowy head, and fell upon the floor. His guests shivered again. A strange dullness, whether of the body or spirit they could not tell, was creeping gradually over them all. They gazed at one another, and fancied that each fleeting moment snatched away a charm, and left a deepening furrow where none had been before. Was it an illusion? Had the changes of a lifetime been crowded into so brief a space, and were they now four aged people, sitting with their old friend, Dr. Heidegger? "Are we grown old again, so soon?" cried they, dolefully. In truth they had. The Water of Youth possessed merely a virtue more transient than that of wine. The delirium which it created had effervesced away. Yes! they were old again. With a shuddering impulse, that showed her a woman still, the widow clasped her skinny hands before her face, and wished that the coffin lid were over it, since it could no longer be beautiful. "Yes, friends, we are old again," said Dr. Heidegger; "and lo! the Water of Youth is all lavished on the ground. Well--I bemoan it not; for if the fountain gushed at my very doorstep, I would not stoop to bathe my lips in it--no, though its delirium were for years instead of moments. Such is the lesson ye have taught me!" But the doctor's four friends had taught no such lesson to themselves. They resolved forthwith to make a pilgrimage to Florida, and quaff at morning, noon, and night, from the Fountain of Youth. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 89: From "Twice Told Tales" 1837.] MARKHEIM[90] ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON "Yes," said the dealer, "our windfalls are of various kinds. Some customers are ignorant, and then I touch a dividend on my superior knowledge. Some are dishonest," and here he held up the candle, so that the light fell strongly on his visitor, "and in that case," he continued, "I profit by my virtue." Markheim had but just entered from the daylight streets, and his eyes had not yet grown familiar with the mingled shine and darkness in the shop. At these pointed words, and before the near presence of the flame, he blinked painfully and looked aside. The dealer chuckled. "You come to me on Christmas Day," he resumed, "when you know that I am alone in my house, put up my shutters, and make a point of refusing business. Well, you will have to pay for that; you will have to pay for my loss of time, when I should be balancing my books; you will have to pay, besides, for a kind of manner that I remark in you to-day very strongly. I am the essence of discretion, and ask no awkward questions; but when a customer cannot look me in the eye, he has to pay for it." The dealer once more chuckled; and then, changing to his usual business voice, though still with a note of irony, "You can give, as usual, a clear account of how you came into the possession of the object?" he continued. "Still your uncle's cabinet? A remarkable collector, sir!" And the little pale, round-shouldered dealer stood almost on tip-toe, looking over the top of his gold spectacles, and nodding his head with every mark of disbelief. Markheim returned his gaze with one of infinite pity, and a touch of horror. "This time," said he, "you are in error. I have not come to sell, but to buy. I have no curios to dispose of; my uncle's cabinet is bare to the wainscot; even were it still intact, I have done well on the Stock Exchange, and should more likely add to it than otherwise, and my errand to-day is simplicity itself. I seek a Christmas present for a lady," he continued, waxing more fluent as he struck into the speech he had prepared; "and certainly I owe you every excuse for thus disturbing you upon so small a matter. But the thing was neglected yesterday; I must produce my little compliment at dinner; and, as you very well know, a rich marriage is not a thing to be neglected." There followed a pause, during which the dealer seemed to weigh this statement incredulously. The ticking of many clocks among the curious lumber of the shop, and the faint rushing of the cabs in a near thoroughfare, filled up the interval of silence. "Well, sir," said the dealer, "be it so. You are an old customer after all; and if, as you say, you have the chance of a good marriage, far be it from me to be an obstacle. Here is a nice thing for a lady now," he went on, "this hand glass--fifteenth century, warranted; comes from a good collection, too, but I reserve the name, in the interests of my customer, who was just like yourself, my dear sir, the nephew and sole heir of a remarkable collector." The dealer, while he thus ran on in his dry and biting voice, had stooped to take the object from its place; and, as he had done so, a shock had passed through Markheim, a start both of hand and foot, a sudden leap of many tumultuous passions to the face. It passed as swiftly as it came, and left no trace beyond a certain trembling of the hand that now received the glass. "A glass," he said hoarsely, and then paused, and repeated it more clearly. "A glass? For Christmas? Surely not?" "And why not?" cried the dealer. "Why not a glass?" Markheim was looking upon him with an indefinable expression. "You ask me why not?" he said. "Why, look here--look in it--look at yourself! Do you like to see it? No! nor I--nor any man." The little man had jumped back when Markheim had so suddenly confronted him with the mirror; but now, perceiving there was nothing worse on hand, he chuckled. "Your future lady, sir, must be pretty hard favored," said he. "I ask you," said Markheim, "for a Christmas present, and you give me this--this damned reminder of years, and sins and follies--this hand-conscience! Did you mean it? Had you a thought in your mind? Tell me. It will be better for you if you do. Come, tell me about yourself. I hazard a guess now, that you are in secret a very charitable man?" The dealer looked closely at his companion. It was very odd, Markheim did not appear to be laughing; there was something in his face like an eager sparkle of hope, but nothing of mirth. "What are you driving at?" the dealer asked. "Not charitable?" returned the other, gloomily. "Not charitable; not pious; not scrupulous; unloving, unbeloved; a hand to get money, a safe to keep it. Is that all? Dear God, man, is that all?" "I will tell you what it is," began the dealer, with some sharpness, and then broke off again into a chuckle. "But I see this is a love match of yours, and you have been drinking the lady's health." "Ah!" cried Markheim, with a strange curiosity. "Ah, have you been in love? Tell me about that." "I," cried the dealer. "I in love! I never had the time, nor have I the time to-day for all this nonsense. Will you take the glass?" "Where is the hurry?" returned Markheim. "It is very pleasant to stand here talking; and life is so short and insecure that I would not hurry away from any pleasure--no, not even from so mild a one as this. We should rather cling, cling to what little we can get, like a man at a cliff's edge. Every second is a cliff, if you think upon it--a cliff a mile high--high enough, if we fall, to dash us out of every feature of humanity. Hence it is best to talk pleasantly. Let us talk of each other; why should we wear this mask? Let us be confidential. Who knows, we might become friends?" "I have just one word to say to you," said the dealer. "Either make your purchase, or walk out of my shop." "True, true," said Markheim. "Enough fooling. To business. Show me something else." The dealer stooped once more, this time to replace the glass upon the shelf, his thin blond hair falling over his eyes as he did so. Markheim moved a little nearer, with one hand in the pocket of his greatcoat; he drew himself up and filled his lungs; at the same time many different emotions were depicted together on his face--terror, horror, and resolve, fascination and a physical repulsion; and through a haggard lift of his upper lip, his teeth looked out. "This, perhaps, may suit," observed the dealer; and then, as he began to rearise, Markheim bounded from behind upon his victim. The long, skewerlike dagger flashed and fell. The dealer struggled like a hen, striking his temple on the shelf, and then tumbled on the floor in a heap. Time had some score of small voices in that shop, some stately and slow as was becoming to their great age; others garrulous and hurried. All these told out the seconds in an intricate chorus of tickings. Then the passage of a lad's feet, heavily running on the pavement, broke in upon these smaller voices and startled Markheim into the consciousness of his surroundings. He looked about him awfully. The candle stood on the counter, its flame solemnly wagging in a draught; and by that inconsiderable movement, the whole room was filled with noiseless bustle and kept heaving like a sea: the tall shadows nodding, the gross blots of darkness swelling and dwindling as with respiration, the faces of the portraits and the china gods changing and wavering like images in water. The inner door stood ajar, and peered into that leaguer of shadows with a long slit of daylight like a pointing finger. From these fear-stricken rovings, Markheim's eyes returned to the body of his victim, where it lay both humped and sprawling, incredibly small and strangely meaner than in life. In these poor, miserly clothes, in that ungainly attitude, the dealer lay like so much sawdust. Markheim had feared to see it, and, lo! it was nothing. And yet, as he gazed, this bundle of old clothes and pool of blood began to find eloquent voices. There it must lie; there was none to work the cunning hinges or direct the miracle of locomotion--there it must lie till it was found. Found! ay, and then? Then would this dead flesh lift up a cry that would ring over England, and fill the world with the echoes of pursuit. Ay, dead or not, this was still the enemy. "Time was that when the brains were out," he thought; and the first word struck into his mind. Time, now that the deed was accomplished--time, which had closed for the victim, had become instant and momentous for the slayer. The thought was yet in his mind, when, first one and then another, with every variety of pace and voice--one deep as the bell from a cathedral turret, another ringing on its treble notes the prelude of a waltz--the clocks began to strike the hour of three in the afternoon. The sudden outbreak of so many tongues in that dumb chamber staggered him. He began to bestir himself, going to and fro with the candle, beleaguered by moving shadows, and startled to the soul by chance reflections. In many rich mirrors, some of home designs, some from Venice or Amsterdam, he saw his face repeated and repeated, as it were an army of spies; his own eyes met and detected him; and the sound of his own steps, lightly as they fell, vexed the surrounding quiet. And still as he continued to fill his pockets, his mind accused him, with a sickening iteration, of the thousand faults of his design. He should have chosen a more quiet hour; he should have prepared an alibi; he should not have used a knife; he should have been more cautious, and only bound and gagged the dealer, and not killed him; he should have been more bold, and killed the servant also; he should have done all things otherwise; poignant regrets, weary, incessant toiling of the mind to change what was unchangeable, to plan what was now useless, to be the architect of the irrevocable past. Meanwhile, and behind all this activity, brute terrors, like the scurrying of rats in a deserted attic, filled the more remote chambers of his brain with riot; the hand of the constable would fall heavy on his shoulder, and his nerves would jerk like a hooked fish; or he beheld, in galloping defile, the dock, the prison, the gallows, and the black coffin. Terror of the people in the street sat down before his mind like a besieging army. It was impossible, he thought, but that some rumour of the struggle must have reached their ears and set on edge their curiosity; and now, in all the neighbouring houses, he divined them sitting motionless and with uplifted ear--solitary people, condemned to spend Christmas dwelling alone on memories of the past, and now startlingly recalled from that tender exercise; happy family parties, struck into silence round the table, the mother still with raised finger: every degree and age and humour, but all, by their own hearths, prying and hearkening and weaving the rope that was to hang him. Sometimes it seemed to him he could not move too softly; the clink of the tall Bohemian goblets rang out loudly like a bell; and alarmed by the bigness of the ticking, he was tempted to stop the clocks. And then, again, with a swift transition of his terrors, the very silence of the place appeared a source of peril, and a thing to strike and freeze the passer-by; and he would step more boldly, and bustle aloud among the contents of the shop, and imitate, with elaborate bravado, the movements of a busy man at ease in his own house. But he was now so pulled about by different alarms that, while one portion of his mind was still alert and cunning, another trembled on the brink of lunacy. One hallucination in particular took a strong hold on his credulity. The neighbour hearkening with white face beside his window, the passer-by arrested by a horrible surmise on the pavement--these could at worst suspect, they could not know; through the brick walls and shuttered windows only sounds could penetrate. But here, within the house, was he alone? He knew he was; he had watched the servant set forth sweethearting, in her poor best, "out for the day" written in every ribbon and smile. Yes, he was alone, of course; and yet, in the bulk of empty house above him, he could surely hear a stir of delicate footing--he was surely conscious, inexplicably conscious of some presence. Ay, surely; to every room and corner of the house his imagination followed it; and now it was a faceless thing, and yet had eyes to see with; and again it was a shadow of himself; and yet again behold the image of the dead dealer, reinspired with cunning and hatred. At times, with a strong effort, he would glance at the open door which still seemed to repel his eyes. The house was tall, the skylight small and dirty, the day blind with fog; and the light that filtered down to the ground story was exceedingly faint, and showed dimly on the threshold of the shop. And yet, in that strip of doubtful brightness, did there not hang wavering a shadow? Suddenly, from the street outside, a very jovial gentleman began to beat with a staff on the shop-door, accompanying his blows with shouts and railleries in which the dealer was continually called upon by name. Markheim, smitten into ice, glanced at the dead man. But no! he lay quite still; he was fled away far beyond earshot of these blows and shoutings; he was sunk beneath seas of silence; and his name, which would once have caught his notice above the howling of a storm, had become an empty sound. And presently the jovial gentleman desisted from his knocking and departed. Here was a broad hint to hurry what remained to be done, to get forth from this accusing neighbourhood, to plunge into a bath of London multitudes, and to reach, on the other side of day, that haven of safety and apparent innocence--his bed. One visitor had come: at any moment another might follow and be more obstinate. To have done the deed, and yet not to reap the profit, would be too abhorrent a failure. The money, that was now Markheim's concern; and as a means to that, the keys. He glanced over his shoulder at the open door, where the shadow was still lingering and shivering; and with no conscious repugnance of the mind, yet with a tremor of the belly, he drew near the body of his victim. The human character had quite departed. Like a suit half-stuffed with bran, the limbs lay scattered, the trunk doubled, on the floor; and yet the thing repelled him. Although so dingy and inconsiderable to the eye, he feared it might have more significance to the touch. He took the body by the shoulders; and turned it on its back. It was strangely light and supple, and the limbs, as if they had been broken, fell into the oddest postures. The face was robbed of all expression; but it was as pale as wax, and shockingly smeared with blood about one temple. That was, for Markheim, the one displeasing circumstance. It carried him back, upon the instant, to a certain fair day in a fishers' village: a gray day, a piping wind, a crowd upon the street, the blare of brasses, the booming of drums, the nasal voice of a ballad singer; and a boy going to and fro, buried over head in the crowd and divided between interest and fear, until, coming out upon the chief place of concourse, he beheld a booth and a great screen with pictures, dismally designed, garishly coloured: Brownrigg with her apprentice; the Mannings with their murdered guest; Weare in the death-grip of Thurtell; and a score besides of famous crimes. The thing was as clear as an illusion: he was once again that little boy; he was looking once again, and with the same sense of physical revolt, at these vile pictures; he was still stunned by the thumping of the drums. A bar of that day's music returned upon his memory; and at that, for the first time, a qualm came over him, a breath of nausea, a sudden weakness of the joints, which he must instantly resist and conquer. He judged it more prudent to confront than to flee from these considerations; looking the more hardily in the dead face, bending his mind to realise the nature and greatness of his crime. So little a while ago that face had moved with every change of sentiment, that pale mouth had spoken, that body had been all on fire with governable energies; and now, and by his act, that piece of life had been arrested, as the horologist, with interjected finger, arrests the beating of the clock. So he reasoned in vain; he could rise to no more remorseful consciousness; the same heart which had shuddered before the painted effigies of crime, looked on its reality unmoved. At best, he felt a gleam of pity for one who had been endowed in vain with all those faculties that can make the world a garden of enchantment, one who had never lived and who was now dead. But of penitence, no, not a tremor. With that, shaking himself clear of these considerations, he found the keys and advanced towards the open door of the shop. Outside, it had begun to rain smartly; and the sound of the shower upon the roof had banished silence. Like some dripping cavern, the chambers of the house were haunted by an incessant echoing, which filled the ear and mingled with the ticking of the clocks. And, as Markheim approached the door, he seemed to hear, in answer to his own cautious tread, the steps of another foot withdrawing up the stair. The shadow still palpitated loosely on the threshold. He threw a ton's weight of resolve upon his muscles, and drew back the door. The faint, foggy daylight glimmered dimly on the bare floor and stairs; on the bright suit of armour posted, halbert in hand, upon the landing; and on the dark wood-carvings, and framed pictures that hung against the yellow panels of the wainscot. So loud was the beating of the rain through all the house that, in Markheim's ears, it began to be distinguished into many different sounds. Footsteps and sighs, the tread of regiments marching in the distance, the chink of money in the counting, and the creaking of doors held stealthily ajar, appeared to mingle with the patter of the drops upon the cupola and the gushing of the water in the pipes. The sense that he was not alone grew upon him to the verge of madness. On every side he was haunted and begirt by presences. He heard them moving in the upper chambers; from the shop, he heard the dead man getting to his legs; and as he began with a great effort to mount the stairs, feet fled quietly before him and followed stealthily behind. If he were but deaf, he thought, how tranquilly he would possess his soul! And then again, and hearkening with ever fresh attention, he blessed himself for that unresting sense which held the outposts and stood a trusty sentinel upon his life. His head turned continually on his neck; his eyes, which seemed starting from their orbits, scouted on every side, and on every side were half-rewarded as with the tail of something nameless vanishing. The four-and-twenty steps to the first floor were four-and-twenty agonies. On that first storey, the doors stood ajar, three of them like three ambushes, shaking his nerves like the throats of cannon. He could never again, he felt, be sufficiently immured and fortified from men's observing eyes; he longed to be home, girt in by walls, buried among bedclothes, and invisible to all but God. And at that thought he wondered a little, recollecting tales of other murderers and the fear they were said to entertain of heavenly avengers. It was not so, at least, with him. He feared the laws of nature, lest, in their callous and immutable procedure, they should preserve some damning evidence of his crime. He feared tenfold more, with a slavish, superstitious terror, some scission in the continuity of man's experience, some wilful illegality of nature. He played a game of skill, depending on the rules, calculating consequence from cause; and what if nature, as the defeated tyrant overthrew the chess-board, should break the mould of their succession? The like had befallen Napoleon (so writers said) when the winter changed the time of its appearance. The like might befall Markheim: the solid walls might become transparent and reveal his doings like those of bees in a glass hive; the stout planks might yield under his feet like quicksands and detain him in their clutch; ay, and there were soberer accidents that might destroy him: if, for instance, the house should fall and imprison him beside the body of his victim; or the house next door should fly on fire, and the firemen invade him from all sides. These things he feared; and, in a sense, these things might be called the hands of God reached forth against sin. But about God himself he was at ease; his act was doubtless exceptional, but so were his excuses, which God knew; it was there, and not among men, that he felt sure of justice. When he had got safe into the drawing-room, and shut the door behind him, he was aware of a respite from alarms. The room was quite dismantled, uncarpeted besides, and strewn with packing cases and incongruous furniture; several great pier-glasses, in which he beheld himself at various angles, like an actor on a stage; many pictures, framed and unframed, standing, with their faces to the wall; a fine Sheraton sideboard, a cabinet of marquetry, and a great old bed, with tapestry hangings. The windows opened to the floor; but by great good fortune the lower part of the shutters had been closed, and this concealed him from the neighbours. Here, then, Markheim drew in a packing case before the cabinet, and began to search among the keys. It was a long business, for there were many; and it was irksome, besides; for, after all, there might be nothing in the cabinet, and time was on the wing. But the closeness of the occupation sobered him. With the tail of his eye he saw the door--even glanced at it from time to time directly like a besieged commander pleased to verify the good estate of his defences. But in truth he was at peace. The rain falling in the street sounded natural and pleasant. Presently, on the other side, the notes of a piano were wakened to the music of a hymn, and the voices of many children took up the air and words. How stately, how comfortable was the melody! How fresh the youthful voices! Markheim gave ear to it smilingly, as he sorted out the keys; and his mind was thronged with answerable ideas and images; church-going children and the pealing of the high organ; children afield, bathers by the brookside, ramblers on the brambly common, kite-flyers in the windy and cloud-navigated sky; and then, at another cadence of the hymn, back again to church, and the somnolence of summer Sundays, and the high genteel voice of the parson (which he smiled a little to recall) and the painted Jacobean tombs, and the dim lettering of the Ten Commandments in the chancel. And as he sat thus, at once busy and absent, he was startled to his feet. A flash of ice, a flash of fire, a bursting gush of blood, went over him, and then he stood transfixed and thrilling. A step mounted the stair slowly and steadily, and presently a hand was laid upon the knob, and the lock clicked, and the door opened. Fear held Markheim in a vice. What to expect he knew not, whether the dead man walking, or the official ministers of human justice, or some chance witness blindly stumbling in to consign him to the gallows. But when a face was thrust into the aperture, glanced round the room, looked at him, nodded and smiled as if in friendly recognition, and then withdrew again, and the door closed behind it, his fear broke loose from his control in a hoarse cry. At the sound of this the visitant returned. "Did you call me?" he asked pleasantly, and with that he entered the room and closed the door behind him. Markheim stood and gazed at him with all his eyes. Perhaps there was a film upon his sight, but the outlines of the newcomer seemed to change and waver like those of the idols in the wavering candle-light of the shop; and at times he thought he knew him; and at times he thought he bore a likeness to himself; and always like a lump of living terror, there lay in his bosom the conviction that this thing was not of the earth and not of God. And yet the creature had a strange air of the commonplace, as he stood looking on Markheim with a smile; and when he added, "You are looking for the money, I believe?" it was in the tones of everyday politeness. Markheim made no answer. "I should warn you," resumed the other, "that the maid has left her sweetheart earlier than usual and will soon be here. If Mr. Markheim be found in this house, I need not describe to him the consequences." "You know me?" cried the murderer. The visitor smiled. "You have long been a favourite of mine," he said; "and I have long observed and often sought to help you." "What are you?" cried Markheim; "the devil?" "What I may be," returned the other, "cannot affect the service I propose to render you." "It can," cried Markheim; "it does! Be helped by you? No, never; not by you! You do not know me yet; thank God, you do not know me!" "I know you," replied the visitant, with a sort of kind severity or rather firmness. "I know you to the soul." "Know me!" cried Markheim. "Who can do so? My life is but a travesty and slander on myself. I have lived to belie my nature. All men do; all men are better than this disguise that grows about and stifles them. You see each dragged away by life, like one whom bravos have seized and muffled in a cloak. If they had their own control--if you could see their faces, they would be altogether different, they would shine out for heroes and saints! I am worse than most; myself is more overlaid; my excuse is known to me and God. But, had I the time, I could disclose myself." "To me?" inquired the visitant. "To you before all," returned the murderer. "I supposed you were intelligent. I thought--since you exist--you would prove a reader of the heart. And yet you would propose to judge me by my acts! Think of it; my acts! I was born and I have lived in a land of giants; giants have dragged me by the wrists since I was born out of my mother--the giants of circumstance. And you would judge me by my acts! But can you not look within? Can you not understand that evil is hateful to me? Can you not see within me the clear writing of conscience, never blurred by any wilful sophistry, although too often disregarded? Can you not read me for a thing that surely must be common as humanity--the unwilling sinner?" "All this is very feelingly expressed," was the reply, "but it regards me not. These points of consistency are beyond my province, and I care not in the least by what compulsion you may have been dragged away, so as you are but carried in the right direction. But time flies; the servant delays, looking in the faces of the crowd and at the pictures on the hoardings, but still she keeps moving nearer; and remember, it is as if the gallows itself was striding towards you through the Christmas streets! Shall I help you; I, who know all? Shall I tell you where to find the money?" "For what price?" asked Markheim. "I offer you the service for a Christmas gift," returned the other. Markheim could not refrain from smiling with a kind of bitter triumph. "No," said he, "I will take nothing at your hands; if I were dying of thirst, and it was your hand that put the pitcher to my lips, I should find the courage to refuse. It may be credulous, but I will do nothing to commit myself to evil." "I have no objection to a death-bed repentance," observed the visitant. "Because you disbelieve their efficacy!" Markheim cried. "I do not say so," returned the other; "but I look on these things from a different side, and when the life is done my interest falls. The man has lived to serve me, to spread black looks under colour of religion, or to sow tares in the wheat-field, as you do, in a course of weak compliance with desire. Now that he draws so near to his deliverance, he can add but one act of service--to repent, to die smiling, and thus to build up in confidence and hope the more timorous of my surviving followers. I am not so hard a master. Try me. Accept my help. Please yourself in life as you have done hitherto; please yourself more amply, spread your elbows at the board; and when the night begins to fall and the curtains to be drawn, I tell you, for your greater comfort, that you will find it even easy to compound your quarrel with your conscience, and to make a truckling peace with God. I came but now from such a death-bed, and the room was full of sincere mourners, listening to the man's last words: and when I looked into that face, which had been set as a flint against mercy, I found it smiling with hope." "And do you, then, suppose me such a creature?" asked Markheim. "Do you think I have no more generous aspirations than to sin, and sin, and sin, and, at last, sneak into heaven? My heart rises at the thought. Is this, then, your experience of mankind? or is it because you find me with red hands that you presume such baseness? and is this crime of murder indeed so impious as to dry up the very springs of good?" "Murder is to me no special category," replied the other. "All sins are murder, even as all life is war. I behold your race, like starving mariners on a raft, plucking crusts out of the hands of famine and feeding on each other's lives. I follow sins beyond the moment of their acting; I find in all that the last consequence is death; and to my eyes, the pretty maid who thwarts her mother with such taking graces on a question of a ball, drips no less visibly with human gore than such a murderer as yourself. Do I say that I follow sins? I follow virtues also; they differ not by the thickness of a nail, they are both scythes for the reaping angel of Death. Evil, for which I live, consists not in action, but in character. The bad man is dear to me; not the bad act, whose fruits, if we could follow them far enough down the hurtling cataract of the ages, might yet be found more blessed than those of the rarest virtues. And it is not because you have killed a dealer, but because you are Markheim, that I offered to forward your escape." "I will lay my heart open to you," answered Markheim. "This crime on which you find me is my last. On my way to it I have learned many lessons; itself is a lesson, a momentous lesson. Hitherto I have been driven with revolt to what I would not; I was a bond-slave to poverty, driven and scourged. There are robust virtues that can stand in these temptations; mine was not so: I had a thirst of pleasure. But to-day, and out of this deed, I pluck both warning and riches--both the power and a fresh resolve to be myself. I become in all things a free actor in the world; I begin to see myself all changed, these hands the agents of good, this heart at peace. Something comes over me out of the past; something of what I have dreamed on Sabbath evenings to the sound of the church organ, of what I forecast when I shed tears over noble books, or talked, an innocent child, with my mother. There lies my life; I have wandered a few years, but now I see once more my city of destination." "You are to use this money on the Stock Exchange, I think?" remarked the visitor; "and there, if I mistake not, you have already lost some thousands?" "Ah," said Markheim, "but this time I have a sure thing." "This time, again, you will lose," replied the visitor, quietly. "Ah, but I keep back the half!" cried Markheim. "That also you will lose," said the other. The sweat started upon Markheim's brow. "Well, then, what matter?" he exclaimed. "Say it be lost, say I am plunged again in poverty, shall one part of me, and that the worse, continue until the end to override the better? Evil and good run strong in me, haling me both ways. I do not love the one thing, I love all. I can conceive great deeds, renunciations, martyrdoms; and though I be fallen to such a crime as murder, pity is no stranger to my thoughts. I pity the poor; who knows their trials better than myself? I pity and help them; I prize love, I love honest laughter; there is no good thing nor true thing on earth but I love it from my heart. And are my vices only to direct my life, and my virtues to lie without effect, like some passive lumber of the mind? Not so; good, also, is a spring of acts." But the visitant raised his finger. "For six-and-thirty years that you have been in this world," said he, "through many changes of fortune and varieties of humour, I have watched you steadily fall. Fifteen years ago you would have started at a theft. Three years back you would have blenched at the name of murder. Is there any crime, is there any cruelty or meanness, from which you still recoil?--five years from now I shall detect you in the fact! Downward, downward, lies your way; nor can anything but death avail to stop you." "It is true," Markheim said huskily, "I have in some degree complied with evil. But it is so with all: the very saints, in the mere exercise of living, grow less dainty, and take on the tone of their surroundings." "I will propound to you one simple question," said the other; "and as you answer, I shall read to you your moral horoscope. You have grown in many things more lax; possibly you do right to be so; and at any account, it is the same with all men. But granting that, are you in any one particular, however trifling, more difficult to please with your own conduct, or do you go in all things with a looser rein?" "In any one?" repeated Markheim, with an anguish of consideration. "No," he added, with despair, "in none! I have gone down in all." "Then," said, the visitor, "content yourself with what you are, for you will never change; and the words of your part on this stage are irrevocably written down." Markheim stood for a long while silent, and indeed it was the visitor who first broke the silence. "That being so," he said, "shall I show you the money?" "And grace?" cried Markheim. "Have you not tried it?" returned the other. "Two or three years ago, did I not see you on the platform of revival meetings, and was not your voice the loudest in the hymn?" "It is true," said Markheim; "and I see clearly what remains for me by way of duty. I thank you for these lessons from my soul; my eyes are opened, and I behold myself at last for what I am." At this moment, the sharp note of the door-bell rang through the house; and the visitant, as though this were some concerted signal for which he had been waiting, changed at once in his demeanour. "The maid!" he cried. "She has returned, as I forewarned you, and there is now before you one more difficult passage. Her master, you must say, is ill; you must let her in, with an assured but rather serious countenance--no smiles, no overacting, and I promise you success! Once the girl within, and the door closed, the same dexterity that has already rid you of the dealer will relieve you of this last danger in your path. Thenceforward you have the whole evening--the whole night, if needful--to ransack the treasures of the house and to make good your safety. This is help that comes to you with the mask of danger. Up!" he cried; "up, friend; your life hangs trembling in the scales; up, and act!" Markheim steadily regarded his counsellor. "If I be condemned to evil acts," he said, "there is still one door of freedom open--I can cease from action. If my life be an ill thing, I can lay it down. Though I be, as you say truly, at the beck of every small temptation, I can yet, by one decisive gesture, place myself beyond the reach of all. My love of good is damned to barrenness; it may, and let it be! But I have still my hatred of evil; and from that, to your galling disappointment, you shall see that I can draw both energy and courage." The features of the visitor began to undergo a wonderful and lovely change: they brightened and softened with a tender triumph; and, even as they brightened, faded and dislimned. But Markheim did not pause to watch or understand the transformation. He opened the door and went downstairs very slowly, thinking to himself. His past went soberly before him; he beheld it as it was, ugly and strenuous like a dream, random as chance-medley--a scene of defeat. Life, as he thus reviewed it, tempted him no longer; but on the further side he perceived a quiet haven for his bark. He paused in the passage, and looked into the shop, where the candle still burned by the dead body. It was strangely silent. Thoughts of the dealer swarmed into his mind, as he stood gazing. And then the bell once more broke out into impatient clamour. He confronted the maid upon the threshold with something like a smile. "You had better go for the police," said he; "I have killed your master." FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 90: First published in 1885.] SUPPLEMENTARY READINGS WITH SOME TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND FOR COMPOSITION (Note.--The selections named below are as a rule short; and, since they are contained in standard works of modern prose, they are accessible in the average library. Page numbers in parentheses refer to the present volume.) I. THE PERSONAL LIFE (_a_) William Hazlitt, _On Personal Character_, in "The Plain Speaker": How the main thesis differs from that in Emerson's _Self-Reliance_ (page 1). (_b_) Walter Pater, _Diaphaneité_, in "Miscellaneous Studies": The substance of the ideal personality here delineated, and how it differs from the type suggested by Emerson. (_c_) Matthew Arnold, _Doing as One Likes_, or _Hebraism and Hellenism_, in "Culture and Anarchy": The main principles of personal endeavor suggested in either of these essays. (_d_) Plutarch, _Marcus Cato,_ in "Lives," Vol. II of Clough's translation: 1. Cato's Self-Reliance. 2. Cato's type of character in American public life. (_e_) Walter Scott, fragment of _Autobiography_, in Lockhart's "Life of Scott:" A comparison of Scott's early training with Ruskin's. See also the early chapters of (_f_) Trevelyan's "Life of Macaulay" and (_g_) Froude's "Life of Carlyle." (_h_) Charles Darwin, _Autobiography_, in "Life and Letters:" 1. The change which came over Darwin's attitude toward literature. 2. The contrast between Darwin's type of mind and Lamb's as revealed in _Old China_ (page 40) and Pater's essay (page 437). II. EDUCATION (_a_) R.W. Emerson, _The American Scholar_, in "Nature, Addresses, Lectures:" The main points in the view here given of education. 2. Certain considerations, somewhat neglected by Emerson, but developed by Newman (page 52). (_b_) Woodrow Wilson, _The Training of Intellect_ (an address to the Phi Beta Kappa Society of Yale University): How far your own course of study is fulfilling the requirements here set forth, (_c_) William Hazlitt, _On Application to Study_, in "The Plain Speaker:" 1. Hazlitt's view of the study of composition. 2. How the principles of application which he advocates may be applied to some other study in which you are interested. (_d_) T.H. Huxley, _Science and Culture_, in "Science and Education:" 1. How far the principles here set forth bear out Huxley's definition of education (page 47). 2. The main point at issue between Huxley and Arnold (Arnold's essay, page 75, is a reply to Huxley), and your own view of the matter drawn from your own experience. (_e_) J.S. Mill, _Inaugural Address at St. Andrew's,_ in "Dissertations," Vol. IV: Mill's main contentions as to the exact purpose and value of the study of language and literature in universities. (_f_) H.D. Thoreau, _Reading_, in "Walden:" The author's views in regard to reading not done in connection with school work. (_g_) A.G. Balfour, _Pleasures of Reading_, in "Essays and Addresses" (written as a reply to Harrison's claims, page 97): The main points at issue between Harrison and Balfour, and your own view of the matter. (_h_) John Lubbock, _The Choice of Books_, in "The Pleasures of Life:" Whether this essay goes to support Harrison's or Balfour's view, and how. (_i_) Woodrow Wilson, essays in "Mere Literature." (_j_) John Ruskin, _Sesame and Lilies_. (_k_) Consult several biographies of great men--for example, Morley's _Gladstone_, Froude's _Carlyle_, Darwin's _Life_, Huxley's _Life_--and make a comparative study of their early reading. III. RECREATION AND TRAVELS (_a_) George Santayana, on _Work and Play_, sections 3 and following, in "The Sense of Beauty," Part I: 1. The distinction between working and playing. 2. The relation between the sense of beauty and the sense of pleasure. (_b_) William Hazlitt, _On Living to One's Self_, in "Table Talk:" 1. The general method of enjoying life, which is developed here and illustrated further in _On Going a Journey_ (page 116). (_c_) R.L. Stevenson, _Walking Tours_, in "Virginibus Puerisque;" and _Roads_, in "Essays of Travel:" 1. The several ways in which these essays reflect Hazlitt's views; the points which are peculiar to Stevenson. 2. How far your own methods of securing outdoor enjoyment are in accord with Hazlitt's and Stevenson's. (_d_) W.H. Hudson, _Idle Days_, in "Idle Days in Patagonia:" What the author's so-called idleness consisted in. (_e_) Francis Parkman, _Hunting Indians_, in "The Oregon Trail:" The mental experiences of the writer himself in the course of the exploit he describes. IV. SOCIAL LIFE AND MANNERS (_a_) R.W. Emerson, _Culture_, in "The Conduct of Life:" The relation which the central thought bears to that of Behavior (page 154). (_b_) Matthew Arnold, _Sweetness and Light_, in "Culture and Anarchy:" 1. The chief motives and characteristics of culture. 2. The relation between culture and bodily vigor. 3. The "Social Idea." 4. A comparison of Emerson's and Arnold's attitude toward culture. (_c_) R.W. Emerson, _Manners_, in "Essays, Second Series." How Emerson's view of the relation between manners and fashion supplements Spencer's contention (page 172). (_d_) Henri Bergson, _the first part of Chapter I_ in "Laughter:" The function of laughter in social life. (_g_) William Hazlitt, _On the Spirit of Obligations_, in "The Plain Dealer:" The relation between good sense and good nature. (_f_) R.L. Stevenson, _The Truth of Intercourse_, in "Virginibus Puerisque:" The complex meaning of truthfulness in social life. (_g_) W.M. Thackeray, _George II_, in "The Four Georges:" The chief characteristics of Georgian society. V. PUBLIC AFFAIRS (_a_) Plato, _The Apology_, in the "Dialogues," translated by Jowett, and by others: 1. The part played by Socrates in the public life of Athens. 2. What function Socrates could fulfil in American public life. (_b_) J.S. Mill, _Civilization_, in "Dissertations and Discussions," Vol. I: The ill effects of civilization, and how they may be overcome. (_c_) Henry George, _The Persistence of Poverty amid Advancing Wealth_, in Book V of "Progress and Poverty:" George's exposition of the problem tested by your own experience. (_d_) J.S. Mill, _Of the Dangers to which Representative Government is Liable,_ in "Considerations on Representative Government:" The extent to which Mill's contentions apply to the United States. (_e_) Josiah Royce, _Some American Problems_, in "The Philosophy of Loyalty:" 1. The general solution proposed. 2. How this solution might be applied to some public or college problem you know of. VI. SCIENCE (_a_) Herbert Spencer, _The Genesis of Science_, in "Illustrations of Universal Progress:" The essential nature of science. (_b_) T.H. Huxley, _The Method of Scientific Investigation_, in "Man's Place in Nature:" The relation between scientific and everyday modes of thinking. (_c_) John Tyndall, _On the nature and function of the sun_, in Chapter XIV of "Heat as a Mode of Motion:" The general relation between the facts presented by Tyndall and those presented in _The Physical Basis of Life_ (page 240). (_d_) A.R. Wallace, _Darwinism as Applied to Man_, in "Darwinism": A comparison of this piece, in respect to aim and method, with Darwin's _Mental Powers of Men and Animals_ (page 263). (_e_) Charles Darwin, _On the flower of the ladies' slipper_, in Chapter VIII of "Fertilization of Orchids by Insects." (_f_) T.H. Huxley, _On the Formation of Coal_, in "Discourses Biological." VII. NATURE (_a_) R.W. Emerson, _Nature_, in "Essays, Second Series:" The effect of nature on the human mind. (_b_) H.D. Thoreau, _Spring_, in "Walden:" 1. The formative principle in nature. 2. A comparison of Thoreau's attitude toward nature, as revealed here and in "Walden Pond" (page 306), with that of Emerson. (_c_) John Burroughs, _The Pastoral Bees_ in "Locusts and Wild Honey:" The communal life of the bees. (_d_) W.H. Hudson, _The Perfume of an Evening Primrose_, in "Idle Days in Patagonia:" The association of phenomena of nature with events in one's life. (_e_) Leslie Stephen, _Sunset on Mont Blanc_, in "The Playground of Europe:" An analysis of the circumstances which combined to give this sunset its peculiar interest. (_f_) John Ruskin, descriptions of _water, sky, clouds, and foliage_ in "Modern Painters," Vol. I (look up passages other than those selected for the present volume, page 325): in each case, distinguish the _chief_ beautiful effect which the author wishes to bring out. VIII. CONDUCT AND INNER LIFE (_a_) William James, _The Will to Believe_, in "The Will to Believe, and other Essays:" The bearing of religious conviction on volition and conduct. (_b_) Josiah Royce, _Loyalty to Loyalty_, in "The Philosophy of Loyalty:" 1. The exact meaning of the title. 2. How the main thesis is fundamental for _Loyalty and Insight_ (page 365). (_c_) R.W. Emerson, _The Over-Soul_, in "Essays, First Series:" 1. How the conception here developed appears again in other essays of Emerson which you have read. 2. How Emerson's attitude toward spiritual truth differs from that of James; see (_a_), above. (_d_) Josiah Royce, _What is Vital_ in Christianity? in "William James and Other Essays:" The central thought as compared with Seeley's (page 351). (_e_) George Santayana, _The Poetry of Christian Dogma_, in "Poetry and Religion:" The full significance of the title. (_f_) J.R. Seeley, _Christ's Royalty_, in "Ecce Homo:" The significance of the term "King" as applied to Christ. (_g_) G.L. Dickinson, _The Greek View of Religion_, in "The Greek View of Life:" 1. How the Greek differs from the Christian view. 2. The most admirable features of the Greek view. (_h_) Walter Pater, _A Study of Dionysus_, in "Greek Studies:" What Dionysus was symbolic of. (_i_) William James, _Habit_, in "Psychology," Vol. I: The significance of habits, tested by your own experience. (_j_) W.E.H. Lecky, _The Management of Character_, in "The Map of Life:" Specific methods by which one may mold one's own character. IX. LITERATURE AND ART (_a_) George Santayana, _Art and Happiness_, in "The Life of Reason," Vol. IV: 1. What is Art? 2. The position of literature among the arts. 3. What art needs at the present day. (_b_) Walter Bagehot, On _Wordsworth_, in "Essay on Wordsworth, Tennyson, and Browning:" The nature of pure art. (_c_) Matthew Arnold, _Wordsworth_, in "Essays in Criticism:" A comparison of Arnold's main thesis in regard to Wordsworth with Bagehot's; see (_b_) above. (_d_) G.H. Lewes, _The Principle of Sincerity_, in "The Principles of Success in Literature:" The relation between sincerity and success in literature. (_e_) Thomas Carlyle, _Dante_, in "On Heroes and Hero-Worship:" 1. The chief differences between Dante and Shakespeare (see page 423). 2. How the principle of sincerity (see (_d_) above) is illustrated in the case of Dante. (_f_) P.B. Shelley, _Defence of Poetry_: A comparison of Shelley's attitude toward poetry with Bradley's (page 389). (_g_) G.L. Dickinson, _Chapter IV_ in the "Greek View of Life" (the part preceding the section reprinted in the present volume): How the principles determining the nature of Greek tragedy appear also in the other Greek arts. (_h_) S.H. Butcher, _What we Owe to Greece_, in "Some Aspects of Greek Genius:" Ideals we have inherited from the Greeks. (_i_) A.C. Bradley, _The Substance of Shakespearean Tragedy_, in "Shakespearean Tragedy:" The conception of the relations between good and evil which appears in Shakespeare's tragedies. (_j_) Sophocles, _Oedipus Rex_ (translated by Gilbert Murray): A comparison of the theme of this tragedy with the theme of Shakespeare's _Richard III, Macbeth, or Lear_. 
15577	----	A HISTORY OF THE McGUFFEY READERS. [Illustration: WILLIAM H. McGUFFEY] A HISTORY OF THE McGUFFEY READERS By HENRY H. VAIL. WITH THREE PORTRAITS. THE BOOKISH BOOKS--IV. New Edition. CLEVELAND THE BURROWS BROTHERS CO. 1911 Copyright, 1911, by Henry H. Vail. [Transcriber's Note: At the top of each page in the original is a header line briefly describing the content on each page. In this document, these header lines have been placed inside square brackets and move to the start of the paragraph which begins the content so described.] A History of the McGuffey Readers THE BOOKS. Before me are four small books roughly bound in boards, the sides covered with paper. On the reverse of the title pages, two bear a copyright entry in the year 1836; the others were entered in 1837. They are the earliest editions of McGuffey's Eclectic Readers that have been found in a search lasting forty years. They represent the first efforts in an educational and business enterprise that has for three-quarters of a century called for the best exertions of many skilled men, and in their several forms these books have taken a conspicuous part in the education of millions of the citizens of this country. But what interest can the history of the McGuffey Eclectic Readers have to those who did not use these books in their school career? Their story differs from that of other readers since in successive forms, adjusted more or less perfectly to the changing demands of the schools, they attained a wider and more prolonged use than has been accorded to any other series. [The Function of Readers] By custom and under sanction of law certain studies are pursued in the common schools of every state. Spelling, reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, history, grammar, civics and physiology are the subjects usually taught. The school authorities select the textbooks which shall be used in each subject. The readers are the only texts used in all schools affording opportunity for distinct ethical teaching. The history of our country should give ideas of patriotism; the civics should contain the primary notions of government; the physiologies should instruct the pupils in the laws of health; but the reader should cover the whole field of morals and manners and in language that will impress their teaching indelibly upon the mind of every pupil. While the chief aim of the school readers must be to teach the child to apprehend thought from the printed page and convey this thought to the attentive listener with precision, these efforts should be exerted upon thoughts that have permanent value. No other texts used in the school room bear directly and positively upon the formation of character in the pupils. The school readers are the proper and indispensable texts for teaching true patriotism, integrity, honesty, industry, temperance, courage, politeness, and all other moral and intellectual virtues. In these books every lesson should have a distinct purpose in view, and the final aim should be to establish in the pupils high moral principles which are at the foundation of character. [Formers of Character] The literature of the English language is rich in material suited to this intent; no other language is better endowed. This material is fresh to every pupil, no matter how familiar it may be to teacher or parent. Although some of it has been in print for three centuries, it is true and beautiful today. President Eliot has said, "When we teach a child to read, our primary aim is not to enable it to decipher a way-bill or a receipt, but to kindle its imagination, enlarge its vision and open for it the avenues of knowledge." Knowledge gives power, which may be exerted for good or for evil. Character gives direction to power. Power is the engine which may force the steamer through the water, character is the helm which renders the power serviceable for good. Readers which have been recognized as formers of good habits of action, thought, and speech for three-quarters of a century, which have taught a sound morality to millions of children without giving offense to the most violent sectarian, which have opened the doors of pure literature to all their users, are surely worthy of study as to their origin, their successive changes, and their subsequent career. The story of these readers is told in the specimens of the several editions, in the long treasured and time-worn contracts, in the books of accounts kept by the successive publishers, and in the traditions which have been passed down from white haired men who gossiped of the early days in the schoolbook business. Valuable information has also been furnished by descendants of the McGuffey family, and by the educational institutions with which each of the authors of the readers was connected. [Different Editions] For half a century the present writer has had personal knowledge of the readers. At first, as a teacher, using them daily in the class room; but soon, as an editor, directing the literary work of the publishers and owners. It therefore falls to him to narrate a story "quorum pars minima fui." For more than seventy years the McGuffey Readers have held high rank as text-books for use in the elementary schools, especially throughout the West and South. But during this time these books have been revised five times and adjusted to the changed conditions in the schools. In each one of these revisions the marked characteristics of the original series have been most scrupulously retained, and the continued success of the series is doubtless owing to this fact. There has been a continuity of spirit. [Contents of the Books] The First and Second Readers were first published in 1836. In 1837 the Third and Fourth Readers were printed. For reasons elsewhere explained these books were "improved and enlarged" in 1838. In 1841 a higher reader was added to the series which was then named McGuffey's Rhetorical Guide. In the years 1843 and 1844 the four books then constituting the series were thoroughly remodeled and on the title pages were placed the words "Newly Revised" and the Rhetorical Guide was annexed as the Fifth Reader. Ten years later the entire series was made over and issued in six books. These were then called the New Readers. From 1853 until 1878 the books remained substantially unchanged; but in the latter year they were renewed largely in substance and improved in form. These readers as copyrighted in 1879 were extensively used for more than a quarter of a century. Changing conditions in the school room called for another revision in 1901. This latest form now in extensive use is called The New McGuffey Readers. Each of these revisions has constituted practically a new series although the changes have never included the entire contents. In the higher readers will be found today many selections which appeared in the original books. The reason for retaining such selections is clear. No one has been able to write in the English language selections that are better for school use than some written by Shakespeare, Milton, Bacon, and other early writers. The literature of the English language has not all been written in the present decade nor in the last century. As at first published, the lower books of the McGuffey Readers had no trace of the modern methods now used in teaching the mastery of words--even the alphabet was not given in orderly form; but the alphabetic method of teaching the art of reading was then the only one used. The pupil at first spelled each word by naming the letters and then pronounced each syllable and then the word. [First Editions] The following stanza is copied from page 61 of the edition of 1844 to illustrate the method of presenting words: I like to see a lit-tle dog, And pat him on the head; So pret-ti-ly he wags his tail When-ev-er he is fed. The First Reader was mostly in words of one syllable. In this book we find the story of the lame dog that, when cured, brought another lame dog to be doctored: of the kind boy who freed his caged bird; of the cruel boy who drowned the cat and pulled wings and legs from flies; of Peter Pindar the story teller, and the "snow dog" of Mount St. Bernard; of Mr. Post who adopted and reared Mary; of the boy who told a lie and repented after he was found out; of the chimney sweep who was tempted to steal a gold watch but put it back and was thereafter educated by its owner; of the whisky boy; and of the mischievous boy who played ghost and made another boy insane. Nearly every lesson has a moral clearly stated in formal didactic words at its close. In the Second Reader we find the story of the idle boy who talked with the bees, dogs, and horses, and having found them all busy, reformed himself; of the kind girl who shared her cake with a dog and an old man; of the mischievous boys who tied the grass across the path and thus upset not only the milk-maid but the messenger running for a doctor to come to their father; of the wise lark who knew that the farmer's grain would not be cut until he resolved to cut it himself; of the wild and ravenous bear that treed a boy and hung suspended by his boot; and of another bear that traveled as a passenger by night in a stage coach; of the quarrelsome cocks, pictured in a clearly English farm yard, that were both eaten up by the fox that had been brought in by the defeated cock; of the honest boy and the thief who was judiciously kicked by the horse that carried oranges in baskets; of George Washington and his historic hatchet and the mutilated cherry-tree; and of the garden that was planted with seeds in lines spelling Washington's name which removed all doubt as to an intelligent Creator. There were also some lessons on such animals as beavers, whales, peacocks and lions. [Favorite Selections] The Third Reader will be remembered first because of the picture, on the cover, of Napoleon on his rearing charger. This book contained five selections from the Bible; Croly's "Conflagration of the Ampitheatre at Rome;" "How a Fly Walks on the Ceiling;" "The Child's Inquiry;" "How big was Alexander, Pa;" Irving's "Description of Pompey's Pillar;" Woodworth's "Old Oaken Bucket;" Miss Gould's "The Winter King;" and Scott's "Bonaparte Crossing the Alps," commencing "'Is the route practicable?' said Bonaparte. 'It is barely possible to pass,' replied the engineer. 'Let us set forward, then,' said Napoleon." The rearing steed facing a precipitous slope in the picture gave emphasis to the words. There were also in this reader several pieces about Indians and bears, which indicate that Dr. McGuffey never forgot the stories told at the fireside by his father of his adventures as an Indian scout and hunter. In the Fourth Reader there were seventeen selections from the Bible; William Wirt's "Description of the Blind Preacher;" Phillip's "Character of Napoleon Bonaparte;" Bacon's "Essay on Studies;" Nott's "Speech on the Death of Alexander Hamilton;" Addison's "Westminster Abbey;" Irving's "Alhambra;" Rogers's "Genevra;" Willis's "Parrhasius;" Montgomery's "Make Way for Liberty;" two extracts from Milton and two from Shakespeare, and no less than fourteen selections from the writings of the men and women who lectured before the College of Teachers in Cincinnati. The story of the widow of the Pine Cottage sharing her last smoked herring with a strange traveler who revealed himself as her long-lost son, returning rich from the Indies, was anonymous, but it will be remembered by those who read it. These selections were the most noteworthy ones in the first editions of these readers. The First and Second Readers of the McGuffey Series were substantially made new at each revision. A comparison of the original Third Reader with an edition copyrighted in 1847, shows that the latter book was increased about one-third in size. Of the sixty-six selections in the early edition only forty-seven were retained, while thirty new ones were inserted. Among the latter were "Harry and his Dog Frisk" that brought to him, punished by being sent to bed, a Windsor pear; "Perseverance," a tale of kite-flying followed by the poem, "Try, try again;" the "Little Philosopher," named Peter Hurdle, who caught Mr. Lenox's runaway horse and on examination seemed to lack nothing but an Eclectic spelling book, a reader and a Testament--which were promised him; "The Colonists," in which men of various callings offered their services, and while even the dancing master was accepted as of some possible use, the gentleman was scornfully rejected; "Things by Their Right Names," in which a battle was described as wholesale murder; "Little Victories," in which Hugh's mother consoled him for the loss of a leg by telling him of the lives of men who became celebrated under even greater adversities; "The Wonderful Instrument," which turned out to be the eye; "Metaphysics," a ludicrous description of a colonial salt-box in affected terms of exactness designed to ridicule some forms of reasoning. Those who used this edition of the third reader will surely remember some of these selections. [The Bible] In the Fourth Reader printed in 1844 there were thirty new selections--less than one-third of the book; but some of these were such as will be remembered by those who read them in school. There was "Respect for the Sabbath Rewarded," in which a barber of Bath had become so poor because he would not shave his customers on Sunday, that he borrowed a half-penny to buy a candle Saturday night to give light for a late customer, and was thus discovered to be the long-lost William Reed of Taunton, heir to many thousand pounds; "The Just Judge," who disguised himself as a miller and, obtaining a place on the jury, received only five guineas as a bribe when the others got ten, and who revealed himself as Lord Chief Justice Hale and tried the case over in his miller's clothing; Hawthorne's "The Town Pump;" Mrs. Southey's "April Day." "All day the low-hung clouds have dropped Their garnered fullness down. All day a soft gray mist hath wrapped Hill, valley, grove and town." Bryant's "Death of the Flowers;" Campbell's "Lochiel's Warning;" and the trial scene from Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice. All these became favorite reading exercises in later years. As late as 1840 the Bible was read daily in all the schools of the West. Although sectarian or denominational teaching was not permitted, religious instruction was desired by the great majority of school patrons. Even up to the opening of the Civil War, whatever the faith or the practice of the adult inhabitants of the country, the Bible story and the Bible diction were familiar to all. The speeches of the popular orators of that day were filled with distinct allusions to the Bible and these were quickly and clearly apprehended by the people. It may be questioned whether popular speeches of the present day would have equal force if based on the assumption that everybody knows the Biblical stories. Indeed it is a common remark made by professors of English in the higher institutions of learning that pupils know little of the Bible as a distinctly formative and conservative element in English literature. In the texts authorized for the study of English classics, Biblical allusions are very common. These have little meaning to pupils who have not read the Bible, unless the passage is pointed out and hunted up. [Dr. Swing's Opinion] From the pages of these readers the pupils learned to master the printed word and obtain the thought of the authors. Without conscious effort they received moral instruction and incentives toward right living. Without intent they treasured in their memories such extracts from the authors of the best English Literature as gave them a desire to read more. [Books as Teachers] In one of his sermons Dr. David Swing of Chicago said: "Much as you may have studied the languages or the sciences, that which most affected you was the moral lessons in the series of McGuffey. And yet the reading class was filed out only once a day to read for a few moments, and then we were all sent to our seats to spend two hours in learning how to bound New Hampshire or Connecticut, or how long it would take a greyhound to overtake a fox or a hare if the spring of each was so and so, and the poor fugitive had such and such a start. That was perhaps well, but we have forgotten how to bound Connecticut, and how to solve the equation of the field and thicket; but up out of the far-off years come all the blessed lessons in virtue and righteousness which those reading books taught; and when we now remember, how even these moral memories have faded I cannot but wish the teachers had made us bound the States less, and solve fewer puzzles in 'position' and the 'cube root' and made us commit to memory the whole series of the McGuffey Eclectic Headers. The memory that comes from these far-away pages is full of the best wisdom of time or the timeless land. In these books we were indeed led by a schoolmaster, from beautiful maxims for children up to the best thoughts of a long line of sages, and poets, and naturalists. There we all first learned the awful weakness of the duel that took away a Hamilton; there we saw the grandeur of the Blind Preacher of William Wirt; there we saw the emptiness of the ambition of Alexander, and there we heard even the infidel say, 'Socrates died like a philosopher, but Jesus Christ like a God.'" This public recognition of the influence of these readers upon the mind and character of this great preacher is again noted in Rev. Joseph Fort Newton's biography of David Swing in which the books which influenced that life are named as "The Bible, Calvin's Institutes, Fox's Book of Martyrs and the McGuffey Readers;" and the author quotes David Swing as saying that "The Institutes were rather large reading for a boy, but to the end of his life he held that McGuffey's Sixth Reader was a great book. For Swing, as for many a boy in the older West, its varied and wise selections from the best English authors were the very gates of literature ajar." One of the most eminent political leaders of the present day attributes his power in the use of English largely to the study of McGuffey's Sixth Reader in the common schools of Ohio. [How a Japanese Learned English] At a dinner lately given in New York to Marquis Ito of Japan, the marquis responded to the toast of his health returning thanks in English. He then continued his remarks in Japanese for some eight minutes. At its close Mr. Tsudjuki, who was then the minister of Education in Japan, traveling with Marquis Ito as his friend and companion, and who had taken shorthand notes of the Japanese speech, rose and translated the speech readily and fluently into good English. One of the guests asked how he had learned to speak English so correctly. He replied that he had done so in the public schools of Japan and added, "I learned my English from McGuffey's Readers, with which you are no doubt familiar." [The Authorship] It is not unusual to see in the literary columns of a daily newspaper inquiries as to where certain poems may be found of which a single stanza is faintly recalled. Many of these prove to be fragments of pieces that are found in the McGuffey Readers. Quite lately Theodore Roosevelt made the public statement that he did not propose to become a "Meddlesome Matty." This allusion was perfectly clear to the millions of people who used the McGuffey Readers at any time after 1853. When the Fourth Reader was issued in 1837 it contained a preface of three closely printed pages setting forth and defending the plan of McGuffey's books. In this he said: "In conclusion, the author begs leave to state, that the whole series of Eclectic Readers is his own. In the preparation of the rules, etc., for the present volume he has had the assistance of a very distinguished Teacher, whose judgment and zeal in promoting the cause of education have often been commended by the American people. In the arrangement of the series generally, he is indebted to many of his friends for valuable suggestions, and he takes this opportunity of tendering them his thanks for the lively interest they have manifested for the success of his undertaking." The sole author of the four readers first issued as the Eclectic Readers was William Holmes McGuffey. He was responsible for the marked qualities in these books which met with such astonishing popular approval in all these years. What these qualities are is well known to those who have used the books and the users are numbered by millions. [The Rhetorical Guide] The Rhetorical Guide was prepared by Mr. A.H. McGuffey, and his name alone was on the early editions. In 1844 the book was revised by the author and Dr. Pinneo, and was given the alternate title "or Fifth Reader of the Eclectic Series." The work of revision occupied two years. The title page carried the name of its author until, for reasons of his own, he asked to have it removed. As usual when revisions of schoolbooks are made, the older edition was continued in publication so long as a distinct demand for it existed. But the issuance of a revised edition always suggests the question of change, which competing publishers promptly seek to bring about. The publishers of the "Newly Revised McGuffey Readers," therefore, sought to replace the older edition wherever it was in use and to displace competing books wherever possible. The edition of 1843 acquired large sales over a very wide territory in the central West and South. It is the edition generally known by the grandfathers of the school boys of the present day. It may be interesting to name some of the selections in this Rhetorical Guide issued in 1844 since in modified form the work has been the highest reader of the series. [Selections of Value] As a guide toward rhetorical reading the book contained a carefully prepared collection of rules and directions with examples for practice in Articulation. Inflection, Accent and Emphasis, Reading Verse, for the Management of the Voice and Gesture. These pages were intended for drill work, and in those days the teachers were not content with the dull monotonous utterance of the words or with mere mastery of thought, to be tested by multitudinous questioning. If the pupil obtained from the printed page the very thought the author intended to convey, the pupil was expected to read orally so as to express that thought to all hearers. If the correct thought was thus heard, no questions were needed. The test of reading orally is the communication of thought by the reader to the intelligent and attentive hearer, and the words of the author carry this message more accurately than can any other words the pupil may select. [Noted Selections] The selections in the Rhetorical Guide were made, first of all, to teach the art of reading. There was therefore great variety. Second, to inculcate a love for literature. Therefore the selections were taken from the great writers,--poets, orators, essayists, historians, and preachers. The extracts are wonderfully complete in themselves,--one does not need to read the whole of Byron's Don Juan to appreciate the six stanzas that describe the thunder-storm on the Alps. Of the poetical extracts all the users of this book will remember Southey's "Cataract of Lodore" with its exacting drill on the ending,--"ing," Longfellow's "Village Blacksmith" and the "Reaper and the Flowers;" Bryant's "Thanatopsis" and "Song of the Stars;" Wolfe's "Burial of Sir John Moore;" Gray's "Elegy;" Mrs. Hemans's "Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers;" Cowper's "My Mother's Picture;" Jones's "What Constitutes a State;" Scott's "Lochinvar;" Halleck's "Marco Bozzaris;" Drake's "American Flag;" and Mrs. Thrale's "Three Warnings." As an introduction to the thought, imagery and diction of Shakespeare, there were "Hamlet's Soliloquy," "Speech of Henry Fifth to his Troops," "Othello's Apology," "The Fall of Cardinal Wolsey" and his death, the "Quarrel of Brutus and Cassius" (often committed to memory and spoken) and Antony's Oration over dead Caesar. The extracts from orations were chosen largely for their relation to great events in history. There were Patrick Henry's "Speech before the Virginia Convention," Walpole's "Reproof of Mr. Pitt," and Pitt's reply. Who cannot remember "The atrocious crime of being a young man," and go on with the context? There were extracts from Hayne's "Speech on South Carolina," and Webster's reply defending Massachusetts; a part of Burke's long speech on the Trial of Warren Hastings prefaced by Macaulay's description of the scene; Webster's "Speech on the Trial of a Murderer," ending with "It must be confessed, it will be confessed; there is no refuge from confession but suicide, and suicide is confession;" Webster's speech on the Importance of the Union with its concluding sentiment, "Liberty and Union, now and forever; one and inseparable." There was also Fox's "Political Pause" with its wonderful requirements of inflection to express irony; Sprague's "American Indians," "Not many generations ago, where you now sit, encircled with all that exalts and embellishes civilized life, the rank thistle nodded in the wind, and the wild fox dug his hole unscared." Did you not commit it to memory and speak it? Then there was Webster's Speech in which he supplied John Adams from his own fervid imagination that favorite of all patriotic boys, "Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish; I give my hand and my heart to this vote." At its close, "it is my living sentiment, and, by the blessing of God, it shall be my dying sentiment; independence now, and independence forever." [Literary Selections] From the essayists there was Lamb's "Eulogy on Candle Light;" that delightful "Eulogy on Debt" from an unknown author; Addison's "Allegory on Discontent," and "Westminster Abbey;" and Jane Taylor's "Discontented Pendulum." Only seven selections were taken from the Bible; but one of these was Paul's Defense before Agrippa. There were, however, quite a number of articles of strongly religious tendency, like Dr. Spring's "Observance of the Sabbath." The book contained two hundred and thirty-five selections and of this number nearly one-half appeared in all subsequent revisions. This Rhetorical Guide or Fifth Reader is the book that by its careful selection of specimens of the best English literature in prose and verse contributed most to the training of its readers toward the appreciation of true beauty in literature. It contained many pieces of solid and continuous worth,--many that relate closely to the great historical eras of the United States. [McGuffey's Ancestry] In the latest revision of the highest reader, made in 1879, one hundred and thirty-eight selections composed the book. Of this number sixty-one were in the original book as prepared by Mr. A.H. McGuffey. It was an admirable collection of much material that is still prized and which, when carefully read by pupils hungry for thoughtful language, made a deep and lasting impression. In many cases the inmost thought of the author may not have been at once fully apprehended by the young readers; but with advancing years and wider experience in life the stored words became instinct with thought and feeling. THE AUTHORS. Dr. William Holmes McGuffey was born September 28, 1800, on the southern border of Washington county, Pa. The family descended from William and Anna (McKittrick) McGuffey who came from Scotland, and landed at Philadelphia. They made a home in the southern part of York county, at which, during the Revolution, General Washington often stopped to refresh himself. In 1789 this family removed to Washington county, Pa. [The Indian Scouts] Alexander McGuffey, the father of Dr. McGuffey, was six years old when the family came to America in August, 1774. In 1790, when he was twenty-two years of age, he and his friend, Duncan McArthur, afterward a governor of Ohio, were selected from five young men who volunteered to act as scouts against the Indians in Ohio who were then threatening the frontier settlements in the western part of Virginia and Pennsylvania. These two young men were selected after tests by Samuel Brady to find which could run the fastest, shoot most accurately, and were least afraid of Indians. Alexander McGuffey served in the army three years, venturing his life with small bodies of scouts in the Indian country. He took part in several fights with the Indians. When General St. Clair in 1792 marched north from Cincinnati to meet the Indians, this body of scouts was one day concealed in a swamp near the spring of Castalia, Ohio. There they saw great numbers of Indians passing to meet General St. Clair, and three of the scouts hastened through the Indian country to inform the general. They traveled only at night and hid during the day. One night they marched forty miles. They told General St. Clair what they had seen and again went out to watch the collecting Indians. Three days later St. Clair was defeated. These scouts were then twelve miles away but the retreating soldiers soon overtook them and then the "woods were alive with Indians." The scouts turned eastward and in due time reached Logstown, near Wheeling. [Indian Warfare] The next year McArthur, McGuffey and George Sutherland were again sent out by General Wayne to spy the Indians. When only seven or eight miles from Wheeling and west of the Ohio river, they came upon a trail which led to a deer lick. Just at dusk McGuffey, who was leading the party, saw in the path the gaily decorated head-dress of an Indian. It had been placed there by the Indians who were in ambush close by and were ready to shoot any white man who should stop to pick it up. McGuffey saw through the stratagem instantly; without halting, he gave it a kick and shouted "Indians!" Several Indians fired at once and one of the balls smashed McGuffey's powder horn, and passed through his clothing, but did not wound him. The three scouts retreated in safety, and the Indians did not follow them. The wars with the Indians in that region closed in 1794, and Alexander McGuffey then married Anna Holmes, of Washington county, and became a settler. His eldest son was William Holmes McGuffey. When this son was but two years old the family moved to Trumbull county, Ohio. Here, in the care of a pious mother and father, he spent the years of childhood and of early manhood, performing the labors falling upon the eldest son in a large family of children dwelling in a log cabin on the frontier. From the heavy forest, fields were cleared, fenced and cultivated, roads were made and bridges were built, and in all these labors the sturdy son of the famous Indian scout took part. [A Frontier School] During the first eighteen years of W.H. McGuffey's life he had no opportunities for education other than those afforded by the brief winter schools supported by the voluntary subscriptions of the parents in the neighborhood. In 1802 Rev. Thos. Hughes, a Presbyterian clergyman, built at Darlington, Pa., the "Old Stone Academy" for the education of young men, having obtained the necessary funds by traveling on horseback throughout Pennsylvania and eastward even to Newburyport, Mass. This seminary of learning was conducted on lines of the utmost economy to meet the needs of the boys living on the frontier. The tuition was only three dollars a year and the charge for board was seventy-five cents a week. The food was simple. For breakfast, bread, butter, and coffee; for dinner, bread, meat, and sauce; for supper, bread and milk. The only variation allowed in this bill of fare was the occasional omission of sauce or coffee. [The Old Stone Academy] At the close of a summer day in 1818, Thomas Hughes was riding horseback through Trumbull county. The dust on the highway deadened the sound of his horse's feet. While passing a log cabin, half hidden from the road by intervening trees and shrubs, he heard the plaintive voice of a woman who was in the garden, out of sight. The clergyman stopped his horse and listened. He heard the woman earnestly praying that some way might be opened for her children to obtain such education as should fit them for the duties of life. Riding on, the clergyman inquired at the next house regarding the inmates of the log cabin. He was informed that a Mr. McGuffey lived there. Turning back he sought the prayerful mother and learned from her the circumstances of the family. The doors of the "Old Stone Academy" were opened to William H. McGuffey and he there obtained his first start in a preparation for college. But his labor could not be wholly spared on the farm so lately won from the surrounding forest. He worked in the fields in summer, continuing his studies and walked many miles once a week to recite his lessons to a kindly clergyman. W.H. McGuffey's father was too poor to aid his son in obtaining a collegiate education, and the latter soon turned to teaching as a means of obtaining money to support himself in college. When prepared for college he went back to his native county and entered Washington College. He was in his twenty-sixth year when he graduated with distinguished honors from that institution. It was at Washington College that W.H. McGuffey first met with a great teacher and former of character,--Dr. Andrew Wylie, then the president. It was considered by Dr. McGuffey one of the most fortunate events of his life that he came at that time under the influence of Dr. Wylie's forceful mind and elevated character. [A College Professor] Dr. McGuffey was obliged to suspend his collegiate course for a year to earn more money for his support. He taught a private school at Paris, Ky., in 1823 and 1824. There he met Dr. Robert H. Bishop, the president of Miami University at Oxford, Ohio. Dr. Bishop was so impressed with the character and mental power of the young teacher that on March 29, 1826, even before McGuffey received his bachelor's degree from Washington College, he received his appointment as professor of Ancient Languages at Miami University. He graduated in 1826 and began his labor at Oxford, Ohio, at the opening of the fall session. He at once took high rank in a faculty consisting of strong men, and, young as he was, won the respect and homage of the students. In 1832 he was transferred to the chair of Mental Philosophy. To make this subject interesting and valuable to beginners requires, on the part of the teacher, wide reading, clearness of thought, and simplicity and directness of speech. These qualities Dr. McGuffey had. He had become well read in philosophy, especially of the Scottish school, Brown being his favorite author. But he had fully assimilated the matter and had thought independently. He also had a fund of fresh and suggestive illustrations coming within the daily experience of men, which brought his lectures close to the minds of the students. Whatever positions of honor or of trust his pupils held in their later careers, they never ceased to feel the impulse which came from Dr. McGuffey as a teacher. On March 29, 1829, he was licensed as a preacher in the Presbyterian church, and from that date he became a frequent public speaker. He never had charge of a parish as minister, but usually preached on Sunday in the college chapel to the students and to such of the public as could obtain space to sit or to stand. The preacher's unassuming manner, the clearness of his thought, and the simplicity of his language produced impressions that were enduring. He never wrote his sermons. He simply thought them out rigorously, and his mind worked so logically and in such definite lines that he could repeat on request a sermon, preached years before, in a form recognized by his hearers as substantially the same. [Cincinnati College] After ten years spent in teaching and preaching at Miami University, Dr. McGuffey resigned, August 26, 1836, and accepted the presidency of Cincinnati College. This institution was chartered in the winter of 1818-1819 by the legislature of Ohio, largely at the solicitation of Dr. Daniel Drake. It was partially endowed by the gifts of the public-spirited citizens of Cincinnati. But its collegiate functions had been allowed to drop, although a school on the Lancastrian system was maintained. The election of Dr. McGuffey as president of this college was a result of renewed activity on the part of the leading men in the city to found a genuine college of high character in that city. They believed that if well conducted such an institution would bring to its doors students enough to support the college by their fees. A medical department was organized in June, 1835, with eight competent professors, a law department with three professors, and a faculty of arts with seven teachers. In this faculty, William H. McGuffey was president and professor of Moral and Intellectual Philosophy, O.M. Mitchell was professor of Mathematics and Astronomy, and Edward D. Mansfield was professor of Constitutional Law and History. Dr. McGuffey accepted the presidency with a full knowledge that the work was experimental. A trial of three years demonstrated that a college could not be sustained without an invested endowment. Cincinnati College "was endowed with genius, and nothing else." [Ohio University] In 1839, Dr. McGuffey accepted the presidency of the Ohio University at Athens, Ohio, which office he held for four years. During these years his faculties were at their fullest development. He had become an experienced, scholarly teacher and a popular speaker on religious and educational subjects. The students at Athens held him in the highest esteem, and the influence of his teaching became deeper as years rolled by and experience emphasized his lessons. In 1839 he was honored with the degree of Doctor of Laws conferred upon him by the Indiana University, of which his former teacher and friend, Dr. Wylie, was then president. The income of the Ohio University came chiefly from the rents of two entire townships of land which had been given it for an endowment. This land was lawfully revalued at the end of ten years. The revaluation was contested in the courts by the tenants. The Supreme Court decided in favor of the university; but the farmers induced the legislature in 1843 to pass a law which fixed the income of the university from these lands at a sum so low as to cause the doors of the institution to be closed for five years. Dr. McGuffey returned to Cincinnati and was for two years a professor in Woodward College, now Woodward High School. [University of Virginia] In 1845 he was appointed professor of Natural and Moral Philosophy in the University of Virginia. This position he filled with credit to himself and with great acceptance to the students in that institution for more than a quarter of a century and until his death on May 4, 1873. Dr. McGuffey's classes in the University of Virginia were well attended. His lectures were delivered extempore, in language exactly expressing his thoughts. His illustrations were most apt. He taught "with the simplicity of a child, with the precision of a mathematician, and with the authority of truth." [Method of Teaching] A portion of the lecture hour was given to questioning the members of the class. In this he used the Socratic method, leading the pupil by a series of questions to the discovery of the incorrectness of his reasoning or the falsity of his grounds. By this process the students were led to question their own reasoning, to think clearly and to express their thoughts accurately. Dr. McGuffey once told a pupil that he had preached three thousand sermons and had never written one. Until late in life he had never written his lectures. Shortly before his death he began the preparation of a book on Mental Philosophy. This was never completed. Dr. McGuffey was twice married. By his first wife. Miss Harriet Spinning of Dayton, he had several children. One daughter, Mary, married Dr. William W. Stewart of Dayton; another, Henrietta, married Professor A. D. Hepburn who was for a time president of Miami University. Professor Hepburn's son, in turn inheriting his grandfather's faculty of teaching, is a professor in the University of Indiana. [Interest in Public Schools] In 1837 Professor Calvin E. Stowe went to Europe to investigate the organization and method of elementary schools. On his return he published, in 1838, his report on the Prussian system. Subsequently Dr. McGuffey labored in Ohio with Samuel Lewis and other public-spirited men for the passage of the general school law under which the common schools of Ohio were first organized. He carried to Virginia the same zeal for the education of all the children of the state to prepare them for the duties of life. One of his first acts on assuming the duties of his professorship in the university was to make a tour of the state advocating the introduction of a public school system in Virginia. To this first appeal for common schools, open alike to rich and poor, there was then but a feeble response; but, twenty-five years later, Dr. McGuffey had the satisfaction of seeing the public schools organized with one of his own friends and a former pupil at its head,--Hon. W.H. Ruffner. Dr. McGuffey was a man of medium stature and compact figure. His forehead was broad and full; his eyes clear and expressive. His features were of the strongly marked rugged Scotch type. He was a ready speaker, a popular lecturer on educational topics, and an able preacher. He was admirable in conversation. His observation of men was accurate, and his study of character close. [Trip Through the South] After the Civil War and while the reconstruction was in progress it was extremely difficult in the North to obtain a correct view of the situation in the South. State governments had been established in which "carpet-baggers" had more or less control. Nearly all the whites in the South had taken part in the war. They were largely disfranchised and their former servants often became the legal rulers. The Klu Klux Klan had begun their unlawful work, of which the papers gave contradictory reports. As business men, the publishers of McGuffey's Readers desired to learn the truth about the situation of the South and its probable future. They asked Dr. McGuffey to take a trip through the Carolinas, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi and make report to them at Cincinnati. This he did, visiting all the larger towns where he was usually the honored guest of some graduate of the university. He saw the legislatures in session, met the governors, and studied the whole situation. He then came to Cincinnati and told his story. He had made no notes, but he never hesitated for a name. He repeated conversations with unquestioned accuracy and described with humor the gross ignorance and brutality of some of the southern legislators, the looting of the capitol at the end of the session, the indirect robbery that was under way, the reversal of all the conditions of life, and the growing unrest of the men who had heretofore been the rulers. It was such a picture as at that time no Northern paper would have dared to print--it was the truth. For days he held his listeners captive with the story--the writer never heard a more interesting one. [College of Teachers] While Dr. McGuffey was still at Oxford, Ohio, he took part in the formation of probably the first extended Teachers' Association formed in the West. There had been a previous association of Cincinnati teachers organized for mutual aid and improvement. This was about to be given up; but at their first anniversary on June 20, 1831, Mr. Albert Pickett, principal of a private school in Cincinnati, proposed a plan for organizing in one body the instructors in public and private schools and the friends of education. Circulars were sent out and the first meeting of the College of Teachers was held October 3, 1832. A great number of teachers from many states of the West and South attended these meetings and took part in the proceedings. Throughout its continuance Dr. McGuffey took an active part in the work. In the years 1832-1836 fifty-seven addresses were delivered to the College by thirty-nine speakers. Of this number Dr. McGuffey prepared and delivered three. [Topics Discussed] The proceedings of the College of Teachers were published in annual pamphlets which together formed two large octavo volumes. The topics which were then under discussion are best shown by the titles of a few of the addresses, with the name of the speaker and the year of delivery: On Introducing the Bible into Schools, Rev. B.P. Aydelott, 1836; Importance of making the business of Teaching a Profession, Lyman Beecher, D.D., 1833; The Kind of Education Adapted to the West, Professor Bradford, 1833; Qualifications of Teachers, Mr. Mann Butler, 1832; Physical Education, Dr. Daniel Drake, 1833; On Popular Education, John P. Harrison, M.D., 1836; On the Study and Nature of Ancient Languages, A. Kinmont, 1832; On Common Schools, Samuel Lewis, Esq., 1835; On the Qualifications of Teachers, E.D. Mansfield, Esq., 1836; Reciprocal Duties of Parents and Teachers, Rev. W.H. McGuffey, A.M., 1835; General Duties of Teachers, Albert Pickett, 1835; Philosophy of the Human Mind, Bishop Purcell, 1836; Utility of Cabinets of Natural Science, Joseph Ray, 1836; Agriculture as a Branch of Education, Rev. E. Slack, 1836; Education of Emigrants, Professor Calvin Stowe, 1835; Best Method of Teaching Composition, D.L. Talbott, 1835; Manual Labor in the Schools, Milo G. Williams. Some of these topics are still engrossing the attention of teachers at their annual meetings for the discussion of live educational questions. While Dr. McGuffey was at Oxford, teaching mental philosophy to the pupils in Miami University, he prepared the manuscript for the two lower readers of the graded series which bore his name. To test his work while in progress, he collected in his own house a number of small children whom he taught to read by the use of his lessons. It is evident that these readers were prepared at the solicitation of the publishers and on such a general plan as to number and size as was desired by the publishers. Dr. McGuffey was selected by them as the most competent teacher known to them for the preparation of successful books. He did not prepare the manuscripts and search for a publisher. [The Copyright Contract] On April 28, 1836, he made a contract with Truman & Smith, publishers of Cincinnati, for the preparation and publication of a graded series of readers to consist of four books. The First and Second readers were then in manuscript, the Third and Fourth readers were to be completed within eighteen months. They were both issued in 1837. Dr. Benjamin Chidlaw, then a student in college, aided the author by copying the indicated selections and preparing them for the printer. He received for this work five dollars and thought himself well paid. These four books constituted the original series of the Eclectic Readers by W.H. McGuffey which in all the subsequent revisions have borne his name and retained the impress of his mind. The First Reader made a thin 18mo book of seventy-two pages, having green paper covered sides; the Second Reader contained one hundred and sixty-four pages of the same size. The Third Reader had a larger page and was printed as a duodecimo of one hundred and sixty-five pages. The fourth Reader ranked in size with the Third and contained three hundred and twenty-four printed pages. Each was printed from the type, which was distributed when the required number for the edition came from the press. By the terms of the contract the publishers paid a royalty of ten per cent on all copies sold until the copyright should reach the sum of one thousand dollars, after which the Readers became the absolute property of the publishers. It must be remembered that in those days this sum of money seemed much larger than it would at the present time, and it may be questioned whether this newly organized firm of publishers commanded as much as a thousand dollars in their entire business. At any rate the contract was mutually satisfactory and remained so to the end of the author's life. Right here it seems proper to remark that although the McGuffey readers became the property of the publishers when the royalties reached one thousand dollars. Dr. McGuffey was employed by the publishers in connection with important revisions so long as he lived and the contracts specify a "satisfactory consideration" in each case. [Later Contracts] When, after the Civil War, these readers attained a sale which became very profitable to the firm then owning the copyrights, the partners, without suggestion or solicitation, fixed upon an annuity which was paid Dr. McGuffey each year so long as he lived. This was a voluntary recognition of their esteem for the man and of the continued value of his work. [The Beecher Family] Before Dr. McGuffey completed the manuscripts of the Third and Fourth readers he left Oxford and went to Cincinnati. Here he found himself in close touch with a community fully alive to the claims of education. Cincinnati, in 1837, was the largest city in the West excepting New Orleans and was the great educational center of the West. The early settlers of Cincinnati were generally well educated men and they had a keen sense of the value of learning. The public schools of Cincinnati were then more highly developed than those of any other city in the West. Woodward High School had been endowed and Dr. Joseph Ray, the author of the well known arithmetics, was the professor of mathematics there. The Cincinnati College was then bright with the promise of future usefulness. Lane Seminary was founded and Dr. Lyman Beecher was inducted professor of Theology on December 26, 1832, and became the first president. He went to Cincinnati with his brilliant family. His eldest daughter, Catherine, had already won a high reputation as a teacher, acting as principal of the Hartford (Conn.) Female Institute. His younger daughter, Harriet, married, in January, 1836, Calvin E. Stowe, then one of the professors in Lane Seminary. It was while in Cincinnati that she gathered material and formed opinions which she later embodied in "Uncle Tom's Cabin." In 1834 Henry Ward Beecher graduated at Amherst College. He and his brother, Charles, then went to Cincinnati to study theology under their father. While pursuing his studies Henry Ward Beecher devoted his surplus energies to editorial work on the Cincinnati Daily Journal. These were some of the people of Cincinnati interested in the problem of education who took part with Dr. McGuffey in the discussions of the College of Teachers and labored zealously for the promotion of education in every department. While president of Lane Seminary. Dr. Beecher was also the pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church in Cincinnati where W.B. Smith was an attendant. [Alexander H. McGuffey] Dr. McGuffey left Cincinnati in 1839, and when the publisher, Mr. Winthrop B. Smith, found it necessary to add to the four McGuffey's Readers another more advanced book, he employed for its preparation, Mr. Alexander H. McGuffey, a younger brother of Dr. McGuffey. Mr. Alexander H. McGuffey had, in 1837, prepared for Messrs. Truman & Smith the manuscript of McGuffey's Eclectic Spelling Book, and although the nature of this task was very different from the preparation of a reader for the highest grades in the elementary schools, the result showed that the publishers judged wisely in selecting a man competent to prepare a selection from English literature. [Illustration: ALEXANDER H. McGUFFEY] Mr. Alexander Hamilton McGuffey was born August 13, 1816, in Trumbull County, Ohio. He was sixteen years younger than his brother, William, and when only ten years of age was placed under charge of his brother at Oxford, Ohio. There he studied Hebrew before he had any knowledge of the grammar of his mother tongue. He was a brilliant student, and he graduated from Miami University at the age of sixteen. Soon after graduation he was appointed Professor of Belles Lettres at Woodward College. In this field of labor his knowledge of English literature was broadened and he acquired a love for the classic English writers that lasted through life. But Mr. McGuffey determined to become a lawyer and, while still teaching English literature in Woodward College, he read law. He was admitted to the bar as soon as he reached his twenty-first year, and became a noted and wise counsellor. His labor for his clients was in keeping them out of the courts by clearly expressed contracts and prudent action. He was seldom engaged in jury trials; but was expert in cases involving contracts and wills. In such suits his knowledge of the principles of law and his power of close reasoning were valuable. He was often placed in positions of trust, and was for more than fifty years the watchful guardian of the interests of the Cincinnati College. [The Rhetorical Guide] He prepared the manuscript of the Rhetorical Guide after the close of his labor as a teacher. The work probably occupied his leisure time in a law office before he acquired remunerative practice in his profession. [McGuffey's Sixth Reader] The contract between Mr. A.H. McGuffey and W.B. Smith, dated September 30, 1841, provided for the preparation within eighteen months, of the manuscript of a book to be called McGuffey's Rhetorical Reader, or by any other appropriate name which Mr. Smith might select. It was to contain not less than three hundred and twenty-four duodecimo pages nor more than four hundred and eighty. Mr. Smith paid five hundred dollars for it, in three notes payable in three, twelve, and eighteen months after the delivery of the manuscript. The book was issued in 1844 as McGuffey's Rhetorical Guide. Its material, revised by its author, later became, in modified form, the Fifth Reader in the five-book series, and again much of the same material was used in the Sixth Reader published first in 1855. Mr. A.H. McGuffey died at his home on Mt. Auburn, Cincinnati, on June 3, 1896. He was twice married. His first wife, married in 1839, was Miss Elizabeth M. Drake, daughter of the eminent Dr. Daniel Drake. After her death he married Miss Caroline V. Rich of Boston. He had a large family. A son, Charles D. McGuffey. Esq., lives at Chattanooga, Tenn. Mr. A.H. McGuffey was a noteworthy figure in any assemblage of men. He was tall, slender and erect. His manner was urbane and reserved. He served on many charitable and educational boards and was attentive to his trusts. He was an active member of the Episcopalian Church, being many years a warden in his parish, and frequently a delegate to the Diocesan Convention, where he was a recognized authority on Ecclesiastical Law. In a life of nearly eighty years in which he was active in many educational and beneficent enterprises his early work in the preparation of the Rhetorical Guide probably exercised the widest, the best, and the most enduring influence. Many of the newspapers in all parts of the country published notices of his death, recognizing in kindly terms the service that had been rendered the writers by the schoolbook of which he was the author. THE PUBLISHERS AND EDITORS. Since the McGuffey Readers became at an early day the absolute property of their publishers, they became responsible for all subsequent revisions and corrections of the books. [Truman & Smith] The firm of Truman & Smith was organized about 1834 by William B. Truman and Winthrop B. Smith. Both had had some experience in the business of selling books. It is highly probable that this firm became for a short time the Western agent for some schoolbooks made in the East. But Mr. Smith soon perceived a distinct demand for a series adapted to the Western market and supplied near at hand. He had the courage to follow his convictions. Mr. Winthrop B. Smith was born in Stamford, Conn., September 28, 1808, the son of Anthony and Rebecca (Clarke) Smith. He was, in his youth, an employee in a book-house in New Haven. At the age of eighteen he went to Cincinnati, declaring that he would not return to his home until he was independent. He labored there fourteen years before he returned, not rich, but established in an independent career. He often declared that until 1840, he was "insolvent, but no one knew it." Before entering business, Mr. Smith received a sound common school education. This, grounded on a nature well endowed with common sense, great energy, and strong determination, qualified him for success in business. He became a man of great originality, clear-headed and far-sighted. Toward his employees he was just, but exacting. He was a good judge of the character and qualities of other men, and was thus able to bring to his aid competent assistants who were loyal and effective. Mr. Smith married in Cincinnati on November 4th, 1834, Mary Sargent. He died in Philadelphia, December 5th, 1885, in his 78th year. Of his family, one son is a banker in Philadelphia. [Their First Publications] The firm of Truman & Smith published several miscellaneous books, mostly reprints of standard works likely to have a steady sale. Their first venture in a copyrighted book was "The Child's Bible with Plates; by a lady of Cincinnati," which was entered on June 2, 1834. On June 21st of the same year the firm entered the titles of three books: "Mason's Sacred Harp," a collection of church music by Lowell Mason of Boston, and Timothy B. Mason of Cincinnati; "Introduction to Ray's Eclectic Arithmetic," by Dr. Joseph Ray; and "English Grammar on the Productive System," by Roswell C. Smith. Of these four books the arithmetic was issued on July 4, 1834. It was the firm's first schoolbook. In revised and enlarged form it later became the first book in the successful series of "Ray's Arithmetics." But even in those early days, books would not sell themselves unless their qualities were made known to the public. Agents had to be employed--and at first Mr. Smith was his own best agent. There were expenses for travel and for sample books, for advertising, as well as for printing and binding. [Illustration: W.B. Smith] The Truman and Smith team did not always pull together. Mr. Truman was not versed in the schoolbook business. Mr. Smith was. [The Dissolution] It is said that Mr. Smith went early one morning to their humble shop on the second floor of No. 150 Main street, and made two piles of sample books. In one he put all the miscellaneous publications of the firm, big and little--the Child's Bible and Sacred Harp among them--and on top of the pile placed all the cash the firm possessed; in the other, were half a dozen small text books, including the four McGuffey Readers. When Mr. Truman arrived, Mr. Smith expressed the desire to dissolve the partnership, showed the two piles and offered Mr. Truman his choice. He pounced on the cash and the larger pile and left the insignificant schoolbooks for Mr. Smith, who thereupon became the sole owner of McGuffey's Readers. This separation of the partnership took place in 1841 and although there is no documentary evidence of the exact method in which it was brought about, the division of assets was in accord with the spirit of the incident as handed down by tradition. [A Lesson in Copyright Law] Mr. Truman's apparent disgust with the schoolbook business may have come in part from a lawsuit in which his firm was made a defendant. Sooner or later, publishers are quite likely to obtain some elementary instructions as to the meaning and intent of the copyright law through action taken in court. Messrs. Truman & Smith took a lesson in 1838. On October 1st of that year Benjamin F. Copeland and Samuel Worcester brought suit in the court of the United States against Truman & Smith and William H. McGuffey for infringement of copyright, alleging that material had been copied from Worcester's Second, Third, and Fourth Readers and that even the plan of the two latter readers had been pirated. A temporary injunction was issued December 25, 1838; but before that date the McGuffey Readers had been carefully compared with the Worcester Readers and every selection was removed that seemed in the slightest degree an invasion of the previous copyright of the Worcester Readers. As these McGuffey books were still not stereotyped, it cost no more to set up new matter than to reset the old. On the title page of each book appeared the words, "Revised and Improved Edition," and two pages in explanation and defense were inserted. In these the publishers stated that certain compilers of schoolbooks, in New England, felt themselves aggrieved that the McGuffey books contained a portion of matter similar to their own which was considered common property, and had instituted legal proceedings against them with a view to the immediate suppression of the McGuffey books and in the meantime had provided supplies of the Worcester books to meet the demand of the West. [Avoidance of Issue] No objection was raised to meeting these compilers on their own grounds; but for both parties there was another tribunal than the law. "The public never choose schoolbooks to please compilers." They stated that to place themselves entirely in the right and remove every cause for cavil or complaint they had expunged everything claimed as original, and substituted other matter, which, both for its fitness and variety would add to the value of the Eclectic Readers. Throughout this preface, after stating the facts regarding the suit, there was a strong claim for the support of Western enterprise. Although in this appeal the publishers stated that the correspondences between the two series were "few and immaterial," a careful comparison of the early edition of the Second Reader with the "Revised and Improved Edition" shows that Mr. Smith took out seventeen selections and inserted in their places new matter. To an unprejudiced examiner it appears that the new matter was better than the old. The old marked copy of Worcester's Second Reader, preserved for all these years, shows ten pieces that were used in both books. It thus appears that the publisher took this opportunity to improve the books as well as to make them unassailable under the copyright law. In three months between the bringing of the suit and the granting of an injunction, Mr. Smith had made his improved edition safe and rendered the injunction practically void. [The Suit Settled] The court proceeded in the usual manner and appointed a master to examine the books and make report to ascertain what damage had been inflicted on the owners of the Worcester Readers. But Mr. Smith was an attendant in church and doubtless had heard Dr. Beecher read, "Agree with thine adversary quickly while thou art in the way with him, lest at any time the adversary deliver thee to the judge, and the judge deliver thee to the officer, and thou be cast into prison," and he had no desire to remain there until he had "paid the uttermost farthing." When the master, in the leisurely execution of his duty, made his report nearly two years later, the court found that the defendants had removed from their books the pirated parts and that the suit had been settled by paying the plaintiffs two thousand dollars. There was no further contest about the plan of the two books. The Worcester Readers had a short and inconspicuous life. When this suit was brought, their publishers were Richardson, Lord and Holbrook of Boston. In 1836 Charles J. Hendee published them, and in 1854 they appeared with the name of Jenks, Hickling & Swan of Boston. These several publishers were probably gobbled up by some imaginary Book Trust sixty years ago. Dr. McGuffey undoubtedly inserted these selections innocent of any wrong intent and supposed them to be in common use. [Early Popular Schoolbooks] As early as 1848 the success of the Eclectic Readers was sufficient to excite imitation and in the First Reader of that year Mr. Smith printed four preliminary pages warning his patrons not to be deceived by "Newman's Southern Eclectic Readers." In the first century after the settlement of this country the New England Primer had a history which in some respects resembles that of the McGuffey Readers. In that case, the settlers were widely removed from the source of supply which had in past years served their needs. The Primer was strongly religious and fully in accord with the faith of the people. It served as a first book in reading and was followed by the Bible. This Primer was not protected by copyright and any enterprising bookseller or printer in a remote town could manufacture an edition to supply the local demand. The excessive cost of transportation was thus avoided. [Changed Conditions] Somewhat similar causes contributed to the widespread use and long-continued demands for Webster's Spelling Book, which was copyrighted. This book had the support of the authority of Webster's Dictionary--an original American work; and it soon became a staple article of merchandise which was kept in stock in every country store. It supplanted the New England Primer and became the first book in the hands of every pupil. Less marked in its religious instruction, the speller spread through the South and into regions where the people were not trained in the Puritan doctrines. The wonderful sales of Webster's Spelling Book remained for many years after the War; but have now dropped to insignificance. It is not probable that other books will under present conditions repeat the history of these books. There is now no wide region of fertile country rapidly filling with settlers and separated from their former sources of supply by great distance and by mountain ranges unprovided with passable roads. Even the more newly settled regions of the country are reached by railroads and the parts early settled are covered by a network of railroads, of telegraph and telephone wires which bring the consumer and the producer near together. In the manufacture of books as with most other articles, machinery has taken the place of hand work. When W.B. Smith carried on his business in the second story over a small shop on Main street, Cincinnati, nearly every process in the manufacture of a book was mere hand labor. The tools employed were of the simplest character. Now a book-factory is filled with heavy machines of the most complicated kind, which in many cases feed themselves from stocks of material placed upon them. New machines are constantly being invented to cheapen and perfect the manufacture. Thus a very large investment of capital is now required to set up and maintain a plant which can produce books economically and with perfect finish in every part. Books are seldom manufactured in places remote from the large cities and very few of the publishers of schoolbooks make the books which they sell. They contract for them with printers and binders. [Stereotyped Editions] The first four editions of McGuffey's Readers were printed from the actual type, as all books were once printed; but before 1840 the readers were produced from stereotyped plates. The use of such plates enabled the publisher to secure greater accuracy in the work and also enabled him to present books that in successive editions should be exactly the same in substance as those already in use. Since that date electrotype plates have displaced stereotypes, as they afford a sharper, clearer impression and endure more wear. In a First Reader printed in the fall of 1841 there are two pages of advertising matter in which Truman & Smith claimed to have sold 700,000 of the Eclectic Series. This book is bound with board sides and a muslin back and a careful defense of this binding is made, claiming that the muslin is "much more durable than the thin tender leather usually put upon books of this class." This statement was unquestionably true. The leather referred to was of sheepskin and of very little strength, but it took very many years to convince the public of the untruth of the saying, "There is nothing like leather." [Dr. Pinneo, Editor] It is said that Mr. Smith, in the early days of his career as a publisher, himself made the changes and corrections which experience showed were needed; but, about 1843, he employed Dr. Timothy Stone Pinneo to act under his direction in literary matters. [Dr. Pinneo's Work] Dr. Pinneo was the eldest son of the Rev. Bezaleel Pinneo, an early graduate of Dartmouth College, who was for more than half a century pastor of the First Congregational Church in Milford, Conn. Dr. Pinneo was born at Milford in February, 1804. His mother was a woman of culture, Mary, only daughter of the Rev. Timothy Stone of Lebanon, Conn., a graduate of Yale College. Dr. Pinneo graduated at Yale in the class of 1824. A severe illness in the winter after his graduation made it necessary for him to spend his winters in the South until his health was sufficiently restored to enable him to pursue the study of medicine. He taught for a time in the Charlotte Hall Institute, Maryland, and then removed to Ohio. He acted one year as professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in Marietta College. He studied medicine in Cincinnati and received the degree of Doctor of Medicine from the Ohio Medical College in 1843. On June 1, 1848, he married Jeanette Linsley, daughter of Rev. Dr. Joel H. Linsley, at one time president of Marietta College. Dr. Pinneo was for eighteen years a resident in Cincinnati. In 1862 he went to Greenwich, Conn., where he was occupied in literary work and in the conduct of a boys' boarding school. In 1885, after his wife's death, he removed to Norwalk, Conn., where he died August 2, 1893. Two daughters and a son survived him. Dr. Pinneo contributed materially to the revisions of McGuffey's Readers made in 1843 and in 1853; but both these revisions passed through the hands of Dr. McGuffey, then at the University of Virginia, and were approved by him. It does not appear that Dr. Pinneo exercised any personal authority over the readers. He was employed, for moderate amounts, to prepare revisions which were satisfactory to both publisher and author. In the revision of 1843, his work was confined to the Third and Fourth readers. The First and Second readers were remade by Daniel G. Mason, then a teacher in the schools of Cincinnati. In the revision of 1853 the entire series passed through Dr. Pinneo's hands. He probably corrected the proof sheets. Dr. Pinneo's latest work on the McGuffey Readers was done in 1856. After leaving Cincinnati, Dr. Pinneo prepared, and Mr. Smith published, a series of grammars--the Analytical, issued in 1850, and the Primary, in 1854. He was also the author of a High School Reader and of Hemans's Young Ladies' Readers. These books had for some years a considerable sale. [Obed J. Wilson] As early as 1853 Mr. Obed J. Wilson was in the office of Mr. Smith as an employee. Mr. Wilson was born in Bingham, Maine, in 1826, and earned his first money as an axman in the pine forests which were in that day near his native town. He obtained, in the common schools, sufficient education to become a teacher and he never ceased to be a student, thus acquiring a broad acquaintance with English literature. He taught in the schools of Cincinnati when he first went West. There his abilities soon attracted the attention of Mr. Smith, who employed him. For some years he traveled as an agent, chiefly in Indiana and Wisconsin, introducing the books of the Eclectic Series. He gradually became Mr. Smith's trusted assistant, particularly in the direction of the work of agents and in the selection of new books, and their adaptation to the demands of the field. He married Miss Amanda Landrum, who was also a skilled teacher in the Cincinnati schools. Mrs. Wilson was responsible for a revision of the McGuffey First Reader made in 1863. She also at that time corrected the plates of the higher numbers of the series. For many years thereafter Mr. Wilson was the chief authority for Mr. Smith and his successors in literary matters, and few men excelled him in breadth of reading and in discriminating taste. Mr. Wilson lives in his home near Cincinnati which is filled with the choice books which he has read and studied so faithfully, and he still has the companionship of the wife who has been his constant helpmate for more than half a century. Mr. Winthrop B. Smith was the sole proprietor of the McGuffey Readers and his other publications from 1841 until about 1852. He then admitted as partners, Edward Sargent and Daniel Bartow Sargent, his wife's brothers, and the firm name became W.B. Smith & Co. [Eastern Publishers] While books could be manufactured in the West even in the early years cheaper than they could be delivered in the West from the better organized establishments in the older cities of the East, it was not possible to deliver books in New York from Cincinnati so cheaply as the books could be made in the East. The cost of transportation constituted a very considerable element in the price of schoolbooks. Mr. Smith therefore made an arrangement with Clark, Austin & Smith, of New York, to become the Eastern publishers of the McGuffey Readers and other books, and a duplicate set of plates was sent to New York. From these plates, editions of the readers were manufactured, largely at Claremont, N.H., bearing on the title page the imprint of Clark, Austin & Smith, New York. The Smith of this firm was Cornelius Smith, a brother of Winthrop B. Smith. Cornelius Smith withdrew from this firm before 1861. In that year the war broke out, and this New York firm, which as booksellers and stationers had a large trade in the South, lost not only their custom in that section, but were unable to collect large amounts due them for goods. Clark, Austin, Maynard & Co. failed and Mr. W.B. Smith bought, in 1862, all their assets for the sum of $6,000, placed Mr. W.B. Thalheimer in charge of the business and resumed control of the duplicate plates of the McGuffey Readers. From the location of Cincinnati on the Ohio river, then affording the cheapest means of distributing goods to all parts of the South, Mr. Smith had obtained, before 1860, a very considerable part of the schoolbook trade in the Southern states of the Mississippi Valley. The opening of the Civil War swept this trade away and left on the books of the firm in Cincinnati many accounts not then collectible. The continuance of the war and the constant fluctuations in the price of materials, due to the use of paper money, joined to advancing age and ill health, all combined to lead Mr. Smith to withdraw from business. [New Firm Formed] A new firm, Sargent, Wilson & Hinkle, was organized April 20, 1863, with Edward Sargent, Obed J. Wilson and Anthony H. Hinkle as general partners, and with W.B. Smith and D.B. Sargent as special partners. These active partners had long been in this business, Mr. Sargent as a partner and bookkeeper, Mr. Wilson as literary editor of skill and judgment and also a forceful manager of agents, Mr. Hinkle as a thoroughly skilled binder and manufacturer. Winthrop B. Smith and D.B. Sargent remained as special partners, furnishing capital but taking no part in the direction of the business. [Southern Reprint] The Confederate States, at the opening of the War, had within their limits no publisher of schoolbooks which had extensive sales. Nearly all of the schoolbooks used in the South were printed in the North. But there were printing offices and binderies in the South. The children continued to go to school, and the demand for schoolbooks soon became urgent. To meet this demand, a few new schoolbooks were made and copyrighted under the laws of the Confederacy; but others were reprints of Northern books such as were in general use. The Methodist Book Concern of Nashville, Tenn., reprinted the McGuffey Readers and supplied the region south and west of Nashville until the Federal line swept past that city. This action on the part of the Methodist Book Concern had the effect of preserving the market for these readers, so that as soon as any part of the South was strongly occupied by the Federal forces, orders came to the Cincinnati publishers for fresh supplies of the McGuffey Readers. This unexpected preservation of trade was of great benefit to the firm of Sargent, Wilson & Hinkle. [Wilson, Hinkle & Co.] In 1866 the special interests were closed out, and Mr. Lewis Van Antwerp was admitted as a partner. On April 20, 1868, the firm of Sargent, Wilson & Hinkle was dissolved. Mr. Sargent retired and the new firm, Wilson, Hinkle & Co., bought all the assets. At this date Mr. Robert Quincy Beer became a partner. Mr. Beer had long been a trusted and successful agent and he was put in charge of the agency department. Under this partnership the business gradually became systematized in departments. One partner had in charge the reading of manuscripts and the placing of accepted works in book form, one had charge of the manufacture of books from plates provided by the first, and one of finding a market for the books. At the first organization of the firm of Wilson, Hinkle & Co., Mr. Wilson was the literary manager as well as the director of agency work. Mr. Hinkle was the manufacturer, having control of the printing and binding, and Mr. Van Antwerp had charge of the accounts. Mr. Beer was brought in to relieve Mr. Wilson in the direction of agents. But Mr. Beer died suddenly, January 3, 1870, and the surviving partners soon sought for another competent and experienced man to take his place. [Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co.] Mr. Caleb S. Bragg had for years acted as the agent for a list of books selected by him from the publications of two or three publishers and was a partner in the firm of Ingham & Bragg, booksellers of Cleveland, Ohio. Mr. Bragg sold his interest in the business in Cleveland and became a partner in Wilson, Hinkle & Co., on April 20, 1871; and at the same time Henry H. Vail and Robert F. Leaman, who had for some years been employees, were each given an interest in the profits although not admitted as full partners until three years later. Mr. Hinkle's eldest son, A. Howard Hinkle, was brought up in the business, and the contract for 1874 provided that he should be admitted as a partner, with his father's interest and in his place, when that contract expired in 1877. The contract of 1874 was preparatory to the voluntary retirement of both Mr. Wilson and Mr. Hinkle. Consequently, on April 20, 1877, the firm of Wilson, Hinkle & Co. was dissolved and the business was purchased by the new firm. Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., of which Lewis Van Antwerp, Caleb S. Bragg, Henry H. Vail, Robert F. Leaman, A. Howard Hinkle, and Harry T. Ambrose were the partners. This firm continued unchanged until January 1, 1892, except for the untimely death of Mr. Leaman on December 12, 1887, and the retirement of Mr. Van Antwerp, January 2, 1890, just previous to the sale of the copyrights and plates owned by the firm to the American Book Company. This sale, completed May 15, 1890, did not then include the printing office and bindery belonging to the firm. These were used by the firm of Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co. until January 1, 1892, in manufacturing books ordered by the American Book Company. The American Book Company became, on May 15, 1890, the owners, by purchase, of all the copyrights and plates formerly owned by Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co. The four active partners in that firm, each of whom had then been in the schoolbook business some twenty-five or thirty years, entered the employ of the American Book Company. Mr. Bragg and Mr. Hinkle remained in charge of the Cincinnati business, Mr. Vail and Mr. Ambrose went to New York; the former as editor in chief, the latter was at first treasurer, but later became the president. [A Vigorous Firm] Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co. issued many new and successful books and remade many, including the McGuffey Readers and Speller, Ray's Arithmetics and Harvey's Grammars. Most of these met with acceptance and this was so full and universal throughout the central West as to give opportunity to the competing agents of other houses to honor Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co. with such titles as "Octopus" and "Monopoly," names that were used before "Trusts" were invented. They also called the firm in chosen companies, "Van Anteup, Grabb & Co." These were mere playful or humorous titles in recognition of the fact that this firm had, by its industry, skill and energy, captured a larger share of the patronage of the people than was agreeable to its competitors, and they, in despair of success by fair means, resorted to the old-fashioned method of calling their antagonist bad names. The best books, if pressed vigorously and intelligently, were sure to win in the end, and the people who used the books cared little what name appeared at the foot of the title-page. In all important book contests the firm that holds possession of the field is much in the situation of the tallest man in a Kilkenny Fair. His head sticks up above the crowd and therefore gets the most knocks. [Revisers and Editors] The latest revision of the McGuffey Readers, five books, was prepared and published by the American Book Company in 1901, under the same general direction as the revision of 1878; but the actual work was done by Dr. James Baldwin who was the author of the Harper Readers and of Baldwin's Readers. Even in this latest edition there are in the higher books many selections that appeared in the earliest. Care was taken to maintain the high moral tone that so clearly marked Dr. McGuffey's work and to bring in from later literature some valuable new material to displace that which had proved less interesting and less instructive. These books acquired at once a large sale, and the sales of the previous editions are still remunerative. Of the men connected with these successive owners of these copyrights it seems proper to name those who directed the revisions which took place. It is evident that none were undertaken without long and anxious discussions as to the need of revision and of its nature. In such decisions all partners would take part; but finally the actual direction must come into the hands of some one partner whose experience and qualification best fitted him for literary work. As has been seen, Mr. Winthrop B. Smith was for a few years, while the business was still in its infancy, the sole owner and the manager of every part of his business. Mr. Pinneo contributed aid from 1843 to 1856; but even before his work was finished Mr. O.J. Wilson's skill became recognized and his mind was dominant in literary matters so long as he remained a partner--until 1877. But in the meantime he had carefully trained a successor in the editorial work, and from 1877 until 1907 the responsibility fell upon him. [New Competitors] The story of the revisions of 1843 and 1853 has been told. The books were apparently in satisfactory use in a large part of the West; but about 1874 the firm thought it wise to exploit a new series. At its request Mr. Thomas W. Harvey prepared a series consisting of five books. This series was published in 1875; but the experience of a few years with the Harvey Readers showed that the people still preferred the McGuffey Readers and after long discussion and hesitation it was agreed that these should again be revised. This determination was hastened by the publication of the Appleton Readers in 1877, and by the incoming of a number of skilled agents pushing these books in the field that had for many years been held so strongly for the McGuffey Readers as to baffle the best endeavors of two or three Eastern publishers who had tested the market. The Appleton Readers were prepared by Mr. Andrew J. Rickoff, then superintendent of the Cleveland schools; Mr. William T. Harris, then superintendent of the St. Louis schools, and Professor Mark Bailey of Yale College. They were largely aided in the lower readers by Mrs. Rickoff. These books, with this array of scholarly and well-known authors, illustrated with carefully prepared engravings, well printed and well bound, became at once formidable competitors for patronage and went into use in many places where the McGuffey Readers had served at least two generations of pupils. The Harvey Readers stood no chance in this competition. [The Revision of 1878] On April 9, 1878, the firm of Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co. determined upon making a new series of readers bearing the well-recognized title of McGuffey's Eclectic Readers and distinguished as a "Revised Edition." Some details of the plan as presented by the partner having literary matters in charge were agreed to. The method of teaching in the first reader was to be adjusted to a phonic-word method, and the gradation was to be improved. The selections of the older books were to be retained except where they could be improved. In accordance with this resolution the editor invited four persons to aid, during the summer, in this work. These were Thomas W. Harvey of Painesville, Ohio; Robert W. Stevenson, of Columbus; Edwin C. Hewett, of Bloomington, Ill.; and Miss Amanda Funnelle, of Terre Haute, Indiana. Each was a teacher of wide experience. To these assistants assembled in Cincinnati the plan of revision was fully explained and the work was alloted. Miss Funnelle and Mr. Stevenson took charge of the first three readers, Mr. Harvey and Dr. Hewett of the three higher books. All were perfectly familiar with the old books and in a few days substantial agreement was reached as to the changes needed. By two months of constant and intelligent labor the manuscripts assumed approximate form. The opening of the schools called the assistants back to their homes and the editor of the firm shaped the manuscripts for the text and procured the necessary illustrations. These were made, regardless of cost, by the best artists and engravers to be found in the country. When the plates were finished, the publishers printed several hundred copies of each of the three smaller books and distributed them as proofs to selected teachers in many states, asking them for criticisms and suggestions. The answers made were of great value. The First Reader was entirely re-written by the editor and the plates of other readers were made more perfect. In this revision the three lower books were almost entirely new. The Fourth was largely new matter, while in the Fifth and Sixth such matter as could not be improved from the entire field of literature, was retained. The Fifth and Sixth readers furnished brief biographies of each author and contained notes explanatory of the text. These were new features and they proved valuable at that date. [Preparations for a Fight] As soon as these books were completed, large editions were printed and they were most vigorously exploited not only to take the place of the older edition of McGuffey Readers, but to supplant the newly introduced Appleton Readers. This book-fight was a long and bitter one. Every device known to the agency managers of the houses engaged was employed. Even exchanges of books became common. It was war; and like every war was carried on for victory and not for profit. It is perhaps fortunate that such contests cannot in the nature of things last long. In the long run business must show a profit or fail. Contrary to popular opinion, a book war is not profitable in itself; but it is a form of competition that has existed for fully a century. It presents no novelties even now. [Success Attained] The two chief combatants at length withdrew with one accord. Neither firm could claim entire victory; but the McGuffey readers came through with much the larger sales and these increased for years. By this contest the firm of Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co. won a reputation as fighters that protected them in after years from ill-considered attacks by its competitors. The revised edition of the McGuffey Readers, having no author's name on the title page, designed and compiled under the direction of the publishers, but retaining the moral excellences and literary qualities that had been affixed to the series from its origin, attained the largest sales that have as yet been accorded by the public to a single series of books. Of the Sixth Reader, which must have the least sale, over a million copies have been distributed, as shown by the edition number. Of the First Reader more than eight million copies have been used. [Other Competitors] At no time in the history of these readers have they been without formidable competition. Pickett's Readers were published in Cincinnati as early as 1832. Albert Pickett was at one time president of the College of Teachers and his books were published by John W. Pickett, who was probably his brother. Later some additional books were prepared by John W. Pickett, M.D., LL.D., and published by U.P. James in 1841, and by J. Earnst in 1845. These readers were vigorously pushed into the market for several years, but in the end were unsuccessful. The Goodrich Readers published by Morton & Griswold in Louisville, Ky., were perhaps the most constant competitors with the McGuffey Readers in the early years throughout the states of the Mississippi Valley. These were prepared by S.G. Goodrich, the author of the then popular "Peter Parley Tales." The readers were originally published in Boston and some copies bear the imprint of Otis, Broaders & Co. They were first copyrighted in 1839 and were frequently revised. They finally became the property of the Louisville publisher. Mr. Smith and Mr. Morton kept up a most vigorous schoolbook war, especially in Ohio, Indiana and Kentucky in the years from 1845 to 1860. Cobb's Readers, copyrighted in 1845, were published for some time in Cincinnati by B. Davenport. These were once widely introduced but soon went out of use. It was very much the custom in those early days, before the railroads made transportation quick and cheap for Eastern publishers to furnish a set of plates to some enterprising bookseller in the West or to print an edition for him with his imprint. Ebenezer Porter's Rhetorical Reader copyrighted in 1835 was sold largely in the western market by William H. Moore, of Cincinnati, and in 1848 the books bore his imprint. Thus there was ample competition for the market even at this early date. The Pickett Readers, Cobb Readers, Goodrich Readers, and even the excellent Rhetorical Reader of Ebenezer Porter were all swept out of the schools by the superior qualities of the McGuffey Readers and the persistent energies of their publishers. [Humorous Advertising] In these books the publishers found space for a little advertising of their wares. In Pickett's Readers there is printed conspicuously at the top of a page a warm commendation of Pickett's Readers, written in 1835 by William H. McGuffey, Professor at Miami University, in which he "considers them superior to any other works I have seen." That was before he made his own readers. Mr. Smith responded by publishing a strong commendation of one of his books signed by Mr. Albert Pickett. Life is seldom devoid of the lesser amenities. The Willson Readers, published by the Harper Brothers, were vigorously pushed into the schools of Ohio and Indiana about 1867. The first supply was usually sold to the school authorities by agents who operated on the commission plan. Thus the agents had an interest in the introduction sales, but cared nothing about the continuance of sales in after years. Booksellers, meanwhile, kept the McGuffey Readers in stock, and whenever new readers were desired these were easily obtained. In a few years the Willson Readers were out of the schools. Of course, there was no lack of traveling agents and of circulars which freely criticised these Willson Readers, which were constructed to teach not only reading but science. After a short time the children wearied of reading about bugs and beetles they had never seen and gladly welcomed the books that had a single aim. [Enduring Qualities] In the eyes of a publisher a good schoolbook is one that can be readily introduced and one that will stay when it is put in use. The officials who adopt a schoolbook are not the users of the book. They are adults long past the school age. Cases have been known when in important adoptions the majority of the adopting board had not seen the inside of a school room for twenty-five years. Of course such men are far behind the schools. They are governed by their own past experience. When the teachers are allowed to have a voice in the way of advice, the real needs of the pupils obtain more consideration. But the final real judge of the merits of a schoolbook is the boy or girl who uses it. If the book is truly pedagogical, adjusted in every part to the average mental development of the child, it becomes a valuable tool in the school room. If on the other hand it is a mere collection of novelties such as catch the eye of inexpert judges and impress merely the imagination, the books may be introduced; but they won't stay. [Child Nature] The McGuffey Readers had staying qualities. Teachers often became so familiar with their contents that they needed no book in their hands to correct the work, but to each child the contents of the book were new and fresh. It is the fashion of the present day to exalt the new at the expense of the old. But the child of today is very much such as Socrates and Plato studied in Greece. The development of the human mind may be more generally understood than it was then; but it may be doubted whether the mass of teachers are today wiser in the results of child-study than were the philosophers of ancient days. Child nature remains the same. At a given stage in his upward progress, he is interested in much the same things. He is led to think for himself in much the same way, and the whole end and aim of education is to lead toward self activity. The readers that deal simply with facts--information readers--may lodge in the minds of children some scraps of encyclopedic information which may in future life become useful. But the readers that rouse the moral sentiments, that touch the imagination, that elevate and establish character by selections chosen from the wisest writers in English in all the centuries that have passed since our language assumed a comparatively fixed literary form, have a much more valuable function to perform. Character is more valuable than knowledge and a taste for pure and ennobling literature is a safeguard for the young that cannot be safely ignored. The success of the McGuffey Readers was due primarily to their adaptation to the general demand of the schools and secondarily to the energy and skill of their publishers. [Moral Teaching] The books in their first form were strongly religious in their teaching without being denominational. If a selection taught a moral lesson this was stated in formal words at the close. The pill was not sugared. Thus at the close of a lesson narrating the results of disobedience, the three little girls assembled and "they were talking how happy it made them to keep the Fifth Commandment." There was in the books much direct teaching of moral principles, with "thou shalt" and "thou shalt not." In the later revisions this gradually disappeared. The moral teaching was less direct but more effective. The pupil was left to make his own deduction and the formal "haec fabula docet" was omitted. The author and the publishers were fully justified in their firm belief that the American people are a moral people and that they have a strong desire that their children be taught to become brave, patriotic, honest, self-reliant, temperate, and virtuous citizens. In some of these books the retail price is printed. In 1844 the retail price of the First Reader was twelve and a half cents. It contained 108 pages. In the same year, the Second Reader of 216 pages was priced at 25 cents. The Fourth Reader cost 75 cents, and contained 336 pages. These prices were in a market when the day's wage of a laboring man was only fifty cents. Relatively to the cost of other articles, schoolbooks were not nearly so cheap as they are now. [Copyright Files] When Truman & Smith began publishing, the copyright law required the deposit of titles and copies of the several books in the office of the Clerk of the District Court. At first such deposits were made in Columbus, Ohio, but later in Cincinnati. When Congress organized the Copyright Bureau in Washington, the several clerks were required to send to the Library of Congress all the sample copies deposited; but these had been carelessly kept and many were lost. A duplicate set was for years required to be sent to the Smithsonian Institution in Washington. These were also passed into the custody of the Librarian of Congress; but this collection had been carelessly preserved and the files of the McGuffey Readers at Washington are now quite defective for the earliest issues. The Library seems to have no copy of any number of the first edition except possibly the Second and Fourth. The copy of the Second was deposited December 12, 1836. The Fourth bears date of July, 1837. All the other early copies found in that library are of later dates and are "Revised and Improved." [Early Engravings] It may be well to indicate in a general way the progress that has been made in illustrating schoolbooks. The first editions of the McGuffey Readers as issued in 1836 and 1837 did not contain a single original engraving. All seem to have been copied from English books. The nice little boys wear round-about jackets with wide, white ruffled collars at the neck. The proper little girls have scoop bonnets and conspicuous pantalets. Most of the men wear knee breeches. The houses shown have the thatched roofs of English cottages. In one picture a boy has a regular cricket bat. Other schoolbooks of that date show similar appropriations of English engravings; but even at that time there were a few wood engravers in America. When the second general revision was made in 1843 some original illustrations appeared and in the edition of 1853 notice was given on the title page that the engravings were copyright property that must not be used by others. As pictures are closely studied by children, some of the users of these early books may remember the cut showing vividly the dangers of "whale catching." Two boats are thrown high in the air by one sweep of the animal's tail and one seaman is shown head downward still in the boat. Another represented Jonah being cast overboard from the ship toward the whale below whose mouth is manifestly large enough to accommodate Jonah. But the engravings in this edition of 1853 had no considerable artistic quality and they were very coarsely engraved. In 1863 came the first employment of a genuine artist in wood engraving. This was Mr. E.J. Whitney who had made a reputation by work done for New York publishers. His engravings were to take the place of some then in the books and their sizes were precisely determined. The drawings were most carefully made by Mr. Herrick with pencil on the whitened boxwood blocks, and sent to the publisher for examination. These, when approved, were returned to the engraver who followed precisely the lines of the drawing. When the engraving was finished, a carefully rubbed proof on India paper was sent to the publisher. If this was satisfactory, the block was delivered and from it an electrotype was made for printing. The block itself was preserved as an original. Mr. Whitney's work was thoroughly good. He was a wood engraver of the old school. [New Processes] When the revision of 1878 was decided on, the publishers of the McGuffey Readers realized that much improvement must be made in the illustrations. About this time the magazines were placing great stress upon pictorial work and a new school of engravers came into existence. The wood engravers had already departed from the painful reproduction of each line of a pencil drawing and had become skilled in representing tints of light and shade if placed on the whitened block with a brush. This gave greater freedom of interpretation to the engraver. The next step was to have the drawing made large and reproduced on the block by photography. By this method most of the engravings were made for the edition of 1878. Care was taken to employ artists of reputation and the engravings were usually signed by the artist and by the engraver. Before the last edition came out in 1901, photo-engraving had nearly supplanted wood engraving. By this process the artist's drawing with the brush is reproduced in fine tints which, when well engraved and carefully printed, produce effective results. Pen and ink drawings are also reproduced in exact facsimile. By this process the hand work of the engraver is nearly eliminated. The blocks are sometimes retouched to produce effects not attained by the process work. The skill of the artist in making the drawing thus becomes all important. [Later Inventions] The introduction of color work in the schoolbooks intended for young children resulted from the invention of the three-color plates. From nature, or from a colored painting, three photographs are taken--one excluding all but the yellow rays of light, one for the red rays, and one for the blue. From these photographs three tint blocks are made which to the eye in many cases look exactly alike. From one of these an impression is made with yellow ink, exactly over this the red plate prints with red ink and this is followed by an impression from the blue plate. If the effects of the color screens of the camera are exactly reproduced by the printer's inks and with exactly the right amount of ink, the result is wonderfully satisfactory. What are the qualities in these McGuffey Eclectic Readers that won for them through three-quarters of a century such wide and constant use? [Character Building] The best answer to this question may be drawn from the many newspaper articles which appeared in Western and Southern papers after the death of one of the authors. There is general recognition on the part of the writers of these articles that while the books served well their purpose of teaching the art of reading, their greatest value consisted in the choice of masterpieces in literature which by their contents taught morality, and patriotism and by their beauty served as a gateway to pure literature. One editor, who used these books in his school career, said, "Thousands of men and women owe their wholesome views of life, as well as whatever success they may have attained to the wholesome maxims and precepts found on every page of these valuable books. The seed they scattered has yielded a million-fold. All honor to the name and memory of this excellent and useful man." [What Constitutes Real Value] One of the wise men of the olden time cared not who wrote the laws if he might write their songs. Among a people devoid of books the folk-songs are early lodged firmly in the mind of every child. They influence his whole life. The modern schoolbooks--particularly the readers--furnish the basis of the moral and intellectual training of the youth in every community. The McGuffey Readers, from their own peculiar inherent qualities, retained their hold upon the schools until in some states laws were passed which in their operation caused schoolbooks to be regarded as commodities estimated almost solely upon the cost of paper, printing and binding. The value of these material things can easily be ascertained and compared; but unless the print carries the lessons that help to form a life the paper is wasted and the pupil's most valuable time is misspent. The teaching power of a schoolbook cannot be weighed in the grocer's scales nor measured with a pint cup. In the field open to free and constant competition, the books best suited to the wants of each community will in the end succeed. It was under such conditions that the McGuffey Readers won and held their place in the schools. 
11065	----	AUNT MARY'S PRIMER ADORNED WITH A HUNDRED AND TWENTY PRETTY PICTURES 1851 [Illustration: Front Cover] [Illustration: Frontispiece: ANGLING. SHOOTING. A DONKEY RACE. HUNTING THE HARE. CHILDREN AT PLAY. A COUNTRY RIDE.] [Illustration] A FEW WORDS TO THE TEACHER. When Little Mary (or any other little girl or boy) knows all the letters perfectly, let the teacher turn over a page and pronounce one of the mono-syllables. Do not say _a, m, am_--but say _am_ at once, and point to the word. When the child knows that word, then point to the next, and say _as_, and be sure to follow the same plan throughout the book. Spelling lessons may be taught at a more advanced age; but it will be found that a young child will learn to read much more quickly if they be dispensed with in the Primer. In words of more than one syllable, it is best to pronounce each syllable separately, _car, pet_,--_po, ker_,--and so on. In the lesson on "Things in the Room," point out each thing as the child reads the word, and indeed, wherever you can, try to associate the word with its actual meaning. Show a child the word _coach_ as a coach goes past, and she will recollect that word again for ever. In the "Lesson on the Senses," make the child understand how to feel cold and heat, by touching a piece of cold iron or marble, and by holding the hand to the fire,--how to smell, to hear, to see, and to taste. In the "Lesson on Colours," be sure to show each colour as it is read; and endeavour to make every Lesson as interesting as you can. _Never weary a child with long lessons_. The little poem at the end is intended to be read to the child frequently, that she may gradually learn it by heart. J.C. * * * * * A a B b C c D d E e F f G g H h I i J j K k L l M m N n O o P p Q q R r S s T t U u V v W w X x Y y Z z _F N W B E H A P R Y S V Z C K D X O J U G I L Q M T_ _q o f m e g v p a h n y x b i w c j l s u d k t r z_ * * * * * am eg if ok ud as eb il or um an ed ip ot up and eke its old use are end ire oft urn arm elf imp ore uns an et ig od up man met gig god pup can pet big sod cup pan set pig pod sup at og an ar ir cat dog van are ire rat log vane hare fire grate clog vanes hares fires * * * * * [Illustration] Here is a Cat, and here is a Rat. [Illustration] The Hare runs from the Dog. [Illustration] The Fox will eat the Hen. * * * * * ail eat eel oil mail feat feel toil paid seas reed coil bait peas beer soil oat out ein bee boat rout rein been groat flout vein coo float trout skein moon lap-dog ink-stand wind-mill peg-top wood-cut wild-duck sky-lark sun-shine birds-nest ool ight arth hool eight earth chool might dearth school wright growth * * * * * [Illustration] A mad Bull runs fast. The Girl makes Lace. [Illustration] A Cart-load of Hay. The Horse trots well. [Illustration] The Man breaks the Ice. Here are some Pigs. * * * * * HERE ARE THE NAMES OF SOME THINGS IN THE ROOM. Ta-ble Car-pet Can-dle Po-ker But-ton Bas-ket So-fa Pic-ture Kit-ten Work-box Side-board Hearth-rug Cot-ton Fen-der Tea-urn Book-case Scis-sors Cur-tain * * * * * Am I to go out for a walk? Yes, you are to go out for a walk. Will you go with me? No, I can not go with you. Will Jane go for a walk with me? Yes, Jane and the dog will go with you. * * * * * A FIRST LESSON ON THE SENSES. [Illustration] Snow is white, and soft, and cold. Do you feel cold? The fire is red and is very hot. Do you feel hot? This is a pretty book. Do you see the pictures? Roses, Violets, and Pinks smell very sweetly. The Coach makes a noise as it goes. Did you hear it? Plum-cake is very nice. Would not you like to taste it? * * * * * A FIRST LESSON ON COLOURS. [Illustration: A Black-bird.] The Rose is red. This Ribbon is blue. Papa's coat is black. The Violet is purple. [Illustration: A Yellow-hammer.] Gold is yellow. The Grass is green. Milk is white. The Book-case is brown. * * * * * A FIRST LESSON IN WRITING. Ask Mama for a sheet of paper and a pencil. Make a line like this *I. What letter is it like? It is like the letter I. Now put another line across the top *T. What letter is that like? It is like T. Now draw two lines thus *L. Now another two lines, thus *V, and thus *X. Now three lines, thus *N, now thus *H, now *F, Now like this *K, now *A, now *Y, now *Z, Now draw four lines, thus *W, now *M, now *E, Now make a ring *O--like Mama's ring, Now make a line *I, add half a ring to it *D. Now make this *P, now this *B, now this *R, Now *C, now *G, now *Q, now *S, now *U. Here are all the large letters of the Alphabet. **(bold these into a larger sans-serif script, heavy)** * * * * * A FIRST LESSON IN NUMBERS. one six eleven fifty two seven twelve sixty three eight twenty seventy four nine thirty eighty five ten forty ninety How many stars are here * * * How many here * * * * * * * * There are twenty-four hours in a day. There are seven days in a week. There are four weeks in a month. There are twelve months in a year. These are the seven days,--Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday. These are the twelve months,--January, when it is often very cold; February, when it is dull and dirty; March, when the winds blow; April, when the flowers begin to come; May, when the trees are in bloom; June, when the hay is made: July, when it is so hot; August, when it is harvest time; September, when apples are ripe; October, when the farmers brew their best beer; November, when London is covered with fog; and December, when Christmas comes. * * * * * LARGE THINGS THAT WE SEE. [Illustration: Here is a House close to a Country Church.] [Illustration: The Barn stands behind the road-side Inn.] [Illustration: This is a Water-mill, and this is a Wind-mill.] [Illustration: Betty is in the Dairy, and Robert is beating a Walnut-tree.] [Illustration: A rustic Bridge, close by some Men making a Hay-stack.] [Illustration: A Pigeon-house.] [Illustration: A Man lighting a Gas-lamp.] COUNTRY EMPLOYMENTS. [Illustration: A Man Ploughing.] [Illustration: A Farmer sowing Seed.] [Illustration: Two Men Reaping.] [Illustration: A Man thrashing Corn.] [Illustration: Men and Women making Hay.] [Illustration: Two Girls Gleaning.] [Illustration: Betty milks the Cows, while John cuts down trees.] [Illustration: Women picking Hops.] [Illustration: Cows drinking Water.] [Illustration: They wash Sheep before they cut off their Wool.] LONDON CRIES. [Illustration: Fruit! Oranges and Apples.] [Illustration: Buy my Straw-berries!] [Illustration: Any Chairs to mend?] [Illustration: Come and see the Giant!] [Illustration: Remember the Sweeper.] [Illustration: Pray think of Poor Jack.] [Illustration: Dust O! Dust O!] [Illustration: Who will buy my flowers?] [Illustration: Fish O! All alive!] [Illustration: Do you want a link. Sir?] [Illustration: Any knives to grind?] [Illustration: Who'll buy my images?] TRAVELLING BY LAND. [Illustration: The Lord Mayor's Coach, and an Omnibus.] [Illustration: This Cab is going faster than the Brewer's Dray.] [Illustration: What a pretty Market-cart behind the Waggon.] TRAVELLING BY WATER. [Illustration: A Ship on the Sea, and a Steam-boat on the River.] [Illustration: Those Boats are going fast.] [Illustration: Her is a Coal-barge.] [Illustration: A Man on a Raft.] [Illustration: A handsome State-barge.] WILD ANIMALS. [Illustration: A large Elephant, and a tall Giraffe.] [Illustration: The Lion is handsome.] [Illustration: Bisons run in herds.] [Illustration: The Tiger is very fierce.] [Illustration: Camels are very docile.] [Illustration: The Wild Ass is beautiful.] [Illustration: So is the Leopard.] [Illustration: The Zebra is very wild.] [Illustration: Some Deer are in our parks.] [Illustration: The Wild-Boar lives in forests.] [Illustration: A long-tailed Monkey.] LARGE BIRDS. [Illustration: The Golden Eagle is larger than the Vulture.] [Illustration: The Ostrich is the largest bird.] [Illustration: Owls fly at night.] [Illustration: The Heron loves fish.] [Illustration: Storks build nests in Chimneys.] [Illustration: Swans are graceful birds.] [Illustration: The Cock has fine feathers.] [Illustration: The Goose hisses.] [Illustration: Turkey is good for dinner.] [Illustration: The Duck says Quack!] [Illustration: Men shoot Partridges.] DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Illustration: The Cow gives us milk.] [Illustration: The Ass brays.] [Illustration: The Horse runs fast.] [Illustration: The Greyhound runs faster.] [Illustration: The Goat jumps among the rocks.] [Illustration: Sheep give us wool.] [Illustration: The Mule is very sure-footed.] [Illustration: The Sow is dirty.] [Illustration: This dog is called a Spaniel.] [Illustration: The Squirrel cracks nuts.] [Illustration: The Guinea-pig squeaks.] [Illustration: The Mouse is fond of cheese.] SMALL BIRDS. [Illustration: The Cuckoo comes in the Spring.] [Illustration: A King-fisher.] [Illustration: The Turtle-dove lives in the woods.] [Illustration: A Swallow.] [Illustration: The Goldfinch is pretty.] [Illustration: The Nightingale sings sweetly.] [Illustration: The Red-breast picks up crumbs, so does the Sparrow.] [Illustration: The Water Wag-tail.] [Illustration: The Lark flies high in the air.] [Illustration: The Bull-finch is handsome.] [Illustration: The Wren is a small bird.] RURAL AMUSEMENTS. (_See the Frontispiece._) Do you see the man Angling. He is trying to catch fish with a hook and a line. That man is shooting partridges. The dog finds them for him in the fields. Oh, what fun! two boys riding a race on Donkeys to see which will get home first. The poor hare runs away from the dogs. I fear they will catch her. Here are some boys and girls at play. The man is smoking his pipe at the door. What a pleasant ride they will have in the Park on those Donkeys. * * * * * [Illustration] MY MOTHER. Who fed me from her gentle breast, And hush'd me in her arms to rest, And on my cheek sweet kisses prest? My Mother. When sleep forsook my open eyes, Who was it sung sweet lullaby, And soothed me that I should not cry? My Mother. Who sat and watch'd my infant head, When sleeping on my cozy bed; And tears of sweet affection shed? My Mother. Who lov'd to see me pleased and gay, And taught me sweetly how to play, And minded all I had to say? My Mother. Who ran to help me when I fell. And would some pretty story tell. Or kiss the place and make it well? My Mother. Who taught my infant heart to pray, And love God's holy book and day; And taught me wisdom's pleasant way? My Mother. And can I ever cease to be Affectionate and kind to thee, Who was so very kind to me, My Mother? Ah, no! the thought I cannot bear, And if God please my life to spare, I hope I shall reward thy care, My Mother. And when I see thee hang thy head, 'Twill be my turn to watch thy bed, And tears of sweet affection shed, My Mother. For God, who lives above the skies, Would look with vengeance in his eyes, If I should ever dare despise My Mother. [Illustration] 
14880	----	[Transcriber's Note: Welcome to the schoolroom of 1900. The moral tone is plain. "She is kind to the old blind man." The exercises are still suitable, and perhaps more helpful than some contemporary alternatives. Much is left to the teacher. Explanations given in the text are enough to get started teaching a child to read and write. Counting in Roman numerals is included as a bonus in the form of lesson numbers. The form of contractions includes a space. The contemporary word "don't" was rendered as "do n't". The author, not listed in the text, is William Holmes McGuffey. Passages using non-ASCI characters are approximately rendered in this text version. See the PDF or DOC versions for the original images. The section numbers are decimal in the Table of Contents but are in Roman Numerals in the body. Page headings are removed, but section titles are followed by the page on which they appear. Don Kostuch end transcriber's note] ECLECTIC EDUCATIONAL SERIES. MCGUFFEY'S (Registered) FOURTH ECLECTIC READER. REVISED EDITION. McGuffey Edition and Colophon are Trademarks of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York-Chichester-Weinheim-Brisbane-Toronto In revising the FOURTH READER, the aim has been--as it has with the other books of the Series--to preserve unimpaired all the essential characteristics of MCGUFFEY'S READERS. New articles have been substituted for old ones only where the advantage was manifest. The book has been considerably enlarged, and has been liberally illustrated by the first artists of the country. It can not be presumed that every pupil has at hand all the works of reference necessary for the proper preparation of each lesson; hence all the aids that seem requisite to this purpose have been given. Brief notices concerning the various authors represented have been inserted; the more difficult words have been defined, and their pronunciation has been indicated by diacritical marks; and short explanatory notes have been given wherever required for a full understanding of the text. Especial acknowledgment is due to Messrs. Houghton, Osgood & Co. for their permission to make liberal selections from their copyright editions of many of the foremost American author whose works they publish. COPYRIGHT, 1879, by VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG & Co. COPYRIGHT, 1896, by AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY. COPYRIGHT, 1907 and 1920, by H. H. VAIL. M'G 4TH REV. EP 309 INTRODUCTORY MATTER. SUBJECT. PAGE PUNCTUATION MARKS 7 ARTICULATION 9 ACCENT AND INFLECTION 23 SELECTIONS IN PROSE AND POETRY. TITLE. AUTHOR. PAGE 1. Perseverance Charlotte Elizabeth 25 2. Try, Try Again T. H. Palmer 28 3. Why the Sea Is Salt Mary Howitt 29 4. Why the Sea Is Salt Mary Howitt 32 5. Popping Corn 34 6. Smiles 35 7. Lazy Ned 38 8. The Monkey 39 9. Meddlesome Matty 42 10. The Good Son 44 11. To-morrow Mrs. M. B. Johnson. 45 12. Where there is a Will there is a Way 47 13. Piccola Celia Thaxter 48 14. True Manliness Mrs. M. Q. Johnson 50 15. True Manliness Mrs. M. O. Johnson 52 16. The Brown Thrush Lucy Larcom 54 17. A Ship in a Storm 55 18. The Sailor's Consolation Charles Dibdin 58 19. Two Ways of Telling a Story Henry K. Oliver 60 20. Freaks of the Frost Hannah Flagg Gould 63 21. Waste not, Want not 64 22. Jeannette and Jo Mary Mapes Dodge 67 23. The Lion 69 24. Strawberries J. T. Trowbridge 71 25. Harry's Riches 74 26. In Time's Swing Lucy Larcom 77 27. Harry and his Dog Mary Russell Mitford 79 28. The Voice of the Grass Sarah Roberts 83 29. The Eagle 84 30. The Old Eagle Tree Dr. John Todd 86 31. Alpine Song W. W. Story 88 32. Circumstances alter Cases 89 33. The Noblest Revenge 94 34. Evening Hymn 97 35. How Margery Wondered Lucy Larcom 99 36. The Child's World 103 37. Susie's Composition 104 38. The Summer Shower T. B. Read 109 39. Consequences of Idleness Abbott 110 40. Advantages of Industry Abbott 113 41. The Fountain Lowell 116 42. Coffee 117 43. The Winter King Hannah Flagg Gould 120 44. The Nettle Dr. Walsh 121 45. The Tempest James T. Fields 125 46. The Creator John Keble 126 47. The Horse Bingley 128 48. Emulation 132 49. The Sandpiper Celia Thaxter 134 50. The Right Way F. R. Stockton 136 51. The Golden Rule Emma C. Embury 139 52. The Snow Man Marian Douglas 143 53. Robinson Crusoe's House Daniel DeFoe 144 54. Robinson Crusoe's Dress Daniel DeFoe 147 55. Somebody's Darling 150 56. Knowledge is Power 151 57. Good Will J. T. Trowbridge 153 58. A Chinese Story C. P. Cranch 156 59. The Way to be Happy 159 60. The Giraffe 162 61. The Lost Child Abbott 165 62. Which? Mrs. E. L. Beers 168 63. The Pet Fawn Miss S. F. Cooper 172 64. Annie's Dream 175 65. My Ghost Mrs. S. M. B. Platt 178 66. The Elephant 180 67. Dare to do Right Thomas Hughes 183 68. Dare to do Right Thomas Hughes 186 69. Wreck of the Hesperus Longfellow 190 70. Anecdotes of Birds Hall 191 71. The Rainbow Pilgrimage Grace Greenwood 197 72. The Old Oaken Bucket Samuel Woodworth 202 73. The Sermon on the Mount 204 74. The Young Witness S. H. Hammond 207 75. King Solomon and the Ants Whittier 211 76. Rivermouth Theater T. B. Aldrich 213 77. Alfred the Great 216 78. Living on a Farm 220 79. Hugh Idle and Mr. Toil Hawthorne 221 80. Hugh Idle and Mr. Toil Hawthorne 224 81. Burning of Fallow Mrs. Susanna Moodie 227 82. Dying Soldiers 230 83. The Attack on Nymwegen Motley 233 84. The Seasons Spring H. G. Adams 237 Summer Lowell 237 Autumn Thomas Hood 238 Winter C. T. Brooks 238 85. Brandywine Ford Bayard Taylor 239 86. Brandywine Ford Bayard Taylor 242 87. The Best Capital Louisa M. Alcott 245 88. The Inchcape Rock Southey 249 89. My Mother's Grave 253 90. A Mother's Gift W. Fergusson 255 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. [See PDF or DOC versions.] SUBJECT PAGE Perseverance 25 Popping Corn 35 The Monkey 40 Piccola 49 True Manliness 53 A Ship in a Storm 56 Two Ways of Telling a Story 60 The Lion 69 Harry and his Dog 81 Circumstances alter Cases 92 Evening Hymn 98 How Margery Wondered 100 Susie's Composition 107 Coffee 117 The Horse 128 The Sandpiper 135 Robinson Crusoe's Dress 147 A Chinese Story 158 Which? 169 Which? 170 Dare to do Right 185 The Old Oaken Bucket 202 Rivermouth Theater 215 The Attack on Nymwegen 234 The Inchcape Rock 251 PUNCTUATION MARKS. (7) 1. The Hyphen (-) is used between syllables and between the parts of a compound word; as, No-ble, col-o-ny, and text- book, easy-chair. 2. The Comma (,), the Semicolon (;), and the Colon (:) denote grammatical divisions. NOTE--These marks do not indicate the comparative length of the pauses to be made where they occur. 3. The Period (.) is placed at the end of a sentence. It is also used after an abbreviation; as, God is love. Dr. Eben Goodwin. 4. The Interrogation point (?) denotes a question; as, Has he come? Who are you? 5. The Exclamation point (!) denotes strong feeling; as, Oh Absaom! my son! my son! 6. Quotation marks (" ") denote the words of another; as, God said, "Let there be light." 7. The Apostrophe (') denotes that a letter or letters are left out; as, O'er, for over; 't is, for it is. It also denotes the possessive case; as, John's hat. 8. The Curves ( ) include what, if omitted, would not obscure the sense. The parenthesis, or words included by the curves, should be read in a low key, and with greater rapidity than the rest of the sentence. 9. Brackets [ ] include something intended to exemplify what goes before, or to supply some deficiency, or rectify some mistake. 10. A Dash (-) denotes a long or significant pause, or an abrupt change or transition in a sentence. 11. Marks of Ellipsis (***) indicate the omission of letters of a word, or words of a sentence; as, P * * * * e J**n, for Prince John; the ******* was hung, for the traitor was hung. Sometimes a long line, or a succession of dots is used instead of stars; as, J--n A---s, for John Adams; the D..e W.....m, for the Duke William. 12. A Brace (}) is used to connect several lines or words together. 13. A Diaeresis is put over the latter of two vowels, to show that they belong to two distinct syllables; thus, cooperate. 14. A Section is used to divide a discourse or chapter into parts. 15. An Index points out something that requires particular attention. 16. A Paragraph denotes a new subject. It is used in the common version of the Bible. 17. Certain marks and sometimes figures and letters are used to refer to some remark in the margin. 18. A Caret (^) is used in writing, to show that some-thing is omitted; as, Manner. I love her for her modesty and virtue. ARTICULATION. (9) ELEMENTARY SOUNDS Articulation is the utterance of the elementary sounds of a language, and of their combinations. An Elementary Sound is a simple, distinct sound made by the organs of speech. The Elementary Sounds of the English language are divided into Vocals, Subvocals, and Aspirates. Vocals are those sounds which consist of pure tone only. They are the most prominent elements of speech. A diphthong is a union of two vocals, commencing with one and ending with the other. Subvocals are those sounds in which the vocalized breath is more or less obstructed. Aspirates consist of breath only, modified by the vocal organs. VOCALS. DIRECTIONS FOR ARTICULATION. 1. Let the mouth be open, and the teeth, tongue, and palate in their proper position. 2. Pronounce the word in the CHART forcibly, and with the falling inflection, several times in succession; then drop the subvocal or aspirate sounds which precede or follow the vocal, and repeat the vocals alone. TABLE. Long Vocals. Sound Word Sound Word a hate e err a hare i pine a far o no a pass u tube a fall u burn e eve oo cool Short Vocals. Sound Word Sound Word a mat o not e met u us i it oo book REMARK.--In this table, the short sounds, except u, are nearly or quite the same, in quality, as certain of the long sounds. The difference consists chiefly in quantity. As a rule, the long vocals should be prolonged with a full, clear utterance; but the short vocals should be uttered sharply and almost explosively. Diphthongs. oi, oy, as in coin, boy. ou, ow, as in noun, now. SUBVOCALS AND ASPIRATES. DIRECTIONS FOR ARTICULATION. Pronounce distinctly and forcibly, several times in succession, words in which these sounds occur as elements; then drop the other sounds, and repeat the subvocals and aspirates alone. Each subvocal in the first table should be practiced in connection with its cognate sound. Let the class repeat the words and elements, at first in concert; then separately. Select words ending with subvocal sounds for practice on subvocals; words beginning or ending with aspirate sounds, for practice on aspirates. COGNATE SOUNDS. Subvocals Aspirates Sound Example Sound Example b babe p rap d rod t at g fog k book j judge ch chat v live f file th them th myth z buzz s sink zh azure sh shine w win wh when REMARK.--These eighteen sounds make nine pairs of cognate sounds. In articulating the aspirates, the vocal organs are put in the position as required for the articulation of the corresponding subvocals; but the breath is expelled with some force, without the utterance of any vocal sound. Let the pupil verify this by experiment, and then practice on these cognates. The following sounds are not cognates. SUB VOCALS. Sound Example l mill m him n tin ng sing, think r (rough) rule r (smooth) car ASPIRATE. h, as in hat. SUBSTITUTES. Substitutes are characters used to represent sounds ordinarily represented by other characters. The following table indicates nearly every form of substitution used in the language: a few exceptional cases only are omitted TABLE OF SUBSTITUTES. Sub For as in Sub For as in a e any o oo to a o what o oo would c z suffice o u son c s cite ph v Stephen c k cap ph f sylph ch k ache q k liquor ch sh machine qu kw quote d j soldier s sh sure e i England s zh rasure e a there s z rose e a feint u e bury ee i been u i busy f v of u oo rude g j cage u oo pull gh f laugh x ks wax gh k lough x ksh noxious i e police x z Xerxes i e thirst x gz examine i y filial y e myrrh n ng rink y i my o u work y i hymn o i women z s quartz o a form VOCALS. Let the teacher utter each word, and then its vocal sound, and let the pupil imitate closely and carefully, thus: Mate, a; Rate, a: Man, a: Far, a: etc. a--Mate, rain, say, they, feint, gauge, break, vein, gaol a--Man, pan, tan, shall, lamp, back, mat, stand a--Far, hard, ah, aunt, heart, guard, psalm a--Ball, talk, pause, saw, broad, storm, naught, bought a--Was, what, wash, swap, nod, blot, knowledge e--Me, tree, sea, key, field, ceiling, people, police e--Met, bread, said (sed), says (sez), friend, heifer, leopard, guess, any (en'y), bury (ber'ry). e--Her, clerk, earn, were, first, myrrh. i--Pine, sign, lie, type, sleight, buy, guide, aisle, choir. i--Pin, fountain, been (bin), busy (biz'y), surfeit, sieve, hymn, build, myth. i--Sir, bird, girl, birch, mirth, birth. o--No, door, loam, hoe, soul, snow, sew (so), yeomen, bureau (bu'ro), hautboy (ho'boy). o--Not, blot, chop, throb, bother, body, wan. o--Nor, born, storm, cork, fork, small, stall. o--Wolf, woman, bushel, would, should, pull o--Move, who, tomb, group, soup, shoe, do, lose o.--Love, son, flood, front, shove, touch, does, tongue. oo--Wool, book, cook, rook, goodly. oo.--Food, troop, tooth, goose, spoon, noon. u.--Use, abuse, beauty, feud, view, adieu. u.--Rub, sum, sun, such, much, tuck, luck, trouble. u.--Fur, curl, hurt, burn, turn, spurn, work. u.--Full, bull, push, bush oi, oy.-Oil, point, voice, noise, boiler, boy, joy, alloy. ou, ow.-Our, sour, cloud, owl, now, bow, couch. SUB VOCALS. Let the sound of each letter be given, and not its name. After articulating the sounds, each word should be pronounced distinctly. b.--Be, by, boy, bib, sob, bite, bone, band, bubble. d.--Deed, did, dab, bid, bud, dead, door, indeed. g.--Go, gag, gig, bag, beg, fog, fig, girl, rag, log. j.--Jay, joy, jig, gill, job, judge, ginger, soldier. l.--Lad, led, dell, mill, line, lily, folly. m--Me, my, mad, mug, him, aim, blame. n.--No, now, nab, nod, man, sun, none, noun. r. (rough)--Rear, red, rough, riot, ripe, rude, ragged. r. (smooth)--Form, farm, worn, for, ear, manner. v.--Van, vine, vale, vivid, stove, of, Stephen. w.--We, woe, web, wed, wig, wag, wood, will, wonder. y.--Ye, yam, yon, yes, yarn, yoke, yawn, filial. z.--Zag, rose, rise, zone, lives, stars, suffice. zh.--Azure, osier, usual, measure, rouge (roozh). th.--Thee, thy, them, blithe, beneath, those. ng.--Bang, fang, gang, bring, sing, fling. ASPIRATES. f.--Fib, fob, buff, beef, if, off, life, phrase, laugh. h.--Ha, he, hub, had, how, hill, home, hire, horse. k.--Kill, bake, cat, cow, come, chord, black. p.--Pop, pig, lip, map, pipe, pope, apple, path, pile. s.--Sad, fuss, miss, cent, cease, sick, sound, sincere. t.--Hat, mat, toe, totter, tint, time, sleet, taught. sh.--Dash, shad, rush, sure, ocean, notion, passion, chaise. ch.--Chin, chop, chat, rich, much, church, bastion. th.--Thin, hath, think, teeth, truth, breath, pith. SUBVOCALS COMBINED. Utter the sounds only, and pronounce very distinctly. br.--Bred, brag, brow, brim, brush, breed, brown. bz, bst.--Fibs, fib'st, robs, rob'st, rubs, rub'st. bd, bdst.--Fibbed, fib'd'st, sobbed, sob'd'st, robbed, rob'd'st. bl.--Blab, blow, bluff, bliss, stable, babble, gobble. blz, blst.--Fables, fabl'st, nibbles, nibbl'st. bid, bldst.--Fabled, fabl'd'st, nibbled, nibbl'd'st. dr.--Drab, drip, drop, drag drum, dress, drink. dz, dst.--Rids, rid'st, adds, add'st, sheds, shed'st. dl.--Addle, paddle, fiddle, riddle, needle, idle, ladle. dlz, dlst.--Addles, addl'st, fiddles, fiddl'st. dld.--Addled, fiddled, huddled, idled, ladled. fr.--Fret, frog, from, fry, fresh, frame, free. fs, fst.--Cuffs, cuff'st, stuffs, stuff'st, doffs, doff'st. ft.--Lift, waft, drift, graft, soft, theft, craft, shaft. fts, ftst.--Lifts, lift'st, wafts, waft'st, sifts, sift'st. fi.--Baffle, raffle, shuffle, muffle, rifle, trifle, whiffle. fls, flst.--Baffles, baffl'st, shuffles, shuffl'st, rifles, rifl'st. fld, fldst.--Baffled, baffl'd'st, shuffled, shuffl'd'st. gr.--Grab, grim, grip, grate, grant, grass, green. gz, gst.--Begs, beg'st, digs, dig'st, gags, gag'st. gd, gdst.--Begged, begg'd'st, digged, digg'd'st. gl.--Higgle, joggle, straggle, glib, glow, glaze. glz, glst.--Higgles, higgl'st, juggles, juggl'st. gld, gldst.--Higgled, higgl'd'st, joggled, joggl'd'st. jd.--Caged, hedged, bridged, lodged, judged, waged. kr.--Cram, crag, crash, crop, cry, creel, crone, crown. kw, (qu).--Quell, quick, quite, quote, quake, queen. ks, kst, (x).--Kicks, kick'st, mix, mixed, box, boxed. kt, kts.--Act, acts, fact, facts, tact, tacts, sect, sects. kl.--Clad, clip, clown, clean, close, cackle, pickle. klz, klst.--Cackles, cackl'st, buckles, buckl'st. kld, kldst.--Cackled, cackl'd'st, buckled, buckl'd'st. lf.--Elf, Ralph, shelf, gulf, sylph, wolf. ld.--Hold, mold, bold, cold, wild, mild, field, yield. ldz, ldst.--Holds, hold'st, gilds, gild'st, yields, yield'st. lz, lst.--Fills, fill'st, pulls, pull'st, drills, drill'st. lt, lts.--Melt, melts, tilt, tilts, salt, salts, bolt, bolts. mz, mst.--Names, nam'st, hems, hem'st, dims, dim'st. md, mdst.--Named, nam'd'st, dimmed, dimm'd'st. nd.--And, lend, band, blonde, fund, bound, round, sound. ndz, ndst.--Lends, lend'st, hands, hand'st. ndl.--Handle, kindle, fondle, trundle, brindle. ndlz, ndlst.--Handles, halldl'st, kindles, kindl'st. ndld, ndldst.--Handled, handl'd'st, kindled, kindl'd'st. nks, nkst.--Banks, hank'st, sinks, sink'st. nkd.--Banked, clank'd, winked, thank'd, flank'd. nz, nst.--Wins, win'st, tans, tan'st, runs run'st. nt, nts.--Hint, hints, cent, cents, want, wants. nch, nchd.--Pinch, pinch'd, blanch, blanch'd. ngz, ngd.--Hangs, hang'd, rings, ring'd. nj, njd.--Range, ranged, hinge, hinged. pr.--Prat, prim, print, prone, prune, pry, prank. pl.--Plant, plod, plum, plus, apple, cripple. ps, pst.--Nips, nip'st, taps, tap'st, mops, mop'st. pt, pts.--Adopt, adopts, adept, adepts, crypt, crypts. rj, rjd.--Merge, merged, charge, charged, urge, urged. rd.--Card, cord, curd, herd, ford, ward, bird. rdz, rdst.--Cards, card'st, herds, herd'st, cords, cord'st. rk.--Bark, jerk, dirk, cork, lurk, work. rks, rkst.--Barks, bark'st, lurks, lurk'st. rl.--Marl, curl, whirl, pearl, whorl, snarl. rlz, rlst.--Curls, curl'st, whirls, whirl'st, twirls, twirl'st. rld, rldst.-- Curled, curl'd'st, whirled, whirl'd'st, snarled, snarl'd'st. rm.--Arm, term, form, warm, storm, worm, sperm. rmz, rmst.--Arms, arm'st, fbrms, form'st. rmd, rmdst.--Armed, arm'd'st, formed, form'd'st. rn.--Barn, warn, scorn, worn, earn, turn. rnz, rnst.--Turns, turn'st, scorns, scorn'st. rnd, rndst.--Turned, turn'd'st, scorned, scorn'd'st. rt.--Dart, heart, pert, sort, girt, dirt, hurt. rts, rtst.--Darts, dart'st, girts, girt'st, hurts, hurt'st. rch, rchd.--Arch, arched, perch, perched. sk.--Ask, scab, skip, risk, skum, bask, husk. sks.--Asks, tasks. risks, whisks, husks. skd, skst.--Asked, ask'st, risked, risk'st, husked, husk'st. sp, sps.--Gasp, gasps, rasp, rasps, crisp, crisps. spd.--Gasped, lisped, crisped, wisped, cusped. st, sts.--Mast, masts, nest, nests, fist, fists. sw.--Swim, swell, swill, swan, sweet, swing, swam. str.--Strap, strip, strop, stress, strut, strife, strew. tl.--Rattle, nettle, whittle, bottle, hurtle, scuttle. tlz, tlst.--Rattles, rattl'st, nettles, nettl'st. tld, tldst.--Rattled, rattl'd'st, settled, settl'd'st. ts, tst.--Bat, bat'st, bets, bet'st, pits, pit'st, dots, dot'st. tw.--Twin, twirl, twice, tweed, twist, twelve, twain. tr.--Trap, trip, trot, tress, truss, trash, try, truce, trice. vz, vst.--Gives, giv'st, loves, lov'st, saves, sav'st. zm, zmz.--Chasm, chasms, prism, prisms. zl.--Dazzle, frizzle, nozzle, puzzle. zlz, zld.--Dazzles, dazzled, frizzles, frizzled. sht.--Dashed, meshed, dished, rushed, washed. shr.--Shrank, shred, shrill, shrunk, shrine, shroud, shrew. thd.--Bathed, sheathed, soothed, smoothed, wreathed. thz, thzt.--Bathes, Bath'st, sheathes, sheath'st. ngz, ngst.--Hangs, hang'st, brings, bring'st. ngd, ngdst.--Hanged, hang'd'st., stringed, string'd'st. nks, nkst.--Thanks, thank'st, thinks, think'st. nkd, nkdst.--Thanked, thank'd'st, kinked, kink'd'st. dth, dths.--Width, widths, breadth, breadths. kld, kldst.--Circled, circl'd'st, darkle, darkl'd'st. kl, klz.--Circle, circles, cycle, cycles. lj, ljd.--Bilge, bilged, bulge, bulged, indulge, indulged. lb, lbz.--Alb, albs, bulb, bulbs. lk, lks, lkst, lkdst.--Milk, milks, milk'st, milk'd'st. lm, lmz.--Elm, elms, whelm, whelms, film, films. lp, lpd, lpst, lpdst.--Help, helped, help'st, help'd'st. lv, lvz, lvd.--Valve, valves, valved, delve, delves, delved. lch, lchd.--Belch, belched, filch, filched, gulch, gulched. lth, lth --Health, healths, tilth, tilth mf, mfs.--Nymph, nymphs, triumph, triumphs. gth, gths.--Length, lengths, strength, strengths. rb, rbz, rbd, rbst, rbdst.--Curb, curbs, curbed, curb'st, curb'd'st. rf, rfs, rfst, rfdst.--Dwarf, dwarfs, dwarf'st, dwarf'd'st. rv, rvz, rvst, rvd, rvdst.--Curve, curves, curv'st, curved, curv'd'st. rth, rths.--Birth, births, girth, girths, hearth, hearths. rp, rps, rpd, rpst, rpdst.--Harp, harps, harped, harp'st, harp'd'st. rs, rst.--Nurse, nursed, verse, versed, course, coursed. thr.--Thrash, thresh, thrift, throb, thrush, thrust, throng, three, thrive, thrice, throat, throne, throve, thrill, thrum. thw.--Thwack, thwart. EXERCISES IN ARTICULATION. Errors to be Corrected. To TEACHERS.--In the following exercises, the more common errors in articulation and pronunciation are denoted. The letters in italics are not silent letters, but are thus marked to point them out as the representatives of sounds which are apt to be defectively articulated, omitted, or incorrectly sounded. A Incorrect Correct Incorrect Correct Fa-t fa-tal Sep-er-ate sep-a-rate reel re-al temp-per-unce tem-per-ance ras-cul ras-cal up-pear ap-pear crit-ic-ul crit-ic-al tem-per-it tem-per-ate test'ment tes-ta-ment mod-er-it med-er-ate firm'ment fir-ma-ment in-ti-mit int-ti-mate E Incorrect Correct Incorrect Correct Ev'ry ev-er-y sev'ral sev-er-al b'lief be-lief prov-i-dunce prov-i-dence pr'vail pre-vail ev-i-dunce ev-i-dence r'tain re-tain si-lunt si-lent trav'ler trav-el-er mon-u-munt mon-u-ment flut'ring flut-ter-ing con-ti-nunt con-ti-nent tel'scope tel-e-scope con-fi-dunt con-fi-dent I Incorrect Correct Incorrect Correct D'rect di-rect rad'cal rad-i-cal d'spose dis-pose sal'vate sal-i-vate van'ty van-i-ty can'bal can-ni-bal ven-t'late ven-ti-late mount'n moun-tain ju-b'lee ju-bi-lee fount'n foun-tain rid-cule rid-i-cule vill'ny vil-lain-y O Incorrect Correct Incorrect Correct Des'late des-o-late rhet-er-ic rhet-o-tic hist'ry his-to-ry in-ser-lent in-so-lent mem'ry mem-o-ry croc-ud-ile croc-o-dile col'ny col-o-ny com-prum-ise com-pro-mise ag'ny ag-o-ny anch-ur-ite an-cho-rite balc'ny bal-co-ny cor-per-al cor-po-ral ob-s'lete ob-so-lete ob-luq-quy ob-lo-quy wil-ler wil-low or-ther-dox or-tho-dox wid-der wid-ow cun-di-tion con-di-tion pil-ler pil-low pus-i-tion po-si-tion mead-er mead-ow tug-eth-er to-geth-er fel-ler fel-low put-a-ter po-ta-to win-der win-dow tub-ac-cur to-bac-co U The most common mistake in the sound of u occurs in words of the following kind: as, crea-ter or crea-choor, for crea-ture; nat-er or na- choor for na-ture, etc. Incorrect Correct Lec'-ter lec'-choor lec'-ture fea'-ter fea'-choor fea'-ture mois'-ter mois'-choor mois'-ture ver'-der ver'-jer ver-dure mix'-ter mix'-cher mix'-ture rup'ter rup'-cher rup'-ture sculp'-ter sculp'-cher sculp'-ture ges'-ter ges'cher ges'-ture struc'-ter struc'-cher struc'-ture stric'-ter stric'-choor stric'-ture ves'-ter ves'-cher ves'-ture tex'-ter tex'-cher tex'-ture fix'-ter fix'-cher fix'-ture vul'-ter vul'-cher vul'-ture for'-ten for'-choon for'-tune stat'-er sta'-choor stat'-ure stat'-ew stat'-choo stat'ue stat'-ewt sta'-choot stat'-ute ed'-di-cate ed'-ju-cate ed'-u-cate H In order to accustom the learner to sound H properly, let him pronounce certain words without and then with it: as aft, haft; ail, hail, etc. The H should be clearly sounded. Aft Haft Edge Hedge Ail Hail Eel Heel Air Hair Ell Hell All Hall Elm Helm Ark Hark Eye High Arm Harm Ill Hill Art Hart It Hit Ash Hash old Hold At Hat Yew He D Final. Incorrect Correct Incorrect Correct An and frien friend lan land soun sound mine mind groun ground boun bound fiel field K Final. Incorrect Correct Incorrect Correct Fris frisk dus dusk des desk mos mosque tas task tus tusk ris risk hus husk N for Ng. Incorrect Correct Incorrect Correct Morn-in morn-ing shav-in shav-ing run-nin run-ning hid-in hid-ing talk-in talk-ing see-in see-ing walk-in walk-ing lov-in lov-ing drink-in drink-ing fight-in fight-ing slid-in slid-ing laugh-in laugh-ing R Sound the R clearly and forcibly. When it precedes a vowel, give it a slight trill. Rule ruin rat rug reck rate reed rill rub rig rim rite ride rise red rag rick rote run reek rib rob rip ruse roar roam rack rid rip rouse Arch farm lark far snare for march harm bark bar spare war larch charm mark hair sure corn starch dark are stair lure born arm spark star care pure horn T Final Incorrect Correct Incorrect Correct Eas east wep wept moce most ob-jec ob-ject los lost per-fec per-fect nes nest dear-es dear-est gues guest high-es high-est TS Final Incorrect Correct Incorrect Correct Hoce hosts sec's sects tes tests bus busts lifs lifts cense cents tuffs tufts ob-jec's ob-jects ac's acts re-spec's re-spects W for Wh Incorrect Correct Incorrect Correct Wale Whale Wet Whet Weal Wheel Wine Whine Wen When Wip Whip SENTENCES FOR PRACTICE Sentences like the following may be read with great advantage, for the purpose of acquiring distinctness and precision in articulation. This act, more than all other acts, laid the ax at the root of the evil. It is false to say he had no other faults. The hosts still stand in strangest plight. That last still night. That lasts till night. On either side an ocean exists. On neither side a notion exists. Among the rugged rocks the restless ranger ran. I said pop-u-lar, not pop'lar. I said pre-vail, not pr'vail. I said be-hold, not b'hold. Think'st thou so meanly of my Phocion? Henceforth look to your hearths. Canst thou minister to a mind diseased? A thousand shrieks for hopeless mercy call. ACCENT. Accent, marked thus ('), is an increased force of voice upon some one syllable of a word; as, Col'o-ny, bot'a-ny; re-mem'ber, im-por'tant; rec-ol-lect', rep-re-sent'. In the words col'o-ny and bot'a-ny, the first syllable is accented. In the words re-mem'ber and im-por'tant, the second syllable is accented. In the words rec-ol-lect' and rep-re-sent', the third syllable is accented. INFLECTION. Inflection is an upward or downward slide of the voice. The Rising Inflection, sometimes marked thus ('), is an upward slide of the voice. Examples Has he come'? Has he gone? Are you sick'? Will you go'? Are they here'? The Falling Inflection, marked thus (') is a downward slide of the voice. Examples They are here. He has gone. He has come I will go. I am well. Let the pupil practice these examples until he is perfectly familiar with the rising and falling inflections. Are you sick or well? Will you go, or stay? Did he ride, or walk? Is it black, or white? Is he rich, or poor? Are they old, or young? Did you say cap, or cat? I said cat, not cap. Did you say am, or ham? I said ham, not am. Is the dog white', or black'? The dog is black', not white'. Did you say and', or hand'? I said and', not hand'. Is the tree large', or small'? The tree is small', not large'. Are the apples sweet', or sour'? The apples are sour' not sweet'. Is the tide high', or low'? The tide is high', not low'. Did you say play', or pray'? I said pray', not play'. MCGUFFEY'S FOURTH READER. I. PERSEVERANCE. (25) 1. "Will you give my kite a lift?" said my little nephew to his sister, after trying in vain to make it fly by dragging it along the ground. Lucy very kindly took it up and threw it into the air, but, her brother neglecting to run off at the same moment, the kite fell down again. 2. "Ah! now, how awkward you are!" said the little fellow. "It was your fault entirely," answered his sister. "Try again, children," said I. 3. Lucy once more took up the kite. But now John was in too great a hurry; he ran off so suddenly that he twitched the kite out of her hand, and it fell flat as before. "Well, who is to blame now?" asked Lucy. "Try again," said I. 4. They did, and with more care; but a side wind coming suddenly, as Lucy let go the kite, it was blown against some shrubs, and the tail became entangled in a moment, leaving the poor kite hanging with its head downward. 5. "There, there!" exclaimed John, "that comes of your throwing it all to one side." "As if I could make the wind blow straight," said Lucy. In the meantime, I went to the kite's assistance; and having disengaged the long tail, I rolled it up, saying, "Come, children, there are too many trees here; let us find a more open space, and then try again." 6. We presently found a nice grassplot, at one side of which I took my stand; and all things being prepared, I tossed the kite up just as little John ran off. It rose with all the dignity of a balloon, and promised a lofty flight; but John, delighted to find it pulling so hard at the string, stopped short to look upward and admire. The string slackened, the kite wavered, and, the wind not being very favorable, down came the kite to the grass. "O John, you should not have stopped," said I. "However, try again." 7. "I won't try any more," replied he, rather sullenly. "It is of no use, you see. The kite won't fly, and I don't want to be plagued with it any longer." "Oh, fie, my little man! would you give up the sport, after all the pains we have taken both to make and to fly the kite? A few disappointments ought not to discourage us. Come, I have wound up your string, and now try again." 8. And he did try, and succeeded, for the kite was carried upward on the breeze as lightly as a feather; and when the string was all out, John stood in great delight, holding fast the stick and gazing on the kite, which now seemed like a little white speck in the blue sky. "Look, look, aunt, how high it flies! and it pulls like a team of horses, so that I can hardly hold it. I wish I had a mile of string: I am sure it would go to the end of it." 9. After enjoying the sight as long as he pleased, little John proceeded to roll up the string slowly; and when the kite fell, he took it up with great glee, saying that it was not at all hurt, and that it had behaved very well. "Shall we come out to-morrow, aunt, after lessons, and try again?" 10. "I have no objection, my dear, if the weather is fine. And now, as we walk home, tell me what you have learned from your morning's sport." "I have learned to fly my kite properly." "You may thank aunt for it, brother," said Lucy, "for you would have given it up long ago, if she had not persuaded you to try again." 11. "Yes, dear children, I wish to teach you the value of perseverance, even when nothing more depends upon it than the flying of a kite. Whenever you fail in your attempts to do any good thing, let your motto be,--try again." DEFINITIONS.--In defining words, that meaning is given which is appropriate to them in the connection in which they are used. 4. En-tan'gled, twisted in, disordered. 5. As-sist'-ance, help, aid. Dis-en-gaged, cleared, set free. 6. Grass'plot, a space covered with grass. Dig'ni-ty, majestic manner. 7. Dis-ap-point/ments, failures or defeats of expectation. Dis-cour'age, take away courage. 9. Glee, joy 11. Per-se-ver'ance, continuance in anything once begun. Mot'to, a short sentence or a word full of meaning. EXERCISES--What is the subject of this lesson? Why was John discouraged in his attempts to fly his kite? What did his, aunt say to him? What may we learn from this? What should be our motto if we expect to be successful? II. TRY, TRY AGAIN. (28) 1. 'T is a lesson you should heed, Try, try again; If at first you don't succeed, Try, try again; Then your courage should appear, For, if you will persevere, You will conquer, never fear; Try, try again. 2. Once or twice though you should fail, Try, try again; If you would at last prevail, Try, try again; If we strive, 'tis no disgrace Though we do not win the race; What should you do in the case? Try, try again. 3. If you find your task is hard, Try, try again; Time will bring you your reward, Try, try again. All that other folks can do, Why, with patience, should not you? Only keep this rule in view: Try, try again. DEFINITIONS.--l. Cour'age, resolution. Con'quer, gain the vic-tory. 2. Pre-vail, overcome. Dis-grace', shame. Win, gain, ob-tain. 3. Re-ward', anything given in return for good or bad con-duct. Pa'-tience, constany in labor. EXERCISES.--What does the mark before "'T is" mean? What is it called? What point is used after the word "case" in the second stanza? Why? III. WHY THE SEA IS SALT. (29) A FAIRY TALE. Mary Howitt was born in 1804, at Coleford, England. She wrote many charming stories for children in prose and verse, and also translated many from Swedish, Danish, and German authors. This story is arranged from one in a collection named "Peter Drake's Dream, and Other Stories." She died in 1888. 1. There were, in very ancient times, two brothers, one of whom was rich, and the other poor. Christmas was approaching, but the poor man had nothing in the house for a Christmas dinner; so he went to his brother and asked him for a trifling gift. 2. The rich man was ill-natured, and when he heard his brother's request he looked very surly. But as Christmas is a time when even the worst people give gifts, he took a fine ham down from the chimney, where it was hanging to smoke, threw it at his brother, and bade him begone and never to let him see his face again. 3. The poor man thanked his brother for the ham, put it under his arm, and went his way. He had to pass through a great forest on his way home. When he had reached the thickest part of it, he saw an old man, with a long, white beard, hewing timber. "Good evening," said he to him. 4. "Good evening," returned the old man, raising himself up from his work, and looking at him. "That is a fine ham you are carrying." On this, the poor man told him all about it. 5. "It is lucky for you," said the old man, "that you have met with me. If you will take that ham into the land of the dwarfs, the entrance to which lies just under the roots of this tree, you can make a capital bargain with it; for the dwarfs are very fond of ham, and rarely get any. But mind what I say: you must not sell it for money, but demand for it the 'old hand mill which stands behind the door.' When you come back, I'll show you how to use it." 6. The poor man thanked his new friend, who showed him the door under a stone below the roots of the tree, and by this door he entered into the land of the dwarfs. No sooner had he set his foot in it, than the dwarfs swarmed about him, attracted by the smell of the ham. They offered him queer, old-fashioned money and gold and silver ore for it; but he refused all their tempting offers, and said that he would sell it only for the old hand mill behind the door. 7. At this, the dwarfs held up their little old hands, and looked quite perplexed. "We can not make a bargain, it seems," said the poor man, "so I'll bid you all a good day." 8. The fragrance of the ham had by this time reached the remote parts of dwarf land. The dwarfs came flocking around in little troops, leaving their work of digging out precious ores, eager for the ham. 9. "Let him have the old mill," said some of the newcomers; "it is quite out of order, and he don't know how to use it. Let him have it, and we will have the ham." 10. So the bargain was made. The poor man took the old hand mill, which was a little thing not half so large as the ham, and went back to the woods. Here the old man showed him how to use it. All this had taken up a great deal of time, and it was midnight before he reached home. 11. "Where in the world have you been?" said his wife. "Here I have been waiting and waiting, and we have no wood to make a fire, nor anything to put into the porridge pot for our Christmas supper." 12. The house was dark and cold; but the poor man bade his wife wait and see what would happen. He placed the little hand mill on the table, and began to turn the crank. First, out there came some grand, lighted wax candles, and a fire on the hearth, and a porridge pot boiling over it, because in his mind he said they should come first. Then he ground out a tablecloth, and dishes, and spoons, and knives and forks. 13. He was himself astonished at his good luck, as you may believe; and his wife was almost beside herself with joy and astonishment. Well, they had a capital supper; and after it was eaten, they ground out of the mill every possible thing to make their house and themselves warm and comfortable. So they had a merry Christmas eve and morning. DEFINITIONS.--l. Tri'-fling, of small value. 5. Hand 'mill, a mill turned by hand. 6. At-tract'ed, drawn to, allured. 7. Perplexed', puzzled. 8. Fra'grance, sweetness of smell. IV. WHY THE SEA IS SALT. (32) (Concluded.) 1. When the people went by the house to church, the next day, they could hardly believe their eyes. There was glass in the windows instead of a wooden shutter, and the poor man and his wife, dressed in nice new clothes, were seen devoutly kneeling in the church. 2. "There is something very strange in all this," said everyone. "Something very strange indeed," said the rich man, when three days afterwards he received an invitation from his once poor brother to a grand feast. And what a feast it was! The table was covered with a cloth as white as snow, and the dishes were all of silver or gold. The rich man could not, in his great house, and with all his wealth, set out such a table. 3. "Where did you get all these things?" exclaimed he. His brother told him all about the bargain he had made with the dwarfs, and putting the mill on the table, ground out boots and shoes, coats and cloaks, stockings, gowns, and blankets, and bade his wife give them to the poor people that had gathered about the house to get a sight of the grand feast the poor brother had made for the rich one. 4. The rich man, was very envious of his brother's good fortune, and wanted to borrow the mill, intending--for he was not an honest man--never to return it again. His brother would not lend it, for the old man with the white beard had told him never to sell or lend it to anyone. 5. Some years went on, and, at last, the possessor of the mill built himself a grand castle on a rock by the sea, facing the west. Its windows, reflecting the golden sunset, could be seen far out from the shore. It became a noted landmark for sailors. Strangers from foreign parts often came to see this castle and the wonderful mill of which the most extraordinary tales were told. 6. At length, a great foreign merchant came, and when he had seen the mill, inquired whether it would grind salt. Being told that it would, he wanted to buy it; for he traded in salt, and thought that if he owned it he could supply all his customers without taking long and dangerous voyages. 7. The man would not sell it, of course. He was so rich now that he did not want to use it for himself; but every Christmas he ground out food and clothes and coal for the poor, and nice presents for the little children. So he rejected all the offers of the rich merchant. The merchant, however, determined to have it; he bribed one of the man's servants to let him go into the castle at night, and he stole the mill and sailed away with it in triumph. 8. He had scarcely got out to sea, before he determined to set the mill to work. "Now, mill, grind salt," said he; "grind salt with all your might!--salt, salt, and nothing but salt!" The mill began to grind and the sailors to fill the sacks; but these were soon full, and in spite of all that could be done, it began to fill the ship. 9. The dishonest merchant was now very much frightened. What was to be done? The mill would not stop grinding; and at last the ship was overloaded, and down it went, making a great whirlpool where it sank. The ship soon went to pieces; but the mill stands on the bottom of the sea, and keeps grinding out "salt, salt, nothing but salt!" That is the reason, say the peasants of Denmark and Norway, why the sea is salt. DEFINITIONS.--l. De-vout'ly, in a reverent manner. 5. Re--flect'ing, throwing back light, heat, etc., as a mirror. Land'-mark, an object on land serving as a guide to seamen. Ex-traor'--di-na-ry, wonderful. 9. Whirl'-pool, a gulf in which the water moves round in a circle. Peas'ents, those belonging to the lowest class of tillers of the soil in Europe. EXERCISES.--What is a "fairy tale"? What fairy people are told about in this story? How did the poor man find the way to the land of the dwarfs? Do you think the old man would have told him if the poor man had not been so polite? How did the poor man treat his rich brother in return for his unkindness? How was the greed of the dishonest merchant punished? What is meant by "strangers from foreign parts"? Where are Denmark and Norway? V. POPPING CORN. (34) 1. One autumn night, when the wind was high, And the rain fell in heavy plashes, A little boy sat by the kitchen fire, A-popping corn in the ashes; And his sister, a curly-haired child of three, Sat looking on, just close to his knee. 2. Pop! pop! and the kernels, one by one, Came out of the embers flying; The boy held a long pine stick in his hand, And kept it busily plying; He stirred the corn and it snapped the more, And faster jumped to the clean-swept floor. 3. Part of the kernels flew one way, And a part hopped out the other; Some flew plump into the sister's lap, Some under the stool of the brother; The little girl gathered them into a heap, And called them a flock of milk-white sheep. VI. SMILES. (35) 1. Poor lame Jennie sat at her window, looking out upon the dismal, narrow street, with a look of pain and weariness on her face. "Oh, dear," she said with a sigh, "what a long day this is going to be," and she looked wishfully up the street. 2. Suddenly she leaned forward and pressed her pale face against the glass, as a rosy-checked boy came racing down the street, swinging his schoolbooks by the strap. Looking up to the window, he took off his hat and bowed with a bright, pleasant smile. 3. "What a nice boy he is," said Jennie to herself, as he ran out of sight. "I am so glad he goes by here on his way to school. When he smiles, it seems like having the sun shine. I wish everybody who goes by would look up and smile." 4. "Mamma," said George West, as he came from school, "I can't help thinking about that poor little girl I told you of the other day. She looks so tired. I took off my hat and bowed to her to-day. I wish I could do something for her," 5. "Suppose you should carry her a handful of pretty flowers some time when you go to school," said Mrs. West. "I'll do that to-morrow morning," said George, "if I can find my way into that rickety old house." 6. The next morning, as Jennie sat leaning her head wearily against the window, watching the raindrops chasing one another down the glass, she spied George with a handful of beautiful flowers carefully picking his way across the street. He stopped in front of her window, and, smiling very pleasantly, said, "How shall I find the way to your room?" 7. Jennie pointed to an alley near by, where he turned in, and with some difficulty found his way to the dingy staircase. Opening the door to Jennie's gentle "Come in," he said, "I have brought you a handful of flowers to look at this rainy day." 8. "Are they for me?" exclaimed Jennie, clapping her hands in delight. "How kind you are," she continued, as George laid them in her lap. "I have not had a flower since we live in the city." 9. "Did you use to live in the country?" asked George. "Oh, yes," answered Jennie, "we used to live in a beautiful cottage, and there were trees and flowers and green grass, and the air was so sweet." 10. "Well, what made you move here?" "Oh," said Jennie, softly, "papa died, and mamma was sick so long that the money was all gone. Then mamma had to sell the cottage, and she moved here to try to get work to do." 11. "Do you have to sit here all day?" asked George, glancing around the bare room and out into the dismal street. "Yes," said Jennie, "because I am lame; but I would not care for that, if I could only help mamma." 12. "I declare, it's too had!" said George, who dreaded nothing so much as being obliged to stay in the house. "Oh, no, it isn't," said Jennie, pleasantly; "mamma says maybe we should forget the Lord if we had everything we wanted, and He never forgets us, you know." 13. "Well, I must rush for school," said George, not knowing exactly what to say next; and he was soon out of Jennie's sight, but had a happy little corner in his heart, because he had tried to do a kind act. He did not know how much good he had done in making a pleasant day out of a dreary one for a little sick girl. 14. "Mamma," said George, that evening, after he had told her what Jennie said, "papa must give them some money, so they can go back to their home." 15. "No," said his mother; "he can not do that, and they would not wish him to do so; but perhaps he can help us contrive some way to assist them, so that they can live more comfortably." 16. "I am going to carry Jennie some of the grapes grandpa sent me, to-morrow," said George, turning over the leaves of his geography. "I will put some of my pears into your basket, and go with you," said his mother; "but there is one thing we can always give, and sometimes it does more good than nice things to eat, or even money." 17. "What is that, mamma,--smiles?" asked George, looking up. "Yes," answered his mother; "and it is a good plan to throw in a kind word or two with them when you can." DEFINITIONS.-l. Dis'mal, gloomy, cheerless. Wish'ful-ly, with desire. 5. Rick'et-y, imperfect, worn out. 7. Din'gy, dark. 11. Glan'cing, looking about quickly. 13. Drear'y, comfortless, gloomy. 15. Con-trive', to plan. EXERCISES.--What is the subject of this lesson? How did George West make the day pleasant for Jennie? What did his mother suggest? What happened next day? What did Jennie tell George about her life? Relate what happened at George's home that evening. What does the lesson teach? VII. LAZY NED. (38) 1. "'T is royal fun," cried lazy Ned, "To coast, upon my fine, new sled, And beat the other boys; But then, I can not bear to climb The tiresome hill, for every time It more and more annoys." 2. So, while his schoolmates glided by, And gladly tugged uphill, to try Another merry race, Too indolent to share their plays, Ned was compelled to stand and gaze, While shivering in his place. 3. Thus, he would never take the pains To seek the prize that labor gains, Until the time had passed; For, all his life, he dreaded still The silly bugbear of uphill, And died a dunce at last. DEFINITIONS.-l. Roy'al, excellent, noble. Coast, to slide. An--noys', troubles. 2. In'do-lent, lazy. 3. Prize, a reward. Bug-bear, something frightful. Dunce, a silly fellow. EXERCISES.--What did Ned like? What did he not like? VIII. THE MONKEY. (39) 1. The monkey is a very cunning little animal, and is found in many parts of the world. 2. A lady once had a monkey, which had been brought to her as a present. This monkey, like all others, was very fond of mischief and of doing whatever he saw others do. 3. His mistress found him one day sitting on her toilet table, holding in one hand a little china mug with water in it, and in the other her toothbrush, with which he was cleaning his teeth, looking all the time in the glass. 4. Her little daughter, Maria, had a large doll with a very handsome head and face. She one day left this doll in the cradle, and went out of the room. The monkey came in, took the doll in his arms, and jumping upon the washstand, he began to wash its face. 5. He first rubbed it all over with soap. Then seizing the towel, he dipped it in the wash bowl, and rubbed it so hard that the doll's face was entirely spoiled, the paint being all washed off. 6. There have been many tales of monkeys who, armed with sticks, have joined together and made war or resisted their enemies with great effect. These are not true, as it is known that in their native state monkeys have no idea of weapons. 7. The sticks and other missiles said to be thrown at travelers as they pass under the branches of trees, are usually the dead branches, etc., accidentally broken off, as the monkeys, with the natural curiosity of their tribe, pass along the tops of trees to watch the actions of the people below. 8. They can, however, be taught to use a stick, and to use it well. Some time ago, two Italians together owned an organ and a monkey, by means of which they earned their living. During one of their exhibitions, a dog flew at the little monkey, which made its owners very angry. 9. They and the owner of the dog quarreled about it, and at last it was agreed that the dog and the monkey should fight it out; the monkey, because he was smaller, was to be allowed a stick. 10. The monkey was taught what he was to do in the following manner: One of the Italians crawled on his hands and knees, barking like a dog, while the other got on his back, grasped his hair, and beat him about the head with a stick. 11. The monkey looked on with great gravity, and, when the instruction was over, received the stick with the air of a man who knew his work and meant to do it. 12. Everything being settled the dog flew at the monkey with open month. The monkey immediately leaped on his back, and, grasping the dog's ear, beat away at his head with such good will that his adversary speedily gave in. The monkey, however, was not content with a mere victory, but continued pounding at the dog's head until he left him senseless on the ground. DEFINITIONS.--1. Cun'ning, sly. 3. Toi'let ta'ble, dressing table. 6. Re-sist'ed, opposed. 7. Mis'siles, weapons thrown. 8. Ex-hi-bi'tions, public shows. 11. Grav'i-ty, seriousness. In-struc'-tion, lesson, 12. Sense'less, without apparent life. EXERCISES.--What kind of an animal is a monkey? Where did the lady find the monkey one day? What was he doing? What did he do with Maria's doll? Do monkeys in their native state know how to use sticks as weapons? Can they be taught to use them? Relate the story of the two Italians. What is the meaning of "etc." in the seventh paragraph? IX. MEDDLESOME MATTY. (42) 1. Oh, how one ugly trick has spoiled The sweetest and the best! Matilda, though a pleasant child, One grievous fault possessed, Which, like a cloud before the skies, Hid all her better qualities. 2. Sometimes, she'd lift the teapot lid To peep at what was in it; Or tilt, the kettle, if you did But turn your back a minute. In vain you told her not to touch, Her trick of meddling grew so much. 3. Her grand mamma went out one day, And, by mistake, she laid Her spectacles and snuffbox gay, Too near the little maid; "Ah! well," thought she, "I'll try them on, As soon as grand mamma is gone." 4. Forthwith, she placed upon her nose The glasses large and wide; And looking round, as I suppose, The snuffbox, too, she spied. "Oh, what a pretty box is this! I'll open it," said little miss. 5. "I know that grandmamma would say, 'Don't meddle with it, dear;' But then she's far enough away, And no one else is near; Beside, what can there be amiss In opening such a box as this?" 6. So, thumb and finger went to work To move the stubborn lid; And, presently, a mighty jerk The mighty mischief did; For all at once, ah! woeful case! The snuff came puffing in her face. 7. Poor eyes, and nose, and mouth, and chin A dismal sight presented; And as the snuff got further in, Sincerely she repented. In vain she ran about for ease, She could do nothing else but sneeze. 8. She dashed the spectacles away, To wipe her tingling eyes; And, as in twenty bits they lay, Her grandmamma she spies. "Heyday! and what's the matter now?" Cried grandmamma, with angry brow. 9. Matilda, smarting with the pain, And tingling still, and sore, Made many a promise to refrain From meddling evermore; And 't is a fact, as I have heard, She ever since has kept her word. DEFINITIONS.-l. Qual'i-ties, traits of character. 2. Med'-dling, interfering without right. 4. Forth-with', at once. Spied, saw. 5. A-miss', wrong, faulty. 6. Woe'ful, sad, sorrowful 8. Tin'gling, smarting. 9. Re-frain', to keep from. EXERCISES.--What did Matilda do? How was she punished? What effect did it have on her? X. THE GOOD SON. (44) 1. There was once a jeweler, noted for many virtues. One day, the Jewish elders came to him to buy some diamonds, to put upon that part of the dress of their high priest, which the Bible calls an ephod. 2. They told him what they wanted, and offered him a fair price for the diamonds. He replied that he could not let them see the jewels at that moment, and requested them to call again. 3. As they wanted them without delay, and thought that the object of the jeweler was only to increase the price of the diamonds, the elders offered him twice, then three times, as much as they were worth. But he still refused, and they went away in very bad humor. 4. Some hours after, he went to them, and placed before them the diamonds, for which they again offered him the last price they had named; but he said, "I will only accept the first one you offered to me this morning." 5. "Why, then, did you not close with us at once?" asked they in surprise. "When you came," replied he, "my father had the key of the chest, in which the diamonds were kept, and as he was asleep, I should have been obliged to wake him to obtain them. 6. "At his age, a short hour of sleep does him a great deal of good; and for all the gold in the world, I would not be wanting in respect to my father, or take from him a single comfort." 7. The elders, affected by these feeling words, spread their hands upon the jeweler's head, and said, "Thou shalt be blessed of Him who has said, 'Honor thy father and thy mother;' and thy children shall one day pay thee the same respect and love thou hast shown to thy father." DEFINITIONS.--l. Jew'el-er, one who buys and sells precious stones. Not'ed, well known. Eld'er, an officer of the Jewish church. Eph'od, part of the dress of a Jewish priest, made of two pieces, one covering the chest and the other the back, united by a girdle. 2. Di'a-monds, precious stones. 3. Hu'mor, state of mind, temper. 5. Close, come to an agreement. EXERCISES.--Relate the story of the jeweler and his diamonds. What did the elders say to him, when they heard his reason for not giving them the diamonds at first? XI. TO-MORROW. (45) Mrs. M. B. Johnson is the authoress of "To-morrow," one of a collection of poems; entitled "Poems of Home Life." 1. A bright, merry boy, with laughing face, Whose every motion was full of grace, Who knew no trouble and feared no care, Was the light of our household--the youngest there. 2. He was too young, this little elf, With troublesome questions to vex himself; But for many days a thought would rise, And bring a shade to his dancing eyes. 3. He went to one whom he thought more wise Than any other beneath the skies; "Mother,"--O word that makes the home!-- "Tell me, when will to-morrow come?" 4. "It is almost night," the mother said, "And time for my boy to be in bed; When you wake up and it's day again, It will be to-morrow, my darling, then." 5. The little boy slept through all the night, But woke with the first red streak of light; He pressed a kiss to his mother's brow, And whispered, "Is it to-morrow now?" 6. "No, little Eddie, this is to-day: To-morrow is always one night away." He pondered a while, but joys came fast, And this vexing question quickly passed. 7. But it came again with the shades of night; "Will it be to-morrow when it is light?" From years to come he seemed care to borrow, He tried so hard to catch to-morrow. 8. "You can not catch it, my little Ted; Enjoy to-day," the mother said; "Some wait for to-morrow through many a year It is always coming, but never is here." DEFINITIONS.--1. House'hold, family, those living in the same house. 2. Elf, a small fairy-like person. Vex, worry, trouble. Pon'dered, thought anxiously. A-while', for a short time. EXERCISES.--What is meant by "dancing eyes" in the second stanza? What is meant by "the shades of night," in the seventh stanza? Of what name are "Eddie" and "Ted" nicknames? What troubled Eddie? Can you define tomorrow? What did Eddie's mother advise him to do? XII. WHERE THERE IS A WILL THERE IS A WAY. (47) 1. Henry Bond was about ten years old when his father died. His mother found it difficult to provide for the support of a large family, thus left entirely in her care. By good management, however, she contrived to do so, and also to send Henry, the oldest, to school, and to supply him, for the most part, with such books as he needed. 2. At one time, however, Henry wanted a grammar, in order to join a class in that study, and his mother could not furnish him with the money to buy it. He was very much troubled about it, and went to bed with a heavy heart, thinking what could be done. 3. On waking in the morning, he found that a deep snow had fallen, and the cold wind was blowing furiously. "Ah," said he, "it is an ill wind that blows nobody good." 4. He rose, ran to the house of a neighbor, and offered his service to clear a path around his premises. The offer was accepted. Having completed this work, and received his pay, he went to another place for the same purpose, and then to another, until he had earned enough to buy a grammar. 5. When school commenced, Henry was in his seat, the happiest boy there, ready to begin the lesson in his new book. 6. From that time, Henry, was always the first in all his classes. He knew no such word as fail, but always succeeded in all he attempted. Having the will, he always found the way. DEFINITIONS.--l. Man'age-ment, manner of directing things. 2. Fur'nish, to supply. 3. Fu'ri-ous-ly, violently. 4. Serv'ice, labor. Prem'i-ses, grounds around a house. XIII. PICCOLA. (48) By Celia Laighton Thaxter, who was born at Portsmouth, N. H., June 29, 1836. Much of her childhood was passed at White Island, one of the Isles of Shoals, off the coast of New Hampshire. "Among the Isles of Shoals," is her most noted work in prose. She published a volume of poems, many of which are favorites with children. She died in 1894. 1. Poor, sweet Piccola! Did you hear What happened to Piccola, children dear? 'T is seldom Fortune such favor grants As fell to this little maid of France. 2. 'T was Christmas time, and her parents poor Could hardly drive the wolf from the door, Striving with poverty's patient pain Only to live till summer again. 3. No gift for Piccola! sad were they When dawned the morning of Christmas day! Their little darling no joy might stir; St. Nicholas nothing would bring to her! 4. But Piccola never doubted at all That something beautiful must befall Every child upon Christmas day, And so she slept till the dawn was gray. 5. And full of faith, when at last she woke, She stole to her shoe as the morning broke; Such sounds of gladness filled all the air, 'T was plain St. Nicholas had been there. 6. In rushed Piccola, sweet, half wild-- Never was seen such a joyful child-- "See what the good saint brought!" she cried, And mother and father must peep inside. 7. Now such a story I never heard! There was a little shivering bird! A sparrow, that in at the window flew, Had crept into Piccola's tiny shoe! 8. "How good poor Piccola must have been!" She cried, as happy as any queen, While the starving sparrow she fed and warmed, And danced with rapture, she was so charmed. 9. Children, this story I tell to you Of Piccola sweet and her bird, is true. In the far-off land of France, they say, Still do they live to this very day. DEFINITIONS.--3. Dawned, began to grow light. Stir, excite. 4. Be-fall, happen. 7. Shiv'er-ing, trembling from cold. Ti'ny, very small. 8. Rapture, great joy. Charmed, greatly. EXERCISES.--What is meant by "driving the wolf from the door"? In the third stanza, what does "St." before Nicholas mean? Who is St. Nicholas? What did Piccola find in her shoe on Christmas morning? XIV. TRUE MANLINESS. (50) By MRS. M. O. JOHNSON.--(ADAPTED.) 1. "Please, mother, do sit down and let me try my hand," said Fred Liscom, a bright, active boy twelve years old. Mrs. Liscom, looking pale and worn, was moving languidly about, trying to clear away the breakfast she had scarcely tasted. 2. She smiled, and said, "You, Fred, you wash dishes?" "Yes, indeed, mother," replied Fred; "I should be a poor scholar if I couldn't, when I've seen you do it so many times. Just try me." 3. A look of relief came over his mother's face as she seated herself in her low rocking-chair. Fred washed the dishes, and put them in the closet. He then swept the kitchen, brought up the potatoes from the cellar for the dinner and washed them, and then set out for school. 4. Fred's father was away from home, and as there was some cold meat in the pantry, Mrs. Liscom found it an easy task to prepare dinner. Fred hurried home from school, set the table, and again washed the dishes. 5. He kept on in this way for two or three days, till his mother was able to resume her usual work, and he felt amply rewarded when the doctor, who happened in one day, said, "Well, madam, it's my opinion that you would have been very sick if you had not kept quiet." 6. The doctor did not know how the "quiet" had been secured, nor how the boy's heart bounded at his words. Fred had given up a great deal of what boys hold dear, for the purpose of helping his mother, coasting and skating being just at this time in perfection. 7. Besides this, his temper and his patience had been severely tried. He had been in the habit of going early to school, and staying to play after it was dismissed. 8. The boys missed him, and their curiosity was excited when he would give no other reason for not coming to school earlier, or staying after school, than that he was a "wanted at home." "I'll tell you," said Tom Barton, "I'll find him out, boys--see if I don't!" 9. So he called for Fred to go to school, and on his way to the side door walked lightly and somewhat nearer the kitchen window than was absolutely needful. Looking in, he saw Fred standing at the table with a dishcloth in his hand. 10. Of course he reported this at school, and various were the greetings poor Fred received at recess. "Well, you're a brave one to stay at home washing dishes." "Girl boy!" "Pretty Bessie!" "Lost your apron, have n't you, Polly!" 11. Fred was not wanting either in spirit or courage, and he was strongly tempted to resent these insults and to fight some of his tormentors. But his consciousness of right and his love for his mother helped him. 12. While he was struggling for self mastery, his teacher appeared at the door of the schoolhouse. Fred caught his eye, and it seemed to look, if it did not say, "Don't give up! Be really brave!" He knew the teacher had heard the insulting taunts of his thoughtless schoolmates. 13. The boys received notice during the day that Fred must not be taunted or teased in any manner. They knew that the teacher meant what he said; and so the brave little boy had no farther trouble. DEFINITIONS.--1. Lan'guid-ly, feebly. 5. Am'ply, fully. O-pin'ion, judgment, belief. 9. Ab'so-lute-ly, wholly, entirely. 11. Re-sent', to consider as an injury. Con'scious-ness, inward feeling, knowledge of what passes in one's own mind. EXERCISES.--Why did Fred offer to wash the dishes? Was it a disgraceful thing to do? How was he rewarded? How did his schoolmates show their lack of manliness? XV. TRUE MANLINESS. (52) (Concluded.) 1. "Fire! fire!" The cry crept out on the still night air, and the fire bells began to ring. Fred was wakened by the alarm and the red light streaming into his room. He dressed himself in a moment, almost, and tapped at the door of his mother's bedroom. 2. "It is Mr. Barton's house, mother. Do let me go," he said in eager, excited tones. Mrs. Liscom thought a moment. He was young, but she could trust him, and she knew how much his heart was in the request. 3. "Yes, you may go," she answered; "but be careful, my boy. If you can help, do so; but do nothing rashly." Fred promised to follow her advice, and hurried to the fire. 4. Mr. and Mrs. Barton were not at home. The house had been left in charge of the servants. The fire spread with fearful speed, for there was a high wind, and it was found impossible to save the house. The servants ran about, screaming and lamenting, but doing nothing to any purpose. 5. Fred found Tom outside, in safety. "Where is Katy?" he asked. Tom, trembling with terror, seemed to have had no thought but of his own escape. He said, "Katy is in the house!" "In what room?" asked Fred. "In that one," pointing to a window in the upper story. 6. It was no time for words, but for instant, vigorous action. The staircase was already on fire; there was but one way to reach Katy, and that full of danger. The second floor might fall at any moment, and Fred knew it. But he trusted in an arm stronger than his own, and silently sought help and guidance. 7. A ladder was quickly brought, and placed against the house. Fred mounted it, followed by the hired man, dashed in the sash of the window, and pushed his way into the room where the poor child lay nearly suffocated with smoke. 8. He roused her with some difficulty, carried her to the window, and placed her upon the sill. She was instantly grasped by strong arms, and carried down the ladder, Fred following as fast as possible. They had scarcely reached the ground before a crash of falling timbers told them that they had barely escaped with their lives. 9. Tom Barton never forgot the lesson of that night; and he came to believe, and to act upon the belief, in after years, that true manliness is in harmony with gentleness, kindness, and self-denial. EXERCISES.--Relate the story of the fire. What is meant by "to any purpose," in paragraph four? Did Fred show any lack of manliness when tested? What does this lesson teach? XVI. THE BROWN THRUSH. (54) Lucy Larcom, the author of the following poem, was born in 1826, and passed many years of her life as a factory girl at Lowell, Mass. She died in 1893. 1. There's a merry brown thrush sitting up in a tree; "He's singing to me! he's singing to me!" And what does he say, little girl, little boy? "Oh, the world's running over with joy! Don't You hear? Don't you see? Hush! look! In my tree I'm as happy as happy can be!" 2. And the brown thrush keeps singing, "A nest do you see, And five eggs hid by me in the juniper tree? Don't meddle! don't touch! little girl, little boy, Or the world will lose some of its joy! Now I'm glad! now I'm free! And I always shall be, If you never bring sorrow to me." 3. So the merry brown thrush sings away in the tree, To you and to me, to you and to me; And he sings all the day, little girl, little boy, "Oh, the world's running over with joy! But long it won't be, Don't you know? Don't you see? Unless we're as good as can be." EXERCISES.--What is a thrush? Why was the thrush so happy? Do you think he would have been happy if the little boy or girl had robbed the nest? XVII. A SHIP IN A STORM. (55) 1. Did you ever go far out upon the great ocean? How beautiful it is to be out at sea, when the sea is smooth and still! 2. Let a storm approach, and the scene is changed. The heavy, black clouds appear in the distance, and throw a deep, deathlike shade over the world of waters. 3. The captain and sailors soon see in the clouds the signs of evil. All hands are then set to work to take in sail. 4. The hoarse notes of the captain, speaking through his trumpet, are echoed from lip to lip among the rigging. Happy will it be, if all is made snug before the gale strikes the vessel. 5. At last, the gale comes like a vast moving mountain of air. It strikes the ship. The vessel heaves and groans under the dreadful weight, and struggles to escape through the foaming waters. 6. If she is far out at sea, she will be likely to ride out the storm in safety. But if the wind is driving her upon the shore, the poor sailors will hardly escape being dashed upon the rocks, and drowned. 7. Once there was a ship in a storm. Some of her masts were already broken, and her sails lost. While the wind was raging, and the billows were dashing against her, the cry was heard, "A man has fallen overboard!" 8. Quickly was the boat lowered, and she was soon seen bounding on her way over the mountain waves. At one moment, the boat seemed lifted to the skies, and the next, it sank down, and appeared to be lost beneath the waves! 9. At length, the man was found. He was well nigh drowned; but he was taken on board, and now they made for the ship. But the ship rolled so dreadfully, that it seemed certain death to go near her. And now, what should they do? 10. The captain told one of the men to go aloft and throw down a rope. This was made fast to the boat, and when the sea was somewhat calm it was hoisted, and all fell down into the ship with a dreadful crash. It was a desperate way of getting on board; but fortunately no lives were lost. 11. On the dangerous points along our seacoast are lighthouses, which can be seen far out at sea, and serve as guides to ships. Sometimes the fog is so dense that these lights can not be seen, but most lighthouses have great fog bells or fog horns; some of the latter are made to sound by steam, and can be heard for a long distance. These bells and horns are kept sounding as long as the fog lasts. 12. There are also many life-saving stations along the coast where trained men are ready with lifeboats. "When a ship is driven ashore they at once go to the rescue of those on board, and thus many valuable lives are saved. 13. Take it all in all, a sailor's life is a very hard one. Our young friends owe a debt of gratitude to those whose home is upon the great waters, and who bring them the luxuries of other countries. DEFINITIONS.--4. Ech'oed, sounded again. Gale, a wind storm. 5. Heaves, pitches up and down. 7. Bil'lows, waves. 10. Des'-per-ate, hopeless. 11. Fog, watery vapor, mist. 13. Grat'i-tude, thankfulness. Lux'u-ries, nice things. EXERCISES.--What is this lesson about? When is it dangerous to be at sea? What do sailors then do? In what situation are they most likely to be saved? Relate the story of the man overboard. Tell about the lighthouses. How are vessels warned of danger in a fog? What about the life-saving stations? What is said of a sailor's life? XVIII. THE SAILOR'S CONSOLATION. (58) Charles Dibdin, the author, was born at Southampton, England, in 1745. He wrote a number of fine sea songs. He died in 1814. 1. One night came on a hurricane, The sea was mountains rolling, When Barney Buntline turned his quid, And said to Billy Bowling: "A strong norwester's blowing, Bill; Hark! don't ye hear it roar now? Lord help 'em, how I pities all Unhappy folks on shore now! 2. "Foolhardy chaps who live in town, What danger they are all in, And now are quaking in their beds, For fear the roof shall fall in; Poor creatures, how they envy us, And wish, as I've a notion, For our good luck, in such a storm, To be upon the ocean. 3. "But as for them who're out all day, On business from their houses, And late at night are coming home, To cheer the babes and spouses; While you and I, Bill, on the deck, Are comfortably lying, My eyes! what tiles and chimney pots About their heads are flying! 4. "And very often have we heard How men are killed and undone By overturns of carriages, By thieves, and fires in London. We know what risks all landsmen run, From noblemen to tailors; Then, Bill, let us thank Providence That you and I are sailors." DEFINITIONS.-l. Hur'ri-cane, a violent windstorm. Quid, a small piece of tobacco. 2. Fool'har'dy, reckless. Quak'ing, shak-ing with fear. No'tion, idea. 3. Spous'es, wives. Tiles, thin pieces of baked clay used in roofing houses. Chim'ney pots, earthenware tops of chimneys. 4. Un-done', injured, ruined. NOTES.--l. "Barney Buntline" and "Billy Bowling" are supposed to be two sailors. "Norwester" is a sailor's name for a northwest storm. 4. "Landsmen" is a term applied by sailors to all who live on shore. XIX. TWO WAYS OF TELLING A STORY. (60) By HENRY K. OLIVER. 1. In one of the most populous cities of New England, a few years ago, a party of lads, all members of the same school, got up a grand sleigh ride. The sleigh was a very large one, drawn by six gray horses. 2. On the following day, as the teacher entered the schoolroom, he found his pupils in high glee, as they chattered about the fun and frolic of their excursion. In answer to some inquiries, one of the lads gave him an account of their trip and its various incidents. 3. As he drew near the end of his story, he exclaimed: "Oh, sir! there was one thing I had almost forgotten. As we were coming home, we saw ahead of us a queer looking affair in the road. It proved to be a rusty old sleigh, fastened behind a covered wagon, proceeding at a very slow rate, and taking up the whole road. 4. "Finding that the owner was not disposed to turn out, we determined upon a volley of snowballs and a good hurrah. They produced the right effect, for the crazy machine turned out into the deep snow, and the skinny old pony started on a full trot. 5. "As we passed, some one gave the horse a good crack, which made him run faster than he ever did before, I'll warrant. 6. "With that, an old fellow in the wagon, who was buried up under an old hat, bawled out, 'Why do you frighten my horse?' 'Why don't you turn out, then?' says the driver. So we gave him three rousing cheers more. His horse was frightened again, and ran up against a loaded wagon, and, I believe, almost capsized the old creature--and so we left him." 7. "Well, boys," replied the teacher, "take your seat", and I will tell you a story, and all about a sleigh ride, too. Yesterday afternoon a very venerable old clergyman was on his way from Boston to Salem, to pass the rest of the winter at the house of his son. That he might be prepared for journeying in the following spring he took with him his wagon, and for the winter his sleigh, which he fastened behind the wagon. 8. "His sight and hearing were somewhat blunted by age, and he was proceeding very slowly; for his horse was old and feeble, like his owner. He was suddenly disturbed by loud hurrahs from behind, and by a furious pelting of balls of snow and ice upon the top of his wagon. 9. "In his alarm he dropped his reins, and his horse began to run away. In the midst of the old man's trouble, there rushed by him, with loud shouts, a large party of boys, in a sleigh drawn by six horses. 'Turn out! turn out, old fellow!' 'Give us the road!' 'What will you take for your pony?' 'What's the price of oats, old man?' were the various cries that met his cars. 10. "'Pray, do not frighten my horse!' exclaimed the infirm driver. 'Turn out, then! turn out!' was the answer, which was followed by repeated cracks and blows from the long whip of the 'grand sleigh,' with showers of snowballs, and three tremendous hurrahs from the boys. 11. "The terror of the old man and his horse was increased, and the latter ran away with him, to the great danger of his life. He contrived, however, to stop his horse just in season to prevent his being dashed against a loaded wagon. A short distance brought him to the house of his son. That son, boys, is your instructor, and that 'old fellow,' was your teacher's father!" 12. When the boys perceived how rude and unkind their conduct appeared from another point of view, they were very much ashamed of their thoughtlessness, and most of them had the manliness to apologize to their teacher for what they had done. DEFINITIONS.-l. Pop'u-lous, full of inhabitants. 2. Ex-cur'-sion, a pleasure trip. In'ci-dents, things that happen, events. 5. War'rant, to declare with assurance. 6. Cap-sized', upset. 7. Ven'er-a-ble, deserving of honor and respect. 8. Blunt'ed, dulled. EXERCISES.--Repeat the boys' story of the sleigh ride. The teacher's story. Were the boys ill-natured or only thoughtless? Is thoughtlessness any excuse for rudeness or unkindness? XX. FREAKS OF THE FROST. (63) By Hannah Flagg Gould, who was born at Lancaster, Vermont, in 1789. She published several volumes of poems (one for children) and one collection of prose articles, entitled "Gathered Leaves." She died in 1865. 1. The Frost looked forth one still, clear night, And whispered, "Now I shall be out of sight; So through the valley and over the height In silence I'll take my way; I will not go on, like that blustering train, The wind and the snow, the hail and the rain, Who make so much bustle and noise in vain, But I'll be as busy as they." 2. Then he flew to the mountain, and powdered its crest; He lit on the trees, and their boughs he dressed In diamond beads; and over the breast Of the quivering lake, he spread A coat of mail, that it need not fear The downward point of many a spear, That he hung on its margin, far and near, Where a rock could rear its head. 3. He went to the windows of those who slept, And over each pane, like a fairy, crept; Wherever he breathed, wherever he stepped, By the light of the morn were seen Most beautiful things; there were flowers and trees; There were bevies of birds, and swarms of bees; There were cities with temples and towers, and these All pictured in silver sheen. 4. But he did one thing that was hardly fair; He peeped in the cupboard, and, finding there That all had forgotten for him to prepare, "Now just to set them a-thinking, I'll bite this basket of fruit," said he, "This costly pitcher I'll burst in three; And the glass of water they've left for me Shall 'tchick!' to tell them I'm drinking." DEFINITIONS.--l. Blus'ter-ing, being noisy and loud. Bus'tle, stir. 2. Crest, the top. Quiv'er-ing, trembling, shaking. Mar'gin, edge, border. 3. Bev'ies, flocks. Pic'tured, painted. Sheen, brightness, splendor of appearance. EXERCISES.--What did the frost say? What did he do to the mountain? The trees? The lake? What is a "coat of mail"? What did he do to the window? The pitcher? XXI. WASTE NOT, WANT NOT. (64) 1. Mr. Jones. Boys, if you have nothing to do, will you unpack these parcels for me? 2. The two parcels were exactly alike, both of them well tied up with good whipcord. Ben took his parcel to the table, and began to examine the knot, and then to untie it. 3. John took the other parcel, and tried first at one corner, and then at the other, to pull off the string. But the cord had been too well secured, and he only drew the knots tighter. 4. John. I wish these people would not tie up their parcels so tightly, as if they were never to be undone. Why, Ben, how did you get yours undone? What is in your parcel? I wonder what is in mine! I wish I could get the string off. I will cut it. 5. Ben. Oh, no, do not cut it, John! Look, what a nice cord this is, and yours is the same. It is a pity to cut it. 6. John. Pooh! what signifies a bit of pack thread? 7. Ben. It is whipcord. 8. John. Well, whipcord then! what signifies a bit of whipcord? You can get a piece of whipcord twice as long as that for three cents; and who cares for three cents? Not I, for one. So, here it goes. 9. So he took out his knife, and cut it in several places. 10. Mr. Jones. Well, my boys, have you undone the parcels for me? 11. John. Yes, sir; here is the parcel. 12. Ben. And here is my parcel, father, and here is also the string. 13. Mr. Jones. You may keep the string, Ben. 14. Ben. Thank you, sir. What excellent whipcord it is! 15. Mr. Jones. And you, John, may keep your string, too, if it will be of any use to you. 16. John. It will be of no use to me, thank you, sir. 17. Mr. Jones. No, I am afraid not, if this is it. 18. A few weeks after this, Mr. Jones gave each of his sons a new top. 19. John. How is this, Ben? These tops have no strings. What shall we do for strings? 20. Ben. I have a string that will do very well for mine. And he pulled it out of his pocket. 21. John. Why, if that is not the whipcord! I wish I had saved mine. 22. A few days afterward, there was a shooting match, with bows and arrows, among the lads. The prize was a fine bow and arrows, to be given to the best marksman. "Come, come," said Master Sharp, "I am within one inch of the mark. I should like to see who will go nearer." 23. John drew his bow, and shot. The arrow struck within a quarter of an inch of Master Sharp's. "Shoot away," said Sharp; "but you must understand the rules. We settled them before you came. You are to have three shots with your own arrows. Nobody is to borrow or lend. So shoot away." 24. John seized his second arrow; "If I have any luck," said he;--but just as he pronounced the word "luck," the string broke, and the arrow fell from his hands. 25. Master Sharp. There! It is all over with you. 26. Ben. Here is my bow for him, and welcome. 27. Master Sharp. No, no, sir; that is not fair. Did you not hear the rules? There is to be no lending. 28. It was now Ben's turn to make his trial. His first arrow missed the mark; the second was exactly as near as John's first. Before venturing the last arrow, Ben very prudently examined the string of his bow; and, as he pulled it to try its strength, it snapped. 29. Master Sharp clapped his hands and danced for joy. But his dancing suddenly ceased, when careful Ben drew out of his pocket an excellent piece of cord, and began to tie it to the bow. 30. "The everlasting whipcord, I declare!" cried John. "Yes," said Ben, "I put it in my pocket today, because I thought I might want it." 31. Ben's last arrow won the prize; and when the bow and arrows were handed to him, John said, "How valuable that whipcord has been to you, Ben. I'll take care how I waste anything hereafter." DEFINITIONS,--2. Ex-am'ine, to look at carefully. 6. Sig'ni--fies, to be important. 22. Marks'man, one who shoots well. 28. Pru'dent-ly, with proper caution. 29. Ceased, stopped. 30. Ev--er-last'ing, lasting always. EXERCISES.--What is this lesson designed to teach? Which of the boys preserved his whipcord? What good did it do him? What did the other boy do with his? What was the consequence? What did he learn from it? XXII. JEANNETTE AND JO. (67) By Mary Mapes Dodge, who was born in New York City in 1838. She is the editor of the "St. Nicholas" magazine, and has written many stories for children. 1. Two girls I know--Jeannette and Jo, And one is always moping; The other lassie, come what may, Is ever bravely hoping. 2. Beauty of face and girlish grace Are theirs, for joy or sorrow; Jeannette takes brightly every day, And Jo dreads each to-morrow. 3. One early morn they watched the dawn-- I saw them stand together; Their whole day's sport, 't was very plain, Depended on the weather. 4. "'T will storm!" cried Jo. Jeannette spoke low; "Yes, but 't will soon be over." And, as she spoke, the sudden shower Came, beating down the clover. 5. "I told you so!" cried angry Jo: "It always is a-raining!" Then hid her face in dire despair, Lamenting and complaining. 6. But sweet Jeannette, quite hopeful yet,-- I tell it to her honor,-- Looked up and waited till the sun Came streaming in upon her. 7. The broken clouds sailed off in crowds, Across a sea of glory. Jeannette and Jo ran, laughing, in-- Which ends my simple story. 8. Joy is divine. Come storm, come shine, The hopeful are the gladdest; And doubt and dread, children, believe Of all things are the saddest. 9. In morning's light, let youth be bright; Take in the sunshine tender; Then, at the close, shall life's decline Be full of sunset splendor. 10. And ye who fret, try, like Jeannette, To shun all weak complaining; And not, like Jo, cry out too soon-- "It always is a-raining!" XXIII. THE LION. (69) 1. The lion is often called the "king of beasts," His height varies from three to four feet, and he is from six to nine feet long. His coat is of it yellowish brown or tawny color, and about his neck is a great shaggy mane which gives his head a majestic appearance. 2. The strength of the lion is so great that he can easily crush the skulls of such animals as the horse or ox with one blow of his paw. No one who has not seen the teeth of a full grown lion taken out of their sockets can have any idea of their real size; one of them forms a good handful, and might easily be mistaken for a small elephant's tooth. 3. The home of the lion is in the forests of Asia and Africa, where he is a terror to man and beast. He generally lies concealed during the day, but as darkness comes on he prowls about where other animals are accustomed to go for food or drink, and springs upon them unawares, with a roar that sounds like the rumble of thunder. 4. The lion sometimes lives to a great age. One by the name of Pompey died at London, in the year 1760, at the age of seventy years. If taken when young the lion can be tamed, and will even show marks of kindness to his keeper. 5. In a menagerie at Brussels, there was a cell where a large lion, called Danco, used to be kept. The cell happened to be in need of repair, and the keeper, whose name was William, desired a carpenter to come and mend it. The carpenter came, but was so afraid of the lion, that he would not go near the cell alone. 6. So William entered the cell, and led the lion to the upper part of it, while the other part was refitting. He played with the lion for some time; but, at last, being wearied, both he and the lion fell asleep. The carpenter went on with his work, and when he had finished he called out for William to come and see it. 7. He called again and again, but no William answered. The poor carpenter began to be frightened, lest the lion had made his dinner of the keeper, or else crushed him with his great paws. He crept round to the upper part of the cell, and there, looking through the railing, he saw the lion and William sleeping side by side as contentedly as two little brothers. 8. He was so astonished that he uttered a loud cry. The lion, awakened by the noise, stared at the carpenter with an eye of fury, and then placing his paw on the breast of his keeper, as if to say, "Touch him if you dare," the heroic beast lay down to sleep again. The carpenter was dreadfully alarmed, and, not knowing how he could rouse William, he ran out and related what he had seen. 9. Some people came, and, opening the door of the cell, Contrived to awaken the keeper, who, rubbing his eyes, quietly looked around him, and expressed himself very well satisfied with his nap. He took the lion's paw, shook it kindly, and then retired uninjured from the cell. DEFINITIONS.--l. Ma-jes'tic, royal, noble. 3. Prowls, wanders in search of prey. Un-a-wares', unexpectedly. Rum'ble, a low heavy sound. 5. Men-ag'er-ie, a collection of wild animals. 6. Re-fit'ting, repairing. 8. He-ro'-ic, bold. EXERCISES.--Describe the lion's appearance. What is said of his strength? His teeth? Describe the lion's home and habits. To what age do lions live? Can they be tamed? Relate the story about the lion Danco. XXIV. STRAWBERRIES. (71) By John Townsend Trowbridge, who was born at Ogden, N. Y., in 1827. He is a well-known author, and has written much for children both in poetry and prose. 1. Little Pearl Honeydew, six years old, From her bright ear parted the curls of gold; And laid her head on the strawberry bed, To hear what the red-cheeked berries said. 2. Their cheeks were blushing, their breath was sweet, She could almost hear their little hearts beat; And the tiniest, lisping, whispering sound That ever you heard, came up from the ground. 3. "Little friends," she said, "I wish I knew How it is you thrive on sun and dew!" And this is the story the berries told To little Pearl Honeydew, six years old. 4. "You wish you knew? And so do we. But we can't tell you, unless it be That the same Kind Power that cares for you Takes care of poor little berries, too. 5. "Tucked up snugly, and nestled below Our coverlid of wind-woven snow, We peep and listen, all winter long, For the first spring day and the bluebird's song. 6. "When the swallows fly home to the old brown shed, And the robins build on the bough overhead, Then out from the mold, from the darkness and cold, Blossom and runner and leaf unfold. 7. "Good children, then, if they come near, And hearken a good long while, may hear A wonderful tramping of little feet,-- So fast we grow in the summer heat. 8. "Our clocks are the flowers; and they count the hours Till we can mellow in suns and showers, With warmth of the west wind and heat of the south, A ripe red berry for a ripe red month. 9. "Apple blooms whiten, and peach blooms fall, And roses are gay by the garden wall, Ere the daisy's dial gives the sign That we may invite little Pearl to dine. 10. "The days are longest, the month is June, The year is nearing its golden noon, The weather is fine, and our feast is spread With a green cloth and berries red. 11. "Just take us betwixt your finger and thumb, And quick, oh, quick! for, see! there come Tom on all fours, and Martin the man, And Margaret, picking as fast as they can. 12. "Oh, dear! if you only knew how it shocks Nice berries like us to be sold by the box, And eaten by strangers, and paid for with pelf, You would surely take pity, and eat us yourself!" 13. And this is the story the small lips told To dear Pearl Honeydew, six years old, When she laid her head on the strawberry bed To hear what the red-cheeked berries said. DEFINITIONS.--3. Thrive, to grow well, to flourish. 5. Nes'tled, gathered closely together. 6. Mold, fine, soft earth. Run'ner, a slender branch running along the ground. 8. Mel'low, to ripen. 9. Di'al, the face of a timepiece. 10. Feast, a festive or joyous meal, a banquet. 12. Pelf, money. EXERCISES.--What did little Pearl ask of the strawberries? What did they reply? Can you tell what name is given to this kind of story? XVV. HARRY'S RICHES. (74) 1. One day, our little Harry spent the morning with his young playmate, Johnny Crane, who lived in a fine house, and on Sundays rode to church in the grandest carriage to be seen in all the country round. 2. When Harry returned home, he said, "Mother, Johnny has money in both pockets!" 3. "Has he, dear?" 4. "Yes, ma'am; and he says he could get ever so much more if he wanted it." 5. "Well, now, that's very pleasant for him," I returned, cheerfully, as a reply was plainly expected. "Very pleasant; don't you think so?" 6. "Yes, ma'am; only--" 7. "Only what, Harry?" 8. "Why, he has a big popgun, and a watch, and a hobbyhorse, and lots of things." And Harry looked up at my face with a disconsolate stare. 9. "Well, my boy, what of that?" 10. "Nothing, mother," and the telltale tears sprang to his eyes, "only I guess we are very poor, aren't we?" 11. "No, indeed, Harry, we are very far from being poor. We are not so rich as Mr. Crane's family, if that is what you mean." 12. "O mother!" insisted the little fellow, "I do think we are very poor; anyhow, I am!" 13. "O Harry!" I exclaimed, reproachfully. 14. "Yes, ma'am I am," he sobbed; "I have scarcely any thing--I mean anything that's worth money--except things to eat and wear, and I'd have to have them anyway." 15. "Have to have them?" I echoed, at the same time laying my sewing upon the table, so that I might reason with him on that point; "do you not know, my son--" 16. Just then Uncle Ben looked up from the paper he had been reading: "Harry," said he, "I want to find out something about eyes; so, if you will let me have yours, I will give you a dollar apiece for them." 17. "For my eyes!" exclaimed Harry, very much astonished. 18. "Yes," resumed Uncle Ben, quietly, "for your eyes. I will give you chloroform, so it will not hurt you in the least, and you shall have a beautiful glass pair for nothing, to wear in their place. Come, a dollar apiece, cash down! What do you say? I will take them out as quick as a wink." 19. "Give you my eyes, uncle!" cried Harry, looking wild at the very thought, "I think not." And the startled little fellow shook his head defiantly. 20. "Well, five, ten, twenty dollars, then." Harry shook his head at every offer. 21. "No, sir! I wouldn't let you have them for a thousand dollars! What could I do without my eyes? I couldn't see mother, nor the baby, nor the flowers, nor the horses, nor anything," added Harry, growing warmer and warmer. 22. "I will give you two thousand," urged Uncle Ben, taking a roll of bank notes out of his pocket. Harry, standing at a respectful distance, shouted that he never would do any such thing. 23. "Very well," continued the uncle, with a serious air, at the same time writing something in his notebook, "I can't afford to give you more than two thousand dollars, so I shall have to do without your eyes; but," he added, "I will tell you what I will do, I will give you twenty dollars if you will let me put a few drops from this bottle in your ears. It will not hurt, but it will make you deaf. I want to try some experiments with deafness, you see. Come quickly, now! Here are the twenty dollars all ready for you." 24. "Make me deaf!" shouted Harry, without even looking at the gold pieces temptingly displayed upon the table. "I guess you will not do that, either. Why, I couldn't hear a single word if I were deaf, could I?" 25. "Probably not," replied Uncle Ben. So, of course, Harry refused again. He would never give up his hearing, he said, "no, not for three thousand dollars." 26. Uncle Ben made another note in his book, and then came out with large bids for "a right arm," then "left arm," "hands," "feet," "nose," finally ending with an offer of ten thousand dollars for "mother," and five thousand for "the baby." 27. To all of these offers Harry shook his head, his eyes flashing, and exclamations of surprise and indignation bursting from his lips. At last, Uncle Ben said he must give up his experiments, for Harry's prices were entirely too high. 28. "Ha! ha!" laughed the boy, exultingly, and he folded his dimpled arms and looked as if to say, "I'd like to see the man who could pay them!" 29. "Why, Harry, look here!" exclaimed Uncle Ben, peeping into his notebook, "here is a big addition sum, I tell you!" He added the numbers, and they amounted to thirty-two thousand dollars. 30. "There, Harry," said Uncle Ben, "don't you think you are foolish not to accept some of my offers?" "No, sir, I don't," answered Harry, resolutely. "Then," said Uncle Ben, "you talk of being poor, and by your own showing you have treasures for which you will not take thirty-two thousand dollars. What do you say to that?" 31. Harry didn't know exactly what to say. So he blushed for a second, and just then tears came rolling down his cheeks, and he threw his chubby arms around my neck. "Mother," he whispered, "isn't God good to make everybody so rich?" DEFINITIONS.--8. Dis-con'so-late, filled with grief. 13. Re-proach'ful-ly, with censure or reproof. 18. Chlo're-form, an oily liquid, the vapor of which causes insensibility. 19. Startled, shocked. De-fi'ant-ly, daringly. 23. Af-ford', to be able to pay for. Ex-per'i-ments, acts performed to discover some truth. 27. Ex-cla-ma'tions, expressions of surprise, anger, etc. 28. Ex-ult'ing-ly, in a triumphant manner. 30. Treas'ures, things which are very much valued. XXVI. IN TIME'S SWING. (77) By Lucy Larcom. 1. Father Time, your footsteps go Lightly as the falling snow. In your swing I'm sitting, see! Push me softly; one, two; three, Twelve times only. Like a sheet, Spread the snow beneath my feet. Singing merrily, let me swing Out of winter into spring. 2. Swing me out, and swing me in! Trees are bare, but birds begin Twittering to the peeping leaves, On the bough beneath the eaves. Wait,--one lilac bud I saw. Icy hillsides feel the thaw. April chased off March to-day; Now I catch a glimpse of May. 3. Oh, the smell of sprouting grass! In a blur the violets pass. Whispering from the wildwood come Mayflower's breath and insect's hum. Roses carpeting the ground; Thrushes, orioles, warbling sound:-- Swing me low, and swing me high, To the warm clouds of July. 4. Slower now, for at my side White pond lilies open wide. Underneath the pine's tall spire Cardinal blossoms burn like fire. They are gone; the golden-rod Flashes from the dark green sod. Crickets in the grass I hear; Asters light the fading year. 5. Slower still! October weaves Rainbows of the forest leaves. Gentians fringed, like eyes of blue, Glimmer out of sleety dew. Meadow green I sadly miss: Winds through withered sedges hiss. Oh, 't is snowing, swing me fast, While December shivers past! 6. Frosty-bearded Father Time, Stop your footfall on the rime! Hard you push, your hand is rough; You have swung me long enough. "Nay, no stopping," say you? Well, Some of your best stories tell, While you swing me--gently, do!-- From the Old Year to the New. DEFINITIONS.--2. Twit'ter-ing, making a succession of small, chirping noises. Glimpse, a short, hurried view. 3. Blur, a dim, confused appearance. 6. Rime, whitefrost, hoarfrost. XXVII. HARRY AND HIS DOG. (79) 1. "Beg, Frisk, beg," said little Harry, as he sat on an inverted basket, at his grandmother's door, eating, with great satisfaction, a porringer of bread and milk. His little sister Annie, who had already dispatched her breakfast, sat on the ground opposite to him, now twisting her flowers into garlands, and now throwing them away. 2. "Beg, Frisk, beg!" repeated Harry, holding a bit of bread just out of the dog's reach; and the obedient Frisk squatted himself on his hind legs, and held up his fore paws, waiting for master Harry to give him the tempting morsel. 3. The little boy and the little dog were great friends. Frisk loved him dearly, much better than he did anyone else; perhaps, because he recollected that Harry was his earliest and firmest friend during a time of great trouble. 4. Poor Frisk had come as a stray dog to Milton, the place where Harry lived. If he could have told his own story, it would probably have been a very pitiful one, of kicks and cuffs, of hunger and foul weather. 5. Certain it is, he made his appearance at the very door where Harry was now sitting, in miserable plight, wet, dirty, and half starved; and that there he met Harry, who took a fancy to him, and Harry's grandmother, who drove him off with a broom. 6. Harry, at length, obtained permission for the little dog to remain as a sort of outdoor pensioner, and fed him with stray bones and cold potatoes, and such things as he could get for him. He also provided him with a little basket to sleep in, the very same which, turned up, afterward served Harry for a seat. 7. After a while, having proved his good qualities by barking away a set of pilferers, who were making an attack on the great pear tree, he was admitted into the house, and became one of its most vigilant and valued inmates. He could fetch or carry either by land or water; would pick up a thimble or a ball of cotton, if little Annie should happen to drop them; or take Harry's dinner to school for him with perfect honesty. 8. "Beg, Frisk, beg!" said Harry, and gave him, after long waiting, the expected morsel. Frisk was satisfied, but Harry was not. The little boy, though a good-humored fellow in the main, had turns of naughtiness, which were apt to last him all day, and this promised to prove one of his worst. It was a holiday, and in the afternoon his cousins, Jane and William, were to come and see him and Annie; and the pears were to be gathered, and the children were to have a treat. 9. Harry, in his impatience, thought the morning would never be over. He played such pranks--buffeting Frisk, cutting the curls off of Annie's doll, and finally breaking his grandmother's spectacles--that before his visitors arrived, indeed, almost immediately after dinner, he contrived to be sent to bed in disgrace. 10. Poor Harry! there he lay, rolling and kicking, while Jane, and William, and Annie were busy about the fine, mellow Windsor pears. William was up in the tree, gathering and shaking; Annie and Jane catching them in their aprons, and picking them up from the ground; now piling them in baskets, and now eating the nicest and ripest; while Frisk was barking gayly among them, as if he were catching Windsor pears, too! 11. Poor Harry! He could hear all this glee and merriment through the open window as he lay in bed. The storm of passion having subsided, there he lay weeping and disconsolate, a grievous sob bursting forth every now and then, as he heard the loud peals of childish laughter, and as he thought how he should have laughed, and how happy he should have been, had he not forfeited all this pleasure by his own bad conduct. 12. He wondered if Annie would not be so good-natured as to bring him a pear. All on a sudden, he heard a little foot on the stair, pitapat, and he thought she was coming. Pitapat came the foot, nearer and nearer, and at last a small head peeped, half afraid, through the half-open door. 13. But it was not Annie's head; it was Frisk's--poor Frisk, whom Harry had been teasing and tormenting all the morning, and who came into the room wagging his tail, with a great pear in his mouth; and, jumping upon the bed, He laid it in the little boy's hand. 14. Is not Frisk a fine, grateful fellow? and does he not deserve a share of Harry's breakfast, whether he begs for it or not? And little Harry will remember from the events of this day that kindness, even though shown to a dog, will always be rewarded; and that ill nature and bad temper are connected with nothing but pain and disgrace. DEFINITIONS.--l. In-vert'ed, turned upside down. Por'rin-ger, a small metallic dish. 3. Rec-ol-lect'ed, brought back to mind. 5. Plight, condition. 6. Pen'sion-er, one who is supported by others. 7. Pil'fer-ers, those who steal little things. Vig'i-lant, watchful. Intimates, those living in the same house. 8. Holiday, a day of amusement. 9. Buf'fet-ing, striking with the hand. 11. Sub-sid'ed, become quiet. For'feit-ed, lost. 14. Con-nect'ed, united, have a close relation. XXVIII. THE VOICE OF THE GRASS. (83) By Sarah Roberts. 1. Here I come, creeping, creeping, everywhere; By the dusty roadside, On the sunny hillside, Close by the noisy brook, In every shady nook, I come creeping, creeping, everywhere. 2. Here I come, creeping, creeping everywhere; All round the open door, Where sit the aged poor, Here where the children play, In the bright and merry May, I come creeping, creeping, everywhere. 3. Here I come, creeping, creeping, everywhere; You can not see me coming, Nor hear my low, sweet humming, For in the starry night, And the glad morning light, I come, quietly creeping, everywhere. 4. Here I come, creeping, creeping, everywhere; More welcome than the flowers, In summer's pleasant hours; The gentle cow is glad, And the merry birds not sad, To see me creeping, creeping, everywhere. 5. Here I come, creeping, creeping, everywhere; When you're numbered with the dead, In your still and narrow bed, In the happy spring I'll come, And deck your narrow home, Creeping, silently creeping, everywhere. 6. Here I come, creeping, creeping, everywhere; My humble song of praise, Most gratefully I raise, To Him at whose command I beautify the land, Creeping, silently creeping, everywhere. XXIX. THE EAGLE. (84) 1. The eagle seems to enjoy a kind of supremacy over the rest of the inhabitants of the air. Such is the loftiness of his flight, that he often soars in the sky beyond the reach of the naked eye, and such is his strength that he has been known to carry away children in his talons. But many of the noble qualities imputed to him are rather fanciful than true. 2. He has been described as showing a lofty independence, which makes him disdain to feed on anything that is not slain by his own strength. But Alexander Wilson, the great naturalist, says that he has seen an eagle feasting on the carcass of a horse. The eagle lives to a great age. One at Vienna is stated to have died after a confinement of one hundred and four years. 3. There are several species of the eagle. The golden eagle, which is one of the largest, is nearly four feet from the point of the beak to the end of the tail. He is found in most parts of Europe, and is also met with in America. High rocks and ruined and lonely towers are the places which he chooses for his abode. His nest is composed of sticks and rushes. The tail feathers are highly valued as ornaments by the American Indians. 4. The most interesting species is the bald eagle, as this is an American bird, and the adopted emblem of our country. He lives chiefly upon fish, and is found in the neighborhood of the sea, and along the shores and cliffs of our large lakes and rivers. 5. According to the description given by Wilson, he depends, in procuring his food, chiefly upon the labors of others. He watches the fish hawk as he dives into the sea for his prey, and darting down upon him as he rises, forces him to relinquish his victim, and then seizes it before it again reaches the water. 6. One of the most notable species is the harpy eagle. This is said to be bold and strong, and to attack beasts, and even man himself. He is fierce, quarrelsome, and sullen, living alone in the deepest forests. He is found chiefly in South America. XXX. THE OLD EAGLE TREE. (86) 1. In a distant field, stood a large tulip tree, apparently of a century's growth, and one of the most gigantic. It looked like the father of the surrounding forest. A single tree of huge dimensions, standing all alone, is a sublime object. 2. On the top of this tree, an old eagle, commonly called the "Fishing Eagle," had built her nest every year, for many years, and, undisturbed, had raised her young. A remarkable place to choose, as she procured her food from the ocean, and this tree stood full ten miles from the seashore. It had long been known as the "Old Eagle Tree." 3. On a warm, sunny day, the workmen were hoeing corn in an adjoining field. At a certain hour of the day, the old eagle was known to set off for the seaside, to gather food for her young. As she this day returned with a large fish in her claws, the workmen surrounded the tree, and, by yelling and hooting, and throwing stones, so scared the poor bird that she dropped her fish, and they carried it off in triumph. 4. The men soon dispersed, but Joseph sat down under a hush near by, to watch, and to bestow unavailing pity. The bird soon returned to her nest, without food. The eaglets at once set up a cry for food, so shrill, so clear, and so clamorous that the boy was greatly moved. 5. The parent bird seemed to try to soothe them; but their appetites were too keen, and it was all in vain. She then perched herself on a limb near them, and looked down into the nest in a manner that seemed to say, "I know not what to do next." 6. Her indecision was but momentary; again she poised herself, uttered one or two sharp notes, as if telling them to a "lie still," balanced her body, spread her wings, and was away again for the sea. 7. Joseph was determined to see the result. His eye followed her till she grew small, smaller, a mere speck in the sky, and then disappeared. What boy has not thus watched the flight of the bird of his country! 8. She was gone nearly two hours, about double her usual time for a voyage, when she again returned, on a slow, weary wing, flying uncommonly low, in order to have a heavier atmosphere to sustain her, with another fish in her talons. 9. On nearing the field, she made a circuit round it, to see if her enemies were again there. Finding the coast clear, she once more reached the tree, drooping, faint, and weary, and evidently nearly exhausted. Again the eaglets set up their cry, which was soon hushed by the distribution of a dinner, such as, save the cooking, a king might admire. 10. "Glorious bird!" cried the boy, "what a spirit!" Other birds can fly more swiftly, others can sing more sweetly, others scream more loudly; but what other bird, when persecuted and robbed, when weary, when discouraged, when so far from the sea, would do this? 11. "Glorious bird! I will learn a lesson from thee to-day. I will never forget, hereafter, that when the spirit is determined it can do almost anything. Others would have drooped, and hung the head, and mourned over the cruelty of man, and sighed over the wants of the nestlings; but thou, by at once recovering the loss, hast forgotten all." 12. "I will learn of thee, noble bird! I will remember this. I will set my mark high. I will try to do something, and to be something in the world; I will never yield to discouragements." DEFINITIONS.--l. Cen'tu-ry, the space of a hundred years. Gi-gan'tic, very large. Di-men'sions, size. Sub-lime', grand, noble. 4. Dis-persed', scattered. Un-a-vail'ing, useless. Ea'glets, young eagles. Clam'or-ous, loud, noisy. 6. In-de-ci'sion, want of fixed purpose. Mo'men-ta-ry, for a single moment. 9. Cir'cuit, movement round in a circle. Ex-haust'ed, wholly tired. 11. Nes'-tlings, young birds in the nest. EXERCISES.--Relate the story of the "Old Eagle Tree." What lesson was taught the boy who watched the eagle's actions? XXXI. ALPINE SONG. (88) William W. Story, the author, was born in Salem, Mass., In 1819. His writings in poetry and prose are well known, and he also gained distinction in his profession as a sculptor. He died in 1895. 1. With alpenstock and knapsack light, I wander o'er hill and valley; I climb the snow peak's flashing height, And sleep in the sheltered chalet,-- Free in heart--happy and free-- This is the summer life for me. 2. The city's dust I leave behind For the keen, sweet air of the mountain, The grassy path by the wild rose lined, The gush of the living fountain,-- Free in heart--happy and free-- This is the summer life for me. 3. High above me snow clouds rise, In the early morning gleaming; And the patterned valley beneath me lies Softly in sunshine dreaming,-- Free in heart--happy and free-- This is the summer life for me. 4. The bells of wandering herds I list, Chiming in upland meadows; How sweet they sound, as I lie at rest Under the dark pine shadows-- Glad in heart--happy and free-- This is the summer life for me. DEFINITIONS.--l. Al'pen-stock, a long staff, pointed with iron, used in traveling among the Alps. Knap'sack, a leather sack for carrying food or clothing, borne on the back. Cha-let' (pro. sha-la'), a mountain hut. 2. Gush, a rapid outflowing. 3. Pat'terned, marked off in figures or patterns. 4. List, hearken to. XXXII. CIRCUMSTANCES ALTER CASES. (89) 1. Derby. Good morning, neighbor Scrapewell. I have half a dozen miles to ride to-day, and shall be extremely obliged if you will lend me your gray mare. 2. Scrapewell. It would give me great pleasure to oblige you, friend Derby; but I am under the necessity of going to the mill this very morning, with a bag of corn. My wife wants the meal to-day, and you know what a time there'll be if I disappoint her. 3. D. Then she must want it still, for I can assure you the mill does not go to-day. I heard the miller tell Will Davis that the water was too low. 4. S. You don't say so! That is bad, indeed; for in that case I shall be obliged to gallop off to town for the meal. My wife would comb my head for me if I should neglect it. 5. D. I can save you this journey, for I have plenty of meal at home, and will lend your wife as much as she wants. 6. S. Ah! neighbor Derby, I am sure your meal would never suit my wife. You can't conceive how whimsical she is. 7. D. If she were ten times more whimsical than she is, I am certain she would like it; for you sold it to me yourself, and you assured me it was the best you ever had. 8. S. Yes, yes! that's true, indeed; I always have the best of everything. You know, neighbor Derby, that no one is more ready to oblige a friend than I am; but I must tell you the mare this morning refused to eat hay; and, truly, I am afraid she will not carry you. 9. D. Oh, never fear! I will feed her well with oats on the road. 10. S. Oats! neighbor; oats are very dear. 11. D. Never mind that. When I have a good job in view, I never stand for trifles. 12. S. But it is very slippery; and I am really afraid she will fall and break your neck. 13. D. Give yourself no uneasiness about that. The mare is certainly sure-footed; and, besides, you were just now talking of galloping her to town. 14. S. Well, then, to tell you the plain truth, though I wish to oblige you with all my heart, my saddle is torn quite in pieces, and I have just sent my bridle to be mended. 15. D. Luckily, I have both a bridle and a saddle hanging up at home. 16. S. Ah! that may be; but I am sure your saddle will never fit my mare. She's very notional. 17. D. Why, then I'll borrow neighbor Clodpole's. 18. S. Clodpole's! his will no more fit than yours. 19. D. At the worst, then, I will go to my good friend, Squire Jones. He has half a score of them; and I am sure he will lend me one that will fit her. 20. S. You know, friend Derby, that no one is more willing to oblige his neighbors than I am. I do assure you the beast should be at your service, with all my heart; but she has not been curried, I believe, for three weeks past. Her foretop and mane want combing and cutting very much. If anyone should see her in her present plight, it would ruin the sale of her. 21. D. Oh, a horse is soon curried, and my son Sam shall attend to it at once. 22. S. Yes, very likely; but I this moment recollect the creature has no shoes on. 23. D. Well, is there not a blacksmith hard by? 24. S. What, that tinker, Dobson? I would not trust such a bungler to shoe a goat. No, no; none but uncle Tom Thumper shall shoe my mare. 25. D. As good luck will have it, then, I shall pass right by his door. 26. S. [Calling to his son.] Tim, Tim! here's neighbor Derby, who wants the loan of the gray mare, to ride to town to-day. You know the skin was rubbed off her back, last week, a hand's breadth or more. [Gives Tim a wink.] However, I believe she is well enough by this time. You know, Tim, how ready I am to oblige my neighbors; indeed, we ought to do all the good we can in this world. We must certainly let neighbor Derby have her if she will possibly answer his purpose. Yes, yes; I see plainly by Tim's countenance, neighbor Derby, that he's disposed to oblige you. I would not have refused you the mare for the worth of her. If I had, I should have expected you to refuse me in turn. None of my neighbors can accuse me of being backward in doing them a kindness whenever it is possible. Come, Tim, what do you say? 27. Tim. What do I say, father? Why, sir, I say that I am no less ready than you are to do a neighborly kindness. But the mare is by no means capable of performing the journey. About a hand's breadth, did you say? Why, sir, the skin is torn from the poor creature's back the bigness of your broad-brimmed hat! And, besides, I have promised her, so soon as she is able to travel, to Ned Saunders, to carry a load of apples to market. 28. S. Do you hear that, neighbor? I am very sorry matters are thus. I would not have disobliged you for the price of two such mares. Believe me, neighbor Derby, I am really sorry, for your sake, that matters turn out thus. 29. D. And I as much for yours, neighbor Scrapewell; for to tell you the truth I received a letter this morning from Mr. Griffin, who tells me if I will be in town to-day he will give me the refusal of all that lot of timber, which he is about cutting down, on the side of the hill; and I had intended you should have shared half of it, which would have been not less than fitly dollars in your pocket. But, as your-- 30. S. Fifty dollars, did you say? 31. D. Ay, truly, did I; but as your mare is out of order, I'll go and see if I can get old Roan, the blacksmith's horse. 32. S. Old Roan! My mare is at your service, neighbor, Here, Tim, tell Ned Saunders he can't have the mare: neighbor Derby wants her; and I won't refuse so good a friend anything he asks for. 33. D. But what are you to do for meal? 34. S. My wife can do without it for a week if you want the mare so long. 35. D. But, then, your saddle is all in pieces. 36. S. I meant the old one. I have bought a new one since, and you shall have the first use of it. 37. D. And shall I call at Thumper's and get the mare shod? 38. S. No, no; I had forgotten to tell you that I let neighbor Dobson shoe her, last week, by way of trial; and, to do him justice, he shoes extremely well. 39. D. But, if the poor creature has lost so much skin from off her back-- 40. S. Poh, poh! That is just one of Tim's large stories. I do assure you it was not, at first, bigger than my thumb nail, and I am certain it has not grown any since. 41. D. At least, however, let her have something she will eat, since she refuses hay. 42. S. She did, indeed, refuse hay this morning; but the only reason was that she was crammed full of oats. You have nothing to fear, neighbor; the mare is in perfect trim; and she will skim you over the ground like a bird. I wish you a good journey and a profitable job. DEFINITIONS.--l. Ex-treme'ly, very much. 6. Whim'si-cal, full of whims. 20. Cur'ried, cleaned. Fore'top, hair on the forepart of the head. 24. Bun'gler, a clumsy workman. 26. Dis-posed', inclined to, Back'ward, slow, unwilling. 27. Ca'pa-ble, possessing ability. Per-form'ing, accomplishing. 29. Re-fus'al, choice of tak-ing. 42. Crammed, stuffed. XXXIII. THE NOBLEST REVENGE. (94) 1. "I will have revenge on him, that I will, and make him heartily repent it," said Philip to himself, with a countenance quite red with anger. His mind was so engaged that he did not see Stephen, who happened at that instant to meet him. 2. "Who is that," said Stephen, "on whom you intend to be revenged?" Philip, as if awakened from a dream, stopped short, and looking at his friend, soon resumed a smile that was natural to his countenance. "Ah," said he, "you remember my bamboo, a very pretty cane which was given me by my father, do you not? Look! there it is in pieces. It was farmer Robinson's son who reduced it to this worthless state." 3. Stephen very coolly asked him what had induced young Robinson to break it. "I was walking peaceably along," replied he, "and was playing with my cane by twisting it round my body. By accident, one of the ends slipped out of my hand, when I was opposite the gate, just by the wooden bridge, where the ill natured fellow had put down a pitcher of water, which he was taking home from the well." 4. "It so happened that my cane, in springing back, upset the pitcher, but did not break it. He came up close to me, and began to call me names, when I assured him that what I had done had happened by accident, and that I was sorry for it. Without regarding what I said, he instantly seized my cane, and twisted it, as you see; but I will make him repent of it." 5. "To be sure," said Stephen, "he is a very wicked boy, and is already very properly punished for being such, since nobody likes him or will have anything to do with him. He can scarcely find a companion to play with him; and is often at a loss for amusement, as he deserves to be. This, properly considered, I think will appear sufficient revenge for you." 6. "All this is true," replied Philip, "but he has broken my cane. It was a present from my father, and a very pretty cane it was. I offered to fill his pitcher for him again, as I knocked it down by accident. I will be revenged." 7. "Now, Philip;" said Stephen, "I think you will act better in not minding him, as your contempt will be the best punishment you can inflict upon him. Be assured, he will always be able to do more mischief to you than you choose to do to him. And, now I think of it, I will tell you what happened to him not long since." 8. "Very unluckily for him, he chanced to see a bee hovering about a flower which he caught, and was going to pull off its wings out of sport, when the animal stung him, and flew away in safety to the hive. The pain put him into a furious passion, and, like you, he vowed revenge. He accordingly procured a stick, and thrust it into the beehive." 9. "In an instant the whole swarm flew out, and alighting upon him stung him in a hundred different places. He uttered the most piercing cries, and rolled upon the ground in the excess of his agony. His father immediately ran to him, but could not put the bees to flight until they had stung him so severely that he was confined several days to his bed." l0. "Thus, you see, he was not very successful in his pursuit of revenge. I would advise you, therefore, to pass over his insult. He is a wicked boy, and much stronger than you; so that your ability to obtain this revenge may be doubtful." 11. "I must own," replied Philip, "that your advice seems very good. So come along with me, and I will tell my father the whole matter, and I think he will not be angry with me." They went, and Philip told his father what had happened. He thanked Stephen for the good advice he had given his son, and promised Philip to give him another cane exactly like the first. 12. A few days afterward, Philip saw this ill-natured boy fall as he was carrying home a heavy log of wood, which he could not lift up again. Philip ran to him, and helped him to replace it on his shoulder. Young Robinson was quite ashamed at the thought of this unmerited kindness, and heartily repented of his behavior. Philip went home quite satisfied. "This," said he, "is the noblest vengeance I could take, in returning good for evil. It is impossible I should repent of it." DEFINITIONS.--l. Re-venge', return for an injury. Re-pent', to feel sorry for. Coun'te-nance, the face. 2. Re-sumed', took again. 3. In-duced', caused. 4. As-sured, declared positively. Re-gard'ing, noticing. 5. Con-sid'ered, thought of care'fully. 7. Con-tempt', disdain, scorn. In-flict', to impose, to put on. 8. Hov'er-ing, hanging over or about. 9. Ag'o-ny, very great pain. 10. A-bil'i-ty, power. EXERCISES.--What is revenge? Is it right to take revenge on those who injure us? How should we treat such persons? XXXIV. EVENING HYMN. (97) 1. Come to the sunset tree, The day is past and gone; The woodman's ax lies free, And the reaper's work is done; The twilight star to heaven, And the summer dew to flowers, And rest to us is given, By the soft evening hours. 2. Sweet is the hour of rest, Pleasant the woods' low sigh, And the gleaming of the west, And the turf whereon we lie, When the burden and the heat Of the laborer's task is o'er, And kindly voices greet The tired one at the door. 3. Yes, tuneful is the sound That dwells in whispering boughs: Welcome the freshness round, And the gale that fans our brows; But rest more sweet and still Than ever the nightfall gave, Our yearning hearts shall fill, In the world beyond the grave. 4. There, shall no tempests blow, Nor scorching noontide heat; There, shall be no more snow, No weary, wandering feet; So we lift our trusting eyes From the hills our fathers trod, To the quiet of the skies, To the Sabbath of our God. XXXV. HOW MARGERY WONDERED. (99) By Lucy Larcom. 1. One bright morning late in March, little Margery put on her hood and her Highland plaid shawl, and went trudging across the beach. It was the first time she had been trusted out alone, for Margery was a little girl; nothing about her was large, except her round gray eyes, which had yet scarcely opened upon half a dozen springs and summers. 2. There was a pale mist on the far-off sea and sky, and up around the sun were white clouds edged with the hues of pinks and violets. The sunshine and the mild air made Margery's very heart feel warm, and she let the soft wind blow aside her Highland shawl, as she looked across the waters at the sun, and wondered! For, somehow, the sun had never looked before as it did to-day;--it seemed like a great golden flower bursting out of its pearl-lined calyx,--a flower without a stem. Or was there a strong stem away behind it in the sky, that reached down below the sea, to a root, nobody could guess where? 3. Margery did not stop to puzzle herself about the answer to her question, for now the tide, was coming in, and the waves, little at first, but growing larger every moment, were crowding up along the sand and pebbles, laughing, winking, and whispering, as they tumbled over each other, like thousands of children hurrying home from somewhere, each with its own precious little secret to tell. 4. Where did the waves come from? Who was down there under the blue wall of the horizon, with the hoarse, hollow voice, urging and pushing them across the beach at her feet? And what secret was it they were lisping to each other with their pleasant voices? Oh, what was there beneath the sea, and beyond the sea, so deep, so broad, and so dim, too, away off where the white ships, that looked smaller than sea birds, were gliding out and in? 5. But while Margery stood still for a moment on a dry rock, and wondered, there came a low, rippling warble to her ear from a cedar tree on the cliff above her. It had been a long winter, and Margery had forgotten that there were birds, and that birds could sing. So she wondered again what the music was. 6. And when she saw the bird perched on a yellow-brown bough, she wondered yet more. It was only a bluebird, but then it was the first bluebird Margery had ever seen. He fluttered among the prickly twigs, and looked as if he had grown out of them, as the cedar berries had, which were dusty blue, the color of his coat. But how did the music get in his throat? And after it was in his throat, how could it untangle itself, and wind itself off so evenly? And where had the bluebird flown from, across the snow banks down to the shore of the blue sea? 7. The waves sang a welcome to him, and he sang a welcome to the waves; they seemed to know each other well; and the ripple and the warble sounded so much alike, the bird and the wave must have both learned their music of the same teacher. And Margery kept on wondering as she stepped between the song of the bluebird and the echo of the sea, and climbed a sloping bank, just turning faintly green in the spring sunshine. 8. The grass was surely beginning to grow! There were fresh, juicy shoots running up among the withered blades of last year, as if in hopes of bringing them back to life; and closer down she saw the sharp points of new spears peeping from their sheaths. And scattered here and there were small, dark green leaves folded around buds shut up so tightly that only those who had watched them many seasons could tell what flowers were to be let out of their safe prisons by and by. So no one could blame Margery for not knowing that they were only common things, nor for stooping over the tiny buds, and wondering. 9. What made the grass come up so green out of the black earth? And how did the buds know when it was time to take off their little green hoods, and see what there was in the world around them? And how came they to be buds at all? Did they bloom in another world before they sprung up here?--and did they know, themselves, what kind of flowers they should blossom into? Had flowers souls, like little girls, that would live in another world when their forms had faded away in this? 10. Margery thought she would like to sit down on the bank, and wait beside the buds until they opened; perhaps they would tell her their secret if the very first thing they saw was her eyes watching them. One bud was beginning to unfold; it was streaked with yellow in little stripes that she could imagine became wider every minute. But she would not touch it, for it seemed almost as much alive as herself. She only wondered, and wondered! 11. Margery heard her mother calling her, and she trudged home across the shells and pebbles with a pleasant smile dimpling her cheeks; for she felt very much at home in this large, wonderful world, and was happy to be alive, although she neither could have told, nor cared to know, the reason why. But when her mother unpinned the little girl's Highland shawl, and took off her hood, she said, "O mother, do let me live on the doorstep! I don't like houses to stay in. What makes everything so pretty and so glad? Don't you like to wonder?" 12. Margery's mother was a good woman. But then there was all the housework to do, and, if she had thoughts, she did not often let them wander outside of the kitchen door. And just now she was baking some gingerbread, which was in danger of getting burned in the oven. So she pinned the shawl around the child's neck again, and left her on the doorstep, saying to herself, as she returned to her work, "Queer child! I wonder what kind of a woman she will be!" 13. But Margery sat on the doorstep, and wondered, as the sea sounded louder, and the sunshine grew warmer around her. It was all so strange, and grand, and beautiful! Her heart danced with joy to the music that went echoing through the wide world from the roots of the sprouting grass to the great golden blossom of the sun. 14. And when the round, gray eyes closed that night, at the first peep of the stars, the angels looked down and wondered over Margery. For the wisdom of the wisest being God has made, ends in wonder; and there is nothing on earth so wonderful as the budding soul of a little child. DEFINITIONS.-l. Trudg'ing, walking sturdily. 2. Hues, colors. Ca'lyx, the outer covering of a flower. 4. Ho-ri'zon, the line where the sky and earth seem to meet. 5. War'ble, a trill of the voice. Spears, shoots of grass. Sheaths, coverings. EXERCISES.--Name the things about which Margery wondered. What did she wonder about each? What is still more wonderful than all that at which Margery wondered? XXXVI. THE CHILD'S WORLD. (103) 1. "Great, wide, beautiful, wonderful world, With the wonderful water round you curled, And the wonderful grass upon your breast,-- World, you are beautifully drest." 2. "The wonderful air is over me, And the wonderful wind is shaking the tree; It walks on the water, and whirls the mills, And talks to itself on the tops of the hills." 3. "You friendly Earth! how far do you go With the wheat fields that nod, and the rivers that flow; With cities and gardens, and cliffs and isles, And people upon you for thousands of miles?" 4. "Ah, you are so great, and I am so small, I tremble to think of you, World, at all: And yet, when I said my prayers, to-day, A whisper inside me seemed to say, You are more than the Earth, though you are such a dot: You can love and think, and the Earth can not!'" XXXVII. SUSIE'S COMPOSITION. (104) 1. Susie Smith came home from school one day, and had no sooner entered the sitting room than she burst into tears. "What is the matter, my dear child?" said her mother, drawing her daughter to her side and smiling. 2. "O mother, matter enough," sobbed Susie. "All our class must bring in compositions to-morrow morning, and I never, never can write one. We must write twelve lines at least, and I have written only a few words after trying nearly all the afternoon. See what work I have made of it!" 3. Mrs. Smith took the rumpled, tear-stained paper which Susie held in her hand, and glanced at what she had written. In a careful hand she had tried to write upon three themes: "Time," "Temperance," and "Industry." 4. "Time is short. We should all improve our time." "Temperance is a very useful thing." "We should all be industrious if we wish to do anything in the world." These sentences were all she had written. 5. "Now," said Susie, "I can't think of another word to say upon any of these subjects, and I know I shall have to go to school without a composition, for I won't be so mean as to copy one from a book, or to ask you or papa to write one for me." 6. "That is right, my dear," said her mother. "You will be far happier with a poor composition, if it is all your own, than with a fine one written by somebody else. But cheer up. You have not begun right--you have been trying to write upon subjects that you know nothing about. Run into the garden and play. I will call you in half an hour." 7. "But my composition," began Susie. "Don't think about your composition while you are gone," said Mrs. Smith, "but have as pleasant a time as you can." 8. It seemed but a few minutes to Susie before she heard her mother's voice calling her. She went into the house at once--her hands full of sweet flowers, and her cheeks rosy with exercise. 9. "Now, Susie," said her mother, "I want you to sit by the window with this nice sheet of paper and a pencil, and write something about what you can see." "But my composition, mother," said Susie; "when shall I begin that?" "Never mind your composition, my dear; do this to please me, and we will talk about that by and by." 10. Susie thought her mother's request was a strange one; but she knew that she always had a good reason for everything she did: so she took the paper and pencil, and sat by the window. 11. "Do not talk to me at all," said her mother. "Look out of the window, and then write down your thoughts about everything you see." 12. Susie could not help laughing, it seemed such a funny thing to be doing. As she looked out, she first saw the western sky and some bright, sunset clouds. "O mother!" she exclaimed, "what a splendid sunset!" "Don't talk," said her mother, "but write." 13. "I'll write about the sunset, then," said she, and the pencil began to move rapidly across the paper. In a few moments she said, "Mother, shall I read you what I have written?" "No, not now," answered her mother; "I am going into the dining room. You may sit and write until I return." 14. As Susie went on writing, she became very much interested in her occupation, and for a time forgot all about the dreaded composition. She wrote about the sunset clouds, the appearance of the distant hills, the trees, the river, the garden with its gay flowers, and the birds flying past the window. 15. Just as she had reached the bottom of the page, her mother came in. "Well, Susie," said she, with a smile, "how does that composition come on?" "Composition!" exclaimed Susie; "you told me not to think about my composition, and I have not thought of it once; I have had such a nice time writing about what I could see from the window." 16. Mrs. Smith took the paper and read aloud what Susie had written: "I am sitting on a low seat at the bay window, one half of which is open, so that I can smell the sweet flowers in the garden. The sky is all bright with sunset; I can see purple, and pink, and golden. I do not believe that anyone on earth has a paint box with such lovely colors in it." 17. "I can see one cloud, far above the rest, that looks like a ship sailing in the blue sea. I should like to sail on a cloud, if it would not make me dizzy. Now, while I have been writing, the clouds have changed in color and form, but they are just as beautiful as they were before." 18. "The green hills are tipped with light, and look as if they were wearing golden crowns. I can see a river a great way off, and it looks quite still, although I know it is running as fast as it can to get to the ocean." 19. "The birds are flying past the window to go home and take care of their little ones. I am glad the birds are not afraid to live in our garden, and to build nests in our trees." 20. "Our garden is full of flowers--pinks, lilies, and roses. Mother calls this the month of roses. My birthday will come in a week, and we can have all the flowers we wish for wreaths and bouquets." 21. "There, Susie," said Mrs. Smith, "that is a very nice composition, indeed." "A composition!" exclaimed Susie, "is that a composition?" "Yes, my dear, and a very good one, too," replied her mother. "When it hasn't even a subject?" 22. "We can find one for it, and I do not doubt it will please your teacher, as it does me. You see, my dear," continued her mother, "that it is easy enough to write if you have anything interesting to write about." 23. The next morning Susie copied her composition very neatly, and started to school with a happy heart, saying, as she gave her mother a kiss, "Just think how funny it is, dear mother, that I should have written so long a composition without knowing it." DEFINITIONS.--Com-po-si'tion, that which is thought out and arranged, a written or literary work. 3. Rum'pled, wrinkled, creased. Themes, subjects or topics on which a person writes. 10. Re-quest', that which is asked. 14. Oc-cu-pa'tion, that which employs the time. 20. Bou-quets' (pro. boo-kas'), bunches of flowers. EXERCISES.--What is a composition? Why was Susie so troubled? Why could she not write about "Time," "Temperance," or "Industry"? What did her mother have her do? What did Susie write? Was it a composition? Did she know, at the time, that it was? What fault did she find with it? Can you give her composition a proper subject? XXXVIII. THE SUMMER SHOWER. (109) The author, Thomas Buchanan Read, was born in Chester Co., Pa., March 12, 1822. His life was devoted to the fine arts, and he attained a high reputation both as artist and poet. He died in New York, May 11, 1872. 1. Before the stout harvesters falleth the grain, As when the strong stormwind is reaping the plain, And loiters the boy in the briery lane; But yonder aslant comes the silvery rain, Like a long line of spears brightly burnished and tall. 2. Adown the white highway like cavalry fleet, It dashes the dust with its numberless feet. Like a murmurless school, in their leafy retreat, The wild birds sit listening the drops round them beat; And the boy crouches close to the blackberry wall. 3. The swallows alone take the storm on the wing, And, taunting the tree-sheltered laborers, sing. Like pebbles the rain breaks the face of the spring, While a bubble darts up from each widening ring; And the boy in dismay hears the loud shower fall. 4. But soon are the harvesters tossing their sheaves; The robin darts out from his bower of leaves; The wren peereth forth from the moss-covered eaves; And the rain-spattered urchin now gladly perceives That the beautiful bow bendeth over them all. DEFINITIONS.--l. A-slant', toward one side. 2. High'way, a public road. Re-treat', a place of refuge or safety, Crouch'es, stoops low. 3. Taunt'ing, deriding, mocking. 4. Ur'chin, a child. XXXIX. CONSEQUENCES OF IDLENESS. (110) 1. Many young persons seem to think it of not much consequence if they do not improve their time well in youth, vainly expecting that they can make it up by diligence when they are older. They also think it is disgraceful for men and women to be idle, but that there can be no harm for persons who are young to spend their time in any manner they please. 2. George Jones thought so. When he was twelve years old, he went to an academy to prepare to enter college. His father was at great expense in obtaining books for him, clothing him, and paying his tuition. But George was idle. The preceptor of the academy would often tell him that if he did not study diligently when young he would never succeed well. 3. But George thought of nothing but present pleasure. He would often go to school without having made any preparation for his morning lesson; and, when called to recite with his class, he would stammer and make such blunders that the rest of the class could not help laughing at him. He was one of the poorest scholars in the school, because he was one of the most idle. 4. When recess came, and all the boys ran out of the academy upon the playground, idle George would come moping along. Instead of studying diligently while in school, he was indolent and half asleep. When the proper time for play came, he had no relish for it. I recollect very well, that, when "tossing up" for a game of ball, we used to choose everybody on the playground before we chose George; and if there were enough without him we used to leave him out. Thus he was unhappy in school and out of school. 5. There is nothing which makes a person enjoy play so well as to study hard. When recess was over, and the rest of the boys returned, fresh and vigorous, to their studies, George might be seen lagging and moping along to his seat. Sometimes he would be asleep in school; sometimes he would pass his time in catching flies, and penning them up in little holes, which he cut in his seat; and sometimes, when the preceptor's back was turned, he would throw a paper ball across the room. 6. When the class was called up to recite, George would come drowsily along, looking as mean and ashamed as though he were going to be whipped. The rest of the class stepped up to the recitation with alacrity, and appeared happy and contented. When it came George's turn to recite, he would be so long in doing it, and make such blunders, that all most heartily wished him out of the class. 7. At last, George went with his class to enter college. Though he passed a very poor examination, he was admitted with the rest; for those who examined him thought it was possible that the reason why he did not answer questions better was because he was frightened. Now came hard times for poor George. In college there is not much mercy shown to bad scholars; and George had neglected his studies so long that he could not now keep up with his class, let him try ever so hard. 8. He could, without much difficulty, get along in the academy, where there were only two or three boys of his own class to laugh at him. But now he had to go into a large recitation room, filled with students from all parts of the country. In the presence of all these, he must rise and recite to a professor. Poor fellow! He paid dearly for his idleness. 9. You would have pitied him if you could have seen him trembling in his scat, every moment expecting to be called upon to recite. And when he was called upon, he would stand up and take what the class called a "dead set;" that is, he could not recite at all. Sometimes he would make such ludicrous blunders that the whole class would burst into a laugh. Such are the applauses an idler gets. He was wretched, of course. He had been idle so long that he hardly knew how to apply his mind to study. All the good scholars avoided him; they were ashamed to be seen in his company. He became discouraged, and gradually grew dissipated. 10. The officers of the college were soon compelled to suspend him. He returned in a few months, but did no better; and his father was then advised to take him from college. He left college, despised by everyone. A few months ago, I met him, a poor wanderer, without money and without friends. Such are the wages of idleness. I hope every reader will, from this history, take warning, and "stamp improvement on the wings of time." DEFINITIONS.--1. Con'se-quence, importance, influence. 2. A-cad'e-my, a school of high order. Col'lege, a seminary of learning of the highest order. Pre-cep'tor, a teacher. 3. Prep-a-ra'-tion, a making ready. 5. Vig'or-ous, full of activity and strength. 6. A-lac'ri-ty, cheerfulness, sprightliness. 8. Pro-fess'or, a teacher in a college. 9. Lu'di-crous, adapted to raise laughter. Ap--plaus'es, praises. Dis'-si-pa-ted, given up to bad habits. 10. Im-prove'ment, increase of knowledge. XL. ADVANTAGES OF INDUSTRY. (113) 1. I gave you, in the last lesson, the history of George Jones, an idle boy, and showed you the consequences of his idleness. I shall now give you the history of Charles Bullard, a classmate of George. Charles was about the same age as George, and did not possess superior talents. Indeed, I doubt whether he was equal to him in natural powers of mind. 2. But Charles was a hard student. When quite young, he was always careful and diligent in school. Sometimes, when there was a very hard lesson, instead of going out to play during recess, he would stay in to study. He had resolved that his first object should be to get his lessons well, and then he could play with a good conscience. He loved play as well as anybody, and was one of the best players on the ground. I hardly ever saw any boy catch a ball better than he could. When playing any game, everyone was glad to get Charles on his side. 3. I have said that Charles would sometimes stay in at recess. This, however, was very seldom; it was only when the lessons were very hard indeed. Generally, he was among the first on the playground, and he was also among the first to go into school when called. Hard study gave him a relish for play, and play again gave him a relish for hard study; so he was happy both in school and out. The preceptor could not help liking him, for he always had his lessons well committed, and never gave him any trouble. 4. When he went to enter college, the preceptor gave him a good recommendation. He was able to answer all the questions which were put to him when he was examined. He had studied so well when he was in the academy, and was so thoroughly prepared for college, that he found it very easy to keep up with his class, and had much time for reading interesting books. 5. But he would always get his lesson well before he did anything else, and would review it just before recitation. When called upon to recite, he rose tranquil and happy, and very seldom made mistakes. The officers of the college had a high opinion of him, and he was respected by all the students. 6. There was, in the college, a society made up of all the best scholars. Charles was chosen a member of that society. It was the custom to choose some one of the society to deliver a public address every year. This honor was conferred on Charles; and he had studied so diligently, and read so much, that he delivered an address which was very interesting to all who heard it. 7. At last he graduated, as it is called; that is, he finished his collegiate course, and received his degree. It was known by all that he was a good scholar, and by all that he was respected. His father and mother, brothers and sisters, came on the commencement day to hear him speak. 8. They all felt gratified, and loved Charles more than ever. Many situations of usefulness and profit were opened to him; for Charles was now an intelligent man, and universally respected. He is still a useful and a happy man. He has a cheerful home, and is esteemed by all who know him. 9. Such are the rewards of industry. How strange it is that any person should be willing to live in idleness when it will certainly make him unhappy! The idle boy is almost invariably poor and miserable; the industrious boy is happy and prosperous. 10. But perhaps some child who reads this, asks, "Does God notice little children in school?" He certainly does. And if you are not diligent in the improvement of your time, it is one of the surest evidences that your heart is not right with God. You are placed in this world to improve your time. In youth you must be preparing for future usefulness. And if you do not improve the advantages you enjoy, you sin against your Maker. With books, or work, or healthful play, Let your first years be passed; That you may give, for every day, Some good account, at last. DEFINITIONS.--l. His'to-ry, a description or a narration of events. 2. Con'science, our own knowledge of right and wrong. Game, play, sport. 3. Com-mit'ted, fixed in mind. 4. Rec-om-men-da'tion, what is said in praise of anyone. 5. Re view', to examine again. Tran'quil, quiet, calm. 6. Con-ferred', given to or bestowed upon anyone. 7. Grad'u-a-ted, received a degree from a college. Com-mence'ment, the day when students receive their degree. 8. U-ni-ver'sal-ly, by all, without exception. 9. In-va'ri-a-bly, always, uniformly. 10. Ev'i-den-ces, proofs. Ad-van'ta-ges, opportunities for improvement. EXERCISES.--What was the character of George Jones? Of Charles Bullard? How did George appear in the class at school? How did he behave at recess? How did Charles differ from him in these respects? Relate what happened when George went to college. What became of him? Did Charles succeed at college? Which of them do you think more worthy of imitation? What is said of the idle? What is said of the industrious? Who watches all our actions wherever we may be? For what are we placed in this world? Should you not then be diligent in your studies? XLI. THE FOUNTAIN. (116) By James Russell Lowell, one of the most noted of American poets; also well known as an essayist and lecturer. He was born at Cambridge, Mass., in 1819, and died there in 1891. 1. Into the sunshine, Full of the light, Leaping and flashing, From morn till night! 2. Into the moonlight, Whiter than snow, Waving so flower-like When the winds blow! 3. Into the starlight, Rushing in spray, Happy at midnight, Happy by day! 4. Ever in motion, Blithesome and cheery, Still climbing heavenward, Never aweary; 5. Glad of all weathers, Still seeming best, Upward or downward, Motion, thy rest; 6. Full of a nature Nothing can tame, Changed every moment, Ever the same; 7. Ceaseless aspiring, Ceaseless content, Darkness or sunshine Thy element; 8. Glorious fountain! Let my heart be Fresh, changeful, constant, Upward like thee! DEFINITIONS.--4. Blithe'some, gay. Cheer'y, in good spirits. A-wea'ry, weary, tired. 7. As-pir'ing, ambitious. El'e-ment, the proper habitation or sphere of anything, suitable state. 8. Con'-stant, fixed, not to be changed. XLII. COFFEE. (117) 1. The coffee tree is a native of eastern Africa, but it was in Arabia that it first became known to the people of Europe, and until about the year 1700 A. D. that country afforded the entire supply. 2. Then the coffee seeds found their way to Java, by means of some traders, and one of the first plants grown on that island was sent as a present to the governor of the Dutch East India Company, who lived in Holland. 3. It was planted in the Botanical Gardens at Amsterdam, and in a few years seeds taken from it were sent to South America, where the cultivation of coffee has steadily increased, extending to the West Indies, until now the offspring of this one plant produce more coffee than is obtained from all the other plants in the world. 4. The plant is an evergreen, and is from six to twelve feet high, the stem being from ten to fifteen inches in diameter. The lower branches bend down when the tree begins to grow old, and extend themselves into a round form somewhat like an umbrella; and the wood is so pliable that the ends of the largest branches may be bent down to within two or three feet of the earth. 5. The bark is whitish and somewhat rough. A tree is never without leaves, which are at small distances from one another, and on almost opposite sides of a bough. Blossoms and green and ripe fruit may be seen on the same tree at the same time. When the blossom falls off, there grows in its place a small green fruit, which becomes dark red as it ripens. 6. This fruit is not unlike a cherry, and is very good to eat. Under the pulp of this cherry is found the bean or berry we call coffee, wrapped in a fine, thin skin. The berry is at first very soft, and has a bad taste; but as the cherry ripens the berry grows harder, and the dried-up fruit becomes a shell or pod of a deep brown color. 7. The berry is now solid, and its color is a translucent green. Each shell contains two seeds, rounded on one side and flat on the other. The seeds lie with the flat sides together, and, in one highly prized variety, the two seeds grow together, forming one: this is known as the pea berry. When the fruit is so ripe that it can be shaken from the tree, the husks are separated from the berries, and are used, in Arabia, by the natives, while the berries are sold. 8. The young plants are inserted in holes from twelve to eighteen inches deep, and six or eight feet apart. If left to themselves, they would grow to the height of eighteen or twenty feet; but they are usually dwarfed by pruning, so that the fruit may be easily got at by the gatherer. 9. Thus dwarfed, they extend their branches until they cover the whole space about them. They begin to yield fruit the third year. By the sixth or seventh year they are at full bearing, and continue to bear for twenty years or more. l0. Before the berry can be used, it undergoes a process of roasting. The amount of aromatic oil brought out in roasting has much to do with the market value of coffee, and it has been found that the longer the raw coffee is kept, the richer it becomes in this peculiar oil, and so the more valuable. But after the coffee is roasted, and especially after it is ground, it loses its aroma rapidly. 11. Arabia produces the celebrated Mocha, or "Mokha," coffee, which is the finest in the world; but little or none of the best product is ever taken out of that country. The Java coffee from the East Indies is next prized, but the best quality of this kind is also quite difficult to obtain, and many, therefore, prefer the finest grades of Rio coffee from South America to such Mocha and Java as can be had in our country. DEFINITIONS.--l. Af-ford'ed, yielded, produced. 3. Off'spring, descendants, however remote, from, the stock. 4. Pli'a-ble, easily bent. 7. Trans-lu'cent, permitting the passage of light. 8. Prun'-ing, trimming. 10. Ar-o-mat'ic, containing aroma, fragrant. EXERCISES.--What country first supplied coffee? How did the plant come to be grown in other countries? Describe the plant. What is said of the fruit? How are the plants cultivated? What is said about the roasting of coffee? What are the three principal kinds of coffee used, and how are they valued? XLIII. THE WINTER KING. (120) 1. Oh! what will become of thee, poor little bird? The muttering storm in the distance is heard; The rough winds are waking, the clouds growing black, They'll soon scatter snowflakes all over thy back! From what sunny clime hast thou wandered away? And what art thou doing this cold winter day? 2. "I'm picking the gum from the old peach tree; The storm doesn't trouble me. Pee, dee, dee!" 3. But what makes thee seem so unconscious of care? The brown earth is frozen, the branches are bare: And how canst thou be so light-hearted and free, As if danger and suffering thou never should'st see, When no place is near for thy evening nest, No leaf for thy screen, for thy bosom no rest? 4. "Because the same Hand is a shelter for me, That took off the summer leaves. Pee, dee, dee!" 5. But man feels a burden of care and of grief, While plucking the cluster and binding the sheaf: In the summer we faint, in the winter we're chilled, With ever a void that is yet to be filled. We take from the ocean, the earth, and the air, Yet all their rich gifts do not silence our care. 6. "A very small portion sufficient will be, If sweetened with gratitude. Pee, dee, dee!" 7. But soon there'll be ice weighing down the light bough, On which thou art flitting so playfully now; And though there's a vesture well fitted and warm, Protecting the rest of thy delicate form, What, then, wilt thou do with thy little bare feet, To save them from pain, mid the frost and the sleet? 8. "I can draw them right up in my feathers, you see, To warm them, and fly away. Pee, dee, dee!" 9. I thank thee, bright monitor; what thou hast taught Will oft be the theme of the happiest thought; We look at the clouds; while the birds have an eye To Him who reigns over them, changeless and high. And now little hero, just tell me thy name, That I may be sure whence my oracle came. 10. "Because, in all weather, I'm merry and free, They call me the Winter King. Pee, dee, dee!" DEFINITIONS.--l. Mut'ter-ing, murmuring, rumbling. 3. Un-con'scious, not knowing, not perceiving. 5. Clus'ter, a bunch. 7. Flit'ing, moving about in a lively manner. Ves'ture, clothing, covering. 9. Mon'i-tor, one who warns of faults. Or'a-cle, a wise sentence or decision. XLIV. THE NETTLE. (121) 1. Anna. O papa! I have stung my hand with that nettle. 2. Father. Well, my dear, I am sorry for it; but pull up that large dock leaf you see near it; now bruise the juice out of it on the part which is stung. Well, is the pain lessened? 3. A. Oh, very much indeed, I hardly feel it now. But I wish there was not a nettle in the world. I am sure I do not know what use there can be in them. 4. F. If you knew anything of botany, Nanny, you would not say so. 5. A. What is botany, papa? 6. F. Botany, my dear, is the knowledge of plants. 7. A. Some plants are very beautiful. If the lily were growing in our fields, I should not complain. But this ugly nettle! I do not know what beauty or use there can be in that. 8. F. And yet, Nanny, there is more beauty, use, and instruction in a nettle, than even in a lily. 9. A. O papa, how can you make that out? 10. F. Put on your gloves, pluck up that nettle, and let us examine it. First, look at the flower. 11. A. The flower, papa? I see no flower, unless those little ragged knobs are flowers, which have neither color nor smell, and are not much larger than the heads of pins. 12. F. Here, take this magnifying glass and examine them. 13. A. Oh, I see now; every little knob is folded up in leaves, like a rosebud. Perhaps there is a flower inside. 14. F. Try; take this pin and touch the knob. Well, what do you see? 15. A. Oh, how curious! 16. F. What is curious? 17. A. The moment I touched it, it flew open. A little cloud rose out like enchantment, and four beautiful little stems sprung up as if they were alive; and, now that I look again with the glass, I see an elegant little flower as nice and perfect as a lily itself. 18. F. Well, now examine the leaves. 19. A. Oh, I see they are all covered over with little bristles; and when I examine them with the glass, I see a little bag, filled with a juice like water, at the bottom of each. Ha! these are the things which stung me. 20. F. Now touch the little bag with the point of the pin. 21. A. When I press the bag, the juice runs up and comes out at the small point at the top; so I suppose the little thorn must be hollow inside, though it is finer than the point of my cambric needle. 22. F. Have all the leaves those stings? 23. A. No, papa; some of the young ones are quite green and soft, like velvet, and I may handle them without any danger. 24. F. Now look at the stem, and break it. 25. A. I can easily crack it, but I can not break it asunder, for the bark is so strong that it holds it together. 26. F. Well, now you see there are more curious things in the nettle than you expected. 27. A. Yes, indeed, I see that. But you have often told me that God makes nothing without its use; and I am sure I can not see any use in all these things. 28. F. That we will now consider. You saw the little flower burst open, and a cloud rose, you say, like enchantment. Now all this is necessary for the nature of the plant. There are many thousand plants in the world, and it has pleased God, in his wisdom, to make them all different. Now look at this other nettle, which grew on the opposite side of the road; you see that it is not exactly like the one you have just examined. 29. A. No, papa; this has little flat seeds instead of flowers. 30. F. Very right, my dear. Now, in order to make those seeds grow, it is necessary that the little flower of this plant and the seed of that should be together, as they are in most others. But plants can not walk, like animals. The wisdom of God, therefore, has provided a remedy for this. When the little flower bursts open it throws out a fine powder, which you saw rise like a cloud; this is conveyed by the air to the other plant, and when it falls upon the seed of that plant it gives it power to grow, and makes it a perfect seed, which, in its turn, when it falls to the ground, will produce a new plant. Were it not for this fine powder, that seed would never be perfect or complete. 31. A. That is very curious, indeed; and I see the use of the little cloud and the flower; but the leaf that stung me, of what use can that be? There, dear papa, I am afraid I puzzle you to tell me that. 32. P. Even these stings are made useful to man. The poor people in some countries use them instead of blisters, when they are sick. Those leaves which do not sting are used by some for food, and from the stalk others get a stringy bark, which answers the purpose of flax. Thus you see that even the despised nettle is not made in vain; and this lesson may serve to teach you that we only need to understand the works of God to see that "in goodness and wisdom he has made them all." DEFINITIONS.--12. Mag'ni-fy-ing glass, an instrument used to make objects appear larger. 17. En-chant'ment, magic art, witch-craft. 5. A-sun'der, apart, into parts. 30. Rem'e-dy, that which removes an evil. Con-veyed', carried. 32. String'y, full of strings. XLV. THE TEMPEST. (125) By James T. Fields (born 1817, died 1881), who was born at Portsmouth, N. H. He was a poet, and the author, also, of some well known prose works. Of these, his "Yesterdays with Authors" is the most noted. 1. We were crowded in the cabin; Not a soul would dare to sleep: It was midnight on the waters, And a storm was on the deep. 2. 'T is a fearful thing in winter To be shattered by the blast, And to hear the rattling trumpet Thunder, "Cut away the mast!" 3. So we shuddered there in silence, For the stoutest held his breath, While the hungry sea was roaring, And the breakers threatened death. 4. And as thus we sat in darkness, Each one busy in his prayers, "We are lost!" the captain shouted, As he staggered down the stairs. 5. But his little daughter whispered, As she took his icy hand, "Is n't God upon the ocean, Just the same as on the land?" 6. Then we kissed the little maiden, And we spoke in better cheer; And we anchored safe in harbor When the morn was shining clear. DEFINITIONS.--l. Deep, the ocean. 2. Blast, tempest. 3. Break'ers, waves of the sea broken by rocks. 6. Cheer, state of mind. XLVI. THE CREATOR. (126) The poetry at the close of this selection is by John Keble, a celebrated English clergyman, born in 1792. He held for some years the professorship of Poetry at Oxford University. He died in 1866. 1. Come, and I will show you what is beautiful. It is a rose fully blown. See how she sits upon her mossy stem, the queen of flowers. Her leaves glow like fire. The air is filled with her sweet odor. She is the delight of every eye. 2. But there is one fairer than the rose. He that made the rose is more beautiful than the rose. He is altogether lovely. He is the delight of every heart. 3. I will show you what is strong. The lion is strong. When he raiseth himself up from his lair, when he shaketh his mane, when the voice of his roaring is heard, the cattle of the field fly, and the wild beasts of the desert hide themselves; for he is terrible. 4. But He who made the lion is stronger than the lion. He can do all things. He gave us life, and in a moment can take it away, and no one can save us from his hand. 5. I will show you what is glorious. The sun is glorious. When he shineth in the clear sky, when he sitteth on his throne in the heavens, and looketh abroad over the earth, he is the most glorious and excellent object the eye can behold. 6. But He who made the sun is more glorious than the sun. The eye cannot look on his dazzling brightness. He seeth all dark places, by night as well as by day. The light of his countenance is over all the world. 7. This great Being is God. He made all things, but He is more excellent than all that He has made. He is the Creator, they are the creatures. They may be beautiful, but He is Beauty. They may be strong, but He is Strength. They may be perfect, but He is Perfection. 8. There is a book, who runs may read, Which heavenly truth imparts, And all the lore its scholars need-- Pure eyes and loving hearts. 9. The works of God, above, below, Within us, and around, Are pages in that book, to show How God himself is found. 10. The glorious sky, embracing all, Is like the Father's love; Wherewith encompassed, great and small In peace and order move. 11. Thou who hast given me eyes to see And love this sight so fair, Give me a heart to find out Thee And read Thee everywhere. DEFINITIONS.--1. Blown, blossomed, bloomed. O'dor, smell, scent. 3. Lair, bed of a wild beast. Des'ert, a wilderness, a place where no one lives. 5. Ex'cel-lent, surpassing others in worth, su-perior. 6. Daz'zling, overpowering with light. 7. Per-fec'tion, the state of being perfect, so that nothing is wanting. 8. Im-parts', makes known. Lore, learning. 10. En-com'passed, surrounded. EXERCISES.--What is described as beautiful? As strong? As glorious? Who is more beautiful than the rose, stronger than the lion, and more glorious than the sun? What is the book which we may all read? What should it teach us? XLVII. THE HORSE. (128) 1. Uncle Thomas. Well, boys, I am glad to see you again. Since I last saw you I have made quite a tour, and at some future time will describe to you what I have seen. I promised at this meeting, however, to tell you something about animals, and I propose to begin with the horse. But I know that you like stories better than lecturing, so I will proceed at once to tell you some which I have gathered for you. 2. Frank. We never feel tired of listening to you, Uncle Thomas. We know you always have something curious to tell us. 3. Uncle Thomas. Well then, Frank, to begin at once with the horse. 4. In several parts of the world there are to be found large herds of wild horses. In South America the immense plains are inhabited by them, and it is said that ten thousand are sometimes found in a single herd. These herds are always preceded by a leader, who directs their motions; and such is the regularity with which they perform their movements, that it seems as if they could hardly be surpassed by the best trained cavalry. 5. It is extremely dangerous for travelers to meet a herd of this description. When they are unaccustomed to the sight of such a mass of creatures, they can not help feeling greatly alarmed at their rapid and apparently irresistible approach. The trampling of the animals sounds like distant thunder; and such is the rapidity and impetuosity of their advance, that it seems to threaten instant destruction. 6. Sometimes, however, they suddenly stop short, utter a loud and piercing neigh, and, with a rapid wheel, take an opposite course, and altogether disappear. On such occasions it requires great care in the traveler to prevent his horses from breaking loose and escaping with the wild herd. 7. In those countries where wild horses are so plentiful, the inhabitants do not take the trouble to raise others, but whenever they want one they mount upon an animal accustomed to the sport, and gallop over the plain toward a herd, which is readily found at no great distance. 8. The rider gradually approaches some stragglers from the main body, and, having selected the one he wishes, he dexterously throws the lasso (which is a long rope with a running noose, and is firmly fixed to his saddle) either over the wild horse's head or in such a manner as to entangle his hind legs; and by the sudden checking of his own horse, he throws the captured animal over on its side. 9. In an instant he jumps off his horse, wraps his cloak round the head of the captive, forces a bit into his mouth, and straps a saddle on his back. He then removes the cloak, and the animal starts to his feet. With equal quickness the hunter leaps into his saddle; and, in spite of the kicking of the captive, keeps his seat, till, being wearied out with his efforts, the horse submits to the guidance of his new master, and is reduced to complete obedience. 10. Frank. But, Uncle Thomas, are all horses originally wild? I have heard that Arabia is famous for raising horses. 11. Uncle Thomas. Arabia has, for a long time, been noted for the beauty and speed of its horses. It is not strange, however, that the Arabian horse should be the most excellent, when we consider the care and kindness with which it is treated. One of the best stories which I have ever heard of the love of an Arabian for his steed, is that related of an Arab, from whom an English officer wished to purchase his horse. 12. The animal was a bright bay mare, of fine form and great beauty; and the owner, proud of her appearance and qualities, paraded her before the Englishman's tent until she attracted his attention. On being asked if he would sell her, "What will you give me?" was the reply. "That depends upon her age. I suppose she is past five?" "Guess again," said he. "Four?" "Look at her mouth," said the Arab, with a smile. On examination she was found to be about three. This, from her size and symmetry, greatly increased her value. 13. The gentleman said, "I will give you eighty tomans," (nearly two hundred and fifty dollars). "A little more, if you please," said the fellow, somewhat entertained. "Ninety--a hundred." He shook his head and smiled. The officer at last came to three hundred tomans, (nearly one thousand dollars). "Well," said the Arab, "you need not tempt me further. You are a rich nobleman, and, I am told, have loads of silver and gold. Now," added he, "you want my mare, but you shall not have her for all you have got." He put spurs to his horse, and was soon out of the reach of temptation. 14. The horse can swim, when necessary, as well as most other animals, although he is not very fond of the water. Some years ago a vessel was driven upon the rocks, on the coast of the Cape of Good Hope, and most of the crew fell an immediate sacrifice to the waves. Those who were left were seen from the shore, clinging to the different pieces of the wreck. The sea ran so high that no boat could venture off to their assistance. 15. Meanwhile, a planter had come from his farm to be a spectator of the shipwreck. His heart was melted at the sight of the unhappy seamen, and, knowing the bold spirit of his horse and his excellence as a swimmer, he determined to make a desperate effort for their deliverance. Having blown a little Brandy into his horse's nostrils, he pushed into the midst of the breakers. At first both horse and rider disappeared, but it was not long before they floated to the surface, and swam up to the wreck; when, taking two men with him, each of whom held on by one of his boots, the planter brought them safe to shore. 16. This was repeated no less than seven times, and he saved fourteen lives; but on his return the eighth time, being much fatigued, and meeting a tremendous wave, he lost his balance and sank in a moment. His horse swam safely to land, but its gallant rider sank, to rise no more. DEFINITIONS.--4. Im-mense', very large. In-hab'it-ed, occupied as a home. Cav'al-ry, a body of military troops on horses. 5. Im--pet-u-os'i-ty, fury, violence. 8. Dex'ter-ous-ly, skillfully. 9. Re--duced', brought into. 10. O-rig'i-nal-ly, at first. 12. Pa-rad'ed, showed off. 8. Sym'me-try, a proper proportion of the several parts. 13. To-man', a Persian coin valued at about three dollars. 15. Des'per-ate, without care of safety. De-liv'er-ance, release from danger. 16. Gal'lant, brave, heroic. EXERCISES.--Where are wild horses found? How are they taken? For what purpose are they taken? In what country are the finest horses raised? Why are the horses so excellent there? Are not animals always made better by kind treatment? Why would not the Arab sell his horse? Relate the anecdote of the planter and the shipwrecked seamen. XLVIII. EMULATION. (132) 1. Frank's father was speaking to a friend, one day, on the subject of competition at school. He said that he could answer for it that envy is not always connected with it. 2. He had been excelled by many, but did not recollect ever having felt envious of his successful rivals; "nor did my winning many a prize from my friend Birch," said he, "ever lessen his friendship for me." 3. In support of the truth of this, a friend who was present related an anecdote which had fallen under his own notice in a school in his neighborhood. 4. At this school the sons of several wealthy farmers, and others, who were poorer, received instruction. Frank listened with great attention while the gentleman gave the following account of the two rivals: 5. It happened that the son of a rich farmer and the son of a poor widow came in competition for the head of their class. They were so nearly equal that the teacher could scarcely decide between them; some days one, and some days the other, gained the head of the class. It was determined by seeing who should be at the head of the class for the greater number of days in the week. 6. The widow's son, by the last day's trial, gained the victory, and kept his place the following week, till the school was dismissed for the holidays. 7. When they met again the widow's son did not appear, and the farmer's son, being next to him, might now have been at the head of his class. Instead of seizing the vacant place, however, he went to the widow's house to inquire what could be the cause of her son's absence. 8. Poverty was the cause; the poor woman found that she was not able, with her utmost efforts, to continue to pay for the tuition and books of her son, and so he, poor fellow! had been compelled to give up his schooling, and to return to labor for her support. 9. The farmer's son, out of the allowance of pocket money which his father gave him, bought all the necessary books and paid for the tuition of his rival. He also permitted him to be brought back again to the head of his class, where he continued for some time, at the expense of his generous rival. DEFINITIONS.--Em-u-la'tion, rivalry, contest. 1. Com-pe-ti'tion, rivalry. 2. Ex-celled', surpassed, exceeded in good qualities. Ri'vals, those who pursue the same thing. 3. An'ec-dote, a short story. 8. Tu-i'tion, payment for teaching. EXERCISES.--What is the subject of this lesson? What do you mean by emulation? What is envy? What story is told about the two rivals? Is it right to envy any person? XLIX. THE SANDPIPER. (134) By CELIA THAXTER. 1. Across the lonely beach we flit, One little sandpiper and I, And fast I gather, bit by bit, The scattered driftwood, bleached and dry. The wild waves reach their hands for it, The wild wind raves, the tide runs high, As up and down the beach we flit, One little sandpiper and I. 2. Above our heads the sullen clouds Scud, black and swift, across the sky; Like silent ghosts in misty shrouds Stand out the white lighthouses high. Almost as far as eye can reach I see the close-reefed vessels fly, As fast we flit across the beach, One little sandpiper and I. 3. I watch him as he skims along, Uttering his sweet and mournful cry; He starts not at my fitful song, Nor flash of fluttering drapery. He has no thought of any wrong, He scans me with a fearless eye; Stanch friends are we, well-tried and strong, The little sandpiper and I. 4. Comrade, where wilt thou be to-night, When the loosed storm breaks furiously? My driftwood fire will burn so bright! To what warm shelter canst thou fly? I do not fear for thee, though wroth The tempest rushes through the sky; For are we not God's children both, Thou, little sandpiper, and I? DEFINITIONS.--l. Sand'pi-per, a bird of the snipe family, found along the seacoast. Drift'wood. wood tossed on shore by the waves. Bleached, whitened. Tide, the regular rise and fall of the ocean which occurs twice in a little over twenty-four hours. 2. Scud, fly hastily. Shrouds, Winding sheets, dresses of the dead. Close'reefed, with sails contracted as much as possible. 3. Fit'ful, irregularly variable. Draper-y, garments. Scans, looks at care-fully. Stanch, firm. 4. Wroth, angry. L. THE RIGHT WAY. (136) Adapted from a story by Frank H. Stockton. He was born at Philadelphia, April 5, 1834, and when quite a young boy used to write stories for his own pleasure. He was once a designer and engraver on wood, and afterwards an editor; but he now devotes himself entirely to writing, not only for young but also for grown people. 1. "O Andy!" said little Jenny Murdock, "I'm so glad you came along this way. I can't get over." 2. "Can't get over?" said Andrew. "Why what's the matter?" 3. "The bridge is gone," said Jenny. "When I came across after breakfast it was there, and now it's over on the other side, and how can I get back home?" 4. "Why, so it is," said Andrew. "It was all right when I came over a little while ago, but old Donald pulls it on the other side every morning after he has driven his cows across, and I don't think he has any right to do it. I suppose he thinks the bridge was made for him and his cows." 5. "Now I must go down to the big bridge, Andy, and I want you to go with me. I'm afraid to go through all those dark woods by myself," said Jenny. 6. "But I can't go, Jenny," said Andrew, "it's nearly school time now." 7. Andrew was a Scotch boy, and a fine fellow. He was next to the head of his school, and he was as good at play as he was at his book. 8. Jenny Murdock, his most particular friend, was a little girl who lived very near Andrew's home. She had no brothers or sisters, but Andrew had always been as good as a brother to her; and, therefore, when she stood by the water's edge that morning, just ready to burst into tears, she thought all her troubles over when she saw Andrew coming along the road. 9. He had always helped her out of her troubles before, and she saw no reason why he should not do it now. She had crossed the creek in search of wild flowers, and when she wished to return had found the bridge removed, as Andrew supposed, by old Donald McKensie, who pastured his cows on this side of the creek. 10. This stream was not very wide, nor very deep at its edges, but the center it was four or five feet deep; and in the spring the water ran very swiftly, so that wading across it, either by cattle or men, was quite a difficult undertaking. As for Jenny, she could not get across at all without a bridge, and there was none nearer than the wagon bridge, a mile and a half below. 11. "You will go with me, Andy, won't you?" said the little girl. 12. "And be late to school?" said he. "I have not been late yet, you know, Jenny." 13. "Perhaps Dominie Black will think you have been sick or had to mind the cows," said Jenny. 14. "He won't think so unless I tell him," said Andrew, "and you know I won't do that." 15. "If we were to run all the way, would you be too late?" said Jenny. 16. "If we were to run all the way to the bridge, and I were to run all the way back, I should not get to school till after copy time. I expect every minute to hear the school bell ring," said Andrew. 17. "But what can I do, then?" said poor little Jenny. "I can't wait here till school's out, and I don't want to go up to the schoolhouse, for all the boys to laugh at me." 18. "No," said Andrew, reflecting very seriously, "I must take you home some way or other. It won't do to leave you here, and, no matter where you might stay, your mother would be very much troubled about you." 19. "Yes," said Jenny, "she would think I was drowned." 20. Time pressed, and Jenny's countenance became more and more overcast, but Andrew could think of no way in which he could take the little girl home without being late and losing his standing in the school. 21. It was impossible to get her across the stream at any place nearer than the "big bridge;" he would not take her that way, and make up a false story to account for his lateness at school, and he could not leave her alone or take her with him. 22. What was to be done? While several absurd and impracticable plans were passing through his brain, the school bell began to ring, and he must start immediately to reach the schoolhouse in time. 23. And now his anxiety and perplexity became more intense than ever; and Jenny, looking up into his troubled countenance, began to cry. 24. Andrew, who had never before failed to be at the school door before the first tap of the bell, began to despair. Was there nothing to be done? 25. Yes! a happy thought passed through his mind. How strange that he should not have thought of it before! He would ask Dominie Black to let him take Jenny home. What could be more sensible and straightforward than such a plan? 26. Of course, the good old schoolmaster gave Andrew the desired permission, and everything ended happily. But the best thing about the whole affair was the lesson that the young Scotch boy learned that day. 27. The lesson was this: when we are puzzling our brains with plans to help ourselves out of trouble, let us always stop a moment in our planning, and try to think if there is not some simple way out of the difficulty, which shall be in every respect perfectly right. If we do this, we shall probably find a way more easy and satisfactory than any which we can devise. DEFINITIONS.--8. Par-tic'u-lar, not ordinary, worthy of partic-ular attention, chief. 13. Dom'i-nie, the Scotch name for school-master. 18. Re-flect'ing, thinking earnestly. 20 Over-cast', cov-ered with gloom. 21. Ac-count', to state the reasons. 22. Im--prac'ti-ca-ble, not possible. 23. Anx-i'e-ty, care, trouble of mind. 27. De-vise', plan, contrive. EXERCISES.--Why could not Jenny cross the stream? Whom did she ask to help her? What can you tell about Andrew? Who was Jenny Murdock? What did Jenny wish Andrew to do? Why could he not go with her? Would it have been right for Andrew to have told an untruth even to help Jenny out of trouble? What did he finally do? What does this lesson teach us to do in case of trouble? LI. THE GOLDEN RULE. (139) 1. To act with integrity and good faith was such a habit with Susan that she had never before thought of examining the Golden Rule: "All things whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them." But the longer she reflected upon it, the stronger was her conviction that she did not always obey the precept; at length, she appealed to her mother for its meaning. 2. "It implies," said her mother, "in the first place, a total destruction of all selfishness: for a man who loves himself better than his neighbors, can never do to others as he would have others do to him. We are bound not only to do, but to feel, toward others as we would have others feel toward us. Remember, it is much easier to reprove the sin of others than to overcome temptation when it assails ourselves. 3. "A man may be perfectly honest and yet very selfish; but the command implies something more than mere honesty; it requires charity as well as integrity. The meaning of the command is fully explained in the parable of the Good Samaritan. The Levite, who passed by the wounded man without offering him assistance, may have been a man of great honesty; but he did not do unto the poor stranger as he would have wished others to do unto him." 4. Susan pondered carefully and seriously on what her mother had said. When she thought over her past conduct, a blush of shame crept to her cheeks, and a look of sorrow into her eyes, as many little acts of selfishness and unkindness came back to her memory. She resolved that for the future, both in great things and small, she would remember and follow the Golden Rule. 5. It was not long after this that an opportunity occurred of trying Susan's principles. One Saturday evening when she went, as usual, to farmer Thompson's inn, to receive the price of her mother's washing for the boarders, which amounted to five dollars, she found the farmer in the stable yard. 6. He was apparently in a terrible rage with some horse dealers with whom he had been bargaining. He held in his hand an open pocketbook, full of bills; and scarcely noticing the child as she made her request, except to swear at her, as usual, for troubling him when he was busy, he handed her a bank note. 7. Glad to escape so easily, Susan hurried out of the gate, and then, pausing to pin the money safely in the folds of her shawl, she discovered that he had given her two bills instead of one. She looked around; nobody was near to share her discovery; and her first impulse was joy at the unexpected prize. 8. "It is mine, all mine," said she to herself; "I will buy mother a new cloak with it, and she can give her old one to sister Mary, and then Mary can go to the Sunday school with me next winter. I wonder if it will not buy a pair of shoes for brother Tom, too." 9. At that moment she remembered that he must have given it to her by mistake; and therefore she had no right to it. But again the voice of the tempter whispered, "He gave it, and how do you know that he did not intend to make you a present of it? Keep it; he will never know it, even if it should be a mistake; for he had too many such bills in that great pocketbook to miss one." 10. While this conflict was going on in her mind between good and evil, she was hurrying homeward as fast as possible. Yet, before she came in sight of her home, she had repeatedly balanced the comforts which the money would buy against the sin of wronging her neighbor. 11. As she crossed the little bridge over the narrow creek before her mother's door, her eye fell upon a rustic seat which they had occupied during the conversation I have before narrated. Instantly the words of Scripture, "Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them," sounded in her ears like a trumpet. 12. Turning suddenly round, as if flying from some unseen peril, the child hastened along the road with breathless speed until she found herself once more at farmer Thompson's gate. "What do you want now?" asked the gruff old fellow, as he saw her again at his side. 13. "Sir, you paid me two bills, instead of one," said she, trembling in every limb. "Two bills? did I? let me see; well, so I did; but did you just find it out? Why did you not bring it back sooner?" Susan blushed and hung her head. 14. "You wanted to keep it, I suppose," said he. "Well, I am glad your mother was more honest than you, or I should have been five dollars poorer and none the wiser." "My mother knows nothing about it, sir," said Susan; "I brought it back before I went home." 15. The old man looked at the child, and, as he saw the tears rolling down her checks, he seemed touched by her distress. Putting his band in his pocket, he drew out a shilling and offered it to her. 16. "No, sir, I thank you," sobbed she; "I do not want to be paid for doing right; I only wish you would not think me dishonest, for, indeed, it was a sore temptation. Oh! sir, if you had ever seen those you love best wanting the common comforts of life, you would know how hard it is for us always to do unto others as we would have others do unto us," 17. The heart of the selfish man was touched. "There be things which are little upon the earth, but they are exceeding wise," murmured he, as he bade the little girl good night, and entered his house a sadder, and, it is to be hoped, a better man. Susan returned to her humble home with a lightened heart, and through the course of a long and useful life she never forgot her first temptation. DEFINITIONS.--1. In-teg'ri-ty, honesty, uprightness. Con-vic'tion, strong belief. Ap-pealed', referred to. 2. Temp-ta'tion, that which has a tendency to induce one to do wrong. As-sails', attacks. 10. Con'flict, struggle. Bal'anced, weighed, compared. 12. Gruff, rough. 17. Mur'mured, spoke in a low voice. Light'ened, made cheerful or lighter. EXERCISES.--What is the Golden Rule? What does it imply? Can a man be perfectly honest and still not follow the Golden Rule? What parable is a perfect illustration of its meaning? How was Susan tempted? What did she first think of doing? What changed her intention? Relate what happened when she returned the money. What effect did her action have? LII. THE SNOW MAN. (143) By Marian Douglas. 1. Look! how the clouds are flying south! The winds pipe loud and shrill! And high above the white drifts stands The snow man on the hill. 2. Blow, wild wind from the icy north! Here's one who will not fear To feel thy coldest touch, or shrink Thy loudest blast to hear. 3. Proud triumph of the schoolboy's skill! Far rather would I be A winter giant, ruling o'er A frosty realm, like thee, 4. And stand amid the drifted snow, Like thee, a thing apart, Than be a man who walks with men, But has a frozen heart! DEFINITIONS.--l. Pipe, whistle. 2. Shrink, to draw back on account of fear. 3. Triumph, success causing exultation. Realm, the territory over which authority is used, dominion. EXERCISES.--With what is the snow man compared in this poem? What is meant by a man with "a frozen heart"? Do you think such a man would follow the Golden Rule? LIII. ROBINSON CRUSOE'S HOUSE. (144) Daniel DeFoe, the author of "Robinson Crusoe" (from which these selections are adapted), was born in London, England, in 1661, and died in 1731. He wrote a number of books; but his "Robinson Crusoe" is the only one that attained great notoriety. 1. I have already described my habitation, which was a tent under the side of a rock, surrounded with a strong pale of posts and cables, but I might now rather call it a wall, for I raised a kind of wall up against it of turf, about two feet thick on the outside; and, after some time (I think it was a year and a half) I raised rafters from it, leaning to the rock, and thatched or covered it with boughs of trees and such things as I could get to keep out the rain, which I found at some times of the year very violent. 2. I have already observed how I brought all my goods into this pale, and into the cave which I had made behind me; but I must observe, too, that at first this was a confused heap of goods, which, as they lay in no order, took up all my place, so that I had no room to turn myself. So I set to work to enlarge my cave and work farther into the earth; for it was a loose, sandy rock, which yielded easily to the labor I bestowed upon it. 3. And so when I found that I was pretty safe as to beasts of prey, I worked sideways into the rock; and then, turning to the right again, worked quite out, and made me a door to come out on the outside of my pale or fortification. This gave me not only egress and regress, as it was a back way to my tent and to my storehouse, but gave me room to stow my goods. 4. And now I began to apply myself to make such necessary things as I found I most wanted, particularly a chair and a table; for without these I was not able to enjoy the few comforts I had in the world. I could not write or eat, or do several things with so much pleasure without a table. 5. So I went to work. I had never handled a tool in my life; and yet in time by labor, application, and contrivance, I found that I wanted nothing but I could have made it, especially if I had had tools; however, I made abundance of things, even without tools, and some with no more tools than an adz and a hatchet, which perhaps were never made that way before, and that with infinite labor. 6. For example, if I wanted a board, I had no other way but to cut down a tree, set it before me, and hew it flat on either side with my ax till I had brought it to be as thin as a plank, and then dub it smooth with my adz. 7. It is true, by this method I could make but one board out of a whole tree; but this I had no remedy for but patience, any more than I had for the prodigious deal of time and labor which it took me to make a plank or board; but my time or labor was little worth, and so it was as well employed one way as another. 8. However, I made me a table and a chair, as I observed above; and this I did out of the short pieces of boards which I brought on my raft from the ship; but when I had wrought out some boards, as above, I made large shelves, of the breadth of a foot and a half, one over another, all along one side of my cave, to lay all my tools, nails, and ironwork on, and, in a word, to separate everything at large in their places, that I might come easily at them. 9. I knocked pieces into the wall of the rock to hang my guns and all things that would hang up. So that, had my cave been seen, it would have looked like a general magazine of all necessary things; and I had everything so ready at my hand that it was a great pleasure to me to see all my goods in such order, and especially to find my stock of all necessaries so great. DEFINITIONS.--l. Hab-i-ta'tion, a dwelling place. Pale, a fence. Ca'bles, large ropes. Turf, sod. 3. For-ti-fi-ca'tion, a place built for defense against attack. E'gress, going out. Re'gress, coming back, return. Stow, to arrange compactly. 4. Ap-ply', to employ diligently. 6. Dub, to cut down or bring to an even surface. 7. Pro-di'gious, very great. Deal, part, amount. 9. Mag-a-zine', a storehouse, EXERCISES.--How did Robinson Crusoe make a house? Of what did he make a chair and table? How did he obtain boards? What does this lesson teach us in regard to perseverance? LIV. ROBINSON CRUSOE'S DRESS. (147) 1. But had any man in England met such a man as I was, it must either have frightened him or raised a great deal of laughter; and, as I frequently stood still to look at myself, I could not but smile at the notion of my traveling through Yorkshire in such a dress. 2. I had a great, high, shapeless cap, made of a goat's skin, with a flap hanging down behind, as well to keep the sun from me as to shoot the rain off from running into my neck; nothing being so hurtful in these climates as the rain upon the flesh under the clothes. 3. I had a short jacket of goatskin, the skirts coming down to about the middle of the thighs, and a pair of open-kneed breeches of the same; the breeches were made of the skin of an old goat, and the hair hung down such a length on either side that it reached to the middle of my legs like pantaloons. 4. Stockings and shoes I had none; but I made a pair of something, I scarce know what to call them, like buskins, to flap over my legs, and lace on either side like spatterdashes; but they were of a most barbarous shape, as indeed were all the rest of my clothes. 5. I had on a broad belt of goatskin dried, which I drew together with two thongs of the same, instead of buckles; and, in a kind of frog on each side of this, instead of a sword and dagger, hung a little saw and hatchet; one on one side, and one on the other. I had another belt not so broad, and fastened in the same manner, which hung over my shoulder; and at the end of it, under my left arm, hung two pouches, both made of goatskin, too; in one of which hung my powder, in the other my shot. 6. At my back I carried my basket, on my shoulder my gun, and over my head a great, clumsy, ugly, goatskin umbrella, but which, after all, was the most necessary thing I had about me, next to my gun. 7. As for my face, the color of it was really not so dark as one might expect from a man not at all careful of it, and living within nine or ten degrees of the equator. My beard I had once suffered to grow till it was about a quarter of a yard long; but, as I had both scissors and razors sufficient, I had cut it pretty short, except what grew on my upper lip, which I had trimmed into a large pair of Mahometan whiskers, such as I had seen worn by some Turks. 8. Of these mustaches or whiskers, I will not say that they were long enough to hang my hat upon them, but they were of a length and shape monstrous enough, and such as in England would have passed for frightful. But all this is by the bye; for, as to my figure, I had so few to observe me that it was of no manner of consequence; so I say no more on that part. DEFINITIONS.--4. Bus'kins, coverings for the feet coming some distance up the leg, and fit for a defense against thorns, etc. Spat'-ter-dash-es, coverings for the legs to keep them clean from water and mud. Bar'ba-rous, uncouth, clumsy. 5. Thongs, strips of leather. Frog, a loop similar to that sometimes used in fastening a cloak or coat. Pouch'es bags. 8. Mon'strous, very large, enormous. NOTES.--The novel, "Robinson Crusoe," was first published in 1719. It was founded on the adventures of Alexander Selkirk, a Scotch buccaneer, who was cast on the island of Juan Fernandez, west of South America, in 1704, and remained there for more than four years, before he was rescued. 1. Yorkshire. This was the district of England where, according to the story, Robinson Crusoe was born and passed his early life. 3. Open-kneed breeches. At this period knee breeches were worn almost altogether in England. Those referred to here appear to have been loose about the knee, and not close, as usual. 5. Instead of sword and dagger. It was then the fashion in England for gentlemen to wear such weapons. 8. Such as in England would have passed for frightful. It was not the custom in England, in DeFoe's time, to wear a full beard. LV. SOMEBODY'S DARLING. (150) 1. Into a ward of the whitewashed halls, Where the dead and dying lay, Wounded by bayonets, shells, and balls, Somebody's darling was borne one day; 2. Somebody's darling, so young and brave, Wearing yet on his pale, sweet face, Soon to be hid by the dust of the grave, The lingering light of his boyhood's grace. 3. Matted and damp are the curls of gold, Kissing the snow of that fair young brow; Pale are the lips of delicate mold Somebody's darling is dying now. 4. Back from his beautiful, blue-veined brow, Brush all the wandering waves of gold; Cross his hands on his bosom now; Somebody's darling is still and cold. 5. Kiss him once for somebody's sake, Murmur a prayer soft and low; One bright curl from its fair mates take; They were somebody's pride, you know; 6. Somebody's hand has rested there; Was it a mother's, soft and white? And have the lips of a sister fair Been baptized in the waves of light? 7. God knows best! he was somebody's love: Somebody's heart enshrined him there; Somebody wafted his name above, Night and morn, on the wings of prayer. 8. Somebody wept when he marched away, Looking so handsome, brave, and grand; Somebody's kiss on his forehead lay; Somebody clung to his parting hand. 9. Somebody's watching and waiting for him, Yearning to hold him again to her heart; And there he lies, with his blue eyes dim, And the smiling, childlike lips apart. 10. Tenderly bury the fair young dead, Pausing too drop on his grave a tear; Carve on the wooden slab at his head, "Somebody's darling slumbers here." DEFINITIONS.--1. Bay'o-net, a short, pointed iron weapon, fitted to the muzzle of a gun. Dar'ling, one dearly loved. 2. Lin'ger-ing, protracted. 3. Mat'ted, twisted together. Del'i-cate, soft and fair. Mold, shape. 4. Wan'der-ing, straying. 7. En-shrined', cherished. Waft'ed, caused to float. 9. Yearn'ing, being eager, longing. 10. Ten'der-ly, gently, kindly. LVI. KNOWLEDGE IS POWER. (151) 1. "What an excellent thing is knowledge," said a sharp-looking, hustling little man, to one who was much older than himself. "Knowledge is an excellent thing," repeated he. "My boys know more at six and seven years old than I did at twelve. They can read all sorts of books, and talk on all sorts of subjects. The world is a great deal wiser than it used to he. Everybody knows something of everything now. Do you not think, sir, that knowledge is all excellent thing?" 2. "Why, sir," replied the old man, looking grave, "that depends entirely upon the use to which it is applied. It may be a blessing or a curse. Knowledge is only an increase of power, and power may be a bad, as well as a good thing." "That is what I can not understand," said the bustling little man. "How can power he a bad thing?" 3. "I will tell you," meekly replied the old man; and thus he went on: "When the power of a horse is under restraint, the animal is useful in bearing burdens, drawing loads, and carrying his master; but when that power is unrestrained, the horse breaks his bridle, dashes to pieces the carriage that he draws, or throws his rider." "I see!" said the little man. 4. "When the water of a large pond is properly conducted by trenches, it renders the fields around fertile; but when it bursts through its banks, it sweeps everything before it and destroys the produce of the fields." "I see!" said the little man, "I see!" 5. "When the ship is steered aright, the sail that she hoists enables her sooner to get into port; but if steered wrong, the more sail she carries the further will she go out of her course." "I see!" said the little man, "I see clearly!" 6. "Well, then," continued the old man, "if you see these things so clearly, I hope you can see, too, that knowledge, to be a good thing, must be rightly applied. God's grace in the heart will render the knowledge of the head a blessing; but without this, it may prove to us no better than a curse." "I see! I see!" said the little man, "I see!" DEFINITIONS.--l. Bus'tling, very active, stirring. Sub'ject, the thing treated of. 3. Meek'ly, mildly, quietly, gently. Re-straint', anything which hinders. Bur'dens, loads. 4. Con-duct'ed, led, guided. Trench'es, ditches. Fer'tile, producing much fruit, rich. Prod'uce, that which is yielded or produced. 5. Steered', guided, directed. Hoists, raises. 6. Ap-plied', directed, made use of. EXERCISES--What is the subject of this lesson? Is knowledge always a power? Is it always blessing? Relate the several examples of power wrongly used. If we use the powers that God has given us for bad purposes, what will our knowledge prove to be? LVII. GOOD WILL. (153) By J. T. Trowbridge.--(Adapted) 1. I suppose you all, my boys, are looking for some sort of success in life; it is right that you should; but what are your notions of success? To get rich as soon as possible, without regard to the means by which your wealth is acquired? 2. There is no true success in that: when you have gained millions, you may yet be poorer than when you had nothing; and it is that same reckless ambition which has brought many a bright and capable boy, not to great estate at last, but to miserable failure and disgrace; not to a palace, but to a prison. 3. Wealth rightly got and rightly used, rational enjoyment, power, fame,--these are all worthy objects of ambition; but they are not the highest objects, and you may acquire them all without achieving true success. But if, whatever you seek, you put good will into all your actions, you are sure of the best success at last; for whatever else you gain or miss, you are building up a noble and beautiful character, which is not only the best of possessions in this world, but also is about all you can expect to take with you into the next. 4. I say, good will in all your actions. You are not simply to be kind and helpful to others; but, whatever you do, give honest, earnest purpose to it. Thomas is put by his parents to learn a business. But Thomas does not like to apply himself very closely. "What's the use?" he says. "I'm not paid much, and I'm not going to work much. I'll get along just as easily as I can, and have as good times as I can." 5. So he shirks his tasks; and instead of thinking about his employer's interests, or his own self improvement, gives his mind to trifles,--often to evil things, which in their ruinous effects upon his life are not trifles. As soon as he is free from his daily duties, he is off with his companions, having what they call a good time; his heart is with them even while his hands are employed in the shop or store. 6. He does nothing thoroughly well,--not at all for want of talent, but solely for lack of good will. He is not preparing himself to be one of those efficient clerks or workmen who are always in demand, and who receive the highest wages. 7. There is a class of people who are the pest of every community, workmen who do not know their trade, men of business ignorant of the first principles of business. They can never be relied upon to do well anything they undertake. They are always making blunders which other people have to suffer for, and which react upon themselves. They are always getting out of employment, and failing in business. 8. To make up for what they lack in knowledge and thoroughness, they often resort to trick and fraud, and become not merely contemptible but criminal. Thomas is preparing himself to be one of this class. You can not, boys, expect to raise a good crop from evil seed. 9. By Thomas's side works another boy, whom we will call James,--a lad of only ordinary capacity, very likely. If Thomas and all the other boys did their best, there would be but small chance for James ever to become eminent. But he has something better than talent: he brings good will to his work. Whatever he learns, he learns so well that it becomes a part of himself. 10. His employers find that they can depend upon Jim. Customers soon learn to like and trust him. By diligence, self-culture, good habits, cheerful and kindly conduct, he is laying the foundation of a generous manhood and a genuine success. 11. In short, boys, by slighting your tasks you hurt yourself more than you wrong your employer. By honest service you benefit yourself more than you help him. If you were aiming at mere worldly advancement only, I should still say that good will was the very best investment you could make in business. 12. By cheating a customer, you gain only a temporary and unreal advantage. By serving him with right good will,--doing by him as you would be done by,--you not only secure his confidence but also his good will in return. But this is a sordid consideration compared with the inward satisfaction, the glow and expansion of soul which attend a good action done for itself alone. If I were to sum up all I have to say to you in one last word of love and counsel, that one word should be--Good will. DEFINITIONS.--3. Char'ac-ter, the sum of qualities which distin-guish one person from another. 4. Purpose, intention, aim. 7. Prin'ci-ples, fixed rules. 9. Ca-pac'i-ty, ability, the power of re-ceiving ideas. 12. Sor'did, base, meanly avaricious. EXERCISES.--What is meant by the phrase "to apply himself," in the fourth paragraph? What is meant by "a generous manhood," tenth paragraph? By "expansion of soul," twelfth paragraph? Tell what is meant by "good will," as taught by this lesson. How did Tom and James differ in character? LVIII. A CHINESE STORY. (156) By Christopher Pearse Cranch, who was born at Alexandria, Va. (then D. C.), in 1813. He has written some well-known children's stories, besides numerous poems; but his greatest literary work is "The AEneid of Vergil, translated into English blank verse." He died in Cambridge Mass., 1892. 1. Two young, near-sighted fellows, Chang and Ching, Over their chopsticks idly chattering, Fell to disputing which could see the best; At last, they agreed to put it to the test. Said Chang, "A marble tablet, so I hear, Is placed upon the Bo-hee temple near, With an inscription on it. Let us go And read it (since you boast your optics so), Standing together at a certain place In front, where we the letters just may trace; Then he who quickest reads the inscription there, The palm for keenest eyes henceforth shall bear." "Agreed," said Ching, "but let us try it soon: Suppose we say to-morrow afternoon." 2. "Nay, not so soon," said Chang; "I'm bound to go To-morrow a day's ride from Hoang-Ho, And sha'n't be ready till the following day: At ten A. M., on Thursday, let us say." 3. So 'twas arranged; but Ching was wide-awake: Time by the forelock he resolved to take; And to the temple went at once, and read, Upon the tablet, "To the illustrious dead, The chief of mandarins, the great Goh-Bang." Scarce had he gone when stealthily came Chang, Who read the same; but peering closer, he Spied in a corner what Ching failed to see-- The words, "This tablet is erected here By those to whom the great Goh-Bang was dear." 4. So on the appointed day--both innocent As babes, of course--these honest fellows went, And took their distant station; and Ching said, "I can read plainly, 'To the illustrious dead, The chief of mandarins, the great Goh-Bang.'" "And is that all that you can spell?" said Chang; "I see what you have read, but furthermore, In smaller letters, toward the temple door, Quite plain, 'This tablet is erected here By those to whom the great Goh-Bang was dear.'" 5. "My sharp-eyed friend, there are no such words!" said Ching. "They're there," said Chang, "if I see anything, As clear as daylight." "Patent eyes, indeed, You have!" cried Ching; "do you think I can not read?" "Not at this distance as I can," Chang said, "If what you say you saw is all you read." 6. In fine, they quarreled, and their wrath increased, Till Chang said, "Let us leave it to the priest; Lo! here he comes to meet us," "It is well," Said honest Ching; "no falsehood he will tell." 7. The good man heard their artless story through, And said, "I think, dear sirs, there must be few Blest with such wondrous eyes as those you wear: There's no such tablet or inscription there! There was one, it is true; 't was moved away And placed within the temple yesterday." DEFINITIONS.--1. Near-sight'ed, seeing at a short distance only. Chop'sticks, small sticks of wood, ivory, etc., used in pairs by Chinese to carry food to the mouth. Tab'let, a small, flat piece of anything on which to write or engrave. In-scrip'tion, something written or engraved on a solid substance. Op'tics, eyes. Palm, the reward of victory, prize. 2. A. M., an abbreviation for the Latin ante meridian, meaning before noon. 3. Man-da-rin', a Chinese public officer. 5. Pat'ent, secured from general use, peculiar to one person. LXX. THE WAY TO BE HAPPY. (159) 1. Every child must observe how much more happy and beloved some children are than others. There are some children you always love to be with. They are happy themselves, and they make you happy. 2. There are others whom you always avoid. They seem to have no friends. No person can be happy without friends. The heart is formed for love, and can not be happy without it. 3. "'Tis not in titles nor in rank, 'Tis not in wealth like London bank, To make us truly blest. If happiness have not her seat And center in the breast, We may be wise, or rich, or great, But never can be blest." 4. But you can not receive affection unless you will also give it. You can not find others to love you unless you will also love them. Love is only to be obtained by giving love in return. Hence the importance of cultivating a good disposition. You can not be happy without it. 5. I have sometimes heard a girl say, "I know that I am very unpopular at school." Now, this plainly shows that she is not amiable. 6. If your companions do not love you, it is your own fault. They can not help loving you if you will be kind and friendly. If you are not loved, it is a good proof that you do not deserve to be loved. It is true that a sense of duty may, at times, render it necessary for you to do that which will displease your companions. 7. But if it is seen that you have a noble spirit, that you are above selfishness, that you are willing to make sacrifices to promote the happiness of others, you will never be in want of friends. 8. You must not regard it as your misfortune that others do not love you, but your fault. It is not beauty, it is not wealth, that will give you friends. Your heart must glow with kindness, if you would attract to yourself the esteem and affection of those around you. 9. You are little aware how much the happiness of your whole life depends upon the cultivation of a good disposition. If you will adopt the resolution that you will confer favors whenever you can, you will certainly be surrounded by ardent friends. Begin upon this principle in childhood, and act upon it through life, and you will make yourself happy, and promote the happiness of all within your influence. 10. You go to school on a cold winter morning. A bright fire is blazing in the stove, surrounded with boys struggling to get near it to warm themselves. After you are slightly warmed, a schoolmate comes in suffering with cold. "Here, James," you pleasantly call out to him, "I am almost warm; you may have my place." 11. As you slip aside to allow him to take your place at the fire, will he not feel that you are kind? The worst boy in the world can not help admiring such generosity; and, even though he be so ungrateful as not to return the favor, you may depend upon it that he will be your friend as far as he is capable of friendship. If you will always act upon this principle, you will never want for friends. 12. Suppose, some day, you are out with your companions playing ball. After you have been playing for some time, another boy comes along. He can not be chosen upon either side, for there is no one to match him. "Henry," you say, "you may take my place a little while, and I will rest." 13. You throw yourself down upon the grass, while Henry, fresh and vigorous, takes your bat and engages in the game. He knows that you give up to oblige him, and how can he help liking you for it? The fact is, that neither man nor child can cultivate such a spirit of generosity and kindness without attracting affection and esteem. 14. Look and see which of your companions have the most friends, and you will find that they are those who have this noble spirit; who are willing to deny themselves, that they may make others happy. There is but one way to make friends; and that is, by being friendly to others. 15. Perhaps some child who reads this feels conscious of being disliked, and yet desires to have the affection of his companions. You ask me what you shall do. I will tell you. I will give you an infallible rule: Do all in your power to make others happy. Be willing to make sacrifices, that you may promote the happiness of others. 16. This is the way to make friends, and the only way. When you are playing with your brothers and sisters at home, be always ready to give them more than their share of privileges. Manifest an obliging disposition, and they can not but regard you with affection. In all your intercourse with others, at home or abroad, let these feelings influence you, and you will receive a rich reward. DEFINITIONS.--4. Cul'ti-vat-ing, cherishing, encouraging. 5. Un-pop'u-lar, not pleasing others. 6. Com-pan'ions, those who keep company with anyone. 7. Sac'ri-fic-es, things given up to oblige others. Pro-mote', advance, forward. 10. Suf'fer-ing, undergoing pain. 11. Gen-er-os'i-ty, kindness, nobleness of soul. 15. In-fal'li-ble, certain, that can not fail. 16. Man'i-fest, to show plainly. In'ter-course, communication, mutual dealings. EXERCISES.--What is this lesson about? Can we be happy without friends? How can we win the love of those about us? Whose fault is it if we are not loved? What rule will surely gain us love and friendship if we always follow it? LX. THE GIRAFFE, OR CAMELOPARD. (162) 1. The giraffe is a native of Africa. It is of singular shape and size, and bears some resemblance both to the camel and the deer. The mouth is small; the eyes are full and brilliant; the tongue is rough, very long, and ending in a point. The neck is long and slender, and, from the shoulder to the top of the head, it measures between seven and eight feet; from the ground to the top of the shoulder, it is commonly ten or eleven feet; so that the height of a full-grown giraffe is seventeen or eighteen feet. 2. The hair is of a deep brown color in the male, and of a light or yellowish brown in the female. The skin is beautifully diversified with white spots. They have short, blunt horns, and hoofs like those of the ox. In their wild state, they feed on the leaves of a gum-bearing tree peculiar to warm climates. 3. The giraffe, like the horse and other hoofed animals, defends itself by kicking; and its hinder limbs are so light, and its blows so rapid, that the eye can not follow them. They are sufficient for its defense against the lion. It never employs its horns in resisting the attack of an enemy. Its disposition is gentle, and it flees to its native forest upon the least alarm. 4. Le Vaillant (the celebrated French traveler and naturalist) was the first who gave us any exact account of the form and habits of the giraffe. While he was traveling in South Africa, he happened one day to discover a hut covered with the skin of one of those animals; and learned to his surprise that he was now in a part of the country where the creature was found. He could not rest contented until he had seen the animal alive, and had secured a specimen. 5. Having on several days obtained sight of some of them, he, with his attendants, on horseback and accompanied with dogs, gave chase; but they baffled all pursuit. After a chase of a whole day, which effected nothing but the fatigue of the party, he began to despair of success. 6. "The next day," says he, "by sunrise, I was in pursuit of game, in the hope of obtaining some provisions for my men. After several hours' fatigue, we saw, at the turn of a hill, seven giraffes, which my pack of dogs instantly pursued. Six of them went off together; but the seventh, cut off by my dogs, took another way. 7. "I followed the single one at full speed, but, in spite of the efforts of my horse, she got so much ahead of me, that, in turning a little hill, I lost sight of her altogether, and I gave up the pursuit. My dogs, however, were not so easily exhausted. They were soon so close upon her that she was obliged to stop and defend herself. From the noise they made, I conjectured that they had got the animal into a corner, and I again pushed forward. 8. "I had scarcely got round the hill, when I perceived her surrounded by the dogs, and endeavoring to drive them away by heavy kicks. In a moment I was on my feet, and a shot from my carbine brought her to the earth. I was delighted with my victory, which enabled me to add to the riches of natural history. I was now able, also, to destroy the romance which attached to this animal, and to establish the truth of its existence." DEFINITIONS.--l. Bril'liant, sparkling, shining. 2. Di-ver'si-fied, made various. Pe-cul'iar, especially belonging to. 4. Le Vaillant (pro. leh va yon'). Nat'u-ral-ist, one who is acquainted with objects of nature. Spec'i-men, a sample. 5. Baf 'fled, defeated, escaped from. Fa-tigue', weariness. 7. Con-jec'tured, guessed. 8. Car'bine, a short gun. Ro-mance', a story without truth. EXERCISES.--Of what country is the giraffe a native? To what height does it attain when full grown? On what does it live? How does it defend itself? Relate the story of Le Vaillant's giraffe hunt. LXI. THE LOST CHILD. (165) 1. A few years since, a child was lost in the woods. He was out with his brothers and sisters gathering berries, and was accidentally separated from them, and lost. The children, after looking in vain for some time in search of the little wanderer, returned, just in the dusk of the evening, to inform their parents that their brother was lost and could not be found. 2. The woods, at that time, were full of bears. The darkness of a cloudy night was rapidly coming on, and the alarmed father, gathering a few of his neighbors, hastened in search of the lost child. The mother remained at home, almost distracted with suspense. 3. As the clouds gathered, and the darkness increased, the father and the neighbors, with highly excited fears, traversed the woods in all directions, and raised loud shouts to attract the attention of the child. But their search was in vain. They could find no trace of the wanderer; and, as they stood under the boughs of the lofty trees, and listened, that if possible they might hear his feeble voice, no sound was borne to their ears but the melancholy moaning of the wind as it swept through the thick branches of the forest. 4. The gathering clouds threatened an approaching storm, and the deep darkness of the night had already enveloped them. It is difficult to conceive what were the feelings of that father. And who could imagine how deep the distress which filled the bosom of that mother, as she heard the wind, and beheld the darkness in which her child was wandering! 5. The search was continued in vain till nine o'clock in the evening. Then, one of the party was sent back to the village, to collect the inhabitants for a more extensive search. The bell rung the alarm, and the cry of fire resounded through the streets. It was ascertained, however, that it was not fire which caused the alarm, but that the bell tolled the more solemn tidings of a lost child. 6. Every heart sympathized in the sorrows of the distracted parents. Soon, multitudes of the people were seen ascending the hill, upon the declivity of which the village stood, to aid in the search. Ere long, the rain began to fall, but no tidings came back to the village of the lost child. Hardly an eye was that night closed in sleep, and there was not a mother who did not feel for the parents. 7. The night passed away, and the morning dawned, and yet no tidings came. At last, those engaged in the search met together and held a consultation. They made arrangements for a more minute search, and agreed that, in case the child was found, a gun should be fired, to give a signal to the rest of the party. 8. As the sun arose, the clouds were scattered, and the whole landscape glittered in the rays of the bright morning. But that village was deserted and still. The stores were closed, and business was hushed. Mothers were walking the streets, with sympathizing countenances and anxious hearts. There was but one thought in every mind: "What has become of the lost child?" 9. All the affections and interest of the neighborhood were flowing in one deep and broad channel toward the little wanderer. About nine in the morning, the signal gun was fired, which announced that the child was found; and, for a moment, how dreadful was the suspense! Was it found a mangled corpse? or was it alive and well? 10. Soon, a joyful shout proclaimed the safety of the child. The shout was borne from tongue to tongue, till the whole forest rang again with the joyful sound. A messenger rapidly bore the tidings to the distracted mother. A procession was immediately formed by those engaged in the search. The child was placed upon a platform, hastily formed from the boughs of trees, and borne in triumph at the head of the procession. When they arrived at the brow of the hill, they rested for a moment, and proclaimed their success with three loud and animated cheers. 11. The procession then moved on till they arrived in front of the dwelling where the parents of the child resided. The mother, who stood at the door, with streaming eyes and throbbing heart, could no longer restrain herself or her feelings. 12. She rushed into the street, clasped her child to her bosom, and wept aloud. Every eye was filled with tears, and, for a moment, all were silent. But suddenly some one gave a signal for a shout. One loud, and long, and happy note of joy rose from the assembled multitude, and they went to their business and their homes. 13. There was more joy over the one child that was found than over the ninety and nine that went not astray. Likewise, there is joy in the presence of the angels of God over one sinner that repenteth. But still, this is a feeble representation of the love of our Father in heaven for us, and of the joy with which the angels welcome the returning wanderer. 14. The mother can not feel for her child that is lost as God feels for the unhappy wanderer in the paths of sin. If a mother can feel so much, what must be the feelings of our Father in heaven for those who have strayed from his love? If man can feel so deep a sympathy, what must be the emotions which glow in the bosom of angels? DEFINITIONS.--l. Sep'a-rat-ed, parted. 2. Dis-tract'ed, made crazy. Sus-pense', doubt, uncertainty. 3. Trav'ersed, passed over and examined. 5. As-cer-tained', made certain. 6. Sym'pa-thized, felt for. De-cliv'i-ty, descent of land. 7. Con-sul-ta'tion, a meeting of persons to advise together. 8. Land'scape, a portion of territory which the eye can see in a single view. 10. Pro-claimed', made known publicly. 11. Pro-ces'sion, a train of persons walking or riding. l3. Rep-re-sen-ta'tion, the act of describing or showing. LXII. WHICH? (168) By MRS. E. L. BEERS. 1. Which shall it be? Which shall it be? I looked at John--John looked at me; Dear, patient John, who loves me yet As well as though my locks were jet. And when I found that I must speak, My voice seemed strangely low and weak: "Tell me again what Robert said!" And then I, listening, bent my head. "This is his letter:" 2. "'I will give A house and land while you shall live, If, in return, from out your seven, One child to me for aye is given.'" I looked at John's old garments worn, I thought of all that John had borne Of poverty, and work, and care, Which I, though willing, could not share; I thought of seven mouths to feed, Of seven little children's need, And then of this. 3. "Come, John," said I, "We'll choose among them as they lie Asleep;" so, walking hand in hand, Dear John and I surveyed our band. First to the cradle light we stepped, Where Lilian the baby slept, A glory 'gainst the pillow white. Softly the father stooped to lay His rough hand down in loving way, When dream or whisper made her stir, And huskily he said: "Not her!" 4. We stooped beside the trundle-bed, And one long ray of lamplight shed Athwart the boyish faces there, In sleep so pitiful and fair; I saw on Jamie's rough, red cheek, A tear undried. Ere John could speak, "He's but a baby, too," said I, And kissed him as we hurried by. 5. Pale, patient Robbie's angel face Still in his sleep bore suffering's trace: "No, for a thousand crowns, not him," He whispered, while our eyes were dim. 6. Poor Dick! bad Dick! our wayward son, Turbulent, reckless, idle one-- Could he be spared? "Nay, He who gave, Bade us befriend him to the grave; Only a mother's heart can be Patient enough for such as he; And so," said John, "I would not dare To send him from her bedside prayer." 7. Then stole we softly up above And knelt by Mary, child of love. "Perhaps for her 't would better be," I said to John. Quite silently He lifted up a curl that lay Across her cheek in willful way, And shook his head. "Nay, love, not thee," The while my heart beat audibly. 8. Only one more, our eldest lad, Trusty and truthful, good and glad So like his father. "No, John, no-- I can not, will not let him go." 9. And so we wrote in courteous way, We could not drive one child away. And afterward, toil lighter seemed, Thinking of that of which we dreamed; Happy, in truth, that not one face We missed from its accustomed place; Thankful to work for all the seven, Trusting the rest to One in heaven! DEFINITIONS.--2. Aye, always, 3. Sur-veyed', took a view of. 5. Crown, an English silver coin worth about $1.20. 6. Way-ward, willful. Tur'bu-lent, disposed to disorder. 9. Cour'te-ous, polite. Ac-cus'tomed, usual. LXIII. THE PET FAWN. (172) 1. A pretty little fawn had been brought in from the woods, when very young, and nursed and petted by a lady in the village until it had become as tame as possible. It was graceful, as those little creatures always are, and so gentle and playful that it became a great favorite, following the different members of the family about, being caressed by the neighbors, and welcome everywhere. 2. One morning, after playing about as usual until weary, it lay down in the sunshine, at the feet of one of its friends, upon the steps of a store. There came along a countryman, who for several years had been a hunter by pursuit, and who still kept several hounds, one of which was now with him. 3. The dog, as it approached the spot where the fawn lay, suddenly stopped. The little animal saw him, and started to its feet. It had lived more than half its life among the dogs of the village, and had apparently lost all fear of them; but it seemed now to know that an enemy was near. In an instant, its whole nature seemed changed; all its past habits were forgotten; every wild impulse was awake; its head erect, its nostrils dilated, its eyes flashing. 4. In another instant, before the spectators had thought of the danger, and before its friends could secure it, the fawn was bounding away through the street, and the hound in full chase. The bystanders were eager to save it; several persons immediately followed its track; the friends who had long fed and fondled it, calling the name it had hitherto known, in vain. 5. The hunter endeavored to whistle back his dog, but with no success. In half a minute the fawn had turned the first corner, dashed onward toward the lake, and thrown itself into the water. But if for a moment the startled creature believed itself safe in the cool bosom of the lake, it was soon undeceived; for the hound followed in hot and eager chase, while a dozen village dogs joined blindly in the pursuit. 6. A large crowd collected on the bank--men, women, and children--anxious for the fate of the little animal so well known to them all. Some threw themselves into boats, hoping to intercept the hound before he reached his prey. The plashing of the oars, the eager voices of men and boys, and the barking of the dogs, must have filled the heart of the poor fawn with terror and anguish,--as though every creature on the spot where it had once been caressed and fondled, had suddenly turned into a deadly foe. 7. It was soon seen that the little animal was directing its course across a bay toward the nearest borders of the forest. Immediately the owner of the hound crossed the bridge, and ran at full speed, hoping to stop his dog as he landed. On swam the fawn, as it never swam before; its delicate head scarcely seen above the water, but leaving a disturbed track, which betrayed its course alike to its friends and foes. 8. As it approached the land, the interest became intense. The hunter was already on the same side of the lake, calling loudly and angrily to his dog; but the hound seemed to have quite forgotten his master's voice in the pitiless pursuit. The fawn reached the shore. With a leap it had crossed the narrow strip of beach, and in another instant it would reach the cover of the woods. 9. The hound followed true to the scent, pointing to the same spot on the shore; his master, anxious to meet him, had run at full speed, and was now coming up at the same critical moment. Will the dog listen to his voice? or can the hunter reach him in time to seize and control him? A shout from the bank told that the fawn had passed out of sight into the forest. At the same instant, the hound, as he touched the land, felt the hunter's strong arm clutching his neck. The worst was believed to be over; the fawn was leaping up the mountain side, and its enemy was restrained. The other dogs, seeing their leader cowed, were easily managed. 10. A number of persons, men and boys, dispersed themselves through the woods in search of the little creature, but without success; they all returned to the village, reporting that the fawn had not been seen. Some thought that after its fright had passed it would return of its own accord. It wore a pretty collar with its owner's name engraved upon it, so that it could be easily known from any other fawn that might be straying about the woods. 11. Before many hours had passed, a hunter presented himself to the lady whose pet the little creature had been, and showed a collar with her name upon it. He said that he was out hunting in the morning, and saw a fawn in the distance. The little pet, instead of bounding away, as he expected, moved toward him; he took aim, fired, and shot it through the heart. DEFINITIONS.--l. Fawn, a young deer. Ca-ressed', fondled, petted. 3. Di-lat'ed, extended, spread out. 4. Spec-ta'tors, those who look on. 6. In-ter-cept', to stop, to seize. 7. Be-trayed', showed. 8. In-tense', extreme. 9. Scent, track followed by the sense of smell. Cowed, made afraid. LXIV. ANNIE'S DREAM. (175) 1. It was a clear, cold, winter evening, and all the Sinclairs but Annie had gone out for a neighborly visit. She had resolved to stay at home and study a long, difficult lesson in Natural Philosophy. 2. Left to herself, the evening passed quickly, but the lesson was learned a full half hour before the time set for the family to come home. 3. Closing her book, she leaned back in the soft armchair in which she was sitting, soon fell asleep, and began to dream. She dreamed that it was a very cold morning, and that she was standing by the dining-room stove, looking into the glass basin which was every day filled with water for evaporation. 4. "Oh, dear," she sighed, "it is nearly school time. I don't want to go out in the cold this morning. Then there is that long lesson. I wonder if I can say it. Let me see--it takes two hundred and twelve degrees of heat, I believe, for water to evaporate--" 5. "Nonsense!" "Ridiculous!" shouted a chorus of strange little voices near by; "Look here! is this water boiling? What an idea; two hundred and twelve degrees before we can fly, ha, ha!" 6. "Who are you?" asked Annie, in amazement. "Where must I look?" "In the basin, of course." 7. Annie looked, and saw a multitude of tiny forms moving swiftly around, their numbers increasing as the heat of the fire increased. "Why you dear little things!" said she, "what are you doing down there?" 8. "We are water sprites," answered one, in the clearest voice that can be imagined, "and when this delightful warmth comes all about us, we become so light that we fly off, as you see." 9. In another moment he had joined a crowd of his companions that were spreading their wings and flying off in curling, white clouds over Annie's head. But they were so light and thin that they soon disappeared in the air. 10. She could not see where they went, so she again turned to the basin. "Does n't it hurt you," she asked one, "to be heated--?" "Not always to two hundred and twelve," said the sprite, mischievously. 11. "No, no," replied Annie, half-vexed; "I remember, that is boiling point--but I mean, to be heated as you all are, and then to fly off in the cold?" 12. "Oh, no," laughed the little sprite; "we like it. We are made to change by God's wise laws, and so it can't hurt us. We are all the time at work, in our way, taking different shapes. It is good for us. If you will go to the window, you will find some of my brothers and sisters on the glass." 13. Annie went to the window, and at first could see nothing but some beautiful frostwork on it. Soon, however, the panes seemed to swarm with little folks. Their wings were as white as snow, and sparkled with ice jewels. 14. "Oh," cried Annie, "this is the prettiest sight I ever saw. What is your name, darling?" she asked one that wore a crown of snow roses. The little voice that replied was so sharp and fine that Annie thought it seemed like a needle point of sound, and she began to laugh. 15. "Fine Frost is our family name," it said. "I have a first name of my own, but I shall not tell you what it is, for you are so impolite as to laugh at me." 16. "I beg your pardon, dear," said Annie; "I could not help it. I will not laugh at you any more if you will tell me how you came here. I have been talking with one of your brothers over there in the basin." 17. The little sprite then folded her wings in a dignified manner, and said, "I will tell you all I know about it, since you promise to be polite. It is a very short story, however. 18. "Last evening we all escaped from the glass basin, as you have seen our companions do this morning. Oh, how light and free we felt! But we were so very delicate and thin that no one saw us as we flew about in the air of the room. 19. "After a while I flew with these others to this window, and, as we alighted on the glass, the cold changed us from water sprites into sprites of the Fine Frost family." "It is very wonderful," said Annie. "Is it nice to be a sprite?" 20. "Oh, yes, we are very gay. All last night we had a fine time sparkling in the moonlight. I wore a long wreath full of ice pearls and diamonds. Here is a piece of it. Before long we shall be water sprites again. I see the sun is coming this way." 21. "Shall you dread to be melted?" inquired Annie. "No, indeed," answered the sprite. "I like to change my form now and then." 22. A thought flashed across Annie's brain. What if she should breathe on the frost and not wait for the sun to melt it. In a moment more she had done so. Down fell a great number of the tiny mountains and castles, carrying with them a multitude of frost sprites, and all that could be seen was a drop of water on the window sill. 23. "Oh, dear! have I hurt them?" she exclaimed. "No, no," replied a chorus of many small voices from the drop of water, "we are only water sprites again. Nothing hurts us; we merely change." "But you are always pretty little things," said Annie. "I wish--" 24. Here a ring at the doorbell woke Annie. She started up to find the family had returned from their visit, which all declared was a delightful one. But Annie said she did not believe they had enjoyed their visit better than she had her half hour's dream. DEFINITIONS.--1. Nat'u-ral Phi-los'o-phy, the study which teaches about the laws of matter in nature. 3. E-vap-o-ra'tion, the act of turning into vapor. 4. De-gree', a division of space marked on an instrument such as a thermometer. 8. Wa'ter sprite, a spirit or fairy living in the water. 10. Mis'chie-vous-ly, in a teasing manner. 13. Swarm, to be crowded. 18, Es-caped', got away, fled. LXV. MY GHOST. (178) By Mrs. S. M. B. Piatt, who was born near Lexington, Ky., in 1836. Among her published works may be mentioned "The Nests at Washington, and Other Poems," and "A Woman's Poems." 1. Yes, Katie, I think you are very sweet, Now that the tangles are out of your hair, And you sing as well as the birds you meet, That are playing, like you, in the blossoms there. But now you are coming to kiss me, you say: Well, what is it for? Shall I tie your shoe? Or loop up your sleeve in a prettier way? "Do I know about ghosts?" Indeed I do. 2. "Have I seen one?" Yes; last evening, you know, We were taking a walk that you had to miss, (I think you were naughty, and cried to go, But, surely, you'll stay at home after this!) And, away in the twilight, lonesomely, ("What is the twilight?" It's--getting late!) I was thinking of things that were sad to me!-- There, hush! you know nothing about them, Kate. 3. Well, we had to go through the rocky lane, Close to that bridge where the water roars, By a still, red house, where the dark and rain Go in when they will at the open doors. And the moon, that had just waked up, looked through The broken old windows, and seemed afraid, And the wild bats flew, and the thistles grew Where once in the roses the children played. 4. Just across the road by the cherry trees Some fallen white stones had been lying so long, Half hid in the grass, and under these There were people dead. I could hear the song Of a very sleepy dove as I passed The graveyard near, and the cricket that cried; And I look'd (ah! the Ghost is coming at last!) And something was walking at my side. 5. It seemed to be wrapped in a great dark shawl (For the night was a little cold, you know,); It would not speak. It was black and tall; And it walked so proudly and very slow. Then it mocked me everything I could do: Now it caught at the lightning flies like me; Now it stopped where the elder blossoms grew; Now it tore the thorns from a gray bent tree. 6. Still it followed me under the yellow moon, Looking back to the graveyard now and then, Where the winds were playing the night a tune-- But, Kate, a Ghost doesn't care for men, And your papa could n't have done it harm. Ah! dark-eyed darling, what is it you see? There, you needn't hide in your dimpled arm-- It was only my shadow that walk'd with me! LXVI. THE ELEPHANT. (180) 1. The elephant is the largest of quadrupeds; his height is from eight to fourteen feet, and his length, from ten to fifteen feet. His form is that of a hog; his eyes are small and lively; his ears are long, broad and pendulous. He has two large tusks, which form the ivory of commerce, and a trunk, or proboscis, at the end of the nose, which he uses to take his food with, and for attack or defense. His color is a dark ash-brown. 2. Elephants often assemble in large troops; and, as they march in search of food, the forests seem to tremble under them. They eat the branches of trees, together with roots, herbs, leaves, grain, and fruit, but will not touch fish nor flesh. In a state of nature, they are peaceable, mild, and brave; exerting their power only for their own protection or in defense of their own species. 3. Elephants are found both in Asia and Africa, but they are of different species, the Asiatic elephant having five toes, and the African, three. These animals are caught by stratagem, and, when tamed, they are the most gentle, obedient, and patient, as well as the most docile and sagacious of all quadrupeds. They are used to carry burdens, and for traveling. Their attachment to their masters is remarkable; and they seem to live but to serve and obey them. They always kneel to receive their riders; or the loads they have to carry. 4. The anecdotes illustrating the character of the elephant are numerous. An elephant which was kept for exhibition at London, was often required, as is usual in such exhibitions, to pick up with his trunk a piece of money thrown upon the floor for this purpose. On one occasion a sixpence was thrown, which happened to roll a little out of his reach, not far from the wall. Being desired to pick it up, he stretched out his proboscis several times to reach it; failing in this, he stood motionless a few seconds, evidently considering how to act. 5. He then stretched his proboscis in a straight line as far as he could, a little distance above the coin, and blew with great force against the wall. The angle produced by the opposition of the wall, made the current of air act under the coin, as he evidently supposed it would, and it was curious to observe the sixpence traveling toward the animal till it came within his reach, when he picked it up. 6. A soldier in India, who had frequently carried an elephant some arrack, being one day intoxicated, and seeing himself pursued by the guard whose orders were to conduct him to prison, took refuge under the elephant. The guard soon finding his retreat, attempted in vain to take him from his asylum; for the elephant vigorously defended him with his trunk. 7. As soon as the soldier became sober, and saw himself placed under such an unwieldy animal, he was so terrified that he scarcely durst move either hand or foot; but the elephant soon caused his fears to subside by caressing him with his trunk, and thus tacitly saying, "Depart in peace." 8. A pleasing anecdote is related of an elephant which was the property of the nabob of Lucknow. There was in that city an epidemic disorder, making dreadful havoc among the inhabitants. The road to the palace gate was covered with the sick and dying, lying on the ground at the moment the nabob was about to pass. 9. Regardless of the suffering he must cause, the nabob held on his way, not caring whether his beast trod upon the poor helpless creatures or not. But the animal, more kind-hearted than his master, carefully cleared the path of the poor, helpless wretches as he went along. Some he lifted with his trunk, entirely out of the road. Some he set upon their feet, and among the others he stepped so carefully that not an individual was injured. DEFINITIONS.--l. Quad'ru-ped, an animal having four feet. Pen'du-lous, hanging down. Com'merce, trade, Pro-bos'cis, snout, trunk. 3. Strat'a-gem, artifice. Doc'ile, teachable. 6. Ar'rack, a spirituous liquor made from the juice of the cocoanut. A-sy'lum, a refuge. 7. Un-wield'y, heavy, unmanageable. Tac'-it-ly, silently. 8. Ep-i-dm'ic, affecting many people. Na'bob, a prince in India. LXVII. DARE TO DO RIGHT. (183) Adapted from "School Days at Rugby," by Thomas Hughes, an English writer well known through this book, and its sequel, "Tom Brown at Oxford." The author was born in 1823, and died in 1896. 1. The little schoolboys went quietly to their own beds, and began undressing and talking to one another in whispers: while the elder, amongst whom was Tom, sat chatting about on one another's beds, with their jackets and waistcoats off. 2. Poor little Arthur was overwhelmed with the novelty of his position. The idea of sleeping in the room with strange boys had clearly never crossed his mind before, and was as painful as it was strange to him. He could hardly bear to take his jacket off; however, presently, with an effort, off it came, and then he paused and looked at Tom, who was sitting at the bottom of his bed, talking and laughing. 3. "Please, Brown," he whispered, "may I wash my face and hands?" "Of course, if you like," said Tom, staring: "that's your wash-hand stand under the window, second from your bed. You'll have to go down for more water in the morning if you use it all." 4. And on he went with his talk, while Arthur stole timidly from between the beds out to his wash-hand stand, and began his ablutions, thereby drawing for a moment on himself the attention of the room. 5. On went the talk and laughter. Arthur finished his washing and undressing, and put on his nightgown. He then looked round more nervously than ever. Two or three of the little boys were already in bed, sitting up with their chins on their knees. The light burned clear, the noise went on. 6. It was a trying moment for the poor, little, lonely boy; however, this time he did not ask Tom what he might or might not do, but dropped all his knees by his bedside, as he had done every day from his childhood, to open his heart to Him who heareth the cry and beareth the sorrows of the tender child, and the strong man in agony. 7. Tom was sitting at the bottom of his bed unlacing his boots, so that his back was towards Arthur, and he did not see what had happened, and looked up in wonder at the sudden silence. Then two or three boys laughed and sneered, and a big, brutal fellow, who was standing in the middle of the room, picked up a slipper and shied it at the kneeling boy, calling him a sniveling young shaver. 8. Then Tom saw the whole, and the next moment the boot he had just pulled off flew straight at the head of the bully, who had just time to throw up his arm and catch it on his elbow. "Confound you, Brown; what's that for?" roared he, stamping with pain. "Never mind what I mean," said Tom, stepping on to the floor, every drop of blood in his body tingling: "if any fellow wants the other boot, he knows how to get it." 9. What would have been the result is doubtful, for at this moment the sixth-form boy came in, and not another word could be said. Tom and the rest rushed into bed and finished their unrobing there, and the old janitor had put out the candle in another minute, and toddled on to the next room, shutting the door with his usual, "Good night, gen'l'm'n." 10. There were many boys in the room by whom that little scene was taken to heart before they slept. But sleep seemed to have deserted the pillow of poor Tom. For some time his excitement and the flood of memories which chased one another though his brain, kept him from thinking or resolving. His head throbbed, his heart leapt, and he could hardly keep himself from springing out of bed and rushing about the room. 11. Then the thought of his own mother came across him, and the promise he had made at her knee, years ago, never to forget to kneel by his bedside and give himself up to his Father before he laid his head on the pillow, from which it might never rise; and he lay down gently, and cried as if his heart would break. He was only fourteen years old. DEFINITIONS.--l. Waist'coat, a vest. 2. O-ver-whelmed', over-come, cast down. 3. Nov'el-ty, newness. 4. Ab-lu'tion, the act of washing. 7. Sneered, showed contempt. 8. Bul'ly, a noisy, blustering fellow, more insolent than courageous. Tin'gling, having a thrilling feeling. NOTES.--"Rugby," the scene of this story, is a celebrated grammar school which was established at the town of Rugby, England, in 1567. 9. Sixth-form boy. The school was graded into six classes or "forms," and the boys of the highest, or sixth, form were expected to keep the smaller boys under them in order. EXERCISES.--What were Arthur's feelings the first night at Rugby? Relate what happened when he said his prayers. What do you think of the boy who threw the slipper? Was Tom right in defending Arthur from insult? LXVIII. DARE TO DO RIGHT. (Concluded.) (186) 1. It was no light act of courage in those days for a little fellow to say his prayers publicly, even at Rugby. A few years later, when Arnold's manly piety had begun to leaven the school, the tables turned: before he died, in the Schoolhouse at least, and I believe in the other houses, the rule was the other way. 2. But poor Tom had come to school in other times. The first few nights after he came he did not kneel down because of the noise, but sat up in bed till the candle was out, and then stole out and said his prayers, in fear lest some one should find him out. So did many another poor little fellow. 3. Then he began to think that he might just as well say his prayers in bed, and then that it did not matter whether he was kneeling, or sitting, or lying down. And so it had come to pass with Tom, as with all who will not confess their Lord before men; and for the last year he had probably not said his prayers in earnest a dozen times. 4. Poor Tom! the first and bitterest feeling, which was like to break his heart, was the sense of his own cowardice. The vice of all others which he loathed was brought in and burned in on his own soul. He had lied to his mother, to his conscience, to his God. How could he bear it? And then the poor, little, weak boy, whom he had pitied and almost scorned for his weakness, had done that which he, braggart as he was, dared not do. 5. The first dawn of comfort came to him in vowing to himself that he would stand by that boy through thick and thin, and cheer him, and help him, and bear his burdens, for the good deed done that night. Then he resolved to write home next day and tell his mother all, and what a coward her son had been. And then peace came to him as he resolved, lastly, to bear his testimony next morning. 6. The morning would be harder than the night to begin with, but he felt that he could not afford to let one chance slip. Several times he faltered, for the Devil showed him, first, all his old friends calling him "Saint," and "Squaretoes" and a dozen hard names, and whispered to him that his motives would be misunderstood, and he would be left alone with the new boy; whereas, it was his duty to keep all means of influence, that he might do good to the largest number. 7. And then came the more subtle temptation, "shall I not be showing myself braver than others by doing this? Have I any right to begin it now? Ought I not rather to pray in my own study, letting other boys know that I do so, and trying to lead them to it, while in public, at least, I should go on as I have done?" However, his good angel was too strong that night, and he turned on his side and slept, tired of trying to reason, but resolved to follow the impulse which had been so strong, and in which he had found peace. 8. Next morning he was up and washed and dressed, all but his jacket and waistcoat, just as the ten minutes' bell began to ring, and then in the face of the whole room he knelt down to pray. Not five words could he say,--the bell mocked him; he was listening for every whisper in the room,--what were they all thinking of him? 9. He was ashamed to go on kneeling, ashamed to rise from his knees. At last, as it were from his inmost heart, a still, small voice seemed to breathe forth the words of the publican, "God be merciful to me a sinner!" He repeated them over and over, clinging to them as for his life, and rose from his knees comforted and humbled, and ready to face the whole world. 10. It was not needed: two other boys besides Arthur had already followed his example, and he went down to the great school with a glimmering of another lesson in his heart,--the lesson that he who has conquered his own coward spirit has conquered the whole outward world; and that other one which the old prophet learned in the cave at Mount Horeb, when he hid his face, and the still, small voice asked, "What doest thou here, Elijah?"--that however we may fancy ourselves alone on the side of good, the King and Lord of men is nowhere without his witnesses; for in every society, however seemingly corrupt and godless, there are those who have not bowed the knee to Baal. [Transcriber's Footnote: Baal--Various fertility and nature gods of the ancient Semitic peoples considered to be false gods by the Hebrews.] 11. He found, too, how greatly he had exaggerated the effect to be produced by his act. For a few nights there was a sneer or a laugh when he knelt down, but this passed off soon, and one by one all the other boys but three or four followed the lead. DEFINITIONS.--l. Leav'en, to make a general change, to imbue. 4. Loathed, hated, detested. Brag'gart, a boaster. 5. Vow'ing, making a solemn promise to God. Tes'ti-mo-ny, open declaration. 6. Fal'tered, hesitated. Mo'tive, that which causes action, cause, reason. 7. Sub'tle (pro. sut'l), artful, cunning. Stud'y, a private room devoted to study. 10. Glim'mer-ing, a faint view. NOTES.--1. Arnold's. Dr. Thomas Arnold was head master at Rugby nearly fifteen years. His influence on the character of the boys was very marked, and soon made the school celebrated throughout England. The Schoolhouse was the name of one of the numerous buildings belonging to Rugby. EXERCISES.--Relate Tom's early experience at Rugby. Was it courageous in him to stop saying his prayers? How did he feel over it? What did he resolve to do? Did he carry out his resolve? What two lessons was he taught? LXIX. THE WRECK OF THE HESPERUS. (190) By Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, one of the greatest of American poets. He was born in Portland, Me., in 1807. For some years he held the professorship of Modern Languages in Bowdoin College, and later a similar professorship in Harvard College. He died March 21th, 1882. 1. It was the schooner Hesperus, That sailed the wintry sea; And the skipper had taken his little daughter, To bear him company. 2. Blue were her eyes as the fairy flax, Her checks like the dawn of day, And her bosom white as the hawthorn buds, That ope in the month of May. 3. The skipper, he stood beside the helm, His pipe was in his mouth, And he watched how the veering flaw did blow The smoke now west, now south. 4. Then up and spake an old sailor, Had sailed to the Spanish Main, "I pray thee, put into yonder port, For I fear the hurricane. 5. "Last night, the moon had a golden ring, And to-night no moon we see!" The skipper, he blew a whiff from his pipe, And a scornful laugh laughed he. 6. Colder and louder blew the wind, A gale from the northeast; The snow fell hissing in the brine, And the billows frothed like yeast. 7. Down came the storm, and smote amain The vessel in its strength; She shuddered and paused, like a frighted steed, Then leaped her cable's length. 8. "Come hither! come hither! my little daughter, And do not tremble so; For I can weather the roughest gale That ever wind did blow." 9. He wrapped her warm in his seaman's coat, Against the stinging blast: He cut a rope from a broken spar, And bound her to the mast. 10. "O father! I hear the church bells ring, Oh say, what may it be?" "'Tis a fog bell on a rock-bound coast!" And he steered for the open sea. 11. "O father! I hear the sound of guns, Oh say, what may it be?" "Some ship in distress, that can not live In such an angry sea!" 12. "O father! I see a gleaming light, Oh say, what may it be?" But the father answered never a word, A frozen corpse was he. 13. Lashed to the helm, all stiff and stark, With his face turned to the skies, The lantern gleamed through the gleaming snow On his fixed and glassy eyes. 14. Then the maiden clasped her hands, and prayed That saved she might be; And she thought of Christ, who stilled the wave On the lake of Galilee. 15. And fast through the midnight dark and drear, Through the whistling sleet and snow, Like a sheeted ghost, the vessel swept Tow'rds the reef of Norman's Woe. 16. And ever the fitful gusts between A sound came from the land: It was the sound of the trampling surf On the rocks and the hard sea sand. 17. The breakers were right beneath her bows, She drifted a dreary wreck, And a whooping billow swept the crew Like icicles from her deck. 18. She struck where the white and fleecy waves Looked soft as carded wool, But the cruel rocks, they gored her side Like the horns of an angry bull. 19. Her rattling shrouds, all sheathed in ice, With the masts, went by the board; Like a vessel of glass, she stove and sank, Ho! ho! the breakers roared! 20. At day break, on the bleak seabeach, A fisherman stood aghast, To see the form of a maiden fair Lashed close to a drifting mast. 21. The salt sea was frozen on her breast, The salt tears in her eyes; And he saw her hair, like the brown seaweed, On the billows fall and rise. 22. Such was the wreck of the Hesperus In the midnight and the snow: Heav'n save us all from a death like this On the reef of Norman's Woe! DEFINITIONS.--l. Skip'per, the master of a small merchant ves-sel. 3. Veer'ing, changing. Flaw, a sudden gust of wind. 4. Port, harbor. 6. Brine, the sea. 7. A-main', with sudden force. 8. Weath'er, to endure, to resist. 9. Spar, a long beam. 13. Helm, the instrument by which a ship is steered. 18. Card'ed, cleaned by combing. 19. Shrouds, sets of ropes reaching from the mastheads to the sides of a vessel to support the masts. Stove, broke in. NOTES.--This piece is written in the style of the old English ballads. The syllables marked (') have a peculiar accent not usually allowed. 4. The Spanish Main was the name formerly applied to the northern coast of South America from the Mosquito Territory to the Leeward Islands. 15. The reef of Norman's Woe. A dangerous ledge of rocks on the Massachusetts coast, near Gloucester harbor. 19. Went by the board. A sailor's expression, meaning "fell over the side of the vessel." LXX. ANECDOTES OF BIRDS. (193) 1. I had once a favorite black hen, "a great beauty," as she was called by everyone, and so I thought her; her feathers were so jetty, and her topping so white and full! She knew my voice as well as any dog, and used to run cackling and bustling to my hand to receive the fragments that I never failed to collect from the breakfast table for "Yarico," as she was called. 2. Yarico, by the time she was a year old, hatched a respectable family of chickens; little, cowering, timid things at first, but, in due time, they became fine chubby ones; and old Norah said, "If I could only keep Yarico out of the copse, it would do; but the copse is full of weasels and of foxes. 3. "I have driven her back twenty times; but she watches till some one goes out of the gate, and then she's off again. It is always the case with young hens, Miss; they think they know better than their keepers; and nothing cures them but losing a brood or two of chickens." I have often thought since that young people, as well as young hens, buy their experience equally dear. 4. One morning; after breakfast, I went to seek my favorite in the poultry yard; plenty of hens were there, but no Yarico. The gate was open, and, as I concluded she had sought the forbidden copse, I proceeded there, accompanied by the yard mastiff; a noble fellow, steady and sagacious as a judge. 5. At the end of a lane, flanked on one side by a quickset hedge, on the other by a wild common, what was called the copse commenced; but before I arrived near the spot I heard a loud and tremendous cackling, and met two young, long-legged pullets, running with both wings and feet toward home. Jock pricked up his sharp ears, and would have set off at full gallop to the copse; but I restrained him, hastening onward, however, at the top of my speed, thinking I had as good a right to see what was the matter as Jock. 6. Poor Yarico! An impertinent fox cub had attempted to carry off one of her children; but she had managed to get them behind her in the hedge, and venturing boldly forth had placed herself in front, and positively kept the impudent animal at bay. His desire for plunder had prevented his noticing our approach, and Jock soon made him feel the superiority of an English mastiff over a cub fox. 7. The most interesting portion of my tale is to come. Yarico not only never afterward ventured to the copse, but formed a strong friendship for the dog which had preserved her family. Whenever he appeared in the yard, she would run to meet him, prating and clucking all the time, and impeding his progress by walking between his legs, to his no small annoyance. If any other dog entered the yard, she would fly at him most furiously, thinking, perhaps, that he would injure her chickens; but she evidently considered Jock her especial protector, and treated him accordingly. 8. It was very droll to see the peculiar look with which he regarded his feathered friend; not knowing exactly what to make of her civilities, and doubting how they should be received. When her family were educated, and able to do without her care, she was a frequent visitor at Jock's kennel, and would, if permitted, roost there at night, instead of returning with the rest of the poultry to the henhouse. Yarico certainly was a most grateful and interesting bird. * * 9. One could almost believe a parrot had intellect, when he keeps up a conversation so spiritedly; and it is certainly singular to observe how accurately a well-trained bird will apply his knowledge. A friend of mine knew one that had been taught many sentences; thus, "Sally, Poll wants her breakfast!" "Sally, Poll wants her tea!" but she never mistook the one for the other; breakfast was invariably demanded in the morning, and tea in the afternoon; and she always hailed her master, but no one else, by "How do you do, Mr. A?" 10. She was a most amusing bird, and could whistle dogs, which she had great pleasure in doing. She would drop bread out of her cage as she hung at the street door, and whistle a number about her, and then, just as they were going to possess themselves of her bounty, utter a shrill scream of "Get out, dogs!" with such vehemence and authority as dispersed the assembled company without a morsel, to her infinite delight. * * * 11. How wonderful is that instinct by which the bird of passage performs its annual migration! But how still more wonderful is it when the bird, after its voyage of thousands of miles has been performed, and new lands visited, returns to the precise window or eaves where, the summer before, it first enjoyed existence! And yet, such is unquestionably the fact. 12. Four brothers had watched with indignation the felonious attempts of a sparrow to possess himself of the nest of a house martin, in which lay its young brood of four unfledged birds. 13. The little fellows considered themselves as champions for the bird which had come over land and sea, and chosen its shelter under their mother's roof. They therefore marshaled themselves with blowguns, to execute summary vengeance; but their well-meant endeavors brought destruction upon the mud-built domicile they wished to defend. Their artillery loosened the foundations, and down it came, precipitating its four little inmates to the ground. The mother of the children, Good Samaritan-like, replaced the little outcasts in their nest, and set it in the open window of an unoccupied chamber. 14. The parent birds, after the first terror was over, did not appear disconcerted by the change of situation, but hourly fed their young as usual, and testified, by their unwearied twitter of pleasure, the satisfaction and confidence they felt. There the young birds were duly fledged, and from that window they began their flight, and entered upon life. 15. The next spring, with the reappearance of the martins, came four, which familiarly flew into the chamber, visited all the walls, and expressed their recognition by the most clamorous twitterings of joy. They were, without question, the very birds that had been bred there the preceding year. DEFINITIONS.--2. Copse, a grove of small trees or bushes. 4. Sa-ga'cious, quick in discernment. 6. Im-per'ti-nent, rude, intru-sive. 8. Ken'nel, a place for dogs. 10. Ve'he-mence, force. 11. Mi-gra'tion, change of place, removal. 12. Fe-lo'ni-ous, criminal. 13. Dom'i-cile, the home or residence of anyone. Ar-til'er-y, weapons of warfare. 14. Dis-con-cert'ed, interrupted, confused. 15. Rec-og-ni'tion, recollection of a former acquaintance. LXXI. THE RAINBOW PILGRIMAGE. (197) By Sara J. Lippincott, born at Onondaga, N. Y., in 1823, of New England parentage. Under the name of "Grace Greenwood" she has written many charming stories for children. Some of her best sketches are in "Records of Five Years." 1. One summer afternoon, when I was about eight years of age, I was standing at an eastern window, looking at a beautiful rainbow that, bending from the sky, seemed to be losing itself in a thick, swampy wood about a quarter of a mile distant. 2. It happened that no one was in the room with me then but my brother Rufus, who was just recovering from a severe illness, and was sitting, propped up with pillows, in an easy-chair, looking out, with me, at the rainbow. 3. "See, brother," I said, "it drops right down among the cedars, where we go in the spring to find wintergreens!" 4. "Do you know, Gracie," said my brother, with a very serious face, "that if you should go to the end of the rain how, you would find there purses filled with money, and great pots of gold and silver?" 5. "Is it truly so?" I asked. 6. "Truly so," answered my brother, with a smile. Now, I was a simple-hearted child who believed everything that was told me, although I was again and again imposed upon; so, without another word, I darted out of the door, and set forth toward the wood. My brother called after me as loudly as he was able, but I did not heed him. 7. I cared nothing for the wet grass, which was sadly drabbling my clean frock,--on and on I ran: I was so sure that I knew just where that rainbow ended. I remember how glad and proud I was in my thoughts, and what fine presents I promised to all my friends out of my great riches. 8. So thinking, and laying delightful plans, almost before I knew it I had reached the cedar grove, and the end of the rainbow was not there! But I saw it shining down among the trees a little farther off; so on and on I struggled, through the thick bushes and over logs, till I came within the sound of a stream which ran through the swamp. Then I thought, "What if the rainbow should come down right in the middle of that deep, muddy brook!" 9. Ah! but I was frightened for my heavy pots of gold and silver, and my purses of money. How should I ever find them there? and what a time I should have getting them out! I reached the bank of the stream, and "the end was not yet." But I could see it a little way off on the other side. I crossed the creek on a fallen tree, and still ran on, though my limbs seemed to give way, and my side ached with fatigue. 10. The woods grew thicker and darker, the ground more wet and swampy, and I found, as many grown people had found before me, that there was rather hard traveling in a journey after, riches. Suddenly I met in my way a large porcupine, who made himself still larger when he saw me, as a cross cat raises its back and makes tails at a dog. Fearing that he would shoot his sharp quills at me, I ran from him as fast as my tired feet would carry me. 11. In my fright and hurry I forgot to keep my eye on the rainbow, as I had done before; and when, at last, I remembered and looked for it, it was nowhere in sight! It had quite faded away. When I saw that it was indeed gone, I burst into tears; for I had lost all my treasures, and had nothing to show for my pilgrimage but muddy feet and a wet and torn frock. So I set out for home. 12. But I soon found that my troubles had only begun; I could not find my way: I was lost! I could not tell which was east or west, north or south, but wandered about here and there, crying and calling, though I knew that no one could hear me. 13. All at once I heard voices shouting and hallooing; but, instead of being rejoiced at this, I was frightened, fearing that the Indians were upon me! I crawled under some bushes, by the side of a large log, and lay perfectly still. I was wet, cold, scared, altogether very miserable indeed; yet, when the voices came near, I did not start up and show myself. 14. At last I heard my own name called; but I remembered that Indians were very cunning, and thought they might have found it out some way, so I did not answer. Then came a voice near me, that sounded like that of my eldest brother, who lived away from home, and whom I had not seen for many months; but I dared not believe that the voice was his. 15. Soon some one sprang up on the log by which I lay, and stood there calling. I could not see his face; I could only see the tips of his toes, but by them I saw that he wore a nice pair of boots, and not moccasins. Yet I remembered that some Indians dressed like white folks; so I still kept quiet, till I heard shouted over me a pet name, which this brother had given me. It was the funniest name in the world. 16. I knew that no Indian knew of the name, as it was a little family secret; so I sprang up, and caught my brother about the ankles. I hardly think that an Indian could have given a louder yell than he gave then; and he jumped so that he fell off the log down by my side. But nobody was hurt; and, after kissing me till he had kissed away all my tears, he hoisted me on to his shoulder, called my other brothers, who were hunting in different directions, and we all set out for home. 17. I had been gone nearly three hours, and had wandered a number of miles. My brother Joseph's coming and asking for me, had first set them to inquiring and searching me out. When I went into the room where my brother Rufus sat, he said, "Why, my poor little sister! I did not mean to send you off on such a wild-goose chase to the end of the rainbow. I thought you would know I was only quizzing you." 18. Then my eldest brother took me on his knee, and told me what the rainbow really is: that it is only painted air, and does not rest on the earth, so nobody could ever find the end; and that God has set it in the cloud to remind him and us of his promise never again to drown the world with a flood. "Oh, I think God's Promise would be a beautiful name for the rainbow!" I said. 19. "Yes," replied my mother, "but it tells us something more than that he will not send great floods upon the earth,--it tells us of his beautiful love always bending over us from the skies. And I trust that when my little girl sets forth on a pilgrimage to find God's love, she will be led by the rainbow of his promise through all the dark places of this world to 'treasures laid up in heaven,' better, far better, than silver or gold." DEFINITIONS.--2. Re-cov'er-ing, growing well. 3. Win'ter--green, a creeping evergreen plant with bright red berries. 6. Im--posed', (used with on or upon), deceived, misled. 7. Drab'-bling, making dirty by drawing in mud and water. 10. Por'cu--pine, a small quadruped whose body is covered with sharp quills. 11. Pil'grim-age, journey. 15. Moc'ca-sins, shoes of deerskin without soles, such as are usually worn by Indians. 17. Quiz'zing, making sport of. LXXII. THE OLD OAKEN BUCKET. (202) By Samuel Woodworth, who was born in Massachusetts in 1785. He was both author and editor. This is his best known poem. He died in 1842. 1. How dear to this heart are the scenes of my childhood, When fond recollection presents them to view! The orchard, the meadow, the deep tangled wildwood, And every loved spot which my infancy knew; The wide-spreading pond, and the mill that stood by it: The bridge and the rock where the cataract fell: The cot of my father, the dairy house nigh it, And e'en the rude bucket which hung in the well: The old oaken bucket, the ironbound bucket, The moss-covered bucket which hung in the well. 2. That moss-covered vessel I hail as a treasure; For often, at noon, when returned from the field, I found it the source of an exquisite pleasure, The purest and sweetest that nature can yield. How ardent I seized it, with hands that were glowing, And quick to the white-pebble bottom it fell; Then soon, with the emblem of truth overflowing, And dripping with coolness, it rose from the well: The old oaken bucket, the ironbound bucket, The moss-covered bucket arose from the well. 3. How sweet from the green mossy brim to receive it, As poised on the curb, it inclined to my lips! Not a full blushing goblet could tempt me to leave it, Though filled with the nectar which Jupiter sips; And now, far removed from thy loved situation, The tear of regret will intrusively swell, As fancy reverts to my father's plantation, And sighs for the bucket which hangs in the well: The old oaken bucket, the ironbound bucket, The moss-covered bucket, which hangs in the well. DEFINITIONS.--l. Cat'a-ract, a great fall of water. 2. O-ver--flow'ing, running over. Ex'qui-site, exceeding, extreme. 3. Poised', balanced. Goblet, a kind of cup or drinking vessel. Nec'tar, the drink of the gods. In-tru'sive-ly, without right or welcome. Re-verts', returns. EXERCISES.--Who was the author of "The Old Oaken Bucket"? What is said of this piece? What does the poem describe? and what feeling does it express? LXXIII. THE SERMON ON THE MOUNT. (204) 1. And seeing the multitudes, he went up into a mountain: and when he was set, his disciples came unto him; and he opened his mouth and taught them, saying, 2. Blessed are the poor in spirit; for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. Blessed are they that mourn; for they shall be comforted. Blessed are the meek; for they shall inherit the earth. 3. Blessed are they which do hunger and thirst after righteousness; for they shall be filled. Blessed are the merciful; for they shall obtain mercy. Blessed are the pure in heart; for they shall see God. 4. Blessed are the peacemakers; for they shall be called the children of God. Blessed are they which are persecuted for righteousness' sake; for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. 5. Blessed are ye when men shall revile you, and persecute you, and shall say all manner of evil against you falsely, for my sake. Rejoice and be exceeding glad; for great is your reward in heaven. * * * 6. Ye have heard that it hath been said by them of old time, Thou shalt not forswear thyself, but shalt perform unto the Lord thine oaths: but I say unto you, Swear not at all; neither by heaven; for it is God's throne: nor by the earth; for it is his footstool: neither by Jerusalem; for it is the city of the great King. 7. Neither shalt thou swear by thy head, because thou canst not make one hair white or black. But let your communication be, Yea, yea; Nay, nay: for whatsoever is more than these cometh of evil. 8. Ye have heard that it hath been said, An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth: but I say unto you, That ye resist not evil; but whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other also. And if any man will sue thee at the law, and take away thy coat, let him have thy cloak also. And whosoever shall compel thee to go a mile, go with him twain. Give to him that asketh thee, and from him that would borrow of thee turn not thou away. 9. Ye have heard that it hath been said, Thou shalt love thy neighbor and hate thine enemy: but I say unto you, Love your enemies; bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate you, and pray for them which despitefully use you and persecute you; that ye may be the children of your Father which is in heaven: for he maketh his sun to rise on the evil and on the good, and sendeth rain on the just and on the unjust. 10. For if ye love them which love you, what reward have ye? do not even the publicans the same? And if ye salute your brethren only, what do ye more than others? do not even the publicans so? Be ye, therefore, perfect, even as your Father which is in heaven is perfect. * * * 11. Judge not, that ye be not judged. For with what judgment ye judge, ye shall be judged: and with what measure ye mete, it shall be measured to you again. And why beholdest thou the mote that is in thy brother's eye, but considerest not the beam that is in thine own eye? 12. Or how wilt thou say to thy brother, Let me pull out the mote out of thine eye; and, behold, a beam is in thine own eye? Thou hypocrite, first cast out the beam out of thine own eye; and then shalt thou see clearly to cast out the mote out of thy brother's eye. * * * 13. Ask, and it shall be given you; seek, and ye shall find; knock, and it shall be opened unto you: for everyone that asketh, receiveth; and he that seeketh, findeth; and to him that knocketh, it shall be opened. Or what man is there of you, whom if his son ask bread, will he give him a stone? Or if he ask a fish, will he give him a serpent? 14. If ye then, being evil, know how to give good gifts unto your children, how much more shall your Father which is in heaven give good things to them that ask him? Therefore all things whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them; for this is the law and the prophets. * * * 15. Whosoever heareth these sayings of mine, and doeth them, I will liken him unto a wise man, which built his house upon a rock: and the rain descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew, and beat upon that house; and it fell not; for it was founded upon a rock. 16. And everyone that heareth these sayings of mine, and doeth them not, shall be likened unto a foolish man, which built his house upon the sand: and the rain descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew, and beat upon that house; and it fell: and great was the fall of it. 17. And it came to pass, when Jesus had ended these sayings, the people were astonished at his doctrine: for he taught them as one having authority, and not as the scribes. DEFINITIONS.--l. Dis-ci'ple, one who receives instruction from another. 2. Bless'ed, happy. In-her'it, to come into possession of. 5. Re-vile', to speak against without cause. Per'se-cute, to punish on account of religion. 6. For-swear', to swear falsely. 9. De-spite'ful-ly, maliciously, cruelly. 10. Pub'li-cans, tax collectors (they were often oppressive and were hated by the Jews). 11. Mete, to measure. Mote, a small particle. 12. Hyp'o-crite, a false pretender. 17. Scribes, men among the Jews who read and explained the law to the people. EXERCISES.--Who delivered this sermon? Who are blessed? and why? Is it right to swear? How should we treat our enemies? Should we judge others harshly? What does Jesus say of him who finds faults in his neighbor, but does not see his own? What is said about prayer? About our conduct to others? LXXIV. THE YOUNG WITNESS. (207) By S. H. HAMMOND. 1. A little girl nine years of age was brought into court, and offered as a witness against a prisoner who was on trial for a crime committed in her father's house. 2. "Now, Emily," said the counsel for the prisoner, "I wish to know if you understand the nature of an oath?" 3. "I don't know what you mean," was the simple answer. 4. "Your Honor," said the counsel, addressing the judge, "it is evident that this witness should be rejected. She does not understand the nature of an oath." 5. "Let us see," said the judge. "Come here, my daughter." 6. Assured by the kind tone and manner of the judge, the child stepped toward him, and looked confidingly in his face, with a calm, clear eye, and in a manner so artless and frank that it went straight to the heart. 7. "Did you ever take an oath?" inquired the judge. 8. The little girl stepped back with a look of horror; and the red blood rose and spread in a blush all over her face and neck, as she answered, "No, sir." She thought he intended to ask if she had ever used profane language. 9. "I do not mean that," said the judge, who saw her mistake; "I mean were you ever a witness?" 10. "No, sir; I never was in court before," was the answer. 11. He handed her the Bible open. "Do you know that book, my daughter?" 12. She looked at it and answered, "Yes, sir; it is the Bible." 13. "Do you ever read in it?" he asked. 14. "Yes, sir; every evening." 15. "Can you tell me what the Bible is?" inquired the judge. 16. "It is the word of the great God," she answered. 17. "Well," said the judge, "place your hand upon this Bible, and listen to what I say;" and he repeated slowly and solemnly the following oath: "Do you swear that in the evidence which you shall give in this case, you will tell the truth, and nothing but the truth; and that you will ask God to help you?" 18. "I do," she replied. 19. "Now," said the judge, "you have been sworn as a witness; will you tell me what will befall you if you do not tell the truth?" 20. "I shall be shut up in the state prison," answered the child. 21. "Anything else?" asked the judge. 22. "I shall never go to heaven," she replied. 23. "How do you know this?" asked the judge again. 24. The child took the Bible, turned rapidly to the chapter containing the commandments, and, pointing to the one which reads, "Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor," said, "I learned that before I could read." 25. "Has anyone talked with you about being a witness in court here against this man?" inquired the judge. 26. "Yes, sir," she replied, "my mother heard they wanted me to be a witness; and last night she called me to her room, and asked me to tell her the Ten Commandments; and then we kneeled down together, and she prayed that I might understand how wicked it was to bear false witness against my neighbor, and that God would help me, a little child, to tell the truth as it was before him. 27. "And when I came up here with father, she kissed me, and told me to remember the Ninth Commandment, and that God would hear every word that I said." 28. "Do you believe this?" asked the judge, while a tear glistened in his eye, and his lip quivered with emotion. 29. "Yes, sir," said the child, with a voice and manner which showed that her conviction of the truth was perfect. 30. "God bless you, my child," said the judge, "you have a good mother. The witness is competent," he continued. "Were I on trial for my life, and innocent of the charge against me, I would pray God for such a witness as this. Let her be examined." 31. She told her story with the simplicity of a child, as she was; but her voice and manner carried conviction of her truthfulness to every heart. 32. The lawyers asked her many perplexing questions, but she did not vary in the least from her first statement. 33. The truth, as spoken by a little child, was sublime. Falsehood and perjury had preceded her testimony; but before her testimony, falsehood was scattered like chaff. 34. The little child, for whom a mother had prayed for strength to be given her to speak the truth as it was before God, broke the cunning device of matured villainy to pieces, like a potter's vessel. The strength that her mother prayed for was given her; and the sublime and terrible simplicity,--terrible to the prisoner and his associates,--was like a revelation from God himself. DEFINITIONS.--l. Wit'ness, one who gives testimony. Com--mit'ted, done, performed. 2. Coun'sel, a lawyer. 4. Re-ject'ed, refused. 6. As-sured', made bold. Con-fid'ing-ly, with trust. 8. Pro-fane', irreverent, taking the name of God in vain. 33. Per'ju-ry, the act of willfully making a false oath. Chaff, the light dry husk of grains or grasses. 34. Ma-tured', perfected, fully developed. Pot'ter, one whose occupation is to make earthen vessels. Rev--e-la'tion, the act of disclosing or showing what was before unknown. EXERCISES.--What is this story about? Why did the counsel wish to have Emily refused as a witness? Was she a fit person to be a witness? How was this shown? Which commandment forbids us to bear false witness? What was the result of Emily's testimony? LXXV. KING SOLOMON AND THE ANTS. (211) By John Greenleaf Whittier, born near Haverhill, Mass., In 1807, and died at Hampton Falls, N. H., In 1892. Until he was eighteen years old he worked on the farm, and during that time learned the trade at a shoemaker. He afterwards became an editor and one of the first poets of America. 1. Out from Jerusalem The king rode with his great War chiefs and lords of state, And Sheba's queen with them. 2. Proud in the Syrian sun, In gold and purple sheen, The dusky Ethiop queen Smiled on King Solomon. 3. Wisest of men, he knew The languages of all The creatures great or small That trod the earth or flew. 4. Across an ant-hill led The king's path, and he heard Its small folk, and their word He thus interpreted: 5. "Here comes the king men greet As wise and good and just, To crush us in the dust Under his heedless feet." 6. The great king bowed his head, And saw the wide surprise Of the Queen of Sheba's eyes As he told her what they said. 7. "O king!" she whispered sweet, "Too happy fate have they Who perish in thy way Beneath thy gracious feet! 8. "Thou of the God-lent crown, Shall these vile creatures dare Murmur against thee where The knees of kings kneel down?" 9. "Nay," Solomon replied, "The wise and strong should seek The welfare of the weak;" And turned his horse aside. 10. His train, with quick alarm, Curved with their leader round The ant-hill's peopled mound, And left it free from harm. 11. The jeweled head bent low; "O king!" she said, "henceforth The secret of thy worth And wisdom well I know. 12. "Happy must be the State Whose ruler heedeth more The murmurs of the poor Than flatteries of the great." DEFINITIONS.--4. In-ter'pret-ed, explained the meaning of. 5. Greet, Address, salute. 9. Wel'fare, happiness. 10. Train, a body of followers. 12. Flat'ter-ies, praises for the purpose of gratifying vanity or gaining favor. LXXVI. RIVERMOUTH THEATER. (213) From "The Story of a Bad Boy," by Thomas Bailey Aldrich. The author was born at Portsmouth, N. H., in 1836. When quite young his family moved to Louisiana, but he was sent back to New England to be educated, and later he located at New York. He is a well-known writer of both prose and poetry. 1. "Now, boys, what shall we do?" I asked, addressing a thoughtful conclave of seven, assembled in our barn one dismal, rainy afternoon. "Let's have a theater," suggested Binny Wallace. 2. The very thing! But where? The loft of the stable was ready to burst with hay provided for Gypsy, but the long room over the carriage house was unoccupied. The place of all places! My managerial eye saw at a glance its capabilities for a theater. 3. I had been to the play a great many times in New Orleans, and was wise in matters pertaining to the drama. So here, in due time, was set up some extraordinary scenery of my own painting. The curtain, I recollect, though it worked smoothly enough on other occasions, invariably hitched during the performances. 4. The theater, however, was a success, as far as it went. I retired from the business with no fewer than fifteen hundred pins, after deducting the headless, the pointless, and the crooked pins with which our doorkeeper frequently got "stuck." From first to last we took in a great deal of this counterfeit money. The price of admission to the "Rivermouth Theater" was twenty pins. I played all the principal characters myself--not that I was a finer actor than the other boys, but because I owned the establishment. 5. At the tenth representation, my dramatic career was brought to a close by an unfortunate circumstance. We were playing the drama of "William Tell, the Hero of Switzerland." Of course I was William Tell, in spite of Fred Langdon, who wanted to act that character himself. I wouldn't let him, so he withdrew from the company, taking the only bow and arrow we had. 6. I made a crossbow out of a piece of whalebone, and did very well without him. We had reached that exciting scene where Gesler, the Austrian tyrant, commands Tell to shoot the apple from his son's head. Pepper Whitcomb, who played all the juvenile and women parts, was my son. 7. To guard against mischance, a piece of pasteboard was fastened by a handkerchief over the upper portion of Whitcomb's face, while the arrow to be used was sewed up in a strip of flannel. I was a capital marksman, and the big apple, only two yards distant, turned its russet cheek fairly towards me. 8. I can see poor little Pepper now, as he stood without flinching, waiting for me to perform my great feat. I raised the crossbow amid the breathless silence of the crowded audience--consisting of seven boys and three girls, exclusive of Kitty Collins, who insisted on paying her way in with a clothespin. I raised the crossbow, I repeat. Twang! went the whipcord; but, alas! instead of hitting the apple, the arrow flew right into Pepper Whitcomb's mouth, which happened to be open at the time, and destroyed my aim. 9. I shall never be able to banish that awful moment from my memory. Pepper's roar, expressive of astonishment, indignation, and pain, is still ringing in my ears. I looked upon him as a corpse, and, glancing not far into the dreary future, pictured myself led forth to execution in the presence of the very same spectators then assembled. 10. Luckily, poor Pepper was not seriously hurt; but Grandfather Nutter, appearing in the midst of the confusion (attracted by the howls of young Tell), issued an injunction against all theatricals thereafter, and the place was closed; not, however, without a farewell speech from me, in which I said that this would have been the proudest moment of my life if I hadn't hit Pepper Whitcomb in the mouth. Whereupon the audience (assisted, I am glad to state, by Pepper) cried, "Hear! hear!" 11. I then attributed the accident to Pepper himself, whose mouth, being open at the instant I fired, acted upon the arrow much after the fashion of a whirlpool, and drew in the fatal shaft. I was about to explain how a comparatively small maelstrom could suck in the largest ship, when the curtain fell of its own accord, amid the shouts of the audience. 12. This was my last appearance on any stage. It was some time, though, before I heard the end of the William Tell business. Malicious little boys who hadn't been allowed to buy tickets to my theater used to cry out after me in the street,-"'Who killed Cock Robin?'" DEFINITIONS.--l. Con'clave, a private meeting. 2. Man-a-ge'ri-al, of or pertaining to a manager. 4. De-duct'ing, taking away, subtracting. 5. Ca-reer', course of action. 8. Au'di-ence, an assembly of hearers. 9. Ex-e-cu'tion, a putting to death by law. 10. In-junc'tion, a command. 11. At-trib'ut-ed, assigned, charged. Mael'strom (pro, mal'strum), a whirlpool. NOTE.--The Revised Fifth Reader of this Series contains the portion of "William Tell" probably alluded to. See McGuffey's Fifth Reader, pp. 207-216. LXXVII. ALFRED THE GREAT. (217) 1. More than a thousand years ago, (in the year 849), a prince was born in England, who afterwards became one of the most celebrated and best loved kings in the world. His name was Alfred--afterwards called Alfred the Great--and he was the favorite son both of the king and queen. 2. In those days the common people were very ignorant; few of them could even read and write. There were no schools, and the monasteries, where almost the only teaching had been done, were nearly all destroyed in the wars which were continually going on. Only the higher classes had any chance to study, and even they paid much more attention to fighting than to studying. 3. But Alfred was different from most persons of his time. Even when a little boy, he delighted in listening to poems and to the ballads which harpers used to sing, and he learned many of them by heart. When he was twelve years old, his mother, the queen, offered to give a volume of poems to that one of her four sons who would first learn to read it. Alfred was the youngest of them all, yet he easily won the prize of which his brothers thought so little. 4. But, as has been said, these were stirring times, and Alfred was soon called on to show his great abilities as a soldier. The Danes, a warlike people, were continually swooping down in their vessels upon the coast of England. Often they spread over the entire country, plundering and burning the towns, and killing the people. 5. In the midst of these invasions Alfred became king, when he was only twenty-two years old. He proved as good a warrior as he was a student. He thought that whatever is worth doing at all is worth doing well. He was generally successful against the Danes, but at one time they seemed to have the country entirely in their power, and Alfred was compelled to hide for his life. 6. For some time he dressed as a peasant, and lived in the cottage of a cowherd, who was so careful of his king's safety that he did not even tell his wife who he was. So she treated the king as a common peasant, and one day gave him a sharp scolding because he allowed some cakes to burn on the griddle, after she had left him to watch them. She told him he was clever enough at eating cakes though he managed so badly at baking them. 7. When the search for him grew less active, Alfred gradually collected some of his followers, with whom he encamped on a small spot of firm ground in the center of a bog. It was surrounded by almost impassable forests, and Alfred fortified the place so that it could not well be taken. Then he made frequent sudden and successful attacks on the enemy until his troops and the people became encouraged. 8. One victory in particular, when they captured a banner which the Danes thought enchanted, led Alfred to take bolder steps. He wished to find out the exact condition of the enemy, and, for this purpose, disguised himself as a harper and entered their camp. He was so successful in his disguise that he remained there some days, even being admitted to the tent of the Danish leader Guthrum. 9. He found their entire army living in careless security, and so he determined to make a sudden and bold attack on them, to try and rid his country once more of these cruel invaders. He summoned his people about him from far and wide. Many of them had long thought their beloved king dead, but now all eagerly obeyed his call. 10. He at once led them against that part of the camp which he had seen to be most unguarded. The attack was entirely unexpected; and, although the Danes were greater in numbers, they were defeated with great slaughter. Some of them, with their leader, fled to a fortified place, but were soon obliged to surrender. 11. Alfred granted them their lives, and settled them in a part of his kingdom where nearly all his own people had been destroyed. He hoped by this to change obstinate enemies into useful friends who would protect England from further attacks of their own countrymen. However, some years later, when the Danes made another invasion, these people joined them in fighting against Alfred, but he soon succeeded in driving them all out of the country. 12. Much as Alfred did for his people in war, he did more in time of peace. Above all else he gave careful attention to their education. He rebuilt the monasteries and aided the young University of Oxford. He also founded many schools, to which every owner of a certain portion of land was compelled to send his children. 13. But he did as much good by the example that he set as by these acts. His time was divided into three parts. One was given to business, one to refreshment by sleep and food, and the third to study and devotion. Clocks and watches, and probably even sundials, were then unknown, so these divisions were marked by burning candles of equal lengths. 14. Alfred did not study for his own pleasure merely, but translated and wrote many works for the good of his people, using the simple language which they could easily understand and enjoy. His person was handsome and dignified, full of grace and activity. But the more noble beauty was within, in the enlightened mind and virtuous heart of the king. After his name, which has its place on an ancient record of English kings, is written the noble title of "Truth Teller." DEFINITIONS.--2. Mon'as-ter-y, a religious house where monks live. 5. In-va'sion, the warlike entrance of an army. 8. Dis-guised', hidden by an unusual dress and appearance. 12. U-ni--ver'si-ty, a school of the highest grade, in which are taught all branches of learning. 14. Trans-lat'ed, changed from one language to another. En-light'ened, well informed. LXXVII. LIVING ON A FARM. (220) 1. How brightly through the mist of years, My quiet country home appears! My father busy all the day In plowing corn or raking hay; My mother moving with delight Among the milk pans, silver-bright; We children, just from school set free, Filling the garden with our glee. The blood of life was flowing warm When I was living on a farm. 2. I hear the sweet churchgoing bell, As o'er the fields its music fell, I see the country neighbors round Gathering beneath the pleasant sound; They stop awhile beside the door, To talk their homely matters o'er The springing corn, the ripening grain, And "how we need a little rain;" "A little sun would do no harm, We want good weather for the farm." 3. When autumn came, what joy to see The gathering of the husking bee, To hear the voices keeping tune, Of girls and boys beneath the moon, To mark the golden corn ears bright, More golden in the yellow light! Since I have learned the ways of men, I often turn to these again, And feel life wore its highest charm. When I was living on the farm. LXXIX. HUGH IDLE AND MR. TOIL. (221) Adapted from the story of "Little Daffydowndilly," by Nathaniel Hawthorne. The author was born at Salem, Mass., in 1804, and ranks among the first of American novelists. He died in 1864. 1. Hugh Idle loved to do only what was agreeable, and took no delight in labor of any kind. But while Hugh was yet a little boy, he was sent away from home, and put under the care of a very strict schoolmaster, who went by the name of Mr. Toil. 2. Those who knew him best, affirmed that Mr. Toil was a very worthy character, and that he had done more good, both to children and grown people, than anybody else in the world. He had, however, a severe and ugly countenance; his voice was harsh; and all his ways and customs were disagreeable to our young friend, Hugh Idle. 3. The whole day long this terrible old schoolmaster sulked about among his scholars, with a big cane in his hand; and unless a lad chose to attend constantly and quietly to his book, he had no chance of enjoying a single quiet moment. "This will never do for me," thought Hugh; "I'll run off, and try to find my way home." 4. So the very next morning off he started, with only some bread and cheese for his breakfast, and very little pocket money to pay his expenses. He had gone but a short distance, when he overtook a man of grave and sedate appearance trudging at a moderate pace along the road. 5. "Good morning, my fine lad!" said the stranger; and his voice seemed hard and severe, yet had a sort of kindness in it; "whence do you come so early, and whither are you going?" 6. Now Hugh was a boy of very frank disposition, and had never been known to tell a lie in all his life. Nor did he tell one now, but confessed that he had run away from school on account of his great dislike to Mr. Toil. "Oh, very well, my little friend!" answered the stranger; "then we will go together; for I likewise have had a good deal to do with Mr. Toil, and should be glad to find some place where he was never heard of." So they walked on very sociably side by side. 7. By and by their road led them past a field, where some haymakers were at work. Hugh could not help thinking how much pleasanter it must be to make hay in the sunshine, under the blue sky, than to learn lessons all day long, shut up in a dismal schoolroom, continually watched by Mr. Toil. 8. But in the midst of these thoughts, while he was stopping to peep over the stone wall, he started back and caught hold of his companion's hand. "Quick, quick!" cried he; "let us run away, or he will catch us!" 9. "Who will catch us?" asked the stranger. 10. "Mr. Toil, the old schoolmaster," answered Hugh; "don't you see him among the haymakers?" and Hugh pointed to an elderly man, who seemed to be the owner of the field. 11. He was busily at work in his shirt sleeves. The drops of sweat stood upon his brow; and he kept constantly crying out to his work people to make hay while the sun shone. Strange to say, the features of the old farmer were precisely the same as those of Mr. Toil, who at that very moment must have been just entering the schoolroom. 12. "Don't be afraid," said the stranger; "this is not Mr. Toil, the schoolmaster, but a brother of his, who was bred a farmer. He won't trouble you, unless you become a laborer on his farm." 13. Hugh believed what his companion said, but was glad when they were out of sight of the old farmer who bore such a singular resemblance to Mr. Toil. The two travelers came to a spot where some carpenters were building a house. Hugh begged his companion to stop awhile, for it was a pretty sight to see how neatly the carpenters did their work with their saws, planes, and hammers; and he was beginning to think he too should like to use the saw, and the plane, and the hammer, and be a carpenter himself. But suddenly he caught sight of something that made him seize his friend's hand, in a great fright. 14. "Make haste! quick, quick!" cried he; "there's old Mr. Toil again." The stranger cast his eyes where Hugh pointed his finger, and saw an elderly man, who seemed to be overseeing the carpenters, as he went to and fro about the unfinished house, marking out the work to be done, and urging the men to be diligent; and wherever he turned his hard and wrinkled visage, they sawed and hammered as if for dear life. 15. "Oh, no! this is not Mr. Toil, the schoolmaster," said the stranger; "it is another brother of his who follows the trade of carpenter." 16. "I am very glad to hear it," quoth Hugh; "but if you please, sir, I should like to get out of his way as soon as possible." DEFINITIONS.--1. A-gree'a-ble, pleasing. 2. Af-firmed', declared. 4. Ex-pens'es, costs. Se-date', calm. Mod'er-ate, neither fast nor slow, Dis-po-si'tion, natural state of mind. Con-fessed', ac-knowledged. So'cia-bly, in a friendly way. 11. Fea'tures, the distinctive marks of the face. 13. Re-sem'blance, likeness. 14. Dil'i-gent, industrious. Vis'age, the face. 16. Quoth, said. LXXX. HUGH IDLE AND MR. TOIL. (Concluded.) (224) 1. Now Hugh and the stranger had not gone much further, when they met a company of soldiers, gayly dressed, with feathers in their caps, and glittering muskets on their shoulders. In front marched the drummers and fifers, making such merry music that Hugh would gladly have followed them to the end of the world. If he were only a soldier, he said to himself, old Mr. Toil would never venture to look him in the face. 2. "Quickstep! forward! march!" shouted a gruff voice. 3. Little Hugh started in great dismay; for this voice sounded precisely like that which he had heard every day in Mr. Toil's schoolroom. And turning his eyes to the captain of the company, what should he see but the very image of old Mr. Toil himself, in an officer's dress, to be sure, but looking as ugly and disagreeable as ever. 4. "This is certainly old Mr. Toil," said Hugh, in a trembling voice. "Let us away, for fear he should make us enlist in his company." 5. "You are mistaken again, my little friend," replied the stranger very composedly. "This is only a brother of Mr. Toil's, who has served in the army all his life. You and I need not be afraid of him." 6. "Well, well," said Hugh, "if you please, sir, I don't want to see the soldiers any more." So the child and the stranger resumed their journey; and, after awhile, they came to a house by the roadside, where a number of young men and rosy-cheeked girls, with smiles on their faces, were dancing to the sound of a fiddle. 7. "Oh, let us stop here," cried Hugh; "Mr. Toil will never dare to show his face where there is a fiddler, and where people are dancing and making merry." 8. But the words had scarcely died away on the little boy's tongue, when, happening to cast his eyes on the fiddler, whom should he behold again but the likeness of Mr. Toil, armed with a fiddle bow this time, and flourishing it with as much ease and dexterity as if he had been a fiddler all his life. 9. "Oh, dear me!" whispered he, turning pale; "it seems as if there were nobody but Mr. Toil in the world." 10. "This is not your old schoolmaster," observed the stranger, "but another brother of his, who has learned to be a fiddler. He is ashamed of his family, and generally calls himself Master Pleasure; but his real name is Toil, and those who know him best think him still more disagreeable than his brothers." 11. "Pray, let us go on," said Hugh. 12. Well, thus the two went wandering along the highway and in shady lanes and through pleasant villages, and wherever they went, behold! there was the image of old Mr. Toil. If they entered a house, he sat in the parlor; if they peeped into the kitchen, he was there! He made himself at home in every cottage, and stole, under one disguise or another, into the most splendid mansions. Everywhere they stumbled on some of the old schoolmaster's innumerable brothers. 13. At length, little Hugh found himself completely worn out with running away from Mr. Toil. "Take me back! take me back!" cried the poor fellow, bursting into tears. "If there is nothing but Toil all the world over, I may just as well go back to the schoolhouse." 14. "Yonder it is; there is the schoolhouse!" said the stranger; for though he and little Hugh had taken a great many steps, they had traveled in a circle instead of a straight line. "Come, we will go back to the school together." 15. There was something in his companion's voice that little Hugh now remembered; and it is strange that he had not remembered it sooner. Looking up into his face, behold! there again was the likeness of old Mr. Toil, so that the poor child had been in company with Toil all day, even while he had been doing his best to run away from him. 16. Little Hugh Idle, however, had learned a good lesson, and from that time forward was diligent at his task, because he now knew that diligence is not a whit more toilsome than sport or idleness. And when he became better acquainted with Mr. Toil, he began to think his ways were not so disagreeable, and that the old schoolmaster's smile of approbation made his face sometimes appear almost as pleasant as even that of Hugh's mother. DEFINITIONS.--l. Ven'ture, to dare, to risk. 3. Dis-may', fright, terror. Pre-cise'ly, exactly. 4. En-list', to put one's name on a roll, to join. 5. Com-pos'ed-ly, calmly, quietly. 6. Re--sumed', recommenced. 10. Ob-served', remarked. 12. In-nu'mer--a-ble, not to be counted. 16. Ap-pro-ba'tion, the act of regarding with pleasure. EXERCISES.--To whose school was Hugh Idle sent? Why did he run away? Relate the adventures of Hugh and the stranger. What lesson is taught by this story? LXXXI. BURNING THE FALLOW. (227) Adapted from "Roughing it in the Bush," a story by Mrs. Susanna Moodie (sister of Agnes Strickland), who was born in Suffolk, England, in 1803. She died in 1885. 1. The day was sultry, and towards noon a strong wind sprang up that roared in the pine tops like the dashing of distant billows, but without in the least degree abating the heat. The children were lying listlessly upon the floor, and the girl and I were finishing sunbonnets, when Mary suddenly exclaimed, "Bless us, mistress, what a smoke!" 2. I ran immediately to the door, but was not able to distinguish ten yards before me. The swamp immediately below us was on fire, and the heavy wind was driving a dense black cloud of smoke directly towards us. 3. "What can this mean?" I cried. "Who can have set fire to the fallow?" As I ceased speaking, John Thomas stood pale and trembling before me. "John, what is the meaning of this fire?" 4. "Oh, ma'am, I hope you will forgive me; it was I set fire to it, and I would give all I have in the world if I had not done it." 5. "What is the danger?" 6. "Oh, I'm afraid that we shall all be burnt up," said John, beginning to whimper. "What shall we do?" 7. "Why, we must get out of it as fast as we can, and leave the house to its fate." 8. "We can't get out," said the man, in a low, hollow tone, which seemed the concentration of fear; "I would have got out of it if I could; but just step to the back door, ma'am, and see." 9. Behind, before, on every side, we were surrounded by a wall of fire, burning furiously within a hundred yards of us, and cutting off all possibility of retreat; for, could we have found an opening through the burning heaps, we could not have seen our way through the dense canopy of smoke; and, buried as we were in the heart of the forest, no one could discover our situation till we were beyond the reach of help. 10. I closed the door, and went back to the parlor. Fear was knocking loudly at my heart, for our utter helplessness destroyed all hope of our being able to effect our escape. The girl sat upon the floor by the children, who, unconscious of the peril that hung over them, had both fallen asleep. She was silently weeping; while the boy who had caused the mischief was crying aloud. 11. A strange calm succeeded my first alarm. I sat down upon the step of the door, and watched the awful scene in silence. The fire was raging in the cedar swamp immediately below the ridge on which the house stood, and it presented a spectacle truly appalling. 12. From out of the dense folds of a canopy of black smoke--the blackest I ever saw--leaped up red forks of lurid flame as high as the tree tops, igniting the branches of a group of tall pines that had been left for saw logs. A deep gloom blotted out the heavens from our sight. The air was filled with fiery particles, which floated even to the doorstep--while the crackling and roaring of the flames might have been heard at a great distance. 13. To reach the shore of the lake, we must pass through the burning swamp, and not a bird could pass over it with unscorched wings. The fierce wind drove the flames at the sides and back of the house up the clearing; and our passage to the road or to the forest, on the right and left, was entirely obstructed by a sea of flames. Our only ark of safety was the house, so long as it remained untouched by the fire. 14. I turned to young Thomas, and asked him how long he thought that would he. "When the fire clears this little ridge in front, ma'am. The Lord have mercy on us then, or we must all go." 15. I threw myself down on the floor beside my children, and pressed them to my heart, while inwardly I thanked God that they were asleep, unconscious of danger, and unable by their cries to distract our attention from adopting any plan which might offer to effect their escape. 16. The heat soon became suffocating. We were parched with thirst, and there was not a drop of water in the house, and none to be procured nearer than the lake. I turned once more to the door, hoping that a passage might have been burnt through to the water. I saw nothing but a dense cloud of fire and smoke--could hear nothing but the crackling and roaring of flames, which was gaining so fast upon us that I felt their scorching breath in my face. 17. "Ah," thought I--and it was a most bitter thought--"what will my beloved husband say when he returns and finds that his poor wife and his dear girls have perished in this miserable manner? But God can save us yet." 18. The thought had scarcely found a voice in my heart before the wind rose to a hurricane, scattering the flames on all sides into a tempest of burning billows. I buried my head in my apron, for I thought that all was lost, when a most terrific crash of thunder burst over our heads, and, like the breaking of a waterspout, down came the rushing torrent of rain which had been pent up for so many weeks. 19. In a few minutes the chip yard was all afloat, and the fire effectually checked. The storm which, unnoticed by us, had been gathering all day, and which was the only one of any note we had that summer, continued to rage all night, and before morning had quite subdued the cruel enemy whose approach we had viewed with such dread. DEFINITIONS.-l. A-bat'ing, lessening. List'less-ly, not paying attention, heedlessly. 3. Fal'low, a new clearing usually covered with brush heaps. 8. Con-cen-tra'tion, bringing into a small space, the essence. 9. Can'o-py, a covering or curtain. 10. Ef-fect', to bring to pass. 11. Suc-ceed'ed, followed. Ap-pall'ing, terrifying. 12. Lu'rid, dull red. Ig-nit'ing, setting on fire. 15. Dis-tract', con-fuse, perplex. 16. Parched, made very dry. 18. Wa'ter-spout, a column of water caught up by a whirlwind. LXXXII. THE DYING SOLDIERS. (230) 1. A waste of land, a sodden plain, A lurid sunset sky, With clouds that fled and faded fast In ghostly phantasy; A field upturned by trampling feet, A field uppiled with slain, With horse and rider blent in death Upon the battle plain. 2. The dying and the dead lie low; For them, no more shall rise The evening moon, nor midnight stars, Nor day light's soft surprise: They will not wake to tenderest call, Nor see again each home, Where waiting hearts shall throb and break, When this day's tidings come. 3. Two soldiers, lying as they fell Upon the reddened clay-- In daytime, foes; at night, in peace Breathing their lives away! Brave hearts had stirred each manly breast; Fate only, made them foes; And lying, dying, side by side, A softened feeling rose. 4. "Our time is short," one faint voice said; "To-day we've done our best On different sides: what matters now? To-morrow we shall rest! Life lies behind. I might not care For only my own sake; But far away are other hearts, That this day's work will break. 5. "Among New Hampshire's snowy hills, There pray for me to-night A woman, and a little girl With hair like golden light;" And at the thought, broke forth, at last, The cry of anguish wild, That would not longer be repressed "O God, my wife, my child!" 6. "And," said the other dying man, "Across the Georgia plain, There watch and wait for me loved ones I ne'er shall see again: A little girl, with dark, bright eyes, Each day waits at the door; Her father's step, her father's kiss, Will never greet her more. 7. "To-day we sought each other's lives: Death levels all that now; For soon before God's mercy seat Together we shall bow. Forgive each other while we may; Life's but a weary game, And, right or wrong, the morning sun Will find us, dead, the same." 8. The dying lips the pardon breathe; The dying hands entwine; The last ray fades, and over all The stars from heaven shine; And the little girl with golden hair, And one with dark eyes bright, On Hampshire's hills, and Georgia's plain, Were fatherless that night! DEFINITIONS.--l. Sod'den, soaked. Phan'ta-sy, specter-like ap-pearance. Blent, mingled together. 2. Ti'dings, news. 5. An'guish, deep distress. Re-pressed', kept back. 8. Par'don, forgiveness. En-twine', clasp together. EXERCISE.--What do the first two stanzas describe? What does the third? What did one soldier say to the other? Where was his home? What friends had he there? Where was the home of the other soldier? Who waited for him? Did they forgive each other? LXXXIII. THE ATTACK ON NYMWEGEN. (233) From "The History of the United Netherlands," by John Lothrop Motley, who was born in 1814, at Dorchester, Mass. He graduated at Harvard in 1831, and afterwards lived many years In Europe, writing the histories which made him famous. He died in 1877. 1. On the evening of the 10th of August, 1589, there was a wedding feast in one of the splendid mansions of the stately city. The festivities were prolonged until deep in the midsummer's night, and harp and viol were still inspiring the feet of the dancers, when on a sudden, in the midst of the holiday groups, appeared the grim visage of Martin Schenk, the man who never smiled. 2. Clad in no wedding garment, but in armor of proof, with morion on head, and sword in hand, the great freebooter strode heavily through the ballroom, followed by a party of those terrible musketeers who never gave or asked for quarter, while the affrighted revelers fluttered away before them. 3. Taking advantage of a dark night, he had just dropped down the river from his castle, with five and twenty barges, had landed with his most trusted soldiers in the foremost vessels, had battered down the gate of St. Anthony, and surprised and slain the guard. 4. Without waiting for the rest of his boats, he had then stolen with his comrades through the silent streets, and torn away the latticework, and other slight defenses on the rear of the house which they had now entered, and through which they intended to possess themselves of the market place. 5. Martin had long since selected this mansion as a proper position for his enterprise, but he had not been bidden to the wedding, and was somewhat disconcerted when he found himself on the festive scene which he had so grimly interrupted. 6. Some of the merrymakers escaped from the house, and proceeded to alarm the town; while Schenk hastily fortified his position, and took possession of the square. But the burghers and garrison were soon on foot, and he was driven back into the house. 7. Three times he recovered the square by main strength of his own arm, seconded by the handful of men whom he had brought with him, and three times he was beaten back by overwhelming numbers into the wedding mansion. 8. The arrival of the greater part of his followers, with whose assistance he could easily have mastered the city in the first moments of surprise, was mysteriously delayed. He could not account for their prolonged absence, and was meanwhile supported only by those who had arrived with him in the foremost barges. 9. The truth--of which he was ignorant--was, that the remainder of the flotilla, borne along by the strong and deep current of the Waal, then in a state of freshet, had shot past the landing place, and had ever since been vainly struggling against wind and tide to force their way back to the necessary point. 10. Meantime Schenk and his followers fought desperately in the market place, and desperately in the house which he had seized. But a whole garrison, and a town full of citizens in arms proved too much for him, and he was now hotly besieged in the mansion, and at last driven forth into the streets. 11. By this time day was dawning, the whole population, soldiers and burghers, men, women, and children, were thronging about the little band of marauders, and assailing them with every weapon and every missile to be found. Schenk fought with his usual ferocity, but at last the musketeers, in spite of his indignant commands, began rapidly to retreat toward the quay. 12. In vain Martin stormed and cursed, in vain with his own hand he struck more than one of his soldiers dead. He was swept along with the panic-stricken band, and when, shouting and gnashing his teeth with frenzy, he reached the quay at last, he saw at a glance why his great enterprise had failed. 13. The few empty barges of his own party were moored at the steps; the rest were half a mile off, contending hopelessly against the swollen and rapid Waal. Schenk, desperately wounded, was left almost alone upon the wharf, for his routed followers had plunged helter-skelter into the boats, several of which, overladen in the panic, sank at once, leaving the soldiers to drown or struggle with the waves. 14. The game was lost. Nothing was left the freebooter but retreat. Reluctantly turning his back on his enemies, now in full cry close behind him, Schenk sprang into the last remaining boat just pushing from the quay. Already overladen, it foundered with his additional weight, and Martin Schenk, encumbered with his heavy armor, sank at once to the bottom of the Waal. 15. Some of the fugitives succeeded in swimming down the stream, and were picked up by their comrades in the barges below the town, and so made their escape. Many were drowned with their captain. A few days afterward, the inhabitants of Nymwegen fished up the body of the famous partisan. He was easily recognized by his armor, and by his truculent face, still wearing the scowl with which he had last rebuked his followers. DEFINITIONS.--2. Mo'ri-on, a kind of helmet. Free'boot-er, one who plunders. Mus-ket-eer', a soldier armed with a musket. Quar'ter, mercy. 6. Burgh'ers, inhabitants of a town. Gar'ri-son, troops stationed in a fort or town. 9. Flo-til'la, a fleet of small vessels. 11. Ma-raud'ers, plunderers. Quay (pro. ke), a wharf 14. Foun'dered, sank. En-cum'bered, weighed down. 15. Par'ti-san, a commander of a body of roving troops. Tru'cu-lent, fierce. LXXXIV. THE SEASONS. (237) 1. SPRING. H. G. Adams, an English writer, has compiled two volumes of poetical quotations, and is the author of several volumes of original poems. The following is from the "Story of the Seasons." A bursting into greenness; A waking as from sleep; A twitter and a warble That make the pulses leap: A watching, as in childhood, For the flowers that, one by one, Open their golden petals To woo the fitful sun. A gust, a flash, a gurgle, A wish to shout and sing, As, filled with hope and gladness, We hail the vernal Spring. II. SUMMER. Now is the high tide of the year, And whatever of life hath ebbed away Comes flooding back with a ripply cheer, Into every bare inlet and creek and bay. We may shut our eyes, but we can not help knowing That skies are clear and grass is growing; The breeze comes whispering in our ear, That dandelions are blossoming near, That maize has sprouted, that streams are flowing, That the river is bluer than the sky, That the robin is plastering his house hard by; And if the breeze kept the good news back For other couriers we should not lack; We could guess it all by yon heifer's lowing,-- And hark! how clear bold chanticleer, Warmed with the new wine of the year, Tells all in his lusty crowing. --Lowell. III. AUTUMN. Thomas Hood, author of the following selection, was born in 1798, at London, where he was editor of the "London Magazine," and died in 1845. He is best known as a humorist, but some of his poems are full of tender feeling. The autumn is old; The sear leaves are flying; He hath gathered up gold And now he is dying: Old age, begin sighing! The year's in the wane; There is nothing adorning; The night has no eve, And the day has no morning; Cold winter gives warning. IV. WINTER. Charles T. Brooks translated the following selection from the original by the German poet, Ludwig Holty. Mr. Brooks was born at Salem, Mass., in 1813. After graduation at Harvard he entered the ministry. He translated much from the German, both of poetry and prose. He died in 1883. Now no plumed throng Charms the wood with song; Icebound trees are glittering; Merry snowbirds, twittering, Fondly strive to cheer Scenes so cold and drear. Winter, still I see Many charms in thee, Love thy chilly greeting, Snowstorms fiercely beating, And the dear delights Of the long, long nights. LXXXV. BRANDYWINE FORD. (239) Bayard Taylor was born at Kennett Square, Penn., in 1825. He received a limited school education, but at an early age displayed great energy and talent. He was a great traveler, and a fluent, graceful writer, both of prose and verse. Mr. Taylor held high official positions under the government. The following selection is adapted from "The Story of Kennett," He died in 1878. 1. The black, dreary night, seemed interminable. He could only guess, here and there, at a landmark, and was forced to rely more upon Roger's instinct of the road than upon the guidance of his senses. Toward midnight, as he judged, by the solitary crow of a cock, the rain almost entirely ceased. 2. The wind began to blow sharp and keen, and the hard vault of the sky to lift a little. He fancied that the hills on his right had fallen away, and that the horizon was suddenly depressed towards the north. Roger's feet began to splash in constantly deepening water, and presently a roar, distinct from that of the wind, filled the air. 3. It was the Brandywine. The stream had overflowed its broad meadow bottoms, and was running high and fierce beyond its main channel. The turbid waters made a dim, dusky gleam around him; soon the fences disappeared, and the flood reached to his horse's body. 4. But he knew that the ford could be distinguished by the break in the fringe of timber; moreover, that the creek bank was a little higher than the meadows behind it, and so far, at least, he might venture. The ford was not more than twenty yards across, and he could trust Roger to swim that distance. 5. The faithful animal pressed bravely on, but Gilbert soon noticed that he seemed at fault. The swift water had forced him out of the road, and he stopped from time to time, as if anxious and uneasy. The timber could now be discerned, only a short distance in advance, and in a few minutes they would gain the bank. 6. What was that? A strange, rustling, hissing sound, as of cattle trampling through dry reeds,--a sound which quivered and shook, even in the breath of the hurrying wind! Roger snorted, stood still, and trembled in every limb; and a sensation of awe and terror struck a chill through Gilbert's heart. The sound drew swiftly nearer, and became a wild, seething roar, filling the whole breadth of the valley. 7. "The dam! the dam!" cried Gilbert, "the dam has given way!" He turned Roger's head, gave him the rein, struck, spurred, cheered, and shouted. The brave beast struggled through the impeding flood, but the advance wave of the coming inundation already touched his side. He staggered; a line of churning foam bore down upon them, the terrible roar was all around and over them, and horse and rider were whirled away. 8. What happened during the first few seconds, Gilbert could never distinctly recall. Now they were whelmed in the water, now riding its careering tide, torn through the tops of brushwood, jostled by floating logs and timbers of the dam, but always, as it seemed, remorselessly held in the heart of the tumult and the ruin. [Transcriber's Footnote: careering--Path or course, as the moon through the sky.] 9. He saw at last that they had fallen behind the furious onset of the flood, but Roger was still swimming with it, desperately throwing up his head from time to time, and snorting the water from his nostrils. All his efforts to gain a foothold failed; his strength was nearly spent, and unless some help should come in a few minutes it would come in vain. And in the darkness, and the rapidity with which they were borne along, how should help come? 10. All at once Roger's course stopped. He became an obstacle to the flood, which pressed him against some other obstacle below, and rushed over horse and rider. Thrusting out his hand, Gilbert felt the rough bark of a tree. Leaning towards it, and clasping the log in his arms, he drew himself from the saddle, while Roger, freed from his burden, struggled into the current and instantly disappeared. 11. As nearly as Gilbert could ascertain, several timbers, thrown over each other, had lodged, probably upon a rocky islet in the stream, the uppermost one projecting slantingly out of the flood. It required all his strength to resist the current which sucked, and whirled, and tugged at his body, and to climb high enough to escape its force, without overbalancing his support. At last, though still half immerged, he found himself comparatively safe for a time, yet as far as ever from a final rescue. 12. Yet a new danger now assailed him, from the increasing cold. There was already a sting of frost, a breath of ice, in the wind. In another hour the sky was nearly swept bare of clouds, and he could note the lapse of the night by the sinking of the moon. But he was by this time hardly in a condition to note anything more. DEFINITIONS.--1. In-ter'mi-na-ble, endless. 2. De-pressed', low-ered. 3. Tur'bid, muddy. 5. Dis-cerncd' (pro. diz-zerned'), made out, distinguished. 6. Seeth'ing, boiling, bubbling. 7. Im-ped'ing, hindering, obstucting. In-un-da'tion, a flood. 9. On'set, a rushing upon, attack. 11. Im-merged', plunged under a liquid. 12. Lapse, a gradual passing away. LXXXVI. BRANDYWINE FORD. (Concluded.) (242) 1. The moon was low in the west, and there was a pale glimmer of the coming dawn in the sky, when Gilbert Potter suddenly raised his head. Above the noise of the water and the whistle of the wind, he heard a familiar sound,--the shrill, sharp neigh of a horse. Lifting himself with great exertion, to a sitting posture, he saw two men, on horseback, in the flooded meadow, a little below him. They stopped, seemed to consult, and presently drew nearer. 2. Gilbert tried to shout, but the muscles of his throat were stiff, and his lungs refused to act. The horse neighed again. This time there was no mistake; it was Roger that he heard! Voice came to him, and he cried aloud,--a hoarse, strange, unnatural cry. The horsemen heard it, and rapidly pushed up the bank, until they reached a point directly opposite to him. The prospect of escape brought a thrill of life to his frame; he looked around and saw that the flood had indeed fallen. 3. "We have no rope," he heard one of the men say. "How shall we reach him?" "There is no time to get one now," the other answered. "My horse is stronger than yours. I'll go into the creek just below, where it's broader and not so deep, and work my way up to him," "But one horse can't carry both." "His will follow, be sure, when it sees me." 4. As the last speaker moved away, Gilbert saw a led horse plunging through the water beside the other. It was a difficult and dangerous undertaking. The horseman and the loose horse entered the main stream below, where its divided channel met and broadened, but it was still above the saddle girths, and very swift. 5. Sometimes the animals plunged, losing their foothold; nevertheless, they gallantly breasted the current, and inch by inch worked their way to a point about six feet below Gilbert. It seemed impossible to approach nearer. "Can you swim?" asked the man. Gilbert shook his head. "Throw me the end of Roger's bridle!" he then cried. 6. The man unbuckled the bridle and threw it, keeping the end of the rein in his hand. Gilbert tried to grasp it, but his hands were too numb. He managed, however, to get one arm and his head through the opening, and relaxed his hold on the log. 7. A plunge, and the man had him by the collar. He felt himself lifted by a strong arm and laid across Roger's saddle. With his failing strength and stiff limbs, it was no slight task to get into place; and the return, though less laborious to the horses, was equally dangerous, because Gilbert was scarcely able to support himself without help. "You're safe now," said the man, when they reached the bank, "but it's a downright mercy of God that you're alive!" 8. The other horseman joined them, and they rode slowly across the flooded meadow. They had both thrown their cloaks around Gilbert, and carefully steadied him in the saddle, one on each side. He was too much exhausted to ask how they had found him, or whither they were taking him,--too numb for curiosity, almost for gratitude. 9. "Here's your savior!" said one of the men, patting Roger's shoulder. "It was through him that we found you. Do you wish to know how? Well--about three o'clock it was, maybe a little earlier, maybe a little later, my wife woke me up. 'Do you hear that?' she said. 10. "I listened and heard a horse in the lane before the door, neighing,--I can't tell you exactly how it was,--as though he would call up the house. It was rather queer, I thought, so I got up and looked out of the window, and it seemed to me he had a saddle on. He stamped, and pawed, and then he gave another neigh, and stamped again. 11. "Said I to my wife, 'There is something wrong here,' and I dressed and went out. When he saw me, he acted in the strangest way you ever saw; thought I, if ever an animal wanted to speak, that animal does. When I tried to catch him, he shot off, ran down the lane a bit, and then came back acting as strangely as ever. 12. "I went into the house and woke up my brother, here, and we saddled our horses and started. Away went yours ahead, stopping every minute to look around and see if we followed. When we came to the water I rather hesitated, but it was of no use; the horse would have us go on and on, till we found you. I never heard of such a thing before, in all my life." Gilbert did not speak, but two large tears slowly gathered in his eyes, and rolled down his cheeks. The men saw his emotion, and respected it. 13. In the light of the cold, keen dawn, they reached a snug farmhouse, a mile from the Brandywine. The men lifted Gilbert from the saddle, and would have carried him immediately into the house, but he first leaned upon Roger's neck, took the faithful creature's head in his arms, and kissed it. DEFINITIONS.--2. Pros'pect, ground or reason for hoping, antic-ipation. 5. Breast'ed (pro. brest'ed), opposed courageously. 6. Numb, without the power of feeling or motion. Re-laxed', loosened. 12. E-mo'tion, excited feeling, agitation. LXXXVII. THE BEST CAPITAL (245) Louisa May Alcott was born at Germantown, Pa., in 1833, and, among other works, wrote many beautiful stories for children. During the Civil War she was a hospital nurse at Washington. The following selection is adapted from "Little Men." She died in 1888. 1. One would have said that modest John Brooke, in his busy, quiet, humble life, had had little time to make friends; but now they seemed to start up everywhere,--old and young, rich and poor, high and low; for all unconsciously his influence had made itself widely felt, his virtues were remembered, and his hidden charities rose up to bless him. 2. The group about his coffin was a far more eloquent eulogy than any that man could utter. There were the rich men whom he had served faithfully for years; the poor old women whom he cherished with his little store, in memory of his mother; the wife to whom he had given such happiness that death could not mar it utterly; the brothers and sisters in whose hearts he had made a place forever; the little son and daughter who already felt the loss of his strong arm and tender voice; the young children, sobbing for their kindest playmate, and the tall lads, watching with softened faces a scene which they never could forget. 3. That evening, as the Plumfield boys sat on the steps, as usual, in the mild September moonlight, they naturally fell to talking of the event of the day. Emil began by breaking out in his impetuous way, "Uncle Fritz is the wisest, and Uncle Laurie the jolliest, but Uncle John was the best; and I'd rather be like him than any man I ever saw." 4. "So would I. Did you hear what those gentlemen said to Grandpa to-day? I would like to have that said of me when I was dead;" and Franz felt with regret that he had not appreciated Uncle John enough. "What did they say?" asked Jack, who had been much impressed by the scenes of the day. 5. "Why, one of the partners of Mr. Laurence, where Uncle John has been ever so long, was saying that he was conscientious almost to a fault as a business man, and above reproach in all things. Another gentleman said no money could repay the fidelity and honesty with which Uncle John had served him, and then Grandpa told them the best of all. 6. "Uncle John once had a place in the office of a man who cheated, and when this man wanted uncle to help him do it, uncle wouldn't, though he was offered a big salary. The man was angry, and said, 'You will never get on in business with such strict principles;' and uncle answered back, 'I never will try to get on without them,' and left the place for a much harder and poorer one." 7. "Good !" cried several of the boys warmly, for they were in the mood to understand and value the little story as never before. "He wasn't rich, was he?" asked Jack. "No." "He never did anything to make a stir in the world, did he?" "No." "He was only good?" "That's all;" and Franz found himself wishing that Uncle John had done something to boast of, for it was evident that Jack was disappointed by his replies. 8. "Only good. That is all and everything," said Uncle Fritz, who had overheard the last few words, and guessed what was going on in the minds of the lads. "Let me tell you a little about John Brooke, and you will see why men honor him, and why he was satisfied to be good rather than rich or famous. He simply did his duty in all things, and did it so cheerfully, so faithfully, that it kept him patient, brave, and happy, through poverty and loneliness and years of hard work. 9. "He was a good son, and gave up his own plans to stay and live with his mother while she needed him. He was a good friend, and taught your Uncle Laurie much beside his Greek and Latin, did it unconsciously, perhaps, by showing him an example of an upright man. 10. "He was a faithful servant, and made himself so valuable to those who employed him that they will find it hard to fill his place. He was a good husband and father, so tender, wise, and thoughtful, that Laurie and I learned much of him, and only knew how well he loved his family when we discovered all he had done for them, unsuspected and unassisted." 11. Uncle Fritz stopped a minute, and the boys sat like statues in the moonlight until he went on again, in a subdued and earnest voice: "As he lay dying, I said to him, 'Have no care for your wife and the little ones; I will see that they never want.' Then he smiled and pressed my hand, and answered, in his cheerful way, 'No need of that; I have cared for them.' 12. "And so he had, for when we looked among his papers, all was in order,--not a debt remained; and safely put away was enough to keep his wife comfortable and independent. Then we knew why he had lived so plainly, denied himself so many pleasures, except that of charity, and worked so hard that I fear he shortened his good life. 13. "He never asked help for himself, though often for others, but bore his own burden and worked out his own task bravely and quietly. No one can say a word of complaint against him, so just and generous and kind was he; and now, when he is gone, all find so much to love and praise and honor, that I am proud to have been his friend, and would rather leave my children the legacy he leaves his than the largest fortune ever made. 14. "Yes! simple, genuine goodness is the best capital to found the business of this life upon. It lasts when fame and money fail, and is the only riches we can take out of this world with us. Remember that, my boys; and, if you want to earn respect and confidence and love, follow in the footsteps of John Brooke." DEFINITIONS.--2. Eu'lo-gy, a speech or writing in praise of the character of a person. Cher'ished, supported, nurtured with care. 4. Ap-pre'ci-at-ed (pro. ap-pre'shi-at-ed), valued justly. 5. Con--sci-en'tious (pro. kon-shi-en'shus), governed by a strict regard to the rules of right and wrong. 7. Mood, state of mind, disposition. 11. Sub-dued', reduced to tenderness, softened. 12. In-de-pend'ent, not relying on others. 13. Leg'a-cy, a gift by will, a bequest. 14. Cap'i-tal stock employed in any business. LXXXVIII. THE INCHCAPE ROCK. Robert Southey was a celebrated English poet, born 1774, who once held the honorable position of poet laureate. He wrote a great deal both in prose and verse. He died in 1843. 1. No stir in the air, no stir in the sea, The ship was as still as she could be, Her sails from heaven received no motion, Her keel was steady in the ocean. 2. Without either sign or sound of their shock The waves flowed over the Inchcape Rock; So little they rose, so little they fell, They did not move the Inchcape Bell. 3. The good old Abbot of Aberbrothok Had placed that bell on the lnchcape Rock; On a buoy in the storm it floated and swung, And over the waves its warning rung. 4. When the Rock was hid by the surges' swell, The mariners heard the warning bell; And then they knew the perilous Rock, And blest the Abbot of Aberbrothok. 5. The sun in heaven was shining gay, All things were joyful on that day; The sea birds screamed as they wheeled round, And there was joyance in their sound. 6. The buoy of the Inchcape Bell was seen A darker speck on the ocean green; Sir Ralph the Rover walked his deck, And he fixed his eye on the darker speck. 7. He felt the cheering power of spring, It made him whistle, it made him sing; His heart was mirthful to excess, But the Rover's mirth was wickedness. 8. His eye was on the Inchcape float; Quoth he, "My men put out the boat, And row me to the Inchcape Rock, And I'll plague the Abbot of Aberbrothok." 9. The boat is lowered, the boatmen row, And to the Inchcape Rock they go; Sir Ralph bent over from the boat, And he cut the bell from the Inchcape float. 10. Down sunk the bell, with a gurgling sound, The bubbles rose and burst around; Quoth Sir Ralph, "The next who comes to the Rock, Won't bless the Abbot of Aberbrothok." 11. Sir Ralph the Rover sailed away, He scoured the seas for many a day; And now grown rich with plundered store, He steers his course for Scotland's shore. 12. So thick a haze o'erspreads the sky They can not see the sun on high; The wind hath blown a gale all day, At evening it hath died away. 13. On the deck the Rover takes his stand, So dark it is they see no land. Quoth Sir Ralph, "It will be lighter soon, For there is the dawn of the rising moon." 14. "Canst hear," said one, "the breakers roar? For methinks we should be near the shore." "Now where we are I can not tell, But I wish I could hear the Inchcape Bell." 15. They hear no sound, the swell is strong; Though the wind hath fallen, they drift along, Till the vessel strikes with a shivering shock: Cried they, "It is the Inchcape Rock!" 16. Sir Ralph the rover tore his hair, He curst himself in his despair; The waves rush in on every side, The ship is sinking beneath the tide. 17. But even in his dying fear One dreadful sound could the Rover hear, A sound as if with the Inchcape Bell The fiends below were ringing his knell. DEFINITIONS.--l. Keel, the principal timber in a ship, extending from bow to stern, at the bottom. 3. Buoy (pro. bwoi) a float-ing mark to point out the position of rocks, etc., beneath the water. 4. Surge, a large wave. 6. Joy'ance, gayety. 11. Scoured, roved over, ranged about. Store, that which is massed together. 14. Me-thinks', it seems to me. 17. Fiends (pro. fends). evil spirits. Knell (pro. nel), the stroke of a bell rung at a funeral or at the death of a person. NOTES.--The above poem was written at Bristol, England, in 1802, and recounts an old tradition. 2. The Inchcape Rock is at the entrance of the Frith of Tay, Scotland, about fifteen miles from shore. LXXXIX. MY MOTHER'S GRAVE. (253) 1. It was thirteen years since my mother's death, when, after a long absence from my native village, I stood beside the sacred mound beneath which I had seen her buried. Since that mournful period, a great change had come over me. My childish years had passed away, and with them my youthful character. The world was altered, too; and as I stood at my mother's grave, I could hardly realize that I was the same thoughtless, happy creature, whose checks she so often kissed in an excess of tenderness. 2. But the varied events of thirteen years had not effaced the remembrance of that mother's smile. It seemed as if I had seen her but yesterday--as if the blessed sound of her well-remembered voice was in my ear. The gay dreams of my infancy and childhood were brought back so distinctly to my mind that, had it not been for one bitter recollection, the tears I shed would have been gentle and refreshing. 3. The circumstance may seem a trifling one, but the thought of it now pains my heart; and I relate it, that those children who have parents to love them may learn to value them as they ought. My mother had been ill a long time, and I had become so accustomed to her pale face and weak voice, that I was not frightened at them, as children usually are. At first, it is true, I sobbed violently; but when, day after day, I returned from school, and found her the same, I began to believe she would always be spared to me; but they told me she would die. 4. One day when I had lost my place in the class, I came home discouraged and fretful. I went to my mother's chamber. She was paler than usual, but she met me with the same affectionate smile that always welcomed my return. Alas! when I look back through the lapse of thirteen years, I think my heart must have been stone not to have been melted by it. She requested me to go downstairs and bring her a glass of water. I pettishly asked her why she did not call a domestic to do it. With a look of mild reproach, which I shall never forget if I live to be a hundred years old, she said, "Will not my daughter bring a glass of water for her poor, sick mother?" 5. I went and brought her the water, but I did not do it kindly. Instead of smiling, and kissing her as I had been wont to do, I set the glass down very quickly, and left the room. After playing a short time, I went to bed without bidding my mother good night; but when alone in my room, in darkness and silence, I remembered how pale she looked, and how her voice trembled when she said, "Will not my daughter bring a glass of water for her poor, sick mother?" I could not sleep. I stole into her chamber to ask forgiveness. She had sunk into an easy slumber, and they told me I must not waken her. 6. I did not tell anyone what troubled me, but stole back to my bed, resolved to rise early in the morning and tell her how sorry I was for my conduct. The sun was shining brightly when I awoke, and, hurrying on my clothes, I hastened to my mother's chamber. She was dead! She never spoke more--never smiled upon me again; and when I touched the hand that used to rest upon my head in blessing, it was so cold that it made me start. 7. I bowed down by her side, and sobbed in the bitterness of my heart. I then wished that I might die, and be buried with her; and, old as I now am, I would give worlds, were they mine to give, could my mother but have lived to tell me she forgave my childish ingratitude. But I can not call her back; and when I stand by her grave, and whenever I think of her manifold kindness, the memory of that reproachful look she gave me will bite like a serpent and sting like an adder. XC. A MOTHER'S GIFT-THE BIBLE. (255) 1. Remember, love, who gave thee this, When other days shall come, When she who had thine earliest kiss, Sleeps in her narrow home. Remember! 'twas a mother gave The gift to one she'd die to save! 2. That mother sought a pledge of love, The holiest for her son, And from the gifts of God above, She chose a goodly one; She chose for her beloved boy, The source of light, and life, and joy. 3. She bade him keep the gift, that, when The parting hour should come, They might have hope to meet again In an eternal home. She said his faith in this would be Sweet incense to her memory. 4. And should the scoffer, in his pride, Laugh that fond faith to scorn, And bid him cast the pledge aside, That he from youth had borne, She bade him pause, and ask his breast If SHE or HE had loved him best. 5. A parent's blessing on her son Goes with this holy thing; The love that would retain the one, Must to the other cling. Remember! 'tis no idle toy: A mother's gift! remember, boy. DEFINITIONS.--2. Pledge, proof, evidence. 3. In'cense, some-thing offered in honor of anyone. Faith, belief 4. Scoff'er, one who laughs at what is good. 
10681	----	AND PHRASES*** These files were assembled by L. John Old, Napier University, Edinburgh, from MICRA's contributed eBook of Roget's Thesaurus (Project Gutenberg's #22). Poster's note: The dagger symbol has been replaced by the carat "^" for this plain-text file. You may interpret the carat as a dagger in the original _except_ in one place, where the carat itself is defined in the Special Characters List in section 550. ROGET'S THESAURUS OF ENGLISH WORDS AND PHRASES CLASS I WORDS EXPRESSING ABSTRACT RELATIONS SECTION I. EXISTENCE 1. BEING, IN THE ABSTRACT 1. Existence -- N. existence, being, entity, ens [Lat.], esse [Lat.], subsistence. reality, actuality; positiveness &c adj.; fact, matter of fact, sober reality; truth &c 494; actual existence. presence &c (existence in space) 186; coexistence &c 120. stubborn fact, hard fact; not a dream &c 515; no joke. center of life, essence, inmost nature, inner reality, vital principle. [Science of existence], ontology. V. exist, be; have being &c n.; subsist, live, breathe, stand, obtain, be the case; occur &c (event) 151; have place, prevail; find oneself, pass the time, vegetate. consist in, lie in; be comprised in, be contained in, be constituted by. come into existence &c n.; arise &c (begin) 66; come forth &c (appear) 446. become &c (be converted) 144; bring into existence &c 161. abide, continue, endure, last, remain, stay. Adj. existing &c v.; existent, under the sun; in existence &c n.; extant; afloat, afoot, on foot, current, prevalent; undestroyed. real, actual, positive, absolute; true &c 494; substantial, substantive; self-existing, self-existent; essential. well-founded, well-grounded; unideal^, unimagined; not potential &c 2; authentic. Adv. actually &c adj.; in fact, in point of fact, in reality; indeed; de facto, ipso facto. Phr. ens rationis [Lat.]; ergo sum cogito [Lat.], thinkest thou existence doth depend on time? [Byron]. 2. Inexistence -- N. inexistence^; nonexistence, nonsubsistence; nonentity, nil; negativeness &c adj.; nullity; nihility^, nihilism; tabula rasa [Lat.], blank; abeyance; absence &c 187; no such thing &c 4; nonbeing, nothingness, oblivion. annihilation; extinction &c (destruction) 162; extinguishment, extirpation, Nirvana, obliteration. V. not exist &c 1; have no existence &c 1; be null and void; cease to exist &c 1; pass away, perish; be extinct, become extinct &c adj.; die out; disappear &c 449; melt away, dissolve, leave not a rack behind; go, be no more; die &c 360. annihilate, render null, nullify; abrogate &c 756; destroy &c 162; take away; remove &c (displace) 185; obliterate, extirpate. Adj. inexistent^, nonexistent &c 1; negative, blank; missing, omitted; absent &c 187; insubstantial, shadowy, spectral, visionary. unreal, potential, virtual; baseless, in nubibus [Lat.]; unsubstantial &c 4; vain. unborn, uncreated^, unbegotten, unconceived, unproduced, unmade. perished, annihilated, &c v.; extinct, exhausted, gone, lost, vanished, departed, gone with the wind; defunct &c (dead) 360. fabulous, ideal &c (imaginary) 515, supposititious &c 514. Adv. negatively, virtually &c adj.. Phr. non ens [Lat.]. 2. BEING, IN THE CONCRETE 3. Substantiality -- N. substantiality, hypostasis; person, being, thing, object, article, item; something, a being, an existence; creature, body, substance, flesh and blood, stuff, substratum; matter &c 316; corporeity^, element, essential nature, groundwork, materiality, substantialness, vital part. [Totality of existences], world &c 318; plenum. Adj. substantive, substantial; hypostatic; personal, bodily, tangible &c (material) 316; corporeal. Adv. substantially &c adj.; bodily, essentially. 4. Unsubstantiality -- N. unsubstantiality^, insubstantiality; nothingness, nihility^; no degree, no part, no quantity, no thing. nothing, naught, nil, nullity, zero, cipher, no one, nobody; never a one, ne'er a one [Contr.]; no such thing, none in the world; nothing whatever, nothing at all, nothing on earth; not a particle &c (smallness) 32; all talk, moonshine, stuff and nonsense; matter of no importance, matter of no consequence. thing of naught, man of straw, John Doe and Richard Roe, faggot voter; nominis umbra [Lat.], nonentity; flash in the pan, vox et praeterea nihil [Lat.]. shadow; phantom &c (fallacy of vision) 443; dream &c (imagination) 515; ignis fatuus &c (luminary) 423 [Lat.]; such stuff as dreams are made of [Tempest]; air, thin air, vapor; bubble &c 353; baseless fabric of a vision [Tempest]; mockery. hollowness, blank; void &c (absence) 187. inanity, fool's paradise. V. vanish, evaporate, fade, dissolve, melt away; disappear &c 449. Adj. unsubstantial; baseless, groundless; ungrounded; without foundation, having no foundation. visionary &c (imaginary) 515; immaterial &c 137; spectral &c 980; dreamy; shadowy; ethereal, airy; cloud built, cloud formed; gossamery, illusory, insubstantial, unreal. vacant, vacuous; empty &c 187; eviscerated; blank, hollow; nominal; null; inane. Phr. there's nothing in it; an ocean of dreams without a sound [Shelley]. 3. FORMAL EXISTENCE Internal conditions 5. Intrinsicality -- N. intrinsicality^, inbeing^, inherence, inhesion^; subjectiveness; ego; egohood^; essence, noumenon; essentialness^ &c adj.; essential part, quintessence, incarnation, quiddity, gist, pith, marrow, core, sap, lifeblood, backbone, heart, soul; important part &c (importance) 642. principle, nature, constitution, character, type, quality, crasis^, diathesis^. habit; temper, temperament; spirit, humor, grain; disposition. endowment, capacity; capability &c (power) 157. moods, declensions, features, aspects; peculiarities &c (speciality) 79; idiosyncrasy, oddity; idiocrasy &c (tendency) 176; diagnostics. V. be in the blood, run in the blood; be born so; be intrinsic &c adj.. Adj. derived from within, subjective; intrinsic, intrinsical^; fundamental, normal; implanted, inherent, essential, natural; innate, inborn, inbred, ingrained, inwrought; coeval with birth, genetous^, haematobious^, syngenic^; radical, incarnate, thoroughbred, hereditary, inherited, immanent; congenital, congenite^; connate, running in the blood; ingenerate^, ingenite^; indigenous; in the grain &c n.; bred in the bone, instinctive; inward, internal &c 221; to the manner born; virtual. characteristic &c (special) 79, (indicative) 550; invariable, incurable, incorrigible, ineradicable, fixed. Adv. intrinsically &c adj.; at bottom, in the main, in effect, practically, virtually, substantially, au fond; fairly. Phr. character is higher than intellect [Emerson]; come give us a taste of your quality [Hamlet]; magnos homines virtute metimur non fortuna [Lat.] [Nepos]; non numero haec judicantur sed pondere [Lat.] [Cicero]; vital spark of heavenly flame [Pope]. External conditions 6. Extrinsicality -- N. extrinsicality^, objectiveness, non ego; extraneousness &c 57; accident; appearance, phenomenon &c 448. Adj. derived from without; objective; extrinsic, extrinsical^; extraneous &c (foreign) 57; modal, adventitious; ascititious^, adscititious^; incidental, accidental, nonessential; contingent, fortuitous. implanted, ingrafted^; inculcated, infused. outward, apparent &c (external) 220. Adv. extrinsically &c adj.. 4. MODAL EXISTENCE Absolute 7. State -- N. state, condition, category, estate, lot, ease, trim, mood, pickle, plight, temper; aspect &c (appearance) 448, dilemma, pass, predicament. constitution, habitude, diathesis^; frame, fabric &c 329; stamp, set, fit, mold, mould. mode, modality, schesis^; form &c (shape) 240. tone, tenor, turn; trim, guise, fashion, light, complexion, style, character. V. be in a state, possess a state, enjoy a state, labor under a state &c n.; be on a footing, do, fare; come to pass. Adj. conditional, modal, formal; structural, organic. Adv. conditionally &c adj.; as the matter stands, as things are; such being the case &c 8. Relative 8. Circumstance -- N. circumstance, situation, phase, position, posture, attitude, place, point; terms; regime; footing, standing, status. occasion, juncture, conjunctive; contingency &c (event) 151. predicament; emergence, emergency; exigency, crisis, pinch, pass, push; occurrence; turning point. bearings, how the land lies. surroundings, context, environment 232; location 184. contingency, dependence (uncertainty) 475; causation 153, attribution 155. Adj. circumstantial; given, conditional, provisional; critical; modal; contingent, incidental; adventitious &c (extrinsic) 6; limitative^. Adv. in the circumstances, under the circumstances &c n., the circumstances, conditions &c 7; thus, in such wise. accordingly; that being the case, such being the case, in view of the circumstances; that being so, sith^, since, seeing that. as matters stand; as things go, as times go. conditionally, provided, if, in case; if so, if so be, if it be so; depending on circumstances, in certain circumstances, under certain conditions; if it so happen, if it so turn out; in the event of; in such a contingency, in such a case, in such an event; provisionally, unless, without. according to circumstances, according to the occasion; as it may happen, as it may turn out, as it may be; as the case may be, as the wind blows; pro re nata [Lat.]. Phr. yet are my sins not those of circumstance [Lytton]. SECTION II. RELATION 1. ABSOLUTE RELATION 9. Relation -- N. relation, bearing, reference, connection, concern, cognation; correlation &c 12; analogy; similarity &c 17; affinity, homology, alliance, homogeneity, association; approximation &c (nearness) 197; filiation &c (consanguinity) 11; interest; relevancy &c 23; dependency, relationship, relative position. comparison &c 464; ratio, proportion. link, tie, bond of union. V. be related &c adj.; have a relation &c n.; relate to, refer to; bear upon, regard, concern, touch, affect, have to do with; pertain to, belong to, appertain to; answer to; interest. bring into relation with, bring to bear upon; connect, associate, draw a parallel; link &c 43. Adj. relative; correlative &c 12; cognate; relating to &c v.; relative to, in relation with, referable or referrible to^; belonging to &c v.; appurtenant to, in common with. related, connected; implicated, associated, affiliated, allied to; en rapport, in touch with. approximative^, approximating; proportional, proportionate, proportionable; allusive, comparable. in the same category &c 75; like &c 17; relevant &c (apt) 23; applicable, equiparant^. Adv. relatively &c adj.; pertinently &c 23. thereof; as to, as for, as respects, as regards; about; concerning &c v.; anent; relating to, as relates to; with relation, with reference to, with respect to, with regard to; in respect of; while speaking of, a propos of [Fr.]; in connection with; by the way, by the by; whereas; for as much as, in as much as; in point of, as far as; on the part of, on the score of; quoad hoc [Lat.]; pro re nata [Lat.]; under the head of &c (class) 75, of; in the matter of, in re. Phr. thereby hangs a tale [Taming of the Shrew]. 10. [Want, or absence of relation.] Irrelation -- N. irrelation^, dissociation; misrelation^; inapplicability; inconnection^; multifariousness; disconnection &c (disjunction) 44; inconsequence, independence; incommensurability; irreconcilableness &c (disagreement) 24; heterogeneity; unconformity &c 83; irrelevancy, impertinence, nihil ad rem [Lat.]; intrusion &c 24; non-pertinence. V. have no relation to &c 9; have no bearing upon, have no concern with &c 9, have no business with; not concern &c 9; have no business there, have nothing to do with, intrude &c 24. bring in head and shoulders, drag in head and shoulders, lug in head and shoulders. Adj. irrelative^, irrespective, unrelated; arbitrary; independent, unallied; unconnected, disconnected; adrift, isolated, insular; extraneous, strange, alien, foreign, outlandish, exotic. not comparable, incommensurable, heterogeneous; unconformable &c 83. irrelevant, inapplicable; not pertinent, not to the, purpose; impertinent, inapposite, beside the mark, a propos de bottes [Fr.]; aside from the purpose, away from the purpose, foreign to the purpose, beside the purpose, beside the question, beside the transaction, beside the point; misplaced &c (intrusive) 24; traveling out of the record. remote, far-fetched, out of the way, forced, neither here nor there, quite another thing; detached, segregate; disquiparant^. multifarious; discordant &c 24. incidental, parenthetical, obiter dicta, episodic. Adv. parenthetically &c adj.; by the way, by the by; en passant [Fr.], incidentally; irrespectively &c adj.; without reference to, without regard to; in the abstract &c 87; a se. 11. [Relations of kindred.] Consanguinity -- N. consanguinity, relationship, kindred, blood; parentage &c (paternity) 166; filiation^, affiliation; lineage, agnation^, connection, alliance; family connection, family tie; ties of blood; nepotism. kinsman, kinfolk; kith and kin; relation, relative; connection; sibling, sib; next of kin; uncle, aunt, nephew, niece; cousin, cousin- german^; first cousin, second cousin; cousin once removed, cousin twice removed; &c near relation, distant relation; brother, sister, one's own flesh and blood. family, fraternity; brotherhood, sisterhood, cousinhood^. race, stock, generation; sept &c 166; stirps, side; strain; breed, clan, tribe, nation. V. be related to &c adj.. claim relationship with &c n.. with. Adj. related, akin, consanguineous, of the blood, family, allied, collateral; cognate, agnate, connate; kindred; affiliated; fraternal. intimately related, nearly related, closely related, remotely related, distantly related, allied; german. 12. [Double or reciprocal relation.] Correlation -- N. reciprocalness &c adj.^; reciprocity, reciprocation; mutuality, correlation, interdependence, interrelation, connection, link, association; interchange &c 148; exchange, barter. reciprocator, reprocitist. V. reciprocate, alternate; interchange &c 148; exchange; counterchange^. Adj. reciprocal, mutual, commutual^, correlative, reciprocative, interrelated, closely related; alternate; interchangeable; interdependent; international; complemental, complementary. Adv. mutually, mutatis mutandis [Lat.]; vice versa; each other, one another; by turns &c 148; reciprocally &c adj.. Phr. happy in our mutual help [Milton]. 13. Identity -- N. identity, sameness; coincidence, coalescence; convertibility; equality &c 27; selfness^, self, oneself; identification. monotony, tautology &c (repetition) 104. facsimile &c (copy) 21; homoousia: alter ego &c (similar) 17; ipsissima verba &c (exactness) 494 [Lat.]; same; self, very, one and the same; very thing, actual thing; real McCoy; no other; one and only; in the flesh. V. be identical &c adj.; coincide, coalesce, merge. treat as the same, render the same, identical; identify; recognize the identity of. Adj. identical; self, ilk; the same &c n.. selfsame, one and the same, homoousian^. coincide, coalescent, coalescing; indistinguishable; one; equivalent &c (equal) 27; tweedle dee and tweedle dum [Lat.]; much the same, of a muchness^; unaltered. Adv. identically &c adj.; on all fours. 14. [Noncoincidence.] Contrariety -- N. contrariety, contrast, foil, antithesis, oppositeness; contradiction; antagonism &c (opposition) 708; clashing, repugnance. inversion &c 218; the opposite, the reverse, the inverse, the converse, the antipodes, the antithesis, the other extreme. V. be contrary &c adj.; contrast with, oppose; diller toto coelo [Lat.]. invert, reverse, turn the tables; turn topsy-turvy, turn end for end, turn upside down, turn inside out. contradict, contravene; antagonize &c 708. Adj. contrary, contrarious^, contrariant^; opposite, counter, dead against; converse, reverse; opposed, antithetical, contrasted, antipodean, antagonistic, opposing; conflicting, inconsistent, contradictory, at cross purposes; negative; hostile &c 703. differing toto coelo [Lat.]; diametrically opposite; diametrically opposed; as opposite as black and white, as opposite as light and darkness, as opposite as fire and water, as opposite as the poles; as different as night and day; Hyperion to a satyr [Hamlet]; quite the contrary, quite the reverse; no such thing, just the other way, tout au contraire [Fr.]. Adv. contrarily &c adj.; contra, contrariwise, per contra, on the contrary, nay rather; vice versa; on the other hand &c (in compensation) 30. Phr. all concord's born of contraries [B. Jonson]. Thesis, antithesis, synthesis [Marx]. 15. Difference -- N. difference; variance, variation, variety; diversity, dissimilarity &c 18; disagreement &c 24; disparity &c (inequality) 28; distinction, contradistinction; alteration. modification, permutation, moods and tenses. nice distinction, fine distinction, delicate distinction, subtle distinction; shade of difference, nuance; discrimination &c 465; differentia. different thing, something else, apple off another tree, another pair of shoes; horse of a different color; this that or the other. V. be different &c adj.; differ, vary, ablude^, mismatch, contrast; divaricate; differ toto coelo [Lat.], differ longo intervallo [It]. vary, modify &c (change) 140. discriminate &c 465. Adj. differing &c v.; different, diverse, heterogeneous, multifarious, polyglot; distinguishable, dissimilar; varied, modified; diversified, various, divers, all manner of, all kinds of; variform &c 81; daedal^. other, another, not the same; unequal &c 28. unmatched; widely apart, poles apart, distinctive; characteristic, discriminative, distinguishing. incommensurable, incommensurate. Adv. differently &c adj.. Phr. il y a fagots et fagots. 2. CONTINUOUS RELATION 16. Uniformity -- N. uniformity; homogeneity, homogeneousness; consistency; connaturality^, connaturalness^; homology; accordance; conformity &c 82; agreement &c 23; consonance, uniformness. regularity, constancy, even tenor, routine; monotony. V. be uniform &c adj.; accord with &c 23; run through. become uniform &c adj.; conform to &c 82. render uniform, homogenize &c adj.; assimilate, level, smooth, dress. Adj. uniform; homogeneous, homologous; of a piece [Fr.], consistent, connatural^; monotonous, even, invariable; regular, unchanged, undeviating, unvaried, unvarying. unsegmented. Adv. uniformly &c adj.; uniformly with &c (conformably) 82; in harmony with &c (agreeing) 23. always, invariably, without exception, without fail, unfailingly, never otherwise; by clockwork. Phr. ab uno disce omnes [Lat.]. 16a. [Absence or want of uniformity.] Nonuniformity -- N. diversity, irregularity, unevenness; multiformity &c 81; unconformity &c 83; roughness &c 256; dissimilarity, dissimilitude, divarication, divergence. Adj. diversified varied, irregular, uneven, rough &c 256; multifarious; multiform &c 81; of various kinds; all manner of, all sorts of, all kinds of. Adv. variously, in all manner of ways, here there and everywhere. 3. PARTIAL RELATION 17. Similarity -- N. similarity, resemblance, likeness, similitude, semblance; affinity, approximation, parallelism; agreement &c 23; analogy, analogicalness^; correspondence, homoiousia^, parity. connaturalness^, connaturality^; brotherhood, family likeness. alliteration, rhyme, pun. repetition &c 104; sameness &c (identity) 13; uniformity &c 16; isogamy^. analogue; the like; match, pendant, fellow companion, pair, mate, twin, double, counterpart, brother, sister; one's second self, alter ego, chip of the old block, par nobile fratrum [Lat.], Arcades ambo^, birds of a feather, et hoc genus omne [Lat.]; gens de meme famille [Fr.]. parallel; simile; type &c (metaphor) 521; image &c (representation) 554; photograph; close resemblance, striking resemblance, speaking resemblance, faithful likeness, faithful resemblance. V. be similar &c adj.; look like, resemble, bear resemblance; smack of, savor of, approximate; parallel, match, rhyme with; take after; imitate &c 19; favor, span [U.S.]. render similar &c adj.; assimilate, approximate, bring near; connaturalize^, make alike; rhyme, pun. Adj. similar; resembling &c v.; like, alike; twin. analogous, analogical; parallel, of a piece [Fr.]; such as, so; homoiousian^. connatural^, congener, allied to; akin to &c (consanguineous) 11. approximate, much the same, near, close, something like, sort of, in the ballpark, such like; a show of; mock, pseudo, simulating, representing. exact &c (true) 494; lifelike, faithful; true to nature, true to life, the very image, the very picture of; for all the world like, comme deux gouttes d'eau [Fr.]; as like as two peas in a pod, as like as it can stare; instar omnium [Lat.], cast in the same mold, ridiculously like. Adv. as if, so to speak; as it were, as if it were; quasi, just as, veluti in speculum [Lat.]. Phr. et sic de similibus [Lat.]; tel maitre tel valet [Fr.]; tel pere tel fils [Fr.]; like master, like servant; like father, like son; the fruit doesn't fall far from the tree; a chip off the old block 18. Dissimilarity -- N. dissimilarity, dissimilaritude^; unlikeness, diversity, disparity, dissemblance^; divergence, variation.; difference &c 15; novelty, originality; creativeness; oogamy^. V. be unlike &c adj.; vary &c (differ) 15; bear no resemblance to, differ toto coelo [Lat.]. render unlike &c adj.; vary &c (diversify) 140. Adj. dissimilar, unlike, disparate; divergent; of a different kind; &c (class) 75 unmatched, unique; new, novel; unprecedented &c 83; original. nothing of the kind; no such thing, quite another thing; far from it, cast in a different mold, tertium quid [Lat.], as like a dock as a daisy, very like a whale [Hamlet]; as different as chalk from cheese, as different as Macedon and Monmouth; lucus a non lucendo [Lat.]. diversified &c 16.1. Adv. otherwise. Phr. diis aliter visum [Lat.]; no more like my father than I to Hercules [Hamlet]. 19. Imitation -- N. imitation; copying &c v.; transcription; repetition, duplication, reduplication; quotation; reproduction; mimeograph, xerox, facsimile; reprint, offprint. mockery, mimicry; simulation, impersonation, personation; representation &c 554; semblance; copy &c 21; assimilation. paraphrase, parody, take-off, lampoon, caricature &c 21. plagiarism; forgery, counterfeit &c (falsehood) 544; celluloid. imitator, echo, cuckoo^, parrot, ape, monkey, mocking bird, mime; copyist, copycat; plagiarist, pirate. V. imitate, copy, mirror, reflect, reproduce, repeat; do like, echo, reecho, catch; transcribe; match, parallel. mock, take off, mimic, ape, simulate, impersonate, personate; act &c (drama) 599; represent &c 554; counterfeit, parody, travesty, caricature, lampoon, burlesque. follow in the steps of, tread in the steps, follow in the footsteps of, follow in the wake of; take pattern by; follow suit, follow the example of; walk in the shoes of, take a leaf out of another's book, strike in with, follow suit; take after, model after; emulate. Adj. imitated &c v.; mock, mimic; modelled after, molded on. paraphrastic; literal; imitative; secondhand; imitable; aping, apish, mimicking. Adv. literally, to the letter, verbatim, literatim [Lat.], sic, totidem verbis [Lat.], word for word, mot a mot [Fr.]; exactly, precisely. Phr. like master like man; like - but oh! how different! [Wordsworth]; genius borrows nobly [Emerson]; pursuing echoes calling 'mong the rocks [A. Coles]; quotation confesses inferiority [Emerson]; Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery. 20. Nonimitation -- N. no imitation; originality; creativeness. invention, creation. Adj. unimitated^, uncopied^; unmatched, unparalleled; inimitable &c 13; unique, original; creative, inventive, untranslated; exceptional, rare, sui generis uncommon [Lat.], unexampled. 20a. Variation -- N. variation; alteration &c (change) 140. modification, moods and tenses; discrepance^, discrepancy. divergency &c 291; deviation &c 279; aberration; innovation. V. vary &c (change) 140; deviate &c 279; diverge &c 291; alternate, swerve. Adj. varied &c v.; modified; diversified &c 16.1. 21. [Result of imitation.] Copy -- N. copy, facsimile, counterpart, effigies, effigy, form, likeness. image, picture, photo, xerox, similitude, semblance, ectype^, photo offset, electrotype; imitation &c 19; model, representation, adumbration, study; portrait &c (representation) 554; resemblance. duplicate, reproduction; cast, tracing; reflex, reflexion [Brit.], reflection; shadow, echo. transcript [copy into a non-visual form], transcription; recording, scan. chip off the old block; reprint, new printing; rechauffe [Fr.]; apograph^, fair copy. parody, caricature, burlesque, travesty, travestie^, paraphrase. [copy with some differences] derivative, derivation, modification, expansion, extension, revision; second edition &c (repetition) 104. servile copy, servile imitation; plagiarism, counterfeit, fake &c (deception) 545; pasticcio^. Adj. faithful; lifelike &c (similar) 17; close, conscientious. unoriginal, imitative, derivative. 22. [Thing copied.] Prototype -- N. prototype, original, model, pattern, precedent, standard, ideal, reference, scantling, type; archetype, antitype^; protoplast, module, exemplar, example, ensample^, paradigm; lay-figure. text, copy, design; fugleman^, keynote. die, mold; matrix, last, plasm^; proplasm^, protoplasm; mint; seal, punch, intaglio, negative; stamp. V. be an example, be a role model, set an example; set a copy. Phr. a precedent embalms a principle [Lat.Tran] [Disraeli]; exempla sunt odiosa [Lat.]. 4. GENERAL RELATION 23. Agreement -- N. agreement; accord, accordance; unison, harmony; concord &c 714; concordance, concert; understanding, mutual understanding. conformity &c 82; conformance; uniformity &c 16; consonance, consentaneousness^, consistency; congruity, congruence; keeping; congeniality; correspondence, parallelism, apposition, union. fitness, aptness &c adj.; relevancy; pertinence, pertinencey^; sortance^; case in point; aptitude, coaptation^, propriety, applicability, admissibility, commensurability, compatibility; cognation &c (relation) 9. adaption^, adjustment, graduation, accommodation; reconciliation, reconcilement; assimilation. consent &c (assent) 488; concurrence &c 178; cooperation &c 709. right man in the right place, very thing; quite the thing, just the thing. V. be accordant &c adj.; agree, accord, harmonize; correspond, tally, respond; meet, suit, fit, befit, do, adapt itself to; fall in with, chime in with, square with, quadrate with, consort with, comport with; dovetail, assimilate; fit like a glove, fit to a tittle, fit to a T; match &c 17; become one; homologate^. consent &c (assent) 488. render accordant &c adj.; fit, suit, adapt, accommodate; graduate; adjust &c (render equal) 27; dress, regulate, readjust; accord, harmonize, reconcile; fadge^, dovetail, square. Adj. agreeing, suiting &c v.; in accord, accordant, concordant, consonant, congruous, consentaneous^, correspondent, congenial; coherent; becoming; harmonious reconcilable, conformable; in accordance with, in harmony with, in keeping with, in unison with, &c n.; at one with, of one mind, of a piece [Fr.]; consistent, compatible, proportionate; commensurate; on all fours. apt, apposite, pertinent, pat; to the point, to the purpose; happy, felicitous, germane, ad rem [Lat.], in point, on point, directly on point, bearing upon, applicable, relevant, admissible. fit adapted, in loco, a propos [Fr.], appropriate, seasonable, sortable, suitable, idoneous^, deft; meet &c (expedient) 646. at home, in one's proper element. Adv. a propos of [Fr.]; pertinently &c adj.. Phr. rem acu tetigisti [Lat.]; if the shoe fits, wear it; the cap fits; auxilia humilia firma consensus facit [Lat.] [Syrus]; discers concordia [Lat.] [Ovid]. 24. Disagreement -- N. disagreement; discord, discordance; dissonance, dissidence, discrepancy; unconformity &c 83; incongruity, incongruence^; discongruity^, mesalliance; jarring &c v.; dissension &c 713; conflict &c (opposition) 708; bickering, clashing, misunderstanding, wrangle. disparity, mismatch, disproportion; dissimilitude, inequality; disproportionateness &c adj.^; variance, divergence, repugnance. unfitness &c adj.; inaptitude, impropriety; inapplicability &c adj.; inconsistency, inconcinnity^; irrelevancy &c (irrelation) 10. misjoining^, misjoinder^; syncretism^, intrusion, interference; concordia discors [Lat.]. fish out of water. V. disagree; clash, jar &c (discord) 713; interfere, intrude, come amiss; not concern &c 10; mismatch; humano capiti cervicem jungere equinam [Lat.]. Adj. disagreeing &c v.; discordant, discrepant; at variance, at war; hostile, antagonistic, repugnant, incompatible, irreconcilable, inconsistent with; unconformable, exceptional &c 83; intrusive, incongruous; disproportionate, disproportionated^; inharmonious, unharmonious^; inconsonant, unconsonant^; divergent, repugnant to. inapt, unapt, inappropriate, improper; unsuited, unsuitable; inapplicable, not to the point; unfit, unfitting, unbefitting; unbecoming; illtimed, unseasonable, mal a propos [Fr.], inadmissible; inapposite &c (irrelevant) 10. uncongenial; ill-assorted, ill-sorted; mismatched, misjoined^, misplaced, misclassified; unaccommodating, irreducible, incommensurable, uncommensurable^; unsympathetic. out of character, out of keeping, out of proportion, out of joint, out of tune, out of place, out of season, out of its element; at odds with, at variance with. Adv. in defiance, in contempt, in spite of; discordantly &c adj.; a tort et a travers^. Phr. asinus ad lyram [Lat.]. SECTION III. QUANTITY 1. SIMPLE QUANTITY 25. [Absolute quantity.] Quantity -- N. quantity, magnitude; size &c (dimensions) 192; amplitude, magnitude, mass, amount, sum, quantum, measure, substance, strength, force. [Science of quantity.] mathematics, mathesis^. [Logic.] category, general conception, universal predicament. [Definite or finite quantity.] armful, handful, mouthful, spoonful, capful; stock, batch, lot, dose; yaffle^. V. quantify, measure, fix, estimate, determine, quantitate, enumerate. Adj. quantitative, some, any, aught, more or less, a few. Adv. to the tune of, all of, a full, the sum of, fully, exactly, precisely. 26. [Relative quantity.] Degree -- N. degree, grade, extent, measure, amount, ratio, stint, standard, height, pitch; reach, amplitude, range, scope, caliber; gradation, shade; tenor, compass; sphere, station, rank, standing; rate, way, sort. point, mark, stage &c (term) 71; intensity, strength &c (greatness) 31. Adj. comparative; gradual, shading off; within the bounds &c (limit) 233. Adv. by degrees, gradually, inasmuch, pro tanto [It]; however, howsoever; step by step, bit by bit, little by little, inch by inch, drop by drop; a little at a time, by inches, by slow degrees, by degrees, by little and little; in some degree, in some measure; to some extent; di grado in grado [Lat.]. 2. COMPARATIVE QUANTITY 27. [Sameness of quantity or degree.] Equality -- N. equality, parity, coextension^, symmetry, balance, poise; evenness, monotony, level. equivalence; equipollence^, equipoise, equilibrium, equiponderance^; par, quits, a wash; not a pin to choose; distinction without a difference, six of one and half a dozen of the other; tweedle dee and tweedle dum [Lat.]; identity &c 13; similarity &c 17. equalization, equation; equilibration, co-ordination, adjustment, readjustment. drawn game, drawn battle; neck and neck race; tie, draw, standoff, dead heat. match, peer, compeer, equal, mate, fellow, brother; equivalent. V. be equal &c adj.; equal, match, reach, keep pace with, run abreast; come to, amount to, come up to; be on a level with, lie on a level with; balance; cope with; come to the same thing. render equal &c adj.; equalize level, dress, balance, equate, handicap, give points, spot points, handicap, trim, adjust, poise; fit, accommodate; adapt &c (render accordant) 23; strike a balance; establish equality, restore equality, restore equilibrium; readjust; stretch on the bed of Procrustes. Adj. equal, even, level, monotonous, coequal, symmetrical, coordinate; on a par with, on a level with, on a footing with; up to the mark; equiparant^. equivalent, tantamount; indistinguishable; quits; homologous; synonymous &c 522; resolvable into, convertible, much at one, as broad as long, neither more nor less.; much the same as, the same thing as, as good as; all one, all the same; equipollent, equiponderant^, equiponderous^, equibalanced^; equalized &c v.; drawn; half and half; isochronal, isochronous isoperimetric^, isoperimetrical^; isobath [Ocean.], isobathic [Ocean.]. Adv. equally &c adj.; pari passu [Lat.], ad eundum [Lat.], caeteris paribus [Lat.]; in equilibrio [Lat.]; to all intents and purposes. Phr. it comes to the same thing, it amounts to the same thing; what is sauce for the goose is sauce for the gander. 28. [Difference of quantity or degree.] Inequality -- N. inequality; disparity, imparity; odds; difference &c 15; unevenness; inclination of the balance, partiality, bias, weight; shortcoming; casting weight, make-weight; superiority &c 33; inferiority &c 34; inequation^. V. be unequal &c adj.; countervail; have the advantage, give the advantage; turn the scale; kick the beam; topple, topple over; overmatch &c 33; not come up to &c 34. Adj. unequal, uneven, disparate, partial; unbalanced, overbalanced; top-heavy, lopsided, biased, skewed; disquiparant^. Adv. haud passibus aequis [Lat.] [Vergil]. 29. Mean -- N. mean, average; median, mode; balance, medium, mediocrity, generality; golden mean &c (mid-course) 628; middle &c 68; compromise &c 774; middle course, middle state; neutrality. mediocrity, least common denominator. V. split the difference; take the average &c n.; reduce to a mean &c n.; strike a balance, pair off. Adj. mean, intermediate; middle &c 68; average; neutral. mediocre, middle-class; commonplace &c (unimportant) 643. Adv. on an average, in the long run; taking one with another, taking all things together, taking it for all in all; communibus annis [Lat.], in round numbers. Phr. medium tenuere beati [Lat.]. 30. Compensation -- N. compensation, equation; commutation; indemnification; compromise; &c 774 neutralization, nullification; counteraction &c 179; reaction; measure for measure, retaliation, &c 718 equalization; &c 27; robbing Peter to pay Paul. set-off, offset; make-weight, casting-weight; counterpoise, ballast; indemnity, equivalent, quid pro quo; bribe, hush money; amends &c (atonement) 952; counterbalance, counterclaim; cross-debt, cross- demand. V. make compensation; compensate, compense^; indemnify; counteract, countervail, counterpoise; balance; outbalance^, overbalance, counterbalance; set off; hedge, square, give and take; make up for, lee way; cover, fill up, neutralize, nullify; equalize &c 27; make good; redeem &c (atone) 952. Adj. compensating, compensatory; countervailing &c v.; in the opposite scale; equivalent &c (equal) 27. Adv. in return, in consideration; but, however, yet, still, notwithstanding; nevertheless, nathless^, none the less; although, though; albeit, howbeit; mauger^; at all events, at any rate; be that as it may, for all that, even so, on the other, hand, at the same time, quoad minus [Lat.], quand meme [Fr.], however that may be; after all is said and done; taking one thing with another &c (average) 29. Phr. light is mingled with the gloom [Whittier]; every dark cloud has a silver lining; primo avulso non deficit alter [Vergil]; saepe creat molles aspera spina rosas [Lat.] [Ovid]. 1 QUANTITY BY COMPARISON WITH A STANDARD 31. Greatness -- N. greatness &c adj.; magnitude; size &c (dimensions) 192; multitude &c (number) 102; immensity; enormity; infinity &c 105; might, strength, intensity, fullness; importance &c 642. great quantity, quantity, deal, power, sight, pot, volume, world; mass, heap &c (assemblage) 72; stock &c (store) 636; peck, bushel, load, cargo; cartload^, wagonload, shipload; flood, spring tide; abundance &c (sufficiency) 639. principal part, chief part, main part, greater part, major part, best part, essential part; bulk, mass &c (whole) 50. V. be great &c adj.; run high, soar, tower, transcend; rise to a great height, carry to a great height; know no bounds; ascend, mount. enlarge &c (increase) 35, (expand) 194. Adj. great; greater &c 33; large, considerable, fair, above par; big, huge &c (large in size) 192; Herculean, cyclopean; ample; abundant; &c (enough) 639 full, intense, strong, sound, passing, heavy, plenary, deep, high; signal, at its height, in the zenith. world-wide, widespread, far-famed, extensive; wholesale; many &c 102. goodly, noble, precious, mighty; sad, grave, heavy, serious; far gone, arrant, downright; utter, uttermost; crass, gross, arch, profound, intense, consummate; rank, uninitiated, red-hot, desperate; glaring, flagrant, stark staring; thorough-paced, thoroughgoing; roaring, thumping; extraordinary.; important &c 642; unsurpassed &c (supreme) 33; complete &c 52. august, grand, dignified, sublime, majestic &c (repute) 873. vast, immense, enormous, extreme; inordinate, excessive, extravagant, exorbitant, outrageous, preposterous, unconscionable, swinging, monstrous, overgrown; towering, stupendous, prodigious, astonishing, incredible; marvelous &c 870. unlimited &c (infinite) 105; unapproachable, unutterable, indescribable, ineffable, unspeakable, inexpressible, beyond expression, fabulous. undiminished, unabated, unreduced^, unrestricted. absolute, positive, stark, decided, unequivocal, essential, perfect, finished. remarkable, of mark, marked, pointed, veriest; noteworthy; renowned. Adv. truly &c (truth) 494 [in a positive degree]; decidedly, unequivocally, purely, absolutely, seriously, essentially, fundamentally, radically, downright, in all conscience; for the most part, in the main. [in a complete degree] entirely &c (completely) 52; abundantly &c (sufficiently) 639; widely, far and wide. [in a great or high degree] greatly &c adj.; much, muckle^, well, indeed, very, very much, a deal, no end of, most, not a little; pretty, pretty well; enough, in a great measure, richly; to a large extent, to a great extent, to a gigantic extent; on a large scale; so; never so, ever so; ever so dole; scrap, shred, tag, splinter, rag, much; by wholesale; mighty, powerfully; with a witness, ultra [Lat.], in the extreme, extremely, exceedingly, intensely, exquisitely, acutely, indefinitely, immeasurably; beyond compare, beyond comparison, beyond measure, beyond all bounds; incalculably, infinitely. [in a supreme degree] preeminently, superlatively &c (superiority) 33. [in a too great degree] immoderately, monstrously, preposterously, inordinately, exorbitantly, excessively, enormously, out of all proportion, with a vengeance. [in a marked degree] particularly, remarkably, singularly, curiously, uncommonly, unusually, peculiarly, notably, signally, strikingly, pointedly, mainly, chiefly; famously, egregiously, prominently, glaringly, emphatically, kat exochin [Gr.], strangely, wonderfully, amazingly, surprisingly, astonishingly, incredibly, marvelously, awfully, stupendously. [in an exceptional degree] peculiarly &c (unconformity) 83. [in a violent degree] furiously &c (violence) 173; severely, desperately, tremendously, extravagantly, confoundedly, deucedly, devilishly, with a vengeance; a outrance^, a toute outrance [Fr.]. [in a painful degree] painfully, sadly, grossly, sorely, bitterly, piteously, grievously, miserably, cruelly, woefully, lamentably, shockingly, frightfully, dreadfully, fearfully, terribly, horribly. Phr. a maximis ad minima [Lat.]; greatness knows itself [Henry IV]; mightiest powers by deepest calms are fed [B. Cornwall]; minimum decet libere cui multum licet [Lat.] [Seneca]; some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have greatness thrust upon them [Twelfth Night]. 32. Smallness -- N. smallness &c adj.; littleness &c (small size) 193; tenuity; paucity; fewness &c (small number) 103; meanness, insignificance (unimportance) 643; mediocrity, moderation. small quantity, modicum, trace, hint, minimum; vanishing point; material point, atom, particle, molecule, corpuscle, point, speck, dot, mote, jot, iota, ace; minutiae, details; look, thought, idea, soupcon, dab, dight^, whit, tittle, shade, shadow; spark, scintilla, gleam; touch, cast; grain, scruple, granule, globule, minim, sup, sip, sop, spice, drop, droplet, sprinkling, dash, morceau^, screed, smack, tinge, tincture; inch, patch, scantling, tatter, cantlet^, flitter, gobbet^, mite, bit, morsel, crumb, seed, fritter, shive^; snip, snippet; snick^, snack, snatch, slip, scrag^; chip, chipping; shiver, sliver, driblet, clipping, paring, shaving, hair. nutshell; thimbleful, spoonful, handful, capful, mouthful; fragment; fraction &c (part) 51; drop in the ocean. animalcule &c 193. trifle &c (unimportant thing) 643; mere nothing, next to nothing; hardly anything; just enough to swear by; the shadow of a shade. finiteness, finite quantity. V. be small &c adj.; lie in a nutshell. diminish &c (decrease) 36; (contract) 195. Adj. small, little; diminutive &c (small in size) 193; minute; fine; inconsiderable, paltry &c (unimportant) 643; faint &c (weak) 160; slender, light, slight, scanty, scant, limited; meager &c (insufficient) 640; sparing; few &c 103; low, so-so, middling, tolerable, no great shakes; below par, under par, below the mark; at a low ebb; halfway; moderate, modest; tender, subtle. inappreciable, evanescent, infinitesimal, homeopathic, very small; atomic, corpuscular, microscopic, molecular, subatomic. mere, simple, sheer, stark, bare; near run. dull, petty, shallow, stolid, ungifted, unintelligent. Adv. to a small extent [in a small degree], on a small scale; a little bit, a wee bit; slightly &c adj.; imperceptibly; miserably, wretchedly; insufficiently &c 640; imperfectly; faintly &c 160; passably, pretty well, well enough. [in a certain or limited degree] partially, in part; in a certain degree, to a certain degree; to a certain extent; comparatively; some, rather in some degree, in some measure; something, somewhat; simply, only, purely, merely; at least, at the least, at most, at the most; ever so little, as little as may be, tant soit peu [Fr.], in ever so small a degree; thus far, pro tanto [It], within bounds, in a manner, after a fashion, so to speak. almost, nearly, well-nigh, short of, not quite, all but; near upon, close upon; peu s'en faut [Fr.], near the mark; within an ace of, within an inch of; on the brink of; scarcely, hardly, barely, only just, no more than. about [in an uncertain degree], thereabouts, somewhere about, nearly, say; be the same, be little more or less. no ways [in no degree], no way, no wise; not at all, not in the least, not a bit, not a bit of it, not a whit, not a jot, not a shadow; in no wise, in no respect; by no means, by no manner of means; on no account, at no hand. Phr. dare pondus idonea fumo [Lat.] [Persius]; magno conatu magnas nugas [Lat.] [Terence]; small sands the mountain, moments make the year [Young]. 2 QUANTITY BY COMPARISON WITH A SIMILAR OBJECT 33. [Supremacy.] Superiority -- N. superiority, majority; greatness &c 31; advantage; pull; preponderance, preponderation; vantage ground, prevalence, partiality; personal superiority; nobility &c (rank) 875; Triton among the minnows, primus inter pares [Lat.], nulli secundus [Lat.], captain; crackajack [U.S.]. supremacy, preeminence; lead; maximum; record; trikumia [Gr.], climax; culmination &c (summit) 210; transcendence; ne plus ultra [Lat.]; lion's share, Benjamin's mess; excess, surplus &c (remainder) 40; (redundancy) 641. V. be superior &c adj.; exceed, excel, transcend; outdo, outbalance^, outweigh, outrank, outrival, out-Herod; pass, surpass, get ahead of; over-top, override, overpass, overbalance, overweigh, overmatch; top, o'ertop, cap, beat, cut out; beat hollow; outstrip &c 303; eclipse, throw into the shade, take the shine out of, outshine, put one's nose out of joint; have the upper hand, have the whip hand of, have the advantage; turn the scale, kick the beam; play first fiddle &c (importance) 642; preponderate, predominate, prevail; precede, take precedence, come first; come to a head, culminate; beat all others, &c bear the palm; break the record; take the cake [U.S.]. become larger, render larger &c (increase) 35, (expand) 194. Adj. superior, greater, major, higher; exceeding &c v.; great &c 31; distinguished, ultra [Lat.]; vaulting; more than a match for. supreme, greatest, utmost, paramount, preeminent, foremost, crowning; first-rate &c (important) 642, (excellent) 648; unrivaled peerless, matchless; none such, second to none, sans pareil [Fr.]; unparagoned^, unparalleled, unequalled, unapproached^, unsurpassed; superlative, inimitable facile princeps [Lat.], incomparable, sovereign, without parallel, nulli secundus [Lat.], ne plus ultra [Lat.]; beyond compare, beyond comparison; culminating &c (topmost) 210; transcendent, transcendental; plus royaliste que le Roi [Fr.], more catholic than the Pope increased &c (added to) 35; enlarged &c (expanded) 194. Adv. beyond, more, over; over the mark, above the mark; above par; upwards of, in advance of; over and above; at the top of the scale, at its height. [in a superior or supreme degree] eminently, egregiously, preeminently, surpassing, prominently, superlatively, supremely, above all, of all things, the most, to crown all, kat exochin [Gr.], par excellence, principally, especially, particularly, peculiarly, a fortiori, even, yea, still more. Phr. I shall not look upon his like again [Hamlet]; deos fortioribus addesse [Lat.] [Tacitus]. 34. Inferiority -- N. inferiority, minority, subordinacy; shortcoming, deficiency; minimum; smallness &c 32; imperfection; lower quality, lower worth. [personal inferiority] commonalty &c 876. V. be inferior &c adj.; fall short of, come short of; not pass, not come up to; want. become smaller, render smaller &c (decrease) 36, (contract) 195; hide its diminished head, retire into the shade, yield the palm, play second fiddle, be upstaged, take a back seat. Adj. inferior, smaller; small &c 32; minor, less, lesser, deficient, minus, lower, subordinate, secondary; secondrate &c (imperfect) 651; sub, subaltern; thrown into the shade; weighed in the balance and found wanting; not fit to hold a candle to, can't hold a candle to. least, smallest &c (little) (small) &c 193; lowest. diminished &c (decreased) 36; reduced &c (contracted) 195; unimportant &c 643. Adv. less; under the mark, below the mark, below par; at the bottom of the scale, at a low ebb, at a disadvantage; short of, under. 3 CHANGES IN QUANTITY 35. Increase -- N. increase, augmentation, enlargement, extension; dilatation &c (expansion) 194; increment, accretion; accession &c 37; development, growth; aggrandizement, aggravation; rise; ascent &c 305; exaggeration exacerbation; spread &c (dispersion) 73; flood tide; gain, produce, product, profit. V. increase, augment, add to, enlarge; dilate &c (expand) 194; grow, wax, get ahead. gain strength; advance; run up, shoot up; rise; ascend &c 305; sprout &c 194. aggrandize; raise, exalt; deepen, heighten; strengthen; intensify, enhance, magnify, redouble; aggravate, exaggerate; exasperate, exacerbate; add fuel to the flame, oleum addere camino [Lat.], superadd &c (add) 37; spread &c (disperse) 73. Adj. increased &c v.; on the increase, undiminished; additional &c (added) 37. Adv. crescendo. Phr. vires acquirit eundo [Lat.] [Vergil]. 36. Nonincrease, Decrease -- N. decrease, diminution; lessening &c v.; subtraction &c 38; reduction, abatement, declension; shrinking &c (contraction.) 195; coarctation^; abridgment &c (shortening) 201; extenuation. subsidence, wane, ebb, decline; ebbing; descent &c 306; decrement, reflux, depreciation; deterioration &c 659; anticlimax; mitigation &c (moderation) 174. V. decrease, diminish, lessen; abridge &c (shorten) 201; shrink &c (contract) 195; drop off, fall off, tail off; fall away, waste, wear; wane, ebb, decline; descend &c 306; subside; melt away, die away; retire into the shade, hide its diminished head, fall to a low ebb, run low, languish, decay, crumble. bate, abate, dequantitate^; discount; depreciate; extenuate, lower, weaken, attenuate, fritter away; mitigate &c (moderate) 174; dwarf, throw into the shade; reduce &c 195; shorten &c 201; subtract &c 38. Adj. unincreased^ &c 35; decreased &c v.; decreasing &c v.; on the wane &c n.. Phr. a gilded halo hovering round decay [Byron]; fine by degrees and beautifully less [Prior]. 3. CONJUNCTIVE QUANTITY 37. Addition -- N. addition, annexation, adjection^; junction &c 43; superposition, superaddition, superjunction^, superfetation; accession, reinforcement; increase &c 35; increment, supplement; accompaniment &c 88; interposition &c 228; insertion &c 300. V. add, annex, affix, superadd^, subjoin, superpose; clap on, saddle on; tack to, append, tag; ingraft^; saddle with; sprinkle; introduce &c (interpose) 228; insert &c 300. become added, accrue; advene^, supervene. reinforce, reenforce, restrengthen^; swell the ranks of; augment &c 35. Adj. added &c v.; additional; supplemental, supplementary; suppletory^, subjunctive; adjectitious^, adscititious^, ascititious^; additive, extra, accessory. Adv. au reste [Fr.], in addition, more, plus, extra; and, also, likewise, too, furthermore, further, item; and also, and eke; else, besides, to boot, et cetera; &c; and so on, and so forth; into the bargain, cum multis aliis [Lat.], over and above, moreover. with, withal; including, inclusive, as well as, not to mention, let alone; together with, along with, coupled with, in conjunction with; conjointly; jointly &c 43. Phr. adde parvum parvo magnus acervus erit [Lat.]. 38. Nonaddition. Subtraction -- N. subtraction, subduction^; deduction, retrenchment; removal, withdrawal; ablation, sublation^; abstraction &c (taking) 789; garbling, &c v.. mutilation, detruncation^; amputation; abscission, excision, recision; curtailment &c 201; minuend, subtrahend; decrease &c 36; abrasion. V. subduct, subtract; deduct, deduce; bate, retrench; remove, withdraw, take from, take away; detract. garble, mutilate, amputate, detruncate^; cut off, cut away, cut out; abscind^, excise; pare, thin, prune, decimate; abrade, scrape, file; geld, castrate; eliminate. diminish &c 36; curtail &c (shorten) 201; deprive of &c (take) 789; weaken. Adj. subtracted &c v.; subtractive. Adv. in deduction &c n.; less; short of; minus, without, except, except for, excepting, with the exception of, barring, save, exclusive of, save and except, with a reservation; not counting, if one doesn't count. 39. [Thing added] Adjunct -- N. adjunct; addition, additament^; additum [Lat.], affix, appelidage^, annexe^, annex; augment, augmentation; increment, reinforcement, supernumerary, accessory, item; garnish, sauce; accompaniment &c 88; adjective, addendum; complement, supplement; continuation. rider, offshoot, episode, side issue, corollary; piece [Fr.]; flap, lappet, skirt, embroidery, trappings, cortege; tail, suffix &c (sequel) 65; wing. Adj. additional &c 37. alate^, alated^; winged. Adv. in addition &c 37. 40. [Thing remaining.] Remainder -- N. remainder, residue; remains, remanent, remnant, rest, relic; leavings, heeltap^, odds and ends, cheesepairings^, candle ends, orts^; residuum; dregs &c (dirt) 653; refuse &c (useless) 645; stubble, result, educt^; fag-end; ruins, wreck, skeleton., stump; alluvium. surplus, overplus^, excess; balance, complement; superplus^, surplusage^; superfluity &c (redundancy) 641; survival, survivance^. V. remain; be left &c adj.; exceed, survive; leave. Adj. remaining, left; left behind left over; residual, residuary; over, odd; unconsumed, sedimentary; surviving; net; exceeding, over and above; outlying, outstanding; cast off &c 782; superfluous &c (redundant) 641. 40a. [Thing deducted.] Decrement -- N. decrement, discount, defect, loss, deduction; afterglow; eduction^; waste. 41. [Forming a whole without coherence.] Mixture -- N. mixture, admixture, commixture, commixtion^; commixion^, intermixture, alloyage^, matrimony; junction &c 43; combination &c 48; miscegenation. impregnation; infusion, diffusion suffusion, transfusion; infiltration; seasoning, sprinkling, interlarding; interpolation; &c 228 adulteration, sophistication. [Thing mixed] tinge, tincture, touch, dash, smack, sprinkling, spice, seasoning, infusion, soupcon. [Compound resulting from mixture] alloy, amalgam; brass, chowchow^, pewter; magma, half-and-half, melange, tertium quid [Lat.], miscellany, ambigu^, medley, mess, hotchpot^, pasticcio^, patchwork, odds and ends, all sorts; jumble &c (disorder) 59; salad, sauce, mash, omnium gatherum [Lat.], gallimaufry, olla-podrida^, olio, salmagundi, potpourri, Noah's ark, caldron texture, mingled yarn; mosaic &c (variegation) 440. half-blood, half-caste. mulatto; terceron^, quarteron^, quinteron^ &c; quadroon, octoroon; griffo^, zambo^; cafuzo^; Eurasian; fustee^, fustie^; griffe, ladino^, marabou, mestee^, mestizo, quintroon, sacatra zebrule [Lat.]; catalo^; cross, hybrid, mongrel. V. mix; join &c 43; combine &c 48; commix, immix^, intermix; mix up with, mingle; commingle, intermingle, bemingle^; shuffle &c (derange) 61; pound together; hash up, stir up; knead, brew; impregnate with; interlard &c (interpolate) 228; intertwine, interweave &c 219; associate with; miscegenate^. be mixed &c; get among, be entangled with. instill, imbue; infuse, suffuse, transfuse; infiltrate, dash, tinge, tincture, season, sprinkle, besprinkle, attemper^, medicate, blend, cross; alloy, amalgamate, compound, adulterate, sophisticate, infect. Adj. mixed &c v.; implex^, composite, half-and-half, linsey-woolsey, chowchow, hybrid, mongrel, heterogeneous; motley &c (variegated) 440; miscellaneous, promiscuous, indiscriminate; miscible. Adv. among, amongst, amid, amidst; with; in the midst of, in the crowd. 42. [Freedom from mixture.] Simpleness -- N. simpleness &c adj.; purity, homogeneity. elimination; sifting &c v.; purification &c (cleanness) 652. V. render simple &c adj.; simplify. sift, winnow, bolt, eliminate; exclude, get rid of; clear; purify &c (clean) 652; disentangle &c (disjoin) 44. Adj. simple, uniform, of a piece [Fr.], homogeneous, single, pure, sheer, neat. unmixed, unmingled^, unblended, uncombined, uncompounded; elementary, undecomposed; unadulterated, unsophisticated, unalloyed, untinged^, unfortified, pur et simple [Fr.]; incomplex^. free from, exempt from; exclusive. Adv. simple &c adj.. only. 43. Junction -- N. junction; joining &c v.; joinder [Law], union connection, conjunction, conjugation; annexion^, annexation, annexment^; astriction^, attachment, compagination^, vincture^, ligation, alligation^; accouplement^; marriage &c (wedlock,) 903; infibulation^, inosculation^, symphysis [Anat.], anastomosis, confluence, communication, concatenation; meeting, reunion; assemblage &c 72. coition, copulation; sex, sexual congress, sexual conjunction, sexual intercourse, love-making. joint, joining, juncture, pivot, hinge, articulation, commissure^, seam, gore, gusset, suture, stitch; link &c 45; miter mortise. closeness, tightness, &c adj.; coherence &c 46; combination &c 48. annexationist. V. join, unite; conjoin, connect; associate; put together, lay together, clap together, hang together, lump together, hold together, piece together [Fr.], tack together, fix together, bind up together together; embody, reembody^; roll into one. attach, fix, affix, saddle on, fasten, bind, secure, clinch, twist, make fast &c adj.; tie, pinion, string, strap, sew, lace, tat, stitch, tack, knit, button, buckle, hitch, lash, truss, bandage, braid, splice, swathe, gird, tether, moor, picket, harness, chain; fetter &c (restrain) 751; lock, latch, belay, brace, hook, grapple, leash, couple, accouple^, link, yoke, bracket; marry &c (wed) 903; bridge over, span. braze; pin, nail, bolt, hasp, clasp, clamp, crimp, screw, rivet; impact, solder, set; weld together, fuse together; wedge, rabbet, mortise, miter, jam, dovetail, enchase^; graft, ingraft^, inosculate^; entwine, intwine^; interlink, interlace, intertwine, intertwist^, interweave; entangle; twine round, belay; tighten; trice up, screw up. be joined &c; hang together, hold together; cohere &c 46. Adj. joined &c v.; joint; conjoint, conjunct; corporate, compact; hand in hand. firm, fast, close, tight, taut, taught, secure, set, intervolved^; inseparable, indissoluble, insecable^, severable. Adv. jointly &c adj.; in conjunction with &c (in addition to) 37; fast, firmly, &c adj.; intimately. Phr. tria juncta in uno [Lat.]. 44. Disjunction -- N. disjunction, disconnection, disunity, disunion, disassociation, disengagement; discontinuity &c 70; abjunction^; cataclasm^; inconnection^; abstraction, abstractedness; isolation; insularity, insulation; oasis; island; separateness &c adj.; severalty; disjecta membra [Lat.]; dispersion &c 73; apportionment &c 786. separation; parting &c v.; circumcision; detachment, segregation; divorce, sejunction^, seposition^, diduction^, diremption^, discerption^; elision; caesura, break, fracture, division, subdivision, rupture; compartition^; dismemberment, dislocation; luxation^; severance, disseverance; scission; rescission, abscission; laceration, dilaceration^; disruption, abruption^; avulsion^, divulsion^; section, resection, cleavage; fission; partibility^, separability. fissure, breach, rent, split, rift, crack, slit, incision. dissection anatomy; decomposition &c 49; cutting instrument &c (sharpness) 253; buzzsaw, circular saw, rip saw. separatist. V. be disjoined &c; come off, fall off, come to pieces, fall to pieces; peel off; get loose. disjoin, disconnect, disengage, disunite, dissociate, dispair^; divorce, part, dispart^, detach, separate, cut off, rescind, segregate; set apart, keep apart; insulate, isolate; throw out of gear; cut adrift; loose; unloose, undo, unbind, unchain, unlock &c (fix) 43, unpack, unravel; disentangle; set free &c (liberate) 750. sunder, divide, subdivide, sever, dissever, abscind^; circumcise; cut; incide^, incise; saw, snip, nib, nip, cleave, rive, rend, slit, split, splinter, chip, crack, snap, break, tear, burst; rend &c, rend asunder, rend in twain; wrench, rupture, shatter, shiver, cranch^, crunch, craunch^, chop; cut up, rip up; hack, hew, slash; whittle; haggle, hackle, discind^, lacerate, scamble^, mangle, gash, hash, slice. cut up, carve, dissect, anatomize; dislimb^; take to pieces, pull to pieces, pick to pieces, tear to pieces; tear to tatters, tear piecemeal, tear limb from limb; divellicate^; skin &c 226; disintegrate, dismember, disbranch^, disband; disperse &c 73; dislocate, disjoint; break up; mince; comminute &c (pulverize) 330; apportion &c 786. part, part company; separate, leave. Adj. disjoined &c v.; discontinuous &c 70; multipartite^, abstract; disjunctive; secant; isolated &c v.; insular, separate, disparate, discrete, apart, asunder, far between, loose, free; unattached, unannexed, unassociated, unconnected; distinct; adrift; straggling; rift, reft^. [capable of being cut] scissile [Chem], divisible, discerptible^, partible, separable. Adv. separately &c adj.; one by one, severally, apart; adrift, asunder, in twain; in the abstract, abstractedly. 45. [Connecting medium.] Connection -- N. vinculum, link; connective, connection; junction &c 43; bond of union, copula, hyphen, intermedium^; bracket; bridge, stepping-stone, isthmus. bond, tendon, tendril; fiber; cord, cordage; riband, ribbon, rope, guy, cable, line, halser^, hawser, painter, moorings, wire, chain; string &c (filament) 205. fastener, fastening, tie; ligament, ligature; strap; tackle, rigging; standing rigging, running rigging; traces, harness; yoke; band ribband, bandage; brace, roller, fillet; inkle^; with, withe, withy; thong, braid; girder, tiebeam; girth, girdle, cestus^, garter, halter, noose, lasso, surcingle, knot, running knot; cabestro [U.S.], cinch [U.S.], lariat, legadero^, oxreim^; suspenders. pin, corking pin, nail, brad, tack, skewer, staple, corrugated fastener; clamp, U-clamp, C-clamp; cramp, cramp iron; ratchet, detent, larigo^, pawl; terret^, treenail, screw, button, buckle; clasp, hasp, hinge, hank, catch, latch, bolt, latchet^, tag; tooth; hook, hook and eye; lock, holdfast^, padlock, rivet; anchor, grappling iron, trennel^, stake, post. cement, glue, gum, paste, size, wafer, solder, lute, putty, birdlime, mortar, stucco, plaster, grout; viscum^. shackle, rein &c (means of restraint) 752; prop &c (support) 215. V. bridge over, span; connect &c 43; hang &c 214. 46. Coherence -- N. coherence, adherence, adhesion, adhesiveness; concretion accretion; conglutination, agglutination, agglomeration; aggregation; consolidation, set, cementation; sticking, soldering &c v.; connection; dependence. tenacity, toughness; stickiness &c 352; inseparability, inseparableness; bur, remora. conglomerate, concrete &c (density) 321. V. cohere, adhere, stick, cling, cleave, hold, take hold of, hold fast, close with, clasp, hug; grow together, hang together; twine round &c (join) 43. stick like a leech, stick like wax; stick close; cling like ivy, cling like a bur; adhere like a remora, adhere like Dejanira's shirt. glue; agglutinate, conglutinate^; cement, lute, paste, gum; solder, weld; cake, consolidate &c (solidify) 321; agglomerate. Adj. cohesive, adhesive, adhering, cohering &c v.; tenacious, tough; sticky &c 352. united, unseparated, unsessile^, inseparable, inextricable, infrangible^; compact &c (dense) 321. 47. [Want of adhesion, nonadhesion, immiscibility.] Incoherence -- N. nonadhesion^; immiscibility; incoherence; looseness &c adj.; laxity; relaxation; loosening &c v.; freedom; disjunction &c 44; rope of sand. V. make loose &c adj.; loosen, slacken, relax; unglue &c 46; detach &c (disjoin) 44. Adj. nonadhesive, immiscible; incoherent, detached, loose, baggy, slack, lax, relaxed, flapping, streaming; disheveled; segregated, like grains of sand unconsolidated &c 231, uncombined &c 48; noncohesive^. 48. Combination -- N. combination; mixture &c 41; junction &c 43; union, unification, synthesis, incorporation, amalgamation, embodiment, coalescence, crasis^, fusion, blending, absorption, centralization. alloy, compound, amalgam, composition, tertium quid [Lat.]; resultant, impregnation. V. combine, unite, incorporate, amalgamate, embody, absorb, reembody^, blend, merge, fuse, melt into one, consolidate, coalesce, centralize, impregnate; put together, lump together; cement a union, marry. Adj. combined &c v.; impregnated with, ingrained; imbued inoculated. 49. Decomposition -- N. decomposition, analysis, dissection, resolution, catalysis, dissolution; corruption &c (uncleanness) 653; dispersion &c 73; disjunction &c 44; disintegration. V. decompose, decompound; analyze, disembody, dissolve; resolve into its elements, separate into its elements; electrolyze [Chem]; dissect, decentralize, break up; disperse &c 73; unravel &c (unroll) 313; crumble into dust. Adj. decomposed &c v.; catalytic, analytical; resolvent, separative, solvent. 4. CONCRETE QUANTITY 50. [Principal part.] Whole -- N. whole, totality, integrity; totalness &c adj.^; entirety, ensemble, collectiveness^; unity &c 87; completeness &c 52; indivisibility, indiscerptibility^; integration, embodiment; integer. all, the whole, total, aggregate, one and all, gross amount, sum, sum total, tout ensemble, length and breadth of, Alpha and Omega, be all and end all; complex, complexus^; lock stock and barrel. bulk, mass, lump, tissue, staple, body, compages^; trunk, torso, bole, hull, hulk, skeleton greater part, major part, best part, principal part, main part; essential part &c (importance) 642; lion's share, Benjamin's mess; the long and the short; nearly, all, almost all. V. form a whole, constitute a whole; integrate, embody, amass; aggregate &c (assemble) 72; amount to, come to. Adj. whole, total, integral, entire; complete &c 52; one, individual. unbroken, intact, uncut, undivided, unsevered^, unclipped^, uncropped, unshorn; seamless; undiminished; undemolished, undissolved, undestroyed, unbruised. indivisible, indissoluble, indissolvable^, indiscerptible^. wholesale, sweeping; comprehensive. Adv. wholly, altogether; totally &c (completely) 52; entirely, all, all in all, as a whole, wholesale, in a body, collectively, all put together; in the aggregate, in the lump, in the mass, in the gross, in the main, in the long run; en masse, as a body, on the whole, bodily^, en bloc, in extenso [Lat.], throughout, every inch; substantially. Phr. tout bien ou rien [Fr.]. 51. Part -- N. part, portion; dose; item, particular; aught, any; division, ward; subdivision, section; chapter, clause, count, paragraph, verse; article, passage; sector, segment; fraction, fragment; cantle, frustum; detachment, parcel. piece [Fr.], lump, bit cut, cutting; chip, chunk, collop^, slice, scale; lamina &c 204; small part; morsel, particle &c (smallness) 32; installment, dividend; share &c (allotment) 786. debris, odds and ends, oddments, detritus; excerpta^; member, limb, lobe, lobule, arm, wing, scion, branch, bough, joint, link, offshoot, ramification, twig, bush, spray, sprig; runner; leaf, leaflet; stump; component part &c 56; sarmentum^. compartment; department &c (class) 75; county &c (region) 181. V. part, divide, break &c (disjoin) 44; partition &c (apportion) 786. Adj. fractional, fragmentary; sectional, aliquot; divided &c v.; in compartments, multifid^; disconnected; partial. Adv. partly, in part, partially; piecemeal, part by part; by by installments, by snatches, by inches, by driblets; bit by bit, inch by inch, foot by foot, drop by drop; in detail, in lots. 52. Completeness -- N. completeness &c adj.; completion &c 729; integration; allness^. entirety; perfection &c 650; solidity, solidarity; unity; all; ne plus ultra [Lat.], ideal, limit. complement, supplement, make-weight; filling, up &c v.. impletion^; saturation, saturity^; high water; high tide, flood tide, spring tide; fill, load, bumper, bellyful^; brimmer^; sufficiency &c 639. V. be complete &c adj.; come to a head. render complete &c adj.; complete &c (accomplish) 729; fill, charge, load, replenish; make up, make good; piece out [Fr.], eke out; supply deficiencies; fill up, fill in, fill to the brim, fill the measure of; saturate. go the whole hog, go the whole length; go all lengths. Adj. complete, entire; whole &c 50; perfect &c 650; full, good, absolute, thorough, plenary; solid, undivided; with all its parts; all- sided. exhaustive, radical, sweeping, thorough-going; dead. regular, consummate, unmitigated, sheer, unqualified, unconditional, free; abundant &c (sufficient) 639. brimming; brimful, topful, topfull; chock full, choke full; as full as an egg is of meat, as full as a vetch; saturated, crammed; replete &c (redundant) 641; fraught, laden; full-laden, full-fraught, full-charged; heavy laden. completing &c v.; supplemental, supplementary; ascititious^. Adv. completely &c adj.; altogether, outright, wholly, totally, in toto, quite; all out; over head and ears; effectually, for good and all, nicely, fully, through thick and thin, head and shoulders; neck and heel, neck and crop; in all respects, in every respect; at all points, out and out, to all intents and purposes; toto coelo [Lat.]; utterly; clean, clean as a whistle; to the full, to the utmost, to the backbone; hollow, stark; heart and soul, root and branch, down to the ground. to the top of one's bent, as far as possible, a outrance^. throughout; from first to last, from beginning to end, from end to end, from one end to the other, from Dan to Beersheba, from head to foot, from top to toe, from top to bottom, de fond en comble [Fr.]; a fond, a capite ad calcem [Lat.], ab ovo usque ad mala [Lat.], fore and aft; every, whit, every inch; cap-a-pie, to the end of the chapter; up to the brim, up to the ears, up to the eyes; as a as can be. on all accounts; sous tous les rapports [Fr.]; with a vengeance, with a witness. Phr. falsus in uno falsus in omnibus [Lat.], false in one thing, false in everything; omnem movere lapidem [Lat.]; una scopa nuova spazza bene [It]. 53. Incompleteness -- N. incompleteness &c adj.; deficiency, short measure; shortcoming &c 304; insufficiency &c 640; imperfection &c 651; immaturity &c (nonpreparation) 674; half measures. [part wanting] defect, deficit, defalcation, omission; caret; shortage; interval &c 198; break &c (discontinuity) 70; noncompletion &c 730; missing link. missing piece, missing part, gap, hole, lacuna. V. be incomplete &c adj.; fall short of &c 304; lack &c (be insufficient) 640; neglect &c 460. Adj. incomplete; imperfect &c 651; unfinished; uncompleted &c (complete) &c 729; defective, deficient, wanting, lacking, failing; in default, in arrear^; short of; hollow, meager, lame, halfand-half, perfunctory, sketchy; crude &c (unprepared) 674. mutilated, garbled, docked, lopped, truncated. in progress, in hand; going on, proceeding. Adv. incompletely &c adj.; by halves. Phr. caetera desunt [Lat.]; caret. 54. Composition -- N. composition, constitution, crasis^; combination &c 48; inclusion, admission, comprehension, reception; embodiment; formation. V. be composed of, be made of, be formed of, be made up of; consist of, be resolved into. include &c (in a class) 76; contain, hold, comprehend, take in, admit, embrace, embody; involve, implicate; drag into. compose, constitute, form, make; make up, fill up, build up; enter into the composition of &c (be a component) 56. Adj. containing, constituting &c v.. 55. Exclusion -- N. exclusion, nonadmission, omission, exception, rejection, repudiation; exile &c (seclusion) 893; noninclusion^, preclusion, prohibition. separation, segregation, seposition^, elimination, expulsion; cofferdam. V. be excluded from &c; exclude, bar; leave out, shut out, bar out; reject, repudiate, blackball; lay apart, put apart, set apart, lay aside, put aside; relegate, segregate; throw overboard; strike off, strike out; neglect &c 460; banish &c (seclude) 893; separate &c (disjoin) 44. pass over, omit; garble; eliminate, weed, winnow. Adj. excluding &c v.; exclusive. excluded &c v.; unrecounted^, not included in; inadmissible. Adv. exclusive of, barring; except; with the exception of; save; bating. 56. Component -- N. component; component part, integral part, integrant part^; element, constituent, ingredient, leaven; part and parcel; contents; appurtenance; feature; member &c (part) 51; personnel. V. enter into, enter into the composition of; be a component &c n. be part of, form part of &c 51; merge in, be merged in; be implicated in; share in &c (participate) 778; belong to, appertain to; combine, inhere in, unite. form, make, constitute, compose. Adj. forming &c v.. inclusive. 57. Extraneousness -- N. extraneousness &c adj.; extrinsicality &c 6; exteriority &c 220; alienage^, alienism. foreign body, foreign substance, foreign element; alien, stranger, intruder, interloper, foreigner, novus homo [Lat.], newcomer, immigrant, emigrant; creole, Africander^; outsider; Dago [Slang], wop, mick, polak, greaser, slant, Easterner [U.S.], Dutchman, tenderfoot. Adj. extraneous, foreign, alien, ulterior; tramontane, ultramontane. excluded &c 55; inadmissible; exceptional. Adv. in foreign parts, in foreign lands; abroad, beyond seas; over sea on one's travels. SECTION IV. ORDER 1. ORDER IN GENERAL 58. Order -- N. order, regularity, uniformity, symmetry, lucidus ordo [Lat.]; music of the spheres. gradation, progression; series &c (continuity) 69. subordination; course, even tenor, routine; method, disposition, arrangement, array, system, economy, discipline orderliness &c adj.. rank, place &c (term) 71. V. be in order, become in order &c adj.; form, fall in, draw up; arrange itself, range itself, place itself; fall into one's place, take one's place, take one's rank; rally round. adjust, methodize, regulate, systematize. Adj. orderly, regular; in order, in trim, in apple-pie order, in its proper place; neat, tidy, en regle [Fr.], well regulated, correct, methodical, uniform, symmetrical, shipshape, businesslike, systematic; unconfused &c (confuse) &c 61; arranged &c 60. Adv. in order; methodically &c adj.; in turn, in its turn; by steps, step by step; by regular steps, by regular gradations, by regular stages, by regular intervals; seriatim, systematically, by clockwork, gradatim [Lat.]; at stated periods &c (periodically) 138. Phr. natura non facit saltum [Lat.]; order is heaven's first law [Pope]; order from disorder sprung [Paradise Lost]; ordo est parium dispariumque rerum sua loca tribuens dispositio [Lat.] [St. Augustine]. 59. [Absence, or want of Order, &c] Disorder -- N. disorder; derangement &c 61; irregularity; anomaly &c (unconformity) 83; anarchy, anarchism; want of method; untidiness &c adj.; disunion; discord &c 24. confusion; confusedness &c adj.; mishmash, mix; disarray, jumble, huddle, litter, lumber; cahotage^; farrago; mess, mash, muddle, muss [U.S.], hash, hodgepodge; hotch-potch^, hotch-pot^; imbroglio, chaos, omnium gatherum [Lat.], medley; mere mixture &c 41; fortuitous concourse of atoms, disjecta membra [Lat.], rudis indigestaque moles [Lat.] [Ovid]. complexity &c 59.1. turmoil; ferment &c (agitation) 315; to-do, trouble, pudder^, pother, row, rumble, disturbance, hubbub, convulsion, tumult, uproar, revolution, riot, rumpus, stour^, scramble, brawl, fracas, rhubarb, fight, free-for-all, row, ruction, rumpus, embroilment, melee, spill and pelt, rough and tumble; whirlwind &c 349; bear garden, Babel, Saturnalia, donnybrook, Donnybrook Fair, confusion worse confounded, most admired disorder, concordia discors [Lat.]; Bedlam, all hell broke loose; bull in a china shop; all the fat in the fire, diable a' quatre [Fr.], Devil to pay; pretty kettle of fish; pretty piece of work [Fr.], pretty piece of business [Fr.]. [legal terms] disorderly person; disorderly persons offence; misdemeanor. [moral disorder] slattern, slut (libertine) 962. V. be disorderly &c adj.; ferment, play at cross-purposes. put out of order; derange &c 61; ravel &c 219; ruffle, rumple. Adj. disorderly, orderless; out of order, out of place, out of gear; irregular, desultory; anomalous &c (unconformable) 83; acephalous^, deranged; aimless; disorganized; straggling; unmethodical, immethodical^; unsymmetric^, unsystematic; untidy, slovenly; dislocated; out of sorts; promiscuous, indiscriminate; chaotic, anarchical; unarranged &c (arrange) &c 60; confused; deranged &c 61; topsy-turvy &c (inverted) 218; shapeless &c 241; disjointed, out of joint. troublous^; riotous &c (violent) 173. complex &c 59.1. Adv. irregularly &c adj.; by fits, by fits and snatches, by fits and starts; pellmell; higgledy-piggledy; helter-skelter, harum-scarum; in a ferment; at sixes and sevens, at cross-purposes; upside down &c 218. Phr. the cart before the horse; hysteron proteron [Gr.]; chaos is come again; the wreck of matter and the crush of worlds [Addison]. 59a. Complexity -- N. complexity; complexness &c adj.; complexus^; complication, implication; intricacy, intrication^; perplexity; network, labyrinth; wilderness, jungle; involution, raveling, entanglement; coil &c (convolution) 248; sleave^, tangled skein, knot, Gordian knot, wheels within wheels; kink, gnarl, knarl^; webwork^. [complexity if a task or action] difficulty &c 704. V. complexify^, complicate. Adj. gnarled, knarled^. complex, complexed; intricate, complicated, perplexed, involved, raveled, entangled, knotted, tangled, inextricable; irreducible. 60. [Reduction to Order.] Arrangement -- N. arrangement; plan &c 626; preparation &c 673; disposal, disposition; collocation, allocation; distribution; sorting &c v.; assortment, allotment, apportionment, taxis, taxonomy, syntaxis^, graduation, organization; grouping; tabulation. analysis, classification, clustering, division, digestion. [Result of arrangement] digest; synopsis &c (compendium) 596; syntagma [Gramm.], table, atlas; file, database; register. &c (record) 551; organism, architecture. [Instrument for sorting] sieve, riddle, screen, sorter. V. reduce to order, bring into order; introduce order into; rally. arrange, dispose, place, form; put in order, set in order, place in order; set out, collocate, pack, marshal, range, size, rank, group, parcel out, allot, distribute, deal; cast the parts, assign the parts; dispose of, assign places to; assort, sort; sift, riddle; put to rights, set to rights, put into shape, put in trim, put in array; apportion. class, classify; divide; file, string together, thread; register &c (record) 551; catalogue, tabulate, index, graduate, digest, grade. methodize, regulate, systematize, coordinate, organize, settle, fix. unravel, disentangle, ravel, card; disembroil^; feaze^. Adj. arranged &c v.; embattled, in battle array; cut and dried; methodical, orderly, regular, systematic. Phr. In vast cumbrous array [Churchill]. 61. [Subversion of Order; bringing into disorder.] Derangement -- N. derangement &c v.; disorder &c 59; evection^, discomposure, disturbance; disorganization, deorganization^; dislocation; perturbation, interruption; shuffling &c v.; inversion &c 218; corrugation &c (fold) 258; involvement. interchange &c 148. V. derange; disarrange, misarrange^; displace, misplace; mislay, discompose, disorder; deorganize^, discombobulate, disorganize; embroil, unsettle, disturb, confuse, trouble, perturb, jumble, tumble; shuffle, randomize; huddle, muddle, toss, hustle, fumble, riot; bring into disorder, put into disorder, throw into disorder &c 59; muss [U.S.]; break the ranks, disconcert, convulse; break in upon. unhinge, dislocate, put out of joint, throw out of gear. turn topsy-turvy &c (invert) 218; bedevil; complicate, involve, perplex, confound; imbrangle^, embrangle^, tangle, entangle, ravel, tousle, towzle^, dishevel, ruffle; rumple &c (fold) 258. litter, scatter; mix &c 41. rearrange &c 148. Adj. deranged &c v.; syncretic, syncretistic^; mussy, messy; flaky; random, unordered [U.S.]. 2. CONSECUTIVE ORDER 62. Precedence -- N. precedence; coming before &c v.; the lead, le pas; superiority &c 33; importance &c 642; antecedence, antecedency^; anteriority &c (front) 234; precursor &c 64; priority &c 116; precession &c 280; anteposition^; epacme^; preference. V. precede; come before, come first; head, lead, take the lead; lead the way, lead the dance; be in the vanguard; introduce, usher in; have the pas; set the fashion &c (influence) 175; open the ball; take precedence, have precedence; have the start &c (get before) 280. place before; prefix; premise, prelude, preface. Adj. preceding &c v.; precedent, antecedent; anterior; prior &c 116; before; former; foregoing; beforementioned^, abovementioned^, aforementioned; aforesaid, said; precursory, precursive^; prevenient^, preliminary, prefatory, introductory; prelusive, prelusory; proemial^, preparatory. Adv. before; in advance &c (precession) 280. Phr. seniores priores [Lat.]; prior tempore prior jure [Lat.]. 63. Sequence -- N. sequence, coming after; going after &c (following) 281; consecution, succession; posteriority &c 117. continuation; order of succession; successiveness; paracme^. secondariness^; subordinancy &c (inferiority) 34. afterbirth, afterburden^; placenta, secundines [Med.]. V. succeed; come after, come on, come next; follow, ensue, step into the shoes of; alternate. place after, suffix, append. Adj. succeeding &c; v.; sequent^; subsequent, consequent, sequacious^, proximate, next; consecutive &c (continuity) 69; alternate, amoebean^. latter; posterior &c 117. Adv. after, subsequently; behind &c (rear) 235. 64. Precursor -- N. precursor, antecedent, precedent, predecessor; forerunner, vancourier^, avant-coureur [Fr.], pioneer, prodrome^, prodromos^, prodromus^, outrider; leader, bellwether; herald, harbinger; foreboding; dawn; avant-courier, avant-garde, bellmare^, forelooper^, foreloper^, stalking-horse, voorlooper [Afrik.], voortrekker [Afrik.]. prelude, preamble, preface, prologue, foreword, avant-propos [Fr.], protasis^, proemium^, prolusion^, proem, prolepsis [Gramm.], prolegomena, prefix, introduction; heading, frontispiece, groundwork; preparation &c 673; overture, exordium [Lat.], symphony; premises. prefigurement &c 511; omen &c 512. Adj. precursory; prelusive, prelusory, preludious^; proemial^, introductory, prefatory, prodromous^, inaugural, preliminary; precedent &c (prior) 116. Phr. a precedent embalms a principle [Disraeli]. 65. Sequel -- N. sequel, suffix, successor; tail, queue, train, wake, trail, rear; retinue, suite; appendix, postscript; epilogue; peroration; codicil; continuation, sequela^; appendage; tail piece [Fr.], heelpiece^; tag, more last words; colophon. aftercome^, aftergrowth^, afterpart^, afterpiece^, aftercourse^, afterthought, aftergame^; arriere pensee [Fr.], second thoughts; outgrowth. 66. Beginning -- N. beginning, commencement, opening, outset, incipience, inception, inchoation^; introduction &c (precursor) 64; alpha, initial; inauguration, debut, le premier pas, embarcation [Fr.], rising of the curtain; maiden speech; outbreak, onset, brunt; initiative, move, first move; narrow end of the wedge, thin end of the wedge; fresh start, new departure. origin &c (cause) 153; source, rise; bud, germ &c 153; egg, rudiment; genesis, primogenesis^, birth, nativity, cradle, infancy; start, inception, creation, starting point &c 293; dawn &c (morning) 125; evolution. title-page; head, heading; van &c (front) 234; caption, fatihah^. entrance, entry; inlet, orifice, mouth, chops, lips, porch, portal, portico, propylon^, door; gate, gateway; postern, wicket, threshold, vestibule; propylaeum^; skirts, border &c (edge) 231. first stage, first blush, first glance, first impression, first sight. rudiments, elements, outlines, grammar, alphabet, ABC. V. begin, start, commence; conceive, open, dawn, set in, take its rise, enter upon, enter; set out &c (depart) 293; embark in; incept^. initiate, launch, inaugurate. inchoate, rise, arise, originate. usher in; lead off, lead the way; take the lead, take the initiative; head; stand at the head, stand first, stand for; lay the foundations &c (prepare) 673; found &c (cause) 153; set up, set on foot, agoing^, set abroach^, set the ball in motion; apply the match to a train; broach; open up, open the door to. get underway, set about, get to work, set to work, set to; make a beginning, make a start. handsel; take the first step, lay the first stone, cut the first turf; break ground, break the ice, break cover; pass the Rubicon, cross the Rubicon; open fire, open the ball; ventilate, air; undertake &c 676. come into existence, come into the world; make one's debut, take birth; burst forth, break out; spring up, spring forth, crop up, pop up, appear, materialize. begin at the beginning, begin ab ovo [Lat.]. begin again, begin de novo; start afresh, make a fresh start, take it from the top, shuffle the cards, reshuffle the cards, resume, recommence. Adj. beginning &c v.; initial, initiatory, initiative; inceptive, introductory, incipient; proemial^, inaugural; inchoate, inchoative^; embryonic, rudimental; primogenial^; primeval, primitive, primordial &c (old) 124; aboriginal; natal, nascent. first, foremost, leading; maiden. begun &c v.; just begun &c v.. Adv. at the beginning, in the beginning, &c n.; first, in the first place, imprimis [Lat.], first and foremost; in limine [Lat.]; in the bud, in embryo, in its infancy; from the beginning, from its birth; ab initio [Lat.], ab ovo [Lat.], ab incunabilis [Lat.], ab origine [Lat.]. Phr. let's get going!, let's get this show on the road!, up and at 'em!; aller Anfang ist schwer [G.], dimidium facti qui coepit habet [Lat.] [Cicero]; omnium rerum principia parva sunt [Lat.] [Cicero]. 67. End -- N. end, close, termination; desinence^, conclusion, finis, finale, period, term, terminus, endpoint, last, omega; extreme, extremity; gable end, butt end, fag-end; tip, nib, point; tail &c (rear) 235; verge &c (edge) 231; tag, peroration; bonne bouche [Fr.]; bottom dollar, tail end, rear guard. consummation, denouement; finish &c (completion) 729; fate; doom, doomsday; crack of doom, day of Judgment, dies irae, fall of the curtain; goal, destination; limit, determination; expiration, expiry^, extinction, extermination; death &c 360; end of all things; finality; eschatology. break up, commencement de la fin, last stage, turning point; coup de grace, deathblow; knock-out-blow; sockdolager [U.S.]. V. end, close, finish, terminate, conclude, be all over; expire; die &c 360; come-, draw-to-a-close &c n.; have run its course; run out, pass away. bring to an end &c n.; put an end to, make an end of; determine; get through; achieve &c (complete) 729; stop &c (make to cease) 142; shut up shop; hang up one's fiddle. Adj. ending &c v.; final, terminal, definitive; crowning &c (completing) 729; last, ultimate; hindermost^; rear &c 235; caudal; vergent^. conterminate^, conterminous, conterminable^. ended &c v.; at an end; settled, decided, over, played out, set at rest; conclusive. penultimate; last but one, last but two, &c unbegun, uncommenced^; fresh. Adv. finally &c adj.; in fine; at the last; once for all. Phr. as high as Heaven and as deep as hell [Beaumont and Fletcher]; deficit omne quod nascitur [Lat.] [Quintilian]; en toute chose il faut considerer la fin [Fr.]; finem respice [Lat.]; ultimus Romanorum [Lat.]. 68. Middle -- N. middle, midst, mediety^, mean &c 29; medium, middle term; center &c 222, mid-course &c 628; mezzo termine [It]; juste milieu &c 628 [Fr.]; halfway house, nave, navel, omphalos^; nucleus, nucleolus. equidistance^, bisection, half distance; equator, diaphragm, midriff; intermediate &c 228. Adj. middle, medial, mesial [Med.], mean, mid, median, average; middlemost, midmost; mediate; intermediate &c (interjacent) 228; equidistant; central &c 222; mediterranean, equatorial; homocentric. Adv. in the middle; midway, halfway; midships^, amidships, in medias res. 69. [Uninterrupted sequence.] Continuity -- N. continuity; consecution, consecutiveness &c adj.; succession, round, suite, progression, series, train chain; catenation, concatenation; scale; gradation, course; ceaselessness, constant flow, unbroken extent. procession, column; retinue, cortege, cavalcade, rank and file, line of battle, array. pedigree, genealogy, lineage, race; ancestry, descent, family, house; line, line of ancestors; strain. rank, file, line, row, range, tier, string, thread, team; suit; colonnade. V. follow in a series, form a series &c n.; fall in. arrange in a series, collate &c n.; string together, file, thread, graduate, organize, sort, tabulate. Adj. continuous, continued; consecutive; progressive, gradual; serial, successive; immediate, unbroken, entire; linear; in a line, in a row &c n.; uninterrupted, unintermitting^; unremitting, unrelenting (perseverence) 604.1; perennial, evergreen; constant. Adv. continuously &c adj.; seriatim; in a line &c n.; in succession, in turn; running, gradually, step by step, gradatim [Lat.], at a stretch; in file, in column, in single file, in Indian file. 70. [Interrupted sequence.] Discontinuity -- N. discontinuity; disjunction &c 44; anacoluthon^; interruption, break, fracture, flaw, fault, crack, cut; gap &c (interval) 198; solution of continuity, caesura; broken thread; parenthesis, episode, rhapsody, patchwork; intermission; alternation &c (periodicity) 138; dropping fire. V. be discontinuous &c adj.; alternate, intermit, sputter, stop and start, hesitate. discontinue, pause, interrupt; intervene; break, break in upon, break off; interpose &c 228; break the thread, snap the thread; disconnect &c (disjoin) 44; dissever. Adj. discontinuous, unsuccessive^, broken, interrupted, dicousu [Fr.]; disconnected, unconnected; discrete, disjunctive; fitful &c (irregular) 139; spasmodic, desultory; intermitting, occasional &c v., intermittent; alternate; recurrent &c (periodic) 138. Adv. at intervals; by snatches, by jerks, by skips, by catches, by fits and starts; skippingly^, per saltum [Lat.]; longo intervallo [It]. Phr. like 'angel visits few and far between' [Campbell]. 71. Term -- N. term, rank, station, stage, step; degree &c 26; scale, remove, grade, link, peg, round of the ladder, status, position, place, point, mark, pas, period, pitch; stand, standing; footing, range. V. hold a place, occupy a place, find a place, fall into a place &c n.. 3. COLLECTIVE ORDER 72. Assemblage -- N. {opp. 73} assemblage; collection, collocation, colligation^; compilation, levy, gathering, ingathering, muster, attroupement^; team; concourse, conflux^, congregation, contesseration^, convergence &c 290; meeting, levee, reunion, drawing room, at home; conversazione [It] &c (social gathering) 892; assembly, congress; convention, conventicle; gemote^; conclave &c (council) 696; posse, posse comitatus [Lat.]; Noah's ark. miscellany, collectanea^; museum, menagerie &c (store) 636; museology^. crowd, throng, group; flood, rush, deluge; rabble, mob, press, crush, cohue^, horde, body, tribe; crew, gang, knot, squad, band, party; swarm, shoal, school, covey, flock, herd, drove; atajo^; bunch, drive, force, mulada [U.S.]; remuda^; roundup [U.S.]; array, bevy, galaxy; corps, company, troop, troupe, task force; army, regiment &c (combatants) 726; host &c (multitude) 102; populousness. clan, brotherhood, fraternity, sorority, association &c (party) 712. volley, shower, storm, cloud. group, cluster, Pleiades, clump, pencil; set, batch, lot, pack; budget, assortment, bunch; parcel; packet, package; bundle, fascine^, fasces^, bale; seron^, seroon^; fagot, wisp, truss, tuft; shock, rick, fardel^, stack, sheaf, haycock^; fascicle, fascicule^, fasciculus [Lat.], gavel, hattock^, stook^. accumulation &c (store) 636; congeries, heap, lump, pile, rouleau^, tissue, mass, pyramid; bing^; drift; snowball, snowdrift; acervation^, cumulation; glomeration^, agglomeration; conglobation^; conglomeration, conglomerate; coacervate [Chem], coacervation [Chem], coagmentation^, aggregation, concentration, congestion, omnium gaterum [Lat.], spicilegium^, black hole of Calcutta; quantity &c (greatness) 31. collector, gatherer; whip, whipper in. V. assemble [be or come together], collect, muster; meet, unite, join, rejoin; cluster, flock, swarm, surge, stream, herd, crowd, throng, associate; congregate, conglomerate, concentrate; precipitate; center round, rendezvous, resort; come together, flock get together, pig together; forgather; huddle; reassemble. [get or bring together] assemble, muster; bring together, get together, put together, draw together, scrape together, lump together; collect, collocate, colligate^; get, whip in; gather; hold a meeting; convene, convoke, convocate^; rake up, dredge; heap, mass, pile; pack, put up, truss, cram; acervate^; agglomerate, aggregate; compile; group, aggroup^, concentrate, unite; collect into a focus, bring into a focus; amass, accumulate &c (store) 636; collect in a dragnet; heap Ossa upon Pelion. Adj. assembled &c v.; closely packed, dense, serried, crowded to suffocation, teeming, swarming, populous; as thick as hops; all of a heap, fasciculated cumulative. Phr. the plot thickens; acervatim [Lat.]; tibi seris tibi metis [Lat.]. 73. Nonassemblage. Dispersion -- N. {opp. 72} dispersion; disjunction &c 44; divergence &c 291; aspersion; scattering &c v.; dissemination, diffusion, dissipation, distribution; apportionment &c 786; spread, respersion^, circumfusion^, interspersion, spargefaction^; affusion^. waifs and estrays^, flotsam and jetsam, disjecta membra [Lat.], [Horace]; waveson^. V. disperse, scatter, sow, broadcast, disseminate, diffuse, shed, spread, bestrew, overspread, dispense, disband, disembody, dismember, distribute; apportion &c 786; blow off, let out, dispel, cast forth, draught off; strew, straw, strow^; ted; spirtle^, cast, sprinkle; issue, deal out, retail, utter; resperse^, intersperse; set abroach^, circumfuse^. turn adrift, cast adrift; scatter to the winds; spread like wildfire, disperse themselves. Adj. unassembled &c (assemble) &c 72; dispersed &c v.; sparse, dispread, broadcast, sporadic, widespread; epidemic &c (general) 78; adrift, stray; disheveled, streaming. Adv. sparsim^, here and there, passim. 74. [Place of meeting.] Focus -- N. focus; point of convergence &c 290; corradiation^; center &c 222; gathering place, resort haunt retreat; venue; rendezvous; rallying point, headquarters, home, club; depot &c (store) 636; trysting place; place of meeting, place of resort, place of assignation; point de reunion; issue. V. bring to a point, bring to a focus, bring to an issue. 4. DISTRIBUTIVE ORDER 75. Class -- N. class, division, category, categorema^, head, order, section; department, subdepartment, province, domain. kind, sort, genus, species, variety, family, order, kingdom, race, tribe, caste, sept, clan, breed, type, subtype, kit, sect, set, subset; assortment; feather, kidney; suit; range; gender, sex, kin. manner, description, denomination, designation, rubric, character, stamp predicament; indication, particularization, selection, specification. similarity &c 17. 76. [Comprehension under, or reference to a class.] Inclusion -- N. {opp. 77} inclusion, admission, comprehension, reception. composition &c (inclusion in a compound) 54. V. be included in &c; come under, fall under, range under; belong to, pertain to; range with; merge in. include, comprise, comprehend, contain, admit, embrace, receive; inclose &c (circumscribe) 229; embody, encircle. reckon among, enumerate among, number among; refer to; place with, arrange with, place under; take into account. Adj. included, including &c v.; inclusive; congener, congenerous; of the same class &c 75; encircling. Phr. a maximis ad minima [Lat.], et hoc genus omne [Lat.], &c etc.; et coetera [Lat.]. 77. Exclusion -- N. {opp. 76} exclusion &c 55. 78. Generality -- N. {opp. 79} generality, generalization; universality; catholicity, catholicism; miscellany, miscellaneousness^; dragnet; common run; worldwideness^. everyone, everybody; all hands, all the world and his wife; anybody, N or M, all sorts. prevalence, run. V. be general &c adj.; prevail, be going about, stalk abroad. render general &c adj.; generalize. Adj. general, generic, collective; broad, comprehensive, sweeping; encyclopedical^, widespread &c (dispersed) 73. universal; catholic, catholical^; common, worldwide; ecumenical, oecumenical^; transcendental; prevalent, prevailing, rife, epidemic, besetting; all over, covered with. Pan-American, Anglican^, Pan-Hellenic, Pan-Germanic, slavic; panharmonic^. every, all; unspecified, impersonal. customary &c (habitual) 613. Adv. whatever, whatsoever; to a man, one and all. generally &c adj.; always, for better for worse; in general, generally speaking; speaking generally; for the most part; in the long run &c (on an average) 29. 79. Speciality -- N. {opp. 78} speciality, specialite^; individuality, individuity^; particularity, peculiarity; idiocrasy &c (tendency) 176; personality, characteristic, mannerism, idiosyncrasy; specificness &c adj.^; singularity &c (unconformity) 83; reading, version, lection; state; trait; distinctive feature; technicality; differentia. particulars, details, items, counts; minutiae. I, self, I myself; myself, himself, herself, itself. V. specify, particularize, individualize, realize, specialize, designate, determine; denote, indicate, point out, select. descend to particulars, enter into detail, go into detail, come to the point. Adj. special, particular, individual, specific, proper, personal, original, private, respective, definite, determinate, especial, certain, esoteric, endemic, partial, party, peculiar, appropriate, several, characteristic, diagnostic, exclusive; singular &c (exceptional) 83; idiomatic; idiotypical; typical. this, that; yon, yonder. Adv. specially, especially, particularly &c adj.; in particular, in propria persona [Lat.]; ad hominem [Lat.]; for my part. each, apiece, one by one, one at a time; severally, respectively, each to each; seriatim, in detail, in great detail, in excruciating detail, in mind-numbing detail; bit by bit; pro hac vice [Lat.], pro re nata [Lat.]. namely, that is to say, for example, id est, exemplia gratia [Lat.], e.g., i.e., videlicet, viz.; to wit. Phr. le style est l'homme meme [Fr.]. 5. ORDER AS REGARDS CATEGORIES 80. Normality -- N. normality, normalcy, normalness^; familiarity, naturalness; commonness (frequency) 136; rule, standard (conformity) 82; customary (habit) 613; standard, pattern (prototype) 22. V. normalize, standardize. Adj. normal, natural, unexceptional; common, usual (frequency) 136; 81. Multiformity -- N. multiformity, omniformity^; variety, diversity; multifariousness &c adj.; varied assortment. dissimilarity &c 18. Adj. polymorphous, multiform, multifold, multifarious, multigenerous^, multiplex; heterogeneous, diversified, dissimilar, various, varied, variform^; manifold, many-sided; variegated, motley, mosaic; epicene, indiscriminate, desultory, irregular; mixed, different, assorted, mingled, odd, diverse, divers; all manner of; of every description, of all sorts and kinds; et hoc genus omne [Lat.]; and what not? de omnibus rebus et quibusdam aliis [Lat.]. jumbled, confused, mixed up, discordant; inharmonious, unmatched, unrelated, nonuniform. omniform^, omnigenous^, omnifarious^; protean (form) 240. Phr. harmoniously confused [Pope]; variety's the very spice of life [Cowper]. 82. Conformity -- N. {opp. 83} conformity, conformance; observance; habituation. naturalization; conventionality &c (custom) 613; agreement &c 23. example, instance, specimen, sample, quotation; exemplification, illustration, case in point; object lesson; elucidation. standard, model, pattern &c (prototype) 22. rule, nature, principle; law; order of things; normal state, natural state, ordinary state, model state, normal condition, natural condition, ordinary condition, model condition; standing dish, standing order; Procrustean law; law of the Medes and Persians; hard and fast rule. V. conform to, conform to rule; accommodate oneself to, adapt oneself to; rub off corners. be regular &c adj.; move in a groove; follow observe the rules, go by the rules, bend to the rules, obey the rules, obey the precedents; comply with, tally with, chime in with, fall in with; be guided by, be regulated by; fall into a custom, fall into a usage; follow the fashion, follow the crowd, follow the multitude; pass muster, do as others do, hurler avec les loups [Fr.]; stand on ceremony; when in Rome do as the Romans do; go with the stream, go with the flow, swim with the stream, swim with the current, swim with the tide, blow with the wind; stick to the beaten track &c (habit) 613; keep one in countenance. exemplify, illustrate, cite, quote, quote precedent, quote authority, appeal to authority, put a case; produce an instance &c n.; elucidate, explain. Adj. conformable to rule; regular &c 136; according to regulation, according to rule, according to Hoyle, according to Cocker, according to Gunter; en regle [Fr.], selon les regles [Fr.], well regulated, orderly; symmetric &c 242. conventional &c (customary) 613; of daily occurrence, of everyday occurrence; in the natural order of things; ordinary, common, habitual, usual, everyday, workaday. in the order of the day; naturalized. typical, normal, nominal, formal; canonical, orthodox, sound, strict, rigid, positive, uncompromising, Procrustean. secundum artem [Lat.], shipshape, technical. exempIe [Fr.]. illustrative, in point. Adv. conformably &c adj.; by rule; agreeably to; in conformity with, in accordance with, in keeping with; according to; consistently with; as usual, ad instar [Lat.], instar omnium [Lat.]; more solito [Lat.], more-majorum. for the sake of conformity; as a matter of course, of course; pro forma [Lat.], for form's sake, by the card. invariably, &c (uniformly) 16. for example, exempli gratia [Lat.], e.g.; inter alia [Lat.], among other things; for instance. Phr. cela va sans dire [Fr.]; ex pede Herculem [Lat.]; noscitur a sociis [Lat.]; ne e quovis ligno Mercurius fiat [Lat.] [Erasmus]; they are happy men whose natures sort with their vocations [Bacon]. The nail that sticks up hammered down [Jap.Tr.]; Tall poppy syndrome; Stick your neck out and it may get cut off. 83. Unconformity -- N. {opp. 82} nonconformity &c 82; unconformity, disconformity; unconventionality, informality, abnormity^, abnormality, anomaly; anomalousness &c adj.^; exception, peculiarity; infraction of law, breach, of law, violation of law, violation of custom, violation of usage, infringement of law, infringement of custom, infringement of usage; teratism^, eccentricity, bizarrerie^, oddity, je ne sais quoi [Fr.], monster, monstrosity, rarity; freak, freak of Nature, weirdo, mutant; rouser, snorter [U.S.]. individuality, idiosyncrasy, originality, mannerism. aberration; irregularity; variety; singularity; exemption; salvo &c (qualification) 469. nonconformist; nondescript, character, original, nonesuch, nonsuch^, monster, prodigy, wonder, miracle, curiosity, flying fish, black sheep, black swan, lusus naturae [Lat.], rara avis [Lat.], queer fish; mongrel, random breed; half-caste, half-blood, half-breed; metis [Lat.], crossbreed, hybrid, mule, hinny, mulatto; tertium quid [Lat.], hermaphrodite. [Mythical animals] phoenix, chimera, hydra, sphinx, minotaur; griffin, griffon; centaur; saggittary^; kraken, cockatrice, wyvern, roc, dragon, sea serpent; mermaid, merman, merfolk^; unicorn; Cyclops, men whose heads do grow beneath their shoulders [Othello]; teratology. [unconformable to the surroundings] fish out of water; neither one thing nor another, neither fish nor fowl, neither fish flesh nor fowl nor good red herring; one in a million, one in a way, one in a thousand; outcast, outlaw; off the beaten track; oasis. V. be uncomformable &c adj.; abnormalize^; leave the beaten track, leave the beaten path; infringe a law, infringe a habit, infringe a usage, infringe a custom, break a law, break a habit, break a usage, break a custom, violate a law, violate a habit, violate a usage, violate a custom; drive a coach and six through; stretch a point; have no business there; baffle all description, beggar all description. Adj. uncomformable, exceptional; abnormal, abnormous^; anomalous, anomalistic; out of order, out of place, out of keeping, out of tune, out of one's element; irregular, arbitrary; teratogenic; lawless, informal, aberrant, stray, wandering, wanton; peculiar, exclusive, unnatural, eccentric, egregious; out of the beaten track, off the beaten track, out of the common, out of the common run; beyond the pale of, out of the pale of; misplaced; funny. unusual, unaccustomed, uncustomary, unwonted, uncommon; rare, curious, odd, extraordinary, out of the ordinary; strange, monstrous; wonderful &c 870; unexpected, unaccountable; outre [Fr.], out of the way, remarkable, noteworthy; queer, quaint, nondescript, none such, sui generis [Lat.]; unfashionable; fantastic, grotesque, bizarre; outlandish, exotic, tombe des nues [Fr.], preternatural; denaturalized^. heterogeneous, heteroclite [Gramm.], amorphous, mongrel, amphibious, epicene, half blood, hybrid; androgynous, androgynal^; asymmetric &c 243; adelomorphous^, bisexual, hermaphrodite, monoclinous^. qualified &c 469. singular, unique, one-of-a-kind. newfangled, novel, non-classical; original, unconventional, unheard of, unfamiliar; undescribed, unprecedented, unparalleled, unexampled. Adv. unconformably &c adj.; except, unless, save barring, beside, without, save and except, let alone. however, yet, but. once in a blue moon, once in a million years. Int. what on earth!, what in the world!, What the devil!, Holy cow!, Can you top that?; Sacre bleu [Fr.]. Phr. never was seen the like, never was heard the like, never was known the like. I could hardly believe it; I saw it, but I didn't believe it. SECTION V. NUMBER 1. NUMBER, IN THE ABSTRACT 84. Number -- N. number, symbol, numeral, figure, cipher, digit, integer; counter; round number; formula; function; series. sum, difference, complement, subtrahend; product; multiplicand, multiplier, multiplicator^; coefficient, multiple; dividend, divisor, factor, quotient, submultiple [Math.]; fraction, rational number; surd, irrational number; transcendental number; mixed number, complex number, complex conjugate; numerator, denominator; decimal, circulating decimal, repetend; common measure, aliquot part; prime number, prime, relative prime, prime factor, prime pair; reciprocal; totient^. binary number, octal number, hexadecimal number [Comp.]. permutation, combination, variation; election. ratio, proportion, comparison &c 464; progression; arithmetical progression, geometrical progression, harmonical progression^; percentage, permilage. figurate numbers^, pyramidal numbers, polygonal numbers. power, root, exponent, index, logarithm, antilogarithm; modulus, base. differential, integral, fluxion^, fluent. Adj. numeral, complementary, divisible, aliquot, reciprocal, prime, relatively prime, fractional, decimal, figurate^, incommensurable. proportional, exponential, logarithmic, logometric^, differential, fluxional^, integral, totitive^. positive, negative; rational, irrational; surd, radical, real; complex, imaginary; finite; infinite; impossible. Adv. numerically; modulo. 85. Numeration -- N. numeration; numbering &c v.; pagination; tale, recension^, enumeration, summation, reckoning, computation, supputation^; calculation, calculus; algorithm, algorism^, rhabdology^, dactylonomy^; measurement &c 466; statistics. arithmetic, analysis, algebra, geometry, analytical geometry, fluxions^; differential calculus, integral calculus, infinitesimal calculus; calculus of differences. [Statistics] dead reckoning, muster, poll, census, capitation, roll call, recapitulation; account &c (list) 86. [Operations] notation,, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, rule of three, practice, equations, extraction of roots, reduction, involution, evolution, estimation, approximation, interpolation, differentiation, integration. [Instruments] abacus, logometer^, slide rule, slipstick [Coll.], tallies, Napier's bones, calculating machine, difference engine, suan- pan^; adding machine; cash register; electronic calculator, calculator, computer; [people who calculate] arithmetician, calculator, abacist^, algebraist, mathematician; statistician, geometer; programmer; accountant, auditor. V. number, count, tally, tell; call over, run over; take an account of, enumerate, muster, poll, recite, recapitulate; sum; sum up, cast up; tell off, score, cipher, compute, calculate, suppute^, add, subtract, multiply, divide, extract roots. algebraize^. check, prove, demonstrate, balance, audit, overhaul, take stock; affix numbers to, page. amount to, add up to, come to. Adj. numeral, numerical; arithmetical, analytic, algebraic, statistical, numerable, computable, calculable; commensurable, commensurate; incommensurable, incommensurate, innumerable, unfathomable, infinite. Adv. quantitatively; arithmetically; measurably; in numbers. 86. List -- N. list, catalog, catalogue, inventory; register &c (record) 551. account; bill, bill of costs; terrier; tally, listing, itemization; atlas; book, ledger; catalogue raisonne [Fr.]; tableau; invoice, bill of lading; prospectus; bill of fare, menu, carte [Fr.]; score, census, statistics, returns. [list of topics in a document] contents, table of contents, outline; synopsis. [written list used as an aid to memory] checklist. table, chart, database; index, inverted file, word list, concordance. dictionary, lexicon; vocabulary, glossary; thesaurus. file, card index, card file, rolodex, address book. Red book, Blue book, Domesday book; cadastre [Fr.]; directory, gazetter^. almanac; army list, clergy list, civil service list, navy list; Almanach de Gotha^, cadaster; Lloyd's register, nautical almanac; who's who; Guiness's Book of World Records. roll; check roll, checker roll, bead roll; muster roll, muster book; roster, panel, jury list; cartulary, diptych. V. list, itemize; sort, collate; enumerate, tabulate, catalog, tally. Adj. cadastral^. 2. DETERMINATE NUMBER 87. Unity -- N. unity; oneness &c adj.; individuality; solitude &c (seclusion) 893; isolation &c (disjunction) 44; unification &c 48. one, unit, ace; individual; none else, no other. V. be one, be alone &c adj.; dine with Duke Humphrey^. isolate &c (disjoin) 44. render one; unite &c (join) 43, (combine) 48. Adj. one, sole, single, solitary, unitary; individual, apart, alone; kithless^. unaccompanied, unattended; solus [Lat.], single-handed; singular, odd, unique, unrepeated^, azygous, first and last; isolated &c (disjoined) 44; insular. monospermous^; unific^, uniflorous^, unifoliate^, unigenital^, uniliteral^, unijocular^, unimodal [Math.], unimodular^. lone, lonely, lonesome; desolate, dreary. insecable^, inseverable^, indiscerptible^; compact, indivisible, atomic, irresolvable^. Adv. singly &c adj.; alone, by itself, per se, only, apart, in the singular number, in the abstract; one by one, one at a time; simply; one and a half, sesqui-^. Phr. natura il fece [It], e poi roppe la stampa [It]; du fort au faible [Fr.]; two souls with but a single thought, two hearts that beat as one. 88. Accompaniment -- N. accompaniment; adjunct &c 39; context; appendage, appurtenance. coexistence, concomitance, company, association, companionship; partnership, copartnership; coefficiency^. concomitant, accessory, coefficient; companion, buddy, attendant, fellow, associate, friend, colleague; consort, spouse, mate; partner, co-partner; satellite, hanger on, fellow-traveller, shadow; escort, cortege; attribute. V. accompany, coexist, attend; hang on, wait on; go hand in hand with; synchronize &c 120; bear company, keep company; row in the same boat; bring in its train; associate with, couple with. Adj. accompanying &c v.; concomitant, fellow, twin, joint; associated with, coupled with; accessory, attendant, obbligato. Adv. with, withal; together with, along with, in company with; hand in hand, side by side; cheek by jowl, cheek by jole^; arm in arm; therewith, herewith; and &c (addition) 37. together, in a body, collectively. Phr. noscitur a sociis [Lat.]; virtutis fortuna comes [Lat.]. 89. Duality -- N. duality, dualism; duplicity; biplicity^, biformity^; polarity. two, deuce, couple, duet, brace, pair, cheeks, twins, Castor and Pollux, gemini, Siamese twins; fellows; yoke, conjugation; dispermy^, doublets, dyad, span. V. pair [unite in pairs], couple, bracket, yoke; conduplicate^; mate, span [U.S.]. Adj. two, twin; dual, dualistic, double; binary, binomial; twin, biparous^; dyadic [Math.]; conduplicate^; duplex &c 90; biduous^, binate^, diphyletic^, dispermic^, unijugate^; tete-a-tete. coupled &c v.; conjugate. both, both the one and the other. 90. Duplication -- N. duplication; doubling &c v.; gemination, ingemination^; reduplication; iteration &c (repetition) 104; renewal. V. double, redouble, duplicate, reduplicate; geminate; repeat &c 104; renew &c 660. Adj. double; doubled &c v.; bicipital^, bicephalous^, bidental^, bilabiate, bivalve, bivalvular^, bifold^, biform^, bilateral; bifarious^, bifacial^; twofold, two-sided; disomatous^; duplex; double-faced, double-headed; twin, duplicate, ingeminate^; second. Adv. twice, once more; over again &c (repeatedly) 104; as much again, twofold. secondly, in the second place, again. 91. [Division into two parts.] bisection -- N. bisection, bipartition; dichotomy, subdichotomy^; halving &c v.; dimidiation^. bifurcation, forking, branching, ramification, divarication; fork, prong; fold. half, moiety. V. bisect, halve, divide, split, cut in two, cleave dimidiate^, dichotomize. go halves, divide with. separate, fork, bifurcate; branch off, out; ramify. Adj. bisected &c v.; cloven, cleft; bipartite, biconjugate^, bicuspid, bifid; bifurcous^, bifurcate, bifurcated; distichous, dichotomous, furcular^; semi-, demi-, hemi^. 92. Triality -- N. Triality^, trinity; triunity^. three, triad, triplet, trey, trio, ternion^, leash; shamrock, tierce^, spike-team [U.S.], trefoil; triangle, trident, triennium^, trigon^, trinomial, trionym^, triplopia^, tripod, trireme, triseme^, triskele^, triskelion, trisula^. third power, cube; cube root. Adj. three; triform^, trinal^, trinomial; tertiary; ternary; triune; triarch, triadie^; triple &c 93. tri- [Pref.], tris- [Pref.]. Phr. tria juncta in uno [Lat.]. 93. Triplication -- N. triplication, triplicity^; trebleness^, trine. V. treble, triple; triplicate, cube. Adj. treble, triple; tern, ternary; triplicate, threefold, trilogistic^; third; trinal^, trine. Adv. three times, three fold; thrice, in the third place, thirdly; trebly &c adj.. 94. [Division into three parts.] Trisection -- N. trisection, tripartition^, trichotomy; third, third part. V. trisect, divide into three parts. Adj. trifid; trisected &c v.; tripartite, trichotomous^, trisulcate^. Triadelphous^, triangular, tricuspid, tricapsular^, tridental^, tridentate, tridentiferous^, trifoliate, trifurcate, trigonal^, trigrammic^, trigrammatic^, tripetalous^, tripodal, tripodic^, triquetral^, triquetrous^. 95. Four -- N. quaternity^, four, tetrad, quartet, quaternion, square, quarter. [planar form with four sides] tetract^, tetragon, quadrangle, rectangle. [three dimensional object with four surfaces] tetrahedron. quadrature, quadrifoil, quadriform, quadruplet; quatrefoil. [object or animal with four legs] tetrapod. [geographical area with four sides] quadrangle, quad [Coll.]. [electromagnetic object] quadrupole. [four fundamental studies] quadrivium. V. reduce to a square, square. Adj. four; quaternary, quaternal^; quadratic; quartile; tetract^, tetractic^, tetractinal^; tetrad, tetragonal; square, quadrate. 96. Quadruplication -- N. quadruplication. V. multiply by four, quadruplicate, biquadrate^. Adj. fourfold, four times; quadrable^, quadrumanous^, quadruple, quadruplicate, quadrible^; fourth. quadrifoliate^, quadrifoliolate^, quadrigeminal^, quadrigeminate^, quadriplanar^, quadriserial^. Adv. four times; in the fourth place, fourthly. 97. [Division into four parts.] Quadrisection -- N. quadrisection, quadripartition^; quartering &c v.; fourth; quart; quarter, quartern^; farthing^, fourthing; quadrant. V. quarter, divide into four parts. Adj. quartered &c v.; quadrifid^, quadripartite. rectangular. 98. Five &c -- N. five, cinque [Fr.], quint, quincux^; six, half-a- dozen, half dozen; seven; eight; nine, three times three; dicker; ten, decade; eleven; twelve, dozen; thirteen; long dozen, baker's dozen; quintuplet; twenty, score; twenty-four, four and twenty, two dozen; twenty-five, five and twenty, quarter of a hundred; forty, two score; fifty, half a hundred; sixty, three score; seventy, three score and ten; eighty, four score; ninety, fourscore and ten; sestiad^. hundred, centenary, hecatomb, century; hundredweight, cwt.; one hundred and forty-four, gross. thousand, chiliad; millennium, thousand years, grand [Coll.]; myriad; ten thousand, ban [Jap.], man [Jap.]; ten thousand years, banzai [Jap.]; lac, one hundred thousand, plum; million; thousand million, milliard, billion, trillion &c V. centuriate^; quintuplicate. Adj. five, quinary^, quintuple; fifth; senary^, sextuple; sixth; seventh; septuple; octuple; eighth; ninefold, ninth; tenfold, decimal, denary^, decuple^, tenth; eleventh; duodenary^, duodenal; twelfth; in one's 'teens, thirteenth. vicesimal^, vigesimal; twentieth; twenty-fourth &c n.; vicenary^, vicennial^. centuple^, centuplicate^, centennial, centenary, centurial^; secular, hundredth; thousandth, &c 99. Quinquesection &c -- N. division by five &c 98; quinquesection &c; decimation; fifth &c V. decimate; quinquesect. Adj. quinquefid, quinquelateral, quinquepartite; quinqevalent, pentavalent; quinquarticular^; octifid^; decimal, tenth, tithe; duodecimal, twelfth; sexagesimal^, sexagenary^; hundredth, centesimal; millesimal &c 100. {opp. 87} [More than one.] Plurality -- N. plurality; a number, a certain number; one or two, two or three &c; a few, several; multitude &c 102; majority. [large number] multitude &c 102. Adj. plural, more than one, upwards of; some, several, a few; certain; not alone &c 87. Adv. et cetera, &c etc. among other things, inter alia [Lat.]. Phr. non deficit alter [Lat.]. 3. INDETERMINATE NUMBER 100a. [Less than one.] Fraction -- N. fraction, fractional part; part &c 51. Adj. fractional, fragmentary, inconsiderable, negligible, infinitesimal. 101. Zero -- N. zero, nothing; null, nul, naught, nought, void; cipher, goose egg; none, nobody, no one; nichts [G.], nixie [Slang], nix [Slang]; zilch [Slang], zip [Slang], zippo [Slang]; not a soul; ame qui vive [Fr.]; absence &c 187; unsubstantiality &c 4 [Obs.]. Adj. not one, not a one, not any, nary a one [Dial.]; not a, never a; not a whit of, not an iota of, not a drop of, not a speck of, not a jot; not a trace of, not a hint of, not a smidgen of, not a suspicion of, not a shadow of, neither hide nor hair of. 102. Multitude -- N. multitude; numerous &c adj.; numerosity, numerality; multiplicity; profusion &c (plenty) 639; legion, host; great number, large number, round number, enormous number; a quantity, numbers, array, sight, army, sea, galaxy; scores, peck, bushel, shoal, swarm, draught, bevy, cloud, flock, herd, drove, flight, covey, hive, brood, litter, farrow, fry, nest; crowd &c (assemblage) 72; lots; all in the world and his wife. [Increase of number] greater number, majority; multiplication, multiple. V. be numerous &c adj.; swarm with, teem with, creep with; crowd, swarm, come thick upon; outnumber, multiply; people; swarm like locusts, swarm like bees. Adj. many, several, sundry, divers, various, not a few; Briarean; a hundred, a thousand, a myriad, a million, a quadrillion, a nonillion, a thousand and one; some ten or a dozen, some forty or fifty &c; half a dozen, half a hundred &c; very many, full many, ever so many; numerous; numerose^; profuse, in profusion; manifold, multiplied, multitudinous, multiple, multinominal, teeming, populous, peopled, crowded, thick, studded; galore. thick coming, many more, more than one can tell, a world of; no end of, no end to; cum multis aliis [Lat.]; thick as hops, thick as hail; plenty as blackberries; numerous as the stars in the firmament, numerous as the sands on the seashore, numerous as the hairs on the head; and what not, and heaven knows what; endless &c (infinite) 105. Phr. their name is 'legion'; acervatim [Lat.]; en foule [Fr.]; many- headed multitude [Sidney]; numerous as glittering gems of morning dew [Young]; vel prece vel pretio [Lat.]. 103. Fewness -- N. fewness &c adj.; paucity, small number; small quantity &c 32; rarity; infrequency &c 137; handful, maniple; minority; exiguity. [Diminution of number] reduction; weeding &c v.; elimination, sarculation^, decimation; eradication. V. be few &c adj.. render few &c adj.; reduce, diminish the number, weed, eliminate, cull, thin, decimate. Adj. few; scant, scanty; thin, rare, scattered, thinly scattered, spotty, few and far between, exiguous; infrequent &c 137; rari nantes [Lat.]; hardly any, scarcely any; to be counted on one's fingers; reduced &c v.; unrepeated^. Adv. rarely, here and there. 104. Repetition -- N. repetition, iteration, reiteration, harping, recurrence, succession, run; battology, tautology; monotony, tautophony; rhythm &c 138; diffuseness, pleonasm, redundancy. chimes, repetend, echo, ritornello^, burden of a song, refrain; rehearsal; rechauffe [Fr.], rifacimento [It], recapitulation. cuckoo &c (imitation) 19; reverberation &c 408; drumming &c (roll) 407; renewal &c (restoration) 660. twice-told tale; old story, old song; second edition, new edition; reappearance, reproduction, recursion [Comp.]; periodicity &c 138. V. repeat, iterate, reiterate, reproduce, echo, reecho, drum, harp upon, battologize^, hammer, redouble. recur, revert, return, reappear, recurse [Comp.]; renew &c (restore) 660. rehearse; do over again, say over again; ring the changes on; harp on the same string; din in the ear, drum in the ear; conjugate in all its moods tenses and inflexions^, begin again, go over the same ground, go the same round, never hear the last of; resume, return to, recapitulate, reword. Adj. repeated &c v.; repetitional^, repetitionary^; recurrent, recurring; ever recurring, thick coming; frequent, incessant; redundant, pleonastic. monotonous, harping, iterative, recursive [Comp.], unvaried; mocking, chiming; retold; aforesaid, aforenamed^; above-mentioned, above-said; habitual &c 613; another. Adv. repeatedly, often, again, anew, over again, afresh, once more; ding-dong, ditto, encore, de novo, bis^, da capo [It]. again and again; over and over, over and over again; recursively [Comp.]; many times over; time and again, time after time; year after year; day by day &c; many times, several times, a number of times; many a time, full many a time; frequently &c 136. Phr. ecce iterum Crispinus [Lat.]; toujours perdrix [Fr.]; cut and come again [Crabbe]; tomorrow and tomorrow and tomorrow [Macbeth]; cantilenam eandem canis [Lat.] [Terence]; nullum est jam dictum quod non dictum sit prius [Lat.] [Terence]. 105. Infinity -- N. infinity, infinitude, infiniteness &c adj.; perpetuity &c 112; boundlessness. V. be infinite &c adj.; know no limits, have no limits, know no bounds, have no bounds; go on for ever. Adj. infinite; immense; numberless, countless, sumless^, measureless; innumerable, immeasurable, incalculable, illimitable, inexhaustible, interminable, unfathomable, unapproachable; exhaustless, indefinite; without number, without measure, without limit, without end; incomprehensible; limitless, endless, boundless, termless^; untold, unnumbered, unmeasured, unbounded, unlimited; illimited^; perpetual &c 112. Adv. infinitely &c adj.; ad infinitum. Phr. as boundless as the sea [Romeo and Juliet]. SECTION VI. TIME 1. ABSOLUTE TIME 106. Time -- N. time, duration; period, term, stage, space, span, spell, season; the whole time, the whole period; space-time; course &c 109; snap. intermediate time, while, interim, interval, pendency^; intervention, intermission, intermittence, interregnum, interlude; respite. era, epoch; time of life, age, year, date; decade &c (period) 108; moment, &c (instant) 113. glass of time, sands of time, march of time, Father Time, ravages of time; arrow of time; river of time, whirligig of time, noiseless foot of time; scythe. V. continue last endure, go on, remain, persist; intervene; elapse &c 109; hold out. take time, take up time, fill time, occupy time. pass time, pass away time, spend time, while away time, consume time, talk against time; tide over; use time, employ time; seize an opportunity &c 134; waste time &c (be inactive) 683. Adj. continuing &c v.; on foot; permanent &c (durable) 110. Adv. while, whilst, during, pending; during the time, during the interval; in the course of, at that point, at that point in time; for the time being, day by day; in the time of, when; meantime, meanwhile; in the meantime, in the interim; ad interim, pendente lite [Lat.]; de die in diem [Lat.]; from day to day, from hour to hour &c; hourly, always; for a time, for a season; till, until, up to, yet, as far as, by that time, so far, hereunto, heretofore, prior to this, up to this point. the whole time, all the time; all along; throughout &c (completely) 52; for good &c (diuturnity) 110. hereupon, thereupon, whereupon; then; anno Domini, A.D.; ante Christum, A.C.; before Christ, B.C.; anno urbis conditae [Lat.], A.U.C.; anno regni [Lat.], A.R.; once upon a time, one fine morning, one fine day, one day, once. Phr. time flies, tempus fugit [Lat.]; time runs out, time runs against, race against time, racing the clock, time marches on, time is of the essence, time and tide wait for no man. ad calendas Groecas [Lat.]; panting Time toileth after him in vain [Johnson]; 'gainst the tooth of time and razure of oblivion [Contr.] [Measure for Measure]; rich with the spoils of time [Gray]; tempus edax rerum [Lat.] [Horace]; the long hours come and go [C.G. Rossetti]; the time is out of joint [Hamlet]; Time rolls his ceaseless course [Scott]; Time the foe of man's dominion [Peacock]; time wasted is existence, used is life [Young]; truditur dies die [Lat.] [Horace]; volat hora per orbem [Lat.] [Lucretius]; carpe diem [Lat.]. 107. Neverness -- N. neverness; absence of time, no time; dies non; Tib's eve; Greek Kalends, a blue moon. Adv. never, ne'er [Contr.]; at no time, at no period; on the second Tuesday of the week, when Hell freezes over; on no occasion, never in all one's born days, nevermore, sine die; in no degree. 108. [Definite duration, or portion of time.] Period -- N. period, age, era; second, minute, hour, day, week, month, quarter, year, decade, decenniumm lustrum^, quinquennium, lifetime, generation; epoch, ghurry^, lunation^, moon. century, millennium; annus magnus [Lat.]. Adj. horary^; hourly, annual &c (periodical) 138. 108a. Contingent Duration -- Adv. during pleasure, during good behavior; quamdiu se bene gesserit [Lat.]. 109. [Indefinite duration.] Course -- N. corridors of time, sweep of time, vesta of time^, course of time, progress of time, process of time, succession of time, lapse of time, flow of time, flux of time, stream of time, tract of time, current of time, tide of time, march of time, step of time, flight of time; duration &c 106. [Indefinite time] aorist^. V. elapse, lapse, flow, run, proceed, advance, pass; roll on, wear on, press on; flit, fly, slip, slide, glide; run its course. run out, expire; go by, pass by; be past &c 122. Adj. elapsing &c v.; aoristic^; progressive. Adv. in due time, in due season; in in due course, in due process, in the fullness of time; in time. Phr. labitur et labetur [Lat.] [Horace]; truditur dies die [Lat.] [Horace]; fugaces labuntur anni [Lat.] [Horace]; tomorrow and tomorrow and tomorrow creeps in this petty pace from day to day [Macbeth]. 110. [Long duration.] Diuturnity -- N. diuturnity^; a long time, a length of time; an age, a century, an eternity; slowness &c 275; perpetuity &c 112; blue moon, coon's age [U.S.], dog's age. durableness, durability; persistence, endlessness, lastingness &c adj.^; continuance, standing; permanence &c (stability) 150; survival, survivance^; longevity &c (age) 128; distance of time. protraction of time, prolongation of time, extension of time; delay &c (lateness) 133. V. last, endure, stand, remain, abide, continue, brave a thousand years. tarry &c (be late) 133; drag on, drag its slow length along, drag a lengthening chain; protract, prolong; spin out, eke out, draw out, lengthen out; temporize; gain time, make time, talk against time. outlast, outlive; survive; live to fight again. Adj. durable; lasting &c v.; of long duration, of long-standing; permanent, endless, chronic, long-standing; intransient^, intransitive; intransmutable^, persistent; lifelong, livelong; longeval^, long-lived, macrobiotic, diuturnal^, evergreen, perennial; sempervirent^, sempervirid^; unrelenting, unintermitting^, unremitting; perpetual &c 112. lingering, protracted, prolonged, spun out &c v.. long-pending, long-winded; slow &c 275. Adv. long; for a long time, for an age, for ages, for ever so long, for many a long day; long ago &c (in a past time) 122; longo intervallo [It]. all the day long, all the year round; the livelong day, as the day is long, morning noon and night; hour after hour, day after day, &c; for good; permanently &c adj.. 111. [Short duration.] Transientness -- N. transience, transientness &c adj.^; evanescence, impermanence, fugacity [Chem], caducity^, mortality, span; nine days' wonder, bubble, Mayfly; spurt; flash in the pan; temporary arrangement, interregnum. velocity &c 274; suddenness &c 113; changeableness &c 149. transient, transient boarder, transient guest [U.S.]. V. be transient &c adj.; flit, pass away, fly, gallop, vanish, fade, evaporate; pass away like a cloud, pass away like a summer cloud, pass away like a shadow, pass away like a dream. Adj. transient, transitory, transitive; passing, evanescent, fleeting, cursory, short-lived, ephemeral; flying &c v.; fugacious, fugitive; shifting, slippery; spasmodic; instantaneous, momentaneous^. temporal, temporary; provisional, provisory; deciduous; perishable, mortal, precarious, unstable, insecure; impermanent. brief, quick, brisk, extemporaneous, summary; pressed for time &c (haste) 684; sudden, momentary &c (instantaneous) 113. Adv. temporarily &c adj.; pro tempore [Lat.]; for the moment, for a time; awhile, en passant [Fr.], in transitu [Lat.]; in a short time; soon &c (early) 132; briefly &c adj.; at short notice; on the point of, on the eve of; in articulo; between cup and lip. Phr. one's days are numbered; the time is up; here today and gone tomorrow; non semper erit aestas [Lat.]; eheu! fugaces labuntur anni [Lat.]; sic transit gloria mundi [Lat.]; a schoolboy's tale, the wonder of the hour! [Byron]; dum loquimur fugerit invidia aetas [Lat.]; fugit hora [Lat.]; all that is transitory is but an illusion [Goethe]. 112. [Endless duration.] Perpetuity -- N. perpetuity, eternity, everness^, aye, sempiternity^, immortality, athanasia^; interminability^, agelessness^, everlastingness &c adj.; perpetuation; continued existence, uninterrupted existence; perennity^; permanence (durability) 110. V. last forever, endure forever, go on forever; have no end. eternize, perpetuate. Adj. perpetual, eternal; everduring^, everlasting, ever-living, ever- flowing; continual, sempiternal^; coeternal; endless, unending; ceaseless, incessant, uninterrupted, indesinent^, unceasing; endless, unending, interminable, having no end; unfading^, evergreen, amaranthine; neverending^, never-dying, never-fading; deathless, immortal, undying, imperishable. Adv. perpetually &c adj.; always, ever, evermore, aye; for ever, for aye, till the end of the universe, forevermore, forever and a day, for ever and ever; in all ages, from age to age; without end; world without end, time without end; in secula seculorum [Lat.]; to the end of time, to the crack of doom, to the 'last syllable of recorded time' [Macbeth]; till doomsday; constantly &c (very frequently) 136. Phr. esto perpetuum [Lat.]; labitur et labetur in omne volubilis oevum [Lat.] [Horace]; but thou shall flourish in immortal youth [Addison]; Eternity! thou pleasing, dreadful thought [Addison]; her immortal part with angels lives [Romeo and Juliet]; ohne Rast [G.], [Goethe's motto]; ora e sempre [It]. 113. [Point of time] Instantaneity -- N. instantaneity, instantaneousness, immediacy; suddenness, abruptness. moment, instant, second, minute; twinkling, trice, flash, breath, crack, jiffy, coup, burst, flash of lightning, stroke of time. epoch, time; time of day, time of night; hour, minute; very minute &c, very time, very hour; present time, right time, true time, exact correct time. V. be instantaneous &c adj.; twinkle, flash. Adj. instantaneous, momentary, sudden, immediate, instant, abrupt, discontinuous, precipitous, precipitant, precipitate; subitaneous^, hasty; quick as thought, quick as lightning, quick as a flash; rapid as electricity. speedy, quick, fast, fleet, swift, lively, blitz; rapid (velocity) 274. Adv. instantaneously &c adj.; in no time, in less than no time; presto, subito^, instanter, suddenly, at a stroke, like a shot; in a moment &c n.. in the blink of an eye, in the twinkling of an eye, in a trice; in one's tracks; right away; toute a l'heure [Fr.]; at one jump, in the same breath, per saltum [Lat.], uno saltu [Lat.]; at once, all at once; plump, slap; at one fell swoop; at the same instant &c n.; immediately &c (early) 132; extempore, on the moment, on the spot, on the spur of the moment; no sooner said than done; just then; slap-dash &c (haste) 684. Phr. touch and go; no sooner said than done. 114. [Estimation, measurement, and record of time.] Chronometry -- N. chronometry, horometry^, horology; date, epoch; style, era. almanac, calendar, ephemeris; register, registry; chronicle, annals, journal, diary. [Instruments for the measurement of time] chronogram; clock, wall clock, pendulum clock, grandfather's clock, cuckoo clock, alarm clock, clock radio; watch, wristwatch, pocket watch, stopwatch, Swiss watch; atomic clock, digital clock, analog clock, quartz watch, water clock; chronometer, chronoscope^, chronograph; repeater; timekeeper, timepiece; dial, sundial, gnomon, horologe, pendulum, hourglass, clepsydra^; ghurry^. chronographer^, chronologer, chronologist, timekeeper; annalist. calendar year, leap year, Julian calendar, Gregorian calendar, Chinese calendar, Jewish calendar, perpetual calendar, Farmer's almanac, fiscal year. V. fix the time, mark the time; date, register, chronicle; measure time, beat time, mark time; bear date; synchronize watches. Adj. chronological, chronometrical^, chronogrammatical^; cinquecento [Fr.], quattrocento^, trecento^. Adv. o'clock. 115. [False estimate of time.] Anachronism -- N. anachronism, metachronism, parachronism, prochronism; prolepsis, misdate; anticipation, antichronism. disregard of time, neglect of time, oblivion of time. intempestivity &c 135 [Obs.]. V. misdate, antedate, postdate, backdate, overdate^; anticipate; take no note of time, lose track of time; anachronize^. Adj. misdated &c v.; undated; overdue, past due; out of date. 2. RELATIVE TIME 1. Time with reference to Succession 116. Priority -- N. priority, antecedence, anteriority, precedence, pre-existence; precession &c 280; precursor &c 64; the past &c 122; premises. V. precede, come before; forerun; go before &c (lead) 280; preexist; dawn; presage &c 511; herald, usher in. be beforehand &c (be early) 132; steal a march upon, anticipate, forestall; have the start, gain the start. Adj. prior, previous; preceding, precedent; anterior, antecedent; pre- existing, pre-existent; former, foregoing; aforementioned, before- mentioned, abovementioned; aforesaid, said; introductory &c (precursory) 64. Adv. before, prior to; earlier; previously &c adj.; afore^, aforehand^, beforehand, ere, theretofore, erewhile^; ere then, ere now, before then, before now; erewhile^, already, yet, beforehand; on the eve of. Phr. prior tempore prior jure [Lat.]. 117. Posteriority -- N. posteriority; succession, sequence; following &c 281; subsequence, supervention; futurity &c 121; successor; sequel &c 65; remainder, reversion. V. follow after &c 281, come after, go after; succeed, supervene; ensue, occur; step into the shoes of. Adj. subsequent, posterior, following, after, later, succeeding, postliminious^, postnate^; postdiluvial^, postdiluvian^; puisne^; posthumous; future &c 121; afterdinner, postprandial. Adv. subsequently, after, afterwards, since, later; at a subsequent, at a later period, at a later date; next, in the sequel, close upon, thereafter, thereupon, upon which, eftsoons^; from that time, from that moment; after a while, after a time; in process of time. 118. The Present Time -- N. the present, the present time, the present day, the present moment, the present juncture, the present occasion; the times, the existing time, the time being; today, these days, nowadays, our times, modern times, the twentieth century; nonce, crisis, epoch, day, hour. age, time of life. Adj. present, actual, instant, current, existing, extant, that is; present-day, up-to-date, up-to-the-moment. Adv. at this time, at this moment &c 113; at the present time &c n.; now, at present; at hand. at this time of day, today, nowadays; already; even now, but now, just now; on the present occasion; for the time being, for the nonce; pro hac vice. [Lat.]; on the nail, on the spot; on the spur of the moment, until now; to this day, to the present day. Phr. the present hour alone is man's [Johnson]. 119. [Time different from the present.] Different time -- N. different time, other time. [Indefinite time] aorist. Adj. aoristic; indefinite. Adv. at that time, at which time, at that moment, at that instant; then, on that occasion, upon; not now, some other time. when; whenever, whensoever; upon which, on which occasion; at another time, at a different time, at some other time, at any time; at various times; some one of these days, one of these days, one fine morning; eventually, some day, by and by, sooner or later; some time or other; once upon a time. 120. Synchronism -- N. synchronism; coexistence, coincidence; simultaneousness, simultaneity &c adj.; concurrence, concomitance, unity of time, interim. [Having equal times] isochronism^. contemporary, coetanian^. V. coexist, concur, accompany, go hand in hand, keep pace with; synchronize. Adj. synchronous, synchronal^, synchronic, synchronical, synchronistical^; simultaneous, coexisting, coincident, concomitant, concurrent; coeval, coevous^; contemporary, contemporaneous; coetaneous^; coeternal; isochronous. Adv. at the same time; simultaneously &c adj.; together, in concert, during the same time; in the same breath; pari passu [Lat.]; in the interim; as one. at the very moment &c 113; just as, as soon as; meanwhile &c (while) 106. 121. [Prospective time.] Futurity -- N. futurity, futurition; future, hereafter, time to come; approaching time, coming time, subsequent time, after time, approaching age, coming age, subsequent age, after age, approaching days, coming days, subsequent days, after days, approaching hours, coming hours, subsequent hours, after hours, approaching ages, coming ages, subsequent ages, after ages, approaching life, coming life, subsequent life, after life, approaching years, coming years, subsequent years, after years; morrow; millennium, doomsday, day of judgment, crack of doom, remote future. approach of time advent, time drawing on, womb of time; destiny &c 152; eventuality. heritage, heirs posterity. prospect &c (expectation) 507; foresight &c 510. V. look forwards; anticipate &c (expect) 507, (foresee) 510; forestall &c (be early) 132. come on, draw on; draw near; approach, await, threaten; impend &c (be destined) 152. Adj. future, to come; coming &c (impending) 152; next, near; close at hand; eventual, ulterior; in prospect &c (expectation) 507. Adv. prospectively, hereafter, in future; kal^, tomorrow, the day after tomorrow; in course of time, in process of time, in the fullness of time; eventually, ultimately, sooner or later; proximo [Lat.]; paulo post futurum [Lat.]; in after time; one of these days; after a time, after a while. from this time; henceforth, henceforwards^; thence; thenceforth, thenceforward; whereupon, upon which. soon &c (early) 132; on the eve of, on the point of, on the brink of; about to; close upon. Phr. quid sit futurum cras fuge quaerere [Lat.] [Horace]. 122. [Retrospective time.] The Past -- N. the past, past time; days of yore, times of yore, days of old, times of old, days past, times past, days gone by, times gone by; bygone days; old times, ancient times, former times; fore time; the good old days, the olden time, good old time; auld lang syne^; eld^. antiquity, antiqueness^, status quo; time immemorial; distance of time; remote age, remote time; remote past; rust of antiquity. [study of the past] paleontology, paleography, paleology^; paleozoology; palaetiology^, archaeology; paleogeography; paleoecology; paleobotany; paleoclimatoogy; archaism, antiquarianism, medievalism, Pre-Raphaelitism; paleography. retrospect, retrospection, looking back, memory &c 505. laudator temporis acti [Lat.]; medievalist, Pre-Raphaelite; antiquary, antiquarian; archmologist &c; Oldbuck, Dryasdust. ancestry &c (paternity) 166. V. be past &c adj.; have expired &c adj., have run its course, have had its day; pass; pass by, go by, pass away, go away, pass off, go off; lapse, blow over. look back, trace back, cast the eyes back; exhume. Adj. past, gone, gone by, over, passed away, bygone, foregone; elapsed, lapsed, preterlapsed^, expired, no more, run out, blown over, has-been, that has been, extinct, antediluvian, antebellum, never to return, gone with the wind, exploded, forgotten, irrecoverable; obsolete &c (old) 124. former, pristine, quondam, ci-devant [Fr.], late; ancestral. foregoing; last, latter; recent, over night; preterperfect^, preterpluperfect^. looking back &c v.; retrospective, retroactive; archaeological &c n.. Adv. paleo-; archaeo-; formerly; of old, of yore; erst [G.], whilom, erewhile^, time was, ago, over; in the olden time &c n.; anciently, long ago, long since; a long while, a long time ago; years ago, yesteryear, ages ago; some time ago, some time since, some time back. yesterday, the day before yesterday; last year, ultimo; lately &c (newly) 123. retrospectively; ere now, before now, till now; hitherto, heretofore; no longer; once, once upon a time; from time immemorial, from prehistoric times; in the memory of man; time out of mind; already, yet, up to this time; ex post facto. Phr. time was; the time has been, the time hath been; you can't go home again; fuimus Troes [Lat.] [Vergil]; fruit Ilium [Lat.] [Vergil]; hoc erat in more majorum [Lat.]; O call back yesterday, bid time return [Richard II]; tempi passati [It]; the eternal landscape of the past [Tennyson]; ultimus Romanorum [Lat.]; what's past is prologue [Tempest]; whose yesterdays look backward with a smile [Young]. 2. Time with reference to a particular period 123. Newness -- N. newness &c adj.; novelty, recency; immaturity; youth &c 127; gloss of novelty. innovation; renovation &c (restoration) 660. modernism; mushroom, parvenu; latest fashion. V. renew &c (restore) 660; modernize. Adj. new, novel, recent, fresh, green; young &c 127; evergreen; raw, immature, unsettled, yeasty; virgin; untried, unhandseled^, untrodden, untrod, unbeaten; fire-new, span-new. late, modern, neoteric, hypermodern, nouveau; new-born, nascent, neonatal [Med.], new-fashioned, new-fangled, new-fledged; of yesterday; just out, brand-new, up to date, up to the minute, with it, fashionable, in fashion; in, hip [Coll.]; vernal, renovated, sempervirent^, sempervirid^. fresh as a rose, fresh as a daisy, fresh as paint; spick and span. Adv. newly &c adj.; afresh, anew, lately, just now, only yesterday, the other day; latterly, of late. not long ago, a short time ago. Phr. di novello tutto par bello [It]; nullum est jam dictum quod non dictum est prius [Lat.]; una scopa nuova spazza bene [It]. 124. Oldness -- N. oldness &c adj.^; age, antiquity; cobwebs of antiquity. maturity; decline, decay; senility &c 128. seniority, eldership, primogeniture. archaism &c (the past) 122; thing of the past, relic of the past; megatherium^; Sanskrit. tradition, prescription, custom, immemorial usage, common law. V. be old &c adj.; have had its day, have seen its day; become old &c adj.; age, fade, senesce. Adj. old, ancient, antique; of long standing, time-honored, venerable; elder, eldest; firstborn. prime; primitive, primeval, primigenous^; paleolontological, paleontologic, paleoanthropological, paleoanthropic^, paleolithic, primordial, primordinate^; aboriginal &c (beginning) 66; diluvian^, antediluvian; protohistoric^; prehistoric; antebellum, colonial, precolumbian; patriarchal, preadamite^; paleocrystic^; fossil, paleozoolical, paleozoic, preglacial^, antemundane^; archaic, classic, medieval, Pre-Raphaelite, ancestral, black-letter. immemorial, traditional, prescriptive, customary, whereof the memory of man runneth not to the contrary; inveterate, rooted. antiquated, of other times, rococo, of the old school, after-age, obsolete; out of date, out of fashion, out of it; stale, old-fashioned, behind the age; old-world; exploded; gone out, gone by; passe, run out; senile &c 128; time worn; crumbling &c (deteriorated) 659; secondhand. old as the hills, old as Methuselah, old as Adam^, old as history. [geological eras (list, starting at given number of years bp)] Archeozoic [5,000,000,000], Proterozoic [1,500,000,000], Paleozoic [600,000,000], Mesozoic [220,000,000], Cenozoic [70,000,000]. [geological periods] Precambrian, Cambrian [600,000,000], Ordovician [500,000,000], Silurian [440,000,000], Devonian [400,000,000], Mississippian [350,000,000], Pennsylvanian [300,000,000], Permian [270,000,000], Triassic [220,000,000], Jurassic [180,000,000], Cretaceous [135,000,000], Tertiary [70,000,000], Paleogene [70,000,000], Neocene [25,0000,000], Quaternary [1,000,000]. [geological epochs (list, starting at 70,000,000 years bp)] Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, Recent. Adv. since the world was made, since the year one, since the days of Methuselah. Phr. vetera extollimus recentium incuriosi [Lat.] [Tacitus]. 125. Morning [Noon.] -- N. morning, morn, forenoon, a.m., prime, dawn, daybreak; dayspring^, foreday^, sunup; peep of day, break of day; aurora; first blush of the morning, first flush of the morning, prime of the morning; twilight, crepuscule, sunrise; cockcrow, cockcrowing^; the small hours, the wee hours of the morning. spring; vernal equinox, first point of Aries. noon; midday, noonday; noontide, meridian, prime; nooning, noontime. summer, midsummer. Adj. matin, matutinal^; vernal. Adv. at sunrise &c n.; with the sun, with the lark, when the morning dawns. Phr. at shut of evening flowers [Paradise Lost]; entre chien et loup [Fr.]; flames in the forehead of the morning sky [Milton]; the breezy call of incense-breathing morn [Gray]. 126. Evening [Midnight.] -- N. evening, eve; decline of day, fall of day, close of day; candlelight, candlelighting^; eventide, nightfall, curfew, dusk, twilight, eleventh hour; sunset, sundown; going down of the sun, cock-shut, dewy eve, gloaming, bedtime. afternoon, postmeridian, p.m. autumn, fall, fall of the leaf; autumnal equinox; Indian summer, St. Luke's summer, St. Martin's summer. midnight; dead of night, witching hour, witching hour of night, witching time of night; winter; killing time. Adj. vespertine, autumnal, nocturnal. Phr. midnight, the outpost of advancing day [Longfellow]; sable-vested Night [Milton]; this gorgeous arch with golden worlds inlay'd [Young]. 127. Youth -- N. youth; juvenility, juvenescence^; juniority^; infancy; babyhood, childhood, boyhood, girlhood, youthhood^; incunabula; minority, nonage, teens, tender age, bloom. cradle, nursery, leading strings, pupilage, puberty, pucelage^. prime of life, flower of life, springtide of life^, seedtime of life, golden season of life; heyday of youth, school days; rising generation. Adj. young, youthful, juvenile, green, callow, budding, sappy, puisne, beardless, under age, in one's teens; in statu pupillari [Lat.]; younger, junior; hebetic^, unfledged. Phr. youth on the prow and pleasure at the helm [Gray]; youth a the glad season of life [Carlyle]. 128. Age -- N. age; oldness^ &c adj.; old age, advanced age, golden years; senility, senescence; years, anility^, gray hairs, climacteric, grand climacteric, declining years, decrepitude, hoary age, caducity^, superannuation; second childhood, second childishness; dotage; vale of years, decline of life, sear and yellow leaf [Macbeth]; threescore years and ten; green old age, ripe age; longevity; time of life. seniority, eldership; elders &c (veteran) 130; firstling; doyen, father; primogeniture. [Science of old age.] geriatrics, nostology^. V. be aged &c adj.; grow old, get old &c adj.; age; decline, wane, dodder; senesce. Adj. aged; old &c 124; elderly, geriatric, senile; matronly, anile^; in years; ripe, mellow, run to seed, declining, waning, past one's prime; gray, gray-headed; hoar, hoary; venerable, time-worn, antiquated, passe, effete, decrepit, superannuated; advanced in life, advanced in years; stricken in years; wrinkled, marked withthe crow's foot; having one foot in the grave; doting &c (imbecile) 499; like the last of pea time. older, elder, eldest; senior; firstborn. turned of, years old; of a certain age, no chicken, old as Methuselah; ancestral, patriarchal, &c (ancient) 124; gerontic. Phr. give me a staff of honor for my age [Titus Andronicus]; bis pueri senes [Lat.]; peu de gens savent elre vieux [Fr.]; plenus annis abiit plenus honoribus [Lat.] [Pliny the Younger]; old age is creeping on apace [Byron]; slow-consuming age [Gray]; the hoary head is a crown of glory [Proverbs xvi, 31]; the silver livery of advised age [II Henry VI]; to grow old gracefully; to vanish in the chinks that Time has made [Rogers]. 129. Infant -- N. infant, babe, baby, babe in arms; nurseling, suckling, yearling, weanling; papoose, bambino; kid; vagitus. child, bairn [Scot.], little one, brat, chit, pickaninny, urchin; bantling, bratling^; elf. youth, boy, lad, stripling, youngster, youngun, younker^, callant^, whipster^, whippersnapper, whiffet [U.S.], schoolboy, hobbledehoy, hopeful, cadet, minor, master. scion; sap, seedling; tendril, olive branch, nestling, chicken, larva, chrysalis, tadpole, whelp, cub, pullet, fry, callow; codlin, codling; foetus, calf, colt, pup, foal, kitten; lamb, lambkin^; aurelia^, caterpillar, cocoon, nymph, nympha^, orphan, pupa, staddle^. girl; lass, lassie; wench, miss, damsel, demoiselle; maid, maiden; virgin; hoyden. Adj. infantine^, infantile; puerile; boyish, girlish, childish, babyish, kittenish; baby; newborn, unfledged, new-fledged, callow. in the cradle, in swaddling clothes, in long clothes, in arms, in leading strings; at the breast; in one's teens. 130. Veteran -- N. veteran, old man, seer, patriarch, graybeard; grandfather, grandsire; grandam; gaffer, gammer; crone; pantaloon; sexagenarian, octogenarian, nonagenarian, centenarian; old stager; dotard &c 501. preadamite^, Methuselah, Nestor, old Parr; elders; forefathers &c (paternity) 166. Phr. superfluous lags the veteran on the stage [Johnson]. 131. Adolescence -- N. adolescence, pubescence, majority; adultism; adultness &c adj.; manhood, virility, maturity full age, ripe age; flower of age; prime of life, meridian of life, spring of life. man &c 373; woman &c 374; adult, no chicken. V. come of age, come to man's estate, come to years of discretion; attain majority, assume the toga virilis [Lat.]; have cut one's eyeteeth, have sown one's mild oats. Adj. adolescent, pubescent, of age; of full age, of ripe age; out of one's teens, grown up, mature, full grown, in one's prime, middle-aged, manly, virile, adult; womanly, matronly; marriageable, nubile. 3. Time with reference to an Effect or Purpose 132. Earliness -- N. {ant. 133} earliness &c adj.; morning &c 125. punctuality; promptitude &c (activity) 682; haste &c (velocity) 274; suddenness &c (instantaneity) 113. prematurity, precocity, precipitation, anticipation; a stitch in time. V. be early &c adj., be beforehand &c adv.; keep time, take time by the forelock, anticipate, forestall; have the start, gain the start; steal a march upon; gain time, draw on futurity; bespeak, secure, engage, preengage^. accelerate; expedite &c (quicken) 274; make haste &c (hurry) 684. Adj. early, prime, forward; prompt &c (active) 682; summary. premature, precipitate, precocious; prevenient^, anticipatory; rath^. sudden &c (instantaneous) 113; unexpected &c 508; near, near at hand; immediate. Adv. early, soon, anon, betimes, rath^; eft, eftsoons; ere long, before long, shortly; beforehand; prematurely &c adj.; precipitately &c (hastily) 684; too soon; before its time, before one's time; in anticipation; unexpectedly &c 508. suddenly &c (instantaneously) 113; before one can say 'Jack Robinson', at short notice, extempore; on the spur of the moment, on the spur of the occasion [Bacon]; at once; on the spot, on the instant; at sight; offhand, out of hand; a' vue d'oeil [Fr.]; straight, straightway, straightforth^; forthwith, incontinently, summarily, immediately, briefly, shortly, quickly, speedily, apace, before the ink is dry, almost immediately, presently at the first opportunity, in no long time, by and by, in a while, directly. Phr. no sooner said than done, immediately, if not sooner; tout vient a temps pour qui sait attendre [Fr.]. 132a. Punctuality -- N. punctuality, promptness, immediateness. V. be prompt, be on time, be in time; arrive on time; be in the nick of time. Adj. timely, seasonable, in time, punctual, prompt. Adv. on time, punctually, at the deadline, precisely, exactly; right on time, to the minute; in time; in good time, in military time, in pudding time^, in due time; time enough; with no time to spare, by a hair's breadth. Phr. touch and go, not a minute too soon, in the nick of time, just under the wire, get on board before the train leaves the station. 133. Lateness -- N. {ant. 132} lateness &c adj.; tardiness &c (slowness) 275. delay, delation; cunctation, procrastination; deferring, deferral &c v.; postponement, adjournment, prorogation, retardation, respite, pause, reprieve, stay of execution; protraction, prolongation; Fabian policy, medecine expectante [Fr.], chancery suit, federal case; leeway; high time; moratorium, holdover. V. be late &c adj.; tarry, wait, stay, bide, take time; dawdle &c (be inactive) 683; linger, loiter; bide one's time, take one's time; gain time; hang fire; stand over, lie over. put off, defer, delay, lay over, suspend; table [Parl.]; shift off, stave off; waive, retard, remand, postpone, adjourn; procrastinate; dally; prolong, protract; spin out, draw out, lengthen out, stretch out; prorogue; keep back; tide over; push to the last, drive to the last; let the matter stand over; reserve &c (store) 636; temporize; consult one's pillow, sleep on it. lose an opportunity &c 135; be kept waiting, dance attendance; kick one's heels, cool one's heels; faire antichambre [Fr.]; wait impatiently; await &c (expect) 507; sit up, sit up at night. Adj. late, tardy, slow, behindhand, serotine^, belated, postliminious^, posthumous, backward, unpunctual, untimely; delayed, postponed; dilatory &c (slow) 275; delayed &c v.; in abeyance. Adv. late; lateward^, backward; late in the day; at sunset, at the eleventh hour, at length, at last; ultimately; after time, behind time, after the deadline; too late; too late for &c 135. slowly, leisurely, deliberately, at one's leisure; ex post facto; sine die. Phr. nonum prematur in annum [Lat.] [Horace]; against the sunbeams serotine and lucent [Longfellow]; ie meglio tardi che mai [It]; deliberando saepe perit occasio [Lat.] [Syrus]. 134. Occasion -- N. {ant. 135} timeliness, occasion, opportunity, opening, room; event (eventuality) 151; suitable season, proper season, suitable time, proper time; high time; opportuneness &c adj.; tempestivity^. crisis, turn, juncture, conjuncture; crisis, turning point, given time. nick of time; golden opportunity, well timed opportunity, fine opportunity, favorable opportunity, opening; clear stage, fair field; mollia tempora [Lat.]; fata Morgana [Lat.]; spare time &c (leisure) 685. V. seize an opportunity &c (take) 789, use an opportunity &c 677, give an opportunity &c 784, use an occasion; improve the occasion. suit the occasion &c (be expedient) 646. seize the occasion, strike while the iron is hot, battre le fer sur l'enclume [Fr.], make hay while the sun shines, seize the present hour, take time by the forelock, prendre la balle au bond [Fr.]. Adj. opportune, timely, well-timed, timeful^, seasonable. providential, lucky, fortunate, happy, favorable, propitious, auspicious, critical; suitable &c 23; obiter dicta. Adv. opportunely &c adj.; in proper course, in due course, in proper season, in due season, in proper time, in due time; for the nonce; in the nick of time, in the fullness of time; all in good time; just in time, at the eleventh hour, now or never. by the way, by the by; en passant [Fr.], a propos [Fr.]; pro re nata [Lat.], pro hac vice [Lat.]; par parenthese [Fr.], parenthetically, by way of parenthesis, incidentally; while speaking of, while on the subject; extempore; on the spur of the moment, on the spur of the occasion; on the spot &c (early) 132. Phr. carpe diem [Lat.], [Horace]; occasionem cognosce [Lat.]; one's hour is come, the time is up; that reminds me, now that you mention it, come to think of it; bien perdu bien connu [Fr.]; e sempre l'ora [It]; ex quovis ligno non fit Mercurius [Lat.]; nosce tempus [Lat.]; nunc aut nunquam [Lat.]. 135. Untimeliness -- N. {ant. 134} untimeliness, intempestivity^, unseasonableness, inexpedience; unsuitable time, improper time; unreasonableness &c adj.; evil hour; contretemps; intrusion; anachronism &c 115. bad time, wrong time, inappropriate time, not the right occasion, unsuitable time, inopportune time, poor timing. V. be ill timed &c adj.; mistime, intrude, come amiss, break in upon; have other fish to fry; be busy, be occupied. lose an opportunity, throw away an opportunity, waste an opportunity, neglect an opportunity &c 460; allow the opportunity to pass, suffer the opportunity to pass, allow the opportunity to slip, suffer the opportunity to slip, allow the opportunity to go by, suffer the opportunity to go by, allow the opportunity to escape, suffer the opportunity to escape, allow the opportunity to lapse, suffer the opportunity to lapse, allow the occasion to pass, allow the occasion to slip by; waste time &c (be inactive) 683; let slip through the fingers, lock the barn door after the horse is stolen. Adj. ill-timed, mistimed; ill-fated, ill-omened, ill-starred; untimely, unseasonable; out of date, out of season; inopportune, timeless, intrusive, untoward, mal a propos [Fr.], unlucky, inauspicious, infelicitous, unbefitting, unpropitious, unfortunate, unfavorable; unsuited &c 24; inexpedient &c 647. unpunctual &c (late) 133; too late for; premature &c (early) 132; too soon for; wise after the event, monday morning quarterbacking, twenty-twenty hindsight. Adv. inopportunely &c adj.; as ill luck would have it, in an evil hour, the time having gone by, a day after the fair. Phr. after death the doctor, after meat mustard. 3. RECURRENT TIME 136. Frequency -- N. frequency, oftness^, oftenness^, commonness; repetition &c 104; normality &c 80; example (conformity) 82; routine, custom (habit) 613. regularity, uniformity, constancy, clock-work precision; punctuality &c (exactness) 494; even tenor; system; routine &c (custom) 613; formula; rule &c (form regulation) 697; keynote, standard, model; precedent &c (prototype) 22; conformity &c 82. V. recur &c 104; do nothing but; keep, keep on. Adj. frequent, many times, not rare, thickcoming^, incessant, perpetual, continual, steady, constant, thick; uniform; repeated &c 104; customary &c 613 (habit) 613; regular (normal) 80; according to rule &c (conformable) 82. common, everyday, usual, ordinary, familiar. old-hat, boring, well-known, trivial. Adv. often, oft; ofttimes^, oftentimes; frequently; repeatedly &c 104; unseldom^, not unfrequently^; in quick succession, in rapid succession; many a time and oft; daily, hourly &c; every day, every hour, every moment &c, perpetually, continually, constantly, incessantly, without ceasing, at all times, daily and hourly, night and day, day and night, day after day, morning noon and night, ever anon, invariably (habit) 613. most often; commonly &c (habitually) 613. sometimes, occasionally, at times, now and then, from time to time, there being times when, toties quoties [Lat.], often enough, when the mood strikes, again and again. 137. Infrequency -- N. infrequency, rareness, rarity; fewness &c 103; seldomness^; uncommonness. V. be rare &c adj.. Adj. unfrequent^, infrequent; rare, rare as a blue diamond; few &c 103; scarce; almost unheard of, unprecedented, which has not occurred within the memory of the oldest inhabitant, not within one's previous experience; not since Adam^. scarce as hen's teeth; one in a million; few and far between. Adv. seldom, rarely, scarcely, hardly; not often, not much, infrequently, unfrequently^, unoften^; scarcely, scarcely ever, hardly ever; once in a blue moon. once; once in a blue moon; once in a million years; once for all, once in a way; pro hac vice [Lat.]. Phr. ein mal kein mal [G.]. 138. Periodicity [Regularity of recurrence] -- N. periodicity, intermittence; beat; oscillation &c 314; pulse, pulsation; rhythm; alternation, alternateness, alternativeness, alternity^. bout, round, revolution, rotation, turn, say. anniversary, jubilee, centenary. catamenia^, courses, menses, menstrual flux. [Regularity of return] rota, cycle, period, stated time, routine; days of the week; Sunday, Monday &c; months of the year; January &c; feast, fast &c; Christmas, Easter, New Year's day &c; Allhallows^, Allhallowmas^, All Saints' Day; All Souls', All Souls' Day; Ash Wednesday, bicentennial, birthday, bissextile^, Candlemas^, Dewali, groundhog day [U.S.], Halloween, Hallowmas^, Lady day, leap year, Midsummer day, Muharram, woodchuck day [U.S.], St. Swithin's day, natal day; yearbook; yuletide. punctuality, regularity, steadiness. V. recur in regular order, recur in regular succession; return, revolve; come again, come in its turn; come round, come round again; beat, pulsate; alternate; intermit. Adj. periodic, periodical; serial, recurrent, cyclical, rhythmical; recurring &c v.; intermittent, remittent; alternate, every other. hourly; diurnal, daily; quotidian, tertian, weekly; hebdomadal^, hebdomadary^; biweekly, fortnightly; bimonthly; catamenial^; monthly, menstrual; yearly, annual; biennial, triennial, &c; centennial, secular; paschal, lenten, &c regular, steady, punctual, regular as clockwork. Adv. periodically &c adj.; at regular intervals, at stated times; at fixed established, at established periods; punctually &c adj.. de die in diem [Lat.]; from day to day, day by day. by turns; in turn, in rotation; alternately, every other day, off and on, ride and tie, round and round. 139. Irregularity of recurrence -- N. irregularity, uncertainty, unpunctuality; fitfulness &c adj.; capriciousness, ecrhythmus^. Adj. irregular, uncertain, unpunctual, capricious, desultory, fitful, flickering; rambling, rhapsodical; spasmodic; immethodical^, unmethodical, variable. Adv. irregularly &c adj.; by fits and starts &c (discontinuously) 70. SECTION VII. CHANGE 1. SIMPLE CHANGE 140. [Difference at different times.] Change -- N. change, alteration, mutation, permutation, variation, modification, modulation, inflexion, mood, qualification, innovation, metastasis, deviation, turn, evolution, revolution; diversion; break. transformation, transfiguration; metamorphosis; transmutation; deoxidization [Chem]; transubstantiation; [Genetics], mutagenesis transanimation^, transmigration, metempsychosis^; avatar; alterative. conversion &c (gradual change) 144; revolution &c (sudden or radical change) 146, inversion &c (reversal) 218; displacement &c 185; transference &c 270. changeableness &c 149; tergiversation &c (change of mind) 607. V. change, alter, vary, wax and wane; modulate, diversify, qualify, tamper with; turn, shift, veer, tack, chop, shuffle, swerve, warp, deviate, turn aside, evert, intervert^; pass to, take a turn, turn the corner, resume. work a change, modify, vamp, superinduce; transform, transfigure, transmute, transmogrify, transume^; metamorphose, ring the changes. innovate, introduce new blood, shuffle the cards; give a turn to, give a color to; influence, turn the scale; shift the scene, turn over a new leaf. recast &c 146; reverse &c 218; disturb &c 61; convert into &c 144. Adj. changed &c v.; newfangled; changeable &c 149; transitional; modifiable; alterative. Adv. mutatis mutandis [Lat.]. Int. quantum mutatus! [Lat.], Phr. a change came o'er the spirit of my dream [Byron]; nous avons change tout cela [Moliere]; tempora mutantur nos et mutamur in illis [Lat.]; non sum qualis eram [Lat.] [Horace]; casaque tourner [Fr.]; corpora lente augescent cito extinguuntur [Tacitus]; in statu quo ante bellum [Lat.]; still ending and beginning still [Cowper]; vox audita perit littera scripta manet [Lat.]. 141. [Absence of change.] Permanence -- N. stability &c 150; quiescence &c 265; obstinacy &c 606. permanence, persistence, endurance; durability; standing, status quo; maintenance, preservation, conservation; conservation; law of the Medes and Persians; standing dish. V. let alone, let be, let it be; persist, remain, stay, tarry, rest; stet (copy editing) hold, hold on; last, endure, bide, abide, aby^, dwell, maintain, keep; stand, stand still, stand fast; subsist, live, outlive, survive; hold one's ground, keep one's ground, hold one's footing, keep one's footing; hold good. Adj. stable &c 150; persisting &c v.; permanent; established; unchanged &c (change) &c 140; renewed; intact, inviolate; persistent; monotonous, uncheckered^; unfailing. undestroyed, unrepealed, unsuppressed^; conservative, qualis ab incepto [Lat.]; prescriptive &c (old) 124; stationary &c 265. Adv. in statu quo [Lat.]; for good, finally; at a stand, at a standstill; uti possidetis [Lat.]; without a shadow of turning. Phr. esto perpetua [Lat.]; nolumus leges Angliae mutari [Lat.]; j'y suis et j'y ereste [Fr.]. 142. [Change from action to rest.] Cessation -- N. cessation, discontinuance, desistance, desinence^. intermission, remission; suspense, suspension; interruption; stop; stopping &c v.; closure, stoppage, halt; arrival &c 292. pause, rest, lull, respite, truce, drop; interregnum, abeyance; cloture [U.S.]. dead stop, dead stand, dead lock; finis, cerrado [Sp.]; blowout, burnout, meltdown, disintegration; comma, colon, semicolon, period, full stop; end &c 67; death &c 360. V. cease, discontinue, desist, stay, halt; break off, leave off; hold, stop, pull up, stop short; stick, hang fire; halt; pause, rest; burn out, blow out, melt down. have done with, give over, surcease, shut up shop; give up &c (relinquish) 624. hold one's hand, stay one's hand; rest on one's oars repose on one's laurels. come to a stand, come to a standstill; come to a deadlock, come to a full stop; arrive &c 292; go out, die away; wear away, wear off; pass away &c (be past) 122; be at an end; disintegrate, self-destruct. intromit, interrupt, suspend, interpel^; intermit, remit; put an end to, put a stop to, put a period to; derail; turn off, switch off, power down, deactivate, disconnect; bring to a stand, bring to a standstill; stop, cut short, arrest, stem the tide, stem the torrent; pull the check-string, pull the plug on. Int. hold!, stop!, enough!, avast!, have done!, a truce to!, soft!, leave off!, tenez! [Fr.], Phr. I pause for a reply [Julius Caesar]. 143. Continuance in action -- N. continuance, continuation; run; perpetuation, prolongation; persistence &c (perseverance) 604.1; repetition &c 104. V. continue, persist; go on, jog on, keep on, run on, hold on; abide, keep, pursue, stick to its course, take its course, maintain its course; carry on, keep up. sustain, uphold, hold up, keep on foot; follow up, perpetuate; maintain; preserve &c 604.1; harp upon &c (repeat) 104. keep going, keep alive, keep the pot boiling, keep up the ball, keep up the good work; die in harness, die with one's boots on; hold on the even tenor of one's way, pursue the even tenor of one's way. let be; stare super antiquas vias [Lat.]; quieta non movere [Lat.]; let things take their course; stare decisis (Jurisprudence). Adj. continuing &c v.; uninterrupted, unintermitting^, unvarying, unshifting^; unreversed^, unstopped, unrevoked, unvaried; sustained; undying &c (perpetual) 112; inconvertible. Int. keep it up!, go to it!, right away!, right on!, attaboy!, Phr. nolumus leges Angliae mutari [Lat.]; vestigia nulla retrorsum [Lat.] [Horace]; labitur et albetur [Horace]. 144. [Gradual change to something different.] Conversion -- N. conversion, reduction, transmutation, resolution, assimilation; evolution, sea change; change of state; assumption; naturalization; transportation; development [Biol.], developing. [photography] [conversion of currency] conversion of currency, exchange of currency; exchange rate; bureau de change. chemistry, alchemy; progress, growth, lapse, flux. passage; transit, transition; transmigration, shifting &c v.; phase; conjugation; convertibility. crucible, alembic, caldron, retort. convert, pervert, renegade, apostate. V. be converted into; become, get, wax; come to, turn to, turn into, evolve into, develop into; turn out, lapse, shift; run into, fall into, pass into, slide into, glide into, grow into, ripen into, open into, resolve itself into, settle into, merge into, emerge as; melt, grow, come round to, mature, mellow; assume the form of, assume the shape of, assume the state of, assume the nature of, assume the character of; illapse^; begin a new phase, assume a new phase, undergo a change. convert into, resolve into; make, render; mold, form &c 240; remodel, new model, refound^, reform, reorganize; assimilate to, bring to, reduce to. Adj. converted into &c v.; convertible, resolvable into; transitional; naturalized. Adv. gradually, &c (slowly) 275 in transitu &c (transference) 270 [Lat.]. 145. Reversion -- N. reversion, return; revulsion. turning point, turn of the tide; status quo ante bellum; calm before a storm. alternation &c (periodicity) 138; inversion &c 219; recoil &c 277; retreat, regression, retrogression &c 283; restoration &c 660; relapse, recidivism &c 661; atavism; vicinism^; V. revert, turn back, regress; relapse &c 661; recoil &c 277; retreat &c 283; restore &c 660; undo, unmake; turn the tide, roll back the tide, turn the scale, tip the scale. Adj. reverting &c v.; regressive, revulsive, reactionary; retrorse^. Adv. a rebours [Fr.]. 146. [Sudden or violent change.] Revolution -- N. revolution, bouleversement, subversion, break up; destruction &c 162; sudden change, radical change, sweeping organic change; change of state, phase change; quantum leap, quantum jump; clean sweep, coup d'etat [Fr.], counter revolution. jump, leap, plunge, jerk, start, transilience^; explosion; spasm, convulsion, throe, revulsion; storm, earthquake, cataclysm. legerdemain &c (trick) 545. V. revolutionize; new model, remodel, recast; strike out something new, break with the past; change the face of, unsex. Adj. unrecognizable; revolutionary. 147. [Change of one thing for another.] Substitution -- N. substitution, commutation; supplanting &c v.; metaphor, metonymy &c (figure of speech) 521. [Thing substituted] substitute, ersatz, makeshift, temporary expedient, replacement, succedaneum; shift, pis aller [Fr.], stopgap, jury rigging, jury mast, locum tenens, warming pan, dummy, scapegoat; double; changeling; quid pro quo, alternative. representative &c (deputy) 759; palimpsest. price, purchase money, consideration, equivalent. V. substitute, put in the place of, change for; make way for, give place to; supply the place of, take the place of; supplant, supersede, replace, cut out, serve as a substitute; step into stand in the shoes of; jury rig, make a shift with, put up with; borrow from Peter to pay Paul, take money out of one pocket and put it in another, cannibalize; commute, redeem, compound for. Adj. substituted &c; ersatz; phony; vicarious, subdititious^. Adv. instead; in place of, in lieu of, in the stead of, in the room of; faute de mieux [Fr.]. 148. [Double or mutual change.] Interchange -- N. interchange, exchange; commutation, permutation, intermutation; reciprocation, transposition, rearrangement; shuffling; alternation, reciprocity; castling (at chess); hocus-pocus. interchangeableness^, interchangeability. recombination; combination &c 48. barter &c 794; tit for tat &c (retaliation) 718; cross fire, battledore and shuttlecock; quid pro quo. V. interchange, exchange, counterchange^; bandy, transpose, shuffle, change bands, swap, permute, reciprocate, commute; give and take, return the compliment; play at puss in the corner, play at battledore and shuttlecock; retaliate &c 718; requite. rearrange, recombine. Adj. interchanged &c v.; reciprocal, mutual, commutative, interchangeable, intercurrent^. combinatorial [Math.]. recombinant [Biol.]. Adv. in exchange, vice versa, mutatis mutandis [Lat.], backwards and forwards, by turns, turn and turn about; each in his turn, everyone in his turn. 2. COMPLEX CHANGE 149. Changeableness -- N. changeableness &c adj.; mutability, inconstancy; versatility, mobility; instability, unstable equilibrium; vacillation &c (irresolution) 605; fluctuation, vicissitude; alternation &c (oscillation) 314. restlessness &c adj.. fidgets, disquiet; disquietude, inquietude; unrest; agitation &c 315. moon, Proteus, chameleon, quicksilver, shifting sands, weathercock, harlequin, Cynthia of the minute, April showers^; wheel of Fortune; transientness &c 111 [Obs.]. V. fluctuate, vary, waver, flounder, flicker, flitter, flit, flutter, shift, shuffle, shake, totter, tremble, vacillate, wamble^, turn and turn about, ring the changes; sway to and fro, shift to and fro; change and change about; waffle, blow with the wind (irresolute) 605; oscillate &c 314; vibrate between, two extremes, oscillate between, two extremes; alternate; have as man phases as the moon. Adj. changeable, changeful; changing &c 140; mutable, variable, checkered, ever changing; protean, proteiform^; versatile. unstaid^, inconstant; unsteady, unstable, unfixed, unsettled; fluctuating &c v.; restless; agitated &c 315; erratic, fickle; irresolute &c 605; capricious &c 608; touch and go; inconsonant, fitful, spasmodic; vibratory; vagrant, wayward; desultory; afloat; alternating; alterable, plastic, mobile; transient &c 111; wavering. Adv. seesaw &c (oscillation) 314; off and on. Phr. a rolling stone gathers no moss; pictra mossa non fa muschis [It]; honores mutant mores [Lat.]; varium et mutabile semper femina [Lat.] [Vergil]. 150. Stability -- N. stability; immutability &c adj.; unchangeability, &c adj.; unchangeableness^; constancy; stable equilibrium, immobility, soundness, vitality, stabiliment^, stiffness, ankylosis^, solidity, aplomb. establishment, fixture; rock, pillar, tower, foundation, leopard's spots, Ethiopia's skin. permanence &c 141; obstinacy &c 606. V. be firm &c adj.; stick fast; stand firm, keep firm, remain firm; weather the storm, stay the course, stick to the course, keep the faith, don't give in, don't buckle under. settle, establish, stablish^, ascertain, fix, set, stabilitate^; retain, keep hold; make good, make sure; fasten &c (join) 43; set on its legs, float; perpetuate. settle down; strike roots, put down roots, take root; take up one's abode &c 184; build one's house on a rock. Adj. unchangeable, immutable; unaltered, unalterable; not to be changed, constant; permanent &c 141; invariable, undeviating; stable, durable; perennial &c (diuturnal) 110 [Obs.]. fixed, steadfast, firm, fast, steady, balanced; confirmed, valid; fiducial^; immovable, irremovable, riveted, rooted; settled, established &c v.; vested; incontrovertible, stereotyped, indeclinable. tethered, anchored, moored, at anchor, on a rock, rock solid, firm as a rock; firmly seated, firmly established &c v.; deep-rooted, ineradicable; inveterate; obstinate &c 606. transfixed, stuck fast, aground, high and dry, stranded. [movable object rendered unmovable] stuck, jammed; unremovable; quiescent &c 265; deterioration &c 659. indefeasible, irretrievable, intransmutable^, incommutable^, irresoluble^, irrevocable, irreversible, reverseless^, inextinguishable, irreducible; indissoluble, indissolvable^; indestructible, undying, imperishable, incorruptible, indelible, indeciduous^; insusceptible, insusceptible of change. Int. stet. Phr. littera scripta manet [Lat.]. Present Events 151. Eventuality -- N. eventuality, event, occurrence, incident, affair, matter, thing, episode, happening, proceeding, contingency, juncture, experience, fact; matter of fact; naked fact, bare facts, just the facts; phenomenon; advent. business, concern, transaction, dealing, proceeding; circumstance, particular, casualty, accident, adventure, passage, crisis, pass, emergency, contingency, consequence; opportunity (occasion) 143. the world, life, things, doings, affairs in general; things in general, affairs in general; the times, state of affairs, order of the day; course of things, tide of things, stream of things, current of things, run of things, march of things, course of events; ups and downs of life, vicissitudes of life; chapter of accidents &c (chance) 156; situation &c (circumstances) 8. V. happen, occur; take place, take effect; come, become of; come off, comeabout^, come round, come into existence, come forth, come to pass, come on; pass, present itself; fall; fall out, turn out; run, be on foot, fall in; befall, betide, bechance^; prove, eventuate, draw on; turn up, crop up, spring up, pop up, arise, show up, show its face, appear, come forth, cast up; supervene, survene^; issue, arrive, ensue, arise, start, hold, take its course; pass off &c (be past) 122. meet with; experience, enjoy, encounter, undergo, suffer, pass through, go through, be subjected to, be exposed to; fall to the lot of; be one's chance, be one's fortune, be one's lot; find; endure &c (feel) 821. Adj. happening &c v.; going on, doing, current; in the wind, in the air, afloat; on foot, afoot, on the tapis^; at issue, in question; incidental. eventful, stirring, bustling, full of incident; memorable, momentous, signal. Adv. eventually; in the event of, in case, just in case; in the course of things; as things, times go; as the world goes, wags; as the tree falls, cat jumps; as it may turn out, happen. Phr. that's the way the ball bounces, that's the way the cookie crumbles; you never know what may turn up, you never know what the future will bring; the plot thickens; breasts the blows of circumstance [Tennyson]; so runs round of life from hour to hour [Keble]; sprinkled along the waste of years [Tennyson]. Future Events 152. Destiny -- N. destiny &c (necessity) 601; future existence, post existence; hereafter; future state, next world, world to come, after life; futurity &c 121; everlasting life, everlasting death; life beyond the grave, world beyond the grave; prospect &c (expectation) 507. V. impend; hang over, lie over; threaten, loom, await, come on, approach, stare one in the face; foreordain, preordain; predestine, doom, have in store for. Adj. impending &c v.; destined; about to be, happen; coming, in store, to come, going to happen, instant, at hand, near; near, close at hand; over hanging, hanging over one's head, imminent; brewing, preparing, forthcoming; int he wind, on the cards, in reserve; that will, is to be; in prospect &c (expected) 507; looming in the distance, horizon, future; unborn, in embryo; int he womb of time, futurity; pregnant &c (producing) 161. Adv. in time, the long run; all in good time; eventually &c 151; whatever may happen &c (certainly) 474; as chance would have it &c 156. SECTION VIII. CAUSATION 1. CONSTANCY OF SEQUENCE IN EVENTS 153. [Constant antecedent]. Cause -- N. cause, origin, source, principle, element; occasioner^, prime mover, primum mobile [Lat.]; vera causa [Lat.]; author &c (producer) 164; mainspring; agent; leaven; groundwork, foundation &c (support) 215. spring, fountain, well, font; fountainhead, spring head, wellhead; fons et origo [Lat.], genesis; descent &c (paternity) 166; remote cause; influence. pivot, hinge, turning point, lever, crux, fulcrum; key; proximate cause, causa causans [Lat.]; straw that breaks the camel's back. ground; reason, reason why; why and wherefore, rationale, occasion, derivation; final cause &c (intention) 620; les dessous des cartes [Fr.]; undercurrents. rudiment. egg, germ, embryo, bud, root, radix radical, etymon, nucleus, seed, stem, stock, stirps, trunk, tap-root, gemmule^, radicle, semen, sperm. nest, cradle, nursery, womb, nidus, birthplace, hotbed. causality, causation; origination; production &c 161. V. be the cause of &c n .; originate; give origin to, give rise, to, give occasion to; cause, occasion, sow the seeds of, kindle, suscitate^; bring on, bring to bring pass, bring about; produce; create &c 161; set up, set afloat, set on foot; found, broach, institute, lay the foundation of; lie at the root of. procure, induce, draw down, open the door to, superinduce, evoke, entail, operate; elicit, provoke. conduce to &c (tend to) 176; contribute; have a hand in the pie, have a finger in the pie; determine, decide, turn the scale; have a common origin; derive its origin &c (effect) 154. Adj. caused &c v.; causal, original; primary, primitive, primordial; aboriginal; protogenal^; radical; embryonic, embryotic^; in embryo, in ovo [Lat.]; seminal, germinal; at the bottom of; connate, having a common origin. Adv. because &c 155; behind the scenes. Phr. causa latet vis est notissima [Lat.] [Ovid]; felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas [Lat.] [Vergil]. 154. [Constant sequent.] Effect -- N. effect, consequence; aftergrowth^, aftercome^; derivative, derivation; result; resultant, resultance^; upshot, issue, denouement; end &c 67; development, outgrowth, fruit, crop, harvest, product, bud. production, produce, work, handiwork, fabric, performance; creature, creation; offspring, offshoot; firstfruits^, firstlings; heredity, telegony^; premices premises^. V. be the effect of &c n.; be due to, be owing to; originate in, originate from; rise from, arise, take its rise spring from, proceed from, emanate from, come from, grow from, bud from, sprout from, germinate from, issue from, flow from, result from, follow from, derive its origin from, accrue from; come to, come of, come out of; depend upon, hang upon, hinge upon, turn upon. take the consequences, sow the wind and reap the whirlwind. Adj. owing to; resulting from &c v.; derivable from; due to; caused by &c 153; dependent upon; derived from, evolved from; derivative; hereditary; telegonous^. Adv. of course, it follows that, naturally, consequently; as a consequence, in consequence; through, all along of, necessarily, eventually. Phr. cela va sans dire [Fr.], thereby hangs a tale [Taming of the Shrew]. 155. [Assignment of cause] Attribution -- N. attribution, theory, etiology, ascription, reference to, rationale; accounting for &c v.; palaetiology1, imputation, derivation from. filiation^, affiliation; pedigree &c (paternity) 166. explanation &c (interpretation) 522; reason why &c (cause) 153. V. attribute to, ascribe to, impute to, refer to, lay to, point to, trace to, bring home to; put down to, set down to, blame; charge on, ground on; invest with, assign as cause, lay at, the door of, father upon; account for, derive from, point out the reason &c 153; theorize; tell how it comes; put the saddle on the right horse. Adj. attributed &c v.; attributable &c v.; referable to, referrible to^, due to, derivable from; owing to &c (effect) 154; putative; ecbatic^. Adv. hence, thence, therefore, for, since, on account of, because, owing to; on that account; from this cause, from that cause; thanks to, forasmuch as; whence, propter hoc [Lat.]. why? wherefore? whence? how comes it, how is it, how happens it? how does it happen? in some way, in some such way; somehow, somehow or other. Phr. that is why; hinc illae lachrymae [Lat.] [Horace]. 156. [Absence of assignable cause.] Chance -- N. chance, indetermination, accident, fortune, hazard, hap, haphazard, chance medley, random, luck, raccroc^, casualty, contingence, adventure, hit; fate &c (necessity) 601; equal chance; lottery; tombola^; toss up &c 621; turn of the table, turn of the cards; hazard of the die, chapter of accidents, fickle finger of fate; cast of the dice, throw of the dice; heads or tails, flip of a coin, wheel of Fortune; sortes^, sortes Virgilianae^. probability, possibility, odds; long odds, run of luck; accidentalness; main chance, odds on, favorable odds. contingency, dependence (uncertainty) 475; situation (circumstance) 8. statistics, theory of Probabilities, theory of Chances; bookmaking; assurance; speculation, gaming &c 621. V. chance, hap, turn up; fall to one's lot; be one's fate &c 601; stumble on light upon; take one's chance &c 621. Adj. casual, fortuitous, accidental, adventitious, causeless, incidental, contingent, uncaused, undetermined, indeterminate; random, statistical; possible &c 470; unintentional &c 621. Adv. by chance, accidentally, by accident; casually; perchance &c (possibly) 470; for aught one knows; as good would have it, as bad would have it, as luck would have it, as ill-luck would have it, as chance would have it; as it may be, as it may chance, as it may turn up, as it may happen; as the case may be. Phr. grasps the skirts of happy chance [Tennyson]; the accident of an accident [Lord Thurlow]. There but for the grace of God go I 2. CONNECTION BETWEEN CAUSE AND EFFECT 157. Power -- N. power; potency, potentiality; jiva^; puissance, might, force, energy &c 171; dint; right hand, right arm; ascendency^, sway, control; prepotency, prepollence^; almightiness, omnipotence; authority &c 737; strength &c 159. ability; ableness &c adj.^; competency; efficacy; efficiency, productivity, expertise (skill) 698; validity, cogency; enablement^; vantage ground; influence &c 175. pressure; conductivity; elasticity; gravity, electricity, magnetism, galvanism, voltaic electricity, voltaism, electromagnetism; atomic power, nuclear power, thermonuclear power; fuel cell; hydraulic power, water power, hydroelectric power; solar power, solar energy, solar panels; tidal power; wind power; attraction; vis inertiae [Lat.], vis mortua [Lat.], vis viva [Lat.]; potential energy, dynamic energy; dynamic friction, dynamic suction; live circuit, live rail, live wire. capability, capacity; quid valeant humeri quid ferre recusent [Lat.]; faculty, quality, attribute, endowment, virtue, gift, property, qualification, susceptibility. V. be powerful &c adj.; gain power &c n.. belong to, pertain to; lie in one's power, be in one's power; can, be able. give power, confer power, exercise power &c n.; empower, enable, invest; indue^, endue; endow, arm; strengthen &c 159; compel &c 744. Adj. powerful, puissant; potential; capable, able; equal to, up to; cogent, valid; efficient, productive; effective, effectual, efficacious, adequate, competent; multipotent^, plenipotent^, omnipotent; almighty. forcible &c adj.. (energetic) 171; influential &c 175; productive &c 168. Adv. powerfully &c adj.; by virtue of, by dint of. Phr. a toute force [Fr.]; dos moi pou sto kai kino ten gen [Gr.]; eripuit coelo fulmen sceptrumque tyrannis [Lat.]; fortis cadere cedere non potest [Lat.]. 158. Impotence -- N. impotence; inability, disability; disablement, impuissance, imbecility; incapacity, incapability; inaptitude, ineptitude, incompetence, unproductivity^; indocility^; invalidity, disqualification; inefficiency, wastefulness. telum imbelle [Lat.], brutum fulmen [Lat.], blank, blank cartridge, flash in the pan, vox et proeterea nihil [Lat.], dead letter, bit of waste paper, dummy; paper tiger; Quaker gun. inefficacy &c (inutility) 645 [Obs.]; failure &c 732. helplessness &c adj.; prostration, paralysis, palsy, apoplexy, syncope, sideration^, deliquium [Lat.], collapse, exhaustion, softening of the brain, inanition; emasculation, orchiotomy [Med.], orchotomy [Med.]. cripple, old woman, muff, powder puff, creampuff, pussycat, wimp, mollycoddle; eunuch. V. be impotent &c adj.; not have a leg to stand on. vouloir rompre l'anguille au genou [Fr.], vouloir prendre la lune avec les dents [Fr.]. collapse, faint, swoon, fall into a swoon, drop; go by the board, go by the wayside; go up in smoke, end in smoke &c (fail) 732. render powerless &c adj.; deprive of power; disable, disenable^; disarm, incapacitate, disqualify, unfit, invalidate, deaden, cramp, tie the hands; double up, prostrate, paralyze, muzzle, cripple, becripple^, maim, lame, hamstring, draw the teeth of; throttle, strangle, garrotte, garrote; ratten^, silence, sprain, clip the wings of, put hors de combat [Fr.], spike the guns; take the wind out of one's sails, scotch the snake, put a spoke in one's wheel; break the neck, break the back; unhinge, unfit; put out of gear. unman, unnerve, enervate; emasculate, castrate, geld, alter, neuter, sterilize, fix. shatter, exhaust, weaken &c 160. Adj. powerless, impotent, unable, incapable, incompetent; inefficient, ineffective; inept; unfit, unfitted; unqualified, disqualified; unendowed; inapt, unapt; crippled, disabled &c v.; armless^. harmless, unarmed, weaponless, defenseless, sine ictu [Lat.], unfortified, indefensible, vincible, pregnable, untenable. paralytic, paralyzed; palsied, imbecile; nerveless, sinewless^, marrowless^, pithless^, lustless^; emasculate, disjointed; out of joint, out of gear; unnerved, unhinged; water-logged, on one's beam ends, rudderless; laid on one's back; done up, dead beat, exhausted, shattered, demoralized; graveled &c (in difficulty) 704; helpless, unfriended^, fatherless; without a leg to stand on, hors de combat [Fr.], laid on the shelf. null and void, nugatory, inoperative, good for nothing; ineffectual &c (failing) 732; inadequate &c 640; inefficacious &c (useless) 645. Phr. der kranke Mann [G.]; desirous still but impotent to rise [Shenstone]; the spirit is willing but the flesh is weak. 159. [Degree of power.] Strength -- N. strength; power &c 157; energy &c 171; vigor, force; main force, physical force, brute force; spring, elasticity, tone, tension, tonicity. stoutness &c adj.; lustihood^, stamina, nerve, muscle, sinew, thews and sinews, physique; pith, pithiness; virtility, vitality. athletics, athleticism^; gymnastics, feats of strength. adamant, steel, iron, oak, heart of oak; iron grip; grit, bone. athlete, gymnast, acrobat; superman, Atlas, Hercules, Antaeus^, Samson, Cyclops, Goliath; tower of strength; giant refreshed. strengthening &c v.; invigoration, refreshment, refocillation^. [Science of forces] dynamics, statics. V. be strong &c adj., be stronger; overmatch. render strong &c adj.; give strength &c n.; strengthen, invigorate, brace, nerve, fortify, sustain, harden, case harden, steel, gird; screw up, wind up, set up; gird up one's loins, brace up one's loins; recruit, set on one's legs; vivify; refresh &c 689; refect^; reinforce, reenforce &c (restore) 660. Adj. strong, mighty, vigorous, forcible, hard, adamantine, stout, robust, sturdy, hardy, powerful, potent, puissant, valid. resistless, irresistible, invincible, proof against, impregnable, unconquerable, indomitable, dominating, inextinguishable, unquenchable; incontestable; more than a match for; overpowering, overwhelming; all powerful, all sufficient; sovereign. able-bodied; athletic; Herculean, Cyclopean, Atlantean^; muscular, brawny, wiry, well-knit, broad-shouldered, sinewy, strapping, stalwart, gigantic. manly, man-like, manful; masculine, male, virile. unweakened^, unallayed, unwithered^, unshaken, unworn, unexhausted^; in full force, in full swing; in the plenitude of power. stubborn, thick-ribbed, made of iron, deep-rooted; strong as a lion, strong as a horse, strong as an ox, strong as brandy; sound as a roach; in fine feather, in high feather; built like a brick shithouse; like a giant refreshed. Adv. strongly &c adj.; by force &c n.; by main force &c (by compulsion) 744. Phr. our withers are unwrung [Hamlet]. Blut und Eisen [G.]; coelitus mihi vires [Lat.]; du fort au diable [Fr.]; en habiles gens [Lat.]; ex vi termini; flecti non frangi [Lat.]; he that wrestles with us strengthens our nerves and sharpens our skill [Burke]; inflexible in faith invincible in arms [Beattie]. 160. Weakness -- N. weakness &c adj.; debility, atony^, relaxation, languor, enervation; impotence &c 158; infirmity; effeminacy, feminality^; fragility, flaccidity; inactivity &c 683. anaemia, bloodlessness, deficiency of blood, poverty of blood. declension of strength, loss of strength, failure of strength; delicacy, invalidation, decrepitude, asthenia^, adynamy^, cachexy^, cachexia [Med.], sprain, strain. reed, thread, rope of sand, house of cards. softling^, weakling; infant &c 129; youth &c 127. V. be weak &c adj.; drop, crumble, give way, totter, tremble, shake, halt, limp, fade, languish, decline, flag, fail, have one leg in the grave. render weak &c adj.; weaken, enfeeble, debilitate, shake, deprive of strength, relax, enervate, eviscerate; unbrace, unnerve; cripple, unman &c (render powerless) 158; cramp, reduce, sprain, strain, blunt the edge of; dilute, impoverish; decimate; extenuate; reduce in strength, reduce the strength of; mettre de l'eau dans son vin [Fr.]. Adj. weak, feeble, debile^; impotent &c 158; relaxed, unnerved, &c v.; sapless, strengthless^, powerless; weakly, unstrung, flaccid, adynamic^, asthenic^; nervous. soft, effeminate, feminate^, womanly. frail, fragile, shattery^; flimsy, unsubstantial, insubstantial, gimcrack, gingerbread; rickety, creaky, creaking, cranky; craichy^; drooping, tottering &c v.. broken, lame, withered, shattered, shaken, crazy, shaky; palsied &c 158; decrepit. languid, poor, infirm; faint, faintish^; sickly &c (disease) 655; dull, slack, evanid^, spent, short-winded, effete; weather-beaten; decayed, rotten, worn, seedy, languishing, wasted, washy, laid low, pulled down, the worse for wear. unstrengthened &c 159 [Obs.], unsupported, unaided, unassisted; aidless^, defenseless &c 158; cantilevered (support) 215. on its last legs; weak as a child, weak as a baby, weak as a chicken, weak as a cat, weak as a rat; weak as water, weak as water gruel, weak as gingerbread, weak as milk and water; colorless &c 429. Phr. non sum qualis eram [Lat.]. 3. POWER IN OPERATION 161. Production -- N. {ant. 162,, 158} production, creation, construction, formation, fabrication, manufacture; building, architecture, erection, edification; coinage; diaster^; organization; nisus formativus [Lat.]; putting together &c v.; establishment; workmanship, performance; achievement &c (completion) 729. flowering, fructification; inflorescence. bringing forth &c v.; parturition, birth, birth-throe, childbirth, delivery, confinement, accouchement, travail, labor, midwifery, obstetrics; geniture^; gestation &c (maturation) 673; assimilation; evolution, development, growth; entelechy [Phil.]; fertilization, gemination, germination, heterogamy [Biol.], genesis, generation, epigenesis^, procreation, progeneration^, propagation; fecundation, impregnation; albumen &c 357. spontaneous generation; archegenesis^, archebiosis^; biogenesis, abiogenesis^, digenesis^, dysmerogenesis^, eumerogenesis^, heterogenesis^, oogenesis, merogenesis^, metogenesis^, monogenesis^, parthenogenesis, homogenesis^, xenogenesis1^; authorship, publication; works, opus, oeuvre. biogeny^, dissogeny^, xenogeny^; tocogony^, vacuolization. edifice, building, structure, fabric, erection, pile, tower, flower, fruit. V. produce, perform, operate, do, make, gar, form, construct, fabricate, frame, contrive, manufacture; weave, forge, coin, carve, chisel; build, raise, edify, rear, erect, put together, set up, run up; establish, constitute, compose, organize, institute; achieve, accomplish &c (complete) 729. flower, bear fruit, fructify, teem, ean^, yean^, farrow, drop, pup, kitten, kindle; bear, lay, whelp, bring forth, give birth to, lie in, be brought to bed of, evolve, pullulate, usher into the world. make productive &c 168; create; beget, get, generate, fecundate, impregnate; procreate, progenerate^, propagate; engender; bring into being, call into being, bring into existence; breed, hatch, develop, bring up. induce, superinduce; suscitate^; cause &c 153; acquire &c 775. Adj. produced, producing &c v.; productive of; prolific &c 168; creative; formative, genetic, genial, genital; pregnant; enceinte, big with, fraught with; in the family way, teeming, parturient, in the straw, brought to bed of; puerperal, puerperous^. digenetic^, heterogenetic^, oogenetic, xenogenetic^; ectogenous^, gamic^, haematobious^, sporogenous [Biol.], sporophorous [Biol.]. architectonic. Phr. ex nihilo nihil [Lat.]; fiat lux [Lat.]; materiam superabat opus [Lat.] [Ovid]; nemo dat quod non habet [Lat.]. 162. [Nonproduction.] Destruction -- N. {ant. 161} destruction; waste, dissolution, breaking up; diruption^, disruption; consumption; disorganization. fall, downfall, devastation, ruin, perdition, crash; eboulement [Fr.], smash, havoc, delabrement [Fr.], debacle; break down, break up, fall apart; prostration; desolation, bouleversement [Fr.], wreck, wrack, shipwreck, cataclysm; washout. extinction, annihilation; destruction of life &c 361; knock-down blow; doom, crack of doom. destroying &c v.; demolition, demolishment; overthrow, subversion, suppression; abolition &c (abrogation) 756; biblioclasm^; sacrifice; ravage, razzia^; inactivation; incendiarism; revolution &c 146; extirpation &c (extraction) 301; beginning of the end, commencement de la fin [Fr.], road to ruin; dilapidation &c (deterioration) 659; sabotage. V. be destroyed &c; perish; fall to the ground; tumble, topple; go to pieces, fall to pieces; break up; crumble to dust; go to the dogs, go to the wall, go to smash, go to shivers, go to wreck, go to pot, go to wrack and ruin; go by the board, go all to smash; be all over, be all up, be all with; totter to its fall. destroy; do away with, make away with; nullify; annual &c 756; sacrifice, demolish; tear up; overturn, overthrow, overwhelm; upset, subvert, put an end to; seal the doom of, do in, do for, dish [Slang], undo; break up, cut up; break down, cut down, pull down, mow down, blow down, beat down; suppress, quash, put down, do a job on; cut short, take off, blot out; dispel, dissipate, dissolve; consume. smash, crash, quell, squash, squelch, crumple up, shatter, shiver; batter to pieces, tear to pieces, crush to pieces, cut to pieces, shake to pieces, pull to pieces, pick to pieces; laniate^; nip; tear to rags, tear to tatters; crush to atoms, knock to atoms; ruin; strike out; throw over, knock down over; fell, sink, swamp, scuttle, wreck, shipwreck, engulf, ingulf^, submerge; lay in ashes, lay in ruins; sweep away, erase, wipe out, expunge, raze; level with the dust, level with the ground; waste; atomize, vaporize. deal destruction, desolate, devastate, lay waste, ravage gut; disorganize; dismantle &c (render useless) 645; devour, swallow up, sap, mine, blast, bomb, blow to smithereens, drop the big one, confound; exterminate, extinguish, quench, annihilate; snuff out, put out, stamp out, trample out; lay in the dust, trample in the dust; prostrate; tread under foot; crush under foot, trample under foot; lay the ax to the root of; make short work of, make clean sweep of, make mincemeat of; cut up root and branch, chop into pieces, cut into ribbons; fling to the winds, scatter to the winds; throw overboard; strike at the root of, sap the foundations of, spring a mine, blow up, ravage with fire and sword; cast to the dogs; eradicate &c 301. Adj. destroyed &c v.; perishing &c v.; trembling to its fall, nodding to its fall, tottering to its fall; in course of destruction &c n.; extinct. all-destroying, all-devouring, all-engulfing. destructive, subversive, ruinous, devastating; incendiary, deletory^; destroying &c n.. suicidal; deadly &c (killing) 361. Adv. with crushing effect, with a sledge hammer. Phr. delenda est Carthago [Lat.]; dum Roma deliberat Saguntum perit [Lat.]; ecrasez l'infame [Voltaire]. 163. Reproduction -- N. reproduction, renovation; restoration &c 660; renewal; new edition, reprint, revival, regeneration, palingenesis^, revivification; apotheosis; resuscitation, reanimation, resurrection, reappearance; regrowth; Phoenix. generation &c (production) 161; multiplication. V. reproduce; restore &c 660; revive, renovate, renew, regenerate, revivify, resuscitate, reanimate; remake, refashion, stir the embers, put into the crucible; multiply, repeat; resurge^. crop up, spring up like mushrooms. Adj. reproduced &c v.; renascent, reappearing; reproductive; suigenetic^. 164. Producer -- N. producer, originator, inventor, author, founder, generator, mover, architect, creator, prime mover; maker &c (agent) 690; prime mover. 165. Destroyer -- N. destroyer &c (destroy) &c 162; cankerworm &c (bane) 663; assassin &c (killer) 361; executioner &c (punish) 975; biblioclast^, eidoloclast^, iconoclast, idoloclast^; nihilist. 166. Paternity -- N. paternity; parentage; consanguinity &c 11. parent; father, sire, dad, papa, paterfamilias, abba^; genitor, progenitor, procreator; ancestor; grandsire^, grandfather; great- grandfather; fathership^, fatherhood; mabap^. house, stem, trunk, tree, stock, stirps, pedigree, lineage, line, family, tribe, sept, race, clan; genealogy, descent, extraction, birth, ancestry; forefathers, forbears, patriarchs. motherhood, maternity; mother, dam, mamma, materfamilias [Lat.], grandmother. Adj. paternal, parental; maternal; family, ancestral, linear, patriarchal. Phr. avi numerantur avorum [Lat.]; happy he with such a mother [Tennyson]; hombre bueno no le busquen abolengo [Sp.]; philosophia stemma non inspicit [Lat.] [Seneca]. 167. Posterity -- N. posterity, progeny, breed, issue, offspring, brood, litter, seed, farrow, spawn, spat; family, grandchildren, heirs; great-grandchild. child, son, daughter; butcha^; bantling, scion; acrospire^, plumule^, shoot, sprout, olive-branch, sprit^, branch; off-shoot, off- set; ramification; descendant; heir, heiress; heir-apparent, heir- presumptive; chip off the old block; heredity; rising generation. straight descent, sonship^, line, lineage, filiation^, primogeniture. Adj. filial; diphyletic^. Phr. the child is father of the man [Wordsworth]; the fruit doesn't fall far from the tree, like father, like son. 168. Productiveness -- N. productiveness &c adj.; fecundity, fertility, luxuriance, uberty^. pregnancy, pullulation, fructification, multiplication, propagation, procreation; superfetation. milch cow, rabbit, hydra, warren, seed plot, land flowing with milk and honey; second crop, aftermath; aftercrop, aftergrowth^; arrish^, eddish^, rowen^; protoplasm; fertilization. V. make productive &c adj.; fructify; procreate, generate, fertilize, spermative^, impregnate; fecundate, fecundify^; teem, multiply; produce &c 161; conceive. Adj. productive, prolific; teeming, teemful^; fertile, fruitful, frugiferous^, fruit-bearing; fecund, luxuriant; pregnant, uberous^. procreant^, procreative; generative, life-giving, spermatic; multiparous; omnific^, propagable. parturient &c (producing) 161; profitable &c (useful) 644. 169. Unproductiveness -- N. unproductiveness &c adj.; infertility, sterility, infecundity^; masturbation; impotence &c 158; unprofitableness &c (inutility) 645. waste, desert, Sahara, wild, wilderness, howling wilderness. V. be unproductive &c adj.; hang fire, flash in the pan, come to nothing. [make unproductive] sterilize, addle; disable, inactivate. Adj. unproductive, acarpous^, inoperative, barren, addled, infertile, unfertile, unprolific^, arid, sterile, unfruitful, infecund^; sine prole; fallow; teemless^, issueless^, fruitless; unprofitable &c (useless) 645; null and void, of no effect. 170. Agency -- N. agency, operation, force, working, strain, function, office, maintenance, exercise, work, swing, play; interworking^, interaction; procurement. causation &c 153; instrumentality &c 631; influence &c 175; action &c (voluntary) 680; modus operandi &c 627. quickening power, maintaining power, sustaining power; home stroke. V. be in action &c adj.; operate, work; act, act upon; perform, play, support, sustain, strain, maintain, take effect, quicken, strike. come play, come bring into operation; have play, have free play; bring to bear upon. Adj. operative, efficient, efficacious, practical, effectual. at work, on foot; acting &c (doing) 680; in operation, in force, in action, in play, in exercise; acted upon, wrought upon. Adv. by the agency of, &c n.; through &c (instrumentality) 631; by means of &c 632. Phr. I myself must mix with action lest I wither by despair [Tennyson]. 171. Physical Energy -- N. energy, physical energy, force, power &c 157; keenness &c adj.; intensity, vigor, strength, elasticity; go; high pressure; fire; rush. acrimony, acritude^; causiticity^, virulence; poignancy; harshness &c adj.; severity, edge, point; pungency &c 392. cantharides; seasoning &c (condiment) 393. activity, agitation, effervescence; ferment, fermentation; ebullition, splutter, perturbation, stir, bustle; voluntary energy &c 682; quicksilver. resolution &c (mental energy) 604; exertion &c (effort) 686; excitation &c (mental) 824. V. give energy &c n.; energize, stimulate, kindle, excite, exert; sharpen, intensify; inflame &c (render violent) 173; wind up &c (strengthen) 159. strike home, into home, hard home; make an impression. Adj. strong, energetic, forcible, active; intense, deep-dyed, severe, keen, vivid, sharp, acute, incisive, trenchant, brisk. rousing, irritation; poignant; virulent, caustic, corrosive, mordant, harsh, stringent; double-edged, double-shotted^, double- distilled; drastic, escharotic^; racy &c (pungent) 392. potent &c (powerful) 157; radioactive. Adv. strongly &c adj.; fortiter in re [Lat.]; with telling effect. Phr. the steam is up; vires acquirit eundo [Lat.]; the race by vigor not by vaunts is won [Pope]. 172. Physical Inertness -- N. inertness, dullness &c adj.; inertia, vis inertiae [Lat.], inertion^, inactivity, torpor, languor; quiescence &c 265; latency, inaction; passivity. mental inertness; sloth &c (inactivity) 683; inexcitability &c 826 [Obs.]; irresolution &c 605; obstinacy &c 606; permanence &c 141. rare gas, paraffin, noble metal, unreactivity. V. be inert &c adj.; hang fire, smolder. Adj. inert, inactive, passive; torpid &c 683; sluggish, dull, heavy, flat, slack, tame, slow, blunt; unreactive; lifeless, dead, uninfluential^. latent, dormant, smoldering, unexerted^. Adv. inactively &c adj.; in suspense, in abeyance. 173. Violence -- N. violence, inclemency, vehemence, might, impetuosity; boisterousness &c adj.; effervescence, ebullition; turbulence, bluster; uproar, callithump [U.S.], riot, row, rumpus, le diable a quatre [Fr.], devil to pay, all the fat in the fire. severity &c 739; ferocity, rage, fury; exacerbation, exasperation, malignity; fit, paroxysm; orgasm, climax, aphrodisia^; force, brute force; outrage; coup de main; strain, shock, shog^; spasm, convulsion, throe; hysterics, passion &c (state of excitability) 825. outbreak, outburst; debacle; burst, bounce, dissilience^, discharge, volley, explosion, blow up, blast, detonation, rush, eruption, displosion^, torrent. turmoil &c (disorder) 59; ferment &c (agitation) 315; storm, tempest, rough weather; squall &c (wind) 349; earthquake, volcano, thunderstorm. berserk, berserker; fury, dragon, demon, tiger, beldame, Tisiphone^, Megaera, Alecto^, madcap, wild beast; fire eater &c (blusterer) 887. V. be violent &c adj.; run high; ferment, effervesce; romp, rampage, go on a rampage; run wild, run amuck, run riot; break the peace; rush, tear; rush headlong, rush foremost; raise a storm, make a riot; rough house [Slang]; riot, storm; wreak, bear down, ride roughshod, out Herod, Herod; spread like wildfire (person). [shout or act in anger at something], explode, make a row, kick up a row; boil, boil over; fume, foam, come on like a lion, bluster, rage, roar, fly off the handle, go bananas, go ape, blow one's top, blow one's cool, flip one's lid, hit the ceiling, hit the roof; fly into a rage (anger) 900. break out, fly out, burst out; bounce, explode, go off, displode^, fly, detonate, thunder, blow up, crump^, flash, flare, burst; shock, strain; break open, force open, prize open. render violent &c adj.; sharpen, stir up, quicken, excite, incite, annoy, urge, lash, stimulate, turn on; irritate, inflame, kindle, suscitate^, foment; accelerate, aggravate, exasperate, exacerbate, convulse, infuriate, madden, lash into fury; fan the flame; add fuel to the flame, pour oil on the fire, oleum addere camino [Lat.]. explode; let fly, fly off; discharge, detonate, set off, detonize^, fulminate. Adj. violent, vehement; warm; acute, sharp; rough, rude, ungentle, bluff, boisterous, wild; brusque, abrupt, waspish; impetuous; rampant. turbulent; disorderly; blustering, raging &c v.; troublous^, riotous; tumultuary^, tumultuous; obstreperous, uproarious; extravagant; unmitigated; ravening, inextinguishable, tameless; frenzied &c (insane) 503. desperate &c (rash) 863; infuriate, furious, outrageous, frantic, hysteric, in hysterics. fiery, flaming, scorching, hot, red-hot, ebullient. savage, fierce, ferocious, fierce as a tiger. excited &c v.; unquelled^, unquenched, unextinguished^, unrepressed, unbridled, unruly; headstrong, ungovernable, unappeasable, immitigable, unmitigable^; uncontrollable, incontrollable^; insuppressible, irrepressible; orgastic, orgasmatic, orgasmic. spasmodic, convulsive, explosive; detonating &c v.; volcanic, meteoric; stormy &c (wind) 349. Adv. violently &c adj.; amain^; by storm, by force, by main force; with might and main; tooth and nail, vi et armis [Lat.], at the point of the sword, at the point of the bayonet; at one fell swoop; with a high hand, through thick and thin; in desperation, with a vengeance; a outrance^, a toute outrance [Fr.]; headlong, head foremost. Phr. furor arma ministrat [Lat.]; blown with restless violence round about the pendent world [Measure for Measure]. 174. Moderation -- N. moderation, lenity &c 740; temperateness, gentleness &c adj.; sobriety; quiet; mental calmness &c (inexcitability) 826 [Obs.]. moderating &c v.; anaphrodisia^; relaxation, remission, mitigation, tranquilization^, assuagement, contemporation^, pacification. measure, juste milieu [Fr.], golden mean, ariston metron [Gr.]. moderator; lullaby, sedative, lenitive, demulcent, antispasmodic, carminative, laudanum; rose water, balm, poppy, opiate, anodyne, milk, opium, poppy or mandragora; wet blanket; palliative. V. be moderate &c adj.; keep within bounds, keep within compass; sober down, settle down; keep the peace, remit, relent, take in sail. moderate, soften, mitigate, temper, accoy^; attemper^, contemper^; mollify, lenify^, dulcify^, dull, take off the edge, blunt, obtund^, sheathe, subdue, chasten; sober down, tone down, smooth down; weaken &c 160; lessen &c (decrease) 36; check palliate. tranquilize, pacify, assuage, appease, swag, lull, soothe, compose, still, calm, calm down, cool, quiet, hush, quell, sober, pacify, tame, damp, lay, allay, rebate, slacken, smooth, alleviate, rock to sleep, deaden, smooth, throw cold water on, throw a wet blanket over, turn off; slake; curb &c (restrain) 751; tame &c (subjugate) 749; smooth over; pour oil on the waves, pour oil on the troubled waters; pour balm into, mattre de l'eau dans son vin [Fr.]. go out like a lamb, roar you as gently as any sucking dove [Midsummer-Night's Dream]. Adj. moderate; lenient &c 740; gentle, mild, mellow; cool, sober, temperate, reasonable, measured; tempered &c v.; calm, unruffled, quiet, tranquil, still; slow, smooth, untroubled; tame; peaceful, peaceable; pacific, halcyon. unexciting, unirritating^; soft, bland, oily, demulcent, lenitive, anodyne; hypnotic &c 683; sedative; antiorgastic^, anaphrodisiac^. mild as mother's milk; milk and water. Adv. moderately &c adj.; gingerly; piano; under easy sail, at half speed; within bounds, within compass; in reason. Phr. est modue in rebus^; pour oil on troubled waters. 4. INDIRECT POWER 175. Influence -- N. influence; importance &c 642; weight, pressure, preponderance, prevalence, sway; predominance, predominancy^; ascendency^; dominance, reign; control, domination, pull [Slang]; authority &c 737; capability &c (power) 157; effect &c 154; interest. synergy (cooperation) 709. footing; purchase &c (support) 215; play, leverage, vantage ground. tower of strength, host in himself; protection, patronage, auspices. V. have influence &c n.; be influential &c adj.; carry weight, weigh, tell; have a hold upon, magnetize, bear upon, gain a footing, work upon; take root, take hold; strike root in. run through, pervade; prevail, dominate, predominate; out weigh, over weigh; over-ride, over-bear; gain head; rage; be rife &c adj.; spread like wildfire; have the upper hand, get the upper hand, gain the upper hand, have full play, get full play, gain full play. be recognized, be listened to; make one's voice heard, gain a hearing; play a part, play a leading part, play a leading part in; take the lead, pull the strings; turn the scale, throw one's weight into the scale; set the fashion, lead the dance. Adj. influential, effective; important &c 642; weighty; prevailing &c v.; prevalent, rife, rampant, dominant, regnant, predominant, in the ascendant, hegemonical^. Adv. with telling effect. Phr. tel maure tel valet [Fr.]. 175a. Absence of Influence -- N. impotence &c 158; powerlessness; inertness &c 172; irrelevancy &c 10. V. have no influence &c 175. Adj. uninfluential^, ineffective; inconsequential, nugatory; unconducing, unconducive, unconducting to^; powerless &c 158; irrelevant &c 10. 176. Tendency -- N. tendency; aptness, aptitude; proneness, proclivity, bent, turn, tone, bias, set, leaning to, predisposition, inclination, propensity, susceptibility; conatus [Lat.], nisus [Lat.]; liability &c 177; quality, nature, temperament; idiocrasy^, idiosyncrasy; cast, vein, grain; humor, mood; drift &c (direction) 278; conduciveness, conducement^; applicability &c (utility) 644; subservience &c (instrumentality) 631. V. tend, contribute, conduce, lead, dispose, incline, verge, bend to, trend, affect, carry, redound to, bid fair to, gravitate towards; promote &c (aid) 707. Adj. tending &c v.; conducive, working towards, in a fair way to, calculated to; liable &c 177; subservient &c (instrumental) 631; useful &c 644; subsidiary &c (helping) 707. Adv. for, whither. 177. Liability -- N. liability, liableness^; possibility, contingency; susceptivity^, susceptibility, exposure. V. be liable &c adj.; incur, lay oneself open to; run the chance, stand a chance; lie under, expose oneself to, open a door to. Adj. liable, subject; in danger &c 665; open to, exposed to, obnoxious to; answerable; unexempt from^; apt to; dependent on; incident to. contingent, incidental, possible, on the cards, within range of, at the mercy of. 5. COMBINATIONS OF CAUSES 178. Concurrence -- N. concurrence, cooperation, coagency^; union; agreement &c 23; consilience^; consent, coincidence &c (assent) 488; alliance; concert, additivity, synergy &c 709; partnership &c 712. common cause. V. concur, conduce, conspire, contribute; agree, unite; hang together, pull together, join forces, make common cause. &c (cooperate) 709; help to &c (aid) 707. keep pace with, run parallel; go with, go along with, go hand in hand with, coincide. Adj. concurring &c v.; concurrent, in alliance with, banded together, of one mind, at one with, coinciding. Adv. with one consent. 179. Counteraction -- N. counteraction, opposition; contrariety &c 14; antagonism, polarity; clashing &c v.; collision, interference, inhibition, resistance, renitency, friction; reaction; retroaction &c (recoil) 277; counterblast^; neutralization &c (compensation) 30; vis inertiae [Lat.]; check &c (hindrance) 706. voluntary opposition &c 708, voluntary resistance &c 719; repression &c (restraint) 751. opposites, action and reaction, yang and yin, yang-yin (contrariety) 14. V. counteract; run counter, clash, cross; interfere with, conflict with; contravene; jostle; go against, run against, beat against, militate against; stultify; antagonize, block, oppose &c 708; traverse; withstand &c (resist) 719; hinder &c 706; repress &c (restrain) 751; react &c (recoil) 277. undo, neutralize; counterpoise &c (compensate) 30; overpoise^. Adj. counteracting &c v.; antagonistic, conflicting, retroactive, renitent, reactionary; contrary &c 14. Adv. although &c 30; in spite of &c 708; against. Phr. for every action there is a reaction, equal in force and opposite in direction [Newton]. CLASS II WORDS RELATING TO SPACE SECTION I. SPACE IN GENERAL 1. ABSTRACT SPACE 180. [Indefinite space.] Space -- N. space, extension, extent, superficial extent, expanse, stretch, hyperspace; room, scope, range, field, way, expansion, compass, sweep, swing, spread. dimension, length &c 200; distance &c 196; size &c 192; volume; hypervolume. latitude, play, leeway, purchase, tolerance, room for maneuver. spare room, elbow room, house room; stowage, roomage^, margin; opening, sphere, arena. open space, free space; void &c (absence) 187; waste; wildness, wilderness; moor, moorland; campagna^. abyss &c (interval) 198; unlimited space; infinity &c 105; world; ubiquity &c (presence) 186; length and breadth of the land. proportions, acreage; acres, acres and perches, roods and perches, hectares, square miles; square inches, square yards, square centimeters, square meters, yards (clothing) &c; ares, arpents^. Adj. spacious, roomy, extensive, expansive, capacious, ample; widespread, vast, world-wide, uncircumscribed; boundless &c (infinite) 105; shoreless^, trackless, pathless; extended. Adv. extensively &c adj.; wherever; everywhere; far and near, far and wide; right and left, all over, all the world over; throughout the world, throughout the length and breadth of the land; under the sun, in every quarter; in all quarters, in all lands; here there and everywhere; from pole to pole, from China to Peru [Johnson], from Indus to the pole [Pope], from Dan to Beersheba, from end to end; on the face of the earth, in the wide world, from all points of the compass; to the four winds, to the uttermost parts of the earth. 180a. Inextension -- N. inextension^, nonextension^, point; dot; atom &c (smallness) 32. 181. [Definite space.] Region -- N. region, sphere, ground, soil, area, field, realm, hemisphere, quarter, district, beat, orb, circuit, circle; reservation, pale &c (limit) 233; compartment, department; clearing. [political divisions: see] (property) &c 780 (Government) &c 737.1 arena, precincts, enceinte, walk, march; patch, plot, parcel, inclosure, close, field, court; enclave, reserve, preserve; street &c (abode) 189. clime, climate, zone, meridian, latitude. biosphere; lithosphere. Adj. territorial, local, parochial, provincial, regional. 182. [Limited space.] Place -- N. place, lieu, spot, point, dot; niche, nook &c (corner) 244; hole; pigeonhole &c (receptacle) 191; compartment; premises, precinct, station; area, courtyard, square; abode &c 189; locality &c (situation) 183. ins and outs; every hole and corner. Adv. somewhere, in some place, wherever it may be, here and there, in various places, passim. 2. RELATIVE SPACE 183. Situation -- N. situation, position, locality, locale, status, latitude and longitude; footing, standing, standpoint, post; stage; aspect, attitude, posture, pose. environment, surroundings (location) 184; circumjacence &c 227 [Obs.]. place, site, station, seat, venue, whereabouts; ground; bearings &c (direction) 278; spot &c (limited space) 182. topography, geography, chorography^; map &c 554. V. be situated, be situate; lie, have its seat in. Adj. situate, situated; local, topical, topographical &c n.. Adv. in situ, in loco; here and there, passim; hereabouts, thereabouts, whereabouts; in place, here, there. in such and such surroundings, in such and such environs, in such and such entourage, amidst such and such surroundings, amidst such and such environs, amidst such and such entourage. 184. Location -- N. location, localization; lodgment; deposition, reposition; stowage, package; collocation; packing, lading; establishment, settlement, installation; fixation; insertion &c 300. habitat, environment, surroundings (situation) 183; circumjacence &c 227 [Obs.]. anchorage, mooring, encampment. plantation, colony, settlement, cantonment; colonization, domestication, situation; habitation &c (abode) 189; cohabitation; a local habitation and a name [Midsummer Night's Dream]; endenization^, naturalization. V. place, situate, locate, localize, make a place for, put, lay, set, seat, station, lodge, quarter, post, install; house, stow; establish, fix, pin, root; graft; plant &c (insert) 300; shelve, pitch, camp, lay down, deposit, reposit^; cradle; moor, tether, picket; pack, tuck in; embed, imbed; vest, invest in. billet on, quarter upon, saddle with; load, lade, freight; pocket, put up, bag. inhabit &c (be present) 186; domesticate, colonize; take root, strike root; anchor; cast anchor, come to an anchor; sit down, settle down; settle; take up one's abode, take up one's quarters; plant oneself, establish oneself, locate oneself; squat, perch, hive, se nicher [Fr.], bivouac, burrow, get a footing; encamp, pitch one's tent; put up at, put up one's horses at; keep house. endenizen^, naturalize, adopt. put back, replace &c (restore) 660. Adj. placed &c v.; situate, posited, ensconced, imbedded, embosomed^, rooted; domesticated; vested in, unremoved^. moored &c v.; at anchor. 185. Displacement -- N. displacement, elocation^, transposition. ejectment &c 297 [Obs.]; exile &c (banishment) 893; removal &c (transference) 270. misplacement, dislocation &c 61; fish out of water. V. displace, misplace, displant^, dislodge, disestablish; exile &c (seclude) 893; ablegate^, set aside, remove; take away, cart away; take off, draft off; lade &c 184. unload, empty &c (eject) 297; transfer &c 270; dispel. vacate; depart &c 293. Adj. displaced &c v.; unplaced, unhoused^, unharbored^, unestablished^, unsettled; houseless^, homeless; out of place, out of a situation; in the wrong place. misplaced, out of its element. 3. EXISTENCE IN SPACE 186. Presence -- N. presence; occupancy, occupation; attendance; whereness^. permeation, pervasion; diffusion &c (dispersion) 73. ubiety^, ubiquity, ubiquitariness^; omnipresence. bystander &c (spectator) 444. V. exist in space, be present &c adj.; assister^; make one of, make one at; look on, attend, remain; find oneself, present oneself; show one's face; fall in the way of, occur in a place; lie, stand; occupy; be there. people; inhabit, dwell, reside, stay, sojourn, live, abide, lodge, nestle, roost, perch; take up one's abode &c (be located) 184; tenant. resort to, frequent, haunt; revisit. fill, pervade, permeate; be diffused, be disseminated, be through; over spread, overrun; run through; meet one at every turn. Adj. present; occupying, inhabiting &c v.; moored &c 184; resiant^, resident, residentiary^; domiciled. ubiquitous, ubiquitary^; omnipresent; universally present. peopled, populous, full of people, inhabited. Adv. here, there, where, everywhere, aboard, on board, at home, afield; here there and everywhere &c (space) 180; in presence of, before; under the eyes of, under the nose of; in the face of; in propria persona [Lat.]. on the spot; in person, in the flesh. Phr. nusquam est qui ubique est [Lat.] [Seneca]. 187. [Nullibiety.1] Absence -- N. absence; inexistence &c 2 [Obs.]; nonresidence, absenteeism; nonattendance, alibi. emptiness &c adj.; void, vacuum; vacuity, vacancy; tabula rasa [Lat.]; exemption; hiatus &c (interval) 198; lipotype^. truant, absentee. nobody; nobody present, nobody on earth; not a soul; ame qui vive [Fr.]. V. be absent &c adj.; keep away, keep out of the way; play truant, absent oneself, stay away; keep aloof, hold aloof. withdraw, make oneself scarce, vacate; go away &c 293. Adj. absent, not present, away, nonresident, gone, from home; missing; lost; wanting; omitted; nowhere to be found; inexistence &c 2 [Obs.]. empty, void; vacant, vacuous; untenanted, unoccupied, uninhabited; tenantless; barren, sterile; desert, deserted; devoid; uninhabitable. Adv. without, minus, nowhere; elsewhere; neither here nor there; in default of; sans; behind one's back. Phr. the bird has flown, non est inventus [Lat.]. absence makes the heart grow fonder [Bayley]; absent in body but present in spirit [1 Corinthians verse 3]; absento nemo ne nocuisse velit [Lat.] [Propertius]; Achilles absent was Achilles still [Homer]; aux absents les os; briller par son absence [Fr.]; conspicuous by his absence [Russell]; in the hope to meet shortly again and make our absence sweet [B. Jonson]. 188. Inhabitant -- N. inhabitant; resident, residentiary^; dweller, indweller^; addressee; occupier, occupant; householder, lodger, inmate, tenant, incumbent, sojourner, locum tenens, commorant^; settler, squatter, backwoodsman, colonist; islander; denizen, citizen; burgher, oppidan^, cockney, cit, townsman, burgess; villager; cottager, cottier^, cotter; compatriot; backsettler^, boarder; hotel keeper, innkeeper; habitant; paying guest; planter. native, indigene, aborigines, autochthones^; Englishman, John Bull; newcomer &c (stranger) 57. aboriginal, American^, Caledonian, Cambrian, Canadian, Canuck [Slang], downeaster [U.S.], Scot, Scotchman, Hibernian, Irishman, Welshman, Uncle Sam, Yankee, Brother Jonathan. garrison, crew; population; people &c (mankind) 372; colony, settlement; household; mir^. V. inhabit &c (be present) 186; endenizen &c (locate oneself) 184 [Obs.]. Adj. indigenous; native, natal; autochthonal^, autochthonous; British; English; American^; Canadian, Irish, Scotch, Scottish, Welsh; domestic; domiciliated^, domiciled; naturalized, vernacular, domesticated; domiciliary. in the occupation of; garrisoned by, occupied by. 189. [Place of habitation, or resort.] Abode -- N. abode, dwelling, lodging, domicile, residence, apartment, place, digs, pad, address, habitation, where one's lot is cast, local habitation, berth, diggings, seat, lap, sojourn, housing, quarters, headquarters, resiance^, tabernacle, throne, ark. home, fatherland; country; homestead, homestall^; fireside; hearth, hearth stone; chimney corner, inglenook, ingle side; harem, seraglio, zenana^; household gods, lares et penates [Lat.], roof, household, housing, dulce domum [Lat.], paternal domicile; native soil, native land. habitat, range, stamping ground; haunt, hangout; biosphere; environment, ecological niche. nest, nidus, snuggery^; arbor, bower, &c 191; lair, den, cave, hole, hiding place, cell, sanctum sanctorum [Lat.], aerie, eyrie, eyry^, rookery, hive; covert, resort, retreat, perch, roost; nidification; kala jagah^. bivouac, camp, encampment, cantonment, castrametation^; barrack, casemate^, casern^. tent &c (covering) 223; building &c (construction) 161; chamber &c (receptacle) 191; xenodochium^. tenement, messuage, farm, farmhouse, grange, hacienda, toft^. cot, cabin, hut, chalet, croft, shed, booth, stall, hovel, bothy^, shanty, dugout [U.S.], wigwam; pen &c (inclosure) 232; barn, bawn^; kennel, sty, doghold^, cote, coop, hutch, byre; cow house, cow shed; stable, dovecote, columbary^, columbarium; shippen^; igloo, iglu^, jacal^; lacustrine dwelling^, lacuslake dwelling^, lacuspile dwelling^; log cabin, log house; shack, shebang [Slang], tepee, topek^. house, mansion, place, villa, cottage, box, lodge, hermitage, rus in urbe [Lat.], folly, rotunda, tower, chateau, castle, pavilion, hotel, court, manor-house, capital messuage, hall, palace; kiosk, bungalow; casa [Sp.], country seat, apartment house, flat house, frame house, shingle house, tenement house; temple &c 1000. hamlet, village, thorp^, dorp^, ham, kraal; borough, burgh, town, city, capital, metropolis; suburb; province, country; county town, county seat; courthouse [U.S.]; ghetto. street, place, terrace, parade, esplanade, alameda^, board walk, embankment, road, row, lane, alley, court, quadrangle, quad, wynd [Scot.], close [Scot.], yard, passage, rents, buildings, mews. square, polygon, circus, crescent, mall, piazza, arcade, colonnade, peristyle, cloister; gardens, grove, residences; block of buildings, market place, place, plaza. anchorage, roadstead, roads; dock, basin, wharf, quay, port, harbor. quarter, parish &c (region) 181. assembly room, meetinghouse, pump room, spa, watering place; inn; hostel, hostelry; hotel, tavern, caravansary, dak bungalow^, khan, hospice; public house, pub, pot house, mug house; gin mill, gin palace; bar, bar room; barrel house [U.S.], cabaret, chophouse; club, clubhouse; cookshop^, dive [U.S.], exchange [Euph.]; grill room, saloon [U.S.], shebeen^; coffee house, eating house; canteen, restaurant, buffet, cafe, estaminet^, posada^; almshouse^, poorhouse, townhouse [U.S.]. garden, park, pleasure ground, plaisance^, demesne. [quarters for animals] cage, terrarium, doghouse; pen, aviary; barn, stall; zoo. V. take up one's abode &c (locate oneself) 184; inhabit &c (be present) 186. Adj. urban, metropolitan; suburban; provincial, rural, rustic; domestic; cosmopolitan; palatial. Phr. eigner Hert ist goldes Werth [G.]; even cities have their graves [Longfellow]; ubi libertas ibi patria [Lat.]; home sweet home. 190. [Things contained.] Contents -- N. contents; cargo, lading, freight, shipment, load, bale, burden, jag; cartload^, shipload; cup of, basket of, &c (receptacle) 191 of; inside &c 221; stuffing, ullage. 191. Receptacle -- N. receptacle; inclosure &c 232; recipient, receiver, reservatory. compartment; cell, cellule; follicle; hole, corner, niche, recess, nook; crypt, stall, pigeonhole, cove, oriel; cave &c (concavity) 252. capsule, vesicle, cyst, pod, calyx, cancelli, utricle, bladder; pericarp, udder. stomach, paunch, venter, ventricle, crop, craw, maw, gizzard, breadbasket; mouth. pocket, pouch, fob, sheath, scabbard, socket, bag, sac, sack, saccule, wallet, cardcase, scrip, poke, knit, knapsack, haversack, sachel, satchel, reticule, budget, net; ditty bag, ditty box; housewife, hussif; saddlebags; portfolio; quiver &c (magazine) 636. chest, box, coffer, caddy, case, casket, pyx, pix, caisson, desk, bureau, reliquary; trunk, portmanteau, band-box, valise; grip, grip sack [U.S.]; skippet, vasculum; boot, imperial; vache; cage, manger, rack. vessel, vase, bushel, barrel; canister, jar; pottle, basket, pannier, buck-basket, hopper, maund^, creel, cran, crate, cradle, bassinet, wisket, whisket, jardiniere, corbeille, hamper, dosser, dorser, tray, hod, scuttle, utensil; brazier; cuspidor, spittoon. [For liquids] cistern &c (store) 636; vat, caldron, barrel, cask, drum, puncheon, keg, rundlet, tun, butt, cag, firkin, kilderkin, carboy, amphora, bottle, jar, decanter, ewer, cruse, caraffe, crock, kit, canteen, flagon; demijohn; flask, flasket; stoup, noggin, vial, phial, cruet, caster; urn, epergne, salver, patella, tazza, patera; pig gin, big gin; tyg, nipperkin, pocket pistol; tub, bucket, pail, skeel, pot, tankard, jug, pitcher, mug, pipkin; galipot, gallipot; matrass, receiver, retort, alembic, bolthead, capsule, can, kettle; bowl, basin, jorum, punch bowl, cup, goblet, chalice, tumbler, glass, rummer, horn, saucepan, skillet, posnet^, tureen. [laboratory vessels for liquids] beaker, flask, Erlenmeyer flask, Florence flask, round-bottom flask, graduated cylinder, test tube, culture tube, pipette, Pasteur pipette, disposable pipette, syringe, vial, carboy, vacuum flask, Petri dish, microtiter tray, centrifuge tube. bail, beaker, billy, canakin; catch basin, catch drain; chatti, lota, mussuk, schooner [U.S.], spider, terrine, toby, urceus. plate, platter, dish, trencher, calabash, porringer, potager, saucer, pan, crucible; glassware, tableware; vitrics. compote, gravy boat, creamer, sugar bowl, butter dish, mug, pitcher, punch bowl, chafing dish. shovel, trowel, spoon, spatula, ladle, dipper, tablespoon, watch glass, thimble. closet, commode, cupboard, cellaret, chiffonniere, locker, bin, bunker, buffet, press, clothespress, safe, sideboard, drawer, chest of drawers, chest on chest, highboy, lowboy, till, scrutoire^, secretary, secretaire, davenport, bookcase, cabinet, canterbury; escritoire, etagere, vargueno, vitrine. chamber, apartment, room, cabin; office, court, hall, atrium; suite of rooms, apartment [U.S.], flat, story; saloon, salon, parlor; by-room, cubicle; presence chamber; sitting room, best room, keeping room, drawing room, reception room, state room; gallery, cabinet, closet; pew, box; boudoir; adytum, sanctum; bedroom, dormitory; refectory, dining room, salle-a-manger; nursery, schoolroom; library, study; studio; billiard room, smoking room; den; stateroom, tablinum, tenement. [room for defecation and urination] bath room, bathroom, toilet, lavatory, powder room; john, jakes, necessary, loo; [in public places] men's room, ladies' room, rest room; [fixtures] (uncleanness). 653 attic, loft, garret, cockloft, clerestory; cellar, vault, hold, cockpit; cubbyhole; cook house; entre-sol; mezzanine floor; ground floor, rez-de-chaussee; basement, kitchen, pantry, bawarchi-khana, scullery, offices; storeroom &c (depository) 636; lumber room; dairy, laundry. coach house; garage; hangar; outhouse; penthouse; lean-to. portico, porch, stoop, stope, veranda, patio, lanai, terrace, deck; lobby, court, courtyard, hall, vestibule, corridor, passage, breezeway; ante room, ante chamber; lounge; piazza, veranda. conservatory, greenhouse, bower, arbor, summerhouse, alcove, grotto, hermitage. lodging &c (abode) 189; bed &c (support) 215; carriage &c (vehicle) 272. Adj. capsular; saccular, sacculated; recipient; ventricular, cystic, vascular, vesicular, cellular, camerated, locular, multilocular, polygastric; marsupial; siliquose, siliquous. SECTION II. DIMENSIONS 1. GENERAL DIMENSIONS 192. Size -- N. size, magnitude, dimension, bulk, volume; largeness &c adj.; greatness &c (of quantity) 31; expanse &c (space) 180; amplitude, mass; proportions. capacity, tonnage, tunnage; cordage; caliber, scantling. turgidity &c (expansion) 194; corpulence, obesity; plumpness &c adj.; embonpoint, corporation, flesh and blood, lustihood. hugeness &c adj.; enormity, immensity, monstrosity. giant, Brobdingnagian, Antaeus, Goliath, Gog and Magog, Gargantua, monster, mammoth, Cyclops; cachalot, whale, porpoise, behemoth, leviathan, elephant, hippopotamus; colossus; tun, cord, lump, bulk, block, loaf, mass, swad, clod, nugget, bushel, thumper, whooper, spanker, strapper; Triton among the minnows [Coriolanus]. mountain, mound; heap &c (assemblage) 72. largest portion &c 50; full size, life size. V. be large &c adj.; become large &c (expand) 194. Adj. large, big; great &c (in quantity) 31; considerable, bulky, voluminous, ample, massive, massy; capacious, comprehensive; spacious &c 180; mighty, towering, fine, magnificent. corpulent, stout, fat, obese, plump, squab, full, lusty, strapping, bouncing; portly, burly, well-fed, full-grown; corn fed, gram fed; stalwart, brawny, fleshy; goodly; in good case, in good condition; in condition; chopping, jolly; chub faced, chubby faced. lubberly, hulky, unwieldy, lumpish, gaunt, spanking, whacking, whopping, walloping, thumping, thundering, hulking; overgrown; puffy &c (swollen) 194. huge, immense, enormous, mighty; vast, vasty; amplitudinous, stupendous; monster, monstrous, humongous, monumental; elephantine, jumbo, mammoth; gigantic, gigantean, giant, giant like, titanic; prodigious, colossal, Cyclopean, Brobdingnagian, Bunyanesque, Herculean, Gargantuan; infinite &c 105. large as life; plump as a dumpling, plump as a partridge; fat as a pig, fat as a quail, fat as butter, fat as brawn, fat as bacon. immeasurable, unfathomable, unplumbed; inconceivable, unimaginable, unheard-of. of cosmic proportions; of epic proportions, the mother of all, teh granddaddy of all. 193. Littleness -- N. littleness &c adj.; smallness &c (of quantity) 32; exiguity, inextension^; parvitude^, parvity^; duodecimo^; Elzevir edition, epitome, microcosm; rudiment; vanishing point; thinness &c 203. dwarf, pygmy, pigmy^, Liliputian, chit, pigwidgeon^, urchin, elf; atomy^, dandiprat^; doll, puppet; Tom Thumb, Hop-o'-my-thumb^; manikin, mannikin; homunculus, dapperling^, cock-sparrow. animalcule, monad, mite, insect, emmet^, fly, midge, gnat, shrimp, minnow, worm, maggot, entozoon^; bacteria; infusoria^; microzoa [Micro.]; phytozoaria^; microbe; grub; tit, tomtit, runt, mouse, small fry; millet seed, mustard seed; barleycorn; pebble, grain of sand; molehill, button, bubble. point; atom &c (small quantity) 32; fragment &c (small part) 51; powder &c 330; point of a pin, mathematical point; minutiae &c (unimportance) 643. micrometer; vernier; scale. microphotography, photomicrography, micrography^; photomicrograph, microphotograph; microscopy; microscope (optical instruments) 445. V. be little &c adj.; lie in a nutshell; become small &c (decrease) 36, (contract) 195. Adj. little; small &c (in quantity) 32; minute, diminutive, microscopic; microzoal; inconsiderable &c (unimportant) 643; exiguous, puny, tiny, wee, petty, minikin^, miniature, pygmy, pigmy^, elfin; undersized; dwarf, dwarfed, dwarfish; spare, stunted, limited; cramp, cramped; pollard, Liliputian, dapper, pocket; portative^, portable; duodecimo^; dumpy, squat; short &c 201. impalpable, intangible, evanescent, imperceptible, invisible, inappreciable, insignificant, inconsiderable, trivial; infinitesimal, homoeopathic^; atomic, subatomic, corpuscular, molecular; rudimentary, rudimental; embryonic, vestigial. weazen^, scant, scraggy, scrubby; thin &c (narrow) 203; granular &c (powdery) 330; shrunk &c 195; brevipennate^. Adv. in a small compass, in a nutshell; on a small scale; minutely, microscopically. 194. Expansion -- N. expansion; increase of size &c 35; enlargement, extension, augmentation; amplification, ampliation^; aggrandizement, spread, increment, growth, development, pullulation, swell, dilation, rarefaction; turgescence^, turgidness, turgidity; dispansion^; obesity &c (size) 192; hydrocephalus, hydrophthalmus [Med.]; dropsy, tumefaction, intumescence, swelling, tumor, diastole, distension; puffing, puffiness; inflation; pandiculation^. dilatability, expansibility. germination, growth, upgrowth^; accretion &c 35; budding, gemmation^. overgrowth, overdistension^; hypertrophy, tympany^. bulb &c (convexity) 250; plumper; superiority of size. [expansion of the universe] big bang; Hubble constant. V. become larger &c (large) &c 192; expand, widen, enlarge, extend, grow, increase, incrassate^, swell, gather; fill out; deploy, take open order, dilate, stretch, distend, spread; mantle, wax; grow up, spring up; bud, bourgeon [Fr.], shoot, sprout, germinate, put forth, vegetate, pullulate, open, burst forth; gain flesh, gather flesh; outgrow; spread like wildfire, overrun. be larger than; surpass &c (be superior) 33. render larger &c (large) &c 192; expand, spread, extend, aggrandize, distend, develop, amplify, spread out, widen, magnify, rarefy, inflate, puff, blow up, stuff, pad, cram; exaggerate; fatten. Adj. expanded, &c v.; larger, &c (large) &c 192; swollen; expansive; wide open, wide spread; flabelliform^; overgrown, exaggerated, bloated, fat, turgid, tumid, hypertrophied, dropsical; pot bellied, swag bellied^; edematous, oedematous^, obese, puffy, pursy^, blowzy, bigswoln^, distended; patulous; bulbous &c (convex) 250; full blown, full grown, full formed; big &c 192; abdominous^, enchymatous^, rhipidate^; tumefacient^, tumefying^. 195. Contraction -- N. contraction, reduction, diminution; decrease of size &c 36; defalcation, decrement; lessening, shrinking &c v.; compaction; tabes^, collapse, emaciation, attenuation, tabefaction^, consumption, marasmus^, atrophy; systole, neck, hourglass. condensation, compression, compactness; compendium &c 596; squeezing &c v.; strangulation; corrugation; astringency; astringents, sclerotics; contractility, compressibility; coarctation^. inferiority in size. V. become small, become smaller; lessen, decrease &c 36; grow less, dwindle, shrink, contract, narrow, shrivel, collapse, wither, lose flesh, wizen, fall away, waste, wane, ebb; decay &c (deteriorate) 659. be smaller than, fall short of; not come up to &c (be inferior) 34. render smaller, lessen, diminish, contract, draw in, narrow, coarctate^; boil down; constrict, constringe^; condense, compress, squeeze, corrugate, crimp, crunch, crush, crumple up, warp, purse up, pack, squeeze, stow; pinch, tighten, strangle; cramp; dwarf, bedwarf^; shorten &c 201; circumscribe &c 229; restrain &c 751. [reduce in size by abrasion or paring. ] (subtraction) 38 abrade, pare, reduce, attenuate, rub down, scrape, file, file down, grind, grind down, chip, shave, shear, wear down. Adj. contracting &c v.; astringent; shrunk, contracted &c v.; strangulated, tabid^, wizened, stunted; waning &c v.; neap, compact. unexpanded &c (expand) &c 194 [Obs.]; contractile; compressible; smaller &c (small) &c 193. 196. Distance -- N. distance; space &c 180; remoteness, farness^, far- cry to; longinquity^, elongation; offing, background; remote region; removedness^; parallax; reach, span, stride. outpost, outskirt; horizon; aphelion; foreign parts, ultima Thule [Lat.], ne plus ultra [Lat.], antipodes; long range, giant's stride. dispersion &c 73. [units of distance] length &c 200. cosmic distance, light-years. V. be distant &c adj.; extend to, stretch to, reach to, spread to, go to, get to, stretch away to; range. remain at a distance; keep away, keep off, keep aloof, keep clear of, stand away, stand off, stand aloof, stand clear of, stay away, keep one's distance. distance; distance oneself from. Adj. distant; far off, far away; remote, telescopic, distal, wide of; stretching to &c v.; yon, yonder; ulterior; transmarine^, transpontine^, transatlantic, transalpine; tramontane; ultramontane, ultramundane^; hyperborean, antipodean; inaccessible, out of the way; unapproached^, unapproachable; incontiguous^. Adv. far off, far away; afar, afar off; off; away; a long way off, a great way off, a good way off; wide away, aloof; wide of, clear of; out of the way, out of reach; abroad, yonder, farther, further, beyond; outre mer [Fr.], over the border, far and wide, over the hills and far away [Gay]; from pole to pole &c (over great space) 180; to the uttermost parts, to the ends of the earth; out of hearing, nobody knows where, a perte de vue [Fr.], out of the sphere of, wide of the mark; a far cry to. apart, asunder; wide apart, wide asunder; longo intervallo [It]; at arm's length. Phr. distance lends enchantment [Campbell]; it's a long long way to Tipperary; out of sight, out of mind. 197. Nearness -- N. nearness &c adj.; proximity, propinquity; vicinity, vicinage; neighborhood, adjacency; contiguity &c 199. short distance, short step, short cut; earshot, close quarters, stone's throw; bow shot, gun shot, pistol shot; hair's breadth, span. purlieus, neighborhood, vicinage, environs, alentours [Fr.], suburbs, confines, banlieue^, borderland; whereabouts. bystander; neighbor, borderer^. approach &c 286; convergence &c 290; perihelion. V. be near &c adj.; adjoin, hang about, trench on; border upon, verge upon; stand by, approximate, tread on the heels of, cling to, clasp, hug; huddle; hang upon the skirts of, hover over; burn. touch &c 199; bring near, draw near &c 286; converge &c 290; crowd &c 72; place side by side &c adv.. Adj. near, nigh; close at hand, near at hand; close, neighboring; bordering upon, contiguous, adjacent, adjoining; proximate, proximal; at hand, handy; near the mark, near run; home, intimate. Adv. near, nigh; hard by, fast by; close to, close upon; hard upon; at the point of; next door to; within reach, within call, within hearing, within earshot; within an ace of; but a step, not far from, at no great distance; on the verge of, on the brink of, on the skirts of; in the environs &c n.; at one's door, at one's feet, at one's elbow, at one's finger's end, at one's side; on the tip of one's tongue; under one's nose; within a stone's throw &c n.; in sight of, in presence of; at close quarters; cheek by jole^, cheek by jowl; beside, alongside, side by side, tete-a-tete; in juxtaposition &c (touching) 199; yardarm to yardarm, at the heels of; on the confines of, at the threshold, bordering upon, verging to; in the way. about; hereabouts, thereabouts; roughly, in round numbers; approximately, approximatively^; as good as, well-nigh. 198. Interval -- N. interval, interspace^; separation &c 44; break, gap, opening; hole &c 260; chasm, hiatus, caesura; interruption, interregnum; interstice, lacuna, cleft, mesh, crevice, chink, rime, creek, cranny, crack, chap, slit, fissure, scissure^, rift, flaw, breach, rent, gash, cut, leak, dike, ha-ha. gorge, defile, ravine, canon, crevasse, abyss, abysm; gulf; inlet, frith^, strait, gully; pass; furrow &c 259; abra^; barranca^, barranco^; clove [U.S.], gulch [U.S.], notch [U.S.]; yawning gulf; hiatus maxime [Lat.], hiatus valde deflendus [Lat.]; parenthesis &c (interjacence) 228 [Obs.]; void &c (absence) 187; incompleteness &c 53. [interval of time] period &c 108; interim (time) 106. V. gape &c (open) 260. Adj. with an interval, far between; breachy^, rimose^, rimulose^. Adv. at intervals &c (discontinuously) 70; longo intervallo [It]. 199. Contiguity -- N. contiguity, contact, proximity, apposition, abuttal^, juxtaposition; abutment, osculation; meeting, appulse^, rencontre^, rencounter^, syzygy [Astr.], coincidence, coexistence; adhesion &c 46; touching &c v.. (touch) 379. borderland; frontier &c (limit) 233; tangent; abutter. V. be contiguous &c adj.; join, adjoin, abut on, march with; graze, touch, meet, osculate, come in contact, coincide; coexist; adhere &c 46. [cause to be contiguous] juxtapose; contact; join (unite) 43; link (vinculum) 45. Adj. contiguous; touching &c v.; in contact &c n.; conterminous, end to end, osculatory; pertingent^; tangential. hand to hand; close to &c (near) 197; with no interval &c 198. 2. LINEAR DIMENSIONS 200. Length -- N. length, longitude, span; mileage; distance &c 196. line, bar, rule, stripe, streak, spoke, radius. lengthening &c v.; prolongation, production, protraction; tension, tensure^; extension. [Measures of length] line, nail, inch, hand, palm, foot, cubit, yard, ell, fathom, rood, pole, furlong, mile, league; chain, link; arpent^, handbreadth^, jornada [U.S.], kos^, vara^. [astronomical units of distance] astronomical unit, AU, light- year, parsec. [metric units of length] nanometer, nm, micron, micrometer, millimicron, millimeter, mm, centimeter, cm, meter, kilometer, km. pedometer, perambulator; scale &c (measurement) 466. V. be long &c adj.; stretch out, sprawl; extend to, reach to, stretch to; make a long arm, drag its slow length along. render long &c adj.; lengthen, extend, elongate; stretch; prolong, produce, protract; let out, draw out, spin out^; drawl. enfilade, look along, view in perspective. distend (expand) 194. Adj. long, longsome^; lengthy, wiredrawn^, outstretched; lengthened &c v.; sesquipedalian &c (words) 577; interminable, no end of; macrocolous^. linear, lineal; longitudinal, oblong. as long as my arm, as long as today and tomorrow; unshortened &c (shorten) &c 201 [Obs.]. Adv. lengthwise, at length, longitudinally, endlong^, along; tandem; in a line &c (continuously) 69; in perspective. from end to end, from stem to stern, from head to foot, from the crown of the head to the sole of the foot, from top to toe; fore and aft. 201. Shortness -- N. shortness &c adj.; brevity; littleness &c 193; a span. shortening &c v.; abbreviation, abbreviature^; abridgment, concision, retrenchment, curtailment, decurtation^; reduction &c (contraction) 195; epitome &c (compendium) 596. elision, ellipsis; conciseness &c (in style) 572. abridger, epitomist^, epitomizer^. V. be short &c adj.; render short &c adj.; shorten, curtail, abridge, abbreviate, take in, reduce; compress &c (contract) 195; epitomize &c 596. retrench, cut short, obtruncate^; scrimp, cut, chop up, hack, hew; cut down, pare down; clip, dock, lop, prune, shear, shave, mow, reap, crop; snub; truncate, pollard, stunt, nip, check the growth of; foreshorten (in drawing). Adj. short, brief, curt; compendious, compact; stubby, scrimp; shorn, stubbed; stumpy, thickset, pug; chunky [U.S.], decurtate^; retrousse^; stocky; squab, squabby^; squat, dumpy; little &c 193; curtailed of its fair proportions; short by; oblate; concise &c 572; summary. Adv. shortly &c adj.; in short &c (concisely) 572. 202. Breadth, Thickness, -- N. breadth, width, latitude, amplitude; diameter, bore, caliber, radius; superficial extent &c (space) 180. thickness, crassitude^; corpulence &c (size) 192; dilation &c (expansion) 194. V. be broad &c adj.; become broad, render broad &c adj.; expand &c 194; thicken, widen, calibrate. Adj. broad, wide, ample, extended; discous^; fanlike; outspread, outstretched; wide as a church-door [Romeo and Juliet]; latifoliate^, latifolous^. thick, dumpy, squab, squat, thickset; thick as a rope. 203. Narrowness. Thinness -- N. narrowness &c adj.; closeness, exility^; exiguity &c (little) 193. line; hair's breadth, finger's breadth; strip, streak, vein. monolayer; epitaxial deposition [Eng.]. thinness &c adj.; tenuity; emaciation, macilency^, marcor^. shaving, slip &c (filament) 205; thread paper, skeleton, shadow, anatomy, spindleshanks^, lantern jaws, mere skin and bone. middle constriction, stricture, neck, waist, isthmus, wasp, hourglass; ridge, ghaut^, ghat^, pass; ravine &c 198. narrowing, coarctation^, angustation^, tapering; contraction &c 195. V. be narrow &c adj.; narrow, taper, contract &c 195; render narrow &c adj.; waste away. Adj. narrow, close; slender, thin, fine; thread-like &c (filament) 205; finespun^, gossamer; paper-thin; taper, slim, slight-made; scant, scanty; spare, delicate, incapacious^; contracted &c 195; unexpanded &c (expand) &c 194 [Obs.]; slender as a thread. [in reference to people or animals] emaciated, lean, meager, gaunt, macilent^; lank, lanky; weedy, skinny; scrawny slinky [U.S.]; starved, starveling; herring gutted; worn to a shadow, lean as a rake [Chaucer]; thin as a lath, thin as a whipping post, thin as a wafer; hatchet-faced; lantern-jawed. attenuated, shriveled, extenuated, tabid^, marcid^, barebone, rawboned. monomolecular. 204. Layer -- N. layer, stratum, strata, course, bed, zone, substratum, substrata, floor, flag, stage, story, tier, slab, escarpment; table, tablet; dess^; flagstone; board, plank; trencher, platter. plate; lamina, lamella; sheet, foil; wafer; scale, flake, peel; coat, pellicle; membrane, film; leaf; slice, shive^, cut, rasher, shaving, integument &c (covering) 223; eschar^. stratification, scaliness, nest of boxes, coats of an onion. monolayer; bilayer; trilayer [Bioch.]. V. slice, shave, pare, peel; delaminate; plate, coat, veneer; cover &c 223. Adj. lamellar, lamellated^, lamelliform^, layered; laminated, laminiferous^; micaceous^; schistose, schistous^; scaly, filmy, membranous, pellicular, flaky, squamous [Anat.]; foliated, foliaceous^; stratified, stratiform; tabular, discoid; spathic^, spathose^. trilamellar^. graphitic^. 205. Filament -- N. filament, line; fiber, fibril; funicle^, vein; hair, capillament^, cilium, cilia, pilus, pili; tendril, gossamer; hair stroke; veinlet^, venula^, venule^. wire, string, thread, packthread, cotton, sewing silk, twine, twist, whipcord, tape, ribbon, cord, rope, yarn, hemp, oakum, jute. strip, shred, slip, spill, list, band, fillet, fascia, ribbon, riband, roll, lath, splinter, shiver, shaving. beard &c (roughness) 256; ramification; strand. Adj. filamentous, filamentiferous^, filaceous^, filiform^; fibrous, fibrillous^; thread-like, wiry, stringy, ropy; capillary, capilliform^; funicular, wire-drawn; anguilliform^; flagelliform^; hairy &c (rough) 256; taeniate^, taeniform^, taenioid^; venose^, venous. 206. Height -- N. height, altitude, elevation; eminence, pitch; loftiness &c adj.; sublimity. tallness &c adj.; stature, procerity^; prominence &c 250. colossus &c (size) 192; giant, grenadier, giraffe, camelopard. mount, mountain; hill alto, butte [U.S.], monticle^, fell, knap^; cape; headland, foreland^; promontory; ridge, hog's back, dune; rising ground, vantage ground; down; moor, moorland; Alp; uplands, highlands; heights &c (summit) 210; knob, loma^, pena [U.S.], picacho^, tump^; knoll, hummock, hillock, barrow, mound, mole; steeps, bluff, cliff, craig^, tor^, peak, pike, clough^; escarpment, edge, ledge, brae; dizzy height. tower, pillar, column, obelisk, monument, steeple, spire, minaret, campanile, turret, dome, cupola; skyscraper. pole, pikestaff, maypole, flagstaff; top mast, topgallant mast. ceiling &c (covering) 223. high water; high tide, flood tide, spring tide. altimetry &c (angel) 244 [Obs.]; batophobia^. satellite, spy-in-the-sky. V. be high &c adj.; tower, soar, command; hover, hover over, fly over; orbit, be in orbit; cap, culminate; overhang, hang over, impend, beetle, bestride, ride, mount; perch, surmount; cover &c 223; overtop &c (be superior) 33; stand on tiptoe. become high &c adj.; grow higher, grow taller; upgrow^; rise &c (ascend) 305; send into orbit. render high &c adj.; heighten &c (elevate) 307. Adj. high, elevated, eminent, exalted, lofty, tall; gigantic &c (big) 192; Patagonian; towering, beetling, soaring, hanging (gardens); elevated &c 307; upper; highest &c (topmost) 210; high reaching, insessorial^, perching. upland, moorland; hilly, knobby [U.S.]; mountainous, alpine, subalpine, heaven kissing; cloudtopt^, cloudcapt^, cloudtouching^; aerial. overhanging &c v.; incumbent, overlying, superincumbent^, supernatant, superimposed; prominent &c v. 250. tall as a maypole, tall as a poplar, tall as a steeple, lanky &c (thin) 203. Adv. on high, high up, aloft, up, above, aloof, overhead; airwind^; upstairs, abovestairs^; in the clouds; on tiptoe, on stilts, on the shoulders of; over head and ears; breast high. over, upwards; from top to bottom &c (completely) 52. Phr. e meglio cader dalle finistre che dal tetto [It]. 207. Lowness -- N. lowness &c adj.; debasement, depression, prostration &c (horizontal) 213; depression &c (concave) 252. molehill; lowlands; basement floor, ground floor; rez de chaussee [Fr.]; cellar; hold, bilge; feet, heels. low water; low tide, ebb tide, neap tide, spring tide. V. be low &c adj.; lie low, lie flat; underlie; crouch, slouch, wallow, grovel; lower &c (depress) 308. Adj. low, neap, debased; nether, nether most; flat, level with the ground; lying low &c v.; crouched, subjacent, squat, prostrate &c (horizontal) 213. Adv. under; beneath, underneath; below; downwards; adown^, at the foot of; under foot, under ground; down stairs, below stairs; at a low ebb; below par. 208. Depth -- N. depth; deepness &c adj.; profundity, depression &c (concavity) 252. hollow, pit, shaft, well, crater; gulf &c 198; bowels of the earth, botttomless pit^, hell. soundings, depth of water, water, draught, submersion; plummet, sound, probe; sounding rod, sounding line; lead. bathymetry. [instrument to measure depth] sonar, side-looking sonar; bathometer^. V. be deep &c adj.; render deep &c adj.; deepen. plunge &c 310; sound, fathom, plumb, cast the lead, heave the lead, take soundings, make soundings; dig &c (excavate) 252. Adj. deep, deep seated; profound, sunk, buried; submerged &c 310; subaqueous, submarine, subterranean, subterraneous, subterrene^; underground. bottomless, soundless, fathomless; unfathomed, unfathomable; abysmal; deep as a well; bathycolpian^; benthal^, benthopelagic^; downreaching^, yawning. knee deep, ankle deep. Adv. beyond one's depth, out of one's depth; over head and ears; mark twine, mark twain. 209. Shallowness -- N. shallowness &c adj.; shoals; mere scratch. Adj. shallow, slight, superficial; skin deep, ankle deep, knee deep; just enough to wet one's feet; shoal, shoaly^. 210. Summit -- N. summit, summity^; top, peak, vertex, apex, zenith, pinnacle, acme, culmination, meridian, utmost height, ne plus utra, height, pitch, maximum, climax, culminating point, crowning point, turning point; turn of the tide, fountain head; water shed, water parting; sky, pole. tip, tip top; crest, crow's nest, cap, truck, nib; end &c 67; crown, brow; head, nob^, noddle^, pate; capsheaf^. high places, heights. topgallant mast, sky scraper; quarter deck, hurricane deck. architrave, frieze, cornice, coping stone, zoophorus^, capital, epistyle^, sconce, pediment, entablature^; tympanum; ceiling &c (covering) 223. attic, loft, garret, house top, upper story. [metaphorical use] summit conference, summit; peak of achievement, peak of performance; peaks and troughs, peaks and valleys (in graphs). V. culminate, crown, top; overtop &c (be superior to) 33. Adj. highest &c (high) &c 206; top; top most, upper most; tiptop; culminating &c v.; meridian, meridional^; capital, head, polar, supreme, supernal, topgallant. Adv. atop, at the top of the tree. Phr. en flute; fleur deau [Fr.]. 211. Base -- N. base, basement; plinth, dado, wainscot; baseboard, mopboard^; bedrock, hardpan [U.S.]; foundation &c (support) 215; substructure, substratum, ground, earth, pavement, floor, paving, flag, carped, ground floor, deck; footing, ground work, basis; hold, bilge. bottom, nadir, foot, sole, toe, hoof, keel, root; centerboard. Adj. bottom, undermost, nethermost; fundamental; founded on, based on, grounded on, built on. 212. Verticality -- N. verticality; erectness &c adj.; perpendicularity &c 216.1; right angle, normal; azimuth circle. wall, precipice, cliff. elevation, erection; square, plumb line, plummet. V. be vertical &c adj.; stand up, stand on end, stand erect, stand upright; stick up, cock up. render vertical &c adj.; set up, stick up, raise up, cock up; erect, rear, raise on its legs. Adj. vertical, upright, erect, perpendicular, plumb, normal, straight, bolt, upright; rampant; standing up &c v.; rectangular, orthogonal &c 216.1. Adv. vertically &c adj.; up, on end; up on end, right on end; a plomb [Fr.], endwise; one one's legs; at right angles. 213. Horizontality -- N. horizontality^; flatness; level, plane; stratum &c 204; dead level, dead flat; level plane. recumbency, lying down &c v.; reclination^, decumbence^; decumbency^, discumbency^; proneness &c adj.; accubation^, supination^, resupination^, prostration; azimuth. plain, floor, platform, bowling green; cricket ground; croquet ground, croquet lawn; billiard table; terrace, estrade^, esplanade, parterre. [flat land area] table land, plateau, ledge; butte; mesa (plain) 344. [instrument to measure horizontality] level, spirit level. V. be horizontal &c adj.; lie, recline, couch; lie down, lie flat, lie prostrate; sprawl, loll, sit down. render horizontal &c adj.; lay down, lay out; level, flatten; prostrate, knock down, floor, fell. Adj. horizontal, level, even, plane; flat &c 251; flat as a billiard table, flat as a bowling green; alluvial; calm, calm as a mill pond; smooth, smooth as glass. recumbent, decumbent, procumbent, accumbent^; lying &c v.; prone, supine, couchant, jacent^, prostrate, recubant^. Adv. horizontally &c adj.; on one's back, on all fours, on its beam ends. 214. Pendency -- N. pendency^, dependency; suspension, hanging &c v.; pedicel, pedicle, peduncle; tail, train, flap, skirt, pigtail, pony tail, pendulum; hangnail peg, knob, button, hook, nail, stud, ring, staple, tenterhook; fastening &c 45; spar, horse. V. be pendent &c adj.; hang, depend, swing, dangle; swag; daggle^, flap, trail, flow; beetle. suspend, hang, sling, hook up, hitch, fasten to, append. Adj. pendent, pendulous; pensile; hanging &c v.; beetling, jutting over, overhanging, projecting; dependent; suspended &c v.; loose, flowing. having a peduncle &c n.; pedunculate^, tailed, caudate. 215. Support -- N. support, ground, foundation, base, basis; terra firma; bearing, fulcrum, bait [U.S.], caudex crib^; point d'appui [Fr.], pou sto [Gr.], purchase footing, hold, locus standi [Lat.]; landing place, landing stage; stage, platform; block; rest, resting place; groundwork, substratum, riprap, sustentation, subvention; floor &c (basement) 211. supporter; aid &c 707; prop, stand, anvil, fulciment^; cue rest, jigger; monkey; stay, shore, skid, rib, truss, bandage; sleeper; stirrup, stilts, shoe, sole, heel, splint, lap, bar, rod, boom, sprit^, outrigger; ratlings^. staff, stick, crutch, alpenstock, baton, staddle^; bourdon^, cowlstaff^, lathi^, mahlstick^. post, pillar, shaft, thill^, column, pilaster; pediment, pedicle; pedestal; plinth, shank, leg, socle^, zocle^; buttress, jamb, mullion, abutment; baluster, banister, stanchion; balustrade; headstone; upright; door post, jamb, door jamb. frame, framework; scaffold, skeleton, beam, rafter, girder, lintel, joist, travis^, trave^, corner stone, summer, transom; rung, round, step, sill; angle rafter, hip rafter; cantilever, modillion^; crown post, king post; vertebra. columella^, backbone; keystone; axle, axletree; axis; arch, mainstay. trunnion, pivot, rowlock^; peg &c (pendency) 214 [Obs.]; tiebeam &c (fastening) 45; thole pin^. board, ledge, shelf, hob, bracket, trevet^, trivet, arbor, rack; mantel, mantle piece [Fr.], mantleshelf^; slab, console; counter, dresser; flange, corbel; table, trestle; shoulder; perch; horse; easel, desk; clotheshorse, hatrack; retable; teapoy^. seat, throne, dais; divan, musnud^; chair, bench, form, stool, sofa, settee, stall; arm chair, easy chair, elbow chair, rocking chair; couch, fauteuil [Fr.], woolsack^, ottoman, settle, squab, bench; aparejo^, faldstool^, horn; long chair, long sleeve chair, morris chair; lamba chauki^, lamba kursi^; saddle, pannel^, pillion; side saddle, pack saddle; pommel. bed, berth, pallet, tester, crib, cot, hammock, shakedown, trucklebed^, cradle, litter, stretcher, bedstead; four poster, French bed, bunk, kip, palang^; bedding, bichhona, mattress, paillasse^; pillow, bolster; mat, rug, cushion. footstool, hassock; tabouret^; tripod, monopod. Atlas, Persides, Atlantes^, Caryatides, Hercules. V. be supported &c; lie on, sit on, recline on, lean on, loll on, rest on, stand on, step on, repose on, abut on, bear on, be based on &c; have at one's back; bestride, bestraddle^. support, bear, carry, hold, sustain, shoulder; hold up, back up, bolster up, shore up; uphold, upbear^; prop; under prop, under pin, under set; riprap; bandage &c 43. give support, furnish support, afford support, supply support, lend support, give foundations, furnish foundations, afford foundations, supply foundations, lend foundations; bottom, found, base, ground, imbed, embed. maintain, keep on foot; aid &c 707. Adj. supporting, supported &c v.; fundamental; dorsigerous^. Adv. astride on, straddle. 216. Parallelism -- N. {ant. 216a} parallelism; coextension^; equidistance^; similarity &c 17. Adj. parallel; coextensive; equidistant. Adv. alongside &c (laterally) 236. 216a. Perpendicularity -- N. {ant. 216} perpendicularity, orthogonality; verticality, &c 212. V. be perpendicular, be orthogonal; intersect at right angles, be rectangular, be at right angles to, intersect at 90 degrees; have no correlation. Adj. orthogonal, perpendicular; rectangular; uncorrelated. 217. Obliquity -- N. obliquity, inclination, slope, slant, crookedness &c adj.; slopeness^; leaning &c v.; bevel, tilt; bias, list, twist, swag, cant, lurch; distortion &c 243; bend &c (curve) 245; tower of Pisa. acclivity, rise, ascent, gradient, khudd^, rising ground, hill, bank, declivity, downhill, dip, fall, devexity^; gentle slope, rapid slope, easy ascent, easy descent; shelving beach; talus; monagne Russe [Fr.]; facilis descensus averni [Lat.]. V. intersect; lack parallelism. 218. Inversion -- N. inversion, eversion, subversion, reversion, retroversion, introversion; contraposition &c 237 [Obs.]; contrariety &c 14; reversal; turn of the tide. overturn; somersault, somerset; summerset^; culbute^; revulsion; pirouette. transposition, transposal^, anastrophy^, metastasis, hyperbaton^, anastrophe^, hysteron proteron [Gr.], hypallage^, synchysis^, tmesis^, parenthesis; metathesis; palindrome. pronation and supination [Anat.]. V. be inverted &c; turn round, turn about, turn to the right about, go round, go about, go to the right about, wheel round, wheel about, wheel to the right about; turn over, go over, tilt over, topple over; capsize, turn turtle. invert, subvert, retrovert^, introvert; reverse; up turn, over turn, up set, over set; turn topsy turvy &c adj.; culbuter^; transpose, put the cart before the horse, turn the tables. Adj. inverted &c v.; wrong side out, wrong side up; inside out, upside down; bottom upwards, keel upwards; supine, on one's head, topsy-turvy, sens dessus dessous [Fr.]. inverse; reverse &c (contrary) 14; opposite &c 237. top heavy. Adv. inversely &c adj.; hirdy-girdy^; heels over head, head over heels. 219. Crossing -- N. crossing &c v.; intersection, interdigitation; decussation^, transversion^; convolution &c 248; level crossing. reticulation, network; inosculation^, anastomosis, intertexture^, mortise. net, plexus, web, mesh, twill, skein, sleeve, felt, lace; wicker; mat, matting; plait, trellis, wattle, lattice, grating, grille, gridiron, tracery, fretwork, filigree, reticle; tissue, netting, mokes^; rivulation^. cross, chain, wreath, braid, cat's cradle, knot; entangle &c (disorder) 59. [woven fabrics] cloth, linen, muslin, cambric &c V. cross, decussate^; intersect, interlace, intertwine, intertwist^, interweave, interdigitate, interlink. twine, entwine, weave, inweave^, twist, wreathe; anastomose [Med.], inosculate^, dovetail, splice, link; lace, tat. mat, plait, plat, braid, felt, twill; tangle, entangle, ravel; net, knot; dishevel, raddle^. Adj. crossing &c v.; crossed, matted &c, v.. transverse. cross, cruciform, crucial; retiform^, reticular, reticulated; areolar^, cancellated^, grated, barred, streaked; textile; crossbarred^, cruciate^, palmiped^, secant; web-footed. Adv. cross, thwart, athwart, transversely; at grade [U.S.]; crosswise. 3. CENTRICAL DIMENSIONS 1. General. 220. Exteriority -- N. exteriority^; outside, exterior; surface, superficies; skin &c (covering) 223; superstratum^; disk, disc; face, facet; extrados^. excentricity^; eccentricity; circumjacence &c 227 [Obs.]. V. be exterior &c adj.; lie around &c 227. place exteriorly, place outwardly, place outside; put out, turn out. Adj. exterior, external; outer most; outward, outlying, outside, outdoor; round about &c 227; extramural; extralimitary^, extramundane. superficial, skin-deep; frontal, discoid. extraregarding^; excentric^, eccentric; outstanding; extrinsic &c 6; ecdemic [Med.], exomorphic^. Adv. externally &c adj.; out, with out, over, outwards, ab extra, out of doors; extra muros [Lat.]. in the open air; sub Jove, sub dio [Lat.]; a la belle etoile [Fr.], al fresco. 221. Interiority -- N. interiority; inside, interior; interspace^, subsoil, substratum; intrados. contents &c 190; substance, pith, marrow; backbone &c (center) 222; heart, bosom, breast; abdomen; vitals, viscera, entrails, bowels, belly, intestines, guts, chitterings^, womb, lap; penetralia [Lat.], recesses, innermost recesses; cave &c (concavity) 252. V. be inside &c adj.; within &c adv.. place within, keep within; inclose &c (circumscribe) 229; intern; imbed &c (insert) 300. Adj. interior, internal; inner, inside, inward, intraregarding^; inmost, innermost; deep seated, gut; intestine, intestinal; inland; subcutaneous; abdominal, coeliac, endomorphic [Physio.]; interstitial &c (interjacent) 228 [Obs.]; inwrought &c (intrinsic) 5; inclosed &c v.. home, domestic, indoor, intramural, vernacular; endemic. Adv. internally &c adj.; inwards, within, in, inly^; here in, there in, where in; ab intra, withinside^; in doors, within doors; at home, in the bosom of one's family. 222. Centrality -- N. centrality, centricalness^, center; middle &c 68; focus &c 74. core, kernel; nucleus, nucleolus; heart, pole axis, bull's eye; nave, navel; umbilicus, backbone, marrow, pith; vertebra, vertebral column; hotbed; concentration &c (convergence) 290; centralization; symmetry. center of gravity, center of pressure, center of percussion, center of oscillation, center of buoyancy &c; metacenter^. V. be central &c adj.; converge &c 290. render central, centralize, concentrate; bring to a focus. Adj. central, centrical^; middle &c 68; azygous, axial, focal, umbilical, concentric; middlemost; rachidian^; spinal, vertebral. Adv. middle; midst; centrally &c adj.. 223. Covering -- N. covering, cover; baldachin, baldachino^, baldaquin^; canopy, tilt, awning, tent, marquee, tente d'abri [Fr.], umbrella, parasol, sunshade; veil (shade) 424; shield &c (defense) 717. roof, ceiling, thatch, tile; pantile, pentile^; tiling, slates, slating, leads; barrack [U.S.], plafond, planchment [U.S.], tiling, shed &c (abode) 189. top, lid, covercle^, door, operculum; bulkhead [U.S.]. bandage, plaster, lint, wrapping, dossil^, finger stall. coverlet, counterpane, sheet, quilt, tarpaulin, blanket, rug, drugget^; housing; antimacassar, eiderdown, numdah^, pillowcase, pillowslip^; linoleum; saddle cloth, blanket cloth; tidy; tilpah [U.S.], apishamore [U.S.]. integument, tegument; skin, pellicle, fleece, fell, fur, leather, shagreen^, hide; pelt, peltry^; cordwain^; derm^; robe, buffalo robe [U.S.]; cuticle, scarfskin, epidermis. clothing &c 225; mask &c (concealment) 530. peel, crust, bark, rind, cortex, husk, shell, coat; eggshell, glume^. capsule; sheath, sheathing; pod, cod; casing, case, theca^; elytron^; elytrum^; involucrum [Lat.]; wrapping, wrapper; envelope, vesicle; corn husk, corn shuck [U.S.]; dermatology, conchology; testaceology^. inunction^; incrustation, superimposition, superposition, obduction^; scale &c (layer) 204. [specific coverings] veneer, facing; overlay; plate, silver plate, gold plate, copper plate; engobe^; ormolu; Sheffield plate; pavement; coating, paint; varnish &c (resin) 216.1; plating, barrel plating, anointing &c v.; enamel; epitaxial deposition [Eng.], vapor deposition; ground, whitewash, plaster, spackel, stucco, compo; cerement; ointment &c (grease) 356. V. cover; superpose, superimpose; overlay, overspread; wrap &c 225; encase, incase^; face, case, veneer, pave, paper; tip, cap, bind; bulkhead, bulkhead in; clapboard [U.S.]. coat, paint, varnish, pay, incrust, stucco, dab, plaster, tar; wash; besmear, bedaub; anoint, do over; gild, plate, japan, lacquer, lacker^, enamel, whitewash; parget^; lay it on thick. overlie, overarch^; endome^; conceal &c 528. [of aluminum] anodize. [of steel] galvanize. Adj. covering &c v.; superimposed, overlaid, plated &c v.; cutaneous, dermal, cortical, cuticular, tegumentary^, skinny, scaly, squamous [Anat.]; covered &c v.; imbricated, loricated^, armor plated, ironclad; under cover; cowled, cucullate^, dermatoid^, encuirassed^, hooded, squamiferous^, tectiform^; vaginate^. 224. Lining -- N. lining, inner coating; coating &c (covering) 223; stalactite, stalagmite. filling, stuffing, wadding, padding. wainscot, parietes [Lat.], wall. V. line, stuff, incrust, wad, pad, fill. Adj. lined &c v.. 225. Clothing -- N. clothing, investment; covering &c 223; dress, raiment, drapery, costume, attire, guise, toilet, toilette, trim; habiliment; vesture, vestment; garment, garb, palliament^, apparel, wardrobe, wearing apparel, clothes, things; underclothes. array; tailoring, millinery; finery &c (ornament) 847; full dress &c (show) 882; garniture; theatrical properties. outfit, equipment, trousseau; uniform, regimentals; continentals [U.S.]; canonicals &c 999; livery, gear, harness, turn-out, accouterment, caparison, suit, rigging, trappings, traps, slops, togs, toggery^; day wear, night wear, zoot suit; designer clothes; masquerade. dishabille, morning dress, undress. kimono; lungi^; shooting-coat; mufti; rags, tatters, old clothes; mourning, weeds; duds; slippers. robe, tunic, paletot^, habit, gown, coat, frock, blouse, toga, smock frock, claw coat, hammer coat, Prince Albert coat^, sack coat, tuxedo coat, frock coat, dress coat, tail coat. cloak, pall, mantle, mantlet mantua^, shawl, pelisse, wrapper; veil; cape, tippet, kirtle^, plaid, muffler, comforter, haik^, huke^, chlamys^, mantilla, tabard, housing, horse cloth, burnoose, burnous, roquelaure^; houppelande [Fr.]; surcoat, overcoat, great coat; surtout [Fr.], spencer^; mackintosh, waterproof, raincoat; ulster, P-coat, dreadnought, wraprascal^, poncho, cardinal, pelerine^; barbe^, chudder^, jubbah^, oilskins, pajamas, pilot jacket, talma jacket^, vest, jerkin, waistcoat, doublet, camisole, gabardine; farthingale, kilt, jupe^, crinoline, bustle, panier, skirt, apron, pinafore; bloomer, bloomers; chaqueta^, songtag [G.], tablier^. pants, trousers, trowsers^; breeches, pantaloons, inexpressibles^, overalls, smalls, small clothes; shintiyan^; shorts, jockey shorts, boxer shorts; tights, drawers, panties, unmentionables; knickers, knickerbockers; philibeg^, fillibeg^; pants suit; culottes; jeans, blue jeans, dungarees, denims. [brand names for jeans] Levis, Calvin Klein, Calvins, Bonjour, Gloria Vanderbilt. headdress, headgear; chapeau [Fr.], crush hat, opera hat; kaffiyeh; sombrero, jam, tam-o-shanter, tarboosh^, topi, sola topi [Lat.], pagri^, puggaree^; cap, hat, beaver hat, coonskin cap; castor, bonnet, tile, wideawake, billycock^, wimple; nightcap, mobcap^, skullcap; hood, coif; capote^, calash; kerchief, snood, babushka; head, coiffure; crown &c (circle) 247; chignon, pelt, wig, front, peruke, periwig, caftan, turban, fez, shako, csako^, busby; kepi^, forage cap, bearskin; baseball cap; fishing hat; helmet &c 717; mask, domino. body clothes; linen; hickory shirt [U.S.]; shirt, sark^, smock, shift, chemise; night gown, negligee, dressing gown, night shirt; bedgown^, sac de nuit [Fr.]. underclothes [underclothing], underpants, undershirt; slip [for women], brassiere, corset, stays, corsage, corset, corselet, bodice, girdle &c (circle) 247; stomacher; petticoat, panties; under waistcoat; jock [for men], athletic supporter, jockstrap. sweater, jersey; cardigan; turtleneck, pullover; sweater vest. neckerchief, neckcloth^; tie, ruff, collar, cravat, stock, handkerchief, scarf; bib, tucker; boa; cummerbund, rumal^, rabat^. shoe, pump, boot, slipper, sandal, galoche^, galoshes, patten, clog; sneakers, running shoes, hiking boots; high-low; Blucher boot, wellington boot, Hessian boot, jack boot, top boot; Balmoral^; arctics, bootee, bootikin^, brogan, chaparajos^; chavar^, chivarras^, chivarros^; gums [U.S.], larrigan [U.S.], rubbers, showshoe, stogy^, veldtschoen [G.], legging, buskin, greave^, galligaskin^, gamache^, gamashes^, moccasin, gambado, gaiter, spatterdash^, brogue, antigropelos^; stocking, hose, gaskins^, trunk hose, sock; hosiery. glove, gauntlet, mitten, cuff, wristband, sleeve. swaddling cloth, baby linen, layette; ice wool; taffeta. pocket handkerchief, hanky^, hankie. clothier, tailor, milliner, costumier, sempstress^, snip; dressmaker, habitmaker^, breechesmaker^, shoemaker; Crispin; friseur [Fr.]; cordwainer^, cobbler, hosier^, hatter; draper, linen draper, haberdasher, mercer. [underpants for babies] diaper, nappy [Brit.]; disposable diaper, cloth diaper; [brand names for diapers], Luvs Huggies. V. invest; cover &c 223; envelope, lap, involve; inwrap^, enwrap; wrap; fold up, wrap up, lap up, muffle up; overlap; sheath, swathe, swaddle, roll up in, circumvest. vest, clothe, array, dress, dight^, drape, robe, enrobe, attire, apparel, accounter^, rig, fit out; deck &c (ornament) 847; perk, equip, harness, caparison. wear; don; put on, huddle on, slip on; mantle. Adj. invested &c v.; habited; dighted^; barbed, barded; clad, costume, shod, chausse [Fr.]; en grande tenue &c (show) 882 [Fr.]. sartorial. Phr. the soul of this man is his clothes [All's Well]. 226. Divestment -- N. divestment; taking off &c v.. nudity; bareness &c adj.; undress; dishabille &c 225; the altogether; nudation^, denudation; decortication, depilation, excoriation, desquamation; molting; exfoliation; trichosis [Med.]. V. divest; uncover &c (cover) &c 223; denude, bare, strip; disfurnish^; undress, disrobe &c (dress, enrobe) &c 225; uncoif^; dismantle; put off, take off, cast off; doff; peel, pare, decorticate, excoriate, skin, scalp, flay; expose, lay open; exfoliate, molt, mew; cast the skin. Adj. divested &c v.; bare, naked, nude; undressed, undraped; denuded; exposed; in dishabille; bald, threadbare, ragged, callow, roofless. in a state of nature, in nature's garb, in the buff, in native buff, in birthday suit; in puris naturalibus [Lat.]; with nothing on, stark naked, stark raving naked [Joc.]; bald as a coot, bare as the back of one's hand; out at elbows; barefoot; bareback, barebacked; leafless, napless^, hairless. 227. Circumjacence -- N. circumjacence^, circumambience^; environment, encompassment; atmosphere, medium, surroundings. outpost; border &c (edge) 231; girdle &c (circumference) 230; outskirts, boulebards, suburbs, purlieus, precincts, faubourgs^, environs, entourage, banlieue^; neighborhood, vicinage, vicinity. V. lie around &c adv.; surround, beset, compass, encompass, environ, inclose, enclose, encircle, embrace, circumvent, lap, gird; belt; begird, engird^; skirt, twine round; hem in &c (circumscribe) 229. Adj. circumjacent, circumambient^, circumfluent^; ambient; surrounding &c v.; circumferential, suburban. Adv. around, about; without; on every side; on all sides; right and left, all round, round about. 228. Interposition -- N. interposition, interjacence^, intercurrence^, intervenience^, interlocation^, interdigitation, interjection, interpolation, interlineation, interspersion, intercalation. [interposition at a fine-grained level] interpenetration; permeation; infiltration. [interposition by one person in another's affairs, at the intervenor's initiative] intervention, interference; intrusion, obtrusion; insinuation. insertion &c 300; dovetailing; embolism. intermediary, intermedium^; go between, bodkin^, intruder, interloper; parenthesis, episode, flyleaf. partition, septum, diaphragm; midriff; dissepiment^; party wall, panel, room divider. halfway house. V. lie between, come between, get between; intervene, slide in, interpenetrate, permeate. put between, introduce, import, throw in, wedge in, edge in, jam in, worm in, foist in, run in, plow in, work in; interpose, interject, intercalate, interpolate, interline, interleave, intersperse, interweave, interlard, interdigitate, sandwich in, fit in, squeeze in; let in, dovetail, splice, mortise; insinuate, smuggle; infiltrate, ingrain. interfere, put in an oar, thrust one's nose in; intrude, obtrude; have a finger in the pie; introduce the thin end of the wedge; thrust in &c (insert) 300. Adj. interjacent^, intercurrent^, intervenient^, intervening &c v., intermediate, intermediary, intercalary, interstitial; embolismal^. parenthetical, episodic; mediterranean; intrusive; embosomed^; merged. Adv. between, betwixt; twixt; among, amongst; amid, amidst; mid, midst; in the thick of; betwixt and between; sandwich-wise; parenthetically, obiter dictum. 229. Circumscription -- N. circumscription, limitation, inclosure; confinement &c (restraint) 751; circumvallation^; encincture; envelope &c 232. container (receptacle) 191. V. circumscribe, limit, bound, confine, inclose; surround &c 227; compass about; imprison &c (restrain) 751; hedge in, wall in, rail in; fence round, fence in, hedge round; picket; corral. enfold, bury, encase, incase^, pack up, enshrine, inclasp^; wrap up &c (invest) 225; embay^, embosom^. containment (inclusion) 76. Adj. circumscribed &c v.; begirt^, lapt^; buried in, immersed in; embosomed^, in the bosom of, imbedded, encysted, mewed up; imprisoned &c 751; landlocked, in a ring fence. 230. Outline -- N. outline, circumference; perimeter, periphery, ambit, circuit, lines tournure^, contour, profile, silhouette; bounds; coast line. zone, belt, girth, band, baldric, zodiac, girdle, tyre [Brit.], cingle^, clasp, girt; cordon &c (inclosure) 232; circlet, &c 247. 231. Edge -- N. edge, verge, brink, brow, brim, margin, border, confine, skirt, rim, flange, side, mouth; jaws, chops, chaps, fauces; lip, muzzle. threshold, door, porch; portal &c (opening) 260; coast, shore. frame, fringe, flounce, frill, list, trimming, edging, skirting, hem, selvedge, welt, furbelow, valance, gimp. Adj. border, marginal, skirting; labial, labiated^, marginated^. 232. Inclosure -- N. inclosure, envelope; case &c (receptacle) 191; wrapper; girdle &c 230. pen, fold; pen fold, in fold, sheep fold; paddock, pound; corral; yard; net, seine net. wall, hedge, hedge row; espalier; fence &c (defense) 717; pale, paling, balustrade, rail, railing, quickset hedge, park paling, circumvallation^, enceinte, ring fence. barrier, barricade; gate, gateway; bent, dingle [U.S.]; door, hatch, cordon; prison &c 752. dike, dyke, ditch, fosse^, moat. V. inclose, circumscribe &c 229. 233. Limit -- N. limit, boundary, bounds, confine, enclave, term, bourn, verge, curbstone^, but, pale, reservation; termination, terminus; stint, frontier, precinct, marches; backwoods. boundary line, landmark; line of demarcation, line of circumvallation^; pillars of Hercules; Rubicon, turning point; ne plus ultra [Lat.]; sluice, floodgate. Adj. definite; conterminate^, conterminable^; terminal, frontier; bordering. Adv. thus far, thus far and no further. Phr. stick to the reservation; go beyond the pale. 2. Special 234. Front -- N. front; fore, forepart; foreground; face, disk, disc, frontage; facade, proscenium, facia [Lat.], frontispiece; anteriority^; obverse (of a medal or coin). fore rank, front rank; van, vanguard; advanced guard; outpost; first line; scout. brow, forehead, visage, physiognomy, phiz^, countenance, mut [Slang]; rostrum, beak, bow, stem, prow, prore^, jib. pioneer &c (precursor) 64; metoposcopy^. V. be in front, stand in front &c adj.; front, face, confront; bend forwards; come to the front, come to the fore. Adj. fore, anterior, front, frontal. Adv. before; in front, in the van, in advance; ahead, right ahead; forehead, foremost; in the foreground, in the lee of; before one's face, before one's eyes; face to face, vis-a-vis; front a front. Phr. formosa muta commendatio est [Lat.] [Syrus]; frons est animi janua [Lat.] [Cicero]; Human face divine [Milton]; imago animi vultus est indices oculi [Lat.] [Cicero]; sea of upturned faces [Scott]. 235. Rear -- N. rear, back, posteriority; rear rank, rear guard; background, hinterland. occiput [Anat.], nape, chine; heels; tail, rump, croup, buttock, posteriors, backside scut^, breech, dorsum, loin; dorsal region, lumbar region; hind quarters; aitchbone^; natch, natch bone. stern, poop, afterpart^, heelpiece^, crupper. wake; train &c (sequence) 281. reverse; other side of the shield. V. be behind &c adv.; fall astern; bend backwards; bring up the rear. Adj. back, rear; hind, hinder, hindmost, hindermost^; postern, posterior; dorsal, after; caudal, lumbar; mizzen, tergal^. Adv. behind; in the rear, in the background; behind one's back; at the heels of, at the tail of, at the back of; back to back. after, aft, abaft, astern, sternmost^, aback, rearward. Phr. ogni medaglia ha il suo rovescio [It]; the other side of the coin. 236. Laterality -- N. laterality^; side, flank, quarter, lee; hand; cheek, jowl, jole^, wing; profile; temple, parietes [Lat.], loin, haunch, hip; beam. gable, gable end; broadside; lee side. points of the compass; East, Orient, Levant; West; orientation. V. be on one side &c adv.; flank, outflank; sidle; skirt; orientate. Adj. lateral, sidelong; collateral; parietal, flanking, skirting; flanked; sideling. many sided; multilateral, bilateral, trilateral, quadrilateral. Eastern; orient, oriental; Levantine; Western, occidental, Hesperian. Adv. sideways, sidelong; broadside on; on one side, abreast, alongside, beside, aside; by the side of; side by side; cheek by jowl &c (near) 197; to windward, to leeward; laterally &c adj.; right and left; on her beam ends. Phr. his cheek the may of days outworn [Shakespeare]. 237. Contraposition -- N. contraposition^, opposition; polarity; inversion &c 218; opposite side; reverse, inverse; counterpart; antipodes; opposite poles, North and South. antonym, opposite (contrariety) 14. V. be opposite &c adj.; subtend. Adj. opposite; reverse, inverse; converse, antipodal, subcontrary^; fronting, facing, diametrically opposite. Northern, septentrional, Boreal, arctic; Southern, Austral, antarctic. Adv. over, over the way, over against; against; face to face, vis-a- vis; as poles asunder. 238. Dextrality -- N. dextrality^; right, right hand; dexter, offside, starboard. Adj. dextral, right-handed; dexter, dextrorsal^, dextrorse^; ambidextral^, ambidextrous; dextro-. Adv. dextrad^, dextrally^. 239. Sinistrality -- N. sinistrality^; left, left hand, a gauche; sinister, nearside^, larboard, port. Adj. left-handed; sinister; sinistral, sinistrorsal^, sinistrorse^, sinistrous^; laevo- [Pref.]. Adv. sinistrally, sinistrously^. SECTION III. FORM 1. GENERAL FORM 240. Form -- N. form, figure, shape; conformation, configuration; make, formation, frame, construction, cut, set, build, trim, cut of one's jib; stamp, type, cast, mold; fashion; contour &c (outline) 230; structure &c 329; plasmature^. feature, lineament, turn; phase &c (aspect) 448; posture, attitude, pose. [Science of form] morphism. [Similarity of form] isomorphism. forming &c v.; formation, figuration, efformation^; sculpture; plasmation^. V. form, shape, figure, fashion, efform^, carve, cut, chisel, hew, cast; rough hew, rough cast; sketch; block out, hammer out; trim; lick into shape, put into shape; model, knead, work up into, set, mold, sculpture; cast, stamp; build &c (construct) 161. Adj. formed &c v.. [Receiving form] plastic, fictile^; formative; fluid. [Giving form] plasmic^. [Similar in form] isomorphous. [taking several forms] pleomorphic; protean; changeable, &c 149. 241. [Absence of form.] Amorphism -- N. amorphism^, informity^; unlicked cub^; rudis indigestaque moles [Lat.]; disorder &c 59; deformity &c 243. disfigurement, defacement; mutilation; deforming. chaos, randomness (disorder) 59. [taking form from surroundings] fluid &c 333. V. deface [Destroy form], disfigure, deform, mutilate, truncate; derange &c 61; blemish, mar. Adj. shapeless, amorphous, formless; unformed, unhewn^, unfashioned^, unshaped, unshapen; rough, rude, Gothic, barbarous, rugged. 242. [Regularity of form.] Symmetry -- N. symmetry, shapeliness, finish; beauty &c 845; proportion, eurythmy^, uniformity, parallelism; bilateral symmetry, trilateral symmetry, multilateral symmetry; centrality &c 222. arborescence^, branching, ramification; arbor vitae. Adj. symmetrical, shapely, well set, finished; beautiful &c 845; classic, chaste, severe. regular, uniform, balanced; equal &c 27; parallel, coextensive. arborescent^, arboriform^; dendriform^, dendroid^; branching; ramous^, ramose; filiciform^, filicoid^; subarborescent^; papilionaceous^. fuji-shaped, fujigata [Jap.]. 243. [Irregularity of form.] Distortion -- N. distortion, detortion^, contortion; twist, crookedness &c (obliquity) 217; grimace; deformity; malformation, malconformation^; harelip; monstrosity, misproportion^, want of symmetry, anamorphosis^; ugliness &c 846; talipes^; teratology. asymmetry; irregularity. V. distort, contort, twist, warp, wrest, writhe, make faces, deform, misshape. Adj. distorted &c v.; out of shape, irregular, asymmetric, unsymmetric^, awry, wry, askew, crooked; not true, not straight; on one side, crump^, deformed; harelipped; misshapen, misbegotten; misproportioned^, ill proportioned; ill-made; grotesque, monstrous, crooked as a ram's horn; camel backed, hump backed, hunch backed, bunch backed, crook backed; bandy; bandy legged, bow legged; bow kneed, knock kneed; splay footed, club footed; round shouldered; snub nosed; curtailed of one's fair proportions; stumpy &c (short) 201; gaunt &c (thin) 203; bloated &c 194; scalene; simous^; taliped^, talipedic^. Adv. all manner of ways. Phr. crooked as a Virginia fence [U.S.]. 2. SPECIAL FORM 244. Angularity -- N. angularity, angularness^; aduncity^; angle, cusp, bend; fold &c 258; notch &c 257; fork, bifurcation. elbow, knee, knuckle, ankle, groin, crotch, crutch, crane, fluke, scythe, sickle, zigzag, kimbo^, akimbo. corner, nook, recess, niche, oriel [Arch.], coign^. right angle &c (perpendicular) 216.1, 212; obliquity &c 217; angle of 45 degrees, miter; acute angle, obtuse angle, salient angle, reentering angle, spherical angle. angular measurement, angular elevation, angular distance, angular velocity; trigonometry, goniometry; altimetry^; clinometer, graphometer^, goniometer; theodolite; sextant, quadrant; dichotomy. triangle, trigon^, wedge; rectangle, square, lozenge, diamond; rhomb, rhombus; quadrangle, quadrilateral; parallelogram; quadrature; polygon, pentagon, hexagon, heptagon, octagon, oxygon^, decagon. pyramid, cone. Platonic bodies; cube, rhomboid; tetrahedron, pentahedron, hexahedron, octahedron, dodecahedron, icosahedron, eicosahedron; prism, pyramid; parallelopiped; curb roof, gambrel roof, mansard roof. V. bend, fork, bifurcate, crinkle. Adj. angular, bent, crooked, aduncous^, uncinated^, aquiline, jagged, serrated; falciform^, falcated^; furcated^, forked, bifurcate, zigzag; furcular^; hooked; dovetailed; knock kneed, crinkled, akimbo, kimbo^, geniculated^; oblique &c 217. fusiform [Micro.], wedge-shaped, cuneiform; cuneate^, multangular^, oxygonal^; triangular, trigonal^, trilateral; quadrangular, quadrilateral; foursquare; rectangular, square, multilateral; polygonal &c n.; cubical, rhomboid, rhomboidal, pyramidal. 245. Curvature -- N. curvature, curvity^, curvation^; incurvature^, incurvity^; incurvation^; bend; flexure, flexion, flection^; conflexure^; crook, hook, bought, bending; deflection, deflexion^; inflection, inflexion^; concameration^; arcuation^, devexity^, turn, deviation, detour, sweep; curl, curling; bough; recurvity^, recurvation^; sinuosity &c 248. kink. carve, arc, arch, arcade, vault, bow, crescent, half-moon, lunule^, horseshoe, loop, crane neck; parabola, hyperbola; helix, spiral; catenary^, festoon; conchoid^, cardioid; caustic; tracery; arched ceiling, arched roof; bay window, bow window. sine curve; spline, spline curve, spline function; obliquity &c 217. V. be curved, &c adj.; curve, sweep, sway, swag, sag; deviate &c 279; curl, turn; reenter. render curved &c adj.; flex, bend, curve, incurvate^; inflect; deflect, scatter [Phys.]; refract (light) 420; crook; turn, round, arch, arcuate, arch over, concamerate^; bow, curl, recurve, frizzle. rotundity &c 249; convexity &c 250. Adj. curved &c v.; curviform^, curvilineal^, curvilinear; devex^, devious; recurved, recurvous^; crump^; bowed &c v.; vaulted, hooked; falciform^, falcated^; semicircular, crescentic; sinusoid [Geom.], parabolic, paraboloid; luniform^, lunular^; semilunar, conchoidal^; helical, double helical, spiral; kinky; cordiform^, cordated^; cardioid; heart shaped, bell shaped, boat shaped, crescent shaped, lens shaped, moon shaped, oar shaped, shield shaped, sickle shaped, tongue shaped, pear shaped, fig shaped; kidney-shaped, reniform; lentiform^, lenticular; bow-legged &c (distorted) 243; oblique &c 217; circular &c 247. aduncated^, arclike^, arcuate, arched, beaked; bicorn^, bicornuous^, bicornute^; clypeate^, clypeiform^; cymbiform^, embowed^, galeiform^; hamate^, hamiform^, hamous^; hooked; linguiform^, lingulate^; lobiform^, lunate, navicular^, peltate^, remiform^, rhamphoid^; rostrate^, rostriferous^, rostroid^; scutate^, scaphoid^, uncate^; unguiculate^, unguiform^. 246. Straightness -- N. straightness, rectilinearity^, directness; inflexibility &c (stiffness) 323; straight line, right line, direct line; short cut. V. be straight &c adj.; have no turning; not incline to either side, not bend to either side, not turn to either side, not deviate to either side; go straight; steer for &c (directions) 278. render straight, straighten, rectify; set straight, put straight; unbend, unfold, uncurl &c 248, unravel &c 219, unwrap. Adj. straight; rectilinear, rectilineal^; direct, even, right, true, in a line; unbent, virgate^ &c v.; undeviating, unturned, undistorted, unswerving; straight as an arrow &c (direct) 278; inflexible &c 323. laser-straight; ramrod-straight. 247. [Simple circularity.] Circularity -- N. circularity, roundness; rotundity &c 249. circle, circlet, ring, areola, hoop, roundlet^, annulus, annulet^, bracelet, armlet; ringlet; eye, loop, wheel; cycle, orb, orbit, rundle, zone, belt, cordon, band; contrate wheel^, crown wheel; hub; nave; sash, girdle, cestus^, cincture, baldric, fillet, fascia, wreath, garland; crown, corona, coronet, chaplet, snood, necklace, collar; noose, lasso, lassoo^. ellipse, oval, ovule; ellipsoid, cycloid; epicycloid [Geom.], epicycle; semicircle; quadrant, sextant, sector. sphere &c 249. V. make round &c adj.; round. go round; encircle &c 227; describe a circle &c 311. Adj. round, rounded, circular, annular, orbicular; oval, ovate; elliptic, elliptical; egg-shaped; pear-shaped &c 245; cycloidal &c n.^; spherical &c 249. Phr. I watched the little circles die [Tennyson]. 248. [Complex curvature.] Convolution -- N. winding &c v.; convolution, involution, circumvolution; wave, undulation, tortuosity, anfractuosity^; sinuosity, sinuation^; meandering, circuit, circumbendibus^, twist, twirl, windings and turnings, ambages^; torsion; inosculation^; reticulation &c (crossing) 219; rivulation^; roughness &c 256. coil, roll, curl; buckle, spiral, helix, corkscrew, worm, volute, rundle; tendril; scollop^, scallop, escalop^; kink; ammonite, snakestone^. serpent, eel, maze, labyrinth. knot. V. be convoluted &c adj.; wind, twine, turn and twist, twirl; wave, undulate, meander; inosculate^; entwine, intwine^; twist, coil, roll; wrinkle, curl, crisp, twill; frizzle; crimp, crape, indent, scollop^, scallop, wring, intort^; contort; wreathe &c (cross) 219. Adj. convoluted; winding, twisted &c v.; tortile^, tortive^; wavy; undated, undulatory; circling, snaky, snake-like, serpentine; serpent, anguill^, vermiform; vermicular; mazy, tortuous, sinuous, flexuous, anfractuous^, reclivate^, rivulose^, scolecoid^; sigmoid, sigmoidal [Geom.]; spiriferous^, spiroid^; involved, intricate, complicated, perplexed; labyrinth, labyrinthic^, labyrinthian^, labyrinthine; peristaltic; daedalian^; kinky, knotted. wreathy^, frizzly, crepe, buckled; raveled &c (in disorder) 59. spiral, coiled, helical; cochleate, cochleous; screw-shaped; turbinated, turbiniform^. Adv. in and out, round and round; a can of worms; Gordian knot. 249. Rotundity -- N. rotundity; roundness &c adj.; cylindricity^; sphericity, spheroidity^; globosity^. cylinder, cylindroid^, cylindrical; barrel, drum; roll, roller; rouleau^, column, rolling-pin, rundle. cone, conoid^; pear shape, egg shape, bell shape. sphere, globe, ball, boulder, bowlder^; spheroid, ellipsoid; oblong spheroid; oblate spheroid, prolate spheroid; drop, spherule, globule, vesicle, bulb, bullet, pellet, pelote^, clew, pill, marble, pea, knob, pommel, horn; knot (convolution) 248. curved surface, hypersphere; hyperdimensional surface. V. render spherical &c adj.; form into a sphere, sphere, roll into a ball; give rotundity &c n.; round. Adj. rotund; round &c (circular) 247; cylindric, cylindrical, cylindroid^; columnar, lumbriciform^; conic, conical; spherical, spheroidal; globular, globated^, globous^, globose; egg shaped, bell shaped, pear shaped; ovoid, oviform; gibbous; rixiform^; campaniform^, campanulate^, campaniliform^; fungiform^, bead-like, moniliform^, pyriform^, bulbous; tres atque rotundus [Lat.]; round as an orange, round as an apple, round as a ball, round as a billiard ball, round as a cannon ball. 3. SUPERFICIAL FORM 250. Convexity -- N. convexity, prominence, projection, swelling, gibbosity^, bilge, bulge, protuberance, protrusion; camber, cahot [U.S.]. thank-ye-ma'am [U.S.]. swell. intumescence; tumour [Brit.], tumor; tubercle, tuberosity [Anat.]; excrescence; hump, hunch, bunch. boss, embossment, hub, hubble; [convex body parts] tooth [U.S.], knob, elbow, process, apophysis^, condyle, bulb, node, nodule, nodosity^, tongue, dorsum, bump, clump; sugar loaf &c (sharpness) 253; bow; mamelon^; molar; belly, corporation^, pot belly, gut [Coll.]; withers, back, shoulder, lip, flange. [convexities on skin] pimple, zit [Slang]; wen, wheel, papula [Med.], pustule, pock, proud flesh, growth, sarcoma, caruncle^, corn, wart, pappiloma, furuncle, polypus^, fungus, fungosity^, exostosis^, bleb, blister, blain^; boil &c (disease) 655; airbubble^, blob, papule, verruca. [convex body parts on chest] papilla, nipple, teat, tit [Vulg.], titty [Vulg.], boob [Vulg.], knocker [Vulg.], pap, breast, dug, mammilla^. [prominent convexity on the face] proboscis, nose, neb, beak, snout, nozzle, schnoz [Coll.]. peg, button, stud, ridge, rib, jutty, trunnion, snag. cupola, dome, arch, balcony, eaves; pilaster. relief, relievo [It], cameo; bassorilievo^, mezzorilevo^, altorivievo; low relief, bas relief [Fr.], high relief. hill &c (height) 206; cape, promontory, mull; forehead, foreland^; point of land, mole, jetty, hummock, ledge, spur; naze^, ness. V. be prominent &c adj.; project, bulge, protrude, pout, bouge [Fr.], bunch; jut out, stand out, stick out, poke out; stick up, bristle up, start up, cock up, shoot up; swell over, hang over, bend over; beetle. render prominent &c adj.; raise 307; emboss, chase. [become convex] belly out. Adj. convex, prominent, protuberant, projecting &c v.; bossed, embossed, bossy, nodular, bunchy; clavate, clavated^, claviform; hummocky^, moutonne^, mammiliform^; papulous^, papilose^; hemispheric, bulbous; bowed, arched; bold; bellied; tuberous, tuberculous; tumous^; cornute^, odontoid^; lentiform^, lenticular; gibbous; club shaped, hubby [U.S.], hubbly [U.S.], knobby, papillose, saddle-shaped, selliform^, subclavate^, torose^, ventricose^, verrucose^. salient, in relief, raised, repousse; bloated &c, (expanded) 194. 251. Flatness -- N. flatness &c adj.; smoothness &c 255. plane; level &c 213; plate, platter, table, tablet, slab. V. render flat, flatten; level &c 213. Adj. flat, plane, even, flush, scutiform^, discoid; level &c (horizontal) 213; flat as a pancake, flat as a fluke, flat as a flounder, flat as a board, flat as my hand. 252. Concavity -- N. concavity, depression, dip; hollow, hollowness; indentation, intaglio, cavity, dent, dint, dimple, follicle, pit, sinus, alveolus^, lacuna; excavation, strip mine; trough &c (furrow) 259; honeycomb. cup, basin, crater, punch bowl; cell &c (receptacle) 191; socket. valley, vale, dale, dell, dingle, combe^, bottom, slade^, strath^, glade, grove, glen, cave, cavern, cove; grot^, grotto; alcove, cul-de- sac; gully &c 198; arch &c (curve) 245; bay &c (of the sea) 343. excavator, sapper, miner. honeycomb (sponge) 252.1. V. be concave &c adj.; retire, cave in. render concave &c adj.; depress, hollow; scoop, scoop out; gouge, gouge out, dig, delve, excavate, dent, dint, mine, sap, undermine, burrow, tunnel, stave in. Adj. depressed &c v.; alveolate^, calathiform^, cup-shaped, dishing; favaginous^, faveolate^, favose^; scyphiform^, scyphose^; concave, hollow, stove in; retiring; retreating; cavernous; porous &c (with holes) 260; infundibul^, infundibular^, infundibuliform^; funnel shaped, bell shaped; campaniform^, capsular; vaulted, arched. 252a Sponge -- N. sponge, honeycomb, network; frit [Chem], filter. sieve, net, screen (opening) 260. Adj. cellular, spongy, spongious^; honeycombed, alveolar; sintered; porous (opening) 260. 253. Sharpness -- N. sharpness &c adj.; acuity, acumination^; spinosity^. point, spike, spine, spicule [Biol.], spiculum^; needle, hypodermic needle, tack, nail, pin; prick, prickle; spur, rowel, barb; spit, cusp; horn, antler; snag; tag thorn, bristle; Adam's needle^, bear grass [U.S.], tine, yucca. nib, tooth, tusk; spoke, cog, ratchet. crag, crest, arete [Fr.], cone peak, sugar loaf, pike, aiguille^; spire, pyramid, steeple. beard, chevaux de frise [Fr.], porcupine, hedgehog, brier, bramble, thistle; comb; awn, beggar's lice, bur, burr, catchweed^, cleavers, clivers^, goose, grass, hairif^, hariff, flax comb, hackle, hatchel^, heckle. wedge; knife edge, cutting edge; blade, edge tool, cutlery, knife, penknife, whittle, razor, razor blade, safety razor, straight razor, electric razor; scalpel; bistoury^, lancet; plowshare, coulter, colter^; hatchet, ax, pickax, mattock, pick, adze, gill; billhook, cleaver, cutter; scythe, sickle; scissors, shears, pruning shears, cutters, wire cutters, nail clipper, paper cutter; sword &c (arms) 727; bodkin &c (perforator) 262; belduque^, bowie knife^, paring knife; bushwhacker [U.S.]; drawing knife, drawing shave; microtome [Micro.]; chisel, screwdriver blade; flint blade; guillotine. sharpener, hone, strop; grindstone, whetstone; novaculite^; steel, emery. V. be sharp &c adj.; taper to a point; bristle with. render sharp &c adj.; sharpen, point, aculeate, whet, barb, spiculate^, set, strop, grind; chip (flint). cut &c (sunder) 44. Adj. sharp, keen; acute; acicular, aciform^; aculeated^, acuminated^; pointed; tapering; conical, pyramidal; mucronate^, mucronated^; spindle shaped, needle shaped; spiked, spiky, ensiform^, peaked, salient; cusped, cuspidate, cuspidated^; cornute^, cornuted^, cornicultate^; prickly; spiny, spinous^, spicular; thorny, bristling, muricated^, pectinated^, studded, thistly, briary^; craggy &c (rough) 256; snaggy, digitated^, two-edged, fusiform [Micro.]; dentiform^, denticulated; toothed; odontoid^; starlike; stellated^, stelliform^; sagittate^, sagittiform^; arrowheaded^; arrowy^, barbed, spurred. acinaciform; apiculate^, apiculated^; aristate^, awned, awny^, bearded, calamiform^, cone-shaped, coniform^, crestate^, echinate^, gladiate^; lanceolate^, lanciform; awl, awl-shaped, lance-shaped, awl- shaped, scimitar-shaped, sword-shaped; setarious^, spinuliferous^, subulate^, tetrahedral, xiphoid^. cutting; sharp edged, knife edged; sharp as a razor, keen as a razor; sharp as a needle, sharp as a tack; sharpened &c v.; set 254. Bluntness -- N. bluntness &c adj.. V. be blunt, render blunt &c adj.; obtund^, dull; take off the point, take off the edge; turn. Adj. blunt, obtuse, dull, bluff; edentate, toothless. 255. Smoothness -- N. smoothness &c adj.; polish, gloss; lubricity, lubrication. [smooth materials] down, velvet, velure, silk, satin; velveteen, velour, velours, velumen^; glass, ice. slide; bowling green &c (level) 213; asphalt, wood pavement, flagstone, flags. [objects used to smooth other objects] roller, steam roller, lawn roller, rolling pin, rolling mill; sand paper, emery paper, emery cloth, sander; flat iron, sad iron; burnisher, turpentine and beeswax; polish, shoe polish. [art of cutting and polishing gemstones] lapidary. [person who polishes gemstones] lapidary, lapidarian. V. smooth, smoothen^; plane; file; mow, shave; level, roll; macadamize; polish, burnish, calender^, glaze; iron, hot-press, mangle; lubricate &c (oil) 332. Adj. smooth; polished &c v.; leiodermatous^, slick, velutinous^; even; level &c 213; plane &c (flat) 251; sleek, glossy; silken, silky; lanate^, downy, velvety; glabrous, slippery, glassy, lubricous, oily, soft, unwrinkled^; smooth as glass, smooth as ice, smooth as monumental alabaster, smooth as velvet, smooth as oil; slippery as an eel; woolly &c (feathery) 256. Phr. smooth as silk; slippery as coonshit on a pump handle; slippery as a greased pig. 256. Roughness -- N. roughness &c adj.; tooth, grain, texture, ripple; asperity, rugosity^, salebrosity^, corrugation, nodosity^; arborescence^ &c 242; pilosity^. brush, hair, beard, shag, mane, whisker, moustache, imperial, tress, lock, curl, ringlet; fimbriae, pili, cilia, villi; lovelock; beaucatcher^; curl paper; goatee; papillote, scalp lock. plumage, plumosity^; plume, panache, crest; feather, tuft, fringe, toupee. wool, velvet, plush, nap, pile, floss, fur, down; byssus^, moss, bur; fluff. knot (convolution) 248. V. be rough &c adj.; go against the grain. render-rough &c adj.; roughen, ruffle, crisp, crumple, corrugate, set on edge, stroke the wrong way, rumple. Adj. rough, uneven, scabrous, scaly, knotted; rugged, rugose^, rugous^; knurly^; asperous^, crisp, salebrous^, gnarled, unpolished, unsmooth^, roughhewn^; craggy, cragged; crankling^, scraggy; prickly &c (sharp) 253; arborescent &c 242 [Obs.]; leafy, well-wooded; feathery; plumose, plumigerous^; laciniate^, laciniform^, laciniose^; pappose^; pileous^, pilose^; trichogenous^, trichoid [Med.]; tufted, fimbriated, hairy, ciliated, filamentous, hirsute; crinose^, crinite^; bushy, hispid, villous, pappous^, bearded, pilous^, shaggy, shagged; fringed, befringed^; setous^, setose^, setaceous; like quills upon the fretful porcupine [Hamlet]; rough as a nutmeg grater, rough as a bear. downy, velvety, flocculent, woolly; lanate^, lanated^; lanuginous^, lanuginose^; tomentose^; fluffy. Adv. against the grain. Phr. cabello luengo y corto el seso [Sp.]. 257. Notch -- N. notch, dent, nick, cut; indent, indentation; dimple. embrasure, battlement, machicolation^; saw, tooth, crenelle^, scallop, scollop^, vandyke; depression; jag. V. notch, nick, cut, dent, indent, jag, scarify, scotch, crimp, scallop, scollop^, crenulate^, vandyke. Adj. notched &c v.; crenate^, crenated^; dentate, dentated; denticulate, denticulated; toothed, palmated^, serrated. 258. Fold -- N. fold, plicature^, plait, pleat, ply, crease; tuck, gather; flexion, flexure, joint, elbow, double, doubling, duplicature^, gather, wrinkle, rimple^, crinkle, crankle^, crumple, rumple, rivel^, ruck^, ruffle, dog's ear, corrugation, frounce^, flounce, lapel; pucker, crow's feet; plication^. V. fold, double, plicate^, plait, crease, wrinkle, crinkle, crankle^, curl, cockle up, cocker, rimple^, rumple, flute, frizzle, frounce^, rivel^, twill, corrugate, ruffle, crimple^, crumple, pucker; turn down, double down, down under; tuck, ruck^, hem, gather. Adj. folded, fluted, pleated &c v.. 259. Furrow -- N. furrow, groove, rut, sulcus [Anat.], scratch, streak, striae, crack, score, incision, slit; chamfer, fluting; corduroy road, cradle hole. channel, gutter, trench, ditch, dike, dyke; moat, fosse^, trough, kennel; ravine &c (interval) 198; tajo [U.S.], thank-ye-ma'am [U.S.]. V. furrow &c n.; flute, plow; incise, engrave, etch, bite in. Adj. furrowed &c v.; ribbed, striated, sulcated [Anat.], fluted, canaliculated^; bisulcous^, bisulcate^, bisulcated^; canaliferous^; trisulcate^; corduroy; unisulcate^; costate^, rimiform^. 260. Opening -- N. hole, foramen; puncture, perforation; fontanel^; transforation^; pinhole, keyhole, loophole, porthole, peephole, mousehole, pigeonhole; eye of a needle; eyelet; slot. opening; aperture, apertness^; hiation^, yawning, oscitancy^, dehiscence, patefaction^, pandiculation^; chasm &c (interval) 198. embrasure, window, casement; abatjour^; light; sky light, fan light; lattice; bay window, bow window; oriel [Arch.]; dormer, lantern. outlet, inlet; vent, vomitory; embouchure; orifice, mouth, sucker, muzzle, throat, gullet, weasand^, wizen, nozzle; placket. portal, porch, gate, ostiary^, postern, wicket, trapdoor, hatch, door; arcade; cellarway^, driveway, gateway, doorway, hatchway, gangway; lich gate^. way, path &c 627; thoroughfare; channel; passage, passageway; tube, pipe; water pipe &c 350; air pipe &c 351; vessel, tubule, canal, gut, fistula; adjutage^, ajutage^; ostium^; smokestack; chimney, flue, tap, funnel, gully, tunnel, main; mine, pit, adit^, shaft; gallery. alley, aisle, glade, vista. bore, caliber; pore; blind orifice; fulgurite^, thundertube^. porousness, porosity. sieve, cullender^, colander; cribble^, riddle, screen; honeycomb. apertion^, perforation; piercing &c v.; terebration^, empalement^, pertusion^, puncture, acupuncture, penetration. key &c 631, opener, master key, password, combination, passe- partout. V. open, ope^, gape, yawn, bilge; fly open. perforate, pierce, empierce^, tap, bore, drill; mine &c (scoop out) 252; tunnel; transpierce^, transfix; enfilade, impale, spike, spear, gore, spit, stab, pink, puncture, lance, stick, prick, riddle, punch; stave in. cut a passage through; make way for, make room for. uncover, unclose, unrip^; lay open, cut open, rip open, throw open, pop open, blow open, pry open, tear open, pull open. Adj. open; perforated &c v.; perforate; wide open, ajar, unclosed, unstopped; oscitant^, gaping, yawning; patent. tubular, cannular^, fistulous; pervious, permeable; foraminous^; vesicular, vasicular^; porous, follicular, cribriform^, honeycombed, infundibular^, riddled; tubulous^, tubulated^; piped, tubate^. opening &c v.; aperient^. Int. open sesame!, 261. Closure -- N. closure, occlusion, blockade; shutting up &c v.; obstruction &c (hindrance) 706; embolus; contraction &c 195; infarction; constipation, obstipation^; blind alley, blind corner; keddah^; cul-de-sac, caecum; imperforation^, imperviousness &c adj.; impermeability; stopper &c 263. V. close, occlude, plug; block up, stop up, fill up, bung up, cork up, button up, stuff up, shut up, dam up; blockade, obstruct &c (hinder) 706; bar, bolt, stop, seal, plumb; choke, throttle; ram down, dam, cram; trap, clinch; put to the door, shut the door. Adj. closed &c v.; shut, operculated^; unopened. unpierced^, imporous^, caecal [Med.]; closable; imperforate, impervious, impermeable; impenetrable; impassable, unpassable^; invious^; pathless, wayless^; untrodden, untrod. unventilated; air tight, water tight; hermetically sealed; tight, snug. 262. Perforator -- N. perforator, piercer, borer, auger, chisel, gimlet, stylet^, drill, wimble^, awl, bradawl, scoop, terrier, corkscrew, dibble, trocar [Med.], trepan, probe, bodkin, needle, stiletto, rimer, warder, lancet; punch, puncheon; spikebit^, gouge; spear &c (weapon) 727; puncher; punching machine, punching press; punch pliers. 263. Stopper -- N. stopper, stopple; plug, cork, bung, spike, spill, stopcock, tap; rammer^; ram, ramrod; piston; stop-gap; wadding, stuffing, padding, stopping, dossil^, pledget^, tompion^, tourniquet. cover &c 223; valve, vent peg, spigot, slide valve. janitor, doorkeeper, porter, warder, beadle, cerberus, ostiary^. SECTION IV. MOTION 1. MOTION IN GENERAL 264. [Successive change of place.] Motion -- N. motion, movement, move; going &c v.; unrest. stream, flow, flux, run, course, stir; evolution; kinematics; telekinesis. step, rate, pace, tread, stride, gait, port, footfall, cadence, carriage, velocity, angular velocity; clip, progress, locomotion; journey &c 266; voyage &c 267; transit &c 270. restlessness &c (changeableness) 149; mobility; movableness, motive power; laws of motion; mobilization. V. be in motion &c adj.; move, go, hie, gang, budge, stir, pass, flit; hover about, hover round, hover about; shift, slide, glide; roll, roll on; flow, stream, run, drift, sweep along; wander &c (deviate) 279; walk &c 266; change one's place, shift one's place, change one's quarters, shift one's quarters; dodge; keep going, keep moving; put in motion, set in motion; move; impel &c 276; propel &c 284; render movable, mobilize. Adj. moving &c v.; in motion; transitional; motory^, motive; shifting, movable, mobile, mercurial, unquiet; restless &c (changeable) 149; nomadic &c 266; erratic &c 279. Adv. under way; on the move, on the wing, on the tramp, on the march. Phr. eppur si muove [Galileo]; es bildet ein Talent sich in der Stille [G.], sich ein Charakter in dem Strom der Welt [G.]. 265. Quiescence -- N. rest; stillness &c adj.; quiescence; stagnation, stagnancy; fixity, immobility, catalepsy; indisturbance^; quietism. quiet, tranquility, calm; repose &c 687; peace; dead calm, anticyclone^; statue-like repose; silence &c 203; not a breath of air, not a mouse stirring; sleep &c (inactivity) 683. pause, lull &c (cessation) 142; stand still; standing still &c v.; lock; dead lock, dead stop, dead stand; full stop; fix; embargo. resting place; gite [Fr.]; bivouac; home &c (abode) 189; pillow &c (support) 215; haven &c (refuge) 666; goal &c (arrival) 292. V. be quiescent &c adj.; stand still, lie still; keep quiet, repose, hold the breath. remain, stay; stand, lie to, ride at anchor, remain in situ, tarry, mark time; bring to, heave to, lay to; pull up, draw up; hold, halt; stop, stop short; rest, pause, anchor; cast to an anchor, come to an anchor; rest on one's oars; repose on one's laurels, take breath; stop &c (discontinue) 142. stagnate; quieta non movere [Lat.]; let alone; abide, rest and be thankful; keep within doors, stay at home, go to bed. dwell &c (be present) 186; settle &c (be located) 184; alight &c (arrive) 292; stick, stick fast; stand like a post; not stir a peg, not stir a step; be at a stand &c n.. quell, becalm, hush, stay, lull to sleep, lay an embargo on. Adj. quiescent, still; motionless, moveless; fixed; stationary; immotile; at rest at a stand, at a standstill, at anchor; stock, still; standing still &c v.; sedentary, untraveled, stay-at-home; becalmed, stagnant, quiet; unmoved, undisturbed, unruffled; calm, restful; cataleptic; immovable &c (stable) 150; sleeping &c (inactive) 683; silent &c 403; still as a statue, still as a post, still as a mouse, still as death; vegetative, vegetating. Adv. at a stand &c adj.; tout court; at the halt. Int. stop!, stay!, avast!, halt!, hold hard!, whoa!, hold!, sabr karo!^. Phr. requiescat in pace [Lat.]; Deus nobis haec otia fecit [Lat.] [Vergil]; the noonday quiet holds the hill [Tennyson]. 266. [Locomotion by land.] Journey -- N. travel; traveling &c v.. wayfaring, campaigning. journey, excursion, expedition, tour, trip, grand tour, circuit, peregrination, discursion^, ramble, pilgrimage, hajj, trek, course, ambulation^, march, walk, promenade, constitutional, stroll, saunter, tramp, jog trot, turn, stalk, perambulation; noctambulation^, noctambulism; somnambulism; outing, ride, drive, airing, jaunt. equitation, horsemanship, riding, manege [Fr.], ride and tie; basophobia^. roving, vagrancy, pererration^; marching and countermarching; nomadism; vagabondism, vagabondage; hoboism [U.S.]; gadding; flit, flitting, migration; emigration, immigration, demigration^, intermigration^; wanderlust. plan, itinerary, guide; handbook, guidebook, road book; Baedeker^, Bradshaw, Murray; map, road map, transportation guide, subway map. procession, cavalcade, caravan, file, cortege, column. [Organs and instruments of locomotion] vehicle &c 272; automobile, train, bus, airplane, plane, autobus, omnibus, subway, motorbike, dirt bike, off-road vehicle, van, minivan, motor scooter, trolley, locomotive; legs, feet, pegs, pins, trotters. traveler &c 268. depot [U.S.], railway station, station. V. travel, journey, course; take a journey, go a journey; take a walk, go out for walk &c n.; have a run; take the air. flit, take wing; migrate, emigrate; trek; rove, prowl, roam, range, patrol, pace up and down, traverse; scour the country, traverse the country; peragrate^; circumambulate, perambulate; nomadize^, wander, ramble, stroll, saunter, hover, go one's rounds, straggle; gad, gad about; expatiate. walk, march, step, tread, pace, plod, wend, go by shank's mare; promenade; trudge, tramp; stalk, stride, straddle, strut, foot it, hoof it, stump, bundle, bowl along, toddle; paddle; tread a path. take horse, ride, drive, trot, amble, canter, prance, fisk^, frisk, caracoler^, caracole; gallop &c (move quickly) 274. [start riding] embark, board, set out, hit the road, get going, get underway. peg on, jog on, wag on, shuffle on; stir one's stumps; bend one's steps, bend one's course; make one's way, find one's way, wend one's way, pick one's way, pick one's way, thread one's way, plow one's way; slide, glide, coast, skim, skate; march in procession, file on, defile. go to, repair to, resort to, hie to, betake oneself to. Adj. traveling &c v.; ambulatory, itinerant, peripatetic, roving, rambling, gadding, discursive, vagrant, migratory, monadic; circumforanean^, circumforaneous^; noctivagrant^, mundivagrant; locomotive. wayfaring, wayworn; travel-stained. Adv. on foot, on horseback, on Shanks's mare; by the Marrowbone stage: in transitu &c 270 [Lat.]; en route &c 282. Int. come along!, 267. [Locomotion by water, or air.] Navigation -- N. navigation; aquatics; boating, yachting; ship &c 273; oar, paddle, screw, sail, canvas, aileron. natation^, swimming; fin, flipper, fish's tail. aerostation^, aerostatics^, aeronautics; balloonery^; balloon &c 273; ballooning, aviation, airmanship; flying, flight, volitation^; wing, pinion; rocketry, space travel, astronautics, orbital mechanics, orbiting. voyage, sail, cruise, passage, circumnavigation, periplus^; headway, sternway, leeway; fairway. mariner &c 269. flight, trip; shuttle, run, airlift. V. sail; put to sea &c (depart) 293; take ship, get under way; set sail, spread sail, spread canvas; gather way, have way on; make sail, carry sail; plow the waves, plow the deep, plow the main, plow the ocean; walk the waters. navigate, warp, luff^, scud, boom, kedge; drift, course, cruise, coast; hug the shore, hug the land; circumnavigate. ply the oar, row, paddle, pull, scull, punt, steam. swim, float; buffet the waves, ride the storm, skim, effleurer [Fr.], dive, wade. fly, be wafted, hover, soar, flutter, jet, orbit, rocket; take wing, take a flight, take off, ascend, blast off, land, alight; wing one's flight, wing one's way; aviate; parachute, jump, glide. Adj. sailing &c v.; volant^, aerostatic^; seafaring, nautical, maritime, naval; seagoing, coasting; afloat; navigable; aerial, aeronautic; grallatory^. Adv. under way, under sail, under canvas, under steam; on the wing, in flight, in orbit. Phr. bon voyage; spread the thin oar and catch the driving gale [Pope]. 268. Traveler -- N. traveler, wayfarer, voyager, itinerant, passenger, commuter. tourist, excursionist, explorer, adventurer, mountaineer, hiker, backpacker, Alpine Club; peregrinator^, wanderer, rover, straggler, rambler; bird of passage; gadabout, gadling^; vagrant, scatterling^, landloper^, waifs and estrays^, wastrel, foundling; loafer; tramp, tramper; vagabond, nomad, Bohemian, gypsy, Arab^, Wandering Jew, Hadji, pilgrim, palmer; peripatetic; somnambulist, emigrant, fugitive, refugee; beach comber, booly^; globegirdler^, globetrotter; vagrant, hobo [U.S.], night walker, sleep walker; noctambulist, runabout, straphanger, swagman, swagsman [Austral.]; trecker^, trekker, zingano^, zingaro^. runner, courier; Mercury, Iris, Ariel^, comet. pedestrian, walker, foot passenger; cyclist; wheelman. rider, horseman, equestrian, cavalier, jockey, roughrider, trainer, breaker. driver, coachman, whip, Jehu, charioteer, postilion, postboy^, carter, wagoner, drayman^; cabman, cabdriver; voiturier^, vetturino^, condottiere^; engine driver; stoker, fireman, guard; chauffeur, conductor, engineer, gharry-wallah^, gari-wala^, hackman, syce^, truckman^. Phr. on the road 269. Mariner -- N. sailor, mariner, navigator; seaman, seafarer, seafaring man; dock walloper [Slang]; tar, jack tar, salt, able seaman, A. B.; man-of-war's man, bluejacket, galiongee^, galionji^, marine, jolly, midshipman, middy; skipper; shipman^, boatman, ferryman, waterman^, lighterman^, bargeman, longshoreman; bargee^, gondolier; oar, oarsman; rower; boatswain, cockswain^; coxswain; steersman, pilot; crew. aerial navigator, aeronaut, balloonist, Icarus; aeroplanist^, airman, aviator, birdman, man-bird, wizard of the air, aviatrix, flier, pilot, test pilot, glider pilot, bush pilot, navigator, flight attendant, steward, stewardess, crew; astronaut, cosmonaut; parachutist, paratrooper. 270. Transference -- N. transfer, transference; translocation, elocation^; displacement; metastasis, metathesis; removal; remotion^, amotion^; relegation; deportation, asportation^; extradition, conveyance, draft, carrying, carriage; convection, conduction, contagion; transfer &c (of property) 783. transit, transition; passage, ferry, gestation; portage, porterage^, carting, cartage; shoveling &c v.; vection^, vecture^, vectitation^; shipment, freight, wafture^; transmission, transport, transportation, importation, exportation, transumption^, transplantation, translation; shifting, dodging; dispersion &c 73; transposition &c (interchange) 148; traction &c 285. [Thing transferred] drift. V. transfer, transmit, transport, transplace^, transplant, translocate; convey, carry, bear, fetch and carry; carry over, ferry over; hand pass, forward; shift; conduct, convoy, bring, fetch, reach; tote [U.S.]; port, import, export. send, delegate, consign, relegate, turn over to, deliver; ship, embark; waft; shunt; transpose &c (interchange) 148; displace &c 185; throw &c 284; drag &c 285; mail, post. shovel, ladle, decant, draft off, transfuse, infuse, siphon. Adj. transferred &c v.; drifted, movable; portable, portative^; mailable [U.S.]; contagious. Adv. from hand to hand, from pillar to post. on the way, by the way; on the road, on the wing, under way, in transit, on course; as one goes; in transitu [Lat.], en route, chemin faisant [Fr.], en passant [Fr.], in mid progress, in mid course. 271. Carrier -- N. carrier, porter, bearer, tranter^, conveyer; cargador^; express, expressman; stevedore, coolie; conductor, locomotive, motor. beast, beast of burden, cattle, horse, nag, palfrey, Arab^, blood horse, thoroughbred, galloway^, charger, courser, racer, hunter, jument^, pony, filly, colt, foal, barb, roan, jade, hack, bidet, pad, cob, tit, punch, roadster, goer^; racehorse, pack horse, draft horse, cart horse, dray horse, post horse; ketch; Shetland pony, shelty, sheltie; garran^, garron^; jennet, genet^, bayard^, mare, stallion, gelding; bronco, broncho^, cayuse [U.S.]; creature, critter [U.S.]; cow pony, mustang, Narraganset, waler^; stud. Pegasus, Bucephalus, Rocinante. ass, donkey, jackass, mule, hinny; sumpter horse, sumpter mule; burro, cuddy^, ladino [U.S.]; reindeer; camel, dromedary, llama, elephant; carrier pigeon. [object used for carrying] pallet, brace, cart, dolley; support &c 215; fork lift. carriage &c (vehicle) 272; ship &c 273. Adj. equine, asinine. 272. Vehicle -- N. vehicle, conveyance, carriage, caravan, van; common carrier; wagon, waggon^, wain, dray, cart, lorry. truck, tram; cariole, carriole^; limber, tumbrel, pontoon; barrow; wheel barrow, hand barrow; perambulator; Bath chair, wheel chair, sedan chair; chaise; palankeen^, palanquin; litter, brancard^, crate, hurdle, stretcher, ambulance; black Maria; conestoga wagon, conestoga wain; jinrikisha, ricksha, brett^, dearborn [U.S.], dump cart, hack, hackery^, jigger, kittereen^, mailstate^, manomotor^, rig, rockaway^, prairie schooner [U.S.], shay, sloven, team, tonga^, wheel; hobbyhorse, go-cart; cycle; bicycle, bike, two-wheeler; tricycle, velocipede, quadricycle^. equipage, turn-out; coach, chariot, phaeton, break, mail phaeton, wagonette, drag, curricle^, tilbury^, whisky, landau, barouche, victoria, brougham, clarence^, calash, caleche [Fr.], britzka^, araba^, kibitka^; berlin; sulky, desobligeant [Fr.], sociable, vis-a-vis, dormeuse [Fr.]; jaunting car, outside car; dandi^; doolie^, dooly^; munchil^, palki^; roller skates, skate; runabout; ski; tonjon^; vettura^. post chaise, diligence, stage; stage coach, mail coach, hackney coach, glass coach; stage wagon, car, omnibus, fly, cabriolet^, cab, hansom, shofle^, four-wheeler, growler, droshki^, drosky^. dogcart, trap, whitechapel, buggy, four-in-hand, unicorn, random, tandem; shandredhan^, char-a-bancs [Fr.]. motor car, automobile, limousine, car, auto, jalopy, clunker, lemon, flivver, coupe, sedan, two-door sedan, four-door sedan, luxury sedan; wheels [Coll.], sports car, roadster, gran turismo [It], jeep, four-wheel drive vehicle, electric car, steamer; golf cart, electric wagon; taxicab, cab, taxicoach^, checker cab, yellow cab; station wagon, family car; motorcycle, motor bike, side car; van, minivan, bus, minibus, microbus; truck, wagon, pick-up wagon, pick-up, tractor- trailer, road train, articulated vehicle; racing car, racer, hot rod, stock car, souped-up car. bob, bobsled, bobsleigh^; cutter; double ripper, double runner [U.S.]; jumper, sled, sledge, sleigh, toboggan. train; accommodation train, passenger train, express trail, special train, corridor train, parliamentary train, luggage train, freight train, goods train; 1st class train, 2nd class train, 3rd class train, 1st class carriage, 2nd class carriage, 3rd class carriage, 1st class compartment, 2nd class compartment, 3rd class compartment; rolling stock; horse box, cattle truck; baggage car, express car, freight car, parlor car, dining car, Pullman car, sleeping car, sleeper, dome car; surface car, tram car, trolley car; box car, box wagon; horse car [U.S.]; bullet train, shinkansen [Jap.], cannonball, the Wabash cannonball, lightning express; luggage van; mail, mail car, mail van. shovel, spool, spatula, ladle, hod, hoe; spade, spaddle^, loy^; spud; pitchfork; post hole digger. [powered construction vehicles] tractor, steamshovel, backhoe, fork lift, earth mover, dump truck, bulldozer, grader, caterpillar, trench digger, steamroller; pile driver; crane, wrecking crane. 273. Ship -- N. ship, vessel, sail; craft, bottom. navy, marine, fleet, flotilla; shipping. man of war &c (combatant) 726; transport, tender, storeship^; merchant ship, merchantman; packet, liner; whaler, slaver, collier, coaster, lighter; fishing boat, pilot boat; trawler, hulk; yacht; baggala^; floating hotel, floating palace; ocean greyhound. ship, bark, barque, brig, snow, hermaphrodite brig; brigantine, barkantine^; schooner; topsail schooner, for and aft schooner, three masted schooner; chasse-maree [Fr.]; sloop, cutter, corvette, clipper, foist, yawl, dandy, ketch, smack, lugger, barge, hoy^, cat, buss; sailer, sailing vessel; windjammer; steamer, steamboat, steamship, liner, ocean liner, cruiseship, ship of the line; mail steamer, paddle steamer, screw steamer; tug; line of steamers &c. destroyer, cruiser, frigate; landing ship, LST; aircraft carrier, carrier, flattop [Coll.], nuclear powered carrier; submarine, submersible, atomic submarine. boat, pinnace, launch; life boat, long boat, jolly boat, bum boat, fly boat, cock boat, ferry boat, canal boat; swamp boat, ark, bully, battery, bateau [Can.], broadhorn^, dory, droger^, drogher; dugout, durham boat, flatboat, galiot^; shallop^, gig, funny, skiff, dingy, scow, cockleshell, wherry, coble^, punt, cog, kedge, lerret^; eight oar, four oar, pair oar; randan^; outrigger; float, raft, pontoon; prame^; iceboat, ice canoe, ice yacht. catamaran, hydroplane, hovercraft, coracle, gondola, carvel^, caravel; felucca, caique^, canoe, birch bark canoe, dugout canoe; galley, galleyfoist^; bilander^, dogger^, hooker, howker^; argosy, carack^; galliass^, galleon; polacca^, polacre^, tartane^, junk, lorcha^, praam^, proa^, prahu^, saick^, sampan, xebec, dhow; dahabeah^; nuggah^; kayak, keel boat [U.S.], log canoe, pirogue; quadrireme^, trireme; stern-wheeler [U.S.]; wanigan^, wangan [U.S.], wharf boat. balloon; airship, aeroplane; biplane, monoplane, triplane^; hydroplane; aerodrome; air balloon, pilot balloon, fire balloon, dirigible, zeppelin; aerostat, Montgolfier; kite, parachute. jet plane, rocket plane, jet liner, turbojet, prop-jet, propeller plane; corporate plane, corporate jet, private plane, private aviation; airline, common carrier; fighter, bomber, fighter-bomber, escort plane, spy plane; supersonic aircraft, subsonic aircraft. Adv. afloat, aboard; on board, on ship board; hard a lee, hard a port, hard a starboard, hard a weather. 2. DEGREES OF MOTION 274. Velocity -- N. velocity, speed, celerity; swiftness &c adj.; rapidity, eagle speed; expedition &c (activity) 682; pernicity^; acceleration; haste &c 684. spurt, rush, dash, race, steeple chase; smart rate, lively rate, swift rate &c adj.; rattling rate, spanking rate, strapping rate, smart pace, lively pace, swift pace, rattling pace, spanking pace, strapping pace; round pace; flying, flight. lightning, greased lightning, light, electricity, wind; cannon ball, rocket, arrow, dart, hydrargyrum [Lat.], quicksilver; telegraph, express train; torrent. eagle, antelope, courser, race horse, gazelle, greyhound, hare, doe, squirrel, camel bird, chickaree^, chipmunk, hackee [U.S.], ostrich, scorcher [Slang]. Mercury, Ariel^, Camilla^, Harlequin. [Measurement of velocity] log, log line; speedometer, odometer, tachometer, strobe, radar speed detector, radar trap, air speed gauge, wind sock, wind speed meter; pedometer. V. move quickly, trip, fisk^; speed, hie, hasten, post, spank, scuttle; scud, scuddle^; scour, scour the plain; scamper; run like mad, beat it; fly, race, run a race, cut away, shot, tear, whisk, zoom, swoosh, sweep, skim, brush; cut along, bowl along, barrel along, barrel; scorch, burn up the track; rush &c (be violent) 173; dash on, dash off, dash forward; bolt; trot, gallop, amble, troll, bound, flit, spring, dart, boom; march in quick time, march in double time; ride hard, get over the ground. hurry &c (hasten) 684; accelerate, put on; quicken; quicken one's pace, mend one's pace; clap spurs to one's horse; make haste, make rapid strides, make forced marches, make the best of one's way; put one's best leg foremost, stir one's stumps, wing one's way, set off at a score; carry sail, crowd sail; go off like a shot, go like a shot, go ahead, gain ground; outstrip the wind, fly on the wings of the wind. keep up with, keep pace with; outstrip &c 303; outmarch^. Adj. fast, speedy, swift, rapid, quick, fleet; aliped^; nimble, agile, expeditious; express; active &c 682; flying, galloping &c v.; light footed, nimble footed; winged, eagle winged, mercurial, electric, telegraphic; light-legged, light of heel; swift as an arrow &c n.; quick as lightning &c n., quick as a thought. Adv. swiftly &c adj.; with speed &c n.; apace; at a great rate, at full speed, at railway speed; full drive, full gallop; posthaste, in full sail, tantivy^; trippingly; instantaneously &c 113. under press of sail, under press of canvas, under press of sail and steam; velis et remis [Lat.], on eagle's wing, in double quick time; with rapid strides, with giant strides; a pas de geant [Fr.]; in seven league boots; whip and spur; ventre a terre [Fr.]; as fast as one's legs will carry one, as fast as one's heels will carry one; as fast as one can lay legs to the ground, at the top of one's speed; by leaps and bounds; with haste &c 684. Phr. vires acquirit eundo [Lat.]; I'll put a girdle about the earth in forty minutes [M.N.D.]; swifter than arrow from the Tartar's bow [M.N.D.]; go like a bat out of hell; tempus fugit [Lat.]. 275. Slowness -- N. slowness &c adj.; languor &c (inactivity) 683; drawl; creeping &c v., lentor^. retardation; slackening &c v.; delay &c (lateness) 133; claudication^. jog trot, dog trot; mincing steps; slow march, slow time. slow goer^, slow coach, slow back; lingerer, loiterer, sluggard, tortoise, snail; poke [U.S.]; dawdle &c (inactive) 683. V. move slowly &c adv.; creep, crawl, lag, slug, drawl, linger, loiter, saunter; plod, trudge, stump along, lumber; trail, drag; dawdle &c (be inactive) 683; grovel, worm one's way, steal along; job on, rub on, bundle on; toddle, waddle, wabble^, slug, traipse, slouch, shuffle, halt, hobble, limp, caludicate^, shamble; flag, falter, trotter, stagger; mince, step short; march in slow time, march in funeral procession; take one's time; hang fire &c (be late) 133. retard, relax; slacken, check, moderate, rein in, curb; reef; strike sail, shorten sail, take in sail; put on the drag, apply the brake; clip the wings; reduce the speed; slacken speed, slacken one's pace; lose ground. Adj. slow, slack; tardy; dilatory &c (inactive) 683; gentle, easy; leisurely; deliberate, gradual; insensible, imperceptible; glacial, languid, sluggish, slow paced, tardigrade^, snail-like; creeping &c v.; reptatorial^. Adv. slowly &c adj.; leisurely; piano, adagio; largo, larghetto; at half speed, under easy sail; at a foots pace, at a snail's pace, at a funeral pace; in slow time, with mincing steps, with clipped wings; haud passibus aequis [Lat.] [Vergil]. gradually &c adj.; gradatim [Lat.]; by degrees, by slow degrees, by inches, by little and little; step by step, one step at a time; inch by inch, bit by bit, little by little, seriatim; consecutively. Phr. dum Roma deliberat Saguntum perit [Lat.]; at a glacial pace. 3. MOTION CONJOINED WITH FORCE 276. Impulse -- N. impulse, impulsion, impetus; momentum; push, pulsion^, thrust, shove, jog, jolt, brunt, booming, boost [U.S.], throw; explosion &c (violence) 173; propulsion &c 284. percussion, concussion, collision, occursion^, clash, encounter, cannon, carambole^, appulse^, shock, crash, bump; impact; elan; charge &c (attack) 716; beating &c (punishment) 972. blow, dint, stroke, knock, tap, rap, slap, smack, pat, dab; fillip; slam, bang; hit, whack, thwack; cuff &c 972; squash, dowse, swap, whap^, punch, thump, pelt, kick, punce^, calcitration^; ruade^; arietation^; cut, thrust, lunge, yerk^; carom, carrom^, clip [Slang], jab, plug [Slang], sidewinder [U.S.], sidewipe^, sideswipe [U.S.]. hammer, sledge hammer, mall, maul, mallet, flail; ram, rammer^; battering ram, monkey, pile-driving engine, punch, bat; cant hook; cudgel &c (weapon) 727; ax &c (sharp) 253. [Science of mechanical forces] dynamics; seismometer, accelerometer, earthquake detector. V. give an impetus &c n.; impel, push; start, give a start to, set going; drive, urge, boom; thrust, prod, foin [Fr.]; cant; elbow, shoulder, jostle, justle^, hustle, hurtle, shove, jog, jolt, encounter; run against, bump against, butt against; knock one's head against, run one's head against; impinge; boost [U.S.]; bunt, carom, clip y; fan, fan out; jab, plug [Slang]. strike, knock, hit, tap, rap, slap, flap, dab, pat, thump, beat, blow, bang, slam, dash; punch, thwack, whack; hit hard, strike hard; swap, batter, dowse^, baste; pelt, patter, buffet, belabor; fetch one a blow; poke at, pink, lunge, yerk^; kick, calcitrate^; butt, strike at &c (attack) 716; whip &c (punish) 972. come into a collision, enter into collision; collide; sideswipe; foul; fall foul of, run foul of; telescope. throw &c (propel) 284. Adj. impelling &c v.; impulsive, impellent^; booming; dynamic, dynamical; impelled &c v.. Phr. a hit, a very palpable hit [Hamlet]. 277. Recoil -- N. recoil; reaction, retroaction; revulsion; bounce, rebound, ricochet; repercussion, recalcitration^; kick, contrecoup [Fr.]; springing back &c v.; elasticity &c 325; reflection, reflexion [Brit.], reflex, reflux; reverberation &c (resonance) 408; rebuff, repulse; return. ducks and drakes; boomerang; spring, reactionist^. elastic collision, coefficient of restitution. V. recoil, react; spring back, fly back, bounce back, bound back; rebound, reverberate, repercuss^, recalcitrate^; echo, ricochet. Adj. recoiling &c v.; refluent^, repercussive, recalcitrant, reactionary; retroactive. Adv. on the rebound, on the recoil &c n.. Phr. for every action there is a reaction, equal in force and opposite in direction [Newton]. 4. MOTION WITH REFERENCE TO DIRECTION 278. Direction -- N. direction, bearing, course, vector; set, drift, tenor; tendency &c 176; incidence; bending, trending &c v.; dip, tack, aim, collimation; steering steerage. point of the compass, cardinal points; North East, South, West; N by E, ENE, NE by N, NE, &c; rhumb^, azimuth, line of collimation. line, path, road, range, quarter, line of march; alignment, allignment^; air line, beeline; straight shoot. V. tend towards, bend towards, point towards; conduct to, go to; point to, point at; bend, trend, verge, incline, dip, determine. steer for, steer towards, make for, make towards; aim at, level at; take aim; keep a course, hold a course; be bound for; bend one's steps towards; direct one's course, steer one's course, bend one's course, shape one's course; align one's march, allign one's march^; to straight, go straight to the point; march on, march on a point. ascertain one's direction &c n.; s'orienter [Fr.], see which way the wind blows; box the compass; take the air line. Adj. directed &c v.. directed towards; pointing towards &c v.; bound for; aligned, with alligned with^; direct, straight; undeviating, unswerving; straightforward; North, Northern, Northerly, &c n.. Adv. towards; on the road, on the high road to; en avant; versus, to; hither, thither, whither; directly; straight as an arrow, forwards as an arrow; point blank; in a bee line to, in a direct line to, as the crow flies, in a straight line to, in a bee line for, in a direct line for, in a straight line for, in a bee line with, in a direct line with, in a straight line with; in a line with; full tilt at, as the crow flies. before the wind, near the wind, close to the wind, against the wind; windwards, in the wind's eye. through, via, by way of; in all directions, in all manner of ways; quaquaversum [Lat.], from the four winds. Phr. the shortest distance between two points is a straight line. 279. Deviation -- N. deviation; swerving &c v.; obliquation^, warp, refraction; flection^, flexion; sweep; deflection, deflexure^; declination. diversion, digression, depart from, aberration; divergence &c 291; zigzag; detour &c (circuit) 629; divagation. [Desultory motion] wandering &c v.; vagrancy, evagation^; bypaths and crooked ways; byroad. [Motion sideways, oblique motion] sidling &c v.; knight's move at chess. V. alter one's course, deviate, depart from, turn, trend; bend, curve &c 245; swerve, heel, bear off; gybe^, wear. intervert^; deflect; divert, divert from its course; put on a new scent, shift, shunt, draw aside, crook, warp. stray, straggle; sidle; diverge &c 291; tralineate^; digress, wander; wind, twist, meander; veer, tack; divagate; sidetrack; turn aside, turn a corner, turn away from; wheel, steer clear of; ramble, rove, drift; go astray, go adrift; yaw, dodge; step aside, ease off, make way for, shy. fly off at a tangent; glance off; wheel about, face about; turn to the right about, face to the right about; waddle &c (oscillate) 314; go out of one's way &c (perform a circuit) 629; lose one's way. Adj. deviating &c v.; aberrant, errant; excursive, discursive; devious, desultory, loose; rambling; stray, erratic, vagrant, undirected, circuitous, indirect, zigzag; crab-like. Adv. astray from, round about, wide of the mark; to the right about; all manner of ways; circuitously &c 629. obliquely, sideling, like the move of the knight on a chessboard. 280. [Going before.] Precession -- N. precession, leading, heading; precedence &c 62; priority &c 116; the lead, le pas; van &c (front) 234; precursor &c 64. V. go before, go ahead, go in the van, go in advance; precede, forerun; usher in, introduce, herald, head, take the lead; lead the way, lead the dance; get the start, have the start; steal a march; get before, get ahead, get in front of; outstrip &c 303; take precedence &c (first in order) 62. Adj. leading, precedent &c v.. Adv. in advance, before, ahead, in the van, in the lead; foremost, headmost^; in front; at the head, out in front; way out in front, far ahead. Phr. seniores priores [Lat.], ahead of his time. 281. [Going after.] Sequence -- N. sequence; coming after &c (order) 63; (time) 117; following pursuit &c 622. follower, attendant, satellite, shadow, dangler, train. V. follow; pursue &c 622; go after, fly after. attend, beset, dance attendance on, dog; tread in the steps of, tread close upon; be in the wake of, be in the trail of, be in the rear of, go in the wake of, go in the trail of, go in the rear of, follow in the wake of, follow in the trail of, follow in the rear of; follow as a shadow, hang on the skirts of; tread on the heels of, follow on the heels of; camp on the trail. Adj. subsequent, next, succeeding; following &c v.. Adv. behind; in the rear &c 235, in the train of, in the wake of; after &c (order) 63, (time) 117. 282. [Motion forward; progressive motion.] Progression -- N. progress, progression, progressiveness; advancing &c v.; advance, advancement; ongoing; flood, tide, headway; march &c 266; rise; improvement &c 658. V. advance; proceed, progress; get on, get along, get over the ground; gain ground; forge ahead; jog on, rub on, wag on; go with the stream; keep one's course, hold on one's course; go on, move on, come one, get on, pass on, push on, press on, go forward, move forward, come forward, get forward, pass forward, push forward, press forward, go forwards, move forwards, come forwards, get forwards, pass forwards, push forwards, press forwards, go ahead, move ahead, come ahead, get ahead, pass ahead, push ahead, press ahead; make one's way, work one's way, carve one's way, push one's way, force one's way, edge one's way, elbow one's way; make progress, make head, make way, make headway, make advances, make strides, make rapid strides &c (velocity) 274; go ahead, shoot ahead; distance; make up leeway. Adj. advancing &c v.; progressive, profluent^; advanced. Adv. forward, onward; forth, on, ahead, under way, en route for, on one's way, on the way, on the road, on the high road, on the road to; in progress; in mid progress; in transitu &c 270 [Lat.]. Phr. vestigia nulla retrorsum [Lat.]; westward the course of empire takes its way [Berkeley]. 283. [Motion backwards.] Regression -- N. regress, regression; retrocession^, retrogression, retrograduation^, retroaction; reculade^; retreat, withdrawal, retirement, remigration^; recession &c (motion from) 287; recess; crab-like motion. refluence^, reflux; backwater, regurgitation, ebb, return; resilience reflection, reflexion [Brit.] (recoil) 277; flip-flop, volte-face [Fr.]. counter motion, retrograde motion, backward movement, motion in reverse, counter movement, counter march; veering, tergiversation, recidivation^, backsliding, fall; deterioration &c 659; recidivism, recidivity^. reversal, relapse, turning point &c (reversion) 145. V. recede, regrade, return, revert, retreat, retire; retrograde, retrocede; back out; back down; balk; crawfish [U.S.], crawl [Slang]; withdraw; rebound &c 277; go back, come back, turn back, hark back, draw back, fall back, get back, put back, run back; lose ground; fall astern, drop astern; backwater, put about; backtrack, take the back track; veer round; double, wheel, countermarch; ebb, regurgitate; jib, shrink, shy. turn tail, turn round, turn upon one's heel, turn one's back upon; retrace one's steps, dance the back step; sound a retreat, beat a retreat; go home. Adj. receding &c v.; retrograde, retrogressive; regressive, refluent^, reflex, recidivous, resilient; crab-like; balky; reactionary &c 277. Adv. back, backwards; reflexively, to the right about; a reculons [Fr.], a rebours [Fr.]. Phr. revenons a nos moutons [Fr.], as you were. 284. [Motion given to an object situated in front.] Propulsion -- N. propulsion, projection; propelment^; vis a tergo [Lat.], force from behind; push, shove &c (impulse) 276; ejaculate; ejection &c 297; throw, fling, toss, shot, discharge, shy; launch, release. [Science of propulsion] projectiles, ballistics, archery. [devices to give propulsion] propeller, screw, twin screws, turbine, jet engine. [objects propelled] missile, projectile, ball, discus, quoit, brickbat, shot; [weapons which propel] arrow, gun, ballista &c (arms) 727 [Obs.]. [preparation for propulsion] countdown, windup. shooter; shot; archer, toxophilite^; bowman, rifleman, marksman; good shot, crack shot; sharpshooter &c (combatant) 726. V. propel, project, throw, fling, cast, pitch, chuck, toss, jerk, heave, shy, hurl; flirt, fillip. dart, lance, tilt; ejaculate, jaculate^; fulminate, bolt, drive, sling, pitchfork. send; send off, let off, fire off; discharge, shoot; launch, release, send forth, let fly; put in orbit, send into orbit, launch into orbit dash. put in motion, set in motion; set agoing^, start; give a start, give an impulse to; impel &c 276; trundle &c (set in rotation) 312; expel &c 297. carry one off one's legs; put to flight. Adj. propelled &c v.; propelling &c v.; propulsive, projectile. 285. [Motion given to an object situated behind.] Traction -- N. traction; drawing &c v.; draught, pull, haul; rake; a long pull a strong pull and a pull all together; towage^, haulage. V. draw, pull, haul, lug, rake, drag, tug, tow, trail, train; take in tow. wrench, jerk, twitch, touse^; yank [U.S.]. Adj. drawing &c v.; tractile^, tractive. 286. [Motion towards.] Approach -- N. approach, approximation, appropinquation^; access; appulse^; afflux^, affluxion^; advent &c (approach of time) 121; pursuit &c 622. V. approach, approximate, appropinquate^; near; get near, go near, draw near; come to close quarters, come near; move towards, set in towards; drift; make up to; gain upon; pursue &c 622; tread on the heels of; bear up; make the land; hug the shore, hug the land. Adj. approaching &c v.; approximative^; affluent; impending, imminent &c (destined) 152. Adv. on the road. Int. come hither!, approach!, here!, come!, come near!, forward!, 287. [Motion from.] Recession -- N. recession, retirement, withdrawal; retreat; retrocession &c 283 [Obs.]; departure, &c 293; recoil &c 277; flight &c (avoidance) 623. V. recede, go, move back, move from, retire; withdraw, shrink, back off; come away, move away, back away, go away, get away, drift away; depart &c 293; retreat &c 283; move off, stand off, sheer off; fall back, stand aside; run away &c (avoid) 623. remove, shunt, distance. Adj. receding &c v.. Phr. distance oneself from a person. 288. [Motion towards, actively; force causing to draw closer.] Attraction -- N. attraction, attractiveness; attractivity^; drawing to, pulling towards, adduction^. electrical attraction, electricity, static electricity, static, static cling; magnetism, magnetic attraction; gravity, attraction of gravitation. [objects which attract by physical force] lodestone, loadstone, lodestar, loadstar^; magnet, permanent magnet, siderite, magnetite; electromagnet; magnetic coil, voice coil; magnetic dipole; motor coil, rotor, stator. electrical charge; positive charge, negative charge. magnetic pole; north pole, south pole; magnetic monopole. V. attract, draw; draw towards, pull towards, drag towards; adduce. Adj. attracting &c v.; attrahent^, attractive, adducent^, adductive^. centrifugal. Phr. ubi mel ibi apes [Lat.] [Plautus]. 289. [Motion from, actively; force driving apart.] Repulsion -- N. repulsion; driving from &c v.; repulse, abduction. magnetic repulsion, magnetic levitation; antigravity. V. repel, push from, drive apart, drive from &c 276; chase, dispel; retrude^; abduce^, abduct; send away; repulse. keep at arm's length, turn one's back upon, give the cold shoulder; send off, send away with a flea in one's ear. Adj. repelling &c v.; repellent, repulsive; abducent^, abductive^. centripetal Phr. like charges repel; opposite charges attract; like poles repel, opposite poles attract. 290. [Motion nearer to.] Convergence -- N. convergence, confluence, concourse, conflux^, congress, concurrence, concentration; convergency; appulse^, meeting; corradiation^. assemblage &c 72; resort &c (focus) 74; asymptote. V. converge, concur, come together, unite, meet, fall in with; close with, close in upon; center round, center in; enter in; pour in. gather together, unite, concentrate, bring into a focus. Adj. converging &c v.; convergent, confluent, concurrent; centripetal; asymptotical, asymptotic; confluxible^. 291. [Motion further off.] Divergence -- N. divergence, divergency^; divarication, ramification, forking; radiation; separation &c (disjunction) 44; dispersion &c 73; deviation &c 279; aberration. V. diverge, divaricate, radiate; ramify; branch off, glance off, file off; fly off, fly off at a tangent; spread, scatter, disperse &c 73; deviate &c 279; part &c (separate) 44. Adj. diverging &c v.; divergent, radiant, centrifugal; aberrant. 292. [Terminal motion at.] Arrival -- N. arrival, advent; landing; debarkation, disembarkation; reception, welcome, vin d'honneur [Fr.]. home, goal, goalpost; landing place, landing stage; bunder^; resting place; destination, harbor, haven, port, airport, spaceport; terminus, halting place, halting ground, landing strip, runway, terminal; journey's end; anchorage &c (refuge) 666. return, remigration^; meeting; rencounter^, encounter. completion &c 729. recursion [Comp.]. V. arrive; get to, come to; come; reach, attain; come up with, come up to; overtake, make, fetch; complete &c 729; join, rejoin. light, alight, dismount; land, go ashore; debark, disembark; put in, put into; visit, cast anchor, pitch one's tent; sit down &c (be located) 184; get to one's journey's end; make the land; be in at the death; come back, get back, come home, get home; return; come in &c (ingress) 294; make one's appearance &c (appear) 446; drop in; detrain, deplane; outspan; de-orbit. come to hand; come at, come across; hit; come upon, light upon, pop upon, bounce upon, plump upon, burst upon, pitch upon; meet; encounter, rencounter^; come in contact. Adj. arriving &c v.; homeward bound. Adv. here, hither. Int. welcome!, hail!, all Hail!, good-day, good morrow!, Phr. any port in a storm. 293. [Initial motion from.] Departure -- N. departure, decession^, decampment; embarkation; outset, start; removal; exit &c (egress) 295; exodus, hejira, flight. leave taking, valediction, adieu, farewell, goodbye, auf wiedersehen [G.], sayonara, dosvidanya [Rus.], ciao, aloha, hasta la vista [Sp.]; stirrup cup; valedictorian. starting point, starting post; point of departure, point of embarkation, place of departure, place of embarkation; port of embarkation; airport, take-off point, taxiing runway, runway, launching pad, spaceport. V. depart; go away; take one's departure, set out; set off, march off, put off, start off, be off, move off, get off, whip off, pack off, go off, take oneself off; start, issue, march out, debouch; go forth, sally forth; sally, set forward; be gone; hail from. leave a place, quit, vacate, evacuate, abandon; go off the stage, make one's exit; retire, withdraw, remove; vamoose [Slang], vamose [U.S.]; go one's way, go along, go from home; take flight, take wing; spring, fly, flit, wing one's flight; fly away, whip away; embark; go on board, go aboard; set sail' put to sea, go to sea; sail, take ship; hoist blue Peter; get under way, weigh anchor; strike tents, decamp; walk one's chalks, cut one's stick; take leave; say good bye, bid goodbye &c n.; disappear &c 449; abscond &c (avoid) 623; entrain; inspan^. Adj. departing &c v.; valedictory; outward bound. Adv. whence, hence, thence; with a foot in the stirrup; on the wing, on the move. Int. begone!, &c (ejection) 297; farewell!, adieu!, goodbye!, good day!, au revoir! [Fr.], fare you well!, God bless you!, God speed!, all aboard!, auf wiedersehen! [G.], au plaisir de vous revoir! [Fr.], bon voyage!, gluckliche Reise! [G.], vive valeque! [Fr.], 294. [Motion into.] Ingress -- N. ingress; entrance, entry; introgression; influx, intrusion, inroad, incursion, invasion, irruption; ingression; penetration, interpenetration; illapse^, import, infiltration; immigration; admission &c (reception) 296; insinuation &c (interjacence) 228 [Obs.]; insertion &c 300. inlet; way in; mouth, door, &c (opening) 260; barway^; path &c (way) 627; conduit &c 350; immigrant. V. have the entree; enter; go into, go in, come into, come in, pour into, pour in, flow into, flow in, creep into, creep in, slip into, slip in, pop into, pop in, break into, break in, burst into, burst in; set foot on; ingress; burst in upon, break in upon; invade, intrude; insinuate itself; interpenetrate, penetrate; infiltrate; find one's way into, wriggle into, worm oneself into. give entrance to &c (receive) 296; insert &c 300. Adj. incoming. 295. [Motion out of.] Egress -- N. egress, exit, issue; emersion, emergence; outbreak, outburst; eruption, proruption^; emanation; egression; evacuation; exudation, transudation; extravasation [Med.], perspiration, sweating, leakage, percolation, distillation, oozing; gush &c (water in motion) 348; outpour, outpouring; effluence, effusion; effluxion^, drain; dribbling &c v.; defluxion^; drainage; outcome, output; discharge &c (excretion) 299. export, expatriation; emigration, remigration^; debouch, debouche; emunctory^; exodus &c (departure) 293; emigrant. outlet, vent, spout, tap, sluice, floodgate; pore; vomitory, outgate^, sally port; way out; mouth, door &c (opening) 260; path &c (way) 627; conduit &c 350; airpipe &c 351 [Obs.]. V. emerge, emanate, issue; egress; go out of, come out of, move out of, pass out of, pour out of, flow out of; pass out of, evacuate. exude, transude; leak, run through, out through; percolate, transcolate^; egurgitate^; strain, distill; perspire, sweat, drain, ooze; filter, filtrate; dribble, gush, spout, flow out; well, well out; pour, trickle, &c (water in motion) 348; effuse, extravasate [Med.], disembogue^, discharge itself, debouch; come forth, break forth; burst out, burst through; find vent; escape &c 671. Adj. effused &c v.; outgoing. 296. [Motion into, actively.] Reception -- N. reception; admission, admittance, entree, importation; introduction, intromission; immission^, ingestion, imbibation^, introception^, absorption, ingurgitation^, inhalation; suction, sucking; eating, drinking &c (food) 298; insertion &c 300; interjection &c 228; introit. V. give entrance to, give admittance to, give the entree; introduce, intromit; usher, admit, receive, import, bring in, open the door to, throw in, ingest, absorb, imbibe, inhale, breathe in; let in, take in, suck in, draw in; readmit, resorb, reabsorb; snuff up, swallow, ingurgitate^; engulf, engorge; gulp; eat, drink &c (food) 298. Adj. admitting &c v., admitted &c v.; admissable; absorbent. 297. [Motion out of, actively] Ejection -- N. ejection, emission, effusion, rejection, expulsion, exportation, eviction, extrusion, trajection^; discharge. emesis, vomiting, vomition^. egestion^, evacuation; ructation^, eructation; bloodletting, venesection [Med.], phlebotomy, paracentesis^; expuition, exspuition; tapping, drainage; clearance, clearage^. deportation; banishment &c (punishment ) 972; rouge's march; relegation, extradition; dislodgment. bouncer [U.S.], chucker-out [Slang]. [material vomited] vomit, vomitus [Med.], puke, barf [Coll.]. V. give exit, give vent to; let out, give out, pour out, squeeze out, send out; dispatch, despatch; exhale, excern^, excrete; embogue^; secrete, secern^; extravasate [Med.], shed, void, evacuation; emit; open the sluices, open the floodgates; turn on the tap; extrude, detrude^; effuse, spend, expend; pour forth; squirt, spirt^, spurt, spill, slop; perspire &c (exude) 295; breathe, blow &c (wind) 349. tap, draw off; bale out, lade out; let blood, broach. eject, reject; expel, discard; cut, send to coventry, boycott; chasser [Fr.]; banish &c (punish) 972; bounce [U.S.]; fire [Slang], fire out [Slang]; throw &c 284, throw out, throw up, throw off, throw away, throw aside; push &c 276; throw out, throw off, throw away, throw aside; shovel out, shovel away, sweep out, sweep away; brush off, brush away, whisk off, whisk away, turn off, turn away, send off, send away; discharge; send adrift, turn adrift, cast adrift; turn out, bundle out; throw overboard; give the sack to; send packing, send about one's business, send to the right about; strike off the roll &c (abrogate) 756; turn out neck and heels, turn out head and shoulders, turn out neck and crop; pack off; send away with a flea in the ear; send to Jericho; bow out, show the door to, turn out of doors, turn out of house and home; evict, oust; unhouse, unkennel; dislodge; unpeople^, dispeople^; depopulate; relegate, deport. empty; drain to the dregs; sweep off; clear off, clear out, clear away; suck, draw off; clean out, make a clean sweep of, clear decks, purge. embowel^, disbowel^, disembowel; eviscerate, gut; unearth, root out, root up; averuncate^; weed out, get out; eliminate, get rid of, do away with, shake off; exenterate^. vomit, throw up, regurgitate, spew, puke, keck^, retch, heave, upchuck, chuck up, barf; belch out; cast up, bring up, be sick, get sick, worship the porcelain god. disgorge; expectorate, clear the throat, hawk, spit, sputter, splutter, slobber, drivel, slaver, slabber^; eructate; drool. unpack, unlade, unload, unship, offload; break bulk; dump. be let out. spew forth, erupt, ooze &c (emerge) 295. Adj. emitting, emitted, &c v.. Int. begone!, get you gone!, get away, go away, get along, go along, get along with you, go along with you!, go your way!, away with!, off with you!, get the hell out of here! [Vulg.], go about your business!, be off!, avaunt!^, aroynt!^, allez-vous-en! [Fr.], jao!^, va-t'en! [Fr.], 298. [Eating.] Food -- N. eating &c v.; deglutition, gulp, epulation^, mastication, manducation^, rumination; gluttony &c 957. [eating specific foods] hippophagy^, ichthyophagy^. [Eating anatomy:] (appetite) &c 865; mouth, jaws, mandible, mazard^, gob [Slang], chops. drinking &c v.; potation, draught, libation; carousal &c (amusement) 840; drunkenness &c 959. food, pabulum; aliment, nourishment, nutriment; sustenance, sustentation, sustention; nurture, subsistence, provender, corn, feed, fodder, provision, ration, keep, commons, board; commissariat &c (provision) 637; prey, forage, pasture, pasturage; fare, cheer; diet, dietary; regimen; belly timber, staff of life; bread, bread and cheese. comestibles, eatables, victuals, edibles, ingesta; grub, grubstake, prog^, meat; bread, bread stuffs; cerealia^; cereals; viands, cates^, delicacy, dainty, creature comforts, contents of the larder, fleshpots; festal board; ambrosia; good cheer, good living. beef, bisquit^, bun; cornstarch [U.S.]; cookie, cooky [U.S.]; cracker, doughnut; fatling^; hardtack, hoecake [U.S.], hominy [U.S.]; mutton, pilot bread; pork; roti^, rusk, ship biscuit; veal; joint, piece de resistance [Fr.], roast and boiled; remove, entremet^, releve [Fr.], hash, rechauffe [Fr.], stew, ragout, fricassee, mince; pottage, potage^, broth, soup, consomme, puree, spoonmeat^; pie, pasty, volauvent^; pudding, omelet; pastry; sweets &c 296; kickshaws^; condiment &c 393. appetizer, hors d'oeuvre [Fr.]. main course, entree. alligator pear, apple &c, apple slump; artichoke; ashcake^, griddlecake, pancake, flapjack; atole^, avocado, banana, beche de mer [Fr.], barbecue, beefsteak; beet root; blackberry, blancmange, bloater, bouilli^, bouillon, breadfruit, chop suey [U.S.]; chowder, chupatty^, clam, compote, damper, fish, frumenty^, grapes, hasty pudding, ice cream, lettuce, mango, mangosteen, mince pie, oatmeal, oyster, pineapple, porridge, porterhouse steak, salmis^, sauerkraut, sea slug, sturgeon ("Albany beef"), succotash [U.S.], supawn [U.S.], trepang^, vanilla, waffle, walnut. table, cuisine, bill of fare, menu, table d'hote [Fr.], ordinary, entree. meal, repast, feed, spread; mess; dish, plate, course; regale; regalement^, refreshment, entertainment; refection, collation, picnic, feast, banquet, junket; breakfast; lunch, luncheon; dejeuner [Fr.], bever^, tiffin^, dinner, supper, snack, junk food, fast food, whet, bait, dessert; potluck, table d'hote [Fr.], dejeuner a la fourchette [Fr.]; hearty meal, square meal, substantial meal, full meal; blowout [Slang]; light refreshment; bara^, chotahazri^; bara khana^. mouthful, bolus, gobbet^, morsel, sop, sippet^. drink, beverage, liquor, broth, soup; potion, dram, draught, drench, swill [Slang]; nip, sip, sup, gulp. wine, spirits, liqueur, beer, ale, malt liquor, Sir John Barleycorn, stingo^, heavy wet; grog, toddy, flip, purl, punch, negus^, cup, bishop, wassail; gin &c (intoxicating liquor) 959; coffee, chocolate, cocoa, tea, the cup that cheers but not inebriates; bock beer, lager beer, Pilsener beer, schenck beer^; Brazil tea, cider, claret, ice water, mate, mint julep [U.S.]; near beer, 3.2 beer, non- alcoholic beverage. eating house &c 189. [person who eats] diner; hippophage; glutton &c 957. V. eat, feed, fare, devour, swallow, take; gulp, bolt, snap; fall to; despatch, dispatch; discuss; take down, get down, gulp down; lay in, tuck in [Slang]; lick, pick, peck; gormandize &c 957; bite, champ, munch, cranch^, craunch^, crunch, chew, masticate, nibble, gnaw, mumble. live on; feed upon, batten upon, fatten upon, feast upon; browse, graze, crop, regale; carouse &c (make merry) 840; eat heartily, do justice to, play a good knife and fork, banquet. break bread, break one's fast; breakfast, lunch, dine, take tea, sup. drink in, drink up, drink one's fill; quaff, sip, sup; suck, suck up; lap; swig; swill [Slang], chugalug [Slang], tipple &c (be drunken) 959; empty one's glass, drain the cup; toss off, toss one's glass; wash down, crack a bottle, wet one's whistle. purvey &c 637. Adj. eatable, edible, esculent^, comestible, alimentary; cereal, cibarious^; dietetic; culinary; nutritive, nutritious; gastric; succulent; potable, potulent^; bibulous. omnivorous, carnivorous, herbivorous, granivorous, graminivorous, phytivorous; ichthyivorous; omophagic, omophagous; pantophagous, phytophagous, xylophagous. Phr. across the walnuts and the wine [Tennyson]; blessed hour of our dinners! [O. Meredith]; now good digestion wait on appetite, and health on both! [Macbeth]; who can cloy the hungry edge of appetite? [Richard II], 299. Excretion -- N. excretion, discharge, emanation; exhalation, exudation, extrusion, secretion, effusion, extravasation [Med.], ecchymosis [Med.]; evacuation, dejection, faeces, excrement, shit, stools, crap [Vulg.]; bloody flux; cacation^; coeliac-flux, coeliac- passion; dysentery; perspiration, sweat; subation^, exudation; diaphoresis; sewage; eccrinology [Med.]. saliva, spittle, rheum; ptyalism^, salivation, catarrh; diarrhoea; ejecta, egesta [Biol.], sputa; excreta; lava; exuviae &c (uncleanness) 653 [Lat.]. hemorrhage, bleeding; outpouring &c (egress) 295. V. excrete &c (eject) 297; emanate &c (come out) 295. 300. [Forcible ingress.] Insertion -- N. insertion, implantation, introduction; insinuation &c (intervention) 228; planting, &c v.; injection, inoculation, importation, infusion; forcible ingress &c 294; immersion; submersion, submergence, dip, plunge; bath &c (water) 337; interment &c 363. clyster [Med.], enema, glyster^, lavage, lavement^. V. insert; introduce, intromit; put into, run into; import; inject; interject &c 298; infuse, instill, inoculate, impregnate, imbue, imbrue. graft, ingraft^, bud, plant, implant; dovetail. obtrude; thrust in, stick in, ram in, stuff in, tuck in, press, in, drive in, pop in, whip in, drop in, put in; impact; empierce^ &c (make a hole) 260 [Obs.]. imbed; immerse, immerge, merge; bathe, soak &c (water) 337; dip, plunge &c 310. bury &c (inter) 363. insert itself, lodge itself &c; plunge in medias res. Adj. inserted &c v.. 301. [Forcible egress.] Extraction -- N. extraction; extracting &c v.; removal, elimination, extrication, eradication, evolution. evulsion^, avulsion^; wrench; expression, squeezing; extirpation, extermination; ejection &c 297; export &c (egress) 295. extractor, corkscrew, forceps, pliers. V. extract, draw; take out, draw out, pull out, tear out, pluck out, pick out, get out; wring from, wrench; extort; root up, weed up, grub up, rake up, root out, weed out, grub out, rake out; eradicate; pull up by the roots, pluck up by the roots; averruncate^; unroot^; uproot, pull up, extirpate, dredge. remove; educe, elicit; evolve, extricate; eliminate &c (eject) 297; eviscerate &c 297. express, squeeze out, press out. Adj. extracted &c v.. 302. [Motion through.] Passage -- N. passage, transmission; permeation; penetration, interpenetration; transudation, infiltration; endosmose exosmose^; endosmosis [Chem]; intercurrence^; ingress &c 294; egress &c 295; path &c 627; conduit &c 350; opening &c 260; journey &c 266; voyage &c 267. V. pass, pass through; perforate &c (hole) 260; penetrate, permeate, thread, thrid^, enfilade; go through, go across; go over, pass over; cut across; ford, cross; pass and repass, work; make one's way, thread one's way, worm one's way, force one's way; make a passage form a passage; cut one's way through; find its way, find its vent; transmit, make way, clear the course; traverse, go over the ground. Adj. passing &c v.; intercurrent^; endosmosmic^, endosmotic [Chem]. Adv. en passant &c (transit) 270 [Fr.]. 303. [Motion beyond] Transcursion -- N. transcursion^, transiliency^, transgression; trespass; encroachment, infringement; extravagation^, transcendence; redundancy &c 641. V. transgress, surpass, pass; go beyond, go by; show in front, come to the front; shoot ahead of; steal a march upon, steal a gain upon. overstep, overpass, overreach, overgo^, override, overleap, overjump^, overskip^, overlap, overshoot the mark; outstrip, outleap, outjump, outgo, outstep^, outrun, outride, outrival, outdo; beat, beat hollow; distance; leave in the lurch, leave in the rear; throw into the shade; exceed, transcend, surmount; soar &c (rise) 305. encroach, trespass, infringe, trench upon, entrench on, intrench on^; strain; stretch a point, strain a point; cross the Rubicon. Adj. surpassing &c v.. Adv. beyond the mark, ahead. 304. [motion short of] Shortcoming -- N. shortcoming, failure; falling short &c v.; default, defalcation; leeway; labor in vain, no go. incompleteness &c 53; imperfection &c 651; insufficiency &c 640; noncompletion &c 730; failure &c 732. V. 303, come short of, fall short of, stop short of, come short, fall short, stop short; not reach; want; keep within bounds, keep within the mark, keep within the compass. break down, stick in the mud, collapse, flat out [U.S.], come to nothing; fall through, fall to the ground; cave in, end in smoke, miss the mark, fail; lose ground; miss stays. Adj. unreached; deficient; short, short of; minus; out of depth; perfunctory &c (neglect) 460. Adv. within the mark, within the compass, within the bounds; behindhand; re infecta [Lat.]; to no purpose; for from it. Phr. the bubble burst. 305. [Motion upwards] Ascent -- N. ascent, ascension; rising &c 309; acclivity, hill &c 217; flight of steps, flight of stairs; ladder rocket, lark; sky rocket, sky lark; Alpine Club. V. ascend, rise, mount, arise, uprise; go up, get up, work one's way up, start up; shoot up, go into orbit; float up; bubble up; aspire. climb, clamber, ramp, scramble, escalade^, surmount; shin, shinny, shinney; scale, scale the heights. [cause to go up] raise, elevate &c 307. go aloft, fly aloft; tower, soar, take off; spring up, pop up, jump up, catapult upwards, explode upwards; hover, spire, plane, swim, float, surge; leap &c 309. Adj. rising &c v.. scandent^, buoyant; supernatant, superfluitant^; excelsior. Adv. uphill. 306. [Motion downwards] Descent -- N. descent, descension^, declension, declination; fall; falling &c v.; slump; drop, plunge, plummet, cadence; subsidence, collapse, lapse; downfall, tumble, slip, tilt, trip, lurch; cropper, culbute^; titubation^, stumble; fate of Icarus. avalanche, debacle, landslip, landslide. declivity, dip, hill. [equipment for descending by rappeling] rappel. V. descend; go down, drop down, come down; fall, gravitate, drop, slip, slide, rappel, settle; plunge, plummet, crash; decline, set, sink, droop, come down a peg; slump. dismount, alight, light, get down; swoop; stoop &c 308; fall prostrate, precipitate oneself; let fall &c 308. tumble, trip, stumble, titubate^, lurch, pitch, swag, topple, topple over, tumble over, topple down, tumble down; tilt, sprawl, plump down, come down a cropper. Adj. descending &c v.; descendent; decurrent^, decursive^; labent^, deciduous; nodding to its fall. Adv. downhill, downwards. Phr. the bottom fell out. 307. Elevation -- N. elevation; raising &c v.; erection, lift; sublevation^, upheaval; sublimation, exaltation; prominence &c (convexity) 250. lever &c 633; crane, derrick, windlass, capstan, winch; dredge, dredger, dredging machine. dumbwaiter, elevator, escalator, lift. V. heighten, elevate, raise, lift, erect; set up, stick up, perch up, perk up, tilt up; rear, hoist, heave; uplift, upraise, uprear, upbear^, upcast^, uphoist^, upheave; buoy, weigh mount, give a lift; exalt; sublimate; place on a pedestal, set on a pedestal. escalate &c (increase) 35 102 194. take up, drag up, fish up; dredge. stand up, rise up, get up, jump up; spring to one's feet; hold oneself, hold one's head up; drawn oneself up to his full height. Adj. elevated &c v.; stilted, attollent^, rampant. Adv. on stilts, on the shoulders of, on one's legs, on one's hind legs. 308. Depression -- N. lowering &c v.; depression; dip &c (concavity) 252; abasement; detrusion^; reduction. overthrow, overset^, overturn; upset; prostration, subversion, precipitation. bow; courtesy, curtsy; genuflexion^, genuflection, kowtow, obeisance, salaam. V. depress, lower, let down, take down, let down a peg, take down a peg; cast; let drop, let fall; sink, debase, bring low, abase, reduce, detrude^, pitch, precipitate. overthrow, overturn, overset^; upset, subvert, prostate, level, fell; cast down, take down, throw down, fling down, dash down, pull down, cut down, knock down, hew down; raze, raze to the ground, rase to the ground^; trample in the dust, pull about one's ears. sit, sit down; couch, squat, crouch, stoop, bend, bow; courtesy, curtsy; bob, duck, dip, kneel; bend the knee, bow the knee, bend the head, bow the head; cower; recline &c (be horizontal) 213. Adj. depressed &c v.; at a low ebb; prostrate &c (horizontal) 213; detrusive^. Phr. facinus quos inquinat aequat [Lat.] [Lucan]. 309. Leap -- N. leap, jump, hop, spring, bound, vault, saltation^. ance, caper; curvet, caracole; gambade^, gambado^; capriole, demivolt^; buck, buck jump; hop skip and jump; falcade^. kangaroo, jerboa; chamois, goat, frog, grasshopper, flea; buckjumper^; wallaby. V. leap; jump up, jump over the moon; hop, spring, bound, vault, ramp, cut capers, trip, skip, dance, caper; buck, buck jump; curvet, caracole; foot it, bob, bounce, flounce, start; frisk &c (amusement) 840; jump about &c (agitation) 315; trip it on the light fantastic toe, trip the light fantastic, dance oneself off one's legs, dance off one's shoes. Adj. leaping &c v.; saltatory^, frisky. Adv. on the light fantastic toe. Phr. di salto in salto [It]. 310. Plunge -- N. plunge, dip, dive, header; ducking &c v.; diver. V. plunge, dip, souse, duck; dive, plump; take a plunge, take a header; make a plunge; bathe &c (water) 337. submerge, submerse; immerse; douse, sink, engulf, send to the bottom. get out of one's depth; go to the bottom, go down like a stone, drop like a lead balloon; founder, welter, wallow. 311. [Curvilinear motion.] Circuition -- N. circuition^, circulation; turn, curvet; excursion, circumvention, circumnavigation, circumambulation; northwest passage; circuit &c 629. turning &c v.; wrench; evolution; coil, corkscrew. V. turn, bend, wheel; go about, put about; heel; go round to the right about, turn round to the right about; turn on one's heel; make a circle, make a complete circle, describe a circle, describe a complete circle; go through 180 degrees, go through 360 degrees, pass through 180 degrees, pass through 360 degrees. circumnavigate, circumambulate, circumvent; put a girdle round about the earth [M.N.D.]; go the round, make the round of. wind, circulate, meander; whisk, twirl; twist &c (convolution) 248; make a detour &c (circuit) 629. Adj. turning &c v.; circuitous; circumforaneous^, circumfluent^. Adv. round about. 312. [Motion in a continued circle.] Rotation -- N. rotation, revolution, spinning, gyration, turning about an axis, turning aound an axis, circulation, roll; circumrotation^, circumvolution, circumgyration^; volutation^, circination^, turbination^, pirouette, convolution. verticity^, whir, whirl, eddy, vortex, whirlpool, gurge^; countercurrent; Maelstrom, Charybdis; Ixion. [rotating air] cyclone; tornado, whirlwind; dust devil. [rotation of an automobile] spin-out. axis, axis of rotation, swivel, pivot, pivot point; axle, spindle, pin, hinge, pole, arbor, bobbin, mandrel; axle shaft; gymbal; hub, hub of rotation. [rotation and translation together] helix, helical motion. [measure of rotation] angular momentum, angular velocity; revolutions per minute, RPM. [result of rotation] centrifugal force; surge; vertigo, dizzy round; coriolus force. [things that go around] carousel, merry-go-round; Ferris wheel; top, dreidel^, teetotum; gyroscope; turntable, lazy suzan; screw, whirligig, rollingstone^, water wheel, windmill; wheel, pulley wheel, roulette wheel, potter's wheel, pinwheel, gear; roller; flywheel; jack; caster; centrifuge, ultracentrifuge, bench centrifuge, refrigerated centrifuge, gas centrifuge, microfuge; drill, augur, oil rig; wagon wheel, wheel, tire, tyre [Brit.]. [Science of rotary motion] trochilics^. [person who rotates] whirling dervish. V. rotate; roll along; revolve, spin; turn round; circumvolve^; circulate; gyre, gyrate, wheel, whirl, pirouette; twirl, trundle, troll, bowl. roll up, furl; wallow, welter; box the compass; spin like a top, spin like a teetotum^. [of an automobile] spin out. Adj. rotating &c v.; rotary, rotary; circumrotatory^, trochilic^, vertiginous, gyratory; vortical, vorticose^. Adv. head over heels, round and round, like a horse in a mill. 313. [Motion in the reverse circle.] Evolution -- N. evolution, unfolding, development; evolvement; unfoldment; eversion &c (inversion) 218. V. evolve; unfold, unroll, unwind, uncoil, untwist, unfurl, untwine, unravel; untangle, disentangle; develop. Adj. evolving &c v.; evolved &c v.. 314. [Reciprocating motion, motion to and fro.] Oscillation -- N. oscillation; vibration, libration; motion of a pendulum; nutation; undulation; pulsation; pulse. alternation; coming and going &c v.; ebb and flow, flux and reflux, ups and down. fluctuation; vacillation &c (irresolution) 605. wave, vibratiuncle^, swing, beat, shake, wag, seesaw, dance, lurch, dodge; logan^, loggan^, rocking-stone, vibroscope^. V. oscillate; vibrate, librate^; alternate, undulate, wave; rock, swing; pulsate, beat; wag, waggle; nod, bob, courtesy, curtsy; tick; play; wamble^, wabble^; dangle, swag. fluctuate, dance, curvet, reel, quake; quiver, quaver; shake, flicker; wriggle; roll, toss, pitch; flounder, stagger, totter; move up and down, bob up and down &c adv.; pass and repass, ebb and flow, come and go; vacillate &c 605; teeter [U.S.]. brandish, shake, flourish. Adj. oscillating &c v.; oscillatory, undulatory, pulsatory^, libratory, rectilinear; vibratory, vibratile^; pendulous. Adv. to and fro, up and down, backwards and forwards, hither and yon, seesaw, zigzag, wibble-wabble^, in and out, from side to side, like buckets in a well. 315. [Irregular motion] Agitation -- N. agitation, stir, tremor, shake, ripple, jog, jolt, jar, jerk, shock, succussion^, trepidation, quiver, quaver, dance; jactitation^, quassation^; shuffling &c v.; twitter, flicker, flutter. turbulence, perturbation; commotion, turmoil, disquiet; tumult, tumultuation^; hubbub, rout, bustle, fuss, racket, subsultus^, staggers, megrims, epilepsy, fits; carphology^, chorea, floccillation^, the jerks, St. Vitus's dance, tilmus^. spasm, throe, throb, palpitation, convulsion. disturbance, chaos &c (disorder) 59; restlessness &c (changeableness) 149. ferment, fermentation; ebullition, effervescence, hurly-burly, cahotage^; tempest, storm, ground swell, heavy sea, whirlpool, vortex &c 312; whirlwind &c (wind) 349. V. be agitated &c; shake; tremble, tremble like an aspen leaf; quiver, quaver, quake, shiver, twitter, twire^, writhe, toss, shuffle, tumble, stagger, bob, reel, sway, wag, waggle; wriggle, wriggle like an eel; dance, stumble, shamble, flounder, totter, flounce, flop, curvet, prance, cavort [U.S.]; squirm. throb, pulsate, beat, palpitate, go pitapat; flutter, flitter, flicker, bicker; bustle. ferment, effervesce, foam; boil, boil over; bubble up; simmer. toss about, jump about; jump like a parched pea; shake like an aspen leaf; shake to its center, shake to its foundations; be the sport of the winds and waves; reel to and fro like a drunken man; move from post to pillar and from pillar to post, drive from post to pillar and from pillar to post, keep between hawk and buzzard. agitate, shake, convulse, toss, tumble, bandy, wield, brandish, flap, flourish, whisk, jerk, hitch, jolt; jog, joggle, jostle, buffet, hustle, disturb, stir, shake up, churn, jounce, wallop, whip, vellicate^. Adj. shaking &c v.; agitated tremulous; desultory, subsultory^; saltatoric^; quasative^; shambling; giddy-paced, saltatory^, convulsive, unquiet, restless, all of a twitter. Adv. by fits and starts; subsultorily^ &c adj.^; per saltum [Lat.]; hop skip and jump; in convulsions, in fits. Phr. tempete dans un verre d'eau [Fr.]. CLASS III WORDS RELATING TO MATTER SECTION I. MATTER IN GENERAL 316. Materiality -- N. materiality, materialness; corporeity^, corporality^; substantiality, substantialness, flesh and blood, plenum; physical condition. matter, body, substance, brute matter, stuff, element, principle, parenchyma [Biol.], material, substratum, hyle^, corpus, pabulum; frame. object, article, thing, something; still life; stocks and stones; materials &c 635. [Science of matter] physics; somatology^, somatics; natural philosophy, experimental philosophy; physicism^; physical science, philosophie positive [Fr.], materialism; materialist; physicist; somatism^, somatist^. Adj. material, bodily; corporeal, corporal; physical; somatic, somatoscopic^; sensible, tangible, ponderable, palpable, substantial. objective, impersonal, nonsubjective^, neuter, unspiritual, materialistic. 317. Immateriality -- N. immateriality, immaterialness; incorporeity^, spirituality; inextension^; astral plane. personality; I, myself, me; ego, spirit &c (soul) 450; astral body; immaterialism^; spiritualism, spiritualist. V. disembody, spiritualize. Adj. immaterial, immateriate^; incorporeal, incorporal^; incorporate, unfleshly^; supersensible^; asomatous^, unextended^; unembodied^, disembodied; extramundane, unearthly; pneumatoscopic^; spiritual &c (psychical) 450 [Obs.]. personal, subjective, nonobjective. 318. World -- N. world, creation, nature, universe; earth, globe, wide world; cosmos; kosmos^; terraqueous globe^, sphere; macrocosm, megacosm^; music of the spheres. heavens, sky, welkin^, empyrean; starry cope, starry heaven, starry host; firmament; Midgard; supersensible regions^; varuna; vault of heaven, canopy of heaven; celestial spaces. heavenly bodies, stars, asteroids; nebulae; galaxy, milky way, galactic circle, via lactea [Lat.], ame no kawa [Jap.]. sun, orb of day, Apollo^, Phoebus; photosphere, chromosphere; solar system; planet, planetoid; comet; satellite, moon, orb of night, Diana, silver-footed queen; aerolite^, meteor; planetary ring; falling star, shooting star; meteorite, uranolite^. constellation, zodiac, signs of the zodiac, Charles's wain, Big Dipper, Little Dipper, Great Bear, Southern Cross, Orion's belt, Cassiopea's chair, Pleiades. colures^, equator, ecliptic, orbit. [Science of heavenly bodies] astronomy; uranography, uranology^; cosmology, cosmography^, cosmogony; eidouranion^, orrery; geodesy &c (measurement) 466; star gazing, star gazer^; astronomer; observatory; planetarium. Adj. cosmic, cosmical^; mundane, terrestrial, terrestrious^, terraqueous^, terrene, terreous^, telluric, earthly, geotic^, under the sun; sublunary^, subastral^. solar, heliacal^; lunar; celestial, heavenly, sphery^; starry, stellar; sidereal, sideral^; astral; nebular; uranic. Adv. in all creation, on the face of the globe, here below, under the sun. Phr. die Weltgeschichte ist das Weltergesicht [G.]; earth is but the frozen echo of the silent voice of God [Hageman]; green calm below, blue quietness above [Whittier]; hanging in a golden chain this pendant World [Paradise Lost]; nothing in nature is unbeautiful [Tennyson]; silently as a dream the fabric rose [Cowper]; some touch of nature's genial glow [Scott]; this majestical roof fretted with golden fire [Hamlet]; through knowledge we behold the World's creation [Spenser]. 319. Gravity -- N. gravity, gravitation; weight; heaviness &c adj.; specific gravity; pondorosity^, pressure, load; burden, burthen^; ballast, counterpoise; lump of, mass of, weight of. lead, millstone, mountain, Ossa on Pelion. weighing, ponderation^, trutination^; weights; avoirdupois weight, troy weight, apothecaries' weight; grain, scruple, drachma^, ounce, pound, lb, arroba^, load, stone, hundredweight, cwt, ton, long ton, metric ton, quintal, carat, pennyweight, tod^. [metric weights] gram, centigram, milligram, microgram, kilogram; nanogram, picogram, femtogram, attogram. [Weighing Instrument] balance, scale, scales, steelyard, beam, weighbridge^; spring balance, piezoelectric balance, analytical balance, two-pan balance, one-pan balance; postal scale, baby scale. [Science of gravity] statics. V. be heavy &c adj.; gravitate, weigh, press, cumber, load. [Measure the weight of] weigh, poise. Adj. weighty; weighing &c v.; heavy as lead; ponderous, ponderable; lumpish^, lumpy, cumbersome, burdensome; cumbrous, unwieldy, massive. incumbent, superincumbent^. 320. Levity -- N. levity; lightness &c adj.; imponderability, buoyancy, volatility. feather, dust, mote, down, thistle, down, flue, cobweb, gossamer, straw, cork, bubble, balloon; float, buoy; ether, air. leaven, ferment, barm^, yeast. lighter-than-air balloon, helium balloon, hydrogen balloon, hot air balloon. convection, thermal draft, thermal. V. be light &c adj.; float, rise, swim, be buoyed up. render light &c adj.; lighten, leaven. Adj. light, subtile, airy; imponderous^, imponderable; astatic^, weightless, ethereal, sublimated; gossamery; suberose^, suberous^; uncompressed, volatile; buoyant, floating &c v.; portable. light as a feather, light as a thistle, light as air; lighter than air; rise like a balloon, float like a balloon SECTION II. INORGANIC MATTER 1. SOLID MATTER 321. Density -- N. density, solidity; solidness &c adj.; impenetrability, impermeability; incompressibility; imporosity^; cohesion &c 46; constipation, consistence, spissitude^. specific gravity; hydrometer, areometer^. condensation; caseation^; solidation^, solidification; consolidation; concretion, coagulation; petrification &c (hardening) 323; crystallization, precipitation; deposit, precipitate; inspissation^; gelation, thickening &c v.. indivisibility, indiscerptibility^, insolubility, indissolvableness. solid body, mass, block, knot, lump; concretion, concrete, conglomerate; cake, clot, stone, curd, coagulum; bone, gristle, cartilage; casein, crassamentum^; legumin^. superdense matter, condensed states of matter; dwarf star, neutron star. V. be dense &c adj.; become solid, render solid &c adj.; solidify, solidate^; concrete, set, take a set, consolidate, congeal, coagulate; curd, curdle; lopper; fix, clot, cake, candy, precipitate, deposit, cohere, crystallize; petrify &c (harden) 323. condense, thicken, gel, inspissate^, incrassate^; compress, squeeze, ram down, constipate. Adj. dense, solid; solidified &c v.; caseous; pukka^; coherent, cohesive &c 46; compact, close, serried, thickset; substantial, massive, lumpish^; impenetrable, impermeable, nonporous, imporous^; incompressible; constipated; concrete &c (hard) 323; knotted, knotty; gnarled; crystalline, crystallizable; thick, grumous^, stuffy. undissolved, unmelted^, unliquefied^, unthawed^. indivisible, indiscerptible^, infrangible^, indissolvable^, indissoluble, insoluble, infusible. 322. Rarity -- N. rarity, tenuity; absence of solidity &c 321; subtility^; subtilty^, subtlety; sponginess, compressibility. rarefaction, expansion, dilatation, inflation, subtilization^. vaporization, evaporation, diffusion, gassification^. ether &c (gas) 334. V. rarefy, expand, dilate, subtilize^. Adj. rare, subtile, thin, fine, tenuous, compressible, flimsy, slight; light &c 320; cavernous, spongy &c (hollow) 252. rarefied &c v.; unsubstantial; uncompact^, incompressed^; rarefiable^. 323. Hardness -- N. hardness &c adj.; rigidity; renitence^, renitency; inflexibility, temper, callosity, durity^. induration, petrifaction; lapidification^, lapidescence^; vitrification, ossification; crystallization. stone, pebble, flint, marble, rock, fossil, crag, crystal, quartz, granite, adamant; bone, cartilage; hardware; heart of oak, block, board, deal board; iron, steel; cast iron, decarbonized iron, wrought iron; nail; brick, concrete; cement. V. render hard &c adj.; harden, stiffen, indurate, petrify, temper, ossify, vitrify; accrust^. Adj. hard, rigid, stubborn, stiff, firm; starch, starched; stark, unbending, unlimber, unyielding; inflexible, tense; indurate, indurated; gritty, proof. adamant, adamantine, adamantean^; concrete, stony, granitic, calculous, lithic^, vitreous; horny, corneous^; bony; osseous, ossific^; cartilaginous; hard as a rock &c n.; stiff as buckram, stiff as a poker; stiff as starch, stiff as as board. 324. Softness -- N. softness, pliableness &c adj.; flexibility; pliancy, pliability; sequacity^, malleability; ductility, tractility^; extendibility, extensibility; plasticity; inelasticity, flaccidity, laxity. penetrability. clay, wax, butter, dough, pudding; alumina, argil; cushion, pillow, feather bed, down, padding, wadding; foam. mollification; softening &c v.. V. render soft &c adj.; soften, mollify, mellow, relax, temper; mash, knead, squash. bend, yield, relent, relax, give. plasticize'. Adj. soft, tender, supple; pliant, pliable; flexible, flexile; lithe, lithesome; lissom, limber, plastic; ductile; tractile^, tractable; malleable, extensile, sequacious^, inelastic; aluminous^; remollient^. yielding &c v.; flabby, limp, flimsy. doughy, spongy, penetrable, foamy, cushiony^. flaccid, flocculent, downy; edematous, oedematous^, medullary [Anat.], argillaceous, mellow. soft as butter, soft as down, soft as silk; yielding as wax, tender as chicken. 325. Elasticity -- N. elasticity, springiness, spring, resilience, renitency, buoyancy. rubber, India rubber, Indian rubber, latex, caoutchouc, whalebone, gum elastic, baleen, natural rubber; neoprene, synthetic rubber, Buna- S, plastic. flexibility, Young's modulus. V. stretch, flex, extend, distend, be elastic &c adj.; bounce, spring back &c (recoil) 277. Adj. elastic, flexible, tensile, spring, resilient, renitent, buoyant; ductile, stretchable, extendable. Phr. the stress is proportional to the strain. 326. Inelasticity -- N. want of elasticity, absence of elasticity &c 325; inelasticity &c (softness) 324, Adj. unyielding, inelastic, inflexible &c (soft) 324; irresilient^. 327. Tenacity -- N. {ant. 328} tenacity, toughness, strength; (cohesion) 46; grip, grasp, stickiness, (cohesion) 46; sequacity^; stubbornness &c (obstinacy);; glue, cement, glutinousness^, sequaciousness^, viscidity, (semiliquidity) 352. leather; white leather, whitleather^; gristle, cartilage. unbreakability, tensile strength. V. be tenacious &c adj.; resist fracture. grip, grasp, stick (cohesion) 46. Adj. tenacious, tough, strong, resisting, sequacious^, stringy, gristly cartilaginous, leathery, coriaceous^, tough as whitleather^; stubborn &c (obstinate) 606. unbreakable, indivisible; atomic. 328. Brittleness -- N. {ant. 327} brittleness &c adj.; fragility, friability, frangibility, fissibility^; house of cards, house of glass. V. be brittle &c adj.; live in a glass house. break, crack, snap, split, shiver, splinter, crumble, break short, burst, fly, give way; fall to pieces; crumble to, crumble into dust. Adj. brittle, brash [U.S.], breakable, weak, frangible, fragile, frail, gimcrack^, shivery, fissile; splitting &c v.; lacerable^, splintery, crisp, crimp, short, brittle as glass. 329. [Structure.] Texture -- N. structure (form) 240, organization, anatomy, frame, mold, fabric, construction; framework, carcass, architecture; stratification, cleavage. substance, stuff, compages^, parenchyma [Biol.]; constitution, staple, organism. [Science of structures] organography^, osteology, myology, splanchnology^, neurology, angiography^, adeology^; angiography^, adenography^. texture, surface texture; intertexture^, contexture^; tissue, grain, web, surface; warp and woof, warp and weft; tooth, nap &c (roughness) 256; flatness (smoothness) 255; fineness of grain; coarseness of grain, dry goods. silk, satin; muslin, burlap. [Science of textures] histology. Adj. structural, organic; anatomic, anatomical. textural, textile; fine grained, coarse grained; fine, delicate, subtile, gossamery, filmy, silky, satiny; coarse; homespun. rough, gritty; smooth. smooth as silk, smooth as satin. 330. Pulverulence -- N. powderiness^ [State of powder.], pulverulence^; sandiness &c adj.; efflorescence; friability. powder, dust, sand, shingle; sawdust; grit; meal, bran, flour, farina, rice, paddy, spore, sporule^; crumb, seed, grain; particle &c (smallness) 32; limature^, filings, debris, detritus, tailings, talus slope, scobs^, magistery^, fine powder; flocculi [Lat.]. smoke; cloud of dust, cloud of sand, cloud of smoke; puff of smoke, volume of smoke; sand storm, dust storm. [Reduction to powder] pulverization, comminution^, attenuation, granulation, disintegration, subaction^, contusion, trituration [Chem], levigation^, abrasion, detrition, multure^; limitation; tripsis^; filing &c v.. [Instruments for pulverization] mill, arrastra^, gristmill, grater, rasp, file, mortar and pestle, nutmeg grater, teeth, grinder, grindstone, kern^, quern^, koniology^. V. come to dust; be disintegrated, be reduced to powder &c reduce to powder, grind to powder; pulverize, comminute, granulate, triturate, levigate^; scrape, file, abrade, rub down, grind, grate, rasp, pound, bray, bruise; contuse, contund^; beat, crush, cranch^, craunch^, crunch, scranch^, crumble, disintegrate; attenuate &c 195. Adj. powdery, pulverulent^, granular, mealy, floury, farinaceous, branny^, furfuraceous^, flocculent, dusty, sandy, sabulous^, psammous^; arenose^, arenarious^, arenaceous^; gritty, efflorescent, impalpable; lentiginous^, lepidote^, sabuline^; sporaceous^, sporous^. pulverizable; friable, crumbly, shivery; pulverized &c v.; attrite^; in pieces. 331. Friction -- N. friction, attrition; rubbing, abrasion, scraping &c v.; confrication^, detrition, contrition^, affriction^, abrasion, arrosion^, limature^, frication^, rub; elbow grease; rosin; massage; roughness &c 256. rolling friction, sliding friction, starting friction. V. rub, scratch, scrape, scrub, slide, fray, rasp, graze, curry, scour, polish, rub out, wear down, gnaw; file, grind &c (reduce to powder) 330. set one's teeth on edge; rosin. Adj. anatriptic^; attrite^. 332. [Absence of friction. Prevention of friction.] Lubrication -- N. smoothness &c 255; unctuousness &c 355. lubrication, lubrification^; anointment; oiling &c v.. synovia [Anat.]; glycerine, oil, lubricating oil, grease &c 356; saliva; lather. teflon. V. lubricate, lubricitate^; oil, grease, lather, soap; wax. Adj. lubricated &c v.; lubricous. 2. FLUID MATTER 1. Fluids in General 333. Fluidity -- N. fluidity, liquidity; liquidness &c adj.^; gaseity &c 334 [Obs.]. fluid, inelastic fluid; liquid, liquor; lymph, humor, juice, sap, serum, blood, serosity^, gravy, rheum, ichor^, sanies^; chyle [Med.]. solubility, solubleness^. [Science of liquids at rest] hydrology, hydrostatics, hydrodynamics. V. be fluid &c adj.; flow &c (water in motion) 348; liquefy, melt, condense &c 335. Adj. liquid, fluid, serous, juicy, succulent, sappy; ichorous^; fluent &c (flowing) 348. liquefied &c 335; uncongealed; soluble. 334. Gaseity -- N. gaseity^; vaporousness &c adj.; flatulence, flatulency; volatility; aeration, aerification. elastic fluid, gas, air, vapor, ether, steam, essence, fume, reek, effluvium, flatus; cloud &c 353; ammonia, ammoniacal gas^; volatile alkali; vacuum, partial vacuum. [Science of elastic fluids] pneumatics, pneumatostatics^; aerostatics^, aerodynamics. gasmeter^, gasometer^; air bladder, swimming bladder, sound, (of a fish). V. vaporize, evaporate, evanesce, gasify, emit vapor &c 336; diffuse. Adj. gaseous, aeriform^, ethereal, aerial, airy, vaporous, volatile, evaporable^, flatulent. 335. Liquefaction -- N. liquefaction; liquescence^, liquescency^; melting &c (heat) 384; colliquation^, colliquefaction^; thaw; liquation^, deliquation^, deliquescence; lixiviation^, dissolution. solution, apozem^, lixivium^, infusion, flux. solvent, menstruum, alkahest^. V. render liquid &c 333; liquefy, run; deliquesce; melt &c (heat) 384; solve; dissolve, resolve; liquate^; hold in solution; condense, precipitate, rain. Adj. liquefied &c v., liquescent, liquefiable; deliquescent, soluble, colliquative^. 336. Vaporization -- N. vaporization, volatilization; gasification, evaporation, vaporation^; distillation, cupellation [Chem], cohobation, sublimination^, exhalation; volatility. vaporizer, still, retort; fumigation, steaming; bay salt, chloride of sodium^. mister, spray. bubble, effervescence.' V. render gaseous &c 334; vaporize, volatilize; distill, sublime; evaporate, exhale, smoke, transpire, emit vapor, fume, reek, steam, fumigate; cohobate^; finestill^. bubble, sparge, effervesce, boil. Adj. volatilized &c v.; reeking &c v.; volatile; evaporable^, vaporizable. bubbly, effervescent, boiling. 2. Specific Fluids 337. Water -- N. water; serum, serosity^; lymph; rheum; diluent; agua [Sp.], aqua, pani^. dilution, maceration, lotion; washing &c v.; immersion^, humectation^, infiltration, spargefaction^, affusion^, irrigation, douche, balneation^, bath. deluge &c (water in motion) 348; high water, flood tide. V. be watery &c adj.; reek. add water, water, wet; moisten &c 339; dilute, dip, immerse; merge; immerge, submerge; plunge, souse, duck, drown; soak, steep, macerate, pickle, wash, sprinkle, lave, bathe, affuse^, splash, swash, douse, drench; dabble, slop, slobber, irrigate, inundate, deluge; syringe, inject, gargle. Adj. watery, aqueous, aquatic, hydrous, lymphatic; balneal^, diluent; drenching &c v.; diluted &c v.; weak; wet &c (moist) 339. Phr. the waters are out. 338. Air -- N. air &c (gas) 334; common air, atmospheric air; atmosphere; aerosphere^. open air; sky, welkin; blue sky; cloud &c 353. weather, climate, rise and fall of the barometer, isobar. [Science of air] aerology, aerometry^, aeroscopy^, aeroscopy^, aerography^; meteorology, climatology; pneumatics; eudioscope^, baroscope^, aeroscope^, eudiometer^, barometer, aerometer^; aneroid, baroscope^; weather gauge, weather glass, weather cock. exposure to the air, exposure to the weather; ventilation; aerostation^, aeronautics, aeronaut. V. air, ventilate, fan &c (wind) 349. Adj. containing air, flatulent, effervescent; windy &c 349. atmospheric, airy; aerial, aeriform^; meteorological; weatherwise^. Adv. in the open air, a la belle etoile [Fr.], al fresco; sub jove dio [Lat.]. 339. Moisture -- N. moisture; moistness &c adj.; humidity, humectation^; madefaction^, dew; serein^; marsh &c 345; hygrometry, hygrometer. V. moisten, wet; humect^, humectate^; sponge, damp, bedew; imbue, imbrue, infiltrate, saturate; soak, drench &c (water) 337. be moist &c adj.; not have a dry thread; perspire &c (exude) 295. Adj. moist, damp; watery &c 337; madid^, roric^; undried^, humid, sultry, wet, dank, luggy^, dewy; roral^, rorid^; roscid^; juicy. wringing wet, soaking wet; wet through to the skin; saturated &c v.. swashy^, soggy, dabbled; reeking, dripping, soaking, soft, sodden, sloppy, muddy; swampy &c (marshy) 345; irriguous^. 340. Dryness -- N. dryness &c adj.; siccity^, aridity, drought, ebb tide, low water. exsiccation^, desiccation; arefaction^, dephlegmation^, drainage; drier. [chemical subs. which renders dry] desiccative, dessicator. [device to render dry] dessicator; hair drier, clothes drier, gas drier, electric drier; vacuum oven, drying oven, kiln; lyophilizer. clothesline. V. be dry &c adj.. render dry &c adj.; dry; dry up, soak up; sponge, swab, wipe; drain. desiccate, dehydrate, exsiccate^; parch. kiln dry; vacuum dry, blow dry, oven dry; hang out to dry. mummify. be fine, hold up. Adj. dry, anhydrous, arid; adust^, arescent^; dried &c v.; undamped; juiceless^, sapless; sear; husky; rainless, without rain, fine; dry as a bone, dry as dust, dry as a stick, dry as a mummy, dry as a biscuit. water proof, water tight. dehydrated, dessicated. 341. Ocean -- N. sea, ocean, main, deep, brine, salt water, waves, billows, high seas, offing, great waters, watery waste, vasty deep; wave, tide, &c (water in motion) 348. hydrography, hydrographer; Neptune, Poseidon, Thetis, Triton, Naiad, Nereid; sea nymph, Siren; trident, dolphin. Adj. oceanic; marine, maritime; pelagic, pelagian; seagoing; hydrographic; bathybic^, cotidal^. Adv. at sea, on sea; afloat. 342. Land -- N. land, earth, ground, dry land, terra firma. continent, mainland, peninsula, chersonese [Fr.], delta; tongue of land, neck of land; isthmus, oasis; promontory &c (projection) 250; highland &c (height) 206. coast, shore, scar, strand, beach; playa; bank, lea; seaboard, seaside, seabank^, seacoast, seabeach^; ironbound coast; loom of the land; derelict; innings; alluvium, alluvion^; ancon. riverbank, river bank, levee. soil, glebe, clay, loam, marl, cledge^, chalk, gravel, mold, subsoil, clod, clot; rock, crag. acres; real estate &c (property) 780; landsman^. V. land, come to land, set foot on the soil, set foot on dry land; come ashore, go ashore, debark. Adj. earthy, continental, midland, coastal, littoral, riparian; alluvial; terrene &c (world) 318; landed, predial^, territorial; geophilous^; ripicolous. Adv. ashore; on shore, on land. 343. Gulf. Lake -- N. land covered with water, gulf, gulph^, bay, inlet, bight, estuary, arm of the sea, bayou [U.S.], fiord, armlet; frith^, firth, ostiary^, mouth; lagune^, lagoon; indraught^; cove, creek; natural harbor; roads; strait; narrows; Euripus; sound, belt, gut, kyles^; continental slope, continental shelf. lake, loch, lough^, mere, tarn, plash, broad, pond, pool, lin^, puddle, slab, well, artesian well; standing water, dead water, sheet of water; fish pond, mill pond; ditch, dike, dyke, dam; reservoir &c (store) 636; alberca^, barachois^, hog wallow [U.S.]. Adj. lacustrine^. 344. Plain -- N. plain, table-land, face of the country; open country, champaign country^; basin, downs, waste, weary waste, desert, wild, steppe, pampas, savanna, prairie, heath, common, wold^, veldt; moor, moorland; bush; plateau &c (level) 213; campagna^; alkali flat, llano; mesa, mesilla [U.S.], playa; shaking prairie, trembling prairie; vega [Sp.]. meadow, mead, haugh^, pasturage, park, field, lawn, green, plat, plot, grassplat^, greensward, sward, turf, sod, heather; lea, ley, lay; grounds; maidan^, agostadero^. Adj. champaign^, alluvial; campestral^, campestrial^, campestrian^, campestrine^. 345. Marsh -- N. marsh, swamp, morass, marish^, moss, fen, bog, quagmire, slough, sump, wash; mud, squash, slush; baygall [U.S.], cienaga^, jhil^, vlei^. Adj. marsh, marshy; swampy, boggy, plashy^, poachy^, quaggy^, soft; muddy, sloppy, squashy; paludal^; moorish, moory; fenny. 346. Island -- N. island, isle, islet, eyot^, ait^, holf^, reef, atoll, breaker; archipelago; islander. Adj. insular, seagirt; archipelagic^. 3. Fluids in Motion 347. [Fluid in motion.] Stream -- N. stream &c (of water) 348, (of air) 349. flowmeter. V. flow &c 348; blow &c 349. 348. [Water in motion.] River -- N. running water. jet, spirt^, spurt, squirt, spout, spray, splash, rush, gush, jet d'eau [Fr.]; sluice. water spout, water fall; cascade, force, foss^; lin^, linn^; ghyll^, Niagara; cataract, rapids, white water, catadupe^, cataclysm; debacle, inundation, deluge; chute, washout. rain, rainfall; serein^; shower, scud; downpour; driving rain, drenching rain, cloudburst; hyetology^, hyetography^; predominance of Aquarius^, reign of St. Swithin; mizzle^, drizzle, stillicidum^, plash; dropping &c v.; falling weather; northeaster, hurricane, typhoon. stream, course, flux, flow, profluence^; effluence &c (egress) 295; defluxion^; flowing &c v.; current, tide, race, coulee. spring, artesian well, fount, fountain; rill, rivulet, gill, gullet, rillet^; streamlet, brooklet; branch [U.S.]; runnel, sike^, burn, beck, creek, brook, bayou, stream, river; reach, tributary. geyser, spout, waterspout. body of water, torrent, rapids, flush, flood, swash; spring tide, high tide, full tide; bore, tidal bore, eagre^, hygre^; fresh, freshet; indraught^, reflux, undercurrent, eddy, vortex, gurge^, whirlpool, Maelstrom, regurgitation, overflow; confluence, corrivation^. wave, billow, surge, swell, ripple; anerythmon gelasma [Gr.]; beach comber, riffle [U.S.], rollers, ground swell, surf, breakers, white horses, whitecaps; rough sea, heavy sea, high seas, cross sea, long sea, short sea, chopping sea. [Science of fluids in motion] hydrodynamics; hydraulics, hydraulicostatics^; rain gauge, flowmeter; pegology^. irrigation &c (water) 337; pump; watering pot, watering cart; hydrant, syringe; garden hose, lawn spray; bhisti^, mussuk^. V. flow, run; meander; gush, pour, spout, roll, jet, well, issue; drop, drip, dribble, plash, spirtle^, trill, trickle, distill, percolate; stream, overflow, inundate, deluge, flow over, splash, swash; guggle^, murmur, babble, bubble, purl, gurgle, sputter, spurt, spray, regurgitate; ooze, flow out &c (egress) 295. rain hard, rain in torrents, rain cats and dogs, rain pitchforks; pour with rain, drizzle, spit, set in; mizzle^. flow into, fall into, open into, drain into; discharge itself, disembogue^. [Cause a flow] pour; pour out &c (discharge) 297; shower down, irrigate, drench &c (wet) 337; spill, splash. [Stop a flow] stanch; dam, up &c (close) 261; obstruct &c 706. Adj. fluent; diffluent^, profluent^, affluent; tidal; flowing &c v.; meandering, meandry^, meandrous^; fluvial, fluviatile; streamy^, showery, rainy, pluvial, stillicidous^; stillatitious^. Phr. for men may come and men may go but I go on forever [Tennyson]; that old man river, he just keeps rolling along [Showboat]. 349. [Air in motion] Wind -- N. wind, draught, flatus, afflatus, efflation^, eluvium^; air; breath, breath of air; puff, whiff, zephyr; blow, breeze, drift; aura; stream, current, jet stream; undercurrent. gust, blast, squall, gale, half a gale, storm, tempest, hurricane, whirlwind, tornado, samiel, cyclone, anticyclone, typhoon; simoon^, simoom; harmattan^, monsoon, trade wind, sirocco, mistral, bise^, tramontane, levanter; capful of wind; fresh breeze, stiff breeze; keen blast; blizzard, barber [Can.], candelia^, chinook, foehn, khamsin^, norther, vendaval^, wuther^. windiness &c adj.; ventosity^; rough weather, dirty weather, ugly weather, stress of weather; dirty sky, mare's tail; thick squall, black squall, white squall. anemography^, aerodynamics; wind gauge, weathercock, vane, weather- vane, wind sock; anemometer, anemoscope^. sufflation^, insufflation^, perflation^, inflation, afflation^; blowing, fanning &c v.; ventilation. sneezing &c v.; errhine^; sternutative^, sternutatory^; sternutation; hiccup, hiccough; catching of the breath. Eolus, Boreas, Zephyr, cave of Eolus. air pump, air blower, lungs, bellows, blowpipe, fan, ventilator, punkah^; branchiae^, gills, flabellum^, vertilabrum^. whiffle ball. V. blow, waft; blow hard, blow great guns, blow a hurricane &c n.; wuther^; stream, issue. respire, breathe, puff; whiff, whiffle; gasp, wheeze; snuff, snuffle; sniff, sniffle; sneeze, cough. fan, ventilate; inflate, perflate^; blow up. Adj. blowing &c v.; windy, flatulent; breezy, gusty, squally; stormy, tempestuous, blustering; boisterous &c (violent) 173. pulmonic [Med.], pulmonary. Phr. lull'd by soft zephyrs [Pope]; the storm is up and all is on the hazard [Julius Caesar]; the winds were wither'd in the stagnant air [Byron]; while mocking winds are piping loud [Milton]; winged with red lightning and tempestuous rage [Paradise Lost]. 350. [Channel for the passage of water.] Conduit -- N. conduit, channel, duct, watercourse, race; head race, tail race; abito^, aboideau^, aboiteau [Fr.], bito^; acequia^, acequiador^, acequiamadre^; arroyo; adit^, aqueduct, canal, trough, gutter, pantile; flume, ingate^, runner; lock-weir, tedge^; vena^; dike, main, gully, moat, ditch, drain, sewer, culvert, cloaca, sough, kennel, siphon; piscina^; pipe &c (tube) 260; funnel; tunnel &c (passage) 627; water pipe, waste pipe; emunctory^, gully hole, artery, aorta, pore, spout, scupper; adjutage^, ajutage^; hose; gargoyle; gurgoyle^; penstock, weir; flood gate, water gate; sluice, lock, valve; rose; waterworks. pipeline. Adj. vascular &c (with holes) 260. 351. [Channel for the passage of air.] Airpipe -- N. air pipe, air tube; airhole^, blowhole, breathinghole^, venthole; shaft, flue, chimney, funnel, vent, nostril, nozzle, throat, weasand^, trachea; bronchus, bronchia [Med.]; larynx, tonsils, windpipe, spiracle; ventiduct^, ventilator; louvre, jalousie, Venetian blinds; blowpipe &c (wind) 349; pipe &c (tube) 260; jhilmil^; smokestack. screen, window screen.' artificial lung, iron lung, heart and lung machine. 3. IMPERFECT FLUIDS 352. Semiliquidity -- N. semiliquidity; stickiness &c adj.; viscidity, viscosity; gummosity^, glutinosity^, mucosity^; spissitude^, crassitude^; lentor^; adhesiveness &c (cohesion) 46. inspissation^, incrassation^; thickening. jelly, mucilage, gelatin, gluten; carlock^, fish glue; ichthyocol^, ichthycolla^; isinglass; mucus, phlegm, goo; pituite^, lava; glair^, starch, gluten, albumen, milk, cream, protein^; treacle; gum, size, glue (tenacity) 327; wax, beeswax. emulsion, soup; squash, mud, slush, slime, ooze; moisture &c 339; marsh &c 345. V. inspissate^, incrassate^; thicken, mash, squash, churn, beat up. sinter. Adj. semifluid, semiliquid; tremellose^; half melted, half frozen; milky, muddy &c n.; lacteal, lactean^, lacteous^, lactescent^, lactiferous^; emulsive, curdled, thick, succulent, uliginous^. gelatinous, albuminous, mucilaginous, glutinous; glutenous, gelatin, mastic, amylaceous^, ropy, clammy, clotted; viscid, viscous; sticky, tacky, gooey; slab, slabby^; lentous^, pituitous^; mucid^, muculent^, mucous; gummy. 353. [Mixture of air and water.] Bubble [Cloud.] -- N. bubble, foam, froth, head, spume, lather, suds, spray, surf, yeast, barm^, spindrift. cloud, vapor, fog, mist, haze, steam, geyser; scud, messenger, rack, nimbus; cumulus, woolpack^, cirrus, stratus; cirrostratus, cumulostratus; cirrocumulus; mackerel sky, mare's tale, dirty sky; curl cloud; frost smoke; thunderhead. [Science of clouds] nephelognosy^; nephograph^, nephology^. effervescence, fermentation; bubbling &c v.. nebula; cloudliness &c (opacity) 426 [Obs.]; nebulosity &c (dimness) 422. V. bubble, boil, foam, froth, mantle, sparkle, guggle^, gurgle; effervesce, ferment, fizzle. Adj. bubbling &c v.; frothy, nappy^, effervescent, sparkling, mousseux [Fr.], frothy [Fr.Tr.], up. cloudy &c n.; thunderheaded^; vaporous, nebulous, overcast. Phr. the lowring element scowls o'er the darkened landscip [Paradise Lost]. 354. Pulpiness -- N. pulpiness &c adj.; pulp, taste, dough, curd, pap, rob, jam, pudding, poultice, grume^. mush, oatmeal, baby food. Adj. pulpy &c n.; pultaceous^, grumous^; baccate^. 355. Unctuousness -- N. unctuousness &c adj.; unctuosity^, lubricity; ointment &c (oil) 356; anointment; lubrication &c 332. V. oil &c (lubricate) 332. Adj. unctuous, oily, oleaginous, adipose, sebaceous; unguinous^; fat, fatty, greasy; waxy, butyraceous, soapy, saponaceous^, pinguid, lardaceous^; slippery. 356. Oil -- N. oil, fat, butter, cream, grease, tallow, suet, lard, dripping exunge^, blubber; glycerin, stearin, elaine [Chem], oleagine^; soap; soft soap, wax, cerement; paraffin, spermaceti, adipocere^; petroleum, mineral, mineral rock, mineral crystal, mineral oil; vegetable oil, colza oil^, olive oil, salad oil, linseed oil, cottonseed oil, soybean oil, nut oil; animal oil, neat's foot oil, train oil; ointment, unguent, liniment; aceite^, amole^, Barbados tar^; fusel oil, grain oil, rape oil, seneca oil; hydrate of amyl, ghee^; heating oil, #2 oil, No. 2 oil, distillate, residual oils, kerosene, jet fuel, gasoline, naphtha; stearin. 356a. Resin -- N. resin, rosin; gum; lac, sealing wax; amber, ambergris; bitumen, pitch, tar; asphalt, asphaltum; camphor; varnish, copal^, mastic, magilp^, lacquer, japan. artificial resin, polymer; ion-exchange resin, cation-exchange resin, anion exchange resin, water softener, Amberlite^, Dowex [Chem], Diaion. V. varnish &c (overlay) 223. Adj. resiny^, resinous; bituminous, pitchy, tarry; asphaltic, asphaltite. SECTION III. ORGANIC MATTER 1. VITALITY 1. Vitality in general 357. Organization -- N. organized world, organized nature; living nature, animated nature; living beings; organic remains, fossils. protoplasm, cytoplasm, protein; albumen; structure &c 329; organization, organism. [Science of living beings] biology; natural history, organic chemistry, anatomy, physiology; zoology &c 368; botany; microbiology, virology, bacteriology, mycology &c 369; naturalist. archegenesis &c (production) 161 [Obs.]; antherozoid^, bioplasm^, biotaxy^, chromosome, dysmeromorph^; ecology, oecology; erythroblast [Physio.], gametangium^, gamete, germinal matter, invagination [Biol.]; isogamy^, oogamy^; karyaster^; macrogamete^, microgamete^; metabolism, anabolism, catabolism; metaplasm^, ontogeny, ovary, ovum, oxidation, phylogeny, polymorphism, protozoa, spermary^, spermatozoon, trophoplasm^, vacuole, vertebration^, zoogloea^, zygote. Darwinism, neo-Darwinism, Lamarkism, neoLamarkism, Weismannism. morphology, taxonomy. Adj. organic, organized; karyoplasmic^, unsegmentic^, vacuolar, zoogloeic^, zoogloeoid^. 358. Inorganization -- N. mineral world, mineral kingdom; unorganized matter, inorganic matter, brute matter, inanimate matter. [Science of the mineral kingdom] mineralogy, geology, geognosy^, geoscopy^; metallurgy, metallography^; lithology; oryctology^, oryctography^. V. turn to dust; mineralize, fossilize. Adj. inorganic, inanimate, inorganized^; lithoidal^; azoic; mineral. 359. Life -- N. life, vitality, viability; animation; vital spark, vital flame, soul, spirit. respiration, wind; breath of life, breath of one's nostrils; oxygen, air. [devices to sustain respiration] respirator, artificial respirator, heart and lung machine, iron lung; medical devices &c 662. lifeblood; Archeus^; existence &c 1. vivification; vital force; vitalization; revivification &c 163; Prometheus; life to come &c (destiny) 152. [Science of life] physiology, biology; animal ecology. nourishment, staff of life &c (food) 298. genetics, heredity, inheritance, evolution, natural selection, reproduction (production) 161. microbe, aerobe, anaerobe, facultative anaerobe, obligate aerobe, obligate anaerobe, halophile [Micro.], methanogen [Micro.], archaebacteria [Micro.], microaerophile [Micro.]. animal &c 366; vegetable &c 367. artificial life, robot, robotics, artificial intelligence. [vital signs] breathing, breathing rate, heartbeat, pulse, temperature. preservation of life, healing (medicine) 662. V. be alive &c adj.; live, breathe, respire; subsist &c (exist) 1; walk the earth, strut and fret one's hour upon the stage [Macbeth]; be spared. see the light, be born, come into the world, fetch breath, draw breath, fetch the breath of life, draw the breath of life; quicken; revive; come to life. give birth to &c (produce) 161; bring to life, put into life, vitalize; vivify, vivificate^; reanimate &c (restore) 660; keep alive, keep body and soul together, keep the wolf from the door; support life. hive nine lives like a cat. Adj. living, alive; in life, in the flesh, in the land of the living; on this side of the grave, above ground, breathing, quick, animated; animative^; lively &c (active) 682; all alive and kicking; tenacious of life; full of life, yeasty. vital, vitalic^; vivifying, vivified, &c v.; viable, zoetic^; Promethean. Adv. vivendi causa [Lat.]. Phr. atqui vivere militare est [Lat.] [Seneca]; non est vivere sed valere vita [Lat.] [Marial]. 360. Death -- N. death; decease, demise; dissolution, departure, obit, release, rest, quietus, fall; loss, bereavement; mortality, morbidity. end of life &c 67, cessation of life &c 142, loss of life, extinction of life, ebb of life &c 359. death warrant, death watch, death rattle, death bed; stroke of death, agonies of death, shades of death, valley of death, jaws of death, hand of death; last breath, last gasp, last agonies; dying day, dying breath, dying agonies; chant du cygne [Fr.]; rigor mortis [Lat.]; Stygian shore. King of terrors, King Death; Death; doom &c (necessity) 601; Hell's grim Tyrant [Pope]. euthanasia; break up of the system; natural death, natural decay; sudden death, violent death; untimely end, watery grave; debt of nature; suffocation, asphyxia; fatal disease &c (disease) 655; death blow &c (killing) 361. necrology, bills of mortality, obituary; death song &c (lamentation) 839. V. die, expire, perish; meet one's death, meet one's end; pass away, be taken; yield one's breath, resign one's breath; resign one's being, resign one's life; end one's days, end one's life, end one's earthly career; breathe one's last; cease to live, cease to breathe; depart this life; be no more &c adj.; go off, drop off, pop off; lose one's life, lay down one's life, relinquish one's life, surrender one's life; drop into the grave, sink into the grave; close one's eyes; fall dead, drop dead, fall down dead, drop down dead; break one's neck; give up the ghost, yield up the ghost; be all over with one. pay the debt to nature, shuffle off this mortal coil, take one's last sleep; go the way of all flesh; hand in one's checks, pass in one's checks, hand in one's chips, pass in one's chips [U.S.]; join the greater number, join the majority; come to dust, turn to dust; cross the Stygian ferry, cross the bar; go to one's long account, go to one's last home, go to Davy Jones's locker, go to the wall; receive one's death warrant, make one's will, step out, die a natural death, go out like the snuff of a candle; come to an untimely end; catch one's death; go off the hooks, kick the bucket, buy the farm, hop the twig, turn up one's toes; die a violent death &c (be killed) 361. Adj. dead, lifeless; deceased, demised, departed, defunct, extinct; late, gone, no more; exanimate^, inanimate; out of the world, taken off, released; departed this life &c v.; dead and gone; dead as a doornail, dead as a doorpost^, dead as a mutton, dead as a herring, dead as nits; launched into eternity, gone to one's eternal reward, gone to meet one's maker, pushing up daisies, gathered to one's fathers, numbered with the dead. dying &c v.; moribund, morient^; hippocratic; in articulo, in extremis; in the jaws of death, in the agony of death; going off; aux abois [Fr.]; one one's last legs, on one's death bed; at the point of death, at death's door, at the last gasp; near one's end, given over, booked; with one foot in the grave, tottering on the brink of the grave. stillborn; mortuary; deadly &c (killing) 361. Adv. post obit, post mortem [Lat.]. Phr. life ebbs, life fails, life hangs by a thread; one's days are numbered, one's hour is come, one's race is run, one's doom is sealed; Death knocks at the door, Death stares one in the face; the breath is out of the body; the grave closes over one; sic itur ad astra [Lat.] [Vergil]; de mortuis nil nisi bonum [Lat.]; dulce et decorum est pro patria mori [Lat.] [Horace]; honesta mors turpi vita potior [Lat.] [Tacitus]; in adamantine chains shall death be bound [Pope]; mors ultima linea rerum est [Lat.] [Girace]; ominia mors aequat [Lat.] [Claudianus]; Spake the grisly Terror [Paradise Lost]; the lone couch of this everlasting sleep [Shelley]; nothing is certain but death and taxes. 361. [Destruction of life; violent death.] Killing -- N. killing &c v.; homicide, manslaughter, murder, assassination, trucidation^, iccusion^; effusion of blood; blood, blood shed; gore, slaughter, carnage, butchery; battue^. massacre; fusillade, noyade^; thuggery, Thuggism^. deathblow, finishing stroke, coup de grace, quietus; execution &c (capital punishment) 972; judicial murder; martyrdom. butcher, slayer, murderer, Cain, assassin, terrorist, cutthroat, garroter, bravo, Thug, Moloch, matador, sabreur^; guet-a-pens; gallows, executioner &c (punishment) 975; man-eater, apache^, hatchet man [U.S.], highbinder [U.S.]. regicide, parricide, matricide, fratricide, infanticide, feticide, foeticide^, uxoricide^, vaticide^. suicide, felo de se^, hara-kiri, suttee, Juggernath^; immolation, auto da fe, holocaust. suffocation, strangulation, garrote; hanging &c v.; lapidation^. deadly weapon &c (arms) 727; Aceldama^. [Destruction of animals] slaughtering; phthisozoics^; sport, sporting; the chase, venery; hunting, coursing, shooting, fishing; pig- sticking; sportsman, huntsman, fisherman; hunter, Nimrod; slaughterhouse, meat packing plant, shambles, abattoir. fatal accident, violent death, casualty. V. kill, put to death, slay, shed blood; murder, assassinate, butcher, slaughter, victimize, immolate; massacre; take away life, deprive of life; make away with, put an end to; despatch, dispatch; burke, settle, do for. strangle, garrote, hang, throttle, choke, stifle, suffocate, stop the breath, smother, asphyxiate, drown. saber; cut down, cut to pieces, cut the throat; jugulate^; stab, run through the body, bayonet, eviscerate; put to the sword, put to the edge of the sword. shoot dead; blow one's brains out; brain, knock on the head; stone, lapidate^; give a deathblow; deal a deathblow; give a quietus, give a coupe de grace. behead, bowstring, electrocute, gas &c (execute) 972. hunt, shoot &c n.. cut off, nip in the bud, launch into eternity, send to one's last account, sign one's death warrant, strike the death knell of. give no quarter, pour out blood like water; decimate; run amuck; wade knee deep in blood, imbrue one's hands in blood. die a violent death, welter in one's blood; dash out one's brains, blow out one's brains; commit suicide; kill oneself, make away with oneself, put an end to oneself, put an end to it all. Adj. killing &c v.; murderous, slaughterous; sanguinary, sanguinolent^; blood stained, blood thirsty; homicidal, red handed; bloody, bloody minded; ensanguined^, gory; thuggish. mortal, fatal, lethal; dead, deadly; mortiferous^, lethiferous^; unhealthy &c 657; internecine; suicidal. sporting; piscatorial, piscatory^. Adv. in at the death. Phr. assassination has never changed the history of the world [Disraeli]. 362. Corpse -- N. corpse, corse^, carcass, cadaver, bones, skeleton, dry bones; defunct, relics, reliquiae [Lat.], remains, mortal remains, dust, ashes, earth, clay; mummy; carrion; food for worms, food for fishes; tenement of clay this mortal coil. shade, ghost, manes. organic remains, fossils. Adj. cadaverous, corpse-like; unburied &c 363; sapromyiophyllous^. 363. Interment -- N. interment, burial, sepulture^; inhumation^; obsequies, exequies^; funeral, wake, pyre, funeral pile; cremation. funeral, funeral rite, funeral solemnity; kneel, passing bell, tolling; dirge &c (lamentation) 839; cypress; orbit, dead march, muffled drum; mortuary, undertaker, mute; elegy; funeral, funeral oration, funeral sermon; epitaph. graveclothes^, shroud, winding sheet, cerecloth; cerement. coffin, shell, sarcophagus, urn, pall, bier, hearse, catafalque, cinerary urn^. grave, pit, sepulcher, tomb, vault, crypt, catacomb, mausoleum, Golgotha, house of death, narrow house; cemetery, necropolis; burial place, burial ground; grave yard, church yard; God's acre; tope, cromlech, barrow, tumulus, cairn; ossuary; bone house, charnel house, dead house; morgue; lich gate^; burning ghat^; crematorium, crematory; dokhma^, mastaba^, potter's field, stupa^, Tower of Silence. sexton, gravedigger. monument, cenotaph, shrine; grave stone, head stone, tomb stone; memento mori [Lat.]; hatchment^, stone; obelisk, pyramid. exhumation, disinterment; necropsy, autopsy, post mortem examination [Lat.]; zoothapsis^. V. inter, bury; lay in the grave, consign to the grave, lay in the tomb, entomb, in tomb; inhume; lay out, perform a funeral, embalm, mummify; toll the knell; put to bed with a shovel; inurn^. exhume, disinter, unearth. Adj. burried &c v.; burial, funereal, funebrial^; mortuary, sepulchral, cinerary^; elegiac; necroscopic^. Adv. in memoriam; post obit, post mortem [Lat.]; beneath the sod. Phr. hic jacet [Lat.], ci-git [Fr.]; RIP; requiescat in pace [Lat.]; the lone couch of his everlasting sleep [Shelley]; without a grave- unknell'd, uncoffin'd, and unknown [Byron]; in the dark union of insensate dust [Byron]; the deep cold shadow of the tomb [Moore]. 2. Special Vitality 364. Animality -- N. animal life; animation, animality^, animalization^; animalness, corporeal nature, human system; breath. flesh, flesh and blood; physique; strength &c 159. Adj. fleshly, human, corporeal. 365. Vegetability^ -- N. vegetable life; vegetation, vegetability^; vegetality^. V. vegetate, grow roots, put down roots. Adj. rank, lush; vegetable, vegetal, vegetive^. 366. Animal -- N. animal, animal kingdom; fauna; brute creation. beast, brute, creature, critter [U.S.]; wight, created being; creeping thing, living thing; dumb animal, dumb creature; zoophyte. [major divisions of animals] mammal, bird, reptile, amphibian, fish, crustacean, shellfish, mollusk, worm, insect, arthropod, microbe. [microscopic animals] microbe, animalcule &c 193. [reptiles] alligator, crocodile; saurian; dinosaur (extinct); snake, serpent, viper, eft; asp, aspick^. [amphibians] frog, toad. [fishes] trout, bass, tuna, muskelunge, sailfish, sardine, mackerel. [insects] ant, mosquito, bee, honeybee. [arthropods] tardigrade, spider. [classification by number of feet] biped, quadruped; [web-footed animal] webfoot. flocks and herds, live stock; domestic animals, wild animals; game, ferae naturae [Lat.]; beasts of the field, fowls of the air, denizens of the sea; black game, black grouse; blackcock^, duck, grouse, plover, rail, snipe. [domesticated mammals] horse &c (beast of burden) 271; cattle, kine^, ox; bull, bullock; cow, milch cow, calf, heifer, shorthorn; sheep; lamb, lambkin^; ewe, ram, tup; pig, swine, boar, hog, sow; steer, stot^; tag, teg^; bison, buffalo, yak, zebu, dog, cat. [dogs] dog, hound; pup, puppy; whelp, cur, mongrel; house dog, watch dog, sheep dog, shepherd's dog, sporting dog, fancy dog, lap dog, toy dog, bull dog, badger dog; mastiff; blood hound, grey hound, stag hound, deer hound, fox hound, otter hound; harrier, beagle, spaniel, pointer, setter, retriever; Newfoundland; water dog, water spaniel; pug, poodle; turnspit; terrier; fox terrier, Skye terrier; Dandie Dinmont; collie. [cats--generally] feline, puss, pussy; grimalkin^; gib cat, tom cat. [wild mammals] fox, Reynard, vixen, stag, deer, hart, buck, doe, roe; caribou, coyote, elk, moose, musk ox, sambar^. [birds] bird; poultry, fowl, cock, hen, chicken, chanticleer, partlet^, rooster, dunghill cock, barn door fowl; feathered tribes, feathered songster; singing bird, dicky bird; canary, warbler; finch; aberdevine^, cushat^, cygnet, ringdove^, siskin, swan, wood pigeon. [undesirable animals] vermin, varmint [U.S.], pest. Adj. animal, zoological equine, bovine, vaccine, canine, feline, fishy; piscatory^, piscatorial; molluscous^, vermicular; gallinaceous, rasorial^, solidungulate^, soliped^. 367. Vegetable -- N. vegetable, vegetable kingdom; flora, verdure. plant; tree, shrub, bush; creeper; herb, herbage; grass. annual; perennial, biennial, triennial; exotic. timber, forest; wood, woodlands; timberland; hurst^, frith^, holt, weald^, park, chase, greenwood, brake, grove, copse, coppice, bocage^, tope, clump of trees, thicket, spinet, spinney; underwood, brushwood; scrub; boscage, bosk^, ceja [Sp.], chaparal, motte [U.S.]; arboretum &c 371. bush, jungle, prairie; heath, heather; fern, bracken; furze, gorse, whin; grass, turf; pasture, pasturage; turbary^; sedge, rush, weed; fungus, mushroom, toadstool; lichen, moss, conferva^, mold; growth; alfalfa, alfilaria^, banyan; blow, blowth^; floret^, petiole; pin grass, timothy, yam, yew, zinnia. foliage, branch, bough, ramage^, stem, tigella^; spray &c 51; leaf. flower, blossom, bine^; flowering plant; timber tree, fruit tree; pulse, legume. Adj. vegetable, vegetal, vegetive^, vegitous^; herbaceous, herbal; botanic^; sylvan, silvan^; arborary^, arboreous^, arborescent^, arborical^; woody, grassy; verdant, verdurous; floral, mossy; lignous^, ligneous; wooden, leguminous; vosky^, cespitose^, turf-like, turfy; endogenous, exogenous. Phr. green-robed senators of mighty woods [Keats]; this is the forest primeval [Longfellow]. 368. [The science of animals.] Zoology -- N. zoology, zoonomy^, zoography^, zootomy^; anatomy; comparative anatomy; animal physiology, comparative physiology; morphology; mammalogy. anthropology, ornithology, ichthyology, herpetology, ophiology^, malacology^, helminthology [Med.], entomology, oryctology^, paleontology, mastology^, vermeology^; ornithotomy^, ichthyotomy^, &c; taxidermy. zoologist &c Adj. zoological &c n.. 369. [The science of plants.] Botany -- N. botany; physiological botany, structural botany, systematic botany; phytography^, phytology^, phytotomy^; vegetable physiology, herborization^, dendrology, mycology, fungology^, algology^; flora, romona; botanic garden &c (garden) 371 [Obs.]; hortus siccus [Lat.], herbarium, herbal. botanist &c; herbist^, herbarist^, herbalist, herborist^, herbarian^. V. botanize, herborize^. Adj. botanical &c n.; botanic^. 370. [The economy or management of animals.] Husbandry -- N. husbandry, taming &c v.; circuration^, zoohygiantics^; domestication, domesticity; manege [Fr.], veterinary art; farriery^; breeding, pisciculture. menagerie, vivarium, zoological garden; bear pit; aviary, apiary, alveary^, beehive; hive; aquarium, fishery; duck pond, fish pond. phthisozoics &c (killing) 361 [Obs.] [Destruction of animals]; euthanasia, sacrifice, humane destruction. neatherd^, cowherd, shepherd; grazier, drover, cowkeeper^; trainer, breeder; apiarian^, apiarist; bull whacker [U.S.], cowboy, cow puncher [U.S.], farrier; horse leech, horse doctor; vaquero, veterinarian, vet, veterinary surgeon. cage &c (prison) 752; hencoop^, bird cage, cauf^; range, sheepfold, &c (inclosure) 232. V. tame, domesticate, acclimatize, breed, tend, break in, train; cage, bridle, &c (restrain) 751. Adj. pastoral, bucolic; tame, domestic. 371. [The economy or management of plants.] Agriculture -- N. agriculture, cultivation, husbandry, farming; georgics, geoponics^; tillage, agronomy, gardening, spade husbandry, vintage; horticulture, arboriculture^, floriculture; landscape gardening; viticulture. husbandman, horticulturist, gardener, florist; agricultor^, agriculturist; yeoman, farmer, cultivator, tiller of the soil, woodcutter, backwoodsman; granger, habitat, vigneron^, viticulturist; Triptolemus. field, meadow, garden; botanic garden^, winter garden, ornamental garden, flower garden, kitchen garden, market garden, hop garden; nursery; green house, hot house; conservatory, bed, border, seed plot; grassplot^, grassplat^, lawn; park &c (pleasure ground) 840; parterre, shrubbery, plantation, avenue, arboretum, pinery^, pinetum^, orchard; vineyard, vinery; orangery^; farm &c (abode) 189. V. cultivate; till the soil; farm, garden; sow, plant; reap, mow, cut; manure, dress the ground, dig, delve, dibble, hoe, plough, plow, harrow, rake, weed, lop and top; backset [U.S.]. Adj. agricultural, agrarian, agrestic^. arable, predial^, rural, rustic, country; horticultural. 372. Mankind -- N. man, mankind; human race, human species, human kind, human nature; humanity, mortality, flesh, generation. [Science of man] anthropology, anthropogeny^, anthropography^, anthroposophy^; ethnology, ethnography; humanitarian. human being; person, personage; individual, creature, fellow creature, mortal, body, somebody; one; such a one, some one; soul, living soul; earthling; party, head, hand; dramatis personae [Lat.]; quidam [Lat.]. people, persons, folk, public, society, world; community, community at large; general public; nation, nationality; state, realm; commonweal, commonwealth; republic, body politic; million &c (commonalty) 876; population &c (inhabitant) 188. tribe, clan (paternity) 166; family (consanguinity) 11. cosmopolite; lords of the creation; ourselves. Adj. human, mortal, personal, individual, national, civic, public, social; cosmopolitan; anthropoid. Phr. am I not a man and a brother? [Wedgwood]. 373. Man -- N. man, male, he, him; manhood &c (adolescence) 131; gentleman, sir, master; sahib; yeoman, wight^, swain, fellow, blade, beau, elf, chap, gaffer, good man; husband &c (married man) 903; Mr., mister; boy &c (youth) 129. [Male animal] cock, drake, gander, dog, boar, stag, hart, buck, horse, entire horse, stallion; gibcat^, tomcat; he goat, Billy goat; ram, tup; bull, bullock; capon, ox, gelding, steer, stot^. androgen. homosexual, gay, queen [Slang]. V. masculinize Adj. male, he-, masculine; manly, virile; unwomanly, unfeminine. Pron. he, him, his. Phr. hominem pagina nostra sapit [Lat.] [Martial]; homo homini aut deus aut lupus [Lat.] [Erasmus]; homo vitae commodatus non donatus est [Lat.] [Syrus]. 374. Woman -- N. woman, she, her, female, petticoat. feminality^, muliebrity^; womanhood &c (adolescence) 131. womankind; the sex, the fair; fair sex, softer sex; weaker vessel. dame, madam, madame, mistress, Mrs. lady, donna belle [Sp.], matron, dowager, goody, gammer^; Frau [G.], frow^, Vrouw [Du.], rani; good woman, good wife; squaw; wife &c (marriage) 903; matronage, matronhood^. bachelor girl, new woman, feminist, suffragette, suffragist. nymph, wench, grisette^; girl &c (youth) 129. [Effeminacy] sissy, betty, cot betty [U.S.], cotquean^, henhussy^, mollycoddle, muff, old woman. [Female animal] hen, bitch, sow, doe, roe, mare; she goat, Nanny goat, tabita; ewe, cow; lioness, tigress; vixen. gynecaeum^. estrogen, oestrogen. consanguinity &c 166 [Female relatives], paternity &c 11. lesbian, dyke [Slang]. V. feminize. Adj. female, she-; feminine, womanly, ladylike, matronly, maidenly, wifely; womanish, effeminate, unmanly; gynecic^, gynaecic^. Pron. she, her, hers.' Phr. a perfect woman nobly planned [Wordsworth]; a lovely lady garmented in white [Shelley]; das Ewig-Weibliche zieht uns hinan [Goethe]; earth's noblest thing, a woman perfected [Lowell]; es de vidrio la mujer [Sp.]; she moves a goddess and she looks a queen [Pope]; the beauty of a lovely woman is like music [G. Eliot]; varium et mutabile semper femina [Lat.] [Vergil]; woman is the lesser man [Tennyson]. 374a. Sexuality [human] -- N. sex, sexuality, gender; male, masculinity, maleness &c 373; female, femininity &c 374. sexual intercourse, copulation, mating, coitus, sex; lovemaking, marital relations, sexual union; sleeping together, carnal knowledge. sex instinct, sex drive, libido, lust, concupiscence; hots, horns [Coll.]; arousal, heat, rut, estrus, oestrus; tumescence; erection, hard-on, boner. masturbation, self-gratification, autoeroticism, onanism, self- abuse. orgasm, climax, ejaculation. sexiness, attractiveness; sensuality, voluptuousness. [sexual intercourse outside of marriage] fornication, adultery. [person who is sexy] sex symbol, sex goddess; stud, hunk. one-night stand. pornography, porn, porno; hardcore pornography, softcore pornography; pin-up, cheesecake; beefcake; [magazines with sexual photos], Playboy, Esquire, Hustler. [unorthodox sexual activity] perversion, deviation, sexual abnormality; fetish, fetishism; homosexuality, lesbianism, bisexuality; sodomy, buggery; pederasty; sadism. masochism, sado-masochism; incest. V. mate, copulate; make love, have intercourse, fornicate, have sex, do it, sleep together, fuck [Vulg.]; sleep around, play the field. masturbate, jerk off [Coll.], jack off [Coll.], play with oneself. have the hots [Coll.]; become aroused, get hot; have an erection, get it up. come, climax, ejaculate. Adj. sexy, erotic, sexual, carnal, sensual. hot, horny, randy, rutting; passionate, lusty, hot-blooded, libidinous; up, in the mood. homosexual, gay, lesbian, bisexual. 2. SENSATION 1. Sensation in general 375. Physical Sensibility -- N. sensibility; sensitiveness &c adj.; physical sensibility, feeling, impressibility, perceptivity, aesthetics; moral sensibility &c 822. sensation, impression; consciousness &c (knowledge) 490. external senses. V. be sensible of &c adj.; feel, perceive. render sensible &c adj.; sharpen, cultivate, tutor. cause sensation, impress; excite an impression, produce an impression. Adj. sensible, sensitive, sensuous; aesthetic, perceptive, sentient; conscious &c (aware) 490. acute, sharp, keen, vivid, lively, impressive, thin-skinned. Adv. to the quick. Phr. the touch'd needle trembles to the pole [Pope]. 376. Physical Insensibility -- N. insensibility, physical insensibility; obtuseness &c adj.; palsy, paralysis, paraesthesia [Med.], anaesthesia; sleep &c 823; hemiplegia^, motor paralysis; vegetable state; coma. anaesthetic agent, opium, ether, chloroform, chloral; nitrous oxide, laughing gas; exhilarating gas, protoxide of nitrogen; refrigeration. V. be insensible &c adj.; have a thick skin, have a rhinoceros hide. render insensible &c adj.; anaesthetize^, blunt, pall, obtund^, benumb, paralyze; put under the influence of chloroform &c n.; stupefy, stun. Adj. insensible, unfeeling, senseless, impercipient^, callous, thick- skinned, pachydermatous; hard, hardened; case hardened; proof, obtuse, dull; anaesthetic; comatose, paralytic, palsied, numb, dead. 377. Physical Pleasure -- N. pleasure; physical pleasure, sensual pleasure, sensuous pleasure; bodily enjoyment, animal gratification, hedonism, sensuality; luxuriousness &c adj.; dissipation, round of pleasure, titillation, gusto, creature comforts, comfort, ease; pillow &c (support) 215; luxury, lap of luxury; purple and fine linen; bed of downs, bed of roses; velvet, clover; cup of Circe &c (intemperance) 954. treat; refreshment, regale; feast; delice [Fr.]; dainty &c 394; bonne bouche [Fr.]. source of pleasure &c 829; happiness &c (mental enjoyment) 827. V. feel pleasure, experience pleasure, receive pleasure; enjoy, relish; luxuriate in, revel in, riot in, bask in, swim in, drink up, eat up, wallow in; feast on; gloat over, float on; smack the lips. live on the fat of the land, live in comfort &c adv.; bask in the sunshine, faire ses choux gras [Fr.]. give pleasure &c 829. Adj. enjoying &c v.; luxurious, voluptuous, sensual, comfortable, cosy, snug, in comfort, at ease. pleasant, agreeable &c 829. Adv. in comfort &c n.; on a bed of roses &c n.; at one's ease. Phr. ride si sapis [Lat.] [Martial]; voluptales commendat rarior usus [Lat.] [Juvenal]. 378. Physical Pain -- N. pain; suffering, sufferance, suffrance^; bodily pain, physical pain, bodily suffering, physical suffering, body pain; mental suffering &c 828; dolour, ache; aching &c v.; smart; shoot, shooting; twinge, twitch, gripe, headache, stomach ache, heartburn, angina, angina pectoris [Lat.]; hurt, cut; sore, soreness; discomfort, malaise; cephalalgia [Med.], earache, gout, ischiagra^, lumbago, neuralgia, odontalgia^, otalgia^, podagra^, rheumatism, sciatica; tic douloureux [Fr.], toothache, tormina^, torticollis^. spasm, cramp; nightmare, ephialtes^; crick, stitch; thrill, convulsion, throe; throb &c (agitation) 315; pang; colic; kink. sharp pain, piercing pain, throbbing pain, shooting pain, sting, gnawing pain, burning pain; excruciating pain. anguish, agony; torment, torture; rack; cruciation^, crucifixion; martyrdom, toad under a harrow, vivisection. V. feel pain, experience pain, suffer pain, undergo pain &c n.; suffer, ache, smart, bleed; tingle, shoot; twinge, twitch, lancinate^; writhe, wince, make a wry face; sit on thorns, sit on pins and needles. give pain, inflict pain; lacerate; pain, hurt, chafe, sting, bite, gnaw, gripe; pinch, tweak; grate, gall, fret, prick, pierce, wring, convulse; torment, torture; rack, agonize; crucify; cruciate^, excruciate^; break on the wheel, put to the rack; flog &c (punish) 972; grate on the ear &c (harsh sound) 410. Adj. in pain &c n., in a state of pain; pained &c v.; gouty, podagric^, torminous^. painful; aching &c v.; sore, raw. 2. Special Sensation (1) Touch 379. [Sensation of pressure] Touch -- N. touch; tact, taction^, tactility; feeling; palpation, palpability; contrectation^; manipulation; massage. [Organ of touch] hand, finger, forefinger, thumb, paw, feeler, antenna; palpus^. V. touch, feel, handle, finger, thumb, paw, fumble, grope, grabble; twiddle, tweedle; pass the fingers over, run the fingers over; manipulate, wield; throw out a feeler. Adj. tactual, tactile; tangible, palpable; lambent. 380. Sensations of Touch -- N. itching, pruritis [Med.] &c v.; titillation, formication^, aura; stereognosis^. V. itch, tingle, creep, thrill, sting; prick, prickle; tickle, titillate. Adj. itching &c v.; stereognostic^, titillative. 381. [insensibility to touch.] Numbness -- N. numbness &c (physical insensibility) 376; anaesthesia; pins and needles. V. benumb &c 376. Adj. numb; benumbed &c v.; deadened; intangible, impalpable. (2) Heat 382. Heat -- N. heat, caloric; temperature, warmth, fervor, calidity^; incalescence^, incandescence; glow, flush; fever, hectic. phlogiston; fire, spark, scintillation, flash, flame, blaze; bonfire; firework, pyrotechnics, pyrotechny^; wildfire; sheet of fire, lambent flame; devouring element; adiathermancy^; recalescence [Phys.]. summer, dog days; canicular days^; baking &c 384; heat, white heat, tropical heat, Afric heat^, Bengal heat^, summer heat, blood heat; sirocco, simoom; broiling sun; insolation; warming &c 384. sun &c (luminary) 423. [Science of heat] pyrology^; thermology^, thermotics^, thermodynamics; thermometer &c 389. [thermal units] calorie, gram-calorie, small calorie; kilocalorie, kilogram calorie, large calorie; British Thermal Unit, B.T.U.; therm, quad. [units of temperature] degrees Kelvin, kelvins, degrees centigrade, degrees Celsius; degrees Fahrenheit. V. be hot &c adj.; glow, flush, sweat, swelter, bask, smoke, reek, stew, simmer, seethe, boil, burn, blister, broil, blaze, flame; smolder; parch, fume, pant. heat &c (make hot) 384; recalesce^; thaw, give. Adj. hot, warm, mild, genial, tepid, lukewarm, unfrozen; thermal, thermic; calorific; fervent, fervid; ardent; aglow. sunny, torrid, tropical, estival^, canicular^, steamy; close, sultry, stifling, stuffy, suffocating, oppressive; reeking &c v.; baking &c 384. red hot, white hot, smoking hot, burning &c v.. hot, piping hot; like a furnace, like an oven; burning, hot as fire, hot as pepper; hot enough to roast an ox, hot enough to boil an egg. fiery; incandescent, incalescent^; candent^, ebullient, glowing, smoking; live; on fire; dazzling &c v.; in flames, blazing, in a blaze; alight, afire, ablaze; unquenched, unextinguished^; smoldering; in a heat, in a glow, in a fever, in a perspiration, in a sweat; sudorific^; sweltering, sweltered; blood hot, blood warm; warm as a toast, warm as wool. volcanic, plutonic, igneous; isothermal^, isothermic^, isotheral^. Phr. not a breath of air; whirlwinds of tempestuous fire [Paradise Lost]. 383. Cold -- N. cold, coldness &c adj.; frigidity, inclemency, fresco. winter; depth of winter, hard winter; Siberia, Nova Zembla; wind- chill factor. [forms of frozen water] ice; snow, snowflake, snow crystal, snow drift; sleet; hail, hailstone; rime, frost; hoar frost, white frost, hard frost, sharp frost; barf; glaze [U.S.], lolly [U.S.]; icicle, thick-ribbed ice; fall of snow, heavy fall; iceberg, icefloe; floe berg; glacier; nev_ee, serac^; pruina^. [cold substances] freezing mixture, dry ice, liquid nitrogen, liquid helium. [Sensation of cold] chilliness &c adj.; chill; shivering &c v.; goose skin, horripilation^; rigor; chattering of teeth; numbness, frostbite. V. be cold &c adj.; shiver, starve, quake, shake, tremble, shudder, didder^, quiver; freeze, freeze to death, perish with cold. freeze &c (render cold) 385; horripilate^, make the skin crawl, give one goose flesh. Adj. cold, cool; chill, chilly; icy; gelid, frigid, algid^; fresh, keen, bleak, raw, inclement, bitter, biting, niveous^, cutting, nipping, piercing, pinching; clay-cold; starved &c (made cold) 385; chilled to the bone, shivering &c v.; aguish, transi de froid [Fr.]; frostbitten, frost-bound, frost-nipped. cold as a stone, cold as marble, cold as lead, cold as iron, cold as a frog, cold as charity, cold as Christmas; cool as a cucumber, cool as custard. icy, glacial, frosty, freezing, pruinose^, wintry, brumal^, hibernal^, boreal, arctic, Siberian, hyemal^; hyperborean, hyperboreal^; icebound; frozen out. unwarmed^, unthawed^; lukewarm, tepid; isocheimal^, isocheimenal^, isocheimic^. frozen, numb, frost-bitten. Adv. coldly, bitterly &c adj.; pierre fendre [Fr.]; 384. Calefaction -- N. increase of temperature; heating &c v.; calefaction^, tepefaction^, torrefaction^; melting, fusion; liquefaction &c 335; burning &c v.; ambustion^, combustion; incension^, accension^; concremation^, cremation; scorification^; cautery, cauterization; ustulation^, calcination; cracking, refining; incineration, cineration^; carbonization; cupellation [Chem]. ignition, inflammation, adustion^, flagration^; deflagration, conflagration; empyrosis^, incendiarism; arson; auto dafe [Fr.]. boiling &c v.; coction^, ebullition, estuation^, elixation^, decoction; ebullioscope^; geyser; distillation (vaporization) 336. furnace &c 386; blanket, flannel, fur; wadding &c (lining) 224; clothing &c 225. still; refinery; fractionating column, fractionating tower, cracking tower. match &c (fuel) 388; incendiary; petroleuse [Fr.]; [biological effects resembling the effects of heat] [substances causing a burning sensation and damage on skin or tissue] cauterizer^; caustic, lunar caustic, alkali, apozem^, moxa^; acid, aqua fortis [Lat.], aqua regia; catheretic^, nitric acid, nitrochloro-hydric acid, nitromuriatic acid; radioactivity, gamma rays, alpha particles, beta rays, X-rays, radiation, cosmic radiation, background radiation, radioactive isotopes, tritium, uranium, plutonium, radon, radium. sunstroke, coup de soleil [Fr.]; insolation. [artifacts requiring heat in their manufacture] pottery, ceramics, crockery, porcelain, china; earthenware, stoneware; pot, mug, terra cotta [Sp.], brick, clinker. [products of combustion] cinder, ash, scoriae, embers, soot; slag. [products of heating organic materials] coke, carbon, charcoal; wood alcohol, turpentine, tea tree oil; gasoline, kerosene, naptha, fuel oil (fuel) 388; wax, paraffin; residue, tar. inflammability, combustibility. [Transmission of heat] diathermancy^, transcalency^, conduction; convection; radiation, radiant heat; heat conductivity, conductivity. [effects of heat 2] thermal expansion; coefficient of expansion. V. heat, warm, chafe, stive^, foment; make hot &c 382; sun oneself, sunbathe. go up in flames, burn to the ground (flame) 382. fire; set fire to, set on fire; kindle, enkindle, light, ignite, strike a light; apply the match to, apply the torch to; rekindle, relume^; fan the flame, add fuel to the flame; poke the fire, stir the fire, blow the fire; make a bonfire of. melt, thaw, fuse; liquefy &c 335. burn, inflame, roast, toast, fry, grill, singe, parch, bake, torrefy^, scorch; brand, cauterize, sear, burn in; corrode, char, calcine, incinerate; smelt, scorify^; reduce to ashes; burn to a cinder; commit to the flames, consign to the flames. boil, digest, stew, cook, seethe, scald, parboil, simmer; do to rags. take fire, catch fire; blaze &c (flame) 382. Adj. heated &c v.; molten, sodden; r_echauff_e; heating &c v.; adust^. inflammable, combustible; diathermal^, diathermanous^; burnt &c v.; volcanic, radioactive. 385. Refrigeration -- N. refrigeration, infrigidation^, reduction of temperature; cooling &c v.; congelation^, conglaciation^; ice &c 383; solidification &c (density) 321; ice box (refrigerator) 385. extincteur [Fr.]; fire annihilator; amianth^, amianthus^; earth- flax, mountain-flax; flexible asbestos; fireman, fire brigade (incombustibility) 388.1. incombustibility, incombustibleness &c adj.^. (insulation) 388.1. air conditioning [residential cooling], central air conditioning; air conditioner; fan, attic fan; dehumidifier. V. cool, fan, refrigerate, refresh, ice; congeal, freeze, glaciate; benumb, starve, pinch, chill, petrify, chill to the marrow, regelate^, nip, cut, pierce, bite, make one's teeth chatter, damp, slack quench; put out, stamp out; extinguish; go out, burn out (incombustibility) 388.1. Adj. cooled &c v.; frozen out; cooling &c v.; frigorific^. 386. Furnace -- N. furnace, stove, kiln, oven; cracker; hearth, focus, combustion chamber; athanor^, hypocaust^, reverberatory; volcano; forge, fiery furnace; limekiln; Dutch oven; tuyere, brasier^, salamander, heater, warming pan; boiler, caldron, seething caldron, pot; urn, kettle; chafing-dish; retort, crucible, alembic, still; waffle irons; muffle furnace, induction furnace; electric heater, electric furnace, electric resistance heat. [steel-making furnace] open-hearth furnace. fireplace, gas fireplace; coal fire, wood fire; fire-dog, fire- irons; grate, range, kitchener; caboose, camboose^; poker, tongs, shovel, ashpan, hob, trivet; andiron, gridiron; ashdrop; frying-pan, stew-pan, backlog. [area near a fireplace] hearth, inglenook. [residential heating methods] oil burner, gas burner, Franklin stove, pot-bellied stove; wood-burning stove; central heating, steam heat, hot water heat, gas heat, forced hot air, electric heat, heat pump; solar heat, convective heat. hothouse, bakehouse^, washhouse^; laundry; conservatory; sudatory^; Turkish bath, Russian bath, vapor bath, steam bath, sauna, warm bath; vaporarium^. 387. Refrigerator -- N. refrigerator, refrigeratory^; frigidarium^; cold storage, cold room, cold laboratory; icehouse, icepail, icebag, icebox; cooler, damper, polyurethane cooler; wine cooler. freezer, deep freeze, dry ice freezer, liquid nitrogen freezer, refigerator-freezer. freezing mixture [refrigerating substances], ice, ice cubes, blocks of ice, chipped ice; liquid nitrogen, dry ice, dry ice-acetone, liquid helium. 388. Fuel -- N. fuel, firing, combustible. [solid fuels] coal, wallsend^, anthracite, culm^, coke, carbon, charcoal, bituminous coal, tar shale; turf, peat, firewood, bobbing, faggot, log; cinder &c (products of combustion) 384; ingle, tinder, touchwood; sulphur, brimstone; incense; port-fire; fire-barrel, fireball, brand; amadou^, bavin^; blind coal, glance coal; German tinder, pyrotechnic sponge, punk, smudge [U.S.]; solid fueled rocket. [fuels for candles and lamps] wax, paraffin wax, paraffin oil; lamp oil, whale oil. [liquid fuels] oil, petroleum, gasoline, high octane gasoline, nitromethane, petrol, gas, juice [Coll.], gasohol, alcohol, ethanol, methanol, fuel oil, kerosene, jet fuel, heating oil, number 2 oil, number 4 oil, naphtha; rocket fuel, high specific impulse fuel, liquid hydrogen, liquid oxygen, lox. [gaseous fuels] natural gas, synthetic gas, synthesis gas, propane, butane, hydrogen. brand, torch, fuse; wick; spill, match, light, lucifer, congreve^, vesuvian, vesta^, fusee, locofoco^; linstock^. candle &c (luminary) 423; oil &c (grease) 356. Adj. carbonaceous; combustible, inflammable; high octane, high specific impulse; heat of combustion, 388a. Insulation [Fire extinction] {ant. of 388} -- N. insulation, incombustible material, noncombustible material; fire retardant, flame retardant; fire wall, fire door. incombustibility, incombustibleness &c adj.. extincteur [Fr.]; fire annihilator; amianth^, amianthus^; earth-flax, mountain-flax; asbestos; fireman, fire fighter, fire eater, fire department, fire brigade, engine company; pumper, fire truck, hook and ladder, aerial ladder, bucket; fire hose, fire hydrant. [forest fires] backfire, firebreak, trench; aerial water bombardment. wet blanket; fire extinguisher, soda and acid extinguisher, dry chemical extinguisher, CO-two extinguisher, carbon tetrachloride, foam; sprinklers, automatic sprinkler system; fire bucket, sand bucket. [warning of fire] fire alarm, evacuation alarm, [laws to prevent fire] fire code, fire regulations, fire; fire inspector; code violation, citation. V. go out, die out, burn out; fizzle. extinguish; damp, slack, quench, smother; put out, stamp out; douse, snuff, snuff out, blow out. fireproof, flameproof. Adj. incombustible; nonflammable, uninflammable, unflammable^; fireproof. Phr. fight fire with fire 389. Thermometer -- N. thermometer, thermometrograph^, mercury thermometer, alcohol thermometer, clinical thermometer, dry-bulb thermometer, wet-bulb thermometer, Anschutz thermometer [G.], gas thermometer, telethermometer; color-changing temperature indicator; thermopile, thermoscope^; pyrometer, calorimeter, bomb calorimeter; thermistor, thermocouple. [temperature-control devices] thermostat, thermoregulator. (3) Taste 390. Taste -- N. taste, flavor, gust, gusto, savor; gout, relish; sapor^, sapidity^; twang, smack, smatch^; aftertaste, tang. tasting; degustation, gustation. palate, tongue, tooth, stomach. V. taste, savor, smatch^, smack, flavor, twang; tickle the palate &c (savory) 394; smack the lips. Adj. sapid, saporific^; gustable^, gustatory; gustful^; strong, gamy; palatable &c 394. 391. Insipidity -- N. insipidity, blandness; tastelessness &c adj.. V. be tasteless &c adj.. Adj. bland, void of taste &c 390; insipid; tasteless, gustless^, savorless; ingustible^, mawkish, milk and water, weak, stale, flat, vapid, fade, wishy-washy, mild; untasted^. 392. Pungency -- N. pungency, piquance, piquancy, poignancy haut-gout, strong taste, twang, race. sharpness &c adj.; acrimony; roughness &c (sour) 392; unsavoriness &c 395. mustard, cayenne, caviare; seasoning &c (condiment) 393; niter, saltpeter, brine (saltiness) 392.1; carbonate of ammonia; sal ammoniac^, sal volatile, smelling salts; hartshorn (acridity) 401.1. dram, cordial, nip. nicotine, tobacco, snuff, quid, smoke; segar^; cigar, cigarette; weed; fragrant weed, Indian weed; Cavendish, fid^, negro head, old soldier, rappee^, stogy^. V. be pungent &c adj.; bite the tongue. render pungent &c adj.; season, spice, salt, pepper, pickle, brine, devil. smoke, chew, take snuff. Adj. pungent, strong; high-, full-flavored; high-tasted, high-seasoned; gamy, sharp, stinging, rough, piquant, racy; biting, mordant; spicy; seasoned &c v.; hot, hot as pepper; peppery, vellicating^, escharotic^, meracious^; acrid, acrimonious, bitter; rough &c (sour) 397; unsavory &c 395. 392a. Saltiness -- N. saltiness. niter, saltpeter, brine. Adj. salty, salt, saline, brackish, briny; salty as brine, salty as a herring, salty as Lot's wife. salty, racy (indecent) 961. Phr. take it with a grain of salt. 392b. Bitterness -- N. bitterness, acridness^, acridity, acrimony; caustic, alkali; acerbity; gall, wormwood; bitters, astringent bitters. Angostura [additive for alcoholic beverages], aromatic bitters. sourness &c 397; pungency &c 392. [bitter substances] alkaloids; turmeric. Adj. bitter, bitterish, acrid, acerb, acerbic. Phr. bitter as gall; bitter pill to take; sugar coating on a bitter pill. 393. Condiment -- N. condiment, seasoning, sauce, spice, relish, appetizer. [Condiments] salt; mustard, grey poupon mustard; pepper, black pepper, white pepper, peppercorn, curry, sauce piquante [Fr.]; caviare, onion, garlic, pickle; achar^, allspice; bell pepper, Jamaica pepper, green pepper; chutney; cubeb^, pimento. [capsicum peppers] capsicum, red pepper, chili peppers, cayenne. nutmeg, mace, cinnamon, oregano, cloves, fennel. [herbs] pot herbs, parsley, sage, rosemary, thyme, bay leaves, marjoram. [fragrant woods and gums] frankincense, balm, myrrh. [from pods] paprika. [from flower stigmas] saffron. [from roots] ginger, turmeric. V. season, spice, flavor, spice up &c (render pungent) 392. 394. Savoriness -- N. savoriness &c adj.; good taste, deliciousness, delectability. relish, zest; appetizer. tidbit, titbit^, dainty, delicacy, tasty morsel; appetizer, hors d'ouvres [Fr.]; ambrosia, nectar, bonne-bouche [Fr.]; game, turtle, venison; delicatessen. V. be savory &c adj.; tickle the palate, tickle the appetite; flatter the palate. render palatable &c adj.. relish, like, smack the lips. Adj. savory, delicious, tasty, well-tasted, to one's taste, good, palatable, nice, dainty, delectable; toothful^, toothsome; gustful^, appetizing, lickerish^, delicate, exquisite, rich, luscious, ambrosial, scrumptious, delightful. Adv. per amusare la bocca [It] Phr. cela se laisse manger [Fr.]. 395. Unsavoriness -- N. unsavoriness &c adj.; amaritude^; acrimony, acridity (bitterness) 392.2; roughness &c (sour) 397; acerbity, austerity; gall and wormwood, rue, quassia^, aloes; marah^; sickener^. V. be unpalatable &c adj.; sicken, disgust, nauseate, pall, turn the stomach. Adj. unsavory, unpalatable, unsweetened, unsweet^; ill-flavored; bitter, bitter as gall; acrid, acrimonious; rough. offensive, repulsive, nasty; sickening &c v.; nauseous; loathsome, fulsome; unpleasant &c 830. 396. Sweetness -- N. sweetness, dulcitude^. sugar, syrup, treacle, molasses, honey, manna; confection, confectionary; sweets, grocery, conserve, preserve, confiture^, jam, julep; sugar-candy, sugar-plum; licorice, marmalade, plum, lollipop, bonbon, jujube, comfit, sweetmeat; apple butter, caramel, damson, glucose; maple sirup^, maple syrup, maple sugar; mithai^, sorghum, taffy. nectar; hydromel^, mead, meade^, metheglin^, honeysuckle, liqueur, sweet wine, aperitif. [sources of sugar] sugar cane, sugar beets. [sweet foods] desert, pastry, pie, cake, candy, ice cream, tart, puff, pudding (food) 298. dulcification^, dulcoration^. sweetener, corn syrup, cane sugar, refined sugar, beet sugar, dextrose; artificial sweetener, saccharin, cyclamate, aspartame, Sweet'N Low. V. be sweet &c adj.. render sweet &c adj.; sweeten; edulcorate^; dulcorate^, dulcify^; candy; mull. Adj. sweet; saccharine, sacchariferous^; dulcet, candied, honied^, luscious, lush, nectarious^, melliferous^; sweetened &c v.. sweet as a nut, sweet as sugar, sweet as honey. sickly sweet. Phr. eau sucr_ee [Fr.]; sweets to the sweet [Hamlet]. 397. Sourness -- N. sourness &c adj.; acid, acidity, low pH; acetous fermentation, lactic fermentation. vinegar, verjuice^, crab, alum; acetic acid, lactic acid. V. be sour; sour, turn sour &c adj.; set the teeth on edge. render sour &c adj.; acidify, acidulate. Adj. sour; acid, acidulous, acidulated; tart, crabbed; acetous, acetose^; acerb, acetic; sour as vinegar, sourish, acescent^, subacid [Chem]; styptic, hard, rough. Phr. sour as a lemon. (4) Odor 398. Odor -- N. odor, smell, odorament^, scent, effluvium; emanation, exhalation; fume, essence, trail, nidor^, redolence. sense of smell; scent; act of smelling &c v.; olfaction, olfactories^. [pleasant odor] fragrance &c 400. odorant. [animal with acute sense of smell] bloodhound, hound. [smell detected by a hound] spoor. V. have an odor &c n.; smell, smell of, smell strong of; exhale; give out a smell &c n.; reek, reek of; scent. smell, scent; snuff, snuff up; sniff, nose, inhale. Adj. odorous, odoriferous; smelling, reeking, foul-smelling, strong- scented; redolent, graveolent^, nidorous^, pungent; putrid, foul. [Relating to the sense of smell] olfactory, quick-scented. 399. Inodorousness -- N. inodorousness^; absence of smell, want of smell. deodorant, deodorization, deodorizer. V. be inodorous &c adj.^; not smell. deodorize. Adj. inodorous^, onodorate; scentless; without smell, wanting smell &c 398. deodorized, deodorizing. 400. Fragrance -- N. fragrance, aroma, redolence, perfume, bouquet, essence, scent; sweet smell, aromatic perfume. agalloch^, agallochium^; aloes wood; bay rum; calambac^, calambour^; champak^, horehound, lign-aloes^, marrubium^, mint, muskrat, napha water^, olibanum^, spirit of myrcia^. essential oil. incense; musk, frankincense; pastil^, pastille; myrrh, perfumes of Arabia^; otto^, ottar^, attar; bergamot, balm, civet, potpourri, pulvil^; nosegay; scentbag^; sachet, smelling bottle, vinaigrette; eau de Cologne [Fr.], toilet water, lotion, after-shave lotion; thurification^. perfumer. [fragrant wood oils] eucalyptus oil, pinene. V. be fragrant &c adj.; have a perfume &c n.; smell sweet. scent [render fragrant], perfume, embalm. Adj. fragrant, aromatic, redolent, spicy, savory, balmy, scented, sweet-smelling, sweet-scented; perfumed, perfumatory^; thuriferous; fragrant as a rose, muscadine^, ambrosial. 401. Fetor -- N. fetor^; bad &c adj.. smell, bad odor; stench, stink; foul odor, malodor; empyreuma^; mustiness &c adj.; rancidity; foulness &c (uncleanness) 653. stoat, polecat, skunk; assafoetida^; fungus, garlic; stinkpot; fitchet^, fitchew^, fourmart^, peccary. acridity &c 401.1. V. have a bad smell &c n.; smell; stink, stink in the nostrils, stink like a polecat; smell strong &c adj., smell offensively. Adj. fetid; strong-smelling; high, bad, strong, fulsome, offensive, noisome, rank, rancid, reasty^, tainted, musty, fusty, frouzy^; olid^, olidous^; nidorous^; smelling, stinking; putrid &c 653; suffocating, mephitic; empyreumatic^. 401a. Acridity -- N. acridity, astringency, bite. [acrid substances] tear gas; smoke, acrid fumes. Adj. acrid, biting, astringent, sharp, harsh; bitter &c 392.2. (5) Sound (i) SOUND IN GENERAL 402. Sound -- N. sound, noise, strain; accent, twang, intonation, tone; cadence; sonorousness &c adj.; audibility; resonance &c 408; voice &c 580; aspirate; ideophone^; rough breathing. [Science, of sound] acoustics; phonics, phonetics, phonology, phonography^; diacoustics^, diaphonics^; phonetism^. V. produce sound; sound, make a noise; give out sound, emit sound; resound &c 408. Adj. sounding; soniferous^; sonorous, sonorific^; resonant, audible, distinct; stertorous; phonetic; phonic, phonocamptic^. Phr. a thousand trills and quivering sounds [Addison]; forensis strepitus [Lat.]. 403. Silence -- N. silence; stillness &c (quiet) 265; peace, hush, lull; muteness &c 581; solemn silence, awful silence, dead silence, deathlike silence. V. be silent &c adj.; hold one's tongue &c (not speak) 585. render silent &c adj.; silence, still, hush; stifle, muffle, stop; muzzle, put to silence &c (render mute) 581. Adj. silent; still, stilly; noiseless, soundless; hushed &c v.; mute &c 581. soft, solemn, awful, deathlike, silent as the grave; inaudible &c (faint) 405. Adv. silently &c adj.; sub silentio [Lat.]. Int. hush!, silence!, soft!, whist!, tush!, chut!^, tut!, pax! [Lat.], be quiet!, be silent!, be still!, shut up! [Slang]; chup!^, chup rao!^, tace! [It], Phr. one might hear a feather drop, one might hear a pin drop, so quiet you could hear a pin drop; grosse Seelen dulden still [G.]; le silence est la vertu de ceux qui ne sont pas sages [Fr.]; le silence est le parti le plus sar de celui se d_efie de soi-meme [Fr.]; silence more musical than any song [C.G. Rossetti]; tacent satis laudant [Lat.]; better to be silent and thought a fool than to speak up and remove all doubt. 404. Loudness -- N. loudness, power; loud noise, din; blare; clang, clangor; clatter, noise, bombilation^, roar, uproar, racket, hubbub, bobbery^, fracas, charivari^, trumpet blast, flourish of trumpets, fanfare, tintamarre^, peal, swell, blast, larum^, boom; bang (explosion) 406; resonance &c 408. vociferation, hullabaloo, &c 411; lungs; Stentor. artillery, cannon; thunder. V. be loud &c adj.; peal, swell, clang, boom, thunder, blare, fulminate, roar; resound &c 408. speak up, shout &c (vociferate) 411; bellow &c (cry as an animal) 412. rend the air, rend the skies; fill the air; din in the ear, ring in the ear, thunder in the ear; pierce the ears, split the ears, rend the ears, split the head; deafen, stun; faire le diable a quatre [Fr.]; make one's windows shake, rattle the windows; awaken the echoes, startle the echoes; wake the dead. Adj. loud, sonorous; high-sounding, big-sounding; deep, full, powerful, noisy, blatant, clangorous, multisonous^; thundering, deafening &c v.; trumpet-tongued; ear-splitting, ear-rending, ear-deafening; piercing; obstreperous, rackety, uproarious; enough to wake the dead, enough to wake seven sleepers. shrill &c 410 clamorous &c (vociferous) 411 stentorian, stentorophonic^. Adv. loudly &c adj.. aloud; at the top of one's voice, at the top of one's lungs, lustily, in full cry. Phr. the air rings with; the deep dread-bolted thunder [Lear]. 405. Faintness -- N. faintness &c adj.; faint sound, whisper, breath; undertone, underbreath^; murmur, hum, susurration; tinkle; still small voice. hoarseness &c adj.; raucity^. V. whisper, breathe, murmur, purl, hum, gurgle, ripple, babble, flow; tinkle; mutter &c (speak imperfectly) 583; susurrate^. steal on the ear; melt in the air, float on the air. Adj. inaudible; scarcely audible, just audible; low, dull; stifled, muffled; hoarse, husky; gentle, soft, faint; floating; purling, flowing &c v.; whispered &c v.; liquid; soothing; dulcet &c (melodious) 413; susurrant^, susurrous^. Adv. in a whisper, with bated breath, sotto voce [Lat.], between the teeth, aside; piano, pianissimo; d la sourdine^; out of earshot inaudibly &c adj.. (ii) SPECIFIC SOUNDS 406. [Sudden and violent sounds.] Snap -- N. snap &c v.; rapping &c v.; decrepitation, crepitation; report, thud; burst, explosion, blast, boom, discharge, detonation, firing, salvo, volley. squib, cracker, firecracker, cherry bomb, M80, gun, cap, cap gun, popgun. implosion. bomb burst, atomic explosion, nuclear explosion (arms) 727. [explosive substances] gunpowder, dynamite, gun cotton, nitroglycerine, nitrocellulose, plastic explosive, plastique, TNT, cordite, trinitrotoluene, picric acid, picrates, mercury fulminate (arms) 727. whack, wham, pow. V. rap, snap, tap, knock, ping; click; clash; crack, crackle; crash; pop; slam, bang, blast, boom, clap, clang, clack, whack, wham; brustle^; burst on the ear; crepitate, rump. blow up, blow; detonate. Adj. rapping &c v.. Int. kaboom!, whamo!, Heewhack!, pow!, 407. [Repeated and protracted sounds.] Roll -- N. roll &c v.; drumming &c v.; berloque^, bombination^, rumbling; tattoo, drumroll; dingdong; tantara^; rataplan^; whirr; ratatat, ratatat-tat; rubadub; pitapat; quaver, clutter, charivari^, racket; cuckoo; repetition &c 104; peal of bells, devil's tattoo; reverberation &c 408. [sound of railroad train rolling on rails] clickety-clack. hum, purr. [animals that hum] hummingbird. [animals that purr] cat, kitten (animal sounds) 412. V. roll, drum, rumble, rattle, clatter, patter, clack; bombinate^. hum, trill, shake; chime, peal, toll; tick, beat. drum in the ear, din in the ear. Adj. rolling &c v.; monotonous &c (repeated) 104; like a bee in a bottle. 408. Resonance -- N. resonance; ring &c v.; ringing, tintinabulation &c v.; reflexion [Brit.], reflection, reverberation; echo, reecho; zap, zot [Coll.]; buzz (hiss) 409. low note, base note, bass note, flat note, grave note, deep note; bass; basso, basso profondo [It]; baritone, barytone^; contralto. [device to cause resonance] echo chamber, resonator. [ringing in the ears] tinnitus [Med.]. [devices which make a resonating sound] bell, doorbell, buzzer; gong, cymbals (musical instruments) 417. [physical resonance] sympathetic vibrations; natural frequency, coupled vibration frequency; overtone; resonating cavity; sounding board, tuning fork. [electrical resonance] tuning, squelch, frequency selection; resonator, resonator circuit; radio &c [chemical resonance] resonant structure, aromaticity, alternating double bonds, non-bonded resonance; pi clouds, unsaturation, double bond, (valence). V. resound, reverberate, reecho, resonate; ring, jingle, gingle^, chink, clink; tink^, tinkle; chime; gurgle &c 405; plash, goggle, echo, ring in the ear. Adj. resounding &c v.; resonant, reverberant, tinnient^, tintinnabulary; sonorous, booming, deep-toned, deep-sounding, deep-mouthed, vibrant; hollow, sepulchral; gruff &c (harsh) 410. Phr. sweet bells jangled, out of time and harsh [Hamlet]; echoing down the mountain and through the dell. 408a. Nonresonance^ -- N. thud, thump, dead sound; nonresonance^; muffled drums, cracked bell; damper; silencer. V. sound dead; stop the sound, damp the sound, deaden the sound, deaden the reverberations, dampen the reverberations. Adj. nonresonant^, dead; dampened, muffled. 409. [Hissing sounds.] Sibilation -- N. sibilance, sibilation; zip; hiss &c v.; sternutation; high note &c 410. [animals that hiss] goose, serpent, snake (animal sounds) 412. [animals that buzz] insect, bug; bee, mosquito, wasp, fly. [inanimate things that hiss] tea kettle, pressure cooker; air valve, pressure release valve, safety valve, tires, air escaping from tires, punctured tire; escaping steam, steam, steam radiator, steam release valve. V. hiss, buzz, whiz, rustle; fizz, fizzle; wheeze, whistle, snuffle; squash; sneeze; sizzle, swish. Adj. sibilant; hissing &c v.; wheezy; sternutative^. 410. [Harsh sounds.] Stridor -- N. creak &c v.; creaking &c v.; discord, &c 414; stridor; roughness, sharpness, &c adj.; cacophony; cacoepy^. acute note, high note; soprano, treble, tenor, alto, falsetto, penny trumpet, voce di testa [It]. V. creak, grate, jar, burr, pipe, twang, jangle, clank, clink; scream &c (cry) 411; yelp &c (animal sound) 412; buzz &c (hiss) 409. set the teeth on edge, corcher les oreilles [Fr.]; pierce the ears, split the ears, split the head; offend the ear, grate upon the ear, jar upon the ear. Adj. creaking &c v.; stridulous^, harsh, coarse, hoarse, horrisonous^, rough, gruff, grum^, sepulchral, hollow. sharp, high, acute, shrill; trumpet-toned; piercing, ear-piercing, high-pitched, high-toned; cracked; discordant &c 414; cacophonous. 411. Cry -- N. cry &c v.; voice &c (human) 580; hubbub; bark &c (animal) 412. vociferation, outcry, hullabaloo, chorus, clamor, hue and cry, plaint; lungs; stentor. V. cry, roar, shout, bawl, brawl, halloo, halloa, hoop, whoop, yell, bellow, howl, scream, screech, screak^, shriek, shrill, squeak, squeal, squall, whine, pule, pipe, yaup^. cheer; hoot; grumble, moan, groan. snore, snort; grunt &c (animal sounds) 412. vociferate; raise up the voice, lift up the voice; call out, sing out, cry out; exclaim; rend the air; thunder at the top of one's voice, shout at the top of one's voice, shout at the pitch of one's breath, thunder at the pitch of one's breath; s'_egosiller; strain the throat, strain the voice, strain the lungs; give a cry &c Adj. crying &c v.; clamant^, clamorous; vociferous; stentorian &c (loud) 404; open-mouthed. 412. [Animal sounds.] Ululation -- N. cry &c v.; crying &c v.; bowwow, ululation, latration^, belling; reboation^; wood-note; insect cry, fritiniancy^, drone; screech owl; cuckoo. wailing (lamentation) 839. V. cry, roar, bellow, blare, rebellow^; growl, snarl. [specific animal sounds] bark [dog, seal]; bow-wow, yelp [dog]; bay, bay at the moon [dog, wolf]; yap, yip, yipe, growl, yarr^, yawl, snarl, howl [dog, wolf]; grunt, gruntle^; snort [pig, hog, swine, horse]; squeak, [swine, mouse]; neigh, whinny [horse]; bray [donkey, mule, hinny, ass]; mew, mewl [kitten]; meow [cat]; purr [cat]; caterwaul, pule [cats]; baa^, bleat [lamb]; low, moo [cow, cattle]; troat^, croak, peep [frog]; coo [dove, pigeon]; gobble [turkeys]; quack [duck]; honk, gaggle, guggle [goose]; crow, caw, squawk, screech, [crow]; cackle, cluck, clack [hen, rooster, poultry]; chuck, chuckle; hoot, hoo [owl]; chirp, cheep, chirrup, twitter, cuckoo, warble, trill, tweet, pipe, whistle [small birds]; hum [insects, hummingbird]; buzz [flying insects, bugs]; hiss [snakes, geese]; blatter^; ratatat [woodpecker]. Adj. crying &c v.; blatant, latrant^, remugient^, mugient^; deep-mouthed, full-mouthed; rebellowing^, reboant^. Adv. in full cry. (iii) MUSICAL SOUNDS 413. Melody. Concord -- N. melody, rhythm, measure; rhyme &c (poetry) 597. pitch, timbre, intonation, tone. scale, gamut; diapason; diatonic chromatic scale^, enharmonic scale^; key, clef, chords. modulation, temperament, syncope, syncopation, preparation, suspension, resolution. staff, stave, line, space, brace; bar, rest; appoggiato^, appoggiatura^; acciaccatura^. note, musical note, notes of a scale; sharp, flat, natural; high note &c (shrillness) 410; low note &c 408; interval; semitone; second, third, fourth &c; diatessaron^. breve, semibreve [Mus.], minim, crotchet, quaver; semiquaver, demisemiquaver, hemidemisemiquaver; sustained note, drone, burden. tonic; key note, leading note, fundamental note; supertonic^, mediant^, dominant; submediant^, subdominant^; octave, tetrachord^; major key, minor key, major scale, minor scale, major mode, minor mode; passage, phrase. concord, harmony; emmeleia^; unison, unisonance^; chime, homophony; euphony, euphonism^; tonality; consonance; consent; part. [Science of harmony] harmony, harmonics; thorough-bass, fundamental-bass; counterpoint; faburden^. piece of music &c 415 [Fr.]; composer, harmonist^, contrapuntist (musician) 416. V. be harmonious &c adj.; harmonize, chime, symphonize^, transpose; put in tune, tune, accord, string. Adj. harmonious, harmonical^; in concord &c n., in tune, in concert; unisonant^, concentual^, symphonizing^, isotonic, homophonous^, assonant; ariose^, consonant. measured, rhythmical, diatonic^, chromatic, enharmonic^. melodious, musical; melic^; tuneful, tunable; sweet, dulcet, canorous^; mellow, mellifluous; soft, clear, clear as a bell; silvery; euphonious, euphonic, euphonical^; symphonious; enchanting &c (pleasure- giving) 829; fine-toned, full-toned, silver-toned. Adv. harmoniously, in harmony; as one &c adj.. Phr. the hidden soul of harmony [Milton]. 414. Discord -- N. discord, discordance; dissonance, cacophony, want of harmony, caterwauling; harshness &c 410. [Confused sounds], Babel, Dutch concert, cat's concert; marrowbones and cleavers. V. be discordant &c adj.; jar &c (sound harshly) 410. Adj. discordant; dissonant, absonant^; out of tune, tuneless; unmusical, untunable^; unmelodious, immelodious^; unharmonious^, inharmonious; singsong; cacophonous; harsh &c 410; jarring. 415. Music -- N. music; concert; strain, tune, air; melody &c 413; aria, arietta^; piece of music [Fr.], work, number, opus; sonata; rondo, rondeau [Fr.]; pastorale, cavatina^, roulade^, fantasia, concerto, overture, symphony, variations, cadenza; cadence; fugue, canon, quodlibet, serenade, notturno [It], dithyramb; opera, operetta; oratorio; composition, movement; stave; passamezzo [It], toccata, Vorspiel [G.]. instrumental music; full score; minstrelsy, tweedledum and tweedledee, band, orchestra; concerted piece [Fr.], potpourri, capriccio. vocal music, vocalism^; chaunt, chant; psalm, psalmody; hymn; song &c (poem) 597; canticle, canzonet^, cantata, bravura, lay, ballad, ditty, carol, pastoral, recitative, recitativo^, solfeggio^. Lydian measures; slow music, slow movement; adagio &c adv.; minuet; siren strains, soft music, lullaby; dump; dirge &c (lament) 839; pibroch^; martial music, march; dance music; waltz &c (dance) 840. solo, duet, duo, trio; quartet, quartett^; septett^; part song, descant, glee, madrigal, catch, round, chorus, chorale; antiphon^, antiphony; accompaniment, second, bass; score; bourdon^, drone, morceau^, terzetto^. composer &c 413; musician &c 416. V. compose, perform &c 416; attune. Adj. musical; instrumental, vocal, choral, lyric, operatic; harmonious &c 413; Wagnerian. Adv. adagio; largo, larghetto, andante, andantino^; alla capella [It]; maestoso^, moderato; allegro, allegretto; spiritoso^, vivace^, veloce^; presto, prestissimo^; con brio; capriccioso^; scherzo, scherzando^; legato, staccato, crescendo, diminuendo, rallentando^, affettuoso^; obbligato; pizzicato; desto^. Phr. in notes by distance made more sweet [Collins]; like the faint exquisite music of a dream [Moore]; music arose with its voluptuous swell [Byron]; music is the universal language of mankind [Longfellow]; music's golden tongue [Keats]; the speech of angels [Carlyle]; will sing the savageness out of a bear [Othello]; music hath charms to soothe the savage beast. 416. Musician [Performance of Music.] -- N. musician, artiste, performer, player, minstrel; bard &c (poet) 597; [specific types of musicians] accompanist, accordionist, instrumentalist, organist, pianist, violinist, flautist; harper, fiddler, fifer^, trumpeter, piper, drummer; catgut scraper. band, orchestral waits. vocalist, melodist; singer, warbler; songster, chaunter^, chauntress^, songstress; cantatrice^. choir, quire, chorister; chorus, chorus singer; liedertafel [G.]. nightingale, philomel^, thrush; siren; bulbul, mavis; Pierides; sacred nine; Orpheus, Apollo^, the Muses Erato, Euterpe, Terpsichore; tuneful nine, tuneful quire. composer &c 413. performance, execution, touch, expression, solmization^. V. play, pipe, strike up, sweep the chords, tweedle, fiddle; strike the lyre, beat the drum; blow the horn, sound the horn, wind the horn; doodle; grind the organ; touch the guitar &c (instruments) 417; thrum, strum, beat time. execute, perform; accompany; sing a second, play a second; compose, set to music, arrange. sing, chaunt, chant, hum, warble, carol, chirp, chirrup, lilt, purl, quaver, trill, shake, twitter, whistle; sol-fa^; intone. have an ear for music, have a musical ear, have a correct ear. Adj. playing &c v.; musical. Adv. adagio, andante &c (music) 415. 417. Musical Instruments -- N. musical instruments; band; string-band, brass-band; orchestra; orchestrina^. [Stringed instruments], monochord^, polychord^; harp, lyre, lute, archlute^; mandola^, mandolin, mandoline^; guitar; zither; cither^, cithern^; gittern^, rebeck^, bandurria^, bandura, banjo; bina^, vina^; xanorphica^. viol, violin, fiddle, kit; viola, viola d'amore [Fr.], viola di gamba [It]; tenor, cremona, violoncello, bass; bass viol, base viol; theorbo^, double base, contrabasso^, violone^, psaltery [Slang]; bow, fiddlestick^. piano, pianoforte; harpsichord, clavichord, clarichord^, manichord^; clavier, spinet, virginals, dulcimer, hurdy-gurdy, vielle^, pianino^, Eolian harp. [Wind instruments]; organ, harmonium, harmoniphon^; American organ^, barrel organ, hand organ; accordion, seraphina^, concertina; humming top. flute, fife, piccolo, flageolet; clarinet, claronet^; basset horn, corno di bassetto [It], oboe, hautboy, cor Anglais [Fr.], corno Inglese^, bassoon, double bassoon, contrafagotto^, serpent, bass clarinet; bagpipes, union pipes; musette, ocarina, Pandean pipes; reed instrument; sirene^, pipe, pitch-pipe; sourdet^; whistle, catcall; doodlesack^, harmoniphone^. horn, bugle, cornet, cornet-a-pistons, cornopean^, clarion, trumpet, trombone, ophicleide^; French horn, saxophone, sax [Slang], buglehorn^, saxhorn, flugelhorn^, althorn^, helicanhorn^, posthorn^; sackbut, euphonium, bombardon tuba^. [Vibrating surfaces] cymbal, bell, gong; tambour^, tambourine, tamborine^; drum, tom-tom; tabor, tabret^, tabourine^, taborin^; side drum, kettle drum; timpani, tympani^; tymbal^, timbrel^, castanet, bones; musical glasses, musical stones; harmonica, sounding-board, rattle; tam-tam, zambomba^. [Vibrating bars] reed, tuning fork, triangle, Jew's harp, musical box, harmonicon^, xylophone. sordine^, sordet^; sourdine^, sourdet^; mute. (iv) PERCEPTION OF SOUND 418. [Sense of sound.] Hearing -- N. hearing &c v.; audition, auscultation; eavesdropping; audibility. acute ear, nice ear, delicate ear, quick ear, sharp ear, correct ear, musical ear; ear for music. ear, auricle, lug, acoustic organs, auditory apparatus; eardrum, tympanum, tympanic membrane. [devices to aid human hearing by amplifying sound] ear trumpet, speaking trumpet, hearing aid, stethoscope. [distance within which direct hearing is possible] earshot, hearing distance, hearing, hearing range, sound, carrying distance. [devices for talking beyond hearing distance: list] telephone, phone, telephone booth, intercom, house phone, radiotelephone, radiophone, wireless, wireless telephone, mobile telephone, car radio, police radio, two-way radio, walkie-talkie [Mil.], handie-talkie, citizen's band, CB, amateur radio, ham radio, short-wave radio, police band, ship-to-shore radio, airplane radio, control tower communication; (communication) 525, 527, 529, 531, 532; electronic devices [devices for recording and reproducing recorded sound], phonograph, gramophone, megaphone, phonorganon^. [device to convert sound to electrical signals] microphone, directional microphone, mike, hand mike, lapel microphone. [devices to convert recorded sound to electronic signals] phonograph needle, stylus, diamond stylus, pickup; reading head (electronic devices). hearer, auditor, listener, eavesdropper, listener-in. auditory, audience. [science of hearing] otology, otorhinolaryngology. [physicians specializing in hearing] otologist, otorhinolaryngologist. V. hear, overhear; hark, harken; list, listen, pay attention, take heed; give an ear, lend an ear, bend an ear; catch, catch a sound, prick up one's ears; give ear, give a hearing, give audience to. hang upon the lips of, be all ears, listen with both ears. become audible; meet the ear, fall upon the ear, catch the ear, reach the ear; be heard; ring in the ear &c (resound) 408. Adj. hearing &c v.; auditory, auricular, acoustic; phonic. Adv. arrectis auribus [Lat.]. Int. hark, hark ye!, hear!, list, listen!, O yes!, Oyez!, listen up [Coll.]; listen here!, hear ye!, attention!, achtung [G.]. 419. Deafness -- N. deafness, hardness of hearing, surdity^; inaudibility, inaudibleness^. V. be deaf &c adj.; have no ear; shut one's ears, stop one's ears, close one's ears; turn a deaf ear to. render deaf, stun, deafen. Adj. deaf, earless^, surd; hard of hearing, dull of hearing; deaf-mute, stunned, deafened; stone deaf; deaf as a post, deaf as an adder, deaf as a beetle, deaf as a trunkmaker^. inaudible, out of hearing. Phr. hear no evil. (6) Light (i) LIGHT IN GENERAL 420. Light -- N. light, ray, beam, stream, gleam, streak, pencil; sunbeam, moonbeam; aurora. day; sunshine; light of day, light of heaven; moonlight, starlight, sunlight &c (luminary) 432; daylight, broad daylight, noontide light; noontide, noonday, noonday sun. glow &c v.; glimmering &c v.; glint; play of light, flood of light; phosphorescence, lambent flame. flush, halo, glory, nimbus, aureola. spark, scintilla; facula; sparkling &c v.; emication^, scintillation, flash, blaze, coruscation, fulguration^; flame &c (fire) 382; lightning, levin^, ignis fatuus [Lat.], &c (luminary) 423. luster, sheen, shimmer, reflexion [Brit.], reflection; gloss, tinsel, spangle, brightness, brilliancy, splendor; effulgence, refulgence; fulgor^, fulgidity^; dazzlement^, resplendence, transplendency^; luminousness &c adj.; luminosity; lucidity; renitency^, nitency^; radiance, radiation; irradiation, illumination. actinic rays, actinism; Roentgen-ray, Xray; photography, heliography; photometer &c 445. [Science of light] optics; photology^, photometry; dioptrics^, catoptrics^. [Distribution of light] chiaroscuro, clairobscur^, clear obscure, breadth, light and shade, black and white, tonality. reflection, refraction, dispersion; refractivity. V. shine, glow, glitter; glister, glisten; twinkle, gleam; flare, flare up; glare, beam, shimmer, glimmer, flicker, sparkle, scintillate, coruscate, flash, blaze; be bright &c adj.; reflect light, daze, dazzle, bedazzle, radiate, shoot out beams; fulgurate. clear up, brighten. lighten, enlighten; levin^; light, light up; irradiate, shine upon; give out a light, hang out a light; cast light upon, cast light in, throw light upon, throw light in, shed light upon, shed luster upon; illume^, illumine, illuminate; relume^, strike a light; kindle &c (set fire to) 384. Adj. shining &c v.; luminous, luminiferous^; lucid, lucent, luculent^, lucific^, luciferous; light, lightsome; bright, vivid, splendent^, nitid^, lustrous, shiny, beamy^, scintillant^, radiant, lambent; sheen, sheeny; glossy, burnished, glassy, sunny, orient, meridian; noonday, tide; cloudless, clear; unclouded, unobscured^. gairish^, garish; resplendent, transplendent^; refulgent, effulgent; fulgid^, fulgent^; relucent^, splendid, blazing, in a blaze, ablaze, rutilant^, meteoric, phosphorescent; aglow. bright as silver; light as day, bright as day, light as noonday, bright as noonday, bright as the sun at noonday. actinic; photogenic, graphic; heliographic; heliophagous^. Phr. a day for gods to stoop and men to soar [Tennyson]; dark with excessive bright [Milton]. 421. Darkness -- N. darkness &c adj., absence of light; blackness &c (dark color) 431; obscurity, gloom, murk; dusk &c (dimness) 422. Cimmerian darkness^, Stygian darkness, Egyptian darkness; night; midnight; dead of night, witching hour of night, witching time of night; blind man's holiday; darkness visible, darkness that can be felt; palpable obscure; Erebus [Lat.]; the jaws of darkness [Midsummer Night's Dream]; sablevested night [Milton]. shade, shadow, umbra, penumbra; sciagraphy^. obscuration; occultation, adumbration, obumbration^; obtenebration^, offuscation^, caligation^; extinction; eclipse, total eclipse; gathering of the clouds. shading; distribution of shade; chiaroscuro &c (light) 420. noctivagation^. [perfectly black objects] black body; hohlraum [Phys.]; black hole; dark star; dark matter, cold dark matter. V. be dark &c adj.. darken, obscure, shade; dim; tone down, lower; overcast, overshadow; eclipse; obfuscate, offuscate^; obumbrate^, adumbrate; cast into the shade becloud, bedim^, bedarken^; cast a shade, throw a shade, spread a shade, cast a shadow, cast a gloom, throw a shadow, spread a shadow, cast gloom, throw gloom, spread gloom. extinguish; put out, blow out, snuff out; doubt. turn out the lights, douse the lights, dim the lights, turn off the lights, switch off the lights. Adj. dark, darksome^, darkling; obscure, tenebrious^, sombrous^, pitch dark, pitchy, pitch black; caliginous^; black &c (in color) 431. sunless, lightless &c (sun) (light), &c 423; somber, dusky; unilluminated &c (illuminate) &c 420 [Obs.]; nocturnal; dingy, lurid, gloomy; murky, murksome^; shady, umbrageous; overcast &c (dim) 422; cloudy &c (opaque) 426; darkened; &c v.. dark as pitch, dark as a pit, dark as Erebus [Lat.]. benighted; noctivagant^, noctivagous^. Adv. in the dark, in the shade. Phr. brief as the lightning in the collied night [M. N. D.]; eldest Night and Chaos, ancestors of Nature [Paradise Lost]; the blackness of the noonday night [Longfellow]; the prayer of Ajax was for light [Longfellow]. 422. Dimness -- N. dimness &c adj.; darkness &c 421; paleness &c (light color) 429. half light, demi-jour; partial shadow, partial eclipse; shadow of a shade; glimmer, gliming^; nebulosity; cloud &c 353; eclipse. aurora, dusk, twilight, shades of evening, crepuscule, cockshut time^; break of day, daybreak, dawn. moonlight, moonbeam, moonglade^, moonshine; starlight, owl's light, candlelight, rushlight, firelight; farthing candle. V. be dim, grow dim &c adj.; flicker, twinkle, glimmer; loom, lower; fade; pale, pale its ineffectual fire [Hamlet]. render dim &c adj.; dim, bedim^, obscure; darken, tone down. Adj. dim, dull, lackluster, dingy, darkish, shorn of its beams, dark 421. faint, shadowed forth; glassy; cloudy; misty &c (opaque) 426; blear; muggy^, fuliginous^; nebulous, nebular; obnubilated^, overcast, crepuscular, muddy, lurid, leaden, dun, dirty; looming &c v.. pale &c (colorless) 429; confused &c (invisible) 447. 423. [Source of light, self-luminous body.] Luminary -- N. luminary; light &c 420; flame &c (fire) 382. spark, scintilla; phosphorescence, fluorescence. sun, orb of day, Phoebus, Apollo^, Aurora; star, orb; meteor, falling star, shooting star; blazing star, dog star, Sirius; canicula, Aldebaran^; constellation, galaxy; zodiacal light; anthelion^; day star, morning star; Lucifer; mock sun, parhelion; phosphor, phosphorus; sun dog^; Venus. aurora, polar lights; northern lights, aurora borealis; southern lights, aurora australis. lightning; chain lightning, fork lightning, sheet lightning, summer lightning; ball lightning, kugelblitz [G.]; [chemical substances giving off light without burning] phosphorus, yellow phosphorus; scintillator, phosphor; firefly luminescence. ignis fatuus [Lat.]; Jack o'lantern, Friar's lantern; will-o'-the- wisp, firedrake^, Fata Morgana [Lat.]; Saint Elmo's fire. [luminous insects] glowworm, firefly, June bug, lightning bug. [luminous fish] anglerfish. [Artificial light] gas; gas light, lime light, lantern, lanthorn^; dark lantern, bull's-eye; candle, bougie [Fr.], taper, rushlight; oil &c (grease) 356; wick, burner; Argand^, moderator, duplex; torch, flambeau, link, brand; gaselier^, chandelier, electrolier^, candelabrum, candelabra, girandole^, sconce, luster, candlestick. [non-combustion based light sources] lamp, light; incandescent lamp, tungsten bulb, light bulb; flashlight, torch [Brit.]; arc light; laser; [microwave radiation]; maser neon bulb, neon sign; fluorescent lamp. [parts of a light bulb] filament; socket; contacts; filler gas. firework, fizgig^; pyrotechnics; rocket, lighthouse &c (signal) 550. V. illuminate &c (light) 420. Adj. self-luminous, glowing; phosphoric^, phosphorescent, fluorescent; incandescent; luminescent, chemiluminescent; radiant &c (light) 420. Phr. blossomed the lovely stars, the forget-me-nots of the angels [Longfellow]; the sentinel stars set their watch in the sky [Campbell]; the planets in their station list'ning stood [Paradise Lost]; the Scriptures of the skies [Bailey]; that orbed continent, the fire that severs day from night [Twelfth Night]. 424. Shade -- N. shade; awning &c (cover) 223; parasol, sunshade, umbrella; chick; portiere; screen, curtain, shutter, blind, gauze, veil, chador, mantle, mask; cloud, mist, gathering. of clouds. umbrage, glade; shadow &c 421. beach umbrella, folding umbrella. V. draw a curtain; put up a shutter, close a shutter; veil &c v.; cast a shadow &c (darken) 421. Adj. shady, umbrageous. Phr. welcome ye shades! ye bowery thickets hail [Thomson]. 425. Transparency -- N. transparence, transparency; clarity; translucence, translucency; diaphaneity^; lucidity, pellucidity^, limpidity; fluorescence; transillumination, translumination^. transparent medium, glass, crystal, lymph, vitrite^, water. V. be transparent &c adj.; transmit light. Adj. transparent, pellucid, lucid, diaphanous, translucent, tralucent^, relucent^; limpid, clear, serene, crystalline, clear as crystal, vitreous, transpicuous^, glassy, hyaline; hyaloid [Med.], vitreform^. 426. Opacity -- N. opacity; opaqueness &c adj.. film; cloud &c 353. V. be opaque &c adj.; obstruct the passage of light; obfuscate, offuscate^. Adj. opaque, impervious to light; adiaphanous^; dim &c 422; turbid, thick, muddy, opacous^, obfuscated, fuliginous^, cloud, hazy, misty, foggy, vaporous, nubiferous^, muggy^ &c (turbidity) 426.1. smoky, fumid^, murky, dirty. 426a. Turbidity -- N. turbidity, cloudiness, fog, haze, muddiness, haziness, obscurity. nephelometer [instrument to measure turbidity]. Adj. turbid, thick, muddy, obfuscated, fuliginous^, hazy, misty, foggy, vaporous, nubiferous^; cloudy (cloud) 353. smoky, fumid^, murky, dirty. 427. Semitransparency -- N. semitransparency, translucency, semiopacity; opalescence, milkiness, pearliness^; gauze, muslin; film; mica, mother-of-pearl, nacre; mist &c (cloud) 353. [opalescent jewel] opal. turbidity &c 426.1. Adj. semitransparent, translucent, semipellucid^, semidiaphanous^, semiopacous^, semiopaque; opalescent, opaline^; pearly, milky; frosted, nacreous. V. opalesce. (ii) SPECIFIC LIGHT 428. Color -- N. color, hue, tint, tinge, dye, complexion, shade, tincture, cast, livery, coloration, glow, flush; tone, key. pure color, positive color, primary color, primitive complementary color; three primaries; spectrum, chromatic dispersion; broken color, secondary color, tertiary color. local color, coloring, keeping, tone, value, aerial perspective. [Science of color] chromatics, spectrum analysis, spectroscopy; chromatism^, chromatography^, chromatology^. [instruments to measure color] prism, spectroscope, spectrograph, spectrometer, colorimeter (optical instruments) 445. pigment, coloring matter, paint, dye, wash, distemper, stain; medium; mordant; oil paint &c (painting) 556. V. color, dye, tinge, stain, tint, tinct^, paint, wash, ingrain, grain, illuminate, emblazon, bedizen, imbue; paint &c (fine art) 556. Adj. colored &c v.; colorific^, tingent^, tinctorial^; chromatic, prismatic; full-colored, high-colored, deep-colored; doubly-dyed; polychromatic; chromatogenous^; tingible^. bright, vivid, intense, deep; fresh, unfaded^; rich, gorgeous; gay. gaudy, florid; gay, garish; rainbow-colored, multihued; showy, flaunting, flashy; raw, crude; glaring, flaring; discordant, inharmonious. mellow, pastel, harmonious, pearly, sweet, delicate, tender, refined. 429. [Absence of color.] Achromatism -- N. achromatism^; decoloration^, discoloration; pallor, pallidness, pallidity^; paleness &c adj.; etiolation; neutral tint, monochrome, black and white. V. lose color &c 428; fade, fly, go; become colorless &c adj.; turn pale, pale. deprive of color, decolorize, bleach, tarnish, achromatize, blanch, etiolate, wash out, tone down. Adj. uncolored &c (color) &c 428; colorless, achromatic, aplanatic^; etiolate, etiolated; hueless^, pale, pallid; palefaced^, tallow-faced; faint, dull, cold, muddy, leaden, dun, wan, sallow, dead, dingy, ashy, ashen, ghastly, cadaverous, glassy, lackluster; discolored &c v.. light-colored, fair, blond; white &c 430. pale as death, pale as ashes, pale as a witch, pale as a ghost, pale as a corpse, white as a corpse. 430. Whiteness -- N. whiteness &c adj.; argent. albification^, etiolation; lactescence^. snow, paper, chalk, milk, lily, ivory, alabaster; albata^, eburin^, German silver, white metal, barium sulphate [Chem], titanium oxide, blanc fixe [Fr.], ceruse^, pearl white; white lead, carbonate of lead. V. be white &c adj.. render white &c adj.; whiten, bleach, blanch, etiolate, whitewash, silver. Adj. white; milk-white, snow-white; snowy; niveous^, candid, chalky; hoar, hoary; silvery; argent, argentine; canescent^, cretaceous, lactescent^. whitish, creamy, pearly, fair, blond; blanched &c v.; high in tone, light. white as a sheet, white as driven snow, white as a lily, white as silver; like ivory &c n.. 431. Blackness -- N. blackness, &c adj.; darkness, &c (want of light).. 421; swartliness^, lividity, dark color, tone, color; chiaroscuro &c 420. nigrification^, infuscation^. jet, ink, ebony, coal pitch, soot, charcoal, sloe, smut, raven, crow. [derogatory terms for black-skinned people] negro, blackamoor, man of color, nigger, darkie, Ethiop, black; buck, nigger [U.S.]; coon [U.S.], sambo. [Pigments] lampblack, ivory black, blueblack; writing ink, printing ink, printer's ink, Indian ink, India ink. V. be black &c adj.; render black &c adj.. blacken, infuscate^, denigrate; blot, blotch; smutch^; smirch; darken &c 421. black, sable, swarthy, somber, dark, inky, ebony, ebon, atramentous^, jetty; coal-black, jet-black; fuliginous^, pitchy, sooty, swart, dusky, dingy, murky, Ethiopic; low-toned, low in tone; of the deepest dye. black as jet &c n., black as my hat, black as a shoe, black as a tinker's pot, black as November, black as thunder, black as midnight; nocturnal &c (dark) 421; nigrescent^; gray &c 432; obscure &c 421. Adv. in mourning. 432. Gray -- N. gray &c adj.; neutral tint, silver, pepper and salt, chiaroscuro, grisaille [Fr.]. [Pigments] Payne's gray; black &c 431. Adj. gray, grey; iron-gray, dun, drab, dingy, leaden, livid, somber, sad, pearly, russet, roan; calcareous, limy, favillous^; silver, silvery, silvered; ashen, ashy; cinereous^, cineritious^; grizzly, grizzled; slate-colored, stone-colored, mouse-colored, ash-colored; cool. 433. Brown -- N. brown &c adj.. [Pigments],, bister ocher, sepia, Vandyke brown. V. render brown &c adj.; tan, embrown^, bronze. Adj. brown, bay, dapple, auburn, castaneous^, chestnut, nut-brown, cinnamon, russet, tawny, fuscous^, chocolate, maroon, foxy, tan, brunette, whitey brown^; fawn-colored, snuff-colored, liver-colored; brown as a berry, brown as mahogany, brown as the oak leaves; khaki. sun-burnt; tanned &c v.. Primitive Colors 434. Redness -- N. red, scarlet, vermilion, carmine, crimson, pink, lake, maroon, carnation, couleur de rose [Fr.], rose du Barry^; magenta, damask, purple; flesh color, flesh tint; color; fresh color, high color; warmth; gules [Heral.]. ruby, carbuncle; rose; rust, iron mold. [Dyes and pigments] cinnabar, cochineal; fuchsine^; ruddle^, madder; Indian red, light red, Venetian red; red ink, annotto^; annatto^, realgar, minium^, red lead. redness &c adj.; rubescence^, rubicundity, rubification^; erubescence^, blush. V. be red, become red &c adj.; blush, flush, color up, mantle, redden. render red &c adj.; redden, rouge; rubify^, rubricate; incarnadine.; ruddle^. Adj. red &c n., reddish; rufous, ruddy, florid, incarnadine, sanguine; rosy, roseate; blowzy, blowed^; burnt; rubicund, rubiform^; lurid, stammell blood red^; russet buff, murrey^, carroty^, sorrel, lateritious^; rubineous^, rubricate, rubricose^, rufulous^. rose-colored, ruby-colored, cherry-colored, claret-colored, flame- colored, flesh-colored, peach-colored, salmon-colored, brick-colored, brick-colored, dust-colored. blushing &c v.; erubescent^; reddened &c v.. red as fire, red as blood, red as scarlet, red as a turkey cock, red as a lobster; warm, hot; foxy. Complementary Colors 435. Greenness -- N. green &c adj.; blue and yellow; vert [Heral.]. emerald, verd antique [Fr.], verdigris, malachite, beryl, aquamarine; absinthe, cr=eme de menthe [Fr.]. [Pigments] terre verte [Fr.], verditer^, verdine^, copperas. greenness, verdure; viridity^, viridescence^; verditure^. [disease of eyes with green tint] glaucoma, rokunaisho [Jap.Tr.]. Adj. green, verdant; glaucous, olive, olive green; green as grass; verdurous. emerald green, pea green, grass green, apple green, sea green, olive green, bottle green, coke bottle green. greenish; virent^, virescent^. green (learner) 541, new, inexperienced, novice, (unskillful) 699. green (ill, sick). Phr. green with envy; the green grass of Ireland; the wearing of the green. 436. Yellowness -- N. yellow &c adj.; or. [Pigments] gamboge; cadmium-yellow, chrome-yellow, Indian-yellow king's-yellow, lemonyellow; orpiment^, yellow ocher, Claude tint, aureolin^; xanthein [Chem], xanthin^; zaofulvin^. crocus, saffron, topaz; xanthite^; yolk. jaundice; London fog^; yellowness &c adj.; icterus^; xantho- cyanopia^, xanthopsia [Med.]. Adj. yellow, aureate, golden, flavous^, citrine, fallow; fulvous^, fulvid^; sallow, luteous^, tawny, creamy, sandy; xanthic^, xanthous^; jaundiced^, auricomous^. gold-colored, citron-colored, saffron-colored, lemon-colored, lemon yellow, sulphur-colored, amber-colored, straw-colored, primrose- colored, creamcolored; xanthocarpous^, xanthochroid^, xanthopous^. yellow as a quince, yellow as a guinea, yellow as a crow's foot. warm, advancing. 437. Purple -- N. purple &c adj.; blue and red, bishop's purple; aniline dyes, gridelin^, amethyst; purpure [Heral.]; heliotrope. lividness, lividity. V. empurple^. Adj. purple, violet, ultraviolet; plum-colored, lavender, lilac, puce, mauve; livid. 438. Blueness -- N. blue &c adj.; garter-blue; watchet^. [Pigments] ultramarine, smalt, cobalt, cyanogen [Chem]; Prussian blue, syenite blue^; bice^, indigo; zaffer^. lapis lazuli, sapphire, turquoise; indicolite^. blueness, bluishness; bloom. Adj. blue, azure, cerulean; sky-blue, sky-colored, sky-dyed; cerulescent^; powder blue, bluish; atmospheric, retiring; cold. 439. Orange -- N. orange, red and yellow; gold; or; flame color &c adj.. [Pigments] ocher, Mars'orange^, cadmium. cardinal bird, cardinal flower, cardinal grosbeak, cardinal lobelia (a flowering plant). V. gild, warm. Adj. orange; ochreous^; orange-colored, gold-colored, flame-colored, copper-colored, brass-colored, apricot-colored; warm, hot, glowing. 440. Variegation -- N. variegation; colors, dichroism, trichroism; iridescence, play of colors, polychrome, maculation, spottiness, striae. spectrum, rainbow, iris, tulip, peacock, chameleon, butterfly, tortoise shell; mackerel, mackerel sky; zebra, leopard, cheetah, nacre, ocelot, ophite^, mother-of-pearl, opal, marble. check, plaid, tartan, patchwork; marquetry-, parquetry; mosaic, tesserae^, strigae^; chessboard, checkers, chequers; harlequin; Joseph's coat; tricolor. V. be variegated &c adj.; variegate, stripe, streak, checker, chequer; bespeckle^, speckle; besprinkle, sprinkle; stipple, maculate, dot, bespot^; tattoo, inlay, damascene; embroider, braid, quilt. Adj. variegated &c v.; many-colored, many-hued; divers-colored, party- colored; dichromatic, polychromatic; bicolor^, tricolor, versicolor^; of all the colors of the rainbow, of all manner of colors; kaleidoscopic. iridescent; opaline^, opalescent; prismatic, nacreous, pearly, shot, gorge de pigeon, chatoyant^; irisated^, pavonine^. pied, piebald; motley; mottled, marbled; pepper and salt, paned, dappled, clouded, cymophanous^. mosaic, tesselated, plaid; tortoise shell &c n.. spotted, spotty; punctated^, powdered; speckled &c v.; freckled, flea-bitten, studded; flecked, fleckered^; striated, barred, veined; brinded^, brindled; tabby; watered; grizzled; listed; embroidered &c v.; daedal^; naevose^, stipiform^; strigose^, striolate^. (iii) PERCEPTIONS OF LIGHT 441. Vision -- N. vision, sight, optics, eyesight. view, look, espial^, glance, ken [Scot.], coup d'oeil [Fr.]; glimpse, glint, peep; gaze, stare, leer; perlustration^, contemplation; conspection^, conspectuity^; regard, survey; introspection; reconnaissance, speculation, watch, espionage, espionnage [Fr.], autopsy; ocular inspection, ocular demonstration; sight-seeing. point of view; gazebo, loophole, belvedere, watchtower. field of view; theater, amphitheater, arena, vista, horizon; commanding view, bird's eye view; periscope. visual organ, organ of vision; eye; naked eye, unassisted eye; retina, pupil, iris, cornea, white; optics, orbs; saucer eyes, goggle eyes, gooseberry eyes. short sight &c 443; clear sight, sharp sight, quick sight, eagle sight, piercing sight, penetrating sight, clear glance, sharp glance, quick glance, eagle glance, piercing glance, penetrating glance, clear eye, sharp eye, quick eye, eagle eye, piercing eye, penetrating eye; perspicacity, discernment; catopsis^. eagle, hawk; cat, lynx; Argus^. evil eye; basilisk, cockatrice [Myth.]. V. see, behold, discern, perceive, have in sight, descry, sight, make out, discover, distinguish, recognize, spy, espy, ken [Scot.]; get a sight of, have a sight of, catch a sight of, get a glimpse of, have a glimpse of, catch a glimpse of; command a view of; witness, contemplate, speculate; cast the eyes on, set the eyes on; be a spectator of &c 444; look on &c (be present) 186; see sights &c (curiosity) 455; see at a glance &c (intelligence) 498. look, view, eye; lift up the eyes, open one's eye; look at, look on, look upon, look over, look about one, look round; survey, scan, inspect; run the eye over, run the eye through; reconnoiter, glance round, glance on, glance over turn one's looks upon, bend one's looks upon; direct the eyes to, turn the eyes on, cast a glance. observe &c (attend to) 457; watch &c (care) 459; see with one's own eyes; watch for &c (expect) 507; peep, peer, pry, take a peep; play at bopeep^. look full in the face, look hard at, look intently; strain one's eyes; fix the eyes upon, rivet the eyes upon; stare, gaze; pore over, gloat on; leer, ogle, glare; goggle; cock the eye, squint, gloat, look askance. Adj. seeing &c v.; visual, ocular; optic, optical; ophthalmic. clear-eyesighted &c n.; eagle-eyed, hawk-eyed, lynx-eyed, keen- eyed, Argus-eyed. visible &c 446. Adv. visibly &c 446; in sight of, with one's eyes open at sight, at first sight, at a glance, at the first blush; prima facie [Lat.]. Int. look!, &c (attention) 457. Phr. the scales falling from one's eyes; an eye like Mars to threaten or command [Hamlet]; her eyes are homes of silent prayer [Tennyson]; looking before and after [Hamlet]; thy rapt soul sitting in thine eyes [Milton]. 442. Blindness -- N. blindness, cecity^, excecation^, amaurosis^, cataract, ablepsy^, ablepsia^, prestriction^; dim-sightedness &c 443; Braille, Braille-type; guttaserena (drop serene), noctograph^, teichopsia^. V. be blind &c adj.; not see; lose sight of; have the eyes bandaged; grope in the dark. not look; close the eyes, shut the eyes-, turn away the eyes, avert the eyes; look another way; wink &c (limited vision) 443; shut the eyes to, be blind to, wink at, blink at. render blind &c adj.; blind, blindfold; hoodwink, dazzle, put one's eyes out; throw dust into one's eyes, pull the wool over one's eyes; jeter de la poudre aux yeux [Fr.]; screen from sight &c (hide) 528. Adj. blind; eyeless, sightless, visionless; dark; stone-blind, sand- blind, stark-blind; undiscerning^; dimsighted &c 443. blind as a bat, blind as a buzzard, blind as a beetle, blind as a mole, blind as an owl; wall-eyed. blinded &c v.. Adv. blindly, blindfold, blindfolded; darkly. Phr. O dark, dark, dark, amid the blaze of noon [Milton]. 443. [Imperfect vision.] Dimsightedness [Fallacies of vision.] -- N. dim sight, dull sight half sight, short sight, near sight, long sight, double sight, astigmatic sight, failing sight; dimsightedness &c; purblindness, lippitude^; myopia, presbyopia^; confusion of vision; astigmatism; color blindness, chromato pseudo blepsis^, Daltonism; nyctalopia^; strabismus, strabism^, squint; blearedness^, day blindness, hemeralopia^, nystagmus; xanthocyanopia^, xanthopsia [Med.]; cast in the eye, swivel eye, goggle-eyes; obliquity of vision. winking &c v.; nictitation; blinkard^, albino. dizziness, swimming, scotomy^; cataract; ophthalmia. [Limitation of vision] blinker; screen &c (hider) 530. [Fallacies of vision] deceptio visus [Lat.]; refraction, distortion, illusion, false light, anamorphosis^, virtual image, spectrum, mirage, looming, phasma^; phantasm, phantasma^, phantom; vision; specter, apparition, ghost; ignis fatuus [Lat.] &c (luminary) 423; specter of the Brocken; magic mirror; magic lantern &c (show) 448; mirror lens &c (instrument) 445. V. be dimsighted &c n.; see double; have a mote in the eye, have a mist before the eyes, have a film over the eyes; see through a prism, see through a glass darkly; wink, blink, nictitate; squint; look askant^, askant askance^; screw up the eyes, glare, glower; nictate^. dazzle, loom. Adj. dim-sighted &c n.; myopic, presbyopic^; astigmatic, moon-eyed, mope-eyed, blear-eyed, goggle-eyed, gooseberry-eyed, one-eyed; blind of one eye, monoculous^; half-blind, purblind; cock-eyed, dim-eyed, mole- eyed; dichroic. blind as a bat &c (blind) 442; winking &c v.. 444. Spectator -- N. spectator, beholder, observer, looker-on, onlooker, witness, eyewitness, bystander, passer by; sightseer; rubberneck, rubbernecker [U.S.]. spy; sentinel &c (warning) 668. V. witness, behold &c (see) 441; look on &c (be present) 186; gawk, rubber [Slang], rubberneck [U.S.]. 445. Optical Instruments -- N. optical instruments; lens, meniscus, magnifier, sunglass, magnifying glass, hand lens; microscope, megascope^, tienoscope^. spectacles, specs [Coll.], glasses, barnacles, goggles, eyeglass, pince-nez, monocle, reading glasses, bifocals; contact lenses, soft lenses, hard lenses; sunglasses, shades [Coll.]. periscopic lens^; telescope, glass, lorgnette; spyglass, opera glass, binocular, binoculars, field glass; burning glass, convex lens, concave lens, convexo-concave lens^, coated lens, multiple lens, compound lens, lens system, telephoto lens, wide-angle lens, fish-eye lens, zoom lens; optical bench. astronomical telescope, reflecting telescope, reflector, refracting telescope, refractor, Newtonian telescope, folded-path telescope, finder telescope, chromatoscope; X-ray telescope; radiotelescope, phased-array telescope, Very Large Array radiotelescope; ultraviolet telescope; infrared telescope; star spectroscope; space telescope. [telescope mounts] altazimuth mount, equatorial mount. refractometer, circular dichroism spectrometer. interferometer. phase-contrast microscope, fluorescence microscope, dissecting microscope; electron microscope, transmission electron microscope; scanning electron microscope, SEM; scanning tunneling electron microscope. [microscope components] objective lens, eyepiece, barrel, platform, focusing knob; slide, slide glass, cover glass, counting chamber; illuminator, light source, polarizer, [component parts of telescopes] reticle, cross-hairs. light pipe, fiber optics mirror, reflector, speculum; looking- glass, pier-glass, cheval-glass, rear-view mirror, hand mirror, one-way mirror, magnifying mirror. [room with distorting mirrors] fun house. prism, diffraction grating; beam splitter, half-wave plate, quarter-wave plate. camera lucida [Lat.], camera obscura [Lat.]; magic lantern &c (show) 448; stereopticon; chromatrope^, thaumatrope^; stereoscope, pseudoscope^, polyscope^, kaleidoscope. photometer, eriometer^, actinometer^, lucimeter^, radiometer; ligth detector, photodiode, photomultiplier, photodiode array, photocell. X-ray diffractometer, goniometer. spectrometer, monochrometer, UV spectrometer, visible spectrometer, Infrared spectrometer, Fourier transform infrared spectrometer, recording spectrometer; densitometer, scanning densitometer, two-dimensional densitometer. abdominoscope^, gastroscope [Med.], helioscope^, polariscope^, polemoscope^, spectroscope. abdominoscopy^; gastroscopy [Med.]; microscopy, microscopist. 446. Visibility -- N. visibility, perceptibility; conspicuousness, distinctness &c adj.; conspicuity^, conspicuousness; appearance &c 448; bassetting^; exposure; manifestation &c 525; ocular proof, ocular evidence, ocular demonstration; field of view &c (vision) 441; periscopism^. V. be become visible &c adj.; appear, open to the view; meet the eye, catch the eye; basset; present itself, show manifest itself, produce itself, discover itself, reveal itself, expose itself, betray itself; stand forth, stand out; materialize; show; arise; peep out, peer out, crop out; start up, spring up, show up, turn up, crop up; glimmer, loom; glare; burst forth; burst upon the view, burst upon the sight; heave in sight; come in sight, come into view, come out, come forth, come forward; see the light of day; break through the clouds; make its appearance, show its face, appear to one's eyes, come upon the stage, float before the eyes, speak for itself &c (manifest) 525; attract the attention &c 457; reappear; live in a glass house. expose to view &c 525. Adj. visible, perceptible, perceivable, discernible, apparent; in view, in full view, in sight; exposed to view, en vidence; unclouded, unobscured^, in the foreground. obvious &c (manifest) 525; plain, clear, distinct, definite; well defined, well marked; in focus; recognizable, palpable, autoptical^; glaring, staring, conspicuous; stereoscopic; in bold, in strong relief. periscopic^, panoramic. before one's eyes, under one's eyes; before one, +a vue d'oeil [Fr.], in one's eye, oculis subjecta fidelibus [Lat.]. Adv. visibly &c adj.; in sight of; before one's eyes &c adj.; veluti in speculum [Lat.]. 447. Invisibility -- N. invisibility, invisibleness, nonappearance, imperceptibility; indistinctness &c adj.; mystery, delitescence^. concealment &c 528; latency &c 526. V. be invisible &c adj.; be hidden &c (hide) 528; lurk &c (lie hidden) 526; escape notice. render invisible &c adj.; conceal &c 528; put out of sight. not see &c (be blind) 442; lose sight of. Adj. invisible, imperceptible; undiscernible^, indiscernible; unapparent, non-apparent; out of sight, not in sight; a perte de vue [Fr.]; behind the scenes, behind the curtain; viewless, sightless; inconspicuous, unconspicuous^; unseen &c (see) &c 441; covert &c (latent) 526; eclipsed, under an eclipse. dim &c (faint) 422; mysterious, dark, obscure, confused; indistinct, indistinguishable; shadowy, indefinite, undefined; ill- defined, ill-marked; blurred, fuzzy, out of focus; misty &c (opaque) 426; delitescent^. hidden, obscured, covered, veiled (concealed) 528. Phr. full many a flower is born to blush unseen [Gray]. 448. Appearance -- N. appearance, phenomenon, sight, spectacle, show, premonstration^, scene, species, view, coup d'oeil [Fr.]; lookout, outlook, prospect, vista, perspective, bird's-eye view, scenery, landscape, picture, tableau; display, exposure, mise en sc ne [Fr.]; rising of the curtain. phantasm, phantom &c (fallacy of vision) 443. pageant, spectacle; peep-show, raree-show, gallanty-show; ombres chinoises [Sp.]; magic lantern, phantasmagoria, dissolving views; biograph^, cinematograph, moving pictures; panorama, diorama, cosmorama^, georama^; coup de theatre, jeu de theatre [Fr.]; pageantry &c (ostentation) 882; insignia &c (indication) 550. aspect, angle, phase, phasis^, seeming; shape &c (form) 240; guise, look, complexion, color, image, mien, air, cast, carriage, port, demeanor; presence, expression, first blush, face of the thing; point of view, light. lineament feature trait lines; outline, outside; contour, face, countenance, physiognomy, visage, phiz., cast of countenance, profile, tournure^, cut of one s jib, metoposcopy^; outside &c 220. V. appear; be visible, become visible &c 446; seem, look, show; present the appearance of, wear the appearance of, carry the appearance of, have the appearance of, bear the appearance of, exhibit the appearance of, take the appearance of, take on the appearance of, assume the appearance, present the semblance of, wear the semblance of, carry the semblance of, have the semblance of, bear the semblance of, exhibit the semblance of, take the semblance of, take on the semblance of, assume the semblance of; look like; cut a figure, figure; present to the view; show &c (make manifest) 525. Adj. apparent, seeming, ostensible; on view. Adv. apparently; to all seeming, to all appearance; ostensibly, seemingly, as it seems, on the face of it, prima facie [Lat.]; at the first blush, at first sight; in the eyes of; to the eye. Phr. editio princeps [Lat.]. 449. Disappearance -- N. disappearance, evanescence, eclipse, occultation. departure &c 293; exit; vanishing point; dissolving views. V. disappear, vanish, dissolve, fade, melt away, pass, go, avaunt^, evaporate, vaporize; be gone &c adj.; leave no trace, leave 'not a rack behind' [Tempest]; go off the stage &c (depart) 293; suffer an eclipse, undergo an eclipse; retire from sight; be lost to view, pass out of sight. lose sight of. efface &c 552. Adj. disappearing &c v.; evanescent; missing, lost; lost to sight, lost to view; gone. Int. vanish!, disappear!, avaunt!^, get lost!, get out of here &c (ejection) 297. CLASS IV WORDS RELATING TO THE INTELLECTUAL FACULTIES DIVISION I FORMATION OF IDEAS SECTION I. OPERATIONS OF INTELLECT IN GENERAL 450. Intellect -- N. intellect, mind, understanding, reason, thinking principle; rationality; cogitative faculties, cognitive faculties, discursive faculties, reasoning faculties, intellectual faculties; faculties, senses, consciousness, observation, percipience, intelligence, intellection, intuition, association of ideas, instinct, conception, judgment, wits, parts, capacity, intellectuality, genius; brains, cognitive powers, intellectual powers; wit &c 498; ability &c (skill) 698; wisdom &c 498; Vernunft [G.], Verstand [G.]. soul, spirit, ghost, inner man, heart, breast, bosom, penetralia mentis [Lat.], divina particula aurae [Lat.], heart's core; the Absolute, psyche, subliminal consciousness, supreme principle. brain, organ of thought, seat of thought; sensorium^, sensory; head, headpiece; pate, noddle^, noggin, skull, scull, pericranium [Med.], cerebrum, cranium, brainpan^, sconce, upper story. [in computers] [Comp.] central processing unit, CPU; arithmetic and logical unit, ALU. [Science of mind] metaphysics; psychics, psychology; ideology; mental philosophy, moral philosophy; philosophy of the mind; pneumatology^, phrenology; craniology [Med.], cranioscopy [Med.]. ideality, idealism; transcendentalism, spiritualism; immateriality &c 317; universal concept, universal conception. metaphysician, psychologist &c V. note, notice, mark; take notice of, take cognizance of be aware of, be conscious of; realize; appreciate; ruminate &c (think) 451; fancy &c (imagine) 515. Adj. intellectual [Relating to intellect], mental, rational, subjective, metaphysical, nooscopic^, spiritual; ghostly; psychical^, psychological; cerebral; animastic^; brainy; hyperphysical^, superphysical^; subconscious, subliminal. immaterial &c 317; endowed with reason. Adv. in petto. Phr. ens rationis [Lat.]; frons est animi janua [Lat.] [Cicero]; locos y ninos dicen la verdad [Sp.]; mens sola loco non exulat [Lat.] [Ovid]; my mind is my kingdom [Campbell]; stern men with empires in their brains [Lowell]; the mind, the music breathing from her face [Byron]; thou living ray of intellectual Fire [Falconer]. 450a. Absence or want of Intellect -- N. absence of intellect, want of intellect &c 450; imbecility &c 499. brutality, brute force. instinct, brute instinct, stimulus-response loop, conditioned response, instinctive reaction, Pavlovian response. mimicry, aping (imitation) 19. moron, imbecile, idiot; fool &c 501; dumb animal; vegetable, brain dead. Adj. unendowed with reason, void of reason; thoughtless; vegetative; moronic [Sarc.], idiotic [Sarc.], brainless [Sarc.]. Adv. instinctively, like Pavlov's dog; vegetatively. V. mimic, ape (imitate) 19; respond instinctively. 451. Thought -- N. thought; exercitation of the intellect^, exercise of the intellect; intellection; reflection, cogitation, consideration, meditation, study, lucubration, speculation, deliberation, pondering; head work, brain work; cerebration; deep reflection; close study, application &c (attention) 457. abstract thought, abstraction contemplation, musing; brown study &c (inattention) 458; reverie, Platonism; depth of thought, workings of the mind, thoughts, inmost thoughts; self-counsel self-communing, self- consultation; philosophy of the Absolute, philosophy of the Academy, philosophy of the Garden, philosophy of the lyceum, philosophy of the Porch. association of thought, succession of thought, flow of thought, train of thought, current of thought, association of ideas, succession of ideas, flow of ideas, train of ideas, current of ideas. after thought, mature thought; reconsideration, second thoughts; retrospection &c (memory) 505; excogitation^; examination &c (inquiry) 461; invention &c (imagination) 515. thoughtfulness &c adj.. V. think, reflect, cogitate, excogitate^, consider, deliberate; bestow thought upon, bestow consideration upon; speculate, contemplate, meditate, ponder, muse, dream, ruminate; brood over, con over; animadvert, study; bend the mind, apply the mind &c (attend) 457; digest, discuss, hammer at, weigh, perpend; realize, appreciate; fancy &c (imagine) 515; trow^. take into consideration; take counsel &c (be advised) 695; commune with oneself, bethink oneself; collect one's thoughts; revolve in the mind, turn over in the mind, run over in the mind; chew the cud upon, sleep upon; take counsel of one's pillow, advise with one's pillow. rack one's brains, ransack one's brains, crack one's brains, beat one's brains, cudgel one's brains; set one's brain to work, set one's wits to work. harbor an idea, entertain an idea, cherish an idea, nurture an idea &c 453; take into one's head; bear in mind; reconsider. occur; present itself, suggest itself; come into one's head, get into one's head; strike one, flit across the view, come uppermost, run in one s head; enter the mind, pass in the mind, cross the mind, flash on the mind, flash across the mind, float in the mind, fasten itself on the mind, be uppermost in the mind, occupy the mind; have in one's mind. make an impression; sink into the mind, penetrate into the mind; engross the thoughts. Adj. thinking &c v.; thoughtful, pensive, meditative, reflective, museful^, wistful, contemplative, speculative, deliberative, studious, sedate, introspective, Platonic, philosophical. lost in thought &c (inattentive) 458; deep musing &c (intent) 457. in the mind, under consideration. Adv. all things considered. Phr. the mind being on the stretch; the mind turning upon, the head turning upon, the mind running upon; divinely, bent to meditation [Richard III]; en toute chose il faut considerer la fin [Fr.]; fresh- pluckt from bowers of never-failing thought [O. Meredith]; go speed the stars of Thought [Emerson]; in maiden meditation fancy-free [M.N.D.]; so sweet is zealous contemplation [Richard III]; the power of thought is the magic of the Mind [Byron]; those that think must govern those that toil [Goldsmith]; thought is parent of the deed [Carlyle]; thoughts in attitudes imperious [Longfellow]; thoughts that breathe and words that burn [Gray]; vivere est cogitare [Lat.] [Cicero]; Volk der Dichter und Denker [G.]. 452. [Absence or want of thought.] Incogitancy -- N. incogitancy^, vacancy, inunderstanding^; fatuity &c 499; thoughtlessness &c (inattention) 458; vacuity. couch potato, vegetable. V. not think &c 451; not think of; dismiss from the mind, dismiss from the thoughts &c 451. indulge in reverie &c (be inattentive) 458. put away thought; unbend the mind, relax the mind, divert the mind, veg out. Adj. vacant, unintellectual, unideal^, unoccupied, unthinking, inconsiderate, thoughtless, mindless, no-brain, vacuous; absent &c (inattentive) 458; diverted; irrational &c 499; narrow-minded &c 481. unthought of, undreamt 'of, unconsidered; off one's mind; incogitable^, not to be thought of. Phr. absence d'esprit; pabulum pictura pascit inani [Lat.]. 453. [Object of thought.] Idea -- N. idea, notion, conception, thought, apprehension, impression, perception, image, eidolon [Gr.], sentiment, reflection, observation, consideration; abstract idea; archetype, formative notion; guiding conception, organizing conception; image in the mind, regulative principle. view &c (opinion) 484; theory &c 514; conceit, fancy; phantasy &c (imagination) 515. point of view &c (aspect) 448; field of view. 454. [Subject of thought] Topic -- N. subject of thought, material for thought; food for the mind, mental pabulum. subject, subject matter; matter, theme, noemata [Gr.], topic, what it is about, thesis, text, business, affair, matter in hand, argument; motion, resolution; head, chapter; case, point; proposition, theorem; field of inquiry; moot point, problem &c (question) 461. V. float in the mind, pass in the mind &c 451. Adj. thought of; uppermost in the mind; in petto. Adv. under consideration; in question, in the mind; on foot, on the carpet, on the docket, on the tapis^; relative to &c 9. SECTION II. PRECURSORY CONDITIONS AND OPERATIONS 455. [The desire of knowledge.] Curiosity -- N. interest, thirst for knowledge, thirst for truth; curiosity, curiousness; inquiring mind; inquisitiveness. omnivorous intellect, devouring mind. [person who desires knowledge] inquirer; sightseer; quidnunc [Lat.], newsmonger, Paul Pry, eavesdropper; gossip &c (news) 532; rubberneck; intellectual; seeker [inquirer after religious knowledge], seeker after truth. V. be curious &c adj.; take an interest in, stare, gape; prick up the ears, see sights, lionize; pry; nose; rubberneck [U.S.]. Adj. curious, inquisitive, burning with curiosity, overcurious; inquiring &c 461; prying, snoopy, nosy, peering; prurient; inquisitorial, inquisitory^; curious as a cat; agape &c (expectant) 507. Phr. what's the matter? what next? consumed with curiosity; curiosity killed the cat, satisfaction brought it back. curiouser and curiouser [Alice in Wonderland]. 456. [Absence of curiosity.] Incuriosity -- N. incuriosity, incuriousness &c adj.; insouciance &c 866; indifference, lack of interest, disinterest. boredom, ennui (weariness) 841; satiety &c 639; foreknowledge (foresight) 510; V. be incurious &c adj.; have no curiosity &c 455; take no interest in &c 823; mind one's own business. Adj. incurious, uninquisitive, indifferent; impassive &c 823; uninterested, detached, aloof. 457. Attention -- N. attention; mindfulness, presence of mind &c adj.; intentness, intentiveness^; alertness; thought &c 451; advertence, advertency^; observance, observation; consideration, reflection, perpension^; heed; heedfulness; particularity; notice, regard &c v.; circumspection, diligence &c (care) 459; study, scrutiny inspection, introspection; revision, revisal. active application, diligent application, exclusive application, minute application, close application, intense application, deep application, profound application, abstract application, labored application, deliberate application, active attention, diligent attention, exclusive attention, minute attention, close attention, intense attention, deep attention, profound attention, abstract attention, labored attention, deliberate attention, active thought, diligent thought, exclusive thought, minute thought, close thought, intense thought, deep thought, profound thought, abstract thought, labored thought, deliberate thought, active study, diligent study, exclusive study, minute study, close study, intense study, deep study, profound study, abstract study, labored study, deliberate study. minuteness, attention to detail. absorption of mind &c (abstraction) 458. indication, calling attention to &c v.. V. be attentive &c adj.; attend, advert to, observe, look, see, view, remark, notice, regard, take notice, mark; give attention to, pay attention to, pay heed to, give heed to; incline an ear to, lend an ear to; trouble one's head about; give a thought to, animadvert to; occupy oneself with; contemplate &c (think of) 451; look at, look to, look after, look into, look over; see to; turn the mind to, bend the mind to, apply the mind to, direct the mind to, give the mind to, turn the eye to, bend the eye to, apply the eye to, direct the eye to, give the eye to, turn the attention to, bend the attention to, apply the attention to, direct the attention to, give the attention to; have an eye to, have in one's eye; bear in mind; take into account, take into consideration; keep in sight, keep in view; have regard to, heed, mind, take cognizance of entertain, recognize; make note of, take note of; note. examine cursorily; glance at, glance upon, glance over; cast the eyes over, pass the eyes over; run over, turn over the leaves, dip into, perstringe^; skim &c (neglect) 460; take a cursory view of. examine, examine closely, examine intently; scan, scrutinize, consider; give one's mind to, bend one's mind to; overhaul, revise, pore over; inspect, review, pass under review; take stock of; fix the eye on, rivet attention on, fix attention on, devote the eye to, fix the mind on, devote the thoughts to; hear out, think out; mind one's business. revert to; watch &c (expect) 507, (take care of) 459; hearken to, listen to; prick up the ears; have the eyes open, keep the eyes open; come to the point. meet with attention; fall under one's notice, fall under one's observation; be under consideration &c (topic) 454. catch the eye, strike the eye; attract notice; catch the attention, awaken the attention, wake the attention, invite the attention, solicit the attention, attract the attention, claim the attention excite the attention, engage the attention, occupy the attention, strike the attention, arrest the attention, fix the attention, engross the attention, absorb the attention, rivet the attention, catch the mind, awaken the mind, wake the mind, invite the mind, solicit the mind, attract the mind, claim the mind excite the mind, engage the mind, occupy the mind, strike the mind, arrest the mind, fix the mind, engross the mind, absorb the mind, rivet the mind, catch the thoughts, awaken the thoughts, wake the thoughts, invite the thoughts, solicit the thoughts, attract the thoughts, claim the thoughts excite the thoughts, engage the thoughts, occupy the thoughts, strike the thoughts, arrest the thoughts, fix the thoughts, engross the thoughts, absorb the thoughts, rivet the thoughts; be present to the mind, be uppermost in the mind. bring under one's notice; point out, point to, point at, point the finger at; lay the finger on, indigitate^, indicate; direct attention to, call attention to; show; put a mark upon &c (sign) 550; call soldiers to 'attention'; bring forward &c (make manifest) 525. Adj. attentive, mindful, observant, regardful; alive to, awake to; observing &c v.; alert, open-eyed; intent on, taken up with, occupied with, engaged in; engrossed in, wrapped in, absorbed, rapt, transfixed, riveted, mesmerized, hypnotized; glued to (the TV, the window, a book); breathless; preoccupied &c (inattentive) 458; watchful &c (careful) 459; breathless, undistracted, upon the stretch; on the watch &c (expectant) 507. steadfast. [compelling attention] interesting, engrossing, mesmerizing, riveting. Int. see!, look, look here, look you, look to it!, mark!, lo!, behold!, soho!^, hark, hark ye!, mind!, halloo!, observe!, lo and behold!, attention!, nota bene [Lat.], N.B., note well; I'd have you to know; notice!, O yes!, Oyez!, dekko!^, ecco!^, yoho!, Phr. this is to give notice, these are to give notice; dictum sapienti sat est [Lat.], a word to the wise is sufficient; finem respice [Lat.]. Attention! Now hear this! Oyez!; Achtung [G.]; vnimanie [Rus.]; chui [Jap.]. 458. Inattention -- N. inattention, inconsideration; inconsiderateness &c adj.; oversight; inadvertence, inadvertency, nonobservance, disregard. supineness &c (inactivity) 683; etourderie [Fr.], want of thought; heedlessness &c (neglect) 460; insouciance &c (indifference) 866. abstraction; absence of mind, absorption of mind; preoccupation, distraction, reverie, brown study, deep musing, fit of abstraction. V. be inattentive &c adj.; overlook, disregard; pass by &c (neglect) 460; not observe &c 457; think little of. close one's eyes to, shut one's eyes to; pay no attention to; dismiss from one's thoughts, discard from one's thoughts, discharge from one's thoughts, dismiss from one's mind, discard from one's mind, discharge from one's mind; drop the subject, think no more of; set aside, turn aside, put aside; turn away from, turn one's attention from, turn a deaf ear to, turn one's back upon. abstract oneself, dream, indulge in reverie. escape notice, escape attention; come in at one ear and go out at the other; forget &c (have no remembrance) 506. call off the attention, draw off the attention, call away the attention, divert the attention, distract the mind; put out of one's head; disconcert, discompose; put out, confuse, perplex, bewilder, moider^, fluster, muddle, dazzle; throw a sop to Cerberus. Adj. inattentive; unobservant, unmindful, heedless, unthinking, unheeding, undiscerning^; inadvertent; mindless, regardless, respectless^, listless &c (indifferent) 866; blind, deaf; bird-witted; hand over head; cursory, percursory^; giddy-brained, scatter-brained, hare-brained; unreflective, unreflecting^, ecervele [Fr.]; offhand; dizzy, muzzy^, brainsick^; giddy, giddy as a goose; wild, harum-scarum, rantipole^, highflying; heedless, careless &c (neglectful) 460. inconsiderate, thoughtless. absent, abstracted, distrait; absentminded, lost; lost in thought, wrapped in thought; rapt, in the clouds, bemused; dreaming on other things, musing on other things; preoccupied, engrossed &c (attentive) 457; daydreaming, in a reverie &c n.; off one's guard &c (inexpectant) 508 [Obs.]; napping; dreamy; caught napping. disconcerted, distracted, put out &c v.. Adv. inattentively, inadvertently, absent-mindedly &c adj.^; per incuriam [Lat.], sub silentio [Lat.]. Int. stand at ease, stand easy!, Phr. the attention wanders; one's wits gone a woolgathering, one's wits gone a bird's nesting; it never entered into one's head; the mind running on other things; one's thoughts being elsewhere; had it been a bear it would have bitten you. 459. Care [Vigilance.] -- N. care, solicitude, heed; heedfulness &c adj.; scruple &c (conscientiousness) 939. watchfulness &c adj.; vigilance, surveillance, eyes of Argus^, watch, vigil, look out, watch and ward, loeil du maitre [Fr.]. alertness &c (activity) 682; attention &c 457; prudence &c, circumspection &c (caution) 864; anxiety; forethought &c 510; precaution &c (preparation) 673; tidiness &c (order) 58, (cleanliness) 652; accuracy &c (exactness) 494; minuteness, attention to detail. V. be careful &c adj.; reck^; take care &c (be cautious) 864; pay attention to &c 457; take care of; look to, look after, see to, see after; keep an eye on, keep a sharp eye on; chaperon, matronize^, play gooseberry; keep watch, keep watch and ward; mount guard, set watch, watch; keep in sight, keep in view; mind, mind one's business. look sharp, look about one; look with one's own eyes; keep a good lookout, keep a sharp lookout; have all one's wits about one, have all one's eyes about one; watch for &c (expect) 507; keep one's eyes open, have the eyes open, sleep with one's eye open. Adj. careful regardful, heedful; taking care &c v.; particular; prudent &c (cautious) 864; considerate; thoughtful &c (deliberative) 451; provident &c (prepared) 673; alert &c (active) 682; sure-footed. guarded, on one's guard; on the qui vivre [Fr.], on the alert, on watch, on the lookout; awake, broad awake, vigilant; watchful, wakeful, wistful; Argus-eyed; wide awake &c (intelligent) 498; on the watch for (expectant) 507. tidy &c (orderly) 58, (clean) 652; accurate &c (exact) 494; scrupulous &c (conscientious) 939; cavendo tutus &c (safe) 664 [Lat.]. Adv. carefully &c adj.; with care, gingerly. Phr. quis custodiet istos custodes? [Lat.], who will watch the watchers?; care will kill a cat [Wither]; ni bebas agua que no veas [Sp.]; O polished perturbation! Golden care! [Henry IV]; the incessant care and labor of his mind [Henry IV]. 460. Neglect -- N. neglect; carelessness &c adj.; trifling &c v.; negligence; omission, oversight, laches [Law], default; supineness &c (inactivity) 683; inattention &c 458; nonchalance &c (insensibility) 823; imprudence, recklessness &c 863; slovenliness &c (disorder) 59, (dirt) 653; improvidence &c 674; noncompletion &c 730; inexactness &c (error) 495. paralipsis, paralepsis, paraleipsis (in rhetoric). trifler, waiter on Providence; Micawber. V. be negligent &c adj.; take no care of &c (take care of) &c 459; neglect; let slip, let go; lay aside, set aside, cst aside, put aside; keep out of sight, put out of sight; lose sight of. overlook, disregard; pass over, pas by; let pass; blink; wink at, connive at; gloss over; take no note of, take no thought of, take no account of, take no notice of; pay no regard to; laisser aller [Fr.]. scamp; trifle, fribble^; do by halves; cut; slight &c (despise) 930; play with, trifle with; slur, skim, skim the surface; effleurer [Fr.]; take a cursory view of &c 457. slur over, skip over, jump over, slip over; pretermit^, miss, skip, jump, omit, give the go-by to, push aside, pigeonhole, shelve, sink; table [Parl.]; ignore, shut one's eyes to, refuse to hear, turn a deaf ear to; leave out of one's calculation; not attend to &c 457, not mind; not trouble oneself about, not trouble one's head about, not trouble oneself with; forget &c 506; be caught napping &c (not expect) 508; leave a loose thread; let the grass grow under one's feet. render neglectful &c adj.; put off one's guard, throw off one's guard; distract, divert. Adj. neglecting &c v.; unmindful, negligent, neglectful; heedless, careless, thoughtless; perfunctory, remiss; feebleness &c 575. inconsiderate; uncircumspect^, incircumspect^; off one's guard; unwary, unwatchful^, unguarded; offhand. supine &c (inactive) 683; inattentive &c 458; insouciant &c (indifferent) 823; imprudent, reckless &c 863; slovenly &c (disorderly) 59, (dirty) 653; inexact &c (erroneous) 495; improvident &c 674. neglected &c v.; unheeded, uncared-for, unperceived, unseen, unobserved, unnoticed, unnoted^, unmarked, unattended to, unthought of, unregarded^, unremarked, unmissed^; shunted, shelved. unexamined, unstudied, unsearched^, unscanned^, unweighed^, unsifted, unexplored. abandoned; buried in a napkin, hid under a bushel. Adv. negligently &c adj.; hand over head, anyhow; in an unguarded moment &c (unexpectedly) 508; per incuriam [Lat.]. Int. never mind, no matter, let it pass. Phr. out of sight, out of mind. 461. Inquiry [Subject of Inquiry. Question] -- N. inquiry; request &c 765; search, research, quest, pursuit &c 622. examination, review, scrutiny, investigation, indagation^; perquisition^, perscrutation^, pervestigation^; inquest, inquisition; exploration; exploitation, ventilation. sifting; calculation, analysis, dissection, resolution, induction; Baconian method^. strict inquiry, close inquiry, searching inquiry, exhaustive inquiry; narrow search, strict search; study &c (consideration) 451. scire facias [Lat.], ad referendum; trial. questioning &c v.; interrogation, interrogatory; interpellation; challenge, examination, cross-examination, catechism; feeler, Socratic method, zetetic philosophy^; leading question; discussion &c (reasoning) 476. reconnoitering, reconnaissance; prying &c v.; espionage, espionnage [Fr.]; domiciliary visit, peep behind the curtain; lantern of Diogenes. question, query, problem, desideratum, point to be solved, porism^; subject of inquiry, field of inquiry, subject of controversy; point in dispute, matter in dispute; moot point; issue, question at issue; bone of contention &c (discord) 713; plain question, fair question, open question; enigma &c (secret) 533; knotty point &c (difficulty) 704; quodlibet; threshold of an inquiry. [person who questions] inquirer, investigator, inquisitor, inspector, querist^, examiner, catechist; scrutator scrutineer scrutinizer^; analyst; quidnunc &c (curiosity) 455 [Lat.]. V. make inquiry &c n.; inquire, ask, seek, search. look for, look about for, look out for; scan, reconnoiter, explore, sound, rummage, ransack, pry, peer, look round; look over, go over, look through, go through; spy, overhaul. [object is a topic] ask about, inquire about. scratch the head, slap the forehead. look into every hole and corner, peer into every hole and corner, pry into every hole and corner; nose; trace up; search out, hunt down, hunt out, fish out, ferret out; unearth; leave no stone unturned. seek a clue, seek a clew; hunt, track, trail, mouse, dodge, trace; follow the trail, follow the scent; pursue &c 662; beat up one's quarters; fish for; feel for &c (experiment) 463. investigate; take up an inquiry, institute an inquiry, pursue an inquiry, follow up an inquiry, conduct an inquiry, carry on an inquiry, carry out an inquiry, prosecute an inquiry &c n.; look at, look into; preexamine; discuss, canvass, agitate. [inquire into a topic] examine, study, consider, calculate; dip into, dive into, delve into, go deep into; make sure of, probe, sound, fathom; probe to the bottom, probe to the quick; scrutinize, analyze, anatomize, dissect, parse, resolve, sift, winnow; view in all its phases, try in all its phases; thresh out. bring in question, bring into question, subject to examination; put to the proof &c (experiment) 463; audit, tax, pass in review; take into consideration &c (think over) 451; take counsel &c 695. question, demand; put the question, pop the question, propose the question, propound the question, moot the question, start the question, raise the question, stir the question, suggest the question, put forth the question, ventilate the question, grapple with the question, go into a question. [human object], question, put to the question, interrogate, pump; subject to interrogation, subject to examination; cross-question, cross-examine; press for an answer; give the third degree; put to the inquisition; dodge^. catechize. require an answer; pick the brains of, suck the brains of; feel the pulse. get the lay of the land; see how the wind is blowing; put one's ear to the ground. be in question &c adj.; undergo examination. Adj. inquiry &c v.; inquisitive &c (curious) 455; requisitive^, requisitory^; catechetical^, inquisitorial, analytic; in search of, in quest of; on the lookout for, interrogative, zetetic^; all searching. undetermined, untried, undecided; in question, in dispute, in issue, in course of inquiry; under discussion, under consideration, under investigation &c n.; sub judice [Lat.], moot, proposed; doubtful &c (uncertain) 475. Adv. quaere? [Lat.], what?, why?, wherefore?, whence?, whither?, where?, how comes it?, how happens it?, how is it?, what is the reason?, what's the matter?, nicht wahr? [G.], what's in the wind?, what on earth?, when?, who?. 462. Answer -- N. answer, response, reply, replication, riposte, rejoinder, surrejoinder^, rebutter, surrebutter^, retort, repartee; rescript, rescription^; antiphon^, antiphony; acknowledgment; password; echo; counter statement. discovery &c 480.1; solution &c (explanation) 522; rationale &c (cause) 153; clue &c (indication) 550. Oedipus; oracle &c 513; return &c (record) 551. V. answer, respond, reply, rebut, retort, rejoin; give for answer, return for answer; acknowledge, echo. explain &c (interpret) 522; solve &c (unriddle) 522; discover &c 480.1; fathom, hunt out &c (inquire) 461; satisfy, set at rest, determine. Adj. answering &c v.; responsive, respondent; conclusive. Adv. because &c (cause) 153; on the scent, on the right scent. Int. eureka!, 463. Experiment -- N. experiment; essay &c (attempt) 675; analysis &c (investigation) 461; screen; trial, tentative method, t=atonnement. verification, probation, experimentum crucis [Lat.], proof, (demonstration) 478; criterion, diagnostic, test, probe, crucial test, acid test, litmus test. crucible, reagent, check, touchstone, pix^; assay, ordeal; ring; litmus paper, curcuma paper^, turmeric paper; test tube; analytical instruments &c 633. empiricism, rule of thumb. feeler; trial balloon, pilot balloon, messenger balloon; pilot engine; scout; straw to show the wind. speculation, random shot, leap in the dark. analyzer, analyst, assayist^; adventurer; experimenter, experimentist^, experimentalist; scientist, engineer, technician. subject, experimentee^, guinea pig, experimental animal. [experimental method] protocol, experimental method, blind experiment, double-blind experiment, controlled experiment. poll, survey, opinion poll. epidemiological survey [Med.], retrospective analysis, retrospective survey, prospective survey, prospective analysis; statistical analysis. literature search, library research. tryout, audition. [results of experiment] discovery &c 480; measurement &c 466; evidence &c 467. [reasoning about an experiment] deduction, induction, abduction. V. experiment; essay &c (endeavor) 675; try, try out, assay; make an experiment, make a trial of; give a trial to; put on trial, subject to trial; experiment upon; rehearse; put to the test, bring to the test, submit to the test, submit to the proof; prove, verify, test, touch, practice upon, try one's strength; road-test, test drive, take for a spin; test fly. grope; feel one's way, grope for one's way; fumble, t=atonner, aller =a t=atons [Fr.], put out a feeler, throw out a feeler; send up a trial balloon, send up a pilot balloon; see how the land lies, get the lay of the land, test the waters, feel out, sound out, take the pulse, see, check, check out [Coll.], see how the wind blows; consult the barometer; feel the pulse; fish for, bob for; cast for, beat about for; angle, trawl, cast one's net, beat the bushes. try one's fortune &c (adventure) 675; explore &c (inquire) 461. Adj. experimental, empirical. probative, probatory^, probationary, provisional; analytic, docimastic^; tentative; unverified, unproven, speculative, untested. Adv. on trial, under examination, on probation, under probation, on one's trial, on approval. Phr. check it out, give it a try, see how it goes; Run it up the flagpole and see who salutes 464. Comparison -- N. comparison, collation, contrast; identification; comparative estimate, relative estimate, relativity. simile, similitude, analogy (similarity) 17; allegory &c (metaphor) 521. matching, pattern-matching. [quantitative comparison] ratio, proportion (number) 84. [results of comparison] discrimination 465; indiscrimination 465.1 [Obs.]; identification 465.2. V. compare to, compare with; collate, confront; place side by side, juxtapose &c (near) 197; set against one another, pit against one another; contrast, balance. identify, draw a parallel, parallel. compare notes; institute a comparison; parva componere magnis [Lat.]. Adj. comparative; metaphorical &c 521. compared with &c v.; comparable; judged by comparison. Adv. relatively &c (relation) 9; as compared with &c v.. Phr. comparisons are odious; comparisons are odorous [Much Ado about Nothing]. 464a. Incomparability [Lack of comparison] -- N. incomparability; incommensurability; indistinguishablility &c 465.1. Adj. incommensurable, incommensurate; incomparable; different &c 15. Phr. like apples and oranges; no basis for comparison; no standard for comparison. 465. [results of comparison. 1] Discrimination -- N. discrimination, distinction, differentiation, diagnosis, diorism^; nice perception; perception of difference, appreciation of difference; estimation &c 466; nicety, refinement; taste &c 850; critique, judgment; tact; discernment &c (intelligence) 498; acuteness, penetration; nuances. dope [Slang], past performances. V. discriminate, distinguish, severalize^; recognize, match, identify; separate; draw the line, sift; separate the chaff from the wheat, winnow the chaff from the wheat; separate the men from the boys; split hairs, draw a fine line, nitpick, quibble. estimate &c (measure) 466; know which is which, know what is what, know 'a hawk from a handsaw' [Hamlet]. take into account, take into consideration; give due weight to, allow due weight to; weigh carefully. Adj. discriminating &c v.; dioristic^, discriminative, distinctive; nice. Phr. il y a fagots et fagots; rem acu tetigisti [Lat.]; la critique est aisee et l'art est difficile [Fr.]; miles apart; a distinction without a difference. 465a. [results of comparison. 2] Indiscrimination -- N. indiscrimination^, indistinguishability; indistinctness, indistinction^; uncertainty &c (doubt) 475; incomparability &c 464.1. V. not discriminate &c 465; overlook a distinction &c (neglect) 460, confound, confuse. Adj. indiscriminate; undistinguished^, indistinguishable, undistinguishable^; unmeasured; promiscuous, undiscriminating. Phr. valeat quantum valere potest [Lat.]. 465b. [results of comparison. 3] Identification -- N. identification, recognition, diagnosis, match; apperception, assimilation; dereplication; classification; memory &c 505; interpretation &c 522; cognizance (knowledge) 490. V. identify, recognize, match, match up; classify; recall, remember &c (memory) 505; find similarity (similarity) 17; put in its proper place, put in its proper niche, place in order (arrangement) 60. 466. Measurement -- N. measurement, admeasurement^, mensuration, survey, valuation, appraisement, assessment, assize; estimate, estimation; dead reckoning, reckoning &c (numeration) 85; gauging &c v.; horse power. metrology, weights and measures, compound arithmetic. measure, yard measure, standard, rule, foot rule, compass, calipers; gage, gauge; meter, line, rod, check; dividers; velo^. flood mark, high water mark; Plimsoll line; index &c 550. scale; graduation, graduated scale; nonius^; vernier &c (minuteness) 193. [instruments for measuring] bathometer, galvanometer, heliometer, interferometer, odometer, ombrometer^, pantometer^, pluviometer^, pneumatometer^, pneumometer^, radiometer, refractometer, respirometer, rheometer, spirometer^, telemeter, udometer^, vacuometer^, variometer^, viameter^, thermometer, thermistor (heat) &c 382, barometer (air) &c 338, anemometer (wind) 349, dynamometer, goniometer, (angle) 244 meter; landmark &c (limit) 233; balance, scale &c (weight) 319; marigraph^, pneumatograph^, stethograph^; rain gauge, rain gage; voltmeter (volts), ammeter (amps); spectrophotometer (light absorbance); mass spectrophotometer (molecular mass); geiger counter, scintillation counter (radioactivity); pycnometer (liquid density); graduated cylinder, volumetric flask (volume); radar gun (velocity); radar (distance); side-looking radar, (shape, topography); sonar (depth in water); light meter (light intensity); clock, watch, stopwatch, chronometer (time); anemometer (wind velocity); densitometer (color intensity). measurability, computability, determinability^. coordinates, ordinate and abscissa, polar coordinates, latitude and longitude, declination and right ascension, altitude and azimuth. geometry, stereometry^, hypsometry^; metage^; surveying, land surveying; geodesy, geodetics^, geodesia^; orthometry^, altimetry^; cadastre [Fr.]. astrolabe, armillary sphere^. land surveyor; geometer. V. measure, mete; determine, assay; evaluate, value, assess, rate, appraise, estimate, form an estimate, set a value on; appreciate; standardize. span, pace step; apply the compass &c n.; gauge, plumb, probe, sound, fathom; heave the log, heave the lead; survey. weigh. take an average &c 29; graduate. Adj. measuring &c v.; metric, metrical; measurable, perceptible, noticeable, detectable, appreciable, ponderable, determinable, fathomable; geodetical, topographic, topographical, cartographic, cartographical. SECTION III. MATERIALS FOR REASONING Evidence for, against, and in mitigation 467. Evidence [On one side.] -- N. evidence; facts, premises, data, praecognita [Lat.], grounds. indication &c 550; criterion &c (test) 463. testimony, testification^, expert testimony; attestation; deposition &c (affirmation) 535; examination. admission &c (assent) 488; authority, warrant, credential, diploma, voucher, certificate, doquet^, docket; testamur^; record &c 551; document; pi ce justificative^; deed, warranty &c (security) 771; signature, seal &c (identification) 550; exhibit, material evidence, objective evidence. witness, indicator, hostile witness; eyewitness, earwitness, material witness, state's evidence; deponent; sponsor; cojuror^. oral evidence, documentary evidence, hearsay evidence, external evidence, extrinsic evidence, internal evidence, intrinsic evidence, circumstantial evidence, cumulative evidence, ex parte evidence [Lat.], presumptive evidence, collateral evidence, constructive evidence; proof &c (demonstration) 478; evidence in chief. secondary evidence; confirmation, corroboration, support; ratification &c (assent) 488; authentication; compurgation^, wager of law, comprobation^. citation, reference; legal research, literature search (experiment) 463. V. be evidence &c n.; evince, show, betoken, tell of; indicate &c (denote) 550; imply, involve, argue, bespeak, breathe. have weight, carry weight; tell, speak volumes; speak for itself &c (manifest) 525. rest upon, depend upon; repose on. bear witness &c n.; give evidence &c n.; testify, depose, witness, vouch for; sign, seal, undersign^, set one's hand and seal, sign and seal, deliver as one's act and deed, certify, attest; acknowledge &c (assent) 488. [provide conclusive evidence] make absolute, confirm, prove (demonstrate) 478. [add further evidence] indorse, countersign, corroborate, support, ratify, bear out, uphold, warrant. adduce, attest, cite, quote; refer to, appeal to; call, call to witness; bring forward, bring into court; allege, plead; produce witnesses, confront witnesses. place into evidence, mark into evidence. [obtain evidence] collect evidence, bring together evidence, rake up evidence; experiment &c 463. have a case, make out a case; establish, authenticate, substantiate, verify, make good, quote chapter and verse; bring home to, bring to book. Adj. showing &c v.; indicative, indicatory; deducible &c 478; grounded on, founded on, based on; corroborative, confirmatory. Adv. by inference; according to, witness, a fortiori; still more, still less; raison de plus [Fr.]; in corroboration &c n.. of; valeat quantum [Lat.]; under seal, under one's hand and seal. Phr. dictum de dicto [Lat.]; mise en evidence [Fr.]. 468. [Evidence on the other side, on the other hand.] Counter Evidence -- N. counter evidence; evidence on the other side, evidence on the other hand; conflicting evidence, contradictory evidence, opposing evidence; disproof, refutation &c 479; negation &c 536. plea &c 617; vindication &c 937; counter protest; 'tu quoque' argument; other side of the shield, other side of the coin, reverse of the shield. V. countervail, oppose; mitigate against; rebut &c (refute) 479; subvert &c (destroy) 162; cheek, weaken; contravene; contradict &c (deny) 536; tell the other side of the story, tell another story, turn the scale, alter the case; turn the tables; cut both ways; prove a negative. audire alteram partem [Lat.]. Adj. countervailing &c v.; contradictory. unattested, unauthenticated, unsupported by evidence; supposititious. Adv. on the contrary, per contra. 469. Qualification -- N. qualification, limitation, modification, coloring. allowance, grains of allowance, consideration, extenuating circumstances; mitigation. condition, proviso, prerequisite, contingency, stipulation, provision, specification, sine qua non [Lat.]; catch, string, strings attached; exemption; exception, escape clause, salvo, saving clause; discount &c 813; restriction; fine print. V. qualify, limit, modify, leaven, give a color to, introduce new conditions, narrow, temper. waffle, quibble, hem and haw (be uncertain) 475; equivocate (sophistry) 477. depend, depend on, be contingent on (effect) 154. allow for, make allowance for; admit exceptions, take into account; modulate. moderate, temper, season, leaven. take exception. Adj. qualifying &c v.; qualified, conditioned, restricted, hedged; conditional; exceptional &c (unconformable) 83. hypothetical &c (supposed) 514; contingent &c (uncertain) 475. Adv. provided, provided that, provided always; if, unless, but, yet; according as; conditionally, admitting, supposing; on the supposition of &c (theoretically) 514; with the understanding, even, although, though, for all that, after all, at all events. approximately &c 197, 17; in a limited degree (smallness) 32; somewhat, sort of, something like that, to a certain extent, to a degree, in a sense, so to speak. with grains of allowance, cum grano salis [Lat.], with a grain of salt; exceptis excipiendis [Lat.]; wind and weather permitting; if possible &c 470. subject to, conditioned upon; with this proviso &c n.. Phr. if the good lord is willing and the creeks don't rise; catch- 22. Degrees of Evidence 470. Possibility -- N. possibility, potentiality; what may be, what is possible &c adj.; compatibility &c (agreement) 23. practicability, feasibility; practicableness &c adj.. contingency, chance &c 156. V. be possible &c adj.; stand a chance; admit of, bear. render possible &c adj.; put in the way of. Adj. possible; in the cards, on the dice; in posse, within the bounds of possibility, conceivable, credible; compatible &c 23; likely. practicable, feasible, performable, achievable; within reach, within measurable distance; accessible, superable^, surmountable; attainable, obtainable; contingent &c (doubtful) 475, (effect) 154. barely possible, marginally possible, just possible; possible but improbably, (improbable) 473; theoretically possible. Adv. possibly, by possibility; perhaps, perchance, peradventure; maybe, may be, haply, mayhap. if possible, wind and weather permitting, God willing, Deo volente [Lat.], D.V.; as luck may have it. Phr. misericordia Domini inter pontem et fontent [Lat.]; the glories of the Possible are ours [B. Taylor]; anything is possible; in theory possible, but in practise unlikely. 471. Impossibility -- N. impossibility &c adj.; what cannot, what can never be; sour grapes; hopelessness &c 859. V. be impossible &c adj.; have no chance whatever. attempt impossibilities; square the circle, wash a blackamoor white; skin a flint; make a silk purse out of a sow's ear, make bricks without straw; have nothing to go upon; weave a rope of sand, build castles in the air, prendre la lune avec les dents [Fr.], extract sunbeams from cucumbers, set the Thames on fire, milk a he-goat into a sieve, catch a weasel asleep, rompre l'anguille au genou [Fr.], be in two places at once. Adj. impossible; not possible &c 470; absurd, contrary to reason; unlikely; unreasonable &c 477; incredible &c 485; beyond the bounds of reason, beyond the bounds of possibility, beyond the realm of possibility; from which reason recoils; visionary; inconceivable &c (improbable) 473; prodigious &c (wonderful) 870; unimaginable, inimaginable^; unthinkable. impracticable unachievable; unfeasible, infeasible; insuperable; unsurmountable^, insurmountable; unattainable, unobtainable; out of reach, out of the question; not to be had, not to be thought of; beyond control; desperate &c (hopeless) 859; incompatible &c 24; inaccessible, uncomeatable^, impassable, impervious, innavigable^, inextricable; self- contradictory. out of one's power, beyond one's power, beyond one's depth, beyond one's reach, beyond one's grasp; too much for; ultra crepidam [Lat.]. Phr. the grapes are sour; non possumus [Lat.]; non nostrum tantas componere lites [Lat.] [Vergil]; look for a needle in a haystack, chercher une aiguille dans une botte de foin [Fr.]; il a le mer +a boire^. 472. Probability -- N. probability, likelihood; credibleness^; likeliness &c adj.; vraisemblance [Fr.], verisimilitude, plausibility; color, semblance, show of; presumption; presumptive evidence, circumstantial evidence; credibility. reasonable chance, fair chance, good chance, favorable chance, reasonable prospect, fair prospect, good prospect, favorable prospect; prospect, wellgrounded hope; chance &c 156. V. be probable &c adj.; give color to, lend color to; point to; imply &c (evidence) 467; bid fair &c (promise) 511; stand fair for; stand a good chance, run a good chance. think likely, dare say, flatter oneself; expect &c 507; count upon &c (believe) 484. Adj. probable, likely, hopeful, to be expected, in a fair way. plausible, specious, ostensible, colorable, ben trovato [It], well-founded, reasonable, credible, easy of belief, presumable, presumptive, apparent. Adv. probably &c adj.; belike^; in all probability, in all likelihood; very likely, most likely; like enough; odds on, odds in favor, ten to one &c; apparently, seemingly, according to every reasonable expectation; prim=a facie [Lat.]; to all appearance &c (to the eye) 448. Phr. the chances, the odds are; appearances are in favor of, chances are in favor of; there is reason to believe, there is reason to think, there is reason to expect; I dare say; all Lombard Street to a China orange. 473. Improbability -- N. improbability, unlikelihood; unfavorable chance, bad chance, ghost of a chance, little chance, small chance, poor chance, scarcely any chance, no chance; bare possibility; long odds; incredibility &c 485. V. be improbable &c adj.; have a small chance &c n.. Adj. improbable, unlikely, contrary to all reasonable expectation; wild [Coll.], far out [Coll.], out of sight [Coll.], outtasight [Coll.], heavy [Coll.]. rare &c (infrequent) 137; unheard of, inconceivable; unimaginable, inimaginable^; incredible &c 485; more than doubtful; strange, bizarre (uncomformable) 83. Phr. the chances are against; aquila non capit muscas [Lat.]; pedir peras pal olmo [Lat.]. 474. Certainty -- N. certainty; necessity &c 601; certitude, surety, assurance; dead certainty, moral certainty; infallibleness &c adj.; infallibility, reliability; indubitableness, inevitableness, unquestionableness^. gospel, scripture, church, pope, court of final appeal; res judicata [Lat.], ultimatum positiveness; dogmatism, dogmatist, dogmatizer; doctrinaire, bigot, opinionist^, Sir Oracle; ipse dixit [Lat.]. fact; positive fact, matter of fact; fait accompli [Fr.]. V. be certain &c adj.; stand to reason. render certain &c adj.; insure, ensure, assure; clinch, make sure; determine, decide, set at rest, make assurance double sure [Macbeth]; know &c (believe) 484. dogmatize, lay down the law. Adj. certain, sure, assured &c v.; solid, well-founded. unqualified, absolute, positive, determinate, definite, clear, unequivocal, categorical, unmistakable, decisive, decided, ascertained. inevitable, unavoidable, avoidless^; ineluctable. unerring, infallible; unchangeable &c 150; to be depended on, trustworthy, reliable, bound. unimpeachable, undeniable, unquestionable; indisputable, incontestable, incontrovertible, indubitable; irrefutable &c (proven) 478; conclusive, without power of appeal. indubious^; without doubt, beyond a doubt, without a shade or shadow of doubt, without question, beyond question; past dispute; clear as day; beyond all question, beyond all dispute; undoubted, uncontested, unquestioned, undisputed; questionless^, doubtless. authoritative, authentic, official. sure as fate, sure as death and taxes, sure as a gun. evident, self-evident, axiomatic; clear, clear as day, clear as the sun at noonday. Adv. certainly &c adj.; for certain, certes [Lat.], sure, no doubt, doubtless, and no mistake, flagrante delicto [Lat.], sure enough, to be sure, of course, as a matter of course, a coup sur, to a certainty; in truth &c (truly) 494; at any rate, at all events; without fail; coute que coute [Fr.], coute qu'il coute [Fr.]; whatever may happen, if the worst come to the worst; come what may, happen what may, come what will; sink or swim; rain or shine. Phr. cela va sans dire [Fr.]; there is no question, no question, not a shadow of doubt, there is not a shadow of doubt; the die is cast &c (necessity) 601; facts are stubborn things [Smollett]. 475. Uncertainty -- N. uncertainty, incertitude, doubt; doubtfulness &c adj.; dubiety, dubitation^, dubitancy^, dubitousness^. hesitation, suspense; perplexity, embarrassment, dilemma, bewilderment; timidity &c (fear) 860; vacillation &c 605; diaporesis^, indetermination. vagueness &c adj.; haze, fog; obscurity &c (darkness) 421; ambiguity &c (double meaning) 520; contingency, dependence, dependency, double contingency, possibility upon a possibility; open question &c (question) 461; onus probandi [Lat.]; blind bargain, pig in a poke, leap in the dark, something or other; needle in a haystack, needle in a bottle of hay; roving commission. precariousness &c adj.; fallibility. V. be uncertain &c adj.; wonder whether. lose the clue, lose the clew, scent; miss one's way. not know what to make of &c (unintelligibility) 519, not know which way to turn, not know whether one stands on one s head or one's heels; float in a sea of doubt, hesitate, flounder; lose oneself, lose one's head; muddle one's brains. render uncertain &c adj.; put out, pose, puzzle, perplex, embarrass; confuse, confound; bewilder, bother, molder, addle the wits, throw off the scent, ambiguas in vulgus spargere voces [Lat.]; keep in suspense. doubt &c (disbelieve) 485; hang in the balance, tremble in the balance; depend. Adj. uncertain; casual; random &c (aimless) 621; changeable &c 149. doubtful, dubious; indecisive; unsettled, undecided, undetermined; in suspense, open to discussion; controvertible; in question &c (inquiry) 461. vague; indeterminate, indefinite; ambiguous, equivocal; undefined, undefinable; confused &c (indistinct) 447; mystic, oracular; dazed. perplexing &c v.; enigmatic, paradoxical, apocryphal, problematical, hypothetical; experimental &c 463. unpredictable, unforeseeable (unknowable) 519. fallible, questionable, precarious, slippery, ticklish, debatable, disputable; unreliable, untrustworthy. contingent, contingent on, dependent on; subject to; dependent on circumstances; occasional; provisional. unauthentic, unauthenticated, unauthoritative; unascertained, unconfirmed; undemonstrated; untold, uncounted. in a state of uncertainty, in a cloud, in a maze; bushed, off the track; ignorant, &c 491; afraid to say; out of one's reckoning, astray, adrift; at sea, at fault, at a loss, at one's wit's end, at a nonplus; puzzled &c v.; lost, abroad, d_esorient_e; distracted, distraught. Adv. pendente lite [Lat.]; sub spe rati [Lat.]. Phr. Heaven knows; who can tell? who shall decide when doctors disagree? ambiguas in vulgum spargere voces [Lat.]. SECTION IV. REASONING PROCESSES 476. Reasoning, -- N. {ant. 477} reasoning ratiocination rationalism; dialectics, induction, generalization. discussion, comment; ventilation; inquiry &c 461. argumentation, controversy, debate; polemics, wrangling; contention &c 720; logomachy^; disputation, disceptation^; paper war. art of reasoning, logic. process of reasoning, train of reasoning, chain of reasoning; deduction, induction, abduction; synthesis, analysis. argument; case, plaidoyer^, opening; lemma, proposition, terms, premises, postulate, data, starting point, principle; inference &c (judgment) 480. prosyllogism^, syllogism; enthymeme^, sorites^, dilemma, perilepsis^, a priori reasoning, reductio ad absurdum, horns of a dilemma, argumentum ad hominem [Lat.], comprehensive argument; empirema^, epagoge^. [person who reasons] reasoner, logician, dialectician; disputant; controversialist, controvertist^; wrangler, arguer, debater polemic, casuist, rationalist; scientist; eristic^. logical sequence; good case; correct just reasoning, sound reasoning, valid reasoning, cogent reasoning, logical reasoning, forcible reasoning, persuasive reasoning, persuasory reasoning^, consectary reasoning^, conclusive &c 478; subtle reasoning; force of argument, strong point, strong argument, persuasive argument. arguments, reasons, pros and cons. V. reason, argue, discuss, debate, dispute, wrangle^, argufy^, bandy words, bandy arguments; chop logic; hold an argument, carry on an argument; controvert &c (deny) 536; canvass; comment upon, moralize upon; spiritualize; consider &c (examine) 461. open a discussion, open a case; try conclusions; join issue, be at issue; moot; come to the point; stir a question, agitate a question, ventilate a question, torture a question; take up a side, take up a case. contend, take one's stand upon, insist, lay stress on; infer &c 480. follow from &c (demonstration) 478. Adj. reasoning &c v.; rationalistic; argumentative, controversial, dialectic, polemical; discursory^, discursive; disputatious; Aristotelian^, eristic^, eristical^. debatable, controvertible. logical; relevant &c 23. Adv. for, because, hence, whence, seeing that, since, sith^, then thence so; for that reason, for this reason, for which reason; for as, inasmuch as; whereas, ex concesso [Lat.], considering, in consideration of; therefore, wherefore; consequently, ergo, thus, accordingly; a fortiori. in conclusion, in fine; finally, after all, au bout du compt [Fr.], on the whole, taking one thing with another. Phr. ab actu ad posse valet consecutio [Lat.]; per troppo dibatter la verita si perde [It]; troppo disputare la verita fa errare [It]. 477. Intuition. & Sophistry [The absence of reasoning.] [False or vicious reasoning; show of reason.] -- N. intuition, instinct, association, hunch, gut feeling; presentiment, premonition; rule of thumb; superstition; astrology^; faith (supposition) 514. sophistry, paralogy^, perversion, casuistry, jesuitry, equivocation, evasion; chicane, chicanery; quiddet^, quiddity; mystification; special pleading; speciousness &c adj.; nonsense &c 497; word sense, tongue sense. false reasoning, vicious reasoning, circular reasoning; petitio principii [Lat.], ignoratio elenchi [Lat.]; post hoc ergo propter hoc [Lat.]; non sequitur, ignotum per ignotius [Lat.]. misjudgment &c 481; false teaching &c 538. sophism, solecism, paralogism^; quibble, quirk, elenchus^, elench^, fallacy, quodlibet, subterfuge, subtlety, quillet^; inconsistency, antilogy^; a delusion, a mockery, and a snare [Denman]; claptrap, cant, mere words; lame and impotent conclusion [Othello]. meshes of sophistry, cobwebs of sophistry; flaw in an argument; weak point, bad case. overrefinement^; hairsplitting &c v.. V. judge intuitively, judge by intuition; hazard a proposition, hazard a guess, talk at random. reason ill, falsely &c adj.; misjudge &c 481; paralogize^. take on faith, take as a given; assume (supposition) 514. pervert, quibble; equivocate, mystify, evade, elude; gloss over, varnish; misteach &c 538 [Obs.]; mislead &c (error) 495; cavil, refine, subtilize^, split hairs; misrepresent &c (lie) 544. beg the question, reason in a circle, reason in circles, assume the conclusion. cut blocks with a razor, beat about the bush, play fast and loose, play fast and loose with the facts, blow hot and cold, prove that black is white and white black, travel out of the record, parler a tort et a travers [Fr.], put oneself out of court, not have a leg to stand on. judge hastily, shoot from the hip, jump to conclusions (misjudgment) 481. Adj. intuitive, instinctive, impulsive; independent of reason, anterior to reason; gratuitous, hazarded; unconnected. unreasonable, illogical, false, unsound, invalid; unwarranted, not following; inconsequent, inconsequential; inconsistent; absonous^, absonant^; unscientific; untenable, inconclusive, incorrect; fallacious, fallible; groundless, unproved; non sequitur [Lat.], it does not follow. deceptive, sophistical, jesuitical; illusive, illusory; specious, hollow, plausible, ad captandum [Lat.], evasive; irrelevant &c 10. weak, feeble, poor, flimsy, loose, vague. irrational; nonsensical &c (absurd) 497. foolish &c (imbecile) 499; frivolous, pettifogging, quibbling; finespun^, overrefined^. at the end of one's tether, au bout de son latin. Adv. intuitively &c adj.; by intuition; illogically &c adj.. Phr. non constat [Lat.]; that goes for nothing. 478. Demonstration -- N. {ant. 479} demonstration, proof, rigorous proof; conclusiveness &c adj.; apodeixis^, apodixis^, probation, comprobation^. logic of facts &c (evidence) 467; experimentum crucis &c (test) 463 [Lat.]; argument &c 476; rigorous establishment, absolute establishment. conviction, cogency, (persuasion) 484. V. demonstrate, prove, establish; make good; show, evince, manifest &c (be evidence of) 467; confirm, corroborate, substantiate, verify &c 467, settle the question, reduce to demonstration, set the question at rest. make out, make out a case; prove one's point, have the best of the argument; draw a conclusion &c (judge) 480. follow, follow of course, follow as a matter of course, follow necessarily; stand to reason; hold good, hold water. convince, persuade (belief) 484. Adj. demonstrating &c v., demonstrative, demonstrable; probative, unanswerable, conclusive; apodictic^, apodeictic^, apodeictical^; irresistible, irrefutable, irrefragable; necessary. categorical, decisive, crucial. demonstrated &c v.; proven; unconfuted^, unanswered, unrefuted^; evident &c 474. deducible, consequential, consectary^, inferential, following. [demonstrated to one's satisfaction] convincing, cogent, persuasive (believable) 484. Adv. of course, in consequence, consequently, as a matter of course; necessarily, of necessity. Phr. probatum est [Lat.]; there is nothing more to be said; quod est demonstrandum [Lat.], Q.E.D.; it must follow; exitus acta probat [Lat.]. 479. Confutation -- N. {ant 478} confutation, refutation; answer, complete answer; disproof, conviction, redargution^, invalidation; exposure, exposition; clincher; retort; reductio ad absurdum; knock down argument, tu quoque argument [Lat.]; sockdolager [U.S.], correction &c 572.1; dissuasion &c 616. V. confute, refute, disprove; parry, negative, controvert, rebut, confound, disconfirm, redargue^, expose, show the fallacy of, defeat; demolish, break &c (destroy) 162; overthrow, overturn scatter to the winds, explode, invalidate; silence; put to silence, reduce to silence; clinch an argument, clinch a question; give one a setdown^, stop the mouth, shut up; have, have on the hip. not leave a leg to stand on, cut the ground from under one's feet. be confuted &c; fail; expose one's weak point, show one's weak point. counter evidence &c 468. Adj. confuting, confuted, &c v.; capable of refutation; refutable, confutable^, defeasible. contravene (counter evidence) 468. condemned on one's own showing, condemned out of one's own mouth. Phr. the argument falls to the ground, cadit quaestio [Lat.], it does not hold water, suo sibi gladio hunc jugulo [Terence]; his argument was demolished by new evidence. SECTION V. RESULTS OF REASONING 480. Judgment [Conclusion.] -- N. result, conclusion, upshot; deduction, inference, ergotism [Med.]; illation; corollary, porism^; moral. estimation, valuation, appreciation, judication^; dijudication^, adjudication; arbitrament, arbitrement^, arbitration; assessment, ponderation^; valorization. award, estimate; review, criticism, critique, notice, report. decision, determination, judgment, finding, verdict, sentence, decree; findings of fact; findings of law; res judicata [Lat.]. plebiscite, voice, casting vote; vote &c (choice) 609; opinion &c (belief) 484; good judgment &c (wisdom) 498. judge, umpire; arbiter, arbitrator; asessor, referee. censor, reviewer, critic; connoisseur; commentator &c 524; inspector, inspecting officer. twenty-twenty hindsight [judgment after the fact]; armchair general, monday morning quarterback. V. judge, conclude; come to a conclusion, draw a conclusion, arrive at a conclusion; ascertain, determine, make up one's mind. deduce, derive, gather, collect, draw an inference, make a deduction, weet^, ween^. form an estimate, estimate, appreciate, value, count, assess, rate, rank, account; regard, consider, think of; look upon &c (believe) 484; review; size up [Slang]. settle; pass an opinion, give an opinion; decide, try, pronounce, rule; pass judgment, pass sentence; sentence, doom; find; give judgment, deliver judgment; adjudge, adjudicate; arbitrate, award, report; bring in a verdict; make absolute, set a question at rest; confirm &c (assent) 488. comment, criticize, kibitz; pass under review &c (examine) 457; investigate &c (inquire) 461. hold the scales, sit in judgment; try judgment, hear a cause. Adj. judging &c v.; judicious &c (wise) 498; determinate, conclusive. Adv. on the whole, all things considered. Phr. a Daniel come to judgment [Merchant of Venice]; and stand a critic, hated yet caress'd [Byron]; it is much easier to be critical than to be correct [Disraeli]; la critique est aisee et l'art est difficile [Fr.]; nothing if not critical [Othello]; O most lame and impotent conclusion [Othello]. 480a. [Result of search or inquiry.] Discovery -- N. discovery, detection, disenchantment; ascertainment^, disclosure, find, revelation. trover [Law] &c (recovery) 775. V. discover, find, determine, evolve, learn &c 539; fix upon; pick up; find out, trace out, make out, hunt out, fish out, worm out, ferret out, root out; fathom; bring out, draw out; educe, elicit, bring to light; dig out, grub up, fish up; unearth, disinter. solve, resolve, elucidate; unriddle, unravel, unlock, crack, crack open; pick up, open the lock; find a clue, find clew a to, find the key to the riddle; interpret &c 522; disclose &c 529. trace, get at; hit it, have it; lay one's finger, lay one's hands upon; spot; get at the truth, arrive at the truth &c 494; put the saddle on the right horse, hit the right nail on the head. be near the truth, be warm, get warmer, burn; smoke, scent, sniff, catch a whiff of, smell a rat. open the eyes to; see through, see daylight, see in its true colors, see the cloven foot; detect; catch, catch tripping. pitch upon, fall upon, light upon, hit upon, stumble upon, pop upon; come across, come onto; meet with, meet up with, fall in with. recognize, realize; verify, make certain of, identify. Int. eureka!, aha!^, I've got it!, 481. Misjudgment -- N. misjudgment, obliquity of judgment; miscalculation, miscomputation, misconception &c (error) 495; hasty conclusion. [causes of misjudgment. 1] prejudgment, prejudication^, prejudice; foregone conclusion; prenotion^, prevention, preconception, predilection, prepossession, preapprehension^, presumption, assumption, presentiment; fixed idea, preconceived idea; id_ee fixe; mentis gratissimus error [Lat.]; fool's paradise. [causes of misjudgment. 2] esprit de corps, party spirit, partisanship, clannishness, prestige. [causes of misjudgment. 3] bias, bigotry, warp, twist; hobby, fad, quirk, crotchet, partiality, infatuation, blind side, mote in the eye. [causes of misjudgment. 4] one-sided views, one-track mind, partial views, narrow views, confined views, superficial views, one- sided ideas, partial ideas, narrow ideas, confined ideas, superficial ideas, one-sided conceptions, partial conceptions, narrow conceptions, confined conceptions, superficial conceptions, one-sided notions, partial notions, narrow notions, confined notions, superficial notions; narrow mind; bigotry &c (obstinacy) 606; odium theologicum [Lat.]; pedantry; hypercriticism. doctrinaire &c (positive) 474. [causes of misjudgment. 5] overestimation &c 482; underestimation &c 483. [causes of misjudgment. 6] ignorance &c 491. erroneous assumptions, erroneous data, mistaken assumptions, incorrect assumptions (error) 495. V. misjudge, misestimate, misthink^, misconjecture^, misconceive &c (error) 495; fly in the face of facts; miscalculate, misreckon, miscompute. overestimate &c 482; underestimate &c 483. prejudge, forejudge; presuppose, presume, prejudicate^; dogmatize; have a bias &c n.; have only one idea; jurare in verba magistri [Lat.], run away with the notion; jump to a conclusion, rush to a conclusion, leap to a conclusion, judge hastily, shoot from the hip, jump to conclusions; look only at one side of the shield; view with jaundiced eye, view through distorting spectacles; not see beyond one's nose; dare pondus fumo [Lat.]; get the wrong sow by the ear &c (blunder) 699. give a bias, give a twist; bias, warp, twist; prejudice, prepossess. Adj. misjudging &c v.; ill-judging, wrong-headed; prejudiced &c v.; jaundiced; shortsighted, purblind; partial, one-sided, superficial. narrow-minded, narrow-souled^; mean-spirited; confined, illiberal, intolerant, besotted, infatuated, fanatical, entete [Fr.], positive, dogmatic, conceited; opinative, opiniative^; opinioned, opinionate, opinionative, opinionated; self-opinioned, wedded to an opinion, opini=atre; bigoted &c (obstinate) 606; crotchety, fussy, impracticable; unreasonable, stupid &c 499; credulous &c 486; warped. misjudged &c v.. Adv. ex parte [Lat.]. Phr. nothing like leather; the wish the father to the thought; wishful thinking; unshakable conviction; my mind is made up - don't bother me with the facts. 482. Overestimation -- N. overestimation &c v.; exaggeration &c 549; vanity &c 880; optimism, pessimism, pessimist. much cry and little wool, much ado about nothing; storm in a teacup, tempest in a teacup; fine talking. V. overestimate, overrate, overvalue, overprize, overweigh, overreckon^, overstrain, overpraise; eulogize; estimate too highly, attach too much importance to, make mountains of molehills, catch at straws; strain, magnify; exaggerate &c 549; set too high a value upon; think much of, make much of, think too much of, make too much of; outreckon^; panegyrize^. extol, extol to the skies; make the most of, make the best of, make the worst of; make two bites of a cherry. have too high an opinion of oneself &c (vanity) 880. Adj. overestimated &c v.; oversensitive &c (sensibility) 822. Phr. all his geese are swans; parturiunt montes [Lat.]. 483. Underestimation -- N. underestimation; depreciation &c (detraction) 934; pessimism, pessimist; undervaluing &c v.; modesty &c 881. V. underrate, underestimate, undervalue, underreckon^; depreciate; disparage &c (detract) 934; not do justice to; misprize, disprize; ridicule &c 856; slight &c (despise) 930; neglect &c 460; slur over. make light of, make little of, make nothing of, make no account of; belittle; minimize, think nothing of; set no store by, set at naught; shake off as dewdrops from the lion's mane. Adj. depreciating, depreciated &c v.; unvalued, unprized^. 484. Belief -- N. belief; credence; credit; assurance; faith, trust, troth, confidence, presumption, sanguine expectation &c (hope) 858; dependence on, reliance on. persuasion, conviction, convincement^, plerophory^, self- conviction; certainty &c 474; opinion, mind, view; conception, thinking; impression &c (idea) 453; surmise &c 514; conclusion &c (judgment) 480. tenet, dogma, principle, way of thinking; popular belief &c (assent) 488. firm belief, implicit belief, settled belief, fixed rooted deep- rooted belief, staunch belief, unshaken belief, steadfast belief, inveterate belief, calm belief, sober belief, dispassionate belief, impartial belief, well-founded belief, firm opinion, implicit opinion, settled opinion, fixed rooted deep-rooted opinion, staunch opinion, unshaken opinion, steadfast opinion, inveterate opinion, calm opinion, sober opinion, dispassionate opinion, impartial opinion, well-founded opinion &c; uberrima fides [Lat.]. system of opinions, school, doctrine, articles, canons; article of faith, declaration of faith, profession of faith; tenets, credenda^, creed; thirty-nine articles &c (orthodoxy) 983.1; catechism; assent &c 488; propaganda &c (teaching) 537. credibility &c (probability) 472. V. believe, credit; give faith to, give credit to, credence to; see, realize; assume, receive; set down for, take for; have it, take it; consider, esteem, presume. count upon, depend upon, calculate upon, pin one's faith upon, reckon upon, lean upon, build upon, rely upon, rest upon; lay one's account for; make sure of. make oneself easy about, on that score; take on trust, take on credit; take for granted, take for gospel; allow some weight to, attach some weight to. know, know for certain; have know, make no doubt; doubt not; be, rest assured &c adj.; persuade oneself, assure oneself, satisfy oneself; make up one's mind. give one credit for; confide in, believe in, put one's trust in; place in, repose in, implicit confidence in; take one's word for, at one's word; place reliance on, rely upon, swear by, regard to. think, hold; take, take it; opine, be of opinion, conceive, trow^, ween^, fancy, apprehend; have it, hold a belief, possess, entertain a belief, adopt a belief, imbibe a belief, embrace a belief, get hold of a belief, hazard, foster, nurture a belief, cherish a belief, have an opinion, hold an opinion, possess, entertain an opinion, adopt an opinion, imbibe an opinion, embrace an opinion, get hold of an opinion, hazard an opinion, foster an opinion, nurture an opinion, cherish an opinion &c n.. view as, consider as, take as, hold as, conceive as, regard as, esteem as, deem as, look upon as, account as, set down as; surmise &c 514. get it into one's head, take it into one's head; come round to an opinion; swallow &c (credulity) 486. cause to be believed &c v.; satisfy, persuade, have the ear of, gain the confidence of, assure; convince, convict^, convert; wean, bring round; bring over, win over; indoctrinate &c (teach) 537; cram down the throat; produce conviction, carry conviction; bring home to, drive home to. go down, find credence, pass current; be received &c v., be current &c adj.; possess, take hold of, take possession of the mind. Adj. believing &c v.; certain, sure, assured, positive, cocksure, satisfied, confident, unhesitating, convinced, secure. under the impression; impressed with, imbued with, penetrated with. confiding, suspectless^; unsuspecting, unsuspicious; void of suspicion; credulous &c 486; wedded to. believed &c v.; accredited, putative; unsuspected. worthy of, deserving of, commanding belief; credible, reliable, trustworthy, to be depended on; satisfactory; probably &c 472; fiducial^, fiduciary; persuasive, impressive. relating to belief, doctrinal. Adv. in the opinion of, in the eyes of; me judice [Lat.]; meseems^, methinks; to the best of one's belief; I dare say, I doubt not, I have no doubt, I am sure; sure enough &c (certainty) 474; depend upon, rely upon it; be assured, rest assured; I'll warrant you &c (affirmation) 535. Phr. experto crede [Lat.] [Vergil]; fata viam invenient [Lat.]; Justitiae soror incorrupta Fides [Lat.]; live to explain thy doctrine by thy life [Prior]; stands not within the prospect of belief [Macbeth]; tarde quae credita laedunt credimus [Lat.] [Ovid]; vide et crede [Lat.]. 485. Unbelief. Doubt -- N. unbelief, disbelief, misbelief; discredit, miscreance^; infidelity &c (irreligion) 989 [Obs.]; dissent &c 489; change of opinion &c 484; retraction &c 607. doubt &c (uncertainty) 475; skepticism, scepticism, misgiving, demure; distrust, mistrust, cynicism; misdoubt^, suspicion, jealousy, scruple, qualm; onus probandi [Lat.]. incredibility, incredibleness; incredulity. [person who doubts] doubter, skeptic, cynic.; unbeliever &c 487. V. disbelieve, discredit; not believe &c 484; misbelieve^; refuse to admit &c (dissent) 489; refuse to believe &c (incredulity) 487. doubt; be doubtful &c (uncertain) 475; doubt the truth of; be skeptical as to &c adj.; diffide^; distrust, mistrust; suspect, smoke, scent, smell a rat; have doubts, harbor doubts, entertain doubts, suspicions; have one's doubts. demure, stick at, pause, hesitate, scruple; stop to consider, waver. hang in suspense, hang in doubt. throw doubt upon, raise a question; bring in, call in question; question, challenge, dispute; deny &c 536; cavil; cause a doubt, raise a doubt, start a doubt, suggest a doubt, awake a doubt, make suspicion; ergotize^. startle, stagger; shake one's faith, shake one's belief, stagger one's faith, stagger one's belief. Adj. unbelieving; skeptical, sceptical. incredulous as to, skeptical as to; distrustful as to, shy as to, suspicious of; doubting &c v.. doubtful &c (uncertain) 475; disputable; unworthy of, undeserving of belief &c 484; questionable; suspect, suspicious; open to suspicion, open to doubt; staggering, hard to believe, incredible, unbelievable, not to be believed, inconceivable; impossible &c 471. fallible &c (uncertain) 475; undemonstrable; controvertible &c (untrue) 495. Adv. cum grano salis [Lat.], with a grain of salt; with grains of allowance. Phr. fronti nulla fides [Lat.]; nimium ne crede colori [Lat.] [Vergil]; timeo Danaos et dona ferentes [Vergil], I fear the Greeks even when bearing gifts, beware of Greeks bearing gifts; credat Judaeus Apella [Lat.] [Horace]; let those believe who may; ad tristem partem stenua est suspicio [Lat.] [Syrus]. 486. Credulity -- N. credulity, credulousness &c adj.; cullibility^, gullibility; gross credulity, infatuation; self delusion, self deception; superstition; one's blind side; bigotry &c (obstinacy) 606; hyperorthodoxy &c 984 [Obs.]; misjudgment &c 481. credulous person &c (dupe) 547. V. be credulous &c adj.; jurare in verba magistri [Lat.]; follow implicitly; swallow, gulp down; take on trust; take for granted, take for gospel; run away with a notion, run away with an idea; jump to a conclusion, rush to a conclusion; think the moon is made of green cheese; take for granted, grasp the shadow for the substance; catch at straws, grasp at straws. impose upon &c (deceive) 545. Adj. credulous, gullible; easily deceived &c 545; simple, green, soft, childish, silly, stupid; easily convinced; over-credulous, over confident, over trustful; infatuated, superstitious; confiding &c (believing) 484. Phr. the wish the father to the thought; credo quia impossibile [Lat.] [Tertullian]; all is not gold that glitters; no es oro todo lo que reluce [Sp.]; omne ignotum pro magnifico [Lat.]. 487. Incredulity -- N. incredulousness^, incredulity; skepticism, pyrrhonism^; want of faith &c (irreligion) 989 [Obs.]. suspiciousness &c adj.; scrupulosity; suspicion &c (unbelief) 485. mistrust, cynicism. unbeliever, skeptic, cynic; misbeliever.1, pyrrhonist; heretic &c (heterodox) 984. V. be incredulous &c adj.; distrust &c (disbelieve) 485; refuse to believe; shut one's eyes to, shut one's ears to; turn a deaf ear to; hold aloof, ignore, nullis jurare in verba magistri [Lat.]. Adj. incredulous, skeptical, unbelieving, inconvincible^; hard of belief, shy of belief, disposed to doubt, indisposed to believe; suspicious, scrupulous, distrustful, cynical; 488. Assent -- N. assent, assentment^; acquiescence, admission; nod; accord, concord, concordance; agreement &c 23; affirmance, affirmation; recognition, acknowledgment, avowal; confession of faith. unanimity, common consent, consensus, acclamation, chorus, vox populi; popular belief, current belief, current opinion; public opinion; concurrence &c (of causes) 178; cooperation &c (voluntary) 709. ratification, confirmation, corroboration, approval, acceptance, visa; indorsement &c (record) 551 [Obs.]. consent &c (compliance) 762. pressure to conform, herd instinct, peer pressure. V. assent; give assent, yield assent, nod assent; acquiesce; agree &c 23; receive, accept, accede, accord, concur, lend oneself to, consent, coincide, reciprocate, go with; be at one with &c adj.; go along with, chime in with, strike in with, close in with; echo, enter into one's views, agree in opinion; vote, give one's voice for; recognize; subscribe to, conform to, defer to; say yes to, say ditto, amen to, say aye to. acknowledge, own, admit, allow, avow, confess; concede &c (yield) 762; come round to; abide by; permit &c 760. arrive at an understanding, come to an understanding, come to terms, come to an agreement. confirm, affirm; ratify, appprove, indorse, countersign; corroborate &c 467. go with the stream, swim with the stream, go with the flow, blow with the wind; be in fashion, join in the chorus, join the crowd, be one of the guys, be part of the group, go with the crowd, don't make waves; be in every mouth. Adj. assenting &c v.; of one accord, of one mind; of the same mind, at one with, agreed, acquiescent, content; willing &c 602. uncontradicted, unchallenged, unquestioned, uncontroverted. carried, agreed, nem. con. [Lat.], nemine contradicente [Lat.], &c adv.; unanimous; agreed on all hands, carried by acclamation. affirmative &c 535. Adv. yes, yea, ay, aye, true; good; well; very well, very true; well and good; granted; even so, just so; to be sure, 'thou hast said', you said it, you said a mouthful; truly, exactly, precisely, that's just it, indeed, certainly, you bet, certes [Lat.], ex concesso [Lat.]; of course, unquestionably, assuredly, no doubt, doubtless; naturally, natch. be it so; so be it, so let it be; amen; willingly &c 602. affirmatively, in the affirmative. OK, all right, might as well, why not? with one consent, with one voice, with one accord; unanimously, una voce, by common consent, in chorus, to a man; nem. con, nemine contradicente [Lat.]; nemine dissentiente [Lat.]; without a dissentient voice; as one man, one and all, on all hands. Phr. avec plaisir [Fr.]; chi tace accousente [It]; the public mind is the creation of the Master-Writers [Disraeli]; you bet your sweet ass it is; what are we waiting for? whenever you're ready; anytime you're ready. 489. Dissent -- N. dissent; discordance &c (disagreement) 24; difference diversity of opinion. nonconformity &c (heterodoxy) 984; protestantism, recusancy, schism; disaffection; secession &c 624; recantation &c 607. dissension &c (discord) 713; discontent &c 832; cavilling. protest; contradiction &c (denial) 536; noncompliance &c (rejection) 764. dissentient, dissenter; non-juror, non-content, nonconformist; sectary, separatist, recusant, schismatic, protestant, heretic. refusal &c 764. V. dissent, demur; call in question &c (doubt) 485; differ in opinion, disagree; say no &c 536; refuse assent, refuse to admit; cavil, protest, raise one's voice against, repudiate; contradict &c (deny) 536. have no notion of, differ toto caelo [Lat.]; revolt at, revolt from the idea. shake the head, shrug the shoulders; look askance, look askant^. secede; recant &c 607. Adj. dissenting &c v.; negative &c 536; dissident, dissentient; unconsenting &c (refusing) 764; non-content, nonjuring^; protestant, recusant; unconvinced, unconverted. unavowed, unacknowledged; out of the question. discontented &c 832; unwilling &c 603; extorted. sectarian, denominational, schismatic; heterodox; intolerant. Adv. no &c 536; at variance, at issue with; under protest. Int. God forbid!, not for the world; I'll be hanged if; never tell me; your humble servant, pardon me. Phr. many men many minds; quot homines tot sententiae [Lat.] [Terence]; tant s'en faut [Fr.]; il s'en faut bien [Fr.]; no way; by no means; count me out. 490. Knowledge -- N. knowledge; cognizance, cognition, cognoscence^; acquaintance, experience, ken [Scot.], privity^, insight, familiarity; comprehension, apprehension; recognition; appreciation &c (judgment) 480; intuition; conscience, consciousness; perception, precognition; acroamatics^. light, enlightenment; glimpse, inkling; glimmer, glimmering; dawn; scent, suspicion; impression &c (idea) 453; discovery &c 480.1. system of knowledge, body of knowledge; science, philosophy, pansophy^; acroama^; theory, aetiology^, etiology; circle of the sciences; pandect^, doctrine, body of doctrine; cyclopedia, encyclopedia; school &c (system of opinions) 484. tree of knowledge; republic of letters &c (language) 560. erudition, learning, lore, scholarship, reading, letters; literature; book madness; book learning, bookishness; bibliomania^, bibliolatry^; information, general information; store of knowledge &c; education &c (teaching) 537; culture, menticulture^, attainments; acquirements, acquisitions; accomplishments; proficiency; practical knowledge &c (skill) 698; liberal education; dilettantism; rudiments &c (beginning) 66. deep knowledge, profound knowledge, solid knowledge, accurate knowledge, acroatic knowledge^, acroamatic knowledge^, vast knowledge, extensive knowledge, encyclopedic knowledge, encyclopedic learning; omniscience, pantology^. march of intellect; progress of science, advance of science, advance of learning; schoolmaster abroad. [person who knows much] scholar &c 492. V. know, ken [Scot.], scan, wot^; wot aware^, be aware of &c adj.; ween^, weet^, trow^, have, possess. conceive; apprehend, comprehend; take, realize, understand, savvy [Slang], appreciate; fathom, make out; recognize, discern, perceive, see, get a sight-of, experience. know full well; have some knowledge of, possess some knowledge of; be au courant &c adj.; have in one's head, have at one' fingers ends; know by heart, know by rote; be master of; connaitre le dessous des cartes [Fr.], know what's what &c 698. see one's way; discover &c 480.1. come to one's knowledge &c (information) 527. Adj. knowing &c v.; cognitive; acroamatic^. aware of, cognizant of, conscious of; acquainted with, made acquainted with; privy to, no stranger to; au fait with, au courant; in the secret; up to, alive to; behind the scenes, behind the curtain; let into; apprized of, informed of; undeceived. proficient with, versed with, read with, forward with, strong with, at home in; conversant with, familiar with. erudite, instructed, leaned, lettered, educated; well conned, well informed, well read, well grounded, well educated; enlightened, shrewd, savant, blue, bookish, scholastic, solid, profound, deep-read, book- learned; accomplished &c (skillful) 698; omniscient; self-taught. known &c v.; ascertained, well-known, recognized, received, notorious, noted; proverbial; familiar, familiar as household words, familiar to every schoolboy; hackneyed, trite, trivial, commonplace. cognoscible^, cognizable. Adv. to one's knowledge, to the best of one's knowledge. Phr. one's eyes being opened &c (disclosure) 529; ompredre tout c'est tout pardonner [Fr.], to know all is to pardon all; empta dolore docet experientia [Lat.]; gnothi seauton [Gr.]; half our knowledge we must snatch not take [Pope]; Jahre lehren mehr als Bucher [G.], years teach more than books [G.]; knowledge comes but wisdom lingers [Tennyson]; knowledge is power [Bacon]; les affaires font les hommes [Fr.]; nec scire fas est omnia [Lat.] [Horace]; the amassed thought and experience of innumerable minds [Emerson]; was ich nicht weiss macht mich nicht heiss [G.]. 491. Ignorance -- N. ignorance, nescience, tabula rasa [Lat.], crass ignorance, ignorance crasse [Fr.]; unfamiliarity, unacquaintance^; unconsciousness &c adj.; darkness, blindness; incomprehension, inexperience, simplicity. unknown quantities, x, y, z. sealed book, terra incognita, virgin soil, unexplored ground; dark ages. [Imperfect knowledge] smattering, sciolism^, glimmering, dilettantism; bewilderment &c (uncertainty) 475; incapacity. [Affectation of knowledge] pedantry; charlatanry, charlatism^; Philister^, Philistine. V. be ignorant &c adj.; not know &c 490; know not, know not what, know nothing of; have no idea, have no notion, have no conception; not have the remotest idea; not know chalk from cheese. ignore, be blind to; keep in ignorance &c (conceal) 528. see through a glass darkly; have a film over the eyes, have a glimmering &c n.; wonder whether; not know what to make of &c (unintelligibility) 519; not pretend to take upon, not take upon one self to say. Adj. ignorant; nescient; unknowing, unaware, unacquainted, unapprised, unapprized^, unwitting, unweeting^, unconscious; witless, weetless^; a stranger to; unconversant^. uninformed, uncultivated, unversed, uninstructed, untaught, uninitiated, untutored, unschooled, misguided, unenlightened; Philistine; behind the age. shallow, superficial, green, rude, empty, half-learned, illiterate; unread, uninformed, uneducated, unlearned, unlettered, unbookish; empty-headed, dizzy, wooly-headed; pedantic; in the dark; benighted, belated; blinded, blindfolded; hoodwinked; misinformed; au bout de son latin, at the end of his tether, at fault; at sea &c (uncertain) 475; caught tripping. unknown, unapprehended, unexplained, unascertained, uninvestigated^, unexplored, unheard of, not perceived; concealed &c 528; novel. Adv. ignorantly &c adj.; unawares; for anything, for aught one knows; not that one knows. Int. God knows, Heaven knows, the Lord knows, who knows, nobody knows. Phr. ignorance never settles a question [Disraeli]; quantum animis erroris inest! [Lat.] [Ovid]; small Latin and less Greek [B. Jonson]; that unlettered small-knowing soul [Love's Labor's Lost]; there is no darkness but ignorance [Twelfth Night]. 492. Scholar -- N. scholar, connoisseur, savant, pundit, schoolman^, professor, graduate, wrangler; academician, academist^; master of arts, doctor, licentitate, gownsman; philosopher, master of math; scientist, clerk; sophist, sophister^; linguist; glossolinguist, philologist; philologer^; lexicographer, glossographer; grammarian; litterateur [Fr.], literati, dilettanti, illuminati, cogniscenti [It]; fellow, Hebraist, lexicologist, mullah, munshi^, Sanskritish; sinologist, sinologue^; Mezzofanti^, admirable Crichton, Mecaenas. bookworm, helluo librorum [Lat.]; bibliophile, bibliomaniac^; bluestocking, bas-bleu [Fr.]; bigwig, learned Theban, don; Artium Baccalaureus [Lat.], Artium Magister [Lat.]. learned man, literary man; homo multarum literarum [Lat.]; man of learning, man of letters, man of education, man of genius. antiquarian, antiquary; archaeologist. sage &c (wise man) 500. pedant, doctrinaire; pedagogue, Dr. Pangloss; pantologist^, criminologist. schoolboy &c (learner) 541. Adj. learned &c 490; brought up at the feet of Gamaliel. Phr. he was a scholar and a ripe and good one [Henry VIII]; the manifold linguist [All's Well That Ends Well]. 493. Ignoramus -- N. ignoramus, dunce; wooden spoon; no scholar. [insulting terms for ignorant person:] (imbecility) 499 (folly) 501 moron, imbecile, idiot; fool, jerk, nincompoop, asshole [Vulg.]. [person with superficial knowledge] dilettante, sciolist^, smatterer, dabbler, half scholar; charlatan; wiseacre. greenhorn, amateur &c (dupe) 547; novice, tyro &c (learner) 541; numskull. lubber &c (bungler) 701; fool &c 501; pedant &c 492. Adj. bookless^, shallow; ignorant &c 491. Phr. a wit with dunces and a dunce with wits [Pope]. 494. [Object of knowledge.] Truth -- N. fact, reality &c (existence) 1; plain fact, plain matter of fact; nature &c (principle) 5; truth, verity; gospel, gospel truth, God's honest truth; orthodoxy &c 983.1; authenticity; veracity &c 543; correctness, correctitude^. accuracy, exactitude; exactness, preciseness &c adj.; precision, delicacy; rigor, mathematical precision, punctuality; clockwork precision &c (regularity) 80; conformity to rule; nicety. orthology^; ipsissima verba [Lat.]; realism. plain truth, honest truth, sober truth, naked truth, unalloyed truth, unqualified truth, stern truth, exact truth, intrinsic truth; nuda veritas [Lat.]; the very thing; not an illusion &c 495; real Simon Pure; unvarnished tale, unvarnished truth; the truth the whole truth and nothing but the truth; just the thing. V. be true &c adj., be the case; sand the test; have the true ring; hold good, hold true, hold water. render true, prove true &c adj.; substantiate &c (evidence) 467. get at the truth &c (discover) 480.1. Adj. real, actual &c (existing) 1; veritable, true; right, correct; certain &c 474; substantially true, categorically true, definitively true &c; true to the letter, true as gospel; unimpeachable; veracious &c 543; unreconfuted^, unconfuted^; unideal^, unimagined; realistic. exact, accurate, definite, precise, well-defined, just, just so, so; strict, severe; close &c (similar) 17; literal; rigid, rigorous; scrupulous &c (conscientious) 939; religiously exact, punctual, mathematical, scientific; faithful, constant, unerring; curious, particular, nice, delicate, fine; clean-cut, clear-cut. verified, empirically true, experimentally verified, substantiated, proven (demonstrated) 478. rigorously true, unquestionably true. true by definition. genuine, authentic, legitimate; orthodox &c 983.1; official, ex officio. pure, natural, sound, sterling; unsophisticated, unadulterated, unvarnished, unalloyed, uncolored; in its true colors; pukka^. well-grounded, well founded; solid, substantial, tangible, valid; undistorted, undisguised; unaffected, unexaggerated, unromantic, unflattering. Adv. truly &c adj.; verily, indeed, really, in reality; with truth &c (veracity) 543; certainly &c (certain) 474; actually &c (existence) 1; in effect &c (intrinsically) 5. exactly &c adj.; ad amussim [Lat.]; verbatim, verbatim et literatim [Lat.]; word for word, literally, literatim [Lat.], totidem vervis [Lat.], sic, to the letter, chapter and verse, ipsissimis verbis [Lat.]; ad unguem [Lat.]; to an inch; to a nicety, to a hair, to a tittle, to a turn, to a T; au pied de la lettre [Fr.]; neither more nor less; in every respect, in all respects; sous tous les rapports [Fr.]; at any rate, at all events; strictly speaking. Phr. the truth is, the fact is; rem acu tetigisti [Lat.]; en suivant la verite [Fr.]; ex facto jus oritur [Lat.]; la verita e figlia del empo [It]; locos y ninos dicen la verdad [Sp.], crazy people and children tell the truth; nihil est veritatis luce dulcius [Lat.] [Cicero]; veritas nunquam perit [Lat.] [Seneca]; veritatem dies aperit [Lat.] [Seneca]; the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth; just the facts, ma'am, just the facts [Dragnet]. 495. Error -- N. error, fallacy; misconception, misapprehension, misstanding^, misunderstanding; inexactness &c adj.; laxity; misconstruction &c (misinterpretation) 523; miscomputation &c (misjudgment) 481; non sequitur &c 477; mis-statement, mis-report; mumpsimus^. mistake; miss, fault, blunder, quiproquo, cross purposes, oversight, misprint, erratum, corrigendum, slip, blot, flaw, loose thread; trip, stumble &c (failure) 732; botchery &c (want of skill) 699 [Obs.]; slip of the tongue, slip of the lip, Freudian slip; slip of the pen; lapsus linguae [Lat.], clerical error; bull &c (absurdity) 497; haplography^. illusion, delusion; snare; false impression, false idea; bubble; self-decit, self-deception; mists of error. heresy &c (heterodoxy) 984; hallucination &c (insanity) 503; false light &c (fallacy of vision) 443; dream &c (fancy) 515; fable &c (untruth) 546; bias &c (misjudgment) 481; misleading &c v.. V. be erroneous &c adj.. cause error; mislead, misguide; lead astray, lead into error; beguile, misinform &c (misteach) 538 [Obs.]; delude; give a false impression, give a false idea; falsify, misstate; deceive &c 545; lie &c 544. err; be in error &c adj., be mistaken &c v.; be deceived &c (duped) 547; mistake, receive a false impression, deceive oneself; fall into error, lie under error, labor under an error &c n.; be in the wrong, blunder; misapprehend, misconceive, misunderstand, misreckon, miscount, miscalculate &c (misjudge) 481. play at cross purposes, be at cross purposes &c (misinterpret) 523. trip, stumble; lose oneself &c (uncertainty) 475; go astray; fail &c 732; be in the wrong box; take the wrong sow by the ear &c (mismanage) 699; put the saddle on the wrong horse; reckon without one's host; take the shadow for the substance &c (credulity) 486; dream &c (imagine) 515. Adj. erroneous, untrue, false, devoid of truth, fallacious, apocryphal, unreal, ungrounded, groundless; unsubstantial &c 4; heretical &c (heterodox) 984; unsound; illogical &c 477. inexact, unexact inaccurate^, incorrect; indefinite &c (uncertain) 475. illusive, illusory; delusive; mock, ideal &c (imaginary) 515; spurious &c 545; deceitful &c 544; perverted. controvertible, unsustainable; unauthenticated, untrustworthy. exploded, refuted; discarded. in error, under an error &c n.; mistaken &c v.; tripping &c v.; out, out in one's reckoning; aberrant; beside the mark, wide of the mark, wide of the truth, way off, far off; astray &c (at fault) 475; on a false scent, on the wrong scent; in the wrong box, outside the ballpark; at cross purposes, all in the wrong; all out. Adv. more or less. Phr. errare est humanum [Lat.]; mentis gratissimus error [Lat.] [Horace]; on the dubious waves of error tost [Cowper]; to err is human, to forgive divine [Pope]; you lie -- under a mistake [Shelley]. 496. Maxim -- N. maxim, aphorism; apothegm, apophthegm^; dictum, saying, adage, saw, proverb; sentence, mot [Fr.], motto, word, byword, moral, phylactery, protasis^. axiom, theorem, scholium^, truism, postulate. first principles, a priori fact, assumption (supposition) 514. reflection &c (idea) 453; conclusion &c (judgment) 480; golden rule &c (precept) 697; principle, principia [Lat.]; profession of faith &c (belief) 484; settled principle, accepted principle, formula. accepted fact. received truth, wise maxim, sage maxim, received maxim, admitted maxim, recognized maxim &c; true saying, common saying, hackneyed saying, trite saying, commonplace saying &c Adj. aphoristic, proverbial, phylacteric^; axiomatic, gnomic. Adv. as the saying goes, as the saying is, as they say. 497. Absurdity -- N. absurdity, absurdness &c adj.; imbecility &c 499; alogy^, nonsense, utter nonsense; paradox, inconsistency; stultiloquy^, stultiloquence^; nugacity^. blunder, muddle, bull; Irishism^, Hibernicism^; slipslop^; anticlimax, bathos; sophism &c 477. farce, galimathias^, amphigouri^, rhapsody; farrago &c (disorder) 59; betise [Fr.]; extravagance, romance; sciamachy^. sell, pun, verbal quibble, macaronic^. jargon, fustian, twaddle, gibberish &c (no meaning) 517; exaggeration &c 549; moonshine, stuff; mare's nest, quibble, self- delusion. vagary, tomfoolery, poppycock, mummery, monkey trick, boutade [Fr.], escapade. V. play the fool &c 499; talk nonsense, parler a tort et a travess [Fr.]; battre la campagne [Fr.]; hanemolia bazein [Gr.]; be absurd &c adj.. Adj. absurd, nonsensical, preposterous, egregious, senseless, inconsistent, ridiculous, extravagant, quibbling; self-annulling, self- contradictory; macaronic^, punning. foolish &c 499; sophistical &c 477; unmeaning &c 517; without rhyme or reason; fantastic. Int. fiddlededee!, pish!, pho!^, in the name of the Prophet--figs! [Horace Smith]. Phr. credat Judaeus Apella [Lat.] [Horace]; tell it to the marines. 498. Intelligence, Wisdom -- N. intelligence, capacity, comprehension, understanding; cuteness, sabe [U.S.], savvy [U.S.]; intellect &c 450; nous [Fr.], parts, sagacity, mother wit, wit, esprit, gumption, quick parts, grasp of intellect; acuteness &c adj.; acumen, subtlety, penetration, perspicacy^, perspicacity; discernment, due sense of, good judgment; discrimination &c 465; cunning &c 702; refinement &c (taste) 850. head, brains, headpiece, upper story, long head; eagle eye, eagle- glance; eye of a lynx, eye of a hawk. wisdom, sapience, sense; good sense, common sense, horse sense [U.S.], plain sense; rationality, reason; reasonableness &c adj.; judgment; solidity, depth, profundity, caliber; enlarged views; reach of thought, compass of thought; enlargement of mind. genius, inspiration, geist [G.], fire of genius, heaven-born genius, soul; talent &c (aptitude) 698. [Wisdom in action] prudence &c 864; vigilance &c 459; tact &c 698; foresight &c 510; sobriety, self-possession, aplomb, ballast. a bright thought, not a bad idea. Solomon-like wisdom. V. be intelligent &c adj.; have all one's wits about one; understand &c (intelligible) 518; catch an idea, take in an idea; take a joke, take a hint. see through, see at a glance, see with half an eye, see far into, see through a millstone; penetrate; discern &c (descry) 441; foresee &c 510. discriminate &c 465; know what's what &c 698; listen to reason. Adj. intelligent [Applied to persons], quick of apprehension, keen, acute, alive, brainy, awake, bright, quick, sharp; quick witted, keen witted, clear witted, sharp-eyed, sharp sighted, sharp witted; wide- awake; canny, shrewd, astute; clear-headed; farsighted &c 510; discerning, perspicacious, penetrating, piercing; argute^; quick-witted, nimble-witted, needle-witted; sharp as a needle, sharp as a tack; alive to &c (cognizant) 490; clever &c (apt) 698; arch &c (cunning) 702; pas si bete [Fr.]; acute &c 682. wise, sage, sapient, sagacious, reasonable, rational, sound, in one's right mind, sensible, abnormis sapiens [Lat.], judicious, strong- minded. unprejudiced, unbiased, unbigoted^, unprepossessed^; undazzled^, unperplexed^; unwarped judgment^, impartial, equitable, fair. cool; cool-headed, long-headed, hardheaded, strong-headed; long- sighted, calculating, thoughtful, reflecting; solid, deep, profound. oracular; heaven-directed, heaven-born. prudent &c (cautious) 864; sober, stand, solid; considerate, politic, wise in one's generation; watchful &c 459; provident &c (prepared) 673; in advance of one' age; wise as a serpent, wise as Solomon, wise as Solon. [Applied to actions] wise, sensible, reasonable, judicious; well- thought-out, well-planned, well-judged, well-advised; prudent, politic; expedient &c 646. Phr. aut regem aut fatuum nasci oportet [Lat.]; but with the morning cool reflection came [Scott]; flosculi sententiarum [Lat.]; les affaires font les hommes [Fr.]; mas vale saber que haber [Sp.]; mas vale ser necio que profiadol nemo solus sapit [Lat.] [Plautus]; nosce te [Lat.]; gnothi seauton [Gr.]; nullum magnum ingenium sine mixtura dementiae fuit [Lat.] [Seneca from Aristotle]; sapere aude [Lat.] [Horace]; victrix fortunae sapientia [Lat.] [Juvenal]. 499. Imbecility. Folly -- N. want of intelligence &c 498, want of intellect &c 450; shadowness^, silliness, foolishness &c adj.; imbecility, incapacity, vacancy of mind, poverty of intellect, weakness of intellect, clouded perception, poor head, apartments to let; stupidity, stolidity; hebetude^, dull understanding, meanest capacity, shortsightedness; incompetence &c (unskillfulness) 699. one's weak side, not one's strong point; bias &c 481; infatuation &c (insanity) 503. simplicity, puerility, babyhood; dotage, anility^, second childishness, fatuity; idiocy, idiotism^; driveling. folly, frivolity, irrationality, trifling, ineptitude, nugacity^, inconsistency, lip wisdom, conceit; sophistry &c 477; giddiness &c (inattention) 458; eccentricity &c 503; extravagance &c (absurdity) 497; rashness &c 863. act of folly &c 699. V. to be an imbecile &c adj.; have no brains, have no sense &c 498. trifle, drivel, radoter^, dote; ramble &c (madness) 503; play the fool, play the monkey, monkey around, fool around; take leave of one's senses (insanity) 503; not see an inch beyond one's nose; stultify oneself &c 699; talk nonsense &c 497. Adj. unintelligent [Applied to persons], unintellectual, unreasoning; mindless, witless, reasoningless^, brainless; halfbaked; having no head &c 498; not bright &c 498; inapprehensible^. weak headed, addle headed, puzzle headed, blunder headed, muddle headed, muddy headed, pig headed, beetle headed, buffle headed^, chuckle headed, mutton headed, maggoty headed, grossheaded^; beef headed, fat witted, fat-headed. weak-minded, feeble-minded; dull minded, shallow minded, lack- brained; rattle-brained, rattle headed; half witted, lean witted, short witted, dull witted, blunt-witted, shallow-pated^, clod-pated^, addle- pated^, addle-brained^; dim-sighted, short-sighted; thick-skulled; weak in the upper story. shallow, borne, weak, wanting, soft, sappy, spoony; dull, dull as a beetle; stupid, heavy, insulse^, obtuse, blunt, stolid, doltish; asinine; inapt &c 699; prosaic &c 843; hebetudinous^. childish, child-like; infantine^, infantile, babyish, babish^; puerile, anile; simple &c (credulous) 486; old-womanish. fatuous, idiotic, imbecile, driveling; blatant, babbling; vacant; sottish; bewildered &c 475. blockish^, unteachable Boeotian, Boeotic; bovine; ungifted, undiscerning^, unenlightened, unwise, unphilosophical^; apish; simious^. foolish, silly, senseless, irrational, insensate, nonsensical, inept; maudlin. narrow-minded &c 481; bigoted &c (obstinate) 606; giddy &c (thoughtless) 458; rash &c 863; eccentric &c (crazed) 503. [Applied to actions] foolish, unwise, injudicious, improper, unreasonable, without reason, ridiculous, absurd, idiotic, silly, stupid, asinine; ill-imagined, ill-advised, ill-judged, ill-devised; mal entendu [Fr.]; inconsistent, irrational, unphilosophical^; extravagant &c (nonsensical) 497; sleeveless, idle; pointless, useless &c 645; inexpedient &c 647; frivolous &c (trivial) 643. Phr. Davus sum non [Lat.] [Oedipus]; a fool's bolt is soon shot [Henry V.] clitellae bovi sunt impositae [Lat.] [Cicero]; fools rush in where angels fear to tread [Pope]; il n' a ni bouche ni eperon [Fr.]; the bookful blockhead, ignorantly read [Pope]; to varnish nonsense with the charms of sound [Churchill]. 500. Sage -- N. sage, wise man; genius; master mind, master spirit of the age; longhead^, thinker; intellectual, longhair. authority, oracle, luminary, shining light, esprit fort, magnus Apollo [Lat.], Solon, Solomon, Nestor, Magi, second Daniel. man of learning &c 492; expert &c 700; wizard &c 994. wiseacre [Iron.], bigwig, know-it-all; poor man's Einstein. Adj. venerable, reverenced, emeritus. Phr. barba tenus sapientes [Lat.]. 501. Fool -- N. fool, idiot, tomfool, wiseacre, simpleton, witling^, dizzard^, donkey, ass; ninny, ninnyhammer^; chowderhead^, chucklehead^; dolt, booby, Tom Noddy, looby^, hoddy-doddy^, noddy, nonny, noodle, nizy^, owl; goose, goosecap^; imbecile; gaby^; radoteur^, nincompoop, badaud^, zany; trifler, babbler; pretty fellow; natural, niais^. child, baby, infant, innocent, milksop, sop. oaf, lout, loon, lown^, dullard, doodle, calf, colt, buzzard, block, put, stick, stock, numps^, tony. bull head, dunderhead, addlehead^, blockhead, dullhead^, loggerhead, jolthead^, jolterhead^, beetlehead^, beetlebrain, grosshead^, muttonhead, noodlehead, giddyhead^; numbskull, thickskull^; lackbrain^, shallowbrain^; dimwit, halfwit, lackwit^; dunderpate^; lunkhead sawney [U.S.], gowk^; clod, clod-hopper; clod-poll, clot-poll, clot-pate; bull calf; gawk, Gothamite, lummox, rube [U.S.]; men of Boeotia, wise men of Gotham. un sot a triple etage [Fr.], sot; jobbernowl^, changeling, mooncalf, gobemouche^. dotard, driveler; old fogey, old woman, crock; crone, grandmother; cotquean^, henhussy^. incompetent (insanity) 503. greenhorn &c (dupe) 547; dunce &c (ignoramus) 493; lubber &c (bungler) 701; madman &c 504. one who will not set the Thames on fire; one who did not invent gunpowder, qui n'a pas invente' la poudre [Fr.]; no conjuror. Phr. fortuna favet fatuis [Lat.]; les fous font les festinas et les sages les mangent [Fr.]; nomina stultorum parietibus harrent [Lat.]; stultorum plena sunt omnia [Lat.] [Cicero]. 502. Sanity -- N. sanity; soundness &c adj.; rationality, sobriety, lucidity, lucid interval; senses, sober senses, right mind, sound mind, mens sana [Lat.]. V. be sane &c adj.; retain one's senses, retain one's reason. become sane &c adj.; come to one's senses, sober down. render sane &c adj.; bring to one's senses, sober. Adj. sane, rational, reasonable, compos mentis, of sound mind; sound, sound-minded; lucid. self-possessed; sober, sober-minded. in one's sober senses, in one's right mind; in possession of one's faculties. Adv. sanely &c adj.. 503. Insanity -- N. disordered reason, disordered intellect; diseased mind, unsound mind, abnormal mind; derangement, unsoundness; psychosis; neurosis; cognitive disorder; affective disorder^. insanity, lunacy; madness &c adj.; mania, rabies, furor, mental alienation, aberration; paranoia, schizophrenia; dementation^, dementia, demency^; phrenitis^, phrensy^, frenzy, raving, incoherence, wandering, delirium, calenture of the brain^; delusion, hallucination; lycanthropy^; brain storm^. vertigo, dizziness, swimming; sunstroke, coup de soleil [Fr.], siriasis^. fanaticism, infatuation, craze; oddity, eccentricity, twist, monomania (caprice) 608; kleptodipsomania^; hypochondriasis [Med.] &c (low spirits) 837; melancholia, depression, clinical depression, severe depression; hysteria; amentia^. screw loose, tile loose, slate loose; bee in one's bonnet, rats in the upper story. dotage &c (imbecility) 499. V. be insane &c adj.. become insane &c adj.; lose one's senses, lose one's reason, lose one's faculties, lose one's wits; go mad, run mad, lose one's marbles [Coll.], go crazy, go bonkers [Coll.], flip one's wig [Coll.], flip one's lid [Coll.], flip out [Coll.], flip one's bush [Coll.]. rave, dote, ramble, wander; drivel &c (be imbecile) 499; have a screw loose &c n., have a devil; avoir le diable au corps [Fr.]; lose one's head &c (be uncertain) 475. render mad, drive mad &c adj.; madden, dementate^, addle the wits, addle the brain, derange the head, infatuate, befool^; turn the brain, turn one's head; drive one nuts [Coll.]. Adj. insane, mad, lunatic, loony [Coll.]; crazy, crazed, aliene^, non compos mentis; not right, cracked, touched; bereft of reason; all possessed, unhinged, unsettled in one's mind; insensate, reasonless, beside oneself, demented, daft; phrenzied^, frenzied, frenetic; possessed, possessed with a devil; deranged, maddened, moonstruck; shatterpated^; mad-brained, scatter brained, shatter brained, crackbrained; touched, tetched [Coll.]; off one's head. [behavior suggesting insanity] maniacal; delirious, lightheaded, incoherent, rambling, doting, wandering; frantic, raving, stark staring mad, stark raving mad, wild-eyed, berserk; delusional, hallucinatory. [behavior somewhat resembling insanity] corybantic^, dithyrambic; rabid, giddy, vertiginous, wild; haggard, mazed; flighty; distracted, distraught; depressed; agitated, hyped up; bewildered &c (uncertain) 475. mad as a March hare, mad as a hatter; of unsound mind &c n.; touched in one's head, wrong in one's head, not right in one's head, not in one's right mind, not right in one's wits, upper story; out of one's mind, out of one's wits, out of one's skull [Coll.], far gone, out of one's senses, out of one's wits; not in one's right mind. fanatical, infatuated, odd, eccentric; hypped^, hyppish^; spaced out [Coll.]. imbecile, silly, &c 499. Adv. like one possessed. Phr. the mind having lost its balance; the reason under a cloud; tet exaltee [Fr.], tet montee [Fr.]; ira furor brevis est [Lat.]; omnes stultos insanire [Lat.] [Horace]. 504. Madman -- N. madman, lunatic, maniac, bedlamite^, candidate for Bedlam, raver^, madcap, crazy; energumen^; automaniac^, monomaniac, dipsomaniac, kleptomaniac; hypochondriac &c (low spirits);; crank, Tom o'Bedlam. dreamer &c 515; rhapsodist, seer, highflier^, enthusiast, fanatic, fanatico [Sp.]; exalte [Fr.]; knight errant, Don Quixote. idiot &c 501. SECTION VI EXTENSION OF THOUGHT 1. To the Past 505. Memory -- N. memory, remembrance; retention, retentiveness; tenacity; veteris vestigia flammae [Lat.]; tablets of the memory; readiness. reminiscence, recognition, recollection, rememoration^; recurrence, flashback; retrospect, retrospection. afterthought, post script, PS. suggestion &c (information) 527; prompting &c v.; hint, reminder; remembrancer^, flapper; memorial &c (record) 551; commemoration &c (celebration) 883. [written reminder] note, memo, memorandum; things to be remembered, token of remembrance, memento, souvenir, keepsake, relic, memorabilia. art of memory, artificial memory; memoria technica [Lat.]; mnemonics, mnemotechnics^; phrenotypics^; Mnemosyne. prompt-book; crib sheet, cheat sheet. retentive memory, tenacious memory, photographic memory, green memory^, trustworthy memory, capacious memory, faithful memory, correct memory, exact memory, ready memory, prompt memory, accurate recollection; perfect memory, total recall. celebrity, fame, renown, reputation &c (repute) 873. V. remember, mind; retain the memory of, retain the remembrance of; keep in view. recognize, recollect, bethink oneself, recall, call up, retrace; look back, trace back, trace backwards; think back, look back upon; review; call upon, recall upon, bring to mind, bring to remembrance; carry one's thoughts back; rake up the past. have in the thoughts, hold in the thoughts, bear in the thoughts, carry in the thoughts, keep in the thoughts, retain in the thoughts, have in the memory, hold in the memory, bear in the memory, carry in the memory, keep in the memory, retain in the memory, have in the mind, hold in the mind, bear in the mind, carry in the mind, keep in the mind, retain in the mind, hold in remembrance; be in one's thoughts, live in one's thoughts, remain in one's thoughts, dwell in one's thoughts, haunt one's thoughts, impress one's thoughts, be in one's mind, live in one's mind, remain in one's mind, dwell in one's mind, haunt one's mind, impress one's mind, dwell in one's memory. sink in the mind; run in the head; not be able to get out of one's head; be deeply impressed with; rankle &c (revenge) 919. recur to the mind; flash on the mind, flash across the memory. [cause to remember] remind; suggest &c (inform ) 527; prompt; put in mind, keep in mind, bring to mind; fan the embers; call up, summon up, rip up; renew; infandum renovare dolorem [Lat.]; jog the memory, flap the memory, refresh the memory, rub up the memory, awaken the memory; pull by the sleeve; bring back to the memory, put in remembrance, memorialize. task the memory, tax the memory. get at one's fingers' ends, have at one's fingers', learn at one's fingers', know one's lesson, say one's lesson, repeat by heart, repeat by rote; say one's lesson; repeat, repeat as a parrot; have at one's fingers' ends, have at one's finger tips; commit to memory, memorize; con over, con; fix in the memory, rivet in the memory, imprint in the memory, impress in the memory, stamp in the memory, grave in the memory, engrave in the memory, store in the memory, treasure up in the memory, bottle up in the memory, embalm in the memory, enshrine in the memory; load the memory with, store the memory with, stuff the memory with, burden the memory with. redeem from oblivion; keep the memory alive, keep the wound green, pour salt in the wound, reopen old wounds'; tangere ulcus [Lat.]; keep up the memory of; commemorate &c (celebrate) 883. make a note of, jot a note, pen a memorandum &c (record) 551. Adj. remembering, remembered &c v.; mindful, reminiscential^; retained in the memory &c v.; pent up in one's memory; fresh; green, green in remembrance; unforgotten, present to the mind; within one's memory &c n.; indelible; uppermost in one's thoughts; memorable &c (important) 642. Adv. by heart, by rote; without book, memoriter^. in memory of; in memoriam; memoria in aeterna [Lat.]; suggestive. Phr. manet alta mente repostum [Lat.] [Vergil]; forsan et haec olim meminisse juvabit [Lat.] [Vergil]; absens haeres non erit [Lat.]; beatae memoriae [Lat.]; briefly thyself remember [Lear]; mendacem memorem esse oportet [Lat.] [Quintilian]; memory the warder of the brain [Macbeth]; parsque est meminisse doloris [Lat.] [Ovid]; to live in hearts we leave behind is not to die [Campbell]; vox audita peril littera scripta manet [Lat.]; out of sight, out of mind. 506. Oblivion -- N. oblivion, obliviousness, lethe; forgetfulness &c adj.; amnesia; obliteration of &c 552, insensibility to the past &c 823. short memory, treacherous memory, poor memory, loose memory, slippery memory, failing memory; decay of memory, failure of memory, lapse of memory; waters of Lethe, waters of oblivion. amnesty, general pardon. [deliberate or unconscious forgetting] repressed memory. V. forget; be forgetful &c adj.; fall into oblivion, sink into oblivion; have a short memory &c n., have no head. forget one's own name, have on the tip of one's tongue, come in one ear and go out the other. slip memory, escape memory, fade from memory, die away from the memory; lose, lose sight of. fail to recall, not be able to recall. [cause oneself to forget] unlearn; efface &c 552, discharge from the memory; consign to oblivion, consign to the tomb of the Capulets; think no more of &c (turn the attention from) 458; cast behind one's back, wean one's thoughts from; let bygones be bygones &c (forgive) 918. Adj. forgotten &c v.; unremembered, past recollection, bygone, out of mind; buried in oblivion, sunk in oblivion; clean forgotten; gone out of one's head, gone out of one's recollection. forgetful, oblivious, mindless, Lethean; insensible to the past &c 823; heedless. Phr. non mi ricordo [It]; the memory failing, the memory deserting one, being at fault, being in fault. 2. To the Future 507. Expectation -- N. expectation, expectance, expectancy; anticipation, reckoning, calculation; foresight &c 510. contemplation, prospection^, lookout; prospect, perspective, horizon, vista; destiny &c 152. suspense, waiting, abeyance; curiosity &c 455; anxious expectation, ardent expectation, eager expectation, breathless expectation, sanguine expectation; torment of Tantalus. hope &c 858; trust &c (belief) 484; auspices &c (prediction) 511; assurance, confidence, presumption, reliance. V. expect; look for, look out for, look forward to; hope for; anticipate; have in prospect, have in contemplation; keep in view; contemplate, promise oneself; not wonder at &c 870, not wonder if. wait for, tarry for, lie in wait for, watch for, bargain for; keep a good lookout for, keep a sharp lookout for; await; stand at 'attention' abide, bide one's time, watch. foresee &c 510; prepare for &c 673; forestall &c (be early) 132; count upon &c (believe in) 484; think likely &c (probability) 472. lead one to expect &c (predict) 511; have in store for &c (destiny) 152. prick up one's ears, hold one's breath. Adj. expectant; expecting &c v.; in expectation &c n.; on the watch &c (vigilant) 459; open-eyed, open-mouthed, in wide-eyed anticipation; agape, gaping, all agog; on tenterhooks, on tiptoe, on the tiptoe of expectation; aux aguets^; ready; curious &c 455; looking forward to. expected &c v.; long expected, foreseen; in prospect &c n.; prospective; in one's eye, in one's view, in the horizon, on the horizon, just over the horizon, just around the corner, around the corner; impending &c (destiny) 152. Adv. on the watch &c adj.; with breathless expectation &c n.; with bated breath, with rapt anticipation; arrectis auribus [Lat.]. Phr. we shall see; nous verrons [Fr.]; expectation whirls me round [Troilus and Cressida]; the light at the end of the tunnel. 508. Inexpectation -- N. inexpectation^, non-expectation; false expectation &c (disappointment) 509; miscalculation &c 481. surprise, sudden burst, thunderclap, blow, shock, start; bolt out of the blue; wonder &c 870; eye opener. unpleasant surprise, pleasant surprise. V. not expect &c 507; be taken by surprise; start; miscalculate &c 481; not bargain for; come upon, fall upon. be unexpected &c adj.; come unawares &c adv.; turn up, pop, drop from the clouds; come upon one, burst upon one, flash upon one, bounce upon one, steal upon one, creep upon one; come like a thunder clap, burst like a thunderclap, thunder bolt; take by surprise, catch by surprise, catch unawares, catch napping; yach [S. Afr.]. pounce upon, spring a mine upon. surprise, startle, take aback, electrify, stun, stagger, take away one's breath, throw off one's guard; astonish, dumbfound &c (strike with wonder) 870. Adj. nonexpectant^; surprised &c v.; unwarned, unaware; off one's guard; inattentive 458. unexpected, unanticipated, unpredicted^, unlooked for, unforeseen, unhoped for; dropped from the clouds; beyond expectation, contrary to expectation, against expectation, against all expectation; out of one's reckoning; unheard of &c (exceptional) 83; startling, surprising; sudden &c (instantaneous) 113. unpredictable, unforeseeable (unknowable) 519. Adv. abruptly, unexpectedly, surprisingly; plump, pop, a l'improviste [Fr.], unawares; without notice, without warning, without a 'by your leave'; like a thief in the night, like a thunderbolt; in an unguarded moment; suddenly &c (instantaneously) 113. Int. heydey!^, &c (wonder) 870. Phr. little did one think, little did one expect; nobody would ever suppose, nobody would ever think, nobody would ever expect; who would have thought? it beats the Dutch^. 509. [Failure of expectation.] Disappointment -- N. disappointment; blighted hope, balk; blow; anticlimax; slip 'twixt cup and lip; nonfulfillment of one's hopes; sad disappointment, bitter disappointment; trick of fortune; afterclap; false expectation, vain expectation; miscalculation &c 481; fool's paradise; much cry and little wool. V. be disappointed; look blank, look blue; look aghast, stand aghast &c (wonder) 870; find to one's cost; laugh on the wrong side of one's mouth; find one a false prophet. not realize one's hope, not realize one's expectation. [cause to be disappointed] disappoint; frustrate, discomfit, crush, defeat (failure) 732; crush one's hope, dash one's hope, balk one's hope, disappoint one's hope, blight one's hope, falsify one's hope, defeat one's hope, discourage; balk, jilt, bilk; play one false, play a trick; dash the cup from the lips, tantalize; dumfound, dumbfound, dumbfounder, dumfounder (astonish) 870. Adj. disappointed &c v.; disconcerted, aghast; disgruntled; out of one's reckoning. Phr. the mountain labored and brought forth a mouse; parturiunt montes [Lat.]; nascitur ridiculus mus [Lat.] [Horace]; diis aliter visum [Lat.], the bubble burst; one's countenance falling. 510. Foresight -- N. foresight, prospicience^, prevision, long- sightedness; anticipation; providence &c (preparation) 673. forethought, forecast; predeliberation^, presurmise^; foregone conclusion &c (prejudgment) 481; prudence &c (caution) 864. foreknowledge; prognosis; precognition, prescience, prenotion^, presentiment; second sight; sagacity &c (intelligence) 498; antepast^, prelibation^, prophasis^. prospect &c (expectation) 507; foretaste; prospectus &c (plan) 626. V. foresee; look forwards to, look ahead, look beyond; scent from afar; look into the future, pry into the future, peer into the future. see one's way; see how the land lies, get the lay of the land, see how the wind blows, test the waters, see how the cat jumps. anticipate; expect &c 507; be beforehand &c (early) 132; predict &c 511; foreknow, forejudge, forecast; presurmise^; have an eye to the future, have an eye to the main chance; respicere finem [Lat.]; keep a sharp lookout &c (vigilance) 459; forewarn &c 668. Adj. foreseeing &c v.; prescient; farseeing, farsighted; sagacious &c (intelligent) 498; weatherwise^; provident &c (prepared) 673; prospective &c 507. Adv. against the time when. Phr. cernit omnia Deus vindex [Lat.]; mihi cura futuri [Lat.]; run it up the flagpole and see who salutes. 511. Prediction -- N. prediction, announcement; program, programme [Brit.] &c (plan) 626; premonition &c (warning) 668; prognosis, prophecy, vaticination, mantology^, prognostication, premonstration^; augury, auguration^; ariolation^, hariolation^; foreboding, aboding^; bodement^, abodement^; omniation^, omniousness^; auspices, forecast; omen &c 512; horoscope, nativity; sooth^, soothsaying; fortune telling, crystal gazing; divination; necromancy &c 992. [Divination by the stars] astrology^, horoscopy^, judicial astrology^. [Place of Prediction]. adytum prefiguration^, prefigurement; prototype, type. [person who predicts] oracle &c 513. V. predict, prognosticate, prophesy, vaticinate, divine, foretell, soothsay, augurate^, tell fortunes; cast a horoscope, cast a nativity; advise; forewarn &c 668. presage, augur, bode; abode, forebode; foretoken, betoken; prefigure, preshow^; portend; foreshow^, foreshadow; shadow forth, typify, pretypify^, ominate^, signify, point to. usher in, herald, premise, announce; lower. hold out expectation, raise expectation, excite expectation, excite hope; bid fair, promise, lead one to expect; be the precursor &c 64. [predict by mathematical or statistical means from past experience] extrapolate, project. Adj. predicting &c v.; predictive, prophetic; fatidic^, fatidical^; vaticinal, oracular, fatiloquent^, haruspical, Sibylline; weatherwise^. ominous, portentous, augurous^, augurial, augural; auspicial^, auspicious; prescious^, monitory, extispicious^, premonitory, significant of, pregnant with, bit with the fate of. Phr. coming events cast their shadows before [Campbell]; dicamus bona verba [Lat.]; there buds the promise of celestial worth [Young]. [Divination: list] by oracles, Theomancy^; by the Bible, Bibliomancy; by ghosts, Psychomancy^; by crystal gazing, Crystallomancy^; by shadows or manes, Sciomancy; by appearances in the air, Aeromancy^, Chaomancy^; by the stars at birth, Genethliacs; by meteors, Meteoromancy^; by winds, Austromancy^; by sacrificial appearances, Aruspicy, Haruspicy^, Hieromancy^, Hieroscopy^; by the entrails of animals sacrificed, Extispicy^, Hieromancy^; by the entrails of a human sacrifice, Anthropomancy^; by the entrails of fishes, Ichthyomancy^; by sacrificial fire, Pyromancy^; by red-hot iron, Sideromancy^; by smoke from the altar, Capnomancy^; by mice, Myomancy^; by birds, Orniscopy^, Ornithomancy^; by a cock picking up grains, Alectryomancy, Alectromancy^; by fishes, Ophiomancy^; by herbs, Botanomancy^; by water, Hydromancy^; by fountains, Pegomancy^; by a wand, Rhabdomancy; by dough of cakes, Crithomancy^; by meal, Aleuromancy^, Alphitomancy^; by salt, Halomancy^; by dice, Cleromancy^; by arrows, Belomancy^; by a balanced hatchet, Axinomancy^; by a balanced sieve, Coscinomancy^; by a suspended ring, Dactyliomancy^; by dots made at random on paper, Geomancy^; by precious stones, Lithomancy^; by pebbles, Pessomancy^; by pebbles drawn from a heap, Psephomancy^; by mirrors, Catoptromancy^; by writings in ashes, Tephramancy^; by dreams, Oneiromancy^; by the hand, Palmistry, Chiromancy; by nails reflecting the sun's rays, Onychomancy^; by finger rings, Dactylomancy^; by numbers, Arithmancy^; by drawing lots, Sortilege^; by passages in books, Stichomancy^; by the letters forming the name of the person, Onomancy^, Nomancy; by the features, Anthroposcopy^; by the mode of laughing, Geloscopy^; by ventriloquism, Gastromancy^; by walking in a circle, Gyromancy^; by dropping melted wax into water, Ceromancy^; by currents, Bletonism; by the color and peculiarities of wine, Oenomancy^. 512. Omen -- N. omen, portent, presage, prognostic, augury, auspice; sign &c (indication) 550; harbinger &c (precursor) 64; yule candle^. bird of ill omen; signs of the times; gathering clouds; warning &c 668. prefigurement &c 511. Adj. ill-boding. Phr. auspicium melioris aevi [Lat.]. 513. Oracle -- N. oracle; prophet, prophesier, seer, soothsayer, augur, fortune teller, crystal gazer^, witch, geomancer^, aruspex^; aruspice^, haruspice^; haruspex; astrologer, star gazer^; Sibyl; Python, Pythoness^; Pythia; Pythian oracle, Delphian oracle; Monitor, Sphinx, Tiresias, Cassandra^, Sibylline leaves; Zadkiel, Old Moore; sorcerer &c 994; interpreter, &c 524. [person who predicts by non-mystical (natural) means] predictor, prognosticator, forecaster; weather forecaster, weatherman. Phr. a prophet is without honor in his own country; you don't need a weatherman to know which way the wind blows [Bob Dylan]. SECTION VII. CREATIVE THOUGHT 514. Supposition -- N. supposition, assumption, assumed position, postulation, condition, presupposition, hypothesis, blue sky hypothesis, postulate, postulatum [Lat.], theory; thesis, theorem; data; proposition, position; proposal &c (plan) 626; presumption &c (belief) 484; divination. conjecture; guess, guesswork, speculation; rough guess, shot, shot in the dark [Coll.]; conjecturality^; surmise, suspicion, sneaking suspicion; estimate, approximation (nearness) 197. inkling, suggestion, hint, intimation, notion, impression; bare supposition, vague supposition, loose supposition, loose suggestion. association of ideas, (analogy) 514.1; metonym [Gramm.], metonymy [Gramm.], simile (metaphor) 521. conceit, idea, thought; original idea, invention (imagination) 515. V. suppose, conjecture, surmise, suspect, guess, divine; theorize; presume, presurmise^, presuppose; assume, fancy, wis^, take it; give a guess, speculate, believe, dare say, take it into one's head, take for granted; imagine &c 515. put forth; propound, propose; start, put a case, submit, move, make a motion; hazard out, throw out a suggestion, put forward a suggestion, put forward conjecture. allude to, suggest, hint, put it into one's head. suggest itself &c (thought) 451; run in the head &c (memory) 505; marvel if, wonder if, wonder whether. Adj. supposing &c v.; given, mooted, postulatory^; assumed &c v.; supposititious, suppositive^, suppositious; gratuitous, speculative, conjectural, hypothetical, theoretical, academic, supposable, presumptive, putative; suppositional. suggestive, allusive. Adv. if, if so be; an; on the supposition &c n.; ex hypothesi [Lat.]; in the case, in the event of; quasi, as if, provided; perhaps &c (by possibility) 470; for aught one knows. 514a. Analogy -- N. analogy, association, association of ideas. metaphor &c 521. analogical thinking; free association; train of thought. Adj. analogical. 515. Imagination -- N. imagination; originality; invention; fancy; inspiration; verve. warm imagination, heated imagination, excited imagination, sanguine imagination, ardent imagination, fiery imagination, boiling imagination, wild imagination, bold imagination, daring imagination, playful imagination, lively imagination, fertile imagination, fancy. mind's eye; such stuff as dreams are made of [Tempest]. ideality, idealism; romanticism, utopianism, castle-building. dreaming; phrensy^, frenzy; ecstasy, extasy^; calenture &c (delirium) 503 [Obs.]; reverie, trance; day dream, golden dream; somnambulism. conception, Vorstellung [G.], excogitation^, a fine frenzy; cloudland^, dreamland; flight of fancy, fumes of fancy; thick coming fancies [Macbeth]; creation of the brain, coinage of the brain; imagery. conceit, maggot, figment, myth, dream, vision, shadow, chimera; phantasm, phantasy; fantasy, fancy; whim, whimsey^, whimsy; vagary, rhapsody, romance, gest^, geste^, extravaganza; air drawn dagger, bugbear, nightmare. flying Dutchman, great sea serpent, man in the moon, castle in the air, pipe dream, pie-in-the-sky, chateau en Espagne [Fr.]; Utopia, Atlantis^, happy valley, millennium, fairyland; land of Prester John, kindgom of Micomicon; work of fiction &c (novel) 594; Arabian nights^; le pot au lait [Fr.]; dream of Alnashar &c (hope) 858 [Obs.]. illusion &c (error) 495; phantom &c (fallacy of vision) 443; Fata Morgana &c (ignis fatuus) 423 [Lat.]; vapor &c (cloud) 353; stretch of the imagination &c (exaggeration) 549; mythogenesis^. idealist, romanticist, visionary; mopus^; romancer, dreamer; somnambulist; rhapsodist &c (fanatic) 504; castle-buildier, fanciful projector. V. imagine, fancy, conceive; idealize, realize; dream, dream of, dream up; give to airy nothing a local habitation and a name [Midsummer Night's Dream]. create, originate, devise, invent, coin, fabricate; improvise, strike out something new. set one's wits to work; strain one's invention, crack one's invention; rack one's brains, ransack one's brains, cudgel one's brains; excogitate^; brainstorm. give play, give the reins, give a loose to the imagination, give fancy; indulge in reverie. visualize, envision, conjure up a vision; fancy oneself, represent oneself, picture, picture-oneself, figure to oneself; vorstellen [G.]. float in the mind; suggest itself &c (thought) 451. Adj. imagined &c v.; ben trovato [It]; air drawn, airbuilt^. imagining &c v., imaginative; original, inventive, creative, fertile. romantic, high flown, flighty, extravagant, fanatic, enthusiastic, unrealistic, Utopian, Quixotic. ideal, unreal; in the clouds, in nubibus [Lat.]; unsubsantial^ &c 4; illusory &c (fallacious) 495. fabulous, legendary; mythical, mythic, mythological; chimerical; imaginary, visionary; notional; fancy, fanciful, fantastic, fantastical^; whimsical; fairy, fairy-like; gestic^. Phr. a change came o'er the spirit of my dream [Byron]; aegri somnia vana [Lat.]; dolphinum appingit sylvis in fluctibus aprum [Horace]; fancy light from fancy caught [Tennyson]; imagination rules the world [Napoleon]; l'imagination gallope [Fr.], le jugement ne va que le pas [Fr.]; musaeo contingens cuncta lepore [Lat.] [Lucretius]; tous songes sont mensonges [Fr.]; Wahrheil und Dichtung [G.]. DIVISION II COMMUNICATION OF IDEAS SECTION I. NATURE OF IDEAS COMMUNICATED 516. [Idea to be conveyed.] Meaning [Thing signified.] -- N. meaning; signification, significance; sense, expression; import, purport; force; drift, tenor, spirit, bearing, coloring; scope. [important part of the meaning] substance; gist, essence, marrow, spirit &c 5. matter; subject, subject matter; argument, text, sum and substance. general meaning, broad meaning, substantial meaning, colloquial meaning, literal meaning, plain meaning, simple meaning, natural meaning, unstrained meaning, true meaning, &c (exact) 494 honest meaning, &c 543 prima facie meaning [Lat.]; &c (manifest) 525. letter of the law. literally; after acceptation. synonym; implication, allusion &c (latency) 526; suggestion &c (information) 527; figure of speech &c 521; acceptation &c (interpretation) 522. V. mean, signify, express; import, purport; convey, imply, breathe, indicate, bespeak, bear a sense; tell of, speak of; touch on; point to, allude to; drive at; involve &c (latency) 526; declare &c (affirm) 535. understand by &c (interpret) 522. Adj. meaning &c v.; expressive, suggestive, allusive; significant, significative^, significatory^; pithy; full of meaning, pregnant with meaning. declaratory &c 535; intelligible &c 518; literal; synonymous; tantamount &c (equivalent) 27; implied &c (latent) 526; explicit &c 525. Adv. to that effect; that is to say &c (being interpreted) 522. 517. [Absence of meaning.] Unmeaningness -- N. meaninglessness, unmeaningness &c adj.^; scrabble. empty sound, dead letter, vox et praeterea nihil [Lat.]; a tale told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, signifying nothing; sounding brass and a tinkling cymbal. nonsense, utter nonsense, gibberish; jargon, jabber, mere words, hocus-pocus, fustian, rant, bombast, balderdash, palaver, flummery, verbiage, babble, baverdage, baragouin^, platitude, niaiserie^; inanity; flap-doodle; rigmarole, rodomontade; truism; nugae canorae [Lat.]; twaddle, twattle, fudge, trash, garbage, humbug; poppy-cock [U.S.]; stuff, stuff and nonsense; bosh, rubbish, moonshine, wish-wash, fiddle- faddle; absurdity &c 497; vagueness &c (unintelligibility) 519. [routine or reflexive statements without substantive thought, esp. legal] boilerplate, clich_¬. V. mean nothing; be unmeaning &c adj.; twaddle, quibble, scrabble. Adj. unmeaning; meaningless, senseless; nonsensical; void of sense &c 516. inexpressive, unexpressive; vacant; not significant &c 516; insignificant. trashy, washy, trumpery, trivial, fiddle-faddle, twaddling, quibbling. unmeant, not expressed; tacit &c (latent) 526. inexpressible, undefinable, incommunicable. 518. Intelligibility -- N. intelligibility; clearness, explicitness &c adj.; lucidity, comprehensibility, perspicuity; legibility, plain speaking &c (manifestation) 525; precision &c 494; phonanta synetoisy [Gr.]; a word to the wise. V. be intelligible &c adj.; speak for itself, speak volumes; tell its own tale, lie on the surface. render intelligible &c adj.; popularize, simplify, clear up; elucidate &c (explain) 522. understand, comprehend, take, take in; catch, grasp, follow, collect, master, make out; see with half an eye, see daylight, see one's way; enter into the ideas of; come to an understanding. Adj. intelligible; clear, clear as day, clear as noonday; lucid; perspicuous, transpicuous^; luminous, transparent. easily understood, easy to understand, for the million, intelligible to the meanest capacity, popularized. plain, distinct, explicit; positive; definite &c (precise) 494. graphic; expressive &c (meaning) 516; illustrative &c (explanatory) 522. unambiguous, unequivocal, unmistakable &c (manifest) 525; unconfused; legible, recognizable; obvious &c 525. Adv. in plain terms, in plain words, in plain English. Phr. he that runs may read &c (manifest) 525. 519. Unintelligibility -- N. unintelligibility; incomprehensibility, imperspicuity^; inconceivableness, vagueness &c adj.; obscurity; ambiguity &c 520; doubtful meaning; uncertainty &c 475; perplexity &c (confusion) 59; spinosity^; obscurum per obscurius [Lat.]; mystification &c (concealment) 528; latency &c 526; transcendentalism. paradox, oxymoron; riddle, enigma, puzzle &c (secret) 533; diagnus vindice nodus [Lat.]; sealed book; steganography^, freemasonry. pons asinorum [Lat.], asses' bridge; high Dutch, Greek, Hebrew; jargon &c (unmeaning) 517. V. be unintelligible &c adj.; require explanation &c 522; have a doubtful meaning, pass comprehension. render unintelligible &c adj.; conceal &c 528; darken &c 421; confuse &c (derange) 61; perplex &c (bewilder) 475. not understand &c 518; lose, lose the clue; miss; not know what to make of, be able to make nothing of, give it up; not be able to account for, not be able to make either head or tail of; be at sea &c (uncertain) 475; wonder &c 870; see through a glass darkly &c (ignorance) 491. not understand one another; play at cross purposes &c (misinterpret) 523. Adj. unintelligible, unaccountable, undecipherable, undiscoverable, unknowable, unfathomable; incognizable^, inexplicable, inscrutable; inapprehensible^, incomprehensible; insolvable^, insoluble; impenetrable. illegible, as Greek to one, unexplained, paradoxical; enigmatic, enigmatical, puzzling (secret) 533; indecipherable. obscure, dark, muddy, clear as mud, seen through a mist, dim, nebulous, shrouded in mystery; opaque, dense; undiscernible &c (invisible) 447 [Obs.]; misty &c (opaque) 426; hidden &c 528; latent &c 526. indefinite, garbled &c (indistinct) 447; perplexed &c (confused) 59; undetermined, vague, loose, ambiguous; mysterious; mystic, mystical; acroamatic^, acroamatical^; metempirical; transcendental; occult, recondite, abstruse, crabbed. inconceivable, inconceptible^; searchless^; above comprehension, beyond comprehension, past comprehension; beyond one's depth; unconceived. inexpressible, undefinable, incommunicable. unpredictable, unforeseeable. Phr. it's Greek to me. 520. [Having a double sense] Equivocalness -- N. equivocalness &c adj.; double meaning &c 516; ambiguity, double entente, double entendre [Fr.], pun, paragram^, calembour^, quibble, equivoque [Fr.], anagram; conundrum &c (riddle) 533; play on words, word play &c (wit) 842; homonym, homonymy [Gramm.]; amphiboly^, amphibology^; ambilogy^, ambiloquy^. Sphinx, Delphic oracle. equivocation &c (duplicity) 544; white lie, mental reservation &c (concealment) 528; paltering. V. be equivocal &c adj.; have two meanings &c 516; equivocate &c (alter) 544. Adj. equivocal, ambiguous, amphibolous^, homonymous^; double-tongued &c (lying) 544; enigmatical, indeterminate. Phr. on the one hand, on the other hand. 521. Metaphor -- N. figure of speech; facon de parler [Fr.], way of speaking, colloquialism. phrase &c 566; figure, trope, metaphor, enallage^, catachresis^; metonymy [Gramm.], synecdoche [Sem.]; autonomasia^, irony, figurativeness &c adj.; image, imagery; metalepsis^, type, anagoge^, simile, personification, prosopopoeia^, allegory, apologue^, parable, fable; allusion, adumbration; application. exaggeration, hyperbole &c 549. association, association of ideas (analogy) 514.1 V. employ a metaphor &c n.; personify, allegorize, adumbrate, shadow forth, apply, allude to. Adj. metaphorical, figurative, catachrestical^, typical, tralatitious^, parabolic, allegorical, allusive, anagogical^; ironical; colloquial; tropical. Adv. so to speak, so to say, so to express oneself; as it were. Phr. mutato nomine de te fabula narratur [Lat.] [Horace]. 522. Interpretation -- N. interpretation, definition; explanation, explication; solution, answer; rationale; plain interpretation, simple interpretation, strict interpretation; meaning &c 516. translation; rendering, rendition; redition^; literal translation, free translation; key; secret; clew &c (indication) 550; clavis^, crib, pony, trot [U.S.]. exegesis; expounding, exposition; hermeneutics; comment, commentary; inference &c (deduction) 480; illustration, exemplification; gloss, annotation, scholium^, note; elucidation, dilucidation^; eclaircissement [Fr.], mot d'enigme [Fr.]. [methods of interpreting - list] symptomatology [Med.], semiology, semeiology^, semiotics; metoposcopy^, physiognomy; paleography &c (philology) 560; oneirology acception^, acceptation, acceptance; light, reading, lection, construction, version. equivalent, equivalent meaning &c 516; synonym; paraphrase, metaphrase^; convertible terms, apposition; dictionary &c 562; polyglot. V. interpret, explain, define, construe, translate, render; do into, turn into; transfuse the sense of. find out &c 480.1 the meaning of, &c 516 read; spell out, make out; decipher, unravel, disentangle; find the key of, enucleate, resolve, solve; read between the lines. account for; find the cause, tell the cause of &c 153; throw light upon, shed light upon, shed new light upon, shed fresh light upon; clear up, clarify, elucidate. illustrate, exemplify; unfold, expound, comment upon, annotate; popularize &c (render intelligible) 518. take in a particular sense, understand in a particular sense, receive in a particular sense, accept in a particular sense; understand by, put a construction on, be given to understand. Adj. explanatory, expository; explicative, explicatory; exegetical^; construable. polyglot; literal; paraphrastic, metaphrastic^; consignificative^, synonymous; equivalent &c 27. Adv. in explanation &c n.; that is to say, id est, videlicet, to wit, namely, in other words. literally, strictly speaking; in plain, in plainer terms, in plainer words, in plainer English; more simply. 523. Misinterpretation -- N. misinterpretation, misapprehension, misunderstanding, misacceptation^, misconstruction, misapplication; catachresis^; eisegesis^; cross-reading, cross-purposes; mistake &c 495. misrepresentation, perversion, exaggeration &c 549; false coloring, false construction; abuse of terms; parody, travesty; falsification &c (lying) 544. V. misinterpret, misapprehend, misunderstand, misconceive, misspell, mistranslate, misconstrue, misapply; mistake &c 495. misrepresent, pervert; explain wrongly, misstate; garble &c (falsify) 544; distort, detort^; travesty, play upon words; stretch the sense, strain the sense, stretch the meaning, strain the meaning, wrest the sense, wrest the meaning; explain away; put a bad construction on, put a false construction on; give a false coloring. be at cross purposes, play at cross purposes. Adj. misinterpreted &c v.; untranslated, untranslatable. 524. Interpreter -- N. interpreter; expositor, expounder, exponent, explainer; demonstrator. scholiast, commentator, annotator; metaphrast^, paraphrast^; glossarist^, prolocutor. spokesman, speaker, mouthpiece. dragoman, courier, valet de place, cicerone, showman; oneirocritic^; (Edipus; oracle) &c 513 SECTION II. MODES OF COMMUNICATION 525. Manifestation -- N. {ant. 526} manifestation; plainness &c adj.; plain speaking; expression; showing &c v.; exposition, demonstration; exhibition, production; display, show; showing off; premonstration^. exhibit [Thing shown]. indication &c (calling attention to) 457. publicity &c 531; disclosure &c 529; openness &c (honesty) 543, (artlessness) 703; panchement. evidence &c 467. V. make manifest, render manifest &c adj.; bring forth, bring forward, bring to the front, bring into view; give notice; express; represent, set forth, exhibit; show, show up; expose; produce; hold up to view, expose to view; set before one, place before one, lay before one, one's eyes; tell to one's face; trot out, put through one's paces, bring to light, display, demonstrate, unroll; lay open; draw out, bring out; bring out in strong relief; call into notice, bring into notice; hold up the mirror; wear one's heart upon his sleeve; show one's face, show one's colors; manifest oneself; speak out; make no mystery, make no secret of; unfurl the flag; proclaim &c (publish) 531. indicate &c (direct attention to) 457; disclose &c 529; elicit &c 480.1. be manifest &c adj.; appear &c (be visible) 446; transpire &c (be disclosed) 529; speak for itself, stand to reason; stare one in the face, rear its head; give token, give sign, give indication of; tell its own tale &c (intelligible) 518. Adj. manifest, apparent; salient, striking, demonstrative, prominent, in the foreground, notable, pronounced. flagrant; notorious &c (public) 531; arrant; stark staring; unshaded, glaring. defined, definite. distinct, conspicuous &c (visible) 446; obvious, evident, unmistakable, indubitable, not to be mistaken, palpable, self-evident, autoptical^; intelligible &c 518. plain, clear, clear as day, clear as daylight, clear as noonday; plain as a pike staff, plain as the sun at noon-day, plain as the nose on one's face, plain as the way to parish church. explicit, overt, patent, express; ostensible; open, open as day; naked, bare, literal, downright, undisguised, exoteric. unreserved, frank, plain-spoken &c (artless) 703; candid (veracious) 543; barefaced. manifested &c v.; disclosed &c 529; capable of being shown, producible; inconcealable^, unconcealable; no secret. Adv. manifestly, openly &c adj.; before one's eyes, under one's nose, to one's face, face to face, above board, cartes sur table, on the stage, in open court, in the open streets; in market overt; in the face of day, face of heaven; in broad daylight, in open daylight; without reserve; at first blush, prima facie [Lat.], on the face of; in set terms. Phr. cela saute aux yeux [Fr.]; he that runs may read; you can see it with half an eye; it needs no ghost to tell us [Hamlet]; the meaning lies on the surface; cela va sans dire [Fr.]; res ipsa loquitur [Lat.]; clothing the palpable and familiar [Coleridge]; fari quae sentiat [Lat.]; volto sciolto i pensieri stretti [It]; you don't need a weatherman to know which way the wind blows [Bob Dylan]. 526. Latency. Implication -- N. {ant. 525} latency, inexpression^; hidden meaning, occult meaning; occultness, mystery, cabala^, anagoge^; silence &c (taciturnity) 585; concealment &c 528; more than meets the eye, more than meets the ear; Delphic oracle; le dessous des cartes [Fr.], undercurrent. implication, logical implication; logical consequence; entailment. allusion, insinuation; innuendo &c 527; adumbration; something rotten in the state of Denmark [Hamlet]. snake in the grass &c (pitfall) 667; secret &c 533. darkness, invisibility, imperceptibility. V. be latent &c adj.; lurk, smolder, underlie, make no sign; escape observation, escape detection, escape recognition; lie hid &c 528. laugh in one's sleeve; keep back &c (conceal) 528. involve, imply, understand, allude to, infer, leave an inference; entail; whisper &c (conceal) 528. [understand the implication] read between the lines. Adj. latent; lurking &c v.; secret &c 528; occult; implied &c v.; dormant; abeyant. unapparent, unknown, unseen &c 441; in the background; invisible &c 447; indiscoverable^, dark; impenetrable &c (unintelligible) 519; unspied^, unsuspected. unsaid, unwritten, unpublished, unbreathed^, untalked of^, untold &c 527, unsung, unexposed, unproclaimed^, undisclosed &c 529, unexpressed; not expressed, tacit. undeveloped, solved, unexplained, untraced^, undiscovered &c 480.1, untracked, unexplored, uninvented^. indirect, crooked, inferential; by inference, by implication; implicit; constructive; allusive, covert, muffled; steganographic^; understood, underhand, underground; delitescent^, concealed &c 528. Adv. by a side wind; sub silentio [Lat.]; in the background; behind the scenes, behind one's back; on the tip of one's tongue; secretly &c 528; between the lines. Phr. thereby hangs a tale [As You Like It]; tacitum vivit sub pectore vulnus [Lat.] [Vergil]; where there's smoke, there's fire. 527. Information -- N. information, enlightenment, acquaintance, knowledge &c 490; publicity &c 531; data &c 467. communication, intimation; notice, notification; enunciation, annunciation; announcement; communiqu_e; representation, round robin, presentment. case, estimate, specification, report, advice, monition; news &c 532; return &c (record) 551; account &c (description) 594; statement &c (affirmation) 535. mention; acquainting &c v.; instruction &c (teaching) 537; outpouring; intercommunication, communicativeness. informant, authority, teller, intelligencer^, reporter, exponent, mouthpiece; informer, eavesdropper, delator, detective; sleuth; mouchard^, spy, newsmonger; messenger &c 534; amicus curiae [Lat.]. valet de place, cicerone, pilot, guide; guidebook, handbook; vade mecum [Lat.]; manual; map, plan, chart, gazetteer; itinerary &c (journey) 266. hint, suggestion, innuendo, inkling, whisper, passing word, word in the ear, subaudition^, cue, byplay; gesture &c (indication) 550; gentle hint, broad hint; verbum sapienti [Lat.], a word to the wise; insinuation &c (latency) 526. information theory. [units of information] bit, byte, word, doubleword [Comp.], quad word, paragraph, segment. [information storage media] magnetic media, paper medium, optical media; random access memory, RAM; read-only memory, ROM; write once read mostly memory, WORM. V. tell; inform, inform of; acquaint, acquaint with; impart, impart to; make acquaintance with, apprise, advise, enlighten, awaken; transmit. let fall, mention, express, intimate, represent, communicate, make known; publish &c 531; notify, signify, specify, convey the knowledge of. let one know, have one to know; give one to understand; give notice; set before, lay before, put before; point out, put into one's head; put one in possession of; instruct &c (teach) 537; direct the attention to &c 457. announce, annunciate; report, report progress; bringword^, send word, leave word, write word; telegraph, telephone; wire; retail, render an account; give an account &c (describe) 594; state &c (affirm) 535. [disclose inadvertently or reluctantly] let slip, blurt out, spill the beans, unburden oneself of, let off one's chest; disclose &c 529. show cause; explain &c (interpret) 522. hint; given an inkling of; give a hint, drop a hint, throw out a hint; insinuate; allude to, make allusion to; glance at; tip the wink &c (indicate) 550; suggest, prompt, give the cue, breathe; whisper, whisper in the ear. give a bit of one's mind; tell one plainly, tell once for all; speak volumes. undeceive^, unbeguile^; set right, correct, open the eyes of, disabuse, disillusion one of. be informed of &c; know &c 490; learn &c 539; get scent of, get wind of, gather from; awaken to, open one's eyes to; become alive, become awake to; hear, overhear, understand. come to one's ears, come to one's knowledge; reach one's ears. Adj. informed &c v.; communique; reported &c v.; published &c 531. expressive &c 516; explicit &c (open) 525, (clear) 518; plain spoken &c, (artless) 703. nuncupative, nuncupatory^; declaratory, expository; enunciative^; communicative, communicatory^. Adv. from information received. Phr. a little bird told me; I heard it through the grapevine. 527a. Correction [Correct an error of information; distinguish from correcting a flaw or misbehavior] -- N. correction. disillusionment &c 616. V. correct, set right, set straight, put straight; undeceive^; enlighten. show one one's error; point out an error, point out a fallacy; pick out an error, pick out the fallacy; open one's eyes. pick apart an argument, confutation &c 479; reasoning &c 476. Adj. corrective. Phr. I stand corrected. 528. Concealment -- N. concealment; hiding &c v.; occultation, mystification. seal of secrecy; screen &c 530; disguise &c 530; masquerade; masked battery; hiding place &c 530; cryptography, steganography^; freemasonry. stealth, stealthiness, sneakiness; obreption^; slyness &c (cunning) 702. latitancy^, latitation^; seclusion &c 893; privacy, secrecy, secretness^; incognita. reticence; reserve; mental reserve, reservation; arriere pensee [Fr.], suppression, evasion, white lie, misprision; silence &c (taciturnity) 585; suppression of truth &c 544; underhand dealing; closeness, secretiveness &c adj.; mystery. latency &c 526; snake in the grass; secret &c 533; stowaway. V. conceal, hide, secrete, put out of sight; lock up, seal up, bottle up. encrypt, encode, cipher. cover, screen, cloak, veil, shroud; cover up one's tracks; screen from sight, screen from observation; drawing the veil; draw the curtain, close the curtain; curtain, shade, eclipse, throw a view over; be cloud, be mask; mask, disguise; ensconce, muffle, smother; befog; whisper. keep from; keep back, keep to oneself; keep snug, keep close, keep secret, keep dark; bury; sink, suppress; keep from, keep from out of view, keep from out of sight; keep in the shade, throw into the shade, throw into background; stifle, hush up, smother, withhold, reserve; fence with a question; ignore &c 460. keep a secret, keep one's own counsel; hold one's tongue &c (silence) 585; make no sign, not let it go further; not breathe a word, not breathe a syllable about; not let the right hand know what the left is doing; hide one's light under a bushel, bury one's talent in a napkin. keep in the dark, leave in the dark, keep in the ignorance; blind, blind the eyes; blindfold, hoodwink, mystify; puzzle &c (render uncertain) 475; bamboozle &c (deceive) 545. be concealed &c v.; suffer an eclipse; retire from sight, couch; hide oneself; lie hid, lie in perdu [Fr.], lie in close; lie in ambush (ambush) 530; seclude oneself &c 893; lurk, sneak, skulk, slink, prowl; steal into, steal out of, steal by, steal along; play at bopeep^, play at hide and seek; hide in holes and corners; still hunt. Adj. concealed &c v.; hidden; secret, recondite, mystic, cabalistic, occult, dark; cryptic, cryptical^; private, privy, in petto, auricular, clandestine, close, inviolate; tortuous. behind a screen &c 530; undercover, under an eclipse; in ambush, in hiding, in disguise; in a cloud, in a fog, in a mist, in a haze, in a dark corner; in the shade, in the dark; clouded, wrapped in clouds, wrapt in clouds^; invisible &c 447; buried, underground, perdu [Fr.]; secluded &c 893. undisclosed &c 529, untold &c 527; covert &c (latent) 526; untraceable; mysterious &c (unintelligible) 519. irrevealable^, inviolable; confidential; esoteric; not to be spoken of; unmentionable. obreptitious^, furtive, stealthy, feline; skulking &c v.; surreptitious, underhand, hole and corner; sly &c (cunning) 702; secretive, evasive; reserved, reticent, uncommunicative, buttoned up; close, close as wax; taciturn &c 585. Adv. secretly &c adj.; in secret, in private, in one's sleeve, in holes and corners; in the dark &c adj.. januis clausis [Lat.], with closed doors, a huis clos [Fr.]; hugger mugger, a la derobee [Fr.]; under the cloak of, under the rose, under the table; sub rosa [Lat.], en tapinois [Fr.], in the background, aside, on the sly, with bated breath, sotto voce [Lat.], in a whisper, without beat of drum, a la sourdine^. behind the veil; beyond mortal ken, beyond the grave, beyond the veil; hid from mortal vision; into the eternal secret, into the realms supersensible^, into the supreme mystery. in confidence, in strict confidence, in strictest confidence; confidentially &c adj.; between ourselves, between you and me; between you and me and the bedpost; entre nous [Fr.], inter nos, under the seal of secrecy; a couvert [Fr.]. underhand, by stealth, like a thief in the night; stealthily &c adj.; behind the scenes, behind the curtain, behind one's back, behind a screen &c 530; incognito; in camera. Phr. it must go no further, it will go no further; don't tell a soul; tell it not in Gath, nobody the wiser; alitur vitium vivitque tegendo [Lat.]; let it be tenable in your silence still [Hamlet]. [confidential disclosure to news reporters] background information, deep background information, deep background; background session, backgrounder; not for attribution 529. Disclosure -- N. disclosure; retection^; unveiling &c v.; deterration^, revealment, revelation; exposition, exposure; expose; whole truth; telltale &c (news) 532. acknowledgment, avowal; confession, confessional; shrift. bursting of a bubble; denouement. [person who discloses a secret] tattletale, snitch, fink, stool pigeon, canary. V. disclose, discover, dismask^; draw the veil, draw aside the veil, lift the veil, raise the veil, lift up the veil, remove the veil, tear aside the veil, tear the curtain; unmask, unveil, unfold, uncover, unseal, unkennel; take off the seal, break the seal; lay open, lay bare; expose; open, open up; bare, bring to light. divulge, reveal, break; squeal [Coll.], tattle [Coll.], sing [Coll.], rat [Coll.], snitch [Coll.]; let into the secret; reveal the secrets of the prison house; tell &c (inform) 527; breathe, utter, blab, peach; let out, let fall, let drop, let slip, spill the beans, let the cat out of the bag; betray; tell tales, come out of school; come out with; give vent, give utterance to; open the lips, blurt out, vent, whisper about; speak out &c (make manifest) 525; make public &c 531; unriddle &c (find out) 480.1; split. acknowledge, allow, concede, grant, admit, own, own up to, confess, avow, throw off all disguise, turn inside out, make a clean breast; show one's hand, show one's cards; unburden one's mind, disburden one's mind, disburden one's conscience, disburden one's heart; open one's mind, lay bare one's mind, tell a piece of one's mind [Fr.]; unbosom oneself, own to the soft impeachment; say the truth, speak the truth; turn King's evidence, Queen's evidence; acknowledge the corn [U.S.]. raise the mask, drop the mask, lift the mask, remove the mask, throw off the mask; expose; lay open; undeceive^, unbeguile^; disabuse, set right, correct, open the eyes of; d_esillusionner. be disclosed &c; transpire, come to light; come in sight &c (be visible) 446; become known, escape the lips; come out, ooze out, creep out, leak out, peep out, crop-out; show its face, show its colors; discover itself &c; break through the clouds, flash on the mind. Adj. disclosed &c v.; open, public &c 525. Int. out with it!, Phr. the murder is out; a light breaks in upon one; the scales fall from one's eyes; the eyes are opened. 530. Ambush [Means of concealment]. -- N. camouflage; mimicry; hiding place; secret place, secret drawer; recess, hold, holes and corners; closet, crypt, adytum^, abditory^, oubliette. ambush, ambuscade; stalking horse; lurking hole, lurking place; secret path, back stairs; retreat &c (refuge) 666. screen, cover, shade, blinker; veil, curtain, blind, cloak, cloud. mask, visor, vizor^, disguise, masquerade dress, domino. pitfall &c (source of danger) 667; trap &c (snare) 545. V. blend in, blend into the background. lie in ambush &c (hide oneself) 528; lie in wait for, lurk; set a trap for &c (deceive) 545; ambuscade, ambush. camouflage. Adj. camouflaged, hidden, concealed. Adv. aux aguets^. 531. Publication -- N. publication; public announcement &c 527; promulgation, propagation, proclamation, pronunziamento [It]; circulation, indiction^, edition; hue and cry. publicity, notoriety, currency, flagrancy, cry, bruit, hype; vox populi; report &c (news) 532. the Press, public press, newspaper, journal, gazette, daily; telegraphy; publisher &c v.; imprint. circular, circular letter; manifesto, advertisement, ad., placard, bill, affiche^, broadside, poster; notice &c 527. V. publish; make public, make known &c (information) 527; speak of, talk of; broach, utter; put forward; circulate, propagate, promulgate; spread, spread abroad; rumor, diffuse, disseminate, evulugate; put forth, give forth, send forth; emit, edit, get out; issue; bring before the public, lay before the public, drag before the public; give out, give to the world; put about, bandy about, hawk about, buzz about, whisper about, bruit about, blaze about; drag into the open day; voice. proclaim, herald, blazon; blaze abroad, noise abroad; sound a trumpet; trumpet forth, thunder forth; give tongue; announce with beat of drum, announce with flourish of trumpets; proclaim from the housetops, proclaim at Charing Cross. advertise, placard; post, post up afficher^, publish in the Gazette, send round the crier. raise a cry, raise a hue and cry, raise a report; set news afloat. be published &c; be public, become public &c adj.; come out; go about, fly about, buzz about, blow about; get about, get abroad, get afloat, get wind; find vent; see the light; go forth, take air, acquire currency, pass current; go the rounds, go the round of the newspapers, go through the length and breadth of the land; virum volitare per ora [Lat.]; pass from mouth to mouth; spread; run like wildfire, spread like wildfire. Adj. published &c v.; current &c (news) 532; in circulation, public; notorious; flagrant, arrant; open &c 525; trumpet-tongued; encyclical, encyclic^, promulgatory^; exoteric. Adv. publicly &c adj.; in open court, with open doors. Int. Oyez!, O yes!, notice!, Phr. notice is hereby given; this is to give, these are to give notice; nomina stultorum parietibus haerent [Lat.]; semel emissum volat irrevocabile verbum [Lat.]. 532. News -- N. news; information &c 527; piece of news [Fr.], budget of news, budget of information; intelligence, tidings. word, advice, aviso [Sp.], message; dispatch, despatch; telegram, cable, marconigram^, wire, communication, errand, embassy. report, rumor, hearsay, on dit [Fr.], flying rumor, news stirring, cry, buzz, bruit, fame; talk, oui dire [Fr.], scandal, eavesdropping; town tattle, table talk; tittle tattle; canard, topic of the day, idea afloat. bulletin, fresh news, stirring news; glad tidings; flash, news just in; on-the-spot coverage; live coverage. old story, old news, stale news, stale story; chestnut [Slang]. narrator &c (describe) 594; newsmonger, scandalmonger; talebearer, telltale, gossip, tattler. [study of news reporting] journalism. [methods of conveying news] media, news media, the press, the information industry; newspaper, magazine, tract, journal, gazette, publication &c 531; radio, television, ticker (electronic information transmission). [organizations producing news reports] [methods of conveying news] United Press International, UPI; Associated Press, AP; The Dow Jones News Service, DJ; The New York Times News Service, NYT; Reuters [Brit.]; TASS [Rus.]; The Nikkei [Jap.]. [person reporting news as a profession] newscaster, newsman, newswoman, reporter, journalist, correspondent, foreign correspondent, special correspondent, war correspondent, news team, news department; anchorman, anchorwoman^; sportscaster; weatherman. [officials providing news for an organization] press secretary, public relations department, public relations man. V. transpire &c (be disclosed) 529; rumor &c (publish) 531. Adj. many-tongued; rumored; publicly rumored, currently rumored, currently reported; rife, current, floating, afloat, going about, in circulation, in every one's mouth, all over the town. in progress; live; on the spot; in person. Adv. as the story goes, as the story runs; as they say, it is said; by telegraph, by wireless. Phr. airy tongues that syllable men's names [Milton]; what's up?; what's the latest?; what's new?; what's the latest poop?. 533. Secret -- N. secret; dead secret, profound secret; arcanum^, mystery; latency &c 526; Asian mystery^; sealed book, secrets of the prison house; le desous des cartes [Fr.]. enigma, riddle, puzzle, nut to crack, conundrum, charade, rebus, logogriph^; monogram, anagram; Sphinx; crux criticorum [Lat.]. maze, labyrinth, Hyrcynian wood; intricacy, meander. problem &c (question) 461; paradox &c (difficulty) 704; unintelligibility &c 519; terra incognita &c (ignorance) 491. Adj. secret &c (concealed) 528; involved &c, 248; labyrinthine, labyrinthian^, mazy. confidential; top secret. 534. Messenger -- N. messenger, envoy, emissary, legate; nuncio, internuncio^; ambassador &c (diplomatist) 758. marshal, flag bearer, herald, crier, trumpeter, bellman^, pursuivant^, parlementaire [Fr.], apparitor^. courier, runner; dak^, estafette^; Mercury, Iris, Ariel^. commissionaire [Fr.]; errand boy, chore boy; newsboy. mail, overnight mail, express mail, next-day delivery; post, post office; letter bag; delivery service; United Parcel Service, UPS; Federal Express, Fedex. telegraph, telephone; cable, wire (electronic information transmission); carrier pigeon. [person reporting news] (news) 532 reporter, gentleman of the press, representative of the press; penny-a-liner; special correspondent, own correspondent; spy, scout; informer &c 527. 535. Affirmation -- N. affirmance, affirmation; statement, allegation, assertion, predication, declaration, word, averment; confirmation. asseveration, adjuration, swearing, oath, affidavit; deposition &c (record) 551; avouchment; assurance; protest, protestation; profession; acknowledgment &c (assent) 488; legal pledge, pronouncement; solemn averment, solemn avowal, solemn declaration. remark, observation; position &c (proposition) 514, saying, dictum, sentence, ipse dixit [Lat.]. emphasis; weight; dogmatism &c (certainty) 474; dogmatics &c 887. V. assert; make an assertion &c n.; have one's say; say, affirm, predicate, declare, state; protest, profess. put forth, put forward; advance, allege, propose, propound, enunciate, broach, set forth, hold out, maintain, contend, pronounce, pretend. depose, depone, aver, avow, avouch, asseverate, swear; make oath, take one's oath; make an affidavit, swear an affidavit, put in an affidavit; take one's Bible oath, kiss the book, vow, vitam impendere vero [Lat.]; swear till one is black in the face, swear till one is blue in the face, swear till all's blue; be sworn, call Heaven to witness; vouch, warrant, certify, assure, swear by bell book and candle. swear by &c (believe) 484; insist upon, take one's stand upon; emphasize, lay stress on; assert roundly, assert positively; lay down, lay down the law; raise one's voice, dogmatize, have the last word; rap out; repeat; reassert, reaffirm. announce &c (information) 527; acknowledge &c (assent) 488; attest &c (evidence) 467; adjure &c (put to one's oath) 768. Adj. asserting &c v.; declaratory, predicatory^, pronunciative^, affirmative, soi-disant [Fr.]; positive; certain &c 474; express, explicit &c (patent) 525; absolute, emphatic, flat, broad, round, pointed, marked, distinct, decided, confident, trenchant, dogmatic, definitive, formal, solemn, categorical, peremptory; unretracted^; predicable. Adv. affirmatively &c adj.; in the affirmative. with emphasis, ex-cathedra, without fear of contradiction. as God is my witness, I must say, indeed, i' faith, let me tell you, why, give me leave to say, marry, you may be sure, I'd have you to know; upon my word, upon my honor; by my troth, egad, I assure you; by jingo, by Jove, by George, &c; troth, seriously, sadly; in sadness, in sober sadness, in truth, in earnest; of a truth, truly, perdy^, in all conscience, upon oath; be assured &c (belief) 484; yes &c (assent) 488; I'll warrant, I'll warrant you, I'll engage, I'll answer for it, I'll be bound, I'll venture to say, I'll take my oath; in fact, forsooth, joking apart; so help me God; not to mince the matter. Phr. quoth he; dixi [Lat.]. 536. Negation -- N. negation, abnegation; denial; disavowal, disclaimer; abjuration; contradiction, contravention; recusation [Law], protest; recusancy &c (dissent) 489; flat contradiction, emphatic contradiction, emphatic denial, dementi [Lat.]. qualification &c 469; repudiation &c 610; retraction &c 607; confutation &c 479; refusal &c 764; prohibition &c 761. V. deny; contradict, contravene; controvert, give denial to, gainsay, negative, shake the head. disown, disaffirm, disclaim, disavow; recant &c 607; revoke &c (abrogate) 756. dispute; impugn, traverse, rebut, join issue upon; bring in question, call in question &c (doubt) 485; give the lie in his throat, give one the lie in his throat. deny flatly, deny peremptorily, deny emphatically, deny absolutely, deny wholly, deny entirely; give the lie to, belie. repudiate &c 610; set aside, ignore &c 460; rebut &c (confute) 479; qualify &c 469; refuse &c 764. recuse [Law]. Adj. denying &c v.; denied &c v.; contradictory; negative, negatory; recusant &c (dissenting) 489; at issue upon. Adv. no, nay, not, nowise; not a bit, not a whit, not a jot; not at all, nohow, not in the least, not so; negative, negatory; no way [Coll.]; no such thing; nothing of the kind, nothing of the sort; quite the contrary, tout au contraire [Fr.], far from it; tant s'en faut [Fr.]; on no account, in no respect; by no, by no manner of means; negatively. [negative with respect to time] never, never in a million years; at no time. Phr. there never was a greater mistake; I know better; non haec in faedera [Lat.]; a thousand times no. 537. Teaching -- N. teaching &c v.; instruction; edification; education; tuition; tutorage, tutelage; direction, guidance; opsimathy^. qualification, preparation; training, schooling &c v.; discipline; excitation. drill, practice; book exercise. persuasion, proselytism, propagandism^, propaganda; indoctrination, inculcation, inoculation; advise &c 695. explanation &c (interpretation) 522; lesson, lecture, sermon; apologue^, parable; discourse, prolection^, preachment; chalk talk; Chautauqua [U.S.]. exercise, task; curriculum; course, course of study; grammar, three R's, initiation, A.B.C., &c (beginning) 66. elementary education, primary education, secondary education, technical education, college education, collegiate education, military education, university education, liberal education, classical education, religious education, denominational education, moral education, secular education; propaedeutics^, moral tuition. gymnastics, calisthenics; physical drill, physical education; sloyd^. [methods of teaching] phonics; rote, rote memorization, brute memory; cooperative learning; Montessori method, ungraded classes. [measuring degree of learning of pupils] test, examination, exam; final exam, mid-term exam grade [result of measurement of learning], score, marks; A,B,C,D,E,F; gentleman's C; pass, fail, incomplete. homework; take-home lesson; exercise for the student; theme, project. V. teach, instruct, educate, edify, school, tutor; cram, prime, coach; enlighten &c (inform) 527. inculcate, indoctrinate, inoculate, infuse, instill, infix, ingraft^, infiltrate; imbue, impregnate, implant; graft, sow the seeds of, disseminate. given an idea of; put up to, put in the way of; set right. sharpen the wits, enlarge the mind; give new ideas, open the eyes, bring forward, teach the young idea how to shoot [Thomson]; improve &c 658. expound &c (interpret) 522; lecture; read a lesson, give a lesson, give a lecture, give a sermon, give a discourse; incept^; hold forth, preach; sermonize, moralize; point a moral. train, discipline; bring up, bring up to; form, ground, prepare, qualify; drill, exercise, practice, habituate, familiarize with, nurture, drynurse^, breed, rear, take in hand; break, break in; tame; preinstruct^; initiate; inure &c (habituate) 613. put to nurse, send to school. direct, guide; direct attention to &c (attention) 457; impress upon the mind, impress upon the memory; beat into, beat into the head; convince &c (belief) 484. [instructional materials] book, workbook, exercise book. [unnecessary teaching] preach to the wise, teach one's grandmother to suck eggs, teach granny to suck eggs; preach to the converted. Adj. teaching &c v.; taught &c v.; educational; scholastic, academic, doctrinal; disciplinal^; instructive, instructional, didactic; propaedeutic^, propaedeutical^. Phr. the schoolmaster abroad; a bovi majori disscit arare minor [Lat.]; adeo in teneris consuecere multum est [Lat.] [Vergil]; docendo discimus [Lat.]; quaenocent docent [Lat.]; qui docet discit [Lat.]; sermons in stones and good in everything [As You Like It]. 538. Misteaching -- N. misteaching^, misinformaton, misintelligence^, misguidance, misdirection, mispersuasion^, misinstruction^, misleading &c v.; perversion, false teaching; sophistry &c 477; college of Laputa; the blind leading the blind. [misteaching by government agents] propaganda, disinformation, agitprop; indoctrination. V. misinform, misteach^, misdescribe^, misinstruct^, miscorrect^; misdirect, misguide; pervert; put on a false scent, throw off the scent, throw off the trail; deceive &c 545; mislead &c (error) 495; misrepresent; lie &c 544; ambiguas in vulgum spargere voces [Lat.] [Vergil]. propagandize, disinform. render unintelligible &c 519; bewilder &c (uncertainty) 475; mystify &c (conceal) 528; unteach. [person or government agent who misteaches] propagandist. Adj. misteaching &c v.; unedifying. Phr. piscem natare doces [Lat.]; the blind leading the blind. 539. Learning -- N. learning; acquisition of knowledge &c 490, acquisition of skill &c 698; acquirement, attainment; edification, scholarship, erudition; acquired knowledge, lore, wide information; self-instruction; study, reading, perusal; inquiry &c 451. apprenticeship, prenticeship^; pupilage, pupilarity^; tutelage, novitiate, matriculation. docility &c (willingness) 602; aptitude &c 698. V. learn; acquire knowledge, gain knowledge, receive knowledge, take in knowledge, drink in knowledge, imbibe knowledge, pick up knowledge, gather knowledge, get knowledge, obtain knowledge, collect knowledge, glean knowledge, glean information, glean learning. acquaint oneself with, master; make oneself master of, make oneself acquainted with; grind, cram; get up, coach up; learn by heart, learn by rote. read, spell, peruse; con over, pore over, thumb over; wade through; dip into; run the eye over, run the eye through; turn over the leaves. study; be studious &c adj.. [study intensely] burn the midnight oil, consume the midnight oil, mind one's book; cram. go to school, go to college, go to the university; matriculate; serve an apprenticeship, serve one's apprenticeship, serve one's time; learn one's trade; be informed &c 527; be taught &c 537. [stop going to school voluntarily (intransitive)] drop out, leave school, quit school; graduate; transfer; take a leave. [cause to stop going to school (transitive)] dismiss, expel, kick out of school. [stop going to school involuntarily] flunk out; be dismissed &c Adj. studious; scholastic, scholarly; teachable; docile &c (willing) 602; apt &c 698, industrious &c 682. Adv. at one's books; in statu pupillari &c (learner) 541 [Lat.]. Phr. a lumber-house of books in every head [Pope]; ancora imparo! [Lat.]; hold high converse with the mighty dead [Thomson]; lash'd into Latin by the tingling rod [Gay]. 540. Teacher -- N. teacher, trainer, instructor, institutor, master, tutor, director, Corypheus, dry nurse, coach, grinder, crammer, don; governor, bear leader; governess, duenna [Sp.]; disciplinarian. professor, lecturer, reader, prelector^, prolocutor, preacher; chalk talker, khoja^; pastor &c (clergy) 996; schoolmaster, dominie [Fr.], usher, pedagogue, abecedarian; schoolmistress, dame, monitor, pupil teacher. expositor &c 524; preceptor, guide; guru; mentor &c (adviser) 695; pioneer, apostle, missionary, propagandist, munshi^, example &c (model for imitation) 22. professorship &c (school) 542. tutelage &c (teaching) 537. Adj. professorial. Phr. qui doet discet [Lat.]. 541. Learner -- N. learner, scholar, student, pupil; apprentice, prentice^, journeyman; articled clerk; beginner, tyro, amateur, rank amateur; abecedarian, alphabetarian^; alumnus, eleve [Fr.]. recruit, raw recruit, novice, neophyte, inceptor^, catechumen, probationer; seminarian, chela, fellow-commoner; debutant. [apprentice medical doctors] intern; resident. schoolboy; fresh, freshman, frosh; junior soph^, junior; senior soph^, senior; sophister^, sophomore; questionist^. [college and university students] undergraduate; graduate student; law student; medical student; pre-med; post-doctoral student, post-doc; matriculated student; part-time student, night student, auditor. [group of learners] class, grade, seminar, form, remove; pupilage &c (learning) 539. disciple, follower, apostle, proselyte; fellow-student, condisciple^. [place of learning] school &c 542. V. learn; practise. Adj. in statu pupillari [Lat.], in leading strings. Phr. practise makes perfect. 542. School -- N. school, academy, university, alma mater, college, seminary, Lyceum; institute, institution; palaestra, Gymnasium, class, seminar. day school, boarding school, preparatory school, primary school, infant school, dame's school, grammar school, middle class school, Board school, denominational school, National school, British and Foreign school, collegiate school, art school, continuation school, convent school, County Council school, government school, grant-in-aid school, high school, higher grade school, military school, missionary school, naval school, naval academy, state-aided school, technical school, voluntary school, school; school of art; kindergarten, nursery, creche, reformatory. pulpit, lectern, soap box desk, reading desk, ambo^, lecture room, theater, auditorium, amphitheater, forum, state, rostrum, platform, hustings, tribune. school book, horn book, text book; grammar, primer, abecedary^, rudiments, manual, vade mecum; encyclopedia, cyclopedia; Lindley Murray, Cocker; dictionary, lexicon. professorship, lectureship, readership, fellowship, tutorship; chair. School Board Council of Education; Board of Education; Board of Studies, Prefect of Studies; Textbook Committee; propaganda. Adj. scholastic, academic, collegiate; educational. Adv. ex cathedra [Lat.]. 543. Veracity -- N. veracity; truthfulness, frankness, &c adj.; truth, sincerity, candor, unreserve^, honesty, fidelity; plain dealing, bona fides [Lat.]; love of truth; probity &c 939; ingenuousness &c (artlessness) 703. the truth the whole truth and nothing but the truth; honest truth, sober truth &c (fact) 494; unvarnished tale; light of truth. V. speak the truth, tell the truth; speak by the card; paint in its true colors, show oneself in one's true colors; make a clean breast &c (disclose) 529; speak one's mind &c (be blunt) 703; not lie &c 544, not deceive &c 545. Adj. truthful, true; veracious, veridical; scrupulous &c (honorable) 939; sincere, candid, frank, open, straightforward, unreserved; open hearted, true hearted, simple-hearted; honest, trustworthy; undissembling &c (dissemble) &c 544 [Obs.]; guileless, pure; truth- loving; unperjured^; true blue, as good as one's word; unaffected, unfeigned, bona fide; outspoken, ingenuous &c (artless) 703; undisguised &c (real) 494. uncontrived. Adv. truly &c (really) 494; in plain words &c 703; in truth, with truth, of a truth, in good truth; as the dial to the sun, as the needle to the pole; honor bright; troth; in good sooth^, in good earnest; unfeignedly, with no nonsense, in sooth^, sooth to say^, bona fide, in foro conscientiae [Lat.]; without equivocation; cartes sur table, from the bottom of one's heart; by my troth &c (affirmation) 535. Phr. di il vero a affronterai il diavolo [It]; Dichtung und Wahrheit [G.]; esto quod esse videris [Lat.]; magna est veritas et praevalet [Lat.]; that golden key that opes the palace of eternity [Milton]; veritas odium parit [Lat.]; veritatis simplex oratio est [Lat.]; verite sans peur [Fr.]. 544. Falsehood -- N. falsehood, falseness; falsity, falsification; deception &c 545; untruth &c 546; guile; lying &c 454; untruth &c 546; guile; lying &c v.. misrepresentation; mendacity, perjury, false swearing; forgery, invention, fabrication; subreption^; covin^. perversion of truth, suppression of truth; suppressio veri [Lat.]; perversion, distortion, false coloring; exaggeration &c 549; prevarication, equivocation, shuffling, fencing, evasion, fraud; suggestio falsi &c (lie) 546 [Lat.]; mystification &c (concealment) 528; simulation &c (imitation) 19; dissimulation, dissembling; deceit; blague^. sham; pretense, pretending, malingering. lip homage, lip service; mouth honor; hollowness; mere show, mere outside; duplicity, double dealing, insincerity, hypocrisy, cant, humbug; jesuitism, jesuitry; pharisaism; Machiavelism, organized hypocrisy; crocodile tears, mealy-mouthedness^, quackery; charlatanism^, charlatanry; gammon; bun-kum^, bumcombe, flam; bam [Slang], flimflam, cajolery, flattery; Judas kiss; perfidy &c (bad faith) 940; il volto sciolto i pensieri stretti [It]. unfairness &c (dishonesty) 940; artfulness &c (cunning) 702; misstatement &c (error) 495. V. be false &c adj., be a liar &c 548; speak falsely &c adv.; tell a lie &c 546; lie, fib; lie like a trooper; swear false, forswear, perjure oneself, bear false witness. misstate, misquote, miscite^, misreport, misrepresent; belie, falsify, pervert, distort; put a false construction upon &c (misinterpret); prevaricate, equivocate, quibble; palter, palter to the understanding; repondre en Normand [Fr.]; trim, shuffle, fence, mince the truth, beat about the bush, blow hot and cold, play fast and loose. garble, gloss over, disguise, give a color to; give a gloss, put a gloss, put false coloring upon; color, varnish, cook, dress up, embroider; varnish right and puzzle wrong; exaggerate &c 549; blague^. invent, fabricate; trump up, get up; force, fake, hatch, concoct; romance &c (imagine) 515; cry 'wolf!'. dissemble, dissimulate; feign, assume, put on, pretend, make believe; play possum; play false, play a double game; coquet; act a part, play a part; affect &c 855; simulate, pass off for; counterfeit, sham, make a show of; malinger; say the grapes are sour. cant, play the hypocrite, sham Abraham, faire pattes de velours, put on the mask, clean the outside of the platter, lie like a conjuror; hand out false colors, hold out false colors, sail under false colors; commend the poisoned chalice to the lips [Macbeth]; ambiguas in vulgum spargere voces [Lat.]; deceive &c 545. Adj. false, deceitful, mendacious, unveracious, fraudulent, dishonest, faithless, truthless, trothless; unfair, uncandid; hollow-hearted; evasive; uningenuous, disingenuous; hollow, sincere, Parthis mendacior; forsworn. artificial, contrived; canting; hypocritical, jesuitical, pharisaical; tartuffish; Machiavelian; double, double tongued, double faced, double handed, double minded, double hearted, double dealing; Janus faced; smooth-faced, smooth spoken, smooth tongued; plausible; mealy-mouthed; affected &c 855. collusive, collusory; artful &c (cunning) 702; perfidious &c 940; spurious &c (deceptive) 545; untrue &c 546; falsified &c v.; covinous. Adv. falsely &c adj.; a la tartufe, with a double tongue; silly &c (cunning) 702. Phr. blandae mendacia lingua [Lat.]; falsus in uno falsus in omnibus [Lat.]; I give him joy that's awkward at a lie [Young]; la mentira tiene las piernas cortas [Sp.]; O what a goodly outside falsehood hath [Merchant of Venice]. 545. Deception -- N. deception; falseness &c 544; untruth &c 546; imposition, imposture; fraud, deceit, guile; fraudulence, fraudulency^; covin^; knavery &c (cunning) 702; misrepresentation &c (falsehood) 544; bluff; straw-bail, straw bid [U.S.]; spoof [Slang]. delusion, gullery^; juggling, jugglery^; slight of hand, legerdemain; prestigiation^, prestidigitation; magic &c 992; conjuring, conjuration; hocus-pocus, escamoterie^, jockeyship^; trickery, coggery^, chicanery; supercherie^, cozenage^, circumvention, ingannation^, collusion; treachery &c 940; practical joke. trick, cheat, wile, blind, feint, plant, bubble, fetch, catch, chicane, juggle, reach, hocus, bite; card sharping, stacked deck, loaded dice, quick shuffle, double dealing, dealing seconds, dealing from the bottom of the deck; artful dodge, swindle; tricks upon travelers; stratagem &c (artifice) 702; confidence trick, fake, hoax; theft &c 791; ballot-box stuffing [U.S.], barney [Slang]; brace game [Slang], bunko game, drop game [Slang], gum game [U.S.], panel game [U.S.], shell game, thimblerig, skin game [U.S.]. snare, trap, pitfall, decoy, gin; springe^, springle^; noose, hoot; bait, decoy-duck, tub to the whale, baited trap, guet-a-pens; cobweb, net, meshes, toils, mouse trap, birdlime; dionaea^, Venus's flytrap^; ambush &c 530; trapdoor, sliding panel, false bottom; spring-net, spring net, spring gun, mask, masked battery; mine; flytrap^; green goods [U.S.]; panel house. Cornish hug; wolf in sheep's clothing &c (deceiver) 548; disguise, disguisement^; false colors, masquerade, mummery, borrowed plumes; pattes de velours [Fr.]. mockery &c (imitation) 19; copy &c 21; counterfeit, sham, make- believe, forgery, fraud; lie &c 546; a delusion a mockery and a snare [Denman], hollow mockery. whited sepulcher, painted sepulcher; tinsel; paste, junk jewelry, costume jewelry, false jewelry, synthetic jewels; scagliola^, ormolu, German silver, albata^, paktong^, white metal, Britannia metal, paint; veneer; jerry building; man of straw. illusion &c (error) 495; ignis fatuus &c 423 [Lat.]; mirage &c 443. V. deceive, take in; defraud, cheat, jockey, do, cozen, diddle, nab, chouse, play one false, bilk, cully^, jilt, bite, pluck, swindle, victimize; abuse; mystify; blind one's eyes; blindfold, hoodwink; throw dust into the eyes; dupe, gull, hoax, fool, befool^, bamboozle, flimflam, hornswoggle; trick. impose upon, practice upon, play upon, put upon, palm off on, palm upon, foist upon; snatch a verdict; bluff off, bluff; bunko, four flush [Slang], gum [U.S.], spoof [Slang], stuff (a ballot box) [U.S.]. circumvent, overreach; outreach, out wit, out maneuver; steal a march upon, give the go-by, to leave in the lurch decoy, waylay, lure, beguile, delude, inveigle; entrap, intrap^, ensnare; nick, springe^; set a trap, lay a trap, lay a snare for; bait the hook, forelay^, spread the toils, lime; trapan^, trepan; kidnap; let in, hook in; nousle^, nousel^; blind a trail; enmesh, immesh^; shanghai; catch, catch in a trap; sniggle, entangle, illaqueate^, hocus, escamoter^, practice on one's credulity; hum, humbug; gammon, stuff up [Slang], sell; play a trick upon one, play a practical joke upon one, put something over on one, put one over on; balk, trip up, throw a tub to a whale; fool to the top of one's bent, send on a fool's errand; make game, make a fool of, make an April fool of^, make an ass of; trifle with, cajole, flatter; come over &c (influence) 615; gild the pill, make things pleasant, divert, put a good face upon; dissemble &c 544. cog, cog the dice, load the dice, stack the deck; live by one's wits, play at hide and seek; obtain money under false pretenses &c (steal) 791; conjure, juggle, practice chicanery; deacon [U.S.]. play off, palm off, foist off, fob-off. lie &c 544; misinform &c 538; mislead &c (error) 495; betray &c 940; be deceived &c 547. Adj. deceived &c v.; deceiving &c; cunning &c 702; prestigious^, prestigiatory^; deceptive, deceptious^; deceitful, covinous^; delusive, delusory; illusive, illusory; elusive, insidious, ad captandum vulgus [Lat.]. untrue &c 546; mock, sham, make-believe, counterfeit, snide [Slang], pseudo, spurious, supposititious, so-called, pretended, feigned, trumped up, bogus, scamped, fraudulent, tricky, factitious bastard; surreptitious, illegitimate, contraband, adulterated, sophisticated; unsound, rotten at the core; colorable; disguised; meretricious, tinsel, pinchbeck, plated; catchpenny; Brummagem. artificial, synthetic, ersatz [G.]; simulated &c 544. Adv. under false colors, under the garb of, under cover of; over the left. Phr. keep the word of promise to the ear and break it to the hope [Macbeth]; fronti nulla fides [Lat.]; ah that deceit should steal such gentle shapes [Richard III]; a quicksand of deceit [Henry VI]; decipimur specie recti [Lat.] [Horace]; falsi crimen [Lat.]; fraus est celare fraudem [Lat.]; lupus in fabula [Lat.]; so smooth, he daubed his vice with show of virtue [Richard III]. 546. Untruth -- N. untruth, falsehood, lie, story, thing that is not, fib, bounce, crammer, taradiddle^, whopper; jhuth^. forgery, fabrication, invention; misstatement, misrepresentation; perversion, falsification, gloss, suggestio falsi [Lat.]; exaggeration &c 549. invention, fabrication, fiction; fable, nursery tale; romance &c (imagination) 515; absurd story, untrue story, false story, trumped up story, trumped up statement; thing devised by the enemy; canard; shave, sell, hum, traveler's tale, Canterbury tale, cock and bull story, fairy tale, fake; claptrap. press agent's yarn; puff, puffery (exaggeration) 549. myth, moonshine, bosh, all my eye and Betty Martin, mare's nest, farce. irony; half truth, white lie, pious fraud; mental reservation &c (concealment) 528. pretense, pretext; false plea &c 617; subterfuge, evasion, shift, shuffle, make-believe; sham &c (deception) 545. profession, empty words; Judas kiss &c (hypocrisy) 544; disguise &c (mask) 530. V. have a false meaning. Adj. untrue, false, phony, trumped up; void of foundation, without- foundation; fictive, far from the truth, false as dicer's oaths; unfounded, ben trovato [It], invented, fabulous, fabricated, forged; fictitious, factitious, supposititious, surreptitious; elusory^, illusory; ironical; soi-disant &c (misnamed) 565 [Fr.]. Phr. se non e vero e ben trovato [It]; where none is meant that meets the ear [Milton]. 547. Dupe -- N. dupe, gull, gudgeon, gobemouche^, cull [Slang], cully^, victim, pigeon, April fool^; jay [Slang], sucker [Slang]; laughingstock &c 857; Cyclops, simple Simon, flat; greenhorn; fool &c 501; puppet, cat's paw. V. be deceived &c 545, be the dupe of; fall into a trap; swallow the bait, nibble at the bait; bite, catch a Tartar. Adj. credulous &c 486; mistaken &c (error) 495. 548. Deceiver -- N. deceiver &c (deceive) &c 545; dissembler, hypocrite; sophist, Pharisee, Jesuit, Mawworm^, Pecksniff, Joseph Surface, Tartufe^, Janus; serpent, snake in the grass, cockatrice, Judas, wolf in sheep's clothing; jilt; shuffler^, stool pigeon. liar &c (lie) &c 544; story-teller, perjurer, false witness, menteur a triple etage [Fr.], Scapin^; bunko steerer [U.S.], carpetbagger [U.S.], capper [U.S.], faker, fraud, four flusher [Slang], horse coper^, ringer [Slang], spieler^, straw bidder [U.S.]. imposter, pretender, soi-disant [Fr.], humbug; adventurer; Cagliostro, Fernam Mendez Pinto; ass in lion's skin &c (bungler) 701; actor &c (stage player) 599. quack, charlatan, mountebank, saltimbanco^, saltimbanque^, empiric, quacksalver, medicaster^, Rosicrucian, gypsy; man of straw. conjuror, juggler, trickster, prestidigitator, jockey; crimp, decoy, decoy duck; rogue, knave, cheat; swindler &c (thief) 792; jobber. Phr. saint abroad and a devil at home [Bunyan]. 549. Exaggeration -- N. exaggeration; expansion &c 194; hyperbole, stretch, strain, coloring; high coloring, caricature, caricatura^; extravagance &c (nonsense) 497; Baron Munchausen; men in buckram, yarn, fringe, embroidery, traveler's tale; fish story, gooseberry [Slang]. storm in a teacup; much ado about nothing &c (overestimation) 482; puff, puffery &c (boasting) 884; rant &c (turgescence) 577 [Obs.]. figure of speech, facon de parler [Fr.]; stretch of fancy, stretch of the imagination; flight of fancy &c (imagination) 515. false coloring &c (falsehood) 544; aggravation &c 835. V. exaggerate, magnify, pile up, aggravate; amplify &c (expand) 194; overestimate &c 482; hyperbolize; overcharge, overstate, overdraw, overlay, overshoot the mark, overpraise; make over much, over the most of; strain, strain over a point; stretch, stretch a point; go great lengths; spin a long yarn; draw with a longbow, shoot with a longbow; deal in the marvelous. out-Herod Herod, run riot, talk at random. heighten, overcolor^; color highly, color too highly; broder^; flourish; color &c (misrepresent) 544; puff &c (boast) 884. Adj. exaggerated &c v.; overwrought; bombastic &c (grandiloquent) 577; hyperbolical^, on stilts; fabulous, extravagant, preposterous, egregious, outre [Fr.], highflying^. Adv. hyperbolically &c adj.. Phr. excitabat enim fluctus in simpulo [Lat.] [Cicero]. SECTION III. MEANS OF COMMUNICATING IDEAS 1. NATURAL MEANS 550. Indication -- N. indication; symbolism, symbolization; semiology, semiotics, semeiology^, semeiotics^; Zeitgeist. [means of recognition: property] characteristic, diagnostic; lineament, feature, trait; fingerprint, voiceprint, footprint, noseprint [for animals]; cloven hoof; footfall; recognition (memory) 505. [means of recognition: tool] diagnostic, divining rod; detector. sign, symbol; index, indice^, indicator; point, pointer; exponent, note, token, symptom; dollar sign, dollar mark. type, figure, emblem, cipher, device; representation &c 554; epigraph, motto, posy. gesture, gesticulation; pantomime; wink, glance, leer; nod, shrug, beck; touch, nudge; dactylology^, dactylonomy^; freemasonry, telegraphy, chirology [Med.], byplay, dumb show; cue; hint &c 527; clue, clew, key, scent. signal, signal post; rocket, blue light; watch fire, watch tower; telegraph, semaphore, flagstaff; cresset^, fiery cross; calumet; heliograph; guidon; headlight. [sign (evidence) on physobj of contact with another physobj] mark, scratch, line, stroke, dash, score, stripe, streak, tick, dot, point, notch, nick. print; imprint, impress, impression. [symbols accompanying written text to signify modified interpretation] keyboard symbols, printing symbols; [Symbols for emphasis], red letter, italics, sublineation^, underlining, bold font; jotting; note, annotation, reference; blaze, cedilla, guillemets^, hachure [Topo.]; [Special Characters list], quotation marks, "; double quotes, " "; parentheses, "( )"; brackets, "[ ]"; braces, "{ }", curly brackets; arrows, slashes; left parenthesis, "("; right parenthesis, ")"; opening bracket, "["; closing bracket, "]"; left curly brace, "{"; right curly brace, "}"; left arrow, "<"; right arrow, ">"; forward slash, "/"; backward slash, "\\"; exclamation point, "!"; commercial at, "@"; pound sign, "#"; percent sign, "%"; carat, "^"; ampersand, "&"; asterisk, "*"; hyphen, "-"; dash, "-", "_"; em dash, "--"; plus sign, "+"; equals sign, "="; question mark, "?"; period, "."; semicolon, ";"; colon, ":"; comma, ","; apostrophe, "'"; single quote, "'"; tilde, "~". [For identification: general] badge, criterion; countercheck^, countermark^, countersign, counterfoil; duplicate, tally; label, ticket, billet, letter, counter, check, chip, chop; dib^; totem; tessera^, card, bill; witness, voucher; stamp; cacher [Fr.]; trade mark, Hall mark. [For identification of people, on a document] signature, mark, autograph, autography; attestation; hand, hand writing, sign manual; cipher; seal, sigil [Lat.], signet, hand and seal [Law]; paraph^, brand; superscription; indorsement^, endorsement. [For identification of people, to gain access to restricted (locations or information)] password, watchword, catchword; security card, pass, passkey; credentials &c (evidence) 467; open sesame; timbrology^; mot de passe [Fr.], mot du guet [Fr.]; pass-parole; shibboleth. title, heading, docket. address card, visiting card; carte de visite [Fr.]. insignia; banner, banneret^, bannerol^; bandrol^; flag, colors, streamer, standard, eagle, labarum^, oriflamb^, oriflamme; figurehead; ensign; pennon, pennant, pendant; burgee^, blue Peter, jack, ancient, gonfalon, union jack; banderole, old glory [U.S.], quarantine flag; vexillum^; yellow-flag, yellow jack; tricolor, stars and stripes; bunting. heraldry, crest; coat of arms, arms; armorial bearings, hatchment^; escutcheon, scutcheon; shield, supporters; livery, uniform; cockade, epaulet, chevron; garland, love knot, favor. [Of locality] beacon, cairn, post, staff, flagstaff, hand, pointer, vane, cock, weathercock; guidepost, handpost^, fingerpost^, directing post, signpost; pillars of Hercules, pharos; bale-fire, beacon-fire; l'etoile du Nord [Fr.]; landmark, seamark; lighthouse, balize^; polestar, loadstar^, lodestar; cynosure, guide; address, direction, name; sign, signboard. [Of the future] warning &c 668; omen &c 512; prefigurement &c 511. [Of the past] trace, record &c, 551. [Of danger] warning &c 668, alarm &c 669. [of authority]. scepter &c 747. [of triumph]. trophy &c 733. [of quantity]. gauge &c 466. [Of Distance] milestone, milepost. [Of disgrace], brand, fool's cap. [For detection], check, telltale; test &c (experiment) 463; mileage ticket; milliary^. notification &c (information) 527; advertisement &c (publication) 531. word of command, call; bugle call, trumpet call; bell, alarum, cry; battle cry, rallying cry; angelus^; reveille; sacring bell^, sanctus bell [Lat.]. exposition &c (explanation) 522, proof &c (evidence) 463; pattern &c (prototype) 22. V. indicate; be the sign &c n.. of; denote, betoken; argue, testify &c (evidence) 467; bear the impress &c n.. of; connote, connotate^. represent, stand for; typify &c (prefigure) 511; symbolize. put an indication, put a mark &c n.; note, mark, stamp, earmark; blaze; label, ticket, docket; dot, spot, score, dash, trace, chalk; print; imprint, impress; engrave, stereotype. make a sign &c n.. signalize; underscore; give a signal, hang out a signal; beckon; nod; wink, glance, leer, nudge, shrug, tip the wink; gesticulate; raise the finger, hold up the finger, raise the hand, hold up the hand; saw the air, suit the action to the word [Hamlet]. wave a banner, unfurl a banner, hoist a banner, hang out a banner &c n.; wave the hand, wave a kerchief; give the cue &c (inform) 527; show one's colors; give an alarm, sound an alarm; beat the drum, sound the trumpets, raise a cry. sign, seal, attest &c (evidence) 467; underline &c (give importance to) 642; call attention to &c (attention) 457; give notice &c (inform) 527. Adj. indicating &c v., indicative, indicatory; denotative, connotative; diacritical, representative, typical, symbolic, pantomimic, pathognomonic^, symptomatic, characteristic, demonstrative, diagnostic, exponential, emblematic, armorial; individual &c (special) 79. known by, recognizable by; indicated &c v.; pointed, marked. [Capable of being denoted] denotable^; indelible. Adv. in token of; symbolically &c adj.; in dumb show. Phr. ecce signum [Lat.]; ex ungue leonem [Lat.], ex pede Herculem [Lat.]; vide ut supra; vultus ariete fortior [Lat.]. 551. Record -- N. trace, vestige, relic, remains; scar, cicatrix; footstep, footmark^, footprint; pug; track mark, wake, trail, scent, piste^. monument, hatchment^, slab, tablet, trophy, achievement; obelisk, pillar, column, monolith; memorial; memento &c (memory) 505; testimonial, medal; commemoration &c (celebration) 883. record, note, minute; register, registry; roll &c (list) 86; cartulary, diptych, Domesday book; catalogue raisonne [Fr.]; entry, memorandum, indorsement^, inscription, copy, duplicate, docket; notch &c (mark) 550; muniment^, deed &c (security) 771; document; deposition, proces verbal [Fr.]; affidavit; certificate &c (evidence) 467. notebook, memorandum book, memo book, pocketbook, commonplace book; portfolio; pigeonholes, excerpta^, adversaria [Lat.], jottings, dottings^. gazette, gazetteer; newspaper, daily, magazine; almanac, almanack^; calendar, ephemeris, diary, log, journal, daybook, ledger; cashbook^, petty cashbook^; professional journal, scientific literature, the literature, primary literature, secondary literature, article, review article. archive, scroll, state paper, return, blue book; statistics &c 86; compte rendu [Fr.]; Acts of, Transactions of, Proceedings of; Hansard's Debates; chronicle, annals, legend; history, biography &c 594; Congressional Records. registration; registry; enrollment, inrollment^; tabulation; entry, booking; signature &c (identification) 550; recorder &c 553; journalism. [analog recording media] recording, tape recording, videotape. [digital recording media] compact disk; floppy disk, diskette; hard disk, Winchester disk; read-only memory, ROM; write once read mostly memory, WORM. V. record; put on record, place on record; chronicle, calendar, hand down to posterity; keep up the memory &c (remember) 505; commemorate &c (celebrate) 883; report &c (inform) 527; write, commit to writing, reduce to writing; put in writing, set down in writing, writing in black and white; put down, jot down, take down, write down, note down, set down; note, minute, put on paper; take note, make a note, take minute, take memorandum; make a return. mark &c (indicate) 550; sign &c (attest) 467. enter, book; post, post up, insert, make an entry of; mark off, tick off; register, enroll, inscroll^; file &c (store) 636. burn into memory; carve in stone. Adv. on record. Phr. exegi monumentum aere perennium [Horace]; read their history in a nation's eyes [Gray]; records that defy the tooth of time [Young]. 552. [Suppression of sign.] Obliteration -- N. obliteration; erasure, rasure^; cancel, cancellation; circumduction^; deletion, blot; tabula rasa [Lat.]; effacement, extinction. V. efface, obliterate, erase, raze^, rase^, expunge, cancel; blot out, take out, rub out, scratch out, strike out, wipe out, wash out, sponge out; wipe off, rub off; wipe away; deface, render illegible; draw the pen through, apply the sponge. be effaced &c; leave no trace &c 550; leave not a rack behind Adj. obliterated &c v.; out of print; printless^; leaving no trace; intestate; unrecorded, unregistered, unwritten. Int. dele; out with it!, Phr. delenda est Carthago [Lat.] [Cato]. 553. Recorder -- N. recorder, notary, clerk; registrar, registrary^, register; prothonotary [Law]; amanuensis, secretary, scribe, babu^, remembrancer^, bookkeeper, custos rotulorum [Lat.], Master of the Rolls. annalist; historian, historiographer; chronicler, journalist; biographer &c (narrator) 594; antiquary &c (antiquity) 122; memorialist^; interviewer. 554. Representation -- N. representation, representment^; imitation &c 19; illustration, delineation, depictment^; imagery, portraiture, iconography; design, designing; art, fine arts; painting &c 556; sculpture &c 557; engraving &c 558; photography, cinematography; radiography, autoradiography [Bioch.], fluorography [Chem], sciagraphy^. personation, personification; impersonation; drama &c 599. picture, photo, photograph, daguerreotype, snapshot; X-ray photo; movie film, movie; tracing, scan, TV image, video image, image file, graphics, computer graphics, televideo, closed-circuit TV. copy &c 21; drawing, sketch, draught, draft; plot, chart, figure, scheme. image, likeness, icon, portrait, striking likeness, speaking likeness; very image; effigy, facsimile. figure, figure head; puppet, doll, figurine, aglet^, manikin, lay- figure, model, mammet^, marionette, fantoccini^, waxwork, bust; statue, statuette. ideograph, hieroglyphic, anaglyph, kanji [Jap.]; diagram, monogram. map, plan, chart, ground plan, projection, elevation (plan) 626. ichnography^, cartography; atlas; outline, scheme; view &c (painting) 556; radiograph, scotograph^, sciagraph^; spectrogram, heliogram^. V. represent, delineate; depict, depicture^; portray; take a likeness, catch a likeness &c n.; hit off, photograph, daguerreotype; snapshot; figure, shadow forth, shadow out; adumbrate; body forth; describe &c 594; trace, copy; mold. dress up; illustrate, symbolize. paint &c 556; carve &c 557; engrave &c 558. personate, personify; impersonate; assume a character; pose as; act; play &c (drama) 599; mimic &c (imitate) 19; hold the mirror up to nature. Adj. represent, representing &c v., representative; illustrative [Slang]; represented &c v.; imitative, figurative; iconic. like &c 17; graphic &c (descriptive) 594; cinquecento quattrocento [Fr.], trecento^. 555. Misrepresentation -- N. misrepresentation, distortion, caricatura^, exaggeration; daubing &c v.; bad likeness, daub, sign painting; scratch, caricature; anamorphosis^; burlesque, falsification, misstatement; parody, lampoon, take-off, travesty. V. misrepresent, distort, overdraw, exaggerate, caricature, daub; burlesque, parody, travesty. Adj. misrepresented &c v.. 556. Painting -- N. painting; depicting; drawing &c v.; design; perspective, sciagraphy^, skiagraphy^; chiaroscuro &c (light) 420; composition; treatment. historical painting, portrait painting, miniature painting; landscape painting, marine painting; still life, flower painting, scene painting; scenography^. school, style; the grand style, high art, genre, portraiture; ornamental art &c 847. monochrome, polychrome; grisaille [Fr.]. pallet, palette; easel; brush, pencil, stump; black lead, charcoal, crayons, chalk, pastel; paint &c (coloring matter) 428; watercolor, body color, oil color; oils, oil paint; varnish &c 356.1, priming; gouache, tempera, distemper, fresco, water glass; enamel; encaustic painting; mosaic; tapestry. photography, heliography, color photography; sun painting; graphics, computer graphics. picture, painting, piece [Fr.], tableau, canvas; oil painting &c; fresco, cartoon; easel picture, cabinet picture, draught, draft; pencil drawing &c, water color drawing, etching, charcoal, pen-and-ink; sketch, outline, study. photograph, color photograph, black-and-white photograph, holograph, heliograph; daguerreotype, talbotype^, calotype^, heliotype^; negative, positive; print, glossy print, matte print; enlargement, reduction, life-size print; instant photo, Polaroid photo. technicolor, Kodachrome, Ektachrome; Polaroid. portrait &c (representation) 554; whole length, full length, half length; kitcat, head; miniature; shade, silhouette; profile. landscape, seapiece^; view, scene, prospect; panorama, diorama; still life. picture gallery, exhibit; studio, atelier; pinacotheca^. V. paint, design, limn draw, sketch, pencil, scratch, shade, stipple, hatch, dash off, chalk out, square up; color, dead color, wash, varnish; draw in pencil &c n.; paint in oils &c n.; stencil; depict &c (represent) 554. Adj. painted &c v.; pictorial, graphic, picturesque. pencil, oil &c n.. Adv. in pencil &c n.. Phr. fecit [Lat.], delineavit [Lat.]; mutum est pictura poema [Lat.]. 557. Sculpture -- N. sculpture, insculpture^; carving &c v.; statuary. high relief, low relief, bas relief [Fr.]; relief; relieve; bassorilievo^, altorilievo^, mezzorilievo^; intaglio, anaglyph^; medal, medallion; cameo. marble, bronze, terra cotta [Sp.], papier-mache; ceramic ware, pottery, porcelain, china, earthenware; cloisonne, enamel, faience, Laocoon, satsuma. statue, &c (image) 554; cast &c (copy) 21; glyptotheca^. V. sculpture, carve, cut, chisel, model, mold; cast [Slang]. Adj. sculptured &c, v.. in relief, anaglyptic^, ceroplastic^, ceramic; parian^; marble &c n.; xanthian^. 558. Engraving -- N. engraving, chalcography^; line engraving, mezzotint engraving, stipple engraving, chalk engraving; dry point, bur; etching, aquatinta^; chiseling; plate engraving, copperplate engraving, steel engraving, wood engraving; xylography, lignography^, glyptography^, cerography^, lithography, chromolithography^, photolithography, zincography^, glyphography, xylograph, lignograph^, glyptograph^, cerograph^, lithograph, chromolithograph, photolithograph, zincograph^, glyphograph^, holograph. impression, print, engraving, plate; steelplate, copperplate; etching; mezzotint, aquatint, lithotint^; cut, woodcut; stereotype, graphotype^, autotype^, heliotype^. graver, burin^, etching point, style; plate, stone, wood block, negative; die, punch, stamp. printing; plate printing, copperplate printing, anastatic printing^, color printing, lithographic printing; type printing &c 591; three-color process. illustration, illumination; half tone; photogravure; vignette, initial letter, cul de lampe [Fr.], tailpiece. [person who inscribes on stone] lapidary, lapidarian. V. engrave, grave, stipple, scrape, etch; bite, bite in; lithograph &c n.; print. Adj. insculptured^; engraved &c v.. [of inscriptions on stone] lapidary. Phr. sculpsit [Lat.], imprimit [Lat.]. 559. Artist -- N. artist; painter, limner, drawer, sketcher, designer, engraver; master, old master; draftsman, draughtsman; copyist, dauber, hack; enamel, enameler, enamelist; caricaturist. historical painter, landscape painter, marine painter, flower painter, portrait painter, miniature painter, miniaturist, scene painter, sign painter, coach painter; engraver; Apelles^; sculptor, carver, chaser, modeler, figuriste^, statuary; Phidias, Praxiteles; Royal Academician. photographer, cinematographer, lensman, cameraman, camera technician, camera buff; wildlife photographer. Phr. photo safari; with gun and camera 2. CONVENTIONAL MEANS 1. Language generally 560. Language -- N. language; phraseology &c 569; speech &c 582; tongue, lingo, vernacular; mother tongue, vulgar tongue, native tongue; household words; King's English, Queen's English; dialect &c 563. confusion of tongues, Babel, pasigraphie^; pantomime &c (signs) 550; onomatopoeia; betacism^, mimmation, myatism^, nunnation^; pasigraphy^. lexicology, philology, glossology^, glottology^; linguistics, chrestomathy^; paleology^, paleography; comparative grammar. literature, letters, polite literature, belles lettres [Fr.], muses, humanities, literae humaniores [Lat.], republic of letters, dead languages, classics; genius of language; scholarship &c (scholar) 492. V. express by words &c 566. Adj. lingual, linguistic; dialectic; vernacular, current; bilingual; diglot^, hexaglot^, polyglot; literary. Phr. syllables govern the world [Selden]. 561. Letter -- N. letter; character; hieroglyphic &c (writing) 590; type &c (printing) 591; capitals; digraph, trigraph; ideogram, ideograph; majuscule, minuscule; majuscule, minuscule; alphabet, ABC^, abecedary^, christcross-row. consonant, vowel; diphthong, triphthong [Gramm.]; mute, liquid, labial, dental, guttural. syllable; monosyllable, dissyllable^, polysyllable; affix, suffix. spelling, orthograph^; phonography^, phonetic spelling; anagrammatism^, metagrammatism^. cipher, monogram, anagram; doubleacrostic^. V. spell. Adj. literal; alphabetical, abecedarian; syllabic; majuscular^, minuscular^; uncial &c (writing) 590. 562. Word -- N. word, term, vocable; name &c 564; phrase &c 566; root, etymon; derivative; part of speech &c (grammar) 567; ideophone^. dictionary, vocabulary, lexicon, glossary; index, concordance; thesaurus; gradus [Lat.], delectus [Lat.]. etymology, derivation; glossology^, terminology orismology^; paleology &c (philology) 560 [Obs.]. lexicography; glossographer &c (scholar) 492; lexicologist, verbarian^. Adj. verbal, literal; titular, nominal. conjugate [Similarly derived], paronymous^; derivative. Adv. verbally &c adj.; verbatim &c (exactly) 494. Phr. the artillery of words [Swift]. 563. Neologism -- N. neology, neologism; newfangled expression, nonce expression; back-formation; caconym^; barbarism. archaism, black letter, monkish Latin. corruption, missaying^, malapropism, antiphrasis^. pun, paranomasia^, play upon words; word play &c (wit) 842; double- entendre &c (ambiguity) 520 [Fr.]; palindrome, paragram^, anagram, clinch; abuse of language, abuse of terms. dialect, brogue, idiom, accent, patois; provincialism, regionalism, localism; broken English, lingua franca; Anglicism, Briticism, Gallicism, Scotticism, Hibernicism; Americanism^; Gypsy lingo, Romany; pidgin, pidgin English, pigeon English; Volapuk, Chinook, Esperanto, Hindustani, kitchen Kaffir. dog Latin, macaronics^, gibberish; confusion of tongues, Babel; babu English^, chi-chi. figure of speech &c (metaphor) 521; byword. colloquialism, informal speech, informal language. substandard language, vernacular. vulgar language, obscene language, obscenity, vulgarity. jargon, technical terms, technicality, lingo, slang, cant, argot; St. Gile's Greek, thieves' Latin, peddler's French, flash tongue, Billingsgate, Wall Street slang. pseudology^. pseudonym &c (misnomer) 565; Mr. So-and-so; wha d'ye call 'em^, whatchacallim, what's his name; thingummy^, thingumbob; je ne sais quoi [Fr.]. neologist^, coiner of words. V. coin words, coin a term; backform; Americanize, Anglicize. Adj. neologic^, neological^; archaic; obsolete &c (old) 124; colloquial; Anglice^. 564. Nomenclature -- N. nomenclature; naming &c v.; nuncupation^, nomination, baptism; orismology^; onomatopoeia; antonomasia^. name; appelation^, appelative^; designation, title; heading, rubric; caption; denomination; by-name, epithet. style, proper name; praenomen [Lat.], agnomen^, cognomen; patronymic, surname; cognomination^; eponym; compellation^, description, antonym; empty title, empty name; handle to one's name; namesake. term, expression, noun; byword; convertible terms &c 522; technical term; cant &c 563. V. name, call, term, denominate designate, style, entitle, clepe^, dub, christen, baptize, characterize, specify, define, distinguish by the name of; label &c (mark) 550. be called &c v.; take the name of, bean the name of, go by the name of, be known by the name of, go under the name of, pass under the name of, rejoice in the name of. Adj. named &c v.; hight^, ycleped, known as; what one may well, call fairly, call properly, call fitly. nuncupatory^, nuncupative; cognominal^, titular, nominal, orismological^. Phr. beggar'd all description [Antony and Cleopatra]. 565. Misnomer -- N. misnomer; lucus a non lucendo [Lat.]; Mrs. Malaprop; what d'ye call 'em &c (neologism) 563 [Obs.]; Hoosier. nickname, sobriquet, by-name; assumed name, assumed title; alias; nom de course, nom de theatre, nom de guerre [Fr.], nom de plume; pseudonym, pseudonymy. V. misname, miscall, misterm^; nickname; assume a name. Adj. misnamed &c v.; pseudonymous; soi-disant [Fr.]; self called, self styled, self christened; so-called. nameless, anonymous; without a having no name; innominate, unnamed; unacknowledged. Adv. in no sense. 566. Phrase -- N. phrase, expression, set phrase; sentence, paragraph; figure of speech &c 521; idiom, idiotism^; turn of expression; style. paraphrase &c (synonym) 522; periphrase &c (circumlocution) 573; motto &c (proverb) 496 [Obs.]. phraseology &c 569. V. express, phrase; word, word it; give words to, give expression to; voice; arrange in words, clothe in words, put into words, express by words; couch in terms; find words to express; speak by the card; call, denominate, designate, dub. Adj. expressed &c v.; idiomatic. Adv. in round terms, in set terms, in good set terms, set terms; in set phrases. 567. Grammar -- N. grammar, accidence, syntax, praxis, punctuation; parts of speech; jussive^; syllabication; inflection, case, declension, conjugation; us et norma loquendi [Lat.]; Lindley Murray &c (schoolbook) 542; correct style, philology &c (language) 560. V. parse, punctuate, syllabicate^. 568. Solecism -- N. solecism; bad grammar, false grammar, faulty grammar; slip of the pen, slip of the tongue; lapsus linguae [Lat.]; slipslop^; bull; barbarism, impropriety. V. use bad grammar, faulty grammar; solecize^, commit a solecism; murder the King's English, murder the Queen's English, break Priscian's head. Adj. ungrammatical; incorrect, inaccurate; faulty; improper, incongruous; solecistic, solecistical^. 569. Style -- N. style, diction, phraseology, wording; manner, strain; composition; mode of expression, choice of words; mode of speech, literary power, ready pen, pen of a ready writer; command of language &c (eloquence) 582; authorship; la morgue litteraire [Fr.]. V. express by words &c 566; write. Phr. le style c'est de l'homme [Buffon]; style is the dress of thoughts [Chesterfield]. Various Qualities of Style 570. Perspicuity -- N. perspicuity, perspicuousness &c (intelligibility) 518; plain speaking &c (manifestation) 525; definiteness, definition; exactness &c 494; explicitness, lucidness. Adj. lucid &c (intelligible) 518; explicit &c (manifest) 525; exact &c 494. 571. Obscurity -- N. obscurity &c (unintelligibility) 519; involution; hard words; ambiguity &c 520; unintelligibleness; vagueness &c 475, inexactness &c 495; what d'ye call 'em &c (neologism) 563 [Obs.]; darkness of meaning. Adj. obscure &c n.; crabbed, involved, confused. 572. Conciseness -- N. conciseness &c adj.; brevity, the soul of wit, laconism^; Tacitus; ellipsis; syncope; abridgment &c (shortening) 201; compression &c 195; epitome &c 596; monostich^; brunch word, portmanteau word. V. be concise &c adj.; condense &c 195; abridge &c 201; abstract &c 596; come to the point. Adj. concise, brief, short, terse, close; to the point, exact; neat, compact; compressed, condensed, pointed; laconic, curt, pithy, trenchant, summary; pregnant; compendious &c (compendium) 596; succinct; elliptical, epigrammatic, quaint, crisp; sententious. Adv. concisely &c adj.; briefly, summarily; in brief, in short, in a word, in a few words; for shortness sake; to come to the point, to make a long story short, to cut the matter short, to be brief; it comes to this, the long and the short of it is. Phr. brevis esse laboro obscurus fio [Lat.] [Horace]. 573. Diffuseness -- N. diffuseness &c adj.; amplification &c v.; dilating &c v.; verbosity, verbiage, cloud of words, copia verborum [Lat.]; flow of words &c (loquacity) 584; looseness. Polylogy^, tautology, battology^, perissology^; pleonasm, exuberance, redundancy; thrice-told tale; prolixity; circumlocution, ambages^; periphrase^, periphrasis; roundabout phrases; episode; expletive; pennya-lining; richness &c 577. V. be diffuse &c adj.; run out on, descant, expatiate, enlarge, dilate, amplify, expand, inflate; launch out, branch out; rant. maunder, prose; harp upon &c (repeat) 104; dwell on, insist upon. digress, ramble, battre la campagne [Fr.], beat about the bush, perorate, spin a long yarn, protract; spin out, swell out, draw out; battologize^. Adj. diffuse, profuse; wordy, verbose, largiloquent^, copious, exuberant, pleonastic, lengthy; longsome^, long-winded, longspun^, long drawn out; spun out, protracted, prolix, prosing, maundering; circumlocutory, periphrastic, ambagious^, roundabout; digressive; discursive, excursive; loose; rambling episodic; flatulent, frothy. Adv. diffusely &c adj.; at large, in extenso [Lat.]; about it and about it. 574. Vigor -- N. vigor, power, force; boldness, raciness &c adj.; intellectual, force; spirit, point, antithesis, piquance, piquancy; verve, glow, fire, warmth; strong language; gravity, sententiousness; elevation, loftiness, sublimity. eloquence; command of words, command of language. Adj. vigorous, nervous, powerful, forcible, trenchant, incisive, impressive; sensational. spirited, lively, glowing, sparkling, racy, bold, slashing; pungent, piquant, full of point, pointed, pithy, antithetical; sententious. lofty, elevated, sublime; eloquent; vehement, petulant, impassioned; poetic. Adv. in glowing terms, in good set terms, in no measured terms. Phr. thoughts that breath and words that burn [Gray]. 575. Feebleness -- N. feebleness &c adj.. Adj. feeble, bald, tame, meager, jejune, vapid, bland, trashy, lukewarm, cold, frigid, poor, dull, dry, languid; colorless, enervated; proposing, prosy, prosaic; unvaried, monotonous, weak, washy, wishy- washy; sketchy, slight. careless, slovenly, loose, lax (negligent) 460; slipshod, slipslop^; inexact; puerile, childish; flatulent; rambling &c (diffuse) 573. 576. Plainness -- N. plainness &c adj.; simplicity, severity; plain terms, plain English; Saxon English; household words V. call a spade 'a spade'; plunge in medias res; come to the point. Adj. plain, simple; unornamented, unadorned, unvarnished; homely, homespun; neat; severe, chaste, pure, Saxon; commonplace, matter-of- fact, natural, prosaic. dry, unvaried, monotonous &c 575. Adv. in plain terms, in plain words, in plain English, in plain common parlance; point-blank. 577. Ornament -- N. ornament; floridness c^. adj.. turgidity, turgescence^; altiloquence &c adj.^; declamation, teratology^; well-rounded periods; elegance &c 578; orotundity. inversion, antithesis, alliteration, paronomasia; figurativeness &c (metaphor) 521. flourish; flowers of speech, flowers of rhetoric; frills of style, euphuism^, euphemism. big-sounding words, high-sounding words; macrology^, sesquipedalia verba [Lat.], Alexandrine; inflation, pretension; rant, bombast, fustian, prose run mad; fine writing; sesquipedality^; Minerva press. phrasemonger; euphuist^, euphemist. V. ornament, overlay with ornament, overcharge; smell of the lamp. Adj. ornament &c v.; beautified &c 847; ornate, florid, rich, flowery; euphuistic^, euphemistic; sonorous; high-sounding, big-sounding; inflated, swelling, tumid; turgid, turgescent; pedantic, pompous, stilted; orotund; high flown, high flowing; sententious, rhetorical, declamatory; grandiose; grandiloquent, magniloquent, altiloquent^; sesquipedal^, sesquipedalian; Johnsonian, mouthy; bombastic; fustian; frothy, flashy, flaming. antithetical, alliterative; figurative &c 521; artificial &c (inelegant) 579. Adv. ore rutundo [Lat.]. 578. Elegance -- N. elegance, purity, grace, ease; gracefulness, readiness &c adj.; concinnity^, euphony, numerosity^; Atticism^, classicalism^, classicism. well rounded periods, well turned periods, flowing periods; the right word in the right place; antithesis &c 577. purist [Slang]. V. point an antithesis, round a period. Adj. elegant, polished, classical, Attic, correct, Ciceronian, artistic; chaste, pure, Saxon, academical^. graceful, easy, readable, fluent, flowing, tripping; unaffected, natural, unlabored^; mellifluous; euphonious, euphemism, euphemistic; numerose^, rhythmical. felicitous, happy, neat; well put, neatly put, well expressed, neatly expressed 579. Inelegance -- N. inelegance; stiffness &c adj.; unlettered Muse [Gray]; barbarism; slang &c 563; solecism &c 568; mannerism &c (affectation) 855; euphuism^; fustian &c 577; cacophony; words that break the teeth, words that dislocate the jaw; marinism^. V. be inelegant &c adj.. Adj. inelegant, graceless, ungraceful; harsh, abrupt; dry, stiff, cramped, formal, guinde [Fr.]; forced, labored; artificial, mannered, ponderous; awkward, uncourtly^, unpolished; turgid &c 577; affected, euphuistic^; barbarous, uncouth, grotesque, rude, crude, halting; offensive to ears polite. 2. Spoken Language 580. Voice -- N. voice; vocality^; organ, lungs, bellows; good voice, fine voice, powerful voice &c (loud) 404; musical voice &c 413; intonation; tone of voice &c (sound) 402. vocalization; cry &c 411; strain, utterance, prolation^; exclamation, ejaculation, vociferation, ecphonesis^; enunciation, articulation; articulate sound, distinctness; clearness, of articulation; stage whisper; delivery. accent, accentuation; emphasis, stress; broad accent, strong accent, pure accent, native accent, foreign accent; pronunciation. [Word similarly pronounced] homonym. orthoepy^; cacoepy^; euphony &c (melody) 413. gastriloquism^, ventriloquism; ventriloquist; polyphonism^, polyphonist^. [Science of voice] phonology &c (sound) 402. V. utter, breathe; give utterance, give tongue; cry &c (shout) 411; ejaculate, rap out; vocalize, prolate^, articulate, enunciate, pronounce, accentuate, aspirate, deliver, mouth; whisper in the ear. Adj. vocal, phonetic, oral; ejaculatory, articulate, distinct, stertorous; euphonious &c (melodious) 413. Phr. how sweetly sounds the voice of a good woman [Massinger]; the organ of the soul [Longfellow]; thy voice is a celestial melody [Longfellow]. 581. Aphony -- N. aphony^, aphonia^; dumbness &c adj.; obmutescence^; absence of voice, want of voice; dysphony^; cacoepy^; silence &c (taciturnity) 585; raucity^; harsh voice &c 410, unmusical voice &c 414; falsetto, childish treble mute; dummy. V. keep silence &c 585; speak low, speak softly; whisper &c (faintness) 405. silence; render mute, render silent; muzzle, muffle, suppress, smother, gag, strike dumb, dumfounder; drown the voice, put to silence, stop one's mouth, cut one short. stick in the throat. Adj. aphonous^, dumb, mute; deafmute, deaf and dumb; mum; tongue-tied; breathless, tongueless, voiceless, speechless, wordless; mute as a fish, mute as a stockfish^, mute as a mackerel; silent &c (taciturn) 585; muzzled; inarticulate, inaudible. croaking, raucous, hoarse, husky, dry, hollow, sepulchral, hoarse as a raven; rough. Adv. with bated breath, with the finger on the lips; sotto voce [Lat.]; in a low tone, in a cracked voice, in a broken voice. Phr. vox faucibus haesit [Lat.] [Vergil]. 582. Speech -- N. speech, faculty of speech; locution, talk, parlance, verbal intercourse, prolation^, oral communication, word of mouth, parole, palaver, prattle; effusion. oration, recitation, delivery, say, speech, lecture, harangue, sermon, tirade, formal speech, peroration; speechifying; soliloquy &c 589; allocution &c 586; conversation &c 588; salutatory : screed: valedictory [U.S.]. oratory; elocution, eloquence; rhetoric, declamation; grandiloquence, multiloquence^; burst of eloquence; facundity^; flow of words, command of words, command of language; copia verborum [Lat.]; power of speech, gift of the gab; usus loquendi [Lat.]. speaker &c v.; spokesman; prolocutor, interlocutor; mouthpiece, Hermes; orator, oratrix^, oratress^; Demosthenes, Cicero; rhetorician; stump orator, platform orator; speechmaker, patterer^, improvisatore^. V. speak of; say, utter, pronounce, deliver, give utterance to; utter forth, pour forth; breathe, let fall, come out with; rap out, blurt out have on one's lips; have at the end of one's tongue, have at the tip of one's tongue. break silence; open one's lips, open one's mouth; lift one's voice, raise one's voice; give the tongue, wag the tongue; talk, outspeak^; put in a word or two, hold forth; make a speech, deliver a speech &c n.; speechify, harangue, declaim, stump, flourish, recite, lecture, sermonize, discourse, be on one's legs; have one's say, say one's say; spout, rant, rave, vent one's fury, vent one's rage; expatiate &c (speak at length) 573; speak one's mind, go on the stump, take the stump [U.S.]. soliloquize &c 589; tell &c (inform) 527; speak to &c 586; talk together &c 588. be eloquent &c adj.; have a tongue in one's head, have the gift of the gab &c n.. pass one's lips, escape one's lips; fall from the lips, fall from the mouth. Adj. speaking &c; spoken &c v.; oral, lingual, phonetic, not written, unwritten, outspoken; eloquent, elocutionary; oratorical, rhetorical; declamatory; grandiloquent &c 577; talkative &c 584; Ciceronian, nuncupative, Tullian. Adv. orally &c adj.; by word of mouth, viva voce, from the lips of. Phr. quoth he, said he &c; action is eloquence [Coriolanus]; pour the full tide of eloquence along [Pope]; she speaks poignards and every word stabs [Much Ado About Nothing]; speech is but broken light upon the depth of the unspoken [G. Eliot]; to try thy eloquence now 'tis time [Antony and Cleopatra]. 583. [Imperfect Speech.] Stammering -- N. inarticulateness; stammering &c v.; hesitation &c v.; impediment in one's speech; titubancy^, traulism^; whisper &c (faint sound) 405; lisp, drawl, tardiloquence^; nasal tone, nasal accent; twang; falsetto &c (want of voice) 581; broken voice, broken accents, broken sentences. brogue &c 563; slip of the tongue, lapsus linouae [Lat.]. V. stammer, stutter, hesitate, falter, hammer; balbutiate^, balbucinate^, haw, hum and haw, be unable to put two words together. mumble, mutter; maud^, mauder^; whisper &c 405; mince, lisp; jabber, gibber; sputter, splutter; muffle, mump^; drawl, mouth; croak; speak thick, speak through the nose; snuffle, clip one's words; murder the language, murder the King's English, murder the Queen's English; mispronounce, missay^. Adj. stammering &c v.; inarticulate, guttural, nasal; tremulous; affected. Adv. sotto voce &c (faintly) 405 [Lat.]. 584. Loquacity -- N. loquacity, loquaciousness; talkativeness &c adj.; garrulity; multiloquence^, much speaking. jaw; gabble; jabber, chatter; prate, prattle, cackle, clack; twaddle, twattle, rattle; caquet^, caquetterie [Fr.]; blabber, bavardage^, bibble-babble^, gibble-gabble^; small talk &c (converse) 588. fluency, flippancy, volubility, flowing, tongue; flow of words; flux de bouche [Fr.], flux de mots [Fr.]; copia verborum [Lat.], cacoethes loquendi [Lat.]; furor loquendi [Lat.]; verbosity &c (diffuseness) 573; gift of the gab &c (eloquence) 582. talker; chatterer, chatterbox; babbler &c v.; rattle; ranter; sermonizer, proser^, driveler; blatherskite [U.S.]; gossip &c (converse) 588; magpie, jay, parrot, poll, Babel; moulin a paroles [Fr.]. V. be loquacious &c adj.; talk glibly, pour forth, patter; prate, palaver, prose, chatter, prattle, clack, jabber, jaw; blather, blatter^, blether^; rattle, rattle on; twaddle, twattle; babble, gabble; outtalk; talk oneself out of breath, talk oneself hoarse; expatiate &c (speak at length) 573; gossip &c (converse) 588; din in the ears &c (repeat) 104; talk at random, talk nonsense &c 497; be hoarse with talking. Adj. loquacious, talkative, garrulous, linguacious^, multiloquous^; largiloquent^; chattering &c v.; chatty &c (sociable) 892; declamatory &c 582; open-mouthed. fluent, voluble, glib, flippant; long tongued, long winded &c (diffuse) 573. Adv. trippingly on the tongue; glibly &c adj.; off the reel. Phr. the tongue running fast, the tongue running loose, the tongue running on wheels; all talk and no cider; foul whisperings are abroad [Macbeth]; what a spendthrift is he of his tongue! [Tempest]. 585. Taciturnity -- N. silence, muteness, obmutescence^; taciturnity, pauciloquy^, costiveness^, curtness; reserve, reticence &c (concealment) 528. man of few words. V. be silent &c adj.; keep silence, keep mum; hold one's tongue, hold one's peace, hold one's jaw; not speak. &c 582; say nothing, keep one's counsel; seal the lips, close the lips, button the lips, zipper the lips, put a padlock on the lips, put a padlock on the mouth; put a bridle on one's tongue; bite one's tongue, keep one's tongue between one's teeth; make no sign, not let a word escape one; keep a secret &c 528; not have a word to say; hush up, hush, lay the finger on the lips, place the finger on the lips; render mute &c 581. stick in one's throat. Adj. silent, mute, mum; silent as a post, silent as a stone, silent as the grave &c (still) 403; dumb &c 581; unconversable^. taciturn, sparing of words; closetongued; costive^, inconversable^, curt; reserved; reticent &c (concealing) 528. Int. shush!, tush!, silence!, mum!, hush!, chut!^, hist!, tut!, chup!^, mum's the word; keep your mouth shut! [Vulg.]. Phr. cave quid dicis quando et cui [Lat.]; volto sciolto i pensieri stretti [It]. 586. Allocution -- N. allocution, alloquy^, address; speech &c 582; apostrophe, interpellation, appeal, invocation, salutation; word in the ear. [Feigned dialogue] dialogism^. platform &c 542; plank; audience &c (interview) 588. V. speak to, address, accost, make up to, apostrophize, appeal to, invoke; ball, salute; call to, halloo. take aside, take by the button; talk to in private. lecture &c (make a speech) 582. Int. soho!^, halloo!, hey!, hist!, 587. Response -- N. &c see Answer 462. 588. Conversation -- N. conversation, interlocution; collocution^, colloquy, converse, confabulation, talk, discourse, verbal intercourse; oral communication, commerce; dialogue, duologue, trialogue. causerie, chat, chitchat; small talk, table talk, teatable talk^, town talk, village talk, idle talk; tattle, gossip, tittle-tattle; babble, babblement^; tripotage^, cackle, prittle-prattle^, cancan, on dit [Fr.]; talk of the town, talk of the village. conference, parley, interview, audience, pourparler; tete-a-tete; reception, conversazione [It]; congress &c (council) 696; powwow [U.S.]. hall of audience, durbar^. palaver, debate, logomachy^, war of words. gossip, tattler; Paul Pry; tabby; chatterer &c (loquacity) 584; interlocutor &c (spokesman) 582; conversationist^, dialogist^. the feast of reason and the flow of soul [Pope]; mollia tempora fandi [Lat.]. V. talk together, converse, confabulate; hold on a conversation, carry on a conversation, join in a conversation, engage in a conversation; put in a word; shine in conversation; bandy words; parley; palaver; chat, gossip, tattle; prate &c (loquacity) 584; powwow [U.S.]. discourse with, confer with, commune with, commerce with; hold converse, hold conference, hold intercourse; talk it over; be closeted with; talk with one in private, tete-a-tete. Adj. conversing &c v.; interlocutory; conversational, conversable^; discursive, discoursive^; chatty &c (sociable) 892; colloquial. Phr. with thee conversing I forget all time [Paradise Lost]. 589. Soliloquy -- N. soliloquy, monologue, apostrophe; monology^. V. Soliloquize; say to oneself, talk to oneself; say aside, think aloud, apostrophize. Adj. soliloquizing &c v.. Adv. aside. 3. Written Language 590. Writing -- N. writing &c v.; chirography, stelography^, cerography^; penmanship, craftmanship^; quill driving; typewriting. writing, manuscript, MS., literae scriptae [Lat.]; these presents. stroke of the pen, dash of the pen; coupe de plume; line; headline; pen and ink. letter &c 561; uncial writing, cuneiform character, arrowhead, Ogham, Runes, hieroglyphic; contraction; Brahmi^, Devanagari, Nagari; script. shorthand; stenography, brachygraphy^, tachygraphy^; secret writing, writing in cipher; cryptography, stenography; phonography^, pasigraphy^, Polygraphy^, logography^. copy; transcript, rescript; rough copy, fair copy; handwriting; signature, sign manual; autograph, monograph, holograph; hand, fist. calligraphy; good hand, running hand, flowing hand, cursive hand, legible hand, bold hand. cacography^, griffonage^, barbouillage^; bad hand, cramped hand, crabbed hand, illegible hand; scribble &c v.; pattes de mouche [Fr.]; ill-formed letters; pothooks and hangers. stationery; pen, quill, goose quill; pencil, style; paper, foolscap, parchment, vellum, papyrus, tablet, slate, marble, pillar, table; blackboard; ink bottle, ink horn, ink pot, ink stand, ink well; typewriter. transcription &c (copy) 21; inscription &c (record) 551; superscription &c (indication) 550; graphology. composition, authorship; cacoethes scribendi [Lat.]; graphoidea^, graphomania^; phrenoia^. writer, scribe, amanuensis, scrivener, secretary, clerk, penman, copyist, transcriber, quill driver; stenographer, typewriter, typist; writer for the press &c (author) 593. V. write, pen; copy, engross; write out, write out fair; transcribe; scribble, scrawl, scrabble, scratch; interline; stain paper; write down &c (record) 551; sign &c (attest) 467; enface^. compose, indite, draw up, draft, formulate; dictate; inscribe, throw on paper, dash off; manifold. take up the pen, take pen in hand; shed ink, spill ink, dip one's pen in ink. Adj. writing &c v.; written &c v.; in writing, in black and white; under one's hand. uncial, Runic, cuneiform, hieroglyphical^. Adv. currente calamo [Sp.]; pen in hand. Phr. audacter et sincere [Lat.]; le style est l'homme meme [Fr.]; nature's noblest gift - my gray goose quill [Byron]; scribendi recte sapere et principium et fons [Lat.] [Horace]; that mighty instrument of little men [Byron]; the pen became a clarion [Longfellow]. 591. Printing -- N. printing; block printing, type-printing; plate printing &c 558 (engraving); the press &c (publication) 531; composition. print, letterpress, text; context, note, page, column. typography; stereotype, electrotype, aprotype^; type, black letter, font, fount; pi, pie; capitals &c (letters) 561; brevier^, bourgeois, pica boldface &c, capitals, caps., catchword; composing-frame, composing room, composing rule, composing stand, composing stick; italics, justification, linotype, live matter, logotype; lower case, upper case; make-up, matrix, matter, monotype^; [point system], 4-1/2 point, 5 point, 5-1/2 point, 6 point, 7 point, 8 point, press room, press work; reglet^, roman; running head, running title; scale, serif, shank, sheet work, shoulder, signature, slug, underlay. folio &c (book) 593; copy, impression, pull, proof, revise; author's proof, galley proof, press proof; press revise. printer, compositor, reader; printer's devil copyholder. V. print; compose; put to press, go to press; pass through the press, see through the press; publish &c 531; bring out; appear in print, rush into print; distribute, makeup, mortise, offset, overrun, rout. Adj. printed &c v.; in type; typographical &c n.; solid in galleys. 592. Correspondence -- N. correspondence, letter, epistle, note, billet, post card, missive, circular, favor, billet-doux; chit, chitty^, letter card, picture post card; postal [U.S.], card; despatch; dispatch; bulletin, these presents; rescript, rescription^; post &c (messenger) 534. V. correspond with; write to, send a letter to; keep up a correspondence. Adj. epistolary. Phr. furor scribendi [Lat.]. 593. Book -- N. booklet; writing, work, volume, tome, opuscule^; tract, tractate^; livret^; brochure, libretto, handbook, codex, manual, pamphlet, enchiridion^, circular, publication; chap book. part, issue, number livraison [Fr.]; album, portfolio; periodical, serial, magazine, ephemeris, annual, journal. paper, bill, sheet, broadsheet^; leaf, leaflet; fly leaf, page; quire, ream. [subdivisions of a book] chapter, section, head, article, paragraph, passage, clause; endpapers, frontispiece; cover, binding. folio, quarto, octavo; duodecimo^, sextodecimo^, octodecimo^. encyclopedia; encompilation^. [collection of books] library, bibliotheca^. press &c (publication) 531. [complete description] definitive work, treatise, comprehensive treatise (dissertation) 595. [person who writes a book] writer, author, litterateur [Fr.], essayist, journalism; pen, scribbler, the scribbling race; literary hack, Grub-street writer; writer for the press, gentleman of the press, representative of the press; adjective jerker^, diaskeaust^, ghost, hack writer, ink slinger; publicist; reporter, penny a liner; editor, subeditor^; playwright &c 599; poet &c 597. bookseller, publisher; bibliopole^, bibliopolist^; librarian; bookstore, bookshop, bookseller's shop. knowledge of books, bibliography; book learning &c (knowledge) 490. Phr. among the giant fossils of my past [E. B. Browning]; craignez tout d'un auteur en courroux [Fr.]; for authors nobler palms remain [Pope]; I lived to write and wrote to live [Rogers]; look in thy heart and write [Sidney]; there is no Past so long as Books shall live [Bulwer Lytton]; the public mind is the creation of the Master-Writers [Disraeli]; volumes that I prize above my dukedom [Tempest]. 594. Description -- N. description, account, statement, report; expose &c (disclosure) 529; specification, particulars; state of facts, summary of facts; brief &c (abstract) 596; return &c (record) 551; catalogue raisonne &c (list) 86 [Fr.]; guidebook &c (information) 527. delineation &c (representation) 554; sketch; monograph; minute account, detailed particular account, circumstantial account, graphic account; narration, recital, rehearsal, relation. historiography^, chronography^; historic Muse, Clio; history; biography, autobiography; necrology, obituary. narrative, history; memoir, memorials; annals &c (chronicle) 551; saga; tradition, legend, story, tale, historiette^; personal narrative, journal, life, adventures, fortunes, experiences, confessions; anecdote, ana^, trait. work of fiction, novel, romance, Minerva press; fairy tale, nursery tale; fable, parable, apologue^; dime novel, penny dreadful, shilling shocker relator &c v.; raconteur, historian &c (recorder) 553; biographer, fabulist^, novelist. V. describe; set forth &c (state) 535; draw a picture, picture; portray &c (represent) 554; characterize, particularize; narrate, relate, recite, recount, sum up, run over, recapitulate, rehearse, fight one's battles over again. unfold a tale &c (disclose) 529; tell; give an account of, render an account of; report, make a report, draw up a statement. detail; enter into particulars, enter into details, descend to particulars, descend to details; itemize. Adj. descriptive, graphic, narrative, epic, suggestive, well-drawn; historic; traditional, traditionary; legendary; anecdotic^, storied; described &c v.. Phr. furor scribendi [Lat.]. 595. Dissertation -- N. dissertation, treatise, essay; thesis, theme; monograph, tract, tractate^, tractation^; discourse, memoir, disquisition, lecture, sermon, homily, pandect^; excursus. commentary, review, critique, criticism, article; leader, leading article; editorial; running commentary. investigation &c (inquiry) 461; study &c (consideration) 451; discussion &c (reasoning) 476; exposition &c (explanation) 522. commentator, critic, essayist, pamphleteer. V. expound upon a subject, dissert upon a subject^, descant upon a subject, write upon a subject, touch upon a subject; treat a subject, treat a subject thoroughly, treat of a subject, take up a subject, ventilate a subject, discuss a subject, deal with a subject, go into a subject, go into a subject at length, canvass a subject, handle a subject, do justice to a subject. hold forth [oral dissertation], discourse, delve into. Adj. discursive, discoursive^; disquisitionary^; expository. 596. Compendium -- N. compend, compendium; abstract, precis, epitome, multum in parvo [Lat.], analysis, pandect^, digest, sum and substance, brief, abridgment, summary, apercu, draft, minute, note; excerpt; synopsis, textbook, conspectus, outlines, syllabus, contents, heads, prospectus. album; scrap book, note book, memorandum book, commonplace book; extracts, excerpta^, cuttings; fugitive pieces, fugitive writing; spicilegium^, flowers, anthology, collectanea^, analecta^; compilation. recapitulation, resume, review. abbreviation, abbreviature^; contraction; shortening &c 201; compression &c 195. V. abridge, abstract, epitomize, summarize; make an abstract, prepare an abstract, draw an abstract, compile an abstract &c n.. recapitulate, review, skim, run over, sum up. abbreviate &c (shorten) 201; condense &c (compress) 195; compile &c (collect) 72. Adj. compendious, synoptic, analectic^; abrege [Fr.], abridged &c v.; variorum^. Adv. in short, in epitome, in substance, in few words. Phr. it lies in a nutshell. 597. Poetry -- N. poetry, poetics, poesy, Muse, Calliope, tuneful Nine, Parnassus, Helicon^, Pierides, Pierian spring. versification, rhyming, making verses; prosody, orthometry^. poem; epic, epic poem; epopee^, epopoea, ode, epode^, idyl, lyric, eclogue, pastoral, bucolic, dithyramb, anacreontic^, sonnet, roundelay, rondeau [Fr.], rondo, madrigal, canzonet^, cento^, monody [Slang], elegy; amoebaeum, ghazal^, palinode. dramatic poetry, lyric poetry; opera; posy, anthology; disjecta membra poetae song [Lat.], ballad, lay; love song, drinking song, war song, sea song; lullaby; music &c 415; nursery rhymes. [Bad poetry] doggerel, Hudibrastic verse^, prose run mad; macaronics^; macaronic verse^, leonine verse; runes. canto, stanza, distich, verse, line, couplet, triplet, quatrain; strophe, antistrophe^. verse, rhyme, assonance, crambo^, meter, measure, foot, numbers, strain, rhythm; accentuation &c (voice) 580; dactyl, spondee, trochee, anapest &c; hexameter, pentameter; Alexandrine; anacrusis^, antispast^, blank verse, ictus. elegiacs &c adj.; elegiac verse, elegaic meter, elegaic poetry. poet, poet laureate; laureate; bard, lyrist^, scald, skald^, troubadour, trouvere [Fr.]; minstrel; minnesinger, meistersinger [G.]; improvisatore^; versifier, sonneteer; rhymer, rhymist^, rhymester; ballad monger, runer^; poetaster; genus irritabile vatum [Lat.]. V. poetize, sing, versify, make verses, rhyme, scan. Adj. poetic, poetical; lyric, lyrical, tuneful, epic, dithyrambic &c n.; metrical; a catalectin^; elegiac, iambic, trochaic, anapestic^; amoebaeic, Melibean, skaldic^; Ionic, Sapphic, Alcaic^, Pindaric. Phr. a poem round and perfect as a star [Alex. Smith]; Dichtung und Wahrheit [G.]; furor poeticus [Lat.]; his virtues formed the magic of his song [Hayley]; I do but sing because I must [Tennyson]; I learnt life from the poets [de Stael]; licentia vatum [Lat.]; mutum est pictura poema [Lat.]; O for a muse of fire! [Henry V]; sweet food of sweetly uttered knowledge [Sidney]; the true poem is the poet's mind [Emerson]; Volk der Dichter und Denker [G.]; wisdom married to immortal verse [Wordsworth]. 598. Prose -- N. prose, prose writer. prosaicism^, prosaism^, prosaist^, proser^. V. prose. write prose, write in prose. Adj. prosal^, prosy, prosaic; unpoetic, unpoetical^. rhymeless^, unrhymed, in prose, not in verse. 599. The Drama -- N. the drama, the stage, the theater, the play; film the film, movies, motion pictures, cinema, cinematography; theatricals, dramaturgy, histrionic art, buskin, sock, cothurnus^, Melpomene and Thalia, Thespis. play, drama, stage play, piece [Fr.], five-act play, tragedy, comedy, opera, vaudeville, comedietta^, lever de rideau [Fr.], interlude, afterpiece^, exode^, farce, divertissement, extravaganza, burletta^, harlequinade^, pantomime, burlesque, opera bouffe [Fr.], ballet, spectacle, masque, drame comedie drame [Fr.]; melodrama, melodrame^; comidie larmoyante [Fr.], sensation drama; tragicomedy, farcical-comedy; monodrame monologue; duologue trilogy^; charade, proverbs; mystery, miracle play; musical, musical comedy. [movies] western, horse opera; flick [Coll.]; spy film, love story, adventure film, documentary, nature film; pornographic film, smoker, skin flick, X-rated film. act, scene, tableau; induction, introduction; prologue, epilogue; libretto. performance, representation, mise en scene [Fr.], stagery^, jeu de theatre [Fr.]; acting; gesture &c 550; impersonation &c 554; stage business, gag, buffoonery. light comedy, genteel comedy, low comedy. theater; playhouse, opera house; house; music hall; amphitheater, circus, hippodrome, theater in the round; puppet show, fantoccini^; marionettes, Punch and Judy. auditory, auditorium, front of the house, stalls, boxes, pit, gallery, parquet; greenroom, coulisses [Fr.]. flat; drop, drop scene; wing, screen, side scene; transformation scene, curtain, act drop; proscenium. stage, scene, scenery, the boards; trap, mezzanine floor; flies; floats, footlights; offstage; orchestra. theatrical costume, theatrical properties. movie studio, back lot, on location. part, role, character, dramatis personae [Lat.]; repertoire. actor, thespian, player; method actor; stage player, strolling player; stager, performer; mime, mimer^; artists; comedian, tragedian; tragedienne, Roscius; star, movie star, star of stage and screen, superstar, idol, sex symbol; supporting actor, supporting cast; ham, hamfatter [Slang]; masker^. pantomimist, clown harlequin, buffo^, buffoon, farceur, grimacer, pantaloon, columbine; punchinello^; pulcinello^, pulcinella^; extra, bit- player, walk-on role, cameo appearance; mute, figurante^, general utility; super, supernumerary. company; first tragedian, prima donna [Sp.], protagonist; jeune premier [Fr.]; debutant, debutante [Fr.]; light comedian, genteel comedian, low comedian; walking gentleman, amoroso^, heavy father, ingenue [Fr.], jeune veuve [Fr.]. mummer, guiser^, guisard^, gysart^, masque. mountebank, Jack Pudding; tumbler, posture master, acrobat; contortionist; ballet dancer, ballet girl; chorus singer; coryphee danseuse [Fr.]. property man, costumier, machinist; prompter, call boy; manager; director, stage manager, acting manager. producer, entrepreneur, impresario; backer, investor, angel [Fig.]. dramatic author, dramatic writer; play writer, playwright; dramatist, mimographer^. V. act, play, perform; put on the stage; personate &c 554; mimic &c (imitate) 19; enact; play a part, act a part, go through a part, perform a part; rehearse, spout, gag, rant; strut and fret one's hour upon a stage; tread the boards, tread the stage; come out; star it. Adj. dramatic; theatric, theatrical; scenic, histrionic, comic, tragic, buskined^, farcical, tragicomic, melodramatic, operatic; stagy. Adv. on the stage, on the boards; on film; before the floats, before an audience; behind the scenes. Phr. fere totus mundus exercet histrionem [Lat.] [Petronius Arbiter]; suit the action to the word, the word to the action [Hamlet]; the play's the thing [Hamlet]; to wake the soul by tender strokes of art [Pope]. CLASS V WORDS RELATING TO THE VOLUNTARY POWERS DIVISION I INDIVIDUAL VOLITION SECTION I. VOLITION IN GENERAL 1. Acts of Volition 600. Will -- N. will, volition, conation^, velleity; liberum arbitrium [Lat.]; will and pleasure, free will; freedom &c 748; discretion; option &c (choice) 609; voluntariness^; spontaneity, spontaneousness; originality. pleasure, wish, mind; desire; frame of mind &c (inclination) 602; intention &c 620; predetermination &c 611; selfcontrol &c; determination &c (resolution) 604; force of will. V. will, list; see fit, think fit; determine &c (resolve) 604; enjoin; settle &c (choose) 609; volunteer. have a will of one's own; do what one chooses &c (freedom) 748; have it all.one's own way; have one's will, have one's own way. use one's discretion, exercise one's discretion; take upon oneself, take one's own course, take the law into one's own hands; do of one's own accord, do upon one's own authority; originate &c (cause) 153. Adj. voluntary, volitional, willful; free &c 748; optional; discretional, discretionary; volitient^, volitive^. minded &c (willing) 602; prepense &c (predetermined) 611 [Obs.]; intended &c 620; autocratic; unbidden &c (bid) &c 741; spontaneous; original &c (casual) 153; unconstrained. Adv. voluntarily &c adj.; at will, at pleasure; a volonte [Fr.], a discretion; al piacere [It]; ad libitum, ad arbitrium [Lat.]; as one thinks proper, as it seems good to; a beneplacito [It]. of one's won accord, of one's own free will; proprio motu [Lat.], suo motu [Lat.], ex meromotu [Lat.]; out of one's won head; by choice &c 609; purposely &c (intentionally) 620; deliberately &c 611. Phr. stet pro ratione voluntas [Lat.]; sic volo sic jubeo [Lat.]; a vostro beneplacito [It]; beneficium accipere libertatem est vendere [Lat.]; Deus vult [Lat.]; was man nicht kann meiden muss man willig leiden [G.]. 601. Necessity -- N. involuntariness; instinct, blind impulse; inborn proclivity, innate proclivity; native tendency, natural tendency; natural impulse, predetermination. necessity, necessitation; obligation; compulsion &c 744; subjection &c 749; stern necessity, hard necessity, dire necessity, imperious necessity, inexorable necessity, iron necessity, adverse necessity; fate; what must be. destiny, destination; fatality, fate, kismet, doom, foredoom, election, predestination; preordination, foreordination; lot fortune; fatalism; inevitableness &c adj.; spell &c 993. star, stars; planet, planets; astral influence; sky, Fates, Parcae, Sisters three, book of fate; God's will, will of Heaven; wheel of Fortune, Ides of March, Hobson's choice. last shift, last resort; dernier ressort [Fr.]; pis aller &c (substitute) 147 [Fr.]; necessaries &c (requirement) 630. necessarian^, necessitarian^; fatalist; automaton. V. lie under a necessity; befated^, be doomed, be destined &c, in for, under the necessity of; have no choice, have no alternative; be one's fate &c n.. to be pushed to the wall to be driven into a corner, to be unable to help. destine, doom, foredoom, devote; predestine, preordain; cast a spell &c 992; necessitate; compel &c 744. Adj. necessary, needful &c (requisite) 630. fated; destined &c v.; elect; spellbound compulsory &c (compel) 744; uncontrollable, inevitable, unavoidable, irresistible, irrevocable, inexorable; avoidless^, resistless. involuntary, instinctive, automatic, blind, mechanical; unconscious, unwitting, unthinking; unintentional &c (undesigned) 621; impulsive &c 612. Adv. necessarily &c adv.; of necessity, of course; ex necessitate rei [Lat.]; needs must; perforce &c 744; nolens volens [Lat.]; will he nil he, willy nilly, bon gre mal gre [Fr.], willing or unwilling, coute que coute [Fr.]. faute de mieux [Fr.]; by stress of; if need be. Phr. it cannot be helped; there is no help for, there is no helping it; it will be, it must be, it needs to be, it must be so, it will have its way; the die is cast; jacta est alea [Lat.]; che sara sara [Fr.]; it is written; one's days are numbered, one's fate is sealed; Fata obstant [Lat.]; diis aliter visum [Lat.]; actum me invito factus [Lat.], non est meus actus [Lat.]; aujord'hui roi demain rien [Fr.]; quisque suos patimur manes [Lat.] [Vergil]; The moving finger writes and having writ moves on. Nor all thy piety nor wit shall draw it back to cancel half a [Rubayyat of Omar Khayyam]. 602. Willingness -- N. willingness, voluntariness &c adj.^; willing mind, heart. disposition, inclination, leaning, animus; frame of mind, humor, mood, vein; bent &c (turn of mind) 820; penchant &c (desire) 865; aptitude &c 698. docility, docibleness^; persuasibleness^, persuasibility^; pliability &c (softness) 324. geniality, cordiality; goodwill; alacrity, readiness, earnestness, forwardness; eagerness &c (desire) 865. asset &c 488; compliance &c 762; pleasure &c (will) 600; gratuitous service. labor of love; volunteer, volunteering. V. be willing &c adj.; incline, lean to, mind, propend; had as lief; lend a willing ear, give a willing ear, turn a willing ear; have a half a mind to, have a great mind to; hold to, cling to; desire &c 865. see fit, think good, think proper; acquiesce &c (assent) 488; comply with &c 762. swallow the bait, nibble at the bait; gorge the hook; have no scruple of, make no scruple of; make no bones of; jump at, catch at; meet halfway; volunteer. Adj. willing, minded, fain, disposed, inclined, favorable; favorably- minded, favorably inclined, favorably disposed; nothing loth; in the vein, in the mood, in the humor, in the mind. ready, forward, earnest, eager; bent upon &c (desirous) 865; predisposed, propense^. docile; persuadable, persuasible; suasible^, easily persuaded, facile, easy-going; tractable &c (pliant) 324; genial, gracious, cordial, cheering, hearty; content &c (assenting) 488. voluntary, gratuitous, spontaneous; unasked &c (ask) &c 765; unforced &c (free) 748. Adv. willingly &c adj.; fain, freely, as lief, heart and soul; with pleasure, with all one's heart, with open arms; with good will, with right will; de bonne volonte [Fr.], ex animo [Lat.]; con amore [It], heart in hand, nothing loth, without reluctance, of one's own accord, graciously, with a good grace. a la bonne heure [Fr.]; by all means, by all manner of means; to one's heart's content; yes &c (assent) 488. 603. Unwillingness -- N. unwillingness &c adj.; indisposition, indisposedness^; disinclination, aversation^; nolleity^, nolition^; renitence^, renitency; reluctance; indifference &c 866; backwardness &c adj.; slowness &c 275; want of alacrity, want of readiness; indocility &c (obstinacy) 606 [Obs.]. scrupulousness, scrupulosity; qualms of conscience, twinge of conscience; delicacy, demur, scruple, qualm, shrinking, recoil; hesitation &c (irresolution) 605; fastidiousness &c 868. averseness &c (dislike) 867 [Obs.]; dissent &c 489; refusal &c 764. V. be unwilling &c adj.; nill; dislike &c 867; grudge, begrudge; not be able to find it in one's heart to, not have the stomach to. demur, stick at, scruple, stickle; hang fire, run rusty; recoil, shrink, swerve; hesitate &c 605; avoid &c 623. oppose &c 708; dissent &c 489; refuse &c 764. Adj. unwilling; not in the vein, loth, loath, shy of, disinclined, indisposed, averse, reluctant, not content; adverse &c (opposed) 708; laggard, backward, remiss, slack, slow to; indifferent &c 866; scrupulous; squeamish &c (fastidious) 868; repugnant &c (dislike) 867; restiff^, restive; demurring &c v.; unconsenting &c (refusing) 764; involuntary &c 601. Adv. unwillingly &c adj.; grudgingly, with a heavy heart; with a bad, with an ill grace; against one's wishes, against one's will, against the grain, sore against one's wishes, sore against one's will, sore against one's grain; invita Minerva [Lat.]; a contre caeur [Fr.]; malgre soi [Fr.]; in spite of one's teeth, in spite of oneself; nolens volens &c (necessity) 601 [Lat.]; perforce &c 744; under protest; no &c 536; not for the world, far be it from me. 604. Resolution -- N. determination, will; iron will, unconquerable will; will of one's own, decision, resolution; backbone; clear grit, true grit, grit [U.S.]; sand, strength of mind, strength of will; resolve &c (intent) 620; firmness &c (stability) 150; energy, manliness, vigor; game, pluck; resoluteness &c (courage) 861; zeal &c 682; aplomb; desperation; devotion, devotedness. mastery over self; self control, self command, self possession, self reliance, self government, self restraint, self conquest, self denial; moral courage, moral strength; perseverance &c 604.1; tenacity; obstinacy &c 606; bulldog; British lion. V. have determination &c n.; know one's own mind; be resolved &c adj.; make up one's mind, will, resolve, determine; decide &c (judgment) 480; form a determination, come to a determination, come to a resolution, come to a resolve; conclude, fix, seal, determine once for all, bring to a crisis, drive matters to an extremity; take a decisive step &c (choice) 609; take upon oneself &c (undertake) 676. devote oneself to, give oneself up to; throw away the scabbard, kick down the ladder, nail one's colors to the mast, set one's back against the wall, set one's teeth, put one's foot down, take one's stand; stand firm &c (stability) 150; steel oneself; stand no nonsense, not listen to the voice of the charmer. buckle to; buckle oneself put one's shoulder to the wheel, lay one's shoulder to the wheel, set one's shoulder to the wheel; put one's heart into; run the gauntlet, make a dash at, take the bull by the horns; rush in medias res, plunge in medias res; go in for; insist upon, make a point of; set one's heart upon, set one's mind upon. stick at nothing, stop at nothing; make short work of &c (activity) 682; not stick at trifles; go all lengths, go the limit [Slang], go the whole hog; persist &c (persevere) 604.1; go through fire and water, ride the tiger, ride in the whirlwind and direct the storm. Adj. resolved &c v.; determined; strong-willed, strong-minded; resolute &c (brave) 861; self-possessed; decided, definitive, peremptory, tranchant^; unhesitating, unflinching, unshrinking^; firm, iron, gritty [U.S.], indomitable, game to the backbone; inexorable, relentless, not to be shaken, not to be put down; tenax propositi [Lat.]; inflexible &c (hard) 323; obstinate &c 606; steady &c (persevering) 604.1. earnest, serious; set upon, bent upon, intent upon. steel against, proof against; in utrumque paratus [Lat.]. Adv. resolutely &c adj.; in earnest, in good earnest; seriously, joking apart, earnestly, heart and soul; on one's mettle; manfully, like a man, with a high hand; with a strong hand &c (exertion) 686. at any rate, at any risk, at any hazard, at any price, at any cost, at any sacrifice; at all hazards, at all risks, at all events; a' bis ou a blanc [Fr.]; cost what it may; coute [Fr.]; a tort et a travers^; once for all; neck or nothing; rain or shine. Phr. spes sibi quisque [Lat.]; celui qui veut celui-la peut [Fr.]; chi non s'arrischia non guadagna [Fr.]; frangas non flectes [Lat.]; manu forti [Lat.]; tentanda via est [Lat.]. 604a. Perseverance -- N. perseverance; continuance &c (inaction) 143; permanence &c (absence of change) 141; firmness &c (stability) 150. constancy, steadiness; singleness of purpose, tenacity of purpose; persistence, plodding, patience; sedulity &c (industry) 682; pertinacy^, pertinacity, pertinaciousness; iteration &c 104; bottom, game, pluck, stamina, backbone, grit; indefatigability, indefatigableness; bulldog courage. V. persevere, persist; hold on, hold out; die in the last ditch, be in at the death; stick to, cling to, adhere to; stick to one's text, keep on; keep to one's course, keep to one's ground, maintain one's course, maintain one's ground; go all lengths, go through fire and water; bear up, keep up, hold up; plod; stick to work &c (work) 686; continue &c 143; follow up; die in harness, die at one's post. Adj. persevering, constant; steady, steadfast; undeviating, unwavering, unfaltering, unswerving, unflinching, unsleeping^, unflagging, undrooping^; steady as time; unrelenting, unintermitting^, unremitting; plodding; industrious &c 682; strenuous &c 686; pertinacious; persisting, persistent. solid, sturdy, staunch, stanch, true to oneself; unchangeable &c 150; unconquerable &c (strong) 159; indomitable, game to the last, indefatigable, untiring, unwearied, never tiring. Adv. through evil report and good report, through thick and thin, through fire and water; per fas et nefas [Lat.]; without fail, sink or swim, at any price, vogue la galere [Fr.]. Phr. never say die; give it the old college try; vestigia nulla retrorsum [Lat.]; aut vincer aut mori [Lat.]; la garde meurt et ne se rend pas [Fr.]; tout vient a temps pour qui sait attendre [Fr.]. 605. Irresolution -- N. irresolution, infirmity of purpose, indecision; indetermination, undetermination^; unsettlement; uncertainty &c 475; demur, suspense; hesitating &c v., hesitation, hesitancy; vacillation; changeableness &c 149; fluctuation; alternation &c (oscillation) 314; caprice &c 608. fickleness, levity, legerete [Fr.]; pliancy &c (softness) 324; weakness; timidity &c 860; cowardice &c 862; half measures. waverer, ass between two bundles of hay; shuttlecock, butterfly; wimp; doughface [U.S.]. V. be irresolute &c adj.; hang in suspense, keep in suspense; leave "ad referendum"; think twice about, pause; dawdle &c (inactivity) 683; remain neuter; dillydally, hesitate, boggle, hover, dacker^, hum and haw, demur, not know one's own mind; debate, balance; dally with, coquet with; will and will not, chaser-balancer^; go halfway, compromise, make a compromise; be thrown off one's balance, stagger like a drunken man; be afraid &c 860; let 'I dare not' wait upon 'I would' [Macbeth]; falter, waver vacillate &c 149; change &c 140; retract &c 607; fluctuate; pendulate^; alternate &c (oscillate) 314; keep off and on, play fast and loose; blow hot and cold &c (caprice) 608. shuffle, palter, blink; trim. Adj. irresolute, infirm of purpose, double-minded, half-hearted; undecided, unresolved, undetermined; shilly-shally; fidgety, tremulous; hesitating &c v.; off one's balance; at a loss &c (uncertain) 475. vacillating &c v.; unsteady &c (changeable) 149; unsteadfast^, fickle, without ballast; capricious &c 608; volatile, frothy; light, lightsome, light-minded; giddy; fast and loose. weak, feeble-minded, frail; timid, wimpish, wimpy &c 860; cowardly &c 862; dough-faced [U.S.]; facile; pliant &c (soft) 324; unable to say 'no', easy-going revocable, reversible. Adv. irresolutely &c adj.; irresolved^, irresolvedly^; in faltering accents; off and on; from pillar to post; seesaw &c 314. Int. how happy could I be with either! [Gay]. 606. Obstinacy -- N. obstinateness &c adj.; obstinacy, tenacity; cussedness [U.S.]; perseverance &c 604.1; immovability; old school; inflexibility &c (hardness) 323; obduracy, obduration^; dogged resolution; resolution &c 604; ruling passion; blind side. self-will, contumacy, perversity; pervicacy^, pervicacity^; indocility^. bigotry, intolerance, dogmatism; opiniatry^, opiniativeness; fixed idea &c (prejudgment) 481; fanaticism, zealotry, infatuation, monomania; opinionatedness opinionativeness^. mule; opinionist^, opinionatist^, opiniator^, opinator^; stickler, dogmatist; bigot; zealot, enthusiast, fanatic. V. be obstinate &c adj.; stickle, take no denial, fly in the face of facts; opinionate, be wedded to an opinion, hug a belief; have one's own way &c (will) 600; persist &c (persevere) 604.1; have the last word, insist on having the last word. die hard, fight against destiny, not yield an inch, stand out. Adj. obstinate, tenacious, stubborn, obdurate, casehardened; inflexible &c (hard) 323; balky; immovable, unshakable, not to be moved; inert &c 172; unchangeable &c 150; inexorable &c (determined) 604; mulish, obstinate as a mule, pig-headed. dogged; sullen, sulky; unmoved, uninfluenced unaffected. willful, self-willed, perverse; resty^, restive, restiff^; pervicacious^, wayward, refractory, unruly; heady, headstrong; entete [Fr.]; contumacious; crossgrained^. arbitrary, dogmatic, positive, bigoted; prejudiced &c 481; creed- bound; prepossessed, infatuated; stiff-backed, stiff necked, stiff hearted; hard-mouthed, hidebound; unyielding; impervious, impracticable, inpersuasible^; unpersuadable; intractable, untractable^; incorrigible, deaf to advice, impervious to reason; crotchety &c 608. Adv. obstinately &c adj.. Phr. non possumus [Lat.]; no surrender; ils n'ont rien appris ne rien oublie [Fr.]. 607. Tergiversation -- N. change of mind, change of intention, change of purpose; afterthought. tergiversation, recantation; palinode, palinody^; renunciation; abjuration^, abjurement; defection &c (relinquishment) 624; going over &c v.; apostasy; retraction, retractation^; withdrawal; disavowal &c (negation) 536; revocation, revokement^; reversal; repentance &c 950; redintegratio amoris [Lat.]. coquetry; vacillation &c 605; backsliding; volte-face [Fr.]. turn coat, turn tippet^; rat, apostate, renegade; convert, pervert; proselyte, deserter; backslider; blackleg, crawfish [U.S.], scab [Slang], mugwump [U.S.], recidivist. time server, time pleaser^; timist^, Vicar of Bray, trimmer, ambidexter^; weathercock &c (changeable) 149; Janus. V. change one's mind, change one's intention, change one's purpose, change one's note; abjure, renounce; withdraw from &c (relinquish) 624; waver, vacillate; wheel round, turn round, veer round; turn a pirouette; go over from one side to another, pass from one side to another, change from one side to another, skip from one side to another; go to the rightabout; box the compass, shift one's ground, go upon another tack. apostatize, change sides, go over, rat; recant, retract; revoke; rescind &c (abrogate) 756; recall; forswear, unsay; come over, come round to an opinion; crawfish [U.S.], crawl [U.S.]. draw in one's horns, eat one's words; eat the leek, swallow the leek; swerve, flinch, back out of, retrace one's steps, think better of it; come back return to one's first love; turn over a new leaf &c (repent) 950. trim, shuffle, play fast and loose, blow hot and cold, coquet, be on the fence, straddle, bold with the hare but run with the hounds; nager entre deux eaux [Fr.]; wait to see how the cat jumps, wait to see how the wind blows. Adj. changeful &c 149; irresolute &c 605; ductile, slippery as an eel, trimming, ambidextrous, timeserving^; coquetting &c v.. revocatory^, reactionary. Phr. a change came o'er the spirit of my dream [Byron]. 608. Caprice -- N. caprice, fancy, humor; whim, whimsy, whimsey^, whimwham^; crotchet, capriccio, quirk, freak, maggot, fad, vagary, prank, fit, flimflam, escapade, boutade [Fr.], wild-goose chase; capriciousness &c adj.; kink. V. be capricious &c adj.; have a maggot in the brain; take it into one's head, strain at a gnat and swallow a camel; blow hot and cold; play fast and loose, play fantastic tricks; tourner casaque [Fr.]. Adj. capricious; erratic, eccentric, fitful, hysterical; full of whims &c n.; maggoty; inconsistent, fanciful, fantastic, whimsical, crotchety, kinky [U.S.], particular, humorsome^, freakish, skittish, wanton, wayward; contrary; captious; arbitrary; unconformable &c 83; penny wise and pound foolish; fickle &c (irresolute) 605; frivolous, sleeveless, giddy, volatile. Adv. by fits and starts, without rhyme or reason. Phr. nil fuit unquain sic inipar sibi [Lat.]; the deuce is in him. 609. Choice -- N. choice, option; discretion &c (volition) 600; preoption^; alternative; dilemma, embarras de choix [Fr.]; adoption, cooptation^; novation^; decision &c (judgment) 480. election; political election (politics) 737.1. selection, excerption, gleaning, eclecticism; excerpta^, gleanings, cuttings, scissors and paste; pick &c (best) 650. preference, prelation^, opinion poll, survey; predilection &c (desire) 865. V. offers one's choice, set before; hold out the alternative, present the alternative, offer the alternative; put to the vote. use option, use discretion, exercise option, exercise discretion, one's option; adopt, take up, embrace, espouse; choose, elect, opt for; take one's choice, make one's choice; make choice of, fix upon. vote, poll, hold up one's hand; divide. settle; decide &c (adjudge) 480; list &c (will) 600; make up one's mind &c (resolve) 604. select; pick and choose; pick out, single out; cull, glean, winnow; sift the chaff from the wheat, separate the chaff from the wheat, winnow the chaff from the wheat; pick up, pitch upon; pick one's way; indulge one's fancy. set apart, mark out for; mark &c 550. prefer; have rather, have as lief; fancy &c (desire) 865; be persuaded &c 615. take a decided step, take a decisive step; commit oneself to a course; pass the Rubicon, cross the Rubicon; cast in one's lot with; take for better or for worse. Adj. optional; discretional &c (voluntary) 600. eclectic; choosing &c v.; preferential; chosen &c v.; choice &c (good) 648. Adv. optionally &c adj.; at pleasure &c (will) 600; either the one or the other; or at the option of; whether or not; once and for all; for one's money. by choice, by preference; in preference; rather, before. 609a. Absence of Choice -- N. no choice, Hobson's choice; first come first served, random selection; necessity &c 601; not a pin to choose &c (equality) 27; any, the first that comes; that or nothing. neutrality, indifference; indecision &c (irresolution) 605; arbitrariness. coercion (compulsion) 744. V. be neutral &c adj.; have no choice, have no election; waive, not vote; abstain from voting, refrain from voting; leave undecided; make a virtue of necessity [Two Gentlemen]. Adj. neutral, neuter; indifferent, uninterested; undecided &c (irresolute) 605. Adv. either &c (choice) 609. Phr. who cares?, what difference does it make?; There's not a dime's worth of difference between them [George Wallace]. 610. Rejection -- N. rejection, repudiation, exclusion; refusal &c 764; declination V. reject; set aside, lay aside; give up; decline &c (refuse) 764; exclude, except; pluck, spin; cast. repudiate, scout, set at naught; fling to the winds, fling to the dogs, fling overboard, fling away, cast to the winds, cast to the dogs, cast overboard, cast away, throw to the winds, throw to the dogs, throw overboard, throw away, toss to the winds, toss to the dogs, toss overboard, toss away; send to the right about; disclaim &c (deny) 536; discard &c (eject) 297, (have done with) 678. Adj. rejected &c v.; reject, rejectaneous^, rejectious^; not chosen &c 609, to be thought of, out of the question Adv. neither, neither the one nor the other; no &c 536. Phr. non haec in faedera [Lat.]. 611. Predetermination -- N. predestination, preordination, premeditation, predeliberation^, predetermination; foregone conclusion, fait accompli [Fr.]; parti pris [Fr.]; resolve, propendency^; intention &c 620; project &c 626; fate, foredoom, necessity. V. predestine, preordain, predetermine, premeditate, resolve, concert; resolve beforehand, predesignate. Adj. prepense^, premeditated &c v., predesignated, predesigned^; advised, studied, designed, calculated; aforethought; intended &c 620; foregone. well-laid, well-devised, well-weighed; maturely considered; cunning. Adv. advisedly &c adj.; with premeditation, deliberately, all things considered, with eyes open, in cold blood; intentionally &c 620. 612. Impulse -- N. impulse, sudden thought; impromptu, improvisation; inspiration, flash, spurt. improvisatore^; creature of impulse. V. flash on the mind. say what comes uppermost; improvise, extemporize. Adj. extemporaneous, impulsive, indeliberate^; snap; improvised, improvisate^, improvisatory^; unpremeditated, unmeditated; improvise; unprompted, unguided; natural, unguarded; spontaneous &c (voluntary) 600; instinctive &c 601. Adv. extempore, extemporaneously; offhand, impromptu, a limproviste [Fr.]; improviso^; on the spur of the moment, on the spur of the occasion. 613. Habit [includes commonness due to frequency of occurrence] -- N. habit, habitude; assuetude^, assuefaction^, wont; run, way. common state of things, general state of things, natural state of things, ordinary state of things, ordinary course of things, ordinary run of things; matter of course; beaten path, beaten track, beaten ground. prescription, custom, use, usage, immemorial usage, practice; prevalence, observance; conventionalism, conventionality; mode, fashion, vogue; etiquette &c (gentility) 852; order of the day, cry; conformity &c 82; consuetude, dustoor^. one's old way, old school, veteris vestigia flammae [Lat.]; laudator temporis acti [Lat.]. rule, standing order, precedent, routine; red-tape, red-tapism^; pipe clay; rut, groove. cacoethes [Lat.]; bad habit, confirmed habit, inveterate habit, intrinsic habit &c; addiction, trick. training &c (education) 537; seasoning, second nature, acclimatization; knack &c V. be wont &c adj.. fall into a rut, fall into a custom &c (conform to) 82; tread the beaten track, follow the beaten track, tread the beaten path, follow the beaten; stare super antiquas vias [Lat.]; move in a rut, run on in a groove, go round like a horse in a mill, go on in the old jog trot way. habituate, inure, harden, season, caseharden; accustom, familiarize; naturalize, acclimatize; keep one's hand in; train &c (educate) 537. get into the way, get into the knack of; learn &c 539; cling to, adhere to; repeat &c 104; acquire a habit, contract a habit, fall into a habit, acquire a trick, contract a trick, fall into a trick; addict oneself to, take to, get into. be habitual &c adj.; prevail; come into use, become a habit, take root; gain upon one, grow upon one. Adj. habitual; accustomary^; prescriptive, accustomed &c v.; of daily occurrence, of everyday occurrence; consuetudinary^; wonted, usual, general, ordinary, common, frequent, everyday, household, garden variety, jog, trot; well-trodden, well-known; familiar, vernacular, trite, commonplace, conventional, regular, set, stock, established, stereotyped; prevailing, prevalent; current, received, acknowledged, recognized, accredited; of course, admitted, understood. conformable. &c 82; according to use, according to custom, according to routine; in vogue, in fashion, in, with it; fashionable &c (genteel) 852. wont; used to, given to, addicted to, attuned to, habituated &c v.; in the habit of; habitue; at home in &c (skillful) 698; seasoned; imbued with; devoted to, wedded to. hackneyed, fixed, rooted, deep-rooted, ingrafted^, permanent, inveterate, besetting; naturalized; ingrained &c (intrinsic) 5. Adv. habitually &c adj.; always &c (uniformly) 16. as usual, as is one's wont, as things go, as the world goes, as the sparks fly upwards; more suo, more solito [Lat.]; ex more. as a rule, for the most part; usually, generally, typically &c adj.; most often, most frequently. Phr. cela s'entend [Fr.]; abeunt studia in mores [Lat.]; adeo in teneris consuescere multum est [Lat.]; consuetudo quasi altera natura [Lat.] [Cicero]; hoc erat in more majorum [Lat.]; How use doth breed a habit in a man! [Two Gentlemen]; magna est vis consuetudinis [Lat.]; morent fecerat usus [Lat.] [Ovid]. 614. Desuetude -- N. desuetude, disusage^; obsolescence, disuse &c 678; want of habit, want of practice; inusitation^; newness to; new brooms. infraction of usage &c (unconformity) 83; nonprevalence^; a custom more honored in the breach than the observance [Hamlet]. V. be unaccustomed &c adj.; leave off a habit, cast off a habit, break off a habit, wean oneself of a habit, violate a habit, break through a habit, infringe a habit, leave off a custom, cast off a custom, break off a custom, wean oneself of a custom, violate a custom, break through a custom, infringe a custom, leave off a usage, cast off a usage, break off a usage, wean oneself of a usage, violate a usage, break through a usage, infringe a usage; disuse &c 678; wear off. Adj. unaccustomed, unused, unwonted, unseasoned, uninured^, unhabituated^, untrained; new; green &c (unskilled) 699; unhackneyed. unusual &c (unconformable) 83; nonobservant^; disused &c 678. 2. Causes of Volition 615. Motive -- N. motive, springs of action, wellsprings of action. reason, ground, call, principle; by end, by purpose; mainspring, primum mobile [Lat.], keystone; the why and the wherefore; pro and con, reason why; secret motive, arriere pensee [Fr.]; intention &c 620. inducement, consideration; attraction; loadstone; magnet, magnetism, magnetic force; allectation^, allective^; temptation, enticement, agacerie^, allurement, witchery; bewitchment, bewitchery; charm; spell &c 993; fascination, blandishment, cajolery; seduction, seducement; honeyed words, voice of the tempter, song of the Sirens forbidden fruit, golden apple. persuasibility^, persuasibleness^; attractability^; impressibility, susceptibility; softness; persuasiveness, attractiveness; tantalization^. influence, prompting, dictate, instance; impulse, impulsion; incitement, incitation; press, instigation; provocation &c (excitation of feeling) 824; inspiration; persuasion, suasion; encouragement, advocacy; exhortation; advice &c 695; solicitation &c (request) 765; lobbyism; pull [Slang]. incentive, stimulus, spur, fillip, whip, goad, ankus^, rowel, provocative, whet, dram. bribe, lure; decoy, decoy duck; bait, trail of a red herring; bribery and corruption; sop, sop for Cerberus. prompter, tempter; seducer, seductor^; instigator, firebrand, incendiary; Siren, Circe; agent provocateur; lobbyist. V. induce, move; draw, draw on; bring in its train, give an impulse &c n.; to; inspire; put up to, prompt, call up; attract, beckon. stimulate &c (excite) 824; spirit up, inspirit; rouse, arouse; animate, incite, foment, provoke, instigate, set on, actuate; act upon, work upon, operate upon; encourage; pat on the back, pat on the shoulder, clap on the back, clap on the shoulder. influence, weigh with, bias, sway, incline, dispose, predispose, turn the scale, inoculate; lead by the nose; have influence with, have influence over, have influence upon, exercise influence with, exercise influence over, exercise influence upon; go round, come round one; turn the head, magnetize; lobby. persuade; prevail with, prevail upon; overcome, carry; bring round to one's senses, bring to one's senses; draw over, win over, gain over, come over, talk over; procure, enlist, engage; invite, court. tempt, seduce, overpersuade^, entice, allure, captivate, fascinate, bewitch, carry away, charm, conciliate, wheedle, coax, lure; inveigle; tantalize; cajole &c (deceive) 545. tamper with, bribe, suborn, grease the palm, bait with a silver hook, gild the pill, make things pleasant, put a sop into the pan, throw a sop to, bait the hook. enforce, force; impel &c (push) 276; propel &c 284; whip, lash, goad, spur, prick, urge; egg on, hound, hurry on; drag &c 285; exhort; advise &c 695; call upon &c; press &c (request) 765; advocate. set an example, set the fashion; keep in countenance. be persuaded &c; yield to temptation, come round; concede &c (consent) 762; obey a call; follow advice, follow the bent, follow the dictates of; act on principle. Adj. impulsive, motive; suasive, suasory^, persuasive, persuasory^, hortative, hortatory; protreptical^; inviting, tempting, &c v.; suasive, suasory^; seductive, attractive; fascinating &c (pleasing) 829; provocative &c (exciting) 824. induced &c v.; disposed; persuadable &c (docile) 602; spellbound; instinct with, smitten with, infatuated; inspired &c v.; by. Adv. because, therefore &c (cause) 155; from this motive, from that motive; for this reason, for that reason; for; by reason of, for the sake of, count of; out of, from, as, forasmuch as. for all the world; on principle. Phr. fax mentis incendium gloriae [Lat.]; temptation hath a music for all ears [Willis]; to beguile many and be beguiled by one [Othello]. 615a. Absence of Motive -- N. absence of motive, aimlessness; caprice &c 608; chance &c (absence of design) 621. V. have no motive; scruple &c (be unwilling) 603. Adj. without rhyme or reason; aimless, capricious, whimsical &c (chance) 621. Adv. out of mere caprice. 616. Dissuasion -- N. dissuasion, dehortation^, expostulation, remonstrance; deprecation &c 766. discouragement, damper, wet blanket; disillusionment, disenchantment. cohibition &c (restraint) 751 [Obs.]; curb &c (means of restraint) 752; check &c (hindrance) 706. reluctance &c (unwillingness) 603; contraindication. V. dissuade, dehort^, cry out against, remonstrate, expostulate, warn, contraindicate. disincline, indispose, shake, stagger; dispirit; discourage, dishearten; deter; repress, hold back, keep back &c (restrain) 751; render averse &c 603; repel; turn aside &c (deviation) 279; wean from; act as a drag &c (hinder) 706; throw cold water on, damp, cool, chill, blunt, calm, quiet, quench; deprecate &c 766. disenchant, disillusion, deflate, take down a peg, pop one's balloon, prick one's balloon, burst one's bubble; disabuse (correction) 527.1. Adj. dissuading &c v.; dissuasive; dehortatory^, expostulatory^; monitive^, monitory. dissuaded &c v.; admonitory; uninduced &c (induce) &c 615; unpersuadable &c (obstinate) 606; averse &c (unwilling) 603; repugnant &c (dislike) 867. repressed. 617. [Ostensible motive, ground, or reason assigned.] Pretext -- N. pretext, pretense, pretension, plea^; allegation, advocation; ostensible motive, ostensible ground, ostensible reason, phony reason; excuse &c (vindication) 937; subterfuge; color; gloss, guise, cover. loop hole, starting hole; how to creep out of, salvo, come off; way of escape. handle, peg to hang on, room locus standi [Lat.]; stalking-horse, cheval de bataille [Fr.], cue. pretense &c (untruth) 546; put off, dust thrown in the eyes; blind; moonshine; mere pretext, shallow pretext; lame excuse, lame apology; tub to a whale; false plea, sour grapes; makeshift, shift, white lie; special pleading &c (sophistry) 477; soft sawder &c (flattery) 933 [Obs.]. V. pretend, plead, allege; shelter oneself under the plea of; excuse &c (vindicate) 937; lend a color to; furnish a handle &c n.; make a pretext of, make a handle of; use as a plea &c n.; take one's stand upon, make capital out of, pretend &c (lie) 544. Adj. ostensibly &c (manifest) 525; alleged, apologetic; pretended &c 545. Adv. ostensibly; under color; under the plea, under the pretense of, under the guise of. 3. Objects of Volition 618. Good -- N. good, benefit, advantage; improvement &c 658; greatest good, supreme good; interest, service, behoof, behalf; weal; main chance, summum bonum [Lat.], common weal; consummation devoutly to be wished; gain, boot; profit, harvest. boon &c (gift) 784; good turn; blessing; world of good; piece of good luck [Fr.], piece of good fortune [Fr.]; nuts, prize, windfall, godsend, waif, treasure-trove. good fortune &c (prosperity) 734; happiness &c 827. [Source of good] goodness &c 648; utility &c 644; remedy &c 662; pleasure giving &c 829. Adj. commendable &c 931; useful &c 644; good &c; beneficial &c 648. Adv. well, aright, satisfactorily, favorably, not amis [Fr.]; all for the best; to one's advantage &c n.; in one's favor, in one's interest &c n.. Phr. so far so good; magnum bonum [Lat.]. 619. Evil -- N. evil, ill, harm, hurt., mischief, nuisance; machinations of the devil, Pandora's box, ills that flesh is heir to. blow, buffet, stroke, scratch, bruise, wound, gash, mutilation; mortal blow, wound; immedicabile vulnus [Lat.]; damage, loss &c (deterioration) 659. disadvantage, prejudice, drawback. disaster, accident, casualty; mishap &c (misfortune) 735; bad job, devil to pay; calamity, bale, catastrophe, tragedy; ruin &c (destruction) 162; adversity &c 735. mental suffering &c 828. demon &c 980. (Evil spirit) bane, &c 663 (cause of evil). badness, &c 649 (Production of Evil); painfulness, &c 830; evil doer, &c 913. outrage, wrong, injury, foul play; bad turn, ill turn; disservice, spoliation &c 791; grievance, crying evil. V. be in trouble &c (adversity) 735. Adj. disastrous, bad &c 649; awry, out of joint; disadvantageous. Adv. amis [Fr.], wrong, ill, to one's cost Phr. moving accidents by flood and field [Othello]. SECTION II. PROSPECTIVE VOLITION 1. CONCEPTIONAL VOLITION 620. Intention -- N. intent, intention, intentionality; purpose; quo animo [Lat.]; project &c 626; undertaking &c 676; predetermination &c 611; design, ambition. contemplation, mind, animus, view, purview, proposal; study; look out. final cause; raison d'etre [Fr.]; cui bono [Lat.]; object, aim, end; the be all and the end all; drift &c (meaning) 516; tendency &c 176; destination, mark, point, butt, goal, target, bull's-eye, quintain [Mediev.]; prey, quarry, game. decision, determination, resolve; fixed set purpose, settled purpose; ultimatum; resolution &c 604; wish &c 865; arriere pensee [Fr.]; motive &c 615. [Study of final causes] teleology. V. intend, purpose, design, mean; have to; propose to oneself; harbor a design; have in view, have in contemplation, have in one's eye, have in petto; have an eye to. bid for, labor for; be after, aspire after, endeavor after; be at, aim at, drive at, point at, level at, aspire at; take aim; set before oneself; study to. take upon oneself &c (undertake) 676; take into one's head; meditate, contemplate of, think of, dream of, talk of; premeditate &c 611; compass, calculate; destine, destinate^; propose. project &c (plan) 626; have a mind to &c (be willing) 602; desire &c 865; pursue &c 622. Adj. intended &c v.; intentional, advised, express, determinate; prepense &c 611 [Obs.]; bound for; intending &c v.; minded; bent upon &c (earnest) 604; at stake; on the anvil, on the tapis^; in view, in prospect, in the breast of; in petto; teleological Adv. intentionally &c adj.; advisedly, wittingly, knowingly, designedly, purposely, on purpose, by design, studiously, pointedly; with intent &c n.; deliberately &c (with premeditation) 611; with one's eyes open, in cold blood. for; with a view, with an eye to; in order to, in order that; to the end that, with the intent that; for the purpose of, with the view of, in contemplation of, on account of. in pursuance of, pursuant to; quo animo [Lat.]; to all intents and purposes. Phr. The road to hell is paved with good intentions [Johnson]; sublimi feriam sidera vertice [Lat.] [Horace]. 621. [Absence of purpose in the succession of events] Chance -- N. chance &c 156; lot, fate &c (necessity) 601; luck; good luck &c (good) 618; mascot. speculation, venture, stake, game of chance; mere shot, random shot; blind bargain, leap in the dark; pig in a poke &c (uncertainty) 475; fluke, potluck; faro bank; flyer [Slang]; limit. uncertainty; uncertainty principle, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. drawing lots; sortilegy^, sortition^; sortes^, sortes Virgilianae^; rouge et noir [Fr.], hazard, ante, chuck-a-luck, crack-loo [U.S.], craps, faro, roulette, pitch and toss, chuck, farthing, cup tossing, heads or tails cross and pile, poker-dice; wager; bet, betting; gambling; the turf. gaming house, gambling house, betting house; bucket shop; gambling joint; totalizator, totalizer; hell; betting ring; dice, dice box. [person who takes chances] gambler, gamester; man of the turf; adventurer; dicer^. V. chance &c (hap) 156; stand a chance &c (be possible) 470. toss up; cast lots, draw lots; leave to chance, trust to chance, leave to the chapter of accidents, trust to the chapter of accidents; tempt fortune; chance it, take one's chance, take a shot at it (attempt) 675; run the risk, run the chance, incur the risk, incur the chance, encounter the risk, encounter the chance; stand the hazard of the die. speculate, try one's luck, set on a cast, raffle, put into a lottery, buy a pig in a poke, shuffle the cards. risk, venture, hazard, stake; ante; lay, lay a wager; make a bet, wager, bet, gamble, game, play for; play at chuck farthing. Adj. fortuitous &c 156; unintentional, unintended; accidental; not meant; undesigned, purposed; unpremeditated &c 612; unforeseen, uncontemplated, never thought of. random, indiscriminate, promiscuous; undirected; aimless, driftless^, designless^, purposeless, causeless; without purpose. possible &c 470. unforeseeable, unpredictable, chancy, risky, speculative, dicey. Adv. randomly, by chance, fortuitously; unpredictably, unforeseeably; casually &c 156; unintentionally &c adj.; unwittingly. en passant [Fr.], by the way, incidentally; as it may happen; at random, at a venture, at haphazard. Phr. acierta errando [Lat.]; dextro tempore [Lat.]; fearful concatenation of circumstances [D. Webster]; fortuitous combination of circumstances [Dickens]; le jeu est le fils d'avarice et le pere du desespoir [Fr.]; the happy combination of fortuitous circumstances [Scott]; the fortuitous or casual concourse of atoms [Bentley]; God does not play dice with the universe [A. Einstein]. 622. [Purpose in action.] Pursuit -- N. pursuit; pursuing &c v.; prosecution; pursuance; enterprise &c (undertaking) 676; business &c 625; adventure &c (essay) 675; quest &c (search) 461; scramble, hue and cry, game; hobby; still-hunt. chase, hunt, battue^, race, steeple chase, hunting, coursing; venation, venery; fox chase; sport, sporting; shooting, angling, fishing, hawking; shikar (Geog loc:India). pursuer; hunter, huntsman; shikari (Geog loc:India), sportsman, Nimrod; hound &c 366. V. pursue, prosecute, follow; run after, make after, be after, hunt after, prowl after; shadow; carry on &c (do) 680; engage in &c (undertake) 676; set about &c (begin) 66; endeavor &c 675; court &c (request) 765; seek &c (search) 461; aim at &c (intention) 620; follow the trail &c (trace) 461; fish for &c (experiment) 463; press on &c (haste) 684; run a race &c (velocity) 274. chase, give chase, course, dog, hunt, hound; tread on the heels, follow on the heels of, &c (sequence) 281. rush upon; rush headlong &c (violence) 173, ride full tilt at, run full tilt at; make a leap at, jump at, snatch at run down; start game. tread a path; take a course, hold a course; shape one's steps, direct one's steps, bend one's steps, course; play a game; fight one's way, elbow one's way; follow up; take to, take up; go in for; ride one's hobby. Adj. pursuing &c v.; in quest of &c (inquiry) 461; in pursuit, in full cry, in hot pursuit; on the scent. Adv. in pursuance of &c (intention) 620; after. Int. tallyho!, yoicks!, soho!^, 623. [Absence of pursuit.] Avoidance -- N. abstention, abstinence; for bearance^; refraining &c v.; inaction &c 681; neutrality. avoidance, evasion, elusion; seclusion &c 893. avolation^, flight; escape &c 671; retreat &c 287; recoil &c 277; departure &c 293; rejection &c 610. shirker &c v.; truant; fugitive, refugee; runaway, runagate; maroon. V. abstain, refrain, spare, not attempt; not do &c 681; maintain the even tenor of one's way. eschew, keep from, let alone, have nothing to do with; keep aloof keep off, stand aloof, stand off, hold aloof, hold off; take no part in, have no hand in. avoid, shun; steer clear of, keep clear of; fight shy of; keep one's distance, keep at a respectful distance; keep out of the way, get out of the way; evade, elude, turn away from; set one's face against &c (oppose) 708; deny oneself. shrink back; hang back, hold back, draw back; recoil &c 277; retire &c (recede) 287; flinch, blink, blench, shy, shirk, dodge, parry, make way for, give place to. beat a retreat; turn tail, turn one's back; take to one's heels; runaway, run for one's life; cut and run; be off like a shot; fly, flee; fly away, flee away, run away from; take flight, take to flight; desert, elope; make off, scamper off, sneak off, shuffle off, sheer off; break away, tear oneself away, slip away, slink away, steel away, make away from, scamper away from, sneak away from, shuffle away from, sheer away from; slip cable, part company, turn one's heel; sneak out of, play truant, give one the go by, give leg bail, take French leave, slope, decamp, flit, bolt, abscond, levant, skedaddle, absquatulat [U.S.], cut one's stick, walk one's chalks, show a light pair of heels, make oneself scarce; escape &c 671; go away &c (depart) 293; abandon &c 624; reject &c 610. lead one a dance, lead one a pretty dance; throw off the scent, play at hide and seek. Adj. unsought, unattempted; avoiding &c v.; neutral, shy of &c (unwilling) 603; elusive, evasive; fugitive, runaway; shy, wild. Adj. lest, in order to avoid. Int. forbear!, keep off, hands off!, sauve qui peut! [Fr.], every man for himself! [Fr.Tr.]; devil take the hindmost!, Phr. things unattempted yet in prose or rhyme [Paradise Lost]. 624. Relinquishment -- N. relinquishment, abandonment; desertion, defection, secession, withdrawal; cave of Adullam^; nolle prosequi [Lat.]. discontinuance &c (cessation) 142; renunciation &c (recantation) 607; abrogation &c 756; resignation &c (retirement) 757; desuetude &c 614; cession &c (of property) 782. V. relinquish, give up, abandon, desert, forsake, leave in the lurch; go back on; depart from, secede from, withdraw from; back out of; leave, quit, take leave of, bid a long farewell; vacate &c (resign) 757. renounce &c (abjure) 607; forego, have done with, drop; disuse &c 678; discard &c 782; wash one's hands of; drop all idea of. break off, leave off; desist; stop &c (cease) 142; hold one's hand, stay one's hand; quit one's hold; give over, shut up shop. throw up the game, throw up the cards; give up the point, give up the argument; pass to the order of the day, move to the previous question. Adj. unpursued^; relinquished &c v.; relinquishing &c v.. Int. avast!, &c (stop) 142. Phr. aufgeschoben ist nicht aufgehoben [G.]; entbehre gern was du nicht hast [G.]. 625. Business -- N. business, occupation, employment; pursuit &c 622; what one is doing, what one is about; affair, concern, matter, case. matter in hand, irons in the fire; thing to do, agendum, task, work, job, chore [U.S.], errand, commission, mission, charge, care; duty &c 926. part, role, cue; province, function, lookout, department, capacity, sphere, orb, field, line; walk, walk of life; beat, round, routine; race, career. office, place, post, chargeship^, incumbency, living; situation, berth, employ; service &c (servitude) 749; engagement; undertaking &c 676. vocation, calling, profession, cloth, faculty; industry, art; industrial arts; craft, mystery, handicraft; trade &c (commerce) 794. exercise; work &c (action) 680; avocation; press of business &c (activity) 682. V. pass one's time in, employ one's time in, spend one's time in; employ oneself in, employ oneself upon; occupy oneself with, concern oneself with; make it one's business &c n.; undertake &c 676; enter a profession; betake oneself to, turn one's hand to; have to do with &c (do) 680. office, place, post, chargeship^, incumbency, living; situation, berth, employ; service &c (servitude) 749; engagement; undertaking &c 676. drive a trade; carry on a trade, do a trade, transact a trade, carry on business, do business, transact business &c n.; keep a shop; ply one's task, ply one's trade; labor in one's vocation; pursue the even tenor of one's way; attend to business, attend to one's work. officiate, serve, act; act one's part, play one's part; do duty; serve the office of, discharge the office of, perform the office of, perform the duties of, perform the functions of; hold an office, fill an office, fill a place, fill a situation; hold a portfolio, hold a place, hold a situation. be about, be doing, be engaged in, be employed in, be occupied with, be at work on; have one's hands in, have in hand; have on one's hands, have on one's shoulders; bear the burden; have one's hands full &c (activity) 682. be in the hands of, be on the stocks, be on the anvil; pass through one's hands. Adj. businesslike; workaday; professional; official, functional; busy &c (actively employed) 682; on hand, in hand, in one's hands; afoot; on foot, on the anvil; going on; acting. Adv. in the course of business, all in one's day's work; professionally &c Adj.. Phr. a business with an income at its heels [Cowper]; amoto quaeramus seria ludo [Lat.] [Horace]; par negotiis neque supra [Lat.] [Tacitus]. 626. Plan -- N. plan, scheme, design, project; proposal, proposition, suggestion; resolution, motion; precaution &c (provision) 673; deep- laid plan &c (premeditated) 611; system &c (order) 58; organization &c (arrangement) 60; germ &c (cause) 153. sketch, skeleton, outline, draught, draft, ebauche [Fr.], brouillon [Fr.]; rough cast, rough draft, draught copy; copy; proof, revise. drawing, scheme, schematic, graphic, chart, flow chart (representation) 554. forecast, program, programme, prospectus; carte du pays [Fr.]; card; bill, protocol; order of the day, list of agenda; bill of fare &c (food) 298; base of operations; platform, plank, slate [U.S.], ticket [U.S.]. role; policy &c (line of conduct) 692. contrivance, invention, expedient, receipt, nostrum, artifice, device; pipelaying [U.S.]; stratagem &c (cunning) 702; trick &c (deception) 545; alternative, loophole; shift &c (substitute) 147; last shift &c (necessity) 601. measure, step; stroke, stroke of policy; master stroke; trump card, court card; cheval de bataille [Fr.], great gun; coup, coup d'etat [Fr.]; clever stroke, bold stroke, good move, good hit, good stroke; bright thought, bright idea. intrigue, cabal, plot, conspiracy, complot^, machination; subplot, underplot^, counterplot. schemer, schemist^, schematist^; strategist, machinator; projector, artist, promoter, designer &c v.; conspirator; intrigant &c (cunning) 702 [Obs.]. V. plan, scheme, design, frame, contrive, project, forecast, sketch; devise, invent &c (imagine) 515; set one's wits to work &c 515; spring a project; fall upon, hit upon; strike out, chalk out, cut out, lay out, map out; lay down a plan; shape out a course, mark out a course; predetermine &c 611; concert, preconcert, preestablish; prepare &c 673; hatch, hatch a plot concoct; take steps, take measures. cast, recast, systematize, organize; arrange &c 60; digest, mature. plot; counter-plot, counter-mine; dig a mine; lay a train; intrigue &c (cunning) 702. Adj. planned &c v.; strategic, strategical; planning &c v.; prepared, in course of preparation &c 673; under consideration; on the tapis^, on the carpet, on the floor. 627. Method [Path.] -- N. method, way, manner, wise, gait, form, mode, fashion, tone, guise; modus operandi, MO; procedure &c (line of conduct) 692. path, road, route, course; line of way, line of road; trajectory, orbit, track, beat, tack. steps; stair, staircase; flight of stairs, ladder, stile; perron^. bridge, footbridge, viaduct, pontoon, steppingstone, plank, gangway; drawbridge; pass, ford, ferry, tunnel; pipe &c 260. door; gateway &c (opening) 260; channel, passage, avenue, means of access, approach, adit^; artery, lane, loan [Scot.], alley, aisle, lobby, corridor; back-door, back-stairs; secret passage; covert way; vennel^. roadway, pathway, stairway; express; thoroughfare; highway; turnpike, freeway, royal road, coach road; broad highway, King's highway, Queen's highway; beaten track, beaten path; horse road, bridle road, bridle track, bridle path; walk, trottoir^, footpath, pavement, flags, sidewalk; crossroad, byroad, bypath, byway; cut; short cut &c (mid-course) 628; carrefour^; private road, occupation road; highways and byways; railroad, railway, tram road, tramway; towpath; causeway; canal &c (conduit) 350; street &c (abode) 189; speedway. adv.. how; in what way, in what manner; by what mode; so, in this way, after this fashion. one way or another, anyhow; somehow or other &c (instrumentality) 631; by way of; via; in transitu &c 270 [Lat.]; on the high road to. Phr. hae tibi erunt artes [Lat.]. 628. Mid-course -- N. middle course, midcourse; mean &c 29; middle &c 68; juste milieu [Fr.], mezzo termine [It], golden mean, ariston metron [Gr.], aurea mediocritas [Lat.]. straight &c (direct) 278, straight course, straight path; short cut, cross cut; great circle sailing. neutrality; half measure, half and half measures; compromise. V. keep in a middle course, preserve a middle course, preserve an even course, go straight &c (direct) 278. go halfway, compromise, make a compromise. Adj. straight &c (direct) 278. Phr. medium tenuere beati [Lat.]. 629. Circuit -- N. circuit, roundabout way, digression, detour, circumbendibus, ambages^, loop; winding &c (circuition) 311 [Obs.]; zigzag &c (deviation) 279. V. perform a circuit; go round about, go out of one's way; make a detour; meander &c (deviate) 279. lead a pretty dance; beat about the bush; make two bites of a cherry. Adj. circuitous, indirect, roundabout; zigzag &c (deviating) 279; backhanded. Adv. by a side wind, by an indirect course; in a roundabout way; from pillar to post. 630. Requirement -- N. requirement, need, wants, necessities; necessaries, necessaries of life; stress, exigency, pinch, sine qua non, matter of necessity; case of need, case of life or death. needfulness, essentiality, necessity, indispensability, urgency. requisition &c (request) 765, (exaction) 741; run upon; demand, call for. charge, claim, command, injunction, mandate, order, precept. desideratum &c (desire) 865; want &c (deficiency) 640. V. require, need, want, have occasion for; not be able to do without, not be able to dispense with; prerequire^. render necessary, necessitate, create a, necessity for, call for, put in requisition; make a requisition &c (ask for) 765, (demand) 741. stand in need of; lack &c 640; desiderate^; desire &c 865; be necessary &c Adj. Adj. required &c v.; requisite, needful, necessary, imperative, essential, indispensable, prerequisite; called for; in demand, in request. urgent, exigent, pressing, instant, crying, absorbing. in want of; destitute of &c 640. Adv. ex necessitate rei &c (necessarily) 601 [Lat.]; of necessity. Phr. there is no time to lose; it cannot be spared, it cannot be dispensed with; mendacem memorem esse oportet [Lat.] [Quintilian]; necessitas non habet legem [Lat.]; nec tecum possum trivere nec sine te [Lat.] [Martial]. 2. SUBSERVIENCE TO ENDS 1. Actual Subservience 631. Instrumentality -- N. instrumentality; aid &c 707; subservience, subserviency; mediation, intervention, medium, intermedium^, vehicle, hand; agency &c 170. minister, handmaid; midwife, accoucheur [Fr.], accoucheuse [Fr.], obstetrician; gobetween; cat's-paw; stepping-stone. opener &c 260; key; master key, passkey, latchkey; open sesame; passport, passe-partout, safe-conduct, password. instrument &c 633; expedient &c (plan) 626; means &c 632. V. subserve, minister, mediate, intervene; be instrumental &c adj.; pander to; officiate; tend. Adj. instrumental; useful &c 644; ministerial, subservient, mediatorial^; intermediate, intervening; conducive. Adv. through, by, per; whereby, thereby, hereby; by the agency of &c 170; by dint of; by virtue of, in virtue of; through the medium of &c n.; along with; on the shoulders of; by means of &c 632; by the aid of, with the aid of &c (assistance) 707. per fas et nefas [Lat.], by fair means or foul; somehow, somehow or other; by hook or by crook. 632. Means -- N. means, resources, wherewithal, ways and means; capital &c (money) 800; revenue; stock in trade &c 636; provision &c 637; a shot in the locker; appliances &c (machinery) 633; means and appliances; conveniences; cards to play; expedients &c (measures) 626; two strings to one's bow; sheet anchor &c (safety) 666; aid &c 707; medium &c 631. V. find means, have means, possess means &c n.. Adj. instrumental &c 631; mechanical &c 633. Adv. by means of, with; by what means, by all means, by any means, by some means; wherewith, herewith, therewith; wherewithal. how &c (in what manner) 627; through &c (by the instrumentality of) 631; with the aid of, by the aid of &c (assistance) 707; by the agency of &c 170 633. Instrument -- N. machinery, mechanism, engineering. instrument, organ, tool, implement, utensil, machine, engine, lathe, gin, mill; air engine, caloric engine, heat engine. gear; tackle, tackling, rig, rigging, apparatus, appliances; plant, materiel; harness, trappings, fittings, accouterments; barde^; equipment, equipmentage^; appointments, furniture, upholstery; chattels; paraphernalia &c (belongings) 780. mechanical powers; lever, leverage; mechanical advantage; crow, crowbar; handspike^, gavelock^, jemmy^, jimmy, arm, limb, wing; oar, paddle; pulley; wheel and axle; wheelwork, clockwork; wheels within wheels; pinion, crank, winch; cam; pedal; capstan &c (lift) 307; wheel &c (rotation) 312; inclined plane; wedge; screw; spring, mainspring; can hook, glut, heald^, heddle^, jenny, parbuckle^, sprag^, water wheel. handle, hilt, haft, shaft, heft, shank, blade, trigger, tiller, helm, treadle, key; turnscrew, screwdriver; knocker. hammer &c (impulse) 276; edge tool &c (cut) 253; borer &c 262; vice, teeth, &c (hold) 781; nail, rope &c (join) 45; peg &c (hang) 214; support &c 215; spoon &c (vehicle) 272; arms &c 727; oar &c (navigation) 267; cardiograph, recapper^, snowplow, tenpenny^, votograph^. Adj. instrumental &c 631; mechanical, machinal^; brachial [Med.]. 634. Substitute -- N. substitute &c 147; deputy &c 759; badli^. 635. Materials -- N. material, raw material, stuff, stock, staple; adobe, brown stone; chinking; clapboard; daubing; puncheon; shake; shingle, bricks and mortar; metal; stone; clay, brick crockery &c 384; compo, composition; concrete; reinforced concrete, cement; wood, ore, timber. materials; supplies, munition, fuel, grist, household stuff pabulum &c (food) 298; ammunition &c (arms) 727; contingents; relay, reinforcement, reenforcement^; baggage &c (personal property) 780; means &c 632; calico, cambric, cashmere. Adj. raw &c (unprepared) 674; wooden &c n.; adobe. 636. Store -- N. stock, fund, mine, vein, lode, quarry; spring; fount, fountain; well, wellspring; milch cow. stock in trade, supply; heap &c (collection) 72; treasure; reserve, corps de reserve, reserved fund, nest egg, savings, bonne bouche [Fr.]. crop, harvest, mow, vintage. store, accumulation, hoard, rick, stack; lumber; relay &c (provision) 637. storehouse, storeroom, storecloset^; depository, depot, cache, repository, reservatory^, repertory; repertorium^; promptuary^, warehouse, entrepot [Fr.], magazine; buttery, larder, spence^; garner, granary; cannery, safe-deposit vault, stillroom^; thesaurus; bank &c (treasury) 802; armory; arsenal; dock; gallery, museum, conservatory; menagery^, menagerie. reservoir, cistern, aljibar^, tank, pond, mill pond; gasometer^. budget, quiver, bandolier, portfolio; coffer &c (receptacle) 191. conservation; storing &c v.; storage. V. store; put by, lay by, set by; stow away; set apart, lay apart; store treasure, hoard treasure, lay up, heap up, put up, garner up, save up; bank; cache; accumulate, amass, hoard, fund, garner, save. reserve; keep back, hold back; husband, husband one's resources. deposit; stow, stack, load; harvest; heap, collect &c 72; lay in store &c Adj.; keep, file (papers); lay in &c (provide) 637; preserve &c 670. Adj. stored &c v.; in store, in reserve, in ordinary; spare, supernumerary. Phr. adde parvum parvo magnus acervus erit [Lat.]. 637. Provision -- N. provision, supply; grist, grist for the mill; subvention &c (aid) 707; resources &c (means) 632; groceries, grocery. providing &c v.; purveyance; reinforcement, reenforcement^; commissariat. provender &c (food) 298; ensilage; viaticum. caterer, purveyor, commissary, quartermaster, manciple^, feeder, batman, victualer, grocer, comprador [Sp.], restaurateur; jackal, pelican; sutler &c (merchant) 797 [Obs.]. grocery shop, grocery store. V. provide; make provision, make due provision for; lay in, lay in a stock, lay in a store. supply, suppeditate^; furnish; find, find one in; arm. cater, victual, provision, purvey, forage; beat up for; stock, stock with; make good, replenish; fill, fill up; recruit, feed. have in store, have in reserve; keep, keep by one, keep on foot, keep on hand; have to fall back upon; store &c 636; provide against a rainy day &c (economy) 817. 638. Waste -- N. consumption, expenditure, exhaustion; dispersion &c 73; ebb; leakage &c (exudation) 295; loss &c 776; wear and tear; waste; prodigality &c 818; misuse &c 679; wasting &c v.; rubbish &c (useless) 645. mountain in labor. V. spend, expend, use, consume, swallow up, exhaust; impoverish; spill, drain, empty; disperse &c 73. cast away, fool away, muddle away, throw away, fling away, fritter away; burn the candle at both ends, waste; squander &c 818. waste its sweetness on the desert air [Gray]; cast one's bread upon the waters, cast pearls before swine; employ a steam engine to crack a nut, waste powder and shot, break a butterfly on a wheel; labor in vain &c (useless) 645; cut blocks with a razor, pour water into a sieve. leak &c (run out) 295; run to waste; ebb; melt away, run dry, dry up. Adj. wasted &c v.; at a low ebb. wasteful &c (prodigal) 818; penny wise and pound foolish. Phr. magno conatu magnas nugas [Lat.]; le jeu ne vaut pas la chandelle [Fr.]; idly busy rolls their world away [Goldsmith]. 639. Sufficiency -- N. sufficiency, adequacy, enough, withal, satisfaction, competence; no less; quantum sufficit [Lat.], Q.S. mediocrity &c (average) 29. fill; fullness &c (completeness) 52; plenitude, plenty; abundance; copiousness &c adj.; amplitude, galore, lots, profusion; full measure; good measure pressed down and running, over. luxuriance &c (fertility) 168; affluence &c (wealth) 803; fat of the land; a land flowing with milk and honey; cornucopia; horn of plenty, horn of Amalthaea; mine &c (stock) 636. outpouring; flood &c (great quantity) 31; tide &c (river) 348; repletion &c (redundancy) 641; satiety &c 869. V. be sufficient &c adj.; suffice, do, just do, satisfy, pass muster; have enough &c n.; eat. one's fill, drink one's fill, have one's fill; roll in, swim in; wallow in &c (superabundance) 641; wanton. abound, exuberate, teem, flow, stream, rain, shower down; pour, pour in; swarm; bristle with; superabound. render sufficient &c adj.; replenish &c (fill) 52. Adj. sufficient, enough, adequate, up to the mark, commensurate, competent, satisfactory, valid, tangible. measured; moderate &c (temperate) 953. full, &c (complete) 52; ample; plenty, plentiful, plenteous; plenty as blackberries; copious, abundant; abounding &c v.; replete, enough and to spare, flush; choke-full, chock-full; well-stocked, well- provided; liberal; unstinted, unstinting; stintless^; without stint; unsparing, unmeasured; lavish &c 641; wholesale. rich; luxuriant &c (fertile) 168; affluent &c (wealthy) 803; wantless^; big with &c (pregnant) 161. unexhausted^, unwasted^; exhaustless, inexhaustible. Adv. sufficiently, amply &c Adj.; full; in abundance &c n.. with no sparing hand; to one's heart's content, ad libitum, without stint. Phr. cut and come again [Crabbe]; das Beste ist gut genug [G.]. 640. Insufficiency -- N. insufficiency; inadequacy, inadequateness; incompetence &c (impotence) 158; deficiency &c (incompleteness) 53; imperfection &c 651; shortcoming &c 304; paucity; stint; scantiness &c (smallness) 32; none to spare, bare subsistence. scarcity, dearth; want, need, lack, poverty, exigency; inanition, starvation, famine, drought. dole, mite, pittance; short allowance, short commons; half rations; banyan day. emptiness, poorness &c adj.; depletion, vacancy, flaccidity; ebb tide; low water; a beggarly account of empty boxes [Romeo and Juliet]; indigence &c 804; insolvency &c (nonpayment) 808. V. be insufficient &c adj.; not suffice &c 639; come short of &c 304; run dry. want, lack, need, require; caret; be in want &c (poor) 804, live from hand to mouth. render insufficient &c Adj.; drain of resources, impoverish &c (waste) 638; stint &c (begrudge) 819; put on short allowance. do insufficiently &c adv.; scotch the snake. Adj. insufficient, inadequate; too little &c 32; not enough &c 639; unequal to; incompetent &c (impotent) 158; weighed in the balance and found wanting; perfunctory &c (neglect) 460; deficient &c (incomplete) 53; wanting, &c v.; imperfect &c 651; ill-furnished, ill-provided, ill- stored, ill-off. slack, at a low ebb; empty, vacant, bare; short of, out of, destitute of, devoid of, bereft of &c 789; denuded of; dry, drained. unprovided, unsupplied^, unfurnished; unreplenished, unfed^; unstored^, untreasured^; empty-handed. meager, poor, thin, scrimp, sparing, spare, stinted; starved, starving; halfstarved, famine-stricken, famished; jejune. scant &c (small) 32; scarce; not to be had, not to be had for love or money, not to be had at any price; scurvy; stingy &c 819; at the end of one's tether; without resources &c 632; in want &c (poor) 804; in debt &c 806. Adv. insufficiently &c adj.; in default of, for want of; failing. Phr. semper avarus eget [Lat.] [Horace]. 641. Redundancy -- N. redundancy, redundance^; too much, too many; superabundance, superfluity, superfluence^, saturation; nimiety^, transcendency, exuberance, profuseness; profusion &c (plenty) 639; repletion, enough in all conscience, satis superque [Lat.], lion's share; more than enough &c 639; plethora, engorgement, congestion, load, surfeit, sickener^; turgescence &c (expansion) 194 [Obs.]; overdose, overmeasure^, oversupply, overflow; inundation &c (water) 348; avalanche. accumulation &c (store) 636; heap &c 72; drug, drug in the market; glut; crowd; burden. excess; surplus, overplus^; epact^; margin; remainder &c 40; duplicate; surplusage^, expletive; work of supererogation; bonus, bonanza. luxury; intemperance &c 954; extravagance &c (prodigality) 818; exorbitance, lavishment^. pleonasm &c (diffuseness) 573; too many irons in the fire; embarras de richesses [Fr.]. V. superabound, overabound^; know no bounds, swarm; meet one at every turn; creep with, crawl with, bristle with; overflow; run over, flow over, well over, brim over; run riot; overrun, overstock, overlay, overcharge, overdose, overfeed, overburden, overload, overdo, overwhelm, overshoot the mark &c (go beyond) 303; surcharge, supersaturate, gorge, glut, load, drench, whelm, inundate, deluge, flood; drug, drug the market; hepatize^. choke, cloy, accloy^, suffocate; pile up, lay on thick; impregnate with; lavish &c (squander) 818. send coals to Newcastle, carry coals to Newcastle, carry owls to Athens^; teach one's grandmother to suck eggs; pisces natare docere [Lat.]; kill the slain, gild refined gold, gild the lily, butter one's bread on both sides, put butter upon bacon; employ a steam engine to crack a nut &c (waste) 638. exaggerate &c 549; wallow in roll in &c (plenty) 639; remain on one's hands, hang heavy on hand, go a begging. Adj. redundant; too much, too many; exuberant, inordinate, superabundant, excessive, overmuch, replete, profuse, lavish; prodigal &c 818; exorbitant; overweening; extravagant; overcharged &c v.; supersaturated, drenched, overflowing; running over, running to waste, running down. crammed to overflowing, filled to overflowing; gorged, ready to burst; dropsical, turgid, plethoric; obese &c 194. superfluous, unnecessary, needless, supervacaneous^, uncalled for, to spare, in excess; over and above &c (remainder) 40; de trop [Fr.]; adscititious &c (additional) 37; supernumerary &c (reserve) 636; on one's hands, spare, duplicate, supererogatory, expletive; un peu fort [Fr.]. Adv. over, too, over and above; overmuch, too much; too far; without measure, beyond measure, out of measure; with a to spare; over head and ears; up to one's eyes, up to one's ears; extra; beyond the mark &c (transcursion) 303; acervatim [Lat.]. Phr. it never rains but it pours; fortuna multis dat nimium nulli satis [Lat.]. 2. Degree of Subservience 642. Importance -- N. importance, consequence, moment, prominence, consideration, mark, materialness. import, significance, concern; emphasis, interest. greatness &c 31; superiority &c 33; notability &c (repute) 873; weight &c (influence) 175; value &c (goodness) 648; usefulness &c 644. gravity, seriousness, solemnity; no joke, no laughing matter; pressure, urgency, stress; matter of life and death. memorabilia, notabilia^, great doings; red-letter day. great thing, great point; main chance, the be all and the end all [Macbeth]; cardinal point; substance, gist &c (essence) 5; sum and substance, gravamen, head and front; important part, principal part, prominent part, essential part; half the battle; sine qua non; breath of one's nostrils &c (life) 359; cream, salt, core, kernel, heart, nucleus; keynote, keystone; corner stone; trump card &c (device) 626; salient points. top sawyer, first fiddle, prima donna [Sp.], chief; triton among the minnows; 'it' [U.S.]. V. be important &c adj., be somebody, be something; import, signify, matter, boot, be an object; carry weight &c (influence) 175; make a figure &c (repute) 873; be in the ascendant, come to the front, lead the way, take the lead, play first fiddle, throw all else into the shade; lie at the root of; deserve notice, merit notice, be worthy of notice, be worthy of regard, be worthy of consideration. attach importance to, ascribe importance to, give importance to &c n.; value, care for, set store upon, set store by; mark &c 550; mark with a white stone, underline; write in italics, put in italics, print in italics, print in capitals, print in large letters, put in large type, put in letters. of gold; accentuate, emphasize, lay stress on. make a fuss about, make a fuss over, make a stir about, make a piece of work about [Fr.], make much ado about; make much ado of, make much of. Adj. important; of importance &c n.; momentous, material; to the point; not to be overlooked, not to be despised, not to be sneezed at; egregious; weighty &c (influential) 175; of note &c (repute) 873; notable, prominent, salient, signal; memorable, remarkable; unforgettable; worthy of remark, worthy of notice; never to be forgotten; stirring, eventful. grave, serious, earnest, noble, grand, solemn, impressive, commanding, imposing. urgent, pressing, critical, instant. paramount, essential, vital, all-absorbing, radical, cardinal, chief, main, prime, primary, principal, leading, capital, foremost, overruling; of vital importance &c in the front rank, first-rate; superior &c 33; considerable &c (great) 31; marked &c v.; rare &c 137. significant, telling, trenchant, emphatic, pregnant; tanti [Lat.]. Adv. materially &c adj.; in the main; above all, kat' exochin [Gr.], par excellence, to crown all, to beat all. Phr. expende Hannibalem! [Lat.] [Juvenal]. 643. Unimportance -- N. unimportance, insignificance, nothingness, immateriality. triviality, levity, frivolity; paltriness &c adj.; poverty; smallness &c 32; vanity &c (uselessness) 645; matter of indifference &c 866; no object. nothing, nothing to signify, nothing worth speaking of, nothing particular, nothing to boast of, nothing to speak of; small matter, no great matter, trifling matter &c adj.; mere joke, mere nothing; hardly anything; scarcely anything; nonentity, small beer, cipher; no great shakes, peu de chose [Fr.]; child's play, kinderspiel. toy, plaything, popgun, paper pellet, gimcrack, gewgaw, bauble, trinket, bagatelle, Rickshaw, knickknack, whim-wham, trifle, trifles light as air; yankee notions [U.S.]. trumpery, trash, rubbish, stuff, fatras^, frippery; leather or prunello; chaff, drug, froth bubble smoke, cobweb; weed; refuse &c (inutility) 645; scum &c (dirt) 653. joke, jest, snap of the fingers; fudge &c (unmeaning) 517; fiddlestick^, fiddlestick end^; pack of nonsense, mere farce. straw, pin, fig, button, rush; bulrush, feather, halfpenny, farthing, brass farthing, doit^, peppercorn, jot, rap, pinch of snuff, old son; cent, mill, picayune, pistareen^, red cent [U.S.]. minutiae, details, minor details, small fry; dust in the balance, feather in the scale, drop in the ocean, flea-bite, molehill. nine days' wonder, ridiculus mus [Lat.]; flash in the pan &c (impotence) 158; much ado about nothing &c (overestimation) 482. V. be unimportant &c adj.; not matter &c 642; go for nothing, matter nothing, signify nothing, matter little, matter little or nothing; not matter a straw &c n.. make light of &c (underestimate) 483; catch at straws &c (overestimate) 482. Adj. unimportant; of little account, of small account, of no account, of little importance, of no importance &c 642; immaterial; unessential, nonessential; indifferent. subordinate &c (inferior) 34; mediocre &c (average) 29; passable, fair, respectable, tolerable, commonplace; uneventful, mere, common; ordinary &c (habitual) 613; inconsiderable, so-so, insignificant, inappreciable. trifling, trivial; slight, slender, light, flimsy, frothy, idle; puerile &c (foolish) 499; airy, shallow; weak &c 160; powerless &c 158; frivolous, petty, niggling; piddling, peddling; fribble^, inane, ridiculous, farcical; finical, finikin^; fiddle-faddle, fingle-fangle^, namby-pamby, wishy-washy, milk and water. poor, paltry, pitiful; contemptible &c (contempt) 930; sorry, mean, meager, shabby, miserable, wretched, vile, scrubby, scrannel^, weedy, niggardly, scurvy, putid^, beggarly, worthless, twopennyhalfpenny, cheap, trashy, catchpenny, gimcrack, trumpery; one- horse [U.S.]. not worth the pains, not worth while, not worth mentioning, not worth speaking of, not worth a thought, not worth a curse, not worth a straw &c n.; beneath notice, unworthy of notice, beneath regard, unworthy of regard, beneath consideration, unworthy of consideration; de lana caprina [It]; vain &c (useless) 645. Adv. slightly &c adj.; rather, somewhat, pretty well, tolerably. for aught one cares. Int. no matter!, pish!, tush!, tut!, pshaw!^, pugh!, pooh, pooh-pooh!, fudge!, bosh!, humbug!, fiddlestick^, fiddlestick end!^, fiddlededee!, never mind!, n'importe! [Fr.], what signifies it, what boots it, what of it, what of that, what matter, what's the odds, a fig for', stuff!, nonsense!, stuff and nonsense, Phr. magno conatu magnas nugas [Lat.]; le jeu ne vaut pas la chandelle [Fr.]; it matters not, it does not signify; it is of no consequence, it is of no importance; elephantus non capit murem [Lat.]; tempete dans un verre d'eau [Fr.]. 644. Utility -- N. utility; usefulness &c adj.; efficacy, efficiency, adequacy; service, use, stead, avail; help &c (aid) 707; applicability &c adj.; subservience &c (instrumentality) 631; function &c (business) 625; value; worth &c (goodness) 648; money's worth; productiveness &c 168; cui bono &c (intention) 620 [Lat.]; utilization &c (use) 677; step in the right direction. common weal; commonwealth public good, public interest; utilitarianism &c (philanthropy) 910. V. be useful &c adj.; avail, serve; subserve &c (be instrumental to) 631; conduce &c (tend) 176; answer, serve one's turn, answer a purpose, serve a purpose. act a part &c (action) 680; perform a function, discharge a function &c; render a service, render good service, render yeoman's service; bestead^, stand one in good stead be the making of; help &c 707. bear fruit &c (produce) 161; bring grist to the mill; profit, remunerate; benefit &c (do good) 648. find one's account in, find one's advantage in; reap the benefit of &c (be better for) 658. render useful &c (use) 677. Adj. useful; of use &c n.; serviceable, proficuous^, good for; subservient &c (instrumental) 631; conducive &c (tending) 176; subsidiary &c (helping) 707. advantageous &c (beneficial) 648; profitable, gainful, remunerative, worth one's salt; valuable; prolific &c (productive) 168. adequate; efficient, efficacious; effective, effectual; expedient &c 646. applicable, available, ready, handy, at hand, tangible; commodious, adaptable; of all work. Adv. usefully &c adj.; pro bono publico [Lat.]. 645. Inutility -- N. inutility; uselessness &c adj.; inefficacy^, futility; ineptitude, inaptitude; unsubservience^; inadequacy &c (insufficiency) 640; inefficiency, &c (incompetence) 158; unskillfulness &c 699; disservice; unfruitfulness &c (unproductiveness).. 169; labor in vain, labor lost, labor of Sisyphus; lost trouble, lost labor; work of Penelope; sleeveless errand, wild goose chase, mere farce. tautology &c (repetition) 104; supererogation &c (redundancy) 641. vanitas vanitatum [Lat.], vanity, inanity, worthlessness, nugacity^; triviality &c (unimportance) 643. caput mortuum [Lat.], waste paper, dead letter; blunt tool. litter, rubbish, junk, lumber, odds and ends, cast-off clothes; button top; shoddy; rags, orts^, trash, refuse, sweepings, scourings, offscourings^, waste, rubble, debris, detritus; stubble, leavings; broken meat; dregs &c (dirt) 653; weeds, tares; rubbish heap, dust hole; rudera^, deads^. fruges consumere natus [Lat.] [Horace]. &c (drone) 683 V. be useless &c adj.; go a begging &c (redundant) 641; fail &c 732. seek after impossibilities, strive after impossibilities; use vain efforts, labor in vain, roll the stone of Sisyphus, beat the air, lash the waves, battre l'eau avec un baton [Fr.], donner un coup d'epee dans l'eau [Fr.], fish in the air, milk the ram, drop a bucket into an empty well, sow the sand; bay the moon; preach to the winds, speak to the winds; whistle jigs to a milestone; kick against the pricks, se battre contre des moulins [Fr.]; lock the stable door when the steed is stolen, lock the barn door after the horse is stolen &c (too late) 135; hold a farthing candle to the sun; cast pearls before swine &c (waste) 638; carry coals to Newcastle &c (redundancy) 641; wash a blackamoor white &c (impossible) 471. render useless &c adj.; dismantle, dismast, dismount, disqualify, disable; unrig; cripple, lame &c (injure) 659; spike guns, clip the wings; put out of gear. Adj. useless, inutile, inefficacious, futile, unavailing, bootless; inoperative &c 158; inadequate &c (insufficient) 640; inservient^, unsubservient; inept, inefficient &c (impotent) 158; of no avail &c (use) 644; ineffectual &c (failure) 732; incompetent &c (unskillful) 699; stale, flat and unprofitable; superfluous &c (redundant) 641; dispensable; thrown away &c (wasted) 638; abortive &c (immature) 674. worthless, valueless, priceless; unsalable; not worth a straw &c (trifling) 643, dear at any price. vain, empty, inane; gainless^, profitless, fruitless; unserviceable, unprofitable; ill-spent; unproductive &c 169; hors de combat [Fr.]; effete, past work &c (impaired) 659; obsolete &c (old) 124; fit for the dust hole; good for nothing; of no earthly use; not worth having, not worth powder and shot; leading to no end, uncalled for; unnecessary, unneeded. Adv. uselessly &c adj.; to little purpose, to no purpose, to little or no purpose. Int. cui bono? [Lat.]; what's the good!, Phr. actum ne agas [Lat.]; chercher une aiguille dans une botte de foin [Fr.]; tanto buon che val niente [It]. 646. [Specific subservience.] Expedience -- N. expedience, expediency; desirableness, desirability &c adj.; fitness &c (agreement) 23; utility &c 644; propriety; opportunism; advantage. high time &c (occasion) 134. V. be expedient &c adj.; suit &c (agree) 23; befit; suit the time, befit the time, suit the season, befit the season, suit the occasion, befit the occasion. conform &c 82. Adj. expedient; desirable, advisable, acceptable; convenient; worth while, meet; fit, fitting; due, proper, eligible, seemly, becoming; befitting &c v.; opportune &c (in season) 134; in loco; suitable &c (accordant) 23; applicable &c (useful) 644. Adv. in the right place; conveniently &c adj.. Phr. operae pretium est [Lat.]. 647. Inexpedience -- N. inexpedience, inexpediency; undesirableness, undesirability &c adj.; discommodity^, impropriety; unfitness &c (disagreement) 24; inutility &c 645; disadvantage. V. be inexpedient &c adj.; come amiss &c (disagree) 24; embarrass &c (hinder) 706; put to inconvenience; pay too dear for one's whistle. Adj. inexpedient, undesirable; unadvisable, inadvisable; objectionable; inapt, ineligible, inadmissible, inconvenient; incommodious, discommodious^; disadvantageous; inappropriate, unfit &c (inconsonant) 24. ill-contrived, ill-advised; unsatisfactory; unprofitable &c; unsubservient &c (useless) 645; inopportune &c (unseasonable) 135; out of place, in the wrong place; improper, unseemly. clumsy, awkward; cumbrous, cumbersome; lumbering, unwieldy, hulky^; unmanageable &c (impracticable) 704; impedient &c (in the way) 706 [Obs.]. unnecessary &c (redundant) 641. Phr. it will never do. 648. [Capability of producing good. Good qualities.] Goodness -- N. goodness &c adj.; excellence, merit; virtue &c 944; value, worth, price. super-excellence, supereminence; superiority &c 33; perfection &c 650; coup de maitre [Fr.]; masterpiece, chef d'ouvre [Fr.], prime, flower, cream, elite, pick, A 1, nonesuch, nonpareil, creme de la creme, flower of the flock, cock of the roost, salt of the earth; champion; prodigy. tidbit; gem, gem of the first water; bijou, precious stone, jewel, pearl, diamond, ruby, brilliant, treasure; good thing; rara avis [Lat.], one in a thousand. beneficence &c 906; good man &c 948. V. be beneficial &c adj.; produce good, do good &c 618; profit &c (be of use) 644; benefit; confer a benefit &c 618. be the making of, do a world of good, make a man of. produce a good effect; do a good turn, confer an obligation; improve &c 658. do no harm, break no bones. be good &c adj.; excel, transcend &c (be superior) 33; bear away the bell. stand the proof, stand the test; pass muster, pass an examination. challenge comparison, vie, emulate, rival. Adj. harmless, hurtless^; unobnoxious^, innocuous, innocent, inoffensive. beneficial, valuable, of value; serviceable &c (useful) 644; advantageous, edifying, profitable; salutary &c (healthful) 656. favorable; propitious &c (hope-giving) 858; fair. good, good as gold; excellent; better; superior &c 33; above par; nice, fine; genuine &c (true) 494. best, choice, select, picked, elect, recherche, rare, priceless; unparagoned^, unparalleled &c (supreme) 33; superlatively &c 33; good; bully [Slang], crackajack [Slang], giltedged; superfine, superexcellent^; of the first water; first-rate, first-class; high- wrought, exquisite, very best, crack, prime, tiptop, capital, cardinal; standard &c (perfect) 650; inimitable. admirable, estimable; praiseworthy &c (approve) 931; pleasing &c 829; couleur de rose [Fr.], precious, of great price; costly &c (dear) 814; worth its weight in gold, worth a Jew's eye; priceless, invaluable, inestimable, precious as the apple of the eye. tolerable &c (not very good) 651; up to the mark, unexceptionable, unobjectionable; satisfactory, tidy. in good condition, in fair condition; fresh; sound &c (perfect) 650. Adv. beneficially &c adj.; well &c 618. Phr. Jewels five words long [Tennyson]; long may such goodness live! [Rogers]; the luxury of doing good [Goldsmith]. 649. [Capability of producing evil. Bad qualities.] Badness -- N. hurtfulness &c adj.; virulence. evil doer &c 913; bane &c 663; plague spot &c (insalubrity) 657; evil star, ill wind; hoodoo; Jonah; snake in the grass, skeleton in the closet; amari aliquid [Lat.], thorn in the side. malignity; malevolence &c 907; tender mercies [Iron.]. ill-treatment, annoyance, molestation, abuse, oppression, persecution, outrage; misusage &c 679; injury &c (damage) 659; knockout drops [U.S.]. badness &c adj.; peccancy^, abomination; painfulness &c 830; pestilence &c (disease) 655; guilt &c 947; depravity &c 945. V. be hurtful &c adj.; cause evil, produce evil, inflict evil, work evil, do evil &c 619; damnify^, endamage^, hurt, harm; injure &c (damage) 659; pain &c 830. wrong, aggrieve, oppress, persecute; trample upon, tread upon, bear hard upon, put upon; overburden; weigh down, weigh heavy on; victimize; run down; molest &c 830. maltreat, abuse; ill-use, ill-treat; buffet, bruise, scratch, maul; smite &c (scourge) 972; do violence, do harm, do a mischief; stab, pierce, outrage. do mischief, make mischief; bring into trouble. destroy &c 162. Adj. hurtful, harmful, scathful^, baneful, baleful; injurious, deleterious, detrimental, noxious, pernicious, mischievous, full of mischief, mischief-making, malefic, malignant, nocuous, noisome; prejudicial; disserviceable^, disadvantageous; wide-wasting. unlucky, sinister; obnoxious; untoward, disastrous. oppressive, burdensome, onerous; malign &c (malevolent) 907. corrupting &c (corrupt) &c 659; virulent, venomous, envenomed, corrosive; poisonous &c (morbific) 657 [Obs.]; deadly &c (killing) 361; destructive &c (destroying) 162; inauspicious &c 859. bad, ill, arrant, as bad as bad can be, dreadful; horrid, horrible; dire; rank, peccant, foul, fulsome; rotten, rotten at the core. vile, base, villainous; mean &c (paltry) 643; injured &c; deteriorated &c 659; unsatisfactory, exceptionable indifferent; below par &c (imperfect) 651; illcontrived, ill-conditioned; wretched, sad, grievous, deplorable, lamentable; pitiful, pitiable, woeful &c (painful) 830. evil, wrong; depraved &c 945; shocking; reprehensible &c (disapprove) 932. hateful, hateful as a toad; abominable, detestable, execrable, cursed, accursed, confounded; damned, damnable; infernal; diabolic &c (malevolent) 907. unadvisable &c (inexpedient) 647; unprofitable &c (useless) 645; incompetent &c (unskillful) 699; irremediable &c (hopeless) 859. Adv. badly &c adj.; wrong, ill; to one's cost; where the shoe pinches. Phr. bad is the best: the worst come to the worst; herba mala presto cresco [Lat.]; wrongs unredressed or insults unavenged [Wordsworth]. 650. Perfection -- N. perfection; perfectness &c adj.; indefectibility^; impeccancy^, impeccability. pink, beau ideal, phenix, paragon; pink of perfection, acme of perfection; ne plus ultra [Lat.]; summit &c 210. cygne noir [Fr.]; philosopher's stone; chrysolite, Koh-i-noor. model, standard, pattern, mirror, admirable Crichton; trump, very prince of. masterpiece, superexcellence &c (goodness) 648 [Obs.]; transcendence &c (superiority) 33. V. be perfect &c adj.; transcend &c (be supreme) 33. bring to perfection, perfect, ripen, mature; complete &c 729; put in trim &c (prepare) 673; maturate. Adj. perfect, faultless; indefective^, indeficient^, indefectible; immaculate, spotless, impeccable; free from imperfection &c 651; unblemished, uninjured &c 659; sound, sound as a roach; in perfect condition; scathless^, intact, harmless; seaworthy &c (safe) 644; right as a trivet; in seipso totus teres atque rotundus [Lat.] [Horace]; consummate &c (complete) 52; finished &c 729. best &c (good) 648; model, standard; inimitable, unparagoned^, unparalleled &c (supreme) 33; superhuman, divine; beyond all praise &c (approbation) 931; sans peur et sans reproche [Fr.]. Adv. to perfection; perfectly &c adj.; ad unguem [Lat.]; clean, clean as a whistle. Phr. let us go on unto perfection [Hebrews vi, 1]; the perfection of art is to conceal art [Quintilian]. 651. Imperfection -- N. imperfection; imperfectness &c adj.; deficiency; inadequacy &c (insufficiency) 640; peccancy &c (badness) 649 [Obs.]; immaturity &c 674. fault, defect, weak point; screw loose; flaw &c (break) 70; gap &c 198; twist &c 243; taint, attainder; bar sinister, hole in one's coat; blemish &c 848; weakness &c 160; half blood; shortcoming &c 304; drawback; seamy side. mediocrity; no great shakes, no great catch; not much to boast of; one-horse shay. V. be imperfect &c adj.; have a defect &c n.; lie under a disadvantage; spring a leak. not pass muster, barely pass muster; fall short &c 304. Adj. imperfect; not perfect &c 650; deficient, defective; faulty, unsound, tainted; out of order, out of tune; cracked, leaky; sprung; warped &c (distort) 243; lame; injured &c (deteriorated) 659; peccant &c (bad) 649; frail &c (weak) 160; inadequate &c (insufficient) 640; crude &c (unprepared) 674; incomplete &c 53; found wanting; below par; short-handed; below its full strength, under its full strength, below its full complement. indifferent, middling, ordinary, mediocre; average &c 29; so-so; coucicouci, milk and water; tolerable, fair, passable; pretty well, pretty good; rather good, moderately good; good; good enough, well enough, adequate; decent; not bad, not amiss; inobjectionable^, unobjectionable, admissible, bearable, only better than nothing. secondary, inferior; second-rate, second-best; one-horse [U.S.]. Adv. almost &c; to a limited extent, rather &c 32; pretty, moderately, passing; only, considering, all things considered, enough. Phr. surgit amari aliquid [Lat.]. 652. Cleanness -- N. cleanness, cleanliness &c adj.; purity; cleaning &c v.; purification, defecation &c v.; purgation, lustration^; detersion^, abstersion^; epuration^, mundation^; ablution, lavation^, colature^; disinfection &c v.; drainage, sewerage. lavatory, laundry, washhouse^; washerwoman, laundress, dhobi^, laundryman, washerman^; scavenger, dustman^, sweep; white wings brush [U.S.]; broom, besom^, mop, rake, shovel, sieve, riddle, screen, filter; blotter. napkin, cloth, maukin^, malkin^, handkerchief, towel, sudary^; doyley^, doily, duster, sponge, mop, swab. cover, drugget^. wash, lotion, detergent, cathartic, purgative; purifier &c v.; disinfectant; aperient^; benzene, benzine benzol, benolin^; bleaching powder, chloride of lime, dentifrice, deobstruent^, laxative. V. be clean, render clean &c adj.; clean, cleanse; mundify^, rinse, wring, flush, full, wipe, mop, sponge, scour, swab, scrub, brush up. wash, lave, launder, buck; absterge^, deterge^; decrassify^; clear, purify; depurate^, despumate^, defecate; purge, expurgate, elutriate [Chem], lixiviate^, edulcorate^, clarify, refine, rack; filter, filtrate; drain, strain. disinfect, fumigate, ventilate, deodorize; whitewash; castrate, emasculate. sift, winnow, pick, weed, comb, rake, brush, sweep. rout out, clear out, sweep out &c; make a clean sweep of. Adj. clean, cleanly; pure; immaculate; spotless, stainless, taintless; trig; without a stain, unstained, unspotted, unsoiled, unsullied, untainted, uninfected; sweet, sweet as a nut. neat, spruce, tidy, trim, gimp, clean as a new penny, like a cat in pattens; cleaned &c v.; kempt^. abstergent^, cathartic, cleansing, purifying. Adv. neatly &c adj.; clean as a whistle. 653. Uncleanness -- N. uncleanness &c adj.; impurity; immundity^, immundicity^; impurity &c 961 [of mind]. defilement, contamination &c v.; defoedation^; soilure^, soiliness^; abomination; leaven; taint, tainture^; fetor &c 401 [Obs.]. decay; putrescence, putrefaction; corruption; mold, must, mildew, dry rot, mucor, rubigo^. slovenry^; slovenliness &c adj.; squalor. dowdy, drab, slut, malkin^, slattern, sloven, slammerkin^, slammock^, slummock^, scrub, draggle-tail, mudlark^, dust-man, sweep; beast. dirt, filth, soil, slop; dust, cobweb, flue; smoke, soot, smudge, smut, grit, grime, raff^; sossle^, sozzle^. sordes^, dregs, grounds, lees; argol^; sediment, settlement heeltap^; dross, drossiness^; mother^, precipitate, scoriae, ashes, cinders. recrement^, slag; scum, froth. hogwash; ditchwater^, dishwater, bilgewater^; rinsings, cheeseparings; sweepings &c (useless refuse) 645; offscourings^, outscourings^; off scum; caput mortuum [Lat.], residuum, sprue, fecula [Lat.], clinker, draff^; scurf, scurfiness^; exuviae [Lat.], morphea; fur, furfur^; dandruff, tartar. riffraff; vermin, louse, flea, bug, chinch^. mud, mire, quagmire, alluvium, silt, sludge, slime, slush, slosh, sposh [U.S.]. spawn, offal, gurry [U.S.]; lientery^; garbage, carrion; excreta &c 299; slough, peccant humor, pus, matter, suppuration, lienteria^; faeces, feces, excrement, ordure, dung, crap [Vulg.], shit [Vulg.]; sewage, sewerage; muck; coprolite; guano, manure, compost. dunghill, colluvies^, mixen^, midden, bog, laystall^, sink, privy, jakes; toilet, john, head; cess^, cesspool; sump, sough, cloaca, latrines, drain, sewer, common sewer; Cloacina; dust hole. sty, pigsty, lair, den, Augean stable^, sink of corruption; slum, rookery. V. be unclean, become unclean &c adj.; rot, putrefy, ferment, fester, rankle, reek; stink &c 401; mold, molder; go bad &c adj.. render unclean &c adj.; dirt, dirty; daub, blot, blur, smudge, smutch^, soil, smoke, tarnish, slaver, spot, smear; smirch; begrease^; dabble, drabble^, draggle, daggle^; spatter, slubber; besmear &c, bemire, beslime^, begrime, befoul; splash, stain, distain^, maculate, sully, pollute, defile, debase, contaminate, taint, leaven; corrupt &c (injure) 659; cover with dust &c n.; drabble in the mud^; roil. wallow in the mire; slobber, slabber^. Adj. dirty, filthy, grimy; unclean, impure; soiled &c v.; not to be handled with kid gloves; dusty, snuffy^, smutty, sooty, smoky; thick, turbid, dreggy; slimy; mussy [U.S.]. slovenly, untidy, messy, uncleanly. [of people] unkempt, sluttish, dowdy, draggle-tailed; uncombed. unscoured^, unswept^, unwiped^, unwashed, unstrained, unpurified^; squalid; lutose^, slammocky^, slummocky^, sozzly^. nasty, coarse, foul, offensive, abominable, beastly, reeky, reechy^; fetid &c 401. [of rotting living matter] decayed, moldy, musty, mildewed, rusty, moth-eaten, mucid^, rancid, weak, bad, gone bad, etercoral^, lentiginous^, touched, fusty, effete, reasty^, rotten, corrupt, tainted, high, flyblown, maggoty; putrid, putrefactive, putrescent, putrefied; saprogenic, saprogenous^; purulent, carious, peccant; fecal, feculent; stercoraceous^, excrementitious^; scurfy, scurvy, impetiginous^; gory, bloody; rotting &c v.; rotten as a pear, rotten as cheese. crapulous &c (intemperate) 954 [Obs.]; gross &c (impure in mind) 961; fimetarious^, fimicolous^. Phr. they that touch pitch will be defiled [Much Ado About Nothing]. 654. Health -- N. health, sanity; soundness &c adj.; vigor; good health, perfect health, excellent health, rude health, robust health; bloom. mens sana in corpore sano [Lat.]; Hygeia^; incorruption, incorruptibility; good state of health, clean bill of health; eupepsia^; euphoria, euphory^; St. Anthony's fire^. V. be in health &c adj.. bloom, flourish. keep body and soul together, keep on one's legs; enjoy good health, enjoy a good state of health; have a clean bill of health. return to health; recover &c 660; get better &c (improve) 658; take a new lease of life, fresh lease of life; recruit; restore to health; cure &c (restore) 660; tinker. Adj. healthy, healthful; in health &c n.; well, sound, hearty, hale, fresh, green, whole; florid, flush, hardy, stanch, staunch, brave, robust, vigorous, weatherproof. unscathed, uninjured, unmaimed^, unmarred, untainted; sound of wind and limb, safe and sound. on one's legs; sound as a roach, sound as a bell; fresh as a daisy, fresh as a rose, fresh as April^; hearty as a buck; in fine feather, in high feather; in good case, in full bloom; pretty bobbish^, tolerably well, as well as can be expected. sanitary &c (health-giving) 656; sanatory &c (remedial) 662 [Obs.]. Phr. health that snuffs the morning air [Grainger]; non est vivere sed valere vita [Lat.] [Martial]. 655. Disease -- N. disease; illness, sickness &c adj.; ailing &c; all the ills that flesh is heir to [Hamlet]; morbidity, morbosity^; infirmity, ailment, indisposition; complaint, disorder, malady; distemper, distemperature^. visitation, attack, seizure, stroke, fit. delicacy, loss of health, invalidation, cachexy^; cachexia [Med.], atrophy, marasmus^; indigestion, dyspepsia; decay &c (deterioration) 659; decline, consumption, palsy, paralysis, prostration. taint, pollution, infection, sepsis, septicity^, infestation; epidemic, pandemic, endemic, epizootic; murrain, plague, pestilence, pox. sore, ulcer, abscess, fester, boil; pimple, wen &c (swelling) 250; carbuncle, gathering, imposthume^, peccant humor, issue; rot, canker, cold sore, fever sore; cancer, carcinoma, leukemia, neoplastic disease, malignancy, tumor; caries, mortification, corruption, gangrene, sphacelus^, sphacelation^, leprosy; eruption, rash, breaking out. fever, temperature, calenture^; inflammation. ague, angina pectoris [Lat.], appendicitis; Asiatic cholera^, spasmodic cholera; biliary calculus, kidney stone, black death, bubonic plague, pneumonic plague; blennorrhagia^, blennorrhoea^; blood poisoning, bloodstroke^, bloody flux, brash; breakbone fever^, dengue fever, malarial fever, Q-fever; heart attack, cardiac arrest, cardiomyopathy [Med.]; hardening of the arteries, arteriosclerosis, atherosclerosis; bronchocele [Med.], canker rash, cardialgia [Med.], carditis [Med.], endocarditis [Med.]; cholera, asphyxia; chlorosis, chorea, cynanche^, dartre [Fr.]; enanthem^, enanthema^; erysipelas; exanthem^, exanthema; gallstone, goiter, gonorrhea, green sickness; grip, grippe, influenza, flu; hay fever, heartburn, heaves, rupture, hernia, hemorrhoids, piles, herpes, itch, king's evil, lockjaw; measles, mumps^, polio; necrosis, pertussis, phthisis^, pneumonia, psora^, pyaemia^, pyrosis [Med.], quinsy, rachitis^, ringworm, rubeola, St. Vitus's dance, scabies, scarlatina, scarlet fever, scrofula, seasickness, struma^, syntexis^, tetanus, tetter^, tonsillitis, tonsilitis^, tracheocele [Med.], trachoma, trismus [Med.], varicella [Med.], varicosis [Med.], variola [Med.], water qualm, whooping cough; yellow fever, yellow jack. fatal disease &c (hopeless) 859; dangerous illness, galloping consumption, churchyard cough; general breaking up, break up of the system. [Disease of mind] idiocy &c 499; insanity &c 503. martyr to disease; cripple; the halt the lame and the blind; valetudinary^, valetudinarian; invalid, patient, case; sickroom, sick- chamber. [Science of disease] pathology, etiology, nosology^. [Veterinary] anthrax, bighead; blackleg, blackquarter^; cattle plague, glanders^, mange, scrapie, milk sickness; heartworm, feline leukemia, roundworms; quarter-evil, quarter-ill; rinderpest. [disease-causing agents] virus, bacterium, bacteria. [types of viruses] DNA virus; RNA virus. [RNA viruses] rhinovirus; rhabdovirus; picornavirus. [DNA viruses] herpesvirus; cytomegalovirus, CMV; human immunodefficiency virus, HIV. V. be ill &c adj.; ail, suffer, labor under, be affected with, complain of, have; droop, flag, languish, halt; sicken, peak, pine; gasp. keep one's bed; feign sickness &c (falsehood) 544. lay by, lay up; take a disease, catch a disease &c n., catch an infection; break out. Adj. diseased; ailing &c v.; ill, ill of; taken ill, seized with; indisposed, unwell, sick, squeamish, poorly, seedy; affected with illness, afflicted with illness; laid up, confined, bedridden, invalided, in hospital, on the sick list; out of health, out of sorts; under the weather [U.S.]; valetudinary^. unsound, unhealthy; sickly, morbid, morbose^, healthless^, infirm, chlorotic [Med.], unbraced^. drooping, flagging, lame, crippled, halting. morbid, tainted, vitiated, peccant, contaminated, poisoned, tabid^, mangy, leprous, cankered; rotten, rotten to the core, rotten at the core; withered, palsied, paralytic; dyspeptic; luetic^, pneumonic, pulmonic [Med.], phthisic^, rachitic; syntectic^, syntectical^; tabetic^, varicose. touched in the wind, broken-winded, spavined, gasping; hors de combat &c (useless) 645 [Fr.]. weakly, weakened &c (weak) 160; decrepit; decayed &c (deteriorated) 659; incurable &c (hopeless) 859; in declining health; cranky; in a bad way, in danger, prostrate; moribund &c (death) 360. morbific &c 657 [Obs.]; epidemic, endemic; zymotic^. 656. Salubrity -- N. salubrity; healthiness &c adj.. fine air, fine climate; eudiometer^. [Preservation of health] hygiene; valetudinarian, valetudinarianism; sanitarian; sanitarium, sanitOrium. V. be salubrious &c adj.; agree with; assimilate &c 23. Adj. salubrious, salutary, salutiferous^; wholesome; healthy, healthful; sanitary, prophYlactic, benign, bracing, tonic, invigorating, good for, nutritious; hygeian^, hygienic. innoxious^, innocuous, innocent; harmless, uninjurious, uninfectious. sanative &c (remedial) 662; restorative &c (reinstate) 660; useful &c 644. 657. Insalubrity -- N. insalubrity; unhealthiness &c adj.; nonnaturals^; plague spot; malaria &c (poison) 663; death in the pot, contagion; toxicity. Adj. insalubrious; unhealthy, unwholesome; noxious, noisome; morbific^, morbiferous^; mephitic, septic, azotic^, deleterious; pestilent, pestiferous, pestilential; virulent, venomous, envenomed; poisonous, toxic, toxiferous^, teratogenic; narcotic. contagious, infectious, catching, taking, epidemic, zymotic^; epizootic. innutritious^, indigestible, ungenial; uncongenial &c (disagreeing) 24. deadly &c (killing) 361. 658. Improvement -- N. improvement; amelioration, melioration; betterment; mend, amendment, emendation; mending &c v.; advancement; advance &c (progress) 282; ascent &c 305; promotion, preferment; elevation &c 307; increase &c 35; cultivation, civilization; culture, march of intellect; menticulture^; race-culture, eugenics. reform, reformation; revision, radical reform; second thoughts, correction, limoe labor [Lat.], refinement, elaboration; purification &c 652; oxidation; repair &c (restoration) 660; recovery &c 660. revise, new edition. reformer, radical. V. improve; be better, become better, get better; mend, amend. advance &c (progress) 282; ascend &c 305; increase &c 35; fructify, ripen, mature; pick up, come about, rally, take a favorable turn; turn over a new leaf, turn the corner; raise one's head, sow one's wild oats; recover &c 660. be better &c adj., be improved by; turn to right account, turn to good account, turn to best account; profit by, reap the benefit of; make good use of, make capital out of; place to good account. render better, improve, mend, amend, better; ameliorate, meliorate; correct; decrassify^. improve upon, refine upon; rectify; enrich, mellow, elaborate, fatten. promote, cultivate, advance, forward, enhance; bring forward, bring on; foster &c 707; invigorate &c (strengthen) 159. touch up, rub up, brush up, furbish up, bolster up, vamp up, brighten up, warm up; polish, cook, make the most of, set off to advantage; prune; repair &c (restore) 660; put in order &c (arrange) 60. review, revise; make corrections, make improvements &c n.; doctor &c (remedy) 662; purify, &c 652. relieve, refresh, infuse new blood into, recruit. reform, remodel, reorganize; new model. view in a new light, think better of, appeal from Philip drunk to Philip sober. palliate, mitigate; lessen an evil &c 36. Adj. improving &c v.; progressive, improved &c v.; better, better off, better for; all the better for; better advised. reformatory, emendatory^; reparatory &c (restorative) 660 [Obs.]; remedial &c 662. corrigible, improvable; accultural^. Adv. on consideration, on reconsideration, on second thoughts, on better advice; ad melius inquirendum [Lat.]. Phr. urbent latericiam invenit marmoream reliquit [Lat.]. 659. Deterioration -- N. deterioration, debasement; wane, ebb; recession &c 287; retrogradation &c 283 [Obs.]; decrease &c 36. degeneracy, degeneration, degenerateness; degradation; depravation, depravement; devolution; depravity &c 945; demoralization, retrogression; masochism. impairment, inquination^, injury, damage, loss, detriment, delaceration^, outrage, havoc, inroad, ravage, scath^; perversion, prostitution, vitiation, discoloration, oxidation, pollution, defoedation^, poisoning, venenation^, leaven, contamination, canker, corruption, adulteration, alloy. decline, declension, declination; decadence, decadency^; falling off &c v.; caducity^, decrepitude. decay, dilapidation, ravages of time, wear and tear; corrosion, erosion; moldiness, rottenness; moth and rust, dry rot, blight, marasmus^, atrophy, collapse; disorganization; delabrement &c (destruction). 162; aphid, Aphis, plant louse, puceron^; vinefretter^, vinegrub^. wreck, mere wreck, honeycomb, magni nominis umbra [Lat.]; jade, plug, rackabones [U.S.], skate [U.S.]; tackey^, tacky [U.S.]. V. be worse, be deteriorated, become worse, become deteriorated &c Adj.; have seen better days, deteriorate, degenerate, fall off; wane &c (decrease) 36; ebb; retrograde &c 283, decline, droop; go down &c (sink) 306; go downhill, go from bad to worse, go farther and fare worse; jump out of the frying pan into the fire. run to seed, go to seed, run to waste swale^, sweal^; lapse, be the worse for; sphacelate: break^, break down; spring a leak, crack, start; shrivel &c (contract) 195; fade, go off, wither, molder, rot, rankle, decay, go bad; go to decay, fall into decay; fall into the sear and yellow leaf, rust, crumble, shake; totter, totter to its fall; perish &c 162; die &c 360. [Render less good] deteriorate; weaken &c 160; put back, set back; taint, infect, contaminate, poison, empoison^, envenom, canker, corrupt, exulcerate^, pollute, vitiate, inquinate^; debase, embase^; denaturalize, denature, leaven; deflower, debauch, defile, deprave, degrade; ulcerate; stain &c (dirt) 653; discolor; alloy, adulterate, sophisticate, tamper with, prejudice. pervert, prostitute, demoralize, brutalize; render vicious &c 945. embitter, acerbate, exacerbate, aggravate. injure, impair, labefy^, damage, harm, hurt, shend^, scath^, scathe, spoil, mar, despoil, dilapidate, waste; overrun; ravage; pillage &c 791. wound, stab, pierce, maim, lame, surbate^, cripple, hough^, hamstring, hit between wind and water, scotch, mangle, mutilate, disfigure, blemish, deface, warp. blight, rot; corrode, erode; wear away, wear out; gnaw, gnaw at the root of; sap, mine, undermine, shake, sap the foundations of, break up; disorganize, dismantle, dismast; destroy &c 162. damnify &c (aggrieve) 649 [Obs.]; do one's worst; knock down; deal a blow to; play havoc with, play sad havoc with, play the mischief with, play the deuce with, play the very devil with, play havoc among, play sad havoc among, play the mischief among, play the deuce among, play the very devil among; decimate. Adj. unimproved &c (improve) &c 658; deteriorated &c v.; altered, altered for the worse; injured &c v.; sprung; withering, spoiling &c v.; on the wane, on the decline; tabid^; degenerate; marescent^; worse; the worse for, all the worse for; out of repair, out of tune; imperfect &c 651; the worse for wear; battered; weathered, weather-beaten; stale, passe, shaken, dilapidated, frayed, faded, wilted, shabby, secondhand, threadbare; worn, worn to a thread, worn to a shadow, worn to the stump, worn to rags; reduced, reduced to a skeleton; far gone; tacky [U.S.]. decayed &c v.; moth-eaten, worm-eaten; mildewed, rusty, moldy, spotted, seedy, time-worn, moss-grown; discolored; effete, wasted, crumbling, moldering, rotten, cankered, blighted, tainted; depraved &c (vicious) 945; decrepid^, decrepit; broke, busted, broken, out of commission, hors de combat [Fr.], out of action, broken down; done, done for, done up; worn out, used up, finished; beyond saving, fit for the dust hole, fit for the wastepaper basket, past work &c (useless) 645. at a low ebb, in a bad way, on one's last legs; undermined, deciduous; nodding to its fall &c (destruction) 162; tottering &c (dangerous) 665; past cure &c (hopeless) 859; fatigued &c 688; retrograde &c (retrogressive) 283; deleterious &c 649. Phr. out of the frying pan into the fire; agrescit medendo [Lat.]; what a falling off was there! [Hamlet]. 660. Restoration -- N. restoration, restoral; reinstatement, replacement, rehabilitation, reestablishment, reconstitution, reconstruction; reproduction &c 163; renovation, renewal; revival, revivessence^, reviviscence^; refreshment &c 689; resuscitation, reanimation, revivification, reviction^; Phenix; reorganization. renaissance, second youth, rejuvenescence^, new birth; regeneration, regeneracy^, regenerateness^; palingenesis^, reconversion. redress, retrieval, reclamation, recovery; convalescence; resumption, resumption; sanativeness^. recurrence &c (repetition) 104; rechauffe [Fr.], rifacimento [It]. cure, recure^, sanation^; healing &c v.; redintegration^; rectification; instauration^. repair, reparation, remanufacture; recruiting &c v.; cicatrization; disinfection; tinkering. reaction; redemption &c (deliverance) 672; restitution &c 790; relief &c 834. tinker, cobbler; vis medicatrix &c (remedy) 662 [Obs.]. curableness. V. return to the original state; recover, rally, revive; come come to, come round, come to oneself; pull through, weather the storm, be oneself again; get well, get round, get the better of, get over, get about; rise from one's ashes, rise from the grave; survive &c (outlive) 110; resume, reappear; come to, come to life again; live again, rise again. heal, skin over, cicatrize; right itself. restore, put back, place in statu quo [Lat.]; reinstate, replace, reseat, rehabilitate, reestablish, reestate^, reinstall. reconstruct, rebuild, reorganize, reconstitute; reconvert; renew, renovate; regenerate; rejuvenate. redeem, reclaim, recover, retrieve; rescue &c (deliver) 672. redress, recure^; cure, heal, remedy, doctor, physic, medicate; break of; bring round, set on one's legs. resuscitate, revive, reanimate, revivify, recall to life; reproduce &c 163; warm up; reinvigorate, refresh &c 689. make whole, redintegrate^; recoup &c 790; make good, make all square; rectify, correct; put right, put to rights, set right, set to rights, set straight; set up; put in order &c (arrange) 60; refit, recruit; fill up, fill up the ranks; reinforce. repair; put in repair, remanufacture, put in thorough repair, put in complete repair; retouch, refashion, botch^, vamp, tinker, cobble; do up, patch up, touch up, plaster up, vamp up; darn, finedraw^, heelpiece^; stop a gap, stanch, staunch, caulk, calk, careen, splice, bind up wounds. Adj. restored &c v.; redivivus [Lat.], convalescent; in a fair way; none the worse; rejuvenated. restoring &c v.; restorative, recuperative; sanative, reparative, sanatory^, reparatory^; curative, remedial. restorable, recoverable, sanable^, remediable, retrievable, curable. Adv. in statu quo [Lat.]; as you were. phr.. revenons a nos moutons [Fr.]; medecin [Fr.], gueris-toi toi- meme [Fr.]; vestigia nulla retrorsum [Lat.] [Horace]. 661. Relapse -- N. relapse, lapse; falling back &c v.; retrogradation &c (retrogression) 283 [Obs.]; deterioration &c 659. [Return to, or recurrence of a bad state] backsliding, recidivation^; recidivism, recidivity^; recrudescence. V. relapse, lapse; fall back, slide back, sink back; return; retrograde &c 283; recidivate; fall off again &c 659. 662. Remedy -- N. remedy, help, cure, redress; medicine, medicament; diagnosis, medical examination; medical treatment; surgery; preventive medicine. [medical devices] clinical thermometer, stethoscope, X-ray machine. anthelmintic [Med.]; antidote, antifebrile [Med.], antipoison^, counterpoison^, antitoxin, antispasmodic; bracer, faith cure, placebo; helminthagogue^, lithagogue^, pick-meup, stimulant, tonic; vermifuge, prophylactic, corrective, restorative; sedative &c 174; palliative; febrifuge; alterant^, alterative; specific; antiseptic, emetic, analgesic, pain-killer, antitussive [Med.], antiinflammatory [Med.], antibiotic, antiviral [Med.], antifungal [Med.], carminative; Nepenthe, Mithridate. cure, treatment, regimen; radical cure, perfect cure, certain cure; sovereign remedy. examination, diagnosis, diagnostics; analysis, urinalysis, biopsy, radiology. medicine, physic, Galenicals^, simples, drug, pharmaceutical, prescription, potion, draught, dose, pill, bolus, injection, infusion, drip, suppository, electuary^; linctus^, lincture^; medicament; pharmacon^. nostrum, receipt, recipe, prescription; catholicon^, panacea, elixir, elixir vitae, philosopher's stone; balm, balsam, cordial, theriac^, ptisan^. agueweed^, arnica, benzoin, bitartrate of potash, boneset^, calomel, catnip, cinchona, cream of tartar, Epsom salts [Chem]; feverroot^, feverwort; friar's balsam, Indian sage; ipecac, ipecacuanha; jonquil, mercurous chloride, Peruvian bark; quinine, quinquina^; sassafras, yarrow. salve, ointment, cerate, oil, lenitive, lotion, cosmetic; plaster; epithem^, embrocation^, liniment, cataplasm^, sinapism^, arquebusade^, traumatic, vulnerary, pepastic^, poultice, collyrium^, depilatory; emplastrum^; eyewater^, vesicant, vesicatory [Med.]. compress, pledget^; bandage &c (support) 215. treatment, medical treatment, regimen; dietary, dietetics; vis medicatrix^, vis medicatrix naturae [Lat.]; medecine expectante [Fr.]; bloodletting, bleeding, venesection [Med.], phlebotomy, cupping, sanguisae, leeches; operation, surgical operation; transfusion, infusion, intravenous infusion, catheter, feeding tube; prevention, preventative medicine, immunization, inoculation, vaccination, vaccine, shot, booster, gamma globulin. pharmacy, pharmacology, pharmaceutics; pharmacopoeia, formulary; acology^, Materia Medica [Lat.], therapeutics, posology^; homeopathy, allopathy^, heteropathy [Med.], osteopathy, hydropathy [Med.]; cold water cure; dietetics; surgery, chirurgery [Med.], chirurgy^; healing art, leechcraft^; orthopedics, orthopedy^, orthopraxy^; pediatrics; dentistry, midwifery, obstetrics, gynecology; tocology^; sarcology^. hospital, infirmary; pesthouse^, lazarhouse^; lazaretto; lock hospital; maison de sante [Fr.]; ambulance. dispensary; dispensatory^, drug store, pharmacy, apothecary, druggist, chemist. Hotel des Invalides; sanatorium, spa, pump room, well; hospice; Red Cross. doctor, physician, surgeon; medical practitioner, general practitioner, specialist; medical attendant, apothecary, druggist; leech; osteopath, osteopathist^; optometrist, ophthalmologist; internist, oncologist, gastroenterologist; epidemiologist [Med.], public health specialist; dermatologist; podiatrist; witch doctor, shaman, faith healer, quack, exorcist; Aesculapius^, Hippocrates, Galen; accoucheur [Fr.], accoucheuse [Fr.], midwife, oculist, aurist^; operator; nurse, registered nurse, practical nurse, monthly nurse, sister; nurse's aide, candystriper; dresser; bonesetter; pharmaceutist^, pharmacist, druggist, chemist, pharmacopolist^. V. apply a remedy &c n.; doctor, dose, physic, nurse, minister to, attend, dress the wounds, plaster; drain; prevent &c 706; relieve &c 834; palliate &c 658; restore &c 660; drench with physic; bleed, cup, let blood; manicure. operate, excise, cut out; incise. Adj. remedial; restorative &c 660; corrective, palliative, healing; sanatory^, sanative; prophylactic, preventative, immunizing; salutiferous &c (salutary) 656 [Obs.]; medical, medicinal; therapeutic, chirurgical [Med.], epulotic^, paregoric, tonic, corroborant, analeptic^, balsamic, anodyne, hypnotic, neurotic, narcotic, sedative, lenitive, demulcent^, emollient; depuratory^; detersive^, detergent; abstersive^, disinfectant, febrifugal^, alterative; traumatic, vulnerary. allopathic^, heteropathic^, homeopathic, hydropathic [Med.]; anthelmintic [Med.]; antifebrile [Med.], antiluetic^; aperient^, chalybeate^, deobstruent^, depurative^, laxative, roborant^. dietetic, alimentary; nutritious, nutritive; peptic; alexipharmic^, alexiteric^; remediable, curable. Phr.. aux grands maux les grands remedes [Fr.]; Dios que da la llaga da la medicina [Sp.]; para todo hay remedio sino para la muerte [Sp.]; temporis ars medicina fere est [Lat.] [Ovid]; the remedy is worse than the disease [Dryden]; throw physic to the dogs, I'll none of it [Macbeth]. 663. Bane -- N. bane, curse; evil &c 619; hurtfulness &c (badness) 649 [Obs.]; painfulness &c (cause of pain) 830; scourge &c (punishment) 975; damnosa hereditas [Lat.]; white elephant. sting, fang, thorn, tang, bramble, brier, nettle. poison, toxin; teratogen; leaven, virus venom; arsenic; antimony, tartar emetic; strychnine, nicotine; miasma, miasm^, mephitis^, malaria, azote^, sewer gas; pest. [poisonous substances, examples] Albany hemp^, arsenious oxide, arsenious acid; bichloride of mercury; carbonic acid, carbonic gas; choke damp, corrosive sublimate, fire damp; hydrocyanic acid, cyanide, Prussic acid, hydrogen cyanide; marsh gas, nux vomica [Lat.], ratsbane^. [poisonous plants] hemlock, hellebore, nightshade, belladonna, henbane, aconite; banewort^, bhang, ganja^, hashish; Upas tree. [list of poisonous substances] Toxline (online). rust, worm, helminth [Med.], moth, moth and rust, fungus, mildew; dry rot; canker, cankerworm; cancer; torpedo; viper &c (evil doer) 913; demon &c 980. [Science of poisons] toxicology. Adj. baneful &c (bad) 649; poisonous &c (unwholesome) 657. phr.. bibere venenum in auro [Lat.]. 3. Contingent Subservience 664. Safety -- N. safety, security, surety, impregnability; invulnerability, invulnerableness &c adj.; danger past, danger over; storm blown over; coast clear; escape &c 671; means of escape; blow valve, safety valve, release valve, sniffing valve; safeguard, palladium. guardianship, wardship, wardenship; tutelage, custody, safekeeping; preservation &c 670; protection, auspices. safe-conduct, escort, convoy; guard, shield &c (defense) 717; guardian angel; tutelary god, tutelary deity, tutelary saint; genius loci. protector, guardian; warden, warder; preserver, custodian, duenna [Sp.], chaperon, third person. watchdog, bandog^; Cerberus; watchman, patrolman, policeman; cop [Slang], dick [Slang], fuzz [Slang], smokey [Slang], peeler [Slang], zarp [Slang]; sentinel, sentry, scout &c (warning) 668; garrison; guardship^. [Means of safety] refuge &c, anchor &c 666; precaution &c (preparation) 673; quarantine, cordon sanitaire [Fr.]. [Sense of security]. confidence &c 858 V. be safe &c adj.; keep one's head above water, tide over, save one's bacon; ride out the storm, weather the storm; light upon one's feet, land on one's feet; bear a charmed life; escape &c 671. make safe, render safe &c Adj.; protect; take care of &c (care) 459; preserve &c 670; cover, screen, shelter, shroud, flank, ward; guard &c (defend) 717; secure &c (restrain) 751; entrench, intrench^, fence round &c (circumscribe) 229; house, nestle, ensconce; take charge of. escort, convoy; garrison; watch, mount guard, patrol. make assurance doubly sure &c (caution) 864; take up a loose thread; take precautions &c (prepare for) 673; double reef topsails. seek safety; take shelter, find shelter &c 666. Adj. safe, secure, sure; in safety, in security; on the safe side; under the shield of, under the shade of, under the wing of, under the shadow of one's wing; under cover, under lock and key; out of danger, out of the woods, out of the meshes, out of harm's way; unharmed, unscathed; on sure ground, at anchor, high and dry, above water; unthreatened^, unmolested; protected &c v.; cavendo tutus [Lat.]; panoplied &c (defended) 717 [Obs.]. snug, seaworthy; weatherproof, waterproof, fireproof. defensible, tenable, proof against, invulnerable; unassailable, unattackable, impenetrable; impregnable, imperdible^; inexpugnable; Achillean^. safe and sound &c (preserved) 670; scathless &c (perfect) 650; unhazarded^; not dangerous &c 665. unthreatening, harmless; friendly (cooperative) 709. protecting, protective &c v.; guardian, tutelary; preservative &c 670; trustworthy &c 939. Adv. ex abundanti cautela [Lat.]; with impunity. Phr. all's well; salva res est [Lat.]; suave mari magno [Lat.]; a couvert [Fr.]; e terra alterius spectare laborem [Lat.] [Lucretius]; Dieu vous garde [Fr.]. 665. Danger -- N. danger, peril, insecurity, jeopardy, risk, hazard, venture, precariousness, slipperiness; instability &c 149; defenselessness &c adj., exposure &c (liability) 177; vulnerability; vulnerable point, heel of Achilles^; forlorn hope &c (hopelessness) 859. [Dangerous course] leap in the dark &c (rashness) 863; road to ruin, faciles descensus Averni [Lat.] [Vergil], hairbreadth escape. cause for alarm; source of danger &c 667. rock ahead [Approach of danger], breakers ahead; storm brewing; clouds in the horizon, clouds gathering; warning &c 668; alarm &c 669. [Sense of danger] apprehension &c 860. V. be in danger &c adj.; be exposed to danger, run into danger, incur danger, encounter danger &c n.; run a risk; lay oneself open to &c (liability) 177; lean on a broken reed, trust to a broken reed; feel the ground sliding from under one, have to run for it; have the chances against one, have the odds against one, face long odds; be in deep trouble, be between a rock and a hard place. hang by a thread, totter; sleep on a volcano, stand on a volcano; sit on a barrel of gunpowder, live in a glass house. bring in danger, place in danger, put in danger, place in jeopardy, put in jeopardy &c n.; endanger, expose to danger, imperil; jeopard^, jeopardize; compromise; sail too near the wind &c (rash) 863. adventure, risk, hazard, venture, stake, set at hazard; run the gauntlet &c (dare) 861; engage in a forlorn hope. threaten danger &c 909; run one hard; lay a trap for &c (deceive) 545. Adj. in danger &c n.; endangered &c v.; fraught with danger; dangerous, hazardous, perilous, parlous, periculous^; unsafe, unprotected &c (safe, protect) &c 664; insecure. untrustworthy; built upon.sand, on a sandy basis; wildcat. defenseless, fenceless, guardless^, harborless; unshielded; vulnerable, expugnable^, exposed; open to &c (liable) 177. aux abois [Fr.], at bay; on the wrong side of the wall, on a lee shore, on the rocks. at stake, in question; precarious, critical, ticklish; slippery, slippy; hanging by a thread &c v.; with a halter round one's neck; between the hammer and the anvil, between Scylla and Charybdis, between a rock and a hard place, between the devil and the deep blue sea, between two fires; on the edge of a precipice, on the brink of a precipice, on the verge of a precipice, on the edge of a volcano; in the lion's den, on slippery ground, under fire; not out of the wood. unwarned, unadmonished, unadvised, unprepared &c 674; off one's guard &c (inexpectant) 508 [Obs.]. tottering; unstable, unsteady; shaky, top-heavy, tumbledown, ramshackle, crumbling, waterlogged; helpless, guideless^; in a bad way; reduced to the last extremity, at the last extremity; trembling in the balance; nodding to its fall &c (destruction) 162. threatening &c 909; ominous, illomened; alarming &c (fear) 860; explosive. adventurous &c (rash) 863, (bold) 861. Phr. incidit in Scyllam qui vult vitare Charybdim [Lat.]; nam tua res agitur paries dum proximus ardet [Lat.]. 666. [Means of safety.] Refuge -- N. refuge, sanctuary, retreat, fastness; acropolis; keep, last resort; ward; prison &c 752; asylum, ark, home, refuge for the destitute; almshouse^; hiding place &c (ambush) 530; sanctum sanctorum &c (privacy) 893 [Lat.]. roadstead, anchorage; breakwater, mole, port, haven; harbor, harbor of refuge; seaport; pier, jetty, embankment, quay. covert, cover, shelter, screen, lee wall, wing, shield, umbrella; barrier; dashboard, dasher [U.S.]. wall &c (inclosure) 232; fort &c (defense) 717. anchor, kedge; grapnel, grappling iron; sheet anchor, killick^; mainstay; support &c 215; cheek &c 706; ballast. jury mast; vent-peg; safety valve, blow-off valve; safety lamp; lightning rod, lightning conductor; safety belt, airbag, seat belt; antilock brakes, antiskid tires, snow tires. means of escape &c (escape) 671; lifeboat, lifejacket, life buoy, swimming belt, cork jacket; parachute, plank, steppingstone; emergency landing. safeguard &c (protection) 664. V. seek refuge, take refuge, find refuge &c n.; seek safety, find safety &c 664; throw oneself into the arms of; break for taller timber [U.S.]. create a diversion. Phr. any port in a storm; bibere venenum in auro [Lat.]; valet anchora virtus^. 667. [Source of danger.] Pitfall -- N. rocks, reefs, coral reef, sunken rocks, snags; sands, quicksands; syrt^, syrtis^; Goodwin sands, sandy foundation; slippery ground; breakers, shoals, shallows, bank, shelf, flat, lee shore, ironbound coast; rock ahead, breakers ahead. precipice; maelstrom, volcano; ambush &c 530; pitfall, trapdoor; trap &c (snare) 545. sword of Damocles; wolf at the door, snake in the grass, death in the pot; latency &c 526. ugly customer, dangerous person, le chat qui dort [Fr.]; firebrand, hornet's nest. Phr. latet anquis in herba [Lat.] [Vergil]; proximus ardet Ucalegon [Lat.] [Vergil]. 668. Warning -- N. warning, early warning, caution, caveat; notice &c (information) 527; premonition, premonishment^; prediction &c 511; contraindication, lesson, dehortation^; admonition, monition; alarm &c 669. handwriting on the wall, mene mene tekel upharsin, red flag, yellow flag; fog-signal, foghorn; siren; monitor, warning voice, Cassandra^, signs of the times, Mother Cary's chickens^, stormy petrel, bird of ill omen, gathering clouds, clouds in the horizon, death watch. watchtower, beacon, signal post; lighthouse &c (indication of locality) 550. sentinel, sentry,, watch, watchman; watch and ward; watchdog, bandog^, housedog^; patrol, patrolman, vedette^, picket, bivouac, scout, spy, spial^; undercover agent, mole, plainclothesman; advanced guard, rear guard; lookout. cautiousness &c 864. monitor, guard camera, radar, AWACS, spy satellite, spy-in-the- sky, U2 plane, spy plane. V. warn, caution; forewarn, prewarn^; admonish, premonish^; give notice, give warning, dehort^; menace &c (threaten) 909; put on one's guard; sound the alarm &c 669; croak. beware, ware; take warning, take heed at one's peril; keep watch and ward &c (care) 459. Adj. warning &c v.; premonitory, monitory, cautionary; admonitory, admonitive^; sematic [Biol.]. warned, forewarned &c v.; on one's guard &c (careful) 459, (cautious) 864. Adv. in terrorem [Lat.] &c (threat) 909. Int. beware!, ware!, take care!, look out!, fore (golf), mind what you are about!, take care what you are about!, mind!, Phr. ne reveillez pas le chat qui dort [Fr.], don't wake a sleeping cat; foenum habet in cornu [Lat.]; caveat actor; le silence du people est la legon des rois [Fr.]; verbum sat sapienti [Lat.], a word to the wise is sufficient; un averti en vaut deux [Fr.]. 669. [Indication of danger.] Alarm -- N. alarm; alarum, larum^, alarm bell, tocsin, alerts, beat of drum, sound of trumpet, note of alarm, hue and cry, fire cross, signal of distress; blue lights; war-cry, war- whoop; warning &c 668; fogsignal, foghorn; yellow flag; danger signal; red light, red flag; fire bell; police whistle. false alarm, cry of wolf; bug-bear, bugaboo. V. give the alarm, raise the alarm, sound the alarm, turn in the alarm, beat the alarm, give an alarm, raise an alarm, sound an alarm, turn in an alarm, beat an alarm &c n.; alarm; warn &c 668; ring the tocsin; battre la generale [Fr.]; cry wolf. Adj. alarming &c v.. Int. sauve qui peut! [Fr.], every man for himself! [Fr.Tr.]; qui vive? [Fr.]. 670. Preservation -- N. preservation; safe-keeping; conservation &c (storage) 636; maintenance, support, susteritation^, conservatism; vis conservatrix^; salvation &c (deliverance) 672. [Means of preservation] prophylaxis; preserver, preservative, additive; antibiotics, antifungals [Med.], biocide; hygiastics^, hygiantics^; cover, drugget^; cordon sanitaire [Fr.]; canning; ensilage; tinned goods, canned goods. [Superstitious remedies] snake oil, spider webs, cure-all; laetrile; charm &c 993. V. preserve, maintain, keep, sustain, support, hold; keep up, keep alive; refrigerate, keep on ice; not willingly let die; bank up; nurse; save, rescue; be safe, make safe &c 664; take care of &c (care) 459; guard &c (defend) 717. stare super antiquas vias [Lat.] [Bacon]; hold one's own; hold one's ground, stand one's ground &c (resist) 719. embalm, cure, salt, pickle, season, kyanize^, bottle, pot, tin, can; sterilize, pasteurize, radiate; dry, lyophilize [Chem], freeze- dry, concentrate, evaporate; freeze, quick-freeze, deep-freeze; husband &c (store) 636. Adj. preserving &c v.; conservative; prophylactic; preservatory^, preservative; hygienic. preserved &c v.; unimpaired, unbroken, uninjured, unhurt, unsinged^, unmarred; safe, safe and sound; intact, with a whole skin. Phr. nolumus leges Angliae mutari [Lat.]. 671. Escape -- N. escape, scape; avolation^, elopement, flight; evasion &c (avoidance) 623; retreat; narrow escape, hairbreadth escape; close call; come off, impunity. [Means of escape] loophole &c (opening) 260; path &c 627; refuse &c 666; vent, vent peg; safety valve; drawbridge, fire escape. reprieve &c (deliverance) 672; liberation &c 750. refugee &c (fugitive) 623. V. escape, scape; make one's escape, effect one's escape, make good one's escape; break jail; get off, get clear off, get well out of; echapper belle [Fr.], save one's bacon, save one's skin; weather the storm &c (safe) 664; escape scot-free. elude &c, make off &c (avoid) 623; march off &c (go away) 293; give one the slip; slip through the hands, slip through the fingers; slip the collar, wriggle out of prison, break out, break loose, break loose from prison; break away, slip away, get away; find vent, find a hole to creep out of. disappear, vanish. Adj. escaping, escaped &c v.. stolen away, fled. Phr. the bird has flown the coop. 672. Deliverance -- N. deliverance, extrication, rescue; reprieve, reprieval^; respite; liberation &c 750; emancipation; redemption, salvation; riddance; gaol delivery; redeemableness^. V. deliver, extricate, rescue, save, emancipate, redeem, ransom; bring off, bring through; tirer d'affaire [Fr.], get the wheel out of the rut, snatch from the jaws of death, come to the rescue; rid; retrieve &c (restore) 660; be rid of, get rid of. Adj. saved &c v.. extricable, redeemable, rescuable. Int. to the rescue!, 3. PRECURSORY MEASURES 673. Preparation -- N. preparation; providing &c v.; provision, providence; anticipation &c (foresight) 510; precaution, preconcertation^, predisposition; forecast &c (plan) 626; rehearsal, note of preparation. [Putting in order] arrangement &c 60; clearance; adjustment &c 23; tuning; equipment, outfit, accouterment, armament, array. ripening &c v.; maturation, evolution; elaboration, concoction, digestion; gestation, batching, incubation, sitting. groundwork, first stone, cradle, stepping-stone; foundation, scaffold &c (support) 215; scaffolding, echafaudage [Fr.]. [Preparation of men] training &c (education) 537; inurement &c (habit) 613; novitiate; cooking [Preparation of food], cookery; brewing, culinary art; tilling, plowing, [Preparation of the soil], sowing; semination^, cultivation. [State of being prepared] preparedness, readiness, ripeness, mellowness; maturity; un impromptu fait a loisir [Fr.]. [Preparer] preparer, trainer; pioneer, trailblazer; avant-courrier [Fr.], avant-coureur [Fr.]; voortrekker [Afrik.]; sappers and miners, pavior^, navvy^; packer, stevedore; warming pan. V. prepare; get ready, make ready; make preparations, settle preliminaries, get up, sound the note of preparation. set in order, put in order &c (arrange) 60; forecast &c (plan) 626; prepare the ground, plow the ground, dress the ground; till the soil, cultivate the soil; predispose, sow the seed, lay a train, dig a mine; lay the groundwork, fix the groundwork, lay the basis, fix the basis, lay the foundations, fix the foundations; dig the foundations, erect the scaffolding; lay the first stone &c (begin) 66. roughhew; cut out work; block out, hammer out; lick into shape &c (form) 240. elaborate, mature, ripen, mellow, season, bring to maturity; nurture &c (aid) 707; hatch, cook, brew; temper, anneal, smelt; barbecue; infumate^; maturate. equip, arm, man; fit-out, fit up; furnish, rig, dress, garnish, betrim^, accouter, array, fettle, fledge; dress up, furbish up, brush up, vamp up; refurbish; sharpen one's tools, trim one's foils, set, prime, attune; whet the knife, whet the sword; wind up, screw up; adjust &c (fit) 27; put in trim, put in train, put in gear, put in working order, put in tune, put in a groove for, put in harness; pack. train &c (teach) 537; inure &c (habituate) 613; breed; prepare for &c; rehearse; make provision for; take steps, take measures, take precautions; provide, provide against; beat up for recruits; open the door to &c (facilitate) 705. set one's house in order, make all snug; clear the decks, clear for action; close one's ranks; shuffle the cards. prepare oneself; serve an apprenticeship &c (learn) 539; lay oneself out for, get into harness, gird up one's loins, buckle on one's armor, reculer pour mieux sauter [Fr.], prime and load, shoulder arms, get the steam up, put the horses to. guard against, make sure against; forearm, make sure, prepare for the evil day, have a rod in pickle, provide against a rainy day, feather one's nest; lay in provisions &c 637; make investments; keep on foot. be prepared, be ready &c adj.; hold oneself in readiness, keep one's powder dry; lie in wait for &c (expect) 507; anticipate &c (foresee) 510; principiis obstare [Lat.]; veniente occurrere morbo [Lat.]. Adj. preparing &c v.; in preparation, in course of preparation, in agitation, in embryo, in hand, in train; afoot, afloat; on foot, on the stocks, on the anvil; under consideration &c (plan) 626; brewing, batching, forthcoming, brooding; in store for, in reserve. precautionary, provident; preparative, preparatory; provisional, inchoate, under revision; preliminary &c (precedent) 62. prepared &c v.; in readiness; ready, ready to one's band, ready made, ready cut and dried: made to one's hand, handy, on the table; in gear; in working order, in working gear; snug; in practice. ripe, mature, mellow; pukka^; practiced &c (skilled) 698; labored, elaborate, highly-wrought, smelling of the lamp, worked up. in full feather, in best bib and tucker; in harness, at harness; in the saddle, in arms, in battle array, in war paint; up in arms; armed at all points, armed to the teeth, armed cap a pie; sword in hand; booted and spurred. in utrumque paratus [Lat.], semper paratus [Lat.]; on the alert &c (vigilant) 459; at one's post. Adv. in preparation, in anticipation of; against, for; abroach^. Phr. a bove majori discit arare minor [Lat.]; looking before and after [Hamlet], si vis pacem para bellum [Lat.]. 674. Nonpreparation -- N. non-preparation, absence of preparation, want of preparation; inculture^, inconcoction^, improvidence. immaturity, crudity; rawness &c adj.; abortion; disqualification. [Absence of art] nature, state of nature; virgin soil, unweeded garden; neglect &c 460. rough copy &c (plan) 626; germ &c 153; raw material &c 635. improvisation &c (impulse) 612. V. be unprepared &c adj.; want preparation, lack preparation; lie fallow; s'embarquer sans biscuits [Fr.]; live from hand to mouth. [Render unprepared] dismantle &c (render useless) 645; undress &c 226. extemporize, improvise, ad lib. Adj. unprepared &c (prepare); &c; 673; without preparation &c 673; incomplete &c 53; rudimental, embryonic, abortive; immature, unripe, kachcha^, raw, green, crude; coarse; rough cast, rough hewn; in the rough; unhewn^, unformed, unfashioned^, unwrought, unlabored^, unblown, uncooked, unboiled, unconcocted, unpolished. unhatched, unfledged, unnurtured^, unlicked^, untaught, uneducated, uncultivated, untrained, untutored, undrilled, unexercised; deckle- edged^; precocious, premature; undigested, indigested^; unmellowed^, unseasoned, unleavened. unrehearsed, unscripted, extemporaneous, improvised, spontaneous, ad lib, ad libitem [Lat.]. fallow; unsown, untilled; natural, in a state of nature; undressed; in dishabille, en deshabille [Fr.]. unqualified, disqualified; unfitted; ill-digested; unbegun, unready, unarranged^, unorganized, unfurnished, unprovided, unequipped, untrimmed; out of gear, out of order; dismantled &c v.. shiftless, improvident, unthrifty, thriftless, thoughtless, unguarded; happy-go- lucky; caught napping &c (inexpectant) 508 [Obs.]; unpremeditated &c 612. Adv. extempore &c 612. 675. Essay -- N. essay, trial, endeavor, attempt; aim, struggle, venture, adventure, speculation, coup d'essai [Fr.], debut; probation &c (experiment) 463. V. try, essay; experiment &c 463; endeavor, strive; tempt, attempt, make an attempt; venture, adventure, speculate, take one's chance, tempt fortune; try one's fortune, try one's luck, try one's hand; use one's endeavor; feel one's way, grope one's way, pick one's way. try hard, push, make a bold push, use one's best endeavor; do one's best &c (exertion) 686. Adj. essaying &c v.; experimental &c 463; tentative, empirical, probationary. Adv. experimentally &c adj.; on trial, at a venture; by rule of thumb. if one may be so bold. Phr. aut non tentaris aut perfice [Lat.] [Ovid]; chi non s'arrischia non guadagna [Fr.]. 676. Undertaking -- N. undertaking; compact &c 769; adventure, venture; engagement &c (promise) 768; enterprise, emprise^; pilgrimage; matter in hand &c (business ) 625; move; first move &c (beginning) 66. V. undertake; engage in, embark in; launch into, plunge into; volunteer; apprentice oneself to; engage &c (promise) 768; contract &c 769; take upon oneself, take upon one's shoulders; devote oneself to &c (determination) 604. take up, take in hand; tackle; set about, go about; set to, fall to, set to work; launch forth; set up shop; put in hand, put in execution; set forward; break the neck of a business, be in, for; put one's hand to, put one's foot in; betake oneself to, turn one's hand to, go to do; begin one's &c 66; broach one's, institute one's &c (originate) 153; put one's hand to the plow, lay one's hand to the plow, put one's shoulder to the wheel. have in hand &c (business) 625; have many irons in the fire &c (activity) 682. Adj. undertaking &c v.; on the anvil &c 625. Int. here goes!, 677. Use -- N. use; employ, employment; exercise, exercitation^; application, appliance; adhibition^, disposal; consumption; agency &c (physical) 170; usufruct; usefulness &c 644; benefit; recourse, resort, avail. [Conversion to use] utilization, service, wear. [Way of using] usage. V. use, make use of, employ, put to use; put in action, put in operation, put in practice; set in motion, set to work. ply, work, wield, handle, manipulate; play, play off; exert, exercise, practice, avail oneself of, profit by, resort to, have recourse to, recur to, take betake oneself to; take up with, take advantage of; lay one's hands on, try. render useful &c 644; mold; turn to account, turn to use; convert to use, utilize; work up; call into play, bring into play; put into requisition; call forth, draw forth; press into service, enlist into the service; bring to bear upon, devote, dedicate, consecrate, apply, adhibit^, dispose of; make a handle of, make a cat's-paw of. fall back upon, make a shift with; make the most of, make the best of. use up, swallow up; consume, absorb, expend; tax, task, wear, put to task. Adj. in use; used &c v.; well-worn, well-trodden. useful &c 644; subservient &c (instrumental) 631. 678. Disuse -- N. forbearance, abstinence; disuse; relinquishment &c 782; desuetude &c (want of habit) 614; disusage^. V. not use; do without, dispense with, let alone, not touch, forbear, abstain, spare, waive, neglect; keep back, reserve. lay up, lay by, lay on the shelf, keep on the shelf, lay up in ordinary; lay up in a napkin; shelve; set aside, put aside, lay aside; disuse, leave off, have done with; supersede; discard &c (eject) 297; dismiss, give warning. throw aside &c (relinquish) 782; make away with &c (destroy) 162; cast overboard, heave overboard, throw overboard; cast to the dogs, cast to the winds; dismantle &c (Render useless) 645. lie unemployed, remain unemployed &c adj. Adj. not used &c v.; unemployed, unapplied, undisposed of, unspent, unexercised, untouched, untrodden, unessayed^, ungathered^, unculled; uncalled for, not required. disused &c v.; done with. 679. Misuse -- N. misuse, misusage, misemployment^, misapplication, misappropriation. abuse, profanation, prostitution, desecration; waste &c 638. V. misuse, misemploy, misapply, misappropriate. desecrate, abuse, profane, prostitute: waste &c 638; overtask, overtax, overwork: squander &c 818. cut blocks with a razor, employ a steam engine to crack a nut; catch at a straw. Adj. misused &c v.. Phr. ludere cum sacris [Lat.]. SECTION III. VOLUNTARY ACTION 1. Simple voluntary Action 680. Action -- N. action, performance; doing, &c v.; perpetration; exercise, excitation; movement, operation, evolution, work; labor &c (exertion) 686; praxis, execution; procedure &c (conduct) 692; handicraft; business &c 625; agency &c (power at work) 170. deed, act, overt act, stitch, touch, gest transaction^, job, doings, dealings, proceeding, measure, step, maneuver, bout, passage, move, stroke, blow; coup, coup de main, coup d'etat [Fr.]; tour de force &c (display) 882; feat, exploit; achievement &c (completion) 729; handiwork, workmanship; manufacture; stroke of policy &c (plan) 626. actor &c (doer) 690. V. do, perform, execute; achieve &c (complete) 729; transact, enact; commit, perpetrate, inflict; exercise, prosecute, carry on, work, practice, play. employ oneself, ply one's task; officiate, have in hand &c (business) 625; labor &c 686; be at work; pursue a course; shape one's course &c (conduct) 692. act, operate; take action, take steps; strike a blow, lift a finger, stretch forth one's hand; take in hand &c (undertake) 676; put oneself in motion; put in practice; carry into execution &c (complete) 729; act upon. be an actor &c 690; take a part in, act a part in, play a part in, perform a part in; participate in; have a hand in, have a finger in the pie; have to do with; be a party to, be a participator in; bear a hand, lend a hand; pull an oar, run in a race; mix oneself up with &c (meddle) 682. be in action; come into operation &c (power at work) 170. Adj. doing &c v.; acting; in action; in harness; on duty; in operation &c 170. Adv. in the act, in the midst of, in the thick of; red-handed, in flagrante delicto [Lat.]; while one's hand is in. Phr. action is eloquence [Coriolanus]; actions speak louder than words; actum aiunt ne agas [Terence]; awake, arise, or be forever fall'n [Paradise Lost]; dii pia facta vident [Lat.] [Ovid]; faire sans dire [Fr.]; fare fac [It]; fronte capillata post est occasio calva [Lat.]; our deeds are sometimes better than our thoughts [Bailey]; the great end of life is not knowledge but action [Huxley]; thought is the soul of act [R. Browning]; vivre-ce nest pas respirer c'est agir [Fr.]; we live in deeds not years [Bailey]. 681. Inaction -- N. inaction, passiveness, abstinence from action; noninterference, nonintervention; Fabian policy, conservative policy; neglect &c 460. inactivity &c 683; rest &c (repose) 687; quiescence &c 265; want of occupation, inoccupation^; idle hours, time hanging on one's hands, dolce far niente [It]; sinecure, featherbed, featherbedding, cushy job, no-show job; soft snap, soft thing. V. not do, not act, not attempt; be inactive &c 683; abstain from doing, do nothing, hold, spare; not stir, not move, not lift a finger, not lift a foot, not lift a peg; fold one's arms, fold one's hands; leave alone, let alone; let be, let pass, let things take their course, let it have its way, let well alone, let well enough alone; quieta non movere [Lat.]; stare super antiquas vias [Lat.]; rest and be thankful, live and let live; lie rest upon one's oars; laisser aller [Fr.], faire [Fr.]; stand aloof; refrain &c (avoid) 623, keep oneself from doing; remit one's efforts, relax one's efforts; desist &c (relinquish) 624; stop &c (cease) 142; pause &c (be quiet) 265. wait, lie in wait, bide one's time, take time, tide it over. cool one's heels, kick one's heels; while away the time, while away tedious hours; pass the time, fill up the time, beguile the time; talk against time; let the grass grow under one's feet; waste time &c (inactive) 683. lie by, lie on the shelf, lie in ordinary, lie idle, lie to, lie fallow; keep quiet, slug; have nothing to do, whistle for want of thought. undo, do away with; take down, take to pieces; destroy &c 162. Adj. not doing &c v.; not done &c v.; undone; passive; unoccupied, unemployed; out of employ, out of work; fallow; desaeuvre [Fr.]. Adv. re infecta [Lat.], at a stand, les bras croisis [Fr.], with folded arms; with the hands in the pockets, with the hands behind one's back; pour passer le temps [Fr.]. Int. so let it be!, stop!, &c 142; hands off!, Phr. cunctando restituit rem [Lat.], If it ain't broke don't fix it [Bert Lance]; stare decisis [Lat.], let the decision stand; 682. Activity -- N. activity; briskness, liveliness &c adj.; animation, life, vivacity, spirit, dash, energy; snap, vim. nimbleness, agility; smartness, quickness &c adj.; velocity, &c 274; alacrity, promptitude; despatch, dispatch; expedition; haste &c 684; punctuality &c (early) 132. eagerness, zeal, ardor, perfervidum aingenium [Lat.], empressement [Fr.], earnestness, intentness; abandon; vigor &c (physical energy) 171; devotion &c (resolution) 604; exertion &c 686. industry, assiduity; assiduousness &c adj.; sedulity; laboriousness; drudgery &c (labor) 686; painstaking, diligence; perseverance &c 604.1; indefatigation^; habits of business. vigilance &c 459; wakefulness; sleeplessness, restlessness; insomnia; pervigilium^, insomnium^; racketing. movement, bustle, stir, fuss, ado, bother, pottering, fidget, fidgetiness; flurry &c (haste) 684. officiousness; dabbling, meddling; interference, interposition, intermeddling; tampering with, intrigue. press of business, no sinecure, plenty to do, many irons in the fire, great doings, busy hum of men, battle of life, thick of the action. housewife, busy bee; new brooms; sharp fellow, sharp blade; devotee, enthusiast, zealot, meddler, intermeddler, intriguer, busybody, pickthank^; hummer, hustler, live man [U.S.], rustler [U.S.]. V. be active &c adj.; busy oneself in; stir, stir about, stir one's stumps; bestir oneself, rouse oneself; speed, hasten, peg away, lay about one, bustle, fuss; raise up, kick up a dust; push; make a push, make a fuss, make a stir; go ahead, push forward; fight one's way, elbow one's way; make progress &c 282; toll &c (labor) 686; plod, persist &c (persevere) 604.1; keep up the ball, keep the pot boiling. look sharp; have all one's eyes about one &c (vigilance) 459; rise, arouse oneself, hustle, get up early, be about, keep moving, steal a march, kill two birds with one stone; seize the opportunity &c 134, lose no time, not lose a moment, make the most of one's time, not suffer the grass to grow under one's feet, improve the shining hour, make short work of; dash off; make haste &c 684; do one's best take pains &c (exert oneself) 686; do wonders, work wonders. have many irons in the fire, have one's hands full, have much on one's hands; have other things to do, have other fish to fry; be busy; not have a moment to spare, not have a moment that one can call one's own. have one's fling, run the round of; go all lengths, stick at nothing, run riot. outdo; overdo, overact, overlay, overshoot the mark; make a toil of a pleasure. have a hand in &c (act in) 680; take an active part, put in one's oar, have a finger in the pie, mix oneself up with, trouble, one's head about, intrigue; agitate. tamper with, meddle, moil; intermeddle, interfere, interpose; obtrude; poke one's nose in, thrust one's nose in. Adj. active, brisk, brisk as a lark, brisk as a bee; lively, animated, vivacious; alive, alive and kicking; frisky, spirited, stirring. nimble, nimble as a squirrel; agile; light-footed, nimble-footed; featly^, tripping. quick, prompt, yare^, instant, ready, alert, spry, sharp, smart; fast &c (swift) 274; quick as a lamplighter, expeditious; awake, broad awake; go-ahead, live wide-awake &c (intelligent) 498 [U.S.]. forward, eager, strenuous, zealous, enterprising, in earnest; resolute &c 604. industrious, assiduous, diligent, sedulous, notable, painstaking; intent &c (attention) 457; indefatigable &c (persevering) 604.1; unwearied; unsleeping^, never tired; plodding, hard-working &c 686; businesslike, workaday. bustling; restless, restless as a hyena; fussy, fidgety, pottering; busy, busy as hen with one chicken. working, at work, on duty, in harness; up in arms; on one's legs, at call; up and doing, up and stirring. busy, occupied; hard at work, hard at it; up to one's ears in, full of business, busy as a bee, busy as a one-armed paperhanger. meddling &c v.; meddlesome, pushing, officious, overofficious^, intrigant^. astir, stirring; agoing^, afoot; on foot; in full swing; eventful; on the alert, &c (vigilant) 459. Adv. actively &c adj.; with life and spirit, with might and main &c 686, with haste &c 684, with wings; full tilt, in mediis rebus [Lat.]. Int. be alive, look alive, look sharp!, move on, push on!, keep moving!, go ahead!, stir your stumps!, age quod agis! [Lat.], jaldi!^, karo!^, step lively!, Phr. carpe diem [Lat.], seize the day; &c (opportunity) 134 nulla dies sine linea [Lat.] [Pliny]; nec mora nec requies [Lat.] [Vergil]; the plot thickens; No sooner said than done &c (early) 132; veni vidi vici [Lat.] [Suetonius]; catch a weasel asleep; abends wird der Faule fleissig [G.]; dictum ac factum [Lat.] [Terence]; schwere Arbeit in der Jugend ist sanfte Ruhe im Alter [G.], hard work in youth means soft rest in age; the busy hum of men [Milton]. 683. Inactivity -- N. inactivity; inaction &c 681; inertness &c 172; obstinacy &c 606. lull &c (cessation) 142; quiescence &c 265; rust, rustiness. idleness, remissness &c adj.; sloth, indolence, indiligence^; dawdling &c v.. ergophobia^, otiosity^. dullness &c adj.; languor; segnity^, segnitude^; lentor^; sluggishness &c (slowness) 275; procrastination &c (delay) 133; torpor, torpidity, torpescence^; stupor &c (insensibility) 823; somnolence; drowsiness &c adj.; nodding &c v.; oscitation^, oscitancy^; pandiculation^, hypnotism, lethargy; statuvolence heaviness^, heavy eyelids. sleep, slumber; sound sleep, heavy sleep, balmy sleep; Morpheus; Somnus; coma, trance, ecstasis^, dream, hibernation, nap, doze, snooze, siesta, wink of sleep, forty winks, snore; hypnology^. dull work; pottering; relaxation &c (loosening) 47; Castle of Indolence. [Cause of inactivity] lullaby, sedative, tranquilizer, hypnotic, sleeping pill, relaxant, anaesthetic, general anaesthetic &c 174; torpedo. [person who is inactive] idler, drone, droil^, dawdle, mopus^; do- little faineant [Fr.], dummy, sleeping partner; afternoon farmer; truant &c (runaway) 623; bummer^, loafer, goldbrick, goldbicker, lounger, lazzarone [It]; lubber, lubbard^; slow coach &c (slow.) 275; opium eater, lotus eater; slug; lag^, sluggard, slugabed; slumberer, dormouse, marmot; waiter on Providence, fruges consumere natus [Lat.]. V. be inactive &c adj.; do nothing &c 681; move slowly &c 275; let the grass grow under one's feet; take one's time, dawdle, drawl, droil^, lag, hang back, slouch; loll, lollop^; lounge, poke, loaf, loiter; go to sleep over; sleep at one's post, ne battre que d'une aile [Fr.]. take it easy, take things as they come; lead an easy life, vegetate, swim with the stream, eat the bread of idleness; loll in the lap of luxury, loll in the lap of indolence; waste time, consume time, kill time, lose time; burn daylight, waste the precious hours. idle away time, trifle away time, fritter away time, fool away time; spend time in, take time in; peddle, piddle; potter, pudder^, dabble, faddle fribble^, fiddle-faddle; dally, dilly-dally. sleep, slumber, be asleep; hibernate; oversleep; sleep like a top, sleep like a log, sleep like a dormouse; sleep soundly, heavily; doze, drowze^, snooze, nap; take a nap &c n.; dream; snore one's best; settle to sleep, go to sleep, go off to sleep; doze off, drop off; fall asleep; drop asleep; close the eyes, seal up the eyes, seal up eyelids; weigh down the eyelids; get sleep, nod, yawn; go to bed, turn; get some z's, stack z's [Coll.]. languish, expend itself, flag, hang fire; relax. render idle &c adj.; sluggardize^; mitigate &c 174. Adj. inactive; motionless &c 265; unoccupied &c (doing nothing) 681; unbusied^. indolent, lazy, slothful, idle, lusk^, remiss, slack, inert, torpid, sluggish, otiose, languid, supine, heavy, dull, leaden, lumpish^; exanimate^, soulless; listless; drony^, dronish^; lazy as Ludlam's dog. dilatory, laggard; lagging &c v.; slow &c 275; rusty, flagging; lackadaisical, maudlin, fiddle-faddle; pottering &c v.; shilly-shally &c (irresolute) 605. sleeping, &c v.; asleep; fast asleep, dead asleep, sound asleep; in a sound sleep; sound as a top, dormant, comatose; in the arms of Morpheus, in the lap of Morpheus. sleepy, sleepful^; dozy^, drowsy, somnolent, torpescent^, lethargic, lethargical^; somnifacient^; statuvolent^, statuvolic^; heavy, heavy with sleep; napping; somnific^, somniferous; soporous^, soporific, soporiferous^; hypnotic; balmy, dreamy; unawakened, unawakened. sedative &c 174. Adv. inactively &c adj.; at leisure &c 685. Phr. the eyes begin to draw straws; bankrupt of life yet prodigal of ease [Dryden]; better 50 years of Europe than a cycle of Cathay [Tennyson]; idly busy rolls their world away [Goldsmith]; the mystery of folded sleep [Tennyson]; the timely dew of sleep [Milton]; thou driftest gently down the tides of sleep [Longfellow]; tired Nature's sweet restorer, balmy sleep [Young]. 684. Haste -- N. haste, urgency; despatch, dispatch; acceleration, spurt, spirt^, forced march, rush, dash; speed, velocity &c 274; precipitancy, precipitation, precipitousness &c adj.; impetuosity; brusquerie^; hurry, drive, scramble, bustle, fuss, fidget, flurry, flutter, splutter. V. haste, hasten; make haste, make a dash &c n.; hurry on, dash on, whip on, push on, press on, press forward; hurry, skurry^, scuttle along, barrel along, bundle on, dart to and fro, bustle, flutter, scramble; plunge, plunge headlong; dash off; rush &c (violence) 173; express. bestir oneself &c (be active) 682; lose no time, lose not a moment, lose not an instant; make short work of; make the best of one's time, make the best of one's way. be precipitate &c adj.; jump at, be in haste, be in a hurry &c n.; have no time, have not a moment to lose, have not a moment to spare; work against time. quicken &c 274; accelerate, expedite, put on, precipitate, urge, whip; railroad. Adj. hasty, hurried, brusque; scrambling, cursory, precipitate, headlong, furious, boisterous, impetuous, hotheaded; feverish, fussy; pushing. in haste, in a hurry &c n.; in hot haste, in all haste; breathless, pressed for time, hard pressed, urgent. Adv. with haste, with all haste, with breathless speed; in haste &c adj.; apace &c (swiftly) 274; amain^; all at once &c (instantaneously) 113; at short notice &c; immediately &c (early) 132; posthaste; by cable, by express, by telegraph, by forced marches. hastily, precipitately &c adj.; helter-skelter, hurry-skurry^, holus-bolus; slapdash, slap-bang; full-tilt, full drive; heels over head, head and shoulders, headlong, a corps perdu [Fr.]. by fits and starts, by spurts; hop skip and jump. Phr. [panic] sauve qui peut [Fr.], every man for himself [Fr.Tr.], devil take the hindmost, no time to be lost; no sooner said than done &c (early) 132; a word and a blow; haste makes waste, maggiore fretta minore atto [It]; ohne Hast aber ohne Rast [G.], [Goethe's motto]; stand not upon the order of your going but go at once [Macbeth]; swift, swift, you dragons of the night [Cymbeline]. 685. Leisure -- N. leisure; convenience; spare time, spare hours, spare moments; vacant hour; time, time to spare, time on one's hands; holiday, relaxation &c (rest) 687; otium cum dignitate [Lat.] [Cicero], ease. no hurry; no big rush; no deadline. V. have leisure &c n.; take one's time, take one's leisure, take one's ease; repose &c 687; move slowly &c 275; while away the time &c (inaction) 681; be master of one's time, be an idle man. Adj. leisure, leisurely; slow &c 275; deliberate, quiet, calm, undisturbed; at leisure, at one's ease, at loose ends, at a loose end. Adv. unhurriedly, deliberately, without undue haste; anytime. Phr. time hanging heavy on one's hands; eile mit Weile [G.]. 686. Exertion -- N. exertion, effort, strain, tug, pull, stress, throw, stretch, struggle, spell, spurt, spirt^; stroke of work, stitch of work. a strong pull a long pull and a pull all together; dead lift; heft; gymnastics; exercise, exercitation^; wear and tear; ado; toil and trouble; uphill work, hard work, warm work; harvest time. labor, work, toil, travail, manual labor, sweat of one's brow, swink^, drudgery, slavery, fagging^, hammering; limae labor [Lat.]; industry, industriousness, operoseness^, operosity^. trouble, pains, duty; resolution &c 604; energy &c (physical) 171. V. exert oneself; exert one's energies, tax one's energies; use exertion. labor, work, toil, moil, sweat, fag, drudge, slave, drag a lengthened chain, wade through, strive, stretch a long arm; pull, tug, ply; ply the oar, tug at the oar; do the work; take the laboring oar bestir oneself (be active) 682; take trouble, trouble oneself. work hard; rough it; put forth one's strength, put forth a strong arm; fall to work, bend the bow; buckle to, set one's shoulder to the wheel &c (resolution) 604; work like a horse, work like a cart horse, work like a galley slave, work like a coal heaver; labor day and night, work day and night; redouble one's efforts; do double duty; work double hours, work double tides; sit up, burn the candle at both ends; stick to &c (persevere) 604.1; work one's way, fight one's way, lay about one, hammer at. take pains; do one's best, do one's level best, do one's utmost; give one hundred percent, do the best one can, do all one can, do all in one's power, do as much as in one lies, do what lies in one's power; use one's best endeavor, use one's utmost endeavor; try one's best, try one's utmost; play one's best card; put one's best leg foremost, put one's right leg foremost; have one's whole soul in his work, put all one's strength into, strain every nerve; spare no efforts, spare no pains; go all lengths; go through fire and water &c (resolution) 604; move heaven and earth, leave no stone unturned. Adj. laboring &c v.. laborious, operose^, elaborate; strained; toilsome, troublesome, wearisome; uphill; herculean, gymnastic, palestric^. hard-working, painstaking; strenuous, energetic. hard at work, on the stretch. Adv. laboriously &c adj.; lustily; pugnis et calcibus [Lat.]; with might and main, with all one's might, with a strong hand, with a sledge hammer, with much ado; to the best of one's abilities, totis viribus [Lat.], vi et armis [Lat.], manibus pedibusque [Lat.], tooth and nail, unguibus et rostro [Lat.], hammer and tongs, heart and soul; through thick and thin &c (perseverance) 604.1. by the sweat of one's brow, suo Marte. Phr. aide-toi le ciel t'aidera [Fr.]; and still be doing, never done [Butler]; buen principio la mitad es hecha [Sp.]; cosa ben fatta e' fatta due volie [It]; it is better to wear out than to rust out [Bp. Hornel]; labor omnia vincit [Lat.] [Vergil]; labor, wide as the earth, has its summit in Heaven [Carlyle]; le travail du corps delivre des peines de l'esprit [Fr.]; manu forti [Lat.]; ora et labora [Lat.]. 687. Repose -- N. repose, rest, silken repose; sleep &c 683. relaxation, breathing time; halt, stay, pause &c (cessation) 142; respite. day of rest, dies non, Sabbath, Lord's day, holiday, red-letter day, vacation, recess. V. repose; rest, rest and be thankful; take a rest, take one's ease, take it easy. relax, unbend, slacken; take breath &c (refresh) 689; rest upon one's oars; pause &c (cease) 142; stay one's hand. lie down; recline, recline on a bed of down, recline on an easy chair; go to rest, go to bed, go to sleep &c 683. take a holiday, shut up shop; lie fallow &c (inaction) 681. Adj. reposing &c v. [of people]; relaxed &c v.; unstrained. [of materials and people] unstressed. Adv. at rest. Phr. The best of men have ever loved repose [Thompson]; to repair our nature with comforting repose [Henry VIII]. 688. Fatigue -- N. fatigue; weariness &c 841; yawning, drowsiness &c 683; lassitude, tiredness, fatigation^, exhaustion; sweat; dyspnoea. anhelation, shortness of breath; faintness; collapse, prostration, swoon, fainting, deliquium [Lat.], syncope, lipothymy^; goneness^. V. be fatigued &c adj.; yawn &c (get sleepy) 683; droop, sink, flag; lose breath, lose wind; gasp, pant, puff, blow, drop, swoon, faint, succumb. fatigue, tire, weary, irk, flag, jade, harass, exhaust, knock up, wear out, prostrate. tax, task, strain; overtask, overwork, overburden, overtax, overstrain. Adj. fatigued, tired &c v.; weary &c 841; drowsy &c 683; drooping &c v.; haggard; toilworn^, wayworn:, footsore, surbated^, weather-beaten; faint; done up, used up, knocked up; bushed [U.S.]; exhausted, prostrate, spent; overtired, overspent, overfatigued; unrefreshed^, unrestored. worn, worn out; battered, shattered, pulled down, seedy, altered. breathless, windless; short of breath, out of breath, short of wind; blown, puffing and blowing; short-breathed; anhelose^; broken winded, short-winded; dyspnaeal^, dyspnaeic^. ready to drop, all in, more dead than alive, dog-weary, walked off one's legs, tired to death, on one's last legs, played out, hors de combat [Fr.]. fatiguing &c v.; tiresome, irksome, wearisome; weary, trying. 689. Refreshment -- N. bracing &c v.; recovery of strength, recuperation &c 159; restoration, revival &c 660; repair, refection, refocillation^, refreshment, regalement^, bait; relief &c 834. break, spell. refreshment stand; refreshments; [Refreshments], ice cream, cold soda, soda pop, hot dogs (food). V. brace &c (strengthen) 159; reinvigorate; air, freshen up, refresh, recruit; repair &c (restore) 660; fan, refocillate^; refresh the inner man. breathe, respire; drink in the ozone; take a break, take a breather, take five, draw breath, take a deep breath, take breath, gather breath, take a long breath, regain breath, recover breath; get better, raise one's head; recover one's strength, regain one's strength, renew one's strength &c 159; perk up, get one's second wind. come to oneself &c (revive) 660; feel refreshed, feel like a giant refreshed. Adj. refreshing &c v.; recuperative &c 660. refreshed &c v.; untired^, unwearied. 690. Agent -- N. doer, actor, agent, performer, perpetrator, operator; executor, executrix; practitioner, worker, stager. bee, ant, working bee, termite, white ant; laboring oar, servant of all work, factotum. workman, artisan; craftsman, handicraftsman; mechanic, operative; working man; laboring man; demiurgus, hewers of wood and drawers of water, laborer, navvy^; hand, man, day laborer, journeyman, charwoman, hack; mere tool &c 633; beast of burden, drudge, fag; lumper^, roustabout. maker, artificer, artist, wright, manufacturer, architect, builder, mason, bricklayer, smith, forger, Vulcan; carpenter; ganger, platelayer; blacksmith, locksmith, sailmaker, wheelwright. machinist, mechanician, engineer. sempstress^, semstress^, seamstress; needlewoman^, workwoman; tailor, cordwainer^. minister &c (instrument) 631; servant &c 746; representative &c (commissioner) 758, (deputy) 759. coworker, party to, participator in, particeps criminis [Lat.], dramatis personae [Lat.]; personnel. Phr. quorum pars magna fui [Lat.] [Vergil]; faber est quisque fortunae suae [Lat.]. 691. Workshop -- N. workshop, workhouse, workplace, shop, place of business; manufactory, mill, plant, works, factory; cabinet, studio; office, branch office bureau, atelier. [specific types of workplace: list], hive, hive of industry; nursery; hothouse, hotbed; kitchen; mint, forge, loom; dock, dockyard; alveary^; armory; laboratory, lab, research institute; refinery; cannery; power plant; beauty parlor; beehive, bindery, forcing pit, nailery^, usine^, slip, yard, wharf; foundry, foundery^; furnace; vineyard; crucible, alembic, caldron, matrix. Adj. at work, at the office, at the shop; working. 2. Complex Voluntary Action 692. Conduct -- N. conduct [actions of an individual agent]; behavior; deportment, comportment; carriage, maintien^, demeanor, guise, bearing, manner, observance. dealing, transaction &c (action) 680; business &c 625. tactics, game, game plan, policy, polity; generalship, statesmanship, seamanship; strategy, strategics^; plan &c 626. management; husbandry; housekeeping, housewifery; stewardship; menage; regime; economy, economics; political economy; government &c (direction) 693. execution, manipulation, treatment, campaign, career, life, course, walk, race, record. course of conduct, line of conduct, line of action, line of proceeding; role; process, ways, practice, procedure, modus operandi, MO, method of operating; method &c; path &c 627. V. transact [cause to occur], execute; despatch, dispatch; proceed with, discharge; carry on, carry through, carry out, carry into effect, put into effect; work out; go through, get through; enact; put into practice; do &c 680; officiate &c 625. bear oneself, behave oneself, comport oneself, demean oneself, carry oneself, conduct oneself, acquit oneself. run a race, lead a life, play a game; take a course, adopt a course; steer one's course, shape one's course; play one's paint, play one's cards, shift for oneself; paddle one's own canoe; bail one's own boat. conduct; manage, supervise &c (direct) 693. participate &c 680. deal with, have to do with; treat, handle a case; take steps, take measures. Adj. conducting &c v.. strategical, businesslike, practical, executive. 693. Direction -- N. direction; management, managery^; government, gubernation^, conduct, legislation, regulation, guidance; bossism [U.S.]; legislature; steerage, pilotage; reins, reins of government; helm, rudder, needle, compass; guiding star, load star, lode star, pole star; cynosure. supervision, superintendence; surveillance, oversight; eye of the master; control, charge; board of control &c (council) 696; command &c (authority) 737. premiership, senatorship; director &c 694; chair, portfolio. statesmanship; statecraft, kingcraft^, queencraft^. ministry, ministration; administration; stewardship, proctorship^; agency. [person who directs] director &c 694. V. direct, manage, govern, conduct; order, prescribe, cut out work for; bead, lead; lead the way, show the way; take the lead, lead on; regulate, guide, steer, pilot; tackle, take the helm, be at the helm; have the reins, handle the reins, hold the reins, take the reins; drive, tool. superintend, supervise; overlook, control, keep in order, look after, see to, legislate for; administer, ministrate^; matronize^; have the care of, have the charge of; be in charge of, have charge of, take the direction; boss, boss one around; pull the strings, pull the wires; rule &c (command) 737; have the direction, hold office, hold the portfolio; preside, preside at the board; take the chair, occupy the chair, be in the chair; pull the stroke oar. Adj. directing &c v.; hegemonic. Adv. at the helm, at the head of. 694. Director -- N. director, manager, governor, rector, comptroller. superintendent, supervisor, straw boss; intendant; overseer, overlooker^; supercargo^, husband, inspector, visitor, ranger, surveyor, aedile^; moderator, monitor, taskmaster; master &c 745; leader, ringleader, demagogue, corypheus, conductor, fugleman^, precentor^, bellwether, agitator; caporal^, choregus^, collector, file leader, flugelman^, linkboy^. guiding star &c (guidance) 693; adviser &c 695; guide &c (information) 527; pilot; helmsman; steersman, steermate^; wire-puller. driver, whip, Jehu, charioteer; coachman, carman, cabman; postilion, vetturino^, muleteer, arriero^, teamster; whipper in. head, head man, head center, boss; principal, president, speaker; chair, chairman, chairwoman, chairperson; captain &c (master) 745; superior; mayor &c (civil authority) 745; vice president, prime minister, premier, vizier, grand vizier, eparch^. officer, functionary, minister, official, red-tapist^, bureaucrat; man in office, Jack in office; office bearer; person in authority &c 745. statesman, strategist, legislator, lawgiver, politician, statist^, statemonger^; Minos, Draco; arbiter &c (judge) 967; boss [U.S.], political dictator. board &c (council) 696. secretary, secretary of state; Reis Effendi; vicar &c (deputy) 759; steward, factor; agent &c 758; bailiff, middleman; foreman, clerk of works; landreeve^; factotum, major-domo^, seneschal, housekeeper, shepherd, croupier; proctor, procurator. Adv. ex officio. 695. Advice -- N. advice, counsel, adhortation^; word to the wise; suggestion, submonition^, recommendation, advocacy; advisement. exhortation &c (persuasion) 615; expostulation &c (dissuasion) 616; admonition &c (warning) 668; guidance &c (direction) 693. instruction, charge, injunction, obtestation^; Governor's message, President's message; King's message, Queen's speech; message, speech from the throne. adviser, prompter; counsel, counselor; monitor, mentor, Nestor, magnus Apollo [Lat.], senator; teacher &c 540. guide, manual, chart &c (information) 527. physician, doctor, leech^, archiater^. arbiter &c (judge) 967. reference, referment^; consultation, conference, pourparler. V. advise, counsel; give advice, give counsel, give a piece of advice [Fr.]; suggest, prompt, submonish^, recommend, prescribe, advocate; exhort &c (persuade) 615. enjoin, enforce, charge, instruct, call; call upon &c (request) 765; dictate. expostulate &c (dissuade) 616; admonish &c (warn) 668. advise with; lay heads together, consult together; compare notes; hold a council, deliberate, be closeted with. confer, consult, refer to, call in; take advice, follow advice; be advised by, have at one's elbow, take one's cue from. Adj. recommendatory; hortative &c (persuasive) 615; dehortatory &c (dissuasive) 616 [Obs.]; admonitory &c (warning) 668. Int. go to!, Phr. give every man thine ear but few thy voice [Hamlet]; I pray thee cease thy counsel [Much Ado About Nothing]; my guide, philosopher, and friend [Pope]; 'twas good advice and meant, my son be good [Crabbe]; verbum sat sapienti [Lat.], a word to the wise is sufficient; vive memor leti [Lat.]; we, ask advice but we mean approbation [Colton]. 696. Council -- N. council, committee, subcommittee, comitia [Lat.], court, chamber, cabinet, board, bench, staff. senate, senatus [Lat.], parliament, chamber of deputies, directory, reichsrath [G.], rigsdag, cortes [Sp.], storthing^, witenagemote^, junta, divan, musnud^, sanhedrim; classis^; Amphictyonic council^; duma [Rus.], house of representatives; legislative assembly, legislative council; riksdag^, volksraad [G.], witan^, caput^, consistory, chapter, syndicate; court of appeal &c (tribunal) 966; board of control, board of works; vestry; county council, local board. audience chamber, council chamber, state chamber. cabinet council, privy council; cockpit, convocation, synod, congress, convention, diet, states-general. [formal gathering of members of a council: script] assembly, caucus, conclave, clique, conventicle; meeting, sitting, seance, conference, convention, exhibition, session, palaver, pourparler, durbar^, house; quorum; council fire [U.S.], powwow [U.S.], primary [U.S.]. meeting, assemblage &c 72. [person who is member of a council] member; senator; member of parliament, M.P.; councilor, representative of the people; assemblyman, congressman; councilman, councilwoman, alderman, freeholder. V. assemble, gather together, meet (assemblage) 72; confer, caucus, hold council; huddle [Coll.]. Adj. senatorial, curule^; congressional, parliamentary; legislative, law-making; regulatory; deliberative. 697. Precept -- N. precept, direction, instruction, charge; prescript, prescription; recipe, receipt; golden rule; maxim &c 496. rule, canon, law, code, corpus juris [Lat.], lex scripta [Lat.], act, statute, rubric, stage direction, regulation; form, formula, formulary; technicality; canon law; norm. order &c (command) 741. 698. Skill -- N. skill, skillfulness, address; dexterity, dexterousness; adroitness, expertness &c adj.; proficiency, competence, technical competence, craft, callidity^, facility, knack, trick, sleight; mastery, mastership, excellence, panurgy^; ambidexterity, ambidextrousness^; sleight of hand &c (deception) 545. seamanship, airmanship, marksmanship, horsemanship; rope-dancing. accomplishment, acquirement, attainment; art, science; technicality, technology; practical knowledge, technical knowledge. knowledge of the world, world wisdom, savoir faire [Fr.]; tact; mother wit &c (sagacity) 498; discretion &c (caution) 864; finesse; craftiness &c (cunning) 702; management &c (conduct) 692; self-help. cleverness, talent, ability, ingenuity, capacity, parts, talents, faculty, endowment, forte, turn, gift, genius; intelligence &c 498; sharpness, readiness &c (activity) 682; invention &c 515; aptness, aptitude; turn for, capacity for, genius for; felicity, capability, curiosa felicitas [Lat.], qualification, habilitation. proficient &c 700. masterpiece, coup de maitre [Fr.], chef d'euvre [Fr.], tour de force; good stroke &c (plan) 626. V. be skillful &c adj.; excel in, be master of; have a turn for &c n.. know what's what, know a hawk from a handsaw, know what one is about, know on which side one's bread is buttered, know what's o'clock; have cut one's eye teeth, have cut one's wisdom teeth. see one's way, see where the wind lies, see which way the wind blows; have all one's wits about one, have one's hand in; savoir vivre [Fr.]; scire quid valeant humeri quid ferre recusent [Lat.]. look after the main chance; cut one's coat according to one's cloth; live by one's wits; exercise one's discretion, feather the oar, sail near the wind; stoop to conquer &c (cunning) 702; play one's cards well, play one's best card; hit the right nail on the head, put the saddle on the right horse. take advantage of, make the most of; profit by &c (use) 677; make a hit &c (succeed) 731; make a virtue of necessity; make hay while the sun shines &c (occasion) 134. Adj. skillful, dexterous, adroit, expert, apt, handy, quick, deft, ready, gain; slick, smart &c (active) 682; proficient, good at, up to, at home in, master of, a good hand at, au fait, thoroughbred, masterly, crack, accomplished; conversant &c (knowing) 490. experienced, practiced, skilled, hackneyed; up in, well up in; in practice, in proper cue; competent, efficient, qualified, capable, fitted, fit for, up to the mark, trained, initiated, prepared, primed, finished. clever, cute, able, ingenious, felicitous, gifted, talented, endowed; inventive &c 515; shrewd, sharp, on the ball &c (intelligent) 498; cunning &c 702; alive to, up to snuff, not to be caught with chaff; discreet. neat-handed, fine-fingered, nimble-fingered, ambidextrous, sure- footed; cut out for, fitted for. technical, artistic, scientific, daedalian^, shipshape; workman- like, business-like, statesman-like. Adv. skillfully &c adj.; well &c 618; artistically; with skill, with consummate skill; secundum artem [Lat.], suo Marte; to the best of one's abilities &c (exertion) 686. Phr. ars celare artem [Lat.]; artes honorabit [Lat.]; celui qui veut celui-la peut [Fr.]; c'est une grande habilite que de savoir cacher sonhabilite [Fr.]; expertus metuit [Lat.] [Horace]; es bildet ein Talent sich in der Stille sich ein Charakter in dem Strom der Welt [G.]; heart to conceive, the understanding to direct, or the hand to execute; [Junius]; if you have lemons, make lemonade. 699. Unskillfulness -- N. unskillfulness &c adj.; want of skill &c 698; incompetence, incompentency^; inability, infelicity, indexterity^, inexperience; disqualification, unproficiency^; quackery. folly, stupidity &c 499; indiscretion &c (rashness) 863; thoughtlessness &c (inattention) 458 (neglect) 460; sabotage. mismanagement, misconduct; impolicy^; maladministration; misrule, misgovernment, misapplication, misdirection, misfeasance; petticoat government. absence of rule, rule of thumb; bungling &c v.; failure &c 732; screw loose: too many cooks. blunder &c (mistake) 495; etourderie gaucherie [Fr.], act of folly, balourdise^; botch, botchery^; bad job, sad work. sprat sent out to catch a whale, much ado about nothing, wild- goose chase. bungler &c 701; fool &c 501. V. be unskillful &c adj.; not see an inch beyond one's nose; blunder, bungle, boggle, fumble, botch, bitch, flounder, stumble, trip; hobble &c 275; put one's foot in it; make a mess of, make hash of, make sad work of; overshoot the mark. play tricks with, play Puck, mismanage, misconduct, misdirect, misapply, missend. stultify oneself, make a fool of oneself, commit oneself; act foolishly; play the fool; put oneself out of court; lose control, lose control of oneself, lose one's head, lose one's cunning. begin at the wrong end; do things by halves &c (not complete) 730; make two bites of a cherry; play at cross purposes; strain at a gnat and swallow a camel &c (caprice) 608; put the cart before the horse; lock the stable door when the horse is stolen &c (too late) 135. not know what one is about, not know one's own interest, not know on which side one's bread is buttered; stand in one's own light, quarrel with one's bread and butter, throw a stone in one's own garden, kill the goose which lays the golden eggs, pay dear for one's whistle, cut one's own throat, bum one's fingers; knock one's head against a stone wall, beat one's head against a stone wall; fall into a trap, catch a Tartar, bring the house about one's ears; have too many eggs in one basket (imprudent) 863, have too many irons in the fire. mistake &c 495; take the shadow for the substance &c (credulity) 486; bark up the wrong tree; be in the wrong box, aim at a pigeon and kill a crow; take the wrong pig by the tail, get the wrong pig by the tail, get the wrong sow by the ear, get the dirty end of the stick; put the saddle on the wrong horse, put a square peg into a round hole, put new wine into old bottles. cut blocks with a razor; hold a farthing candle to the sun &c (useless) 645; fight with a shadow, grasp at a shadow; catch at straws, lean on a broken reed, reckon without one's host, pursue a wild goose chase; go on a fool's goose chase, sleeveless errand; go further and fare worse; lose one's way, miss one's way; fail &c 732. Adj. unskillful &c 698; inexpert; bungling &c v.; awkward, clumsy, unhandy, lubberly, gauche, maladroit; left-handed, heavy-handed; slovenly, slatternly; gawky. adrift, at fault. inapt, unapt; inhabile [Fr.]; untractable^, unteachable; giddy &c (inattentive) 458; inconsiderate &c (neglectful) 460; stupid &c 499; inactive &c 683; incompetent; unqualified, disqualified, ill-qualified; unfit; quackish; raw, green, inexperienced, rusty, out of practice. unaccustomed, unused, untrained &c 537, uninitiated, unconversant &c (ignorant) 491 [Obs.]; shiftless; unstatesmanlike. unadvised; ill-advised, misadvised; ill-devised, ill-imagined, ill-judged, ill-contrived, ill-conducted; unguided, misguided; misconducted, foolish, wild; infelicitous; penny wise and pound foolish &c (inconsistent) 608. Phr. one's fingers being all thumbs; the right hand forgets its cunning; il se noyerait dans une goutte d'eau [Fr.]; incidit in Scyllam qui vult vitare Charybdim [Lat.]; out of the frying pan into the fire; non omnia possumus omnes [Lat.] [Vergil]. 700. Proficient -- N. proficient, expert, adept, dab; dabster^, crackerjack; connoisseur &c (scholar) 492; master, master hand; prima donna [Sp.], first fiddle, top gun, chef de cuisine, top sawyer; protagonist; past master; mahatma. picked man; medallist, prizeman^. veteran; old stager, old campaigner, old soldier, old file, old hand; man of business, man of the world. nice hand, good hand, clean hand; practiced hand, experienced eye, experienced hand; marksman; good shot, dead shot, crack shot; ropedancer, funambulist^, acrobat; cunning man; conjuror &c (deceiver) 548; wizard &c 994. genius; mastermind, master head, master spirit. cunning blade, sharp blade, sharp fellow; jobber; cracksman &c (thief) 792 [Obs.]; politician, tactician, strategist. pantologist^, admirable Crichton, Jack of all trades; prodigy of learning. 701. Bungler -- N. bungler; blunderer, blunderhead^; marplot, fumbler, lubber, duffer, dauber, stick; bad hand, poor hand, poor shot; butterfingers^. no conjurer, flat, muff, slow coach, looby^, lubber, swab; clod, yokel, awkward squad, blanc-bec; galoot^. land lubber; fresh water sailor, fair weather sailor; horse marine; fish out of water, ass in lion's skin, jackdaw in peacock's feathers; quack &c (deceiver) 548; lord of misrule. sloven, slattern, trapes^. amateur, novice, greenhorn (learner) 541. Phr. il n'a pas invente' la poudre [Fr.]; he will never set the Thames on fire; acierta errando [Lat.]; aliquis in omnibus nullus in singulis [Lat.]. 702. Cunning -- N. cunning, craft; cunningness^, craftiness &c adj.; subtlety, artificiality; maneuvering &c v.; temporization; circumvention. chicane, chicanery; sharp practice, knavery, jugglery^; concealment &c 528; guile, doubling, duplicity &c (falsehood) 544; foul play. diplomacy, politics; Machiavelism; jobbery, backstairs influence. art, artifice; device, machination; plot &c (plan) 626; maneuver, stratagem, dodge, sidestep, artful dodge, wile; trick, trickery &c (deception) 545; ruse, ruse de guerre [Fr.]; finesse, side blow, thin end of the wedge, shift, go by, subterfuge, evasion; white lie &c (untruth) 546; juggle, tour de force; tricks of the trade, tricks upon travelers; espieglerie [Fr.]; net, trap &c 545. Ulysses, Machiavel, sly boots, fox, reynard; Scotchman; Jew, Yankee; intriguer, intrigant^; floater [U.S.], Indian giver [U.S.], keener [U.S.], repeater [U.S.]. V. be cunning &c adj.; have cut one's eyeteeth; contrive &c (plan) 626; live by one's wits; maneuver; intrigue, gerrymander, finesse, double, temporize, stoop to conquer, reculer pour mieux sauter [Fr.], circumvent, steal a march upon; overreach &c 545; throw off one's guard; surprise &c 508; snatch a verdict; waylay, undermine, introduce the thin end of the wedge; play a deep game, play tricks with; ambiguas in vulgum spargere voces [Lat.]; flatter, make things pleasant; have an ax to grind. dodge, sidestep, bob and weave. Adj. cunning, crafty, artful; skillful &c 698; subtle, feline, vulpine; cunning as a fox, cunning as a serpent; deep, deep laid; profound; designing, contriving; intriguing &c v.; strategic, diplomatic, politic, Machiavelian, timeserving^; artificial; tricky, tricksy^; wily, sly, slim, insidious, stealthy; underhand &c (hidden) 528; subdolous^; deceitful &c 545; slippery as an eel, evasive &c 623; crooked; arch, pawky^, shrewd, acute; sharp, sharp as a tack, sharp as a needle^; canny, astute, leery, knowing, up to snuff, too clever by half, not to be caught with chaff. tactful, diplomatic, politic; polite &c 894. Adv. cunningly &c adj.; slyly, slily^, on the sly, by a side wind. Phr. diamond cut diamond; a' bis ou a blanc [Fr.]; fin contre fin [Fr.]; something is rotten in the state of Denmark [Hamlet]. 703. Artlessness -- N. artlessness &c adj.; nature, simplicity; innocence &c 946; bonhomie, naivete, abandon, candor, sincerity; singleness of purpose, singleness of heart; honesty &c 939; plain speaking; epanchement [Fr.]. rough diamond, matter of fact man; le palais de verite [Fr.]; enfant terrible [Fr.]. V. be artless &c adj.; look one in the face; wear one's heart upon his sleeves for daws to peck at^; think aloud; speak out, speak one's mind; be free with one, call a spade a spade. Adj. artless, natural, pure, native, confiding, simple, lain, inartificial^, untutored, unsophisticated, ingenu^, unaffected, naive; sincere, frank; open, open as day; candid, ingenuous, guileless; unsuspicious, honest &c 939; innocent &c 946; Arcadian^; undesigning, straightforward, unreserved, aboveboard; simple-minded, single-minded; frank-hearted, open-hearted, single-hearted, simple-hearted. free-spoken, plain-spoken, outspoken; blunt, downright, direct, matter of fact, unpoetical^; unflattering. Adv. in plain words, in plain English; without mincing the matter; not to mince the matter &c (affirmation) 535. Phr. Davus sum non Oedipus [Lat.] [Terence]; liberavi animam meam [Lat.]; as frank as rain on cherry blossoms [E.B. Browning]. SECTION IV. ANTAGONISM 1. Conditional Antagonism 704. Difficulty -- N. difficulty; hardness &c adj.; impracticability &c (impossibility) 471; tough work, hard work, uphill work; hard task, Herculean task, Augean task^; task of Sisyphus, Sisyphean labor, tough job, teaser, rasper^, dead lift. dilemma, embarrassment; deadlock; perplexity &c (uncertainty) 475; intricacy; entanglement, complexity &c 59; cross fire; awkwardness, delicacy, ticklish card to play, knot, Gordian knot, dignus vindice nodus [Lat.], net, meshes, maze; coil &c (convolution) 248; crooked path; involvement. nice point, delicate point, subtle point, knotty point; vexed question, vexata quaestio [Lat.], poser; puzzle &c (riddle) 533; paradox; hard nut to crack, nut to crack; bone to pick, crux, pons asinorum [Lat.], where the shoe pinches. nonplus, quandary, strait, pass, pinch, pretty pass, stress, brunt; critical situation, crisis; trial, rub, emergency, exigency, scramble. scrape, hobble, slough, quagmire, hot water, hornet's nest; sea of troubles, peck of troubles; pretty kettle of fish; pickle, stew, imbroglio, mess, ado; false position. set fast, stand, standstill; deadlock, dead set. fix, horns of a dilemma, cul de sac [Fr.]; hitch; stumbling block &c (hindrance) 706. [difficult person] crab; curmudgeon. V. be difficult &c adj.; run one hard, go against the grain, try one's patience, put one out; put to one's shifts, put to one's wit's end; go hard with one, try one; pose, perplex &c (uncertain) 475; bother, nonplus, gravel, bring to a deadlock; be impossible &c 471; be in the way of &c (hinder) 706. meet with difficulties; labor under difficulties; get into difficulties; plunge into difficulties; struggle with difficulties; contend with difficulties; grapple with difficulties; labor under a disadvantage; be in difficulty &c adj.. fish in troubled waters, buffet the waves, swim against the stream, scud under bare poles. Have much ado with, have a hard time of it; come to the push, come to the pinch; bear the brunt. grope in the dark, lose one's way, weave a tangled web, walk among eggs. get into a scrape &c n.; bring a hornet's nest about one's ears; be put to one's shifts; flounder, boggle, struggle; not know which way to turn &c (uncertain) 475; perdre son Latin [Fr.]; stick at, stick in the mud, stick fast; come to a stand, come to a standstill, come to a deadlock; hold the wolf by the ears, hold the tiger by the tail. render difficult &c adj.; enmesh, encumber, embarrass, ravel, entangle; put a spoke in the wheel &c (hinder) 706; lead a pretty dance. Adj. difficult, not easy, hard, tough; troublesome, toilsome, irksome; operose^, laborious, onerous, arduous, Herculean, formidable; sooner said than done; more easily said than done, easier said than done. difficult to deal with, hard to deal with; ill-conditioned, crabbed, crabby; not to be handled with kid gloves, not made with rose water. awkward, unwieldy, unmanageable; intractable, stubborn &c (obstinate) 606; perverse, refractory, plaguy^, trying, thorny, rugged; knotted, knotty; invious^; pathless, trackless; labyrinthine &c (convoluted) 248; intricate, complicated &c (tangled) 59; impracticable &c (impossible) 471; not feasible &c 470; desperate &c (hopeless) 859. embarrassing, perplexing &c (uncertain) 475; delicate, ticklish, critical; beset with difficulties, full of difficulties, surrounded by difficulties, entangled by difficulties, encompassed with difficulties. under a difficulty; in a box; in difficulty, in hot water, in the suds, in a cleft stick, in a fix, in the wrong box, in a scrape &c n., in deep water, in a fine pickle; in extremis; between two stools, between Scylla and Charybdis; surrounded by shoals, surrounded by breakers, surrounded by quicksands; at cross purposes; not out of the wood. reduced to straits; hard pressed, sorely pressed; run hard; pinched, put to it, straitened; hard up, hard put to it, hard set; put to one's shifts; puzzled, at a loss, &c (uncertain) 475; at the end of one's tether, at the end of one's rope, at one's wit's end, at a nonplus, at a standstill; graveled, nonplused, nonplussed, stranded, aground; stuck fast, set fast; up a tree, at bay, aux abois [Fr.], driven into a corner, driven from pillar to post, driven to extremity, driven to one's wit's end, driven to the wall; au bout de son Latin; out of one's depth; thrown out. accomplished with difficulty; hard-fought, hard-earned. Adv. with difficulty, with much ado; barely, hardly &c adj.; uphill; against the stream, against the grain; d rebours [Fr.]; invita Minerva [Lat.]; in the teeth of; at a pinch, upon a pinch; at long odds, against long odds. Phr. ay there's the rub [Hamlet]; hic labor hoc opus [Lat.] [Vergil]; things are come to a pretty pass, ab inconvenienti [Lat.]; ad astra per aspera [Lat.]; acun chemin de fleurs ne conduit a la gloire [Fr.]. 705. Facility -- N. facility, ease; easiness &c adj.; capability; feasibility &c (practicability) 470; flexibility, pliancy &c 324; smoothness &c 255. plain sailing, smooth sailing, straight sailing; mere child's play, holiday task; cinch [U.S.]. smooth water, fair wind; smooth royal road; clear coast, clear stage; tabula rasa [Lat.]; full play &c (freedom) 748. disencumbrance^, disentanglement; deoppilation^; permission &c 760. simplicity, lack of complication. V. be easy &c adj.; go on smoothly, run smoothly; have full play &c n.; go on all fours, run on all fours; obey the helm, work well. flow with the stream, swim with the stream, drift with the stream, go with the stream, flow with the tide, drift with the tide; see one's way; have all one's own way, have the game in one's own hands; walk over the course, win at a canter; make light of, make nothing of, make no bones of. be at home in, make it look easy, do it with one's eyes closed, do it in one's sleep &c (skillful) 698. render easy &c adj.; facilitate, smooth, ease; popularize; lighten, lighten the labor; free, clear; disencumber, disembarrass, disentangle, disengage; deobstruct^, unclog, extricate, unravel; untie the knot, cut the knot; disburden, unload, exonerate, emancipate, free from, deoppilate^; humor &c (aid) 707; lubricate &c 332; relieve &c 834. leave a hole to creep out of, leave a loophole, leave the matter open; give the reins to, give full play, give full swing; make way for; open the door to, open the way, prepare the ground, smooth the ground, clear the ground, open the way, open the path, open the road; pave the way, bridge over; permit &c 760. Adj. easy, facile; feasible &c (practicable) 470; easily managed, easily accomplished; within reach, accessible, easy of access, for the million, open to. manageable, wieldy; towardly^, tractable; submissive; yielding, ductile; suant^; pliant &c (soft) 324; glib, slippery; smooth &c 255; on friction wheels, on velvet. unembarrassed, disburdened, unburdened, disencumbered, unencumbered, disembarrassed; exonerated; unloaded, unobstructed, untrammeled; unrestrained &c (free) 748; at ease, light. [able to do easily] at home with; quite at home; in one's element, in smooth water; skillful &c 698; accustomed &c 613. Adv. easily &c adj.; readily, smoothly, swimmingly, on easy terms, single-handed. Phr. touch and go. 2. Active Antagonism 706. Hindrance -- N. prevention, preclusion, obstruction, stoppage; embolus, embolism [Med.]; infarct [Med.]; interruption, interception, interclusion^; hindrance, impedition^; retardment^, retardation; embarrassment, oppilation^; coarctation^, stricture, restriction; restraint &c 751; inhibition &c 761; blockade &c (closure) 261. interference, interposition; obtrusion; discouragement, discountenance. impediment, let, obstacle, obstruction, knot, knag^; check, hitch, contretemps, screw loose, grit in the oil. bar, stile, barrier; [barrier to vehicles] turnstile, turnpike; gate, portcullis. beaver dam; trocha^; barricade &c (defense) 717; wall, dead wall, sea wall, levee breakwater, groyne^; bulkhead, block, buffer; stopper &c 263; boom, dam, weir, burrock^. drawback, objection; stumbling-block, stumbling-stone; lion in the path, snag; snags and sawyers. encumbrance, incumbrance^; clog, skid, shoe, spoke; drag, drag chain, drag weight; stay, stop; preventive, prophylactic; load, burden, fardel^, onus, millstone round one's neck, impedimenta; dead weight; lumber, pack; nightmare, Ephialtes^, incubus, old man of the sea; remora. difficulty &c 704; insuperable &c 471; obstacle; estoppel [Law]; ill wind; head wind &c (opposition) 708; trammel, tether &c (means of restraint) 752; hold back, counterpoise. [person who hinders] damper, wet blanket, hinderer, marplot, killjoy; party pooper [Coll.]; party crasher, interloper. trail of a red herring; opponent &c 710. V. hinder, impede, filibuster [U.S.], impedite^, embarrass. keep off, stave off, ward off; obviate; avert, antevert^; turn aside, draw off, prevent, forefend, nip in the bud; retard, slacken, check, let; counteract, countercheck^; preclude, debar, foreclose, estop [Law]; inhibit &c 761; shackle &c (restrain) 751; restrict. obstruct, stop, stay, bar, bolt, lock; block, block up; choke off; belay, barricade; block the way, bar the way, stop the way; forelay^; dam up &c (close) 261; put on the brake &c n.; scotch the wheel, lock the wheel, put a spoke in the wheel; put a stop to &c 142; traverse, contravene; interrupt, intercept; oppose &c 708; hedge in, hedge round; cut off; inerclude^. interpose, interfere, intermeddle &c 682. cramp, hamper; clog, clog the wheels; cumber; encumber, incumber; handicap; choke; saddle with, load with; overload, lay; lumber, trammel, tie one's hands, put to inconvenience; incommode, discommode; discompose; hustle, corner, drive into a corner. run foul of, fall foul of; cross the path of, break in upon. thwart, frustrate, disconcert, balk, foil; faze, feaze^, feeze [U.S.]; baffle, snub, override, circumvent; defeat &c 731; spike guns &c (render useless) 645; spoil, mar, clip the wings of; cripple &c (injure) 659; put an extinguisher on; damp; dishearten &c (dissuade) 616; discountenance, throw cold water on, spoil sport; lay a wet blanket, throw a wet blanket on; cut the ground from under one, take the wind out of one's sails, undermine; be in the way of, stand in the way of; act as a drag; hang like a millstone round one's neck. Adj. hindering &c v.; obstructive, obstruent^; impeditive^, impedient^; intercipient^; prophylactic &c (remedial) 662; impedimentary. in the way of, unfavorable; onerous, burdensome; cumbrous, cumbersome; obtrusive. hindered &c v.; windbound^, waterlogged, heavy laden; hard pressed. unassisted &c (assist) &c 707; single-handed, alone; deserted &c 624. Phr. occurrent nubes [Lat.]. 707. Aid -- N. aid, aidance^; assistance, help, opitulation^, succor; support, lift, advance, furtherance, promotion; coadjuvancy &c (cooperation) 709 [Obs.]. patronage, championship, countenance, favor, interest, advocacy. sustentation, subvention, alimentation, nutrition, nourishment; eutrophy; manna in the wilderness; food &c 298; means &c 632. ministry, ministration; subministration^; accommodation. relief, rescue; help at a dead lift; supernatural aid; deus ex machina [Lat.]. supplies, reinforcements, reenforcements^, succors, contingents, recruits; support &c (physical) 215; adjunct, ally &c (helper) 711. V. aid, assist, help, succor, lend one's aid; come to the aid &c n.. of; contribute, subscribe to; bring aid, give aid, furnish aid, afford aid, supply aid &c n.; give a helping hand, stretch a hand, lend a helping hand, lend a hand, bear a helping hand, hold out a hand, hold out a helping hand; give one a life, give one a cast, give one a turn; take by the hand, take in tow; help a lame dog over a stile, lend wings to. relieve, rescue; set up, set agoing^, set on one's legs; bear through, pull through; give new life to, be the making of; reinforce, reenforce, recruit; set forward, put forward, push forward; give a lift, give a shove, give an impulse to; promote, further, forward, advance expedite, speed, quicken, hasten. support, sustain, uphold, prop, hold up, bolster. cradle, nourish; nurture, nurse, dry nurse, suckle, put out to nurse; manure, cultivate, force; foster, cherish, foment; feed the flame, fan the flame. serve; do service to, tender to, pander to; administer to, subminister to^, minister to; tend, attend, wait on; take care of &c 459; entertain; smooth the bed of death. oblige, accommodate, consult the wishes of; humor, cheer, encourage. second, stand by; back, back up; pay the piper, abet; work for, make interest for, stick up for, take up the cudgels for; take up the cause of, espouse the cause of, adopt the cause of; advocate, beat up for recruits, press into the service; squire, give moral support to, keep in countenance, countenance, patronize; lend oneself to, lend one's countenance to; smile upon, shine upon; favor, befriend, take in hand, enlist under the banners of; side with &c (cooperate) 709. be of use to; subserve &c (instrument) 631; benefit &c 648; render a service &c (utility) 644; conduce &c (tend) 176. Adj. aiding &c v.; auxiliary, adjuvant, helpful; coadjuvant &c 709 [Obs.]; subservient, ministrant, ancillary, accessory, subsidiary. at one's beck, at one's beck and call; friendly, amicable, favorable, propitious, well-disposed; neighborly; obliging &c (benevolent) 906. Adv. with the aid, by the aid of &c; on behalf of, in behalf of; in aid of, in the service of, in the name of, in favor of, in furtherance of; on account of; for the sake of, on the part of; non obstante [Lat.]. Int. help!, save us!, to the rescue!, Phr. alterum alterius auxilio eget [Lat.] [Sallust]; God befriend us as our cause is just [Henry IV]; at your service. 708. Opposition -- N. opposition, antagonism; oppugnancy^, oppugnation^; impugnation^; contrariety; contravention; counteraction &c 179; counterplot. cross fire, undercurrent, head wind. clashing, collision, conflict. competition, two of a trade, rivalry, emulation, race. absence of aid &c 708; resistance &c 719; restraint &c 751; hindrance &c 706. V. oppose, counteract, run counter to; withstand &c (resist) 719; control &c (restrain) 751; hinder &c 706; antagonize, oppugn, fly in the face of, go dead against, kick against, fall afoul of, run afoul of; set against, pit against; face, confront, cope with; make a stand, make a dead set against; set oneself against, set one's face against; protest against, vote against, raise one's voice against; disfavor, turn one's back upon; set at naught, slap in the face, slam the door in one's face. be at cross purposes; play at cross purposes; counterwork^, countermine; thwart, overthwart^; work against, undermine. stem, breast, encounter; stem the tide, breast the tide, stem the current, stem the flood; buffet the waves; beat up against, make head against; grapple with; kick against the pricks &c (resist) 719; contend &c 720; do battle with &c (warfare) 722, do battle against. contradict, contravene; belie; go against, run against, beat against, militate against; come in conflict with. emulate &c (compete) 720; rival, spoil one's trade. Adj. opposing, opposed &c v.; adverse, antagonistic; contrary &c 14; at variance &c 24; at issue, at war with. unfavorable, unfriendly; hostile, inimical, cross, unpropitious. in hostile array, front to front, with crossed bayonets, at daggers drawn; up in arms; resistant &c 719. competitive, emulous. Adv. against, versus, counter to, in conflict with, at cross purposes. against the grain, against the current, against the stream, against the wind, against the tide; with a headwind; with the wind ahead, with the wind in one's teeth. in spite, in despite, in defiance; in the way, in the teeth of, in the face of; across; athwart, overthwart^; where the shoe pinches; in spite of one's teeth. though &c 30; even; quand meme [Fr.]; per contra. Phr. nitor in adversum [Lat.]. 709. Cooperation -- N. cooperation; coadjuvancy^, coadjutancy^; coagency^, coefficiency^; concert, concurrence, complicity, participation; union &c 43; additivity, combination &c 48; collusion. association, alliance, colleagueship^, joint stock, copartnership^; cartel; confederation &c (party) 712; coalition, fusion; a long pull a strong pull and a pull all together; logrolling, freemasonry. unanimity &c (assent) 488; esprit de corps, party spirit; clanship^, partisanship; concord &c 714. synergy, coaction^. V. cooperate, concur; coact^, synergize. conduce &c 178; combine, unite one's efforts; keep together, draw together, pull together, club together, hand together, hold together, league together, band together, be banded together; pool; stand shoulder to shoulder, put shoulder to shoulder; act in concert, join forces, fraternize, cling to one another, conspire, concert, lay one's heads together; confederate, be in league with; collude, understand one another, play into the hands of, hunt in couples. side with, take side with, go along with, go hand in hand with, join hands with, make common cause with, strike in with, unite with, join with, mix oneself up with, take part with, cast in one's lot with; join partnership, enter into partnership with; rally round, follow the lead of; come to, pass over to, come into the views of; be in the same boat, row in the same boat; sail in the same boat; sail on the same tack. be a party to, lend oneself to; chip in; participate; have a hand in, have a finger in the pie; take part in, bear part in; second &c (aid) 707; take the part of, play the game of; espouse a cause, espouse a quarrel. Adj. cooperating &c v.; in cooperation &c n., in league &c (party) 712; coadjuvant^, coadjutant^; dyed in the wool; cooperative; additive; participative; coactive^, synergetic, synergistic. favorable to &c 707; unopposed &c 708. Adv. as one &c (unanimously) 488; shoulder to shoulder; synergistically; cooperatively. Phr. due teste valgono piu che una sola [It]. 710. Opponent -- N. opponent, antagonist, adversary; adverse party, opposition; enemy &c 891; the other side; assailant. oppositionist, obstructive; brawler, wrangler, brangler^, disputant; filibuster [U.S.], obstructionist. malcontent; Jacobin, Fenian; demagogue, reactionist^. rival, competitor. bete noir [Fr.]. 711. Auxiliary -- N. auxiliary; recruit; assistant; adjuvant, adjutant; ayudante^, coaid^; adjunct; help, helper, help mate, helping hand; midwife; colleague, partner, mate, confrere, cooperator; coadjutor, coadjutrix^; collaborator. ally; friend &c 890, confidant, fidus Achates [Lat.], pal, buddy, alter ego. [criminal law] confederate; accomplice; complice; accessory, accessory after the fact; particeps criminis [Lat.]; socius criminis [Lat.]. aide-de-camp, secretary, clerk, associate, marshal; right-hand, right-hand man, Friday, girl Friday, man Friday, gopher, gofer; candle- holder, bottle-holder; handmaid; servant &c 746; puppet, cat's-paw, jackal^. tool, dupe, stooge, ame damnee [Fr.]; satellite, adherent. votary; sectarian, secretary; seconder, backer, upholder, abettor, advocate, partisan, champion, patron, friend at court, mediator; angel (theater, entertainment). friend in need, Jack at a pinch, deus ex machina [Lat.], guardian angel, tutelary genius. 712. Party -- N. party, faction, side, denomination, communion, set, crew, band. horde, posse, phalanx; family, clan, &c 166; team; tong. council &c 696. community, body, fellowship, sodality, solidarity; confraternity; familistere^, familistery^; brotherhood, sisterhood. knot, gang, clique, ring, circle, group, crowd, in-crowd; coterie, club, casino^; machine; Tammany, Tammany Hall [U.S.]. corporation, corporate body, guild; establishment, company; copartnership^, partnership; firm, house; joint concern, joint-stock company; cahoot, combine [U.S.], trust. society, association; institute, institution; union; trades union; league, syndicate, alliance, Verein [G.], Bund [G.], Zollverein [G.], combination; Turnverein [G.]; league offensive and defensive, alliance offensive and defensive; coalition; federation; confederation, confederacy; junto, cabal, camarilla^, camorra^, brigue^; freemasonry; party spirit &c (cooperation) 709. Confederates, Conservatives, Democrats, Federalists, Federals, Freemason, Knight Templar; Kuklux, Kuklux Klan, KKK; Liberals, Luddites, Republicans, Socialists, Tories, Whigs &c staff; dramatis personae [Lat.]. V. unite, join; club together &c (cooperate) 709; cement a party, form a party &c n.; associate &c (assemble) 72; enleague^, federalize, go cahoots. Adj. in league, in partnership, in alliance &c n.. bonded together, banded together, linked &c (joined) 43, joined together; embattled; confederated, federative, joint. Adv. hand in hand, side by side, shoulder to shoulder, en masse, in the same boat. 713. Discord -- N. disagreement &c 24; discord, disaccord^, dissidence, dissonance; jar, clash, shock; jarring, jostling &c v.; screw loose. variance, difference, dissension, misunderstanding, cross purposes, odds, brouillerie [Fr.]; division, split, rupture, disruption, division in the camp, house divided against itself, disunion, breach; schism &c (dissent) 489; feud, faction. quarrel, dispute, tiff, tracasserie^, squabble, altercation, barney [Slang], demel_e, snarl, spat, towrow^, words, high words; wrangling &c v.; jangle, brabble^, cross questions and crooked answers, snip-snap; family jars. polemics; litigation; strife &c (contention) 720; warfare &c 722; outbreak, open rupture, declaration of war. broil, brawl, row, racket, hubbub, rixation^; embroilment, embranglement^, imbroglio, fracas, breach of the peace, piece of work [Fr.], scrimmage, rumpus; breeze, squall; riot, disturbance &c (disorder) 59; commotion &c (agitation) 315; bear garden, Donnybrook, Donnybrook Fair. subject of dispute, ground of quarrel, battle ground, disputed point; bone of contention, bone to pick; apple of discord, casus belli [Lat.]; question at issue &c (subject of inquiry) 461; vexed question, vexata quaestio [Lat.], brand of discord. troublous times^; cat-and-dog life; contentiousness &c adj.; enmity &c 889; hate &c 898; Kilkenny cats; disputant &c 710; strange bedfellows. V. be discordant &c adj.; disagree, come amiss &c 24; clash, jar, jostle, pull different ways, conflict, have no measures with, misunderstand one another; live like cat and dog; differ; dissent &c 489; have a bone to pick, have a crow to pluck with. fall out, quarrel, dispute; litigate; controvert &c (deny) 536; squabble, wrangle, jangle, brangle^, bicker, nag; spar &c (contend) 720; have words &c n.. with; fall foul of. split; break with, break squares with, part company with; declare war, try conclusions; join issue, put in issue; pick a quarrel, fasten a quarrel on; sow dissension, stir up dissension &c n.; embroil, entangle, disunite, widen the breach; set at odds, set together by the ears; set against, pit against. get into hot water, fish in troubled waters, brawl; kick up a row, kick up a dust; turn the house out of window. Adj. discordant; disagreeing &c v.; out of tune, ajar, on bad terms, dissentient &c 489; unreconciled, unpacified; contentious &c 720. quarrelsome, unpacific^; gladiatorial, controversial, polemic, disputatious; factious; litigious, litigant; pettifogging. at odds, at loggerheads, at daggers drawn, at variance, at issue, at cross purposes, at sixes and sevens, at feud, at high words; up in arms, together by the ears, in hot water, embroiled. torn, disunited. Phr. quot homines tot sententiae [Lat.] [Terence]; no love lost between them, non nostrum tantas componere lites [Lat.] [Vergil]; Mars gravior sub pace latet [Lat.] [Claudius]. 714. Concord -- N. concord, accord, harmony, symphony; homologue; agreement &c 23; sympathy, empathy &c (love) 897; response; union, unison, unity; bonds of harmony; peace &c 721; unanimity &c (assent) 488; league &c 712; happy family. rapprochement; reunion; amity &c (friendship) 888; alliance, entente cordiale [Fr.], good understanding, conciliation, peacemaker; intercessor, mediator. V. agree &c 23; accord, harmonize with; fraternize; be concordant &c adj.; go hand in hand; run parallel &c (concur) 178; understand one another, pull together &c (cooperate) 709; put up one's horses together, sing in chorus. side with, sympathize with, go with, chime in with, fall in with; come round; be pacified &c 723; assent &c 488; empathize with, enter into the ideas of, enter into the feelings of; reciprocate. hurler avec les loups [Fr.]; go with the stream, swim with the stream. keep in good humor, render accordant, put in tune; come to an understanding, meet halfway; keep the peace, remain at peace. Adj. concordant, congenial; agreeing &c v.; in accord &c n.; harmonious, united, cemented; banded together &c 712; allied; friendly &c 888; fraternal; conciliatory; at one with; of one mind &c (assent) 488. at peace, in still water; tranquil &c (pacific) 721. Adv. with one voice &c (assent) 488; in concert with, hand in hand; on one's side. Phr. commune periculum concordiam parit [Lat.]. 715. Defiance -- N. defiance; daring &c v.; dare; challenge, cartel^; threat &c 909; war cry, war whoop. chest-beating, chest-thumping; saber rattling. V. defy, dare, beard; brave &c (courage) 861; bid defiance to; set at defiance, set at naught; hurl defiance at; dance the war dance, beat the war drums; snap the fingers at, laugh to scorn; disobey &c 742. show fight, show one's teeth, show a bold front; bluster, look big, stand akimbo, beat one's chest; double the fist, shake the fist; threaten &c 909. challenge, call out; throw down the gauntlet, fling down the gauntlet, fling down the gage, fling down the glove, throw down the glove. Adj. defiant; defying &c v.. with 'with arms akimbo'. Adv. in defiance of, in the teeth of; under one's very nose. Int. do your worst!, come if you dare!, come on!, marry come up!, hoity toity!^, Phr. noli me tangere [Lat.]; nemo me impune lacessit [Lat.]; don't tread on me; don't you dare; don't even think of it; Go ahead, make my day! [Dirty Harry]. 716. Attack -- N. attack; assault, assault and battery; onset, onslaught, charge. aggression, offense; incursion, inroad, invasion; irruption; outbreak; estrapade^, ruade^; coupe de main, sally, sortie, camisade^, raid, foray; run at, run against; dead set at. storm, storming; boarding, escalade^; siege, investment, obsession^, bombardment, cannonade. fire, volley; platoon fire, file fire; fusillade; sharpshooting, broadside; raking fire, cross fire; volley of grapeshot, whiff of the grape, feu d'enfer [Fr.]. cut, thrust, lunge, pass, passado^, carte and tierce [Fr.], home thrust; coupe de bec [Fr.]; kick, punch &c (impulse) 276. battue^, razzia^, Jacquerie, dragonnade^; devastation &c 162; eboulement [Fr.]. assailant, aggressor, invader. base of operations, point of attack; echelon. V. attack, assault, assail; invade; set upon, fall upon; charge, impugn, break a lance with, enter the lists. assume the offensive, take the offensive; be the aggressor, become the aggressor; strike the first blow, draw first blood, throw the first stone at; lift a hand against, draw the sword against; take up the cudgels; advance against, march against; march upon, harry; come on, show fight. strike at, poke at, thrust at; aim a blow at, deal a blow at; give one a blow, fetch one a blow, fetch one a kick, give one a kick; have a cut at, have a shot at, take a cut at, take a shot at, have a fling at, have a shy at; be down upon, pounce upon; fall foul of, pitch into, launch out against; bait, slap on the face; make a thrust at, make a pass at, make a set at, make a dead set at; bear down upon. close with, come to close quarters; bring to bay. ride full tilt against; attack tooth and nail, go at hammer and tongs. let fly at, dash at, run a tilt at, rush at, tilt at, run at, fly at, hawk at, have at, let out at; make a dash, make a rush at; strike home; drive one hard; press one hard; be hard upon, run down, strike at the root of. lay about one, run amuck. aim at, draw a bead on [U.S.]. fire upon, fire at, fire a shot at; shoot at, pop at, level at, let off a gun at; open fire, pepper, bombard, shell, pour a broadside into; fire a volley, fire red-hot shot; spring a mine. throw a stone, throw stones at; stone, lapidate^, pelt; hurl at, hurl against, hurl at the head of; rock beset [U.S.], besiege, beleaguer; lay siege to, invest, open the trenches, plant a battery, sap, mine; storm, board, scale the walls. cut and thrust, bayonet, butt; kick, strike &c (impulse) 276; whip &c (punish) 972. [attack verbally] assail, impugn; malign (detract) 934. bomb, rocket, blast. Adj. attacking &c v.; aggressive, offensive, obsidional^. up in arms. Adv. on the offensive. Int. up and at them! Phr. the din of arms, the yell of savage rage, the shriek of agony, the groan of death [Southey]; their fatal hands no second stroke intend [Paradise Lost]; thirst for glory quells the love of life [Addison]. 717. Defense -- N. defense, protection, guard, ward; shielding &c v.; propugnation^, preservation &c 670; guardianship. area defense; site defense. self-defense, self-preservation; resistance &c 719. safeguard &c (safety) 664; balistraria^; bunker, screen &c (shelter) 666; camouflage &c (concealment) 530; fortification; munition, muniment^; trench, foxhole; bulwark, fosse^, moat, ditch, entrenchment, intrenchment^; kila^; dike, dyke; parapet, sunk fence, embankment, mound, mole, bank, sandbag, revetment; earth work, field- work; fence, wall dead wall, contravallation^; paling &c (inclosure) 232; palisade, haha, stockade, stoccado^, laager^, sangar^; barrier, barricade; boom; portcullis, chevaux de frise [Fr.]; abatis, abattis^, abbatis^; vallum^, circumvallation^, battlement, rampart, scarp; escarp^, counter-scarp; glacis, casemate^; vallation^, vanfos^. buttress, abutment; shore &c (support) 215. breastwork, banquette, curtain, mantlet^, bastion, redan^, ravelin^; vauntmure^; advance work, horn work, outwork; barbacan^, barbican; redoubt; fort-elage [Fr.], fort-alice; lines. loophole, machicolation^; sally port. hold, stronghold, fastness; asylum &c (refuge) 666; keep, donjon, dungeon, fortress, citadel, capitol, castle; tower of strength, tower of strength; fort, barracoon^, pah^, sconce, martello tower^, peelhouse^, blockhouse, rath^; wooden walls. [body armor] bulletproof vest, armored vest, buffer, corner stone, fender, apron, mask, gauntlet, thimble, carapace, armor, shield, buckler, aegis, breastplate, backplate^, cowcatcher, face guard, scutum^, cuirass, habergeon^, mail, coat of mail, brigandine^, hauberk, lorication^, helmet, helm, bassinet, salade^, heaume^, morion^, murrion^, armet^, cabaset^, vizor^, casquetel^, siege cap, headpiece, casque, pickelhaube, vambrace^, shako &c (dress) 225. bearskin; panoply; truncheon &c (weapon) 727. garrison, picket, piquet; defender, protector; guardian &c (safety) 664; bodyguard, champion; knight-errant, Paladin; propugner^. bulletproof window. hardened site. V. defend, forfend, fend; shield, screen, shroud; engarrison^; fend round &c (circumscribe) 229; fence, entrench, intrench^; guard &c (keep safe) 664; guard against; take care of &c (vigilance) 459; bear harmless; fend off, keep off, ward off, beat off, beat back; hinder &c 706. parry, repel, propugn^, put to flight; give a warm reception to [Iron.]; hold at bay, keep at bay, keep arm's length. stand on the defensive, act on the defensive; show fight; maintain one's ground, stand one's ground; stand by; hold one's own; bear the brunt, stand the brunt; fall back upon, hold, stand in the gap. Adj. defending &c v.; defensive; mural^; armed, armed at all points, armed cap-a-pie, armed to the teeth; panoplied^; iron-plated, ironclad; loopholed, castellated, machicolated^, casemated^; defended &c v.; proof against. armored, ballproof^, bulletproof; hardened. Adv. defensively; on the defense, on the defensive; in defense; at bay, pro aris et focis [Lat.]. Int. no surrender!, Phr. defense not defiance; Dieu defend le droit [Fr.]; fidei defensor [Lat.], defender of the faith. 718. Retaliation -- N. retaliation, reprisal, retort, payback; counter- stroke, counter-blast, counterplot, counter-project; retribution, lex talionis [Lat.]; reciprocation &c (reciprocity) 12. tit for tat, give and take, blow for blow, quid pro quo, a Roland for an Oliver, measure for measure, diamond cut diamond, the biter bit, a game at which two can play; reproof valiant, retort courteous. recrimination &c (accusation) 938; revenge &c 919; compensation &c 30; reaction &c (recoil) 277. V. retaliate, retort, turn upon; pay, pay off, pay back; pay in one's own coin, pay in the same coin; cap; reciprocate &c 148; turn the tables upon, return the compliment; give a quid pro quo &c n., give as much as one takes, give as good as one gets; give and take, exchange fisticuffs; be quits, be even with; pay off old scores. serve one right, be hoist on one's own petard, throw a stone in one's own garden, catch a Tartar. Adj. retaliating &c v.; retaliatory, retaliative; talionic^. Adv. in retaliation; en revanche. Phr. mutato nomine de te fabula narratur [Lat.] [Horace]; par pari refero [Lat.] [Terence]; tu quoque [Lat.], you too; you're another; suo sibi gladio hunc jugulo [Lat.]; a beau jeu beau retour [Fr.]; litem _ç [Lat.]. lite resolvit [Lat.] [Horace]. 719. Resistance -- N. resistance, stand, front, oppugnation^; oppugnancy^; opposition &c 708; renitence^, renitency; reluctation^, recalcitration^; kicking &c v.. repulse, rebuff. insurrection &c (disobedience) 742; strike; turn out, lock out, barring out; levee en masse [Fr.], Jacquerie; riot &c (disorder) 59. V. resist; not submit &c 725; repugn^, reluct, reluctate^, withstand; stand up against, strive against, bear up under, bear up against, be proof against, make head against; stand, stand firm, stand one's ground, stand the brunt of, stand out; hold one's grounds, hold one's own, hold out, hold firm. breast the wave, breast the current; stem the tide, stem the torrent; face, confront, grapple with; show a bold front &c (courage) 861; present a front; make a stand, take one's stand. kick, kick against; recalcitrate^, kick against the pricks; oppose &c 708; fly in the face of; lift the hand against &c (attack) 716; rise up in arms &c (war) 722; strike, turn out; draw up a round robin &c (remonstrate) 932; revolt &c (disobey) 742; make a riot. prendre le mors aux dents [Fr.], take the bit between the teeth; sell one's life dearly, die hard, keep at bay; repel, repulse. Adj. resisting &c v.; resistive, resistant; refractory &c (disobedient) 742; recalcitrant, renitent; up in arms. repulsive, repellant. proof against; unconquerable &c (strong) 159; stubborn, unconquered; indomitable &c (persevering) 604.1; unyielding &c (obstinate) 606. Int. hands off!, keep off!, 720. Contention -- N. contention, strife; contest, contestation^; struggle; belligerency; opposition &c 708. controversy, polemics; debate &c (discussion) 476; war of words, logomachy^, litigation; paper war; high words &c (quarrel) 713; sparring &c v.. competition, rivalry; corrivalry^, corrivalship^, agonism^, concours^, match, race, horse racing, heat, steeple chase, handicap; regatta; field day; sham fight, Derby day; turf, sporting, bullfight, tauromachy^, gymkhana^; boat race, torpids^. wrestling, greco-roman wrestling; pugilism, boxing, fisticuffs, the manly art of self-defense; spar, mill, set-to, round, bout, event, prize fighting; quarterstaff, single stick; gladiatorship^, gymnastics; jiujitsu, jujutsu, kooshti^, sumo; athletics, athletic sports; games of skill &c 840. shindy^; fracas &c (discord) 713; clash of arms; tussle, scuffle, broil, fray; affray, affrayment^; velitation^; colluctation^, luctation^; brabble^, brigue^, scramble, melee, scrimmage, stramash^, bushfighting^. free fight, stand up fight, hand to hand, running fight. conflict, skirmish; rencounter^, encounter; rencontre^, collision, affair, brush, fight; battle, battle royal; combat, action, engagement, joust, tournament; tilt, tilting [Mediev.]; tournay^, list; pitched battle. death struggle, struggle for life or death, life or death struggle, Armageddon^. hard knocks, sharp contest, tug of war. naval engagement, naumachia^, sea fight. duel, duello [It]; single combat, monomachy^, satisfaction, passage d'armes [Fr.], passage of arms, affair of honor; triangular duel; hostile meeting, digladiation^; deeds of arms, feats of arms; appeal to arms &c (warfare) 722. pugnacity; combativeness &c adj.; bone of contention &c 713. V. contend; contest, strive, struggle, scramble, wrestle; spar, square; exchange blows, exchange fisticuffs; fib^, justle^, tussle, tilt, box, stave, fence; skirmish; pickeer^; fight &c (war) 722; wrangle &c (quarrel) 713. contend with &c, grapple with, engage with, close with, buckle with, bandy with, try conclusions with, have a brush &c n.. with, tilt with; encounter, fall foul of, pitch into, clapperclaw^, run a tilt at; oppose &c 708; reluct. join issue, come to blows, go to loggerheads, set to, come to the scratch, exchange shots, measure swords, meet hand to hand; take up the cudgels, take up the glove, take up the gauntlet; enter the lists; couch one's lance; give satisfaction; appeal to arms; &c (warfare) 722. lay about one; break the peace. compete with, cope with, vie with, race with; outvie^, emulate, rival; run a race; contend for &c, stipulate for, stickle for; insist upon, make a point of. Adj. contending &c v.; together by the ears, at loggerheads. at war. at issue. competitive, rival; belligerent; contentious, combative, bellicose, unpeaceful^; warlike &c 722; quarrelsome &c 901; pugnacious; pugilistic, gladiatorial; palestric^, palestrical^. Phr. a verbis ad verbera [Lat.]; a word and a blow; a very pretty quarrel as it stands [Sheridan]; commune periculum concordiam parit [Lat.]; lis litem generat [Lat.]. 721. Peace -- N. peace; amity &c (friendship) 888; harmony &c (concord) 714; tranquility, calm &c (quiescence) 265; truce, peace treaty, accord &c (pacification) 723; peace pipe, pipe of peace, calumet of peace. piping time of peace, quiet life; neutrality. [symbol of peace] dove of peace, white dove. [person who favors peace] dove. pax Romana [Lat.]; Pax Americana [Lat.]. V. be at peace; keep the peace &c (concord) 714. make peace &c 723. Adj. pacific; peaceable, peaceful; calm, tranquil, untroubled, halcyon; bloodless; neutral. dovish Phr. the storm blown over; the lion lies down with the lamb; all quiet on the Potomac; paritur pax bello [Lat.] [Nepos]; peace hath her victories no less renowned than war [Milton]; they make a desert and they call it peace. 722. Warfare -- N. warfare; fighting &c v.; hostilities; war, arms, the sword; Mars, Bellona, grim visaged war, horrida bella [Lat.]; bloodshed. appeal to arms, appeal to the sword; ordeal of battle; wager of battle; ultima ratio regum [Lat.], arbitrament of the sword. battle array, campaign, crusade, expedition, operations; mobilization; state of siege; battlefield, theater of operations &c (arena) 728; warpath. art of war, tactics, strategy, castrametation^; generalship; soldiership; logistics; military evolutions, ballistics, gunnery; chivalry. gunpowder, shot. battle, tug of war &c (contention) 720; service, campaigning, active service, tented field; kriegspiel [G.], Kriegsspiel [G.]; fire cross, trumpet, clarion, bugle, pibroch^, slogan; war-cry, war-whoop; battle cry, beat of drum, rappel, tom-tom; calumet of war; word of command; password, watchword; passage d-armes [Fr.]. war to the death, war to the knife; guerre a mort [Fr.], guerre a outrance [Fr.]; open war, internecine war, civil war. V. arm; raise troops, mobilize troops; raise up in arms; take up the cudgels &c 720; take up arms, fly to arms, appeal to arms, fly to the sword; draw the sword, unsheathe the sword; dig up the hatchet, dig up the tomahawk; go to war, wage war, let slip the dogs of war [Julius Caesar]; cry havoc; kindle the torch of war, light the torch of war; raise one's banner, raise the fire cross; hoist the black flag; throw away, fling away the scabbard; enroll, enlist; take the field; take the law into one's own hands; do battle, give battle, join battle, engage in battle, go to battle; flesh one's sword; set to, fall to, engage, measure swords with, draw the trigger, cross swords; come to blows, come to close quarters; fight; combat; contend &c 720; battle with, break a lance with. [pirates engage in battle] raise the jolly roger, run up the jolly roger. serve; see service, be on service, be on active service; campaign; wield the sword, shoulder a musket, smell powder, be under fire; spill blood, imbrue the hands in blood; on the warpath. carry on war, carry on hostilities; keep the field; fight the good fight; fight it out, fight like devils, fight one's way, fight hand to hand; sell one's life dearly; pay the ferryman's fee. Adj. contending, contentious &c 720; armed, armed to the teeth, armed cap-a-pie; sword in hand; in arms, under arms, up in arms; at war with; bristling with arms; in battle array, in open arms, in the field; embattled; battled. unpacific^, unpeaceful^; belligerent, combative, armigerous^, bellicose, martial, warlike; military, militant; soldier-like, soldierly. chivalrous; strategical, internecine. Adv. flagrante bello [Lat.], in the thick of the fray, in the cannon's mouth; at the sword's point, at the point of the bayonet. Int. vae victis! [Lat.], to arms!, to your tents O Israel!, Phr. the battle rages; a la guerre comme a la guerre [Fr.]; bis peccare in bello non licet [Lat.]; jus gladii [Lat.]; my voice is still for war [Addison]; 'tis well that war is so terrible, otherwise we might grow fond of it [Robert E. Lee]; my sentence is for open war [Milton]; pride, pomp, and circumstance of glorious war [Othello]; the cannons have their bowels full of wrath [King John]; the cannons aspit forth their iron indignation [King John]; the fire-eyed maid of smoky war [Henry IV]; silent leges inter arma [Lat.] [Cicero]; si vis pacem para bellum [Lat.]. 723. Pacification -- N. pacification, conciliation; reconciliation, reconcilement; shaking of hands, accommodation, arrangement, adjustment; terms, compromise; amnesty, deed of release. peace offering; olive branch; calumet of peace, preliminaries of peace. truce, armistice; suspension of arms, suspension of hostilities, stand-down; breathing time; convention; modus vivendi [Lat.]; flag of truce, white flag, parlementaire [Fr.], cartel^. hollow truce, pax in bello [Lat.]; drawn battle. V. pacify, tranquilize, compose; allay &c (moderate) 174; reconcile, propitiate, placate, conciliate, meet halfway, hold out the olive branch, heal the breach, make peace, restore harmony, bring to terms. settle matters, arrange matters, accommodate matters, accommodate differences; set straight; make up a quarrel, tantas componere lites [Lat.]; come to an understanding, come to terms; bridge over, hush up; make it, make matters up; shake hands; mend one's fences [U.S.]. raise a siege, lift a siege; put up the sword, sheathe the sword; bury the hatchet, lay down one's arms, turn swords into plowshares; smoke the calumet of peace, close the temple of Janus; keep the peace &c (concord) 714; be pacified &c; come round. Adj. conciliatory; composing &c v.; pacified &c v.. Phr. requiescat in pace [Lat.]. 724. Mediation -- N. mediation, mediatorship^, mediatization^; intervention, interposition, interference, intermeddling, intercession; arbitration; flag of truce &c 723; good offices, peace offering; parley, negotiation; diplomatics^, diplomacy; compromise &c 774. [person who mediates] mediator, arbitrator, intercessor, peacemaker, makepeace^, negotiator, go-between; diplomatist &c (consignee) 758; moderator; propitiator; umpire. V. mediate, mediatize^; intercede, interpose, interfere, intervene; step in, negotiate; meet halfway; arbitrate; magnas componere lites [Lat.]. bargain &c 794 Adj. mediatory. 725. Submission -- N. submission, yielding; nonresistance; obedience &c 743. surrender, cession, capitulation, resignation; backdown^. obeisance, homage, kneeling, genuflexion^, courtesy, curtsy, kowtow, prostration. V. succumb, submit, yeild, bend, resign, defer to. lay down one's arms, deliver up one's arms; lower colors, haul down colors, strike one's flag, strike colors. surrender, surrender at discretion; cede, capitulate, come to terms, retreat, beat a retreat; draw in one's horns &c (humility) 879; give way, give round, give in, give up; cave in; suffer judgment by default; bend, bend to one's yoke, bend before the storm; reel back; bend down, knuckle down, knuckle to, knuckle under; knock under. eat dirt, eat the leek, eat humble pie; bite the dust, lick the dust; be at one's feet, fall at one's feet; craven; crouch before, throw oneself at the feet of; swallow the leek, swallow the pill; kiss the rod; turn the other cheek; avaler les couleuvres [Fr.], gulp down. obey &c 743; kneel to, bow to, pay homage to, cringe to, truckle to; bend the neck, bend the knee; kneel, fall on one's knees, bow submission, courtesy, curtsy, kowtow. pocket the affront; make the best of, make a virtue of necessity; grin and abide, grin and bear it, shrug the shoulders, resign oneself; submit with a good grace &c (bear with) 826. Adj. surrendering &c v.; submissive, resigned, crouching; downtrodden; down on one's marrow bones; on one's bended knee; unresistant, unresisting, nonresisting; pliant &c (soft) 324; undefended. untenable, indefensible; humble &c 879. Phr. have it your own way; it can't be helped; amen &c (assent) 488; da locum melioribus [Lat.]; tempori parendum [Lat.]. 726. Combatant -- N. combatant; disputant, controversialist, polemic, litigant, belligerent; competitor, rival, corrival^; fighter, assailant; champion, Paladin; mosstrooper^, swashbuckler fire eater, duelist, bully, bludgeon man, rough. prize fighter, pugilist, boxer, bruiser, the fancy, gladiator, athlete, wrestler; fighting-cock, game-cock; warrior, soldier, fighting man, Amazon, man at arms, armigerent^; campaigner, veteran; swordsman, sabreur^, redcoat, military man, Rajput. armed force, troops, soldiery, military forces, sabaoth^, the army, standing army, regulars, the line, troops of the line, militia, yeomanry, volunteers, trainband, fencible^; auxiliary, bersagliere^, brave; garde-nationale, garde-royale [Fr.]; minuteman [U.S.]; auxiliary forces, reserve forces; reserves, posse comitatus [Lat.], national guard, gendarme, beefeater; guards, guardsman; yeomen of the guard, life guards, household troops. janissary; myrmidon; Mama, Mameluke; spahee^, spahi^, Cossack, Croat, Pandoz. irregular, guerilla, partisan, condottiere^; franctireur [Fr.], tirailleur^, bashi-bazouk; [guerilla organization names: list], vietminh, vietcong; shining path; contras; huk, hukbalahap. mercenary, soldier of fortune; hired gun, gunfighter, gunslinger; bushwhacker, free lance, companion; Hessian. hit man torpedo, soldier. levy, draught; Landwehr [G.], Landsturm [G.]; conscript, recruit, cadet, raw levies. infantry, infantryman, private, private soldier, foot soldier; Tommy Atkins^, rank and file, peon, trooper, sepoy^, legionnaire, legionary, cannon fodder, food for powder; officer &c (commander) 745; subaltern, ensign, standard bearer; spearman, pikeman^; spear bearer; halberdier^, lancer; musketeer, carabineer^, rifleman, jager [G.], sharpshooter, yager^, skirmisher; grenadier, fusileer^; archer, bowman. horse and foot; horse soldier; cavalry, horse, artillery, horse artillery, light horse, voltigeur [Fr.], uhlan, mounted rifles, dragoon, hussar; light dragoon, heavy dragoon; heavy; cuirassier [Fr.]; Foot Guards, Horse Guards. gunner, cannoneer, bombardier, artilleryman^, matross^; sapper, sapper and miner; engineer; light infantry, rifles, chasseur [Fr.], zouave; military train, coolie. army, corps d'armee [Fr.], host, division, battalia^, column, wing, detachment, garrison, flying column, brigade, regiment, corps, battalion, sotnia^, squadron, company, platoon, battery, subdivision, section, squad; piquet, picket, guard, rank, file; legion, phalanx, cohort; cloud of skirmishers. war horse, charger, destrier. marine, man-of-war's man &c (sailor) 269; navy, wooden walls, naval forces, fleet, flotilla, armada, squadron. [ships of war] man-of-war; destroyer; submarine; minesweeper; torpedo-boat, torpedo-destroyer; patrol torpedo boat, PT boat; torpedo- catcher, war castle, H.M.S.; battleship, battle wagon, dreadnought, line of battle ship, ship of the line; aircraft carrier, carrier. flattop [Coll.]; helicopter carrier; missile platform, missile boat; ironclad, turret ship, ram, monitor, floating battery; first- rate, frigate, sloop of war, corvette, gunboat, bomb vessel; flagship, guard ship, cruiser; armored cruiser, protected cruiser; privateer. [supporting ships] tender; store ship, troop ship; transport, catamaran; merchant marine. 727. Arms -- N. arm, arms; weapon, deadly weapon; armament, armaments, armature; panoply, stand of arms; armor &c (defense) 717; armory &c (store) 636; apparatus belli [Lat.]. ammunition; powder, powder and shot; cartridge; ball cartridge, cartouche, fireball; villainous saltpeter [Henry IV]; dumdum bullet. explosive; gunpowder, guncotton; mercury fulminate; picrates; pentaerythritol tetranitrate, PETN. high explosive; trinitrotoluene, TNT; dynamite, melinite^, cordite, lyddite, plastic explosive, plastique; pyroxyline^. [knives and swords: list] sword, saber, broadsword, cutlass, falchion^, scimitar, cimeter^, brand, whinyard, bilbo, glaive^, glave^, rapier, skean, Toledo, Ferrara, tuck, claymore, adaga^, baselard^, Lochaber ax, skean dhu^, creese^, kris, dagger, dirk, banger^, poniard, stiletto, stylet^, dudgeon, bayonet; sword-bayonet, sword-stick; side arms, foil, blade, steel; ax, bill; pole-ax, battle-ax; gisarme^, halberd, partisan, tomahawk, bowie knife^; ataghan^, attaghan^, yataghan^; yatacban^; assagai, assegai^; good sword, trusty sword, naked sword; cold steel. club, mace, truncheon, staff, bludgeon, cudgel, life preserver, shillelah, sprig; hand staff, quarter staff; bat, cane, stick, knuckle duster; billy, blackjack, sandbag, waddy^. gun, piece [Fr.]; firearms; artillery, ordnance; siege train, battering train; park, battery; cannon, gun of position, heavy gun, field piece [Fr.], mortar, howitzer, carronade^, culverin^, basilisk; falconet, jingal^, swivel, pederero^, bouche a feu [Fr.]; petard, torpedo; mitrailleur [Fr.], mitrailleuse [Fr.]; infernal machine; smooth bore, rifled cannon, Armstrong gun^, Lancaster gun, Paixhan gun, Whitworth gun, Parrott gun, Krupp gun, Gatling gun, Maxim gun, machine gun; pompom^; ten pounder. small arms; musket, musketry, firelock^, fowling piece [Fr.], rifle, fusil^, caliver^, carbine, blunderbuss, musketoon^, Brown Bess, matchlock, harquebuss^, arquebus, haguebut^; pistol, postolet^; petronel; small bore; breach-loader, muzzle-loader; revolver, repeater; Minis rifle, Enfield rifle, Flobert rifle, Westley Richards rifle, Snider rifle, Martini-Henry rifle, Lee-Metford rifle, Lee-Enfield rifle, Mauser rifle, magazine rifle; needle gun, chassepot^; wind gun, air gun; automatic gun, automatic pistol; escopet^, escopette^, gunflint, gun- lock; hackbut^, shooter, shooting iron [U.S.], six-shooter [U.S.], shotgun; Uzzi, assault rifle, Kalashnikov. bow, crossbow, balister^, catapult, sling; battering ram &c (impulse) 276; gunnery; ballistics &c (propulsion) 284. missile, bolt, projectile, shot, ball; grape; grape shot, canister shot, bar shot, cannon shot, langrel shot^, langrage shot^, round shot, chain shot; balista^, ballista^, slung shot, trebucbet^, trebucket^; bullet, slug, stone, brickbat, grenade, shell, bomb, carcass, rocket; congreve^, congreve rocket^; shrapnel, mitraille [Fr.]; levin bolt^, levin brand^; thunderbolt. pike, lance, spear, spontoon^, javelin, dart, jereed^, jerid^, arrow, reed, shaft, bolt, boomerang, harpoon, gaff; eelspear^, oxgoad^, weet-weet, wommerah^; cattle prod; chemical mace. Phr. en flute; nervos belli pecuniam infinitam [Lat.]. 728. Arena -- N. arena, field, platform; scene of action, theater; walk, course; hustings; stare, boards &c (playhouse) 599; amphitheater; Coliseum, Colosseum; Flavian amphitheater, hippodrome, circus, race course, corso [Sp.], turf, cockpit, bear garden, playground, gymnasium, palestra, ring, lists; tiltyard^, tilting ground; Campus Martins, Champ de Allars^; campus [U.S.]. boxing ring, canvas. theater of war, seat of war; battle-field, battle-ground; field of battle, field of slaughter; Aceldama^, camp; the enemy's camp; trusting place &c (place of meeting) 74. SECTION V. RESULTS OF VOLUNTARY ACTION 729. Completion -- N. completion, accomplishment, achievement, fulfillment; performance, execution; despatch, dispatch; consummation, culmination; finish, conclusion; close &c (end) 67; terminus &c (arrival) 292; winding up; finale, denouement, catastrophe, issue, upshot, result; final touch, last touch, crowning touch, finishing touch, finishing stroke; last finish, coup de grace; crowning of the edifice; coping-stone, keystone; missing link &c 53; superstructure, ne plus ultra [Lat.], work done, fait accompli [Fr.]. elaboration; finality; completeness &c 52. V. effect, effectuate; accomplish, achieve, compass, consummate, hammer out; bring to maturity, bring to perfection; perfect, complete; elaborate. do, execute, make; go through, get through; work out, enact; bring about, bring to bear, bring to pass, bring through, bring to a head. despatch, dispatch; knock off, finish off, polish off; make short work of; dispose of, set at rest; perform, discharge, fulfill, realize; put in practice, put in force; carry out, carry into effect, carry into execution; make good; be as good as one's word. do thoroughly, not do by halves, go the whole hog; drive home; be in at the death &c (persevere) 604.1; carry through, play out, exhaust; fill the bill [U.S.]. finish, bring to a close &c (end) 67; wind up, stamp, clinch, seal, set the seal on, put the seal; give the final touch &c n.. to; put the last, put the finishing hand to, put the finishing touches on; crown, crown all; cap. ripen, culminate; come to a head, come to a crisis; come to its end; die a natural death, die of old age; run its course, run one's race; touch the goal, reach the goal, attain the goal; reach &c (arrive) 292; get in the harvest. Adj. completing, final; concluding, conclusive; crowning &c v.; exhaustive. done, completed &c v.; done for, sped, wrought out; highly wrought &c (preparation) 673; thorough &c 52; ripe &c (ready) 673. Adv. completely &c (thoroughly) 52; to crown all, out of hand. Phr. the race is run; actum est [Lat.]; finis coronat opus [Lat.]; consummatum est [Lat.]; c'en est fait [Fr.]; it is all over; the game is played out, the bubble has burst; aussitot dit aussitot fait [Fr.]; aut non tentaris aut perfice [Lat.] [Ovid]. 730. Noncompletion -- N. noncompletion, nonfulfillment; shortcoming &c 304; incompleteness &c 53; drawn battle, drawn game; work of Penelope. nonperformance, inexecution^; neglect &c 460. V. not complete &c 729; leave unfinished &c adj., leave undone, drop, put down; neglect &c 460; let alone, let slip; lose sight of (forget) 506. fall short of &c 304; do things by halves, parboil, scotch the snake not lull it; hang fire; be slow to; collapse &c 304. drop out. Adj. not completed &c v.; incomplete &c 53; uncompleted, unfinished, unaccomplished, unperformed, unexecuted; sketchy, addle. in progress, in hand; ongoing, going on, proceeding; on one's hands; on the anvil; in the fire, in the oven. parboiled, half-baked. Adv. re infecta [Lat.]. 731. Success -- N. success, successfulness; speed; advance &c (progress) 282. trump card; hit, stroke, score; lucky hit, fortunate hit, good hit, good stroke; direct hit, bull's eye; goal, point, touchdown; home run, homer, hole-in-one, grand slam; killing [make money], windfall bold stroke, master stroke; ten strike [U.S.]; coup de maitre [Fr.], checkmate; half the battle, prize; profit &c (acquisition) 775. continued success; good fortune &c (prosperity) 734; time well spent. advantage over; upper hand, whip hand; ascendancy, mastery; expugnation^, conquest, victory, subdual^; subjugation &c (subjection) 749. triumph &c (exultation) 884; proficiency &c (skill) 698. conqueror, victor, winner; master of the situation, master of the position, top of the heap, king of the hill; achiever, success, success story. V. succeed; be successful &c adj.; gain one's end, gain one's ends; crown with success. gain a point, attain a point, carry a point, secure a point, win a point, win an object; get there [U.S.]; manage to, contrive to; accomplish &c (effect) (complete) 729; do wonders, work wonders; make a go of it. come off well, come off successful, come off with flying colors; make short work of; take by storm, carry by storm; bear away the bell; win one's wings, win one's spurs, win the battle; win the day, carry the day, gain the day, gain the prize, gain the palm; have the best of it, have it all one's own way, have the game in one's owns hands, have the ball at one's feet, have one on the hop; walk over the course; carry all before one, remain in possession of the field; score a success. speed; make progress &c (advance) 282; win one's way, make one's way, work one's way, find one's way; strive to some purpose; prosper &c 734; drive a roaring trade; make profit &c (acquire) 775; reap the fruits, gather the fruits, reap the benefit of, reap the harvest; strike oil [U.S.], gain a windfall; make one's fortune, get in the harvest, turn to good account; turn to account &c (use) 677. triumph, be triumphant; gain a victory, obtain a victory, gain an advantage; chain victory to one's car; nail a coonskin to the wall. surmount a difficulty, overcome a difficulty, get over a difficulty, get over an obstacle &c 706; se tirer d'affaire [Fr.]; make head against; stem the torrent, stem the tide, stem the current; weather the storm, weather a point; turn a corner, keep one's head above water, tide over; master; get the better of, have the better of, gain the better of, gain the best of, gain the upper hand, gain the ascendancy, gain the whip hand, gain the start of; distance; surpass &c (superiority) 33. defeat, conquer, vanquish, discomfit; euchre; overcome, overthrow, overpower, overmaster, overmatch, overset^, override, overreach; outwit, outdo, outflank, outmaneuver, outgeneral, outvote; take the wind out of one's adversary's sails; beat, beat hollow; rout, lick, drub, floor, worst; put down, put to flight, put to the rout, put hors de combat [Fr.], put out of court. silence, quell, nonsuit^, checkmate, upset, confound, nonplus, stalemate, trump; baffle &c (hinder) 706; circumvent, elude; trip up, trip up the heels of; drive into a corner, drive to the wall; run hard, put one's nose out of joint. settle, do for; break the neck of, break the back of; capsize, sink, shipwreck, drown, swamp; subdue; subjugate &c (subject) 749; reduce; make the enemy bite the dust; victimize, roll in the dust, trample under foot, put an extinguisher upon. answer, answer the purpose; avail, prevail, take effect, do, turn out well, work well, take, tell, bear fruit; hit it, hit the mark, hit the right nail on the head; nick it; turn up trumps, make a hit; find one's account in. Adj. succeeding &c v.; successful; prosperous &c 734; triumphant; flushed with success, crowned with success; victorious, on top; set up; in the ascendant; unbeaten &c (beat) &c v.; well-spent; felicitous, effective, in full swing. Adv. successfully &c adj.; well flying colors, in triumph, swimmingly; a merveille [Fr.], beyond all hope; to some purpose, to good purpose; to one's heart's content. Phr. veni vidi vici [Lat.], the day being one's own, one's star in the ascendant; omne tulit punctum [Lat.]. bis vincit qui se vincit in victoria [Lat.]; cede repugnanti cedendo victor abibis [Lat.] [Ovid]; chacun est l'artisan de sa fortune [Fr.]; dies faustus [Lat.]; l'art de vaincre est celui de mepriser la mort [Fr.]; omnia vincit amor [Lat.], love conquers all; peace hath her victories no less renowned than war [Milton]; the race by vigor not by vaunts is won [Pope]; vincit qui patitur [Lat.]; vincit qui se vincit [Lat.]; The race is not always to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, but that's the way to bet [Mark Twain]. 732. Failure -- N. failure; nonsuccess^, nonfulfillment; dead failure, successlessness^; abortion, miscarriage; brutum fulmen &c 158 [Lat.]; labor in vain &c (inutility) 645; no go; inefficacy^; inefficaciousness &c adj.; vain attempt, ineffectual attempt, abortive attempt, abortive efforts; flash in the pan, lame and impotent conclusion [Othello]; frustration; slip 'twixt cup and lip &c (disappointment) 509. blunder &c (mistake) 495; fault, omission, miss, oversight, slip, trip, stumble, claudication^, footfall; false step, wrong step; faux pas [Fr.], titubation^, b_evue [Fr.], faute [Fr.], lurch; botchery &c (want of skill) 699 [Obs.]; scrape, mess, fiasco, breakdown; flunk [U.S.]. mishap &c (misfortune) 735; split, collapse, smash, blow, explosion. repulse, rebuff, defeat, rout, overthrow, discomfiture; beating, drubbing; quietus, nonsuit^, subjugation; checkmate, stalemate, fool's mate. fall, downfall, ruin, perdition; wreck &c (destruction) 162; deathblow; bankruptcy &c (nonpayment) 808. losing game, affaire flamb_ee. victim; bankrupt; flunker^, flunky [U.S.]. V. fail; be unsuccessful &c adj.; not succeed &c 731; make vain efforts &c n.; do in vain, labor in vain, toil in vain; flunk [U.S.]; lose one's labor, take nothing by one's motion; bring to naught, make nothing of; wash a blackamoor white &c (impossible) 471; roll the stones of Sisyphus &c (useless) 645; do by halves &c (not complete) 730; lose ground &c (recede) 282; fall short of &c 304. miss, miss one's aim, miss the mark, miss one's footing, miss stays; slip, trip, stumble; make a slip &c n.. blunder &c 495, make a mess of, make a botch of; bitch it^, miscarry, abort, go up like a rocket and come down like the stick, come down in flames, get shot down, reckon without one's host; get the wrong pig by the tail, get the wrong sow by the ear &c (blunder), )mismanage) 699. limp, halt, hobble, titubate^; fall, tumble; lose one's balance; fall to the ground, fall between two stools; flounder, falter, stick in the mud, run aground, split upon a rock; beat one's head against a stone wall, run one's head against a stone wall, knock one's head against a stone wall, dash one's head against a stone wall; break one's back; break down, sink, drown, founder, have the ground cut from under one; get into trouble, get into a mess, get into a scrape; come to grief &c (adversity) 735; go to the wall, go to the dogs, go to pot; lick the dust, bite the dust; be defeated &c 731; have the worst of it, lose the day, come off second best, lose; fall a prey to; succumb &c (submit) 725; not have a leg to stand on. come to nothing, end in smoke; flat out^; fall to the ground, fall through, fall dead, fall stillborn, fall flat; slip through one's fingers; hang fire, miss fire; flash in the pan, collapse; topple down &c (descent) 305; go to wrack and ruin &c (destruction) 162. go amiss, go wrong, go cross, go hard with, go on a wrong tack; go on ill, come off ill, turn out ill, work ill; take a wrong term, take an ugly term; take an ugly turn, take a turn for the worse. be all over with, be all up with; explode; dash one's hopes &c (disappoint) 509; defeat the purpose; sow the wind and reap the whirlwind, jump out of the frying pan into the fire, go from the frying pan into the fire. Adj. unsuccessful, successless^; failing, tripping &c v.; at fault; unfortunate &c 735. abortive, addle, stillborn; fruitless, bootless; ineffectual, ineffective, inconsequential, trifling, nugatory; inefficient &c (impotent) 158; insufficient &c 640; unavailing &c (useless) 645; of no effect. aground, grounded, swamped, stranded, cast away, wrecked, foundered, capsized, shipwrecked, nonsuited^; foiled; defeated &c 731; struck down, borne down, broken down; downtrodden; overborne, overwhelmed; all up with; ploughed, plowed, plucked. lost, undone, ruined, broken; bankrupt &c (not paying) 808; played out; done up, done for; dead beat, ruined root and branch, flambe^, knocked on the head; destroyed &c 162. frustrated, crossed, unhinged, disconcerted dashed; thrown off one's balance, thrown on one's back, thrown on one's beam ends^; unhorsed, in a sorry plight; hard hit. stultified, befooled^, dished, hoist on one's own petard; victimized, sacrificed. wide of the mark &c (error) 495; out of one's reckoning &c (inexpectation) 508 [Obs.]; left in the lurch; thrown away &c (wasted) 638; unattained; uncompleted &c 730. Adv. unsuccessfully &c adj.; to little or no purpose, in vain, re infecta [Lat.]. Phr. the bubble has burst, the jig is up, the game is up [Cymbeline]; all is lost; the devil to pay; parturiunt montes &c (disappointment) 509 [Lat.]; dies infaustus [Lat.]; tout est perdu hors l'honneur [Fr.]. 733. Trophy -- N. trophy; medal, prize, palm, award; laurel, laurels; bays, crown, chaplet, wreath, civic crown; insignia &c 550; feather in one's cap &c (honor) 873; decoration &c 877; garland, triumphal arch, Victoria Cross, Iron Cross. triumph &c (celebration) 883; flying colors &c (show) 882. monumentum aere perennius [Horace]. Phr. for valor 734. Prosperity -- N. prosperity, welfare, well-being; affluence &c (wealth) 803; success &c 731; thrift, roaring trade; good fortune, smiles of fortune; blessings, godsend. luck; good luck, run of luck; sunshine; fair weather, fair wind; palmy days, bright days, halcyon days; piping times, tide, flood, high tide. Saturnia regna [Lat.], Saturnian age; golden time, golden age; bed of roses, fat city [Coll.]; fat of the land, milk and honey, loaves and fishes. made man, lucky dog, enfant gate [Fr.], spoiled child of fortune. upstart, parvenu, skipjack^, mushroom. V. prosper, thrive, flourish; be prosperous &c adj.; drive a roaring trade, do a booming business; go on well, go on smoothly, go on swimmingly; sail before the wind, swim with the tide; run smooth, run smoothly, run on all fours. rise in the world, get on in the world; work one's way, make one's way; look up; lift one's head, raise one's head, make one's fortune, feather one's nest, make one's pile. flower, blow, blossom, bloom, fructify, bear fruit, fatten. keep oneself afloat; keep one's head above water, hold one's head above water; land on one's feet, light on one's feet, light on one's legs, fall on one's legs, fall on one's feet; drop into a good thing; bear a charmed life; bask in the sunshine; have a good time of it, have a fine time of it; have a run of luck; have the good fortune &c n.. to; take a favorable turn; live on the fat of the land, live off the fat of the land, live in clover. Adj. prosperous; thriving &c v.; in a fair way, buoyant; well off, well to do, well to do in the world; set up, at one's ease; rich &c 803; in good case; in full, in high feather; fortunate, lucky, in luck; born with a silver spoon in one's mouth, born under a lucky star; on the sunny side of the hedge. auspicious, propitious, providential. palmy, halcyon; agreeable &c 829; couleur de rose [Fr.]. Adv. prosperously &c adj.; swimmingly; as good luck would have it; beyond all hope. Phr. one's star in the ascendant, all for the best, one's course runs smooth. chacun est l'artisan de sa fortune [Fr.]; donec eris felix multos numerabis amicos [Lat.] [Ovid]; felicitas multos habet amicos [Lat.]; felix se nescit amari [Lat.] [Lucan]; good luck go with thee [Henry V]; nulli est homini perpetuum bonum [Lat.] [Plautus]. 735. Adversity -- N. adversity, evil &c 619; failure &c 732; bad luck, ill luck, evil luck, adverse luck, hard fortune, hard hap, hard luck, hard lot; frowns of fortune; evil dispensation, evil star, evil genius^; vicissitudes of life, ups and downs of life, broken fortunes; hard case, hard lines, hard life; sea of troubles; peck of troubles; hell upon earth; slough of despond. trouble, hardship, curse, blight, blast, load, pressure. pressure of the times, iron age, evil day, time out of joint; hard times, bad times, sad times; rainy day, cloud, dark cloud, gathering clouds, ill wind; visitation, infliction; affliction &c (painfulness) 830; bitter pill; care, trial; the sport of fortune. mishap, mischance, misadventure, misfortune; disaster, calamity, catastrophe; accident, casualty, cross, reverse, check, contretemps, rub; backset^, comedown, setback [U.S.]. losing game; falling &c v.; fall, downfall; ruination, ruinousness; undoing; extremity; ruin &c (destruction) 162. V. be ill off &c adj.; go hard with; fall on evil, fall on evil days; go on ill; not prosper &c 734. go downhill, go to rack and ruin &c (destruction) 162, go to the dogs; fall, fall from one's high estate; decay, sink, decline, go down in the world; have seen better days; bring down one's gray hairs with sorrow to the grave; come to grief; be all over, be up with; bring a wasp's nest about one's ears, bring a hornet's nest about one's ears. Adj. unfortunate, unblest^, unhappy, unlucky; improsperous^, unprosperous; hoodooed [U.S.]; luckless, hapless; out of luck; in trouble, in a bad way, in an evil plight; under a cloud; clouded; ill off, badly off; in adverse circumstances; poor &c 804; behindhand, down in the world, decayed, undone; on the road to ruin, on its last legs, on the wane; in one's utmost need. planet-struck, devoted; born under an evil star, born with a wooden ladle in one's mouth; ill-fated, ill-starred, ill-omened. adverse, untoward; disastrous, calamitous, ruinous, dire, deplorable. 736. Mediocrity -- N. moderate circumstances, average circumstances; respectability; middle classes; mediocrity; golden mean &c (mid-course) 628, (moderation) 174. V. jog on; go fairly, go quietly, go peaceably, go tolerably, go respectably, get on fairly, get on quietly, get on peaceably, get on tolerably, get on respectably. DIVISION II INTERSOCIAL VOLITION SECTION I. GENERAL INTERSOCIAL VOLITION 737. Authority -- N. authority; influence, patronage, power, preponderance, credit, prestige, prerogative, jurisdiction; right &c (title) 924; direction &c 693; government &c 737.1. divine right, dynastic rights, authoritativeness; absoluteness, absolutism; despotism; jus nocendi [Lat.]; jus divinum [Lat.]. mastery, mastership, masterdom^; dictation, control. hold, grasp; grip, gripe; reach; iron sway &c (severity) 739; fangs, clutches, talons; rod of empire &c (scepter) 747. [Vicarious authority] commission &c 755; deputy &c 759; permission &c 760. V. authorize &c (permit) 760; warrant &c (right) 924; dictate &c (order) 741. be at the head of &c adj.; hold office, be in office, fill an office; hold master, occupy master, a post master, be master &c 745. have the upper hand, get the upper hand, have the whip, get the whip; gain a hold upon, preponderate, dominate, rule the roost; boss [U.S.]; override, overrule, overawe; lord it over, hold in hand, keep under, make a puppet of, lead by the nose, turn round one's little finger, bend to one's will, hold one's own, wear the breeches; have the ball at one's feet, have it all one's own way, have the game in one's own hand, have on the hip, have under one's thumb; be master of the situation; take the lead, play first fiddle, set the fashion; give the law to; carry with a high hand; lay down the law; ride in the whirlwind and direct the storm [Addison]; rule with a rod of iron &c (severity) 739. Adj. at the head, dominant, paramount, supreme, predominant, preponderant, in the ascendant, influential; arbitrary; compulsory &c 744; stringent. at one's command; in one's power, in one's grasp; under control. Adv. in the name of, by the authority of, de par le Roi [Fr.], in virtue of; under the auspices of, in the hands of. at one's pleasure; by a dash if the pen, by a stroke of the pen; ex mero motu [Lat.]; ex cathedra [Lat.], from the chair. Phr. the gray mare the better horse; every inch a king [Lear]. 780, 737a. Government -- N. government, legal authority, soveriegn, sovereign authority; authority &c 737; master &c 745; direction &c 693. [nations] national government, nation, state, country, nation- state, dominion, republic, empire, union, democratic republic; kingdom, principality. [subdivisions of nations] state government [Lat.], state; shire [Brit.]; province [Can.]; county [Ire.]; canton [Switz.]; territory [Austral.]; duchy, archduchy, archdukedom^; woiwodshaft; commonwealth; region &c 181; property &c 780. [smaller subdivisions] county, parish city, domain, tract, arrondissement [Fr.], mofussil^, commune; wappentake, hundred, riding, lathe, garth^, soke^, tithing; ward, precinct, bailiwick. command, empire, sway, rule; dominion, domination; sovereignty, supremacy, suzerainty; lordship, headship^; chiefdom^; seigniory, seigniority^. rule, sway, command, control, administer; govern &c (direct) 693; lead, preside over, reign, possess the throne, be seated on the throne, occupy the throne; sway the scepter, wield the scepter; wear the crown. state, realm, body politic, posse comitatus [Lat.]. [person in the governing authority] judicature &c 965; cabinet &c (council) 696; seat of government, seat of authority; headquarters. [Acquisition of authority] accession; installation &c 755; politics &c 737.1. reign, regime, dynasty; directorship, dictatorship; protectorate, protectorship; caliphate, pashalic^, electorate; presidency, presidentship^; administration; proconsul, consulship; prefecture; seneschalship; magistrature^, magistracy. monarchy; kinghood^, kingship; royalty, regality; aristarchy^, aristocracy; oligarchy, democracy, theocracy, demagogy; commonwealth; dominion; heteronomy; republic, republicanism; socialism; collectivism; mob law, mobocracy^, ochlocracy^; vox populi, imperium in imperio [Lat.]; bureaucracy; beadledom^, bumbledom^; stratocracy; military power, military government, junta; feodality^, feudal system, feudalism. thearchy^, theocracy, dinarchy^; duarchy^, triarchy, heterarchy^; duumvirate; triumvirate; autocracy, autonomy; limited monarchy; constitutional government, constitutional monarchy; home rule; representative government; monocracy^, pantisocracy^. gynarchy^, gynocracy^, gynaeocracy^; petticoat government. [government functions] legislature, judiciary, administration. [Government agencies and institutions] office of the president, office of the prime minister, cabinet; senate, house of representatives, parliament; council &c 696; courts, supreme court; [U.S. national government departments], state, interior, labor, health and human services, defense, education, agriculture, justice, commerce, treasury; Federal Bureau of Investigation, FBI; Central Intelligence Agency, CIA; National Institutes of Health, NIH; Postal Service, Post Office; Federal Aviation Administration, FAA. [national government officials] president, vice president, cabinet member, prime minister, minister; senator, representatative, president pro tem [Lat.], speaker of the house; department head, section head, section chief; federal judge, justice, justice of the supreme court, chief justice; treasurer, secretary of the treasury; director of the FBI. [state government officials] governor, state cabinet member; state senator, assemblyman, assemblywoman. V. govern, rule, have authority, hold authority, possess authority, exercise authority, exert authority, wield authority &c n.; reign, be sovereign. [acquire authority] ascend the throne, mount the throne; take the reins, take the reins into one's hand; assume authority &c n., assume the reins of government; take command, assume command. [contend for authority] politics &c 737.1. be governed by, be in the power of, be a subject of, be a citizen of. Adj. regal, sovereign, governing; royal, royalist; monarchical, kingly; imperial, imperiatorial^; princely; feudal; aristocratic, autocratic; oligarchic &c n.; republican, dynastic. ruling &c v.; regnant, gubernatorial; imperious; authoritative, executive, administrative, clothed with authority, official, departmental, ex officio, imperative, peremptory, overruling, absolute; hegemonic, hegemonical^; authorized &c (due) 924. [pertaining to property owned by government] government, public; national, federal; his majesty's [Brit.], her majesty's; state, county, city, &c N.. Phr. a dog's obeyed in office [Lear]; cada uno tiene su alguazil [Sp.]; le Roi le veut [Fr.]; regibus esse manus en nescio longas [Lat.]; regnant populi [Lat.]; the demigod Authority [Lat.Tran] [Measure for Measure]; the right divine of kings to govern wrong [Pope]; uneasy lies the head that wears a crown [Henry IV]. 737b. Politics [contention for governmental authority or influence]. -- N. politics; political science; candidacy, campaign, campaigning, electioneering; partisanship, ideology, factionalism. election, poll, ballot, vote, referendum, recall, initiative, voice, suffrage, plumper, cumulative vote, plebiscitum [Lat.], plebiscite, vox populi; electioneering; voting &c v.; elective franchise; straight ticket [U.S.]; opinion poll, popularity poll. issue; opinion, stand, position; program, platform; party line. [ideologies] democracy, republicanism; communism, statism, state socialism; socialism; conservatism, toryism; liberalism, whigism; theocracy; constitutional monarchy. [political parties] party &c 712; [U.S: Political parties list], Democratic Party, Republican Party, Socialist Party; Communist Party; [U.S. defunct parties: list], Federalist Party, Bull Moose Party, Abolitionist Party; [Germany: list], Christian Democratic Party, Social Democratic Party; National Socialist Worker's Party; [Germany, 1930- 1945], Nazi Party; [Great Britain:list], Liberal Party, Labor Party, Conservative Party. ticket, slate. [person active in politics] politician activist; [specific politicians: list], candidate, aspirant, hopeful, office-seeker, front- runner, dark horse, long shot, shoo-in; supporter, backer, political worker, campaign worker; lobbyist, contributor; party hack, ward heeler; regional candidate, favorite son; running mate, stalking horse; perpetual candidate, political animal. political contribution, campaign contribution; political action committee, PAC. political district, electoral division, electoral district, bailiwick. electorate, constituents. get-out-the-vote campaign, political education. negative campaigning, dirty politics, smear campaign. [unsuccessful candidate] also-ran, loser; has-been. [successful candidate] office holder, official, occupant of a position; public servant, incumbent; winner. V. run for office, stand for office; campaign, stump; throw one's hat in the ring; announce one's candidacy. Adj. political, partisan. Phr. Money is the mother's milk of politics [Tip O'Neill]. 738. [Absence of authority] Laxity -- N. laxity; laxness, looseness, slackness; toleration &c (lenity) 740; freedom &c 748. anarchy, interregnum; relaxation; loosening &c v.; remission; dead letter, brutum fulmen [Lat.], misrule; license, licentiousness; insubordination &c (disobedience) 742; lynch law &c (illegality) 964; nihilism, reign of violence. [Deprivation of power] dethronement, deposition, usurpation, abdication. V. be lax &c adj.; laisser faire [Fr.], laisser aller [Fr.]; hold a loose rein; give the reins to, give rope enough, give a loose to; tolerate; relax; misrule. go beyond the length of one's tether; have one's swing, have one's fling; act without instructions, act without authority, act outside of one's authority; act on one's own responsibility, usurp authority. dethrone, depose; abdicate. Adj. lax, loose; slack; remiss &c (careless) 460; weak. relaxed; licensed; reinless^, unbridled; anarchical; unauthorized &c (unwarranted) 925; adespotic^. 739. Severity -- N. severity; strictness, harshness &c adj.; rigor, stringency, austerity; inclemency &c (pitilessness) 914.1; arrogance &c 885; precisianism^. arbitrary power; absolutism, despotism; dictatorship, autocracy, tyranny, domineering, oppression; assumption, usurpation; inquisition, reign of terror, martial law; iron heel, iron rule, iron hand, iron sway; tight grasp; brute force, brute strength; coercion &c 744; strong hand, tight hand. hard lines, hard measure; tender mercies [Iron.]; sharp practice; pipe-clay, officialism. tyrant, disciplinarian, precisian^, martinet, stickler, bashaw^, despot, hard master, Draco, oppressor, inquisitor, extortioner, harpy, vulture; accipitres^, birds of prey, raptorials^, raptors^. V. be severe &c adj.. assume, usurp, arrogate, take liberties; domineer, bully &c 885; tyrannize, inflict, wreak, stretch a point, put on the screw; be hard upon; bear a heavy hand on, lay a heavy hand on; be down upon, come down upon; ill treat; deal hardly with, deal hard measure to; rule with a rod of iron, chastise with scorpions; dye with blood; oppress, override; trample under foot; tread under foot, tread upon, trample upon, tread down upon, trample down upon; crush under an iron heel, ride roughshod over; rivet the yoke; hold a tight hand, keep a tight hand; force down the throat; coerce &c 744; give no quarter &c (pitiless) 914.1. Adj. severe; strict, hard, harsh, dour, rigid, stiff, stern, rigorous, uncompromising, exacting, exigent, exigeant^, inexorable, inflexible, obdurate, austere, hard-headed, hard-nosed, hard-shell [U.S.], relentless, Spartan, Draconian, stringent, strait-laced, searching, unsparing, iron-handed, peremptory, absolute, positive, arbitrary, imperative; coercive &c 744; tyrannical, extortionate, grinding, withering, oppressive, inquisitorial; inclement &c (ruthless) 914.1; cruel &c (malevolent) 907; haughty, arrogant &c 885; precisian^. Adv. severely &c adj.; with a high hand, with a strong hand, with a tight hand, with a heavy hand. at the point of the sword, at the point of the bayonet. Phr. Delirant reges plectuntur Achivi [Lat.]; manu forti [Lat.]; ogni debole ha sempre il suo tiranno [It]. 740. Lenity -- N. lenity, lenience, leniency; moderation &c 174; tolerance, toleration; mildness, gentleness; favor, indulgence, indulgency^; clemency, mercy, forbearance, quarter; compassion &c 914. V. be lenient &c adj.; tolerate, bear with; parcere subjectis [Lat.], give quarter. indulge, allow one to have his own way, spoil. Adj. lenient; mild, mild as milk; gentle, soft; tolerant, indulgent, easy-going; clement &c (compassionate) 914; forbearing; long-suffering. 741. Command -- N. command, order, ordinance, act, fiat, hukm^, bidding, dictum, hest^, behest, call, beck, nod. despatch, dispatch; message, direction, injunction, charge, instructions; appointment, fixture. demand, exaction, imposition, requisition, claim, reclamation, revendication^; ultimatum &c (terms) 770; request &c 765; requirement. dictation; dictate, mandate; caveat, decree, senatus consultum [Lat.]; precept; prescript, rescript; writ, ordination, bull, ex cathedra pronouncement [Lat.], edict, decretal^, dispensation, prescription, brevet, placit^, ukase, ukaz [Rus.], firman, hatti- sherif^, warrant, passport, mittimus, mandamus, summons, subpoena, nisi prius [Lat.], interpellation, citation; word, word of command; mot d'ordre [Fr.]; bugle call, trumpet call; beat of drum, tattoo; order of the day; enactment &c (law) 963; plebiscite &c (choice) 609. V. command, order, decree, enact, ordain, dictate, direct, give orders. prescribe, set, appoint, mark out; set a task, prescribe a task, impose a task; set to work, put in requisition. bid, enjoin, charge, call upon, instruct; require at the hands of; exact, impose, tax, task; demand; insist on &c (compel) 744. claim, lay claim to, revendicate^, reclaim. cite, summon; call for, send for; subpoena; beckon. issue a command; make a requisition, issue a requisition, promulgate a requisition, make a decree, issue a decree, promulgate a decree, make an order, issue an order, promulgate an order &c n.; give the word of command, give the word, give the signal; call to order; give the law, lay down the law; assume the command &c (authority) 737; remand. be ordered &c; receive an order &c n.. Adj. commanding &c v.; authoritative &c 737; decretory^, decretive^, decretal^; callable, jussive^. Adv. in a commanding tone; by a stroke of the pen, by a dash of the pen; by order, at beat of drum, on the first summons. Phr. the decree is gone forth; sic volo sic jubeo [Lat.]; le Roi le veut [Fr.]; boutez en avant [Fr.]. 742. Disobedience -- N. disobedience, insubordination, contumacy; infraction, infringement; violation, noncompliance; nonobservance &c 773. revolt, rebellion, mutiny, outbreak, rising, uprising, insurrection, emeute [Fr.]; riot, tumult &c (disorder) 59; strike &c (resistance) 719; barring out; defiance &c 715. mutinousness &c adj.; mutineering^; sedition, treason; high treason, petty treason, misprision of treason; premunire [Lat.]; lese majeste [Fr.]; violation of law &c 964; defection, secession. insurgent, mutineer, rebel, revolter, revolutionary, rioter, traitor, quisling, carbonaro^, sansculottes [Fr.], red republican, bonnet rouge, communist, Fenian, frondeur; seceder, secessionist, runagate, renegade, brawler, anarchist, demagogue; Spartacus, Masaniello, Wat Tyler, Jack Cade; ringleader. V. disobey, violate, infringe; shirk; set at defiance &c (defy) 715; set authority at naught, run riot, fly in the face of; take the law into one's own hands; kick over the traces. turn restive, run restive; champ the bit; strike &c (resist) 719; rise, rise in arms; secede; mutiny, rebel. Adj. disobedient; uncomplying, uncompliant; unsubmissive^, unruly, ungovernable; breachy^, insubordinate, impatient of control, incorrigible; restiff^, restive; refractory, contumacious, recusant &c (refuse) 764; recalcitrant; resisting &c 719; lawless, mutinous, seditions, insurgent, riotous. unobeyed^; unbidden. Phr. seditiosissimus quisque ignavus [Lat.] [Tacitus]; unthread the rude eye of rebellion [King John]. 743. Obedience -- N. obedience; observance &c 772; compliance; submission &c 725; subjection &c 749; nonresistance; passiveness, resignation. allegiance, loyalty, fealty, homage, deference, devotion; constancy, fidelity. submissness^, submissiveness; ductility &c (softness) 324; obsequiousness &c (servility) 886. V. be obedient &c adj.; obey, bear obedience to; submit &c 725; comply, answer the helm, come at one's call; do one's bidding, do what one is told, do suit and service; attend to orders, serve faithfully. follow the lead of, follow to the world's end; serve &c 746; play second fiddle. Adj. obedient; complying, compliant; loyal, faithful, devoted; at one's call, at one's command, at one's orders, at one's beck and call; under beck and call, under control. restrainable; resigned, passive; submissive &c 725; henpecked; pliant &c (soft) 324. unresisted^. Adv. obediently &c adj.; in compliance with, in obedience to. Phr. to hear is to obey; as you please, if you please; your wish is my command; as you wish; no sooner said than done. 744. Compulsion -- N. compulsion, coercion, coaction^, constraint, duress, enforcement, press, conscription. force; brute force, main force, physical force; the sword, ultima ratio [Lat.]; club law, lynch law, mob law, arguementum baculinum^, le droit du plus fort [Fr.], martial law. restraint &c 751; necessity &c 601; force majeure [Fr.]; Hobson's choice. V. compel, force, make, drive, coerce, constrain, enforce, necessitate, oblige. force upon, press; cram down the throat, thrust down the throat, force down the throat; say it must be done, make a point of, insist upon, take no denial; put down, dragoon. extort, wring from; squeeze, put on the squeeze; put on the screws, turn on the screw; drag into; bind, bind over; pin down, tie down; require, tax, put in force; commandeer; restrain &c 751. Adj. compelling &c v.; coercive, coactive^; inexorable &c 739; compulsory, compulsatory^; obligatory, stringent, peremptory. forcible, not to be trifled with; irresistible &c 601; compelled &c v.; fain to. Adv. by force &c n., by force of arms; on compulsion, perforce; vi et armis [Lat.], under the lash; at the point of the sword, at the point of the bayonet; forcibly; by a strong arm. under protest, in spite of one's teeth; against one's will &c 603; nolens volens &c (of necessity) 601 [Lat.]; by stress of circumstances, by stress of weather; under press of; de rigueur. with a gun to one's head. Phr. I'll make him an offer he can't refuse. 745. Master -- N. master, padrone; lord, lord paramount; commander, commandant; captain; chief, chieftain; sirdar^, sachem, sheik, head, senior, governor, ruler, dictator; leader &c (director) 694; boss, cockarouse^, sagamore, werowance^. lord of the ascendant; cock of the walk, cock of the roost; gray mare; mistress. potentate; liege, liege lord; suzerain, sovereign, monarch, autocrat, despot, tyrant, oligarch. crowned head, emperor, king, anointed king, majesty, imperator [Lat.], protector, president, stadholder^, judge. ceasar, kaiser, czar, tsar, sultan, soldan^, grand Turk, caliph, imaum^, shah, padishah^, sophi^, mogul, great mogul, khan, lama, tycoon, mikado, tenno [Jap.], inca, cazique^; voivode^; landamman^; seyyid^; Abuna^, cacique^, czarowitz^, grand seignior. prince, duke &c (nobility) 875; archduke, doge, elector; seignior; marland^, margrave; rajah, emir, wali, sheik nizam^, nawab. empress, queen, sultana, czarina, princess, infanta, duchess, margravine^; czarevna^, czarita^; maharani, rani, rectrix^. regent, viceroy, exarch^, palatine, khedive, hospodar^, beglerbeg^, three-tailed bashaw^, pasha, bashaw^, bey, beg, dey^, scherif^, tetrarch, satrap, mandarin, subahdar^, nabob, maharajah; burgrave^; laird &c (proprietor) 779; collector, commissioner, deputy commissioner, woon^. the authorities, the powers that be, the government; staff, etat major [Fr.], aga^, official, man in office, person in authority; sircar^, sirkar^, Sublime Porte. [Military authorities] marshal, field marshal, marechal^; general, generalissimo; commander in chief, seraskier^, hetman^; lieutenant general, major general; colonel, lieutenant colonel, major, captain, centurion, skipper, lieutenant, first lieutenant, second lieutenant, sublieutenant, officer, staff officer, aide-de-camp, brigadier, brigade major, adjutant, jemidar^, ensign, cornet, cadet, subaltern, noncommissioned officer, warrant officer; sergeant, sergeant major; color sergeant; corporal, corporal major; lance corporal, acting corporal; drum major; captain general, dizdar^, knight marshal, naik^, pendragon. [Civil authorities] mayor, mayoralty; prefect, chancellor, archon, provost, magistrate, syndic; alcalde^, alcaid^; burgomaster, corregidor^, seneschal, alderman, councilman, committeeman, councilwoman, warden, constable, portreeve^; lord mayor; officer &c (executive) 965; dewan^, fonctionnaire [Fr.]. [Naval authorities] admiral, admiralty; rear admiral, vice admiral, port admiral; commodore, captain, commander, lieutenant, ensign, skipper, mate, master, officer of the day, OD; navarch^. Phr. da locum melioribus [Lat.]; der Furst ist der erste Diener seines Staats [G.], the prince is the first servant of his state; lord of thy presence and no land beside [King John]. 746. Servant -- N. subject, liegeman^; servant, retainer, follower, henchman, servitor, domestic, menial, help, lady help, employe, attache; official. retinue, suite, cortege, staff, court. attendant, squire, usher, page, donzel^, footboy^; train bearer, cup bearer; waiter, lapster^, butler, livery servant, lackey, footman, flunky, flunkey, valet, valet de chambre [Fr.]; equerry, groom; jockey, hostler, ostler^, tiger, orderly, messenger, cad, gillie^, herdsman, swineherd; barkeeper, bartender; bell boy, boots, boy, counterjumper^; khansamah^, khansaman^; khitmutgar^; yardman. bailiff, castellan^, seneschal, chamberlain, major-domo^, groom of the chambers. secretary; under secretary, assistant secretary; clerk; subsidiary; agent &c 758; subaltern; underling, understrapper; man. maid, maidservant; handmaid; confidente [Fr.], lady's maid, abigail, soubrette; amah^, biddy, nurse, bonne [Fr.], ayah^; nursemaid, nursery maid, house maid, parlor maid, waiting maid, chamber maid, kitchen maid, scullery maid; femme de chambre [Fr.], femme fille [Fr.]; camarista^; chef de cuisine, cordon bleu [Fr.], cook, scullion, Cinderella; potwalloper^; maid of all work, servant of all work; laundress, bedmaker^; journeyman, charwoman &c (worker) 690; bearer, chokra^, gyp (Cambridge), hamal^, scout (Oxford). serf, vassal, slave, negro, helot; bondsman, bondswoman^; bondslave^; ame damnee [Fr.], odalisque, ryot^, adscriptus gleboe [Lat.]; villian^, villein; beadsman^, bedesman^; sizar^; pensioner, pensionary^; client; dependant, dependent; hanger on, satellite; parasite &c (servility) 886; led captain; protege [Fr.], ward, hireling, mercenary, puppet, tool, creature. badge of slavery; bonds &c 752. V. serve; wait upon, attend upon, dance attendance upon, pin oneself upon; squire, tend, hang on the sleeve of; chore [U.S.]. Adj. in the train of; in one's pay, in one's employ; at one's call &c (obedient) 743; in bonds. 747. [Insignia of authority.] Scepter -- N. scepter, regalia, caduceus; Mercury's rod, Mercury's staff, Mercury's wand; rod of empire, mace, fasces^, wand; staff, staff of office; baton, truncheon; flag &c (insignia) 550; ensign of authority, emblem of authority, badge of authority, insignia of authority. throne, chair, musnud^, divan, dais, woolsack^. toga, pall, mantle, robes of state, ermine, purple. crown, coronet, diadem, tiara, cap of maintenance; decoration; title &c 877; portfolio. key, signet, seals, talisman; helm; reins &c (means of restraint) 752. 748. Freedom -- N. freedom, liberty, independence; license &c (permission) 760; facility &c 705. scope, range, latitude, play; free play, full play, free scope, full scope; free stage and no favor; swing, full swing, elbowroom, margin, rope, wide berth; Liberty Hall. franchise, denization^; free man, freed man, livery man; denizen. autonomy, self-government, liberalism, free trade; noninterference &c 706; Monroe Doctrine [U.S.]. immunity, exemption; emancipation &c (liberation) 750; enfranchisement, affranchisement^. free land, freehold; allodium^; frankalmoigne [Fr.], mortmain [Fr.]. bushwhacker; freelance, free thinker, free trader; independent. V. be free &c adj.; have scope &c n., have the run of, have one's own way, have a will of one's own, have one's fling; do what one likes, do what one wishes, do what one pleases, do what one chooses; go at large, feel at home, paddle one's own canoe; stand on one's legs, stand on one's rights; shift for oneself. take a liberty; make free with, make oneself quite at home; use a freedom; take leave, take French leave. set free &c (liberate) 750; give a loose to &c (permit) 760; allow scope &c n.. to, give scope &c n.. to; give a horse his head. make free of; give the freedom of, give the franchise; enfranchise, affranchise^. laisser faire [Fr.], laisser aller [Fr.]; live and let live; leave to oneself; leave alone, let alone. Adj. free, free as air; out of harness, independent, at large, loose, scot-free; left alone, left to oneself. in full swing; uncaught, unconstrained, unbuttoned, unconfined, unrestrained, unchecked, unprevented^, unhindered, unobstructed, unbound, uncontrolled, untrammeled. unsubject^, ungoverned, unenslaved^, unenthralled^, unchained, unshackled, unfettered, unreined^, unbridled, uncurbed, unmuzzled. unrestricted, unlimited, unmitigated, unconditional; absolute; discretionary &c (optional) 600. unassailed, unforced, uncompelled. unbiassed^, spontaneous. free and easy; at ease, at one's ease; degage [Fr.], quite at home; wanton, rampant, irrepressible, unvanquished^. exempt; freed &c 750; freeborn; autonomous, freehold, allodial^; gratis &c 815; eleutherian^. unclaimed, going a begging. Adv. freely &c adj.; ad libitum &c (at will) 600. Phr. ubi libertas ibi patria [Lat.]; free white and twenty-one. 749. Subjection -- N. subjection; dependence, dependency; subordination; thrall, thralldom, thraldom, enthrallment, subjugation, bondage, serfdom; feudalism, feudality^; vassalage, villenage; slavery, enslavement, involuntary servitude; conquest. service; servitude, servitorship^; tendence^, employ, tutelage, clientship^; liability &c 177; constraint &c 751; oppression &c (severity) 739; yoke &c (means of restraint) 752; submission &c 725; obedience &c 743. V. be subject &c adj.; be at the mercy of, lie at the mercy of; depend upon, lean upon, hang upon; fall a prey to, fall under; play second fiddle. be a mere machine, be a puppet, be a football; not dare to say one's soul is his own; drag a chain. serve &c 746; obey &c 743; submit &c 725. break in, tame; subject, subjugate; master &c 731; tread down, tread under foot; weigh down; drag at one's chariot wheels; reduce to subjection, reduce to slavery; enthrall, inthrall^, bethrall^; enslave, lead captive; take into custody &c (restrain) 751; rule &c 737; drive into a corner, hold at the sword's point; keep under; hold in bondage, hold in leading strings, hold in swaddling clothes. Adj. subject, dependent, subordinate; feudal, feudatory; in subjection to, under control; in leading strings, in harness; subjected, enslaved &c v.; constrained &c 751; downtrodden; overborne, overwhelmed; under the lash, on the hip, led by the nose, henpecked; the puppet of, the sport of, the plaything of; under one's orders, under one's command, under one's thumb; a slave to; at the mercy of; in the power of, in the hands of, in the clutches of; at the feet of; at one's beck and call &c (obedient) 743; liable &c 177; parasitical; stipendiary. Adv. under. Phr. slaves - in a land of light and law [Whittier]. 750. Liberation -- N. liberation, disengagement, release, enlargement, emancipation; disenthrallment^, disenthralment^; affranchisement^, enfranchisement; manumission; discharge, dismissal. deliverance &c 672; redemption, extrication, acquittance, absolution; acquittal &c 970; escape &c 671. V. liberate, free; set free, set clear, set at liberty; render free, emancipate, release; enfranchise, affranchise^; manumit; enlarge; disband, discharge, disenthrall, disenthral, dismiss; let go, let loose, loose, let out, let slip; cast adrift, turn adrift; deliver &c 672; absolve &c (acquit) 970. unfetter &c 751, untie &c 43; loose &c (disjoin) 44; loosen, relax; unbolt, unbar, unclose, uncork, unclog, unhand, unbind, unchain, unharness, unleash; disengage, disentangle; clear, extricate, unloose. gain one's liberty, obtain one's liberty, acquire one's liberty &c 748; get rid of, get clear of; deliver oneself from; shake off the yoke, slip the collar; break loose, break prison; tear asunder one's bonds, cast off trammels; escape &c 671. Adj. liberated &c v.; out of harness &c (free) 748. Int. unhand me!, let me go!, 751. Restraint -- N. restraint; hindrance &c 706; coercion &c (compulsion) 744; cohibition^, constraint, repression, suppression; discipline, control. confinement; durance, duress; imprisonment; incarceration, coarctation^, entombment, mancipation^, durance vile, limbo, captivity; blockade. arrest, arrestation^; custody, keep, care, charge, ward, restringency^. curb &c (means of restraint) 752; lettres de cachet [Fr.]. limitation, restriction, protection, monopoly; prohibition &c 761. prisoner &c 754; repressionist^. V. restrain, check; put under restraint, lay under restraint; enthral, enthrall, inthral^, inthrall^, bethral^, bethrall^; restrict; debar &c (hinder) 706; constrain; coerce &c (compel) 744; curb, control; hold back, hold from, hold in, hold in check, hold within bounds, keep back, keep from, keep in, keep in check, keep within bounds; hold in leash, hold in leading strings; withhold. keep under; repress, suppress; smother; pull in, rein in; hold, hold fast; keep a tight hand on; prohibit &c 761; inhibit, cohibit^. enchain; fasten &c (join) 43; fetter, shackle; entrammel^; bridle, muzzle, hopple^, gag, pinion, manacle, handcuff, tie one's hands, hobble, bind hand and foot; swathe, swaddle; pin down, tether; picket; tie down, tie up; secure; forge fetters; disable, hamstring (incapacitate) 158. confine; shut up, shut in; clap up, lock up, box up, mew up, bottle up, cork up, seal up, button up; hem in, bolt in, wall in, rail in; impound, pen, coop; inclose &c (circumscribe) 229; cage; incage^, encage^; close the door upon, cloister; imprison, immure; incarcerate, entomb; clap under hatches, lay under hatches; put in irons, put in a strait-waistcoat; throw into prison, cast into prison; put into bilboes. arrest; take up, take charge of, take into custody; take prisoner, take captive, make prisoner, make captive; captivate; lead captive, lead into captivity; send to prison, commit to prison; commit; give in charge, give in custody; subjugate &c 749. Adj. restrained, constrained; imprisoned &c v.; pent up; jammed in, wedged in; under lock and key, under restraint, under hatches; in swaddling clothes; on parole; in custody, doing time &c (prisoner) 754; cohibitive^; coactive &c (compulsory) 744 [Obs.]. stiff, restringent^, strait-laced, hidebound, barkbound^. ice bound, wind bound, weather bound; cabined cribbed confined [Macbeth]; in Lob's pound, laid by the heels. 752. [Means of restraint.] Prison -- N. prison, prison house; jail, gaol, cage, coop, den, cell; stronghold, fortress, keep, donjon, dungeon, Bastille, oubliette, bridewell^, house of correction, hulks, tollbooth, panopticon^, penitentiary, guardroom, lockup, hold; round house, watch house, station house, sponging house; station; house of detention, black hole, pen, fold, pound; inclosure &c 232; isolation (exclusion) 893; penal settlement, penal colony; bilboes, stocks, limbo, quod [Lat.]; calaboose, chauki^, choky^, thana^; workhouse [U.S.]. Newgate, Fleet, Marshalsea; King's Bench, Queen's Bench. bond; bandage; irons, pinion, gyve, fetter, shackle, trammel, manacle, handcuff, straight jacket, strait jacket, strait-jacket, strait-waistcoat, hopples^; vice, vise. yoke, collar, halter, harness; muzzle, gag, bit, brake, curb, snaffle, bridle; rein, reins; bearing rein; martingale; leading string; tether, picket, band, guy, chain; cord &c (fastening) 45; cavesson^, hackamore [U.S.], headstall, jaquima [U.S.], lines, ribbons. bolt, deadbolt, bar, lock, police lock, combination lock, padlock, rail, wall, stone wall; paling, palisade; fence, picket fence, barbed wire fence, Cyclone fence, stockade fence, chain-link fence; barrier, barricade. drag &c (hindrance) 706. 753. Keeper -- N. keeper, custodian, custos [Lat.], ranger, warder, jailer, gaoler, turnkey, castellan^, guard; watchdog, watchman; Charley; chokidar^, durwan^, hayward^; sentry, sentinel; watch and ward; concierge, coast guard, guarda costa [Sp.], game keeper. escort, bodyguard. protector, governor, duenna [Sp.]; guardian; governess &c (teacher) 540; nurse, nanny, babysitter, catsitter, dogsitter, bonne [Fr.], ayah^. 754. Prisoner -- N. prisoner, prisoner of war, POW, captive, inmate, detainee, hostage, abductee^, detenu [Fr.], close prisoner. jail bird, ticket of leave man, chevronne [Fr.]. V. stand committed; be imprisoned &c 751. take prisoner, take hostage (capture) 789. Adj. imprisoned &c 751; in prison, in quod [Lat.], in durance vile, in limbo, in custody, doing time, in charge, in chains; under lock and key, under hatches; on parole. 755. [Vicarious authority.] Commission -- N. commission, delegation; consignment, assignment; procuration^; deputation, legation, mission, embassy; agency, agentship^; power of attorney; clerkship; surrogacy. errand, charge, brevet, diploma, exequatur [Lat.], permit &c (permission) 760. appointment, nomination, designation, return; charter; ordination; installation, inauguration, investiture, swearing-in; accession, coronation, enthronement. vicegerency; regency, regentship. viceroy &c 745; consignee &c 758; deputy &c 759. [person who receives a commission] agent, delegate, consignee &c 758. V. commission, delegate, depute; consign, assign; charge; intrust, entrust; commit, commit to the hands of; authorize &c (permit) 760. put in commission, accredit, engage, hire, bespeak, appoint, name, nominate, return, ordain; install, induct, inaugurate, swear in, invest, crown; enroll, enlist; give power of attorney to. employ, empower; set over, place over; send out. be commissioned, be accredited; represent, stand for; stand in the stead of, stand in the place of, stand in the shoes of. Adj. commissioned &c v.. Adv. per procurationem [Lat.]. 756. Abrogation -- N. abrogation, annulment, nullification, recision; vacatur [Lat.]; canceling &c v.; cancel; revocation, revokement^; repeal, rescission, defeasance. dismissal, conge [Fr.], demission^; bounce [U.S.]; deposal, deposition; dethronement; disestablishment, disendowment^; deconsecration; sack [Slang], walking papers, pink slip, walking ticket; yellow cover [Slang]. abolition, abolishment; dissolution. counter order, countermand; repudiation, retraction, retractation^; recantation &c (tergiversation) 607; abolitionist. V. abrogate, annul, cancel; destroy &c 162; abolish; revoke, repeal, rescind, reverse, retract, recall; abolitionize^; overrule, override; set aside; disannul, dissolve, quash, nullify, declare null and void; disestablish, disendow^; deconsecrate. disclaim &c (deny) 536; ignore, repudiate; recant &c 607; divest oneself, break off. countermand, counter order; do away with; sweep away, brush away; throw overboard, throw to the dogs; scatter to the winds, cast behind. dismiss, discard; cast off, turn off, cast out, cast adrift, cast out of doors, cast aside, cast away; send off, send away, send packing, send about one's business; discharge, get rid of &c (eject) 297; bounce [U.S.]; fire [Slang], fire out [Slang]; sack [Slang]. cashier; break; oust; unseat, unsaddle; unthrone^, dethrone, disenthrone^; depose, uncrown^; unfrock, strike off the roll; disbar, disbench^. be abrogated &c; receive its quietus; walk the plank. Adj. abrogated &c v.; functus officio [Lat.]. Int. get along with you!, begone!, go about your business!, away with!, 757. Resignation -- N. resignation, retirement, abdication, renunciation, abjuration; abandonment, relinquishment. V. resign; give up, throw up; lay down, throw up the cards, wash one's hands of, abjure, renounce, forego, disclaim, retract; deny &c 536. abrogate &c 756; desert &c (relinquish) 624; get rid of &c 782. abdicate; vacate, vacate one's seat; accept the stewardship of the Chiltern Hundreds; retire; tender one's resignation. Adj. abdicant^. Phr. Othello's occupation's gone [Othello]. 758. Consignee -- N. consignee, trustee, nominee, committee. agent, delegate; commissary, commissioner; emissary, envoy, commissionaire [Fr.]; messenger &c 534. diplomatist, diplomat, diplomate, corps diplomatique [Fr.], embassy; ambassador, embassador^; representative, resident, consul, legate, nuncio, internuncio^, charge d'affaires [Fr.], attache. vicegerent &c (deputy) 759; plenipotentiary. functionary, placeman^, curator; treasurer &c 801; factor, bailiff, clerk, secretary, attorney, advocate, solicitor, proctor, broker, underwriter, commission agent, auctioneer, one's man of business; factotum &c (director) 694; caretaker; dalal^, dubash^, garnishee, gomashta^. negotiator, go-between; middleman; under agent, employe; servant &c 746; referee, arbitrator &c (judge) 967. traveler, bagman, commis-voyageur [Fr.], touter^, commercial traveler, drummer [U.S.], traveling man. newspaper correspondent, own correspondent, special correspondent. 759. Deputy -- N. deputy, substitute, vice, proxy, locum tenens, badli^, delegate, representative, next friend, surrogate, secondary. regent, viceregent^, vizier, minister, vicar; premier &c (director) 694; chancellor, prefect, provost, warden, lieutenant, archon, consul, proconsul; viceroy &c (governor) 745; commissioner &c 758; Tsung-li Yamen, Wai Wu Pu; plenipotentiary, alter ego. team, eight, eleven; champion. V. be deputy &c n.; stand for, appear for, hold a brief for, answer for; represent; stand in the shoes of, walk in the shoes of; stand in the stead of. ablegate^, accredit. Adj. acting, vice, vice regal; accredited to. Adv. in behalf of. SECTION II. SPECIAL INTERSOCIAL VOLITION 760. Permission -- N. permission, leave; allowance, sufferance; tolerance, toleration; liberty, law, license, concession, grace; indulgence &c (lenity) 740; favor, dispensation, exemption, release; connivance; vouchsafement^. authorization, warranty, accordance, admission. permit, warrant, brevet, precept, sanction, authority, firman; hukm^; pass, passport; furlough, license, carte blanche [Fr.], ticket of leave; grant, charter; patent, letters patent. V. permit; give permission &c n., give power; let, allow, admit; suffer, bear with, tolerate, recognize; concede &c 762; accord, vouchsafe, favor, humor, gratify, indulge, stretch a point; wink at, connive at; shut one's eyes to. grant, empower, charter, enfranchise, privilege, confer a privilege, license, authorize, warrant; sanction; intrust &c (commission) 755. give carte blanche [Fr.], give the reins to, give scope to &c (freedom) 748; leave alone, leave it to one, leave the door open; open the door to, open the flood gates; give a loose to. let off; absolve &c (acquit) 970; release, exonerate, dispense with. ask permission, beg permission, request permission, ask leave, beg leave, request leave. Adj. permitting &c v.; permissive, indulgent; permitted &c v.; patent, chartered, permissible, allowable, lawful, legitimate, legal; legalized &c (law) 963; licit; unforbid^, unforbidden^; unconditional. Adv. by leave, with leave, on leave &c n.; speciali gratia [It]; under favor of; pace; ad libitum &c (freely) 748, (at will) 600; by all means &c (willingly) 602; yes &c (assent) 488. Phr. avec permissin [Fr.]; brevet d'invention [Fr.]. 761. Prohibition -- N. prohibition, inhibition; veto, disallowance; interdict, interdiction; injunction, estoppel [Law]; embargo, ban, taboo, proscription; index expurgatorius [Lat.]; restriction &c (restraint) 751; hindrance &c 706; forbidden fruit; Maine law [U.S.]. V. prohibit, inhibit; forbid, put one's veto upon, disallow, enjoin, ban, outlaw, taboo, proscribe, estop [Law]; bar; debar &c (hinder) 706, forefend. keep in, keep within bounds; restrain &c 751; cohibit^, withhold, limit, circumscribe, clip the wings of, restrict; interdict, taboo; put under an interdiction, place under an interdiction; put under the ban, place under the ban; proscribe; exclude, shut out; shut the door, bolt the door, show the door; warn off; dash the cup from one's lips; forbid the banns. Adj. prohibitive, prohibitory; proscriptive; restrictive, exclusive; forbidding &c v.. prohibited &c v.; not permitted &c 760; unlicensed, contraband, impermissible, under the ban of; illegal &c 964; unauthorized, not to be thought of, uncountenanced, unthinkable, beyond the pale. Adv. on no account &c (no) 536. Int. forbid it heaven!, &c (deprecation) 766. hands off!, keep off!, hold!, stop!, desist!, cease and desist!, avast!, Phr. that will never do; don't you dare; forget it; don't even think about doing it; go ahead; make my day [Dirty Harry] [Iron.]. 762. Consent -- N. consent; assent &c 488; acquiescence; approval &c 931; compliance, agreement, concession; yieldance^, yieldingness^; accession, acknowledgment, acceptance, agnition^. settlement, ratification, confirmation, adjustment. permit &c (permission) 760; promise &c 768. V. consent; assent &c 488; yield assent, admit, allow, concede, grant, yield; come round, come over; give into, acknowledge, agnize^, give consent, comply with, acquiesce, agree to, fall in with, accede, accept, embrace an offer, close with, take at one's word, have no objection. satisfy, meet one's wishes, settle, come to terms &c 488; not refuse &c 764; turn a willing ear &c (willingness) 602; jump at; deign, vouchsafe; promise &c 768. Adj. consenting &c v.; squeezable; agreed &c (assent) 488; unconditional. Adv. OK, yes &c (assent) 488; by all means &c (willingly) 602; no problem; if you please, as you please; be it so, so be it, well and good, of course; please do; don't hesitate. Phr. chi tace accousente [It]. 763. Offer -- N. offer, proffer, presentation, tender, bid, overture; proposal, proposition; motion, invitation; candidature; offering &c (gift) 784. V. offer, proffer, present, tender; bid; propose, move; make a motion, make advances; start; invite, hold out, place in one's way, put forward. hawk about; offer for sale &c 796; press &c (request) 765; lay at one's feet. offer oneself, present oneself; volunteer, come forward, be a candidate; stand for, bid for; seek; be at one's service; go a begging; bribe &c (give) 784. Adj. offering, offered &c v.; in the market, for sale, to let, disengaged, on hire. 764. Refusal -- N. refusal, rejection; noncompliance, incompliance^; denial; declining &c v.; declension; declinature^; peremptory refusal, flat refusal, point blank refusal; repulse, rebuff; discountenance. recusancy, abnegation, protest, disclaimer; dissent &c 489; revocation &c 756. V. refuse, reject, deny, decline, turn down; nill, negative; refuse one's assent, withhold one's assent; shake the head; close the hand, close the purse; grudge, begrudge, be slow to, hang fire; pass (at cards). be deaf to; dismiss, turn a deaf ear to, turn one's back upon; set one's face against, discountenance, not hear of, have nothing to do with, wash one's hands of, stand aloof, forswear, set aside, cast behind one; not yield an inch &c (obstinacy) 606. resist, cross; not grant &c 762; repel, repulse, shut the door in one's face, slam the door in one's face; rebuff; send back, send to the right about, send away with a flea in the ear; deny oneself, not be at home to; discard, spurn, &c (repudiate) 610; rescind &c (revoke) 756; disclaim, protest; dissent &c 489. Adj. refusing &c v.; restive, restiff^; recusant; uncomplying, unconsenting; not willing to hear of, deaf to. refused &c v.; ungranted, out of the question, not to be thought of, impossible. Adv. no &c 536; on no account, not for the world; no thank you, thanks but no thanks. Phr. non possumus [Lat.]; your humble servant [Iron.]; bien oblige [Fr.]; not on your life [U.S.]; no way; not even if you beg on your knees. 765. Request -- N. request, requisition; claim &c (demand) 741; petition, suit, prayer; begging letter, round robin. motion, overture, application, canvass, address, appeal, apostrophe; imprecation; rogation; proposal, proposition. orison &c (worship) 990; incantation &c (spell) 993. mendicancy; asking, begging &c v.; postulation, solicitation, invitation, entreaty, importunity, supplication, instance, impetration^, imploration^, obsecration^, obtestation^, invocation, interpellation. V. request, ask; beg, crave, sue, pray, petition, solicit, invite, pop the question, make bold to ask; beg leave, beg a boon; apply to, call to, put to; call upon, call for; make a request, address a request, prefer a request, put up a request, make a prayer, address a prayer, prefer a prayer, put up a prayer, make a petition, address a petition, prefer a petition, put up a petition; make application, make a requisition; ask trouble, ask one for; claim &c (demand) 741; offer up prayers &c (worship) 990; whistle for. beg hard, entreat, beseech, plead, supplicate, implore; conjure, adjure; obtest^; cry to, kneel to, appeal to; invoke, evoke; impetrate^, imprecate, ply, press, urge, beset, importune, dun, tax, clamor for; cry aloud, cry for help; fall on one's knees; throw oneself at the feet of; come down on one's marrowbones. beg from door to door, send the hat round, go a begging; mendicate^, mump^, cadge, beg one's bread. dance attendance on, besiege, knock at the door. bespeak, canvass, tout, make interest, court; seek, bid for &c (offer) 763; publish the banns. Adj. requesting &c v.; precatory^; suppliant, supplicant, supplicatory; postulant; obsecratory^. importunate, clamorous, urgent; cap in hand; on one's knees, on one's bended knees, on one's marrowbones. Adv. prithee, do, please, pray; be so good as, be good enough; have the goodness, vouchsafe, will you, I pray thee, if you please. Int. for God's sake!, for heaven's sake!, for goodness' sake!, for mercy's sake!, Phr. Dieu vous garde [Fr.]; dirigenos Domine [Lat.]; would you be so kind as to. 766. [Negative request.] Deprecation -- N. deprecation, expostulation; intercession, mediation, protest, remonstrance. V. deprecate, protest, expostulate, enter a protest, intercede for; remonstrate. Adj. deprecatory, expostulatory^, intercessory, mediatorial^. deprecated, protested. unsought, unbesought^; unasked &c (ask) &c 765. Int. cry you mercy!, God forbid!, forbid it Heaven!, Heaven forefend, Heaven forbid!, far be it from!, hands off!, &c (prohibition) 761; please don't. 767. Petitioner -- N. petitioner, solicitor, applicant; suppliant, supplicant; suitor, candidate, claimant, postulant, aspirant, competitor, bidder; place hunter, pot hunter; prizer^; seeker. beggar, mendicant, moocher, panhandler, freeloader, sponger, mumper^, sturdy beggar, cadger; hotel runner, runner, steerer [U.S.], tout, touter^. [poor person] pauper, homeless person, hobo, bum, tramp, bindle stiff, bo, knight of the road (poverty) 804; hippie, flower child; hard core unemployed; welfare client, welfare case. canvasser, bagman &c 758; salesman. SECTION III. CONDITIONAL INTERSOCIAL VOLITION 768. Promise -- N. promise, undertaking, word, troth, plight, pledge, parole, word of honor, vow; oath &c (affirmation) 535; profession, assurance, warranty, guarantee, insurance, obligation; contract &c 769; stipulation. engagement, preengagement; affiance; betroth, betrothal, betrothment. V. promise; give a promise &c n.; undertake, engage; make an engagement, form an engagement; enter into an engagement, enter on an engagement; bind oneself, tie oneself, pledge oneself, commit oneself, take upon oneself; vow; swear &c (affirm) 535, give one's word, pass one's word, pledge one's word, plight one's word, give one's honor, pass one's honor, pledge one's honor, plight one's honor, give credit, pass credit, pledge credit, plight credit, give troth, pass troth, pledge troth, plight troth; betroth, plight faith. assure, warrant, guarantee; covenant &c 769; attest &c (bear witness) 467. hold out an expectation; contract an obligation; become bound to, become sponsor for; answer for, be answerable for; secure; give security &c 771; underwrite. adjure, administer an oath, put to one's oath, swear a witness. Adj. promising &c v.; promissory; votive; under hand and seal, upon oath. promised &c v.; affianced, pledged, bound; committed, compromised; in for it. Adv. as one's head shall answer for. Phr. in for a penny in for a pound; ex voto [Lat.]; gage d'amour. 768a. Release from engagement -- N. release &c (liberation) 750. Adj. absolute; unconditional &c (free) 748. 769. Compact -- N. compact, contract, agreement, bargain; affidation^; pact, paction^; bond, covenant, indenture; bundobast^, deal. stipulation, settlement, convention; compromise, cartel. Protocol, treaty, concordat, Zollverein [G.], Sonderbund [G.], charter, Magna Charta [Lat.], Progmatic Sanction, customs union, free trade region; General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, GATT; most favored nation status. negotiation &c (bargaining) 794; diplomacy &c (mediation) 724; negotiator &c (agent) 758. ratification, completion, signature, seal, sigil [Lat.], signet. V. contract, covenant, agree for; engage &c (promise) 768. treat, negotiate, stipulate, make terms; bargain &c (barter) 794. make a bargain, strike a bargain; come to terms, come to an understanding; compromise &c 774; set at rest; close, close with; conclude, complete, settle; confirm, ratify, clench, subscribe, underwrite; endorse, indorse; put the seal to; sign, seal &c (attest) 467; indent. take one at one's word, bargain by inch of candle. Adj. agreed &c v.; conventional; under hand and seal. Phr. caveat emptor. 770. Conditions -- N. conditions, terms; articles, articles of agreement; memorandum. clauses, provisions; proviso &c (qualification) 469; covenant, stipulation, obligation, ultimatum, sine qua non; casus foederris [Lat.]. V. make terms, come to terms &c (contract) 769; make it a condition, stipulate, insist upon, make a point of; bind, tie up. Adj. conditional, provisional, guarded, fenced, hedged in. Adv. conditionally &c (with qualification) 469; provisionally, pro re nata [Lat.]; on condition; with a string to it. 771. Security -- N. security; guaranty, guarantee; gage, warranty, bond, tie, pledge, plight, mortgage, collateral, debenture, hypothecation, bill of sale, lien, pawn, pignoration^; real security; vadium^. stake, deposit, earnest, handsel, caution. promissory note; bill, bill of exchange; I.O.U.; personal security, covenant, specialty; parole &c (promise) 768. acceptance, indorsement^, signature, execution, stamp, seal. sponsor, cosponsor, sponsion^, sponsorship; surety, bail; mainpernor^, hostage; godchild, godfather, godmother. recognizance; deed of indemnity, covenant of indemnity. authentication, verification, warrant, certificate, voucher, docket, doquet^; record &c 551; probate, attested copy. receipt; acquittance, quittance; discharge, release. muniment^, title deed, instrument; deed, deed poll; assurance, indenture; charter &c (compact) 769; charter poll; paper, parchment, settlement, will, testament, last will and testament, codicil. V. give security, give bail, give substantial bail; go bail; pawn, impawn^, spout, mortgage, hypothecate, impignorate^. guarantee, warrant, warrantee, assure; accept, indorse, underwrite, insure; cosign, countersign, sponsor, cosponsor. execute, stamp; sign, seal &c (evidence) 467. let, sett^; grant a lease, take a lease, hold a lease; hold in pledge; lend on security &c 787. Phr. bonis avibus [Lat.]; gone where the woodbine twineth. 772. Observance -- N. observance, performance, compliance, acquiescence, concurrence; obedience &c 743; fulfillment, satisfaction, discharge; acquittance, acquittal. adhesion, acknowledgment; fidelity &c (probity) 939; exact &c 494; observance. V. observe, comply with, respect, acknowledge, abide by; cling to, adhere to, be faithful to, act up to; meet, fulfill; carry out, carry into execution; execute, perform, keep, satisfy, discharge; do one's office. perform an obligation, fulfill an obligation, discharge an obligation, acquit oneself of an obligation; make good; make good one's word, make good one's promise, keep one's word, keep one's promise; redeem one's pledge; keep faith with, stand to one's engagement. Adj. observant, faithful, true, loyal; honorable &c 939; true as the dial to the sun, true as the needle to the pole; punctual, punctilious; literal &c (exact) 494; as good as one's word. Adv. faithfully &c adj.. Phr. ignoscito saepe alteri nunquam tibi [Lat.]; tempori parendum [Lat.]; to God, thy country, and thy friend be true [Vaughan]. 773. Nonobservance -- N. nonobservance &c 772; evasion, inobservance, failure, omission, neglect, laches [Law], laxity, informality. infringement, infraction; violation, transgression; piracy. retraction, retractation^, repudiation, nullification; protest; forfeiture. lawlessness; disobedience &c 742; bad faith &c 940. V. fail, neglect, omit, elude, evade, give the go-by to, set aside, ignore; shut one's eyes to, close one's eyes to. infringe, transgress, violate, pirate, break, trample under foot, do violence to, drive a coach and six through. discard, protest, repudiate, fling to the winds, set at naught, nullify, declare null and void; cancel &c (wipe off) 552. retract, go back from, be off, forfeit, go from one's word, palter; stretch a point, strain a point. Adj. violating &c v.; lawless, transgressive; elusive, evasive. unfulfilled &c (fulfill) &c 772. 774. Compromise -- N. compromise, commutation, composition; middle term, mezzo termine [It]; compensation &c 30; abatement of differences, adjustment, mutual concession. V. compromise, commute, compound; take the mean; split the difference, meet one halfway, give and take; come to terms &c (contract) 769; submit to arbitration, abide by arbitration; patch up, bridge over, arrange; straighten out, adjust, differences, agree; make the best of, make a virtue of necessity; take the will for the deed. SECTION IV. POSSESSIVE RELATIONS 1. Property in general 775. Acquisition -- N. acquisition; gaining &c v.; obtainment; procuration^, procurement; purchase, descent, inheritance; gift &c 784. recovery, retrieval, revendication^, replevin [Law], restitution &c 790; redemption, salvage, trover [Law]. find, trouvaille^, foundling. gain, thrift; money-making, money grubbing; lucre, filthy lucre, pelf; loaves and fishes, the main chance; emolument &c (remuneration) 973. profit, earnings, winnings, innings, pickings, net profit; avails; income &c (receipt) 810; proceeds, produce, product; outcome, output; return, fruit, crop, harvest; second crop, aftermath; benefit &c (good) 618. sweepstakes, trick, prize, pool; pot; wealth &c 803. subreption [Fraudulent acquisition]; obreption^; stealing &c 791. V. acquire, get, gain, win, earn, obtain, procure, gather; collect &c (assemble) 72; pick, pickup; glean. find; come upon, pitch upon, light upon; scrape up, scrape together; get in, reap and carry, net, bag, sack, bring home, secure; derive, draw, get in the harvest. profit; make profit, draw profit, turn a quick profit; turn to profit, turn to account; make capital out of, make money by; obtain a return, reap the fruits of; reap an advantage, gain an advantage; turn a penny, turn an honest penny; make the pot boil, bring grist to the mill; make money, coin money, raise money; raise funds, raise the wind; fill one's pocket &c (wealth) 803. treasure up &c (store) 636; realize, clear; produce &c 161; take &c 789. get back, recover, regain, retrieve, revendicate^, replevy [Law], redeem, come by one's own. come by, come in for; receive &c 785; inherit; step into a fortune, step into the shoes of; succeed to. get hold of, get between one's finger and thumb, get into one's hand, get at; take possession, come into possession, enter into possession. be profitable &c adj.; pay, answer. accrue &c (be received) 785. Adj. acquiring, acquired &c v.; profitable, advantageous, gainful, remunerative, paying, lucrative. Phr. lucri causa [Lat.]. 776. Loss -- N. loss; deperdition^, perdition; forfeiture, lapse. privation, bereavement; deprivation &c (dispossession) 789; riddance; damage, squandering, waste. V. lose; incur a loss, experience a loss, meet with a loss; miss; mislay, let slip, allow to slip through the fingers; be without &c (exempt) 777.1; forfeit. get rid of &c 782; waste &c 638. be lost; lapse. Adj. losing &c v.; not having &c 777.1. shorn of, deprived of; denuded, bereaved, bereft, minus, cut off; dispossessed &c 789; rid of, quit of; out of pocket. lost &c v.; long lost; irretrievable &c (hopeless) 859; off one's hands. Int. farewell to!, adieu to. 777. Possession -- N. possession, seizin [Law], seisin [Law]; ownership &c 780; occupancy; hold, holding; tenure, tenancy, feodality^, dependency; villenage, villeinage^; socage^, chivalry, knight service. exclusive possession, impropriation^, monopoly, retention &c 781; prepossession, preoccupancy^; nine points of the law; corner, usucaption^. future possession, heritage, inheritance, heirship, reversion, fee, seigniority^; primogeniture, ultimogeniture^. futures contract [right of future possession; financial instruments], warrant, put, call, option; right of first refusal. bird in hand, uti possidetis [Lat.], chose in possession. V. possess, have, hold, occupy, enjoy; be possessed of &c adj.; have in hand &c adj.; own &c 780; command. inherit; come to, come in for. engross, monopolize, forestall, regrate^, impropriate^, have all to oneself; corner; have a firmhold of &c (retain) 781 [Obs.]; get into one's hand &c (acquire) 775. belong to, appertain to, pertain to; be in one's possession &c adj.; vest in. Adj. possessing &c v.; worth; possessed of, seized of, master of, in possession of; usucapient^; endowed with, blest with, instinct with, fraught with, laden with, charged with. possessed &c v.; on hand, by one; in hand, in store, in stock; in one's hands, in one's grasp, in one's possession; at one's command, at one's disposal; one's own &c (property) 780. unsold, unshared. Phr. entbehre gern was du nicht hast [G.]; meum et tuum [Lat.]; tuum est [Lat.]. 777a. Exemption -- N. exemption; absence &c 187; exception, immunity, privilege, release. V. not have &c 777; be without &c adj.; excuse. Adj. exempt from, devoid of, without, unpossessed of^, unblest with^; immune from. not having &c 777; unpossessed^; untenanted &c (vacant) 187; without an owner. unobtained^, unacquired. 778. [Joint possession.] Participation -- N. participation; cotenancy^, joint tenancy; occupancy in common, possession in common, tenancy in common; joint stock, common stock; co-partnership, partnership; communion; community of possessions, community of goods; communism, socialism; cooperation &c 709. snacks, coportion^, picnic, hotchpot^; co-heirship, co-parceny^, co- parcenary; gavelkind^. participator, sharer; co-partner, partner; shareholder; co-tenant, joint tenant; tenants in common; co-heir, co-parcener^. communist, socialist. V. participate, partake; share, share in; come in for a share; go shares, go snacks, go halves; share and share alike. have in common, possess in common, be seized in common, have as joint tenants, possess as joint tenants, be seized as joint tenants &c n.. join in; have a hand in &c (cooperate) 709. Adj. partaking &c v.; communistic. Adv. share and share alike. 779. Possessor -- N. possessor, holder; occupant, occupier; tenant; person in possession, man in possession &c 777; renter, lodger, lessee, underlessee^; zemindar^, ryot^; tenant on sufferance, tenant at will, tenant from year to year, tenant for years, tenant for life. owner; proprietor, proprietress, proprietary; impropriator^, master, mistress, lord. land holder, land owner, landlord, land lady, slumlord; lord of the manor, lord paramount; heritor, laird, vavasour^, landed gentry, mesne lord^; planter. cestui-que-trust [Fr.], beneficiary, mortgagor. grantee, feoffee^, releasee [Law], relessee^, devisee; legatee, legatary^. trustee; holder of the legal estate &c; mortgagee. right owner, rightful owner. [Future possessor] heir presumptive, heir apparent; heiress; inheritor, inheritress, inheritrix; reversioner^, remainderman^. 780. Property -- N. property, possession, suum cuique [Lat.], meum et tuum [Lat.]. ownership, proprietorship, lordship; seignority^; empire &c (dominion) 737. interest, stake, estate, right, title, claim, demand, holding; tenure &c (possession) 777; vested interest, contingent interest, beneficial interest, equitable interest; use, trust, benefit; legal estate, equitable estate; seizin [Law], seisin [Law]. absolute interest, paramount estate, freehold; fee tail, fee simple; estate in fee, estate in tail, estate tail; estate in tail male, estate in tail female, estate in tail general. limitation, term, lease, settlement, strict settlement, particular estate; estate for life, estate for years, estate pur autre vie [Fr.]; remainder, reversion, expectancy, possibility. dower, dowry, jointure^, appanage, inheritance, heritage, patrimony, alimony; legacy &c (gift) 784; Falcidian law, paternal estate, thirds. assets, belongings, means, resources, circumstances; wealth &c 803; money &c 800; what one is worth, what one will cut up for; estate and effects. landed property, landed real estate property; realty; land, lands; tenements; hereditaments; corporeal hereditaments, incorporeal hereditaments; acres; ground &c (earth) 342; acquest^, messuage, toft^. territory, state, kingdom, principality, realm, empire, protectorate, sphere of influence. manor, honor, domain, demesne; farm, plantation, hacienda; allodium &c (free) 748 [Obs.]; fief, fieff^, feoff^, feud, zemindary^, dependency; arado^, merestead^, ranch. free lease-holds, copy lease-holds; folkland^; chattels real; fixtures, plant, heirloom; easement; right of common, right of user. personal property, personal estate, personal effects; personalty, chattels, goods, effects, movables; stock, stock in trade; things, traps, rattletraps, paraphernalia; equipage &c 633. parcels, appurtenances. impedimenta; luggage, baggage; bag and baggage; pelf; cargo, lading. rent roll; income &c (receipts) 810; maul and wedges [U.S.]. patent, copyright; chose in action; credit &c 805; debt &c 806. V. possess &c 777; be the possessor of &c 779, own; have for one's own, have for one's very own; come in for, inherit. savor of the realty. be one's property &c n.; belong to; appertain to, pertain to. Adj. one's own; landed, predial^, manorial, allodial^; free lease-hold, copy lease-hold; feudal, feodal^. Adv. to one's credit, to one's account; to the good. to one and his heirs for ever, to one and the heirs of his body, to one and his heirs and assigns, to one and his executors administrators and assigns. 781. Retention -- N. retention; retaining &c v.; keep, detention, custody; tenacity, firm hold, grasp, gripe, grip, iron grip. fangs, teeth, claws, talons, nail, unguis, hook, tentacle, tenaculum; bond &c (vinculum) 45. clutches, tongs, forceps, pincers, nippers, pliers, vice. paw, hand, finger, wrist, fist, neaf^, neif^. bird in hand; captive &c 754. V. retain, keep; hold fast one's own, hold tight one's own, hold fast one's ground, hold tight one's ground; clinch, clench, clutch, grasp, gripe, hug, have a firm hold of. secure, withhold, detain; hold back, keep back; keep close; husband &c (store) 636; reserve; have in stock, have on hand, keep in stock &c (possess) 777; entail, tie up, settle. Adj. retaining &c v.; retentive, tenacious. unforfeited^, undeprived, undisposed, uncommunicated. incommunicable, inalienable; in mortmain [Fr.]; in strict settlement. Phr. uti possidetis [Lat.]. 782. Relinquishment -- N. relinquishment, abandonment &c (of a course) 624; renunciation, expropriation^, dereliction; cession, surrender, dispensation; quitclaim deed; resignation &c 757; riddance. derelict &c adj.; foundling; jetsam, waif. discards, culls, rejects; garbage, refuse, rubbish. V. relinquish, give up, surrender, yield, cede; let go, let slip; spare, drop, resign, forego, renounce, abandon, expropriate^, give away, dispose of, part with; lay aside, lay apart, lay down, lay on the shelf &c (disuse) 678; set aside, put aside, put away; make away with, cast behind; maroon. give notice to quit, give warning; supersede; be rid of, get rid of, be quit of, get quit of; eject &c 297. rid oneself of, disburden oneself of, divest oneself of, dispossess oneself of; wash one's hands of. discard, cast off, dismiss; cast away, throw away, pitch away, fling away, cast aside, cast overboard, cast to the dogs, throw aside, throw overboard, throw to the dogs, pitch aside, pitch overboard, pitch to the dogs, fling aside, fling overboard, fling to the dogs; cast to the winds, throw to the winds, sweep to the winds; put away, turn away, sweep away; jettison; reject. quit one's hold, quitclaim. Adj. relinquished &c v.; cast off, derelict; unowned, unappropriated, unculled; left &c (residuary) 40. Int. away with!, 2. Transfer of Property 783. Transfer -- N. transfer, conveyance, assignment, alienation, abalienation^; demise, limitation; conveyancing^; transmission &c (transference) 270; enfeoffment^, bargain and sale, lease and release; exchange &c (interchange) 148; barter &c 794; substitution &c 147. succession, reversion; shifting use, shifting trust; devolution. V. transfer, convey; alienate, alien; assign; grant &c (confer) 784; consign; make over, hand over; pass, hand, transmit, negotiate; hand down; exchange &c (interchange) 148. change hands, change hands from one to another; devolve, succeed; come into possession &c (acquire) 775. abalienate^; disinherit; dispossess &c 789; substitute &c 147. Adj. alienable, negotiable. Phr. estate coming into possession. 784. Giving -- N. giving &c v.; bestowal, bestowment^, donation; presentation, presentment; accordance; concession; delivery, consignment, dispensation, communication, endowment; investment, investiture; award. almsgiving^, charity, liberality, generosity. [Thing given] gift, donation, present, cadeau^; fairing; free gift, boon, favor, benefaction, grant, offering, oblation, sacrifice, immolation; lagniappe [U.S.], pilon [U.S.]. grace, act of grace, bonus. allowance, contribution, subscription, subsidy, tribute, subvention. bequest, legacy, devise, will, dotation^, dot, appanage; voluntary settlement, voluntary conveyance &c 783; amortization. alms, largess, bounty, dole, sportule^, donative^, help, oblation, offertory, honorarium, gratuity, Peter pence, sportula^, Christmas box, Easter offering, vail^, douceur [Fr.], drink money, pourboire, trinkgeld [G.], bakshish^; fee &c (recompense) 973; consideration. bribe, bait, ground bait; peace offering, handsel; boodle [Slang], graft, grease [Slang]; blat [Rus.]. giver, grantor &c v.; donor, feoffer^, settlor. V. deliver, hand, pass, put into the hands of; hand over, make over, deliver over, pass over, turn over; assign dower. present, give away, dispense, dispose of; give out, deal out, dole out, mete out, fork out, squeeze out. pay &c 807; render, impart, communicate. concede, cede, yield, part with, shed, cast; spend &c 809. give, bestow, confer, grant, accord, award, assign. intrust, consign, vest in. make a present; allow, contribute, subscribe, furnish its quota. invest, endow, settle upon; bequeath, leave, devise. furnish, supply, help; administer to; afford, spare; accommodate with, indulge with, favor with; shower down upon; lavish, pour on, thrust upon. tip, bribe; tickle the palm, grease the palm; offer &c 763; sacrifice, immolate. Adj. giving &c v.; given &c v.; allowed, allowable; concessional^; communicable; charitable, eleemosynary, sportulary^, tributary; gratis &c 815; donative^. Phr. auctor pretiosa facit [Lat.]; ex dono [Lat.]; res est ingeniosa dare [Lat.] [Ovid]. 785. Receiving -- N. receiving &c v.; acquisition &c 775; reception &c (introduction) 296; suscipiency^, acceptance, admission. recipient, accipient^; assignee, devisee; legatee, legatary^; grantee, feoffee^, donee [Fr.], releasee [Law], relessee^, lessee; receiver. sportulary^, stipendiary; beneficiary; pensioner, pensionary^; almsman^. income &c (receipt) 810. V. receive; take &c 789; acquire &c 775; admit. take in, catch, touch; pocket; put into one's pocket, put into one's purse; accept; take off one's hands. be received; come in, come to hand; pass into one's hand, fall into one's hand; go into one's pocket; fall to one's lot, fall to one's share; come to one, fall to one; accrue; have given to one &c 784. Adj. receiving &c v.; recipient, suscipient^. received &c v.; given &c 784; secondhand. not given, unbestowed &c (give), (bestow) &c 784. 786. Apportionment -- N. apportionment, allotment, consignment, assignment, appointment; appropriation; dispensation, distribution; division, deal; repartition, partition; administration. dividend, portion, contingent, share, allotment, fair share, allocation, lot, measure, dose; dole, meed, pittance; quantum, ration; ratio, proportion, quota, modicum, mess, allowance; suerte^. V. apportion, divide; distribute, administer, dispense; billet, allot, detail, cast, share, mete; portion out, parcel out, dole out; deal, carve. allocate, ration, ration out; assign; separate &c 44. partition, assign, appropriate, appoint. come in for one's share &c (participate) 778. Adj. apportioning &c v.; respective. Adv. respectively, each to each. 787. Lending -- N. lending &c v.; loan, advance, accommodation, feneration^; mortgage, second mortgage, home loan &c (security) 771; investment; note, bond, commercial paper. mont de piete [Fr.], pawnshop, my uncle's. lender, pawnbroker, money lender; usurer, loan shark. loaner (of item loaned). V. lend, advance, accommodate with; lend on security; loan; pawn &c (security) 771. intrust, invest; place out to interest, put out to interest. let, demise, lease, sett^, underlet. Adj. lending &c v.; lent &c v.; unborrowed &c (borrowed) &c 788 [Obs.]. Adv. in advance; on loan, on security. 788. Borrowing -- N. borrowing, pledging. borrowed plumes; plagiarism &c (thieving) 791. replevin [Law]. V. borrow, desume^. hire, rent, farm; take a lease, take a demise; take by the hour, take by the mile, take by the year &c; hire by the hour, hire by the mile, hire by the year &c; adopt, apply, appropriate, imitate, make use of, take. raise money, take up money; raise the wind; fly a kite, borrow from Peter to pay Paul; run into debt &c (debt) 806. replevy [Law]. 789. Taking -- N. taking &c v.; reception &c (taking in) 296; deglutition &c (taking food) 298; appropriation, prehension, prensation^; capture, caption; apprehension, deprehension^; abreption^, seizure, expropriation, abduction, ablation; subtraction, withdrawal &c 38; abstraction, ademption^; adrolepsy^. dispossession; deprivation, deprivement^; bereavement; divestment; disherison^; distraint, distress; sequestration, confiscation; eviction &c 297. rapacity, rapaciousness, extortion, vampirism; theft &c 791. resumption; reprise, reprisal; recovery &c 775. clutch, swoop, wrench; grip &c (retention) 781; haul, take, catch; scramble. taker, captor. [Descent of one of the earth's crustal plates under another plate] subduction [Geol.]. V. take, catch, hook, nab, bag, sack, pocket, put into one's pocket; receive; accept. reap, crop, cull, pluck; gather &c (get) 775; draw. appropriate, expropriate, impropriate^; assume, possess oneself of; take possession of; commandeer; lay one's hands on, clap one's hands on; help oneself to; make free with, dip one's hands into, lay under contribution; intercept; scramble for; deprive of. take away, carry away, bear away, take off, carry off, bear off; adeem^; abstract; hurry off with, run away with; abduct; steal &c 791; ravish; seize; pounce upon, spring upon; swoop to, swoop down upon; take by storm, take by assault; snatch, reave^. snap up, nip up, whip up, catch up; kidnap, crimp, capture, lay violent hands on. get hold of, lay hold of, take hold of, catch hold of, lay fast hold of, take firm hold of; lay by the heels, take prisoner; fasten upon, grip, grapple, embrace, gripe, clasp, grab, clutch, collar, throttle, take by the throat, claw, clinch, clench, make sure of. catch at, jump at, make a grab at, snap at, snatch at; reach, make a long arm, stretch forth one's hand. take from, take away from; disseize^; deduct &c 38; retrench &c (curtail) 201; dispossess, ease one of, snatch from one's grasp; tear from, tear away from, wrench from, wrest from, wring from; extort; deprive of, bereave; disinherit, cut off with a shilling. oust &c (eject) 297; divest; levy, distrain, confiscate; sequester, sequestrate; accroach^; usurp; despoil, strip, fleece, shear, displume^, impoverish, eat out of house and home; drain, drain to the dregs; gut, dry, exhaust, swallow up; absorb &c (suck in) 296; draw off; suck the blood of, suck like a leech. retake, resume; recover &c 775. Adj. taking &c v.; privative^, prehensile; predaceous, predal^, predatory, predatorial^; lupine, rapacious, raptorial; ravenous; parasitic. bereft &c 776. Adv. at one fell swoop. Phr. give an inch and take an ell. 790. Restitution -- N. restitution, return; rendition, reddition^; restoration; reinvestment, recuperation; rehabilitation &c (reconstruction) 660; reparation, atonement; compensation, indemnification. release, replevin [Law], redemption; recovery &c (getting back) 775; remitter, reversion. V. return, restore; give back, carry back, bring back; render, render up; give up; let go, unclutch; disgorge, regorge^; regurgitate; recoup, reimburse, compensate, indemnify; remit, rehabilitate; repair &c (make good) 660. reinvest, revest, reinstate. redeem, recover &c (get back) 775; take back again. revest, revert. Adj. restoring &c v.; recuperative &c 660. Phr. suum cuique [Lat.]. 791. Stealing -- N. stealing &c v.; theft, thievery, latrociny^, direption^; abstraction, appropriation; plagiary, plagiarism; autoplagiarism^; latrocinium^. spoliation, plunder, pillage; sack, sackage^; rapine, brigandage, foray, razzia^, rape, depredation, raid; blackmail. piracy, privateering, buccaneering; license to plunder, letters of marque, letters of mark and reprisal. filibustering, filibusterism^; burglary; housebreaking; badger game [Slang]. robbery, highway robbery, hold-up [U.S.], mugging. peculation, embezzlement; fraud &c 545; larceny, petty larceny, grand larceny, shoplifting. thievishness, rapacity, kleptomania, Alsatia^, den of Cacus, den of thieves. blackmail, extortion, shakedown, Black Hand [U.S.]. [person who commits theft] thief &c 792. V. steal, thieve, rob, mug, purloin, pilfer, filch, prig, bag, nim^, crib, cabbage, palm; abstract; appropriate, plagiarize. convey away, carry off, abduct, kidnap, crimp; make off with, walk off with, run off with; run away with; spirit away, seize &c (lay violent hands on) 789. plunder, pillage, rifle, sack, loot, ransack, spoil, spoliate^, despoil, strip, sweep, gut, forage, levy blackmail, pirate, pickeer^, maraud, lift cattle, poach; smuggle, run; badger [Slang]; bail up, hold up, stick up; bunco, bunko, filibuster. swindle, peculate, embezzle; sponge, mulct, rook, bilk, pluck, pigeon, fleece; defraud &c 545; obtain under false pretenses; live by one's wits. rob Peter to pay Paul, borrow of Peter to pay Paul; set a thief to catch a thief. disregard the distinction between meum and tuum [Lat.]. [receive stolen goods] fence, launder, launder money. Adj. thieving &c v.; thievish, light-fingered; furacious^, furtive; piratical; predaceous, predal^, predatory, predatorial^; raptorial &c (rapacious) 789. stolen &c v.. Phr. sic vos non vobis [Lat.]. 792. Thief -- N. thief, robber, homo triumliterarum [Lat.], pilferer, rifler, filcher^, plagiarist. spoiler, depredator, pillager, marauder; harpy, shark [Slang], land shark, falcon, mosstrooper^, bushranger^, Bedouin^, brigand, freebooter, bandit, thug, dacoit^; pirate, corsair, viking, Paul Jones^, buccaneer, buccanier^; piqueerer^, pickeerer^; rover, ranger, privateer, filibuster; rapparee^, wrecker, picaroon^; smuggler, poacher; abductor, badger [Slang], bunko man, cattle thief, chor^, contrabandist^, crook, hawk, holdup man, hold-up [U.S.], jackleg [U.S.], kidnaper, rustler, cattle rustler, sandbagger, sea king, skin [Slang], sneak thief, spieler^, strong-arm man [U.S.]. highwayman, Dick Turpin, Claude Duval, Macheath, footpad, sturdy beggar. cut purse, pick purse; pickpocket, light-fingered gentry; sharper; card sharper, skittle sharper; thimblerigger; rook [Slang], Greek, blackleg, leg, welsher [Slang]; defaulter; Autolycus^, Jeremy Diddler^, Robert Macaire, artful dodger, trickster; swell mob [Slang], chevalier d'industrie [Fr.]; shoplifter. swindler, peculator; forger, coiner; fence, receiver of stolen goods, duffer; smasher. burglar, housebreaker; cracksman^, magsman [Slang]; Bill Sikes, Jack Sheppard, Jonathan Wild. gang [group of thieves], gang of thieves, theft ring; organized crime, mafia, the Sicilian Mafia, the mob, la cosa nostra [It]. [famous thieves], Dillinger, Al Capone; Robin Hood. 793. Booty -- N. booty, spoil, plunder, prize, loot, swag [Slang], pickings; spolia opima [Lat.], prey; blackmail; stolen goods. Adj. manubial^. 3. Interchange of Property 794. Barter -- N. barter, exchange, scorse^, truck system; interchange &c 148. a Roland for an Oliver; quid pro quo; commutation, composition; Indian gift [U.S.]. trade, commerce, mercature^, buying and selling, bargain and sale; traffic, business, nundination^, custom, shopping; commercial enterprise, speculation, jobbing, stockjobbing^, agiotage^, brokery^. deal, dealing, transaction, negotiation, bargain. free trade. V. barter, exchange, swap, swop^, truck, scorse^; interchange &c 148; commutate &c (substitute) 147; compound for. trade, traffic, buy and sell, give and take, nundinate^; carry on a trade, ply a trade, drive a trade; be in business, be in the city; keep a shop, deal in, employ one's capital in. trade with, deal with, have dealings with; transact business with, do business with; open an account with, keep an account with. bargain; drive a bargain, make a bargain; negotiate, bid for; haggle, higgle^; dicker [U.S.]; chaffer, huckster, cheapen, beat down; stickle, stickle for; out bid, under bid; ask, charge; strike a bargain &c (contract) 769. speculate, give a sprat to catch a herring; buy in the cheapest and sell in the dearest market, buy low and sell high; corner the market; rig the market, stag the market. Adj. commercial, mercantile, trading; interchangeable, marketable, staple, in the market, for sale. wholesale, retail. Adv. across the counter. Phr. cambio non e furto [It]. 795. Purchase -- N. purchase, emption^; buying, purchasing, shopping; preemption, refusal. coemption^, bribery; slave trade. buyer, purchaser, emptor, vendee; patron, employer, client, customer, clientele. V. buy, purchase, invest in, procure; rent &c (hire) 788; repurchase, buy in. keep in one's pay, bribe, suborn; pay &c 807; spend &c 809. make a purchase, complete a purchase; buy over the counter. shop, market, go shopping. Adj. purchased &c v.. Phr. caveat emptor; the customer is always right. 796. Sale -- N. sale, vent, disposal; auction, roup, Dutch auction; outcry, vendue^; custom &c (traffic) 794. vendibility, vendibleness^. seller; vender, vendor; merchant &c 797; auctioneer. V. sell, vend, dispose of, effect a sale; sell over the counter, sell by auction &c n.; dispense, retail; deal in &c 794; sell off, sell out; turn into money, realize; bring to the hammer, bring under the hammer, put up to auction, put up for auction; offer for sale, put up for sale; hawk, bring to market; offer &c 763; undersell. let; mortgage &c (security) 771. Adj. under the hammer, on the market, for sale. salable, marketable, vendible; unsalable &c unpurchased^, unbought; on one's hands. Phr. chose qui plait est a demi vendue [Fr.]. 797. Merchant -- N. merchant, trader, dealer, monger, chandler, salesman; changer; regrater^; shopkeeper, shopman^; tradesman, tradespeople, tradesfolk. retailer; chapman, hawker, huckster, higgler^; pedlar, colporteur, cadger, Autolycus^; sutler^, vivandiere^; costerman^, costermonger^; tallyman; camelot; faker; vintner. money broker, money changer, money lender; cambist^, usurer, moneyer^, banker. jobber; broker &c (agent) 758; buyer &c 795; seller &c 796; bear, bull. concern; firm &c (partnership) 712. 798. Merchandise -- N. merchandise, ware, commodity, effects, goods, article, stock, product, produce, staple commodity; stock in trade &c (store) 636; cargo &c (contents) 190. 799. Mart -- N. mart; market, marketplace; fair, bazaar, staple, exchange, change, bourse, hall, guildhall; tollbooth, customhouse; Tattersall's. stall, booth, stand, newsstand; cart, wagon. wharf; office, chambers, countinghouse, bureau; counter, compter [Fr.]. shop, emporium, establishment; store &c 636; department store, general store, five and ten, variety store, co-op, finding store [U.S.], grindery warehouse^. [food stores: list] grocery, supermarket, candy store, sweet shop, confectionery, bakery, greengrocer, delicatessen, bakeshop, butcher shop, fish store, farmers' market, mom and pop store, dairy, health food store. [specialized stores: list] tobacco shop, tobacco store, tobacconists, cigar store, hardware store, jewelry shop, bookstore, liquor store, gun shop, rod and reel shop, furniture store, drugstore, chemist's [Brit.], florist, flower shop, shoe store, stationer, stationer's, electronics shop, telephone store, music store, record shop, fur store, sporting goods store, video store, video rental store; lumber store, lumber yard, home improvements store, home improvement center; gas station, auto repair shop, auto dealer, used car dealer. mall, suburban mall, commons, pedestrian mall; shopping street. surplus store, army-navy surplus store. [locations where used articles are sold] auction; flea market; yard sale, garage sale; pawn shop; antiques store; second-hand store, second time around shop, thrift shop. warehouse, wareroom^; depot, interposit^, entrepot [Fr.]. market-overt. real-estate broker. vending machine. 799a. Stock Market [specialized markets for financial instruments] -- N. stock market, stock exchange, securities exchange; bourse, board; the big board, the New York Stock Exchange; the market, the open market; over-the-counter market; privately traded issues. commodities exchange, futures exchange, futures market. the pit, the floor. ticker, stock ticker, quotation; stock index, market index, the Dow Jones Index, the Dow Industrials, the transportation index, utilities, the utilities index; the New York Stock Exchange index, the Nikkei index [Jap.Tr.]; the Financial Times index, the FTI [Brit.], the over-the-counter index, NASDAQ index. [person or firm trading securities] broker, stockbroker, jobber, stock dealer, odd-lot dealer; specialist. [person who buys or sells stocks] investor, speculator, operator; bull, buyer; bear, short seller; scalper, arbitrager^, arbitrageur^; stockholder, share-holder, stockholder of record; bond holder, coupon- clipper [Sarc.]. investment; speculation. V. speculate, invest, trade, trade stocks, play the market; buy long, sell short, take a position, straddle; take a plunge, plunge in, take a flier [Coll.]. 799b. Securities -- N. securities, stocks, common stock, preferred stock, bonds, puts, calls, options, option contract, warrants, commercial paper, bearer bond, tax-exempt bond, callable bond, convertable bond^. share, stock certificate; coupon, bond coupon. liquid assets. 4. Monetary Relations 800. Money -- N. money, legal tender; money matters, money market; finance; accounts &c 811; funds, treasure; capital, stock; assets &c (property) 780; wealth &c 803; supplies, ways and means, wherewithal, sinews of war, almighty dollar, needful, cash; mammon. [colloquial terms for money] dough, cabbage. money-like instruments, M1, M2, sum, amount; balance, balance sheet; sum total; proceeds &c (receipts) 810. currency, circulating medium, specie, coin, piece [Fr.], hard cash, cold cash; dollar, sterling coin; pounds shillings and pence; Ls.d.; pocket, breeches pocket, purse; money in hand, cash at hand; ready money, ready cash; slug [U.S.], wad [Slang] wad of bills [U.S.], wad of money, thick wad of bills, roll of dough [Coll.]; rhino^, blunt^, dust^, mopus^, tin^, salt^, chink^; argent comptant [Lat.]; bottom dollar, buzzard dollar^; checks, dibs [Slang]. [specific types of currency] double eagle, eagle; Federal currency, fractional currency, postal currency; Federal Reserve Note, United States Note, silver certificate^, gold certificate^; long bit, short bit [U.S.]; moss, nickel, pile [Slang], pin money, quarter [U.S.], red cent, roanoke^, rock [Slang]; seawan^, seawant^; thousand dollars, grand [Coll.]. [types of paper currency, U.S.] single, one-dollar bill; two- dollar bill; five-dollar bill, fiver [Coll.], fin [Coll.], Lincoln; ten-dollar bill, sawbuck; twenty-dollar bill, Jackson, double sawbuck; fifty-dollar bill; hundred-dollar bill, C-note. [types of U.S. coins: list] penny, cent, Lincoln cent, indian head penny, copper [1700-1900]; two-cent piece three-cent piece [Fr.], half- dime^, nickel, buffalo nickel, V nickel^, dime, disme^, mercury dime^, quarter, two bits, half dollar, dollar, silver dollar, Eisenhower dollar, Susan B. Anthony dollar^. precious metals, gold, silver, copper, bullion, ingot, nugget. petty cash, pocket money, change, small change, small coin, doit^, stiver^, rap, mite, farthing, sou, penny, shilling, tester, groat, guinea; rouleau^; wampum; good sum, round sum, lump sum; power of money, plum, lac of rupees. major coin, crown; minor coin. monetarist, monetary theory. [Science of coins] numismatics, chrysology^. [coin scholar or collector] numismatist. paper money, greenback; major denomination, minor denomination; money order, postal money order, Post Office order; bank note; bond; bill, bill of exchange; order, warrant, coupon, debenture, exchequer bill, assignat^; blueback [U.S.], hundi^, shinplaster [U.S.]. note, note of hand; promissory note, I O U; draft, check, cheque, back-dated check; negotiable order of withdrawal, NOW. remittance &c (payment) 807; credit &c 805; liability &c 806. drawer, drawee^; obligor^, obligee^; moneyer^, coiner. false money, bad money; base coin, flash note, slip^, kite [Slang]; fancy stocks; Bank of Elegance. argumentum ad crumenam [Lat.]. letter of credit. circulation, multiplier effect. [variation in the value of currency] inflation, double-digit inflation, hyperinflation, erosion of the currency, debasement of the currency; deflation; stagflation. [relative value of two currencies] exchange rate, rate of exchange, floating exchange rates, fixed rates. [place to exchange currencies] currency counter, currency exchange, bureau de change [Fr.]. gold-backed currency, gold standard, silver standard. bank account, savings account, checking account, money market account, NOW account, time deposit, deposit, demand deposit, super NOW account; certificate of deposit, CD. [money symbols] $ [U.S.], US$ [U.S.]; Y; A$. [authorities controlling currency] Federal Reserve Bank [U.S.], central bank [U.S.]; Federal Reserve Board, board of governors of the Federal Reserve; Treasury Department; Secret Service. [place where money is manufactured] mint, bureau of engraving. [government profit in manufacturing money] seigniorage. [false money] counterfeit, funny money, bogus money, (falsehood) 545. [cost of money] interest, interest rate, discount rate. V. amount to, come to, mount up to; touch the pocket; draw, draw upon; indorse &c (security) 771; issue, utter; discount &c 813; back; demonetize, remonetize; fiscalize^, monetize. circulate, be in circulation; be out of circulation. [manufacture currency] mint (coins), coin; print (paper currency). [vary the value of money] inflate, deflate; debase; devalue, revalue. [vary the amount of money] circulate, put in circulation; withdraw from circulation. [change the type of currency] exchange currencies, change money. charge interest; pay interest; lose interest. Adj. monetary, pecuniary, crumenal^, fiscal, financial, sumptuary, numismatic, numismatical^; sterling; nummary^. Phr. barbarus ipse placet dummodo sit dives [Lat.] [Ovid]; but the jingling of the guinea helps the hurt that honor feels [Tennyson]; Gelt regiert die Welt [G.], money rules the world, money makes the world go round; nervos belli pecuniam infinitam [Lat.] [Cicero]; redet Geld so schweigt die Welt [G.]; money is the mother's milk of politics [Tip O'Neill]; money is the root of all evil; money isn't everything; as phony as a three-dollar bill; don't take any wooden nickels. 801. Treasurer -- N. treasurer; bursar, bursary; purser, purse bearer; cash keeper, banker; depositary; questor^, receiver, steward, trustee, accountant, Accountant General, almoner, liquidator, paymaster, cashier, teller; cambist^; money changer &c (merchant) 797. financier. Secretary of the Treasury; Chancellor of the Exchequer, minister of finance. 802. Treasury -- N. treasury, bank, exchequer, fisc, hanaper^; cash register, kutcherry^, bursary; strong box, strong hold, strong room; coffer; chest &c (receptacle) 191; safe; bank vault; depository &c 636; till, tiller; purse; money bag, money box; porte-monnaie [Fr.]. purse strings; pocket, breeches pocket. sinking fund; stocks; public stocks, public funds, public securities, parliamentary stocks, parliamentary funds, parliamentary securities; Consols, credit mobilier [Fr.]; bonds. 803. Wealth -- N. wealth, riches, fortune, handsome fortune, opulence, affluence; good circumstances, easy circumstances; independence; competence &c (sufficiency) 639; solvency. provision, livelihood, maintenance; alimony, dowry; means, resources, substance; property &c 780; command of money. income &c 810; capital, money; round sum &c (treasure) 800; mint of money, mine of wealth, El Dorado [Sp.], bonanza, Pacatolus, Golconda, Potosi. long purse, full purse, well lined purse, heavy purse, deep pockets; purse of Fortunatus [Lat.]; embarras de richesses [Fr.]. pelf, Mammon, lucre, filthy lucre; loaves and fishes^. rich man, moneyed man, warm man; man of substance; capitalist, millionaire, tippybob [Slang], Nabob, Croesus, idas, Plutus, Dives, Timon of Athens^; Timocracy, Plutocracy; Danae. V. be rich &c adj.; roll in wealth, roll in riches, wallow in wealth, wallow in riches. afford, well afford; command money, command a sum; make both ends meet, hold one's head above water. become rich &c adj.; strike it rich; come into a sum of money, receive a windfall, receive an inheritance, hit the jackpot, win the lottery; fill one's pocket &c (treasury) 802; feather one's nest, make a fortune; make money &c (acquire) 775. enrich, imburse. worship the golden calf, worship Mammon. Adj. wealthy, rich, affluent, opulent, moneyed, monied, worth much; well to do, well off; warm; comfortable, well, well provided for. made of money; rich as Croesus, filthy rich, rich as a Jew^; rolling in riches, rolling in wealth. flush, flush of cash, flush of money, flush of tin [Slang]; in funds, in cash, in full feather; solvent, pecunious^, out of debt, in the black, all straight. Phr. one's ship coming in. amour fait beaucoup mais argent fait tout [Fr.], love does much but money does everything; aurea rumpunt tecta quietem [Lat.] [Seneca]; magna servitus ist magna fortuna [Lat.]; mammon, the least erected spirit that fell from Heaven [Paradise Lost]; opum furiata cupido [Lat.] [Ovid]; vera prosperita e non aver necessita [It]; wie gewonnen so zerronnen [G.]. 804. Poverty -- N. poverty, indigence, penury, pauperism, destitution, want; need, neediness; lack, necessity, privation, distress, difficulties, wolf at the door. bad circumstances, poor circumstances, need circumstances, embarrassed circumstances, reduced circumstances, straightened circumstances; slender means, narrow means; straits; hand to mouth existence, res angusta domi [Lat.], low water, impecuniosity. beggary; mendicancy, mendicity^; broken fortune, loss of fortune; insolvency &c (nonpayment) 808. empty pocket, empty purse; light purse; beggarly account of empty boxes. [poor people] poor man, pauper, mendicant, mumper^, beggar, starveling; pauvre diable [Fr.]; fakir^, schnorrer^; homeless person. V. be poor &c adj.; want, lack, starve, live from hand to mouth, have seen better days, go down in the world, come upon the parish; go to the dogs, go to wrack and ruin; not have a penny &c (money) 800, not have a shot in one's locker; beg one's bread; tirer le diable par la queue [Fr.]; run into debt &c (debt) 806. render poor &c adj.; impoverish; reduce, reduce to poverty; pauperize, fleece, ruin, bring to the parish. Adj. poor, indigent; poverty-stricken; badly off, poorly off, ill off; poor as a rat, poor as a church mouse, poor as a Job; fortuneless^, dowerless^, moneyless^, penniless; unportioned^, unmoneyed^; impecunious; out of money, out of cash, short of money, short of cash; without a rap, not worth a rap &c (money) 800; qui n'a pas le sou [Fr.], out of pocket, hard up; out at elbows, out at heels; seedy, bare-footed; beggarly, beggared; destitute; fleeced, stripped; bereft, bereaved; reduced; homeless. in want &c n.; needy, necessitous, distressed, pinched, straitened; put to one's shifts, put to one's last shifts; unable to keep the wolf from the door, unable to make both ends meet; embarrassed, under hatches; involved &c (in debt) 806; insolvent &c (not paying) 808. Adv. in forma pauperis [Lat.]. Phr. zonam perdidit [Lat.]; a penniless lass wi' a lang pedigree [Lady Nairne]; a pobreza no hay verguenza [Sp.]; he that is down can fall no lower [Butler]; poca roba poco pensiero [It]; steeped . . . in poverty to the very lips [Othello]; the short and simple annals of the poor [Gray]. 805. Credit -- N. credit, trust, tick, score, tally, account. letter of credit, circular note; duplicate; mortgage, lien, debenture, paper credit, floating capital; draft, lettre de creance [Fr.], securities. creditor, lender, lessor, mortgagee; dun; usurer. credit account, line of credit, open line of credit. credit card. V. keep an account with, run up an account with; intrust, credit, accredit. place to one's credit, credit to one's account, place to one's account^; give credit, take credit; fly a kite^. Adj. crediting, credited; accredited. Adv. on credit &c n.; on account; to the account of, to the credit of; a compte [Fr.]. 806. Debt -- N. debt, obligation, liability, indebtment^, debit, score. bill; check; account (credit) 805. arrears, deferred payment, deficit, default, insolvency &c (nonpayment) 808; bad debt. interest; premium; usance^, usury; floating debt, floating capital. debtor, debitor^; mortgagor; defaulter &c 808; borrower. V. be in debt &c adj.; owe; incur a debt, contract a debt &c n.; run up a bill, run up a score, run up an account; go on tick; borrow &c 788; run into debt, get into debt, outrun the constable; run up debts, run up bills (spend) 809. answer for, go bail for. [notify a person of his indebtedness: ] bill, charge. Adj. indebted; liable, chargeable, answerable for. in debt, in embarrassed circumstances, in difficulties; incumbered, involved; involved in debt, plunged in debt, deep in debt, over one's head in debt, over head and ears in debt; deeply involved; fast tied up; insolvent &c (not paying) 808; minus, out of pocket. unpaid; unrequited, unrewarded; owing, due, in arrear^, outstanding; past due. Phr. aes alienum debitorem leve gravius inimicum facit [Lat.]; neither a borrower nor a lender be [Hamlet]. 807. Payment -- N. payment, defrayment^; discharge; acquittance, quittance; settlement, clearance, liquidation, satisfaction, reckoning, arrangement. acknowledgment, release; receipt, receipt in full, receipt in full of all demands; voucher. salary, compensation, remuneration (reward) 973. repayment, reimbursement, retribution; pay &c (reward) 973; money paid &c (expenditure) 809. ready money &c (cash) 800; stake, remittance, installment. payer, liquidator &c 801. pay cash, pay cash on the barrelhead. V. pay, defray, make payment; paydown, pay on the nail, pay ready money, pay at sight, pay in advance; cash, honor a bill, acknowledge; redeem; pay in kind. pay one's way, pay one's shot, pay one's footing; pay the piper, pay sauce for all, pay costs; do the needful; shell out, fork out; cough up [Coll.], fork over; come down with, come down with the dust; tickle the palm, grease the palm; expend &c 809; put down, lay down. discharge, settle, quit, acquit oneself of; foot the bill; account with, reckon with, settle with, be even with, be quits with; strike a balance; settle accounts with, balance accounts with, square accounts with; quit scores; wipe off old scores, clear off old scores; satisfy; pay in full; satisfy all demands, pay in full of all demands; clear, liquidate; pay up, pay old debts. disgorge, make repayment; repay, refund, reimburse, retribute^; make compensation &c 30. pay by credit card, put it on the plastic. Adj. paying &c; paid &c v.; owing nothing, out of debt, all straight; unowed^, never indebted. Adv. to the tune of; on the nail, money down. 808. Nonpayment -- N. nonpayment; default, defalcation; protest, repudiation; application of the sponge^; whitewashing. insolvency, bankruptcy, failure; insufficiency &c 640; run upon a bank; overdrawn account. waste paper bonds; dishonored bills, protested bills; bogus check, bogus cheque, rubber check. bankrupt, insolvent, debtor, lame duck, man of straw, welsher, stag, defaulter, levanter^. V. not pay &c 807; fail, break, stop payment; become insolvent, become bankrupt; be gazetted. protest, dishonor, repudiate, nullify, refuse payment. pay under protest; button up one's pockets, draw the purse strings; apply the sponge; pay over the left shoulder, get whitewashed; swindle &c 791; run up bills, fly kites. Adj. not paying, non-paying, non-performing; in debt &c 806; behindhand, in arrear^, behind in payments, in arrears; beggared &c (poor) 804; unable to make both ends meet, minus; worse than nothing; worthless. insolvent, bankrupt, in the gazette, gazetted. unpaid &c (outstanding) 806; gratis &c 815; unremunerated. 809. Expenditure -- N. expenditure, money going out; out goings, out lay; expenses, disbursement; prime cost &c (price) 812; circulation; run upon a bank. payment &c 807 [Money paid]; pay &c (remuneration) 973; bribe &c 973; fee, footing, garnish; subsidy; tribute; contingent, quota; donation &c 784. pay in advance, earnest, handsel, deposit, installment. investment; purchase &c 795. V. expend, spend; run through, get through; pay, disburse; ante, ante up; pony up [U.S.]; open the purse strings, loose the purse strings, untie the purse strings; lay out, shell out [Slang], fork out [Slang], fork over; bleed; make up a sum, invest, sink money. run up debts, run up bills (debt) 806. fee &c (reward) 973; pay one's way &c (pay) 807; subscribe &c (give) 784; subsidize. Adj. expending, expended &c v.; sumptuary. Phr. vectigalia nervos esse reipublicae [Lat.] [Cicero]. 810. Receipt -- N. receipt, value received, money coming in; income, incomings, innings, revenue, return, proceeds; gross receipts, net profit; earnings &c (gain) 775; accepta^, avails. rent, rent roll; rental, rentage^; rack-rent. premium, bonus; sweepstakes, tontine. pension, annuity; jointure &c (property) 780 [Obs.]; alimony, palimony [Coll.], pittance; emolument &c (remuneration) 973. V. receive &c 785; take money; draw from, derive from; acquire &c 775; take &c 789. bring in, yield, afford, pay, return; accrue &c (be received from) 785. Adj. receiving, received &c v.; profitable &c (gainful) 775. 811. Accounts -- N. accounts, accompts^; commercial arithmetic, monetary arithmetic; statistics &c (numeration) 85; money matters, finance, budget, bill, score, reckoning, account. books, account book, ledger; day book, cash book, pass book; journal; debtor and creditor account, cash account, running account; account current; balance, balance sheet; compte rendu [Fr.], account settled, acquit, assets, expenditure, liabilities, outstanding accounts; profit and loss account, profit and loss statement, receipts. bookkeeping, accounting, double entry bookkeeping, reckoning. audit. [person who keeps accounts] accountant, auditor, actuary, bookkeeper, bean counter [Sarc.]; financier &c 801; accounting party; chartered accountant, certified accountant; accounting firm, auditing firm. V. keep accounts, enter, post, book, credit, debit, carry over; take stock; balance accounts, make up accounts, square accounts, settle accounts, wind up accounts, cast up accounts; make accounts square, square accounts. bring to book, tax, surcharge and falsify. audit, field audit; check the books, verify accounts. falsify an account, garble an account, cook an account, cook the books, doctor an account. Adj. monetary &c 800; accountable, accounting. 812. Price -- N. price, amount, cost, expense, prime cost, charge, figure; demand, damage; fare, hire, wages &c (remuneration) 973; value &c 812.1. dues, duty, toll, tax, impost, cess^, sess^, tallage^, levy; abkari^; capitation tax, poll tax; doomage [U.S.], likin^; gabel^, gabelle^; gavel, octroi^, custom, excise, assessment, benevolence, tithe, tenths, exactment^, ransom, salvage, tariff; brokerage, wharfage, freightage. bill &c (account) 811; shot. V. bear a price, set a price, fix a price; appraise, assess, doom [U.S.], price, charge, demand, ask, require, exact, run up; distrain; run up a bill &c (debt) 806; have one's price; liquidate. amount to, come to, mount up to; stand one in. fetch, sell for, cost, bring in, yield, afford. Adj. priced &c v.; to the tune of, ad valorem; dutiable; mercenary, venal. Phr. no penny no paternoster [Lat.]; point d'argent point de Suisse [Fr.], no longer pipe no longer dance, no song no supper, if you dance you have to pay the piper, you get what you pay for, there's no such thing as a free lunch. one may have it for; a bon marche [Fr.]. 812a. Value [intrinsic worth] -- N. {ant. to 812b} worth, rate, value, intrinsic value, quality; par value. [estimated value] valuation, appraisal, assessment, appraisement. [value as estimated in a market] price current, market price, quotation; fair price, going price; what it will fetch &c v.; what the market will bear. money's worth; penny's worth &c; worth. cost (price) 812. V. value, esteem; appreciate. [estimate value] appraise, evaluate, assess. Adj. valuable, estimable; worthwhile; worthy, full of worth. precious (expensive) 814. Phr. worth the price; worth a king's ransom; accountants who know the price of everything and the value of nothing. 812b. Worthlessness -- N. {ant. to 812a} worthlessness, valuelessness^; lack of value; uselessness. [low value] cheapness, shoddiness; low quality, poor quality. [worthless item] trash, garbage. Adj. worthless, valueless; useless. [of low value] cheap, shoddy; slapdash. inexpensive &c 815. Phr. not worth the paper it's printed on, not worth a sou. 813. Discount -- N. discount, abatement, concession, reduction, depreciation, allowance; qualification, set-off, drawback, poundage, agio^, percentage; rebate, rebatement^; backwardation, contango^; salvage; tare and tret^. sale, bargain; half price; price war. wholesale, wholesale price; dealer's price; trade price. coupon, discount coupon, cents-off coupon; store coupon, manufacturer's coupon; double coupon discount, triple coupon discount. V. discount, bate; abate, rebate; reduce, price down, mark down take off, allow, give, make allowance; tax. Adj. discounting &c v.. Adv. at a discount, below par; at wholesale; have a friend in the business. 814. Dearness -- N. dearness &c adj.; high price, famine price, fancy price; overcharge; extravagance; exorbitance, extortion; heavy pull upon the purse. V. be dear &c adj.; cost much, cost a pretty penny; rise in price, look up. [demand a price in excess of value] overcharge, bleed, fleece, extort. [pay a price in excess of value] pay too much, pay through the nose, pay too dear for one's whistle, pay top dollar. Adj. dear; high, high priced; of great price, expensive, costly, precious; worth a Jew's eye^, dear bought. at a premium. not to be had, not to be had for love or money; beyond price, above price, priceless, of priceless value. [priced in excess of value] unreasonable, extravagant, exorbitant, extortionate; overpriced, more than it's woth. Adv. dear, dearly; at great cost, heavy cost; a grands frais [Fr.]. Phr. prices looking up; le jeu ne vaut pas la chandelle [Fr.]; le cout en ote le gout [Fr.]; vel prece vel pretio [Lat.]; too high a price to pay, not worth it. 815. Cheapness -- N. cheapness, low price; depreciation; bargain; good penny worth &c; snap [U.S.]. [Absence of charge] gratuity; free quarters, free seats, free admission, pass, free pass, free warren, give-away, freebee [Coll.]; run of one's teeth; nominal price, peppercorn rent; labor of love. drug in the market; deadhead^. V. be cheap &c adj.; cost little; come down in price, fall in price. buy for a mere nothing, buy for an old song; have one's money's worth. Adj. cheap; low, low priced; moderate, reasonable; inexpensive, unexpensive^; well worth the money, worth the money; magnifique et pas cher [Fr.]; good at the price, cheap at the price; dirt cheap, dog cheap; cheap, cheap as dirt, cheap and nasty; catchpenny; discounted &c 813. half-price, depreciated, unsalable. gratuitous, gratis, free, for nothing; costless, expenseless^; without charge, not charged, untaxed; scotfree, shotfree^, rent-free; free of cost, free of expense; honorary, unbought, unpaid. Adv. for a mere song, for a song; at cost, at cost price, at prime cost, at a reduction; a bon marche [Fr.]. 816. Liberality -- N. liberality, generosity, munificence; bounty, bounteousness, bountifulness; hospitality; charity &c (beneficence) 906. V. be liberal &c adj.; spend freely, bleed freely; shower down upon; open one's purse strings &c (disburse) 809; spare no expense, give carte blanche [Fr.]. Adj. liberal, free, generous; charitable &c (beneficent) 906; hospitable; bountiful, bounteous; handsome; unsparing, ungrudging; unselfish; open handed, free handed, full handed; open hearted, large hearted, free hearted; munificent, princely. overpaid. Phr. handsome is that handsome does [Goldsmith]. 817. Economy -- N. economy, frugality; thrift, thriftiness; care, husbandry, good housewifery, savingness^, retrenchment. savings; prevention of waste, save-all; cheese parings and candle ends; parsimony &c 819. cost-cutting, cost control. V. be economical &c adj.; practice economy; economize, save; retrench, cut back expenses, cut expenses; cut one's coat according to one's cloth, make both ends meet, keep within compass, meet one's expenses, pay one's way, pay as you go; husband &c (lay by) 636. save money, invest money; put out to interest; provide for a rainy day, save for a rainy day, provide against a rainy day, save against a rainy day; feather one's nest; look after the main chance. cut costs. Adj. economical, frugal, careful, thrifty, saving, chary, spare, sparing; parsimonious &c 819. underpaid. Adv. sparingly &c adj.; ne quid nimis [Lat.]. Phr. adde parvum parvo magnus acervus erit [Lat.]; magnum est vectigal parsimonia [Lat.] [Cicero]. 817a. Greed [excessive desire] -- N. covetousness, ravenousness &c adj.; venality, avidity, cupidity; acquisitiveness (acquisition) 775; desire &c 865. [greed for money or material things] greed, greediness, avarice, avidity, rapacity, extortion. selfishness &c 943; auri sacra fames [Lat.]. grasping, craving, canine appetite, rapacity. V. covet, crave (desire) 865; grasp; exact, extort. Adj. greedy, avaricious, covetous, acquisitive, grasping; rapacious; lickerish^. greedy as a hog; overeager; voracious; ravenous, ravenous as a wolf; openmouthed, extortionate, exacting, sordid^, alieni appetens [Lat.]; insatiable, insatiate; unquenchable, quenchless; omnivorous. 818. Prodigality -- N. prodigality, prodigence^; unthriftiness^, waste; profusion, profuseness; extravagance; squandering &c v.; malversation. prodigal; spendthrift, waste thrift; losel^, squanderer^, locust; high roller [U.S.]. V. be prodigal &c adj.; squander, lavish, sow broadcast; pour forth like water; blow, blow in [Slang]; pay through the nose &c (dear) 814; spill, waste, dissipate, exhaust, drain, eat out of house and home, overdraw, outrun the constable; run out, run through; misspend; throw good money after bad, throw the helve after the hatchet^; burn the candle at both ends; make ducks and drakes of one's money; fool away one's money, potter away one's money, muddle away one's money, fritter away one's money, throw away one's money, run through one's money; pour water into a sieve, kill the goose that lays the golden eggs; manger son ble en herbe [Fr.]. Adj. prodigal, profuse, thriftless, unthrifty, improvident, wasteful, losel^, extravagant, lavish, dissipated, overliberal; full-handed &c (liberal) 816. penny wise and pound foolish. Adv. with an unsparing hand; money burning a hole in one's pocket. Phr. amor nummi [Lat.]; facile largiri de alieno [Lat.]; wie gewonnen so zerronnen [G.]; les fous font les festins et les sages les mangent [Fr.]; spendthrift alike of money and of wit [Cowper]; squandering wealth was his peculiar art [Dryden]. 819. Parsimony -- N. parsimony, parcity^; parsimoniousness^, stinginess &c adj.; stint; illiberality, tenacity. avarice, greed &c 817.1. miser, niggard, churl, screw, skinflint, crib, codger, muckworm^, scrimp, lickpenny^, hunks, curmudgeon, Harpagon, harpy, extortioner, Jew, usurer; Hessian [U.S.]; pinch fist, pinch penny. V. be parsimonious &c adj.; grudge, begrudge, stint, pinch, gripe, screw, dole out, hold back, withhold, starve, famish, live upon nothing, skin a flint. drive a bargain, drive a hard bargain; cheapen, beat down; stop one hole in a sieve; have an itching palm, grasp, grab. Adj. parsimonious, penurious, stingy, miserly, mean, shabby, peddling, scrubby, penny wise, near, niggardly, close; fast handed, close handed, strait handed; close fisted, hard fisted, tight fisted; tight, sparing; chary; grudging, griping &c v.; illiberal, ungenerous, churlish, hidebound, sordid, mercenary, venal, covetous, usurious, avaricious, greedy, extortionate, rapacious. Adv. with a sparing hand. Phr. desunt inopioe multa avaritiae omnia [Lat.] [Syrus]; hoards after hoards his rising raptures fill [Goldsmith]; the unsunn'd heaps of miser's treasures [Milton]. CLASS VI WORDS RELATING TO THE SENTIENT AND MORAL POWERS SECTION I. AFFECTIONS IN GENERAL 820. Affections -- N. affections, affect; character, qualities, disposition, nature, spirit, tone; temper, temperament; diathesis^, idiosyncrasy; cast of mind, cast of soul, habit of mind, habit of soul, frame of mind, frame of soul; predilection, turn, natural turn of mind; bent, bias, predisposition, proneness, proclivity, propensity, propenseness^, propension^, propendency^; vein, humor, mood, grain, mettle; sympathy &c (love) 897. soul, heart, breast, bosom, inner man; heart's core, heart's strings, heart's blood; heart of hearts, bottom of one's heart, penetralia mentis [Lat.]; secret and inmost recesses of the heart, cockles of one's heart; inmost heart, inmost soul; backbone. passion, pervading spirit; ruling passion, master passion; furore^; fullness of the heart, heyday of the blood, flesh and blood, flow of soul. energy, fervor, fire, force. V. have affections, possess affections &c n.; be of a character &c n.; be affected &c adj.; breathe. Adj. affected, characterized, formed, molded, cast; attempered^, tempered; framed; predisposed; prone, inclined; having a bias &c n.; tinctured with, imbued with, penetrated with, eaten up with. inborn, inbred, ingrained; deep-rooted, ineffaceable, inveterate; pathoscopic^; congenital, dyed in the wool, implanted by nature, inherent, in the grain. affective. Adv. in one's heart &c n.; at heart; heart and soul &c 821. Phr. affection is a coal that must be cool'd else suffer'd it will set the heart on fire [Venus and Adonis]. 821. Feeling -- N. feeling; suffering &c v.; endurance, tolerance, sufferance, supportance^, experience, response; sympathy &c (love) 897; impression, inspiration, affection, sensation, emotion, pathos, deep sense. warmth, glow, unction, gusto, vehemence; fervor, fervency; heartiness, cordiality; earnestness, eagerness; empressement [Fr.], gush, ardor, zeal, passion, enthusiasm, verve, furore^, fanaticism; excitation of feeling &c 824; fullness of the heart &c (disposition) 820; passion &c (state of excitability) 825; ecstasy &c (pleasure) 827. blush, suffusion, flush; hectic; tingling, thrill, turn, shock; agitation &c (irregular motion) 315; quiver, heaving, flutter, flurry, fluster, twitter, tremor; throb, throbbing; pulsation, palpitation, panting; trepidation, perturbation; ruffle, hurry of spirits, pother, stew, ferment; state of excitement. V. feel; receive an impression &c n.; be impressed with &c adj.; entertain feeling, harbor feeling, cherish feeling &c n.. respond; catch the flame, catch the infection; enter the spirit of. bear, suffer, support, sustain, endure, thole [Scot.], aby^; abide &c (be composed) 826; experience &c (meet with) 151; taste, prove; labor under, smart under; bear the brunt of, brave, stand. swell, glow, warm, flush, blush, change color, mantle; turn color, turn pale, turn red, turn black in the face; tingle, thrill, heave, pant, throb, palpitate, go pitapat, tremble, quiver, flutter, twitter; shake &c 315; be agitated, be excited &c 824; look blue, look black; wince; draw a deep breath. impress &c (excite the feelings) 824. Adj. feeling &c v.; sentient; sensuous; sensorial, sensory; emotive, emotional; of feeling, with feeling &c n.. warm, quick, lively, smart, strong, sharp, acute, cutting, piercing, incisive; keen, keen as a razor; trenchant, pungent, racy, piquant, poignant, caustic. impressive, deep, profound, indelible; deep felt, home felt, heartfelt; swelling, soul-stirring, deep-mouthed, heart-expanding, electric, thrilling, rapturous, ecstatic. earnest, wistful, eager, breathless; fervent; fervid; gushing, passionate, warm-hearted, hearty, cordial, sincere, zealous, enthusiastic, glowing, ardent, burning, red-hot, fiery, flaming; boiling over. pervading, penetrating, absorbing; rabid, raving, feverish, fanatical, hysterical; impetuous &c (excitable) 825. impressed with, moved with, touched with, affected with, penetrated with, seized with, imbued with &c 82; devoured by; wrought up &c (excited) 824; struck all of a heap; rapt; in a quiver &c n.; enraptured &c 829. Adv. heart and soul, from the bottom of one's heart, ab imo pectore [Lat.], at heart, con amore [It], heartily, devoutly, over head and ears, head over heels. Phr. the heart big, the heart full, the heart swelling, the heart beating, the heart pulsating, the heart throbbing, the heart thumping, the heart beating high, the heart melting, the heart overflowing, the heart bursting, the heart breaking; the heart goes out, a heart as big as all outdoors (sympathy) 897. 822. Sensibility -- N. sensibility, sensibleness, sensitiveness; moral sensibility; impressibility, affectibility^; susceptibleness, susceptibility, susceptivity^; mobility; vivacity, vivaciousness; tenderness, softness; sentimental, sentimentality; sentimentalism. excitability &c 825; fastidiousness &c 868; physical sensibility &c 375. sore point, sore place; where the shoe pinches. V. be sensible &c adj.; have a tender heart, have a warm heart, have a sensitive heart. take to heart, treasure up in the heart; shrink. die of a rose in aromatic pain [Pope]; touch to the quick; touch on the raw, touch a raw nerve. Adj. sensible, sensitive; impressible, impressionable; susceptive, susceptible; alive to, impassionable^, gushing; warm hearted, tender hearted, soft hearted; tender as a chicken; soft, sentimental, romantic; enthusiastic, highflying^, spirited, mettlesome, vivacious, lively, expressive, mobile, tremblingly alive; excitable &c 825; oversensitive, without skin, thin-skinned; fastidious &c 868. Adv. sensibly &c adj.; to the quick, to the inmost core. Phr. mens aequa in arduis [Lat.]; pour salt in the wound. 823. Insensibility -- N. insensibility, insensibleness^; moral insensibility; inertness, inertia; vis inertiae [Lat.]; impassibility, impassibleness; inappetency^, apathy, phlegm, dullness, hebetude^, supineness, lukewarmness^. cold fit, cold blood, cold heart; coldness, coolness; frigidity, sang froid [Fr.]; stoicism, imperturbation &c (inexcitability) 826 [Obs.]; nonchalance, unconcern, dry eyes; insouciance &c (indifference) 866; recklessness &c 863; callousness; heart of stone, stock and stone, marble, deadness. torpor, torpidity; obstupefaction^, lethargy, coma, trance, vegetative state; sleep &c 683; suspended animation; stupor, stupefaction; paralysis, palsy; numbness &c (physical insensibility) 376. neutrality; quietism, vegetation. V. be insensible &c adj.; have a rhinoceros hide; show insensibility &c n.; not mind, not care, not be affected by; have no desire for &c 866; have no interest in, feel no interest in, take no interest in; nil admirari [Lat.]; not care a straw for &c (unimportance) 643; disregard &c (neglect) 460; set at naught &c (make light of) 483; turn a deaf ear to &c (inattention) 458; vegetate. render insensible, render callous; blunt, obtund^, numb, benumb, paralyze, deaden, hebetate^, stun, stupefy; brutify^; brutalize; chloroform, anaesthetize^, put under; assify^. inure; harden the heart; steel, caseharden, sear. Adj. insensible, unconscious; impassive, impassible; blind to, deaf to, dead to; unsusceptible, insusceptible; unimpressionable^, unimpressible^; passionless, spiritless, heartless, soulless; unfeeling, unmoral. apathetic; leuco-^, phlegmatic; dull, frigid; cold blooded, cold hearted; cold as charity; flat, maudlin, obtuse, inert, supine, sluggish, torpid, torpedinous^, torporific^; sleepy &c (inactive) 683; languid, half-hearted, tame; numbed; comatose; anaesthetic &c 376; stupefied, chloroformed, drugged, stoned; palsy-stricken. indifferent, lukewarm; careless, mindless, regardless; inattentive &c 458; neglectful &c 460; disregarding. unconcerned, nonchalant, pococurante^, insouciant, sans souci [Fr.]; unambitious &c 866. unaffected, unruffled, unimpressed, uninspired, unexcited, unmoved, unstirred, untouched, unshocked^, unstruck^; unblushing &c (shameless) 885; unanimated; vegetative. callous, thick-skinned, hard-nosed, pachydermatous, impervious; hardened; inured, casehardened; steeled against, proof against; imperturbable &c (inexcitable) 826 [Obs.]; unfelt. Adv. insensibly &c adj.; aequo animo [Lat.]; without being moved, without being touched, without being impressed; in cold blood; with dry eyes, with withers unwrung^. Phr. never mind; macht nichts [G.], it is of no consequence &c (unimportant) 643; it cannot be helped; nothing coming amiss; it is all the same to, it is all one to. 824. Excitation -- N. excitation of feeling; mental excitement; suscitation^, galvanism, stimulation, piquance, piquancy, provocation, inspiration, calling forth, infection; animation, agitation, perturbation; subjugation, fascination, intoxication; enravishment^; entrancement; pressure, tension, high pressure. unction, impressiveness &c adj.. trail of temper, casus belli [Lat.]; irritation &c (anger) 900; passion &c (state of excitability) 825; thrill &c (feeling) 821; repression of feeling &c 826; sensationalism, yellow journalism. V. excite, affect, touch, move, impress, strike, interest, animate, inspire, impassion, smite, infect; stir the blood, fire the blood, warm the blood; set astir; wake, awake, awaken; call forth; evoke, provoke; raise up, summon up, call up, wake up, blow up, get up, light up; raise; get up the steam, rouse, arouse, stir; fire, kindle, enkindle, apply the torch, set on fire, inflame. stimulate; exsuscitate^; inspirit; spirit up, stir up, work up, pique; infuse life into, give new life to; bring new blood, introduce new blood; quicken; sharpen, whet; work upon &c (incite) 615; hurry on, give a fillip, put on one's mettle. fan the fire, fan the flame; blow the coals, stir the embers; fan into a flame; foster, heat, warm, foment, raise to a fever heat; keep up, keep the pot boiling; revive, rekindle; rake up, rip up. stir the feelings, play on the feelings, come home to the feelings; touch a string, touch a chord, touch the soul, touch the heart; go to one's heart, penetrate, pierce, go through one, touch to the quick; possess the soul, pervade the soul, penetrate the soul, imbrue the soul, absorb the soul, affect the soul, disturb the soul. absorb, rivet the attention; sink into the mind, sink into the heart; prey on the mind, distract; intoxicate; overwhelm, overpower; bouleverser [Fr.], upset, turn one's head. fascinate; enrapture &c (give pleasure) 829. agitate, perturb, ruffle, fluster, shake, disturb, startle, shock, stagger; give one a shock, give one a turn; strike all of a heap; stun, astound, electrify, galvanize, petrify. irritate, sting; cut to the heart, cut to the quick; try one's temper; fool to the top of one's bent, pique; infuriate, madden, make one's blood boil; lash into fury &c (wrath) 900. be excited &c adj.; flush up, flare up; catch the infection; thrill &c (feel) 821; mantle; work oneself up; seethe, boil, simmer, foam, fume, flame, rage, rave; run mad &c (passion) 825. Adj. excited &c v.; wrought up, up the qui vive [Fr.], astir, sparkling; in a quiver &c 821, in a fever, in a ferment, in a blaze, in a state of excitement; in hysterics; black in the face, overwrought, tense, taught, on a razor's edge; hot, red-hot, flushed, feverish; all of a twitter, in a pucker; with quivering lips, with tears in one's eyes. flaming; boiling over; ebullient, seething; foaming at the mouth; fuming, raging, carried away by passion, wild, raving, frantic, mad, distracted, beside oneself, out of one's wits, ready to burst, bouleverse^, demoniacal. lost, eperdu [Fr.], tempest-tossed; haggard; ready to sink. stung to the quick, up, on one's high ropes. exciting, absorbing, riveting, distracting &c v.; impressive, warm, glowing, fervid, swelling, imposing, spirit-stirring, thrilling; high-wrought; soul-stirring, soul-subduing; heart-stirring, heart- swelling, heart-thrilling; agonizing &c (painful) 830; telling, sensational, hysterical; overpowering, overwhelming; more than flesh and blood can bear; yellow. piquant &c (pungent) 392; spicy, appetizing, provocative, provoquant^, tantalizing. eager to go, anxious to go, chafing at the bit. Adv. till one is black in the face. Phr. the heart beating high, the heart going pitapat, the heart leaping into one's mouth; the blood being up, the blood boiling in one's veins; the eye glistening, the eyes in a fine frenzy rolling; the head turned; when the going gets tough, the tough get going [Richard Nixon]. 825. [Excess of sensitiveness] Excitability -- N. excitability, impetuosity, vehemence; boisterousness &c adj.; turbulence; impatience, intolerance, nonendurance^; irritability &c (irascibility) 901; itching &c (desire) 865; wincing; disquiet, disquietude; restlessness; fidgets, fidgetiness; agitation &c (irregular motion) 315. trepidation, perturbation, ruffle, hurry, fuss, flurry; fluster, flutter; pother, stew, ferment; whirl; buck fever; hurry-skurry^, thrill &c (feeling) 821; state of excitement, fever of excitement; transport. passion, excitement, flush, heat; fever, heat; fire, flame, fume, blood boiling; tumult; effervescence, ebullition; boiling over; whiff, gust, story, tempest; scene, breaking out, burst, fit, paroxysm, explosion; outbreak, outburst; agony. violence &c 173; fierceness &c adj.; rage, fury, furor, furore^, desperation, madness, distraction, raving, delirium; phrensy^, frenzy, hysterics; intoxication; tearing passion, raging passion; anger &c 900. fascination, infatuation, fanaticism; Quixotism, Quixotry; tete montee [Fr.]. V. be impatient &c adj.; not be able to bear &c 826; bear ill, wince, chafe, champ a bit; be in a stew &c n.; be out of all patience, fidget, fuss, not have a wink of sleep; toss on one's pillow. lose one's temper &c 900; break out, burst out, fly out; go off, fly off, fly off at a tangent, fly off the handle, lose one's cool [Coll.]; explode, flare up, flame up, fire up, burst into a flame, take fire, fire, burn; boil, boil over; foam, fume, rage, rave, rant, tear; go wild, run wild, run mad, go into hysterics; run riot, run amuck; battre la campagne [Fr.], faire le diable a quatre [Fr.], play the deuce. Adj. excitable, easily excited, in an excitable state; high-strung; irritable &c (irascible) 901; impatient, intolerant. feverish, febrile, hysterical; delirious, mad, moody, maggoty- headed. unquiet, mercurial, electric, galvanic, hasty, hurried, restless, fidgety, fussy; chafing &c v.. startlish^, mettlesome, high-mettled^, skittish. vehement, demonstrative, violent, wild, furious, fierce, fiery, hot-headed, madcap. overzealous, enthusiastic, impassioned, fanatical; rabid &c (eager) 865. rampant, clamorous, uproarious, turbulent, tempestuous, tumultuary^, boisterous. impulsive, impetuous, passionate; uncontrolled, uncontrollable; ungovernable, irrepressible, stanchless^, inextinguishable, burning, simmering, volcanic, ready to burst forth, volatile. excited, exciting &c 824. Int. pish!, pshaw!, Phr. noli me tangere [Lat.]; filled with fury, rapt, inspir'd [Collins]; maggiore fretta minore atto [It]. 826. [Absence of excitability, or of excitement.] Inexcitability -- N. inexcitability^, imperturbability, inirritability^; even temper, tranquil mind, dispassion; tolerance, patience, coolth [Coll.]. passiveness &c (physical inertness) 172; hebetude^, hebetation^; impassibility &c (insensibility) 823; stupefaction. coolness, calmness &c adj.; composure, placidity, indisturbance^, imperturbation^, sang froid [Fr.], tranquility, serenity; quiet, quietude; peace of mind, mental calmness. staidness &c adj.; gravity, sobriety, Quakerism^; philosophy, equanimity, stoicism, command of temper; self-possession, self-control, self-command, self-restraint, ice water in one's veins; presence of mind. submission &c 725; resignation; sufferance, supportance^, endurance, longsufferance^, forbearance; longanimity^; fortitude; patience of Job, patience on a monument [Twelfth Night], patience 'sovereign o'er transmuted ill' [Johnson]; moderation; repression of feelings, subjugation of feeling; restraint &c 751. tranquillization &c (moderation) 174 [Obs.]. V. be composed &c adj.. laisser faire [Fr.], laisser aller [Fr.]; take things easily, take things as they come; take it easy, rub on, live and let live; take easily, take cooly^, take in good part; aequam servare mentem [Lat.]. bear the brunt, bear well; go through, support, endure, brave, disregard. tolerate, suffer, stand, bide; abide, aby^; bear with, put up with, take up with, abide with; acquiesce; submit &c (yield) 725; submit with a good grace; resign oneself to, reconcile oneself to; brook, digest, eat, swallow, pocket, stomach. make light of, make the best of, make 'a virtue of necessity' [Chaucer]; put a good face on, keep one's countenance; check &c 751; check oneself. compose, appease &c (moderate); 174; propitiate; repress &c (restrain) 751; render insensible &c 823; overcome one's excitability, allay one's excitability, repress one's excitability &c 825; master one's feelings. make oneself easy; make one's mind easy; set one's mind at ease, set one's mind at rest. calm down, cool down; gentle; thaw, grow cool. be borne, be endured; go down. Adj. inexcitable^, unexcitable; imperturbable; unsusceptible &c (insensible) 823; unpassionate^, dispassionate; cold-blooded, irritable; enduring &c v.; stoical, Platonic, philosophic, staid, stayed; sober, sober minded; grave; sober as a judge, grave as a judge; sedate, demure, cool-headed. easy-going, peaceful, placid, calm; quiet as a mouse; tranquil, serene; cool as a cucumber, cool as a custard; undemonstrative. temperate &c (moderate) 174; composed, collected; unexcited, unstirred, unruffled, undisturbed, unperturbed, unimpassioned; unoffended^; unresisting. meek, tolerant; patient, patient as Job; submissive &c 725; tame; content, resigned, chastened, subdued, lamblike^; gentle as a lamb; suaviter in modo [Lat.]; mild as mothers milk; soft as peppermint; armed with patience, bearing with, clement, long-suffering. Adv. like patience on a monument smiling at grief [Twelfth Night]; aequo animo [Lat.], in cold blood &c 823; more in sorrow than in anger. Int. patience!, and shuffle the cards. Phr. cool calm and collected, keep calm in the midst of a storm; adversity's sweet milk, philosophy [Romeo and Juliet]; mens aequa in arduis philosophia stemma non inspecite [Lat.] [Seneca]; quo me cumque rapit tempestas deferor hospes [Lat.] [Horace]; they also serve who only stand and wait [Milton]. SECTION II PERSONAL AFFECTIONS 1. PASSIVE AFFECTIONS 827. Pleasure -- N. pleasure, gratification, enjoyment, fruition; oblectation, delectation, delection^; relish, zest; gusto &c (physical pleasure) 377; satisfaction &c (content) 831; complacency. well-being; good &c 618; snugness, comfort, ease; cushion &c 215; sans souci [Fr.], without worry, mind at ease. joy, gladness, delight, glee, cheer, sunshine; cheerfulness &c 836. treat, refreshment; amusement &c 840; luxury &c 377. mens sana in corpore sano [Lat.] [Juvenal], a sound mind in a sound body. happiness, felicity, bliss; beatitude, beautification; enchantment, transport, rapture, ravishment, ecstasy; summum bonum [Lat.]; paradise, elysium &c (heaven) 981; third heaven^, seventh heaven, cloud nine; unalloyed happiness &c; hedonics^, hedonism. honeymoon; palmy days, halcyon days; golden age, golden time; Dixie, Dixie's land; Saturnia regna [Lat.], Arcadia^, Shangri-La, happy valley, Agapemone^. V. be pleased &c 829; feel pleasure, experience pleasure &c n.; joy; enjoy oneself, hug oneself; be in clover &c 377, be in elysium &c 981; tread on enchanted ground; fall into raptures, go into raptures. feel at home, breathe freely, bask in the sunshine. be pleased with &c 829; receive pleasure, derive pleasure &c n.. from; take pleasure &c n.. in; delight in, rejoice in, indulge in, luxuriate in; gloat over &c (physical pleasure) 377; enjoy, relish, like; love &c 897; take to, take a fancy to; have a liking for; enter into the spirit of. take in good part. treat oneself to, solace oneself with. Adj. pleased &c 829; not sorry; glad, gladsome; pleased as Punch. happy, blest, blessed, blissful, beatified; happy as a clam at high water [U.S.], happy as a clam, happy as a king, happy as the day is long; thrice happy, ter quaterque beatus [Lat.]; enjoying &c v.; joyful &c (in spirits) 836; hedonic^. in a blissful state, in paradise &c 981, in raptures, in ecstasies, in a transport of delight. comfortable &c (physical pleasure) 377; at ease; content &c 831; sans souci [Fr.]. overjoyed, entranced, enchanted; enraptures; enravished^; transported; fascinated, captivated. with a joyful face, with sparkling eyes. pleasing &c 829; ecstatic, beatic^; painless, unalloyed, without alloy, cloudless. Adv. happily &c adj.; with pleasure &c (willingfully) 602 [Obs.]; with glee &c n.. Phr. one's heart leaping with joy. a wilderness of sweets [Paradise Lost]; I wish you all the joy that you can wish [M. of Venice]; jour de ma vie; joy ruled the day and love the night [Dryden]; joys season'd high and tasting strong of guilt [Young]; oh happiness, our being's end and aim! [Pope]; there is a pleasure that is born of pain [O Meridith]; throned on highest bliss [Paradise Lost]; vedi Napoli e poi muori [It]; zwischen Freud und Leid ist die Brucke nicht weit [G.], the bridge between joy and sorrow is not wide. 828. Pain -- N. mental suffering, pain, dolor; suffering, sufferance; ache, smart &c (physical pain) 378; passion. displeasure, dissatisfaction, discomfort, discomposure, disquiet; malaise; inquietude, uneasiness, vexation of spirit; taking; discontent &c 832. dejection &c 837; weariness &c 841; anhedonia^. annoyance, irritation, worry, infliction, visitation; plague, bore; bother, botheration; stew, vexation, mortification, chagrin, esclandre [Fr.]; mauvais quart d'heur [Fr.]. care, anxiety, solicitude, trouble, trial, ordeal, fiery ordeal, shock, blow, cark^, dole, fret, burden, load. concern, grief, sorrow, distress, affliction, woe, bitterness, heartache; carking cares; heavy heart, aching heart, bleeding heart, broken heart; heavy affliction, gnawing grief. unhappiness, infelicity, misery, tribulation, wretchedness, desolation; despair &c 859; extremity, prostration, depth of misery. nightmare, ephialtes^, incubus. pang, anguish, agony; torture, torment; purgatory &c (hell) 982. hell upon earth; iron age, reign of terror; slough of despond &c (adversity) 735; peck of troubles; ills that flesh is heir to &c (evil) 619 [Hamlet]; miseries of human life; unkindest cut of all [Julius Caesar]. sufferer, victim, prey, martyr, object of compassion, wretch, shorn lamb. V. feel pain, suffer pain, experience pain, undergo pain, bear pain, endure pain &c n., smart, ache &c (physical pain) 378; suffer, bleed, ail; be the victim of. labor under afflictions; bear the cross; quaff the bitter cup, have a bad time of it; fall on evil days &c (adversity) 735; go hard with, come to grief, fall a sacrifice to, drain the cup of misery to the dregs, sup full of horrors [Macbeth]. sit on thorns, be on pins and needles, wince, fret, chafe, worry oneself, be in a taking, fret and fume; take on, take to heart; cark^. grieve; mourn &c (lament) 839; yearn, repine, pine, droop, languish, sink; give way; despair &c 859; break one's heart; weigh upon the heart &c (inflict pain) 830. Adj. in pain, in a state of pain, full of pain &c n.; suffering &c v.; pained, afflicted, worried, displeased &c 830; aching, griped, sore &c (physical pain) 378; on the rack, in limbo; between hawk and buzzard. uncomfortable, uneasy; ill at ease; in a taking, in a way; disturbed; discontented &c 832; out of humor &c 901.1; weary &c 841. heavy laden, stricken, crushed, a prey to, victimized, ill-used. unfortunate &c (hapless) 735; to be pitied, doomed, devoted, accursed, undone, lost, stranded; fey. unhappy, infelicitous, poor, wretched, miserable, woe-begone; cheerless &c (dejected) 837; careworn. concerned, sorry; sorrowing, sorrowful; cut up, chagrined, horrified, horror-stricken; in grief, plunged in grief, a prey to grief &c n.; in tears &c (lamenting) 839; steeped to the lips in misery; heart-stricken, heart-broken, heart-scalded; broken-hearted; in despair &c 859. Phr. the iron entered into our soul; haeret lateri lethalis arundo [Lat.] [Vergil]; one's heart bleeding; down, thou climbing sorrow [Lear]; mirth cannot move a soul in agony [Love's Labor's Lost]; nessun maggior dolere che ricordarsi del tempo felice nella miseria [It]; sorrow's crown of sorrow is remembering happier things [Tennyson]; the Niobe of Nations [Byron]. 829. [Capability of giving pleasure; cause or source of pleasure.] Pleasurableness -- N. pleasurableness, pleasantness, agreeableness &c adj.; pleasure giving, jucundity^, delectability; amusement &c 840. attraction &c (motive) 615; attractiveness, attractability^; invitingness &c adj.^; harm, fascination, enchantment, witchery, seduction, winning ways, amenity, amiability; winsomeness. loveliness &c (beauty) 845; sunny side, bright side; sweets &c (sugar) 396; goodness &c 648; manna in the wilderness, land flowing with milk and honey; bittersweet; fair weather. treat; regale &c (physical pleasure) 377; dainty; titbit^, tidbit; nuts, sauce piquante [Fr.]. V. cause pleasure, produce pleasure, create pleasure, give pleasure, afford pleasure, procure pleasure, offer pleasure, present pleasure, yield pleasure &c 827. please, charm, delight, becharm^, imparadise^; gladden &c (make cheerful) 836; take, captivate, fascinate; enchant, entrance, enrapture, transport, bewitch; enravish^. bless, beatify; satisfy; gratify, desire; &c 865; slake, satiate, quench; indulge, humor, flatter, tickle; tickle the palate &c (savory) 394; regale, refresh; enliven; treat; amuse &c 840; take one's fancy, tickle one's fancy, hit one's fancy; meet one's wishes; win the heart, gladden the heart, rejoice the heart, warm the cockles of the heart; do one's heart good. attract, allure &c (move) 615; stimulate &c (excite) 824; interest. make things pleasant, popularize, gild the pill, sugar-coat the pill, sweeten. Adj. causing pleasure &c v.; laetificant^; pleasure-giving, pleasing, pleasant, pleasurable; agreeable; grateful, gratifying; leef^, lief, acceptable; welcome, welcome as the roses in May; welcomed; favorite; to one's taste, to one's mind, to one's liking; satisfactory &c (good) 648. refreshing; comfortable; cordial; genial; glad, gladsome; sweet, delectable, nice, dainty; delicate, delicious; dulcet; luscious &c 396; palatable &c 394; luxurious, voluptuous; sensual &c 377. [of people] attractive &c 615; inviting, prepossessing, engaging; winning, winsome; taking, fascinating, captivating, killing; seducing, seductive; heart-robbing, alluring, enticing; appetizing &c (exciting) 824; cheering &c 836; bewitching; enchanting, entrancing, enravishing^. charming; delightful, felicitous, exquisite; lovely &c (beautiful) 845; ravishing, rapturous; heartfelt, thrilling, ecstatic; beatic^; beatific; seraphic; empyrean; elysian &c (heavenly) 981. palmy, halcyon, Saturnian. Phr. decies repetita placebit [Lat.]; charms strike the sight but merit wins the soul [Pope]; sweetness and light [Swift]; beauty is only skin deep. 830. [Capability of giving pain; cause or source of pain]. Painfulness -- N. painfulness &c adj.; trouble, care &c (pain) 828; trial; affliction, infliction; blow, stroke, burden, load, curse; bitter pill, bitter draught; waters of bitterness. annoyance, grievance, nuisance, vexation, mortification, sickener^; bore, bother, pother, hot water, sea of troubles [Hamlet], hornet's nest, plague, pest. cancer, ulcer, sting, thorn; canker &c (bane) 663; scorpion &c (evil doer) 913; dagger &c (arms) 727; scourge &c (instrument of punishment) 975; carking care, canker worm of care. mishap, misfortune &c (adversity) 735; desagrement [Fr.], esclandre [Fr.], rub. source of irritation, source of annoyance; wound, open sore; sore subject, skeleton in the closet; thorn in the flesh, thorn in one's side; where the shoe pinches, gall and wormwood. sorry sight, heavy news, provocation; affront &c 929; head and front of one's offending [Othello]. infestation, molestation; malignity &c (malevolence) 907. V. cause pain, occasion pain, give pain, bring pain, induce pain, produce pain, create pain, inflict pain &c 828; pain, hurt, wound. pinch, prick, gripe &c (physical pain) 378; pierce, lancinate^, cut. hurt the feelings, wound the feelings, grate upon the feelings, grate upon the nerves, jar upon the feelings; wring the heart, pierce the heart, lacerate the heart, break the heart, rend the heart; make the heart bleed; tear the heart strings, rend the heart strings; draw tears from the eyes. sadden; make unhappy &c 828; plunge into sorrow, grieve, fash^, afflict, distress; cut up, cut to the heart. displease, annoy, incommode, discompose, trouble, disquiet; faze, feaze^, feeze [U.S.]; disturb, cross, perplex, molest, tease, tire, irk, vex, mortify, wherret^, worry, plague, bother, pester, bore, pother, harass, harry, badger, heckle, bait, beset, infest, persecute, importune. wring, harrow, torment, torture; bullyrag; put to the rack, put to the question; break on the wheel, rack, scarify; cruciate^, crucify; convulse, agonize; barb the dart; plant a dagger in the breast, plant a thorn in one's side. irritate, provoke, sting, nettle, try the patience, pique, fret, rile, tweak the nose, chafe, gall; sting to the quick, wound to the quick, cut to the quick; aggrieve, affront, enchafe^, enrage, ruffle, sour the temper; give offense &c (resentment) 900. maltreat, bite, snap at, assail; smite &c (punish) 972. sicken, disgust, revolt, nauseate, disenchant, repel, offend, shock, stink in the nostrils; go against the stomach, turn the stomach; make one sick, set the teeth on edge, go against the grain, grate on the ear; stick in one's throat, stick in one's gizzard; rankle, gnaw, corrode, horrify, appal^, appall, freeze the blood; make the flesh creep, make the hair stand on end; make the blood curdle, make the blood run cold; make one shudder. haunt the memory; weigh on the heart, prey on the heart, weigh on the mind, prey on the mind, weigh on the spirits, prey on the spirits; bring one's gray hairs with sorrow to the grave; add a nail to one's coffin. Adj. causing pain, hurting &c v.; hurtful &c (bad) 649; painful; dolorific^, dolorous; unpleasant; unpleasing, displeasing; disagreeable, unpalatable, bitter, distasteful; uninviting; unwelcome; undesirable, undesired; obnoxious; unacceptable, unpopular, thankless. unsatisfactory, untoward, unlucky, uncomfortable. distressing; afflicting, afflictive; joyless, cheerless, comfortless; dismal, disheartening; depressing, depressive; dreary, melancholy, grievous, piteous; woeful, rueful, mournful, deplorable, pitiable, lamentable; sad, affecting, touching, pathetic. irritating, provoking, stinging, annoying, aggravating, mortifying, galling; unaccommodating, invidious, vexatious; troublesome, tiresome, irksome, wearisome; plaguing, plaguy^; awkward. importunate; teasing, pestering, bothering, harassing, worrying, tormenting, carking. intolerable, insufferable, insupportable; unbearable, unendurable; past bearing; not to be borne, not to be endured; more than flesh and blood can bear; enough to drive one mad, enough to provoke a saint, enough to make a parson swear, enough to gag a maggot. shocking, terrific, grim, appalling, crushing; dreadful, fearful, frightful; thrilling, tremendous, dire; heart-breaking, heart-rending, heart-wounding, heart-corroding, heart-sickening; harrowing, rending. odious, hateful, execrable, repulsive, repellent, abhorrent; horrid, horrible, horrific, horrifying; offensive. nauseous, nauseating; disgusting, sickening, revolting; nasty; loathsome, loathful^; fulsome; vile &c (bad) 649; hideous &c 846. sharp, acute, sore, severe, grave, hard, harsh, cruel, biting, caustic; cutting, corroding, consuming, racking, excruciating, searching, grinding, grating, agonizing; envenomed; catheretic^, pyrotic [Med.]. ruinous, disastrous, calamitous, tragical; desolating, withering; burdensome, onerous, oppressive; cumbrous, cumbersome. Adv. painfully &c adj.; with pain &c 828; deuced. Int. hinc illae lachrymae! [Lat.], Phr. surgit amari aliquid [Lat.]; the place being too hot to hold one; the iron entering into the soul; he jests at scars that never felt a wound [Romeo and Juliet]; I must be cruel only to be kind [Hamlet]; what deep wounds ever closed without a scar? [Byron]. 831. Content -- N. content, contentment, contentedness; complacency, satisfaction, entire satisfaction, ease, heart's ease, peace of mind; serenity &c 826; cheerfulness &c 836; ray of comfort; comfort &c (well- being) 827. reconciliation; resignation &c (patience) 826. [person who is contented] waiter on Providence. V. be content &c adj.; rest satisfied, rest and be thankful; take the good the gods provide, let well alone, let well enough alone, feel oneself at home, hug oneself, lay the flattering unction to one's soul. take up with, take in good part; accept, tolerate; consent &c 762; acquiesce, assent &c 488; be reconciled to, make one's peace with; get over it; take heart, take comfort; put up with &c (bear) 826. render content &c adj.; set at ease, comfort; set one's heart at ease, set one's mind at ease, set one's heart at rest, set one's mind at rest; speak peace; conciliate, reconcile, win over, propitiate, disarm, beguile; content, satisfy; gratify &c 829. be tolerated &c 826; go down, go down well, go down with; do; be OK. Adj. content, contented; satisfied &c v.; at ease, at one's ease, at home; with the mind at ease, sans souci [Fr.], sine cura [Lat.], easygoing, not particular; conciliatory; unrepining^, of good comfort; resigned &c (patient) 826; cheerful &c 836. unafflicted, unvexed^, unmolested, unplagued^; serene &c 826; at rest, snug, comfortable; in one's element. satisfactory, tolerable, good enough, OK, all right, acceptable. Adv. contently^, contentedly, to one's heart's content; a la bonne heure [Fr.]; all for the best. Int. amen &c (assent) 488; very well, all the better, so much the better, well and good; it will do, that will do; it cannot be helped. Phr. nothing comes amiss. a heart with room for every joy [Bailey]; ich habe genossen das irdische Gluck ich habe gelebt und geliebet [G.] [Schiller]; nor cast one longing lingering look behind [Gray]; shut up in measureless content [Macbeth]; sweet are the thoughts that savor of content [R. Greene]; their wants but few their wishes all confined [Goldsmith]; might as well relax and enjoy it. 832. Discontent -- N. discontent, discontentment; dissatisfaction; dissent &c 489. disappointment, mortification; cold comfort; regret &c 833; repining, taking on &c v.; heart-burning, heart-grief; querulousness &c (lamentation) 839; hypercriticism. inquietude, vexation of spirit, soreness; worry, concern, fear &c 860. [person who is discontented] malcontent, grumbler, growler, croaker, dissident, dissenter, laudator temporis acti [Lat.]; censurer, complainer, fault-finder, murmerer^. cave of Adullam^, indignation meeting, winter of our discontent [Henry VI]; with what I most enjoy contented least [Shakespeare]. V. be discontented &c adj.; quarrel with one's bread and butter; repine; regret &c 833; wish one at the bottom of the Red Sea; take on, take to heart; shrug the shoulders; make a wry face, pull a long face; knit one's brows; look blue, look black, look black as thunder, look blank, look glum. take in bad part, take ill; fret, chafe, make a piece of work [Fr.]; grumble, croak; lament &c 839. cause discontent &c n.; dissatisfy, disappoint, mortify, put out, disconcert; cut up; dishearten. Adj. discontented; dissatisfied &c v.; unsatisfied, ungratified; dissident; dissentient &c 489; malcontent, malcontented, exigent, exacting, hypercritical. repining &c v.; regretful &c 833; down in the mouth &c (dejected) 837. in high dudgeon, in a fume, in the sulks, in the dumps, in bad humor; glum, sulky; sour as a crab; soured, sore; out of humor, out of temper. disappointing &c v.; unsatisfactory. frustrated (failure) 732. Int. so much the worse!, Phr. that won't do, that will never do, it will never do; curtae nescio quid semper abest rei [Lat.] [Horace]; ne Jupiter Quidem omnibus placet [Lat.]; poor in abundance, famished at a feast [Young]. 833. Regret -- N. regret, repining; homesickness, nostalgia; mal du pays, maladie [Fr.]; lamentation &c 839; penitence &c 950. bitterness, heartburning^. recrimination (accusation) 938. laudator temporis acti &c (discontent) 832 [Lat.]. V. regret, deplore; bewail &c (lament) 839; repine, cast a longing lingering look behind; rue, rue the day; repent &c 950; infandum renovare dolorem [Lat.]. prey on the mind, weigh on the mind, have a weight on the mind; leave an aching void. Adj. regretting &c v.; regretful; homesick. regretted &c v.; much to be regretted, regrettable; lamentable &c (bad) 649. Adv. regrettably, unfortunately; most unfortunately. Int. alas!; what a pity!, hang it!, Phr. 'tis pity [Contr.], 'tis too true [Contr.]; sigh'd and look'd and sigh'd again [Dryden]; I'm sorry. 834. Relief -- N. relief; deliverance; refreshment &c 689; easement, softening, alleviation, mitigation, palliation, soothing, lullaby. solace, consolation, comfort, encouragement. lenitive, restorative &c (remedy) 662; cushion &c 215; crumb of comfort, balm in Gilead. V. relieve, ease, alleviate, mitigate, palliate, soothe; salve; soften, soften down; foment, stupe^, poultice; assuage, allay. cheer, comfort, console; enliven; encourage, bear up, pat on the back, give comfort, set at ease; gladden the heart, cheer the heart; inspirit, invigorate. remedy; cure &c (restore) 660; refresh; pour balm into, pour oil on. smooth the ruffled brow of care, temper the wind to the shorn lamb, lay the flattering unction to one's soul. disburden &c (free) 705; take a load off one's chest, get a load off one's chest, take off a load of care. be relieved; breathe more freely, draw a long breath; take comfort; dry the tears, dry the eyes, wipe the tears, wipe the eyes. Adj. relieving &c v.; consolatory, soothing; assuaging, assuasive^; balmy, balsamic; lenitive, palliative; anodyne &c (remedial) 662; curative &c 660. Phr. here comes a man of comfort [Measure for Measure]. 835. Aggravation -- N. aggravation, worsening, heightening; exacerbation; exasperation; overestimation &c 482; exaggeration &c 549. V. aggravate, render worse, heighten, embitter, sour; exacerbate; exasperate, envenom; enrage, provoke, tease. add fuel to the fire, add fuel to the flame; fan the flame &c (excite) 824; go from bad to worse &c (deteriorate) 659. Adj. aggravated &c v.; worse, unrelieved; aggravable^; aggravating &c v.. Adv. out of the frying pan into the fire, from bad to worse, worse and worse. Int. so much the worse!, 836. Cheerfulness -- N. cheerfulness &c adj.; geniality, gayety, l'allegro [Fr.], cheer, good humor, spirits; high spirits, animal spirits, flow of spirits; glee, high glee, light heart; sunshine of the mind, sunshine of the breast; gaiete de coeur [Fr.], bon naturel [Fr.]. liveliness &c adj.; life, alacrity, vivacity, animation, allegresse^; jocundity, joviality, jollity; levity; jocularity &c (wit) 842. mirth, merriment, hilarity, exhilaration; laughter &c 838; merrymaking &c (amusement) 840; heyday, rejoicing &c 838; marriage bell. nepenthe, Euphrosyne^, sweet forgetfulness. optimism &c (hopefulness) 858; self complacency; hedonics^, hedonism. V. be cheerful &c adj.; have the mind at ease, smile, put a good face upon, keep up one's spirits; view the bright side of the picture, view things en couleur de rose [Fr.]; ridentem dicere virum [Lat.], cheer up, brighten up, light up, bear up; chirp, take heart, cast away care, drive dull care away, perk up. keep a stiff upper lip. rejoice &c 838; carol, chirrup, lilt; frisk, rollick, give a loose to mirth. cheer, enliven, elate, exhilarate, gladden, inspirit, animate, raise the spirits, inspire; perk up; put in good humor; cheer the heart, rejoice the heart; delight &c (give pleasure) 829. Adj. cheerful; happy &c 827; cheery, cheerly^; of good cheer, smiling; blithe; in spirits, in good spirits; breezy, bully, chipper [U.S.]; in high spirits, in high feather; happy as the day is long, happy as a king; gay as a lark; allegro; debonair; light, lightsome, light hearted; buoyant, debonnaire, bright, free and easy, airy; janty^, jaunty, canty^; hedonic^; riant^; sprightly, sprightful^; spry; spirited, spiritful^; lively, animated, vivacious; brisk as a bee; sparkling, sportive; full of play, full of spirit; all alive. sunny, palmy; hopeful &c 858. merry as a cricket, merry as a grig^, merry as a marriage bell; joyful, joyous, jocund, jovial; jolly as a thrush, jolly as a sandboy^; blithesome; gleeful, gleesome^; hilarious, rattling. winsome, bonny, hearty, buxom. playful, playsome^; folatre [Fr.], playful as a kitten, tricksy^, frisky, frolicsome; gamesome; jocose, jocular, waggish; mirth loving, laughter-loving; mirthful, rollicking. elate, elated; exulting, jubilant, flushed; rejoicing &c 838; cock-a-hoop. cheering, inspiriting, exhilarating; cardiac, cardiacal^; pleasing &c 829; palmy. Adv. cheerfully &c adj.. Int. never say die!, come!, cheer up!, hurrah!, &c 838; hence loathed melancholy!, begone dull care!, away with melancholy!, Phr. a merry heart goes all the day [A winter's Tale]; as merry as the day is long [Much Ado]; ride si sapis [Lat.] [Martial]. 837. Dejection -- N. dejection; dejectedness &c adj.; depression, prosternation^; lowness of spirits, depression of spirits; weight on the spirits, oppression on the spirits, damp on the spirits; low spirits, bad spirits, drooping spirits, depressed spirits; heart sinking; heaviness of heart, failure of heart. heaviness &c adj.; infestivity^, gloom; weariness &c 841; taedium vitae, disgust of life; mal du pays &c (regret) 833; anhedonia^. melancholy; sadness &c adj.; il penseroso [It], melancholia, dismals^, blues, lachrymals^, mumps^, dumps, blue devils, doldrums; vapors, megrims, spleen, horrors, hypochondriasis [Med.], pessimism; la maladie sans maladie [Fr.]; despondency, slough of Despond; disconsolateness &c adj.; hope deferred, blank despondency; voiceless woe. prostration of soul; broken heart; despair &c 859; cave of despair, cave of Trophonius demureness &c adj.; gravity, solemnity; long face, grave face. hypochondriac, seek sorrow, self-tormentor, heautontimorumenos^, malade imaginaire [Fr.], medecin tant pis [Fr.]; croaker, pessimist; mope, mopus^. [Cause of dejection] affliction &c 830; sorry sight; memento mori [Lat.]; damper, wet blanket, Job's comforter. V. be dejected &c adj.; grieve; mourn &c (lament) 839; take on, give way, lose heart, despond, droop, sink. lower, look downcast, frown, pout; hang down the head; pull a long face, make a long face; laugh on the wrong side of the mouth; grin a ghastly smile; look blue, look like a drowned man; lay to heart, take to heart. mope, brood over; fret; sulk; pine, pine away; yearn; repine &c (regret) 833; despair &c 859. refrain from laughter, keep one's countenance; be grave, look grave &c adj.; repress a smile. depress; discourage, dishearten; dispirit; damp, dull, deject, lower, sink, dash, knock down, unman, prostrate, break one's heart; frown upon; cast a gloom, cast a shade on; sadden; damp one's hopes, dash one's hopes, wither one's hopes; weigh on the mind, lie heavy on the mind, prey on the mind, weigh on the spirits, lie heavy on the spirits, prey on the spirits; damp the spirits, depress the spirits. Adj. cheerless, joyless, spiritless; uncheerful, uncheery^; unlively^; unhappy &c 828; melancholy, dismal, somber, dark, gloomy, triste [Fr.], clouded, murky, lowering, frowning, lugubrious, funereal, mournful, lamentable, dreadful. dreary, flat; dull, dull as a beetle, dull as ditchwater^; depressing &c v.. melancholy as a gib cat; oppressed with melancholy, a prey to melancholy; downcast, downhearted; down in the mouth, down in one's luck; heavy-hearted; in the dumps, down in the dumps, in the suds, in the sulks, in the doldrums; in doleful dumps, in bad humor; sullen; mumpish^, dumpish, mopish^, moping; moody, glum; sulky &c (discontented) 832; out of sorts, out of humor, out of heart, out of spirits; ill at ease, low spirited, in low spirits, a cup too low; weary &c 841; discouraged, disheartened; desponding; chapfallen^, chopfallen^, jaw fallen, crest fallen. sad, pensive, penseroso [It], tristful^; dolesome^, doleful; woebegone; lacrymose, lachrymose, in tears, melancholic, hypped^, hypochondriacal, bilious, jaundiced, atrabilious^, saturnine, splenetic; lackadaisical. serious, sedate, staid, stayed; grave as a judge, grave as an undertaker, grave as a mustard pot; sober, sober as a judge, solemn, demure; grim; grim-faced, grim-visaged; rueful, wan, long-faced. disconsolate; unconsolable, inconsolable; forlorn, comfortless, desolate, desole [Fr.], sick at heart; soul sick, heart sick; au desespoir [Fr.]; in despair &c 859; lost. overcome; broken down, borne down, bowed down; heartstricken &c (mental suffering) 828 [Obs.]; cut up, dashed, sunk; unnerved, unmanned; down fallen, downtrodden; broken-hearted; careworn. Adv. with a long face, with tears in one's eyes; sadly &c adj.. Phr. the countenance falling; the heart failing, the heart sinking within one; a plague of sighing and grief [Henry IV]; thick-ey'd musing and curs'd melancholy [Henry IV]; the sickening pang of hope deferred [Scott]. 838. [Expression of pleasure.] Rejoicing -- N. rejoicing, exultation, triumph, jubilation, heyday, flush, revelling; merrymaking &c (amusement) 840; jubilee &c (celebration) 883; paean, Te Deum &c (thanksgiving) 990 [Lat.]; congratulation &c 896. smile, simper, smirk, grin; broad grin, sardonic grin. laughter (amusement) 840. risibility; derision &c 856. Momus; Democritus the Abderite^; rollicker^. V. rejoice, thank one's stars, bless one's stars; congratulate oneself, hug oneself; rub one's hands, clap one's hands; smack the lips, fling up one's cap; dance, skip; sing, carol, chirrup, chirp; hurrah; cry for joy, jump for joy, leap with joy; exult &c (boast) 884; triumph; hold jubilee &c (celebrate) 883; make merry &c (sport) 840. laugh, raise laughter &c (amuse) 840. Adj. rejoicing &c v.; jubilant, exultant, triumphant; flushed, elated, pleased, delighted, tickled pink. amused &c 840; cheerful &c 836. laughable &c (ludicrous) 853. Int. hurrah!, Huzza!, aha!^, hail!, tolderolloll!^, Heaven be praised!, io triumphe!^, tant mieux! [Fr.], so much the better. Phr. the heart leaping with joy; ce n'est pas etre bien aise que de rire [Fr.]; Laughter holding both his sides [Milton]; le roi est mort, vive le roi; with his eyes in flood with laughter [Cymbeline]. 839. [Expression of pain.] Lamentation -- N. lament, lamentation; wail, complaint, plaint, murmur, mutter, grumble, groan, moan, whine, whimper, sob, sigh, suspiration, heaving, deep sigh. cry &c (vociferation) 411; scream, howl; outcry, wail of woe, ululation; frown, scowl. tear; weeping &c v.; flood of tears, fit of crying, lacrimation, lachrymation^, melting mood, weeping and gnashing of teeth. plaintiveness &c adj.; languishment^; condolence &c 915. mourning, weeds, willow, cypress, crape, deep mourning; sackcloth and ashes; lachrymatory^; knell &c 363; deep death song, dirge, coronach^, nenia^, requiem, elegy, epicedium^; threne^; monody, threnody; jeremiad, jeremiade^; ullalulla^. mourner; grumbler &c (discontent) 832; Noobe; Heraclitus. V. lament, mourn, deplore, grieve, weep over; bewail, bemoan; condole with &c 915; fret &c (suffer) 828; wear mourning, go into mourning, put on mourning; wear the willow, wear sackcloth and ashes; infandum renovare dolorem [Lat.] [Vergil]; &c (regret) 833 give sorrow words. sigh; give a sigh, heave, fetch a sigh; waft a sigh from Indus to the pole [Pope]; sigh 'like a furnace' [As you Like It]; wail. cry, weep, sob, greet, blubber, pipe, snivel, bibber^, whimper, pule; pipe one's eye; drop tears, shed tears, drop a tear, shed a tear; melt into tears, burst into tears; fondre en larmes [Fr.]; cry oneself blind, cry one's eyes out; yammer. scream &c (cry out) 411; mew &c (animal sounds) 412; groan, moan, whine; roar; roar like a bull, bellow like a bull; cry out lustily, rend the air. frown, scowl, make a wry face, gnash one's teeth, wring one's hands, tear one's hair, beat one's breast, roll on the ground, burst with grief. complain, murmur, mutter, grumble, growl, clamor, make a fuss about, croak, grunt, maunder; deprecate &c (disapprove) 932. cry out before one is hurt, complain without cause. Adj. lamenting &c v.; in mourning, in sackcloth and ashes; sorrowing, sorrowful &c (unhappy) 828; mournful, tearful; lachrymose; plaintive, plaintful^; querulous, querimonious^; in the melting mood; threnetic^. in tears, with tears in one's eyes; with moistened eyes, with watery eyes; bathed in tears, dissolved in tears; like Niobe all tears [Hamlet]. elegiac, epicedial^. Adv. de profundis [Lat.]; les larmes aux yeux [Fr.]. Int. heigh-ho!, alas!, alack!^, O dear!, ah me!, woe is me!, lackadaisy!^, well a day!, lack a day!, alack a day!^, wellaway!^, alas the day!, O tempora O mores!^, what a pity!, miserabile dictu! [Lat.], O lud lud!^, too true!, Phr. tears standing in the eyes, tears starting from the eyes; eyes suffused, eyes swimming, eyes brimming, eyes overflowing with tears; if you have tears prepare to shed them now [Julius Caesar]; interdum lacrymae pondera vocis habent [Lat.] [Ovid]; strangled his language in his tears [Henry VIII]; tears such as angels weep [Paradise Lost]. 840. Amusement -- N. amusement, entertainment, recreation, fun, game, fun and games; diversion, divertissement; reaction, solace; pastime, passetemps [Fr.], sport; labor of love; pleasure &c 827. relaxation; leisure &c 685. fun, frolic, merriment, jollity; joviality, jovialness^; heyday; laughter &c 838; jocosity, jocoseness^; drollery, buffoonery, tomfoolery; mummery, pleasantry; wit &c 842; quip, quirk. [verbal expressions of amusement: list] giggle, titter, snigger, snicker, crow, cheer, chuckle, shout; horse laugh, belly laugh, hearty laugh; guffaw; burst of laughter, fit of laughter, shout of laughter, roar of laughter, peal of laughter; cachinnation^; Kentish fire; tiger. play; game, game at romps; gambol, romp, prank, antic, rig, lark, spree, skylarking, vagary, monkey trick, gambade, fredaine^, escapade, echappee [Fr.], bout, espieglerie [Fr.]; practical joke &c (ridicule) 856. dance; hop, reel, rigadoon^, saraband^, hornpipe, bolero, ballroom dance; [ballroom dances: list], minuet, waltz, polka, fox trot, tango, samba, rhumba, twist, stroll, hustle, cha-cha; fandango, cancan; bayadere^; breakdown, cake-walk, cornwallis [U.S.], break dancing; nautch-girl; shindig [U.S.]; skirtdance^, stag dance, Virginia reel, square dance; galop^, galopade^; jig, Irish jig, fling, strathspey^; allemande [Fr.]; gavot^, gavotte, tarantella; mazurka, morisco^, morris dance; quadrille; country dance, folk dance; cotillon, Sir Roger de Coverley; ballet &c (drama) 599; ball; bal, bal masque, bal costume; masquerade; Terpsichore. festivity, merrymaking; party &c (social gathering) 892; blowout [U.S.], hullabaloo, hoedown, bat [U.S.], bum [U.S.], bust [Slang], clambake [U.S.], donation party [U.S.], fish fry [U.S.], jamboree [Slang], kantikoy^, nautch^, randy, squantum [U.S.], tear [Slang], Turnerfest^, yule log; fete, festival, gala, ridotto^; revels, revelry, reveling; carnival, brawl, saturnalia, high jinks; feast, banquet &c (food) 298; regale, symposium, wassail; carouse, carousal; jollification, junket, wake, Irish wake, picnic, fete champetre [Fr.], regatta, field day; treat. round of pleasures, dissipation, a short life and a merry one, racketing, holiday making. rejoicing &c 838; jubilee &c (celebration) 883. bonfire, fireworks, feu-de-joie, firecracker. holiday; gala day, red letter day, play day; high days and holidays; high holiday, Bank holiday; May day, Derby day; Saint Monday, Easter Monday, Whit Monday; Bairam^; wayz-goos^, bean feast; Arbor Day, Declaration Day, Independence Day, Labor Day, Memorial Day, Thanksgiving Day; Mardi gras [Fr.], mi-careme [Fr.], feria [Lat.], fiesta. place of amusement, theater; hall, concert room, ballroom, assemblyroom^; music hall. park, plaisance^; national park, national forest, state park, county park, city park, vest-pocket park, public park (public) 737.1; arbor; garden &c (horticulture) 371; pleasure ground, playground, cricketground, croquet ground, archery ground, hunting ground; tennis court, racket court; bowling alley, green alley; croquet lawn, rink, glaciarum^, skating rink; roundabout, merry-go-round; swing; montagne Russe [Fr.]. game of chance, game of skill. athletic sports, gymnastics; archery, rifle shooting; tournament, pugilism &c (contention) 720; sports &c 622; horse racing, the turf; aquatics &c 267; skating, sliding; cricket, tennis, lawn tennis; hockey, football, baseball, soccer, ice hockey, basketball; rackets, fives, trap bat and ball, battledore and shuttlecock, la grace; pall- mall, tipcat^, croquet, golf, curling, pallone^, polo, water polo; tent pegging; tilting at the ring, quintain [Mediev.]; greasy pole; quoits, horseshoes, discus; rounders, lacrosse; tobogganing, water polo; knurr and spell^. [childrens' games] leapfrog, hop skip and jump; mother may I; French and English, tug of war; blindman's bluff, hunt the slopper^, hide and seek, kiss in the ring; snapdragon; cross questions and crooked answers.; crisscross, hopscotch; jacks, jackstones^, marbles; mumblety-peg, mumble-the-peg, pushball, shinney, shinny, tag &c; billiards, pool, pingpong, pyramids, bagatelle; bowls, skittles, ninepins, kain^, American bowls^; tenpins [U.S.], tivoli. cards, card games; whist, rubber; round game; loo, cribbage, besique^, euchre, drole^, ecarte [Fr.], picquet^, allfours^, quadrille, omber, reverse, Pope Joan, commit; boston, boaston^; blackjack, twenty- one, vingtun [Fr.]; quinze [Fr.], thirty-one, put, speculation, connections, brag, cassino^, lottery, commerce, snip-snap-snoren^, lift smoke, blind hookey, Polish bank, Earl of Coventry, Napoleon, patience, pairs; banker; blind poker, draw poker, straight poker, stud poker; bluff, bridge, bridge whist; lotto, monte, three-card monte, nap, penny-ante, poker, reversis^, squeezers, old maid, fright, beggar-my- neighbor; baccarat. [cards: list] ace, king, queen, knave, jack, ten, nine, eight, seven, six, five, four, trey, deuce; joker; trump, wild card. [card suits: list] spades, hearts, clubs, diamonds; major suit, minor suit. bower; right bower, left bower; dummy; jackpot; deck. [hands at poker: list] pair, two pair, three of a kind, straight, flush, full-house, four of a kind, royal flush; misere &c [board games: list] chess, draughts, checkers, checquers, backgammon, dominos, merelles^, nine men's morris, go bang, solitaire; game of fox and goose; monopoly; loto &c; [word games: list], scrabble, scribbage, boggle, crossword puzzle, hangman. morra^; gambling &c (chance) 621. toy, plaything, bauble; doll &c (puppet ) 554; teetotum^; knickknack &c (trifle) 643; magic lantern &c (show) 448; peep show, puppet show, raree show, gallanty show^; toy shop; quips and cranks and wanton wiles, nods and becks and wreathed smiles [Milton]. entertainer, showman, showgirl; dancer, tap dancer, song-and-dance man; vaudeville act; singer; musician &c 416. sportsman, gamester, reveler; master of ceremonies, master of revels; pompom girl^; arbiter elegantiarum [Lat.]; arbiter bibendi [Lat.], archer, fan [U.S.], toxophilite^, turfman^. V. amuse, entertain, divert, enliven; tickle the fancy; titillate, raise a smile, put in good humor; cause laughter, create laughter, occasion laughter, raise laughter, excite laughter, produce laughter, convulse with laughter; set the table in a roar, be the death of one. recreate, solace, cheer, rejoice; please &c 829; interest; treat, regale. amuse oneself, game; play a game, play pranks, play tricks; sport, disport, toy, wanton, revel, junket, feast, carouse, banquet, make merry, drown care; drive dull care away; frolic, gambol, frisk, romp; caper; dance &c (leap) 309; keep up the ball; run a rig, sow one's wild oats, have one's fling, take one's pleasure; paint the town red [Slang]; see life; desipere in loco [Lat.], play the fool. make holiday, keep holiday; go a Maying. while away the time, beguile the time; kill time, dally. smile, simper, smirk; grin, grin like a Cheshire cat; mock, laugh in one's sleeve; laugh, laugh outright; giggle, titter, snigger, crow, snicker, chuckle, cackle; burst out, burst into a fit of laughter; shout, split, roar. shake one's sides, split one's sides, hold both one's sides; roar with laughter, die with laughter. Adj. amusing, entertaining, diverting &c v.; recreational, recreative, lusory^; pleasant &c (pleasing) 829; laughable &c (ludicrous) 853; witty &c 842; fun, festive, festal; jovial, jolly, jocund, roguish, rompish^; playful, playful as a kitten; sportive, ludibrious^. funny; very funny, hilarious, uproarious, side-splitting. amused &c v.; pleased with a rattle, tickled with a straw [Pope]; laughing &c v.; risible; ready to burst, ready to split, ready to die with laughter; convulsed with laughter, rolling in the aisles. Adv. on the light fantastic toe [Milton], at play, in sport. Int. vive la bagatelle! [Fr.], vogue la galere! [Fr.], Phr. deus nobis haec otia fecit [Lat.]; dum vivimus vivamus [Lat.]; dulce est desipere in loco [Lat.] [Horace]; (every room) hath blazed with lights and brayed with minstrelsy [Timon of Athens]; misce stullitiam consiliis brevem [Lat.] [Horace]. 841. Weariness -- N. weariness, defatigation^; lassitude &c (fatigue) 688; drowsiness &c 683. disgust, nausea, loathing, sickness; satiety &c 869; taedium vitae &c (dejection) 837; boredom, ennui. wearisomeness, tediousness &c adj.; dull work, tedium, monotony, twice-told tale. bore, buttonholer, proser^, wet blanket; pill [Slang], stiff [Slang]; heavy hours, the enemy (time). V. weary; tire &c (fatigue) 688; bore; bore to death, weary to death, tire to death, bore out of one's skull, bore out of one's life, weary out of one's life, tire out of one's life, bore out of all patience, weary out of all patience, wear out one's patience, tire out of all patience; set to sleep, send to sleep; buttonhole. pall, sicken, nauseate, disgust. harp on the same string; drag its slow length along, drag its weary length along. never hear the last of; be tired of, be sick of, be tired with &c adj.; yawn; die with ennui. [of journalistic articles] MEGO, my eyes glaze over. Adj. wearying &c v.; wearing; wearisome, tiresome, irksome; uninteresting, stupid, bald, devoid of interest, dry, monotonous, dull, arid, tedious, humdrum, mortal, flat; prosy, prosing; slow, soporific, somniferous. disgusting &c v.; unenjoyed^. weary, tired &c v.; drowsy &c (sleepy) 683; uninterested, flagging, used up, worn out, blase, life-weary, weary of life; sick of. Adv. wearily &c adj.; usque ad nauseam [Lat.]. Phr. time hanging heavily on one's hands; toujours perdrix [Fr.]; crambe repetita [Lat.]. 842. Wit -- N. wit, humor, wittiness; sense of humor; attic wit, attic salt; atticism^; salt, esprit, point, fancy, whim, drollery, pleasantry. farce, buffoonery, fooling, tomfoolery; shenanigan [U.S.], harlequinade &c 599 [Obs.]; broad farce, broad humor; fun, espieglerie [Fr.]; vis comica [Lat.]. jocularity; jocosity, jocoseness^; facetiousness; waggery, waggishness; whimsicality; comicality &c 853. banter, badinage, retort, repartee, smartness, ready wit, quid- pro-quo; ridicule &c 856. jest, joke, jape, jibe; facetiae [Lat.], levity, quips and cranks; capital joke; canorae nugae [Lat.]; standing jest, standing joke, private joke, conceit, quip, quirk, crank, quiddity, concetto^, plaisanterie [Fr.], brilliant idea; merry thought, bright thought, happy thought; sally; flash of wit, flash of merriment; scintillation; mot [Fr.], mot pour rire [Fr.]; witticism, smart saying, bon-mot, jeu d'esprit [Fr.], epigram; jest book; dry joke, quodlibet, cream of the jest. word-play, jeu de mots [Fr.]; play of words, play upon words; pun, punning; double entente, double entendre &c (ambiguity) 520 [Fr.]; quibble, verbal quibble; conundrum &c (riddle) 533; anagram, acrostic, double acrostic, trifling, idle conceit, turlupinade^. old joke, tired joke, flat joke, Joe Miller^. V. joke, jest, crack a joke, make a joke, jape, cut jokes; perpetrate a joke; pun, perpetrate a pun; make fun of, make merry with; kid, kid around, fool around; set the table in a roar &c (amuse) 840. retort; banter &c (ridicule) 856; ridentem dicere verum [Lat.]; joke at one's expense. take in jest. [make a joke which is not funny] bomb, fall flat; go over like a lead balloon. Adj. witty, attic; quick-witted, nimble-witted; smart; jocular, jocose, humorous; facetious, waggish, whimsical; kidding, joking, puckish; playful &c 840; merry and wise; pleasant, sprightly, light, spirituel^, sparkling, epigrammatic, full of point, ben trovato [It]; comic &c 853. zany, madcap. funny, amusing &c (amusement) 840. Adv. jokingly, in joke, in jest, in sport, in play. Phr. adhibenda est in jocando moderatio [Lat.]; gentle dullness ever loves a joke [Pope]; leave this keen encounter of our wits [Richard III]; just joking, just kidding; surely you jest!. 843. Dullness -- N. dullness, heaviness, flatness; infestivity^ &c 837, stupidity &c 499; want of originality; dearth of ideas. prose, matter of fact; heavy book, conte a dormir debout [Fr.]; platitude. V. be dull &c adj.; prose, take au serieux [Fr.], be caught napping. render dull &c adj.; damp, depress, throw cold water on, lay a wet blanket on; fall flat upon the ear. no joke, serious matter (importance) 642. Adj. dull, dull as ditch water; unentertaining, uninteresting, flat, dry as dust; unfunny, unlively^, logy [U.S.]; unimaginative; insulse^; dry as dust; prosy, prosing, prosaic; matter of fact, commonplace, pedestrian, pointless; weary stale flat and unprofitable [Hamlet]. stupid, slow, flat, insipid, vapid, humdrum, monotonous; melancholic &c 837; stolid &c 499; plodding. boring, tiresome, tedious &c 841. Phr. davus sum non Aedipus^; deadly dull and boring, DDB. 844. Humorist -- N. humorist, wag, wit, reparteeist^, epigrammatist, punster; bel esprit, life of the party; wit-snapper, wit-cracker, wit- worm; joker, jester, Joe Miller^, drole de corps^, gaillard^, spark; bon diable [Fr.]; practical joker. buffoon, farceur [Fr.], merry-andrew, mime, tumbler, acrobat, mountebank, charlatan, posturemaster^, harlequin, punch, pulcinella^, scaramouch^, clown; wearer of the cap and bells, wearer of the motley; motley fool; pantaloon, gypsy; jack-pudding, jack in the green, jack a dandy; wiseacre, wise guy, smartass [Coll.]; fool &c 501. zany, madcap; pickle-herring, witling^, caricaturist, grimacier^; persifleur^. 2. DISCRIMINATIVE AFFECTIONS 845. Beauty -- N. beauty, the beautiful, to kalon [Gr.], le beau ideal. [Science of the perception of beauty] aesthetics, callaesthetics^. [-beauty of people] pulchritude, form, elegance, grace, beauty unadorned, natural beauty; symmetry &c 242; comeliness, fairness &c adj.; polish, gloss; good effect, good looks; belle tournure^; trigness^; bloom, brilliancy, radiance, splendor, gorgeousness, magnificence; sublimity, sublimification^. concinnity^, delicacy, refinement; charm, je ne sais quoi [Fr.], style. Venus, Aphrodite^, Hebe, the Graces, Peri, Houri, Cupid, Apollo^, Hyperion, Adonis^, Antionous^, Narcissus. peacock, butterfly; garden; flower of, pink of; bijou; jewel &c (ornament) 847; work of art. flower, flow'ret gay^; [flowers: list] wildflower; rose, lily, anemone, asphodel, buttercup, crane's bill, daffodil, tulip, tiger lily, day lily, begonia, marigold, geranium, lily of the valley, ranunculus, rhododendron, windflower. pleasurableness &c 829. beautifying; landscaping, landscape gardening; decoration &c 847; calisthenics^. [person who is beautiful] beauty; hunk (of men). V. be beautiful &c adj.; shine, beam, bloom; become one &c (accord) 23; set off, grace. render beautiful &c adj.; beautify; polish, burnish; gild &c (decorate) 847; set out. snatch a grace beyond the reach of art [Pope]. Adj. beautiful, beauteous; handsome; gorgeous; pretty; lovely, graceful, elegant, prepossessing; attractive &c (inviting) 615; delicate, dainty, refined; fair, personable, comely, seemly; bonny [Scot.]; good-looking; well-favored, well-made, well-formed, well- proportioned; proper, shapely; symmetrical &c (regular) 242; harmonious &c (color) 428; sightly. fit to be seen, passable, not amiss. goodly, dapper, tight, jimp^; gimp; janty^, jaunty; trig, natty, quaint, trim, tidy, neat, spruce, smart, tricksy^. bright, bright eyed; rosy cheeked, cherry cheeked; rosy, ruddy; blooming, in full bloom. brilliant, shining; beamy^, beaming; sparkling, splendid, resplendent, dazzling, glowing; glossy, sleek. rich, superb, magnificent, grand, fine, sublime, showy, specious. artistic, artistical^; aesthetic; picturesque, pictorial; fait a peindre [Fr.]; well-composed, well grouped, well varied; curious. enchanting &c (pleasure-giving) 829; becoming &c (accordant) 23; ornamental &c 847. undeformed, undefaced, unspotted; spotless &c (perfect) 650. Phr. auxilium non leve vultus habet [Lat.] [Ovid]; beauty born of murmuring sound [Wordsworth]; flowers preach to us if we will hear [C.G. Rossetti]; gratior ac pulchro veniens in corpore virtus [Lat.] [Vergil]; none but the brave deserve the fair [Dryden]; thou who hast the fatal gift of beauty [Byron]. 846. Ugliness -- N. ugliness &c adj.; deformity, inelegance; acomia^; disfigurement &c (blemish) 848; want of symmetry, inconcinnity^; distortion &c 243; squalor &c (uncleanness) 653. forbidding countenance, vinegar aspect, hanging look, wry face, spretae injuria formae [Vergil]. [person who is ugly] eyesore, object, witch, hag, figure, sight, fright; monster; dog [Coll.], woofer [Coll.], pig [Coll.]; octopus, specter, scarecrow, harridan^, satyr^, toad, monkey, baboon, Caliban, Aesop^, monstrum horrendum informe ingens cui lumen ademptum [Lat.] [Vergil]. V. be ugly &c adj.; look ill, grin horribly a ghastly smile, make faces. render ugly &c adj.; deface; disfigure, defigure^; distort &c 23; blemish &c (injure) 659; soil &c (render unclean) 653. Adj. ugly, ugly as sin, ugly as a toad, ugly as a scarecrow, ugly as a dead monkey; plain, bald (unadorned) 849; homely; ordinary, unornamental^, inartistic; unsightly, unseemly, uncomely, unlovely; unshapely; sightless, seemless^; not fit to be seen; unbeauteous^, unbeautiful; beautiless^, semibeautiful; shapeless &c (amorphous) 241. misshapen, misproportioned^; monstrous; gaunt &c (thin) 203; dumpy &c (short) 201; curtailed of its fair proportions; ill-made, ill- shaped, ill-proportioned; crooked &c (distorted) 243; hard featured, hard visaged; ill-favored, hard-favored, evil-favored; ill-looking; unprepossessing, unattractive, uninviting, unpleasing. graceless, inelegant; ungraceful, ungainly, uncouth, stiff; rugged, rough, gross, rude, awkward, clumsy, slouching, rickety; gawky; lumping, lumpish^; lumbering; hulky^, hulking; unwieldy. squalid, haggard; grim, grim faced, grim visaged; grisly, ghastly; ghost like, death like; cadaverous, grewsome^, gruesome. frightful, hideous, odious, uncanny, forbidding; repellant, repulsive, repugnant, grotesque, bizarre; grody [Coll.], grody to the max [Coll.]; horrid, horrible; shocking &c (painful) 830. foul &c (dirty) 653; dingy &c (colorless) 429; gaudy &c (color) 428; disfigured &c v.; discolored. 847. Ornament -- N. ornament, ornamentation, ornamental art; ornature^, ornateness; adornment, decoration, embellishment; architecture; jewelry &c 847.1. [surface coatings for wood: list] garnish, polish, varnish, French polish, veneer, japanning, lacquer. [surface coatings for metal] gilding, plating, ormolu, enamel, cloisonn_e. [surface coatings for human skin] cosmetics (in general), makeup; [Makeup list], eye shadow, rouge, face powder, lipstick, blush. [ornamental surface pattern: list] pattern, diaper, powdering, paneling, graining, pargeting^; detail; repousse (convexity) 250; texture &c 329; richness; tracery, molding, fillet, listel^, strapwork^, coquillage [Fr.], flourish, fleur-de-lis [Fr.], arabesque, fret, anthemion^; egg and tongue, egg and dart; astragal^, zigzag, acanthus, cartouche; pilaster &c (projection) 250; bead, beading; champleve ware [Fr.], cloisonne ware; frost work, Moresque [Lat.], Morisco, tooling. [ornamental cloth] embroidery; brocade, brocatelle^, galloon, lace, fringe, trapping, border, edging, trimming; hanging, tapestry, arras; millinery, ermine; drap d'or [Fr.]. wreath, festoon, garland, chaplet, flower, nosegay, bouquet, posy, daisies pied and violets blue, tassel, [Love's Labor's Lost], knot; shoulder knot, apaulette^, epaulet, aigulet^, frog; star, rosette, bow; feather, plume, pompom^, panache, aigrette. finery, frippery, gewgaw, gimcrack, tinsel, spangle, clinquant^, pinchbeck, paste; excess of ornament &c (vulgarity) 851; gaud, pride. [ornamentation of text] illustration, illumination, vignette. fleuron^; head piece [Fr.], tail piece [Fr.]; cul-de-lampe [Fr.]; flowers of rhetoric &c 577; work of art. V. ornament, embellish, enrich, decorate, adorn, bead, beautify, adonize^. smarten, furbish, polish, gild, varnish, whitewash, enamel, japan, lacquer, paint, grain. garnish, trim, dizen^, bedizen, prink^, prank; trick out, fig out; deck, bedeck, dight^, bedight^, array; begawd^, titivate^; dress, dress up; spangle, bespangle, powder; embroider, work; chase, emboss, fret, emblazon; illuminate; illustrate. become &c (accord with) 23. Adj. ornamented, beautified &c v.; ornate, rich, gilt, begilt^, tesselated, festooned; champleve [Fr.], cloisonne, topiary. smart, gay, trickly^, flowery, glittering; new gilt, new spangled; fine as a Mayday queen, fine as a fivepence^, fine as a carrot fresh scraped; pranked out, bedight^, well-groomed. in full dress &c (fashion) 852; dressed to kill, dressed to the nines, dressed to advantage; in Sunday best, en grand tenue [Fr.], en grande toilette [Fr.]; in best bib and tucker, endimanche [Fr.]. showy, flashy; gaudy &c (vulgar) 851; garish, gairish^; gorgeous. ornamental, decorative; becoming &c (accordant) 23. 847a. [ornaments worn by people on the body] Jewelry -- N. jewel [general],, jewelry, jewellery^; bijoutry^; bijou, bijouterie [Fr.]; trinket; fine jewelry; costume jewelry, junk jewelry; gem, gemstone, precious stone. [forms of jewelry: list] necklace, bracelet, anklet; earring; locket, pendant, charm bracelet; ring, pinky ring; carcanet^; chain, chatelaine; broach, pin, lapel pin, torque. [gemstones: list] diamond, brilliant, rock [Coll.]; beryl, emerald; chalcedony, agate, heliotrope; girasol^, girasole^; onyx, plasma; sard^, sardonyx; garnet, lapis lazuli, opal, peridot, tourmaline, chrysolite; sapphire, ruby, synthetic ruby; spinel, spinelle; balais^; oriental, oriental topaz; turquois^, turquoise; zircon, cubic zirconia; jacinth, hyacinth, carbuncle, amethyst; alexandrite^, cat's eye, bloodstone, hematite, jasper, moonstone, sunstone^. [jewelry materials derived from living organisms] pearl, cultured pearl, fresh-water pearl; mother of pearl; coral. [person who sells jewels] jeweler. [person who studies gemstones] gemologist; minerologist. [person who cuts gemstones] lapidary, lapidarian. [study of gemstones] gemology, gemmology; minerology. V. shine like a diamond. Adj. bejeweled; diamond &c n. (gemstones). gemological. 848. Blemish -- N. blemish, disfigurement, deformity; adactylism^; flaw, defect &c (imperfection) 651; injury &c (deterioration) 659; spots on the sun^; eyesore. stain, blot; spot, spottiness; speck, speckle, blur. tarnish, smudge; dirt &c 653. [blemish on a person's skin: list] freckle, mole, macula [Anat.], patch, blotch, birthmark; blobber lip^, blubber lip; blain^, maculation; scar, wem^; pustule; whelk; excrescence, pimple &c (protuberance) 250. V. disfigure &c (injure) 659; speckle. Adj. pitted, freckled, discolored; imperfect &c 651; blobber-lipped, bloodshot; injured &c (deteriorated) 659. 849. Simplicity -- N. simplicity; plainness, homeliness; undress, chastity. V. be simple &c adj.. render simple &c adj.; simplify, uncomplicate. Adj. simple, plain; homely, homespun; ordinary, household. unaffected; ingenuous, sincere (artless) 703; free from affectation, free from ornament; simplex munditiis [Lat.] [Horace]; sans facon [Fr.], en deshabille [Fr.]. chaste, inornate^, severe. unadorned, bare, unornamented, undecked^, ungarnished, unarranged^, untrimmed, unvarnished. bald, flat, dull. Phr. veritatis simplex oratio est [Lat.]. 850. [Good taste.] Taste -- N. taste; good taste, refined taste, cultivated taste; delicacy, refinement, fine feeling, gust, gusto, tact, finesse; nicety &c (discrimination) 465; to prepon [Gr.]; polish, elegance, grace. judgment, discernment &c 465. dilettantism, dilettanteism; virtu; fine art; culture, cultivation. [Science of taste] aesthetics. man of taste &c; connoisseur, judge, critic, conoscente, virtuoso, amateur, dilettante, Aristarchus^, Corinthian, arbiter elegantiarum [Lat.], stagirite^, euphemist. caviare to the general [Hamlet]. V. appreciate, judge, criticise, discriminate &c 465 Adj. in good taste, cute, tasteful, tasty; unaffected, pure, chaste, classical, attic; cultivated, refined; dainty; esthetic, aesthetic, artistic; elegant &c 578; euphemistic. to one's taste, to one's mind; after one's fancy; comme il faut [Fr.]; tire a quatre epingles [Fr.]. Adv. elegantly &c adj.. Phr. nihil tetigit quod non ornavit [Lat.] [from Johnson's epitaph on Goldsmith]; chacun a son gout [Fr.]; oculi pictura tenentur aures cantibus [Lat.] [Cicero]. 851. [Bad taste.] Vulgarity -- N. vulgarity, vulgarism; barbarism, Vandalism, Gothicism^; mauvis gout [Fr.], bad taste; gaucherie, awkwardness, want of tact; ill-breeding &c (discourtesy) 895. courseness &c adj.^; indecorum, misbehavior. lowness, homeliness; low life, mauvais ton [Fr.], rusticity; boorishness &c adj.; brutality; rowdyism, blackguardism^; ribaldry; slang &c (neology) 563. bad joke, mauvais plaisanterie [Fr.]. [Excess of ornament] gaudiness, tawdriness; false ornament; finery, frippery, trickery, tinsel, gewgaw, clinquant^; baroque, rococo. rough diamond, tomboy, hoyden, cub, unlicked cub^; clown &c (commonalty) 876; Goth, Vandal, Boeotian; snob, cad, gent; parvenu &c 876; frump, dowdy; slattern &c 653. V. be vulgar &c adj.; misbehave; talk shop, smell of the shop. Adj. in bad taste vulgar, unrefined. coarse, indecorous, ribald, gross; unseemly, unbeseeming^, unpresentable^; contra bonos mores [Lat.]; ungraceful &c (ugly) 846. dowdy; slovenly &c (dirty) 653; ungenteel, shabby genteel; low, common, hoi polloi [Gr.], &c (plebeian) 876; uncourtly^; uncivil &c (discourteous) 895; ill bred, ill mannered; underbred; ungentlemanly, ungentlemanlike; unladylike, unfeminine; wild, wild as an unbacked colt. untutored, unschooled (ignorant) 491. unkempt. uncombed, untamed, unlicked^, unpolished, uncouth; plebeian; incondite^; heavy, rude, awkward; homely, homespun, home bred; provincial, countrified, rustic; boorish, clownish; savage, brutish, blackguard, rowdy, snobbish; barbarous, barbaric; Gothic, unclassical^, doggerel, heathenish, tramontane, outlandish; uncultivated; Bohemian. obsolete &c (antiquated) 124; unfashionable; newfangled &c (unfamiliar) 83; odd &c (ridiculous) 853. particular; affected &c 855; meretricious; extravagant, monstrous, horrid; shocking &c (painful) 830. gaudy, tawdry, overornamented, baroque, rococo; bedizened, tricked out, gingerbread; obtrusive. 852. Fashion -- N. fashion, style, ton, bon ton^, society; good society, polite society; monde [Fr.]; drawing-room, civilized life, civilization, town, beau monde [Fr.], high life, court; world; fashionable world, gay world; Vanity Fair; show &c (ostentation) 822. manners, breeding &c (politeness) 894; air, demeanor &c (appearance) 448; savoir faire [Fr.]; gentlemanliness^, gentility, decorum, propriety, biens_eance [Fr.]; conventions of society; Mrs. Grundy; punctilio; form, formality; etiquette, point of etiquette; dress &c 225. custom &c 613; mode, vogue, go; rage &c (desire) 865; prevailing taste; fad, trend, bandwagon, furore^, thing, in thing, craze, chic, last word. man of fashion, woman of fashion, man of the world, woman of the world; height of fashion, pink of fashion, star of fashion, glass of fashion, leader of fashion; arbiter elegantiarum &c (taste) 850 [Lat.]; the beautiful people, the fashion set, upper ten thousand &c (nobility) 875; elite &c (distinction) 873; smart set; the four hundred [U.S.]; in crowd. V. be fashionable &c adj., be the rage &c n.; have a run, pass current. follow the fashion, conform to the fashion, fall in with the fashion, follow the trend, follow the crowd &c n.; go with the stream &c (conform) 82; savoir vivre [Fr.], savoir faire [Fr.]; keep up appearances, behave oneself. set the fashion, bring in the fashion; give a tone to society, cut a figure in society; keep one's carriage. Adj. fashionable; in fashion &c n.; a la mode, comme il faut [Fr.]; admitted in society, admissible in society &c n.; presentable; conventional &c (customary) 613; genteel; well-bred, well mannered, well behaved, well spoken; gentlemanlike^, gentlemanly; ladylike; civil, polite &c (courteous) 894. polished, refined, thoroughbred, courtly; distingue [Fr.]; unembarrassed, degage [Fr.]; janty^, jaunty; dashing, fast. modish, stylish, chic, trendy, recherche; newfangled &c (unfamiliar) 83; all the rage, all the go^; with it, in, faddish. in court, in full dress, in evening dress; en grande tenue [Fr.] &c (ornament) 847. Adv. fashionably &c adj.; for fashion's sake. Phr. a la francaise, a la parisienne; a l' anglaise [Fr.], a l' americaine [Fr.]; autre temps autre mauers [Fr.]; chaque pays a sa guise [Fr.]. 853. Ridiculousness -- N. ridiculousness &c adj.; comicality, oddity &c adj.; extravagance, drollery. farce, comedy; burlesque &c (ridicule) 856; buffoonery &c (fun) 840; frippery; doggerel verses; absurdity &c 497; bombast &c (unmeaning) 517; anticlimax, bathos; eccentricity, monstrosity &c (unconformity) 83; laughingstock &c 857. V. be ridiculous &c adj.; pass from the sublime to the ridiculous; make one laugh; play the fool, make a fool of oneself, commit an absurdity. Adj. ridiculous, ludicrous; comical; droll, funny, laughable, pour rire, grotesque, farcical, odd; whimsical, whimsical as a dancing bear; fanciful, fantastic, queer, rum, quizzical, quaint, bizarre; screaming; eccentric &c (unconformable) 83; strange, outlandish, out of the way, baroque, weird; awkward &c (ugly) 846. extravagant, outre, monstrous, preposterous, bombastic, inflated, stilted, burlesque, mock heroic. drollish; seriocomic, tragicomic; gimcrack, contemptible &c (unimportant) 643; doggerel; ironical &c (derisive) 856; risible. Phr. risum teneatis amici [Lat.] [Horace]; rideret Heraclitus; du sublime au ridicule il n'y a qu'un pas [Lat.] [Napoleon]. 854. Fop -- N. fop, fine gentleman; swell; dandy, dandiprat^; exquisite, coxcomb, beau, macaroni, blade, blood, buck, man about town, fast man; fribble, milliner^; Jemmy Jessamy^, carpet knight; masher, dude. fine lady, coquette; flirt, vamp. 855. Affectation -- N. affectation; affectedness &c adj.; acting a part &c v.; pretense &c (falsehood) 544, (ostentation) 882; boasting &c 884. charlatanism, quackery, shallow profundity; pretension, airs, pedantry, purism, precisianism, euphuism; teratology &c (altiloquence) 577. mannerism, simagree, grimace. conceit, foppery, dandyism, man millinery, coxcombry, puppyism. stiffness, formality, buckram; prudery, demureness, coquetry, mock modesty, minauderie, sentimentalism; mauvais honte, false shame. affector, performer, actor; pedant, pedagogue, doctrinaire, purist, euphuist, mannerist; grimacier; lump of affectation, precieuse ridicule [Fr.], bas bleu [Fr.], blue stocking, poetaster; prig; charlatan &c (deceiver) 548; petit maitre &c (fop) 854; flatterer &c 935; coquette, prude, puritan. V. affect, act a part, put on; give oneself airs &c (arrogance) 885; boast &c 884; coquet; simper, mince, attitudinize, pose; flirt a fan; overact, overdo. Adj. affected, full of affectation, pretentious, pedantic, stilted, stagy, theatrical, big-sounding, ad captandum; canting, insincere. not natural, unnatural; self-conscious; maniere; artificial; overwrought, overdone, overacted; euphuist &c 577. stiff, starch, formal, prim, smug, demure, tire a quatre epingles, quakerish, puritanical, prudish, pragmatical, priggish, conceited, coxcomical, foppish, dandified; finical, finikin; mincing, simpering, namby-pamby, sentimental. Phr. conceit in weakest bodies strongest works [Hamlet]. 856. Ridicule -- N. ridicule, derision; sardonic smile, sardonic grin; irrision^; scoffing &c (disrespect) 929; mockery, quiz^, banter, irony, persiflage, raillery, chaff, badinage; quizzing &c v.; asteism^. squib, satire, skit, quip, quib^, grin. parody, burlesque, travesty, travestie^; farce &c (drama) 599; caricature. buffoonery &c (fun) 840; practical joke; horseplay. scorn, contempt &c 930. V. ridicule, deride, mock, taunt; snigger; laugh in one's sleeve; tease [ridicule lightly], badinage, banter, rally, chaff, joke, twit, quiz, roast; haze [U.S.]; tehee^; fleer^; show up. play upon, play tricks upon; fool to the top of one's bent; laugh at, grin at, smile at; poke fun at. satirize, parody, caricature, burlesque, travesty. turn into ridicule; make merry with; make fun of, make game of, make a fool of, make an April fool of^; rally; scoff &c (disrespect) 929. raise a laugh &c (amuse) 840; play the fool, make a fool of oneself. Adj. derisory, derisive; mock, mocking; sarcastic, ironic, ironical, quizzical, burlesque, Hudibrastic^; scurrilous &c (disrespectful) 929. Adv. in ridicule &c n.. 857. [Object and cause of ridicule.] Laughingstock -- N. laughingstock, jestingstock^, gazingstock^; butt, game, fair game; April fool &c (dupe) 547 [Obs.]. original, oddity; queer fish, odd fish; quiz, square toes; old monkey, old fogey, fogey monkey, fogy monkey; buffoon &c (jester) 844; pantomimist &c (actor) 599. schlemiel. jest &c (wit) 842. Phr. dum vitant stulti vitia in contraria currunt [Lat.]. 3. PROSPECTIVE AFFECTIONS 858. Hope -- N. hope, hopes; desire &c 865; fervent hope, sanguine expectation, trust, confidence, reliance; faith &c (belief) 484; affiance, assurance; secureness, security; reassurance. good omen, good auspices; promise, well grounded hopes; good prospect, bright prospect; clear sky. assumption, presumption; anticipation &c (expectation) 507. hopefulness, buoyancy, optimism, enthusiasm, heart of grace, aspiration. [person who is hopeful] optimist, utopian, utopist^. castles in the air, castles in Spain, chateaux en Espagne [Fr.], le pot aut lait [Fr.], Utopia, millennium; day dream, golden dream; dream of Alnaschar^; airy hopes, fool's paradise; mirage &c (fallacies of vision) 443; fond hope. beam of hope, ray of hope, gleam of hope, glimmer of hope, flash of hope, dawn of hope, star of hope; cheer; bit of blue sky, silver lining, silver lining of the cloud, bottom of Pandora's box, balm in Gilead; light at the end of the tunnel. anchor, sheet anchor, mainstay; staff &c (support) 215; heaven &c 981. V. hope, trust, confide, rely on, put one's trust in; lean upon; pin one's hope upon, pin one's faith upon &c (believe) 484. feel hope, entertain hope, harbor hope, indulge hope, cherish hope, feed hope, foster hope, nourish hope, encourage hope, cling to hope, live in hope, &c n.; see land; feel assured, rest assured, feel confident, rest confident &c adj.. presume; promise oneself; expect &c (look forward to) 507. hope for &c (desire) 865; anticipate. be hopeful &c adj.; look on the bright side of, view on the sunny side, voir en couleur de rose [Fr.], make the best of it, hope for the best; put a good face upon, put a bold face upon, put the best face upon; keep one's spirits up; take heart, take heart of grace; be of good heart, be of good cheer; flatter oneself, lay the flattering unction to one's soul, catch at a straw, [Hamlet], hope against hope, reckon one's chickens before they are hatched, count one's chickens before they are hatched. [cause hope] give hope, inspire hope, raise hope, hold out hope &c n.; promise, bid fair, augur well, be in a fair way, look up, flatter, tell a flattering tale; raise expectations (sentient subject); encourage, cheer, assure, reassure, buoy up, embolden. Adj. hoping &c v.; in hopes &c n.; hopeful, confident; secure &c (certain) 484; sanguine, in good heart, buoyed up, buoyant, elated, flushed, exultant, enthusiastic; heartsome^; utopian. unsuspecting, unsuspicious; fearless, free from fear, free from suspicion, free from distrust, free from despair, exempt from fear, exempt from suspicion, exempt from distrust, exempt from despair; undespairing^, self reliant. probable, on the high road to; within sight of shore, within sight of land; promising, propitious; of promise, full of promise; of good omen; auspicious, de bon augure [Fr.]; reassuring; encouraging, cheering, inspiriting, looking up, bright, roseate, couleur de rose [Fr.], rose-colored. Adv. hopefully &c adj.. Int. God speed!, Phr. nil desperandum [Lat.] [Horace]; never say die, dum spiro spero [Lat.], latet scintillula forsan [Lat.], all is for the best, spero meliora [Lat.]; every cloud has a silver lining; the wish being father to the thought [Henry IV]; hope told a flattering tale; rusticus expectat dum defluat amnis [Lat.]. at spes non fracta [Lat.]; ego spem prietio non emo [Lat.] [Terence]; un Dieu est ma fiance [Fr.]; hope! thou nurse of young desire [Bickerstaff]; in hoc signo spes mea [Lat.]; in hoc signo vinces [Lat.]; la speranza e il pan de miseri [It]; l'esperance est le songe d'un homme eveille [Fr.]; the mighty hopes that make us men [Tennyson]; the sickening pang of hope deferred [Scott]. 859. [Absence, want or loss of hope.] Hopelessness -- N. hopelessness &c adj.; despair, desperation; despondency, depression &c (dejection) 837; pessimism, pessimist; Job's comforter; bird of bad omen, bird of ill omen. abandonment, desolation; resignation, surrender, submission &c 725. hope deferred, dashed hopes; vain expectation &c (disappointment) 509. airy hopes &c &c 858; forlorn hope; gone case, dead duck, gone coon [U.S.]; goner [Slang]; bad job, bad business; enfant perdu [Fr.]; gloomy horizon, black spots in the horizon; slough of Despond, cave of Despair; immedicabile vulnus [Lat.]. V. despair; lose all hope, give up all hope, abandon all hope, relinquish all hope, lose the hope of, give up the hope of, abandon the hope of, relinquish the hope of; give up, give over; yield to despair; falter; despond &c (be dejected) 837; jeter le manche apres la cognee [Fr.]. inspire despair, drive to despair &c n.; disconcert; dash one's hopes, crush one's hopes, destroy one's hopes; hope against hope. abandon; resign, surrender, submit &c 725. Adj. hopeless, desperate, despairing, gone, in despair, au desespoir [Fr.], forlorn, desolate; inconsolable &c (dejected) 837; broken hearted. unpromising, unpropitious; inauspicious, ill-omened, threatening, clouded over. out of the question, not to be thought of; impracticable &c 471; past hope, past cure, past mending, past recall; at one's last gasp &c (death) 360; given up, given over. incurable, cureless, immedicable, remediless, beyond remedy; incorrigible; irreparable, irremediable, irrecoverable, irreversible, irretrievable, irreclaimable, irredeemable, irrevocable; ruined, undone; immitigable. Phr. lasciate ogni speranza voi ch'entrate [Dante]; its days are numbered; the worst come to the worst; no change, no pause, no hope, yet I endure [Shelley]; O dark, dark, dark, amid the blaze of noon [Milton]; mene mene tekel upharson [Old Testament]. 860. Fear -- N. fear, timidity, diffidence, want of confidence; apprehensiveness, fearfulness &c adj.; solicitude, anxiety, care, apprehension, misgiving; feeze [U.S.]; mistrust &c (doubt) 485; suspicion, qualm; hesitation &c (irresolution) 605. nervousness, restlessness &c adj.; inquietude, disquietude, worry, concern; batophobia^; heartquake^; flutter, trepidation, fear and trembling, perturbation, tremor, quivering, shaking, trembling, throbbing heart, palpitation, ague fit, cold sweat; abject fear &c (cowardice) 862; mortal funk, heartsinking^, despondency; despair &c 859. fright; affright, affrightment^; boof alarm [U.S.], dread, awe, terror, horror, dismay, consternation, panic, scare, stampede (of horses). intimidation, terrorism, reign of terror. [Object of fear] bug bear, bugaboo; scarecrow; hobgoblin &c (demon) 980; nightmare, Gorgon, mormo^, ogre, Hurlothrumbo^, raw head and bloody bones, fee-faw-fum, bete noire [Fr.], enfant terrible [Fr.]. alarmist &c (coward) 862. V. fear, stand in awe of; be afraid &c adj.; have qualms &c n.; apprehend, sit upon thorns, eye askance; distrust &c (disbelieve) 485. hesitate &c (be irresolute) 605; falter, funk, cower, crouch; skulk &c (cowardice) 862; let 'I dare not' wait upon 'I would' [Macbeth] take fright, take alarm; start, wince, flinch, shy, shrink; fly &c (avoid) 623. tremble, shake; shiver, shiver in one's shoes; shudder, flutter; shake like an aspen leaf, tremble like an aspen leaf, tremble all over; quake, quaver, quiver, quail. grow pale, turn pale; blench, stand aghast; not dare to say one's soul is one's own. inspire fear, excite fear, inspire awe, excite awe; raise apprehensions^; be in a daze, bulldoze [U.S.]; faze, feeze [U.S.]; give an alarm, raise an alarm, sound an alarm; alarm, startle, scare, cry 'wolf', disquiet, dismay; fright, frighten, terrify; astound; fright from one's propriety; fright out of one's senses, fright out of one's wits, fright out of one's seven senses; awe; strike all of a heap, strike an awe into, strike terror; harrow up the soul, appall, unman, petrify, horrify; pile on the agony. make one's flesh creep, make one's hair stand on end, make one's blood run cold, make one's teeth chatter; take away one's breath, stop one's breath; make one tremble &c; haunt; prey on the mind, weigh on the mind. put in fear, put in bodily fear; terrorize, intimidate, cow, daunt, overawe, abash, deter, discourage; browbeat, bully; threaten &c 909. Adj. fearing &c v.; frightened &c v.; in fear, in a fright &c n.; haunted with the fear of &c n.; afeard^. afraid, fearful; timid, timorous; nervous, diffident, coy, faint- hearted, tremulous, shaky, afraid of one's shadow, apprehensive, restless, fidgety; more frightened than hurt. aghast; awe-stricken, horror-stricken, terror-stricken, panic- stricken, awestruck, awe-stricken, horror-struck; frightened to death, white as a sheet; pale, pale as a ghost, pale as death, pale as ashes; breathless, in hysterics. inspiring fear &c v.; alarming; formidable, redoubtable; perilous &c (danger) 665; portentous; fearful; dread, dreadful; fell; dire, direful; shocking; terrible, terrific; tremendous; horrid, horrible, horrific; ghastly; awful, awe-inspiring; revolting &c (painful) 830; Gorgonian. Adv. in terrorem [Lat.]. Int. angels and ministers of grace defend us! [Hamlet]. Phr. ante tubam trepidat [Lat.]; horresco referens [Lat.], one's heart failing one, obstupui steteruntque comae et vox faucibus haesit [Lat.] [Vergil]. a dagger of the mind [Macbeth]; expertus metuit [Lat.] [Horace]; fain would I climb but that I fear to fall [Raleigh]; fear is the parent of cruelty [Froude]; Gorgons and hydras and chimeras dire [Paradise Lost]; omnia tuta timens [Lat.] [Vergil]; our fears do make us traitors [Macbeth]; 861. [Absence of fear.] Courage -- N. courage, bravery, valor; resoluteness, boldness &c adj.; spirit, daring, gallantry, intrepidity; contempt of danger, defiance of danger; derring-do; audacity; rashness &c 863; dash; defiance &c 715; confidence, self-reliance. manliness, manhood; nerve, pluck, mettle, game; heart, heart of grace; spunk, guts, face, virtue, hardihood, fortitude, intestinal fortitude; firmness &c (stability) 150; heart of oak; bottom, backbone, spine &c (perseverance) 604.1. resolution &c (determination) 604; bulldog courage. prowess, heroism, chivalry. exploit, feat, achievement; heroic deed, heroic act; bold stroke. man, man of mettle; hero, demigod, Amazon, Hector; lion, tiger, panther, bulldog; gamecock, fighting-cock; bully, fire eater &c 863. V. be courageous &c adj.; dare, venture, make bold; face danger, front danger, affront danger, confront danger, brave danger, defy danger, despise danger, mock danger; look in the face; look full in the face, look boldly in the face, look danger in the face; face; meet, meet in front; brave, beard; defy &c 715. take courage, muster courage, summon up courage, pluck up courage; nerve oneself, take heart; take heart, pluck up heart of grace; hold up one's head, screw one's courage to the sticking place; come up to scratch; stick to one's guns, standfire^, stand against; bear up, bear up against; hold out &c (persevere) 604.1. put a bold face upon; show a bold front, present a bold front; show fight; face the music. bell the cat, take the bull by the horns, beard the lion in his den, march up to the cannon's mouth, go through fire and water, run the gantlet. give courage, infuse courage, inspire courage; reassure, encourage, embolden, inspirit, cheer, nerve, put upon one's mettle, rally, raise a rallying cry; pat on the back, make a man of., keep in countenance. Adj. courageous, brave; valiant, valorous; gallant, intrepid; spirited, spiritful^; high-spirited, high-mettled^; mettlesome, plucky; manly, manful; resolute; stout, stout-hearted; iron-hearted, lion-hearted; heart of oak; Penthesilean. bold, bold-spirited; daring, audacious; fearless, dauntless, dreadless^, aweless; undaunted, unappalled, undismayed, unawed, unblanched, unabashed, unalarmed, unflinching, unshrinking^, unblanching^, unapprehensive; confident, self-reliant; bold as a lion, bold as brass. enterprising, adventurous; venturous, venturesome; dashing, chivalrous; soldierly &c (warlike) 722; heroic. fierce, savage; pugnacious &c (bellicose) 720. strong-minded, hardy, doughty; firm &c (stable) 150; determined &c (resolved) 604; dogged, indomitable &c (persevering) 604.1. up to, up to the scratch; upon one's mettle; reassured &c v.; unfeared^, undreaded^. Phr. one's blood being up; courage sans peur [Fr.]; fortes fortuna adjuvat [Lat.] [Terence]; have I not in my time heard lions roar [Taming of the Shrew]; I dare do all that may become a man [Macbeth]; male vincetis sed vincite [Lat.] [Ovid]; omne solum forti patria [Lat.]; self-trust is the essence of heroism [Emerson]; stimulos dedit oemula virtus [Lat.] [Lucan]; strong and great, a hero [Longfellow]; teloque animus proestantior omni [Lat.] [Ovid]; there, is always safety in valor [Emerson]; virtus ariete fortier [Lat.]. 862. [Excess of fear.] Cowardice -- N. cowardice, pusillanimity; cowardliness &c adj.; timidity, effeminacy. poltroonery, baseness; dastardness^, dastardy^; abject fear, funk; Dutch courage; fear &c 860; white feather, faint heart; cold feet [U.S.], yellow streak [Slang]. coward, poltroon, dastard, sneak, recreant; shy cock, dunghill cock; coistril^, milksop, white liver, lily liver, nidget^, one that cannot say 'boo' to a goose; slink; Bob Acres, Jerry Sneak. alarmist, terrorist^, pessimist; runagate &c (fugitive) 623. V. quail &c (fear) 860; be cowardly &c adj., be a coward &c n.; funk; cower, skulk, sneak; flinch, shy, fight shy, slink, turn tail; run away &c (avoid) 623; show, the white feather. Adj. coward, cowardly; fearful, shy; timid, timorous; skittish; poor- spirited, spiritless, soft, effeminate. weak-minded; infirm of purpose &c 605; weak-hearted, fainthearted, chickenhearted, henhearted^, lilyhearted, pigeon-hearted; white- livered^, lily-livered, milk-livered^; milksop, smock-faced; unable to say 'boo' to a goose. dastard, dastardly; base, craven, sneaking, dunghill, recreant; unwarlike, unsoldier-like. in face a lion but in heart a deer. unmanned; frightened &c 860. Int. sauve qui peut! [Fr.], every man for himself! [Fr.Tr.]; devil take the hindmost!, Phr. ante tubam trepidat [Lat.], one's courage oozing out; degeneres animos timor arguit [Lat.] [Vergil]. 863. Rashness -- N. rashness &c adj.; temerity, want of caution, imprudence, indiscretion; overconfidence, presumption, audacity. precipitancy, precipitation; impetuosity; levity; foolhardihood^, foolhardiness; heedlessness, thoughtlessness &c (inattention) 458; carelessness &c (neglect) 460; desperation; Quixotism, knight-errantry; fire eating. gaming, gambling; blind bargain, leap in the dark, leap of faith, fool's paradise; too many eggs in one basket. desperado, rashling^, madcap, daredevil, Hotspur, fire eater, bully, bravo, Hector, scapegrace, enfant perdu [Fr.]; Don Quixote, knight-errant, Icarus; adventurer; gambler, gamester; dynamitard^; boomer [U.S.]. V. be rash &c adj.; stick at nothing, play a desperate game; run into danger &c 665; play with fire, play with edge tools. carry too much sail, sail too near the wind, ride at single anchor, go out of one's depth. take a leap in the dark, buy a pig in a poke. donner tete baissee [Fr.]; knock, one's bead against a wall &c (be unskillful) 699; rush on destruction; kick against the pricks, tempt Providence, go on a forlorn hope, go on a fool's errand. reckon one's chickens before they are hatched, count one's chickens before they are hatched, reckon without one's host; catch at straws; trust to a broken reed, lean on a broken reed. Adj. rash, incautious, indiscreet; imprudent, improvident, temerarious; uncalculating^; heedless; careless &c (neglectful) 460; without ballast, heels over head, head over heels; giddy &c (inattentive) 458; wanton, reckless, wild, madcap; desperate, devil-may-care. hot-blooded, hotheaded, hotbrained^; headlong, headstrong; breakneck; foolhardy; harebrained; precipitate, impulsive. overconfident, overweening; venturesome, venturous; adventurous, Quixotic, fire eating, cavalier; janty^, jaunty, free and easy. off one's guard &c (inexpectant) 508 [Obs.]. Adv. post haste, a corps perdu [Fr.], hand over head, tete baissee [Fr.], headforemost^; happen what may, come what may. Phr. neck or nothing, the devil being in one; non semper temeritas est felix [Lat.] [Livy]; paucis temeritas est bono multis malo [Lat.] [Phaedrus]. 864. Caution -- N. caution; cautiousness &c adj.; discretion, prudence, cautel^, heed, circumspection, calculation, deliberation. foresight &c 510; vigilance &c 459; warning &c 668. coolness &c adj.; self-possession, self-command; presence of mind, sang froid [Fr.]; well-regulated mind; worldly wisdom, Fabian policy. V. be cautious &c adj.; take care, take heed, take good care; have a care mind, what one is about; be on one's guard &c (keep watch) 459; make assurance doubly sure [Macbeth]. bespeak &c (be early) 132. think twice, look before one leaps, count the cost, look to the main chance, cut one's coat according to one's cloth; feel one's ground, feel one's way; see how the land lies &c (foresight) 510; wait to see how the cat jumps; bridle one's tongue; reculer pour mieux sauter &c (prepare) 673 [Fr.]; let well alone, let well enough alone; let sleeping dogs lie, ne pas reveiller le chat qui dort [Fr.], don't wake a sleeping cat. keep out of harm's way, keep out of troubled waters; keep at a respectful distance, stand aloof; keep on the safe side, be on the safe side. husband one's resources &c 636. caution &c (warn) 668. Adj. cautious, wary, guarded; on one's guard &c (watchful) 459; cavendo tutus [Lat.]; in medio tutissimus [Lat.]; vigilant. careful, heedful; cautelous^, stealthy, chary, shy of, circumspect, prudent, discreet, politic; sure-footed &c (skillful) 698. unenterprising, unadventurous, cool, steady, self-possessed; overcautious. Adv. cautiously &c adj.. Int. have a care!, Phr. timeo Danaos [Lat.] [Vergil]; festina lente [Lat.]. ante victoriam ne canas triumphum [Lat.], don't sing out victory before the triumph; give, every man thine ear but few thy voice [Hamlet]; he who laughs last laughs best, il rit bien qui rit le dernier [Fr.]; ni firmes carta que no leas ni bebas agua que no veas [Sp.]; nescit vox missa reverti [Lat.] [Horace]; love all, trust a few [All's Well]; noli irritare leones [Lat.]; safe bind safe find; if it ain't broke, don't fix it [Bert Lance]. 865. Desire -- N. desire, wish, fancy, fantasy; want, need, exigency. mind, inclination, leaning, bent, animus, partiality, penchant, predilection; propensity &c 820; willingness &c 602; liking, love, fondness, relish. longing, hankering, inkling; solicitude, anxiety; yearning, coveting; aspiration, ambition, vaulting ambition; eagerness, zeal, ardor, empressement [Fr.], breathless impatience, overanxiety; impetuosity, &c 825. appetite, appetition^, appetence^, appetency^; sharp appetite, keenness, hunger, stomach, twist; thirst, thirstiness; drouth, mouthwatering; itch, itching; prurience, cacoethes [Lat.], cupidity, lust, concupiscence. edge of appetite, edge of hunger; torment of Tantalus; sweet tooth, lickerish tooth^; itching palm; longing eye, wistful eye, sheep's eye. [excessive desire for money] greed &c 817.1. voracity &c (gluttony) 957. passion, rage, furore^, mania, manie^; inextinguishable desire; dipsomania, kleptomania. [Person who desires] lover, amateur, votary, devotee, aspirant, solicitant, candidate, applicant, supplicant; cormorant &c 957. [Object of desire] desideratum; want &c (requirement) 630; a consummation devoutly to be wished; attraction, magnet, allurement, fancy, temptation, seduction, fascination, prestige, height of one's ambition, idol; whim, whimsy, whimsey^; maggot; hobby, hobby-horse. Fortunatus's cap; wishing cap, wishing stone, wishing well. V. desire; wish, wish for; be desirous &c adj.. have a longing &c n.; hope &c 858. care for, affect, like, list; take to, cling to, take a fancy to; fancy; prefer &c (choose) 609. have an eye, have a mind to; find it in one's heart &c (be willing) 602; have a fancy for, set one's eyes upon; cast a sheep's eye upon, look sweet upon; take into one's head, have at heart, be bent upon; set one's cap at, set one's heart upon, set one's mind upon; covet. want, miss, need, feel the want of, would fain have, would fain do; would be glad of. be hungry &c adj.; have a good appetite, play a good knife and fork; hunger after, thirst after, crave after, lust after, itch after, hanker after, run mad after; raven for, die for; burn to. desiderate^; sigh for, cry for, gape for, gasp for, pine for, pant for, languish for, yearn for, long, be on thorns for, hope for; aspire after; catch at, grasp at, jump at. woo, court, solicit; fish for, spell for, whistle for, put up for; ogle. cause desire, create desire, raise desire, excite desire, provoke desire; whet the appetite; appetize^, titillate, allure, attract, take one's fancy, tempt; hold out temptation, hold out allurement; tantalize, make one's mouth water, faire venir l'eau a la bouche [Fr.]. gratify desire &c (give pleasure) 829. Adj. desirous; desiring &c v.; inclined &c (willing) 602; partial to; fain, wishful, optative^; anxious, wistful, curious; at a loss for, sedulous, solicitous. craving, hungry, sharp-set, peckish^, ravening, with an empty stomach, esurient^, lickerish^, thirsty, athirst, parched with thirst, pinched with hunger, famished, dry, drouthy^; hungry as a hunter, hungry as a hawk, hungry as a horse, hungry as a church mouse, hungry as a bear. [excessively desirous] greedy &c 817.1. unsatisfied, unsated, unslaked; unsaturated. eager, avid, keen; burning, fervent, ardent; agog; all agog; breathless; impatient &c (impetuous) 825; bent on, intent on, set on, bent upon, intent upon, set upon; mad after, enrage, rabid, dying for, devoured by desire. aspiring, ambitious, vaulting, skyaspiring, high-reaching. desirable; desired &c v.; in demand; pleasing &c (giving pleasure) 829; appetizing, appetible^; tantalizing. Adv. wistfully &c adj.; fain. Int. would that, would that it were!, O for!, esto perpetual [Lat.] Phr. the wish being father to the thought; sua cuique voluptas [Lat.]; hoc erat in votis [Lat.], the mouth watering, the fingers itching; aut Caesar aut nullus [Lat.]. Cassius has a lean and hungry look [Julius Caesar]; hungry as the grave [Thomson]; I was born to other things [Tennyson]; not what we wish but what we want [Merrick]; such joy ambition finds [Paradise Lost]; the sea hath bounds but deep desire hath none [Venus and Adonis]; ubi mel ibi apes [Lat.]. 866. Indifference -- N. indifference, neutrality; coldness &c adj.; anaphrodisia^; unconcern, insouciance, nonchalance; want of interest, want of earnestness; anorexy^, anorexia, inappetency^; apathy &c (insensibility) 823; supineness &c (inactivity) 683; disdain &c 930; recklessness &c 863; inattention &c 458. anaphrodisiac^, antaphrodisiac^; lust-quencher, passion-queller^. V. be indifferent &c adj.; stand neuter; take no interest in &c (insensibility) 823; have no desire for &c 865, have no taste for, have no relish for; not care for; care nothing for, care nothing about; not care a straw about, not care a fig for, not care a whit about &c (unimportance) 643; not mind. set at naught &c (make light of) 483; spurn &c (disdain) 930. Adj. indifferent, cold, frigid, lukewarm; cool, cool as a cucumber; unconcerned, insouciant, phlegmatic, pococurante^, easygoing, devil-may- care, careless, listless, lackadaisical; half-hearted; unambitious, unaspiring, undesirous^, unsolicitous^, unattracted. [indifferent toward people] aloof, unapproachable, remote; uncaring. unattractive, unalluring, undesired, undesirable, uncared for, unwished^, unvalued, all one to. insipid &c 391; vain. Adv. for aught one cares. Int. never mind; Who cares? whatever you like, whatever. Phr. I couldn't care less, I could care less; anything will do; es macht nichts [G.]. 867. Dislike -- N. dislike, distaste, disrelish, disinclination, displacency^. reluctance; backwardness &c (unwillingness) 603. repugnance, disgust, queasiness, turn, nausea, loathing; averseness^, aversation^, aversion; abomination, antipathy, abhorrence, horror; mortal antipathy, rooted antipathy, mortal horror, rooted horror; hatred, detestation; hate &c 898; animosity &c 900; hydrophobia; canine madness; byssa^, xenophobia. sickener^; gall and wormwood &c (unsavory) 395; shuddering, cold sweat. V. mislike misrelish^, dislike, disrelish; mind, object to; have rather not, would rather not, prefer not to, not care for; have a dislike for, conceive a dislike to, entertain a dislike for, take a dislike to, have an aversion to, have an aversion for; have no taste for, have no stomach for. shun, avoid &c 623; eschew; withdraw from, shrink from, recoil from; not be able to bear, not be able to abide, not be able to endure; shrug the shoulders at, shudder at, turn up the nose at, look askance at; make a mouth, make a wry face, make a grimace; make faces. loathe, nauseate, abominate, detest, abhor; hate &c 898; take amiss &c 900; have enough of &c (be satiated) 869. wish away, unwish cause dislike, excite dislike; disincline, repel, sicken; make sick, render sick; turn one's stomach, nauseate, wamble^, disgust, shock, stink in the nostrils; go against the grain, go against the stomach; stick in the throat; make one's blood run cold &c (give pain) 830; pall. Adj. disliking &c v.; averse from, loathe, loathe to, loth, adverse; shy of, sick of, out of conceit with; disinclined; heartsick, dogsick^; queasy. disliked &c v.; uncared for, unpopular; out of favor; repulsive, repugnant, repellant; abhorrent, insufferable, fulsome, nauseous; loathsome, loathful^; offensive; disgusting &c v.; disagreeable c. (painful) 830. Adv. usque ad nauseam [Lat.]. Int. faugh!, foh!^, ugh!, Phr. non libet [Lat.]. 868. Fastidiousness -- N. fastidiousness &c adj.; nicety, hypercriticism, difficulty in being pleased, friandise [Fr.], epicurism, omnia suspendens naso [Lat.]. epicure, gourmet. [Excess of delicacy] prudery. V. be fastidious &c adj.; have a sweet tooth. mince the matter; turn up one's nose at &c (disdain) 930; look a gift horse in the mouth, see spots on the sun. Adj. fastidious, nice, delicate, delicat^, finical, finicky, demanding, meticulous, exacting, strict, anal [Vulg.], difficult, dainty, lickerish^, squeamish, thin-skinned; squeasy^, queasy; hard to please, difficult to please; querulous, particular, straitlaced, scrupulous; censorious &c 932; hypercritical; overcritical. Phr. noli me tangere [Lat.]. 869. Satiety -- N. satiety, satisfaction, saturation, repletion, glut, surfeit; cloyment^, satiation; weariness &c 841. spoiled child; enfant gete [Fr.], enfant terrible [Fr.]; too much of a good thing, toujours perdrix [Fr.]; crambe repetita [Lat.]. V. sate, satiate, satisfy, saturate; cloy, quench, slake, pall, glut., gorge, surfeit; bore &c (weary) 841; tire &c (fatigue) 688; spoil. have enough of, have quite enough of, have one's fill, have too much of; be satiated &c adj.. Adj. satiated &c v.; overgorged^; blase, used up, sick of, heartsick. Int. enough!, hold!, eheu jam satis! [Lat.], basta!^, 4. CONTEMPLATIVE AFFECTIONS 870. Wonder -- N. wonder, marvel; astonishment, amazement, wonderment, bewilderment; amazedness &c adj.^; admiration, awe; stupor, stupefaction; stound^, fascination; sensation; surprise &c (inexpectation) 508 [Obs.]. note of admiration; thaumaturgy &c (sorcery) 992 [Obs.]. V. wonder, marvel, admire; be surprised &c adj.; start; stare; open one's eyes, rub one's eyes, turn up one's eyes; gloar^; gape, open one's mouth, hold one's breath; look aghast, stand aghast, stand agog; look blank &c (disappointment) 509; tombe des nues [Fr.]; not believe one's eyes, not believe one's ears, not believe one's senses. not be able to account for &c (unintelligible) 519; not know whether one stands on one's head or one's heels. surprise, astonish, amaze, astound; dumfound, dumfounder; startle, dazzle; daze; strike, strike with wonder, strike with awe; electrify; stun, stupefy, petrify, confound, bewilder, flabbergast, stagger, throw on one's beam ends, fascinate, turn the head, take away one's breath, strike dumb; make one's hair stand on end, make one's tongue cleave to the roof of one's mouth; make one stare. take by surprise &c (be unexpected) 508. be wonderful &c adj.; beggar description, beggar the imagination, baffle description; stagger belief. Adj. surprised &c v.; aghast, all agog, breathless, agape; open- mouthed; awestruck, thunderstruck, moonstruck, planet-struck; spellbound; lost in amazement, lost in wonder, lost in astonishment; struck all of a heap, unable to believe one's senses, like a duck ion thunder. wonderful, wondrous; surprising &c v.; unexpected &c 508; unheard of; mysterious &c (inexplicable) 519; miraculous. indescribable, inexpressible, inaffable^; unutterable, unspeakable. monstrous, prodigious, stupendous, marvelous; inconceivable, incredible; inimaginable^, unimaginable; strange &c (uncommon) 83; passing strange. striking &c v.; overwhelming; wonder-working. Adv. wonderfully, &c adj.; fearfully; for a wonder, in the name of wonder; strange to say; mirabile dictu [Lat.], mirabile visu [Lat.]; to one's great surprise. with wonder &c n., with gaping mouth; with open eyes, with upturned eyes. Int. lo, lo and behold!, O!, heyday!, halloo!, what!, indeed!, really!, surely!, humph!, hem!, good lack, good heavens, good gracious!, Ye gods!, good Lord!, good grief!, Holy cow!, My word!, Holy shit! [Vulg.], gad so!, welladay!^, dear me!, only think!, lackadaisy!^, my stars, my goodness!, gracious goodness!, goodness gracious!, mercy on us!, heavens and earth!, God bless me!, bless us, bless my heart!, odzookens!^, O gemini!, adzooks!^, hoity-toity!, strong!, Heaven save the mark, bless the mark!, can such things be!, zounds!, 'sdeath! [Contr.], what on earth, what in the world!, who would have thought it!, &c (inexpectation) 508 [Obs.]; you don't say so!, You're kidding!. No kidding? what do you say to that!, nous verrons! [Fr.], how now!, where am I? Phr. vox faucibus haesit [Lat.]; one's hair standing on end. 871. [Absence of wonder.] Expectance -- N. expectance &c (expectation) 507. example, instance (conformity) 82. normality (habit) 613. nine days' wonder. V. expect &c 507; not be surprised, not wonder &c 870; nil admirari [Lat.], make nothing of. Adj. expecting &c v.; unamazed, astonished at nothing; blase &c (weary) 841; expected &c v.; foreseen; unsurprising. common, ordinary, normal, typical, usual &c (habitual) 613. Adv. naturally, as a matter of course. Int. no wonder; of course. 872. Prodigy -- N. prodigy, phenomenon; wonder, wonderment; marvel, miracle; monster &c (unconformity) 83; curiosity, lion, sight, spectacle; jeu de theatre [Fr.], coup de theatre; gazingstock^; sign; St. Elmo's fire, St. Elmo's light; portent &c 512. bursting of a shell, bursting of a bomb; volcanic eruption, peal of thunder; thunder-clap, thunder-bolt. what no words can paint; wonders of the world; annus mirabilis [Lat.]; dignus vindice nodus [Lat.]. Phr. natura il fece e poi roppe la stampa [It]. 5. EXTRINSIC AFFECTIONS 873. Repute -- N. distinction, mark, name, figure; repute, reputation; good repute, high repute; note, notability, notoriety, eclat, the bubble reputation [As You Like It], vogue, celebrity; fame, famousness; renown; popularity, aura popularis [Lat.]; approbation &c 931; credit, succes d'estime [Fr.], prestige, talk of the town; name to conjure with. glory, honor; luster &c (light) 420; illustriousness &c adj.. account, regard, respect; reputableness &c adj.^; respectability &c (probity) 939; good name, good report; fair name. dignity; stateliness &c adj.; solemnity, grandeur, splendor, nobility, majesty, sublimity. rank, standing, brevet rank, precedence, pas, station, place, status; position, position in society; order, degree, baccalaureate, locus standi [Lat.], caste, condition. greatness &c adj.; eminence; height &c 206; importance &c 642; preeminence, supereminence; high mightiness, primacy; top of the ladder, top of the tree. elevation; ascent &c 305; superaltation^, exaltation; dignification^, aggrandizement. dedication, consecration, enthronement, canonization, celebration, enshrinement, glorification. hero, man of mark, great card, celebrity, worthy, lion, rara avis [Lat.], notability, somebody; classman^; man of rank &c (nobleman) 875; pillar of the state, pillar of the church, pillar of the community. chief &c (master) 745; first fiddle &c (proficient) 700; cynosure, mirror; flower, pink, pearl; paragon &c (perfection) 650; choice and master spirits of the age; elite; star, sun, constellation, galaxy. ornament, honor, feather in one's cap, halo, aureole, nimbus; halo of glory, blaze of glory, blushing honors; laurels &c (trophy) 733. memory, posthumous fame, niche in the temple of fame; immortality, immortal name; magni nominis umbra [Lat.] [Lucan]. V. be conscious of glory; be proud of &c (pride) 878; exult &c (boast) 884; be vain of &c (vanity) 880. be distinguished &c adj.; shine &c (light) 420; shine forth, figure; cut a figure, make a dash, make a splash. rival, surpass; outshine, outrival, outvie^, outjump; emulate, eclipse; throw into the shade, cast into the shade; overshadow. live, flourish, glitter, flaunt, gain honor, acquire honor &c n.; play first fiddle &c (be of importance) 642, bear the palm, bear the bell; lead the way; take precedence, take the wall of; gain laurels, win laurels, gain spurs, gain golden opinions &c (approbation) 931; take one's degree, pass one's examination. make a noise, make some noise, make a noise in the world; leave one's mark, exalt one's horn, blow one's horn, star it, have a run, be run after; come into vogue, come to the front; raise one's head. enthrone, signalize, immortalize, deify, exalt to the skies; hand one's name down to posterity. consecrate; dedicate to, devote to; enshrine, inscribe, blazon, lionize, blow the trumpet, crown with laurel. confer honor on, reflect honor on &c v.; shed a luster on; redound.to one's honor, ennoble. give honor to, do honor to, pay honor to, render honor to; honor, accredit, pay regard to, dignify, glorify; sing praises to &c (approve) 931; lock up to; exalt, aggrandize, elevate, nobilitate [Lat.]. Adj. distinguished, distingue [Fr.], noted; of note &c n.; honored &c v.; popular; fashionable &c 852. in good odor in; favor, in high favor; reputable, respectable, creditable. remarkable &c (important) 642; notable, notorious; celebrated, renowned, ion every one's mouth, talked of; famous, famed; far-famed; conspicuous, to the front; foremost; in the front rank, in the ascendant. imperishable, deathless, immortal, never fading, aere perennius [Lat.]; time honored. illustrious, glorious, splendid, brilliant, radiant; bright &c 420; full-blown; honorific. eminent, prominent; high &c 206; in the zenith; at the head of, at the top of the tree; peerless, of the first water.; superior &c 33; supereminent, preeminent. great, dignified, proud, noble, honorable, worshipful, lordly, grand, stately, august, princely. imposing, solemn, transcendent, majestic, sacred, sublime, heaven- born, heroic, sans peur et sans reproche [Fr.]; sacrosanct. Int. hail!, all hail!, ave!, viva!, vive! [Fr.], long life to!, banzai! [Jap.]; glory be to, honor be to? Phr. one's name being in every mouth, one's name living for ever; sic itur ad astra [Lat.], fama volat [Lat.], aut Caesar aut nullus [Lat.]; not to know him argues oneself unknown; none but himself could be his parallel, palmam qui meruit ferat [Lat.] [Nelson's motto]. above all Greek above all Roman fame [Pope]; cineri gloria sera est [Lat.] [Martial]; great is the glory for the strife is hard [Wordsworth]; honor virtutis praemium [Lat.] [Cicero]; immensum gloria calcar habet [Ovid]; the glory dies not and the grief is past [Brydges]; vivit post funera virtus [Lat.]. 874. Disrepute -- N. disrepute, discredit; ill repute, bad repute, bad name, bad odor, bad favor, ill name, ill odor, ill favor; disapprobation &c 932; ingloriousness, derogation; abasement, debasement; abjectness &c adj.; degradation, dedecoration^; a long farewell to all my greatness [Henry VIII]; odium, obloquy, opprobrium, ignominy. dishonor, disgrace; shame, humiliation; scandal, baseness, vileness^; turpitude &c (improbity) 940 [Obs.]; infamy. tarnish, taint, defilement, pollution. stain, blot, spot, blur, stigma, brand, reproach, imputation, slur. crying shame, burning shame; scandalum magnatum [Lat.], badge of infamy, blot in one's escutcheon; bend sinister, bar sinister; champain^, point champain^; byword of reproach; Ichabod. argumentum ad verecundiam [Lat.]; sense of shame &c 879. V. be inglorious &c adj.; incur disgrace &c n.; have a bad name, earn a bad name; put a halter round one's neck, wear a halter round one's neck; disgrace oneself, expose oneself. play second fiddle; lose caste; pale one's ineffectual fire; recede into the shade; fall from one's high estate; keep in the background &c (modesty) 881; be conscious of disgrace &c (humility) 879; look blue, look foolish, look like a fool; cut a poor figure, cut a sorry figure; laugh on the wrong side of the mouth; make a sorry face, go away with a flea in. one's ear, slink away. cause shame &c n.; shame, disgrace, put to shame, dishonor; throw dishonor upon, cast dishonor upon, fling dishonor upon, reflect dishonor upon &c n.; be a reproach &c n.. to; derogate from. tarnish, stain, blot sully, taint; discredit; degrade, debase, defile; beggar; expel &c (punish) 972. impute shame to, brand, post, stigmatize, vilify, defame, slur, cast a slur upon, hold up to shame, send to Coventry; tread under foot, trample under foot; show up, drag through the mire, heap dirt upon; reprehend &c 932. bring low, put down, snub; take down a peg, take down a peg lower, take down a peg or two. obscure. eclipse, outshine, take the shine out of; throw into the shade, cast into the shade; overshadow; leave in the background, put in the background; push into a corner, put one's nose out of joint; put out, put out of countenance. upset, throw off one's center; discompose, disconcert; put to the blush &c (humble) 879. Adj. disgraced &c v.; blown upon; shorn of its beams [Milton], shorn of one's glory; overcome, downtrodden; loaded with shame &c n.; in bad repute &c n.; out of repute, out of favor, out of fashion, out of countenance; at a discount; under a cloud, under an eclipse; unable to show one's face; in the shade, in the background; out at elbows, down at the elbows, down in the world. inglorious; nameless, renownless^; obscure; unknown to fame; unnoticed, unnoted^, unhonored, unglorified^. shameful; disgraceful, discreditable, disreputable; despicable; questionable; unbecoming, unworthy; derogatory; degrading, humiliating, infra dignitatem [Lat.], dedecorous^; scandalous, infamous, too bad, unmentionable; ribald, opprobrious; errant, shocking, outrageous, notorious. ignominious, scrubby, dirty, abject, vile, beggarly, pitiful, low, mean, shabby base &c (dishonorable) 940. Adv. to one's shame be it spoken. Int. fie!, shame!, for shame!, proh pudor! [Lat.], O tempora!^, O mores!, ough!, sic transit gloria mundi! [Lat.], 875. Nobility -- N. nobility, rank, condition, distinction, optimacy^, blood, pur sang [Fr.], birth, high descent, order; quality, gentility; blue blood of Castile; ancien regime [Fr.]. high life, haute monde [Fr.]; upper classes, upper ten thousand; the four hundred [U.S.]; elite, aristocracy, great folks; fashionable world &c (fashion) 852. peer, peerage; house of lords, house of peers; lords, lords temporal and spiritual; noblesse; noble, nobleman; lord, lordling^; grandee, magnifico [Lat.], hidalgo; daimio [Jap.], daimyo [Jap.], samurai [Jap.], shizoku [Jap.]; don, donship^; aristocrat, swell, three- tailed bashaw^; gentleman, squire, squireen^, patrician, laureate. gentry, gentlefolk; squirarchy [Slang], better sort magnates, primates, optimates^; pantisocracy^. king &c (master) 745; atheling^; prince, duke; marquis, marquisate^; earl, viscount, baron, thane, banneret^; baronet, baronetcy^; knight, knighthood; count, armiger^, laird; signior^, seignior; esquire, boyar, margrave, vavasour^; emir, ameer^, scherif^, sharif, effendi, wali; sahib; chevalier, maharaja, nawab, palsgrave^, pasha, rajah, waldgrave^. princess, begum^, duchess, marchioness; countess &c; lady, dame; memsahib; Do$a, maharani, rani. personage of distinction, man of distinction, personage of rank, man of rank, personage of mark, man of mark; notables, notabilities; celebrity, bigwig, magnate, great man, star, superstar; big bug; big gun, great gun; gilded rooster [U.S.]; magni nominis umbra [Lat.] [Lucan]; every inch a king [Lear]. V. be noble &c adj.. Adj. noble, exalted; of rank &c n.; princely, titled, patrician, aristocratic; high-, well-born; of gentle blood; genteel, comme il faut [Fr.], gentlemanlike^, courtly &c (fashionable) 852; highly respectable. Adv. in high quarters. Phr. Adel sitzt im Gemuthe nicht im Gebluete [G.]; adelig und edel sind zweierlei [G.]; noblesse oblige [Fr.]. 876. Commonalty -- N. commonalty, democracy; obscurity; low condition, low life, low society, low company; bourgeoisie; mass of the people, mass of society; Brown Jones and Robinson; lower classes, humbler classes, humbler orders; vulgar herd, common herd; rank and file, hoc genus omne [Lat.]; the many, the general, the crowd, the people, the populace, the multitude, the million, the masses, the mobility, the peasantry; king Mob; proletariat; fruges consumere nati [Lat.], demos, hoi polloi [Gr.], great unwashed; man in the street. mob; rabble, rabble rout; chaff, rout, horde, canaille; scum of the people, residuum of the people, dregs of the people, dregs of society; swinish multitude, foex populi^; trash; profanum vulgus [Lat.], ignobile vulgus [Lat.]; vermin, riffraff, ragtag and bobtail; small fry. commoner, one of the people, democrat, plebeian, republican, proletary^, proletaire^, roturier^, Mr. Snooks, bourgeois, epicier [Fr.], Philistine, cockney; grisette^, demimonde. peasant, countryman, boor, carle^, churl; villain, villein; terrae filius [Lat.], son of the land; serf, kern^, tyke, tike, chuff^, ryot^, fellah; longshoreman; swain, clown, hind; clod, clodhopper; hobnail, yokel, bog-trotter, bumpkin; plowman, plowboy^; rustic, hayseed [Slang], lunkhead [U.S.], chaw-bacon [Slang], tiller of the soil; hewers of wood and drawers of water, groundling^; gaffer, loon, put, cub, Tony Lumpkin^, looby^, rube [U.S.], lout, underling; gamin; rough; pot- wallopper^, slubberdegullion^; vulgar fellow, low fellow; cad, curmudgeon. upstart, parvenu, skipjack^; nobody, nobody one knows; hesterni quirites [Lat.], pessoribus orti [Lat.]; bourgeois gentilhomme [Fr.], novus homo [Lat.], snob, gent, mushroom, no one knows who, adventurer; man of straw. beggar, gaberlunzie^, muckworm^, mudlark^, sans culotte, raff^, tatterdemalion, caitiff, ragamuffin, Pariah, outcast of society, tramp, vagabond, bezonian^, panhandler [Slang], sundowner^, chiffonnier, Cinderella, cinderwench^, scrub, jade; gossoon^. Goth, Vandal, Hottentot, Zulu, savage, barbarian, Yahoo; unlicked cub^, rough diamond^. barbarousness, barbarism; boeotia. V. be ignoble &c adj., be nobody &c n.. Adj. ignoble, common, mean, low, base, vile, sorry, scrubby, beggarly; below par; no great shakes &c (unimportant) 643; homely, homespun; vulgar, low-minded; snobbish. plebeian, proletarian; of low parentage, of low origin, of low extraction, of mean parentage, of mean origin, of mean extraction; lowborn, baseborn, earthborn^; mushroom, dunghill, risen from the ranks; unknown to fame, obscure, untitled. rustic, uncivilized; loutish, boorish, clownish, churlish, brutish, raffish; rude, unlicked^. barbarous, barbarian, barbaric, barbaresque^; cockney, born within sound of Bow bells. underling, menial, subaltern. Adv. below the salt. Phr. dummodo sit dives barbarus ipse placet [Lat.] [Ovid]. 877. Title -- N. title, honor; knighthood &c (nobility) 875. highness, excellency, grace; lordship, worship; reverence, reverend; esquire, sir, master, Mr., signor, senor, Mein Herr [G.], mynheer^; your honor, his honor; serene highness; handle to one's name. decoration, laurel, palm, wreath, garland, bays, medal, ribbon, riband, blue ribbon, cordon, cross, crown, coronet, star, garter; feather, feather in one's cap; epaulet, epaulette, colors, cockade; livery; order, arms, shield, scutcheon; reward &c 973. 878. Pride -- N. dignity, self-respect, mens sibi conscia recti [Lat.] [Vergil]. pride; haughtiness &c adj.; high notions, hauteur; vainglory, crest; arrogance &c (assumption) 885. proud man, highflier^; fine gentleman, fine lady. V. be proud &c adj.; put a good face on; look one in the face; stalk abroad, perk oneself up; think no small beer of oneself; presume, swagger, strut; rear one's head, lift up one's head, hold up one's head; hold one's head high, look big, take the wall, bear like the Turk no rival near the throne [Pope], carry with a high hand; ride the high horse, mount on one's high horse; set one's back up, bridle, toss the head; give oneself airs &c (assume) 885; boast &c 884. pride oneself on; glory in, take a pride in; pique oneself, plume oneself, hug oneself; stand upon, be proud of; put a good face on; not hide one's light under a bushel, not put one's talent in a napkin; not think small beer of oneself &c (vanity) 880. Adj. dignified; stately; proud, proud-crested; lordly, baronial; lofty- minded; highsouled, high-minded, high-mettled^, high-handed, high- plumed, high-flown, high-toned. haughty lofty, high, mighty, swollen, puffed up, flushed, blown; vainglorious; purse-proud, fine; proud as a peacock, proud as Lucifer; bloated with pride. supercilious, disdainful, bumptious, magisterial, imperious, high and mighty, overweening, consequential; arrogant &c 885; unblushing &c 880. stiff, stiff-necked; starch; perked stuck-up; in buckram, strait- laced; prim &c (affected) 855. on one's dignity, on one's high horses, on one's tight ropes, on one's high ropes; on stilts; en grand seigneur [Fr.]. Adv. with head erect. Phr. odi profanum vulgus et arceo [Lat.] [Horace]. a duke's revenues on her back [Henry VI]; disdains the shadow which he treads on at noon [Coriolanis]; pride in their port, defiance in their eye [Goldsmith]. 879. Humility -- N. humility, humbleness; meekness, lowness; lowliness, lowlihood^; abasement, self-abasement; submission &c 725; resignation. condescension; affability &c (courtesy) 894. modesty &c 881; verecundity^, blush, suffusion, confusion; sense of shame, sense of disgrace; humiliation, mortification; let down, set down. V. be humble &c adj.; deign, vouchsafe, condescend; humble oneself, demean oneself; stoop, stoop to conquer; carry coals; submit &c 725; submit with a good grace &c (brook) 826; yield the palm. lower one's tone, lower one's note; sing small, draw in one's horns, sober down; hide one's face, hide one's diminished head; not dare to show one's face, take shame to oneself, not have a word to say for oneself; feel shame, be conscious of shame, feel disgrace, be conscious of disgrace; drink the cup of humiliation to the dregs. blush for, blush up to the eves; redden, change color; color up; hang one's head, look foolish, feel small. render humble; humble, humiliate; let down, set down, take down, tread down, frown down; snub, abash, abase, make one sing small, strike dumb; teach one his distance; put down, take down a peg, take down a peg lower; throw into the shade, cast into the shade &c 874; stare out of countenance, put out of countenance; put to the blush; confuse, ashame^, mortify, disgrace, crush; send away with a flea in one's ear. get a setdown^. Adj. humble, lowly, meek; modest &c 881; humble minded, sober-minded; unoffended^; submissive &c 725; servile, &c 886. condescending; affable &c (courteous) 891. humbled &c v.; bowed down, resigned; abashed, ashamed, dashed; out of countenance; down in the mouth; down on one's knees, down on one's marrowbones, down on one's uppers; humbled in the dust, browbeaten; chapfallen^, crestfallen; dumfoundered^. flabbergasted. shorn of one's glory &c (disrepute) 874. Adv. with downcast eyes, with bated breath, with bended knee; on all fours, on one's feet. under correction, with due deference. Phr. I am your obedient servant, I am your very humble servant; my service to you; da locum melioribus [Lat.] [Terence]; parvum parva decent [Lat.] [Horace]. 880. Vanity -- N. vanity; conceit, conceitedness; self-conceit, self- complacency, self-confidence, self-sufficiency, self-esteem, self-love, self-approbation, self-praise, self-glorification, self-laudation, self-gratulation^, self-applause, self-admiration; amour propre [Fr.]; selfishness &c 943. airs, affected manner, pretensions, mannerism; egotism; priggism^, priggishness; coxcombry, gaudery^, vainglory, elation; pride &c 878; ostentation &c 882; assurance &c 885. vox et praeterea nihil [Lat.]; cheval de bataille [Fr.]. coxcomb &c 854; Sir Oracle &c 887. V. be vain &c adj., be vain of; pique oneself &c (pride) 878; lay the flattering unction to one's soul. have too high an opinion of oneself, have an overweening opinion of oneself, have too high an opinion of one's talents; blind oneself as to one's own merit; not think small beer of oneself, not think vin ordinaire of oneself [Fr.]; put oneself forward; fish for compliments; give oneself airs &c (assume) 885; boast &c 884. render vain &c adj.; inspire with vanity &c n.; inflate, puff up, turn up, turn one's head. Adj. vain, vain as a peacock, proud as a peacock; conceited, overweening, pert, forward; vainglorious, high-flown; ostentatious &c 882; puffed up, inflated, flushed. self-satisfied, self-confident, self-sufficient, self-flattering, self-admiring, self-applauding, self-glorious, self-opinionated; entente &c (wrongheaded) 481; wise in one's own conceit, pragmatical^, overwise^, pretentious, priggish; egotistic, egotistical; soi-disant &c (boastful) 884 [Fr.]; arrogant &c 885. unabashed, unblushing; unconstrained, unceremonious; free and easy. Adv. vainly &c adj.. Phr. how we apples swim! [Swift]; prouder than rustling in unpaid-for silk [Cymbeline]. 881. Modesty -- N. modesty; humility &c 879; diffidence, timidity; retiring disposition; unobtrusiveness; bashfulness &c adj.; mauvaise honte [Fr.]; blush, blushing; verecundity^; self-knowledge. reserve, constraint; demureness &c adj.; blushing honors [Henry VIII]. V. be modest &c adj.; retire, reserve oneself; give way to; draw in one's horns &c 879; hide one's face. keep private, keep in the background, keep one's distance; pursue the noiseless tenor of one's way, do good by stealth and blush to find it fame [Pope], hide one's light under a bushel, cast a sheep's eye. Adj. modest, diffident; humble &c 879; timid, timorous, bashful; shy, nervous, skittish, coy, sheepish, shamefaced, blushing, overmodest. unpretending^, unpretentious; unobtrusive, unassuming, unostentatious, unboastful^, unaspiring; poor in spirit. out of countenance &c (humbled) 879. reserved, constrained, demure. Adv. humbly &c adj.; quietly, privately; without ceremony, without beat of drum; sans fa Phr. not stepping o'er the bounds of modesty [Romeo and Juliet]; thy modesty's a candle to thy merit [Fielding]. 882. Ostentation -- N. ostentation, display, show, flourish, parade, etalage [Fr.], pomp, array, state, solemnity; dash, splash, splurge, glitter, strut, pomposity; pretense, pretensions; showing off; fuss. magnificence, splendor; coup d'oeil [Fr.]; grand doings. coup de theatre; stage effect, stage trick; claptrap; mise en scene [Fr.]; tour de force; chic. demonstration, flying colors; tomfoolery; flourish of trumpets &c (celebration) 883; pageant, pageantry; spectacle, exhibition, exposition, procession; turn out, set out; grand function; f=ete, gala, field day, review, march past, promenade, insubstantial pageant. dress; court dress, full dress, evening dress, ball dress, fancy dress; tailoring, millinery, man millinery, frippery, foppery, equipage. ceremony, ceremonial; ritual; form, formality; etiquette; puncto [Lat.], punctilio, punctiliousness; starched stateliness, stateliness. mummery, solemn mockery, mouth honor. attitudinarian^; fop &c 854. V. be ostentatious &c adj.; come forward, put oneself forward; attract attention, star it. cut a figure, make a dash, make a splash, make a splurge, cut a dash, cut a splash, cut a splurge; figure, figure away; make a show, make a display; glitter. show off, show off one's paces; parade, march past; display, exhibit, put forward, hold up; trot out, hand out; sport, brandish, blazon forth; dangle, dangle before the eyes. cry up &c (praise) 931; proner [Fr.], flaunt, emblazon, prink^, set off, mount, have framed and glazed. put a good face upon, put a smiling face upon; clean the outside of the platter &c (disguise) 544. Adj. ostentatious, showy, dashing, pretentious; janty^, jaunty; grand, pompous, palatial; high-sounding; turgid &c (big-sounding) 577; gairish^, garish; gaudy, gaudy as a peacock, gaudy as a butterfly, gaudy as a tulip; flaunting, flashing, flaming, glittering; gay &c (ornate) 847. splendid, magnificent, sumptuous. theatrical, dramatic, spectacular; ceremonial, ritual. solemn, stately, majestic, formal, stiff, ceremonious, punctilious, starched. dressed to kill, dressed to the nines, decjed out, all decked out, en granite tenue [Fr.], in best bib and tucker, in Sunday best, endimanch_e, chic. Adv. with flourish of trumpet, with beat of drum, with flying colors. ad captandum vulgus [Lat.]. Phr. honores mutant mores [Lat.]. 883. Celebration -- N. celebration, solemnization, jubilee, commemoration, ovation, paean, triumph, jubilation, ceremony (rite) 998; holiday, fiesta, zarabanda^, revelry, feast (amusement) 840; china anniversary, diamond anniversary, golden anniversary, silver anniversary, tin anniversary, china jubilee, diamond jubilee, golden jubilee, silver jubilee, tin jubilee, china wedding, diamond wedding, golden wedding, silver wedding, tin wedding. triumphal arch, bonfire, salute; salvo, salvo of artillery; feu de joie [Fr.], flourish of trumpets, fanfare, colors flying, illuminations. inauguration, installation, presentation; coronation; Lord Mayor's show; harvest-home, red-letter day; trophy &c 733; Te Deum &c (thanksgiving) 990 [Lat.]; fete &c 882; holiday &c 840; Forefathers' Day [U.S.]. V. celebrate keep, signalize, do honor to, commemorate, solemnize, hallow, mark with a red letter. pledge, drink to, toast, hob and nob^. inaugurate, install, chair. rejoice &c 838; kill the fatted calf, hold jubilee, roast an ox. Adj. celebrating &c v.; commemorative, celebrated, immortal. Adv. in honor of, in commemoration of. Int. hail!, all hail!, io paean, io triumphe!^, see the conquering hero comes!. 884. Boasting -- N. boasting &c v.; boast, vaunt, crake^; pretense, pretensions; puff, puffery; flourish, fanfaronade^; gasconade; blague^, bluff, gas [Slang]; highfalutin, highfaluting^; hot air, spread-eagleism [U.S.]; brag, braggardism^; bravado, bunkum, buncombe; jactitation^, jactancy^; bounce; venditation^, vaporing, rodomontade, bombast, fine talking, tall talk, magniloquence, teratology^, heroics; Chauvinism; exaggeration &c 549. vanity &c 880; vox et praeterea nihil [Lat.]; much cry and little wool, brutum fulmen [Lat.]. exultation; gloriation^, glorification; flourish of trumpets; triumph &c 883. boaster; braggart, braggadocio; Gascon [Fr.], fanfaron^, pretender, soi-disant [Fr.]; blower [U.S.], bluffer, Foxy Quiller^; blusterer &c 887; charlatan, jack-pudding, trumpeter; puppy &c (fop) 854. V. boast, make a boast of, brag, vaunt, Puff, show off, flourish, crake^, crack, trumpet, strut, swagger, vapor; blague^, blow, four-flush [Slang], bluff. exult, crow, crow over, neigh, chuckle, triumph; throw up one's cap; talk big, se faire valoir [Fr.], faire claquer son fouet [Fr.], take merit to oneself, make a merit of, sing Io triumphe^, holloa before one is out of the wood^. Adj. boasting &c v.; magniloquent, flaming, Thrasonic, stilted, gasconading, braggart, boastful, pretentious, soi-disant [Fr.]; vainglorious &c (conceited) 880; highfalutin, highfaluting^; spread- eagle [U.S.]. elate, elated; jubilant, triumphant, exultant; in high feather; flushed, flushed with victory; cock-a-hoop; on stilts. vaunted &c v.. Adv. vauntingly &c adj.. Phr. let the galled jade wince [Hamlet]; facta non verba [Lat.]. 885. [Undue assumption of superiority.] Insolence -- N. insolence; haughtiness &c adj.; arrogance, airs; overbearance^; domineering &c v.; tyranny &c 739. impertinence; sauciness &c adj.; flippancy, dicacity^, petulance, procacity^, bluster; swagger, swaggering &c v.; bounce; terrorism. assumption, presumption; beggar on horseback; usurpation. impudence, assurance, audacity, hardihood, front, face, brass; shamelessness &c adj.; effrontery, hardened front, face of brass. assumption of infallibility. saucebox &c (blusterer) 887 [Obs.]. V. be insolent &c adj.; bluster, vapor, swagger, swell, give oneself airs, snap one's fingers, kick up a dust; swear &c (affirm) 535; rap out oaths; roister. arrogate; assume, presume; make bold, make free; take a liberty, give an inch and take an ell. domineer, bully, dictate, hector; lord it over; traiter de haut en bas [Fr.], regarder de haut en bas [Fr.]; exact; snub, huff., beard, fly in the face of; put to the blush; bear down, beat down; browbeat, intimidate; trample down, tread down, trample under foot; dragoon, ride roughshod over. out face, outlook, outstare, outbrazen^, outbrave^; stare out of countenance; brazen out; lay down the law; teach one's grandmother to suck eggs; assume a lofty bearing; talk big, look big; put on big looks, act the grand seigneur [Fr.]; mount the high horse, ride the high horse; toss the head, carry, with a high hand. tempt Providence, want snuffing. Adj. insolent, haughty, arrogant, imperious, magisterial, dictatorial, arbitrary; high-handed, high and mighty; contumelious, supercilious, overbearing, intolerant, domineering, overweening, high-flown. flippant, pert, fresh [U.S.], cavalier, saucy, forward, impertinent, malapert. precocious, assuming, would-be, bumptious. bluff; brazen, shameless, aweless, unblushlng^, unabashed; brazen, boldfaced-, barefaced-, brazen-faced; dead to shame, lost to shame. impudent, audacious, presumptuous, free and easy, devil-may-care, rollicking; jaunty, janty^; roistering, blustering, hectoring, swaggering, vaporing; thrasonic, fire eating, full of sound and fury [Macbeth]. Adv. with a high hand; ex cathedra [Lat.]. Phr. one's bark being worse than his bite; beggars mounted run their horse to death [Henry VI]; quid times? Caesarem vehis [Lat.] [Plutarch]; wagahai wa [Jap.] (expressing superiority) [Jap.Tr.]. 886. Servility -- N. servility; slavery &c (subjection) 749; obsequiousness &c adj.; subserviency; abasement; prostration, prosternation^; genuflection &c (worship) 990; fawning &c v.; tuft- hunting, timeserving^, flunkeyism^; sycophancy &c (flattery) 933; humility &c 879. sycophant, parasite; toad, toady, toad-eater; tufthunter^; snob, flunky, flunkey, yes-man, lapdog, spaniel, lickspittle, smell-feast, Graeculus esuriens [Lat.], hanger on, cavaliere servente [It], led captain, carpet knight; timeserver, fortune hunter, Vicar of Bray, Sir- Pertinax, Max Sycophant, pickthank^; flatterer &c 935; doer of dirty work; ame damnee [Fr.], tool; reptile; slave &c (servant) 746; courtier; beat [Slang], dead beat [Slang], doughface [U.S.], heeler [U.S.], homme de cour [Fr.], sponger, sucker [Slang], tagtail^, truckler. V. cringe, bow, stoop, kneel, bend the knee; fall on one's knees, prostrate oneself; worship &c 990. sneak, crawl, crouch, cower, sponge, truckle to, grovel, fawn, lick the feet of, kiss the hem of one's garment, kiss one's ass [Vulg.], suck up. pay court to; feed on, fatten on, dance attendance on, pin oneself upon, hang on the sleeve of, avaler les couleuvres [Fr.], keep time to, fetch and carry, do the dirty work of. go with the stream, worship the rising sun, hold with the hare and run with the hounds. Adj. servile, obsequious; supple, supple as a glove; soapy, oily, pliant, cringing, abased, dough-faced, fawning, slavish, groveling, sniveling, mealy-mouthed; beggarly, sycophantic, parasitical; abject, prostrate, down on ones marrowbones; base, mean, sneaking; crouching &c v.. Adv. hat in hand, cap in hand. 887. Blusterer -- N. blusterer, swaggerer, vaporer, roisterer^, brawler; fanfaron^; braggart &c (boaster) 884; bully, terrorist, rough; bulldozer [U.S.], hoodlum, hooligan [Slang], larrikin^, roarer [Slang]; Mohock, Mohawk; drawcansir^, swashbuckler, Captain Bobadil, Sir Lucius O'Trigger, Thraso, Pistol, Parolles, Bombastes Furioso^, Hector, Chrononhotonthologos^; jingo; desperado, dare-devil, fire eater; fury, &c (violent person) 173; rowdy; slang-whanger [Slang], tough [U.S.]. puppy &c (fop) 854; prig; Sir Oracle, dogmatist, doctrinaire, jack-in-office; saucebox^, malapert, jackanapes, minx; bantam-cock. SECTION III. SYMPATHETIC AFFECTIONS 1. SOCIAL AFFECTIONS 888. Friendship -- N. friendship, amity; friendliness &c adj.; brotherhood, fraternity, sodality, confraternity; harmony &c (concord) 714; peace &c 721. firm friendship, staunch friendship, intimate friendship, familiar friendship, bosom friendship, cordial friendship, tried friendship, devoted friendship, lasting friendship, fast friendship, sincere friendship, warm friendship, ardent friendship. cordiality, fraternization, entente cordiale [Fr.], good understanding, rapprochement, sympathy, fellow-feeling, response, welcomeness. affection &c (love) 897; favoritism; good will &c (benevolence) 906. acquaintance, familiarity, intimacy, intercourse, fellowship, knowledge of; introduction. V. be friendly &c adj., be friends &c 890, be acquainted with &c adj.; know; have the ear of; keep company with &c (sociality) 892; hold communication with, have dealings with, sympathize with; have a leaning to; bear good will &c (benevolent) 906; love &c 897; make much of; befriend &c (aid) 707; introduce to. set one's horses together; have the latchstring out [U.S.]; hold out the right hand of friendship, extend the right hand of friendship, hold out the right hand of fellowship; become friendly &c adj.; make friends with &c 890; break the lee, be introduced to; make acquaintance with, pick acquaintance with, scrape acquaintance with; get into favor, gain the friendship of. shake hands with, fraternize, embrace; receive with open arms, throw oneself into the arms of; meet halfway, take in good part. Adj. friendly; amicable, amical^; well-affected, unhostile^, neighborly, brotherly, fraternal, sympathetic, harmonious, hearty, cordial, warm- hearted. friends with, well with, at home with, hand in hand with; on good terms, on friendly terms, on amicable terms, on cordial terms, on familiar terms, on intimate terms, on good footing; on speaking terms, on visiting terms; in one's good graces, in one's good books. acquainted, familiar, intimate, thick, hand and glove, hail fellow well met, free and easy; welcome. Adv. amicably &c adj.; with open arms; sans ceremonie [Fr.]; arm in arm. Phr. amicitia semper prodest [Lat.] [Seneca]; a mystic bond of brotherhood makes all men one [Carlyle]; friendship is love without either flowers or veil [Hare]; trulgus amicitias utilitate probat [Lat.] [Ovid]. 889. Enmity -- N. enmity, hostility; unfriendliness &c adj.; discord &c 713; bitterness, rancor. alienation, estrangement; dislike &c 867; hate &c 898. heartburning^; animosity &c 900; malevolence &c 907. V. be inimical &c adj.; keep at arm's length, hold at arm's length; be at loggerheads; bear malice &c 907; fall out; take umbrage &c 900; harden the heart, alienate, estrange. [not friendly, but not hostile]. (indifference). 866. Adj. inimical, unfriendly, hostile; at enmity, at variance, at daggers drawn, at open war with; up in arms against; in bad odor with. on bad terms, not on speaking terms; cool; cold, cold hearted; estranged, alienated, disaffected, irreconcilable. 890. Friend -- N. friend, friend of one's bosom; alter ego; best friend, bosom friend, soulmate, fast friend; amicus [Lat.]; usque ad aras [Lat.]; fidus Achates [Lat.]; persona grata. acquaintance, neighbor, next-door neighbor, casual acquaintance, nodding acquaintance; wellwisher. favorer, fautor^, patron, Mecaenas; tutelary saint, good genius, advocate, partisan, sympathizer; ally; friend in need &c (auxiliary) 711. comrade, mate, companion, familiar, confrere, comrade, camarade^, confidante, intimate; old crony, crony; chum; pal; buddy, bosom buddy; playfellow, playmate, childhood friend; bedfellow, bedmate; chamber fellow. associate, colleague, compeer. schoolmate, schoolfellow^; classfellow^, classman^, classmate; roommate; fellow-man, stable companion. best man, maid of honor, matron of honor. compatriot; fellow countryman, countryman. shopmate, fellow-worker, shipmate, messmate^; fellow companion, boon companion, pot companion; copartner, partner, senior partner, junior partner. Arcades ambo Pylades and Orestes Castor and Pollux^, Nisus and Euryalus [Lat.], Damon and Pythias, par nobile fratrum [Lat.]. host, Amphitryon^, Boniface; guest, visitor, prot_eg_e. Phr. amici probantur rebus adversis [Lat.]; ohne bruder kann man leben nicht ohne Freund [G.]; best friend, my well-spring in the wilderness [G. Eliot]; conocidos muchos amigos pocos [Sp.]; friend more divine than all divinities [G. Eliot]; vida sin amigo muerte sin testigo [Sp.]. 891. Enemy -- N. enemy; antagonist; foe, foeman^; open enemy, bitter enemy, opponent &c 710; back friend. public enemy, enemy to society. Phr. every hand being against one; he makes no friend who never made a foe [Tennyson]. with friends like that, who needs enemies?; Lord protect me from my friends; I can protect myself from my enemies. 892. Sociality -- N. sociality, sociability, sociableness &c adj.; social intercourse; consociation^; intercourse, intercommunity^; consortship^, companionship, comradeship; clubbism^; esprit de corps. conviviality; good fellowship, good company; joviality, jollity, savoir vivre [Fr.], festivity, festive board, merrymaking; loving cup^; hospitality, heartiness; cheer. welcome, welcomeness; greeting; hearty welcome, hearty reception, warm reception; urbanity &c (courtesy) 894; familiarity. good fellow, jolly fellow; bon enfant [Fr.], bawcock^. social circle, family circle; circle of acquaintance, coterie, society, company. social gathering, social reunion; assembly &c (assemblage) 72; barbecue [U.S.], bee; corn-husking [U.S.], corn-shucking [U.S.]; house raising, barn raising; husking, husking-bee [U.S.]; infare^. party, entertainment, reception, levee, at, home, conversazione [It], soiree, matin_ee; evening party, morning party, afternoon party, bridge party, garden party, surprise party; kettle, kettle drum; partie carr_ee [Fr.], dish of tea, ridotto^, rout^; housewarming; ball, festival &c; smoker, smoker-party; sociable [U.S.], stag party, hen party, tamasha^; tea-party, tea-fight [Slang]. (amusement) 840; the feast of reason and the flow of soul [Pope]. birthday party [parties for specific occasions], Christmas party, New Year's Eve party, Thanksgiving Day Dinner; bonenkai [Jap.]; wedding reception. visiting; round of visits; call, morning call; interview &c (conversation) 588; assignation; tryst, trysting place; appointment. club &c (association) 712. V. be sociable &c adj.; know; be acquainted &c adj.; associate with, sort with, keep company with, walk hand in hand with; eat off the same trencher, club together, consort, bear one company, join; make acquaintance with &c (friendship) 888; make advances, fraternize, embrace. be at home with, feel at home with, make oneself at home with; make free with; crack a bottle with; receive hospitality, live at free quarters; find the latchstring out [U.S.]. visit, pay a visit; interchange visits, interchange cards; call at, call upon; leave a card; drop in, look in; look one up, beat up one's quarters. entertain; give a party &c n.; be at home, see one's friends, hang out, keep open house, do the honors; receive, receive with open arms; welcome; give a warm reception &c n.. to kill the fatted calf. Adj. sociable, companionable, clubbable, conversable^, cosy, cosey^, chatty, conversational; homiletical. convivial; festive, festal; jovial, jolly, hospitable. welcome, welcome as the roses in May; f=eted, entertained. free and easy, hall fellow well met, familiar, on visiting terms, acquainted. social, neighborly; international; gregarious. Adv. en famille [Fr.], in the family circle; sans fa [Fr.]; arm in arm. Phr. a crowd is not company [Bacon]; be bright and jovial among your guests tonight [Macbeth]; his worth is warrant for his welcome [Two Gentlemen]; let's be red with mirth [Winter's Tale]; welcome the coming speed the parting guest [Pope]. 893. Seclusion. Exclusion -- N. seclusion, privacy; retirement; reclusion, recess; snugness &c adj.; delitescence^; rustication, rus in urbe [Lat.]; solitude; solitariness &c (singleness) 87; isolation; loneliness &c adj.; estrangement from the world, voluntary exile; aloofness. cell, hermitage; convent &c 1000; sanctum sanctorum [Lat.]. depopulation, desertion, desolation; wilderness &c (unproductive) 169; howling wilderness; rotten borough, Old Sarum. exclusion, excommunication, banishment, exile, ostracism, proscription; cut, cut direct; dead cut. inhospitality^, inhospitableness &c adj.; dissociability^; domesticity, Darby and Joan. recluse, hermit, eremite, cenobite; anchoret^, anchorite; Simon Stylites^; troglodyte, Timon of Athens^, Santon^, solitaire, ruralist^, disciple of Zimmermann, closet cynic, Diogenes; outcast, Pariah, castaway, pilgarlic^; wastrel, foundling, wilding^. V. be secluded, live secluded &c adj.; keep aloof, stand, hold oneself aloof, keep in the background, stand in the background; keep snug; shut oneself up; deny oneself, seclude oneself creep into a corner, rusticate, aller planter ses choux [Fr.]; retire, retire from the world; take the veil; abandon &c 624; sport one's oak [Slang]. cut, cut dead; refuse to associate with, refuse to acknowledge; look cool upon, turn one's back upon, shut the door upon; repel, blackball, excommunicate, exclude, exile, expatriate; banish, outlaw, maroon, ostracize, proscribe, cut off from, send to Coventry, keep at arm's length, draw a cordon round. depopulate; dispeople^, unpeople^. Adj. secluded, sequestered, retired, delitescent^, private, bye; out of the world, out of the way; the world forgetting by the world forgot [Pope]. snug, domestic, stay-at-home. unsociable; unsocial, dissocial^; inhospitable, cynical, inconversable^, unclubbable, sauvage [Fr.], troglodytic. solitary; lonely, lonesome; isolated, single. estranged; unfrequented; uninhabitable, uninhabited; tenantless; abandoned; deserted, deserted in one's utmost need; unfriended^; kithless^, friendless, homeless; lorn^, forlorn, desolate. unvisited, unintroduced^, uninvited, unwelcome; under a cloud, left to shift for oneself, derelict, outcast. banished &c v.. Phr. noli me tangere [Lat.]. among them but not of them [Byron]; and homeless near a thousand homes I stood [Wordsworth]; far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife [Gray]; makes a solitude and calls it peace [Byron]; magna civitas magna solitudo [Lat.]; never less alone than when alone [Rogers]; O sacred solitude! divine retreat! [Young]. 894. Courtesy -- N. courtesy; respect &c 928; good manners, good behavior, good breeding; manners; politeness &c adj.; bienseance, urbanity, comity, gentility, breeding, polish, presence; civility, civilization; amenity, suavity; good temper, good humor; amiability, easy temper, complacency, soft tongue, mansuetude; condescension &c (humility) 879; affability, complaisance, pr_evenance, amability^, gallantry; pink of politeness, pink of courtesy. compliment; fair words, soft words, sweet words; honeyed phrases, ceremonial salutation, reception, presentation, introduction, accueil^, greeting, recognition; welcome, abord^, respects, devoir, regards, remembrances; kind regards, kind remembrances; love, best love, duty; empty encomium, flattering remark, hollow commendation; salaams. obeisance &c (reverence) 928; bow, courtesy, curtsy, scrape, salaam, kotow^, kowtow, bowing and scraping; kneeling; genuflection &c (worship) 990; obsequiousness &c 886; capping, shaking hands, &c v.; grip of the hand, embrace, hug, squeeze, accolade, loving cup, vin d'honneur [Fr.], pledge; love token &c (endearment) 902; kiss, buss, salute. mark of recognition, nod; nods and becks and wreathed smiles [Milton]; valediction &c 293; condolence &c 915. V. be courteous &c adj.; show courtesy &c n.. mind one's P's and Q's, behave oneself, be all things to all men, conciliate, speak one fair, take in good part; make the amiable, do the amiable; look as if butter would not melt in one's mouth; mend one's manners. receive, do the honors, usher, greet, hail, bid welcome; welcome, welcome with open arms; shake hands; hold out the hand, press the hand, squeeze the hand, press the flesh; bid Godspeed; speed the parting guest; cheer, serenade. salute; embrace &c (endearment) 902; kiss, kiss hands; drink to, pledge, hob and nob^; move to, nod to; smile upon. uncover, cap; touch the hat, take off the hat; doff the cap; present arms; make way for; bow; make one's bow, make a leg; scrape, curtsy, courtesy; bob a curtsy, bob a courtesy; kneel; bow the knee, bend the knee. visit, wait upon, present oneself, pay one's respects, pay a visit &c (sociability) 892; dance attendance on &c (servility) 886; pay attentions to; do homage to &c (respect) 928. prostrate oneself &c (worship) 990. give one's duty to, send one's duty to, &c n.. render polite &c adj.; polish, civilize, humanize. Adj. courteous, polite, civil, mannerly, urbane; well-behaved, well- mannered, well-bred, well-brought up; good-mannered, polished, civilized, cultivated; refined &c (taste) 850; gentlemanlike &c (fashion) 852 [Obs.]; gallant; on one's good behavior. fine spoken, fair spoken, soft-spoken; honey-mouthed, honey- tongued; oily, bland; obliging, conciliatory, complaisant, complacent; obsequious &c 886. ingratiating, winning; gentle, mild; good-humored, cordial, gracious, affable, familiar; neighborly. diplomatic, tactful, politic; artful &c 702. Adv. courteously &c adj.; with a good grace; with open arms, with outstretched arms; a bras ouverts [Fr.]; suaviter in modo [Fr.], in good humor. Int. hail!, welcome!, well met!, ave!, all hail!, good day, good morrow!, Godspeed!, pax vobiscum! [Lat.], may your shadow never be less!, Phr. Tien de plus estimable que la ceremonie [Fr.]; the very pink of courtesy [Romeo and Juliet]. 895. Discourtesy -- N. discourtesy; ill breeding; ill manners, bad manners, ungainly manners; insuavity^; uncourteousness^, &c adj.; rusticity, inurbanity^; illiberality, incivility displacency^. disrespect &c 929; procacity^, impudence: barbarism, barbarity; misbehavior, brutality, blackguardism^, conduct unbecoming a gentleman, grossieret_e, brusquerie^; vulgarity, &c 851. churlishness &c adj.; spinosity^, perversity; moroseness &c (sullenness) 901.1. sternness &c adj.; austerity; moodishness^, captiousness &c 901; cynicism; tartness &c adj.; acrimony, acerbity, virulence, asperity. scowl, black looks, frown; short answer, rebuff; hard words, contumely; unparliamentary language, personality. bear, bruin, brute, blackguard, beast; unlicked cub^; frump, crosspatch^; saucebox &c 887 [Obs.]; crooked stick; grizzly. V. be rude &c adj.; insult &c 929; treat with discourtesy; take a name in vain; make bold with, make free with; take a liberty; stare out of countenance, ogle, point at, put to the blush. cut; turn one's back upon, turn on one's heel; give the cold shoulder; keep at a distance, keep at arm's length; look cool upon, look coldly upon, look black upon; show the door to, send away with a flea in the ear. lose one's temper &c (resentment) 900; sulk &c 901.1; frown, scowl, glower, pout; snap, snarl, growl. render rude &c adj.; brutalize, brutify^. Adj. discourteous, uncourteous^; uncourtly^; ill-bred, ill-mannered, ill-behaved, ill-conditioned; unbred; unmannerly, unmannered; impolite, unpolite^; unpolished, uncivilized, ungenteel; ungentleman-like, ungentlemanly; unladylike; blackguard; vulgar &c 851; dedecorous^; foul- mouthed foul-spoken; abusive. uncivil, ungracious, unceremonious; cool; pert, forward, obtrusive, impudent, rude, saucy, precocious. repulsive; uncomplaisant^, unaccommodating, unneighborly, ungallant; inaffable^; ungentle, ungainly; rough, rugged, bluff, blunt, gruff; churlish, boorish, bearish; brutal, brusque; stern, harsh, austere; cavalier. taint, sour, crabbed, sharp, short, trenchant, sarcastic, biting, doggish, caustic, virulent, bitter, acrimonious, venomous, contumelious; snarling &c v.; surly, surly as a bear; perverse; grim, sullen &c 901.1; peevish &c (irascible) 901. untactful, impolitic, undiplomatic; artless &c 703; Adv. discourteously &c adj.; with discourtesy &c n., with a bad grace. 896. Congratulation -- N. congratulation, gratulation^; felicitation; salute &c 894; condolence &c 915; compliments of the season. V. congratulate, gratulate^; felicitate; give one joy, wish one joy; compliment; tender one's congratulations, offer one's congratulations; wish many happy returns of the day, wish a merry Christmas and a happy new year. praise, laud (commendation) 931. congratulate oneself &c (rejoice) 838. Adj. congratulatory, gratulatory^. Phr. I wish you all the joy that you can wish [Merchant of Venice]; best wishes. 897. Love -- N. love; fondness &c adj.; liking; inclination &c (desire) 865; regard, dilection^, admiration, fancy. affection, sympathy, fellow-feeling; tenderness &c adj.; heart, brotherly love; benevolence &c 906; attachment. yearning, eros, tender passion, amour; gyneolatry^; gallantry, passion, flame, devotion, fervor, enthusiasm, transport of love, rapture, enchantment, infatuation, adoration, idolatry. Cupid, Venus; myrtle; true lover's knot; love token, love suit, love affair, love tale, love story; the, old story, plighted love; courtship &c 902; amourette^; free love. maternal love, storge [Gr.], parental love; young love, puppy love. attractiveness; popularity; favorite &c 899. lover, suitor, follower, admirer, adorer, wooer, amoret^, beau, sweetheart, inamorato [It], swain, young man, flame, love, truelove; leman^, Lothario, gallant, paramour, amoroso^, cavaliere servente [It], captive, cicisbeo^; caro sposo [It]. inamorata, ladylove, idol, darling, duck, Dulcinea, angel, goddess, cara sposa [It]. betrothed, affianced, fiancee. flirt, coquette; amorette^; pair of turtledoves; abode of love, agapemone^. V. love, like, affect, fancy, care for, take an interest in, be partial to, sympathize with; affection; be in love with &c adj.; have a love &c n.. for, entertain a love &c n.. for, harbor cherish a love &c n.. for; regard, revere; take to, bear love to, be wedded to; set one's affections on; make much of, feast one's eyes on; hold dear, prize; hug, cling to, cherish, pet. burn; adore, idolize, love to distraction, aimer eperdument [Fr.]; dote on, dote upon; take a fancy to, look sweet upon; become enamored &c adj.; fall in love with, lose one's heart; desire &c 865. excite love; win the heart, gain the heart, win the affections, gain the affections, secure the love, engage the affections; take the fancy of have a place in the heart, wind round the heart; attract, attach, endear, charm, fascinate, captivate, bewitch, seduce, enamor, enrapture, turn the head. get into favor; ingratiate oneself, insinuate oneself, worm oneself; propitiate, curry favor with, pay one's court to, faire l'aimable [Fr.], set one's cap at, flirt. Adj. loving &c v.; fond of; taken with, struck with; smitten, bitten; attached to, wedded to; enamored; charmed &c v.; in love; love-sick; over head and ears in love, head over heels in love. affectionate, tender, sweet upon, sympathetic, loving; amorous, amatory; fond, erotic, uxorious, ardent, passionate, rapturous, devoted, motherly. loved &c v.. beloved well beloved, dearly beloved; dear, precious, darling, pet, little; favorite, popular. congenial; after one's mind, after one's taste, after one's fancy, after one's own heart, to one's mind, to one's taste, to one's fancy, to one's own heart. in one's good graces &c (friendly) 888; dear as the apple of one's eye, nearest to one's heart. lovable, adorable; lovely, sweet; attractive, seductive, winning; charming, engaging, interesting, enchanting, captivating, fascinating, bewitching; amiable, like an angel. Phr. amantes amentes [Lat.] [Terence]; credula res amor est [Lat.] [Ovid]; militat omnis amasius [Lat.] [Ovid]; love conquers all, omnia vincit amor [Lat.] [Vergil]; si vis amari ama [Seneca]; the sweetest joy, the wildest woe [Bailey]. 898. Hate -- N. hate, hatred, vials of hate. disaffection, disfavor; alienation, estrangement, coolness; enmity &c 889; animosity &c 900. umbrage, pique, grudge; dudgeon, spleen bitterness, bitterness of feeling; ill blood, bad blood; acrimony; malice &c 907; implacability &c (revenge) 919. repugnance &c (dislike) 867; misanthropy, demonophobia^, gynephobia^, negrophobia^; odium, unpopularity; detestation, antipathy; object of hatred, object of execration; abomination, aversion, b=ete noire; enemy &c 891; bitter pill; source of annoyance &c 830. V. hate, detest, abominate, abhor, loathe; recoil at, shudder at; shrink from, view with horror, hold in abomination, revolt against, execrate; scowl &c 895; disrelish &c (dislike) 867. owe a grudge; bear spleen, bear a grudge, bear malice &c (malevolence) 907; conceive an aversion to, take a dislike to. excite hatred, provoke hatred &c n.; be hateful &c adj.; stink in the nostrils; estrange, alienate, repel, set against, sow dissension, set by the ears, envenom, incense, irritate, rile; horrify &c 830; roil. Adj. hating &c v.; abhorrent; averse from &c (disliking) 867; set against. bitter &c (acrimonious) 895; implacable &c (revengeful) 919. unloved, unbeloved, unlamented, undeplored, unmourned^, uncared for, unendeared^, un-valued; disliked &c 867. crossed in love, forsaken, rejected, lovelorn, jilted. obnoxious, hateful, odious, abominable, repulsive, offensive, shocking; disgusting &c (disagreeable) 830; reprehensible. invidious, spiteful; malicious &c 907. insulting, irritating, provoking. [Mutual hate] at daggers drawn; not on speaking terms &c (enmity) 889; at loggerheads. Phr. no love lost between. 899. Favorite -- N. favorite, pet, cosset, minion, idol, jewel, spoiled child, enfant gat_e [Fr.]; led captain; crony; fondling; apple of one's eye, man after one's own heart; persona grata. love, [person who is a favorite (terms of address)], dear, darling, duck, duckey, honey, sugar, jewel; mopsey^, moppet, princess; sweetheart, sweetie &c (love) 897. teacher's pet. general favorite, universal favorite; idol of the people. 900. Resentment -- N. resentment, displeasure, animosity, anger, wrath, indignation; exasperation, bitter resentment, wrathful indignation. pique, umbrage, huff, miff, soreness, dudgeon, acerbity, virulence, bitterness, acrimony, asperity, spleen, gall; heart-burning, heart-swelling; rankling. ill humor, bad humor, ill temper, bad temper; irascibility &c 901; ill blood &c (hate) 898; revenge &c 919. excitement, irritation; warmth, bile, choler, ire, fume, pucker, dander, ferment, ebullition; towering passion, acharnement [Fr.], angry mood, taking, pet, tiff, passion, fit, tantrums. burst, explosion, paroxysm, storm, rage, fury, desperation; violence &c 173; fire and fury; vials of wrath; gnashing of teeth, hot blood, high words. scowl &c 895; sulks &c 901.1. [Cause of umbrage] affront, provocation, offense; indignity &c (insult) 929; grudge, crow to pluck, bone to pick, sore subject, casus belli [Lat.]; ill turn, outrage. Furies, Eumenides. buffet, slap in the face, box on the ear, rap on the knuckles. V. resent, take amiss, take ill, take to heart, take offense, take umbrage, take huff, take exception; take in ill part, take in bad part, take in dudgeon; ne pas entendre raillerie [Fr.]; breathe revenge, cut up rough. fly into a rage, fall into a rage, get into a rage, fly into a passion; bridle up, bristle up, froth up, fire up, flare up; open the vials of one's wrath, pour out the vials of one's wrath. pout, knit the brow, frown, scowl, lower, snarl, growl, gnarl, gnash, snap; redden, color; look black, look black as thunder, look daggers; bite one's thumb; show one's teeth, grind one's teeth; champ the bit, champ at the bit. chafe, mantle, fume, kindle, fly out, take fire; boil, boil over; boil with indignation, boil with rage; rage, storm, foam, vent one's rage, vent one's spleen; lose one's temper, stand on one's hind legs, stamp the foot, stamp with rage, quiver with rage, swell with rage, foam with rage; burst with anger; raise Cain. have a fling at; bear malice &c (revenge) 919. cause anger, raise anger; affront, offend; give offense, give umbrage; anger; hurt the feelings; insult, discompose, fret, ruffle, nettle, huff, pique; excite &c 824; irritate, stir the blood, stir up bile; sting, sting to the quick; rile, provoke, chafe, wound, incense, inflame, enrage, aggravate, add fuel to the flame, fan into a flame, widen the breach, envenom, embitter, exasperate, infuriate, kindle wrath; stick in one's gizzard; rankle &c 919; hit on the raw, rub on the raw, sting on the raw, strike on the raw. put out of countenance, put out of humor; put one's monkey up, put one's back up; raise one's gorge, raise one's dander, raise one's choler; work up into a passion; make one's blood boil, make the ears tingle; throw, into a ferment, madden, drive one mad; lash into fury, lash into madness; fool to the top of one's bent; set by the ears. bring a hornet's nest about one's ears. Adj. angry, wrath, irate; ireful, wrathful; cross &c (irascible) 901; Achillean^; sulky, &c 901.1; bitter, virulent; acrimonious &c (discourteous) &c 895; violent &c 173. warm, burning; boiling, boiling over; fuming, raging; foaming, foaming at the mouth; convulsed with rage. offended &c v.; waxy, acharne; wrought, worked up; indignant, hurt, sore; set against. fierce, wild, rageful^, furious, mad with rage, fiery, infuriate, rabid, savage; relentless &c 919. flushed with anger, flushed with rage; in a huff, in a stew, in a fume, in a pucker, in a passion, in a rage, in a fury, in a taking, in a way; on one's high ropes, up in arms; in high dudgeon. Adv. angrily &c adj.; in the height of passion; in the heat of passion, in the heat of the moment. Int. tantaene animis coelestibus irae! [Lat.], [Vergil], marry come up!, zounds!, 'sdeath! [Contr.]. Phr. one's blood being up, one's back being up, one's monkey being up; fervens difficili bile jecur [Lat.]; the gorge rising, eyes flashing fire; the blood rising, the blood boiling; haeret lateri lethalis arundo [Lat.] [Vergil]; beware the fury of a patient man [Dryden]; furor arma ministrat [Lat.] [Vergil]; ira furor brevis est [Lat.] [Horace]; quem Jupiter vult perdere dementat prius [Lat.]; What, drunk with choler? [Henry IV]. 901. Irascibility -- N. irascibility, irascibleness, temper; crossness &c adj.; susceptibility, procacity, petulance, irritability, tartness, acerbity, protervity; pugnacity &c (contentiousness) 720. excitability &c 825; bad temper, fiery temper, crooked temper, irritable &c adj.. temper; genus irritabile [Lat.], hot blood. ill humor &c (sullenness) 901.1; asperity &c; churlishness &c (discourtesy) 895. huff &c (resentment) 900; a word and a blow. Sir Fretful Plagiary; brabbler^, Tartar; shrew, vixen, virago, termagant, dragon, scold, Xantippe; porcupine; spitfire; fire eater &c (blusterer) 887; fury &c (violent person) 173. V. be irascible &c adj.; have a temper &c n., have a devil in one; fire up &c (be angry) 900. Adj. irascible; bad-tempered, ill-tempered; irritable, susceptible; excitable &c 825; thin-skinned &c (sensitive) 822; fretful, fidgety; on the fret. hasty, overhasty, quick, warm, hot, testy, touchy, techy^, tetchy; like touchwood, like tinder; huffy, pettish, petulant; waspish, snappish, peppery, fiery, passionate, choleric, shrewish, sudden and quick in quarrel [As You Like It]. querulous, captious, moodish^; quarrelsome, contentious, disputatious; pugnacious &c (bellicose) 720; cantankerous, exceptious^; restiff &c (perverse) 901.1 [Obs.]; churlish &c (discourteous) 895. cross, cross as crabs, cross as two sticks, cross as a cat, cross as a dog, cross as the tongs; fractious, peevish, acari=atre^. in a bad temper; sulky &c 901.1; angry &c 900. resentful, resentive^; vindictive &c 919. Int. pish!, Phr. a vieux comptes nouvelles disputes [Fr.]; quamvis tegatur proditur vultu furor [Lat.] [Seneca]; vino tortus et ira [Lat.] [Horace]. 901a. Sullenness -- N. sullenness &c adj.; morosity^, spleen; churlishness &c (discourtesy) 895; irascibility &c 901. moodiness &c adj.; perversity; obstinacy &c 606; torvity^, spinosity^; crabbedness &c adj.. ill temper, bad temper, ill humor, bad humor; sulks, dudgeon, mumps^, dumps, doldrums, fit of the sulks, bouderie [Fr.], black looks, scowl; grouch; huff &c (resentment) 900. V. be sullen &c adj.; sulk; frown, scowl, lower, glower, gloam^, pout, have a hangdog look, glout^. Adj. sullen, sulky; ill-tempered, ill-humored, ill-affected, ill- disposed; grouty [U.S.]; in an ill temper, in a bad temper, in a shocking temper, in an ill humor, in a bad humor, in a shocking humor; out of temper, out of humor; knaggy^, torvous^, crusty, crabbed; sour, sour as a crab; surly &c (discourteous) 895. moody; spleenish^, spleenly^; splenetic, cankered. cross, crossgrained^; perverse, wayward, humorsome^; restiff^, restive; cantankerous, intractable, exceptious^, sinistrous^, deaf to reason, unaccommodating, rusty, froward; cussed [U.S.]. dogged &c (stubborn) 606. grumpy, glum, grim, grum^, morose, frumpish; in the sulks &c n.; out of sorts; scowling, glowering, growling; grouchy. peevish &c (irascible) 901. 902. [Expression of affection or love.] Endearment -- N. endearment, caress; blandishment, blandiment^; panchement, fondling, billing and cooing, dalliance, necking, petting, sporting, sparking, hanky-panky; caressing. embrace, salute, kiss, buss, smack, osculation, deosculation^; amorous glances. courtship, wooing, suit, addresses, the soft impeachment; lovemaking; serenading; caterwauling. flirting &c v.; flirtation, gallantry; coquetry. true lover's knot, plighted love; love tale, love token, love letter; billet-doux, valentine. honeymoon; Strephon and Chloe^. V. caress, fondle, pet, dandle; pat, pat on the head, pat on the cheek; chuck under the chin, smile upon, coax, wheedle, cosset, coddle, cocker, cockle; make of, make much of; cherish, foster, kill with kindness. clasp, hug, cuddle; fold in one's arms, strain in one's arms; nestle, nuzzle; embrace, kiss, buss, smack, blow a kiss; salute &c (courtesy) 894; fold to the heart, press to the bosom. bill and coo, spoon, toy, dally, flirt, coquet; gallivant, galavant; philander; make love; pay one's court to, pay one's addresses to, pay one's attentions to; serenade; court, woo; set one's cap at; be sweet upon, look sweet upon; ogle, cast sheep's eyes upon; faire les yeux doux [Fr.]. fall in love with, win the affections &c (love) 897; die for. propose; make an offer, have an offer; pop the question; plight one's troth, plight one's faith. Adj. caressing &c v.; sighing like furnace [Shakespeare]; love-sick, spoony. caressed &c v.. Phr. faint heart neer won fair lady; kisses honeyed by oblivion [G. Eliot]. 903. Marriage -- N. marriage, matrimony, wedlock, union, intermarriage, miscegenation, the bonds of marriage, vinculum matrimonii [Lat.], nuptial tie. married state, coverture, bed, cohabitation. match; betrothment &c (promise) 768; wedding, nuptials, Hymen, bridal; espousals, spousals; leading to the altar &c v.; nuptial benediction, epithalamium^; sealing. torch of Hymen, temple of Hymen; hymeneal altar; honeymoon. bridesmaid, bridesman^, best man; bride, bridegroom. married man, married woman, married couple; neogamist^, Benedict, partner, spouse, mate, yokemate^; husband, man, consort, baron; old man, good man; wife of one's bosom; helpmate, rib, better half, gray mare, old woman, old lady, good wife, goodwife. feme [Fr.], feme coverte [Fr.]; squaw, lady; matron, matronage, matronhood^; man and wife; wedded pair, Darby and Joan; spiritual wife. monogamy, bigamy, digamy^, deuterogamy^, trigamy^, polygamy; mormonism; levirate^; spiritual wifery^, spiritual wifeism^; polyandrism^; Turk, bluebeard^. unlawful marriage, left-handed marriage, morganatic marriage, ill- assorted marriage; mesalliance; mariage de convenance [Fr.]. marriage broker; matrimonial agency, matrimonial agent, matrimonial bureau, matchmaker; schatchen [G.]. V. marry, wive, take to oneself a wife; be married, be spliced; go off, pair off; wed, espouse, get hitched [U.S.], lead to the hymeneal altar, take 'for better for worse', give one's hand to, bestow one's hand upon. marry, join, handfast^; couple &c (unit) 43; tie the nuptial knot; give away, give away in marriage; seal; ally, affiance; betroth &c (promise) 768; publish the banns, bid the banns; be asked in church. Adj. married &c v.; one, one bone and one flesh. marriageable, nubile. engaged, betrothed, affianced. matrimonial, marital, conjugal, connubial, wedded; nuptial, hymeneal, spousal, bridal. Phr. the gray mare the better horse; a world-without-end bargain [Love's Labor's Lost]; marriages are made in Heaven [Tennyson]; render me worthy of this noble wife [Julius Caesar]; si qua voles apte nubere nube pari [Lat.] [Ovid]. 904. Celibacy -- N. celibacy, singleness, single blessedness; bachelorhood, bachelorship^; misogamy^, misogyny. virginity, pucelage^; maidenhood, maidenhead. unmarried man, bachelor, Coelebs, agamist^, old bachelor; misogamist^, misogynist; monogamist; monk. unmarried woman, spinster; maid, maiden, virgin, feme sole [Fr.], old maid; bachelor girl, girl-bachelor; nun. V. live single, live alone. Adj. unmarried, unwed, unwedded^; wifeless, spouseless^; single. 905. Divorce -- N. divorce, divorcement; separation; judicial separation, separate maintenance; separatio a mensa et thoro [Lat.], separatio a vinculo matrimonii [Lat.]. trial separation, breakup; annulment. widowhood, viduity^, weeds. widow, widower; relict; dowager; divorcee; cuckold; grass widow, grass widower; merry widow. V. live separate; separate, divorce, disespouse^, put away; wear the horns. 2. DIFFUSIVE SYMPATHETIC AFFECTIONS 906. Benevolence -- N. benevolence, Christian charity; God's love, God's grace; good will; philanthropy &c 910; unselfishness &c 942. good nature, good feeling, good wishes; kindness, kindliness &c adj.; loving-kindness, benignity, brotherly love, charity, humanity, fellow-feeling, sympathy; goodness of heart, warmth of heart; bonhomie; kind-heartedness; amiability, milk of human kindness, tenderness; love &c 897; friendship &c 888. toleration, consideration, generosity; mercy &c (pity) 914. charitableness &c adj.; bounty, almsgiving; good works, beneficence, the luxury of doing good [Goldsmith]. acts of kindness, a good turn; good offices, kind offices good treatment, kind treatment. good Samaritan, sympathizer, bon enfant [Fr.]; altruist. V. be benevolent &c adj.; have one's heart in the right place, bear good will; wish well, wish Godspeed; view with an eye of favor, regard with an eye of favor; take in good part; take an interest in, feel an interest in; be interested in, feel interested in; sympathize with, empathize with, feel for; fraternize &c (be friendly) 888. enter into the feelings of others, do as you would be done by, meet halfway. treat well; give comfort, smooth the bed of death; do good, do a good turn; benefit &c (goodness) 648; render a service, be of use; aid &c 707. Adj. benevolent; kind, kindly; well-meaning; amiable; obliging, accommodating, indulgent, gracious, complacent, good-humored. warm-hearted, kind-hearted, tender-hearted, large-hearted, broad- hearted; merciful &c 914; charitable, beneficent, humane, benignant; bounteous, bountiful. good-natured, well-natured; spleenless^; sympathizing, sympathetic; complaisant &c (courteous) 894; well-meant, well-intentioned. fatherly, motherly, brotherly, sisterly; paternal, maternal, fraternal; sororal^; friendly &c 888. Adv. with a good intention, with the best intentions. Int. Godspeed!, much good may it do!, Phr. act a charity sometimes [Lamb]; a tender heart, a will inflexible [Longfellow]; de mortuis nil nisi bonum [Lat.], say only good things about the dead, don't speak ill of the dead; kind words are more than coronets [Tennyson]; quando amigo pide no hay manana [Lat.]; the social smile, the sympathetic tear [Gray]. 907. Malevolence -- N. malevolence; bad intent, bad intention; unkindness, diskindness^; ill nature, ill will, ill blood; bad blood; enmity &c 889; hate &c 898; malignity; malice, malice prepense^; maliciousness &c adj.; spite, despite; resentment &c 900. uncharitableness &c adj.; incompassionateness &c 914.1 [Obs.]; gall, venom, rancor, rankling, virulence, mordacity^, acerbity churlishness &c (discourtesy) 895. hardness of heart, heart of stone, obduracy; cruelty; cruelness &c adj.; brutality, savagery; ferity^, ferocity; barbarity, inhumanity, immanity^, truculence, ruffianism; evil eye, cloven foot; torture, vivisection. ill turn, bad turn; affront &c (disrespect) 929; outrage, atrocity; ill usage; intolerance, persecution; tender mercies [Iron.]; unkindest cut of all [Julius Caesar]. V. be malevolent &c adj.; bear spleen, harbor spleen, bear a grudge, harbor a grudge, bear malice; betray the cloven foot, show the cloven foot. hurt &c (physical pain) 378; annoy &c 830; injure., harm, wrong; do harm to, do an ill office to; outrage; disoblige, malign, plant a thorn in the breast. molest, worry, harass, haunt, harry, bait, tease; throw stones at; play the devil with; hunt down, dragoon, hound; persecute, oppress, grind; maltreat; illtreat, ill-use. wreak one's malice on, do one's worst, break a butterfly on the wheel; dip one's hands in blood, imbrue one's hands in blood; have no mercy &c 914.1. Adj. malevolent, unbenevolent; unbenign; ill-disposed, ill-intentioned, ill-natured, ill-conditioned, ill-contrived; evil-minded, evil- disposed; black-browed^. malicious; malign, malignant; rancorous; despiteful, spiteful; mordacious, caustic, bitter, envenomed, acrimonious, virulent; unamiable, uncharitable; maleficent, venomous, grinding, galling. harsh, disobliging; unkind, unfriendly, ungracious; inofficious^; invidious; uncandid; churlish &c (discourteous) 895; surly, sullen &c 901.1. cold, cold-blooded, cold-hearted; black-hearted, hard-hearted, flint-hearted, marble-hearted, stony-hearted; hard of heart, unnatural; ruthless &c (unmerciful) 914.1; relentless &c (revengeful) 919. cruel; brutal, brutish; savage, savage as a bear, savage as a tiger; ferine^, ferocious; inhuman; barbarous, barbaric, semibarbaric, fell, untamed, tameless, truculent, incendiary; bloodthirsty &c (murderous) 361; atrocious; bloodyminded^. fiendish, fiendlike^; demoniacal; diabolic, diabolical; devilish, infernal, hellish, Satanic; Tartaran. Adv. malevolently &c adj.; with bad intent &c n.. Phr. cruel as death; hard unkindness' alter'd eye [Gray]; homo homini lupus [Lat.] [Plautus]; mala mens [Lat.], malus animus [Lat.] [Terence]; rich gifts wax poor when givers prove unkind [Hamlet]; sharp-tooth'd unkindness [Lear]. 908. Malediction -- N. malediction, malison^, curse, imprecation, denunciation, execration, anathema, ban, proscription, excommunication, commination^, thunders of the Vatican, fulmination, maranatha^; aspersion, disparagement, vilification, vituperation. abuse; foul language, bad language, strong language, unparliamentary language; billingsgate, sauce, evil speaking; cursing &c v.; profane swearing, oath; foul invective, ribaldry, rude reproach, scurrility. threat &c 909; more bark than bite; invective &c (disapprobation) 932. V. curse, accurse^, imprecate, damn, swear at; curse with bell book and candle; invoke curses on the head of, call down curses on the head of; devote to destruction. execrate, beshrew^, scold; anathematize &c (censure) 932; bold up to execration, denounce, proscribe, excommunicate, fulminate, thunder against; threaten &c 909. curse and swear; swear, swear like a trooper; fall a cursing, rap out an oath, damn. Adj. cursing, cursed &c v.. Int. woe to!, beshrew!^, ruat coelum! [Lat.], ill betide, woe betide; confusion seize!, damn!, damn it!, damn you!, damn you to hell!, go to hell!, go to blazes!, confound!, blast!, curse!, devil take!, hang!, out with!, a plague upon!, out upon!, aroynt!^, honi soit! [Fr.], parbleu! [Fr.], Phr. delenda est Carthago [Lat.]. 909. Threat -- N. threat, menace; defiance &c 715; abuse, minacity^, intimidation; denunciation; fulmination; commination &c (curse) 908 [Obs.]; gathering clouds &c (warning) 668. V. threat, threaten; menace; snarl, growl, gnarl, mutter, bark, bully. defy &c 715; intimidate &c 860; keep in terrorem [Lat.], hold up in terrorem [Lat.], hold out in terrorem [Lat.]; shake the fist at, double the fist at, clinch the fist at; thunder, talk big, fulminate, use big words, bluster, look daggers, stare daggers. Adj. threatening, menacing; minatory, minacious^; comminatory^, abusive; in terrorem [Lat.]; ominous &c (predicting) 511; defiant &c 715; under the ban. Int. vae victis! [Lat.], at your peril!, do your worst!, 910. Philanthropy -- N. philanthropy, humanity, humanitarianism universal benevolence; endaemonism^, deliciae humani generis [Lat.]; cosmopolitanism utilitarianism, the greatest happiness of the greatest number, social science, sociology common weal; socialism, communism, Fourierism^, phalansterianism^, Saint Simonianism^. patriotism, civism^, nationality, love of country, amor patriae [Lat.], public spirit. chivalry, knight errantry^; generosity &c 942. philanthropist, endaemonist^, utilitarian, Benthamite, socialist, communist, cosmopolite, citizen of the world, amicus humani generis [Lat.]; knight errant; patriot. Adj. philanthropic, humanitarian, utilitarian, cosmopolitan; public- spirited, patriotic; humane, large-hearted &c (benevolent) 906; chivalric; generous &c 942. Adv. pro bono publico [Lat.], pro aris et focis [Cicero]. Phr. humani nihil a me alienum puto [Lat.] [Terence]; omne solum forti patria [Lat.] [Ovid]; un bien fait n'est jamais perdu [Fr.]. 911. Misanthropy -- N. misanthropy, incivism; egotism &c (selfishness) 943; moroseness &c 901.1; cynicism. misanthrope, misanthropist, egotist, cynic, man hater, Timon, Diogenes. woman hater, misogynist. Adj. misanthropic, antisocial, unpatriotic; egotistical &c (selfish) 943; morose &c 901.1. 912. Benefactor -- N. benefactor, savior, good genius, tutelary saint, guardian angel, good Samaritan; pater patriae [Lat.]; salt of the earth &c (good man);; 948; auxiliary &c 711. 913. [Maleficent being] Evil doer -- N. evil doer, evil worker; wrongdoer &c 949; mischief-maker, marplot; oppressor, tyrant; destroyer, Vandal; iconoclast^. firebrand, incendiary, fire bug [U.S.], pyromaniac; anarchist, communist^, terrorist. savage, brute, ruffian, barbarian, semibarbarian^, caitiff, desperado; Apache^, hoodlum, hood, plug-ugly [U.S.], Red Skin, tough [U.S.]; Mohawk, Mo-hock, Mo-hawk; bludgeon man, bully, rough, hooligan, larrikin^, dangerous classes, ugly customer; thief &c 792. cockatrice, scorpion, hornet. snake, viper, adder, snake in the grass; serpent, cobra, asp, rattlesnake, anaconda^. canker-worm, wire-worm; locust, Colorado beetle; alacran^, alligator, caymon^, crocodile, mosquito, mugger, octopus; torpedo; bane &c 663. cutthroat &c (killer) 461. cannibal; anthropophagus^, anthropophagist^; bloodsucker, vampire, ogre, ghoul, gorilla, vulture; gyrfalcon^, gerfalcon^. wild beast, tiger, hyena, butcher, hangman; blood-hound, hell- hound, sleuth-hound; catamount [U.S.], cougar, jaguar, puma. hag, hellhag^, beldam, Jezebel. monster; fiend &c (demon) 980; devil incarnate, demon in human shape; Frankenstein's monster. harpy, siren; Furies, Eumenides. Hun, Attila^, scourge of the human race. Phr. faenum habet in cornu [Lat.]. 3. SPECIAL SYMPATHETIC AFFECTIONS 914. Pity -- N. pity, compassion, commiseration; bowels, of compassion; sympathy, fellow-feeling, tenderness, yearning, forbearance, humanity, mercy, clemency; leniency &c (lenity) 740; charity, ruth, long- suffering. melting mood; argumentum ad misericordiam [Lat.], quarter, grace, locus paenitentiae [Lat.]. sympathizer; advocate, friend, partisan, patron, wellwisher. V. pity; have pity, show pity, take pity &c n.; commiserate, compassionate; condole &c 915; sympathize; feel for, be sorry for, yearn for; weep, melt, thaw, enter into the feelings of. forbear, relent, relax, give quarter, wipe the tears, parcere subjectis [Lat.], give a coup de gr=ace, put out of one's misery. raise pity, excite pity &c n.; touch, soften; melt, melt the heart; propitiate, disarm. ask for mercy &c v.; supplicate &c (request) 765; cry for quarter, beg one's life, kneel; deprecate. Adj. pitying &c v.; pitiful, compassionate, sympathetic, touched. merciful, clement, ruthful; humane; humanitarian &c (philanthropic) 910; tender, tender hearted, tender as a chicken; soft, soft hearted; unhardened^; lenient &c 740; exorable^, forbearing; melting &c v.; weak. Int. for pity's sake!, mercy!, have mercy!, cry you mercy!, God help you!, poor thing!, poor dear!, poor fellow!, woe betide!, quis talia fando temperet a lachrymiss! [Lat.] [Vergil]. Phr. one's heart bleeding for; haud ignara mali miseris succurrere disco [Lat.] [Vergil]; a fellow feeling makes one wondrous kind; onor di bocca assai giova e poco costa [It] [Garrick]. 914a. Pitilessness -- N. pitilessness &c adj.; inclemency; severity &c 739; malevolence &c 907. V. have no mercy, shut the gates of mercy &c 914; give no quarter. Adj. pitiless, merciless, ruthless, bowelless; unpitying, unmerciful, inclement; grim-faced, grim-visaged; incompassionate^, uncompassionate; inexorable; harsh &c 739; unrelenting &c 919. 915. Condolence -- N. condolence; lamentation &c 839; sympathy, consolation. V. condole with, console, sympathize express pity, testify pity; afford consolation, supply consolation; lament with &c 839; express sympathy for; feel grief in common with, feel sorrow in common with; share one's sorrow. 4. RETROSPECTIVE SYMPATHETIC AFFECTIONS 916. Gratitude -- N. gratitude, thankfulness, feeling of obligation, sense of obligation. acknowledgment, recognition, thanksgiving, thanksgiving, giving thanks; thankful good will. thanks, praise, benediction; paean; Te Deum &c (worship) 990 [Lat.]; grace, grace before meat, grace after meat, grace before meals, grace after meals; thank offering. requital. V. be grateful &c adj.; thank; give thanks, render thanks, return thanks, offer thanks, tender thanks &c n.; acknowledge, requite. feel under an obligation, be under an obligation, lie under an obligation; savoir gr_e [Fr.]; not look a gift horse in the mouth; never forget, overflow with gratitude; thank one's stars, thank one's lucky stars, bless one's stars; fall on one's knees. Adj. grateful, thankful, obliged, beholden, indebted to, under obligation. Int. thanks!, many thanks!, gramercy!^, much obliged!, thank you!, thank you very much!, thanks a lot!, thanks a heap, thanks loads [Coll.]; thank Heaven!, Heaven be praised!, Gott sei Dank! [G.]. 917. Ingratitude -- N. ingratitude, thanklessness, oblivion of benefits, unthankfulness^. benefits forgot; thankless task, thankless office. V. be ungrateful &c adj.; forget benefits; look a gift horse in the mouth. Adj. ungrateful, unmindful, unthankful; thankless, ingrate, wanting in gratitude, insensible of benefits. forgotten; unacknowledged, unthanked^, unrequited, unrewarded; ill- requited. Int. thank you for nothing!, thanks for nothing!, et tu Brute! [Julius Caesar]. Phr. ingratitude! thou marble-hearted fiend [Lear]. 918. Forgiveness -- N. forgiveness, pardon, condonation, grace, remission, absolution, amnesty, oblivion; indulgence; reprieve. conciliation; reconcilement; reconciliation &c (pacification) 723; propitiation. excuse, exoneration, quittance, release, indemnity; bill of indemnity, act of indemnity, covenant of indemnity, deed of indemnity; exculpation &c (acquittal) 970. longanimity^, placability; amantium irae [Lat.]; locus paenitentiae [Lat.]; forbearance. V. forgive, forgive and forget; pardon, condone, think no more of, let bygones be bygones, shake hands; forget an injury. excuse, pass over, overlook; wink at &c (neglect) 460; bear with; allow for, make allowances for; let one down easily, not be too hard upon, pocket the affront. let off, remit, absolve, give absolution, reprieve; acquit &c 970. beg pardon, ask pardon, implore pardon &c n.; conciliate, propitiate, placate; make up a quarrel &c (pacify) 723; let the wound heal. Adj. forgiving, placable, conciliatory, forgiven &c v.; unresented^, unavenged, unrevenged^. Adv. cry you mercy. Phr. veniam petimusque damusque vicissim [Lat.] [Horace]; more in sorrow than in anger; comprendre tout c'est tout pardonner [Fr.]; the offender never pardons [Herbert]. 919. Revenge -- N. revenge, revengement^; vengeance; avengement^, avengeance^, sweet revenge, vendetta, death feud, blood for blood retaliation &c 718; day of reckoning. rancor, vindictiveness, implacability; malevolence &c 907; ruthlessness &c 914.1. avenger, vindicator, Nemesis, Eumenides. V. revenge, avenge; vindicate; take one's revenge, have one's revenge; breathe revenge, breathe vengeance; wreak one's vengeance, wreak one's anger. have accounts to settle, have a crow to pluck, have a bone to pick, have a rod in pickle. keep the wound green; harbor revenge, harbor vindictive feeling; bear malice; rankle, rankle in the breast. Adj. revengeful, vengeful; vindictive, rancorous; pitiless &c 914.1; ruthless, rigorous, avenging. unforgiving, unrelenting; inexorable, stony-hearted, implacable; relentless, remorseless. aeternum servans sub pectore vulnus [Lat.]; rankling; immitigable. Phr. manet ciratrix [Lat.], manet alid mente repostum [Lat.]; dies irae dies illa [Lat.]; in high vengeance there is noble scorn [G. Eliot]; inhumanum verbum est ultio [Lat.] [Seneca]; malevolus animus abditos dentes habet [Syrus]; now infidel I have thee on the hip [Merchant of Venice]. 920. Jealousy -- N. jealousy, jealousness; jaundiced eye; envious suspicion, suspicion; green-eyed monster [Othello]; yellows; Juno. V. be jealous &c adj.; view with jealousy, view with a jealous eye. Adj. jealous, jealous as a barbary pigeon^; jaundiced, yellow-eyed, envious, hornmad. 921. Envy -- N. envy; enviousness &c adj.; rivalry; jalousie de milier [Fr.]; illwill, spite. V. envy, covet, burst with envy. Adj. envious, invidious, covetous; alieni appetens [Lat.]. Phr. base envy withers at another's joy [Thomson]; caeca invidia est [Lat.] [Livy]; multa petentibus desunt multa [Lat.] [Horace]; summa petit livor [Lat.] [Ovid]. SECTION IV. MORAL AFFECTIONS 1. MORAL OBLIGATIONS 922. Right -- N. right; what ought to be, what should be; fitness &c adj.; summum jus [Lat.]. justice, equity; equitableness &c adj.; propriety; fair play, impartiality, measure for measure, give and take, lex talionis [Lat.]. Astraea^, Nemesis, Themis. scales of justice, evenhanded justice, karma; suum cuique [Lat.]; clear stage, fair field and no favor, level playing field. morals &c (duty) 926; law &c 963; honor &c (probity) 939; virtue &c 944. V. be right &c adj.; stand to reason. see justice done, see one righted, see fair play; do justice to; recompense &c (reward) 973; bold the scales even, give and take; serve one right, put the saddle on the right horse; give every one his due, give the devil his due; audire alteram partem [Lat.]. deserve &c (be entitled to) 924. Adj. right, good; just, reasonable; fit &c 924; equal, equable, equatable^; evenhanded, fair. legitimate, justifiable, rightful; as it should be, as it ought to be; lawful &c (permitted) 760, (legal) 963. deserved &c 924. Adv. rightly &c adj.; +a bon droit [Fr.], au bon droit [Fr.], in justice, in equity, in reason. without distinction of persons, without regard to persons, without respect to persons; upon even terms. Int. all right!, fair's fair. Phr. Dieu et mon droit [Fr.]; in equal scale weighing delight and dole [Hamlet]; justitia cuum cuique distribuit [Lat.] [Cicero]; justitiae soror incorrupta fides [Lat.]; justitia virtutem regina [Lat.]; thrice is he armed that hath his quarrel just [Henry VI]. 923. Wrong -- N. wrong; what ought not to be, what should not be; malum in se [Lat.]; unreasonableness, grievance; shame. injustice; tort [Law]; unfairness &c adj.; iniquity, foul play. partiality, leaning, bias; favor, favoritism; nepotism, party spirit, partisanship; bigotry. undueness &c 925; wrongdoing (vice) 945; unlawfulness &c 964. robbing Peter to pay Paul &c v.; the wolf and the lamb; vice &c 945. a custom more honored in the breach than the observance [Hamlet]. V. be wrong &c adj.; cry to heaven for vengeance. do wrong &c n.; be inequitable &c adj.; favor, lean towards; encroach upon, impose upon; reap where one has not sown; give an inch and take an ell, give an inch and take an mile; rob Peter to pay Paul. Adj. wrong, wrongful; bad, too bad; unjust, unfair; inequitable, unequitable^; unequal, partial, one-sided; injurious, tortious [Law]. objectionable; unreasonable, unallowable, unwarrantable, unjustifiable; improper, unfit; unjustified &c 925; illegal &c 964; iniquitous; immoral &c 945. in the wrong, in the wrong box. Adv. wrongly &c adj.. Phr. it will not do. 924. Dueness -- N. due, dueness; right, privilege, prerogative, prescription, title, claim, pretension, demand, birthright. immunity, license, liberty, franchise; vested interest, vested right. sanction, authority, warranty, charter; warrant &c (permission) 760; constitution &c (law) 963; tenure; bond &c (security) 771. claimant, appellant; plaintiff &c 938. V. be due &c adj.. to, be the due &c n.. of; have right to, have title to, have claim to; be entitled to; have a claim upon; belong to &c (property) 780. deserve, merit, be worthy of, richly deserve. demand, claim; call upon for, come upon for, appeal to for; revendicate^, reclaim; exact; insist on, insist upon; challenge; take one's stand, make a point of, require, lay claim to, assert, assume, arrogate, make good; substantiate; vindicate a claim, vindicate a right; fit for, qualify for; make out a case. give a right, confer a right; entitle; authorize &c 760; sanctify, legalize, ordain, prescribe, allot. give every one his due &c 922; pay one's dues; have one's due, have one's rights. use a right, assert, enforce, put in force, lay under contribution. Adj. having a right to &c v.; entitled to; claiming; deserving, meriting, worthy of. privileged, allowed, sanctioned, warranted, authorized; ordained, prescribed, constitutional, chartered, enfranchised. prescriptive, presumptive; absolute, indefeasible; unalienable, inalienable; imprescriptible^, inviolable, unimpeachable, unchallenged; sacrosanct. due to, merited, deserved, condign, richly deserved. allowable &c (permitted) 760; lawful, licit, legitimate, legal; legalized &c (law) 963. square, unexceptionable, right; equitable &c 922; due, en r gle; fit, fitting; correct, proper, meet, befitting, becoming, seemly; decorous; creditable, up to the mark, right as a trivet; just the thing, quite the thing; selon les r gles [Fr.]. Adv. duly, ex officio, de jure [Lat.]; by right, by divine right; jure divino [Lat.], Dei gratia [Lat.], in the name of. Phr. civis Romanus sum [Lat.] [Cicero]; +a chaque saint sa chandelle [Fr.]. 925. [Absence of right.] Undueness -- N. undueness &c adj.; malum prohibitum [Lat.]; impropriety; illegality &c 964. falseness &c adj.; emptiness of title, invalidity of title; illegitimacy. loss of right, disfranchisement, forfeiture. usurpation, tort, violation, breach, encroachment, presumption, assumption, seizure; stretch, exaction, imposition, lion's share. usurper, pretender. V. be undue &c adj.; not be due &c 924. infringe, encroach, trench on, exact; arrogate, arrogate to oneself; give an inch and take an ell; stretch a point, strain a point; usurp, violate, do violence to. disfranchise, disentitle, disqualify; invalidate. relax &c (be lax) 738; misbehave &c (vice) 945; misbecome^. Adj. undue; unlawful &c (illegal) 964; unconstitutional; illicit; unauthorized, unwarranted, disallowed, unallowed^, unsanctioned, unjustified; unentitled^, disentitled, unqualified, disqualified; unprivileged, unchartered. illegitimate, bastard, spurious, supposititious, false; usurped. tortious [Law]. undeserved, unmerited, unearned; unfulfilled. forfeited, disfranchised. improper; unmeet, unfit, unbefitting, unseemly; unbecoming, misbecoming^; seemless^; contra bonos mores [Lat.]; not the thing, out of the question, not to be thought of; preposterous, pretentious, would-be. Phr. filius nullius. 926. Duty -- N. duty, what ought to be done, moral obligation, accountableness^, liability, onus, responsibility; bounden duty, imperative duty; call, call of duty; accountability. allegiance, fealty, tie engagement &c (promise) 768; part; function, calling &c (business) 625. morality, morals, decalogue; case of conscience; conscientiousness &c (probity) 939; conscience, inward monitor, still small voice within, sense of duty, tender conscience, superego; the hell within [Paradise Lost]. dueness &c 924; propriety, fitness, seemliness, amenability, decorum, to prepon; the thing, the proper thing; the right thing to do, the proper thing to do. [Science of morals] ethics, ethology.; deontology^, aretology^; moral philosophy, ethical philosophy; casuistry, polity. observance, fulfillment, discharge, performance, acquittal, satisfaction, redemption; good behavior. V. be the duty of; be incumbent &c adj.. on, be responsible &c adj.; behoove, become, befit, beseem; belong to, pertain to; fall to one's lot; devolve on; lie upon, lie on one's head, lie at one's door; rest with, rest on the shoulders of. take upon oneself &c (promise) 768; be bound to, become bound to, be sponsor for, become sponsor for; incur a responsibility &c n.; be under an obligation, stand under an obligation, lie under an obligation; have to answer for, owe to it oneself. impose a duty, &c n.; enjoin, require, exact; bind, bind over; saddle with, prescribe, assign, call upon, look to, oblige. enter upon a duty, perform a duty, observe a duty, fulfill a duty, discharge a duty, adhere to a duty, acquit oneself of a duty, satisfy a duty, enter upon an obligation, perform an obligation, observe an obligation, fulfill an obligation, discharge an obligation, adhere to an obligation, acquit oneself of an obligation, satisfy an obligation; act one's part, redeem one's pledge, do justice to, be at one's post; do duty; do one's duty &c (be virtuous) 944. be on one's good behavior, mind one's P's and Q's. Adj. obligatory, binding; imperative, peremptory; stringent &c (severe) 739; behooving &c v.; incumbent on, chargeable on; under obligation; obliged by, bound by, tied by; saddled with. due to, beholden to, bound to, indebted to; tied down; compromised &c (promised) 768; in duty bound. amenable, liable, accountable, responsible, answerable. right, meet &c (due) 924; moral, ethical, casuistical, conscientious, ethological. Adv. with a safe conscience, as in duty, bound, on one's own responsibility, at one's own risk, suo periculo [Lat.]; in foro conscientiae [Lat.]; quamdiu se bene gesserit [Lat.]. Phr. dura lex sed lex [Lat.]; dulce et decorum est pro patria mori [Lat.]; honos habet onus [Lat.]; leve fit quod bene fertur onus [Lat.] [Ovid]; loyaute m'oblige [Fr.]; simple duty bath no place for fear [Whittier]; stern daughter of the voice of God [Wordsworth]; there is a higher law than the Constitution [Wm. Seward]. 927. Dereliction of Duty -- N. dereliction of duty; fault &c (guilt) 947; sin &c (vice) 945; non-observance, non-performance; neglect, relaxation, infraction, violation, transgression, failure, evasion; dead letter. V. violate; break, break through; infringe; set aside, set at naught; encroach upon, trench upon; trample on, trample under foot; slight, neglect, evade, renounce, forswear, repudiate; wash one's hands of; escape, transgress, fail. call to account &c (disapprobation) 932. 927a. Exemption -- N. exemption, freedom, irresponsibility, immunity, liberty, license, release, exoneration, excuse, dispensation, absolution, franchise, renunciation, discharge; exculpation &c 970. V. be exempt &c adj.. exempt, release, acquit, discharge, quitclaim, remise, remit; free, set at liberty, let off, pass over, spare, excuse, dispense with, give dispensation, license; stretch a point; absolve &c (forgive) 918; exonerate &c (exculpate) 970; save the necessity. Adj. exempt, free, immune, at liberty, scot-free; released &c v.; unbound, unencumbered; irresponsible, unaccountable, not answerable; excusable. Phr. bonis nocet quisquis pepercerit malis [Lat.] [Syrus]. 2. MORAL SENTIMENTS 928. Respect -- N. respect, regard, consideration; courtesy &c 894; attention, deference, reverence, honor, esteem, estimation, veneration, admiration; approbation &c 931. homage, fealty, obeisance, genuflection, kneeling prostration; obsequiousness &c 886; salaam, kowtow, bow, presenting arms, salute. respects, regards, duty, devoirs, egards. devotion &c (piety) 987. V. respect, regard; revere, reverence; hold in reverence, honor, venerate, hallow; esteem &c (approve of) 931; think much of; entertain respect for, bear respect for; look up to, defer to; have a high opinion of, hold a high opinion of; pay attention, pay respect &c n.. to; do honor to, render honor to; do the honors, hail; show courtesy &c 894; salute, present arms; do homage to, pay homage to; pay tribute to, kneel to, bow to, bend the knee to; fall down before, prostrate oneself, kiss the hem of one's garment; worship &c 990. keep one's distance, make room, observe due decorum, stand upon ceremony. command respect, inspire respect; awe, inspire awe, impose, overawe, dazzle. Adj. respecting &c v.; respectful, deferential, decorous, reverential, obsequious, ceremonious, bareheaded, cap in hand, on one's knees; prostrate &c (servile) 886. respected &c v.; in high esteem, in high estimation; time-honored, venerable, emeritus. Adv. in deference to; with all respect, with all due respect, with due respect, with the highest respect; with submission. saving your grace, saving your presence; salva sit reverentia [Lat.]; pace tanti nominis [Lat.]. Int. hail!, all hail!, esto perpetua! [Lat.], may your shadow never be less!, Phr. and pluck up drowned honor by the locks [Henry IV]; his honor rooted in dishonor stood [Tennyson]; honor pricks me on [Henry IV]. 929. Disrespect -- N. disrespect, disesteem, disestimation^; disparagement &c (dispraise) 932, (detraction) 934. irreverence; slight, neglect, spretae injuria formae [Lat.] [Vergil], superciliousness &c (contempt) 930. vilipendency^, vilification, contumely, affront, dishonor, insult, indignity, outrage, discourtesy &c 895; practical joking; scurrility, scoffing, sibilance, hissing, sibilation; irrision^; derision; mockery; irony &c (ridicule) 856; sarcasm. hiss, hoot, boo, gibe, flout, jeer, scoff, gleek^, taunt, sneer, quip, fling, wipe, slap in the face. V. hold in disrespect &c (despise) 930; misprize, disregard, slight, trifle with, set at naught, pass by, push aside, overlook, turn one's back upon, laugh in one's sleeve; be disrespectful &c adj., be discourteous &c 895; treat with disrespect &c n.; set down, put down, browbeat. dishonor, desecrate; insult, affront, outrage. speak slightingly of; disparage &c (dispraise) 932; vilipend^, vilify, call names; throw dirt, fling dirt; drag through the mud, point at, indulge in personalities; make mouths, make faces; bite the thumb; take by the beard; pluck by the beard; toss in a blanket, tar and feather. have in derision; hold in derision; deride, scoff, barrack, sneer, laugh at, snigger, ridicule, gibe, mock, jeer, hiss, hoot, taunt, twit, niggle^, gleek^, gird, flout, fleer^; roast, turn into ridicule; burlesque &c 856; laugh to scorn &c (contempt) 930; smoke; fool; make game of, make a fool of, make an April fool of^; play a practical joke; lead one a dance, run the rig upon, have a fling at, scout; mob. Adj. disrespectful; aweless, irreverent; disparaging &c 934; insulting &c v.; supercilious, contemptuous, patronizing &c (scornful) 930; rude, derisive, sarcastic; scurrile, scurrilous; contumelious. unrespected^, unworshiped^, unenvied^, unsaluted^; unregarded^, disregarded. Adv. disrespectfully &c adj.. 930. Contempt -- N. contempt, disdain, scorn, sovereign contempt; despisal^, despiciency^; despisement^; vilipendency^, contumely; slight, sneer, spurn, by-word; despect^. contemptuousness &c adj.; scornful eye; smile of contempt; derision &c (disrespect) 929. despisedness [State of being despised]. V. despise, contemn, scorn, disdain, feel contempt for, view with a scornful eye; disregard, slight, not mind; pass by &c (neglect) 460. look down upon; hold cheap, hold in contempt, hold in disrespect; think nothing of, think small beer of; make light of; underestimate &c 483; esteem slightly, esteem of small or no account; take no account of, care nothing for; set no store by; not care a straw, sneeze at &c (unimportance) 643; set at naught, laugh in one's sleeve, laugh up one's sleeve, snap one's fingers at, shrug one's shoulders, turn up one's nose at, pooh-pooh, damn with faint praise [Pope]; whistle at, sneer at; curl up one's lip, toss the head, traiter de haut enbas [Fr.]; laugh at &c (be disrespectful) 929. point the finger of scorn, hold up to scorn, laugh to scorn; scout, hoot, flout, hiss, scoff at. turn one's back upon, turn a cold shoulder upon; tread upon, trample upon, trample under foot; spurn, kick; fling to the winds &c (repudiate) 610; send away with a flea in the ear. Adj. contemptuous; disdainful, scornful; withering, contumelious, supercilious, cynical, haughty, bumptious, cavalier; derisive. contemptible, despicable; pitiable; pitiful &c (unimportant) 643; despised &c v.; downtrodden; unenvied^. unrespectable (unworthy) 874. Adv. contemptuously &c adj.. Int. a fig for &c (unimportant) 643; bah!, never mind!, away with!, hang it!, fiddlededee!, Phr. a dismal universal hiss, the sound of public scorn [Paradise Lost]; I had rather be a dog and bay the moon than such a Roman [Julius Caesar]. 931. Approbation -- N. approbation; approval, approvement^; sanction, advocacy; nod of approbation; esteem, estimation, good opinion, golden opinions, admiration; love &c 897; appreciation, regard, account, popularity, kudos, credit; repute &c 873; best seller. commendation, praise; laud, laudation; good word; meed of praise, tribute of praise; encomium; eulogy, eulogium^; eloge [Fr.], panegyric; homage, hero worship; benediction, blessing, benison. applause, plaudit, clap; clapping, clapping of hands; acclaim, acclamation; cheer; paean, hosannah; shout of applause, peal of applause, chorus of applause, chorus of praise &c; Prytaneum. V. approve; approbate, think good, think much of, think well of, think highly of; esteem, value, prize; set great store by, set great store on. do justice to, appreciate; honor, hold in esteem, look up to, admire; like &c 897; be in favor of, wish Godspeed; hail, hail with satisfaction. stand up for, stick up for; uphold, hold up, countenance, sanction; clap on the back, pat on the back; keep in countenance, indorse; give credit, recommend; mark with a white mark, mark with a stone. commend, belaud^, praise, laud, compliment; pay a tribute, bepraise^; clap the hands; applaud, cheer, acclamate^, encore; panegyrize^, eulogize, cry up, proner [Fr.], puff; extol, extol to the skies; magnify, glorify, exalt, swell, make much of; flatter &c 933; bless, give a blessing to; have a good word for, say a good word for; speak well of, speak highly of, speak in high terms of; sing the praises of, sound the praises of, chaunt the praises of; resound the praises of; sing praises to; cheer to the echo, applaud to the echo, applaud to the very echo, cheer to the very echo. redound to the honor, redound to the praise, redound to the credit of; do credit to; deserve praise &c n.; recommend itself; pass muster. be praised &c; receive honorable mention; be in favor with, be in high favor with; ring with the praises of, win golden opinions, gain credit, find favor with, stand well in the opinion of; laudari a laudato viro [Lat.]. Adj. approving &c v.; in favor of; lost in admiration. commendatory, complimentary, benedictory^, laudatory, panegyrical, eulogistic, encomiastic, lavish of praise, uncritical. approved, praised &c v.; uncensured, unimpeached; popular, in good odor; in high esteem &c (respected) 928; in favor, in high favor. deserving of praise, worthy of praise &c n.; praiseworthy, commendable, of estimation; good &c 648; meritorious, estimable, creditable, plausible, unimpeachable; beyond all praise. Adv. with credit, to admiration; well &c 618; with three times three. Int. hear hear!, bully for you! [Slang], well done!, bravo!, bravissimo!, euge! [G.], macte virtute! [Lat.], so far so good, that's right, quite right; optime!^, one cheer more; may your shadow never be less!, esto perpetua! [Lat.], long life to!, viva!, enviva!^, Godspeed!, valete et plaudite! [Lat.], encore!, bis!^, Phr. probatum est [Lat.]; tacent satis laudant [Lat.]; servant of God, well done! [Paradise Lost]. 932. Disapprobation -- N. disapprobation, disapproval; improbation^; disesteem, disvaluation^, displacency^; odium; dislike &c 867. dispraise, discommendation^; blame, censure, obloquy; detraction &c 934; disparagement, depreciation; denunciation; condemnation &c 971; ostracism; black list. animadversion, reflection, stricture, objection, exception, criticism; sardonic grin, sardonic laugh; sarcasm, insinuation, innuendo; bad compliment, poor compliment, left-handed compliment. satire; sneer &c (contempt) 930; taunt &c (disrespect) 929; cavil, carping, censoriousness; hypercriticism &c (fastidiousness) 868. reprehension, remonstrance, expostulation, reproof, reprobation, admonition, increpation^, reproach; rebuke, reprimand, castigation, jobation^, lecture, curtain lecture, blow up, wigging, dressing, rating, scolding, trimming; correction, set down, rap on the knuckles, coup de bec [Fr.], rebuff; slap, slap on the face; home thrust, hit; frown, scowl, black look. diatribe; jeremiad, jeremiade; tirade, philippic. clamor, outcry, hue and cry; hiss, hissing; sibilance, sibilation, catcall; execration &c 908. chiding, upbraiding &c v.; exprobation^, abuse, vituperation, invective, objurgation, contumely; hard words, cutting words, bitter words. evil-speaking; bad language &c 908; personality. V. disapprove; dislike &c 867; lament &c 839; object to, take exception to; be scandalized at, think ill of; view with disfavor, view with dark eyes, view with jaundiced eyes; nil admirari [Lat.], disvalue^; improbate^. frown upon, look grave; bend the brows, knit the brows; shake the head at, shrug the shoulders; turn up the nose &c (contempt) 930; look askance, look black upon; look with an evil eye; make a wry face, make a wry mouth at; set one's face against. dispraise, discommend^, disparage; deprecate, speak ill of, not speak well of; condemn &c (find guilty) 971. blame; lay blame upon, cast blame upon; censure, fronder [Fr.], reproach, pass censure on, reprobate, impugn. remonstrate, expostulate, recriminate. reprehend, chide, admonish; berate, betongue^; bring to account, call to account, call over the coals, rake over the coals, call to order; take to task, reprove, lecture, bring to book; read a lesson, read a lecture to; rebuke, correct. reprimand, chastise, castigate, lash, blow up, trounce, trim, laver la tete [Fr.], overhaul; give it one, give it one finely; gibbet. accuse &c 938; impeach, denounce; hold up to reprobation, hold up to execration; expose, brand, gibbet, stigmatize; show up, pull up, take up; cry 'shame' upon; be outspoken; raise a hue and cry against. execrate &c 908; exprobate^, speak daggers, vituperate; abuse, abuse like a pickpocket; scold, rate, objurgate, upbraid, fall foul of; jaw; rail, rail at, rail in good set terms; bark at; anathematize, call names; call by hard names, call by ugly names; avile^, revile; vilify, vilipend^; bespatter; backbite; clapperclaw^; rave against, thunder against, fulminate against; load with reproaches. exclaim against, protest against, inveigh against, declaim against, cry out against, raise one's voice against. decry; cry down, run down, frown down; clamor, hiss, hoot, mob, ostracize, blacklist; draw up a round robin, sign a round robin. animadvert upon, reflect upon; glance at; cast reflection, cast reproach, cast a slur upon; insinuate, damn with faint praise; hint a fault and hesitate dislike; not to be able to say much for. scoff at, point at; twit, taunt &c (disrespect) 929; sneer at &c (despise) 230; satirize, lampoon; defame &c (detract) 934; depreciate, find fault with, criticize, cut up; pull to pieces, pick to pieces; take exception; cavil; peck at, nibble at, carp at; be censorious &c adj.; pick holes, pick a hole, pick a hole in one's coat; make a fuss about. take down, take down a peg, set down; snub, snap one up, give a rap on the knuckles; throw a stone at, throw a stone in one's garden; have a fling, have a snap at; have words with, pluck a crow with; give one a wipe, give one a lick with the rough side of the tongue. incur blame, excite disapprobation, scandalize, shock, revolt; get a bad name, forfeit one's good opinion, be under a cloud, come under the ferule, bring a hornet's nest about one's ears. take blame, stand corrected; have to answer for. Adj. disapproving &c v.; scandalized. disparaging, condemnatory, damnatory^, denunciatory, reproachful, abusive, objurgatory^, clamorous, vituperative; defamatory &c 934. satirical, sarcastic, sardonic, cynical, dry, sharp, cutting, biting, severe, withering, trenchant, hard upon; censorious, critical, captious, carping, hypercritical; fastidious &c 868; sparing of praise, grudging praise. disapproved, chid &c v.; in bad odor, blown upon, unapproved; unblest^; at a discount, exploded; weighed in the balance and found wanting. blameworthy, reprehensible &c (guilt) 947; to blame, worthy of blame; answerable, uncommendable, exceptionable, not to be thought of; bad &c 649; vicious &c 945. unlamented, unbewailed^, unpitied^. Adv. with a wry face; reproachfully &c adj.. Int. it is too bad!, it won't do, it will never do!, marry come up!, Oh!, come!, 'sdeath! [Contr.], forbid it Heaven!, God forbid, Heaven forbid!, out upon, fie upon it!, away with!, tut!, O tempora!^, O mores!, shame!, fie, fie for shame!, out on you!, tell it not in Gath!, 933. Flattery -- N. flattery, adulation, gloze; blandishment, blandiloquence^; cajolery; fawning, wheedling &c v.; captation^, coquetry, obsequiousness, sycophancy, flunkeyism^, toadeating^, tuft- hunting; snobbishness. incense, honeyed words, flummery; bunkum, buncombe; blarney, placebo, butter; soft soap, soft sawder^; rose water. voice of the charmer, mouth honor; lip homage; euphemism; unctuousness &c adj.. V. flatter, praise to the skies, puff; wheedle, cajole, glaver^, coax; fawn upon, faun upon; humor, gloze, soothe, pet, coquet, slaver, butter; jolly [U.S.]; bespatter, beslubber^, beplaster^, beslaver^; lay it on thick, overpraise; earwig, cog, collogue^; truckle to, pander to, pandar to^, suck up to, kiss the ass of [Vulg.], pay court to; court; creep into the good graces of, curry favor with, hang on the sleeve of; fool to the top of one's bent; lick the dust. lay the flattering unction to one's soul, gild the pill, make things pleasant. overestimate &c 482; exaggerate &c 549. Adj. flattering &c v.; adulatory; mealy-mouthed, honey-mouthed; honeyed; smooth, smooth-tongued; soapy, oily, unctuous, blandiloquent^, specious; fine-spoken, fair spoken; plausible, servile, sycophantic, fulsome; courtierly^, courtier-like. Adv. ad captandum [Lat.]. 934. Detraction -- N. detraction, disparagement, depreciation, vilification, obloquy, scurrility, scandal, defamation, aspersion, traducement, slander, calumny, obtrectation^, evil-speaking, backbiting, scandalum magnatum [Lat.]. personality, libel, lampoon, skit, pasquinade; chronique scandaleuse [Fr.]; roorback [U.S.]. sarcasm, cynicism; criticism (disapprobation) 932; invective &c 932; envenomed tongue; spretae injuria formae [Lat.]. personality, libel, lampoon, skit, pasquinade; chronique scandaleuse [Fr.]; roorback [U.S.]. detractor &c 936. V. detract, derogate, decry, deprecate, depreciate, disparage; run down, cry down; backcap [U.S.]; belittle; sneer at &c (contempt) 930; criticize, pull to pieces, pick a hole in one's coat, asperse, cast aspersions, blow upon, bespatter, blacken, vilify, vilipend^; avile^; give a dog a bad name, brand, malign; muckrake; backbite, libel, lampoon, traduce, slander, defame, calumniate, bear false witness against; speak ill of behind one's back. fling dirt &c (disrespect) 929; anathematize &c 932; dip the pen in gall, view in a bad light. impugn (disparage the motives of); assail, attack &c 716; oppose &c 708; denounce, accuse &c 938. Adj. detracting &c v.; defamatory, detractory^, derogatory, deprecatory; catty; disparaging, libelous; scurrile, scurrilous; abusive; foul- spoken, foul-tongued, foul-mouthed; slanderous; calumnious, calumniatory^; sarcastic, sardonic; sarcastic, satirical, cynical. critical &c 932. Phr. damn with faint praise, assent with civil leer; and without sneering, teach the rest to sneer [Pope]; another lie nailed to the counter; cut men's throats with whisperings [B. Jonson]; foul whisperings are abroad [Macbeth]; soft-buzzing slander [Thomson]; virtue itself 'scapes not calumnious strokes [Hamlet]. 935. Flatterer -- N. flatterer, adulator; eulogist, euphemist; optimist, encomiast, laudator [Lat.], whitewasher. toady, toadeater^; sycophant, courtier, Sir Pertinax MacSycophant; flaneur [Fr.], proneur [Fr.]; puffer, touter^, claqueur [Fr.]; clawback^, earwig, doer of dirty work; parasite, hanger-on &c (servility) 886. yes-man, suckup, ass-kisser [Vulg.], brown-noser [Vulg.], teacher's pet. Phr. pessimum genus inimicorum laudantes [Lat.] [Tacitus]. 936. Detractor -- N. detractor, reprover; censor, censurer; cynic, critic, caviler, carper, word-catcher, frondeur; barracker^. defamer, backbiter, slanderer, Sir Benjamin Backbite, lampooner, satirist, traducer, libeler, calumniator, dawplucker^, Thersites^; Zoilus; good-natured friend [Iron.]; reviler, vituperator, castigator; shrew &c 901; muckraker. disapprover, laudator temporis acti [Lat.] [Horace]. Adj. black-mouthed, abusive &c 934. 937. Vindication -- N. vindication, justification, warrant; exoneration, exculpation; acquittal &c 970; whitewashing. extenuation; palliation, palliative; softening, mitigation. reply, defense; recrimination &c 938. apology, gloss, varnish; plea &c 617; salvo; excuse, extenuating circumstances; allowance, allowance to be made; locus paenitentiae [Lat.]. apologist, vindicator, justifier; defendant &c 938. justifiable charge, true bill. v.. justify, warrant; be an excuse for &c n.; lend a color, furnish a handle; vindicate; exculpate, disculpate^; acquit &c 970; clear, set right, exonerate, whitewash; clear the skirts of. extenuate, palliate, excuse, soften, apologize, varnish, slur, gloze; put a gloss, put a good face upon; mince; gloss over, bolster up, help a lame dog over a stile. advocate, defend, plead one's cause; stand up for, stick up for, speak up for; contend for, speak for; bear out, keep in countenance, support; plead &c, 617; say in defense; plead ignorance; confess and avoid, propugn^, put in a good word for. take the will for the deed, make allowance for, give credit for, do justice to; give one his due, give the Devil his due. make good; prove the truth of, prove one's case; be justified by the event. Adj. vindicated, vindicating &c v.; exculpatory; apologetic. excusable, defensible, pardonable; venial, veniable^; specious, plausible, justifiable. Phr. honi sot qui mal y pense; good wine needs no bush 938. Accusation -- N. accusation, charge, imputation, slur, inculpation, exprobration^, delation; crimination; incrimination, accrimination^, recrimination; tu quoque argument [Lat.]; invective &c 932. denunciation, denouncement; libel, challenge, citation, arraignment; impeachment, appeachment^; indictment, bill of indictment, true bill; lawsuit &c 969; condemnation &c 971. gravamen of a charge, head and front of one's offending, argumentum ad hominem [Lat.]; scandal &c (detraction) 934; scandalum magnatum [Lat.]. accuser, prosecutor, plaintiff; relator, informer; appellant. accused, defendant, prisoner, perpetrator, panel, respondent; litigant. V. accuse, charge, tax, impute, twit, taunt with, reproach. brand with reproach; stigmatize, slur; cast a stone at, cast a slur on; incriminate, criminate; inculpate, implicate; call to account &c (censure) 932; take to blame, take to task; put in the black book. inform against, indict, denounce, arraign; impeach, appeach^; have up, show up, pull up; challenge, cite, lodge a complaint; prosecute, bring an action against &c 969; blow upon. charge with, saddle with; lay to one's door, lay charge; lay the blame on, bring home to; cast in one's teeth, throw in one's teeth; cast the first stone at. have a rod in pickle for, keep a rod in pickle for; have a crow to pluck with. trump up a charge. Adj. accusing &c v.; accusatory, accusative; imputative, denunciatory; recriminatory, criminatory^. accused &c v.; suspected; under suspicion, under a cloud, under surveillance; in custody, in detention; in the lockup, in the watch house, in the house of detention. accusable, imputable; indefensible, inexcusable; unpardonable, unjustifiable; vicious &c 845. Int. look at home; tu quoque &c (retaliation) 718 [Lat.]. Phr. the breath of accusation kills an innocent name [Shelley]; thou can'st not say I did it [Macbeth]. 3. MORAL CONDITIONS 939. Probity -- N. probity, integrity, rectitude; uprightness &c adj.; honesty, faith; honor; bonne foi [Fr.], good faith, bona fides [Lat.]; purity, clean hands. fairness &c adj.; fair play, justice, equity, impartiality, principle, even-handedness; grace. constancy; faithfulness &c adj.; fidelity, loyalty; incorruption, incorruptibility. trustworthiness &c adj.; truth, candor, singleness of heart; veracity &c 543; tender conscience &c (sense of duty) 926. punctilio, delicacy, nicety; scrupulosity, scrupulousness &c adj.; scruple; point, point of honor; punctuality. dignity &c, (repute) 873; respectability, respectableness &c adj.; gentilhomme [Fr.], gentleman; man of honor, man of his word; fidus Achates [Lat.], preux chevalier [Fr.], galantuomo [It]; truepenny^, trump, brick; true Briton; white man [U.S.]. court of honor, a fair field and no favor; argumentum ad verecundiam [Lat.]. V. be honorable &c adj.; deal honorably, deal squarely, deal impartially, deal fairly; speak the truth &c (veracity) 543; draw a straight furrow; tell the truth and shame the Devil, vitam impendere vero [Lat.]; show a proper spirit, make a point of; do one's duty &c (virtue) 944. redeem one's pledge &c 926; keep one's promise, be as good as one's promise, be as good as one's word; keep faith with, not fail. give and take, audire alteram partem [Lat.], give the Devil his due, put the saddle on the right horse. redound to one's honor. Adj. upright; honest, honest as daylight; veracious &c 543; virtuous &c 944; honorable; fair, right, just, equitable, impartial, evenhanded, square; fair and aboveboard, open and aboveboard; white [U.S.]. constant, constant as the northern star; faithful, loyal, staunch; true, true blue, true to one's colors, true to the core, true as the needle to the pole; marble-constant [Antony and Cleopatra]; true- hearted, trusty, trustworthy; as good as one's word, to be depended on, incorruptible. straightforward &c (ingenuous) 703; frank, candid, open-hearted. conscientious, tender-conscienced, right-minded; high-principled, high-minded; scrupulous, religious, strict; nice, punctilious, correct, punctual; respectable, reputable; gentlemanlike^. inviolable, inviolate; unviolated^, unbroken, unbetrayed; unbought, unbribed^. innocent &c 946; pure, stainless; unstained, untarnished, unsullied, untainted, unperjured^; uncorrupt, uncorrupted; undefiled, undepraved^, undebauched^; integer vitae scelerisque purus [Lat.] [Horace]; justus et tenax propositi [Lat.] [Horace]. chivalrous, jealous of honor, sans peur et sans reproche [Fr.]; high-spirited. supramundane^, unworldly, other-worldly, overscrupulous^. Adv. honorable &c adj.; bona fide; on the square, in good faith, honor bright, foro conscientiae [Lat.], with clean hands. Phr. a face untaught to feign [Pope]; bene qui latuit bene vixit [Lat.] [Ovid]; mens sibi conscia recti [Lat.]; probitas laudatur et alget [Juvenal]; fidelis ad urnam [Lat.]; his heart as far from fraud as heaven from earth [Two Gentlemen]; loyaute m'oblige [Fr.]; loyaute n'a honte [Fr.]; what stronger breastplate than a heart untainted? [Henry VI]. 940. Improbity -- N. improbity^; dishonesty, dishonor; deviation from rectitude; disgrace &c (disrepute) 874; fraud &c (deception) 545; lying &c 544; bad faith, Punic faith; mala fides [Lat.], Punica fides [Lat.]; infidelity; faithlessness &c adj.; Judas kiss, betrayal. breach of promise, breach of trust, breach of faith; prodition^, disloyalty, treason, high treason; apostasy &c (tergiversation) 607; nonobservance &c 773. shabbiness &c adj.; villainy, villany^; baseness &c adj.; abjection, debasement, turpitude, moral turpitude, laxity, trimming, shuffling. perfidy; perfidiousness &c adj.; treachery, double dealing; unfairness &c adj.; knavery, roguery, rascality, foul play; jobbing, jobbery; graft, bribery; venality, nepotism; corruption, job, shuffle, fishy transaction; barratry, sharp practice, heads I win tails you lose; mouth honor &c (flattery) 933. V. be dishonest &c adj.; play false; break one's word, break one's faith, break one's promise; jilt, betray, forswear; shuffle &c (lie) 544; live by one's wits, sail near the wind. disgrace oneself, dishonor oneself, demean oneself; derogate, stoop, grovel, sneak, lose caste; sell oneself, go over to the enemy; seal one's infamy. Adj. dishonest, dishonorable; unconscientious, unscrupulous; fraudulent &c 545; knavish; disgraceful &c (disreputable) 974; wicked &c 945. false-hearted, disingenuous; unfair, one-sided; double, double- hearted, double-tongued, double-faced; timeserving^, crooked, tortuous, insidious, Machiavelian, dark, slippery; fishy; perfidious, treacherous, perjured. infamous, arrant, foul, base, vile, ignominious, blackguard. contemptible, unrespectable, abject, mean, shabby, little, paltry, dirty, scurvy, scabby, sneaking, groveling, scrubby, rascally, pettifogging; beneath one. low-minded, low-thoughted^; base-minded. undignified, indign^; unbecoming, unbeseeming^, unbefitting; derogatory, degrading; infra dignitatem [Lat.], beneath one's dignity; ungentlemanly, ungentlemanlike; unknightly^, unchivalric^, unmanly, unhandsome; recreant, inglorious. corrupt, venal; debased, mongrel. faithless, of bad faith, false, unfaithful, disloyal; untrustworthy; trustless, trothless^; lost to shame, dead to honor; barratrous. Adv. dishonestly &c adj.; mala fide [Lat.], like a thief in the night, by crooked paths. Int. O tempora!^, O mores!, [Cicero]. Phr. corruptissima respublica plurimae leges [Lat.] [Tacitus]. 941. Knave -- N. knave, rogue; Scapin^, rascal; Lazarillo de Tormes; bad man &c 949; blackguard &c 949; barrater^, barrator^; shyster [U.S.]. traitor, betrayer, archtraitor^, conspirator, Judas, Catiline; reptile, serpent, snake in the grass, wolf in sheep's clothing, sneak, Jerry Sneak, squealer [Slang], tell-tale, mischief-maker; trimmer, fence-sitter, renegade &c (tergiversation) 607; truant, recreant; sycophant &c (servility) 886. 942. Disinterestedness -- N. disinterestedness &c adj.; generosity; liberality, liberalism; altruism; benevolence &c 906; elevation, loftiness of purpose, exaltation, magnanimity; chivalry, chivalrous spirit; heroism, sublimity. self-denial, self-abnegation, self-sacrifice, self-immolation, self-control &c (resolution) 604; stoicism, devotion, martyrdom, suttee. labor of love. V. be disinterested &c adj.; make a sacrifice, lay one's head on the block; put oneself in the place of others, do as one would be done by, do unto others as we would men should do unto us. Adj. disinterested; unselfish; self-denying, self-sacrificing, self- devoted; generous. handsome, liberal, noble, broad-minded; noble-minded, high-minded; princely, great, high, elevated, lofty, exalted, spirited, stoical, magnanimous; great-hearted, large-hearted; chivalrous, heroic, sublime. unbought, unbribed^; uncorrupted &c (upright) 939. Phr. non vobis solum [Lat.]. 943. Selfishness -- N. selfishness &c adj.; self-love, self-indulgence, self-worship, self-interest; egotism, egoism; amour propre [Fr.], &c (vanity) 880; nepotism. worldliness &c adj.; world wisdom. illiberality; meanness &c adj.. time-pleaser, time-server; tuft- hunter, fortune-hunter; jobber, worldling; egotist, egoist, monopolist, nepotist; dog in the manger, charity that begins at home; canis in praesepi [Lat.], foes to nobleness, temporizer, trimmer. V. be selfish &c adj.; please oneself, indulge oneself, coddle oneself; consult one's own wishes, consult one's own pleasure; look after one's own interest; feather one's nest; take care of number one, have an eye to the main chance, know on which side one's bread is buttered; give an inch and take an ell. Adj. selfish; self-seeking, self-indulgent, self-interested, self- centered; wrapped up in self, wrapt up in self^, centered in self; egotistic, egotistical; egoistical^. illiberal, mean, ungenerous, narrow-minded; mercenary, venal; covetous &c 819. unspiritual, earthly, earthly-minded; mundane; worldly, worldly- minded; worldly-wise; timeserving^. interested; alieni appetens sui profusus [Lat.]. Adv. ungenerously &c adj.; to gain some private ends, from interested motives. Phr. apres nous le deluge [Fr.]. 944. Virtue -- N. virtue; virtuousness &c adj.; morality; moral rectitude; integrity &c (probity) 939; nobleness &c 873. morals; ethics &c (duty) 926; cardinal virtues. merit, worth, desert, excellence, credit; self-control &c (resolution) 604; self-denial &c (temperance) 953. well-doing; good actions, good behavior; discharge of duty, fulfillment of duty, performance of duty; well-spent life; innocence &c 946. V. be virtuous &c adj.; practice virtue &c n.; do one's duty, fulfill one's duty, perform one's duty, discharge one's duty; redeem one's pledge, keep one's promise &c 926; act well, act one's part; fight the good fight; acquit oneself well; command one's passions, master one's passions; keep in the right path. set an example, set a good example; be on one's good behavior, be on one's best behavior. Adj. virtuous, good; innocent &c 946; meritorious, deserving, worthy, desertful^, correct; dutiful, duteous; moral; right, righteous, right- minded; well-intentioned, creditable, laudable, commendable, praiseworthy; above all praise, beyond all praise; excellent, admirable; sterling, pure, noble; whole-souled^. exemplary; matchless, peerless; saintly, saint-like; heaven-born, angelic, seraphic, godlike. Adv. virtuously &c, adj.; e merito [Lat.]. Phr. esse quam videri bonus malebat [Lat.] [Sallust]; Schonheit vergeht Tugend besteht [G.]; virtue the greatest of all monarchies [Swift]; virtus laudatur et alget [Juvenal]; virtus vincit invidiam [Lat.]. 945. Vice -- N. vice; evil-doing, evil courses; wrongdoing; wickedness, viciousness &c adj.; iniquity, peccability^, demerit; sin, Adam^; old Adam^, offending Adam^. immorality, impropriety, indecorum, scandal, laxity, looseness of morals; enphagy^, dophagy^, exophagy^; want of principle, want of ballast; obliquity, backsliding, infamy, demoralization, pravity^, depravity, pollution; hardness of heart; brutality &c (malevolence) 907; corruption &c (debasement) 659; knavery &c (improbity) 940 [Obs.]; profligacy; flagrancy, atrocity; cannibalism; lesbianism, Sadism. infirmity; weakness &c adj.; weakness of the flesh, frailty, imperfection; error; weak side; foible; failing, failure; crying sin, besetting sin; defect, deficiency; cloven foot. lowest dregs of vice, sink of iniquity, Alsatian den^; gusto picaresco [It]. fault, crime; criminality &c (guilt) 947. sinner &c 949. [Resorts] brothel &c 961; gambling house &c 621; joint [Slang], opium den, shooting gallery, crack house. V. be vicious &c adj.; sin, commit sin, do amiss, err, transgress; misdemean oneself^, forget oneself, misconduct oneself; misdo^, misbehave; fall, lapse, slip, trip, offend, trespass; deviate from the line of duty, deviate from the path of virtue &c 944; take a wrong course, go astray; hug a sin, hug a fault; sow one's wild oats. render vicious &c adj.; demoralize, brutalize; corrupt &c (degrade) 659. Adj. vicious; sinful; sinning &c v.; wicked, iniquitous, immoral, unrighteous, wrong, criminal; naughty, incorrect; unduteous^, undutiful. unprincipled, lawless, disorderly, contra bonos mores [Lat.], indecorous, unseemly, improper; dissolute, profligate, scampish; unworthy; worthless; desertless^; disgraceful, recreant; reprehensible, blameworthy, uncommendable; discreditable, disreputable; Sadistic. base, sinister, scurvy, foul, gross, vile, black, grave, facinorous^, felonious, nefarious, shameful, scandalous, infamous, villainous, of a deep dye, heinous; flagrant, flagitious; atrocious, incarnate, accursed. Mephistophelian, satanic, diabolic, hellish, infernal, stygian, fiendlike^, hell-born, demoniacal, devilish, fiendish. miscreated^, misbegotten; demoralized, corrupt, depraved. evil-minded, evil-disposed; ill-conditioned; malevolent &c 907; heartless, graceless, shameless, virtueless; abandoned, lost to virtue; unconscionable; sunk in iniquity, lost in iniquity, steeped in iniquity. incorrigible, irreclaimable, obdurate, reprobate, past praying for; culpable, reprehensible &c (guilty) 947. unjustifiable; indefensible, inexcusable; inexpiable, unpardonable, irremissible^. weak, frail, lax, infirm, imperfect; indiscrete; demoralizing, degrading. Adv. wrong; sinfully &c adj.; without excuse. Int. O tempora!^, O mores!, Phr. alitur vitium vivitque tegendo [Vergil]; genus est mortis male vivere [Lat.] [Ovid]; mala mens malus animus [Lat.] [Terence]; nemo repente fuit turpissimus [Lat.]; the trail of the serpent is over them all [Moore]; to sanction vice and hunt decorum down [Bryon]. 946. Innocence -- N. innocence; guiltlessness &c adj.; incorruption, impeccability. clean hands, clear conscience, mens sibi conscia recti [Lat.] [Vergil]. innocent, lamb, dove. V. be innocent &c adj.; nil conscire sibi nulla pallescere culpa [Lat.] [Horace]. acquit &c 970; exculpate &c (vindicate) 937. Adj. innocent, not guilty; unguilty^; guiltless, faultless, sinless, stainless, bloodless, spotless; clear, immaculate; rectus in curia [Lat.]; unspotted, unblemished, unerring; undefiled &c 939; unhardened^, Saturnian; Arcadian &c (artless) 703 [Obs.]. inculpable, unculpable^; unblamed, unblamable^; blameless, unfallen^, inerrable^, above suspicion; irreproachable, irreprovable^, irreprehensible^; unexceptionable, unobjectionable, unimpeachable; salvable^; venial &c 937. harmless; inoffensive, innoxious^, innocuous; dove-like, lamb-like; pure, harmless as doves; innocent as a lamb, innocent as the babe unborn; more sinned against than sinning [Lear]. virtuous &c 944; unreproved^, unimpeached, unreproached^. Adv. innocently &c adj.; with clean hands; with a clear conscience, with a safe conscience. Phr. murus aeneus conscientia sana [Horace]. 947. Guilt -- N. guilt, guiltiness; culpability; criminality, criminousness^; deviation from rectitude &c (improbity) 940 [Obs.]; sinfulness &c (vice) 945. misconduct, misbehavior, misdoing, misdeed; malpractice, fault, sin, error, transgression; dereliction, delinquency; indiscretion, lapse, slip, trip, faux pas [Fr.], peccadillo; flaw, blot, omission; failing, failure; break, bad break! [U.S.], capital crime, delictum [Lat.]. offense, trespass; misdemeanor, misfeasance, misprision; malefaction, malfeasance, malversation; crime, felony. enormity, atrocity, outrage; deadly sin, mortal sin; deed without a name [Macbeth]. corpus delicti. Adj. guilty, to blame, culpable, peccable^, in fault, at fault, censurable, reprehensible, blameworthy, uncommendable, illaudable^; weighed in the balance and found wanting; exceptionable. Adv. in flagrante delicto [Lat.]; red-handed, in the very act, with one's hand in the cookie jar. Phr. cui prodest scelus in fecit [Lat.] [Seneca]; culpam paena premit comes [Lat.] [Horace]; O would the deed were good! [Richard II]; responsibility prevents crimes se judice nemo nocens absolvitur [Lat.] [Juvenal]; so many laws argues so many sins [Paradise Lost]. 948. Good Man -- N. good man, honest man, worthy. good woman, perfect lady, Madonna. model, paragon &c (perfection) 650; good example; hero, heroine, demigod, seraph, angel; innocent &c 946; saint &c (piety) 987; benefactor &c 912; philanthropist &c 910; Aristides^; noble liver^, pattern. brick [Slang], trump [Slang], gem, jewel, good fellow, prince, diamond in the rough, rough diamond, ugly duckling^. salt of the earth; one in ten thousand; one in a million; a gentleman and a scholar; pillar of society, pillar of the community, a man among men. Phr. si sic omnes! [Lat.] 949. Bad Man -- N. bad man, wrongdoer, worker of iniquity; evildoer &c 913; sinner; the wicked &c 945; bad example. villain, rascal, scoundrel, miscreant, budmash^, caitiff^; wretch, reptile, viper, serpent, cockatrice, basilisk, urchin; tiger^, monster; devil &c (demon) 980; devil incarnate; demon in human shape, Nana Sahib; hellhound, hellcat; rakehell^. bad woman, jade, Jezebel. scamp, scapegrace, rip, runagate, ne'er-do-well, reprobate, scalawag, scallawag. rou_e [Fr.], rake; Sadist; skeesicks [Slang], skeezix [U.S.]; limb; one who has sold himself to the devil, fallen angel, ame damnee [Fr.], vaurien^, mauvais sujet [Fr.], loose fish, sad dog; rounder [Slang]; lost sheep, black sheep; castaway, recreant, defaulter; prodigal &c 818. rough, rowdy, hooligan, tough, ugly customer, mean mother [Coll.], ruffian, bully, meanie [Joc.]; Jonathan Wild; hangman. incendiary, arsonist, fire bug [U.S.]. thief &c 792; murderer, terrorist &c 361. [person who violates the criminal law] culprit, delinquent, crook, hoodlum, hood, criminal, thug, malefactor, offender, perpetrator, perp [Coll.]; disorderly person, misdemeanant [Law]; outlaw; scofflaw; vandal; felon, (convicted criminal); criminal; convict, prisoner, inmate, jail bird, ticket of leave man; multiple offender. blackguard, polisson^, loafer, sneak; rapscallion, rascallion^; cullion^, mean wretch, varlet, kern^, ame-de-boue [Fr.], drole^; cur, dog, hound^, whelp^, mongrel^; lown^, loon, runnion^, outcast, vagabond; rogue &c (knave) 941; ronian^; scum of the earth, riffraff; Arcades ambo^. Int. sirrah!^, Phr. Acherontis pabulum^; gibier de potence [Fr.]. 950. Penitence -- N. penitence, contrition, compunction, repentance, remorse; regret &c 833. self-reproach, self-reproof, self-accusation, self-condemnation, self-humiliation; stings of conscience, pangs of conscience, qualms of conscience, prickings of conscience^, twinge of conscience, twitch of conscience, touch of conscience, voice of conscience; compunctious visitings of nature^. acknowledgment, confession &c (disclosure) 529; apology &c 952; recantation &c 607; penance &c 952; resipiscence^. awakened conscience, deathbed repentance, locus paenitentiae [Lat.], stool of repentance, cuttystool^. penitent, repentant, Magdalen, prodigal son, a sadder and a wiser man [Coleridge]. V. repent, be sorry for; be penitent &c adj.; rue; regret &c 833; think better of; recant &c 607; knock under &c (submit) 725; plead guilty; sing miserere [Lat.], sing de profundis [Lat.]; cry peccavi; own oneself in the wrong; acknowledge, confess &c, (disclose) 529; humble oneself; beg pardon &c (apologize) 952; turn over a new leaf, put on the new man, turn from sin; reclaim; repent in sackcloth and ashes &c, (do penance) 952; learn by experience. Adj. penitent; repenting &c v.; repentant, contrite; conscience- smitten, conscience-stricken; self-accusing, self-convicted. penitential, penitentiary; reclaimed, reborn; not hardened; unhardened^. Adv. mea culpa. Phr. peccavi; erubuit [Lat.]; salva res est [Lat.] [Terence]; Tu l'as voulu [Fr.], Georges Dandin; and wet his grave with my repentant tears [Richard III]. 951. Impenitence -- N. impenitence, irrepentance^, recusance^; lack of contrition. hardness of heart, seared conscience, induration, obduracy. V. be impenitent &c adj.; steel the heart, harden the heart; die game, die and make no sign, die unshriven, die without benefit of clergy. Adj. impenitent, uncontrite, obdurate; hard, hardened; seared, recusant; unrepentant; relentless, remorseless, graceless, shriftless^. lost, incorrigible, irreclaimable. unreconstructed, unregenerate, unreformed; unrepented^, unreclaimed^, unatoned. 952. Atonement -- N. atonement, reparation; compromise, composition; compensation &c 30; quittance, quits; expiation, redemption, reclamation, conciliation, propitiation; indemnification, redress. amends, apology, amende honorable^, satisfaction; peace offering, sin offering, burnt offering; scapegoat, sacrifice. penance, fasting, maceration, sackcloth and ashes, white sheet, shrift, flagellation, lustration^; purgation, purgatory. V. atone, atone for; expiate; propitiate; make amends, make good; reclaim, redeem, repair, ransom, absolve, purge, shrive, do penance, stand in a white sheet, repent in sackcloth and ashes, wear a hairshirt. set one's house in order, wipe off old scores, make matters up; pay the forfeit, pay the penalty. apologize, beg pardon, fair l'amende honorable [Fr.], give satisfaction; come down on one's knees, fall down on one's knees, down on one's marrow bones. 4. MORAL PRACTICE 953. Temperance -- N. temperance, moderation, sobriety, soberness. forbearance, abnegation; self-denial, self-restraint, self-control &c (resolution) 604. frugality; vegetarianism, teetotalism, total abstinence; abstinence, abstemiousness; Encratism^, prohibition; system of Pythagoras, system of Cornaro; Pythagorism, Stoicism. vegetarian; Pythagorean, gymnosophist^. teetotaler &c 958; abstainer; designated driver; Encratite^, fruitarian^, hydropot^. V. be temperate &c adj.; abstain, forbear, refrain, deny oneself, spare, swear off. know when one has had enough, know one's limit. take the pledge, go on the wagon. Adj. temperate, moderate, sober, frugal, sparing; abstemious, abstinent; within compass; measured &c (sufficient) 639. on the wagon, on the water wagon. [Locations where alcoholic beverages are prohibited] dry. Pythagorean; vegetarian; teetotal. Phr. appetitus rationi obediant [Lat.] [Cicero]; l'abstenir pour jouir c'est l'epicurisme de la raison [Rousseau]; trahit sua quemque voluptas [Lat.] [Vergil]. 954. Intemperance -- N. intemperance; sensuality, animalism, carnality; tragalism^; pleasure; effeminacy, silkiness; luxury, luxuriousness; lap of pleasure, lap of luxury; free living. indulgence; high living, wild living, inabstinence^, self- indulgence; voluptuousness &c adj.; epicurism, epicureanism; sybaritism; drug habit. dissipation; licentiousness &c adj.; debauchery; crapulence^. revels, revelry; debauch, carousal, jollification, drinking bout, wassail, saturnalia, orgies; excess, too much. Circean cup. [drugs of abuse: list] bhang, hashish, marijuana, pot [Coll.], hemp [Coll.], grass [Coll.]; opium, cocaine, morphine, heroin; LSD, lysergic acid diethylamide [Chem]; phencyclidine, angel dust, PCP; barbiturates; amphetamines, speed [Coll.]. V. be intemperate &c adj.; indulge, exceed; live well, live high, live high on the fat of the land, live it up, live high on the hog; give a loose to indulgence &c n.; wallow in voluptuousness &c n.; plunge into dissipation. revel; rake, live hard, run riot, sow one's wild oats; slake one's appetite, slake one's thirst; swill; pamper. Adj. intemperate, inabstinent^; sensual, self-indulgent; voluptuous, luxurious, licentious, wild, dissolute, rakish, fast, debauched. brutish, crapulous^, swinish, piggish. Paphian, Epicurean, Sybaritical; bred in the lap of luxury, nursed in the lap of luxury; indulged, pampered; full-fed, high-fed. Phr. being full of supper and distempering draughts [Othello]. 954a. Sensualist -- N. Sybarite, voluptuary, Sardanaphalus, man of pleasure, carpet knight; epicure, epicurean, gourmet, gourmand; pig, hog; votary of Epicurus, swine of Epicurus; sensualist; Heliogabalus; free liver, hard liver; libertine &c 962; hedonist; tragalist^. 955. Asceticism -- N. asceticism, puritanism, sabbatarianism^; cynicism^, austerity; total abstinence; nephalism^. mortification, maceration, sackcloth and ashes, flagellation; penance &c 952; fasting &c 956; martyrdom. ascetic; anchoret^, anchorite; martyr; Heautontimorumenos^; hermit &c (recluse) 893; puritan, sabbatarian^, cynic, sanyasi^, yogi. Adj. ascetic, austere, puritanical; cynical; over-religious; acerbic. 956. Fasting -- N. fasting; xerophagy^; famishment, starvation. fast, jour maigre [Fr.]; fast day, banyan day; Lent, quadragesima^; Ramadan, Ramazan; spare diet, meager diet; lenten diet, lenten entertainment; soupe maigre [Fr.], short commons, Barmecide feast^; short rations. V. fast, starve, clem^, famish, perish with hunger; dine with Duke Humphrey^; make two bites of a cherry. Adj. lenten, quadragesimal^; unfed^; starved &c v.; half-starved; fasting &c v.; hungry &c 865. 957. Gluttony -- N. gluttony; greed, avarice; greediness &c adj.; voracity. epicurism; good living, high living; edacity^, gulosity^, crapulence^; guttling^, guzzling; pantophagy^. good cheer, blow out; feast &c (food) 298; gastronomy, batterie de cuisine [Fr.]. epicure, bon vivant, gourmand; glutton, cormorant, hog, belly god, Apicius^, gastronome; gourmet &c 954.1, 868. v.. gormandize, gorge; overgorge^, overeat oneself; engorge, eat one's fill, cram, stuff; guttle^, guzzle; bolt, devour, gobble up; gulp &c (swallow food) 298; raven, eat out of house and home. have the stomach of an ostrich; play a good knife and fork &c (appetite) 865. pamper. Adj. gluttonous, greedy; gormandizing &c v.; edacious^, omnivorous, crapulent^, swinish. avaricious &c 819; selfish &c 918. pampered; overfed, overgorged^. Phr. jejunus raro stomachus vulgaria temnit [Lat.] [Horace]. 958. Sobriety -- N. sobriety; teetotalism. temperance &c 953. water-drinker; hydropot^; prohibitionist; teetotaler, teetotalist; abstainer, Good Templar, band of hope. V. take the pledge. Adj. sober, sober as a judge. 959. Drunkenness -- N. drunkenness &c adj.; intemperance; drinking &c v.; inebriety^, inebriation; ebriety^, ebriosity^; insobriety; intoxication; temulency^, bibacity^, wine bibbing; comtation^, potation; deep potations, bacchanals, bacchanalia, libations; bender [U.S.]. oinomania^, dipsomania; delirium tremens; alcohol, alcoholism; mania a potu [Fr.]. drink; alcoholic drinks; blue ruin [Slang], grog, port wine; punch, punch bowl; cup, rosy wine, flowing bowl; drop, drop too much; dram; beer &c (beverage) 298; aguardiente^; apple brandy, applejack; brandy, brandy smash [U.S.]; chain lightning [Slang], champagne, cocktail; gin, ginsling^; highball [U.S.], peg, rum, rye, schnapps [U.S.], sherry, sling [U.S.], uisquebaugh [Ire.], usquebaugh [Scot.], whisky, xeres^. drunkard, sot, toper, tippler, bibber^, wine-bibber, lush; hard drinker, gin drinker, dram drinker; soaker [Slang], sponge, tun; love pot, toss pot; thirsty soul, reveler, carouser, Bacchanal, Bacchanalian; Bacchal^, Bacchante^; devotee to Bacchus^; bum [U.S.], guzzler, tavern haunter. V. get drunk, be drunk &c adj.; see double; take a drop too much, take a glass too much; drink; tipple, tope, booze, bouse [Fr.], guzzle, swill [Slang], soak [Slang], sot, bum [U.S.], besot, have a jag on, have a buzz on, lush [Slang], bib, swig, carouse; sacrifice at the shrine of Bacchus^; take to drinking; drink hard, drink deep, drink like a fish; have one's swill [Slang], drain the cup, splice the main brace, take a hair of the dog that bit you. liquor, liquor up; wet one's whistle, take a whet; crack a bottle, pass the bottle; toss off &c (drink up) 298; go to the alehouse, go to the public house. make one drunk &c adj.; inebriate, fuddle, befuddle, fuzzle^, get into one's head. Adj. drunk, tipsy; intoxicated; inebrious^, inebriate, inebriated; in one's cups; in a state of intoxication &c n.; temulent^, temulentive^; bombed, smashed; fuddled, mellow, cut, boozy, fou^, fresh, merry, elevated; flustered, disguised, groggy, beery; top-heavy; potvaliant^, glorious; potulent^; squiffy [Slang]; overcome, overtaken; whittled, screwed [Slang], tight, primed, corned, raddled^, sewed up [Slang], lushy [Slang], nappy^, muddled, muzzy^, obfuscated, maudlin; crapulous^, dead drunk. woozy [slightly drunk], buzzed, flush, flushed. inter pocula^; in liquor, the worse for liquor; having had a drop too much, half seas over, three sheets in the wind, three sheets to the wind; under the table. drunk as a lord, drunk as a skunk, drunk as a piper, drunk as a fiddler, drunk as Chloe, drunk as an owl, drunk as David's sow, drunk as a wheelbarrow. drunken, bibacious^, sottish; given to drink, addicted to drink, addicted to the bottle; toping &c v.. Phr. nunc est bibendum [Lat.]; Bacchus ever fair and young [Dryden]; drink down all unkindness [Merry Wives]; O that men should put an enemy in their mouths to steal away their brains [Othello]. 960. Purity -- N. purity; decency, decorum, delicacy; continence, chastity, honesty, virtue, modesty, shame; pudicity^, pucelage^, virginity. vestal, virgin, Joseph, Hippolytus; Lucretia, Diana; prude. Adj. pure, undefiled, modest, delicate, decent, decorous; virginibus puerisque [Lat.]; simon-pure; chaste, continent, virtuous, honest, Platonic. virgin, unsullied; cherry [Coll.]. Phr. as chaste as unsunn'd snow [Cymbeline]; a soul as white as heaven [Beaumont and Fletcher]; 'tis Chastity, my brother, Chastity [Milton]; to the pure all things are pure [Shelley]. 961. Impurity -- N. impurity; uncleanness &c (filth) 653; immodesty; grossness &c adj.; indelicacy, indecency; impudicity^; obscenity, ribaldry, Fescennine, smut, bawdry^, double entente, equivoque [Fr.]. concupiscence, lust, carnality, flesh, salacity; pruriency, lechery, lasciviency^, lubricity; Sadism, sapphism^. incontinence, intrigue, faux pas [Fr.]; amour, amourette^; gallantry; debauchery, libertinish^, libertinage^, fornication; liaison; wenching, venery, dissipation. seduction; defloration, defilement, abuse, violation, rape; incest. prostitution, social evil, harlotry, stupration^, whoredom, concubinage, cuckoldom^, adultery, advoutry^, crim. con.; free love. seraglio, harem; brothel, bagnio^, stew, bawdyhouse^, cat house, lupanar^, house of ill fame, bordel^, bordello. V. be impure &c adj.; intrigue; debauch, defile, seduce; prostitute; abuse, violate, deflower; commit adultery &c n.. Adj. impure; unclean &c (dirty) 653; not to be mentioned to ears polite; immodest, shameless; indecorous, indelicate, indecent; Fescennine; loose, risque [Fr.], coarse, gross, broad, free, equivocal, smutty, fulsome, ribald, obscene, bawdy, pornographic. concupiscent, prurient, lickerish^, rampant, lustful; carnal, carnal-minded; lewd, lascivious, lecherous, libidinous, erotic, ruttish, salacious; Paphian; voluptuous; goatish, must, musty. unchaste, light, wanton, licentious, debauched, dissolute; of loose character, of easy virtue; frail, gay, riggish^, incontinent, meretricious, rakish, gallant, dissipated; no better than she should be; on the town, on the streets, on the pave, on the loose. adulterous, incestuous, bestial. 962. Libertine -- N. libertine; voluptuary &c 954.1; rake, debauchee, loose fish, rip, rakehell^, fast man; intrigant^, gallant, seducer, fornicator, lecher, satyr, goat, whoremonger, paillard^, adulterer, gay deceiver, Lothario, Don Juan, Bluebeard^; chartered libertine. adulteress, advoutress^, courtesan, prostitute, strumpet, harlot, whore, punk, fille de joie [Fr.]; woman, woman of the town; streetwalker, Cyprian, miss, piece [Fr.]; frail sisterhood; demirep, wench, trollop, trull^, baggage, hussy, drab, bitch, jade, skit, rig, quean^, mopsy^, slut, minx, harridan; unfortunate, unfortunate female, unfortunate woman; woman of easy virtue &c (unchaste) 961; wanton, fornicatress^; Jezebel, Messalina, Delilah, Thais, Phryne, Aspasia^, Lais, lorette^, cocotte^, petite dame, grisette^; demimonde; chippy [U.S.]; sapphist^; spiritual wife; white slave. concubine, mistress, doxy^, chere amie [Fr.], bona roba [It]. pimp, procurer; pander, pandar^; bawd, conciliatrix^, procuress^, mackerel, wittol^. 5. MORAL INSTITUTIONS 963. Legality -- N. legality; legitimacy, legitimateness. legislature; law, code, corpus juris [Lat.], constitution, pandect^, charter, enactment, statute, rule; canon &c (precept) 697; ordinance, institution, regulation; bylaw, byelaw; decree &c (order) 741; ordonnance^; standing order; plebiscite &c (choice) 609. legal process; form, formula, formality; rite, arm of the law; habeas corpus; fieri facias [Lat.]. [Science of law] jurisprudence, nomology^; legislation, codification. equity, common law; lex [Lat.], lex nonscripta [Lat.]; law of nations, droit des gens [Fr.], international law, jus gentium [Lat.]; jus civile [Lat.]; civil law, canon law, crown law, criminal law, statute law, ecclesiastical law, administrative law; lex mercatoria [Lat.]. constitutionalism, constitutionality; justice &c 922. [institution for deciding questions of law] court, tribunal &c 966. [person who presides at a court or tribunal] judge &c 967. [specialist in questions of law] lawyer, attorney, legal counsel &c 968. V. legalize; enact, ordain; decree &c (order) 741; pass a law, enact a regulation; legislate; codify, formulate; regulate. Adj. legal, legitimate; according to law; vested, constitutional, chartered, legalized; lawful &c (permitted) 760; statutable^, statutory; legislatorial, legislative; regulatory, regulated. Adv. legally &c adj.; in the eye of the law; de jure [Lat.]. Phr. ignorantia legis neminem excusat [Lat.], ignorance of the law is no excuse; where law ends tyranny begins [Earl of Chatham]. 964. [Absence or violation of law.] Illegality -- N. lawlessness; illicitness; breach of law, violation of law, infraction of the law; disobedience &c 742; unconformity &c 83. arbitrariness &c adj.; antinomy, violence, brute force, despotism, outlawry. mob law, lynch law, club law, Lydford law, martial law, drumhead law; coup d'etat [Fr.]; le droit du plus fort [Fr.]; argumentum baculinum [Lat.]. illegality, informality, unlawfulness, illegitimacy, bar sinister. trover and conversion [Law]; smuggling, poaching; simony. [person who violates the law] outlaw, bad man &c 949. v.. offend against the law; violate the law, infringe the law, break the law; set the law at defiance, ride roughshod over, drive a coach and six through a statute; ignore the law, make the law a dead letter, take the law into one's own hands. smuggle, run, poach. Adj. illegal [contrary to law], unlawful, illegitimate; not allowed, prohibited &c 761; illicit, contraband; actionable. unwarranted, unwarrantable; unauthorized; informal, unofficial; injudicial^, extrajudicial. lawless, arbitrary; despotic, despotical^; corrupt, summary, irresponsible; unanswerable, unaccountable. [of invalid or expired law] expired, invalid; unchartered, unconstitutional; null and void; a dead letter. [in absence of law] lawless, unregulated Adv. illegally &c adj.; with a high hand, in violation of law. 965. Jurisdiction [Executive.] -- N. jurisdiction, judicature, administration of justice, soc; executive, commission of the peace; magistracy &c (authority) 737. judge &c 967; tribunal &c 966; municipality, corporation, bailiwick, shrievalty [Brit.]; lord lieutenant, sheriff, shire reeve, shrieve^, constable; selectman; police, police force, the fuzz [Sarc.]; constabulary, bumbledom^, gendarmerie [Fr.]. officer, bailiff, tipstaff, bum-bailiff, catchpoll, beadle; policeman, cop [Coll.], police constable, police sergeant; sbirro^, alguazil^, gendarme, kavass^, lictor^, mace bearer, huissier [Fr.], bedel^; tithingman^. press gang; exciseman^, gauger, gager^, customhouse officer, douanier [Fr.]. coroner, edile^, aedile^, portreeve^, paritor^; posse comitatus [Lat.]. bureau, cutcherry^, department, secretariat. [extension of jurisdiction] long arm of the law, extradition. V. judge, sit in judgment; extradite. Adj. executive, administrative, municipal; inquisitorial, causidical^; judicatory^, judiciary, judicial; juridical. Adv. coram judice [Lat.]. 966. Tribunal -- N. tribunal, court, board, bench, judicatory^; court of justice, court of law, court of arbitration, administrative court; inquisition; guild. justice seat; judgment seat, mercy seat; woolsack^; bar of justice; dock; forum, hustings, bureau, drumhead; jury box, witness box. senate house, town hall, theater; House of Commons, House of Lords; statehouse [U.S.], townhouse. assize, eyre; wardmote^, burghmote^; barmote^; superior courts of Westminster; court of record, court oyer and terminer [Law], court assize, court of appeal, court of error; High court of Judicature, High court of Appeal; Judicial Committee of the Privy Council; Star Chamber; Court of Chancery, Court of King's or Queen's Bench, Court of Exchequer, Court of Common Pleas, Court of Probate, Court of Arches, Court of Admiralty; Lords Justices' court, Rolls court, Vice Chancellor's court, Stannary court^, Divorce court, Family court, Palatine court, county court, district court, police court; sessions; quarter sessions, petty sessions; court-leet [Fr.], court-baron, court of pie poudre [Fr.], court of common council; board of green cloth. court martial; drumhead court martial; durbar^, divan; Areopagus^; Irota. Adj. judicial &c 965; appellate. Phr. die Weltgeschichte ist das Weltgericht [G.]. 967. Judge -- N. judge; justice, justiciar^, justiciary^; chancellor; justice of assize, judge of assize; recorder, common sergeant; puisne judge, assistant judge, county court judge; conservator of the peace, justice of the peace; J.P.; court &c (tribunal) 966; magistrate, police magistrate, beak [Slang]; his worship, his honor, his lordship. jury, twelve men in a box. Lord Chancellor, Lord Justice; Master of the Rolls, Vice Chancellor; Lord Chief Justice, Chief Baron; Mr. Justice, Associate Justice, Chief Justice; Baron, Baron of the Exchequer. jurat [Lat.], assessor; arbiter, arbitrator; umpire; referee, referendary^; revising barrister; domesman^; censor &c (critic) 480; barmaster^, ephor^; grand juror, grand juryman; juryman, talesman. archon, tribune, praetor, syndic, podesta^, mollah^, ulema, mufti, cadi^, kadi^; Rhadamanthus^. litigant &c (accusation) 938. V. adjudge &c (determine) 480; try a case, try a prisoner. Adj. judicial &c 965. Phr. a Daniel come to judgment [Merchant of Venice]. 968. Lawyer -- N. lawyer, attorney, legal counsel; counsel, counsellor, counsellor at law, attorney at law; jurist, legist^, civilian, pundit, publicist, juris consult [Lat.], legal adviser, advocate; barrister, barrister at law; King's or Queen's counsel; K.C.; Q.C.; silk gown, leader, sergeant-at-law, bencher; tubman^, judge &c 967. bar, legal profession, bar association, association of trial lawyers; officer of the court; gentleman of the long robe; junior bar, outer bar, inner bar; equity draftsman, conveyancer, pleader, special pleader. solicitor, proctor; notary, notary public; scrivener, cursitor^; writer, writer to the signet; S.S.C.; limb of the law; pettifogger; vakil^. legal beagle [Coll.]. [persons accessory to lawyers] legal secretary; legal assistant; law student. V. practice law, practice at the bar, practice within the bar; plead; call to the bar, be called to the bar, be called within the bar; take silk; take to the law. give legal counsel, provide legal counsel. Adj. learned in the law; at the bar; forensic; esquire, esquired. Phr. banco regis [Lat.]. 969. Lawsuit -- N. lawsuit, suit, action, cause; litigation; suit in law; dispute &c 713. citation, arraignment, prosecution, impeachment; accusation &c 938; presentment, true bill, indictment. apprehension, arrest; committal; imprisonment &c (restraint) 751. writ, summons, subpoena, latitat^, nisi prius [Lat.]; venire, venire facias pleadings [Lat.]; declaration, bill, claim; proces verbal [Fr.]; bill of right, information, corpus delicti; affidavit, state of facts; answer, reply, replication, plea, demurrer, rebutter, rejoinder; surrebutter^, surrejoinder^. suitor, party to a suit; plaintiff, defendant, litigant &c 938. hearing, trial; verdict &c (judgment) 480; appeal, appeal motion; writ of error; certiorari [Lat.]. case; decision, precedent; decided case, reports (legal reference works, see reference books).. V. go to law, appeal to the law; bring to justice, bring to trial, bring to the bar; put on trial, pull up; accuse &c 938; prefer a claim, file a claim &c n.; take the law of, inform against. serve with a writ, cite, apprehend, arraign, sue, prosecute, bring an action against, indict, impeach, attach, distrain, commit; arrest; summon, summons; give in charge &c (restrain) 751. empanel a jury, implead^, join issue; close the pleadings; set down for hearing. try, hear a cause; sit in judgment; adjudicate &c 480. Adj. litigious &c (quarrelsome) 713; qui tam; coram judice [Lat.], sub judice [Lat.]. Adv. pendente lite [Lat.]. Phr. adhuc sub judice lis est [Lat.]; accedas ad curiam [Lat.]; transeat in exemplum [Lat.]. 970. Acquittal -- N. acquittal, acquitment^; clearance, exculpation; acquittance, clearance, exoneration; discharge &c (release) 750; quietus, absolution, compurgation^, reprieve, respite; pardon &c (forgiveness) 918. [Exemption from punishment] impunity; diplomatic immunity; immunity; plea bargain, deal with the prosecutor. [in civil suits] no cause for action; no damages. V. acquit, exculpate, exonerate, clear; absolve, whitewash, assoil^; discharge, release; liberate &c 750. reprieve, respite; pardon &c (forgive) 918; let off, let off scot- free. drop the charges. plea bargain, strike a deal. no-cause (in civil suits); get no-caused Adj. acquitted &c v.; uncondemned, unpunished, unchastised. not guilty; not proven. not liable. Phr. nemo bis punitur pro codem delicto [Lat.]. 971. Condemnation -- N. condemnation, conviction, judgment, penalty, sentence; proscription, damnation; death warrant. attainder, attainture^, attaintment^. V. condemn, convict, cast, bring home to, find guilty, damn, doom, sign the death warrant, sentence, pass sentence on, attaint, confiscate, proscribe, sequestrate; nonsuit^. disapprove &c 932; accuse &c 938. stand condemned. Adj. condemnatory, damnatory^; guilty, condemned &c v.; nonsuited &c (failure) 732 [Obs.]; self-convicted. Phr. mutato nomine de te fabula narratur [Lat.]; unrespited, unpitied, unreprieved [Paradise Lost]. 972. Punishment -- N. punishment, punition^; chastisement, chastening; correction, castigation. discipline, infliction, trial; judgment; penalty &c 974; retribution; thunderbolt, Nemesis; requital &c (reward) 973; penology; retributive justice. lash, scaffold &c (instrument of punishment) 975; imprisonment &c (restraint) 751; transportation, banishment, expulsion, exile, involuntary exile, ostracism; penal servitude, hard labor; galleys &c 975; beating &c v.; flagellation, fustigation^, gantlet, strappado^, estrapade^, bastinado, argumentum baculinum [Lat.], stick law, rap on the knuckles, box on the ear; blow &c (impulse) 276; stripe, cuff, kick, buffet, pummel; slap, slap in the face; wipe, douse; coup de grace; torture, rack; picket, picketing; dragonnade^. capital punishment; execution; lethal injection; the gas chamber; hanging &c v.; electrocution, rail-riding, scarpines^; decapitation, decollation^; garrotte, garrotto [It]; crucifixion, impalement; firing squad; martyrdom; auto-da-fe [Fr.]; noyade^; happy dispatch. [suicide as punishment] hara-kiri, seppuku [Jap.]; drinking the hemlock. V. punish; chastise, chasten; castigate, correct, inflict punishment, administer correction, deal retributive justice; cowhide, lambaste [Slang]. visit upon, pay; pay out, serve out; do for; make short work of, give a lesson to, serve one right, make an example of; have a rod in pickle for; give it one. strike &c 276; deal a blow to, administer the lash, smite; slap, slap the face; smack, cuff, box the ears, spank, thwack, thump, beat, lay on, swinge^, buffet; thresh, thrash, pummel, drub, leather, trounce, sandbag, baste, belabor; lace, lace one's jacket; dress, dress down, give a dressing, trim, warm, wipe, tund^, cob, bang, strap, comb, lash, lick, larrup, wallop, whop, flog, scourge, whip, birch, cane, give the stick, switch, flagellate, horsewhip, bastinado, towel, rub down with an oaken towel, rib roast, dust one's jacket, fustigate^, pitch into, lay about one, beat black and blue; beat to a mummy, beat to a jelly; give a black eye. tar and feather; pelt, stone, lapidate^; masthead, keelhaul. execute; bring to the block, bring to the gallows; behead, decapitate, guillotine; decollate; hang, turn off, gibbet, bowstring, hang draw and quarter; shoot; decimate; burn; break on the wheel, crucify; empale^, impale; flay; lynch; electrocute; gas, send to the gas chamber. torture; put on, put to the rack; picket. banish, exile, transport, expel, ostracize; rusticate; drum out; dismiss, disbar, disbench^; strike off the roll, unfrock; post. suffer, suffer for, suffer punishment; be flogged. be executed, suffer the ultimate penalty; be hanged &c; come to the gallows, mount the gallows, swing [Coll.], twist in the wind, dance upon nothing, die in one's shoes; be rightly served; be electrocuted, fry [Coll.], ride the lightning [Coll.]; face the firing squad. Adj. punishing &c v.; penal; punitory^, punitive; inflictive, castigatory; punished &c v.. Int. a la lanterne! [Fr.], Phr. culpan paena premit comes [Lat.] [Horace]; eating the bitter bread of banishment [Richard II]; gravis ira regum est semper [Lat.] [Seneca]; sera tamen tacitis paena venit pedibus [Lat.] [Tibullus]; suo sibi gladio hunc jugulo [Lat.] [Terence]. 973. Reward -- N. reward, recompense, remuneration, meed, guerdon^, reguerdon^; price. [payment for damage or debt] indemnity, indemnification; quittance; compensation; reparation, redress, satisfaction; reckoning, acknowledgment, requital, amends, sop; atonement, retribution; consideration, return, quid pro quo. salvage, perquisite; vail &c (donation) 784 [Obs.]. douceur [Fr.], bribe; hush money, smart money^; blackmail, extortion; carcelage^; solatium^. allowance, salary, stipend, wages, compensation; pay, payment; emolument; tribute; batta^, shot, scot; bonus, premium, tip; fee, honorarium; hire; dasturi^, dustoori^; mileage. crown &c (decoration of honor) 877. V. reward, recompense, repay, requite; remunerate, munerate^; compensate; fee; pay one's footing &c (pay) 807; make amends, indemnify, atone; satisfy, acknowledge. get for one's pains, reap the fruits of. tip. Adj. remunerative, remuneratory; munerary^, compensatory, retributive, reparatory^; rewarding; satisfactory. Phr. fideli certa merces [Lat.]; honor virtutis praemium [Lat.] [Cicero]; tibi seris tibi metis [Lat.]. 974. Penalty -- N. penalty; retribution &c (punishment) 972; pain, pains and penalties; weregild^, wergild; peine forte et dure [Fr.]; penance &c (atonement) 952; the devil to pay. fine, mulct, amercement; forfeit, forfeiture; escheat [Law], damages, deodand^, sequestration, confiscation, premunire [Lat.]; doomage [U.S.]. V. fine, mulct, amerce, sconce, confiscate; sequestrate, sequester; escheat [Law]; estreat^, forfeit. 975. [Instrument of punishment.] Scourge -- N. scourge, rod, cane, stick; ratan^, rattan; birch, birch rod; azote^, blacksnake^, bullwhack [U.S.], chicote^, kurbash^, quirt, rawhide, sjambok^; rod in pickle; switch, ferule, cudgel, truncheon. whip, bullwhip, lash, strap, thong, cowhide, knout; cat, cat o'nine tails; rope's end. pillory, stocks, whipping post; cucking stool^, ducking stool; brank^; trebuchet^, trebuket^. [instruments of torture: list], triangle, wooden horse, iron maiden, thumbscrew, boot, rack, wheel, iron heel; chinese water torture. treadmill, crank, galleys. scaffold; block, ax, guillotine; stake; cross; gallows, gibbet, tree, drop, noose, rope, halter, bowstring; death chair, electric chair; gas chamber; lethal injection; firing squad; mecate^. house of correction &c (prison) 752. goaler, jailer; executioner; electrocutioner^; lyncher; hangman; headsman^; Jack Ketch. SECTION V. RELIGIOUS AFFECTIONS 1. SUPERHUMAN BEINGS AND REGIONS 976. Deity -- N. Deity, Divinity; Godhead, Godship^; Omnipotence, Providence; Heaven (metonymically). [Quality of being divine] divineness^, divinity. God, Lord, Jehovah, Jahweh, Allah^; The Almighty, The Supreme Being, The First Cause, the Prime Mover; Ens Entium [Lat.]; Author of all things, Creator of all things; Author of our being; Cosmoplast^; El; The Infinite, The Eternal; The All-powerful, The All-wise, The All- merciful, The All-holy. [Attributes and perfections] infinite power, infinite wisdom, infinite goodness, infinite justice, infinite truth, infinite mercy; omnipotence, omniscience, omnipresence; unity, immutability, holiness, glory, majesty, sovereignty, infinity, eternity. The Trinity, The Holy Trinity, The Trinity in Unity, The Triune God, God the Father Son and Holy Ghost. God the Father; The Maker, The Creator, The Preserver. [Functions] creation, preservation, divine government; Theocracy, Thearchy^; providence; ways of Providence, dealings of Providence, dispensations of Providence, visitations of Providence. [Christian God: second person] God the Son, Jesus, Christ; The Messiah, The Anointed, The Saviour, the Redeemer, The Mediator, The Intercessor, The Advocate, The Judge; The Son of God, The Son of Man, The Son of David; The Lamb of God, The Word; Logos; Emmanuel; Immanuel; The King of Kings and Lord of Lords, The King of Glory, The Prince of Peace, The Good Shepherd, The Way, The Truth, The Life, The Bread of Life, The Light of the World; The Lord our, The Sun of Righteousness; The Pilot of the Galilean lake [Milton]. The Incarnation, The Hypostatic Union. [Functions] salvation, redemption, atonement, propitiation, mediation, intercession, judgment. [Christian God: third person] God the Holy Ghost, The Holy Spirit, Paraclete [Theo.]; The Comforter, The Spirit of Truth, The Dove. [Functions] inspiration, unction, regeneration, sanctification, consolation. eon, aeon, special providence, deus ex machina [Lat.]; avatar. V. create, move, uphold, preserve, govern &c; atone, redeem, save, propitiate, mediate, &c; predestinate, elect, call, ordain, bless, justify, sanctify, glorify &c Adj. almighty, holy, hallowed, sacred, divine, heavenly, celestial; sacrosanct; all-knowing, all-seeing, all-wise; omniscient. superhuman, supernatural; ghostly, spiritual, hyperphysical^, unearthly; theistic, theocratic; anointed; soterial^. Adj. jure divino [Lat.], by divine right. Phr. Domine dirige nos [Lat.]; en Dieu est ma fiance [Fr.]; et sceleratis sol oritur [Lat.] [Seneca]; He mounts the storm and walks upon the wind [Pope]; Thou great First Cause, least understood [Pope]; sans Dieu rien [Fr.]. 977. [Beneficent spirits] Angel -- N. angel, archangel; guardian angel; heavenly host, host of heaven, sons of God; seraph, seraphim; cherub, cherubim. ministering spirit, morning star. saint, patron saint, Madonna; invisible helpers. Adj. angelic, seraphic, cherubic; saintly. 978. [Maleficent spirits.] Satan -- N. Satan, the Devil, Lucifer, Mephistopheles, Ahriman^, Belial; Samael, Zamiel, Beelzebub, the Prince of the Devils. the tempter; the evil one, the evil spirit; the Adversary; the archenemy; the author of evil, the wicked one, the old Serpent; the Prince of darkness, the Prince of this world, the Prince of the power of the air; the foul fiend, the arch fiend; the devil incarnate; the common enemy, the angel of the bottomless pit; Abaddon^, Apollyon^. fallen angels, unclean spirits, devils; the rulers, the powers of darkness; inhabitants of Pandemonium; demon &c 980. diabolism; devilism^, devilship^; diabolology^; satanism, devil worship; manicheism; the cloven foot. Adj. satanic, diabolic, devilish; infernal, hellborn^. Mythological and other fabulous Deities and Powers 979. Jupiter -- N. god, goddess; heathen gods and goddesses; deva^; Jupiter, Jove &c; pantheon. Allah^, Bathala^, Brahm^, Brahma^, Brahma^, cloud-compeller, Devi, Durga, Kali, oread^, the Great Spirit, Ushas; water nymph, wood nymph; Yama, Varuna, Zeus; Vishnu [Hindu deities], Siva, Shiva, Krishna, Juggernath^, Buddha; Isis [Egyptian deities], Osiris, Ra; Belus, Bel, Baal^, Asteroth &c; Thor [Norse deities], Odin; Mumbo Jumbo; good genius, tutelary genius; demiurge, familiar; sibyl; fairy, fay; sylph, sylphid; Ariel^, peri, nymph, nereid, dryad, seamaid, banshee, benshie^, Ormuzd; Oberon, Mab, hamadryad^, naiad, mermaid, kelpie^, Ondine, nixie, sprite; denizens of the air; pixy &c (bad spirit) 980. mythology; heathen-mythology, fairy-mythology; Lempriere, folklore. Adj. god-like, fairy-like; sylph-like; sylphic^. Phr. you moonshine revelers and shades of night [Merry Wives]. 980. Demon -- N. demon, daemon, demonry^, demonology; evil genius, fiend, familiar, daeva^, devil; bad spirit, unclean spirit; cacodemon^, incubus, Eblis, shaitan^, succubus, succuba; Frankenstein's monster; Titan, Shedim, Mephistopheles, Asmodeus^, Moloch, Belial, Ahriman^; fury, harpy; Friar Rush. vampire, ghoul; afreet^, barghest^, Loki; ogre, ogress; gnome, gin, jinn, imp, deev^, lamia^; bogie, bogeyman, bogle^; nis^, kobold^, flibbertigibbet, fairy, brownie, pixy, elf, dwarf, urchin; Puck, Robin Goodfellow; leprechaun, Cluricaune^, troll, dwerger^, sprite, ouphe^, bad fairy, nix, nixie, pigwidgeon^, will-o'-the wisp. [Supernatural appearance] ghost, revenant, specter, apparition, spirit, shade, shadow, vision; hobglobin, goblin, orc; wraith, spook, boggart^, banshee, loup-garou [Fr.], lemures^; evil eye. merman, mermaid, merfolk^; siren; satyr, faun; manito^, manitou, manitu. possession, demonic possession, diabolic possession; insanity &c 503. [in jest, in science] Maxwell's demon. [person possessed by a demon] demoniac. Adj. demonic, demonical, impish, demoniacal; fiendish, fiend-like; supernatural, weird, uncanny, unearthly, spectral; ghostly, ghost-like; elfin, elvin^, elfish, elflike^; haunted; pokerish [U.S.]. possessed, possessed by a devil, possessed by a demon. Adv. demonically. 981. Heaven -- N. heaven; kingdom of heaven, kingdom of God; heavenly kingdom; throne of God; presence of God; inheritance of the saints in light. Paradise, Eden, Zion, abode of the blessed; celestial bliss, glory. [Mythological heaven] Olympus; Elysium (paradise), Elysian fields, Arcadia^, bowers of bliss, garden of the Hesperides, third heaven; Valhalla, Walhalla (Scandinavian); Nirvana (Buddhist); happy hunting grounds; Alfardaws^, Assama^; Falak al aflak [Ar.] the highest heaven (Mohammedan). future state, eternal home, eternal reward. resurrection, translation; resuscitation &c 660. apotheosis, deification. Adj. heavenly, celestial, supernal, unearthly, from on high, paradisiacal, beatific, elysian. Phr. looks through nature up to the nature's god [Pope]; the great world's altarstairs, that slope through darkness up to God [Tennyson]; the treasury of everlasting joy [Henry VI]; vigeur de dessus [Fr.]. 982. Hell -- N. hell, bottomless pit, place of torment; habitation of fallen angels; Pandemonium, Abaddon^, Domdaniel; jahannan^, sheol^. hell fire; everlasting fire, everlasting torment, eternal damnation; lake of fire and brimstone; fire that is never quenched; worm that never dies. purgatory, limbo, gehenna, abyss. [Mythological hell] Tartarus, Hades, Avernus [Lat.], Styx, Stygian creek, pit of Acheron^, Cocytus; infernal regions, inferno, shades below, realms of Pluto. Pluto, Rhadamanthus^, Erebus [Lat.]; Tophet. Adj. hellish, infernal, stygian. Phr. dies irae dies illa [Lat.]; the hue of dungeons and the scowl of night [Love's Labor's Lost]. 2. RELIGIOUS DOCTRINES 983. [Religious Knowledge.] Theology -- N. theology (natural and revealed); theogony^, theosophy; divinity; hagiology, hagiography; Caucasian mystery; monotheism; religion; religious persuasion, religious sect, religious denomination; creed &c (belief) 484; article of faith, declaration of faith, profession of faith, confession of faith. theologue, theologian; scholastic, divine, schoolman^, canonist, theologist^; the Fathers. Adj. theological, religious; denominational; sectarian &c 984. 983a. Orthodoxy -- N. orthodoxy; strictness, soundness, religious truth, true faith; truth &c 494; soundness of doctrine. Christianity, Christianism^; Catholicism, Catholicity; the faith once delivered to the saints; hyperorthodoxy &c 984 [Obs.]; iconoclasm. The Church; Catholic Church, Universal Church, Apostolic Church, Established Church; temple of the Holy Ghost; Church of Christ, body of Christ, members of Christ, disciples of Christ, followers of Christ; Christian, Christian community; true believer; canonist &c (theologian) 983; Christendom, collective body of Christians. canons &c (belief) 484; thirty nine articles; Apostles' Creed, Nicene Creed, Athanasian Creed^; Church Catechism; textuary^. Adj. orthodox, sound, strick^, faithful, catholic, schismless^, Christian, evangelical, scriptural, divine, monotheistic; true &c 494. Phr. of the true faith. 984. Heterodoxy [Sectarianism.] -- N. heterodoxy; error &c 495; false doctrine, heresy, schism; schismaticism^, schismaticalness; recusancy, backsliding, apostasy; atheism &c (irreligion) 989 [Obs.]. bigotry &c (obstinacy) 606; fanaticism, iconoclasm; hyperorthodoxy^, precisianism^, bibliolatry^, sabbatarianism^, puritanism; anthropomorphism; idolatry &c 991; superstition &c (credulity) 486; dissent &c 489. sectarism^, sectarianism; noncomformity^; secularism; syncretism^. [religious sects.] protestantism, Arianism^, Adventism, Jansenism, Stundism^, Erastianism^, Calvinism, quakerism^, methodism, anabaptism^, Puseyism, tractarianism^, ritualism, Origenism, Sabellianism, Socinianism^, Deism, Theism, materialism, positivism, latitudinarianism &c High Church, Low Church, Broad Church, Free Church; ultramontanism^; papism, papistry; monkery^; papacy; Anglicanism, Catholicism, Romanism; popery, Scarlet Lady, Church of Rome, Greek Church. paganism, heathenism, ethicism^; mythology; polytheism, ditheism^, tritheism^; dualism; heathendom^. Judaism, Gentilism^, Islamism, Islam, Mohammedanism, Babism^, Sufiism, Neoplatonism, Turcism^, Brahminism, Hinduism, Buddhism, Sabianism, Gnosticism, Hylotheism^, Mormonism; Christian Science. heretic, apostate, antichrist^; pagan, heathen; painim^, paynim^; giaour^; gentile; pantheist, polytheist; idolator. schismatic; sectary, sectarian, sectarist^; seceder, separatist, recusant, dissenter; nonconformist, nonjuror^. bigot &c (obstinacy) 606; fanatic, abdal^, iconoclast. latitudinarian, Deist, Theist, Unitarian; positivist, materialist; Homoiousian^, Homoousian^, limitarian^, theosophist, ubiquitarian^; skeptic &c 989. Protestant; Huguenot; orthodox dissenter, Congregationalist, Independent; Episcopalian, Presbyterian; Lutheran, Calvinist, Methodist, Wesleyan; Ana^, Baptist; Mormon, Latter-day Saint^, Irvingite, Sandemanian, Glassite, Erastian; Sublapsarian, Supralapsarian^; Gentoo, Antinomian^, Swedenborgian^; Adventist^, Bible Christian, Bryanite, Brownian, Christian Scientist, Dunker, Ebionite, Eusebian; Faith Curer^, Curist^; Familist^, Jovinianist, Libadist^, Quaker, Restitutionist^, Shaker, Stundist, Tunker &c; ultramontane; Anglican^, Oxford School; tractarian^, Puseyite, ritualist; Puritan. Catholic, Roman, Catholic, Romanist, papist. Jew, Hebrew, Rabbinist, Rabbist^, Sadducee; Babist^, Motazilite; Mohammedan, Mussulman, Moslem, Shiah, Sunni, Wahabi, Osmanli. Brahmin^, Brahman^; Parsee, Sufi, Buddhist; Magi, Gymnosophist^, fire worshiper, Sabian, Gnostic, Rosicrucian &c Adj. heterodox, heretical; unorthodox, unscriptural, uncanonical; antiscriptural^, apocryphal; unchristian, antichristian^; schismatic, recusant, iconoclastic; sectarian; dissenting, dissident; secular &c, (lay) 997. pagan; heathen, heathenish; ethnic, ethnical; gentile, paynim^; pantheistic, polytheistic. Judaical, Mohammedan, Brahminical^, Buddhist &c n.; Romish, Protestant &c n.. bigoted &c (prejudiced) 481, (obstinate) 606; superstitious &c (credulous) 486; fanatical; idolatrous &c 991; visionary &c (imaginative) 515. Phr. slave to no sect [Pope]; superstitione tollenda religio non tollitur [Lat.] [Cicero]. 985. Judeo-Christian Revelation -- N. revelation, inspiration, afflatus; theophany^, theopneusty^. Word, Word of God; Scripture; the Scriptures, the Bible; Holy Writ, Holy Scriptures; inspired writings, Gospel. Old Testament, Septuagint, Vulgate, Pentateuch; Octateuch; the Law, the Jewish Law, the Prophets; major Prophets, minor Prophets; Hagiographa, Hagiology; Hierographa^; Apocrypha. New Testament; Gospels, Evangelists, Acts, Epistles, Apocalypse, Revelations. Talmud; Mishna, Masorah. prophet &c (seer) 513; evangelist, apostle, disciple, saint; the Fathers, the Apostolical Fathers^; Holy Men of old, inspired penmen. Adj. scriptural, biblical, sacred, prophetic; evangelical, evangelistic; apostolic, apostolical^; inspired, theopneustic^, theophneusted^, apocalyptic, ecclesiastical, canonical, textuary^. 986. Pseudo-Revelation -- N. the Koran, the Alcoran^; Lyking^, Vedas, Zendavesta, Avesta^, Sastra, Shastra, Tantra^, Upanishads, Purana, Edda; Book of Mormon. [Non-Biblical prophets and religious founders] Gautama, Buddha; Zoroaster, Confucius, Bab-ed-Din^, Mohammed. [Idols] golden calf &c 991; Baal^, Moloch, Dagon. 3. RELIGIOUS SENTIMENTS 987. Piety -- N. piety, religion, theism, faith; religiousness, holiness &c adj.; saintship^; religionism^; sanctimony &c (assumed piety) 988; reverence &c (respect) 928; humility, veneration, devotion; prostration &c (worship) 990; grace, unction, edification; sanctity, sanctitude^; consecration. spiritual existence, odor of sanctity, beauty of holiness. theopathy^, beatification, adoption, regeneration, conversion, justification, sanctification, salvation, inspiration, bread of life; Body and Blood of Christ. believer, convert, theist, Christian, devotee, pietist^; the good, the righteous, the just, the believing, the elect; Saint, Madonna, Notre Dame [Fr.], Our Lady. the children of God, the children of the Kingdom, the children of the light. V. be pious &c adj.; have faith &c n.; believe, receive Christ; revere &c 928; be converted &c; convert, edify, sanctify, keep holy, beatify, regenerate, inspire, consecrate, enshrine. Adj. pious, religious, devout, devoted, reverent, godly, heavenly- minded, humble, pure, holy, spiritual, pietistic; saintly, saint-like; seraphic, sacred, solemn. believing, faithful, Christian, Catholic. elected, adopted, justified, sanctified, regenerated, inspired, consecrated, converted, unearthly, not of the earth. Phr. ne vile fano [It]; pure-eyed Faith . . . thou hovering angel girt with golden wings [Milton]. 988. Impiety -- N. impiety; sin &c 945; irreverence; profaneness &c adj.; profanity, profanation; blasphemy, desecration, sacrilege; scoffing &c v.. [feigned piety] hypocrisy &c (falsehood) 544; pietism, cant, pious fraud; lip devotion, lip service, lip reverence; misdevotion^, formalism, austerity; sanctimony, sanctimoniousness &c adj.; pharisaism, precisianism^; sabbatism^, sabbatarianism^; odium theologicum [Lat.], sacerdotalism^; bigotry &c (obstinacy) 606, (prejudice) 481; blue laws. hardening, backsliding, declension, perversion, reprobation. sinner &c 949; scoffer, blasphemer; sacrilegist^; sabbath breaker; worldling; hypocrite &c (dissembler) 548; Tartufe^, Mawworm^. bigot; saint [Iron.]; Pharisee; sabbatarian^, formalist, methodist, puritan, pietist^, precisian^, religionist, devotee; ranter, fanatic, juramentado^. the wicked, the evil, the unjust, the reprobate; sons of men, sons of Belial, the wicked one; children of darkness. V. be impious &c adj., profane, desecrate, blaspheme, revile, scoff; swear &c (malediction) 908; commit sacrilege. snuffle; turn up the whites of the eyes; idolize. Adj. impious; irreligious &c 989; desecrating &c v.; profane, irreverent, sacrilegious, blasphemous. un-hallowed, un-sanctified, un-regenerate; hardened, perverted, reprobate. hypocritical &c (false) 544; canting, pietistical^, sanctimonious, unctuous, pharisaical, overrighteous^, righteous over much. bigoted, fanatical; priest-ridden. Adv. under the mask of religion, under the cloak of religion, under the pretense of religion, under the form of religion, under the guise of religion. Phr. giovane santo diavolo vecchio [It]. 989. Irreligion -- N. irreligion^, indevotion^; godlessness, ungodliness &c adj.; laxity, quietism. skepticism, doubt; unbelief, disbelief; incredulity, incredulousness &c adj.^; want of faith, want of belief; pyrrhonism; bout &c 485; agnosticism. atheism; deism; hylotheism^; materialism; positivism; nihilism. infidelity, freethinking, antichristianity^, rationalism; neology. [person who is not religious] atheist, skeptic, unbeliever, deist, infidel, pyrrhonist; giaour^, heathen, alien, gentile, Nazarene; espri fort [Fr.], freethinker, latitudinarian, rationalist; materialist, positivist, nihilist, agnostic, somatist^, theophobist^. V. be irreligious &c adj.; disbelieve, lack faith; doubt, question &c 485. dechristianize^. Adj. irreligious; indevout^; undevout^; devoutless^, godless, graceless; ungodly, unholy, unsanctified^, unhallowed; atheistic, without God. skeptical, freethinking; unbelieving, unconverted; incredulous, faithless, lacking faith; deistical; unchristian, antichristian^. worldly, mundane, earthly, carnal; worldly minded &c Adv. irreligiously &c adj.. 4. ACTS OF RELIGION 990. Worship -- N. worship, adoration, devotion, aspiration, homage, service, humiliation; kneeling, genuflection, prostration. prayer, invocation, supplication, rogation, intercession, orison, holy breathing; petition &c (request) 765; collect, litany, Lord's prayer, paternoster [Lat.]; beadroll^; latria^, dulia^, hyperdulia^, vigils; revival; cult; anxious meeting, camp meeting; ebenezer, virginal. thanksgiving; giving thanks, returning thanks; grace, praise, glorification, benediction, doxology, hosanna; hallelujah, allelujah^; Te Deum [Lat.], non nobis Domine [Lat.], nunc dimittis [Lat.]; paean; benschen [G.]; Ave Maria, O Salutaris, Sanctus [Lat.], The Annunciation, Tersanctus, Trisagion. psalm, psalmody; hymn, plain song, chant, chaunt, response, anthem, motet; antiphon^, antiphony. oblation, sacrifice, incense, libation; burnt offering, heave offering, votive offering; offertory. discipline; self-discipline, self-examination, self-denial; fasting. divine service, office, duty; exercises; morning prayer; mass, matins, evensong, vespers; undernsong^, tierce^; holyday &c (rites) 998. worshipper, congregation, communicant, celebrant. V. worship, lift up the heart, aspire; revere &c 928; adore, do service, pay homage; humble oneself, kneel; bow the knee, bend the knee; fall down, fall on one's knees; prostrate oneself, bow down and worship. pray, invoke, supplicate; put up, offer up prayers, offer petitions; beseech &c (ask) 765; say one's prayers, tell one's beads. return thanks, give thanks; say grace, bless, praise, laud, glorify, magnify, sing praises; give benediction, lead the choir, intone; deacon, deacon off propitiate [U.S.], offer sacrifice, fast, deny oneself; vow, offer vows, give alms. work out one's salvation; go to church; attend service, attend mass; communicate &c (rite) 998. Adj. worshipping &c v.; devout, devotional, reverent, pure, solemn; fervid &c (heartfelt) 821. Int. hallelujah, allelujah!^, hosanna!, glory be to God!, O Lord!, pray God that!, God grant, God bless, God save, God forbid!, sursum corda [Lat.]. Phr. making their lives a prayer [Whittier]; ora et labora [Lat.]; prayers ardent open heaven [Young]. 991. Idolatry -- N. idolatry, idolism^; demonism^, demonolatry^; idol- worship, demon-worship, devil-worship, fire-worship; zoolatry, fetishism, fetichism; ecclesiolatry^, heliolatry, Mariolatry, Bibliolatry^. deification, apotheosis, canonization; hero worship. sacrifices, hecatomb, holocaust; human sacrifices, immolation, mactation^, infanticide, self-immolation, suttee. idol, golden calf, graven image, fetich, avatar, Juggernath^, lares et penates [Lat.]; Baal &c 986 [Obs.]. V. worship idols, worship pictures, worship relics; deify, canonize. Adj. idolatrous. Phr. adorer le veau d'or [Fr.]. 992. Sorcery -- N. sorcery; occult art, occult sciences; magic, the black art, necromancy, theurgy, thaumaturgy^; demonology, demonomy^, demonship^; diablerie [Fr.], bedevilment; witchcraft, witchery; glamor; fetishism, fetichism, feticism^; ghost dance, hoodoo; obi, obiism^; voodoo, voodooism; Shamanism (Esquimaux), vampirism; conjuration; bewitchery, exorcism, enchantment, mysticism, second sight, mesmerism, animal magnetism; od force, odylic force^; electrobiology^, clairvoyance; spiritualism, spirit rapping, table turning. divination &c (prediction) 511; sortilege^, ordeal, sortes Virgilianae^; hocus-pocus &c (deception) 545. V. practice sorcery &c n.; cast a nativity, conjure, exorcise, charm, enchant; bewitch, bedevil; hoodoo, voodoo; entrance, mesmerize, magnetize; fascinate &c (influence) 615; taboo; wave a wand; rub the ring, rub the lamp; cast a spell; call up spirits, call up spirits from the vasty deep; raise spirits from the dead. Adj. magic, magical; mystic, weird, cabalistic, talismanic, phylacteric^, incantatory; charmed &c v.; Circean, odylic^, voodoo. 993. Spell -- N. spell, charm, incantation, exorcism, weird, cabala^, exsufflation^, cantrap^, runes, abracadabra, open sesame, countercharm^, Ephesian letters, bell book and candle, Mumbo Jumbo, evil eye, fee-faw- fum. talisman, amulet, periapt^, telesm^, phylactery, philter; fetich, fetish; agnus Dei [Lat.], lamb of God; furcula^, madstone^; mascot, mascotte^; merrythought^; Om, Aum^; scarab, scarabaeus^; sudarium^, triskelion, veronica, wishbone; swastika, fylfot^, gammadion^. wand, caduceus, rod, divining rod, lamp of Aladdin^; wishing-cap, Fortunatus's cap. 994. Sorcerer -- N. sorcerer, magician; thaumaturgist^, theurgist; conjuror, necromancer, seer, wizard, witch; hoodoo, voodoo; fairy &c 980; lamia^, hag. warlock, charmer, exorcist, mage^; cunning man, medicine man; Shaman, figure flinger, ecstatica^; medium, clairvoyant, fortune teller; mesmerist; deus ex machina [Lat.]; soothsayer &c 513. Katerfelto, Cagliostro, Mesmer, Rosicrucian; Circe, siren, weird sisters. 5. RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS 995. Churchdom -- N. church, churchdom; ministry, apostleship^, priesthood, prelacy, hierarch^, church government, christendom, pale of the church. clericalism, sacerdotalism^, episcopalianism, ultramontanism^; theocracy; ecclesiology^, ecclesiologist^; priestcraft^, odium theologicum [Lat.]. monachism^, monachy^; monasticism, monkhood^. [Ecclesiastical offices and dignities] pontificate, primacy, archbishopric^, archiepiscopacy^; prelacy; bishopric, bishopdom^; episcopate, episcopacy; see, diocese; deanery, stall; canonry, canonicate^; prebend, prebendaryship^; benefice, incumbency, glebe, advowson^, living, cure; rectorship^; vicariate, vicarship; deaconry^, deaconship^; curacy; chaplain, chaplaincy, chaplainship; cardinalate, cardinalship^; abbacy, presbytery. holy orders, ordination, institution, consecration, induction, reading in, preferment, translation, presentation. popedom^; the Vatican, the apostolic see; religious sects &c 984. council &c 696; conclave, convocation, synod, consistory, chapter, vestry; sanhedrim, conge d'elire [Fr.]; ecclesiastical courts, consistorial court, court of Arches. V. call, ordain, induct, prefer, translate, consecrate, present. take orders, take the tonsure, take the veil, take vows. Adj. ecclesiastical, ecclesiological^; clerical, sacerdotal, priestly, prelatical, pastoral, ministerial, capitular^, theocratic; hierarchical, archiepiscopal; episcopal, episcopalian; canonical; monastic, monachal^; monkish; abbatial^, abbatical^; Anglican^; pontifical, papal, apostolic, Roman, Popish; ultramontane, priest-ridden. 996. Clergy -- N. clergy, clericals, ministry, priesthood, presbytery, the cloth, the desk. clergyman, divine, ecclesiastic, churchman, priest, presbyter, hierophant^, pastor, shepherd, minister; father, father in Christ; padre, abbe, cure; patriarch; reverend; black coat; confessor. dignitaries of the church; ecclesiarch^, hierarch^; ebdomarius [Lat.]; eminence, reverence, elder, primate, metropolitan, archbishop, bishop, prelate, diocesan, suffragan^, dean, subdean^, archdeacon, prebendary, canon, rural dean, rector, parson, vicar, perpetual curate, residentiary^, beneficiary, incumbent, chaplain, curate; deacon, deaconess; preacher, reader, lecturer; capitular^; missionary, propagandist, Jesuit, revivalist, field preacher. churchwarden, sidesman^; clerk, precentor^, choir; almoner, suisse [Fr.], verger, beadle, sexton, sacristan; acolyth^, acolothyst^, acolyte, altar boy; chorister. [Roman Catholic priesthood] Pope, Papa, pontiff, high priest, cardinal; ancient flamen^, flamen^; confessor, penitentiary; spiritual director. cenobite, conventual, abbot, prior, monk, friar, lay brother, beadsman^, mendicant, pilgrim, palmer; canon regular, canon secular; Franciscan, Friars minor, Minorites; Observant, Capuchin, Dominican, Carmelite; Augustinian^; Gilbertine; Austin Friars^, Black Friars, White Friars, Gray Friars, Crossed Friars, Crutched Friars; Bonhomme [Fr.], Carthusian, Benedictine^, Cistercian, Trappist, Cluniac, Premonstatensian, Maturine; Templar, Hospitaler; Bernardine^, Lorettine, pillarist^, stylite^. abbess, prioress, canoness^; religieuse [Fr.], nun, novice, postulant. [Under the Jewish dispensation] prophet, priest, high priest, Levite; Rabbi, Rabbin, Rebbe; scribe. [Mohammedan etc.] mullah, muezzin, ayatollah; ulema, imaum^, imam, sheik; sufi; kahin^, kassis^; mufti, hadji, dervish; fakir, faquir^; brahmin^, guru, kaziaskier^, poonghie^, sanyasi^; druid, bonze^, santon^, abdal^, Lama, talapoin^, caloyer^. V. take orders &c 995. Adj. the Reverend, the very Reverend, the Right Reverend; ordained, in orders, called to the ministry. 997. Laity -- N. laity, flock, fold, congregation, assembly, brethren, people; society [U.S.]. temporality, secularization. layman, civilian; parishioner, catechumen; secularist. V. secularize. Adj. secular, lay, laical, civil, temporal, profane. 998. Rite -- N. rite; ceremony, ritual, liturgy, ceremonial; ordinance, observance, function, duty; form, formulary; solemnity, sacrament; incantation &c (spell) 993; service, psalmody &c (worship) 990. ministration; preaching, preachment; predication, sermon, homily, lecture, discourse, pastoral. [Christian ritual for induction into the faith] baptism, christening, chrism; circumcision; baptismal regeneration; font. confirmation; imposition of hands, laying on of hands; ordination &c (churchdom) 995; excommunication. [Jewish rituals] Bar Mitzvah, Bas Mitzvah [Fr.], Bris. Eucharist, Lord's supper, communion; the sacrament, the holy sacrament; celebration, high celebration; missa cantata [Lat.]; asperges^; offertory; introit; consecration; consubstantiation, transubstantiation; real presence; elements; mass; high mass, low mass, dry mass. matrimony &c 903; burial &c 363; visitation of the sick. seven sacraments, impanation^, subpanation^, extreme unction, viaticum, invocation of saints, canonization, transfiguration, auricular confession; maceration, flagellation, sackcloth and ashes; penance &c (atonement) 952; telling of beads, processional; thurification^, incense, holy water, aspersion. relics, rosary, beads, reliquary, host, cross, rood, crucifix, pax [Lat.], pyx, agnus Dei [Lat.], censer, thurible, patera^; eileton^, Holy Grail; prayer machine, prayer wheel; Sangraal^, urceus^. ritualism, ceremonialism; sabbatism^, sabbatarianism^; ritualist, sabbatarian^. holyday, feast, fast. [Christian holy days] Sabbath, Pentecost; Advent, Christmas, Epiphany; Lent; Passion week, Holy week; Easter, Easter Sunday, Whitsuntide; agape, Ascension Day, Candlemas^, Ash Wednesday, Good Friday, Holy Thursday; Lammas, Martinmas, Michaelmas; All SAint's DAy, All Souls' Day. [Moslem holy days] Ramadan, Ramazan; Bairam &c &c [Jewish holy days] Passover; Shabuoth; Yom Kippur, Day of Atonement; Rosh Hashana, New Year; Hanukkah, Chanukkah, Feast of Lights; Purim, Feast of lots. V. perform service [ritual actions of clergy], do duty, minister, officiate, baptize, dip, sprinkle; anoint, confirm, lay hands on; give the sacrament, administer the sacrament; administer extreme unction; hear confession, administer holy penance, shrive; excommunicate, ban with bell book and candle. [ritual actions of believers] attend services, attend mass, go to mass, hear mass; take the sacrament, receive the sacrament, receive communion, attend the sacrament, partake of the sacrament, partake of communion; communicate; receive extreme unction; confess, go to confession, receive penance; anele^. [teaching functions of clergy] preach, sermonize, predicate, lecture. Adj. ritual, ritualistic; ceremonial; baptismal, eucharistical; paschal. Phr. what art thou, thou idol ceremony? [Henry V]. 999. Canonicals -- N. canonicals, vestments; robe, gown, Geneva gown frock, pallium, surplice, cassock, dalmatic^, scapulary^, cope, mozetta^, scarf, tunicle^, chasuble, alb^, alba^, stole; fanon^, fannel^; tonsure, cowl, hood; calote^, calotte^; bands; capouch^, amice^; vagas^, vakas^, vakass^; apron, lawn sleeves, pontificals^, pall; miter, tiara, triple crown; shovel hat, cardinal's hat; biretta; crosier; pastoral staff, thurifer^; costume &c 225. 1000. Temple -- N. place of worship; house of God, house of prayer. temple, cathedral, minster^, church, kirk, chapel, meetinghouse, bethel^, tabernacle, conventicle, basilica, fane^, holy place, chantry^, oratory. synagogue; mosque; marabout^; pantheon; pagoda; joss house^; dogobah^, tope; kiosk; kiack^, masjid^. [clergymen's residence] parsonage, rectory, vicarage, manse, deanery, glebe; Vatican; bishop's palace; Lambeth. altar, shrine, sanctuary, Holy of Holies, sanctum sanctorum [Lat.], sacristy; sacrarium^; communion table, holy table, Lord's table; table of the Lord; pyx; baptistery, font; piscina^, stoup; aumbry^; sedile^; reredos; rood loft, rood screen. [parts of a church: list] chancel, quire, choir, nave, aisle, transept, vestry, crypt, golgotha, calvary, Easter sepulcher; stall, pew; pulpit, ambo^, lectern, reading desk, confessional, prothesis^, credence, baldachin, baldacchino^; apse, belfry; chapter house; presbytery; anxious-bench, anxious-seat; diaconicum [Lat.], jube^; mourner's bench, mourner's seat. [exterior adjacent to a church] cloisters, churchyard. monastery, priory, abbey, friary, convent, nunnery, cloister. Adj. claustral, cloistered; monastic, monasterial; conventual. Phr. ne vile fano [It]; there's nothing ill can dwell in such a temple [Tempest]. End of of E-Thesaurus 
15901	----	A MINNIATURE OV _INGLISH ORTHOGGRAPHY_. * * * * * TO' DHEIR ROYAL HIGHNESSES, DHE PRINCE AND PRINCES _OV WALES_; DHE DUKE AND DUTCHES _OV YORK_: ONNORED AZ UNDOUTED PATRONS AND PATTERNS OV EVVERY PROPRIETY: DHIS MINNIATURE Ov Inglish Orthoggraphy, _UMBLY HOPES UNIVERSAL ACCEPTANCE;_ FROM DHE BENIGN PERMISSION OV BEING SO INSCRIBED, BY DHEIR ROYAL HIGHNESSES DEVOTED SERVANT, _James Elphinston_. * * * * * A MINNIATURE OV Inglish Orthoggraphy: DEDDICATED TO' _DHE PRINCE AND PRINCES OF WALES_, DHE DUKE AND DUTCHES OV YORK: * * * * * BY JAMES ELPHINSTON. * * * * * _LONDON_: SOLD (Price 1 Shilling and 6 Pence) BY W. RITCHARDSON, ROYAL EXCHAINGE; T. BOOSEY, N. 4, BRAUD-STREET, DHARE; F. AND C. RIVVINGTON, N. 62; ST. PAULS CHURCHYARD; J. DEIGHTON, N. 325, HOLBORN; W. CLARK, N. 38, BOND-STREET. * * * * * 1795. * * * * * CONTENTS. 1. _Introduccion_ 2. _Orthoggraphy ascertained in dhe vowels, and dheir serviles_ 3. _Vocal substitucion, licenced and licencious_ 4. _Ov open and shut vowels_ 5. _Ov dhe aspirates and dheir insertives_ 6. _Ov redundant serviles_ 7. _Ov impracticabel articulacion_ 8. _Ov false aspiracion_ 9. _Dhe guttural aspirate lost, or transmuted by moddern organs_ 10. _Old _R_ aspirate_ 11. _Oddher antiquated idellers_ 12. _Final fantoms, or dubblers ov final forms_ 13. _Oddher falsifiers, medial or final; licquids or sibbilants; particcularly _TI_ for a sibbilacion_ 14. _Dhe orthoggraphy ov propper names_ 15. _Dhe fundamental principel ov orthoggraphy_ 16. _The orthographic riddle_ * * * * * A MINNIATURE OV _INGLISH ORTHOGGRAPHY._ 1. INTRODUCTION. Hwen evvery oddher language, and at last our own, haz been reduced to' science; rendered accountabel to' natives, and accessibel to' straingers; hwence iz it, dhat our practice, growing daily more a contrast dhan an exemplificacion ov our theory, tempts ignorance to' speak, az blind habbit spels; raddher dhan to' dream ov spelling, az propriety exhibbits her unremitted harmony, hweddher in word or writing? For propriety, hwarevver herd, can be seen onely in her picture: nor can dhis be duly drawn, but from dhe oridginal; or dhe likenes long prezerved, in dhe coppies ov vulgarrity. Scarce creddibel doz it seem, to' dhe anallogists ov oddher diccions, dhat hiddherto', in Inglish exhibiscion, evvery vowel and evvery consonant ar almoast az often falsifiers az immages ov dhe truith. Hetteroggraphy indeed, or false litterary picture, can arize onely from won, or a combinacion, ov foar cauzes: redundance, defiscience; mischoice, or misarraingement. * * * * * 2. ORTHOGGRAPHY ASCERTAINED IN DHE VOWELS, AND DHEIR SERVILES. It iz not now new, dhat evvery Inglish vowel haz, not onely a longuer and shorter, but even a different sound, az open or shut by a consonant; dho _A braud_, open and shut, differ but in quantity. Nor iz it yet a secret, dhat certain mutes, or silent letters, (espescially vocal quiescents,) ar named _serviles_; rendering essencial az vizzibel service, boath to' vowels and consonants. Hware such gards ar wanted, dhey doutles wil attend; and, hwen dhey proov superfluous, az reddily widhdraw. Dhus dhe open vowel ov dhe simpel shuts, and dhe serviles vannish, in dhe penultimate ov dhe compound: _shake_, _Shakspear_; _chear_, _cherfool_; _vine_, _vinyard_, and dhe like. So formatives: _stare_ and _stair_, _starling_; _steer_, _sterling_; _shere_, _sherrif_; _child_, _children_; _kind_, _kindred_; _know_, _knollege_; and dhe rest. Evvery open ear must allow dhe aspiracion (_h_) to' articculate iniscially dhe braud vocal licquid (_w_); nor longuer imadgine dhat _wh_, apparent, can becom _hw_ real; or dhat _what_, _whale_, _wheels_, can rascionally paint dhe power ov _hwat_, _hwale_, _hweels_. Dhe braud licquid (_w_) haz no place in _hoal_, total; or in _hore_, prostitute; distinct alike, to' dhe eye, from _hole_ and _hoar_. But _wh_, iniscial, may wel prommise _hw_; if _le_ and _re_, boath final, may picture _el_ and _er_: az we admire, not onely on dhe _little theatre_, but in dhe _centre_ ov dhe _battle_! Dho a tutch ov Rezons wand wil restore dhe buty ov truith; at wonce to' dhe _littel theater_, and to' dhe _center_ ov dhe _battel_; az such buty beamed in dhe former century. Dhe French _table_, _chambre_, _ancien_, _danger_, ar dhe unexcepcionabel parents ov dhe Inglilh _tabel_, _chaimber_, _aincient_, _dainger_; hoo ar too apt scollars, not to' lern from parental exampel, to' show dhemselvs hwat dhey ar; widhout wondering, dhat won tung iz not anoddher, or dhat each must hav her own essence and semblance; and dhat in ours, az in oddher picturage, _an open vowel must not appear a shut won_. Indispensabel dhen az dhe servile (_i_) in dhe three last exampels, iz it in _aingel_, dho inadmissibel in _angellic_; in evvery _ainge_ and _ainger_, like _rainge_ and _rainger_; az wel az in _caimbric_ and _Caimbridge_; dho nedher in _Cam_ nor _Cambray_. If _a_ slender, open, must hav in such case its gardian; _a_ slender, even shut, hwen protracted, requires its protracting aspiracion (_h_): az in _ah! Mahlah_; so in _Pahtric_, _fahdher_, _pappah_, _mammah_, and _ahnt_; so distinct (dho safe enuf ungarded) from _ant_ dhe emmet. But _gahp_, herd, iz dhus no longuer seen _gape_. _Hant_, _hanch_, and dheir fellows, admit not dhe braudener; hwich iz indispensabel to' _wrauth, wauter_, and _vauz_; nor need dhe protracting aspirer, more dhan doo _chant_ and _branch_. _O_ must hav its own medial servant, to' ascertain its opennes; in _poark_, _poart_, _spoart_, _foart_, _foard_, _goard_, _soard_, (wonce _sword_), _foarth_, _foarce_, _foarge_; _boast_, _coast_, _goast_, _moast_, _poast_, and _boath_; justly az in dhe annimal _boar_, in _board_, _boast_, and dheir fellows; dho _slow_ gender _slowth_, reggularly, az _grow, growth_. Widh _poart_ and _poast_, _poartal_, _poarter_; _poastage_, and dhe like. Better no attendant, dhan a false won. _O_ direct (dhe common _o_) can nedher assume _o_, dhe servile ov _o_ depressive (_oo_); nor _u_, hwich wood seem its partner in a dipthong. _Doar_, _floar_, and _moar_, ar dhus reggular and safe; _dore_, _flore_, and _more_, widh equivvalent servile, leve _more_ coincident; yet compounds prefer dhe final servile: az _batteldore_,[1] _Blacmore_, _Hwitmore_; and _Strathmore_, scottishly strong on dhe latter syllabel. _Soll_, spirrit, avoids occular union widh _sole_, alike, and _soal_: by adopting dhe servile ov _poll_, _boll_, _toll_, _roll_ (widh _controll_,) _scroll_, and _droll_. Like dipthongal dainger precludes _u_ from dhe servile funccion, duly undertaken by _a_ in _soar_, _moarn_, _boarn_, distinct from _boren_ or _bor'n_, dhe compannion ov _woren_ or _wor'n_, _sworen_ or _swor'n_, _toren_ or _tor'n_, _shoren_ or _shor'n_, and clear, az open and shut, ov _born_; in _coart_, _goard_, _coarse_, and _soarce_. _Coarce_, dhe ded _boddy_, dies no more in _corpse_; hwen dhus _boren_ decently to' interment. Dhis precaution suffers _o_ open, to' understand or omit, dhe servile before _l_ and anny oddher consonant: az in _old colt_, wonce seen and herd _ould coult_. If _old colt_ now suffice, _oald coalt_ iz understood. For dhis rezon, _goald_ must no longuer be robbed ov its depressive servile, wonce legally seen in _gould_. _Au_, widh les plea, suppresses its servile in like sittuacion; az _salt_ and _alder_; except in dhe singuel _assault_! _saut_ and _vaut_ being, now, duly out ov dhe question. If _ou_ cannot now paint _o_ direct, much les can it picture _o_ depressive (_oo_); in _you_, _youth_, _uncouth_; _should_, _would_, or _could_: for _yoo_, _yooth_, _uncooth_; _shood_, _wood_, or _cood_. Hwen _ou_ Inglish transferred its equivvalence from dhe French _ou_ to' dhe German _au_, hwich compounds _a_ braud, widh _o_ depressive (_au_ widh _oo_); az itself cood no more be frenchly interchaingeabel widh _oo_; nedher ov its parts waz more likely to' becom so. _Do_ or _who_ can no more dhan _doe_ or _hoe_, (boath better employed!) or dhan _shoe_, _canoe_, _lose_, _move_, _prove_, _behove_; _Rome_, _Coke_, _Pole_, or simmilar; prezent dhe prezzent _doo_, _hoo_, _shoo_, _canoo_, _looz_, _moov_, _proov_, _behoov_, _Room_, _Cook_, _Pool_, or dhe like: for truith fears notthing from coincidence ov sound, and falsehood always leads astray. _B_ may distinctively open dhe vowel, in _climb_ and _comb_; but cannot render it also depressive in _comb_, _tomb_, _bomb_, and _womb_; for _coomb_, _toomb_, _boomb_, and _woomb_. Hwatevver _u_ may hav been in Lattin vocallity, dhat figgure cannot guiv _oo_, even open, in Inglish; far les _oo_ shut, in _pull_, _bull_, _full_; _butcher_, _put_, _pudding_, _puss_, _push_, _bush_; _bushel_, _cushion_; for _pool_, _bool_, _fool_, _bootcher_, _poot_, _poodding_, _poose_, _poosh_, _boosh_, _booshel_, and _coossion_: in all ov hwich, dhe _oo_ iz doutles short az shut; and distinct az _foolling_ and _fooling_. If _u_ cannot prommise _oo_ shut, no more can _oo_ proxy _u_ shut, in dhe singuel _foot_ for _fut_. No servile can attend a shut vowel; and _truith_ must hav her own, like _suit_ and _fruit_: in dhe French _bruit_ it iz also distinctive. Alreddy hav we seen _o_ direct disguized, no les dhan _o_ depressive; and can we longuer bair dhe Gallic _beau_, for dhe Brittish _boe_; more dhan dhe dubble falsifier _beauty_, for dhe Inglish _buty_, dhe sweet compannion ov _duty_? _Sew_, _shew_, and _strew_, wer dhe preddecessors, so cannot be dhe identities, ov _soe_, _show_, and _strow_: dhe first dhus occularly clear ov _sow_, so different verb and noun! dhe latter, distinct to' dhe ear by dhe dipthong, hwich also distinguishes _slough_, no more swallowing _sluf_: _toe_ and _tow_ (no more jostling widh _tough_, now _tuf_), _doe_ and _dough_, _floe_ and _flow_, being respective coincidents; clear indeed to' dhe eye, boath ov boddy and mind. _Ow_ final iz dipthongal in _how_, _now_! _bow_ bend; _cow_, noun or verb; _sow_, the noun; in _vow_, verb or noun; and in _allow_, _endow_. Dhe dipthong distinguishes also _slough_, _plough_, and _bough_ branch. _O_ remains merely simpel in _dough_, az if _dow_. _Bo!_ or _boh!_ interjeccion, coincides widh _boe_ and _bow_, boath nouns: dhe latter leving dhe dipthong to' dhe verb, or its accion, hwence dhe ball derives it in _bowl_; dhe open vowel distinguishing dhe _bowl_ or bason, coincident widh _boll_ and _bole_. * * * * * 3. VOCAL SUBSTITUCION. Dho won semblance may exhibbit, not onely two' senses, but two' sounds; won symbol must not pretend to' paint anoddher, unles by distinctive substitution. _E_ proovs dhus dhe lawfool substitute ov _a_, in _heigh-ho!_ moddernized _hey-ho!_ in _heighday_, now _hey-day!_ _weigh_, _wey_, _hwey_, _prey_, _bey_, _dey_; _dhey_, _dheir_, _eir_, _eight_, and _freight_; widh _obey_, _inveigh_, _convey_, _survey_, and _purvey_; az wel az hwen febel, in _parley_, _barley_, _Harley_, _Chudleigh_, and dheir fellows. But _e_ cannot be _a_, widh dhe servile dhat distinguishes _e_: _tear_ cannot be clas-mate, at wonce to' _fear_ and _fair_. If dherfor _e_ cannot be _a_, widh _a_ servile; and _a_ need no substitute in dhe verbs _tair_, _wair_, _swair_, and _bair_; _peir_, dhe fruit, and _beir_, dhe beast, claim dhe substitute vowel, widh due servile; _pair_, _pare_, _bair_ and _bare_, being engaged. For like rezon, _braik_ and _grait_ admit no vocal substitute. _Where_ and _there_ no more puzzel dhan bely, in dheir own shape, ov _hware_ and _dhare_. _E_ fairly substituting dhe forrain _i_, in _pier_, _bier_, _mien_, _lief_, widh _belief_, _believ_; _relief_, _reliev_; and dhe rest; so distinct from _peer_, _beer_; _mean_, _leaf_; or so connected by alliance, forrain or domestic; dhe substitucion simmilarly prevails in _shriek_, _fiend_, _fief_, _brief_, _chief_, _atchiev_; _thief_, _thiev_; _repriev_, _retriev_; _pierce_, _fierce_, and _tierce_: ettymollogy howevver, scorning alike substitucion and superfluity, in _receiv_, _receit_, and dheir collaterals. Forrain semblance belied dhe adoptives, _oblige_, _marine_, _machine_, _magazine_, _fatigue_, _intrigue_, _antique_, and _shire_; til Londoners began to' treat dhem az natives ov Ingland; not dreaming dhat dheir essence cood not here be prezerved, but in dhe guize ov _oblege_, _marene_, _mashene_, _maggazene_, _fategue_, _intregue_, _anteke_ (or _anteek_, _mareen_, and dhe rest,) joined by _legue_, _twegue_, and _shere_: hwich last, dho dhus sevvered from _sheer_ and _shear_, boath coincident in sound, waz beguinning, in dhe false shape ov _shire_, (like _oblege_, in dhat ov _oblige_,) to' violate Inglish harmony in evvery British nacion. Dhe same propriety, dhat dhus gards dhe Inglish vowel (_e_), prezervs, no les _piously_, dhe parental equivvalent (_i_), in _obligacion_, _marriner_, _mackinate_, _mackinacion_, _indefattigabel_, _anticquity_, az wel az _antiquary_; and evvery forrain buty, consistent widh domestic truith. If dhe prezzent century hav made manny improovments, in orthoggraphy and elsehware; it haz certainly made manny alteracions, dhat wer dhe verry reverse ov improovment. Som eying truith, onely in her parents, wood _allege_ dhat _virtue_ alone cood _persuade_; havving lernedly perfwaded dhemselvs, dhat _vertue_ might hav _sweetnes_, widhout partaking _suavity_, by hwich dhey pictured _swavvity_. It seems howevver high time dhat a certain kingdom, at length panting after evvery propriety, shood know and confes, dhat her name iz no more _England_, dhan _Engelonde_ or _Angland_; or dhan her sovverain iz _king ov France_! Since won symbol must no more usurp dhe office ov anoddher, _o_ wil no longuer pretend to' paint _A braud_ open (_au_); in _ought_, _nought_, _brought_, _thought_, _sought_, _fought_, _bought_; for _aught_ (now indeed _aut_), and dhe rest: nor wil _groat_ and _broad_ expect anny more, to' be acknolleged _graut_ and _braud_. Nedher _tongue_ nor _tong_ (alreddy won ov a pair) can picture _tung_; dho _u_ stil employ dhe distinctive substitucion ov _o_ in _son_, male issue; nor les propperly dhe ettymolodgic in _yong_, _mong_, _mongrel_, _monk_, (widh _monkey_,) and _Monday_; in _monney_, _bonney_, _conney_, _condit_, _constabel_; az in _yolk_, so in _covver_, _hovver_, _plovver_; in _lovver_ and _glovver_, from _lov_ and _glov_. _Cullor_ (nevver _colour_) avoids coincidence equally widh _collar_ and _coller_; dhe latter greekly, not frenchly, affected _choler_. But surely a vocal groop cannot shrink into' an Inglish shut vowel: nor cood dhe following French, or almoast French, be suppozed Inglish words: _souple_, _couple_; _double_, _trouble_; _nourish_, _flourish_; _courage_, _courteous_, _country_, _cousin_; _journey_, _journal_; _sojourn_, _adjourn_, and _touch_; more dhan such oddities claim continnuance, az _young_, _rough_, or _tough_: for _suppel_ (alreddy almoast Inglish in _supple_,) _cuppel_; _dubbel_, _trubbel_; _nurrish_, _flurrish_; _currage_, _curteous_; _contry_ (ettymolodgical substitute ov _cuntry_; like _yong_, ov _yung_;) _cozzen_ az _dozzen_, no more _dozen_! _jurney_, _jurnal_; _sodjurn_, _adjurn_, widh _tutch_; _tuf_ and _ruf_: not to' reprezent dhe so duly exploded, az _authour_, _succour_, _superiour_ for _author_, _succor_, _superior_; hweddher agent, accion, or adjective. * * * * * 4. OV OPEN AND SHUT VOWELS. Az vocallity must often depend on articulacion; consonants, like vowels, must nedher be too manny, too few, nor oddher dhan dhemselvs. If sounds open must not seem shut, sounds shut must not appear open. No servile can attend a shut vowel; hwich, on dhe contrary, must show dhe consonant dhat shuts it. Hwen a consonant concludes dhe syllabel, after an open vowel; a servile must gard dhe vowel from dhe consonant, hwich else wood shut it. A shut vowel dhen must show dhe shutter, or be left apparently open. Dhe first vowel (_a_), slender or braud, may doutles be more or les so, by dhe prezzence or absence ov dhe _stres_, or vocal exercion. _A_ slender, self or substitute, iz open az garded, in _fain_, _fein_, and _fane_; _wail_, and _wale_; open az unshut, in _paper_, _favor_, _braver_, _bravest_, _braving_, _braved_: so in _fainer_, _feiner_; az wel az _faining_, _feined_; _wailing_, _wailed_; _waling_, _waled_; articculated _pa-per_, _fa-vor_, _bra-ver_, _bra-vest_; _fai-ner_, _fei-ner_, and so on: for _a singuel consonant_, natturally (dhence nescessarily) _articculates dhe following, _not dhe preceding_ vowel_. _A_, slender, iz shut in _fan_, _fanning_; and the like. _A braud (au)_ haz its own distinctive servile in _faun_ and _fawn_, in _all_ and _awl_, _ball_ and _bawl_. Dho _l_ remain dhe servile in _balling_, az wel az dhe _w_ in _bawling_; it iz no servile, but dhe effective shutter, in _ballot_, _bal-lot_, or dhe like. _A braud_, shut, plays its own part, hwen articculated by _w_ or _qu_ (vertually _cw_,) in dhe propper _Waller_, az in _wallet_ or _quallity_; in _war_, _quarrel_; _wart_, _quart_; _wan_, _want_, _quantity_, and such. _A braud_, shut, not so articculated, substitutes _o_ shut: dhus dhe _o_ ov _cord_ iz perfetly coincident, or unison, widh dhe _a_ in _ward_. Hware _a_ performs its own braud-shut part, _o_ becoms dhe substitute ov _u_ shut, az in _won word_; _quoth_ and _quod_. _E_ iz dhus open in _mean_ and _mien_, _tiend_ and _fiend_, _siev_ and _seiz_; widh _grief_, _griev_; _relief_, _reliev_; _receiv_, _receit_, and dheir fellows. Open iz _e_ likewize in _meat_, _meet_, and _mete_; (three coincident!) _meeting_, _meting_, and _meter_; shut in _men_, _pen_, _fen_; _met_, _set_; _penny_, _fennel_; _penning_, _setting_: and so foarth. _I_ iz open in _fine_, _finer_, _finish_; _dine_, _dining_, and _diner_; _rime_, _riming_, and _rimer_; _fi-ner_, _fi-nish_, and so on: shut in _fin_, _finnish_; _din_, _dinner_; _brim_, _brimmer_; _fin-nish,_ and simmilar. _O_ iz open in _Po_, _pole_, _polar_, and _polish_; _mode_, _modish_; _soal_, _sole_, and _soll_; shut in _sollace_, _pollish_, and _moddest_; _po-lish_, _pol-lish_, and dhe like. _U_ iz open in _unit_, _unite_; _tune_, _tunic_, _punic_, _studious_; shut in _studdy_, _unabated_: _u-nit_, _stu-dent_, _stud-dy_, _un-a-ba-ted_; such compounds being licenced to' take in dhe singuel consonant ov dhe prepoziscion. So hear we, and so see we, _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_, _u_, open; _ar_, _er_, _il_, _on_, _us_, shut; _may_, _me_, _my_, _mow_[2], _mew_; _mas_, _mes_, _mis_, _mos_, _must_. So _Mary_, _marry_; _even_, _sevven_; _ivy_, _Livvy_; _odor_, _odder_; _student_, _studdy._ If dhen open vowels must appear open, shut vowels must appear shut. Forrain, even parental, diccions cannot rule dhe picture ov dhe native: for picture can hav but won oridginal. Widh parrity ov rezon may (and must often) dhe parental vowel be open, and dhe descendant shut. To' edher iz _Popes_ laconnic line applicabel: _Dhis dhey, dhat know me, know; dhat lov me, tel._ To' keep Inglish, dhus like French and Lattin, or spelling dhe contrast ov speech; our litterature haz hiddherto' no likenes ov our language; and haz continnued inaccessibel to' evvery native, az much az to' evvery strainger. For, hwile we lernedly lov to' see Aloe, melon, lily, solemn, carol, very, spirit, coral, borough, manor, tenant, minute, honor, punish, clamor, blemish, limit, comet, pumice, chapel, leper, triple, copy, habit, rebel, tribute, probate, heifer, profit, cavil, revel, drivel, novel, hovel, city, pity, british, critic, madam, credit, idiom, body, study, tacit, licit, hazard, ezad, lizard, closet, bosom, vicar, liquor, liquid, rigor, rigid: We shrewdly hope to' hear, Alloe, mellon, lilly, sollemn, carrol, verry, spirrit, corral, burrow, mannor, tennant, minnute, onnor, punnish, clammor, blemmish, limmit, commet, pummice, chappel, lepper, trippel, coppy, habbit, rebbel, tribbute, probbate, heffer, proffit, cavvil, revvel, drivvel, novvel, hovvel, citty, pitty, brittish, crittic, maddam, creddit, iddiom, boddy, studdy, tascit, liscit, hazzard, ezzad, lizzard, clozzet, buzzom, viccar, liccor, licquid, riggor, ridgid. Hwile dhus notthing but _s_ can dubbel soft _c_, or sibbilantly shut dhe preceding vowel; and render _precious_, or _vicious_, hwat dhey ar; but _prescious_, or _viscious_; dhe sibbilants direct simpel figgure may not onely becom, in dhe ostensibel _physic_, _visit_, and _vision_, a dubbel depressive; in dhe real _phyzzic_, _vizzit_, and _vizzion_; but work equal wonders, in _polysyllables_ ov anny extension; pretending, in dhe verry name, to' paint _pollysyllabels_. And dhus dhe trokees grow innumerabel, dhat shut and sharpen, shortening dhe former vowel; hwich dhey hav hiddherto' pretended to' exhibbit slowly and smoodhly open: so leving singuel dhe intermediate articulacion, hwich must be audibly dubbel, (must shut az wel az articculate,) and continnue dhe equal impossibillity, ov reading and writing our language. For, _hwen_ our _diccion_ attains, like _oddhers_, _dhe_ happy _habbit_ _ov_ appearing hwat it iz; alternate strength and febelnes must prezent _mallice_ and _maliscious_, _sollemn_ and _solemnity_, _morral_ and _morallity_, _mannor_ and _manorial_, _limmit_ and _limmitacion_, _habbit_ and _habittual_, _spirrit_, _spirritual_, and _spirrituallity_. So evvery consequencial, hweddher ov trocaic or dactyllian stres: _orrigin_, _oridginal_, _oridginality_, or _originallity_, _reallity_, _quallity_, _equallity_, _verrity_, _verrily_, _ennemy_, _ammity_, _appathy_, _probbity_; so, widh _propphet_, _propphesy_, and _propphecy_; but, by penultimate or antepenultimate ennergy, (dhe stres on last but won, or last but two',) _prophettic_, or _prophettical_: widh _philossophy_, _philossopher_, and _philosopphic_; widh _avvarice_, _avvariscious_; _lodgic_, _logiscian_; _phyzzic_, _phyziscian_; _immage_, _imadgine_; _madjesty_, _majestic_. Az _alliment_, _saccrament_; az _orrifice_, _saccrifice_, and _orrator_, widhout violacion ov aught _sacred_, or chainge ov _oracion_. * * * * * 5. OV DHE ASPIRATES, AND DHEIR INSERTIVES. _Oracion_ indeed iz dhus kept _sacred_ az _orrator_: for _t_ cood nevver sibbilate (or play _s_) in _orthoggraphy_, aincient or moddern; nor a dubbel articulacion pretend to' look singuel, more dhan a singuel a dubbel won. Dhe dactyl _orthodox_ admits littel chainge in dhe dubbel trokee _orthodoxy_; like _mellancolly_, vulgarly _melancholy_: but _orthoggraphy_ and _orthograpphical_ ar, widh equal harmony, subject to' antepenultimate power. Like Propriety dherfor inserts dhe shutter we hear, in dhe duplication, az ov evvery simpel, so ov evvery aspirate, duly dubbled by dhe simpel insertive. Dhus _p_ dubbels _ph_, and even _f_, _f_; in _propphet_, and _proffit_. But, az _ph_ became _f_; so _bh_, universally _v_, nescessarily dubbelled in _provverb_. Az _s_ or _z_ dubbels dhe soft sibbilant aspirate, (_sh_ or _zh_) in _prescious_, _decizzion_, _t_ or _d_, respectively, dubbled dhat dhey rendered equal to' _tsh_ or _dzh_: az _tutching_ dhe _madjesty_ ov _relidgion_. But dhe Inglish tung, (raddher teeth,) enjoying dhe _dental aspirate_, direct and depressive (_th_ and _dh_), beyond perhaps anny oddher language, aincient or moddern; can no longuer be denied dhe appearance, hware it so peculiarly pozesses dhe reallity, ov dubbling az wel az depressing its power. No more dhen can be confounded dhe aspirates ov _oath_, _oadhs_; ov _bath_, _badhs_, and _badhe_; ov _Otho_ and _oddher_, _Clotho_ and _clodhier_, _dhis thing_ and _dhat thing_; _dheze things_ and _dhoze things_: misaspiracion wil no more embarras, dhan misarraingement, _Dhe Theater_. * * * * * 6. OV REDUNDANT SERVILES. If _defiscience_ ov symbols hav been so ezily and so amply exampelled; a ballance may be proffered in _redundance_; ov consonants, no les dhan ov serviles. Hwen evvery mute minnister waz supplied to' vocallity; dhe hardening gard ov _g_, at least, shood not hav been forgotten. If _i_ waz indispensabel in _aingel_ and _dainger, u_ iz az recquizite in _anguel_ and _anguer_, az in _guerdon_. _Guet_ and _guiv_ demand dhe (_u_) hardener, az boldly az _gues_ and _guilt_. So redundance alreddy recalls, in order to' explode, _guess_ and _give!_ Widh dhis not onely _seeing_ (for _seing_) and dhe like; but dhe falsifying final ov _are_, _were_; _awe_, _owe_; _some_, _come_; _above_, _dove_, _love_, _glove_; _throve_, _drove_, _shrove_, _shove_, _hove_; for _ar_, _wer_; _aw_, _ow_; _som_, _com_; _abov_, _dov_, _lov_, _glov_; _throv_, _drov_, _shrov_, _shov_, _hov_: hwere _o_ for _u_ guivs to' the ear, _sum_ distinctive, widh _cum_, _abuv_, and dhe rest. Superfluous, dhence obstructive, (distractive indeed!) dhe _i_ ov _either_, _neither_; _heifer_ and _friend_; dhe _o_ ov _people_ and _yeoman_; _leopard_ and _jeopard_; dhe _u_ ov _eulogy_, az ov _eulogium_; ov _conduit_, vertually _cundit_: _a_, obviously useles, after an oddherwize open vowel, in _season_, _reason_, _treason_, _treacle_, _creature_; in _eave_, _heave_, _weave_, _leave_, _cleave_, _reave_, _greave_; _cease_, _lease_, _crease_, _grease_; _teaze_, _ease_, _please_; like dhe _e_ final to' _sieve_, _grieve_, _relieve_, _receive;_ dhe second _e_ in _sleeve_, _geese_, _fleece_, _freeze_, _breeze_, _squeeze_, _cheese_: for _edher_, _nedher_; _heffer_, _frend_; _pepel_ and _yeman_, _leppard_, and _jeppard_; _ellogy_, az _elogium_; widh _condit_: so _sezon_, _rezon_, _trezon_, _trekel_, _creture_; _eve_, _heve_, _weve_, _leve_, _cleve_, _reve_, _greve_; _cese_, _lese_, _crese_, _grese_; _teze_, _eze_, _pleze_: _siev_, _griev_, _reliev_, _receiv_; _sleve_, _guese_, _flece_, _freze_, _breze_, _squeze_, _cheze_. But, like dhe _i_ ov _heifer_ and _friend_, dhe _o_ ov _leopard_ and _jeopard_; dhe _u_ ov _eulogy_; iz dhe _a_ ov _leap_-year and ov _neap_-tide; for _lep_-year and _nep_-tide; nay, shamefoolly, like dhe superfluity in all dheze, haz dhe _a_ hiddherto' remained in _health_, _wealth_, and _stealth_; becauz it stil iz nescessary in _heal_, _weal_, and _steal_! and doutles, for som simmilarly cogent rezon, doz kind _a_ continnue to' gard dhe same _shut vowel_! in _realm_, _earl_, _pearl_; _earn_, _learn_; _early_, _earnest_; _earth_, _dearth_, _hearth_, _heard_, _hearse_, _rehearse_, _searce_, _search_, _threat_, _deaf_, _dead_, _head_, _bread_, _tread_, _dread_, _thread_, _stead_, _lead_, _read_; _ready_, _steady_, _heady_, _meadow_; _zealous_, _jealous_, _weapon_, _leaven_, _heaven_, _endeavour_; _pleasure_, _measure_, _treasure_, _leasure_ or _leisure_! for _helth_, _welth_, _stelth_; _relm_, _erl_, _perl_; _ern_, _lern_; _erly_, _ernest_; _erth_, _derth_, _herth_, _herd_, _herse_, _reherse_, _serce_, _serch_; _thret_, _def_, _ded_, _hed_, _bred_, _tred_, _dred_, _thred_, _sted_, _led_, _red_; _reddy_, _steddy_, _heddy_, _meddow_; _zellous_, _jellous_; _weppon_, _levven_, _hevven_, _endevvor_, _plezzure_, _mezzure_, _trezzure_, _lezzure_. How (alas!) wil BRITTISH LIBBERTY moarn her novvel chains, hwen she must not onely speak az she thinks, but write as she speaks; hwen _rove_, _lov_, and _moov_, can chime no more togueddher; hwen _lead_ and _led_, _read_ and _red_, _live_ and _liv_, _tear_ and _tair_, ar found oppozite, az _East_ and _West_; nay, az open and shut vowels! * * * * * 7. OV IMPRACTICABEL ARTICULACION. No les embarrassing iz dhe redundance ov impracticabel articulacion, iniscial, medial, or final, (in dhe beguinning, middel, or end, ov words:) dhe first indeed chiefly in forrain names, titels, or terms, hware a consonant, uncombinabel (mediately or immediately) widh a vowel, remains a ded rellic: az dhe _c_ ov _czar_ (dho contracted from _Cezar_), dhe _p_ ov _Ptollemy_ (mere _Tollemy_), or _ptisic_ (for _tizzic_), dhe _b_ ov _bdellium_, herd onely _dellium_; and even dhe _p_ ov psalm, herd but _sahm_, dho dhe _l_ be stil audibel in _psalmist_ and _psalmody_, all effective beside dhe labial (_p_). * * * * * 8. OV FALSE ASPIRACION. But no exampel can warrant dhe aspiring ideller, dhat pretends to' lead _heir_, _heritage_, _heritable_, _heritor_; _herb_, _herbage_, _herbalist_; _honour_, _honorary_, _honourable_; and even dhe _humble humour_ ov dhe _passing hour_; insted ov _eir_, _erritage_, _erritabel_, _erritor_; _erb_, _erbage_, _erbalist_; _onnor_, _onnorary_, _onnorabel_; widh dhe _umbel umor_ ov dhe prezzent _our_; hwich doutles can alone be called _our our_. Yet aspiracion cannot be denied to' _inherrit_, _inherritance_, _inherritor_, _heredditary_. * * * * * 9. DHE GUTTURAL ASPIRATE LOST, OR TRANSMUTED BY MODDERN ORGANS. Dhe consonants dhat subjoin aspiracion (_h_), ar dhe labial, dental, lingual, and guttural; or dhe articculants from dhe lips, teeth, tung, and throat: _p_, _t_, _s_, and _k_; by dhe Lattins turned into _c_: az in _Philadelphus_ and _Philadelphia_, _Thales_ and _Thalia_, _Sharon_ and _Sheba_, _Charon_ and _Chilo_, hoom dhe Inglish, havving smoodhed away dhe aspiracion, ar fain to' call _Caron_ and _Kilo_. Aincient organs, howevver, dubbelled occazionally dhe guttural, az wel az dhe labial aspirate; dooing equal justice to' _Bacchus_ and to' _Sappho_: moddern also, (peculiarly the Inglish,) dhe oddher two'; dhe simpel always sufficing to' dubbel dhe aspirate. New dialects softening, lost dhe guttural aspirate; til dhe Spannish probbably recovvered it from dhe Morish. The Itallian and Spannish, and from dhem dhe Inglish, endevvored to' make up dhe los, by prefixing dhe simpel dental to' dhe lingual or sibbilant aspirate, hwich dhe Gallic ear preferred widhout dhe dental; preferring dherfor dhe vertual _sh_ and _zh_ to' _tsh_ and _dzh_. Inglish organs loozing, like French, dhe guttural aspirate, edher dropt dhe aspiracion, az in _carracter_ and _kemmist_ or _kymmist_; from _character_ and _chemist_ or _chymist_; or turned dhe hoal ruf guttural into' dhe smoodh labial aspirate. So softening _cough_, _hough_, _trough_, _through_, _though_; _rough_, _tough_, _slough_, _chough_, widh dhe proppers _Hough_, _Brough_, and _Loughborough_; into' _cof_, _hof_, _trof_; _throo_ or _thro'_, and _dho_: _ruf_, _tuf_, _sluf_, _chuf_; _Huf_, _Bruf_, and _Lufburrough_ or _Lufburrow_. But _Gough_ perhaps Orrigin recalled into' _Goffe_ or _Gof_; hwile _Lough_ became Inglishly _Luf_, and dhe guttural graddually melted in _burrow_, ov hwatevver kind. Aincient ellocucion depressed no aspirate; sattisfied widh _ph_ or _f_, _th_, _sh_, and _kh_ or _ch_; widhout _bh_ or _v_, _dh_, _zh_ or _gh_. Dhe labial aspirate gennerated dhe Eollic digamma F (howevver turned), hwich by and by gave birth to' dhe Lattin V. If primmitive tungs gain dhus at length won depressive aspirate; succeding expression, particcularly dhe Inglish, came to' dubbel dhe depressive _v_ az wel az dhe direct _ph_ or _f_. French articculacion havving no more occazion for such dubbling dhan her parent Lattin, dhe Inglish acute or sharp accent askt it _evvery_ moment; but seing no _prescedent_ in oddher picturage, forbore to' _exhibbit_ it, even until dhe _prezzent our_, dhat Inglish anallogy, matured at last, rezolved to' be _seen_, az wel az _herd_; to' reggulate practice by theory, and realize theory in practice. * * * * * 10. DHE OLD ASPIRATE OV R. Som Greeks, followed by som Lattins, fancied to' ad rufnes to' dhe licquid _R_, or to' paint its innate rufnes more foarcibly, by subjoining aspiracion. Hence rushed dhe _Rhine_ and dhe _Rhone_, dhe _Rhemi_ and _Rheims_, _Rhoda_ and _Rhodes_; _rhomb_, _rhumb_, _rheum_, and _rhubarb_. Dhe _Rhine_ brought _Rhenish_; az _rhythmus_ _rhythm_, _rhyme_ and _rhime_; til at length harmonious _rezon_ introduced _rime_, boath into' French and Inglish; hwence dhe regennerated _Rine_, pouring purified _Rennish_, rouzed dhe rappid _Rone_ to' rezistles emmulacion; brought _Roda_ to' _Rodes_, and _rubarb_ to' _reumatism_. Dhe verry _rinosceros_ disdains now alike to' ruffen hiz horn widh adscitiscious snorting, and to' stifel even hiz moddern sibbilacion. Hwen dhe guttural aspirate lost dhe aspiracion, dhe simpel guttural alone cood remain: az in _Caron_, _Kiron_, _Akilles_, _Cloe_, _Cronus_; widh _carracter_, _corus_, and _coral_, stil quite clear ov _corral_: wonce seen, because wonce herd, _Charon_, _Chiron_, _Achilles_, _Chloe_, _Chronus_, _character_, _chorus_, and _choral_. * * * * * 11. ODDHER ANTIQUATED IDELLERS. Among medial idellers, hiddherto', not onely suffered, but sanccioned, even after parental ejeccion, ar[3] dhe _s_ ov _isle_; _l_ ov _fault_ and _vault_, _p_ ov _receipt_, _b_ ov _debt_ and _doubt; c_ ov _perfect_ and _verdict_[3]; here at last fairly seen _ile_, _faut_, _vaut_, _receit_, _det_, _dout_, _perfet_, _verdit_. Alike idel iz dhe raddical _g_ ov _feign_ and _deign_, for _fein_ and _dain_; and, werse (if possibel) dhan idel, dhe _g_ ov _foreign_ and _sovereign_, for _forrain_ and _sovverain_, from _forain_ and _souverain_; az dheze from _foraneus_ and _supraneus_. * * * * * 12. FINAL FANTOMS, OR DUBBLERS OV FINAL FORMS. How manny final fantoms, in articculating shape, must Truiths torch beam away! how manny dubblers ov a singuel clozer, espescially _l_, _f_, _s_, and _c_! az _ill_, _off_, _ass_, _back_; so _err_, _inn_, _ebb_, _add_, _odd_, _egg_: really no more, nor capabel ov being more, dhan _il_, _of_, _as_, _bac_; _er_, _in_, _eb_, _ad_, _od_, _eg_. _Shall_, for _shal_, doz addiscional mischief, by inviting ignorance to' brauden dhe vowel. * * * * * 13. ODDHER FALSIFIERS, MEDIAL OR FINAL, OV LICQUIDS OR SIBBILANTS; PARTICCULARLY, _TI_ FOR A SIBBILACION. Our misrepprezented consonants seem reducibel to' dheze. 1. Licquid for licquid: _l_ for _r_, in dhe French _colonel_ for dhe Inglish _curnel_; _n_ for _m_, in dhe unutterabel _Banff_, for dhe good town ov _Bamf_. Here too may enter for explozion, dhe _n_ ov dhe indeffinite artikel, hweddher before a licquefaccion or an aspiracion; nedher ov hwich iz a vowel: so can we no more say _an unicorn_ dhan _an horse_, for _a unicorn_ or _a horse_. 2. Direct for depressive; _f_ for _v_, in _of_ for _ov_; _s_ for _z_, in _as_, _has_, _was_, _is_, _his_; for _az_, _haz_, _waz_, _iz_, _hiz_: in dhe verbs, _house_, _use_, _peruse_, _abuse_, _excuse_, _amuse_, like _muse_, noun or verb; _chuse_ or _choose_, widh dhe _dubbly_ fallacious _lose_ and _vase_: for _houz_ (like _brouz_), _uze_, _peruze_, _abuze_, _excuze_, _amuze_, _muze_, _chuze_ or _chooz_, _looz_, and _vauz_. Dhe verbs dhus, duly sevvered from dhe nouns, lead to' distinguish dhe verb _refuze_ from dhe adjective _refuse_, az wel az from dhe substantive _reffuse_. _Profuze_ and _profuse_, _diffuze_ and _diffuse_, ar simmilarly distinguishabel. Az we saw _s_ play _dubbel z_ in _visit_ and _vision_, for _vizzit_ and _vizzion_; so see we dubbel _s_ for _z_ in dhe middel, and for won _s_ in dhe end ov _possess_, for _pozes_; hwich hwile oppozite stres secures to' dhe ear from dhe formative ov _poze_, az _cares_ from dhat ov _care_, dhe context may wel guide dhe eye ov attension to' dhe undouted meaning. No wonder if dhe direct figgure ov dhe sibbilant frenchly _rose_, and _occasionally rises_, for dhe depressive reallity; _s_ for _z_ in _rose_ and _rises_, _occasionally_ between vowels; for _occazionally roze_ and _rizes_; nay for dhe dubbel depressive in _risen_, for _rizzen_. Dhis rivals indeed _Stephen_ for _Steven_, and even _nephew_ for _nevvew_. If _Stephanus_ pretended to' pattronize dhe won, _neveu_ (not _nepos_) must command dhe oddher. But dhe French acaddemy, so exemplary in evvery exhibiscion ov its language, set nohwere so fatal or so followed an exampel, az in pretending to' conjure _ti_ into' _si_ before a vowel: a combinacion indeed! hwich Inglish picturage ventured onely to' constitute, raddher substitute, a sibbilant aspirate; dhe same groop _condition_ prezenting in won picturage _condicion_; and dhence in dhe oddher _condiscion_. Yet French led not Inglish into' dhe dissolucion ov _x_ into' _ct_, in _flexion_, _reflexion_; hwich dhe former nevver violated into' _flection_, _reflection_, or dhe like. * * * * * 14. DHE ORTHOGGRAPHY OV PROPPER NAMES. Innocent howevver wer oddher tungs ov mispainting, az ov mispronouncing dhe dental aspirate; hwich not attempting to' substanciate even direct, far les depressive, dhey aught not, at least need not, to' paint at all: az dhe French _Tomas_, if les like hiz parent dhan _Thomas_, wood be so much liker himself; hwile _Tommas_ alone can tel Inglish truith. But dhat _Tommas_, dho a gennerous confessor ov conviccion, iz not dhe alone Brittish truith-teller; dhat he iz rivalled indeed by evvery oddher propper aincient and moddern, can be no novvelty to' anny crittic ov litterary natturalizement; hoo must onnor at wonce dhe, hware possibel, prezerved ennergy ov orrigin; and dhe inviolate prezzervacion ov Inglish anallogy; in dhe unchainged compannions ov _Euphrates_, _Darius_, _Heraclitus_, _Berea_, _Thalia_, and dhe rest; az wel az in dhe irreffragabel buties ov _Horrace_, _Terrence_, _Cezar_, _Ciscero_, _Senneca_, _Soccrates_, _Democcritus_, _Empeddocles_, _Heroddotus_, no les dhan ov _Jon_, _Phillip_, _Robbert_, _Parris_, widh _Hellen_, _Elizzabeth_, and dheir oddher Anglicized frends. * * * * * 15. DHE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPEL OV ORTHOGGRAPHY. Such iz dhe system ov INGLISH ORTHOGGRAPHY, braught widhin dhe compas ov a few pages, on dhe unfailing principel, hwich aught to' govvern evvery plan ov litterary improovment: first, to' make no chainge dhat can rascionally be avoided; and dhen to' make precisely evvery variacion, from vulgar practice, dhat can be demonstrated indispensabel. Nor iz dhis aught else dhan a completed minniature ov INGLISH PROPRIETY _ascertained in her picture_: two quarto-vollumes graciously received by hiz prezzent Brittish Madjesty, from dhe same umbel hands; at St. Jameses, in 1786. DHE END. * * * * * THE ORTHOGRAPHIC RIDDLE. PREFACE. These emanations of the British Muse, Where English thoughts could English dress refuse, Were once presented to another press, Though thence borne back, as hopeless of success. What honest critic e'er could credit eligible, Riddles to his researches unintelligible? When ready caution guards the lit'rate realm, Never shall foreign floods these isles o'erwhelm: Orthography the mother-tongue shall give, Ever, as every where, with Truth to live; Truth, Reason, Beauty shall o'erspread the nation; Shall solve the RIDDLE, with one contemplation. The public monitor of truth, Sworn enemy to what's uncouth, With blockheads similarly spells, (Orthography with pleasure tells) That thus the force of ridicule Should laugh the learned back to school. What then should cause that laughter strange? What should occasion gen'ral change? Orthography the answer gives, To satisfy whoever lives. The honest will confess the pity, Court, country, citadel with city; That ancients, with the giddy young, Should study still the Latin tongue; Should leave to levity, to dolour, The unproficient English scholar; Should give the very stranger dread, Of gibberish, that ne'er was read; That ne'er was heard, without derision, Eschewing ocular revision. This one example well will prove, Will lib'ral laughter doubtless move: When Pedantry shall cease to swell, Honour'd Humility will spell. The beauty then, of British truth, Resistless shall enamour youth; Shall evidence th' asseveration, Throughout th' etymologic nation; That one poetic exhibition Could, without lit'ral intuition, Fill ev'ry literary article, Though never spell one single particle: Could faithfully the whole present, Without[5] once shad'wing what were meant. * * * * * DHE SOLUCION OV DHE ORTHOGRAPPHIC RIDDEL. PREFFACE. Dheze emmanacions ov dhe Brittish Muze, Hware Inglish thaughts cood Inglish dres refuze, Wer wonce prezented to' anoddher pres, Dho dhence bor'n bac az hopeles ov succes. Hwat onnest crittic ehr cood creddit elligibel, Riddels to' hiz reserches unintelligibel? Hwen steddy caucion gards dhe litt'rate relm, Nevver shal forrain fluds dheze iles o'rhwelm: Orthoggraphy dhe moddher-tung shal guiv, Evver, az evv'rihware, widh Truith to' liv; Truith, Rezon, Buty shal o'rspred dhe nacion; Shal solv dhe RIDDEL, widh won contemplacion. Dhe pubblic monnitor ov truith, Swor'n ennemy to' hwat'z uncooth, Widh blockheds simmilarly spels, (Orthoggraphy widh plezzure tels) Dhat dhus dhe foarce ov riddicule Shood laf dhe lerned bac to' scool. Hwat dhen shood cauz dhat lafter strainge? Hwat shood occazion genn'ral chainge? Orthoggraphy dhe anser guivs, To' sattisfy hooevver livs. Dhe onnest wil confes dhe pitty, Coart, contry, cittadel widh citty; Dhat aincients, widh dhe guiddy yong, Shood studdy stil dhe Lattin tung; Shood leve to' levvity, to' dollor, Dhe unprofiscient Inglish scollar; Shood guiv dhe verry strainger dred, Ov guibberish, dhat nehr waz red; Dhat nehr waz herd widhout derizzion, Eskewing occular revizzion. Dhis won exampel wel wil proov, Wil libb'ral lafter doutles moov: Hwen Peddantry shal cese to' swel, Onnor'd Humillity wil spel. Dhe buty dhen, ov Brittish truith, Rezistles shal enammor yooth; Shal evvidence dh' assevveracion, Thro'out dh' etymmolodgic nacion; Dhat won poettic exhibiscion Cood, widhout litt'ral intuiscion, Fil evv'ry litterary artikel, Dho nevver spel won singuel partikel: Cood faithfoolly dhe hoal prezent, Widhout[6] wonce shadd'wing hwat wer ment. * * * * * NOTES [1] If not vulgarized from _batteller_. [2] Ov _mow_ dhe vowel and servile coalesce, (az in _sow_,) into' a dipthong, in dhe compound noun _barley-mow_. [3] From dhe old barbarous French _isle_[4], _faulte_, _voulte_, _recepte_, _debte_, _doubte_; _parfaict_, _vraidict_: now duly _île_, _faute_, _voute_, _recette_, _dette_, _doute_, _parfait_, and _vraidit_ from _verè dictum_. [4] Inglish propriety, and indeed common-sense, must also protest against two' late _misnomers: Th'isleworth_ for _Thistelworth_; and dhe forrain affectacion ov _St. Mary la bonne_ (or even _borne_) for _Marribone_. [5] Without one particle, representing what is read. [6] Widhout won partikel, repprezenting hwat iz red. 
12088	----	Distributed Proofreaders COMPOSITION-RHETORIC BY STRATTON D. BROOKS _Superintendent of Schools, Boston, Mass._ AND MARIETTA HUBBARD _Formerly English Department, High School La Salle, Illinois_ * * * * * NEW YORK - CINCINNATI - CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 1905 STRATTON D. BROOKS. Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. * * * * * Brooks's Rhet. W.P. 10 To MARCIA STUART BROOKS Whose teaching first demonstrated to the authors that composition could become a delight and pleasure, this book is dedicated...... PREFACE The aim of this book is not to produce critical readers of literature, nor to prepare the pupil to answer questions about rhetorical theory, but to enable every pupil to express in writing, freely, clearly, and forcibly, whatever he may find within him worthy of expression. Three considerations of fundamental importance underlie the plan of the book:-- First, improvement in the performance of an act comes from the repetition of that act accompanied by a conscious effort to omit the imperfections of the former attempt. Therefore, the writing of a new theme in which, the pupil attempts to avoid the error which occurred in his former theme is of much greater educational value than is the copying of the old theme for the purpose of correcting the errors in it. To copy the old theme is to correct a result, to write a new theme correctly is to improve a process; and it is this improvement of process that is the real aim of composition teaching. Second, the logical arrangement of material should be subordinated to the needs of the pupils. A theoretical discussion of the four forms of discourse would require that each be completely treated in one place. Such a treatment would ignore the fact that a high school pupil has daily need to use each of the four forms of discourse, and that some assistance in each should be given him as early in his course as possible. The book, therefore, gives in Part 1 the elements of description, narration, exposition, and argument, and reserves for Part II a more complete treatment of each. In each part the effort has been made to adapt the material presented to the maturity and power of thought of the pupil. Third, expression cannot be compelled; it must be coaxed. Only under favorable conditions can we hope to secure that reaction of intellect and emotion which renders possible a full expression of self. One of the most important of these favorable conditions is that the pupil shall write something he wishes to write, for an audience which wishes to hear it. The authors have, therefore, suggested subjects for themes in which high school pupils are interested and about which they will wish to write. It is hoped that the work will be so conducted by the teacher that every theme will be read aloud before the class. It is essential that the criticism of a theme so read shall, in the main, be complimentary, pointing out and emphasizing those things which the pupil has done well; and that destructive criticism be largely impersonal and be directed toward a single definite point. Only thus may we avoid personal embarrassment to the pupil, give him confidence in himself, and assure him of a sympathetic audience--conditions essential to the effective teaching of composition. The plan of the book is as follows:-- 1. Part 1 provides a series of themes covering description, narration, exposition, and argument. The purpose is to give the pupil that inspiration and that confidence in himself which come from the frequent repetition of an act. 2. Each theme differs from the preceding usually by a single point, and the teaching effort should be confined to that point. Only a false standard of accuracy demands that every error be corrected every time it appears. Such a course loses sight of the main point in a multiplicity of details, renders instruction ineffective by scattering effort, produces hopeless confusion in the mind of the pupil, and robs composition of that inspiration without which it cannot succeed. In composition, as in other things, it is better to do but one thing at a time. 3. Accompanying the written themes is a series of exercises, each designed to emphasize the point presented in the text, but more especially intended to provide for frequent drills in oral composition. 4. Throughout the first four chapters the paragraph is the unit of composition, but for the sake of added interest some themes of greater length have been included. Chapter V, on the Whole Composition, serves as a review and summary of the methods of paragraph development, shows how to make the transition from one paragraph to another, and discusses the more important rhetorical principles underlying the union of paragraphs into a coherent and unified whole. 5. The training furnished by Part 1 should result in giving to the pupil some fluency of expression, some confidence in his ability to make known to others that which he thinks and feels, and some power to determine that the theme he writes, however rough-hewn and unshapely it may be, yet in its major outlines follows closely the thought that is within his mind. If the training has failed to give the pupil this power, it will be of little advantage to him to have mastered some of the minor matters of technique, or to have learned how to improve his phrasing, polish his sentences, and distribute his commas. 6. Part II provides a series of themes covering the same ground as Part I, but the treatment of these themes is more complete and the material is adapted to the increased maturity and thought power of the pupils. By means of references the pupils are directed to all former treatments of the topics they are studying. 7. Part II discusses some topics usually treated in college courses in rhetoric. These have been included for three reasons: first, because comparatively few high school pupils go to college; second, because the increased amount of time now given to composition enables the high school to cover a wider field than formerly; and third, because such topics can be studied with profit by pupils in the upper years of the high school course. 8. It is not intended that the text shall be recited. Its purpose is to furnish a basis for discussion between teacher and pupils before the pupils attempt to write. The real test of the pupils' mastery of a principle discussed in the text will be their ability to put it into practice. Any judgment of the success or failure of the book should be based upon the quality of the themes which the pupils write. Criticisms and suggestions will be welcomed from those who use the book. The authors wish to express their obligation for advice and assistance to Professor Edward Fulton, Department of Rhetoric, University of Illinois; Messrs. Gilbert S. Blakely and H. E. Foster, Instructors in English, Morris High School, New York; Miss Elizabeth Richardson, Girls' High School, Boston; Miss Katherine H. Shute, Boston Normal School; Miss E. Marguerite Strauchon, Kansas City High School. The selections from Hawthorne, Longfellow, Lowell, Holmes, Whittier, Warner, Burroughs, Howells, and Trowbridge are used by permission of and by special arrangement with Hoaghton, Mifflin, and Company, publishers of their works. Grateful acknowledgment is made to Harper and Brothers; The Century Company; Doubleday, Page, and Company; and Charles Scribner's Sons for permission to use the selections to which their names are attached: to the publishers of the _Forum, Century, Atlantic Monthly, McClure's, Harper's, Scribner's_, and the _Outlook_ for permission to use extracts: and to Scott, Foresman, and Company; D. Appleton and Company; Henry Holt and Company; G. P. Putnam's Sons; Thomas Y. Crowell and Company; and Benjamin H. Sanborn and Company for permission to use copyrighted material. CONTENTS PART I 1. Expression of Ideas arising from Experience II. Expression of Ideas furnished by Imagination III. Expression of Ideas acquired through Language IV. The Purpose of Expression V. The Whole Composition VI. Letter Writing VII. Poetry PART II VIII. Description IX. Narration X. Exposition XI. Argument Appendix I. Elements of Form II. Review of Grammar III. Figures of Speech IV. The Rhetorical Features of the Sentence V. List of Synonyms VI. List of Words for Exercise in Word Usage Index PART 1 1. EXPRESSION OF IDEAS ARISING FROM EXPERIENCE +1. Pleasure in Expressing Ideas.+--Though we all enjoy talking, we cannot write so easily as we talk, nor with the same pleasure. We seldom talk about topics in which we are not interested and concerning which we know little or nothing, but we often have such topics assigned to us as subjects for compositions. Under such conditions it is no wonder that there is little pleasure in writing. The ideas that we express orally are those with which we are familiar and in which we are interested, and we tell them because we wish to tell them to some one who is likewise interested and who desires to hear what we have to say. Such expression of ideas is enjoyed by all. If we but choose to express the same kinds of ideas and for the same reason, there is an equal or even greater pleasure to be derived from the expression of ideas in writing. The purpose of this book is to show you how to express ideas _clearly, effectively_, and _with pleasure_. +2. Sources of Ideas.+--We must have ideas before we can express them. There are three sources from which ideas arise. We may gain them from experience; we may recombine them into new forms by the imagination; and we may receive them from others through the medium of language, either by conversation or by reading. Every day we add to our knowledge through our senses. We see and hear and do, and thus, through experience, acquire ideas about things. By far the greater part of expression has to do with ideas that have originated in this way. The first chapter in this book is concerned with the expression of ideas gained through experience. We may, however, think about things that have not actually occurred. We may allow our minds to picture a football game that we have not seen, or to plan a story about a boy who never existed. Nearly every one takes pleasure in such an exercise of the imagination. The second chapter has to do with the expression of ideas of this kind. We also add to our knowledge through the medium of language. Through conversation and reading we learn what others think, and it is often of value to restate these ideas. The expression of ideas so acquired is treated in the third chapter. +3. Advantages of Expressing Ideas Gained from Experience.+--Young people sometimes find difficulty in writing because they "have nothing to say." Such a reason will not hold in regard to ideas gained from experience. Every one has a multitude of experiences every day, and wishes to tell about some of them. Many of the things which happen to you or to your friends, especially some which occur outside of the regular routine of school work, are interesting and worth telling about. Thus experience furnishes an abundance of material suitable for composition purposes, and this material is of the best because the ideas are _sure to be your own_. The first requisite of successful composition is to have thoughts of your own. The expressing of ideas that are not your own is mere copy work, and seldom worth doing. Ideas acquired through experience are not only interesting and your own, but they are likely to be _clear_ and _definite_. You know what you do and what you see; or, if you do not, the effort to express your ideas so that they will be clear to others will make you observe closely for yourself. Still another advantage comes from the fact that your experiences are not presented to you through the medium of language. When experience furnishes the ideas, you are left free to choose for yourself the words that best set forth what you wish to tell. The things of your experience are the things with which you are most familiar, and therefore the words that best apply to them are those which you most often use and whose meanings are best known to you. Because experience supplies an abundance of interesting, clear, and definite ideas, which are your own and which may be expressed in familiar language, it furnishes better material for training in expression than does either imagination or reading. +4. Essentials of Expression.+--The proper expression of ideas depends upon the observance of two essentials: first, you should say what you mean; and second, you should say it clearly. Without these, what you say may be not only valueless, but positively misleading. If you wish your hearer to understand what occurred at a certain time and place, you must first of all know yourself exactly what did occur. Then you must express it in language that shall make him understand it as clearly as you do. You will learn much about clearness, later; but even now you can tell whether you know what is meant by each sentence which you hear or read. It is not so easy to tell whether what you say will convey clearly to another the meaning you intend to convey, but you will be helped in this if you ask yourself the questions: "Do I know exactly what happened?" "Have I said what I intended to say?" "Have I said it so that it will be clear to the listener?" +Oral Composition 1.+--_Report orally on one of the following:_-- 1. Were you so interested in anything yesterday that you told it to your parents or friends? Tell the class about it. 2. Tell about something that you have done this week, so that the class may know exactly what you did. 3. Name some things in which you have been interested within the last two or three months. Tell the class about one of them. 4. Tell the class about something that happened during vacation. Have you told the event exactly as it occurred? +5. Interest.+--In order to enjoy listening to a story we must take an interest in it, and the story should be so told as to arouse and maintain this interest. As you have listened to the reports of your classmates you have been more pleased with some than with others. Even though the meaning of each was clear, yet the interest aroused was in each case different. Since the purpose of a story is to entertain, any story falls short of its purpose when it ceases to be interesting. We must at all times say what we mean and say it clearly; but in story telling especially we must also take care that what we say shall arouse and maintain interest. +6. The Introduction.+--The story of an event should be introduced in such a manner as to enable the hearer to understand the circumstances that are related. Such an introduction contributes to clearness and has an important bearing upon the interest of the entire composition. In order to render our account of an event clear and interesting it is usually desirable to tell the hearers _when_ and _where_ the event occurred and _who_ were present. Their understanding of it may be helped further by telling such of the attendant circumstances as will answer the question, _Why_? If I begin my story by saying, "Last summer John Anderson and I were on a camping trip in the Adirondacks," I have told when, where, and who; and the addition of the words "on a camping trip" tells why we were in the Adirondacks, and may serve to explain some of the events that are to follow. Even the statement of the place indicates in some degree the trend of the story, for many things that might occur "in the Adirondacks" could not occur in a country where there are no mountains. Certainly the story that would follow such an introduction would be expected to differ from one beginning with the words, "Last summer John Anderson and I went to visit a friend in New York." It is not always necessary to tell when, where, who, and why in the introduction, but it is desirable to do so in most cases of oral story telling. These four elements may not always be stated in incidents taken from books, for the reader may be already familiar with them from the preceding portions of the book. The title of a printed or written story may serve as an introduction and give us all needed information. In relating personal incidents the time element is seldom omitted, though it may be stated indirectly or indefinitely by such expressions as "once" or 'lately.' In many stories the interest depends upon the plot, and the time is not definitely stated. EXERCISE Notice what elements are included in each of the following introductions:-- 1. Saturday last at Mount Holly, about eight miles from this place, nearly three hundred people were gathered together to see an experiment or two tried on some persons accused of witchcraft. 2. On the morning of the 10th instant at sunrise, they were discovered from Put-in-Bay, where I lay at anchor with the squadron under my command. 3. It was on Sunday when I awoke to the realization that I had quitted civilization and was afloat on an unfamiliar body of water in an open boat. 4. Up and down the long corn rows Pap Overholt guided the old mule and the small, rickety, inefficient plow, whose low handles bowed his tall, broad shoulders beneath the mild heat of a mountain June sun. As he went--ever with a furtive eye upon the cabin--he muttered to himself, shaking his head. 5. After breakfast, I went down to the Saponey Indian town, which is about a musket shot from the fort. 6. The lonely stretch of uphill road, upon whose yellow clay the midsummer sun beat vertically down, would have represented a toilsome climb to a grown and unencumbered man. To the boy staggering under the burden of a brimful carpet bag, it seemed fairly unscalable; wherefore he stopped at its base and looked up in dismay to its far-off, red-hot summit. 7. One afternoon last summer, three or four people from New York, two from Boston, and a young man from the Middle West were lunching at one of the country clubs on the south shore of Long Island, and there came about a mild discussion of the American universities. 8. "But where is the station?" inquired the Judge. "Ain't none, boss. Dis heah is jes a crossing. Train's about due now, sah; you-all won't hab long fer to wait. Thanky, sah; good-by; sorry you-all didn't find no birds." The Judge picked up his gun case and grip and walked toward his two companions waiting on the platform a few yards away. Silhouetted against the moonlight they made him think of the figure 10, for Mr. Appleton was tall and erect, and the little Doctor short and circular. 9. I sprang to the stirrup, and Joris and he; I galloped, Dirck galloped, we galloped all three; "Good speed!" cried the watch, as the gate bolts undrew, "Speed!" echoed the wall to us galloping through. Behind shut the postern, the lights sank to rest, And into the midnight we galloped abreast. --Browning. +Oral Composition II.+--_Relate orally to the class some incident in which you were personally concerned._ The following may suggest a subject:-- 1. How I made friends with the squirrels. 2. A trick of a tame crow. 3. Why I missed the train. 4. How a horse was rescued. 5. Lost and found. 6. My visit to a menagerie. (When preparing to relate this incident ask yourself first whether you know exactly what happened. Consider then how to begin the story so that your hearer will know when and where it happened and who were there. Include in the beginning any statement that will assist the reader in understanding the events which follow.) +7. The Point of a Story.+--It is not necessary that a story be concerned with a thrilling event in order to be interesting. Even a most commonplace occurrence may be so told that it is worth listening to. It is more important that a story have a point and be so told that this point will be readily appreciated than that it deal with important or thrilling events. The story should lead easily and rapidly to its point, and when this is reached the end of the story should not be far distant. The beginning of a story will contain statements that will assist us in appreciating the point when we come to it, but if the point is plainly stated near the beginning, or even if it is too strongly suggested, our story will drag. At what point in the following selection is the interest greatest? During the Civil War, I lived in that portion of Tennessee which was alternately held by the conflicting armies. My father and brothers were away, as were all the other men in the neighborhood, except a few very old ones and some half-grown boys. Mother and I were in constant fear of injury from stragglers from both armies. We had never been disturbed, for our farm was a mile or more back from the road along which such detachments usually moved. We had periods of comparative quiet in which we felt at ease, and then would come reports of depredation near at hand, or rumors of the presence of marauding bands in neighboring settlements. One evening such a rumor came to us, and we were consequently anxious. Early next morning, before the fog had lifted, I caught sight of two men crossing the road at the far end of the orchard. They jumped over the fence into the orchard and disappeared among the trees. I had but a brief glimpse of them, but it was sufficient to show me that one had a gun over his shoulder, while the other carried a saber. "Quick, Mother, quick!" I cried. "Come to the window. There are soldiers in the orchard." Keeping out of sight, we watched the progress of the men through the orchard. Our brief glimpses of them through the trees showed that they were not coming directly to the house, but were headed for the barn and sheds, and in order to keep out of sight, were following a slight ravine which ran across the orchard and led to the back of the barns. Mother and I were very much excited and hardly knew what to do. Finally it was determined to hide upstairs in hopes that the men were bent on stealing chickens or pigs, and might leave without disturbing the house. We locked the doors and went upstairs, taking with us the old musket and the butcher knife. We could hear the men about the barn, and after what seemed an interminable time we heard them coming towards the house. Though shaking all over, I summoned courage enough to go to the window and look out of a hole in the shade. As the men came into sight around the corner, I screamed outright, but from relief rather than fear, for the men were not soldiers, but Grandpa Smith and his fourteen-year-old grandson. They stopped at the well to get a drink, and when we opened the window, the old man said, "We're just on our way to mow the back lot and stopped to grind the scythe on your stone. We broke ours yesterday." Then he picked up the scythe which in the fog I had taken for a saber, while the grandson again shouldered his pitchfork musket. What effect would it have on the interest aroused by the preceding story to begin it as follows? "One morning during the Civil War, I saw two of my neighbors, Grandpa Smith and his grandson, crossing our orchard, one carrying a scythe and the other a pitchfork." Why is the expression, "before the fog had lifted," used near the beginning of the story? Would a description of the appearance of the house, the barn, or the persons add to the interest aroused by the story? Is it necessary to add anything to the story? EXERCISE In each of the following selections decide where the interest reaches its climax. Has anything been said in the beginning of any of them which suggests what the point will be, or which helps you to appreciate it when you come to it? 1. The next evening our travelers encamped on a sand bar, or rather a great bank of sand, that ran for miles along one side of the river. They kept watch as usual, Leon taking the first turn. He seated himself on a pile of sand and did his best to keep awake; but in about an hour after the rest were asleep, he felt very drowsy and fell into a nap that lasted nearly half an hour, and might have continued longer had he not slid down the sand hill and tumbled over on his side. This awoke him. Feeling vexed with himself, he rubbed his eyes and looked about to see if any creature had ventured near. He first looked towards the woods, for of course that was the direction from which the tigers would come; but he had scarcely turned himself when he perceived a pair of eyes glancing at him from the other side of the fire. Close to them another pair, then another and another, until, having looked on every side, he saw himself surrounded by a complete circle of glancing eyes. It is true they were small ones, and some of the heads which he could see by the blaze were small. They were not jaguars, but they had an ugly look. They looked like the heads of serpents. Was it possible that a hundred serpents could have surrounded the camp? Brought suddenly to his feet, Leon stood for some moments uncertain what to do. He believed that the eyes belonged to snakes which had just crept out of the river; and he feared that any movement on his part would lead them to attack him. Having risen to his feet, his eyes were above the level of the blaze, and he was able in a little while to see more clearly. He now saw that the snakelike heads belonged to creatures with large oval bodies, and that, besides the fifty or more which had come up to look at the fire, there were whole droves of them upon the sandy beach beyond. As far as he could see on all sides, the bank was covered with them. A strange sight it was, and most fearful. For his life he could not make out what it meant, or by what sort of wild animals he was surrounded. He could see that their bodies were not larger than those of small sheep; and, from the way in which they glistened in the moonlight, he was sure they had come out of the river. He called to the Indian guide, who awoke and started to his feet in alarm. The movement frightened the creatures round the fire; they rushed to the shore, and were heard plunging by hundreds into the water. The Indian's ear caught the sounds, and his eye took in the whole thing at a glance. "Turtles," he said. "Oh," said the lad; "turtles, are they?" "Yes, master," answered the guide. "I suppose this is one of their great hatching places. They are going to lay their eggs in the sand." --Captain Mayne Reid. Would the preceding incident be interesting if we were told at the beginning that the boy and the Indian had encamped near a hatching place of turtles? 2. Not every story that reads like fiction is fact, but the _Brooklyn Eagle_ assures its readers that the one here quoted is quite true. The man who told it was for many years an officer of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad Company in Illinois, and had annual passes over all the important railroads in the country. His duties took him to Springfield, the state capital, and as he generally went by the Chicago, Alton & St. Louis road, the conductors on that line knew him so well that they never asked to see his pass. "One day I received a telegram summoning me to meet one of the officers of my company at Aurora the next morning. I had only a short time to catch my train to Chicago, and in my haste left my passbook behind. I did not find this out until I reached Chicago, and was about to take the last train for Aurora that night. Then I saw that the conductor, a man brought over from the Iowa division, was a stranger, and the fact that I would need my pass reminded me that I did not have it. "I told the conductor the situation, but he said he could not carry me on my mere representation that I had a pass. "Why, man," said I, "I am an officer of the company, going to Aurora on company business, and this is the last train that will get me there in time. You must take me." "He was polite, but firm. He said he was a new man on this division, and could not afford to make any mistakes. "When I saw that he was determined, I rushed off to the telegraph office; but it was too late to catch anybody authorized to issue passes, so I settled it in my mind that I must go by carriage, and the prospect of an all-night ride over bad roads through the dark was anything but inviting. Indeed, it was so forbidding that I resolved to make one more appeal to the conductor. "You simply must take me to Aurora!" I said, with intense earnestness. "I can't do it," he answered. "But I believe you are what you represent yourself to be, and I will lend you the money personally. It is only one dollar and twelve cents." "Well, sir, you could have knocked me down with the flat side of a palm-leaf fan. I had more than two thousand dollars in currency in my pocket, but it had never for an instant occurred to me that I could pay my fare and ride on that train. I showed the conductor a wad of money that made his eyes stick out. "I thought it was funny," said he, "that a man in your position couldn't raise one dollar and twelve cents. It was that that made me believe you were playing a trick to see if I would violate the rule." "The simple truth was, I had ridden everywhere on passes so many years, that it did not occur to me that I could ride in any other way." +Oral Composition III.+[Footnote: Oral compositions should be continued throughout the course. A few minutes may be profitably used once or twice each week in having each member of the class stand before the class and relate briefly some incident which he has witnessed since the last meeting of the class. Exercises like those on page 53 also will furnish opportunities for oral work.]--_Relate to the class some personal incident suggested by one of the following subjects_:-- 1. A day with my cousin. 2. Caught in the act. 3. A joke on me. 4. My peculiar mistake. 5. My experience on a farm. 6. My experience in a strange Sunday school. 7. What I saw when I was coming to school. (In preparation for this exercise, consider the point of your story. What must you tell first in order to enable the hearers to understand the point? Can you say anything that will make them want to know what the point is without really telling them? Can you lead up to it without too long a delay? Can you stop when the point has been made?) +8. Theme Writing and Correcting.+--Any written exercise, whether long or short, is called a theme throughout this book. Just as one learns to skate by skating, so one learns to write by writing; therefore many themes will be required. Since the clear expression of thought is one of the essential characteristics of every theme, theme correction should be primarily directed to improvement in clearness. The teacher will need to assist in this correction, but the really valuable part is that which you do for yourself. After you leave school you will need to decide for yourself what is right and what is best, and it is essential that you now learn how to make such decisions. To aid you in acquiring a habit of self-correction, questions or suggestions follow the directions for writing each theme. In Theme I you are to express clearly to others something that is already clear to you. +Theme I.+-_Write a short theme on one of the subjects that you have used for an oral composition._ (After writing this theme, read it aloud to yourself. Does it read smoothly? Have you told what actually happened? Have you told it so that the hearers will understand you? Have you said what you meant to say? Consider the introduction. Has the story a point?) +9. The Conclusion.+--Since the point of a story marks the climax of interest, it is evident that the conclusion must not be long delayed after the point has been reached. If the story has been well told, the point marks the natural conclusion, and a sentence or two will serve to bring the story to a satisfactory end. If a suitable ending does not suggest itself, it is better to omit the conclusion altogether than to construct a forced or flowery one. Notice the conclusion of the incident of the Civil War related on page 18. +Theme II.+-_Write a short theme suggested by one of the following subjects:_-- 1. A school picnic. 2. A race. 3. The largest fire I have seen. 4. A skating accident. 5. A queer mistake. 6. An experience with a tramp. (Correct with reference to meaning and clearness. Consider the introduction; the point; the conclusion.) +10. Observation of Actions.+--Many of our most interesting experiences arise from observing the actions of others. A written description of what we have observed will gain in interest to the reader, if, in addition to telling what was done, we give some indication of the way in which it was done. A list of tools a carpenter uses and the operations he performs during the half hour we watch him, may be dull and uninteresting; but our description may have an added value if it shows his manner of working so that the reader can determine whether the carpenter is an orderly, methodical, and rapid worker or a mere putterer who is careless, haphazard, and slow. Two persons will perform similar actions in very different ways. Our description should be so worded as to show what the differences are. +Theme III.+--_Write a theme relating actions._ Suggested subjects:-- 1. A mason, blacksmith, painter, or other mechanic at work. 2. How my neighbor mows his lawn. 3. What a man does when his automobile breaks down. 4. Describe the actions of a cat, dog, rabbit, squirrel, or other animal. 5. Watch the push-cart man a half-hour and report what he did. (Have you told exactly what was done? Can you by the choice of suitable words show more plainly the way in which it was done? Does this theme need to have an introduction? A point? A conclusion?) +11. Selection of Details.+--You are at present concerned with telling events that actually happen; but this does not mean that you need to include everything that occurs. If you wish to tell a friend about some interesting or exciting incident at a picnic, he will not care to hear everything that took place during the day. He may listen politely to a statement of what train you took and what you had in your lunch basket, but he will be little interested in such details. In order to maintain interest, the point of your story must not be too long delayed. Brevity is desirable, and details that bear little relation to the main point, and that do not prepare the listener to understand and appreciate this point, are better omitted. +Theme IV.+--_Write about something that you have done. Use any of the following subjects, or one suggested by them:_-- 1. My first hunt. 2. Why I was tardy. 3. My first fishing trip. 4. My narrow escape. 5. A runaway. 6. What I did last Saturday. (Read the theme aloud to yourself. Does it read smoothly? Have you said what you meant to say? Have you expressed it clearly? Consider the introduction; the point; the conclusion. Reject unnecessary details.) +12. Order of Events.+--The order in which events occur will assist in establishing the order in which to relate them. If you are telling about only one person, you can follow the time order of the events as they actually happened; but if you are telling about two or more persons who were doing different things at the same time, you will need to tell first what one did and then what another did. You must, however, make it clear to the reader that, though you have told one event after the other, they really happened at the same time. In the selection below notice how the italicized portions indicate the relation in time that the different events bear to one another. At the beach yesterday a fat woman and her three children caused a great commotion. They had rigged themselves out in hired suits which might be described as an average fit, for that of the mother was as much too small as those of the children were too large. They trotted gingerly out into the surf, wholly unconscious that the crowd of beach loungers had, for the time, turned their attention from each other to the quartet in the water. By degrees the four worked out farther and farther until a wave larger than usual washed the smallest child entirely off his feet, and caused the mother to scream lustily for help. The people on the beach started up, and two or three men hastened to the rescue, but their progress was impeded by the crowd of frightened girls and women _who were scrambling and splashing towards the shore_. The mother's frantic efforts to reach the little boy were rendered ineffectual by the two girls, _who at the moment of the first alarm had been strangled_ by the salt water and _were now clinging_ desperately to her arms and _attempting_ to climb up to her shoulders. _Meanwhile_, the lifeboat man was rowing rapidly towards the scene, but it seemed to the onlookers _who had rushed to the platform railing_ that he would never arrive. _At the same time_ a young man, _who had started from the diving raft some time before_, was swimming towards shore with powerful strokes. He _now_ reached the spot, caught hold of the boy, and lifted him into the lifeboat, which had _at last_ arrived. Such expressions as _meanwhile, in the meantime, during, at last, while_, etc., are regularly used to denote the kind of time relations now under discussion. They should be used when they avoid confusion, but often a direct transition from one set of actions to another can be made without their use. Notice also the use of the relative clause to indicate time relations. +Theme V.+-_Write a short theme, using some one of the subjects named under the preceding themes or one suggested by them. Select one which you have not already used._ (Have you told enough to enable the reader to follow easily the thread of the story and to understand what you meant to tell? If your theme is concerned with more than one set of activities, have you made the transition from one to another in such a way as to be clear to the reader? Have you expressed the transitions with the proper time relations? What other questions should you ask yourself while correcting this theme?) SUMMARY 1. There is a pleasure to be derived from the expression of ideas. 2. There are three sources of ideas: experience, imagination, language. 3. Ideas gained from experience may be advantageously used for composition purposes because-- _a._ They are interesting. _b._ They are your own. _c._ They are likely to be clear and definite. _d._ They offer free choice of language. 4. The two essentials of expression are-- _a._ To say what you mean. _b._ To say it clearly. 5. A story should be told so as to arouse and maintain interest. Therefore,-- _a._ The introduction usually tells when, where, who, and why. _b._ Every story worth telling has a point. _c._ Only such details are included as are essential to the development of the point. _d._ The conclusion is brief. The story comes to an end shortly after the point is told. 6. Care must be taken to indicate the time order, especially when two or more events occur at the same time. 7. The correction of one's own theme is the most valuable form of correction. II. EXPRESSION OF IDEAS FURNISHED BY IMAGINATION +13. Relation of Imagination to Experience.+--All ideas are based upon and spring from experience, and the imagination merely places them in new combinations. For the purpose of this book, however, it is convenient to distinguish those themes that relate real events as they actually occurred from those themes that relate events that did not happen. That body of writing which we call literature is largely composed of works of an imaginative character, and for this reason it has sometimes been carelessly assumed that in order to write one must be possessed of an excellent imagination. Such an assumption loses sight of the fact that imaginative writings cover but one small part of the whole field. The production of literature is the business of a few, while every one has occasion every day to express ideas. It is evident that by far the greater part of the ideas we are called upon to express do not require the use of the imagination, but exercises in writing themes of an imaginative character are given here because there is pleasure in writing such themes and because practice in writing them will aid us in stating clearly and effectively the many ideas arising from our daily experiences. +14. Advantages and Disadvantages of Imaginative Theme Writing.+--Ideas furnished by the imagination are no less your own than are those furnished by experience, and the same freedom in the choice of language prevails. Such ideas are, however, not likely to be so clear and definite. At the time of their occurrence they do not make so deep and vital an impression upon you. If not recorded as they occur, they can seldom be recalled in the original form. Even though you attempt to write these imaginary ideas as you think them, you can and do change and modify them as you go along. This lack of clearness and permanent form, while it seems to give greater freedom, carries with it disadvantages. In the first place the ideas are less likely to be worth recording, and in the second place it is more difficult to give them a unity and directness of statement that will hold the attention and interest of the reader until the chief point is reached. +15. Probability.+--Not everything that the imagination may furnish is equally worth expressing. If you choose to write about something for which imagination supplies the ideas, you may create for yourself such ideas as you wish. Their order of occurrence and their time and place are not determined by outward events, but solely by the mind itself. The events are no longer real and actual, but may be changed and rearranged without limit. An imaginative series of events may conform closely to the real and probable, or it may be manifestly improbable. Which will be of greater interest will depend upon the reader, but it will be found that the story which comes nearest to reality is most satisfactory. In relating fairy tales we confessedly attempt to tell events not possible in the real world, but in relating tales of real life, however imaginary, we should tell the events so that everything seems both possible and probable. An imaginative story, in which the persons seem to be real persons who do and say the things that real persons do and say, will be found much more satisfactory than a story that depends for its outcome on something manifestly impossible. He who really does the best in imaginative writing is the one who has most closely observed the real events of everyday life, and states his imaginary events so that they seem real. +Theme VI.+--_Write a short theme, using one of the subjects below. You need not tell something that actually happened, but what you tell should be so told that your readers will think it might have happened._ 1. A trip in a sailboat. 2. The travels of a penny. 3. How I was lost. 4. A cat's account of a mouse hunt. 5. The mouse's account of the same hunt. 6. My experience with a burglar. 7. The burglar's story. +16. Euphony.+--Besides clearness in a composition there are other desirable qualities. To one of these, various names have been applied, as "euphony," "ease," "elegance," "beauty," etc. Of two selections equally clear in meaning one may be more pleasing than the other. One may seem harsh and rough, while the other flows along with a satisfying ease and smoothness. If the thought that is in our mind fails to clothe itself in suitable language and appropriate figures, we can do little by conscious effort toward improving the beauty of the language; but by avoiding choppy sentences and inharmonious combinations of words and phrases, we may remove from our compositions much that is harsh and rough. That quality which we call ease or euphony is better detected by the ear than by the eye, and for this reason it has been suggested that you read each theme aloud to yourself before presenting it to the class. Such a reading will assist you to determine whether you have made your meaning clear and to eliminate some of the more disagreeable combinations. +17. Variety.+--Of the many elements which affect the euphony of a theme none is more essential than variety. The constant repetition of the same thing grows monotonous and distasteful, while a pleasing variety maintains interest and improves the story. For the sake of this variety we avoid the continual use of the same words and phrases, substituting synonyms and equivalent expressions if we have need to repeat the same idea many times. Most children begin every sentence of a story with "and," or perhaps it is better to say that they conclude many sentences with "and-uh," leaving the thought in suspense while they are trying to think of what to say next. High school pupils are not wholly free from this habit, and it is sometimes retained in their written work. This excessive use of _and_ needs to be corrected. An examination of our language habits will show that nearly every one has one or more words which he uses to excess. A professor of rhetoric, after years of correcting others, discovered by underscoring the word _that_ each time it occurred in his own writing that he was using it twice as often as necessary. _Got_ is one of the words used too frequently, and often incorrectly. EXERCISES 1. In the following selection notice how each sentence begins. Compare it with one of your own themes. I was witness to events of a less peaceful character. One day when I went out to my woodpile, or rather my pile of stumps, I observed two large ants, the one red, and the other much larger, nearly half an inch long, and black, fiercely contending with each other. Having once got hold, they never let go, but struggled and wrestled and rolled on the chips incessantly. Looking farther, I was surprised to find that the chips were covered with such combatants; that it was not a _duellum_, but a _bellum_,--a war between two races of ants, the red always pitted against the black, and frequently two red ones to one black. The legions of these Myrmidons covered all the hills and vales in my woodyard, and the ground was already strewn with the dead and the dying, both red and black. It was the only battle which I have ever witnessed--the only battlefield I ever trod while the battle was raging.... On every side they were engaged in deadly combat, yet without any noise that I could hear, and human soldiers never fought so resolutely.--Thoreau. 2. Examine one of your own themes. If some word occurs frequently, underscore it each time, and then substitute words or expressions for it in as many places as you can. If necessary, reconstruct the sentences so as to avoid using the word in some cases. Notice how these substitutions give a variety to your expression and improve the euphony of your composition. Theme VII.--_Write a short story suggested by one of the following subjects:_-- 1. The trout's revenge. 2. A sparrow's mistake. 3. A fortunate shot. 4. The freshman and the professor. 5. What the bookcase thought about it. (Correct with reference to meaning and clearness. Cross out unnecessary _ands_. Consider the beginnings of the sentences. Can you improve the euphony by a different choice of words?) 18. Sentence Length.--Euphony is aided by securing a variety in the length of sentences. In endeavoring to avoid the excessive use of _and_, some pupils obtain results illustrated by the following example:-- Jean passed through the door of the church. He saw a child sitting on one of the stone steps. She was fast asleep in the midst of the snow. The child was thinly clad. Her feet, cold as it was, were bare. A theme composed wholly of such a succession of short sentences is tedious. Especially when read aloud does its monotony become apparent. Though the thought in each sentence is complete, the effect is not satisfactory to the reader, because the thought of the whole does not come to him as fast as his mind can act. Such an arrangement of sentences might be satisfactory to young children, because it would agree with their habits of thought; but as one grows in ability to think more rapidly, he finds that longer and more complicated sentences best express his thoughts and are best understood by those for whom he writes. We introduce sentences of different length and different structure, because they more clearly express the thought of the whole and state it in a form more in accordance with the mental activity of the hearer. When we have done this, we at the same time secure a variety that avoids monotony. In attempting to avoid a series of short sentences, care should be taken not to go to the other extreme. Sentences should not be overloaded. Too many adjectives or participles or subordinate clauses will render the meaning obscure. The number of phrases and clauses that may safely be introduced will be determined by the ability of the mind to grasp the meaning readily and accurately. It is sometimes quite as important to separate a long sentence into shorter ones as it is to combine short ones into those of greater length. Notice in the following selection the different ways in which several ideas have been brought into the same sentence without rendering the meaning obscure:-- Loki made his way across a vast desert moorland, and came, after three days, into the barren hill country and among the rugged mountains of the South. There an earthquake had split the rocks asunder, and opened dark and bottomless gorges, and hollowed out many a low-walled cavern, where the light of day was never seen. Along deep, winding ways, Loki went, squeezing through narrow crevices, creeping under huge rocks, and gliding through crooked clefts, until he came at last into a great underground hall, where his eyes were dazzled by a light that was stronger and brighter than the day; for on every side were glowing fires, roaring in wonderful little gorges, and blown by wonderful little bellows. +Theme VIII.+--_Write a story suggested by one of the following subjects:_-- 1. School in the year 2000. 2. The lost door key. 3. Our big bonfire. 4. Kidnapped. 5. A bear hunt. 6. A mistake in the telegram. 7. How Fido rescued his master. (Can you render the meaning more clear by uniting short sentences into longer ones, or by separating long sentences into shorter ones? Can you omit any _ands_? How many of the sentences begin with the same word? Can you change any of those words? Pick out the words which show the subordinate relation of some parts to others. Do all of the incidents in your story seem probable?) +19. Conversation.+--It must not be inferred from the preceding section that short sentences are never to be used. They are quite as necessary as long ones, and in some cases, such as the portraying of strong emotion, are more effective. Even a succession of short sentences may be used with good results to describe rapid action. In conversation, also, sentences are generally short, and often grammatically incomplete, though they may be understood by the hearer. Sometimes this incompleteness is justified by the idiom of the language, but more often it is the result of carelessness on the part of the speaker. The hearer understands what is said either because he knows about what to expect, or because the expression is a familiar one. Such carelessness not only causes the omission of words grammatically necessary, but brings about the incorrect pronunciation of words and their faulty combination into sentences. You speak much more often than you write. Your habits of speech are likely to become permanent and your errors of speech will creep into your written work. It is important therefore that you watch your spoken language. Occasions will arise when the slang expressions that you so freely use will seem inappropriate, and it will be unfortunate indeed if you find that you have used the slang so long that you have no other words to take their place. An abbreviated form of _gymnasium_ or of _mathematics_ may not attract attention among your schoolmates, but there are circles where such abbreviations are not used. By watching your own speech you will find that some incorrect forms are very common. Improvement can be made by giving your attention to one of them, such as the use of _guess_, or of _got_, or of _don't_ and _doesn't_. In making a written report of conversation you should remember that short sentences predominate. A conversation composed of long sentences would seem stilted and made to order. What each person says, however short, is put into a separate division and indented. Explanatory matter accompanying the conversation is placed with the spoken part to which it most closely relates. Notice the indentations and the use of quotation marks in several printed reports of conversation. +20. Ideas from Pictures.+--If you look at a picture and then attempt to tell some one else what you see, you will express ideas gained by experience. A picture may, however, cause a very different set of ideas to arise. Look at the picture on page 38. Can you imagine the circumstances that preceded the situation shown by the picture? Or again, can you not begin with that situation and imagine what would be done next? If you write out either of the series of events, the theme, though suggested by the picture, will be composed of ideas furnished by the imagination. In the writing of a story suggested by a picture, the situation given in the picture should be made the point of greatest interest, and should be accounted for by relating a series of events supposed to have preceded it. +Theme IX.+--_Write a story that will account for the condition shown in the picture on page 38._ (Correct with reference to clearness and meaning. Do you need to change the sentence length either for the sake of clearness or for the sake of variety? Cross out unnecessary _ands_. Underscore _got_ and _then_ each time you have used them. Can the reader follow the thread of your story to its chief point?) [Illustration] +21. Vocabulary.+--A word is the symbol of an idea, and the addition of a word to one's vocabulary usually means that a new idea has been acquired. The more we see and hear and read, the greater our stock of ideas becomes. As our life experiences increase, so should our supply of words increase. We may have ideas without having the words with which to express them, and we may meet with words whose meanings we do not know. In either case there is chance for improvement. When you have a new idea, find out how best to express it, and when you meet with a new word, add it to your vocabulary. It is necessary to distinguish between our reading vocabulary and our writing vocabulary. There are many words that belong only to the first. We know what they mean when we meet them in our reading, but we do not use them in our writing. Our speaking vocabulary also differs from that which we employ in writing. We use words and phrases on paper that seldom appear in our speech, and, on the other hand, many of the words that we speak do not appear in our writing. There is, however, a constant shifting of words from one to another of these three groups. When we meet an unknown word, it usually becomes a part of our reading vocabulary. Later it may appear in our written work, and finally we may use it in speaking. We add a word to our reading vocabulary when we determine its meaning, but _we must use it_ in order to add it to our writing and speaking vocabulary. A conscious effort to aid in this acquisition of words is highly desirable. A limited vocabulary indicates limited ideas. If one is limited to _awfully_ in order to express a superlative; if his use of adjectives is restricted to _nice, jolly, lovely_, and _elegant;_ if he must always _abominate_ and never _abhor_, _detest, dislike_, or _loathe;_ if he can only _adore_ and not _admire, respect, revere_, or _venerate_,--then he has failed, indeed, to know the possibilities and beauties of English. Such a language habit shows a mind that has failed to distinguish between ideas. The best way to study the shades of meaning and the choice of words is in the actual production of a theme wherein there is need to bring out these differences in meaning by the use of words; but some help may be gained from a formal study of synonyms and antonyms and of the distinction in use and meaning between words which are commonly confused with each other. For this purpose such exercises are given in the Appendix. +22. Choice of Words.+--Even though our words may express the proper meaning, the effect may not be a desirable one unless we use words suited to the occasion described and to the person writing. Pupils of high school age know the meaning of many words which are too "bookish" for daily use by them. Edward Everett Hale might use expressions which would not be suitable for a freshman's composition. Taste and good judgment will help you to avoid the unsuitable or grandiloquent. The proper selection of words not only implies that we shall avoid the wrong word, but also that we shall choose the right one. A suitable adjective may give a clearer image than is expressed by a whole sentence; a single verb may tell better how some one acted than can be told by a lengthy explanation. Since narration has to do with action, we need in story telling to be especially careful in our choice of verbs. What can you say of the suitability of the words in the following selection, taken from an old school reader? _Mrs. Lismore._ You are quite breathless, Charles; where have you been running so violently? _Charles._ From the poultry yard, mamma, where I have been diverting myself with the bravado of the old gander. I did not observe him till he came toward me very fiercely, when, to induce him to pursue me, I ran from him. He followed, till, supposing he had beaten me, he returned to the geese, who appeared to receive him with acclamations of joy, cackling very loud, and seeming actually to laugh, and to enjoy the triumph of their gallant chief. _Emma._ I wish I had been with you, Charles; I have often admired the gambols of these beautiful birds, and wondered how they came by the appellation of _silly_, which is generally bestowed on them. I remember Martha, our nursery maid, used often to call me a _silly goose_. How came they to deserve that term, mamma? they appear to me to have as much intelligence as any of the feathered tribe. _Mrs. Lismore._ I have often thought with you, Emma, and supposed that term, like many others, misapplied, for want of examining into the justice of so degrading an epithet. +23. Improbability.+--Up to this point we have been concerned with relating events that _could_ exist, though we knew that they _did_ not. We may, however, imagine a series of events that are manifestly impossible. There is a pleasure in inventing improbable stories, and if we know from the beginning that they are to be so, we enjoy listening to them. Such tales are more satisfactory to young persons than to older ones, as is shown by our declining interest in fairy stories as we grow older. By limiting the improbability to a part of the story, it is possible to give an air of reality to the whole. Though the conditions described in a story about a trip to the moon might be wholly impossible, yet the reader for the time being might feel that the events were actually happening if the characters in the story were acting as real men would act under similar circumstances. In stories such as those of Thompson-Seton, where the animals are personified, the impossibilities are forgotten, because the actions and situations are so real. In fairy stories and similar tales neither characters nor actions are in any way limited by probability. +Theme X.+--_Write a short story suggested by one of the subjects below. Make either the characters or their surroundings seem real._ 1. A week in Mars. 2. Exploring the lake bottom. 3. The cat's defense of her kittens. (_a_) As told by the cat. (_b_) As told by the dog. 4. How the fox fooled the hound. 5. Diary of a donkey. 6. A biography of Jack Frost. (Correct with reference to meaning and clearness and two other points to be assigned by the teacher.) +24. How to Increase One's Vocabulary.+--In your daily work do what you can to add words to your reading vocabulary, and especially to increase your writing vocabulary. In the conversation of others and in reading you will meet with many new words, and you should attempt to make them your own. To do this, four things must be attended to:-- 1. _Spelling._ Definite attention should be given to each new word until its form both as written and as printed is indelibly stamped upon the mind. In your general reading and in each of the subjects that you will study in the high school you will meet unfamiliar words. It is only by mastering the spelling of each new word _when you first meet it_ that you can insure yourself against future chagrin from bad spelling. A part of the time in each high school subject may well be devoted to the mastering of the words peculiar to that subject. 2. _Pronunciation._ The complete acquisition of a word includes its pronunciation. In reading aloud and in speaking, we have need to know it, and faulty pronunciation is considered an indication of lack of culture. 3. _Meaning._ This includes more than the ability to give the definition as found in the dictionary. It is possible to recite such definitions glibly without in reality knowing the meaning of the word defined. It is necessary to connect the word definitely and permanently in our mind with the idea for which it is the symbol and to be able to distinguish the idea clearly from others closely related to it. 4. _Use._ The actual use of a word is very important. If a word is to come into our speaking and writing vocabulary, we must use it. It is important that the spelling, pronunciation, and meaning be determined when you _first_ meet the word, and it is equally important that the word be _used_ soon and often. +Theme XI.+--_Write a short story suggested by one of the following subjects. It may be wholly improbable, if you choose._ 1. The good fairy. 2. Mary's luck. 3. The man in the moon. 4. The golden apple. 5. A wonderful fountain pen. 6. The goobergoo and the kantan. (Correct with reference to meaning and clearness and two other points to be assigned by the teacher.) SUMMARY 1. The clear expression of the ideas connected with our daily experiences is of greater importance to most of us than is the production of literature. 2. Ideas furnished by imagination may be advantageously used for composition purposes, because-- _a._ They are your own. _b._ They offer free choice of language. They are less desirable than those gained from experience, because-- _a._ They generally lack clearness and permanency. _b._ They are less likely to be worth recording. _c._ It is more difficult to give them that unity and directness of statement that will keep the interest of the reader. 3. An imaginative series of events may seem probable or improbable. He who most closely observes real life and states his imaginary events so that they seem real will succeed best in imaginative writing. 4. Euphony is a desirable quality in a composition. 5. Variety aids euphony. It is gained by-- _a._ Avoiding the repetition of the same words and phrases. _b._ Beginning our sentences in various ways. _c._ Using sentences of different lengths. 6. Conversation is usually composed of short sentences. 7. Pictures may suggest ideas suitable for use in compositions. 8. Our reading, writing, and speaking vocabularies differ. Each should be increased. With each new word attention should be given to-- _a._ Spelling. _b._ Pronunciation. _c._ Meaning. _d._ Use. III. EXPRESSION OF IDEAS ACQUIRED THROUGH LANGUAGE +25. Language as a Medium through Which Ideas are Acquired.+--We have been considering language as a means of expression, an instrument by which we can convey to others the ideas which come to us from experience and imagination. We shall now consider it from a different point of view. Language is not merely a means of expressing ideas, but it is also a medium through which ideas are acquired. It has a double use: the writer must put thought into language; the reader must get it out. A large part of your schooling has been devoted to acquiring ideas from language, and these ideas may be used for purposes of composition. _Since it is absolutely necessary to have ideas before you can express them_, it will be worth while to consider for a time how to get them from language. +26. Image Making.+--Read the following selection from Hawthorne and form a clear mental image of each scene:-- At first, my fancy saw only the stern hills, lonely lakes, and venerable woods. Not a tree, since their seeds were first scattered over the infant soil, had felt the ax, but had grown up and flourished through its long generation, had fallen beneath the weight of years, been buried in green moss, and nourished the roots of others as gigantic. Hark! A light paddle dips into the lake, a birch canoe glides around the point, and an Indian chief has passed, painted and feather-crested, armed with a bow of hickory, a stone tomahawk, and flint-headed arrows. But the ripple had hardly vanished from the water, when a white flag caught the breeze, over a castle in the wilderness, with frowning ramparts and a hundred cannon.... A war party of French and Indians were issuing from the gate to lay waste some village of New England. Near the fortress there was a group of dancers. The merry soldiers footing it with the swart savage maids; deeper in the wood, some red men were growing frantic around a keg of the fire-water; and elsewhere a Jesuit preached the faith of high cathedrals beneath a canopy of forest boughs. Did you form clear mental images? Can you picture them all at the same time, or must you turn your attention from one image to another? The formation of the proper mental images will be aided by making a persistent effort to create them. Many words do not cause us to form images; for example, _goodness, innocence, position, insurance_; but when the purpose of a word is to set forth an image, we should take care to get the correct one. In this the dictionary will not always help us. We must distinguish between the ability to repeat a definition and the power to form an accurate image of the thing defined. The difficulty of forming correct images by the use of dictionary definitions is so great that the definitions are frequently accompanied by pictures. EXERCISES Notice the different mental images that come to you as you read each of the following selections. Distinguish words that cause images to arise from those that do not. 1. Before these fields were shorn and tilled, Full to the brim our rivers flowed; The melody of waters filled The fresh and boundless wood; And torrents dashed, and rivulets played, And fountains spouted in the shade. --Bryant: _An Indian at the Burial Place of his Fathers_. 2. At that moment the woods were filled with another burst of cries, and at the signal four savages sprang from the cover of the driftwood. Heyward felt a burning desire to rush forward to meet them, so intense was the delirious anxiety of the moment; but he was restrained by the deliberate examples of the scout and Uncas. When their foes, who leaped over the black rocks that divided them, with long bounds, uttering the wildest yells, were within a few rods, the rifle of Hawkeye slowly rose among the shrubs and poured out its fatal contents. The foremost Indian bounded like a stricken deer and fell headlong among the clefts of the island. --Cooper: _Last of the Mohicans_. 3. The towering flames had now surmounted every obstruction, and rose to the evening skies, one huge and burning beacon, seen far and wide through the adjacent country. Tower after tower crashed down, with blazing roof and rafter; and the combatants were driven from the courtyard. The vanquished of whom very few remained, scattered and escaped into the neighboring wood. The victors, assembling in large bands, gazed with wonder, not unmixed with fear, upon the flames, in which their own ranks and arms glanced dusky red. The maniac figure of the Saxon Ulrica was for a long time visible on the lofty stand she had chosen, tossing her arms abroad with wild exaltation as if she reigned empress of the conflagration which she had raised. At length, with a terrific crash, the whole turret gave way and she perished in the flames which had consumed her tyrant. --Scott: _Ivanhoe_. 4. Under a spreading chestnut tree The village smithy stands; The smith, a mighty man is he, With large and sinewy hands; And the muscles of his brawny arms Are strong as iron bands. --Longfellow: _The Village Blacksmith_. 5. Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered weak and weary, Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore-- While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping, As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door; "'Tis some visitor," I muttered, "tapping at my chamber door-- Only this, and nothing more." --Edgar A. Poe: _The Raven_. 6. Where with black cliffs the torrents toil, He watch'd the wheeling eddies boil, Till, from their foam, his dazzled eyes Beheld the River Demon rise; The mountain mist took form and limb Of noontide hag or goblin grim. --Scott: _Lady of the Lake_. 7. On nearer approach he was still more surprised at the singularity of the stranger's appearance. He was a short, square-built old fellow, with thick, bushy hair and a grizzled beard. His dress was of the antique Dutch fashion--a cloth jerkin strapped around the waist--several pairs of breeches, the outer ones of ample volume, decorated with rows of buttons down the sides and bunches at the knees. He bore on his shoulder a stout keg that seemed full of liquor, and made signs for Rip to approach and assist him with his load. --Washington Irving: _Rip Van Winkle_. +27. Complete and Incomplete Images.+--Some sentences have for their purpose the presentation of an image, but in order to form that image correctly and completely, we must be familiar with the words used. If an unfamiliar word is introduced, the mind may omit entirely the image represented, or may substitute some other for it. Notice the image presented by this sentence from Henry James: "Her dress was dark and rich; she had pearls around her neck and an old rococo fan in her hand." If the meaning of _rococo_ is unknown to you, the image which you form will not be exactly the one that Mr. James had in mind. The pearls and the dress may stand out clearly in your image, but the fan will be lacking or indistinct. The whole may be compared to a photograph of which a part is blurred. If your attention is directed to the fan, you may recall the word _rococo_, but not the image represented by it. If your attention is not called to the fan, the mind is satisfied with the indistinct image, or substitutes for it an image of some other fan. Such an image is therefore either incomplete or inaccurate. An oath in court provides that we shall "tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth," but, in forming images, it is not always possible to hold our minds to such exactness. We are prone to picture more or less than the words convey. In fact, in some forms of prose, and often in poetry, the author purposely takes advantage of this habit of the mind and wishes us to enlarge with creations of our own imagination the bare image that his words convey. Such writing, however, aims to give pleasure or to arouse our emotions. It calls out something in the reader even more strongly than it sets forth something in the writer. This suggestiveness in writing will be considered later, but for the present it will be well for you to bear in mind that most language has for its purpose the exact expression of a definite idea. Much of the failure in school work arises from the careless substitution of one image for another, and from the formation of incomplete and inaccurate images. EXERCISES _A._ Make a list of the words in the following selections whose meanings you need to look up in order to make the images exact and complete. Do not attempt to memorize the language of the definition, but to form a correct image. 1. The sun stared brazenly down on a gray farmhouse, on ranges of whitewashed outbuildings, and on a goodly array of dark-thatched ricks. 2. In his shabby frieze jacket and mud-laden brogans, he was scarcely an attractive object. 3. In a sunlit corner of an old coquina fort they came suddenly face to face with a familiar figure. 4. Somewhat back from the village street Stands the old-fashioned country seat. Across its antique portico Tall poplar trees their shadows throw, And from its station in the hall An ancient timepiece says to all: "Forever--never! Never--forever!" --Longfellow: _The Old Clock on the Stairs_. 5. There was a room which bore the appearance of a vault. Four spandrels from the corners ran up to join a sharp cup-shaped roof. The architecture was rough, but very strong. It was evidently part of a great building. 6. The officer proceeded, without affecting to hear the words which escaped the sentinel in his surprise; nor did he again pause, until he had reached the low strand, and in a somewhat dangerous vicinity to the western water bastion of the fort. 7. She stood on the top step under the _porte-cochère_, on the extreme edge, so that the toes of her small slippers extended a little over it. She bent forward, and then tipped back on the high, exiguous heels again. 8. Before the caryatides of the fireplace, under the ancestral portraits, a valet moves noiselessly about, arranging the glistening silver service on the long table and putting in order the fruits, sweets, and ices. 9. No sooner is the heavy gate of the portal passed than one sees from afar among the leafage the court of honor, to which one comes along an alley decorated uniformly with upright square shafts like classic termae in stone and bronze. The impression of the antique lines is striking: it springs at once to the eyes, at first in this portico with columns and a heavy entablature, but lacking a pediment. _B._ Read again the selections beginning on page 46. Do you form complete images in every case? _C._ Notice in each of your lessons for to-day what images are incomplete. Bring to class a list of the words you would need to look up in order to form complete images. Do not include all the words whose meanings are not clear, but only those that assist in forming images. +Theme XII.+--_Form a clear mental image of some incident, person, or place. Write about it, using such words as will give your classmates complete and accurate images. The following may suggest a subject:_-- 1. A party dress I should like. 2. My room. 3. A cozy glen. 4. In the apple orchard. 5. Going to the fire. 6. The hand-organ man. 7. A hornets' nest. 8. The last inning. 9. An exciting race. (Consider what you have written with reference to the images which the _reader_ will form. Do you think that when the members of the class hear your theme, each will form the same images that you had in mind when writing? Notice how many of your sentences begin in the same way. Can you rewrite them so as to give variety?) +28. Reproduction of Images.+--If we were asked to tell about an accident which we had seen, we could recall the various incidents in the order of their occurrence. If the accident had occurred recently, or had made a vivid impression upon us, we could easily form mental images of each scene. If we had only read a description of the accident, it would be more difficult to recall the image; because that which we gain through language is less vitally a part of ourselves than is that which comes to us through experience. When called upon to reproduce the images suggested to us by language, our memory is apt to concern itself with the words that suggested the image, and our expression is hampered rather than aided by this remembrance. The author has made, or should have made, the best possible selection of words and phrases. If we repeat his language, we have but memory drill or copy work; and if we do not, we are limited to such second-class language as we may be able to find. Word memory has its uses, but it is less valuable than image memory. It is necessary to distinguish carefully between the images that a writer presents and the words that he uses. If a botany lesson should consist of a description of fifteen different leaves, a pupil deficient in image memory will attempt to memorize the language of the book. A better-trained pupil, on meeting such a term as _serrated_, will ask himself: "Have I ever seen such a leaf? Can I form an image of it?" If so, his only task will be to give the new name, _serrated_, to the idea that he already has. In a similar way he will form images for each of the fifteen leaves described in the lesson. The language of the book may help him form these images, but he will make no attempt to commit the language to memory. With him, "getting the lesson" means forming images and naming them, and reciting the lesson will be but talking about an image that he has clearly in mind. Try this in your own lessons. If we are called upon to reproduce the incidents and scenes of some story that has been read to us, our success will depend upon the clearness of the images that we have formed. Our efforts should be directed to making the images as definite and vivid as possible, and our memory will be concerned with the recalling of these images in their proper order, and not with the language that first caused them to appear. EXERCISES 1. Report orally some interesting incident taken from a book which you have recently read. Do not reread the story. Use such language as will cause the class to form clear mental images. 2. Report orally upon some chapter selected from Cooper's _Last of the Mohicans_ or Scott's _Ivanhoe_. 3. Read a portion of Scott's _Lady of the Lake_, and report orally what happened. 4. Report orally some incident that you have read about in a magazine. Select one that caused you to form images, and tell it so that the hearers will form like images. +Theme XIII.+--_Reproduce a story read to you by the teacher._ (Before writing, picture to yourself the scenes and recall the order of their occurrence. If it is necessary to condense, omit events of the least importance.) +29. Comparison.+--Writing which contains unfamiliar words fails to call up complete and definite images. It is often difficult to form the correct mental picture, even though the words in themselves are familiar. Definitions, explanations, and descriptions may cause us to understand correctly, but our understanding usually can be improved by means of a comparison. We can form an image of an object as soon as we know what it is like. If I wished you to form an image of an okapi, a lengthy description would give you a less vivid picture than the statement that it was a horselike animal, having stripes similar to those of a zebra. If an okapi were as well known to you as is a horse, the name alone would call up the proper image, and no comparison would be necessary. By means of it we are enabled to picture the unfamiliar. In this case the comparison is literal. If the comparison is imaginative rather than literal, our language becomes figurative, and usually takes the form of a simile or metaphor. Similes and metaphors are of great value in rendering thought clear. They make language forceful and effective, and they may add much to the beauty of expression. We may speak of an object as being like another, or as acting like another. If the comparison is imaginative rather than literal, and is directly stated, the expression is a simile. Similes are introduced by _like, as_, etc. He fought like a lion. The river wound like a serpent around the mountains. If two things are essentially different, but yet have a common quality, their _implied comparison_ is a metaphor. A metaphor takes the form of a statement that one is the other. "He was a lion in the fight." "The river wound its serpent course." Sometimes inanimate objects, abstract ideas, or the lower animals are given the attributes of human beings. Such a figure is called personification, and is in fact a modified metaphor, since it is based upon some resemblance of the lower to the higher. This music crept by me upon the waters. Time is a very bankrupt, and owes more than he is worth to season. Nay, he's a thief, too; have you not heard men say, That time comes stealing on by night and day? --Shakespeare. +30. Use of Figures of Speech.+--The three figures of speech, simile, metaphor, and personification, are more frequently used than are the others. Figures of speech are treated in a later chapter, but some suggestions as to their use will be of value to beginners. 1. Never write for the purpose of using figures of speech. Nearly everything that we need to say can be well expressed in plain, bare English, and the ability to express our thoughts in this way is the essential thing. If a figure that adds to the force and clearness of your expression occurs to you, use it without hesitation. A figure may also add to the beauty of our expression. The examples to be found in literature are largely of this character. If well used, they are effective, but the beginner should beware of a figure that is introduced for decorative purposes only. An attempt to find figures of speech in ordinary prose writing will show how rarely they are used. 2. The figures should fit the subject in hand. Some comparisons are appropriate and some are not. If the writer is familiar with his subject and deeply in earnest, the appropriate figures will rise spontaneously in his mind. If they do not, little is gained by seeking for them. 3. The effectiveness of a comparison, whether literal or figurative, depends upon the familiarity of the reader with one of the two things compared. To say that a petrel resembled a kite would be of no value to one who knew nothing of either bird. Similarly a figure is defective if neither element of the comparison is familiar to the readers. 4. Suitable figures give picturesqueness and vivacity to language, but hackneyed figures are worse than none. 5. Elaborate and long-drawn-out figures, or an overabundance of short ones, should be avoided. 6. A figure must be consistent throughout. A comparison once begun must be carried through without change; mixing figures often produces results which are ridiculous. The "mixed metaphor" is a common blunder of beginners. This fault may arise either from confusing different metaphors in the same sentence, or from blending literal language with metaphorical. The following will serve to illustrate:-- 1. [Confused metaphor.] Let us pin our faith to the rock of perseverance and honest toil, where it may sail on to success on the wings of hope. 2. [Literal and figurative blended.] Washington was the father of his country and a surveyor of ability. 3. When the last awful moment came, the star of liberty went down with all on board. 4. The glorious work will never be accomplished until the good ship "Temperance" shall sail from one end of the land to the other, and with a cry of "Victory!" at each step she takes, shall plant her banner in every city, town, and village in the United States. 5. All along the untrodden paths of the future we see the hidden footprints of an unseen hand. 6. The British lion, whether it is roaming the deserts of India, or climbing the forests of Canada, will never draw in its horns nor retire into its shell. 7. Young man, if you have the spark of genius in you, water it. EXERCISES Are the images which you form made more vivid by the use of the figures in the following selections? 1. She began to screech as wild as ocean birds. 2. And when its force expended, The harmless storm was ended; And as the sunrise splendid Came blushing o'er the sea-- 3. As a demon is hurled by an angel's spear, Heels over head, to his proper sphere-- Heels over head and head over heels,-- Dizzily down the abyss he wheels,-- So fell Darius. --J.T. Trowbridge. 4. In this republican country, amid the fluctuating waves of our social life, somebody is always at the drowning point. --Hawthorne. 5. Poverty, treading close at her heels for a lifetime, has come up with her at last. --Hawthorne. 6. Friendships begin with liking or gratitude--roots that can be pulled up. --George Eliot. 7. Nearing the end of the narrative, Ben paced up and down the narrow limits of the tent in great excitement, running his fingers through his hair, and barking out a question now and then. 8. A sky above, Where one white cloud like a stray lamb doth move. --Lowell. 9. In days of public commotion every faction, like an Oriental army, is attended by a crowd of camp followers, a useless and heartless rabble, who prowl round its line of march in the hope of picking up something under its protection, but desert it in the day of battle, and often join to exterminate it after a defeat. --Macaulay. 10. It is to be regretted that the prose writings of Milton should, in our time, be so little read. As compositions, they deserve the attention of every man who wishes to become acquainted with the full power of the English language. They abound with passages compared with which the finest declamations of Burke sink into insignificance. They are a perfect field of cloth of gold. The style is stiff with gorgeous embroidery. --Macaulay. 11. And close behind her stood Eight daughters of the plow, stronger than men, Huge women blowzed with health, and wind, and rain, And labor. Each was like a Druid rock, Or like a spire of land that stands apart Cleft from the main and wall'd about with mews. --Tennyson. 12. But bland the smile that, like a wrinkling wind On glassy water, drove his cheek in lines. --Tennyson. 13. The rush of affairs drifts words from their original meanings, as ships drag their anchors in a gale, but terms sheltered from common use hold to their moorings forever. --Mill. +Theme XIV.+--_Write a story suggested by the picture on page 59 or by one of the following subjects:_-- 1. A modern fable. 2. The willow whistle. 3. How I baked a cake. 4. The delayed picnic. 5. The missing slipper. 6. A misdirected letter. 7. A ride on a raft. 8. The rescue of Ezekiel. 9. A railway experience. 10. A soldier's soldier. (Do you think the reader will form the images you wish him to form? Consider what you have written with reference to climax. (See Section 7.) Have you needed to use figures? If so, have you used them in accordance with the suggestions on page 55? If you have used the word _only_, is it placed so as to give the correct meaning?) +31. Determination of Meaning Requires More than Image Making.+--The emphasis laid upon image making should not lead to the belief that this is all that is necessary in order to determine what is meant by the language we hear or read. Image making is important, but much of our language is concerned with presenting ideas of which no mental pictures can be formed. [Illustration] This very paragraph will serve as an illustration of such language. Our understanding of language of this kind depends upon our knowledge of the meanings of words, upon our understanding of the relations between word groups, or parts of sentences, and especially upon our appreciation of the relations in thought that sentences bear to one another. Each of these will be discussed in the following pages. Later it will be necessary to consider the relations in thought existing among paragraphs. +32. Word Relations.+--In order to get the thought of a sentence, we must understand the relations that exist between the words and word groups (phrases and clauses) that compose it. If the thought is simple, and expressed in straightforward terms, we grasp it readily and without any conscious effort to determine these relations. If the thought is complex, the relations become more complicated, and before we are sure that we know what the writer intends to say it may be necessary to note with care which is the main clause and which are the subordinate clauses. In either case our acquiring the thought depends upon our understanding the relations between words and word groups. We may understand them without any knowledge of the names that have been applied to them in grammar, but a knowledge of the names will assist somewhat. These relations are treated in the grammar review in the Appendix and need not be repeated here. +33. Incomplete Thoughts.+--We have learned (Section 27) that the introduction of unfamiliar words may cause us to form incomplete images. When the language is not designed to present images, we may, in a similar way, fail to get its real meaning if we are unfamiliar with the words used. If you do not know the meaning of _fluent_ and _viscous_, you will fail to understand correctly the statement, "Fluids range from the peculiarly fluent to the peculiarly viscous." If we wish to think precisely what the writer intended us to think, we must know the meanings of the words he uses. Many of us are inclined to substitute other ideas than those properly conveyed by the words of the writer, and so get confused or incomplete or inaccurate ideas. The ability to determine exactly what images the writer suggests, and what ideas his language expresses, is the first requisite of scholarship and an important element of success in life. EXERCISES _A._ The first step in acquiring knowledge is to determine what it is that we do not know. Just which word or words in each of the following sentences keep you from understanding the full meaning of the sentence? Notice that a dictionary definition will not always make the meaning clear. 1. It is really more scientific to repeat a quotation from a political speech correctly, or to pass on a story undistorted, than it is to know of the rings of Saturn or the striation of diatoms. 2. The process of testing a hypothesis requires great caution in order to prevent mistakes. 3. The aërial foliage stem is the most favorable for studying stem structure. 4. Taken collectively, isotherms indicate the distribution of mean temperature over the region embraced in the map. 5. Vibrations of the membrane of the tympanum are "damped" by the ossicles of the middle ear, which also receive and pass on the auditory tremors to the membrane closing the oval window. 6. In the battle which followed, the mobile Roman legion, arranged in open order three ranks deep, proved its superiority over the massive Macedonian phalanx. 7. The narrow and dissected forms have been attributed to the scarcity of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the water. _B._ Make a list of words in your lessons in other subjects for to-day that you need to look up in order to understand the lessons. This should be done daily, whether assigned or not. 34. +Choice of Words Adapted to the Reader.+--Words familiar to the reader should be used. Since the reader's ability to understand the thought of a paragraph depends to some extent upon his understanding of the words employed, it is necessary for the writer to choose words that will be understood by those whom he addresses. Of course we cannot tell whether a particular word will be understood by our readers, but, in case there is doubt, it is well to substitute one that is more likely to be understood. When you have written anything, it is well to ask yourself the question, Have I used words with which _the reader_ is probably familiar? +Theme XV.+---_Write a theme about one of the following subjects, using words that you think will be understood by your readers:_-- 1. How we breathe. 2. How to make a kite. 3. The causes of the seasons. 4. Why wood floats on water. 5. The use of baking powder. 6. The difference between arithmetic and algebra. (Have you said what you meant to say? Have you used words that your reader will understand? Find your longest sentence. Is its meaning clear? Notice the short sentences. Should some of them be united into a longer one?) +35. Word Selection.+--There are many shades of meaning which differ but little, and a careful writer will select just the word that best conveys his thought. The reader needs to be no less careful in determining the exact meaning that the writer intends to convey. Exercises in synonyms are thus of double importance (Section 21). Another source of error, both in acquiring and expressing thought, arises from the confusion of similar words. Some similarity of spelling causes one word to be substituted for another. There are many words and expressions that are so often interchanged that some time may be spent with profit upon exercises in determining their correct usage. These usually consist of brief reports to the class that set forth the meanings of the words, show their uses, and illustrate their differences. In preparing such reports, determine the meaning of the words from as many sources as are available. The usual meaning can be determined from the dictionary. A fuller treatment is given in some dictionaries in a chapter on faulty diction. Additional material may be found in many of the text-books on rhetoric, and in special books treating of word usage. After you are sure that you know the correct use, prepare a report for the class that shall make that use clear to others. In the simplest form this will consist of definitions and sentences in which the words are correctly used. The following examples, handed in by pupils, will serve to illustrate such reports:-- 1. A _council_ is an assembly of persons convened for consultation or deliberation. _Counsel_ is used to indicate either (1) an opinion as the result of consultation or (2) a lawyer engaged to give advice or to act as advocate in court. Lewis furnishes the following example of the use of these two words: "The plaintiff's _counsel_ held a _council_ with his partners in law, and finally gave him as his best _counsel_ the advice that he should drop the suit; but, as Swift says, 'No man will take _counsel_, but every man will take money,' and the plaintiff refused to accept the advice unless the _counsel_ could persuade the defendant to settle the case out of court by paying a large sum." 2. The correct meaning of _transpire_ may perhaps be best understood by considering its derivations. It comes from _trans_, through, and _spiro_, to breathe, from which it gets its meaning, to escape gradually from secrecy. It is frequently used incorrectly in the sense of to happen, but both Webster and the Standard dictionary condemn this use of the word. The latter says that it is often so misused especially in carelessly edited newspapers, as in "Comments on the heart-rending disaster which transpired yesterday are unnecessary, but," etc. When _transpire_ is correctly used, it is not a synonym of _happen_. A thing that happened a year ago may transpire to-day, that is, it may "become known through unnoticed channels, exhale, as it were, through invisible pores like a vapor or a gas disengaging itself." Many things which happen in school, thus become known by being passed along in a semi-secret manner until nearly all know of them though few can tell just how the information was spread. _Transpire_ may properly be applied to such a diffusion of knowledge. +Theme XVI.+--_Report as suggested above on any one of the following groups of words:_-- 1. Allude, mention. 2. Beside, besides. 3. Character, reputation. 4. Degrade, demean, debase. 5. Last, latest, preceding. 6. Couple, pair. 7. Balance, rest, remainder. (Have you made clear the correct use of the words under discussion? Can you give examples which do not follow the dictionaries so closely as do the illustrative reports above?) NOTE.--Lists of words suitable for exercises similar to the above are given in the Appendix. The teacher will assign them to such an extent and at such times as seems desirable. One such lesson a week will be found profitable. +36. Sentence Relations.+--What we read or hear usually consists of several sentences written or spoken together. The meaning of any particular sentence may depend upon the sentence or sentences preceding. In order to determine accurately the meaning of the whole, we must understand the relation in thought that each sentence bears to the others. Notice the two sentences: "Guns are dangerous. Boys should not use them." Though the last sentence is independent, it gets its meaning from the first. In the following selection consider each sentence apart from the others. Notice that the meaning of the whole becomes intelligible only when the sentences are considered in their relations to each other. Once upon a time, a notion was started, that if all the people in the world would shout at once, it might be heard in the moon. So the projectors agreed it should be done in just ten years. Some thousand shiploads of chronometers were distributed to the selectmen and other great folks of all the different nations. For a year beforehand, nothing else was talked about but the awful noise that was to be made on the great occasion. When the time came, everybody had his ears so wide open, to hear the universal ejaculation of Boo,--the word agreed upon,--that nobody spoke except a deaf man in one of the Fiji Islands, and a woman in Pekin, so that the world was never so still since the creation.--Holmes. Gutenberg did a great deal of his work in secret, for he thought it was much better that his neighbors should know nothing of what he was doing. So he looked for a workshop where no one would be likely to find him. He was now living in Strasburg, and there was in that city a ruined old building where, long before his time, a number of monks had lived. There was one room in the building which needed only a little repairing to make it fit to be used. So he got the right to repair the room and use it as his workshop. In all good writing we find a similar dependence in thought. Each sentence takes a meaning because of its relation to some other. The personal pronouns and pronominal adjectives, adverbial phrases indicating time or place, conjunctions, and such expressions as _certainly, however, on the other hand_, etc., are used to indicate more or less directly a relation in thought between the phrase or sentence in which they occur and some preceding one. If the reader cannot readily determine to what they refer, the meaning becomes obscure or ambiguous. The pronominal adjectives and the personal pronouns are especially likely to be used in such a way as to cause ambiguity. Care must be taken to use them so as to keep the meaning clear, and your own good sense will help you in this more than rules. Notice in your reading how frequently expressions similar to those mentioned above are used. +Theme XVII.+--_Write a theme suggested by one of the following subjects:_-- 1. The last quarter. 2. An excursion with the physical geography class. 3. What I saw while riding to town. 4. The broken bicycle. 5. An hour in the study hall. 6. Seen from my study window. (Are your sentences so arranged that the relation in thought is clear? Are the personal pronouns and pronominal adjectives used so as to avoid ambiguity? Does your story relate real events or imaginary ones? If imaginary events are related, have you made them seem probable?) +37. Getting the Main Thought.+--In many cases the relation in thought is not directly indicated, and we are left to determine it from the context, just as we decide upon the meaning of a word because of what precedes or follows it. In this case the meaning of a particular sentence may be made clear if we have in mind the main topic under discussion. Many pupils fail in recitations because they do not distinguish that which is more important from that which is less so. If a dozen pages of history are assigned, they cannot master the lesson because it is too long to be memorized, and they are not able to select the three or four things of importance with which it is really concerned. Thirty or forty minor details are jumbled together without any clear knowledge of the relations that they bear either to one another or to the main thoughts of the lesson. In the following selection but three things are discussed. Determine what they are, but not what is said about them. In all the ages the extent and value of flood plains have been increased by artificial means. Dikes or levees are built to regulate the spread and flow of the water and to protect the land from destructive floods. Dams and reservoirs are constructed for the storage of water, which is led by a system of canals and ditches to irrigate large tracts of land which would be otherwise worthless. By means of irrigation, the farmer has control of his water supply and is able to get larger returns than are possible where he depends upon the irregular and uncertain rainfall. It is estimated that in the arid regions of western United States there are 150,000 square miles of land which may be made available for agriculture by irrigation. Perhaps in the future the valley of the lower Colorado may become as productive as that of the Nile. Streams are the easiest routes of travel and commerce. A river usually furnishes from its mouth well up toward its source a smooth, graded highway, upon which a cargo may be transported with much less effort than overland. If obstructions occur in the form of rapids or falls, boat and cargo are carried around them. It is often easy to pass by a short portage or "carry" from one stream system across the divide to another. In regions which are not very level the easiest grades in every direction are found along the streams, and the main routes of land travel follow the stream valleys. In traversing a mountainous region, a railroad follows the windings of some river up to the crest of the divide, which it crosses through a pass, or often by a tunnel, and descends the valley of some stream on the other side. Man is largely indebted to streams for the variety and beauty of scenery. Running water itself is attractive to young and old. A landscape without water lacks its chief charm. A child instinctively finds its way to the brook, and the man seeks beside the river the pleasure and recreation which no other place affords. Streams have carved the surface of the land into an endless variety of beautiful forms, and a land where stream valleys are few or shallow is monotonous and tiresome. The most common as well as the most celebrated beauty of scenery in the world, from the tiny meanders of a meadow brook to the unequaled grandeur of the Colorado canyons, is largely due to the presence and action of streams. --Dryer: _Lessons in Physical Geography_. In the above selection we find that each group of sentences is related to some main topic. A more extended observation of good writing will give the same result. Men naturally think in sentence groups. A group of sentences related to each other and to the central idea is called a +paragraph.+ +38. Topic Statement.+--In the three paragraphs of the selection on page 67, notice that the first sentence in each tells what the paragraph is about. In a well-written paragraph it is possible to select the phrase or sentence that states the main thought. If such a sentence does not occur in the paragraph itself, one can be framed that will express clearly and concisely the chief idea of the paragraph. This brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of a paragraph is called the topic statement. In order to master the thought of what we read we must be able to select or to make the successive topic statements, and in order to express our own thoughts clearly we must write our paragraphs so that our readers may easily grasp the topic statement of each. When expressed in the paragraph, the topic statement may be a part of a sentence, a whole sentence, or it may extend through two sentences. It is usual to place the topic statement first, but it may be preceded by one or more introductory sentences, or even withheld until the end of the paragraph. For emphasis it may be repeated, though usually in a slightly different form. EXERCISES Determine the topic statements of the following paragraphs. If one is not expressed, make one. 1. No less valuable is the mental stimulus of play. The child is trained by it to quick perception, rapid judgment, prompt decision. His imagination cunningly suggests a thousand things to be done, and then trains the will and every power of body and mind in the effort to do them. The sports of childhood are admirably adapted to quicken the senses and sharpen the wits. Nature has effective ways in her school of securing the exercise which is needed to develop every mental and every bodily power. She fills the activity brimful of enjoyment, and then gives her children freedom, assured that they will be their own best teachers. --Bradley 2. Our Common Law comes from England, and originated there in custom. It is often called the unwritten law, because unwritten in origin, though there are now many books describing it. Its principles originated as habits of the people, five hundred, eight hundred, years ago, perhaps some of them back in the time when the half-savage Saxons landed on the shores of England. When the time came that the government, through its courts, punished the breach of a custom, from that time the custom was a law. And so the English people acquired these laws, one after another, just as they were acquiring at the same time the habits of making roads, using forks at table, manufacturing, meeting in Parliament, using firearms, and all the other habits of civilization. When the colonists came to America, they brought the English Common Law with them, not in a book, but in their minds, a part of their life, like their religion. --Clark: _The Government_. 3. Accuracy is always to be striven for but it can never be attained. This fact is only fully realized by scientific workers. The banker can be accurate because he only counts or weighs masses of metal which he assumes to be exactly equal. The Master of the Mint knows that two coins are never exactly equal in weight, although he strives by improving machinery and processes to make the differences as small as possible. When the utmost care is taken, the finest balances which have been constructed can weigh 1 lb. of a metal with an uncertainty less than the hundredth part of a grain. In other words, the weight is not accurate, but the inaccuracy is very small. No person is so stupid as not to feel sure that the height of a man he sees is between 3 ft. and 9 ft.; some are able by the eye to estimate the height as between 5 ft. 6 in. and 5 ft. 8 in.; measurement may show it to be between 5 ft. 6 in. and 5 ft. 7 in., but to go closer than that requires many precautions. Training in observation and the use of delicate instruments thus narrow the limits of approximation. Similarly with regard to space and time, there are instruments with which one millionth of an inch, or of a second, can be measured, but even this approximation, although far closer than is ever practically necessary, is not accuracy. In the statement of measurements there is no meaning in more than six significant figures, and only the most careful observations can be trusted so far. The height of Mount Everest is given as 29,002 feet; but here the fifth figure is meaningless, the height of that mountain not being known so accurately that two feet more or less would be detected. Similarly, the radius of the earth is sometimes given as 3963.295833 miles, whereas no observation can get nearer the truth than 3963.30 miles. --Mill: _The Realm of Nature_. (Copyright, 1892, by Charles Scribner's Sons.) 4. The chief cause which made the fusion of the different elements of society so imperfect was the extreme difficulty which our ancestors found in passing from place to place. Of all the inventions, the alphabet and the printing press alone excepted, those inventions which abridge distance have done most for the civilization of our species. Every improvement of the means of locomotion benefits mankind morally and intellectually as well as materially, and not only facilitates the interchange of the various productions of nature and art, but tends to remove national and provincial prejudices, and to bind together all the branches of the great human family. In the seventeenth century the inhabitants of London were for almost every practical purpose farther from Reading than they are now from Edinburgh, and farther from Edinburgh than they are now from Vienna. --Macaulay: _History of England_. 5. He touched New England at every point. He was born a frontiersman. He was bred a farmer. He was a fisherman in the mountain brooks and off the shore. He never forgot his origin, and he never was ashamed of it. Amid all the care and honor of his great place here he was homesick for the company of his old neighbors and friends. Whether he stood in Washington, the unchallenged prince and chief in the Senate, or in foreign lands, the kingliest man of his time in the presence of kings, his heart was in New England. When the spring came, he heard far off the fife bird and the bobolink calling him to his New Hampshire mountains, or of the waves on the shore at Marshfield alluring him with a sweeter than siren's voice to his home by the summer sea. --George F. Hoar: _Daniel Webster_. 6. Nor must I forget the suddenly changing seasons of the northern clime. There is no long and lingering spring, unfolding leaf and blossom one by one; no long and lingering autumn, pompous with many-colored leaves and the glow of Indian summer. But winter and summer are wonderful, and pass into each other. The quail has hardly ceased piping in the corn when winter, from the folds of trailing clouds, sows broadcast over the land snow, icicles, and rattling hail. The days wane apace. Erelong the sun hardly rises above the horizon, or does not rise at all. The moon and the stars shine through the day; only at noon they are pale and wan, and in the southern sky a red, fiery glow, as of a sunset, burns along the horizon and then goes out. And pleasantly under the silver moon, and under the silent, solemn stars, ring the steel shoes of the skaters on the frozen sea, and voices, and the sound of bells. --Longfellow: _Rural Life in Sweden_. 7. Extreme _busyness_, whether at school or college, kirk or market, is a symptom of deficient vitality; and a faculty for idleness implies a catholic appetite and a strong sense of personal identity. There is a sort of dead-alive, hackneyed people about, who are scarcely conscious of living except in the exercise of some conventional occupation. Bring these fellows into the country, or set them aboard ship, and you will see how they pine for their desk or their study. They have no curiosity; they cannot give themselves over to random provocations; they do not take pleasure in the exercise of their faculties for its own sake; and unless Necessity lays about them with a stick, they will even stand still. It is no good speaking to such folk: they _cannot_ be idle, their nature is not generous enough; and they pass those hours in a sort of coma, which are not dedicated to furious moiling in the gold mill. When they do not require to go to the office, when they are not hungry and have no mind to drink, the whole breathing world is a blank to them. If they have to wait an hour or so for a train, they fall into a stupid trance, with their eyes open. To see them, you would suppose there was nothing to look at and no one to speak with; you would imagine they were paralyzed or alienated; and yet very possibly they are hard workers in their own way, and have good eyesight for a flaw in a deed or a turn of the market. They have been to school and college, but all the time they had their eye on the medal; they have gone about in the world and mixed with clever people, but all the time they were thinking of their own affairs. As if a man's soul were not too small to begin with, they have dwarfed and narrowed theirs by a life of all work and no play; until here they are at forty, with a listless attention, a mind vacant of all material amusement, and not one thought to rub against another while they wait for the train. Before he was breeched, he might have clambered on the boxes; when he was twenty, he would have stared at the girls; but now the pipe is smoked out, the snuffbox is empty, and my gentleman sits bolt upright on a bench, with lamentable eyes. This does not appeal to me as being Success in Life. --Robert Louis Stevenson. (Copyright, by Charles Scribner's Sons.) _B._ Examine the themes which you have written. Does each paragraph have a topic statement? Have you introduced sentences which do not bear upon this topic statement? Are the paragraphs real ones treating of a single topic, or are they merely groups of sentences written together without any close connection in thought? +Theme XVIII.+--_State two or three advantages of public high schools over private boarding schools. Use each as a topic statement and develop it into a short paragraph._ (Add to each topic statement such sentences as will prove to a pupil of your own age that the topic statement states a real advantage. Include in each paragraph only that which bears upon the topic statement. Consider the definition of a paragraph on page 68. Does this definition apply to your paragraphs?) +39. Reproduction of the Thought of a Paragraph.+--Our ability to reproduce the thought of what we read will depend largely upon our ability to select the topic statements. In preparing a lesson for recitation it is evident that we must first determine definitely the topic statement of each paragraph. These may bear upon one general subject or upon different subjects. The three paragraphs on page 67 are all concerned with one subject, the uses of rivers. A pupil preparing to recite them would have in mind, when he went to class, an outline about as follows:-- General subject: The uses of rivers. First topic statement: The fertility of flood plains is improved by irrigation. Second topic statement: Streams are the easiest routes of travel and commerce. Third topic statement: Man is indebted to streams for beauty of scenery. While such a clear statement is the first step toward a proper understanding of the lesson, it is not enough. In order to understand thoroughly a topic statement, we need explanation or illustration. The idea is not really our own until we have thought about it in its relations to other knowledge already in our possession. In order to know whether you understand the topic statements, the teacher will ask you to discuss them. This may be done by telling what the writer said about them, or by giving thoughts and illustrations of your own, but best of all, by doing both. It is necessary, then, to know in what way the writer develops each topic statement. Read the following paragraph:-- The most productive lands in the world are flood plains. At every period of high water, a stream brings down mantle rock from the higher grounds, and deposits it as a layer of fine sediment over its flood plain. A soil thus frequently enriched and renewed is literally inexhaustible. In a rough, hilly, or mountainous country the finest farms and the densest population are found on the "bottom lands" along the streams. The flood plain most famous in history is that of the river Nile in Egypt. For a distance of 1500 miles above its mouth this river flows through a rainless desert, and has no tributary. The heavy spring rains which fall upon the highlands about its sources produce in summer a rise of the water, which overflows the valley on either side. Thus the lower Nile valley became one of the earliest centers of civilization, and has supported a dense population for 7000 years. The conditions in Mesopotamia, along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, are similar to those along the lower Nile, and in ancient times this region was the seat of a civilization perhaps older than that of Egypt. The flood plains of the Ganges in India, and the Hoang in China, are the most extensive in the world, and in modern times the most populous. The alluvial valley of the Mississippi is extremely productive of corn, cotton, and sugar cane. --Dryer: _Lessons in Physical Geography_. Notice that the first sentence gives the topic statement, flood plains are productive. The second and third sentences tell why this is so, and the rest of the paragraph is given up to illustrations. In preparing this paragraph for recitation the pupil should have in mind an outline about as follows:-- Topic statement: Flood plains are the most productive lands in the world. 1. Reasons. 2. Examples: (_a_) Bottom lands. (_b_) Nile. (_c_) Tigris and Euphrates. (_d_) Ganges. (_e_) Hoang. (_f_) Mississippi. In order to make such an outline, the relative importance of the ideas in the paragraph must be mastered. A recitation that omitted the topic statement or the reasons would be defective, while one that omitted one or more of the examples might be perfect, especially if the pupil could furnish other examples from his own knowledge. The illustration about bottom lands is a general one, and should suggest specific cases that could be included in the recitation. The details in regard to the Nile might be included if they happened to be recalled at the time of the recitation, but even the omission of all mention of the Nile might not materially detract from the value of the recitation. The effort to remember minor details hinders real thought-getting power. It is better not to write this outline. The use of notes or written outlines at the time of the recitation soon establishes a habit of dependence that renders real scholarship an impossibility. With such an analysis of the thought clearly in mind, the pupil need not attempt to remember the language of the writer. EXERCISES _A._ Complete the partial outline given for the paragraph below. Which of the illustrations might be omitted from a recitation? For which can you furnish different illustrations? Mountain ranges have great influence upon climate, political geography, and commerce. Many of them form climatic boundaries. The Cordilleras of western America and the Scandinavian mountains arrest the warm, moist, western winds which rise along those great rock barriers to cooler altitudes, where their water vapor is condensed and falls as rain, so that the country on the windward side of the mountains is wet and that on the leeward side is dry. Mountain chains stretching east and west across central Asia protect the southern part of the continent from frigid arctic winds. The large winter tourist traffic of the Riviera is due to the mountains that shield this favored French-Italian coast from the north and northeast continental winds, giving it a considerably warmer winter's temperature than that of Rome, two and a half degrees farther south. As North America has no mountain barriers across the pathway of polar winds, they sweep southward even to the Gulf of Mexico and have twice destroyed Florida's orange groves within a decade. Mountain ranges are conspicuous in political geography because they are the natural boundary between many nations and languages, as the Pyrenees between France and Spain, the Alps between Austria and Italy, and the Himalayas between Tibet and India. Mountains sometimes guard nations from attack by the isolation they give, and therefore promote national unity. Thus the Swiss are among the few peoples in Europe who have maintained the integrity of their state. Commercially, mountains are of great importance as a source of water, which they store in snow, glaciers, and lakes. Snow and ice, melting slowly on the mountains, are an unfailing source of supply for perennial rivers, and thus promote navigation. Mountains are the largest source of water-power, which is more valuable than ever now that electricity is employed to transmit it to convenient centers for use in the industries. A large part of the mining machinery in the United States is run by water power. Switzerland, which has no coal, turns the wheels of its mills with water. Mountains supply most of the metals and minerals, and are therefore the scene of the largest mining industry. They are also among the greatest sources of forest wealth. Though the slopes are not favorable for agriculture they afford good pasturage, and the débris of the rocks washed into the valleys and plains by mountain torrents supplies good soil. Thus the Appalachians have been worn down to a comparatively low level, and the soil formed from their rock particles is the basis of large husbandry. The scenic attractions of many mountain regions is a source of large revenue. The Alps attract crowds of tourists, who spend about twenty million dollars a year in Switzerland and Austria, and give to many thousands of persons. --Adams: _Commercial Geography_. OUTLINE (to be completed) Mountain ranges have great influence upon-- I. Climate. Why? Where? _a, b,_ etc. II. Political geography. Why? Where? _a, b,_ etc. III. Commerce. Why? Where? _a, b,_ etc. _B._ Make an outline of the following paragraph:-- 1. The armor of the different classes was also accurately ordered by the law. The first class was ordered to wear for the defense of the body, brazen helmets, shields, and coats of mail, and to bear spears and swords, excepting the mechanics, who were to carry the necessary military engines and to serve without arms. The members of the second class, excepting that they had bucklers instead of shields and wore no coats of mail, were permitted to bear the same armor and to carry the sword and spear. The third class had the same armor as the second, excepting that they could not wear greaves for the protection of their legs. The fourth had no arms excepting a spear and a long javelin. The fifth merely carried slings and stones for use in them. To this class belonged the trumpeters and horn blowers. --Gilman: _Story of Rome_. _C._ In preparing your other lessons for to-day, make outlines of the paragraphs. +Theme XIX.+--_Reproduce the thought of some paragraph read to you by the teacher._ (Do not attempt to remember the language. Try to get the main thought of what is read and then write a paragraph which sets forth that same idea. Use different illustrations if you can.) NOTE.--This theme may be repeated as many times as seems desirable. +40. Importance of the Paragraph.+--Emphasis needs to be laid upon the importance of the paragraph. Our ability to express our thoughts clearly depends, to a large extent, upon our skill in constructing paragraphs. The writing of correct sentences is not sufficient. Though each of a series of sentences may be correct, they may, as a whole, say but little, and that very poorly; while another set of sentences, which cluster around some central idea, may set it forth most effectively. It is only by giving our sentence groups that unity of thought which combines them into paragraphs that we make them most effective. A well-constructed paragraph will make clear some idea, and a series of such paragraphs, related to each other and properly arranged, will set forth the sum of our thoughts on any subject. +41. Paragraph Length.+--The proper length of a paragraph cannot be determined by rule. Sometimes the thought to be presented will require several sentences; sometimes two or three will be sufficient. A single illustration may make a topic statement clear, or several illustrations may be required. The writer must judge when he has included enough to make his meaning understood, and must avoid including so much that the reader will become weary. Usually a paragraph that exceeds three hundred words will be found too long, or else it will contain more than one main idea, each of which could have been presented more effectively in a separate paragraph. +42. Indentation.+--In written and printed matter the beginning of a paragraph is indicated by an indentation. Indentation does not make a paragraph, but we indent because we are beginning a new paragraph. Indentation thus serves the same purpose as punctuation. It helps the reader to determine when we have finished one main thought and are about to begin another. Beginners are apt to use indentations too frequently. There are some special uses of indentation in letter writing, printed conversation, and other forms, but for ordinary paragraph division the indentation is determined by the thought, and its correct use depends upon clear thinking. Can the following selection be improved by reparagraphing? Outside in the darkness, gray with whirling snowflakes, he saw the wet lamps of cabs shining, and he darted along the line of hansoms and coupés in frantic search for his own. "Oh, there you are," he panted, flinging his suit case up to a snow-covered driver. "Do your best now; we're late!" And he leaped into the dark coupé, slammed the door, and sank back on the cushions, turning up the collar of his heavy overcoat. There was a young lady in the farther corner of the cab, buried to her nose in a fur coat. At intervals she shivered and pressed a fluffy muff against her face. A glimmer from the sleet-smeared lamps fell across her knees. Down town flew the cab, swaying around icy corners, bumping over car tracks, lurching, rattling, jouncing, while its silent occupants, huddled in separate corners, brooded moodily at their respective windows. Snow blotted the glass, melting and running down; and over the watery panes yellow light from shop windows played fantastically, distorting vision. Presently the young man pulled out his watch, fumbled for a match box, struck a light, and groaned as he read the time. At the sound of the match striking, the young lady turned her head. Then, as the bright flame illuminated the young man's face, she sat bolt upright, dropping the muff to her lap with a cry of dismay. He looked up at her. The match burned his fingers; he dropped it and hurriedly lighted another; and the flickering radiance brightened upon the face of a girl whom he had never before laid eyes on. "Good heavens!" he said, "where's my sister?" The young lady was startled but resolute. "You have made a dreadful mistake," she said; "you are in the wrong cab--" +Theme XX.+--_Write a theme using one of the subjects below:_-- 1. A personal incident. 2. The advantages and disadvantages of recesses. 3. Complete the story commenced in the selection just preceding. (Make a note of the different ideas you may discuss. Which are important enough to become topic statements? Which may be grouped together in one paragraph? In what order shall they occur? After your theme is written, consider the paragraphs. Does the definition apply to them? Are any of them too short or too long?) +43. Reasons for Studying Paragraph Structure.+--A knowledge of the way in which a paragraph is constructed will aid us in determining the thought it contains. There are several methods of developing paragraphs, and usually one of these is better suited than another to the expression of our thought. Attention given to the methods used by others will enable us both to understand better what we read, and to employ more effectively in our own writing that kind of paragraph which best expresses our thought. Hence we shall give attention to the more common forms of paragraph development. +44. Development by Giving Specific Instances.+--If you hear a general statement, such as, "Dogs are useful animals," you naturally think at once of some of the ways in which they are useful, or of some particular occasion on which a dog was of use. If a friend should say, "My dog, Fido, knows many amusing tricks," you would expect the friend to tell you some of them. A large part of our thinking consists of furnishing specific instances to illustrate general ideas which arise. Since the language we use is but the expression of the thoughts we have, it happens that many of our paragraphs are made up of general statements and the specific instances used to illustrate these statements. When the topic sentence is a general statement, we naturally seek to supply specific instances, and the writer will most readily make his meaning clear by furnishing such illustrations. Either one or many instances may be used. The object is to explain the topic statement or to prove its truth, and a good writer will use that number of instances which best accomplishes his purpose. In the following selection notice how the topic statement, set forth and repeated in the first part of the paragraph, is illustrated in the last part by means of several specific instances:-- Nine tenths of all that goes wrong in this world is because some one does not mind his business. When a terrible accident occurs, the first cry is that the means of prevention were not sufficient. Everybody declares we must have a new patent fire escape, an automatic engine switch, or a high-proof non-combustible sort of lamp oil. But a little investigation will usually show that all the contrivances were on hand and in good working order; the real trouble was that somebody didn't mind his business; he didn't obey orders; he thought he knew a better way than the way he was told; he said, "Just this once I'll take the risk," and in so doing, he made other people take the risk too; and the risk was too great. At Toronto, Canada, not long ago, a conductor, against orders, ran his train on a certain siding, which resulted in the death of thirty or forty people. The engineer of a mill, at Rochester, N.Y., thought the engine would stand a higher pressure than the safety valve indicated, so he tied a few bricks to the valve to hold it down; result--four workmen killed, a number wounded, and a mill blown to pieces. The _City of Columbus_, an iron vessel fitted out with all the means of preservation and escape in use on shipboard, was wrecked on the best-known portion of the Atlantic coast, on a moonlight night, at the cost of one hundred lives, because the officer in command took it into his head to save a few ship-lengths in distance by hugging the shore, in direct disobedience to the captain's parting orders. The best-ventilated mine in Colorado was turned into a death trap for half a hundred miners because one of the number entered with a lighted lamp the gallery he had been warned against. Nobody survived to explain the explosion of the dynamite-cartridge factory in Pennsylvania, but as that type of disaster almost always is due to heedlessness, it is probable that this instance is not an exception to the rule. --Wolstan Dixey: _Mind Your Business_. EXERCISES _A._ Which sentences make the general statements, and which furnish specific instances, in the following paragraphs? My contemplations were often interrupted by strangers who came down from Forsyth's to take their first view of the falls. A short, ruddy, middle-aged gentleman, fresh from Old England, peeped over the rock, and evinced his approbation by a broad grin. His spouse, a very robust lady, afforded a sweet example of maternal solicitude, being so intent on the safety of her little boy that she did not even glance at Niagara. As for the child, he gave himself wholly to the enjoyment of a stick of candy. Another traveler, a native American, and no rare character among us, produced a volume of Captain Hall's tour, and labored earnestly to adjust Niagara to the captain's description, departing, at last, without one new idea or sensation of his own. The next comer was provided, not with a printed book, but with a blank sheet of foolscap, from top to bottom of which, by means of an ever pointed pencil, the cataract was made to thunder. In a little talk which we had together, he awarded his approbation to the general view, but censured the position of Goat Island, observing that it should have been thrown farther to the right, so as to widen the American falls, and contract those of the Horseshoe. Next appeared two traders of Michigan, who declared that, upon the whole, the sight was worth looking at; there certainly was an immense water power here; but that, after all, they would go twice as far to see the noble stone works of Lockport, where the Grand Canal is locked down a descent of sixty feet. They were succeeded by a young fellow, in a homespun cotton dress, with a staff in his hand, and a pack over his shoulders. He advanced close to the edge of the rock, where his attention, at first wavering among the different components of the scene, finally became fixed in the angle of the Horseshoe falls, which is, indeed, the central point of interest. His whole soul seemed to go forth and be transported thither, till the staff slipped from his relaxed grasp, and falling down--down-- down--struck upon the fragment of the Table Rock. --Hawthorne: _My Visit to Niagara_. No wonder he learned English quickly, for he was ever on the alert--no strange word escaped him, no unusual term. He would say it over and over till he met a friend, and then demand its meaning. One day he came to me with a very troubled face. "Madame," he said, "please tell me why shall a man, like me, like any man, be a 'bluenose'?" "A what?" I asked. "A 'bluenose.' So he was called in the restaurant, but he seemed not offended about it. I have looked in my books; I can't find any disease of that name." With ill-suppressed laughter I asked, "Do you know Nova Scotia and Newfoundland?" "I hear the laugh in your voice," he said; then added, "Yes, I know both these places." "They are very cold and foggy and wet," I explained. But with brightening eyes he caught up the sentence and continued: "And the people have blue noses, eh? Ha! ha! Excuse me, then, but is a milksop a man from some state, or some country, too?" At tea some one used the word "claptrap." "What's that?" quickly demanded the student in our midst. "'Claptrap'--'clap' is so (he struck his hands together); 'trap' is for rats--what is, then, 'claptrap'?" "It is a vulgar or unworthy bid for applause," I explained. "Bah!" he contemptuously exclaimed. "I know him,--that cheap actor who plays at the gallery. He is, then, in English a 'clap-trapper,' is he not?" It was hardly possible to meet him without having a word or a term offered thus for explanation. --Clara Morris: _Alessandro Salvini_ ("McClure's"). _B._ Write six sentences which might be developed into paragraphs by giving specific instances. +Theme XXI.+--_Write a paragraph by furnishing specific instances for one of the following topic statements:_-- 1. Nine tenths of all that goes wrong in this world is because some one does not mind his business. 2. It requires a man of courage and perseverance to become a pioneer. 3. Even the wisest teacher does not always punish the boy who is most at fault. 4. It is impossible to teach a dog many amusing tricks. 5. Even so stupid a creature as a chicken may sometimes exhibit much intelligence. 6. Carelessness often leads into difficulty. 7. Our school clock must see many interesting things. 8. Our first impressions are not always our best ones. 9. I am a very busy lead pencil, for my duties are numerous. 10. Dickens's characters are taken from the lower classes of people. 11. Some portions of the book I am reading are very interesting. (Do your specific instances really illustrate the topic statement? Have you said what you intended to say? Can you omit any words or sentences? Have you used _and_ or _got_ unnecessarily?). +45. Development by Giving Details.+--Many general statements lead to a desire to know the details, and the writer may make his idea clearer by giving them. The statement, "The wedding ceremony was impressive," at once arouses a desire to know the details. If a friend should say, "I enjoyed my trip to the city," we wish him to relate that which pleased him. These details assist us in understanding the topic statement, and increase our interest in it. Notice in the paragraphs below how much is added to our understanding of the topic statement by the sentences that give the details:-- 1. I left my garden for a week, just at the close of a dry spell. A season of rain immediately set in, and when I returned the transformation was wonderful. In one week every vegetable had fairly jumped forward. The tomatoes, which I left slender plants, eaten of bugs and debating whether they would go backward or forward, had become stout and lusty, with thick stems and dark leaves, and some of them had blossomed. The corn waved like that which grows so rank out of the French-English mixture at Waterloo. The squashes--I will not speak of the squashes. The most remarkable growth was the asparagus. There was not a spear above ground when I went away; and now it had sprung up, and gone to seed, and there were stalks higher than my head. --Warner: _My Summer in a Garden_. 2. The wedding ceremony was solemn and beautiful, in the church on the estate. At the door of the palace stood the mother of the bride, to greet her return from the ceremony with the blessing, "May you always have bread and salt," as she served her from a loaf of black bread, with a salt cellar in the center, as is the Russian custom for prince and peasant. Just at this dramatic moment a courier dashed up with a telegram from the Czar and Czarina, and their gifts for the bride,--a magnificent tiara and necklace of diamonds. The other presents were already displayed in a magnificent room; but we saw their splendor through the glass of locked cases,--a precaution surprising to an Englishwoman. The large swan of forcemeat was the only reminder of boyar customs at the rather Parisian feast. Wine was served between the courses, with a toast; while guests in turn left their seats to express their sentiments to bride and groom, who stood to receive them. --Mary Louise Dunbar: _The Household of a Russian Prince_ ("Atlantic Monthly "). +Theme XXII.+--_Write a paragraph by giving details for one of the following topic statements:_-- 1. There were many interesting things on the farm where I spent my summer vacation. 2. The sounds heard in the forest at night are somewhat alarming to one who is not used to the language of the woods. 3. I am always much amused when the Sewing Circle meets at my mother's house. 4. Good roads are of advantage to farmers in many ways. 5. A baseball game furnishes abundant opportunity to exercise good judgment. 6. I remember well the first time that I visited a large city. 7. I shall never forget my first attempt at milking a cow. 8. The haunted house is a square, old-fashioned one of the colonial type. 9. A mouse suddenly entering the class room caused much disturbance. 10. A freshman's trials are numerous. (Do the details bear upon the main idea? If the paragraph is long and rambling, condense by omitting the least important parts. By changing the order of the sentences, can you improve the paragraph?) +46. Details Related in Time-Order.+--The experiences of daily life follow each other in time, and when we read of a series of events we at once think of them as having occurred in a certain time-order. To assist in establishing the correct time-order, the writer should generally state the details of his story in the order in which they occurred. The method of showing time relations for simultaneous events has been discussed in Section 11. If the narrative is of considerable length, it may be divided into paragraphs, each dealing with some particular stage of its progress. The time relations among the sentences within the paragraph and among the paragraphs themselves should be such that the reader may readily follow the thread of the story to its main point. Narrative paragraphs often do not have topic sentences. In the following selection from _Black Beauty_ notice how the time relations give unity of thought both to the paragraphs and to the whole selection:-- He hung my rein on one of the iron spikes, and was soon hidden among the trees. Lizzie was standing quietly by the side of the road, a few paces off, with her back to me. My young mistress was sitting easily, with a loose rein, humming a little song. I listened to my rider's footsteps until he reached the house, and heard him knock at the door. There was a meadow on the opposite side of the road, the gate of which stood open. As I looked, some cart horses and several young colts came trotting out in a very disorderly manner, while a boy behind was cracking a great whip. The colts were wild and frolicsome. One of them bolted across the road and blundered up against Lizzie. Whether it was the stupid colt or the loud cracking of the whip, or both together, I cannot say, but she gave a violent kick and dashed off into a headlong gallop. It was so sudden that Lady Anne was nearly unseated, but she soon recovered herself. I gave a long, shrill neigh for help. Again and again I neighed, pawing the ground impatiently, and tossing my head to get the rein loose. I had not long to wait. Blantyre came running to the gate. He looked anxiously about, and just caught sight of the flying figure now far away on the road. In an instant he sprang to the saddle. I needed no whip, no spur, for I was as eager as my rider. He saw it; and giving me a free rein, and leaning a little forward, we dashed after them. For about a mile and a half the road ran straight, then bent to the right; after this it divided into two roads. Long before we came to the bend my mistress was out of sight. Which way had she turned? A woman was standing at her garden gate, shading her eyes with her hand, and looking eagerly up the road. Scarcely drawing rein, Lord Blantyre shouted, "Which way?" "To the right!" cried the woman, pointing with her hand, and away we went up the right-hand road. For a moment we caught sight of Lady Anne; another bend, and she was hidden again. Several times we caught glimpses of the flying rider, only to lose her again. We scarcely seemed to gain ground upon her at all. An old road mender was standing near a heap of stones, his shovel dropped and his hands raised. As we came near he made a sign to speak. Lord Blantyre drew the rein a little. "To the common, to the common, sir! She has turned off there." I knew this common very well. It was, for the most part, very uneven ground, covered with heather and dark-green bushes, with here and there a scrubby thorn tree. There were also open spaces of fine, short grass, with ant-hills and mole turns everywhere--the worst place I ever knew for a headlong gallop. We had just turned on to the common, when we caught sight again of the green habit flying on before us. My mistress's hat was gone, and her long brown hair was streaming behind her. Her head and body were thrown back, as if she were pulling with all her remaining strength, and as if that strength were nearly exhausted. It was clear that the roughness of the ground had very much lessened Lizzie's speed, and there seemed a chance that we might overtake her. While we were on the highroad, Lord Blantyre had given me my head; but now, with a light hand and a practiced eye, he guided me over the ground in such a masterly manner that my pace was scarcely slackened, and we gained on them every moment. About halfway across the common a wide dike had recently been cut and the earth from the cutting cast up roughly on the other side. Surely this would stop them! But no; scarcely pausing, Lizzie took the leap, stumbled among the rough clods, and fell. --Anne Sewell: _Black Beauty_. +Theme XXIII.+--_Write a brief narrative giving unity to the paragraphs by means of the time relations._ Suggested subjects:-- 1. An adventure on horseback. 2. A trip with the engineer. 3. A day on the river. 4. Fido's mishaps. 5. An inquisitive crow. 6. The unfortunate letter carrier. 7. Teaching a calf to drink. 8. The story of a silver dollar. 9. A narrow escape. 10.An afternoon at the circus. 11.A story accounting for the situation shown in the picture on page 90. (Do you need more than one paragraph? If so, is each a group of sentences treating of a single topic? Can the reader follow the thread of your story? Leave out details not essential to the main point.) +47. Order of Details Determined by Position in Space.+--The order of presentation of details may be determined by the position that the details themselves occupy in space. In description we wish both to give a correct general impression of the thing described, and to make certain details clear. The general impression should be given in the first sentence or two and the details should follow. The effectiveness of the details will depend upon their order of presentation. When one looks at a scene the eye passes from one object to another near it; similarly when one is recalling the scene the image of one thing naturally recalls that of an adjoining one. A skillful writer takes advantage of this habit of thinking, and states the details in his description in the order in which we would naturally see them if we were actually looking at them. By so doing he most easily presents to our minds the image he wishes to convey. [Illustration] In the following paragraphs notice that we get first an impression of the general appearance, to which we are enabled to add new details as the description proceeds. The companion of the church dignitary was a man past forty, thin, strong, tall, and muscular; an athletic figure, which long fatigue and constant exercise seemed to have left none of the softer part of the human form, having reduced the whole to brawn, bones, and sinews, which had sustained a thousand toils, and were ready to dare a thousand more. His head was covered with a scarlet cap, faced with fur, of that kind which the French call _mortier_, from its resemblance to the shape of an inverted mortar. His countenance was therefore fully displayed, and its expression was calculated to impress a degree of awe, if not of fear, upon strangers. High features, naturally strong and powerfully expressive, had been burnt almost into negro blackness by constant exposure to the tropical sun, and might, in their ordinary state, be said to slumber after the storm of passion had passed away; but the projection of the veins of the forehead, the readiness with which the upper lip and its thick black mustache quivered upon the slightest emotion, plainly intimated that the tempest might be again and easily awakened. His keen, piercing, dark eyes told in every glance a history of difficulties subdued and dangers dared, and seemed to challenge opposition to his wishes, for the pleasure of sweeping it from his road by a determined exertion of courage and of will; a deep scar on his brow gave additional sternness to his countenance and a sinister expression to one of his eyes, which had been slightly injured on the same occasion, and of which the vision, though perfect, was in a slight and partial degree distorted. The upper dress of this personage resembled that of his companion in shape, being a long monastic mantle; but the color, being scarlet, showed that he did not belong to any of the four regular orders of monks. On the right shoulder of the mantle there was cut, in white cloth, a cross of a peculiar form. This upper robe concealed what at first view seemed rather inconsistent with its form, a shirt, namely, of linked mail, with sleeves and gloves of the same, curiously plaited and interwoven, as flexible to the body as those which are now wrought in the stocking loom out of less obdurate materials. The fore part of his thighs, where the folds of his mantle permitted them to be seen, were also covered with linked mail; the knees and feet were defended by splints, or thin plates of steel, ingeniously jointed upon each other; and mail hose, reaching from the ankle to the knee, effectually protected the legs, and completed the rider's defensive armor. In his girdle he wore a long and double-edged dagger, which was the only offensive weapon about his person. He rode, not a mule, like his companion, but a strong hackney for the road, to save his gallant war horse, which a squire led behind, fully accoutered for battle, with a chamfron or plaited headpiece upon his head, having a short spike projecting from the front. On one side of the saddle hung a short battle-ax, richly inlaid with Damascene carving; on the other the rider's plumed headpiece and hood of mail, with a long two-handed sword, used by the chivalry of the period. A second squire held aloft his master's lance, from the extremity of which fluttered a small banderole, or streamer, bearing a cross of the same form with that embroidered upon his cloak. He also carried his small triangular shield, broad enough at the top to protect the breast, and from thence diminishing to a point. It was covered with a scarlet cloth, which prevented the device from being seen. --Scott: _Ivanhoe_. Notice also how the description proceeds in an orderly way from one thing to another, placing together in the description those which occur together in the person described. Just as we turn our eyes naturally from one thing to another near it in space, so in a paragraph should our attention be called from one thing to that which naturally accompanies it. If the first sentence describes a man's eyes, the second his feet, and a third his forehead, our mental image is likely to become confused. If a description covers several paragraphs, each may be given a unity by placing in it those things which are associated in space. EXERCISES _A._ If you were to write three paragraphs describing a man, which of the following details should be included in each paragraph? (_a_) eyes, (_b_) shoes, (_c_) size, (_d_) complexion, (_e_) general appearance, (_f_) hair, (_g_) carriage, (_h_) trousers,(_i_) mouth, (_j_) coat, (_k_) nose. _B._ Make a list of the details which might be mentioned in describing the outside of a church. Arrange them in appropriate groups. _C._ In the following paragraphs which sentences give the general outline and which give details? Are the details arranged with reference to their position in space? Can the paragraph be improved by rearranging them? 1. We came finally to a brook more wild and mysterious than the others. There were a half dozen stepping-stones between the path we were on and the place where it began again on the opposite side. After a few missteps and much laughter we were landed at last, but several of the party had wet feet to remember the experience by. We found ourselves in a space that had once been a clearing. A tumbledown chimney overgrown with brambles and vines told of an abandoned hearthstone. The blackened remnants of many a picnic camp fire strewed the ground. A slight turn brought us to the spot where the Indian Spring welled out of the hillside. The setting was all that we could have hoped for,--great moss-grown rocks wet and slippery, deep shade which almost made us doubt the existence of the hot August sunshine at the edge of the forest, cool water dripping and tinkling. A half-dozen great trees had been so undermined by the action of the water long ago that they had tumbled headlong into the stream bed. There they lay, heads down, crisscross--one completely spanning the brook just below the spring--their tangled roots like great dragons twisting and thrusting at the shadows. The water trickled slowly over the smooth rocky bottom as if reluctant to leave a spot enchanted. A few yards below, the overflow from Indian Spring joined the main stream, and their waters mingled in a pretty little cataract. We went below and looked back at it. How it wrinkled and paused over the level spaces, played with the bubbles in the eddies, and ran laughing and turning somersaults wherever the ledges were abrupt. --Mary Rodgers Miller: _The Brook Book_. (Copyright, 1902, by Doubleday, Page & Co.) 2. Rowena was tall in stature, yet not so much so as to attract observation on account of superior height. Her complexion was exquisitely fair, but the noble cast of her head and features prevented the insipidity which sometimes attaches to fair beauties. Her clear blue eyes, which sat enshrined beneath a graceful eyebrow of brown, sufficiently marked to give expression to the forehead, seemed capable to kindle as well as to melt, to command as well as to beseech. Her profuse hair, of a color betwixt brown and flaxen, was arranged in a fanciful and graceful manner in numerous ringlets, to form which art had probably been aided by nature. These locks were braided with gems, and being worn at full length, intimated the noble birth and free-born condition of the maiden. A golden chain, to which was attached a small reliquary of the same metal, hung around her neck. She wore bracelets on her arms, which were bare. Her dress was an under gown and kirtle of pale sea-green silk, over which hung a long loose robe, which reached to the ground, having very wide sleeves, which came down, however, very little below the elbow. This robe was crimson, and manufactured out of the very finest wool. A veil of silk, interwoven with gold, was attached to the upper part of it, which could be, at the wearer's pleasure, either drawn over the face and bosom after the Spanish fashion, or disposed as a sort of drapery round the shoulders. --Scott: _Ivanhoe_. +Theme XXIV.+--_Write a paragraph and arrange the details with reference to their association in space._ Suggested subjects:-- 1. Ichabod Crane. 2. Rip Van Winkle. 3. The man who lives near us. 4. A minister I met yesterday. 5. Our family doctor. 6. The gymnasium. 7. A fire engine. 8. The old church. 9. The shoe factory. 10. Some character in the book you are reading. (Which sentence gives the general impression and which sentences give the details? Are the details arranged with reference to their real space order? Should others be added? Can any be omitted? Will the reader form the mental image you wish him to form?) +48. Development by Comparison.+--In Section 29 we found that comparison, whether literal or figurative, aided us in forming mental images of objects. In a similar way events and general principles may be explained by making suitable comparisons. We are continually comparing one thing with another. Every idea tends to recall other ideas that are similar to it or in contrast with it. When an unfamiliar idea is presented to us we at once seek to associate it with similar ideas already known to us. A writer, therefore, will make his meaning clear by furnishing, the desired comparisons. If these are familiar to us, they enable us to understand the new ideas presented. Even when both ideas in the comparison are unfamiliar, each may gain in clearness by comparison with the other. In comparing two objects, events, or principles we may point out that they are _not_ alike in certain respects. A comparison that thus emphasizes differences, rather than likenesses, becomes a contrast. The contrast may be given in a single sentence or in a single paragraph, but often a paragraph or more may be required for each of the two ideas contrasted. EXERCISE Notice how comparisons and contrasts are used in the following paragraphs:-- 1. Niagara is the largest cataract in the world, while Yosemite is the highest; it is the volume that impresses you at Niagara, and it is the height of Yosemite and the grand surroundings that make its beauty. Niagara is as wide as Yosemite is high, and if it had no more water than Yosemite has, it would not be of much consequence. The sound of the two falls is quite different: Niagara makes a steady roar, deep and strong, though not oppressive, while Yosemite is a crash and rattle, owing to the force of the water as it strikes the solid rock after its immense leap. 2. It is not only in appearance that London and New York differ widely. They also speak with different accents, for cities have distinctive accents as well as people. Tennyson wrote about "streaming London's central roar"; the roar is a gentle hum compared with the din which tingles the ears of visitors to New York. The accent of New York is harsh, grating, jarring. The rattle of the elevated railroad, the whir of the cable cars, the ringing of electric-car bells, the rumble of vehicles over the hard stones, the roar of the traffic as it reëchoes through the narrow canyons of down-town streets, produce an appalling combination of discords. The streets of New York are not more crowded than those of London, but the noise in London is subdued. It is more regular, less jarring and piercing. The muffled sounds in London are due partly to the wooden and asphalt pavements, which deaden the sounds. London must be soothing to the New Yorker, as the noise of New York is at first disconcerting to the Londoner.--_Outlook._ 3. Now their separate characters are briefly these. The man's power is active, progressive, defensive. He is eminently the doer, the creator, the discoverer, the defender. His intellect is for speculation and invention; his energy for adventure, for war, and for conquest wherever war is just, wherever conquest necessary. But the woman's power is for rule, not for battle, and her intellect is not for invention or creation, but for sweet ordering, arrangement, and decision. She sees the qualities of things, their claims, and their places. --Ruskin: _Sesame and Lilies_. +Theme XXV.+--_Write a paragraph using comparison or contrast._ Suggested topics:-- 1. The school, a beehive. 2. The body, a steam engine. 3. Two generals about whom you have read. 4. Girls, boys. 5. Two of your studies. 6. Graded school work, high school work. 7. Animal life, plant life. 8. Two of your classmates. (Have you used comparison or contrast? Have you introduced any of the other methods of development? Have you developed the paragraph so that the reader will understand fully your topic statement? Omit sentences not really needed.) +49. Development by Stating Cause and Effect.+--We are better satisfied with our understanding of a thing if we know the causes which have produced it or the effects which follow it. Likewise we feel that another has mastered the topic statement of a paragraph if he can answer the question, Why is this so? or, What will result from this? When either is stated, we naturally begin to think about the other. The idea of a topic statement may, therefore, be satisfactorily developed by stating its causes or its effects. A cause may be stated and the effects given or the effects may be made the topic statement for which we account by giving its causes. The importance of the relation of cause and effect to scientific study is discussed in the following paragraph from Mill:-- The relation of cause and effect is the fundamental law of nature. There is no recorded instance of an effect appearing without a previous cause, or of a cause acting without producing its full effect. Every change in nature is the effect of some previous change and the cause of some change to follow; just as the movement of each carriage near the middle of a long train is a result of the movement of the one in front and a precursor of the movement of the one behind. Facts or effects are to be seen everywhere, but causes have usually to be sought for. It is the function of science or organized knowledge to observe all effects, or phenomena, and to seek for their causes. This twofold purpose gives richness and dignity to science. The observation and classifying of facts soon become wearisome to all but the specialist actually engaged in the work. But when reasons are assigned, and classification explained, when the number of causes is reduced and the effects begin to crystallize into essential and clearly related parts of one whole, every intelligent student finds interest, and many, more fortunate, even fascination in the study. --Mill: _The Realm of Nature_. (Copyright, 1892, by Charles Scribner's Sons.) EXERCISES _A._ In your reading, notice how often the effects are indicated by the use of some one of the following expressions: _as a result, accordingly, consequently, for, hence, so, so that, thus._ _B._ Which sentences state causes and which state effects in the following paragraphs? 1. The power of water to dissolve most minerals increases with its temperature and the amount of gases it contains. Percolating water at great depths, therefore, generally dissolves more mineral matter than it can hold in solution when it reaches the surface, where it cools, and, being relieved of pressure, much of its carbonic acid gas escapes to the atmosphere or is absorbed by aquatic plants or mosses. Hence, deep-seated springs are usually surrounded by a deposit of the minerals with which the water is impregnated. Sometimes this deposit may even form large hills; sometimes it forms a mound around the spring, over the sides of which the water falls, while the spray, evaporating from surrounding objects, leaves them also incrusted with a mineral deposit. Percolating water evaporating on the sides and roof of limestone caverns, leaves the walls incrusted with carbonate of lime in beautiful masses of crystals. Water slowly evaporating as it drips from the roof of caverns to the floor beneath leaves a deposit on both places, which gradually grows downward from the roof as a _stalactite_, and upward from the floor as a _stalagmite_, until these meet and form one continuous column of stone. --Hinman: _Eclectic Physical Geography_. 2. The frequent use of cigars or cigarettes by the young seriously affects the quality of the blood. The red blood corpuscles are not fully developed and charged with their normal supply of life-giving oxygen. This causes paleness of the skin, often noticed in the face of the young smoker. Palpitation of the heart is also a common result, followed by permanent weakness, so that the whole system is enfeebled, and mental vigor is impaired as well as physical strength. Observant teachers can usually tell which of the boys under their care are addicted to smoking, simply by the comparative inferiority of their appearance, and by their intellectual and bodily indolence and feebleness. After full maturity is attained the evil effects of commencing the use of tobacco are less apparent; but competent physicians assert that it cannot be safely used by those under the age of forty. --Macy-Norris: _Physiology for High Schools_. 3. In many other ways, too, the Norman Conquest affected England. For example, before long all the best places in the Church were filled with foreigners. But most of the new bishops and abbots were far superior in morals and education to the Englishmen whom they succeeded. They were also devoted to the Pope of Rome, and soon made the English National Church a part of the Roman Catholic Church. But William, while willing to bow to the Pope as his chief in religious matters, refused to give way to him in things which concerned only this world. No former English king had done that, he knew, and no more would he. This union with the Roman Catholic Church was of the greatest benefit to England, as it brought her once more into connection with the educated men of Europe. Indeed, Lanfranc, the Conqueror's Archbishop of Canterbury, was one of the best and wisest men of his day. --Higginson and Channing: _English History for American Readers_. +Theme XXVI.+--_Develop one of the following topic statements into paragraphs by stating causes or effects:_-- 1. A government which had no soldiers to call upon in an emergency would not last long. 2. One of the first needs of a new country is roads. 3. The number of people receiving public support is smaller in this country than in Europe. 4. An efficient postal system is a great aid to civilization. 5. A straight stream is an impossibility in nature. 6. Mountain ranges have great influence upon climate. 7. The United States holds first place as a manufacturing nation. 8. There are many swift rivers in New England. 9. Towns or cities are located at the mouths of navigable rivers. (Which sentences state causes and which state effects? Would the effects which you have stated really follow the given causes?) +50. Development by Repetition.+--The repetition of a thought in different form will often make plain that which we do not at first understand. This is especially true if the repetitions are accompanied by new comparisons. In every school the teacher makes daily use of repetition in her efforts to explain to the pupils that which they do not understand. In a similar way a writer makes use of this tendency of ours, and develops the idea of the topic sentence by repetition. Each sentence should, however, do more than merely repeat. It should add something to the central idea, making this idea clearer, more definite, or more emphatic. If repetition is excessive and purposeless, it becomes a fault. Repetition may extend through the whole paragraph, or it may be used to explain any sentence or any part of a sentence. It may tell what the thing is or what it is not, and in effect becomes a definition setting limits to the original idea. EXERCISE Notice how the idea in the topic statement of each of the following paragraphs is repeated in those which follow:-- 1. No man ever made a complete new system of law and gave it to a people. No monarch, however absolute or powerful, ever had the power to change the habits of a people to that extent. Revolution generally means, not a change of law, but merely a change of government officials; even when it is a change from monarchy to democracy. Our Revolution made practically no changes in the criminal and civil laws of the colonies. --Clark: _The Government_. 2. People talk of liberty as if it meant the liberty to do just what a man likes. I call that man free who fears doing wrong, but fears nothing else. I call that man free who has learned the most blessed of all truths,--that liberty consists in obedience to the power, and to the will, and to the law that his higher soul reverences and approves. He is not free because he does what he likes; but he is free because he does what he ought, and there is no protest in his soul against the doing. --Frederick William Robertson. 3. This dense forest was to the Indians a home in which they had lived from childhood, and where they were as much at ease as a farmer on his own acres. To their keen eyes, trained for generations to more than a wild beast's watchfulness, the wilderness was an open book. Nothing at rest or in motion escaped them. They had begun to track game as soon as they could walk; a scrape on a tree trunk, a bruised leaf, a faint indentation of the soil, which no white man could see, all told them a tale as plainly as if it had been shouted in their ears. --Theodore Roosevelt: _The Winning of the West_. 4. Public enterprises, whether conducted by the municipality or committed to the public service corporation, exist to render public services. Streets are public highways. They exist for the people's use. Nothing should be placed in them unless required to facilitate their use by or for the people. Only the general need of water, gas, electricity, and transportation justifies the placing of pipes and wires and tracks in the streets. The public need is the sole test and measure of such occupation. To look upon the streets as a source of private gain, or even municipal revenue, except as incidents of their public use, is to disregard their public character. Adequate service at the lowest practicable rates, not gain or revenue, is the test. The question is, not how much the public service corporation may gain, but what can be saved to the people by its employment. --Edwin Burrett Smith: _The Next Step in Municipal Reform_ ("Atlantic Monthly"). +Theme XXVII.+--_Develop one of the following topic statements into a paragraph, using the method, of repetition as far as possible:_-- 1. It is difficult to become angry with one who is always good-natured. 2. It is gloomy in the woods on a rainy day. 3. The government is always in need of honest men. 4. Rural free delivery of mail will have a great effect on country life. 5. Not every boy in school uses his time to the best advantage. 6. Haste is waste. 7. Regular exercise is one of the essentials of good health. (Have the repetitions really made the idea of the topic sentence clearer or more emphatic or more definite? What other methods of development have you used?) +51. Development by a Combination of Methods.+--A paragraph should have unity of thought, and, so long as this unity of thought is kept, it does not matter what methods of development are used. A dozen paragraphs taken at random will show that combinations are very frequent. Often it will be difficult to determine just how a paragraph has been developed. In general, however, it may be said that an indiscriminate mixture of methods is confusing and interferes with unity of thought. If more than one is used, it requires skillful handling to maintain such a relation between them that both contribute to the clear and emphatic statement of the main thought. The paragraph from Dryer, page 74, shows a combination of cause and effect with specific illustrations; that from Wolstan Dixey, page 81, shows a combination of repetition with specific instances. EXERCISES What methods of paragraph development, or what combinations of methods, are used in the following selections? 1. I believe the first test of a truly great man is his humility. I do not mean, by humility, doubt of his power, or hesitation in speaking of his opinions; but a right understanding of the relation between what he can do and say and the rest of the world's sayings and doings. All great men not only know their business, but usually know that they know it; and are not only right in their main opinions, but they usually know that they are right in them; only they do not think much of themselves on that account. Arnolfo knows he can build a good dome at Florence; Albert Dürer writes calmly to one who had found fault with his work, "It cannot be better done"; Sir Isaac Newton knows that he has worked out a problem or two that would have puzzled anybody else; only they do not expect their fellow-men therefore to fall down and worship them; they have a curious undersense of powerlessness, feeling that the greatness is not _in_ them, but _through_ them; that they could not do or be anything else than God made them. And they see something divine and God-made in every other man they meet, and are endlessly, foolishly, and incredibly merciful. --Ruskin. 2. The first thing to be noted about the dress of the Romans is that its prevalent material was always woolen. Sheep raising for wool was practiced among them on an extensive scale, from the earliest historic times, and the choice breeds of that animal, originally imported from Greece or Asia Minor, took so kindly to the soil and climate of Italy that home-grown wool came even to be preferred to the foreign for fineness and softness of quality. Foreign wools were, however, always imported more or less, partly because the supply of native wools seems never to have been quite sufficient, partly because the natural colors of wools from different parts varied so considerably as to render the art of the dyer to some extent unnecessary. Thus, the wools of Canusium were brown or reddish, those of Pollentia in Liguria were black, those from the Spanish Baetica, which comprised Andalusia and a part of Granada, had either a golden brown or a grayish hue; the wools of Asia were almost red; and there was a Grecian fleece, called the crow colored, of which the natural tint was a peculiarly deep and brilliant black. --Preston and Dodge: _'The Private Life of the Romans_. 3. Art has done everything for Munich. It lies on a large flat plain sixteen hundred feet above the sea and continually exposed to the cold winds from the Alps. At the beginning of the present century it was but a third-rate city, and was rarely visited by foreigners; since that time its population and limits have been doubled, and magnificent edifices in every style of architecture erected, rendering it scarcely secondary in this respect to any capital in Europe. Every art that wealth or taste could devise seems to have been spent in its decoration. Broad, spacious streets and squares have been laid out; churches, halls, and colleges erected, and schools of painting and sculpture established which drew artists from all parts of the world. --Taylor: _Views Afoot_. 4. In all excursions to the woods or to the shore the student of ornithology has an advantage over his companions. He has one more, avenue of delight. He, indeed, kills two birds with one stone and sometimes three. If others wander, he can never get out of his way. His game is everywhere. The cawing of a crow makes him feel at home, while a new note or a new song drowns all care. Audubon, on the desolate coast of Labrador, is happier than any king ever was; and on shipboard is nearly cured of his seasickness when a new gull appears in sight. --Burroughs: _Wake Robin_. +Theme XXVIII.+--_Write a paragraph, using any method or combination of methods which best suits your thought. Use any of the subjects hitherto suggested that you have not already used._ (Is every sentence related to the topic statement so that your paragraph possesses unity? What methods of development have you used?) +52. The Topical Recitation.+--In conducting a recitation the teacher may ask direct questions about each part of a paragraph or she may ask a pupil to discuss some topic. Such a topical recitation should be an exercise in clear thinking rather than in word memory, and in order to prepare for it, the pupil should have made a careful analysis of the thought in each paragraph similar to that discussed on page 74. When this analysis has been made he will have clearly in mind the topic statement and the way it has been developed, and will be able to distinguish the essential from the non-essential elements. A topical recitation demands that the pupil know the main idea and be able to develop it in one of the following methods, or by a combination of them: (1) by giving specific instances, (2) by giving details, (3) by giving comparisons or contrasts, (4) by giving causes or effects, and (5) by repetition. Thoughts so mastered are our own. We understand them and believe them; and consequently we can explain them, or describe them, or prove them to others. We can furnish details or instances, originate comparisons, or state causes and effects. _When ideas gained from language have thus become our own, we do not need to remember the language in which they were expressed, and not until then do they become proper material for composition purposes._ +53. Outlining Paragraphs.+--Making an outline of a paragraph that we have read brings the thought clearly before our mind. In a similar way we may make our own thoughts clear and definite by attempting to prepare in advance an outline of a paragraph that we are about to write. Arranging the material that we have in mind and deciding upon the order in which we shall present it, will both help us to understand the thought ourselves, and enable us to present it more effectively to others. EXERCISES _A._ Prepare for recitation the following selection from Newcomer's introduction to Macaulay's _Milton and Addison:_-- There were two faculties of Macaulay's mind that set his work far apart from other work in the same field,--the faculties of organization and illustration. He saw things in their right relation and he knew how to make others see them thus. If he was describing, he never thrust minor details into the foreground. If he was narrating, he never "got ahead of his story." The importance of this is not sufficiently recognized. Many writers do not know what organization means. They do not know that in all great and successful literary work it is nine tenths of the labor. Yet consider a moment. History is a very complex thing: divers events may be simultaneous in their occurrence; or one crisis may be slowly evolving from many causes in many places. It is no light task to tell these things one after another and yet leave a unified impression, to take up a dozen new threads in succession without tangling them and without losing the old ones, and to lay them all down at the right moment and without confusion. Such is the narrator's task, and it was at this task that Macaulay proved himself a past master. He could dispose of a number of trivial events in a single sentence. Thus, for example, runs his account of the dramatist Wycherley's naval career: "He embarked, was present at a battle, and celebrated it, on his return, in a copy of verses too bad for the bellman." On the other hand, when it is a question of a great crisis, like the impeachment of Warren Hastings, he knew how to prepare for it with elaborate ceremony and to portray it in a scene of the highest dramatic power. This faculty of organization shows itself in what we technically name structure; and logical and rhetorical structure may be studied at their very best in his work. His essays are perfect units, made up of many parts, systems within systems, that play together without clog or friction. You can take them apart like a watch and put them together again. But try to rearrange the parts and the mechanism is spoiled. Each essay has its subdivisions, which in turn are groups of paragraphs. And each paragraph is a unit. Take the first paragraph of the essay on Milton: the word _manuscript_ appears in the first sentence, and it reappears in the last; clearly the paragraph deals with a single very definite topic. And so with all. Of course the unity manifests itself in a hundred ways, but it is rarely wanting. Most frequently it takes the form of an expansion of a topic given in the first sentence, or a preparation for a topic to be announced only in the last. These initial and final sentences-- often in themselves both aphoristic and memorable--serve to mark with the utmost clearness the different stages in the progress of the essay. Illustration is of more incidental service, but as used by Macaulay becomes highly organic. For his illustrations are not farfetched or laboriously worked out. They seem to be of one piece with his story or his argument. His mind was quick to detect resemblances and analogies. He was ready with a comparison for everything, sometimes with half a dozen. For example, Addison's essays, he has occasion to say, were different every day of the week, and yet, to his mind, each day like something--like Horace, like Lucian, like the "Tales of Scheherezade." He draws long comparisons between Walpole and Townshend, between Congreve and Wycherley, between Essex and Villiers, between the fall of the Carlovingians and the fall of the Moguls. He follows up a general statement with swarms of instances. Have historians been given to exaggerating the villainy of Machiavelli? Macaulay can name you half a dozen who did so. Did the writers of Charles's faction delight in making their opponents appear contemptible? "They have told us that Pym broke down in a speech, that Ireton had his nose pulled by Hollis, that the Earl of Northumberland cudgeled Henry Marten, that St. John's manners were sullen, that Vane had an ugly face, that Cromwell had a red nose." Do men fail when they quit their own province for another? Newton failed thus; Bentley failed; Inigo Jones failed; Wilkie failed. In the same way he was ready with quotations. He writes in one of his letters: "It is a dangerous thing for a man with a very strong memory to read very much. I could give you three or four quotations this moment in support of that proposition; but I will bring the vicious propensity under subjection, if I can." Thus we see his mind doing instantly and involuntarily what other minds do with infinite pains, bringing together all things that have a likeness or a common bearing. It is precisely these talents that set Macaulay among the simplest and clearest of writers, and that accounts for much of his popularity. People found that in taking up one of his articles they simply read on and on, never puzzling over the meaning of a sentence, getting the exact force of every statement, and following the trend of thought with scarcely a mental effort. And his natural gift of making things plain he took pains to support by various devices. He constructed his sentences after the simplest normal fashion, subject and verb and object, sometimes inverting for emphasis, but rarely complicating, and always reducing expression to the barest terms. He could write, for example, "One advantage the chaplain had," but it is impossible to conceive of his writing, "Now, amid all the discomforts and disadvantages with which the unfortunate chaplain was surrounded, there was one thing which served to offset them, and which, if he chose to take the opportunity of enjoying it, might well be regarded as a positive advantage." One will search his pages in vain for loose, trailing clauses and involved constructions. His vocabulary was of the same simple nature. He had a complete command of ordinary English and contented himself with that. He rarely ventured beyond the most abridged dictionary. An occasional technical term might be required, but he was shy of the unfamiliar. He would coin no words and he would use no archaisms. Foreign words, when fairly naturalized, he employed sparingly. "We shall have no disputes about diction," he wrote to Napier, Jeffrey's successor; "the English language is not so poor but that I may very well find in it the means of contenting both you and myself." _B._ Recite upon some topic taken from your other lessons for the day. Let the class tell what method of development you have used. _C._ Make a collection of well-written paragraphs illustrating each of the methods of development. +Theme XXIX.+--_Write two paragraphs using the same topic statement, but developing each by a different method._ Suggested topic statements:-- 1. The principal tools of government are buildings, guns, and money. 2. The civilized world was never so orderly as now. 3. Law suits take time, especially in cities; sometimes they take years. 4. There is a difference between law and justice. 5. We cry for a multitude of reasons of surprising variety. 6. In the growth of a child nothing is more surprising than his ceaseless activity. 7. Education for the children of a nation is a benefit to the whole nation. (Have you said what you intended to say? What methods of development have you used? Is the main thought of the two paragraphs the same even though they begin with the same sentence?) SUMMARY 1. Language is (1) a means of expressing ideas, and (2) a medium through which ideas are acquired. 2. The acquisition of ideas by means of language requires:-- _a._ That we know the meanings of words, and so avoid forming incomplete images (Section 27) and incomplete thoughts (Section 33). _b._ That we understand the relations in thought existing among words, phrases, clauses, sentences, and paragraphs (Section 32). 3. Ideas acquired through language may be used for composition purposes-- _a._ Provided we form complete and accurate images and do not confuse the image with the language that suggested it (Section 28). _b._ Provided we make the main thoughts so thoroughly our own that we can furnish details and instances, originate comparisons, or state causes and effects, and thus become able to describe them or explain them, or prove them to others (Section 52). Until both _a_ and _b_ as stated above are done, ideas acquired through language are undesirable for composition purposes. 4. Comparisons aid in the forming of correct images. They may be literal or imaginative. If imaginative, they become figures of speech. 5. Figures of speech. (Complete list in the Appendix.) _a._ A simile is a direct comparison. _b._ A metaphor is an implied comparison. _c._ Personification is a modified metaphor, assigning human attributes to objects, abstract ideas, or the lower animals. 6. Suggestions as to the use of figures of speech. _a._ Never write for the purpose of using them. _b._ They should be appropriate to the subject. _c._ One of the two things compared must be familiar to the reader. _d._ Avoid hackneyed figures. _e._ Avoid long figures. _f._ Avoid mixed metaphors. 7. Choice of words. _a._ Use words presumably familiar to the reader. _b._ Use words that express your exact meaning. Do not confuse similar words. _e._ Avoid the frequent use of the same word (Section 17). 8. Ambiguity of thought must be avoided. Care must be exercised in the use of the forms which show relations in thought between sentences, especially with pronouns and pronominal adjectives (Section 36). 9. A paragraph is a group of sentences related to each other and to one central idea. 10. The topic statement of a paragraph is a brief comprehensive summary of the contents of the paragraph. 11. Methods of paragraph development. A paragraph may be developed-- _a._ By giving specific instances (Section 44). _b._ By giving details (Section 45). The order in which the details are told may be determined by-- (1) The order of their occurrence in time (Section 46). (2) Their position in space (Section 47). _c._ By comparison or contrast (Section 48). _d._ By stating cause and effect (Section 49). _e._ By repetition (Section 50). _f._ By any suitable combination of the methods stated above. 12. The topical recitation demands-- _a._ That the pupil get the central idea of the paragraph and be able to make the topic statement. _b._ That he be able to determine the relative importance of the remaining ideas in the paragraph. _c._ That he know by which of the five methods named above the paragraph has been developed. _d._ That he be able to furnish details, instances, and comparisons of his own. (See Sections 37, 38, 39, 52, 53.) IV. THE PURPOSE OF EXPRESSION +54. Kinds of Composition.+--When considered with reference to the purpose in the mind of the writer, there are two general classes of writing,--that which informs, and that which entertains. The language that we use should make our meaning clear, arouse interest, and give vividness. Writing that informs will lay greatest emphasis on clearness, though it may at the same time be interesting and vivid. We do not add to the value of an explanation by making it dull. On the other hand, writing that entertains, though it must be clear, will lay greater emphasis on interest and vividness. That language is best which combines all three of these characteristics. The writer's purpose will determine to which the emphasis shall be given. Composition is also divided into description, narration, exposition, and argument (including persuasion). These are called forms of discourse. It will be found that this division is also based upon the purpose for which the composition is written. You have occasion to use each of these forms of discourse daily; you describe, you narrate, you explain, you argue, you persuade. You have used language for these purposes from your infancy, and you are now studying composition in order to acquire facility and effectiveness in that use. When this chapter is completed, you will have considered each of the four forms of discourse in an elementary way. A more extended treatment is given in later chapters. EXERCISES _A._ To which of the two general classes of composition would each of the following belong? 1. A business letter. 2. The story of a runaway. 3. A description of a lake written by a geologist. 4. A description of a lake written by a boy who was camping near it. 5. A letter to a friend describing a trip. 6. A text-book on algebra. 7. An application for a position as stenographer. 8. A recipe for making cake. 9. How I made a cake. 10. How to make a kite. 11. A political speech. 12. A debate. _B._ Could a description be written for the purpose of entertaining? Could the same object be described for the purpose of giving information? _C._ To which general class do narratives belong? Explanations? Arguments? +55. Discourse Presupposes an Audience.+--The object of composition is communication, and communication is not concerned with one's self alone. It always involves two,--the one who gives and the one who receives. If its purpose is to inform, it must inform _somebody_; if to entertain, it must entertain _somebody_. To be sure, discourse may be a pleasure to us, because it is a means of self-expression, but it is _useful_ to us because it conveys ideas to that other somebody who hears or reads it. We describe in order that another may picture that which we have experienced; we narrate, events for the entertainment of others; we explain to others that which we understand; and we argue in order to prove to some one the truth of a proposition or to persuade him to action. Thus all discourse, to be useful, demands an audience. Its effective use requires that the writer shall give quite as much attention to the way in which that reader will receive his ideas as he gives to the ideas themselves. "Speaking or writing is, therefore, a double-ended process. It springs from me, it penetrates him; and both of these ends need watching. Is what I say precisely what I mean? That is an important question. Is what I say so shaped that it can readily be assimilated by him who hears? This is a question of quite as great consequence and much more likely to be forgotten.... As I write I must unceasingly study what is the line of least intellectual resistance along which my thought may enter the differently constituted mind; and to that line I must subtly adjust, without enfeebling my meaning. Will this combination of words or that make the meaning clear? Will this order of presentation facilitate swiftness of apprehension or will it clog the movement?"[Footnote: Professor George Herbert Palmer: _Self-cultivation in English_.] In the preceding chapters emphasis has been laid upon the care that a writer must give to saying exactly what he means. This must never be neglected, but we need to add to it a consideration of how best to adapt what we say to the interest and intelligence of our readers. It will become clear in writing the following theme that the discussion of paragraph development in Chapter III was in reality a discussion of methods of adapting our discourse to the mental habits of our readers. +Theme XXX.+--_Write a theme showing which one of the five methods of paragraph development proceeds most nearly in accordance with the way the mind usually acts._ (This theme will furnish a review of the methods of paragraph development treated in Chapter III. If possible, write your theme without consulting the chapter. "Think it out" for yourself. After the theme has been written, review paragraph development treated in Chapter III. Can you improve your theme? What methods of development have you used?) +56. Selecting a Subject.+--Sometimes our theme subjects are chosen for us, but usually we shall need to choose our own subjects. What we should choose depends both upon ourselves and upon those for whom we write. The elements which make a subject suitable for the reader will be considered later. In so far as the writer is concerned, two things determine the suitableness of a subject:-- First, the writer's knowledge of the subject. We cannot make ideas clear to others unless they are clear to us. Our information must be clearly and definitely our own before we can hope to present it effectively. This is one of the advantages possessed by subjects arising from experience. Any subject about which we know little or nothing, should be rejected. We must not, however, reject a subject too soon. When it is first thought of we may find that we have but few ideas about it, but by thinking we may discover that our information is greater than it at first seemed. We may be able to assign reasons or to give instances or to originate comparisons or to add details, and by these processes to amplify our knowledge. Even if we find that we know but little about the subject from our own experience, we may still be able to use it for a composition subject by getting our information from others. We may from conversation or from reading gain ideas that we can make our own and consequently be able to write intelligently. Care must be taken that this "reading up" on a subject does not fill our minds with smatterings of ideas that we think we understand because we can remember the language in which they were expressed; but reading, _supplemented by thinking_, may enable us to write well about a subject concerning which on first thought we seem to know but little. Second, the writer's interest in the subject. It will be found difficult for the writer to present vividly a subject in which he himself has no special interest. Enthusiasm is contagious, and if the writer has a real interest in his subject, he is likely to present his material in such a manner as to arouse interest in others. In our earlier years we are more interested in the material presented by experience and imagination than in that presented by reading, but as we grow older our interest in thoughts conveyed to us by language increases. As we enlarge our knowledge of a subject by reading and by conversation, so we are likely to increase our interest in that subject. A boy may know but little about Napoleon, but the effort to inform himself may cause him to become greatly interested. This interest will lead him to a further search for information about Napoleon, and will at the same time aid in making what he writes entertaining to others. EXERCISES _A._ About which of the following subjects do you now possess a sufficient knowledge to enable you to write a paragraph? In which of them are you interested? Which would you need to "read up" about? 1. Golf. 2. Examinations. 3. Warships. 4. Wireless telegraphy. 5. Radium. 6. Tennis. 7. Automobiles. 8. Picnics. 9. Printing. 10. Bees. 11. Birds. 12. Pyrography. 13. Photography. 14. Beavers. 15. Making calls. 16. Stamp collecting. 17. The manufacture of tacks. 18. The manufacture of cotton. 19. The smelting of zinc. 20. The silver-plating process. _B._ Make a list of thirty things about which you know something. _C._ Bring to class a list of five subjects in which you are interested. _D._ Make a list of five subjects about which you now possess a sufficient knowledge to enable you to write a paragraph. +Theme XXXI.+--_Write a short theme: Select a suitable subject from the lists in the preceding exercise._ (What method or methods of paragraph development have you used? Have your paragraphs unity of thought?) +57. Subject Adapted to Reader.+--We may be interested in a subject and possess sufficient knowledge to enable us to treat it successfully, but it may still be unsuitable because it is not adapted to the reader. Some knowledge of a subject and some interest in it are quite as necessary on the part of the reader as on that of the writer, though in the beginning this knowledge and interest may be meager. The possibility of developing both knowledge and interest must exist, however, or the writing will be a failure. It would be difficult to make "Imperialism" interesting to third grade pupils, or "Kant's Philosophy" to high school pupils. Even if you know enough to write a valuable "Criticism" of _Silas Marner_, or a real "Review" of the _Vicar of Wakefield_, the work is time wasted if your readers do not have a breadth of knowledge sufficient to insure a vital and appreciative interest in the subject. You must take care to select a subject that is of present, vital interest to your readers. +58. Sources of Subjects.+--Thought goes everywhere, and human interest touches everything. The sources of subjects are therefore unlimited; for anything about which we think and in which we are interested may become a suitable subject for a paragraph, an essay, or a book. Such subjects are everywhere--in what we see and do, in what we think and feel, in what we hear and read. We relate to our parents what a neighbor said; we discuss for the teacher an event in history, or a character in literature; we show a companion how to make a kite or work a problem in algebra; we consider the advantages of a commercial course or relate the pleasures of a day's outing,--in each case we are interested, we think, we express our thoughts, and so are practicing oral composition with _subjects that may be used for written exercises_. +59. Subjects should be Definite.+--Both the writer and the reader are more interested in definite and concrete subjects than in the general and abstract ones, and we shall make our writing more interesting by recognizing this fact. One might write about "Birds," or "The Intelligence of Birds," or "How Birds Protect their Young," or "A Family of Robins." The last is a specific subject, while the other three are general subjects. Of these, the first includes more than the second; and the second, more than the third. A person with sufficient knowledge might write about any one of these general subjects, but it would be difficult to give such a subject adequate treatment in a short theme. Though a general subject may suggest more lines of thought, our knowledge about a specific subject is less vague, and consequently more usable. We really know more about the specific subject, and we have a greater interest in it. The subject, "A Family of Robins," indicates that the writer knows something interesting that he intends to tell. Such a subject compels expectant attention from the reader and aids in arousing an appreciative interest on his part. On first thought, it would seem easier to write about a general subject than about a specific one, but this is not the case. A general subject presents so many lines of thought that the writer is confused, rather than aided, by the abundance of material. A skilled and experienced writer possessing a large fund of information may treat general subjects successfully, but for the beginner safety lies only in selecting definite subjects and in keeping within the limits prescribed. The "Women of Shakespeare" might be an interesting subject for a book by a Shakespearean scholar, but it is scarcely suitable for a high school pupil's theme. +60. Narrowing the Subject.+--It is often necessary to narrow a subject in order to bring it within the range of the knowledge and interest of ourselves and of our readers. A description of the transportation of milk on the electric roads around Toledo would probably be more interesting than an essay on "Freight Transportation by Electricity," or on "Transportation." The purpose that the writer has in mind, and the length of the article he intends to write, will affect the selection of a subject. "Transportation" might be the subject of a book in which a chapter was given to each important subdivision of it; but it would be quite as difficult to treat such a subject in three hundred words as it would be to make use of three hundred pages for "The Transportation of Milk at Toledo." A general subject may suggest many lines of thought. It is the task of the writer to select one about which he knows something or can learn something, in which both he and his readers are interested, or can become interested, and for which the time and space at his disposal are adequate. EXERCISES _A._ Arrange the subjects in each of the following groups so that the most general ones shall come first:-- 1. The intelligence of wild animals. How a fox escaped from the hounds. How animals escape destruction by their enemies. Animals. 2. The benefits that arise from war. The defeat of the Cimbri and Teutons by Marius. War. The value of military strength to the Romans. 3. Pleasure. A summer outing in the Adirondacks. Value of vacations. Catching bass. _B._ Narrow ten of the following subjects until the resulting subject may be treated in a single paragraph:-- 1. Fishing. 2. Engines. 3. Literature. 4. Heroes of fiction. 5. Cooking. 6. Houses. 7. Games. 8. Basketball. 9. Cats. 10. Canaries. 11. Sympathy. 12. Sailboats. 13. Baseball. 14. Rivers. 15. Trees. C. A general subject may suggest several narrower subjects, each of which would be of interest to a different class of persons; for example-- General subject,--Education. Specific subjects,-- 1. Methods of conducting recitations. (Teachers.) 2. School taxes. (Farmers.) 3. Ventilation of school buildings. (Architects.) In a similar way, narrow each of the following subjects so that the resulting subjects will be of interest to two or more classes of persons:-- Subjects Classes 1. Vacations. 1. Farmers. 2. Mathematics. 2. High School Pupils. 3. Picnics. 3. Ministers. 4. Civil service. 4. Merchants. 5. Elections. 5. Sailors. 6. Botany. 6. Girls. 7. Fish. 7. Boys. +Theme XXXII.+--_Write a paragraph about one of narrowed subjects._ (Does your paragraph have unity of thought? What methods of development have you used? Have you selected a subject which will be of interest to your readers?) +61. Selecting a Title.+--The subject and the title may be the same, but not necessarily so. The statement of the subject may require a sentence of considerable length, while a title is best if short. In selecting this brief title, it is well to get one which will attract the attention and arouse the curiosity of a reader without appearing obviously to do so. A peculiar or unusual title is not at all necessary, though if properly selected such a title may be of value. Care must be taken not to have the title make a promise that the theme cannot fulfill. If it does, the effect is unsatisfactory. EXERCISES _A._ Discuss the appropriateness of the titles for the subjects in the following:-- 1. Title: "My Kingdom for a Horse." Subject: An account of a breakdown of an automobile at an inconvenient time. 2. Title: A Blaze of Brilliance. Subject: Description of a coaching parade. 3. Title: A Brave Defense. Subject: An account of how a pair of birds drove a snake away from their nest. 4. Title: The Banquet Book. Subject: Quotations designed for general reference, and also as an aid in the preparation of the toast list, the after-dinner speech, and the occasional address. 5. Title: Dragons of the Air. Subject: An account of extinct flying reptiles. 6. Title: Rugs and Rags. Subject: A comparison of the rich and the poor, from a socialistic point of view. 7. Title: Lives of the Hunted. Subject: A true account of the doings of five quadrupeds and three birds. 8. Title: The Children of the Nations. Subject: A discussion of colonies and the problems of colonization. _B._ Supply an appropriate title for a story read by the teacher. _C._ Suggest a title, other than the one given it, for each magazine article you have read this month. +62. Language Adapted to the Reader.+--A writer may select a subject with reference to the knowledge and interest of his readers; he may develop his paragraphs in accordance with the methods studied in Chapter III, and yet he may fail to make his meaning clear, because he has not used language suited to the reader. Fortunately, the language that we understand and use is that which is most easily understood by those of equal attainments with ourselves. It therefore happens that when writing for those of our own age and attainments, or for those of higher attainments, we usually best express for them that which we make most clear and pleasing to ourselves. But if we write for younger people, or for those of different interests in life, we must give much attention to adapting what we write to our readers. Before writing it is well to ask, For whom am I writing? Then, if necessary, you should modify your language so that it will be adapted to your readers. Can you tell for what kind of an audience each of the following is intended? In the field both teams played faultless ball, not the semblance of an error being made. Besides backing up their pitchers in this fashion, both local and visiting athletes turned sensational plays. The element of luck figured largely in the result. In the first inning Dougherty walked and Collins singled. Dougherty had third base sure on the drive, but stumbled and fell down between second and third, and he was an easy out. Boston got its only run in the second. Parent sent the ball to extreme left for two bases. He stole third nattily when catcher Sugden tried to catch him napping at the middle station. Ferris scored him with a drive to left. St. Louis promptly tied the score in its half. Wallace opened with a screeching triple to the bulletin board. At that he would not have scored if J. Stahl had not contributed a passed ball, Heidrick, Friel, and Sugden, the next three batters, expiring on weak infield taps. The Browns got the winning run in the sixth on Martin's triple and Hill's swift cut back of first. Lachance knocked the ball down and got his man at the initial sack, but could not prevent the tally. --_Boston Herald._ His name was Riley, and although his parents had called him Thomas, to the boys he had always been "Dennis," and by the time he had reached his senior year in college he was quite ready to admit that his "name was Dennis," with all that slang implied. He had tried for several things, athletics particularly, and had been substitute on the ball nine, one of the immortal second eleven backs of the football squad, and at one time had been looked upon as promising material for a mile runner on the track team. But it was always his luck not quite to make anything. He couldn't bat up to 'varsity standard, he wasn't quite heavy enough for a Varsity back, and in the mile run he always came in fresh enough but could not seem to get his speed up so as to run himself out, and the result was that, although he finished strong and with lots of running in him, the other fellows always reached the tape first, even though just barely getting over and thoroughly exhausted. Now "Dennis" had made up his mind at Christmas time that he actually would have one more trial on the track, and that his family, consisting of his mother and a younger brother, both of them great believers in and very proud of Thomas, should yet see him possessed of a long-coveted "Y." So he went out with the first candidates in the spring, and the addition of the two-mile event to the programme of track contests gave him a distance better suited to his endurance. There were a half-dozen other men running in his squad, and Dennis, from his former failures, was not looked upon with much favor, or as a very likely man. But he kept at it. When the first reduction of the squad was made, some one said, "Denny's kept on just to pound the track." With the middle of March came some class games, and Dennis was among the "also rans," getting no better than fourth place in the two-mile. The worst of it was that he knew he could have run it faster, for he felt strong at the finish, but had no burst of speed when the others went up on the last lap. But in April he did better, and it soon developed that he was improving. The week before the Yale-Harvard games he was notified that he was to run in the two-mile as pace maker to Lang and Early, the two best distance men on the squad. Nobody believed that Yale would win this event, although it was understood that Lang stood a fair chance if Dennis and Early could carry the Harvard crack, Richards, along at a fast gait for the first mile. So it was all arranged that Early should set the pace for the first half mile, and Dennis should then go up and carry the field along for a fast second half. Then, after the first mile was over, Early and Dennis should go out as fast as they could, and stay as long as they could in the attempt to force the Harvard man and exhaust him so that Lang could come up, and, having run the race more to his liking, be strong enough to finish first. The day of the games came, and with it a drenching rain, making the track heavy and everybody uncomfortable. But as the inter-collegiates were the next week, it was almost impossible to postpone the games, and consequently it was decided to run them off. As the contest progressed, it developed that the issue would hang on the two-mile event, and interest grew intense. When the call for starters came, Dennis felt the usual trepidation of a man who is before the public for the first time in a really important position. But the feeling did not last long, and by the time he went to his mark he had made up his mind that that Harvard runner should go the mile and a half fast at any rate, or else be a long way behind. At the crack of the pistol the six men went off, and, according to orders, during the first mile Early and Dennis set the pace well up. Richards, the Harvard man, let them open up a gap on him in the first half-mile, and, being more or less bothered by the conditions of the wet track, he seemed uncertain whether the Yale runners were setting the pace too high or not, and in the second half commenced to move up. In doing this his team mates gradually fell back until they were out of it, and the order was Dennis, Early, Richards, and Lang. At the beginning of the second mile, Early, whose duty it was to have gone up and helped Dennis make the pace at the third half-mile, had manifestly had enough of it, and, after two or three desperate struggles to keep up, was passed by Richards. When, therefore, they came to the mile and a half, Dennis was leading Richards by some fifteen yards, and those who knew the game expected to see the Harvard man try to overtake Dennis, and in so doing exhaust himself, so that Lang, who was running easily in the rear, could come up and in the last quarter finish out strong. Dennis, too, was expecting to hear the Harvard man come up with him pretty soon, and knew that this would be the signal for him to make his dying effort in behalf of his comrade, Lang. As they straightened out into the back stretch Richards did quicken up somewhat, and Dennis let himself out. In fact, he did this so well that as they entered upon the last quarter Richards had not decreased the distance, and indeed it had opened up a little wider. But where was Lang? Dennis was beginning to expect one or the other of these two men to come up, and, as he turned into the back stretch for the last time, it began to dawn upon him, as it was dawning upon the crowd, that the pace had been too hot for Lang, and, moreover, that Yale's chance depended on the despised Dennis, and that the Harvard runner was finding it a big contract to overhaul the sturdy pounder on the wet track. But Richards was game, and commenced to cut the gap down. As they turned into the straight, he was within eight yards of Dennis. But Dennis knew it, and he ran as he had never run before. He could fairly feel the springing tread of Richards behind him, and knew it was coming nearer every second. But into the straight they came, and the crowd sprang to its feet with wild yells for Dennis. Twenty yards from home Richards, who had picked up all but two yards of the lead, began to stagger and waver, while Dennis hung to it true and steady, and breasted the tape three yards in advance, winning his "Y" at last! --Walter Camp: _Winning a "Y"_ ("Outlook") In which of the preceding accounts were you more interested? Which made the more vivid impression? Which would be better suited for a school class composed of boys and girls? Which for a newspaper report? In attempting to relate a contest it is essential that the writer know what really happened, and in what order it happened, but his successful presentation will depend to some extent upon the consideration given to adapting the story to the audience. A person thoroughly conversant with the game will understand the technical terms, and may prefer the first account to the second, but those to whom the game is not familiar would need to have so much explanation of the terms used that the narration would become tedious to those already familiar with the terms. In order to make an account of a game interesting to persons unfamiliar with that game, we must introduce enough of explanation to make clear the meaning of the terms we use. +Theme XXXIII.+--_Write a theme telling some one who does not understand the game about some contest which you have seen_. Suggested subjects:-- 1. A basket ball game. 2. A football game. 3. A tennis match. 4. A baseball game. 5. A croquet match. 6. A golf tournament. 7. A yacht race. 8. A relay race. (Have you introduced technical terms without making the necessary explanations? Have you explained so many terms that your narrative is rendered tedious? Have you related what really happened, and in the proper time order? Have your paragraphs unity? Can you shorten the theme without affecting the clearness or interest? Does _then_ occur too frequently?) +Theme XXXIV.+--_Write a theme, using the same subject that you used for Theme XXXIII. Assume that the reader understands the game._ (Will the reader get the whole contest clearly in mind? Can you shorten the account? Compare this theme with Theme XXXIII.) +63. Explanation of Terms.+--Any word that alone or with its modifiers calls to mind a single idea, is a term. When applied to a particular object, quality, or action, it is a specific term; but when applied to any one of a class of objects, qualities, or actions, it is a general term. For example: _The Lake_, referring to a lake near at hand, is a specific term; but _a lake_, referring to any lake, is a general term. In Theme XXXIII you had occasion to explain some of the terms used. If, in telling about a baseball game, you mentioned a particular "fly," your statement was description or narration; but if some one should ask what you meant by "a fly," your answer would be general in character; that is, it would apply to all "flies," and would belong to that division of composition called exposition. Exposition is but another name for explanation. It is always concerned with that which is general, while description and narration deal with particular cases. We may describe a particular lake; but if we answer the question, What is a lake? the answer would apply to any lake, and would be exposition. Explanation of the meaning of general terms is one form of exposition. +64. Definition by Synonyms.+--If we are asked to explain the meaning of a general term, our reply in many cases will be a brief definition. Often it is sufficient to give a synonym. For example, in answer to the question, What is exposition? we make its meaning clearer by saying, Exposition is explanation. Definition by synonym is frequently used because of its brevity. In the smaller dictionaries the definitions are largely of this kind. For example: to desert, _to abandon_; despot, _tyrant_; contemptible, _mean or vile_; to fuse, _to blend_; inviolable, _sacred_. Synonyms are, however, seldom exact, but a fair understanding of a term may be gained by comparing it with its synonyms and discussing the different shades of meaning. Such a discussion, especially if supplemented by examples showing the correct use of each term, is a profitable exercise in exposition. For example:-- Both _discovery_ and _invention_ denote generally something new that is found out in the arts and sciences. But the term _discovery_ involves in the thing discovered not merely novelty, but curiosity, utility, difficulty, and consequently some degree of importance. All this is less strongly involved in invention. But there are yet wider differences. One can only discover what has in its integrity existed before the discovery, while invention brings a thing into existence. America was discovered. Printing was invented. Fresh discoveries in science often lead to new inventions in the industrial arts. Indeed, discovery belongs more to science; invention, to art. Invention increases the store of our practical resources, and is the fruit of search. Discovery extends the sphere of our knowledge, and has often been made by accident. --Smith: _Synonyms Discriminated_. If exactness is desired, this is obtained by means of the logical definition, which will be discussed in a later chapter. +Theme XXXV.+--Explain the meaning of the words in one of the following groups:_-- 1. Caustic, satirical, biting. 2. Imply, signify, involve. 3. Martial, warlike, military, soldierlike. 4. Wander, deviate, err, stray, swerve, diverge. 5. Abate, decrease, diminish, lessen, moderate. 6. Emancipation, freedom, independence, liberty. 7. Old, ancient, antique, antiquated, obsolete. 8. Adorn, beautify, bedeck, decorate, ornament, 9. Active, alert, brisk, lively, spry. +65. Use of Simpler Words.+--In defining terms by giving a synonym we must be careful to choose a synonym which will be most likely to be understood by our listeners, or our explanation will be of no avail. For instance, in explaining the term _abate_ to a child, if we say it means _to diminish_, and he is unfamiliar with that word, he is made none the wiser by our explanation. If we tell him that it means _to grow less_, he will, in all probability, understand our explanation. Very many words in our language have equivalents that may be substituted, the one for the other. Much of our explanation to children and to those whose attainments are less than our own consists in substituting common, everyday words for less familiar ones. EXERCISE Give familiar equivalents for the following words:-- 1. emancipate. 2. procure. 3. opportunity. 4. peruse. 5. elapsed. 6. approximately. 7. abbreviate. 8. constitute. 9. simultaneous. 10. familiar. 11. deceased. 12. oral. 13. adhere. 14. edifice. 15. collide. 16. suburban. 17. repugnance. 18. grotesque. 19. equipage. 20. exaggerate. 21. ascend. 22. financial. 23. nocturnal. 24. maternal. 25. vision. 26. affinity. 27. cohere. 28. athwart. 29. clavicle. 30. omnipotent. 31. enumerate. 32. eradicate. 33. application. 34. constitute. 35. employer. 36. rendezvous. 37. obscure. 38. indicate. 39. prevaricate. +66. Definitions Need to be Supplemented.+--The purpose of exposition is to make clear to others that which we understand ourselves. If the mere statement of a definition does not accomplish this result, we may often make our meaning clear by supplementing the definition with suitable comparisons and examples. In making use of comparisons and examples we must choose those with which our readers are familiar, and we must be sure that they fairly represent the term that we wish to illustrate. +Theme XXXVI.+--_Explain any one of the following terms. Begin with as exact a definition as you can frame._ 1. A "fly" in baseball. 2. A "foul" in basket ball. 3. A "sneak." 4. A hero. 5. A "spitfire." 6. A laborer. 7. A capitalist. 8. A coward. 9. A freshman. 10. A "header." (Is your definition exact, or only approximately so? How have you made its meaning clear? Can you think of a better comparison or a better example? Can your meaning be made clearer, or be more effectively presented, by arranging your material in a different order?) +67. General Description.+--We may often make clear the meaning of a term by giving details. In describing a New England village we might enumerate the streets, the houses, the town pump, the church, and other features. This would be specific description if the purpose was to have the reader picture some particular village; but if the purpose was to give the reader a clear conception of the general characteristics of all New England villages, the paragraph would become a general description. Such a general description would include all the characteristics common to all the members of the class under discussion, but would omit any characteristic peculiar to some of them. For example, a general description of a windmill includes the things common to all windmills. If an object is described more for the purpose of giving a clear conception of the class of which it is a type than for the purpose of picturing the object described, we have a general description. Such a description is in effect an enlarged definition, and is exposition rather than description. It is sometimes called scientific description because it is so commonly employed by writers of scientific books. Notice the following examples of general description:-- 1. Around every house in Broeck are buckets, benches, rakes, hoes, and stakes, all colored red, blue, white, or yellow. The brilliancy and variety of colors and the cleanliness, brightness, and miniature pomp of the place are wonderful. At the windows there are embroidered curtains with rose-colored ribbons. The blades, bands, and nails of the gayly painted windmills shine like silver. The houses are brightly varnished and surrounded with red and white railings and fences. The panes of glass in the windows are bordered by many lines of different hues. The trunks of all the trees are painted gray from root to branch. Across the streams are many little wooden bridges, each painted as white as snow. The gutters are ornamented with a sort of wooden festoon perforated like lace. The pointed façades are surmounted with a small weathercock, a little lance, or something resembling a bunch of flowers. Nearly every house has two doors, one in front and one behind, the last for everyday entrance and exit, the former opened only on great occasions, such as births, deaths, and marriages. The gardens are as peculiar as the houses. The paths are hardly wide enough to walk in. One could put his arms around the flower beds. The dainty arbors would barely hold two persons sitting close together. The little myrtle hedges would scarcely reach to the knees of a four-year-old child. 2. Ginseng has a thick, soft, whitish, bulbous root, from one to three inches long,--generally two or three roots to a stalk,--with wrinkles running around it, and a few small fibers attached. It has a peculiar, pleasant, sweetish, slightly bitter, and aromatic taste. The stem or stalk grows about a foot high, is smooth, round, of a reddish green color, divided at the top into three short branches, with three to five leaves to each branch, and a flower stem in the center of the branches. The flower is small and white, followed by a large, red berry. It is found growing in most of the states in rich, shady soils. 3. As a general proposition, the Scottish hotel is kept by a benevolent-looking old lady, who knows absolutely nothing about the trains, nothing about the town, nothing about anything outside of the hotel, and is non-committal regarding matters even within her jurisdiction. Upon arrival you do not register, but stand up at the desk and submit to a cross-examination, much as if you were being sentenced in an American police court. Your hostess always wants twelve hours' notice of your departure, so that she can make out your bill--a very arduous, formidable undertaking. The bill is of prodigious dimensions, about the size of a sheet of foolscap paper, lined and cross-lined for a multitude of entries. When the account finally reaches you, it closely resembles a design for a cobweb factory. Any attempt to decipher the various hieroglyphics is useless--it can't be done. The only thing that can be done is to read the total at the foot of the page and pay it. --_Hotels in Scotland_ ("Kansas City Star"). +Theme XXXVII.+--_Write a general description of one of the following:_-- 1. A bicycle. 2. A country hay barn. 3. A dog. 4. A summer cottage. 5. An Indian wigwam. 6. A Dutch windmill. 7. A muskrat's house. 8. A robin's nest. 9. A blacksmith's shop. 10. A chipmunk. 11. A threshing machine. 12. A sewing circle. (The purpose is not to picture a particular object, but to give a general notion of a class of objects. Cross out everything in your theme that applies only to some particular object. Have you included enough to make your meaning clear?) +Theme XXXVIII.+--_Using the same title as for Theme XXXVII, write a specific description of some particular object._ (How does it differ from the general description? What elements have you introduced which you did not have in the other? Which sentence gives the general outline? Are your details arranged with regard to their proper position in space? Will the reader form a vivid picture--just the one you mean him to have?) +68. General Narration.+--Explanations of a process of manufacture, methods of playing a game, and the like, often take the form of generalized narration. Just as we gain a notion of the appearance of a sod house from a general description, so may we gain a notion of a series of events from a general narration. Such a narration will not tell what some one actually did, but will relate the things that are characteristic of the process or action under discussion whenever it happens. Such general narration is really exposition. EXERCISES _A._ Notice that the selection below is a generalized narration, showing what a hare does when hunted. In it no incident peculiar to some special occasion is introduced. She [the hare] generally returns to the beat from which she was put up, running, as all the worlds knows, in a circle, or sometimes something like it, we had better say, that we may keep on good terms with the mathematical. At starting, she tears away at her utmost speed for a mile or more, and distances the dogs halfway; she then turns, diverging a little to the right or left, that she may not run into the mouths of her enemies--a necessity which accounts for what we call the circularity of her course. Her flight from home is direct and precipitate; but on her way back, when she has gained a little time for consideration and stratagem, she describes a curious labyrinth of short turnings and windings as if to perplex the dogs by the intricacy of her track. --Richard Atton. _B_. The selection below narrates an actual hunt. Notice in what respects it differs from the preceding selection. Sir Roger is so keen at this sport that he has been out almost every day since I came down; and upon the chaplain's offering to lend me his easy pad, I was prevailed on yesterday morning to make one of the company. I was extremely pleased, as we rid along, to observe the general benevolence of all the neighborhood towards my friend. The farmers' sons thought themselves happy if they could open a gate for the good old knight as he passed by; which he generally requited with a nod or a smile, and a kind inquiry after their fathers and uncles. After we had rid about a mile from home, we came upon a large heath, and the sportsmen began to beat. They had done so for some time, when, as I was at a little distance from the rest of the company, I saw a hare pop out from a small furze brake almost under my horse's feet. I marked the way she took, which I endeavored to make the company sensible of by extending my arm; but to no purpose, till Sir Roger, who knows that none of my extraordinary motions are insignificant, rode up to me and asked me if puss was gone that way? Upon my answering "Yes," he immediately called in the dogs, and put them upon the scent. As they were going off, I heard one of the country fellows muttering to his companion, that 'twas a wonder they had not lost all their sport, for want of the silent gentleman's crying, "Stole away." This, with my aversion to leaping hedges, made me withdraw to a rising ground, from whence I could have the pleasure of the whole chase, without the fatigue of keeping in with the hounds. The hare immediately threw them above a mile behind her; but I was pleased to find, that instead of running straight forwards, or, in hunter's language, "flying the country," as I was afraid she might have done, she wheeled about, and described a sort of circle round the hill, where I had taken my station, in such manner as gave me a very distinct view of the sport. I could see her first pass by, and the dogs some time afterwards, unraveling the whole track she had made, and following her through all her doubles. I was at the same time delighted in observing that deference which the rest of the pack paid to each particular hound, according to the character he had acquired among them: if they were at a fault, and an old hound of reputation opened but once, he was immediately followed by the whole cry; while a raw dog, or one who was a noted liar, might have yelped his heart out without being taken notice of. The hare now, after having squatted two or three times, and been put up again as often, came still nearer to the place where she was at first started. The dogs pursued her, and these were followed by the jolly knight, who rode upon a white gelding, encompassed by his tenants and servants, and cheering his hounds with all the gayety of five and twenty. One of the sportsmen rode up to me, and told me that he was sure the chase was almost at an end, because the old dogs, which had hitherto lain behind, now headed the pack. The fellow was in the right. Our hare took a large field just under us, followed by the full cry in view. I must confess the brightness of the weather, the cheerfulness of everything around me, the chiding of the hounds, which was returned upon us in a double echo from two neighboring hills, with the hallooing of the sportsmen, and the sounding of the horn, lifted my spirits into a most lively pleasure, which I freely indulged because I was sure it was innocent. If I was under any concern, it was on account of the poor hare, that was now quite spent, and almost within the reach of her enemies; when the huntsman getting forward, threw down his pole before the dogs. They were now within eight yards of that game which they had been pursuing for almost as many hours; yet on the signal before mentioned they all made a sudden stand, and though they continued opening as much as before, durst not once attempt to pass beyond the pole. At the same time Sir Roger rode forward, and alighting, took up the hare in his arms; which he soon after delivered up to one of his servants with an order, if she could be kept alive, to let her go in his great orchard; where it seems he has several of these prisoners of war, who live together in a very comfortable captivity. I was highly pleased to see the discipline of the pack, and the good nature of the knight, who could not find in his heart to murder a creature that had given him so much diversion. --Budgell: _Sir Roger de Coverley Papers_. +Theme XXXIX.+--_Explain one of the following by the use of general narration:_-- 1. Baking bread. 2. How paper is made. 3. How to play tennis (or some other game). 4. Catching trout. 5. Life at school. 6. How to pitch curves. (Have you arranged your details with reference to their proper time-order? Have you introduced unnecessary details? Have your paragraphs unity? Underscore _then_ each time you have used it.) +69. Argument.+--Especially in argument is it evident that language presupposes an audience. The fact that we argue implies that some one does not agree with us. The purpose of our argument is to convince some one else of the truth of a proposition which we ourselves believe, and he who wishes to succeed in this must give careful attention to his audience. The question which must always be in the mind of the writer is, What facts shall I select and in what order shall I present them in order to convince my reader? The various ways of arguing are more fully treated in a later chapter, but a few of them are given here. +70. The Use of Explanation in Argument.+--In preparing an argument we must consider first the amount of explanation that it will be necessary to make. We cannot expect one to believe a proposition the meaning of which he does not understand. Often the explanation alone is sufficient to convince the hearer. Suppose you are trying to gain your parents' consent to take some course of study. They ask for an explanation of the different courses, and when they know what each contains they are already convinced as to which is best for you. If you are trying to convince a member of your school board that it would be well to introduce domestic science into the high school, and he already understands what is meant by the term "domestic science," you not only waste time in explaining it, but you make him appear ignorant of what he already understands. With him you should proceed at once to give your reasons for the advisability of the introduction of this branch into your school. On the other hand, if you are talking with a member who does not understand the term, an explanation will be the first thing necessary. It is evident, therefore, that the amount of explanation that we shall make depends upon the previous knowledge of the audience addressed. If we explain too much, we prejudice our case; and if we explain too little, the reader may fail to appreciate the arguments that follow. The point of the whole matter, then, is that explanation is the first step in argument, and that in order to determine the amount necessary we must consider carefully the audience for which our argument is intended. +71. Statement of Advantages and Disadvantages.+ An argument is often concerned with determining whether it is expedient to do one thing or another. Such an argument frequently takes the form of a statement of the advantages that will follow the adoption of the course we recommend, or of the disadvantages that the following of the opposite course will cause. If a corporation should ask for a franchise for a street railway, the city officials might hold the opinion that a double track should be laid. In support of this opinion they would name the advantageous results that would follow from the use of a double track, such as the avoidance of delays on turnouts, the lessening of the liability of accidents, the greater rapidity in transportation, etc. On the other hand, the persons seeking the franchise might reply that a double track would occupy too much of the street and become a hindrance to teams, or that the advantages were not sufficient to warrant the extra expense. Concerning such a question there can be no absolute decision. We are not discussing what is right, but what is expedient, and the determination of what is expedient is based upon a consideration of advantages or disadvantages. In deciding, we must balance the advantages against the disadvantages and determine which has the greater weight. If called upon to take one side or the other, we must consider carefully the value of the facts counting both for and against the proposition before we can make up our mind which side we favor. You must bear in mind that a thing may not be an advantage because you believe it to be. That which seems to you to be the reason why you should take some high school subject, may seem to your father or your teacher to be the very reason why you should not. In writing arguments of this kind you must take care to select facts that will appeal to your readers as advantages. Notice the following editorial which appeared in the _Boston Latin School Register_ shortly after a change was made whereby the pupils instead of the teachers moved from room to room for their various recitations:-- The new system of having the classes move about from room to room to their recitations has been in use for nearly a month, and there has been sufficient opportunity for testing its practicability and its advantages. There is no doubt that the new system alters the old form of recesses, shortening the two regular ones, but giving three minutes between recitations as a compensation for this loss. Although theoretically we have more recess time than formerly, in the practical working out of the system we find that the three minutes between recitations is occupied in gathering up one's books, and reaching the next recitation room; besides this, that there is often some confusion in reaching the various classrooms, and that there are many little inconveniences which would not occur were we sitting at our own desks. On the other hand, as an offset to these disadvantages, there is the advantage of a change of position, and a respite from close attention, with a breathing spell in which to get the mind as well as the books ready for another lesson. The masters have in every recitation their own maps and reference books, with which they can often make their instruction much more forceful and interesting. Besides that, they have entire control of their own blackboards, and can leave work there without fear of its being erased to make room for that of some other master. The confusion will doubtless be lessened as time goes on and we become more used to the system. Even the first disadvantage is more or less offset by the fact that the short three-minute periods, although they cannot be used like ordinary recesses, yet serve to give us breathing space between recitations and to lessen the strain of continuous application; so that, on the whole, the advantages seem to counterbalance the disadvantages. EXERCISES What advantages and disadvantages can you think of for each of the following propositions? State them orally. 1. All telephone and telegraph wires in cities should be put under ground. 2. The speed of bicycles and automobiles should be limited to eight miles per hour. 3. High school football teams should not play match games on regular school days. 4. High school pupils should not attend evening parties excepting on Fridays and Saturdays. 5. Monday would be a better day than Saturday for a school holiday. 6. The school session should be lengthened. +Theme XL.+--_Write two paragraphs, one of which shall give the advantages and the other the disadvantages that would arise from the adoption of any one of the following:_ 1. This school should have a longer recess. 2. This school should have two hours for the noon recess. 3. This school should be in session from eight o'clock until one o'clock. 4. All the pupils in this school should be seated in one room. 5. The public library should be in the high school building. 6. The football team should be excused early in order to practice. 7. This school should have a greater number of public entertainments. +72. Explanation and Argument by Specific Instances.+--Often we may make the meaning of a general proposition clear by citing specific instances. If these instances are given for the purpose of explanation merely, the paragraph is exposition. If, however, the aim is not merely to cause the reader to understand the proposition, but also to believe that it is true, we have argument. In either case we have a paragraph developed by specific instances as discussed in Section 44. Notice how in the following paragraph the author brings forward specific cases in order to prove the proposition:-- Nearly everything that an animal does is the result of an inborn instinct acted upon by an outward stimulus. The margin wherein intelligent choice plays a part is very small.... Instinct is undoubtedly often modified by intelligence, and intelligence is as often guided or prompted by instinct, but one need not hesitate long as to which side of the line any given act of man or beast belongs. When the fox resorts to various tricks to outwit and delay the hound (if he ever consciously does so), he exercises a kind of intelligence--the lower form of which we call cunning--and he is prompted to this by an instinct of self-preservation. When the birds set up a hue and cry about a hawk, or an owl, or boldly attack him, they show intelligence in its simpler form, the intelligence that recognizes its enemies, prompted again by the instinct of self-preservation. When a hawk does not know a man on horseback from a horse, it shows a want of intelligence. When a crow is kept away from a corn-field by a string stretched around it, the fact shows how masterful is its fear and how shallow its wit. When a cat or a dog or a horse or a cow learns to open a gate or a door, it shows a degree of intelligence--power to imitate, to profit by experience. A machine could not learn to do it. If the animal were to close the door or gate behind it, that would be another step in intelligence. But its direct wants have no relation to the closing of the door, only to the opening of it. To close the door involves an afterthought that an animal is not capable of. A horse will hesitate to go upon thin ice or frail bridges. This, no doubt, is an inherited instinct which has arisen in its ancestors from their fund of general experience with the world. How much with them has depended upon a secure footing! A pair of house-wrens had a nest in my well-curb; when the young were partly grown and heard any one enter the curb, they would set up a clamorous calling for food. When I scratched against the sides of the curb beneath them like some animal trying to climb up, their voices instantly hushed; the instinct of fear promptly overcame the instinct of hunger! Instinct is intelligence, but it is not the same as acquired individual intelligence; it is untaught. John Burroughs: _Some Natural History Doubts_ ("Harper's"). EXERCISES What facts or instances do you know which would lead you to believe either the following propositions or their opposites? 1. Dogs are intelligent. 2. Only excellent pupils can pass the seventh grade examination. 3. Some teachers do not ask fair questions on examination. 4. Oak trees grow to be larger than maples. 5. Strikes increase the cost to the consumer. 6. A college education pays. 7. Department stores injure the trade of smaller stores. 8. Advertising pays. +Theme XLI.+--_Write a paragraph, proving by one or more examples one of the propositions in the preceding exercise:_ (Do your examples really illustrate what you are trying to prove? Do they show that the proposition is always true or merely that it is true for certain cases? Would your argument cause another to believe the proposition?) +73. The Value of Debate.+--Participation in oral debate furnishes excellent practice in accurate and rapid thinking. We may choose one side of a question and may write out an argument which, considered alone, and from our point of view, seems convincing, but when this is submitted to the criticism of some one of opposite views, or when the arguments in favor of the other side of the question are brought forward, we are not so sure that we have chosen the side which represents the truth. The ability to think "on one's feet," to present arguments concisely and effectively, and to reply to opposing arguments, giving due weight to those that are true, and detecting and pointing out those that are false, is an accomplishment of great practical value. Such ability comes only from practice, and the best preparation for it is the careful writing out of arguments. +74. Statement of the Question.+--The subject of debate may be stated in the form of a resolution, a declarative sentence, or a question; as, "Resolved that the recess should be lengthened," or "The recess should be lengthened," or, "Should the recess be lengthened?" In any case, the affirmative must show why the recess should be lengthened, and the negative why it should not be lengthened. In a formal debate the statement of the question and its meaning should be definitely determined in advance. Care must be taken to state it so that no mere quibbling over the meanings of terms can take the place of real arguments. Even if the subject of debate is so stated that this is possible, any self-respecting debater will meet the question at issue fairly and squarely, preferring defeat to a victory won by juggling with the meanings of terms. +75. Is Belief Necessary in Debate?+--If we are really arguing for a purpose, we should believe in the truth of the proposition which we support. If the members of the school board were discussing the desirability of building a new schoolhouse, each would speak in accordance with his belief. But if a class in school should debate such a question, having in mind not the determination of the question, but merely the selection and arrangement of the arguments for and against the proposition in the most effective way, each pupil might present the side in which he did not really believe. EXERCISES Consider each of the following propositions. Do you believe the affirmative or the negative? 1. This city needs a new high school building. 2. All the pupils in the high school should be members of the athletic association. 3. The school board should purchase an inclosed athletic field. 4. The street railway should carry pupils to and from school for half fare. 5. There should be a lunch room in this school. 6. Fairy stories should not be told to children. +Theme XLII.+--_Write a paragraph telling why you believe one of the propositions in the preceding exercise:_ (What questions should you ask yourself while correcting your theme?) +76. Order of Presentation.+--If you were preparing to debate one of the propositions in the preceding exercise, you would need to have in mind both the reasons for and against it. Next you would consider the order in which these reasons should be discussed. This will be determined by the circumstances of each debate, but generally the emphatic positions, that is, the first and the last, will be given to those arguments that seem to you to have the greatest weight, while those of less importance will occupy the central portion of your theme. +77. The Brief.+--If, after making a note of the various advantages, examples, and other arguments that you wish to use in support of one of the propositions in Section 75, you arrange these in the order in which you think they can be most effectively presented, the outline so formed is called a brief. Its preparation requires clear thinking, but when it is made, the task of writing out the argument is not difficult. When the debate is to be spoken, not read, the brief, if kept in mind, will serve to suggest the arguments we wish to make in the order in which we wish to present them. The brief differs from the ordinary outline in that it is composed of complete sentences. Notice the following brief:-- Manual Training should be substituted for school athletics. _Affirmative_ 1. The exercise furnished by manual training is better adapted to the developing of the whole being both physical and mental; for-- _a._ It requires the mind to act in order to determine what to do and how to do it. _b._ It trains the muscles to carry out the ideal of the mind. 2. The effect of manual training on health is better; for-- _a._ Excessive exercise, harmful to growing children, is avoided. _b._ Dangerous contests are avoided. 3. The final results of manual training are more valuable; for-- _a._ The objects made are valuable. _b._ The skill of hand and eye may become of great practical value in after life. 4. The moral effect of manual training is better; for-- _a._ Athletics develops the "anything to win" spirit, while manual training creates a wholesome desire to excel in the creation of something useful or beautiful. _b._ Dishonesty in games may escape notice, but dishonesty in workmanship cannot be concealed. _c._ Athletics fosters slovenliness of dress and manners, while manual training cultivates the love of the beautiful. 5. The beneficial results of manual training have a wider effect upon the school; for-- _a._ But comparatively few pupils "make the team" and receive the maximum athletic drill, while all pupils can take manual training. +78. Refutation or Indirect Argument.+--In debate we need to consider not only the arguments in favor of our own side, but also those presented by our opponents. That part of our theme which states our own arguments is called direct argument, and that part in which we reply to our opponents is called indirect argument or refutation. It is often very important to show that the opposing argument is false or, if true, has been given an exaggerated importance that it does not really possess. If, however, the argument is true and of weight, the fact should be frankly acknowledged. Our desire for victory should not cause us to disregard the truth. If the argument of our opponent has been so strong that it seems to have taken possession of the audience, we must reply to it in the beginning. If it is of less weight, each separate point may be discussed as we take up related points in our own argument. Often it will be found best to give the refutation a place just preceding our own last and strongest argument. From the foregoing it will be seen that each case cannot be determined by rule, but must be determined for itself, and it is because of the exercise of judgment required, that practice in debating is so valuable. A dozen boys or girls may, with much pleasure and profit, spend an evening a week as a debating club. +Theme XLIII.+--_Prepare a written argument for or against one of the propositions in Section 75._ (Make a brief. Re-arrange the arguments that you intend to use until they have what seems to you the best order. Consider the probable arguments on the other side and what reply can be made. Answer one or two of the strongest ones. If you have any trivial arguments for your own side, either omit them or make their discussion very brief.) +79. Cautions in Debating.+--When we have made a further study of argument we shall need to consider again the subject of debating. In the meantime a few cautions will be helpful. 1. Be fair. A debate is in the nature of a contest, and is quite as interesting as any other contest. The desire to win should never lead you to take any unfair advantage or to descend to mere quibbling over the statement of the proposition or the meanings of the terms. Win fairly or not at all. 2. Be honest with yourself. Do not present arguments which you know to be false, in the hope that your opponent cannot prove their falsity. This does not mean that you cannot present arguments in favor of a proposition unless you believe it to be true, but that those you do present should be real arguments for the side that you uphold, even though you believe that there are weightier ones on the other side. Do not use an example that seems to apply if you know that it does not. You are to "tell the truth and nothing but the truth," but in debate you may tell only that part of the "whole truth" which favors your side of the proposition. 3. Do not allow your desire for victory to overcome your desire for truth. Do not argue for the sake of winning, nor develop the habit of arguing in season and out. In the school and outside there are persons who, like Will Carleton's Uncle Sammy, "were born for arguing." They use their own time in an unprofitable way, and what is worse, they waste the time of others. They are not seeking for truth, but for controversy. It is quite as bad to doubt everything you hear as it is to believe everything. 4. Remember that mere statement is not argument. The fact that you believe a proposition does not make it true. In order to carry weight, a statement must be based on principles and theories that _the audience_ believes. 5. Remember that exhortation is not argument. Entreaty may persuade one to action, but in debate you should aim to convince the intellect. Clear, accurate thinking on your own part, so that you may present sound, logical arguments, is the first essential. +Theme XLIV.+--_Prepare a written argument for or against one of the following propositions:_-- 1. Boys who cannot go to college should take a commercial course in the high school. 2. Novel reading is a waste of time. 3. Asphalt paving is more satisfactory than brick. 4. Foreign skilled labor should be kept out of the United States. 5. Our own town should be lighted by electricity. 6. Athletic contests between high schools should be prohibited. (Consider your argument with reference to the cautions given in Section 79.) SUMMARY 1. The purpose of discourse may be to inform or to entertain. 2. The forms of discourse are-- _a._ Description. _b._ Narration. _c._ Exposition. _d._ Argument (Persuasion). 3. Discourse presupposes an audience, and we must select a subject and use language adapted to that audience. 4. The suitableness of a subject is determined-- _a._ By the writer's knowledge of the subject. (1) This may be based on experience, or (2) It may be gained from others through conversation and reading. _b._ By the writer's interest in the subject. (1) This may exist from the first, or (2) It may be aroused by our search for information. _c._ By adaptability of the subject to the reader. It should be of present, vital interest to him. 5. Subjects. _a._ The sources of subjects are unlimited. _b._ Subjects should be definite. They often need to be narrowed in order to be made definite. _c._ The title should be brief and should be worded so as to arouse a desire to hear the theme. 6. Exposition is explanation. 7. We may make clear the meaning of a term-- _a._ By using synonyms. _b._ By using simpler words. _c._ By supplementing our definitions with examples or comparisons. 8. General description includes the characteristics common to all members of a class of objects. 9. General narration is one form of exposition. It relates the things that characterize a process or action whenever it occurs. 10. Argument. _a._ Explanation is the first step in argument. _b._ A statement of advantages and disadvantages may assist us to determine which side of a question we believe. _c._ Specific instances may be used either for explanation or argument. 11. Debate. _a._ The subject of the debate may be stated in the form of a resolution, a declarative sentence, or a question. _b._ The most important arguments should be given the first and last positions. _c._ A brief will assist us in arranging our arguments in the most effective order. _d._ The refutation of opposing arguments should usually be placed just before our own last and strongest argument. _e._ Cautions in debating. (1) Be fair. (2) Be honest with yourself. (3) Do not allow your desire for victory to overcome your desire for truth. (4) Remember that mere statement is not argument. (5) Remember that exhortation is not argument. V. THE WHOLE COMPOSITION +80. General Principles of Composition.+--There are three important principles to be considered in every composition: unity, coherence, and emphasis. Though not always named, each of these has been considered and used in our writing of paragraphs. The consideration of methods of securing unity, coherence, and emphasis in the composition as a whole is the purpose of this chapter. It will serve also as a review and especially as an enlarged view of paragraph development as treated in Chapter III, for the methods discussed with regard to the whole composition are the same that are used in applying the three principles to single paragraphs. +81. Unity.+--A composition possesses unity if all that it contains bears directly upon the subject. It is evident that the title of the theme determines in a large degree the matter that should be included. Much that is appropriate to a theme on "Bass Fishing" will be found unnecessary in a theme entitled "How I caught a Bass." It is easier to secure unity in a theme treating of a narrow, limited subject than in one treating of a broad, general subject. The first step toward unity is, therefore, the selection of a limited subject and a suitable title (see Sections 58-61); the second is the collection of all facts, illustrations, and other material which may appropriately be used in a theme having the chosen title. +82. Coherence.+--A composition is given coherence by placing the ideas in such an order that each naturally suggests the one which follows. If the last paragraph is more closely related in thought to the first paragraph than it is to the intervening ones, the composition lacks coherence. Similarly, that paragraph is coherent in which the thought moves forward in an orderly way with each sentence growing out of the preceding one. In describing the capture of a large trout a boy might state that he broke his pole. Then he might tell what kind of pole he had, why he did not have a better one, what poles are best adapted to trout fishing, etc. Though each of these ideas is suggested by the preceding, the story still lacks coherence because the boy will need later to go back and tell us what happened to him or to the trout when the pole broke. If a description of the kind of pole is necessary in order to make the point of the story clear, it should have been introduced earlier. Stopping at the moment of vital interest to discuss fishing poles, spoils the effect of the story. Good writers are very skillful in the early introducing of details that will enable the reader to appreciate the events as they happen, and they are equally skillful in omitting unnecessary details. The proper selection of these details gives unity, and their introduction at the proper place gives coherence to a narrative. By saying, "I am getting ahead of my story," the narrator confesses that coherence is lacking. Read again the selection on page 106. +83. Emphasis.+--If we desire to make one part of a theme more emphatic than another, we may do so by giving a prominent position to that part. In debating we give the first place and the last to the strongest arguments. In simple narration the order in which incidents must be related is fixed by the time-order of their occurrence, but even in a story the point gains in force if it is near the close. Because these two positions are the ones of greatest emphasis, a poor beginning or a bad ending will ruin an otherwise good story. Emphasis may also be affected by the proportional amount of attention and space given to the different parts of a theme. The extent to which any division of a theme should be developed depends upon the purpose and the total length of the theme. A biography of Grant might appropriately devote two or three chapters to his boyhood, while a short sketch of his life would treat his boyhood in a single paragraph. In determining the amount of space to be given to the different parts of a composition, care must be taken that the space assigned to each shall be proportional to its importance, the largest amount of space being devoted to the part which is of greatest worth. Emphasis is sometimes given by making a single sentence into a paragraph. This method should be used with care, for such a paragraph may be too short for unity because it does not include all that should be said about the topic statement, and though it makes that statement emphatic, fails to make its meaning clear. Clearness, unity, and coherence are of more importance than emphasis, and usually, if a theme possesses the first three qualities, it will possess the fourth in sufficient measure. +84. The Outline.+--An outline will assist us in securing unity, coherence, and emphasis. 1. The first step in making an outline has relation to unity. Unity requires that a theme include only that which pertains to the subject. There are always many more ideas that seem to bear upon a subject than can be included in the theme. We may therefore jot down brief notes that will suggest our ideas on the subject, and then we should reject from this list all that seem irrelevant or trivial. We should also reject the less important ideas which pertain directly to the subject if without them we have all that are needed in order to fulfill the purpose of the theme. Which items in the following should be omitted as not necessary to the complete treatment of the subject indicated by the title? Should anything be added? _My First Partridge_ Where I lived ten years ago. Kinds of game: partridge, quail, squirrels. Partridge drumming. My father went hunting often. How he was injured. Birch brush near hemlock; partridge often found in such localities. Loading the gun. Going to the woods. Why partridge live near birch brush. Fall season. Hunting for partridge allowed from September to December. Tramping through the woods. Something moving. Creeping up. How I felt; excited; hand shook. Partridge on log. Gun failed to go off; cocking it properly. The shot; the recoil. The flurry of the bird. How partridges fly. How they taste when cooked. Getting the bird. Going home. Partridges are found in the woods; quail in the fields. What my sister said. My brother's interest. My father's story about shooting three partridges with one shot. What mother did. 2. The second step in outline making has relation to coherence. After we have rejected from our notes all items which would interfere with the unity of our theme, we next arrange the remaining items in a coherent order. One method of securing coherence is illustrated by a simple narrative which follows the time-order. We naturally group together in our memory those events which occurred at a given time, and in recalling a series of events we pass in order from one such group to another. These groups form natural paragraph units, and the placing of them in their actual time-order gives coherence to the composition. After rejecting the unnecessary items in the preceding list, re-arrange the remaining ones in a coherent order. How many paragraphs would you make and what would you include in each? 3. The third step in making an outline has relation to emphasis. In some outlines emphasis is secured by placing the more important points first, in others by placing them last. In this particular outline we have a natural time-order to follow, and emphasis will be determined mainly by the relative proportion to be given to different paragraphs. Do not give unimportant paragraphs too much space. Be sure that the introduction and the conclusion are short. +Theme XLV.+--_Write a personal narrative at least three paragraphs in length._ Suggested subjects:-- 1. How I was saved from drowning. 2. The largest string of fish I ever caught. 3. An incident of the skating season. 4. What I did on Christmas day. 5. A Saturday with my grandmother. 6. To the city and back. (Make an outline. Keep in mind unity, coherence, and emphasis. Consider each paragraph with reference to unity, coherence, and emphasis.) +85. Development of a Composition with Reference to the Time-Order.+-- Of the several methods of developing a composition let us consider first that of giving details in the natural time-order. (See Section 46.) If a composition composed of a series of paragraphs possesses coherence, each paragraph is so related to the preceding ones that the thought goes steadily forward from one to another. Often the connection in thought is so evident that no special indication needs to be made, but if the paragraphs are arranged with reference to a time-order, this time-order is usually indicated. Notice how the relation in time of each paragraph to the preceding is shown by the following sentences of parts of sentences taken in order from a magazine article entitled "Yachting at Kiel," by James B. Connolly:-- 1. It was slow waiting in Travemunde. The long-enduring twilight of a summer's day at fifty-four north began to settle down... 2. The dusk comes on, and on the ships of war they seem to be getting nervous... 3. The dusk deepens... 4. It is getting chilly in the night air, with the rations running low, and the charterers of some of the fishing boats decide to go home... 5. It is eleven o'clock--dark night--and the breeze is freshening, when the first of the fleet heaves in sight... 6. After that they arrive rapidly... 7. At midnight there is still no _Meteor_... 8. Through the entire night they keep coming... 9. Next morning... +Theme XLVI.+--_Write a narrative, four or more paragraphs in length, showing the time-order._ Suggested subjects:-- 1. The race up the river. 2. The life of some well-known man. 3. The cake that fell. 4. Retell some incident that you have recently read. 5. Relate some personal experience. 6. A story suggested by the picture on page 160. (Make an outline. Consider the unity, coherence, and emphasis of each paragraph separately. Then consider the unity, coherence, and emphasis of the whole composition. Notice what expressions you have used to indicate the relations in time. Have you used the same expression too often?) +86. Development of a Composition with Reference to Position in Space.+-- A second method of development is to relate details with reference to their position in space. [Illustration] Just as we may give either a paragraph or a whole theme coherence by following a given time-order, so may we make a paragraph or a whole theme coherent by arranging the parts in an order determined by their position in space. In developing a theme by this method we simply apply to the whole theme the principles discussed for the development of a paragraph (Section 47). In a description composed of several paragraphs, each paragraph should contain a group of details closely related to one another in space. The paragraphs should be constructed so that each shall possess unity and coherence within itself, and they should be so arranged that we may pass most easily from the group of images presented by one paragraph to the images presented by the next. In narration, the space arrangement may supplement time-order in giving coherence. If the most attractive features of an art room are its wall decorations, five paragraphs describing the room may be as follows:-- 1. Point of view: general impression. 2. The north wall: general impression; details. 3. The east wall: general impression; details. 4. The south wall: general impression; details. 5. The west wall: general impression; details. It is easy to imagine a room in the description of which the following paragraphs would be appropriate:-- 1. Point of view. 2. The fireplace. 3. The easy-chair. 4. The table. 5. The bookcase. 6. The cozy nook. Such an arrangement of paragraphs would give coherence. Unity would be secured by including in each only that which properly belonged to it. There are many words and expressions which indicate the relative position of objects. The paragraph below is an illustration of the method of development described in Section 47. Notice the words which indicate the location of the different details in the scene. If each of these details should be developed into a paragraph the italicized expressions would serve to introduce these paragraphs and would show the relative positions of the objects described. The beauty of the sea and shore was almost indescribable: _on one side_ rose Point Loma, grim, gloomy as a fortress wall; _before_ me stretched away to the horizon the ocean with its miles of breakers curling into foam; _between_ the surf and the city, wrapped in its dark blue mantle, lay the sleeping bay; _eastward_ the mingled yellow, red, and white of San Diego's buildings glistened in the sunlight like a bed of coleus; _beyond_ the city heaved the rolling plains rich in their garb of golden brown, _from which_ rose the distant mountains, tier on tier, wearing the purple veil which Nature here loves oftenest to weave for them; while _in the foreground_, like a jewel in a brilliant setting, stood the Coronado. --Stoddard: _California_. +Theme XLVII.+--_Write a description three or more paragraphs in length._ Suggested subjects:-- 1. Some well-known building (exterior). 2. A prominent person. 3. An attractive room. 4. The interior of a church. (Consider your outline with reference to unity, coherence, and proportion of parts. When the theme is completed, consider the unity, coherence, and emphasis of each paragraph and of the composition as a whole.) +87. Paragraph Relations.+--Relations in thought other than those of time and space may be indicated by the use of certain words and phrases. Such expressions as, _however, nevertheless, consequently, indeed, moreover, at all events_, etc., are often used to indicate a relation in thought between paragraphs. Notice how _nevertheless_, at the beginning of the selection below, serves to connect it in thought with a preceding paragraph not printed here. Notice also the relations in thought shown by the italicized words. These and similar words are used to make the transition from one paragraph to the next. _Nevertheless_, Howe was at last in possession of Philadelphia, the object of his campaign, and with his communications by water open. He had consumed four months in this business since he left New York, three months since he landed near the Elk River. His prize, now that he had got it, was worth less than nothing in a military point of view, and he had been made to pay a high price for it, not merely in men, but in precious time, for while he was struggling sluggishly for Philadelphia, Burgoyne, who really meant something very serious, had gone to wreck and sunk out of sight in the northern forests. _Indeed_, Howe did not even hold his dearly bought town in peace. After the fall of the forts, Greene, aided by Lafayette, who had joined the army on its way to the Brandywine, made a sharp dash and broke up an outlying party of Hessians. _Such things_ were intolerable, they interfered with personal comfort, and they emanated from the American army which Washington had now established in strong lines at Whitemarsh. _So_ Howe announced that in order to have a quiet winter, he would drive Washington beyond the mountains. Howe did not often display military intelligence, but that he was profoundly right in this particular intention must be admitted. In pursuit of his plan, _therefore_, he marched out of Philadelphia on December 4th, drove off some Pennsylvania militia on the 5th, considered the American position for four days, did not dare to attack, could not draw his opponent out, returned to the city, and left Washington to go into winter quarters at Valley Forge, whence he could easily strike if any move was made by the British army. --Henry Cabot Lodge. +88. The Transition Paragraph.+--Just as a word or phrase may serve to denote the relation in thought between paragraphs, so may a whole paragraph be used to carry over the thought from one group of paragraphs to another in the same theme. Such a paragraph makes a transition from one general topic or method of treating the subject of the theme to some other general topic or to the consideration of the subject from a different point of view. This transitional paragraph may summarize the thought of the preceding paragraph in addition to announcing a change of topic; or it may mark the transition to the new topic and set it forth in general terms. +89. The Summarizing Paragraph.+--Frequently we give emphasis to our thought by a final paragraph summarizing the main points of the theme. Such a summary is in effect a restatement of the topic sentences of our paragraphs. If our theme has been coherent, these sentences stated in order will need but little changing to make a coherent paragraph. In a similar way, it is of advantage to close a long paragraph with a sentence which repeats the topic statement or summarizes the thought of the paragraph. See the last sentence in Section 57. +90. Development of a Composition by Comparison or Contrast.+--The third method of development is that of comparison or contrast. Nearly every idea which we have suggests one that is similar to it or in contrast with it. We are thus led to make comparisons or to state contrasts. When these are few and brief, they may make a single paragraph (Section 48). If our comparisons or contrasts are extended, they may make several paragraphs, and thus a whole theme may be developed by this method. In such a theme no fixed order of presentation is determined by the actual occurrence in time or space of that which we present. Consequently, in outlining a theme of this kind, we must devote special attention to arranging our paragraphs in an order that shall give coherence and emphasis. +Theme XLVIII.+--_Write a theme of three or more paragraphs developed by comparison._ Suggested subjects:-- 1. Compare men with verbs (active, passive, transitive, intransitive, defective, redundant, auxiliary, copulative, etc.). 2. Show that the body resembles a machine. 3. In what way is the school like a factory? 4. How do two books that you have read differ? 5. Compare Lincoln and McKinley. How alike? How different? 6. How can you tell an oak tree from an elm tree? 7. Without naming them, compare two of your friends with each other. 8. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of public high schools with those of private academies. +91. Development of a Composition by Use of Generalization and Facts.+-- Using the fourth method of development, we may give an entire composition to the explanation of the meaning of a general proposition or to the demonstration of the truth of such a proposition. To accomplish this purpose we state facts or instances that illustrate the meaning of the proposition or that show it to be true. In such a composition each important fact or instance may be given a separate paragraph, while several minor facts or illustrations may be properly combined in the same paragraph. (See Section 44.) Greater emphasis may also be given the more important facts by assigning them to the emphatic positions. Notice how by specific instances the following selection illustrates the truth of the generalization set forth in the second sentence and restated in the last sentence. DEGENERATION THROUGH QUIESCENCE While parasitism is the principal cause of degeneration among animals, yet it is not the sole cause. It is evident that if for any other reason animals should become fixed, and live inactive lives, they would degenerate. There are not a few instances of degeneration due simply to a quiescent life, unaccompanied by parasitism. The Tunicata, or sea squirts, are animals which have become simple through degeneration, due to the adoption of a sedentary life, the withdrawal from the crowd of animals and from the struggle which it necessitates. The young tunicate is a free-swimming, active, tadpolelike, or fishlike creature, which possesses organs very like those of the adult of the simplest fishes or fishlike forms. That is, the sea squirt begins life as a primitively simple vertebrate. It possesses in its larval stage a notochord, the delicate structure which precedes the formation of a backbone, extending along the upper part of the body below the spinal cord. The other organs of the young tunicate are all of vertebral type. But the young sea squirt passes a period of active and free life as a little fish, after which it settles down and attaches itself to a shell or wooden pier by means of suckers, and remains for the rest of its life fixed. Instead of going on and developing into a fishlike creature, it loses its notochord, its special sense organs, and other organs; it loses its complexity and high organization, and becomes a "mere rooted bag with a double neck," a thoroughly degenerate animal. A barnacle is another example of degeneration through quiescence. The barnacles are crustaceans related most nearly to the crabs and shrimps. The young barnacle just from the egg is a six-legged, free-swimming nauplius, very like a young prawn or crab, with a single eye. In its next larval stage it has six pairs of swimming feet, two compound eyes, and two antennae or feelers, and still lives an independent free-swimming life. When it makes its final change to the adult condition, it attaches itself to some stone, or shell, or pile, or ship's bottom, loses its compound eyes and feelers, develops a protecting shell, and gives up all power of locomotion. Its swimming feet become changed into grasping organs, and it loses most of its outward resemblance to the other members of its class. Certain insects live sedentary or fixed lives. All the members of the family of scale insects (Coccidae), in one sex at least, show degeneration that has been caused by quiescence. One of these coccids, called the red orange scale, is very abundant in Florida and California and in other fruit-growing regions. The male is a beautiful, tiny, two-winged midge, but the female is a wingless, footless, little sack, without eyes or other organs of special sense, which lies motionless under a flat, thin, circular, reddish scale composed of wax and two or three cast skins of the insect itself. The insect has a long, slender, flexible, sucking beak, which is thrust into the leaf or stem or fruit of the orange on which the "scale bug" lives, and through which the insect sucks the orange sap, which is its only food. It lays eggs under its body, and thus also under the protecting wax scale, and dies. From the eggs hatch active little larval "scale bugs," with eyes and feelers, and six legs. They crawl from under the wax scale and roam about over the orange tree. Finally, they settle down, thrusting their sucking beak into the plant tissue, and cast their skin. The females lose at this molt their legs and eyes and feelers. Each becomes a mere motionless sack capable only of sucking up sap and laying eggs. The young males, however, lose their sucking beak and can no longer take food, but they gain a pair of wings and an additional pair of eyes. They fly about and fertilize the sacklike females, which then molt again and secrete the thin wax scale over them. Throughout the animal kingdom loss of the need of movement is followed by the loss of the power to move and of all structures related to it. --Jordon and Kellogg: _Animal Life_. Has the principle of unity been observed in the above selection; that is, of the many things that might be told about a sea squirt, a barnacle, or a scale bug, have the authors selected only those which serve to illustrate degeneration through quiescence? Instead of one generalization supported by a series of facts to each of which a paragraph is given, we may have several subordinate generalizations relating to the subject of the theme. Each of these subordinate generalizations may become the topic statement of a paragraph which is further developed by giving specific instances or by some other method of paragraph development. Such an order, that is, generalization followed by the facts which illustrate it, is coherent; but care must be taken to give each fact under the generalization to which it is most closely related. On the other hand, our theme may be made coherent by giving the facts first, and then the generalization that they establish. +Theme XLIX.+--_Write a theme of three or more paragraphs illustrating or proving some general statement by means of facts or specific instances._ Suggested subjects:-- 1. Young persons should not drink coffee. 2. Reasons for the curfew bell. 3. Girls wear their hair in a variety of ways. 4. There are several kinds of boys in this school. 5. Civilization increases as the facilities for transportation increase. 6. Trolley roads are of great benefit to the country. 7. Presence of mind often averts danger. +92. Development of a Composition by Stating Cause and Effect.+--The statement of the causes of an event or condition may be used as a fifth method of development. The principle, however, is not different from that applied to the development of a paragraph by stating cause and effect (Section 49). If several causes contribute to the same effect, each may be given a separate paragraph, or several minor ones may be combined in one paragraph. For the sake of unity we must include each fact, principle, or statement in the paragraph to which it really belongs. The coherent order is usually that which proceeds from causes to effects rather than that which traces events backward from effects to causes. +Theme L.+--_Write a theme of three or more paragraphs, stating causes and effects._ Suggested subjects:-- 1. Why hospitals are necessary. 2. Why cigarette smoking is dangerous. 3. Why girls should take music lessons. 4. The effect of climate upon health. 5. The effect of rainfall upon the productivity and industries of a country. 6. The effect of mountains, lakes, or rivers upon exploration and travel. 7. What connection is there between occupation and height above the sea level, and why? 8. Why our city is located where it is. 9. Why I came late to school. +93. Combination of Methods of Development.+--Frequently the presentation of our thought is made most effective by using some combination of the methods of development discussed in this chapter. Time and place are often interwoven, comparisons and contrasts flash into mind, general statements need specific illustration, or results demand immediate explanation--all in the same theme. Sometimes the order of coherence will be in doubt, for cause and effect demand a different order of statement from that which would be given were we to follow either time-order or position in space. In such cases we must choose whether it is most important to tell first _why_ or _when_ or _where_. The only rule that can be suggested is to do that which will make our meaning most clear, because it is for the sake of the clear presentation of our thought that we seek unity, coherence, and emphasis. +Theme LI.+--_Write a theme of several paragraphs. Use any method of development or any combination of methods._ (Choose your own subject. After the theme is written make a list of all the questions you should ask yourself about it. Correct the theme with reference to each point in your list of questions.) SUMMARY 1. General principles of composition. _a._ Unity. _b._ Coherence. _c._ Emphasis. (1) By position. (2) By proportion of parts. 2. An outline assists in securing unity, coherence, and emphasis. 3. Methods of composition development: A composition may be developed-- _a._ With reference to time-order. _b._ With reference to position in space. _c._ By use of comparison and contrast. _d._ By stating generalization and facts. _e._ By stating cause and effect. _f._ By any suitable combination of the above methods. 4. Transition and summary paragraphs may occur in compositions. VI. LETTER WRITING +94. Importance of Good Letter Writing.+--Letter writing is the form of written language used by most of us more frequently than any other form. The importance of good letter writing is therefore obvious. Business, personal, and social relations necessitate the writing of letters. We are judged by those letters; and in order that we may be considered businesslike, educated, and cultured, it is necessary that we should be able to write good letters, not only as regards the form but also as regards the subject-matter. The writing of good letters is often the means of securing desirable positions and of keeping up pleasant and helpful friendships. Since this form of composition plays so important a part in our lives and the lives of those about us, it is worthy of careful study. The subject-matter is the most important part of the letter, but adherence to usages generally adopted is essential to successful letter writing. Some of these usages may seem trivial in themselves, but a lack of attention to them shows either ignorance or carelessness on the part of the writer, and the consequences resulting from this inattention are often anything but trivial. Applicants for good positions have been rejected either because they did not know the correct usages of letter writing, or because they did not heed them. In no other form of composition are the rules concerning form so rigid; hence the need of knowledge and carefulness concerning them. +95. Paper.+--The nature of the letter determines to some extent our choice of paper. Business letters are usually written on large paper, about ten by eight inches in size, while letters of friendship and notes of various kinds are written on paper of smaller size. White or delicately tinted paper is always in good taste for all kinds of letters. The use of highly tinted paper is occasionally in vogue with some people, but failure to use it is never an offense against the laws of good taste. It is customary now to use unruled paper for all kinds of letters as well as for other forms of compositions. For letters of friendship four-page paper is preferred to that in tablet form. The order in which the pages are used may vary; but whatever the order is, it should not be confusing to the reader. Black ink should always be used. The writing should be neat and legible. Attention should be paid to margin, paragraphs, and indentation. In fact, all the rules of theme writing apply to letter writing, and to these are added several others. +96. The Beginning of a Letter.+--Certain forms for the beginning of letters have been agreed upon, and these forms should be followed. The beginning of a letter usually includes the heading, the address of the person or persons to whom the letter is sent, and the salutation. Notice the following examples:-- (1) ______________________________________________________ | | | 171 Miles Ave., | | Cleveland, Ohio. | | Oct. 21, 1905. | | Marshall Field & Co., | | State St., Chicago, Ill. | | | | Gentlemen: | | | (2) ______________________________________________________ | | | Ottawa, Ill. | | Nov. 9, 1905. | | Dear Harold, | | | (3) ______________________________________________________ | | | 1028 Jackson Boulevard, | | Chicago Ill. | | Nov. 10, 1905. | | Messrs. Johnson & Foote, | | 120 Main St., | | Pittsfield, Mass. | | | | Dear Sirs, | | | (4) ______________________________________________________ | | | 120 P Street, | | Lincoln, Neb. | | Oct. 17, 1905. | | My dear Mrs. Scott, | | | (5) ______________________________________________________ | | | Boston, Mass., Nov. 23, 1905. | | | | Dear Mother, | | | (6) ______________________________________________________ | | | 33 Front St., | | Adrian, Mich. | | Nov. 30, 1905. | | Miss Gertrude Brown, | | 228 Warren Ave., Chicago, Ill. | | | | Dear Madam: | | | (7) ______________________________________________________ | | | New Hartford, Conn. | | Nov. 3, 1905. | | My dear Henry, | | | The heading of a letter includes the address of the writer and the date of the writing. When numerous letters are sent from one place to another, the street and number may after a time be omitted from the heading. Example (5) illustrates this. A son living in Boston has written to his mother frequently and no longer considers it necessary to write the street and number in every letter. If there is any doubt in the writer's mind as to whether his address will be remembered or not, he should include it in the letter. If the writer lives in a small place where the street and number will not be needed in a reply sent to him, it is unnecessary for him to make use of it in his letter. When the street and number are omitted, the heading may be written on one line, as in example (5), but the use of two lines is preferable. Custom has decreed that the proper place for the heading is in the right-hand upper corner of the first page. Sometimes, especially in business letters, we find the writer's address at the close of the letter, but for the sake of convenience it is preferably placed at the beginning. The first line should be about one inch and a half from the top of the page. The second line should begin a little to the right of the first line, and the third line, a little to the right of the second line. Attention should be paid to proper punctuation in each line. In a comparatively few cases we may find that the omission of the date of the letter will make no difference to the recipient, but in most cases it will cause annoyance at least, and in many cases result in serious trouble both to ourselves and to those who receive our letters. We should not allow ourselves to neglect the date even in letters of apparently no great importance. If we allow the careless habit of omitting dates to develop, we may some day omit a date when the omission will affect affairs of great importance. This date should include the day, month, and year. It is better to write out the entire year, as 1905, not '05. In business letters it is customary to write the address of the person or persons addressed at the left side of the page. Either two or three lines may be used. The first line of this address should be one line lower than the last line of the heading. Notice examples (1), (3), and (6). When the address is thus written, the salutation is commonly written one line below it. Sometimes the salutation is commenced at the margin, and sometimes a little to the right of the address. Where there is no address, the salutation is written a line below the date and begins with the margin, as in examples (2), (4), (5), and (7). The form of salutation naturally depends upon the relations existing between the correspondents. The forms _Dear Sir, My dear Sir, Madam, My dear Madam, Dear Sirs, Gentlemen_, are used in formal business letters. The forms _Dear Miss Robinson, My dear Mrs. Hobart, Dear Mr. Fraser, My dear Mr. Scott_, are used in business letters when the correspondents are acquainted with each other. The same forms are also used in letters of friendship when the correspondents are not well enough acquainted with each other to warrant the use of the more familiar forms, _My dear Mary, Dear Edmund, My dear Friend, Dear Cousin, My dear little Niece_. There is no set rule concerning the punctuation of the salutation. The comma, the colon, or the semicolon may be used either alone or in connection with the dash. The comma alone seems to be the least formal of all, and the colon the most so. Hence the former is used more frequently in letters of friendship, and the latter more frequently in business letters. +97. Body of the Letter.+--The body of the letter is the important part; in fact, it is the letter itself, since it contains the subject-matter. It will be discussed under another head later, and is only mentioned here in order to show its place in connection with the beginning of a letter. As a rule, it is best to begin the body of our letters one line below, and either directly underneath or to the right of the salutation. It is not improper, however, especially in business letters, to begin it on the same line with the salutation. A few examples will be sufficient to show the variations of the place for beginning the main part of the letter. (1) ______________________________________________________ | | | 1694 Cedar Ave., | | Cleveland, Ohio. | | June 23, 1905. | | Messrs. Hanna, Scott & Co., | | Aurora, Ill. | | | | Gentlemen:--I inclose a money order for $10.00, | | etc. | | | (2) ______________________________________________________ | | | Everett, Washington. | | Oct. 20, 1905. | | My dear Robert, | | We are very glad that you have decided to make | | us a visit, etc. | | | (3) ______________________________________________________ | | | Greenwich, N.Y. | | Sept. 19, 1905. | | My dear Miss Russ, | | Since I have been Miss Clark's assistant, etc. | | | (4) ______________________________________________________ | | | 2 University Ave., | | Nashville, Tenn. | | April 19, 1905. | | The American Book Company, | | 300 Pike St., | | Cinncinnati, O. | | | | Dear Sirs:--Please send me by express two copies | | of Halleck's English Literature, etc. | | | +98. Conclusion of a Letter.+--The conclusion of a letter includes what is termed the complimentary close and the signature. Certain forms have been agreed upon, which should be closely followed. Our choice of a complimentary close, like that of a salutation, depends upon the relations existing between us and those to whom we are writing. Such forms as _Your loving daughter, With love, Ever your friend, Your affectionate mother_, should be used only when intimate relations exist between correspondents. In letters where existing relations are not so intimate and in some kinds of business letters the forms _Sincerely yours, Yours very sincerely,_ may be used appropriately. The most common forms in business letters are _Yours truly_ and _Very truly yours_. The forms _Respectfully yours,_ or _Yours very respectfully,_ should be used only when there is occasion for some special respect, as in writing to a person of high rank or position. The complimentary close should be written one line below the last line of the main part of the letter, and toward the right-hand side of the page. Its first word should commence with a capital, and a comma should be placed at its close. The signature properly belongs below and a little to the right of the complimentary close. Except in cases of familiar relationship, the name should be signed in full. It is difficult to determine the spelling of unfamiliar proper names if they are carelessly written. It is therefore important in writing to strangers that the signature should be made plainly legible in order that they may know how to address the writer in their reply. A lady should make it plain whether she is to be addressed as _Miss_ or _Mrs._ This can be done either by placing the title _Miss_ or _Mrs._ in parentheses before the name, or by writing the whole address below and to the left of the signature. Boys and men may often avoid confusion by signing their first name instead of using only initials. Notice the following examples of the complimentary close and signature:-- (1) ______________________________________________________ | | | Appleton, Wisconsin. | | Sept. 3, 1905. | | | | My dear Cousin, | | | | | | (Body of letter.) | | | | | | Yours with love, | | Gertrude Edmonds. | | | (2) ______________________________________________________ | | | 192 Lincoln Ave., | | Worcester, Mass. | | Nov. 25, 1905. | | | | L.B. Bliss & Co., | | 109 Summer St., | | Boston, Mass. | | | | | | Dear Sirs; | | | | (Body of letter.) | | | | | | | | Very truly yours, | | Walter A. Cutler. | | | (3) ______________________________________________________ | | | Paxton, Ill. | | July 3, 1905. | | | | American Typewriter Co., | | 263 Broadway, New York. | | | | | | Gentlemen: | | | | | | (Body of letter.) | | | | | | | | Very truly yours, | | (Miss) Jennie R. McAllister. | | | (4) ______________________________________________________ | | | May 5, 1905. | | | | Daniel Low & Co., | | 232 Essex St., Salem, Mass. | | | | | | Dear Sirs; | | | | | | (Body of letter.) | | | | | | | | Mary E. Ball | | | | Mrs. George W. Ball, | | 415 Fourth St., | | La Salle, Ill. | | | (5) ______________________________________________________ | | | Marshalltown, Iowa. | | Oct. 3, 1905. | | | | My dear Miss Meyer, | | | | | | (Body of letter.) | | | | | | Sincerely yours, | | Dorothy Doddridge. | | | EXERCISE Write suitable headings, salutations, complimentary endings, and signatures for the following letters:-- 1. To Spaulding & Co., Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ill., ordering their rules for basket ball. 2. To your older brother. 3. To the school board, asking for a gymnasium. 4. To some business house, making application for a position. 5. To the governor of your state. 6. From one stranger to another. 7. From an older brother to his little sister. 8. From a boy living in New Orleans to the father of his most intimate friend. +99. The Envelope.+--The direction on the envelope, commonly called the superscription, consists of the name and address of the person or persons to whom the letter is sent. This direction should be written in a careful and _courteous manner_, and should include all that is necessary to insure the prompt delivery of the letter to the proper destination. The superscription may be arranged in three or four lines, each line beginning a little to the right of the preceding line. The name should be written about midway between the upper and lower edges of the envelope, and there should be nearly an equal amount of space left at each side. If there is any difference, there should be less space at the right than at the left. The street and number may be written below the name, and the city or town and state below. The street and number may be properly written in the lower left-hand corner. This is also the place for any special direction that may be necessary for the speedy transmission of the letter; for example, "In care of Mr. Charles R. Brown." Women should be addressed as _Miss_ or _Mrs._ In case the woman is married, her husband's first name and middle initial are commonly used, unless it is known that she prefers to have her own first name used. Men should be addressed as _Mr._, and a firm may in many cases be addressed as _Messrs._ It is considered proper to use the titles _Dr._, _Rev._, etc., in directing an envelope to a man bearing such a title, but it would be entirely out of place to address the wife of a physician or clergyman as _Mrs. Dr._ or _Mrs. Rev._ The names of states may be abbreviated, but care should be taken that these abbreviations be plainly written, especially when there are other similar abbreviations. In compound names, as North Dakota and West Virginia, do not abbreviate one part of the compound and write out the other. Either abbreviate both or write out both. If any punctuation besides the period after abbreviations is used, it consists of a comma after each line. It is the custom now to omit such punctuation. Either form is in good taste, but whichever form is adopted, it should be employed throughout the entire superscription. The comma should not be used in one line and omitted in another. Notice the following forms of correct superscriptions:-- (1) ______________________________________________________ | | | | | Mr. Milo R. Maltbie | 85 West 118th St. | New York. |______________________________________________________ (2) ______________________________________________________ | | | | | Mr. John D. Clark | New York | N.Y. | | Teachers College | Columbia University. |______________________________________________________ (3) ______________________________________________________ | | | | | Mrs. Edgar N. Foster | South Haven | Mich. | | Avery Beach Hotel. | ______________________________________________________ (4) ______________________________________________________ | | | | | Miss Louise M. Baker | Nottingham | Ohio. | | Box 129. |______________________________________________________ (5) ______________________________________________________ | | | | | Dr. James M. Postle | De Kalb | Ill. | |______________________________________________________ (6) ______________________________________________________ | | | | | Miss Ida Morrison | Chicago | Ill. | | | 1048 Warren Ave. |______________________________________________________ EXERCISE Write proper superscriptions to letters written to the following:-- 1. Thaddeus Bolton, living at 524 Q Street, Lincoln, Nebraska. 2. The wife of a physician of your acquaintance. 3. James B. Angell, President of the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 4. Your mother, visiting some relative or friend. 5. The publishers Allyn and Bacon, 878 Wabash Avenue, Chicago, Ill. 6. Edward Harrington, living at 1962 Seventh Avenue, New York. 7. To a friend at a seaside resort. 8. To a friend visiting your uncle in Oakland, California. +100. The Great Rule of Letter Writing.+--The great rule of letter writing is, Never write a letter which you would not be willing to see in print over your own signature. That which you _say_ in anger may be discourteous and of little credit to you, but it may in time be forgotten; that which you _write_, however, may be in existence an untold number of years. Thousands of letters are now on exhibition whose authors never had such a use of them in mind. If you ever feel like writing at the end of a letter, "Burn this as soon as you read it," do not send it, but burn the letter yourself. Before you sign your name to any letter read it over and ask yourself, "Is this letter in form and contents one which would do me credit if it should be published?" +101. Business Letters.+--Since the purpose of business letters is to inform, they should, first of all, be characterized by clearness. In asking for information, be sure that you state your questions so that there shall be no doubt in the mind of the recipient concerning the information that you desire. In giving information, be equally sure to state facts so clearly that there can be no possibility of a mistake. Brevity is the soul of business letters as well as of wit. Business men are busy men. They have no time to waste in reading long letters, but wish to gain their information quickly. Hence we should aim to state the desired facts in as concise a manner as possible, and we should give only pertinent facts. Short explanations may sometimes be necessary, but nothing foreign to the subject-matter should ever be introduced. While we should aim to make our letters short, they should not be so brief as to appear abrupt and discourteous. It shows lack of courtesy to omit important words or to make too frequent use of abbreviations. We should answer a business letter as soon as possible. This answer, besides giving the desired information, should include a reference to the letter received and an acknowledgment of inclosures, if there were any. All questions should receive courteous replies. The facts should be arranged in a form that will be convenient for the recipient. As a rule it is best to follow the order which the writer has used in his letter, but in some cases we may be able to state our facts more definitely and concisely if we follow some other order. What has been said in general about attention to forms in letter writing might well be emphasized here, for business men are keen critics concerning letters received. Be careful to use the correct forms already suggested. Also pay attention to punctuation, spelling, and grammar. Write only on one side of the paper and fold the letter correctly. In fact, be businesslike in everything connected with the writing of business letters. A few examples are here given for your notice:-- (1) ______________________________________________________ | | | Ypsilanti, Mich. | | April 4, 1905. | | | | Mr. William Wylie, | | 807 Linn St., Peoria, Ill. | | | | Dear Mr. Wylie; | | Inclosed is a letter from Superintendent Rogers | | of Rockford, Ill. The position of teacher of | | mathematics is vacant. The salary may not be so | | much as you now receive, but in many respects the | | position is a desirable one. I advise you to apply | | for it. | | Sincerely yours, | | Charles M. Gates. | | | (2) ______________________________________________________ | | | 586 State St., | | Chicago, Ill. | | July 20,1905. | | | | Mrs. Charles H. McNett, | | 2345 Franklin St., | | Denver, Colorado. | | | | Dear Madam:--Your card of July 9th is at hand. We | | beg to say that we sent you the books by express, | | prepaid, July 9th, and they have probably reached | | you by this time. If you have not received them, | | please notify us, and we will send a tracer after | | them. | | Very truly yours, | | Brown and Sherman. | | | | | (3) ______________________________________________________ | | | Elgin High School, | | Elgin, Ill. | | Sept. 4, 1905. | | | | | | Miss Ella B. Walker, | | Herkimer, New York. | | | | My dear Miss Walker: | | I am very sorry to have to trouble you, | | but I am desirous of obtaining some information | | concerning the High School Library. Will you kindly | | let me know whether the card catalogue was kept up | | to date prior to your departure and also whether the | | accession book was in use up to that time? | | I shall be greatly indebted to you if you will | | give me this information. | | Very sincerely yours, | | Edward J. Taylor. | | | EXERCISE Write at least three of the following suggested letters, paying attention to the rules for writing business letters:-- 1. Write to a dry goods firm, asking them to send you one of their catalogues. 2. Write to the manager of a football team of some town near yours, proposing a game. 3. Write the reply. 4. In reply to an advertisement, write an application for the position of clerk or bookkeeper. 5. Write to the publishers of some magazine, asking them to change your address from 27 K Street, Toledo, Ohio, to 2011 Prospect Avenue, Beatrice, Nebraska. 6. Suppose yourself doing postgraduate work in your high school. Write to the president of some college, asking him concerning advanced credit. +102. Letters of Friendship.+--While a great deal of information may be obtained from some letters of friendship, the real purpose of such letters is, usually, not to give information, but to entertain. You will notice that the information derived from letters of friendship differs from that found in business letters. Its nature is such that of itself it gives pleasure. Our letters to our relatives, friends, and acquaintances are but visits on paper, and it should be our purpose to make these visits as enjoyable as possible. So much depends upon the circumstances attendant upon the writing of letters of friendship, that it is impossible to make any definite statement as to what they should contain. We may say in general that they should contain matter interesting to the recipient, and that they should be characterized by vividness and naturalness. Interesting material is a requisite, but that of itself is not sufficient to make an entertaining letter. Interesting material may be presented in so unattractive and lifeless a manner that much of its power to please is lost. Let your letters be full of life and spirit. In your descriptions, narrations, and explanations, express yourself so clearly and so vividly that those who read your letters will be able to understand exactly what you mean. EXERCISES 1. Write a letter to a classmate who has moved to another town, telling him of the school of which he was once a member. 2. Write to a friend, describing your visit to the World's Fair at St. Louis. 3. Suppose yourself away from home. Write a letter to your little brother or sister at home. 4. If you have ever been abroad, describe in a letter some place of interest that you have visited. 5. Write to a friend who is fond of camping, about your camping experience. 6. Suppose your mother is away from home on a visit. Write her about the home life. 7. Write to a friend, describing a party that you recently attended. 8. Suppose you have moved from one town to another. In a letter compare the two towns. +103. Adaptation to the Reader.+--The golden rule of letter writing is, Adapt the letter to the reader. Although the letter is an expression of yourself, yet it should be that kind of expression which shall most interest and please your correspondent. In business letters the necessity of brevity and clearness forces attention to the selection and arrangement of details. In letters to members of the family or to intimate friends we must include many very minor things, because we know that our correspondent will be interested in them, but a rambling, disjointed jumble of poorly selected and ill-arranged details becomes tedious. What we should mention is determined by the interests of the readers, and the successful letter writer will endeavor to know what they wish to have mentioned. In writing letters to our friends we ought to show that sympathetic interest in them and their affairs which we should have if we were visiting with them. On occasion, our congratulations should be prompt and sincere. In reading letters we must not be hasty to take offense. Many good friendships have been broken because some statement in a letter was misconstrued. The written words convey a meaning very different from that which would have been given by the spoken word, the tone of voice, the smile, and the personal presence. So in our writing we must avoid all that which even borders on complaint, or which may seem critical or fault-finding to the most sensitive. +104. Notes.+--Notes may be divided in a general way into two classes, formal and informal. Formal notes include formal invitations, replies, requests, and announcements. Informal notes include informal invitations and replies, and also other short communications of a personal nature on almost every possible subject. +105. Formal Notes.+--A formal invitation is always written in the third person. The lines may be of the same length, or they may be so arranged that the lines shall be of different lengths, thus giving the page a somewhat more pleasing appearance. The heading, salutation, complimentary close, and signature are all omitted. The address of the sender may be written below the body of the letter. Many prefer it a little to the left, and the date is sometimes written below it. Others, however, prefer it directly below or a little to the right. Replies to formal invitations should always be written in the third person, and should in general follow the style of the invitation. The date and the hour of the invitation should be repeated in the reply, and this reply should be sent immediately after receiving the invitation. A few examples are here given to show the correct forms of both invitations and replies:-- (1) ______________________________________________________ | | | Mr. and Mrs. Frederick William Thompson | | request the pleasure of your company | | on Monday evening, December thirtieth, | | at half-past eight o'clock. | | | (2) ______________________________________________________ | | | Miss Barrows accepts with pleasure Mr. and | | Mrs. Thompson's invitation for Monday evening, | | December thirtieth, at half-past eight o'clock. | | | (3) ______________________________________________________ | | | Mr. Morris regrets that a previous engagement | | prevents his accepting Mr. and Mrs. Thompson's | | kind invitation for Monday evening, December | | the thirtieth. | | | (4) ______________________________________________________ | | | Mr. and Mrs. Albert W. Elliott request the | | pleasure of Mr. John Barker's company at dinner | | on Wednesday, December sixth, at seven o'clock. | | | | 1068 Euclid Ave. | | | (5) ______________________________________________________ | | | Mr. Barker regrets his inability to accept | | Mr. and Mrs. Albert W. Elliott's invitation to | | dinner at seven o'clock, Wednesday, December | | sixth. | | | EXERCISE 1. Write an invitation to a golden wedding. 2. Mrs. Homer A. Payne invites Miss Eva Milton to dine with her next week Thursday at eight o'clock. Write out a formal invitation. 3. Write regrets to Mrs. Payne's invitation. 4. Write an acceptance of the same invitation. 5. Write a formal invitation to a party to be given in honor of your guest, Miss Grace Mason. +106. Informal Notes.+--Informal invitations and replies may contain the same subject-matter as formal invitations and replies. The only difference is in the form in which they are written. The informal invitation is in form similar to a letter except that the same exactness about the heading is not required. Sometimes the heading is written and sometimes it is omitted entirely. The address of the one sending the invitation and the date may be written below the body of the note to the left of the signature. The reply to an informal invitation should always be informal, but the date and hour should be repeated as in replies to formal invitations. A great many informal notes not included in invitations and replies are constantly written. These are simply brief letters of friendship, and the purposes for which they are written are exceedingly varied. When we write congratulations or words of condolence, when we introduce one friend to another, when we thank some one for a gift, and when we give words of advice, and in many other instances, we make use of informal notes. They should be simple, personal, and as a rule confined to but one subject. Notice the following examples of informal notes:-- (1) _________________________________________________________________ | | | My dear Mrs. Lathrop, | | | | Will you not give us the pleasure of your company | | at dinner, on next Friday evening at seven o'clock? Miss Todd | | of Philadelphia is visiting us, and we wish our friends to meet | | her. | | | | Very sincerely yours, | | Ethel M. Trainor. | | 840 Forest Avenue, | | Dec. 5, 1905. | | | (2) _________________________________________________________________ | | | Dec. 6, 1905. | | | | My dear Mrs. Trainor, | | | | I sincerely regret that I cannot accept your invitation | | to dinner next Friday evening, for I have made a previous | | engagement which it will be impossible for me to break. | | | | Yours most sincerely, | | Emma Lathrop. | | | (3) _________________________________________________________________ | | | My dear Blanche, | | | | Mr. Gilmore and I are planning for a little party | | Thursday evening of this week. I hope you have no other | | engagement for that evening, as we shall be pleased to have | | you with us. | | Very cordially yours, | | Margaret Gilmore. | | | (4) ______________________________________________________________ | | | My dear Margaret, | | | | Fortunately I have no other engagement for this | | week Thursday evening, and I shall be delighted to spend an | | evening with you and your friends. | | | | Very sincerely yours, | | Blanche A. Church. | | | EXERCISE Write the following informal notes:-- 1. Write to a friend, asking him or her to lend you a book. 2. Write an invitation to an informal trolley, tennis, or golf party. 3. Write the reply. 4. Invite one of your friends to spend his or her vacation with you. 5. Write a note to your sister, asking her to send you your theme that you left at home this morning. 6. Mrs. Edgar A. Snow invites Miss Mabel Minard to dine with her. Write out the invitation. 7. Write the acceptance. VII. POETRY [Footnote: _To the Teacher._--Since the expression of ideas in metrical form is seldom the one best suited to the conditions of modern life, it has not seemed desirable to continue the themes throughout this chapter. The study of this chapter, with suitable illustrations from the poems to which the pupils have access, may serve to aid them in their appreciation of poetry. This appreciation of poetry will be increased if the pupils attempt some constructive work. It is recommended, therefore, that one or more of the simpler kinds of metrical composition be tried. For example, one or two good ballads may be read and the pupils asked to write similar ones. Some pupils may be able to write blank verse.] +107. Purpose of Poetry.+--All writing aims to give information or to furnish entertainment (Section 54). Often the same theme may both inform and entertain, though one of these purposes may be more prominent than the other. Prose may merely entertain, or it may so distinctly attempt to set forth ideas clearly that the giving of pleasure is entirely neglected. In poetry the entertainment side is never thus subordinated. Poetry always aims to please by the presentation of that which is beautiful. All real poetry produces an aesthetic effect by appealing to our aesthetic sense; that is, to our love of the beautiful. In making this appeal to our love of the beautiful, poetry depends both upon the ideas it contains and upon the forms it uses. Like prose, it may increase its aesthetic effect by appropriate phrasing, effective arrangement, and subtle suggestiveness, but it also makes use of certain devices of language such as rhythm, rhyme, etc., which, though they may occur in writings that would be classed as prose, are characteristic of poetry. Much depends upon the ideas that poetry contains; for mere nonsense, though in perfect rhyme and rhythm, is not poetry. But it is not the idea alone which makes a poem beautiful; it is the form as well. The merely trivial cannot be made beautiful by giving it poetical form, but there are many poems containing ideas of small importance which please us because of the perfection of form. We enjoy them as we do the singing of the birds or the murmuring of the brooks. In fact, poetry is inseparable from its characteristic forms. To sort out, re-arrange, and paraphrase into second-class prose the ideas which a poem contains is a profitless and harmful exercise, because it emphasizes the intellectual side of a work which was created for the purpose of appealing to our aesthetic sense. +108. Rhythm.+--There are several forms characteristic of poetry, by the use of which its beauty and effectiveness are enhanced. Of these, rhythm is the most prominent one, without which no poetry is possible. In its widest sense, rhythm indicates a regular succession of motions, impulses, sounds, accents, etc., producing an agreeable effect. Rhythm in poetry consists of the recurrence of accented and unaccented syllables in regular succession. In poetry, care must be taken to make the accented syllable of a word come at the place where the rhythm demands an accent. The regular recurrence of accented and unaccented syllables produces a harmony which appeals to our aesthetic sense and thus enhances for us the beauty of poetry. Read the following selections so as to show the rhythm:-- 1. We were crowded in the cabin; Not a soul would dare to speak; It was midnight on the waters And a storm was on the deep. --James T. Fields. 2. Break, break, break, At the foot of thy crags, O sea! But the tender grace of a day that is dead Will never come back to me. --Tennyson. 3. Ah, distinctly I remember, it was in the bleak December, And each separate dying ember wrought its ghost upon the floor --Poe. 4. Sweet and low, sweet and low, Wind of the western sea, Low, low, breathe and blow, Wind of the western sea! Over the rolling waters go, Come from the dying moon and blow, Blow him again to me; While my little one, while my pretty one sleeps. --Tennyson. 5. Stone walls do not a prison make, Nor iron bars a cage; Minds innocent and quiet take That for a hermitage. --Lovelace. 6. Merrily swinging on brier and weed, Near to the nest of his little dame, Over the mountain side or mead, Robert of Lincoln is telling his name: Bob-o'-link, bob-o'-link, Spink, spank, spink, Snug and safe is this nest of ours, Hidden among the summer flowers. Chee, chee, chee. --Bryant. 7. Grow old along with me! The best is yet to be, The last of life, for which the first was made: Our times are in His hand Who saith, "A whole I planned, Youth shows but half; trust God: see all, nor be afraid!" --Browning. +109. Feet.+--The metrical effect of the preceding selections is produced by the regular recurrence of accented and unaccented syllables. A group of accented and unaccented syllables is called a foot. There are four regular feet in English verse, the iambus, the anapest, the trochee, and the dactyl. Three irregular feet, the pyrrhic, the spondee, the amphibrach, are occasionally found in lines, but not in entire poems, and are often considered merely as substitutes for regular feet. For the sake of convenience the accented syllables are indicated thus: _, and the unaccented syllables thus: U. _An iambus_ is a foot consisting of two syllables with the accent on the last. U _| U _| U _| U _| U _| Let not ambition mock their useful toil. --Gray. U _|U _| U _|U _| He prayeth best who loveth best U _| U _| U _| All things both great and small; _ U | U _| U _|U _| For the dear God who loveth us, U _| U _|U _| He made and loveth all. --Coleridge. _An anapest_ is a foot consisting of three syllables with the accent on the last. U U _| U U _|U U _| I am monarch of all I survey. U U _ | U U _ | U U _ | I would hide with the beasts of the chase. _A trochee_ is a foot consisting of two syllables with the accent on the first. _ U | _ U | _ U | _ U| Double, double, toil and trouble. --Shakespeare. _ U | _ U |_ U |_ U | Let us then be up and doing, _ U| _ U | _U | _ | With a heart for any fate, _ U |_ U | _ U|_ U | Still achieving, still pursuing, _ U | _ U |_ U | _ | Learn to labor and to wait. --Longfellow. _A dactyl_ is a foot consisting of three syllables with the accent on the first. _ U U | _ U U | Cannon to right of them, _ U U | _ U U | Cannon to left of them, _ U U | _ U U | Cannon in front of them, _ U U |_ U | Volleyed and thundered. --Tennyson. It will be convenient to remember that two of these, the iambus and the anapest, have the accent on the last syllable, and that two, the trochee and the dactyl, have the accent on the first syllable. _A spondee_ is a foot consisting of two syllables, both of which are accented about equally. It is an unusual foot in English poetry. U _ | _ _ | U _| U _ | Come now, blow, Wind, and waft us o'er. _A pyrrhic_ is a foot consisting of two syllables both of which are unaccented. It is frequently found at the end of a line. U _ | U _ | U _|U U Life is so full of misery. _An amphibrach_ is a foot consisting of three syllables, with the accent on the second. U _ U U _ U| U _ U| U _ | Creator, Preserver, Redeemer and friend. +110. Names of Verse.+--A single line of poetry is called a verse. A stanza is composed of several verses. When a verse consists of one foot, it is called a monometer; of two feet, a dimeter; of three feet, a trimeter; of four feet, a tetrameter; of five feet, a pentameter; and of six feet, a hexameter. _ U Monometer. Slowly. _ U U| _ U U | Dimeter. Emblem of happiness. _ U| _U| _ U | Trimeter. Like a poet hidden. _ U| _ U| _ U | _ U | Tetrameter. Tell me not in mournful numbers. U _ |U _ |U _| U _ | U _ | Pentameter. O, what a goodly outside falsehood hath. _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U Hexameter. This is the forest primeval; the murmuring pines and U | _ U | the hemlocks. When we say that a verse is of any particular kind, we do not mean that every foot in that line is necessarily of the same kind. Verse is named by stating first the prevailing foot which composes it, and second the number of feet in a line. A verse having four iambic feet is called iambic tetrameter. So we have dactylic hexameter, trochaic pentameter, iambic trimeter, anapestic dimeter, etc. EXERCISES _A._ Mark the accented and unaccented syllables in the following selections, and name the kind of verse:-- 1. Build me straight, O worthy Master! Stanch and strong, a goodly vessel That shall laugh at all disaster And with wave and whirlwind wrestle. --Longfellow. 2. I know not where His islands lift Their fronded palms in air, I only know I cannot drift Beyond His love and care. --Whittier. 3. For tho' from out our bourne of Time and Place The flood may bear me far, I hope to see my Pilot face to face When I have crossed the bar. --Tennyson. 4. Chanting of labor and craft, and of Wealth in the pot and the garner; Chanting of valor and fame, and the man who can, fall with the foremost, Fighting for children and wife, and the field which his father bequeathed him, Sweetly and solemnly sang she, and planned new lessons for mortals. --Kingsley. 5. Have you read in the Talmud of old, In the Legends the Rabbins have told, Of the limitless realms of the air, Have you read it,--the marvelous story Of Sandalphon, the Angel of Glory, Of Sandalphon, the Angel of Prayer? --Longfellow. _B._ 1. Find three poems written in iambic verse, and three written in trochaic verse. 2. Write at least one stanza, using iambic verse. 3. Write at least one stanza, using the same kind of verse that you find in Tennyson's "Charge of the Light Brigade." 4. Write two anapestic lines. +111. Variation in Rhythm.+--The name given to a verse is determined by the foot which prevails, but not every foot in the line needs to be of the same kind. Just as in music we may substitute a quarter for two eighth notes, so may we in poetry substitute one foot for another, provided it is given the same amount of time. Notice in the following that the rhythm is perfect and the beat regular, although a three-syllable anapest has been substituted in the second line for a two-syllable iambus:-- U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ | Beneath those rugged elms, that yew tree's shade, U _ | U _ | U _| U U _ | U _ | Where heaves the turf in many a moldring heap, _ U | U _ | U _ | U _ |U _ | Each in his narrow cell for ever laid, U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ | The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. The following from _Evangeline_ illustrates the substitution of trochees for dactyls:-- _ U U | _ U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U | Waste are those pleasant farms, and the farmers forever departed. _ U U | _ U | _ U U | _ U | _ U U|_ U Scattered like dust and leaves, when the mighty blasts of October _ U U | _ U U |_ U | _ U U | _ U U |_ U | Seize them and whirl them aloft, and sprinkle them far o'er the ocean. _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U Naught but tradition remains of the beautiful village of Grand-Pre. It is evident that one foot can be substituted for another if the accent is not changed. Since both the iambus and the anapest are accented on the last syllable, they may be interchanged. The trochee and the dactyl are both accented on the first syllable and may, therefore, be interchanged. There are some exceptions to the general rule that in substituting one foot for another the accented syllable must be kept in the same part of the foot. Occasionally a poem in which the prevailing foot is iambic has a trochee for the first foot of a line in order that it may begin with an accented syllable. At the beginning of a line the change of accent is scarcely noticeable. _ U | U _ | U _ |U _ | Over the rail my hand I trail. _ U | U _ | U _ | U _ | Silent the crumbling bridge we cross! But if the reader has once fallen into the swing of iambic verse, the substitution of a trochee will bring the accent at an unexpected place, interrupt the smooth flow of the rhythm, and produce a harsh and jarring effect. Such a change of accent is justified only when the sense of the verse leads the reader to expect the changed accent, or when the emphasis thus given to the sense of the poem more than compensates for the break in the rhythm produced by the change of accent. Another form of metrical variation is that in which there are too few or too many syllables in a foot. This generally occurs at the end of a line, but may occur at the beginning. If a syllable is added or omitted skillfully, the rhythm will be unbroken. When the feet are accented on the last syllable,--that is, when the verse is iambic or anapestic,--an extra syllable may be added at the end of a line. U _ |U U _ |U _ | U I stood on the bridge at midnight, U U _ | U _ |U U _ | As the clocks were striking the hour; U U _ | U _ | U _|U And the Moon rose o'er the city, U _ | U _ | U _ | Behind the dark church tower. --Longfellow. U _ | U _ |U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ | Girt round with rugged moun[tains], the fair Lake Constance lies, U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ |U _ | In her blue heart reflect[ed] shine back the starry skies; U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ |U _ | U _ | And watching each white cloud[let] float silently and slow, U _ | U _ | U _ | U _| U _ | U _| You think a piece of heav[en] lies on our earth below. --Adelaide A. Procter. In the second illustration the extra syllables have the same relative position in the metrical scheme as in the first, though they appear to be in the middle of the line. The pauses fill in the time and preserve the rhythm unbroken. When the feet are accented on the first syllable--as in trochaic or dactylic verse--a syllable may be omitted from the end of a line as in the second and fourth below. _ U U | _ U U | _ U U| _ U | Up with the lark in the first flush of morning, _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ | Ere the world wakes to its work or its play; _ U U| _ U U | _ U U | _ U | Off for a spin to the wide-stretching country, _ U U | _ U U | _ U U|_ | Far from the close, stifling city away. Sometimes we find it necessary to suppress a syllable in order to make the rhythm more nearly perfect. Syllables may be suppressed in two ways: by suppressing a vowel at the end of a word when the next word commences with a vowel; by suppressing a vowel within a word. The former method is termed elision, and the latter, slurring. U _ | U _ |U _ | U _ | U _ | Thou glorious mirror where the Almighty's form U U _ U |U _| U _ | U Glasses itself in tempests. --Byron. An accented syllable often takes the place of an entire foot. This occurs most frequently at the end of a line, but it is sometimes found at the beginning. Occasionally whole lines are formed in this way. If a pause or rest is made, the rhythm will be unbroken. u _ | u _ | u _ | Break, break, break, U U _ | U _ | U _ | On thy cold gray stones, O sea! U U _ | U U _ | U _|U And I would that my tongue could utter U _ | U U _ |U _| The thoughts that arise in me. --Tennyson. We frequently find verses in which a syllable is lacking at the close of the line; we also find many verses in which an extra syllable is added. Verse that contains the number of syllables required by its meter is said to be acatalectic; if it contains more than the required number of syllables, it is said to be hypercatalectic; and if it lacks a syllable, it is termed catalectic. It is difficult to tell whether a line has the required number of syllables or not when it is taken by itself; but by comparing it with the line prevailing in the rest of the stanza we are enabled to tell whether it is complete or not. Shakespeare's _Julius Caesar_ is written in iambic pentameter verse. Knowing this, we can detect the hypercatalectic and catalectic lines. U _| U _ | U _| U _| U _ | You all did see that on the Lupercal U _ | U _| U _ |U _| U _| I thrice presented him a kingly crown U _| U _ |U _ | U _ | U _| U Which he did thrice refuse. Was this ambition? U _| U _ | U _ | U _ | U Yet Brutus says he was ambitious. --Shakespeare. +112. Cesura.+--Besides the pauses caused by rests or silences there is the cesural pause which needs to be considered in reading verse. A cesura is a pause determined by the sense. It coincides with some break in the sense. It is found in different parts of the verse and may be entirely lacking. Its observance does not noticeably interfere with the rhythm. In the following selection it is marked thus: ||. U _ | U _ | U _| U _ | The sun came up || upon the left, _ U| U _ | U _ | Out of the sea || came he; U _| U _ | U _| U _| And he shone bright, || and on the right U _ | U_ | U _ | Went down || into the sea --Coleridge. Lives of great men || all remind us We can make our lives || sublime, And, departing, || leave behind us, Footprints || on the sands of time. --Longfellow. Read the selections on page 197 so as to indicate the position of the cesural pauses. +113. Scansion.+--Scansion is the separation of a line into the feet which compose it. In order to scan a line we must determine the rhythmic movement of it. The rhythmic movement determines the accented syllables. Sometimes in scanning, merely the accented syllables are marked. Usually the whole metrical scheme is indicated, as in the examples on page 199. EXERCISE Scan the following selections. Note substitutions and elusions. 1. The night has a thousand eyes, And the day but one; Yet the light of the bright world dies With the dying sun. The mind has a thousand eyes, And the heart but one; Yet the light of a whole life dies When love is gone. --Francis W. Bourdillon. 2. Laugh, and the world laughs with you, Weep, and you weep alone; For the sad old earth must borrow its mirth, But has trouble enough of its own. --Ella Wheeler Wilcox. 3. Hear the robin in the rain, Not a note does he complain. But he fills the storm refrain With music of his own. --Charles Coke Woode. 4. The mistletoe hung in the castle hall, The holly branch shone on the old back wall And the baron's retainers are blithe and gay, And keeping their Christmas holiday. --Thomas Haynes Bagley. +114. Rhyme.+--Rhyme is a regular recurrence of similar sounds. In a broad sense, it may include sounds either terminal or not, but as here used it refers to terminal sounds. Just as we expect a recurrence of accent in a line, so may we expect a recurrence of similar sounds at the end of certain lines of poetry. The interval between the rhymes may be of different lengths in different poems, but when the interval is once established, it should be followed throughout the poem. A rhyme out of place jars upon the rhythmic perfection of a stanza just as an accent out of place interferes with the rhythm of the verse. Not only should the rhymes occur at expected places, but they should be the expected rhymes; that is, real rhymes. If we are expecting a word which will rhyme with _blossom_ and find _bosom_, or if we are expecting a rhyme for _breath_ and find _beneath_, the effect is unpleasant. The rhymes named above are based on spelling, while a real rhyme is based on sound. A correct rhyme should have precisely the same vowel sounds and the final consonants should be the same, but the initial consonant should be different. For example: _death, breath; home, roam; tongue, young; debating, relating_. Notice the arrangement of the rhymes in the following selections:-- 1. My soul to-day is far away, Sailing the Vesuvian Bay; My winged boat, a bird afloat, Swims round the purple peaks remote. --T. Buchanan Read. 2. I come from haunts of coot and hern, I make a sudden sally, And sparkle out among the fern, To bicker down the valley. By thirty hills I hurry down, Or slip between the ridges, By twenty thorps, a little town, And half a hundred bridges. --Tennyson. 3. I know it is a sin For me to sit and grin At him here; But the old three-cornered hat And the breeches, and all that, Are so queer! --Holmes. 4. The splendor falls on castle walls And snowy summits old in story; The long light shakes across the lakes And the wild cataract leaps in glory. Blow, bugle, blow, set the wild echoes flying; Blow, bugle; answer, echoes, dying, dying, dying. --Tennyson. 5. Breathes there a man with soul so dead Who never to himself hath said, This is my own, my native land! Whose heart hath ne'er within him burned As home his footsteps he hath turned From wandering in a foreign strand! If such there be, go mark him well: For him no minstrel raptures swell; High though his titles, proud his name, Boundless his wealth as wish can claim: Despite those titles, power, and pelf, The wretch concentered all in self, Living, shall forfeit fair renown And, doubly dying, shall go down To the vile dust from whence he sprung, Unwept, unhonored, and unsung. --Scott. +115. Blank Verse.+--When rhyme is omitted, we have blank verse. This is the most dignified of all kinds of verse, and is, therefore, appropriate for epic and dramatic poetry, where it is chiefly found. Most blank verse makes use of the iambic pentameter measure, but we find many exceptions. Read the following examples of blank verse so as to show the rhythm:-- 1. So live, that when thy summons comes to join The innumerable caravan that moves To the pale realms of shade, where each shall take His chamber in the silent halls of death, Thou go not like the quarry slave at night Scourged to his dungeon, but, sustained and soothed By an unfaltering trust, approach the grave Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams. --Bryant. 2. I stood upon the steps-- The last who left the door--and there I found The lady and her friend. The elder turned And with a cordial greeting took my hand, And rallied me on my forgetfulness. Her eyes, her smile, her manner, and her voice. Touched the quick springs of memory, and I spoke Her name. She was my mother's early friend Whose face I had not seen in all the years That had flown over us, since, from her door, I chased her lamb to where I found--myself. --Holland. +116. The Stanza.+--Some of our verse is continuous like Milton's _Paradise Lost_ or Shakespeare's plays, but much of it is divided into groups called stanzas. The lines or verses composing a stanza are bound together by definite principles of rhythm and rhyme. Usually stanzas of the same poem have the same structure, but stanzas of different poems show a variety of structure. Two of the most simple forms are the couplet and the triplet. They often form a part of a continuous poem, but they are occasionally found in divided poems. 1. The western waves of ebbing day Roll'd o'er the glen their level way. --Scott. 2. A chieftain's daughter seemed the maid; Her satin snood, her silken plaid, Her golden brooch such birth betray'd. --Scott. A stanza of four lines is called a quatrain. The lines of quatrains show a variety in the arrangement of their rhymes. The first two lines may rhyme with each other and the last two with each other; the first and fourth may rhyme and the second and third; or the rhymes may alternate. Notice the example on page 208, and also the following:-- 1. I ask not wealth, but power to take And use the things I have aright. Not years, but wisdom that shall make My life a profit and delight. --Phoebe Cary. 2. I count this thing to be grandly true: That a noble deed is a step toward God,-- Lifting the soul from the common sod To a purer air and a broader view. --Holland. A quatrain consisting of iambic pentameter verse with alternate rhymes is called an elegiac stanza. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight, And all the air a solemn stillness holds, Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight, And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds. --Gray. The Tennysonian stanza consists of four iambic tetrameter lines in which the first line rhymes with the fourth, and the second with the third. Let knowledge grow from more to more, But more of reverence in us dwell; That mind and soul, according well, May make one music as before. --Tennyson. Five and six line stanzas are found in a great variety. The following are examples:-- 1. We look before and after, And pine for what is not; Our sincerest laughter With some pain is fraught; Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought. --Shelley. 2. And if I should live to be The last leaf upon the tree In the spring. Let them smile as I do now, At the old forsaken bough Where I cling. --Holmes. 3. The upper air burst into life; And a hundred fire flags sheen, To and fro they were hurried about; And to and fro, and in and out, The wan stars danced between. --Coleridge. The Spenserian stanza consists of nine lines: the first eight are iambic pentameters, and the last line is an iambic hexameter or Alexandrine. Burns makes use of this stanza in _The Cotter's Saturday Night._ The following stanza from that poem shows the plan of the rhymes:-- O Scotia! my dear, my native soil! For whom my warmest wish to Heaven is sent! Long may thy hardy sons of rustic toil Be blest with health, and peace, and sweet content! And oh! may Heaven their simple lives prevent From luxury's contagion, weak and vile! Then, howe'er crowns and coronets be rent, A virtuous populace may rise the while, And stand a wall of fire around their much beloved isle. EXERCISES _A._ Scan the following:-- Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting: The soul that rises with us, our life's star, Hath had elsewhere its setting, And cometh from afar: Not in entire forgetfulness, And not in utter nakedness, But trailing clouds of glory do we come From God, who is our home. --Wordsworth. Into the sunshine, Full of light, Leaping and flashing From morn to night! --Lowell. _B._ Name each verse in the following stanza:-- Hear the sledges with the bells-- Silver bells! What a world of merriment their melody foretells! How they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle, In the icy air of night! While the stars that oversprinkle All the heavens seem to twinkle With a crystalline delight-- Keeping time, time, time, In a sort of Runic rhyme To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells From the bells, bells, bells, bells, Bells, bells, bells-- From the jingling and the tinkling of the bells. --Poe. +117. Kinds of Poetry.+-There are three general classes of poetry: narrative, lyric, and dramatic. _A. Narrative poetry_, as may be inferred from its name, relates events which may be either real or imaginary. Its chief varieties are the epic, the metrical romance or lesser epic, the tale, and the ballad. _An epic_ poem is an extended narrative of an elevated character that deals with heroic exploits which are frequently under supernatural control. This kind of poetry is characterized by the intricacy of plot, by the delineation of noble types of character, by its descriptive effects, by its elevated language, and by its seriousness of tone. The epic is considered as the highest effort of man's poetic genius. It is so difficult to produce an epic that but few literatures contain more than one. Homer's _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, Virgil's _Aeneid_, the German _Nibelungenlied_, the Spanish _Cid_, Dante's _Divine Comedy_, and Milton's _Paradise Lost_ are important epics found in different literatures. A _metrical romance_ or lesser epic is a narrative poem, shorter and less dignified than the epic. Longfellow's _Evangeline_ and Scott's _Marmion_ and _Lady of the Lake_ are examples of this kind of poetry. _A metrical tale is_ a narrative poem somewhat simpler and shorter than the metrical romance, but more complex than the ballad. Longfellow's _Tales of a Wayside Inn_, Tennyson's _Enoch Arden_, and Lowell's _Vision of Sir Launfal_ are examples of the tale. _A ballad_ is the shortest and most simple of all narrative poems. It relates but a single incident and has a very simple structure. In this kind of poetry the interest centers upon the incident rather than upon any beauty or elegance of language. Many of the Robin Hood Ballads are well known. Macaulay's _Lays of Ancient Rome_ and Longfellow's _Wreck of the Hesperus_ are other examples of the ballad. It may be well to note here that it is not always possible to draw definite lines between two different kinds of narrative poetry. In fact, there will sometimes be a difference of opinion as regards the classification. _B. Lyric poetry_ was the name originally applied to poetry that was to be sung to the accompaniment of the lyre, but now the name is often applied to poems that are not intended to be sung at all. Lyric poetry deals primarily with the feelings and emotions. Love, hate, jealousy, grief, hope, and praise are emotions that may be expressed in lyric poetry. Its chief varieties are the song, the ode, the elegy, and the sonnet. A _song_ is a short poem intended to be sung. Songs may be divided into sacred and secular. _Jerusalem, the Golden_, and _Lead, Kindly Light_, are examples of sacred songs. Secular songs may be patriotic, convivial, or sentimental. An _ode_ expresses exalted emotion and is more complex in structure than the song. Some of the best odes in our language are Dryden's _Ode to St. Cecilia_, Wordsworth's _Ode on Intimations of Immortality_, Keats's _Ode on a Grecian Urn_, Shelley's _Ode to a Skylark_, and Lowell's _Commemoration Ode_. An _elegy_ is a lyric pervaded by the feeling of grief or melancholy. Milton's _Lycidas_, Tennyson's _In Memoriam_, and Gray's _Elegy in a Country Churchyard_ are all noted elegies. A _sonnet_ is a lyric poem of fourteen lines which deals with a single idea or sentiment. It is not a stanza taken from a poem, but is a complete poem itself. In the Italian sonnet and those modeled after it, the emotional feeling rises through the first two quatrains, reaching its climax at or near the end of the eighth line, and then subsides through the two tercets which make up the remaining six lines. If the sentiment expressed does not adjust itself to this ebb and flow, it is not suitable for a sonnet. Milton's sonnet on his blindness is one of the best. Notice the emotional transition in the middle of the eighth line. This sonnet will also illustrate the fixed rhyme scheme:-- When I consider how my light is spent Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide, And that one talent, which is death to hide, Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent To serve therewith my Maker, and present My true account, lest he, returning, chide; Doth God exact day labor, light denied? I fondly ask. But Patience, to prevent That murmur, soon replies, God doth not need, Either man's work or his own gifts. Who best Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best. His state Is kingly; thousands at his bidding speed, And post o'er land and ocean without rest; They also serve who only stand and wait. There is a form of sonnet called the Shakespearean which differs in its arrangement from the Italian sonnet. _C. Dramatic poetry_ relates the occurrence of human events, and is designed to be spoken on the stage. If the drama has an unhappy ending, it is _a tragedy_. As is becoming in such a theme, the language is dignified and impressive, and the whole appeals to our deeper emotions. If the drama has a happy conclusion, it is _a comedy_. Here the movement is quicker, the language less dignified, and the effort is to make the whole light and amusing. PART II Description, Narration, Exposition, and Argument have been treated in an elementary way in Part I. A more extensive treatment of each is given in Part II. It has been deemed undesirable to repeat in Part II many things which have been previously treated. The treatment of any one of the forms of discourse as given in Part II is not complete. By reference to the index all the sections treating of any phase of any one subject may be found. [Illustration: See page 224, _C._] VIII. DESCRIPTION +118. Description Defined.+--By means of our senses we gain a knowledge of the world. We see, hear, taste, smell, and feel; and the ideas so acquired are the fundamental elements of our knowledge, without which thinking would be impossible. It, therefore, happens that much of the language that we use has for its purpose the transmission to others of such ideas. Such writing is called description. We may, therefore, define description as that form of discourse which has for its purpose the formation of an image. As here used, the term _image_ applies to any idea presented by the senses. In a more limited sense it means the mental picture which is formed by aid of sight. It is for the purpose of presenting images of this kind that description is most often employed. It is most frequently concerned with images of objects seen, less frequently with sounds, and seldom with ideas arising through touch, taste, and smell. In this chapter, therefore, we shall consider chiefly the methods of using language for the purpose of arousing images of objects seen. +119. Order of Observation.+--In description we shall find it of advantage to use such language that the reader will form the image in the same way as he would form an image from actual observation. There is a customary and natural order of observation, and if we present our material in that same order, the mind more easily forms the desired image. Our first need in the study of description is to determine what this natural order of observation is. Look at the building across the street. Your _first_ impression is that of size, shape, and color. Almost instantly, but nevertheless _secondly_, you add certain details as to roof, door, windows, and surroundings. Further observation adds to the number of details, such as the size of the window panes or the pattern of the lattice work. Our first glance may assure us that we see a train, our second will tell us how many cars, our third will show us that each car is marked Michigan Central. The oftener we look or the longer we look, the greater is the number of details of which we become conscious. Any number of illustrations will show that we first see the general outline, and after that the details. We do not observe the details one by one and then combine them into an object, but we first see the object as a whole, and our first impression becomes more vivid as we add detail after detail. Following this natural order of observation a description should begin with a sentence that will give the reader a general impression of the whole. Notice the beginnings of the following selections. After reading the italicized sentence in each, consider the image that it has caused you to form. The door opened upon the main or living room. _It was a long apartment with low ceiling and walls of hewn logs chinked and plastered and all beautifully whitewashed and clean._ The tables, chairs, and benches were all homemade. On the floor were magnificent skins of wolf, bear, musk ox, and mountain goat. The walls were decorated with heads and horns of deer and mountain sheep, eagle's wings, and a beautiful breast of a loon, which Gwen had shot and of which she was very proud. At one end of the room a huge stone fireplace stood radiant in its summer decorations of ferns and grasses and wildflowers. At the other end a door opened into another room, smaller, and richly furnished with relics of former grandeur. --Connor: _The Sky Pilot_. _The stranger was of middle height, loosely knit and thin, with a cunning, brutal face._ He had a bullet-shaped head, with fine, soft, reddish brown hair; a round, stubbly beard shot with gray; and small, beady eyes set close together. He was clothed in an old, black, grotesquely fitting cutaway coat, with coarse trousers tucked into his boot tops. A worn visored cloth cap was on his head. In his right hand he carried an old muzzle-loading shotgun. --George Kibbe Turner: _Across the State_ ("McClure's"). +120. The Fundamental Image.+--The first impression of the object as a whole is called the fundamental image. The beginning of a description should cause the reader to form a correct general outline, which will include the main characteristics of the object described. While the fundamental image lacks definiteness and exactness, yet it must be such that it shall not need to be revised as we add the details. If one should begin a description by saying, "Opposite the church there is a large two-story, brick house with a conservatory on the left," the reader would form at once a mental picture including the essential features of the house. Further statements about the roof, the windows, the doors, the porch, the yard, and the fence, would each add something to the picture until it was complete. The impression with which the reader started would be added to, but not otherwise changed. But if we should conclude the description with the statement, "This house was distinguished from its neighbors by the fact that it was not of the usual rectangular form, but was octagonal in shape," the reader would find that the image which he had formed would need to be entirely changed. It is evident that if the word _octagonal_ is to appear at all, it must be at the beginning. Care must be taken to place all the words that affect the fundamental image in the sentence that gives the general characteristics of that which we are describing. Hawthorne begins _The House of the Seven Gables_ as follows:-- Halfway down a by-street of one of our New England towns stands a rusty wooden house, with seven acutely peaked gables, facing towards various points of the compass, and a huge, clustered chimney in the midst. The street is Pyncheon street; the house is the old Pyncheon house; and an elm tree, of wide circumference, rooted before the door, is familiar to every town-born child by the title of the Pyncheon elm. On my occasional visits to the town aforesaid, I seldom failed to turn down Pyncheon street, for the sake of passing through the shadow of these two antiquities,--the great elm tree and the weather-beaten edifice. Later he gives a detailed description of the house on the morning of its completion as follows:-- Maule's lane, or Pyncheon street, as it were now more decorous to call it, was thronged, at the appointed hour, as with a congregation on its way to church. All, as they approached, looked upward at the imposing edifice, which was henceforth to assume its rank among the habitations of mankind. There it rose, a little withdrawn from the line of the street, but in pride, not modesty. Its whole visible exterior was ornamented with quaint figures, conceived in the grotesqueness of a Gothic fancy, and drawn or stamped in the glittering plaster, composed of lime, pebbles, and bits of glass, with which the woodwork of the walls was overspread. On every side the seven gables pointed sharply towards the sky, and presented the aspect of a whole sisterhood of edifices, breathing through the spiracles of one great chimney. The many lattices, with their small, diamond-shaped panes, admitted the sunlight into hall and chamber, while, nevertheless, the second story, projecting far over the base, and itself retiring beneath the third, threw a shadowy and thoughtful gloom into the lower rooms. Carved globes of wood were affixed under the jutting stories. Little spiral rods of iron beautified each of the seven peaks. On the triangular portion of the gable, that fronted next the street, was a dial, put up that very morning, and on which the sun was still marking the passage of the first bright hour in a history that was not destined to be all so bright. All around were scattered shavings, chips, shingles, and broken halves of bricks; these, together with the lately turned earth, on which the grass had not begun to grow, contributed to the impression of strangeness and novelty proper to a house that had yet its place to make among men's daily interests. EXERCISES _A._ Select the sentence or part of a sentence which gives the fundamental image in each of the following selections:-- 1. It was a big, smooth-stone-faced house, product of the 'Seventies, frowning under an outrageously insistent Mansard, capped by a cupola, and staring out of long windows overtopped with "ornamental" slabs. Two cast-iron deer, painted death-gray, twins of the same mold, stood on opposite sides of the front walk, their backs toward it and each other, their bodies in profile to the street, their necks bent, however, so that they gazed upon the passer-by--yet gazed without emotion. Two large, calm dogs guarded the top of the steps leading to the front door; they also were twins and of the same interesting metal, though honored beyond the deer by coats of black paint and shellac. --Booth Tarkington: _The Conquest of Canaan_ ("Harper's"). 2. At the first glance, Phoebe saw an elderly personage, in an old-fashioned dressing gown of faded damask, and wearing his gray or almost white hair of an unusual length. It quite overshadowed his forehead, except when he thrust it back, and stared vaguely about the room. After a very brief inspection of his face, it was easy to conceive that his footstep must necessarily be such an one as that which, slowly, and with as indefinite an aim as a child's first journey across a floor, had just brought him hitherward. Yet there were no tokens that his physical strength might not have sufficed for a free and determined gait. It was the spirit of a man that could not walk. The expression of his countenance--while, notwithstanding, it had the light of reason in it-- seemed to waver, and glimmer, and nearly to die away, and feebly to recover itself again. It was like a flame which we see twinkling among half-extinguished embers; we gaze at it more intently than if it were a positive blaze, gushing vividly upward--more intently, but with a certain impatience, as if it ought either to kindle itself into satisfactory splendor, or be at once extinguished. --Hawthorne: _The House of the Seven Gables_. 3. One of the best known of the flycatchers all over the country is the kingbird. He is a little smaller than a robin, and all in brownish black, with white breast. He has also white tips to his tail feathers, which look very fine when he spreads it out wide in flying. Among the head feathers of the kingbird is a small spot of orange color. This is called in the books a "concealed patch," because it is seldom seen, it is so hidden by the dark feathers. --Mary Rogers Miller: _The Brook Book_. (Copyright, 1902, by Doubleday, Page and Co.) Notice the use of a comparison in establishing a correct fundamental image in example 3. _B._ Select five buildings with which the members of the class are familiar. Write a single sentence for each, giving the fundamental image. Read these sentences to the class. Let them determine for which building each is written. _C._ Notice the pictures on page 218. Write a single sentence for each, giving the fundamental image. +Theme LII.+--_Write a paragraph, describing something with which you are familiar._ Suggested subjects:-- 1. The county court house. 2. The new church. 3. My neighbor's house. 4. Where we go fishing. 5. A neighboring lake. 6. A cozy nook. (Underscore the sentence that gives the fundamental image. Will the reader get from it at once a correct general outline of the object to be described? Will he need to change the fundamental image as your description proceeds?) +121. Point of View.+--What we shall see first depends upon the point of view. Seen from one position, an object or a landscape will present a different appearance from that which it will present when viewed from another position. A careful writer will give that fundamental image that would come from actual observation if the reader were looking at the scene described from the point of view chosen by the writer. He will not include details that cannot be seen from that position even though he knows that they exist. Notice that the following descriptions include only that which can be seen from the place indicated in the italicized phrases:-- _Forward from the bridge_ he beheld a landscape of wide valleys and irregular heights, with groves and lakes and fanciful houses linked together by white paths and shining streams. The valleys were spread below, that the river might be poured upon them for refreshment in day of drought, and they were as green carpets figured with beds and fields of flowers and flecked with flocks of sheep white as balls of snow; and the voices of shepherds following the flocks were heard afar. As if to tell him of the pious inscription of all he beheld, the altars out under the open sky seemed countless, each with a white-gowned figure attending it, while processions in white went slowly hither and thither between them; and the smoke of the altars half risen hung collected in pale clouds over the devoted places. Wallace: _Ben-Hur_. (Copyright, 1880. Harper and Bros.) The house stood unusually near the river, facing eastward, and standing four-square, with an immense veranda about its sides, and a flight of steps in front, spreading broadly downward, as we open our arms to a child. _From the veranda_ nine miles of river were seen; and in their compass near at hand, the shady garden full of rare and beautiful flowers; farther away broad fields of cane and rice, and the distant quarters of the slaves, and on the horizon everywhere a dark belt of cypress forest. --Cable: _Old Creole Days_. +122. Selection of Details Affected by Point of View.+--A skillful writer will not ask his reader to perform impossible feats. We cannot see the leaves upon a tree a mile away, and so should not describe them. The finer effects and more minute details should be included only when our chosen point of view brings us near enough to appreciate them. In the selection below, Stevenson tells only as much about Swanston cottage as can be seen at a distance of six miles. So saying she carried me around the battlements _towards the opposite or southern side of the fortress and indeed to a bastion_ almost immediately overlooking the place of our projected flight. Thence we had a view of some foreshortened suburbs at our feet, and beyond of a green, open, and irregular country rising towards the Pentland Hills. The face of one of these summits (say two leagues from where we stood) is marked with a procession of white scars. And to this she directed my attention. "You see those marks?" she said. "We call them the Seven Sisters. Follow a little lower with your eye, and you will see a fold of the hill, the tops of some trees, and a tail of smoke out of the midst of them. That is Swanston cottage, where my brother and I are living." --Stevenson: _St. Ives_. (Copyright, 1897. Charles Scribner's Sons.) Notice in the selection below that for objects _near at hand_ details so small as the lizard's eye are given, but that these details are not given, when we are asked to observe things far away. Slow though their march had been, by this time _they had come to the end of the avenue, and were in the wide circular sweep before the castle._ They stopped here and stood looking off over the garden, with its somber cypresses and bright beds of geranium, down upon the valley, dim and luminous in a mist of gold. Great, heavy, fantastic-shaped clouds, pearl-white with pearl-gray shadows, piled themselves up against the scintillant dark blue of the sky. In and out among the rose trees _near at hand_, where the sun was hottest, heavily flew, with a loud bourdonnement, the cockchafers promised by Annunziata,--big, blundering, clumsy, the scorn of their light-winged and businesslike competitors, the bees. Lizards lay immobile as lizards cast in bronze, only their little glittering, watchful pin heads of eyes giving sign of life. And of course the blackcaps never for a moment left off singing. --Henry Habland: _My Friend Prospero_ ("McClure's"). _We round a corner of the valley, and beyond, far below us, looms the town of Sorata. From this distance_ the red tile roofs, the soft blue, green, and yellow of its stuccoed walls, look indescribably fresh and grateful. A closer inspection will probably dissipate this impression; it will be squalid and dirty, the river-stone paving of its street will be deep in the accumulation of filth, dirty Indian children will swarm in them with mangy dogs and bedraggled ducks, the gay frescoes of its walls will peel in ragged patches, revealing the 'dobe of their base, and the tile roofs will be cracked and broken. But from the heights at this distance and in the warm glow of the afternoon sun it looks like a dainty fairy village glistening in a magic splendor against the Titanic setting of the Andes. --Charles Johnson Post: _Across the Highlands of the World_ ("Harper's"). Come on, sir; here's the place. Stand still. How fearful And dizzy 'tis to cast one's eyes so low! The crows and choughs that wing the midway air Show scarce so gross as beetles. Halfway down Hangs one that gathers sampire, dreadful trade! Methinks he seems no bigger than his head. The fishermen that walk upon the beach Appear like mice; and yond tall anchoring bark Diminish'd to her cock; her cock, a buoy Almost too small for sight. The murmuring surge That on the unnumber'd idle pebble chafes, Cannot be heard so high. I'll look no more, Lest my brain turn and the deficient sight Topple down headlong. --Shakespear: _King Lear_ +123. Implied Point of View.+--Often the point of view is not specifically stated, but the language of the description shows where the observer is located. Often such an implied point of view gives a delicate touch to a description that could not be obtained by direct statements. In which of the following selections is the point of view merely implied? 1. Thus pondering and dreaming, he came by the road down a gentle hill with close woods on either hand; and so into the valley with a swift river flowing through it; and on the river a mill. So white it stood among the trees, and so merrily whirred the wheel as the water turned it, and so bright blossomed the flowers in the garden, that Martimor had joy of the sight, for it reminded him of his own country. --Henry Van Dyke: _The Blue Flower_. (Copyright, 1902. Charles Scribner's Sons.) 2. There is an island off a certain part of the coast of Maine,--a little rocky island, heaped and tumbled together as if Dame Nature had shaken down a heap of stones at random from her apron, when she had finished making the larger islands, which lie between it and the mainland. At one end, the shoreward end, there is a tiny cove, and a bit of silver sand beach, with a green meadow beyond it, and a single great pine; but all the rest is rocks, rocks. At the farther end the rocks are piled high, like a castle wall, making a brave barrier against the Atlantic waves; and on top of this cairn rises the lighthouse, rugged and sturdy as the rocks themselves; but painted white, and with its windows shining like great, smooth diamonds. This is Light Island. --Laura E. Richards: _Captain January_. +124. Changing Point of View.+--We cannot see the four sides of a house from the same place, though we may wish to have our reader know how each side looks. It is, therefore, necessary to change our point of view. It is immaterial whether the successive points of view are named or merely implied, providing the reader has due notice that we have changed from one to the other, and that for each we describe only what can be seen from that position. A description of a cottage that by its wording leads us to think ourselves inside of the building and then tells about the yard would be defective. Notice the changing point of view in the following:-- At long distance, looking over the blue waters of the Gulf of St. Lawrence in clear weather, you might think that you saw a lonely sea gull, snow-white, perching motionless on a cobble of gray rock. Then, as your boat drifted in, following the languid tide and the soft southern breeze, you would perceive that the cobble of rock was a rugged hill with a few bushes and stunted trees growing in the crevices, and that the gleaming speck near the summit must be some kind of a building,--if you were on the coast of Italy or Spain you would say a villa or a farmhouse. Then as you floated still farther north and drew nearer to the coast, the desolate hill would detach itself from the mainland and become a little mountain isle, with a flock of smaller islets clustering around it as a brood of wild ducks keep close to their mother, and with deep water, nearly two miles wide, flowing between it and the shore; while the shining speck on the seaward side stood clearly as a low, whitewashed dwelling with a sturdy, round tower at one end, crowned with a big eight-sided lantern--a solitary lighthouse. --Henry Van Dyke: _The Keeper of the Light_. (Copyright, 1905. Charles Scribner's Sons.) +125. Place of Point of View in Paragraph.+--The point of view may be expressed or only implied or wholly omitted, but in any case the reader must assume one in order to form a clear and accurate image. Beginners will find that they can best cause their readers to form the desired images by stating a point of view. When the point of view is stated it must of necessity come early in the paragraph. We have already learned that the beginning of a description should present the fundamental image. For this reason the first sentence of a description frequently includes both the point of view and the fundamental image. EXERCISES _A._ Consider the following selections with reference to-- (_a_) The point of view. (_b_) The fundamental image. (_c_) The completeness of the images which you have formed (see Sections 26, 27). 1. The Lunardi [balloon], mounting through a stagnant calm in a line almost vertical, had pierced the morning mists, and now swam emancipated in a heaven of exquisite blue. Below us by some trick of eyesight, the country had grown concave, its horizon curving up like the rim of a shallow bowl--a bowl heaped, in point of fact, with sea fog, but to our eyes with a froth delicate and dazzling as a whipped syllabub of snow. Upon it the traveling shadow of the balloon became no shadow, but a stain; an amethyst (you might call it) purged of all grosser properties than color and lucency. At times thrilled by no perceptible wind, rather by the pulse of the sun's rays, the froth shook and parted; and then behold, deep in the crevasses vignetted and shining, an acre or two of the earth of man's business and fret--tilled slopes of the Lothians, ships dotted on the Firth, the capital like a hive that some child had smoked--the ear of fancy could almost hear it buzzing. --Stevenson: _St. Ives_. (Copyright, 1897. Charles Scribner's Sons.) 2. When Aswald and Corinne had gained the top of the Capitol, she showed him the Seven Hills and the city, bound first by Mount Palatinus, then by the walls of Servius Tullius, which inclose the hills, and by those of Aurelian, which still surround the greatest part of Rome. Mount Palatinus once contained all Rome, but soon did the imperial palace fill the space that had sufficed for a nation. The Seven Hills are far less lofty now than when they deserted the title of steep mountains, modern Rome being forty feet higher than its predecessor, and the valleys which separated them almost filled up by ruins; but what is still more strange, two heaps of shattered vases have formed new hills, Cestario and Testacio. Thus, in time, the very refuse of civilization levels the rock with the plain, effacing in the moral, as in the material world, all the pleasing inequalities of nature. --Madame De Staël: _Corinne: Italy_. _B._--Select five descriptions from the following books and note whether each has a point of view expressed or implied:-- Cooper: Last of the Mohicans. Scott: Ivanhoe. Scott: Lady of the Lake. Irving: Sketch Book. Burroughs: Wake Robin. Van Dyke: The Blue Flower. Howells: The Rise of Silas Lapham. Muir: Our National Parks. Kate Douglas Wiggin: Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm. +Theme LIII.+--_Write a descriptive paragraph beginning with a point of view and a fundamental image._ Suggested subjects:-- 1. The crossroads inn. 2. A historical building. 3. The shoe factory. 4. The gristmill. 5. The largest store in town. 6. The union station. (In your description underscore the sentence giving the point of view. Can you improve the description by using a different point of view? Will the reader form at once a correct general outline? Will the entire description enable the reader to form a clear and accurate image?) +126. Clear Seeing.+-Clear statement depends upon clear seeing. Not only must we choose an advantageous point of view, but we must be able to reproduce what can be seen from that location. We may write a description while we are looking at the object, but it is frequently convenient to do the writing when the object is not visible. Oral descriptions are nearly always made without having the object at hand. When we attempt to describe we examine not the object itself, but our mental image of it. It is evident that at least the essential features of this mental picture must stand out clearly and definitely, or we shall be unable to make our description accurate. The habit of accurate observation is a desirable acquisition, and our ability in this direction can be improved by effort. It is not the province of this book to provide a series of exercises which shall strengthen habits of accurate observation. Many of your studies, particularly the sciences, devote much attention to training the observing powers, and will furnish many suitable exercises. A few have been suggested below merely to emphasize the point that every successful effort in description must be preceded by a definite exercise in clear seeing. EXERCISE 1. Walk rapidly past a building. Form a mental picture of it. Write down as many of the details as you can. Now look at the building again and determine what you have left out. 2. Call to mind some building with which you are familiar. Write a list of the details that you recall. Now visit the building and see what important ones you have omitted. 3. While looking at some scene make a note of the important details. Lay this list away for a day. Then recall the scene. After picturing the scene as vividly as you can, read your notes. Do they add anything to your picture? 4. Make a list of the things on some desk that you cannot see but with which you are familiar; for example, the teacher's desk. At the first opportunity notice how accurate your list is. 5. Look for some time at the stained glass windows of a church or at the wall paper of the room. What patterns do you notice that you did not see at first? What colors? 6. Make a list of the objects visible from your bedroom window. When you go home notice what you have omitted. 7. Practice observation contests similar to the following: Let two or more persons pass a store window. Each shall then make a list of what the window contains. Compare lists with one another. +Theme LIV.+--_Write a description of some dwelling._ (Select a house that you can see on the way home. Choose a point of view and notice carefully what can be seen from it. When you are ready to write, form as vivid a mental picture of the house as you can. Write the sentence that gives the fundamental image. Add such of the details as will enable the reader to form an accurate image.) +127. Selection of Essential Details.+--After deciding upon a point of view and such general characteristics as are essential to the forming of a correct outline of the object to be described, we must next give our attention to the selection of the details. If our description has been properly begun, this general outline will not be changed, but each succeeding phrase or sentence will add to the clearness and distinctness of the picture. Our first impression of a house may include windows, but the mention of them later will bring them out clearly on our mental picture much as the details appear when one is developing a negative in photography. If the peculiarities of an object are such as to effect its general form, they need to be stated in the opening sentence; but when the peculiar or distinguishing characteristic does not affect the form, it may be introduced later. If we say, "On the corner across the street from the post office there is a large, two-story, red brick store," the reader can form at once a general picture of such a store. Only those things which give a general outline have been included. As yet nothing has been mentioned to distinguish the store from any other similar one. If some following sentence should be, "Though not wider, it yet presents a more imposing appearance than its neighbors, because the door is placed at one side, thus making room for a single wide display window instead of two stuffy, narrow ones," a detail has been added which, though not changing the general outline, makes the picture clearer and at the same time emphasizes the distinguishing feature of this particular store. EXERCISES 1. Observe your neighbor's barn. What would you select as its characteristic feature? 2. Take a rapid glance at some stranger whom you meet. What did you notice most vividly? 3. In what respect does the Methodist church in your city differ from the other church buildings? 4. Does your pet dog differ from others of the same breed in appearance? In actions? +Theme LV.+--_Write a descriptive paragraph, using one of the following subjects:_-- 1. A mountain view. 2. An omnibus. 3. A fort. 4. A lighthouse. 5. A Dutch windmill. 6. A bend in the river. 7. A peculiar structure. 8. The picture on this page. (Underscore the sentence that pictures the details most essential to the description. Consider the unity of your paragraph. Section 81.) [Illustration] +128. Selection and Subordination of Minor Details.+--In many descriptions the minor details are wholly omitted, and in all descriptions many that might have been included have been omitted. A proper number of such details adds interest and clearness to the images; too many but serve to render the whole obscure. If properly selected and effectively presented, minor details add much to the beauty or usefulness of a description, but if strung together in short sentences, the effect may be both tiresome and confusing. A mere catalogue of facts is not a good description. They must be arranged so that those which are the more important shall have the greater prominence, while those of less importance shall be properly subordinated. Often minor details may be stated in a word or phrase inserted in the sentence which gives the general view. Notice the italicized portion of the following: "Opposite the church, _and partly screened by the scraggly evergreens of a broad, unkempt lawn_, there is a large, octagonal, brick house, with a conservatory on the left." This arrangement adds to the general view and gives a better result than would be obtained by describing the lawn in a separate sentence. Often a single adjective adds some element to a description more effectively than can be done with a whole sentence. Notice how much is added by the use of _scraggly_ and _unkempt_. EXERCISES Make a careful study of the following selections with reference to the way in which the minor details are presented. Can any of them be improved by re-arranging them? 1. At night, as I look from my windows over Kassim Pasha, I never tire of that dull, soft coloring, green and brown, in which the brown of roofs and walls is hardly more than a shading of the green of the trees. There is the lonely curve of the hollow, with its small, square, flat houses of wood; and above, a sharp line of blue-black cypresses on the spine of the hill; then the long desert plain, with its sandy road, shutting in the horizon. Mists thicken over the valley, and wipe out its colors before the lights begin to glimmer out of it. Below, under my windows, are the cypresses of the Little Field of the Dead, vast, motionless, different every night. Last night each stood clear, tall, apart; to-night they huddle together in the mist, and seem to shudder. The sunset was brief, and the water has grown dull, like slate. Stamboul fades to a level mass of smoky purple, out of which a few minarets rise black against a gray sky with bands of orange fire. Last night, after a golden sunset, a fog of rusty iron came down, and hung poised over the jagged level of the hill. The whole mass of Stamboul was like black smoke; the water dim gray, a little flushed, and then like pure light, lucid, transparent, every ship and every boat sharply outlined in black on its surface; the boats seemed to crawl like flies on a lighted pane. --Arthur Symons: _Constantinople: An Impression_ ("Harper's"). 2. The boy was advancing up the road, carrying a half-filled pail of milk. He was a child of perhaps ten years, exceedingly frail and thin, with a drawn, waxen face, and sick, colorless lips and ears. On his head he wore a thick plush cap, and coarse, heavy shoes upon his feet. A faded coat, too long in the arms, drooped from his shoulders, and long, loose overalls of gray jeans broke and wrinkled about his slender ankles. --George Kibbe Turner: _Across the State_ ("McClure's"). 3. They met few people abroad, even on passing from the retired neighborhood of the House of the Seven Gables into what was ordinarily the more thronged and busier portion of the town. Glistening sidewalks, with little pools of rain, here and there, along their unequal surface; umbrellas displayed ostentatiously in the shop windows, as if the life of trade had concentered itself in that one article; wet leaves of the horse-chestnut or elm trees, torn off untimely by the blast, and scattered along the public way; an unsightly accumulation of mud in the middle of the street, which perversely grew the more unclean for its long and laborious washing;--these were the more definable points of a very somber picture. In the way of movement, and human life, there was the hasty rattle of a cab or coach, its driver protected by a water-proof cap over his head and shoulders; the forlorn figure of an old man, who seemed to have crept out of some subterranean sewer, and was stooping along the kennel, and poking the wet rubbish with a stick, in quest of rusty nails; a merchant or two, at the door of the post office, together with an editor, and a miscellaneous politician, awaiting a dilatory mail; a few visages of retired sea captains at the window of an insurance office, looking out vacantly at the vacant street, blaspheming at the weather, and fretting at the dearth as well of public news as local gossip. What a treasure trove to these venerable quidnuncs, could they have guessed the secret which Hepzibah and Clifford were carrying along with them! --Hawthorne: _The House of the Seven Gables_. +Theme LVI.+--_Write a description of one of the following:_-- 1. A steamboat. 2. An orchard. 3. A colonial mansion. 4. A wharf. 5. A stone quarry. 6. A shop. (Consider what you have written with reference to the point of view, fundamental image, and essential details. After these have been arranged to suit you, notice the way in which the minor details have been introduced. Have you given undue prominence to any? Can a single adjective or phrase be substituted for a whole sentence? Think of the image which your words will produce in the mind of the reader. Consider your theme with reference to unity. Section 81.) +129. Arrangement of Details.+--The quality of a description depends as much upon the arrangement of the material as upon the selection. Under paragraph development we have discussed the necessity of arranging the details with reference to their natural position in space (see Sections 47 and 86). Such an arrangement is the most desirable one and should be departed from only with good reason. Such departures may, however, be made, as shown in the following selection:-- A pretty picture the lad made as he lay there dreaming over his earthly possessions--a pretty picture in the shade of the great elm, that sultry morning of August, three quarters of a century ago. The presence of the crutch showed there was something sad about it; and so there was; for if you had glanced at the little bare brown foot, set toes upward on the curbstone, you would have discovered that the fellow to it was missing-- cut off about two inches above the ankle. And if this had caused you to throw a look of sympathy at his face, something yet sadder must long have held your attention. Set jauntily on the back of his head was a weather-beaten dark blue cloth cap, the patent leather frontlet of which was gone; and beneath the ragged edge of this there fell down over his forehead and temples and ears a tangled mass of soft yellow hair, slightly curling. His eyes were large and of a blue to match the depths of a calm sky above the treetops: the long lashes which curtained them were brown; his lips were red, his nose delicate and fine, and his cheek tanned to the color of ripe peaches. It was a singularly winning face, intelligent, frank, not describable. On it now rested a smile, half joyous, half sad, as though his mind was full of bright hopes, the realization of which was far away. From the neck fell the wide collar of a white cotton shirt, clean but frayed at the elbows, and open and buttonless down to his bosom. Over this he wore an old-fashioned satin waistcoat of a man, also frayed and buttonless. His dress was completed by a pair of baggy tow breeches, held up by a single tow suspender fastened to big brown horn buttons. --James Lane Allen: _Flute and Violin_. (Copyright, 1892, Harper and Brothers.) The details are not stated with reference to their natural position in space, but they are given in the probable order of observation. If we were to look upon such a boy, the crutch would attract our attention and would lead us to look at once for the reason why a crutch was needed. The writer skillfully uses the sympathy thus aroused as a means of transition to the face. In the remainder of the description the natural position in space is closely followed. +Theme LVII.+-_Write a description of one of the following:_-- 1. The bayou. 2. Looking down the mountain. 3. Looking up the mountain. 4. The floorwalker. 5. An old-fashioned rig. 6. A house said to be haunted. 7. The deacon. (Consider the arrangement of details with reference to their position in space. Consider your paragraphs with reference to coherence and emphasis. Sections 82 and 83.) +130. Effectiveness in Description.+--Every part of a description should aid in rendering it effective, and this effectiveness is as much the purpose of the principles previously discussed as it is of those which follow. This paragraph is inserted here to separate more or less definitely those things which can be done under direction from those which cannot be determined by rule. Up to this point emphasis has been laid upon the clear presentation of a mental image as the object of description. But the clear presentation of mental images is not all there is to description. A point of view, a fundamental image, a judicious selection of essential and minor details and the relating of them with reference to their natural position in space, may set forth an image clearly and yet fail to be satisfactory as a description. For the practical affairs of life it may be sufficient to limit ourselves to clear images set forth barely and sparely, but there is a pleasure and a profit in using the subtler arts of language, in placing a word here or a phrase there that shall give a touch of beauty or a flash of suggestiveness and so save our descriptions from the commonplace. It is to these less easily demonstrated methods of giving strength and beauty that we wish now to turn our attention. +131. Word Selection.+--The effectiveness of our description will depend largely upon our right choice of words. If our range of vocabulary is limited, the possibility of effective description is correspondingly limited. Only when our working vocabulary contains many words may we hope to choose with ease the one most suitable for the effective expression of the idea we wish to convey. To prepare a list of words that may apply and then attempt to write a theme that shall make use of them is a mechanical process of little value. The idea we wish to express should call up the word that exactly expresses it. If our ideas are not clear or our vocabulary is limited, we may be satisfied with the trite and commonplace; but if our experience has been broad or our reading extended, we may have at command the word which, because it is just the right one, gives individuality and force to our phrasing. Every one is familiar with dogs, and has in his vocabulary many words which he applies to them, but a reading of one or two good dog stories, such as _Bob, Son of Battle_, or _The Call of the Wild_, will show how wide is the range of such words and how much the description is enhanced by their careful use. EXERCISE Consider the following selections with reference to the choice of words which add to the effectiveness of the descriptions:-- 1. She was a little, brown, thin, almost skinny woman with big, rolling, violet-blue eyes and the sweetest manners in the world. 2. The sounds and the straits and the sea with its plump, sleepy islands lay north and east and south. 3. The mists of the Cuchullins are not fat, dull, and still, like lowland and inland mists, but haggard, and streaming from the black peaks, and full of gusty lines. We saw them first from the top of Beimna-Caillach, a red, round-headed mountain hard by Bradford, in the isle of Skye. Shortly after noon the rain came up from the sea and drew long delicate gray lines against the cliffs. It came up licking and lisping over the surface of Cornisk, and drove us to the lee of rocks and the shelter of our ponchos, to watch the mists drifting, to listen to the swell and lull of the wind and the patter of the cold rain. There were glimpses now and then of the inner Cuchullins, a fragment of ragged sky line, the sudden jab of a black pinnacle through the mist, the open mouth of a gorge steaming with mist. We climbed the great ridge, at length, of rock and wet heath that separates Cornisk from Glen Sligachan, slowly through the fitful rain and driving cloud, and saw Sgurr-nan-Gillian, sharp, black, and pitiless, the northernmost peak and sentinel of the Cuchullins. The yellow trail could be seen twisting along the flat, empty glen. Seven miles away was a white spot, the Sligachan Hotel. I think it must be the dreariest glen in Scotland. The trail twists in a futile manner, and, after all, is mainly bog holes and rolling rocks. The Red Hills are on the right, rusty, reddish, of the color of dried blood, and gashed with sliding bowlders. Their heads seem beaten down, a Helot population, and the Cuchullins stand back like an army of iron conquerors. The Red Hills will be a vanished race one day, and the Cuchullins remain. Arthur Colton: _The Mists o' Skye_ ("Harper's"). +132. Additional Aids to Effectiveness.+--Comparison and figures of speech not only aid in making our picture clear and vivid, but they may add a spice and flavor to our language, which counts for much in the effectiveness and beauty of our description. Notice the following descriptions:-- He was a mongoose, rather like a little cat in his fur and his tail, but quite like a weasel in his head and his habits. His eyes and the end of his restless nose were pink; he could scratch himself anywhere he pleased, with any leg, front or back, that he chose to use; he could fluff up his tail till it looked like a bottle brush, and his war cry as he scuttled through the long grass was Rikk-tikk-tikki-tikki-tikk. --Kipling: _Jungle Book_. Ichabod was a suitable figure for such a steed. He rode with short stirrups, which brought his knees nearly up to the pommel of his saddle; his sharp elbows stuck out like grasshoppers' legs; he carried his whip perpendicularly in his hand, like a scepter, and, as his horse jogged on, the motion of his arms was not unlike the flapping of a pair of wings. A small wool hat rested on the top of his nose, for so his scanty strip of forehead might be called; and the skirts of his black coat fluttered out almost to the horse's tail. Such was the appearance of Ichabod and his steed, as they shambled out of the gate of Hans Van Ripper, and it was altogether such an apparition as is seldom to be met with in broad daylight. --Irving: _Legend of Sleepy Hollow_. +Theme LVIII.+--_Write a description of one of the following:_-- 1. My cat. 2. The pony at the farm. 3. The glen. 4. The prairie. 5. The milldam. 6. The motorman. 7. The picture on this page. [Illustration] (Consider the effectiveness of your description. Can you improve your choice of words? Have you used comparisons or figures, and if so, do they improve your description? Consider your theme with reference to euphony. Section 16.) +133. Classes of Objects Frequently Described.+--There is no limit to the things that we may wish to describe, but there are certain general classes of objects that are described more frequently than others. We have greater occasion to describe men or places than we have to describe pictures or trees. A person may be an accurate observer having a large vocabulary applicable to one class of objects, and thus be able to describe objects of that class clearly and effectively; though at the same time, on account of limited experience and small vocabulary, he cannot well describe objects belonging to some other class. The ability to observe accurately the classes of objects named below, and to appreciate descriptions of such objects when made by others, is a desirable acquisition. Every effort should be made to master as many as possible of the words applicable to each class of objects. A slight investigation will show how great is the number of such words with which we are unfamiliar. 1. _Descriptions of buildings or portions of buildings._ In most buildings the basement story is heaviest, and each succeeding story increases in lightness; in the Ducal palace this is reversed, making it unique amongst buildings. The outer walls rest upon the pillars of open colonnades, which have a more stumpy appearance than was intended, owing to the raising of the pavement in the piazza. They had, however, no base, but were supported by a continuous stylobate. The chief decorations of the palace were employed upon the capitals of these thirty-six pillars, and it was felt that the peculiar prominence and importance given to its angles rendered it necessary that they should be enriched and softened by sculpture, which is interesting and often most beautiful. The throned figure of Venice above bears a scroll inscribed: _Fortis, justa, trono furias, mare sub pede, pono_. (Strong and just, I put the furies beneath my throne, and the sea beneath my foot.) One of the corners of the palace joined the irregular buildings connected with St. Mark's, and is not generally seen. There remained, therefore, only three angles to be decorated. The first main sculpture may be called the "Fig-tree angle," and its subject is the "Fall of Man." The second is "the Vine angle," and represents the "Drunkenness of Noah." The third sculpture is "the Judgment angle," and portrays the "Judgment of Solomon." --Hare: _Venice_. +Theme LIX.+--_Write a description of the exterior of some building._ +Theme LX.+--_Write a description of some room._ +Theme LXI.+--_Write a description of some portion of a building, such as an entrance, spire, window, or stairway._ (Consider each description with reference to-- _a._ Point of view. _b._ Fundamental image. _c._ Selection of essential details. _d._ Selection and subordination of minor details. _e._ Arrangement of details with reference to their natural positions in space. _f._ Effective choice of words and comparisons.) 2. _Natural features: valleys, rivers, mountains, etc._ Beyond the great prairies and in the shadow of the Rockies lie the Foothills. For nine hundred miles the prairies spread themselves out in vast level reaches, and then begin to climb over softly rounded mounds that ever grow higher and sharper, till here and there, they break into jagged points and at last rest upon the great bases of the mighty mountains. These rounded hills that join the prairies to the mountains form the Foothill Country. They extend for about a hundred miles only, but no other hundred miles of the great West are so full of interest and romance. The natural features of the country combine the beauties of prairie and of mountain scenery. There are valleys so wide that the farther side melts into the horizon, and uplands so vast as to suggest the unbroken prairie. Nearer the mountains the valleys dip deep and ever deeper till they narrow into canyons through which mountain torrents pour their blue-gray waters from glaciers that lie glistening between the white peaks far away. --Connor: _The Sky Pilot_. Long lines of cliff breaking have left a chasm; And in the chasm are foam and yellow sands; Beyond, red roofs about a narrow wharf In cluster; then a molder'd church; and higher A long street climbs to one tall tower'd mill; And high in heaven behind it a gray down With Danish barrows, and a hazelwood, By autumn nutters haunted, flourishes Green in a cuplike hollow of the down. --Tennyson: _Enoch Arden_. +Theme LXII.+--_Write a description of some valley, mountain, field, woods, or prairie._ +Theme LXIII.+--_Write a description of some stream, pond, lake, dam, or waterfall._ (Consider especially your choice of words.) 3. _Sounds or the use of sounds._ And the noise of Niagara? Alarming things have been said about it, but they are not true. It is a great and mighty noise, but it is not, as Hennepin thought, an "outrageous noise." It is not a roar. It does not drown the voice or stun the ear. Even at the actual foot of the falls it is not oppressive. It is much less rough than the sound of heavy surf-- steadier, more homogeneous, less metallic, very deep and strong, yet mellow and soft; soft, I mean, in its quality. As to the noise of the rapids, there is none more musical. It is neither rumbling nor sharp. It is clear, plangent, silvery. It is so like the voice of a steep brook-- much magnified, but not made coarser or more harsh--that, after we have known it, each liquid call from a forest hillside will seem, like the odor of grapevines, a greeting from Niagara. It is an inspiriting, an exhilarating sound, like freshness, coolness, vitality itself made audible. And yet it is a lulling sound. When we have looked out upon the American rapids for many days, it is hard to remember contented life amid motionless surroundings; and so, when we have slept beside them for many nights, it is hard to think of happy sleep in an empty silence. --Mrs. Van Rensselaer: _Niagara_ ("Century"). Yell'd on the view the opening pack; Rock, glen, and cavern, paid them back; To many a mingled sound at once The awaken'd mountain gave response. A hundred dogs bay'd deep and strong, Clatter'd a hundred steeds along, Their peal the merry horns rung out, A hundred voices join'd the shout; With hark, and whoop, and wild halloo, No rest Benvoirlich's echoes knew. Far from the tumult fled the roe, Close in her covert cower'd the doe; The falcon, from her cairn on high, Cast on the rout a wondering eye, Till far beyond her piercing ken The hurricane had swept the glen. Faint, and more faint, its failing din Return'd from cavern, cliff, and linn, And silence settled, wide and still, On the lone wood and mighty hill. --SCOTT: _Lady of the Lake_. +Theme LXIV.+--_Describe some sound or combination of sounds, or write a description introducing sounds._ Suggested subjects:-- 1. Alone in the house. 2. In the woods at night. 3. Beside the brook. 4. In the factory. 5. A day at the beach. 6. Before the Fourth. 7. On the seashore. (Notice especially the words that indicate sound.) 4. _Color or the use of color._ A gray day! soft gray sky, like the breast of a dove; sheeny gray sea with gleams of steel running across; trailing skirts of mist shutting off the mainland, leaving Light Island alone with the ocean; the white tower gleaming spectral among the folding mists; the dark pine tree pointing a somber finger to heaven; the wet, black rocks, from which the tide had gone down, huddling together in fantastic groups as if to hide their nakedness. --Laura E. Richards: _Captain January_. The large branch of the Po we crossed came down from the mountains which we were approaching. As we reached the post road again they were glowing in the last rays of the sun, and the evening vapors that settled over the plain concealed the distant Alps, although the snowy top of the Jungfrau and her companions the Wetterhorn and Schreckhorn rose above it like the hills of another world. A castle or church of brilliant white marble glittered on the summit of one of the mountains near us, and, as the sun went down without a cloud, the distant summits changed in hue to a glowing purple, mounting almost to crimson, which afterwards darkened into a deep violet. The western half of the sky was of a pale orange and the eastern a dark red, which blended together in the blue of the zenith, that deepened as twilight came on. --Taylor: _Views Afoot_. +Theme LXV.+--_Write a description in which the color element enters largely._ 5. _Animals, birds, fishes, etc._ The Tailless Tyke had now grown into an immense dog, heavy of muscle and huge of bone. A great bull head; undershot jaw, square and lengthy and terrible; vicious yellow gleaming eyes; cropped ears; and an expression incomparably savage. His coat was a tawny lionlike yellow, short, harsh, dense; and his back running up from shoulder to loins ended abruptly in a knoblike tail. He looked like the devil of a dog's hell, and his reputation was as bad as his looks. He never attacked unprovoked; but a challenge was never ignored and he was greedy of insults. --Alfred Ollivant: _Bob, Son of Battle_. (Copyright, Doubleday and McClure.) Read the description of the kingbird (page 224), and of the mongoose (page 242). +Theme LXVI.+--_Write a description of some animal, bird, or fish._ (What questions should you ask yourself about each description you write?) 6. _Trees and plants._ How shall kinnikinnick be told to them who know it not? To a New Englander it might be said that a whortleberry bush changed its mind one day and decided to be a vine, with leaves as glossy as laurel, bells pink-striped and sweet like the arbutus, and berries in clusters and of scarlet instead of black. The Indians call it kinnikinnick, and smoke it in their pipes. White men call it bearberry, I believe; and there is a Latin name for it, no doubt, in the books. But kinnikinnick is the best,--dainty, sturdy, indefatigable kinnikinnick, green and glossy all the year round, lovely at Christmas and lovely among flowers at midsummer, as content and thrifty on bare, rocky hillsides as in grassy nooks, growing in long, trailing wreaths, five feet long, or in tangled mats, five feet across, as the rock or the valley may need, and living bravely many weeks without water, to make a house beautiful. I doubt if there be in the world a vine I should hold so precious, indoors and out. --Helen Hunt Jackson: _Bits of Travel at Home_. A mango tree is beautiful and attractive. It grows as large as the oak, and has a rich and glossy foliage. The fruit is shaped something like a short, thick cucumber, and is as large as a large pear. It has a thick, tough skin, and a delicious, juicy pulp. When ripe it is a golden color. A tree often bears a hundred bushels of mangoes. --Marian M. George. +Theme LXVII.+--_Write a description of some tree that you have seen._ (Consider your theme with reference to the general principles of composition treated in Chapter V.) +134. Description of Persons: Character Sketches.+--The general principles of description are applicable to the description of a person, and should be followed for the purpose of presenting a clear and vivid image. Our interest, however, so naturally runs beyond the appearance and is concerned with the character, that most descriptions of persons become character sketches. Even the commonest terms of description, such as _keen gray eyes, square chin, rugged countenance_, are interpreted as showing character, and depart to some degree from pure description. Often the sole purpose of description is to show character, and only those details are introduced which accomplish this purpose. In life we judge a man's character by his actions, and so in the character sketch we are led to infer his character from what he does. The character indicated by his appearance is corroborated by a statement of his actions and especially by showing how he acts. (See Section 10.) Sometimes no descriptive matter is given, but we are left to make our own picture to fit the character indicated by the actions. In many books the descriptive elements which would enable us to form an image of some person are distributed over several pages, each being introduced where it supplements and emphasizes the character shown by the actions. Notice the following examples:-- The Rev. Daniel True stood beside the holy table. For such a scene, perhaps for any scene, he was a memorable figure. He had the dignity of early middle life, but none of its signs of advancing age. His hair was quite black, and curled on his temples boyishly; his mustache, not without a worldly cut, was as dark as his hair, and concealed a mouth so clean and fine that it was an ethical mistake to cover it. He had sturdy shoulders, although not quite straight; they had the scholar's stoop; his hands were thin, with long fingers; his gestures were sparing and significant; his expression was so sincere that its evident devoutness commanded respect; so did his voice, which was authoritative enough to be a little priestly and lacking somewhat in elocutionary finish as the voices of ministers are apt to be, but genuine, musical, persuasive, at moments vibrant with oratorical power. He had a warm eye and a lovable smile. He was every inch a minister, but he was every nerve a man. --Elizabeth Stuart Phelps: _A Sacrament_ ("Harper's"). She was not more than fifteen. Her form, voice, and manner belonged to the period of transition from girlhood. Her face was perfectly oval, her complexion more pale than fair. The nose was faultless; the lips, slightly parted, were full and ripe, giving to the lines of the mouth warmth, tenderness, and trust; the eyes were blue and large, and shaded by drooping lids and long lashes; and, in harmony with all, a flood of golden hair, in the style permitted to Jewish brides, fell unconfined down her back to the pillion on which she sat. The throat and neck had the downy softness sometimes seen which leaves the artist in doubt whether it is an effect of contour or color. To these charms of feature and person were added others more--an indefinable air of purity which only the soul can impart, and of abstraction natural to such as think much of things impalpable. Often, with trembling lips, she raised her eyes to heaven, itself not more deeply blue; often she crossed her hands upon her breast, as in adoration and prayer; often she raised her head like one listening eagerly for a calling voice. Now and then midst his slow utterance, Joseph turned to look at her, and, catching the expression kindling her face as with light, forgot his theme, and with bowed head, wondering, plodded on. --Lew Wallace: _Ben-Hur_. (Copyright, 1880, Harper and Bros.) When Washington was elected general of the army he was forty-three years of age. In stature he a little exceeded six feet; his limbs were sinewy and well proportioned; his chest broad, his figure stately, blending dignity of presence with ease of manner. His robust constitution had been tried and invigorated by his early life in the wilderness, his habit of occupation out of doors, and his rigid temperance, so that few equalled him in strength of arm or power of endurance. His complexion was florid, his hair dark brown, his head in shape perfectly round. His broad nostrils seemed formed to give expression and escape to scornful anger. His dark blue eyes, which were deeply set, had an expression of resignation and an earnestness that was almost sad. --Bancroft. There were many Englishmen of great distinction there, and Tennyson was the most conspicuous among the guests. Tennyson's appearance was very striking and his figure might have been taken as a living illustration of romantic poetry. He was tall and stately, wore a great mass of thick, long hair--long hair was then still worn even by men who did not affect originality; his frame was slightly stooping, his shoulders were bent as if with the weight of thought; there was something entirely out of the common and very commanding in his whole presence, and a stranger meeting him in whatever crowd would probably have assumed at once that he must be a literary king. --Justin McCarthy: _Literary Portraits from the Sixties_ ("Harper's"). The door opened and there appeared to these two a visitor. He was a young man, and tall,--so tall that, even with his hat off, his head barely cleared the ceiling of the low-studded room. He was slim and fair-haired and round-shouldered. He had the pink and white complexion of a girl; soft, fair hair; dark, serious eyes; the high, white brow of a thinker; the nose of an aristocrat; and he was in clerical garb. --Sewall Ford: _The Renunciation of Petruo_ ("Harper's"). EXERCISE Notice the pictures on page 253. Can you determine from the picture anything about the character of the person? Just what feature in each helps you in this? +Theme LXVIII.+--_Describe some person known to most of the class._ (Do not name the person, but combine description and character sketching so that the class may be able to tell whom you mean.) [Illustrations] +135. Impression of a Description.+--Often the effectiveness of a description is determined more by the impression which it makes upon our feelings than by the vividness of the picture which it presents. Read the following description of the Battery in New York by Howells. Notice how the details which have been selected emphasize the "impression of forlornness." The sickly trees, the decrepit shade, the mangy grass plots, hungry-eyed and hollow children, the jaded women, silent and hopeless, the shameless houses, the hard-looking men, unite to give the one impression. Even the fresh blue water of the bay, which laughs and dances beyond, by its very contrast gives greater emphasis to the melancholy and forlorn appearance of the Battery. All places that fashion has once loved and abandoned are very melancholy; but of all such places, I think the Battery is the most forlorn. Are there some sickly locust trees there that cast a tremulous and decrepit shade upon the mangy grass plots? I believe so, but I do not make sure; I am certain only of the mangy grass plots, or rather the spaces between the paths, thinly overgrown with some kind of refuse and opprobrious weed, a stunted and pauper vegetation proper solely to the New York Battery. At that hour of the summer morning when our friends, with the aimlessness of strangers who are waiting to do something else, saw the ancient promenade, a few scant and hungry-eyed little boys and girls were wandering over this weedy growth, not playing, but moving listlessly to and fro, fantastic in the wild inaptness of their costumes. One of these little creatures wore, with an odd, involuntary jauntiness, the cast-off best dress of some happier child, a gay little garment cut low in the neck and short in the sleeves, which gave her the grotesque effect of having been at a party the night before. Presently came two jaded women, a mother and a grandmother, that appeared, when they crawled out of their beds, to have put on only so much clothing as the law compelled. They abandoned themselves upon the green stuff, whatever it was, and, with their lean hands clasped outside their knees, sat and stared, silent and hopeless, at the eastern sky, at the heart of the terrible furnace, into which in those days the world seemed cast to be burnt up, while the child which the younger woman had brought with her feebly wailed unheeded at her side. On one side of the women were the shameless houses out of which they might have crept, and which somehow suggested riotous maritime dissipation; on the other side were those houses in which had once dwelt rich and famous folk, but which were now dropping down to the boarding-house scale through various unhomelike occupations to final dishonor and despair. Down nearer the water, and not far from the castle that was once a playhouse and is now the depot of emigration, stood certain express wagons, and about these lounged a few hard-looking men. Beyond laughed and danced the fresh blue water of the bay, dotted with sails and smokestacks. --Howells: _Their Wedding Journey_. The successive images of the preceding selection are clear enough, but they are bound together by a common purpose, which is the creation of a single impression. Often, however, a description may present, not a single impression, but a series of such impressions, to which a unity is given by the fact that they are all connected with one event, or occur at the same time, or in the same place. Such a series of impressions is illustrated in the following:-- It is a phenomenon whose commonness alone prevents it from being most impressive, that departure of the night-express. The two hundred miles it is to travel stretch before it, traced by those slender clews, to lose which is ruin, and about which hang so many dangers. The drawbridges that gape upon the way, the trains that stand smoking and steaming on the track, the rail that has borne the wear so long that it must soon snap under it, the deep cut where the overhanging mass of rocks trembles to its fall, the obstruction that a pitiless malice may have placed in your path, you think of these after the journey is done, but they seldom haunt your fancy while it lasts. The knowledge of your helplessness in any circumstances is so perfect that it begets a sense of irresponsibility, almost of security; and as you drowse upon the pallet of the sleeping car and feel yourself hurled forward through the obscurity, you are almost thankful that you can do nothing, for it is upon this condition only that you can endure it; and some such condition as this, I suppose, accounts for many heroic acts in the world. To the fantastic mood which possesses you equally, sleeping or waking, the stoppages of the train have a weird character, and Worcester, Springfield, New Haven, and Stamford are rather points in dreamland than well-known towns of New England. As the train stops you drowse if you have been waking, and wake if you have been in a doze; but in any case you are aware of the locomotive hissing and coughing beyond the station, of flaring gas-jets, of clattering feet of passengers getting on and off; then of some one, conductor or station master, walking the whole length of the train; and then you are aware of an insane satisfaction in renewed flight through the darkness. You think hazily of the folk in their beds in the town left behind, who stir uneasily at the sound of your train's departing whistle; and so all is blank vigil or a blank slumber. --Howells: _Their Wedding Journey_. +136. Impression as the Purpose of Description.+--The impression that it gives may become the central purpose of a description. It is evident in Howells's description of the Battery that the purpose was the creating of an impression of forlornness, and that the author kept this purpose in mind when choosing the details. If his aim had been to enable us to form a clear picture of the Battery in its physical outlines, he would have chosen different details and would have presented them in different language. The same scene or object may present a different appearance to two different observers because each may discover a different set of likenesses or resemblances and so select different essential characteristics. An artist will paint a picture that centers around some one feature. Each added detail seems but to set forth and increase the effect of this central element of the picture. Similarly the observer will in his description lay emphasis on the central point and will select details that bear a helpful relation to it. If he wishes to present the picture of a valley, he will lay emphasis on its fundamental image and essential details with reference to its appearance; but if his desire is to present the impression of fertility or of rural simplicity and quiet, the elements that are important for the producing of the desired impression may not be at all the ones essential to his former picture. When the presentation of a picture is our central purpose, we attempt to present it as it appears to us, and select details that will enable others to form the desired image; but if we desire to set forth how a scene affected us, we must choose details that will make our reader feel as we felt. +137. Necessity of Observing our Impressions.+--In order to write a description which shall give our impression of an object or scene, we must know definitely what that impression is. Just as clear seeing is necessary for the reproduction of definite images, so is the clear perception of our impressions necessary to their reproduction. Furthermore, we may know what our impressions are without being able to select those elements in a scene that have produced them; but in order to write a description that shall affect others as the scene itself affected us, we must know what these elements are and emphasize them in the description. Thus it becomes necessary to pay attention both to our impression and to the selection of those details which create that impression. One glance at a room may cause us to believe that the housekeeper is untidy. If we wish to convey this impression to our reader, our description must include the details that give that impression of untidiness to us. Nor are we limited to sight alone, for our impressions may be made stronger by the aid of the other senses. Sound and smell and taste may supplement the sight, and though they add little to the clearness, yet they add much to the impression which we get. Within the cabin, through which Basil and Isabel now slowly moved, there were numbers of people lounging about on the sofas, in various attitudes of talk or vacancy; and at the tables there were others reading _Lothair_, a new book in the remote epoch of which I write, and a very fashionable book indeed. There was in the air that odor of paint and carpet which prevails on steamboats; the glass drops of the chandeliers ticked softly against each other, as the vessel shook with her respiration, like a comfortable sleeper, and imparted a delicious feeling of coziness and security to our travelers. --Howells: _Their Wedding Journey_. +138. Impression Limited to Experience.+--If we attempt to write a description for the sake of giving an impression, it must be an impression that we have ourselves experienced. If the sight of the gorge of Niagara has filled us with a feeling of sublimity and awe, we shall find it hard to write a humorous account of it. If we see the humorous elements of a situation, we cannot easily make our description give the impression of grief. Neither can we successfully imitate the impressions of others. No two persons are affected in the same way by the same thing. Our age, our temperament, our emotional attitude, and all of our past experiences affect our way of looking at things and modify the impressions which we get. The successful presentation of our impression will depend largely upon the definite perception of our feelings. +139. Impression Affected by Mood.+--Not only is our impression affected by details in the scene observed, but it is even more largely influenced by our mood at the time of the observation. The same landscape may cheer at one time and dishearten at another. To-day we see the ridiculous; to-morrow, the sad and sorrowful. A thousand things may change our mood, but under certain general conditions, certain impressions are likely to arise. There is something in the air of spring, or the heat of summer, which affects us all. The weather, too, has its effect. Sunshine and shadow find answering attitudes in our feelings, and the skillful writer takes advantage of these emotional tendencies. Not far we fared-- The river left behind--when, looking back, I saw the mountain in the searching light Of the low sun. Surcharged with youthful pride In my adventure, I can ne'er forget The disappointment and chagrin which fell Upon me; for a change had passed. The steep Which in the morning sprang to kiss the sun, Had left the scene; and in its place I saw A shrunken pile, whose paths my steps had climbed, Whose proudest height my humble feet had trod. Its grand impossibilities and all Its store of marvels and of mysteries Were flown away, and would not be recalled. --Holland: _Katrina_. +140. Union of Image and Impression.+--Because we have discussed image making and impression giving separately, it must not be judged that they necessarily occur separately. They are in fact always united. No image, however clear, can fail to make some impression, and no description, however strong the impression it gives, fails to create some image. It is rather the placing of the emphasis that counts. Some descriptions have for their purpose the giving of an image, and the impression is of little moment. Other descriptions aim at producing impressions, and the images are of less importance. In the description of the Battery (page 254) the images are clear enough, but they are subordinate to the impression. This subordination may even go farther. Often the impression is made prominent and we are led by suggestion to form images which fit it, while in reality few definite images have been set. Notice in the following selection that the impression of desolation is given without attempting to picture exactly what was seen:-- The country at the foot of Vesuvius is the most fertile and best cultivated of the kingdom, most favored by Heaven in all Europe. The celebrated _Lacrymæ Christi_ vine flourishes beside land totally devastated by lava, as if nature here made a last effort, and resolved to perish in her richest array. As you ascend, you turn to gaze on Naples, and on the fair laud around it--the sea sparkles in the sun as if strewn with jewels; but all the splendors of creation are extinguished by degrees, as you enter the region of ashes and smoke, that announces your approach to the volcano. The iron waves of other years have traced their large black furrows in the soil. At a certain height birds are no longer seen; further on, plants become very scarce; then even insects find no nourishment. At last all life disappears. You enter the realm of death and the slain earth's dust alone sleeps beneath your unassured feet. --Madame De Staël: _Corinne: Italy_. EXERCISES Discuss the following selections with reference to the impression given by each:-- The third of the flower vines is Wood-Magic. It bears neither flowers nor fruit. Its leaves are hardly to be distinguished from the leaves of the other vines. Perhaps they are a little rounder than the Snowberry's, a little more pointed than the Partridge-berry's; sometimes you might mistake them for the one, sometimes for the other. No marks of warning have been written upon them. If you find them, it is your fortune; if you taste them, it is your fate. For as you browse your way through the forest, nipping here and there a rosy leaf of young wintergreen, a fragrant emerald tip of balsam fir, a twig of spicy birch, if by chance you pluck the leaves of Wood-Magic and eat them, you will not know what you have done, but the enchantment of the treeland will enter your heart and the charm of the wildwood will flow through your veins. You will never get away from it. The sighing of the wind through the pine trees and the laughter of the stream in its rapids will sound through all your dreams. On beds of silken softness you will long for the sleep-song of whispering leaves above your head, and the smell of a couch of balsam boughs. At tables spread with dainty fare you will be hungry for the joy of the hunt, and for the angler's sylvan feast. In proud cities you will weary for the sight of a mountain trail; in great cathedrals you will think of the long, arching aisles of the woodland: and in the noisy solitude of crowded streets you will hone after the friendly forest. --Henry Van Dyke: _The Blue Flower_. (Copyright, 1902, Charles Scribner's Sons.) Running your eye across the map of the State, you see two slowly converging lines of railroad writhing out between the hills to the sea-coast. Three other lines come down from north to south by the river valleys and the jagged shore. Along these, huddled in the corners of the hills and the sea line, lie the cities and the larger towns. A great majority of mankind, swarming in these little spots, or scuttling to and fro along the valleys on those slender lines, fondly dream they are acquainted with the land in which they live. But beyond and around all this rises the wide, bare face of the country, which they will never know-- the great patches of second-growth woods, the mountain pastures sown thick with stones, the barren acres of the hillside farmer--a desolate land, latticed with gray New England roads, dotted with commonplace or neglected houses, and pitted with the staring cellars of the abandoned homes of disheartened and defeated men. Out here in this semi-obscurity, where the regulating forces of society grow tardy and weak, strange and dangerous beings move to and fro, avoiding the apprehension of the law. Occasionally we hear of them--of some shrewd and desperate city fugitives brought to bay in a corner of the woods, or some brutal farmhouse murderer still lurking uncaptured among the hills. Often they pass through the country and out beyond, where they are never seen again. In the extreme southwestern corner of the State the railroads do not come; the vacant spaces grow between the country roads, and the cities dwindle down to half-deserted crossroads hamlets. Here the surface of the map is covered up with the tortuous wrinkles of the hills. It is a beautiful but useless place. As far as you can see, low, unformed lumps of mountains lie jumbled aimlessly together between the ragged sky lines, or little silent cups of valleys stare up between them at their solitary patch of sky. It seems a sort of waste yard of creation, flung full of the remnants of the making of the earth. --George Kibbe Turner: _Across the State_ ("McClure's"). When once the shrinking dizzy spell was gone, I saw below me, like a jeweled cup, The valley hollowed to its heaven-kissed lip-- The serrate green against the serrate blue-- Brimming with beauty's essence; palpitant With a divine elixir--lucent floods Poured from the golden chalice of the sun, At which my spirit drank with conscious growth, And drank again with still expanding scope Of comprehension and of faculty. I felt the bud of being in me burst With full, unfolding petals to a rose, And fragrant breath that flooded all the scene. By sudden insight of myself I knew That I was greater than the scene,--that deep Within my nature was a wondrous world, Broader than that I gazed on, and informed With a diviner beauty,--that the things I saw were but the types of those I held, And that above them both, High Priest and King, I stood supreme, to choose and to combine, And build from that within me and without New forms of life, with meaning of my own, And then alone upon the mountain top, Kneeling beside the lamb, I bowed my head Beneath the chrismal light and felt my soul Baptized and set apart for poetry. --Holland: _Katrina_. +Theme LXIX.+--_Write a description the purpose of which is to give an impression that you have experienced._ SUMMARY 1. Description is that form of discourse which has for its purpose the creation of an image. 2. The essential characteristics of a description are:-- _a._ A point of view, (1) It may be fixed or changing. (2) It may be expressed or implied. (3) Only those details should be included that can be seen from the point of view chosen. _b._ A correct fundamental image. _c._ A few characteristic and essential details (1) Close observation on the part of the writer is necessary in order to select the essential details. _d._ A proper selection and subordination of minor details. _e._ A suitable arrangement of details with reference to their natural position in space. _f._ That additional effectiveness which comes from (1) Proper choice of words. (2) Suitable comparisons and figures. (3) Variety of sentence structures. 3. The foregoing principles of description apply in the describing of many classes of objects. A description of a person usually gives some indication of his character and so becomes to some extent a character sketch. 4. A description may also have for its purpose the giving of an impression. _a._ The writer must select details which will aid in conveying the impression he desires his readers to receive. _b._ The writer must observe his own impressions accurately, because he cannot convey to others that which he has not himself experienced. _c._ The impression received is affected by the mood of the person. _d._ Impression and image are never entirely separated. IX. NARRATION +141. Kinds of Narration.+--Narration consists of an account of happenings, and, for this reason, it is, without doubt, the most interesting of all forms of discourse. It is natural for us all to be interested in life, movement, action; hence we enjoy reading and talking about them. To be convinced that there is everywhere a great interest in narration we need only to listen to conversations, notice what constitutes the subject-matter of letters of friendship, read newspapers and magazines, and observe what classes of books are most frequently drawn from our libraries. Narration assumes a variety of forms. Since it relates happenings, it must include anecdotes, incidents, short stories, letters, novels, dramas, histories, biographies, and stories of travel and exploration. It also includes many newspaper articles such as those that give accounts of accidents and games and reports of various kinds of meetings. Evidently the field of narration is a broad one, for wherever life or action may be found or imagined, a subject for a narrative exists. EXERCISES 1. Name four different events that have actually taken place in your school in which you think your classmates are interested. 2. Name three events that have taken place in other schools that may be of interest to members of your school. 3. Name four events of general interest that have occurred in your city during the last two or three years. 4. From a daily paper, pick out a narrative that is interesting to you. 5. Select one that you think ought to interest the most of your classmates. 6. Name three national events of recent occurrence. 7. Name three or four strange or mysterious events of which you have heard. 8. Name an actual occurrence that interested you because you wanted to see how it turned out. 9. Would an ordinary account of a bicycle or automobile trip be interesting? If not, why not? +Theme LXX.+--._Write a letter to a pupil in a neighboring high school, telling about something interesting that has happened in your own school_. (Review forms of letter writing. Consider your use of paragraphs.) +142. Plot.+--By plot we mean the outline of the story told in a few words. All narratives consist of accounts of connected happenings, in which action on the part of the characters is naturally implied. The principal action briefly told constitutes the plot. The simple plot of Tennyson's _Princess_ is as follows:-- A prince of the North, after being affianced as a child to a princess of the South, has fallen in love with her portrait and a lock of her hair. When, however, the embassy appears to fetch home the bride, she sends back the message that she is not disposed to be married. Upon receipt of this word the Prince and two friends, Florian and Cyril, steal away to seek the Princess, and learn on reaching her father's court that she has established a Woman's College on a distant estate. Having got letters authorizing them to visit the Princess, they ride into her domain, where they determine to go dressed like girls and apply for admission as students in the College. They arrive in disguise, and are admitted. On the first day the young men enroll themselves as students of Lady Psyche, who recognizes Florian as her brother and agrees not to expose them, since--by a law of the College inscribed above the gates, which darkness has kept them from seeing--the penalty of their discovery would be death. Melissa, a student, overhears them, and is bound over to keep the secret. Lady Blanche, mother of Melissa and rival to Lady Psyche, also learns of the alarming invasion, and remains silent for sinister reasons of her own. On the second day the principal personages picnic in a wood. At dinner Cyril sings a song that is better fit for the smoking room than for the ears of ladies; the Prince, in his anger, betrays his sex by a too masculine reproof; and dire confusion is the result. The Princess in her flight falls into the river, from which she is rescued by the Prince. Cyril and Lady Psyche escape together, but the Prince and Florian are brought before the Princess. At this important moment despatches are brought from her father saying that the Prince's father has surrounded her palace with soldiers, taken him prisoner, and holds him as a hostage. The Prince, after pleading to deaf ears, is sent away at dawn with Florian, and goes with him to the camp. Meantime during the night, the Princess's three brothers have come to her aid with an army. An agreement is reached to decide the case and end the war by a tournament between the brothers, with fifty men, on one side; the Prince and his two friends, with fifty men, on the other. This happens on the third day. The Prince and his men are vanquished, and he himself is badly wounded. But the Princess is now gradually to discover that she has "overthrown more than her enemy,"--that she has defeated yet saved herself. She has said of Lady Psyche's little child:-- "I took it for an hour in mine own bed This morning: there the tender orphan hands Felt at my heart, and seem'd to charm from thence The wrath I nursed against the world." When Cyril pleads with her to give the child back to its mother, she kisses it and feels that "her heart is barren." When she passes near the wounded Prince, and is shown by his father--his beard wet with his son's blood--her hair and picture on her lover's heart, Her iron will was broken in her mind, Her noble heart was broken in her breast. From the Princess's cry then, "Grant me your son to nurse," it is but a natural result that she should bring the Prince's wounded men with him into the College, now a hospital. Through ministering to her lover, she comes to love him; and theories yield to "the lord of all." --Copeland-Rideout: _Introduction to Tennyson's Princess_. +Theme LXXI.+--_Write the plot of one of the following_:-- 1. _Lochinvar_, Scott. 2. _Rip Van Winkle_, Irving. 3. One story from _A Tale of Two Cities_, Dickens. 4. _Silas Marner_, George Eliot. 5. The last magazine story you have read. 6. Some story assigned by the teacher. +Theme LXXII.+--_Write three brief plots. Have the class choose the one that will make the most interesting story._ +Theme LXXIII.+--_Write a story, using the plot selected by the class in the preceding theme._ (Are the events related in your story probable or improbable?) +143. The Introduction.+--Our pleasure in a story depends upon our clear understanding of the various situations, and this understanding may often be best given by an introduction that states something of the time, place, characters, and circumstances as shown in Section 6. The purpose of the introduction is to make the story more effective, and what it shall contain is determined by the needs of the story itself. The last half of a well-written story will not be interesting to one who has not read the first half, because the first half will contain much that is essential to the complete understanding of the main point of the story. A story begun with conversation at once arouses interest, but care must be taken to see that the reader gets sufficient descriptive and explanatory matter to enable him to understand the story as the plot develops, or the interest will begin to lag. +Theme LXXIV.+--_Write a narrative._ Suggested subjects:-- 1. The Christmas surprise. 2. How the mortgage was paid. 3. The race between the steam roller and the traction engine. 4. The new girl in the boarding school. 5. The Boss, and how he won his title. (Be sure that your introduction is such that the entire situation is understood. Name different points in the story that led you to say what you have in the introduction. Have you mentioned any unnecessary points?) +144. The Incentive Moment.+--The chief business of a story-teller is to arouse the interest of his readers, and the sooner he succeeds, the better. Usually he tries to arouse interest from the very beginning of his story. He therefore places in the introduction or near it a statement designed to stimulate the curiosity of his readers. The point at which interest begins has been termed the incentive moment. In the following selection notice that the first sentence tells who, when, and where. (Section 6.) The second sentence causes us to ask, what was it? and by the time that is answered we are curious to know what happened and how the adventure ended. On a mellow moonlight evening a cyclist was riding along a lonely road in the northern part of Mashonaland. As he rode, enjoying the somber beauty of the African evening, he suddenly became conscious of a soft, stealthy, heavy tread on the road behind him. It seemed like the jog trot of some heavy, cushion-footed animal following him. Turning round, he was scared very badly to find himself looking into the glaring eyes of a large lion. The puzzled animal acted very strangely, now raising his head, now lowering it, and all the time sniffling the air in a most perplexed manner. Here was a surprise for the lion. He could not make out what kind of animal it was that could roll, walk, and sit still all at the same time; an animal with a red eye on each side, and a brighter one in front. He hesitated to pounce upon such an outlandish being--a being whose blood smelled so oily. I believe no cyclist ever "scorched" with more honesty and single-mindedness of purpose. But although he pedaled and pedaled, although he perspired and panted, his effort to get away did not seem to place any more space between him and the lion; the animal kept up his annoyingly calm jog trot, and never seemed to tire. The poor rider was finally so exhausted from terror and exertion that he decided to have the matter settled right away. Suddenly slowing down, he jumped from his wheel, and, facing abruptly about, thrust the brilliant headlight full into the face of the lion. This was too much for the beast. The sudden glare destroyed the lion's nerve, for at this fresh evidence of mystery on the part of the strange rider-animal, who broke himself into halves and then cast his big eye in any direction he pleased, the monarch of the forest turned tail, and with a wild rush retreated in a very hyena-like manner into the jungle, evidently thanking his stars for his miraculous escape from that awful being. Thereupon the bicyclist, with new strength returning and devoutly blessing his acetylene lamp, pedaled his way back to civilization. --P.L. Wessels. +Theme LXXV.+--_Write a short imaginative story._ Suggested subjects:-- 1. A bicycle race with an unfriendly dog. 2. An unpleasant experience. 3. A story told by the school clock. 4. Disturbing a hornet's nest. 5. The fate of an Easter bonnet. 6. Chased by a wolf. (Where is the incentive moment? Is it introduced naturally?) +145. Climax.+--You have already noticed in your reading that usually somewhere near the close of the story, there is a turning point. That turning point is called the climax. At this point, the suspense of mind is greatest, for the fate of the principal character is being decided. If the story is well written as regards the plot, our interest will continually increase from the incentive moment to the climax. In the novel and the drama, both of which may have a complicated plot, several minor climaxes or crises may be found. There may be a crisis to each single event or episode, yet they should all be a part of and lead up to the principal or final climax. Instead of detracting from, they add to the interest of a carefully woven plot. For example, in the _Merchant of Venice_, we have a crisis in both the casket story and the Lorenzo and Jessica episode; but so skillfully are the stories interwoven that the minor climaxes do not lessen our interest in the principal one. In short stories, the turning point should come near the close. There should be but little said after that point is reached. In novels, and especially in dramas, we find that the climax is not right at the close, and considerable action sometimes takes place after the climax has been reached. EXERCISES _A._ Point out the climax in each of five stories that you have read. _B._ Where is the climax in the following selection? We spoke, and Sohrab kindled at his taunts, And he too drew his sword; at once they rushed Together, as two eagles on one prey Come rushing down together from the clouds, One from the east, one from the west; their shields Dashed with a clang together, and a din Rose, such as that the sinewy woodcutters Make often in the forest's heart at morn, Of hewing axes, crashing trees--such blows Rustum and Sohrab on each other hailed. And you would say that sun and stars took part In that unnatural conflict; for a cloud Grew suddenly in heaven, and darked the sun Over the fighters' heads; and a wind rose Under their feet, and moaning swept the plain, And in a sandy whirlwind wrapped the pair. In gloom they twain were wrapped, and they alone; For both the onlooking hosts on either hand Stood in broad daylight, and the sky was pure, And the sun sparkled on the Oxus stream. But in the gloom they fought, with bloodshot eyes And laboring breath; first Rustum struck the shield Which Sohrab held stiff out; the steel-spiked spear Rent the tough plates, but failed to reach the skin, And Rustum plucked it back with angry groan. Then Sohrab with his sword smote Rustum's helm, Nor clove its steel quite through; but all the crest He shore away, and that proud horsehair plume, Never till now denied, sank to the dust; And Rustum bowed his head; but then the gloom Grew blacker, thunder rumbled in the air, And lightnings rent the cloud; and Ruksh, the horse, Who stood at hand, uttered a dreadful cry;-- No horse's cry was that, most like the roar Of some pained desert lion, who all day Hath trailed the hunter's javelin in his side, And comes at night to die upon the sand. The two hosts heard that cry, and quaked for fear, And Oxus curdled as it crossed his stream. But Sohrab heard, and quailed not, but rushed on, And struck again; and again Rustum bowed His head; but this time all the blade, like glass, Sprang in a thousand shivers on the helm, And in the hand the hilt remained alone. Then Rustum raised his head; his dreadful eyes Glared, and he shook on high his menacing spear, And shouted: "Rustum!"--Sohrab heard that shout, And shrank amazed: back he recoiled one step, And scanned with blinking eyes the advancing form; And then he stood bewildered; and he dropped His covering shield, and the spear pierced his side. He reeled, and, staggering back, sank to the ground, And then the gloom dispersed, and the wind fell, And the bright sun broke forth, and melted all The cloud; and the two armies saw the pair-- Saw Rustum standing, safe upon his feet, And Sohrab wounded, on the bloody sand. --Matthew Arnold: _Sohrab and Rustum_. +Theme LXXVI.+--_Write a story and give special attention to the climax._ Suggested subjects:-- 1. The immigrant's error. 2. A critical moment. 3. An intelligent dog. 4. The lost key. 5. Catching a burglar. 6. A hard test. 7. Won by the last hit. 8. A story suggested by a picture you have seen. (Name the incidents leading up to the climax. Is the mind held in suspense until the climax is reached? Are any unnecessary details introduced?) +146. Conversation in Narration.+--When introduced into narration, a conversation is briefer than when actually spoken. It is necessary to have the conversation move quickly, for we read with less patience than we listen. The sentences must be for the most part short, and the changes from one speaker to another frequent, or the dialogue will have a "made to order" effect. Notice the conversation in as many different stories as possible. Observe how variation is secured in indicating the speaker. How many substitutes for "He said" can you name? In relating conversation orally, we are less likely to secure such variety. Notice in your own speech and that of others how often "I said" and "He said" occur. EXERCISES _A_. Notice the indentation and sentence length in the following selection:-- Louden looked up calmly at the big figure towering above him. "It won't do, Judge," he said; that was all, but there was a significance in his manner and a certainty in his voice which caused the uplifted hand to drop limply. "Have you any business to set foot upon my property?" he demanded. "Yes," answered Joe. "That's why I came. "What business have you got with me?" "Enough to satisfy you, I think. But there's one thing I don't want to do"--Joe glanced at the open door--"and that is to talk about it here--for your own sake and because I think Miss Tabor should be present. I called to ask you to come to her house at eight o'clock to-night." "You did!" Martin Pike spoke angrily, but not in the bull bass of yore. "My accounts with her estate are closed," he said harshly. "If she wants anything let her come here." Joe shook his head. "No. You must be there at eight o'clock." --Booth Tarkington: _The Conquest of Canaan_ ("Harper's"). _B_. Notice the conversation in the following narrative. Consider also the incentive moment and the climax. Suggest improvements. When Widow Perkins saw Widower Parsons coming down the road she looked as mad as a hornet and stepped to the back door. "William Henry," she called to the lank youth chopping wood, "you've worked hard enough for one day. Come in and rest." "Guess that's the first time you ever thought I needed a rest since I was born. I'll keep right on chopping till you get through acceptin' old Hull," he replied, whereupon the widow slammed the door and looked twice as mad as before. "Mornin', widdy," remarked the widower, stalking into the room, taking a chair without an invitation, and hanging his hat on his knee. "Cold day," he added cheerfully. The widow nodded shortly, at the same time inwardly prophesying a still colder day for him before he struck the weather again. "Been buyin' a new cow," resumed the caller, impressively. "Have, eh?" returned the widow, with a jerk, bringing out the ironing board and slamming it down on the table. "An' two hogs," went on the widower, wishing the widow would glance at him just once and see how affectionate he looked. "They'll make pork enough for all next winter and spring." "Will, eh?" responded the widow, with a bang of the iron that nearly wrecked the table. "An' a--a--lot o' odd things 'round the house; an' the fact is, widdy, you see--that is, you know--was going to say if you'll agree"--the widower lost his words, and in his desperation hung his hat on the other knee and hitched a trifle nearer the ironing board. "No, Hull Parsons, I don't see a single mite, nor I don't know a particle, an' I ain't agreein' the least bit," snapped the widow, pounding the creases out of the tablecloth. "But say, widdy, don't get riled so soon," again ventured Parsons. "I was jest goin' to tell you that I've been proposing to Carpenter Brown to build a new--" By this time the widow was glancing at him in a way he wished she wouldn't. "Is that all the proposin' you've done in the last five mouths, Hull Parsons?" she demanded stormily. "You ain't asked every old maid for miles around to marry you, have you, Hull Parsons? An' you didn't tell the last one you proposed to that if she didn't take you there would be only one more chance left--that old pepper-box of a Widow Perkins? You didn't say that, now, did you, Hull Parsons?" and the widow's eyes and voice snapped fire all at once. The caller turned several different shades of red and realized that he had struck the biggest snag he'd ever struck in any courting career, past or present. He laughed violently for a second or two, tried to hang his hat on both knees at the same time, and finally sank his voice to a confidential undertone:-- "Now, widdy, that's the woman's way o' puttin' it. They've been jealous o' you all 'long, fur they knew where my mind was sot. I wouldn't married one o' them women for nothing," added the widower, with another hitch toward the ironing board. "Huh!" responded the widow, losing a trifle of her warlike cast of countenance. "S'pose all them women hadn't refused you, Hull Parsons, what then?" "They didn't refuse me, widdy," returned the widower, trying to look sheepish, and dropping his voice an octave lower. "S'pose I hadn't oughter tell on 'em, but--er--can you keep a secret, widdy?" "I ain't like the woman who can't," remarked the widow, shortly. "Well, then, I was the one who did the refusin'--the hull gang went fer me right heavy, guess 'cause 'twas leap year, or they was tryin' on some o' them new women's ways, or somethin' like that. But my mind was sot all along, d'ye see, widdy?" And the Widow Perkins invited Widower Parsons to stay to dinner, because she thought she saw. +Theme LXXVII.+--_Complete the story on pages 79-80, or one of the following:_-- THE AUDACIOUS REPORTER Soon after Fenimore Dayton became a reporter his city editor sent him to interview James Mountain. That famous financier was then approaching the zenith of his power over Wall Street and Lombard Street. It had just been announced that he had "absorbed" the Great Eastern and Western Railway System--of course, by the methods which have made some men and some newspapers habitually speak of him as "the Royal Bandit." The city editor had two reasons for sending Dayton--first because he did not like him; second, because any other man on the staff would walk about for an hour and come back with the report that Mountain had refused to receive him, while Dayton would make an honest effort. Seeing Dayton saunter down Nassau Street--tall, slender, calm, and cheerful--you would never have thought that he was on his way to interview one of the worst-tempered men in New York, for a newspaper which that man peculiarly detested, and on a subject which he did not care to discuss with the public. Dayton turned in at the Equitable Building and went up to the floor occupied by Mountain, Ranger, & Blakehill. He nodded to the attendant at the door of Mountain's own suite of offices, strolled tranquilly down the aisle between the several rows of desks at which sat Mountain's personal clerks, and knocked at the glass door on which was printed "Mr. Mountain" in small gilt letters. "Come!" It was an angry voice--Mountain's at its worst. Dayton opened the door. Mountain glanced up from a mass of papers before him. His red forehead became a network of wrinkles and his scant white eyebrows bristled. "And who are you?" he snarled. "My name is Dayton--Fenimore Dayton," replied the reporter, with a gracefully polite bow. "Mr. Mountain, I believe?" It was impossible for Mr. Mountain altogether to resist the impulse to bow in return. Dayton's manner was compelling. "And what the dev--what can I do for you?" "I'm a reporter from the ----" "What!" roared Mountain, leaping to his feet in a purple, swollen veined fury.... --David Graham Philips ("McClure's"). CAUGHT MASQUERADING When I took my aunt and sister to the Pequot hotel, the night before the Yale-Harvard boat race, I found a gang of Harvard boys there. They celebrated a good deal that night, in the usual Harvard way. Some of the Harvard men had a room next to mine. About three a.m. things quieted down. When I woke up next morning, it was broad daylight, and I was utterly alone. The race was to be at eleven o'clock. I jumped out of bed and looked at my watch--it was nearly ten! I looked for my clothes. My valise was gone! I rang the bell, but in the excitement downstairs, I suppose, no one answered it. What was I to do? Those Harvard friends of mine thought it a good joke on me to steal my clothes and take themselves off to the race without waking me up. I don't know what I should have done in my anguish, when, thank goodness, I heard a tap at my door, and went to it. "Well, do hurry!" (It was my sister's voice.) "Aunt won't go to the race; we'll have to go without her." "They've stolen my clothes, Mollie--those Harvard fellows." "Haven't you anything?" she asked through the keyhole. "Not a thing, dear." "Oh, well! it's a just punishment to you after last night! That ---- noise was dreadful!" "Perhaps it is," I said, "but don't preach now, sister dear--get me something to put on. I want to see the race." "I haven't anything except some dresses and one of aunt's." "Get me Aunt Sarah's black silk," I cried. "I will wear anything rather than not see the race, and it's half-past ten nearly now." (Correct your theme with reference to the points mentioned in Section 146.) +147. Number and Choice of Details--Unity.+--In relating experiences the choice of details will be determined by the purpose of the narrative and by the person or persons for whom we are writing. A brief account of an accident for a newspaper will need to include only a clear and concise statement of a few important facts. A traveling experience may be made interesting and vivid if we select several facts and treat each quite fully. This is especially true if the experience took place in a country or part of a country not familiar to our readers. If we are writing for those with whom we are acquainted, we can easily decide what will interest them. If we write to different persons an account of the same event, we find that these accounts differ from one another. We know what each person will enjoy, and we try to adapt our writing to each individual taste. Our narrative will be improved by adapting it to an imaginary audience in case we do not know exactly who our readers will be. In your high school work you know your readers and can select your facts accordingly. To summarize: a narration should possess unity, that is, it should say all that should be said about the subject and not more than needs to be said. The length of the theme, the character of the audience to which it is addressed, and the purpose for which it is written, determine what facts are necessary and how many to choose in order to give unity. (See Section 81.) +148. Arrangement of Details--Coherence.+--We should use an arrangement of our facts that will give coherence to our theme. In a coherent theme each sentence or paragraph is naturally suggested by the preceding one. It has been pointed out in Sections 82-85 that in narration we gain coherence by relating our facts in the order of their occurrence. When a single series of events is set forth, we can follow the real time-order, omitting such details as are not essential to the unity of the story. If, however, more than one series of events are given, we cannot follow the exact time-order, for, though two events occur at the same time, one must be told before the other. Here, the actual time relations must be carefully indicated by the use of expressions; as, _at the same time, meanwhile, already_, etc. (See Section 12.) Two or more series of events belong in the same story only if they finally come together at some time, usually at the point of the story. They should be carried along together so that the reader shall have in mind all that is necessary for the understanding of the point when it is reached. In short stories the changes from one series to another are close together. In a long book one or more chapters may give one series of incidents, while the following chapters may be concerned with a parallel series of incidents. Notice the introductory paragraph of each chapter in Scott's _Ivanhoe_ or Cooper's _The Last of the Mohicans_. Many of these indicate that a new series of events is to be related. It will be of advantage in writing a narrative to construct an outline as indicated in Section 84. Such an outline will assist us in making our narrative clear by giving it unity, coherence, and emphasis. EXERCISES 1. Name events that have occurred in your school or city which could be related in their exact time-order. Relate one of them orally. 2. Name two accidents that could not be related in their exact time-order. Relate one of them orally. 3. Name subjects for real narratives that would need to be written in the first person; in the third person. 4. In telling about a runaway accident, what points would you mention if you were writing a short account for a newspaper? 5. What points would you add if you were writing to some one who was acquainted with the persons in the accident? 6. Consider the choice and arrangement of details in the next magazine story that you read. +Theme LXXVIII.+--_Write a personal narrative in which the time-order can be carefully followed._ Suggested subjects:-- 1. The irate conductor. 2. A personal adventure with a window. 3. An interrupted nap. 4. Lost in the woods. 5. In a runaway. 6. An amusing adventure. 7. A day at grandfather's. (Consider the unity and coherence of the theme.) +Theme LXXIX.+--_Write in the third person a true narrative in which different events are going on at the same time._ Suggested subjects:-- 1. A skating accident. 2. The hunters hunted. 3. Capsized on the river. 4. How he won the race. 5. An experience with a balky horse. 6. The search for a lost child. 7. How they missed each other. 8. A strange adventure. 9. A tip over in a bobsleigh. (How many series of events have you in your narrative? Are they well connected? What words have you used to show the time-order of the different events?) +149. Interrelation of Plot and Character.+--Though in narration the interest centers primarily in the action, yet in the higher types of narration interest in character is closely interwoven with interest in plot. In reading, our attention is held by the plot; we follow its development, noticing the addition of incidents, their relation to one another and to the larger elements of action in the story, and their union in the final disentanglement of the plot; but our complete appreciation of the story runs far beyond the plot and depends to a large extent upon our interpretation of the character of the individuals concerned. The mere story may be exciting and interesting, but its effect will be of little permanent value if it does not stir within us some appreciation of character, which we shall find reflected in our own lives or in the lives of those about us. We may read the _Merchant of Venice_ for its story, but a deeper study of the play sets forth and reënforces the character of Portia, Shylock, and the others. With many of the celebrated characters of literature this interest has grown quite apart from interest in the plot, and they stand to-day as the embodiment of phases of human nature. Thus by means of action does the skillful author portray his conception of human life and human character. On the other hand, when we write we shall need to distinguish action that indicates character from that which is merely incidental to the plot. In order to develop a story to its climax we may need to have the persons concerned perform certain actions. If by skillful wording we can show not only what was done but also to some extent the way in which it was done, we may give our readers some notion of the character of the individuals in our story. (See Section 10.) This portrayal of character may be aided by the use of description. (See Section 134.) Notice that the purpose of the following selection is to indicate the character of Pitkin rather than to relate the incident. If the author were to relate other doings of Pitkin, he would need to make the actions of Pitkin in each case consistent with the character indicated by this sketch. It was the day of our great football game with Harvard, and when I heard my friend Pitkin returning to the room we shared in common, I knew that he was mad. And when I say mad I mean it,--not angry, nor exasperated, nor aggravated, nor provoked, but mad: not mad according to the dictionary, that is, crazy, but mad as we common folk use the term. So I say my friend Pitkin was mad. I thought so when I heard the angry click-clack of his heels on the cement walk, and I carefully put all the chairs against the wall; I was sure of it when the door slammed, and I set the coal scuttle in the corner behind the stove. There was no doubt of it when he mounted the stairs three steps at a time, and I hastily cleared his side of the desk. You may wonder why I did all these things, but you have never seen Pitkin mad. Why was Pitkin mad? I did not then know. I had not seen him yet, for I was so busy--so very, very busy--that I did not look up when he slammed his books on the desk with a resounding whack which caused the ink bottle to tremble and the lampshade to clatter as though chattering its teeth with fear, while the pens and pencils, tumbling from the holder, scurried away to hide themselves under the desk. I was still busily engaged with my books while he threw his wet overcoat and dripping hat on the white bedspread and kicked his rubbers under the stove, the smell of which soon warned me to rescue them before they melted. Pitkin must be very mad this time. He was taking off his collar and even his shoes. Pitkin always took off his collar when very mad, and if especially so, put on his slippers, even if he had to change them again in fifteen minutes. "What are you doing? Why don't you say something? You are a pretty fellow not to speak or even look up." Such was Pitkin's first remark. Sometimes he was talkative and would insist on giving his opinion of things in general. At other times he preferred to be left alone to bury himself and his wrath in his books. Since he had failed to poke the fire, though the room was very warm, I had decided that he would dive into his books and be heard no more until a half hour past his suppertime, but I had made a mistake. Today he was in a talkative mood, and knowing that work was impossible, I devoted the next half hour to listening to a dissertation on the general perverseness of human nature, and to an elaborate description of my friend Pitkin's scheme for endowing a rival institution with a hundred million, and making things so cheap and attractive that our university would have to go out of business. When Pitkin reached this point, I knew that I could safely ask the special reason of his anger and that, having answered, he would settle down to his regular work. I gently insinuated that I was still ignorant of the matter, and received the reply quite in keeping with Pitkin's nature, "I bet on Harvard and won." EXERCISES 1. Read one of Dickens's books and bring to class selections that will show how Dickens portrays character by use of action. 2. What kind of man is Silas Marner? What leads you to think as you do? 3. Select three persons from _Ivanhoe_ and state your opinion of their character. 4. Notice the relative importance of plot and character in three magazine stories. 5. Select some person from a magazine story. Tell the class what makes you form the estimate of his character that you do. To what extent does the descriptive matter help you determine his character? +Theme LXXX.+--_Write a character sketch or a story which shows character by means of action._ Suggested subjects:-- 1. The girl from Texas. 2. The Chinese cook. 3. Taking care of the baby. 4. Nathan's temptation. 5. The small boy's triumph. 6. A village character. 7. The meanest man I ever knew. (Consider the development of the plot. To what extent have you shown character by action? Can you make the impression of character stronger by adding some description?) +150. History and Biography.+--Historical and biographical narratives may be highly entertaining and at the same time furnish us with much valuable information. Such writings often contain much that is not pure narration. A historian may set forth merely the program of events, but most histories contain besides a large amount of description and explanation. Frequently, too, all of this is but the basis of either a direct or an implied argument. Likewise a biographer may be chiefly concerned with the acts of a man, but he usually finds that the introduction of description and explanation aids him in making clear the life purpose of the man about whom he writes. In shorter histories and biographies, the expository and descriptive matter often displaces the narrative matter to such an extent that the story ceases to be interesting. The actual time-order of events need not be followed. It will often make our account clearer to discuss the literary works of a man at one time, his education at another, and his practical achievements at a third. Certain portions of his life may need to be emphasized while others are neglected. What we include in a biography and what we emphasize will be determined by the purpose for which it is written. For pure information, a short account is desirable, but a long account is of greater interest. If a man is really great, the most insignificant events in his life will be read with interest, but a good biographer will select such events with good taste and then will present them so that they will have a bearing upon the more important phases of the man's life and character. Hundreds of the stories told about Lincoln would be trivial but for the fact that they help us better to understand the real character of the man. EXERCISE 1. Select some topic briefly mentioned in the history text you study. Look up a more extended account of it and come to the class prepared to recite the topic orally. Make your report clear, concise, and interesting. Decide beforehand just what facts you will relate and in what order. (See Sections 39, 52, 53.) +Theme LXXXI.+--_Come to class prepared to write upon some topic assigned by the teacher, or upon one of the following_:-- 1. Pontiac's conspiracy. 2. The battle of Marathon. 3. The Boston tea party. 4. The battle of Bannockburn. 5. Sherman's march to the sea. 6. Passage of the Alps by Napoleon. (Is your narrative told in an interesting way? Are any facts necessary to the clear understanding of it omitted?) EXERCISES 1. Name an English orator, an English statesman, and an English writer about each of whom an interesting biography might be written. 2. With the same purpose in view name two American orators, two American writers, and two American statesmen. +Theme LXXXII.+--_Write a short biography of some prominent person. Include only well-known and important facts, but do not give his name. Read the biography before the class and have them tell whose biography it is._ +151. Description in Narration.+--The descriptive elements, of narration should always have for their purpose something more than the mere creating of images. If a house is described, the description should enable us to bring to mind more vividly the events that take place within or around it. If the description aids us in understanding how or why the events occur, it is helpful; but if it fails to do this, it has no place in the narrative. Description when thus used serves as a background for the actions told in the story, and has for its purpose the explanation of how or why they occur. Sometimes the descriptions are given before the incident and sometimes the two are intermixed. In the following incident from the _Legend of Sleepy Hollow_, notice how the description prepares the mind for the action that follows. We are told that the brook which Ichabod must cross runs into a marshy and thickly wooded glen; that the oaks and chestnuts matted with grapevines throw a gloom over the place, and already we feel that it is a dreadful spot after dark. The fact that André was captured here adds to the feeling. We are prepared to have some exciting action take place, and had Ichabod ridden quietly across the bridge, we should have been disappointed. About two hundred yards from the tree a small brook crossed the road, and ran into a marshy and thickly wooded glen, known by the name of Wiley's swamp. A few rough logs, laid side by side, served for a bridge over this stream. On that side of the road where the brook entered the woods, a group of oaks and chestnuts, matted thick with wild grapevines, threw a cavernous gloom over it. To pass this bridge was the severest trial. It was at this identical spot that the unfortunate André was captured, and under covert of those vines were the sturdy yeomen concealed who surprised him. This has ever since been considered a haunted stream, and fearful are the feelings of the schoolboy who has to pass it alone after dark. As he approached the stream his heart began to thump; he summoned up, however, all his resolution, gave his horse half a score of kicks in the ribs, and attempted to dash briskly across the bridge; but instead of starting forward, the perverse old animal made a lateral movement, and ran broadside against the fence. Ichabod, whose fears increased with the delay, jerked the reins on the other side, and kicked lustily with the contrary foot. It was all in vain; his steed started, it is true, but it was only to plunge to the opposite side of the road into a thicket of brambles and alder bushes. The schoolmaster now bestowed both whip and heel upon the starveling ribs of old Gunpowder, who dashed forward, snuffling and snorting, but came to a stand just by the bridge, with a suddenness that had nearly sent his rider sprawling over his head. Just at this moment a plashy tramp, by the side of the bridge caught the sensitive ear of Ichabod. In the dark shadow of the grove, on the margin of the brook, he beheld something huge, misshapen, black, and towering. It stirred not, but seemed gathered up in the gloom like some gigantic monster ready to spring upon the traveler. --Irving: _Legend of Sleepy Hollow_. The most important use of description in connection with narration is that of portraying character. Though it is by their actions that the character of persons is most strongly brought out, yet the descriptive matter may do much to strengthen the impression of character which we form. (Section 134.) Much of the description found in literature is of this nature. Stripped of its context such a description may fail to satisfy our ideals as judged by the principles of description discussed in Chapter VIII. Nevertheless, in its place it may be perfectly adapted to its purpose and give just the impression the author wished to give. Such descriptions must be judged in their settings, and the sole standard of judgment is not their beauty or completeness as descriptions, but how well they give the desired impressions. +Theme LXXXIII.+--_Write a short personal narrative containing some description which explains how or why events occur._ (Is there anything in the descriptive part that does not bear on the narration?) +Theme LXXXIV.+--_Write a narrative containing description that aids in giving an impression of character._ Suggested subjects:-- 1. Holding the fort. 2. A steamer trip. 3. How I played truant. 4. Kidnapped. 5. The misfortunes of our circus. 6. Account for the situation shown in a picture that you have seen. (Will the reader form the impression of character which you wish him to form? Consider your theme with reference to its introduction, incentive moment, selection and arrangement of details, and climax.) SUMMARY 1. Narration assumes a variety of forms,--incidents, anecdotes, stories, letters, novels, histories, biographies, etc.,--all concerned with the relation of events. 2. The essential characteristics of a narration are,-- _a._ An introduction which tells the characters, the time, the place, and enough of the attendant circumstances to make clear the point of the narrative. _b._ The early introduction of an incentive moment. _c._ A climax presented in such a way as to maintain the interest of the reader. _d._ The selection of details essential to the climax in accordance with the principle of unity. _e._ The arrangement of these details in a coherent order. _f._ The skillful introduction of minor details which will assist in the appreciation of the point. _g._ The introduction of all necessary description and explanation. _h._ That additional effectiveness which comes from (1) Proper choice of words. (2) Suitable comparisons and figures. (3) Variety of sentence structure. _i._ A brief conclusion. X. EXPOSITION +152. Purpose of Exposition.+--It is the purpose of exposition to make clear to others that which we ourselves understand. Its primary object is to give information. Herein lies one of the chief differences between the two forms of discourse just studied and the one that we are about to study. The primary object of most description and narration is to please, while that of exposition is to inform. Exposition answers such questions as how? why? what does it mean? what is it used for? and by these answers attempts to satisfy demands for knowledge. In the following selections notice that the first tells us _how_ to burnish a photograph; the second, _how_ to split a sheet of paper:-- 1. When the prints are almost dry they can be burnished. The burnishing iron should be heated and kept hot during the burnishing, about the same heat as a flatiron in ironing clothes. Care must be taken to keep the polished surface of the burnisher bright and clean. When the iron is hot enough the prints should be rubbed with a glacé polish, which is sold for this purpose, and is applied with a small wad of flannel. Then the prints should be passed through the burnisher two or three times, the burnisher being so adjusted that the pressure on the prints is rather light; the degree of pressure will be quickly learned by experience, more pressure being required if the prints have been allowed to become dry before being polished. White castile soap will do very well as a lubricator for the prints before burnishing, and is applied in the same manner as above. --_The Amateur Photographer's Handbook_. 2. Paper can be split into two or even three parts, however thin the sheet. It may be convenient to know how to do this sometimes; as, for instance, when one wishes to paste in a scrapbook an article printed on both sides of the paper. Get a piece of plate glass and place it on a sheet of paper. Then let the paper be thoroughly soaked. With care and a little skill the sheet can be split by the top surface being removed. The best plan, however, is to paste a piece of cloth or strong paper to each side of the sheet to be split. When dry, quickly, and without hesitation, pull the two pieces asunder, when one part of the sheet will be found to have adhered to one, and part to the other. Soften the paste in water, and the two pieces can easily be removed from the cloth. EXERCISES A. Explain orally any two of the following:-- 1. How to fly a kite. 2. How a robin builds her nest. 3. How oats are harvested. 4. How tacks are made. 5. How to make a popgun. 6. How fishes breathe. 7. How to swim. 8. How to hemstitch a handkerchief. 9. How to play golf. 10. How salt is obtained. B. Name several subjects with the explanation of which you are unfamiliar. +Theme LXXXV.+--_Select for a subject something that you know how to do. Write a theme on the subject chosen._ (Have you made use of either general description or general narration? See Sections 67 and 68.) Very frequently explanations of _how_ and _why_ anything is done are combined, as in the following:-- In cases of sunstroke, place the person attacked in a cool, airy place. Do not allow a crowd to collect closely about him. Remove his clothing, and lay him flat upon his back. Dash him all over with cold water--ice-water, if it can be obtained--and rub the entire body with pieces of ice. This treatment is used to reduce the heat of the body, for in all cases of sunstroke the temperature of the body is greatly increased. When the body has become cooler, wipe it dry and remove the person to a dry locality. If respiration ceases, or becomes exceedingly slow, practice artificial respiration. After the patient has apparently recovered, he should be kept quiet in bed for some time. --Baldwin: _Essential Lessons in Human Physiology and Hygiene_. Notice that the following selection answers neither the question _how_? nor _why_? but explains what journalism is:-- JOURNALISM What is a journal? What is a journalist? What is journalism? Is it a trade, a commercial business, or a profession? Our word _journal_ comes from the French. It has different forms in the several Romantic languages, and all go back to the Latin _diurnalis_, daily, from _dies_, a day. Diurnal and diary are derived from the same source. The first journals were in fact diaries, daily records of happenings, compiled often for the pleasure and use of the compiler alone, sometimes for monarchs or statesmen or friends; later to be circulated for the information of a circle of readers, or distributed in copies to subscribers among the public at large. These were the first newspapers. While we still in a specific sense speak of daily newspapers as journals, the term is often enlarged to comprise nearly all publications that are issued periodically and distributed to subscribers. A journalist is one whose business is publishing a journal (or more than one), or editing a journal, or writing for journals, especially a person who is regularly employed in some responsible directing or creative work on a journal, as a publisher, editor, writer, reporter, critic, etc. This use of the word is comparatively modern, and it is commonly restricted to persons connected with daily or weekly newspapers. Many older newspaper men scout it, preferring to be known as publishers, editors, writers, or contributors. Journalism, however, is a word that is needed for its comprehensiveness. It includes the theory, the business, and the art of producing newspapers in all departments of the work. Hence, any school of professional journalism must be presumed to comprise in its scope and detail of instruction the knowledge that is essential to the making and conduct of newspapers. It must have for its aim the ideal newspaper which is ideally perfect in every department. Journalism, so far as it is more than mere reporting and mere money making, so far as it undertakes to frame and guide opinion, to educate the thought and instruct the conscience of the community, by editorial comment, interpretation and homily, based on the news, is under obligation to the community to be truthful, sincere, and uncorrupted; to enlighten the understanding, not to darken counsel; to uphold justice and honor with unfailing resolution, to champion morality and the public welfare with intelligent zeal, to expose wrong and antagonize it with unflinching courage. If journalism has any mission in the world besides and beyond the dissemination of news, it is a mission of maintaining a high standard of thought and life in the community it serves, strengthening all its forces that make for righteousness and beauty and fair growth. This is not solely, nor peculiarly, the office of what is called the editorial page. To be most influential, it must be a consistent expression in all departments, giving the newspaper a totality of power in such aim. This is the right ideal of journalism whenever it is considered as more than a form of commercialism. No newspaper attains its ideal in completeness. If it steadfastly works toward attainment, it gives proof of its right to be. The advancing newspaper, going on from good to better in the substance of its character and the ability of its endeavor, is the type of journalism which affords hope for the future. And one strong encouragement to fidelity in a high motive is public appreciation. --_The Boston Herald._ EXERCISES Give as complete an answer as possible to any two of the following questions:-- 1. Why do fish bite better on a cloudy day than on a bright one? 2. Why should we study history? 3. Why does a baseball curve? 4. Why did the American colonies revolt against England? 5. Why did the early settlers of New England persecute the Quakers? 6. Why should trees be planted either in early spring or late autumn? 7. Why do we lose a day in going from America to China? 8. In laying a railroad track, why is there a space left between the ends of the rails? +Theme LXXXVI.+--_Choose one of the above or a similar question as a subject for a theme. Write out as complete and exact an explanation as possible._ EXERCISE Write out a list of subjects the explanation of which would not answer the questions _why_? or _how_? How many of them can you explain? +Theme LXXXVII.+--_Write out the explanation of one of the subjects in the above list._ (Read what you have written and consider it with reference to clearness, unity, and coherence.) +153. Importance of Exposition.+--This form of discourse is important because it deals so extensively with important subjects, such as questions of government, facts in science, points in history, methods in education, and processes of manufacture. It enters vitally into our lives, no matter what our occupation may be. Business men make constant use of this kind of discourse. In fact, it would be impossible for business to be transacted with any degree of success without explanations. Loans of money would not be made if men did not understand how they could have security for the sums loaned. A manufacturer cannot expect to have good articles produced if he is unable to give needful explanations concerning their manufacture. In order that a merchant be successful he must be able to explain the relative merits of his goods to his customers. Very much of the work done in our schools is of an expository nature. The text-books used are expositions. When they of themselves are not sufficient for the clear understanding of the subject, it is necessary to consult reference books. Then, if the subject is still lacking in clearness, the teacher is called upon for additional explanation. On the other hand, the greater part of the pupil's recitations consists simply in explaining the subjects under discussion. Much of the class-room work in our schools consists of either receiving or giving explanations. EXERCISES 1. Name anything outside of school work that you have been called upon to explain during the last week or two. 2. Name anything outside of school work that you have recently learned through explanation. 3. Name three topics in each of your studies for to-day that call for explanation. 4. Name some topic in which the text-book did not seem to make the explanation clear. +Theme LXXXVIII.+--_Write out one of the topics mentioned in number three of the preceding exercise._ (Have you included everything that is necessary to make your explanation clear? Can anything be omitted without affecting the clearness?) +154. Clear Understanding.+--The first requisite of a good explanation is a clear understanding on the part of the one who is giving the explanation. It is evident that if we do not understand a subject ourselves we cannot make our explanations clear to others. If the ideas in our mind are in a confused state, our explanation will be equally confused. If you do not understand a problem in algebra, your attempt to explain it to others will prove a failure. If you attempt to explain how a canal boat is taken through a lock without thoroughly understanding the process yourself, you will give your listeners only a confused idea of how it is done. The principal reason why pupils fail in their recitations and examinations is that in preparing their lessons, they do not make themselves thoroughly acquainted with the topics that they are studying. They often go over the lessons hurriedly and carelessly and come to class with confused ideas. Consequently when the pupils attempt to recite, there is, if anything, an additional confusion of ideas, and the recitation proves a failure. Carelessness in the preparation of daily recitations, negligence in asking for additional explanations, and inattention to the explanations that are given, inevitably cause failure when tests or examinations are called for. EXERCISES 1. Name five subjects about which you know so little that it would be useless to attempt an explanation. 2. Name five about which you know something, but not enough to give clear explanations of them. 3. Name four about which you know but little, but concerning which you feel sure that you can obtain information. 4. Name six that you think you clearly understand. Report orally on one of them. +Theme LXXXIV.+--_Write out an explanation of one of the subjects named in number four of the preceding exercise._ (Read your theme and criticise it as to clearness. In listening to the themes read by other members of the class consider them as to clearness. Call for further explanation of any part not perfectly clear to you.) +155. Selection of Facts--Unity.+--After we have been given a subject for explanation or have chosen one for ourselves, we must decide concerning the facts to be presented. In some kinds of exposition this selection is rather difficult. Since the purpose is to make our meaning clear to the person addressed, we secure unity by including all that is necessary to that purpose and by omitting all that is not necessary. It is evident that selection of facts to secure unity depends to some extent upon the audience. If a child asks us to explain what a trust is, our explanation will differ very much from that which we would give if we were addressing a body of men who were familiar with the term _trusts_, but do not understand the advantages and disadvantages arising from their existence. Examine the following as to selection of facts. For what class of people do you think it was written? What seems to be the purpose of it? THE FEUDAL SYSTEM This connection of king as sovereign, with his princes and great men as vassals, must be attended to and understood, in order that you may comprehend the history which follows. A great king, or sovereign prince, gave large provinces, or grants of land, to his dukes, earls, and noblemen; and each of these possessed nearly as much power, within his own district, as the king did in the rest of his dominions. But then the vassal, whether duke, earl, or lord, or whatever he was, was obliged to come with a certain number of men to assist the sovereign, when he was engaged in war; and in time of peace, he was bound to attend on his court when summoned, and do homage to him, that is, acknowledge that he was his master and liege lord. In like manner, the vassals of the crown, as they were called, divided the lands which the king had given them into estates, which they bestowed on knights, and gentlemen, whom they thought fitted to follow them in war, and to attend them in peace; for they, too, held courts, and administered justice, each in his own province. Then the knights and gentlemen, who had these estates from the great nobles, distributed the property among an inferior class of proprietors, some of whom cultivated the land themselves, and others by means of husbandmen and peasants, who were treated as a sort of slaves, being bought and sold like brute beasts, along with the farms which they labored. Thus, when a great king, like that of France or England, went to war, he summoned all his crown vassals to attend him, with the number of armed men corresponding to his fief, as it was called, that is, territory which had been granted to each of them. The prince, duke, or earl, in order to obey the summons, called upon all the gentlemen to whom he had given estates, to attend his standard with their followers in arms. The gentlemen, in their turn, called on the franklins, a lower order of gentry, and upon the peasants; and thus the whole force of the kingdom was assembled in one array. This system of holding lands for military service, that is, for fighting for the sovereign when called upon, was called the _feudal system_. It was general throughout all Europe for a great many ages. --Scott: _Tales of a Grandfather_. +Theme LXXXV.+--_Write a theme on one of the following:_-- 1. Tell your younger brother how to make a whistle. 2. Explain some game to a friend of your own age. 3. Give an explanation of the heating system of your school to a member of the school board of an adjoining city. 4. Explain to a city girl how butter is made. 5. Explain to a city boy how hay is cured. 6. Explain to a friend how to run an automobile. (Consider the selection of facts as determined by the person addressed.) +156. Arrangement--Coherence.+--Some expositions are of such a nature that there is but little question concerning the proper arrangement of the topics composing them. In order to be coherent, all we do is to follow the natural order of occurrence in time and place. This is especially true of general narrations and of some general descriptions. In explaining the circulation of the blood, for instance, it is most natural for us to follow the course which the blood takes in circulating through the body. In explaining the manufacture of articles we naturally begin with the material as it comes to the factory, and trace the process of manufacture in order through its successive stages. In other kinds of exposition a coherent arrangement is somewhat difficult. We should not, however, fail to pay attention to it. A clear understanding of the subject, on the part of the listener, depends largely upon the proper arrangement of topics. As you study examples of expositions of some length, you will notice that there are topics which naturally belong together. These topics form groups, and the groups are treated separately. If the expositions are good ones, the related facts will not only be united into groups, but the groups will also be so arranged and the transition from one group to another be so naturally made that it will cause no confusion. In brief explanations of but one paragraph there should be but one group of facts. Even these facts need to be so arranged as to make the whole idea clear. The writer may have a clear understanding of the whole idea, but in order to give the reader the same clear understanding, certain facts must be presented before others are. In order to make an explanation clear, the facts must be so arranged that those which are necessary to the understanding of others shall come first. Examine the following expositions as to the grouping of related facts and the arrangement of those groups:-- Fresh, pure air at all times is essential to bodily comfort and good health. Air may become impure from many causes. Poisonous gases may be mixed with it; sewer gas is especially to be guarded against; coal gas which is used for illuminating purposes is very poisonous and dangerous if inhaled; the air arising from decaying substances, foul cellars, or stagnant pools, is impure and unhealthy, and breeds diseases; the foul and poisonous air which has been expelled from the lungs, if breathed again, will cause many distressing symptoms. Ventilation has for its object the removal of impure air and the supplying of fresh, wholesome air in its place. Proper ventilation should be secured in all rooms and buildings, and its importance cannot be overestimated. In the summer time and in climates which permit of it with comfort, ventilation may be secured by having the doors and windows open, thus allowing the fresh air to circulate freely through the house. In stormy and cold weather, however, some other means of ventilation must be supplied. If open fires or grates are used for heating purposes, good ventilation exists, for under such circumstances, the foul and impure air is drawn out of the rooms through the chimneys, and the fresh air enters through the cracks of the doors and windows. Where open fireplaces are not used, several plans of ventilation may be used, as they all operate on the same principle. Two openings should be in the room, one of them near the floor, through which the fresh air may enter, the other higher up, and connected with a shaft or chimney, which producing a draft, may serve to free the room from impure air. The size of these openings may be regulated according to the size of the room. --Baldwin: _Essential Lessons in Human Physiology_. THE QUEEN BEE It is a singular fact, also, that the queen is made, not born. If the entire population of Spain or Great Britain were the offspring of one mother, it might be found necessary to hit upon some device by which a royal baby could be manufactured out of an ordinary one, or else give up the fashion of royalty. All the bees in the hive have a common parentage, and the queen and the worker are the same in the egg and in the chick; the patent of royalty is in the cell and in the food; the cell being much larger, and the food a peculiar stimulating kind of jelly. In certain contingencies, such as the loss of the queen with no eggs in the royal cells, the workers take the larva of an ordinary bee, enlarge the cell by taking in the two adjoining ones, and nurse it and stuff it and coddle it, till at the end of sixteen days it comes out a queen. But ordinarily, in the natural course of events, the young queen is kept a prisoner in her cell till the old queen has left with the swarm. Not only kept, but guarded against the mother queen, who only wants an opportunity to murder every royal scion in the hive. Both the queens, the one a prisoner and the other at large, pipe defiance at each other at this time, a shrill, fine, trumpetlike note that any ear will at once recognize. This challenge, not being allowed to be accepted by either party, is followed, in a day or two, by the abdication of the old queen; she leads out the swarm, and her successor is liberated by her keepers, who, in her turn, abdicates in favor of the next younger. When the bees have decided that no more swarms can issue, the reigning queen is allowed to use her stiletto upon her unhatched sisters. Cases have been known where two queens issued at the same time, when a mortal combat ensued, encouraged by the workers, who formed a ring about them, but showed no preference, and recognized the victor as the lawful sovereign. For these and many other curious facts we are indebted to the blind Huber. It is worthy of note that the position of the queen cells is always vertical, while that of the drones and workers is horizontal; majesty stands on its head, which fact may be a part of the secret. The notion has always very generally prevailed that the queen of the bees is an absolute ruler, and issues her royal orders to willing subjects. Hence Napoleon the First sprinkled the symbolic bees over the imperial mantle that bore the arms of his dynasty; and in the country of the Pharaohs the bee was used as the emblem of a people sweetly submissive to the orders of its king. But the fact is, a swarm of bees is an absolute democracy, and kings and despots can find no warrant in their example. The power and authority are entirely vested in the great mass, the workers. They furnish all the brains and foresight of the colony, and administer its affairs. Their word is law, and both king and queen must obey. They regulate the swarming, and give the signal for the swarm to issue from the hive; they select and make ready the tree in the woods and conduct the queen to it. The peculiar office and sacredness of the queen consists in the fact that she is the mother of the swarm, and the bees love and cherish her as a mother and not as a sovereign. She is the sole female bee in the hive, and the swarm clings to her because she is their life. Deprived of their queen, and of all brood from which to rear one, the swarm loses all heart and soon dies, though there be an abundance of honey. The common bees will never use their sting upon the queen,--if she is to be disposed of they starve her to death; and the queen herself will sting nothing but royalty--nothing but a rival queen. --John Burroughs: _Birds and Bees_. +Theme LXXXVI.+--_Write an expository theme._ Suggested subjects:-- 1. Duties of the sheriff. 2. How a motor works. 3. How wheat is harvested. 4. Why the tide exists. 5. How our schoolhouse is ventilated. 6. What is meant by the theory of evolution. 7. The manufacture of ----. 8. How to make a ----. (Consider the arrangement of your statements.) +157. Use of an Outline.+--Before beginning to write an explanation we need to consider what we know about the subject and what our purpose is; we need to select facts that will make our explanations clear to our readers; and we need to decide what arrangement of these facts will best show their relation to each other. We shall find it of advantage, especially in lengthy explanations, to express our thoughts in the form of an outline. An outline helps us to see clearly whether our facts are well chosen, and it also helps us to see whether the arrangement is orderly or not. Clearness is above all the essential of exposition, and outlines aid clearness by giving unity and coherence. EXERCISES Select three of the following subjects and make lists of facts that you know about them. From these select those which would be necessary in making a clear explanation of each. After making out these lists of facts, arrange them in what seems to you the best possible order for making the explanation clear to your classmates. 1. The value of a school library. 2. Sponges. 3. The manufacture of clocks. 4. Drawing. 5. Athletics in the high school. 6. Examinations. 7. Debating societies. +Theme LXXXVII.+--_Following the outline, write an exposition on one of the subjects chosen._ (Notice the transition from one paragraph to another. See Section 87.) +158. Exposition of Terms--Definition.+--Explanation of the meaning of general terms is one form of exposition (Section 63). The first step in the exposition of a term is the giving of a definition. This may be accomplished by the use of a synonym (Section 64). We make a term intelligible to the reader by the use of a synonym with which he is familiar; and though such a definition is inexact, it gives a rough idea of the meaning of the term in question, and so serves a useful purpose. If, however, we wish exactness, we shall need to make use of the logical definition. +159. The Logical Definition.+--The logical definition sets exact limits to the meaning of a term. An exact definition must include all the members of a class indicated by the term defined, and it must exclude everything that does not belong to that class. A logical definition is composed of two parts. It first names the class to which the term to be defined belongs, and then it names the characteristic that distinguishes that term from all other members of the same class. The class is termed the _genus_, and the distinguishing characteristics of the different members of the class are termed the _differentia_. Notice the following division into genus and differentia. TERM TO BE | CLASS | DISTINGUISHING DEFINED | _(Genus)_ | CHARACTERISTIC | | _(Differentia)_ | | A parallelogram | is a quadrilateral | whose opposite sides | | are parallel | | Exposition | is that form of | which seeks to explain | discourse | the meaning of a term. | | Each definition includes three elements: the term to be defined, the genus, and the differentia; but these are not necessarily arranged in the order named. EXERCISE Select the three elements (the term to be defined, the genus, and the differentia) in each of the following:-- 1. A polygon of three sides is called a triangle. 2. A square is an equilateral rectangle. 3. A rectangle whose sides are equal is a square. 4. Description is that form of discourse which aims to present a picture. 5. The characters composing written words are called letters. 6. The olfactory nerves are the first pair of cranial nerves. 7. Person is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or things spoken of. 8. The diptera, or true flies, are readily distinguishable from other insects by their having a single pair of wings instead of two pairs, the hind wings being transformed into small knob-headed pedicles called balancers or halters. +160. Difficulty of Framing Exact Definitions.+--In order to frame a logical definition, exactness of thought is essential. Even when the thought is exact, it will be found difficult and often impossible to frame a satisfactory definition. Usually there is little difficulty in selecting the genus, still care should be taken to select one that includes the term to be defined. We might begin the definition of iron by saying, "Iron is a metal," since all iron is metal, but it would be incorrect to begin the definition of rodent by saying, "A rodent is a beaver," because the term beaver does not include all rodents. We must also take care to choose for the genus some term familiar to the reader, because the object of the definition is to make the meaning clear to him. The chief difficulty of framing logical definitions arises in the selection of differentia. In many cases it is not easy to decide just what characteristics distinguish one member of a class from all other members of that class. We all know that iron is a metal, but most of us would find it difficult to add to the definition just those things which distinguish iron from other metals. We may say, "A flute is a musical instrument"; so much of the definition is easily given. The difficulty lies in distinguishing it from all other musical instruments. EXERCISES _A._ Select proper differentia for the following:-- | TERM TO BE DEFINED | CLASS (Genus) | DISTINGUISHING | | CHARACTERISTIC | | _(Differentia)_ | | 1. Narration | is that form of discourse | ? | | 2. A circle | is a portion of a plane | ? | | 3. A dog | is an animal | ? | | 4. A hawk | is a bird | ? | | 5. Physiography | is the science | ? | | 6. A sneak | is a person | ? | | 7. A quadrilateral | is a plane figure | ? | | 8. A barn | is a building | ? | | 9. A bicycle | is a machine | ? | | 10. A lady | is a woman | ? _B._ Give logical definitions for at least four words in the list below. 1. Telephone. 2. Square. 3. Hammer. 4. Novel 5. Curiosity. 6. Door. 7. Camera. 8. Brick. 9. Microscope. +161. Inexact Definitions.+--If the distinguishing characteristics are not properly selected, the definition though logical in form may be inexact, because the differentia do not exclude all but the term to be defined. If we say, "Exposition is that form of discourse which gives information," the definition is inexact because there are other forms of discourse that give information. Many definitions given in text-books are inexact. Care should be taken to distinguish them from those which are logically exact. EXERCISE Which of the following are exact? 1. A sheep is a gregarious animal that produces wool. 2. A squash is a garden plant much liked by striped bugs. 3. A pronoun is a word used for a noun. 4. The diaphragm is a sheet of muscle and tendon, convex on its upper side, and attached by bands of striped muscle to the lower ribs at the side, to the sternum, and to the cartilage of the ribs which join it in front, and at the back by very strong bands to the lumbar vertebrae. 5. A man is a two-legged animal without feathers. 6. Argument is that form of discourse which has for its object the proof of the truth or falsity of a proposition. 7. The base of an isosceles triangle is that side which is equal to no other. 8. Zinc is a metal used under stoves. 9. The epidermis of a leaf is a delicate, transparent skin which covers the whole leaf. +Theme LXXXVIII.+--_Write an expository paragraph about one of the following:_-- Suggested subjects:-- 1. Household science and arts. 2. Architecture. 3. Aesthetics. 4. Poetry. 5. Fiction. 6. Half tones. 7. Steam fitting. 8. Swimming. (Consider the definitions you have used.) +162. Division.+--The second step in the exposition of a term is division. Definition establishes the limits of the term. Division separates into its parts that which is included by the term. By definition we distinguish triangles from squares, circles, and other plane figures. By division we may separate them into scalene, isosceles, and equilateral, or if we divide them according to a different principle into right and oblique triangles. In either case the division is complete and exact. By completeness is meant that every object denoted by the term explained is included in the division given, thus making the sum of these divisions equal to the whole. By exactness is meant that but a single principle has been used, and so no object denoted by the term explained will be included in more than one of the divisions made. There are no triangles which are neither right nor oblique, so the division is complete; and no triangle can be both right and oblique, so the division is exact. Such a complete and exact division is called _classification_. Nearly every term may be divided according to more than one principle. We may divide the term _books_ into ancient and modern, or into religious and secular, or in any one of a dozen other ways. Which principle of division we shall choose will depend upon our purpose. If we wish to discuss _sponges_ with reference to their shapes, our division will be different from what it would be if we were to discuss them with reference to their uses. When a principle of division has once been chosen it is essential that it be followed throughout. The use of two principles causes an overlapping of divisions, thus producing what is called cross division. Using the principle of use, a tailor may sort his bolts of cloth into cloth for overcoats, cloth for suits, and cloth for trousers; using the principle of weight, into heavy weight and light weight; or he may sort them with reference to color or price. In any case but a single principle is used. It would not do to divide them into cloth for suits, light weight goods, and brown cloth. Such a division would be neither complete nor exact; for some of the cloth would belong to none of the classes while other pieces might properly be placed in all three. In the exact sciences complete exposition is the aim, and classification is necessary; but in other writing the purpose in hand is often better accomplished by omitting minor divisions. A writer of history might consider the political growth, the wars, and the religion of a nation and omit its domestic life and educational progress, especially if these did not greatly influence the result that he wishes to make plain. If we wished to explain the plan of the organization of a high school, it would be satisfactory to divide the pupils into freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors, even though, in any particular school, there might be a few special and irregular pupils who belonged to none of these classes. An exposition of the use of hammers would omit many occasional and unimportant uses. Such a classification though exact is incomplete and is called _partition_. EXERCISES _A._ Can you tell which of the following are classifications? Which are partitions? Which are defective? 1. The inhabitants of the United States are Americans, Indians, and negroes. 2. Lines are straight, curved, and crooked. 3. Literature is composed of prose, poetry, and fiction. 4. The political parties in the last campaign were Republican and Democrat. 5. The United States Government has control of states and territories 6. Plants are divided into two groups: (1) the phanerogams, or flowering plants, and (2) cryptogams, or flowerless plants. 7. All phanerogamous plants consist of (1) root and (2) shoot; the shoot consisting of (_a_) stem and (_b_) leaf. It is true that some exceptional plants, in maturity, lack leaves, or lack root. These exceptions are few. 8. We may divide the activities of the government into: keeping order, making law, protecting individual rights, providing public schools, providing and mending roads, caring for the destitute, carrying the mail, managing foreign relations, making war, and collecting taxes. _B_. Notice the following paragraphs, State briefly the divisions made. +1. Plan of the Book.+--What is government? Who is the government? We shall begin by considering the American answers to these questions. What does The Government do? That will be our next inquiry. And with regard to the ordinary practical work of government, we shall see that government in the United States is not very different from government in the other civilized countries of the world. Then we shall inquire how government officials are chosen in the United States, and how the work of government is parceled out among them. This part of the book will show what is meant by self-government and local self-government, and will show that our system differs from European systems chiefly in these very matters of self-government and local self-government. Coming then to the details of our subject, we shall consider the names and duties of the principal officials in the United States; first, those of the township, county, and city, then those of the state, and then those of the federal government. Finally, we shall examine certain operations in the American system, such as a trial in court, and nominations for office, and conclude with an outline of international relations, and a summary of the commonest laws of business and property. --Clark: _The Government_. 2. +Zoölogy and its Divisions.+--What things we do know about the dog, however, and about its relatives, and what things others know can be classified into several groups; namely, things or facts about what a dog does or its behavior, things about the make-up of its body, things about its growth and development, things about the kind of dog it is and the kinds of relatives it has, and things about its relations to the outer world and its special fitness for life. All that is known of these different kinds of facts about the dog constitutes our knowledge of the dog and its life. All that is known by scientific men and others of these different kinds of facts about all the 500,000 or more kinds of living animals, constitutes our knowledge of animals and is the science _zoölogy_. Names have been given to these different groups of facts about animals. The facts about the bodily make-up or structure of animals constitute that part of zoölogy called animal _anatomy_ or _morphology;_ the facts about the things animals do, or the functions of animals, compose animal _physiology;_ the facts about the development of animals from young to adult condition are the facts of animal _development;_ the knowledge of the different kinds of animals and their relationships to each other is called _systematic_ zoölogy or animal _classification;_ and finally the knowledge of the relations of animals to their external surroundings, including the inorganic world, plants and other animals, is called animal _ecology_. Any study of animals and their life, that is, of zoölogy, may include all or any of these parts of zoölogy. --Kellogg: _Elementary Zoölogy_. 3. Are not these outlines of American destiny in the near-by future rational? In these papers an attempt has been made:-- First, to picture the physical situation and equipment of the American in the modern world. Second, to outline the large and fundamental elements of American character, which are:-- (_a_) Conservatism--moderation, thoughtfulness, and poise. (_b_) Thoroughness--conscientious performance, to the minutest detail, of any work which we as individuals or people may have in hand. (_c_) Justice--that spirit which weighs with the scales of righteousness our conduct toward each other and our conduct as a nation toward the world. (_d_) Religion--the sense of dependence upon and responsibility to the Higher Power; the profound American belief that our destiny is in His hands. (_e_) The minor elements of American character--such as the tendency to organize, the element of humor, impatience with frauds, and the movement in American life toward the simple and sincere. --Beveridge: _Americans of To-day and To-morrow_. _C._ Consult the table of contents or opening chapters of any text-book and notice the main divisions. _D._ Find in text-books five examples of classification or division. _E._ Make one or more divisions of each of the following:-- 1. The pupils in your school. 2. Your neighbors. 3. The books in the school library. 4. The buildings you see on the way to school. 5. The games you know how to play. 6. Dogs. 7. Results of competition. +Theme LXXXIX.+--_Write an introductory paragraph showing what divisions you, would make if called upon, to write about one of the following topics:_-- 1. Mathematics. 2. The school system of our city. 3. The churches of our town. 4. Methods of transportation. 5. Our manufacturing interests. 6. Games that girls like. 7. The inhabitants of the United States. (Have you mentioned all important divisions of your subject? Have you included any minor and unimportant divisions? Consider other possible principles of division of your subject. Have you chosen the one best suited to your purpose?) +163. Exposition of a Proposition.+--Two terms united into a sentence so that one is affirmed of the other become a proposition. Propositions, like terms, may be either specific or general. "Napoleon was ambitious" is a specific proposition; "Politicians are ambitious" is a general one. When a proposition is presented to the mind, its meaning may not at once be clear. The obscurity may arise from the fact that some of the terms in the proposition are unfamiliar, or are obscure, or misleading. In this case the first step, and often the only step necessary, is the explanation of the terms in the proposition. The following selection taken from Dewey's _Psychology_ illustrates the exposition of a proposition by explaining its terms:-- The habitual act thus occurs automatically and mechanically. When we say that it occurs automatically, we mean that it takes place, as it were, of itself, spontaneously, without the intervention of the will. By saying that it is mechanical, we mean that there exists no consciousness of the process involved, nor of the relation of the means, the various muscular adjustments, to the end, locomotion. It is possible for our listeners or readers to understand each term in a proposition and yet not be able to understand the meaning of the proposition as a whole. When this is the case, we shall find it necessary to make use of methods of exposition discussed later. EXERCISES Explain orally the following propositions by explaining any of the terms likely to be unfamiliar or misunderstood: 1. The purpose of muscular contraction is the production of motion. 2. Ping-pong is lawn tennis in miniature, with a few modifications. 3. An inevitable dualism bisects nature. 4. Never inflict corporal chastisement for intellectual faults. 5. Children should be led to make their own investigations and to draw their own inferences. 6. The black willow is an excellent tonic as well as a powerful antiseptic. 7. Give the Anglo-Saxon equivalent for "nocturnal." 8. A negative exponent signifies the reciprocal of what the expression would be if the exponent were positive. +Theme XC.+--_Write an explanation of one of the following:_ 1. Birds of a feather flock together. 2. Truths and roses have thorns about them. 3. Where there's a will, there's a way. 4. Who keeps company with a wolf will learn to howl. 5. He gives nothing but worthless gold, who gives from a sense of duty. 6. All things that are, Are with more spirit chased than enjoyed. 7. Be not simply good--be good for something. 8. He that hath light within his own clear breast, May sit i' the center, and enjoy bright day; But he that hides a dark soul and foul thoughts Benighted walks under the midday sun; Himself is his own dungeon. (Select the sentence that seems most difficult to you, determine what it means, and then attempt to make an explanation that will show that you thoroughly understand its meaning.) +164. Exposition by Repetition.+--In discussing paragraph development (Section 50) we have already learned that the meaning of a proposition may be made clearer by the repetition of the topic statement. This repetition may be used to supplement the definition of terms, or it may by itself make clear both the meaning of the terms and of the proposition. Each repetition of the proposition presents it to the reader in a new light or in a stronger light. Each time the idea is presented it seems more definite, more familiar, more clear. Such statements of a proposition take advantage of the fact that the reader is thinking, and we merely attempt to direct his thought in such a way that he will turn the proposition over and over in his mind until it is understood. Notice how the following propositions are explained largely by means of repetitions, each of which adds a little to the original statement. How to live?--that is the essential question for us. Not how to live in the mere material sense only, but in the widest sense. The general problem, which comprehends every special problem, is the right ruling of conduct in all directions under all circumstances. In what way to treat the body; in what way to treat the mind; in what way to manage our affairs; in what way to bring up a family; in what way to behave as a citizen; in what way to utilize all those sources of happiness which nature supplies--how to use all our faculties to the greatest advantage of ourselves and others--how to live completely? And this being the great thing needful for us to learn, is, by consequence, the great thing which education has to teach. To prepare us for complete living is the function which education has to discharge: and the only radical mode of judging of any educational course, is, to judge in what degree it discharges such functions. --Herbert Spencer: _Education_. The gray squirrel is remarkably graceful in all his movements. It seems as though some subtle curve was always produced by the line of the back and tail at every light bound of the athletic little creature. He never moves abruptly or jerks himself impatiently, as the red squirrel is continually doing. On the contrary, all his movements are measured and deliberate, but swift and sure. He never makes a bungling leap, and his course is marked by a number of sinuous curves almost equal to those of a snake. He is here one minute, and the next he has slipped away almost beyond the ability of our eyes to follow. --F. Schuyler Matthews: _American Nut Gatherers_. +Theme XCI.+--_Write a paragraph explaining one of the propositions below by means of repetition._ 1. Physical training should be made compulsory in the high school. 2. Some people who seem to be selfish are not really so. 3. The dangers of athletic contests are overestimated. 4. The Monroe Doctrine is a warning to European powers to keep their hands off territory in North and South America. 5. By the "treadmill of life" we mean the daily routine of duties. 6. The thirst for novelty is one of the most powerful incentives that take a man to distant countries. 7. There are unquestionably increasing opportunities for an honorable and useful career in the civil service of the United States. (Have you used any method besides that of repetition? Does your paragraph really explain the proposition?) +165. Exposition by Use of Examples.+--Exposition treats of general subjects, and the topic statement of a paragraph is, therefore, a general statement. In order to understand what such a general statement means, the reader may need to think of a concrete case. The writer may develop his paragraph by furnishing concrete cases. (See Section 44.) In many cases no further explanation is necessary. The following paragraph illustrates this method of explanation:-- The lower portions of stream valleys which have sunk below sea level are called _drowned valleys_. The lower St. Lawrence is perhaps the greatest example of a drowned valley in the world, but many other rivers are in the same condition. The old channel of the Hudson River may be traced upon the sea bottom about 125 miles beyond its present mouth, and its valley is drowned as far up as Troy, 150 miles. The sea extends up the Delaware River to Trenton, and Chesapeake Bay with its many arms is the drowned valleys of the Susquehanna and its former tributaries. Many of the most famous harbors in the world, as San Francisco Bay, Puget Sound, the estuaries of the Thames and the Mersey, and the Scottish firths, are drowned valleys. --Dryer: _Lessons in Physical Geography_. +Theme XCII.+--_Develop one of the following topic statements into an expository paragraph by use of examples:_-- 1. Weather depends to a great extent upon winds. 2. Progress in civilization has been materially aided by the use of nails. 3. Habit is formed by the repetition of the same act. 4. Men become criminals by a gradual process. 5. Men's lives are affected by small things. 6. Defeat often proves to be real success. (Have you made your meaning clear? Does your example really illustrate the topic statement? Can you think of other illustrations?) +166. Exposition by Comparison or Contrast.+--We can frequently make our explanations clear by comparing the subject under discussion with something that is already familiar to the reader. In such a case we shall need to show in what respect the subject we are explaining is similar to or differs from that with which it is compared. (Section 48.) Though customary it is not necessary to compare the term under discussion with some well-known term. In the example below the term _socialism_ is probably no more familiar than the term _anarchism_. Both are explained in the selection, and the explanations are made clearer by contrasting the one with the other. Socialism, which is curiously confounded by the indiscriminating with Anarchism, is its exact opposite. Anarchy is the doctrine that there should be no government control; Socialism--that is, State Socialism--is the doctrine that government should control everything. State Socialism affirms that the state--that is, the government--should own all the tools and implements of industry, should direct all occupations, and should give to every man according to his need and require from every man according to his ability. State Socialism points to the evils of overproduction in some fields and insufficient production in others, under our competitive system, and proposes to remedy these evils by assigning to government the duty of determining what shall be produced and what each worker shall produce. If there are too many preachers and too few shoemakers, the preacher will be taken from the pulpit and assigned to the bench; if there are too many shoemakers and too few preachers, the shoemaker will be taken from the bench and assigned to the pulpit. Anarchy says, no government; Socialism says, all government; Anarchy leaves the will of the individual absolutely unfettered, Socialism leaves nothing to the individual will; Anarchism would have no social organism which is not dependent on the entirely voluntary assent of each individual member of the organism at every instant of its history; Socialism would have every individual of the social organism wholly subordinate in all his lifework to the authority of the whole body expressed through its properly constituted officers. It is true that there are some writers who endeavor to unite these two antagonistic doctrines by teaching that society should be organized wholly for industry, not at all for government. But how a coöperative industry can be carried on without a government which controls as well as counsels, no writer, so far as I have been able to discover, has ever even suggested. --Lyman Abbott: _Anarchism: Its Cause and Cure_. +Theme XCIII.+--_Write an exposition that makes use of comparison:_-- Suggested subjects:-- 1. A bad habit is a tyrant. 2. Typewritten letters. 3. The muskrat's house. 4. Compare Shylock with Barabas in Marlowe's _Jew of Malta_. 5. Methods of reading. 6. All the world's a stage. 7. Compare life to a flower. (Can you suggest any other comparisons which you might have used? Have you been careful in your selection of facts and arrangement?) +167. Exposition by Obverse Statements.+--In explaining an idea it is necessary to distinguish it from any related or similar idea with which it may be confused in the minds of our readers. Clearness is added by the statement that one is _not_ the other. To say that socialism is not anarchy is a good preparation for the explanation of what socialism really is. In the following selection Burke excludes different kinds of peace and by this exclusion emphasizes the kind of peace which he has in mind. The proposition is peace. Not peace through the medium of war; not peace to be hunted through the labyrinth of intricate and endless negotiations; not peace to arise out of universal discord, fomented from principle, in all parts of the empire; not peace to depend on the juridical determination of perplexing questions, or the precise marking the shadowy boundaries of a complex government. It is simple peace; sought in its natural course, and in its ordinary haunts.--It is peace sought in the spirit of peace; and laid in principles purely pacific. I propose, by removing the ground of the difference, and by restoring the _former unsuspecting confidence of the colonies in the Mother Country_, to give permanent satisfaction to your people; and (far from a scheme of ruling by discord) to reconcile them to each other in the same act, and by the bond of the very same interest which reconciles them to British government. +168. Exposition by Giving Particulars or Details.+--One of the most natural methods of explaining is to give particulars or details. After a general statement has been made, our minds naturally look for details to make the meaning of that statement clearer. (See Sections 45-47.) This method is used very largely in generalized descriptions and narrations. Notice the use of particulars or details in the following examples:-- Happy the boy who knows the secret of making a willow whistle! He must know the best kind of willow for the purpose, and the exact time of year when the bark will slip. The country boy seems to know these things by instinct. When the day for whistles arrives he puts away marbles and hunts the whetstone. His jackknife must be in good shape, for the making of a whistle is a delicate piece of handicraft. The knife has seen service in mumblepeg and as nut pick since whistle-making time last year. Surrounded by a crowd of spectators, some admiring, some skeptical, the boy selects his branch. There is an air of mystery about the proceeding. With a patient indulgent smile he rejects all offers of assistance. He does not attempt to explain why this or that branch will not do. When finally he raises his shining knife and cuts the branch on which his choice has fallen, all crowd round and watch. From the large end between two twigs he takes a section about six inches long. Its bark is light green and smooth. He trims one end neatly and passes his thumb thoughtfully over it to be sure it is finished to his taste. He then cuts the other end of the stick at an angle of about 45°, making a clean single cut. The sharp edge of this is now cut off to make a mouthpiece. This is a delicate operation, for the bark is apt to crush or split if the knife is dull, or the hand is unskillful. The boy holds it up, inspecting his own work critically. Sometimes he is dissatisfied and cuts again. If he makes a third cut and is still unsuccessful he tosses the spoiled piece away. It is too short now. A half dozen eager hands reach for the discarded stick, and the one who gets it fondles it lovingly. I once had such a treasure and cherished it until I learned the secret of the whistle-maker's art. He next places the knife edge about half an inch back from the end of the mouthpiece and cuts straight towards the center of the branch about one-fourth the way through. A three-cornered piece is now cut out, and the chip falls to the ground unheeded. When this is finished the boy's eye runs along the stick with a calculating squint. The knife edge is placed at the middle, then moved a short distance towards the mouthpiece. With skillful hand he cuts through the bark in a perfect circle round the stick. While we watch in fascinated silence, he takes the knife by the blade and resting the unfinished whistle on his knees he strikes firmly but gently the part of the stick between the ring and the mouthpiece. Only the wooden part of the handle touches the bark. He goes over and over it until every spot on its surface has felt his light blow. Now he lays the knife aside, and grasping the stick with a firm hand below the ring in the bark, with the right hand he holds the pounded end. He tries it with a careful twist. It sticks. Back to his knees it goes and the tap, tap, begins again. When he twists it again it slips, and the bark comes off smoothly in one piece, while we breathe a sigh of relief. How white the stick is under the bark! It shines and looks slippery. Now the boy takes his knife again. He cuts towards the straight jog where the chip was taken out, paring the wood away, sloping up to within an inch of the end of the bark. Now he cuts a thin slice of the wood between the edge of the vertical cut and the mouthpiece. The whistle is nearly finished. We have all seen him make them before and know what comes next. Our tongues seek over moist lips sympathetically, for we know the taste of peeled willow. He puts the end of the stick into his mouth and draws it in and out until it is thoroughly wet. Then he lifts the carefully guarded section of bark and slips it back into place, fitting the parts nicely together. The willow whistle is finished. There remains but to try it. Will it go? Does he dare blow into it and risk our jeers if it is dumb? With all the fine certainty of the Pied Piper the boy lifts the humble instrument to his lips. His eyes have a far-off look, his face changes; while we strain eyes and ears, he takes his own time. The silence is broken by a note, so soft, so tender, yet so weird and unlike other sounds! Our hands quiver, our hearts beat faster. It is as if the spirit of the willow tree had joined with the spirit of childhood in the natural song of earth. It goes! --Mary Rogers Miller: _The Brook Book_. (Copyright, 1902, Doubleday, Page and Co.) +Theme XCIV.+--_Write an exposition on one of the following subjects, making use of particulars or details:_-- 1. How ice cream is made. 2. The cultivation of rice. 3. Greek architecture. 4. How paper is made. 5. A tornado. 6. Description of a steam engine. 7. The circulatory system of a frog. 8. A western ranch. 9. Street furniture. 10. A street fair. (Have you used particulars sufficient to make your meaning clear? Have you used any unnecessary particulars? Why is the arrangement of your topics easy in this theme?) +169. Exposition by Cause and Effect.+--When our general statement is in the form of a cause or causes, the question naturally arises in our mind as to the effects resulting from those causes. In like manner, when the general statement takes the form of an effect, we want to know what the causes are that produce such an effect. From the very nature of exposition we may expect to find much of this kind of discourse relating to causes and effects. (See Section 49.) Notice the following example:-- The effect of the polar whirls may be seen in the rapid rotation of water in a pan or bowl. The centrifugal force throws the water away from the center, where the surface becomes depressed, and piles it up around the sides, where the surface becomes elevated. The water being deeper at the sides than at the center, its pressure upon the bottom is proportionately greater. A similar effect is produced by the whirl of the air around the polar regions. It is thrown away from the polar regions and piled up around the circumference of the whirl. There is less air above the polar regions than above latitude 30°-40°, and the atmospheric pressure is correspondingly low at one place and high at the other. Thus the centrifugal force of the polar whirl makes the pressure low in spite of the low temperature. The position of the tropical belts of high pressure is a resultant of the high temperature of the equatorial regions on one side and the polar whirls on the other. --Dryer: _Lessons in Physical Geography_. +Theme XCV.+--_Write an expository theme using cause or effect._ Suggested subjects:-- 1. The causes of the French Revolution. 2. How ravines are formed. 3. Irrigation. 4. Effects of smoking. 5. Lack of exercise. 6. Volcanic eruptions. (Did you find it necessary to make use of any other method of explanation? Did you make use of description in any place?) SUMMARY 1. Exposition is that form of discourse the purpose of which is to explain. 2. The essential characteristics of an exposition are-- _a._ That it possess unity because it contains only those facts essential to its purpose. _b._ That the facts used be arranged in a coherent order. 3. Exposition is concerned with (_a_) general terms or (_b_) general propositions. 4. The steps in the exposition of a term are-- _a._ Definition. This may be-- (1) By synonym (inexact). (2) By use of the logical definition (exact). _b._ Division. This may be-- (1) Complete (classification). (2) Incomplete (partition). The same principle of division should be followed throughout. 5. Exposition of a proposition may use any one of the following methods-- _a._ By repetition. _b._ By giving examples. _c._ By stating comparisons and contrasts. _d._ By making obverse statements. _e._ By relating particulars or details. _f._ By stating cause or effect. _g._ By any suitable combination of these methods. XI. ARGUMENT +170. Difference between Argument and Exposition.+--Argument differs from exposition in its purpose. By exposition we endeavor to make clear the meaning of a proposition; by argument we attempt to prove its truth. If a person does not understand what we mean, we explain; if, after he does understand, he does not believe, we argue. Often a simple explanation is sufficient to convince. As soon as the reader understands the real meaning of a proposition, he accepts our view of the case. A heated discussion may end with the statement, "Oh, if that is what you mean, I agree with you." In Section 70, we have learned that the first step in argument is explanation, by which we make clear the meaning of the proposition the truth of which we wish to establish. This explanation may include both the expounding of the terms in the proposition and the explanation of the proposition as a whole. There is another difference between exposition and argument. We cannot argue about single terms, though we may explain them. We may explain what is meant by the term _elective studies_, or _civil service;_ but an argument requires a proposition such as, Pupils should be allowed to choose their own studies, or, Civil Service should be established. Even with such a topic as Expansion or Restricted Immigration, which seems to be a subject of argument, there is really an implied proposition under discussion; as, The United States should acquire control of territory outside of its present boundaries; or, It should be the policy of our government to restrict immigration. We may explain the meaning of single terms or of propositions, but in order to argue, we must have a proposition either expressed or implied. +171. Proposition of Fact and Proposition of Theory.+--Some propositions state facts and some propositions state theories. Every argument therefore aims either to prove the occurrence of a fact or the truth of a theory. The first would attempt to show the actual or probable truth of a specific proposition; for example:-- Nero was guilty of burning Rome. Joan of Arc was burned at the stake. Barbara Frietchie actually existed. Sheridan never made the ride from Winchester. Homer was born at Chios. The second would try to establish the probable truth of a general theory; for example:-- A college education is a profitable investment. Light is caused by a wave motion of ether. +172. Statement of the Proposition.+--The subject about which we argue may be stated in any one of the three forms discussed in Section 74; that is, as a declarative sentence, a resolution, or a question. The statement does not necessarily appear first in the argument, but it must be clearly formulated in the mind of the writer before he attempts to argue. Before trying to convince others he must know exactly what he himself believes, and the attempt to state his belief in the form of a proposition will assist in making his own thought clear and definite. If we are going to argue concerning elective studies, we should first of all be sure that we understand the meaning of the term ourselves. Then we must consider carefully what we believe about it, and state our proposition so that it shall express exactly this belief. On first thought we may believe the proposition that pupils should be allowed to choose their own studies. But is this proposition true of pupils in the grades as well as in the high schools? Or is it true only of the upper classes in the high school or only of college students? Can you state this proposition so that it will express your own belief on the subject? EXERCISES _A_. Use the following terms in expressed propositions:-- 1. Immigration. 2. Elevated railways. 3. American history. 4. Military training. 5. Single session. 6. Athletics. _B_. Explain the following propositions:-- 1. The United States should adopt a free-trade policy. 2. Is vivisection justifiable? 3. The author has greater influence than the orator. 4. The civil service system should be abolished. 5. The best is always cheapest. _C_. Can you restate the following propositions so that the meaning of each will be made more definite? 1. Athletics should be abolished. (Should _all_ athletic exercises be abolished?) 2. Latin is better than algebra. (_Better_ for what purpose? _Better_ for whom?) 3. Training in domestic arts and sciences should be provided for high school pupils. (Define domestic arts and sciences. Should they be taught to _all_ high school pupils?) 4. Punctuality is more important than efficiency. 5. The commercial course is better than the classical course. 6. A city should control the transportation facilities within its limits. +Theme XCVI.+--_Write out an argument favoring one of the propositions as restated in Exercise C above._ (Before writing, make a brief as indicated in Section 77. Consider the arrangement of your argument.) +173. Clear Thinking Essential to Argument.+--Having clearly in mind the proposition which we wish to prove, we next proceed to give arguments in its support. The very fact that we argue at all assumes that there are two sides to the question. If we hope to have another accept our view we must present good reasons. We cannot convince another that a proposition is true unless we can tell him why it is true; and certainly we cannot tell him why until we know definitely our own reasons for believing the statement. In order to present a good argument we must be clear logical thinkers ourselves; that is, we must be able to state definite reasons for our beliefs and to draw the correct conclusions. +174. Inductive Reasoning.+--One of the best preparations for trying to convince others is for us to consider carefully our own reasons for believing as we do. Minds act in a similar manner, and what leads you and me to believe certain truths will be likely to cause others to believe them also. A brief consideration of how our belief in the truth of a proposition has been established will indicate the way in which we should present our material in order to cause others to believe the same proposition. If you ask yourself the question, What leads me to believe as I do? the answer will undoubtedly be effective in convincing others. Are the following propositions true or false? Why do you believe or refuse to believe each? 1. Maple trees shed their leaves in winter. 2. Dogs bark. 3. Kettles are made of iron. 4. Grasshoppers jump. 5. Giraffes have long necks. 6. Raccoons sleep in the daytime. 7. The sun will rise to-morrow. 8. Examinations are not fair tests of a pupil's knowledge. 9. Honest people are respected. 10. Water freezes at 32° Fahrenheit. 11. Boys get higher standings in mathematics than girls do. It is at once evident that we believe a proposition such as one of these, because we have known of many examples. If we reject any of the propositions it is because we know of exceptions (we have seen kettles not made of iron), or because we do not know of instances (we may never have seen a raccoon, and so not know what he does in the daytime). The greater the number of cases which have occurred without presenting an exception, the stronger our belief in the truth of the proposition (we expect the sun to rise because it has never failed). The process by which, from many individual cases, we establish the truth of a proposition is called +inductive reasoning+. +175. Establishing a General Theory.+--A general theory is established by showing that for all known particular cases it will offer an acceptable explanation. By investigation or experiment we note that a certain fact is true in one particular instance, and, after a large number of individual cases have been noted, and the same fact found to be true in each, we assume that such is true of all like cases, and a general law is established. This is the natural scientific method and is constantly being made use of in pursuing scientific studies. By experiment, it was found that one particular kind of acid turned blue litmus red. This, of course, was not sufficient proof to establish a general law, but when, upon further investigation, it was found to be true of all known acids, scientists felt justified in stating the general law that acids turn blue litmus red. In establishing a new theory in science it is necessary to bring forward many facts which seem to establish it, and the argument will consist in pointing out these facts. Frequently the general principle is assumed to be true, and the argument then consists in showing that it will apply to and account for all the facts of a given kind. Theories which have been for a time believed have, as the world progressed in learning, been found unable to account for all of a given class of conditions. They have been replaced, therefore, by other theories, just as the Copernican theory of astronomy has displaced the Ptolemaic theory. Our belief may be based upon the absence of facts proving the contrary as well as upon the presence of facts proving the proposition. If A has never told an untruth, that fact is an argument in favor of his truthfulness on the present occasion. A man who has never been dishonest may point to this as an argument in favor of placing him in a position of trust. Often the strongest evidence that we can offer in favor of a proposition is the absence of any fact that would support the negative conclusion. The point of the whole matter is that from the observation of a large number of cases, we may establish the _probable_ truth of a proposition, but emphasis needs to be laid upon the probability. We cannot be sure. Not all crows are black, though you may never have seen a white one. The sun may not rise to-morrow, though it has never failed up to this time. Still it is by this observation of many individual cases that the truth of the propositions that men do believe has been established. We realize that our inductions are often imperfect, but the general truths so established will be found to underlie every process of reasoning, and will be either directly or indirectly the basis upon which we build up all argument. We may then redefine inductive reasoning as the process by which from many individual cases we establish the _probable_ truth of a general proposition. EXERCISES Notice in the following selections that the truth of the conclusion is shown by giving particular examples:-- 1. It is curious enough that _we always remember people by their worst points_, and still more curious that _we always suppose that we ourselves are remembered by our best_. I once knew a hunchback who had a well-shaped hand, and was continually showing it. He never believed that anybody noticed his hump, but lived and died in the conviction that the whole town spoke of him no otherwise than as the man with the beautiful hand, whereas, in fact, they only looked at his hump, and never so much as noticed whether he had a hand at all. This young lady, so pretty and so clever, is simply the girl who had that awkward history with So-and-so; that man, who has some of the very greatest qualities, is nothing more than the one who behaved so badly on such an occasion. It is a terrible thing to think that we are all always at watch one upon the other, to catch the false step in order that we may have the grateful satisfaction of holding our neighbor for one who cannot walk straight. No regard is paid to the better qualities and acts, however numerous; all the attention is fixed upon the worst, however slight. If St. Peter were alive he would be known as the man who denied his Master; St. Paul would be the man who stoned Stephen; and St. Thomas would never be mentioned in any decent society without allusions to that unfortunate request for further evidence. Probably this may be the reason why we all have so much greater a contempt for and distrust of each other than would be warranted by a correct balance between the good and the evil that are in each. --Thomas Gibson Bowles: _Flotsam and Jetsam_. 2. In the first place, 227 withered leaves of various kinds, mostly of English plants, were pulled out of worm burrows in several places. Of these, 181 had been drawn into the burrows by or near their tips, so that the footstalk projected nearly upright from the mouth of the burrow; 20 had been drawn in by their bases, and in this case the tips projected from the burrows; and 26 had been seized near the middle, so that these had been drawn in transversely and were much crumpled. Therefore 80 per cent (always using the nearest whole number) had been drawn in by the tip, 9 per cent by the base or footstalk, and 11 per cent transversely or by the middle. This alone is almost sufficient to show that _chance does not determine the manner in which leaves are dragged into the burrows_. --Darwin: _Vegetable Mold and Earthworms_. 3. _The catastrophe of every play is caused always by the folly or fault of a man; the redemption, if there be any, is by the wisdom and virtue of a woman, and, failing that, there is none_. The catastrophe of King Lear is owing to his own want of judgment, his impatient vanity, his misunderstanding of his children; the virtue of his one true daughter would have saved him from all the injuries of the others, unless he had cast her away from him; as it is, she all but saves him. Of Othello, I need not trace the tale; nor the one weakness of his so mighty love; nor the inferiority of his perceptive intellect to that even of the second woman character in the play, the Emilia who dies in wild testimony against his error:-- "Oh, murderous coxcomb! what should such a fool Do with so good a wife?" In _Romeo and Juliet_, the wise and brave stratagem of the wife is brought to ruinous issue by the reckless impatience of her husband. In _The Winter's Tale_, and in _Cymbeline_, the happiness and existence of two princely households, lost through long years, and imperiled to the death by the folly and obstinacy of the husbands, are redeemed at last by the queenly patience and wisdom of the wives. In _Measure for Measure_, the foul injustice of the judge, and the foul cowardice of the brother, are opposed to the victorious truth and adamantine purity of a woman. In _Coriolanus_, the mother's counsel, acted upon in time, would have saved her son from all evil; his momentary forgetfulness of it is his ruin; her prayer, at last, granted, saves him--not, indeed, from death, but from the curse of living as the destroyer of his country. --Ruskin: _Sesame and Lilies_. 4. _Bas. _So may the outward shows be least themselves; _The world is still deceived with ornament_. In law, what plea so tainted and corrupt But, being season'd with a gracious voice, Obscures the show of evil? In religion, What damned error, but some sober brow Will bless it and approve it with a text, Hiding the grossness with fair ornament? There is no vice so simple but assumes Some mark of virtue on his outward parts: How many cowards, whose hearts are all as false As stairs of sand, wear yet upon their chins The beards of Hercules and frowning Mars, Who, inward search'd, have livers white as milk; And these assume but valor's excrement To render them redoubted! Look on beauty, And you shall see 'tis purchased by the weight; Which therein works a miracle in nature, Making them lightest that wear most of it: So are those crisped snaky golden locks Which make such wanton gambols with the wind, Upon supposed fairness, often known To be the dowry of a second head, The skull that bred them in the sepulcher. Thus ornament is but the guiled shore To a most dangerous sea; the beauteous scarf Veiling an Indian beauty; in a word, The seeming truth which cunning times put on To entrap the wisest. Therefore, thou gaudy gold, Hard food for Midas, I will none of thee; Nor none of thee, thou pale and common drudge 'Tween man and man: but thou, though meager lead, Which rather threatenest than dost promise aught, Thy paleness moves me more than eloquence; And here choose I: joy be the consequence! --Shakespeare: _The Merchant of Venice_. +Theme XCVII.+--_Write a paragraph proving the truth of one of the following statements:_-- 1. It is a distinct advantage to a large town to be connected with the smaller towns by electric car lines. 2. Vertical penmanship should be taught in all elementary schools. 3. Examinations develop dishonesty. 4. Novel reading is a waste of time. 5. Tramps ought not to be fed. (Make a brief. Consider the arrangement of your arguments. Read Section 72.) +176. Errors of Induction.+--A common error is that of too hasty generalization. We conclude that something is always so because it happened to be so in the few cases that have come under our observation. A broader experience frequently shows that the hastily made generalization will not hold. Some people are led to lose faith in all humanity because one or two of their acquaintances have shown themselves unworthy of their trust. Others are ready to pronounce a merchant dishonest because some article purchased at his store has not proved to be so good as it was expected to be. There are those who are superstitious concerning the wearing of opals, claiming that these jewels bring the wearer ill luck, because they have heard of some instances where misfortune seemed to follow the wearing of that particular stone. What may seem to be causes and effects at first may, upon further investigation or inquiry, prove to be merely chance coincidences. In your work in argument, whether for the class room or outside, be careful about this point. Remember that your induction will be weak or even worthless if you draw conclusions from too few examples. Often one example seems sufficient to cause belief. We might believe that all giraffes have long necks, even though we had seen but one; but such a belief would exist because, by many examples of other animals, we have learned that a single specimen will fairly represent all other specimens of the same class. On the other hand, if this one giraffe should possess one brown eye and one white eye, we should not expect all other giraffes to have such eyes, for our observation of many hundreds of animals teaches us that the eyes of an animal are usually alike in color. In order to establish a true generalization, the _essential_ characteristics must be selected, and these cannot be determined by rule, but rather by common sense. +177. Deductive Reasoning.+--When once a general principle has been established, we may demonstrate the truth of a specific proposition by showing that the general principle applies to it. We see a gold ring and say, "This ring is valuable," because we believe the general proposition, "All articles made of gold are valuable." Expressed in full, the process of reasoning would be-- _A._ All articles made of gold are valuable. _B._ This ring is made of gold. _C._ Therefore this ring is valuable. A series of statements such as the above is called a syllogism. It consists of a major premise (_A_), a minor premise (_B_), and a conclusion (_C_). Of course we shall not be called upon to prove so simple a proposition as the one given, but with more difficult ones the method of reasoning is the same. The process which applies a general proposition (_A_) to a specific instance (_C_), is called deductive reasoning. +178. Relation between Inductive and Deductive Reasoning.+--Deductive reasoning is shorter and seems more convincing than inductive reasoning, for if the premises are true and the statement is made in correct form, the conclusions are irresistible. Each conclusion carries with it, however, the weakness of the premises on which it is based, and as these premises are general principles that have been themselves established by inductive reasoning, the conclusions of deductive reasoning can be no more _sure_ than those of inductive reasoning. Each may prove only that the proposition is probably true rather than that it is surely true, though in many cases this probability becomes almost a certainty. +179. The Enthymeme.+--We seldom need to state our argument in the syllogistic form. One of the premises is usually omitted, and we pass directly from one premise to the conclusion. If we say, "Henry will not succeed as an engineer," and when asked why he will not, we reply, "Because he is not good in mathematics," we have omitted the premise, "A knowledge of mathematics is necessary for success in engineering." A shortened syllogism, that is, a syllogism with one premise omitted, is called an enthymeme. Thus in ordinary matters our thought turns at once to the conclusion in connection with but one premise. We make a thousand statements which a moment's thought will show that we believe because we believe some unexpressed general principle. If I should say of my dog, "Fido will die sometime," no sensible person would doubt the truth of the statement. If asked to prove it, I would say, "Because he is a dog, and all dogs die sometime." Thus I apply to a specific proposition, Fido will die, the general one, All dogs die, a proposition about which there is no doubt. Frequently the suppressed premise is not so well established as in this case, and the belief or nonbelief of the proposition will be determined by the individuals addressed, each in accordance with his experience. Suppose that in reading we find the statement, "A boy of fourteen ought not to be allowed to choose his own subjects of study, because he will choose all the easy ones and avoid the more difficult though more valuable ones." The omitted premise that all boys will choose easy studies, needs to be established by induction. If a high school principal had noticed that out of five hundred boys, four hundred elected the easy studies, he would admit the truth of the omitted premise, and so of the conclusion. But if only one hundred had chosen the easy subjects, he would reject the major premise and likewise the conclusion. It is evident that in order to be sure of the truth of a proposition we must determine the truth of the premises upon which it is based. An argument therefore is frequently given over wholly to establishing the premises. If their truth can be demonstrated, the conclusion inevitably follows. EXERCISES _A._ Supply the missing premise for the following:-- 1. John will succeed because he has a college education. 2. Henry is happy because he has plenty of money. 3. Candy is nutritious because it is made of sugar. 4. These biscuits will make me ill because they are heavy. 5. This dog must be angry because he is growling. 6. This fish can swim. 7. The plural of the German noun _der Garten_ is _die Gärten_. 8. It will hurt to have this tooth filled. _B._ Supply the reasons and complete the syllogism for each of the following:-- 1. This book should not be read. 2. This hammer is useful. 3. That dog will bite. 4. This greyhound can run rapidly. 5. The leaves have fallen from the trees. 6. That boy ought to be punished. 7. It is too early to go nutting. 8. This boy should not study. 9. You ought not to vote for this man for mayor. +Theme XCVIII.+--_Write a paragraph proving the truth of one of the following propositions:_-- 1. Labor-saving machinery is of permanent advantage to mankind. 2. New Orleans will some day be a greater shipping port than New York. 3. Poetry has a greater influence on the morals of a nation than prose writing. 4. Boycotting injures innocent persons and should never be employed. 5. Ireland should have Home Rule. 6. The President of the United States should be elected by the direct vote of the people. (Consider your argument with reference to the suppressed premises.) +180. Errors of Deduction.+--The deductive method of reasoning, if properly used, is effective, but much care needs to be taken to avoid false conclusions. A complete exposition of the variations of the syllogism is not necessary here, but it will be of value to consider briefly three chief errors. If the terms are not used with the same meaning throughout, the conclusion is valueless. A person might agree with you that domestic arts should be taught to girls in school, but if you continued by saying that scrubbing the floor is a form of domestic art, therefore the girls should be taught to scrub the floor, he would reject your conclusion because the meaning of the term _domestic art_ as he understood it in the first statement, is not that used in the second. It will be noticed that each syllogism includes three terms. For example, the syllogism,-- All hawks eat flesh; This bird is a hawk; Therefore this bird eats flesh,-- contains the three terms, _hawk, eats flesh, this bird_; of these but two appear in the conclusion. The one which does not (in this case _hawk_) is called the middle term. If the major premise does not make a statement about every member of the class denoted by the middle term, the conclusion may not be valid even though the premises are true. For example:-- All hawks are birds; This chicken is a bird; Therefore this chicken is a hawk. In this case the middle term is _birds_, and the major premise, _All hawks are birds_, does not make a statement which applies to all birds. The conclusion is therefore untrue. Such an argument is a fallacy. The validity of the conclusion is impaired if either premise is false. In the enthymeme, "Henry is a coward; he dare not run away from school," the suppressed premise, "All persons who will not run away from school, are cowards," is not true, and so invalidates the conclusion. It is well to test the validity of your own argument and that of your opponent by seeking for the suppressed premise and stating it, for this may reveal a fatal weakness in the thought. EXERCISES Which of the following are incorrect? 1. The government should pay for the education of its people; Travel is a form of education; Therefore the government should pay the traveling expenses of the people. 2. All horses are useful; This animal is useful; Therefore this animal is a horse. 3. I ought not to study algebra because it is a very difficult subject. 4. Pupils ought not to write notes because note writing interferes with the rights of others. 5. All fish can swim; Charles can swim; Therefore Charles is a fish. 6. Henry is a fool because he wears a white necktie. 7. All dogs bark; This animal barks; Therefore this animal is a dog. +Theme XCIX.+--_Write a paragraph proving the truth of one of the following propositions:_-- 1. The government should establish a parcels post. 2. The laws of mind determine the forms of composition. 3. Training for citizenship should be given greater attention in the public schools. 4. The members of the school board should be appointed by the mayor of the city. 5. In the estimation of future ages ---- will be considered the greatest President since Lincoln. (State your premises. Have you shown that they are true?) +181. Evidence.+--We may reach belief in the truth of a specific statement by means of deductive reasoning. Commonly, however, when dealing with an actual state or occurrence, we present other facts or circumstances that show its existence. The facts presented may be those of experience, the testimony of witnesses, the opinion of those considered as experts in the subject, or a combination of circumstances known to have existed. To be of any value as arguments, they must be true, and they must be related to the fact that we are trying to prove. These true and pertinent facts we term _evidence_. Evidence may be direct or indirect. If a man sees a boy steal a bag of apples from the orchard across the way, his evidence is direct. If instead, he only sees him with an empty bag and later with a full one, the evidence will be indirect. If you testify that early in the evening you saw a tramp enter a barn which later in the evening caught fire, your testimony as regards the cause of the fire would be indirect evidence against the tramp. If you can testify that you saw sparks fall from his lighted pipe and ignite a pile of hay in the barn, the evidence which you give will be direct. Direct evidence has more weight than indirect, but often the latter is nearly equal to the former and is sufficient to convince us. Even the direct testimony of eye-witnesses must be carefully considered. Several persons may see the same thing and yet make very different reports, even though they may all desire to tell the truth. The weight that we shall give to a person's testimony will depend upon his ability to observe and to report accurately what he has experienced, and upon his desire to tell the truth. Notice in the following selection what facts, specific instances, and circumstances are advanced in support of the proposition. Assuming that they are true, are they pertinent to the proposition? Certain species of these army ants which inhabit tropical America, Mr. Belt considered to be the most intelligent of all the insects of that part of the world. On one occasion he noticed a wide column of them trying to pass along a nearly perpendicular slope of crumbling earth, on which they found great difficulty in obtaining a foothold. A number succeeded in retaining their positions, and further strengthened them by laying hold of their neighbors. They then remained in this position, and allowed the column to march securely and easily over their bodies. On another occasion a column was crossing a stream of water by a very narrow branch of a tree, which only permitted them to go in single file. The ants widened the bridge by a number clinging to the sides and to each other, and this allowed the column to pass over three or four deep. These ants, having no permanent nests, carry their larvae and pupae with them when marching. The prey they capture is cut up and carried to the rear of the army to be distributed as food. --Robert Brown: _Science for All_. +Theme C.+--_Present all the evidence you can either to prove or disprove one of the following propositions:_-- Select some question of local interest as:-- 1. The last fire in our town was of incendiary origin. 2. The football team from ---- indulged in "slugging" at the last game. 3. Our heating system is inadequate. 4. It rained last night. If you prefer, choose one of the following subjects:-- 1. The Stuart kings were arbitrary rulers. 2. The climate of our country is changing. 3. Gutenberg did not invent the printing press. 4. The American Indians have been unjustly treated by the whites. 5. Nations have their periods of rise and decay. (Are the facts you use true? Are they pertinent? Do you know of facts that would tend to show that your proposition is not true?) +182. Number and Value of Reasons.+--Although a statement may be true and pertinent it is seldom sufficient for proof. We need, as a rule, several such statements. If you are trying to convince a friend that one kind of automobile is superior to another, and can give only one reason for its superiority, you no doubt will fail in your attempt. If, however, you can give several reasons, you may succeed in convincing him. Suppose you go to your principal and ask permission to take an extra study. You may give as a reason the fact that your parents wish you to take it. He may not think that is a sufficient reason for your doing so, but when he finds that with your present studies you do not need to study evenings, that one of them is a review, and that you have been standing well in all your studies, he may be led to think that it will be wise for you to take the desired extra study. While we must guard against insufficiency of reasons, we must not forget that numbers alone do not convince. One good reason is more convincing than several weak ones. Two or three good reasons, clearly and definitely stated, will have much more weight than a large number of less important ones. EXERCISES _A._ Give a reason or two in addition to the reasons already given in each of the following:-- 1. It is better to attend a large college than a small one, because the teachers are as a rule greater experts in their lines of work. 2. The school board ought to give us a field for athletics as the school ground is not large enough for practice. 3. Gymnasium work ought to be made compulsory. Otherwise many who need physical training will neglect it. 4. The game of basket ball is an injury to a school, since it detracts from interest in studies. 5. Rudolph Horton will make a good class president because he has had experience. _B._ Be able to answer orally any two of the following: 1. Prove to a timid person that there is no more danger in riding in an automobile than there is in riding in a carriage drawn by horses. Use but one argument, but make it as strong as possible. 2. Give two good reasons why the superstition concerning Friday is absurd. 3. What, in your mind, is the strongest reason why you wish to graduate from a high school? For your wishing to go into business after leaving the high school? For your wishing to attend college? 4. What are two or three of the strong arguments in favor of woman suffrage? Name two or three arguments in opposition to woman suffrage. _C._ Name all the points that you can in favor of the following. Select the one that you consider the most important. 1. Try to convince a friend that he ought to give up the practice of cigarette smoking. 2. Show that athletics in a high school ought to be under the management of the faculty. 3. Show that athletics should be under the management of the pupils themselves. 4. Macbeth's ambition and not his wife was the cause of his ruin. 5. Macbeth's wife was the cause of his ruin. +Theme CI.+--_Select one of the subjects in the exercise above, and write out two or three of the strongest arguments in its favor._ (Consider the premises, especially those which are not expressed. Is your argument deductive or inductive?) +183. The Basis of Belief.+--If you ask yourself, Why do I believe this? the answer will in many cases show that your belief in the particular case under consideration arises because you believe some general principle or theory which applies to it. One person may believe that political economy should be taught in high schools because he believes that it is the function of the high school to train its pupils for citizenship, and that the study of political economy will furnish this training. Another person may oppose the teaching of political economy because he believes that pupils of high school age are not sufficiently mature in judgment to discuss intelligently the principles of political economy, and that the study of these principles at that age does not furnish desirable training for citizenship. It is evident that an argument between these two concerning the teaching of political economy in any particular school would consist in a discussion of the conflicting general theories which each believed to be true. We have shown in Section 179 that one high school principal might believe that boys should be allowed to choose their own studies because he believed that they would not generally select the easy ones; while another principal would oppose free electives because he believes that boys would choose the less difficult studies. The proposition that "The United States should retain its hold on the Philippines" involves conflicting theories of the function of this government. So it will be found with many of our beliefs that either consciously or unconsciously they are based on general theories. It is important in argument to know what these theories are, and especially to consider what may be the general theories of those whom we wish to convince. +184. Appeals to General Theory, Authority, and Maxims.+--A successful argument in deductive form must be based upon principles and theories that the audience believes. A minister in preaching to the members of his church may with success proceed by deductive methods, because the members believe the general principles upon which he bases his arguments. But in addressing a mixed audience, many of whom are not church members, such an argument might not be convincing, because his hearers might deny the validity of the premises from which his conclusions were drawn. In such a case he must either keep to general theories which his auditors do believe, or by inductive methods seek to prove the truth of the general principles themselves. If in support of our view we quote the opinion of some one whom we believe competent to speak with weight and authority upon the question, we must remember that it will have weight with our audience only if they too look upon the person as an authority. It proves nothing to a body of teachers to say that some educational expert believes as you do unless they have confidence in him as a man of sound judgment. On the other hand, it may count against a proposition to show that it has not been endorsed by any one of importance or prominence. In a similar way a maxim or proverb may be quoted in support of a proposition. If a boy associates with bad company, we may offer the maxim, "Birds of a feather flock together," in proof that he is probably bad too. Such maxims or proverbs are brief statements of principles generally believed, and the use of them in an argument is in effect the presentation of a general theory in a form which appeals to the mind of the hearer and causes him to believe our proposition. +185. Argument by Inference.+--The statement of a fact may be introduced into an argument, not because the fact itself applies directly to the proposition we wish to prove, but because it by inference suggests a general theory which does so apply. Though the reader may not be conscious of it, the presence of this general theory may influence his decision even more than the explicit statement of the general theory would. An argument implies that there are two sides to a question. Which you shall take depends on the way you look on it, that is, on what may be called your mental point of view. Therefore any fact, allusion, maxim, comparison, or other statement which may cause you to look at the question in a different light or from a different point of view may be used as an argument. In effect, it calls up a general theory whose presence affects your decision. Notice how brief the argument is in the following selection from Macaulay:-- Many politicians of our time are in the habit of laying it down as a self-evident proposition, that no people ought to be free till they are fit to use their freedom. The maxim is worthy of the fool in the old story, who resolved not to go into the water till he had learned to swim. If men are to wait for liberty till they become wise and good in slavery, they may indeed wait forever. --Macaulay: _Milton_. +186. Summary.+--To summarize the preceding paragraphs, the authority we quote, the maxims we state, the facts we adduce become valuable because they appeal to general theories already believed by the reader. Success in argument demands, therefore, that we consider carefully what theories may probably be in the mind of our audience, and that we present our argument in such a way as to appeal to those theories. +Theme CII.+--_Write a short argument, using one of the following:_-- 1. A young boy is urging his father to permit him to attend an entertainment. Give his reasons as he would give them to his father. 2. Suppose the father refuses the request. Write out his reasons. 3. Try to convince a companion just entering high school to take the college preparatory course instead of the commercial course. (Are your reasons true and pertinent? To what general theories have you appealed? Consider the coherence of each paragraph.) +187. Arrangement of Arguments.+--We have learned that in arguing we need to consider how those whom we address arrive at the belief they hold, and that it will assist us to this knowledge of others if we consider our own beliefs and the manner of their establishing. We must present our material in the order that convinces. Each case may differ so from every other that no general rule can be followed, but the consideration of some general principles of arrangement will be of assistance. It is the purpose of the following paragraphs to point out in so far as possible the most effective order of arrangement. +188. Possibility, Probability, and Actuality.+--It has been stated, in Section 175, that reasoning leads to probable truth, and that this probability may become so strong as to be accepted as certainty. In common speech this difference is borne in mind, and we distinguish a fact or event that is only possible from one that is probable; and likewise one that is only probable from one in which the probability approaches so near to certainty as to convince us that it actually did exist or occur. Our arguments may therefore be directed to proving possibility, probability, or actuality. If we believe that an event actually occurred, the belief implies both possibility and probability. Therefore, if we wish a person to believe in the actual occurrence of an event, we must first be sure that he does not question the possibility of its existence, and then we must show him that it probably did take place. Only when we have shown that an event is extremely probable have we the right to say that we have shown its actual occurrence. A mother finding some damage done to one of the pictures on the wall could not justly accuse her young son unless by the presence of a chair or stepladder it had been possible for him to reach the picture. This possibility, reënforced by a knowledge of his tendency to mischief, and by the fact that he was in the house at the time the damage was done, would lead to the belief that he probably was guilty. Proof that he was actually responsible for the damage would still be lacking, and it might later be discovered that the injury had been done accidentally by one of the servants. Possibility, probability, and actuality merge into one another so gradually that no sharply defined distinctions can be observed. It is impossible to say that a certain argument establishes possibility, another probability, and a third the actuality of an event. One statement may do all three, but any proof of actuality must include arguments showing both possibility and probability. A person accused of murder attempts to demonstrate his innocence by proving an _alibi;_ that is, he attempts to show that he was at some other place at the time the murder was committed and so cannot possibly be guilty. Such an alibi, established by reliable witnesses, is positive proof of innocence, no matter how strong the evidence pointing to probable guilt may be. +189. Argument from Cause.+--We have learned, in Section 49, that the relation of cause and effect is one which is ingrained in our nature. We accept a proposition as plausible if a cause which we consider adequate has been assigned. Our belief in a proposition often depends upon our belief in some other proposition which may be accepted as a cause. Thus, in the following statements, the truth of one proposition leads to the belief that the other is also true:-- _a._ Henry has studied hard this year; therefore he will pass his college entrance examinations. _b._ The man has severed an artery; therefore he will probably bleed to death before the physician arrives. _c._ It will soon grow warmer, because the sun has risen. _An argument from cause_ may be of itself conclusive evidence of the fact. But, for the most part, such arguments merely establish the possibility or probability of the proposition and so render it ready for proof. In our arrangement of material, we therefore place such arguments _first_. +190. Argument from Sign.+--Cause and effect are so closely united that when an effect is observed we assume that there has been a cause, and we direct our argument to proving what it is. An effect is so associated with its cause that the existence of an effect is a sign of the existence of a cause, and such an argument is called an _argument from sign_. Reasoning from sign is very common in our daily life. The wild geese flying south indicate the approach of cold weather. The baby's toys show that the baby has been in the room. A man's hat found beside a rifled safe will convict the man of the crime. A dog's track in the garden is proof that a dog has been there. If the effect observed is always associated with the same cause, the argument is conclusive. If I observe as an effect that the river has frozen over during the night, I have no doubt that it has been caused by a lowering of the temperature. If two or three possible causes exist, our argument becomes conclusive only by considering them all and by showing that all but one did not produce the observed effect. If the principal of a school knows that one of three boys broke a window light, he may be able to prove which one did it by finding out the two who did not. If a man is found shot to death, the coroner's jury may prove that he was murdered by showing that he did not commit suicide. If there are many possible causes, the method of elimination becomes too tedious and must be abandoned. If you find that your horse is lame, it would be difficult to prove which of the many possible causes actually operated to produce the lameness, though the attendant circumstances might point to some one cause and so lead you to assume that it was the one. Under _arguments from sign_ should be included also those cases when we pass directly from one effect to another that arises from the same cause; as, "I hear the windmill turning, it will be a good day to sail;" or, "These beans are thrifty, therefore if I plant potatoes here I shall get a good crop." In these sentences the wind and the fertile soil are not mentioned, but we pass directly from one effect to another. As used by rhetoricians, arguments from sign include also arguments from attendant circumstances. If we have observed that two events have happened near together in time, we accept the occurrence of one as a sign that the other will follow. When we hear the factory whistle blow, we conclude that in a few minutes the workmen will pass our window on their way home. Such a conclusion is based upon a belief established by an inductive process. The degree of probability that it gives depends upon the number of times that it has been observed to act without failure. If we have seen two boys frequently together, the presence of one is a sign of the probable presence of the other. A camp fire would point to the recent presence of some one who kindled it. In using an argument from sign care must be taken not to confuse the relation of cause and effect with that of contiguity in time or place. Do not allege that which happened at the same time or near the same place as a cause. If you do use an attendant circumstance, be sure that it adds something to the probability. +191. Argument from Example.+--It has been pointed out in the study of inductive reasoning (Section 176) that a single example may suffice to establish a general notion of a class. In dealing with objects of the physical world, if essential and invariable qualities of the object are considered, they may be asserted to be qualities of each member of the class, and such an argument from an individual to all the members of the class is convincing. They thus rank with arguments from sign as effective in proving the certainty of a proposition. In dealing with human actions, on the other hand, examples are seldom proofs of fact. We cannot say that all men will act in a certain way under given circumstances because one man has so acted. Nevertheless, arguments by examples are frequently used and are especially powerful when we wish not only to convince a man, but also to persuade him to action. This persuasion to action must be based on conviction, and in such a case the argument from sign that convinces the man of the truth of a proposition should precede the example that urges him to action. After convincing a friend that there are advantages to be derived from joining a society, we may persuade him to join by naming those who have joined. +192. Argument from Analogy.+--Analogy is very much relied upon in practical life. Reasoning from analogy depends upon the recognition of similarity in regard to some particulars followed by the inference that the similarity extends to other particulars. As soon as it was known that the atmospheric conditions of the planet Mars are similar to those of the earth, it was argued by analogy that Mars must also, be inhabited. An analogy is seldom conclusive and, though it is often effective in argument, it must not be taken as proof of fact. The mind very readily observes likenesses, and when directed toward the establishing of a proposition easily overlooks the differences. In order to determine the strength of an argument from analogy, attention should be given to the differences existing between the two propositions considered. False analogies are very common. We must guard against using them, and especially against allowing ourselves to be convinced by them. Even when the resemblance is so slight as to render analogy impossible, it may serve to produce a metaphor that often has the effect of argument. It is much easier to captivate the fancy with a pretty or striking figure than to move the judgment with sound reason.... His (the speaker's) picture appeals to the mind's visible sense, hence his power over us, though his analogies are more apt to be false than true.... The use of metaphor, comparison, analogy, is twofold--to enliven and to convince; to illustrate and enforce an accepted truth, and to press home and clinch one in dispute. An apt figure may put a new face upon an old and much worn truism, and a vital analogy may reach and move the reason. Thus when Renan, referring to the decay of the old religious beliefs, says that the people are no poorer for being robbed of false bank notes and bogus shares, his comparison has a logical validity.... The accidental analogies or likenesses are limitless, and are the great stock in trade of most writers and speakers. An ingenious mind finds types everywhere, but real analogies are not so common. The likeness of one thing to another may be valid and real, but the likeness of a thought with a thing is often merely fanciful.... I recently have met with the same fallacy in a leading article in one of the magazines. "The fact revealed by the spectroscope," says the writer, "that the physical elements of the earth exist also in the stars, supports the faith that a moral nature like our own inhabits the universe." A tremendous leap--a leap from the physical to the moral. We know that these earth elements are found in the stars by actual observation and experience; but a moral nature like our own--this is assumed, and is not supported by the analogy. John Burroughs: _Analogy, True and False_. Notice the use of analogy in the argument below. There is only one cure for the evils which newly acquired freedom produces; and that cure is freedom. When a prisoner first leaves his cell he cannot bear the light of day: he is unable to discriminate colors, or recognize faces. But the remedy is, not to remand him into his dungeon, but to accustom him to the rays of the sun. The blaze of truth and liberty may at first dazzle and bewilder nations which have become blind in the house of bondage. But, let them gaze on, and they will soon be able to bear it. In a few years men learn to reason. The extreme violence of opinions subsides. Hostile theories correct each other. The scattered elements of truth cease to contend and begin to coalesce, and at length a system of justice and order is educed out of the chaos. --Macaulay: _Milton_. +193. Summary of Arrangement.+--The necessity of argument arises because some one does not believe the truth of a proposition. To establish in his mind a belief, we must present our arguments in an orderly and convincing way. The order will usually be to show him first the possibility and then the probability, and finally to lead him as near to certainty as we can. We may say, therefore, that we should use arguments from cause, arguments from sign, and arguments from example in the order named. Another principle of arrangement is that inductive argument will usually precede deductive argument. We naturally proceed by induction to establish general truths which, when established, we may apply. If our audience already believe the general theories, the inductive part may be omitted. Both of these principles of arrangement should be considered with reference to that of a third, namely, climax. Climax means nothing more than the orderly progression of our argument to the point where it convinces our hearer. We call that argument which finally convinces him the strongest, and naturally this should be the end of the argument. Of several proofs of equal grade, one that will attract the attention of the hearer should come first, while the most convincing one should come last. In arranging arguments attention needs also to be given to coherence. One proof may be so related to another that the presentation of one naturally suggests the other. Sometimes, for the sake of climax, the coherent order must be abandoned. More often the climax is made more effective by following the order which gives the greatest coherence. +Theme CII.+--_Prove one of the following propositions:_ 1. The Presidential term should be extended. 2. Bookkeeping is of greater practical value than any other high school study. 3. In cities all buildings should be restricted to three stories in height. 4. Sumptuary laws are never desirable. 5. No pupil should carry more than four studies. 6. This school should have a debating society. (Have you proved possibility, probability, or actuality? Have you used arguments from cause, sign, or example? Consider the arrangement of your arguments. Consider the analogies you have used, if any. Can you shorten your theme without weakening it?) +194. The Brief.+--Arrangement is of very great importance in argument. In fact, it is so important that much more care and attention needs to be given to the outline in argument, and the outline itself may be more definitely known to the hearer than in the other forms of discourse. In description and narration especially, it detracts from the value of the impressions if the reader becomes aware of the plan of composition. In exposition a view of the framework may not hinder clear understanding, but in argument it may be of distinct advantage to have the orderly arrangements of our arguments definitely known to him whom we seek to convince. The brief not only assists us in making our own thought orderly and exact, but enables us to exclude that which is trivial or untrue. An explanation may fail to make every point clear and yet retain some valuable elements, but an argument fails of its purpose if it does not establish a belief. A single false argument or even a trivial one may so appeal to a mind prejudiced against the proposition that all the valid proofs fail to convince. This single weakness is at once used by our opponent to show that our other arguments are false because this one is. A committee once endeavored to persuade the governor of a state not to sign a certain bill, but they defeated themselves because their opponents pointed out to the governor that two of the ten reasons which they presented were false and that the committee presenting them knew they were false. This cast a doubt upon the honesty of the committee and the validity of their whole argument, and the governor signed the bill. The brief differs from the ordinary outline in that it is composed of complete sentences rather than of topics. Notice the following example. +Term examinations should be abolished.+ AFFIRMATIVE I. There is no necessity for such examinations. 1. The teacher knows the pupil's standing from his daily recitations. 2. Monthly reviews or tests may be substituted if desirable. II. The evils arising from examinations more than offset any advantages that may be derived from them. 1. The best pupils are likely to work hardest, and to overtax their strength. 2. Pupils often aim to pass rather than to know their subject. 3. A temptation to cheat is placed before them. III. Examinations are not a fair test of a pupil's ability. 1. A pupil may know his subject as a whole and yet not be able to answer one or two of the questions given him. 2. A pupil who has done poor work during the term may cram for an examination and pass very creditably. 3. Pupils are likely to be tired out at the end of the term and often are not able to do themselves justice. NEGATIVE If the writer should choose to defend the negative of the above proposition, the brief might be as follows:-- I. Examinations are indispensable to school work. 1. In no other way can teachers find out so well what their pupils know about their subjects, especially in large classes. 2. They are essential as an incentive to pupils who are inclined to let their work lag. II. As a rule they are fair tests of a pupil's ability. 1. Pupils who prepare the daily recitations well are almost sure to pass a good examination. 2. Pupils who cram are likely to write a hurried, faulty examination. 3. It seldom happens that many in a class are too worn out to take a term examination. III. They prepare the pupils for later examinations. (1) For college entrance examinations. (2) For examinations at college. (3) For civil service examinations. (4) For examinations for teachers' certificates. EXERCISES _A._ Write out subordinate propositions proving the main subdivisions. Also change the arrangement when you think it desirable to do so. 1. Two sessions are preferable to one in a high school. (1) One long session is too fatiguing to both teachers and pupils. (2) Boys and girls as a rule study better at school than they do at home. (3) The time after school is long enough for recreation. 2. The pupils of this high school should be granted a holiday during the street (county or state) fair. (1) They will all go at least one day. (2) It will cause less interruption in the school work if they all go the same day. 3. Women should be allowed to vote. (1) They are now taxed without representation. (2) Whenever they have been allowed to take part in the affairs of the government, it has been an advantage to that government. (3) Many of them are much more intelligent than some men who vote. _B._ Write out briefs for the following propositions (affirmative or negative):-- 1. High school studies should be made elective in the last two years of the course. 2. The government should own and control the railroads of our country. 3. The old building on the corner of ---- Street ought to be removed. 4. Latin should not be made a compulsory study. 5. Reading newspapers is unprofitable. 6. Laws should be made to prohibit all adulteration of foods. 7. We are all selfish. 8. A system of self-government should be introduced into our school. +Theme CIV.+--_Write out the argument for one of the preceding propositions._ (Examine the brief carefully before beginning to write. Can you improve it? ) +Theme CV.+--_Write a theme proving one of the following propositions:_-- 1. Immigration is detrimental to the United States. 2. The descriptions in _Ivanhoe_ are better than those in the _House of the Seven Gables_. 3. Argument is of greater practical value than exposition. 4. The Mexican Indians were a civilized race when America was discovered. 5. The standing army of the United States should be increased. 6. All police officers should be controlled by the state and not by the city. (Have you used arguments from cause, sign, or example? Are they arranged with reference to the principles of arrangement? (Section 192.) Consider each paragraph and the whole theme with reference to unity.) +Theme CVI.+--_Write a debate on some question assigned by the teacher._ (To what points should you give attention in correcting your theme? Read Section 79.) +195. Difference between Persuasion and Argument.+--Up to this point we have considered argument as having for its aim the proof of the truth of a proposition. If we consider the things about which we argue most frequently, we shall find that in many cases we attempt to do more than merely to convince the hearer. We wish to convince him in order to cause him to act. We argue with him in order to persuade him to do something. Such an argument tries to establish the wisdom of a course of action and is termed _persuasion_. Persuasion differs from argument in its aim. In argument by an appeal principally to the reason, we endeavor to convince; in persuasion by an appeal mainly to the feelings, we endeavor to move to action. +196. Importance of Persuasion.+--Persuasion deals with the practical affairs of life, and for that reason the part that it performs is a large and important one. All questions of advantage, privilege, and duty are included in the sphere of persuasion. Since such questions are so directly related to our business interests, to our happiness, and to our mode of conduct and action, we are constantly making use of persuasion and quite as constantly are being influenced by it. Our own welfare and happiness depends to so great an extent upon the actions of others that our success in life is often measured by our ability to persuade others to act in accordance with our desires. +197. Necessity of Persuasion.+--It is frequently not enough to convince our hearer of the truth of a proposition. Often a person believes a proposition, yet does not act. If we wish action, persuasion must be added to argument. If we always acted at the time we were convinced, and in accordance with our convictions, there would be no need of persuasion. Strange as it seems, we often believe one thing and do just the opposite, or we are indifferent and do nothing at all. We all know that disobedience to the laws of health brings its punishment--yet how many of us act as if we did not believe it at all! The indifferent pupil is positive that he will fail if he does not study. He knows that he ought to apply himself diligently to his work. There is no excuse for doing otherwise, yet he neglects to act and failure is the result. +198. Motive in Persuasion.+--The motive of persuasion depends upon the nature of the question. The motives that we have in mind may be selfish, or, on the other hand, they may be supremely unselfish. We may urge others to act in order to bring about our own pleasure or profit; we may urge them to act for their own self-interest or for the interest of others. We may appeal to private or public interest, to social or religious duty. When a boy urges his father to buy him a bicycle, he has his own pleasure in mind. When we urge people to take care of their health, we have their interest in view; and when we urge city improvements or reforms in politics, we are thinking of the welfare of people in general. +199. The Material of Persuasion.+--Persuasion aims to produce action and may make use of any of the forms of discourse that will fit that purpose. We may describe the beauty of the Adirondacks or narrate our experiences there in order to persuade a friend to accompany us on a camping trip. We may explain the workings of a new invention in order to persuade a capitalist to invest money in its manufacture. Or we may by argument demonstrate that there is a great opportunity for young men in New Orleans, hoping to persuade an acquaintance to move there. When thus used, description, narration, exposition, and argument may become persuasion; but their effectiveness depends upon their appeal to some fundamental belief or feeling in the person addressed. Our description and narration would not bring to the Adirondacks a man who cared nothing for scenery and who disliked camp life. The explanation of our invention would not interest a capitalist unless he was seeking a profitable investment. Our argument would not induce a man to move to New Orleans if his prejudice against the South was greater than his desire for profit and position. In each case there has been an appeal to some belief or sentiment or desire of the person whom we seek to persuade. +200. Appeal to the Feelings.+--Persuasion, therefore, in order to produce action must appeal largely to the feelings. But all persons are not affected in the same way. In order to bring about the same result we may need to make a different appeal to different individuals. One person may be led to act by an appeal made to his sense of justice, another by an appeal made to his patriotism, while still another, unmoved by either of these appeals, may be led to act by an appeal made to his pride or to his love of power. If we would be successful in persuading others, we ought to be able to understand what to appeal to in individual cases. Children may be enticed by candy, and older persons may be quite as readily influenced if we but choose the proper incentive. It is our duty to see that we are persuaded only by the presentation of worthy motives, and that in our own efforts to persuade others we do not appeal to envy, jealousy, religious prejudices, race hatred, or lower motives. EXERCISES Show how an appeal to the feelings could be made in the following. To what particular feeling or feelings would you appeal in each case? 1. Try to gain your parents' permission to attend college. 2. Urge a friend to give up card playing. 3. Try to persuade your teachers not to give so long lessons. 4. Persuade others to aid an unfortunate family living in our community. 5. Induce the school board to give you a good gymnasium. 6. Persuade a tramp to give up his mode of life. 7. Try to get some one to buy your old bicycle. 8. Urge your country to act in behalf of some oppressed people. 9. Urge a resident of your town to give something for a public park. +Theme CVII.+--_Write out one of the preceding._ (Consider what you have written with reference to coherence and climax.) +201. Argument with Persuasion.+--In some cases we are sure that our hearers are already convinced as to the truth of a proposition. Then there is no need of argument and persuasion is used alone, but more frequently both are used. Argument naturally precedes persuasion, but with few exceptions the two are intermixed and even so blended as to be scarcely distinguishable, the one from the other. A good example of the use of both forms is found in the speech of Antony over the dead body of Caesar in Shakespeare's _Julius Caesar_. Read the speech and note the argument and persuasion given in it. What three arguments does Antony advance to prove that Caesar was not ambitious? Does he draw conclusions or leave that for his listeners to do? Where is there an appeal to their pity? To their curiosity? To their gratitude? What is the result in each case of the various appeals? In the following examples note the argument and persuasion. Remember that persuasion commences when we begin to urge to action. Notice what feelings are appealed to in the persuasive parts of the speeches. They tell us, Sir, that we are weak, unable to cope with so formidable an adversary. But, when shall we be stronger? Will it be the next week, or the next year? Will it be when we are totally disarmed and when a British guard shall be stationed in every house? Shall we gather strength by irresolution and inaction? Shall we acquire the means of effectual resistance, by lying supinely on our backs and hugging the delusive phantom of hope, until our enemies shall have bound us hand and foot? Sir, we are not weak, if we make a proper use of the means which the God of nature hath placed in our power. Three millions of people, armed in the holy cause of liberty, and in such a country as that which we possess, are invincible by any force which our enemy can send against us. Besides, Sir, we shall not fight our battles alone. There is a just God who presides over the destinies of nations; and who will raise up friends to fight our battles for us. The battle, Sir, is not to the strong alone; it is to the vigilant, the active, the brave. Besides, Sir, we have no election. If we were base enough to desire it, it is now too late to retire from the contest. There is no retreat, but in submission and slavery. Our chains are forged! Their clanking may be heard on the plains of Boston! The war is inevitable--and let it come! I repeat it, Sir, let it come!--It is vain, sir, to extenuate the matter. Gentlemen may cry peace, peace--but there is no peace. The war is actually begun! The next gale that sweeps from the north will bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms! Our brethren are already in the field. Why stand we here, idle? Is life so dear, is peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what course others may take; but as for me, give me liberty, or give me death. --Patrick Henry. The pictures in the American newspapers of the starving reconcentrados are true. They can all be duplicated by the thousands. I never before saw, and please God, I may never again see, so deplorable a sight as the reconcentrados in the suburbs of Matanzas. I can never forget to my dying day the hopeless anguish in their despairing eyes. Huddled about their little bark huts, they raised no voice of appeal to us for alms as we went among them.... Men, women, and children stand silent, famishing with hunger. Their only appeal comes from their sad eyes, through which one looks as through an open window into their agonizing souls. The Government of Spain has not appropriated and will not appropriate one dollar to save these people. They are now being attended and nursed and administered to by the charity of the United States. Think of the spectacle! We are feeding the citizens of Spain; we are nursing their sick; we are saving such as can be saved, and yet there are those who still say it is right for us to send food, but we must keep hands off. I say that the time has come when muskets ought to go with the food.... The time for action has, then, come. No greater reason for it can exist to-morrow than exists to-day. Every hour's delay only adds another chapter to the awful story of misery and death. Only one power can intervene--the United States of America. Ours is the one great nation of the New World, the mother of American republics. She holds a position of trust and responsibility toward the peoples and the affairs of the whole Western Hemisphere. Mr. President, there is only one action possible, if any is taken--that is, intervention for the independence of the island. But we cannot intervene and save Cuba without the exercise of force, and force means war; war means blood. The lowly Nazarene on the shores of Galilee preached the divine doctrine of love, "Peace on earth, good will toward men." Not peace on earth at the expense of liberty and humanity. Not good will toward men who despoil, enslave, degrade, and starve to death their fellow-men. I believe in the doctrine of Christ, I believe in the doctrine of peace; but, Mr. President, men must have liberty before there can come abiding peace. Intervention means force. Force means war. War means blood. But it will be God's force. When has a battle for humanity and liberty ever been won except by force? What barricade of wrong, injustice, and oppression has ever been carried except by force? Force compelled the signature of unwilling royalty to the great Magna Charta; force put life into the Declaration of Independence and made effective the Emancipation Proclamation; force beat with naked hands upon the iron gateway of the Bastile and made reprisal in one awful hour for centuries of kingly crime; force waved the flag of revolution over Bunker Hill and marked the snows of Valley Forge with blood-stained feet; force held the broken line at Shiloh, climbed the flame-swept hill at Chattanooga, and stormed the clouds on Lookout heights; force marched with Sherman to the sea, rode with Sheridan in the valley of Shenandoah, and gave Grant victory at Appomattox; force saved the Union, kept the stars in the flag, made "niggers" men. Others may hesitate, others may procrastinate, others may plead for further diplomatic negotiations, which means delay; but for me, I am ready to act now, and for my action I am ready to answer to my conscience, my country, and my God. --John Mellen Thurston: _Speech in United States Senate_, March, 1898. EXERCISES 1. A young boy is trying to gain his father's permission to attend an evening entertainment with some other boys. Make a list of his appeals to his father's reason; to his father's feelings. Make a list of his father's objections. Is there any appeal to his son's feelings? 2. Suppose you are about to address the voters of your city on the question of granting saloon licenses. Make a list of appeals to their reason; to their intellect. Remember that appeals to the feelings are made more forcible by descriptive and narrative examples than by direct general appeals. 3. Urge your classmates to vote for some member of your class for president. What qualifications should a good class president have? +Theme CVIII.+--_Select one of the subjects, concerning which you have written an argument; either add persuasion to the argument or intermix them._ (What part of your theme is argument and what part persuasion? Does the introduction of persuasion affect the order of arrangement?) +Theme CIX.+--_Select one of the subjects given on page 361 of which you have not yet made use. Write a theme appealing to both feeling and intellect._ (Are your facts true and pertinent? Consider the arrangement.) +Theme CX.+--_Write a letter to a friend who went to work instead of entering the high school. Urge him to come to the high school._ (What arguments have you made? To what feelings have you appealed?) +Theme CXI.+--_Use one of the following as a subject for a persuasive theme:_-- 1. Induce your friends not to play ball on Memorial Day. 2. Ask permission to be excused from writing your next essay. 3. Persuade one of your friends to play golf. 4. Induce your friends not to wear birds on their hats. 5. Write an address to young children, trying to persuade them not to be cruel to the lower animals. +202. Questions of Right and Questions of Expediency.+--Arguments that aim to convince us of the wisdom of an action are very common. In our home life and in our social and religious life these questions are always arising. They may be classified into two kinds: (1) those which answer the question, Is it right? and (2) those which answer the question, Is it expedient? The moral element enters into questions of right. It is always wise for us to do that which is morally right, but sometimes we are in doubt as to what course of action is morally right. Opinions differ concerning what is right, and for that reason we spend much time in defending our opinions or in trying to make others believe as we do. In answering such a question honestly, we must lose sight of all advantage or disadvantage to ourselves. When asked to do something we should at once ask ourselves, Is it right? and when once that is determined one line of action should be clear. An argument which aims to answer the question, Is it expedient? presupposes that there are at least two lines of action each of which is right. It aims to prove that one course of action will bring greater advantages than any other. Taking all classes of people into consideration we shall find that they are arguing more questions of expediency than of any other kind. Every one is looking for advantages either to himself or to those in whom he is interested. A question of expediency should never be separated from the question of right. In determining either our own course of action or that which we attempt to persuade another to follow, we should never forget the presupposition of a question of expediency that either course is right. EXERCISES 1. Name five questions the right or wrong of which you have been called upon to decide. 2. Name five similar questions that are likely to arise in every one's experience. 3. Name five questions of right concerning which opinions very often differ. 4. Is an action that is right for one person ever wrong for another? +Theme CXII.+--_Write out the reasons for or against one of the following:_-- 1. Should two pupils ever study together? 2. Is a lie ever justifiable? 3. Was Shylock's punishment too severe? 4. Woman's suffrage should be established. 5. The regular party nominee should not always be supported. EXERCISES Give reasons for or against the following:-- 1. We should abolish class-day exercises. 2. The study of science is more beneficial than the study of language. 3. Foreign skilled laborers should be excluded from the United States. 4. Hypnotic entertainments should not be allowed. 5. The study of algebra should not be made compulsory in a high school. 6. _Uncle Tom's Cabin_ should be excluded from school libraries. 7. Physical training should be compulsory in public schools. 8. High school secret societies should not be allowed. +Theme CXIII.+--_Write an argument of expediency using one of the subjects named in the preceding exercise._ (What advantages have you made most prominent? To what feelings have you appealed?) +Theme CXIV.+--_Write a narration in which the hero is called upon to decide whether some course of action is right or wrong_. (Consider the theme as a narration. Does it fulfill the requirements of Chapter IX? (See Summary.) Consider just the arguments used. Are the arguments sufficient to bring conviction to the reader that the hero decided rightly?) +203. Refutation.+--No question is worth argument unless there are two sides to it--unless there is a chance for some doubt in the mind of the hearer as to which side seems most reasonable. Many questions are of such a nature that in trying to convince our hearers of some truth, we often find it necessary to show them, not only the truth of a proposition or the expediency of a course of action, but also the falsity of some opposing proposition or the inexpediency of the opposite course of action. This tearing to pieces another's argument, is called refutation, or destructive argument. A successful debater shows nearly if not equal skill in tearing down his opponent's arguments as in building up his own. Even in arguments in which no one takes the opposite side at the given time, we must not forget that there are points on the opposite side which are likely to arise in the minds of our hearers. Just as the skillful teacher must know the difficulties that will arise in the minds of the pupils even though they are not expressed, so must the skillful debater consider the objections that his hearer will mentally set up against his argument. It is well, however, for the debater to avoid overemphasizing objections. Sometimes his discussion gives the objections a weight that they would not otherwise have. It is not wise to set up "a man of straw" for the purpose of knocking him down. Notice the refutation in the following argument:-- In no respect is the difference of opinion as to the methods of fishing so pronounced and disturbing among anglers as the diverse ones of fishing "up" and "down" stream. "Fishing up stream" has many advocates who assert that as trout always lie with their heads up current, they are less likely to see the fisherman or the glint of his rod when the casts are made; that the discomfort and fatigue accompanying wading against strong rapids is amply repaid by the increased scores secured; that the flies deftly thrown a foot or two above the head of a feeding trout float more life-like down the current than those drawn against it by the line, when they are apt to exhibit a muscular power which in the live insect would be exaggerated and unnatural. On the other hand, the "down stream" fisherman is equally assertive as to the value of his method. He feels the charm of gurgling waters around his limbs, a down current that aids rather than retards or fatigues him in each successive step of enjoyment in his pastime; as he casts his fifty or more feet of line adown the stream, he is assured that he is beyond the ken of the most keen-sighted and wary trout; that his artificial bugs, under the tension of the current seaming it from right to left, reaches every square inch of the "swim," as English rodsters term a likely water, and coming naturally down stream, just the direction from whence a hungry trout is awaiting it, are much more likely to be taken, than those thrown against the current, with, doubtless, a foot or more of the leader drooping and bagging before the nose of a trout, with a dead bug, soaked and bedraggled, following slowly behind. By wading "down stream" its advocates do not mean splashing and lifting the feet above the surface, sending the water hither and yon on to the banks, into the pools, with the soil of silt or mud or fine gravel from the bottom, polluting the stream many yards ahead, and causing every fish to scurry to the shelter of a hole in the bank or under a shelving rock. They intend that the rodster shall enter the water quietly, and, after a few preliminary casts to get the water gear in good working order to proceed down stream by sliding rather than lifting his feet from the bottom, noiselessly and cautiously approaching the most likely pools or eddies behind the roots in mid stream, or still stretches close to the banks, where the quiet reaches broaden down stream, where nine chances in ten, on a good trout water, one or more fish will be seen lazily rising and feeding. Again, the down-stream angler contends that when a fish is fastened on a hook, taking the lure in a current, that he is more likely to be well hooked, hence more certain of capture when the line is tense, than when rising to a floating bug at the end of a looping line and leader. Certainly it is very difficult when casting against the current to keep the line sufficiently taut to strike quickly and effectively a rising trout, which as a rule ejects the artificial lure the instant he feels the gritty impact of the steel. In fishing down stream, the advocate of the principle that the greater the surface commotion made by the flies used, the surer the rise and catch, has an advantage over his brother who always fishes "fine" and with flies that do not make a ripple. Drawing the artificial bugs across and slightly up stream over the mirrored bosom of a pool is apt to leave a wake behind them which may not inaptly be compared with the one created by a small stern-wheel steamer; an unnatural condition of things, but of such is a trout's make-up. --W.C. HARRIS: _Fishing Up or Down Stream_. +Theme CXV.+--_Persuade a friend, to choose some sport from one of the following pairs:_-- 1. Canoeing or sailing. 2. Bicycling or automobiling. 3. Golf or polo. 4. Basket ball or tennis. 5. Football or baseball. +Theme CXVI.+--_Choose one side of a proposition. Name the probable points on the other side and write out a refutation of them_. +Theme CXVII.+--_State a proposition and write the direct argument._ +Theme CXVIII.+--_Exchange theme CXVII for one written by a classmate and write the refutation of the arguments in the theme you receive._ (Theme CXVII and the corresponding Theme CXVIII should be read before the class.) SUMMARY 1. Argument is that form of discourse which attempts to prove the truth of a proposition. 2. Inductive reasoning is that process by which from many individual cases we establish the probable truth of a general proposition. 3. The establishing of a general truth by induction requires-- _a._ That there be a large number of facts, circumstances, or specific instances supporting it. _b._ That these facts be true. _c._ That they be pertinent. _d._ That there be no facts proving the truth of the contrary proposition. 4. Deductive reasoning is that process which attempts to prove the truth of a specific proposition by showing that a general theory applies to it. 5. The establishing of the truth of a specific proposition by deductive reasoning requires-- _a._ A major premise that makes an affirmation about _all_ the members of a class. _b._ A minor premise that states that the individual under consideration belongs to the class named. _c._ A conclusion that states that the affirmation made about the class applies to the individual. These three statements constitute a syllogism. 6. An enthymeme is a syllogism with but one premise expressed. 7. Errors of deduction arise-- _a._ If terms are not used throughout with the same meaning. _b._ If the major premise does not make a statement about every member of the class denoted by the middle term. _c._ If either premise is false. 8. Belief in a specific proposition may arise-- _a._ Because of the presentation of evidence which is true and pertinent. _b._ Because of a belief in some general principle or theory which applies to it. In arguing therefore we-- _a._ Present true and pertinent facts, or evidence; or _b._ Appeal directly to general theories, or by means of facts, maxims, allusions, inferences, or the quoting of authorities, seek to call up such theories. 9. Classes of arguments:-- _a._ Arguments from cause. _b._ Arguments from sign and attendant circumstances. _c._ Arguments from example and analogy. 10. Arrangement. _a._ Arguments from cause should precede arguments from sign, and arguments from sign should precede arguments from example. _b._ Inductive arguments usually precede deductive arguments. _c._ Arguments should be arranged with reference to climax. _d._ Arguments should be arranged, when possible, in a coherent order. 11. In making a brief the above principles of arrangement should be observed. Attention should be given to unity so that the trivial and false may be excluded. 12. Persuasion is argument that aims to establish the wisdom of a course of action. 13. Persuasion appeals largely to the feelings. _a._ Those feelings of satisfaction resulting from approval, commendation, or praise, or the desire to avoid blame, disaster, or loss of self-esteem. _b._ Those feelings resulting from the proper and legitimate use of one's powers. _c._ Those feelings which arise from possession, either actual or anticipated. 14. Persuasion is concerned with-- _a._ Questions of right. _b._ Questions of expediency. APPENDIX I. ELEMENTS OF FORM +1. Importance of Form.+--The suggestions which have been made for the correction of the Themes have laid emphasis upon the thought. Though the thought side is the more important, yet careful attention must also be given to the form in which it is stated. If we wish to express our thoughts so that they will be understood by others, we shall be surer to succeed if we use the forms to which our hearers are accustomed. The great purpose of composition is the clear expression of thought, and this is aided by the use of the forms which are conventional and customary. Wrong habits of speech indicate looseness and carelessness of thought, and if not corrected show a lack of training. In speaking, our language goes directly to the listener without revision. It is, therefore, essential that we pay much attention to the form of the expression so that it may be correct when we use it. Our aim should be to avoid an error rather than to correct it. Similarly in writing, your effort should be given to avoiding errors rather than to correcting those already made. A misspelled word or an incorrect grammatical form in the letter that you send to a business man may show you to be so careless and inaccurate that he will not wish to have you in his employ. In such a case it is only the avoidance of the error that is of value. You must determine for yourself that the letter is correct before you send it. This same condition should prevail with reference to your school themes. The teacher may return these for correction, but you must not forget that the purpose of this correction is merely to emphasize the correct form so that you will use it in your next theme. It will be helpful to have some one point out your individual mistakes, but it is only by attention to them on your own part and by a definite and long-continued effort to avoid them that you will really accomplish much toward the establishing of correct language habits. In this, as in other things, the most rapid progress will be made by doing but one thing at a time. Many matters of form are already familiar to you. A brief statement of these is made in order to serve as a review and to secure uniformity in class work. 1. _Neatness._--All papers should be free from blots and finger marks. Corrections should be neatly done. Care in correcting or interlining will often render copying unnecessary. 2. _Legibility._--Excellence of thought is not dependent upon penmanship, and the best composition may be the most difficult to read. A poorly written composition is, however, more likely to be considered bad than one that is well written. A plain, legible, and rapid handwriting is so valuable an accomplishment that it is well worth acquiring. 3. _Paper._--White, unruled paper, about 8-1/2 by 11 inches, is best for composition purposes. The ability to write straight across the page without the aid of lines can be acquired by practice. It is customary to write on only one side of the paper. 4. _Margins._--Leave a margin of about one inch at the left of the sheet. Except in formal notes and special forms there will be no margin at the right. Care should be taken to begin the lines at the left exactly under each other, but the varying length of words makes it impossible to end the lines at the right at exactly the same place. A word should not be crowded into a space too small for it, nor should part of it be put on the next line, as is customary in printing, unless it is a compound one, such as steam-boat. Spaces of too great length at the end of a line may be avoided by slightly lengthening the preceding words or the spaces between them. 5. _Spacing._--Each theme should have a title. It should be placed in the center of the line above the composition, and should have all important words capitalized. Titles too long for a single line may be written as follows:-- MY TRIP TO CHICAGO ON A BICYCLE With unruled paper some care must be taken to keep the lines the same distance apart. The spaces between sentences should be somewhat greater than those between words. Paragraphs are indicated by indentations. 6. _Corrections._--These are best made by using a sharp knife or an ink eraser. Sometimes, if neatly done, a line may be drawn through an incorrect word and the correct one written above it. Omitted words may be written between the lines and the place where they belong indicated by a caret. If a page contains many corrections, it should be copied. 7. _Inscription and Folding._--The teacher will give directions as to inscription and folding. He will indicate what information he wishes, such as name, class, date, etc., and where it is to be written. Each page should be numbered. If the paper is folded, it should be done with neatness and precision. +2. Capitals.+--The use of capitals will serve to illustrate the value of using conventional forms. We are so accustomed to seeing a proper name, such as Mr. Brown, written with capitals that we should be puzzled if we should find it written without capitals. The sentence, Ben-Hur was written by Lew Wallace, would look unfamiliar if written without capitals. We are so used to our present forms that beginning sentences with small letters would hinder the ready comprehension of the thought. Everybody agrees that capitals should be used to begin sentences, direct questions, names of deity, days of the week, the months, each line of poetry, the pronoun I, the interjection O, etc., and no good writer will fail to use them. Usage varies somewhat in regard to capitals in some other places. Such expressions as Ohio river, Lincoln school, Jackson county, state of Illinois, once had both names capitalized. The present tendency is to write them as above. Even titles of honor are not capitalized unless they are used with a proper name; for example, He introduced General Grant The general then spoke. +3. Rules of Capitalization.+--1. Every sentence and every line of poetry begin with capitals. 2. Every direct quotation, except brief phrases and subordinate parts of sentences, begins with a capital. 3. Proper nouns and adjectives derived from proper nouns begin with capitals. Some adjectives, though derived from proper nouns, are no longer capitalized; _e.g._ voltaic. 4. Titles of honor when used with the name of a person begin with capitals. 5. The first word and every important word in the titles of books, etc., begin with capitals. 6. The pronoun I and the interjection O are always capitalized. 7. Names applied to the Deity are capitalized and pronouns referring thereto, especially if personal, are usually capitalized. 8. Important words are often capitalized for emphasis, especially words in text-books indicating topics. +4. Punctuation.+--The meaning of a sentence depends largely on the grouping of words that are related in sense to each other. When we are reading aloud we make the sense clear by bringing out to the hearer this grouping. This is accomplished by the use of pauses and by emphasis and inflection. In writing we must do for the eye what inflection and pauses do for the ear. We therefore use punctuation marks to indicate inflection and emphasis, and especially to show word grouping. Punctuation marks are important because their purpose is to assist in making the sense clear. There are many special rules more or less familiar to you, but they may all be included under the one general statement: Use such marks and only such marks as will assist the reader in getting the sense. What marks we shall use and how we shall use them will be determined by custom. In order to benefit a reader, marks must be used in ways with which he is familiar. Punctuation changes from time to time. The present tendency is to omit all marks not absolutely necessary to the clear understanding of the sentence. There are some very definite rules, but there are others that cannot be made so definite, and the application of them requires care and judgment on the part of the writer. Improvement will come only by practice. Sentences should not be written for the purpose of illustrating punctuation. The meaning of what you are writing ought to be clear to you, and the punctuation marks should be put in _as you write_, not inserted afterward. +5. Rules for the Use of the Comma.+--1. The comma is used to separate words or phrases having the same construction, used in a series. Judges, senators, and representatives were imprisoned. The country is a good place to be born in, a good place to die in, a good place to live in at least part of the year. If any conjunctions are used to connect the last two members, the comma may or may not be used in connection with the conjunction. The cabbage palmetto affords shade, kindling, bed, and food. 2. Words or expressions in apposition should be separated by a comma. The native Indian dress is an evolution, a survival from long years of wild life. 3. Commas are used to separate words in direct address from the rest of the sentence. Bow down, dear Land, for thou hast found release. O, Sohrab, an unquiet heart is thine! 4. Introductory and parenthetical words or expressions are set off by commas. However, the current is narrow and very shallow here. This, in a general way, describes the scope of the small parks or playgrounds. If the parenthetical expression is long and not very closely related to the rest of the sentence, dashes or marks of parenthesis are frequently used. Some writers use them even when the connection is somewhat close. 5. The comma is frequently used to separate the parts of a long compound predicate. Pine torches have no glass to break, and are within the reach of any man who can wield an ax. 6. A comma is often used to separate a subject with several modifiers, or with a long modifier, from the predicate verb. One of the mistakes often made in beginning the study of birds with small children, is in placing stress upon learning by sight and name as many species of birds as possible. 7. Participial and adjective phrases and adverb phrases out of their natural order should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. A knight, clad in armor, was the most conspicuous figure of all. To the mind of the writer, this explanation has much to commend it. 8. When negative expressions are used in order to show a contrast, they are set off by commas. They believed in men, not in mere workers in the great human workshop. 9. Commas are used in complex sentences to separate the dependent clause from the rest of the sentence. The great majority of people would be better off, if they had more money and spent it. While the flour is being made, samples are sent every hour to the testing department. If the connection is close, the comma is usually omitted, especially when the dependent clause comes last. I will be there when the train arrives. 10. When a relative clause furnishes an additional thought, it should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma. Hiram Watts, who has been living in New York for six years, has just returned to England. If the relative clause is restrictive, that is, if it restricts or limits the meaning of the antecedent, the comma is unnecessary. This is the best article that he ever wrote. 11. Commas are used to separate the members of a compound sentence when they are short or closely connected. Ireland is rich in minerals, yet there is but little mining done there. Breathe it, exult in it, All the day long, Glide in it, leap in it, Thrill it with song. 12. Short quotations should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma. "There must be a beaver dam here," he called. 13. The omissions of important words in a sentence should be indicated by commas. If you can, come to-morrow; if not, come next week. +6. Rules for the Use of the Semicolon.+--1. When the members of a compound sentence are long or are not closely connected, semicolons should be used to separate them. Webster could address a bench of judges; Everett could charm a college; Choate could delude a jury; Clay could magnetize a senate, and Tom Corwin could hold the mob in his right hand; but no one of these men could do more than this one thing. --Wendell Phillips. We might as well decide the question now; for we shall surely be obliged to soon. 2. When the members of a compound sentence themselves contain commas, they should be separated from one another by semicolons. As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I rejoice at it; as he was valiant, I honor him; but, as he was ambitious, I slew him. --Shakespeare. 3. The semicolon should be used to precede _as, namely, i.e., e.g., viz_. Some adjectives are compared irregularly; as, good, bad, and little. 4. When a series of distinct statements all have a common dependence on what precedes or follows them, they may be separated from each other by semicolons. When subject to the influence of cold we eat more; we choose more heat-producing foods, as fatty foodstuffs; we take more vigorous exercise; we put on more clothing, especially of the non-conducting kinds--woolens. +7. Rules for the Use of the Colon.+--1. The colon is used before long or formal quotations, before enumerations, and before the conclusion of a previous statement. Old Sir Thomas Browne shrewdly observes: "Every man is not only himself. There have been many Diogeneses and many Timons though but few of the name. Men are lived over again. The world is now as it was in ages past. There were none then, but there has been one since, that parallels him, and is, as it were, revived self." --George Dana Boardman. Adjectives are divided into two general classes: descriptive and definitive adjectives. The following members sent in their resignations: Mrs. William M. Murphy, Mrs. Ralph B. Wiltsie, and Mrs. John C. Clark. 2. The colon is used to separate the different members of a compound sentence, when they themselves are divided by semicolons. It is too warm to-day; the sunshine is too bright; the shade, too pleasant: we will wait until to-morrow or we will have some one else do it when the busy time is over. +8. Rules for the Use of the Period.+--1. The period is used at the close of imperative and declarative sentences. 2. All abbreviations should be followed by a period. +9. Rule for the Use of the Interrogation Mark.+--The interrogation mark should be used after all direct questions. +10. Rule for the Use of the Exclamation Mark.+--Interjections and exclamatory words and expressions should be followed by the exclamation mark. Sometimes the exclamatory word is only a part of the whole exclamation. In this case, the exclamatory word should be followed by a comma, and the entire exclamation by an exclamation mark. See, how the lightning flashes! +11. Rules for the Use of the Dash.+--1. The dash is used to show sudden changes in thought or breaks in speech. I can speak of this better when temptation comes my way--if it ever does. 2. The dash is often used in the place of commas or marks of parenthesis to set off parenthetical expressions. In the mountains of New York State this most valuable tree--the spruce-- abounds. 3. The dash, either alone or in connection with the comma, is used to point out that part of a sentence on which special stress is to be placed. I saw unpruned fruit trees, broken fences, and farm implements, rusting in the rain--all evidences of wasted time. 4. The dash is sometimes used with the colon before long quotations, before an enumeration of things, or before a formally introduced statement. +12. Rules for the Use of Quotation Marks.+--1. Quotation marks are used to inclose direct quotations. "In all the great affairs of life one must run some risk," she remarked. 2. A quotation within a quotation is usually indicated by single quotation marks. "Can you tell me where I can find 'Rienzi's Address'?" asked a young lady of a clerk in Brooklyn. 3. When a quotation is interrupted by parenthetical expressions, the different parts of the quotation should be inclosed in quotation marks. "Bring forth," cried the monarch, "the vessels of gold." 4. When the quotation consists of several paragraphs, the quotation marks are placed at the beginning of each paragraph and at the close of the last one. +13. Rule for the Use of the Apostrophe.+--The apostrophe is used to denote the possessive case, to indicate the omission of letters, and to form the plural of signs, figures, and letters. In the teacher's copy book you will find several fancy A's and 3's which can't be distinguished from engravings. II. REVIEW OF GRAMMAR THE SENTENCE +14. English grammar+ is the study of the forms of English words and their relationship to one another as they appear in sentences. A _sentence_ is a group of words that expresses a complete thought. +15. Elements of a Sentence.+--The elements of a sentence, as regards the office that they perform, are the _subject_ and the _predicate_. The _subject_ is that about which something is asserted, and the _predicate_ is that which asserts something about the subject. Some predicates may consist of a single word or word-group, able in itself to complete a sentence: [The thrush _sings_. The thrush _has been singing_]. Some require a following word or words: [William struck _John_ (object complement, or object). Edward became _king_ (attribute complement). The people made Edward _king_ (objective complement)]. The necessary parts of a sentence are: some name for the object of thought (to which the general term _substantive_ may be given); some word or group of words to make assertion concerning the substantive (general term, _assertive_); and, in case of an incomplete assertive, one of the above given completions of its meaning (object complement, attribute complement, objective complement). In addition to these necessary elements of the sentence, words or groups of words may be added to make the meaning of any one of the elements more exact. Such additions are known as _modifiers_. The word-groups which are used as modifiers are the _phrase_ and the _clause_. [The thrush, sings _in the pine woods_ (phrase). The wayfarer _who hears the thrush_ is indeed fortunate (clause).] Both the subject and the predicate may be unmodified: [Bees buzz]; both may be modified: [The honey bees buzz in the clover]; one may be modified and the other unmodified: [Bees buzz in the clover]. The unmodified subject may be called the _simple subject_, or, merely, the _subject_. If modified, it becomes the _complete subject_. The assertive element, together with the attribute complement, if one is present, may be called the _simple predicate_. If modified, it becomes the _complete predicate_. Some grammarians call the assertive element, alone, the _simple predicate_; modified or completed, the _complete predicate_. +16. Classification of Sentences as to Purpose.+--Sentences are classified according to purpose into three classes: _declarative_, _interrogative_, and _imperative_ sentences. A _declarative_ sentence is one that makes a statement or declares something: [Columbus crossed the Atlantic]. An _interrogative_ sentence is one that asks a question: [Who wrote _Mother Goose_?]. An _imperative_ sentence is one that expresses a command or entreaty: ["Fling away ambition"]. Each kind of sentence may be of an exclamatory nature, and then the sentence is said to be an _exclamatory_ sentence: [How happy all the children are! (exclamatory declarative). "Who so base as be a slave?" (exclamatory interrogative). "Heap high the farmer's wintry hoard!" (exclamatory imperative)]. Notice that the exclamation point follows the declarative and imperative forms, but the interrogative form is followed by the question mark. WORDS AND THEIR OFFICES +17. The Individual Elements+ of which every sentence is composed are _words_. Every word is the sign of some idea. Each of the words _horse, he, blue, speaks, merrily, at_, and _because_, has a certain naming value, more or less definite, for the mind of the reader. Of these, _horse, blue, he, merrily_, have a fairly vivid descriptive power. In the case of _at_ and _because_, the main office is, evidently, to express a relation between other ideas: ["I am _at_ my post"], ["I go _because_ I must"]. The word _speaks_ is less clearly a relational word; at first thought it would seem to have only the office of picturing an activity. That it also fills the office of a connective will be evident if we compare the following sentences: He _speaks_ in public. He _is_ a public _speaker_. It is evident that _speaks_ contains in itself the _naming_ value represented in the word _speaker_, but also has the _connecting_ office fulfilled in the second sentence by _is_. All words have, therefore, a naming office, and some have in addition a connecting or relational office. PARTS OF SPEECH +18. Parts of Speech.+--When we examine the different words in sentences we find that, in spite of these fundamentally similar qualities, the words are serving different purposes. This difference in purpose or use serves as the basis for dividing words into eight classes, called Parts of Speech. Use alone determines to which class a word in any given sentence shall belong. Not only are single words so classified, but any part of speech may be represented by a group of words. Such a group is either a _phrase_ or a _clause_. A _phrase_ is a group of words, containing neither subject nor predicate, that is used as a single part of speech. A _clause_ is a group of words, containing both subject and predicate, that is used as part of a sentence. If used as a single part of speech, it is called a _subordinate_, or _dependent_, clause. Some grammarians use the word _clause_ for a subordinate statement only. +19. Classification.+--The eight parts of speech may be classified as follows:-- I. Substantives: nouns, pronouns. II. Assertives: verbs. III. Modifiers: adjectives, adverbs. IV. Connectives: prepositions, conjunctions. V. Interjections. +20. Definitions.+--The parts of speech may be defined as follows:-- (1) A _noun_ is a word used as a name. (2) A _pronoun_ is a word used in place of a noun, designating a person, place, or thing without naming it. (3) An _adjective_ is a word that modifies a substantive. (4) A _verb_ is a word that asserts something--action, state, or being--- concerning a substantive. (5) An _adverb_ is a word that modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb. (6) A _preposition_ is a word that shows the relation of the substantive that follows it to some other word or words in the sentence. (7) A _conjunction_ is a word that connects words or groups of words used in the same way. (8) An _interjection_ is a cry expressing emotion, but not forming part of the sentence. NOUNS +21. Classes of Nouns.+--Nouns are divided into two general classes: _proper_ nouns [Esther] and _common_ nouns [girl]. Common nouns include _abstract_ nouns [happiness] and _collective_ nouns [army]. Any word mentioned merely _as a word_ is a noun: [_And_ is a conjunction]. +22. Inflection.+--A change in the form of a word to denote a change in its meaning is termed _inflection_. +23. Number.+--The most common inflection of the noun is that which shows us whether the name denotes one or more than one. The power of the noun to denote one or more than one is termed _number_. A noun that denotes but one object is _singular_ in number. A noun that denotes more than one object is _plural_ in number. The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by adding _s_ and _es_ to the singular [bank, banks; box, boxes]. Other points to be noted concerning the plural of nouns are as follows:-- 1. The irregular plural in _en_ [child, children]. 2. Formation of the plural by internal change [goose, geese]. 3. Fourteen nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_ change the _f_ or _fe_ into _yes_ [leaf, leaves]. 4. Nouns ending in _y_, preceded by a consonant, change the _y_ to _i_ and add _es_ [enemy, enemies]. 5. Letters, figures, signs, etc., form their plural by adding '_s_:[You have used too many _i_'s]. 6. Nouns taken from other languages usually form their plurals according to the laws of those languages [phenomenon, phenomena]. 7. A few nouns in our language do not change their form to denote number. (_a_) Some nouns have the same form, for both the singular and the plural [sheep, deer]. (_b_) Some nouns are used only in the plural [scissors, thanks]. (_c_) Some nouns have no plurals [pride, flesh]. (_d_) Some nouns, plural in form, have a singular meaning [measles, news, politics]. 8. Compound nouns usually form their plural by pluralizing the noun part of the compound [sister-in-law, sisters-in-law]. If the words of the compound are both nouns, and are of equal importance, both are given a plural ending [manservant, menservants]. When the compound is thought of as a whole, the last part only is made plural [spoonful, spoonfuls]. 9. Proper names usually form their plurals regularly. If they are preceded by titles, they form their plurals either by pluralizing the title or by pluralizing the name [The Misses Hunter or the Miss Hunters. The Messrs. Keene or the two Mr. Keenes. The Masters Burke. The Mrs. Harrisons.] 10. A few nouns have two plurals differing in meaning or use [cloth, cloths, clothes; penny, pennies, pence]. +24. Case.+--Case is the relation that a noun or pronoun bears to some other word in the sentence. Inflection of nouns or pronouns for the purpose of denoting case is termed _declension_. There are three cases in the English language: the _nominative_, the _possessive_, and the _objective_; but nouns show only two forms for each number, as the nominative and objective cases have the same form. +25. Formation of the Possessive.+--Nouns in the singular, and those in the plural not already ending in _s_, form the possessive regularly by adding '_s_ to the nominative [finger, finger's; geese, geese's]. In case the plural already ends in _s_, the possessive case adds only the apostrophe [girls']. A few singular nouns add only the apostrophe, when the addition of the '_s_ would make an unpleasant sound [Moses']. Compound nouns form the possessive case by adding '_s_ to the last word. This is also the rule when two names denoting joint ownership are used: [Bradbury and Emery's Algebra]. Notice that in the following expression the '_s_ is affixed to the second noun only: [My sister Martha's book]. Names of inanimate objects usually substitute prepositional phrases to denote possession: [The hardness _of the rock_, not The rock's hardness]. +26. Gender.+--Gender is the power of nouns and pronouns to denote sex. Nouns or pronouns denoting males are of the _masculine_ gender; those denoting females are of the _feminine_ gender; and those denoting things without animal life are of the _neuter_ gender. +27. Person.+--Person is the power of one class of pronouns to show whether the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of is designated. According to the person denoted, the pronoun is said to be in the _first, second_, or _third_ person. Nouns and many pronouns are not inflected for person, but most grammarians attribute person to them because the context of the sentence in which they are used shows what persons they represent. +28. Constructions of Nouns.+--The following are the usual constructions of nouns:-- (_a_) The _possessive_ case of the noun denotes possession. (_b_) Nouns in the _nominative_ case are used as follows:-- 1. As the subject of a verb: [The western _sky_ is all aflame] 2. As an attribute complement: [Autumn is the most gorgeous _season_ of the year]. 3. In an exclamation: [Alas, poor _soul_, it could not be!]. 4. In direct address: [O hush thee, my _baby_!]. 5. Absolutely: [The _rain_ being over, the grass twinkled in the sunshine]. 6. As a noun in apposition with a nominative: [Columbus; a _native_ of Genoa, discovered America]. (_c_) Nouns in the _objective_ case are used as follows:-- 1. As the direct object of a verb, termed either the direct object or the object complement: [I saw a _host_ of golden daffodils]. 2. As the objective complement: [They crowned him _king_]. 3. As the indirect object of a verb: [We gave _Ethel_ a ring]. 4. As the object of a preposition: [John Smith explored the coast of _New England_]. 5. As the subject of an infinitive: [He commanded _the man_ (_him_)to go without delay]. 6. As the attribute of an expressed subject of the infinitive _to be_: [I thought it to be _John_ (_him_)]. 7. As an adverbial noun: [He came last _week_]. 8. As a noun in apposition with an object: [Stanley found Livingstone, the great _explorer_]. +29. Equivalents for Nouns.+ 1. Pronoun: [John gave _his_ father a book for Christmas]. 2. Adjective: [The _good_ alone are truly great]. 3. Adverb: [I do not understand the _whys_ and _wherefores_ of the process]. 4. A gerund, or infinitive in _ing_: [_Seeing_ is _believing_]. 5. An infinitive or infinitive phrase: [With him, _to think_ is _to act_]. 6. Clause: [It is hard for me to believe _that she took the money_]. Noun clauses may be used as subject, object, attribute complement, and appositive. 7. A prepositional phrase: [_Over the fence_ is out]. PRONOUNS +30. Antecedent.+--The most common equivalent for a noun is the pronoun. The substantive for which the pronoun is an equivalent is called the _antecedent_, and with this antecedent the pronoun must agree in _person, number_, and _gender_, but not necessarily in _case_. +31. Classes of Pronouns.+--Pronouns are commonly divided into five classes, and sometimes a sixth class is added: (1) personal pronouns, (2) relative pronouns, (3) interrogative pronouns, (4) demonstrative pronouns, (5) adjective pronouns,(6) indefinite pronouns (not always added). +32. Personal Pronouns.+--Personal pronouns are so called because they show by their form whether they refer to the first, the second, or the third person. There are five personal pronouns in common use: _I, you, he, she_, and _it_. +33. Constructions of Personal Pronouns.+--The personal pronouns are used in the same ways in which nouns are used. Besides the regular uses that the personal pronoun has, there are some special uses that should be understood. 1. The word _it_ is often used in an indefinite way at the beginning of a sentence: [It snows]. When so used, it has no antecedent, and we say it is used _impersonally_. 2. The pronoun _it_ is often used as the _grammatical_ subject of a sentence in which the _logical_ subject is found after the predicate verb: [_It_ is impossible for us to go]. When so used the pronoun _it_ is called an _expletive. There_ is used in the same way. +34. Cautions and Suggestions.+ 1. Be careful not to use the apostrophe in the possessive forms _its, yours, ours_, and _theirs_. 2. Be careful to use the nominative form of a pronoun used as an attribute complement: [It is _I_; it is _they_]. 3. Be sure that the pronoun agrees in number with its antecedent. One of the most common violations of this rule is in using _their_ in such sentences as the following:--Every boy and girl must arrange _his_ desk. Who has lost _his_ book? The use of _every_ and the form _has_ obliges us to make the possessive pronouns singular. _His_ may be regarded as applying to females as well as males, where it is convenient not to use the expression _his or her_. 4. The so-called subject of an infinitive is always in the objective case: [I asked _him_ to go]. 5. The attribute complement will agree in case with the subject of the verb. Hence the attribute complement of an infinitive is in the objective case: [I knew it (obj.) to be _him_]; but the attribute complement of the subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case: [I knew it (nom.) was _he_]. 6. Words should be so arranged in a sentence that there will be no doubt in the mind concerning the antecedent of the pronoun. 7. Do not use the personal pronoun form _them_ for the adjective _those_: [_Those_ books are mine]. +35. Compound Personal Pronouns.+--To the personal pronouns _my, our, your, him, her, it_, and _them_, the syllables _self_ (singular) and _selves_ (plural) may be added, thus forming what are termed _compound personal_ pronouns. These pronouns have only two uses:-- 1. They are used for emphasis: [He _himself_ is an authority on the subject]. 2. They are also used reflexively: [The boy injured _himself_]. +36. The Relative or Conjunctive Pronouns.+--The pronouns _who, which, what_ (= that which), _that_, and _as_ (after _such_) are more than equivalents for nouns, inasmuch as they serve as connectives. They are often named _relative pronouns_ because they relate to some antecedent either expressed or implied; they are equally well named _conjunctive pronouns_ because they are used as connectives. They introduce subordinate clauses only; these clauses are called _relative clauses_, and since they modify substantives, are also called _adjective clauses_. +37. Uses of Relative Pronouns.+--_Who_ is used to represent persons, and objects or ideas personified; _which_ is used to represent things; _that_ and _as_ are used to represent both persons and things. When a clause is used _for the purpose_ of pointing out some particular person, object, or idea, it is usually introduced by _that_; but when the clause supplies an additional thought, _who_ or _which_ is more frequently used. The former is called a _restrictive clause_, and the latter, a _non-restrictive clause_. [The boy that broke his leg has fully recovered (restrictive).] Note the omission of the comma before _that_. [My eldest brother, who is now in England, will return by June (non-restrictive).] Note the inclosure of the clause in commas. See Appendix 5, rule 10. In the first sentence it is evident that the intent of the writer is to separate, in thought, _the boy that broke his leg_ from all other boys. Although the clause does indeed describe the boy's condition, it does so _for the purpose_ of _limiting_ or _restricting_ thought to one especial boy among many. In the second sentence the especial person meant is indicated by the word _eldest_. The clause, _who is now in England_, is put in for the sake of giving an additional bit of information. +38. Constructions of Relative Pronouns.+--Relative pronouns may be used as subject, object, object of a preposition, subject of an infinitive, and possessive modifier. The relative pronoun is regarded as agreeing in person with its antecedent. Its verb, therefore, takes the person of the antecedent: [_I_, who _am_ your friend, will assist you]. The case of the relative is determined by its construction in the clause in which it is found: [He _whom_ the president appointed was fitted for the position]. +39. Compound Relative Pronouns.+--The compound relative pronouns are formed by adding _ever_ and _soever_ to the relative pronouns _who, which_, and _what_. These have the constructions of the simple relatives, and the same rules hold about person and case: [Give it to _whoever_ wishes it. Give it to _whomever_ you see]. +40. Interrogative Pronouns.+--The pronouns _who, which_, and _what_ are used to ask questions, and when so used, are called _interrogative_ pronouns. _Who_ refers to persons; _what_, to things; and _which_, to persons or things. Like the relatives _who_ has three case forms; _which_ and _what_ are uninflected. The implied question in the sentence, I know whom you saw, is, Whom did you see? The introductory _whom_ is an interrogative pronoun, and the clause itself is called an _indirect question_. The words _which, what_, and _whose_ may also be used as modifiers of substantives, and when so used they are called _interrogative adjectives_: ["_What_ manner of man is this?" _Whose_ child is this? _Which_ book did you choose?]. +41. Demonstrative Pronouns.+--_This_ and _that_, with their plurals _these_ and _those_, are called _demonstrative pronouns_, because they point out individual persons or things. +42. Indefinite Pronouns.+--Some pronouns, as _each, either, some, any, many, such_, etc., are indefinite in character. Many indefinites may be used either as pronouns or adjectives. Of the indefinites only two, _one_ and _other_, are inflected. SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL NOM. AND OBJ. one ones other others POSS. one's ones' other's others' +43. Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives.+--Many words, as has been noted already, are either pronouns or adjectives according to the office that they perform. If the noun is expressed, the word in question is called a _pronominal adjective_; but if the noun is omitted so that the word in question takes its place, it is called an _adjective pronoun_. [_That_ house is white (adjective). _That_ is the same house (pronoun).] ADJECTIVES +44. Classes of Adjectives.+--There are two general classes of adjectives: the _descriptive_ [blue, high, etc.], so called because they describe, and the _limiting_ or _definitive_ adjectives [yonder, three, that, etc.], so called because they limit or define. It is, of course, true that any adjective which describes a noun limits its meaning; but the adjective is named from its descriptive power, not from its limiting power. A very large per cent of all adjectives belong to the first class,--_descriptive_ adjectives. Proper adjectives and _participial_ adjectives form a small part of this large class: [_European_ countries. A _running_ brook]. +45. Limiting or Definitive Adjectives.+--The _limiting_ adjectives include the various classes of _pronominal adjectives_ (all of which have been mentioned under pronouns), the _articles_ (_a_, _an_, and _the_), and adjectives denoting _place_ and _number_. +46. Comparison of Adjectives.+--With the exception of the words _this_ and _that_, adjectives are not inflected for number, and none are inflected for case. Many of them, however, change their form to express a difference in degree. This change of form is called _comparison_. There are three degrees of comparison: the _positive_, the _comparative_, and the _superlative_. Adjectives are regularly compared by adding the syllables _er_ and _est_ to the positive to form the comparative and superlative degrees. In some cases, especially in the case of adjectives of more than one syllable, the adverbs _more_ and _most_ are placed before the positive degree in order to form the other two degrees [long, longer, longest; beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful]. +47. Irregular Comparison of Adjectives.+--A few adjectives are compared irregularly. These adjectives are in common use and we should be familiar with the correct forms. POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE bad } evil } worse worst ill } far farther farthest good } better best well } fore former { foremost { first late { later { latest { latter { last little less least many } more most much } near nearer { nearest { next old { older { oldest { elder { eldest The following words are used as adverbs or prepositions in the positive degree, and as _adjectives_ in the other two degrees:-- (forth) further furthest (in) inner { innermost { inmost (out) { outer { outermost { utter { utmost { uttermost (up) upper { upmost { uppermost +48. Cautions concerning the Use of Adjectives.+ 1. When two or more adjectives modify the same noun, the article is placed only before the first, unless emphasis is desired: [He is an industrious, faithful pupil]. 2. If the adjectives refer to different things, the article should be repeated before each adjective: [She has a white and a blue dress]. 3. When two or more nouns are in apposition, the article is placed only before the first: [I received a telegram from Mr. Richards, _the_ broker and real estate agent]. 4. _This, these, that_, and _those_ must agree in number with the noun they modify: [_This kind_ of flowers; _those sorts_ of seeds]. 5. When but two things are compared, the comparative degree is used: [This is the more complete of the two]. 6. When _than_ is used after a comparative, whatever is compared should be excluded from the class with which it is compared: [I like this house better than any other house; not, I like this house better than any house]. 7. Do not use _a_ after _kind of, sort of_, etc.: [What kind of man is he? (not, What kind of _a_ man)]. _One_ man does not constitute a class consisting of many kinds. +49. Constructions of Adjectives.+--Adjectives that merely describe or limit are said to be _attributive_ in construction. When the adjective limits or describes, and, at the same time, adds to the predicate, it is called a _predicate adjective_.Predicate adjectives may be used either as attribute or objective complements: [The sea is _rough_ to-day (attribute complement), He painted the boat _green_ (objective complement)]. +50. Equivalents for Adjectives.+--The following are used as equivalents for the typical adjective:-- 1. A noun used in apposition: [Barrie's story of his mother, "_Margaret Ogilvy_," is very beautiful]. 2. A noun used as an adjective: [A _campaign_ song]. 3. A prepositional phrase: [His little, nameless, unremember'd acts _of kindness_ and _of love_]. 4. Participles or participial phrases: [We saw a brook _running_ between the alders. Soldiers _hired to serve a foreign country_ are called mercenaries]. 5. Relative clauses: [This is the house _that Jack built_]. 6. An adverb (sometimes called the _locative_ adjective): [The book _here_ is the one I want]. VERBS +51. Uses of Verbs.+--A _verb_ is the word or word-group that makes an assertion or statement, and it is therefore the most important part of the whole sentence. It has been already shown that such a verb as _speaks_ serves the double purpose of suggesting an activity and showing relation. The most purely _relational_ verb is the verb _to be_, which is called the _copula_ or _linking verb_, for the very reason that it joins predicate words to the subject: [The lake _is_ beautiful]. _To be_, however, is not always a pure _copula_. In such a sentence as, "He that cometh to God must believe that He _is_," the word _is_ means _exists_.Verbs that are like the copula, such as, _appear, become, seem_, etc., are called _copulative_ verbs. Verbs that not only are relational but have descriptive power, such as _sings, plays, runs_, etc., are called _attributive_ verbs. They attribute some quality or characteristic to the subject. +52. Classes of Verbs.+--According to their uses in a sentence verbs are divided into two classes: _transitive_ and _intransitive_. A _transitive_ verb is one that takes a following substantive, expressed or implied, called the _object_, to designate the receiver or the product of the action: [They seized the _city_. They built a _city_]. The transitive verb may sometimes be used _absolutely_:[The horse eats]. Here the object is implied. An _intransitive_ verb is one that does not take an object to complete its meaning; or, in other words, an intransitive verb is one that denotes an action, state, or feeling that involves the subject only: [He ran away. They were standing at the water's edge]. A few verbs in our language are always transitive, and a few others are always intransitive. The verbs _lie_ and _lay, rise_ and _raise, sit_ and _set_, are so frequently misused that attention is here called to them. The verbs _lie, rise_, and _sit_ (usually) are intransitive in meaning, while the verbs _lay, raise_, and _set_ are transitive. The word _sit_ may sometimes take a reflexive object: [They sat _themselves_ down to rest]. The majority of verbs in our language are either transitive or intransitive, according to the sense in which they are used. [The fire _burns_ merrily (intransitive). The fire _burned_ the building (transitive). The bird _flew_ swiftly (intransitive). The boy _flew_ his kite (transitive).] Some intransitive verbs take what is known as a _cognate object_: [He died a noble _death_.] Here the object repeats the meaning of the verb. +53. Complete and Incomplete Verbs.+--Some intransitive verbs make a complete assertion or statement without the aid of any other words. Such verbs are said to be of _complete predication_: [The snow melts]. All transitive verbs and some intransitive verbs require one or more words to complete the meaning of the predicate. Such verbs are said to be incomplete. Whatever is added to complete the meaning of the predicate is termed a _complement_. The complement of a transitive verb is called the _object complement_, or simply the _object_: [She found the _book_]. Some transitive verbs, from the nature of their meaning, take also an _indirect_ object: [I gave _her_ the book]. When a word belonging to the subject is added to an intransitive verb in order to complete the predicate, it is termed an _attribute complement_. This complement may be either a noun or an adjective: [He is our _treasurer_ (noun). This rose is _fragrant_ (adjective)]. Among the incomplete intransitive verbs the most conspicuous are the copula and the copulative verbs. +54. Auxiliary Verbs.+--English verbs have so few changes of form to express differences in meaning that it is often necessary to use the so-called _auxiliary_ verbs. The most common are: _do, be, have, may, must, might, can, shall, will, should, would, could_, and _ought_. Some of these may be used as principal verbs. A few notes and cautions are added. _Can_ is used to denote the ability of the subject. _May_ is used to denote permission, possibility, purpose, or desire. Thus the request for permission should be, "May I?" not "Can I?" _Must_ indicates necessity. _Ought_ expresses obligation. _Had_ should never be used with _ought_. To express a moral obligation in past time, combine _ought_ with the perfect infinitive: [I ought _to have done_ it]. _Should_ sometimes expresses duty: [You should not go]. _Would_ sometimes denotes a custom: [He would sit there for hours]. Sometimes it expresses a wish: [Would he were here!]. For other uses of _should_ and _would_, see Appendix 60. +55. Principal Parts.+--The main forms of the verb--so important as to be called the _principal parts_ because the other parts are formed from them-- are the _root infinitive_, the _preterite_ (_past_) _indicative_, and the _past participle_ [move, moved, moved; sing, sang, sung; be, was, been]. The _present_ participle is sometimes given with the principal parts. +56. Inflection.+--As is evident from the preceding paragraph, verbs have certain changes of form to indicate change of meaning. Such a change or _inflection_, in the case of the noun, is called _declension;_ in the case of the verb it is called _conjugation_. Nouns are _declined_; verbs are _conjugated_. +57. Person and Number.+--In Latin, or any other highly inflected language, there are many terminations to indicate differences in person and number, but in English there is but one in common use, _s_ in the third person singular: [_He runs_], _St_ or _est_ is used after _thou_ in the second person singular: [_Thou lovest_]. +58. Agreement.+--Verbs must agree with their subjects in person and number. The following suggestions concerning agreement may be helpful:-- 1. A compound subject that expresses a single idea takes a singular verb: [Bread and milk _is_ wholesome food]. 2. When the members of a compound subject, connected by _neither ... nor_, differ as regards person and number, the verb should agree with the nearer of the two: [Neither they nor I _am_ to blame]. 3. When the subject consists of singular nouns or pronouns connected by _or, either ... or, neither ... nor_, the verb is singular: [Either this book or that _is_ mine]. 4. Words joined to the subject by _with, together with, as well as_, etc., do not affect the number of the verb. The same is true of any modifier of the subject: [John, as well as the girls, _is_ playing house. One of my books _is_ lying on the table. Neither of us _is_ to blame]. 5. When the article _the_ precedes the word _number_, used as a subject, the verb should be in the singular; otherwise the verb is plural: [_The_ number of pupils in our schools _is_ on the increase. _A_ number of children _have_ been playing in the sand pile]. 6. The pronoun _you_ always takes a plural verb, even if its meaning is singular: [You _were_ here yesterday]. 7. A collective noun takes a singular or plural verb, according as the collection is thought of as a whole or as composed of individuals. +59. Tense.+--The power of the verb to show differences of time is called _tense_. Tense shows also the completeness or incompleteness of an act or condition at the time of speaking. There are three _primary_ tenses: _present, preterite_ (_past_), and _future_; and three _secondary_ tenses for completed action:_present perfect, past perfect_ (_pluperfect_), and _future perfect_. English has only two simple tenses, the present and the preterite: _I love, I loved_. All other tenses are formed by the use of the auxiliary verbs. By combining the present and past tenses of _will, shall, have, be_, or _do_ with those parts of the verb known as infinitives and participles, the various tenses of the complete conjugation of the verb are built up. The formation of the _preterite_ tense, and the consequent division of verbs into _strong_ and _weak_, will be discussed later. +60. The Future Tense.+--The future tense is formed by combining _shall_ or _will_ with the root infinitive, without _to_. The correct form of the _future tense_ in assertions is here given:-- SINGULAR PLURAL 1. I shall fall 1. We shall fall 2. Thou wilt fall 2. You will fall 3. He will fall 3. They will fall _Will_, in the _first_ person, denotes not simple futurity, but determination: [I will (= am determined to) go]. _Shall_, in the _second_ and _third_ persons, is not simply the sign of the future tense in declarative sentences. It is used to denote the determination of the speaker with reference to others. Notice:-- 1. In clauses introduced by _that_, expressed or understood, if the noun clause and the principal clause have _different_ subjects, the same auxiliary is used that would be used were the subordinate clause used independently: [I fear we _shall_ be late. My friend is determined that her son _shall_ not be left alone]. 2. In all other subordinate clauses, _shall_, for all persons, denotes simple futurity; _will_, an expression of willingness or determination: [He thinks that he _shall_ be there. He promises that he _will_ be there]. 3. In questions, _shall_ is always used in the first person; in the second and third persons the same auxiliary is used which is expected in the answer. (NOTE.--_Should_ and _would_ follow the rules for _shall_ and _will_.) +61. Tenses for the Completed Action.+ 1. To represent an action as completed at the _present_ time, the past participle is used with _have_ (_hast, has_). This forms the _present perfect_ tense: [I _have finished_]. 2. To represent an action as completed in _past_ time, the past participle is combined with _had_ (_hadst_). This forms the _past perfect_, or _pluperfect_, tense: [I _had finished_]. 3. To represent action that will be completed _in future_ time, _shall have_ or _will have_ is combined with the past participle. This forms the _future perfect_ tense: [I _shall have finished_]. +62. Sequence of Tenses.+--It is, in general, true that the tense of a subordinate clause changes when the tense of the main verb changes. This is known as the Law of the Sequence (or _following_) of Tenses: [I know he means well. I knew he meant well]. The verb in the main clause and the verb in the subordinate clause are not necessarily in the same tense. [I think he _is_ there. I thought he was there. I think he _was_ there. I thought he had been there. I think he _will be_ there. I thought he would be there.] In general, the principle may be laid down that in a complex sentence the tense for both principal and subordinate clauses is that which the sense requires. General truths and present facts should be expressed in the present tense, whatever the tense of the principal verb: [He believed that truth _is_ unchangeable. Who did you say _is_ president of your society?]. The _perfect infinitive_ is used to denote action completed at the time of the main verb: [I am sorry _to have wounded_ you]. +63. Mode.+--A statement may be regarded as the expression of a fact, of a doubt or supposition, or of a command. The power of the verb to show how an action should be regarded is called _mode (mood_). In our language there is but a slight change of form for this purpose. The distinction of mode which we must make is a distinction that has regard to the thought or attitude of mind of the speaker rather than to the form of the verb. The _indicative_ mode is used to state a fact or to ask questions of fact: [I shall write a letter. Shall I write a letter?]. The _subjunctive_ mode indicates uncertainty, unreality, and some forms of condition: [If she were here, I should be glad]. The _imperative_ mode expresses a command or entreaty: [Come here]. +64. The Subjunctive Mode.+--The subjunctive is disappearing from colloquial speech, and the indicative form is used almost entirely. The verb _to be_ has the following indicative and subjunctive forms in the present and preterite:-- IND. SUBJ. IND. SUBJ. { I am I be { I was I were { Thou art Thou be { Thou wast Thou were PRESENT { He is He be PRETERITE { He was He were { We are We be { We were We were { You are You be { You were You were { They are They be { They were They were In other verbs the indicative and subjunctive forms are the same, except that the second and third persons singular subjunctive have no personal endings. INDICATIVE Thou learnest He learns SUBJUNCTIVE Thou learn He learn The subjunctive idea is sometimes expressed by verb phrases, containing the auxiliary verbs _may (might), would_, or _should_. _May, would_, and _should_ are not, however, always subjunctive. In "I _may_ go" (may = am allowed to), _may_ is indicative. In "you _should_ go" (= ought to), _should_ is indicative. The subjunctive mode is used most frequently to express:-- 1. A wish: [The Lord be with you]. 2. A condition regarded as doubtful: [If it be true, what shall we think?], or a condition regarded as untrue: [If I were you, I should go]. When condition is expressed by the subjunctive without _if_, the verb precedes the subject: [Were my brother here, he could go with me]. 3. A purpose: [He studies that he may learn]. 4. Exhortations: [Sing we the song of freedom]. 5. A concession,--supposed, not given as a fact: [Though he be my enemy, I shall pity him]. 6. A possibility: [We fear lest he be too late]. The tenses of the subjunctive require especial notice. In conditional clauses, the _present_ refers either to present or future time: [Though the earth be removed, we shall not fear]. The _preterite_ refers to present time. It implies that the supposed case is not a fact: [If he were here, I should be much pleased]. The _pluperfect_ subjunctive expresses a false supposition in past time: [If you had been here, this would not have happened]. The phrases with _may, might, can, must, could, would_, and _should_ are sometimes called the _potential mode_, but the constructions all fall within either the indicative or the subjunctive uses, and a fourth mode is only an incumbrance. +65. The Imperative Mode.+--The imperative is the mode of command and entreaty. It has but one form for both singular and plural, and but one tense,--the present. It has but one person,--the second. The subject is usually omitted. The case of direct address, frequently used with the imperative, should not be confused with the subject. In, "John, hold my books," the subject is _you_, understood. Were _John_ the subject, the verb must be _holds_. _John_ is, here, a compellative, or vocative. +66. Voice.+--Verbs are said to be in the _active_ voice when they represent the subject as acting, and in the _passive_ voice when they represent the subject as being acted upon. Intransitive verbs, from their very nature, have no passive voice. Transitive verbs may have both voices, for they may represent the subject either as acting or as being acted upon. The direct object in the active voice generally becomes the subject in the passive; if the subject of the active appears in the passive, it is the object of the preposition _by_: [My dog loves me (active). I am loved by my dog (passive)]. Verbs of calling, naming, making, and thinking may take two objects referring to the same person or thing. The first of these is the direct object and the second is called the objective complement: [John called him _a coward_]. The objective complement becomes an attribute complement when the verb is changed from the active to the passive voice: [He was called _a coward_ by John]. Certain verbs take both a direct and an indirect object in the active: [John paid him nine _dollars_]. If the indirect object becomes the subject in the passive voice, the direct object is known as the _retained object:_ [He was paid nine _dollars_ by John]. +67. Infinitives.+--The infinitive form of the verb is often called a verbal noun, because it partakes of the nature both of the verb and of the noun. It is distinguished from the _finite_, or true, verb because it does not make an assertion, and yet it assumes one. While it has the modifiers and complements of a verb, it at the same time has the uses of a noun. There are two infinitives: the _root infinitive_ (commonly preceded by _to_, the so-called _sign_ of the infinitive), and the _gerund_, or _infinitive in -ing_. 1. Root infinitive: [_To write_ a theme requires practice]. 2. Gerund: [_Riding_ rapidly is dangerous]. In each of these sentences the infinitive, in its capacity as noun, stands as the subject of the sentence. In 1, _to write_ shows its verb nature by governing the object _theme;_ in 2, _riding_ shows its verb nature by taking as a modifier the adverb _rapidly_. Each form of the infinitive is found as the subject of a verb, as its object, as an attribute complement, and as the object of a preposition. The root infinitive, together with its subject in the objective case, is used as the object of verbs of knowing, telling, etc.: [I know _him to be a good boy_]. See also Appendix 85 for adjective and adverbial uses. The infinitive has two tenses: the _present_ and the _perfect_. The _present_ tense denotes action which is not completed at the time of the principal verb: [He tries _to write_. He tried _to write_. He will try _to write_]. The _perfect_ infinitive denotes action complete with reference to the time of the principal verb: [I am glad _to have known_ her]. +68. Participles.+--Participles are verbal adjectives: [The girl _playing_ the piano is my cousin]. _Playing_, as an _adjective_, modifies the noun _girl_; it shows its _verbal_ nature by taking the object _piano_. The _present participle_ ends in _-ing_. When the _past participle_ has an ending, it is either _-d, -ed, -t_, or _-en_. The _perfect participle_ is formed by combining _having_ with a past participle; as, _having gone_. There is danger of confusing the present participle with the gerund, or infinitive in _-ing_, unless the adjective character of the one and the noun character of the other are clearly distinguished: [The boy, _driving_ the cows to pasture, was performing his daily task (participle). _Driving_ the cows to pasture was his daily task (gerund)]. Participles are used to form verb-phrases. The present participle is used for the formation of the progressive conjugation; the past participle, for the formation of the compound or perfect tenses. Participles are also used in all the adjective constructions. One especial construction requires notice,--the _absolute_ construction, or the _nominative absolute_, as it is called: [_The ceremony having been finished_, the people dispersed]. The construction here is equivalent to a clause denoting _time_ or _cause_ or some _circumstance_ attendant on the main action of the sentence. The participle is sometimes omitted, but the substantive must not be, lest the participle be left apparently belonging to the nearest substantive; as, Walking home, the rain began to fall. As the sentence stands, _walking_ modifies _rain_. +69. Conjugation.+--The complete and orderly arrangement of the various forms of a verb is termed its conjugation. Complete conjugations will be found in any text-book on English grammar. The passive voice must not be confused with such a form as the progressive conjugation of the verb. The passive consists of a form of _to be_ and a _past participle_: [I am instructed]. The progressive tenses combine some form of _to be_ with a _present_ participle: [I am instructing]. It may be well to distinguish here between the passive voice and a past participle used as an attribute complement of the verb _be_. Both have the same form, but there is a difference of meaning. The passive voice always shows action received by the subject, while the participle is used only as an adjective denoting condition: [James _was tired_ by his day's work (passive voice). James was _tired_ (attribute complement)]. +70. Weak and Strong Conjugations.+--Verbs are divided into two classes as regards their conjugations. It has been the custom to call all verbs which form the preterite and past participle by adding _-d_ or _-ed_ to the present, _regular_ verbs [love, loved, loved], and to call all others _irregular_. A better classification, based on more careful study of the history of the English verb, divides verbs into those of the _weak_ and those of the _strong_ conjugations. The _weak verbs_ are those which form the preterite by adding _-ed, -d_, or _-t_ to the present: _love, loved_. There is also infrequently a change of vowel: _sell, sold_; _teach, taught_. All verbs which form the preterite without the addition of an ending are _strong verbs_. There is usually a change of vowel. The termination of the past participle in _-n_ or _-en_ is a sure indication that a verb is _strong_. Some verbs show forms of both conjugations. A complete list of _strong_ verbs cannot be given here, but a few of the most common will be given, together with a few _weak_ verbs, in the use of which mistakes occur. PRESENT PRETERITE PAST PARTICIPLE am was been arise rose arisen bear bore borne, born[1] begin began begun bid (command) bade bidden bite bit bitten blow blew blown break broke broken bring brought brought burst burst burst catch caught caught choose chose chosen climb climbed climbed come came come do did done drink drank drunk[2] drive drove driven drown drowned drowned eat ate eaten fall fell fallen fly flew flown freeze froze frozen get got got give gave given go went gone grow grew grown have had had hide hid hidden hurt hurt hurt know knew known lay laid laid lie (recline) lay lain lead led led read read read ride rode ridden ring rang rung run ran run see saw seen shake shook shaken show showed shown sing sang sung sink sank sunk sit sat sat slay slew slain speak spoke spoken spring sprang sprung steal stole stolen swell swell { swelled { swollen swim swam swum take took taken tear tore torn throw threw thrown wear wore worn wish wished wished write wrote written [Footnote 1: Used only in the passive sense of "born into the world."] [Footnote 2: _Drunken_ is an adjective.] CAUTION.--Do not confuse the preterite with the past participle. Always use the past participle form in the compound tenses. ADVERBS +71. Classes of Adverbs.+--Adverbs vary much as to their use and meaning. It is therefore impossible to make a very accurate classification, but we may divide them, according to use, into _limiting, interrogative_, and _conjunctive_ adverbs. _Limiting_ adverbs modify the meaning of verbs, etc.: [He rows _well_]. _Interrogative_ adverbs are used to ask questions: [_When_ shall you come? He asked _where_ we were going (indirect question)]. _Conjunctive_ adverbs introduce clauses: [We went to the seashore, _where_ we stayed a month]. Here _where_ is used as a connective and also as a modifier of _stayed_. Conjunctive adverbs introduce the following kinds of clauses: 1. Adverbial clauses: [Go _where_ duty calls]. 2. Adjective clauses: [This is the very spot _where_ I put them]. 3. Noun clause: [I do not know _how_ he will succeed]. Adverbs may also be classified, according to meaning, into adverbs of _manner, time, place_, and _degree_. The classification is not, however, a rigid one. Adverbs of _manner_ answer the question How? Most of these terminate in _-ly_. A few, however, are identical in form with adjectives of like meaning: [She sang very loud]. Adverbs of _time_ answer the question When? Adverbs of _place_ answer the question Where? This class, together with the preceding two classes, usually modify verbs. _Adverbs of degree_ answer the question To what extent? These adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. +72. Phrasal Adverbs.+--Certain phrases, adverbial in character, cannot easily be separated into parts. They have been called _phrased adverbs;_ as, arm-in-arm, now-a-days, etc. +73. Inflection.+--Some adverbs, like adjectives, are compared for the purpose of showing different degrees of quality or quantity. The comparative and superlative degrees may be formed by adding the syllables _er_ and _est_ to the positive degree. The great majority of adverbs, however, make use of the words _more_ and _most_ or _less_ and _least_ to show a difference in degree: [Fast, faster, fastest; skillfully, more skillfully, most skillfully; carefully, less carefully, least carefully]. Some adverbs are compared irregularly:-- badly } worse worst ill (evil)} far } { farther { farthest forth } { further { furthest late later { latest { last little less least much more most nigh nigher { nigher { next well better best +74. Suggestions and Cautions concerning the Use of Adverbs.+ 1. Some words, as _fast, little, much, more_, and others, have the same form for both adjective and adverb, and use alone can determine what part of speech each is. (Adjective) He is a fast driver. She looks well (in good health). (Adverb) How fast he walks! I learned my lesson well. 2. Corresponding adjectives and adverbs usually have different forms which should not be confused. (Adjective) She is a good student. (Adverb) He works well. 3. The adjective, and not the adverbial, form should be used after a copulative verb, since adverbs cannot modify substantives: [I feel bad; not, I feel badly]. 4. Two negatives imply an affirmative. Hence only one should be used to denote negation: [I have nothing to say. I have no patience with him]. +75. Equivalents for Adverbs.+ 1. A phrase: [The child ran away _with great glee_]. 2. A clause: [I will go canoeing _when the lake is calm_]. 3. A noun: [Please come _home_. I will stay five _minutes_]. PREPOSITIONS +76. Classes of Prepositions.+--The _simple_ prepositions are: _at, after, against, but, by, down, for, from, in, of, off, over, on, since, through, till, to, under, up_, and _with_. Other prepositions are either derived or compound: such as, _underneath, across, between, concerning_, and _notwithstanding_. +77. Suggestions concerning the Use of Prepositions.+--Mistakes are frequently made in the use of the preposition. This use cannot be fully discussed here, but a partial list of words with the required preposition will be given. afraid _of_. agree _with_ a person. agree _to_ a proposal. bestow _upon_. compare _to_ (to show similarity). compare _with_ (to show similarity or difference). comply _with_. conform _to_. convenient _for_ or _to_. correspond _to_ or _with_ (a thing). correspond _with_ (a person). dependent _on_. differ _from_ (a person or thing). differ _from_ or _with_ (an opinion). different _from_. disappointed _in_. frightened _at_ or _by_. glad _of_. need _of_. profit _by_. scared _by_. taste _of_ (food). taste _for_ (art). thirst _for_ or _after_. _Like_, originally an adjective or adverb, is often, in some of its uses, called a preposition. It governs the objective case, and should not be used as a conjunction: [She looks like _me;_ not, She looks like I do]. The appropriate _conjunction_ here would be _as_: [She speaks _as_ I do]. The prepositions _in_ and _at_ denote rest or motion _in_ a place; _into_ denotes motion _toward_ a place: [He is _in_ the garden. He went _into_ the garden]. +78. Prepositional Phrases.+--The preposition, with its object, forms what is termed a prepositional phrase. This phrase is _adjective_ in force when it modifies a substantive; and _adverbial_, when it modifies a verb, adjective, or other adverb: [In the cottage _by the sea_ (adjective). He sat _on the bench_ (adverb)]. Some prepositions were originally adverbs; such as, _in, on, off, up_, and _to_. Many of them are still used adverbially or as adverbial suffixes: [The ship lay to. A storm came on]. CONJUNCTIONS +79. Classes of Conjunctions.+--Conjunctions are divided according to their use into two general classes: the _coördinate_ and the _subordinate_ conjunctions. _Coördinate_ conjunctions are used to connect words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank; _subordinate_ conjunctions connect clauses of unequal rank. The principal coördinate conjunctions are _and, but, or, nor_, and _for_. _And_ is said to be _copulative_ because it merely adds something to what has just been said. Other conjunctions having a copulative use are _also, besides, likewise, moreover_, and _too_; and the correlative conjunctions, _both ... and, not only ... but also_, etc. These are termed _correlative_ because they occur together. _But_ is termed the _adversative_ coördinate conjunction because it usually introduces something adverse to what has already been said. Other words of an adversative nature are _yet, however, nevertheless, only, notwithstanding_, and _still_. _Or_ is alternative in its force. This conjunction implies that there is a choice to be made. Other similar conjunctions are _either ... or, neither ... nor, or, else_. _Either ... or_ and _neither ... nor_ are termed _correlative_ conjunctions, and they introduce alternatives. _For, because, such_, and as are _coördinate_ conjunctions only in such a case as the following: [She has been running, for she is out of breath]. Some of the most common conjunctions of the _subordinate_ type are those of place and time, cause, condition, purpose, comparison, concession, and result. _That_ introducing a subordinate clause may be called a _substantive_ conjunction: [I knew _that_ I ought to go]. There are a number of subordinate conjunctions used in pairs which are called _correlatives_. The principal pairs are _as ... so, as ... as, so ... as, if ... then, though ... yet_. +80. Simple and Compound Sentences.+--In the first section of this review the parts of a sentence were named as the _subject_ and _predicate_. The _subject_ may itself consist of two parts joined by one of the coördinating conjunctions: [Alice _and_ her cousin are here]. The predicate may be formed in a similar fashion: [John played _and_ made merry all day long]. Both subject and predicate may be so compounded: [John _and_ Richard climbed the ladder _and_ jumped on the hay]. In all these cases the sentence, consisting as it does of but one subject and one predicate, is said to be _simple_. When two clauses--that is, two groups of words containing each a subject and predicate--are united by a coördinate conjunction, the sentence is said to be _compound_: [John wished to play Indian, _but_ Richard preferred to play railroad]. The coördinating conjunction need not actually appear in the sentence. Its omission is then indicated by the punctuation: [John wished to play Indian; Richard preferred another game]. +81. Subordinate Conjunctions and Complex Sentences.+--A _subordinate_ conjunction is used to join a subordinate clause to a principal clause, thus forming a _complex_ sentence. The test to be applied to a clause in order to ascertain whether it is a subordinate clause, is this: if any group of words in a sentence, containing a subject and predicate, fulfills the office of some single part of speech, it is a _subordinate_ clause. In the sentence, "I went because I knew that I must," the clause, "because I knew that I must" states the reason for the action named in the main clause. It, therefore, stands in _adverbial_ relation to the verb "went." "That I must" is the object of "knew." It, therefore, stands in a _substantive_ relation to the verb. Subordinate clauses are often introduced by subordinate conjunctions (sometimes by relative pronouns or adverbs); but, whenever such a clause appears in a sentence, otherwise simple, the sentence is _complex_. If it appears in a sentence otherwise compound, the sentence is _compound-complex_. The different types of subordinate clauses will be discussed later. SENTENCE STRUCTURE +82. Phrases.+--Phrases are classified both as to structure and use. From the standpoint of structure, a phrase is classified from its introductory word or words, as:-- 1. _Prepositional_: [They were _in the temple_]. 2. _Infinitive_: [He tried _to make us hear_]. 3. _Participial_: [_Having finished my letter_]. Classified as to use, a phrase may be-- 1. A _noun_: [_To be good is to be truly great_]. 2. An _adjective_: [The horse is an animal _of much intelligence_]. 3. An _adverb_: [He lives _in the city_]. +83. Clauses.+--It has been already shown that clauses may be either principal or subordinate. A principal clause is sometimes defined as "one that can stand alone," and is therefore independent of the rest of the sentence. This statement is misleading, for, although true in most cases, it does not hold in cases like the following:-- 1. As the tree falls, so it must lie. 2. That sunshine is cheering, cannot be denied. The genuine test for the subordinate clause is the one already given in connection with the study of the subordinate conjunction. It must serve the purpose of some single part of speech. All other clauses are principal clauses. +84. Classification of Subordinate Clauses.+--_A._ Subordinate clauses may be classified into _substantive_ and _modifying_ clauses. _Substantive clauses_ show the various substantive constructions. Thus:-- 1. Subject: ["_Thou shalt not covet_," is the tenth commandment]. 2. Object: [I know _what you wish_]. 3. Appositive: [The truth _that the earth is spherical_ is generally believed]. 4. Attribute complement: [The truth is _that she is not well_]. _Modifying clauses_ show adjective and adverbial constructions. Thus:-- 1. Adjective: [The house _which you see_ is mine]. 2. Adverb: [I will go _when_ it is possible]. _B._ Subordinate clauses may also be classified according to the introductory word. (_a_) Clauses introduced by _relative_ or _interrogative pronouns_: _who, which, what, that_ (= who or which), _as_ (after such), and the compound relatives, _whoever, whichever, whatever_ (the first three are both relative and interrogative): [The school _that stands on the hillside_ is painted white. I know _whom you_ mean]. (_b_) Clauses introduced by a relative or interrogative adjective: [The man _whose library is well furnished_ is rich. I see _which way I ought to take_]. (_c_) Clauses introduced by a relative or interrogative adverb, such as _when, whenever, since_ (referring to time), _until, before, after, where, whence, whither, wherever, why, as, how_: [I know the house _where lie lives_]. (_d_) Clauses introduced by a subordinate conjunction, such as _because, since_ (= because), _though, although, if, unless, that_ (= in order that), _as, as if, as though, then_: [I will go _since you wish it_]. _C._ Subordinate clauses may also be classified according to the nature of the thought expressed. (_a_) General description: [The house, _which stands on the hill_, has a fine view]. (_b_) Place: [The house _where he was born_ is torn down]. (_c_) Time: [He works _whenever he_ can]. (_d_) Cause: [_Since you wish it_, I will go]. (_e_) Concession: [_Although he is my friend_, I can see his faults]. (_f_) Purpose: [Run, _that you may obtain the prize_]. (_g_) Result: [She was so tired _that she stumbled_]. (_h_) Condition: [_If it rains_, we shall not go]. (_i_) Comparison: [You look as _if you were tired_]. Note that the subordinate clauses in the above examples are modifying clauses. (_j_) Direct quotation: [She said, "_I will go_"]. (_k_) Indirect statement: [She said _that she would go_]. (_l_) Indirect question: [I knew _where his house_ was]. Note that the subordinate clauses in the above examples are substantive clauses. +85. The Framework of a Sentence+ has been already described as consisting of the _subject_, the _verb_, and, if the verb be incomplete, of some completing element, _object_ or _attribute complement_. Occasionally an _objective complement_ must be added. Besides these elementary parts, both subject and predicate may have modifiers. The usual modifiers of the subject are:-- 1. Adjective: [The _golden_ bowl is broken]. 2. Adjective phrase: [The house _on the hill_ is beautiful]. 3. Adjective clause: [The house _which stands on the hill_ is beautiful]. 4. Noun or pronoun in possessive case: [_Helen's_ paint box is lost]. 5. Noun in apposition: [Mr. Merrill, the _president_ of the club, will open the debate]. 6. Adverb used as an adjective: [My _sometime_ friend]. 7. Infinitive used adjectively: [Work _to do_ is a blessing]. 8. Participle: [The child, _lagging_ behind, lost her way]. The modifiers of the predicate are:-- 1. Adverb: [The snow melted very _quickly_]. 2. Noun used adverbially: [I walked a _mile_]. 3. Infinitive used adverbially: [We were called together _to decide_ an important question]. 4. Adverbial phrase: [She ran _along the road_]. 5. Adverbial clause: [Go _when you can_]. 6. Nominative absolute: [The _speeches being over_, the audience dispersed]. Occasionally, adverbs and phrases of adverbial character modify the entire thought in a sentence, rather than some single word: [_To speak plainly,_ I cannot go. _Perhaps_ I may help you]. LIST OF SPECIAL WORDS +86. Special Words.+--A list is here given of words which appear as various parts of speech:--- +a+ (1) Adjective: _A_ book. (2) Preposition: I go a-fishing. +about+ (1) Preposition: Walk _about_ the house. (2) Adverb: We walked _about_ for an hour. _By, over, up_, etc., are used in the same way. +above+ (1) Preposition: The sun is _above_ the horizon. (2) Adverb: Go _above_. (3) Noun: Every good gift is from _above_. (4) Adjective: The _above_ remarks are discredited. _Below_ has the same uses. +after+ (1) Preposition: _After_ our sail. (2) Conjunctive adverb: He came _after_ she went away. +all+ (1) Pronoun: _All_ went merry as a marriage bell. (2) Noun: I gave my _all_. (3) Adjective: _All_ hands to the rescue. (4) Adverb: The work is _all_ right. +as+ (1) Conjunctive pronoun: I give such _as_ I have. (2) Conjunctive adverb: I am not so old _as_ she. (3) Adverb: What other grief is _as_ hard to bear? (4) Conjunction: _As_ it was hot, we did not go. (5) Preposition: I warned her _as_ a friend. (6) Compound Conjunction: He looks _as_ if he were not well. +before+ (1) Preposition: He stood _before_ the door. (2) Conjunctive Adverb: I will do it _before_ I go. (3) Adverb: She has never been here _before_. +both+ (1) Adjective: _Both_ white and red pines are beautiful. (2) Pronoun: _Both_ are yours. (3) Conjunction: She is _both_ good and beautiful. +but+ (1) Conjunction: John reads _but_ Richard plays. (2) Preposition: All _but_ him are at home. (3) Adverb: We can _but_ fail. +either+ (1) Adjective: _Either_ dress is becoming. (2) Conjunction: _Either_ this dress or the other is becoming. (3) Pronoun: _Either_ is right. +fast+ (1) Noun: A long _fast_. (2) Verb: They _fast_ often. (3) Adverb: The rain fell _fast_. (4) Adjective: He is a _fast_ walker. +for+ (1) Subordinate Conjunction: I must go, _for_ I promised. (2) Coördinate Conjunction: She stayed at home, _for_ I saw her. (3) Preposition: I have nothing _for_ you. +hard+ (1) Adjective: _Hard_ labor. (2) Adverb: He works _hard_. +like+ (1) Noun: We may never see her _like_ again. (2) Adjective: This process gives _like_ results. (3) Adverb: _Like_ as a father pitieth his children. (4) Preposition: She looks _like_ me. (By some grammarians _like_ in this case is considered a _adjective_ with the preposition _to_ omitted.) (5) Verb: You _like_ your work. +little+ (1) Adjective: A _little_ bread. (2) Noun: I wish a _little_. (3) Adverb: He laughs _little_. _Much_ has the same uses. +many a+ (1) Adjective: _Many a_ tree. +notwithstanding+ (1) Preposition: _Notwithstanding_ the rain, we were content. (2) Conjunction or Preposition: She is happy, _notwithstanding_ (the fact that) she is an invalid. +only+ (1) Adjective: This is the _only_ way. (2) Adverb: _Only_ experienced persons need apply. (3) Conjunction: I should go, _only_ it is stormy. +since+ (1) Preposition: _Since_ that day I have not seen her. (2) Conjunction: _Since_ you lost it, you must replace it. (3) Adverb: I have not seen her _since_. (4) Conjunctive Adverb: You have been here _since_ I have. +still+ (1) Adjective: The lake is _still_. (2) Adverb: The tree is _still_ lying where it fell. (3) Conjunction: He is entertaining; _still_ he talks too much. (4) Verb: Oil is said to _still_ the waves. (5) Noun: In the _still_ of noonday the song of the locust was loud. +than+ (1) Conjunction: I am older _than_ she. (2) Preposition: _Than_ whom there is none wiser. +that+ (1) Demonstrative Pronoun: _That_ is right. (2) Conjunctive Pronoun: He _that_ lives nobly is happy. (3) Adjective: _That_ book is mine. (4) Conjunction: I say this _that_ you may understand my position. (5) Substantive Conjunction: _That_ this is true is evident. +the+ (1) Adjective (article): _The_ lake. (2) Adverb: _The_ more ... _the_ merrier. +then+ (1) Adverb: I shall know _then_. (2) Conjunction: If you so decide, _then_ we may go. +there+ (1) Adverb: The stream runs _there_. (2) Expletive: _There_ are many points to be considered. (3) Interjection: _There! there!_ it makes no difference! +what+ (1) Conjunctive Interrogative Pronoun: I heard _what_ you said. Pronoun: _What_ shall I do? (3) Interrogative Adjective: _What_ game do you prefer? (4) Conjunctive Adjective: I know _what_ books he enjoys. (5) Adverb: _What_ with this and _what_ with that, he finally got his wish. (6) Interjection: _What! what!_ +while+ (1) Noun: A long _while_. (2) Verb: To _while_ away the time. (3) Conjunctive Adverb: I stay in _while_ it snows. III. FIGURES OF SPEECH +87. Figures of Speech.+--A figure of speech is a change from the usual form of expression for the purpose of producing a greater effect. These changes may be effective either because they are more pleasing to us or because they are more forcible, or for both reasons. While figurative language is a change from the usual mode of expression, we are not to think of it as being unnatural. It is, in fact, as natural as plain language, and nearly every one, from the illiterate to the most learned, makes use of it, more or less, in his ordinary conversation. This arises from, the fact that we all enjoy comparisons and substitutions. When we say that we have been pegging away all day at our work, or that the wind howls, or that the man has a heart of steel, we are making use of figures of speech. Figurative language ranges from these very simple expressions to the beautiful figures of speech found in so much of our poetry. Written prose contains many beautiful and forcible examples, but it is in poetry that we find most of them. +88. Simile.+--A simile is an expressed comparison between objects belonging to different classes. We must remember, however, that all resemblances do not constitute similes. If we compare two trees, or two beehives, or two rivers, our comparison is not a simile. If we compare a tree to a person, a beehive to a schoolroom, or time to a river, we may form a good simile, since the things compared do not belong to the same class. The best similes are those in which the ideas compared have one strong point of resemblance, and are unlike in all other respects. 1. How far that little candle throws its beams! So shines a good deed in a naughty world. --Shakespeare. 2. For very young he seemed, tenderly reared; Like some young cypress, tall, and dark, and straight. --Matthew Arnold. 3. In the primrose-tinted sky The wan little moon Hangs like a jewel dainty and rare. --Francis C. Rankin. +89. Metaphor.+--A metaphor differs from a simile in that the comparison is implied rather than expressed. They are essentially the same as far as the comparison is concerned, and usually the one kind may be easily changed to the other. In a simile we say that one object _is like_ another, in a metaphor we say that one object _is_ another. EXERCISES Select the metaphors in the following and change them to similes:-- 1. In arms the Austrian phalanx stood, A living wall, a human wood. --James Montgomery. 2. The familiar lines Are footpaths for the thoughts of Italy. --Longfellow. 3. Life is a leaf of paper white, Whereon each one of us may write His word or two, and then comes night. --Lowell. +90. Personification.+--Personification is a special form of the metaphor in which life is attributed to inanimate objects or the characteristics of persons are attributed to objects, animals, or even to abstract ideas. EXERCISES Explain why the following quotations are examples of personifications:-- 1. The day is done; and slowly from the scene The stooping sun upgathers his spent shafts And puts them back into his golden quiver. --Longfellow. 2. Time is a cunning workman and no man can detect his joints. --Charles Pierce Burton. 3. The sun is couched, the seafowl gone to rest, And the wild storm hath somewhere found a nest. --Wordsworth. 4. See the mountains kiss high heaven, And the waves clasp one another; No sister flower would be forgiven If it disdained its brother. --Shelley. +91. Apostrophe.+--Apostrophe is like personification, but has an additional characteristic. When we directly address inanimate objects or the absent as if they were present, we call the figure of speech thus formed apostrophe. The following are examples of apostrophe:-- 1. Break, break, break, At the foot of thy crags, O Sea! --Tennyson. 2. Backward, turn backward, O Time, in your flight, Make me a child again just for to-night! Mother, come back from the echoless shore, Take me again to your heart as of yore. --Elizabeth Akers Allen. +92. Metonymy.+--Metonymy consists in substituting one object for another, the two being so closely associated that the mention of one suggests the other. 1. The pupils are reading George Eliot. 2. Each hamlet heard the call. 3. Strike for your altars and your fires. 4. Gray hairs should be respected. +93. Synecdoche.+--Synecdoche consists in substituting a part of anything for the whole or a whole for the part. 1. A babe, two summers old. 2. Give us this day our daily bread. 3. Ring out the thousand years of woe, Ring in the thousand years of peace. 4. Fifty mast are on the ocean. +94. Other Figures of Speech.+--Sometimes, especially in older rhetorics, the following so-called figures of speech are added to the list already given: irony, hyperbole, antithesis, climax, and interrogation. The two former pertain rather to style, in fact, are qualities of style, while the last two might properly be placed along with kinds of sentences or paragraph development. Since these so-called figures are not all mentioned elsewhere in this text, a brief explanation and example of each will be given here. 1. _Irony_ consists in saying just the opposite of the intended meaning, but in such a way that it emphasizes that meaning. What has the gray-haired prisoner done? Has murder stained his hands with gore? Not so; his crime is a fouler one-- God made the old man poor. --Whittier. 2. _Hyperbole_ is an exaggerated expression used to increase the effectiveness of a statement. He was a man of boundless knowledge. 3. _Antithesis_ consists merely of contrasted statements. This contrast may be found in a single sentence or it may be extended through an entire paragraph. Look like the innocent flower, But be the serpent under it. --Shakespeare. 4. _Climax_ consists of an ascendant arrangement of words or ideas. I came, I saw, I conquered. 5. When a question is asked, not for the purpose of obtaining information but in order to make speech more effective, it is called the figure of _interrogation_. An affirmative question denies and a negative question affirms. 1. Am I my brother's keeper? 2. Am I not free? IV. THE RHETORICAL FEATURES OF THE SENTENCE +95. Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis in Sentences.+--On pages 153-155 we have considered the principles of unity, coherence, and emphasis as applied to the whole composition. In much the same way these principles are applicable to the sentence. A sentence possesses unity if all that it contains makes one complete statement, and no more; and if all minor ideas are made subordinate to one main idea. The effect must be single. A sentence exhibits coherence when the relation of all of its parts is perfectly clear. We secure emphasis in the sentence by placing ideas that deserve distinction in conspicuous positions; by arranging the members of a series in the order of climax; by using specific rather than general terms; by expressing thoughts with directness and simplicity; and by employing the devices of balance and contrast. We must remember that, in the sentence as well as in the whole composition and the paragraph, if coherence and unity are secured, emphasis is quite likely to follow naturally. On the other hand, a violation of coherence or unity often results in a lack of emphasis. +96. Unity in the sentence is affected unfavorably by+-- 1. _The presence of more than one main thought_. (Stonewall Jackson was a general in the Confederate Army, and he is said to have been a very religious man.) In this sentence two distinct thoughts are embodied, and in such a way that their relation to each other is altogether illogical. The effect is not that of a single thought. To possess unity the two or more thoughts of a compound sentence should sustain some particular relation, like cause and effect, contrast, series, details of a picture. We can unite the two thoughts in a perfectly logical sentence, thus: (Stonewall Jackson, the Confederate general, is said to have been a very religious man.) 2. _The addition of too many dependent clauses_. (The boy was startled when he awoke, for he heard the plan of his captors, who were preparing to seize the boat, which had been left by his friends who had so mysteriously deserted him at a time when he needed them most.) Here, the numerous dependent clauses tacked on obscure the main thought. The sentence should be broken up and, where possible, clauses should be reduced to phrases and words. (The boy was startled when he awoke, for he heard the plan of his captors. They were preparing to seize the boat left by his friends, who had deserted him in the hour of greatest need.) 3. _The presence of incongruous ideas_. (With his hair combed and his shoes blacked, he gave the impression of being a very strong man.) The ideas of this sentence have no logical relation to each other. There is little likelihood, too, of making them more congruous by any change in the sentence. Blacking one's shoes and combing one's hair do not make one look strong. The remedy for such a sentence is to separate the incongruous ideas. 4. _A needless change of construction_. (Silas was kindly received by the men in the tavern; and when they had listened to his story and his answers to their questions had been noted, they began to think of catching the thief.) Confusion arises from such sudden and needless changes of the subject. By keeping the same subject throughout, we secure unity of impression. (The men in the tavern received Silas kindly; and when they had listened to his story and had noted his answers to their questions, they began to think of catching the thief.) 5. _Making the sentence too short and fragmentary to serve as a logical unit of the paragraph_. (I went to the park yesterday. It was a pleasant day. I saw many animals. I had a good time, etc.) Each of these sentences, when considered in its relation to the others, and to the development of the thought, is altogether too incomplete and unimportant in ideas expressed to stand alone. Unity of impression and dignity of thought are gained by combining the sentences. (Yesterday was a pleasant day; so I went to the park, where I saw many animals, and had a good time.) +97. Coherence in the sentence is affected unfavorably by+-- 1. _The wrong placing of modifiers_. (The victorious general was returning to his native city after many hard-fought campaigns with his staff officers.) It is not likely that the campaigns here referred to were waged against the staff officers. By changing the position of phrases we express the thought that the writer had in mind. (After many hard-fought campaigns, the victorious general, with his staff officers, was approaching his native city.) Especial care should be taken in placing the correlatives _either, or; neither, nor; not only, but also;_ and the word _only_. Incoherence frequently arises through the wrong placing of these words. 2. _The careless use of pronouns_. (Argument plays a very little part in that work, and those that do occur are not interesting.) (He repeated to his father what he had told him the night before when he was in his room.) In both sentences, the relation between pronouns and antecedents is not clear, and incoherence results. With the ambiguity in the use of the pronouns remedied, the sentences are entirely coherent. (Argument plays a very little part in that work, and whatever argumentative material is found is not interesting.) (He repeated to his father what he had told this parent the night before in his room.) 3. _Careless participial and infinitive relations_. (After carefully preparing my lessons, a friend came in.) (Standing on Brooklyn Bridge, a great many ferryboats can be seen.) The relation of the parts is manifestly illogical and absurd. The sentences should read: (After I had carefully prepared my lessons, a friend came in.) (While standing on Brooklyn Bridge, one can see a great many ferryboats.) 4. _The use of wrong connectives_. (It rained yesterday, and I went to school.) We assume that the pupil wishes to convey the thought that he went to school yesterday in spite of the rain. But by his use of the coordinating conjunction, "and," he has failed to establish a logical relation between the two clauses. In this case unity is violated as well as coherence. Use different connectives and note the result, (Although it rained yesterday, I went to school) or, (It rained yesterday, but I went to school). 5. _Failure to observe parallelism in form_. (The stranger seemed courteous in his conduct and to have a solicitude for my welfare.) Although this sentence is grammatically correct, the shift in structure from the adjective and its phrase to the infinitive phrase leads to confusion in thought. How much clearer and smoother this rendering: (The stranger seemed courteous in his conduct and solicitous for my welfare.) +98. Emphasis in the sentence is affected unfavorably by+-- 1. _Weak beginnings and endings_. (A fire in the city is an exciting event to the average boy.) (It seemed that the unprincipled fellow had forged his father's name.) In the first sentence, the important words are "exciting event," and they should occupy the most conspicuous position,-- at the end of the sentence. The effectiveness is much improved by this order: (To the average boy, a fire in the city is an exciting event.) In the second sentence the weak place is the beginning. The subject and its modifiers are striking enough to demand their rightful position,--as the introductory words; in "forged his father's name" we have ideas startling enough for a place at the end of the sentence. "It seemed that" can be reduced to one word, "apparently," and this can be made parenthetical. (The unprincipled fellow, apparently, had forged his father's name.) This sentence, it will be observed, illustrates the periodic or suspended structure, a type particularly effective to employ for sustaining interest as well as for securing emphasis. 2. _Failure to observe the order of climax_. (Dazed, broken-hearted, hungry, the poor mother resumed her daily tasks.) Clearly, the strongest idea is suggested by "broken-hearted." A better order would be: (Hungry, dazed, broken-hearted, the poor mother resumed her daily tasks.) 3. _The use of superfluous words_. (I rushed hurriedly into the burning house and hastily snatched my few possessions.) In this sentence, "rushed" and "snatched" lose rather than gain force by adding "hurriedly" and "hastily." Look up definitions of "rush" and "snatch." When we wish to express strong emotion or to describe action resulting from excitement, we only weaken the impression by using unnecessary words. Simple, direct sentences are most forceful. In aiming to secure sentence emphasis, then, we should avoid circumlocution, redundancy, tautology, and verbosity. (Look up these terms in the Century Dictionary.) 4. _The use of general rather than specific terms_. (He approached the brook cautiously, and concealing himself in the bushes, began fishing.) A consideration of the choice of words in the sentence belongs strictly to the study of diction; however, force in the sentence is dependent in a large measure on the words employed. Observe how forceful the following sentence is as contrasted with the first example: (He crept noiselessly to the fishing hole, and hiding in the willows, threw his hook into the stream.) 5. _Failure to employ balance and contrast_. (Worth makes the man; but the fellow is made by the want of it.) (His life was spent in repenting of past misdeeds; in doing what was wrong, while he inculcated principles of righteousness.) Compare these with: (Worth makes the man; the want of it, the fellow.) (His life was spent in sinning and repenting; in inculcating what was right, and doing what was wrong.) Here the regularity of form gives pleasure to the taste, while the position of balanced and parallel parts adds clearness, coherence, and emphasis to the thoughts expressed. This method of sentence structure, if employed too frequently, however, will lead to a mannerism difficult to overcome. The caution to be heeded in the case of this type of sentence as well as in the case of every other is, "Nothing too much." Observe the law of variety. EXERCISES Point out the specific faults and correct:-- 1. He neither gave satisfaction as butler nor as coachman. 2. Elaine deserves our sympathy from the beginning to the end of the novel. 3. John only played once and won; and then, after watching the other players for a time, he got up and left the room. 4. The boy had an unconquerable fear of reptiles which no reasoning could overcome. 5 The Vicar's son Moses was a good student of the classics, but he made a bad bargain in his purchase of the green spectacles. 6. In all of his behavior toward Lynette, Gareth was patient and courteous, which reflected much credit on his knightly character. 7. Johnson was a man with a heroic soul, a wonderful intellect, and a kind heart. 8. After they had all assembled and come together, Odysseus addressed them. 9. He had reached the age of seventy, and his death was due to a nervous disorder. 10. The boys were only injured a little. 11. George Eliot's writings are filled with the philosophy of life, if we are wise enough to discover it. 12. Addison was sincere and kindly in his attitude toward men, and Pope was hypocritical and spiteful. 13. With reputation, character, and wealth gone, the poor man had little to live for. 14. Lancelot loved Queen Guinevere dearly, and he was Arthur's most valorous knight. 15. We are at peace with all the world and the rest of mankind. 16. Cedric lived with two great ends in view,--the union of Athelstane and Rowena and to see a restored Saxon monarchy. 17. James was walking backward and forward on the mountain side, which at this place was very precipitous and from which a little silvery stream issued to begin its rapid descent to the quiet hamlet that lay far below. 18. In our efforts to succeed in life we work hard that we may make names for ourselves and to acquire property. 19. He is a good hunter, but his wife is a Methodist. 20. Going up the street I saw the strangest-looking man. 21. James speaks German fluently, and he did not begin to study it until last year. 22. On returning to the deck, the sea assumed a very different aspect. V. LIST OF SYNONYMS Abandon, cast off, desert, forswear, quit, renounce, withdraw from. Abate, decrease, diminish, mitigate, moderate. Abhor, abominate, detest, dislike, loathe. Abiding, enduring, lasting, permanent, perpetual. Ability, capability, capacity, competency, efficacy, power. Abolish, annul, eradicate, exterminate, obliterate, root out, wipe out. Abomination, curse, evil, iniquity, nuisance, shame. Absent, absent-minded, absorbed, abstracted, oblivious, preoccupied. Absolve, acquit, clear. Abstemiousness, abstinence, frugality, moderation, sobriety, temperance. Absurd, ill-advised, ill-considered, ludicrous, monstrous, paradoxical, preposterous, unreasonable, wild. Abundant, adequate, ample, enough, generous, lavish, plentiful. Accomplice, ally, colleague, helper, partner. Active, agile, alert, brisk, bustling, energetic, lively, supple. Actual, authentic, genuine, real. Address, adroitness, courtesy, readiness, tact. Adept, adroit, deft, dexterous, handy, skillful. Adequate, adjoining, bordering, near, neighboring. Admire, adore, respect, revere, venerate. Admit, allow, concede, grant, suffer, tolerate. Admixture, alloy. Adverse, disinclined, indisposed, loath, reluctant, slow, unwilling. Aerial, airy, animated, ethereal, frolicsome. Affectation, cant, hypocrisy, pretense, sham. Affirm, assert, avow, declare, maintain, state. Aged, ancient, antiquated, antique, immemorial, old, venerable. Air, bearing, carriage, demeanor. Akin, alike, identical. Alert, on the alert, sleepless, wary, watchful. Allay, appease, calm, pacify. Alliance, coalition, compact, federation, union, fusion. Allude, hint, imply, insinuate, intimate, suggest. Allure, attract, cajole, coax, inveigle, lure. Amateur, connoisseur, novice, tyro. Amend, better, mend, reform, repair. Amplify, develop, expand, extend, unfold, widen. Amusement, diversion, entertainment, pastime. Anger, exasperation, petulance, rage, resentment. Animal, beast, brute, living creature, living organism. Answer, rejoinder, repartee, reply, response, retort. Anticipate, forestall, preclude, prevent. Apiece, individually, severally, separately. Apparent, clear, evident, obvious, tangible, unmistakable. Apprehend, comprehend, conceive, perceive, understand. Arraign, charge, cite, impeach, indict, prosecute, summon. Arrogance, haughtiness, presumption, pride, self-complacency, superciliousness, vanity. Artist, artificer, artisan, mechanic, operative, workman. Artless, boorish, clownish, hoidenish, rude, uncouth, unsophisticated. Assent, agree, comply. Assurance, effrontery, hardihood, impertinence, impudence, incivility, insolence, officiousness, rudeness. Atom, grain, scrap, particle, shred, whit. Atrociousness, barbaric, barbarous, brutal, merciless. Attack, assault, infringement, intrusion, onslaught. Attain, accomplish, achieve, arrive at, compass, reach, secure. Attempt, endeavor, essay, strive, try, undertake. Attitude, pose, position, posture. Attribute, ascribe, assign, charge, impute. Axiom, truism. Baffle, balk, bar, check, embarrass, foil, frustrate, hamper, hinder, impede, retard, thwart. Banter, burlesque, drollery, humor, jest, raillery, wit, witticism. Beg, plead, press, urge. Beguile, divert, enliven, entertain, occupy. Bewilderment, confusion, distraction, embarrassment, perplexity. Bind, fetter, oblige, restrain, restrict. Blaze, flame, flare, flash, flicker, glare, gleam, gleaming, glimmer, glitter, light, luster, shimmer, sparkle. Blessed, hallowed, holy, sacred, saintly. Boasting, display, ostentation, pomp, pompousness, show. Brave, adventurous, bold, courageous, daring, dauntless, fearless, gallant, heroic, undismayed. Bravery, coolness, courage, gallantry, heroism. Brief, concise, pithy, sententious, terse. Bring over, convince, induce, influence, persuade, prevail upon, win over. Calamity, disaster, misadventure, mischance, misfortune, mishap. Candid, impartial, open, straightforward, transparent, unbiased, unprejudiced, unreserved. Candor, frankness, truth, veracity. Caprice, humor, vagary, whim. Caricature, burlesque, parody, travesty. Catch, capture, clasp, clutch, grip, secure. Cause, consideration, design, end, ground, motive, object, reason, purpose. Caution, discretion, prudence. Censure, criticism, rebuke, reproof, reprimand, reproach. Character, constitution, disposition, reputation, temper, temperament. Characteristic, peculiarity, property, singularity, trait. Chattering, garrulous, loquacious, talkative. Cheer, comfort, delight, ecstasy, gayety, gladness, gratification, happiness, jollity, satisfaction. Churlish, crusty, gloomy, gruff, ill-natured, morose, sour, sullen, surly. Class, circle, clique, coterie. Cloak, cover, gloss over, mitigate, palliate, screen. Cloy, sate, satiate, satisfy, surfeit. Commit, confide, consign, intrust, relegate. Compassion, forbearance, lenience, mercy. Compassionate, gracious, humane. Complete, consummate, faultless, flawless, perfect. Confirm, corroborate. Conflicting, discordant, discrepant, incongruous, mismated. Confused, discordant, miscellaneous, various. Conjecture, guess, suppose, surmise. Conscious, aware, certain. Consequence, issue, outcome, outgrowth, result, sequel, upshot. Continual, continuous, incessant, unbroken, uninterrupted. Credible, conceivable, likely, presumable, probable, reasonable. Customary, habitual, normal, prevailing, usual, wonted. Damage, detriment, disadvantage, harm, hurt, injury, prejudice. Dangerous, formidable, terrible. Defame, deprecate, disparage, slander, vilify. Defile, infect, soil, stain, sully, taint, tarnish. Deleterious, detrimental, hurtful, harmful, mischievous, pernicious, ruinous. Delicate, fine, minute, refined, slender. Delightful, grateful, gratifying, refreshing, satisfying. Difficult, hard, laborious, toilsome, trying. Digress, diverge, stray, swerve, wander. Disown, disclaim, disavow, recall, renounce, repudiate, retract. Dispose, draw, incline, induce, influence, move, prompt, stir. Earlier, foregoing, previous, preliminary. Effeminate, feminine, womanish, womanly. Emergency, extremity, necessity. Empty, fruitless, futile, idle, trifling, unavailing, useless, vain, visionary. Erudition, knowledge, profundity, sagacity, sense, wisdom. Eternal, imperishable, interminable, perennial, perpetual, unfailing. Excuse, pretense, pretext, subterfuge. Exemption, immunity, liberty, license, privilege. Explicit, express. Faint, faint-hearted, faltering, half-hearted, irresolute, languid, listless, purposeless. Faithful, loyal, stanch, trustworthy, trusty. Fanciful, fantastic, grotesque, imaginative, visionary. Fling, gibe, jeer, mock, scoff, sneer, taunt. Flock, bevy, brood, covey, drove, herd, litter, pack. Fluctuate, hesitate, oscillate, vacillate, waver. Folly, imbecility, senselessness, stupidity. Grief, melancholy, regret, sadness, sorrow. Hale, healthful, healthy, salutary, sound, vigorous. Ignorant, illiterate, uninformed, uninstructed, unlettered, untaught. Impulsive, involuntary, spontaneous, unbidden, voluntary, willing. Indispensable, inevitable, necessary, requisite, unavoidable. Inquisitive, inquiring, intrusive, meddlesome, peeping, prying. Intractable, perverse, petulant, ungovernable, wayward, willful. Irritation, offense, pique, resentment. Probably, presumably. Reliable, trustworthy, trusty. Remnant, trace, token, vestige. Requite, repay, retaliate, satisfy. VI. LIST OF WORDS FOR EXERCISES IN WORD USAGE Ability, capacity. Accept, except. Acceptance, acceptation. Access, accession. Accredit, credit. Act, action. Admire, like. Admittance, admission. Advance, advancement, progress, progression. Affect, effect. After, afterward. Aggravating, irritating, provoking, exasperating. Allege, maintain Allow, guess, think. Allusion, illusion, delusion. Almost, most, mostly. Alone, only. Alternate, choice. Among, between. Amount, number, quantity. Angry, mad. Apparently, evidently. Apt, likely, liable. Arise, rise. At, in. Avocation, vocation. Awfully, very. Balance, rest, remainder. Begin, commence. Beside, besides. Both, each, every. Bring, fetch. By, with. Calculate, intend. Carry, bring, fetch. Casuality, casualty. Character, reputation. Claim, assert. Clever, pleasant. College, university, school. Completeness, completion. Compliment, complement. Confess, admit. Construe, construct. Contemptible, contemptuous. Continual, continuous. Convince, convict. Council, counsel. Couple, pair. Credible, creditable, credulous. Custom, habit. Deadly, deathly. Decided, decisive. Decimate, destroy. Declare, assert. Degrade, demean. Depot, station, R.R. Discover, invent. Drive, ride. Each other, any other, one another. Emigration, immigration, migration. Enormity, enormousness. Estimate, esteem. Exceptional, exceptionable. Expect, suppose. Falseness, falsity. Fly, flee. Funny, odd. Grant, give. Habit, practice. Haply, happily. Healthy, healthful, wholesome. Human, humane. Lady, woman. Last, latest, preceding. Learn, teach. Lease, hire. Less, fewer. Lie, lay. Loan, lend. Love, like. Mad, angry. Majority, plurality. Manly, mannish. May, can. Mutual, common. Necessities, necessaries. Nice, pleasant, attractive. Noted, notorious. Observation, observance. Official, officious. Oral, verbal. Part, portion. Partly, partially. Persecute, prosecute. Person, party. Practicable, practical. Prescribe, proscribe. Prominent, predominant. Purpose, propose. Quite, very, rather. Relation, relative. Repair, mend. Requirement, requisite. Rise, raise. Scholar, pupil, student. Sensible of, sensitive to. Series, succession. Settle, locate. Sewage, sewerage. Shall, will. Should, would. Sit, set. Splendid, elegant. Statement, assertion. Statue, statute, stature. Stay, stop. Team, carriages. Transpire, happen. Verdict, testimony. Without, unless. Womanly, womanish. INDEX Abbott. Action: observation of. Actuality: in argument. Adams. Adjectives. Advantages: of expressing ideas gained from experience; of imaginative theme writing. Adverbs. Agreement. Allen, Elizabeth A. Allen, James Lane. Ambiguity. Analogy: argument from. Antithesis. Apostrophe: rule for; as figure of speech. Argument: purpose of; use of explanation in; by stating advantages and disadvantages; by use of specific instances; refutation or indirect; differs from exposition; clear thinking essential; by inference; from cause; from sign; from example; from analogy; differs from persuasion; with persuasion. Argumentative themes. Arnold. Arrangement: _see_ coherence; in argument; summary of. Attendant circumstances: argument from. Authority: appeals to in argument. Auxiliary verbs. Ayton. Bagley. Baldwin. Ballad. Bancroft. Belief: necessity in debate; establishing a general theory; basis of. Beveridge. Biography. Blank verse. Boardman. Bourdillon. Bowles. Bradley. Brief. Brown. Browning. Bryant. Budgell. Burke. Burns. Burroughs. Byron. Cable. Camp. Capitals. Cary. Case. Cause and effect: development of paragraph by use of; development of composition by use of; use in exposition; use in argument. Cautions and suggestions: use of figures of speech; in debating; use of pronouns; use of adjectives; use of verbs; use of adverbs; prepositions. Character sketch. Choice of words: adapted to reader; as to meaning; simple. Clark. Classification. Clauses: restrictive and non-restrictive. Clearness. Climax: in narration; in argument; as figure of speech. Coherence: definition; in outline; in composition; arrangement of details; arrangement of facts in exposition; aided by outline; in argument; in sentences. Coleridge. Colon: rules for. Colton. Comma: rules for. Comparison: as an aid to formation of images; development of a paragraph by; definitions supplemented by; as a method of developing a composition; as an aid in establishing fundamental image; as an aid to effectiveness in description; use in exposition; analogy; of adjectives; of adverbs. Complete and incomplete verbs. Composition: kinds of; general principles of. Conclusion. Conjugation. Conjunctions. Connolly. Connor. Constructions: of nouns; of personal pronouns; of relative pronouns; of adjectives. Contrast: development of a paragraph by; development of a composition by; use in exposition. Conversation. Cooper. Copeland-Rideout. Correction of themes. Darwin. Dash: rules for. Debate: value of; statement of question; necessity of belief; order of presentation; cautions. Deductive reasoning: errors of. Definition: by synonym; by use of simpler words; definitions to be supplemented; first step in exposition; logical; difficulty in framing; inexact. Description: Chapter VIII (_see also_ descriptive themes); defined; effectiveness in; classes of objects frequently described: buildings; natural features; sounds; color; animals; plants; persons; impression of; impression as purpose of; in narration; general description. Descriptive themes. Details: selection of; paragraph developed by; related in time-order; related with reference to position in space; used in general description; in general narration; composition developed by giving details in time-order; by giving details with reference to position in space; selection of, affected by point of view; selection of essential; selection and subordination of minor; arrangement of; in narration; arrangement; selection of facts in exposition; exposition by use of. Dewey. Diction. Discourse: forms of presupposes an audience. Division. Dixey. Dramatic poetry. Dryer. Dunbar, Mary Louise. Ease. Effectiveness in description comparison and figures of speech, as aids to. Elegance. Elegy. Eliot, George. Emphasis in sentences. Enthymeme. Epic. Equivalents: for nouns for adjectives. for adverbs Essentials of expression. Euphony. Evidence. Examples: use in exposition argument from _(see also_ specific instances). Exclamation mark: rule for. Expediency: questions of. Experience: ideas gained from, Chapter I; relation to imagination impressions limited to. Exposition: Chapter X (see _also_ expository themes); purpose of importance of clear understanding necessary of terms of propositions by repetition by examples by comparison and contrast by obverse statements by details by cause and effect by general description by general narration by use of specific instances. Expository themes. Expression: essentials of. Fallacy. Feelings: appeal to, in persuasion. Feet. Fields. Figures of speech use of as an aid to effectiveness in description. Ford. Form: importance of directions as to. Forms of discourse. Fundamental image. Gender. General theory: how established, basis of appeals to. George, Marian M. Gilman. Grammar review. Gray. Hare. Harland. Harris. Hawthorne. Henry. Higginson and Channing. Hinman. History: writing of. Hoar. Holland. Holmes. Howells. Hyperbole. Ideas: from experience, Chapter I; from imagination, Chapter II; from language, Chapter III. pleasure in expressing sources of advantages of expressing ideas gained from experience from imagination ideas from pictures acquired through language. Images: making of complete and incomplete reproduction of other requirements to determine meaning fundamental union with impression. Imagination, Chapter II. Impression: of description, as purpose of description, necessity of observing impressions, limited to experience, affected by mood, union with image. Improbability. Incentive moment. Indentation. Inductive reasoning: errors of. Inference: use in argument. Infinitives. Interrogation. Interrogation mark: rule for. Introduction. Invitations. Irony. Irving. Jackson, Helen Hunt. Jordan and Kellogg. Kellogg. Kingsley. Kipling. Language: as a medium through which ideas are acquired, adapted to reader, Letter writing: Chapter VI; importance of, paper, beginning, body, conclusion, envelope, rule of, business letters, letters of friendship, adaptation to reader, notes. Lodge. Longfellow. Lovelace. Lowell. Lyric poetry. Macaulay. Macy-Norris. Madame de Stael. Matthews. Maxims: appeals to in argument. McCarthy, Justin. Meaning of words. Memory. Metaphor: mixed. Methods of developing a composition: with reference to time-order, with reference to position in space, by use of comparison or contrast, by use of generalization and facts, by stating cause and effect, by a combination of methods. Metonymy. Metrical romance. Metrical tale. Mill. Mill, J. S. Miller, Mary Rogers. Milton. Mode. Montgomery. Morris, Clara. Motive, in persuasion. Narration: Chapter IX _(see also_ narrative themes below); kinds of, use of description in, general narration, narrative poetry. Narrative themes. Newcomer. Notes: formal, informal. Nouns. Number. Observation: of actions, order of, accuracy in, observation of impression. Obverse statements. Ode. Ollivaut. Oral compositions. Order of events. Outline: of a paragraph. the brief. making of. use of in exposition. Palmer. Paragraph: defined, topic statement, importance of, length, indentation, reasons for studying, methods of development-- by specific instances, by giving details, in time-order, as determined by position in space, by comparison, by cause and effect, by repetition, by a combination of methods. Paraphrasing. Participles. Partition. Parts of speech. Period: rules for. Person. Personification. Persuasion: differs from argument, importance and necessity of, motive in, material of, appeal to feelings, with argument. Phelps, Elizabeth Stuart. Philips, David Graham. Phillips, Wendell. Phrases. Plot: interrelation with character. Poe. Poetry: Chapter VII; aim of, kinds of. Point: of a story, _see also_ climax. Point of view: selection of details effected by, implied, changing, place in paragraph. Possibility: in argument. Post. Prepositions. Preston and Dodge. Principal parts of verbs. Probability: in narration, in argument. Procter, Adelaide. Pronouns. Pronunciation. Proportion of parts: for emphasis. Propositions: specific, general, exposition of, necessary to argument, of fact and of theory, statement of. Proverbs: use in argument. Punctuation. Quotation marks: rules for. Rankin. Read. Reasoning: inductive, errors of induction, deductive, relation between inductive and deductive, errors of deduction. Reasons: number and value of. Recitations: preparation for, topical. Refutation. Reid, Captain Mayne. Repetition: developing a paragraph by, exposition by use of. Reproduction: of a story, of the thought of a paragraph. Restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses. Rhyme. Rhythm: variation in. Richards, Laura E. Right: questions of. Robertson. Roosevelt. Ruskin. Scansion. Scott. Semicolon: rules for. Sentences: length, in conversation, relations, rhetorical features. Sewell, Anna. Shakespeare. Shelley. Sign: argument from. Simile. Slang. Smith. Song. Sonnet. Sources of ideas. Specific instances: development of a paragraph by use of, use in argument and exposition, development of a composition by use of, use in exposition. Spelling. Spencer. Stanza. Stevenson. Stoddard. Strong verbs. Subject: selection of, adapted to reader, sources, should be definite, narrowing. Suggestions, _see_ cautions. Summaries, at the end of the chapters. Summarizing paragraph. Syllogism. Symons. Synecdoche. Synonyms. Tarkington. Taylor. Tennyson. Tense. Terms: specific, general, explanation of, exposition of, use in argument and exposition. Themes: _see_ descriptive, narrative, expository, argumentative, and reproduction themes. Thoreau. Thurston. Time-order. Title: selecting of. Topic statement. Transition from one paragraph to another. Transition paragraph. Trowbridge. Turner. Unity: aided by time relations, aided by position in space, definition, in life; in outline, in composition, in sentences, selection of details giving, selection of facts in exposition, aided by outline. Van Dyke. Van Rensselaer (Mrs.). Variety. Verbs. Verse: names of. Vocabulary: how to increase, words applicable to classes of objects. Voice. Wallace. Warner. Wessels. Whittier. Wilcox, Ella Wheeler. Woode. Words: choice of, spelling, pronunciation, meaning, use, relations of, adapted to reader, selection, use of simpler words, selection, applicable to classes of objects, offices of, special list of. Wordsworth. 
25205	----	None 
15040	----	ECLECTIC EDUCATIONAL SERIES. McGUFFEY'S FIFTH ECLECTIC READER. REVISED EDITION. McGuffey Editions and Colophon are Trademarks of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York-Chichester-Weinheim-Brisbane-Singapore-Toronto Copyright, 1879, by VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG & CO. Copyright, 1896, by AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY. Copyright, 1907 and 1920, by H. H. VAIL. M'G. REV 5TH EC. EP 310 PREFACE. The plan of the revision of McGUFFEY'S FIFTH READER is the same as that pursued in the other books of the REVISED SERIES. The book has been considerably enlarged, but the new pieces have been added or substituted only after the most careful consideration, and where the advantages to be derived were assured. It has been the object to obtain as wide a range of leading authors as possible, to present the best specimens of style, to insure interest in the subjects, to impart valuable information, and to exert a decided and healthful moral influence. Thus the essential characteristics of McGUFFEY'S READERS have been carefully kept intact. The preliminary exercises have been retained, and are amply sufficient for drill in articulation, inflection, etc. The additional exercises on these subjects, formerly inserted between the lessons, have been omitted to make room for other valuable features of the REVISED SERIES. A full understanding of the text is necessary in order to read it properly. As all the books of reference required for this purpose are not within the reach of the majority of pupils, full explanatory notes have been given, which, it is believed, will add greatly not only to the interest of the reading lessons, but also to their usefulness from an instructive point of view. The definitions of the more difficult words have been given, as formerly; and the pronunciation has been indicated by diacritical marks, in conformity with the preceding books of the REVISED SERIES. Particular attention is invited to the notices of authors. Comparatively few pupils have the opportunity of making a separate study of English and American literature, and the carefully prepared notices in the REVISED SERIES are designed, therefore, to supply as much information in regard to the leading authors as is possible in the necessarily limited space assigned. The publishers have desired to illustrate McGUFFEY'S READERS in a manner worthy of the text and of the high favor in which they are held throughout the United States. The most celebrated designers and engravers of the country have been employed for this purpose. It has been the privilege of the publishers to submit the REVISIED SERIES to numerous eminent educators in all parts of the country. To the careful reviews and criticisms of these gentlemen is due, in a large measure, the present form of McGUFFEY'S READERS. The value of these criticisms, coming from practical sources of the highest authority, can not well be overestimated, and the publishers take this occasion to express their thanks and their indebtedness to all who have thus kindly assisted them in this work. Especial acknowledgment is due to Messrs. Houghton, Osgood & Co. for their permission to make liberal selections from their copyright editions of many of the foremost American authors whose works they publish. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTORY MATTER. SUBJECT. I. PRELIMINARY REMARKS II. ARTICULATION III. INFLECTIONS IV. ACCENT V. EMPHASIS VI. MODULATION VII. POETIC PAUSES EXERCISES SELECTIONS IN PROSE AND POETRY. TITLE. AUTHOR. 1. The Good Reader 2. The Bluebell 3. The Gentle Hand T. S. Arthur. 4. The Grandfather C. G. Eastman. 5. A Boy on a Farm C. D. Warner. 6. The Singing Lesson Jean Ingelow. 7. Do not Meddle 8. Work Eliza Cook. 9. The Maniac 10. Robin Redbreast W. Allingham. 11. The Fish I Did n't Catch Whittier. 12. It Snows Mrs. S. J. Hale. 13. Respect for the Sabbath Rewarded 14. The Sands o' Dee Charles Kingsley. 15. Select Paragraphs Bible. 16. The Corn Song Whittier. 17. The Venomous Worm John Russell. 18. The Festal Board 19. How to Tell Bad News 20. The Battle of Blenheim Southey. 21. I Pity Them 22. An Elegy on Madam Blaize Goldsmith. 23. King Charles II. and William Penn Mason L. Weems. 24. What I Live For 25. The Righteous Never Forsaken 26. Abou Ben Adhem Leigh Hunt. 27. Lucy Forrester John Wilson. 28. The Reaper and the Flowers. Longfellow. 29. The Town Pump Hawthorne. 30. Good Night Peter Parley. 31. An Old-fashioned Girl Louisa M. Alcott. 32. My Mother's Hands 33. The Discontented Pendulum. Jane Taylor. 34. The Death of the Flowers Bryant. 35. The Thunderstorm Irving. 36. April Day Mrs. C. A. Southey. 37. The Tea Rose 38. The Cataract of Lodore Southey. 39. The Bobolink Irving. 40. Robert of Lincoln Bryant. 41. Rebellion in Massachusetts State Prison J. T. Buckingham. 42. Faithless Nelly Gray Hood. 43. The Generous Russian Peasant Nikolai Karamzin. 44. Forty Years Ago 45. Mrs. Caudle's Lecture Douglas Jerrold. 46. The Village Blacksmith Longfellow. 47. The Relief of Lucknow "London Times." 48. The Snowstorm Thomson. 49. Behind Time 50. The Old Sampler Mrs. M. E. Sangster. 51. The Goodness of God Bible. 52. My Mother 53. The Hour of Prayer Mrs. F. D. Hemans. 54. The Will 55. The Nose and the Eyes Cowper. 56. An Iceberg L. L. Noble. 57. About Quail W. P. Hawes. 58. The Blue and the Gray F. M. Finch. 59. The Machinist's Return Washington "Capital." 60. Make Way for Liberty James Montgomery. 61. The English Skylark Elihu Burritt. 62. How Sleep the Brave William Collins. 63. The Rainbow John Keble. 64. Supposed Speech of John Adams Daniel Webster. 65. The Rising T. R. Read. 66. Control your Temper Dr. John Todd. 67. William Tell Sheridan Knowles. 68. William Tell Sheridan Knowles. 69. The Crazy Engineer 70. The Heritage Lowell. 71. No Excellence without Labor William Wirt. 72. The Old House Clock 73. The Examination. D. P. Thompson. 74. The Isle of Long Ago B. F. Taylor. 75. The Boston Massacre Bancroft. 76. Death of the Beautiful Mrs. E. L. Follen. 77. Snow Falling J. J. Piatt. 78. Squeers's Method Dickens. 79. The Gift of Empty Hands Mrs. S. M. B. Piatt. 80. Capturing the Wild Horse Irving. 81. Sowing and Reaping Adelaide Anne Procter. 82. Taking Comfort Whittier. 83. Calling the Roll Shepherd. 84. Turtle Soup C. F. Briggs. 85. The Best Kind of Revenge 86. The Soldier of the Rhine Mrs. C. E. S. Norton. 87. The Winged Worshipers Charles Sprague. 88. The Peevish Wife Maria Edgeworth. 89. The Rainy Day Longfellow. 90. Break, Break, Break Tennyson. 91. Transportation and Planting of Seeds H. D. Thoreau. 92. Spring Again Mrs. Celia Thaxter. 93. Religion the only Basis of Society W. E. Channing. 94. Rock Me to Sleep Mrs. E. A. Allen. 95. Man and the Inferior Animals Jane Taylor. 96. The Blind Men and the Elephant J. G. Saxe. 97. A Home Scene D. G. Mitchell. 98. The Light of Other Days Moore. 99. A Chase in the English Channel Cooper. 100. Burial of Sir John Moore Charles Wolfe. 101. Little Victories Harriet Martineau. 102. The Character of a Happy Life Sir Henry Wotton. 103. The Art of Discouragement Arthur Helps. 104. The Mariner's Dream William Dimond. 105. The Passenger Pigeon Audubon. 106. The Country Life R. H. Stoddard. 107. The Virginians Thackeray. 108. Minot's Ledge Fitz-James O'Brien. 109. Hamlet. Shakespeare. 110. Dissertation on Roast Pig Charles Lamb. 111. A Pen Picture William Black. 112. The Great Voices C. T. Brooks. 113. A Picture of Human Life Samuel Johnson. 114. A Summer Longing George Arnold. 115. Fate Bret Harte. 116. The Bible the Best of Classics T. S. Grimke. 117. My Mother's Bible G. P. Morris. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. SUBJECT. ARTIST. The Good Reader H. F. Farny. The Fish I Did n't Catch H. F. Farny. The Corn Song E. K. Foote. I Pity Them. W. L. Sheppard. The Town Pump Howard Pyle. Good Night J. A. Knapp. The Tea Rose C. S. Reinhart. Forty Years Ago H. Fenn. The Old Sampler Mary Hallock Foote. The Old Sampler Mary Hallock Foote. About Quail Alexander Pope. The Crazy Engineer H. F. Farny. Squeers's Method Howard Pyle. Turtle Soup W. L. Sheppard. Hamlet Alfred Fredericks. INTRODUCTION. 1. PRELIMINARY REMARKS. The great object to be accomplished in reading, as a rhetorical exercise, is to convey to the hearer, fully and clearly, the ideas and feelings of the writer. In order to do this, it is necessary that a selection should be carefully studied by the pupil before he attempts to read it. In accordance with this view, a preliminary rule of importance is the following: RULE 1.--Before attempting to read a lesson, the learner should make himself fully acquainted with the subject as treated of in that lesson, and endeavor to make the thought and feeling and sentiments of the writer his own. REMARK.--When he has thus identified himself with the author, he has the substance of all rules in his own mind. It is by going to nature that we find rules. The child or the savage orator never mistakes in inflection or emphasis or modulation. The best speakers and readers are those who follow the impulse of nature, or most closely imitate it as observed in others. II. ARTICULATION. Articulation is the utterance of the elementary sounds of a language, and of their combinations. An Elementary Sound is a simple, distinct sound made by the organs of speech. The Elementary Sounds of the English language are divided into Vocals, Subvocals, and Aspirates. ELEMENTARY SOUNDS.--VOCALS. Vocals are sounds which consist of pure tone only. A diphthong is a union of two vocals, commencing with one and ending with the other. DIRECTION.--Put the lips, teeth, tongue, and palate in their proper position; pronounce the word in the chart forcibly, and with the falling inflection, several times in succession; then drop the subvocal or aspirate sounds which precede or follow the vocal, and repeat the vocals alone. Table of Vocals. Long Vocals. Vocal as in Vocal as in ----- ----- ----- ----- a hate e err a hare i pine a far o no a pass u tube a fall u burn e eve oo cool Short Vocals Vocal as in Vocal as in ----- ----- ----- ----- a mat o hot e met u us i it oo book Diphthongs. Vocal as in ------ -------- oi, oy oil, boy ou, ow out,now REMARK 1.--In this table, the short sounds, except u, are nearly or quite the same in quality as certain of the long sounds. The difference consists chiefly in quantity. REMARK 2. The vocals are often represented by other letters or combinations of letters than those used in the table; for instance, a is represented by ai in hail, ea in steak, etc. REMARK 3.--As a general rule, the long vocals and the diphthongs should be articulated with a full, clear utterance; but the short vocals have a sharp, distinct, and almost explosive utterance. SUBVOCALS AND ASPIRATES. Subvocals are those sounds in which the vocalized breath is more or less obstructed. Aspirates consist of breath only, modified by the vocal organs. Words ending with subvocal sounds should be selected for practice on the subvocals; words beginning or ending with aspirate sounds may be used for practice on the aspirates. Pronounce these words forcibly and distinctly several times in succession; then drop the other sounds, and repeat the subvocals and aspirates alone. Let the class repeat the words and elements at first in concert, then separately. Table of Subvocals and Aspirates. Subvocal as in Subvocal as in -------- ----- -------- ----- b babe p rap d bad t at g nag k book j judge ch rich v move f life th with th Smith z buzz s hiss z azure(azh'ure) sh rush REMARK.--These sixteen sounds make eight pairs of cognates. In articulating the aspirates, the vocal organs are put in the position required in the articulation of the corresponding subvocals; but the breath is expelled with some force without the utterance of any vocal sound. The pupil should first verify this by experiment, and then practice on these cognates. The following subvocals and aspirates have no cognates. SUBVOCALS. Subvocal as in Subvocal as in -------- ----- -------- ----- l mill r rule m rim r car n run w win ng sing y yet ASPIRATES Aspirate as in -------- ----- h hat wh when SUBSTITUTES. Substitutes are characters used to represent sounds ordinarily represented by other characters. TABLE OF SUBSTITUTES. Substitute for as in Substitute for as in ---------- --- ----- ---------- --- ----- a o what y i hymn e a there c s cite e a freight c k cap i e police ch sh machine i e sir ch k chaos o u son g j cage o oo to n ng rink o oo would s z rose o a corn s ah sure o u work x gz examine u oo pull gh f laugh u oo rude ph f sylph y i my qu k pique qu kw quick FAULTS TO BE REMEDIED. DIRECTION.--Give to each sound, to each syllable, and to each word its full, distinct, and appropriate utterance. For the purpose of avoiding the more common errors under this head, observe the following rules: RULE II.--Avoid the omission of unaccented vowels. EXAMPLES. Incorrect Correct Incorrect Correct --------- ----------- ---------- --------- Sep'rate sep-a-rate Ev'dent ev-i-dent met-ric'l met-ric-al mem'ry mem-o-ry 'pear ap-pear 'pin-ion o-pin-ion com-p'tent com-pe-tent pr'pose pro-pose pr'cede pre-cede gran'lar gran-u-lar 'spe-cial es-pe-cial par-tic'lar par-tic-u-lar RULE III.--Avoid sounding incorrectly the unaccented vowels. EXAMPLES. Incorrect Correct Incorrect Correct ---------- ----------- ------------ ------------ Sep-er-ate sep-a-rate Mem-er-ry mem-o-ry met-ric-ul met-ric-al up-pin-ion o-pin-ion up-pear ap-pear prup-ose pro-pose com-per-tent com-pe-tent gran-ny-lar gran-u-lar dum-mand de-mand par-tic-e-lar par-tic-u-lar ob-stur-nate ob-sti-nate ev-er-dent ev-i-dent REMARK I.--In correcting errors of this kind in words of more than one syllable, it is very important to avoid a fault which is the natural consequence of an effort to articulate correctly. Thus, in endeavoring to sound correctly the a in met'ric-al, the pupil is very apt to say met-ric-al'. accenting the last syllable instead of the first. REMARK 2.--The teacher should bear it in mind that in correcting a fault there is always danger of erring in the opposite extreme. Properly speaking, there is no danger of learning to articulate too distinctly, but there is danger of making the obscure sounds too prominent, and of reading in a slow, measured, and unnatural manner. RULE IV.--Utter distinctly the terminating subvocals and aspirates. EXAMPLES. Incorrect Correct Incorrect Correct --------- ------- --------- ------- An' and Mos' mosque ban' band near-es' near-est moun' mound wep' wept mor-nin' morn-ing ob-jec' ob-ject des' desk sub-jec sub-ject REMARK 1.--This omission is still more likely to occur when several consonants come together. EXAMPLES. Incorrect Correct Incorrect Correct --------- -------- --------- ---------- Thrus' thrusts Harms' harm'st beace beasts wrongs' wrong'st thinks' thinkst twinkles' twinkl'dst weps' weptst black'ns black'n'dst REMARK 2.--In all cases of this kind these sounds are omitted, in the first instance, merely because they are difficult, and require care and attention for their utterance, although after a while it becomes a habit. The only remedy is to devote that care and attention which may be necessary. There is no other difficulty, unless there should be a defect in the organs of speech, which is not often the case. RULE V.--A void blending syllables which belong to different words. EXAMPLES. INCORRECT. CORRECT. ---------- ------------ He ga-zdupon. He gazed upon. Here res tsis sed. Here rests his head. Whattis sis sname? What is his name? For ranninstantush. For an instant hush. Ther ris sa calm, There is a calm. For tho stha tweep. For those that weep. God sglorou simage. God's glorious image. EXERCISES IN ARTICULATION. This exercise and similar ones will afford valuable aid in training the organs to a distinct articulation. Every vice fights against nature. Folly is never pleased with itself. Pride, not nature, craves much. The little tattler tittered at the tempest. Titus takes the petulant outcasts. The covetous partner is destitute of fortune. No one of you knows where the shoe pinches. What can not be cured must be endured. You can not catch old birds with chaff. Never sport with the opinions of others. The lightnings flashed, the thunders roared. His hand in mine was fondly clasped. They cultivated shrubs and plants. He selected his texts with great care. His lips grow restless, and his smile is curled half into scorn. Wisdom's ways are ways of pleasantness. O breeze, that waftst me on my way! Thou boast'st of what should be thy shame. Life's fitful fever over, he rests well. Canst thou fill his skin with barbed irons? From star to star the living lightnings flash. And glittering crowns of prostrate seraphim. That morning, thou that slumber'd'st not before. Habitual evils change not on a sudden. Thou waft'd'st the rickety skiffs over the cliffs. Thou reef'd'st the haggled, shipwrecked sails. The honest shepherd's catarrh. The heiress in her dishabille is humorous. The brave chevalier behaves like a conservative. The luscious notion of champagne and precious sugar. III. INFLECTIONS. Inflections are slides of the voice upward or downward. Of these, there are two: the rising inflection and the falling inflection. The Rising Inflection is that in which the voice slides upward, and is marked thus ('); as, Did you walk'? Did you walk. The Falling Inflection is that in which the voice slides downward, and is marked thus ('); as, I did not walk'. I did not walk. Both inflections are exhibited in the following question: Did you walk' or ride'? walk or ride. In the following examples, the first member has the rising and the second member the falling inflection: EXAMPLES.[1] Is he sick', or is he well'? Did you say valor', or value'? Did you say statute', or statue'? Did he act properly', or improperly'? [Footnote 1: These questions and similar ones, with their answers, should be repeatedly pronounced with their proper inflection, until the distinction between the rising and falling inflection is well understood and easily made by the learner. He will be assisted in this by emphasizing strongly the word which receives the inflection, thus. Did you RIDE' or did you WALK'?] In the following examples, the inflections are used in a contrary order, the first member terminating with the falling and the second with the rising inflection: EXAMPLES. He is well', not sick'. I said value', not valor'. I said statue', not statute'. He acted properly', not improperly'. FALLING INFLECTIONS. Rule VI.--The falling inflection is generally proper wherever the sense is complete. EXAMPLES. Truth is more wonderful than fiction'. Men generally die as they live'. By industry we obtain wealth'. REMARK.--Parts of a sentence often make complete sense in themselves, and in this case, unless qualified or restrained by the succeeding clause, or unless the contrary is indicated by some other principle, the falling inflection takes place according to the rule. EXAMPLES Truth is wonderful', even more so than fiction'. Men generally die as they live' and by their actions we must judge of their character'. Exception.--When a sentence concludes with a negative clause, or with a contrast or comparison (called also antithesis), the first member of which requires the falling inflection, it must close with the rising inflection. (See Rule XI, and paragraph 2, Note.) EXAMPLES. No one desires to be thought a fool'. I come to bury' Caesar, not to praise' him. He lives in England' not in France'. REMARK.--In bearing testimony to the general character of a man we say: He is too honorable' to be guilty of a vile' act. But if he is accused of some act of baseness, a contrast is at once instituted between his character and the specified act, and we change the inflections, and say: He is too honorable' to be guilty of such' an act. A man may say in general terms: I am too busy' for projects'. But if he is urged to embark in some particular enterprise, he will change the inflections, and say: I am too busy' for projects'. In such cases, as the falling inflection is required in the former part by the principle of contrast and emphasis (as will hereafter be more fully explained), the sentence necessarily closes with the rising inflection. Sometimes, also, emphasis alone seems to require the rising inflection on the concluding word. See exception to Rule VII. (5.-2.) STRONG EMPHASIS. RULE VII.--Language which demands strong emphasis generally requires the falling inflection. EXAMPLES. 1. Command or urgent entreaty; as, Begone', Run' to your houses, fall' upon your knees, Pray' to the Gods to intermit the plagues. 0, save' me, Hubert' save' me I My eyes are out Even with the fierce looks of these bloody men. 2. Exclamation, especially when indicating strong emotion; as, 0, ye Gods'! ye Gods'! must I endure all this? Hark'! Hark'! the horrid sound Hath raised up his head. For interrogatory exclamation, see Rule X, Remark. SERIES OF WORDS OR MEMBERS. 3. A series of words or members, whether in the beginning or middle of a sentence, if it does not conclude the sentence, is called a commencing series, and usually requires the rising inflection when not emphatic. EXAMPLES OF COMMENCING SERIES. Wine', beauty', music', pomp', are poor expedients to heave off the load of an hour from the heir of eternity'. I conjure you by that which you profess, (Howe'er you came to know it,) answer me; Though you untie the winds and let them fight Against the churches'; though the yeasty waves Confound and swallow navigation' up; Though bladed corn be lodged, and trees blown down'; Though castles topple on their warders' heads'; Though palaces and pyramids do slope Their heads to their foundations'; though the treasures Of nature's germens tumble altogether', Even till destruction sicken'; answer me To what I ask' you. 4. A series of words or members which concludes a sentence is called a concluding series, and each member usually has the falling inflection. EXAMPLE OF CONCLUDING SERIES. They, through faith, subdued kingdoms', wrought righteousness' obtained promises', stopped the mouths of lions', quenched the violence of fire', escaped the edge of the sword', out of weakness were made strong', waxed valiant in fight', turned to flight the armies of the aliens'. REMARK.--When the emphasis on these words or members is not marked, they take the rising inflection, according to Rule IX. EXAMPLES. They are the offspring of restlessness', vanity', and idleness'. Love', hope', and joy' took possession of his breast. 5. When words which naturally take the rising inflection become emphatic by repetition or any other cause, they often take the falling inflection. Exception to the Rule.--While the tendency of emphasis is decidedly to the use of the falling inflection, sometimes a word to which the falling inflection naturally belongs changes this, when it is emphatic, for the rising inflection. EXAMPLES. Three thousand ducats': 't is a good round sum'. It is useless to point out the beauties of nature to one who is blind'. Here sum and blind, according to Rule VI, would take the falling inflection, but as they are emphatic, and the object of emphasis is to draw attention to the word emphasized, this is here accomplished in part by giving an unusual inflection. Some speakers would give these words the circumflex, but it would he the rising circumflex, so that the sound would still terminate with the rising inflection. RULE VIII.--Questions which can not be answered by yes or no, together with their answers, generally require the falling inflection. EXAMPLES. Where has he gone'? Ans. To New York'. What has he done'? Ans. Nothing'. Who did this'? Ans. I know not'. When did he go'? Ans. Yesterday'. REMARK.--It these questions are repeated, the inflection is changed according to the principle stated under the Exception to Rule VII. RISING INFLECTION. RULE IX.--Where a pause is rendered proper by the meaning, and the sense is incomplete, the rising inflection is generally required. EXAMPLES. To endure slander and abuse with meekness' requires no ordinary degree of self-command', Night coming on', both armies retired from the field of battle'. As a dog returneth to his vomit', so a fool returneth to his folly'. REMARK.--The person or object addressed, in ordinary conversation, comes under this head. EXAMPLES. Fathers'! we once again are met in council. My lords'! and gentlemen'! we have arrived at an awful crisis. Age'! thou art shamed. Rome'! thou hast lost the breed of noble bloods! Exception.--Where a word which, according to this rule, requires the rising inflection, becomes emphatic, it generally has the falling inflec-tion; as, when a child addresses his father, he first says, Father'! but if he repeats it emphatically, he changes the inflection, and says, Father'! Father'! The falling inflection is also used in formal address; as, Fellow--citizens', Mr. President', etc. EXAMPLES. When we aim at a high standard, if we do not attain' it, we shall secure a high degree of excellence. Those who mingle with the vicious, if they do not become depraved', will lose all delicacy of feeling. RULE X.--Questions which may be answered by yes or no, generally require the rising, and their answers the falling inflection. EXAMPLES. Has he arrived'? Yes'. Will he return'? No'. Does the law condemn him'? It does not'. Exception.--If these questions are repeated emphatically, they take the falling inflection, according to Rule VII. EXAMPLES. Has he arrived'? Will he return'? Does the law condemn him'? REMARK.--When a word or sentence is repeated as a kind of interrogatory exclamation, the rising inflection is used according to the principles of this rule. EXAMPLES. You ask, who would venture' in such a cause! Who would venture'? Rather say, who would not' venture all things for such an object! He is called the friend' of virtue. The friend'! ay! the enthusiastic lover' the devoted protector' rather. So, also, when one receives unexpected information he exclaims, Ah'! indeed'! REMARK.--In the above examples the words "venture," "friend," "ah," etc., may be considered as interrogatory exclamations, because if the sense were carried out it would be in the form of question; as, "Do you ask who would venture'?" "Do you say that he is the friend' of virtue?" "Is it possible'?" and thus they would receive the rising inflection according to this rule. RISING AND FALLING INFLECTIONS. RULE XI.--The different members of a sentence expressing comparison, or contrast, or negation and affirmation, or where the parts are united by or used disjunctively, require different inflections; generally the rising inflection in the first member, and the falling inflection in the second member. This order is, however, sometimes inverted. 1. Comparison and contrast. This is also called antithesis. EXAMPLES. In all things approving ourselves as the ministers of God; by honor', and dishonor'; by evil' report, and good' report; as deceivers', and yet true'; as unknown', and yet well' known; as dying', and behold we live'; as chastened', and not killed'; as sorrowful', yet always rejoicing'; as poor', yet making many rich'; as having nothing', yet possessing all' things. Europe was one great battlefield, where the weak struggled for freedom', and the strong for dominion'. The king was without power', and the nobles without principle', They were tyrants at home', and robbers abroad'. 2. Negation and affirmation. EXAMPLES. He desired not to injure' his friend, but to protect' him. We desire not your money', but yourselves'. I did not say a better' soldier, but, an elder'. If the affirmative clause comes first, the order of the inflections is inverted. EXAMPLES. He desired to protect' his friend, not to injure' him. We desire yourselves', not your money'. I said an elder' soldier, not a better'. The affirmative clause is sometimes understood. We desire not your money'. I did not say a better' soldier. The region beyond the grave is not a solitary' land. In most negative sentences standing alone, the corresponding affirmative is understood; hence the following. REMARK.--Negative sentences, whether alone or connected with an affirmative clause, generally end with the rising inflection. If such sentences are repeated emphatically, they take the falling inflection according to Rule VI. EXAMPLES. We do not' desire your money. I did not' say a. better soldier. 3. Or used disjunctively. Did he behave properly', or improperly'? Are they living/, or dead'? Is he rich', or poor'? Does God, having made his creatures, take no further' care of them, or does he preserve and guide them'? REMARK.--Where or is used conjunctively, this rule does not apply; as, Will the law of kindness' or of justice' justify such conduct'? CIRCUMFLEX. The circumflex is a union of the rising and falling inflections. Properly speaking, there are two of these, the one called the rising circumflex, in which the voice slides down and then up; and the other, the falling circumflex, in which the voice slides upward and then downward on the same vowel. They may both be denoted by the same mark, thus, (^). The circumflex is used chiefly to indicate the emphasis of irony, of contrast, or of hypothesis. EXAMPLES. 1. Queen. Hamlet, you have your father much offended. Hamlet. Madam, you have my father much offended. 2. They offer us their protec'tion. Yes', such protection as vultures give to lambs, covering and devouring them. 3. I knew when seven justices could not make up a quarrel; but when the parties met themselves, one of them thought but of an if; as, If you said so, then I said so; O ho! did you say so! So they shook hands and were sworn brothers. REMARKS.--In the first example, the emphasis is that of contrast. The queen had poisoned her husband, of which she incorrectly supposed her son ignorant, and she blames him for treating his father-in-law with disrespect. In his reply, Hamlet contrasts her deep crime with his own slight offense, and the circumflex upon "you" becomes proper. In the second example the emphasis is ironical. The Spaniards pretended that they would protect the Peruvians if they would submit to them, whereas it was evident that they merely desired to plunder and destroy them. Thus their protection is ironically called "such protection as vultures give to lambs," etc. In the third example, the word "so" is used hypothetically; that is, it implies a condition or supposition. It will be observed that the rising circumflex is used in the first "so," and the falling, in the second, because the first "so" must end with the rising inflection and the second with the falling inflection, according to previous rules. MONOTONE. When no word in a sentence receives an inflection, it is said to be read in a monotone; that is, in nearly the same tone throughout. This uniformity of tone is occa-sionally adopted, and is fitted to express solemnity or sublimity of idea, and sometimes intensity of feeling. It is used, also, when the whole sentence or phrase is emphatic. In books of elocution, when it is marked at all, it is generally marked thus (---), as in the lines following. EXAMPLES. Hence! loathed melancholy! Where brooding darkness spreads her jealous wings, And the night raven sings; There, under ebon shades and low-browed rocks, As ragged as thy locks, In deep Cimmerian darkness ever dwell. IV. ACCENT. In every word which contains more than one syllable, one of the syllables is pronounced with a somewhat greater stress of voice than the others. This syllable is said to be accented. The accented syllable is distinguished by this mark ('), the same which is used in inflections. EXAMPLES. Love'ly, re-turn', re-mem'ber, Con'stant, re-main', a-sun'der, Mem'ber, a-bide', a-ban'don, Win'dow, a-tone', rec-ol-lect', Ban'ner, a-lone', re-em-bark', REMARK.--In most cases custom is the only guide for placing the accent on one syllable rather than another. Sometimes, however, the same word is differently accented in order to mark its different meanings. EXAMPLES. Con'jure, to practice enchantments. Con-jure', to entreat. Gal'lant, brave. Gal-lant', a gay fellow. Au'gust, a month. Au-gust', grand. REMARK.--A number of words used sometimes as one part of speech, and sometimes as another, vary their accents irregularly. EXAMPLES. Pres'ent, noun. Pres'ent, adjective. Pre-sent', verb. Com'pact, noun. Com-pact', adjective. Com-pact', verb. In words of more than two syllables there is often a second accent given, but more slight than the principal one, and this is called the secondary accent; as, car'a-van'', rep''ar-tee', where the principal accent is marked (') and the secondary (''); so, also, this accent is obvious in nav''-i-ga'tion, com''pre-hen'sion, plau''si-bil'i-ty, etc. The whole subject, however, properly belongs to dictionaries and spelling books. V. EMPHASIS. A word is said to be emphasized when it is uttered with a greater stress of voice than the other words with which it is connected. REMARK 1.--The object of emphasis is to attract particular attention to the word upon which it is placed, indicating that the idea to be conveyed depends very much upon that word. This object, as just stated, is generally accomplished by increasing the force of utterance, but sometimes, also, by a change in the inflection, by the use of the monotone, by pause, or by uttering the words in a very low key. Emphatic words are often denoted by italics, and a still stronger emphasis by SMALL CAPITALS or CAPITALS, according to the degree of emphasis desired. REMARK 2.--Emphasis constitutes the most important feature in reading and speaking, and, properly applied, gives life and character to language. Accent, inflection, and indeed everything yields to emphasis. REMARK 3.--In the following examples it will be seen that accent is governed by it. EXAMPLES. What is done cannot be undone. There is a difference between giving and forgiving. He that descended is the same that ascended. Some appear to make very little difference between decency and indecency, morality and immorality, religion and irreligion. REMARK 4.--There is no better illustration of the nature and importance of emphasis than the following examples. It will he observed that the meaning and proper answer of the question vary with each change of the emphasis. EXAMPLES. QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. --------- -------- Did you walk into the city yesterday? No, my brother went. Did you walk into the city yesterday? No, I rode. Did you walk into the city yesterday? No, I went into the country. Did you walk into the city yesterday? No, I went the day before. ABSOLUTE EMPHASIS. Sometimes a word is emphasized simply to indicate the importance of the idea. This is called absolute emphasis. EXAMPLES. To arms! they come! the Greek! the Greek! Woe unto you, PHARISEES! HYPOCRITES! Days, months, years, and ages shall circle away. REMARK.--In instances like the last, it is sometimes called the emphasis of specification. RELATIVE EMPHASIS. Words are often emphasized in order to exhibit the idea they express as compared or contrasted with some other idea. This is called relative emphasis. EXAMPLES. A friend can not be known in prosperity; an enemy can not be hidden in adversity. It is much better to be injured than to injure. REMARK.--In many instances one part only of the antithesis is expressed, the corresponding idea being understood; as, A friendly eye would never see such faults. Here the unfriendly eye is understood. King Henry exclaims, while vainly endeavoring to compose himself to rest, "How many thousand of my poorest subjects Are at this hour asleep!" Here the emphatic words thousand, subjects, and asleep are contrasted in idea with their opposites, and if the contrasted ideas were expressed it might be in this way: While I alone, their sovereign, am doomed to wakefulness. EMPHATIC PHRASE. Sometimes several words in succession are emphasized, forming what is called an emphatic phrase. EXAMPLES. Shall I, the conqueror of Spain and Gaul, and not only of the Alpine nations but of the Alps themselves--shall I compare myself with this HALF--YEAR--CAPTAIN? Shall we try argument? Sir, we have been trying that for the LAST TEN YEARS. And if thou said'st I am not peer To any lord in Scotland here, Lowland or Highland, far or near, Lord Angus-THOU-HAST-LIED! EMPHATIC PAUSE. The emphatic expression of a sentence often requires a pause where the grammatical construction authorizes none. This is sometimes called the rhetorical pause. Such pauses occur chiefly before or after an emphatic word or phrase, and sometimes both before and after it. EXAMPLES. Rise--fellow-men! our country--yet remains! By that dread name we wave the sword on high, And swear for her--to live--with her--to die. But most--by numbers judge the poet's song: And smooth or rough, with them is--right or wrong. He said; then full before their sight Produced the beast, and lo!--'t was white. VI. MODULATION. Modulation includes the variations of the voice. These may be classed under the heads of Pitch, Compass, Quantity, and Quality. PITCH AND COMPASS. If anyone will notice closely a sentence as uttered in private conversation, he will observe that very few successive words are pronounced in exactly the same key or with the same force. At the same time, however, there is a certain PITCH or key, which seems, on the whole, to prevail. This keynote, or governing note, as it may be called, is that upon which the voice most frequently dwells, to which it usually returns when wearied, and upon which a sentence generally commences, and very frequently ends, while, at the same time, there is a considerable play of the voice above and below it. This key may be high or low. It varies in different individuals, and at different times in the same individual, being governed by the nature of the subject and the emotions of the speaker. It is worthy of notice, however, that most speakers pitch their voices on a key too high. The range of the voice above and below this note is called its COMPASS. When the speaker is animated, this range is great; but upon abstract subjects, or with a dull speaker, it is small. If, in reading or speaking, too high a note be chosen, the lungs will soon become wearied; if too low a pitch be selected, there is danger of indistinctness of utterance; and in either case there is less room for compass or variety of tone than if one be taken between the two extremes. To secure the proper pitch and the greatest compass observe the following rule: RULE XII.--The reader or speaker should choose that pitch in which he can feel himself most at ease, and above and below which he may have most room for variation. REMARK 1.--Having chosen the proper keynote, he should beware of confining himself to it. This constitutes monotony, one of the greatest faults in elocution. One very important instrument for giving expression and life to thought is thus lost, and the hearer soon becomes wearied and disgusted. REMARK 2.--There is another fault of nearly equal magnitude, and of very frequent occurrence. This consists in varying the pitch and force without reference to the sense. A sentence is commenced with vehemence and in a high key, and the voice gradually sinks until, the breath being spent, it dies away in a whisper. NOTE--The power of changing the key at will is difficult to acquire, but of great importance. REMARK 3.--The habit of singsong, so common in reading poetry, as it is a variation of pitch without reference to the sense, is a species of the fault above mentioned. REMARK 4.--If the reader or speaker is guided by the sense, and if he gives that emphasis, inflection, and expression required by the meaning, these faults speedily disappear. REMARK 5.--To improve the voice in these respects, practice is necessary. Commence, for example, with the lowest pitch the voice can comfortably sound, and repeat whole paragraphs and pages upon that key with gentle force. Then repeat the paragraph with increased force, taking care not to raise the pitch. Then rise one note higher, and practice on that, then another, and so on, until the highest pitch of the voice is reached. Reverse the process, and repeat as before until the lowest pitch is obtained. NOTE.--In these and all similar exercises, be very careful not to confound pitch and force. QUANTITY AND QUALITY. The tones of the voice should vary also in quantity, or time required to utter a sound or a syllable, and in quality, or expression, according to the nature of the subject. REMARK.--We notice a difference between the soft, insinuating tones of persuasion; the full, strong voice of command and decision; the harsh, irregular, and sometimes grating explosion of the sounds of passion; the plaintive notes of sorrow and pity; and the equable and unimpassioned flow of words in argumentative style. The following direction, therefore, is worthy of attention: The tones of the voice should always correspond both in quantity and quality with the nature of the subject. EXAMPLES. Passion and Grief "Come back! come back!" he cried, in grief. "Across this stormy water, And I'll forgive your Highland chief, My daughter! O, my daughter!" Plaintive I have lived long enough: my way of life Is fallen into the sear, the yellow leaf: And that which should accompany old age, As honor, love, obedience, troops of friends, I must not look to have. Calm A very great portion of this globe is covered with water, which is called sea, and is very distinct from rivers and lakes. Fierce Anger Burned Marmion's swarthy cheek like fire, And shook his very frame for ire, And--"This to me?" he said; "And 't were not for thy hoary beard, Such hand as Marmion's had not spared To cleave the Douglas' head! Loud and Explosive "Even in thy pitch of pride, Here, in thy hold, thy vassals near, I tell thee thou 'rt defied! And if thou said'st I am not peer To any lord in Scotland here, Lowland or Highland, far or near, Lord Angus, thou hast lied '" REMARK 1.--In our attempt to imitate nature it is important to avoid affectation, for to this fault even perfect monotony is preferable. REMARK 2.--The strength of the voice may be increased by practicing with different degrees of loudness, from a whisper to full rotundity, taking care to keep the voice on the same key. The same note in music may be sounded loud or soft. So also a sentence may be pronounced on the same pitch with different degrees of loudness. Having practiced with different degrees of loudness on one key, make the same experiment on another, and then on another, and so on. This will also give the learner practice in compass, VII. POETIC PAUSES. In poetry we have, in addition to other pauses, poetic pauses. The object of these is simply to promote the melody. At the end of each line a slight pause is proper, whatever be the grammatical construction or the sense. The purpose of this pause is to make prominent the melody of the measure, and in rhyme to allow the ear to appreciate the harmony of the similar sounds. There is, also, another important pause, somewhere near the middle of each line, which is called the caesura or caesural pause. In the following lines it is marked thus (||): EXAMPLES. There are hours long departed || which memory brings, Like blossoms of Eden || to twine round the heart, And as time rushes by || on the might of his wings, They may darken awhile || but they never depart. REMARK.--The caesural pause should never be so placed as to injure the sense. The following lines, if melody alone were consulted, would be read thus: With fruitless la || bor Clara bound, And strove to stanch || the gushing wound; The Monk with un || availing cares, Exhausted all || the church's prayers. This manner of reading, however, would very much interfere with the proper expression of the idea. This is to be corrected by making the caesural pause yield to the sense. The above lines should be read thus: With fruitless labor || Clara bound, And strove || to stanch the gushing wound; The Monk || with unavailing cares, Exhausted || all the church's prayers, EXERCISES. I. DEATH OF FRANKLIN. (To be read in a solemn tone.) Franklin is dead. The genius who freed America', and poured a copious stream of knowledge throughout Europe', is returned unto the bosom of the Divinity'. The sage to whom two worlds' lay claim, the man for whom science' and politics' are disputing, indisputably enjoyed au elevated rank in human nature. The cabinets of princes have been long in the habit of notifying the death of those who were great', only in their funeral orations'. Long hath the etiquette of courts', proclaimed the mourning of hypocrisy'. Nations' should wear mourning for none but their benefactors'. The representatives' of nations should recommend to public homage' only those who have been the heroes of humanity'. II. BONAPARTE. He knew no motive' but interst'; acknowledged no criterion' but success'; he worshiped no God' but ambition'; and with an eastern devotion', he knelt at the shrine of his idolatry'. Subsidiary to this, there was no creed' that he did not profess'; there was no opinion' that he did not promulgate': in the hope of a dynasty', he upheld the crescent'; for the sake of a divorce', he bowed before the cross'; the orphan of St. Louis', he became the adopted child of the republic'; and, with a parricidal ingrati-tude', on the ruins both of the throne and the tribune, he reared the throne of his despotism'. At his touch crowns' crumbled'; beggars' reigned'; systems' van-ished'; the wildest theories' took the color of his whim'; and all that was venerable' and all that was novel', changed places with the rapidity of a drama'. Nature had no obstacle' that he did not surmount'; space, no opposition' he did not spurn'; and whether amid Alpine rocks',--Arabian sands',--or Polar snows',---he seemed proof' against peril', and empowered with ubiquity'. III. HAMLET ON SEEING THE SKULL OF YORICK. Alas, poor Yorick'! I knew him', Horatio'; a fellow of infinite jest', of most excellent fancy'. He hath borne me on his back' a thousand times'; and now', how abhorred my imagination is'! My gorge rises' at it. Here hung those lips that I have kissed', I know not how oft', Where be your gibes' now? your gambols'? your songs'? your flashes of merriment', that were wont to set the table on a roar'? Not one', now, to mock your own grinning'? quite chopfallen'? Now get you to my lady's chamber' and tell her', let her paint an inch thick' to this favor' she must come'; make her laugh at that'. IV. DESCRIPTION OF A BATTLE. Yet still Lord Marmion's falcon flew' With wavering flight', while fiercer grew Around, the battle yell. The border slogan rent the sky', A Home'! a Gordon'! was the cry'; Loud' were the clanging blows'; Advanced',--forced back',--now low',--now high', The pennon sunk'--and rose'; As bends the bark's mast in the gale', When rent are rigging', shrouds', and sail', It wavered 'mid the foes'. The war, that for a space did fail', Now trebly thundering swelled the gale', And Stanley'! was the cry; A light on Marmion's visage spread', And fired his glazing eye':-- With dying' hand', above his head', He shook the fragment of his blade', And shouted',--"Victory'! Charge', Chester', charge'! On' Stanley', on'!"-- Were the last words of Marmion. V. LORD ULLIN'S DAUGHTER. For the inflections and emphasis in this selection, let the pupil be guided by his own judgment. A chieftain to the Highlands bound, Cries, "Boatman, do not tarry! And I'll give thee a silver pound, To row us o'er the ferry." "Now, who be ye would cross Loch-Gyle This dark and stormy water?" "Oh! I'm the chief of Ulva's isle, And this, Lord Ullin's daughter. "And fast before her father's men Three days we've fled together, For should he find us in the glen, My blood would stain the heather. "His horsemen hard behind us ride; Should they our steps discover, Then who will cheer my bonny bride, When they have slain her lover?" Out spoke the hardy Highland wight "I'll go, my chief--I'm ready: It is not for your silver bright, But for your winsome lady: "And, by my word! the bonny bird In danger shall not tarry; So, though the waves are raging white, I'll row you o'er the ferry." By this, the storm grew loud apace, The water wraith was shrieking; And, in the scowl of heaven, each face Grew dark as they were speaking. But still, as wilder grew the wind, And as the night grew drearer, Adown the glen rode armed men, Their trampling sounded nearer. "Oh I haste thee, haste!" the lady cries "Though tempest round us gather, I'll meet the raging of the skies, But not an angry father." The boat has left the stormy land, A stormy sea before her; When, oh I too strong for human hand, The tempest gathered o'er her. And still they rowed, amid the roar Of waters fast prevailing; Lord Ullin reached that fatal shore, His wrath was changed to wailing. For sore dismay through storm and shade His child he did discover; One lovely hand she stretched for aid, And one was round her lover. "Come back! come back!" he cried, in grief, "Across this stormy water; And I'll forgive your Highland chief, My daughter! O, my daughter!" 'T was vain: the loud waves lashed the shore, Return or aid preventing; The waters wild went o'er his child, And he was left lamenting. --Thomas Campbell ALPHABETICAL LIST OF AUTHORS. Name. Name. 1. ALCOTT, LOUISA M. 45. LAMB, CHARLES 2. ALLEN, Mrs. E. A. 46. LONDON TIMES 3. ALLINGHAM, W. 47. LONGFELLOW 4. ARNOLD, GEORGE 48. LOWELL 5. ARTHUR, T. S. 49. MARTINEAU, HARRIET 6. AUDUBON 50. MITCHELL, DONALD G. 7. BANCROFT 51. MONTGOMERY, JAMES 8. BIBLE, THE 52. MOORE 9. BLACK, WILLIAM 53. MORRIS. G. P. 10. BRIGGS, C. F. 54. NOBLE, L. L. 11. BROOKS, C. T. 55. NORTON, MRS. C. E. S. 12. BRYANT 56. O'BRIEN, FITZ-JAMES 13. BUCKINGHAM, J. T. 57. PIATT, J. J. 14. BURRITT, ELIHU 58. PIATT, MRS. S. M. B. 15. CAMPBELL, THOMAS 59. PROCTER, ADELAIDE ANNE 16. CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY 60. READ, T. B. 17. COLLINS, WILLIAM 61. RUSSELL, JOHN 18. COOK, ELIZA 62. SANGSTER, MRS. M. E. 19. COOPER, JAMES FENIMORE 63. SAXE, J. G. 20. COWPER 64. SHAKESPEARE 21. DICKENS 65. SHEPHERD 22. DIMOND, WILLIAM 66. SOUTHEY, MRS. C. A. 23. EASTMAN, C. G. 67. SOUTHEY, ROBERT 24. EDGEWORTH, MARIA 68. SPRAGUE, CHARLES 25. FINCH, F. M. 69. STODDARD. R. H. 26. FOLLEN, MRS. E. L. 70. TAYLOR, B. F. 27. GOLDSMITH. 71. TAYLOR, JANE 28. GOODRICH, S. G. 72. TENNYSON 29. GRIMKE', THOMAS S. 73. THACKERAY 30. HALE, Mrs. S. J, 74. THACKER, CELIA 31. HARTE. FRANCIS BRET 75. THOMPSON, D. P. 32. HAWES, W. P. 76. THOMSON, JAMES 33. HAWTHORNE 77. THOREAU, H. D. 34. HELPS, ARTHUR 78. TOOD, JOHN 35. HEMANS, FELICIA D. 79. WARNER, CHARLES DUDLEY 36. HOOD, THOMAS 80. "CAPITAL" (WASHINGTON) 37. HUNT, LEIGH 81. WEBSTER 38. INGELOW, JEAN 82. WEEMS, MASON L. 39. IRVING 83. WHITTIER 40. JERROLD, DOUGLAS 84. WILSON, JOHN 41. JOHNSON, SAMUEL 85. WIRT, WILLIAM 42. KEBLE, JOHN 86. WOLFE, CHARLES 43. KINGSLEY, CHARLES 87. WOTTON, SIR HENRY 44. KNOWLES, SHERIDAN McGuffey's Fifth Reader 1. THE GOOD READER. 1. It is told of Frederick the Great, King of Prussia, that, as he was seated one day in his private room, a written petition was brought to him with the request that it should be immediately read. The King had just returned from hunting, and the glare of the sun, or some other cause, had so dazzled his eyes that he found it difficult to make out a single word of the writing. 2. His private secretary happened to be absent; and the soldier who brought the petition could not read. There was a page, or favorite boy servant, waiting in the hall, and upon him the King called. The page was a son of one of the noblemen of the court, but proved to be a very poor reader. 3. In the first place, he did not articulate distinctly. He huddled his words together in the utterance, as if they were syllables of one long word, which he must get through with as speedily as possible. His pronunciation was bad, and he did not modulate his voice so as to bring out the meaning of what he read. Every sentence was uttered with a dismal monotony of voice, as if it did not differ in any respect from that which preceded it. 4. "Stop!" said the King, impatiently. "Is it an auctioneer's list of goods to be sold that you are hurrying over? Send your companion to me." Another page who stood at the door now entered, and to him the King gave the petition. The second page began by hemming and clearing his throat in such an affected manner that the King jokingly asked him whether he had not slept in the public garden, with the gate open, the night before. 5. The second page had a good share of self-conceit, however, and so was not greatly confused by the King's jest. He determined that he would avoid the mistake which his comrade had made. So he commenced reading the petition slowly and with great formality, emphasizing every word, and prolonging the articulation of every syllable. But his manner was so tedious that the King cried out, "Stop! are you reciting a lesson in the elementary sounds? Out of the room! But no: stay! Send me that little girl who is sitting there by the fountain." 6. The girl thus pointed out by the King was a daughter of one of the laborers employed by the royal gardener; and she had come to help her father weed the flower beds. It chanced that, like many of the poor people in Prussia, she had received a good education. She was somewhat alarmed when she found herself in the King's presence, but took courage when the King told her that he only wanted her to read for him, as his eyes were weak. 7. Now, Ernestine (for this was the name of the little girl) was fond of reading aloud, and often many of the neighbors would assemble at her father's house to hear her; those who could not read themselves would come to her, also, with their letters from distant friends or children, and she thus formed the habit of reading various sorts of handwriting promptly and well. 8. The King gave her the petition, and she rapidly glanced through the opening lines to get some idea of what it was about. As she read, her eyes began to glisten, and her breast to heave. "What is the matter?" asked the King; "don't you know how to read?" "Oh, yes! sire," she replied, addressing him with the title usually applied to him: "I will now read it, if you please." 9. The two pages wore about to leave the room. "Remain," said the King. The little girl began to read the petition. It was from a poor widow, whose only son had been drafted to serve in the army, although his health was delicate and his pursuits had been such as to unfit him for military life. His father had been killed in battle, and the son had a strong desire to become a portrait painter. 10. The writer told her story in a simple, concise manner, that carried to the heart a belief of its truth; and Ernestine read it with so much feeling, and with an articulation so just, in tones so pure and distinct, that when she had finished, the King, into whose eyes the tears had started, exclaimed, "Oh! now I understand what it is all about; but I might never have known, certainly I never should have felt, its meaning had I trusted to these young gentlemen, whom I now dismiss from my service for one year, advising them to occupy their time in learning to read." 11. "As for you, my young lady," continued the King, "I know you will ask no better reward for your trouble than the pleasure of carrying to this poor widow my order for her son's immediate discharge. Let me see whether you can write as well as you can read. Take this pen, and write as I dictate." He then dictated an order, which Ernestine wrote, and he signed. Calling one of his guards, he bade him go with the girl and see that the order was obeyed. 12. How much happiness was Ernestine the means of bestowing through her good elocution, united to the happy circumstance that brought it to the knowledge of the King! First, there were her poor neighbors, to whom she could give instruction and entertainment. Then, there was the poor widow who sent the petition, and who not only regained her son, but received through Ernestine an order for him to paint the King's likeness; so that the poor boy soon rose to great distinction, and had more orders than he could attend to. Words could not express his gratitude, and that of his mother, to the little girl. 13. And Ernestine had, moreover, the satisfaction of aiding her father to rise in the world, so that he became the King's chief gardener. The King did not forget her, but had her well educated at his own expense. As for the two pages, she was indirectly the means of doing them good, also; for, ashamed of their bad reading, they commenced studying in earnest, till they overcame the faults that had offended the King. Both finally rose to distinction, one as a lawyer, and the other as a statesman; and they owed their advancement in life chiefly to their good elocution. DEFINITIONS.--1. Pe-ti'tion, a formal request. 3. Ar-tic'u-late, to utter the elementary sounds. Mod'u-late, to vary or inflect. Mo-not'o-ny, lack of variety. 4. Af-fect'ed, unnatural and silly. 9. Draft'ed, selected by lot. 10. Con-cise', brief and full of meaning. 11. Dis-charge', release. Dic'tate, to utter so that another may write it down. 12. Dis-tinc'tion, honorable and notable position. Ex-press', to make known the feelings of. NOTES.--Frederick II. of Prussia (b. 1712, d. 1788), or Frederick the Great, as he was called, was one of the greatest of German rulers. He was distinguished for his military exploits, for his wise and just government, and for his literary attainments. He wrote many able works in the French language. Many pleasant anecdotes are told of this king, of which the one given in the lesson is a fair sample. II. THE BLUEBELL. 1. There is a story I have heard-- A poet learned it of a bird, And kept its music every word-- 2. A story of a dim ravine, O'er which the towering tree tops lean, With one blue rift of sky between; 3. And there, two thousand years ago, A little flower as white as snow Swayed in the silence to and fro. 4. Day after day, with longing eye, The floweret watched the narrow sky, And fleecy clouds that floated by. 5. And through the darkness, night by night, One gleaming star would climb the height, And cheer the lonely floweret's sight. 6. Thus, watching the blue heavens afar, And the rising of its favorite star, A slow change came--but not to mar; 7. For softly o'er its petals white There crept a blueness, like the light Of skies upon a summer night; 8. And in its chalice, I am told, The bonny bell was formed to hold A tiny star that gleamed like gold. 9. Now, little people, sweet and true, I find a lesson here for you Writ in the floweret's hell of blue: 10. The patient child whose watchful eye Strives after all things pure and high, Shall take their image by and by. DEFINITIONS.--2. Rift, a narrow opening, a cleft. 3. Swayed, swung. 5. Height (pro. hite), an elevated place. 7. Pet'als, the colored leaves of a flower. 8. Chal'ice, a cup or bowl. Bon'ny, beautiful. III. THE GENTLE HAND. Timothy S. Arthur (b. 1809, d. 1885) was born near Newburgh, N.Y., but passed most of his life at Baltimore and Philadelphia. His opportunities for good schooling were quite limited, and he may be considered a self-educated man. He was the author of more than a hundred volumes, principally novels of a domestic and moral tone, and of many shorter tales--magazine articles, etc. "Ten Nights in a Barroom," and "Three Years in a Mantrap," are among his best known works. 1. When and where it matters not now to relate--but once upon a time, as I was passing through a thinly peopled district of country, night came down upon me almost unawares. Being on foot, I could not hope to gain the village toward which my steps were directed, until a late hour; and I therefore preferred seeking shelter and a night's lodging at the first humble dwelling that presented itself. 2. Dusky twilight was giving place to deeper shadows, when I found myself in the vicinity of a dwelling, from the small uncurtained windows of which the light shone with a pleasant promise of good cheer and comfort. The house stood within an inclosure, and a short distance from the road along which I was moving with wearied feet. 3. Turning aside, and passing through the ill-hung gate, I approached the dwelling. Slowly the gate swung on its wooden hinges, and the rattle of its latch, in closing, did not disturb the air until I had nearly reached the porch in front of the house, in which a slender girl, who had noticed my entrance, stood awaiting my arrival. 4. A deep, quick bark answered, almost like an echo, the sound of the shutting gate, and, sudden as an apparition, the form of an immense dog loomed in the doorway. At the instant when he was about to spring, a light hand was laid upon his shaggy neck, and a low word spoken. 5. "Go in, Tiger," said the girl, not in a voice of authority, yet in her gentle tones was the consciousness that she would be obeyed; and, as she spoke, she lightly bore upon the animal with her hand, and he turned away and disappeared within the dwelling. 6. "Who's that?" A rough voice asked the question; and now a heavy-looking man took the dog's place in the door. 7. "How far is it to G--?" I asked, not deeming it best to say, in the beginning, that I sought a resting place for the night. 8. "To G--!" growled the man, but not so harshly as at first. "It's good six miles from here." 9. "A long distance; and I'm a stranger and on foot," said I. "If you can make room for me until morning, I will be very thankful." 10. I saw the girl's hand move quickly up his arm, until it rested on his shoulder, and now she leaned to him still closer. 11. "Come in. We'll try what can be done for you." There was a change in the man's voice that made me wonder. I entered a large room, in which blazed a brisk fire. Before the fire sat two stout lads, who turned upon me their heavy eyes, with no very welcome greeting. A middle-aged woman was standing at a table, and two children were amusing themselves with a kitten on the floor. 12. "A stranger, mother," said the man who had given me so rude a greeting at the door; "and he wants us to let him stay all night." 13. The woman looked at me doubtingly for a few moments, and then replied coldly, "We don't keep a public house." 14. "I'm aware of that, ma'am," said I; "but night has overtaken me, and it's a long way yet to G--." 15. "Too far for a tired man to go on foot," said the master of the house, kindly, "so it's no use talking about it, mother; we must give him a bed." 16. So unobtrusively that I scarce noticed the movement, the girl had drawn to her mother's side. What she said to her I did not hear, for the brief words were uttered in a low voice; but I noticed, as she spoke, one small, fair hand rested on the woman's hand. 17. Was there magic in that touch? The woman's repulsive aspect changed into one of kindly welcome, and she said, "Yes, it's a long way to G--. I guess we can find a place for him." 18. Many times more during that evening, did I observe the magic power of that hand and voice--the one gentle yet potent as the other. On the next morning, breakfast being over, I was preparing to take my departure when my host informed me that if I would wait for half an hour he would give me a ride in his wagon to G--, as business required him to go there. I was very well pleased to accept of the invitation. 19. In due time, the farmer's wagon was driven into the road before the house, and I was invited to get in. I noticed the horse as a rough-looking Canadian pony, with a certain air of stubborn endurance. As the farmer took his seat by my side, the family came to the door to see us off. 20. "Dick!" said the farmer in a peremptory voice, giving the rein a quick jerk as he spoke. But Dick moved not a step. "Dick! you vagabond! get up." And the farmer's whip cracked sharply by the pony's ear. 21. It availed not, however, this second appeal. Dick stood firmly disobedient. Next the whip was brought down upon him with an impatient hand; but the pony only reared up a little. Fast and sharp the strokes were next dealt to the number of half a dozen. The man might as well have beaten the wagon, for all his end was gained. 22. A stout lad now came out into the road, and, catching Dick by the bridle, jerked him forward, using, at the same time, the customary language on such occasions, but Dick met this new ally with increased stubbornness, planting his fore feet more firmly and at a sharper angle with the ground. 23. The impatient boy now struck the pony on the side of the head with his clinched hand, and jerked cruelly at his bridle. It availed nothing, however; Dick was not to be wrought upon by any such arguments. 24. "Don't do so, John!" I turned my head as the maiden's sweet voice reached my ear. She was passing through the gate into the road, and in the next moment had taken hold of the lad and drawn him away from the animal. No strength was exerted in this; she took hold of his arm, and he obeyed her wish as readily as if he had no thought beyond her gratification. 25. And now that soft hand was laid gently on the pony's neck, and a single low word spoken. How instantly were the tense muscles relaxed--how quickly the stubborn air vanished! 26. "Poor Dick!" said the maiden, as she stroked his neck lightly, or softly patted it with a childlike hand. "Now, go along, you provoking fellow!" she added, in a half-chiding, yet affectionate voice, as she drew up the bridle. 27. The pony turned toward her, and rubbed his head against her arm for an instant or two; then, pricking up his ears, he started off at a light, cheerful trot, and went on his way as freely as if no silly crotchet had ever entered his stubborn brain. 28. "What a wonderful power that hand possesses!" said I, speaking to my companion, as we rode away. 29. He looked at me for a moment, as if my remark had occasioned surprise. Then a light came into his countenance, and he said briefly, "She's good! Everybody and everything loves her." 30. Was that, indeed, the secret of her power? Was the quality of her soul perceived in the impression of her hand, even by brute beasts! The father's explanation was doubtless the true one. Yet have I ever since wondered, and still do wonder, at the potency which lay in that maiden's magic touch. I have seen something of the same power, showing itself in the loving and the good, but never to the extent as instanced in her, whom, for want of a better name, I must still call "Gentle Hand." DEFINITIONS.--2. Vi-cin'i-ty, neighborhood. 16. Un-ob-tru'-sive-ly, not noticeably, modestly. 17. Re-pul'sive, repelling, forbid-ding. 18. Po'tent, powerful, effective. Host, one from whom another receives food, lodging, or entertainment. 20. Per'emp-to-ry, commanding, decisive. 21. A-vailed', was of use, had effect. 22. Al-ly', a confederate, one who unites with another in some purpose. 25. Tense, strained to stiffness, rigid. Re-laxed', loosened. 20. Chid'ing, scolding, rebuking. 27. Crotch'et, a perverse fancy, a whim. 30. In'stanced, mentioned as an example. IV. THE GRANDFATHER. Charles G. Eastman (b. 1816, d.1861) was born in Maine, but removed at an early age to Vermont, where he was connected with the press at Burlington, Woodstock, and Montpelier. He published a volume of poems in 1848, written in a happy lyric and ballad style, and faithfully portraying rural life in New England. 1. The farmer sat in his easy-chair Smoking his pipe of clay, While his hale old wife with busy care, Was clearing the dinner away; A sweet little girl with fine blue eyes, On her grandfather's knee, was catching flies. 2. The old man laid his hand on her head, With a tear on his wrinkled face, He thought how often her mother, dead, Had sat in the selfsame place; As the tear stole down from his half-shut eye, "Don't smoke!" said the child, "how it makes you cry!" 3. The house dog lay stretched out on the floor, Where the shade, afternoons, used to steal; The busy old wife by the open door Was turning the spinning wheel, And the old brass clock on the manteltree Had plodded along to almost three. 4. Still the farmer sat in his easy-chair, While close to his heaving breast The moistened brow and the cheek so fair Of his sweet grandchild were pressed; His head bent down, all her soft hair lay; Fast asleep were they both on that summer day. DEFINITIONS.--1. Hale, healthy. 3. Man'tel-tree, shelf over a fireplace. Plod'ded, went slowly. 4. Heaving, rising and falling. V. A BOY ON A FARM. Charles Dudley Warner (b. 1829,--) was born at Plainfield, Mass. In 1851 he graduated at Hamilton College, and in 1856 was admitted to the bar at Philadelphia, but moved to Chicago to practice his profession. There he remained until 1860, when he became connected with the press at Hartford, Conn., and has ever since devoted himself to literature. "My Summer in a Garden," "Saunterings," and "Backlog Studies" are his best known works. The following extract is from "Being a Boy." 1. Say what you will about the general usefulness of boys, it is my impression that a farm without a boy would very soon come to grief. What the boy does is the life of the farm. He is the factotum, always in demand, always expected to do the thousand indispensable things that nobody else will do. Upon him fall all the odds and ends, the most difficult things. 2. After everybody else is through, he has to finish up. His work is like a woman's,--perpetually waiting on others. Everybody knows how much easier it is to eat a good dinner than it is to wash the dishes afterwards. Consider what a boy on a farm is required to do,--things that must be done, or life would actually stop. 3. It is understood, in the first place, that he is to do all the errands, to go to the store, to the post office, and to carry all sorts of messages. If he had as many legs as a centiped, they would tire before night. His two short limbs seem to him entirely inadequate to the task. He would like to have as many legs as a wheel has spokes, and rotate about in the same way. 4. This he sometimes tries to do; and the people who have seen him "turning cart wheels" along the side of the road, have supposed that he was amusing himself and idling his time; he was only trying to invent a new mode of locomotion, so that he could economize his legs, and do his errands with greater dispatch. 5. He practices standing on his head, in order to accustom himself to any position. Leapfrog is one of his methods of getting over the ground quickly. He would willingly go an errand any distance if he could leapfrog it with a few other boys. 6. He has a natural genius for combining pleasure with business. This is the reason why, when he is sent to the spring for a pitcher of water, he is absent so long; for he stops to poke the frog that sits on the stone, or, if there is a penstock, to put his hand over the spout, and squirt the water a little while. 7. He is the one who spreads the grass when the men have cut it; he mows it away in the barn; he rides the horse, to cultivate the corn, up and down the hot, weary rows; he picks up the potatoes when they are dug; he drives the cows night and morning; he brings wood and water, and splits kindling; he gets up the horse, and puts out the horse; whether he is in the house or out of it, there is always something for him to do. 8. Just before the school in winter he shovels paths; in summer he turns the grindstone. He knows where there are lots of wintergreens and sweet flags, but instead of going for them, he is to stay indoors and pare apples, and stone raisins, and pound something in a mortar. And yet, with his mind full of schemes of what he would like to do, and his hands full of occupations, he is an idle boy, who has nothing to busy himself with but school and chores! 9. He would gladly do all the work if somebody else would do the chores, he thinks; and yet I doubt if any boy ever amounted to anything in the world, or was of much use as a man, who did not enjoy the advantages of a liberal education in the way of chores. DEFINITIONS.--1. Fac-to'tum, a person employed to do all kinds of work. In-dis-pen'sa-ble, absolutely necessary. 2. Per-pet'u-al-ly, continually. 3. Cen'ti-ped, an insect with a great number of feet. 4. E-con'o-mize, to save. Dis-patch', diligence, haste. 6. Pen'-stock, a wooden tube for conducting water. 8. Chores, the light work of the household either within or without doors. VI. THE SINGING LESSON. Jean Ingelow (b. 1830, d.1897) was born at Boston, Lincolnshire, England. Her fame as a poetess was at once established upon the publication of her "Poems" in 1863; since which time several other volumes have appeared. The most generally admired of her poems are "Songs of Seven" and "The High Tide on the Coast of Lincolnshire," She has also written several successful novels, of which, "Off the Skelligs" is the most popular. "Stories Told to a Child," "The Cumberers," "Poor Mat," "Studies for Stories," and "Mopsa, the Fairy" are also well known. Miss Ingelow resided in London, England, and spent much of her time in deeds of charity. 1. A nightingale made a mistake; She sang a few notes out of tune: Her heart was ready to break, And she hid away from the moon. She wrung her claws, poor thing, But was far too proud to weep; She tucked her head under her wing, And pretended to be asleep. 2. A lark, arm in arm with a thrush, Came sauntering up to the place; The nightingale felt herself blush, Though feathers hid her face; She knew they had heard her song, She felt them snicker and sneer; She thought that life was too long, And wished she could skip a year. 3. "O nightingale!" cooed a dove; "O nightingale! what's the use? You bird of beauty and love, Why behave like a goose? Don't sulk away from our sight, Like a common, contemptible fowl; You bird of joy and delight, Why behave like an owl? 4. "Only think of all you have done; Only think of all you can do; A false note is really fun From such a bird as you! Lift up your proud little crest, Open your musical beak; Other birds have to do their best, You need only to speak!" 6. The nightingale shyly took Her head from under her wing, And, giving the dove a look, Straightway began to sing. There was never a bird could pass; The night was divinely calm; And the people stood on the grass To hear that wonderful psalm. 6. The nightingale did not care, She only sang to the skies; Her song ascended there, And there she fixed her eyes. The people that stood below She knew but little about; And this tale has a moral, I know, If you'll try and find it out. DEFINITIONS.--2. Saun'ter-ing, wandering idly, strolling. Snick'er, to laugh in a half-suppressed manner. 4. Crest, a tuft growing on an animal's head. 5. Di-vine'ly, in a supreme degree. 6. Mor'al, the practical lesson which anything is fitted to teach. NOTE.--The nightingale is a small bird, about six inches in length, with a coat of dark-brown feathers above and of grayish, white beneath. Its voice is astonishingly strong and sweet, and, when wild, it usually sings throughout the evening and night from April to the middle of summer. The bird is common in Europe, but is not found in America. VII. DO NOT MEDDLE. 1. About twenty years ago there lived a singular gentleman in the Old Hall among the elm trees. He was about three-score years of age, very rich, and somewhat odd in many of his habits, but for generosity and benevolence he had no equal. 2. No poor cottager stood in need of comforts, which he was not ready to supply; no sick man or woman languished for want of his assistance; and not even a beggar, unless a known impostor, went empty-handed from the Hall. Like the village pastor described in Goldsmith's poem of "The Deserted Village," "His house was known to all the vagrant train; He chid their wand'rings, but relieved their pain; The long-remembered beggar was his guest, Whose beard descending swept his aged breast." 3. Now it happened that the old gentleman wanted a boy to wait upon him at table, and to attend him in different ways, for he was very fond of young people. But much as he liked the society of the young, he had a great aversion to that curiosity in which many young people are apt to indulge. He used to say, "The boy who will peep into a drawer will be tempted to take something out of it; and he who will steal a penny in his youth will steal a pound in his manhood." 4. No sooner was it known that the old gentleman was in want of a boy than twenty applications were made for the situation; but he determined not to engage anyone until he had in some way ascertained that he did not possess a curious, prying disposition. 5. On Monday morning seven lads, dressed in their Sunday clothes, with bright and happy faces, made their appearance at the Hall, each of them desiring to obtain the situation. Now the old gentleman, being of a singular disposition had prepared a room in such a way that he might easily know if any of the young people who applied were given to meddle unnecessarily with things around them, or to peep into cupboards and drawers. He took care that the lads who were then at Elm Tree Hall should be shown into this room one after another. 6. And first, Charles Brown was sent into the room, and told that he would have to wait a little. So Charles sat down on a chair near the door. For some time he was very quiet, and looked about him; but there seemed to be so many curious things in the room that at last he got up to peep at them. 7. On the table was placed a dish cover, and Charles wanted sadly to know what was under it, but he felt afraid of lifting it up. Bad habits are strong things; and, as Charles was of a curious disposition, he could not withstand the temptation of taking one peep. So he lifted up the cover. 8. This turned out to be a sad affair; for under the dish cover was a heap of very light feathers; part of the feathers, drawn up by a current of air, flew about the room, and Charles, in his fright, putting the cover down hastily, puffed the rest of them off the table. 9. What was to be done? Charles began to pick up the feathers one by one; but the old gentleman, who was in an adjoining room, hearing a scuffle, and guessing the cause of it, entered the room, to the consternation of Charles Brown, who was very soon dismissed as a boy who had not principle enough to resist even a slight temptation. 10. When the room was once more arranged, Henry Wilkins was placed there until such time as he should be sent for. No sooner was he left to himself than his attention was attracted by a plate of fine, ripe cherries. Now Henry was uncommonly fond of cherries, and he thought it would be impossible to miss one cherry among so many. He looked and longed, and longed and looked, for some time, and just as he had got off his seat to take one, he heard, as he thought, a foot coming to the door; but no, it was a false alarm. 11. Taking fresh courage, he went cautiously and took a very fine cherry, for he was determined to take but one, and put it into his mouth. It was excellent; and then he persuaded himself that he ran no risk in taking another; this he did, and hastily popped it into his mouth. 12. Now, the old gentleman had placed a few artificial cherries at the top of the others, filled with Cayenne pepper; one of these Henry had unfortunately taken, and it made his month smart and burn most intolerably. The old gentleman heard him coughing, and knew very well what was the matter. The boy that would take what did not belong to him, if no more than a cherry, was not the boy for him. Henry Wilkins was sent about his business without delay, with his mouth almost as hot as if he had put a burning coal in to it. 13. Rufus Wilson was next introduced into the room and left to himself; but he had not been there ten minutes before he began to move from one place to another. He was of a bold, resolute temper, but not overburdened with principle; for if he could have opened every cupboard, closet, and drawer in the house, without being found out, he would have done it directly. 14. Having looked around the room, he noticed a drawer to the table, and made up his mind to peep therein. But no sooner did he lay hold of the drawer knob than he set a large bell ringing, which was concealed under the table. The old gentleman immediately answered the summons, and entered the room. 15. Rufus was so startled by the sudden ringing of the bell, that all his impudence could not support him. He looked as though anyone might knock him down with a feather. The old gentleman asked him if he had rung the bell because he wanted anything. Rufus was much confused and stammered, and tried to excuse himself, but all to no purpose, for it did not prevent him from being ordered off the premises. 16. George Jones was then shown into the room by an old steward; and being of a cautious disposition, he touched nothing, but only looked at the things about him. At last he saw that a closet door was a little open, and, thinking it would be impossible for anyone to know that he had opened it a little more, he very cautiously opened it an inch farther, looking down at the bottom of the door, that it might not catch against anything and make a noise. 17. Now had he looked at the top, instead of the bottom, it might have been better for him; for to the top of the door was fastened a plug, which filled up the hole of a small barrel of shot. He ventured to open the door another inch, and then another, till, the plug being pulled out of the barrel, the leaden shot began to pour out at a strange rate. At the bottom of the closet was placed a tin pan, and the shot falling upon this pan made such a clatter that George was frightened half out of his senses. 18. The old gentleman soon came into the room to inquire what was the matter, and there he found George nearly as pale as a sheet. George was soon dismissed. 19. It now came the turn of Albert Jenkins to be put into the room. The other boys had been sent to their homes by different ways, and no one knew what the experience of the other had been in the room of trial. 20. On the table stood a small round box, with a screw top to it, and Albert, thinking it contained something curious, could not be easy without unscrewing the top; but no sooner did he do this than out bounced an artificial snake, full a yard long, and fell upon his arm. He started back, and uttered a scream which brought the old gentleman to his elbow. There stood Albert, with the bottom of the box in one hand, the top in the other, and the snake on the floor. 21. "Come, come," said the old gentleman, "one snake is quite enough to have in the house at a time; therefore, the sooner you are gone the better." With that he dismissed him, without waiting a moment for his reply. 22. William Smith next entered the room, and being left alone soon began to amuse himself in looking at the curiosities around him. William was not only curious and prying, but dishonest, too, and observing that the key was left in the drawer of a bookcase, he stepped on tiptoe in that direction. The key had a wire fastened to it, which communicated with an electrical machine, and William received such a shock as he was not likely to forget. No sooner did he sufficiently recover himself to walk, than he was told to leave the house, and let other people lock and unlock their own drawers. 23. The other boy was Harry Gordon, and though he was left in the room full twenty minutes, he never during that time stirred from his chair. Harry had eyes in his head as well as the others, but he had more integrity in his heart; neither the dish cover, the cherries, the drawer knob, the closet door, the round box, nor the key tempted him to rise from his feet; and the consequence was that, in half an hour after, he was engaged in the service of the old gentleman at Elm Tree Hall. He followed his good old master to his grave, and received a large legacy for his upright conduct in his service. DEFINITIONS.--2. Lan'guished, suffered, sank away. Im-pos'. tor, a deceiver. 3. A-ver'sion, dislike. In-dulge', to give way to. Pound, a British denomination of money equal in value to about $4.86. 4. Ap-pli-ca'tion, the act of making a request. 9. Con--ster-na'tion, excessive terror, dismay. Prin'ci-ple, a right rule of conduct. 12. Ar-ti-fi'cial (pro. ar-ti-fish'al), made by art, not real. In-tol'er-a-bly, in a manner not to be borne. 14. Sum'mons, a call to appear. 19. Ex-pe'ri-ence, knowledge gained by actual trial. 23. In-teg'ri-ty, honesty. Leg'a-cy, a gift, by will, of personal property. VIII. WORK. Eliza Cook (b. 1817, d. 1889) was born at London. In 1837 she commenced contributing to periodicals. In 1840 the first collection of her poems was made. In 1849 she became editor of "Eliza Cook's Journal." 1. Work, work, my boy, be not afraid; Look labor boldly in the face; Take up the hammer or the spade, And blush not for your humble place. 2. There's glory in the shuttle's song; There's triumph in the anvil's stroke; There's merit in the brave and strong Who dig the mine or fell the oak. 3. The wind disturbs the sleeping lake, And bids it ripple pure and fresh; It moves the green boughs till they make Grand music in their leafy mesh. 4. And so the active breath of life Should stir our dull and sluggard wills; For are we not created rife With health, that stagnant torpor kills? 5. I doubt if he who lolls his head Where idleness and plenty meet, Enjoys his pillow or his bread As those who earn the meals they eat. 6. And man is never half so blest As when the busy day is spent So as to make his evening rest A holiday of glad content. DEFINITIONS.--3. Mesh, network. 4. Rife, abounding. Stag'nant, inactive. 2. Tor'por, laziness, stupidity. 5. Lolls, reclines, leans. IX. THE MANIAC. 1. A gentleman who had traveled in Europe, relates that he one day visited the hospital of Berlin, where he saw a man whose exterior was very striking. His figure, tall and commanding, was bending with age, but more with sorrow; the few scattered hairs which remained on his temples were white almost as the driven snow, and the deepest melancholy was depicted in his countenance. 2. On inquiring who he was and what brought him there, he started, as, if from sleep, and, after looking around him, began with slow and measured steps to stride the hall, repeating in a low but audible voice, "Once one is two; once one is two." 3. Now and then he would stop, and remain with his arms folded on his breast as if in contemplation, for some minutes; then again resuming his walk, he continued to repeat, "Once one is two; once one is two." His story, as our traveler understood it, is as follows: 4. Conrad Lange, collector of the revenues of the city of Berlin, had long been known as a man whom nothing could divert from the paths of honesty. Scrupulously exact in an his dealings, and assiduous in the discharge of all his duties, he had acquired the good will and esteem of all who knew him, and the confidence of the minister of finance, whose duty it is to inspect the accounts of all officers connected with the revenue. 5. On casting up his accounts at the close of a particular year, he found a deficit of ten thousand ducats. Alarmed at this discovery, he went to the minister, presented his accounts, and informed him that he did not know how it had arisen, and that he had been robbed by some person bent on his ruin. 6. The minister received his accounts, but thinking it a duty to secure a person who might probably be a defaulter he caused him to be arrested, and put his accounts into the hands of one of his secretaries for inspection, who returned them the day after with the information that the deficiency arose from a miscalculation; that in multiplying, Mr. Lange had said, once one is two, instead of once one is one. 7. The poor man was immediately released from confinement, his accounts returned, and the mistake pointed out. During his imprisonment, which lasted two days, he had neither eaten, drunk, nor taken any repose; and when he appeared, his countenance was as pale as death. On receiving his accounts, he was a long time silent; then suddenly awaking, as if from a trance, he repeated, "Once one is two." 8. He appeared to be entirely insensible of his situation; would neither eat nor drink, unless solicited; and took notice of nothing that passed around him. While repeating his accustomed phrase, if anyone corrected him by saying, "Once one is one," his attention was arrested for a moment, and he said, "Ah, right, once one is one;" and then resuming his walk, he continued to repeat, "Once one is two." He died shortly after the traveler left Berlin. 9. This affecting story, whether true or untrue, obviously abounds with lessons of instruction. Alas! how easily is the human mind thrown off its balance; especially when it is stayed on this world only, and has no experimental knowledge of the meaning of the injunction of Scripture, to cast all our cares upon Him who careth for us, and who heareth even the young ravens when they cry. DEFINITIONS.--1. Ex-te'ri-or, outward appearance. De-pict'ed, painted, represented. 3. Con-tem-pla'tion, continued attention of the mind to one subject. 4. Rev'e-nues, the annual income from taxes, public rents, etc. Scru'pu-lous-ly, carefully. As-sid'u-ous, constant in attention. Fi-nance', the income of a ruler or a state. Def'i-cit, lack, want. Duc'at, a gold coin worth about $2.00. 6. De-fault'er, one who fails to account for public money intrusted to his care. 9. Ob'vi-ous-ly, plainly. In-junc'tion, a command. X. ROBIN REDBREAST. William Allingham (b. 1828, d. 1889) was born at Ballyshannon, Ireland. His father was a banker, and gave him a good education in Irish schools. He showed his literary tastes at an early date, contributing to periodicals, etc. In 1850 he published his first volume of poems; in 1854 his "Day and Night Songs" appeared, and in 1864 a poem in twelve chapters entitled "Lawrence Bloomfield in Ireland," His reputation was established chiefly through his shorter lyrics, or ballad poetry. In 1864 he received a literary pension. 1. Good-by, good-by to Summer! For Summer's nearly done; The garden smiling faintly, Cool breezes in the sun; Our thrushes now are silent, Our swallows flown away,-- But Robin's here in coat of brown, And scarlet brestknot gay. Robin, Robin Redbreast, O Robin dear! Robin sings so sweetly In the falling of the year. 2. Bright yellow, red, and orange, The leaves come down in hosts; The trees are Indian princes, But soon they'll turn to ghosts; The leathery pears and apples Hang russet on the bough; It's autumn, autumn, autumn late, 'T will soon be winter now. Robin, Robin Redbreast, O Robin dear! And what will this poor Robin do? For pinching days are near. 3. The fireside for the cricket, The wheat stack for the mouse, When trembling night winds whistle And moan all round the house. The frosty ways like iron, The branches plumed with snow,-- Alas! in winter dead and dark, Where can poor Robin go? Robin, Robin Redbreast, O Robin dear! And a crumb of bread for Robin, His little heart to cheer. Note.--The Old World Robin here referred to is quite different in appearance and habits from the American Robin. It is only about half the size of the latter. Its prevailing color above is olive green, while the forehead, cheeks, throat, and breast are a light yellowish red. It does not migrate, but is found at all seasons throughout temperate Europe, Asia Minor, and northern Africa. XI. THE FISH I DID N'T CATCH. John Greenleaf Whittier was born near Haverhill, Mass., in 1807, and died at Hampton Falls, N.H., in 1892. His boyhood was passed on a farm, and he never received a classical education. In 1829 he edited a newspaper in Boston. In the following year he removed to Hartford, Conn., to assume a similar position. In 1836 he edited an antislavery paper in Philadelphia. In 1840 he removed to Amesbury, Mass. Mr. Whittier's parents were Friends, and he always held to the same faith. He wrote extensively both in prose and verse. As a poet, he ranked among those most highly esteemed and honored by his countrymen. "Snow Bound" is one of the longest and best of his poems. 1. Our bachelor uncle who lived with us was a quiet, genial man, much given to hunting and fishing; and it was one of the pleasures of our young life to accompany him on his expeditions to Great Hill, Brandy-brow Woods, the Pond, and, best of all, to the Country Brook. We were quite willing to work hard in the cornfield or the haying lot to finish the necessary day's labor in season for an afternoon stroll through the woods and along the brookside. 2. I remember my first fishing excursion as if it were but yesterday. I have been happy many times in my life, but never more intensely so than when I received that first fishing pole from my uncle's hand, and trudged off with him through the woods and meadows. It was a still, sweet day of early summer; the long afternoon shadows of the trees lay cool across our path; the leaves seemed greener, the flowers brighter, the birds merrier, than ever before. 3. My uncle, who knew by long experience where were the best haunts of pickerel, considerately placed me at the most favorable point. I threw out my line as I had so often seen others, and waited anxiously for a bite, moving the bait in rapid jerks on the surface of the water in imitation of the leap of a frog. Nothing came of it. "Try again," said my uncle. Suddenly the bait sank out of sight. "Now for it," thought I; "here is a fish at last." 4. I made a strong pull, and brought up a tangle of weeds. Again and again I cast out my line with aching arms, and drew it back empty. I looked at my uncle appealingly. "Try once more," he said; "we fishermen must have patience." 5. Suddenly something tugged at my line, and swept off with it into deep water. Jerking it up, I saw a fine pickerel wriggling in the sun. "Uncle!" I cried, looking back in uncontrollable excitement, "I've got a fish!" "Not yet," said my uncle. As he spoke there was a plash in the water; I caught the arrowy gleam of a scared fish shooting into the middle of the stream, my hook hung empty from the line. I had lost my prize. 6. We are apt to speak of the sorrows of childhood as trifles in comparison with those of grown-up people; but we may depend upon it the young folks don't agree with us. Our griefs, modified and restrained by reason, experience and self-respect, keep the proprieties, and, if possible, avoid a scene; but the sorrow of childhood, unreasoning and all-absorbing, is a complete abandonment to the passion. The doll's nose is broken, and the world breaks up with it; the marble rolls out of sight, and the solid globe rolls off with the marble. 7. So, overcome with my great and bitter disappointment, I sat down on the nearest hassock, and for a time refused to be comforted, even by my uncle's assurance that there were more fish in the brook. He refitted my bait, and, putting the pole again in my hands, told me to try my luck once more. 8. "But remember, boy," he said, with his shrewd smile, "never brag of catching a fish until he is on dry ground. I've seen older folks doing that in more ways than one, and so making fools of themselves. It's no use to boast of anything until it's done, nor then, either, for it speaks for itself." 9. How often since I have been reminded of the fish that I did not catch. When I hear people boasting of a work as yet undone, and trying to anticipate the credit which belongs only to actual achievement, I call to mind that scene by the brookside, and the wise caution of my uncle in that particular instance takes the form of a proverb of universal application: "NEVER BRAG OF YOUR FISH BEFORE YOU CATCH HIM." DEFINITIONS.--1. Gen'ial, cheerful. 3. Haunts, places frequently visited. Con-sid'er-ate-ly, with due regard to others, kindly thoughtful. 4. Ap-peal'ing-ly, as though asking for aid. 6. Mod'i-fied, qualified, lessened. Pro-pri'e-ties, fixed customs or rules of conduct. Ab-sorb'ing, engaging the attention entirely. 7, Has'sock, a raised mound of turf. 9. An-tic'i-pate, to take before the proper time. A-chieve'ment, performance, deed. XII. IT SNOWS. Sarah Josepha Hale (b. 1788?, d.1879) was born in Newport, N.H. Her maiden name was Buell. In 1814 she married David Hale, an eminent lawyer, who died in 1822. Left with five children to support, she turned her attention to literature. In 1828 she became editor of the "Ladies' Magazine." In 1837 this periodical was united with "Godey's Lady's Book," of which Mrs. Hale was literary editor for more than forty years. 1. "It snows!" cries the Schoolboy, "Hurrah!" and his shout Is ringing through parlor and hall, While swift as the wing of a swallow, he's out, And his playmates have answered his call; It makes the heart leap but to witness their joy; Proud wealth has no pleasures, I trow, Like the rapture that throbs in the pulse of the boy As he gathers his treasures of snow; Then lay not the trappings of gold on thine heirs, While health and the riches of nature are theirs. 2. "It snows!" sighs the Imbecile, "Ah!" and his breath Comes heavy, as clogged with a weight; While, from the pale aspect of nature in death, He turns to the blaze of his grate; And nearer and nearer, his soft-cushioned chair Is wheeled toward the life-giving flame; He dreads a chill puff of the snow-burdened air, Lest it wither his delicate frame; Oh! small is the pleasure existence can give, When the fear we shall die only proves that we live! 3. "It snows!" cries the Traveler, "Ho!" and the word Has quickened his steed's lagging pace; The wind rushes by, but its howl is unheard, Unfelt the sharp drift in his face; For bright through the tempest his own home appeared, Ay, though leagues intervened, he can see: There's the clear, glowing hearth, and the table prepared, And his wife with her babes at her knee; Blest thought! how it lightens the grief-laden hour, That those we love dearest are safe from its power! 4. "It snows!" cries the Belle, "Dear, how lucky!" and turns From her mirror to watch the flakes fall, Like the first rose of summer, her dimpled cheek burns! While musing on sleigh ride and ball: There are visions of conquests, of splendor, and mirth, Floating over each drear winter's day; But the tintings of Hope, on this storm-beaten earth, Will melt like the snowflakes away. Turn, then thee to Heaven, fair maiden, for bliss; That world has a pure fount ne'er opened in this. 5. "It snows!" cries the Widow, "O God!" and her sighs Have stifled the voice of her prayer; Its burden ye'll read in her tear-swollen eyes, On her cheek sunk with fasting and care. 'T is night, and her fatherless ask her for bread, But "He gives the young ravens their food," And she trusts till her dark hearth adds horror to dread., And she lays on her last chip of wood. Poor sufferer! that sorrow thy God only knows; 'T is a most bitter lot to be poor when it snows. DEFINITIONS.--1. Trow, to think, to believe. Trap'pings, ornanents. 2. Im'be-cile, one who is feeble either in body or mind. 3. In-ter-vened', were situated between. 4. Mus'ing, thinking in an absent-minded way. Con'quests, triumphs, successes. Tint'ings slight colorings. 5. Sti'fled, choked, suppressed. REMARK.--Avoid reading this piece in a monotonous style. Try to express the actual feeling of each quotation; and enter into the descriptions with spirit. XIII. RESPECT FOR THE SABBATH REWARDED. 1. In the city of Bath, not many years since, lived a barber who made a practice of following his ordinary occupation on the Lord's day. As he was on the way to his morning's employment, he happened to look into some place of worship just as the minister was giving out his text--"Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy." He listened long enough to be convinced that he was constantly breaking the laws of God and man by shaving and dressing his customers on the Lord's day. He became uneasy, and went with a heavy heart to his Sabbath task. 2. At length he took courage, and opened his mind to his minister, who advised him to give up Sabbath work, and worship God. He replied that beggary would be the consequence. He had a flourishing trade, but it would almost all be lost. At length, after many a sleepless night spent in weeping and praying, he was determined to cast all his care upon God, as the more he reflected, the more his duty became apparent. 3. He discontinued his Sabbath work, went constantly and early to the public services of religion, and soon enjoyed that satisfaction of mind which is one of the rewards of doing our duty, and that peace which the world can neither give nor take away. The consequences he foresaw actually followed. His genteel customers left him, and he was nicknamed "Puritan" or "Methodist." He was obliged to give up his fashionable shop, and, in the course of years, became so reduced as to take a cellar under the old market house and shave the poorer people. 4. One Saturday evening, between light and dark, a stranger from one of the coaches, asking for a barber, was directed by the hostler to the cellar opposite. Coming in hastily, he requested to be shaved quickly, while they changed horses, as he did not like to violate the Sabbath. This was touching the barber on a tender chord. He burst into tears; asked the stranger to lend him a half-penny to buy a candle, as it was not light enough to shave him with safety. He did so, revolving in his mind the extreme poverty to which the poor man must be reduced. 5. When shaved, he said, "There must be something extraordinary in your history, which I have not now time to hear. Here is half a crown for you. When I return, I will call and investigate your case. What is your name?" "William Reed," said the astonished barber. "William Reed?" echoed the stranger: "William Reed? by your dialect you are from the West." "Yes, sir, from Kingston, near Taunton." "William Reed from Kingston, near Taunton? What was your father's name?" "Thomas." "Had he any brother?" "Yes, sir, one, after whom I was named; but he went to the Indies, and, as we never heard from him, we supposed him to be dead." 6. "Come along, follow me," said the stranger, "I am going to see a person who says his name is William Reed, of Kingston, near Taunton. Come and confront him. If you prove to be indeed he who you say you are, I have glorious news for you. Your uncle is dead, and has left an immense fortune, which I will put you in possession of when all legal doubts are removed." 7. They went by the coach; saw the pretended William Reed, and proved him to be an impostor. The stranger, who was a pious attorney, was soon legally satisfied of the barber's identity, and told him that he had advertised him in vain. Providence had now thrown him in his way in a most extraordinary manner, and he had great pleasure in transferring a great many thousand pounds to a worthy man, the rightful heir of the property. Thus was man's extremity God's opportunity. Had the poor barber possessed one half-penny, or even had credit for a candle, he might have remained unknown for years; but he trusted God, who never said, "Seek ye my face," in vain. DEFINITIONS.--2. Ap-par'ent, clear, plain. 3. Gen-teel', fashionable, elegant. Re-duced', brought to poverty. 4. Vi'o-late, to break, to profane. 5. In-ves'ti-gate, to inquire into with care. Di'a-lect, a local form of speech. 6. Con-front', to face, to stand before. 7. At-tor'ney (pro. at-tur'ny), a lawyer. I-den'ti-ty, the condition of being the same as something claimed. Trans-fer'ring, making over the possession of. Ex-trem'i-ty, greatest need. Op-por-tu'ni-ty, favorable time. XIV. THE SANDS O' DEE. Charles Kingsley (b.1819, d.1875) was born at Holne, Devonshire, England. He took his bachelor's degree at Cambridge in 1842, and soon after entered the Church. His writings are quite voluminous, including sermons, lectures, novels, fairy tales, and poems, published in book form, besides numerous miscellaneous sermons and magazine articles. He was an earnest worker for bettering the condition of the working classes, and this object was the basis of most of his writings. As a lyric poet he has gained a high place. The "Saint's Tragedy" and "Andromeda" are the most pretentious of his poems, and "Alton Locke" and "Hypatia" are his best known novels. 1. "O Mary, go and call the cattle home, And call the cattle home, And call the cattle home, Across the sands o' Dee!" The western wind was wild and dank with foam, And all alone went she. 2. The creeping tide came up along the sand, And o'er and o'er the sand, And round and round the sand, As far as eye could see; The blinding mist came down and hid the land-- And never home came she. 3. Oh, is it weed, or fish, or floating hair?-- A tress o' golden hair, O' drowned maiden's hair, Above the nets at sea. Was never salmon yet that shone so fair Among the stakes on Dee. 4. They rowed her in across the rolling foam, The cruel, crawling foam, The cruel, hungry foam, To her grave beside the sea; But still the boatmen hear her call the cattle home, Across the sands O' Dee. Notes.--The Sands O' Dee. The Dee is a river of Scotland, noted for its salmon fisheries. O' is a contraction for of, commonly used by the Scotch. RKMARK.--The first three lines of each stanza deserve special attention in reading. The final words are nearly or quite the same, but the expression of each line should vary. The piece should be read in a low key and with a pure, musical tone. XV. SELECT PARAGRAPHS. 1. O give thanks unto the Lord; call upon his name; make known his deeds among the people. Sing unto him; sing psalms unto him; talk ye of all his wondrous works. Glory ye in his holy name; let the heart of them rejoice that seek the Lord. Remember his marvelous works that he hath done; his wonders, and the judgments of his mouth. 2. O Lord, our Lord, how excellent is thy name in all the earth! who hast set thy glory above the heavens. When I consider thy heavens, the work of thy fingers; the moon and the stars which thou hast ordained; what is man, that thou art mindful of him? and the son of man, that thou visitest him? For thou hast made him a little lower than the angels, and hast crowned him with glory and honor. Thou madest him to have dominion over the work of thy hands; thou hast put all things under his feet. O Lord, our Lord, how excellent is thy name in all the earth! 3. I will say of the Lord, He is my refuge and my fortress, my God; in him will I trust. Because he hath set his love upon me, therefore will I deliver him: I will set him on high, because he hath known my name. He shall call upon me, and I will answer him; I will be with him in trouble; I will deliver him, and honor him. With long life will I satisfy him, and show him my salvation. 4. O come, let us sing unto the Lord, let us heartily rejoice in the strength of our salvation. Let us come before his presence with thanksgiving, and show ourselves glad in him with psalms. For the Lord is a great God, and a great King above all gods. O worship the Lord in the beauty of holiness; let the whole earth stand in awe of him. For he cometh, for he cometh, to judge the earth; and with righteousness to judge the world, and the people with his truth. 5. Oh that men would praise the Lord' for his goodness, and for his wonderful works to the children of men! They that go down to the sea in ships, that do business in great waters; these see the works of the Lord, and his wonders in the deep. For he commandeth, and raiseth the stormy wind, which lifteth up the waves thereof. They mount up to the heaven; they go down again to the depths; their soul is melted because of trouble; they reel to and fro, and stagger like a drunken man, and are at their wit's end. Then they cry unto the Lord in their trouble, and he bringeth them out of their distresses. He maketh the storm a calm, so that the waves thereof are still. Then are they glad because they be quiet; so he bringeth them unto their desired haven. Oh that men would praise the Lord for his goodness, and for his wonderful works to the children of men! 6. The Lord is my shepherd; I shall not want. He maketh me to lie down in green pastures; he leadeth me beside the still waters. He restoreth my soul; he leadeth me in the paths of righteousness for his name's sake. Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil; for thou art with me: thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me. Thou preparest a table before me in the presence of mine enemies; thou anointest my head with oil; my cup runneth over. Surely, goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life; and I1 will dwell in the house of the Lord forever. --Bible. DEFINITIONS.--1. Mar'vel-ous, wonderful. 2. Or-dained', appointed, established. Do-min'ion (pro. do-min'yun). supreme power. 5. Ha ven, a harbor, a place where ships can lie in safety. XVI. THE CORN SONG. 1. Heap high the farmer's wintry hoard! Heap high the golden corn! No richer gift has Autumn poured From out her lavish horn! 2. Let other lands, exulting, glean The apple from the pine, The orange from its glossy green, The cluster from the vine; 3. We better love the hardy gift Our rugged vales bestow, To cheer us, when the storm shall drift Our harvest fields with snow. 4. Through vales of grass and meads of flowers Our plows their furrows made, While on the hills the sun and showers Of changeful April played. 5. We dropped the seed o'er hill and plain, Beneath the sun of May, And frightened from our sprouting grain The robber crows away. 6. All through the long, bright days of June, Its leaves grew green and fair, And waved in hot midsummer's noon Its soft and yellow hair. 7. And now, with Autumn's moonlit eves, Its harvest time has come; We pluck away the frosted leaves And bear the treasure home. 8. There, richer than the fabled gift Apollo showered of old, Fair hands the broken grain shall sift, And knead its meal of gold. 9. Let vapid idlers loll in silk, Around their costly board; Give us the bowl of samp and milk, By homespun beauty poured! 10. Where'er the wide old kitchen hearth Sends up its smoky curls, Who will not thank the kindly earth And bless our farmer girls! 11. Then shame on all the proud and vain, Whose folly laughs to scorn The blessing of our hardy grain, Our wealth of golden corn! 12. Let earth withhold her goodly root; Let mildew blight the rye, Give to the worm the orchard's fruit, The wheat field to the fly: 13. But let the good old crop adorn The hills our fathers trod; Still let us, for his golden corn, Send up our thanks to God! From Whittier's "Songs of Labor." DEFINITIONS.--1. Hoard, a large quantify of anything laid up. Lav'ish. profuse. 4. Meads, meadows. 9. Vap'id, spiritless, dull. Samp, bruised corn cooked by boiling. Notes.--8. According to the ancient fable, Apollo, the god of music, sowed the isle of Delos, his birthplace, with golden flowers, by the music of his lyre. XVII. THE VENOMOUS WORM. John Russell (b. 1793, d. 1863) graduated at Middlebury College, Vt., in 1818. He was at one time editor of the "Backwoodsman," published at Grafton, Ill., and later of the "Louisville Advocate." He was the author of many tales of western adventure and of numerous essays, sketches, etc. His language is clear, chaste, and classical; his style concise, vigorous, and sometimes highly ornate. 1. Who has not heard of the rattlesnake or copperhead? An unexpected sight of either of these reptiles will make even the lords of creation recoil; but there is a species of worm, found in various parts of this country, which conveys a poison of a nature so deadly that, compared with it, even the venom of the rattlesnake is harmless. To guard our readers against this foe of human kind is the object of this lesson. 2. This worm varies much in size. It is frequently an inch in diameter, but, as it is rarely seen except when coiled, its length can hardly be conjectured. It is of a dull lead color, and generally lives near a spring or small stream of water, and bites the unfortunate people who are in the habit of going there to drink. The brute creation it never molests. They avoid it with the same instinct that teaches the animals of India to shun the deadly cobra. 3. Several of these reptiles have long infested our settlements, to the misery and destruction of many of our fellow citizens. I have, therefore, had frequent opportunities of being the melancholy spectator of the effects produced by the subtile poison which this worm infuses. 4. The symptoms of its bite are terrible. The eyes of the patient become red and fiery, his tongue swells to an immoderate size, and obstructs his utterance; and delirium of the most horrid character quickly follows. Sometimes, in his madness, he attempts the destruction of his nearest friends. 5. If the sufferer has a family, his weeping wife and helpless infants are not unfrequently the objects of his frantic fury. In a word, he exhibits, to the life, all the detestable passions that rankle in the bosom of a savage; and such is the spell in which his senses are locked, that no sooner has the unhappy patient recovered from the paroxysm of insanity occasioned by the bite, than he seeks out the destroyer for the sole purpose of being bitten again. 6. I have seen a good old father, his locks as white as snow, his step slow and trembling, beg in vain of his only son to quit the lurking place of the worm. My heart bled when he turned away; for I knew the fond hope that his son would be the "staff of his declining years," had supported him through many a sorrow. 7. Youths of America, would you know the name of this reptile? It is called the WORM OF THE STILL. DEFINITIONS.--1. Rep'tiles, animals that crawl, as snakes, liz-ards, etc. Re-coil', to start back, to shrink from. 2. Co'bra, a highly venomous reptile inhabiting the East Indies. In-fest'ed, troubled, annoyed. 3. Sub'tile, acute, piercing. In-fus'es, intro-duces. 4. Ob-structs', hinders. De-lir'i-um, a wandering of the mind. 5. Ran'kle, to rage. Par'ox-ysm, a fit, a convulsion. 7. Worm, a spiral metallic pipe used in distilling liquors. Still, a vessel used in distilling or making liquors. XVIII. THE FESTAL BOARD. 1. Come to the festal board tonight, For bright-eyed beauty will be there, Her coral lips in nectar steeped, And garlanded her hair. 2. Come to the festal board to-night, For there the joyous laugh of youth Will ring those silvery peals, which speak Of bosom pure and stainless truth. 3. Come to the festal board to-night, For friendship, there, with stronger chain, Devoted hearts already bound For good or ill, will bind again. I went. 4. Nature and art their stores outpoured; Joy beamed in every kindling glance; Love, friendship, youth, and beauty smiled; What could that evening's bliss enhance? We parted. 5. And years have flown; but where are now The guests who round that table met? Rises their sun as gloriously As on the banquet's eve it set? 6. How holds the chain which friendship wove? It broke; and soon the hearts it bound Were widely sundered; and for peace, Envy and strife and blood were found. 7. The merriest laugh which then was heard Has changed its tones to maniac screams, As half-quenched memory kindles up Glimmerings of guilt in feverish dreams. 8. And where is she whose diamond eyes Golconda's purest gems outshone? Whose roseate lips of Eden breathed? Say, where is she, the beauteous one? 9. Beneath yon willow's drooping shade, With eyes now dim, and lips all pale, She sleeps in peace. Read on her urn, "A broken heart." This tells her tale. 10. And where is he, that tower of strength, Whose fate with hers for life was joined? How beats his heart, once honor's throne? How high has soared his daring mind? 11. Go to the dungeon's gloom to-night; His wasted form, his aching head, And all that now remains of him, Lies, shuddering, on a felon's bed. 12. Ask you of all these woes the cause? The festal board, the enticing bowl, More often came, and reason fled, And maddened passions spurned control. 13. Learn wisdom, then. The frequent feast Avoid; for there, with stealthy tread Temptation walks, to lure you on, Till death, at last, the banquet spread. 14. And shun, oh shun, the enchanted cup! Though now its draught like joy appears, Ere long it will be fanned by sighs, And sadly mixed with blood and tears. DEFINITIONS.--1. Fes'tal, mirthful, joyous. Gar'land-ed, adorned with wreaths of flowers. 3. De-vot'ed, solemnly set apart. 4. En-hance', increase. 6. Sun'dered, separated. 7. Glim'mer-ings, faint views, glimpses. 8. Ro'se-ate, blooming, rosy. 11. Fel'on, a public criminal. 12. En-tic'ing, attracting to evil. Spurned, rejected with disdain. 13. Lure, to attract, to entice. 14. En-chant'ed, affected with enchantment, bewitched. NOTES.--8. Golconda is an ancient city and fortress of India, formerly renowned for its diamonds. They were merely cut and polished there, however, being generally brought from Parteall, a city farther south. XIX. HOW TO TELL BAD NEWS. Mr. H. and the Steward. Mr. H. Ha! Steward, how are you, my old boy? How do things go on at home? Steward. Bad enough, your honor; the magpie's dead. H. Poor Mag! So he's gone. How came he to die? S. Overeat himself, sir. H. Did he? A greedy dog; why, what did he get he liked so well? S. Horseflesh, sir; he died of eating horseflesh, H. How came he to get so much horseflesh? S. All your father's horses, sir. H. What! are they dead, too? S. Ay, sir; they died of overwork. H. And why were they overworked, pray? S. To carry water, sir. H. To carry water! and what were they carrying water for? S. Sure, sir, to put out the fire. H. Fire! what fire? S. O, sir, your father's house is burned to the ground. H. My father's house burned down! and how came it set on fire? S. I think, sir, it must have been the torches. H. Torches! what torches? S. At your mother's funeral. H. My mother dead! S. Ah, poor lady! she never looked up, after it. H. After what? S. The loss of your father. H. My father gone, too? S. Yes, poor gentleman! he took to his bed as soon as he heard of it. H. Heard of what? S. The bad news, sir, and please your honor. H. What! more miseries! more bad news! S. Yes, sir; your bank has failed, and your credit is lost, and you are not worth a shilling in the world. I made bold, sir, to wait on you about it, for I thought you would like to hear the news. XX. THE BATTLE OF BLENHEIM. Robert Southey (b. 1774, d. 1843) was born in Bristol, England. He entered Balliol College, Oxford, in 1793. In 1804 he established himself permanently at Greta Hall, near Keswick, Cumberland, in the "Lake Country," where he enjoyed the friendship and society of Wordsworth and Coleridge, other poets of the "Lake School." He was appointed poet laureate in 1813, and received a pension of 300 Pounds a year from the government in 1835. Mr. Southey was a voluminous writer in both prose and verse. As a poet, he can not be placed in the first rank, although some of his minor poems are very happy in thought and expression. Among his most noted poetical works are "Joan of Arc," "Thalaba the Destroyer," "Madoc," "Roderick," and the "Curse of Kehama," 1. It was a summer evening, Old Kaspar's work was done, And he, before his cottage door, Was sitting in the sun; And by him sported on the green, His little grandchild Wilhelmine. 2. She saw her brother Peterkin Roll something large and round, Which he beside the rivulet, In playing there, had found; He came to ask what he had found, That was so large, and smooth, and round. 3. Old Kaspar took it from the boy, Who stood expectant by; And then the old man shook his head, And, with a natural sigh, " 'T is some poor fellow's skull," said he, "Who fell in the great victory. 4. "I find them in the garden, For there's many hereabout; And often when I go to plow, The plowshare turns them out; For many thousand men," said he, "Were slain in that great victory." 5. "Now tell us what 't was all about," Young Peterkin he cries; While little Wilhelmine looks up With wonder-waiting eyes; "Now tell us all about the war, And what they killed each other for." 6. "It was the English," Kaspar cried, "Who put the French to rout, But what they killed each other for, I could not well make out; But everybody said," quoth he, "That 't was a famous victory: 7, "My father lived at Blenheim then, Yon little stream, hard by; They burnt his dwelling to the ground, And he was forced to fly; So, with his wife and child he fled, Nor had he where to rest his head. 8. "With fire and sword, the country round Was wasted, far and wide; And many a nursing mother then, And newborn baby died; But things like that, you know, must be At every famous victory. 9. "They say it was a shocking sight After the field was won; For many thousand bodies here Lay rotting in the sun: But things like that, you know, must be After a famous victory. 10. "Great praise the Duke of Marlboro' won, And our young prince, Eugene." "Why, 't was a very wicked thing!" Said little Wilhelmine. "Nay, nay, my little girl!" quoth he, "It was a famous victory. 11. "And everybody praised the Duke Who this great fight did win." "But what good came of it at last?" Quoth little Peterkin. "Why, that I can not tell," said he, "But 't was a glorious victory." NOTES.--The Battle of Blenheim, in the "War of the Spanish Succession," was fought August 13, 1704, near Blenheim, in Bavaria, between the French and Bavarians, on one Ride, and an allied army under the great English general, the Duke of Marlborough, and Eugene, Prince of Savoy, on the other. The latter won a decisive victory: 10,000 of the defeated army were killed and wounded, and 13,000 were taken prisoners. XXI. "I PITY THEM." 1. A poor man once undertook to emigrate from Castine, Me., to Illinois. When he was attempting to cross a river in New York, his horse broke through the rotten timbers of the bridge, and was drowned. He had but this one animal to convey all his property and his family to his new home. 2. His wife and children were almost miraculously saved from sharing the fate of the horse; but the loss of this poor animal was enough. By its aid the family, it may be said, had lived and moved; now they were left helpless in a land of strangers, without the ability to go on or return, without money or a single friend to whom to appeal. The case was a hard one. 3. There were a great many who "passed by on the other side." Some even laughed at the predicament in which the man was placed; but by degrees a group of people began to collect, all of whom pitied him. 4. Some pitied him a great deal, and some did not pity him very much, because, they said, he might have known better than to try to cross an unsafe bridge, and should have made his horse swim the river. Pity, however, seemed rather to predominate. Some pitied the man, and some the horse; all pitied the poor, sick mother and her six helpless children. 5. Among this pitying party was a rough son of the West, who knew what it was to migrate some hundreds of miles over new roads to locate a destitute family on a prairie. Seeing the man's forlorn situation, and looking around on the bystanders, he said, "All of you seem to pity these poor people very much, but I would beg leave to ask each of you how much." 6. "There, stranger," continued he, holding up a ten dollar bill, "there is the amount of my pity; and if others will do as I do, you may soon get another pony. God bless you." It is needless to state the effect that this active charity produced. In a short time the happy emigrant arrived at his destination, and he is now a thriving farmer, and a neighbor to him who was his "friend in need, and a friend indeed." DEFINITIONS.--1. Em'i-grate, to remove from one country or state to another for the purpose of residence, to migrate. 2. Mi-rac'u-lous-ly, as if by miracle, wonderfully. A-bil'i-ty, power, capability. 3. Pre-dic'a-ment, condition, plight. 4. Pre-dom'i-nate, to prevail, to rule. 5. Lo'cate, to place. Des'ti-tute, needy, poor. 6. Des-ti-na'tion, end of a journey. Thriv'ing, prosperous through industry, economy, and good management. XXII. AN ELEGY ON MADAM BLAIZE. Oliver Goldsmith (b. 1728, d. 1774) was born at Pallas, or Pallasmore, in the parish of Forney, Ireland. He received his education at several schools, at Trinity College, Dublin, at Edinburgh, and at Leyden. He spent some time in wandering over continental Europe, often in poverty and want. In 1756 he became a resident of London, where he made the acquaintance of several celebrated men, among whom were Dr. Johnson and Sir Joshua Reynolds. His writings are noted for their purity, grace, and fluency. His fame as a poet is secured by "The Traveler," and "The Deserted Village;" as a dramatist, by "She Stoops to Conquer;" and as a novelist, by "The Vicar of Wakefield." His reckless extravagance always kept him in financial difficulty, and he died heavily in debt. His monument is in Westminster Abbey. 1. Good people all, with one accord, Lament for Madam Blaize, Who never wanted a good word-- From those who spoke her praise. 2. The needy seldom passed her door, And always found her kind; She freely lent to all the poor-- Who left a pledge behind. 3. She strove the neighborhood to please, With manner wondrous winning: She never followed wicked ways-- Unless when she was sinning. 4. At church, in silks and satin new, With hoop of monstrous size, She never slumbered in her pew-- But when she shut her eyes. 5. Her love was sought, I do aver, By twenty beaux and more; The king himself has followed her When she has walked before. 6. But now, her wealth and finery fled, Her hangers-on cut short all, Her doctors found, when she was dead-- Her last disorder mortal. 7. Let us lament, in sorrow sore; For Kent Street well may say, That, had she lived a twelvemonth more-- She had not died to-day. DEFINITIONS.--1. Ac-cord', agreement of opinion, consent. 2. Pledge, personal property delivered to another as a security for a debt. 6. Hang'ers-on, followers. Mor'tal, destructive to life. XXIII. KING CHARLES II AND WILLIAM PENN. King Charles. Well, friend William! I have sold you a noble province in North America; but still, I suppose you have no thoughts of going thither yourself? Penn. Yes, I have, I assure thee, friend Charles; and I am just come to bid thee farewell. K.C. What! venture yourself among the savages of North America! Why, man, what security have you that you will not be in their war kettle in two hours after setting foot on their shores? P. The best security in the world. K.C. I doubt that, friend William; I have no idea of any security against those cannibals but in a regiment of good soldiers, with their muskets and bayonets. And mind, I tell you beforehand, that, with all my good will for you and your family, to whom I am under obligations, I will not send a single soldier with you. P. I want none of thy soldiers, Charles: I depend on something better than thy soldiers. K.C. Ah! what may that be? P. Why, I depend upon themselves; on the working of their own hearts; on their notions of justice; on their moral sense. K.C. A fine thing, this same moral sense, no doubt; but I fear you will not find much of it among the Indians of North America. P. And why not among them as well as others? K.C. Because if they had possessed any, they would not have treated my subjects so barbarously as they have done. P. That is no proof of the contrary, friend Charles. Thy subjects were the aggressors. When thy subjects first went to North America, they found these poor people the fondest and kindest creatures in the world. Every day they would watch for them to come ashore, and hasten to meet them, and feast them on the best fish, and venison, and corn, which were all they had. In return for this hospitality of the savages, as we call them, thy subjects, termed Christians, seized on their country and rich hunting grounds for farms for themselves. Now, is it to be wondered at, that these much-injured people should have been driven to desperation by such injustice; and that, burning with revenge, they should have committed some excesses? K C. Well, then, I hope you will not complain when they come to treat you in the same manner. P. I am not afraid of it. K.C. Ah! how will you avoid it? You mean to get their hunting grounds, too, I suppose? P. Yes, but not by driving these poor people away from them. K.C. No, indeed? How then will you get their lands? P. I mean to buy their lands of them. K.C. Buy their lands of them? Why, man, you have already bought them of me! P. Yes, I know I have, and at a dear rate, too; but I did it only to get thy good will, not that I thought thou hadst any right to their lands. K.C. How, man? no right to their lands? P. No, friend Charles, no right; no right at all: what right hast thou to their lands? K.C. Why, the right of discovery, to be sure; the right which the Pope and all Christian kings have agreed to give one another. P. The right of discovery? A strange kind of right, indeed. Now suppose, friend Charles, that some canoe load of these Indians, crossing the sea, and discovering this island of Great Britain, were to claim it as their own, and set it up for sale over thy head, what wouldst thou think of it? K.C. Why--why--why--I must confess, I should think it a piece of great impudence in them. P. Well, then, how canst thou, a Christian, and a Christian prince, too, do that which thou so utterly condemnest in these people whom thou callest savages? And suppose, again, that these Indians, on thy refusal to give up thy island of Great Britain, were to make war on thee, and, having weapons more destructive than thine, were to destroy many of thy subjects, and drive the rest away--wouldst thou not think it horribly cruel? K. C. I must say, friend William, that I should; how can I say otherwise? P. Well, then, how can I, who call myself a Christian, do what I should abhor even in the heathen? No. I will not do it. But I will buy the right of the proper owners, even of the Indians themselves. By doing this, I shall imitate God himself in his justice and mercy, and thereby insure his blessing on my colony, if I should ever live to plant one in North America. --Mason L. Weems. DEFINITIONS.--Can'ni-bals, human beings that eat human flesh. Reg'i-ment, a body of troops, consisting usually of ten companies. Ag-gress'ors, those who first commence hostilities. Ven'i-son (pro. ven'i-zn, or ven'zn), the flesh of deer. Ex-cess'es, misdeeds, evil acts. Con-demn'est (pro. kon-dem'est), censure, blame. NOTES.--Charles II. was king of England from A.D. 1660 to 1685. William Penn (b. 1644, d. 1718) was a noted Englishman who belonged to the sect of Friends. He came to America in 1682, and founded the province which is now the state of Pennsylvania. He purchased the lands from the Indians, who were so impressed with the justice and good will of Penn and his associates, that the Quaker dress often served as a sure protection when other settlers were trembling for their lives. XXIV. WHAT I LIVE FOR. 1. I live for those who love me, Whose hearts are kind and true; For the heaven that smiles above me, And awaits my spirit, too; For all human ties that bind me, For the task my God assigned me, For the bright hopes left behind me, And the good that I can do. 2. I live to learn their story, Who suffered for my sake; To emulate their glory, And follow in their wake; Bards, patriots, martyrs, sages, The noble of all ages, Whose deeds crown History's pages, And Time's great volume make. 3. I live to hail that season, By gifted minds foretold, When man shall live by reason, And not alone by gold; When man to man united, And every wrong thing righted, The whole world shall be lighted As Eden was of old. 4. I live for those who love me, For those who know me true; For the heaven that smiles above me, And awaits my spirit, too; For the cause that needs assistance, For the wrongs that need resistance, For the future in the distance, And the good that I can do. DEFINITIONS.--l. As-signed' (pro. as-sind'), allotted, marked out. 2. Em'-u-late, to strive to equal or excel, to rival. Wake, the track left by a vessel in the water, hence, figuratively, in the train of. Bard, a poet. Mar'tyr, one who sacrifices what is of great value to him for the sake of principle. Sage, a wise man. 3. Hail, to salute. XXV. THE RIGHTEOUS NEVER FORSAKEN. 1. It was Saturday night, and the widow of the Pine Cottage sat by her blazing fagots, with her five tattered children at her side, endeavoring by listening to the artlessness of their prattle to dissipate the heavy gloom that pressed upon her mind. For a year, her own feeble hand had provided for her helpless family, for she had no supporter: she thought of no friend in all the wide, unfriendly world around. 2. But that mysterious Providence, the wisdom of whose ways is above human comprehension, had visited her with wasting sickness, and her little means had become exhausted. It was now, too, midwinter, and the snow lay heavy and deep through all the surrounding forests, while storms still seemed gathering in the heavens, and the driving wind roared amid the neighboring pines, and rocked her puny mansion. 3. The last herring smoked upon the coals before her; it was the only article of food she possessed, and no wonder her forlorn, desolate state brought up in her lone bosom all the anxieties of a mother when she looked upon her children: and no wonder, forlorn as she was, if she suffered the heart swellings of despair to rise, even though she knew that He, whose promise is to the widow and to the orphan, can not forget his word. 4. Providence had many years before taken from her her eldest son, who went from his forest home to try his fortune on the high seas, since which she had heard no tidings of him; and in her latter time had, by the hand of death, deprived her of the companion and staff of her earthly pilgrimage, in the person of her husband. Yet to this hour she had upborne; she had not only been able to provide for her little flock, but had never lost an opportunity of ministering to the wants of the miserable and destitute. 5. The indolent may well bear with poverty while the ability to gain sustenance remains. The individual who has but his own wants to supply may suffer with fortitude the winter of want; his affections are not wounded, his heart is not wrung. The most desolate in populous cities may hope, for charity has not quite closed her hand and heart, and shut her eyes on misery. 6. But the industrious mother of helpless and depending children, far from the reach of human charity, has none of these to console her. And such a one was the widow of the Pine Cottage; but as she bent over the fire, and took up the last scanty remnant of food to spread before her children, her spirits seemed to brighten up, as by some sudden and mysterious impulse, and Cowper's beautiful lines came uncalled across her mind: "Judge not the Lord by feeble sense. But trust him for his grace; Behind a frowning Providence He hides a smiling face." 7. The smoked herring was scarcely laid upon the table, when a gentle rap at the door, and the loud barking of a dog, attracted the attention of the family. The children flew to open it, and a weary traveler, in tattered garments and in apparently indifferent health; entered, and begged a lodging and a mouthful of food. Said he: "It is now twenty-four hour's since I tasted bread." The widow's heart bled anew, as under a fresh complication of distresses; for her sympathies lingered not around her fireside. She hesitated not even now; rest, and a share of all she had, she proffered to the stranger. "'We shall not be forsaken," said she, "or suffer deeper for an act of charity." 8. The traveler drew near the board, but when he saw the scanty fare, he raised his eyes toward heaven with astonishment: "And is this all your store?" said he; "and a share of this do you offer to one you know not? then never saw I charity before! But, madam," said he, continuing, "do you not wrong your children by giving a part of your last mouthful to a stranger?" 9. "Ah," said the poor widow--and the tear-drops gushed into her eyes as she said it--"I have a boy, a darling son, somewhere on the face of the wide world, unless Heaven has taken him away, and I only act toward you as I would that others should act toward him. God, who sent manna from heaven, can provide for us as he did for Israel; and how should I this night offend him, if my son should be a wanderer, destitute as you, and he should have provided for him a home, even poor as this, were I to turn you unrelieved away!" 10. The widow ended, and the stranger, springing from his seat, clasped her in his arms. "God indeed has provided your son a home, and has given him wealth to reward the goodness of his benefactress: my mother! oh, my mother!" It was her long lost son, returned to her bosom from the Indies. He had chosen that disguise that he might the more completely surprise his family; and never was surprise more perfect, or followed by a sweeter cup of joy. DEFINITIONS.--1. Fag'ots. bundles of sticks used for fuel. Prat'tle, trifling talk. Dis'si-pate, to scatter. 2. Pu'ny, small and weak. 4. Pil'grim-age, a journey. 5. Sus'te-nance, that which supports life. For'ti-tude, resolute endurance. 7. In-dif'fer-ent, neither very good nor very bad. Com-pli-ca'tion, entanglement. Sym'pa-thies, compassion. Prof'fered, offered to give. 9. Man'na, food miraculously provided by God for the Israelites. XXVI. ABOU BEN ADHEM. James Henry Leigh Hunt (b. 1784, d. 1859) was the son of a West Indian, who married an American lady, and practiced law in Philadelphia until the Revolution; being a Tory, he then returned to England, where Leigh Hunt was born. The latter wrote many verses while yet a boy, and in 1801 his father published a collection of them, entitled "Juvenilia." For many years he was connected with various newspapers, and, while editor of the "Examiner," was imprisoned for two years for writing disrespectfully of the prince regent. While in prison he was visited frequently by the poets Byron, Moore, Lamb, Shelley, and Keats; and there wrote "The Feast of the Poets," "The Descent of Liberty, a Mask," and "The Story of Rimini," which immediately gave him a reputation as a poet. His writings include various translations, dramas, novels, collections of essays, and poems. 1. ABOU BEN ADHEM (may his tribe increase!) Awoke one night from a deep dream of peace, And saw within the moonlight in his room, Making it rich and like a lily in bloom, An angel writing in a book of gold. 2. Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold; And to the presence in the room he said, "What writest thou?" The vision raised its head, And, with a look made of all sweet accord, Answered, "The names of those who love the Lord." 3. "And is mine one?" said Abou. "Nay, not so," Replied the angel. Abou spoke more low, But cheerly still; and said, "I pray thee, then, Write me as one that loves his fellow-men." 4. The angel wrote, and vanished. The next night It came again, with a great wakening light, And showed the names whom love of God had blessed; And, lo! Ben Adhem's name led all the rest. NOTE.--The above selection is written in imitation of an oriental fable. XXVII. LUCY FORESTER. John Wilson (b. 1785, d. 1854), better known as "Christopher North," was a celebrated author, poet, and critic, born at Paisley, Scotland, and educated at the University of Glasgow and at Oxford. In 1808 he moved to Westmoreland, England, where he formed one of the "Lake School" of poets. While at Oxford he gained a prize for a poem on "Painting, Poetry, and Architecture." In 1820 he became Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh, which position he retained until 1851. He gained his greatest reputation as the chief author of "Noctes Ambrosianae," essays contributed to Blackwood's Magazine between 1822 and 1825. Among his poems may be mentioned "The Isle of Palms" and the "City of the Plague," This selection is adapted from "The Foresters," a tale of Scottish life. 1. Lucy was only six years old, but bold as a fairy; she had gone by herself a thousand times about the braes, and often upon errands to houses two or three miles distant. What had her parents to fear? The footpaths were all firm, and led to no places of danger, nor are infants themselves incautious when alone in then pastimes. Lucy went singing into the low woods, and singing she reappeared on the open hillside. With her small white hand on the rail, she glided along the wooden bridge, or tripped from stone to stone across the shallow streamlet. 2. The creature would be away for hours, and no fear be felt on her account by anyone at home; whether she had gone, with her basket on her arm, to borrow some articles of household use from a neighbor, or, merely for her own solitary delight, had wandered off to the braes to play among the flowers, coming back laden with wreaths and garlands. 3. The happy child had been invited to pass a whole day, from morning to night, at Ladyside (a farmhouse about two miles off) with her playmates the Maynes; and she left home about an hour after sunrise. 4. During her absence, the house was silent but happy, and, the evening being now far advanced, Lucy was expected home every minute, and Michael, Agnes, and Isabel, her father, mother, and aunt, went to meet her on the way. They walked on and on, wondering a little, but in no degree alarmed till they reached Ladyside, and heard the cheerful din of the children within, still rioting at the close of the holiday. Jacob Mayne came to the door, but, on their kindly asking why Lucy had not been sent home before daylight was over, he looked painfully surprised, and said that she had not been at Ladyside. 5. Within two hours, a hundred persons were traversing the hills in all directions, even at a distance which it seemed most unlikely that poor Lucy could have reached. The shepherds and their dogs, all the night through, searched every nook, every stony and rocky place, every piece of taller heather, every crevice that could conceal anything alive or dead: but no Lucy was there. 6. Her mother, who for a while seemed inspired with supernatural strength, had joined in the search, and with a quaking heart looked into every brake, or stopped and listened to every shout and halloo reverberating among the hills, intent to seize upon some tone of recognition or discovery. But the moon sank; and then the stars, whose increased brightness had for a short time supplied her place, all faded away; and then came the gray dawn of the morning, and then the clear brightness of the day,--and still Michael and Agnes were childless. 7. "She has sunk into some mossy or miry place," said Michael, to a man near him, into whose face he could not look, "a cruel, cruel death to one like her! The earth on which my child walked has closed over her, and we shall never see her more!" 8. At last, a man who had left the search, and gone in a direction toward the highroad, came running with something in his arms toward the place where Michael and others were standing beside Agnes, who lay, apparently exhausted almost to dying, on the sward. He approached hesitatingly; and Michael saw that he carried Lucy's bonnet, clothes, and plaid. 9. It was impossible not to see some spots of blood upon the frill that the child had worn around her neck. "Murdered! murdered!" was the one word whispered or ejaculated all around; but Agnes heard it not; for, worn out by that long night of hope and despair, she had fallen asleep, and was, perhaps, seeking her lost Lucy in her dreams. 10. Isabel took the clothes, and, narrowly inspecting them with eye and hand, said, with a fervent voice that was heard even in Michael's despair, "No, Lucy is yet among the living. There are no marks of violence on the garments of the innocent; no murderer's hand has been here. These blood spots have been put here to deceive. Besides, would not the murderer have carried off these things? For what else would he have murdered her? But, oh! foolish despair! What speak I of? For, wicked as the world is--ay! desperately wicked--there is not, on all the surface of the wide earth, a hand that would murder our child! Is it not plain as the sun in the heaven, that Lucy has been stolen by some wretched gypsy beggar?" 11. The crowd quietly dispersed, and horse and foot began to scour the country. Some took the highroads, others all the bypaths, and many the trackless hills. Now that they were in some measure relieved from the horrible belief that the child was dead, the worst other calamity seemed nothing, for hope brought her back to their arms. 12. Agnes had been able to walk home to Bracken-Braes, and Michael and Isabel sat by her bedside. All her strength was gone, and she lay at the mercy of the rustle of a leaf, or a shadow across the window. Thus hour after hour passed, till it was again twilight. "I hear footsteps coming up the brae," said Agnes, who had for some time appeared to be slumbering; and in a few moments the voice of Jacob Mayne was heard at the outer door. 13. Jacob wore a solemn expression of countenance, and he seemed, from his looks, to bring no comfort. Michael stood up between him and his wife, and looked into his heart. Something there seemed to be in his face that was not miserable. "If he has heard nothing of my child," thought Michael, "this man must care little for his own fireside." "Oh, speak, speak," said Agnes; "yet why need you speak? All this has been but a vain belief, and Lucy is in heaven." 14. "Something like a trace of her has been discovered; a woman, with a child that did not look like a child of hers, was last night at Clovenford, and left it at the dawning." "Do you hear that, my beloved Agnes?" said Isabel; "she will have tramped away with Lucy up into Ettrick or Yarrow; but hundreds of eyes will have been upon her; for these are quiet but not solitary glens; and the hunt will be over long before she has crossed down upon Hawick. I knew that country in my young days, What say you, Mr. Mayne? There is the light of hope in your face." "There is no reason to doubt, ma'am, that it was Lucy. Everybody is sure of it. If it was my own Rachel, I should have no fear as to seeing her this blessed night." 15. Jacob Mayne now took a chair, and sat down, with even a smile upon his countenance. "I may tell you now, that Watty Oliver knows it was your child, for he saw her limping along after the gypsy at Galla-Brigg; but, having no suspicion, he did not take a second look at her,--but one look is sufficient, and he swears it was bonny Lucy Forester." 16. Aunt Isabel, by this time, had bread and cheese and a bottle of her own elder-flower wine on the table. "You have been a long and hard journey, wherever you have been, Mr. Mayne; take some refreshment;" and Michael asked a blessing. 17. Jacob saw that he might now venture to reveal the whole truth. "No, no, Mrs. Irving, I am over happy to eat or to drink. You are all prepared for the blessing that awaits you. Your child is not far off; and I myself, for it is I myself that found her, will bring her by the hand, and restore her to her parents." 18. Agnes had raised herself up in her bed at these words, but she sank gently back on her pillow; aunt Isabel was rooted to her chair; and Michael, as he rose up, felt as if the ground were sinking under his feet. There was a dead silence all around the house for a short space, and then the sound of many voices, which again by degrees subsided. The eyes of all then looked, and yet feared to look, toward the door. 19. Jacob Mayne was not so good as his word, for he did not bring Lucy by the hand to restore her to her parents; but dressed again in her own bonnet and gown, and her own plaid, in rushed their own child, by herself, with tears and sobs of joy, and her father laid her within her mother's bosom. DEFINITIONS.--1. Brae, shelving ground, a declivity or slope of a hill. Pas'times, sports, plays, 4. Ri'ot-ing, romping. 5. Heath'er, an evergreen shrub bearing beautiful flowers, used in Great Britain for making brooms, etc. 6. In-spired', animated, enlivened. Su-per--nat'u-ral, more than human. Brake, a place overgrown with shrubs and brambles. Re-ver'ber-at-ing, resounding, echoing. In-tent', having the mind closely fixed. 8. Plaid (pro. plad), a striped or decked overgarment worn by the Scotch. 9. E-jac'u-lat-ed, ex-claimed. 11. Scour, to pass over swiftly and thoroughly. Note.--The scene of this story is laid in Scotland, and many of the words employed, such as brae, brake, heather, and plaid, are but little used except in that country. XXVIII. THE REAPER AND THE FLOWERS. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (b. 1807, d. 1882), the son of Hon. Stephen Longfellow, an eminent lawyer, was born in Portland, Maine. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1825. After spending four years in Europe, he was Professor of Modern Languages and Literature at Bowdoin till 1835, when he was appointed to the chair of Modern Languages and Belles-lettres in Harvard University. He resigned his professorship in 1854, after which time he resided in Cambridge, Mass. Longfellow wrote many original works both in verse and prose, and made several translations, the most famous of which is that of the works of Dante. His poetry is always chaste and elegant, showing traces of careful scholarship in every line. The numerous and varied editions of his poems are evidences of their popularity. 1. There is a Reaper whose name is Death, And, with his sickle keen, He reaps the bearded grain at a breath, And the flowers that grow between. 2. "Shall I have naught that is fair?" saith he; "Have naught but the bearded grain? Though the breath of these flowers is sweet to me, I will give them all back again." 3. He gazed at the flowers with tearful eyes, He kissed their drooping leaves; It was for the Lord of Paradise He bound them in his sheaves. 4. "My Lord has need of these flowerets gay," The Reaper said, and smiled; "Dear tokens of the earth are they, Where he was once a child. 5. "They shall all bloom in the fields of light, Transplanted by my care, And saints, upon their garments white, These sacred blossoms wear." 6. And the mother gave in tears and pain The flowers she most did love; She knew she should find them all again In the fields of light above. 7. O, not in cruelty, not in wrath, The Reaper came that day, 'T was an angel visited the green earth, And took the flowers away. DEFINITIONS.--3. Sheaves, bundles of grain. 4. To'ken (pro. to'kn), a souvenir, that which is to recall some person, thing, or event. 6. Trans-plant'ed, removed and planted in another place. XXIX. THE TOWN PUMP. Nathaniel Hawthorne (b.1804, d.1864) was born in Salem, Mass. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1825. His earliest literary productions, written for periodicals, were published in two volumes--the first in 1837, the second in 1842--under the title of "Twice-Told Tales," "Mosses from an Old Manse," another series of tales and sketches, was published in 1845. From 1846 to 1850 he was surveyor of the port of Salem. In 1852 he was appointed United States consul for Liverpool. After holding this office four years, he traveled for some time on the continent. His most popular works are "The Scarlet Letter," a work showing a deep knowledge of human nature, "The House of the Seven Gables," "The Blithedale Romance." and "The Marble Faun," an Italian romance, which is regarded by many as the best of his works. Being of a modest and retiring disposition, Mr. Hawthorne avoided publicity. Most of his works are highly imaginative. As a prose writer he has no superior among American authors. He died at Plymouth, N. H., while on a visit to the White Mountains for his health. [SCENE.--The corner of two principal streets. The Town Pump talking through its nose.] 1. Noon, by the north clock! Noon, by the east! High noon, too, by those hot sunbeams which fall, scarcely aslope, upon my head, and almost make the water bubble and smoke in the trough under my nose. Truly, we public characters have a tough time of it! And among all the town officers, chosen at the yearly meeting, where is he that sustains, for a single year, the burden of such manifold duties as are imposed, in perpetuity, upon the Town Pump? 2. The title of town treasurer is rightfully mine, as guardian of the best treasure the town has. The overseers of the poor ought to make me their chairman, since I provide bountifully for the pauper, without expense to him that pays taxes. I am at the head of the fire department, and one of the physicians of the board of health. As a keeper or the peace, all water drinkers confess me equal to the constable. I perform some of the duties of the town clerk, by promulgating public notices, when they are pasted on my front. 3. To speak within bounds, I am chief person of the municipality, and exhibit, moreover, an admirable pattern to my brother officers by the cool, steady, upright, downright, and impartial discharge of my business, and the constancy with which I stand to my post. Summer or winter, nobody seeks me in vain; for all day long I am seen at the busiest corner, just above the market, stretching out my arms to rich and poor alike; and at night I hold a lantern over my head, to show where I am, and to keep people out of the gutters. 4. At this sultry noontide, I am cupbearer to the parched populace, for whose benefit an iron goblet is chained to my waist Like a dramseller on the public square, on a muster day, I cry aloud to all and sundry, in my plainest accents, and at the very tiptop of my voice. "Here it is, gentlemen! Here is the good liquor! Walk up, walk up, gentlemen, walk up, walk up! Here is the superior stuff! Here is the unadulterated ale of father Adam! better than Cognac, Hollands, Jamaica, strong beer, or wine of any price; here it is, by the hogshead or the single glass, and not a cent to pay. Walk up, gentlemen, walk up and help yourselves!" 5. It were a pity if all this outcry should draw no customers. Here they come. A hot day, gentlemen. Quaff and away again, so as to keep yourselves in a nice, cool sweat. You, my friend, will need another cupful to wash the dust out of your throat, if it be as thick there as it is on your cowhide shoes. I see that you have trudged half a score of miles to-day, and, like a wise man, have passed by the taverns, and stopped at the running brooks and well curbs. Otherwise, betwixt heat without and fire within, you would have been burnt to a cinder, or melted down to nothing at all--in the fashion of a jellyfish. 6. Drink, and make room for that other fellow, who seeks my aid to quench the fiery fever of last night's potations, which he drained from no cup of mine. Welcome, most rubicund sir! You and I have been strangers hitherto; nor, to confess the truth, will my nose be anxious for a closer intimacy, till the fumes of your breath be a little less potent. 7. Mercy on you, man! The water absolutely hisses down your red-hot gullet, and is converted quite into steam in the miniature Tophet, which you mistake for a stomach. Fill again, and tell me, on the word of an honest toper, did you ever, in cellar, tavern, or any other kind of dramshop, spend the price of your children's food for a swig half so delicious? Now, for the first time these ten years, you know the flavor of cold water. Good-by; and whenever you are thirsty, recollect that I keep a constant supply at the old stand. 8. Who next? Oh, my little friend, you are just let loose from school, and come hither to scrub your blooming face, and drown the memory of certain taps of the ferule, and other schoolboy troubles, in a draught from the Town Pump. Take it, pure as the current of your young life; take it, and may your heart and tongue never be scorched with a fiercer thirst than now. 9. There, my dear child, put down the cup, and yield your place to this elderly gentleman, who treads so tenderly over the paving stones that I suspect he is afraid of breaking them. What! he limps by without so much as thanking me, as if my hospitable offers were meant only for people who have no wine cellars. 10. Well, well, sir, no harm done, I hope! Go, draw the cork, tip the decanter; but when your great toe shall set you a-roaring, it will be no affair of mine. If gentlemen love the pleasant titillation of the gout, it is all one to the Town Pump. This thirsty dog, with his red tongue lolling out, does not scorn my hospitality, but stands on his hind legs, and laps eagerly out of the trough. See how lightly he capers away again! Jowler, did your worship ever have the gout? 11. Your pardon, good people! I must interrupt my stream of eloquence, and spout forth a stream of water to replenish the trough for this teamster and his two yoke of oxen, who have come all the way from Staunton, or somewhere along that way. No part of my business gives me more pleasure than the watering of cattle. Look! how rapidly they lower the watermark on the sides of the trough, till their capacious stomachs are moistened with a gallon or two apiece, and they can afford time to breathe, with sighs of calm enjoyment! Now they roll their quiet eyes around the brim of their monstrous drinking vessel. An ox is your true toper. 12. I hold myself the grand reformer of the age. From my spout, and such spouts as mine, must flow the stream that shall cleanse our earth of a vast portion of its crime and anguish, which have gushed from the fiery fountains of the still. In this mighty enterprise, the cow shall be my great confederate. Milk and water! 13. Ahem! Dry work this speechifying, especially to all unpracticed orators. I never conceived till now what toil the temperance lecturers undergo for my sake. Do, some kind Christian, pump a stroke or two, just to wet my whistle. Thank you, sir. But to proceed. 14. The Town Pump and the Cow! Such is the glorious partnership that shall finally monopolize the whole business of quenching thirst. Blessed consummation! Then Poverty shall pass away from the land, finding no hovel so wretched where her squalid form may shelter itself. Then Disease, for lack of other victims, shall gnaw his own heart and die. Then Sin, if she do not die, shall lose half her strength. 15. Then there will be no war of households. The husband and the wife, drinking deep of peaceful joy, a calm bliss of temperate affections, shall pass hand in hand through life, and lie down, not reluctantly, at its protracted close. To them the past will be no turmoil of mad dreams, nor the future an eternity of such moments as follow the delirium of a drunkard. Their dead faces shall express what their spirits were, and are to be, by a lingering smile of memory and hope. 16. Drink, then, and be refreshed! The water is as pure and cold as when it slaked the thirst of the red hunter, and flowed beneath the aged bough, though now this gem of the wilderness is treasured under these hot stones, where no shadow falls, but from the brick buildings. But, still is this fountain the source of health, peace, and happiness, and I behold, with certainty and joy, the approach of the period when the virtues of cold water, too little valued since our father's days, will be fully appreciated and recognized by all. DEFINITIONS.--1. Per-pe-tu'i-ty, endless duration. 2. Pro-mul'gat-ing, announcing. 3. Mu-nic-i-pal'i-ty, a division of a country or of a city. 4. Mus'ter day, parade day. Sun'dry, several. Un-a-dul'ter-at-ed, pure, unmixed. Co'gnac (pro. Kon'yak), a French brandy. 6. Po-ta'tions, drinkings. Ru'bi-cund, inclining to red-ness. 7. To'phet, the infernal regions. 10. Tit-il-la'tion, tickling. 11. Re-plen'ish, to fill again. 14. Mo-nop'o-lize, to obtain the whole. Con-sum-ma'tion, completion, termination. Squalid, filthy. 15. Pro-tract'ed, delayed. 16. Slaked, quenched. XXX. GOOD NIGHT. Samuel Griswold Goodrich (b. 1793, d. 1860) was born in Ridgefield, Conn. Mr. Goodrich is best known as "Peter Parley," under which assumed name he commenced the publication of a series of Juvenile works about 1827. He edited "Parley's Magazine" from 1841 to 1854. He was appointed United States consul for Paris in 1848, and held that office four years. He was a voluminous writer, and his works are interesting and popular. His "Recollections of a Lifetime" was published in 1857, and "Peter Parley's Own Story" the year after his death. 1. The sun has sunk behind the hills, The shadows o'er the landscape creep; A drowsy sound the woodland fills, As nature folds her arms to sleep: Good night--good night. 2. The chattering jay has ceased his din, The noisy robin sings no more; The crow, his mountain haunt within, Dreams 'mid the forest's surly roar: Good night--good night. 3. The sunlit cloud floats dim and pale; The dew is falling soft and still, The mist hangs trembling o'er the vale, And silence broods o'er yonder mill: Good night--good night. 4. The rose, so ruddy in the light, Bends on its stem all rayless now; And by its side a lily white, A sister shadow, seems to bow: Good night--good night. 5. The bat may wheel on silent wing, The fox his guilty vigils keep, The boding owl his dirges sing; But love and innocence will sleep: Good night--good night. XXXI. AN OLD-FASHIONED GIRL. Louisa May Alcott (b. 1833, d. 1888) was born at Germantown, Pa., of New England parentage. Her parents afterwards returned to New England, and most of her life was spent in Concord, Mass. During the Civil War she went to Washington and nursed the wounded and sick until her own health gave way. As a child she used to write stories for the amusement of her playmates, and in 1857 published her first book, "Flower Fables." Her first novel, "Moods," appeared in 1865. "Little Women," published in 1868, is a picture of her own home life. "An Old Fashioned Girl," from which this extract is adapted, was published in 1870, and is one of her most popular books. 1. Polly hoped the "dreadful boy" (Tom) would not be present; but he was, and stared at her all dinner time in a most trying manner. 2. Mr. Shaw, a busy-looking gentleman, said, "How do you do, my dear? Hope you'll enjoy yourself;" and then appeared to forget her entirely. Mrs. Shaw, a pale, nervous woman, greeted her little guest kindly, and took care that she wanted for nothing. 3. Madam Shaw, a quiet old lady, with an imposing cap, exclaimed, on seeing Polly, "Bless my heart! the image of her mother--a sweet woman--how is she, dear?" and kept peering at the newcomer over her glasses till, between Madam and Tom, poor Polly lost her appetite. 4. Her cousin Fanny chatted like a magpie, and little Maud fidgeted, till Tom proposed to put her under the big dish cover, which produced such an explosion that the young lady was borne screaming away by the much-enduring nurse. 5. It was, altogether, an uncomfortable dinner, and Polly was very glad when it was over. They all went about their own affairs; and, after doing the honors of the house, Fan was called to the dressmaker, leaving Polly to amuse herself in the great drawing-room. 6. Polly was glad to be alone for a few minutes; and, having examined all the pretty things about her, began to walk up and down over the soft, flowery carpet, humming to herself, as the daylight faded, and only the ruddy glow of the fire filled the room. 7. Presently Madam came slowly in, and sat down in her armchair, saying, "That's a fine old tune; sing it to me, my dear. I have n't heard it this many a day." 8. Polly did n't like to sing before strangers, for she had no teaching but such as her busy mother could give her; but she had been taught the utmost respect for old people, and, having no reason for refusing, she directly went to the piano and did as she was bid. 9. "That's the sort of music it's a pleasure to hear. Sing some more, dear," said Madam, in her gentle way, when she had done. 10. Pleased with this praise, Polly sang away in a fresh little voice that went straight to the listener's heart and nestled there. The sweet old tunes that one is never tired of were all Polly's store. The more she sung, the better she did it; and when she wound up with "A Health to King Charlie," the room quite rung with the stirring music made by the big piano and the little maid. 11. "That's a jolly tune! Sing it again, please," cried Tom's voice; and there was Tom's red head bobbing up over the high back of the chair where he had hidden himself. 12. It gave Polly quite a turn, for she thought no one was hearing her but the old lady dozing by the fire. "I can't sing any more; I'm tired," she said, and walked away to Madam in the other room. The red head vanished like a meteor, for Polly's tone had been decidedly cool. 13. The old lady put out her hand, and, drawing Polly to her knee, looked into her face with such kind eyes that Polly forgot the impressive cap, and smiled at her confidently; for she saw that her simple music had pleased her listener, and she felt glad to know it. 14. "You mus'n't mind my staring, dear," said Madam, softly pinching her rosy cheek, "I haven't seen a little girl for so long, it does my old eyes good to look at you." Polly thought that a very odd speech, and could n't help saying, "Are n't Fan and Maud little girls, too?" 15. "Oh, dear, no! not what I call little girls. Fan has been a young lady this two years, and Maud is a spoiled baby. Your mother's a very sensible woman, my child." 16. "What a queer old lady!" thought Polly; but she said "Yes'm," respectfully, and looked at the fire. "You don't understand what I mean, do you?" asked Madam, still holding her by the chin. "No'm; not quite." 17. "Well, dear, I'll tell you. In my day, children of fourteen and fifteen did n't dress in the height of the fashion; go to parties as nearly like those of grown people as it's possible to make them; lead idle, giddy, unhealthy lives, and get blase' at twenty. We were little folks till eighteen or so; worked and studied, dressed and played, like children; honored our parents; and our days were much longer in the land than now, it seems to me." 18. The old lady appeared to forget Polly, at the end of her speech; for she sat patting the plump little hand that lay in her own, and looking up at a faded picture of an old gentleman with a ruffled shirt and a queue. "Was he your father, Madam?" 19. "Yes, my dear; my honored father. I did up his frills to the day of his death; and the first money I ever earned, was five dollars which he offered as a prize to whichever of his six girls would lay the handsomest darn in his silk stockings." 20. "How proud you must have been!" cried Polly, leaning on the old lady's knee with an interested face. 21. "Yes; and we all learned to make bread, and cook, and wore little chintz gowns, and were as gay and hearty as kittens. All lived to be grandmothers; and I'm the last--seventy next birthday, my dear, and not worn out yet; though daughter Shaw is an invalid at forty." 22. "That's the way I was brought up, and that's why Fan calls me old-fashioned, I suppose. Tell more about your papa, please; I like it," said Polly. 23. "Say, 'father.' We never called him papa; and if one of my brothers had addressed him as 'governor,' as boys now do, I really think he'd have him cut off with a shilling." DEFINITIONS.--3. Im-pos'ing, having the power of exciting attention and feeling, impressive. 4. Mag'pie, a noisy, mischievous bird, common in Europe and America. 12. Van'ished, disappeared. Me'te-or, a shooting star. 13. Con'fi-dent-ly, with trust. 17. Bla-se' (pro. bla-za'), a French word meaning surfeited, rendered incapable further enjoyment. 21. In'va-lid, a person who is sickly. XXXII. MY MOTHER'S HANDS. 1. Such beautiful, beautiful hands! They're neither white nor small; And you, I know, would scarcely think That they are fair at all. I've looked on hands whose form and hue A sculptor's dream might be; Yet are those aged, wrinkled hands More beautiful to me. 2. Such beautiful, beautiful hands! Though heart were weary and sad, Those patient hands kept toiling on, That the children might be glad. I always weep, as, looking back To childhood's distant day, I think how those hands rested not When mine were at their play. 3. Such beautiful, beautiful hands! They're growing feeble now, For time and pain have left their mark On hands and heart and brow. Alas! alas! the nearing time, And the sad, sad day to me, When 'neath the daisies, out of sight, These hands will folded be. 4. But oh! beyond this shadow land, Where all is bright and fair, I know full well these dear old hands Will palms of victory bear; Where crystal streams through endless years Flow over golden sands, And where the old grow young again, I'll clasp my mother's hands. XXXIII. THE DISCONTENTED PENDULUM. Jane Taylor (b. 1783, d. 1824) was born in London. Her mother was a writer of some note. In connection with her sister Ann, Jane Taylor wrote several juvenile works of more than ordinary excellence. Among them were "Hymns for Infant Minds" and "Original Poems." Besides these, she wrote "Display, a Tale," "Essays in Rhyme," and "Contributions of QQ." Her writings are graceful, and often contain a useful moral. 1. An old dock that had stood for fifty years in a farmer's kitchen, without giving its owner any cause of complaint, early one summer's morning, before the family was stirring, suddenly stopped. Upon this, the dial plate (if we may credit the fable) changed countenance with alarm; the hands made a vain effort to continue their course; the wheels remained motionless with surprise; the weights hung speechless; and each member felt disposed to lay the blame on the others. At length the dial instituted a formal inquiry as to the cause of the stagnation, when hands, wheels, weights, with one voice, protested their innocence. 2. But now a faint tick was heard below from the pendulum, who spoke thus: "I confess myself to be the sole cause of the present stoppage; and I am willing, for the general satisfaction, to assign my reasons. The truth is, that I am tired of ticking." Upon hearing this, the old clock became so enraged that it was upon the very point of striking. "Lazy wire!" exclaimed the dial plate, holding up its bands. 3. "Very good!" replied the pendulum; "it is vastly easy for you, Mistress Dial, who have always, as everybody knows, set yourself up above me,--it is vastly easy for you, I say, to accuse other people of laziness! you who have had nothing to do all your life but to stare people in the face, and to amuse yourself with watching all that goes on in the kitchen. Think, I beseech you, how you would like to be shut up for life in this dark closet, and to wag backward and forward year after year, as I do." 4. "As to that," said the dial, "is there not a window in your house on purpose for you to look through?" "For all that," resumed the pendulum, "it is very dark here; and, although there is a window, I dare not stop even for an instant to look out at it. Besides, I am really tired of my way of life; and, if you wish, I'll tell you how I took this disgust at my employment. I happened, this morning, to be calculating how many times I should have to tick in the course of only the next twenty-four hours; perhaps some one of you above there can give me the exact sum." 5. The minute hand, being quick at figures, presently replied, "Eighty-six thousand four hundred times." "Exactly so," replied the pendulum. "Well, I appeal to you all, if the very thought of this was not enough to fatigue anyone; and when I began to multiply the strokes of one day by those of months and years, really it was no wonder if I felt discouraged at the prospect. So, after a great deal of reasoning and hesitation, thinks I to myself, I'll stop." 6. The dial could scarcely keep its countenance during this harangue; but, resuming its gravity, thus replied: "Dear Mr. Pendulum, I am really astonished that such a useful, industrious person as yourself should have been seized by this sudden weariness. It is true, you have done a great deal of work in your time; so have we all, and are likely to do; which, although it may fatigue us to think of, the question is, whether it will fatigue us to do. Would you now do me the favor to give about half a dozen strokes to illustrate my argument?" 7. The pendulum complied, and ticked six times at its usual pace. "Now," resumed the dial, "may I be allowed to inquire if that exertion is at all fatiguing or disagreeable to you?" "Not in the least," replied the pendulum; "it is not of six strokes that I complain, nor of sixty, but of millions." 8. "Very good," replied the dial; "but recollect that, although you may think of a million of strokes in an instant, you are required to execute but one; and that, however often you may hereafter have to swing, a moment will always be given you to swing in." "That consideration staggers me, I confess," said the pendulum. "Then I hope," resumed the dial plate, "that we shall all return to our duty immediately; for the maids will be in bed if we stand idling thus." 9. Upon this, the weights, who had never been accused of light conduct, used all their influence in urging him to proceed; when, as if with one consent, the wheels began to turn, the hands began to move, the pendulum began to swing, and, to its credit, ticked as loud as ever; while a red beam of the rising sun, that streamed through a hole in the kitchen, shining full upon the dial plate, it brightened up as if nothing had been the matter. 10. When the farmer came down to breakfast that morning, upon looking at the clock, he declared that his watch had gained half an hour in the night. DEFINITIONS.--1. In'sti-tut-ed, commenced, began. Pro-test'ed, solemnly declared. 4. Cal'cu-lat-ing, reckoning, computing. 5. Pros'pect, anticipation, that to which one looks forward. 6. Ha-rangue' (pro. ha-rang'), speech. Il-lus'trate, to make clear, to exemplify. 7. Ex-er'tion (pro. egz-er'shun), effort. 8. Ex'e-eute, to complete, to finish. Con-sid-er-a'tion, reason. XXXIV. THE DEATH OF THE FLOWERS. William Cullen Bryant (b. 1794, d. 1878) was born in Cummington, Mass. He entered Williams College at the age of sixteen, but was honorably dismissed at the end of two years. At the age of twenty-one he was admitted to the bar, and practiced his profession successfully for nine years. In 1826 he removed to New York, and became connected with the "Evening Post"--a connection which continued to the time of his death. His residence for more than thirty of the last years of his life was at Roslyn, Long Island. He visited Europe several times; and in 1849 he continued his travels into Egypt and Syria, In all his poems, Mr. Bryant exhibits a remarkable love for, and a careful study of, nature. His language, both in prose and verse, is always chaste, correct, and elegant. "Thanatopsis," perhaps the best known of all his poems, was written when he was but nineteen. His excellent translations of the "Iliad" and the "Odyssey" of Homer and some of his best poems, were written after he had passed the age of seventy. He retained his powers and his activity till the close of his life. 1. The melancholy days are come, The saddest of the year, Of wailing winds, and naked woods, And meadows brown and sear. Heaped in the hollows of the grove The autumn leaves lie dead; They rustle to the eddying gust, And to the rabbit's tread. The robin and the wren are flown, And from the shrubs the jay, And from the wood top calls the crow Through all the gloomy day. 2. Where are the flowers, the fair young flowers, That lately sprang and stood In brighter light and softer airs, A beauteous sisterhood? Alas! they all are in their graves; The gentle race of flowers Are lying in their lowly beds With the fair and good of ours. The rain is falling where they lie; But the cold November rain Calls not from out the gloomy earth The lovely ones again. 3. The windflower and the violet, They perished long ago, And the brier rose and the orchis died Amid the summer's glow; But on the hill, the golden-rod, And the aster in the wood, And the yellow sunflower by the brook, In autumn beauty stood, Till fell the frost from the clear, cold heaven, As falls the plague on men, And the brightness of their smile was gone From upland, glade, and glen, 4. And now, when comes the calm, mild day, As still such days will come, To call the squirrel and the bee From out their winter home; When the sound of dropping nuts is heard, Though all the trees are still, And twinkle in the smoky light The waters of the rill, The south wind searches for the flowers Whose fragrance late he bore, And sighs to find them in the wood And by the stream no more. 5. And then I think of one, who in Her youthful beauty died, The fair, meek blossom that grew up And faded by my side. In the cold, moist earth we laid her, When the forest cast the leaf, And we wept that one so lovely Should have a life so brief; Yet not unmeet it was that one, Like that young friend of ours, So gentle and so beautiful, Should perish with the flowers. DEFINITIONS.--1. Wail'ing, lamenting, mourning. Sear, dry, withered. 3. Glade, an open place in the forest. Glen, a valley, a dale. 4. Un-meet', improper, unfitting. XXXV. THE THUNDERSTORM. Washington Irving (b. 1783, d. 1859). This distinguished author, whose works have enriched American literature, was born in the city of New York. He had an ordinary school education, and began his literary career at the age of nineteen, by writing for a paper published by his brother. His first book, "Salmagundi," was published in 1807. Two years later he published "Knickerbocker's History of New York." In 1815 he sailed for Europe, and remained abroad seventeen years, during which time he wrote several of his works. From 1842 to 1846 he was minister to Spain. The last years of his life were passed at "Sunnyside," near Tarrytown, N.Y. He was never married. "The Life of Washington," his last work, was completed in the same year in which he died. Mr. Irving's works are characterized by humor, chaste sentiment, and elegance and correctness of expression. The following selection is from "Dolph" in "Bracehridge Hall." 1. In the second day of the voyage, they came to the Highlands. It was the latter part of a calm, sultry day, that they floated gently with the tide between these stern mountains. There was that perfect quiet which prevails over nature in the languor of summer heat. The turning of a plank, or the accidental falling of an oar, on deck, was echoed from the mountain side and reverberated along the shores; and, if by chance the captain gave a shout of command, there were airy tongues that mocked it from every cliff. 2. Dolph gazed about him, in mute delight and wonder, at these scenes of nature's magnificence. To the left, the Dunderberg reared its woody precipices, height over height, forest over forest, away into the deep summer sky. To the right, strutted forth the bold promontory of Antony's Nose, with a solitary eagle wheeling about it; while beyond, mountain succeeded to mountain, until they seemed to lock their arms together and confine this mighty rive in their embraces. 3. In the midst of this admiration, Dolph remarked a pile of bright, snowy clouds peering above the western heights. It was succeeded by another, and another, each seemingly pushing onward its predecessor, and towering, with dazzling brilliancy, in the deep blue atmosphere; and now muttering peals of thunder were faintly heard rolling behind the mountains. The river, hitherto still and glassy, reflecting pictures of the sky and land, now showed a dark ripple at a distance, as the wind came creeping up it. The fishhawks wheeled and screamed, and sought their nests on the high, dry trees; the crows flew clamorously to the crevices of the rocks; and all nature seemed conscious of the approaching thunder gust. 4. The clouds now rolled in volumes over the mountain tops; their summits still bright and snowy, but the lower parts of an inky blackness. The rain began to patter down in broad and scattered drops; the wind freshened, and curled up the waves; at length, it seemed as if the bellying clouds were torn open by the mountain tops, and complete torrents of rain came rattling down. The lightning leaped from cloud to cloud, and streamed quivering against the rocks, splitting and rending the stoutest forest trees. The thunder burst in tremendous explosions; the peals were echoed from mountain to mountain; they crashed upon Dunderberg, and then rolled up the long defile of the Highlands, each headland making a new echo, until old Bull Hill seemed to bellow back the storm. 5. For a time the scudding rack and mist and the sheeted rain almost hid the landscape from the sight. There was a fearful gloom, illumined still more fearfully by the streams of lightning which glittered among the raindrops. Never had Dolph beheld such an absolute warring of the elements; it seemed as if the storm was tearing and rending its way through the mountain defile, and had brought all the artillery of heaven into action. DEFINITIONS.--1. Lan'guor (pro. lang'gwer), exhaustion of strength, dullness. 3. Re-marked', noticed, observed. Pred-e-ces'-sor, the one going immediately before. Clam'or-ous-ly, with a loud noise. 4. Bel'ly-ing, swelling out. De-file', a long, narrow pass. 5. Rack, thin, flying, broken clouds. El'e-ments, a term usually including fire, water, earth, and air. NOTES.--1. The Highlands are a mountainous region in New York, bordering the Hudson River above Peekskill. 2. The Dunderberg and Antony's Nose are names of two peaks of the Highlands. 4. Bull Hill, also called Mt. Taurus, is 15 miles farther north. XXXVI. APRIL DAY. Caroline Anne Southey (b. 1786, d.1854), the second wife of Southey the poet, and better known as Caroline Bowles, was born near Lymington, Hampshire, England. Her first work, "Ellen Fitzarthur," a poem, was published in 1820; and for more than twenty years her writings were published anonymously. In 1839 she was married to Mr. Southey, and survived him over ten years. Her poetry is graceful in expression, and full of tenderness, though somewhat melancholy. The following extract first appeared in 1822 in a collection entitled, "The Widow's Tale, and other Poems." 1. All day the low-hung clouds have dropped Their garnered fullness down; All day that soft, gray mist hath wrapped Hill, valley, grove, and town. 2. There has not been a sound to-day To break the calm of nature; Nor motion, I might almost say, Of life or living creature; 3. Of waving bough, or warbling bird, Or cattle faintly lowing; I could have half believed I heard The leaves and blossoms growing. 4. I stood to hear--I love it well-- The rain's continuous sound; Small drops, but thick and fast they fell, Down straight into the ground. 5. For leafy thickness is not yet Earth's naked breast to screen, Though every dripping branch is set With shoots of tender green. 6. Sure, since I looked, at early morn, Those honeysuckle buds Have swelled to double growth; that thorn Hath put forth larger studs. 7. That lilac's cleaving cones have burst, The milk-white flowers revealing; Even now upon my senses first Methinks their sweets are stealing. 8. The very earth, the steamy air, Is all with fragrance rife! And grace and beauty everywhere Are flushing into life. 9. Down, down they come, those fruitful stores, Those earth-rejoicing drops! A momentary deluge pours, Then thins, decreases, stops. 10. And ere the dimples on the stream Have circled out of sight, Lo! from the west a parting gleam Breaks forth of amber light. * * * * * * * 11. But yet behold--abrupt and loud, Comes down the glittering rain; The farewell of a passing cloud, The fringes of its train. DEFINITIONS.--1. Gar'nered, laid up, treasured. 6. Studs, knobs, buds. 7. Cleav'ing, dividing. 10. Dim'ples, small depressions. Am'ber, the color of amber, yellow. XXXVII. THE TEA ROSE. 1. There it stood, in its little green vase, on a light ebony stand in the window of the drawing-room. The rich satin curtains, with their costly fringes, swept down on either side of it, and around it glittered every rare and fanciful trifle which wealth can offer to luxury, and yet that simple rose was the fairest of them all. So pure it looked, its white leaves just touched with that delicious, creamy tint peculiar to its kind: its cup so full, so perfect its head bending, as if it were sinking and melting away in its own richness.--Oh! when did ever man make anything to equal the living, perfect flower! 2. But the sunlight that streamed through the window revealed something fairer than the rose--a young lady reclining on an ottoman, who was thus addressed by her livelier cousin: "I say, cousin, I have been thinking what you are to do with your pet rose when you go to New York; as, to our consternation, you are determined to do. You know it would be a sad pity to leave it with such a scatter-brain as I am. I love flowers, indeed,--that is, I like a regular bouquet, cut off and tied up, to carry to a party; but as to all this tending and fussing which is needful to keep them growing, I have no gifts in that line." 3. "Make yourself easy as to that, Kate," said Florence, with a smile; "I have no intention of calling upon your talent; I have an asylum in view for my favorite." 4. "Oh, then you know just what I was going to say. Mrs. Marshall, I presume, has been speaking to you; she was here yesterday, and I was quite pathetic upon the subject; telling her the loss your favorite would sustain, and so forth; and she said how delighted she would be to have it in her greenhouse; it is in such a fine state now, so full of buds. I told her I knew you would like to give it to her; you are so fond of Mrs. Marshall, you know." 5. "Now, Kate, I am sorry, but I have otherwise engaged." "Whom can it be to? you have so few intimates here." "Oh, it is only one of my odd fancies." "But do tell me, Florence." "Well, cousin, you know the little pale girl to whom we give sewing?" 6. "What! little Mary Stephens? How absurd, Florence! This is just another of your motherly, old-maidish ways; dressing dolls for poor children, making bonnets, and knitting socks for all the little dirty babies in the neighborhood. I do believe you have made more calls in those two vile, ill-smelling alleys behind our house than ever you have in Chestnut Street, though you know everybody is half dying to see you; and now, to crown all, you must give this choice little bijou to a seamstress girl, when one of your most intimate friends, in your own class, would value it so highly. What in the world can people in their circumstances want with flowers?" 7. "Just the same as I do," replied Florence, calmly. "Have you not noticed that the little girl never comes without looking wistfully at the opening buds? And don't you remember, the other morning she asked me so prettily if I would let her mother come and see it, she was so fond of flowers?" 8. "But, Florence, only think of this rare flower standing on a table with ham, eggs, cheese, and flour, and stifled in that close little room, where Mrs. Stephens and her daughter manage to wash, iron, and cook." 9. "Well, Kate, and if I were obliged to live in one coarse room, and wash, and iron, and cook, as you say; if I had to spend every moment of my time in toil, with no prospect from my window but a brick wall and a dirty lane, such a flower as this would be untold enjoyment to me." 10. "Pshaw, Florence; all sentiment! Poor people have no time to be sentimental. Besides, I don't believe it will grow with them; it is a greenhouse flower, and used to delicate living." 11. "Oh, as to that, a flower never inquires whether its owner is rich or poor; and poor Mrs. Stephens, whatever else she has not, has sunshine of as good quality as this that streams through our window. The beautiful things that God makes are his gifts to all alike. You will see that my fair rose will be as well and cheerful in Mrs. Stephens's room as in ours." 12. "Well, after all, how odd! When one gives to poor people, one wants to give them something useful--a bushel of potatoes, a ham, and such things." 13. "Why, certainly, potatoes and ham must be supplied; but, having ministered to the first and most craving wants, why not add any other little pleasures or gratifications we may have it in our power to bestow? I know there are many of the poor who have fine feeling and a keen sense of the beautiful, which rusts out and dies because they are too hard pressed to procure it any gratification. Poor Mrs. Stephens, for example; I know she would enjoy birds, and flowers, and music as much as I do. I have seen her eye light up as she looked upon these things in our drawing. room, and yet not one beautiful thing can she command. From necessity, her room, her clothing,--all she has, must be coarse and plain. You should have seen the almost rapture she and Mary felt when I offered them my rose." 14. "Dear me! all this may be true, but I never thought of it before. I never thought that these hard-working people had any ideas of taste!" 15. "Then why do you see the geranium or rose so carefully nursed in the old cracked teapot in the poorest room, or the morning-glory planted in a box and twined about the window? Do not these show that the human heart yearns for the beautiful in all ranks of life? You remember, Kate, how our washerwoman sat up a whole night, after a hard day's work, to make her first baby a pretty dress to be baptized in." "Yes, and I remember how I laughed at you for making such a tasteful little cap for it." 16. "True, Kate, but I think the look of perfect delight with which the poor woman regarded her baby in its new dress and cap was something quite worth creating; I do believe she could not have felt more grateful if 1 had sent her a barrel of flour." 17. "Well, I never thought before of giving anything to the poor but what they really needed, and I have always been willing to do that when I could without going far out of my way." 18. "Ah! cousin, if our heavenly Father gave to us after this mode, we should have only coarse, shapeless piles of provisions lying about the world, instead of all this beautiful variety of trees, and fruits, and flowers," 19. "Well, well, cousin, I suppose you are right, but have mercy on my poor head; it is too small to hold so many new ideas all at once, so go on your own way;" and the little lady began practicing a waltzing step before the glass with great satisfaction. DEFINITIONS.--2. Ot'to-man, a stuffed seat without a back. 3. A-sy'lum, a place of refuge and protection. 4. Pa-thet'ic, moving to pity or grief. 6. Bi-jou' (pro. be-zhoo'), a jewel. Cir'cum-stanc-es, condition in regard to worldly property. 10. Sen-ti-ment'al, showing an excess of sentiment or feeling. 13. Com-mand', to claim. Rap'-ture, extreme joy or pleasure, ecstasy. 14. Taste, the faculty of discerning beauty or whatever forms excellence. 15. Yearns, longs, is eager. XXXVIII. THE CATARACT OF LODORE. 1. "How does the water Come down at Lodore?" My little boy asked me Thus once on a time; And, moreover, he tasked me To tell him in rhyme. 2. Anon at the word, There first came one daughter, And then came another, To second and third The request of their brother, And to hear how the water Comes down at Lodore, With its rush and its roar, As many a time They had seen it before. 3. So I told them in rhyme, For of rhymes I had store, And 't was in my vocation For their recreation That so I should sing; Because I was Laureate To them and the King. 4. From its sources which well In the tarn on the fell; From its fountains In the mountains, Its rills and its gills; Through moss and through brake, It runs and it creeps For a while, till it sleeps In its own little lake. 5. And thence at departing, Awakening and starting, It runs through the reeds, And away it proceeds, Through meadow and glade, In sun and in shade, And through the wood shelter, Among crags in its flurry, Helter-skelter, Hurry-skurry. 6. Here it comes sparkling, And there it lies darkling; Now smoking and frothing Its tumult and wrath in, Till, in this rapid race On which it is bent, It reaches the place Of its steep descent. 7. The cataract strong Then plunges along, Striking and raging As if a war waging Its caverns and rocks among; 8. Rising and leaping, Sinking and creeping, Swelling and sweeping, Showering and springing, Flying and flinging, Writhing and ringing, Eddying and whisking, Spouting and frisking, Turning and twisting, Around and around With endless rebound; Smiting and fighting, A sight to delight in; Confounding, astounding, Dizzying, and deafening the ear with its sound 9. Collecting, projecting, Receding and speeding, And shocking and rocking, And darting and parting, And threading and spreading, And whizzing and hissing, And dripping and skipping, And hitting and splitting, And shining and twining, And rattling and battling, And shaking and quaking, And pouring and roaring, And waving and raving, And tossing and crossing, And guggling and struggling, And heaving and cleaving, And moaning and groaning, And glittering and frittering, And gathering and feathering, And whitening and brightening, And quivering and shivering, And hurrying and skurrying, And thundering and floundering; 10. Dividing and gliding and sliding, And falling and brawling and sprawling, And driving and riving and striving, And sprinkling and twinkling and wrinkling; 11. And thumping and plumping and bumping and jumping, And dashing and flashing and splashing and clashing; And so never ending, but always descending, Sounds and motions forever and ever are blending, All at once and all o'er, with a mighty uproar, And this way the water comes down at Lodore. --Abridged from Southey. DEFINITIONS.--4. Tarn, a small lake among the mountains. Fell (provincial English), a stony hill. Gills (provincial English), brooks. 10. Brawl'ing, roaring. Riv'ing, splitting. NOTES.--1. Lodore is a cascade on the banks of Lake Derwentwater, in Cumberland, England, near where Southey lived. 3. Laureate. The term probably arose from a custom in the English universities of presenting a laurel wreath to graduates in rhetoric and versification. In England the poet laureate's office is filled by appointment of the lord chamberlain. The salary is quite small, and the office is valued chiefly as one of honor. This lesson is peculiarly adapted for practice on the difficult sound "ing". XXXIX. THE BOBOLINK. 1. The happiest bird of our spring, however, and one that rivals the European lark in my estimation, is the boblincoln, or bobolink as he is commonly called. He arrives at that choice portion of our year which, in this latitude, answers to the description of the month of May so often given by the poets. With us it begins about the middle of May, and lasts until nearly the middle of June. Earlier than this, winter is apt to return on its traces, and to blight the opening beauties of the year; and later than this, begin the parching, and panting, and dissolving heats of summer. But in this genial interval, Nature is in all her freshness and fragrance: "the rains are over and gone, the flowers appear upon the earth, the time of the singing of birds is come, and the voice of the turtle is heard in the land." 2. The trees are now in their fullest foliage and brightest verdure; the woods are gay with the clustered flowers of the laurel; the air is perfumed with the sweetbrier and the wild rose; the meadows are enameled with clover blossoms; while the young apple, peach, and the plum begin to swell, and the cherry to glow among the green leaves. 3. This is the chosen season of revelry of the bobolink. He comes amid the pomp and fragrance of the season; his life seems all sensibility and enjoyment, all song and sunshine. He is to be found in the soft bosoms of the freshest and sweetest meadows, and is most in song when the clover is in blossom. He perches on the topmost twig of a tree, or on some long, flaunting weed, and, as he rises and sinks with the breeze, pours forth a succession of rich, tinkling notes, crowding one upon another, like the outpouring melody of the skylark, and possessing the same rapturous character. 4. Sometimes he pitches from the summit of a tree, begins his song as soon as he gets upon the wing, and flutters tremulously down to the earth, as if overcome with ecstasy at his own music. Sometimes he is in pursuit of his mate; always in full song, as if he would win her by his melody; and always with the same appearance of intoxication and delight. Of all the birds of our groves and meadows, the bobolink was the envy of my boyhood. He crossed my path in the sweetest weather, and the sweetest season of the year, when all nature called to the fields, and the rural feeling throbbed in every bosom; but when I, luckless urchin! was doomed to be mewed up, during the live-long day, in a schoolroom. 5. It seemed as if the little varlet mocked at me as he flew by in full song, and sought to taunt me with his happier lot. Oh, how I envied him! No lessons, no task, no school; nothing but holiday, frolic, green fields, and fine weather. Had I been then more versed in poetry, I might have addressed him in the words of Logan to the cuckoo: "Sweet bird, thy bower is ever green, Thy sky is ever clear; Thou hast no sorrow in thy song, No winter in thy year. "Oh. could I fly, I'd fly with thee! We'd make, with joyful wing, Our annual visit o'er the globe, Companions of the spring." 6. Further observation and experience have given me a different idea of this feathered voluptuary, which I will venture to impart for the benefit of my young readers, who may regard him with the same unqualified envy and admiration which I once indulged. I have shown him only as I saw him at first, in what I may call the poetical part of his career, when he, in a manner, devoted himself to elegant pursuits and enjoyments, and was a bird of music, and song, and taste, and sensibility, and refinement. While this lasted he was sacred from injury; the very schoolboy would not fling a stone at him, and the merest rustic would pause to listen to his strain. 7. But mark the difference. As the year advances, as the clover blossoms disappear, and the spring fades into summer, he gradually gives up his elegant tastes and habits, doffs his poetical suit of black, assumes a russet, dusty garb, and sinks to the gross enjoyment of common vulgar birds. His notes no longer vibrate on the ear; he is stuffing himself with the seeds of the tall weeds on which he lately swung and chanted so melodiously. He has become a bon vivant, a gourmand: with him now there is nothing like the "joys of the table." In a little while he grows tired of plain, homely fare, and is off on a gastronomic tour in quest of foreign luxuries. 8. We next hear of him, with myriads of his kind, banqueting among the reeds of the Delaware, and grown corpulent with good feeding. He has changed his name in traveling. Boblincoln no more, he is the reedbird now, the much-sought-for tidbit of Pennsylvanian epicures, the rival in unlucky fame of the ortolan! Wherever he goes, pop! pop! pop! every rusty firelock in the country is blazing away. He sees his companions falling by thousands around him. Does he take warning and reform? Alas! not he. Again he wings his flight. The rice swamps of the south invite him. He gorges himself among them almost to bursting; he can scarcely fly for corpulency. He has once more changed his name, and is now the famous ricebird of the Carolinas. Last stage of his career: behold him spitted with dozens of his corpulent companions, and served up, a vaunted dish, on some southern table. 9. Such is the story of the bobolink; once spiritual, musical, admired, the joy of the meadows, and the favorite bird of spring; finally, a gross little sensualist, who expiates his sensuality in the larder. His story contains a moral worthy the attention of all little birds and little boys; warning them to keep to those refined and intellectual pursuits which raised him to so high a pitch of popularity during the early part of his career, but to eschew all tendency to that gross and dissipated indulgence which brought this mistaken little bird to an untimely end. --From Irving's "Birds of Spring." DEFINITIONS.--En-am'eled, coated with a smooth, glossy surface. 3. Sen-si-bil'i-ty, feeling. 4. Mewed, shut up. 5. Var'let, a rascal. Versed, familiar, practiced. 6. Vo-lup'tu-a-ry, one who makes his bodily enjoyment his chief object. 7. Bon vi-vant (French, pro. bon ve-van'), one who lives well. Gour-mand (French, pro. goor'man), a glutton. Gas-tro-nom'ic, relating to the science of good eating. 8. Cor'pu-lent, fleshy, fat. Ep'i-cure, one who indulges in the luxuries of the table. Vaunt'ed, boasted. 9. Ex'pi-ates, atones for. Lard'er, a pantry. Es-chew', to shun. NOTES.--5. John Logan (b. 1748, d.1788). A Scotch writer of note. His writings include dramas, poetry, history, and essays. 8. The ortolan is a small bird, abundant in southern Europe, Cyprus, and Japan. It is fattened for the table, and is considered a great delicacy. XL. ROBERT OF LINCOLN. 1. Merrily swinging on brier and weed, Near to the nest of his little dame, Over the mountain side or mead, Robert of Lincoln is telling his name: "Bobolink, bobolink, Spink, spank, spink. Snug and safe is that nest of ours. Hidden among the summer flowers. Chee, chee, chee." 2. Robert of Lincoln is gaily dressed, Wearing a bright black wedding coat: White are his shoulders, and white his crest, Hear him call in his merry note: "Bobolink, bobolink, Spink, spank, spink, Look what a nice new coat is mine; Sure, there was never a bird so fine. Chee, chee, chee." 3. Robert of Lincoln's Quaker wife, Pretty and quiet, with plain brown wings, Passing at home a patient life, Broods in the grass while her husband sings: "Bobolink, bobolink, Spink, spank, spink, Brood, kind creature; you need not fear Thieves and robbers while I am here. Chee, chee, chee." 4. Modest and shy as a nun is she, One weak chirp is her only note; Braggart and prince of braggarts is he, Pouring boasts from his little throat: "Bobolink, Bobolink, Spink, spank, spink, Never was I afraid of man, Catch me, cowardly knaves, if you can. Chee, chee, chee." 5. Six white eggs on a bed of hay, Flecked with purple, a pretty sight! There as the mother sits all day, Robert is singing with all his might: "Bobolink, bobolink, Spink, spank, spink, Nice good wife that never goes out, Keeping house while I frolic about. Chee, chee, chee." 6. Soon as the little ones chip the shell, Six wide mouths are open for food; Robert of Lincoln bestirs him well, Gathering seeds for the hungry brood.. "Bobolink, bobolink, Spink, spank, spink, This new life is likely to be Hard for a gay young fellow like me. Chee, chee, chee." 7. Robert of Lincoln at length is made Sober with work, and silent with care; Off is his holiday garment laid, Half forgotten that merry air: "Bobolink, bobolink, Spink, spank, spink, Nobody knows but my mate and I Where our nest and our nestlings lie. Chee, chee, chee." 8. Summer wanes; the children are grown; Fun and frolic no more he knows; Robert of Lincoln's a humdrum crone; Off he flies, and we sing as he goes: "Bobolink, bobolink, Spink, spank, spink, When you can pipe that merry old strain, Robert of Lincoln, come back again. Chee, chee, chee." --William Cullen Bryan. XLI. REBELLION IN MASSACHUSETTS STATE PRISON. 1. A more impressive exhibition of moral courage, opposed to the wildest ferocity under the most appalling circumstances, was never seen than that which was witnessed by the officers of our state prison; in the rebellion which occurred some years since. 2. Three convicts had been sentenced, under the rules of the prison, to be whipped in the yard, and, by some effort of one of the other prisoners, a door had been opened at midday communicating with the great dining hall and, through the warden's lodge, with the street. 3. The dining hall was long, dark, and damp, from its situation near the surface of the ground; and in this all the prisoners assembled, with clubs and such other tools as they could seize in passing through the workshops. 4. Knives, hammers, and chisels, with every variety of such weapons, were in the hands of the ferocious spirits, who are drawn away from their encroachments on society, forming a congregation of strength, vileness, and talent that can hardly be equaled on earth, even among the famed brigands of Italy. 5. Men of all ages and characters, guilty of every variety of infamous crime, dressed in the motley and peculiar garb of the institution, and displaying the wild and demoniac appearance that always pertains to imprisoned wretches, were gathered together for the single purpose of preventing the punishment which was to be inflicted on the morrow upon their comrades. 6. The warden, the surgeon, and some other officers of the prison were there at the time, and were alarmed at the consequences likely to ensue from the conflict necessary to restore order. They huddled together, and could scarcely be said to consult, as the stoutest among them lost all presence of mind in overwhelming fear. The news rapidly spread through the town, and a subordinate officer, of the most mild and kind disposition, hurried to the scene, and came calm and collected into the midst of the officers. The most equable-tempered and the mildest man in the government was in this hour of peril the firmest. 7. He instantly dispatched a request to Major Wainright, commander of the marines stationed at the Navy Yard, for assistance, and declared his purpose to enter into the hall and try the force of firm demeanor and persuasion upon the enraged multitude. 8. All his brethren exclaimed against an attempt so full of hazard, but in vain. They offered him arms, a sword and pistols, but he refused them, and said that he had no fear, and, in case of danger, arms would do him no service; and alone, with only a little rattan, which was his usual walking stick, he advanced into the hall to hold parley with the selected, congregated, and enraged villains of the whole commonwealth. 9. He demanded their purpose in thus coming together with arms, in violation of the prison laws. They replied that they were determined to obtain the remission of the punishment of their three comrades. He said it was impossible; the rules of the prison must be obeyed, and they must submit. 10. At the hint of submission they drew a little nearer together, prepared their weapons for service, and, as they were dimly seen in the further end of the hall by those who observed from the gratings that opened up to the day, a more appalling sight can not be conceived, nor one of more moral grandeur, than that of the single man standing within their grasp, and exposed to be torn limb from limb instantly if a word or look should add to the already intense excitement. 11. That excitement, too, was of a most dangerous kind. It broke not forth in noise and imprecations, but was seen only in the dark looks and the strained nerves that showed a deep determination. The officer expostulated. He reminded them of the hopelessness of escape; that the town was alarmed, and that the government of the prison would submit to nothing but unconditional surrender. He said that all those who would go quietly away should be forgiven for this offense; but that if every prisoner were killed in the contest, power enough would be obtained to enforce the regulations of the prison. 12. They replied that they expected that some would be killed,--that death would be better than such imprisonment; and, with that look and tone which bespeak an indomitable purpose, they declared that not a man should leave the hall alive till the flogging was remitted. At this period of the discussion their evil passions seemed to be more inflamed, and one or two offered to destroy the officer, who still stood firmer and with a more temperate pulse than did his friends, who saw from above, but could not avert, the danger that threatened him. 13. Just at this moment, and in about fifteen minutes from the commencement of the tumult, the officer saw the feet of the marines, on whose presence alone he relied for succor, filing by the small upper lights. Without any apparent anxiety, he had repeatedly turned his attention to their approach; and now he knew that it was his only time to escape, before the conflict became, as was expected, one of the most dark and dreadful in the world. 14. He stepped slowly backward, still urging them to depart before the officers were driven to use the last resort of firearms. When within three or four feet of the door, it was opened, and closed instantly again as he sprang through, and was thus unexpectedly restored to his friends. 15. Major Wainright was requested to order his men to fire down upon the convicts through the little windows, first with powder and then with ball, till they were willing to retreat; but he took a wiser as well as a bolder course, relying upon the effect which firm determination would have upon men so critically situated. He ordered the door to be again opened, and marched in at the head of twenty or thirty men, who filed through the passage, and formed at the end of the hall opposite to the crowd of criminals huddled together at the other. 16. He stated that he was empowered to quell the rebellion, that he wished to avoid shedding blood, but that he would not quit that hall alive till every convict had returned to his duty. They seemed balancing the strength of the two parties, and replied that some of them were ready to die, and only waited for an attack to see which was the more powerful; swearing that they would fight to the last, unless the punishment was remitted, for they would not submit to any such punishment in the prison. Major Wainright ordered his marines to load their pieces, and, that they might not be suspected of trifling, each man was made to hold up to view the bullet which he afterward put in his gun. 17. This only caused a growl of determination, and no one blenched or seemed disposed to shrink from the foremost exposure. They knew that their number would enable them to bear down and destroy the handful of marines after the first discharge, and before their pieces could be reloaded. Again they were ordered to retire; but they answered with more ferocity than ever. The marines were ordered to take their aim so as to be sure and kill as many as possible. Their guns were presented, but not a prisoner stirred, except to grasp more firmly his weapon. 18. Still desirous to avoid such a tremendous slaughter as must have followed the discharge of a single gun, Major Wainright advanced a step or two, and spoke even more firmly than before, urging them to depart. Again, and while looking directly into the muzzles of the guns which they had seen loaded with ball, they declared their intention "to fight it out." This intrepid officer then took out his watch, and told his men to hold their pieces aimed at the convicts, but not to fire till they had orders; then, turning to the prisoners, he said: "You must leave this hall; I give you three minutes to decide; if at the end of that time a man remains, he shall be shot dead." 19. No situation of greater interest than this can be conceived. At one end of the hall, a fearful multitude of the most desperate and powerful men in existence, waiting for the assault; at the other, a little band of disciplined men, waiting with arms presented, and ready, upon the least motion or sign, to begin the carnage; and their tall and imposing commander, holding up his watch to count the lapse of three minutes, given as the reprieve to the lives of hundreds. No poet or painter can conceive a spectacle of more dark and terrible sublimity; no human heart can conceive a situation of more appalling suspense. 20. For two minutes not a person nor a muscle moved; not a sound was heard in the unwonted stillness of the prison, except the labored breathings of the infuriated wretches, as they began to pant between fear and revenge: at the expiration of two minutes, during which they had faced the ministers of death with unblenching eyes, two or three of those in the rear, and nearest the further entrance, went slowly out; a few more followed the example, dropping out quietly and deliberately: and before half of the last minute was gone, every man was struck by the panic, and crowded for an exit, and the hall was cleared, as if by magic. 21. Thus the steady firmness of moral force and the strong effect of determination, acting deliberately, awed the most savage men, and suppressed a scene of carnage, which would have instantly followed the least precipitancy or exertion of physical force. --J. T. Buckingham. "It may be that more lofty courage dwells In one weak heart which braves all adverse fate Than does in his whose soul indignant swells, Warmed by the fight, or cheered through high debate." DEFINITIONS.--2. Warden, a keeper, one who guards, 4. En-croach'ment, unlawful intrusion on the rights of others. Brig'ands, robbers, those who live by plunder. 5. Mot'ley, composed of various colors. De-mo'ni-ac, devil-like. 6. Sub-or'di-nate, inferior in power. 7. Ma-rines, soldiers that serve on board of ships. De-mean'or, be-havior, deportment. 8. Par'ley, conversation or conference with an enemy. 9. Re-mis'sion (pro. re-mish'un), pardon of transgression. 11. Im-pre-ca'tions, curses, prayers for evil. Ex-pos'tu-lat-ed, rea-soned earnestly. 12. In-dom'i-ta-ble, that can not be subdued or tamed. 17. Blenched. gave way, shrunk. 18. In-trep'id, fearless. 19, Re-prieve', a delay of punishment. 21. Pre-cip'i-tan-cy, headlong hurry. XLII. FAITHLESS NELLY GRAY. Thomas Hood (b. 1798, d. 1845) was the son of a London bookseller. After leaving school he undertook to learn the art of an engraver, but soon turned his attention to literature. In 1821 he became sub-editor of the "London Magazine." Hood is best known as a humorist; but some of his poems are full of the tenderest pathos; and a gentle, humane spirit pervades even his lighter productions. He was poor, and during the last years of his life suffered much from ill health. Some of his most humorous pieces were written on a sick bed. 1. Ben Battle was a soldier bold, And used to war's alarms; But a cannon ball took off his legs, So he laid down his arms! 2. Now, as they bore him off the field, Said he, "Let others shoot, For here I leave my second leg, And the Forty-second Foot!" 3. The army surgeons made him limbs; Said he, "They're only pegs: But there's as wooden members quite, As represent my legs!" 4. Now Ben, he loved a pretty maid, Her Name was Nelly Gray; So he went to pay her his devoirs, When he'd devoured his pay. 5. But when he called on Nelly Gray, She made him quite a scoff; And when she saw his wooden legs, Began to take them off! 6. "O Nelly Gray! O Nelly Gray! Is this your love so warm'? The love that loves a scarlet coat Should be more uniform!" 7. Said she, "I loved a soldier once, For he was blithe and brave; But I will never have a man With both legs in the grave! 8. "Before you had these timber toes, Your love I did allow, But then, you know, you stand upon Another footing now!" 9. "O false and fickle Nelly Gray! I know why you refuse: Though I've no feet--some other man Is standing in my shoes! 10. "I wish I ne'er had seen your face; But, now, a long farewell! For you will be my death;--alas! You will not be my NELL!" 11. Now when he went from Nelly Gray, His heart so heavy got, And life was such a burden grown, It made him take a knot! 12. So round his melancholy neck, A rope he did entwine, And for the second time in life. Enlisted in the Line! 13. One end he tied around a beam, And then removed his pegs, And, as his legs were off, of course He soon was off his legs. 14. And there he hung till he was dead As any nail in town: For, though distress had cut him up, It could not cut him down! DEFINITIONS.--4. De-voirs' (French, pro, de-vwor'), respects: compliments. 5. Scoff, an object of ridicule. 6, U'ni-form (adj.), consistent, (noun) military dress. 7. Blithe, merry, gay. NOTES.--2. Forty-second Foot. Infantry in the army is spoken of as "the foot," and the "Forty-second Foot" means the Forty-second Regiment of Infantry. 3. Members. Persons elected to Parliament in Great Britain are called "Members," and are said to represent those who elect them. 12. The Line is another name for the regular infantry. XLIII. THE GENEROUS RUSSIAN PEASANT. 1. Let Vergil sing the praises of Augustus, genius celebrate merit, and flattery extol the talents of the great. "The short and simple annals of the poor" engross my pen; and while I record the history of Flor Silin's virtues, though I speak of a poor peasant, I shall describe a noble man. I ask no eloquence to assist me in the task; modest worth rejects the aid of ornament to set it off. 2. It is impossible, even at this distant period, to reflect without horror on the miseries of that year known in Lower Volga by the name of the "Famine Year." I remember the summer, whose scorching heats had dried up all the fields, and the drought had no relief but from the tears of the ruined farmer. 3. I remember the cold, comfortless autumn, and the despairing rustics, crowding round their empty barns, with folded arms and sorrowful countenances, pondering on their misery, instead of rejoicing, as usual, at the golden harvest. I remember the winter which succeeded, and I reflect with agony on the miseries it brought with it. Whole families left their homes to become beggars on the highway. 4. At night the canopy of heaven served them as their only shelter from the piercing winds and bitter frost. To describe these scenes would be to harm the feelings of my readers; therefore, to my tale. In those days I lived on an estate not far from Simbirsk; and, though but a child, I have not forgotten the impression made on my mind by the general calamity. 5. In a village adjoining lived Flor Silin, a poor, laboring peasant,--a man remarkable for his assiduity and the skill and judgment with which he cultivated his lands. He was blessed with abundant crops; and his means being larger than his wants, his granaries, even at this time, were full of corn. The dry year coming on had beggared all the village except himself. Here was an opportunity to grow rich. Mark how Flor Silin acted. Having called the poorest of his neighbors about him, he addressed them in the following manner: 6. "My friends, you want corn for your subsistence. God has blessed me with abundance. Assist in thrashing out a quantity, and each of you take what he wants for his family." The peasants were amazed at this unexampled generosity; for sordid propensities exist in the village as well as in the populous city. 7. The fame of Flor Silin's benevolence having reached other villages, the famished inhabitants presented themselves before him, and begged for corn. This good creature received them as brothers; and, while his store remained, afforded all relief. At length, his wife, seeing no end to the generosity of his noble spirit, reminded him how necessary it would be to think of their own wants, and hold his lavish hand before it was too late. "It is written in the Scripture," said he, "Give, and it shall be given unto you.'" 8. The following year Providence listened to the prayers of the poor, and the harvest was abundant. The peasants who had been saved from starving by Flor Silin now gathered around him. 9. "Behold," said they, "the corn you lent us. You saved our wives and children. We should have been famished but for you; may God reward you; he only can; all we have to give is our corn and grateful thanks." "I want no corn at present, my good neighbors," said he; "my harvest has exceeded all my expectations; for the rest, thank heaven: I have been but an humble instrument." 10. They urged him in vain. "No," said he, "I shall not accept your corn. If you have superfluities, share them among your poor neighbors, who, being unable to sow their fields last autumn, are still in want; let us assist them, my dear friends; the Almighty will bless us for it." "Yes," replied the grateful peasants, "our poor neighbors shall have this corn. They shall know it is to you that they owe this timely succor, and join to teach their children the debt of gratitude due to your benevolent heart." Silin raised his tearful eyes to heaven. An angel might have envied him his feelings. --Nikolai Karamzin. DEFINITIONS.--1. Ex-tol', to elevate by praise. An'nals, history of events. En-gross', to occupy wholly. El'o-quence, the power of speaking well. 2. Drought (pro. drout), want of rain or water. 4. Es-tate', property in land. 5. Gran'a-ry, a storehouse far grain. 6. Sub-sist'ence, means of support. Pro-pen'si-ties, bent of mind, inclination. 10. Su-per-flu'i-ties, greater quantities than are wanted. Suc'cor, aid, help. NOTES.--l. Vergil was the greatest of Roman poets. He was born in the year 70 B.C., and died 19 B.C. Augustus Caesar was emperor of Rome in the latter portion of Vergil's life, and received many compliments in the verses of his friend the poet. 2. Lower Volga is a district in eastern Russia, bordering on the Caspian Sea, and takes its name from the river Volga. 4. Simbirsk is a town of eastern Russia, on the Volga. XLIV. FORTY YEARS AGO. 1. I've wandered to the village, Tom, I've sat beneath the tree, Upon the schoolhouse playground, That sheltered you and me; But none were left to greet me, Tom, And few were left to know, Who played with me upon the green, Just forty years ago. 2. The grass was just as green, Tom, Barefooted boys at play Were sporting, just as we did then, With spirits just as gay. But the master sleeps upon the hill, Which, coated o'er with snow, Afforded us a sliding place, Some forty years ago. 3. The old schoolhouse is altered some; The benches are replaced By new ones very like the same Our jackknives had defaced. But the same old bricks are in the wall, The bell swings to and fro; Its music's just the same, dear Tom, 'T was forty years ago. 4. The spring that bubbled 'neath the hill, Close by the spreading beech, Is very low; 't was once so high That we could almost reach; And kneeling down to take a drink, Dear Tom, I started so, To think how very much I've changed Since forty years ago. 5. Near by that spring, upon an elm, You know, I cut your name, Your sweetheart's just beneath it, Tom; And you did mine the same. Some heartless wretch has peeled the bark; 'T was dying sure, but slow, Just as that one whose name you cut Died forty years ago. 6. My lids have long been dry, Tom, But tears came in my eyes: I thought of her I loved so well, Those early broken ties. I visited the old churchyard, And took some flowers to strew Upon the graves of those we loved Just forty years ago. 7. Some are in the churchyard laid, Some sleep beneath the sea; And none are left of our old class Excepting you and me. And when our time shall come, Tom, And we are called to go, I hope we'll meet with those we loved Some forty years ago. XLV. MRS. CAUDLE'S LECTURE. Douglas Jerrold (b. 1803, d. 1857) was born in London. A midshipman's appointment was obtained for him, but he quit the naval service in a few years. He was then apprenticed to a printer. By improving his leisure hours he made himself master of several languages, and formed the habit of expressing his thoughts in writing An essay on the opera of Der Freischutz was his first published literary production. Before he was twenty-one years of age, he wrote "Black-eyed Susan," one of the most popular dramas of modern times. Several other popular plays followed this. He was a regular contributor to the London "Punch," from the second number, and edited, at different times, several papers and magazines. As a humorist, he occupies the first rank. The most noted of his works are his plays, and "Mrs Caudle's Curtain Lectures," "Saint Giles and Saint James," "Bubbles of a Day," and "Chronicles of Clovernook." 1. Well, Mr. Caudle, I hope you're in a little better temper than you were this morning. There, you need n't begin to whistle: people don't come to bed to whistle. But it's like you; I can't speak that you don't try to insult me. Once, I used to say you were the best creature living: now, you get quite a fiend. Do let you rest? No, I won't let you rest. It's the only time I have to talk to you, and you shall hear me. I'm put upon all day long: it's very hard if I can't speak a word at night; besides, it is n't often I open my mouth, goodness knows! 2. Because once in your lifetime your shirt wanted a button, you must almost swear the roof off the house. You did n't swear? Ha, Mr. Caudle! you don't know what you do when you're in a passion. You were not in a passion, wer'n't you? Well, then, I don't know what a passion is; and I think I ought by this time. I've lived long enough with you, Mr. Caudle, to know that. 3. It's a pity you hav'n't something worse to complain of than a button off your shirt. If you'd some wives, you would, I know. I'm sure I'm never without a needle and thread in my hand; what with you and the children, I'm made a perfect slave of. And what's my thanks? Why, if once in your life a button's off your shirt--what do you cry "oh" at? I say once, Mr. Caudle; or twice, or three times, at most. I'm sure, Caudle, no man's buttons in the world are better looked after than yours. I only wish I'd kept the shirts you had when you were first married! I should like to know where were your buttons then? 4. Yes, it is worth talking of! But that's how you always try to put me down. You fly into a rage, and then if I only try to speak, you won't hear me. That's how you men always will have all the talk to yourselves: a poor woman is n't allowed to get a word in. A nice notion you have of a wife, to suppose she's nothing to think of but her husband's buttons. A pretty notion, indeed, you have of marriage. Ha! if poor women only knew what they had to go through!--what with buttons, and one thing and another,--they'd never tie themselves up,--no, not to the best man in the world, I'm sure. What would they do, Mr. Caudle?--Why, do much better without you, I'm certain. 5. And it's my belief, after all, that the button was n't off the shirt; it's my belief that you pulled it off that you might have something to talk about. Oh, you're aggravating enough, when you like, for anything! All I know is, it's very odd that the button should be off the shirt; for I'm sure no woman's a greater slave to her husband's buttons than I am. I only say it's very odd. 6. However, there's one comfort; it can't last long. I'm worn to death with your temper, and sha'n't trouble you a great while. Ha! you may laugh! And I dare say you would laugh! I've no doubt of it! That's your love; that's your feeling! I know that I'm sinking every day, though I say nothing about it. And when I'm gone we shall see how your second wife will look after your buttons! You'll find out the difference then. Yes, Caudle, you'll think of me then; for then, I hope, you'll never have a blessed button to your back. 7. No, I'm not a vindictive woman, Mr. Caudle: nobody ever called me that but you. What do you say? Nobody ever knew so much of me? That's nothing at all to do with it. Ha! I would n't have your aggravating temper, Caudle, for mines of gold. It's a good thing I'm not as worrying as you are, or a nice house there'd be between us. I only wish you'd had a wife that would have talked to you! Then you'd have known the difference. But you impose upon me because, like a poor fool, I say nothing. I should be ashamed of myself, Caudle. 8. And a pretty example you set as a father! You'll make your boys as bad as yourself. Talking as you did all breakfast time about your buttons! and of a Sunday morning, too! And you call yourself a Christian! I should like to know what your boys will say of you when they grow up! And all about a paltry button off one of your wristbands! A decent man would n't have mentioned it. Why don't I hold my tongue? Because I won't hold my tongue. I'm to have my peace of mind destroyed--I 'm to be worried into my grave for a miserable shirt button, and I'm to hold my tongue! Oh! but that's just like you men! 9. But I know what I'll do for the future. Every button you have may drop off, and I won't so much as put a thread to 'em. And I should like to know what you'll do then! Oh, you must get somebody else to sew 'em, must you? That's a pretty threat for a husband to hold out to his wife! And to such a wife as I've been, too: such a slave to your buttons, as I may say. Somebody else to sew 'em'! No, Caudle, no; not while I'm alive! When I'm dead--and, with what I have to bear, there's no knowing how soon that may be--when I 'm dead, I say--oh! what a brute you must be to snore so! 10. You're not snoring? Ha! that's what you always say; but that's nothing to do with it. You must get somebody else to sew 'em, must you? Ha! I should n't wonder. Oh, no! I should be surprised at nothing now! Nothing at all! It's what people have always told me it would come to; and now the buttons have opened my eyes! But the whole world shall know of your cruelty, Mr. Caudle. After the wife I've been to you. Caudle, you've a heart like a hearthstone, you have! DEFINITIONS.--5. Ag'gra-vat-ing, provoking, irritating. 6. Sink'ing, failing in strength. 7. Vin-dic'tive, revengeful. 8. Pal'try, mean, contemptible. XLVI. THE VILLAGE BLACKSMITH. 1. Under a spreading chestnut tree The village smithy stands; The smith, a mighty man is he, With large and sinewy hands; And the muscles of his brawny arms Are strong as iron bands. 2. His hair is crisp, and black, and long, His face is like the tan; His brow is wet with honest sweat, He earns whate'er he can, And looks the whole world in the face, For he owes not any man. 3. Week in, week out, from morn till night, You can hear his bellows blow; You can hear him swing his heavy sledge, With measured beat and slow, Like a sexton ringing the village bell, When the evening sun is low. 4. And children coming home from school Look in at the open door; They love to see the flaming forge, And hear the bellows roar, And catch the burning sparks that fly Like chaff from a threshing floor. 5. He goes on Sunday to the church, And sits among his boys; He hears the parson pray and preach, He hears his daughter's voice Singing in the village choir, And it makes his heart rejoice. 6. It sounds to him like her mother's voice Singing in Paradise! He needs must think of her once more, How in the grave she lies; And with his hard, rough hand he wipes A tear out of his eyes. 7. Toiling, rejoicing, sorrowing, Onward through life he goes; Each morning sees some task begin, Each evening sees its close; Something attempted, something done, Has earned a night's repose. 8. Thanks, thanks to thee, my worthy friend, For the lesson thou hast taught! Thus at the flaming forge of life Our fortunes must be wrought; Thus on its sounding anvil shaped Each burning deed and thought! --Longfellow. XLVII. THE RELIEF OF LUCKNOW. [From a letter to the "London Times," by a lady, the wife of an officer at Lucknow.] 1. On every side death stared us in the face; no human skill could avert it any longer. We saw the moment approach when we must bid farewell to earth, yet without feeling that unutterable horror which must have been experienced by the unhappy victims at Cawnpore. We were resolved rather to die than to yield, and were fully persuaded that in twenty-four hours all would be over. The engineer had said so, and all knew the worst. We women strove to encourage each other, and to perform the light duties which had been assigned to us, such as conveying orders to the batteries, and supplying the men with provisions, especially cups of coffee, which we prepared day and night. 2. I had gone out to try to make myself useful, in company with Jessie Brown, the wife of a corporal in my husband's regiment. Poor Jessie had been in a state of restless excitement all through the siege, and had fallen away visibly within the last few days. A constant fever consumed her, and her mind wandered occasionally, especially that day, when the recollections of home seemed powerfully present to her. At last, overcome with fatigue, she lay down on the ground, wrapped up in her plaid. I sat beside her, promising to awaken her when, as she said, her "father should return from the plowing." 3. She fell at length into a profound slumber, motionless and apparently breathless, her head resting in my lap. I myself could no longer resist the inclination to sleep, in spite of the continual roar of the cannon. Suddenly I was aroused by a wild, unearthly scream close to my ear; my companion stood upright beside me, her arms raised, and her head bent forward in the attitude of listening. 4. A look of intense delight broke over her countenance; she grasped my hand, drew me toward her, and exclaimed: "Dinna ye hear it? dinna ye hear it? Ay. I'm no dreaming: it's the slogan o' the Highlanders! We're saved! we're saved!" Then flinging herself on her knees, she thanked God with passionate fervor. I felt utterly bewildered; my English ears heard only the roar of artillery, and I thought my poor Jessie was still raving; but she darted to the batteries, and I heard her cry incessantly to the men, "Courage! courage! Hark to the slogan--to the Macgregor, the grandest of them a'! Here's help at last!" 5. To describe the effect of these words upon the soldiers would be impossible. For a moment they ceased firing, and every soul listened with intense anxiety. Gradually, however, there arose a murmur of bitter disappointment, and the wailing of the women, who had flocked to the spot, burst out anew as the colonel shook his head. Our dull Lowland ears heard only the battle of the musketry. A few moments more of this deathlike suspense, of this agonizing hope, and Jessie, who had again sunk on the ground, sprang to her feet, and cried in a voice so clear and piercing that it was heard along the whole line, "Will ye no believe it noo? The slogan has ceased, indeed, but the Campbells are comin'! D' ye hear? d' ye hear?" 6. At that moment all seemed indeed to hear the voice of God in the distance, when the pibroch of the Highlanders brought us tidings of deliverance; for now there was no longer any doubt of the fact. That shrill, penetrating, ceaseless sound, which rose above all other sounds, could come neither from the advance of the enemy nor from the work of the sappers. No, it was indeed the blast of the Scottish bagpipes, now shrill and harsh, as threatening vengeance on the foe, then in softer tones, seeming to promise succor to their friends in need. 7. Never, surely, was there such a scene as that which followed. Not a heart in the residency of Lucknow but bowed itself before God. All, by one simultaneous impulse, fell upon their knees, and nothing was heard but bursting sobs and the murmured voice of prayer. Then all arose, and there rang out from a thousand lips a great shout of joy, which resounded far and wide, and lent new vigor to that blessed pibroch. 8. To our cheer of "God save the Queen," they replied by the well-known strain that moves every Scot to tears, "Should auld acquaintance be forgot." After that, nothing else made any impression on me. I scarcely remember what followed. Jessie was presented to the general on his entrance into the fort, and at the officers' banquet her health was drunk by all present, while the pipers marched around the table playing once more the familiar air of "Auld Lang Syne." DEFINITIONS.--1. A-vert', to turn aside. En-gi-neer', an officer in the army, who designs and constructs defensive and offensive works. 2. Siege, the setting of an army around a fortified place to compel its surrender. 3. Pro-found', deep. 4. Slo'gan, the war cry or gather-ing word of a Highland clan in Scotland. Fer'vor, intensity of feel-ing. 6. Pi'broch, a wild, irregular species of music belonging to the Highlands of Scotland; it is performed on a bagpipe. Sap'pers, men employed in making an approach to a fortified place by digging. 7. Res'i-den-cy, the official dwelling of a government officer in India. Si-mul-ta'ne-ous, happening at the same time. NOTES.--Lucknow, a city in the British possession of India. In 1857 there was a mutiny of the native troops, and the British garrison of 1700 men was besieged by 10,000 mutineers. After twelve weeks' siege, fresh British troops forced an entrance, and the town was held until relieved three weeks later by the arrival of Sir Colin Campbell, as above described. 1. Cawnpore, also a city of India, near Lucknow, which was besieged during the mutiny. After surrendering, the English, two thirds of whom were women and children, were treacherously massacred. 4. The inhabitants of the northern part of Scotland are called Highlanders; those of the southern part, Lowlanders. The dialect of the former is very peculiar, as shown in the language of Jessie Brown; as, dinna for did not, a' for all, no for not, noo for now, auld for old. Macgregor and Campbell are names of Highland clans or families. Whittier's poem, "The Pipes at Lucknow," and Robert T. S. Lowell's "The Relief of Lucknow," are descriptive of this same incident. XLVIII. THE SNOWSTORM. James Thomson (b. 1700, d.1748) was born at Ednam, in the shire of Roxburgh, Scotland. He was educated at the University of Edinburgh, and afterwards studied for the ministry, but in a short time changed his plans and devoted himself to literature. His early poems are quite insignificant, but "The Seasons," from which the following selection is taken; and the "Castle of Indolence," are masterpieces of English poetry. 1. Through the hushed air the whitening shower descends, At first thin wavering; till at last the flakes Fall broad and wide and fast, dimming the day, With a continual flow. The cherished fields Put on their winter robe of purest white. 'T is brightness all: save where the new snow melts Along the mazy current. 2. Low the woods Bow their hoar head; and ere the languid sun Faint from the west emits its evening ray, Earth's universal face, deep-hid and chill, Is one wild dazzling waste, that buries wide The works of man. 3. Drooping, the laborer ox Stands covered o'er with snow, and then demands The fruit of all his toil. The fowls of heaven, Tamed by the cruel season, crowd around The winnowing store, and claim the little boon Which Providence assigns them. 4. One alone, The Redbreast, sacred to the household gods, Wisely regardful of the embroiling sky, In joyless fields and thorny thickets leaves His shivering mates, and pays to trusted man His annual visit. 5. Half-afraid, he first Against the window beats; then, brisk, alights On the warm hearth; then, hopping o'er the floor, Eyes all the smiling family askance, And pecks, and starts, and wonders where he is; Till, more familiar grown, the table crumbs Attract his slender feet. 6. The foodless wilds Pour forth their brown inhabitants. The hare, Though timorous of heart, and hard beset By death in various forms, dark snares and dogs, And more unpitying men, the garden seeks, Urged on by fearless want. The bleating kind. Eye the bleak heaven, and next the glistening earth, With looks of dumb despair; then, sad dispersed, Dig for the withered herb through heaps of snow 7. Now, shepherds, to your helpless charge be kind, Baffle the raging year, and fill their pens With food at will; lodge them below the storm, And watch them strict; for from the bellowing east, In this dire season, oft the whirlwind's wing Sweeps up the burden of whole wintry plains In one wide waft, and o'er the hapless flocks, Hid in the hollow of two neighboring hills, The billowy tempest 'whelms; till, upward urged, The valley to a shining mountain swells, Tipped with a wreath high-curling in the sky DEFINITIONS.--1. Ma'zy, winding. 2. Hoar, white or grayish white. E-mits', sends forth, throws out, 3. Win'now-ing, separat-ing chaff from grain by means of wind. Boon, a gift. 4. Em--broil'ing, throwing into disorder or contention. 5, A-skance', side-ways. 6. Wilds, woods, forests. Be-set', hemmed in on all sides so that escape is difficult. 7. Dire, dreadful, terrible. Waft, a current of wind. Whelms', covers completely. NOTE.--4. Household gods. An allusion to the belief of the ancient Romans in the Penates--certain gods who were supposed to protect the household and all connected with it. The idea here expressed is, that the Redbreast was secure from harm. XLIX. BEHIND TIME. 1. A railroad train was rushing along at almost lightning speed. A curve was just ahead, beyond which was a station where two trains usually met. The conductor was late,--so late that the period during which the up train was to wait had nearly elapsed; but he hoped yet to pass the curve safely. Suddenly a locomotive dashed into sight right ahead. In an instant there was a collision. A shriek, a shock, and fifty souls were in eternity; and all because an engineer had been behind time. 2. A great battle was going on. Column after column had been precipitated for eight hours on the enemy posted along the ridge of a hill. The summer sun was sinking in the west; reenforcements for the obstinate defenders were already in sight; it was necessary to carry the position with one final charge, or everything would be lost. 3. A powerful corps had been summoned from across the country, and if it came up in season all would yet be well. The great conqueror, confident in its arrival, formed his reserve into an attacking column, and ordered them to charge the enemy. The whole world knows the result. Grouchy failed to appear; the imperial guard was beaten back; and Waterloo was lost. Napoleon died a prisoner at St. Helena because one of his marshals was behind time. 4. A leading firm in commercial circles had long struggled against bankruptcy. As it had large sums of money in California, it expected remittances by a certain day, and if they arrived, its credit, its honor, and its future prosperity would be preserved. But week after week elapsed without bringing the gold. At last came the fatal day on which the firm had bills maturing to large amounts. The steamer was telegraphed at daybreak; but it was found, on inquiry, that she brought no funds, and the house failed. The next arrival brought nearly half a million to the insolvents, but it was too late; they were ruined because their agent, in remitting, had been behind time. 5. A condemned man was led, out for execution. He had taken human life, but under circumstances of the greatest provocation, and public sympathy was active in his behalf. Thousands had signed petitions for a reprieve; a favorable answer had been expected the night before, and though it had not come, even the sheriff felt confident that it would yet arrive. Thus the morning passed without the appearance of the messenger. 6. The last moment was up. The prisoner took his place, the cap was drawn over his eyes, the bolt was drawn, and a lifeless body swung revolving in the wind. Just at that moment a horseman came into sight, galloping down hill, his steed covered with foam. He carried a packet in his right hand, which he waved frantically to the crowd. He was the express rider with the reprieve; but he came too late. A comparatively innocent man had died an ignominious death because a watch had been five minutes too late, making its bearer arrive behind time. 7. It is continually so in life. The best laid plans, the most important affairs, the fortunes of individuals, the weal of nations, honor, happiness, life itself, are daily sacrificed, because somebody is "behind time." There are men who always fail in whatever they undertake, simply because they are "behind time." There are others who put off reformation year after year, till death seizes them, and they perish unrepentant, because forever "behind time." DEFINITIONS.--1. Col-li'sion, the act of striking together violently. 2. Pre-cip'i-tat-ed, urged on violently. Re-en-force'ments, additional troops. 3. Corps (pro. kor), a body of troops. Re-serve', a select body of troops held back in case of special need for their services. 4. Bank'rupt-cy. inability to pay all debts, insolvency. Re-mit'tanc-es, mouey, drafts, etc., sent from a distance. Ma-tur'ing, approaching the time fixed for payment. 5. Prov-o-ca'tion, that which causes anger. 6. Ig-no-min'i-ous, infamous. 7. Weal, prosperity, happiness. NOTES.--3. Emmanuel Grouchy was one of Napoleon's marshals at the battle of Waterloo, fought in 1815 between the French under Napoleon, and the English, Dutch, and German troops under Wellington. Napoleon Bonaparte (b. 1769, d. 1821) was born on the island of Corsica. At school he was "studious, well-behaved, and distinguished in mathematical studies." In 1785 he was commissioned as a sublieutenant in the army. From this obscure position he raised himself to the head of the army, and in 1804 was elected emperor of the French. He is almost universally acknowledged to have been the greatest general the world has known. L. THE OLD SAMPLER. 1. Out of the way, in a corner Of our dear old attic room, Where bunches of herbs from the hillside Shake ever a faint perfume, An oaken chest is standing, With hasp and padlock and key, Strong as the hands that made it On the other side of the sea. 2. When the winter days are dreary, And we're out of heart with life, Of its crowding cares aweary, And sick of its restless strife, We take a lesson in patience From the attic corner dim, Where the chest still holds its treasures, A warder faithful and grim. 3. Robes of an antique fashion, Linen and lace and silk, That time has tinted with saffron, Though once they were white as milk; Wonderful baby garments, 'Boidered with loving care By fingers that felt the pleasure, As they wrought the ruffles fair; 4. A sword, with the red rust on it, That flashed in the battle tide, When from Lexington to Yorktown Sorely men's souls were tried; A plumed chapeau and a buckle, And many a relic fine, And, an by itself, the sampler, Framed in with berry and vine. 5. Faded the square of canvas, And dim is the silken thread, But I think of white hands dimpled, And a childish, sunny head; For here in cross and in tent stitch, In a wreath of berry and vine, She worked it a hundred years ago, "Elizabeth, Aged Nine." 6. In and out in the sunshine, The little needle flashed, And in and out on the rainy day, When the merry drops down plashed, As close she sat by her mother, The little Puritan maid, And did her piece in the sampler, While the other children played. 7. You are safe in the beautiful heaven, "Elizabeth, aged nine;" But before you went you had troubles Sharper than any of mine. Oh, the gold hair turned with sorrow White as the drifted snow. And your tears dropped here where I'm standing, On this very plumed chapeau. 8. When you put it away, its wearer Would need it nevermore, By a sword thrust learning the secrets God keeps on yonder shore; And you wore your grief like glory, You would not yield supine, Who wrought in your patient childhood, "Elizabeth, Aged Nine." 9. Out of the way, in a corner, With hasp and padlock and key, Stands the oaken chest of my fathers That came from over the sea; And the hillside herbs above it Shake odors fragrant and fine, And here on its lid is a garland To "Elizabeth, aged nine." 10. For love is of the immortal, And patience is sublime, And trouble a thing of every day, And touching every time; And childhood sweet and sunny, And womanly truth and grace, Ever call light life's darkness And bless earth's lowliest place. --Mrs. M. E. Sangster. DEFINITIONS.--2. Ward'er, a keeper, a guard. 3. An-tique', old, ancient. Saf'fron, a deep yellow. 4. Cha-peau', a hat. 8. Su-pine', listless. 10. Im-mort'al, undying. NOTES.--6. Puritan. The Puritans were a religious sect who fled from persecution in England, and afterwards settled the most of New England. A sampler is a needlework pattern; a species of fancywork formerly much in vogue. LI. THE GOODNESS OF GOD. 1. Bless the Lord, O my soul! O Lord, my God, thou art very great; thou art clothed with honor and majesty: who coverest thyself with light as with a garment; who stretchest out the heavens like a curtain; who layeth the beams of his chambers in the waters; who maketh the clouds his chariot; who walketh upon the wings of the wind; who maketh his angels spirits, his ministers a flaming fire; who laid the foundations of the earth, that it should not be removed forever. 2. Thou coveredst it with the deep as with a garment: the waters stood above the mountains. At thy rebuke they fled; at the voice of thy thunder they hasted away. They go up by the mountains; they go down by the valleys unto the place which thou hast founded for them. Thou hast set a bound which they may not pass over; that they turn not again to cover the earth. 3. He sendeth the springs into the valleys, which run among the hills. They give drink to every beast of the field; the wild asses quench their thirst. By them shall the fowls of the heaven have their habitation, which sing among the branches. He watereth the hills from his chambers; the earth is satisfied with the fruit of thy works. 4. He caused the grass to grow for the cattle, and herb for the service of man, that he may bring forth food out of the earth; and wine that maketh glad the heart of man, and oil to make his face to shine, and bread which strengtheneth man's heart. 5. The trees of the Lord are full of sap; the cedars of Lebanon, which he hath planted, where the birds make their nests: as for the stork, the fir trees are her house. The high hills are a refuge for the wild goats, and the rocks for the conies. 6. He appointed the moon for seasons; the sun knoweth his going down. Thou makest darkness, and it is night, wherein all the beasts of the forest do creep forth. The young lions roar after their prey, and seek their meat from God. The sun ariseth, they gather themselves together, and lay them down in their dens. Man goeth forth unto his work, and to his labor until the evening. 7. O Lord, how manifold are thy works! in wisdom hast thou made them all: the earth is full of thy riches. So is this great and wide sea, wherein are things creeping innumerable, both small and great beasts. There go the ships: there is that leviathan, whom thou hast made to play therein. These wait all upon thee, that thou mayest give them their meat in due season. 8. That thou givest them they gather; thou openest thine hand, they are filled with good. Thou hidest thy face, they are troubled; thou takest away their breath, they die, and return to their dust. Thou sendest forth thy Spirit, they are created; and thou renewest the face of the earth. 9. The glory of the Lord shall endure forever: the Lord shall rejoice in his works. He looketh on the earth, and it trembleth: he toucheth the hills, and they smoke. 10. O that men would praise the Lord for his goodness, and for his wonderful works to the children of men! And let them sacrifice the sacrifices of thanksgiving, and declare his works with rejoicing. 11. O give thanks unto the Lord; call upon his name; make known his deeds among the people. Sing unto him, sing psalms unto him: talk ye of all his wondrous' works. Glory ye in his holy name: let the heart of them rejoice that seek the Lord. Seek the Lord, and his strength; seek his face evermore. 12. Remember his marvelous works that he hath done; his wonders, and the judgments of his mouth. He is the Lord our God; his judgments are in all the earth. I will sing unto the Lord as long as I live: I will sing praise to my God while I have my being. --Extracts from the Bible. DEFINITIONS.--2. Found'ed, built, established. 3. Hab-i-ta' tion, place of abode. 5. Ref 'uge, shelter, protection. Co'ny, a kind of rabbit. 6. Ap-point'ed, ordained. NOTES.--5. Cedars of Lebanon. A species of cedar, of great magnificence, formerly abundant in Mt. Lebanon and the Taurus Range in Asia Minor, but now almost entirely destroyed. The wood is durable and fragrant, and was used in the construction of costly buildings, such as the palace of David and Solomon's Temple. 7. Leviathan. This name is applied in the Old Testament to some huge water animal. In some cases it appears to mean the crocodile, but in others the whale or a large sea serpent. LII. MY MOTHER. 1. Often into folly straying, O, my mother! how I've grieved her! Oft I've heard her for me praying, Till the gushing tears relieved her; And she gently rose and smiled, Whispering, "God will keep my child." 2. She was youthful then, and sprightly, Fondly on my father leaning, Sweet she spoke, her eyes shone brightly, And her words were full of meaning; Now, an autumn leaf decayed; I, perhaps, have made it fade. 3. But, whatever ills betide thee, Mother, in them all I share; In thy sickness watch beside thee, And beside thee kneel in prayer. Best of mothers! on my breast Lean thy head, and sink to rest. LIII. THE HOUR OF PRAYER. Felicia Dorothea Hemans (b. 1794, d. 1835) was born in Liverpool, England. Her maiden name was Browne. Her childhood was spent in Wales. Her first volume of poems was published in 1808; her second in 1812. In 1812 she was married to Captain Hemans, but he left her about six years after their marriage, and they never again lived together. She went, with her five sons, to reside with her mother, then living near St. Asaph, in North Wales. Mrs. Hemans then resumed her literary pursuits, and wrote much and well. Her poetry is smooth and graceful, and she excels in description. Many of her poems are exceedingly beautiful. 1. Child, amid the flowers at play, While the red light fades away; Mother, with thine earnest eye, Ever following silently; Father, by the breeze at eve Called thy harvest work to leave; Pray! Ere yet the dark hours be, Lift the heart, and bend the knee. 2. Traveler, in the stranger's land, Far from thine own household band; Mourner, haunted by the tone Of a voice from this world gone; Captive, in whose narrow cell Sunshine hath not leave to dwell; Sailor, on the darkening sea; Lift the heart and bend the knee. 3. Warrior, that from battle won, Breathest now at set of sun; Woman, o'er the lowly slain Weeping on his burial plain; Ye that triumph, ye that sigh, Kindred by one holy tie, Heaven's first star alike ye see; Lift the heart, and bend the knee. LIV. THE WILL. Characters.--SWIPES, a brewer; CURRIE, a saddler; FRANK MILLINGTON; and SQUIRE DRAWL. Swipes. A sober occasion, this, brother Currie. Who would have thought the old lady was so near her end? Currie. Ah! we must all die, brother Swipes; and those who live the longest outlive the most. Swipes. True, true; but, since we must die and leave our earthly possessions, it is well that the law takes such good care of us. Had the old lady her senses when she departed? Cur. Perfectly, perfectly. Squire Drawl told me she read every word of the will aloud, and never signed her name better. Swipes. Had you any hint from the Squire what disposition she made of her property? Cur. Not a whisper; the Squire is as close as an underground tomb; but one of the witnesses hinted to me that she had cut off her graceless nephew, Frank, without a shilling. Swipes. Has she, good soul, has she? You know I come in, then, in right of my wife. Cur. And I in my own right; and this is no doubt the reason why we have been called to hear the reading of the will. Squire Drawl knows how things should be done, though he is as air-tight as one of your beer barrels. But here comes the young reprobate. He must be present, as a matter of course, you know. [Enter FRANK MILLINGTON.] Your servant, young gentleman. So your benefactress has left you at last. Swipes. It is a painful thing to part with old and good friends, Mr. Millington. Frank. It is so, sir; but I could bear her loss better had I not so often been ungrateful for her kindness. She was my only friend, and I knew not her value. Cur. It is too late to repent, Master Millington. You will now have a chance to earn your own bread. Swipes. Ay, ay, or the sweat of your brow, as better people are obliged to. You would make a fine brewer's boy, if you were not too old. Cur. Ay, or a saddler's lackey, if held with a tight rein. Frank. Gentlemen, your remarks imply that my aunt has treated me as I deserved. I am above your insults, and only hope you will bear your fortune as modestly as I shall mine submissively. I shall retire. [Going: He meets SQUIRE DRAWL.] Squire. Stop, stop, young man. We must have your presence. Good morning, gentlemen; you are early on the ground. Cur. I hope the Squire is well to-day. Squire. Pretty comfortable, for an invalid. Swipes. I trust the damp air has not affected your lungs again. Squire. No, I believe not. But, since the heirs at law are all convened, I shall now proceed to open the last will and testament of your deceased relative, according to law. Swipes. [While the SQUIRE is breaking the seal,] It is a trying thing to leave all one's possessions, Squire; in this manner. Cur. It really makes me feel melancholy when I look around and see everything but the venerable owner of these goods. Well did the Preacher say, "All is vanity." Squire. Please to be seated, gentlemen. [He puts on his spectacles and begins to read slowly.] "Imprirmis; whereas, my nephew, Francis Millington, by his disobedience and ungrateful conduct, has shown himself unworthy of my bounty, and incapable of managing my large estate, I do hereby give and bequeath all my houses, farms, stocks, bonds, moneys, and property, both personal and real, to my dear cousins, Samuel Swipes, of Malt Street, brewer, and Christopher Currie, of Fly Court, saddler." [The SQUIRE here takes off his spectacles, and begins to wipe them very leisurely.] Swipes. Generous creature! kind soul! I always loved her! Cur. She was good, she was kind;--and, brother Swipes, when we divide, I think I'll take the mansion house. Swipes. Not so fast, if you please, Mr. Currie. My wife has long had her eye upon that, and must have it. Cur. There will be two words to that bargain, Mr. Swipes. And, besides, I ought to have the first choice. Did I not lend her a new chaise every time she wished to ride? And who knows what influence-- Swipes. Am I not named first in her will? and did I not furnish her with my best small beer for more than six months? And who knows-- Frank. Gentlemen, I must leave you. [Going.] Squire. [Putting on his spectacles very deliberately.] Pray, gentlemen, keep your seats, I have not done yet. Let me see; where was I? Ay, "All my property, both personal and real, to my dear cousins, Samuel Swipes, of Malt Street, brewer,"-- Swipes. Yes! Squire. "And Christopher Currie, of Fly Court, saddler," Cur. Yes! Squire. "To have and to hold, IN TRUST, for the sole and exclusive benefit of my nephew, Francis Millington, until he shall have attained the age of twenty-one years, by which time I hope he will have so far reformed his evil habits, as that he may safely be intrusted with the large fortune which I hereby bequeath to him." Swipes. What is all this? You don't mean that we are humbugged? In trust! How does that appear? Where is it? Squire. There; in two words of as good old English as I ever penned. Cur. Pretty well, too, Mr. Squire, if we must be sent for to be made a laughingstock of. She shall pay for every ride she has had out of my chaise, I promise you. Swipes. And for every drop of my beer. Fine times, if two sober, hard-working citizens are to be brought here to be made the sport of a graceless profligate. But we will manage his property for him, Mr. Currie; we will make him feel that trustees are not to be trifled with. Cur. That we will. Squire. Not so fast, gentlemen; for the instrument is dated three years ago; and the young gentleman must be already of age, and able to take care of himself. Is it not so, Francis? Frank. It is, your worship. Squire. Then, gentlemen, having attended to the breaking of the seal, according to law, you are released from any further trouble about the business. DEFINITIONS.--Dis-po-si'tion, disposal. Grace'less, depraved, corrupt. Rep'ro-bate, one morally lost. Lack'ey, an attending servant, a footman. De-ceased', dead. Con-vened', met together, assembled. Im-pri'mis (Latin), in the first place. Chaise (pro. shaz), a kind of two-wheeled carriage. Re-formed', returned to a good state. Prof'li-gate, a person openly and shamelessly vicious. In'stru-ment (a term in law), a writing expressive of some act, con-tract, etc. NOTES.--Terms having the same, or nearly the same, meaning, as, "will and testament," "give and bequeath," "to have and to hold," "sole and exclusive," are commonly joined in this way in legal documents. Personal property usually consists of things temporary and movable, while real property includes things fixed and immovable such as lands and tenements. LV. THE NOSE AND THE EYES. William Cowper (b. 1731, d. 1800) was the son of an English clergyman, and was born in Great Berkhamstead, Hertfordshire, England. He was sent to Westminster School when he was ten years of age, and he remained there, a diligent student, eight years. He then studied law, and was admitted to the bar, but he never practiced his profession. He was appointed to a clerkship in the House of Lords when he was about thirty years old, but he never entered upon the discharge of his duties. He became insane, and was sent to a private asylum. After his recovery, he found a home in the family of the Rev. Mr. Unwin. On the death of this gentleman, he resided with the widow till her death--most of the time at Olney. His first writing's were published in 1782. "The Task," some hymns, a number of minor poems, and his translations or Homer, composed his published works. His insanity returned at times, and darkened a pure and gentle life at its close. 1. Between Nose and Eyes a strange contest arose; The spectacles set them, unhappily, wrong; The point in dispute was, as all the world knows, To which the said spectacles ought to belong. 2. So Tongue was the lawyer, and argued the cause, With a great deal of skill and a wig full of learning, While chief baron Ear sat to balance the laws, So famed for his talent in nicely discerning. 3. "In behalf of the Nose, it will quickly appear, And your lordship," he said, "will undoubtedly find, That the Nose has the spectacles always to wear, Which amounts to possession, time out of mind." 4. Then, holding the spectacles up to the court, "Your lordship observes, they are made with a straddle As wide as the ridge of the Nose is; in short, Designed to sit close to it, just like a saddle. 5. "Again, would your lordship a moment suppose ('T is a case that has happened, and may happen again) That the visage or countenance had not a Nose, Pray, who would or who could wear spectacles then? 6. "On the whole it appears, and my argument shows, With a reasoning the court will never condemn, That the spectacles plainly were made for the Nose, And the Nose was as plainly intended for them." 7. Then shifting his side (as a lawyer knows how), He pleaded again in behalf of the Eyes: But what were his arguments, few people know, For the court did not think them equally wise. 8. So his lordship decreed, with a grave, solemn tone, Decisive and clear, without one if or but, That whenever the Nose put his spectacles on, By daylight or candlelight,--Eyes should be shut. DEFINITIONS.--2. Ar'gued, discussed, treated by reasoning. Dis-cern'ing (pro. diz-zern'ing), marking as different, distinguishing, 3. Be-half', support, defense. 8. De-creed', determined judicially by authority, ordered, LVI. AN ICEBERG. Louis Legrand Noble (b. 1813, d. 1882) was horn in Otsetgo County, New York. When twelve years of age, he removed with his family to the wilds of Michigan, but after the death of his father he returned to New York to study for the ministry, which he entered in 1840. About this time he published his first productions, two Indian romances in the form of poems, entitled "Pewatem" and "Nimahmin." Mr. Noble lived for a time in North Carolina, and later at Catskill on the Hudson, where he became a warm friend of the artist Cole. After the latter's death he wrote a memorial of him. Other works of this author are "The Hours, and other Poems," and "After Icebergs with a Painter," from which this selection is taken. 1. We have just passed a fragment of some one of the surrounding icebergs that had amused us. It bore the resemblance of a huge polar bear, reposing upon the base of an inverted cone, with a twist of a seashell, and whirling slowly round and round. The ever-attending green water, with its aerial clearness, enabled us to see its spiral folds and horns as they hung suspended in the deep. 2. The bear, a ten-foot mass in tolerable proportion, seemed to be regularly beset by a pack of hungry little swells. First, one would take him on the haunch, then whip back into the sea over his tail and between his legs. Presently a bolder swell would rise and pitch into his back with a ferocity that threatened instant destruction. It only washed his satin fleece the whiter. 3. While Bruin was turning to look the daring assailant in the face, the rogue had pitched himself back into his cave. No sooner that, than a very bulldog of a billow would attack him in the face. The serenity with which the impertinent assault was borne was complete. It was but a puff of silvery dust, powdering his mane with fresher brightness. Nothing would be left of bull but a little froth of all the foam displayed in the fierce onset. He too would turn and scud into his hiding place. 4. Persistent little waves! After a dash, singly, all around, upon the common enemy, as if by some silent agreement underwater, they would all rush on at once, with their loudest roar and shaggiest foam, and overwhelm poor bear so completely that nothing less might be expected than to behold him broken in four quarters, and floating helplessly asunder. Mistaken spectators! Although, by his momentary rolling and plunging, he was evidently aroused, yet neither Bruin nor his burrow was at all the worse for all the wear and washing. 5. The deep fluting, the wrinkled folds, and cavities, over and through which the green and silvery water rushed back into the sea, rivaled the most exquisite sculpture. And nature not only gives her marbles, with the finest lines, the most perfect lights and shades, she colors them also. She is no monochromist, but polychroic, imparting such touches of dove tints, emerald, and azure as she bestows upon her gems and skies. 6. We are bearing up under the big berg as closely as we dare. To our delight, what we have been wishing and watching for is actually taking place: loud explosions, with heavy falls of ice, followed by the cataract-like roar, and the high, thin seas, wheeling away beautifully crested with sparkling foam. If it is possible, imagine the effect upon the beholder: this precipice of ice, with tremendous cracking, is falling toward us with a majestic and awful motion. 7. Down sinks the long water line into the black deep; down go the porcelain crags and galleries of glassy sculpture--a speechless and awful baptism. Now it pauses, and returns: up rise sculptures and crags streaming with the shining white brine; up comes the great encircling line, followed by things new and strange--crags, niches, balconies, and caves; up, up, it rises, higher and higher still, crossing the very breast of the grand ice, and all bathed with rivulets of gleaming foam. Over goes the summit, ridge, pinnacles, and all, standing off obliquely in the opposite air. Now it pauses in its upward roll: back it comes again, cracking, cracking, cracking, "groaning out harsh thunder" as it comes, and threatening to burst, like a mighty bomb, into millions of glittering fragments. The spectacle is terrific and magnificent. Emotion is irrepressible, and peals of wild hurrah burst forth from all. DEFINITIONS.--1. Cone, a solid body having a circular base, from which it tapers gradually to a point. 2. Swells, waves. 3. Se-ren'i-ty, quietness, calmness. 5. Ex'qui-site, exceedingly nice, giving rare satisfaction. Sculp'ture, carved work. Mon'o-chro-mist, one who paints in a single color. Pol-y-chro'ic, given to the use of many colors. 7. Pin'na-cles, high, spirelike points. Ob-lique'ly, slantingly. Ir-re-press'i-ble, not to be restrained. Notes--Only about one eighth of an iceberg appears above the surface of the water. When one side of it grows heavier than another, through unequal melting and the action of the waves, the whole mass rolls over in the water in the manner so well described in this lesson. LVII. ABOUT QUAIL. William Post Hawes (b. 1803, d.1842) was born in New York City. and was a graduate of Columbia College. He was a lawyer by profession. His writings consist mainly of essays, contributed to various newspapers and magazines, and show great descriptive power. He was a frequent contributor to the "Spirit of the Times," under the title of "Cypress, Jr.," on various sporting topics. After his death a collection of his writings was published in two volumes, entitled, "Sporting Scenes" and "Sundry Sketches." 1. The quail is peculiarly a domestic bird, and is attached to his birthplace and the home of his forefathers. The various members of the aquatic families educate their children in the cool summer of the far north, and bathe their warm bosoms in July in the iced waters of Hudson Bay; but when Boreas scatters the rushes where they had builded their bedchambers, they desert their fatherland, and fly to disport in the sunny waters of the south. 2. The songsters of the woodland, when their customary crops of insects and berries are cut off in the fall, gather themselves to renew their loves and get married in more genial climes. Presently, the groves so vocal, and the sky so full, shall be silent and barren. The "melancholy days" will soon be here; only thou, dear Bob White, wilt remain. 3. The quail is the bird for me. He is no rover, no emigrant. He stays at home, and is identified with the soil. Where the farmer works, he lives, and loves, and whistles. In budding springtime, and in scorching summer--in bounteous autumn, and in barren winter, his voice is heard from the same bushy hedge fence, and from his customary cedars. Cupidity and cruelty may drive him to the woods, and to seek more quiet seats; but be merciful and kind to him, and he will visit your barnyard, and sing for you upon the boughs of the apple tree by your gateway. 4. When warm May first wooes the young flowers to open and receive her breath, then begin the cares and responsibilitie of wedded life. Away fly the happy pair to seek some grassy tussock, where, safe from the eye of the hawk and the nose of the fox, they may rear their expectant brood in peace. 5. Oats harvest arrives, and the fields are waving with yellow grain. Now be wary, O kind-hearted cradler, and tread not into those pure white eggs ready to burst with life! Soon there is a peeping sound heard, and lo! a proud mother walketh magnificently in the midst of her children, scratching and picking, and teaching them how to swallow. Happy she, if she may be permitted to bring them up to maturity, and uncompelled to renew her joys in another nest. 6. The assiduities of a mother have a beauty and a sacredness about them that command respect and reverence in all animal nature, human or inhuman--what a lie does that word carry--except, perhaps, in monsters, insects, and fish. I never yet heard of the parental tenderness of a trout, eating up his little baby, nor of the filial gratitude of a spider, nipping the life out of his gray-headed father, and usurping his web. 7. But if you would see the purest, the sincerest, the most affecting piety of a parent's love, startle a young family of quails, and watch the conduct of the mother. She will not leave you. No, not she. But she will fall at your feet, uttering a noise which none but a distressed mother can make, and she will run, and flutter, and seem to try to be caught, and cheat your outstretched hand, and affect to be wing-broken and wounded, and yet have just strength to tumble along, until she has drawn you, fatigued, a safe distance from her threatened children and the young hopes of her heart; and then will she mount, whirring with glad strength, and away through the maze of trees you have not seen before, like a close-shot bullet, fly to her skulking infants, 8. Listen now. Do you hear those three half-plaintive notes, quickly and clearly poured out? She is calling the boys and girls together. She sings not now "Bob White!" nor "Ah! Bob White!" That is her husband's love call, or his trumpet blast of defiance. But she calls sweetly and softly for her lost children. Hear them "Peep! peep! peep!" at the welcome voice of their mother's love! They are coming together. Soon the whole family will meet again. 9. It is a foul sin to disturb them; but retread your devious way, and let her hear your coming footsteps, breaking down the briers, as you renew the danger. She is quiet. Not a word is passed between the fearful fugitives. Now, if you have the heart to do it, lie low, keep still, and imitate the call of the hen quail. O mother! mother! how your heart would die if you could witness the deception! The little ones raise up their trembling heads, and catch comfort and imagined safety from the sound. "Peep! peep!" They come to you, straining their little eyes, and, clustering together and answering, seem to say, "Where is she? Mother! mother! we are here!" DEFINITIONS.--1. A-quat'ic, frequenting the water. 2. Vo'cal, having a voice. 3. I-den'ti-fied, united. Cu-pid'i-ty, eager desire to possess something. 4. Tus'sock, a tuft of grass or twigs. 5. Cra'dler, one who uses a cradle, which is an instrument attached to a scythe in cutting grain. 6. U-surp'ing, seizing and holding in possession by force. 7. Af-fect', to pretend. 9. De'vi-ous, winding. NOTE.--l. Boreas is the name which the ancient Greeks gave to the north wind. LVIII. THE BLUE AND THE GRAY. 1. By the flow of the inland river, Whence the fleets of iron have fled, Where the blades of the grave grass quiver, Asleep are the ranks of the dead;-- Under the sod and the dew, Waiting the judgment day; Under the one, the Blue; Under the other, the Gray. 2. These, in the robings of glory, Those, in the gloom of defeat, All, with the battle blood gory, In the dusk of eternity meet;-- Under the sod and the dew, Waiting the judgment day; Under the laurel, the Blue; Under the willow, the Gray. 3. From the silence of sorrowful hours, The desolate mourners go, Lovingly laden with flowers, Alike for the friend and the foe;-- Under the sod and the dew, Waiting the judgment day; Under the roses, the Blue; Under the lilies, the Gray. 4. So, with an equal splendor, The morning sun rays fall, With a touch, impartially tender, On the blossoms blooming for all;-- Under the sod and the dew, Waiting the judgment day; Broidered with gold, the Blue; Mellowed with gold, the Gray. 5. So, when the summer calleth, On forest and field of grain, With an equal murmur falleth The cooling drip of the rain;-- Under the sod and the dew, Waiting the judgment day; Wet with the rain, the Blue; Wet with the rain, the Gray. 6. Sadly, but not with upbraiding, The generous deed was done: In the storm of the years that are fading, No braver battle was won;-- Under the sod and the dew, Waiting the judgment day; Under the blossoms, the Blue; Under the garlands, the Gray. 7. No more shall the war cry sever, Or the winding rivers be red; They banish our anger forever, When they laurel the graves of our dead;-- Under the sod and the dew, Waiting the judgment day; Love and tears, for the Blue; Tears and love, for the Gray. --F. M. Finch. NOTE.--The above touching little poem first appeared in the "Atlantic Monthly" in September, 1867. It commemorates the noble action on the part of the women at Columbus, Miss., who in decorating the graves strewed flowers impartially on those of the Confederate and of the Federal soldiers. LIX. THE MACHINIST'S RETURN. [Adapted from a letter written by a correspondent of the Washington "Capital."] 1. On our way from Springfield to Boston, a stout, black-whiskered man sat immediately in front of me, in the drawing-room car, whose maneuvers were a source of constant amusement. He would get up every five minutes, hurry away to the narrow passage leading to the door of the car, and commence laughing in the most violent manner, continuing that healthful exercise until he observed that some one was watching him, when he would return to his seat. 2. As we neared Boston these demonstrations increased in frequency and violence, but the stranger kept his seat and chuckled to himself. He shifted the position of his two portmanteaus, or placed them on the seat as if he was getting ready to leave. As we were at least twenty-five miles from Boston, such early preparations seemed extremely ridiculous. He became so excited at last that he could not keep his secret. Some one must be made a confidant; and as I happened to be the nearest to him, he selected me. 3. Turning around suddenly, and rocking himself to and fro in his chair, he said, "I have been away from home three years. Have been in Europe. My folks don't expect me for three months yet, but I got through and started. I telegraphed them at the last station--they've got the dispatch by this time." As he said this he rubbed his hands, and changed the portmanteau on his left to the right, and then the one on the right to the left. 4. "Have you a wife?" said I. "Yes, and three children," was the answer. He then got up and folded his overcoat anew, and hung it over the back of the seat. "You are somewhat nervous just now, are you not?" said I. 5. "Well, I should think so," he replied. "I have n't slept soundly for a week. Do you know," he went on, speaking in a low tone, "I am almost certain this train will run off the track and break my neck before I get to Boston. I have had too much good luck lately for one man. It can't last. It rains so hard, sometimes, that you think it's never going to stop; then it shines so bright you think it's always going to shine; and just as you are settle in either belief, you are knocked over by a change, to show you that you know nothing about it." 6. "Well, according to your philosophy," I said, "you will continue to have sunshine because you are expecting a storm." "Perhaps so," he replied; "but it is curious that the only thing which makes me think I shall get through safe is, I fear that I shall not." 7. "I am a machinist," he continued; "I made a discovery; nobody believed in it; I spent all my money in trying to bring it out; I mortgaged my home--everything went. Everybody laughed at me--everybody but my wife. She said she would work her fingers off before I should give it up. I went to England. At first I met with no encouragement whatever, and came very near jumping off London Bridge. I went into a workshop to earn money enough to come home with: there I met the man I wanted. To make a long story short, I've brought home 50,000 Pounds with me, and here I am." 8. "Good!" I exclaimed. "Yes," said he, "and the best of it is, she knows nothing about it. She has been disappointed so often that I concluded I would not write to her about my unexpected good luck. When I got my money, though, I started for home at once." 9. "And now, I suppose, you will make her happy?" "Happy!" he replied; "why, you don't know anything about it! She's worked night and day since I have been in England, trying to support herself and the children decently. They paid her thirteen cents apiece for making shirts, and that's the way she has lived half the time. She'll come down to the depot to meet me in a gingham dress and a shawl a hundred years old, and she'll think she's dressed up! Perhaps she won't have any fine dresses in a week or so, eh?'" 10. The stranger then strode down the passageway again, and getting in a corner where he seemed to suppose that he was out of sight, went through the strangest pantomime,--laughing putting his mouth into the drollest shapes, and swinging himself back and forth in the limited space. 11. As the train was going into the depot, I placed myself on the platform of the car in front of the one in which I had been riding, and opposite the stranger, who, with a portmanteau in each hand, was standing on the lowest step, ready to jump to the ground. I looked from his face to the faces of the people before us, but saw no sign of recognition. Suddenly he cried, "There they are!" 12. Then he laughed outright, but in a hysterical way, as he looked over the crowd in front of him. I followed his eye and saw, some distance back, as if crowded out by the well-dressed and elbowing throng, a little woman in a faded dress and a well-worn hat, with a face almost painful in its intense but hopeful expression, glancing rapidly from window to window as the coaches passed by. 13. She had not seen the stranger, but a moment after she caught his eye. In another instant he had jumped to the platform with his two portmanteaus, and, pushing his way through the crowd, he rushed towards the place where she was standing. I think I never saw a face assume so many different expressions in so short a time as did that of the little woman while her husband was on his way to meet her. 14. She was not pretty,--on the contrary, she was very plain-looking; but somehow I felt a big lump rise in my throat as I watched her. She was trying to laugh, but, God bless her, how completely she failed in the attempt! Her mouth got into the position to laugh, but it never moved after that, save to draw down at the corners and quiver, while her eyes blinked so fast that I suspect she only caught occasional glimpses of the broad-shouldered fellow who elbowed his way so rapidly toward her. 15. As he drew close, and dropped the portmanteaus, she turned to one side, and covered her face with her hands; and thus she was when the strong man gathered her up in his arms as if she were a child, and held her sobbing to his breast. 16. There were enough staring at them, heaven knows; so I turned my eyes away a moment, and then I saw two boys in threadbare roundabouts standing near, wiping their eyes on their sleeves, and bursting into tears anew at every fresh demonstration on the part of their mother. When I looked at the stranger again he had his hat drawn over his eyes; but his wife was looking up at him, and it seemed as if the pent-up tears of those weary months of waiting were streaming through her eyelids. DEFINITIONS.--1. Ma-neu'vers, movements. 2. Dem-on-stra'-tions, expression of the feelings by outward signs. Port-man'teau (pro. port-man'to), a traveling bag, usually made of leather. Con-fi-dant', one to whom secrets are intrusted. 3. Dis-patch', a message. 6. Phi-los'o-phy, reasoning. 7. Ma-chin'ist, a constructor of ma-chines and engines. Mort'gaged (pro. mor'gajd), given as security for debt. 9. Ging'ham, a kind of cotton cloth which is dyed before it is woven. 10. Pan'to-mime, acting without speaking, dumb show. 12. Hys-ter'ic-al, convulsive, fitful. LX. MAKE WAY FOR LIBERTY. James Montgomery (b. 1771, d. 1854) was born in Irvine, Ayrshire, Scotland. His father, a Moravian preacher, sent him to a Moravian school at Fulneck, Yorkshire, England, to be educated. In 1794 he started "The Sheffield Iris," a weekly paper, which he edited, with marked ability, till 1825. He was fined and imprisoned twice for publishing articles decided to be seditious. His principal poetical works are "The World before the Flood," "Greenland," "The West Indies," "The Wanderer in Switzerland," "The Pelican Island," and "Original Hymns, for Public, Private, and Social Devotion." Mr. Montgomery's style is generally too diffuse; but its smoothness and the evident sincerity of his emotions have made many of his hymns and minor poems very popular. A pension of 300 Pounds a year was granted to him in 1833. 1. "Make way for Liberty!" he cried; Made way for Liberty, and died! 2. In arms the Austrian phalanx stood, A living wall, a human wood! A wall, where every conscious stone Seemed to its kindred thousands grown; A rampart all assaults to bear, Till time to dust their frames should wear A wood like that enchanted grove, In which, with fiends, Rinaldo strove, Where every silent tree possessed A spirit prisoned in its breast, Which the first stroke of coming strife Would startle into hideous life: So dense, so still, the Austrians stood, A living wall, a human wood! 3. Impregnable their front appears, All horrent with projected spears, Whose polished points before them shine, From flank to flank, one brilliant line, Bright as the breakers' splendors run Along the billows to the sun. 4. Opposed to these, a hovering band, Contending for their native laud; Peasants, whose new-found strength had broke From manly necks the ignoble yoke, And forged their fetters into swords, On equal terms to fight their lords; And what insurgent rage had gained, In many a mortal fray maintained: Marshaled once more at Freedom's call, They came to conquer or to fall, Where he who conquered, he who fell. Was deemed a dead or living Tell! 5. And now the work of life and death Hung on the passing of a breath; The fire of conflict burned within; The battle trembled to begin; Yet, while the Austrians held their ground, Point for attack was nowhere found; Where'er the impatient Switzers gazed, The unbroken line of lances blazed; That line 't were suicide to meet, And perish at their tyrants' feet; How could they rest within their graves, And leave their homes the home of slaves? Would they not feel their children tread With clanking chains above their head? 6. It must not be: this day, this hour, Annihilates the oppressor's power All Switzerland is in the field, She will not fly, she can not yield; Few were the numbers she could boast, But every freeman was a host, And felt as though himself were he On whose sole arm hung victory. 7. It did depend on one, indeed: Behold him! Arnold Winkelried! There sounds not to the trump of fame The echo of a nobler name. Unmarked he stood amid the throng, In rumination deep and long, Till you might see with sudden grace, The very thought come o'er his face; And by the motion of his form: Anticipate the bursting storm; And by the uplifting of his brow, Tell where the bolt would strike, and how. But 't was no sooner thought than done; The field was in a moment won. 8. "Make way for Liberty!" he cried: Then ran, with arms extended wide, As if his dearest friend to clasp; Ten spears he swept within his grasp: "Make way for Liberty!" he cried, Their keen points met from side to side; He bowed among them like a tree, And thus made way for Liberty. 9. Swift to the breach his comrades fly; "Make way for Liberty!" they cry, And through the Austrian phalanx dart, As rushed the spears through Arnold's heart; While instantaneous as his fall, Rout, ruin, panic, scattered all. An earthquake could not overthrow A city with a surer blow. 10. Thus Switzerland again was free, Thus Death made way for Liberty! DEFINITIONS.--2. Pha'lanx, a body of troops formed in close array. Con'scious, sensible, knowing. Kin'dred, those of like nature, relatives. Ram'part, that which defends from assault, a bulwark. 3. Im-preg'na-ble, that can not be moved or shaken. Hor'rent, standing out like bristles. 4. In-sur'gent, rising in opposition to authority. 13. An-ni'hi-lates, destroys. 7. Ru-mi-na'tion, the act of musing, meditation. 9. Breach, a gap or opening made by breaking. NOTES.--The incident related in this poem is one of actual occurrence, and took place at the battle of Sempach, fought in 1386 A.D., between only 1,300 Swiss and a large army of Austrians. The latter had obtained possession of a narrow pass in the mountains, from which it seemed impossible to dislodge them until Arnold von Winkelried made a breach in their line, as narrated. Rinaldo is a knight in Tasso's "Jerusalem Delivered" (Canto XVIII, 17-40), who enters an enchanted wood, and, by cutting down a tree in spite of the nymphs and phantoms that endeavor in every way to stop him, breaks the spell; the Christian army are thus enabled to enter the grove and obtain timber for their engines of war. LXI. THE ENGLISH SKYLARK. Elihu Burritt (b. 1810, d. 1879). "the learned blacksmith," was born in New Britain, Conn. His father was a shoemaker. Having received only a limited amount of instruction at the district school, he was apprenticed to a blacksmith about 1827. During his apprenticeship he labored hard at self-instruction. He worked at his trade many years, from ten to twelve hours each day, but managed, in the meantime to acquire a knowledge of many ancient and modern languages. He made translations from several of these, which were published in the "American Eclectic Review." In 1844 he commenced the publication of "The Christian Citizen." His leading literary works are "Sparks from the Anvil," "A Voice from the Forge," "Peace Papers," and "Walks to John o' Groat's House." From the last of these the following selection is abridged. 1. Take it in all, no bird in either hemisphere equals the English lark in heart or voice, for both unite to make it the sweetest, the happiest, the welcomest singer that was ever winged, like the high angels of God's love. It is the living ecstasy of joy when it mounts up into its "glorious privacy of light." 2. On the earth it is timid, silent, and bashful, as if not at home, and not sure of its right to be there at all. It is rather homely withal, having nothing in feather, feature, or form to attract notice. It is seemingly made to be heard, not seen, reversing the old axiom addressed to children when getting noisy. 3. Its mission is music, and it floods a thousand acres of the blue sky with it several times a day. Out of that palpitating speck of living joy there wells forth a sea of twittering ecstasy upon the morning and evening air. It does not ascend by gyrations, like the eagle and birds of prey. It mounts up like a human aspiration. 4. It seems to spread its wings and to be lifted straight upwards out of sight by the afflatus of its own happy heart. To pour out this in undulating rivulets of rhapsody is apparently the only motive of its ascension. This it is that has made it so loved of all generations. 5. It is the singing angel of man's nearest heaven, whose vital breath is music. Its sweet warbling is only the metrical palpitation of its life of joy. It goes up over the rooftrees of the rural hamlet on the wings of its song, as if to train the human soul to trial flights heavenward. 6. Never did the Creator put a voice of such volume into so small a living thing. It is a marvel--almost a miracle. In a still hour you can hear it at nearly a mile's distance. When its form is lost in the hazy lace work of the sun's rays above, it pours down upon you all the thrilling semitones of its song as distinctly as if it were warbling to you in your window. DEFINITIONS.--1. Ec'sta-sy, overmastering joy, rapture. 2. Ax'i-om, a self-evident truth. 3. Pal'pi-tat-ing, throbbing, fluttering. Wells, pours, flows. Gy-ra'tions, circular or spiral motions. 4. Af--fla'tus, breath, inspiration. Un'du-la-ting, rising and falling like waves. Rhap'so-dy, that which is uttered in a disconnected way under strong excitement. Gen-er-a'tion, the mass of beings at one period. 5. Met'ric-al, arranged in measures, as poetry and music. Roof 'tree, the beam in the angle of a roof, hence the roof itself. Ham'let, a little cluster of houses. LXII. HOW SLEEP THE BRAVE. William Collins (b. 1721, d. 1759) was born at Chichester, England. He was educated at Winchester and Oxford. About 1745, he went to London as a literary adventurer, and there won the esteem of Dr. Johnson. His "Odes" were published in 1746, but were not popular. He was subsequently relieved from pecuniary embarrassment by a legacy of 2,000 Pounds from a maternal uncle; but he soon became partially insane, and was for some time confined in an asylum for lunatics. He afterwards retired to Chichester, where he was cared for by his sister until his death. 1. How sleep the brave who sink to rest By all their country's wishes blessed! When Spring, with dewy fingers cold, Returns to deck their hallowed mold, She there shall dress a sweeter sod Than Fancy's feet have ever trod. 2. By fairy hands their knell is rung; By forms unseen their dirge is sung; There honor comes a pilgrim gray, To bless the turf that wraps their clay; And Freedom shall awhile repair To dwell a weeping hermit there! LXIII. THE RAINBOW. John Keble (b. 1792. d. 1866) was born near Fairfax, Gloucestershire, England. He graduated at Oxford with remarkably high honors, and afterwards was appointed to the professorship of poetry in that university. Since his death, Keble College, at Oxford, has been erected to his memory. In 1835, he became vicar of Hursley and rector of Otterbourne, and held these livings until his death. His most famous work is "The Christian Year," a collection of sacred poems. 1. A fragment of a rainbow bright Through the moist air I see, All dark and damp on yonder height, All bright and clear to me. 2. An hour ago the storm was here, The gleam was far behind; So will our joys and grief appear, When earth has ceased to blind. 3. Grief will be joy if on its edge Fall soft that holiest ray, Joy will be grief if no faint pledge Be there of heavenly day. LXIV. SUPPOSED SPEECH OF JOHN ADAMS. Daniel Webster (b. 1782, d. 1852) was born in Salisbury, N.H. He spent a few months of his boyhood at Phillips Academy, Exeter, but fitted for college under Rev. Samuel Wood, of Boscawen, N.H. He graduated from Dartmouth College in 1801. He taught school several terms, during and after his college course. In 1805, he was admitted to the bar in Boston, and practiced law in New Hampshire for the succeeding eleven years. In 1812, he was elected to the United States House of Representatives. In 1816, he removed to Boston, and in 1827 was elected to the United States Senate, which position he held for twelve years. In 1841, he was appointed Secretary of State. He returned to the Senate in 1845. In 1850, he was reappointed Secretary of State and continued in office until his death. He died at his residence, in Marshfield, Mass. Mr. Webster's fame rests chiefly on his state papers and speeches. As a speaker he was dignified and stately, using clear, pure English. During all his life he took great interest in agriculture, and was very fond of outdoor sports. 1. Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and my heart to this vote. It is true, indeed, that, in the beginning, we aimed not at independence. But "There's a divinity that shapes our ends." The injustice of England has driven us to arms; and blinded to her own interest, she has obstinately persisted, till independence is now within our grasp. We have but to reach forth to it, and it is ours. Why then should we defer the declaration? Is any man so weak as now to hope for a reconciliation with England, which shall leave either safety to the country and its liberties, or security to his own life and his own honor! Are not you, sir, who sit in that chair, is not he, our venerable colleague, near you, are you not both already the proscribed and predestined objects of punishment and of vengeance? Cut off from all hope of royal clemency, what are you, what can you be, while the power of England remains, but outlaws? 2. If we postpone independence, do we mean to carry on, or to give up, the war? Do we mean to submit, and consent that we shall be ground to powder, and our country and its rights trodden down in the dust? I know we do not mean to submit. We NEVER shall submit! Do we intend to violate that most solemn obligation ever entered into by men, that plighting, before God, of our sacred honor to Washington, when, putting him forth to incur the dangers of war, as well as the political hazards of the times, we promised to adhere to him in every extremity with our fortunes and our lives? I know there is not a man here, who would not rather see a general conflagration sweep over the land, or an earthquake sink it, than one jot or tittle of that plighted faith fall to the ground. For myself, having twelve months ago, in this place, moved you that George Washington be appointed commander of the forces raised, or to be raised, for the defense of American liberty; may my right hand forget her cunning, and my tongue cleave to the roof of my mouth, if I hesitate or waver in the support I give him. 3. The war, then, must go on. We must fight it through. And if the war must go on, why put off the Declaration of Independence? That measure will strengthen us. It will give us character abroad. Nations will then treat with us, which they never can do while we acknowledge ourselves subjects in arms against our sovereign. Nay, I maintain that England herself will sooner treat for peace with us on the footing of independence, than consent, by repealing her acts, to acknowledge that her whole conduct toward us has been a course of injustice and oppression. Her pride will be less wounded by submitting to that course of things, which now predestinates our independence, than by yielding the points in controversy to her rebellious subjects. The former, she would regard as the result of fortune; the latter, she would feel as her own deep disgrace. Why, then, do we not change this from a civil to a national war? And since we must fight it through, why not put ourselves in a state to enjoy all the benefits of victory, if we gain the victory. 4. If we fail, it can be no worse for us. But we shall not fail. The cause will raise up armies; the cause will create navies. The people--the people, if we are true to them, will carry us, and will carry themselves, gloriously through this struggle. I care not how fickle other people have been found. I know the people of these colonies; and I know that resistance to British aggression is deep and settled in their hearts, and can not be eradicated. Sir, the Declaration of Independence will inspire the people with increased courage. Instead of a long and bloody war for the restoration of privileges, for redress of grievances, for chartered immunities, held under a British king, set before them the glorious object of entire independence, and it will breathe into them anew the spirit of life. 5. Read this declaration at the head of the army; every sword will be drawn, and the solemn vow uttered to maintain it, or perish on the bed of honor. Publish it from the pulpit; religion will approve it, and the love of religious liberty will cling around it, resolved to stand with it or fall with it. Send it to the public halls; proclaim it there; let them see it who saw their brothers and their sons fall on the field of Bunker Hill and in the streets of Lexington and Concord, and the very walls will cry out in its support. 6. Sir, I know the uncertainty of human affairs, but I see--I see clearly through this day's business. You and I, indeed, may rue it. We may not live to see the time this declaration shall be made good. We may die; die colonists; die slaves; die, it may be, ignominiously and on the scaffold. Be it so: be it so. If it be the pleasure of Heaven that my country shall require the poor offering of my life, the victim shall be ready at the appointed hour of sacrifice, come when that hour may. But while I do live, let me have a country, or at least the hope of a country, and that a FREE country. 7. But whatever may be our fate, be assured--be assured that this Declaration will stand. It may cost treasure, and it may cost blood; but it will stand, and it will richly compensate for both. Through the thick gloom of the present I see the brightness of the future as the sun in heaven. We shall make this a glorious, an immortal day. When we are in our graves, our children will honor it. They will celebrate it with thanksgiving, with festivity, with bonfires, and illuminations. On its annual return they will shed tears,--copious, gushing tears; not of subjection and slavery, not of agony and distress, but of exultation, of gratitude, and of joy. 8. Sir, before God I believe the hour is come. My judgment approves the measure, and my whole heart is in it. All that I have, and all that I am, and all that I hope in this life, I am now ready here to stake upon it; and I leave off as I began, that, live or die, survive or perish, I am for the Declaration. It is my living sentiment, and, by the blessing of God, it shall by my dying sentiment; independence now, and INDEPENDENCE FOREVER. DEFINITIONS.--1. Rec-on-cil-i-a'tion, renewal of friendship. Col'league (pro. kol'leg), an associate in some civil office. Pro-scribed', doomed to destruction, put out of the protection of the law. Pre-des'tined, decreed beforehand. Clem'en-cy, mercy, indulgence. Notes.--Mr. Webster, in a speech upon the life and character of John Adams, imagines some one opposed to the Declaration of Independence to have stated his fears and objections before Congress while deliberating on that subject. He then supposes Mr. Adams to have replied in the language above. 1. The quotation is from "Hamlet," Act V, Scene 2. You, sir, who sit in that chair. This was addressed to John Hancock, president of the Continental Congress. Our venerable colleague refers to Samuel Adams. After the battles of Concord and Lexington, Governor Gage offered pardon to all the rebels who would lay down their arms, excepting Samuel Adams and John Hancock. LXV. THE RISING. Thomas Buchanan Read (b. 1822, d. 1872) was born in Chester County, Pennsylvania. In 1839 he entered a sculptor's studio in Cincinnati, where he gained reputation as a portrait painter. He afterwards went to New York, Boston, and Philadelphia, and, in 1850, to Italy. He divided his time between Cincinnati, Philadelphia, and Rome, in the latter years of his life. Some or his poems are marked by vigor and strength, while others are distinguished by smoothness and delicacy. The following selection is abridged from "The Wagoner of the Alleghanies." 1. Out of the North the wild news came, Far flashing on its wings of flame, Swift as the boreal light which flies At midnight through the startled skies. 2. And there was tumult in the air, The fife's shrill note, the drum's loud beat, And through the wide land everywhere The answering tread of hurrying feet, While the first oath of Freedom's gun Came on the blast from Lexington. And Concord, roused, no longer tame, Forgot her old baptismal name, Made bare her patriot arm of power, And swelled the discord of the hour. 3. The yeoman and the yoeman's son, With knitted brows and sturdy dint, Renewed the polish of each gun, Recoiled the lock, reset the flint; And oft the maid and matron there, While kneeling in the firelight glare, Long poured, with half-suspended breath, The lead into the molds of death. 4. The hands by Heaven made silken soft To soothe the brow of love or pain, Alas! are dulled and soiled too oft By some unhallowed earthly stain; But under the celestial bound No nobler picture can be found Than woman, brave in word and deed, Thus serving in her nation's need: Her love is with her country now, Her hand is on its aching brow. 5. Within its shade of elm and oak The church of Berkley Manor stood: There Sunday found the rural folk, And some esteemed of gentle blood, In vain their feet with loitering tread Passed 'mid the graves where rank is naught: All could not read the lesson taught In that republic of the dead. 6. The pastor rose: the prayer was strong; The psalm was warrior David's song; The text, a few short words of might,-- "The Lord of hosts shall arm the right!" 7. He spoke of wrongs too long endured, Of sacred rights to be secured; Then from his patriot tongue of flame The startling words for Freedom came. The stirring sentences he spake Compelled the heart to glow or quake, And, rising on his theme's broad wing, And grasping in his nervous hand The imaginary battle brand, In face of death he dared to fling Defiance to a tyrant king. 8. Even as he spoke, his frame, renewed In eloquence of attitude, Rose, as it seemed, a shoulder higher; Then swept his kindling glance of fire From startled pew to breathless choir; When suddenly his mantle wide His hands impatient flung aside, And, lo! he met their wondering eyes Complete in all a warrior's guise. 9. A moment there was awful pause,-- When Berkley cried, "Cease, traitor! cease! God's temple is the house of peace!" The other shouted, "Nay, not so, When God is with our righteous cause: His holiest places then are ours, His temples are our forts and towers That frown upon the tyrant foe: In this the dawn of Freedom's day There is a time to fight and pray!" 10. And now before the open door-- The warrior priest had ordered so-- The enlisting trumpet's sudden soar Rang through the chapel, o'er and o'er, Its long reverberating blow, So loud and clear, it seemed the ear Of dusty death must wake and hear. And there the startling drum and fife Fired the living with fiercer life; While overhead with wild increase, Forgetting its ancient toll of peace, The great bell swung as ne'er before: It seemed as it would never cease; And every word its ardor flung From off its jubilant iron tongue Was, "WAR! WAR! WAR!" 11. "Who dares"--this was the patriot's cry, As striding from the desk he came-- "Come out with me, in Freedom's name, For her to live, for her to die?" A hundred hands flung up reply, A hundred voices answered "I!" DEFINITIONS.--l. Bo're-al, northern. 3. Yeo'man, a freeholder, a man freeborn. Dint, stroke. 5. Man'or, a tract of land occupied by tenants. Gen'tle (pro. jen'tl), well born, of good family. 7. Theme, a subject on which a person speaks or writes. 8. Guise, external appearance in manner or dress. 10. Soar, a towering flight. NOTES.--2. Forgot her ... name. The reference is to the meaning of the word "concord,"--harmony, union. 4. Celestial bound; i.e., the sky, heaven. 6. The pastor. This was John Peter Gabriel Muhlenberg, who was at this time a minister at Woodstock, in Virginia. He was a leading spirit among those opposed to Great Britain, and in 1775 he was elected colonel of a Virginia regiment. The above poem describes his farewell sermon. At its close he threw off his ministerial gown, and appeared in full regimental dress. Almost every man in the congregation enlisted under him at the church door. Muhlenberg became a well-known general in the Revolution, and after the war served his country in Congress and in various official positions. LXVI. CONTROL YOUR TEMPER. John Todd, D.D. (b. 1800, d. 1873), was born in Rutland, Vt. In 1842 he was settled as a pastor of a Congregational Church, in Pittsfield, Mass, In 1834, he published "Lectures to Children"; in 1835, "The Student's Manual," a valuable and popular work, which has been translated into several European languages; in 1836, "The Sabbath-School Teacher"; and in 1841, "The Lost Sister of Wyoming." He was one of the founders of the Mount Holyoke Female Seminary. 1. No one has a temper naturally so good, that it does not need attention and cultivation, and no one has a temper so bad, but that, by proper culture, it may become pleasant. One of the best disciplined tempers ever seen, was that of a gentleman who was naturally quick, irritable, rash, and violent; but, by having the care of the sick, and especially of deranged people, he so completely mastered himself that he was never known to be thrown off his guard. 2. The difference in the happiness which is received or bestowed by the man who governs his temper, and that by the man who does not, is immense. There is no misery so constant, so distressing, and so intolerable to others, as that of having a disposition which is your master, and which is continually fretting itself. There are corners enough, at every turn in life, against which we may run, and at which we may break out in impatience, if we choose. 3. Look at Roger Sherman, who rose from a humble occupation to a seat in the first Congress of the United States, and whose judgment was received with great deference by that body of distinguished men. He made himself master of his temper, and cultivated it as a great business in life. There are one or two instances which show this part of his character in a light that is beautiful. 4. One day, after having received his highest honors, he was sitting and reading in his parlor. A roguish student, in a room close by, held a looking-glass in such a position as to pour the reflected rays of the sun directly in Mr. Sherman's face. He moved his chair, and the thing was repeated. A third time the chair was moved, but the looking-glass still reflected the sun in his eyes. He laid aside his book, went to the window, and many witnesses of the impudence expected to hear the ungentlemanly student severely reprimanded. He raised the window gently, and then--shut the window blind! 5. I can not forbear adducing another instance of the power he had acquired over himself. He was naturally possessed of strong passions; but over these he at length obtained an extraordinary control. He became habitually calm, sedate, and self-possessed. Mr. Sherman was one of those men who are not ashamed to maintain the forms of religion in their families. One morning he called them all together, as usual, to lead them in prayer to God; the "old family Bible" was brought out, and laid on the table. 6. Mr. Sherman took his seat, and placed beside him one of his children, a child of his old age; the rest of the family were seated around the room; several of these were now grown up. Besides these, some of the tutors of the college were boarders in the family, and were present at the time alluded to. His aged and superannuated mother occupied a corner of the room, opposite the place where the distinguished judge sat. 7. At length, he opened the Bible, and began to read. The child who was seated beside him made some little disturbance, upon which Mr. Sherman paused and told it to be still. Again he proceeded; but again he paused to reprimand the little offender, whose playful disposition would scarcely permit it to be still. And this time he gently tapped its ear. The blow, if blow it might be called, caught the attention of his aged mother, who now, with some effort, rose from the seat, and tottered across the room. At length she reached the chair of Mr. Sherman, and, in a moment, most unexpectedly to him, she gave him a blow on the ear with all the force she could summon. "There," said she, "you strike your child, and I will strike mine." 8. For a moment, the blood was seen mounting to the face of Mr. Sherman; but it was only for a moment, when all was calm and mild as usual. He paused; he raised his spectacles; he cast his eye upon his mother; again it fell upon the book from which he had been reading. Not a word escaped him; but again he calmly pursued the service, and soon after sought in prayer an ability to set an example before his household which would be worthy of their imitation. Such a victory was worth more than the proudest one ever achieved on the field of battle. DEFINITIONS.--1. Con-trol', subdue, restrain, govern. Cul'ture, cultivation, improvement by effort. Dis'ci-plined, brought under control, trained. 2. In-tol'er-a-ble, not capable of being borne. 3. Def 'er-ence, regard, respect. 4. Rep'ri-mand-ed, reproved for a fault. 6. Su-per-an'nu-a-ted, impaired by old age and infirmity. 8. A-chieved', gained. NOTE.--Roger Sherman (b. 1721, d. 1793) was born at Newton Massachusetts, and until twenty-two years of age was a shoemaker. He then removed to New Milford, Connecticut, and was soon afterward appointed surveyor of lands for the county. In 1754, he was admitted to the bar. At various times he was elected a judge; sent to the Legislature, to the Colonial Assembly, and to the United States Congress; made a member of the governor's council of safety; and, in 1776, a member of the committee appointed to draft the Declaration of Independence, of which he was one of the signers. LXVII. WILLIAM TELL. James Sheridan Knowles (b. 1784, d. 1862), a dramatist and actor, was born in Cork, Ireland. In 1792 his father removed to London with his family. At the age of fourteen, Sheridan wrote an opera called "The Chevalier de Grillon." In 1798 he removed to Dublin, and soon after began his career as an actor and author. In 1835 he visited America. In 1839 an annual pension of 200 Pounds was granted him by the British government. Several years before his death he left the stage and became a Baptist minister. The best known of his plays are "Caius Gracchus," "Virginius," "Leo, the Gypsy," "The Hunchback," and "William Tell," from the last of which the following two lessons are abridged. SCENE 1.--A Chamber in the Castle. Enter Gesler, Officers, and Sarnem, with Tell in chains and guarded. Sar. Down, slave! Behold the governor. Down! down! and beg for mercy. Ges. (Seated.) Does he hear? Sar. He does, but braves thy power. Officer. Why don't you smite him for that look? Ges. Can I believe My eyes? He smiles! Nay, grasps His chains as he would make a weapon of them To lay the smiter dead. (To Tell.) Why speakest thou not? Tell. For wonder. Ges. Wonder? Tell. Yes, that thou shouldst seem a man. Ges. What should I seem? Tell. A monster. Ges. Ha! Beware! Think on thy chains. Tell. Though they were doubled, and did weigh me down Prostrate to the earth, methinks I could rise up Erect, with nothing but the honest pride Of telling thee, usurper, to thy teeth, Thou art a monster! Think upon my chains? How came they on me? Ges. Darest thou question me? Tell. Darest thou not answer? Ges. Do I hear? Tell. Thou dost. Ges. Beware my vengeance! Tell. Can it more than kill? Ges. Enough; it can do that. Tell. No; not enough: It can not take away the grace of life; Its comeliness of look that virtue gives; Its port erect with consciousness of truth; Its rich attire of honorable deeds; Its fair report that's rife on good men's tongues; It can not lay its hands on these, no more Than it can pluck the brightness from the sun, Or with polluted finger tarnish it. Ges. But it can make thee writhe. Tell. It may. Ges. And groan. Tell. It may; and I may cry Go on, though it should make me groan again. Ges. Whence comest thou? Tell. From the mountains. Wouldst thou learn What news from thence? Ges. Canst tell me any? Tell. Ay: they watch no more the avalanche. Ges. Why so? Tell. Because they look for thee. The hurricane Comes unawares upon them; from its bed The torrent breaks, and finds them in its track. Ges. What do they then? Tell. Thank heaven it is not thou! Thou hast perverted nature in them. There's not a blessing heaven vouchsafes them, but The thought of thee--doth wither to a curse. Ges. That's right! I'd have them like their hills, That never smile, though wanton summer tempt Them e'er so much. Tell. But they do sometimes smile. Ges. Ay! when is that? Tell. When they do talk of vengeance. Ges. Vengeance? Dare they talk of that? Tell. Ay, and expect it too. Ges. From whence? Tell. From heaven! Ges. From heaven? Tell. And their true hands Are lifted up to it on every hill For justice on thee. Ges. Where's thy abode? Tell. I told thee, on the mountains. Ges. Art married? Tell. Yes. Ges. And hast a family? Tell. A son. Ges. A son? Sarnem! Sar. My lord, the boy--(Gesler signs to Sarnem to keep silence, and, whispering, sends him off.) Tell. The boy? What boy? Is 't mine? and have they netted my young fledgeling? Now heaven support me, if they have! He'll own me, And share his father's ruin! But a look Would put him on his guard--yet how to give it! Now heart, thy nerve; forget thou 'rt flesh, be rock. They come, they come! That step--that step--that little step, so light Upon the ground, how heavy does it fall Upon my heart! I feel my child! (Enter Sarnem with Albert, whose eyes are riveted on Tell's bow, which Sarnem carries.) 'T is he! We can but perish. Alb. (Aside.) Yes; I was right. It is my father's bow! For there's my father! I'll not own him though! Sar. See! Alb. What? Sar. Look there! Alb. I do, what would you have me see? Sar. Thy father. Alb. Who? That--that my father? Tell. My boy! my boy! my own brave boy! He's safe! (Aside.) Sar. (Aside to Gesler.) They're like each other. Ges. Yet I see no sign Of recognition to betray the link Unites a father and his child. Sar. My lord, I am sure it is his father. Look at them. That boy did spring from him; or never cast Came from the mold it fitted! It may be A preconcerted thing 'gainst such a chance. That they survey each other coldly thus. Ges. We shall try. Lead forth the caitiff. Sar. To a dungeon? Ges. No; into the court. Sar. The court, my lord? Ges. And send To tell the headsman to make ready. Quick! The slave shall die! You marked the boy? Sar. I did. He started; 't is his father. Ges. We shall see. Away with him! Tell. Stop! Stop! Ges. What would you? Tell. Time,-- A little time to call my thoughts together! Ges. Thou shalt not have a minute. Tell. Some one, then, to speak with. Ges. Hence with him! Tell. A moment! Stop! Let me speak to the boy. Ges. Is he thy son? Tell. And if He were, art thou so lost to nature, as To send me forth to die before his face? Ges. Well! speak with him. Now, Sarnem, mark them well. Tell. Thou dost not know me, boy; and well for thee Thou dost not. I'm the father of a son About thy age. Thou, I see, wast horn, like him, upon the hills: If thou shouldst 'scape thy present thraldom, he May chance to cross thee; if he should, I pray thee Relate to him what has been passing here, And say I laid my hand upon thy head, And said to thee, if he were here, as thou art, Thus would I bless him. Mayst thou live, my boy, To see thy country free, or die for her, As I do! (Albert weeps.) Sar. Mark! he weeps. Tell. Were he my son, He would not shed a tear! He would remember The cliff where he was bred, and learned to scan A thousand fathoms' depth of nether air; Where he was trained to hear the thunder talk, And meet the lightning, eye to eye; where last We spoke together, when I told him death Bestowed the brightest gem that graces life, Embraced for virtue's sake. He shed a tear! Now were he by, I'd talk to him, and his cheek Should never blanch, nor moisture dim his eye-- I'd talk to him-- Sar. He falters! Tell. 'T is too much! And yet it must be done! I'd talk to him-- Ges. Of what? Tell. The mother, tyrant, thou dost make A widow of! I'd talk to him of her. I'd bid him tell her, next to liberty, Her name was the last word my lips pronounced. And I would charge him never to forget To love and cherish her, as he would have His father's dying blessing rest upon him! Sar. You see, as he doth prompt, the other acts. Tell. So well he bears it, he doth vanquish me. My boy! my boy! Oh, for the hills, the hills, To see him bound along their tops again, With liberty. Sar. Was there not an the father in that look? Ges. Yet 't is 'gainst nature. Sar. Not if he believes To own the son would be to make him share The father's death. Ges. I did not think of that! 'T is well The boy is not thy son. I've destined him To die along with thee. Tell. To die? For what? Ges. For having braved my power, as thou hast. Lead them forth. Tell. He's but a child. Ges. Away with them! Tell. Perhaps an only child. Ges. No matter. Tell. He may have a mother. Ges. So the viper hath; And yet, who spares it for the mother's sake? Tell. I talk to stone! I talk to it as though 'T were flesh; and know 't is none. I'll talk to it No more. Come, my boy; I taught thee how to live, I'll show thee how to die. Ges. He is thy child? Tell. He is my child. (Weeps.) Ges. I've wrung a tear from him! Thy name? Tell. My name? It matters not to keep it from thee now; My name is Tell. Ges. Tell? William Tell? Tell. The same. Ges. What! he, so famed 'bove all his countrymen, For guiding o'er the stormy lake the boat? And such a master of his bow, 't is said His arrows never miss! Indeed! I'll take Exquisite vengeance! Mark! I'll spare thy life; Thy boy's too; both of you are free; on one Condition. Tell. Name it. Ges. I would see you make A trial of your skill with that same bow You shoot so well with. Tell. Name the trial you Would have me make. Ges. You look upon your boy As though instinctively you guessed it. Tell. Look upon my boy? What mean you? Look upon My boy as though I guessed it? Guessed the trial You'd have me make? Guessed it Instinctively? You do not mean--no--no, You would not have me make a trial of My skill upon my child! Impossible! I do not guess your meaning. Ges. I would see Thee hit an apple at the distance of A hundred paces. Tell. Is my boy to hold it? Ges. No. Tell. No? I'll send the arrow through the core! Ges. It is to rest upon his head. Tell. Great heaven, you hear him! Ges. Thou dost hear the choice I give: Such trial of the skill thou art master of, Or death to both of you, not otherwise To be escaped. Tell. O, monster! Ges. Wilt thou do it? Alb. He will! he will! Tell. Ferocious monster! Make A father murder his own child! Ges. Take off his chains if he consent. Tell. With his own hand! Ges. Does he consent? Alb. He does. (Gesler signs to his officers, who proceed to take off Tell's chains; Tell unconscious what they do.) Tell. With his own hand! Murder his child with his own hand? This hand? The hand I've led him, when an infant, by? 'T is beyond horror! 'T is most horrible! Amazement! (His chains fall off.) What's that you've done to me? Villains! put on my chains again. My hands Are free from blood, and have no gust for it, That they should drink my child's! Here! here! I'll Not murder my boy for Gesler. Alb. Father! Father! You will not hit me, father! Tell. Hit thee? Send The arrow through thy brain? Or, missing that, Shoot out an eye? Or, if thine eye escape, Mangle the cheek I've seen thy mother's lips Cover with kisses? Hit thee? Hit a hair Of thee, and cleave thy mother's heart? Ges. Dost thou consent? Tell. Give me my bow and quiver. Ges. For what? Tell. To shoot my boy! Alb. No, father, no! To save me! You'll be sure to hit the apple. Will you not save me, father? Tell. Lead me forth; I'll make the trial! Alb. Thank you! Tell. Thank me? Do You know for what? I will not make the trial. To take him to his mother in my arms! And lay him down a corse before her! Ges. Then he dies this moment, and you certainly Do murder him whose life you have a chance To save, and will not use it. Tell. Well, I'll do it; I'll make the trial. Alb. Father! Tell. Speak not to me: Let me not hear thy voice: thou must be dumb, And so should all things be. Earth should be dumb; And heaven--unless its thunders muttered at The deed, and sent a bolt to stop! Give me My bow and quiver! Ges. When all's ready. Tell. Ready!-- I must be calm with such a mark to hit! Don't touch me, child!--Don't speak to me!--Lead on! DEFINITIONS.--Come'li-ness, that which is becoming or graceful. Port, manner of movement or walk. At-tire', dress, clothes. Tar'-nish, to soil, to sully. Av'a-lanche, a vast body of snow, earth, and ice, sliding down from a mountain. Vouch-safes', yields, conde-scends, gives. Wan'ton, luxuriant. Net'ted, caught in a net. Fledge'ling, a young bird. Rec-og-ni'tion, acknowledgment of ac-quaintance. Pre-con-cert'ed, planned beforehand. Cai'tiff (pro. ka'tif), a mean villain. Thral'dom, bondage, slavery. Scan, to examine closely. Neth'er, lower, lying beneath. Blanch, to turn white. Gust, taste, relish. NOTE.--William Tell is a legendary hero of Switzerland. The events of this drama are represented as occurring in 1307 A.D., when Austria held Switzerland under her control. Gesler, also a purely mythical personage, is one of the Austrian bailiffs. The legend relates that Gesler had his cap placed on a pole in the market place, and all the Swiss were required to salute it in passing in recognition of his authority. Tell refusing to do this was arrested, and condemned to death. This and the following lesson narrate how the sentence was changed, and the result. LXVIII. WILLIAM TELL. (Concluded.) SCENE 2.--Enter slowly, people in evident distress--Officers, Sarnem, Gesler, Tell, Albert, and soldiers--one bearing Tell's bow and quiver--another with a basket of apples. Ges. That is your ground. Now shall they measure thence A hundred paces. Take the distance. Tell. Is the line a true one? Ges. True or not, what is 't to thee? Tell. What is 't to me? A little thing. A very little thing; a yard or two Is nothing here or there--were it a wolf I shot at! Never mind. Ges. Be thankful, slave, Our grace accords thee life on any terms. Tell. I will be thankful, Gesler! Villain, stop! You measure to the sun. Ges. And what of that? What matter whether to or from the sun? Tell. I'd have it at my back. The sun should shine Upon the mark, and not on him that shoots. I can not see to shoot against the sun: I will not shoot against the sun! Ges. Give him his way! Thou hast cause to bless my mercy. Tell. I shall remember it. I'd like to see The apple I'm to shoot at. Ges. Stay! show me the basket! there! Tell. You've picked the smallest one. Ges. I know I have. Tell. Oh, do you? But you see The color of it is dark: I'd have it light, To see it better. Ges. Take it as it is; Thy skill will be the greater if thou hitt'st it. Tell. True! true! I did not think of that; I wonder I did not think of that. Give me some chance To save my boy!-- I will not murder him, If I can help it--for the honor of The form thou wearest, if all the heart is gone. (Throws away the apple with all his force.) Ges. Well: choose thyself. Tell. Have I a friend among the lookers-on? Verner. (Rushing forward.) Here, Tell. Tell. I thank thee, Verner! He is a friend runs out into a storm To shake a hand with us. I must be brief. When once the bow is bent, we can not take The shot too soon. Verner, whatever be The issue of this hour, the common cause Must not stand still. Let not to-morrow's sun Set on the tyrant's banner! Verner! Verner! The boy! the boy! Thinkest thou he hath the courage To stand it? Ver. Yes. Tell. Does he tremble? Ver. No. Tell. Art sure? Ver. I am. Tell. How looks he? Ver. Clear and smilingly. If you doubt it, look yourself. Tell. No, no, my friend: To hear it is enough. Ver. He bears himself so much above his years-- Tell. I know! I know! Ver. With constancy so modest-- Tell. I was sure he would-- Ver. And looks with such relying love And reverence upon you-- Tell. Man! Man! Man! No more! Already I'm too much the father To act the man! Verner, no more, my friend! I would be flint--flint--flint. Don't make me feel I'm not--do not mind me! Take the boy And set him, Verner, with his back to me. Set him upon his knees, and place this apple Upon his head, so that the stem may front me. Thus, Verner; charge him to keep steady; tell him I'll hit the apple! Verner, do all this More briefly than I tell it thee. Ver. Come, Albert! (Leading him out.) Alb. May I not speak with him before I go? Ver. No. Alb. I would only kiss his hand. Ver. You must not. Alb. I must; I can not go from him without. Ver. It is his will you should. Alb. His will, is it? I am content, then; come. Tell. My boy! (Holding out his arms to him.) Alb. My father! (Rushing into Tell's arms.) Tell. If thou canst bear it, should not I? Go now, My son; and keep in mind that I can shoot; Go, boy; be thou but steady, I will hit The apple. Go! God bless thee; go. My bow! (The bow is handed to him.) Thou wilt not fail thy master, wilt thou? Thou Hast never failed him yet, old servant. No, I'm sure of thee. I know thy honesty, Thou art stanch, stanch. Let me see my quiver. Ges. Give him a single arrow. Tell. Do you shoot? Soldier. I do. Tell. Is it so you pick an arrow, friend? The point, you see, is bent; the feather, jagged. That's all the use 't is fit for. (Breaks it.) Ges. Let him have another. Tell. Why, 't is better than the first, But yet not good enough for such an aim As I'm to take. 'T is heavy in the shaft; I'll not shoot with it! (Throws it away.) Let me see my quiver. Bring it! 'T is not one arrow in a dozen I'd take to shoot with at a dove, much less A dove like that. Ges. It matters not. Show him the quiver. Tell. See if the boy is ready. (Tell here hides an arrow under his vest.) Ver. He is. Tell. I 'm ready too! Keep silent, for Heaven's sake, and do not stir; and let me have Your prayers, your prayers, and be my witnesses That if his life's in peril from my hand, 'Tis only for the chance of saving it. (To the people.) Ges. Go on. Tell. I will. O friends, for mercy's sake keep motionless and silent. (Tell shoots. A shout of exultation bursts from the crowd. Tell's head drops on his bosom; he with difficulty supports himself on his bow.) Ver. (Rushing in with Albert.) The boy is safe, no hair of him is touched. Alb. Father, I'm safe. Your Albert's safe, dear father. Speak to me! Speak to me! Ver. He can not, boy! Alb. You grant him life? Ges. I do. Alb. And we are free? Ges. You are. (Crossing angrily behind.) Alb. Open his vest, And give him air. (Albert opens his father's vest, and the arrow drops. Tell starts, fixes his eyes on Albert and clasps him to his breast.) Tell. My boy! My boy! Ges. For what Hid you that arrow in your breast? Speak, slave! Tell. To kill thee, tyrant, had I slain my boy! DEFINITIONS.--Ac-cords', grants, concede. Is'sue (pro. ish'u), event, consequence. Stanch, sound, strong. Jag'ged, notched, uneven. Shaft, the stem of an arrow upon which the feather and head are inserted. Quiv'er, a case for arrows. NOTE.--The legend further relates that on the discovery of the concealed arrow Tell was again put in chains. Gesler then embarked for another place, taking Tell with him. A storm overtook them, and Tell was released to steer the boat. In passing a certain point of land now known as "Tell's Rock" or "Leap," Tell leaped ashore and escaped: then going to a point where he knew the boat must land, he lay concealed until it arrived, when he shot Gesler through the heart. LXIX. THE CRAZY ENGINEER. 1. My train left Dantzic in the morning generally about eight o'clock; but once a week we had to wait for the arrival of the steamer from Stockholm. It was the morning of the steamer's arrival that I came down from the hotel, and found that my engineer had been so seriously injured that he could not perform his work. I went immediately to the engine house to procure another engineer, for I supposed there were three or four in reserve there, but I was disappointed. 2. I heard the puffing of the steamer, and the passengers would be on hand in fifteen minutes. I ran to the guards and asked them if they knew where there was an engineer, but they did not. I then went to the firemen and asked them if anyone of them felt competent to run the engine to Bromberg. No one dared to attempt it. The distance was nearly one hundred miles. What was to be done? 3. The steamer stopped at the wharf, and those who were going on by rail came flocking to the station. They had eaten breakfast on board the boat, and were all ready for a fresh start. The train was in readiness in the long station house, and the engine was steaming and puffing away impatiently in the distant firing house. 4. It was past nine o'clock. "Come, why don't we start?" growled an old, fat Swede, who had been watching me narrowly for the last fifteen minutes. And upon this there was a general chorus of anxious inquiry, which soon settled to downright murmuring. At this juncture some one touched me on the elbow. I turned, and saw a stranger by my side. I thought that he was going to remonstrate with me for my backwardness. In fact, I began to have strong temptations to pull off my uniform, for every anxious eye was fixed upon the glaring badges which marked me as the chief officer of the train. 5. However, this stranger was a middle-aged man, tall and stout, with a face of great energy and intelligence. His eye was black and brilliant,--so brilliant that I could not gaze steadily into it, though I tried; and his lips, which were very thin, seemed more like polished marble than human flesh. His dress was black throughout, and not only set with exact nicety, but was scrupulously clean and neat. 6. "You want an engineer, I understand," he said in a low, cautious tone, at the same time gazing quietly about him, as though he wanted no one to hear what he said. "I do," I replied. "My train is all ready, and we have no engineer within twenty miles of this place." "Well, sir, I am going to Bromberg; I must go, and I will run the engine for you." "Ha!" I uttered, "are you an engineer?" "I am, sir--one of the oldest in the country--and am now on my way to make arrangements for a great improvement I have invented for the application of steam to a locomotive. My name is Martin Kroller. If you wish, I will run as far as Bromberg; and I will show you running that is running." 7. Was I not fortunate? I determined to accept the man's offer at once, and so I told him. He received my answer with a nod and a smile. I went with him to the house, where we found the engine in charge of the fireman, and all ready for a start. Kroller got upon the platform, and I followed him. I had never seen a man betray such a peculiar aptness amid machinery as he did. He let on the steam in an instant, but yet with care and judgment, and he backed up to the baggage carriage with the most exact nicety. 8. I had seen enough to assure me that he was thoroughly acquainted with the business, and I felt composed once more. I gave my engine up to the new man, and then hastened away to the office. Word was passed for all the passengers to take their seats, and soon afterward I waved my hand to the engineer. There was a puff, a groaning of the heavy axletrees, a trembling of the building, and the train was in motion. I leaped upon the platform of the guard carriage, and in a few minutes more the station house was far behind us. 9. In less than an hour we reached Dirschau, where we took up the passengers, that had come on the Konigsberg railway. Here I went forward and asked Kroller how he liked the engine. He replied that he liked it very much. "But," he added, with a strange sparkling of the eye, "wait until I get my improvement, and then you will see traveling. Why, I could run an engine of my construction to the moon in four and twenty hours?" 10. I smiled at what I thought his enthusiasm, and then went back to my station. As soon as the Konigsberg passengers were all on board, and their baggage carriage attached, we started on again. Soon after, I went into the guard carriage and sat down. An early train from Konigsberg had been through two hours before, and was awaiting us at Little Oscue, where we took on board the Western mail. 11. "How we go," uttered one of the guards, some fifteen minutes after we had left Dirschau. "The new engineer is trying the speed," I replied, not yet having any fear. But ere long I began to apprehend he was running a little too fast. The carriages began to sway to and fro, and I could hear exclamations of fright from the passengers. "Good heavens!" cried one of the guards, coming in at that moment, "what is that fellow doing? Look, sir, and see how we are going." 12. I looked at the window, and found that we were dashing along at a speed never before traveled on that road. Posts, fences, rocks, and trees flew by in one undistinguished mass, and the carriages now swayed fearfully. I started to my feet, and met a passenger on the platform. He was one of the chief owners of our road, and was just on his way to Berlin. He was pale and excited. 13. "Sir," he gasped, "is Martin Kroller on the engine?" "Yes," I told him. "What! didn't you know him?" "Know?" I repeated, somewhat puzzled; "what do you mean? He told me his name was Kroller, and that he was an engineer. We had no one to run the engine, and--" "You took him!" interrupted the man. "Good heavens, sir, he is as crazy as a man can be! He turned his brain over a new plan for applying steam power. I saw him at the station, but did not fully recognize him, as I was in a hurry. Just now one of your passengers told me that your engineers were all gone this morning, and that you found one that was a stranger to you. Then I knew the man whom I had seen was Martin Kroller. He had escaped from the hospital at Stettin. You must get him off somehow." 14. The whole fearful truth was now open to me. The speed of the train was increasing every moment, and I knew that a few more miles per hour would launch us all into destruction. I called to the guard and then made my way forward as quickly as possible. I reached the back platform of the tender, and there stood Kroller upon the engine board, his hat and coat off, his long black hair floating wildly in the wind, his shirt unbuttoned at the front, his sleeves rolled up, with a pistol in his teeth, and thus glaring upon the fireman, who lay motionless upon the fuel. The furnace was stuffed till the very latch of the door was red-hot, and the whole engine was quivering and swaying as though it would shiver to pieces. 15. "Kroller! Kroller'!" I cried, at the top of my voice. The crazy engineer started, and caught the pistol in his hand. Oh, how those great black eyes glared, and how ghastly and frightful the face looked! "Ha! ha! ha!" he yelled demoniacally, glaring upon me like a roused lion. "They said that I could not make it! But see! see! See my new power! See my new engine! I made it, and they are jealous of me! I made it, and when it was done, they stole it from me. But I have found it! For years I have been wandering in search of my great engine, and they said it was not made. But I have found it! I knew it this morning when I saw it at Dantzic, and I was determined to have it. And I've got it! Ho! ho! ho! we're on the way to the moon, I say! We'll be in the moon in four and twenty hours. Down, down, villain! If you move, I'll shoot you." This was spoken to the poor fireman, who at that moment attempted to rise, and the frightened man sank back again. 16. "Here's Little Oscue just before us," cried out one of the guard. But even as he spoke, the buildings were at hand. A sickening sensation settled upon my heart, for I supposed that we were now gone. The houses flew by like lightning. I knew if the officers here had turned the switch as usual, we should be hurled into eternity in one fearful crash. I saw a flash,--it was another engine,--I closed my eyes; but still we thundered on! The officers had seen our speed, and knowing that we would not be able to stop, in that distance, they had changed the switch, so that we went forward. 17. But there was sure death ahead, if we did not stop. Only fifteen miles from us was the town of Schwetz, on the Vistula; and at the rate we were going we should be there in a few minutes, for each minute carried us over a mile. The shrieks of the passengers now rose above the crash of the rails, and more terrific than all else arose the demoniac yells of the mad engineer. "Merciful heavens!" gasped the guardsman, "there's not a moment to lose; Schwetz is close. But hold," he added; "let's shoot him." 18. At that moment a tall, stout German student came over the platform where we stood, and saw that the mad-man had his heavy pistol aimed at us. He grasped a huge stick of wood, and, with a steadiness of nerve which I could not have commanded, he hurled it with such force and precision that he knocked the pistol from the maniac's hand. I saw the movement, and on the instant that the pistol fell, I sprang forward, and the German followed me. I grasped the man by the arm; but I should have been nothing in his mad power, had I been alone. He would have hurled me from the platform, had not the student at that moment struck him upon the head with a stick of wood, which he caught as he came over the tender. 19. Kroller settled down like a dead man, and on the next instant I shut off the steam and opened the valve. As the free steam shrieked and howled in its escape, the speed began to decrease, and in a few minutes more the danger was passed. As I settled back, entirely overcome by the wild emotions that had raged within me, we began to turn the river; and before I was fairly recovered, the fireman had stopped the train in the station house at Schwetz. 20. Martin Kroller, still insensible, was taken from the platform; and, as we carried him to the guard room, one of the guard recognized him, and told us that he had been there about two weeks before. "He came," said the guard, "and swore that an engine which stood near by was his. He said it was one he had made to go to the moon in, and that it had been stolen from him. We sent for more help to arrest him, and he fled." "Well," I replied, with a shudder, "I wish he had approached me in the same way; but he was more cautious at Dantzic." At Schwartz we found an engineer to run the engine to Bromberg; and having taken out the western mail for the next northern mail to carry along, we saw that Kroller would be properly attended to, and then started on. 21. The rest of the trip we ran in safety, though I could see the passengers were not wholly at ease, and would not be until they were entirely clear of the railway. Martin Kroller remained insensible from the effects of the blow nearly two weeks; and when he recovered from that, he was sound again; his insanity was all gone. I saw him about three weeks afterward, but he had no recollection of me. He remembered nothing of the past year, not even his mad freak on my engine. But I remembered it, and I remember it still; and the people need never fear that I shall be imposed upon again by a crazy engineer. DEFINITIONS.--2. Com'pe-tent, fit, qualified. 4. Junc'ture, point of time, crisis. Re-mon'strate, to present strong reasons against any course of proceedings. 7. Apt'ness, fitness, suitableness. 8. Com-posed', calm. 11. Ap-pre-hend', to entertain suspicion or fear of. 14. Ten'der, a car attached to a locomotive to supply it with fuel and water. 18. Pre-ci'sion (pro. pre-sizh'un), accuracy, exactness. NOTE.--This incident is said to have taken place on the railway following the valley of the Vistula. River, in Prussia, from Dantzic to Bromberg. The cities mentioned are all in Prussia, excepting Stockholm, which is the capital of Sweden. LXX. THE HERITAGE. James Russell Lowell (b. 1819, d.1891) was born in Cambridge, Mass., and was graduated from Harvard College. He entered the profession of law; but, in 1843, turned aside to publish "The Pioneer, a Literary and Critical Magazine." In 1855 he was appointed professor of Belles-lettres in Harvard College. From 1877 to 1885 he was U.S. Minister, first to Spain, afterwards to Great Britain. Lowell's powers as a writer were very versatile, and his poems range from the most dreamy and imaginative to the most trenchant and witty. Among his most noted poetical works are "The Biglow Papers," "A Fable for Critics," "The Vision of Sir Launfal," "The Cathedral," and "The Legend of Brittany;" while "Conversations on some of the Old Poets," "Among my Books," and "My Study Windows," place him in the front rank as an essayist. 1. The rich man's son inherits lands, And piles of brick, and stone, and gold, And he inherits soft white hands, And tender flesh that fears the cold, Nor dares to wear a garment old; A heritage, it seems to me, One scarce would wish to hold in fee. 2. The rich man's son inherits cares; The bank may break, the factory burn, A breath may burst his bubble shares, And soft white hands could hardly earn A living that would serve his turn; A heritage, it seems to me, One scarce would wish to hold in fee. 3. The rich man's son inherits wants, His stomach craves for dainty fare; With sated heart, he hears the pants Of toiling hinds with brown arms bare! And wearies in his easy-chair; A heritage, it seems to me, One scarce would wish to hold in fee. 4. What doth the poor man's son inherit? Stout muscles and a sinewy heart, A hardy frame, a hardier spirit; King of two hands, he does his part In every useful toil and art; A heritage, it seems to me, A king might wish to hold in fee. 5. What doth the poor man's son inherit? Wishes o'erjoyed with humble things, A rank adjudged by toil-won merit, Content that from employment springs, A heart that in his labor sings; A heritage, it seems to me, A king might wish to hold in fee. 6. What doth the poor man's son inherit? A patience learned of being poor, Courage, if sorrow come, to bear it, A fellow-feeling that is sure To make the outcast bless his door; A heritage, it seems to me, A king might wish to hold in fee. 7. O rich man's son! there is a toil That with all others level stands: Large charity doth never soil, But only whiten soft, white hands,-- This is the best crop from thy lands; A heritage, it seems to me, Worth being rich to hold in fee. 8. O poor man's son! scorn not thy state; There is worse weariness than thine In merely being rich and great: Toil only gives the soul to shine, And makes rest fragrant and benign; A heritage, it seems to me, Worth being poor to hold in fee. 9. Both, heirs to some six feet of sod, Are equal in the earth at last; Both, children of the same dear God, Prove title to your heirship vast By record of a well-filled past; A heritage, it seems to me, Well worth a life to hold in fee. DEFINITIONS.--1. Her'it-age, that which is inherited, or taken by descent, from an ancestor. 3. Sat'ed, surfeited, glutted. Hinds, peasants, countrymen. 5. Ad-judged', decided, determined. 8. Be-nign' (pro. be-nin'), having healthful qualities, wholesome. NOTES.--1. To hold in fee, means to have as an inheritance. 9. Prove title. That is, to prove the right of ownership. LXXI. NO EXCELLENCE WITHOUT LABOR. William Wirt (b. 1772, d. 1834) was born in Bladensburg, Md. He was admitted to the bar in 1799, and afterwards practiced law, with eminent success, at Richmond and Norfolk, Va. He was one of the counsel for the prosecution in the trial of Aaron Burr for treason. From 1817 to 1829 he was attorney-general for the United States. In 1803 he published the "Letters of a British Spy," a work which attracted much attention, and in 1817 a "Life of Patrick Henry." 1. The education, moral and intellectual, of every individual, must be chiefly his own work. Rely upon it that the ancients were right; both in morals and intellect we give the final shape to our characters, and thus become, emphatically, the architects of our own fortune. How else could it happen that young men, who have had precisely the same opportunities, should be continually presenting us with such different results, and rushing to such opposite destinies? 2. Difference of talent will not solve it, because that difference is very often in favor of the disappointed candidate. You will see issuing from the walls of the same college, nay, sometimes from the bosom of the same family, two young men, of whom one will be admitted to be a genius of high order, the other scarcely above the point of mediocrity; yet you will see the genius sinking and perishing in poverty, obscurity, and wretchedness; while, on the other hand, you will observe the mediocre plodding his slow but sure way up the hill of life, gaining steadfast footing at every step, and mounting, at length, to eminence and distinction, an ornament to his family, a blessing to his country. 3. Now, whose work is this? Manifestly their own. They are the architects of their respective fortunes. The best seminary of learning that can open its portals to you can do no more than to afford you the opportunity of instruction; but it must depend, at last, on yourselves, whether you will be instructed or not, or to what point you will push your instruction. 4. And of this be assured, I speak from observation a certain truth: THERE IS NO EXCELLENCE WITHOUT GREAT LABOR. It is the fiat of fate, from which no power of genius can absolve you. 5. Genius, unexerted, is like the poor moth that flutters around a candle till it scorches itself to death. If genius be desirable at all, it is only of that great and magnanimous kind, which, like the condor of South America, pitches from the summit of Chimborazo, above the clouds, and sustains itself at pleasure in that empyreal region with an energy rather invigorated than weakened by the effort. 6. It is this capacity for high and long-continued exertion, this vigorous power of profound and searching investigation, this careering and wide-spreading comprehension of mind, and these long reaches of thought, that "Pluck bright honor from the pale-faced moon, Or dive into the bottom of the deep, And pluck up drowned honor by the locks;" this is the prowess, and these the hardy achievements, which are to enroll your names among the great men of the earth. DEFINITIONS.--1. Mor'al, relating to duty or obligation. Ar'-chi-tects, builders, makers. Des'ti-ny, ultimate fate, appointed condition. 2. Can'di-date, one who seeks after some honor or office. Gen'ius (pro. jen'yus), a man of superior intellectual powers. Me-di-oc'ri-ty, a middle state or degree of talents. Me'di-o-cre (pro. me'di-o-kr), a man of moderate talents. 3. Re-spec'tive, particular, own. 4. Ab-solve', set free, release from. Fi'at, a decree. 5. Con'-dor, a large bird of the vulture family. Em-pyr'e-al, relating to the highest and purest region of the heavens. 6. Ca-reer'ing, moving rapidly. Prow'ess (pro. prou'es), bravery, boldness. NOTES.--5. Chimborazo (pro. chim-bo-ra'zo), is an extinct volcano in Ecuador, whose height is 20,517 feet above the sea. 6. The quotation is from Shakespeare's "King Henry IV," Part I, Act II Scene 3. LXXII. THE OLD HOUSE CLOCK. 1. Oh! the old, old clock of the household stock, Was the brightest thing, and neatest; Its hands, though old, had a touch of gold, And its chimes rang still the sweetest; 'T was a monitor, too, though its words were few, Yet they lived, though nations altered; And its voice, still strong, warned old and young, When the voice of friendship faltered: "Tick! tick!" it said, "quick, quick, to bed: For ten I've given warning; Up! up! and go, or else you know, You'll never rise soon in the morning!" 2. A friendly voice was that old, old clock, As it stood in the corner smiling, And blessed the time with merry chime, The wintry hours beguiling; But a cross old voice was that tiresome clock, As it called at daybreak boldly; When the dawn looked gray o'er the misty way, And the early air looked coldly: "Tick! tick!" it said, "quick out of bed: For five I've given warning; You'll never have health, you'll never have wealth, Unless you're up soon in the morning!" 3. Still hourly the sound goes round and round, With a tone that ceases never: While tears are shed for bright days fled, And the old friends lost forever! Its heart beats on, though hearts are gone That beat like ours, though stronger; Its hands still move, though hands we love Are clasped on earth no longer! "Tick! tick!" it said, "to the churchyard bed, The grave hath given warning; Up! up! and rise, and look at the skies, And prepare for a heavenly morning!" LXXIII. THE EXAMINATION Daniel Pierce Thompson (b. 1193, d. 1868) was born at Charlestown, Mass., but soon removed with his father to Vermont, where he lived until twenty years of age, on a farm. His means of schooling were most limited, but he was very ambitious and seized every opportunity. By his own efforts he earned enough money to carry him through Middlebury College, where he graduated in 1820. He then went to Virginia as private tutor, and while there was entered at the bar. He shortly returned to Vermont, and opened a law office in Montpelier. In time he was elected a judge, and later secretary of state. From his college days Mr. Thompson was a writer for the various magazines. Among his novels may be mentioned "Locke Amsden, the Schoolmaster," "May Martin, or the Money Diggers," "The Green Mountain Boys," and "The Rangers, or the Tory's Daughter." 1. "Have you any questions to ask me in the other branches, sir?" asked Locke. "Not many," replied Bunker. "There is reading, writing, grammar, etc., which I know nothing about; and as to them, I must, of course, take you by guess, which will not be much of a guess, after all, if I find you have thought well on all other matters. Do you understand philosophy?" 2. "To what branch of philosophy do you allude, sir?" "To the only branch there is." "But you are aware that philosophy is divided into different kinds; as, natural, moral, and intellectual." "Nonsense! philosophy is philosophy, and means the study of the reasons and causes of the things which we see, whether it be applied to a crazy man's dreams, or the roasting of potatoes. Have you attended to it?" "Yes, to a considerable extent, sir." 3. "I will put a question or two, then, if you please. What is the reason of the fact, for it is a fact, that the damp breath of a person blown on a good knife and on a bad one, will soonest disappear from the well-tempered blade?" "It may be owing to the difference in the polish of the two blades, perhaps." replied Locke. 4. "Ah! that is an answer that don't go deeper than the surface," rejoined Bunker, humorously. "As good a thinker as you evidently are, you have not thought on this subject, I suspect. It took me a week, in all, I presume, of hard thinking, and making experiments at a blacksmith's shop, to discover the reason of this. It is not the polish; for take two blades of equal polish, and the breath will disappear from one as much quicker than it does from the other, as the blade is better. It is because the material of the blade is more compact or less porous in one case than in the other. 5. "In the first place, I ascertained that the steel was, made more compact by being hammered and tempered, and that the better it was tempered the more compact it would become; the size of the pores being made, of course, less in the same proportion. Well, then, I saw the reason I was in search of, at once. For we know a wet sponge is longer in drying than a wet piece of green wood, because the pores of the first are bigger. A seasoned or shrunk piece of wood dries quicker than a green one, for the same reason. 6. "Or you might bore a piece of wood with large gimlet holes, and another with small ones, fill them both with water, and let them stand till the water evaporated, and the difference of time it would take to do this would make the case still more plain. So with the blades: the vapor lingers longest on the worst wrought and tempered one, because the pores, being larger, take in more of the wet particles, and require more time in drying." 7. "Your theory is at least a very ingenious one," observed Locke, "and I am reminded by it of another of the natural phenomena, of the true explanation of which I have not been able to satisfy myself. It is this: what makes the earth freeze harder and deeper under a trodden path than the untrodden earth around it? All that I have asked, say it is because the trodden earth is more compact. But is that reason a sufficient one?" 8. "No," said Bunker, "but I will tell you what the reason is, for I thought that out long ago. You know that, in the freezing months, much of the warmth we get is given out by the earth, from which, at intervals, if not constantly, to some extent, ascend the warm vapors to mingle with and moderate the cold atmosphere above. 9. "Now these ascending streams of warm air would be almost wholly obstructed by the compactness of a trodden path, and they would naturally divide at some distance below it, and pass up through the loose earth on each side, leaving the ground along the line of the path, to a great depth beneath it, a cold, dead mass, through which the frost would continue to penetrate, unchecked by the internal heat, which, in its unobstructed ascent on each side, would be continually checking or overcoming the frost in its action on the earth around. 10. "That, sir, is the true philosophy of the case, you may depend upon it. But we will now drop the discussion of these matters; for I am abundantly satisfied that you have not only knowledge enough, but that you can think for yourself. And now, sir, all I wish to know further about you is, whether you can teach others to think, which is half the battle with a teacher. But as I have had an eye on this point, while attending to the others, probably one experiment, which I will ask you to make on one of the boys here, will be all I shall want." "Proceed, sir," said the other. 11. "Ay, sir," rejoined Bunker, turning to the open fireplace, in which the burning wood was sending up a column of smoke, "there, you see that smoke rising, don't you? Well, you and I know the, reason why smoke goes upward, but my youngest boy does not, I think. Now take your own way, and see if you can make him understand it." 12. Locke, after a moment's reflection, and a glance round the room for something to serve for apparatus, took from a shelf, where he had espied a number of articles, the smallest of a set of cast-iron cart boxes, as are usually termed the round hollow tubes in which the axletree of a carriage turns. Then selecting a tin cup that would just take in the box, and turning into the cup as much water as he judged, with the box, would fill it, he presented them separately to the boy, and said, "There, my lad, tell me which of these is the heavier." 13. "Why, the cart box, to be sure," replied the boy, taking the cup, half-filled with water, in one hand, and the hollow iron in the other. "Then you think this iron is heavier than as much water as would fill the place of it, do you?" resumed Locke. "Why, yes, as heavy again, and more too--I know it is," promptly said the boy. 14. "Well, sir, now mark what I do," proceeded the former, dropping into the cup the iron box, through the hollow of which the water instantly rose to the brim of the vessel. "There, you saw that water rise to the top of the cup, did you?" "Yes, I did." "Very well, what caused it to do so?" 15. "Why, I know well enough, if I could only think: why, it is because the iron is the heavier, and as it comes all around the water so it can't get away sideways, it is forced up." "That is right; and now I want you to tell what makes that smoke rise up the chimney." 16. "Why,--I guess," replied the boy, hesitating, "I guess,--I guess I don't know." "Did you ever get up in a chair to look on some high shelf, so that your head was brought near the ceiling of a heated room, in winter? and did you notice any difference between the air up there and the air near the floor?" 17. "Yes, I remember I have, and found the air up there as warm as mustard; and when I got down, and bent my head near the floor to pick up something, I found it as cold as could be." "That is ever the case; but I wish you to tell me how the cold air always happens to settle down to the lower part of the room, while the warm air, somehow, at the same time, gets above." 18. "Why, why, heavy things settle down, and the cold air--yes, yes, that's it, I am sure--the cold air is heavier, and so settles down, and crowds up the warm air." "Very good. You then understand that cold air is heavier than the heated air, as that iron is heavier than the water; so now we will go back to the main question--what makes the smoke go upwards?" 19. "Oh! I see now as plain as day; the cold air settles down all round, like the iron box, and drives up the hot air as fast as the fire heats it, in the middle, like the water; and so the hot air carries the smoke along up with it, just as feathers and things in a whirlwind. Well! I have found out what makes smoke go up--is n't it curious?" 20. "Done like a philosopher!" cried Bunker. "The thing is settled. I will grant that you are a teacher among a thousand. You can not only think yourself, but can teach others to think; so you may call the position yours as quick as you please." DEFINITIONS.--2. In-tel-lec'tu-al, treating of the mind. 3. Tem'-pered, brought to a proper degree of hardness. 4. Com-pact', closely and firmly united, solid, dense. 4. Por'ous, full of pores or minute openings. 6. E-vap'o-rat-ed, passed off in vapor. 7. In-gen'ious (pro. in-jen'yus), well formed, skillful. 7. Phe-nom'e-non, whatever is presented to the eye. 8. In'ter-vals, spaces of time. 12. Ap-pa-ra'tus, utensils for performing experiments. NOTE.--Locke Amsden is represented as a bright young student in search of a position as teacher of a district school in Vermont. Mr. Buuker, the "Examining Committee," is a queer, shrewd old farmer, who can neither read nor write, but by careful observation has picked up a large amount of valuable information. The story opens in the midst of the examination. LXXIV. THE ISLE OF LONG AGO. Benjamin Franklin Taylor (b. 1819, d. 1887) was born at Lowville, N.Y. He graduated at Madison University, of which his father was president. In 1845 he published "Attractions of Language." For many years he was literary editor of the "Chicago Journal." Mr. Taylor wrote considerably for the magazines, was the author of many well-known favorite pieces both in prose and verse, and achieved success as a lecturer. 1. Oh, a wonderful stream is the river of Time, As it runs through the realm of tears, With a faultless rhythm and a musical rhyme, And a boundless sweep and a surge sublime, As it blends with the ocean of Years. 2. How the winters are drifting, like flakes of snow, And the summers, like buds between; And the year in the sheaf--so they come and they go, On the river's breast, with its ebb and flow, As it glides in the shadow and sheen. 3. There's a magical isle up the river of Time, Where the softest of airs are playing; There's a cloudless sky and a tropical clime, And a song as sweet as a vesper chime, And the Junes with the roses are staying. 4. And the name of that isle is the Long Ago, And we bury our treasures there; There are brows of beauty and bosoms of snow-- There are heaps of dust--but we love them so!-- There are trinkets and tresses of hair; 5. There are fragments of song that nobody sings, And a part of an infant's prayer, There's a lute unswept, and a harp without strings; There are broken vows and pieces of rings, And the garments that she used to wear. 6. There are hands that are waved, when the fairy shore By the mirage is lifted in air; And we sometimes hear, through the turbulent roar, Sweet voices we heard in the days gone before, When the wind down the river is fair. 7. Oh, remembered for aye be the blessed Isle, All the day of our life till night-- When the evening comes with its beautiful smile, And our eyes are closing to slumber awhile, May that "Greenwood." of Soul be in sight DEFINITIONS.--1. Realm, region, country. Rhythm, the harmonious flow of vocal sounds. Rhyme, a word answering in sound to another word. Surge, a great, rolling swell of water. 3. Ves'per, pertaining to the evening service in the Roman Catholic Church. 6. Mi-rage' (pro. me-razh'), an optical illusion causing objects at a distance to seem as though suspended in the air. 7. Aye (pro. a), always, ever. NOTES.--5. A lute unswept, that is, unplayed. 7. Greenwood is a notes and very beautiful cemetery at the southern extremity of Brooklyn, N.Y. The expression means, then, the resting place of the soul. LXXV. THE BOSTON MASSACRE. George Bancroft (b. 1800, d. 1891) was born at Worcester, Mass. He was an ambitious student, and graduated at Harvard College before he was eighteen years of age. He then traveled in Europe, spending some time at the German universities. On his return, in 1822, he was appointed tutor in Greek at Harvard. His writings at this time were a small volume of original poems, some translations from Schiller and Goethe, and a few striking essays. Mr. Bancroft has held numerous high political offices. In 1838 he was appointed collector of the port at Boston; in 1845 he was made secretary of the Navy; in 1849 he was sent as United States Minister to Great Britain; and in 1867 he was sent in the same capacity to Prussia. The work which has given Mr. Bancroft his great literary reputation is his "History of the United States, from the Discovery of the American Continent." The first volume appeared in 1834. Philosophical in reasoning, interesting, terse in style, and founded on careful research, under the most favorable advantages, the work stands alone in its sphere. 1. The evening of the fifth came on. The young moon was shining brightly in a cloudless winter sky, and its light was increased by a new-fallen snow. Parties of soldiers were driving about the streets, making a parade of valor, challenging resistance, and striking the inhabitants indiscriminately with sticks or sheathed cutlasses. 2. A band, which poured out from Murray's barracks, in Brattle Street, armed with clubs, cutlasses, and bayonets, provoked resistance, and a fray ensued. Ensign Maul, at the gate of the barrack yard, cried to the soldiers: "Turn out, and I will stand by you; kill them; stick them; knock them down; run your bayonets through them." One soldier after another leveled a firelock, and threatened to "make a lane" through the crowd. 3. Just before nine, as an officer crossed King Street, now State Street, a barber's lad cried after him: "There goes a mean fellow who hath not paid my father for dressing his hair;" on which, the sentinel stationed at the westerly end of the customhouse, on the corner of King Street and Exchange Lane, left his post, and with his musket gave the boy a stroke on the head, that made him stagger and cry for pain. 4. The street soon became clear, and nobody troubled the sentry, when a party of soldiers issued violently from the main guard, their arms glittering in the moonlight, and passed on, hallooing: "Where are they? where are they? Let them come." 5. Presently twelve or fifteen more, uttering the same cries, rushed from the south into King Street, and so by the way of Cornhill towards Murray's barracks. "Pray, soldiers, spare my life," cried a boy of twelve, whom they met. "No, no, I'll kill you all," answered one of them, and knocked him down with his cutlass. They abused and insulted several persons at their doors and others in the street; "running about like madmen in a fury," crying, "Fire!" which seemed their watchword, and, "Where are they? Knock them down." Their outrageous behavior occasioned the ringing of the bell at the head of King Street. 6. The citizens, whom the alarm set in motion, came out with canes and clubs; and, partly by the interference of well-disposed officers, partly by the courage of Crispus Attucks, a mulatto, and some others, the fray at the barracks was soon over. Of the citizens, the prudent shouted, "Home! home!" others, it is said, cried out, "Huzza for the main guard! there is the nest;" but the main guard was not molested the whole evening. 7. A body of soldiers came up Royal Exchange Lane, crying, "Where are the cowards?" and, brandishing their arms, passed through King Street. From ten to twenty boys came after them, asking, "Where are they? where are they?" "There is the soldier who knocked me down," said the barber's boy; and they began pushing one another towards the sentinel. He loaded and primed his musket. "The lobster is going to fire," cried a boy. Waving his piece about, the sentinel pulled the trigger. 8. "If you fire you must die for it," said Henry Knox, who was passing by. "I don't care," replied the sentry, "if they touch me, I'll fire." "Fire!" shouted the boys, for they were persuaded he could not do it without leave from a civil officer; and a young fellow spoke out, "We will knock him down for snapping," while they whistled through their fingers and huzzaed. "Stand off !" said the sentry, and shouted aloud, "Turn out, main guard!" "They are killing the sentinel," reported a servant from the customhouse, running to the main guard. "Turn out! why don't you turn cut?" cried Preston, who was captain of the day, to the guard. 9. A party of six, two of whom, Kilroi and Montgomery, had been worsted at the ropewalk, formed, with a corporal in front and Preston following. With bayonets fixed, they "rushed through the people" upon the trot, cursing them, and pushing them as they went along. They found about ten persons round the sentry, while about fifty or sixty came down with them. "For God's sake," said Knox! holding Preston by the coat, "take your men back again; if they fire, your life must answer for the consequences." "I know what I am about," said he hastily, and much agitated. 10. None pressed on them or provoked them till they began loading, when a party of about twelve in number, with sticks in their hands, moved from the middle of the street where they had been standing, gave three cheers, and passed along the front of the soldiers, whose muskets some of them struck as they went by. "You are cowardly rascals," they said, "for bringing arms against naked men." "Lay aside your guns, and we are ready for you." "Are the soldiers loaded?" inquired Palmes of Preston. "Yes," he answered, "with powder and ball." "Are they going to fire upon the inhabitants?" asked Theodore Bliss. "They can not, without my orders," replied Preston; while "the town-born" called out, "Come on, you rascals, you bloody backs, you lobster scoundrels, fire, if you dare. We know you dare not." 11. Just then, Montgomery received a blow from a stick which had hit his Musket; and the word "fire!" being given by Preston, he stepped a little to one side, and shot Attucks, who at the time was quietly leaning on a long stick. "Don't fire!" said Langford, the watchman, to Kilroi, looking him full in the face; but yet he did so, and Samuel Gray, who was standing next Langford, fell lifeless. The rest fired slowly and in succession on the people, who were dispersing. Three persons were killed, among them Attucks, the mulatto; eight were wounded, two of them mortally. Of all the eleven, not more than one had any share in the disturbance. 12. So infuriated were the soldiers that, when the men returned to take up the dead, they prepared to fire again, but were checked by Preston, while the Twenty-ninth Regiment appeared under arms in King Street. "This is our time," cried the soldiers of the Fourteenth; and dogs were never seen more greedy for their prey. 13. The bells rung in all the churches; the town drums beat. "To arms! to arms!" was the cry. "Our hearts," said Warren, "beat to arms, almost resolved by one stroke to avenge the death of our slaughtered brethren;" but they stood self-possessed, demanding justice according to the law. "Did you not know that you should not have fired without the order of a civil magistrate?" asked Hutchinson, on meeting Preston. "I did it," answered Preston, "to save my men." 14. The people would not be pacified or retire till the regiment was confined to the guardroom and the barracks; and Hutchinson himself gave assurances that instant inquiries should be made by the county magistrates. One hundred persons remained to keep watch on the examination, which lasted till three hours after midnight. A warrant was issued against Preston, who surrendered himself to the sheriff; and the soldiers of his party were delivered up and committed to prison. DEFINITIONS.--1. In-dis-crim'i-nate-ly, without distinction. 2. En-sued', followed, resulted from. En'sign (pro. en'sin). an officer of low rank. Fire'lock, an old-style musket, with flintlock. 7. Bran'-dish-ing, waving, flourishing. 13. Self'-pos-sessed, undisturbed, calm in mind, manner, etc. 14. Pac'i-fied, calmed, quieted. War'rant, a writ authorizing an officer to seize an offender. NOTES.--This massacre took place Monday, March 5, 1770. 5. Cornhill is the name of a street in Boston. 7. Lobster was the epithet applied to a British soldier by the Americans on account of his red coat. 8. Henry Knox (b. 1750, d. 1806) was then a bookseller in Boston. He afterwards became one of the American generals. 8. Ropewalk. The active trouble resulting in the massacre arose from a soldier's being thrashed the Friday before at Gray's ropewalk, where he had challenged one of the workmen to fight; other soldiers joined in the affray from time to time, but were always worsted. 13. Warren. This was Joseph Warren (b. 1741, d. 1775), the American patriot, killed shortly after at Bunker Hill. Thomas Hutchinson was at this time lieutenant governor of Massachusetts. Although born in Boston, he sided with the British government in the troubles before the Revolution, and sailed for England in 1774. LXXVI. DEATH OF THE BEAUTIFUL. Eliza Lee Fallen (b. 1787, d. 1859) was born in Boston, Mass. Her maiden name was Cabott. In 1828, she married Charles Follen, Professor of the German language and its literature in Harvard University. Her principal works are "Sketches of Married Life," "The Skeptic," "Twilight Stories," and "Little Songs." For several years Mrs. Follen was editor of the "Children's Friend." 1. The young, the lovely, pass away, Ne'er to be seen again; Earth's fairest flowers too soon decay, Its blasted trees remain. 2. Full oft, we see the brightest thing That lifts its head on high, Smile in the light, then droop its wing, And fade away and die. 3. And kindly is the lesson given; Then dry the falling tear: They came to raise our hearts to Heaven; They go to call us there. LXXVII. SNOW FALLING. John James Piatt (b. 1835,--) was born in Dearborn County, Ind., and is of French descent. He began to write verses at the age of fourteen, and has been connected editorially with several papers. Several editions of his poems have been issued from time to time, each edition usually containing some additional poems. Of these volumes we may mention: "Poems in Sunshine and Firelight," "Western Windows," "The Lost Farm," and "Poems of House and Home." 1. The wonderful snow is falling Over river and woodland and wold; The trees bear spectral blossom In the moonshine blurr'd and cold. 2. There's a beautiful garden in Heaven; And these are the banished flowers, Falling and driven and drifted Into this dark world of ours. DEFINITIONS.--1. Wold, a plain or open country, a country without wood whether hilly or not. Spec'tral, ghostly. 2. Ban'ished, condemned to exile, driven away. LXXVIII. SQUEERS'S METHOD. Charles Dickens (b. 1812, d. 1870). This celebrated novelist was born in Portsmouth, England. He began his active life as a lawyer's apprentice, in London; but soon became a reporter, and followed this occupation from 1831 to 1836. His first book was entitled "Sketches of London Society, by Boz." In 1837 he published the "Pickwick Papers," a work which established his reputation as a writer. His other works followed with great rapidity, and his last, "Edwin Drood," was unfinished when he died. He visited America in 1842 and in 1867. He is buried in Westminster Abbey. Mr. Dickens excelled in humor and pathos, and was particularly successful in delineating the joys and griefs of childhood. His writings have a tendency to prompt to deeds of kindness and benevolence. The following extract is taken from "Nicholas Nickleby," one of the best of his novels. 1. "Come," said Squeers, "let's go to the schoolroom; and lend me a hand with my school coat, will you?" Nicholas assisted his master to put on an old fustian shooting jacket, which he took down from a peg in the passage; and Squeers, arming himself with his cane, led the way across a yard to a door in the rear of the house. "There," said the schoolmaster, as they stepped in together; "this is our shop, Nickleby." 2. It was such a crowded scene, and there were so many objects to attract attention, that at first Nicholas stared about him, really without seeing anything at all. By degrees, however, the place resolved itself into a bare and dirty room with a couple of windows, whereof a tenth part might be of glass, the remainder being stopped up with old copy books and paper. 3. There were a couple of long, old, rickety desks, cut and notched, and inked and damaged in every possible way; two or three forms, a detached desk for Squeers, and another for his assistant. The ceiling was supported like that of a barn, by crossbeams and rafters, and the walls were so stained and discolored that it was impossible to tell whether they had ever been touched by paint or whitewash. 4. Pale and haggard faces, lank and bony figures, children with the countenances of old men, deformities with irons upon their limbs, boys of stunted growth, and others whose long, meager legs would hardly bear their stooping bodies, all crowded on the view together. There were little faces which should have been handsome, darkened with the scowl of sullen, dogged suffering; there was childhood with the light of its eye quenched, its beauty gone, and its helplessness alone remaining. 5. And yet this scene, painful as it was, had its grotesque features, which, in a less interested observer than Nicholas, might have provoked a smile. Mrs. Squeers stood at one of the desks, presiding over an immense basin of brimstone and treacle, of which delicious compound she administered a large installment to each boy in succession, using for the purpose a common wooden spoon, which might have been originally manufactured for some gigantic top, and which widened every young gentleman's mouth considerably, they being all obliged, under heavy corporeal penalties, to take in the whole bowl at a gasp. 6. "Now," said Squeers, giving the desk a great rap with his cane, which made half the little boys nearly jump out of their boots, "is that physicking over?" "Just over," said Mrs. Squeers, choking the last boy in her hurry, and tapping the crown of his head with the wooden spoon to restore him. "Here, you Smike: take away now. Look sharp!" 7. Smike shuffled out with the basin, and Mrs. Squeers hurried out after him into a species of washhouse, where there was a small fire, and a large kettle, together with a number of little wooden bowls which were arranged upon a board. Into these bowls Mrs. Squeers, assisted by the hungry servant, poured a brown composition which looked like diluted pincushions without the covers, and was called porridge. A minute wedge of brown bread was inserted in each bowl, and when they had eaten their porridge by means of the bread, the boys ate the bread itself, and had finished their breakfast, whereupon Mr. Squeers went away to his own. 8. After some half-hour's delay Mr. Squeers reappeared, and the boys took their places and their books, of which latter commodity the average might be about one to eight learners. A few minutes having elapsed, during which Mr. Squeers looked very profound, as if he had a perfect apprehension of what was inside all the books, and could say every word of their contents by heart, if he only chose to take the trouble, that gentleman called up the first class. 9. Obedient to this summons there ranged themselves in front of the schoolmaster's desk, half a dozen scarecrows, out at knees and elbows, one of whom placed a torn and filthy book beneath his learned eye. "This is the first class in English spelling and philosophy, Nickleby," said Squeers, beckoning Nicholas to stand beside him. "We'll get up a Latin one, and hand that over to you. Now, then, where's the first boy?" 10. "Please, sir, he's cleaning the back parlor window," said the temporary head of the philosophical class. "So he is, to be sure," rejoined Squeers. "We go upon the practical mode of teaching, Nickleby; the regular education system. C-l-e-a-n, clean, verb active, to make bright, to scour. W-i-n, win, d-e-r, der, winder, a casement. When the boy knows this out of book, he goes and does it. It's just the same principle as the use of the globes. Where's the second boy?" 11. "Please, sir, he is weeding the garden," replied a small voice. "To be sure," said Squeers, by no means disconcerted, "so he is. B-o-t, bot, t-i-n, tin, n-e-y, ney, bottinney, noun substantive, a knowledge of plants. When he has learned that bottinney means a knowledge of plants, he goes and knows 'em. That's our system, Nickleby: what do you think of it?" "It's a very useful one, at any rate," answered Nicholas, significantly. 12. "I believe you," rejoined Squeers, not remarking the emphasis of his usher. "Third boy, what's a horse?" "A beast, sir," replied the boy. "So it is," said Squeers. "Ain't it, Nickleby?" "I believe there is no doubt of that, sir," answered Nicholas. "Of course there is n't," said Squeers. "A horse is a quadruped, and quadruped's Latin for beast, as everybody that's gone through the grammar knows, or else where's the use of having grammars at all?" "Where, indeed!" said Nicholas, abstractedly. 13. "As you're perfect in that," resumed Squeers, turning to the boy, "go and look after my horse, and rub him down well, or I'll rub you down. The rest of the class go and draw water up till somebody tells you to leave off, for it's washing day to-morrow, and they want the coppers filled." DEFINITIONS.--1. Fus'tian, a kind of cotton stuff, including corduroy, velveteen, etc. 2. Re-solved', made clear, disentangled. 4. De-form'i-ties, misshapen persons. Stunt'ed, checked in growth. Mea'ger, thin, lean. 5. Gro-tesque' (pro. gro-tesk'), fanciful, absurd. Ad-min'is-tered, gave, dispensed. In-stall'ment (literally, part of a debt), part, portion. Cor-po're-al, bodily. 6. Phys'ick-ing, doctoring, treating with medicine. 7. Di-lut'ed, weakened by the addition of water. 8. Com-mod'i-ty, article, wares. Pro-found', intellectually deep, wise. Ap-pre-hen'sion, comprehension, knowledge. 10. Tem'po-ra-ry, for the time being. 11. Dis-con-cert'ed, confused, abashed. Sig-nif 'i-cant-ly, with meaning. 12. Ab-stract'-ed-ly, in an absent-minded way. NOTES.--1. Mr. Squeers is represented as an ignorant, brutal teacher, many of whom were to be found in Yorkshire, England, at the time of this story. Nicholas Nickleby is a well-educated, refined young man, who has just obtained the position of assistant teacher, not knowing Squeers's true character. 6. Smike is a poor scholar, disowned by his parents, and made almost idiotic by harsh treatment. The novel from which this story is abridged, aided greatly in a much-needed reform in the Yorkshire schools; and the character of Squeers was so true to life, that numerous suits were threatened against Mr. Dickens by those who thought themselves caricatured. LXXIX. THE GIFT OF EMPTY HANDS. Mrs. S. M. B. Piatt (b, 1835,--) was born near Lexington, Ky. While still a young girl she began to write poetry, which was well received. In 1861 she was married to the poet John James Piatt. Mrs. Piatt's poetry is marked by tender pathos, thoughtfulness, and musical flow of rhythm. The following selection is from "That New World." 1. They were two princes doomed to death; Each loved his beauty and his breath: "Leave us our life and we will bring Fair gifts unto our lord, the king." 2. They went together. In the dew A charmed bird before them flew. Through sun and thorn one followed it; Upon the other's arm it lit. 3. A rose, whose faintest flush was worth All buds that ever blew on earth, One climbed the rocks to reach; ah, well, Into the other's breast it fell. 4. Weird jewels, such as fairies wear, When moons go out, to light their hair, One tried to touch on ghostly ground; Gems of quick fire the other found. 5. One with the dragon fought to gain The enchanted fruit, and fought in vain; The other breathed the garden's air And gathered precious apples there. 6. Backward to the imperial gate One took his fortune, one his fate: One showed sweet gifts from sweetest lands, The other, torn and empty hands. 7. At bird, and rose, and gem, and fruit, The king was sad, the king was mute; At last he slowly said: "My son, True treasure is not lightly won. 8. Your brother's hands, wherein you see Only these scars, show more to me Than if a kingdom's price I found In place of each forgotten wound." DEFINITIONS.--1. Doomed, destined, condemned. 2. Charmed, bewitched, enchanted. 3. Blew, blossomed, bloomed. 4. Weird, tainted with witchcraft, supernatural. Quick, alive, living. 6. Im-pe'ri-al, royal. 7 Mute, silent. LXXX. CAPTURING THE WILD HORSE. 1. We left the buffalo camp about eight o'clock, and had a toilsome and harassing march of two hours, over ridges of hills covered with a ragged forest of scrub oaks, and broken by deep gullies. 2. About ten o'clock in the morning we came to where this line of rugged hills swept down into a valley, through which flowed the north fork of Red River. A beautiful meadow, about half a mile wide, enameled with yellow, autumnal flowers, stretched for two or three miles along the foot of the hills, bordered on the opposite side by the river, whose banks were fringed with cottonwood trees, the bright foliage of which refreshed and delighted the eye, after being wearied by the contemplation of monotonous wastes of brown forest. 3. The meadow was finely diversified by groves and clumps of trees, so happily dispersed that they seemed as if set out by the hand of art. As we cast our eyes over this fresh and delightful valley, we beheld a troop of wild horses quietly grazing on a green lawn, about a mile distant, to our right, while to our left, at nearly the same distance, were several buffaloes; some feeding, others reposing, and ruminating among the high, rich herbage, under the shade of a clump of cottonwood trees. The whole had the appearance of a broad, beautiful tract of pasture land, on the highly ornamented estate of some gentleman farmer, with his cattle grazing about the lawns and meadows. 4. A council of war was now held, and it was determined to profit by the present favorable opportunity, and try our hand at the grand hunting maneuver which is called "ringing the wild horse." This requires a large party of horsemen, well mounted. They extend themselves in each direction, at a certain distance apart, and gradually form a ring of two or three miles in circumference, so as to surround the game. This must be done with extreme care, for the wild horse is the most readily alarmed inhabitant of the prairie, and can scent a hunter a great distance, if to windward. 5. The ring being formed, two or three ride toward the horses, which start off in an opposite direction. Whenever they approach the bounds of the ring, however, a huntsman presents himself, and turns them from their course. In this way they are checked, and driven back at every point, and kept galloping round and round this magic circle, until, being completely tired down, it is easy for hunters to ride up beside them and throw the lariat over their heads. The prime horses of the most speed, courage, and bottom, however, are apt to break through and escape, so that, in general, it is the second-rate horses that are taken. 6. Preparations were now made for a hunt of this kind. The pack horses were now taken into the woods and firmly tied to trees, lest in a rush of the wild horses they should break away. Twenty-five men were then sent under the command of a lieutenant to steal along the edge of the valley within the strip of wood that skirted the hills. They were to station themselves about fifty yards apart, within the edge of the woods, and not advance or show themselves until the horses dashed in that direction. Twenty-five men were sent across the valley to steal in like manner along the river bank that bordered the opposite side, and to station themselves among the trees. 7. A third party of about the same number was to form a line, stretching across the lower part of the valley, so as to connect the two wings. Beatte and our other half-breed, Antoine, together with the ever-officious Tonish, were to make a circuit through the woods so as to get to the upper part of the valley, in the rear of the horses, and drive them forward into the kind of sack that we had formed, while the two wings should join behind them and make a complete circle. 8. The flanking parties were quietly extending themselves out of sight, on each side of the valley, and the residue were stretching themselves like the links of a chain across it, when the wild horses gave signs that they scented an enemy; snuffing the air, snorting, and looking about. At length they pranced off slowly toward the river, and disappeared behind a green bank. 9. Here, had the regulations of the chase been observed, they would have been quietly checked and turned back by the advance of a hunter from among the trees. Unluckily, however, we had our wildfire, Jack-o'-lantern little Frenchman to deal with. Instead of keeping quietly up the right side of the valley, to get above the horses, the moment he saw them move toward the river he broke out of the covert of woods and dashed furiously across the plain in pursuit of them. This put an end to all system. The half-breeds, and half a score of rangers, joined in the chase. 10. A way they all went over the green bank. In a moment or two the wild horses reappeared, and came thundering down the valley, with Frenchman, half-breeds, and rangers galloping and bellowing behind them. It was in vain that the line drawn across the valley attempted to check and turn back the fugitives; they were too hotly pressed by their pursuers: in their panic they dashed through the line, and clattered down the plain. 11. The whole troop joined in the headlong chase, some of the rangers without hats or caps, their hair flying about their ears, and others with handkerchiefs tied round their heads. The buffaloes, which had been calmly ruminating among the herbage, heaved up their huge forms, gazed for a moment at the tempest that came scouring down the meadow, then turned and took to heavy, rolling flight. They were soon overtaken; the promiscuous throng were pressed together by the contracting sides of the valley, and away they went, pellmell, hurry-skurry, wild buffalo, wild horse, wild huntsman, with clang and clatter, and whoop and halloo, that made the forests ring. 12. At length the buffaloes turned into a green brake, on the river bank, while the horses dashed up a narrow defile of the hills, with their pursuers close to their heels. Beatte passed several of them, having fixed his eye upon a fine Pawnee horse that had his ears slit and saddle marks upon his back. He pressed him gallantly, but lost him in the woods. 13. Among the wild horses was a fine black mare, which in scrambling up the defile tripped and fell. A young ranger sprang from his horse and seized her by the mane and muzzle. Another ranger dismounted and came to his assistance. The mare struggled fiercely, kicking and biting, and striking with her fore feet, but a noose was slipped over her head, and her struggles were in vain. 14. It was some time, however, before she gave over rearing and plunging, and lashing out with her feet on every side. The two rangers then led her along the valley, by two strong lariats, which enabled them to keep at a sufficient distance on each side to be out of the reach of her hoofs, and whenever she struck out in one direction she was jerked in the other. In this way her spirit was gradually subdued. 15. As to Tonish, who had marred the whole scene by his precipitancy, he had been more successful than he deserved, having managed to catch a beautiful cream-colored colt about seven months old, that had not strength to keep up with its companions. The mercurial little Frenchman was beside himself with exultation. It was amusing to see him with his prize. The colt would rear and kick, and struggle to get free, when Tonish would take him about the neck, wrestle with him, jump on his back, and cut as many antics as a monkey with a kitten. 16. Nothing surprised me more, however, than to witness how soon these poor animals, thus taken from the unbounded freedom of the prairie, yielded to the dominion of man. In the course of two or three days the mare and colt went with the led horses and became quite docile. --Washington Irving. DEFINITIONS.--1. Gul'lies, hollows in the earth worn by water. Di-ver'si-fied, distinguished by numerous aspects, varied. 3. Ru' mi-nat-ing, chewing over what has been slightly chewed before. Herb' age (pro. erb' aj), pasture, grass. 4. Prai'rie, an extensive, level tract without trees, but covered with tall grass. Wind'ward, the point from which the wind blows. 5. Lar'i-at, a long cord or thong of leather, with a noose, for catching wild horses. Bot'tom, power of endurance. 8. Flank'ing, overlooking or commanding on the side. 9. Jack-o'-lan'tern, a light seen in low, moist grounds, which disappears when approached. 9. Cov'ert, a covering place, a shelter. 10. Pan'ic, sudden fright (usually, causeless fright). 11. Pro-mis'cu-ous, mingled, confused. 15. Marred, interrupted, spoiled. Mer-cu'ri-al, sprightly, full of fire. LXXXI. SOWING AND REAPING. Adelaide Anne Procter (b. 1825, d. 1864) was the daughter of Bryan Waller Procter (better known as "Barry Cornwall "), a celebrated English poet, living in London. Miss Procter's first volume, "Legends and Lyrics," appeared in 1858, and met with great success; it was republished in this country. A second series, under the same name, was published in 1860; and in 1862 both series were republished with additional poems, and an introduction by Charles Dickens. In 1861 Miss Procter edited "Victoria Regia," a collection of poetical pieces, to which she contributed; and in 1862 "A Chaplet of Verses," composed of her own poems, was published. Besides these volumes, she contributed largely to various magazines and periodicals. 1. Sow with a generous hand; Pause not for toil and pain; Weary not through the heat of summer, Weary not through the cold spring rain; But wait till the autumn comes For the sheaves of golden grain. 2. Scatter the seed, and fear not, A table will be spread; What matter if you are too weary To eat your hard-earned bread; Sow, while the earth is broken, For the hungry must be fed. 3. Sow;--while the seeds are lying In the warm earth's bosom deep, And your warm tears fall upon it-- They will stir in their quiet sleep, And the green blades rise the quicker, Perchance, for the tears you weep. 4. Then sow;--for the hours are fleeting, And the seed must fall to-day; And care not what hand shall reap it, Or if you shall have passed away Before the waving cornfields Shall gladden the sunny day. 5. Sow;--and look onward, upward, Where the starry light appears,-- Where, in spite of the coward's doubting, Or your own heart's trembling fears, You shall reap in joy the harvest You have sown to-day in tears. LXXXII. TAKING COMFORT. 1. For the last few days, the fine weather has led me away from books and papers, and the close air of dwellings, into the open fields, and under the soft, warm sunshine, and the softer light of a full moon. The loveliest season of the whole year--that transient but delightful interval between the storms of the "wild equinox, with all their wet," and the dark, short, dismal days which precede the rigor of winter--is now with us. The sun rises through a soft and hazy atmosphere; the light mist clouds melt gradually before him; and his noontide light rests warm and clear on still woods, tranquil waters, and grasses green with the late autumnal rains. 2. One fine morning, not long ago, I strolled down the Merrimac, on the Tewksbury shore. I know of no walk in the vicinity of Lowell so inviting as that along the margin of the river, for nearly a mile from the village of Belvidere. The path winds, green and flower-skirted, among beeches and oaks, through whose boughs you catch glimpses of waters sparkling and dashing below. Rocks, huge and picturesque, jut out into the stream, affording beautiful views of the river and the distant city. 3. Half fatigued with my walk, I threw myself down upon a rocky slope of the bank, where the panorama of earth, sky, and water lay clear and distinct about me. Far above, silent and dim as a picture, was the city, with its huge mill masonry, confused chimney tops, and church spires; near it rose the height of Belvidere, with its deserted burial place and neglected gravestones sharply defined on its bleak, bare summit against the sky; before me the river went dashing down its rugged channel, sending up its everlasting murmur; above me the birch tree hung its tassels; and the last wild flowers of autumn profusely fringed the rocky rim of the water. 4. Right opposite, the Dracut woods stretched upwards from the shore, beautiful with the hues of frost, glowing with tints richer and deeper than those which Claude or Poussin mingled, as if the rainbows of a summer shower had fallen among them. At a little distance to the right, a group of cattle stood mid-leg deep in the river; and a troop of children, bright-eyed and mirthful, were casting pebbles at them from a projecting shelf of rock. Over all a warm but softened sunshine melted down from a slumberous autumnal sky. 5. My reverie was disagreeably broken. A low, grunting sound, half bestial, half human, attracted my attention. I was not alone. Close beside me, half hidden by a tuft of bushes, lay a human being, stretched out at full length, with his face literally rooted into the gravel. A little boy, five or six years of age, clean and healthful, with his fair brown locks and blue eyes, stood on the bank above, gazing down upon him with an expression of childhood's simple and unaffected pity. 6. "What ails you?" asked the boy at length. "What makes you lie there?" The prostrate groveler struggled halfway up, exhibiting the bloated and filthy countenance of a drunkard. He made two or three efforts to get upon his feet, lost his balance, and tumbled forward upon his face. "What are you doing there?" inquired the boy. "I'm taking comfort," he muttered, with his mouth in the dirt. 7. Taking his comfort! There he lay,--squalid and loathsome under the bright heaven,--an imbruted man. The holy harmonies of Nature, the sounds of gushing waters, the rustle of the leaves above him, the wild flowers, the frost bloom of the woods,--what were they to him? Insensible, deaf, and blind, in the stupor of a living death, he lay there, literally realizing that most bitterly significant eastern malediction, "May you eat dirt." --Whittier. DEFINITIONS.--l. Tran'sient (pro. tran'shent), of short duration. E'qui-nox, the time of year when the days and nights are of equal length, i.e., about September 23d or March 21st. Rigor, severity. 2. Pic-tur-esque' (pro. pik-tur-esk'), fitted to form a pleasing picture. 3. Pan-o-ra'ma, a complete or entire view in every direction. 5. Rev'er-ie, an irregular train of thoughts occurring in meditation. Bes'tial (pro. bes'chal), brutish. Lit'er-al-ly, according to the first and natural meaning of words. 6. Pros'trate, lying at length. Grov'el-er, a base wretch. Bloat'ed, puffed out. 7. Im-brut'ed, reduced to brutality. Har'mo-ny, the fitness of parts to each other in any combination of things. Re'al-iz-ing, making one's own in experience. Mal-e-dic'tion, a curse. NOTES.--The localities named in this selection are in the vicinity of Haverhill, Mass., where the old Whittier homestead is situated. 4. Claude Lorrain (b. 1600, d. 1682), whose proper name was Claude Gelee, was a celebrated landscape painter, born in Champagne, Vosges, France. Nicolas Poussin (b. 1594, d. 1665) was a French painter, who became one of the most remarkable artists of his age. His fame chiefly arises from his historical and mythological paintings. LXXXIII. CALLING THE ROLL. 1. "CORPORAL GREEN!" the orderly cried; "Here!" was the answer, loud and clear, From the lips of a soldier standing near; And "here!" was the word the next replied. "Cyrus Drew!" and a silence fell; This time no answer followed the call; Only his rear man saw him fall, Killed or wounded he could not tell. 2. There they stood in the fading light, These men of battle, with grave, dark looks, As plain to be read as open books, While slowly gathered the shades of night. The fern on the slope was splashed with blood, And down in the corn, where the poppies grew, Were redder stains than the poppies knew; And crimson-dyed was the river's flood. 3. For the foe had crossed from the other side That day, in the face of a murderous fire That swept them down in its terrible ire; And their lifeblood went to color the tide. "Herbert Cline!" At the call there came Two stalwart soldiers into the line, Bearing between them Herbert Cline, Wounded and bleeding, to answer his name. 4. "Ezra Kerr!" and a voice said "here!" "Hiram Kerr!" but no man replied: They were brothers, these two; the sad wind sighed, And a shudder crept through the cornfield near. "Ephraim Deane!"--then a soldier spoke: "Deane carried our regiment's colors," he said, "When our ensign was shot; I left him dead, Just after the enemy wavered and broke. 5. "Close to the roadside his body lies; I paused a moment and gave him to drink; He murmured his mother's name, I think; And death came with it and closed his eyes." 'T was a victory--yes; but it cost us dear; For that company's roll, when called at night, Of a hundred men who went into the fight, Numbered but twenty that answered "here!" --Shepherd. LXXXIV. TURTLE SOUP. Charles Frederick Briggs (b. 1804, d. 1877) was born on the island of Nantucket. When quite young, however, he became a resident of New York City. In 1845, in conjunction with Edgar A. Poe, he began the publication of the "Broadway Journal;" he was also connected with the "New York Times," and the "Evening Mirror;" also as editor from 1853 to 1856 with "Putnam's Magazine." Mr. Briggs wrote a few novels, some poetry, and numerous little humorous tales and sketches. The following selection is from "Working a Passage; or, Life on a Liner," one of his best stories. 1. Among the luxuries which the captain had provided for himself and passengers was a fine green turtle, which was not likely to suffer from exposure to salt water, so it was reserved until all the pigs, and sheep, and poultry had been eaten. A few days before we arrived, it was determined to kill the turtle and have a feast the next day. 2. Our cabin gentlemen had been long enough deprived of fresh meats to make them cast lickerish glances towards their hard-skinned friend, and there was a great smacking of lips the day before he was killed. As I walked aft occasionally, I heard them congratulating themselves on their prospective turtle soup and forcemeat balls; and one of them, to heighten the luxury of the feast, ate nothing but a dry biscuit for the twenty-four hours preceding, that he might be prepared to devour his full share of the unctuous compound. 3. It was to be a gala day with them; and though it was not champagne day, that falling on Saturday and this on Friday, they agreed to have champagne a day in advance, that nothing should be wanting to give a finish to their turtle. It happened to be a rougher day than usual when the turtle was cooked, but they had become too well used to the motion of the ship to mind that. 4. It happened to be my turn at the wheel the hour before dinner, and I had the tantalizing misery of hearing them laughing and talking about their turtle, while I was hungry from want of dry bread and salt meat. I had resolutely kept my thoughts from the cabin during all the passage but once, and now I found my ideas clustering round a tureen of turtle in spite of all my philosophy. 5. Confound them, if they had gone out of my hearing with their exulting smacks, I should not have envied their soup, but their hungry glee so excited my imagination that I could see nothing through the glazing of the binnacle but a white plate with a slice of lemon on the rim, a loaf of delicate bread, a silver spoon, a napkin, two or three wine glasses of different hues and shapes, and a water goblet clustering round it, and a stream of black, thick, and fragrant turtle pouring into the plate. 6. By and by it was four bells: they dined at three. And all the gentlemen, with the captain at their head, darted below into the cabin, where their mirth increased when they caught sight of the soup plates. "Hurry with the soup, steward," roared the captain. "Coming, sir," replied the steward. In a few moments the cook opened the door of his galley, and out came the delicious steam of the turtle. 7. Then came the steward with a large covered tureen in his hand, towards the cabin gangway. I forgot the ship for a moment in looking at this precious cargo, the wheel slipped from my hands, the ship broached to with a sudden jerk; the steward had got only one foot upon the stairs, when this unexpected motion threw him off his balance, and down he went by the run, the tureen slipped from his hands, and part of its contents flew into the lee scuppers, and the balance followed him in his fall. 8. I laughed outright. I enjoyed the turtle a thousand times more than I should have done if I had eaten the whole of it. But I was forced to restrain my mirth, for the next moment the steward ran upon deck, followed by the captain, in a furious rage, threatening if he caught him to throw him overboard. Not a spoonful of the soup had been left in the coppers, for the steward had taken it all away at once to keep it warm. In about an hour afterwards the passengers came upon deck, looking more sober than I had seen them since we left Liverpool. They had dined upon cold ham. DEFINTIONS.--1. Re-served', kept back, retained. 2. Lick'er. ish, eager or greedy to swallow. Aft, toward the stern of a vessel. Pro-spec'tive, relating to the future. Force'meat, meat chopped fine and highly seasoned. Unc'tu-ous, fat. 5. Glaz'ing, glass or glass-like substance. Bin'na-cle, a box containing the compass of a ship. 6. Gal'ley, the kitchen of a ship. 7. Tu-reen', a large deep vessel for holding soup. Gang'way, a passageway. Lee, pertaining to the side opposite that against which the wind blows. Scup'pers, channels cut through the side of a ship for carrying off water from the deck. Cop'pers, large copper boilers. NOTE.--6. Four bells; i.e., two o'clock. LXXXV. THE BEST KIND OF REVENGE. 1. Some years ago a warehouseman in Manchester, England, published a scurrilous pamphlet, in which he endeavored to hold up the house of Grant Brothers to ridicule. William Grant remarked upon the occurrence that the man would live to repent of what he had done; and this was conveyed by some talebearer to the libeler, who said, "Oh, I suppose he thinks I shall some time or other be in his debt; but I will take good care of that." It happens, however, that a man in business can not always choose who shall be his creditors. The pamphleteer became a bankrupt, and the brothers held an acceptance of his which had been indorsed to them by the drawer, who had also become a bankrupt. 2. The wantonly libeled men had thus become creditors of the libeler! They now had it in their power to make him repent of his audacity. He could not obtain his certificate without their signature, and without it he could not enter into business again. He had obtained the number of signatures required by the bankrupt law except one. It seemed folly to hope that the firm of "the brothers" would supply the deficiency. What! they who had cruelly been made the laughingstock of the public, forget the wrong and favor the wrongdoer? He despaired. But the claims of a wife and children forced him at last to make the application. Humbled by misery, he presented himself at the countinghouse of the wronged. 3. Mr. William Grant was there alone, and his first words to the delinquent were, "Shut the door, sir!" sternly uttered. The door was shut, and the libeler stood trembling before the libeled. He told his tale and produced his certificate, which was instantly clutched by the injured merchant. "You wrote a pamphlet against us once!" exclaimed Mr. Grant. The suppliant expected to see his parchment thrown into the fire. But this was not its destination. Mr. Grant took a pen, and writing something upon the document, handed it back to the bankrupt. He, poor wretch, expected to see "rogue, scoundrel, libeler," inscribed; but there was, in fair round characters, the signature of the firm. 4. "We make it a rule," said Mr. Grant, "never to refuse signing the certificate of an honest tradesman, and we have never heard that you were anything else." The tears started into the poor man's eyes. "Ah," said Mr. Grant, "my saying was true! I said you would live to repent writing that pamphlet. I did not mean it as a threat. I only meant that some day you would know us better, and be sorry you had tried to injure us. I see you repent of it now." "I do, I do!" said the grateful man; "I bitterly repent it." "Well, well, my dear fellow, you know us now. How do you get on? What are you going to do?" The poor man stated he had friends who could assist him when his certificate was obtained. "But how are you off in the meantime?" 5. And the answer was, that, having given up every farthing to his creditors, he had been compelled to stint his family of even common necessaries, that he might be enabled to pay the cost of his certificate. "My dear fellow, this will not do; your family must not suffer. Be kind enough to take this ten-pound note to your wife from me. There, there, my dear fellow! Nay, do not cry; it will all be well with you yet. Keep up your spirits, set to work like a man, and you will raise your head among us yet." The overpowered man endeavored in vain to express his thanks; the swelling in his throat forbade words. He put his handkerchief to his face and went out of the door, crying like a child. DEFINITIONS.--1. Ware'house-man (English usage), one who keeps a wholesale store for woolen goods. Scur'ril-ous, low, mean. Li'bel-er, one who defames another maliciously by a writing, etc 2. Au-dac'i-ty, bold impudence. Sig'na-ture, the name of a person written with his own hand, the name of a firm signed officially. De--fi'cien-cy, want. 3. De-lin'quent, an offender. Parch'ment, sheep or goat skin prepared for writing upon. 5. Stint, to limit. NOTE.--l. Acceptance. When a person upon whom a draft has been made, writes his name across the face of it, the draft then becomes "an acceptance." The person who makes the draft is called "the drawer;" the person to whom the money is ordered paid writes his name on the back of the draft and is called "an indorser." Paper of this kind frequently passes from hand to hand, so that there are several indorsers. LXXXVI. THE SOLDIER OF THE RHINE. Caroline Elizabeth Sarah Norton (b. 1808, d. 1877) was the grand-daughter of Richard Brinsley Sheridan. She wrote verses and plays at a very early age. "The Sorrows of Rosalie," published in 1829, was written before she was seventeen years old. In 1827 she was married to the Hon. George Chapple Norton. The marriage was an unhappy one, and they were divorced in 1836. Her principal works are "The Undying One," "The Dream, and Other Poems," "The Child of the Islands," "Stuart of Dunleith, a Romance," and "English Laws for English Women of the 19th Century." She contributed extensively to the magazines and other periodicals. 1. A soldier of the Legion lay dying in Algiers, There was lack of woman's nursing, there was dearth of woman's tears; But a comrade stood beside him, while his lifeblood ebbed away, And bent, with pitying glances, to hear what he might say. The dying soldier faltered, as he took that comrade's hand, And he said: "I nevermore shall see my own, my native land; Take a message and a token to some distant friends of mine, For I was born at Bingen,--at Bingen on the Rhine. 2. "Tell my brothers and companions, when they meet and crowd around To hear my mournful story in the pleasant vineyard ground, That we fought the battle bravely, and when the day was done, Full many a corse lay ghastly pale beneath the setting sun; And, 'mid the dead and dying, were some grown old in wars,-- The death wound on their gallant breasts, the last of many scars; But some were young, and suddenly beheld life's morn decline,-- And one had come from Bingen,--fair Bingen on the Rhine. 3. "Tell my mother that her other sons shall comfort her old age, For I was aye a truant bird, that thought his home a cage. For my father was a soldier, and, even when a child, My heart leaped forth to hear him tell of struggles fierce and wild; And when he died, and left us to divide his scanty hoard, I let them take whate'er they would, but kept my father's sword; And with boyish love I hung it where the bright light used to shine, On the cottage wall at Bingen,--calm Bingen on the Rhine. 4. "Tell my sister not to weep for me, and sob with drooping head, When the troops come marching home again, with glad and gallant tread, But to look upon them proudly, with a calm and steadfast eye, For her brother was a soldier, too, and not afraid to die; And if a comrade seek her love, I ask her in my name To listen to him kindly, without regret or shame, And to hang the old sword in its place (my father's sword and mine), For the honor of old Bingen,--dear Bingen on the Rhine. 5. "There's another,--not a sister; in the happy days gone by, You'd have known her by the merriment that sparkled in her eye; Too innocent for coquetry,--too fond for idle scorning,-- O friend! I fear the lightest heart makes sometimes heaviest mourning! Tell her the last night of my life--(for, ere the moon be risen, My body will be out of pain, my soul be out of prison), I dreamed I stood with her, and saw the yellow sunlight shine On the vine-clad hills of Bingen,--fair Bingen on the Rhine. 6. "I saw the blue Rhine sweep along: I heard, or seemed to hear, The German songs we used to sing, in chorus sweet and clear; And down the pleasant river, and up the slanting hill, The echoing chorus sounded, through the evening calm and still; And her glad blue eyes were on me, as we passed, with friendly talk, Down many a path beloved of yore, and well-remembered walk; And her little hand lay lightly, confidingly in mine,-- But we'll meet no more at Bingen,--loved Bingen all the Rhine." 7. His trembling voice grew faint and hoarse; his grasp was childish weak, His eyes put on a dying look,--he sighed and ceased to speak. His comrade bent to lift him, but the spark of life had fled,-- The soldier of the Legion in a foreign land was dead! And the soft moon rose up slowly, and calmly she looked down On the red sand of the battlefield, with bloody corses strewn; Yes, calmly on that dreadful scene, her pale light seemed to shine, As it shone on distant Bingen,--fair Bingen on the Rhine. DEFINITIONS.--1. Le'gion (pro. le'jun), division of an army. Dearth (pro. derth), scarcity. Ebbed, flowed out. 2. Corse, a dead body. 4. Stead'fast, firm, resolute. 5. Co-quet'ry, trifling in love. 6. Cho'rus, music in which all join. Yore, old times. NOTE.--l. Bingen is pronounced Bing'en, not Bin'gen, nor Bin'jen. LXXXVII. THE WINGED WORSHIPERS. Charles Sprague (b. 1791, d. 1875) was born in Boston, Mass. He engaged in mercantile business when quite young, leaving school for that purpose. In 1825, he was elected cashier of the Globe Bank of Boston, which position he held until 1864. Mr. Sprague has not been a prolific writer; but his poems, though few in number, are deservedly classed among the best productions of American poets. His chief poem is entitled "Curiosity." 1. Gay, guiltless pair, What seek ye from the fields of heaven? Ye have no need of prayer, Ye have no sins to be forgiven. 272 ECLECTIC SERIES. 2. Why perch ye here, Where mortals to their Maker bend? Can your pure spirits fear The God ye never could offend? 3. Ye never knew The crimes for which we come to weep; Penance is not for you, Blessed wanderers of the upper deep. 4. To you 't is given To wake sweet Nature's untaught lays; Beneath the arch of heaven To chirp away a life of praise. 5. Then spread each wing, Far, far above, o'er lakes and lands, And join the choirs that sing In yon blue dome not reared with hands. 6. Or, if ye stay To note the consecrated hour, Teach me the airy way, And let me try your envied power. 7. Above the crowd, On upward wings could I but fly, I'd bathe in yon bright cloud, And seek the stars that gem the sky. 8. 'T were Heaven indeed, Through fields of trackless light to soar, On Nature's charms to feed, And Nature's own great God adore. DEFINITIONS.--2. Perch, to light or settle on anything. 3. Pen'-ance, suffering for sin. 4. Lays, songs. 5. Choir (pro. kwir), a collection of singers. Dome, an arched structure above a roof; hence, figuratively, the heavens. 6. Con'se-crat-ed, set apart for the service of God. 8. Track'less, having no path. NOTE.--This little poem was addressed to two swallows that flew into church during service. LXXXVIII. THE PEEVISH WIFE. Maria Edgeworth (b. 1767, d. 1849) was born near Reading. Berkshire, England. In 1782 her father removed with his family to Edgeworthtown, Ireland, to reside on his estate. She lived here during the remainder of her life, with the exception of occasional short visits to England, Scotland, and France. She was educated principally by her father, and they were colaborers in literary productions, among which were "Essays on Practical Education," and the "Parent's Assistant." Her novels and tales were written without assistance, and her fame as a writer rests on them. The best known of these are "Castle Rackrent," "Moral Tales," "Tales of Fashionable Life," "Frank," "The Modern Griselda," and "Helen." Miss Edgeworth excels in the truthful delineation of character, and her works are full of practical good sense and genuine humor. Mrs. Bollingbroke. I wish I knew what was the matter with me this morning. Why do you keep the newspaper all to yourself, my dear? Mr. Bolingbroke. Here it is for you, my dear; I have finished it. Mrs. B. I humbly thank you for giving it to me when you have done with it. I hate stale news. Is there anything in the paper? for I can not be at the trouble of hunting it. Mr. B. Yes, my dear; there are the marriages of two of our friends. Mrs.B. Who? Who? Mr. B. Your friend, the widow Nettleby, to her cousin John Nettleby. Mrs. B. Mrs. Nettleby? Dear! But why did you tell me? Mr. B. Because you asked me, my dear. Mrs. B. Oh, but it is a hundred times pleasanter to read the paragraph one's self. One loses all the pleasure of the surprise by being told. Well, whose was the other marriage? Mr. B. Oh, my dear, I will not tell you; I will leave you the pleasure of the surprise. Mrs. B. But you see I can not find it. How provoking you are, my dear! Do pray tell me. Mr. B. Our friend Mr. Granby. Mrs. B. Mr. Granby? Dear! Why did you not make me guess? I should have guessed him directly. But why do you call him our friend? I am sure he is no friend of mine, nor ever was. I took an aversion to him, as you remember, the very first day I saw him. I am sure he is no friend of mine. Mr. B. I am sorry for it, my dear; but I hope you will go and see Mrs. Granby. Mrs. B. Not I, indeed, my dear. Who was she? Mr. B. Miss Cooke. Mrs. B. Cooke? But, there are so many Cookes. Can't you distinguish her any way? Has she no Christian name? Mr. B. Emma, I think. Yes, Emma. Mrs. B. Emma Cooke? No; it can not be my friend Emma Cooke; for I am sure she was cut out for an old maid. Mr. B. This lady seems to me to be cut out for a good wife. Mrs. B. Maybe so. I am sure I'll never go to see her. Pray, my dear, how came you to see so much of her? Mr. B. I have seen very little of her, my dear. I only saw her two or three times before she was married. Mrs. B. Then, my dear, how could you decide that she was cut out for a good wife? I am sure you could not judge of her by seeing her only two or three times, and before she was married. Mr. B. Indeed, my love, that is a very just observation. Mrs. B. I understand that compliment perfectly, and thank you for it, my dear. I must own I can bear anything better than irony. Mr. B. Irony? my dear, I was perfectly in earnest. Mrs. B. Yes, yes; in earnest; so I perceive; I may naturally be dull of apprehension, but my feelings are quick enough; I comprehend too well. Yes, it is impossible to judge of a woman before marriage, or to guess what sort of a wife she will make. I presume you speak from experience; you have been disappointed yourself, and repent your choice. Mr. B. My dear, what did I say that was like this? Upon my word, I meant no such thing. I really was not thinking of you in the least. Mrs. B. No, you never think of me now. I can easily believe that you were not thinking of me in the least. Mr. B. But I said that only to prove to you that I could not be thinking ill of you, my dear. Mrs. B. But I would rather that you thought ill of me than that you should not think of me at all. Mr. B. Well, my dear, I will even think ill of you if that will please you. Mrs. B. Do you laugh at me? When it comes to this I am wretched indeed. Never man laughed at the woman he loved. As long as you had the slightest remains of love for me you could not make me an object of derision; ridicule and love are incompatible, absolutely incompatible. Well, I have done my best, my very best, to make you happy, but in vain. I see I am not cut out to be a good wife. Happy, happy Mrs. Granby! Mr. B. Happy, I hope sincerely, that she will be with my friend; but my happiness must depend on you, my love; so, for my sake, if not for your own, be composed, and do not torment yourself with such fancies. Mrs. B. I do wonder whether this Mrs. Granby is really that Miss Emma Cooke. I'll go and see her directly; see her I must. Mr. B. I am heartily glad of it, my dear; for I am sure a visit to his wife will give my friend Granby real pleasure. Mrs. B. I promise you, my dear, I do not go to give him pleasure, or you either, but to satisfy my own curiosity. DEFINITIONS.--I'ron-y, language intended to convey a meaning contrary to its literal signification. De-ri'sion, the act of laughing at in contempt. In-com-pat'i-ble, that can not exist together. LXXXIX. THE RAINY DAY. 1. The day is cold, and dark, and dreary; It rains, and the wind is never weary; The vine still clings to the moldering wall, But at every gust the dead leaves fall. And the day is dark and dreary. 2. My life is cold, and dark, and dreary; It rains, and the wind is never weary; My thoughts still cling to the moldering Past, But the hopes of youth fall thick in the blast, And the days are dark and dreary. 3. Be still, sad heart! and cease repining; Behind the clouds is the sun still shining; Thy fate is the common fate of all, Into each life some rain must fall, Some days must be dark and dreary. --Longfellow. XC. BREAK, BREAK, BREAK. Alfred Tennyson (b. 1809, d. 1892) was born in Somersby, Lincolnshire, England. He graduated at Trinity College, Cambridge. His first volume of poems was published in 1830, but it made little impression and was severely criticised. On the publication of his third series in 1842, his poetic genius began to receive general recognition. Mr. Tennyson was made poet laureate in 1850, and was regarded as the foremost living poet of England. For several years his residence was on the Isle of Wight. In 1884, he was raised to the peerage. 1. Break, break, break, On thy cold gray stones, O sea! And I would that my tongue could utter The thoughts that arise in me. 2. Oh, well for the fisherman's boy, That he shouts with his sister at play! Oh, well for the sailor lad, That he sings in his boat on the bay! 3. And the stately ships go on To their haven under the hill; But oh for the touch of a vanished hand, And the sound of a voice that is still! 4. Break, break, break, At the foot of thy crags, O sea! But the tender grace of a day that is dead Will never come back to me. XCI. TRANSPORTATION AND PLANTING OF SEEDS. Henry David Thoreau (b. 1817, d. 1862). This eccentric American author and naturalist was born at Concord, Mass. He graduated at Harvard University in 1837. He was a good English and classical scholar, and was well acquainted with the literature of the East. His father was a maker of lead pencils, and he followed the business for a time, but afterwards supported himself mainly by teaching, lecturing, land surveying, and carpentering. In 1845 he built himself a small wooden house near Concord, on the shore of Walden Pond, where he lived about two years. He was intimate with Hawthorne, Emerson, and other literary celebrities. His principal works are "Walden, or Life in the Woods," "A Week on Concord and Merrimac Rivers," "Excursions," "Maine Woods," "Cape Cod," "A Yankee in Canada," and "Letters to Various Persons." In descriptive power Mr. Thoreau has few, if any, superiors. 1. In all the pines a very thin membrane, in appearance much like an insect's wing, grows over and around the seed, and independent of it, while the latter is being developed within its base. In other words, a beautiful thin sack is woven around the seed, with a handle to it such as the wind can take hold of, and it is then committed to the wind, expressly that it may transport the seed and extend the range of the species; and this it does as effectually as when seeds are sent by mail, in a different kind of sack, from the patent office. 2. There is, then, no necessity for supposing that the pines have sprung up from nothing, and I am aware that I am not at all peculiar in asserting that they come from seeds, though the mode of their propagation by Nature has been but little attended to. They are very extensively raised from the seed in Europe, and are beginning to be here. 3. When you cut down an oak wood, a pine wood will not at once spring up there unless there are, or have been quite recently, seed-bearing pines near enough for the seeds to be blown from them. But, adjacent to a forest of pines, if you prevent other crops from growing there, you will surely have an extension of your pine forest, provided the soil is suitable. 4. As I walk amid hickories, even in August, I hear the sound of green pignuts falling from time to time, cut off by the chickaree over my head. In the fall I notice on the ground, either within or in the neighborhood of oak woods, on all sides of the town, stout oak twigs three or four inches long, bearing half a dozen empty acorn cups, which twigs have been gnawed off by squirrels, on both sides of the nuts, in order to make them more portable. The jays scream and the red squirrels scold while you are clubbing and shaking the chestnut trees, for they are there on the same errand, and two of a trade never agree. 5. I frequently see a red or a gray squirrel cast down a green chestnut burr, as I am going through the woods, and I used to think, sometimes, that they were cast at me. In fact, they are so busy about it, in the midst of the chestnut season, that you can not stand long in the woods without hearing one fall. 6. A sportsman told me that he had, the day before--that was in the middle of October--seen a green chestnut burr dropped on our great river meadow, fifty rods from the nearest wood, and much farther from the nearest chestnut tree, and he could not tell how it came there. Occasionally, when chestnutting in midwinter, I find thirty or forty nuts in a pile, left in its gallery just under the leaves, by the common wood mouse. 7. But especially, in the winter, the extent to which this transportation and planting of nuts is carried on, is made apparent by the snow. In almost every wood you will see where the red or gray squirrels have pawed down through the snow in a hundred places, sometimes two feet deep, and almost always directly to a nut or a pine cone, as directly as if they had started from it and bored upward,--which you and I could not have done. It would be difficult for us to find one before the snow falls. Commonly, no doubt, they had deposited them there in the fall. You wonder if they remember the localities or discover them by the scent. 8. The red squirrel commonly has its winter abode in the earth under a thicket of evergreens, frequently under a small clump of evergreens in the midst of a deciduous wood. If there are any nut trees, which still retain their nuts, standing at a distance without the wood, their paths often lead directly to and from them. We, therefore, need not suppose an oak standing here and there in the wood in order to seed it, but if a few stand within twenty or thirty rods of it, it is sufficient. 9. I think that I may venture to say that every white-pine cone that falls to the earth naturally in this town, before opening and losing its seeds, and almost every pitch-pine one that falls at all, is cut off by a squirrel; and they begin to pluck them long before they are ripe, so that when the crop of white-pine cones is a small one, as it commonly is, they cut off thus almost everyone of these before it fairly ripens. 10. I think, moreover, that their design, if I may so speak, in cutting them off green, is partly to prevent their opening and losing their seeds, for these are the ones for which they dig through the snow, and the only white-pine cones which contain anything then. I have counted in one heap the cores of two hundred and thirty-nine pitch-pine cones which had been cut off and stripped by the red squirrel the previous winter. 11. The nuts thus left on the surface, or buried just beneath it, are placed in the most favorable circumstances for germinating. I have sometimes wondered how those which merely fell on the surface of the earth got planted; but, by the end of December, I find the chestnut of the same year partially mixed with the mold, as it were, under the decaying and moldy leaves, where there is all the moisture and manure they want, for the nuts fall fast. In a plentiful year a large proportion of the nuts are thus covered loosely an inch deep, and are, of course, somewhat concealed from squirrels. 12. One winter, when the crop had been abundant, I got, with the aid of a rake, many quarts of these nuts as late as the tenth of January; and though some bought at the store the same day were more than half of them moldy, I did not find a single moldy one among those which I picked from under the wet and moldy leaves, where they had been snowed on once or twice. Nature knew how to pack them best. They were still plump and tender. Apparently they do not heat there, though wet. In the spring they are all sprouting. 13. Occasionally, when threading the woods in the fall, you will hear a sound as if some one had broken a twig, and, looking up, see a jay pecking at an acorn, or you will see a flock of them at once about it, in the top of an oak, and hear them break it off. They then fly to a suitable limb, and placing the acorn under one foot, hammer away at it busily, making a sound like a woodpecker's tapping, looking round from time to time to see if any foe is approaching, and soon reach the meat, and nibble at it, holding up their heads to swallow while they hold the remainder very firmly with their claws. Nevertheless, it often drops to the ground before the bird has done with it. 14. I can confirm what William Barton wrote to Wilson, the ornithologist, that "The jay is one of the most useful agents in the economy of nature for disseminating forest trees and other nuciferous and hard-seeded vegetables on which they feed. In performing this necessary duty they drop abundance of seed in their flight over fields, hedges, and by fences, where they alight to deposit them in the post holes, etc. It is remarkable what numbers of young trees rise up in fields and pastures after a wet winter and spring. These birds alone are capable in a few years' time to replant all the cleared lands." 15. I have noticed that squirrels also frequently drop nuts in open land, which will still further account for the oaks and walnuts which spring up in pastures; for, depend on it, every new tree comes from a seed. When I examine the little oaks, one or two years old, in such places, I invariably find the empty acorn from which they sprung. DEFINITIONS.--1. Mem'brane, a thin, soft tissue of interwoven fibers. 2. Prop-a-ga'tion, the continuance of a kind by successive production. 4. Port'a-ble, capable of being carried. 7. Trans-por-ta'tion, the act of conveying from one place to another. 8. De--cid'u-ous, said of trees whose leaves fall in autumn. 11. Ger'mi-nat-ing, sprouting, beginning to grow. 14. Or-ni-thol'o-gist, one skilled in the science which treats of birds. E-con'o-my, orderly system, Dis-sem'i-nat-ing, scattering for growth and propagation. Nu-cif 'er-ous, bearing nuts. XCII. SPRING AGAIN. Celia Thaxter (b. 1836, d. 1894), whose maiden name was Laighton, was born in Portsmouth, N.H. Much of her early life was passed on White Island, one of a group of small islands, called the Isles of Shoals, about ten miles from the shore, where she lived in the lighthouse cottage. In 1867-68, she published, in the "Atlantic Monthly," a number of papers on these islands, which were afterwards bound in a separate volume. Mrs. Thaxter was a contributor to several periodicals, and in strength and beauty of style has few equals among American writers. The following selection is from a volume of her poems entitled "Drift Weed." 1. I stood on the height in the stillness And the planet's outline scanned, And half was drawn with the line of sea And half with the far blue land. 2. With wings that caught the sunshine In the crystal deeps of the sky, Like shapes of dreams, the gleaming gulls Went slowly floating by. 3. Below me the boats in the harbor Lay still, with their white sails furled; Sighing away into silence, The breeze died off the world. 4. On the weather-worn, ancient ledges Peaceful the calm light slept; And the chilly shadows, lengthening, Slow to the eastward crept. 5. The snow still lay in the hollows, And where the salt waves met The iron rock, all ghastly white The thick ice glimmered yet. 6. But the smile of the sun was kinder, The touch of the air was sweet; The pulse of the cruel ocean seemed Like a human heart to beat. 7. Frost-locked, storm-beaten, and lonely, In the midst of the wintry main, Our bleak rock yet the tidings heard: "There shall be spring again!" 8. Worth all the waiting and watching, The woe that the winter wrought, Was the passion of gratitude that shook My soul at the blissful thought! 9. Soft rain and flowers and sunshine, Sweet winds and brooding skies, Quick-flitting birds to fill the air With clear delicious cries; 10. And the warm sea's mellow murmur Resounding day and night; A thousand shapes and tints and tones Of manifold delight, 11. Nearer and ever nearer Drawing with every day! But a little longer to wait and watch 'Neath skies so cold and gray; 12. And hushed is the roar of the bitter north Before the might of the spring, And up the frozen slope of the world Climbs summer, triumphing. XCIII. RELIGION THE ONLY BASIS OF SOCIETY. William Ellery Channing (b. 1780, d. 1842), an eminent divine and orator, was born at Newport, R.I. He graduated from Harvard with the highest honors in 1798, and, in 1803, he was made pastor of the Federal Street Church, Boston, with which he maintained his connection until his death. Towards the close of his life, being much enfeebled, he withdrew almost entirely from his pastoral duties, and devoted himself to literature. Dr. Channing's writings are published in six volumes, and are mainly devoted to theology. 1. Religion is a social concern; for it operates powerfully on society, contributing in various ways to its stability and prosperity. Religion is not merely a private affair; the community is deeply interested in its diffusion; for it is the best support of the virtues and principles, on which the social order rests. Pure and undefiled religion is to do good; and it follows, very plainly, that if God be the Author and Friend of society, then, the recognition of him must enforce all social duty, and enlightened piety must give its whole strength to public order. 2. Few men suspect, perhaps no man comprehends, the extent of the support given by religion to every virtue. No man, perhaps, is aware how much our moral and social sentiments are fed from this fountain; how powerless conscience would become without the belief of a God; how palsied would be human benevolence, were there not the sense of a higher benevolence to quicken and sustain it; how suddenly the whole social fabric would quake, and with what a fearful crash it would sink into hopeless ruin, were the ideas of a Supreme Being, of accountableness and of a future life to be utterly erased from every mind. 3. And, let men thoroughly believe that they are the work and sport of chance; that no superior intelligence concerns itself with human affairs; that all their improvements perish forever at death; that the weak have no guardian, and the injured no avenger; that there is no recompense for sacrifices to uprightness and the public good; that an oath is unheard in heaven; that secret crimes have no witness but the perpetrator; that human existence has no purpose, and human virtue no unfailing friend; that this brief life is everything to us, and death is total, everlasting extinction; once let them thoroughly abandon religion, and who can conceive or describe the extent of the desolation which would follow? 4. We hope, perhaps, that human laws and natural sympathy would hold society together. As reasonably might we believe that were the sun quenched in the heavens, our torches would illuminate, and our fires quicken and fertilize the creation. What is there in human nature to awaken respect and tenderness, if man is the unprotected insect of a day? And what is he more, if atheism be true? 5. Erase all thought and fear of God from a community, and selfishness and sensuality would absorb the whole man. Appetite, knowing no restraint, and suffering, having no solace or hope, would trample in scorn on the restraints of human laws. Virtue, duty, principle, would be mocked and spurned as unmeaning sounds. A sordid self-interest would supplant every feeling; and man would become, in fact, what the theory in atheism declares him to be,--a companion for brutes. DEFINITIONS.--1. Com-mu'ni-ty, society at large, the public. Dif-fu'sion, extension, spread. En-light'ened, elevated by knowledge and religion. 2. Fab'ric, any system composed of connected parts. Erased', blotted out. 3. Per'pe-tra-tor, one who commits a crime. Ex-tinc'tion, a putting an end to. 4. Fer'ti-lize, to make fruitful. A'the-ism, disbelief in God. Sen-su-al'i-ty, indulgence in animal pleasure. XCIV. ROCK ME TO SLEEP. Elizabeth Akers Allen (b. 1832,--) was born at Strong, Maine, and passed her childhood amidst the picturesque scenery of that neighborhood. She lost her mother when very young, but inherited her grace and delicacy of thought. Shortly after her mother's death, her father removed to Farmington, Maine, a town noted for its literary people. Mrs. Allen's early pieces appeared over the pseudonym of "Florence Percy." Her first verses appeared when she was twelve years old; and her first volume, entitled "Forest Buds from the Woods of Maine," was Published in 1856. For some years she was assistant editor of the "Portland Transcript." The following selection was claimed by five different persons, who attempted to steal the honor of its composition. 1. Backward, turn backward, O Time, in your flight, Make me a child again, just for to-night! Mother, come back from the echoless shore, Take me again to your heart as of yore; Kiss from my forehead the furrows of care, Smooth the few silver threads out of my hair; Over my slumbers your loving watch keep;-- Rock me to sleep, mother,--rock me to sleep! 2. Backward, flow backward, O tide of the years! I am so weary of toil and of tears; Toil without recompense, tears all in vain; Take them, and give me my childhood again! I have grown weary of dust and decay,-- Weary of flinging my soul wealth away; Weary of sowing for others to reap;-- Rock me to sleep, mother,--rock me to sleep! 3. Tired of the hollow, the base, the untrue, Mother, O mother, my heart calls for you! Many a summer the grass has grown green, Blossomed and faded, our faces between: Yet with strong yearning and passionate pain, Long I to-night for your presence again. Come from the silence so long and so deep;-- Rock me to sleep, mother,--rock me to sleep! 4. Over my heart in the days that are flown, No love like mother love ever has shone; No other worship abides and endures, Faithful, unselfish, and patient like yours: None like a mother can charm away pain From the sick soul, and the world-weary brain. Slumber's soft calms o'er my heavy lids creep;-- Rock me to sleep, mother,--rock me to sleep! 5. Come, let your brown hair, just lighted with gold, Fall on your shoulders again, as of old; Let it drop over my forehead to-night, Shading my faint eyes away from the light; For with its sunny-edged shadows once more, Haply will throng the sweet visions of yore; Lovingly, softly, its bright billows sweep;-- Rock me to sleep, mother,--rock me to sleep! 6. Mother, dear mother, the years have been long Since I last listened your lullaby song; Sing, then, and unto my soul it shall seem Womanhood's years have been only a dream! Clasped to your heart in a loving embrace, With your light lashes just sweeping my face, Never hereafter to wake or to weep:-- Rock me to sleep, mother,--rock me to sleep! XCV. MAN AND THE INFERIOR ANIMALS. 1. The chief difference between man and the other animals consists in this, that the former has reason, whereas the latter have only instinct; but, in order to understand what we mean by the terms reason and instinct, it will be necessary to mention three things in which the difference very distinctly appears. 2. Let us first, to bring the parties as nearly on a level as possible, consider man in a savage state, wholly occupied, like the beasts of the field, in providing for the wants of his animal nature; and here the first distinction that appears between them is the use of implements. When the savage provides himself with a hut or a wigwam for shelter, or that he may store up his provisions, he does no more than is done by the rabbit, the beaver, the bee, and birds of every species. 3. But the man can not make any progress in this work without tools; he must provide himself with an ax even before he can cut down a tree for its timber; whereas these animals form their burrows, their cells, or their nests, with no other tools than those with which nature has provided them. In cultivating the ground, also, man can do nothing without a spade or a plow; nor can he reap what he has sown till he has shaped an implement with which to cut clown his harvest. But the inferior animals provide for themselves and their young without any of these things. 4. Now for the second distinction. Man, in all his operations, makes mistakes; animals make none. Did you ever hear of such a thing as a bird sitting on a twig lamenting over her half-finished nest and puzzling her little head to know how to complete it? Or did you ever see the cells of a beehive in clumsy, irregular shapes, or observe anything like a discussion in the little community, as if there were a difference of opinion among the architects? 5. The lower animals are even better physicians than we are; for when they are ill, they will, many of them, seek out some particular herb, which they do not, use as food, and which possesses a medicinal quality exactly suited to the complaint; whereas, the whole college of physicians will dispute for a century about the virtues of a single drug. 6. Man undertakes nothing in which he is not more or less puzzled; and must try numberless experiments before he can bring his undertakings to anything like perfection; even the simplest operations of domestic life are not well performed without some experience; and the term of man's life is half wasted before he has done with his mistakes and begins to profit by his lessons. 7. The third distinction is that animals make no improvements; while the knowledge, and skill, and the success of man are perpetually on the increase. Animals, in all their operations, follow the first impulse of nature or that instinct which God has implanted in them. In all they do undertake, therefore, their works are more perfect and regular than those of man. 8. But man, having been endowed with the faculty of thinking or reasoning about what he does, is enabled by patience and industry to correct the mistakes into which he at first falls, and to go on constantly improving. A bird's nest is, indeed, a perfect structure; yet the nest of a swallow of the nineteenth century is not at all more commodious or elegant than those that were built amid the rafters of Noah's ark. But if we compare the wigwam of the savage with the temples and palaces of ancient Greece and Rome, we then shall see to what man's mistakes, rectified and improved upon, conduct him. 9. "When the vast sun shall veil his golden light Deep in the gloom of everlasting night; When wild, destructive flames shall wrap the skies, When ruin triumphs, and when nature dies; Man shall alone the wreck of worlds survive; 'Mid falling spheres, immortal man shall live." --Jane Taylor. DEFINITIONS.--2. Dis-tinc'tion, a point of difference. Im'ple-ments, utensils, tools. Wigwam, an Indian hut. 3. Bur'rows, holes in the earth where animals lodge. 4. Dis-cus'sion, the act of arguing a point, debate. 5. Me-dic'i-nal, healing. 8. En-dowed', furnished with any gift, quality, etc. Fac'ul-ty, ability to act or perform. Rec'ti-fied, corrected. XCVI. THE BLIND MEN AND THE ELEPHANT. John Godfrey Saxe (b. 1816, d.1887), an American humorist, lawyer, and journalist, was born at Highgate, Vt. He graduated at Middlebury College in 1839; was admitted to the bar in 1843; and practiced law until 1850, when he became editor of the "Burlington Sentinel." In 1851, he was elected State's attorney. "Progress, a Satire, and Other Poems," his first volume, was published in 1849, and several other volumes of great merit attest his originality. For genial humor and good-natured satire, Saxe's writings rank among the best of their kind, and are very popular. 1. It was six men of Indostan, To learning much inclined, Who went to see the elephant, (Though all of them were blind,) That each by observation Might satisfy his mind. 2. The first approached the elephant, And, happening to fall Against his broad and sturdy side, At once began to bawl: "God bless me! but the elephant Is very like a wall!" 3. The second, feeling of the tusk, Cried: "Ha! what have we here, So very round, and smooth, and sharp? To me 't is very clear, This wonder of an elephant Is very like a spear!" 4. The third approached the animal, And, happening to take The squirming trunk within his hands, Thus boldly up he spake: "I see," quoth he, "the elephant Is very like a snake!" 5. The fourth reached out his eager hand, And fell about the knee: "What most this wondrous beast is like, Is very plain," quoth he; " 'T is clear enough the elephant Is very like a tree!" 6. The fifth, who chanced to touch the ear, Said: "E'en the blindest man Can tell what this resembles most: Deny the fact who can, This marvel of an elephant Is very like a fan!" 7. The sixth no sooner had begun About the beast to grope, Than, seizing on the swinging tail That fell within his scope, "I see," quoth he, "the elephant Is very like a rope!" 8. And so these men of Indostan Disputed loud and long, Each in his own opinion Exceeding stiff and strong, Though each was partly in the right, And all were in the wrong! XCVII. A HOME SCENE. Donald Grant Mitchell (b. 1822,--). This popular American writer was born in Norwich, Conn. He graduated at Yale in 1841. In 1844 he went to England, and, after traveling through that country on foot, spent some time on the continent. His first volume, "Fresh Gleanings, or a New Sheaf from the Old Fields of Continental Europe, by Ik Marvel," was published in 1847, soon after his return home. He revisited Europe in 1848. On his return, he published "The Battle Summer." Mr. Mitchell has contributed to the "Knickerbocker Magazine," the "Atlantic Monthly," and several agricultural journals. His most popular works are "The Reveries of a Bachelor," 1850, and "Dream Life," 1851. Besides these, he has written "My Farm of Edgewood," "Wet Days at Edgewood," "Doctor Johns," a novel "Rural Studies," and other works. He is a charming writer. In 1853 he was appointed United States consul at Venice. In 1855 he settled on a farm near New Haven, Conn., where he now resides. The following selection is from "Dream Life." 1. Little does the boy know, as the tide of years drifts by, floating him out insensibly from the harbor of his home, upon the great sea of life,--what joys, what opportunities, what affections, are slipping from him into the shades of that inexorable Past, where no man can go, save on the wings of his dreams. 2. Little does he think, as he leans upon the lap of his mother, with his eye turned to her, in some earnest pleading for a fancied pleasure of the hour, or in some important story of his griefs, that such sharing of his sorrows, and such sympathy with his wishes, he will find nowhere again. 3. Little does he imagine that the fond sister Nelly, ever thoughtful of his pleasures, ever smiling away his griefs, will soon be beyond the reach of either; and that the waves of the years which come rocking so gently under him will soon toss her far away, upon the great swell of life. 4. But now, you are there. The fire light glimmers upon the walls of your cherished home. The big chair of your father is drawn to its wonted corner by the chimney side; his head, just touched with gray, lies back upon its oaken top. Opposite sits your mother: her figure is thin, her look cheerful, yet subdued;--her arm perhaps resting on your shoulder, as she talks to you in tones of tender admonition, of the days that are to come. 5. The cat is purring on the hearth; the clock that ticked so plainly when Charlie died is ticking on the mantel still. The great table in the middle of the room, with its books and work, waits only for the lighting of the evening lamp, to see a return to its stores of embroidery and of story. 6. Upon a little stand under the mirror, which catches now and then a flicker of the fire light, and makes it play, as if in wanton, upon the ceiling, lies that big book, reverenced of your New England parents--the Family Bible. It is a ponderous, square volume, with heavy silver clasps, that you have often pressed open for a look at its quaint, old pictures, for a study of those prettily bordered pages, which lie between the Testaments, and which hold the Family Record. 7. There are the Births;--your father's and your mother's; it seems as if they were born a long time ago; and even your own date of birth appears an almost incredible distance back. Then there are the Marriages;--only one as yet; and your mother's name looks oddly to you: it is hard to think of her as anyone else than your doting parent. 8. Last of all come the Deaths;--only one. Poor Charlie! How it looks!--" Died, 12 September, 18--, Charles Henry, aged four years." You know just how it looks. You have turned to it often; there you seem to be joined to him, though only by the turning of a leaf. 9. And over your thoughts, as you look at that page of the Record, there sometimes wanders a vague, shadowy fear, which will come,--that your own name may soon be there. You try to drop the notion, as if it were not fairly your own; you affect to slight it, as you would slight a boy who presumed on your acquaintance, but whom you have no desire to know. 10. Yet your mother--how strange it is!--has no fears of such dark fancies. Even now, as you stand beside her, and as the twilight deepens in the room, her low, silvery voice is stealing upon your ear, telling you that she can not be long with you;--that the time is coming, when you must be guided by your own judgment, and struggle with the world unaided by the friends of your boyhood. 11. There is a little pride, and a great deal more of anxiety, in your thoughts now, as you look steadfastly into the home blaze, while those delicate fingers, so tender of your happiness, play with the locks upon your brow. To struggle with the world,--that is a proud thing; to struggle alone,--there lies the doubt! Then crowds in swift upon the calm of boyhood the first anxious thought of youth. 12. The hands of the old clock upon the mantel that ticked off the hours when Charlie sighed and when Charlie died, draw on toward midnight. The shadows that the fireflame makes grow dimmer and dimmer. And thus it is, that Home,--boy home, passes away forever,--like the swaying of a pendulum,--like the fading of a shadow on the floor. DEFINITIONS.--l. In-ex'or-a-ble, not to be changed. 4. Wont'ed, accustomed. Ad-mo-ni'tion (pro. ad-mo'nish'un), counseling against fault or error. 13. Pon'der-ous, very heavy. Quaint (pro. kwant), odd and antique. 7. In-cred'i-ble, impossible to be believed. Dot'-ing, loving to excess. 9. Vague (pro. vag), indefinite. Pre-sumed', pushed upon or intruded in an impudent manner. XCVIII. THE LIGHT OF OTHER DAYS. Thomas Moore (b. 1779. d. 1852) was born in Dublin, Ireland, and he was educated at Trinity College in that city. In 1799, he entered the Middle Temple, London, as a student of law. Soon after the publication of his first poetical productions, he was sent to Bermuda in an official capacity. He subsequently visited the United States. Moore's most famous works are: "Lalla Rookh," an Oriental romance, 1817; "The Loves of the Angels," 1823; and "Irish Melodies," 1834; a "Life of Lord Byron," and "The Epicurean, an Eastern Tale." "Moore's excellencies," says Dr. Angus, "consist in the gracefulness of his thoughts, the wit and fancy of his allusions and imagery, and the music and refinement of his versification." 1. Oft in the stilly night Ere slumber's chain has bound me, Fond memory brings the light Of other days around me: The smiles, the tears Of boyhood's years, The words of love then spoken; The eyes that shone, Now dimmed and gone, The cheerful hearts now broken! Thus in the stilly night Ere slumber's chain has bound me, Sad memory brings the light Of other days around me. 2. When I remember all The friends so linked together I've seen around me fall Like leaves in wintry weather, I feel like one Who treads alone Some banquet hall deserted, Whose lights are fled Whose garlands dead, And all but he departed. Thus in the stilly night Ere slumber's chain has bound me, Sad memory brings the light Of other days around me. XCIX. A CHASE IN THE ENGLISH CHANNEL. James Fenimore Cooper (b. 1789, d. 1851). This celebrated American novelist was born in Burlington, N.J. His father removed to the state of New York about 1790, and founded Cooperstown, on Otsego Lake. He studied three years at Yale, and then entered the navy as a common sailor. He became a midshipman in 1806, and was afterwards promoted to the rank of lieutenant; but he left the service in 1811. His first novel, "Precaution," was published in 1819; his best work, "The Spy," a tale of the Revolutionary War, in 1821. The success of "The Spy" was almost unprecedented, and its author at once took rank among the most popular writers of the day. "The Pilot" and "The Red Rover" are considered his best sea novels. "The Pioneers," "The Last of the Mohicans," "The Prairie," "The Pathfinder," and "The Deerslayer" are among the best of his tales of frontier life. The best of his novels have been translated into nearly all of the European languages, and into some of those of Asia. "The creations of his genius," says Bryant, "shall survive through centuries to come, and only perish with our language." The following selection is from "The Pilot." 1. The ship which the American frigate had now to oppose, was a vessel of near her own size and equipage; and when Griffith looked at her again, he perceived that she had made her preparations to assert her equality in manful fight. 2. Her sails had been gradually reduced to the usual quantity, and, by certain movements on her decks, the lieutenant and his constant attendant, the Pilot, well understood that she only wanted to lessen the distance a few hundred yards to begin the action. "Now spread everything," whispered the stranger. 3. Griffith applied the trumpet to his mouth, and shouted, in a voice that was carried even to his enemy, "Let fall--out with your booms--sheet home--hoist away of everything!" 4. The inspiring cry was answered by a universal bustle. Fifty men flew out on the dizzy heights of the different spars, while broad sheets of canvas rose as suddenly along the masts, as if some mighty bird were spreading its wings. The Englishman instantly perceived his mistake, and he answered the artifice by a roar of artillery. Griffith watched the effects of the broadside with an absorbing interest as the shot whistled above his head; but when he perceived his masts untouched, and the few unimportant ropes, only, that were cut, he replied to the uproar with a burst of pleasure. 5. A few men were, however, seen clinging with wild frenzy to the cordage, dropping from rope to rope, like wounded birds fluttering through a tree, until they fell heavily into the ocean, the sullen ship sweeping by them in a cold indifference. At the next instant, the spars and masts of their enemy exhibited a display of men similar to their own, when Griffith again placed the trumpet to his mouth, and shouted aloud, "Give it to them; drive them from their yards, boys; scatter them with your grape; unreeve their rigging!" 6. The crew of the American wanted but little encouragement to enter on this experiment with hearty good will, and the close of his cheering words was uttered amid the deafening roar of his own cannon. The Pilot had, however, mistaken the skill and readiness of their foe; for, notwithstanding the disadvantageous circumstances under which the Englishman increased his sail, the duty was steadily and dexterously performed. 7. The two ships were now running rapidly on parallel lines, hurling at each other their instruments of destruction with furious industry, and with severe and certain loss to both, though with no manifest advantage in favor of either. Both Griffith and the Pilot witnessed, with deep concern, this unexpected defeat of their hopes; for they could not conceal from themselves that each moment lessened their velocity through the water, as the shot of the enemy stripped the canvas from the yards, or dashed aside the lighter spars in their terrible progress. 8. "We find our equal here," said Griffith to the stranger. "The ninety is heaving up again like a mountain; and if we continue to shorten sail at this rate, she will soon be down upon us!" "You say true, sir," returned the Pilot, musing, "the man shows judgment as well as spirit; but--" 9. He was interrupted by Merry, who rushed from the forward part of the vessel, his whole face betokening the eagerness of his spirit and the importance of his intelligence.-- "The breakers!" he cried, when nigh enough to be heard amid the din; "we are running dead on a ripple, and the sea is white not two hundred yards ahead." 10. The Pilot jumped on a gun, and, bending to catch a glimpse through the smoke, he shouted, in those clear, piercing tones, that could be even heard among the roaring of the cannon,-- "Port, port your helm! we are on the Devil's Grip! Pass up the trumpet, sir; port your helm, fellow; give it to them, boys--give it to the proud English dogs!" 11. Griffith unhesitatingly relinquished the symbol of his rank, fastening his own firm look on the calm but quick eye of the Pilot, and gathering assurance from the high confidence he read in the countenance of the stranger. The seamen were too busy with their cannon and the rigging to regard the new danger; and the frigate entered one of the dangerous passes of the shoals, in the heat of a severely contested battle. 12. The wondering looks of a few of the older sailors glanced at the sheets of foam that flew by them, in doubt whether the wild gambols of the waves were occasioned by the shot of the enemy, when suddenly the noise of cannon was succeeded by the sullen wash of the disturbed element, and presently the vessel glided out of her smoky shroud, and was boldly steering in the center of the narrow passages. 13. For ten breathless minutes longer the Pilot continued to hold an uninterrupted sway, during which the vessel ran swiftly by ripples and breakers, by streaks of foam and darker passages of deep water, when he threw down his trumpet and exclaimed-- "What threatened to be our destruction has proved our salvation.--Keep yonder hill crowned with wood one point open from the church tower at its base, and steer east and by north; you will run through these shoals on that course in an hour, and by so doing you will gain five leagues of your enemy, who will have to double their trail." 14. Every officer in the ship, after the breathless suspense of uncertainty had passed, rushed to those places where a view might be taken of their enemies. The ninety was still steering boldly onward, and had already approached the two-and-thirty, which lay a helpless wreck, rolling on the unruly seas that were rudely tossing her on their wanton billows. The frigate last engaged was running along the edge of the ripple, with her torn sails flying loosely in the air, her ragged spars tottering in the breeze, and everything above her hull exhibiting the confusion of a sudden and unlooked-for check to her progress. 15. The exulting taunts and mirthful congratulations of the seamen, as they gazed at the English ships, were, however, soon forgotten in the attention that was required to their own vessel. The drums beat the retreat, the guns were lashed, the wounded again removed, and every individual able to keep the deck was required to lend his assistance in repairing the damages to the frigate, and securing her masts. 16. The promised hour carried the ship safely through all the dangers, which were much lessened by daylight; and by the time the sun had begun to fall over the land, Griffith, who had not quitted the deck during the day, beheld his vessel once more cleared of the confusion of the chase and battle, and ready to meet another foe. DEFINITIONS.--1. Frig'ate, a war vessel, usually carrying from twenty-eight to forty-four guns, arranged in two tiers on each side. Eq'ui-page (pro. ek'wi-paj), furniture, fitting out. 4. Ar'ti-fice. skillful contrivance, trick. Broad'side, a discharge of all the guns on one side of a ship, above and below, at the same time. 7. Man'i-fest, visible to the eye, apparent. 11. As-sur'ance (pro. a-shur'ans), full confidence, courage. 13. Sway, control, rule. NOTES.--2. The Pilot, who appears in this story, under disguise, is John Paul Jones, a celebrated American naval officer during the Revolution. He was born in Scotland, in 1747, and was apprenticed when only twelve years old as a sailor. He was familiar with the waters about the British Islands, and during part of the war he hovered about their coasts in a daring way, capturing many vessels, often against heavy odds, and causing great terror to the enemy. 8. The ninety, refers to a large ninety-gun ship, part of a fleet which was chasing the American vessel. 10. The Devil's Grip; the name of a dangerous reef in the English Channel. 13. One point open. Directions for steering, referring to the compass. 14. The two-and-thirty; i.e., another of the enemy's ships, carrying thirty-two guns. C. BURIAL OF SIR JOHN MOORE. Charles Wolfe (b. 1791, d. 1823), an Irish poet and clergyman, was born in Dublin. He was educated in several schools, and graduated at the university of his native city. He was ordained in 1817, and soon became noted for his zeal and energy as a clergyman. His literary productions were collected and published in 1825. "The Burial of Sir John Moore," one of the finest poems of its kind in the English language, was written in 1817, and first appeared in the "Newry Telegraph," a newspaper, with the author's initials, but without his knowledge. Byron said of this ballad that he would rather be the author of it than of any one ever written. 1. Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note, As his corse to the rampart we hurried; Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot O'er the grave where our hero we buried. 2. We buried him darkly, at dead of night, The sods with our bayonets turning, By the struggling moonbeam's misty light, And the lantern dimly burning. 3. No useless coffin inclosed his breast, Not in sheet nor in shroud we wound him; But he lay like a warrior taking his rest, With his martial cloak around him. 4. Few and short were the prayers we said, And we spoke not a word of sorrow; But we steadfastly gazed on the face of the dead And we bitterly thought of the morrow. 5. We thought, as we hollowed his narrow bed, And smoothed down his lonely pillow, That the foe and the stranger would tread o'er his head, And we far away on the billow! 6. Lightly they'll talk of the spirit that's gone And o'er his cold ashes upbraid him; But little he'll reck, if they'll let him sleep on In a grave where a Briton has laid him. 7. But half of our heavy task was done, When the clock struck the hour for retiring And we heard the distant random gun That the foe was sullenly firing. 8. Slowly and sadly we laid him down, From the field of his fame, fresh and gory; We carved not a line, we raised not a stone, But we left him alone with his glory! DEFINITIONS.--3. Mar'tial (pro. mar'shal), military. 6. Up-braid', to charge with something wrong or disgraceful, to reproach. Reck, to take heed, to care. 7. Ran'dom, without fixed aim or purpose, left to chance. NOTE.--Sir John Moore (b. 1761, d. 1809) was a celebrated British general. He was appointed commander of the British forces in Spain, in the war against Napoleon, and fell at the battle of Corunna, by a cannon shot. Marshal Soult, the opposing French commander, caused a monument to be erected to his memory. The British government has also raised a monument to him in St. Paul's Cathedral, while his native city, Glasgow, honors him with a bronze statue. CI. LITTLE VICTORIES. 1. "O Mother, now that I have lost my limb, I can never be a soldier or a sailor; I can never go round the world!" And Hugh burst into tears, now more really afflicted than he had ever been yet. His mother sat on the bed beside him, and wiped away his tears as they flowed, while he told her, as well as his sobs would let him, how long and how much he had reckoned on going round the world, and how little he cared for anything else in future; and now this was the very thing he should never be able to do! 2. He had practiced climbing ever since he could remember, and now this was of no use; he had practiced marching, and now he should never march again. When he had finished his complaint, there was a pause, and his mother said, "Hugh, you have heard of Huber?" "The man who found out so lunch about bees?" said Hugh. "Bees and ants. When Huber had discovered more than had ever been known about these, and when he was sure that he could learn still more, and was more and more anxious to peep into their tiny homes and curious ways, he became blind." 3. Hugh sighed, and his mother went on. "Did you ever hear of Beethoven? He was one of the greatest musical composers that ever lived. His great, his sole delight was in music. It was the passion of his life. When all his time and all his mind were given to music, he suddenly became deaf, perfectly deaf; so that he never more heard one single note from the loudest orchestra. While crowds were moved and delighted with his compositions, it was all silence to him." Hugh said nothing. 4. "Now do you think," asked his mother--and Hugh saw that a mild and gentle smile beamed from her countenance--"do you think that these people were without a Heavenly Parent?" "O no! but were they patient?" asked Hugh. "Yes, in their different ways and degrees. Would you suppose that they were hardly treated? Or would you not rather suppose that their Father gave them something better to do than they had planned for themselves?" 5. "He must know best, of course; but it does seem very hard that that very thing should happen to them. Huber would not have so much minded being deaf, perhaps; or that musical man, being blind. "No doubt their hearts often swelled within them at their disappointments; but I fully believe that they very soon found God's will to be wiser than their wishes. They found, if they bore their trial well, that there was work for their hearts to do far nobler than any the head could do through the eye or the ear. And they soon felt a new and delicious pleasure which none but the bitterly disappointed can feel." "What is that?" 6. "The pleasure of rousing the soul to bear pain, and of agreeing with God silently, when nobody knows what is in the breast. There is no pleasure like that of exercising one's soul in bearing pain, and of finding one's heart glow with the hope that one is pleasing God." "Shall I feel that pleasure?" "Often and often, I have no doubt; every time you can willingly give up your wish to be a soldier or a sailor, or anything else you have set your mind upon, you will feel that pleasure. But I do not expect it of you yet. I dare say it was long a bitter thing to Beethoven to see hundreds of people in raptures with his music, when he could not hear a note of it." 7. "But did he ever smile again?" asked Hugh. "If he did, he was happier than all the fine music in the world could have made him," replied his mother. "I wonder, oh, I wonder, if I shall ever feel so!" "We will pray to God that you may. Shall we ask him now?" Hugh clasped his hands. His mother kneeled beside the bed, and, in a very few words, prayed that Hugh might be able to bear his misfortune well, and that his friends might give him such help and comfort as God should approve. 8. Hugh found himself subject to very painful feelings sometimes, such as no one quite understood, and such as he feared no one was able to pity as they deserved. On one occasion, when he had been quite merry for a while, and his mother and his sister Agnes were chatting, they thought they heard a sob from the sofa. They spoke to Hugh, and found that he was indeed crying bitterly. "What is it, my dear?" said his mother. "Agnes, have we said anything that could hurt his feelings?" "No, no," sobbed Hugh. "I will tell you, presently." 9. And, presently, he told them that he was so busy listening to what they said that he forgot everything else, when he felt as if something had gotten between two of his toes; unconsciously he put down his hand as if his foot were there! Nothing could be plainer than the feeling in his toes; and then, when he put out his hand, and found nothing, it was so terrible, it startled him so! It was a comfort to find that his mother knew about this. She came, and kneeled by his sofa, and told him that many persons who had lost a limb considered this the most painful thing they had to bear for some time; but that, though the feeling would return occasionally through life, it would cease to be painful. 10. Hugh was very much dejected, and when he thought of the months and years to the end of his life, and that he should never run and play, and never be like other people, he almost wished that he were dead. Agnes thought that he must be miserable indeed if he could venture to say this to his mother. She glanced at her mother's face, but there was no displeasure there. On the contrary, she said this feeling was very natural. She had felt it herself under smaller misfortunes than Hugh's; but she had found, though the prospect appeared all strewn with troubles, that they came singly, and were not so hard to bear, after all. 11. She told Hugh that when she was a little girl she was very lazy, fond of her bed, and not at all fond of dressing or washing. "'Why, mother! you?" exclaimed Hugh. "Yes; that was the sort of little girl I was. Well, I was in despair, one day, at the thought that I should have to wash, and clean my teeth, and brush my hair, and put on every article of dress, every morning, as long as I lived." "Did you tell anybody?" asked Hugh. 12. "No, I was ashamed to do that; but I remember I cried. You see how it turns out. When we have become accustomed to anything, we do it without ever thinking of the trouble, and, as the old fable tells us, the clock that has to tick so many millions of times, has exactly the same number of seconds to do it in. So will you find that you can move about on each separate occasion, as you wish, and practice will enable you to do it without any trouble or thought." "But this is not all, nor half what I mean," said Hugh. 13. "No, my dear, nor half what you will have to bear. You resolved to bear it all patiently, I remember. But what is it you dread the most?" "Oh! all manner of things. I can never do like other people." "Some things," replied his mother. "You can never play cricket, as every Crofton boy would like to do. You can never dance at your sister's Christmas parties." 14. "O mamma!" cried Agnes, with tears in her eyes, and with the thought in her mind that it was cruel to talk so. "Go on! Go on!" cried Hugh, brightening. "You know what I feel, mother; and you don't keep telling me, as others do, and even sister Agnes, sometimes, that it will not signify much, and that I shall not care, and all that; making out that it is no misfortune, hardly, when I know what it is, and they don't. Now, then, go on, mother! What else?" 15. "There will be little checks and mortifications continually, when you see little boys leaping over this, and climbing that, and playing at the other, while you must stand out, and can only look on. And some people will pity you in a way you will not like: and some may even laugh at you." "O mamma!" exclaimed Agnes. "Well, and what else?" said Hugh. 16. "Sooner or later you will have to follow some way of life determined by this accident instead of one that you would have liked better." "Well, what else?" "I must ask you, now. I can think of nothing more; and I hope there is not much else; for, indeed, I think here is quite enough for a boy, or anyone else, to bear." "I will bear it though; you will see." 17. "You will find great helps. These misfortunes of themselves strengthen one's mind. They have some advantages too. You will be a better scholar for your lameness, I have no doubt. You will read more books, and have a mind richer in thoughts. You will be more beloved by us all, and you yourself will love God more for having given you something to bear for his sake. God himself will help you to bear your trials. You will conquer your troubles one by one, and by a succession of LITTLE VICTORIES will at last completely triumph over all." --Harriet Martineau. DEFINITIONS.--1. Af-flict'ed, overwhelmed, dejected. Reck'-oned, calculated, counted. 3. Com-pos'er, an author of a piece of music. Or'ches-tra, a body of instrumental musicians. 7. Ap-prove', sanction, allow. 10. De-ject'ed, discouraged, low-spirited. NOTES.--2. Francois Huber (b. 1750, d. 1831) was a Swiss naturalist. He became blind at the age of fifteen, but pursued his studies by the aid of his wife and an attendant. 2. Ludwig van Beethoven (pro. ba'to-ven; b. 1770, d. 1827) was born at Bonn, Prussia, but passed most of his life at Vienna. CII. THE CHARACTER OF A HAPPY LIFE. Sir Henry Wotton (b. 1568, d. 1639) was born at Bocton Hall, Kent, England. He was educated at Winchester and Oxford. About 1598 he was taken into the service of the Earl of Essex, as one of his secretaries. On the Earl's committal to the Tower for treason, Wotton fled to France; but he returned to England immediately after the death of Elizabeth, and received the honor of knighthood. He was King James's favorite diplomatist, and, in 1623, was appointed provost of Eton College. Wotton wrote a number of prose works; but his literary reputation rests mainly on some short poems, which are distinguished by a dignity of thought and expression rarely excelled. 1. How happy is he born and taught, That serveth not another's will; Whose armor is his honest thought, And simple truth his utmost skill! 2. Whose passions not his masters are, Whose soul is still prepared for death, Untied unto the worldly care Of public fame, or private breath; 3. Who envies none that chance doth raise, Or vice; who never understood How deepest wounds are given by praise; Nor rules of state, but rules of good: 4. Who hath his life from rumors freed, Whose conscience is his strong retreat; Whose state can neither flatterers feed, Nor ruin make oppressors great; 5. Who God doth late and early pray, More of his grace than gifts to lend; And entertains the harmless day With a religious book or friend. 6. This man is freed from servile bands, Of hope to rise, or fear to fall; Lord of himself, though not of lands; And having nothing, yet hath all. CIII. THE ART OF DISCOURAGEMENT. Arthur Helps (b. 1813, d. 1875) graduated at Cambridge, England, in 1835. His best known works are: "Friends in Council, a Series of Readings and Discourses," "Companions of my Solitude," and "Realmah," a tale of the "lake dwellers" in southern Europe. He has also written a "History of the Spanish Conquests in America," two historical dramas, and several other works. Mr. Helps was a true thinker, and his writings are deservedly popular with thoughtful readers. In 1859 he was appointed secretary of the privy council. 1. Regarding, one day, in company with a humorous friend, a noble vessel of a somewhat novel construction sailing slowly out of port, he observed, "What a quantity of cold water somebody must have had down his back." In my innocence, I supposed that he alluded to the wet work of the artisans who had been building the vessel; but when I came to know him better, I found that this was the form of comment he always indulged in when contemplating any new and great work, and that his "somebody" was the designer of the vessel. 2. My friend had carefully studied the art of discouragement, and there was a class of men whom he designated simply as "cold-water pourers." It was most amusing to hear him describe the lengthened sufferings of the man who first designed a wheel; of him who first built a boat; of the adventurous personage who first proposed the daring enterprise of using buttons, instead of fish bones, to fasten the scanty raiment of some savage tribe. 3. Warming with his theme, he would become quite eloquent in describing the long career of discouragement which these rash men had brought upon themselves, and which he said, to his knowledge, must have shortened their lives. He invented imaginary dialogues between the unfortunate inventor, say of the wheel, and his particular friend, some eminent cold-water pourer. For, as he said, every man has some such friend, who fascinates him by fear, and to whom he confides his enterprises in order to hear the worst that can be said of them. 4. The sayings of the chilling friend, probably, as he observed, ran thus:--"We seem to have gone on very well for thousands of years without this rolling thing. Your father carried burdens on his back. The king is content to be borne on men's shoulders. The high priest is not too proud to do the same. Indeed, I question whether it is not irreligious to attempt to shift from men's shoulders their natural burdens. 5. "Then, as to its succeeding,--for my part, I see no chance of that. How can it go up hill? How often you have failed before in other fanciful things of the same nature! Besides, you are losing your time; and the yams about your hut are only half planted. You will be a beggar; and it is my duty, as a friend, to tell you so plainly. 6. "There was Nang-chung: what became of him? We had found fire for ages, in a proper way, taking a proper time about it, by rubbing two sticks together. He must needs strike out fire at once, with iron and flint; and did he die in his bed? Our sacred lords saw the impiety of that proceeding, and very justly impaled the man who imitated heavenly powers. And, even if you could succeed with this new and absurd rolling thing, the state would be ruined. What would become of those who carry burdens on their backs? Put aside the vain fancies of a childish mind, and finish the planting of your yams." 7. It is really very curious to observe how, even in modern times, the arts of discouragement prevail. There are men whose sole pretense to wisdom consists in administering discouragement. They are never at a loss. They are equally ready to prophesy, with wonderful ingenuity, all possible varieties of misfortune to any enterprise that may be proposed; and when the thing is produced, and has met with some success, to find a flaw in it. 8. I once saw a work of art produced in the presence of an eminent cold-water pourer. He did not deny that it was beautiful; but he instantly fastened upon a small crack in it that nobody had observed; and upon that crack he would dilate whenever the work was discussed in his presence. Indeed, he did not see the work, but only the crack in it. That flaw,--that little flaw,--was all in all to him. 9. The cold-water pourers are not all of one form of mind. Some are led to indulge in this recreation from genuine timidity. They really do fear that all new attempts will fail. Others are simply envious and ill-natured. Then, again, there is a sense of power and wisdom in prophesying evil. Moreover, it is the safest thing to prophesy, for hardly anything at first succeeds exactly in the way that it was intended to succeed. 10. Again, there is the lack of imagination which gives rise to the utterance of so much discouragement. For an ordinary man, it must have been a great mental strain to grasp the ideas of the first projectors of steam and gas, electric telegraphs, and pain-deadening chloroform. The inventor is always, in the eyes of his fellow-men, somewhat of a madman; and often they do their best to make him so. 11. Again, there is the want of sympathy; and that is, perhaps, the ruling cause in most men's minds who have given themselves up to discourage. They are not tender enough, or sympathetic enough, to appreciate all the pain they are giving, when, in a dull plodding way, they lay out argument after argument to show that the project which the poor inventor has set his heart upon, and upon which, perhaps, he has staked his fortune, will not succeed. 12. But what inventors suffer, is only a small part of what mankind in general endure from thoughtless and unkind discouragement. Those high-souled men belong to the suffering class, and must suffer; but it is in daily life that the wear and tear of discouragement tells so much. Propose a small party of pleasure to an apt discourager, and see what he will make of it. It soon becomes sicklied over with doubt and despondency; and, at last, the only hope of the proposer is, that his proposal, when realized, will not be an ignominious failure. All hope of pleasure, at least for the proposer, has long been out of the question. DEFINITIONS.--2. Des'ig-nat-ed, called by a distinctive title, named. 5. Yam, the root of a climbing plant, found in the tropics, which is used for food. 6. Im-paled', put to death by being fixed on an upright, sharp stake. 8. Di-late', to speak largely, to dwell in narration. 10. Rise (pro. ris, not riz), source, origin. Pro-jec'tor, one who forms a scheme or design. CIV. THE MARINER'S DREAM. William Dimond (b. 1780, d. 1837) was a dramatist and poet, living at Bath, England, where he was born and received his education. He afterwards studied for the bar in London. His literary productions are for the most part dramas, but he has also written a number of poems, among them the following: 1. In slumbers of midnight the sailor boy lay; His hammock swung loose at the sport of the wind; But watch-worn and weary, his cares flew away, And visions of happiness danced o'er his mind. 2. He dreamed of his home, of his dear native bowers, And pleasures that waited on life's merry morn; While Memory each scene gayly covered with flowers, And restored every rose, but secreted the thorn. 3. Then Fancy her magical pinions spread wide, And bade the young dreamer in ecstasy rise; Now, far, far behind him the green waters glide, And the cot of his forefathers blesses his eyes. 4. The jessamine clambers in flowers o'er the thatch, And the swallow chirps sweet from her nest in the wall; All trembling with transport, he raises the latch, And the voices of loved ones reply to his call. 5. A father bends o'er him with looks of delight; His cheek is impearled with a mother's warm tear; And the lips of the boy in a love kiss unite With the lips of the maid whom his bosom holds dear. 6. The heart of the sleeper beats high in his breast; Joy quickens his pulses,--all his hardships seem o'er; And a murmur of happiness steals through his rest,-- "O God! thou hast blest me,--I ask for no more." 7. Ah! whence is that flame which now bursts on his eye? Ah! what is that sound that now 'larums his ear? 'T is the lightning's red glare painting hell on the sky! 'T is the crashing of thunders, the groan of the sphere! 8. He springs from his hammock,--he flies to the deck; Amazement confronts him with images dire; Wild winds and mad waves drive the vessel a wreck; The masts fly in splinters; the shrouds are on fire. 9. Like mountains the billows tremendously swell; In vain the lost wretch calls on Mercy to save; Unseen hands of spirits are ringing his knell, And the death angel flaps his broad wings o'er the wave! 10. O sailor boy, woe to thy dream of delight! In darkness dissolves the gay frostwork of bliss! Where now is the picture that Fancy touched bright,-- Thy parents' fond pressure, and love's honeyed kiss? 11. O sailor boy! sailor boy! never again Shall home, love, or kindred, thy wishes repay; Unblessed and unhonored, down deep in the main, Full many a fathom, thy frame shall decay. 12. No tomb shall e'er plead to remembrance for thee, Or redeem form or fame from the merciless surge; But the white foam of waves shall thy winding sheet be, And winds in the midnight of winter thy dirge. 13. On a bed of green sea flowers thy limbs shall be laid,-- Around thy white bones the red coral shall grow; Of thy fair yellow locks threads of amber be made, And every part suit to thy mansion below. 14. Days, months, years, and ages shall circle away, And still the vast waters above thee shall roll; Earth loses thy pattern forever and aye; O sailor boy! sailor boy! peace to thy soul! DEFINITIONS.--1. Ham'mock, a hanging or swinging bed, usu-ally made of netting or hempen cloth. 4. Trans'port, ecstasy, rapture. 5. Im-pearled' (pro. im-perled'), decorated with pearls, or with things resembling pearls. 7. 'Lar'ums (an abbreviation of alarums, for alarms), affrights, terrifies. 12. Dirge, funeral music. NOTES.--13. Coral is the solid part of a minute sea animal, corresponding to the bones in other animals. It grows in many fantastic shapes, and is of various colors. Amber is a yellow resin, and is the fossilized gum of buried trees. It is mined in several localities in Europe and America; it is also found along the seacoast, washed up by the waves. CV. THE PASSENGER PIGEON. John James Audubon (b. 1780, d. 1851). This celebrated American ornithologist was born in Louisiana. When quite young he was passionately fond of birds, and took delight in studying their habits. In 1797 his father, an admiral in the French navy, sent him to Paris to be educated. On his return to America, he settled on a farm in eastern Pennsylvania, but afterward removed to Henderson, Ky., where he resided several years, supporting his family by trade, but devoting most of his time to the pursuit of his favorite study. In 1826 he went to England, and commenced the publication of the "Birds of America," which consists of ten volumes--five of engravings of birds, natural size, and five of letterpress. Cuvier declares this work to be "the most magnificent monument that art has ever erected to ornithology." In 1830 Audubon returned to America, and soon afterwards made excursions into nearly every section of the United States and Canada. A popular edition of his great work was published, in seven volumes, in 1844, and "The Quadrupeds of America," in six volumes,--three of plates and three of letterpress, in 1846-50. He removed to the vicinity of New York about 1840, and resided there until his death. 1. The multitudes of wild pigeons in our woods are astonishing. Indeed, after having viewed them so often, and under so many circumstances, I even now feel inclined to pause and assure myself that what I am going to relate is a fact. Yet I have seen it all, and that, too, in the company of persons who, like myself, were struck with amazement. 2. In the autumn of 1813 I left my house at Henderson, on the banks of the Ohio, on my way to Louisville. In passing over the Barrens, a few miles beyond Hardinsburgh, I observed the pigeons flying, from northeast to southwest, in greater numbers than I thought I had ever seen them before, and feeling an inclination to count the flocks that might pass within the reach of my eye in one hour, I dismounted, seated myself on an eminence, and began to mark with my pencil, making a dot for every flock that passed. 3. In a short time, finding the task which I had undertaken impracticable, as the birds poured in in countless multitudes, I rose, and, counting the dots then put down, found that one hundred and sixty-three had been made in twenty-one minutes. I traveled on, and still met more the farther I proceeded. The air was literally filled with pigeons; the light of noonday was obscured as by an eclipse; and the continued buzz of wings had a tendency to lull my senses to repose. 4. Whilst waiting for dinner at Young's inn, at the confluence of Salt River with the Ohio, I saw, at my leisure, immense legions still going by, with a front reaching far beyond the Ohio on the west, and the beech wood forests directly on the east of me. Not a single bird alighted, for not a nut or acorn was that year to be seen in the neighborhood. They consequently flew so high that different trials to reach them with a capital rifle proved ineffectual; nor did the reports disturb them in the least. 5. I can not describe to you the extreme beauty of their aerial evolutions when a hawk chanced to press upon the rear of a flock. At once, like a torrent, and with a noise like thunder, they rushed into a compact mass, pressing upon each other towards the center. In these almost solid masses, they darted forward in undulating and angular lines, descended and swept close over the earth with inconceivable velocity, mounted perpendicularly so as to resemble a vast column, and, when high, were seen wheeling and twisting within their continued lines, which then resembled the coils of a gigantic serpent. 6. As soon as the pigeons discover a sufficiency of food to entice them to alight, they fly round in circles, reviewing the country below. During their evolutions, on such occasions, the dense mass which they form exhibits a beautiful appearance, as it changes its direction, now displaying a glistening sheet of azure, when the backs of the birds come simultaneously into view, and anon suddenly presenting a mass of rich, deep purple. 7. They then pass lower, over the woods, and for a moment are lost among the foliage, but again emerge, and are seen gliding aloft. They now alight; but the next moment, as if suddenly alarmed, they take to wing, producing by the flappings of their wings a noise like the roar of distant thunder, and sweep through the forests to see if danger is near. Hunger, however, soon brings them to the ground. 8. When alighted, they are seen industriously throwing up the withered leaves in quest of the fallen mast. The rear ranks are continually rising, passing over the main body, and alighting in front, in such rapid succession, that the whole flock seems still on wing. The quantity of ground thus swept is astonishing; and so completely has it been cleared that the gleaner who might follow in their rear would find his labor completely lost. 9. On such occasions, when the woods are filled with these pigeons, they are killed in immense numbers, although no apparent diminution ensues. About the middle of the day, after their repast is finished, they settle on the trees to enjoy rest and digest their food. As the sun begins to sink beneath the horizon; they depart en masse for the roosting place, which not unfrequently is hundreds of miles distant, as has been ascertained by persons who have kept an account of their arrivals and departures. 10. Let us now inspect their place of nightly rendezvous. One of these curious roosting places, on the banks of the Green River, in Kentucky, I repeatedly visited. It was, as is always the case, in a portion of the forest where the trees were of great magnitude, and where there was little underwood. I rode through it upwards of forty miles, and, crossing it in different parts, found its average breadth to be rather more than three miles. My first view of it was about a fortnight subsequent to the period when they had made choice of it, and I arrived there nearly two hours before sunset. 11. Many trees, two feet in diameter, I observed, were broken off at no great distance from the ground; and the branches of many of the largest and tallest had given way, as if the forest had been swept by a tornado. Everything proved to me that the number of birds resorting to this part of the forest must be immense beyond conception. 12. As the period of their arrival approached, their foes anxiously prepared to receive them. Some were furnished with iron pots containing sulphur, others with torches of pine knots, many with poles, and the rest with guns. The sun was lost to our view, yet not a pigeon had arrived. Everything was ready, and all eyes were gazing on the clear sky, which appeared in glimpses amidst the tall trees. Suddenly there burst forth the general cry of, "Here they come!" 13. The noise which they made, though yet distant, reminded me of a hard gale at sea passing through the rigging of a close-reefed vessel. As the birds arrived and passed over me, I felt a current of air that surprised me. Thousands were soon knocked down by the pole men. The birds continued to pour in. The fires were lighted, and a magnificent as well as wonderful and almost terrifying sight presented itself. 14. The pigeons, arriving by thousands, alighted everywhere, one above another, until solid masses, as large as hogsheads, were formed on the branches all round. Here and there the perches gave way under the weight with a crash, and falling to the ground destroyed hundreds of the birds beneath, forcing down the dense groups with which every stick was loaded. It was a scene of uproar and confusion. I found it quite useless to speak or even to shout to those persons who were nearest to me. Even the reports of the guns were seldom heard, and I was made aware of the firing only by seeing the shooters reloading. 15. The uproar continued the whole night; and as I was anxious to know to what distance the sound reached, I sent off a man, accustomed to perambulate the forest, who, returning two hours afterwards, informed me he had heard it distinctly when three miles distant from the spot. Towards the approach of day, the noise in some measure subsided; long before objects were distinguishable, the pigeons began to move off in a direction quite different from that in which they had arrived the evening before, and at sunrise all that were able to fly had disappeared. DEFINITIONS.--5. A-e'ri-al, belonging or pertaining to the air. 6. A-non', in a short time, soon. 8. Mast, the fruit of oak and beech or other forest trees. 10. Ren'dez-vous (pro. ren'de-voo), an appointed or customary place of meeting. Sub'se-quent, following in time. 15. Per-am'bu-late, to walk through. NOTES.--The wild pigeon, in common with almost every variety of game, is becoming more scarce throughout the country each year; and Audubon's account, but for the position he holds, would in time, no doubt, be considered ridiculous. 9. En masse (pro. aN mas), a French phrase meaning in a body. [Transcriber's note: The last Passenger Pigeon died at the Cincinnati Zoo on September 1, 1914. Population estimates ranged up to 5 billion, comprising 40% of the total number of birds in North America in the 19th century.] CVI. THE COUNTRY LIFE. Richard Henry Stoddard (b. 1825,--) was born at Hingham, Mass., but removed to New York City while quite young. His first volume of poems, "Foot-prints," appeared in 1849, and has been followed by many others. Of these may be mentioned "Songs of Summer," "Town and Country," "The King's Bell," "Abraham Lincoln" (an ode), and the "Book of the East," from the last of which the following selection is abridged. Mr. Stoddard's verses are full of genuine feeling, and some of them show great poetic power. 1. Not what we would, but what we must, Makes up the sum of living: Heaven is both more and less than just, In taking and in giving. Swords cleave to hands that sought the plow, And laurels miss the soldier's brow. 2. Me, whom the city holds, whose feet Have worn its stony highways, Familiar with its loneliest street,-- Its ways were never my ways. My cradle was beside the sea, And there, I hope, my grave will be. 3. Old homestead! in that old gray town Thy vane is seaward blowing; Thy slip of garden stretches down To where the tide is flowing; Below they lie, their sails all furled, The ships that go about the world. 4. Dearer that little country house, Inland with pines beside it; Some peach trees, with unfruitful boughs, A well, with weeds to hide it: No flowers, or only such as rise Self-sown--poor things!--which all despise. 5. Dear country home! can I forget The least of thy sweet trifles? The window vines that clamber yet, Whose blooms the bee still rifles? The roadside blackberries, growing ripe, And in the woods the Indian pipe? 6. Happy the man who tills his field, Content with rustic labor; Earth does to him her fullness yield, Hap what may to his neighbor. Well days, sound nights--oh, can there be A life more rational and free? NOTE.--5. The Indian pipe is a little, white plant, bearing a white, bell-shaped flower. CVII. THE VIRGINIANS. William Makepeace Thackeray (b. 1811, d. 1863). This popular English humorist, essayist, and novelist was born in Calcutta. He was educated at the Charterhouse school in London, and at Cambridge, but he did not complete a collegiate course of study. He began his literary career as a contributor to "Fraser's Magazine," under the assumed name of Michael Angelo Titmarsh, and afterwards contributed to the column of "Punch." The first novel published under Thackeray's own name was "Vanity Fair," which is regarded by many as his greatest work. He afterwards wrote a large number of novels, tales, and poems, most of which were illustrated by sketches drawn by himself. His course of "Lectures on the English Humorists" was delivered in London in 1851, and the following year in several cities in the United States. He revisited the United States in 1856, and delivered a course of lectures on "The Four Georges," which he repeated in Great Britain soon after his return home. In 1860 he became the editor of "The Cornhill Magazine," the most successful serial ever published in England. 1. Mr. Esmond called his American house Castlewood, from the patrimonial home in the old country. The whole usages of Virginia, indeed, were fondly modeled after the English customs. It was a loyal colony. The Virginians boasted that King Charles the Second had been king in Virginia before he had been king in England. English king and English church were alike faithfully honored there. 2. The resident gentry were allied to good English families. They held their heads above the Dutch traders of New York, and the money-getting Roundheads of Pennsylvania and New England. Never were people less republican than those of the great province which was soon to be foremost in the memorable revolt against the British Crown. 3. The gentry of Virginia dwelt on their great lands after a fashion almost patriarchal. For its rough cultivation, each estate had a multitude of hands--of purchased and assigned servants--who were subject to the command of the master. The land yielded their food, live stock, and game. 4. The great rivers swarmed with fish for the taking. From their banks the passage home was clear. Their ships took the tobacco off their private wharves on the banks of the Potomac or the James River, and carried it to London or Bristol,--bringing back English goods and articles of home manufacture in return for the only produce which the Virginian gentry chose to cultivate. 5. Their hospitality was boundless. No stranger was ever sent away from their gates. The gentry received one another, and traveled to each other's houses, in a state almost feudal. The question of slavery was not born at the time of which we write. To be the proprietor of black servants shocked the feelings of no Virginia gentleman; nor, in truth, was the despotism exercised over the negro race generally a savage one. The food was plenty: the poor black people lazy and not unhappy. You might have preached negro emancipation to Madam Esmond of Castlewood as you might have told her to let the horses run loose out of the stables; she had no doubt but that the whip and the corn bag were good for both. 6. Her father may have thought otherwise, being of a skeptical turn on very many points, but his doubts did not break forth in active denial, and he was rather disaffected than rebellious, At one period, this gentleman had taken a part in active life at home, and possibly might have been eager to share its rewards; but in latter days he did not seem to care for them. A something had occurred in his life, which had cast a tinge of melancholy over all his existence. 7. He was not unhappy,--to those about him most kind,--most affectionate, obsequious even to the women of his family, whom he scarce ever contradicted; but there had been some bankruptcy of his heart, which his spirit never recovered. He submitted to life, rather than enjoyed it, and never was in better spirits than in his last hours when he was going to lay it down. 8. When the boys' grandfather died, their mother, in great state, proclaimed her eldest son George her successor and heir of the estate; and Harry, George's younger brother by half an hour, was always enjoined to respect his senior. All the household was equally instructed to pay him honor; the negroes, of whom there was a large and happy family, and the assigned servants from Europe, whose lot was made as bearable as it might be under the government of the lady of Castlewood. 9. In the whole family there scarcely was a rebel save Mrs. Esmond's faithful friend and companion, Madam Mountain, and Harry's foster mother, a faithful negro woman, who never could be made to understand why her child should not be first, who was handsomer, and stronger, and cleverer than his brother, as she vowed; though, in truth, there was scarcely any difference in the beauty, strength, or stature of the twins. 10. In disposition, they were in many points exceedingly unlike; but in feature they resembled each other so closely, that, but for the color of their hair, it had been difficult to distinguish them. In their beds, and when their heads were covered with those vast, ribboned nightcaps, which our great and little ancestors wore, it was scarcely possible for any but a nurse or a mother to tell the one from the other child. 11. Howbeit, alike in form, we have said that they differed in temper. The elder was peaceful, studious, and silent; the younger was warlike and noisy. He was quick at learning when he began, but very slow at beginning. No threats of the ferule would provoke Harry to learn in an idle fit, or would prevent George from helping his brother in his lesson. Harry was of a strong military turn, drilled the little negroes on the estate, and caned them like a corporal, having many good boxing matches with them, and never bearing malice if he was worsted;--whereas George was sparing of blows, and gentle with all about him. 12. As the custom in all families was, each of the boys had a special little servant assigned him: and it was a known fact that George, finding his little wretch of a blackamoor asleep on his master's bed, sat down beside it, and brushed the flies off the child with a feather fan, to the horror of old Gumbo, the child's father, who found his young master so engaged, and to the indignation of Madam Esmond, who ordered the young negro off to the proper officer for a whipping. In vain George implored and entreated--burst into passionate tears, and besought a remission of the sentence. His mother was inflexible regarding the young rebel's punishment, and the little negro went off beseeching his young master not to cry. 13. On account of a certain apish drollery and humor which exhibited itself in the lad, and a liking for some of the old man's pursuits, the first of the twins was the grandfather's favorite and companion, and would laugh and talk out all his infantine heart to the old gentleman, to whom the younger had seldom a word to say. 14. George was a demure, studious boy, and his senses seemed to brighten up in the library, where his brother was so gloomy. He knew the books before he could well-nigh carry them, and read in them long before he could understand them. Harry, on the other hand, was all alive in the stables or in the wood, eager for all parties of hunting and fishing, and promised to be a good sportsman from a very early age. 15. At length the time came when Mr. Esmond was to have done with the affairs of this life, and he laid them down as if glad to be rid of their burden. All who read and heard that discourse, wondered where Parson Broadbent of James Town found the eloquence and the Latin which adorned it. Perhaps Mr. Dempster knew, the boys' Scotch tutor, who corrected the proofs of the oration, which was printed, by the desire of his Excellency and many persons of honor, at Mr. Franklin's press in Philadelphia. 16. No such sumptuous funeral had ever bean seen in the country as that which Madam Esmond Warrington ordained for her father, who would have been the first to smile at that pompous grief. 17. The little lads of Castlewood, almost smothered in black trains and hatbands, headed the procession and were followed by my Lord Fairfax, from Greenway Court, by his Excellency the Governor of Virginia (with his coach), by the Randolphs, the Careys, the Harrisons, the Washingtons, and many others; for the whole country esteemed the departed gentleman, whose goodness, whose high talents, whose benevolence and unobtrusive urbanity, had earned for him the just respect of his neighbors. 18. When informed of the event, the family of Colonel Esmond's stepson, the Lord Castlewood of Hampshire in England, asked to be at the charges of the marble slab which recorded the names and virtues of his lordship's mother and her husband; and after due time of preparation, the monument was set up, exhibiting the arms and coronet of the Esmonds, supported by a little, chubby group of weeping cherubs, and reciting an epitaph which for once did not tell any falsehoods. DEFINTIONS.--1. Pat-ri-mo'ni-al, inherited from ancestors. 6. Dis-af-fect'ed, discouraged. 7. Ob-se'qui-ous, compliant to excess. 12. Black'a-moor, a negro. 17. Ur-ban'i-ty, civility or courtesy of manners, refinement. 18. Ep'i-taph (pro. ep'i-taf), an inscription on a monument, in honor or in memory of the dead. NOTES.--2. Roundhead was the epithet applied to the Puritans by the Cavaliers in the time of Charles I. It arose from the practice among the Puritans of cropping their hair peculiarly. 3. Patriarchal. 5. Feudal. The Jewish patriarch, in olden times, and the head of a noble family in Europe, during the Middle Ages, when the "Feudal System," as it is called, existed, both held almost despotic sway, the one over his great number of descendants and relations, and the other over a vast body of subjects or retainers. Both patriarch and feudal lord were less restricted than the modern king, and the feudal lord, especially, lived in a state of great magnificence. 15. Proofs. When matter is to be printed, a rough impression of it is taken as soon as the type is set up, and sent to the editor or some other authority for correction. These first sheets are called proofs. "His Excellency" was the title applied to the governor. CVIII. MINOT'S LEDGE. Fitz-James O'Brien (b. 1828, d. 1862) was of Irish birth, and came to America in 1852. He has contributed a number of tales and poems to various periodicals, but his writings have never been collected in book form. Mr. O'Brien belonged to the New York Seventh Regiment, and died at Baltimore of a wound received in a cavalry skirmish. 1. Like spectral hounds across the sky, The white clouds scud before the storm; And naked in the howling night The red-eyed lighthouse lifts its form. The waves with slippery fingers clutch The massive tower, and climb and fall, And, muttering, growl with baffled rage Their curses on the sturdy wall. 2. Up in the lonely tower he sits, The keeper of the crimson light: Silent and awe-struck does he hear The imprecations of the night. The white spray beats against the panes Like some wet ghost that down the air Is hunted by a troop of fiends, And seeks a shelter anywhere. 3. He prays aloud, the lonely man, For every soul that night at sea, But more than all for that brave boy Who used to gayly climb his knee,-- Young Charlie, with his chestnut hair, And hazel eyes, and laughing lip. "May Heaven look down," the old man cries. "Upon my son, and on his ship!" 4. While thus with pious heart he prays, Far in the distance sounds a boom: He pauses; and again there rings That sullen thunder through the room. A ship upon the shoals to-night! She cannot hold for one half hour; But clear the ropes and grappling hooks, And trust in the Almighty Power! 5. On the drenched gallery he stands, Striving to pierce the solid night: Across the sea the red eye throws A steady crimson wake of light; And, where it falls upon the waves, He sees a human head float by, With long drenched curls of chestnut hair, And wild but fearless hazel eye. 6. Out with the hooks! One mighty fling! Adown the wind the long rope curls. Oh! will it catch? Ah, dread suspense! While the wild ocean wilder whirls. A steady pull; it tightens now: Oh! his old heart will burst with joy, As on the slippery rocks he pulls The breathing body of his boy. 7. Still sweep the specters through the sky; Still scud the clouds before the storm; Still naked in the howling night The red-eyed lighthouse lifts its form. Without, the world is wild with rage; Unkenneled demons are abroad; But with the father and the son Within, there is the peace of God. NOTE.--Minot's Ledge (also called the "Cohasset Rocks") is a dangerous reef in Boston Harbor, eight miles southwest of Boston Light. It has a fixed light of its own, sixty-six feet high. CIX. HAMLET. William Shakespeare (b. 1564, d. 1616), by many regarded as the greatest poet the world has ever produced, was born at Stratford-upon-Avon, England. He was married, when very young, to a woman eight years his senior, went to London, was joint proprietor of Blackfriar's Theater in 1589, wrote poems and plays, was an actor, accumulated some property, and retired to Stratford three or four years before his death. He was buried in Stratford church, where a monument has been erected to his memory. This is all that is known of him with any degree of certainty. Shakespeare's works consist chiefly of plays and sonnets. They show a wonderful knowledge of human nature, expressed in language remarkable for its point and beauty. (ACT I, SCENE II. HAMLET alone in a room, of the castle. Enter HORATIO, MARCELLUS, and BERNARDO.) Hor. Hail, to your lordship! Ham. I am glad to see you well: Horatio,--or I do forgot myself. Hor. The same, my lord, and your poor servant ever. Ham. Sir, my good friend; I'll change that name with you: And what make you from Wittenberg, Horatio?-- Macellus? Mar. My good lord-- Ham. I am very glad to see you. [To Ber.] Good even, sir. But what, in faith, make you from Wittenberg? Hor. A truant disposition, good my lord. Ham. I would not hear your enemy say so, Nor shall you do mine ear that violence, To make it truster of your own report Against yourself: I knew you are no truant. But what is your affair in Elsinore? We'll teach you to drink deep ere you depart. Hor. My lord, I came to see your father's funeral. Ham. I pray thee, do not mock me, follow-student; I think it was to see my mother's wedding. Hor. Indeed, my lord, it followed hard upon. Ham. Thrift, thrift, Horatio! the funeral baked meats Did coldly furnish forth the marriage tables. Would I had met my dearest foe in heaven Or ever I had seen that day, Horatio! My father!--methinks I see my father. Hor. Where, my lord? Ham. In my mind's eye, Horatio. Hor. I saw him once; he was a goodly king. Ham. He was a man, take him for all in all, I shall not look upon his like again. Hor. My lord, I think I saw him yesternight. Ham. Saw? who? Hor. My lord, the king your father. Ham. The king my father! Hor. Season your admiration for a while With an attent ear, till I may deliver, Upon the witness of these gentlemen, This marvel to you. Ham. For God's love, let me hear. Hor. Two nights together had these gentlemen, Marcellus and Bernardo, on their watch, In the dead vast and middle of the night, Been thus encounter'd. A figure like your father, Armed at point exactly, cap-a-pie. Appears before them, and with solemn march Goes slow and stately by them: thrice he walk'd By their oppress'd and fear-surprised eyes, Within his trucheon's length; whilst they, distill'd Almost to jelly with the act of fear, Stand dumb and speak not to him. This to me In dreadful secrecy impart they did; And I with them the third night kept the watch: Where, as they had deliver'd, both in time, Form of the thing, each word made true and good, The apparition comes: I knew your father; These hands are not more like. Ham. But where was this? Mar. My lord, upon the platform where we watch'd. Ham. Did you speak to it? Hor. My lord, I did; But answer made it none: yet once methought It lifted up its head and did address Itself to motion, like as it would speak; But even then the morning cock crew loud, And at the sound it shrunk in haste away, And vanish'd from our sight. Ham. 'T is very strange. Hor. As I do live, my honor'd lord, 't is true; And we did think it writ down in our duty To let you know of it. Ham. Indeed, indeed, sirs, but this troubles me, Hold you the watch to-night? Mar. Ber. We do, my lord. Ham. Arm'd, say you? Mar. Ber. Arm'd, my lord. Ham. From top to toe? Mar. Ber. My lord, from head to foot. Ham. Then saw you not his face? Hor. Oh, yes, my lord; he wore his beaver up. Ham. What, look'd he frowningly? Hor. A countenance more in sorrow than in anger. Ham. Pale or red? Hor. Nay, very pale. Ham. And fix'd his eyes upon you? Hor. Most constantly. Ham. I would I had been there. Hor. It would have much amazed you. Ham. Very like, very like. Stay'd it long? Hor. While one with moderate haste might tell a hundred. Mar. Ber. Longer, longer. Hor. Not when I saw't. Ham. His beard was grizzled,--no? Hor. It was, as I have seen it in his life, A sable silver'd. Ham. I will watch to-night; Perchance 't will walk again. Hor. I warrant it will. Ham. If it assume my noble father's person, I'll speak to it, though hell itself should gape And bid me hold my peace. I pray you all, If you have hitherto conceal'd this sight, Let it be tenable in your silence still; And whatsoever else shall hap to-night, Give it an understanding, but no tongue: I will requite your loves. So, fare you well: Upon the platform, 'twixt eleven and twelve, I'll visit you. DEFINITIONS.--Tru'ant, wandering from business, loitering. Trust'er, a believer. At-tent', attentive, heedful. De-liv'er, to communicate, to utter. Cap-a-pie' (from the French, pro. kap-a-pee'), from head to foot. Trun'cheon (pro. trun'shun), a short staff, a baton. Bea'ver, a part of the helmet covering the face, so constructed that the wearer could raise or lower it. Ten'a-ble, capable of being held. NOTES.--What make you from Wittenberg? i.e., what are you doing away from Wittenberg? Wittenberg is a university town in Saxony, where Hamlet and Horatio had been schoolfellows. Elsinore is a fortified town on one of the Danish islands, and was formerly the seat of one of the royal castles. It is the scene of Shakespeare's "Hamlet." Hard upon; i.e., soon after. Funeral baked meats. This has reference to the ancient custom of funeral feasts. My dearest foe; i.e., my greatest foe. A common use of the word "dearest" in Shakespeare's time. Or ever, i.e., before. Season your admiration; i.e., restrain your wonder. The dead vast; i.e., the dead void. Armed at point; i.e., armed at all points. Did address itself to motion; i.e., made a motion. Give it an understanding, etc.; i.e., understand, but do not speak of it. I will requite your loves, or, as we should say, I will repay your friendship. CX. DISSERTATION ON ROAST PIG. Charles Lamb (b. 1775, d. 1834) was born in London. He was educated at Christ's Hospital, where he was a schoolfellow and intimate friend of Coleridge. In 1792 he became a clerk in the India House, London, and in 1825 he retired from his clerkship on a pension of 441 Pounds. Lamb never married, but devoted his life to the care of his sister Mary, who was at times insane. He wrote "Tales founded on the Plays of Shakespeare," and several other works of rare merit; but his literary fame rests principally on the inimitable "Essays of Elia" (published originally in the "London Magazine"), from one of which the following selection is adapted. 1. Mankind, says a Chinese manuscript, which my friend M. was obliging enough to read and explain to me, for the first seventy thousand ages ate their meat raw, clawing or biting it from the living animal, just as they do in Abyssinia to this day. 2. This period is not obscurely hinted at by their great Confucius in the second chapter of his "Mundane Mutations," where he designates a kind of golden age by the term Cho-fang, literally the Cooks' Holiday. The manuscript goes on to say that the art of roasting, or rather broiling (which I take to be the elder brother), was accidentally discovered in the manner following: 3. The swineherd, Ho-ti, having gone out into the woods one morning, as his manner was, to collect mast for his hogs, left his cottage in the care of his eldest son, Bo-bo, a great lubberly boy, who, being fond of playing with fire, as younkers of his age commonly are, let some sparks escape into a bundle of straw, which, kindling quickly, spread the conflagration over every part of their poor mansion till it was reduced to ashes. 4. Together with the cottage,--a sorry, antediluvian makeshift of a building, you may think it,--what was of much more importance, a fine litter of newborn pigs, no less than nine in number, perished. China pigs have been esteemed a luxury all over the East from the remotest periods we read of. 5. Bo-bo was in the utmost consternation, as you may think, not so much for the sake of the tenement, which his father and he could easily build up again with a few dry branches, and the labor of an hour or two, at any time, as for the loss of the pigs. While he was thinking what he should say to his father, and wringing his hands over the smoking remnants of one of those untimely sufferers, an odor assailed his nostrils unlike any scent which he had before experienced. 6. What, could it proceed from? Not from the burnt cottage,--he had smelt that smell before,--indeed, this was by no means the first accident of the kind which had occurred through the negligence of this unlucky young firebrand. Much less did it resemble that of any known herb, weed, or flower. A premonitory moistening at the same time overflowed his nether lip. He knew not what to think. 7. He next stooped down to feel the pig, if there were any signs of life in it. He burnt his fingers, and to cool them he applied them in his booby fashion to his mouth. Some of the crumbs of the scorched skin had come away with his fingers, and for the first time in his life (in the world's life, indeed, for before him no man had known it) he tasted--crackling! Again he felt and fumbled at the pig. It did not burn him so much now; still he licked his fingers from a sort of habit. 8. The truth at length broke into his slow understanding that it was the pig that smelt so, and the pig that tasted so delicious; and surrendering himself up to the newborn pleasure, he fell to tearing up whole handfuls of the scorched skin with the flesh next it, and was cramming it down his throat in his beastly fashion, when his sire entered amid the smoking rafters, armed with a retributory cudgel, and, finding how affairs stood, began to rain blows upon the young rogue's shoulders as thick as hailstones, which Bo-bo heeded not any more than if they had been flies. 9. His father might lay on, but he could not beat him from his pig till he had fairly made an end of it, when, becoming a little more sensible of his situation, something like the following dialogue eusued: "You graceless whelp, what have you got there devouring? Is it not enough that you have burnt me down three houses with your dog's tricks, and be hanged to you! but you must be eating fire, and I know not what? What have you got there, I say?" "O father, the pig, the pig! do come and taste how nice the burnt pig eats!" 10. The ears of Ho-ti tingled with horror. He cursed his son, and he cursed himself that he should ever have a son that should eat burnt pig. Bo-bo, whose scent was wonderfully sharpened since morning, soon raked out another pig, and, fairly rending it asunder, thrust the lesser half by main force into the fists of Ho-ti, still shouting out, "Eat, eat, eat the burnt pig, father! only taste! Oh!" with such like barbarous ejaculations, cramming all the while as if he would choke. 11. Ho-ti trembled in every joint while he grasped the abominable thing, wavering whether he should not put his son to death for an unnatural young monster, when the crackling scorching his fingers, as it had done his son's, and applying the same remedy to them, he in his turn tasted some of its flavor, which, make what sour mouths he would for a pretense, proved not altogether displeasing to him. In conclusion (for the manuscript here is a little tedious), both father and son fairly sat down to the mess, and never left off till they had dispatched all that remained of the litter. 12. Bo-bo was strictly enjoined not to let the secret escape, for the neighbors would certainly have stoned them for a couple of abominable wretches, who could think of improving upon the good meat which God had sent them. Nevertheless strange stories got about. It was observed that Ho-ti's cottage was burnt down now more frequently than ever. Nothing but fires from this time forward. Some would break out in broad day, others in the night-time; and Ho-ti himself, which was the more remarkable, instead of chastising his son, seemed to grow more indulgent to him than ever. 13. At length they were watched, the terrible mystery discovered, and father and son summoned to take their trial at Pekin, then an inconsiderable assize town. Evidence was given, the obnoxious food itself produced in court, and verdict about to be pronounced, when the foreman of the jury begged that some of the burnt pig, of which the culprits stood accused, might be handed into the box. 14. He handled it, and they all handled it; and burning their fingers, as Bo-bo and his father had done before them, and nature prompting to each of them the same remedy, against the face of all the facts, and the clearest charge which the judge had ever given,--to the surprise of the whole court, townsfolk, strangers, reporters, and all present,--without leaving the box, or any manner of consultation whatever, they brought in a simultaneous verdict of "Not Guilty." 15. The judge, who was a shrewd fellow, winked at the manifest iniquity of the decision; and when the court was dismissed, went privily, and bought up all the pigs that could be had for love or money. In a few days his lordship's townhouse was observed to be on fire. 16. The thing took wing, and now there was nothing to be seen but fire in every direction. Fuel and pigs grew enormously dear all over the district. The insurance offices one and all shut up shop. People built slighter and slighter every day, until it was feared that the very science of architecture would in no long time be lost to the world. 17. Thus this custom of firing houses continued till in process of time, says my manuscript, a sage arose, like our Locke, who made a discovery that the flesh of swine, or indeed of any other animal, might be cooked (burnt, as they called it) without the necessity of consuming a whole house to dress it. 18. Then first began the rude form of a gridiron. Roasting by the string or spit came in a century or two later; I forget in whose dynasty. By such slow degrees, concludes the manuscript, do the most useful, and seemingly the most obvious, arts make their way among mankind. 19. Without placing too implicit faith in the account above given, it must be agreed that if a worthy pretext for so dangerous an experiment as setting houses on fire (especially in these days) could be assigned in favor of any culinary object that pretext and excuse might be found in Roast Pig. DEFINITIONS.--3. Youn'kers, young persons. 4. An-te-di-lu'-vi-an (literally, existing before the flood), very ancient. Make'shlft, that which answers a need with the best means at hand. 6. Pre-mon'i-to-ry, giving previous warning. 8. Re-trib'u-to-ry, rewarding, retaliating. 12. En-joined', ordered, commanded. l3. Ob-nox'-ious (pro. oh-nok'shus), liable to censure, offensive. 18. Dy'nas-ty, sovereignty, reign. 19. Im-plic'it, trusting without doubt. Cu'li-na-ry, relating to the kitchen. NOTES.--1. Abyssinia is a country of eastern Africa. 2. Confucius (pro. Con-fu'she-us; the Chinese name is Kong-fu-tse', pro. Kong-foot-sa') was a celebrated Chinese philosopher (b. 551 B.C.) who did much for the moral improvement of his country. The Golden Age was supposed to be that period in the various stages of human civilization when the greatest simplicity existed; the fruits of the earth sprang up without cultivation, and spring was the only season. 13. Pekin is the capital of China. An assize town is a town where the assizes, or periodical sittings of a court, are held. 17. Locke (b. 1632, d. 1704) was one of the most illustrious of English philosophers. CXI. A PEN PICTURE. William Black (b. 1841,---) is one of the leading modern novelist of England. The scenes of his stories are for the most part laid in Scotland, and he excels in the delineation of Scotch character. But his most remarkable power is seen in those vivid, poetical descriptions of scenery, of which the following selection, adapted from "The Princess of Thule," is a good example. Mr. Black's most noted works, in addition to the one named, are: "A Daughter of Heth," "The Strange Adventures of a Phaeton," "Kilmeny," and "McLeod of Dare." 1. Lavender had already transformed Sheila into a heroine during the half hour of their stroll from the beach and around the house; and as they sat at dinner on this still, brilliant evening in summer, he clothed her in the garments of romance. 2. Her father, with his great, gray beard and heavy brow, became the King of Thule, living in this solitary house overlooking the sea, and having memories of a dear sweetheart. His daughter, the Princess, had the glamour of a thousand legends dwelling in her beautiful eyes; and when she walked by the shores of the Atlantic, that were now getting yellow under the sunset, what strange and unutterable thoughts must appear in the wonder of her face! 3. After dinner they went outside and sat down on a bench in the garden. It was a cool and pleasant evening. The sun had gone down in red fire behind the Atlantic, and there was still left a rich glow of crimson in the west, while overhead, in the pale yellow of the sky, some filmy clouds of rose color lay motionless. How calm was the sea out there, and the whiter stretch of water coming into Loch Roag! The cool air of the twilight was scented with sweetbrier. The wash of the ripples along the coast could be heard in the stillness. 4. The girl put her hand on her father's head, and reminded him that she had had her big greyhound, Bras, imprisoned all the afternoon, and that she had to go down to Borvabost with a message for some people who were leaving by the boat in the morning. "But you can not go away down to Borvabost by yourself, Sheila," said Ingram. "It will be dark before you return." "It will not be darker than this all the night through," said the girl. 5. "But I hope you will let us go with you," said Lavender, rather anxiously; and she assented with a gracious smile, and went to fetch the great deerhound that was her constant companion. And lo! he found himself walking with a Princess in this wonderland, through the magic twilight that prevails in northern latitudes. Mackenzie and Ingram had gone to the front. The large deerhound, after regarding him attentively, had gone to its mistress's side, and remained closely there. 6. Even Sheila, when they had reached the loftiest part of their route, and could see beneath them the island and the water surrounding it, was struck by the exceeding beauty of the twilight; and as for her companion, he remembered it many a time thereafter, as if it were a dream of the sea. 7. Before them lay the Atlantic--a pale line of blue, still, silent, and remote. Overhead the sky was of a clear, thin gold, with heavy masses of violet cloud stretched across from north to south, and thickening as they got near the horizon. Down at their feet, near the shore, a dusky line of huts and houses was scarcely visible; and over these lay a pale blue film of peat smoke that did not move in the still air. 8. Then they saw the bay into which the White Water runs, and they could trace the yellow glimmer of the river stretching into the island through a level valley of bog and morass. Far away towards the east lay the bulk of the island,--dark green undulations of moorland and pasture; and there, in the darkness, the gable of one white house had caught the clear light of the sky, and was gleaming westward like a star. 9. But all this was as nothing to the glory that began to shine in the southeast, where the sky was of a pale violet over the peaks of Mealasabhal and Suainabhal. There, into the beautiful dome, rose the golden crescent of the moon, warm in color, as though it still retained the last rays of the sunset. A line of quivering gold fell across Loch Roag, and touched the black hull and spars of the boat in which Sheila had been sailing in the morning. 10. That bay down there, with its white sands and massive rocks, its still expanse of water, and its background of mountain peaks palely covered by the yellow moonlight, seemed really a home for a magic princess who was shut off from all the world. But here, in front of them, was another sort of sea, and another sort of life,--a small fishing village hidden under a cloud of pale peat smoke, and fronting the great waters of the Atlantic itself, which lay under a gloom of violet clouds. 11. On the way home it was again Lavender's good fortune to walk with Sheila across the moorland path they had traversed some little time before. And now the moon was still higher in the heavens, and the yellow lane of light that crossed the violet waters of Loch Roag quivered in a deeper gold. The night air was scented with the Dutch clover growing down by the shore. They could hear the curlew whistling and the plover calling amid that monotonous plash of the waves that murmured all around the coast. 12. When they returned to the house, the darker waters of the Atlantic and the purple clouds of the west were shut out from sight; and before them there was only the liquid plain of Loch Roag, with its pathway of yellow fire, and far away on the other side the shoulders and peaks of the southern mountains, that had grown gray and clear and sharp in the beautiful twilight. And this was Sheila's home. DEFINITIONS.--2. Gla'mour (pro. gla'moor), witchery, or a charm on the eyes, making them see things differently from what they really are. 3. Loch (pro. lok), a lake, a bay or arm of the sea. 7. Peat, a kind of turf used for fuel. 11. Cur'lew (pro. kur'lu), an aquatic bird which takes its name from its cry. Plov'er (pro. pluv'er), a game bird frequenting river banks and the sea-shore. NOTES.--Of the characters mentioned in this selection, Sheila is a young Scotch girl living on the small island of Borva, which her father owns; it lies just west of Lewis, one of the Hebrides. Ingram is an old friend and frequent visitor, while Lavender, a friend of Ingram's, is on his first visit to the island. 2. Thule (pro. Thu'le) is the name given by an ancient Greek navigator, Pytheas, to the northernmost region of Europe. The exact locality of Thule is a disputed point. 3. Loch Roag (pro. Rog') is all inlet of the sea, west of Lewis, in which Borva is situated. 4. Borvabost, a little town at Borva. Bost means an inhabited place. 9. Mealasabhal and Suainabhal are mountains on the island of Lewis. Bhal is Gaelic for mountain. CXII. THE GREAT VOICES. Charles T. Brooks (b. 1813, d. 1833)[1] was born at Salem, Mass., and was the valedictorian of his class at Harvard College, where he graduated in 1832. He shortly afterwards entered the ministry, and had charge of a congregation at Newport, R.I. He was a great student of German literature, and began his own literary career by a translations of Schiller's "William Tell." This was followed by numerous translations from the German, mainly poetry, which have been published from time to time, in several volumes. Of these translations, Goethe's "Faust," Richter's "Titan" and "Hesperus," and a humorous poem by Dr. Karl Arnold Kortum, "The Life, Opinions, Actions, and Fate of Hieronimus Jobs, the Candidate," deserve especial mention. Mr. Brooks also published a number of original poems, addresses, etc. [Transcriber's Note 1: The correct dates are June, 20 1813 to June 14, 1883.] 1. A voice from the sea to the mountains, From the mountains again to the sea; A call from the deep to the fountains,-- "O spirit! be glad and be free." 2. A cry from the floods to the fountains; And the torrents repeat the glad song As they leap from the breast of the mountains,-- "O spirit! be free and be strong." 3. The pine forests thrill with emotion Of praise, as the spirit sweeps by: With a voice like the murmur of ocean To the soul of the listener they cry. 4. Oh! sing, human heart, like the fountains, With joy reverential and free, Contented and calm as the mountains, And deep as the woods and the sea. CXIII. A PICTURE OF HUMAN LIFE. Samuel Johnson (b. 1709, d. 1784). This remarkable man was born in Lichfield, Staffordshire, England. He was the son of a bookseller and stationer. He entered Pembroke College, Oxford, in 1728; but his poverty compelled him to leave at the end of three years. Soon after his marriage, in 1736, he opened a private school, but obtained only three pupils, one of whom was David Garrick, afterwards a celebrated actor. In 1737, he removed to London, where he resided most of the rest of his life. The most noted of his numerous literary works are his "Dictionary," the first one of the English language worthy of mention, "The Vanity of Human Wishes," a poem, "The Rambler," "Rasselas," "The Lives of the English Poets," and his edition of Shakespeare. An annual pension of 300 pounds was granted him in 1762. In person, Johnson was heavy and awkward; in manner, boorish and overbearing; but his learning and his great powers caused his company to be sought by many eminent men. 1. Obidah, the son of Abnesina, left the caravansary early in the morning, and pursued his journey through the plains of Hindostan. He was fresh and vigorous with rest; he was animated with hope; he was incited by desire; he walked swiftly forward over the valleys, and saw the hills gradually rising before him. 2. As he passed along, his ears were delighted with the morning song of the bird of paradise; he was fanned by the last flutters of the sinking breeze, and sprinkled with dew by groves of spices; he sometimes contemplated towering height of the oak, monarch of the hills; and sometimes caught the gentle fragrance of the primrose, eldest daughter of the spring; all his senses were gratified, and all care was banished from his heart. 3. Thus he went on, till the sun approached his meridian, and the increasing heat preyed upon his strength; he then looked round about him for some more commodious path. He saw, on his right hand, a grove that seemed to wave its shades as a sign of invitation; he entered it, and found the coolness and verdure irresistibly pleasant. He did not, however, forget whither he was traveling, but found a narrow way, bordered with flowers, which appeared to have the same direction with the main road, and was pleased, that, by this happy experiment, he had found means to unite pleasure with business, and to gain the rewards of diligence without suffering its fatigues. 4. He, therefore, still continued to walk for a time, without the least remission of his ardor, except that he was sometimes tempted to stop by the music of the birds, which the heat had assembled in the shade, and sometimes amused himself with picking the flowers that covered the banks on each side, or the fruits that hung upon the branches. At last, the green path began to decline from its first tendency, and to wind among the hills and thickets, cooled with fountains, and murmuring with waterfalls. 5. Here Obidah paused for a time, and began to consider whether it was longer safe to forsake the known and common track; but, remembering that the heat was now in its greatest violence, and that the plain was dusty and uneven, he resolved to pursue the new path, which he supposed only to make a few meanders, in compliance with the garieties of the ground, and to end at last in the common road. 6. Having thus calmed his solicitude, he renewed his pace, though he suspected he was not gaining ground. This uneasiness of his mind inclined him to lay hold on every new object, and give way to every sensation that might soothe or divert him. He listened to every echo, he mounted every hill for a fresh prospect, he turned aside to every cascade, and pleased himself with tracing the course of a gentle river that rolled among the trees, and watered a large region, with innumerable circumvolutions. 7. In these amusements, the hours passed away uncounted; his deviations had perplexed his memory, and he knew not toward what point to travel. He stood pensive and confused, afraid to go forward lest he should go wrong, yet conscious that the time of loitering was now past. While he was thus tortured with uncertainty, the sky was overspread with clouds, the day vanished from before him, and a sudden tempest gathered round his head. 8. He was now roused by his danger to a quick and painful remembrance of his folly; he now saw how happiness is lost when ease is consulted; he lamented the unmanly impatience that prompted him to seek shelter in the grove, and despised the petty curiosity that led him on from trifle to trifle. While he was thus reflecting, the air grew blacker and a clap of thunder broke his meditation. 9. He now resolved to do what remained yet in his power; to tread back the ground which he had passed, and try to find some issue where the wood might open into the plain. He prostrated himself upon the ground, and commended his life to the Lord of nature. He rose with confidence and tranquillity, and pressed on with his saber in his hand; for the beasts of the desert were in motion, and on every hand were heard the mingled howls of rage, and fear, and ravage, and expiration; all the horrors of darkness and solitude surrounded him; the winds roared in the woods, and the torrents tumbled from the hills. 10. Thus, forlorn and distressed, he wandered through the wild without knowing whither he was going or whether he was every moment drawing nearer to safety or to destruction. At length, not fear but labor began to overcome him; his breath grew short, and his knees trembled, and he was on the point of lying down, in resignation to his fate, when he beheld, through the brambles, the glimmer of a taper. He advanced toward the light, and finding that it proceeded from the cottage of a hermit, he called humbly at the door, and obtained admission. The old man set before him such provisions as he had collected for himself, on which Obidah fed with eagerness and gratitude. 11. When the repast was over, "Tell me," said the hermit, "by what chance thou hast been brought hither; I have been now twenty years an inhabitant of this wilderness, in which I never saw a man before." Obidah then related the occurrences of his journey, without any concealment or palliation. 12. "Son," said the hermit, "let the errors and follies, the dangers and escapes, of this day, sink deep into your heart. Remember, my son, that human life is the journey of a day. We rise in the morning of youth, full of vigor, and full of expectation; we set forward with spirit and hope, with gayety and with diligence, and travel on awhile in the straight road of piety toward the mansions of rest. In a short time we remit our fervor, and endeavor to find some mitigation of our duty, and some more easy means of obtaining the same end. 13. "We then relax our vigor, and resolve no longer to be terrified with crimes at a distance, but rely upon our own constancy, and venture to approach what we resolve never to touch. We thus enter the bowers of ease, and repose in the shades of security. Here the heart softens, and vigilance subsides; we are then willing to inquire whether another advance can not be made, and whether we may not at least turn our eyes upon the gardens of pleasure. We approach them with scruple and hesitation; we enter them, but enter timorous and trembling, and always hope to pass through them without losing the road of virtue, which we for a while keep in our sight, and to which we propose to return. 14. "But temptation succeeds temptation, and one compliance prepares us for another; we, in time, lose the happiness of innocence, and solace our disquiet with sensual gratifications. By degrees we let fall the remembrance of our original intention, and quit the only adequate object of rational desire. We entangle ourselves in business, immerge ourselves in luxury, and rove through the labyrinths of inconstancy till the darkness of old age begins to invade us, and disease and anxiety obstruct our way. We then look back upon our lives with horror, with sorrow, and with repentance; and wish, but too often vainly wish, that we had not forsaken the paths of virtue. 15. "Happy are they, my son, who shall learn, from thy example, not to despair, but shall remember that though the day is past, and their strength is wasted, there yet remains one effort to be made; that reformation is never hopeless, nor sincere endeavors ever unassisted; that the wanderer may at length return after all his errors; and that he who implores strength and courage from above, shall find danger and difficulty give way before him. Go now, my son, to thy repose: commit thyself to the care of Omnipotence; and when the morning calls again to toil, begin anew thy journey and thy life." DEFINITIONS.--1. Car-a-van sa-ry, a kind of inn in the East, where caravans (or large companies of traders) rest at night. 5. Me-an'ders, windings, turnings. 6. Cir-cum-vo-lu'tions, windings or flowings around. 7. De-vi-a'tions, wanderins from one's course. 9. Ex-pi-ra'tion, death. 11. Pal-li-a'tion, concealment of the most blamable circumstances of an offence. 12. Mit-i-ga'tion, abatement, the act of rendering less severe. 14. Ad'e-quate, fully sufficient. Lab'y-rinth, a place full of winding passages. CXIV. A SUMMER LONGING. George Arnold (b. 1834, d. 1865) was born in New York, but removed with his parents to Illinois while yet an infant. There he passed his boyhood, being educated at home by his parents. In 1849 the family again removed to Strawberry Farms, Monmouth County, N.J. When eighteen years old he began to study painting, but soon gave up the art and devoted himself to literature. He became a journalist of New York City, and his productions include almost every variety of writings found in the literary magazines. After his death, two volumes of his poems, "Drift: a Seashore Idyl," and "Poems, Grave and Gay," were edited by Mr. William Winter. 1. I must away to the wooded hills and vales, Where broad, slow streams flow cool and silently And idle barges flap their listless sails. For me the summer sunset glows and pales, And green fields wait for me. 2. I long for shadowy founts, where the birds Twitter and chirp at noon from every tree; I long for blossomed leaves and lowing herds; And Nature's voices say in mystic words, "The green fields wait for thee." 3. I dream of uplands, where the primrose shines And waves her yellow lamps above the lea; Of tangled copses, swung with trailing vines; Of open vistas, skirted with tall pines, Where green fields wait for me. 4. I think of long, sweet afternoons, when I May lie and listen to the distant sea, Or hear the breezes in the reeds that sigh, Or insect voices chirping shrill and dry, In fields that wait for me. 5. These dreams of summer come to bid me find The forest's shade, the wild bird's melody, While summer's rosy wreaths for me are twined, While summer's fragrance lingers on the wind, And green fields wait for me. CXV. FATE. Francis Bret Harte (b. 1839,--) was born in Albany, N.Y. When seventeen years old he went to California, where he engaged in various employments. He was a teacher, was employed in government offices, worked in the gold mines, and learned to be a compositor in a printing office. In 1868 he started the "Overland Monthly," and his original and characteristic poems and sketches soon made it a popular magazine. Mr. Harte has been a contributor to some of the leading periodicals of the country, but principally to the "Atlantic Monthly." 1. "The sky is clouded, the rocks are bare; The spray of the tempest is white in air; The winds are out with the waves at play, And I shall not tempt the sea to-day. 2. "The trail is narrow, the wood is dim, The panther clings to the arching limb; And the lion's whelps are abroad at play, And I shall not join in the chase to-day." 3. But the ship sailed safely over the sea, And the hunters came from the chase in glee; And the town that was builded upon a rock Was swallowed up in the earthquake shock. CXVI. THE BIBLE THE BEST OF CLASSICS. Thomas S. Grimke (b. 1786, d. 1834). This eminent lawyer and scholar was born in Charleston, S.C. He graduated at Yale College in 1807. He gained considerable reputation as a politician, but is best known as an advocate of peace, Sunday schools, and the Bible. He was a man of deep feeling, earnest purpose, and pure life. 1. There is a classic the best the world has ever seen, the noblest that has ever honored and dignified the language of mortals. If we look into its antiquity, we discover a title to our veneration unrivaled in the history of literature. If we have respect to its evidences, they are found in the testimony of miracle and prophecy; in the ministry of man, of nature, and of angels, yea, even of "God, manifest in the flesh," of "God blessed forever." 2. If we consider its authenticity, no other pages have survived the lapse of time that can be compared with it. If we examine its authority, for it speaks as never man spake, we discover that it came from heaven in vision and prophecy under the sanction of Him who is Creator of all things, and the Giver of every good and perfect gift. 3. If we reflect on its truths, they are lovely and spotless, sublime and holy as God himself, unchangeable as his nature, durable as his righteous dominion, and versatile as the moral condition of mankind. If we regard the value of its treasures, we must estimate them, not like the relics of classic antiquity, by the perishable glory and beauty, virtue and happiness, of this world, but by the enduring perfection and supreme felicity of an eternal kingdom. 4. If we inquire who are the men that have recorded its truths, vindicated its rights, and illustrated the excellence of its scheme, from the depth of ages and from the living world, from the populous continent and the isles of the sea, comes forth the answer: "The patriarch and the prophet, the evangelist and the martyr." 5. If we look abroad through the world of men, the victims of folly or vice, the prey of cruelty, of injustice, and inquire what are its benefits, even in this temporal state, the great and the humble, the rich and the poor, the powerful and the weak, the learned and the ignorant reply, as with one voice, that humility and resignation, purity, order, and peace, faith, hope, and charity are its blessings upon earth. 6. And if, raising our eyes from time to eternity; from the world of mortals to the world of just men made perfect; from the visible creation, marvelous, beautiful, and glorious as it is, to the invisible creation of angels and seraphs; from the footstool of God to the throne of God himself, we ask, what are the blessings that flow from this single volume, let the question be answered by the pen of the evangelist, the harp of the prophet, and the records of the book of life. 7. Such is the best of classics the world has ever admired; such, the noblest that man has ever adopted as a guide. DEFINITIONS.--1. Clas'sic, a work of acknowledged excellence and authority. 2. Au-then-tic'i-ty, of established authority for truth and correctness. Sanc'tion (pro, sank'shun), authority, support. 3. Ver'sa-tile, readily applied to various subjects. 4. Vin di-cat-ed, defended, justified. E-van'gel-ist, a writer of the history of Jesus Christ. 6. Ser'aph, an angel of the highest order. CXVII. MY MOTHER'S BIBLE. George P. Morris (b. 1802, d. 1864) was born in Philadelphia. In 1823 he became one of the editors of the "New York Mirror," a weekly literary paper, In 1846 Mr. Morris and N. P. Willis founded "The Home Journal." He was associate editor of this popular journal until a short time before his death. 1. This book is all that's left me now,-- Tears will unbidden start,-- With faltering lip and throbbing brow I press it to my heart. For many generations past Here is our family tree; My mother's hands this Bible clasped, She, dying, gave it me. 2. Ah! well do I remember those Whose names these records bear; Who round the hearthstone used to close, After the evening prayer, And speak of what these pages said In tones my heart would thrill! Though they are with the silent dead, Here are they living still! 3. My father read this holy hook To brothers, sisters, dear; How calm was my poor mother's look, Who loved God's word to hear! Her angel face,--I see it yet! What thronging memories come! Again that little group is met Within the walls of home! 4. Thou truest friend man ever knew, Thy constancy I've tried; When all were false, I found thee true, My counselor and guide. The mines of earth no treasures give That could this volume buy; In teaching me the way to live, It taught me how to die. 
18119	----	=How to Teach Phonics= By LIDA M. WILLIAMS Primary Supervisor and Instructor of Methods, Northern Normal and Industrial School, ABERDEEN, SOUTH DAKOTA HALL & MCCREARY COMPANY CHICAGO Copyright 1916, Hall & McCreary Company P 2143 Printed in the U.S.A. FOREWORD Phonics is not a method of teaching reading, but it is _a necessary part_ of every good, modern method. It is the key to word mastery, and word mastery is one of the first essentials in learning to read. A knowledge of the sounds of letters, and of the effect of the position of the letter upon its sound, is an essential means of mastering the mechanics of reading, and of enabling children to become independent readers. A knowledge of phonics not only gives power to pronounce new words, but it trains the ear, develops clear articulation and correct enunciation, and aids in spelling. Later, when diacritical marks are introduced, it aids in the use of the dictionary. The habit of attacking and pronouncing words of entirely new form, develops self-confidence in the child, and the pleasure he experiences in mastering difficulties without help, constantly leads to new effort. The little foreigner, greatly handicapped where reading is taught by the word and sentence methods only, begins on an equal basis with his American neighbor, when the "Alphabet by sound" is taught. In recent years only has the subject of phonics found a place on the daily school program; and there is perhaps, no other subject on the primary program so vaguely outlined in the average teacher's mind and therefore taught with so little system and definite purpose. The present need is a systematic and comprehensive but simple method of phonics teaching thruout the primary grades, that will enable any teacher, using any good text in reading, to successfully teach the phonetic facts, carefully grading the difficulties by easy and consecutive steps thus preparing the pupils for independent effort in thot getting, and opening for him the door to the literary treasures of the ages. It is with the hope of aiding the earnest teacher in the accomplishment of this purpose that "How To Teach Phonics" is published. L.M.W. LEARNING TO READ Every sound and pedagogical method of teaching reading must include two basic principles. 1. Reading must begin in the life of the child, with real thought content. Whether the thought unit be a word, a sentence, or a story, it must represent some idea or image that appeals to the child's interests and adjusts itself to his experience. 2. It must proceed with a mastery of not only words, but of the sound symbols of which words are composed. The child's love for the story, his desire to satisfy a conscious need, gives him an immediate and compelling motive for mastering the symbols, which in themselves are of incidental and subordinate interest. While he is learning to read, he feels that he is reading to learn and "symbols are turned into habit." If the child is to understand from the beginning that reading is thot getting, we must begin with the sentence, rhyme or other language unit. If a story is the initial step, a few well chosen sentences that tell the heart of the story will constitute the first black board reading lesson. The next step is the analysis of the sentence, or the study and recognition of the individual words therein. Finally the word is separated into its elementary sounds, the study of the sound symbols growing out of the stock of words learned first as purely sight words. Following this phonic analysis comes the final step, the blending of these phonic elements to produce new words. Thus gradually increasing prominence is given to the discovery of new words by this analytic-synthetic process, and less time to sight word drills, until they are entirely omitted, except for the teaching of unphonetic words. There should be at least two ten-minute lessons in phonics each day. These lessons are not reading lessons and should not trespass on the regular reading period, when thot getting and thot giving are uppermost. While greater prominence is given to the thot phase in reading, the technical drill and active effort in mastering the mechanical phase is of equal importance as necessary preparation for good reading. FIRST YEAR 1. _Ear Training:_ From the first day a definite place on the program should be given to phonics. This period, at first very short, will gradually increase to ten, fifteen or twenty minutes. To enable pupils to recognize words when separated into their elementary sounds, exercises in "listening and doing," will constitute the first step in phonics teaching. Words are sounded slowly and distinctly by the teacher and pronounced or acted out by the pupils. ACTION GAME (First Day.) c-l-a-p s-w-ee-p f-l-y b-ow d-u-s-t r-u-n j-u-m-p s-i-t s-l-ee-p p-u-sh d-r-i-nk w-a-k-e m-a-r-ch s-t-a-n-d s-t-r-e-t-ch If at first children are not able to distinguish the words when separated thus; s-t-a-n-d, d-r-i-n-k, blend the sound less slowly thus: st-and, dr-ink, gradually increasing the difficulty to st-an-d, d-r-ink, and finally to the complete analysis. These ear training exercises should continue until a "phonetic sense" is established. Not all children can readily blend sounds and "hear the word." Patient drill for weeks, even months, may be necessary before a sense of phonetic values is attained. Haphazard and spasmodic work is fatal to progress; but a few minutes of brisk, lively drill, given regularly each day will accomplish wonders. The exercises should be varied from day to day to insure active interest and effort. _Second Day:_ Touch your n-o-se; your ch-ee-k; your ch-i-n; l-i-p-s; k-n-ee; f-oo-t; b-oo-k; p-e-n-c-i-l; d-e-s-k; sh-o-e; d-r-e-ss, etc. _Third Day:_ Place a number of toys in a basket. Pupils find as the teacher sounds the name of each, saying: "Find the t-o-p"; "the s-p-oo-l;" "the d-o-ll"; "the h-o-r-n"; etc. _Fourth Day:_ Sound the names of pupils in class; or names of animals; colors, fruits, places, etc. _Fifth Day:_ R-u-n to m-e. C-l-a-p your h-a-n-d-s. W-a-v-e the f-l-a-g. Cl-o-se the d-oo-r. F-o-l-d your a-r-m-s. B-r-i-n-g m-e a r-e-d b-a-ll. B-ou-n-ce the b-a-ll. Th-r-ow the b-a-ll to Fr-e-d. R-i-n-g the b-e-ll. H-o-p to m-e. S-i-t in m-y ch-air. R-u-n to the ch-ar-t. S-i-n-g a s-o-n-g. B-r-i-n-g me the p-oin-t-er. B-o-w to m-e. F-l-y a k-i-t-e. S-w-ee-p the fl-oo-r. R-o-c-k the b-a-b-y. W-a-sh your f-a-ce. D-u-s-t the ch-air-s. Sh-a-k-e the r-u-g. F-ee-d the h-e-n-s. C-a-ll the ch-i-ck-s. M-i-l-k the c-ow. Ch-o-p w-oo-d. R-ow a b-oa-t. B-l-ow the h-o-r-n. The pupil should now begin sounding words for himself, at first, if need be, repeating the sounds after the teacher, then being encouraged to attempt them alone. He will soon be able to "spell by sound" names of common objects in the room, as well as easy and familiar words dictated by the teacher. II. _Teach the Single Consonant Sounds._ b, d, f, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, r, s (as in see), v, w, g (hard), c (hard), and qu as in queer. Teach but one sound for each letter at first. Nothing need be said at this time about the fact that some letters have more than one sound. When words like "city" or "gem" occur simply explain that sometimes "c" or "g" has this sound, (giving the soft sound), but continue in the phonic drill to teach the sounds that will be needed first--those most often met in the early reading. The sounds of initial s and y are taught first, rather than final y and s; q is taught with the u--qu (as in quiet, queer, quick) not q alone. The sounds must be given distinctly and correctly by the teacher, and she should insist on perfect responses. Good reading is impossible without clear and distinct articulation. 1. _Analyze Known Words in Teaching the Consonant Sounds._ For the first lesson teach perhaps two consonant sounds. Suppose the words "ball" and "red" are chosen to be analyzed as words familiar to the class. (Selected from the reading lessons as the ones best known and most easily remembered.) Write "b all" on the board, and pointing to the separated parts, sound slowly several times. Pupils repeat. Teacher say, "Show the letter that says 'b.' The part that says 'all.' Write "b" under "ball" thus: b all b Pupil sound "b" several times, as it is written elsewhere on the black board. Proceed with "red" in the same way. Keep these two forms, b all r ed b r before the class, asking frequently for the sounds until thoroly fixed in mind. For the second lesson, review "b" and "r" and teach one or two new consonants. It is better to have short and frequent lessons at first, than to present too many sounds at once, resulting in confusion. Suppose "c" is to be taught next and the type word chosen is "cup." It is not necessary to teach the consonants in the order in which they occur in the alphabet,--it will depend rather upon the occurrence in the primer of the words chosen for type words. Write the word "cup." Pupils recognize it at once as a sight word, and pronounce. Rewrite it, separating it thus, c up, and let the pupils make an effort to sound the parts alone. If they fail, sound it for them asking them to repeat it after you. Proceed as with "ball" and "red," being sure that each one gives the sound correctly. (1.) After teaching "c" say, "Who can find a word on the chart beginning with this sound?" "In your books?" "on the blackboard?" the pupil sounding the letter as he points to it. (2) Say, "I'm thinking of another word beginning with "c." "It is something Grandpa uses in walking." (Cane.) "I'm thinking of something sweet that you like to eat." (Cake) (Candy) "Of the name of someone in this class." (Clara) (Carl) "A little yellow bird." (Canary) "You think of a word beginning with that sound." "Another." "Another." 2. _Begin At Once Applying Knowledge of the Sounds Learned._ As new words are met containing known sounds, the pupils should apply their knowledge of phonics. For example, if the word "catch" appears, the pupils sound "c," the teacher pronouncing "atch" underlining that part of the word as she tells it,--the pupil puts these sounds together and discovers the new word for himself. If the new word is "cab," the only help from the teacher is the short sound of "a". This given the pupil sounds "a" and "b" slowly; then faster, until the result of the blended sounds is "ab." Combine "c" with "ab" in the same manner until by the blending of the sounds the word is recognized. Only such help should be given, as will enable the pupil to help himself. "Ball," "red" and "cup" now become type words with which "b" "r" and "c" are associated respectively, and from which the pupil gets his "cue" if he fails to give the sound of the letter at sight. Thus all the consonants are taught, from suitable sight words which the child has already learned. They need not however, be the ones given here,--for "b" it may be "baby," "ball," "boy," or "box," but let it be a word familiar to the class and easily remembered. For "d" it may be "doll," "day," or "dog;" for "y", "you", "yellow", etc. The teacher should previously go through the text and select the words she wishes to use as type words in teaching the consonant sounds. 3. _First Steps in Writing and Spelling._ As each consonant sound is taught its written form may be learned. On rough manila paper, using waxed crayons, make copies of the letters about two inches in height, for each pupil. At his desk the child traces with his fore finger, going over the smooth path again and again--thus developing psycho-motor co-ordination. Each time the letter is traced, the pupil sounds it softly, and as soon as he is sure of the form, runs to the board and writes it. The writing at first may be entirely at the blackboard, where the teacher's copy may be reproduced. For the slower ones who have difficulty with the form, a good practice is to "write it in the air," the pupil pointing with index finger and following the teacher as she writes, also tracing the teacher's copy with pointer, using free, rapid movement. (Tracing with crayon or pencil tends to slow, cramped writing, and should not be encouraged.) Thus when the forms of the letters are learned and associated with the sound, the pupils are able to write phonetic words from dictation as well as to "spell by sound." 4. _Consonant Drill._ (1) With a rubber pen, a set of type, or with black crayola, and cardboard, a set of consonant cards may be made, one for each sound. On one side of the card is written or printed the type word with the consonant sound below; on the other side, the consonant alone, thus: -------- ----- |b all | | b | |b | | B | -------- ----- The number of cards will increase each day as new sounds are learned. Rapid daily drill with these cards is most valuable in associating instantly the sound with its symbol and should be continued until every child knows every sound. After the analysis the side of the card containing only the consonant should be used for the drill. But if the pupil fails to give the right sound, or is unable to give any sound at all, the card should be reversed and he readily gets the right sound from the word. Other devices for teaching the consonants are sometimes used by successful teachers who do not use the type-words and cards. For instance, the letter may be associated with its sound in this way:--The clock says "t"; the angry cat, "f"; the cow says "m"; etc. The difficulty here is to find suitable symbols for each sound. If, for example, the sounds of "l", "v" and "sh" are represented by a spinning wheel, a buzz saw, and a water wheel respectively, and if the child is not familiar with these symbols, they will not call up a definite sound in his mind; but if "l" is taught from "little," "sh" from "sheep," and "v" from "very", (or other familiar words,) there can be no uncertainty and no time need be spent by the child in laboring to retain and associate the sounds with unfamiliar symbols. Not the method, but the motive, is the essential thing. What we want is that every child should know the consonants thoroly. Get the _motive_, then use the method that brings the best results with the least expenditure of time and energy. (2) For variety in reviewing and fixing the consonant sounds, give frequent dictation exercises. a. With all the consonants on the board, the teacher sounds any consonant, the pupil finds and repeats the sound as he points it out. As the teacher points, pupils sound, occasionally in concert, and in individual recitation of the entire list. Individual work should predominate, to make sure that the pupil is giving the correct sound and putting forth independent effort. b. Pupils write sounds as teacher dictates. If a pupil fails to recall and write the form, the teacher may pronounce the type word and ask the pupil to sound the initial consonant (tell the first sound in the word). To illustrate: The teacher pronounces "cup", pupils sound "c", then write it. If they have mastered the written forms they will enjoy this exercise. Children soon acquire the ability and become possessed of the desire to write whole words. Then the teacher should direct this effort, teaching the child to visualize (get a picture of the word as a whole) and write short, simple words. 5. _Blending._ When a number of consonant sounds are mastered, practice in blending may begin. When the need arises--when words are met which begin with a combination of consonants the blends are taught, e.g., bright--b, r,--br, br ight, bright. f, l,--fl, fl ower, flower. Keep a separate set of cards for these blends--and drill upon them as the list grows. (br, pl, fl, sl, cr, gl, gr, bl, cl, fr, pr, st, tr, str, sp, sw, tw, sk.) gr ow dr aw pl ay s ky sm all sl ay fl ower cr ow st ay st and cl ean fr ay gl ass pr ay tr ay br own sp in str ay bl ue sw ing sl ow st ore sl ack bl ow tr ack dw arf gl ow The teacher must pronounce the syllables that the children have, as yet, no power to master, e.g., with the word "grow", (1) the children will blend g and r, gr; (2) teacher pronounces "ow"; (3) children blend "gr" and "ow" until they recognise "grow." Teach also the digraphs sh, ch, th, wh, as they are met in the common words in use: when, they, chick, etc. sh eep ch ick wh at th at sh ell ch ild wh en th is sh y ch air wh y th ese sh ore ch ill wh ere th ose sh ine ch erry wh ich th ere sh ow ch ildren th en th eir sh e ch urch th ey th ey sh all ch ase sh ould ch est III. _Teach the Short Vowels._ Since more than 60 per cent of the vowels are short, and since short vowels outnumber long vowels by about four to one, they are taught first. Teach one vowel at a time by combining with the known consonants. And what fun it is, when short "a" is introduced, to blend it with the consonants and listen to discover "word sounds." Henceforth the children will take delight in "unlocking" new words, without the teacher's help. She will see to it, of course, that the words are simple and purely phonetic at first; as: c-a-n, can h-a-d, had c-a-p, cap m-a-t, mat c-a-t, cat m-a-n, man r-a-t, rat f-a-n, fan h-a-t, hat s-a-t, sat Whole "families" are discovered by placing the vowel with the initial or the final consonants, thus: ca n r at f an ca p h at an d ca t c at s an d ca b b at st an d ma t f at l an d ma n s at b an d The children will enjoy forming all the families possible with the known sounds. _Short "a" Families or Phonograms._ at an ap ad ack ag and r ang b ank b at c an c ap h ad b ack b ag b and s ang r ank c at m an g ap l ad h ack f ag h and b ang s ank f at p an l ap m ad J ack j ag l and h ang t ank m at t an m ap g ad l ack l ag s and f ang bl ank p at r an n ap b ad p ack n ag st and cl ang cr ank N at f an r ap c ad r ack r ag gr and spr ang dr ank s at b an s ap f ad s ack s ag br and Fr ank r at D an t ap p ad t ack t ag str and pl ank h at N an tr ap s ad st ack w ag th ank th at V an str ap gl ad sl ack st ag sn ap br ad tr ack br ag wr ap bl ack dr ag After a little drill in analyzing the words of a family, (sounding the consonant and phonogram separately) they should be pronounced at sight, analyzing the word only when the pupil fails in pronunciation. The teacher's chart of phonograms as she works it out for herself may be something like this. [(a] [)e] i [)o] [)u] at et it ot ut ack ed ick ock ub ad en id od uck ag est ig og ug an end im op um ap edge in ong un and ent ip oss uff ang ess ift ung ank ell ing unk ash ink ump amp ill ush ust While this gives the teacher a working chart, it is neither necessary nor advisable that the above order be always followed in teaching the phonograms and sounding series of words, nor that they be systematically completed before other phonograms found in the words of the reading lessons are taught. Such phonograms as "ound" from "found", "un" from "run", "ight" from "bright", "est" from "nest", "ark" from "lark", etc., may be taught as soon as these sight words are made a part of the child's reading vocabulary. f ound r un br ight ound un ight s ound f un m ight r ound s un r ight gr ound b un f ight b ound g un fr ight p ound n un l ight f ound r un s ight h ound s un sl ight ar ound st un n ight n est l ark c atch est ark atch b est d ark h atch l est b ark m atch p est m ark m atch r est h ark b atch t est p ark l atch v est sp ark p atch w est st ark th atch cr est sh ark scr atch ch est sn atch gu est Attention is not called here to the various vowel sounds, but the complete phonogram is taught at sight. _Short "e" Phonograms._ bed h en b end b ent fed d en l end c ent led p en m end d ent n ed m en s end l ent r ed B en t end s ent Fr ed t en bl end r ent sh ed wr en sp end t ent sl ed th en tr end w ent bl ed wh en sp ent gl en edge B ess b ell sh ell h edge l ess c ell sm ell l edge bl ess s ell sp ell s edge ch ess t ell sw ell w edge dr ess f ell dw ell pl edge pr ess n ell sl edge gu ess w ell _Short "i" Phonograms._ D ick s ick cl ick th ick k ick t ick qu ick tr ick l ick w ick sl ick p ick br ick st ick b id p ig d im p in th in d id b ig h im t in tw in h id f ig J im b in k id d ig r im f in l id r ig T im s in r id w ig tr im w in sl id tw ig br im ch in sk id sk im gr in sl im sk in sw im sp in d ip l ift s ing p ink b ill h ip g ift k ing l ink f ill l ip s ift r ing m ink h ill n ip dr ift w ing s ink J ill r ip sh ift br ing w ink k ill s ip sw ift cl ing bl ink m ill t ip thr ift sl ing br ink p ill ch ip st ing dr ink t ill cl ip str ing ch ink w ill sl ip spr ing cl ink ch ill dr ip sw ing shr ink sp ill gr ip th ing th ink st ill sh ip wr ing tr ill sk ip tr ip str ip wh ip _Short "o" Phonograms._ B ob n od c ock d og c ob p od l ock h og r ob r od r ock l og s ob h od s ock f og m ob c od m ock fr og j ob cl od bl ock c og f ob pl od cl ock j og kn ob tr od cr ock cl og thr ob sh od fl ock kn ock st ock h op t op sh op m op st op sl op l op dr op pr op s op cr op s ong l oss l ong t oss d ong R oss g ong m oss str ong b oss wr ong cr oss pr ong fl oss thr ong gl oss _Phonograms Containing Short "u"._ r ub d uck b ug r un t ub l uck h ug s un c ub t uck j ug f un h ub cl uck l ug b un cl ub pl uck m ug g un gr ub sh uck p ug sp un scr ub tr uck r ug st un st ub str uck t ug sh un sn ub dr ug pl ug sn ug dr um c uff r ung pl um m uff s ung ch um p uff h ung g um h uff l ung h um b uff cl ung sc um bl uff fl ung gl um gr uff sl ung st uff st ung spr ung sw ung str ung b unk j ump h ush m ust h unk b ump m ush j ust j unk l ump r ush r ust ch unk h ump g ush d ust dr unk p ump br ush cr ust sk unk d ump cr ush tr ust sp unk st ump bl ush thr ust tr unk th ump pl ush thr ush From the beginning review daily the phonograms taught. Thus by means of these daily drills in pronunciation, the pupil gains power in mastering new words. He constantly makes intelligent and practical application of the knowledge he has gained in pronouncing a letter or a combination of letters in a certain way, under certain conditions. _Diacritical Marks_ The child has no need of diacritical marks at this time; indeed he has little need for them until the fourth year, when the use of the dictionary is taught. The new dictionaries greatly simplify the matter of mastering the diacritical marks, and lessen the number needed, by re-writing unphonetic words in simple phonetic spelling. During the first three years do not retard the child's progress, and weaken his power to apply the knowledge which his previous experience has given him, by marking words to aid him in pronunciation. At best, the marks are artificial and questionable aids. PHONIC PLAYS Much necessary drill can be made interesting by infusing the _spirit_ of play into an exercise that would otherwise be formal. 1. _"Hide and Seek"_ "Hide and Seek" at once suggests a game. The teacher introduces it simply by saying: "We'll play these sounds are hiding from us. Who can find them?" Place the consonant cards on the blackboard ledge. The teacher writes any consonant on the board and immediately erases it. A pupil finds the card containing the same consonant, sounds it, and replaces the card. Teacher writes several sounds on the board, then erases them. Pupil finds corresponding sounds on cards, in the order written. 2. _"Fishing"_ (Fish in pond.) Cards placed in a row on black board ledge. (Catching fish.) Pupil takes as many as he can sound correctly. Single and blended consonants, and digraphs written on cardboard cut in form of fish, and put into the mirror lake on the sand table. Children "catch fish" in turn. 3. _"Guess."_ A pupil thinks of a word containing a known phonogram, which is communicated to the teacher. The child standing before the class then says, "I am thinking of a word belonging to the "an" family." The word, we will say, is "fan." A child who is called on asks, "Is it c an?" The first child replies, "It is not can." Another asks, "Is it m an?" etc., until the correct word is discovered. 4. _"Run Home."_ For reviewing phonograms and fixing the vowel sounds as well, the following game is used. Draw pictures of several houses on the board, writing a different phonogram in each, explaining that these are the names of the families living there, as, "ed," "eg," "est," "en," etc. Distribute to the class cards containing a word with one of these endings, and let "the children run home." Those holding the words ten, pen, men and hen, will run to the house where "en" lives. The children holding rest, best, nest, etc., will group themselves at the house of "est." Again let several children represent mothers and stand before the class holding phonograms. As Mother "ed" calls her children, those holding cards containing red, led, fed, Fred, and bed, will run to her. If a child belonging to the "est" family should come, she will send back the stray child, saying pleasantly, "You do not belong in my family." A little voice drill as practiced in the music lesson may be used here. The mother calls "Children" on 1 and 8 of the scale (low and high do thus: 1-8 8-1 child-dren), the children replying as they come, "We're here." For individual tests let the mother call out all her children from the other families, the children coming to her as she calls their card names. RHYME STORIES Enliven the phonic drills occasionally by originating little rhymes, using the words of the series to be reviewed. Write the words on the board in columns, or upon cards. As the teacher repeats a line of the jingle, she pauses for the children to supply the rhyme words. Grandma was taking a cozy nap Her hands were folded in her (lap) When she wakened she heard a (tap) In the maple tree that was full of (sap.) She soon spied the tapper--he wore a red (cap) White vest and black coat, and his wings gave a (flap) As he hopped about with a rap-a-tap-(tap) What did he want--was he looking for (sap)? Ah no, but for grubs, which he ate quick as (snap) Can you name this gay drummer who wears a red (cap)? II. As soon as possible introduce a number of phonograms into the same story. I have a little pet Who is as black as (jet) She sits upon a mat And watches for a (rat.) Her coat is smooth as silk, She likes to drink sweet (milk) She grows so fast and fat That soon she'll be a (cat) Can't you guess? Now what a pity 'Tis the dearest little ( ). SPELLING BY SOUND An easy step now, which the children will enjoy is the writing of the words of given families as a dictation exercise, followed by sentences as soon as the use of the capital and period have been taught. Such sentences as the following may be given after a number of short "a" phonograms are mastered: The cat sat on a mat. Nan has a fan. The cat is fat. The cat can see the pan. The man has a hat. Dan has a bat. Dan has a hat and a cap. The bag is in the cab. When phonograms containing the other short vowels are known, words may be pronounced miscellaneously from different series or families; as, run, cap, pet, ran, pin, top, followed by sentences made up of miscellaneous words, as,-- "Run red hen." "Nan has a fan." "Get the hat pin." "Ned can spin a top." "Nat set the trap." "Jack run back and get the sack." "A fat man got in the hack." "Can Sam get the hat?" THE ALPHABET AND ORAL SPELLING The names of letters should not be formally taught until their sounds are thoroly fixed in mind; otherwise the names and sounds will be confused. Pupils who begin by "learning their letters" will be found spelling out a word (naming over the letters) in order to arrive at the pronunciation. Attention must be focused on the _sounds only_, at first. When the consonant sounds are mastered by every member of the class, and they have gained some proficiency in pronouncing words by blending these with the short and long vowel sounds, the _names_ of the letters may be taught, and the alphabet committed to memory in order. While as a rule, most children learn the majority of the letters incidentally by the end of the first year, it often happens that some remain ignorant of the alphabetical order until they come to use the dictionary, and are greatly handicapped. _To Associate the Name of the Letter With Its Sound._ (1) The teacher names the letter as she points to it and the children give the corresponding sound; (2) As the teacher sounds the letter, pupils name the letter sounded. (3) Repeat with the letters erased from the board. Oral spelling may begin _after_ the sounds have first been mastered--and as soon as the names of the letters are taught. Spell only the phonetic words at first. The lists of families of words which have been written from dictation may now be spelled orally. The spelling recitation may be both oral and written, but written spelling should predominate the first year. Unphonetic words should be taught by visualizing--getting the form of the word as a whole. The teacher writes the word on the board in free rapid hand, pupils observe for a moment, getting a mental picture of the form; the word is erased by the teacher, and reproduced on the board by the pupil. While oral spelling aids the "ear-minded" pupil and gives variety in the recitation, written spelling should predominate for the reasons that (1) in practical life, spelling is used almost wholly in expressing thought in writing; (2) the eye and hand should be trained equally with the ear. It is often true that good oral spellers will fail in writing the same words for want of practice. (3) In the written recitation each pupil can spell a greater number of words and in less time than is possible in oral spelling. SEAT WORK 1. Distribute pages from magazines or old readers and let pupils underline words beginning with a certain consonant (the one being taught). If different colored pencils are used, the same pages can be used a number of times. When the "m" sound is being taught let all words beginning with that sound be marked with black; at another seat work period, words beginning with "b" are marked with "green;" and again, words beginning with "f" sound are marked with blue pencils, etc. Underline digraphs, blended consonants, and phonograms. 2. The teacher writes a phonogram on the board and below it all the consonant sounds from which words may be built. Pupils write the entire words. 3. Phonograms are written on the board; pupils supply consonants and write out the words. 4. Have a number of phonograms and three or four sets of consonants in envelopes. Give an envelope to each child and let him build the words on his desk. Duplicate copies can be made on a hectograph, one set for each lesson; then if one envelope from each set is preserved, those miscellaneous lessons can be used in review for a long time, each child using a different set each time. 5. Write on the board lists of words ending in various phonograms and let the children re-write them, arranging in columns according to phonograms. 6. Write families from memory. GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 1. At least two daily periods should be given to phonics. The first lessons will be short, but after some advance has been made, ten to fifteen minutes should be given. 2. As far as possible let the words for phonic drill be those that will occur in the new reading lessons. 3. Constantly review all familiar sounds, phonograms, digraphs, blends, etc., when met in new words, and so teach pupils to apply their knowledge of phonics. 4. Teaching them to "pantomime" the sounds--representing them mutely by movement of the lips, tongue and palate, will aid them in silent study at their seats. 5. By the end of the first year the pupil's phonetic knowledge, combined with his vocabulary of sight words and his power to discover a new word, either phonetically or by the context, ought to enable him to read independently any primer, and to read during the year from eight to twelve or more primers and first readers. 6. In reading, pupils should be taught to get the meaning chiefly by context--by the parts which precede or follow the difficult word and are so associated with it as to throw light upon its meaning. 7. When a word cannot be pronounced phonetically, the teacher should assist by giving the sound needed, but the pupil will soon discover that by using his wits in phonics as in other things, he can get the new word for himself by the sense of what he is reading, e.g., in the sentence, "The farmer came into the field" he meets the new word "field." Naturally a second year pupil, who has learned the reasons for sounding will apply the long sound of "i;"--as he reads it does not make sense, so he tries short "i." Still the sentence is meaningless, so he tries again with "e" and reads a sentence which satisfies him, because the meaning is clear. If the first year pupil pronounces the word "coat" as co-at (recognizing the last combination as a member of the "at" family) the teacher will underline and call his attention to the digraph "oa" which he has already learned to pronounce as long "o." Most pupils however, meeting the word in a sentence--as, "The caterpillar's coat is green"--would, if reading thotfully recognize the word by the context. 8. Drill on obscure sounds should be omitted the first year. Unphonetic words should be taught as sight words: as: one, many, been, said, they, ought, eight. 9. Begin to combine words and syllables into longer words as soon as possible: door-step, in-deed, hand-some, be-fore, ham-mer-ing, in-no-cent, for-get-ful, car-pen-ter, side-walk, mis-take. 10. Give time increasingly to analytic-synthetic word study, e.g.--"eight" and "rain" are taught as sight words. eigh t r ain Analysis: eigh ain w eigh p ain w eight pl ain Synthesis: n eigh com plain n eigh bor com plain ing ARTICULATION Exercises to correct faulty articulation and secure flexibility should be given frequently. Constant vigilance is necessary in overcoming the common errors shown in the following examples. "I will eat you," said the troll. (not "e-chew") Dear little baby, close your eye. (not "clo-zhure eye") "I will then," said Red Hen, and she did. (not "an' she did.") Put your right hand in. (not "put chure") --you, and you, and you. (an' Jew.) Father will meet you (meat chew) at the station. The leaves turned to red and gold. (red Dan gold) "No matter what you hear, (what chew) no matter what you see, Raggylug, don't you move." (don't chew) Tender flowers come forth to greet her. (gree-ter) It is not at all (a-tall) like the mother bird. Have the pupils practice such exercises as:-- Did you? Don't you? Would you? Should you? Could you? (Not "did Jew," "don't chew" etc.) Where shall I meet you? (not meat chew) When shall I meet you? She sells sea shells. Pupils usually have difficulty with words ending in sts, dth, pth. Lists of such words should be drilled upon:-- Nests, vests, posts, hosts, boasts, fists, mists, frosts, length, breadth, depth. "He thrusts his fists against the posts, And still insists he sees the ghosts." (If necessary show the pupils how to adjust the vocal organs to make the different sounds.) m, n, ng (nasal) p, b, w, m (lips) f, v (lips and teeth) t, d, s, z, n (tongue and hard palate.) j, ch, (tongue and hard palate-back) k, g, ng (tongue and soft palate.) y, l (tongue, hard palate and soft palate.) p, b, d, t, j, k, h, g, ch (momentary) w, f, v, s, l, r, y, th, sh (continuous) The majority of children learn the sounds by imitation and repetition. The above is to help the teacher in giving the sounds correctly. SECOND YEAR _I. Review Single and Blended Consonants, Digraphs, Short and Long Vowels, and All Phonograms._ _II. Continue Pronouncing Exercises, Teaching New Phonograms._ Continue word study by the analytic-synthetic process. These phonic drills will deal largely with the new words that occur in the daily reading lessons. _III. Syllabication._ In mastering the pronunciation of new words, pupils should acquire the habit of analyzing them into syllables. The ear must be trained to _hear_ syllables, they should be _separately pronounced_, and _clearly imaged_. This makes for effective spelling later. Most of the difficulties in spelling are removed when the habit of breaking up a complex word into its elements is acquired. re mem ber ther mom e ter sep a rate in de pen dence dan de lion mul ti pli ca tion beau ti ful re frig er a tor _IV. Teach the Long Vowel Sounds._ We have found that the short vowels predominate in the English language. The long vowel sounds come next in frequency. When the child has mastered the letters and combinations representing these two sounds, he is able to recognize a large majority of the phonetic words in our language. Phonetic words follow definite rules of pronunciation. These rules are not to be formally taught in the first and second years, but pointed out by examples, so that the visual and auditory image may be associated. To illustrate: When there are two or more vowels in a word of one syllable, the first vowel is long, and the last silent, as: came, leaf, coat, rain. "When there is one vowel in the word and it is the last, it is long," as: me, he, fly. All vowels are short unless modified by position. Have the children notice the effect of final "e" upon some of their short vowel words. These lists will furnish good pronunciation drills. mat mate bit bite tap tape pan pane rod rode fad fade fat fate hat hate mad made can cane pin pine rat rate not note rob robe pet Pete man mane din dine dim dime cap cape fin fine spin spine hid hide mop mope kit kite hop hope plum plume rip ripe tub tube cub cube cut cute tun tune Call attention to the vowel digraphs in the same way: ea, ai, oa, ay. deaf seat bean neat leaves meat heat peach lean please eagle clean eat seam teach mean stream glean read squeal wean While there are exceptions, as in the words "head" and "bread," the digraph "ea" has the sound of long "e" in nearly three-fourths of the words in which it occurs and should be so taught. The visual image "ea" should call up the auditory image of long "e." When the child meets the exceptions the context must be relied on to aid him. Likewise in the following list, the new fact to be taught is the digraph "ai" having the long sound of "a." Blending the initial and final consonants with this, the pupil pronounces the new list of words without further aid. rain chain faith daisy wait main paint daily nail brain faint plainly pail drain snail waist pain claim frail complain pain train praise sailor aim plain quail raise maid braid sprain trail mail The digraph "oa" and "ay" may be taught with equal ease the first year. There is no reason for deferring them; they should be taught as soon as the children have need for them. coat toast roar load goat roam float road moan toad roam throat oar boat oat meal croak soar foam loaf soap coarse loaves groan board goal boast cloak coach poach roast say day may gay hay play slay pray lay clay dray gray nay bray way stay pay tray sway spray ray stray jay stray LONG VOWEL PHONOGRAMS (These lists are for rapid pronunciation drills.) c ame f ade f ace sh ape l ame m ade l ace gr ape g ame w ade p ace m ate n ame bl ade r ace d ate s ame gr ade br ace f ate t ame sh ade Gr ace g ate bl ame sp ade pl ace h ate fl ame gl ade sp ace K ate sh ame tr ade tr ace c age b ake s ale l ate p age c ake b ale r ate r age l ake p ale cr ate s age m ake t ale gr ate w age r ake sc ale pl ate st age s ake st ale sk ate t ake wh ale st ate w ake g ale g ave c ane dr ake d ale s ave l ane fl ake c ape c ave m ane qu ake t ape p ave p ane sh ake cr ape r ave v ane sn ake dr ape w ave cr ane st ake scr ape br ave pl ane br ake gr ave sh ave sl ave st ave cr ave b e h eed s eek h e s eed m eek m e w eed w eek w e r eed ch eek sh e bl eed cr eek th e br eed sl eek tr ee gr eed p eek s ee sp eed Gr eek b ee st eed f eet th ee fr eed b eet fl ee f eel m eet kn ee p eel fl eet fr ee h eel gr eet thr ee r eel sh eet gl ee kn eel sl eet sk ee st eel str eet d eed wh eel sw eet n eed f eed p eep d eem d eep s eem k eep t eem ch eep br eeze w eep fr eeze cr eep sn eeze sh eep squ eeze sl eep wh eeze st eep sw eep d eer m ice pr ide kn ife ch eer n ice gl ide str ife qu eer r ice gu ide h igh sh eer pr ice sl ide s igh st eer sl ice str ide n igh sn eer sp ice d ie th igh gr een tr ice t ie l ight qu een tw ice l ie m ight pr een r ide d ied r ight scr een s ide dr ied br ight w een h ide fr ied f ight spl een t ide sp ied n ight s een w ide l ife s ight k een br ide w ife f ife t ight f ind t ire fr ight m ind w ire sl ight b ind f ire kn ight r ind h ire w ind m ire l ike bl ind sp ire d ike gr ind squ ire p ike h ike f ine k ite t ike d ine b ite sp ike m ine m ite str ike n ine qu ite p ine sm ite p ile v ine sp ite t ile br ine spr ite m ile sh ine wh ite N ile sp ine wr ite f ile sw ine sm ile th ine f ive st ile tw ine h ive wh ile wh ine d ive l ive d ime r ipe dr ive l ime p ipe str ive t ime w ipe thr ive ch ime sn ipe sl ime tr ipe m y pr ime str ipe b y fl y cr y dr y c old b one ch ose fr y s old dr one th ose pr y b old ph one cl ose sh y m old sh one w ove sk y t old thr one dr ove sl y f old gr ove sp y g old r ope cl ove spr y h old h ope st ove st y sc old d ope tr y sl ope h oe wh y h ole t oe p ole c ore J oe r obe m ole m ore f oe gl obe s ole p ore w oe r ode st ole t ore j oke wh ole w ore d oor p oke r oll s ore fl oor w oke tr oll ch ore br oke str oll sh ore m ow ch oke sn ore r ow sm oke c olt st ore s ow sp oke b olt b ow str oke j olt t orn bl ow v olt w orn sl ow sh orn sn ow h ome cr ow t one r ose fl ow st one n ose gl ow h ose gr ow p ose kn ow sh ow thr ow t ube bl ue s own c ube d ue bl own m ule h ue gr own f ume c ue fl own pl ume gl ue thr own J une fl ue t une c ure p ure The Diphthongs oi, oy, ou, ow. oi oy m ound ow b oil b oy gr ound c ow s oil j oy c ount n ow t oil t oy m ount h ow c oil R oy h our b ow br oil tr oy fl our br ow sp oil ou h ouse f owl m ouse h owl v oice l oud bl ouse gr owl ch oice cl oud p out sc owl c oin pr oud sh out d own j oin c ouch sp out g own j oint p ouch spr out t own p oint s ound st out br own n oise b ound tr out cl own m oist r ound m outh cr own f ound s outh dr own w ound fr own DIGRAPHS (For rapid pronunciation drills.) sh ch th wh th sh eep ch ick bath wh en then sh ell ch ild both wh y they sh y ch air doth wh ere these sh ore ch ill mirth wh ich those sh ine ch erry worth wh at the sh ow ch ildren birth wh ile thy sh e ch urch tooth wh ose that sh all ch ase loth wh ite this sh ould ch est girth wh ale thus sh ake ch ange thin wh eat thine sh ame ch alk thick wh eel there sh ape ch ain think wh ack their sh are ch ance throat wh ip them sh ark ch arge thorn wh irl though sh arp ch ap three wh et thou sh awl ch apel third wh ey sh ed ch apter thaw wh isper sh ear ch arm wh istle sh epherd ch eck THIRD YEAR _I. Rules or Reasons for Sounds._ (The effect of the position of the letter upon its sound.) _II. Effect of "r" Upon Vowels._ _III. Equivalents._ _IV. Teach Vowel Sounds Other Than Long and Short Sounds, by Analyzing Known Words and Phonograms._ Pupils know the phonogram "ark," learned when the following list of words was pronounced: bark, dark, hark, lark, mark, park, shark, etc. Attention is now called to the long Italian "a" sound (two dots above) and other lists pronounced; as, farm, barn, sharp, charm. Broad "a" (two dots below) is taught by recalling the familiar phonogram "all" and the series: ball, fall, call, tall, small, etc., pronounced. Also other lists containing this sound: as, walk, salt, caught, chalk, haul, claw, cause. (The rules for sounds apply to the individual syllables in words of more than one syllable as well as to monosyllables.) HOW TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN VOWELS AND CONSONANTS Before the rules for the sounds are taken up, it will be necessary that the pupils know how to distinguish the vowels from the consonants. Have the vowels on the board, also lists of words, and drill on finding the vowels in the lists. The teacher says, "These letters are called vowels." "How many vowels are there?" "Find a vowel in this word"--pointing to one of the words in the lists. As the pupil finds it he says, "This is a vowel." Find the vowels in all the words in the lists. PHONICS AND LANGUAGE When the vowels and consonants can be distinguished, pupils can be taught the use of the articles "a" and "an". "An" is used before words beginning with vowels; "a" before words beginning with consonants. Lists of words are placed on the board to be copied, and the proper article supplied. apple ball stem eye peach owl orange flower table uncle ink-stand Use the article "the" with the same list of words in oral expression, pronouncing "the" with the long sound of "e" before words beginning with vowels, as "The apple," "The ink-stand." _The_ apple is on the table. The peach is ripe. The flower and _the_ orange are for you. _The_ owl has bright eyes. _The_ ice is smooth and hard. Grandfather sits in _the_ arm chair. Is _the_ envelope sealed? _The_ old man leans on the cane. RULES OR REASONS FOR SOUNDS The real difficulty in phonics lies in the fact that the pronunciation of the English language abounds in inconsistencies. Its letters have no fixed values and represent different sounds in different words. While there are but twenty-six letters in the English alphabet there are forty-four elementary sounds in the English language. Thus far but one sound for each consonant has been taught and emphasized. Incidentally the fact that some of the letters have more than one sound has been discovered, as c in city, g in gentle,--but now definite teaching is given concerning them. The new sound is taught with its diacritical mark and the reason given, e.g. "c before e, i, or y is soft." When a reason or rule for marking is given, lists of words illustrating the rule should be sounded and pronounced. The teacher marks the word as the reason is given. Lists of words may be marked by the pupils as a dictation exercise. The above use of _diacritical marks_ does not apply to the pernicious practice of marking words to aid in pronunciation, but to show the purpose of marks, which is merely to indicate the sound. _Teach that the sound of the letter depends upon its position in the word, and not upon the diacritical marks._ REASONS FOR SOUNDS 1. When there is one vowel in the word and it is at the last, it is long. me he my sky be the by cry we she fly try 2. One vowel in the word, not at the last, is short; as, mat, nest, pond. (Refer to short vowel lists to test this rule.) 3. When there are two or more vowels in a syllable, or a word of one syllable the first vowel is long, and the last are silent; as: mate, sneeze, day. (Teacher marks the long and silent vowels as the reason for the sound is given.) Children mark these words and give reason: game, kite, make, coat, meat, wait. After rules (1 to 3) are clearly developed, apply them by marking and pronouncing these words and giving reasons. coat man neat he nine box sun feel kite she run me take we seam heat bit tan bite mad made take cape the mane cap lake Rule 4. When double consonants occur, the last is silent; tel_l_, bac_k_. back bell kill dress duck Jack fell till Jess tack pack Nell fill less press lack Bell pill neck luck sack sell will Bess still tack tell hill block stick shall well mill peck trill shell yell rock clock struck Rule 5. T before ch is silent: ca_t_ch. hatch switch ditch match stretch pitch latch thatch stitch patch sketch fetch hitch scratch match watch snatch crutch Rule 6. N before g, the sound of ng ([n=]): sing, also n before k--[n=]g,--i[n=]k. bang song lank rang long bank sang strong sank hang thing tank wink cling sung sink swing lung think sing swung brink sting stung Rule 7. Initial k before n is silent--_k_nife. knee knew know knack knot knock knob knell knife knelt known kneel Rule 8. Initial w before r is silent--_w_rite. wry wren written wring wreak wrist wrong wrote wriggle write wretch wrench wrap wreath writing Rule 9. Initial g before n is silent--_g_naw. gnat gnarl gnu gnaw gneiss gnome Rule 10. C before e, i or y is soft.--cent, city, cypress. face cent nice lace cell price place ice slice race rice twice Grace mice cypress cylinder cyclone (Hard c is found before a, o, and u or a consonant.) Rule 11. G before e, i or y is soft,--gentle, giant, gypsy. (Get and give are common exceptions.) age gentle gem cage gin gypsy page gill giraffe rage ginger wage sage giant gipsy Exercise--Pronounce and mark the following words, and tell whether they contain the soft or hard sounds of g. go gay gate globe dog bag garden glass gentle cage general forge geese gather wagon glove gem game George forget germ Gill Grace grain Note effect of final e on hard g. rag rage sag sage wag wage stag stage Rule 12. I before gh--i is long and gh silent--ni_gh_t. light right fight night bright fright sight high slight might thigh flight tight sigh plight Rule 13. Final y in words of more than one syllable is short,--cherry. dainty pity ferry plainly city lightly rainy naughty berry daisy thirty merry daily dreary cherry Rule 14. Final e in words of more than one syllable is silent.--gentl_e_, Nelli_e_. Rule 15. Effect of r upon vowels. [~er] [~ir] [~or] [~ur] her bird work urn fern sir word turn term stir worm hurt herd girl world purr jerk first worst burn ever chirp worth churn serve whirl worse burst perch thirst worship church kernel fir worthy curve verse firm worry curb verb third fur germ birth blur herb birch curd stern thirty curl OTHER EQUIVALENTS a==e [(a]==[(e] they eight care heir obey weight bare their prey freight fare there weigh neigh hair where sleigh veins fair stair reign whey chair pear skein rein pair a==[)o] a==[(o] au==aw==ou what not call nor haul ought was odd raw for fault bought watch cot want corn cause sought wasp got walk cord pause caw wash hop salt short caught saw drop dog hall storm naught paw spot fog draw horse naughty draw talk morn thought thaw ou==ow [=ew]==[=u] our how dew due out now few hue hour cow mew blue flour bow new June trout plow Jew tune shout owl pew plume mouth growl hue pure sound brown glue flute mouse crowd ground flower house drown ew==[=oo]==o==[u..] o==oo==[u..] grew do poor rude wolf wool chew you soon rule could foot crew to noon tool would good brew shoe whom school should hood drew prove food spool woman wood threw broad whose roof shook stood screw moon tomb broom crook pull strew goose stoop roost hook bush shrewd took full brook put book puss look o==[)u] oy==oi come fun boy oil none gun joy soil son run Roy voice dove sup toy spoil love cup troy joint some sun join point ton hum coin choice won drum noise noise does plum toil moist touch nut glove shut month much none must FOURTH YEAR I. Review and continue to apply the principles of pronunciation, with a more complete mastery of the vowel and consonant sounds as found in Webster's dictionary. II. Teach the diacritical marks found in the dictionary to be used. The marks needed will be found at the foot of each page of the dictionary. III. Teach the use of the dictionary. (1) See that every child owns, if possible, one of the new dictionaries, in which unphonetic words are respelled phonetically. (2) See that all know the alphabet in order. (3) Pupils practice finding names in the telephone directory, catalogs, reference books, etc. (4) Practice arranging lists of words in alphabetical order, as in the following dictation exercise. Rewrite these words in the order in which they would occur in the dictionary. chance value alarm hurdle green evergreen window feather indeed leave sapwood monkey bruise kernel double jelly Also lists like these:--a step more difficult. arbor angry alarm after artist age afford apron apple appear athletic approve assist answer always anchor After teaching the alphabetical order, with dictionary in hand, have the pupil trace the word to its letter, then to its page. Having found his way to the word, he must now learn to read what the dictionary has to tell him about it. His attention is called to syllabification as well as to diacritical marks. (Those found at the foot of the page will furnish the key to pronunciation.) He finds that his dictionary is a means of learning not only the pronunciation of words, but their meaning and spelling. Later, as soon as the parts of speech are known, he should learn the various uses of words--their grammatical uses, derivation, etc., and come to regard the dictionary as one of his commonest tools, as necessary as other books of reference. But here the teacher's task is not done. Provided with the key to the mastery of symbols, her pupils may still fail to use this key to unlock the vast literary treasures in store for them. They must be taught _what to read_, as well as _how to read_. They must be introduced to the school library and if possible to the public library. Dr. Elliot has said: "The uplifting of the democratic masses depends upon the implanting at school of the taste for good reading." Moreover that teacher does her pupils the most important and lasting service who develops in them not only _an appreciation of good literature_, but _the habit of reading it_. Transcriber's note: Non-ascii diacritical marks represented as follows: [(a] a below inverted breve [)e] e below breve [(e] e below inverted breve [)o] o below breve [(o] o below inverted breve [)u] u below breve [=u] u below macron [n=] n above macron [u..] u above diaresis [~er] er below tilde [~ir] ir below tilde [~or] or below tilde [~ur] ur below tilde [=ew] ew below macron [=oo] oo below macron Words such as thot, thotfully and thoroly are spelt as per original. 
26991	----	A Short _System_ OF English GRAMMAR. For the use of the BOARDING SCHOOL In WORCESTER. _By_ HENRY BATE _A. B._ _Worcester:_ Printed by R. LEWIS, Bookseller, in _High-Street_. THE PREFACE. _Usage and Custom are the Rules and Measures of every_ Language, _and the Rules of_ GRAMMAR _have nothing more to do, than to teach it. The_ GRAMMAR _is to be fashioned from the particular_ Language, _it treats of, and not the Language from the_ GRAMMAR. _For want of following this regular Plan, our Modern_ GRAMMARIANS_ have introduced the_ GRAMMAR Rules _of other_ Languages _into their own; as if all_ Language _was founded on_ GRAMMAR, _and the Rules in one_ Language _would serve the same End and Purpose in another._ The Latin, _for Instance, has only_ eight Parts of Speech, _and the Writers of_ English GRAMMAR _have unthinkingly adopted the same Number; whereas with the Article, which the_ Latin _has not, and which is of great Service in a_ Language, _we have no less than nine. The_ Latin _admits of_ Cases; _but as different_ Cases, _properly speaking, are nothing more than the different Inflections and Terminations of Nouns_, English Nouns _have no_ Cases. _It is not agreeable to the Principles of_ GRAMMAR _to say that_--of a Rose--_is the Genitive Case of_--Rose, _or_--to a Rose, _the Dative; for_ of _and_ to _are no Part of the Word_ Rose, _but only_ prefix Particles _or_ Prepositions, _which shew the different Relation of the Word_ Rose. _So likewise when we say_ Alexander's Horse, _the Word_ Alexander's _is not the Genitive Case of_ Alexander; _for strictly speaking the_ 's _is no Part of the Word_ Alexander _but the final Letter of the Pronoun Possessive_ his, _and without the_ Apostrophe _we shou'd read it thus;_ Alexander his Horse. _If any of the_ Parts of Speech _have_ Cases, _the_ Pronouns _have, and some of the_ Pronouns _may perhaps have_ two; _but for the Sake of making every Thing as easy as I can to the Learner, I have taken the Liberty of distinguishing such_ Pronouns _into_ Prefix _and_ Subsequent, _and entirely laid aside_ Cases _as useless and unnecessary. The_ Latin _has_ Genders, _the_ Adjective _in that Language always varying to correspond with the_ Substantive; _but our_Adjectives _never vary, and therefore the Distinction of_ Genders _has nothing to do with_ English GRAMMAR, _but is idle, trifling, impertinent._ EXPERIENCE _shews, that this Sort of pedantick Ignorance and Folly, has made that dark and obscure, which it was intended to elucidate, and unhappily puzzled and perplexed a great many more, than it has ever instructed. Every attempt to make_ English easy _must be fruitless, that is not formed upon a different Plan, and such is the following_ short System of English GRAMMAR. A Short _System_ OF English GRAMMAR. _Of_ GRAMMAR _and it's_ DIVISIONS. Grammar is the Science of Letters or Language, and is the Art of Speaking and Writing properly. It's Divisions are four; ORTHOGRAPHY ANALOGY PROSODY SYNTAX _Of_ ORTHOGRAPHY. Orthography comprehends _Writing_, and _Articulation_. _Articulation_ treats of Simple Sounds, which are made by the Organs of Speech, and by which we communicate our Ideas and Sentiments to one another. _Writing_ represents the Living Speech, and makes as it were these Sounds and Sentiments visible. _Of_ PROSODY. Prosody treats of Pronunciation with respect of _Accent_, _Time_, and _Quantity_. But as the Science of Letters, Sounds, and Pronunciation is instilled into the Minds of the English Youth very early in Life, and as this GRAMMAR is not intended for the Use of _Foreigners_, but for them; I shall not trifle away their Time, in teaching them, what they cannot be supposed to be unacquainted with; but proceed to the third Part of GRAMMAR called _Analogy_. _Of_ ANALOGY. Analogy is the mutual Relation, or Agreement of Words with one another, and treats of all the _Parts of Speech_, which in English are _nine_. _Article_ _Verb_ _Conjunction_ _Noun_ _Participle_ _Preposition_ _Pronoun_ _Adverb_ _Interjection_ _Of An_ ARTICLE. An Article is a _Part of Speech_ put before _Nouns_ to ascertain and fix their Vague Signification. There are three Articles, _a_, _an_, and _the_. _A_ and _an_ are Indefinite Articles and applied to Persons or Things indifferently; as _an Oyster_, _a Prince_. The Article _the_ distinguishes individually or particularly; as _the Oyster_, _the Prince_. _Of a_ NOUN. A Noun is a _Part of Speech_ which expresses the Subject spoke of; as _Ink_, _Paper_, _Witness._ A Noun is either _Substantive_, or _Adjective_. A Noun _Substantive_ is the Name of a Thing considered simply in itself, and without any Regard to it's Qualities; as _a Man_, _a Woman_, _a Child_. A Noun _Adjective_ is a Word added to the _Noun Substantive_, expressing the Circumstance or Quality thereof; as _a good Man_, _an old Woman_, _a young Child_. _Of a_ PRONOUN. A Pronoun is a _Part of Speech_ substituted in the Place of a _Noun_, to avoid the frequent and disagreeable Repetition of the same Word; as _the Bird_ is joyous, _he_ chirps, _he_ sings; which without the _Pronoun_ wou'd be thus; _the Bird_ is joyous, _the Bird_ chirps, _the Bird _ sings. PRONOUNS PERSONAL. _I_ _He_ _Myself_ _I myself_ _Me_ _Him_ _Yourself_ _You yourself_ _You_ _She_ _Thyself_ _Thou thyself_ _Thou_ _Her_ _Himself_ _He himself_ _Thee_ _One's self_ _Herself_ _She herself_ PRONOUNS RELATIVE. _Who_, _whose_, _whom_, _what_, _which._ PRONOUNS DEMONSTRATIVE. _This_, _that._ PRONOUNS POSSESSIVE. _My_ _Ours_ _Your_ _Theirs_ _Mine_ _Thy_ _Yours_ _Her_ _Our_ _Thine_ _His_ _Hers_ _Of_ NUMBER. Number expresses the Difference betwixt one Thing and many, and is either _Singular_ or _Plural_. When a Thing is considered as single, or a Multitude of Things considered as united together, it is of the _Singular Number_; as _a Man_, _a Troop_. When several Things are considered as distinct from each other it is of the _Plural Number_, as _Men_, _Soldiers_. The _Plural_ is usually formed in _Noun Substantives_ by adding _s_ to the _Singular_; as _Article Articles_, _Noun Nouns_. But when the Pronunciation requires it, or when the _Singular_ ends in _s_, _x_, _sh_, or _ch_, the _Plural_ is usually formed by adding the Syllable _es_; as _Ass Asses_, _Fox Foxes_, _Sash Sashes_, _Church Churches_. When the _Singular_ ends in _f_ or _fe_, the _Plural_ is usually form'd by changing the _f_ or _fe_ into _ves_; as _Wife Wives_, _Self Selves_. Sometimes the _Plural_ is formed by adding the Syllable _en_; as _Ox Oxen_; sometimes by changing the _Vowel_; as _Man Men_; and sometimes the _Vowels and Consonants_; as _Penny Pence_, _Mouse Mice_, _Louse Lice_. Some of the _Pronouns_ form their _Plural_ very irregular; as _I We_, _Me Us_, _Thou Ye_, _Thee You_, _He They_, _Him Them_, _She They_, _Her Them_. Some _Nouns_ have no _Singular Number_; as _Scissors_, the _East-Indies_, the _West-Indies_. Some have no _Plural_; the Names of Kingdoms for Instance; as _England_, _Ireland_, _Portugal_. Cities, Towns and Villages; as _Worcester_, _Kinver_, _Hagley_. Seas, and Rivers; as the _Mediterranean_, _Severn_. _Wheat_, _Barley_, _Gold_, _Silver_, _Pewter_, and a great many Words, that cannot be reduced to any Rule want the _Plural Number_; as _Ale_, _Beer_, _Bread_, _Butter_, _Honey_, _Milk_, _Hunger_, _Thirst_, _Drunkenness_. The Termination of some _Nouns_ is the same both in the _Singular_ and _Plural_; as _a Sheep_, _a Swine_, a Flock of _Sheep_, a Herd of _Swine_, &c. _Of_ COMPARISON. Comparison is the comparing the different Circumstances of Persons or Things with each other, and serves to alter the Signification of a Word, either by a gradual Increase, or a gradual Diminution; as _long longer longest_, _short shorter shortest_. ADJECTIVES, _Adverbs_, and _Substantives_, have three Degrees of Comparison, the _Positive_, the _Comparative_, and the _Superlative_. The _Positive_ lays down the Natural Signification simply and without excess or Diminution; as _long_, _short_, _often_. The _Comparative_ raises or lowers the _Positive_ in Signification, and is formed of the _Positive_ by adding the Syllable _er_; as _long longer_, _short shorter_, _often oftener_. The _Superlative_ raises or lowers the Signification as much as possible, and if formed of the _Positive_ by adding the Syllable _est_; as _long longest_, _short shortest_, _often oftenest_. Sometimes they are compared by the _Adverbs_ _very, infinitely_; and the _Adjectives_ _more, most_; _less, least_; as _long, very long, infinitely long_; _short, more short, most short_; _commonly, less commonly, least commonly_. These _Adjectives_ deviate from the general Rule, _good better best_, _bad worse worst_, _little less least_, _much more most_. SUBSTANTIVES are compared by the _Adjectives_ _more, most_, the Words _than_, or _that_, always following; as a Dunce, _more_ a Dunce _than_ I or me, the _most_ a Dunce _that_ ever I did see. _Of a_ VERB. A Verb is a _Part of Speech_, which serves to express, what we affirm of, or attribute to any Subject, and is either _Active_ or _Passive_. A Verb _Active_ is that which expresses an _Action_; as _I kick_, _I see_. A Verb _Passive_ is that which receives the _Action_ or expresses the _Passion_; as _I am kick'd_, _I am seen_. A Verb has two _Numbers_ the _Singular_ and the _Plural_; and three _Persons_ in each _Number_; as _I am, thou art, he is_. _We are, ye are, they are._ The same is to be observed in every _Mood_ and in every _Tense_ but in the _Infinitive_, which has neither _Number_ nor Person. _Of_ MOODS. A mood is the Manner of _conjugating Verbs_ agreeably to the different Actions or Affections to be expressed. There are _four Moods_, the _Indicative_, the _Imperative_, the _Conjunctive_, and the _Infinitive._ The _Indicative Mood_ expresseth the _Action_ or _Passion_ simply directly and absolutely; as _I love, I have loved, I will love_. The _Imperative_ commands or forbids; as _come_, _go_, _begone_. The _Conjunctive_ expresses the _Action_ or _Passion_ conditionally and is always joined with the _Indicative_, or the same _Mood_; as _I will love you, if you wou'd love me_; _I wou'd dance, if you wou'd dance_. The _Infinitive_ expresses the _Action_ or _Passion_ indeterminately without any Regard to _Time_, _Place_, _Number_, or _Person_; as _to love, to be loved_. _Of the_ TENSES. Tense is an Inflection of Verbs, whereby they are made to signify, and distinguish the Circumstance of _Time_. There are _five Tenses_, _the Present Tense_, _the Preterimperfect_, _the Preterperfect_, _the Preterpluperfect_, and _the Future_. 1. The _Present Tense_ expresses the Time, that now is; as _I sup_. 2. The _Preterimperfect Tense_ denotes the historical Relation of a past Action, but yet not perfectly compleated, when joined to another Action that is perfectly compleated; as _when or while I supped he came in_. 3. The _Preterperfect Tense_ expresses the Time Past perfectly; as _I have supped_. 4. The _Preterpluperfect Tense_ expresses the Time Past doubly; as _I had supped_. 5. The _Future Tense_ expresses the Time to come; as _I shall sup, I will sup_. _Of the_ CONJUGATION. Conjugation is the Variation of Verbs through all their _Moods and Tenses_; and the English Verbs are chiefly conjugated by _auxiliary Signs_; as _to love_; or by _auxiliary Verbs_; as _I am loved, I have loved_. _Of the_ AUXILIARY SIGNS. The _auxiliary Signs_ are Words that serve to express the Variations of the _Verb_. The _Imperative Mood_ has the _Signs_ _do, let_; as--_do thou love, let him love_. The _Infinitive Mood_ has the _Signs_ _to, about_; as _to love, about to love_. The other _Moods_ have the _auxiliary Signs_ following. _Singular_ 1st _Person_ { I do, did, must, may, { can, might, wou'd, cou'd, { shou'd, shall, _or_ will. 2d _Person_ { Thou do'st, did'st, must, { may'st, can'st, might'st, { wou'd'st, cou'd'st, shou'd'st, { shalt _or_ wilt. 3d _Person_ { He does, or do'th, did, must, { may, can, might, wou'd, { cou'd, shou'd, shall, _or_ { will. _Plural_ 1st _Person_ { We do, did, must, may, { can, might, wou'd, cou'd, { shou'd, shall, _or_ will. 2d _Person_ { Ye do, did, must, may, { can, might, wou'd, cou'd, { shou'd, shall _or_ will. 3d _Person_ { They do, did, must, may, { can, might, wou'd, cou'd, { shou'd, shall _or_ will. _Of the_ AUXILIARY VERBS. The _auxiliary Verbs_ are only two, _to Have_ and _to Be_; which cannot be conjugated without the _auxiliary Signs_, and without the reciprocal Assistance of each other. _To HAVE._ INDICATIVE MOOD. _Present Tense._ _Sing._ I have; thou hast; he hath, _or_ has. _Plur._ We have; ye have; they have. _Preterimperfect Tense._ _Sing._ I had; thou hadst; he had. _Plur._ We had; ye had; they had. _Preterperfect Tense._ _Sing._ I have had; thou hast had; he hath, _or_ has had. _Plur._ We have had; ye have had; they have had. _Preterpluperfect Tense._ _Sing._ I had had; thou hadst had; he had had. _Plur._ We had had; ye had had; they had had. _Future Tense._ _Sing._ I shall, or will have; thou shalt, or wilt have; he shall, _or_ will have. _Plur._ We shall, _or_ will have; ye shall, _or_ will have; they shall, _or_ will have. IMPERATIVE MOOD. _Present_ and _Future_. _Sing._ Let me have; do thou have, _or_ have thou; let him have. _Plur._ Let us have; do ye have, _or_ have ye; let them have. CONJUNCTIVE MOOD. _Present Tense._ _Sing._ I may, _or_ can have; thou may'st, _or_ can'st have; he may, _or_ can have. _Plur._ We may, _or_ can have; ye may, or can have; they may, _or_ can have. _Preterimperfect Tense._ _Sing._ I must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd have; thou must, might'st, woud'st, coud'st, _or_ shoud'st have; he must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd have. _Plur._ We must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd have; ye must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd have; they must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd have. _Preterperfect Tense._ _Sing._ I must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd have had; thou must, might'st, wou'd'st, cou'd'st, _or_ shou'd'st have had; he must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd have had. _Plur._ We must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd have had; ye must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd have had; they must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd have had. _Preterpluperfect Tense._ _Sing._ I must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd had had; thou must, might'st, wou'd'st, cou'd'st, _or_ shou'd'st had had; he must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd had had; _Plur._ We must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd had had; ye must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd had had; they must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd had had. _Future Tense._ _Sing._ I shall, _or_ will have had; thou shalt, _or_ wilt have had; he shall, _or_ will have had; _Plur._ We shall, _or_ will have had; ye shall, _or_ will have had; they shall, _or_ will have had. INFINITIVE MOOD. _Present_ ---- to have _Perfect_ ---- to have had _Future_ ---- about to have. PARTICIPLES. _Present_ ---- having _Preterperfect_ ---- having had. _To BE._ INDICATIVE MOOD. _Present Tense._ _Sing._ I am; thou art; he is. _Plur._ We are; ye are; they are. _Preterimperfect Tense._ _Sing._ I was; thou wast; he was; _Plur._ We were; ye were; they were. _Preterperfect Tense._ _Sing._ I have been; thou hast been; he hath been. _Plur._ We have been; ye have been; they have been. _Preterpluperfect Tense._ _Sing._ I had been; thou hadst been; he had been. _Plur._ We had been; ye had been; they had been. _Future Tense._ _Sing._ I shall, _or_ will be; thou shalt, _or_ wilt be; he shall, _or_ will be. _Plur._ We shall, _or_ will be; ye shall, _or_ will be; they shall, _or_ will be. IMPERATIVE MOOD. _Present_ and _Future_. _Sing._ Let me be; do thou be, _or_ be thou; let him be. _Plur._ Let us be; do ye be, _or_ be ye; let them be. CONJUNCTIVE MOOD. _Present Tense._ _Sing._ I may, _or_ can be; thou may'st, _or_ canst be; he may, _or_ can be. _Plur._ We may, _or_ can be; ye may, _or_ can be; they may, _or_ can be. _Preterimperfect Tense._ _Sing._ I must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd be; thou must, might'st, wou'd'st, cou'd'st, _or_ shou'd'st be; he must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd be. _Plur._ We must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd be; ye must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd be; they must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd be. _Preterperfect Tense._ _Sing._ I must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd have been; thou must, might'st, wou'd'st, cou'd'st, _or_ shou'd'st have been; he must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd, have been. _Plur._ We must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd have been; ye must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd have been; they must, might, wou'd cou'd, _or_ shou'd have been. _Preterpluperfect Tense._ _Sing._ I must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd have had been; thou must, might'st, wou'd'st, cou'd'st, _or_ shou'd'st, have had been; he must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd have had been. _Plur._ We must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd have had been; ye must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd have had been; they must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd have had been. _Future Tense._ _Sing._ I shall, _or_ will have been; thou shalt, _or_ wilt have been; he shall _or_ will have been. _Plur._ We shall, _or_ will have been; ye shall, _or_ will have been; they shall, _or_ will have been. INFINITIVE MOOD. _Present_ ---- to be _Preterperfect_ ---- to have been _Future_ ---- about to be. PARTICIPLES. _Present_ ---- being _Preterperfect_ ---- having been. _Of_ REGULAR VERBS. Regular _Verbs_ are those that are _conjugated_ by some established Rules. The _Termination_ of the _Infinitive Mood Present Tense, of the Verb Active, in regular Verbs_, is always the same as the _first Person_ of the _Indicative Mood Present Tense singular_; as _to love, I love_. The _Termination_ of the _second Person Singular_ is formed out of the _first_ by adding _st_ or _est_; as _I love, thou loves_t; _I read, thou readest_. The _Termination_ of the _third Person singular_ is formed out of the _first_ by adding _th_ or _eth_; as _I love, he loveth, I read, he readeth_; or only by adding _s_; as _he loves, he reads_. The _Termination_ of the _first Person Preterimperfect Tense singular_, is formed out of the _first Person Present Tense singular_ by adding the Syllable _ed_; as _I love, I loved_. The _Termination_ of the _Participle Present of the Verb Active_, is always formed out of the _first Person Present_ by adding the Syllable _ing_; as _I love_, _loving_. The _Termination_ of the _Preterimperfect, the Preterperfect, and the Preterpluperfect of the Indicative Mood; and the Preterperfect, the Preterpluperfect and the Future of the Conjunctive, and the Participle Passive_ is in regular Verbs the same; as _I loved, I have loved, I had loved, I may have loved, I might have loved, I shall have loved, I am loved_. And The _Termination_ of every other _Tense, Number or Person_, is the same with the _Infinitive_. _Of a_ VERB ACTIVE. A Verb _Active regular_ is conjugated by the _auxiliary Signs, the auxiliary Verbs_, and the general Rules foregoing. _To LOVE._ INDICATIVE MOOD. _Present Tense._ _Sing._ I love, _or_ do love; thou lovest, _or_ dost love; he loveth, _or_ loves, _or_ doth love. _Plur._ We love, _or_ do love; ye love, _or_ do love; they love, _or_ do love. _Preterimperfect Tense._ _Sing._ I loved, _or_ did love; thou loved'st, _or_ did'st love; he loved, _or_ did love. _Plur._ we loved, _or_ did love; ye loved, _or_ did love; they loved, _or_ did love. _Preterperfect Tense._ _Sing._ I have loved; thou hast loved; he hath loved, _or_ has loved. _Plur._ We have loved; ye have loved; they have loved. _Preterpluperfect Tense._ _Sing._ I had loved; thou hadst loved; he had loved. _Plur._ We had loved; ye had loved; they had loved. _Future Tense._ _Sing._ I shall, _or_ will love; thou shalt, _or_ wilt love; he shall, _or_ will love. _Plur._ We shall, _or_ will love; ye shall, _or_ will love; they shall, _or_ will love. IMPERATIVE MOOD. _Present_ and _Future_. _Sing._ Let me love; do thou love, _or_ love thou; let him love. _Plur._ Let us love; do ye love, _or_ love ye; let them love. CONJUNCTIVE MOOD. _Present Tense._ _Sing._ I may, _or_ can love; thou may'st, or can'st love; he may, _or_ can love. _Plur._ We may, _or_ can love; ye may, _or_ can love; they may, _or_ can love. _Preterimperfect Tense._ _Sing._ I must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd love; thou must, might'st, wou'd'st, cou'd'st, _or_ shou'd'st love; he must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd love. _Plur._ We must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd love; ye must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd love; they must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd love. _Preterperfect Tense._ _Sing._ I must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd have loved; thou must, might'st, wou'd'st, cou'd'st, _or_ shou'd'st have loved; he must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd have loved. _Plur._ We must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd have loved; ye must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd have loved; they must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd have loved. _Preterpluperfect Tense._ _Sing._ I must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd have had loved; thou must, might'st, wou'd'st, cou'd'st, _or_ shou'd'st have had loved; he must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd have had loved. _Plur._ We must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd have had loved; ye must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd have had loved; they must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd have had loved. _Future Tense._ _Sing._ I shall, _or_ will have loved; thou shalt, _or_ wilt have loved; he shall, or will have loved. _Plur._ We shall, _or_ will have loved; ye shall, _or_ will have loved; they shall, _or_ will have loved. INFINITIVE MOOD. _Present_ ---- to love _Preterperfect_ ---- to have loved _Future_ ---- about to love. PARTICIPLES. _Present_ ---- loving _Preterperfect_ ---- having loved. _Of a_ VERB PASSIVE. The _Verb Passive_ is nothing more than the _Participle Passive_ joined to the _Auxiliary Verb to be_; as INDICATIVE MOOD. _Present Tense_ I am loved; _&c._ _Preterimperfect_ I was loved; _&c._ _Preterperfect_ I have been loved; _&c._ _Preterpluperfect_ I had been loved; _&c._ _Future_ I shall or will be loved; _&c._ IMPERATIVE MOOD. _Present_ and _Future_. Let me be loved _&c._ CONJUNCTIVE MOOD. _Present Tense._ _Sing._ I may, _or_ can be loved; thou _&c._ _Preterimperfect Tense._ _Sing._ I must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd be loved; thou _&c._ _Preterperfect Tense._ _Sing._ I must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd have been loved; thou _&c._ _Preterpluperfect Tense._ _Sing._ I must, might, wou'd, cou'd, _or_ shou'd have had been loved; thou _&c_. _Future Tense._ _Sing._ I shall, _or_ will have been loved; thou _&c._ INFINITIVE MOOD. _Present_ ---- to be loved _Preterperfect_ ---- to have been loved _Future_ ---- about to be loved. PARTICIPLES. _Present_ ---- being loved _Preterperfect_ ---- having been loved. _Of a_ PARTICIPLE. A Participle is a _Part of Speech_, which partaketh of a _Verb_ and a _Noun_. When it has a Relation to Time it may be considered as a _Verb_; but when it is joined to a _Substantive_ or admits of _Comparison_, it may be considered as an _Adjective_. When the _termination_ of the _Participle Passive_ is not formed by adding the Syllable _ed_ to the _first Person_ of the _Indicative Mood Present Tense Singular_; or when the _Termination_ of the _Participle Passive_ differs from the _Termination of the Preter Tenses_, the _Verb_ becomes _irregular_; but in all other Respects is conjugated as the regular Verb; as I abide, thou abidest, &c. _Pres. Tense._ _Preter._ _Participle Passive._ Abide Abode Abode Bite Bit Bitten Catch Caught Catched Do Did Done Eat Eat Eaten Fall Fell Fallen Get Got Gotten Hold Held Holden Know Knew Known Lie Lay Laid Make Made Made Rise Rose Risen Shine Shone Shined Tread Trod Trodden Weave Wove Woven _&c._ _&c._ _&c._ To these may be added the _Auxiliary Verbs_ ---- _To Have, and to Be_. _Of an_ ADVERB. An Adverb is a _Part of Speech_ joined to a _Verb_, a _Noun Substantive_, an _Adjective_ or _Participle_, and sometimes to another _Adverb_, to express the Manner or Circumstance of the Thing signified; as _he speaks properly_, _an orderly Man_, _truly good_, _extreamly loving_, _very devoutly_. Adverbs are very numerous, and have Relation to Time; as _now_, _lately_, _always_. Place; as _here_, _there_, _no-where_. Order; as _by Turns_, _abreast_, _orderly_. Quantity; as _enough_, _more_, _entirely_. Number; as _once_, _twice_, _thrice_. Dobting; as _perhaps_, _may be_, _peradventure_. Asking; as _why?_ _whence?_ _wherefore?_. Affirmation; as _yes_, _indeed_, _certainly_. Negation; as _no_, _never_, _not at all_. Comparison; as _more_, _less_, _likewise_. Quality; as _justly_, _prudently_, _indifferently_. _Of a_ CONJUNCTION. A Conjunction is _a Part of Speech_, which serves to connect and join the several Parts of a Discourse together, and is of various Kinds. Copulative; _as and_, _also_, _moreover_. Disjunctive; _as or_, _neither_, _whether_. Adversative; _as but_, _yet_, _notwithstanding_. Conditional; _as if_, _unless_, _provided_. Casual; _as for_, _because_, _forasmuch_. Conclusive; _as then_, _so that_, _therefore_. _Of a_ PREPOSITION. A Preposition is _a Part of Speech_, that serves to express the particular Relation and Circumstance of some other _Part of Speech_, and is either used in _Apposition_, as _in Heaven_; or in _Composition_, as _Invisible_. PREPOSITIONS _used in_ APPOSITION. Above between of about betwixt on after beyond over against by through among for throughout amongst from towards at in under before into unto behind near upon beneath near to with below nigh within beside nigh to without. PREPOSITIONS _used in_ COMPOSITION. A-base ap-point ab-use as-certain abs-tract at-taint ac-commodate be-friend ad-apt circum-ambient af-fix co-adjutor after-noon com-pound amphi-theatre com-plot ante-date con-strain anti-christ contra-diction an-archy counter-balance. de-camp op-pression Dis-appoint over-reach dif-fusive out-landish di-minish per-form e-mission post-master em-brace pre-eminence en-close preter-natural es-say pro-long ex-terminate re-gain extra-ordinary retro-grade for-bear sub-join fore-see super-fine im-perfect trans-migration in-glorious un-worthy inter-view under-written intro-duction up-right ob-noxious with-draw off-spring _&c._, _&c._, _&c._ _Of an_ INTERJECTION. An Interjection _is a Part of Speech_, that serves to express some sudden Motion or Passion of the Mind, transported with the Sensation of Pleasure or Pain. Of Pleasure; as, _O brave!_ _O Heavens! O Joy!_ Of Pain; as _Alas! O my God! O Lord!_ INTERJECTIONS _of a_ lower Order. Of Caution; as, _hold! take Care!_ Of Admiration; as, _see! look! behold!_ Of Aversion; as, _fie! away you Fool!_ Of Silence; as, _be still! Silence!_ _Of_ SYNTAX. Syntax is the Manner of constructing one Word with another prescribed by the _Rules of_ GRAMMAR. RULE 1st. The Article _a_ is usually placed before a Word that begins with a _Consonant_, the Article _an_ before a Word that begins with a _Vowel_, and either _a_ or _an_ before a Word that begins with an _h_; and the Article _the_, before a Word that begins either with a _Vowel_ or a _Consonant_; as, _a Christian_, _an Infidel_, _a Heathen_, or _an Heathen_; _the Christian_, _the Infidel_, _the Heathen_. RULE 2d. A Noun _Substantive_ is usually placed after its _Noun Adjective_; as the _Second Chapter_, a _great Man_. But sometimes for the Sake of greater Distinction the _Adjective_ is placed after, with the Article _the_ before it, as _George the Second_, _Peter the Great_. In _Poetry_ the _Adjective_ is placed either before or after its _Substantive_ indifferently, as the Versification requires it. RULE 3d. All _Nouns and Pronouns_ are of the _third Person_ except _I and we_, which are of the _first Person_, and _Thou, you and ye_, which are of the _Second Person_; and except the _Relative Pronouns_ which are always of the _same Person_ with the _Personal Pronoun_ to which they relate; as _I love, thou lovest, he loveth; I who love, Thou who lovest, he who loveth_. RULE 4th. The _prefix Pronouns_, _I, we, thou, you, ye, he, she, they, who_, are usually placed before the _Verb_; and the _Subsequent Pronouns_, _me, us, thee, him, her, them, whom_, are usually placed after; as _I love the Dog, the Dog loves me_. But when a _Question_ is asked, or when the _Verb_ is of the _Imperative Mood_, or in short Sentences, the _prefix Pronouns_ are usually placed after; as _lovest thou me? love thou thyself, said he, said they_. RULE 5th. When a Question is asked, and the _Verb_ has an _Auxiliary Sign_, or an _Auxiliary Verb_, the _governing Noun_ or _Pronoun_ is placed immediately after such _Auxiliary_; as _does the Sun shine? has he washed his Hands?_ And when the _Verb_ has two or more _Auxiliaries_, the _Noun or Pronoun_ is placed after the first; as _have I been taught? Cou'd the Truth have been known?_ RULE 6th. The _Verb_ agrees with its _governing Noun_, _Pronoun Personal_, or _Pronoun Relative_, in _Number_ and _Person_; as _the Birds sing_, _thou lovest_, _he who loveth_. RULE 7th. A NOUN of _Multitude_ may have a _Verb_ either _Singular_ or _Plural_; as _the People is mad_, or _the People are mad_. But if a _Substantive_ of the same Signification follows, that is not a _Noun of Multitude_, then the _Verb_ is always Plural; as we do not say _the People is a mad Man_, but _the People are mad Men_. RULE 8th. Two or more _Nouns_ or _Pronouns Singular_, will have a _Verb Plural_; as _the Dog and Cat are very loving_. But when two or more _Substantives Singular_ signify the same _Thing_ or _Person_, or when the _Preposition_ OF intervenes, the _Verb_ is always _Singular_; as _the River Severn is Navigable._ _William the Conqueror was a great Man._ _This System of Grammar is compendious_. RULE 9th. The _subsequent Pronouns_ are usually placed after _Prepositions and Interjections_; as _of me, to us, for thee, with her, from them, against whom, O me!_ _Of the_ POINTS _or_ PAUSES. The _Points_ or _Pauses_ have a Sort of musical Proportion. The _Period_ is marked thus (.)----Its _Time_ is equal to two _Colons_ and is never placed but at the End of a Sentence, the Sense of which is perfect and compleat; as _By me Kings reign, and Princes decree Justice._ The _Colon_ is marked thus (:) ---- Its _Time_ is equal to two _Semicolons_, and is placed where the Sense seems to be perfect and compleat; but to which notwithstanding something may still be added; as _give Instruction to a wise Man, and he will be yet wiser: Teach a just Man and he will increase in Learning_. The _Semicolon_ is marked thus (;) ---- its _Time_ is equal to two _Commas_, and is placed where the Sense is less compleat than the _Colon_, and more compleat than the _Comma_; as _a wise Man's Heart is at his right Hand; but a Fool's Heart is at his left_. The _Comma_ is marked thus (,) ---- It is the last and least _Pause_ or _Time_ that is made use of, and serves to distinguish the simple Numbers of a _Period_; as _arise, my Friend, and come away_. _Of the other NOTES or CHARACTERS._ A Note of _Interrogation_ (?) is used when a Question is asked; as _who comes there?_ A Note of _Admiration_ (!) is used after _Interjections_ or _short Sentences_ to express our Wonder and Surprize; as _O!_ _O LORD!_ A Parenthesis (_rarely made use of by a good Writer_) is used to inclose one Sentence within another. The _Paragraph_ is marked thus (¶) and denotes the beginning of a new Discourse. An (') _Apostrophe_ is used when some Part of a Word is left out; as _Alexander's Horse_, for _Alexander his Horse_. A _Hyphen_ (-) is used to join together two Words, as _Foot-stool_, _&c._ and is used also when part of a Word is written in one Line, and part in another. The _Caret_ is marked thus, (^) to shew where the Words in any Sentence that are left out, shou'd come in; as is _the Lady ^ beautiful._ The _Subdivision_, or part of a Chapter is marked usually thus, §. The _Index_ points to some remarkable Passage thus, Index finger, pointing to the right]. A _Quotation_ is a double _Comma_ reverse and set against some Lines on the left side of a _Page_, to shew that they are quoted from another _Author_, thus, ". The _Notes_ that refer to the _Margin_ are an _Asterisk_ made thus, *, an _Obelisk_ thus, [Dagger symbol], also thus, ||. Besides these there are _literal Characters_, _numeral Characters_, and _Abbreviations_, the Knowledge of which is not so easily to be acquired by GRAMMAR _Rules_, as by diligent Observation and Experience. _The_ END. 
11694	----	THE ROMANES LECTURE 1900 The Evolution of English Lexicography BY JAMES A.H. MURRAY M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., PH.D. DELIVERED IN THE SHELDONIAN THEATRE, OXFORD, JUNE 22, 1900 THE EVOLUTION OF ENGLISH LEXICOGRAPHY When the 'Act to facilitate the provision of Allotments for the Labouring Classes' was before the House of Commons in 1887, a well-known member for a northern constituency asked the Minister who had charge of the measure for a definition of the term _allotment_, which occurred so often in the Bill. The Minister somewhat brusquely told his interrogator to 'look in the Dictionary,' at which there was, according to the newspapers, 'a laugh.' The member warmly protested that, being called upon to consider a measure dealing with things therein called 'Allotments', a term not known to English Law, nor explained in the Bill itself, he had a right to ask for a definition. But the only answer he received was 'Johnson's Dictionary! Johnson's Dictionary!' at which, according to the newspapers, the House gave 'another laugh,' and the interrogator subsided. The real humour of the situation, which was unfortunately lost upon the House of Commons, was, that as agricultural allotments had not been thought of in the days of Dr. Johnson, no explanation of the term in this use is to be found in Johnson's Dictionary; as, however, this happened to be unknown, alike to the questioner and to the House, the former missed a chance of 'scoring' brilliantly, and the House the chance of a third laugh, this time at the expense of the Minister. But the replies of the latter are typical of the notions of a large number of persons, who habitually speak of 'the Dictionary,' just as they do of 'the Bible,' or 'the Prayer-book,' or 'the Psalms'; and who, if pressed as to the authorship of these works, would certainly say that 'the Psalms' were composed by David, and 'the Dictionary' by Dr. Johnson. I have met persons of intelligence who supposed that if Dr. Johnson was not the sole author of 'the Dictionary'--a notion which, in view of the 'pushfulness' wherewith, in recent times, Dictionaries, American and other, have been pressed upon public notice, is now not so easily tenable--he was, at least, the 'original author,' from whose capacious brain that work first emanated. Whereas, in truth, Dr. Johnson had been preceded by scores of workers, each of whom had added his stone or stones to the lexicographic cairn, which had already risen to goodly proportions when Johnson made to it his own splendid contribution. For, the English Dictionary, like the English Constitution, is the creation of no one man, and of no one age; it is a growth that has slowly developed itself adown the ages. Its beginnings lie far back in times almost prehistoric. And these beginnings themselves, although the English Dictionary of to-day is lineally developed from them, were neither Dictionaries, nor even English. As to their language, they were in the first place and principally Latin: as to their substance, they consisted, in large part at least, of _glosses_. They were Latin, because at the time to which we refer, the seventh and eighth centuries of our era, Latin was in Western Europe the only language of books, the learning of Latin the portal to all learning. And they were _glosses_ in this wise: the possessor of a Latin book, or the member of a religious community which were the fortunate possessors of half-a-dozen books, in his ordinary reading of this literature, here and there came across a difficult word which lay outside the familiar Latin vocabulary. When he had ascertained the meaning of this, he often, as a help to his own memory, and a friendly service to those who might handle the book after him, wrote the meaning over the word in the original text, in a smaller hand, sometimes in easier Latin, sometimes, if he knew no Latin equivalent, in a word of his own vernacular. Such an explanatory word written over a word of the text is a _gloss_. Nearly all the Latin MSS. of religious or practical treatises, that have come down to us from the Middle Ages, contain examples of such glosses, sometimes few, sometimes many. It may naturally be supposed that this glossing of MSS. began in Celtic and Teutonic, rather than in Romanic lands. In the latter, the old Latin was not yet so dead, nor the vulgar idioms that were growing out of it, as yet so distinct from it, as to render the glossing of the one by the other needful. The relation of Latin to, say, the Romanic of Provence, was like that of literary English to Lancashire or Somerset dialect; no one thinks of glossing a literary English book by Somersetshire word-forms; for, if he can read at all, it is the literary English that he does read. So if the monk of Burgundy or Provence could read at all, it was the Book-Latin that he could and did read. But, to the Teuton or the Celt, Latin was an entirely foreign tongue, the meaning of whose words he could not guess by any likeness to his own; by him Latin had been acquired by slow and painful labour, and to him the gloss was an important aid. To the modern philologist, Teutonic or Celtic, these glosses are very precious; they have preserved for us a large number of Old English, Old Irish, Old German words that occur nowhere else, and which, but for the work of the old glossators, would have been lost for ever. No inconsiderable portion of the oldest English vocabulary has been recovered entirely from these interlinear glosses; and we may anticipate important additions to that vocabulary when Professor Napier gives us the volume in which he has been gathering up all the unpublished glosses that yet remain in MSS. In process of time it occurred to some industrious reader that it would be a useful exercise of his industry, to collect out of all the manuscripts to which he had access, all the glosses that they contained, and combine them in a list. In this compact form they could be learned by heart, thus extending the vocabulary at his command, and making him independent of the interlinear glosses, and they could also be used in the school-teaching of pupils and neophytes, so as sensibly to enlarge their stock of Latin words and phrases. A collection of glosses, thus copied out and thrown together into a single list, constituted a _Glossarium_ or _Glossary_; it was the remote precursor of the seventeenth-century 'Table Alphabetical,' or 'Expositor of Hard Words.' Such was one of the fountain-heads of English lexicography; the other is to be found in the fact that in those distant days, as in our own, the learning of Latin was the acquisition of a foreign tongue which involved the learning of a grammar and of a vocabulary. Both grammar and vocables were probably in the main communicated by oral teaching, by the living voice of the master, and were handed down by oral tradition from generation to generation. The stock of vocables was acquired by committing to memory classified lists of words; lists of names of parts of the body, lists of the names of domestic animals, of wild beasts, of fishes, of trees, of heavenly bodies, of geographical features, of names of relationship and kindred, of ranks and orders of men, of names of trades, of tools, of arms, of articles of clothing, of church furniture, of diseases, of virtues and vices, and so on. Such lists of vocables, with their meaning in the vulgar tongue, were also at times committed to paper or parchment leaves, and a collection of these constituted a _Vocabularium_ or _Vocabulary_. In their practical use the Vocabulary and the Glossary fulfilled similar offices; and so they were often combined; the possessor of a Vocabulary enlarged it by the addition of a Glossary, which he or some one before him had copied out and collected from the glossed manuscripts of his bibliotheca. He extended it by copying into it vocabularies and glossaries borrowed from other scholars; he lent his own collection to be similarly copied by others. Several such collections exist formed far back in Old English times, the composite character of which, partly glossary, partly vocabulary, reveals itself upon even a cursory examination. As these manuscript lists came to be copied and re-copied, it was seen that their usefulness would be increased by putting the words and phrases into alphabetical order, whereby a particular word could be more readily found than by looking for it in a promiscuous list of some hundreds or thousands of words. The first step was to bring together all the words having the same first letter. The copyist instead of transcribing the glossary right on as it stood, extracted first all the words beginning with A; then he went through it again picking out all the words beginning with B; then a third time for those with C, and so on with D, E, and the rest, till he had transcribed the whole, and his copy was no longer in the fortuitous disorder of the original, but in what we call _first-letter_ order. A still later scribe making a copy of this vocabulary, or possibly combining two or three lists already in first-letter order, carried the alphabetical arrangement one stage further; instead of transcribing the A-words as they stood, he went through them, picking out first those that began with Aa-, then those in Ab-, then those in Ac-, and so on, to Az. Then he did the same with the B-words, picking out first all in Ba-, then Be-, Bi-, Bl-, Bo-, Br-, Bu-, By-; and so exhausting the B-words. Thus, at length, in this second recension, the Vocabulary stood, not yet completely alphabetical, but alphabetized as far as the second letter of each word. All these stages can actually be seen in four of the most ancient glossaries of English origin that have come down to us, known respectively, from the libraries to which they now belong, as the Leiden, the Epinal, the Erfurt, and the Corpus (the last at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge). The Leiden Glossary represents the earliest stage of such a work, being really, in the main, a collection of smaller glossaries, or rather sets of glosses, each set entered under the name of the treatise from which it was extracted, the words in each being left in the order in which they happened to come in the treatise or work, without any further arrangement, alphabetical or other. It appears also to incorporate in a final section some small earlier vocabularies or lists of names of animals and other classes of things. In order to discover whether any particular word occurs in this glossary, the whole work from beginning to end must be looked through. The first advance upon this is seen in the Epinal Glossary, which uses part at least of the materials of the Leiden, incorporating with them many others. This glossary has advanced to _first-letter_ order: all the A-words come together, followed by all the B-words, and so on to Z, but there is no further arrangement under the individual letters[1]. There are nearly fourteen columns of words beginning with A, containing each about forty entries; the whole of these 550 entries must be looked through to see if a given word occurs in this glossary. The third stage is represented by the Corpus Glossary, which contains the materials of its predecessors, and a great deal more, and in which the alphabetical arrangement has been carried as far as the second letter of each word: thus the first ninety-five words explained begin with Ab-, and the next seventy-eight with Ac-, and so on, but the alphabetization goes no further[2]; the glossary is in _second-letter_ order. In at least one glossary of the tenth century, contained in a MS. of the British Museum (Harl. 3376), the alphabetical arrangement has been carried as far as the third letter, beyond which point it does not appear to have advanced. The MS. of the Corpus Glossary dates to the early part of the eighth century; the Epinal and Erfurt--although the MS. copies that have come down to us are not older, or not so old--must from their nature go back as glossaries to a still earlier date, and the Leiden to an earlier still; so that we carry back these beginnings of lexicography in England to a time somewhere between 600 and 700 A.D., and probably to an age not long posterior to the introduction of Christianity in the south of England at the end of the sixth century. Many more vocabularies were compiled between these early dates and the eleventh century; and it is noteworthy that those ancient glossaries and vocabularies not only became fuller and more orderly as time advanced, but they also became more _English_. For, as I have already mentioned, the primary purpose of the glosses was to explain difficult _Latin_ words; this was done at first, whenever possible, by easier Latin words; apparently, only when none such were known, was the explanation given in the vernacular, in Old English. In the Epinal Glossary the English words are thus relatively few. In the first page they number thirty out of 117, and in some pages they do not amount to half that number. In the Corpus Glossary they have become proportionally more numerous; and in the glossaries that follow, the Latin explanations are more and more eliminated and replaced by English ones, until the vocabularies of the tenth and eleventh centuries, whether arranged alphabetically or under classified headings, are truly Latin-English: every Latin word given is explained by an English one; and we see clearly that a new aim had gradually evolved itself; the object was no longer to explain difficult Latin words, but to give the English equivalents of as many words as possible, and thus practically to provide a Latin Dictionary for the use of Englishmen[3]. Learning and literature, science and art, had attained to fair proportions in England, and in the Old English tongue, when their progress was arrested by the Norman Conquest. The Norman Conquest brought to England law and organization, and welded the country into a political unity; but it overthrew Old English learning and literary culture. In literary culture the Normans were about as far behind the people whom they conquered as the Romans were when they made themselves masters of Greece; and it was not till some two generations after the Conquest, that learning and literature regained in England somewhat of the position which they had occupied two centuries earlier. And this new literary culture was naturally confined to the French dialect of the conquerors, which had become the language of court and castle, of church and law, of chivalry and the chase; while the rich and cultured tongue of Alfred and Ælfric was left for generations without literary employment, during which time it lost nearly all its poetical, philosophical, scientific, and artistic vocabulary, retaining only the words of common life and everyday use[4]. And for more than 300 years after the Conquest English lexicography stood still. Between 1066 and 1400, Wright-Wülcker shows only two meagre vocabularies, occupying some twenty-four columns of his volume. One of these, of the twelfth century, is only an echo of the earlier literary age, a copy of a pre-Conquest glossary, which some scribe who could still read the classical tongue of the old West Saxon Court, transliterated into the corrupted forms of his own generation. The other is a short vocabulary of the Latin and vernacular names of plants, a species of class-vocabulary of which there exist several of rather early date. But when we reach the end of the fourteenth century, English is once more in the ascendant. Robert of Gloucester, Robert Mannyng of Brunne, Dan Michel of Canterbury, and Richard Rolle of Hampole, William Langland and John Wyclif, John Gower and Geoffrey Chaucer, and many other authors of less known or entirely unknown name, have written in the tongue of the people; English has been sanctioned for use in the courts of law; and, as John of Trevisa tells us, has, since the 'furste moreyn' or Great Pestilence of 1349 (which Mrs. Markham has taught nineteenth-century historians to call the 'Black Death'), been introduced into the grammar schools in the translation of Latin exercises, which boys formerly rendered into French. And under these new conditions lexicographical activity at once bursts forth with vigour. Six important vocabularies of the fifteenth century are printed by Wright-Wülcker, most of them arranged, like the Old English one of Ælfric, under subject-headings; but one large one, extending to 2,500 words, entirely alphabetical. About the middle of the century, also, was compiled the famous _Medulla Grammatices_[5], designated, with some propriety, 'the first Latin-English Dictionary,' the popularity of which is shown by the many manuscript copies that still survive; while it formed the basis of the _Ortus (i.e. Hortus) Vocabulorum_ or first printed Latin-English Dictionary, which issued from the press of Wynkyn de Worde in 1500, and in many subsequent editions down to 1533, as well as in an edition by Pynson in 1509. But all the glossaries and vocabularies as yet mentioned were Latin-English; their primary object was not English, but the elucidation of Latin. A momentous advance was made about 1440, when Brother Galfridus Grammaticus--Geoffrey the Grammarian--a Dominican friar of Lynn Episcopi in Norfolk, produced the English-Latin vocabulary, to which he gave the name of _Promptuarium_ or _Promptorium Parvulorum_, the Children's Store-room or Repository. The _Promptorium_, the name of which has now become a household word to students of the history of English, is a vocabulary containing some 10,000 words--substantives, adjectives, and verbs--with their Latin equivalents, which, as edited by Mr. Albert Way for the Camden Society in 1865, makes a goodly volume. Many manuscript copies of it were made and circulated, of which six or seven are known to be still in existence, and after the introduction of printing it passed through many editions in the presses of Pynson, Wynkyn de Worde, and Julian Notary. Later in the same century, the year 1483 saw the compilation of a similar, but quite independent work, which its author named the _Catholicon Anglicum_, that is, the English Catholicon or Universal treatise, after the name of the celebrated Latin dictionary of the Middle Ages, the _Catholicon_ or _Summa_ of Johannes de Balbis, or John of Genoa, made in 1286. The English _Catholicon_ was in itself a work almost equally valuable with the _Promptorium_; but it appears never to have attained to the currency of the _Promptorium_, which appeared as a printed book in 1499, while the _Catholicon_ remained in two MSS. till printed for the Early English Text Society in 1881. The Renascence of Ancient Learning had now reached England, and during the sixteenth century there were compiled and published many important Latin-English and English-Latin vocabularies and dictionaries. Among these special mention must be made of the Dictionary of Sir Thomas Elyot, Knight, the first work, so far as I know, which took to itself in English what was destined to be the famous name of DICTIONARY, in mediaeval Latin, _Dictionarius liber_, or _Dictionarium_, literally a repertory of _dictiones_, a word originally meaning 'sayings,' but already by the later Latin grammarians used in the sense of _verba_ or _vocabula_ 'words.' The early vocabularies and dictionaries had many names, often quaint and striking; thus one of _c_1420 is entitled the _Nominale_, or Name-book; mention has already been made of the _Medulla Grammatices_, or Marrow of Grammar, the _Ortus Vocabulorum_, or Garden of Words, the _Promptorium Parvulorum_, and the _Catholicon Anglicum_; later we find the _Manipulus Vocabulorum_, or Handful of Vocables, the _Alvearie_ or Beehive, the _Abecedarium_, the _Bibliotheca_, or Library, the _Thesaurus_, or Treasury of Words--what Old English times would have called the _Word-hord_, the _World of Words_, the _Table Alphabetical_, the _English Expositor_, the _Ductor in Linguas_, or Guide to the Tongues, the _Glossographia_, the _New World of Words_, the _Etymologicum_, the _Gazophylacium_; and it would have been impossible to predict in the year 1538, when Sir Thomas Elyot published his 'Dictionary,' that this name would supplant all the others, and even take the place of the older and better-descended word _Vocabulary_; much less that _Dictionary_ should become so much a name to conjure with, as to be applied to works which are not word-books at all, but reference-books on all manner of subjects, as Chronology, Geography, Music, Commerce, Manufactures, Chemistry, or National Biography, arranged in Alphabetical or 'Dictionary order.' The very phrase, 'Dictionary order,' would in the first half of the sixteenth century have been unmeaning, for all dictionaries were not yet alphabetical. There is indeed no other connexion between a dictionary and alphabetical order, than that of a balance of convenience. Experience has shown that though an alphabetical order makes the matter of a dictionary very disjointed, scattering the terminology of a particular art, science, or subject, all over the book, and even when related words come together, often putting the unimportant derivative in front of the important primitive word, it is yet that by which a word or heading can be found, with least trouble and exercise of thought. But this experience has been only gradually acquired; even now the native dictionaries of some Oriental languages are often not in alphabetical order; in such a language as Chinese, indeed, there is no alphabetical order in which to place the words, and they follow each other in the dictionary in a purely arbitrary and conventional fashion. In English, as we have seen, many of the vocabularies from the eleventh to the fifteenth century, were arranged under class-headings according to subject; and, although Sir Thomas Elyot's Dictionary was actually in alphabetical order, that of J. Withals, published in 1554, under the title 'A short dictionarie for young beginners,' and with the colophon 'Thus endeth this Dictionary very useful for Children, compiled by J. Withals,' reverts to the older arrangement of subject-classes, as Names of things in the Æther or skie, the xii Signes, the vii Planets, Tymes, Seasons, Other times in the yere, the daies of the weeke, the Ayre, the viii windes, the iiii partes of the worlde, Byrdes, Bees, Flies, and other, the Water, the Sea, Fishes, a Shippe with other Water vessels, the earth, Mettales, Serpents, woorms and creepinge beastes, Foure-footed beastes, &c.[6] It is unnecessary in this lecture to recount even the names of the Latin-English and English-Latin dictionaries of the sixteenth century. It need only be mentioned that there were six successive and successively enlarged editions of Sir Thomas Elyot; that the last three of these were edited by Thomas Cooper, 'Schole-Maister of Maudlens in Oxford' (the son of an Oxford tradesman, and educated as a chorister in Magdalen College School, who rose to be Dean of Christ Church and Vice-Chancellor of the University, and to hold successively the episcopal sees of Lincoln and Winchester), and that Cooper, in 1565, published his great _Thesaurus Linguæ Romanæ et Britannicæ_, 'opera et industria Thomæ Cooperi Magdalenensis,' founded upon the great French work of Robert Stephens (Estienne), the learned French scholar and printer. Of this work Martin Marprelate says in his _Epistle_ (Arber, p. 42), 'His Lordship of Winchester is a great Clarke, for he hath translated his Dictionarie, called Cooper's Dictionarie, verbatim out of Robert Stephanus his _Thesaurus_, and ill-favoured too, they say!' This was, however, the criticism of an adversary; Cooper had added to Stephens's work many accessions from his editions of Sir Thomas Elyot, and other sources; his _Thesaurus_ was the basis of later Latin-English dictionaries, and traces of it may still be discovered in the Latin-English dictionaries of to-day. Of printed English-Latin works, after the _Promptorium_, one of the earliest was the _Vulgaria_ of William Herman, Headmaster and Provost of Eton, printed by Pynson in 1519. This is a _Dictionarium_ or _liber dictionarius_ in the older sense, for it consists of short _dictiones_ or sayings, maxims, and remarks, arranged under subject-headings, such as _De Pietate_, _De Impietate_, _De corporis dotibus_, _De Valetudinis cura_, _De Hortensibus_, _De Bellicis_, and finally a heading _Promiscua_. It may therefore be conceived that it is not easy to find any particular _dictio_. Horman was originally a Cambridge man; but, according to Wood, he was elected a Fellow of New College, Oxford, in 1477, the very year in which Caxton printed his first book in England, and in this connexion it is interesting to find among the illustrative sentences in the _Vulgaria_, this reference to the new art (sign. Oij): 'The prynters haue founde a crafte to make bokes by brasen letters sette in ordre by a frame,' which is thus latinized: 'Chalcographi artem excogitauerunt imprimendi libros qua literæ formis æreis excudunt.' Of later English-Latin dictionaries two deserve passing mention: the _Abecedarium_ of Richard Huloet or Howlet, a native of Wisbech, which appeared in the reign of Edward VI, in 1552, and the Alvearie of John Baret, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, published under Elizabeth in 1573. The Abecedarium, although it gives the Latin equivalents, may be looked upon to some extent as an English dictionary, for many of the words have an English explanation, as well as a Latin rendering; thus _Almesse_, or gift of dryncke, meate, or money, distributed to the poore, _sporta_, _sportula_; _Amyable_, pleasante, or hauing a good grace, _amabilis_; _Anabaptistes_, a sorte of heretyques of late tyme in Germanye about the yere of our Lorde God 1524.... _Anabaptistæ_. Baret's _Alvearie_ of 1573 has been justly styled 'one of the most quaint and charming of all the early Dictionaries.' In his 'Prefatory Address to the Reader' the author tells, in fine Elizabethan prose, both how his book came into existence, and why he gave it its curious name:-- 'About eighteene yeeres agone, hauing pupils at Cambridge studious of the Latine tongue, I vsed them often to write Epistles and Theames together, and dailie to translate some peece of English into Latine, for the more speedie attaining of the same. And after we had a little begun, perceiuing what great trouble it was to come running to me for euerie worde they missed, knowing then of no other Dictionarie to helpe vs, but Sir Thomas Eliots Librarie, which was come out a little before; I appointed them certaine leaues of the same booke euerie daie to write the english before the Latin, & likewise to gather a number of fine phrases out of Cicero, Terence, Cæsar, Liuie, &c. & to set them vnder seuerall titles, for the more readie finding them againe at their neede. Thus, within a yeere or two, they had gathered together a great volume, which (for the apt similitude betweene the good Scholers and diligent Bees in gathering their waxe and honie into their Hiue) I called then their _Aluearie_, both for a memoriall by whom it was made, and also by this name to incourage other to the like diligence, for that they should not see their worthie praise for the same, vnworthilie drowned in obliuion. Not long after, diuers of our friends borrowing this our worke which we had thus contriued & wrought onelie for our owne priuate vse, often and many waies moued me to put it in print for the common profet of others, and the publike propagation of the Latine tongue.' But when Baret at length resolved to comply with this suggestion, there were many difficulties to be overcome, the expense of the work being not the least:-- 'And surelie, had not the right honourable Sir Thomas Smith knight, principall Secretarie to the Queenes Maiestie, that noble Theseus of learning, and comfortable Patrone to all Students, and the right Worshipfull M. Nowell, Deane of Pawles, manie waies encouraged me in this wearie worke (the charges were so great, and the losse of my time so much grieued me) I had neuer bene able alone to haue wrestled against so manie troubles, but long ere this had cleane broken off our worke begun, and cast it by for euer.' Between the dates of the _Abecedarium_ and the _Alvearie_, Peter Levins, Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford, published, in 1570, the first essay at an English Riming Dictionary, the _Manipulus Vocabulorum_, or Handful of Vocables, an original copy of which is in the Bodleian Library; it was reprinted for the Early English Text Society in 1867 by Mr. H.B. Wheatley. The English words are arranged in order of their terminations, and each is furnished with a Latin equivalent. Of all the works which we have yet considered, Latin was an essential element: whether the object was, as in the glossaries and vocabularies before the fifteenth century, to explain the Latin words themselves, or as in the _Promptorium_ and _Catholicon_, the _Abecedarium_ and the _Alvearie_, and other works of the sixteenth century, to render English words into Latin. But a new stage of development was marked by the appearance of dictionaries of English with another modern language. In 1521, the 'Introductory to write and to pronounce Frenche,' by Alexander Barclay, author of the 'Ship of Fooles,' was issued from the press of Robert Coplande; and about 1527 Giles du Guez or du Wes (anglicized Dewes), French teacher to the Lady Mary, afterwards Queen Mary, published his 'Introductorie for to lerne to rede, to pronounce and to speke French trewly.' In addition to grammatical rules and dialogues, it contains a select vocabulary English and French. In 1514, Mary Tudor, younger sister of Henry VIII, became the unwilling bride of Louis XII of France. To initiate the princess in her husband's tongue, John Palsgrave, a native of London and graduate of Cambridge, who had subsequently studied in Paris, was chosen as her tutor, and accompanied her to France. For her use Palsgrave prepared his celebrated _Esclarcissement de la Langue Françoyse_, which he subsequently revised and published in 1530, after his return to England, where he was incorporated M.A. at Oxford. The _Esclarcissement_ is a famous book, at once grammar and vocabulary, and may be considered as the earliest dictionary of a modern language, in French as well as in English. It was reprinted in 1852 at the expense of the French Government in the series of publications entitled 'Collection de documents inédits sur l'histoire de France, publiés par les soins du Ministre de l'Instruction Publique, Deuxième Série--Histoire des Lettres et des Sciences.' It is a trite saying that 'they do these things better in France'; but it is, nevertheless, sometimes true. Amid all the changes of government which France has seen in modern times, it has never been forgotten that the history of the French language, and of French letters and French science, is part of the history of France; the British government has not even now attained to the standpoint of recognizing this: among the historical documents published under the direction of the authorities of the Record Office, there is no series illustrating the history of the language, the literature, or the science of England. Next to French, the continental languages most important to Englishmen in the sixteenth century, were Italian and Spanish, of both of which, accordingly, dictionaries were published before the end of the century[7]. In 1599 Richard Percevall, Gent., published his dictionary in Spanish and English; and in the same year 'resolute John Florio' (who in his youth resided in Worcester Place, Oxford, and was matriculated at Magdalen College in 1581) brought out his Italian-English Dictionary, the _World of Words_, which he re-published in a much enlarged form in 1611, with dedication to the Queen of James I, as _Queen Anna's New World of Words_. This year, also, Randall Cotgrave published his famous French-English Dictionary, which afterwards passed through so many editions. In the absence as yet of any merely English dictionary, the racy English vocabulary of Florio and Cotgrave is of exceeding value, and has been successfully employed in illustrating the contemporary language of Shakspere, to whom Florio, patronized as he was by the Earls of Southampton and Pembroke, was probably personally known. Thus, the same year which saw England provided with the version of the Bible which was to be so intimately identified with the language of the next three centuries, saw her also furnished with adequate dictionaries of French, Italian, and Spanish; and, in 1617, a still more ambitious work was accomplished by John Minsheu in the production of a polyglot dictionary of English with ten other languages, British or Welsh, Low Dutch, High Dutch, French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, which he entitled '[Greek: Haegemon eis tas glossas], id est _Ductor in Linguas_, the Guide into Tongues.' But though in these works there is necessarily contained much of the material of an English dictionary, so that we can from them recover most of the current vocabulary, no one appears before the end of the sixteenth century to have felt that Englishmen could want a dictionary to help them to the knowledge and correct use of their own language. That language was either an in-born faculty, or it was inhaled with their native air, or imbibed with their mothers' milk; how could they need a book to teach them to speak their mother-tongue? To the scholars of the Renascence the notion would have seemed absurd--as absurd as it has seemed to some of their descendants in the nineteenth century, that an English grammar-school or an English university should trouble itself about such aboriginal products of the English skull, as English language and literature. But by the end of the sixteenth century, as by the end of the nineteenth, there was a moving of the waters: the Renascence of ancient learning had itself brought into English use thousands of learned words, from Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, and other languages, 'ink-horn terms,' as they were called by Bale and by Puttenham, unknown to, and not to be imbibed from, mother or grandmother. A work exhibiting the spelling, and explaining the meaning, of these new-fangle 'hard words' was the felt want of the day; and the first attempt to supply it marks, on the whole, the most important point in the evolution of the modern English Dictionary. In 1604, Robert Cawdrey, who had been a schoolmaster at Okeham, and afterwards at Coventry, published a modest octavo of 120 pages, 5-1/2 inches by 3-1/2, calling itself _The Table Alphabeticall of Hard Words_, in which he set forth the proper spelling and meaning of some 3,000 of these learned terms; his work reached a third edition in 1612[8]. In 1616, Dr. John Bullokar, then resident in Chichester, followed with a work of the same kind and size, named by him _An English Expositor_, of which numerous editions came out, one as late as 1684. And in 1623 appeared the work which first assumed the title of 'The English Dictionarie,' by H.C., Gent. H.C., we learn from the dedication, was Henry Cockeram, to whom John Ford the dramatist addressed the following congratulatory lines:-- To my industrious friend, the Author of this English Dictionarie, MR. HENRY COCKRAM OF EXETER. Borne in the West? liue there? so far from Court? From Oxford, Cambridge, London? yet report (Now in these daies of Eloquence) such change Of words? vnknown? vntaught? tis new and strange. Let Gallants therefore skip no more from hence To Italic, France, Spaine, and with expence Waste time and faire estates, to learne new fashions Of complementall phrases, soft temptations To glorious beggary: Here let them hand This Booke; here studie, reade, and vnderstand: Then shall they find varietie at Home, As curious as at Paris, or at Rome. For my part I confesse, hadst not thou writ, I had not beene acquainted with more wit Than our old English taught; but now I can Be proud to know I have a Countryman Hath strugled for a fame, and what is more, Gain'd it by paths of Art, vntrod before. The benefit is generall; the crowne Of praise particular, and thats _thine owne_. What should I say? thine owne deserts inspire thee, Twere base to enuie, I must then admire thee. A friend and louer of thy paines, IOHN FORD. And a deeply interesting little book is this diminutive ancestor of the modern English Dictionary, to describe which adequately would take far more time than the limits of this lecture afford. It is divided into three parts: Part I contains the hard words with their explanation in ordinary language; and instructive it is to see what words were then considered hard and unknown. Many of them certainly would be so still: as, for example, _abgregate_, 'to lead out of the flock'; _acersecomick_, 'one whose hair was never cut'; _adcorporated_, 'married'; _adecastick_, 'one that will do just howsoever'; _bubulcitate_, 'to cry like a cow-boy'; _collocuplicate_, 'to enrich'--concerning which we wonder who used them, or where Cockeram found them; but we are surprised to find among these hard words _abandon_, _abhorre_, _abrupt_, _absurd_, _action_, _activitie_, and _actresse_, explained as 'a woman doer,' for the stage actress had not yet appeared. _Blunder_, 'to bestir oneself,' and _Garble_, 'to clense things from dust,' remind us that the meanings of words are subject to change. The Second Part contains the ordinary words 'explained' by their hard equivalents, and is intended to teach a learned style. The plain man or gentlewoman may write a letter in his or her natural language, and then by turning up the simple words in the dictionary alter them into their learned equivalents. Thus 'abound' may be altered into _exuperate_, 'too great plenty' into _uberty_, 'he and I are of one age' into _we are coetaneous_, 'youthful babbling' into _juvenile inaniloquence_--a useful expression to hurl at an opponent in the Oxford Union. The last part is the most entertaining of all: it is headed 'The Third Part, treating of Gods and Goddesses, Men and Women, Boyes and Maides, Giants and Diuels, Birds and Beasts, Monsters and Serpents, Wells and Riuers, Herbes, Stones, Trees, Dogges, Fishes, and the like'; it is a key to the allusions to classical, historical, mythological, and other marvellous persons, animals, and things, to be met with in polite literature. A good example of its contents is the well-known article on the _Crocodile_:-- '_Crocodile_, a beast hatched of an egge, yet some of them grow to a great bignesse, as 10. 20. or 30. foot in length: it hath cruell teeth and scaly back, with very sharpe clawes on his feete: if it see a man afraid of him, it will eagerly pursue him, but on the contrary, if he be assaulted he wil shun him. Hauing eaten the body of a man, it will weepe ouer the head, but in fine eate the head also: thence came the Prouerb, he shed Crocodile teares, viz., fayned teares.' Appreciation of Cockeram's 'Dictionarie' was marked by the numerous editions through which it passed down as late as 1659. Meanwhile Thomas Blount, Barrister of the Inner Temple, and correspondent of Anthony à Wood, was devoting the leisure hours of twenty years to his '_Glossographia_: or a Dictionary interpreting all such hard words, whether Hebrew, Greek, Latin,' etc., 'as are now used in our refined English Tongue,' of which the first edition saw the light in 1656. I suppose it is a truism, that the higher position now taken by English studies, is intimately interwoven with the advances which have been made during the last quarter of a century in the higher education of women, and that but for the movement to let women share in the advantages of a university education, it is doubtful whether the nineteenth century would have witnessed the establishment of a School of English Language and Literature at Oxford. In connexion with this it is a noteworthy fact, that the preparation of these early seventeenth century English dictionaries was also largely due to a consideration of the educational wants of women. The 'Table Alphabeticall' of Robert Cawdrey, which was dedicated to five 'right honourable, Worshipfull, vertuous, and godlie Ladies[9],' the sisters of his former pupil, Sir James Harrington, Knight, bears on its title-page that it is 'gathered for the benefit and help of Ladies, Gentlewomen, or any other vnskilfull persons.' Bullokar's _Expositor_ was dedicated 'to the Right Honorable and Vertvovs his Singvlar Good Ladie, the Ladie Jane Viscountesse Mountague,' under whose patronage he hoped to see the work 'perhaps gracefully admitted among greatest Ladies and studious Gentlewomen, to whose reading (I am made belieue) it will not prooue altogether vngratefull.' In similar words, the title-page of Cockeram's Dictionary proclaims its purpose of 'Enabling as well Ladies and Gentlewomen ... as also Strangers of any Nation to the vnderstanding of the more difficult Authors already printed in our Language, and the more speedy attaining of an elegant perfection of the English tongue, both in reading, speaking, and writing.' And Thomas Blount, setting forth the purpose of his _Glossographia_, says, in words of which one seems to have heard an echo in reference to an English School in this University, 'It is chiefly intended for the more-knowing Women, and less-knowing Men; or indeed for all such of the unlearned, who can but finde in an Alphabet the word they understand not.' It is noticeable that all these references to the needs of women disappear from the later editions, and are wanting in later dictionaries after 1660; whether this was owing to the fact that the less-knowing women had now come upsides with the more-knowing men; or that with the Restoration, female education went out of fashion, and women sank back again into elegant illiteracy, I leave to the historian to discover; I only, as a lexicographer, record the fact that from the Restoration the dictionaries are silent about the education of women, till we pass the Revolution settlement and reach the Age of Queen Anne, when J.K. in 1702 tells us that his dictionary is 'chiefly designed for the benefit of young Scholars, Tradesmen, Artificers, and the female sex, who would learn to spell truely.' Blount's _Glossographia_ went through many editions down to 1707; but two years after its appearance, Edward Phillips, the son of Milton's sister Anne, published his _New World of Words_, which Blount with some reason considered to be largely plagiarized from his book. He held his peace, however, until Phillips brought out a Law-Dictionary or _Nomothetes_, also largely copied from his own _Nomo-lexicon_, when he could refrain himself no longer, and burst upon the world with his indignant pamphlet, 'A World of Errors discovered in the New World of Words, and in Nomothetes or the Interpreter,' in which he exhibits the proofs of Phillips's cribbing, and makes wild sport of the cases in which his own errors and misprints had either been copied or muddled by his plagiarist. The latter did not vouchsafe a reply; he knew a better plan; he quietly corrected in his next edition the mistakes which Blount had so conveniently pointed out, and his 'New World of Words,' furnished with an engraved frontispiece, containing views of Oxford and Cambridge, and portraits of some Oxford and Cambridge scholars, lived on in successive editions as long as Blount's. Time and space forbid me even to recount the later dictionaries of this class and period; we need only mention that of Elisha Coles, a chorister and subsequently matriculated student of Magdalen College (of which his uncle, Elisha Coles, was steward under the Commonwealth), a meritorious work which passed through numerous editions down to 1732; and that of Edward Cocker, the celebrated arithmetician and writing-master of St. George's, Southwark, by whom people still sometimes asseverate 'according to Cocker.' This was published after his death, 'from the author's correct copy,' by John Hawkins, in 1704, with a portrait of the redoubtable Cocker himself in flowing wig and gown, and the following lines:-- 'COCKER, who in fair writing did excell, And in Arithmetic perform'd as well, This necessary work took next in hand, That Englishmen might English understand.' The last edition of Phillips' _New World of Words_ was edited after his death, with numerous additions, by John Kersey, son of John Kersey the mathematician. Two years later Kersey threw the materials into another form and published it in an octavo, as Kersey's '_Dictionarium Anglo-Britannicum_, or a General English Dictionary,' of which three editions appeared before 1721. In this work there are included a considerable number of obsolete words, chiefly from Spenser and his contemporaries, marked O., and in some cases erroneously explained. Professor Skeat has pointed out that this was the source of Chatterton's Elizabethan vocabulary, and that he took the obsolete words, which he attributed to Rowley, erroneous explanations and all, direct from Kersey's Dictionary. More than 100 years had now elapsed since Robert Cawdrey prepared his 'Table Alphabeticall,' and nearly a century since the work of Cockeram; and all the dictionaries which had meanwhile appeared, although their size had steadily increased, were, in purpose and fact, only what these works had been--Vocabularies of 'Hard Words,' not of words in general. The notion that an English Dictionary ought to contain _all_ English words had apparently as yet occurred to no one; at least no one had proposed to carry the idea into practice. But this further step in the evolution of the modern dictionary was now about to be made, and the man who made it was one of the most deserving in the annals of English lexicography. We now, looking back on the eighteenth century, associate it chiefly with the work of Dr. Johnson; but down beyond the middle of that century, and to the man in the street much later, by far the best-known name in connexion with dictionaries was that of NATHANAEL BAILEY. An advertisement appended to the first edition of his Dictionary runs thus: 'Youth Boarded, and taught the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin languages, in a Method more Easy and Expedient than is common; also, other School-learning, by the _Author_ of this _Dictionary_, to be heard of at Mr. Batley's, Bookseller, at the Sign of the Dove in Paternoster Row.' Bailey was the author or editor of several scholarly works; but, for us, his great work was his _Universal Etymological English Dictionary_, published in 1721. In this he aimed at including all English words; yet not for the mere boast of 'completeness,' but for a practical purpose. The dictionary was not merely explanatory, it was also etymological; and though Englishmen might not need to be told the meaning of _man_ or _woman_, _dog_ or _cat_[10], they might want a hint as to their derivation. Bailey had hit the nail aright: successive editions were called for almost every two years during the century; when the author died, in 1742, the tenth edition was in the press. In that of 1731, Bailey first marked the stress-accent, a step in the direction of indicating pronunciation. In 1730, moreover, he brought out with the aid of some specialists, his folio dictionary, the greatest lexicographical work yet undertaken in English, into which he also introduced diagrams and proverbs. This is an interesting book historically, for, according to Sir John Hawkins, it formed the working basis of Dr. Johnson[11]. Bailey had many imitators and rivals, nearly all of whom aimed, like him, at including all words; of these I need only name Dyche and Pardon 1735, B.N. Defoe 1735, and Benjamin Martin 1749. During the second quarter of the century, the feeling arose among literary men, as well as among the booksellers, that the time had come for the preparation of a 'Standard Dictionary' of the English tongue. The language had now attained a high degree of literary perfection; a perfect prose style, always a characteristic of maturity, had been created; a brilliant galaxy of dramatists and essayists--Dryden, Pope, Addison, Steele, Swift, Defoe--had demonstrated that English was capable of expressing clearly and elegantly everything that needed to be expressed in language. The age of Queen Anne was compared to the Ciceronian age of Latin, or the age of Aristotle and Plato in Greek. But in both these cases, as indeed in that of every known ancient people, the language, after reaching its acme of perfection, had begun to decay and become debased: the golden age of Latinity had passed into a silvern, and that into a brazen and an iron age. The fear was that a like fate should overtake English also; to avert which calamity the only remedy appeared to be to _fix the language_ by means of a 'Standard Dictionary,' which should register the proper sense and use of every word and phrase, from which no polite writer henceforth would be expected to deviate; but, even as generation after generation of boys and men found their perfection of Latinity in the imitation of Cicero, so all succeeding ages of Englishmen should find their ideal of speech and writing fixed for ever in this standard dictionary. To us of a later age, with our fuller knowledge of the history of language, and our wider experience of its fortunes, when it has to be applied to entirely new fields of knowledge, such as have been opened to us since the birth of modern science, this notion seems childlike and pathetic. But it was eminently characteristic of the eighteenth century, an age of staid and decorous subsidence from the energetic restlessness of the seventeenth--an age in which men eschewed revolution and innovation, and devoted themselves assiduously to conserve, consolidate, polish, refine, and make the best of what they had. In this notion of ascertaining, purifying, refining, and fixing the language, England was only following in the wake of some other countries. In Italy the _Accademia della Crusca_, and in France the _Academie française_, had been instituted for this very purpose, and the latter had, after twenty years of preparation, and forty more years of work, published the first edition of a dictionary in which the French language was (fondly and vainly) supposed to be thus ascertained, sifted, and fixed for ever. England had no Academy; but it was thought that what had been done in France by the Forty Immortals might perhaps be done here by some leading man of letters. The idea had, it appears, been put before Alexander Pope, and approved by him; he is said even to have drawn up a list of the authors whose writings might be taken as authorities for such a dictionary; but he died in 1744, before anything further was done. The subject seems then to have been pressed upon the attention of SAMUEL JOHNSON; but it was not till 1747 that the matter took definite shape, when a syndicate of five or six London booksellers contracted with Johnson to produce the desired standard dictionary in the space of three years for the sum of fifteen hundred guineas. Alas for human calculations, and especially for those of dictionary makers! The work occupied nearly thrice the specified time, and, ere it was finished, the stipulated sum had been considerably overdrawn. At length, in 1755, appeared the two massive folios, each 17 inches long, 10 inches wide, and 3-1/2 inches thick, entitled 'A | Dictionary | of the | English Language | in which | the Words are deduced from their Originals, | and | illustrated in their different significations | by Examples from the Best Writers. | By Samuel Johnson.' The limits of this lecture do not permit me to say one tithe of what might and ought to be said of this great work. For the present purpose it must suffice to point out that the special new feature which it contributed to the evolution of the modern dictionary was the illustration of the use of each word by a selection of literary quotations, and the more delicate appreciation and discrimination of senses which this involved and rendered possible. Only where he had no quotations did Johnson insert words from Bailey's folio, or other source, with _Dict._ as the authority. The literary quotations were entirely supplied by himself from his capacious memory, or from books specially perused and marked by him for extraction. When he first began his work in the room in Gough Square, his whole time was devoted to thus reading and marking books, from which six clerkly assistants copied the marked quotations. The fact that many of the quotations were inserted from memory without verification (a practice facilitated by Johnson's plan of merely naming the author, without specifying the particular work quoted, or giving any reference whereby the passage could be turned up) is undoubtedly the reason why many of the quotations are not verbally exact. Even so, however, they are generally adequate for the purpose for which they are adduced, that is, they usually contain the word for which they are quoted, and the context is more or less accurately rendered. But in some cases it is otherwise: Johnson's memory played him false, and he quotes a passage for a word that it does not actually contain. As an example, under _Distilment_ he correctly quotes from _Hamlet_, 'And in the porches of mine ears did pour the leperous distilment.' But when he reached _Instilment_, his memory became vague, and forgetting that he had already quoted the passage under _Distilment_, he quoted it again as 'the leperous instilment'--a reading which does not exist in any text of Shakspere, and was a mere temporary hallucination of memory. There are some other curious mistakes, which must, I suppose, have crept in either in the course of transcription or of printing. As specimens I mention two, because they have unfortunately perverted ordinary usage. The two words _Coco_ and _Cocoa_--the former a Portuguese word[12], naming the _coco-nut_, the fruit of a palm-tree; the latter a latinized form of _Cacao_, the Aztec name of a Central American shrub, whence we have cocoa and chocolate--were always distinguished down to Johnson's time, and were in fact distinguished by Johnson himself in his own writings. His account of these in the Dictionary is quoted from Miller's _Gardener's Dictionary_ and Hill's _Materia Medica_, in which the former is spelt _coco_ and the latter _cacao_ and _cocoa_. But in Johnson's Dictionary the two words are by some accident run together under the heading _cocoa_, with the disastrous result that modern vulgar usage mixes the two up, spells the _coco-nut_, 'cocoa-' as if it were _co-co-a_, and on the other hand pronounces _cocoa_, the cacao-bean and the beverage, as if it were _coco_. The word _dispatch_, from It. _dispaccio_, had been in English use for some 250 years when Johnson's Dictionary appeared, and had been correctly spelt by everybody (that is by everybody but the illiterate) with dis-. This was Johnson's own spelling both before and after he published the dictionary, as may be seen in his _Letters_ edited by Dr. G. Birkbeck Hill[13]. It was also the spelling of all the writers whom Johnson quoted. But by some inexplicable error, the word got into the dictionary as _despatch_, and this spelling was even substituted in most of the quotations. I have not found that a single writer followed this erroneous spelling in the eighteenth century: Nelson, Wellesley, Wellington, and all our commanders and diplomatists wrote _Dispatches_; but since about 1820, the filtering down of the influence of Johnson's Dictionary has caused this erroneous spelling _despatch_ to become generally known and to be looked upon as authoritative; so that at the present time about half our newspapers give the erroneous form, to which, more larmentably, the Post Office, after long retaining the correct official tradition, recently capitulated. But despite small blemishes[14], the dictionary was a marvellous piece of work to accomplish in eight and a half years; and it is quite certain that, if all the quotations had had to be verified and furnished with exact references, a much longer time, or the employment of much more collaboration, would have been required. With much antecedent preparation, with much skilled co-operation, and with strenuous effort, it took more than nine years to produce the first three letters of the alphabet of the Oxford New English Dictionary. Johnson's great work raised English lexicography altogether to a higher level. In his hands it became a department of literature. The value of the Dictionary was recognized from the first by men of letters; a second edition was called for the same year. But it hardly became a popular work, or even a work of popular fame, before the present century. For forty years after its first publication editions of Bailey followed each other as rapidly as ever; numerous new dictionaries of the size and character of Bailey, often largely indebted to Johnson's definitions, appeared. But the only new feature introduced into lexicography between 1755 and the end of the century was the indication of the Orthoepy or Pronunciation. From Bailey onward, and by Johnson himself, the place of the stress-accent had been marked, but no attempt had been made to show how such a group of letters, for example, as _colonel_, or _enough_, or _phthisical_, was actually pronounced; or, to use modern phraseology, to tell what the _living word_ itself was, as distinguished from its written symbol. This feature, so obviously important in a language of which the spelling had ceased to be phonetic, was added by Dr. William Kenrick in his 'New Dictionary' of 1773, a little later in 1775 by William Perry, in 1780 by Thomas Sheridan, and especially in 1791 by John Walker, whose authority long remained as supreme in the domain of pronunciation, as that of Dr. Johnson in definition and illustration; so that popular dictionaries of the first half of the present century commonly claimed to be abridgements of 'Johnson's Dictionary, with, the Pronunciation on the basis of Walker.' From the first quarter of the nineteenth century, the lexicographical supremacy of Johnson's Dictionary was undisputed, and eminent students of the language busied themselves in trying, not to supersede it, but to supplement and perfect it. Numerous supplements, containing additional words, senses, and quotations, were published; in 1818 a new edition, embracing many such accessions, was prepared by the learned Archdeacon Todd, and 'Todd's Johnson' continues to be an esteemed work to our own day. But only two independent contributions to the development of lexicography were made in the earlier half of the nineteenth century. These were the American work of Noah Webster, and the English work of Dr. Charles Richardson. Webster was a great man, a born definer of words; he was fired with the idea that America ought to have a dictionary of its own form of English, independent of British usage, and he produced a work of great originality and value. Unfortunately, like many other clever men, he had the notion that derivations can be elaborated from one's own consciousness as well as definitions, and he included in his work so-called 'etymologies' of this sort. But Etymology is simply Word-history, and Word-history, like all other history, is a record of the _facts_ which _did_ happen, not a fabric of conjectures as to what may have happened. In the later editions of Webster, these 'derivations' have been cleared out _en masse_, and the etymology placed in the hands of men abreast of the science of the time; and the last edition of Webster, the _International_, is perhaps the best of one-volume dictionaries. Richardson started on a new track altogether. Observing how much light was shed on the meaning of words by Johnson's quotations, he was impressed with the notion that, in a dictionary, definitions are unnecessary, that quotations alone are sufficient; and he proceeded to carry this into effect by making a dictionary without definitions or explanations of meaning, or at least with the merest rudiments of them, but illustrating each group of words by a large series of quotations. In the collection of these he displayed immense research. Going far beyond the limits of Dr. Johnson, he quoted from authors back to the year 1300, and probably for the first time made Chaucer and Gower and Piers Ploughman living names to many readers. And his special notion was quite correct _in theory_. Quotations _will_ tell the full meaning of a word, _if one has enough of them_; but it takes a great many to be enough, and it takes a reader a long time to read and weigh all the quotations, and to deduce from them the meanings which might be put before him in a line or two. As a fact, while Richardson's notion was correct in theory, mundane conditions of space and time rendered it humanly impracticable. Nevertheless, the mass of quotations, most of them with exact references, collected by him, and printed under the word-groups which they illustrated, was a service never to be undervalued or forgotten, and his work, 'A New Dictionary of the English Language ... Illustrated by Quotations from the best Authors' by Charles Richardson, LL.D., 1836-7, still continues to be a valuable repertory of illustrations. Such was the position of English lexicography in the middle of the nineteenth century, when the late Dr. Trench, then Dean of Westminster, who had already written several esteemed works on the English language and the history of words, read two papers before the Philological Society in London 'On some Deficiencies in existing English Dictionaries,' in which, while speaking with much appreciation of the labours of Dr. Johnson and his successors, he declared that these labours yet fell far short of giving us the ideal English Dictionary. Especially, he pointed out that for the _history_ of words and families of words, and for the changes of form and sense which words had historically passed through, they gave hardly any help whatever. No one could find out from all the dictionaries extant how long any particular word had been in the language, which of the many senses in which many words were used was the original, or how or when these many senses had been developed; nor, in the case of words described as _obsolete_, were we told _when_ they became obsolete or by whom they were last used. He pointed out also that the obsolete and the rarer words of the language had never been completely collected; that thousands of words current in the literature of the past three centuries had escaped the diligence of Johnson and all his supplementers; that, indeed, the collection of the requisite material for a complete dictionary could not be compassed by any one man, however long-lived and however diligent, but must be the work of many collaborators who would undertake systematically to read and to extract English literature. He called upon the Philological Society, therefore, as the only body in England then interesting itself in the language, to undertake the collection of materials to complete the work already done by Bailey, Johnson, Todd, Webster, Richardson, and others, and to prepare a supplement to all the dictionaries, which should register all omitted words and senses, and supply all the historical information in which these works were lacking, and, above all, should give quotations illustrating the first and last appearance, and every notable point in the life-history of every word. From this impulse arose the movement which, widened and directed by much practical experience, has culminated in the preparation of the Oxford English Dictionary, 'A new English Dictionary on Historical Principles, founded mainly on the materials collected by the Philological Society.' This dictionary superadds to all the features that have been successively evolved by the long chain of workers, the historical information which Dr. Trench desiderated. It seeks not merely to record every word that has been used in the language for the last 800 years, with its written form and signification, and the pronunciation of the current words, but to furnish a biography of each word, giving as nearly as possible the date of its birth or first known appearance, and, in the case of an obsolete word or sense, of its last appearance, the source from which it was actually derived, the form and sense with which it entered the language or is first found in it, and the successive changes of form and developments of sense which it has since undergone. All these particulars are derived from historical research; they are an induction of facts gathered by the widest investigation of the written monuments of the language. For the purposes of this historical illustration more than five millions of extracts have been made, by two thousand volunteer Readers, from innumerable books, representing the English literature of all ages, and from numerous documentary records. From these, and the further researches for which they provide a starting-point, the history of each word is deduced and exhibited. Since the Philological Society's scheme was propounded, several large dictionaries have been compiled, adopting one or more of Archbishop Trench's suggestions, and thus showing some of the minor features of this dictionary. They have collected some of the rare and obsolete words and senses of the past three centuries; they have attained to greater fullness and exactness in exhibiting the current uses of words, and especially of the many modern words which the progress of physical science has called into being. But they leave the _history_ of the words themselves where it was when Dr. Trench pointed out the deficiencies of existing dictionaries. And their literary illustrations of the older words are, in too many cases, those of Dr. Johnson, copied from dictionary to dictionary without examination or verification, and, what is more important, without acknowledgement, so that the reader has no warning that a given quotation is merely second-or third-hand, and, therefore, to be accepted with qualification[15]. The quotations in the New English Dictionary, on the other hand, have been supplied afresh by its army of volunteer Readers; or, when for any reason one is adopted from a preceding dictionary without verification, the fact is stated, both as an acknowledgement of others' work, and as a warning to the reader that it is given on intermediate authority. Original work, patient induction of facts, minute verification of evidence, are slow processes, and a work so characterized cannot be put together with scissors and paste, or run off with the speed of the copyist. All the great dictionaries of the modern languages have taken a long time to make; but the speed with which the New English Dictionary has now advanced nearly to its half-way point can advantageously claim comparison with the progress of any other great dictionary, even when this falls far behind in historical and inductive character.[16] Be the speed what it may, however, there is the consideration that the work thus done is done once for all; the structure now reared will have to be added to, continued, and extended with time, but it will remain, it is believed, the great body of fact on which all future work will be built. It is never possible to forecast the needs and notions of those who shall come after us; but with our present knowledge it is not easy to conceive what new feature can now be added to English Lexicography. At any rate, it can be maintained that in the Oxford Dictionary, permeated as it is through and through with the scientific method of the century, Lexicography has for the present reached its supreme development. In the course of this lecture, it has been needful to give so many details as to individual works, that my audience may at times have failed 'to see the wood for the trees,' and may have lost the clue of the lexicographical evolution. Let me then in conclusion recapitulate the stages which have been already indicated. These are: the glossing of difficult words in Latin manuscripts by easier Latin, and at length by English words; the collection of the English glosses into Glossaries, and the elaboration of Latin-English Vocabularies; the later formation of English-Latin Vocabularies; the production of Dictionaries of English and another modern language; the compilation of Glossaries and Dictionaries of 'hard' English words; the extension of these by Bailey, for etymological purposes, to include words in general; the idea of a Standard Dictionary, and its realization by Dr. Johnson with illustrative quotations; the notion that a Dictionary should also show the pronunciation of the living word; the extension of the function of quotations by Richardson; the idea that the Dictionary should be a biography of every word, and should set forth every fact connected with its origin, history, and use, on a strictly historical method. These stages coincide necessarily with stages of our national and literary history; the first two were already reached before the Norman Conquest; the third followed upon the recognition of English as the official language of the nation, and its employment by illustrious Middle English writers. The Dictionaries of the modern languages were necessitated first by the fact that French had at length ceased to be the living tongue of any class of Englishmen, and secondly by the other fact that the rise of the modern languages and increasing intercourse with the Continent made Latin no longer sufficient as a common medium of international communication. The consequences of the Renascence and of the New Learning of the sixteenth century appear in the need for the Dictionaries of Hard Words at the beginning of the seventeenth; the literary polish of the age of Anne begat the yearning for a standard dictionary, and inspired the work of Johnson; the scientific and historical spirit of the nineteenth century has at once called for and rendered possible the Oxford English Dictionary. Thus the evolution of English Lexicography has followed with no faltering steps the evolution of English History and the development of English Literature. FOOTNOTES: [1] Thus the first six Latin words in A glossed are _apodixen_, _amineæ_, _amites_, _arcontus_, _axungia_; the last six are _arbusta_, _anser_, _affricus_, _atticus_, _auiaria_, _avena_; mostly 'hard' Latin it will be perceived. The Erfurt Glossary is, to a great extent, a duplicate of the Epinal. [2] Thus the first five Latin entries in ab- are _abminiculum_, _abelena_, _abiecit_, _absida_, _abies_, and the last five _aboleri_, _ab borea_, _abiles_, _aborsus_, _absorduum_. To find whether a wanted word in ab- occurs in this glossary, it was necessary to look through more than two columns containing ninety-five entries. [3] An important collection of these early beginnings of lexicography in England was made so long ago as 1857, by the late distinguished antiquary Thomas Wright, and published as the first volume of a Library of National Antiquities. A new edition of this with sundry emendations and additions was prepared and published in 1884 by Professor R.F. Wülcker of Leipzig, and the collection is now generally referred to by scholars in German fashion under the designation of Wright-Wülcker. [4] This is the primary reason why in Middle and Modern English, unlike what is found in German and Dutch, the terms of culture, art, science, and philosophy, are of French or, through French, of Latin origin. The corresponding Old English terms were forgotten during the age of illiteracy, and when, generations later, the speaker of English came again to deal with such subjects, he had to do like Layamon, when he knew no longer _tungol-croeft_, and could refer to it only as 'the craft ihote _astronomie_ in other kunnes speche.' [5] Also _Medulla Grammaticae_, or usually _Grammatice_. [6] At the end is an alphabetical list of adjectives; extending from lf. 79a, col. 2, to 83a, foot. [7] It must however be mentioned that the second dictionary of English and another modern tongue was appropriately 'A Dictionary in Englyshe and Welshe, moche necessary to all suche Welshemen as wil spedlye learne the englyshe tongue, thought vnto the kynges maiestie very mete to be sette forth to the vse of his graces subiectes in Wales, ... by Wyllyam Salesbury.' The colophon is 'Imprynted at London in Foster Lane, by me John Waley. 1547.' [8] In the Dedication he says, 'Which worke, long ago for the most part, was gathered by me, but lately augmented by my sonne Thomas, who now is Schoolemaister in London.' [9] 'To the right honourable, worshipfull, vertuous, & godlie Ladies, the Lady Hastings, the Lady Dudley, the Lady Mountague, the Ladie Wingfield, and the Lady Leigh, his Christian friends, R.C. wisheth great prosperitie in this life, with increase of grace, and peace from GOD our Father, through Iesus Christ our Lord and onely Sauiour.' (A 2.) [10] His explanations of such words were curt enough: '_Cat_, a Creature well known'; '_Horse_, a Beast well known'; '_Man_, a Creature endued with Reason.' [11] 'An interleaved copy of Bailey's dictionary in folio he made the repository of the several articles.' _Works of J._, 1787, I. 175. [12] Pg. _coco_, a grinning mask, applied to the coco-nut because of the three holes and central protuberance at its apex, suggesting two eyes, a mouth, and nose. [13] The following are examples of his own practice: _The Rambler_ (1751), No. 153, par. 3, 'I was in my eighteenth year dispatched to the university.' Ibid., No. 161, par. 4, 'I ... soon dispatched a bargain on the usual terms.' _Letter to Mrs. Thrale_, May 6, 1776, 'We dispatched our journey very peaceably.' [14] Among such must be reckoned the treatment of words in the explanation of which Johnson showed political or personal animus or whimsical humour, as in the well-known cases of _whig_, _tory_, _excise_, _pension_, _pensioner_, _oats_, _Grub-street_, _lexicographer_ (see Boswell's _Johnson_, ed. Birkbeck Hill, i. 294); although it must be admitted that these have come to be among the famous spots of the Dictionary, and have given gentle amusement to thousands, to whom it has been a delight to see 'human nature' too strong for lexicographic decorum. [15] In some cases, long Lists of the Authors, from whose works 'the illustrative quotations have been selected,' are given, without the statement that many of those quotations have not actually been selected from the authors and works named, but have merely been annexed from Johnson or one of his supplementers. [16] The famous _Deutsches Wörterbuch_ of Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, after many years of preparation, began to be printed in 1852; Jacob Grimm himself died in 1863, in the middle of the letter F; the work is expected to reach the end of S by the close of the century. The great _Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal_ was commenced in 1852; its first volume, _A--Ajuin_, was published in 1882, and it is not yet quite half-finished. Of the new edition of the _Vocabolario della Crusca_, which is to a certain extent on historical principles, Vol. I, containing A, was published in 1863, and Vol. VIII, completing I, in 1899; at least twenty-five more years will be required to reach Z. None of these works embraces so long a period of the language, or is so strictly historical in method, as the New English Dictionary. Rather are they, like Littré's great _Dictionnaire de la Langue Française_, Dictionaries of the modern language, with the current words more or less historically treated. 
17470	----	ON THE ART OF WRITING CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS C.F. CLAY, Manager London: FETTER LANE, E.C. Edinburgh: 100 PRINCES STREET. Bombay, Calcutta and Madras: MACMILLAN & CO. LTD. Toronto: J.M. DENT AND SONS, LTD. Tokyo: THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA. Copyrighted in the United States of America by G.P. PUTNAM'S SONS, 2, 4 AND 6, WEST 45TH STREET, NEW YORK CITY. All rights reserved ON THE ART OF WRITING LECTURES DELIVERED IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE 1913-1914 BY SIR ARTHUR QUILLER-COUCH, M.A. Fellow of Jesus College King Edward VII Professor of English Literature Cambridge: at the University Press 1917 First Edition 1916 Reprinted 1916,1917 TO JOHN HAY LOBBAN PREFACE By recasting these lectures I might with pains have turned them into a smooth treatise. But I prefer to leave them (bating a very few corrections and additions) as they were delivered. If, as the reader will all too easily detect, they abound no less in repetitions than in arguments dropped and left at loose ends--the whole bewraying a man called unexpectedly to a post where in the act of adapting himself, of learning that he might teach, he had often to adjourn his main purpose and skirmish with difficulties--they will be the truer to life; and so may experimentally enforce their preaching, that the Art of Writing is a living business. Bearing this in mind, the reader will perhaps excuse certain small vivacities, sallies that meet fools with their folly, masking the main attack. _That_, we will see, is serious enough; and others will carry it on, though my effort come to naught. It amounts to this--Literature is not a mere Science, to be studied; but an Art, to be practised. Great as is our own literature, we must consider it as a legacy to be improved. Any nation that potters with any glory of its past, as a thing dead and done for, is to that extent renegade. If that be granted, not all our pride in a Shakespeare can excuse the relaxation of an effort--however vain and hopeless--to better him, or some part of him. If, with all our native exemplars to give us courage, we persist in striving to write well, we can easily resign to other nations all the secondary fame to be picked up by commentators. Recent history has strengthened, with passion and scorn, the faith in which I wrote the following pages. ARTHUR QUILLER-COUCH November 1915 CONTENTS LECTURE I INAUGURAL II THE PRACTICE OF WRITING III ON THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VERSE AND PROSE IV ON THE CAPITAL DIFFICULTY OF VERSE V INTERLUDE: ON JARGON VI ON THE CAPITAL DIFFICULTY OF PROSE VII SOME PRINCIPLES REAFFIRMED VIII ON THE LINEAGE OF ENGLISH LITERATURE (I) IX ON THE LINEAGE OF ENGLISH LITERATURE (II) X ENGLISH LITERATURE IN OUR UNIVERSITIES (I) XI ENGLISH LITERATURE IN OUR UNIVERSITIES (II) XII ON STYLE INDEX LECTURE I. INAUGURAL Wednesday, January 29, 1913 In all the long quarrel set between philosophy and poetry I know of nothing finer, as of nothing more pathetically hopeless, than Plato's return upon himself in his last dialogue 'The Laws.' There are who find that dialogue (left unrevised) insufferably dull, as no doubt it is without form and garrulous. But I think they will read it with a new tolerance, may-be even with a touch of feeling, if upon second thoughts they recognise in its twisting and turnings, its prolixities and repetitions, the scruples of an old man who, knowing that his time in this world is short, would not go out of it pretending to know more than he does, and even in matters concerning which he was once very sure has come to divine that, after all, as Renan says, 'La Verité consiste dans les nuances.' Certainly 'the mind's dark cottage battered and decayed' does in that last dialogue admit some wonderful flashes, From Heaven descended to the low-roofed house Of Socrates, or rather to that noble 'banquet-hall deserted' which aforetime had entertained Socrates. Suffer me, Mr Vice-Chancellor and Gentlemen, before reaching my text, to remind you of the characteristically beautiful setting. The place is Crete, and the three interlocutors--Cleinias a Cretan, Megillus a Lacedaemonian, and an Athenian stranger--have joined company on a pilgrimage to the cave and shrine of Zeus, from whom Minos, first lawgiver of the island, had reputedly derived not only his parentage but much parental instruction. Now the day being hot, even scorching, and the road from Cnossus to the Sacred Cave a long one, our three pilgrims, who have foregathered as elderly men, take it at their leisure, and propose to beguile it with talk upon Minos and his laws. 'Yes, and on the way,' promises the Cretan, 'we shall come to cypress-groves exceedingly tall and fair, and to green meadows, where we may repose ourselves and converse.' 'Good,' assents the Athenian. 'Ay, very good indeed, and better still when we arrive at them. Let us push on.' So they proceed. I have said that all three are elderly men; that is, men who have had their opportunities, earned their wages, and so nearly earned their discharge that now, looking back on life, they can afford to see Man for what he really is--at his best a noble plaything for the gods. Yet they look forward, too, a little wistfully. They are of the world, after all, and nowise so tired of it, albeit disillusioned, as to have lost interest in the game or in the young who will carry it on. So Minos and his laws soon get left behind, and the talk (as so often befalls with Plato) is of the perfect citizen and how to train him--of education, in short; and so, as ever with Plato, we are back at length upon the old question which he could never get out of his way--What to do with the poets? It scarcely needs to be said that the Athenian has taken hold of the conversation, and that the others are as wax in his hands. 'O Athenian stranger,' Cleinias addresses him--'inhabitant of Attica I will not call you, for you seem to deserve rather the name of Athene herself, because you go back to first principles.' Thus complimented, the stranger lets himself go. Yet somehow he would seem to have lost speculative nerve. It was all very well in the 'Republic,' the ideal State, to be bold and declare for banishing poetry altogether. But elderly men have given up pursuing ideals; they have 'seen too many leaders of revolt.' Our Athenian is driving now at practice (as we say), at a well-governed State realisable on earth; and after all it is hard to chase out the poets, especially if you yourself happen to be something of a poet at heart. Hear, then, the terms on which, after allowing that comedies may be performed, but only by slaves and hirelings, he proceeds to allow serious poetry. And if any of the serious poets, as they are termed, who write tragedy, come to us and say--'O strangers, may we go to your city and country, or may we not, and shall we bring with us our poetry? What is your will about these matters?'--how shall we answer the divine men? I think that our answer should be as follows:-- 'Best of strangers,' we will say to them, 'we also, according to our ability, are tragic poets, and our tragedy is the best and noblest: for our whole state is an imitation of the best and noblest life.... You are poets and we are poets, both makers of the same strains, rivals and antagonists in the noblest of dramas, which true law alone can perfect, as our hope is. Do not then suppose that we shall all in a moment allow you to erect your stage in the Agora, and introduce the fair voices of your actors, speaking above our own, and permit you to harangue our women and children and the common people in language other than our own, and very often the opposite of our own. For a State would be mad which gave you this license, until the magistrates had determined whether your poetry might be recited and was fit for publication or not. Wherefore, O ye sons and scions of the softer Muses! first of all show your songs to the Magistrates and let them compare them with our own, and if they are the same or better, we will give you a chorus; but if not, then, my friends, we cannot.' Lame conclusion! Impotent compromise! How little applicable, at all events, to our Commonwealth! though, to be sure (you may say) we possess a relic of it in His Majesty's Licenser of Plays. As you know, there has been so much heated talk of late over the composition of the County Magistracy; yet I give you a countryman's word, Sir, that I have heard many names proposed for the Commission of the Peace, and on many grounds, but never one on the ground that its owner had a conservative taste in verse! Nevertheless, as Plato saw, we must deal with these poets somehow. It is possible (though not, I think, likely) that in the ideal State there would be no Literature, as it is certain there would be no Professors of it; but since its invention men have never been able to rid themselves of it for any length of time. _Tamen usque recurrit._ They may forbid Apollo, but still he comes leading his choir, the Nine:-- [Greek: Akletos men egoge menoimi ken es de kaleunton Tharsesas Moisaisi snu amepeaisin ikoiman.] And he may challenge us English boldly! For since Chaucer, at any rate, he and his train have never been [Greek: akletoi] to us--least of all here in Cambridge. Nay, we know that he should be welcome. Cardinal Newman, proposing the idea of a University to the Roman Catholics of Dublin, lamented that the English language had not, like the Greek, 'some definite words to express, simply and generally, intellectual proficiency or perfection, such as "health," as used with reference to the animal frame, and "virtue," with reference to our moral nature.' Well, it is a reproach to us that we do not possess the term: and perhaps again a reproach to us that our attempts at it--the word 'culture' for instance--have been apt to take on some soil of controversy, some connotative damage from over-preaching on the one hand and impatience on the other. But we do earnestly desire the thing. We do prize that grace of intellect which sets So-and-so in our view as 'a scholar and a gentleman.' We do wish as many sons of this University as may be to carry forth that lifelong stamp from her precincts; and--this is my point--from our notion of such a man the touch of literary grace cannot be excluded. I put to you for a test Lucian's description of his friend Demonax-- His way was like other people's; he mounted no high horse; he was just a man and a citizen. He indulged in no Socratic irony. But his discourse was full of Attic grace; those who heard it went away neither disgusted by servility, nor repelled by ill-tempered censure, but on the contrary lifted out of themselves by charity, and encouraged to more orderly, contented, hopeful lives. I put it to you, Sir, that Lucian needs not to say another word, but we know that Demonax had loved letters, and partly by aid of them had arrived at being such a man. No; by consent of all, Literature is a nurse of noble natures, and right reading makes a full man in a sense even better than Bacon's; not replete, but complete rather, to the pattern for which Heaven designed him. In this conviction, in this hope, public spirited men endow Chairs in our Universities, sure that Literature is a good thing if only we can bring it to operate on young minds. That he has in him some power to guide such operation a man must believe before accepting such a Chair as this. And now, Sir, the terrible moment is come when your [Greek: xenos] must render some account--I will not say of himself, for that cannot be attempted--but of his business here. Well, first let me plead that while you have been infinitely kind to the stranger, feasting him and casting a gown over him, one thing not all your kindness has been able to do. With precedents, with traditions such as other Professors enjoy, you could not furnish him. The Chair is a new one, or almost new, and for the present would seem to float in the void, like Mahomet's coffin. Wherefore, being one who (in my Lord Chief Justice Crewe's phrase) would 'take hold of a twig or twine-thread to uphold it'; being also prone (with Bacon) to believe that 'the counsels to which Time hath not been called, Time will not ratify'; I do assure you that, had any legacy of guidance been discovered among the papers left by my predecessor, it would have been eagerly welcomed and as piously honoured. O, trust me, Sir!--if any design for this Chair of English Literature had been left by Dr Verrall, it is not I who would be setting up any new stage in your agora! But in his papers--most kindly searched for me by Mrs Verrall--no such design can be found. He was, in truth, a stricken man when he came to the Chair, and of what he would have built we can only be sure that, had it been this or had it been that, it would infallibly have borne the impress of one of the most beautiful minds of our generation. The gods saw otherwise; and for me, following him, I came to a trench and stretched my hands to a shade. For me, then, if you put questions concerning the work of this Chair, I must take example from the artist in Don Quixote, who being asked what he was painting, answered modestly, 'That is as it may turn out.' The course is uncharted, and for sailing directions I have but these words of your Ordinance: It shall be the duty of the Professor to deliver courses of lectures on English Literature from the age of Chaucer onwards, and otherwise to promote, so far as may be in his power, the study in the University of the subject of English Literature. And I never even knew that English Literature had a 'subject'; or, rather, supposed it to have several! To resume: The Professor shall treat this subject on literary and critical rather than on philological and linguistic lines: --a proviso which at any rate cuts off a cantle, large in itself, if not comparatively, of the new Professor's ignorance. But I ask you to note the phrase 'to promote, so far as may be in his power, the study'--not, you will observe, 'to teach'; for this absolves me from raising at the start a question of some delicacy for me, as Green launched his "Prolegomena to Ethics" upon the remark that 'an author who seeks to gain general confidence scarcely goes the right way to work when he begins with asking whether there really is such a subject as that of which he proposes to treat.' In spite of--mark, pray, that I say _in spite of_--the activity of many learned Professors, some doubt does lurk in the public mind if, after all, English Literature can, in any ordinary sense, be taught, and if the attempts to teach it do not, after all, justify (as Wisdom is so often justified of her grandparents) the silence sapience of those old benefactors who abstained from endowing any such Chairs. But that the study of English Literature can be promoted in young minds by an elder one, that their zeal may be encouraged, their tastes directed, their vision cleared, quickened, enlarged--this, I take it, no man of experience will deny. Nay, since our two oldest Universities have a habit of marking one another with interest--an interest, indeed, sometimes heightened by nervousness--I may point out that all this has been done of late years, and eminently done, by a Cambridge man you gave to Oxford. This, then, Mr Vice-Chancellor--this or something like this, Gentlemen--is to be my task if I have the good fortune to win your confidence. Let me, then, lay down two or three principles by which I propose to be guided. (1) For the first principle of all I put to you that in studying any work of genius we should begin by taking it _absolutely_; that is to say, with minds intent on discovering just what the author's mind intended; this being at once the obvious approach to its meaning (its [Greek: to ti en einai], the 'thing it was to be'), and the merest duty of politeness we owe to the great man addressing us. We should lay our minds open to what he wishes to tell, and if what he has to tell be noble and high and beautiful, we should surrender and let soak our minds in it. Pray understand that in claiming, even insisting upon, the first place for this _absolute_ study of a great work I use no disrespect towards those learned scholars whose labours will help you, Gentlemen, to enjoy it afterwards in other ways and from other aspects; since I hold there is no surer sign of intellectual ill-breeding than to speak, even to feel, slightingly of any knowledge oneself does not happen to possess. Still less do I aim to persuade you that anyone should be able to earn a Cambridge degree by the process (to borrow Macaulay's phrase) of reading our great authors 'with his feet on the hob,' a posture I have not even tried, to recommend it for a contemplative man's recreation. These editors not only set us the priceless example of learning for learning's sake: but even in practice they clear our texts for us, and afterwards--when we go more minutely into our author's acquaintance, wishing to learn all we can about him--by increasing our knowledge of detail they enchance our delight. Nay, with certain early writers--say Chaucer or Dunbar, as with certain highly allusive ones--Bacon, or Milton, or Sir Thomas Browne--some apparatus must be supplied from the start. But on the whole I think it a fair contention that such helps to studying an author are secondary and subsidiary; that, for example, with any author who by consent is less of his age than for all time, to study the relation he bore to his age may be important indeed, and even highly important, yet must in the nature of things be of secondary importance, not of the first. But let us examine this principle a little more attentively--for it is the palmary one. As I conceive it, that understanding of literature which we desire in our Euphues, our gracefully-minded youth, will include knowledge in varying degree, yet is itself something distinct from knowledge. Let us illustrate this upon Poetry, which the most of us will allow to be the highest form of literary expression, if not of all artistic expression. Of all the testimony paid to Poetry, none commands better witness than this--that, as Johnson said of Gray's Elegy 'it abounds with images which find a mirror in every mind, and with sentiments to which every heart returns an echo.' When George Eliot said, 'I never before met with so many of my own feelings expressed just as I should like them,' she but repeated of Wordsworth (in homelier, more familiar fashion) what Johnson said of Gray; and the same testimony lies implicit in Emerson's fine remark that 'Universal history, the poets, the romancers'--all good writers, in short--'do not anywhere make us feel that we intrude, that this is for our betters. Rather it is true that, in their greatest strokes, there we feel most at home.' The mass of evidence, of which these are samples, may be summarised thus:--As we dwell here between two mysteries, of a soul within and an ordered Universe without, so among us are granted to dwell certain men of more delicate intellectual fibre than their fellows--men whose minds have, as it were, filaments to intercept, apprehend, conduct, translate home to us stray messages between these two mysteries, as modern telegraphy has learnt to search out, snatch, gather home human messages astray over waste waters of the Ocean. If, then, the ordinary man be done this service by the poet, that (as Dr Johnson defines it) 'he feels what he remembers to have felt before, but he feels it _with a great increase of sensibility_'; or even if, though the message be unfamiliar, it suggests to us, in Wordsworth's phrase, to 'feel that we are greater than we know,' I submit that we respond to it less by anything that usually passes for knowledge, than by an improvement of sensibility, a tuning up of the mind to the poet's pitch; so that the man we are proud to send forth from our Schools will be remarkable less for something he can take out of his wallet and exhibit for knowledge, than for _being_ something, and that 'something,' a man of unmistakable intellectual breeding, whose trained judgment we can trust to choose the better and reject the worse. But since this refining of the critical judgment happens to be less easy of practice than the memorising of much that passes for knowledge--of what happened to Harriet or what Blake said to the soldier--and far less easy to examine on, the pedagogic mind (which I implore you not to suppose me confusing with the scholarly) for avoidance of trouble tends all the while to dodge or obfuscate what is essential, piling up accidents and irrelevancies before it until its very face is hidden. And we should be the more watchful not to confuse the pedagogic mind with the scholarly since it is from the scholar that the pedagogue pretends to derive his sanction; ransacking the great genuine commentators--be it a Skeat or a Masson or (may I add for old reverence' sake?) an Aldis Wright--fetching home bits of erudition, _non sua poma_, and announcing 'This _must_ be the true Sion, for we found it in a wood.' Hence a swarm of little school books pullulates annually, all upside down and wrong from beginning to end; and hence a worse evil afflicts us, that the English schoolboy starts with a false perspective of any given masterpiece, his pedagogue urging, obtruding lesser things upon his vision until what is really important, the poem or the play itself, is seen in distorted glimpses, if not quite blocked out of view. This same temptation--to remove a work of art from the category for which the author designed it into another where it can be more conveniently studied--reaches even above the schoolmaster to assail some very eminent critics. I cite an example from a book of which I shall hereafter have to speak with gratitude as I shall always name it with respect--"The History of English Poetry," by Dr Courthope, sometime Professor of Poetry at Oxford. In his fourth volume, and in his estimate of Fletcher as a dramatist, I find this passage:-- But the crucial test of a play's quality is only applied when it is read. So long as the illusion of the stage gives credit to the action, and the words and gestures of the actor impose themselves on the imagination of the spectator, the latter will pass over a thousand imperfections, which reveal themselves to the reader, who, as he has to satisfy himself with the drama of silent images, will nor be content if this or that in any way fall short of his conception of truth and nature, --which seems equivalent to saying that the crucial test of the frieze of the Parthenon is its adaptability to an apartment in Bloomsbury. So long as the illusion of the Acropolis gave credit to Pheidias' design, and the sunlight of Attica imposed its delicate intended shadows edging the reliefs, the countrymen of Pericles might be tricked; but the visitor to the British Museum, as he has to satisfy himself with what happens indoors in the atmosphere of the West Central Postal Division of London, will not be content if Pheidias in any way fall short of _his_ conception of truth and nature. Yet Fletcher (I take it) constructed his plays as plays; the illusion of the stage, the persuasiveness of the actor's voice, were conditions for which he wrought, and on which he had a right to rely; and, in short, any critic behaves uncritically who, distrusting his imagination to recreate the play as a play, elects to consider it in the category of something else. In sum, if the great authors never oppress us with airs of condescension, but, like the great lords they are, put the meanest of us at our ease in their presence, I see no reason why we should pay to any commentator a servility not demanded by his master. My next two principles may be more briefly stated. (2) I propose next, then, that since our investigations will deal largely with style, that curiously personal thing; and since (as I have said) they cannot in their nature be readily brought to rule-of-thumb tests, and may therefore so easily be suspected of evading all tests, of being mere dilettantism; I propose (I say) that my pupils and I rebuke this suspicion by constantly aiming at the concrete, at the study of such definite beauties as we can see presented in print under our eyes; always seeking the author's intention, but eschewing, for the present at any rate, all general definitions and theories, through the sieve of which the particular achievement of genius is so apt to slip. And having excluded them at first in prudence, I make little doubt we shall go on to exclude them in pride. Definitions, formulæ (some would add, creeds) have their use in any society in that they restrain the ordinary unintellectual man from making himself a public nuisance with his private opinions. But they go a very little way in helping the man who has a real sense of prose or verse. In other words, they are good discipline for some thyrsus-bearers, but the initiated have little use for them. As Thomas à Kempis 'would rather feel compunction than understand the definition thereof,' so the initiated man will say of the 'Grand Style,' for example--'Why define it for me?' When Viola says simply: I am all the daughters of my father's house, And all the brothers too, or Macbeth demands of the Doctor Canst thou not minister to a mind diseased, Pluck from the memory a rooted sorrow..? or Hamlet greets Ophelia, reading her Book of Hours, with Nymph, in thy orisons Be all my sins remembered! or when Milton tells of his dead friend how Together both, ere the high lawns appear'd Under the opening eyelids of the morn, We drove afield, or describes the battalions of Heaven On they move Indissolubly firm: nor obvious hill, Nor strait'ning vale, nor wood, nor stream divide Their perfect ranks, or when Gray exalts the great commonplace The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, Awaits alike th' inevitable hour; The paths of glory lead but to the grave, or when Keats casually drops us such a line as The journey homeward to habitual self, or, to come down to our own times and to a living poet, when I open on a page of William Watson and read O ancient streams, O far descended woods, Full of the fluttering of melodious souls!... 'why then (will say the initiated one), why worry me with any definition of the Grand Style in English, when here, and here, and again here--in all these lines, simple or intense or exquisite or solemn--I recognise and feel the _thing_?' Indeed, Sir, the long and the short of the argument lie just here. Literature is not an abstract Science, to which exact definitions can be applied. It is an Art rather, the success of which depends on personal persuasiveness, on the author's skill to give as on ours to receive. (3) For our third principle I will ask you to go back with me to Plato's wayfarers, whom we have left so long under the cypresses; and loth as we must be to lay hands on our father Parmenides, I feel we must treat the gifted Athenian stranger to a little manhandling. For did you not observe--though Greek was a living language and to his metropolitan mind the only language--how envious he showed himself to seal up the well, or allow it to trickle only under permit of a public analyst: to treat all innovation as suspect, even as, a hundred odd years ago, the Lyrical Ballads were suspect? But the very hope of this Chair, Sir (as I conceive it), relies on the courage of the young. As Literature is an Art and therefore not to be pondered only, but practised, so ours is a living language and therefore to be kept alive, supple, active in all honourable use. The orator can yet sway men, the poet ravish them, the dramatist fill their lungs with salutary laughter or purge their emotions by pity or terror. The historian 'superinduces upon events the charm of order.' The novelist--well, even the novelist has his uses; and I would warn you against despising any form of art which is alive and pliant in the hands of men. For my part, I believe, bearing in mind Mr. Barrie's "Peter Pan" and the old bottles he renovated to hold that joyous wine, that even Musical Comedy, in the hands of a master, might become a thing of beauty. Of the Novel, at any rate--whether we like it or not--we have to admit that it does hold a commanding position in the literature of our times, and to consider how far Mr. Lascelles Abercrombie was right the other day when he claimed, on the first page of his brilliant study of Thomas Hardy, that 'the right to such a position is not to be disputed; for here, as elsewhere, the right to a position is no more than the power to maintain it.' You may agree with that or you may not; you may or may not deplore the forms that literature is choosing now-a-days; but there is no gainsaying that it is still very much alive. And I would say to you, Gentlemen, 'Believe, and be glad that Literature and the English tongue are both alive.' Carlyle, in his explosive way, once demanded of his countrymen, 'Shakespeare or India? If you had to surrender one to retain the other, which would you choose?' Well, our Indian Empire is yet in the making, while the works of Shakespeare are complete and purchasable in whole calf; so the alternatives are scarcely _in pari materia_; and moreover let us not be in a hurry to meet trouble half way. But in English Literature, which, like India, is still in the making, you have at once an Empire and an Emprise. In that alone you have inherited something greater than Sparta. Let us strive, each in his little way, to adorn it. But here at the close of my hour, the double argument, that Literature is an Art and English a living tongue, has led me right up to a fourth principle, the plunge into which (though I foresaw it from the first) all the coward in me rejoices at having to defer to another lecture. I conclude then, Gentlemen, by answering two suspicions, which very likely have been shaping themselves in your minds. In the first place, you will say, 'It is all very well for this man to talk about "cultivating an increased sensibility," and the like; but we know what that leads to--to quackery, to aesthetic chatter: "Isn't this pretty? Don't you admire that?"' Well, I am not greatly frightened. To begin with, when we come to particular criticism I shall endeavour to exchange it with you in plain terms; a manner which (to quote Mr Robert Bridges' "Essay on Keats") 'I prefer, because by obliging the lecturer to say definitely what he means, it makes his mistakes easy to point out, and in this way the true business of criticism is advanced.' But I have a second safeguard, more to be trusted: that here in Cambridge, with all her traditions of austere scholarship, anyone who indulges in loose distinct talk will be quickly recalled to his tether. Though at the time Athene be not kind enough to descend from heaven and pluck him backward by the hair, yet the very _genius loci_ will walk home with him from the lecture room, whispering monitions, cruel to be kind. 'But,' you will say alternatively, 'if we avoid loose talk on these matters we are embarking on a mighty difficult business.' Why, to be sure we are; and that, I hope, will be half the enjoyment. After all, we have a number of critics among whose methods we may search for help--from the Persian monarch who, having to adjudicate upon two poems, caused the one to be read to him, and at once, without ado, awarded the prize to the other, up to the great Frenchman whom I shall finally invoke to sustain my hope of building something; that is if you, Gentlemen, will be content to accept me less as a Professor than as an Elder Brother. The Frenchman is Sainte-Beuve, and I pay a debt, perhaps appropriately here, by quoting him as translated by the friend of mine, now dead, who first invited me to Cambridge and taught me to admire her--one Arthur John Butler, sometime a Fellow of Trinity, and later a great pioneer among Englishmen in the study of Dante. Thus while you listen to the appeal of Sainte-Beuve, I can hear beneath it a more intimate voice, not for the first time, encouraging me. Sainte-Beuve then--_si magna licet componere parvis_--is delivering an Inaugural Lecture in the École Normale, the date being April 12th, 1858. 'Gentlemen,' he begins, 'I have written a good deal in the last thirty years; that is, I have scattered myself a good deal; so that I need to gather myself together, in order that my words may come before you with all the more freedom and confidence.' That is his opening; and he ends:-- As time goes on, you will make me believe that I can for my part be of some good to you: and with the generosity of your age you will repay me, in this feeling alone, far more than I shall be able to give you in intellectual freedom, in literary thought. If in one sense I bestow on you some of my experience, you will requite me, and in a more profitable manner, by the sight of your ardour for what is noble: you will accustom me to turn oftener and more willingly towards the future in your company. You will teach me again to hope. LECTURE II. THE PRACTICE OF WRITING. Wednesday, February 12 We found, Gentlemen, towards the close of our first lecture, that the argument had drawn us, as by a double chain, up to the edge of a bold leap, over which I deferred asking you to take the plunge with me. Yet the plunge must be taken, and to-day I see nothing for it but to harden our hearts. Well, then, I propose to you that, English Literature being (as we agreed) an Art, with a living and therefore improvable language for its medium or vehicle, a part--and no small part--of our business is _to practise it._ Yes, I seriously propose to you that here in Cambridge we _practise writing_: that we practise it not only for our own improvement, but to make, or at least try to make, appropriate, perspicuous, accurate, persuasive writing a recognisable hall-mark of anything turned out by our English School. By all means let us study the great writers of the past for their own sakes; but let us study them for our guidance; that we, in our turn, having (it is to be hoped) something to say in our span of time, say it worthily, not dwindling out the large utterance of Shakespeare or of Burke. Portraits of other great ones look down on you in your college halls: but while you are young and sit at the brief feast, what avails their serene gaze if it do not lift up your hearts and movingly persuade you to match your manhood to its inheritance? I protest, Gentlemen, that if our eyes had not been sealed, as with wax, by the pedagogues of whom I spoke a fortnight ago, this one habit of regarding our own literature as a _hortus siccus_, this our neglect to practise good writing as the constant auxiliary of an Englishman's liberal education, would be amazing to you seated here to-day as it will be starkly incredible to the future historian of our times. Tell me, pray; if it concerned _Painting_--an art in which Englishmen boast a record far briefer, far less distinguished--what would you think of a similar acquiescence in the past, a like haste to presume the dissolution of aptitude and to close accounts, a like precipitancy to divorce us from the past, to rob the future of hope and even the present of lively interest? Consider, for reproof of these null men, the Discourses addressed (in a pedantic age, too) by Sir Joshua Reynolds to the Members and Students of the Royal Academy. He has (as you might expect) enough to say of Tintoretto, of Titian, of Caracci, and of the duty of studying their work with patience, with humility. But why does he exhort his hearers to con them?--Why, because he is all the time _driving at practice_. Hear how he opens his second Discourse (his first to the Students). After congratulating the prize-winners of 1769, he desires 'to lead them into such a course of study as may render their future progress answerable to their past improvement'; and the great man goes on:-- I flatter myself that from the long experience I have had, and the necessary assiduity with which I have pursued these studies in which like you I have been engaged, I shall be acquitted of vanity in offering some hints to your consideration. They are indeed in a great degree founded upon my own mistakes in the same pursuit.... Mark the noble modesty of that! To resume-- In speaking to you of the Theory of the Art, I shall only consider it as it has relation to the method of your studies. And then he proceeds to preach the Old Masters.--But how?--why?--to what end? Does he recite lists of names, dates, with formulae concerning styles? He does nothing of the sort. Does he recommend his old masters for copying, then?--for mere imitation? Not a bit of it!--he comes down like a hammer on copying. Then for what, in fine, will he have them studied? Listen:-- The more extensive your acquaintance is with the works of those who have excelled, the more extensive will be your powers of invention. Yes, of _invention_, your power to make something new: --and what may appear still more like a paradox, _the more original will be your conceptions_. There spake Sir Joshua Reynolds: and I call that the voice of a true Elder Brother. He, standing face to face with the young, thought of the old masters mainly as spiritual begetters of practice. And will anyone in this room tell me that what Reynolds said of painting is not to-day, for us, applicable to writing? We accept it of Greek and Latin. An old Sixth Form master once said to me, 'You may give up Latin Verse for this term, if you will: but I warn you, no one can be a real scholar who does not constantly practise verse.' He was mistaken, belike. I hold, for my part, that in our Public Schools, we give up a quite disproportionate amount of time to 'composition' (of Latin Prose especially) and starve the boys' reading thereby. But at any rate we do give up a large share of the time to it. Then if we insist on this way with the tongues of Homer and Virgil, why do we avoid it with the tongue of Shakespeare, our own living tongue? I answer by quoting one of the simplest wisest sayings of Don Quixote (Gentlemen, you will easily, as time goes on, and we better our acquaintance, discover my favourite authors):-- The great Homer wrote not in Latin, for he was a Greek; and Virgil wrote not in Greek, because he was a Latin. In brief, all the ancient poets wrote in the tongue which they sucked in with their mother's milk, nor did they go forth to seek for strange ones to express the greatness of their conceptions: and, this being so, it should be a reason for the fashion to extend to all nations. Does the difference, then, perchance lie in ourselves? Will you tell me, 'Oh, painting is a special art, whereas anyone can write prose passably well'? Can he, indeed?... Can _you,_ sir? Nay, believe me, you are either an archangel or a very bourgeois gentleman indeed if you admit to having spoken English prose all your life without knowing it. Indeed, when we try to speak prose without having practised it the result is apt to be worse than our own vernacular. How often have I heard some worthy fellow addressing a public audience!--say a Parliamentary candidate who believes himself a Liberal Home Ruler, and for the moment is addressing himself to meet some criticism of the financial proposals of a Home Rule Bill. His own vernacular would be somewhat as follows:-- Oh, rot! Give the Irish their heads and they'll run straight enough. Look at the Boers, don't you know. Not half such a decent sort as the Irish. Look at Irish horses, too. Eh? What? But this, he is conscious, would hardly suit the occasion. He therefore amends it thus:-- Mr Chairman--er--as regards the financial proposals of His Majesty's Government, I am of the deliberate--er--opinion that our national security--I may say, our Imperial security--our security as--er--a governing people--lies in trusting the Irish as we did in the--er --case of the Boers--H'm Mr Gladstone, Mr Chairman--Mr Chairman, Mr Gladstone---- and so on. You perceive that the style is actually worse than in the sample quoted before; it has become flabby whereas that other was at any rate nervous? But now suppose that, having practised it, our candidate was able to speak like this:-- 'But what (says the Financier) is peace to us without money? Your plan gives us no revenue.' No? But it does--for it secures to the subject the power of Refusal, the first of all Revenues. Experience is a cheat, and fact is a liar, if this power in the subject of proportioning his grant, or of not granting at all, has not been found the richest mine of Revenue ever discovered by the skill or by the fortune of man. It does not indeed vote you 152,750 pounds 11 shillings 2 3/4 pence, nor any other paltry limited sum--but it gives you the strong box itself, the fund, the bank, from whence only revenues can arise among a people sensible of freedom: _Positâ luditur arcâ_.... Is this principle to be true in England, and false everywhere else? Is it not true in Ireland? Has it not hitherto been true in the Colonies? Why should you presume that in any country a body duly constituted for any function will neglect to perform its duty and abdicate its trust? Such a presumption would go against all Governments in all nations. But in truth this dread of penury of supply, from a free assembly, has no foundation in nature. For first, observe that, besides the desire which all men have naturally of supporting the honour of their own Government, that sense of dignity, and that security to property, which ever attend freedom, have a tendency to increase the stock of a free community. Most may be taken where most is accumulated. And what is the soil or climate where experience has not uniformly proved that the voluntary flow of heaped-up plenty, bursting from the weight of its own luxuriance, has ever run with a more copious stream of revenue than could be squeezed from the dry husks of oppressed indigence by the straining of all the politic machinery in the world? That, whether you agree or disagree with its doctrine, is great prose. That is Burke. 'O Athenian stranger,' said the Cretan I quoted in my first lecture,--'inhabitant of Attica I will not call you, since you deserve the name of Athene herself, because you go back to first principles!' But, you may object, 'Burke is talking like a book, and I have no wish to talk like a book.' Well, as a fact, Burke is here at the culmen of a long sustained argument, and his language has soared with it, as his way was--logic and emotion lifting him together as upon two balanced majestic wings. But you are shy of such heights? Very well again, and all credit to your modesty! Yet at least (I appeal to that same modesty) when you talk or write, you would wish to _observe the occasion_; to say what you have to say without impertinence or ill-timed excess. You would not harangue a drawing-room or a subcommittee, or be facetious at a funeral, or play the skeleton at a banquet: for in all such conduct you would be mixing up things that differ. Be cheerful, then: for this desire of yours to be appropriate is really the root of the matter. Nor do I ask you to accept this on my sole word, but will cite you the most respectable witnesses. Take, for instance, a critic who should be old enough to impress you--Dionysius of Halicarnassus. After enumerating the qualities which lend charm and nobility to style, he closes the list with 'appropriateness, which all these need':-- As there is a charming diction, so there is another that is noble; as there is a polished rhythm, so there is another that is dignified; as variety adds grace in one passage, so in another it adds fulness; _and as for appropriation, it will prove the chief source of beauty, or else of nothing at all_. Or listen to Cicero, how he sets appropriateness in the very heart of his teaching, as the master secret:-- Is erit eloquens qui poterit parva summisse, modica temperate, magna graviter dicere.... Qui ad id quodcunque decebit poterit accommodare orationem. Quod quum statuerit, tum, ut quidque erit dicendum, ita dicet, nec satura jejune, nec grandia minute, nec item contra, sed erit rebus ipsis par et aequalis oratio. 'Whatever his theme he will speak as becomes it; neither meagrely where it is copious, nor meanly where it is ample, nor in _this_ way where it demands _that_; but keeping his speech level with the actual subject and adequate to it.' I might quote another great man, Quintilian, to you on the first importance of this appropriateness, or 'propriety'; of speaking not only to the purpose but _becomingly_--though the two as (he rightly says) are often enough one and the same thing. But I will pass on to what has ever seemed, since I found it in one of Jowett's 'Introductions' to Plato, the best definition known to me of good style in literature:-- The perfection of style is variety in unity, freedom, ease, clearness, the power of saying anything, and of striking any note in the scale of human feelings, without impropriety. You see, O my modest friend! that your gamut needs not to be very wide, to begin with. The point is that within it you learn to play becomingly. Now I started by proposing that we try together to make appropriate, perspicuous, accurate, persuasive writing a hall-mark of anything turned out by our English School here, and I would add (growing somewhat hardier) a hall-mark of all Cambridge style so far as our English School can influence it. I chose these four epithets _accurate, perspicuous, persuasive, appropriate_, with some care, of course as my duty was; and will assume that by this time we are agreed to desire _appropriateness_. Now for the other three:-- _Perspicuity._--I shall waste no words on the need of this: since the first aim of speech is to be understood. The more clearly you write the more easily and surely you will be understood. I propose to demonstrate to you further, in a minute or so, that the more clearly you write the more clearly you will understand yourself. But a sufficient reason has been given in ten words why you should desire perspicuity. _Accuracy._--Did I not remind myself in my first lecture, that Cambridge is the home of accurate scholarship? Surely no Cambridge man would willingly be a sloven in speech, oral or written? Surely here, if anywhere, should be acknowledged of all what Newman says of the classics, that 'a certain unaffected neatness and propriety and grace of diction may be required of any author, for the same reason that a certain attention to dress is expected of every gentleman.' After all, what are the chief differentiae between man and the brute creation but that he clothes himself, that he cooks his food, that he uses articulate speech? Let us cherish and improve all these distinctions. But shall we now look more carefully into these twin questions of perspicuity and accuracy: for I think pursuing them, we may almost reach the philosophic kernel of good writing. I quoted Newman playfully a moment ago. I am going to quote him in strong earnest. And here let me say that of all the books written in these hundred years there is perhaps none you can more profitably thumb and ponder than that volume of his in which, under the title of "The Idea of a University," he collected nine discourses addressed to the Roman Catholics of Dublin with some lectures delivered to the Catholic University there. It is fragmentary, because its themes were occasional. It has missed to be appraised at its true worth, partly no doubt by reason of the colour it derives from a religion still unpopular in England. But in fact it may be read without offence by the strictest Protestant; and the book is so wise--so eminently wise--as to deserve being bound by the young student of literature for a frontlet on his brow and a talisman on his writing wrist. Now you will find much pretty swordsmanship in its pages, but nothing more trenchant than the passage in which Newman assails and puts to rout the Persian host of infidels--I regret to say, for the most part Men of Science--who would persuade us that good writing, that style, is something extrinsic to the subject, a kind of ornamentation laid on to tickle the taste, a study for the _dilettante_, but beneath the notice of _their_ stern and masculine minds. Such a view, as he justly points out, belongs rather to the Oriental mind than to our civilisation: it reminds him of the way young gentlemen go to work in the East when they would engage in correspondence with the object of their affection. The enamoured one cannot write a sentence himself: _he_ is the specialist in passion (for the moment); but thought and words are two things to him, and for words he must go to another specialist, the professional letter-writer. Thus there is a division of labour. The man of words, duly instructed, dips the pen of desire in the ink of devotedness and proceeds to spread it over the page of desolation. Then the nightingale of affection is heard to warble to the rose of loveliness, while the breeze of anxiety plays around the brow of expectation. That is what the Easterns are said to consider fine writing; and it seems pretty much the idea of the school of critics to which I have been referring. Now hear this fine passage:-- Thought and speech are inseparable from each other. Matter and expression are parts of one; style is a thinking out into language. That is what I have been laying down, and this is literature; not _things_, but the verbal symbols of things; not on the other hand mere _words_; but thoughts expressed in language. Call to mind, gentlemen, the meaning of the Greek word which expresses this special prerogative of man over the feeble intelligence of the lower animals. It is called Logos; what does Logos mean? it stands both for _reason_ and for _speech_, and it is difficult to say which it means more properly. It means both at once: why? because really they cannot be divided.... When we can separate light and illumination, life and motion, the convex and the concave of a curve, then will it be possible for thought to tread speech under foot and to hope to do without it--then will it be conceivable that the vigorous and fertile intellect should renounce its own double, its instrument of expression and the channel of its speculations and emotions. 'As if,' he exclaims finely, 'language were the hired servant, the mere mistress of reason, and not the lawful wife in her own house!' If you need further argument (but what serves it to slay the slain?) let me remind you that you cannot use the briefest, the humblest process of thought, cannot so much as resolve to take your bath hot or cold, or decide what to order for breakfast, without forecasting it to yourself in some form of words. Words are, in fine, the only currency in which we can exchange thought even with ourselves. Does it not follow, then, that the more accurately we use words the closer definition we shall give to our thoughts? Does it not follow that by drilling ourselves to write perspicuously we train our minds to clarify their thought? Does it not follow that some practice in the deft use of words, with its correspondent defining of thought, may well be ancillary even to the study of Natural Science in a University? But I have another word for our men of science. It was inevitable, perhaps, that Latin--so long the Universal Language--should cease in time to be that in which scientific works were written. It was impossible, perhaps, to substitute, by consent, some equally neat and austere modern language, such as French. But when it became an accepted custom for each nation to use its own language in scientific treatises, it certainly was not foreseen that men of science would soon be making discoveries at a rate which left their skill in words outstripped; that having to invent their terms as they went along, yet being careless and contemptuous of a science in which they have no training, they would bombast out our dictionaries with monstrously invented words that not only would have made Quintilian stare and gasp, but would affront the decently literate of any age. After all, and though we must sigh and acquiesce in the building of Babel, we have some right to examine the bricks. I was waiting, the other day, in a doctor's anteroom, and picked up one of those books--it was a work on pathology--so thoughtfully left lying in such places; to persuade us, no doubt, to bear the ills we have rather than fly to others capable of being illustrated. I found myself engaged in following the manoeuvres of certain well-meaning bacilli generically described as 'Antibodies.' I do not accuse the author (who seemed to be a learned man) of having invented this abominable term: apparently it passed current among physiologists and he had accepted it for honest coin. I found it, later on, in Webster's invaluable dictionary: Etymology, 'anti' up against 'body', some noxious 'foreign body' inside your body or mine. Now gin a body meet a body for our protection and in this gallant spirit, need a body reward him with this hybrid label? Gratitude apart, I say that for our own self-respect, whilst we retain any sense of intellectual pedigree, 'antibody' is no word to throw at a friendly bacillus. Is it consonant with the high dignity of science to make her talk like a cheap showman advertising a 'picture-drome'? The man who eats peas with his knife can at least claim a historical throwback to the days when forks had but two prongs and the spoons had been removed with the soup. But 'antibody' has no such respectable derivation. It is, in fact, a barbarism, and a mongrel at that. The man who uses it debases the currency of learning: and I suggest to you that it is one of the many functions of a great University to maintain the standard of that currency, to guard the _jus et norma loquendi_, to protect us from such hasty fellows or, rather, to suppeditate them in their haste. Let me revert to our list of the qualities necessary to good writing, and come to the last--_Persuasiveness_; of which you may say, indeed, that it embraces the whole--not only the qualities of propriety, perspicuity, accuracy, we have been considering, but many another, such as harmony, order, sublimity, beauty of diction; all in short that--writing being an art, not a science, and therefore so personal a thing--may be summed up under the word _Charm_. Who, at any rate, does not seek after Persuasion? It is the aim of all the arts and, I suppose, of all exposition of the sciences; nay, of all useful exchange of converse in our daily life. It is what Velasquez attempts in a picture, Euclid in a proposition, the Prime Minister at the Treasury box, the journalist in a leading article, our Vicar in his sermon. Persuasion, as Matthew Arnold once said, is the only true intellectual process. The mere cult of it occupied many of the best intellects of the ancients, such as Longinus and Quintilian, whose writings have been preserved to us just because they were prized. Nor can I imagine an earthly gift more covetable by you, Gentlemen, than that of persuading your fellows to listen to your views and attend to what you have at heart. Suppose, sir, that you wish to become a journalist? Well, and why not? Is it a small thing to desire the power of influencing day by day to better citizenship an unguessed number of men, using the best thought and applying it in the best language at your command?... Or are you, perhaps, overawed by the printed book? On that, too, I might have a good deal to say; but for the moment would keep the question as practical as I can. Well, it is sometimes said that Oxford men make better journalists than Cambridge men, and some attribute this to the discipline of their great School of _Literae Humaniores_, which obliges them to bring up a weekly essay to their tutor, who discusses it. Cambridge men retort that all Oxford men are journalists, and throw, of course, some accent of scorn on the word. But may I urge--and remember please that my credit is pledged to _you_ now--may I urge that this is not a wholly convincing answer? For, to begin with, Oxford men have not changed their natures since leaving school, but are, by process upon lines not widely divergent from your own, much the same pleasant sensible fellows you remember. And, next, if you truly despise journalism, why then despise it, have done with it and leave it alone. But I pray you, do not despise it if you mean to practise it, though it be but as a step to something better. For while the ways of art are hard at the best, they will break you if you go unsustained by belief in what you are trying to do. In asking you to practise the written word, I began with such low but necessary things as propriety, perspicuity, accuracy. But _persuasion_--the highest form of persuasion at any rate--cannot be achieved without a sense of beauty. And now I shoot a second rapid--_I want you to practise verse, and to practise it assiduously_.... I am quite serious. Let me remind you that, if there ever was an ancient state of which we of Great Britain have great right and should have greater ambition to claim ourselves the spiritual heirs, that state was Imperial Rome. And of the Romans (whom you will allow to have been a practical people) nothing is more certain than the value they set upon acquiring verse. To them it was not only (as Dr Johnson said of Greek) 'like old lace--you can never have too much of it.' They cultivated it with a straight eye to national improvement. Among them, as a scholar reminded us the other day, you find 'an educational system deliberately and steadily directed towards the development of poetical talent. They were not a people of whom we can say, as we can of the Greeks, that they were born to art and literature.... The characteristic Roman triumphs are the triumphs of a material civilisation.' Rome's rôle in the world was 'the absorption of outlying genius.' Themselves an unimaginative race with a language not too tractable to poetry, they made great poetry, and they made it of patient set purpose, of hard practice. I shall revert to this and maybe amplify reasons in another lecture. For the moment I content myself with stating the fact that no nation ever believed in poetry so deeply as the Romans. Perpend this then, and do not too hastily deride my plea that you should practise verse-writing. I know most of the objections, though I may not remember all. _Mediocribus esse poetis_, etc.--that summarises most of them: yet of an infliction of much bad verse from you, if I am prepared to endure it, why should anyone else complain? I say that the youth of a University ought to practise verse-writing; and will try to bring this home to you by an argument convincing to me, though I have never seen it in print. What are the great poetical names of the last hundred years or so? Coleridge, Wordsworth, Byron, Shelley, Landor, Keats, Tennyson, Browning, Arnold, Morris, Rossetti, Swinburne--we may stop there. Of these all but Keats, Browning, Rossetti were University men; and of these three Keats, who died young, cut off in his prime, was the only one not fairly well-to-do. It may seem a brutal thing to say, and it is a sad thing to say: but, as a matter of hard fact, the theory that poetical genius bloweth where it listeth, and equally in poor and rich, holds little truth. As a matter of hard fact, nine out of those twelve were University men: which means that somehow or other they procured the means to get the best education England can give. As a matter of hard fact, of the remaining three you know that Browning was well-to-do, and I challenge you that, if he had not been well-to-do, he would no more have attained to writing "Saul" or "The Ring and the Book" than Ruskin would have attained to writing "Modern Painters" if his father had not dealt prosperously in business. Rossetti had a small private income; and, moreover, he painted. There remains but Keats; whom Atropos slew young, as she slew John Clare in a madhouse, and James Thomson by the laudanum he took to drug disappointment. These are dreadful facts, but let us face them. It is--however dishonouring to us as a nation--certain that, by some fault in our commonwealth, the poor poet has not in these days, nor has had for two hundred years, a dog's chance. Believe me--and I have spent a great part of the last ten years in watching some 320 Elementary Schools--we may prate of democracy, but actually a poor child in England has little more hope than had the son of an Athenian slave to be emancipated into that intellectual freedom of which great writings are born. What do I argue from this? I argue that until we can bring more intellectual freedom into our State, more 'joy in widest commonalty spread,' upon you, a few favoured ones, rests an obligation to see that the springs of English poetry do not fail. I put it to you that of this glory of our birth and state _you_ are the temporary stewards. I put it to the University, considered as a dispenser of intellectual light, that to treat English poetry as though it had died with Tennyson and your lecturers had but to compose the features of a corpse, is to abnegate high hope for the sake of a barren convenience. I put it to the Colleges, considered as disciplinary bodies, that the old way of letting Coleridge slip, chasing forth Shelley, is, after all, not the wisest way. Recollect that in Poesy as in every other human business, the more there are who practise it the greater will be the chance of _someone's_ reaching perfection. It is the impetus of the undistinguished host that flings forward a Diomed or a Hector. And when you point with pride to Milton's and those other mulberry trees in your Academe, bethink you 'What poets are they shading to-day? Or are their leaves but feeding worms to spin gowns to drape Doctors of Letters?' In the life of Benvenuto Cellini you will find this passage worth your pondering.--He is telling how, while giving the last touches to his Perseus in the great square of Florence, he and his workmen inhabited a shed built around the statue. He goes on:-- The folk kept on attaching sonnets to the posts of the door....I believe that, on the day when I opened it for a few hours to the public, more than twenty were nailed up, all of them overflowing with the highest panegyrics. Afterwards, when I once more shut it off from view, everyone brought sonnets, with Latin and Greek verses: for the University of Pisa was then in vacation, and all the doctors and scholars kept vying with each other who could produce the best. I may not live to see the doctors and scholars of this University thus employing the Long Vacation; as perhaps we shall wait some time for another Perseus to excite them to it. But I do ask you to consider that the Perseus was not entirely cause nor the sonnets entirely effect; that the age when men are eager about great work is the age when great work gets itself done; nor need it disturb us that most of the sonnets were, likely enough, very bad ones--in Charles Lamb's phrase, very like what Petrarch might have written if Petrarch had been born a fool. It is the impetus that I ask of you: the will to try. Lastly, Gentlemen, do not set me down as one who girds at your preoccupation, up here, with bodily games; for, indeed, I hold 'gymnastic' to be necessary as 'music' (using both words in the Greek sense) for the training of such youths as we desire to send forth from Cambridge. But I plead that they should be balanced, as they were in the perfect young knight with whose words I will conclude to-day:-- Having this day my horse, my hand, my lance Guided so well that I obtained the prize, Both by the judgment of the English eyes And of some sent by that sweet enemy France; Horsemen my skill in horsemanship advance, Town-folk my strength, a daintier judge applies His praise to sleight which from good use doth rise; Some lucky wits impute it but to chance; Others, because of both sides I do take My blood from them who did excel in this, Think Nature me a man-at-arms did make. How far they shot awry! the true cause is, Stella looked on; and from her heavenly face Sent forth the beams which made so fair my race. 'Untrue,' you say? Well, there is truth of emotion as well as of fact; and who is there among you but would fain be able not only to win such a guerdon but to lay it in such wise at your lady's feet? That then was Philip Sidney, called the peerless one of his age; and perhaps no Englishman ever lived more graciously or, having used life, made a better end. But you have seen this morning's newspaper: you have read of Captain Scott and his comrades, and in particular of the death of Captain Oates; and you know that the breed of Sidney is not extinct. Gentlemen, let us keep our language noble: for we still have heroes to commemorate![1] [Footnote 1: The date of the above lecture was Wednesday, February 12th, 1913, the date on which our morning newspapers printed the first telegrams giving particulars of the fate of Captain Scott's heroic conquest of the South Pole, and still more glorious, though defeated, return. The first brief message concerning Captain Oates, ran as follows:-- 'From the records found in the tent where the bodies were discovered it appeared that Captain Oates's feet and hands were badly frost-bitten, and, although he struggled on heroically, his comrades knew on March 16 that his end was approaching. He had borne intense suffering for weeks without complaint, and he did not give up hope to the very end. "He was a brave soul. He slept through the night hoping not to wake; but he awoke in the morning. "It was blowing a blizzard. Oates said: 'I am just going outside, and I may be some time.' He went out into the blizzard, and we have not seen him since. "We knew that Oates was walking to his death, but though we tried to dissuade him, we knew it was the act of a brave man and an English gentleman."'] LECTURE III. ON THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VERSE AND PROSE Wednesday, February 26 You will forgive me, Gentlemen, that having in my second lecture encouraged you to the practice of verse as well as of prose, I seize the very next opportunity to warn you against confusing the two, which differ on some points essentially, and always so as to demand separate rules--or rather (since I am shy of the word 'rules') a different concept of what the writer should aim at and what avoid. But you must, pray, understand that what follows will be more useful to the tiro in prose than to the tiro in verse; for while even a lecturer may help you to avoid writing prose in the manner of Milton, only the gods--and they hardly--can cure a versifier of being prosaic. We started upon a promise to do without scientific definitions; and in drawing some distinctions to-day between verse and prose I shall use only a few rough ones; good, as I hope, so far as they go; not to be found contrary to your scientific ones, if ever, under another teacher you attain to them; yet for the moment used only as guides to practice, and pretending to be no more. Thus I go some way--though by no means all the way--towards defining literature when I remind you that its very name (_litterae_--letters) implies the written rather than the spoken word; that, for example, however closely they approximate one to the other as we trace them back, and even though we trace them back to identical beginnings, the Writer--the Man of Letters--does to-day differ from the Orator. There was a time, as you know, when the poet and the historian had no less than the orator, and in the most literal sense, to 'get a hearing.' Nay, he got it with more pains: for the orator had his senate-house or his law-court provided, whereas Thespis jogged to fairs in a cart, and the Muse of History, like any street acrobat, had to collect her own crowd. Herodotus in search of a public packed his history in a portmanteau, carted it to Olympia, found a favourable 'pitch,' as we should say, and wooed an audience to him much as on a racecourse nowadays do those philanthropic gentlemen who ply a dubious trade with three half-crowns and a gold chain. It would cost us an effort to imagine the late Bishop Stubbs thus trying his fortune with a bag full of select Charters at Queen's Club or at Kempton Park, and exerting his lungs to retrieve a crowd that showed some disposition to edge off towards the ring or the rails. The historian's conditions have improved; and like any other sensible man he has advanced his claim with them, and revised his method. He writes nowadays with his eye on the printed book. He may or may not be a dull fellow: being a dull fellow, he may or may not be aware of it; but at least he knows that, if you lay him upside down on your knee, you can on awaking pick him up, resume your absorption, and even turn back some pages to discover just where or why your interest flagged: whereas a Hellene who deserted Herodotus, having a bet on the Pentathlon, not only missed what he missed but missed it for life. The invention of print, of course, has made all, or almost all, the difference. I do not forget that the printed book--the written word--presupposes a speaking voice, and must ever have at its back some sense in us of the speaking voice. But in writing prose nowadays, while always recollecting that prose has its origin in speech--even as it behoves us to recollect that Homer intoned the Iliad to the harp and Sappho plucked her passion from the lyre--we have to take things as they are. Except Burns, Heine, Béranger (with Moore, if you will), and you will find it hard to compile in all the lyrical poetry of the last 150 years a list of half a dozen first-class or even second-class bards who wrote primarily to be sung. It may help you to estimate how far lyrical verse has travelled from its origins if you will but remind yourselves that a _sonnet_ and a _sonata_ were once the same thing, and that a _ballad_ meant a song accompanied by dancing--the word _ballata_ having been specialised down, on the one line to the _ballet_, in which Mademoiselle Genée or the Russian performers will dance for our delight, using no words at all; on the other to "Sir Patrick Spens" or "Clerk Saunders," 'ballads' to which no one in his senses would dream of pointing a toe. Thus with Verse the written (or printed) word has pretty thoroughly ousted the speaking voice and its auxiliaries--the pipe, the lute, the tabor, the chorus with its dance movements and swaying of the body; and in a quieter way much the same thing is happening to prose. In the Drama, to be sure, we still write (or we should) for the actors, reckon upon their intonations, their gestures, lay account with the tears in the heroine's eyes and her visible beauty: though even in the Drama to-day you may detect a tendency to substitute dialectic for action and paragraphs for the [Greek: Stichomuthia], the sharp outcries of passion in its give-and-take. Again we still--some of us--deliver sermons from pulpits and orations in Parliament or upon public platforms. Yet I am told that the vogue of the sermon is passing; and (by journalists) that the leading article has largely superseded it. On that point I can offer you no personal evidence; but of civil oratory I am very sure that the whole pitch has been sensibly lowered since the day of Chatham, Burke, Sheridan; since the day of Brougham and Canning; nay, ever since the day of Bright, Gladstone, Disraeli. Burke, as everyone knows, once brought down a Brummagem dagger and cast it on the floor of the House. Lord Chancellor Brougham in a peroration once knelt to the assembled peers, '_Here the noble lord inclined his knee to the Woolsack_' is, if I remember, the stage direction in Hansard. Gentlemen, though in the course of destiny one or another of you may be called upon to speak daggers to the Treasury Bench, I feel sure you will use none; while, as for Lord Brougham's genuflexions, we may agree that to emulate them would cost Lord Haldane an effort. These and even far less flagrant or flamboyant tricks of virtuosity have gone quite out of fashion. You could hardly revive them to-day and keep that propriety to which I exhorted you a fortnight ago. They would be out of tune; they would grate upon the nerves; they would offend against the whole style of modern oratory, which steadily tends to lower its key, to use the note of quiet business-like exposition, to adopt more and more the style of written prose. Let me help your sense of this change, by a further illustration. Burke, as we know, was never shy of declaiming--even of declaiming in a torrent--when he stood up to speak: but almost as little was he shy of it when he sat down to write. If you turn to his "Letters on the Regicide Peace" --no raw compositions, but penned in his latter days and closing, or almost closing, upon that tenderest of farewells to his country-- In this good old House, where everything at least is well aired, I shall be content to put up my fatigued horses and here take a bed for the long night that begins to darken upon me-- if, I say, you turn to these "Letters on the Regicide Peace" and consult the title-page, you will find them ostensibly addressed to 'a Member of the present Parliament'; and the opening paragraphs assume that Burke and his correspondent are in general agreement. But skim the pages and your eyes will be arrested again and again by sentences like these:-- The calculation of profit in all such wars is false. On balancing the account of such wars, ten thousand hogsheads of sugar are purchased at ten thousand times their price--the blood of man should never be shed but to redeem the blood of man. It is well shed for our family, for our friends, for our God, for our country, for our kind. The rest is vanity; the rest is crime. Magnificent, truly! But your ear has doubtless detected the blank verse--three iambic lines:-- Are purchased at ten thousand times their price... Be shed but to redeem the blood of man... The rest is vanity; the rest is crime. Again Burke catches your eye by rhetorical inversions:-- But too often different is rational conjecture from melancholy fact, Well is it known that ambition can creep as well as soar, by repetitions:-- Never, no never, did Nature say one thing and Wisdom say another ... Algiers is not near; Algiers is not powerful; Algiers is not our neighbour; Algiers is not infectious. Algiers, whatever it may be, is an old creation; and we have good data to calculate all the mischief to be apprehended from it. When I find Algiers transferred to Calais, I will tell you what I think of that point-- by quick staccato utterances, such as:-- And is this example nothing? It is everything. Example is the school of mankind, and they will learn at no other-- or Our dignity? That is gone. I shall say no more about it. Light lie the earth on the ashes of English pride! I say that the eye or ear, caught by such tropes, must (if it be critical) recognise them at once as _rhetoric_, as the spoken word masquerading under guise of the written. Burke may pretend to be seated, penning a letter to a worthy man who will read it in his slippers: but actually Burke is up and pacing his library at Beaconsfield, now striding from fire-place to window with hands clasped under his coat tails, anon pausing to fling out an arm with some familiar accustomed gesture in a House of Commons that knows him no more, towards a Front Bench peopled by shades. In fine the pretence is Cicero writing to Atticus, but the style is Cicero denouncing Catiline. As such it is not for your imitation. Burke happened to be a genius, with a swoop and range of mind, as of language to interpret it, with a gift to enchant, a power to strike and astound, which together make him, to my thinking, the man in our literature most nearly comparable with Shakespeare. Others may be more to your taste; you may love others better: but no other two leave you so hopeless of discovering _how it is done_. Yet not for this reason only would I warn you against imitating either. For like all great artists they accepted their conditions and wrought for them, and those conditions have changed. When Jacques wished to recite to an Elizabethan audience that All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players-- or Hamlet to soliloquise To be, or not to be: that is the question-- the one did not stretch himself under a property oak, nor did the other cast himself back in a chair and dangle his legs. They both advanced boldly from the stage, down a narrow platform provided for such recitations and for that purpose built boldly forward into the auditorium, struck an attitude, declaimed the purple passage, and returned, covered with applause, to continue the action of the play. This was the theatrical convention; this the audience expected and understood; for this Shakespeare wrote. Similarly, though the device must have been wearing thin even in 1795-6, Burke cast a familiar epistle into language proper to be addressed to Mr Speaker of the House of Commons. Shakespeare wrote, as Burke wrote, for his audience; and their glory is that they have outlasted the conditions they observed. Yet it was by observing them that they gained the world's ear. Let us, who are less than they, beware of scorning to belong to our own time. For my part I have a great hankering to see English Literature feeling back through these old modes to its origins. I think, for example, that if we studied to write verse that could really be sung, or if we were more studious to write prose that could be read aloud with pleasure to the ear, we should be opening the pores to the ancient sap; since the roots are always the roots, and we can only reinvigorate our growth through them. Unhappily, however, I cannot preach this just yet; for we are aiming at practice, and at Cambridge (they tell me) while you speak well, you write less expertly. A contributor to "The Cambridge Review," a fortnight ago, lamented this at length: so you will not set the aspersion down to me, nor blame me if these early lectures too officiously offer a kind of 'First Aid': that, while all the time eager to descant on the _affinities_ of speech and writing, I dwell first on their _differences_; or that, in speaking of Burke, an author I adore only 'on this side idolatry,' I first present him in some aspects for your avoidance. Similarly I adore the prose of Sir Thomas Browne, yet should no more commend it to you for instant imitation than I could encourage you to walk with a feather in your cap and a sword under your gown. Let us observe proprieties. To return to Burke.--At his most flagrant, in these "Letters on the Regicide Peace," he boldly raids Shakespeare. You are all, I doubt not, conversant with the Prologue to "Henry the Fifth":-- O for a Muse of fire, that would ascend The brightest heaven of invention! A kingdom for a stage, princes to act And monarchs to behold the swelling scene! Then should the warlike Harry, like himself, Assume the port of Mars: and at his heels, Leash'd in like hounds, should Famine, Sword and Fire Crouch for employment. Well, this passage Burke, assuming his correspondent to be familiar with it, boldly claps into prose and inserts into a long diatribe against Pitt for having tamely submitted to the rebuffs of the French Directory. Thus it becomes:-- On that day it was thought he would have assumed the port of Mars: that he would bid to be brought forth from their hideous Kennel (where his scrupulous tenderness had too long immured them) those impatient dogs of War, whose fierce regards affright even the minister of vengeance that feeds them; that he would let them loose in Famine, Plagues and Death, upon a guilty race to whose frame and to all whose habit, Order, Peace, Religion and Virtue, are alien and abhorrent. Now Shakespeare is but apologising for the shortcomings of his' play-house, whereas Burke is denouncing his country's shame and prophesying disaster to Europe. Yet do you not feel with me that while Shakespeare, using great words on the lowlier subject, contrives to make them appropriate, with Burke, writing on the loftier subject, the same or similar words have become tumid, turgid? Why? I am sure that the difference lies not in the two men: nor is it all the secret, or even half the secret, that Burke is mixing up the spoken with the written word, using the one while pretending to use the other. That has carried us some way; but now let us take an important step farther. The root of the matter lies in certain essential differences between verse and prose. We will keep, if you please, to our rough practical definitions. Literature--the written word--is a permanent record of memorable speech; a record, at any rate, intended to be permanent. We set a thing down in ink--we print it in a book--because we feel it to be memorable, to be worth preserving. But to set this memorable speech down we must choose one of two forms, verse or prose; and I define verse to be a record in metre and rhythm, prose to be a record which, dispensing with metre (abhorring it indeed), uses rhythm laxly, preferring it to be various and unconstrained, so always that it convey a certain pleasure to the ear. You observe that I avoid the term Poetry, over which the critics have waged, and still are waging, a war that promises to be endless. Is Walt Whitman a poet? Is the Song of Songs (which is not Solomon's)--is the Book of Job--are the Psalms--all of these as rendered in our Authorised Version of Holy Writ--are all of these poetry? Well 'yes,' if you want my opinion; and again 'yes,' I am sure. But truly on this field, though scores of great men have fought across it--Sidney, Shelley, Coleridge, Scaliger (I pour the names on you at random), Johnson, Wordsworth, the two Schlegels, Aristotle with Twining his translator, Corneille, Goethe, Warton, Whately, Hazlitt, Emerson, Hegel, Gummere--but our axles grow hot. Let us put on the brake: for in practice the dispute comes to very little: since literature is an art and treats scientific definitions as J. K. Stephen recommended. From them It finds out what it cannot do, And then it goes and does it. I am journeying, say, in the West of England. I cross a bridge over a stream dividing Devon from Cornwall. These two counties, each beautiful in its way, are quite unlike in their beauty: yet nothing happened as I stepped across the brook, and for a mile or two or even ten I am aware of no change. Sooner or later that change will break upon the mind and I shall be startled, awaking suddenly to a land of altered features. But at what turn of the road this will happen, just how long the small multiplied impressions will take to break into surmise, into conviction--that nobody can tell. So it is with poetry and prose. They are different realms, but between them lies a debatable land which a De Quincey or a Whitman or a Paul Fort or a Marinetti may attempt. I advise you who are beginners to keep well one side or other of the frontier, remembering that there is plenty of room and what happened to Tupper. If we restrict ourselves to the terms 'verse' and 'prose,' we shall find the line much easier to draw. Verse is memorable speech set down in metre with strict rhythms; prose is memorable speech set down without constraint of metre and in rhythms both lax and various--so lax, so various, that until quite recently no real attempt has been made to reduce them to rule. I doubt, for my part, if they can ever be reduced to rule; and after a perusal of Professor Saintsbury's latest work, "A History of English Prose Rhythm," I am left doubting. I commend this book to you as one that clears up large patches of forest. No one has yet so well explained what our prose writers, generation after generation, have tried to do with prose: and he has, by the way, furnished us with a capital anthology--or, as he puts it, with 'divers delectable draughts of example.' But the road still waits to be driven. Seeking practical guidance--help for our present purpose--I note first that many a passage he scans in one way may as readily be scanned in another; that when he has finished with one and can say proudly with Wordsworth:-- I've measured it from side to side, 'Tis three feet long and two feet wide, we still have a sensation of coming out (our good master with us) by that same door wherein we went; and I cannot as yet after arduous trial discover much profit in his table of feet--Paeons, Dochmiacs, Antispasts, Proceleusmatics and the rest--an Antispast being but an iamb followed by a trochee, and Proceleusmatic but two pyrrhics, or four consecutive short syllables--when I reflect that, your possible number of syllables being as many as five to a foot, you may label them (as Aristotle would say) until you come to infinity, where desire fails, without getting nearer any rule of application. Let us respect a genuine effort of learning, though we may not detect its immediate profit. In particular let us respect whatever Professor Saintsbury writes, who has done such splendid work upon English verse-prosody. I daresay he would retort upon my impatience grandly enough, quoting Walt Whitman:-- I am the teacher of athletes; He that by me spreads a wider breast than my own proves the width of my own; He most honours my style who learns under it to destroy the teacher. His speculations may lead to much in time; though for the present they yield us small instruction in the path we seek. It is time we harked back to our own sign-posts. Verse is written in metre and strict rhythm; prose, without metre and with the freest possible rhythm. That distinction seems simple enough, but it carries consequences very far from simple. Let me give you an illustration taken almost at hazard from Milton, from the Second Book of "Paradise Regained":-- Up to a hill anon his steps he reared From whose high top to ken the prospect round, If cottage were in view, sheep-cote or herd; But cottage, herd, or sheep-cote, none he saw. These few lines are verse, are obviously verse with the accent of poetry; while as obviously they are mere narrative and tell us of the simplest possible incident--how Christ climbed a hill to learn what could be seen from the top. Yet observe, line for line and almost word for word, how strangely they differ from prose. Mark the inversions: 'Up to a hill anon his steps he reared,' 'But cottage, herd, or sheep-cote, none he saw.' Mark next the diction--'his steps he reared.' In prose we should not rear our steps up the Gog-magog hills, or even more Alpine fastnesses; nor, arrived at the top, should we 'ken' the prospect round; we might 'con,' but should more probably 'survey' it. Even 'anon' is a tricky word in prose, though I deliberately palmed it off on you a few minutes ago. Mark thirdly the varied repetition, 'if cottage were in view, sheep-cote or herd--but cottage, herd, or sheep-cote, none he saw.' Lastly compare the whole with such an account as you or I or Cluvienus would write in plain prose:-- Thereupon he climbed a hill on the chance that the view from its summit might disclose some sign of human habitation--a herd, a sheep-cote, a cottage perhaps. But he could see nothing of the sort. But you will ask, '_Why_ should verse and prose employ diction so different? _Why_ should the one invert the order of words in a fashion not permitted to the other?' and I shall endeavour to answer these questions together with a third which, I dare say, you have sometimes been minded to put when you have been told--and truthfully told--by your manuals and histories, that when a nation of men starts making literature it invariably starts on the difficult emprise of verse, and goes on to prose as by an afterthought. Why should men start upon the more difficult form and proceed to the easier? It is not their usual way. In learning to skate, for instance, they do not cut figures before practising loose and easy propulsion. The answer is fairly simple. Literature (once more) is a record of memorable speech; it preserves in words a record of such thoughts or of such deeds as we deem worth preserving. Now if you will imagine yourself a very primitive man, lacking paper or parchment; or a slightly less primitive, but very poor, man to whom the price of parchment and ink is prohibitive; you have two ways of going to work. You can carve your words upon trees or stones (a laborious process) or you can commit them to memory and carry them about in your head; which is cheaper and handier. For an illustration, you find it useful, anticipating the tax-collector, to know how many days there are in the current month. But further you find it a nuisance and a ruinous waste of time to run off to the tribal tree or monolith whenever the calculation comes up; so you invent a formula, and you cast that formula into _verse_ for the simple reason that verse, with its tags, alliterations, beat of syllables, jingle of rhymes (however your tribe has chosen to invent it), has a knack, not possessed by prose, of sticking in your head. You do not say, 'Quick thy tablets, memory! Let me see--January has 31 days, February 28 days, March 31 days, April 30 days.' You invent a verse:-- Thirty days hath September, April, June and November... Nay, it has been whispered to me, Gentlemen, that in this University some such process of memorising in verse has been applied by bold bad irreverently-minded men even to the "Evidences" of our cherished Paley. This, you will say, is mere verse, and not yet within measurable distance of poetry. But wait! The men who said the more memorable things, or sang them--the men who recounted deeds and genealogies of heroes, plagues and famines, assassinations, escapes from captivity, wanderings and conquests of the clan, all the 'old, unhappy, far-off things and battles long ago'--the men who sang these things for their living, for a supper, a bed in the great hall, and something in their wallet to carry them on to the next lordship--these were gentlemen, scôps, bards, minstrels (call them how you will), a professional class who had great need of a full repertory in a land swarming with petty chieftains, and to adapt their strains to the particular hall of entertainment. It would never do, for example, to flatter the prowess of the Billings in the house of the Hoppings, their hereditary foes, or to bore the Wokings (who lived where the crematorium now is) with the complicated genealogy of the Tootings: for this would have been to miss that appropriateness which I preached to you in my second lecture as a preliminary rule of good writing. Nay, when the Billings intermarried with the Tootings--when the Billings took to cooing, so to speak--a hasty blend of excerpts would be required for the "Epithalamium." So it was all a highly difficult business, needing adaptability, a quick wit, a goodly stock of songs, a retentive memory and every artifice to assist it. Take "Widsith," for example, the 'far-travelled man.' He begins:-- Widsith spake: he unlocked his word-hoard. So he had a hoard of words, you see: and he must have needed them, for he goes on:-- Forthon ic maeg singan and secgan spell, Maenan fore mengo in meoduhealle, Hu me cynegode cystum dohten. Ic waes mid Hunum and mid Hreth-gotum, Mid Sweom and mid Geatum, and mid Suth-Denum. Mid Wenlum ic waes and mid Waernum and mid Wicingum. Mid Gefthum ic waes and mid Winedum.... (Therefore I can sing and tell a tale, recount in the Mead Hall, how men of high race gave rich gifts to me. I was with Huns and with Hreth Goths, with the Swedes, and with the Geats, and with the South Danes; I was with the Wenlas, and with the Waernas, and with the Vikings; I was with the Gefthas and with the Winedae....) and so on for a full dozen lines. I say that the memory of such men must have needed every artifice to help it: and the chief artifice to their hand was one which also delighted the ears of their listeners. They sang or intoned to the harp. There you get it, Gentlemen. I have purposely, skimming a wide subject, discarded much ballast; but you may read and scan and read again, and always you must come back to this, that the first poets sang their words to the harp or to some such instrument: and just there lies the secret why poetry differs from prose. The moment you introduce music you let in emotion with all its sway upon speech. From that moment you change everything, down to the order of the words--the _natural_ order of the words: and (remember this) though the harp be superseded, the voice never forgets it. You may take up a Barrack Room Ballad of Kipling's, and it is there, though you affect to despise it for a banjo or concertina:-- Ford--ford--ford of Kabul river... 'Bang, whang, whang goes the drum, tootle-te-tootle the fife.' From the moment men introduced music they made verse a thing essentially separate from prose, from its natural key of emotion to its natural ordering of words. Do not for one moment imagine that when Milton writes:-- But cottage, herd, or sheep-cote, none he saw. or Of man's first disobedience and the fruit Of that forbidden tree... --where you must seek down five lines before you come to the verb, and then find it in the imperative mood--do not suppose for a moment that he is here fantastically shifting words, inverting phrases out of their natural order. For, as St Paul might say, there is a natural order of prose and there is a natural order of verse. The natural order of prose is:-- I was born in the year 1632, in the City of York, of a good family, though not of that county; my father being a foreigner of Bremen, who settled first in Hull.--[_Defoe._] or Further I avow to your Highness that with these eyes I have beheld the person of William Wooton, B.D., who has written a good sizeable volume against a friend of your Governor (from whom, alas! he must therefore look for little favour) in a most gentlemanly style, adorned with the utmost politeness and civility.--[_Swift._] The natural order of poetry is:-- Thus with the year Seasons return, but not to me returns Day, or the sweet approach of Ev'n or Morn, Or sight of vernal bloom, or Summer's Rose, Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine. or But cottage, herd, or sheep-cote, none he saw. and this basal difference you must have clear in your minds before, in dealing with prose or verse, you can practise either with profit or read either with intelligent delight. LECTURE IV. ON THE CAPITAL DIFFICULTY OF VERSE Thursday, April 17 In our last lecture, Gentlemen, we discussed the difference between verse, or metrical writing, and prose. We traced that difference (as you will remember) to Music--to the harp, the lyre, the dance, the chorus, all those first necessary accompaniments which verse never quite forgets; and we concluded that, as Music ever introduces emotion, which is indeed her proper and only means of persuading, so the natural language of verse will be keyed higher than the natural language of prose; will be keyed higher throughout and even for its most ordinary purposes--as for example, to tell us that So-and-so sailed to Troy with so many ships. I grant you that our steps to this conclusion were lightly and rapidly taken: yet the stepping-stones are historically firm. Verse does precede prose in literature; verse does start with musical accompaniment; musical accompaniment does introduce emotion; and emotion does introduce an order of its own into speech. I grant you that we have travelled far from the days when a prose-writer, Herodotus, labelled the books of his history by the names of the nine Muses. I grant you that if you go to the Vatican and there study the statues of the Muses (noble, but of no early date) you may note that Calliope, Muse of the Epic--unlike her sisters Euterpe, Erato, Thalia--holds for symbol no instrument of music, but a stylus and a tablet. Yet the earlier Calliope, the Calliope of Homer, was a Muse of Song. [Greek: Menin aeide, Thea--] 'Had I a thousand tongues, a thousand hands.'--For what purpose does the poet wish for a thousand tongues, but to sing? for what purpose a thousand hands, but to pluck the wires? not to dip a thousand pens in a thousand inkpots. I doubt, in fine, if your most learned studies will discover much amiss with the frontier we drew between verse and prose, cursorily though we ran its line. Nor am I daunted on comparing it with Coleridge's more philosophical one, which you will find in the "Biographia Literaria" (c. XVIII)-- And first for the origin of metre. This I would trace to the balance in the mind effected by that spontaneous effort which strives to hold in check the workings of passion. It might be easily explained likewise in what manner this salutary antagonism is assisted by the very state which it counteracts, and how this balance of antagonism becomes organised into metre (in the usual acceptation of that term) by a supervening act of the will and judgment consciously and for the foreseen purpose of pleasure. I will not swear to understand precisely what Coleridge means here, though I believe that I do. But at any rate, and on the principle that of two hypotheses, each in itself adequate, we should choose the simpler, I suggest in all modesty that we shall do better with our own than with Coleridge's, which has the further disadvantage of being scarcely amenable to positive evidence. We can say with historical warrant that Sappho struck the lyre, and argue therefrom, still within close range of correction, that her singing responded to the instrument: whereas to assert that Sappho's mind 'was balanced by a spontaneous effort which strove to hold in check the workings of passion' is to say something for which positive evidence will be less handily found, whether to contradict or to support. Yet if you choose to prefer Coleridge's explanation, no great harm will be done: since Coleridge, who may be presumed to have understood it, promptly goes on to deduce that, as the elements of metre owe their existence to a state of increased excitement, so the metre itself should be accompanied by the natural language of excitement. which is precisely where we found ourselves, save that where Coleridge uses the word 'excitement' we used the word 'emotion.' Shall we employ an illustration before proceeding?--some sentence easily handled, some commonplace of the moralist, some copybook maxim, I care not what. 'Contentment breeds Happiness'--That is a proposition with which you can hardly quarrel; sententious, sedate, obviously true; provoking delirious advocacy as little as controversial heat; in short a very fair touchstone. Now hear how the lyric treats it, in these lines of Dekker-- Art thou poor, yet hast thou golden slumbers? O sweet content! Art thou rich, yet is thy mind perplex'd? O punishment! Dost thou laugh to see how fools are vex'd To add to golden numbers golden numbers? O sweet content! O sweet, O sweet content! Work apace, apace, apace, apace; Honest labour wears a lovely face; Then hey, nonny nonny--hey, nonny nonny! Canst drink the waters of the crystal spring? O sweet content! Swim'st thou in wealth, yet sink'st in thine own tears? O punishment! Then he that patiently want's burden bears No burden bears, but is a king, a king! O sweet content! O sweet, O sweet content! Work apace, apace, apace, apace; Honest labour wears a lovely face; Then hey, nonny nonny--hey, nonny nonny! There, in lines obviously written for music, you have our sedate sentence, 'Contentment breeds Happiness,' converted to mere emotion. Note (to use Coleridge's word) the 'excitement' of it. There are but two plain indicative sentences in the two stanzas--(1) 'Honest labour wears a lovely face' (used as a refrain), and (2) 'Then he that patiently want's burden bears no burden bears, but is a king, a king!' (heightened emotionally by inversion and double repetition). Mark throughout how broken is the utterance; antithetical question answered by exclamations: both doubled and made more antithetical in the second stanza: with cunning reduplicated inversions to follow, and each stanza wound up by an outburst of emotional nonsense--'hey, nonny nonny--hey, nonny nonny!'--as a man might skip or whistle to himself for want of thought. Now (still keeping to our same subject of Contentment) let us _prosify_ the lyrical order of language down to the lowest pitch to which genius has been able to reduce it and still make noble verse. You have all read Wordsworth's famous Introduction to the "Lyrical Ballads," and you know that Wordsworth's was a genius working on a theory that the languages of verse and of prose are identical. You know, too, I dare say, into what banalities that theory over and over again betrayed him: banalities such as-- His widowed mother, for a second mate Espoused the teacher of the village school: Who on her offspring zealously bestowed Needful instruction. --and the rest. Nevertheless Wordsworth was a genius; and genius working persistently on a narrow theory will now and again 'bring it off' (as they say). So he, amid the flat waste of his later compositions, did undoubtedly 'bring it off' in the following sonnet:-- These times strike monied worldlings with dismay: Ev'n rich men, brave by nature, taint the air With words of apprehension and despair; While tens of thousands, thinking on the affray, Men unto whom sufficient for the day And minds not stinted or untill'd are given, Sound healthy children of the God of Heaven, Are cheerful as the rising sun in May. What do we gather hence but firmer faith That every gift of noble origin Is breath'd upon by Hope's perpetual breath; That Virtue and the faculties within Are vital; and that riches are akin To fear, to change, to cowardice, and death? Here, I grant, are no repetitions, no inversions. The sentences, though metrical, run straightforwardly, verb following subject, object verb, as in strict prose. In short here you have verse reduced to the order and structure of prose as nearly as a man of genius, working on a set theory, could reduce it while yet maintaining its proper emotional key. But first let me say that you will find very few like instances of success even in Wordsworth; and few indeed to set against innumerable passages wherein either his verse defies his theory and triumphs, or succumbs to it and, succumbing, either drops sheer to bathos or spreads itself over dead flats of commonplace. Let me tell you next that the instances you will find in other poets are so few and so far between as to be negligible; and lastly that even such verse as the above has only to be compared with a passage of prose and its emotional pitch is at once betrayed. Take this, for example, from Jeremy Taylor:-- Since all the evil in the world consists in the disagreeing between the object and the appetite, as when a man hath what he desires not, or desires what he hath not, or desires amiss, he that compares his spirit to the present accident hath variety of instance for his virtue, but none to trouble him, because his desires enlarge not beyond his present fortune: and a wise man is placed in a variety of chances, like the nave or centre of a wheel in the midst of all the circumvolutions and changes of posture, without violence or change, save that it turns gently in compliance with its changed parts, and is indifferent which part is up, and which is down; for there is some virtue or other to be exercised whatever happens--either patience or thanksgiving, love or fear, moderation or humility, charity or contentedness. Or, take this from Samuel Johnson:-- The fountain of contentment must spring up in the mind; and he who has so little knowledge of human nature as to seek happiness by changing anything but his own disposition, will waste his life in fruitless efforts and multiply the griefs which he purposes to remove. Now, to be frank, I do not call that first passage very good prose. Like much of Jeremy Taylor's writing it is prose tricked out with the trappings and odds-and-ends of verse. It starts off, for example, with a brace of heroics--'Since all the evil in the world consists'...'between the object and the appetite.' You may say, further, that the simile of the wheel, though proper enough to prose, is poetical too: that Homer might have used it ('As in a wheel the rim turns violently, while the nave, though it turns also, yet seems to be at rest'--something of that sort). Nevertheless you will agree with me that, in exchanging Wordsworth for Taylor and Johnson, we have relaxed something with the metre, something that the metre kept taut; and this something we discover to be the emotional pitch. But let me give you another illustration, supplied (I dare say quite unconsciously) by one who combined a genuine love of verse--in which, however, he was no adept--with a sure instinct for beautiful prose. Contentment was a favourite theme with Isaak Walton: "The Compleat Angler" is packed with praise of it: and in "The Compleat Angler" occurs this well-known passage:-- But, master, first let me tell you, that very hour which you were absent from me, I sat down under a willow tree by the waterside, and considered what you had told me of the owner of that pleasant meadow in which you then had left me; that he had a plentiful estate, and not a heart to think so; that he had at this time many law-suits depending, and that they both damped his mirth and took up so much of his time and thoughts that he had no leisure to take the sweet content that I, who pretended no title to them, took in his fields: for I could there sit quietly; and looking on the water, see some fishes sport themselves in the silver streams, others leaping at flies of several shapes and colours; looking on the hills, I could behold them spotted with woods and groves; looking down the meadows, could see, here a boy gathering lilies and lady-smocks, and there a girl cropping culverlocks and cowslips, all to make garlands suitable to this present month of May. These and many other field-flowers so perfumed the air that I thought that very meadow like that field in Sicily of which Diodorus speaks, where the perfumes arising from the place make all dogs that hunt in it to fall off and lose their hottest scent. I say, as I thus sat, joying in my own happy condition, and pitying this poor rich man that owned this and many other pleasant groves and meadows about me, I did thankfully remember what my Saviour said, that the meek possess the earth; or rather they enjoy what the others possess and enjoy not; for Anglers and meek quiet-spirited men are free from those high, those restless thoughts which corrode the sweets of life; and they, and they only can say as the poet has happily exprest it: 'Hail, blest estate of lowliness! Happy enjoyments of such minds As, rich in self-contentedness, Can, like the reeds in roughest winds, By yielding make that blow but small At which proud oaks and cedars fall.' There you have a passage of felicitous prose culminating in a stanza of trite and fifth-rate verse. Yes, Walton's instinct is sound; for he is keying up the pitch; and verse, even when mediocre in quality, has its pitch naturally set above that of prose. So, if you will turn to your Walton and read the page following this passage, you will see that, still by a sure instinct, he proceeds from this scrap of reflective verse to a mere rollicking 'catch': Man's life is but vain, for 'tis subject to pain And sorrow, and short as a bubble; 'Tis a hodge-podge of business and money and care, And care, and money and trouble... --which is even worse rubbish, and yet a step upwards in emotion because Venator actually sings it to music. 'Ay marry, sir, this is music indeed,' approves Brother Peter; 'this cheers the heart.' In this and the preceding lecture, Gentlemen, I have enforced at some length the opinion that to understand the many essential differences between verse and prose we must constantly bear in mind that verse, being metrical, keeps the character originally imposed on it by musical accompaniment and must always, however far the remove, be referred back to its origin and to the emotion which music excites. Mr George Bernard Shaw having to commit his novel "Cashel Byron's Profession" to paper in a hurry, chose to cast it in blank verse as being more easily and readily written so: a performance which brilliantly illuminates a half-truth. Verse--or at any rate, unrhymed iambic verse--is easier to write than prose, if you care to leave out the emotion which makes verse characteristic and worth writing. I have little doubt that, had he chosen to attempt it, Mr Shaw would have found his story still more ductile in the metre of "Hiawatha." But the experiment proves nothing: or no more than that, all fine art costing labour, it may cost less if burlesqued in a category not its own. Let me take an example from a work with which you are all familiar--"The Student's Handbook to the University and Colleges of Cambridge." On p. 405 we read:-- The Medieval and Modern Languages Tripos is divided into ten sections, A, A2, B, C, D, E, F, G, H and I. A student may take either one or two sections at the end of his second year of residence, and either one or two more sections at the end of his third or fourth year of residence; or he may take two sections at the end of his third year only. Thus this Tripos can be treated either as a divided or as an undivided Tripos at the option of the candidate. Now I do not hold that up to you for a model of prose. Still, lucidity rather than emotion being its aim, I doubt not that the composer spent pains on it; more pains than it would have cost him to convey his information metrically, thus:-- There is a Tripos that aspires to blend The Medieval and the Modern tongues In one red burial (Sing Heavenly Muse!) Divided into sections A, A2, B, C, D, E, F, G and H and I. A student may take either one or two (With some restrictions mention'd in a footnote) At th' expiration of his second year: Or of his third, or of his fourth again Take one or two; or of his third alone Take two together. Thus this tripos is (Like nothing in the Athanasian Creed) Divisible or indivisible At the option of the candidate--Gadzooks! This method has even some advantage over the method of prose in that it is more easily memorised; but it has, as you will admit, the one fatal flaw that it imports emotion into a theme which does not properly admit of emotion, and that so it offends against our first rule of writing--that it should be appropriate. Now if you accept the argument so far as we have led it--that verse is by nature more emotional than prose--certain consequences would seem to follow: of which the first is that while the capital difficulty of verse consists in saying ordinary things the capital difficulty of prose consists in saying extraordinary things; that while with verse, keyed for high moments, the trouble is to manage the intervals, with prose the trouble is to manage the high moments. Let us dwell awhile on this difference, for it is important. You remember my quoting to you in my last lecture these lines of Milton's:-- Up to a hill anon his steps he reared From whose high top to ken the prospect round, If cottage were in view, sheep-cote or herd; But cottage, herd, or sheep-cote, none he saw. We agreed that these were good lines, with the accent of poetry: but we allowed it to be a highly exalted way of telling how So-and-so climbed a hill for a better view but found none. Now obviously this exaltation does not arise immediately out of the action described (which is as ordinary as it well could be), but is _derivative_. It borrows its wings, its impetus, from a previous high moment, from the emotion proper to that moment, from the speech proper to that emotion: and these sustain us across to the next height as with the glide of an aeroplane. Your own sense will tell you at once that the passage would be merely bombastic if the poet were starting to set forth how So-and-so climbed a hill for the view--just that, and nothing else: as your own sense tells you that the swoop is from one height to another. For if bathos lay ahead, if Milton had but to relate how the Duke of York, with twenty thousand men, 'marched up a hill and then marched down again,' he certainly would not use diction such as:-- Up to a hill anon his steps he reared. Even as it is, I think we must all detect a certain artificiality in the passage, and confess to some relief when Satan is introduced to us, ten lines lower down, to revivify the story. For let us note that, in the nature of things, the more adorned and involved our style (and Milton's is both ornate and involved) the more difficulty we must find with these flat pedestrian intervals. Milton may 'bring it off,' largely through knowing how to dodge the interval and contrive that it shall at any rate be brief: but, as Bagehot noted, when we come to Tennyson and find Tennyson in "Enoch Arden" informing us of a fish-jowter, that:-- Enoch's white horse, and Enoch's ocean-spoil In ocean-smelling osier-- (_i.e._ in a fish-basket) --and his face Rough-reddened with a thousand winter gales, Not only to the market town were known, But in the leafy lanes beyond the down Far as the portal-warding lion-whelp And peacock yewtree of the lonely Hall Whose Friday fare was Enoch's ministering, why, then we feel that the vehicle is altogether too pompous for its load, and those who make speech too pompous for its content commit, albeit in varying degrees, the error of Defoe's religious lady who, seeing a bottle of over-ripe beer explode and cork and froth fly up to the ceiling, cried out, 'O, the wonders of Omnipotent Power!' The poet who commends fresh fish to us as 'ocean-spoil' can cast no stone at his brother who writes of them as 'the finny denizens of the deep,' or even at his cousin the journalist, who exalts the oyster into a 'succulent bivalve'-- The feathered tribes on pinions cleave the air; Not so the mackerel, and, still less, the bear! I believe this difficulty, which verse, by nature and origin emotional, encounters in dealing with ordinary unemotional narrative, to lie as a technical reason at the bottom of Horace's advice to the writer of Epic to plunge _in medias res_, thus avoiding flat preparative and catching at once a high wind which shall carry him hereafter across dull levels and intervals. I believe that it lay--though whether consciously or not he scarcely tells us--at the bottom of Matthew Arnold's mind when, selecting certain qualities for which to praise Homer, he chose, for the very first, Homer's _rapidity_. 'First,' he says, 'Homer is eminently rapid; and,' he adds justly, 'to this rapidity the elaborate movement of Miltonic blank verse is alien.' Now until one studies writing as an art, trying to discover what this or that form of it accomplishes with ease and what with difficulty, and why verse can do one thing and prose another, Arnold's choice of _rapidity_ to put in the forefront of Homer's merits may seem merely capricious. 'Homer (we say) has other great qualities. Arnold himself indicates Homer's simplicity, directness, nobility. Surely either one of these should be mentioned before rapidity, in itself not comparable as a virtue with either?' But when we see that the difficulty of verse-narrative lies just _here_; that the epic poet who is rapid has met, and has overcome, the capital difficulty of his form, then we begin to do justice not only to Arnold as a critic but (which is of far higher moment) to Homer as a craftsman. The genius of Homer in this matter is in fact something daemonic. He seems to shirk nothing: and the effect of this upon critics is bewildering. The acutest of them are left wondering how on earth an ordinary tale--say of how some mariners beached ship, stowed sail, walked ashore and cooked their dinner--can be made so poetical. They are inclined to divide the credit between the poet and his fortunate age--'a time' suggests Pater 'in which one could hardly have spoken at all without ideal effect, or the sailors pulled down their boat without making a picture "in the great style" against a sky charged with marvels.' Well, the object of these lectures is not to explain genius. Just here it is rather to state a difficulty; to admit that, once in history, genius overcame it; yet warn you how rare in the tale of poetical achievement is such a success. Homer, indeed, stands first, if not unmatched, among poets in this technical triumph over the capital disability of annihilating flat passages. I omit Shakespeare and the dramatists; because they have only to give a stage direction 'Enter Cassius, looking lean,' and Cassius comes in looking leaner than nature; whereas Homer has in his narrative to walk Hector or Thersites on to the scene, describe him, walk him off. I grant the rapidity of Dante. It is amazing; and we may yield him all the credit for choosing (it was his genius that chose it) a subject which allowed of the very highest rapidity; since Hell, Purgatory and Paradise, though they differ in other respects, have this in common, that they are populous and the inhabitants of each so compendiously shepherded together that the visitor can turn from one person to another without loss of time. But Homer does not escort us around a menagerie in which we can move expeditiously from one cage to another. He proposes at least, both in the "Iliad" and in the "Odyssey," to unfold a story; and he _seems_ to unfold it so artlessly that we linger on the most pedestrian intervals while he tells us, for example, what the heroes ate and how they cooked it. A modern writer would serve us a far better dinner. Homer brings us to his with our appetite all the keener for having waited and watched the spitting and roasting. I would point out to you what art this genius conceals; how cunning is this apparent simplicity: and for this purpose let me take Homer at the extreme of his difficulty--when he has to describe a long sea-voyage. Some years ago, in his last Oxford lectures, Mr Froude lamented that no poet in this country had arisen to write a national epic of the great Elizabethan seamen, to culminate (I suppose) as his History culminated, in the defeat of the Armada: and one of our younger poets; Mr Alfred Noyes, acting on this hint has since given us an epic poem on "Drake," in twelve books. But Froude probably overlooked, as Mr Noyes has not overcome, this difficulty of the flat interval which, while ever the bugbear of Epic, is magnified tenfold when our action takes place on the sea. For whereas the verse should be rapid and the high moments frequent, the business of seafaring is undeniably monotonous, as the intervals between port and port, sea-fight and sea-fight, must be long and lazy. Matters move more briskly in an occasional gale; but even a gale lasts, and must be ridden out; and the process of riding to a gale of wind:-- For ever climbing up the climbing wave --your ship taking one wave much as she takes another--is in its nature monotonous. Nay, you have only to read Falconer's "Shipwreck" to discover how much of dulness may lie enwrapped, to discharge itself, even in a first-class tempest. Courses, reckonings, trimmings of canvas--these occur in real life and amuse the simple mariner at the time. But to the reader, if he be a landsman, their repetition in narrative may easily become intolerable; and when we get down to the 'trades,' even the seaman sets his sail for a long spell of weather and goes to sleep. In short you cannot upon the wide Atlantic push action and reaction to and fro as upon the plains of windy Troy: nor could any but a superhuman genius make sustained poetry (say) out of Nelson's untiring pursuit of Villeneuve, which none the less was one of the most heroic feats in history. This difficulty, inherent in navigation as a subject for the Epic Muse, has, I think, been very shrewdly detected and hit off in a parody of Mr Noyes' poem by a young friend of mine, Mr Wilfred Blair:-- Meanwhile the wind had changed, and Francis Drake Put down the helm and drove against the seas-- Once more the wind changed, and the simple seaman, Full fraught with weather wisdom, once again Put down the helm and so drove on--_et cetera_. Now Homer actually has performed this feat which we declare to be next to impossible. He actually does convey Odysseus from Troy to Ithaca, by a ten years' voyage too; he actually has narrated that voyage to us in plain straightforward words; and, what is more, he actually has made a superb epic of it. Yes, but when you come to dissect the Odyssey, what amazing artifice is found under that apparently straightforward tale!--eight years of the ten sliced out, to start with, and magnificently presented to Circe Where that Aeaean isle forgets the main --and (one may add), so forgetting, avoids the technical difficulties connected therewith. Note the space given to Telemachus and his active search for the lost hero: note too how the mass of Odysseus' seafaring adventures is condensed into a reported speech--a traveller's tale at the court of Alcinoüs. Virgil borrowed this trick, you remember; and I dare to swear that had it fallen to Homer to attempt the impossible saga of Nelson's pursuit after Villeneuve he would have achieved it triumphantly--by means of a tale told in the first person by a survivor to Lady Hamilton. Note, again, how boldly (being free to deal with an itinerary of which his audience knew nothing but surmised that it comprehended a vast deal of the marvellous, spaced at irregular distances) Homer works in a shipwreck or a miracle wherever the action threatens to flag. Lessing, as you know, devoted several pages of the "Laoköon" to the shield of Achilles; to Homer's craft in depicting it as it grew under Hephaestus' hammer: so that we are intrigued by the process of manufacture instead of being wearied by a description of the ready-made article; so also (if one may presume to add anything to Lessing) that we are cunningly flattered in a sense that the shield is being made for _us._ Well, that is one artifice out of many: but if you would gauge at all Homer's resource and subtlety in technique I recommend you to analyse the first twelve books of the "Odyssey" and count for yourselves the device by which the poet--[Greek: polutropos] as was never his hero--evades or hurries over each flat interval as he happens upon it. These things, Ulysses, The wise bards also Behold and sing. But O, what labour! O Prince, what pain! You may be thinking, Gentlemen, that I take up a disproportionate amount of your time on such technical matters at these. But literature being an art (forgive the reiteration!) and therefore to be practised, I want us to be seeking all the time _how it is done_; to hunt out the principles on which the great artists wrought; to face, to rationalise, the difficulties by which they were confronted, and learn how they overcame the particular obstacle. Surely even for mere criticism, apart from practice, we shall equip ourselves better by seeking, so far as we may, how the thing is done than by standing at gaze before this or that masterpiece and murmuring 'Isn't that beautiful! How in the world, now...!' I am told that these lectures are criticised as tending to make you conceited: to encourage in you a belief that you can do things, when it were better that you merely admired. Well I would not dishearten you by telling to what a shred of conceit, even of hope, a man can be reduced after twenty-odd years of the discipline. But I can, and do, affirm that the farther you penetrate in these discoveries the more sacred the ultimate mystery will become for you: that the better you understand the great authors as exemplars of practice, the more certainly you will realise what is the condescension of the gods. Next time, then, we will attempt an enquiry into the capital difficulty of Prose. LECTURE V. INTERLUDE: ON JARGON Thursday, May 1 We parted, Gentlemen, upon a promise to discuss the capital difficulty of Prose, as we have discussed the capital difficulty of Verse. But, although we shall come to it, on second thoughts I ask leave to break the order of my argument and to interpose some words upon a kind of writing which, from a superficial likeness, commonly passes for prose in these days, and by lazy folk is commonly written for prose, yet actually is not prose at all; my excuse being the simple practical one that, by first clearing this sham prose out of the way, we shall the better deal with honest prose when we come to it. The proper difficulties of prose will remain: but we shall be agreed in understanding what it is, or at any rate what it is not, that we talk about. I remember to have heard somewhere of a religious body in the United States of America which had reason to suspect one of its churches of accepting Spiritual consolation from a coloured preacher--an offence against the laws of the Synod--and despatched a Disciplinary Committee with power to act; and of the Committee's returning to report itself unable to take any action under its terms of reference, for that while a person undoubtedly coloured had undoubtedly occupied the pulpit and had audibly spoken from it in the Committee's presence, the performance could be brought within no definition of preaching known or discoverable. So it is with that infirmity of speech--that flux, that determination of words to the mouth, or to the pen--which, though it be familiar to you in parliamentary debates, in newspapers, and as the staple language of Blue Books, Committees, Official Reports, I take leave to introduce to you as prose which is not prose and under its real name of Jargon. You must not confuse this Jargon with what is called Journalese. The two overlap, indeed, and have a knack of assimilating each other's vices. But Jargon finds, maybe, the most of its votaries among good douce people who have never written to or for a newspaper in their life, who would never talk of 'adverse climatic conditions' when they mean 'bad weather'; who have never trifled with verbs such as 'obsess,' 'recrudesce,' 'envisage,' 'adumbrate,' or with phrases such as 'the psychological moment,' 'the true inwardness,' 'it gives furiously to think.' It dallies with Latinity--'sub silentio,' 'de die in diem,' 'cui bono?' (always in the sense, unsuspected by Cicero, of 'What is the profit?')--but not for the sake of style. Your journalist at the worst is an artist in his way: he daubs paint of this kind upon the lily with a professional zeal; the more flagrant (or, to use his own word, arresting) the pigment, the happier is his soul. Like the Babu he is trying all the while to embellish our poor language, to make it more floriferous, more poetical--like the Babu for example who, reporting his mother's death, wrote, 'Regret to inform you, the hand that rocked the cradle has kicked the bucket.' _There_ is metaphor: _there_ is ornament: _there_ is a sense of poetry, though as yet groping in a world unrealised. No such gusto marks--no such zeal, artistic or professional, animates--the practitioners of Jargon, who are, most of them (I repeat), douce respectable persons. Caution is its father: the instinct to save everything and especially trouble: its mother, Indolence. It looks precise, but it is not. It is, in these times, _safe_: a thousand men have said it before and not one to your knowledge had been prosecuted for it. And so, like respectability in Chicago, Jargon stalks unchecked in our midst. It is becoming the language of Parliament: it has become the medium through which Boards of Government, County Councils, Syndicates, Committees, Commercial Firms, express the processes as well as the conclusions of their thought and so voice the reason of their being. Has a Minister to say 'No' in the House of Commons? Some men are constitutionally incapable of saying no: but the Minister conveys it thus--'The answer to the question is in the negative.' That means 'no.' Can you discover it to mean anything less, or anything more except that the speaker is a pompous person?--which was no part of the information demanded. That is Jargon, and it happens to be accurate. But as a rule Jargon is by no means accurate, its method being to walk circumspectly around its target; and its faith, that having done so it has either hit the bull's-eye or at least achieved something equivalent, and safer. Thus the Clerk of a Board of Guardians will minute that-- In the case of John Jenkins deceased the coffin provided was of the usual character. Now this is not accurate. 'In the case of John Jenkins deceased,' for whom a coffin was supplied, it is wholly superfluous to tell us that he is deceased. But actually John Jenkins never had more than one case, and that was the coffin. The Clerk says he had two,--a coffin in a case: but I suspect the Clerk to be mistaken, and I am sure he errs in telling us that the coffin was of the usual character: for coffins have no character, usual or unusual. For another example (I shall not tell you whence derived)-- In the case of every candidate who is placed in the first class [So you see the lucky fellow gets a case as well as a first-class. He might be a stuffed animal: perhaps he is] In the case of every candidate who is placed in the first class the class-list will show by some convenient mark (1) the Section or Sections for proficiency in which he is placed in the first class and (2) the Section or Sections (if any) in which he has passed with special distinction. 'The Section or Sections (if any)'--But, how, if they are not any, could they be indicated by a mark however convenient? The Examiners will have regard to the style and method of the candidate's answers, and will give credit for excellence _in these respects_. Have you begun to detect the two main vices of Jargon? The first is that it uses circumlocution rather than short straight speech. It says 'In the case of John Jenkins deceased, the coffin' when it means 'John Jenkins's coffin': and its yea is not yea, neither is its nay nay: but its answer is in the affirmative or in the negative, as the foolish and superfluous 'case' may be. The second vice is that it habitually chooses vague woolly abstract nouns rather than concrete ones. I shall have something to say by-and-by about the concrete noun, and how you should ever be struggling for it whether in prose or in verse. For the moment I content myself with advising you, if you would write masculine English, never to forget the old tag of your Latin Grammar-- Masculine will only be Things that you can touch and see. But since these lectures are meant to be a course in First Aid to writing, I will content myself with one or two extremely rough rules: yet I shall be disappointed if you do not find them serviceable. The first is:--Whenever in your reading you come across one of these words, _case, instance, character, nature, condition, persuasion, degree_--whenever in writing your pen betrays you to one or another of them--pull yourself up and take thought. If it be 'case' (I choose it as Jargon's dearest child--'in Heaven yclept Metonomy') turn to the dictionary, if you will, and seek out what meaning can be derived from _casus_, its Latin ancestor: then try how, with a little trouble, you can extricate yourself from that case. The odds are, you will feel like a butterfly who has discarded his chrysalis. Here are some specimens to try your hand on-- (1) All those tears which inundated Lord Hugh Cecil's head were dry in the case of Mr Harold Cox. Poor Mr Cox! left gasping in his aquarium! (2) [From a cigar-merchant] In any case, let us send you a case on approval. (3) It is contended that Consols have fallen in consequence: but such is by no means the case. 'Such,' by the way, is another spoilt child of Jargon, especially in Committee's Rules--'Co-opted members may be eligible as such; such members to continue to serve for such time as'--and so on. (4) Even in the purely Celtic areas, only in two or three cases do the Bishops bear Celtic names. For 'cases' read 'dioceses.' _Instance._ In most instances the players were below their form. But what were they playing at? Instances? _Character--Nature._ There can be no doubt that the accident was caused through the dangerous nature of the spot, the hidden character of the by-road, and the utter absence of any warning or danger signal. Mark the foggy wording of it all! And yet the man hit something and broke his neck! Contrast that explanation with the verdict of a coroner's jury in the West of England on a drowned postman--'We find that deceased met his death by an act of God, caused by sudden overflowing of the river Walkhan and helped out by the scandalous neglect of the way-wardens.' The Aintree course is notoriously of a trying nature. On account of its light character, purity and age, Usher's whiskey is a whiskey that will agree with you. _Order._ The mésalliance was of a pronounced order. _Condition._ He was conveyed to his place of residence in an intoxicated condition. 'He was carried home drunk.' _Quality and Section._ Mr ----, exhibiting no less than five works, all of a superior quality, figures prominently in the oil section. This was written of an exhibition of pictures. _Degree._ A singular degree of rarity prevails in the earlier editions of this romance. That is Jargon. In prose it runs simply 'The earlier editions of this romance are rare'--or 'are very rare'--or even (if you believe what I take leave to doubt), 'are singularly rare'; which should mean that they are rarer than the editions of any other work in the world. Now what I ask you to consider about these quotations is that in each the writer was using Jargon to shirk prose, palming off periphrases upon us when with a little trouble he could have gone straight to the point. 'A singular degree of rarity prevails,' 'the accident was caused through the dangerous nature of the spot,' 'but such is by no means the case.' We may not be capable of much; but we can all write better than that, if we take a little trouble. In place of, 'the Aintree course is of a trying nature' we can surely say 'Aintree is a trying course' or 'the Aintree course is a trying one'--just that and nothing more. Next, having trained yourself to keep a look-out for these worst offenders (and you will be surprised to find how quickly you get into the way of it), proceed to push your suspicions out among the whole cloudy host of abstract terms. 'How excellent a thing is sleep,' sighed Sancho Panza; 'it wraps a man round like a cloak'--an excellent example, by the way, of how to say a thing concretely: a Jargoneer would have said that 'among the beneficent qualities of sleep its capacity for withdrawing the human consciousness from the contemplation of immediate circumstances may perhaps be accounted not the least remarkable.' How vile a thing--shall we say?--is the abstract noun! It wraps a man's thoughts round like cotton wool. Here is a pretty little nest of specimens, found in "The Times" newspaper by Messrs. H. W. and F. G. Fowler, authors of that capital little book "The King's English":-- One of the most important reforms mentioned in the rescript is the unification of the organisation of judicial institutions and the guarantee for all the tribunals of the independence necessary for securing to all classes of the community equality before the law. I do not dwell on the cacophony; but, to convey a straightforward piece of news, might not the Editor of "The Times" as well employ a man to write:-- One of the most important reforms is that of the Courts, which need a uniform system and to be made independent. In this way only can men be assured that all are equal before the law. I think he might. A day or two ago the musical critic of the "Standard" wrote this:-- MR LAMOND IN BEETHOVEN Mr Frederick Lamond, the Scottish pianist, as an interpreter of Beethoven has few rivals. At his second recital of the composer's works at Bechstein Hall on Saturday afternoon he again displayed a complete sympathy and understanding of his material that extracted the very essence of aesthetic and musical value from each selection he undertook. The delightful intimacy of his playing and his unusual force of individual expression are invaluable assets, which, allied to his technical brilliancy, enable him to achieve an artistic triumph. The two lengthy Variations in E flat major (Op. 35) and in D major, the latter on the Turkish March from 'The Ruins of Athens,' when included in the same programme, require a master hand to provide continuity of interest. _To say that Mr Lamond successfully avoided moments that might at times, in these works, have inclined to comparative disinterestedness, would be but a moderate way of expressing the remarkable fascination with which his versatile playing endowed them_, but _at the same time_ two of the sonatas given included a similar form of composition, and no matter how intellectually brilliant may be the interpretation, the extravagant use of a certain mode is bound in time to become somewhat ineffective. In the Three Sonatas, the E major (Op. 109), the A major (Op. 2), No. 2, and the C minor (Op. 111), Mr Lamond signalised his perfect insight into the composer's varying moods. Will you not agree with me that here is no writing, here is no prose, here is not even English, but merely a flux of words to the pen? Here again is a string, a concatenation--say, rather, a tiara--of gems of purest ray serene from the dark unfathomed caves of a Scottish newspaper:-- The Chinese viewpoint, as indicated in this letter, may not be without interest to your readers, because it evidently is suggestive of more than an academic attempt to explain an unpleasant aspect of things which, if allowed to materialise, might suddenly culminate in disaster resembling the Chang-Sha riots. It also ventures to illustrate incidents having their inception in recent premature endeavours to accelerate the development of Protestant missions in China; but we would hope for the sake of the interests involved that what my correspondent describes as 'the irresponsible ruffian element' may be known by their various religious designations only within very restricted areas. Well, the Chinese have given it up, poor fellows! and are asking the Christians--as to-day's newspapers inform us--to pray for them. Do you wonder? But that is, or was, the Chinese 'viewpoint,'--and what a willow-pattern viewpoint! Observe its delicacy. It does not venture to interest or be interesting; merely 'to be not without interest.' But it does 'venture to illustrate incidents'--which, for a viewpoint, is brave enough: and this illustration 'is suggestive of something more than an academic attempt to explain an unpleasant aspect of things which, if allowed to materialise, might suddenly culminate.' What materialises? The unpleasant aspect? or the things? Grammar says the 'things,' 'things which if allowed to materialise.' But things are materialised already, and as a condition of their being things. It must be the aspect, then, that materialises. But, if so, it is also the aspect that culminates, and an aspect, however unpleasant, can hardly do that, or at worst cannot culminate in anything resembling the Chang-Sha riots.... I give it up. Let us turn to another trick of Jargon: the trick of Elegant Variation, so rampant in the Sporting Press that there, without needing to attend these lectures, the Undergraduate detects it for laughter:-- Hayward and C. B. Fry now faced the bowling; which apparently had no terrors for the Surrey crack. The old Oxonian, however, took some time in settling to work.... Yes, you all recognise it and laugh at it. But why do you practise it in your Essays? An undergraduate brings me an essay on Byron. In an essay on Byron, Byron is (or ought to be) mentioned many times. I expect, nay exact, that Bryon shall be mentioned again and again. But my undergraduate has a blushing sense that to call Byron Byron twice on one page is indelicate. So Byron, after starting bravely as Byron, in the second sentence turns into 'that great but unequal poet' and thenceforward I have as much trouble with Byron as ever Telemachus with Proteus to hold and pin him back to his proper self. Half-way down the page he becomes 'the gloomy master of Newstead': overleaf he is reincarnated into 'the meteoric darling of society': and so proceeds through successive avatars--'this arch-rebel,' 'the author of Childe Harold,' 'the apostle of scorn,' 'the ex-Harrovian, proud, but abnormally sensitive of his club-foot,' 'the martyr of Missolonghi,' 'the pageant-monger of a bleeding heart.' Now this again is Jargon. It does not, as most Jargon does, come of laziness; but it comes of timidity, which is worse. In literature as in life he makes himself felt who not only calls a spade a spade but has the pluck to double spades and re-double. For another rule--just as rough and ready, but just as useful: Train your suspicions to bristle up whenever you come upon 'as regards,' 'with regard to,' 'in respect of,' 'in connection with,' 'according as to whether,' and the like. They are all dodges of Jargon, circumlocutions for evading this or that simple statement: and I say that it is not enough to avoid them nine times out of ten, or nine-and-ninety times out of a hundred. You should never use them. That is positive enough, I hope? Though I cannot admire his style, I admire the man who wrote to me, 'Re Tennyson--your remarks anent his "In Memoriam" make me sick': for though re is not a preposition of the first water, and 'anent' has enjoyed its day, the finish crowned the work. But here are a few specimens far, very far, worse:-- The special difficulty in Professor Minocelsi's case [our old friend 'case' again] arose _in connexion with_ the view he holds _relative to_ the historical value of the opening pages of Genesis. That is Jargon. In prose, even taking the miserable sentence as it stands constructed, we should write 'the difficulty arose over the views he holds about the historical value,' etc. From a popular novelist:-- I was entirely indifferent _as to_ the results of the game, caring nothing at all _as to_ whether _I had losses or gains_-- Cut out the first 'as' in 'as to,' and the second 'as to' altogether, and the sentence begins to be prose--'I was indifferent to the results of the game, caring nothing whether I had losses or gains.' But why, like Dogberry, have 'had losses'? Why not simply 'lose.' Let us try again. 'I was entirely indifferent to the results of the game, caring nothing at all whether I won or lost.' Still the sentence remains absurd: for the second clause but repeats the first without adding one jot. For if you care not at all whether you win or lose, you must be entirely indifferent to the results of the game. So why not say 'I was careless if I won or lost,' and have done with it? A man of simple and charming character, he was fitly _associated with_ the distinction of the Order of Merit. I take this gem with some others from a collection made three years ago, by the "Oxford Magazine"; and I hope you admire it as one beyond price. 'He was associated with the distinction of the Order of Merit' means 'he was given the Order of Merit.' If the members of that Order make a society then he was associated with them; but you cannot associate a man with a distinction. The inventor of such fine writing would doubtless have answered Canning's Needy Knife-grinder with:-- I associate thee with sixpence! I will see thee in another association first! But let us close our _florilegium_ and attempt to illustrate Jargon by the converse method of taking a famous piece of English (say Hamlet's soliloquy) and remoulding a few lines of it in this fashion:-- To be, or the contrary? Whether the former or the latter be preferable would seem to admit of some difference of opinion; the answer in the present case being of an affirmative or of a negative character according as to whether one elects on the one hand to mentally suffer the disfavour of fortune, albeit in an extreme degree, or on the other to boldly envisage adverse conditions in the prospect of eventually bringing them to a conclusion. The condition of sleep is similar to, if not indistinguishable from, that of death; and with the addition of finality the former might be considered identical with the latter: so that in this connection it might be argued with regard to sleep that, could the addition be effected, a termination would be put to the endurance of a multiplicity of inconveniences, not to mention a number of downright evils incidental to our fallen humanity, and thus a consummation achieved of a most gratifying nature. That is Jargon: and to write Jargon is to be perpetually shuffling around in the fog and cotton-wool of abstract terms; to be for ever hearkening, like Ibsen's Peer Gynt, to the voice of the Boyg exhorting you to circumvent the difficulty, to beat the air because it is easier than to flesh your sword in the thing. The first virtue, the touchstone of a masculine style, is its use of the active verb and the concrete noun. When you write in the active voice, 'They gave him a silver teapot,' you write as a man. When you write 'He was made the recipient of a silver teapot,' you write jargon. But at the beginning set even higher store on the concrete noun. Somebody--I think it was FitzGerald--once posited the question 'What would have become of Christianity if Jeremy Bentham had had the writing of the Parables?' Without pursuing that dreadful enquiry I ask you to note how carefully the Parables--those exquisite short stories--speak only of 'things which you can touch and see'--'A sower went forth to sow,' 'The kingdom of heaven is like unto leaven, which a woman took,'--and not the Parables only, but the Sermon on the Mount and almost every verse of the Gospel. The Gospel does not, like my young essayist, fear to repeat a word, if the word be good. The Gospel says 'Render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar's'--not 'Render unto Caesar the things that appertain to that potentate.' The Gospel does not say 'Consider the growth of the lilies,' or even 'Consider how the lilies grow.' It says, 'Consider the lilies, how they grow.' Or take Shakespeare. I wager you that no writer of English so constantly chooses the concrete word, in phrase after phrase forcing you to touch and see. No writer so insistently teaches the general through the particular. He does it even in "Venus and Adonis" (as Professor Wendell, of Harvard, pointed out in a brilliant little monograph on Shakespeare, published some ten years ago). Read any page of "Venus and Adonis" side by side with any page of Marlowe's "Hero and Leander" and you cannot but mark the contrast: in Shakespeare the definite, particular, visualised image, in Marlowe the beautiful generalisation, the abstract term, the thing seen at a literary remove. Take the two openings, both of which start out with the sunrise. Marlowe begins:-- Now had the Morn espied her lover's steeds: Whereat she starts, puts on her purple weeds, And, red for anger that he stay'd so long, All headlong throws herself the clouds among. Shakespeare wastes no words on Aurora and her feelings, but gets to his hero and to business without ado:-- Even as the sun with purple-colour'd face-- (You have the sun visualised at once), Even as the sun with purple-colour'd face Had ta'en his last leave of the weeping morn, Rose-cheek'd Adonis hied him to the chase; Hunting he loved, but love he laugh'd to scorn. When Shakespeare has to describe a horse, mark how definite he is:-- Round-hoof'd, short-jointed, fetlocks shag and long, Broad breast, full eye, small head and nostril wide, High crest, short ears, straight legs and passing strong; Thin mane, thick tail, broad buttock, tender hide. Or again, in a casual simile, how definite:-- Upon this promise did he raise his chin, Like a dive-dipper peering through a wave, Which, being look'd on, ducks as quickly in. Or take, if you will, Marlowe's description of Hero's first meeting Leander:-- It lies not in our power to love or hate, For will in us is over-ruled by fate..., and set against it Shakespeare's description of Venus' last meeting with Adonis, as she came on him lying in his blood:-- Or as a snail whose tender horns being hit Shrinks backward in his shelly cave with pain, And there, all smother'd up, in shade doth sit, Long after fearing to creep forth again; So, at his bloody view-- I do not deny Marlowe's lines (if you will study the whole passage) to be lovely. You may even judge Shakespeare's to be crude by comparison. But you cannot help noting that whereas Marlowe steadily deals in abstract, nebulous terms, Shakespeare constantly uses concrete ones, which later on he learned to pack into verse, such as:-- Sleep that knits up the ravell'd sleeve of care. Is it unfair to instance Marlowe, who died young? Then let us take Webster for the comparison; Webster, a man of genius or of something very like it, and commonly praised by the critics for his mastery over definite, detailed, and what I may call _solidified sensation_. Let us take this admired passage from his "Duchess of Malfy":-- _Ferdinand._ How doth our sister Duchess bear herself In her imprisonment? _Basola._ Nobly: I'll describe her. She's sad as one long used to 't, and she seems Rather to welcome the end of misery Than shun it: a behaviour so noble As gives a majesty to adversity (Note the abstract terms.) You may discern the shape of loveliness More perfect in her tears than in her smiles; She will muse for hours together; and her silence (Here we first come on the concrete: and beautiful it is.) Methinks expresseth more than if she spake. Now set against this the well-known passage from "Twelfth Night" where the Duke asks and Viola answers a question about someone unknown to him and invented by her--a mere phantasm, in short: yet note how much more definite is the language:-- _Viola._ My father had a daughter lov'd a man; As it might be, perhaps, were I a woman, _I_ should your lordship. _Duke._ And what's her history? _Viola._ A blank, my lord. She never told her love, But let concealment, like a worm i' the bud, Feed on her damask cheek; she pined in thought, And with a green and yellow melancholy She sat like Patience on a monument Smiling at grief. Was not this love indeed? Observe (apart from the dramatic skill of it) how, when Shakespeare _has_ to use the abstract noun 'concealment,' on an instant it turns into a visible worm 'feeding' on the visible rose; how, having to use a second abstract word 'patience,' at once he solidifies it in tangible stone. Turning to prose, you may easily assure yourselves that men who have written learnedly on the art agree in treating our maxim--to prefer the concrete term to the abstract, the particular to the general, the definite to the vague--as a canon of rhetoric. Whately has much to say on it. The late Mr E. J. Payne, in one of his admirable prefaces to Burke (prefaces too little known and valued, as too often happens to scholarship hidden away in a schoolbook), illustrated the maxim by setting a passage from Burke's speech "On Conciliation with America" alongside a passage of like purport from Lord Brougham's "Inquiry into the Policy of the European Powers." Here is the deadly parallel:-- BURKE. In large bodies the circulation of power must be less vigorous at the extremities. Nature has said it. The Turk cannot govern Ægypt and Arabia and Curdistan as he governs Thrace; nor has he the same dominion in Crimea and Algiers which he has at Brusa and Smyrna. Despotism itself is obliged to truck and huckster. The Sultan gets such obedience as he can. He governs with a loose rein, that he may govern at all; and the whole of the force and vigour of his authority in his centre is derived from a prudent relaxation in all his borders. BROUGHAM. In all the despotisms of the East, it has been observed that the further any part of the empire is removed from the capital, the more do its inhabitants enjoy some sort of rights and privileges: the more inefficacious is the power of the monarch; and the more feeble and easily decayed is the organisation of the government. You perceive that Brougham has transferred Burke's thought to his own page: but will you not also perceive how pitiably, by dissolving Burke's vivid particulars into smooth generalities, he has enervated its hold on the mind? 'This particularising style,' comments Mr Payne, 'is the essence of Poetry; and in Prose it is impossible not to be struck with the energy it produces. Brougham's passage is excellent in its way: but it pales before the flashing lights of Burke's sentences. The best instances of this energy of style, he adds, are to be found in the classical writers of the seventeenth century. 'When South says, "An Aristotle was but the rubbish of an Adam, and Athens but the rudiments of Paradise," he communicates more effectually the notion of the difference between the intellect of fallen and of unfallen humanity than in all the philosophy of his sermons put together.' You may agree with me, or you may not, that South in this passage is expounding trash; but you will agree with Mr Payne and me that he uttered it vividly. Let me quote to you, as a final example of this vivid style of writing, a passage from Dr John Donne far beyond and above anything that ever lay within South's compass:-- The ashes of an Oak in the Chimney are no epitaph of that Oak, to tell me how high or how large that was; it tells me not what flocks it sheltered while it stood, nor what men it hurt when it fell. The dust of great persons' graves is speechless, too; it says nothing, it distinguishes nothing. As soon the dust of a wretch whom thou wouldest not, as of a prince whom thou couldest not look upon will trouble thine eyes if the wind blow it thither; and when a whirle-wind hath blown the dust of the Churchyard into the Church, and the man sweeps out the dust of the Church into the Churchyard, who will undertake to sift those dusts again and to pronounce, This is the Patrician, this is the noble flowre [flour], this the yeomanly, this the Plebeian bran? So is the death of Iesabel (Iesabel was a Queen) expressed. They shall not say _This is Iesabel_; not only not wonder that it is, nor pity that it should be; but they shall not say, they shall not know, _This is Iesabel._ Carlyle noted of Goethe, 'his emblematic intellect, his never-failing tendency to transform into _shape_, into _life_, the feeling that may dwell in him. Everything has form, has visual excellence: the poet's imagination bodies forth the forms of things unseen, and his pen turns them into shape.' Perpend this, Gentlemen, and maybe you will not hereafter set it down to my reproach that I wasted an hour of a May morning in a denunciation of Jargon, and in exhorting you upon a technical matter at first sight so trivial as the choice between abstract and definite words. A lesson about writing your language may go deeper than language; for language (as in a former lecture I tried to preach to you) is your reason, your [Greek: logos]. So long as you prefer abstract words, which express other men's summarised concepts of things, to concrete ones which as near as can be reached to things themselves and are the first-hand material for your thoughts, you will remain, at the best, writers at second-hand. If your language be Jargon, your intellect, if not your whole character, will almost certainly correspond. Where your mind should go straight, it will dodge: the difficulties it should approach with a fair front and grip with a firm hand it will be seeking to evade or circumvent. For the Style is the Man, and where a man's treasure is there his heart, and his brain, and his writing, will be also. LECTURE VI. ON THE CAPITAL DIFFICULTY OF PROSE Thursday, May 15 To-day, Gentlemen, leaving the Vanity Fair of Jargon behind us, we have to essay a difficult country; of which, though fairly confident of his compass-bearings, your guide confesses, that wide tracts lie outside his knowledge--outside of anything that can properly be called his knowledge. I feel indeed somewhat as Gideon must have felt when he divided his host on the slopes of Mount Gilead, warning back all who were afraid. In asking the remnant to follow as attentively as they can, I promise only that, if Heaven carry us safely across, we shall have 'broken the back' of the desert. In my last lecture but one, then,--and before our small interlude with Jargon--the argument had carried us, more or less neatly, up to this point: that the capital difficulty of verse consisted in saying ordinary unemotional things, of bridging the flat intervals between high moments. This point, I believe, we made effectively enough. Now, for logical neatness, we should be able to oppose a corresponding point, that the capital difficulty of prose consists in saying extraordinary things, in running it up from its proper level to these high emotional, musical, moments. And mightily convenient that would be, Gentlemen, if I were here to help you to answer scientific questions about prose and verse instead of helping you, in what small degree I can, to write. But in Literature (which, let me remind you yet once again, is an art) you cannot classify as in a science. Pray attend while I impress on you this most necessary warning. In studying literature, and still more in studying to write it, distrust all classification! All classifying of literature intrudes 'science' upon an art, and is artificially 'scientific'; a trick of pedants, that they may make it the easier to examine you on things with which no man should have any earthly concern, as I am sure he will never have a heavenly one. Beetles, minerals, gases, may be classified; and to have them classified is not only convenient but a genuine advance of knowledge. But if you had to _make_ a beetle, as men are making poetry, how much would classification help? To classify in a science is necessary for the purpose of that science: to classify when you come to art is at the best an expedient, useful to some critics and to a multitude of examiners. It serves the art-critic to talk about Tuscan, Flemish, Pre-Raphaelite, schools of painting. The expressions are handy, and we know more or less what they intend. Just so handily it may serve us to talk about 'Renaissance poets,' 'the Elizabethans,' 'the Augustan age.' But such terms at best cannot be scientific, precise, determinate, as for examples the terms 'inorganic,' 'mammal,' 'univalve,' 'Old Red Sandstone' are scientific, precise, determinate. An animal is either a mammal or it is not: you cannot say as assuredly that a man is or is not an Elizabethan. We call Shakespeare an Elizabethan and the greatest of Elizabethans, though as a fact he wrote his most famous plays when Elizabeth was dead. Shirley was but seven years old when Elizabeth died; yet (if 'Elizabethan' have any meaning but a chronological one) Shirley belongs to the Elizabethan firmament, albeit but as a pale star low on the horizon: whereas Donne--a post-Elizabethan if ever there was one--had by 1603 reached his thirtieth year and written almost every line of those wonderful lyrics which for a good sixty years gave the dominant note to Jacobean and Caroline poetry. In treating of an art we classify for handiness, not for purposes of exact knowledge; and man (_improbus homo_) with his wicked inventions is for ever making fools of our formulae. Be consoled--and, if you are wise, thank Heaven--that genius uses our best-laid logic to explode it. Be consoled, at any rate, on finding that after deciding the capital difficulty of prose to lie in saying extraordinary things, in running up to the high emotional moments, the prose-writers explode and blow our admirable conclusions to ruins. You see, we gave them the chance to astonish us when we defined prose as 'a record of human thought, dispensing with metre and using rhythm laxly.' When you give genius leave to use something laxly, at its will, genius will pretty surely get the better of you. Observe, now, following the story of English prose, what has happened. Its difficulty--the inherent, the native disability of prose--is to handle the high emotional moments which more properly belong to verse. Well, we strike into the line of our prose-writers, say as early as Malory. We come on this; of the Passing of Arthur:-- 'My time hieth fast,' said the king. Therefore said Arthur unto Sir Bedivere, 'Take thou Excalibur my good sword, and go with it to yonder water side; and when thou comest there I charge thee throw my sword in that water and come again and tell me what there thou seest.' 'My lord,' said Bedivere, 'Your commandment shall be done; and lightly bring you word again.' So Sir Bedivere departed, and by the way he beheld that noble sword, that the pommel and the haft was all of precious stones, and then he said to himself, 'If I throw this rich sword in the water, thereof shall never come good, but harm and loss.' And then Sir Bedivere hid Excaliber under a tree. And so, as soon as he might, he came again unto the king, and said he had been at the water and had thrown the sword into the water, 'What saw thou there?' said the king, 'Sir,' he said, 'I saw nothing but waves and winds.' Now I might say a dozen things of this and of the whole passage that follows, down to Arthur's last words. Specially might I speak to you of the music of its monosyllables--'"What sawest you there?" said the king... "Do as well as thou mayest; for in me is no trust for to trust in. For I will into the Vale of Avilion, to heal me of my grievous wound. And if thou hear never more of me, pray for my soul."' But, before making comment at all, I shall quote you another passage; this from Lord Berners' translation of Froissart, of the death of Robert Bruce:-- It fortuned that King Robert of Scotland was right sore aged and feeble: for he was greatly charged with the great sickness, so that there was no way for him but death. And when he felt that his end drew near, he sent for such barons and lords of his realm as he trusted best, and shewed them how there was no remedy with him, but he must needs leave this transitory life.... Then he called to him the gentle knight, Sir William Douglas, and said before all the lords, 'Sir William, my dear friend, ye know well that I have had much ado in my days to uphold and sustain the right of this realm; and when I had most ado I made a solemn vow, the which as yet I have not accomplished, whereof I am right sorry; the which was, if I might achieve and make an end of all my wars, so that I might once have brought this realm in rest and peace, then I promised in my mind to have gone and warred on Christ's enemies, adversaries to our holy Christian faith. To this purpose mine heart hath ever intended, but our Lord would not consent thereto... And sith it is so that my body can not go, nor achieve that my heart desireth, I will send the heart instead of the body, to accomplish mine avow... I will, that as soon as I am trespassed out of this world, that ye take my heart out of my body, and embalm it, and take of my treasure as ye shall think sufficient for that enterprise, both for yourself and such company as ye will take with you, and present my heart to the Holy Sepulchre, whereas our Lord lay, seeing my body can not come there. And take with you such company and purveyance as shall be appertaining to your estate. And, wheresoever ye come, let it be known how ye carry with you the heart of King Robert of Scotland, at his instance and desire to be presented to the Holy Sepulchre.' Then all the lords, that heard these words, wept for pity. There, in the fifteenth century and early in the sixteenth, you have Malory and Berners writing beautiful English prose; prose the emotion of which (I dare to say) you must recognise if you have ears to hear. So you see that already our English prose not only achieves the 'high moment,' but seems to obey it rather and be lifted by it, until we ask ourselves, 'Who could help writing nobly, having to tell how King Arthur died or how the Bruce?' Yes, but I bid you observe that Malory and Berners are both relating what, however noble, is quite simple, quite straightforward. It is when prose attempts to _philosophise_, to _express thoughts_ as well as to relate simple sayings and doings--it is then that the trouble begins. When Malory has to philosophise death, to _think_ about it, this is as far as he attains:-- 'Ah, Sir Lancelot,' said he, 'thou wert head of all Christian Knights! And now I dare say,' said Sir Ector, 'that, Sir Lancelot, there thou liest, thou were never matched of none earthly hands; and thou were the curtiest knight that ever bare shield: and thou were the truest friend to thy lover that ever strood horse, and thou were the truest lover of a sinful man that ever loved woman; and thou were the kindest man that ever strooke with sword; and thou were the goodliest person that ever came among press of knights; and thou were the meekest man and gentlest that ever sat in hall among ladies; and thou were the sternest Knight to thy mortal foe that ever put spear in the rest.' Beautiful again, I grant! But note you that, eloquent as he can be on the virtues of his dead friend, when Sir Ector comes to the thought of death itself all he can accomplish is, 'And now I dare say that, Sir Lancelot, there thou liest.' Let us make a leap in time and contrast this with Tyndale and the translators of our Bible, how they are able to make St Paul speak of death:-- So when this corruptible shall have put on incorruption, and this mortal shall have put on immortality, then shall be brought to pass the saying that is written, Death is swallowed up in victory. O death, where is thy sting? O grave, where is thy victory? There you have something clean beyond what Malory or Berners could compass: there you have a different kind of high moment--a high moment of philosophising: there you have emotion impregnated with thought. It was necessary that our English verse even after Chaucer, our English prose after Malory and Berners, should overcome this most difficult gap (which stands for a real intellectual difference) if it aspired to be what to-day it is--a language of the first class, comparable with Greek and certainly no whit inferior to Latin or French. * * * * * Let us leave prose for a moment, and see how Verse threw its bridge over the gap. If you would hear the note of Chaucer at its deepest, you will find it in the famous exquisite lines of the Prioress' Prologue:-- O moder mayde! O maydë moder fre! O bush unbrent, brenning in Moyses' sight! in the complaint of Troilus, in the rapture of Griselda restored to her children:-- O tendre, O dere, O yongë children myne, Your woful moder wendë stedfastly That cruel houndës or some foul vermyne Hadde eten you; but God of his mercy And your benignë fader tendrely Hath doon you kept... You will find a note quite as sincere in many a carol, many a ballad, of that time:-- He came al so still There his mother was, As dew in April That falleth on the grass. He came al so still To his mother's bour, As dew in April That falleth on the flour. He came al so still There his mother lay, As dew in April That falleth on the spray. Mother and maiden Was never none but she; Well may such a lady Goddes mother be. You get the most emotional note of the Ballad in such a stanza as this, from "The Nut-Brown Maid":-- Though it be sung of old and young That I should be to blame, Their's be the charge that speak so large In hurting of my name; For I will prove that faithful love It is devoid of shame; In your distress and heaviness To part with you the same: And sure all tho that do not so True lovers are they none: For, in my mind, of all mankind I love but you alone. All these notes, again, you will admit to be exquisite: but they gush straight from the unsophisticated heart: they are nowise deep save in innocent emotion: they are not _thoughtful_. So when Barbour breaks out in praise of Freedom, he cries A! Fredome is a noble thing! And that is really as far as he gets. He goes on Fredome mayse man to hafe liking. (Freedom makes man to choose what he likes; that is, makes him free) Fredome all solace to man giffis, He livis at ese that frely livis! A noble hart may haif nane ese, Na ellys nocht that may him plese, Gif fredome fail'th: for fre liking Is yharnit ouer all othir thing... --and so on for many lines; all saying the same thing, that man yearns for Freedom and is glad when he gets it, because then he is free; all hammering out the same observed fact, but all knocking vainly on the door of thought, which never opens to explain what Freedom _is_. Now let us take a leap as we did with prose, and 'taking off' from the Nut-Brown Maid's artless confession, in my mind, of all mankind I love but you alone, let us alight on a sonnet of Shakespeare's-- Thy bosom is endearéd with all hearts Which I by lacking have supposéd dead: And there reigns Love, and all Love's loving parts, And all those friends which I thought buriéd. How many a holy and obsequious tear Hath dear religious love stolen from mine eye As interest of the dead!--which now appear But things removed, that hidden in thee lie. Thou art the grave where buried love doth live, Hung with the trophies of my lovers gone, Who all their parts of me to thee did give; That due of many now is mine alone: Their images I loved I view in thee, And thou, all they, hast all the all of me. What a new way of talking about love! Not a happier way--there is less of heart's-ease in these doubts, delicacies, subtleties--but how much more thoughtful! How has our Nut-Brown Maid eaten of the tree of knowledge! Well, there happened a Shakespeare, to do this for English Verse: and Shakespeare was a miracle which I cheerfully leave others to rationalise for you, having, for my own part and so far as I have fared in life, found more profit in a capacity for simple wonder. But I can tell you how the path was made straight to that miracle. The shock of the New Learning upon Europe awoke men and unsealed men's eyes--unsealed the eyes of Englishmen in particular--to discover a literature, and the finest in the world, which _habitually philosophised life_: a literature which, whether in a chorus of Sophocles or a talk reported by Plato, or in a ribald page of Aristophanes or in a knotty chapter of Thucydides, was in one guise or another for ever asking _Why?_ 'What is man doing here, and why is he doing it?' 'What is his purpose? his destiny?' 'How stands he towards those unseen powers--call them the gods, or whatever you will--that guide and thwart, provoke, madden, control him so mysteriously?' 'What are these things we call good and evil, life, love, death?' These are questions which, once raised, haunt Man until he finds an answer--some sort of answer to satisfy him. Englishmen, hitherto content with the Church's answers but now aware of this great literature which answered so differently--and having other reasons to suspect what the Church said and did--grew aware that their literature had been as a child at play. It had never philosophised good and evil, life, love or death: it had no literary forms for doing this; it had not even the vocabulary. So our ancestors saw that to catch up their lee-way--to make their report worthy of this wonderful, alluring discovery--new literary forms had to be invented--new, that is, in English: the sonnet, the drama, the verse in which the actors were to declaim, the essay, the invented tale. Then, for the vocabulary, obviously our fathers had either to go to Greek, which had invented the A.B.C. of philosophising; or to seek in the other languages which were already ahead of English in adapting that alphabet; or to give our English Words new contents, new connotations, new meanings; or lastly, to do all three together. Well, it was done; and in verse very fortunately done; thanks of course to many men, but thanks to two especially--to Sir Thomas Wyat, who led our poets to Italy, to study and adopt the forms in which Italy had cast its classical heritage; and to Marlowe, who impressed blank verse upon the drama. Of Marlowe I shall say nothing; for with what he achieved you are familiar enough. Of Wyat I may speak at length to you, one of these days; but here, to prepare you for what I hope to prove--that Wyat is one of the heroes of our literature--I will give you three brief reasons why we should honour his memory:-- (1) He led the way. On the value of that service I shall content myself with quoting a passage from Newman:-- When a language has been cultivated in any particular department of thought, and so far as it has been generally perfected, an existing want has been supplied, and there is no need for further workmen. In its earliest times, while it is yet unformed, to write in it at all is almost a work of genius. It is like crossing a country before roads are made communicating between place and place. The authors of that age deserve to be Classics both because of what they do and because they can do it. It requires the courage and force of great talent to compose in the language at all; and the composition, when effected, makes a permanent impression on it. This Wyat did. He was a pioneer and opened up a new country to Englishmen. But he did more. (2) Secondly, he had the instinct to perceive that the lyric, if it would philosophise life, love, and the rest, must boldly introduce the personal note: since in fact when man asks questions about his fortune or destiny he asks them most effectively in the first person. 'What am _I_ doing? Why are _we_ mortal? Why do _I_ love _thee_?' This again Wyat did: and again he did more. For (3) thirdly--and because of this I am surest of his genius--again and again, using new thoughts in unfamiliar forms, he wrought out the result in language so direct, economical, natural, easy, that I know to this day no one who can better Wyat's best in combining straight speech with melodious cadence. Take the lines _Is it possible?_-- Is it possible? For to turn so oft; To bring that lowest that was most aloft: And to fall highest, yet to light soft? Is it possible? All is possible! Whoso list believe; Trust therefore first, and after preve; As men wed ladies by licence and leave, All is possible! or again-- Forget not! O forget not this!-- How long ago hath been, and is, The mind that never meant amiss: Forget not yet! or again (can personal note go straighter?)-- And wilt thou leave me thus? Say nay, say nay, for shame! To save thee from the blame --Of all my grief and grame. And wilt thou leave me thus? Say nay! say nay! (Say 'nay,' say 'nay'; and don't say, 'the answer is in the negative.') No: I have yet to mention the straightest, most natural of them all, and will read it to you in full-- What should I say? Since Faith is dead And Truth away From you is fled? Should I be led With doubleness? Nay! nay! mistress. I promised you And you promised me To be as true As I would be: But since I see Your double heart, Farewell my part! Thought for to take Is not my mind; But to forsake One so unkind; And as I find, So will I trust, Farewell, unjust! Can ye say nay But that you said That I alway Should be obeyed? And--thus betrayed Or that I wist! Farewell, unkist! I observe it noted on p. 169 of Volume iii of "The Cambridge History of English Literature" that Wyat 'was a pioneer and perfection was not to be expected of him. He has been described as a man stumbling over obstacles, continually falling but always pressing forward.' I know not to what wiseacre we owe that pronouncement: but what do you think of it, after the lyric I have just quoted? I observe, further, on p. 23 of the same volume of the same work, that the Rev. T. M. Lindsay, D.D., Principal of the Glasgow College of the United Free Church of Scotland, informs us of Wilson's "Arte of Rhetorique" that there is little or no originality in the volume, save, perhaps, the author's condemnation of the use of French and Italian phrases and idioms, which he complains are 'counterfeiting the kinges Englishe.' The warnings of Wilson will not seem untimely if to be remembered that the earlier English poets of the period--Sir Thomas Wyatt the elder, and the Earl of Surrey--drew their inspiration from Petrarch and Ariosto, that their earlier attempts at poetry were translations from Italian sonnets, and that their maturer efforts were imitations of the sweet and stately measures and style of Italian poesie. The polish which men like Wyatt and Surrey were praised for giving to our 'rude and homely manner of vulgar poesie' might have led to some degeneration. Might it, indeed? As another Dominie would have said, 'Pro-digious.' (Thought for to take Is not my mind; But to forsake This Principal of the Glasgow College of the United Free Church of Scotland-- Farewell unkiss'd!) But I have lingered too long with this favourite poet of mine and left myself room only to hand you the thread by following which you will come to the melodious philosophising of Shakespeare's Sonnets-- Let me not to the marriage of true Minds Admit impediment. Love is not love Which alters where it alteration finds Or bends with the remover to remove. Note the Latin words 'impediment,' 'alteration,' 'remove.' We are using the language of philosophy here or, rather, the 'universal language,' which had taken over the legacy of Greek. You may trace the use of it growing as, for example, you trace it through the Elizabethan song-books: and then (as I said) comes Shakespeare, and with Shakespeare the miracle. The education of Prose was more difficult, and went through more violent convulsions. I suppose that the most of us--if, after reading a quantity of Elizabethan prose, we had the courage to tell plain truth, undaunted by the name of a great epoch--would confess to finding the mass of it clotted in sense as well as unmusical in sound, a disappointment almost intolerable after the simple melodious clarity of Malory and Berners. I, at any rate, must own that the most of Elizabethan prose pleases me little; and I speak not of Elizabethan prose at its worst, of such stuff as disgraced the already disgraceful Martin Marprelate Controversy, but of such as a really ingenious and ingenuous man like Thomas Nashe could write at his average. For a sample:-- English Seneca read by candle-light yields many good sentences such as 'Blood is a beggar' and so forth; and if you entreat him fair on a frosty morning, he will afford you whole Hamlets, I should say handfuls of tragical speeches.... Sufficeth them [that is, modern followers of Seneca] to bodge up a blank verse with if's and and's, and others, while for recreation after their candle-stuff, having starched their beards most curiously, to make a peripatetical path into the inner parts of the city, and spend two or three hours in turning over the French _Doudie_, where they attract more infection in one minute than they can do eloquence all the days of their life by conversing with any authors of like argument. This may be worth studying historically, to understand the difficulties our prose had to encounter and overcome. But no one would seriously propose it as a model for those who would write well, which is our present business. I have called it 'clotted.' It is, to use a word of the time, 'farced' with conceits; it needs straining. Its one merit consists in this, that it is struggling, fumbling, to say something: that is, to _make_ something. It is not, like modern Jargon, trying to dodge something. English prose, in short, just here is passing through a period of puberty, of green sickness: and, looking at it historically, we may own that its throes are commensurate with the stature of the grown man to be. These throes tear it every way. On the one hand we have Ascham, pendantically enough, apologising that he writes in the English tongue (yet with a sure instinct he does it):-- If any man would blame me, either for taking such a matter in hand, or else for writing it in the English tongue, this answer I may make him, that what the best of the realm think it honest for them to use, I, one of the meanest sort, ought not to suppose it vile for me to write... And as for the Latin or Greek tongue, everything is so excellently done in them that none can do better. In the English tongue, contrary, everything in a manner so meanly, both for the matter and the handling, that no man can do worse. On the other hand you have Euphuism with its antithetical tricks and poises, taking all prose by storm for a time: Euphuism, to be revived two hundred years later, and find a new avatar in the Johnsonian balance; Euphuism, dead now, yet alive enough in its day. For all these writers were alive: and I tell you it is an inspiriting thing to be alive and trying to write English. All these authors were alive and trying to _do_ something. Unconsciously for the most part they were striving to philosophise the vocabulary of English prose and find a rhythm for its periods. And then, as already had happened to our Verse, to our Prose too there befel a miracle. You will not ask me 'What miracle?' I mean, of course, the Authorised Version of the Bible. I grant you, to be sure, that the path to the Authorised Version was made straight by previous translators, notably by William Tyndale. I grant you that Tyndale was a man of genius, and Wyclif before him a man of genius. I grant you that the forty-seven men who produced the Authorised Version worked in the main upon Tyndale's version, taking that for their basis. Nay, if you choose to say that Tyndale was a miracle in himself, I cheerfully grant you that as well. But, in a lecture one must not multiply miracles _praeter necessitatem_; and when Tyndale has been granted you have yet to face the miracle that forty-seven men--not one of them known, outside of this performance, for any superlative talent--sat in committee and almost consistently, over a vast extent of work--improved upon what Genius had done. I give you the word of an old committee-man that this is not the way of committees--that only by miracle is it the way of any committee. Doubtless the forty-seven were all good men and godly: but doubtless also good and godly were the Dean and Chapter who dealt with Alfred Steven's tomb of the Duke of Wellington in St Paul's Cathedral; and you know what _they_ did. Individual genius such as Tyndale's or even Shakespeare's, though we cannot explain it, we may admit as occurring somehow, and not incredibly, in the course of nature. But that a large committee of forty-seven should have gone steadily through the great mass of Holy Writ, seldom interfering with genius, yet, when interfering, seldom missing to improve: that a committee of forty-seven should have captured (or even, let us say, should have retained and improved) a rhythm so personal, so constant, that our Bible has the voice of one author speaking through its many mouths: that, Gentlemen, is a wonder before which I can only stand humble and aghast. Does it or does it not strike you as queer that the people who set you 'courses of study' in English Literature never include the Authorised Version, which not only intrinsically but historically is out and away the greatest book of English Prose. Perhaps they can pay you the silent compliment of supposing that you are perfectly acquainted with it?... I wonder. It seems as if they thought the Martin Marprelate Controversy, for example, more important somehow. 'So when this corruptible shall have put on incorruption, and this mortal shall have put on immortality...' 'Many waters cannot quench love, neither can the floods drown it: if a man would give all the substance of his house for love, it would utterly be contemned.' 'The king's daughter is all glorious within: her clothing is of wrought gold.' 'Thine eyes shall see the King in his beauty: they shall behold the land that is very far off.' 'And a man shall be as an hiding-place from the wind, and a covert from the tempest; as rivers of water in a dry place, as the shadow of a great rock in a weary land.' When a nation has achieved this manner of diction, those rhythms for its dearest beliefs, a literature is surely established. Just there I find the effective miracle, making the blind to see, the lame to leap. Wyclif, Tyndale, Coverdale and others before the forty-seven had wrought. The Authorised Version, setting a seal on all, set a seal on our national style, thinking and speaking. It has cadences homely and sublime, yet so harmonises them that the voice is always one. Simple men--holy and humble men of heart like Isaak Walton or Bunyan--have their lips touched and speak to the homelier tune. Proud men, scholars,--Milton, Sir Thomas Browne--practice the rolling Latin sentence; but upon the rhythms of our Bible they, too, fall back. 'The great mutations of the world are acted, or time may be too short for our designs.' 'Acquaint thyself with the Choragium of the stars.' 'There is nothing immortal but immortality.' The precise man Addison cannot excel one parable in brevity or in heavenly clarity: the two parts of Johnson's antithesis come to no more than this 'Our Lord has gone up to the sound of a trump: with the sound of a trump our Lord has gone up.' The Bible controls its enemy Gibbon as surely as it haunts the curious music of a light sentence of Thackeray's. It is in everything we see, hear, feel, because it is in us, in our blood. What madman, then, will say 'Thus or thus far shalt thou go' to a prose thus invented and thus with its free rhythms, after three hundred years, working on the imagination of Englishmen? Or who shall determine its range, whether of thought or of music? You have received it by inheritance, Gentlemen: it is yours, freely yours--to direct your words through life as well as your hearts. LECTURE VII SOME PRINCIPLES REAFFIRMED Thursday, May 29 Let me begin to-day, Gentlemen, with a footnote to my last lecture. It ended, as you may remember, upon an earnest appeal to you, if you would write good English, to study the Authorised Version of the Scriptures; to learn from it, moreover, how by mastering _rhythm_, our Prose overcame the capital difficulty of Prose and attuned itself to rival its twin instrument, Verse; compassing almost equally with Verse man's thought however sublime, his emotion however profound. Now in the course of my remarks I happened--maybe a little incautiously--to call the Authorised Version a 'miracle'; using that word in a colloquial sense, in which no doubt you accepted it; meaning no more than that the thing passed my understanding. I have allowed that the famous forty-seven owed an immense deal to earlier translators--to the Bishops, to Tyndale, to the Wyclif Version, as themselves allowed it eagerly in their preface:-- Truly (good Christian reader) wee never thought from the beginning that we should needs to make a new Translation, nor yet to make of a bad one a good one ... but to make a good one better, or out of many good ones one principall good one, not justly to be excepted against: that hath bene our indeavour, that our marke. (See [Footnote 1] at the end of this lecture.) Nevertheless the Authorised Version astounds me, as I believe it will astound you when you compare it with earlier translations. Aristotle (it has been said) invented Chance to cover the astonishing fact that there were certain phenomena for which he found himself wholly unable to account. Just so, if one may compare very small things with very great, I spoke of the Authorised Version as a 'miracle.' It was, it remains, marvellous to me. Should these deciduous discourses ever come to be pressed within the leaves of a book, I believe their general meaning will be as clear to readers as I hope it is to you who give me so much pleasure by pursuing them--almost (shall I say?) like Wordsworth's Kitten with those other falling leaves:-- That almost I could repine That your transports are not mine. But meanwhile certain writers in the newspapers are assuming that by this word 'miracle' I meant to suggest to you a something like plenary inspiration at once supernatural and so authoritative that it were sacrilege now to alter their text by one jot or tittle. Believe me, I intended nothing of the sort: for that, in my plain opinion, would be to make a fetish of the book. One of these days I hope to discuss with you what inspiration is: with what accuracy--with what meaning, if any--we can say of a poet that he is inspired; questions which have puzzled many wise men from Plato downwards. But certainly I never dreamt of claiming plenary inspiration for the forty-seven. Nay, if you will have it, they now and again wrote stark nonsense. Remember that I used this very same word 'miracle' of Shakespeare, meaning again that the total Shakespeare quite outpasses my comprehension; yet Shakespeare, too, on occasion talks stark nonsense, or at any rate stark bombast. He never blotted a line--'I would he had blotted a thousand' says Ben Jonson: and Ben Jonson was right. Shakespeare could have blotted out two or three thousand lines: he was great enough to afford it. Somewhere Matthew Arnold supposes us as challenging Shakespeare over this and that weak or bombastic passage, and Shakespeare answering with his tolerant smile, that no doubt we were right, but after all, 'Did it greatly matter?' So we offer no real derogation to the forty-seven in asserting that here and there they wrote nonsense. They could afford it. But we do stultify criticism if, adoring the grand total of wisdom and beauty, we prostrate ourselves indiscriminately before what is good and what is bad, what is sublime sense and what is nonsense, and forbid any reviser to put forth a hand to the ark. The most of us Christians go to church on Christmas Day, and there we listen to this from Isaiah, chapter ix, verses 1-7:-- Nevertheless the dimness shall not be such as was in her vexation, when at the first he lightly afflicted the land of Zebulun and the land of Naphtali, and afterwards did more grievously afflict her by the way of the sea, beyond Jordan, in Galilee of the nations. The people that walked in darkness have seen a great light: they that dwell in the land of the shadow of death, upon them hath the light shined. Thou hast multiplied the nation, and not increased the joy: they joy before thee according to the joy in harvest, and as men rejoice when they divide the spoil. For thou hast broken the yoke of his burden, and the staff of his shoulder, the rod of his oppressor, as in the day of Midian. For every battle of the warrior is with confused noise, and garments rolled in blood: but this shall be with burning and fuel of fire. For unto us a child is born, unto us a son is given. The forty-seven keep their majestic rhythm. But have you ever, sitting in church on a Christmas morning, asked yourself what it all means, or if it mean anything more than a sing-song according somehow with the holly and ivy around the pillars? _'Thou hast multiplied the nation, and not increased the joy: they joy before thee according to the joy in harvest,'_ But why--if the joy be not increased? _'For every battle of the warrior is with confused noise, and garments rolled in blood: but this shall be with burning and fuel of fire.'_ Granted the rhythmical antithesis, where is the real antithesis, the difference, the improvement? If a battle there must be, how is burning better than garments rolled in blood? And, in fine, what is it all about? Now let us turn to the Revised Version:-- But there shall be no gloom to her that was in anguish. In the former time he brought into contempt the land of Zebulun and the land of Naphtali, but in the latter time hath he made it glorious, by the way of the sea, beyond Jordan, Galilee of the nations. The people that walked in darkness have seen a great light: they that dwelt in the land of the shadow of death, upon them hath the light shined. Thou hast multiplied the nation, thou hast increased their joy: they joy before thee according to the joy in harvest, as men rejoice when they divide the spoil. For the yoke of his burden, and the staff of his shoulder, the rod of his oppressor, thou hast broken as in the day of Midian. For all the armour of the armed man in the tumult, and the garments rolled in blood, shall even be for burning, for fuel of fire. For unto us a child is born, unto us a son is given; and the government shall be upon his shoulder: and his name shall be called Wonderful, Counsellor, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace. I say (knowing no Hebrew, merely assuming our Revisers to be at least no worse scholars than the forty-seven) that here, with the old cadences kept so far as possible, we are given sense in place of nonsense: and I ask you to come to the Revised Version with a fair mind. I myself came to it with some prejudice; in complete ignorance of Hebrew, and with no more than the usual amount of Hellenistic Greek. I grant at once that the Revised New Testament was a literary fiasco; largely due (if gossip may be trusted) to trouble with the Greek Aorist, and an unwise decision--in my opinion the most gratuitously unwise a translator can take--to use one and the same English word, always and in every connotation, as representing one and the same Greek word: for in any two languages few words are precisely equivalent. A fiasco at any rate the Revised New Testament was, deserving in a dozen ways and in a thousand passages the scorn which Professor Saintsbury has recently heaped on it. But I protest against the injustice of treating the two Revisions--of the New Testament and of the Old--as a single work, and saddling the whole with the sins of a part. For two years I spent half-an-hour daily in reading the Authorised and Revised Versions side by side, marking as I went, and in this way worked through the whole--Old Testament, Apocrypha, New Testament. I came to it (as I have said) with some prejudice; but I closed the books on a conviction, which my notes sustain for me, that the Revisers of the Old Testament performed their task delicately, scrupulously, on the whole with great good judgment; that the critic does a wrong who brings them under his indiscriminate censure; that on the whole they have clarified the sense of the Authorised Version while respecting its consecrated rhythms; and that--to name an example, that you may test my words and judge for yourselves--the solemn splendour of that most wonderful poem, the story of Job, [Greek: dialampei], 'shines through' the new translation as it never shone through the old. * * * * * And now Gentlemen (as George Herbert said on a famous occasion), let us tune our instruments. Before discussing with you another and highly important question of style in writing, I will ask you to look back for a few moments on the road we have travelled. We have agreed that our writing should be _appropriate_: that it should fit the occasion; that it should rise and fall with the subject, be grave where that is serious, where it is light not afraid of what Stevenson in "The Wrong Box" calls 'a little judicious levity.' If your writing observe these precepts, it will be well-mannered writing. To be sure, much in addition will depend on yourself--on what you are or have made yourself, since in writing the style can never be separated from the man. But neither can it in the practice of virtue: yet, though men differ in character, I do not observe that moralists forbear from laying down general rules of excellence. Now if you will recall our further conclusion, that writing to be good must be persuasive (since persuasion is the only true intellectual process), and will test this by a passage of Newman's I am presently to quote to you, from his famous 'definition of a gentleman,' I think you will guess pretty accurately the general law of excellence I would have you, as Cambridge men, tribally and particularly obey. Newman says of a gentleman that among other things: He is never mean or little in his disputes, never takes unfair advantage, never mistakes personalities or sharp sayings for arguments, or insinuates evil which he dare not say out.... If he engages in controversy of any kind, his disciplined intellect preserves him from the blundering discourtesy of better perhaps, but less educated minds; who, like blunt weapons, tear and hack instead of cutting clean, who mistake the point in argument, waste their strength on trifles, misconceive their adversary, and leave the question more involved than they found it. He may be right or wrong in his opinion: but he is too clear-sighted to be unjust. He is simple as he is forcible, and as brief as he is decisive. Enough for the moment on this subject: but commit these words to your hearts, and you will not only triumph in newspaper controversy. You will do better: you will avoid it. To proceed.--We found further that our writing should be _accurate_: because language expresses thought--is, indeed, the only expression of thought--and if we lack the skill to speak precisely, our thought will remain confused, ill-defined. The editor of a mining paper in Denver, U.S.A., boldly the other day laid down this law, that niceties of language were mere 'frills': all a man needed was to 'get there,' that is, to say what he wished in his own way. But just here, we found, lies the mischief. You will not get there by hammering away on your own untutored impulse. You must first be your own reader, chiselling out the thought definitely for yourself: and, after that, must carve out the intaglio yet more sharply and neatly, if you would impress its image accurately upon the wax of other men's minds. We found that even for Men of Science this neat clean carving of words was a very necessary accomplishment. As Sir James Barrie once observed, 'The Man of Science appears to be the only man who has something to say, just now--and the only man who does not know how to say it.' But the trouble by no means ends with Science. Our poets--those gifted strangely prehensile men who, as I said in my first lecture, seem to be born with filaments by which they apprehend, and along which they conduct, the half-secrets of life to us ordinary mortals--our poets would appear to be scamping artistic labour, neglecting to reduce the vague impressions to the clearly cut image which is, after all, what helps. It may be a triumph that they have taught modern French poetry to be suggestive. I think it would be more profitable could they learn from France--that nation of fine workmen--to be definite. But about 'getting there'--I ask you to remember Wolfe, with the seal of his fate on him, stepping into his bateau on the dark St. Lawrence River and quoting as they tided him over:-- The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, Await alike th' inevitable hour; The paths of glory lead but to the grave. 'I had rather have written those lines,' said Wolfe, 'than conquer Canada.' That is how our forefathers valued noble writing. The Denver editor holds that you may write as you please so long as you get there. Well, Wolfe got there: and so, in Wolfe's opinion, did Gray: but perhaps to Wolfe and Gray, and to the Denver editor, 'there' happened to mean two different places. Wolfe got to the Heights of Abraham. Further, it was against this loose adaptation of words to thought and to things that we protested in our interpolated lecture on Jargon, which is not so much bad writing as the avoidance of writing. The man who employs Jargon does not get 'there' at all, even in a raw rough pioneering fashion: he just walks around 'there' in the ambient tracks of others. Let me fly as high as I can and quote you two recent achievements by Cabinet Ministers, as reported in the Press:--(1) 'Mr McKenna's reasons for releasing from Holloway Prison Miss Lenton while on remand charged _in connexion with_ (sweet phrase!) the firing of the tea pavilion in Kew Gardens are given in a letter which he has _caused to be forwarded_ to a correspondent who inquired _as to_ the circumstances of the release. The letter says "I am desired by the Home Secretary to say that Lilian Lenton was reported by the medical officer at Holloway Prison to be in a state of collapse and in imminent danger of death _consequent upon_ her refusal to take food. Three courses were open--(1) To leave her to die; (2) To attempt to feed her forcibly, which the medical officer advised would probably entail death in her existing condition: (3) To release her. The Home Secretary adopted the last course."' 'Would probably entail death in her existing condition'! Will anyone tell me how Mr McKenna or anyone else could kill, or (as he prefers to put it) entail death upon, Miss Lenton in a non-existing condition? (2) Next take the Chancellor of the Exchequer. As we know, the Chancellor of the Exchequer can use incisive speech when he chooses. On May 8th as reported in next day's "Morning Post," Mr Lloyd George, answering a question, delivered himself of this to an attentive Senate:-- With regard to Mr Noel Buxton's questions, I cannot answer for an enquiry which is _of a private and confidential character_, for although I am associated with it I am not associated with it as a Minister of the Crown.... Those enquiries are of a very careful systematic and scientific character, and are being conducted by the ablest investigators in this country, some of whom have reputations of international character. I am glad to think that the investigation is of a most impartial character. It must be a comforting thought, that an inquiry of a private and confidential character is also of a very systematic and scientific character, and besides being of a most impartial character, is conducted by men of international character--whatever that may happen to mean. What _is_ an international character, and what would you give for one? We found that this way of talking, while pretending to be something pontifical, is really not prose at all, nor reputable speech at all, but Jargon; nor is the offence to be excused by pleading, as I have heard it pleaded, that Mr Lloyd George was not using his own phraseology but quoting from a paper supplied him by some permanent official of the Treasury: since we select our civil servants among men of decent education and their salaries warrant our stipulating that they shall be able, at least, to speak and write their mother tongue. We laid down certain rules to help us in the way of straight Prose:-- (1) _Always always prefer the concrete word to the abstract._ (2) _Almost always prefer the direct word to the circumlocution._ (3) _Generally, use transitive verbs, that strike their object; and use them in the active voice, eschewing the stationary passive, with its little auxiliary its's and was's, and its participles getting into the light of your adjectives, which should be few. For, as a rough law, by his use of the straight verb and by his economy of adjectives you can tell a man's style, if it be masculine or neuter, writing or 'composition.'_ The authors of that capital handbook "The King's English," which I have already recommended to you, add two rules:-- (4) _Prefer the short word to the long._ (5) _Prefer the Saxon word to the Romance._ But these two precepts you would have to modify by so long a string of exceptions that I do not commend them to you. In fact I think them false in theory and likely to be fatal in practice. For, as my last lecture tried to show, you no sooner begin to philosophise things instead of merely telling a tale of them than you must go to the Mediterranean languages: because in these man first learnt to discuss his 'why' and 'how,' and these languages yet guard the vocabulary. Lastly, we saw how, by experimenting with rhythm, our prose 'broke its birth's invidious bar' and learnt to scale the forbidden heights. Now by attending to the few plain rules given above you may train yourselves to write sound, straightforward, work-a-day English. But if you would write melodious English, I fear the gods will require of you what they ought to have given you at birth--something of an ear. Yet the most of us have ears, of sorts; and I believe that, though we can only acquire it by assiduous practice, the most of us can wonderfully improve our talent of the ear. If you will possess yourselves of a copy of Quintilian or borrow one from any library (Bohn's translation will do) and turn to his 9th book, you will find a hundred ways indicated, illustrated, classified, in which a writer or speaker can vary his Style, modulate it, lift or depress it, regulate its balance. All these rules, separately worth studying, if taken together may easily bewilder and dishearten you. Let me choose just two, and try to hearten you by showing that, even with these two only, you can go a long way. Take the use of right emphasis. What Quintilian says of right emphasis--or the most important thing he says--is this:-- There is sometimes an extraordinary force in some particular word, which, if it be placed in no very conspicuous position in the middle part of a sentence, is likely to escape the attention of the hearer and to be obscured by the words surrounding it; but if it be put at the end of the sentence is urged upon the reader's sense and imprinted on his mind. That seems obvious enough, for English use as well as for Latin. 'The wages of sin is Death'--anyone can see how much more emphatic that is than 'Death is the wages of sin.' But let your minds work on this matter of emphasis, and discover how emphasis has always its right point somewhere, though it be not at all necessarily at the end of the sentence. Take a sentence in which the strong words actually repeat themselves for emphasis:-- Babylon is fallen, is fallen, that great city. Our first impulse would be to place the emphasis at the end:-- Babylon, that great city, is fallen, is fallen. The Latin puts it at the beginning:-- Cecidit, cecidit, Babylonia illa magna. Fallen, fallen, is Babylon, that great city. The forty-seven preserved the 'falling close' so exquisite in the Latin; the emphasis, already secured by repetition, they accentuated by lengthening the pause. I would urge on you that in every sentence there is just a right point of emphasis which you must train your ears to detect. So your writing will acquire not only emphasis, but balance, and you will instinctively avoid such an ill-emphasised sentence as this, which, not naming the author, I will quote for your delectation:-- 'Are Japanese Aprils always as lovely as this?' asked the man in the light tweed suit of two others in immaculate flannels with crimson sashes round their waists and puggarees folded in cunning plaits round their broad Terai hats. Explore, next, what (though critics have strangely neglected it) to my mind stands the first, or almost the first, secret of beautiful writing in English, whether in prose or in verse; I mean that inter-play of vowel-sounds in which no language can match us. We have so many vowel sounds indeed, and so few vowels to express them, that the foreigner, mistaking our modesty, complains against God's plenty. We alone, for example, sound by a natural vowel that noble _I_, which other nations can only compass by diphthongs. Let us consider that vowel for a moment or two and mark how it leads off the dance of the Graces, its sisters:-- Arise, shine; for thy light is come, and the glory of the Lord is risen upon thee. Mark how expressively it drops to the solemn vowel 'O,' and anon how expressively it reasserts itself to express rearisen delight:-- Arise, shine, for thy light is come, and the glory of the Lord is risen upon thee. For behold the darkness shall cover the earth, and gross darkness the people: but the Lord shall arise upon thee, and his glory shall be seen upon thee. And the Gentiles shall come to thy light, and Kings to the brightness of thy rising. Take another passage in which the first lift of this _I_ vowel yields to its graver sisters as though the sound sank into the very heart of the sense. I will arise and go to my father, and will say unto him, 'Father, I have sinned against heaven, and before thee, and am no more worthy to be called thy son.' 'And am no more worthy to be called thy son.' Mark the deep O's. 'For this my son was dead and is alive again; he was lost and is found.' 'O my son, my son Absalom'--observe the I and O how they interchime, until the O of sorrow tolls the lighter note down:-- O my son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom! Would God I had died for thee, O Absolom, my son, my son! Or take this lyric, by admission one of the loveliest written in this present age, and mark here too how the vowels play and ring and chime and toll. I will arise and go now, and go to Innisfree, And a small cabin build there, of clay and wattles made; Nine bean rows will I have there, a hive for the honey bee, And live alone in the bee-loud glade.[2] And I shall have some peace there, for peace comes dropping slow, Dropping from the veils of the morning to where the cricket sings; There midnight's all a glimmer, and noon a purple glow, And evening full of the linnet's wings. I will arise and go now, for always night and day I hear lake-water lapping, with low sounds by the shore; While I stand on the roadway, or on the pavements grey, I hear it in the deep heart's core. I think if you will but open your ears to this beautiful vowel-play which runs through all the best of our prose and poetry, whether you ever learn to master it or not, you will have acquired a new delight, and one various enough to last you though you live to a very old age. All this of which I am speaking is Art: and Literature being an Art, do you not see how personal a thing it is--how it cannot escape being personal? No two men (unless they talk Jargon) say the same thing in the same way. As is a man's imagination, as is his character, as is the harmony in himself, as is his ear, as is his skill, so and not otherwise he will speak, so and not otherwise than they can respond to that imagination, that character, that order of his intellect, that harmony of his soul, his hearers will hear him. Let me conclude with this great passage from Newman which I beg you, having heard it, to ponder:-- If then the power of speech is as great as any that can be named, --if the origin of language is by many philosophers considered nothing short of divine--if by means of words the secrets of the heart are brought to light, pain of soul is relieved, hidden grief is carried off, sympathy conveyed, experience recorded, and wisdom perpetuated,--if by great authors the many are drawn up into unity, national character is fixed, a people speaks, the past and the future, the East and the West are brought into communication with each other,--if such men are, in a word, the spokesmen and the prophets of the human family--it will not answer to make light of Literature or to neglect its study: rather we may be sure that, in proportion as we master it in whatever language, and imbibe its spirit, we shall ourselves become in our own measure the ministers of like benefits to others--be they many or few, be they in the obscurer or the more distinguished walks of life--who are united to us by social ties, and are within the sphere of our personal influence. [Footnote 1: I append the following specimen translations of the famous passage in St Paul's "First Epistle to the Corinthians" xv. 51 sqq. I choose this because (1) it is an important passage; (2) it touches a high moment of philosophising; (3) the comparison seems to me to represent with great fairness to Tyndale the extent of the forty-seven's debt to him; (4) it shows that they meant exactly what they said in their Preface; and (5) it illustrates, towards the close, their genius for improvement. From the Greek, Wyclif translates:-- Lo, I seie to you pryvyte of holi thingis | and alle we schulen rise agen | but not alle we schuln be chaungid | in a moment in the twynkelynge of an yë, in the last trumpe | for the trumpe schal sowne: and deed men schulen rise agen with out corrupcion, and we schuln be changid | for it bihoveth this corruptible thing to clothe uncorropcion and this deedly thing to putte aweye undeedlynesse. But whanne this deedli thing schal clothe undeedlynesse | thanne schal the word be don that is written | deeth is sopun up in victorie | deeth, where is thi victorie? deeth, where is thi pricke? Tyndale:-- Beholde I shewe you a mystery. We shall not all slepe: but we shall all be chaunged | and that in a moment | and in the twinclinge of an eye | at the sounde of the last trompe. For the trompe shall blowe, and the deed shall ryse incorruptible and we shalbe chaunged. For this corruptible must put on incorruptibilite: and this mortall must put on immortalite. When this corruptible hath put on incorruptibilite | and this mortall hath put on immortalite: than shalbe brought to pass the saying that is written, 'Deeth is consumed in to victory.' Deeth, where is thy stynge? Hell, where is thy victory? The Authorised Version:-- Behold, I shew you a mystery; we shall not all sleepe, but wee shall all be changed, in a moment, in the twinckling of an eye, at the last trumpe, (for the trumpet shall sound, and the dead shall be raised incorruptible, and we shall be changed). For this corruptible must put on incorruption, and this mortall must put on immortalitie. So when this corruptible shall have put on incorruption, and this mortall shall have put on immortality, then shall be brought to passe the saying that is written, 'Death is swallowed up in victory.' O Death, where is thy sting? O grave, where is thy victory?] [Footnote 2: I E O : I O E I O : E OU A 'As musing slow, I hail ('as m_u_sing sl_o_w _I_ ha_i_l) Thy genial loved return.' (Th_y_ g_e_nial l_o_ved ret_u_rn.') COLLINS, "Ode to Evening."] LECTURE VIII. ON THE LINEAGE OF ENGLISH LITERATURE (I) Wednesday, October 22 You may think it strange, Gentlemen, that of a course of ten lectures which aim to treat English Literature as an affair of practice, I should propose to spend two in discussing our literary lineage: a man's lineage and geniture being reckoned, as a rule, among the things he cannot be reasonably asked to amend. But since of high breeding is begotten (as most of us believe) a disposition to high thoughts, high deeds; since to have it and be modestly conscious of it is to carry within us a faithful monitor persuading us to whatsoever in conduct is gentle, honourable, of good repute, and so silently dissuading us from base thoughts, low ends, ignoble gains; seeing, moreover, that a man will often do more to match his father's virtue than he would to improve himself; I shall endeavour, in this and my next lecture, to scour that spur of ancestry and present it to you as so bright and sharp an incentive that you, who read English Literature and practise writing here in Cambridge, shall not pass out from her insensible of the dignity of your studies, or without pride or remorse according as you have interpreted in practice the motto, _Noblesse oblige_. 'Tis wisdom, and that high, For men to use their fortune reverently Even in youth. Let me add that, just as a knowledge of his family failings will help one man in economising his estate, or warn another to shun for his health the pleasures of the table, so some knowledge of our lineage in letters may put us, as Englishmen, on the watch for certain national defects (for such we have), on our guard against certain sins which too easily beset us. Nay, this watchfulness may well reach down from matters of great moment to seeming trifles. It is good for us to recognise with Wordsworth that We must be free or die, who speak the tongue That Shakespeare spake; the faith and morals hold Which Milton held. In everything we are sprung Of Earth's first blood, have titles manifold. But, though less important, it is good also to recognise that, as sons of Cambridge, we equally offend against her breeding when in our scientific writings we allow ourselves to talk of a microbe as an 'antibody.' Now, because a great deal of what I have to say this morning, if not heretical, will yet run contrary to the vogue and practice of the Schools for these thirty years, I will take the leap into my subject over a greater man's back and ask you to listen with particular attention to the following long passage from a writer whose opinion you may challenge, but whose authority to speak as a master of English prose no one in this room will deny. When (says Cardinal Newman) we survey the stream of human affairs for the last three thousand years, we find it to run thus:--At first sight there is so much fluctuation, agitation, ebbing and flowing, that we may despair to discern any law in its movements, taking the earth as its bed and mankind as its contents; but on looking more closely and attentively we shall discern, in spite of the heterogeneous materials and the various histories and fortunes which are found in the race of man during the long period I have mentioned, a certain formation amid the chaos--one and one only,--and extending, though not over the whole earth, yet through a very considerable portion of it. Man is a social being and can hardly exist without society, and in matter of fact societies have ever existed all over the habitable earth. The greater part of these associations have been political or religious, and have been comparatively limited in extent and temporary. They have been formed and dissolved by the force of accidents, or by inevitable circumstances; and when we have enumerated them one by one we have made of them all that can be made. But there is one remarkable association which attracts the attention of the philosopher, not political nor religious--or at least only partially and not essentially such--which began in the earliest times and grew with each succeeding age till it reached its complete development, and then continued on, vigorous and unwearied, and still remains as definite and as firm as ever it was. Its bond is a _common civilisation_: and though there are other civilisations in the world, as there are other societies, yet _this_ civilisation, together with the society which is its creation and its home, is so distinctive and luminous in its character, so imperial in its extent, so imposing in its duration, and so utterly without rival on the face of the earth, that the association may fitly assume to itself the title of 'Human Society,' and _its_ civilisation the abstract term 'Civilisation.' There are indeed great outlying portions of mankind which are not, perhaps never have been, included in this Human Society; still they are outlying portions and nothing else, fragmentary, unsociable, solitary and unmeaning, protesting and revolting against the grand central formation of which I am speaking, but not uniting with each other into a second whole. I am not denying, of course, the civilisation of the Chinese, for instance, though it be not our civilisation; but it is a huge, stationary, unattractive, morose civilisation. Nor do I deny a civilisation to the Hindoos, nor to the ancient Mexicans, nor to the Saracens, nor (in a certain sense) to the Turks; but each of these races has its own civilisation, as separate from one another as from ours. I do not see how they can be all brought under one idea.... Gentlemen, let me here observe that I am not entering upon the question of races, or upon their history. I have nothing to do with ethnology; I take things as I find them on the surface of history and am but classifying phenomena. Looking, then, at the countries which surround the Mediterranean Sea as a whole, I see them to be from time immemorial, the seat of an association of intellect and mind such as to deserve to be called the Intellect and the Mind of the Human Kind. Starting as it does, and advancing from certain centres, till their respective influences intersect and conflict, and then at length intermingle and combine, a common Thought has been generated, and a common Civilisation defined and established. Egypt is one such starting point, Syria, another, Greece a third, Italy a fourth and North Africa a fifth--afterwards France and Spain. As time goes on, and as colonisation and conquest work their changes, we see a great association of nations formed, of which the Roman Empire is the maturity and the most intelligible expression: an association, however, not political but mental, based on the same intellectual ideas and advancing by common intellectual methods.... In its earliest age it included far more of the Eastern world than it has since; in these later times it has taken into its compass a new hemisphere; in the Middle Ages it lost Africa, Egypt and Syria, and extended itself to Germany, Scandinavia and the British Isles. At one time its territory was flooded by strange and barbarous races, but the existing civilisation was vigorous enough to vivify what threatened to stifle it, and to assimilate to the old social forms what came to expel them: and thus the civilisation of modern times remains what it was of old; not Chinese, or Hindoo, or Mexican, or Saracen ... but the lineal descendant, or rather the continuation--_mutatis mutandis_--of the civilisation which began in Palestine and Greece. To omit, then, all minor debts such as what of arithmetic, what of astronomy, what of geography, we owe to the Saracen, from Palestine we derive the faith of Europe shared (in the language of the Bidding Prayer) by all Christian people dispersed throughout the world; as to Greece we owe the rudiments of our Western art, philosophy, letters; and not only the rudiments but the continuing inspiration, so that--though entirely superseded in worship, as even in the Athens of Pericles they were worshipped only by an easy, urbane, more than half humorous tolerance--Apollo and the Muses, Zeus and the great ones of Olympus, Hermes and Hephaestus, Athene in her armour, with her vanquisher the foam-born irresistible Aphrodite, these remain the authentic gods of our literature, beside whom the gods of northern Europe--Odin, Thor, Freya--are strangers, unhomely, uncanny as the shadows of unfamiliar furniture on the walls of an inn. Sprung though great numbers of us are from the loins of Northmen, it is in these gracious deities of the South that we find the familiar and the real, as from the heroes of the sister-island, Cucullain and Concobar, we turn to Hercules, to Perseus, to Bellerophon, even to actual men of history, saying 'Give us Leonidas, give us Horatius, give us Regulus. These are the mighty ones we understand, and from whom, in a direct line of tradition, we understand Harry of Agincourt, Philip Sidney and our Nelson.' Now since, of the Mediterranean peoples, the Hebrews discovered the Unseen God whom the body of Western civilisation has learnt to worship; since the Greeks invented art, philosophy, letters; since Rome found and developed the idea of imperial government, of imperial colonies as superseding merely fissiparous ones, of settling where she conquered (_ubi Romanus vicit ibi habitat_) and so extending with Government that system of law which Europe still obeys; we cannot be surprised that Israel, Greece, Rome--each in turn--set store on a pure ancestry. Though Christ be the veritable Son of God, his ancestry must be traced back through his supposed father Joseph to the stem of Jesse, and so to Abraham, father of the race. Again, as jealously as the Evangelist claimed Jesus for a Hebrew of the Hebrews, so, if you will turn to the "Menexenus" of Plato in the Oration of Aspasia over the dead who perished in battle, you hear her claim that 'No Pelopes nor Cadmians, nor Egyptians, nor Dauni, nor the rest of the crowd of born foreigners dwell with us; but ours is the land of pure Hellenes, free from admixture.' These proud Athenians, as you know, wore brooches in the shape of golden grasshoppers, to signify that they were [Greek: autochthones], children of Attica, sprung direct from her soil. And so, again, the true Roman, while enlarging Rome's citizenship over Asia, Africa, Gaul, to our remote Britain, insisted, even in days of the later Empire, on his pure descent from Æneas and Romulus-- Unde Remnes et Quirites proque prole posterum Romuli matrem crearet et nepotem Cæsarem. With the Ramnes, Quirites, together ancestrally proud as they drew From Romulus down to our Cæsar-last, best of that blood, of that threw. Here is a boast that we English must be content to forgo. We may wear a rose on St George's day, if we are clever enough to grow one. The Welsh, I dare say, have less difficulty with the leek. But April the 23rd is not a time of roses that we can pluck them as we pass, nor can we claim St George as a compatriot--_Cappadocius nostras_. We have, to be sure, a few legendary heroes, of whom King Arthur and Robin Hood are (I suppose) the greatest; but, save in some Celtic corners of the land, we have few fairies, and these no great matter; while, as for tutelary gods, our springs, our wells, our groves, cliffs, mountain-sides, either never possessed them or possess them no longer. Not of our landscape did it happen that The lonely mountains o'er, And the resounding shore, A voice of weeping heard, and loud lament; From haunted spring and dale Edg'd with poplar pale, The parting Genius is with sighing sent. --for the sufficient reason that no tutelary gods of importance were ever here to be dispersed. Let me press this home upon you by an illustration which I choose with the double purpose of enforcing my argument and sending you to make acquaintance (if you have not already made it) with one of the loveliest poems written in our time. In one of Pliny's letters you will find a very pleasant description of the source of the Clitumnus, a small Umbrian river which, springing from a rock in a grove of cypresses, descends into the Tinia, a tributary of the Tiber. 'Have you ever,' writes Pliny to his friend Romanus-- Have you ever seen the source of the Clitumnus? I suppose not, as I never heard you mention it. Let me advise you to go there at once. I have just visited it and am sorry that I put off my visit so long. At the foot of a little hill, covered with old and shady cypress trees, a spring gushes and bursts into a number of streamlets of various size. Breaking, so to speak, forth from its imprisonment, it expands into a broad basin, so clear and transparent that you may count the pebbles and little pieces of money which are thrown into it. From this point the force and weight of the water, rather than the slope of the ground, hurry it onward. What was a mere spring becomes a noble river, broad enough to allow vessels to pass each other as they sail with or against the stream. The current is so strong, though the ground is level, that barges of beam, as they go down, require no assistance of oars; while to go up is as much as can be done with oars and long poles.... The banks are clothed with abundant ash and poplar, so distinctly reflected in the transparent waters that they seem to be growing at the bottom of the river and can be counted with ease. The water is as cold as snow and as pure in colour. Hard by the spring stands an ancient and venerable temple with a statue of the river-god Clitumnus, clothed in the customary robe of state. The Oracles here delivered attest the presence of the deity. Close in the precinct stand several little chapels dedicated to particular gods, each of whom owns his distinctive name and special worship, and is the tutelary deity of a runlet. For beside the principal spring, which is, as it were, the parent of all the rest, there are several smaller ones which have their distinct sources but unite their waters with the Clitumnus, over which a bridge is thrown, separating the sacred part of the river from that which is open to general use. Above the bridge you may only go in a boat; below it, you may swim. The people of the town of Hispallum, to whom Augustus gave this place, furnish baths and lodgings at the public expense. There are several small dwelling-houses on the banks, in specially picturesque situations, and they stand quite close to the waterside. In short, everything in the neighbourhood will give you pleasure. You may also amuse yourself with numberless inscriptions on the pillars and walls, celebrating the praises of the stream and of its tutelary god. Many of these you will admire, and some will make you laugh. But no! You are too well cultivated to laugh at such things. Farewell. Clitumnus still gushes from its rocks among the cypresses, as in Pliny's day. The god has gone from his temple, on the frieze of which you may read this later inscription--'_Deus Angelorum, qui fecit Resurrectionem._' After many centuries and almost in our day, by the brain of Cavour and the sword of Garibaldi, he has made a resurrection for Italy. As part of that resurrection (for no nation can live and be great without its poet) was born a true poet, Carducci. He visited the bountiful, everlasting source, and of what did he sing? Possess yourselves, as for a shilling you may, of his Ode "Alle fonte del Clitumno," and read: for few nobler poems have adorned our time. He sang of the weeping willow, the ilex, ivy, cypress and the presence of the god still immanent among them. He sang of Umbria, of the ensigns of Rome, of Hannibal swooping down over the Alps; he sang of the nuptials of Janus and Comesena, progenitors of the Italian people; of nymphs, naiads, and the moonlight dances of Oreads; of flocks descending to the river at dusk, of the homestead, the bare-footed mother, the clinging child, the father, clad in goat-skins, guiding the ox-wagon; and he ends on the very note of Virgil's famous apostrophe _Sed neque Medorum silvae, ditissima terra..._ with an invocation of Italy--Italy, mother of bullocks for agriculture, of wild colts for battle, mother of corn and of the vine, Roman mother of enduring laws and mediaeval mother of illustrious arts. The mountains, woods and waters of green Umbria applaud the song, and across their applause is heard the whistle of the railway train bearing promise of new industries and a new national life. E tu, pia madre di giovenchi invitti a franger glebe e rintegrar maggesi e d' annitrenti in guerra aspri polledri, Italia madre, madre di biade e viti e leggi eterne ed incliti arti a raddolcir la vita salve! a te i canti de l' antica lode io rinovello. Plaudono i monti al carme e i boschi e l' acque de l' Umbria verde: in faccia a noi fumando ed anelando nuove industrie in corsa fischia il vapore. And thou, O pious mother of unvanquished Bullocks to break glebe, to restore the fallow, And of fierce colts for neighing in the battle: Italy, mother, Mother of corn and vines and of eternal Laws and illustrious arts the life to sweeten, Hail, hail, all hail! The song of ancient praises Renew I to thee! The mountains, woods and waters of green Umbria Applaud the song: and here before us fuming And longing for new industries, a-racing Whistles the white steam. (I quote from a translation by Mr E.J. Watson, recently published by Messrs J.W. Arrowsmith, of Bristol.) I put it to you, Gentlemen, that, worthy as are the glories of England to be sung, this note of Carducci's we cannot decently or honestly strike. Great lives have been bled away into Tweed and Avon: great spirits have been oared down the Thames to Traitor's Gate and the Tower. Deeds done on the Cam have found their way into history. But I once traced the Avon to its source under Naseby battlefield, and found it issuing from the fragments of a stucco swan. No god mounts guard over the head-water of the Thames; and the only Englishman who boldly claims a divine descent is (I understand) an impostor who runs an Agapemone. In short we are a mixed race, and our literature is derivative. Let us confine our pride to those virtues, not few, which are honestly ours. A Roman noble, even to-day, has some excuse for reckoning a god in his ancestry, or at least a wolf among its wet-nurses: but of us English even those who came over with William the Norman have the son of a tanner's daughter for escort. I very well remember that, the other day, writers who vindicated our hereditary House of Lords against a certain Parliament Act commonly did so on the ground that since the Reform Bill of 1832, by inclusion of all that was eminent in politics, war and commerce, the Peerage had been so changed as to know itself no longer for the same thing. That is our practical way. At all events, the men who made our literature had never a doubt, as they were careless to dissimulate, that they were conquering our tongue to bring it into the great European comity, the civilisation of Greece and Rome. An Elizabethan writer, for example, would begin almost as with a formula by begging to be forgiven that he has sought to render the divine accent of Plato, the sugared music of Ovid, into our uncouth and barbarous tongue. There may have been some mock-modesty in this, but it rested on a base of belief. Much of the glory of English Literature was achieved by men who, with the splendour of the Renaissance in their eyes, supposed themselves to be working all the while upon pale and borrowed shadows. Let us pass the enthusiasms of days when 'bliss was it in that dawn to be alive' and come down to Alexander Pope and the Age of Reason. Pope at one time proposed to write a History of English Poetry, and the draft scheme of that History has been preserved. How does it begin? Why thus:-- ERA I. 1. School of Provence Chaucer's Visions. _Romaunt of the Rose._ _Piers Plowman._ Tales from Boccace. Gower. 2. School of Chaucer Lydgate. T. Occleve. Walt. de Mapes (a bad error, that!). Skelton. 3. School of Petrarch E. of Surrey. Sir Thomas Wyatt. Sir Philip Sidney. G. Gascoyn. 4. School of Dante Lord Buckhurst's _Induction. Gorboduc._ Original of Good Tragedy. Seneca his model. --and so on. The scheme after Pope's death came into the hands of Gray, who for a time was fired with the notion of writing the History in collaboration with his friend Mason. Knowing Gray's congenital self-distrust, you will not be surprised that in the end he declined the task and handed it over to Warton. But, says Mant in his Life of Warton, 'their design'--that is, Gray's design with Mason--'was to introduce specimens of the Proveçal poetry, and of the Scaldic, British and Saxon, as preliminary to what first deserved to be called English poetry, about the time of Chaucer, from whence their history properly so called was to commence.' A letter of Gray's on the whole subject, addressed to Warton, is extant, and you may read it in Dr Courthope's "History of English Poetry." Few in this room are old enough to remember the shock of awed surmise which fell upon young minds presented, in the late 'seventies or early 'eighties of the last century, with Freeman's "Norman Conquest" or Green's "Short History of the English People"; in which as through paring clouds of darkness, we beheld our ancestry, literary as well as political, radiantly legitimised; though not, to be sure, in the England that we knew--but far away in Sleswick, happy Sleswick! 'Its pleasant pastures, its black-timbered homesteads, its prim little townships looking down on inlets of purple water, were then but a wild waste of heather and sand, girt along the coast with sunless woodland, broken here and there with meadows which crept down to the marshes and to the sea.' But what of that? There--surely there, in Sleswick--had been discovered for us our august mother's marriage lines; and if the most of that bright assurance came out of an old political skit, the "Germania" of Tacitus, who recked at the time? For along followed Mr Stopford Brooke with an admirable little Primer published at one shilling, to instruct the meanest of us in our common father's actual name--Beowulf. _Beowulf_ is an old English Epic.... There is not one word about our England in the poem.... The whole poem, pagan as it is, is English to its very root. It is sacred to us; our Genesis, the book of our origins. Now I am not only incompetent to discuss with you the more recondite beauties of "Beowulf" but providentially forbidden the attempt by the conditions laid down for this Chair. I gather--and my own perusal of the poem and of much writing about it confirms the belief--that it has been largely over-praised by some critics, who have thus naturally provoked others to underrate it. Such things happen. I note, but without subscribing to it, the opinion of Vigfússon and York Powell, the learned editors of the "Corpus Poeticum Boreale," that in the "Beowulf" we have 'an epic completely metamorphosed in form, blown out with long-winded empty repetitions and comments by a book poet, so that one must be careful not to take it as a type of the old poetry,' and I seem to hear as from the grave the very voice of my old friend the younger editor in that unfaltering pronouncement. But on the whole I rather incline to accept the cautious surmise of Professor W. P. Ker that 'a reasonable view of the merit of Beowulf is not impossible, though rash enthusiasm may have made too much of it; while a correct and sober taste may have too contemptuously refused to attend to Grendel and the Firedrake,' and to leave it at that. I speak very cautiously because the manner of the late Professor Freeman, in especial, had a knack of provoking in gentle breasts a resentment which the mind in its frailty too easily converted to a prejudice against his matter: while to men trained to admire Thucydides and Tacitus and acquainted with Lucian's 'Way to Write History' ([Greek: Pos dei istorian suggraphein]) his loud insistence that the art was not an art but a science, and moreover recently invented by Bishop Stubbs, was a perpetual irritant. But to return to "Beowulf"--You have just heard the opinions of scholars whose names you must respect. I, who construe Anglo-Saxon with difficulty, must admit the poem to contain many fine, even noble, passages. Take for example Hrothgar's lament for Æschere:-- Hróthgar mathelode, helm Scyldinga: 'Ne frin thú æfter sælum; sorh is geniwod Denigea leódum; deád is Æschere, Yrmenláfes yldra bróthor, Mín rún-wita, ond min ræd-bora; Eaxl-gestealla, thonne we on orlege Hafelan wéredon, thonne hniton fethan, Eoferas cnysedan: swylc scolde eorl wesan Ætheling ær-gód, swylc Æschere wæs.' (Hrothgar spake, helm of the Scyldings: 'Ask not after good tidings. Sorrow is renewed among the Dane-folk. Dead is Æschere, Yrmenlaf's elder brother, who read me rune and bore me rede; comrade at shoulder when we fended our heads in war and the boar-helms rang. Even so should we each be an atheling passing good, as Æschere was.') This is simple, manly, dignified. It avoids the besetting sin of the Anglo-Saxon gleeman--the pretentious trick of calling things 'out of their right names' for the sake of literary effect (as if e.g. the sea could be improved by being phrased into 'the seals' domain'). Its Anglo-Saxon _staccato_, so tiresome in sustained narrative, here happens to suit the broken utterance of mourning. In short, it exhibits the Anglo-Saxon Muse at her best, not at her customary. But set beside it a passage in which Homer tells of a fallen warrior--at haphazard, as it were, a single corpse chosen from the press of battle-- [Greek: polla de chermadia megal aspidas estuphelixam marnamenon amph auton o d en strophaliggi konies keito megas megalosti, lelasmenos ipposunaom.] Can you--can anyone--compare the two passages and miss to see that they belong to two different kingdoms of poetry? I lay no stress here on 'architectonics.' I waive that the "Iliad" is a well-knit epic and the story of "Beowulf" a shapeless monstrosity. I ask you but to note the difference of note, of accent, of mere music. And I have quoted you but a passage of the habitual Homer. To assure yourselves that he can rise even from this habitual height to express the extreme of majesty and of human anguish in poetry which betrays no false note, no strain upon the store of emotion man may own with self-respect and exhibit without derogation of dignity, turn to the last book of the "Iliad" and read of Priam raising to his lips the hand that has murdered his son. I say confidently that no one unable to distinguish this, as poetry, from the very best of "Beowulf" is fit to engage upon business as a literary critic. In "Beowulf" then, as an imported poem, let us allow much barbarian merit. It came of dubious ancestry, and it had no progeny. The pretence that our glorious literature derives its lineage from "Beowulf" is in vulgar phrase 'a put up job'; a falsehood grafted upon our text-books by Teutonic and Teutonising professors who can bring less evidence for it than will cover a threepenny-piece. Its run for something like that money, in small educational manuals, has been in its way a triumph of pedagogic _réclame_. Our rude forefathers--the author of "The Rape of the Lock" and of the "Elegy written in a Country Churchyard"--knew nothing of the Exeter and Vercelli Books, nothing of the Ruthwell Cross. But they were poets, practitioners of our literature in the true line of descent, and they knew certain things which all such artists know by instinct. So, before our historians of thirty-odd years ago started to make Chaucer and Beowulf one, these rude forefathers made them two. 'Nor am I confident they erred.' Rather I am confident, and hope in succeeding lectures to convince you, that, venerable as Anglo-Saxon is, and worthy to be studied as the mother of our vernacular speech (as for a dozen other reasons which my friend Professor Chadwick will give you), its value is historical rather than literary, since from it our Literature is not descended. Let me repeat it in words that admit of no misunderstanding--_From Anglo-Saxon Prose, from Anglo-Saxon Poetry our living Prose and Poetry have, save linguistically, no derivation_. I shall attempt to demonstrate that, whether or not Anglo-Saxon literature, such as it was, died of inherent weakness, die it did, and of its collapse the "Vision of Piers Plowman" may be regarded as the last dying spasm. I shall attempt to convince you that Chaucer did not inherit any secret from Caedmon or Cynewulf, but deserves his old title, 'Father of English Poetry,' because through Dante, through Boccaccio, through the lays and songs of Provence, he explored back to the Mediterranean, and opened for Englishmen a commerce in the true intellectual mart of Europe. I shall attempt to heap proof on you that whatever the agency--whether through Wyat or Spenser, Marlowe or Shakespeare, or Donne, or Milton, or Dryden, or Pope, or Johnson, or even Wordsworth--always our literature has obeyed, however unconsciously, the precept _Antiquam exquirite matrem_, 'Seek back to the ancient mother'; always it has recreated itself, has kept itself pure and strong, by harking back to bathe in those native--yes, _native_--Mediterranean springs. Do not presume me to be right in this. Rather, if you will, presume me to be wrong until the evidence is laid out for your judgment. But at least understand to-day how profoundly a man, holding that view, must deplore the whole course of academical literary study during these thirty years or so, and how distrust what he holds to be its basal fallacies. For, literature being written in language, yet being something quite distinct, and the development of our language having been fairly continuous, while the literature of our nation exhibits a false start--a break, silence, repentance, then a renewal on right glorious lines--our students of literature have been drilled to follow the specious continuance while ignoring the actual break, and so to commit the one most fatal error in any study; that of mistaking the inessential for the essential. As I tried to persuade you in my Inaugural Lecture, our first duty to Literature is to study it absolutely, to understand, in Aristotelian phrase, its [Greek: to ti en einae]; what it _is_ and what it _means_. If that be our quest, and the height of it be realised, it is nothing to us--or almost nothing--to know of a certain alleged poet of the fifteenth century, that he helped us over a local or temporary disturbance in our vowel-endings. It is everything to have acquired and to possess such a norm of Poetry within us that we know whether or not what he wrote was POETRY. Do not think this easy. The study of right literary criticism is much more difficult than the false path usually trodden; so difficult, indeed, that you may easily count the men who have attempted to grasp the great rules and apply them to writing as an art to be practised. But the names include some very great ones--Aristotle, Horace, Quintilian, Corneille, Boileau, Dryden, Johnson, Lessing, Coleridge, Goethe, Sainte-Beuve, Arnold: and the study, though it may not find its pattern in our time, is not unworthy to be proposed for another attempt before a great University. LECTURE IX. ON THE LINEAGE OF ENGLISH LITERATURE (II) Wednesday, November 5 Some of you whose avocations call them, from time to time, to Newmarket may have noted, at a little distance out from Cambridge, a by-road advertised as leading to Quy and Swaffham. It also leads to the site of an old Roman villa; but you need not interrupt your business to visit this, since the best thing discovered there--a piece of tessellated pavement--has been removed and deposited in the Geological Museum here in Downing Street, where you may study it very conveniently. It is not at all a first-class specimen of its kind: not to be compared, for example, with the wonderful pavement at Dorchester, or with that (measuring 35 feet by 20) of the great villa unearthed, a hundred years ago, at Stonesfield in Oxfordshire: but I take it as the handiest, and am going to build a small conjecture upon it, or rather a small suggestion of a guess. Remember there is no harm in guessing so long as we do not pretend our guess-work to be something else. I will ask you to consider first that in these pavements, laid bare for us as 'the whistling rustic tends his plough,' we have work dating somewhere between the first and fifth centuries, work of unchallengeable beauty, work of a beauty certainly not rivalled until we come to the Norman builders of five or six hundred years later. I want you to let your minds dwell on these long stretches of time--four hundred years or so of Roman occupation (counting, not from Cæsar's raids, but from the serious invasion of 43 A.D. under Aulus Plautius, say to some while after the famous letter of Honorius, calling home the legions). You may safely put it at four hundred years, and then count six hundred as the space before the Normans arrive--a thousand years altogether, or but a fraction--one short generation--less than the interval of time that separates us from King Alfred. In the great Cathedral of Winchester (where sleep, by the way, two gentle writers specially beloved, Isaak Walton and Jane Austen) above the choir-screen to the south, you may see a line of painted chests, of which the inscription on one tells you that it holds what was mortal of King Canute. Here are sands, ignoble things, Dropp'd from the ruin'd sides of Kings. But if you walk around to the north of the altar you will find yourself treading on tiles not so very far short of twice that antiquity. Gentlemen, do not think that I would ever speak lightly of our lineage: only let us make as certain as we may what that lineage is. I want you to-day to understand just what such a pavement as that preserved for your inspection in Downing Street meant to the man who saw it laid and owned it these fifteen hundred years--more or less--ago. _Ubi Romanus vicit, ibi habitat_--'where the Roman has conquered, there he settles': but whether he conquered or settled he carried these small tiles, these _tessellæ_, as religiously as ever Rachel stole her teraphin. 'Wherever his feet went there went the tessellated pavement for them to stand on. Even generals on foreign service carried in panniers on muleback the little coloured cubes or _tessellæ_ for laying down a pavement in each camping-place, to be taken up again when they moved forward. In England the same sweet emblems of the younger gods of poetic legend, of love, youth, plenty, and all their happy naturalism, are found constantly repeated.'[1] I am quoting these sentences from a local historian, but you see how these relics have a knack of inspiring prose at once scholarly and imaginative, as (for a more famous instance) the urns disinterred at Walsingham once inspired Sir Thomas Browne's. To continue and adapt the quotation-- Bacchus with his wild rout, Orpheus playing to a spell-bound audience, Apollo singing to the lyre, Venus in Mars' embrace, Neptune with a host of seamen, scollops, and trumpets, Narcissus by the fountain, Jove and Ganymede, Leda and the swan, wood-nymphs and naiads, satyrs and fauns, masks, hautboys, cornucopiæ, flowers and baskets of golden fruit--what touches of home they must have seemed to these old dwellers in the Cambridgeshire wilds! Yes, touches of home! For the owner of this villa (you may conceive) is the grandson or even great-great-grandson of the colonist who first built it, following in the wake of the legionaries. The family has prospered and our man is now a considerable landowner. He was born in Britain: his children have been born here: and here he lives a comfortable, well-to-do, out-of-door life, in its essentials I daresay not so very unlike the life of an English country squire to-day. Instead of chasing foxes or hares he hunts the wolf and the wild boar; but the sport is good and he returns with an appetite. He has added a summer parlour to the house, with a northern aspect and no heating-flues: for the old parlour he has enlarged the præfurnium, and through the long winter evenings sits far better warmed than many a master of a modern country-house. A belt of trees on the brow of the rise protects him from the worst winds, and to the south his daughters have planted violet-beds which will breathe odorously in the spring. He has rebuilt and enlarged the slave-quarters and outhouses, replaced the stucco pillars around the atrium with a colonnade of polished stone, and, where stucco remains, has repainted it in fresh colours. He knows that there are no gaps or weak spots in his stockade fence--wood is always cheap. In a word he has improved the estate; is modestly proud of it; and will be content, like the old Athenian, to leave his patrimony not worse but something better than he found it. Sensible men--and the Romans were eminently that--as a rule contrive to live decently, or, at least, tolerably. What struck Arthur Young more than anything else in his travels through France on the very eve of the Revolution seems to have been the general good-tempered happiness of the French gentry on their estates. We may moralise of the Roman colonists as of the French proprietors that 'unconscious of their doom the little victims played'; but we have no right to throw back on them the shadow of what was to come or to cloud the picture of a useful, peaceable, maybe more than moderately happy life, with our later knowledge of disaster mercifully hidden from it. Although our colonist and his family have all been born in Britain, are happy enough here on the whole, and talk without more than half meaning it, and to amuse themselves with speculations half-wistful, of daring the tremendous journey and setting eyes on Rome some day, their pride is to belong to her, to Rome, the imperial City, the city afar: their windows open back towards her as Daniel's did towards Jerusalem--_Urbs quam dicunt Roman--the_ City. Along the great road, hard by, her imperial writ runs. They have never subscribed to the vow of Ruth, 'Thy people shall be my people and thy God my God.' They dwell under the Pax Romana, not merely protected by it but as _citizens_. Theirs are the ancestral deities portrayed on that unfading pavement in the very centre of the villa--Apollo and Daphne, Bacchus and Ariadne-- For ever warm and still to be enjoyed, For ever panting, and for ever young. Parcels come to them, forwarded from the near military station; come by those trade-routes, mysterious to us, concerning which a most illuminating book waits to be written by somebody. There are parcels of seeds--useful vegetables and potherbs, helichryse (marigold as we call them now) for the flower garden, for the colonnade even roses with real Italian earth damp about their roots. There are parcels of books, too--rolls rather, or tablets--wherein the family reads about Rome; of its wealth, the uproar of its traffic, the innumerable chimneys smoking, _fumum et opes strepitumque_. For they are always reading of Rome; feeling themselves, as they read, to belong to it, to be neither savage nor even rustic, but by birthright _of the city_, urbane; and what these exiles read is of how Horace met a bore on the Sacred Road (which would correspond, more or less, with our Piccadilly)-- Along the Sacred Road I strolled one day Deep in some bagatelle (you know my way) When up comes one whose face I scarcely knew-- 'The dearest of dear fellows! how d'ye do?' --He grasped my hand. 'Well, thanks! The same to you?' --or of how Horace apologises for protracting a summer jaunt to his country seat:-- Five days I told you at my farm I'd stay, And lo! the whole of August I'm away. Well but, Maecenas, you would have me live, And, were I sick, my absence you'd forgive. So let me crave indulgence for the fear Of falling ill at this bad time of year. When, thanks to early figs and sultry heat, The undertaker figures with his suite; When fathers all and fond mammas grow pale At what may happen to their young heirs male, And courts and levees, town-bred mortals' ills, Bring fevers on, and break the seals of wills. (Conington's translation.) Consider those lines; then consider how long it took the inhabitants of this island--the cultured ones who count as readers or writers--to recapture just that note of urbanity. Other things our forefathers --Britons, Saxons, Normans, Dutch or French refugees--discovered by the way; worthier things if you will; but not until the eighteenth century do you find just that note recaptured; the note of easy confidence that our London had become what Rome had been, the Capital city. You begin to meet it in Dryden; with Addison it is fairly established. Pass a few years, and with Samuel Johnson it is taken for granted. His _London_ is Juvenal's Rome, and the same satire applies to one as applied to the other. But against the urbane lines written by one Horace some while before Juvenal let us set a passage from another Horace--Horace Walpole, seventeen hundred years later and some little while ahead of Johnson. He, like our Roman colonist, is a settler in a new country, Twickenham; and like Flaccus he loves to escape from town life. TWICKENHAM, June 8th, 1747. To the Hon. H. S. CONWAY. You perceive by my date that I am got into a new camp, and have left my tub at Windsor. It is a little plaything-house that I got out of Mrs Chevenix's shop, and the prettiest bauble you ever saw. It is set in enamelled meadows with filagree hedges: A small Euphrates through the place is roll'd, And little finches wave their wings of gold. Two delightful roads; that you would call dusty, supply me continually with coaches and chaises: barges as solemn as Barons of the Exchequer move under my window; Richmond Hill and Ham Walks bound my prospect; but, thank God! the Thames is between me and the Duchess of Queensberry. Dowagers as plenty as flounders inhabit all around, and Pope's ghost is just now skimming under my window by the most poetical moonlight.... The Chevenixes had tricked it out for themselves; up two pairs of stairs is what they call Mr Chevenix's library, furnished with three maps, one shelf, a bust of Sir Isaac Newton and a lame telescope without any glasses. Lord John Sackville _predeceased_ me here and instituted certain games called _cricketalia_, which has been celebrated this very evening in honour of him in a neighbouring meadow. You will think I have removed my philosophy from Windsor with my tea-things hither; for I am writing to you in all tranquility while a Parliament is bursting about my ears. You know it is going to be dissolved.... They say the Prince has taken up two hundred thousand pounds, to carry elections which he won't carry--he had much better have saved it to buy the Parliament after it is chosen. There you have Horatio Walpole, the man-about-town, almost precisely echoing Horatius Flaccus, the man-about-town; and this (if you will bring your minds to it) is just the sort of passage a Roman colonist in Britain would open upon, out of his parcel of new books, and read, _and understand_, some eighteen hundred years ago. What became of it all?--of that easy colonial life, of the men and women who trod those tessellated pavements? 'Wiped out,' say the historians, knowing nothing, merely guessing: for you may with small trouble assure yourselves that the fifth and sixth centuries in the story of this island are a blind spot, concerning which one man's guess may be as good as another's. 'Wiped out,' they will commonly agree; for while, as I warned you in another lecture, the pedantic mind, faced with a difficulty, tends to remove it conveniently into a category to which it does not belong, still more prone is the pedantic mind to remove it out of existence altogether. So 'wiped out' is the theory; and upon it a sympathetic imagination can invent what sorrowful pictures it will of departing legions, the last little cloud of dust down the highway, the lovers by the gate watching it, not comprehending; the peaceful homestead in the background, ripe for doom--and what-not. Or, stay! There is another theory to which the late Professor Freeman inclined (if so sturdy a figure could be said to incline), laying stress on a passage in Gildas, that the Romans in Britain, faced by the Saxon invader, got together their money, and bolted away into Gaul. 'The Romans that were in Britain gathered together their gold-hoard, hid part in the ground and carried the rest over to Gaul,' writes Gildas. 'The hiding in the ground,' says Freeman, 'is of course a guess to explain the frequent finding of Roman coins'--which indeed it _does_ explain better than the guess that they were carried away, and perhaps better than the schoolboy's suggestion that during their occupation of Britain the Romans spent most of their time in dropping money about. Likely enough, large numbers of the colonists did gather up what they could and flee before the approaching storm; but by no means all, I think. For (since, where all is uncertain, we must reason from what is probable of human nature) in the first place men with large estates do not behave in that way before a danger which creeps upon them little by little, as this Saxon danger did. These colonists could not dig up their fields and carry them over to Gaul. They did not keep banking accounts; and in the course of four hundred years their main wealth had certainly been sunk in the land. They could not carry away their villas. We know that many of them did not carry away the _tessellæ_ for which (as we have seen) they had so peculiar a veneration; for these remain. Secondly, if the colonists left Britain in a mass, when in the middle of the sixth century we find Belisarius offering the Goths to trade Britain for Sicily, as being 'much larger and this long time subservient to Roman rule,'[2] we must suppose either (as Freeman appears to suppose) that Belisarius did not know what he was offering, or that he was attempting a gigantic 'bluff,' or lastly that he really was offering an exchange not flatly derisory; of which three possible suppositions I prefer the last as the likeliest. Nor am I the less inclined to choose it, because these very English historians go on to clear the ground in a like convenient way of the Celtic inhabitants, exterminating them as they exterminated the Romans, with a wave of the hand, quite in the fashion of Mr Podsnap. 'This is un-English: therefore for me it merely ceases to exist.' '_Probable extirpation of the Celtic inhabitants_' jots down Freeman in his margin, and proceeds to write: In short, though the literal extirpation of a nation is an impossibility, there is every reason to believe that the Celtic inhabitants of those parts of Britain which had become English at the end of the sixth century had been as nearly extinguished as a nation could be. The women doubtless would be largely spared, but as far as the male sex is concerned we may feel sure that death, emigration, or personal slavery were the only alternatives which the vanquished found at the hands of our fathers. Upon this passage, if brought to me in an undergraduate essay, I should have much to say. The style, with its abstract nouns ('the literal extirpation of a nation is an impossibility'), its padding and periphrasis ('there is every reason to believe' ... 'as far as the male sex is concerned we may feel sure') betrays the loose thought. It begins with 'in short' and proceeds to be long-winded. It commits what even schoolboys know to be a solecism by inviting us to consider three 'alternatives'; and what can I say of 'the women doubtless would be largely spared,' save that besides scanning in iambics it says what Freeman never meant and what no-one outside of an Aristophanic comedy could ever suggest? 'The women doubtless would be largely spared'! It reminds me of the young lady in Cornwall who, asked by her vicar if she had been confirmed, admitted blushingly that 'she had reason to believe, partially so.' 'The women doubtless would be largely spared'!--But I thank the Professor for teaching me that phrase, because it tries to convey just what I am driving at. The Jutes, Angles, Saxons, did not extirpate the Britons, whatever you may hold concerning the Romans. For, once again, men do not behave in that way, and certainly will not when a live slave is worth money. Secondly, the very horror with which men spoke, centuries after, of Anderida quite plainly indicates that such a wholesale massacre was exceptional, monstrous. If not exceptional, monstrous, why should this particular slaughter have lingered so ineffaceably in their memories? Finally,--and to be as curt as the question deserves--the Celtic Briton in the island was not exterminated and never came near to being exterminated: but on the contrary, remains equipollent with the Saxon in our blood, and perhaps equipollent with that mysterious race we call Iberian, which came before either and endures in this island to-day, as anyone travelling it with eyes in his head can see. Pict, Dane, Norman, Frisian, Huguenot French--these and others come in. If mixture of blood be a shame, we have purchased at the price of that shame the glory of catholicism; and I know of nothing more false in science or more actively poisonous in politics or in the arts than the assumption that we belong as a race to the Teutonic family. Dane, Norman, Frisian, French Huguenot--they all come in. And will you refuse a hearing when I claim that the Roman came in too? Bethink you how deeply Rome engraved itself on this island and its features. Bethink you that, as human nature is, no conquering race ever lived or could live--even in garrison--among a tributary one without begetting children on it. Bethink you yet further of Freeman's admission that in the wholesale (and quite hypothetical) general massacre 'the women doubtless would be largely spared'; and you advance nearer to my point. I see a people which for four hundred years was permeated by Rome. If you insist on its being a Teutonic people (which I flatly deny) then you have one which _alone of Teutonic peoples_ has inherited the Roman gift of consolidating conquest, of colonising in the wake of its armies; of driving the road, bridging the ford, bringing the lawless under its sense of law. I see that this nation of ours concurrently, when it seeks back to what alone can inspire and glorify these activities, seeks back, not to any supposed native North, but south to the Middle Sea of our civilisation and steadily to Italy, which we understand far more easily than France--though France has helped us times and again. Putting these things together, I retort upon the ethnologists--for I come from the West of England, where we suffer incredible things from them--_'Semper ego auditor tantum?'_ I hazard that the most important thing in our blood is that purple drop of the imperial murex we derive from Rome. You must, of course, take this for nothing more than it pretends to be--a conjecture, a suggestion. I will follow it up with two statements of fact, neither doubtful nor disputable. The first is, that when English poetry awoke, long after the Conquest (or, as I should prefer to put it, after the Crusades) it awoke a new thing; in its vocabulary as much like Anglo-Saxon poetry as ever you will, but in metre, rhythm, lilt--and more, in style, feeling, imaginative play--and yet more again, in knowledge of what it aimed to be, in the essentials, in the qualities that make Poetry Poetry--as different from Anglo-Saxon poetry as cheese is from chalk, and as much more nutritious. Listen to this-- Bytuene Mershe ant Averil When spray biginnith to spring, The lutel foul hath hire wyl On hire lud to synge: Ich libbe in love-longinge For semlokest of alle thynge, He may me blisse bringe, Icham in hire bandoun. An hendy hap ichabbe y-hent, Ichot from hevene it is me sent, From alle wymmen my love is lent, And lyht on Alisoun. Here you have alliteration in plenty; you even have what some hold to be the pattern of Anglo-Saxon alliterative verse (though in practice disregarded, may be, as often as not), the chosen initial used twice in the first line and once at least in the second: From alle wymmen my _l_ove is _l_ent, And _l_yht on A_l_isoun. But if a man cannot see a difference infinitely deeper than any similarity between this song of Alison and the old Anglo-Saxon verse--_a difference of nature_--I must despair of his literary sense. What has happened? Well, in Normandy, too, and in another tongue, men are singing much the same thing in the same way: A la fontenelle Qui sort seur l'araine, Trouvai pastorella Qui n'iert pas vilaine... Merci, merci, douce Marote, N'oçiez pas vostre ami doux, and this Norman and the Englishman were singing to a new tune, which was yet an old tune re-set to Europe by the Provence, the Roman Province; by the troubadours--Pons de Capdeuil, Bernard de Ventadour, Bertrand de Born, Pierre Vidal, and the rest, with William of Poitou, William of Poitiers. Read and compare; you will perceive that the note then set persists and has never perished. Take Giraud de Borneil-- Bel companhos, si dormetz o velhatz Non dortmatz plus, qu'el jorn es apropchatz-- and set it beside a lyric of our day, written without a thought of Giraud de Borneil-- Heigh! Brother mine, art a-waking or a-sleeping: Mind'st thou the merry moon a many summers fled? Mind'st thou the green and the dancing and the leaping? Mind'st thou the haycocks and the moon above them creeping?... Or take Bernard de Ventadour's-- Quand erba vertz, e fuelha par E'l flor brotonon per verjan, E'l rossinhols autet e clar Leva sa votz e mov son chan, Joy ai de luy, e joy ai de la flor, Joy ai de me, e de me dons maior. Why, it runs straight off into English verse-- When grass is green and leaves appear With flowers in bud the meads among, And nightingale aloft and clear Lifts up his voice and pricks his song, Joy, joy have I in song and flower, Joy in myself, and in my lady more. And that may be doggerel; yet what is it but It was a lover and his lass, With a hey and a ho and a hey nonino, That o'er the green cornfield did pass In the spring-time, the only pretty ring-time-- or When daffodils begin to peer, With heigh! the doxy over the dale, Why then comes in the sweet o' the year; For the red blood reigns in the winter's pale. Nay, flatter the Anglo-Saxon tradition by picking its very best--and I suppose it hard to find better than the much-admired opening of Piers Plowman, in which that tradition shot up like the flame of a dying candle: Bote in a Mayes Morwnynge--on Malverne hulles Me bi-fel a ferly--a Feyrie me thouhte; I was weori of wandringe--and wente me to reste Under a brod banke--bi a Bourne syde, And as I lay and leonede--and lokede on the watres, I slumberde in a slepynge--hit sownede so murie. This is good, solid stuff, no doubt: but tame, inert, if not actually lifeless. As M. Jusserand says of Anglo-Saxon poetry in general, it is like the river Saône--one doubts which way it flows. How tame in comparison with this, for example!-- In somer, when the shawes be sheyne, And leves be large and long, Hit is full mery in feyre foreste To here the foulys song: To se the dere draw to the dale And leve the hilles hee, And shadow hem in the leves grene Under the grene-wode tre. Hit befel on Whitsontide, Erly in a May mornyng, The Son up feyre can shyne, And the briddis mery can syng. 'This is a mery mornyng,' said litell John, 'Be Hym that dyed on tre; A more mery man than I am one Lyves not in Cristianté. 'Pluk up thi hert, my dere mayster,' Litull John can sey, 'And thynk hit is a full fayre tyme In a mornyng of May.' There is no doubting which way _that_ flows! And this vivacity, this new beat of the heart of poetry, is common to Chaucer and the humblest ballad-maker; it pulses through any book of lyrics printed yesterday, and it came straight to us out of Provence, the Roman Province. It was the Provençal Troubadour who, like the Prince in the fairy tale, broke through the hedge of briers and kissed Beauty awake again. You will urge that he wakened Poetry not in England alone but all over Europe, in Dante before our Chaucer, in the trouvères and minnesingers as well as in our ballad-writers. To that I might easily retort, 'So much the better for Europe, and the more of it the merrier, to win their way into the great comity.' But here I put in my second assertion, that we English have had above all nations lying wide of the Mediterranean, the instinct to refresh and renew ourselves at Mediterranean wells; that again and again our writers--our poets especially--have sought them as the hart panteth after the water-brooks. If you accept this assertion, and if you believe as well that our literature, surpassing Rome's, may vie with that of Athens--if you believe that a literature which includes Chaucer, Spenser, Shakespeare, Pope, Wordsworth, Shelley--the Authorised Version of Holy Writ, with Browne, Bunyan, Swift, Addison, Johnson, Arnold, Newman--has entered the circle to take its seat with the first-- why then, heartily believing this with you, I leave you to find some better explanation than mine if you can. But what I content myself with asserting here you can scarcely deny. Chaucer's initial and enormous debt to Dante and Boccaccio stands in as little dispute as Dunbar's to Chaucer. On that favourite poet of mine, Sir Thomas Wyat, I descanted in a former lecture. He is one of your glories here, having entered St. John's College at the age of twelve (which must have been precocious even for those days.) Anthony Wood asserts that after finishing his course here, he proceeded to Cardinal Wolsey's new College at Oxford; but, as Christchurch was not founded until 1524, and Wyat, still precocious, had married a wife two years before that, the statement (to quote Dr Courthope) 'seems no better founded than many others advanced by that patriotic but not very scrupulous author.' It is more to the point that he went travelling, and brought home from France, Italy, afterwards Spain--always from Latin altars--the flame of lyrical poetry to England; the flame of the Petrarchists, caught from the Troubadours, clarified (so to speak) by the salt of humane letters. On what our Elizabethan literature owes to the Classical revival hundreds of volumes have been written and hundreds more will be written; I will but remind you of what Spencer talked about with Gabriel Harvey, what Daniel disputed with Campion; that Marlowe tried to re-incarnate Machiavelli, that Jonson was a sworn Latinist and the 'tribe of Ben' a classical tribe; while, as for Shakespeare, go and reckon the proportion of Italian and Roman names in his _dramatis personæ_. Of Donne's debt to France, Italy, Rome, Greece, you may read much in Professor Grierson's great edition, and I daresay Professor Grierson would be the first to allow that all has not yet been computed. You know how Milton prepared himself to be a poet. Have you realised that, in those somewhat strangely constructed sonnets of his, Milton was deliberately modelling upon the "Horatian Ode," as his confrère, Andrew Marvell, was avowedly attempting the like in his famous Horation Ode on Cromwell's Return from Ireland; so that if Cromwell had returned (like Mr Quilp), walked in and caught his pair of Latin Secretaries scribbling verse, one at either end of the office table, both might colourably have pleaded that they were, after all, writing Latin. Waller's task in poetry was to labour true classical polish where Cowley laboured sham-classical form. Put together Dryden's various Prefaces and you will find them one solid monument to his classical faith. Of Pope, Gray, Collins, you will not ask me to speak. What is salt in Cowper you can taste only when you have detected that by a stroke of madness he missed, or barely missed, being our true English Horace, that almost more nearly than the rest he hit what the rest had been seeking. Then, of the 'romantic revival'-- enemy of false classicism, not of classicism--bethink you what, in his few great years, Wordsworth owed directly to France of the early Revolution; what Keats drew forth out of Lemprière: and again bethink you how Tennyson wrought upon Theocritus, Virgil, Catullus; upon what Arnold constantly shaped his verse; how Browning returned ever upon Italy to inspire his best and correct his worse. Of Anglo-Saxon prose I know little indeed, but enough of the world to feel reasonably sure that if it contained any single masterpiece--or anything that could be paraded as a masterpiece--we should have heard enough about it long before now. It was invented by King Alfred for excellent political reasons; but, like other ready-made political inventions in this country, it refused to thrive. I think it can be demonstrated, that the true line of intellectual descent in prose lies through Bede (who wrote in Latin, the 'universal language'), and not through the Blickling Homilies, or, Ælfric, or the Saxon Chronicle. And I am sure that Freeman is perversely wrong when he laments as a 'great mistake' that the first Christian missionaries from Rome did not teach their converts to pray and give praise in the vernacular. The vernacular being what it was, these men did better to teach the religion of the civilised world--_orbis terrarum_--in the language of the civilised world. I am not thinking of its efficiency for spreading the faith; but neither is Freeman; and, for that, we must allow these old missionaries to have known their own business. I am thinking only of how this 'great mistake' affected our literature; and if you will read Professor Saintsbury's "History of English Prose Rhythm" (pioneer work, which yet wonderfully succeeds in illustrating what our prose-writers from time to time were trying to do); if you will study the Psalms in the Authorised Version; if you will consider what Milton, Clarendon, Sir Thomas Browne, were aiming at; what Addison, Gibbon, Johnson; what Landor, Thackeray, Newman, Arnold, Pater; I doubt not your rising from the perusal convinced that our nation, in this storehouse of Latin to refresh and replenish its most sacred thoughts, has enjoyed a continuous blessing: that the Latin of the Vulgate and the Offices has been a background giving depth and, as the painters say, 'value' to nine-tenths of our serious writing. And now, since this and the previous lecture run something counter to a great deal of that teaching in English Literature which nowadays passes most acceptably, let me avoid offence, so far as may be, by defining one or two things I am _not_ trying to do. I am not persuading you to despise your linguistic descent. English is English--our language; and all its history to be venerated by us. I am not persuading you to despise linguistic study. _All_ learning is venerable. I am not persuading you to behave like Ascham, and turn English prose into pedantic Latin; nor would I have you doubt that in the set quarrel between Campion, who wished to divert English verse into strict classical channels, and Daniel, who vindicated our free English way (derived from Latin through the Provençal), Daniel was on the whole, right, Campion on the whole, wrong: though I believe that both ways yet lie open, and we may learn, if we study them intelligently, a hundred things from the old classical metres. I do not ask you to forget what there is of the Northmen in your blood. If I desired this, I could not worship William Morris as I do, among the later poets. I do not ask you to doubt that the barbarian invaders from the north, with their myths and legends, brought new and most necessary blood of imagination into the literary material--for the time almost exhausted--of Greece and Rome. Nevertheless, I do contend that when Britain (or, if you prefer it, Sleswick) When Sleswick first at Heaven's command Arose from out the azure main, she differed from Aphrodite, that other foam-born, in sundry important features of ear, of lip, of eye. Lastly, if vehement assertions on the one side have driven me into too vehement dissent on the other, I crave pardon; not for the dissent but for the vehemence, as sinning against the very principle I would hold up to your admiration--the old Greek principle of avoiding excess. But I _do_ commend the patient study of Greek and Latin authors--in the original or in translation--to all of you who would write English; and for three reasons. (1) In the first place they will correct your insularity of mind; or, rather, will teach you to forget it. The Anglo-Saxon, it has been noted, ever left an empty space around his houses; and that, no doubt, is good for a house. It is not so good for the mind. (2) Secondly, we have a tribal habit, confirmed by Protestant meditation upon a Hebraic religion, of confining our literary enjoyment to the written word and frowning down the drama, the song, the dance. A fairly attentive study of modern lyrical verse has persuaded me that this exclusiveness may be carried too far, and threatens to be deadening. 'I will sing and give praise,' says the Scripture, 'with the best member that I have'--meaning the tongue. But the old Greek was an 'all-round man' as we say. He sought to praise and give thanks with all his members, and to tune each to perfection. I think his way worth your considering. (3) Lastly, and chiefly, I commend these classical authors to you because they, in the European civilisation which we all inherit, conserve the norm of literature; the steady grip on the essential; the clean outline at which in verse or in prose--in epic, drama, history, or philosophical treatise--a writer should aim. So sure am I of this, and of its importance to those who think of writing, that were this University to limit me to three texts on which to preach English Literature to you, I should choose the Bible in our Authorised Version, Shakespeare, and Homer (though it were but in a prose translation). Two of these lie outside my marked province. Only one of them finds a place in your English school. But Homer, who comes neither within my map, nor within the ambit of the Tripos, would--because he most evidently holds the norm, the essence, the secret of all--rank first of the three for my purpose. [Footnote 1: From "A History of Oxfordshire," by Mr J. Meade Falkner, author of Murray's excellent Handbook of Oxfordshire.] LECTURE X. ENGLISH LITERATURE IN OUR UNIVERSITIES (I) Wednesday, November 19 All lectures are too long. Towards the close of my last, Gentlemen, I let fall a sentence which, heard by you in a moment of exhausted or languid interest, has since, like enough, escaped your memory even if it earned passing attention. So let me repeat it, for a fresh start. Having quoted to you the words of our Holy Writ, 'I will sing and give praise with the best member that I have,' I added 'But the old Greek was an "all-round" man; he sought to praise and give thanks with all his members, and to tune each to perfection.' Now a great many instructive lectures might be written on that text: nevertheless you may think it a strange one, and obscure, for the discourse on 'English Literature in our Universities' which, according to promise, I must now attempt. The term 'an all-round man' may easily mislead you unless you take it with the rest of the sentence and particularly with the words 'praise and give thanks.' Praise whom? Give thanks to whom? To _whom_ did our Greek train all his members to render adoration? Why, to the gods--his gods: to Zeus, Apollo, Aphrodite; and from them down to the lesser guardian deities of the hearth, the field, the farmstead. We modern men suffer a double temptation to misunderstand, by belittling, the reverence in which Hellas and Rome held their gods. To start with, our religion has superseded theirs. We approach the Olympians with no bent towards venerating them; with minds easy, detached, to which a great deal of their theology--the amativeness of Zeus for example--must needs seem broadly comic, and a great deal of it not only comic but childish. We are encouraged in this, moreover, when we read such writers as Aristophanes and Lucian, and observe how they poked fun at the gods. We assume--so modern he seems--Aristophanes' attitude towards his immortals to be ours; that when, for example, Prometheus walks on to the stage under an umbrella, to hide himself from the gaze of all-seeing Zeus, the Athenian audience laughed just as we laugh who have read Voltaire. Believe me, they laughed quite differently; believe me, Aristophanes and Voltaire had remarkably different minds and worked on utterly different backgrounds. Believe me, you will understand Aristophanes only less than you will understand Æschylus himself if you confuse Aristophanes' mockery of Olympus with modern mockery. But, if you will not take my word for it, let me quote what Professor Gilbert Murray said, the other day, speaking before the English Association on Greek poetry, how constantly connected it is with religion: 'All thoughts, all passions, all desires' ... In our Art it is true, no doubt, that they are 'the ministers of love'; in Greek they are as a whole the ministers of religion, and this is what in a curious degree makes Greek poetry matter, makes it relevant. There is a sense in each song of a relation to the whole of things, and it was apt to be expressed with the whole body, or, one may say, the whole being.[1] To a Greek, in short, his gods mattered enormously; and to a Roman. To a Roman they continued to matter enormously, down to the end. Do you remember that tessellated pavement with its emblems and images of the younger gods? and how I told you that a Roman general on foreign service would carry the little cubes in panniers on mule-back, to be laid down for his feet at the next camping place? Will you suggest that he did this because they were pretty? You know that practical men--conquering generals--don't behave in that way. He did it because they were sacred; because, like most practical men, he was religious, and his gods must go with him. They filled his literature: for why? He believed himself to be sprung from their loins. Where would Latin literature be, for example, if you could cut Venus out of it? Consider Lucretius' grand invocation: Æneadum genetrix, hominum divumque voluptas, Alma Venus! Consider the part Virgil makes her play as moving spirit of his whole great poem. So follow her down to the days of the later Empire and open the "Pervigilium Veneris" and discover her, under the name of Dione, still the eternal Aphrodite sprung from the foam amid the churning hooves of the sea-horses--_inter et bipedes equos_:-- Time was that a rain-cloud begat her, impregning the heave of the deep, 'Twixt hooves of sea-horses a-scatter, stampeding the dolphins as sheep. Lo! arose of that bridal Dione, rainbow'd and besprent of its dew! _Now learn ye to love who loved never--now ye who have loved, love anew!_ Her favour it was fill'd the sails of the Trojan for Latium bound, Her favour that won her Æneas a bride on Laurentian ground, And anon from the cloister inveigled the Virgin, the Vestal, to Mars; As her wit by the wild Sabine rape recreated her Rome for its wars With the Ramnes, Quirites, together ancestrally proud as they drew From Romulus down to our Cæsar--last, best of that blood, of that thew. _Now learn ye to love who loved never--now ye who have loved, love anew!_ 'Last, best of that blood'--her blood, _fusa Paphies de cruore_, and the blood of Teucer, _revocato a sanguine Teucri_, 'of that thew'--the thew of Tros and of Mars. Of these and no less than these our Roman believed himself the son and inheritor. If we grasp this, that the old literature was packed with the old religion, and not only packed with it but permeated by it, we have within our ten fingers the secret of the 'Dark Ages,' the real reason why the Christian Fathers fought down literature and almost prevailed to the point of stamping it out. They hated it, not as literature; or at any rate, not to begin with; nor, to begin with, because it happened to be voluptuous and they austere: but they hated it because it held in its very texture, not to be separated, a religion over which they had hardly triumphed, a religion actively inimical to that of Christ, inimical to truth; so that for the sake of truth and in the name of Christ they had to fight it, accepting no compromise, yielding no quarter, foreseeing no issue save that one of the twain--Jupiter or Christ, Deus Optimus Maximus or the carpenter's son of Nazareth--must go under. It all ended in compromise, to be sure; as all struggles must between adversaries so tremendous. To-day, in Dr Smith's "Classical Dictionary," Origen rubs shoulders with Orpheus and Orcus; Tertullian reposes cheek by jowl with Terpsichore. But we are not concerned, here, with what happened in the end. We are concerned with what these forthright Christian fighters had in their minds--to trample out the old literature _because_ of the false religion. Milton understood this, and was thinking of it when he wrote of the effect of Christ's Nativity-- The Oracles are dumb; No voice or hideous hum Runs through the archèd roof in words deceiving. Apollo from his shrine Can no more divine, With hollow shriek the steep of Delphos leaving. No mighty trance, or breathèd spell Inspires the pale-eyed Priest from the prophetic cell. The lonely mountains o'er, And the resounding shore, A voice of weeping heard, and loud lament; From haunted spring, and dale Edg'd with poplar pale, The parting Genius is with sighing sent; With flower-inwoven tresses torn The Nymphs in twilight shade of tangled thickets mourn. as Swinburne understands and expresses it in his "Hymn to Proserpine," supposed to be chanted by a Roman of the 'old profession' on the morrow of Constantine's proclaiming the Christian faith-- O Gods dethroned and deceased, cast forth, wiped out in a day! From your wrath is the world released, redeem'd from your chains, men say. New Gods are crown'd in the city; their flowers have broken your rods; They are merciful, clothed with pity, the young compassionate Gods. But for me their new device is barren, the days are bare; Things long past over suffice, and men forgotten that were... Wilt thou yet take all, Galilean? but these thou shalt not take, The laurel, the palms and the paean, the breasts of the nymphs in the brake; Thou hast conquer'd, O pale Galilean; the world has grown grey from thy breath; We have drunken of things Lethean, and fed on the fullness of death. 'Thou hast conquer'd, O pale Galilean!' However the struggle might sway in this or that other part of the field, Literature had to be beaten to her knees, and still beaten flat until the breath left her body. You will not be surprised that the heavy hand of these Christian fathers fell first upon the Theatre: for the actor in Rome was by legal definition an 'infamous' man, even as in England until the other day he was by legal definition a vagabond and liable to whipping. The policy of religious reformers has ever been to close the theatres, as our Puritans did in 1642; and a recent pronouncement by the Bishop of Kensington would seem to show that the instinct survives to this day. Queen Elizabeth--like her brother, King Edward VI--signalized the opening of a new reign by inhibiting stage-plays; and I invite you to share with me the pensive speculation, 'How much of English Literature, had she not relented, would exist to-day for a King Edward VII Professor to talk about?' Certainly the works of Shakespeare would not; and that seems to me a thought so impressive as to deserve the attention of Bishops as well as of Kings. Apart from this instinct the Christian Fathers, it would appear, had plenty of provocation. For the actors, who had jested with the Old Religion on a ground of accepted understanding--much as a good husband (if you will permit the simile) may gently tease his wife, not loving her one whit the less, taught by affection to play without offending--had mocked at the New Religion in a very different way: savagely, as enemies, holding up to ridicule the Church's most sacred mysteries. Tertullian, in an uncompromising treatise "De Spectaculis," denounces stage-plays root and branch; tells of a demon who entered into a woman in a theatre and on being exorcised pleaded that the mistake might well be excused, since he had found her in his own demesne. Christians should avoid these shows and await the greatest _spectaculum_ of all--the Last Judgment. 'Then,' he promises genially, 'will be the time to listen to the tragedians, whose lamentations will be more poignant, for their proper pain. Then will the comedians turn and twist in capers rendered nimbler than ever by the sting of the fire that is not quenched.' By 400 A.D. Augustine cries triumphantly that the theatres are falling--the very walls of them tumbling--throughout the Empire. _'Per omnes paene civitates cadunt theatra ... cadunt et fora vel moenia in quibus demonia colebantur'_; the very walls within which these devilments were practised. But the fury is unabated and goes on stamping down the embers. In the eighth century our own Alcuin (as the school of Freeman would affectionately call him) is no less fierce. All plays are anathema to him, and he even disapproves of dancing bears--though not, it would appear, of bad puns: _'nec tibi sit ursorum saltantium cura, sed clericorum psallentium.'_[2] The banning of _all_ literature you will find harder to understand; nay impossible, I believe, unless you accept the explanation I gave you. Yet there it is, an historical fact. 'What hath it profited posterity--_quid posteritas emolumenti tulit,_' wrote Sulpicius Severus, about 400 A.D., 'to read of Hector's fighting or Socrates' philosophising?' Pope Gregory the Great--St Gregory, who sent us the Roman missionaries--made no bones about it at all. '_Quoniam non cognovi literaturam,_' he quoted approvingly from the 70th Psalm, '_introibo in potentias Domini_': 'Because I know nothing of literature I shall enter into the strength of the Lord.' 'The praises of Christ cannot be uttered in the same tongue as those of Jove,' writes this same Gregory to Desiderius, Archbishop of Vienne, who had been rash enough to introduce some of his young men to the ancient authors, with no worse purpose than to teach them a little grammar. Yet no one was prouder than this Pope of the historical Rome which he had inherited. Alcuin, again, forbade the reading of Virgil in the monastery over which he presided: it would sully his disciples' imagination. 'How is this, _Virgilian!_' he cried out upon one taken in the damnable act,--'that without my knowledge and against my order thou hast taken to studying Virgil?' To put a stop to this unhallowed indulgence the clergy solemnly taught that Virgil was a wizard. To us, long used as we are to the innocent gaieties of the Classical Tripos, these measures to discourage the study of Virgil may appear drastic, as the mental attitude of Gregory and Alcuin towards the Latin hexameter (so closely resembling that of Byron towards the waltz) not far removed from foolishness. But there you have in its quiddity the mediaeval mind: and the point I now put to you is, that _out of this soil our Universities grew._ We, who claim Oxford and Cambridge for our nursing mothers, have of all men least excuse to forget it. A man of Leyden, of Louvain, of Liepzig, of Berlin, may be pardoned that he passes it by. More than a hundred years ago Salamanca had the most of her stones torn down to make defences against Wellington's cannon. Paris, greatest of all, has kept her renown; but you shall search the slums of the Latin Quarter in vain for the sixty or seventy Colleges that, before the close of the fifteenth century, had arisen to adorn her, the intellectual Queen of Europe. In Bologna, the ancient and stately, almost alone among the continental Universities, survive a few relics of the old collegiate system--the College of Spain, harbouring some five or six students, and a little house founded for Flemings in 1650: and in Bologna the system never attained to real importance. But in England where, great as London is, the national mind has always harked to the country for the graces of life, so that we seem by instinct to see it as only desirable in a green setting, our Universities, planted by the same instinct on lawns watered by pastoral streams, have suffered so little and received as much from the years that now we can hardly conceive of Oxford or Cambridge as ruined save by 'the unimaginable touch of Time.' Of all the secular Colleges bequeathed to Oxford, she has lost not one; while Cambridge (I believe) has parted only with Cavendish. Some have been subsumed into newer foundations; but always the process has been one of merging, of blending, of justifying the new bottle by the old wine. The vengeance of civil war--always very much of a family affair in England--has dealt tenderly with Oxford and Cambridge; the more calculating malignity of Royal Commissions not harshly on the whole. University reformers may accuse both Oxford and Cambridge of Annihilating all that's made To a green thought in a green shade: but with those sour men we have nothing here to do: like Isaak Walton's milkmaid we will not 'load our minds with any fears of many things that will never be.' But, as they stand, Oxford and Cambridge--so amazingly alike while they play at differences, and both so amazingly unlike anything else in the wide world--do by a hundred daily reminders connect us with the Middle Age, or, if you prefer Arnold's phrase, whisper its lost enchantments. The cloister, the grave grace in hall, the chapel bell, the men hurrying into their surplices or to lectures 'with the wind in their gowns,' the staircase, the nest of chambers within the oak--all these softly reverberate over our life here, as from belfries, the mediaeval mind. And that mediaeval mind actively hated (of partial acquaintance or by anticipation) almost everything we now study! Between it and us, except these memorials, nothing survives to-day but the dreadful temptation to learn, the dreadful instinct in men, as they grow older and wiser, to trust learning after all and endow it--that, and the confidence of a steady stream of youth. The Universities, then, sprang out of mediaeval life, out of the mediaeval mind; and the mediaeval mind had for centuries been taught to abominate literature. I would not exaggerate or darken the 'Dark Ages' for you by throwing too much bitumen into the picture. I know that at the beginning there had been a school of Origen which advocated the study of Greek poetry and philosophy, as well as the school of Tertullian which condemned it. There is evidence that the 'humanities' were cultivated here and there and after a fashion behind Gregory's august back. I grant that, while in Alcuin's cloister (and Alcuin, remember, became a sort of Imperial Director of Studies in Charlemagne's court) the wretched monk who loved Virgil had to study him with an illicit candle, to copy him with numbed fingers in a corner of the bitter-cold cloister, on the other hand many beautiful manuscripts preserved to us bear witness of cloisters where literature was tolerated if not officially honoured. I would not have you so uncritical as to blame the Church or its clergy for what happened; as I would have you remember that if the Church killed literature, she--and, one may say, she alone--kept it alive. Yet, and after all these reservations, it remains true that Literature had gone down disastrously. Even philosophy, unless you count the pale work of Boethius--_real_ philosophy had so nearly perished that men possessed no more of Aristotle than a fragment of his Logic, and '_the_ Philosopher' had to creep back into Western Europe through translations from the Arabic! But this is the point I wish to make clear.--Philosophy came back in the great intellectual revival of the twelfth century; Literature did not. Literature's hour had not come. Men had to catch up on a dreadful leeway of ignorance. The form did not matter as yet: they wanted science--to know. I should say, rather, that as yet form _seemed_ not to matter: for in fact form always matters: the personal always matters: and you cannot explain the vast crowds Abelard drew to Paris save by the fascination in the man, the fire communicated by the living voice. Moreover (as in a previous lecture I tried to prove) you cannot divorce accurate thought from accurate speech; but for accuracy, even for hair-splitting accuracy, of speech the Universities had the definitions of the Schoolmen. In literature they had yet to discover a concern. Literature was a thing of the past, inanimate. Nowhere in Europe could it be felt even to breathe. To borrow a beautiful phrase of Wordsworth's, men numbered it among 'things silently gone out of mind or things violently destroyed.' Nobody quite knows how these Universities began. Least of all can anybody tell how Oxford and Cambridge began. In Bede, for instance--that is, in England as the eighth century opens--we see scholarship already moving towards the _thing_, treading with sure instinct towards the light. Though a hundred historians have quoted it, I doubt if a feeling man who loves scholarship can read the famous letter of Cuthbert describing Bede's end and not come nigh to tears. And Bede's story contains no less wonder than beauty, when you consider how the fame of this holy and humble man of heart, who never left his cloisters at Jarrow, spread over Europe, so that, though it sound incredible, our Northumbria narrowly missed in its day to become the pole-star of Western culture. But he was a disinterested genius, and his pupil, Alcuin, a pushing dull man and a born reactionary; so that, while Alcuin scored the personal success and went off to teach in the court of Charlemagne, the great chance was lost. No one knows when the great Universities were founded, or precisely out of what schools they grew; and you may derive amusement from the historians when they start to explain how Oxford and Cambridge in particular came to be chosen for sites. My own conjecture, that they were chosen for the extraordinary salubrity of their climates, has met (I regret to say) with derision, and may be set down to the caprice of one who ever inclines to think the weather good where he is happy. Our own learned historian, indeed--Mr J. Bass Mullinger--devotes some closely reasoned pages to proving that Cambridge was chosen as the unlikeliest spot in the world, and is driven to quote the learned Poggio's opinion that the unhealthiness of a locality recommended it as a place of education for youth; as Plato, knowing naught of Christianity, but gifted with a soul naturally Christian, '_had selected a noisome spot for his Academe, in order that the mind might be strengthened by the weakness of the body._' So difficult still it is for the modern mind to interpret the mediaeval! Most likely these Universities grew as a tree grows from a seed blown by chance of the wind. It seems easy enough to understand why Paris, that great city, should have possessed a great University; yet I surmise the processes at Oxford and Cambridge to have been only a little less fortuitous. The schools of Remigius and of William of Champeaux (we will say) have given Paris a certain prestige, when Abelard, a pupil of William's, springs into fame and draws a horde of students from all over Europe to sit at his feet. These 'nations' of young men have to be organised, brought under some sort of discipline, if only to make the citizens' lives endurable: and lo! the thing is done. In like manner Irnerius at Bologna, Vacarius at Oxford, and at Cambridge some innominate teacher, 'of importance,' as Browning would put it, 'in his day,' possibly set the ball rolling; or again it is suggested that a body of scholars dissatisfied with Oxford (such dissatisfaction has been known even in historical times) migrated hither--a laborious journey, even nowadays--and that so A brighter Hellas rears its mountains From waves serener far! These young or nascent bodies had a trick of breaking away after this fashion. For reasons no longer obvious they hankered specially towards Stamford or Northampton. Until quite recently, within living memory, all candidates for a Mastership of Arts at Oxford had to promise never to lecture at Stamford. A flood here in 1520, which swept away Garret Hostel Bridge, put Cambridge in like mind and started a prophecy (to which you may find allusion in the fourth book of "The Faerie Queene") that both Universities would meet in the end, and kiss, at Stamford. Each in turn broke away for Northampton, and the worthy Fuller (a Northamptonshire man) has recorded his wonder that so eligible a spot was not finally chosen. I have mentioned a flood: but the immediate causes of the migrations or attempted migrations were not usually respectable enough to rank with any such act of God. They started as a rule with some Town and Gown row, or some bloody affray between scholars of the North and of the South. Without diminishing your sense of the real fervour for learning which drew young men from the remotest parts of Europe to these centres, but having for my immediate object to make clear to you that, whatever these young men sought, it was not literature, I wish you first to have in your minds a vivid picture of what a University town was like, and what its students were like during the greater part of the 12th and 13th centuries; that is to say, after the first enthusiasm had died down, when Oxford or Cambridge had organised itself into a _Studium Generale_, or _Universitas_ (which, of course, has nothing to do with Universality, whether of teaching or of frequenting, but simply means a Society. _Universitas_ = all of us). To begin with, the town was of wood, often on fire in places; with the alleviation of frequent winter floods, which in return, in the words of a modern poet, would 'leave a lot of little things behind them.' It requires but a small effort of the imagination in Cambridge to picture the streets as narrow, dark, almost meeting overhead in gables out of which the house slops would be discharged after casual warning down into a central gutter. That these narrow streets were populous with students remains certain, however much discount we allow on contemporary bills of reckoning. And the crowd was noisy. Men have always been ingenious in their ways of celebrating academical success. Pythagoras, for example, sacrificed an ox on solving the theorem numbered 47 in the first book of Euclid; and even to-day a Professor in his solitary lodge may be encouraged to believe now and then, from certain evidences in the sky, that the spirit of Pythagoras is not dead but translated. But of the mediaeval University the lawlessness, though well attested, can scarcely be conceived. When in the streets 'nation' drew the knife upon 'nation,' 'town' upon 'gown'; when the city bell started to answer the clang of St. Mary's; horrible deeds were done. I pass over massacres, tumults such as the famous one of St Scholastica's Day at Oxford, and choose one at a decent distance (yet entirely typical) exhumed from the annals of the University of Toulouse, in the year 1332. In that year Five brothers of the noble family de la Penne lived together in a Hospicium at Toulouse as students of the Civil and Canon Law. One of them was Provost of a Monastery, another Archdeacon of Albi, another an Archpriest, another Canon of Toledo. A bastard son of their father, named Peter, lived with them as squire to the Canon. On Easter Day, Peter, with another squire of the household named Aimery Béranger and other students, having dined at a tavern, were dancing with women, singing, shouting, and beating 'metallic vessels and iron culinary instruments' in the street before their masters' house. The Provost and the Archpriest were sympathetically watching the jovial scene from a window, until it was disturbed by the appearance of a Capitoul and his officers, who summoned some of the party to surrender the prohibited arms which they were wearing. '_Ben Senhor, non fassat_' was the impudent reply. The Capitoul attempted to arrest one of the offenders; whereupon the ecclesiastical party made a combined attack upon the official. Aimery Béranger struck him in the face with a poignard, cutting off his nose and part of his chin and lips, and knocking out or breaking no less than eleven teeth. The surgeons deposed that if he recovered (he eventually did recover) he would never be able to speak intelligibly. One of the watch was killed outright by Peter de la Penne. That night the murderer slept, just as if nothing had happened, in the house of his ecclesiastical masters. The whole household, masters and servants alike, were, however, surprised by the other Capitouls and a crowd of 200 citizens, and led off to prison, and the house is alleged to have been pillaged. The Archbishop's Official demanded their surrender. In the case of the superior ecclesiastics this, after a short delay, was granted. But Aimery, who dressed like a layman in 'divided and striped clothes' and wore a long beard, they refused to treat as a clerk, though it was afterwards alleged that the tonsure was plainly discernible upon his head until it was shaved by order of the Capitouls. Aimery was put to the torture, admitted his crime, and was sentenced to death. The sentence was carried out by hanging, after he had had his hand cut off on the scene of the crime, and been dragged by horses to the place of execution. The Capitouls were then excommunicated by the Official, and the ecclesiastical side of the quarrel was eventually transferred to the Roman Court. Before the Parlement of Paris the University complained of the violation of the Royal privilege exempting scholars' servants from the ordinary tribunals. The Capitouls were imprisoned, and after long litigation sentenced to pay enormous damages to the ruffian's family and erect a chapel for the good of his soul. The city was condemned for a time to the forfeiture of all its privileges. The body was cut down from the gibbet on which it had been hanging for three years, and accorded a solemn funeral. Four Capitouls bore the pall, and all fathers of families were required to walk in the procession. When they came to the Schools, the citizens solemnly begged pardon of the University, and the cortège was joined by 3000 scholars. Finally, it cost the city 15,000 livres tournois or more to regain their civic privileges.[3] The late Mr Cecil Rhodes once summarized all Fellows of Colleges as children in matters of finance. Be that as it may, you will find nothing more constant in history than the talent of the Universities for extracting money or money's worth out of a riot. Time (I speak as a parent) has scarcely blunted that faculty; and still--since where young men congregate, noise there must be--our Universities like Wordsworth's Happy Warrior turn their necessity to glorious gain. These were the excesses of young 'bloods,' and their servants: but with them mingled scholars not less ferocious in their habits because almost desperately poor. You all know, I dare say, that very poor scholars would be granted licences to beg by the Chancellor. The sleeve of this gown in which I address you represents the purse or pocket of a Master of Arts, and may hint to you by its amplitude how many crusts he was prepared to receive from the charitable. Now, choosing to ignore (because it has been challenged as overpainted) a picture of penury endured by the scholars of St John's College in this University, let me tell you two stories, one well attested, the other fiction if you will, but both agreeable as testifying to the spirit of youth which, ever blowing upon their sacred embers, has kept Oxford and Cambridge perennially alive. My first is of three scholars so poor that they possessed but one 'cappa' and gown between them. They took it in turns therefore, and when one went to lecture the other two kept to their lodgings. I invite you even to reflect on the joy of the lucky one, in a winter lecture room, dark, with unglazed windows, as he listened and shuffled his feet for warmth in the straw of the floor. [No one, by the way, can understand the incessant harping of our early poets upon May-time and the return of summer until he has pictured to himself the dark and cold discomfort of a Middle-English winter.] These three poor scholars fed habitually on bread, with soup and a little wine, tasting meat only on Sundays and feasts of the Church. Yet one of them, Richard of Chichester, who lived to become a saint, _saepe retulit quod nunquam in vita sua tam jucundam, tam delectabilem duxerat vitam_--that never had he lived so jollily, so delectably. That is youth, youth blessed by friendship. Now for my second story, which is also of youth and friendship.-- Two poor scholars, who had with pains become Masters of Arts and saved their pence to purchase the coveted garb, on the afternoon of their admission took a country walk in it, together flaunting their new finery. But, the day being gusty, on their return across the bridge, a puff of wind caught the _biretta_ of one and blew it into the river. The loss was irrecoverable, since neither could swim. The poor fellow looked at his friend. His friend looked at him. 'Between us two,' he said, 'it is all or naught,' and cast his own cap to float and sink with the other down stream. You will never begin to understand literature until you understand something of life. These young men, your forerunners, understood something of life while as yet completely careless of literature. After the impulse of Abelard and others had died down, the mass of students betook themselves to the Universities, no doubt, for quite ordinary, mercenary reasons. The University led to the Church, and the Church, in England at any rate, was the door to professional life. Nearly all the civil servants of the Crown--I am here quoting freely--the diplomatists, the secretaries or advisers of great nobles, the physicians, the architects, at one time the secular law-givers, all through the Middle Ages the then large tribe of ecclesiastical lawyers, were ecclesiastics.... Clerkship did not necessarily involve even minor orders. But as it was cheaper to a King or a Bishop or a temporal magnate to reward his physician, his legal adviser, his secretary, or his agent by a Canonry or a Rectory than by large salaries, the average student of Paris or Oxford or Cambridge looked toward the Church as the 'main chance' as we say, and small blame to him! He never at any rate looked towards Literature: nor did the Universities, wise in their generation, encourage him to do anything of the sort. You may realise, Gentlemen, how tardily, even in later and more enlightened times, the study of Literature has crept its way into official Cambridge, if you will take down your "University Calendar" and study the list of Professorships there set forth in order of foundation. It begins in 1502 with the Lady Margaret's Chair of Divinity, founded by the mother of Henry VII. Five Regius Professorships follow: of Divinity, Civil Law, Physic, Hebrew, Greek, all of 1540. So Greek comes in upon the flush of the Renaissance; and the Calendar bravely, yet not committing itself to a date, heads with Erasmus the noble roll which concludes (as may it long conclude) with Henry Jackson. But Greek comes in last of the five. Close on a hundred years elapse before the foundation of the next chair--it is of Arabic; and more than a hundred before we arrive at Mathematics. So Sir William Hamilton was not without historical excuse when he declared the study of Mathematics to be no part of the business of this University! Then follow Moral Philosophy (1683), Music (1684), Chemistry (1702), Astronomy (1704), Anatomy (1707), Modern History and more Arabic, with Botany (1724), Geology (1727), closely followed by Mr Hulse's Christian Advocate, more Astronomy (1749), more Divinity (1777), Experimental Philosophy (1783): then in the nineteenth century more Law, more Medicine, Mineralogy, Archaeology, Political Economy, Pure Mathematics, Comparative Anatomy, Sanskrit and yet again more Law, before we arrive in 1869 at a Chair of Latin. Faint yet pursuing, we have yet to pass chairs of Fine Art (belated), Experimental Physics, Applied Mechanics, Anglo-Saxon, Animal Morphology, Surgery, Physiology, Pathology, Ecclesiastical History, Chinese, more Divinity, Mental Philosophy, Ancient History, Agriculture, Biology, Agricultural Botany, more Biology, Astrophysics, and German, before arriving in 1910 at a Chair of English Literature which by this time I have not breath to defend. The enumeration has, I hope, been instructive. If it has also plunged you in gloom, to that atmosphere (as the clock warns me) for a fortnight I must leave you: with a promise, however, in another lecture to cheer you, if it may be, with some broken gleams of hope. [Footnote 1: "What English Poetry may still learn from Greek": a paper read before the English Association on Nov. 17, 1911.] [Footnote 2: See Mr E. K. Chambers' "Mediaeval Stage", Dr Courthope's "History of English Poetry," and Professor W. P. Ker's "The Dark Ages".] [Footnote 3: Rashdall, "The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages", vol. ii, p. 684, from documents printed in Fournier's collection.] LECTURE XI. ENGLISH LITERATURE IN OUR UNIVERSITIES nglish Literature in Our Universities (II) Wednesday, December 3 We broke off, Gentlemen, upon the somewhat painful conclusion that our Universities were not founded for the study of literature, and tardily admitted it. The dates of our three literary chairs in Cambridge--I speak of our Western literature only, and omit Arabic, Sanskrit, and Chinese--clenched that conclusion for us. Greek in 1540, Latin not until 1869, English but three years ago--from the lesson of these intervals there is no getting away. Now I do not propose to dwell on the Renaissance and how Greek came in: for a number of writers in our time have been busy with the Renaissance, and have--I was going to say 'over-written the subject,' but no--it is better to say that they have focussed the period so as to distort the general perspective at the cost of other periods which have earned less attention; the twelfth century, for example. At any rate their efforts, with the amount they claim of your reading, absolve me from doing more than remind you that the Renaissance brought in the study of Greek, and Greek necessarily brought in the study of literature: since no man can read what the Greeks wrote and not have his eyes unsealed to what I have called a norm of human expression; a guide to conduct, a standard to correct our efforts, whether in poetry, or in philosophy, or in art. For the rest, I need only quote to you Gibbon's magnificent saying, that the Greek language gave a soul to the objects of sense and a body to the abstractions of metaphysics. [May I add, in parenthesis, that, while no believer in compulsory Greek, holding, indeed, that you can hardly reconcile learning with compulsion, and still more hardly force them to be compatibles, I subscribe with all my heart to Bagehot's shrewd saying, 'while a knowledge of Greek and Latin is not necessary to a writer of English, he should at least have a firm conviction that those two languages existed.'] But, assuming you to know something of the Renaissance, and how it brought Greek into Oxford and Cambridge, I find that in the course of the argument two things fall to be said, and both to be said with some emphasis. In the first place, without officially acknowledging their native tongue or its literature, our two Universities had no sooner acquired Greek than their members became immensely interested in English. Take, for one witness out of many, Gabriel Harvey, Fellow of Pembroke Hall. His letters to Edmund Spenser have been preserved, as you know. Now Gabriel Harvey was a man whom few will praise, and very few could have loved. Few will quarrel with Dr Courthope's description of him as 'a person of considerable intellectual force, but intolerably arrogant and conceited, and with a taste vitiated by all the affectations of Italian humanism,' or deny that 'his tone in his published correspondence with Spenser is that of an intellectual bully.'[1] None will refuse him the title of fool for attempting to mislead Spenser into writing hexameters. But all you can urge against Gabriel Harvey, on this count or that or the other, but accumulates proof that this donnish man was all the while giving thought--giving even ferocious thought--to the business of making an English Literature. Let me adduce more pleasing evidence. At or about Christmas, in the year 1597, there was enacted here in Cambridge, in the hall of St John's College, a play called "The Pilgrimage to Parnassus," a skittish work, having for subject the 'discontent of scholars'; the misery attending those who, unsupported by a private purse, would follow after Apollo and the Nine. No one knows the author's name: but he had a wit which has kept something of its salt to this day, and in Christmas, 1597, it took Cambridge by storm. The public demanded a sequel, and "The Return from Parnassus" made its appearance on the following Christmas (again in St John's College hall); to be followed by a "Second Part of the Return from Parnassus," the author's overflow of wit, three years later. Of the popularity of the first and second plays--"The Pilgrimage" and "The Return, Part I"--we have good evidence in the prologue to "The Return, Part II," where the author makes Momus say, before an audience which knew the truth: "The Pilgrimage to Parnassus" and "The Returne from Parnassus" have stood the honest Stagekeepers in many a crowne's expense for linckes and vizards: purchased many a Sophister a knocke with a clubbe: hindred the butler's box, and emptied the Colledge barrells; and now, unlesse you have heard the former, you may returne home as wise as you came: for this last is the last part of The Returne from Parnassus; that is, the last time that the Author's wit will turne upon the toe in this vaine. In other words, these plays had set everybody in Cambridge agog, had been acted by link-light, had led to brawls--either between literary factions or through offensive personal allusions to which we have lost all clue--had swept into the box-office much money usually spent on Christmas gambling, and had set up an inappeasable thirst for College ale. The point for us is that (in 1597-1601) they abound in topical allusions to the London theatres: that Shakespeare is obviously just as much a concern to these young men of Cambridge as Mr Shaw (say) is to our young men to-day, and an allusion to him is dropped in confidence that it will be aptly taken. For instance, one of the characters, Gullio, will have some love-verses recited to him 'in two or three diverse veins, in Chaucer's, Gower's and Spenser's and Mr Shakespeare's.' Having listened to Chaucer, he cries, 'Tush! Chaucer is a foole'; but coming to some lines of Mr Shakespeare's "Venus and Adonis," he cries, 'Ey, marry, Sir! these have some life in them! Let this duncified world esteeme of Spenser and Chaucer, I'le worship sweet Mr Shakespeare, and to honoure him I will lay his "Venus and Adonis" under my pillowe.' For another allusion--'Few of the University pen plaies well,' says the actor Kempe in Part II of the "Returne"; 'they smell too much of that writer _Ovid_ and that writer _Metamorphosis_, and talke too much of Proserpina and Jupiter. Why here's our fellow _Shakespeare_ puts them all downe, ay and _Ben Jonson_, too.' Here you have Cambridge assembling at Christmas-tide to laugh at well-understood hits upon the theatrical taste of London. Here you have, to make Cambridge laugh, three farcical quasi-Aristophanic plays all hinging on the tribulations of scholars who depart to pursue literature for a livelihood. For a piece of definite corroborative evidence you have a statute of Queens' College (quoted by Mr Bass Mullinger) which directs that 'any student refusing to take part in the acting of a comedy or tragedy in the College and absenting himself from the performance, contrary to the injunctions of the President, shall be expelled from the Society'--which seems drastic. And on top of all this, you have evidence enough and to spare of the part played in Elizabethan drama by the 'University Wits.' Why, Marlowe (of Corpus Christi) may be held to have invented its form--blank verse; Ben Jonson (of St John's) to have carried it on past its meridian and through its decline, into the masque. Both Universities claim Lyly and Chapman. Marston, Peel, Massinger, hailed from Oxford. But Greene and Nashe were of Cambridge--of St John's both, and Day of Caius. They sought to London, and there (for tragic truth underlay that Christmas comedy of "The Pilgrimage of Parnassus") many of them came to bitter ends: but before reaching their sordid personal ruin--and let the deaths of Marlowe and Greene be remembered--they built the Elizabethan drama, as some of them lived to add its last ornaments. We know what, meanwhile, Spenser had done. I think it scarcely needs further proof that Cambridge, towards the end of the sixteenth century, was fermenting with a desire to read, criticise, yes and write, English literature, albeit officially the University recognised no such thing. There remains a second question--How happened it that Cambridge, after admitting Greek, took more than three hundred years to establish a Chair of Latin, and that a Chair of English is, so to speak, a mushroom (call it not toadstool!) of yesterday? Why simply enough. Latin continued to be the working language of Science. In Latin Bacon naturally composed his "Novum Organum" and indeed almost all his scientific and philosophical work, although a central figure of his age among English prose-writers. In Latin, in the eighteenth century, Newton wrote his "Principia": and I suppose that of no two books written by Englishmen before the close of that century, or indeed before Darwin's "Origin of Species," can it be less extravagantly said than of the "Novum Organum" and the "Principia" that they shook the world. Now, without forgetting our Classical Tripos (founded in 1822), as without forgetting the great names of Bentley and Porson, we may observe it as generally true, that whenever and wherever large numbers of scientific men use a particular language as their working instrument, they have a disposition to look askance on its refinements; to be jealous of its literary professors; to accuse these of treating as an end in itself what is properly a means. Like the Denver editor I quoted to you in a previous lecture, these scientific workers want to 'get there' in a hurry, forgetting that (to use another Americanism) the sharper the chisel the more ice it is likely to cut. You may observe this disposition--this suspicion of 'literature,' this thinly veiled contempt--in many a scientific man to-day; though because his language has changed from Latin to English, it is English he now chooses to cheapen. Well, we cannot help it, perhaps. Perhaps he cannot help it. It is human nature. We must go on persuading him, not losing our tempers. None the less we should not shut our eyes to the fact that while a language is the working instrument of scientific men there will always be a number of them to decry any study of it for its beauty, and even any study of it for the sake of accuracy--its beauty and its accuracy being indeed scarcely distinguishable. I fear, Gentlemen, you may go on from this to the dreadful conclusion that the date 1869, when Cambridge at length came to possess a Chair of Latin, marks definitely the hour at which Latin closed its eyes and became a dead language; that you may proceed to a yet more dreadful application of this to the Chair of English founded in 1910: and that henceforward (to misquote what Mr Max Beerbohm once wickedly said of Walter Pater) you will be apt to regard Professor Housman and me as two widowers engaged, while the undertaker waits, in composing the features of our belovèds. But (to speak seriously) that is what I stand here to controvert: and I derive no small encouragement when--as has more than once happened--A, a scientific man, comes to me and complains that he for his part cannot understand B, another scientific man, 'because the fellow can't express himself.' And the need to study precision in writing has grown far more instant since men of science have abandoned the 'universal language' and taken to writing in their own tongues. Let us, while not on the whole regretting the change, at least recognise some dangers, some possible disadvantages. I will confine myself to English, considered as a substitute for Latin. In Latin you have a language which may be thin in its vocabulary and inelastic for modern use; but a language which at all events compels a man to clear his thought and communicate it to other men precisely. Thoughts hardly to be packed Into the narrow act --may be all impossible of compression into the Latin speech. In English, on the other hand, you have a language which by its very copiousness and elasticity tempts you to believe that you can do without packing, without compression, arrangement, order; that, with the Denver editor, all you need is to 'get there'--though it be with all your intellectual belongings in a jumble, overflowing the portmanteau. Rather I preach to you that having proudly inherited English with its _copia fandi_, you should keep your estate in order by constantly applying to it that _jus et norma loquendi_ of which, if you seek to the great models, you will likewise find yourselves inheritors. 'But,' it is sometimes urged, 'why not leave this new study of English to the younger Universities now being set up all over the country?' 'Ours is an age of specialising. Let these newcomers have something--what better than English?--to specialise upon.' I might respond by asking if the fame of Cambridge would stand where it stands to-day had she followed a like counsel concerning other studies and, resting upon Mathematics, given over this or that branch of Natural Science to be grasped by new hands. What of Electricity, for example? Or what of Physiology? Yes, and among the unnatural sciences, what of Political Economy? But I will use a more philosophical argument. Some years ago I happened on a collection of Bulgarian proverbs of which my memory retains but two, yet each an abiding joy. In a lecture on English Literature in our Universities you will certainly not miss to apply the first, which runs, 'Many an ass has entered Jerusalem.' The application of the second may elude you for a moment. It voices the impatience of an honest Bulgar who has been worried overmuch to subscribe to what, in this England of ours, we call Church Purposes; and it runs, 'All these two-penny saints will be the ruin of the Church.' Now far be it from me to apply the term 'two-penny saint' to any existing University. To avoid the accusation I hereby solemnly declare my deep conviction that every single University at this moment in England, Scotland, Wales or Ireland has reasons--strong in all, in some overwhelmingly strong--for its existence. That is plainly said, I hope? Yet I do maintain that if we go on multiplying Universities we shall not increase the joy; that the reign of two-penny saints lies not far off and will soon lie within measurable distance; and that it will be a pestilent reign. As we saw in out last lecture the word 'University'--_Universitas_--had, in its origin, nothing to do with Universality: it meant no more than a Society, organised (as it happened) to promote learning. But words, like institutions, often rise above their beginnings, and in time acquire a proud secondary connotation. For an instance let me give you the beautiful Wykehamist motto _Manners Makyeth Man_, wherein 'manners' originally meant no more than 'morals.' So there has grown around our two great Universities of Oxford and Cambridge a connotation (secondary, if you will, but valuable above price) of universality; of standing like great beacons of light, to attract the young wings of all who would seek learning for their sustenance. Thousands have singed, thousands have burned themselves, no doubt: but what thousands of thousands have caught the sacred fire into their souls as they passed through and passed out, to carry it, to drop it, still as from wings, upon waste places of the world! Think of country vicarages, of Australian or Himalayan outposts, where men have nourished out lives of duty upon the fire of three transient, priceless years. Think of the generations of children to whom their fathers' lives, prosaic enough, could always be re-illumined if someone let fall the word 'Oxford' or 'Cambridge,' so that they themselves came to surmise an aura about the name as of a land very far off; and then say if the ineffable spell of those two words do not lie somewhere in the conflux of generous youth with its rivalries and clash of minds, ere it disperses, generation after generation, to the duller business of life. Would you have your mother University, Gentlemen, undecorated by some true study of your mother-English? I think not, having been there, and known such thoughts as you will carry away, and having been against expectation called back to report them. And sometimes I remember days of old When fellowship seem'd not so far to seek, And all the world and I seem'd far less cold, And at the rainbow's foot lay surely gold, And hope was strong, and life itself not weak. My purpose here (and I cannot too often recur to it) is to wean your minds from hankering after false Germanic standards and persuade you, or at least point out to you, in what direction that true study lies if you are men enough to take up your inheritance and believe in it as a glory to be improved. Neither Oxford nor Cambridge nor any University on earth can study English Literature truthfully or worthily, or even at all profitably, unless by studying it in the category for which Heaven, or Nature (call the ultimate cause what you will), intended it; or, to put the assertion more concretely, in any other category than that for which the particular author--be his name Chaucer or Chesterton, Shakespeare or Shaw--designed it; as neither can Oxford nor Cambridge nor any University study English Literature, to understand it, unless by bracing itself to consider a living art. Origins, roots, all the gropings towards light--let these be granted as accessories; let those who search in them be granted all honour, all respect. It is only when they preach or teach these preliminaries, these accessories, to be more important than Literature itself--it is only when they, owing all their excuse in life to the established daylight, din upon us that the precedent darkness claims precedence in honour, that one is driven to utter upon them this dialogue, in monosyllables: _And God said, 'Let there be light': and there was light. 'Oh, thank you, Sir,' said the Bat and the Owl; 'then we are off!'_ I grant you, Gentlemen, that there must always inhere a difficulty in correlating for the purposes of a Tripos a study of Literature itself with a study of these accessories; the thing itself being _naturally_ so much more difficult: being so difficult indeed that (to take literary criticism alone and leave for a moment the actual practice of writing out of the question) though some of the first intellects in the world--Aristotle, Longinus, Quintilian, Boileau, Dryden, Lessing, Goethe, Coleridge, Sainte-Beuve--have broken into parcels of that territory, the mass of it remains unexplored, and nobody as yet has found courage to reduce the reports of these great explorers to any system; so that a very eminent person indeed found it easy to write to me the other day, 'The principles of Criticism? What are they? Who made them?' To this I could only answer that I did not know Who made them; but that Aristotle, Dryden, Lessing, had, as it was credibly reported, discovered five or, it might be, six. And this difficulty of appraising literature absolutely inheres in your study of it from the beginning. No one can have set a General Paper on Literature and examined on it, setting it and marking the written answers, alongside of papers about language, inflexions and the rest, without having borne in upon him that _here_ the student finds his difficulty. While in a paper set about inflexions, etc., a pupil with a moderately retentive memory will easily obtain sixty or seventy per cent. of the total marks, in a paper on the book or play considered critically an examiner, even after setting his paper with a view to some certain inferiority of average, has to be lenient before he can award fifty, forty, or even thirty per cent. of the total. You will find a somewhat illuminating passage--illuminating, that is, if you choose to interpret and apply it to our subject--in Lucian's "True History," where the veracious traveller, who tells the tale, affirms that he visited Hades among other places, and had some conversation with Homer, among its many inhabitants-- Before many days had passed, I accosted the poet Homer, when we were both disengaged, and asked him, among other things, where he came from; it was still a burning question with us, I explained. He said he was aware that some derived him from Chios, others from Smyrna, and others again from Colophon; but in fact he was a Babylonian, generally known not as Homer but as Tigranes; but when later in life he was given as a homer or hostage to the Greeks, that name clung to him. Another of my questions was about the so-called spurious books; had he written them or not? He said that they were all genuine: so I now knew what to think of the critics Zenodotus and Aristarchus and all their lucubrations. Having got a categorical answer on that point, I tried him next on his reason for starting the "Iliad" with the wrath of Achilles. He said he had no exquisite reason; it just came into his head that way. Even so diverse are the questions that may be asked concerning any great work of art. But to discover its full intent is always the most difficult task of all. That task, however, and nothing less difficult, will always be the one worthiest of a great University. On that, and on that alone, Gentlemen, do I base all claims for our School of English Literature. And yet in conclusion I will ask you, reminding yourselves how fortunate is your lot in Cambridge, to think of fellow-Englishmen far less fortunate. Years ago I took some pains to examine the examination papers set by a renowned Examining Body and I found this--'I humbly solicit' (to use a phrase of Lucian's) 'my hearers' incredulity'--that in a paper set upon three Acts of "Hamlet"--three Acts of "Hamlet"!--the first question started with 'G.tt. p..cha' 'Al..g.tor' and invited the candidate to fill in the missing letters correctly. Now I was morally certain that the words 'gutta-percha' and 'alligator' did not occur in the first three Acts of "Hamlet"; but having carefully re-read them I invited this examining body to explain itself. The answer I got was that, to understand Shakespeare, a student must first understand the English Language! Some of you on leaving Cambridge will go out--a company of Christian folk dispersed throughout the world--to tell English children of English Literature. Such are the pedagogic fetters you will have to knock off their young minds before they can stand and walk. Gentlemen, on a day early in this term I sought the mound which is the old Castle of Cambridge. Access to it, as perhaps you know, lies through the precincts of the County Prison. An iron railing encloses the mound, having a small gate, for the key of which a notice-board advised me to ring the prison bell. I rang. A very courteous gaoler answered the bell and opened the gate, which stands just against his wicket. I thanked him, but could not forbear asking 'Why do they keep this gate closed?' 'I don't know, sir,' he answered, 'but I suppose if they didn't the children might get in and play.' So with his answer I went up the hill and from the top saw Cambridge spread at my feet; Magdalene below me, and the bridge which--poor product as it is of the municipal taste--has given its name to so many bridges all over the world; the river on its long ambit to Chesterton; the tower of St John's, and beyond it the unpretentious but more beautiful tower of Jesus College. To my right the magnificent chine of King's College Chapel made its own horizon above the yellowing elms. I looked down on the streets--the narrow streets--the very streets which, a fortnight ago, I tried to people for you with that mediaeval throng which has passed as we shall pass. Still in my ear the gaoler's answer repeated itself--_'I suppose, if they didn't keep it locked, the children might get in and play'_: and a broken echo seemed to take it up, in words that for a while had no more coherence than the scattered jangle of bells in the town below. But as I turned to leave, they chimed into an articulate sentence and the voice was the voice of Francis Bacon--_Regnum Scientiae ut regnum Coeli non nisi sub persona infantis intratur.--Into the Kingdom of Knowledge, as into the Kingdom of Heaven, whoso would enter must become as a little child._ [Footnote 1: "Cambridge History of English Literature", vol. iii, p. 213.] LECTURE XII. ON STYLE Wednesday, January 28, 1914 Should Providence, Gentlemen, destine any one of you to write books for his living, he will find experimentally true what I here promise him, that few pleasures sooner cloy than reading what the reviewers say. This promise I hand on with the better confidence since it was endorsed for me once in conversation by that eminently good man the late Henry Sidgwick; who added, however, 'Perhaps I ought to make a single exception. There was a critic who called one of my books "epoch-making." Being anonymous, he would have been hard to find and thank, perhaps; but I ought to have made the effort.' May I follow up this experience of his with one of my own, as a preface or brief apology for this lecture? Short-lived as is the author's joy in his critics, far-spent as may be his hope of fame, mournful his consent with Sir Thomas Browne that 'there is nothing immortal but immortality,' he cannot hide from certain sanguine men of business, who in England call themselves 'Press-Cutting Agencies,' in America 'Press-Clipping Bureaux,' and, as each successive child of his invention comes to birth, unbecomingly presume in him an almost virginal trepidation. 'Your book,' they write falsely, 'is exciting much comment. May we collect and send you notices of it appearing in the World's Press? We submit a specimen cutting with our terms; and are, dear Sir,' etc. Now, although steadily unresponsive to this wile, I am sometimes guilty of taking the enclosed specimen review and thrusting it for preservation among the scarcely less deciduous leaves of the book it was written to appraise. So it happened that having this vacation, to dust--not to read--a line of obsolete or obsolescent works on a shelf, I happened on a review signed by no smaller a man than Mr Gilbert Chesterton and informing the world that the author of my obsolete book was full of good stories as a kindly uncle, but had a careless or impatient way of stopping short and leaving his readers to guess what they most wanted to know: that, reaching the last chapter, or what he chose to make the last chapter, instead of winding up and telling 'how everybody lived ever after,' he (so to speak) slid you off his avuncular knee with a blessing and the remark that nine o'clock was striking and all good children should be in their beds. That criticism has haunted me during the vacation. Looking back on a course of lectures which I deemed to be accomplished; correcting them in print; revising them with all the nervousness of a beginner; I have seemed to hear you complain--'He has exhorted us to write accurately, appropriately; to eschew Jargon; to be bold and essay Verse. He has insisted that Literature is a living art, to be practised. But just what we most needed he has not told. At the final doorway to the secret he turned his back and left us. Accuracy, propriety, perspicuity--these we may achieve. But where has he helped us to write with beauty, with charm, with distinction? Where has he given us rules for what is called _Style_ in short?--having attained which an author may count himself set up in business.' Thus, Gentlemen, with my mind's ear I heard you reproaching me. I beg you to accept what follows for my apology. To begin with, let me plead that you have been told of one or two things which Style is _not_; which have little or nothing to do with Style, though sometimes vulgarly mistaken for it. Style, for example, is not--can never be--extraneous Ornament. You remember, may be, the Persian lover whom I quoted to you out of Newman: how to convey his passion he sought a professional letter-writer and purchased a vocabulary charged with ornament, wherewith to attract the fair one as with a basket of jewels. Well, in this extraneous, professional, purchased ornamentation, you have something which Style is not: and if you here require a practical rule of me, I will present you with this: 'Whenever you feel an impulse to perpetrate a piece of exceptionally fine writing, obey it --whole-heartedly--and delete it before sending your manuscript to press. _Murder your darlings._' But let me plead further that you have not been left altogether without clue to the secret of what Style is. That you must master the secret for yourselves lay implicit in our bargain, and you were never promised that a writer's training would be easy. Yet a clue was certainly put in your hands when, having insisted that Literature is a living art, I added that therefore it must be personal and of its essence personal. This goes very deep: it conditions all our criticism of art. Yet it conceals no mystery. You may see its meaning most easily and clearly, perhaps, by contrasting Science and Art at their two extremes--say Pure Mathematics with Acting. Science as a rule deals with things, Art with man's thought and emotion about things. In Pure Mathematics things are rarefied into ideas, numbers, concepts, but still farther and farther away from the individual man. Two and two make four, and fourpence is not ninepence (or at any rate four is not nine) whether Alcibiades or Cleon keep the tally. In Acting on the other hand almost everything depends on personal interpretation--on the gesture, the walk, the gaze, the tone of a Siddons, the _rusé_ smile of a Coquelin, the exquisite, vibrant intonation of a Bernhardt. 'English Art?' exclaimed Whistler, 'there is no such thing! Art is art and mathematics is mathematics.' Whistler erred. Precisely because Art is Art, and Mathematics is Mathematics and a Science, Art being Art can be English or French; and, more than this, must be the personal expression of an Englishman or a Frenchman, as a 'Constable' differs from a 'Corot' and a 'Whistler' from both. Surely I need not labour this. But what is true of the extremes of Art and Science is true also, though sometimes less recognisably true, of the mean: and where they meet and seem to conflict (as in History) the impact is that of the personal or individual mind upon universal truth, and the question becomes whether what happened in the Sicilian Expedition, or at the trial of Charles I, can be set forth naked as an alegebraical sum, serene in its certainty, indifferent to opinion, uncoloured in the telling as in the hearing by sympathy or dislike, by passion or by character. I doubt, while we should strive in history as in all things to be fair, if history can be written in that colourless way, to interest men in human doings. I am sure that nothing which lies further towards imaginative, creative, Art can be written in that way. It follows then that Literature, being by its nature personal, must be by its nature almost infinitely various. 'Two persons cannot be the authors of the sounds which strike our ear; and as they cannot be speaking one and the same speech, neither can they be writing one and the same lecture or discourse.' _Quot homines tot sententiae._ You may translate that, if you will, 'Every man of us constructs his sentence differently'; and if there be indeed any quarrel between Literature and Science (as I never can see why there should be), I for one will readily grant Science all her cold superiority, her ease in Sion with universal facts, so it be mine to serve among the multifarious race who have to adjust, as best they may, Science's cold conclusions (and much else) to the brotherly give-and-take of human life. _Quicquid agunt homines, votum, timor, ira, voluptas..._ Is it possible, Gentlemen, that you can have read one, two, three or more of the acknowledged masterpieces of literature without having it borne in on you that they are great because they are alive, and traffic not with cold celestial certainties, but with men's hopes, aspirations, doubts, loves, hates, breakings of the heart; the glory and vanity of human endeavour, the transience of beauty, the capricious uncertain lease on which you and I hold life, the dark coast to which we inevitably steer; all that amuses or vexes, all that gladdens, saddens, maddens us men and women on this brief and mutable traject which yet must be home for a while, the anchorage of our hearts? For an instance:-- Here lies a most beautiful lady, Light of step and heart was she: I think she was the most beautiful lady That ever was in the West Country. But beauty vanishes, beauty passes, However rare, rare it be; And when I crumble who shall remember That lady of the West Country? (Walter de la Mare.) Or take a critic--a literary critic--such as Samuel Johnson, of whom we are used to think as of a man artificial in phrase and pedantic in judgment. He lives, and why? Because, if you test his criticism, he never saw literature but as a part of life, nor would allow in literature what was false to life, as he saw it. He could be wrong-headed, perverse; could damn Milton because he hated Milton's politics; on any question of passion or prejudice could make injustice his daily food. But he could not, even in a friend's epitaph, let pass a phrase (however well turned) which struck him as empty of life or false to it. All Boswell testifies to this: and this is why Samuel Johnson survives. Now let me carry this contention--that all Literature is personal and therefore various--into a field much exploited by the pedant, and fenced about with many notice-boards and public warnings. _'Neologisms not allowed here,' 'All persons using slang, or trespassing in pursuit of originality....'_ Well, I answer these notice-boards by saying that, literature being personal, and men various--and even the "Oxford English Dictionary" being no Canonical book--man's use or defiance of the dictionary depends for its justification on nothing but his success: adding that, since it takes all kinds to make a world, or a literature, his success will probably depend on the occasion. A few months ago I found myself seated at a bump-supper next to a cheerful youth who, towards the close, suggested thoughtfully, as I arose to make a speech, that, the bonfire (which of course he called the 'bonner') being due at nine-thirty o'clock, there was little more than bare time left for 'langers and godders.' It cost me, who think slowly, some seconds to interpret that by 'langers' he meant 'Auld Lang Syne' and by 'godders' 'God Save the King.' I thought at the time, and still think, and will maintain against any schoolmaster, that the neologisms of my young neighbour, though not to be recommended for essays or sermons, did admirably suit the time, place, and occasion. Seeing that in human discourse, infinitely varied as it is, so much must ever depend on _who_ speaks, and to _whom_, in what mood and upon what occasion; and seeing that Literature must needs take account of all manner of writers, audiences, moods, occasions; I hold it a sin against the light to put up a warning against any word that comes to us in the fair way of use and wont (as 'wire,' for instance, for a telegram), even as surely as we should warn off hybrids or deliberately pedantic impostors, such as 'antibody' and 'picture-drome'; and that, generally, it is better to err on the side of liberty than on the side of the censor: since by the manumitting of new words we infuse new blood into a tongue of which (or we have learnt nothing from Shakespeare's audacity) our first pride should be that it is flexible, alive, capable of responding to new demands of man's untiring quest after knowledge and experience. Not because it was an ugly thing did I denounce Jargon to you, the other day: but because it was a dead thing, leading no-whither, meaning naught. There is _wickedness_ in human speech, sometimes. You will detect it all the better for having ruled out what is _naughty_. Let us err, then, if we err, on the side of liberty. I came, the other day, upon this passage in Mr Frank Harris's study of 'The Man Shakespeare':-- In the last hundred years the language of Molière has grown fourfold; the slang of the studios and the gutter and the laboratory, of the engineering school and the dissecting table, has been ransacked for special terms to enrich and strengthen the language in order that it may deal easily with the new thoughts. French is now a superb instrument, while English is positively poorer than it was in the time of Shakespeare, thanks to the prudery of our illiterate middle class.[1] Well, let us not lose our heads over this, any more than over other prophecies of our national decadence. The "Oxford English Dictionary" has not yet unfolded the last of its coils, which yet are ample enough to enfold us in seven words for every three an active man can grapple with. Yet the warning has point, and a particular point, for those who aspire to write poetry: as Francis Thompson has noted in his Essay on Shelley:-- Theoretically, of course, one ought always to try for the best word. But practically, the habit of excessive care in word-selection frequently results in loss of spontaneity; and, still worse, the habit of always taking the best word too easily becomes the habit of always taking the most ornate word, the word most removed from ordinary speech. In consequence of this, poetic diction has become latterly a kaleidoscope, and one's chief curiosity is as to the precise combinations into which the pieces will be shifted. There is, in fact, a certain band of words, the Praetorian cohorts of Poetry, whose prescriptive aid is invoked by every aspirant to the poetic purple.... Against these it is time some banner should be raised.... It is at any rate curious to note that the literary revolution against the despotic diction of Pope seems issuing, like political revolutions, in a despotism of his own making; and he adds a note that this is the more surprising to him because so many Victorian poets were prose-writers as well. Now, according to our theory, the practice of prose should maintain fresh and comprehensive a poet's diction, should save him from falling into the hands of an exclusive coterie of poetic words. It should react upon his metrical vocabulary to its beneficial expansion, by taking him outside his aristocratic circle of language, and keeping him in touch with the great commonalty, the proletariat of speech. For it is with words as with men: constant intermarriage within the limits of a patrician clan begets effete refinement; and to reinvigorate the stock, its veins must be replenished from hardy plebeian blood. In diction, then, let us acquire all the store we can, rejecting no coin for its minting but only if its metal be base. So shall we bring out of our treasuries new things and old. Diction, however, is but a part of Style, and perhaps not the most important part. So I revert to the larger question, 'What is Style? What its [Greek: to ti en einai], its essence, the law of its being?' Now, as I sat down to write this lecture, memory evoked a scene and with the scene a chance word of boyish slang, both of which may seem to you irrelevant until, or unless, I can make you feel how they hold for me the heart of the matter. I once happened to be standing in a corner of a ball-room when there entered the most beautiful girl these eyes have ever seen or now--since they grow dull--ever will see. It was, I believe, her first ball, and by some freak or in some premonition she wore black: and not pearls--which, I am told, maidens are wont to wear on these occasions--but one crescent of diamonds in her black hair. _Et vera incessu patuit dea._ Here, I say, was absolute beauty. It startled. I think she was the most beautiful lady That ever was in the West Country. But beauty vanishes, beauty passes.... She died a year or two later. She may have been too beautiful to live long. I have a thought that she may also have been too good. For I saw her with the crowd about her: I saw led up and presented among others the man who was to be, for a few months, her husband: and then, as the men bowed, pencilling on their programmes, over their shoulders I saw her eyes travel to an awkward young naval cadet (Do you remember Crossjay in Meredith's "The Egoist"? It was just such a boy) who sat abashed and glowering sulkily beside me on the far bench. Promptly with a laugh, she advanced, claimed him, and swept him off into the first waltz. When it was over he came back, a trifle flushed, and I felicitated him; my remark (which I forget) being no doubt 'just the sort of banality, you know, one does come out with'--as maybe that the British Navy kept its old knack of cutting out. But he looked at me almost in tears and blurted, 'It isn't her beauty, sir. You saw? It's--it's--my God, it's the _style_!' Now you may think that a somewhat cheap, or at any rate inadequate, cry of the heart in my young seaman; as you may think it inadequate in me, and moreover a trifle capricious, to assure you (as I do) that the first and last secret of a good Style consists in thinking with the heart as well as with the head. But let us philosophise a little. You have been told, I daresay often enough, that the business of writing demands _two_--the author and the reader. Add to this what is equally obvious, that the obligation of courtesy rests first with the author, who invites the séance, and commonly charges for it. What follows, but that in speaking or writing we have an obligation to put ourselves into the hearer's or reader's place? It is _his_ comfort, _his_ convenience, we have to consult. To _express_ ourselves is a very small part of the business: very small and almost unimportant as compared with _impressing_ ourselves: the aim of the whole process being to persuade. All reading demands an effort. The energy, the good-will which a reader brings to the book is, and must be, partly expended in the labour of reading, marking, learning, inwardly digesting what the author means. The more difficulties, then, we authors obtrude on him by obscure or careless writing, the more we blunt the edge of his attention: so that if only in our own interest--though I had rather keep it on the ground of courtesy--we should study to anticipate his comfort. But let me go a little deeper. You all know that a great part of Lessing's argument in his "Laoköon", on the essentials of Literature as opposed to Pictorial Art or Sculpture, depends on this--that in Pictorial Art or in Sculpture the eye sees, the mind apprehends, the whole in a moment of time, with the correspondent disadvantage that this moment of time is fixed and stationary; whereas in writing, whether in prose or in verse, we can only produce our effect by a series of successive small impressions, dripping our meaning (so to speak) into the reader's mind--with the correspondent advantage, in point of vivacity, that our picture keeps moving all the while. Now obviously this throws a greater strain on his patience whom we address. Man at the best is a narrow-mouthed bottle. Through the conduit of speech he can utter--as you, my hearers, can receive--only one word at a time. In writing (as my old friend Professor Minto used to say) you are as a commander filing out his battalion through a narrow gate that allows only one man at a time to pass; and your reader, as he receives the troops, has to re-form and reconstruct them. No matter how large or how involved the subject, it can be communicated only in that way. You see, then, what an obligation we owe to him of order and arrangement; and why, apart from felicities and curiosities of diction, the old rhetoricians laid such stress upon order and arrangement as duties we owe to those who honour us with their attention. '_La clarté,_' says a French writer, '_est la politesse._' [Greek: Charisi kai sapheneia thue], recommends Lucian. Pay your sacrifice to the Graces, and to [Greek: sapheneia]--Clarity--first among the Graces. What am I urging? 'That Style in writing is much the same thing as good manners in other human intercourse?' Well, and why not? At all events we have reached a point where Buffon's often-quoted saying that 'Style is the man himself' touches and coincides with William of Wykeham's old motto that 'Manners makyth Man': and before you condemn my doctrine as inadequate listen to this from Coventry Patmore, still bearing in mind that a writer's main object is to _impress_ his thought or vision upon his hearer. 'There is nothing comparable _for moral force_ to the charm of truly noble manners....' I grant you, to be sure, that the claim to possess a Style must be conceded to many writers--Carlyle is one--who take no care to put listeners at their ease, but rely rather on native force of genius to shock and astound. Nor will I grudge them your admiration. But I do say that, as more and more you grow to value truth and the modest grace of truth, it is less and less to such writers that you will turn: and I say even more confidently that the qualities of Style we allow them are not the qualities we should seek as a norm, for they one and all offend against Art's true maxim of avoiding excess. And this brings me to the two great _paradoxes_ of Style. For the first (1),--although Style is so curiously personal and individual, and although men are so variously built that no two in the world carry away the same impressions from a show, there is always a norm somewhere; in literature and art, as in morality. Yes, even in man's most terrific, most potent inventions--when, for example, in "Hamlet" or in "Lear" Shakespeare seems to be breaking up the solid earth under our feet--there is always some point and standard of sanity--a Kent or an Horatio--to which all enormities and passionate errors may be referred; to which the agitated mind of the spectator settles back as upon its centre of gravity, its pivot of repose. (2) The second paradox, though it is equally true, you may find a little subtler. Yet it but applies to Art the simple truth of the Gospel, that he who would save his soul must first lose it. Though personality pervades Style and cannot be escaped, the first sin against Style as against good Manners is to obtrude or exploit personality. The very greatest work in Literature--the "Iliad," the "Odyssey," the "Purgatorio," "The Tempest," "Paradise Lost," the "Republic," "Don Quixote"--is all Seraphically free From taint of personality. And Flaubert, that gladiator among artists, held that, at its highest, literary art could be carried into pure science. 'I believe,' said he, 'that great art is scientific and impersonal. You should by an intellectual effort transport yourself into characters, not draw _them_ into _yourself_. That at least is the method.' On the other hand, says Goethe, 'We should endeavour to use words that correspond as closely as possible with what we feel, see, think, imagine, experience, and reason. It is an endeavour we cannot evade and must daily renew.' I call Flaubert's the better counsel, even though I have spent a part of this lecture in attempting to prove it impossible. It at least is noble, encouraging us to what is difficult. The shrewder Goethe encourages us to exploit ourselves to the top of our bent. I think Flaubert would have hit the mark if for 'impersonal' he had substituted 'disinterested.' For--believe me, Gentlemen--so far as Handel stands above Chopin, as Velasquez above Greuze, even so far stand the great masculine objective writers above all who appeal to you by parade of personality or private sentiment. Mention of these great masculine 'objective' writers brings me to my last word: which is, 'Steep yourselves in _them_: habitually bring all to the test of _them_: for while you cannot escape the fate of all style, which is to be personal, the more of catholic manhood you inherit from those great loins the more you will assuredly beget.' This then is Style. As technically manifested in Literature it is the power to touch with ease, grace, precision, any note in the gamut of human thought or emotion. But essentially it resembles good manners. It comes of endeavouring to understand others, of thinking for them rather than for yourself--of thinking, that is, with the heart as well as the head. It gives rather than receives; it is nobly careless of thanks or applause, not being fed by these but rather sustained and continually refreshed by an inward loyalty to the best. Yet, like 'character' it has its altar within; to that retires for counsel, from that fetches its illumination, to ray outwards. Cultivate, Gentlemen, that habit of withdrawing to be advised by the best. So, says Fénelon, 'you will find yourself infinitely quieter, your words will be fewer and more effectual; and while you make less ado, what you do will be more profitable.' [Footnote 1: 'An oration,' says Quintilian, 'may find room for almost any word saving a few indecent ones (_quae sunt parum verecunda_).' He adds that writers of the Old Comedy were often commended even for these: 'but it is enough for us to mind our present business--_sed nobis nostrum opus intueri sat est._'] INDEX Abelard 203, 205, 212 Abercrombie, Lascelles 18 Addison, Joseph 124, 172 Alcuin 199, 200, 204, 205 Alfred, King 186 Aristophanes 192 Aristotle 128, 203, 227 Arnold, Matthew 35, 76, 139, 186, 202 "Arte of Rhetorique," Wilson's 118 Ascham, Roger 121, 188 Augustine 199 Bacon, Lord 6, 7, 10, 220, 231 Bagehot, Walter 216 "Ballata" 45 Barbour, John 112 Barrie, Sir James Matthew 17, 135 Bede 204 Beerbohm, Max 222 Belisarius 175 Bentham, Jeremy 97 "Beowulf" 159-165 Béranger, Pierre-Jean de 45 Berners, Lord 108-110,120 Bible, The: Authorised Version 53, 97, 110, 122 et seq., 141, 143, 190 Revised Version 131-133 Blair, Wilfred 80 Blake, William 12 Boccaccio 184 Boethius 203 Bologna, University of 200-1, 206 Borneil, Giraud de 181 Boswell, James 238 Bridges, Robert 19 Brooke, the Rev. Stopford A. 159 Brougham, Ld 47, 101 Browne, Sir Thomas 10, 51, 124, 168, 232 Browning, Robert 39, 186 Buffon 245 Bunyan, John 124 Burke, Edmund 27, 28, 46, 47-52, 101 Burns, Robert 45 Butler, Arthur John 20 Caedmon 163 Cambridge 201 _et seqq._ Campion, Thomas 185, 188 Carducci, Giosué 154-5 Carlyle, Thomas 18, 103, 245 Cellini, Benvenuto 41 Cervantes 7, 25 Chadwick, Professor H. M. 163 Chair of English Literature, University Ordinance 7 Chambers, E. K. 199 Champeaux, William of 205 Chaucer, Geoffrey 10, 110-111, 163, 183, 184, 219 Chesterton, Gilbert K. 233 Chichester, Richard of 211 Cicero 28, 49 Clare, John 39 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor 41, 64, 65 Conington, John 171-2 Courthope, W. J. 13, 158, 184, 199 Coverdale, Miles 124 Cowley, Abraham 185 Cowper, William 186 Crewe, Ld Chief Justice 7 Cynewulf 163 Daniel, Samuel 185, 188 Dante 77, 184 Darwin, Charles 221 Defoe, Daniel 61, 75. Dekker, Thomas 65 De La Mare, Walter 237 De Quincey, Thomas 54 Desiderius, Archbishop 199 Dionysius of Halicarnassus 28 Donne, John 102, 106, 185 Dryden, John 172, 186, 227 "Duchess of Malfy," Webster's 99 Dunbar 10 'Eliot, George' 11 Emerson, Ralph Waldo 11 Falconer, William 79 Falkner, J. Meade 168-9 Fénelon 248 FitzGerald, Edward 97 Flaubert, Gustave 247 Fletcher, John 13 Fowler, W. H. and F. G. 90, 137 Freeman, Professor E. A. 158, 160, 174-179, 186 "Froissart," Berners' 108 Froude, James Anthony 78 Fuller, Thomas 206 Gibbon, Edward 124, 216 Gildas 175 Goethe 103, 247 Gray, Thomas 11, 16, 136, 157-8, 162 Green, J. R. 158 Green, T. H. 8 Gregory the Great, Pope 199 Grierson, Professor H. J. C. 185 Hamilton, Sir William 213 Hardy, Thomas 18 Harris, Frank 240 Harvey, Gabriel 185, 216-7 Heine, Heinrich 45 Herbert, George 133 "Hero and Leander," Marlowe's 98 Herodotus 44, 63 Homer 25, 64, 69, 76-78, 80, 81, 161, 190, 228 Horace 171-2 Housman, Professor A. E. 222 Ibsen 96 Irnerius 206 Isaiah 130-133 Jackson, Dr Henry 213 Johnson, Samuel 11, 37, 69, 121, 172, 238 Jonson, Ben 129, 146, 185, 219, 220 Jowett, Benjamin 29 Jusserand, J. J. 182 Juvenal, 172 Keats, John 16, 39, 186 Kempis, Thomas à 15 Ker, Professor W. P. 160, 199 Kipling, Rudyard 61 Lamb, Charles 41 Lessing 81, 227, 244 Lindsay, the Rev. T. M., D.D. 118 Lloyd George, the Right Hon. David 137-8 Lucian 6, 160, 192, 228, 245 Lucretius 193 Malory, Sir Thomas 107-110, 120 Marlowe, Christopher 98-9, 185, 220 Marvell, Andrew 185 Mason, William 157 Masson, David 12 McKenna, the Right Hon. Reginald 137-8 Meredith, George 243, 247 Milton, John 1, 10, 16, 43, 56-62, 74-76, 124, 152, 185, 195, 238 Minto, Professor William 245 Moore, Thomas 45 Morris, William 188 Mullinger, J. Bass 205, 219 Murray, Professor Gilbert 193 Nashe, Thomas 120 Newman, Cardinal 5, 30, 31-2, 115, 134, 144, 147, 234 Newton, Sir Isaac 221 Noyes, Alfred 78 "Nut-Brown Maid, The" 111 Oates, Captain 42 Origen 195, 202 Oxford 201 _et seq._ Paris, University of 200, 205 Pater, Walter 77, 222 Patmore, Coventry 245 Payne, E. J. 100-103 "Pervigilium Veneris" 151, 194 Pheidias 14 Philosophy and Poetry 1 Piers Plowman 163, 182 "Pilgrimage to Parnassus, The" 217-220 Plato 1-4, 150, 205 Pliny 152-3 Podsnap (_see_ Freeman) Poggio 205 Pope, Alexander 157, 162 Powell, F. York 159 Provençal Song 181-183 Pythagoras 208 Quintilian 29, 140, 240 Raleigh, Professor Sir Walter 9 Rashdall, Hastings 208-213 Remigius 206 Renan 1 Reynolds, Sir Joshua 23-25 Sainte-Beuve, Charles Augustus 20 Saintsbury, Prof. George 55, 56, 187 Salamanca, University of 200 Scott, The Antarctic Expedition 42 Severus, Sulpicius 199 Shakespeare, William 15, 41, 50, 51-2, 97-100, 113, 129, 185, 190, 197, 219, 229, 246 Shaw, George Bernard 72 Shelley 40 Shirley, James 106 Sidgwick, Henry 232 Sidney, Sir Philip 41-2 Skeat, Walter W. 12 "Sonata" 45 South, Robert 102 Spenser, Edmund 185, 206, 217, 219 Stevenson, Robert Louis 133 Stubbs, Bishop W. 44 'Student's Handbook, The' 72-3 Swift, Jonathan 61 Swinburne, Algernon 196 Taylor, Jeremy 68-9 Tennyson, Lord 75, 186 Tertullian 195, 198, 202 Thackeray, William Makepeace 124 Thompson, Francis 241 Thomson, James 39 Toulouse, University of 208 Tyndale, William 122, 126, 127 Vacarius 206 Ventadour, Bernard de 181 "Venus and Adonis" 98-9 Verrall, Dr A. W. 7 Vigfússon, Gudbrand 159 Virgil 25, 80, 194, 200 Voltaire 192 Waller, Edmund 85 Walpole, Horatio 173 Walton, Isaak 70-1, 124, 201 Warton, Thomas 158 Watson, E. J. 155 Watson, William 16 Webster, John 99 Wendell, Barrett 97 Whistler, James McNeill 236 Whitman, Walt 53, 56 "Widsith" 60 Wolfe, General 134 Wood, Anthony 184 Wordsworth, William 11, 12, 55, 67, 68, 129, 146, 186, 204, 210 Wright, Aldis 12 Wyat, Sir Thomas 115-118, 184 Wyclif, John 124, 127 Yeats, William Butler 143 Young, Arthur 171 Cambridge: Printed by J. B. Peace, M.A., at the University Press. 
19052	----	STORIES THAT WORDS TELL US BY ELIZABETH O'NEILL, M.A. AUTHOR OF "THE WORLD'S STORY," "A NURSERY HISTORY OF ENGLAND," ETC. LONDON: T. C. & E. C. JACK, LTD. 35 PATERNOSTER ROW, E.C. AND EDINBURGH 1918 * * * * * CONTENTS I. SOME STORIES OF BRITISH HISTORY TOLD FROM ENGLISH WORDS II. HOW WE GOT OUR CHRISTIAN NAMES AND SURNAMES III. STORIES IN THE NAMES OF PLACES IV. NEW NAMES FOR NEW PLACES V. STORIES IN OLD LONDON NAMES VI. WORDS MADE BY GREAT WRITERS VII. WORDS THE BIBLE HAS GIVEN US VIII. WORDS FROM THE NAMES OF PEOPLE IX. WORDS FROM THE NAMES OF ANIMALS X. WORDS FROM THE NAMES OF PLACES XI. PICTURES IN WORDS XII. WORDS FROM NATIONAL CHARACTER XIII. WORDS MADE BY WAR XIV. PROVERBS XV. SLANG XVI. WORDS WHICH HAVE CHANGED THEIR MEANING XVII. DIFFERENT WORDS WITH THE SAME MEANING, AND THE SAME WORDS WITH DIFFERENT MEANINGS XVIII. NICE WORDS FOR NASTY THINGS XIX. THE MORAL OF THESE STORIES * * * * * STORIES THAT WORDS TELL US. CHAPTER I. SOME STORIES OF BRITISH HISTORY TOLD FROM ENGLISH WORDS. Nearly all children must remember times when a word they know quite well and use often has suddenly seemed very strange to them. Perhaps they began repeating the word half to themselves again and again, and wondered why they had never noticed before what a queer word it is. Then generally they have forgotten all about it, and the next time they have used the word it has not seemed strange at all. But as a matter of fact words _are_ very strange things. Every word we use has its own story, and has changed, sometimes many times since some man or woman or child first used it. Some words are very old and some are quite new, for every living language--that is, every language used regularly by some nation--is always growing, and having new words added to it. The only languages which do not grow in this way are the "dead" languages which were spoken long ago by nations which are dead too. Latin is a "dead" language. When it was spoken by the old Romans it was, of course, a living language, and grew and changed; but though it is a very beautiful language, it is no longer used as the regular speech of a nation, and so does not change any more. But it is quite different with a living language. Just as a baby when it begins to speak uses only a few words, and learns more and more as it grows older, so nations use more words as they grow older and become more and more civilized. Savages use only a few words, not many more, perhaps, than a baby, and not as many as a child belonging to a civilized nation. But the people of great civilizations like England and France use many thousands of words, and the more educated a person is the more words he is able to choose from to express his thoughts. We do not know how the first words which men and women spoke were made. People who study the history of languages, and who are called _Philologists_, or "Lovers of Words," say that words may have come to be used in any one of three different ways; but of course this is only guessing, for though we know a great deal about the way words and languages grow, we do not really know how they first began. Some people used to think that the earliest men had a language all ready-made for them, but this could not be. We know at least that the millions of words in use in the world to-day have grown out of quite a few simple sounds or "root" words. Every word we use contains a story about some man or woman or child of the past or the present. In this chapter we shall see how some common English words can tell us stories of the past. In reading British history we learn how different peoples have at different times owned the land: how the Britons were conquered by the English; how the Danes tried to conquer the English in their turn, and how great numbers of them settled down in the _Danelaw_, in the east of England; how, later on, the Norman duke and his followers overcame Harold, and became the rulers of England, and so on. But suppose we knew nothing at all about British history, and had to guess what had happened in the past, we might guess a great deal of British history from the words used by English people to-day. For the English language has itself been growing, and borrowing words from other languages all through British history. Scholars who have studied many languages can easily pick out these borrowed words and say from which language they were taken. Of course these scholars know a great deal about British history; but let us imagine one who does not. He would notice in the English language some words (though not many) which must have come from the language which the Britons spoke. He would know, too, that the name _Welsh_, which was given to the Britons who were driven into the western parts of England, comes from an Old English word, _wealh_, which meant "slave." He might then guess that, besides the Britons who were driven away into the west of the country, there were others whom the English conquered and made to work as slaves. From the name _wealh_, or "slave," given to these, all the Britons who remained came to be known as _Welsh_. Yet though the English conquered the Britons, the two peoples could not have mixed much or married very often with each other; for if they had done so, many more British words would have been borrowed by the English language. To the English the Britons were strangers and "slaves." We could, too, guess some of the things which these old English conquerors of Britain did and believed from examining some common English words. If we think of the days of the week besides _Sunday_, or the "Sun's day," and _Monday_, the "Moon's day," we find _Tuesday_, "Tew's day," _Wednesday_, "Woden's day," _Thursday_, "Thor's day," _Friday_, "Freya's day," _Saturday_, "Saturn's day," and it would not be hard to guess that most of the days are called after gods or goddesses whom the English worshipped while they were still heathen, Tew was in the old English religion the bravest of all the gods, for he gave up his own arm to save the other gods. Woden, the wisest of the gods, had given up not an arm but an eye, which he had sold for the waters of wisdom. Thor was the fierce god of thunder, who hurled lightning at the giants. Freya was a beautiful goddess who wore a magic necklace which had the power to make men love. We might then guess from the way in which our old English forefathers named the days of the week what sort of gods they worshipped, and what kind of men they were--great fighters, admiring courage and strength above all things, but poetical, too, loving grace and beauty. But, as everybody knows, the English people soon changed their religion and became Christians; and any student of the English language would soon guess this, even if he knew nothing of English history. He would be able to guess, too, that the English got their Christianity from a people who spoke Latin, for so many of the English words connected with religion come from the Latin language. It was, of course, the Roman monk St. Augustine who brought the Christian religion to the English. Latin was the language of the Romans. The word _religion_ itself is a Latin word meaning reverence for the gods; and _Mass_, the name given to the chief service of the Catholic religion, comes from the Latin _missa_, taken from the words, _Ite missa est_ ("Go; the Mass is ended"), with which the priest finishes the Mass. _Missa_ is only a part of the verb _mittere_, "to finish." The words _priest_, _bishop_, _monk_, _altar_, _vestment_, and many others, came into the English language from the Latin with the Christian religion. Even, again, if a student of the English language knew nothing about the invasions of England by the fierce Danes, he might guess something about them from the fact that there are many Danish words in the English language, and especially the names of places. Such common words as _husband_, _knife_, _root_, _skin_, came into English from the Danish. But many more words were added to the English language through the Norman Conquest. It is quite easy to see, from the great number of French words in the English language, that France and England must at one time have had a great deal to do with each other. But it was the English who used French words, and not the French who used English. This was quite natural when a Norman, or North French, duke became king of England, and Norman nobles came in great numbers to live in England and help to rule her. Sir Walter Scott, in his great book "Ivanhoe," makes one man say that all the names of living animals are English, like _ox_, _sheep_, _deer_, and _swine_, but their flesh when it becomes meat is given French names--_beef_, _mutton_, _venison_, and _pork_. The reason for this is easy to see: Englishmen worked hard looking after the animals while they were alive, and the rich Normans ate their flesh when they were dead. England never, of course, became really Norman. Although the English were not so learned or polite or at that time so civilized as the Normans, there were so many more of them that in time the Normans became English, and spoke the English language. But when we remember that for three hundred years French was spoken in the law courts and by the nobility of England, and all the English kings were really Frenchmen, it is easy to understand that a great many French words found their way into the English language. As it was the Normans who governed England, many of our words about law and government came from the French. Englishmen are very proud of the "jury system," by which every British subject is tried by his equals. It was England who really began this system, but the name _jury_ is French, as are also _judge_, _court_, _justice_, _prison_, _gaol_. The English Parliament, too, is called the "Mother of Parliaments," but _parliament_ is a French word, and means really a meeting for the purpose of talking. Nearly all titles, like _duke_, _baron_, _marquis_, are French, for it was Frenchmen who first got and gave these titles; though _earl_ remains from the Danish _eorl_. It is a rather peculiar thing that nearly all our names for _relatives_ outside one's own family come from the French used by the Normans--_uncle_, _aunt_, _nephew_, _niece_, _cousin_; while _father_, _mother_, _brother_, and _sister_ come from the Old English words. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the real "Middle Ages," the French poets, scholars, and writers were the greatest in Europe. The greatest doctors, lawyers, and scholars of the western lands of Europe had often been educated at schools or universities in France. Those who wrote about medicine and law often used French words to describe things for which no English word was known. The French writers borrowed many words from Latin, and the English writers did the same. Sometimes they took Latin words from the French, but sometimes they only imitated the French writers, and took a Latin word and changed it to seem like a French word. If we were to count the words used by English writers in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, we should find that quite one-tenth of these are words borrowed from other languages. After this time fewer words were borrowed, but still the English language has borrowed much more than most languages. Some people think that it is a pity that we have borrowed so many words, and say that we should speak and write "pure English." But we must remember that Britain has had the most wonderful history of all the nations. She has had the greatest explorers, adventurers, and sailors. She has built up the greatest empire the world has ever seen. It is only natural that her language should have borrowed from the languages of nearly every nation in the world, even from the Chinese and from the native languages of Australia and Africa. Ever since the middle of the sixteenth century England has been a great sea-going nation. Her sailors have explored and traded all over the world, and naturally they have brought back many new words from East and West. Sometimes these are the names of new things brought from strange lands. Thus _calico_ was given that name from _Calicut_, because the cotton used to make calico came from there. From Arabia we got the words _harem_ and _magazine_, and from Turkey the name _coffee_, though this is really an Arabian word. We had already learned the words _cotton_, _sugar_, and _orange_ from the Arabs at the time of the Crusades. From the West Indies and from South America many words came, though the English learned these first from the Spaniards, who were the first to discover these lands. Among these words are the names of such common things as _chocolate_, _cocoa, tomato_. The words _canoe_, _tobacco_, and _potato_ come to us from the island of Hayti. The words _hammock_ and _hurricane_ come to us from the Caribbean Islands, and so did the word _cannibal_, which came from _Caniba_, which was sometimes used instead of Carib. Even the common word _breeze_, by which we now mean a light wind, first came to us from the Spanish word _briza_, which meant the north-east trade wind. The name _alligator_, an animal which Englishmen saw for the first time in these far-off voyages, is really only an attempt to use the Spanish words for the lizard--_al lagarto_. When the English at length settled themselves in North America they took many words from the native Indians, such as _tomahawk_, _moccasin_, and _hickory_. In England and in Europe generally history shows us that there were a great many changes in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. This new love for adventure, which gave us so many new words, was one sign of the times. Then there were changes in manners, in religion, and in the way people thought about things. People had quite a new idea of the world. They now knew that, instead of being the centre of the universe, the earth was but one of many worlds whirling through space. The minds of men became more lively. They began to criticize all sorts of things which they had believed in and reverenced before. During the Middle Ages many things which the Romans and Greeks had loved had been forgotten and despised; but now there was a sudden new enthusiasm for the beautiful statues and fine writings of the ancient Greeks and Romans. It was not long before this new great change got a name. It was called the _Renaissance_, or "New Birth," because so many old and forgotten things seemed to come to life again, and it looked as though men had been born again into a new time. One of the chief results of the Renaissance was a change in religion. The Protestants declared that they had reformed or changed religion for the better, and the change in religion is now always spoken of as the Reformation; just as the reform of the Catholic Church which soon followed was called the _Counter-Reformation_, or movement against the Reformation--_counter_ coming from the Latin word for "against." In England the Renaissance and Reformation led to great changes not only in religion but in government, and the way people thought of their country and their rulers. People came to have a new love for and pride in their country. It was in the sixteenth century that the old word _nation_, which before had meant a race or band of peoples, came to be used as we use it now, to mean the people of one country under one government. In the sixteenth century Englishmen became prouder than ever of belonging to the English "nation." They felt a new love for other Englishmen, and it was at this time that the expressions _fellow-countrymen_ and _mother-country_ were first used. The seventeenth century was, of course, a period during which great things happened to the English state. It was the period of the great Civil War, in which the Parliament fought against the king, so that it could have the chief part in the government of the country. All sorts of new words grew up during the Civil War. The word _Royalist_ now first began to be used, meaning the people who were on the king's side. The Royalists called the men who fought for the Parliament _Roundheads_, because of their hair being cropped short, not hanging in ringlets, as was the fashion of the day. The people who fought against the king were all men who had broken away from the English Church, and become much more "Protestant." They were very strict in many ways, especially in keeping the "Sabbath," as they called Sunday. They dressed very plainly, and they thought the followers of the king, with their long hair and lace and ruffles, very frivolous people indeed. It was the men of the Parliament side who first gave the name _Cavalier_ to the Royalists. It was meant by them to show contempt, and came from the Italian word _cavaliere_, which means literally "a horseman," coming from the Late Latin word _caballus_, "a horse." It is a curious fact that we now use the word _cavalier_ as an adjective to mean rude and off-hand, whereas the Cavaliers of the seventeenth century certainly had much better manners than the Roundheads; and at the end of that century the word was sometimes used in the general sense of gay and frank. Both sides in the Civil War invented a good many new words with which to abuse the enemy. Milton, who wrote on the side of the Parliament, made a great many; but the Royalists invented more, and perhaps more expressive, words. At any rate they have been kept and used as quite ordinary English words. The word _cant_, for instance, which every one understands to mean pious or sentimental words which the person who says them does not really mean, was first used in this way by the Royalists to describe the sayings of the Parliament men who were much given to preaching and the singing of psalms. Before that time the word _cant_ had meant a certain kind of singing, and also the whining sound beggars sometimes made. In the eighteenth century, when Parliament was divided into two great parties, their names were given to them in the same way. The _Tories_ were so called from the name given to some very wild, almost savage, people who lived in the bog lands of Ireland; and the name _Whigs_ was given by the Tories, and came from a Scotch word, _Whigamore_, the name of some very fierce Protestants in the south of Scotland. At first these names were just words of abuse, but they came to be the regular names of the two parties, and people forgot all about their first meanings. The great growth in the power of the peoples of Europe since the French Revolution has brought about great changes in the way these countries are governed. It was the French Revolution which led to the widespread opinion that all the people in a nation should help in the government. It was in writing on these subjects that English writers borrowed the words _aristocrat_ and _democrat_ from the French writers. _Aristocracy_ comes from an old Greek word meaning the rule of the few; but the French Revolution writers gave it a new meaning, as something evil. Before the Revolution the name _despotism_ had been used for the rule of a single tyrant, but it now came to mean unjust rule, even by several people. The French Revolution gave us several other words. We all now know the word _terrorize_, but it only came into English from the French at the time of the Revolution, when the French people became used to "Reigns of Terror." But if the French Revolution gave us many of the words which relate to democracy or government by the people, England has always been the country of parliamentary government, and many terms now used by the other countries of Europe have been invented in England--words like _parliament_ itself, _bill_, _budget_, and _speech_. Nearly all the words connected with science, and especially the "ologies," as they are called, like _physiology_ and _zoology_, are fairly new words in English. In the Middle Ages there was no real study of science, and so naturally there were not many words connected with it; but in the last two centuries the study of science has been one of the most important things in history. We shall see more of these scientific words in another chapter. Perhaps we have said enough in this chapter to show how each big movement in history has given us a new group of words and how these words are in a way historians of these movements. CHAPTER II. HOW WE GOT OUR CHRISTIAN NAMES AND SURNAMES. We can learn some interesting stories from the history of our own names. Most people nowadays have one or more Christian names and a surname, but this was not always the case. Every Christian from the earliest days of Christianity must have had a Christian name given to him at baptism. And before the days of Christianity every man, woman, or child must have had some name. But the practice of giving surnames grew up only very gradually in the countries of Europe. At first only a few royal or noble families had sur-names, or "super" names; but gradually, as the populations of the different countries became larger, it became necessary for people to have surnames, so as to distinguish those with the same Christian names from each other. In these days children are generally given for their Christian names family names, or names which their parents think beautiful or suitable. (Often the children afterwards do not like their own names at all.) The Christian names of the children of European countries come to us from many different languages. Perhaps the greatest number come to us from the Hebrew, because these Jewish names are, of course, found in great numbers in the Bible. The conversion of the countries of Europe to Christianity united them in their ways of thinking and believing, and they all honoured the saints. The names of the early saints, whether they were from the Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Celtic, Teutonic, or Slavonic, were soon spread throughout all the countries of Europe, so that now French, German, English, Italian, Spanish names, and those of the other European countries, are for the most part the same, only spelt and pronounced a little differently in the different countries. The English _William_ is _Guillaume_ in French, _Wilhelm_ in German, and so on. _John_ is _Jean_ in French, _Johann_ in German, and so on, with many other names. But in early times people got their names in a much more interesting way. Sometimes something which seemed peculiar about a little new-born baby would suggest a name. _Esau_ was called by this name, which is only the Hebrew word for "hairy," because he was already covered by the thick growth of hair on his body which made him so different from Jacob. The old Roman names _Flavius_ and _Fulvius_ merely meant "yellow," and the French name _Blanche_, "fair," or "white." Sometimes the fond parents would give the child a name describing some quality which they hoped the child would possess when it grew up. The Hebrew name _David_ means "beloved." The name _Joseph_ was given by Rachel, the beloved wife of Jacob, to the baby who came to her after long waiting. _Joseph_ means "addition," and Rachel chose this name because she hoped another child would yet be added to her family. She afterwards had Benjamin, the best beloved of all Jacob's sons, and then she died. The name Joseph did not become common in Europe till after the Reformation, when the Catholic Church appointed a feast day for St. Joseph, the spouse of the Blessed Virgin. Towards the end of the eighteenth century the Emperor Leopold christened his son Joseph, and this, and the fact that Napoleon's first wife was named Josephine, made these two names as a boy's and a girl's name very popular. We have both Joseph and Josephine in English, and the French have Fifine and Finette as well as Josephine, for which these are pet names. In Italy, too, Joseph, or Giuseppe, is a common name, and Peppo, or Beppo, are short names for it. These pet names seem very strange when we remember Rachel's solemn choosing of the name for the first Joseph of all. Sometimes the early nations called their children by the names of animals. The beautiful old Hebrew name _Deborah_, which became also an old-fashioned English name, means "bee." In several languages the word for _wolf_ was given as a personal name. The Greek _Lycos_, the Latin _Lupus_, the Teutonic _Ulf_, from which came the Latin _Ulphilas_ and the Slavonic _Vuk_, all mean "wolf." The wolf was the most common and the most treacherous of all the wild animals against which early peoples had to fight, and this, perhaps, accounts for the common use of its name. People were so impressed by its qualities that they thought its name worthy to give to their sons, who, perhaps, they hoped would possess some of its better qualities when they grew up. Sometimes early names were taken from the names of precious stones, as _Margarite_, a Greek name meaning "pearl," and which is the origin of all the Margarets, Marguerites, etc., to be found in nearly all the languages of Europe. Among all early peoples many names were religious, like the Hebrew _Ishmael_, or "heard by God;" _Elizabeth_, or the "oath of God;" _John_, or the "grace of the Lord." The Romans had the name _Jovianus_, which meant "belonging to Jupiter," who was the chief of the gods in whom the Romans believed. In some languages names, especially of women, are taken from flowers, like the Greek _Rhode_, or "rose," the English _Rose_, and _Lily_ or _Lilian_, and the Scotch _Lilias_. A great many of the Hebrew names especially come from words meaning sorrow or trouble. They were first given to children born in times of sorrow. Thus we have _Jabez_, which means "sorrow;" _Ichabod_, or "the glory is departed;" _Mary_, "bitter." The Jews, as we can see from the Bible, suffered the greatest misfortunes, and their writers knew how to tell of it in words. The Celtic nations, like the Irish, have the same gift, and we get many old Celtic names with these same sad meanings. Thus _Una_ means "famine;" _Ita_, "thirsty." The Greek and Roman names were never sad like these. Some old Greek names became Christian names when people who were called by them became Christian in the first days of the Church. There are several names from the Greek word _angelos_. This meant in Greek merely a messenger, but it began to be used by the early Christian writers both in Latin and Greek to mean a messenger from heaven, or an angel. The Greeks gave it first as a surname, and then as a Christian name. In the thirteenth century there was a St. Angelo in Italy, and from the honour paid to him the name spread, chiefly as a girl's name, to the other countries of Europe, giving the English _Angelina_ and _Angelica_, the French _Angelique_, and the German _Engel_. Besides this general name of _angel_, the name of Michael, the archangel, and Gabriel, the angel of the Annunciation, became favourite names among Eastern Christians. The reason _Michael_ was such a favourite was that the great Emperor Constantine dedicated a church to St. Michael in Constantinople. The name is so much used in Russia that it is quite common to speak of a Russian peasant as a "Michael," just as people rather vulgarly speak of an Irish peasant as a "Paddy." Michael can hardly be called an English name, but it is almost as common in Ireland as Patrick, which, of course, is used in honour of Ireland's patron saint. _Gabriel_ is a common name in Italy, as is also another angel's name, _Raphael_. _Gabriel_ is used as a girl's name in France--_Gabrielle_. No Christian would think of using the name of God as a personal name; but _Theos_, the Greek word for God, was sometimes so used by the Greeks. A Greek name formed from this, _Theophilos_, or "beloved by the gods," became a Christian name, and the name of one of the early saints. The name _Christ_, or "anointed," was the word which the Greek Christians (who translated the Gospels into the Greek of their time) used for the _Messiah_. From this word came the name _Christian_, and from it _Christina_. One of the early martyrs, a virgin of noble Roman birth, who died for her religion, was St. Christina. In Denmark the name became a man's name, _Christiern_. Another English name which is like Christina is _Christabel_. The great poet Coleridge in the nineteenth century wrote the beginning of a beautiful poem called "Christabel." The name was not very common before this, and was not heard of until the sixteenth century, but it is fairly common now. Another favourite Christian name from the name of _Christ_ is _Christopher_, which means the bearer or carrier of Christ, and we are told in a legend how St. Christopher got this name. He had chosen for his work to carry people across a stream which had no bridge over it. One day a little boy suddenly appeared, and asked him to carry him across. The kind saint did so, and found, as he got farther into the stream, that the child grew heavier and heavier. When the saint put him down on the other side he saw the figure of the man Christ before him, and fell down and adored Him. Ever afterwards he was known as _Christopher_, or the "Christ-bearer." Another Christian name which comes from a Greek word is _Peter_. _Petros_ is the Greek word for "stone," and _Petra_ for "rock." The name _Peter_ became a favourite in honour of St. Peter, whose name was first _Simon_, but who was called _Peter_ because of the words our Lord said to him: "Thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my Church." When the barbarian tribes, such as the English and Franks, broke into the lands of the Roman Empire and settled there, afterwards being converted to Christianity, they chose a good many Latin words as names. In France names made from the Latin word _amo_ ("I love") were quite common. We hear of _Amabilis_ ("lovable"), _Amadeus_ ("loving God"), _Amandus_, which has now become a surname in France as _St. Amand_. In England, _Amabilis_ became _Amabel_, which is not a very common name now, but from which we have _Mabel_. _Amy_ was first used in England after the Norman Conquest, and comes from the French _Amata_, or _Aimée_, which means "beloved." Another Latin word of the same kind which gave us some Christian names was _Beo_ ("I bless"). From part of this verb, _Beatus_ ("blessed"), there was an old English name, _Beata_, but no girl or woman seems to have been called by it since the seventeenth century. _Beatrix_ and _Beatrice_ also come from this. The name _Benedict_, which sometimes became in English _Bennet_, came from another word like this, _Benignus_ ("kind"). _Boniface_, from the Latin _Bonifacius_ ("doer of good deeds"), was a favourite name in the early Church, and the name of a great English saint; but it is not used in England now, though there is still the Italian name, _Bonifazio_, which comes from the same word. Both Christian names and surnames have been taken from the Latin _Dies Natalis_, or "Birthday of our Lord." The French word for Christmas, _Noël_, comes from this, and, as well as _Natalie_, is used as a Christian name. _Noël_ is found, too, both as a Christian name and surname in England. At one time English babies were sometimes christened _Christmas_, but this is never used as a Christian name now, though a few families have it as a surname. Perhaps the most peculiar Christian names that have ever been were the long names which some of the English Puritans gave their children in the seventeenth century. Often they gave them whole texts of Scripture as names, so that at least one small boy was called "Bind their nobles in chains and their kings in fetters of iron." Let us hope his relatives soon found some other name to call him "for short." Everybody has heard of the famous Cromwellian Parliament, which would do nothing but talk, and which was called the "Barebones Parliament," after one of its members, who not only bore this peculiar surname, but was also blessed with the "Christian" name of _Praise-God_. Cromwell grew impatient at last, and Praise-God Barebones and the other talkers suddenly found Parliament dissolved. These names were not, as a rule, handed on from father to son, and soon died out, though in America even to-day we get Christian names somewhat similar, but at least shorter--names like _Willing_. It is often easier to see how we got our Christian names than how we got our surnames. As we have seen, there was a time when early peoples had only first names. The Romans had surnames, or _cognomina_, but the barbarians who won Europe from them had not. In England surnames were not used until nearly a hundred years after the Norman Conquest, and then only by kings and nobles. The common people in England had, however, nearly all got them by the fourteenth century; but in Scotland many people were still without surnames in the time of James I., and even those who had them could easily change one for another. Once a man got a surname it was handed on to all his children, as surnames are to-day. It is interesting to see in how many different ways people got their surnames. Sometimes this is easy, but it is more difficult in other cases. The first surnames in England were those which the Norman nobles who came over at the Conquest handed on from father to son. These people generally took the name of the place from which they had come in Normandy. In this way names like _Robert de Courcy_ ("Robert of Courcy") came in; and many of these names, which are considered very aristocratic, still remain. We have _de Corbet_, _de Beauchamp_, _de Colevilles_, and so on. Sometimes the _de_ has been dropped. Sometimes, again, people took their names in the same way from places in England. We find in old writings names like _Adam de Kent_, _Robert de Wiltshire_, etc. Here, again, the prefix has been dropped, and the place-name has been kept as a surname. _Kent_ is quite a well-known surname, as also are _Derby_, _Buxton_, and many other names of English places. The Normans introduced another kind of name, which became very common too. They were a lively people, like the modern French, and were very fond of giving nicknames, especially names referring to people's personal appearance. We get the best examples of this in the nicknames applied to the Norman kings. We have William _Rufus_, or "the Red;" Richard _Coeur-de-Lion_, or "Lion-Hearted;" Henry _Beauclerc_, or "the Scholar." These names of kings were not handed down in their families. But in ordinary families it was quite natural that a nickname applied to the father should become a surname. It is from such nicknames that we get surnames like _White_, _Black_, _Long_, _Young_, _Short_, and so on. All these are, of course, well-known surnames to-day, and though many men named _Long_ may be small, and many named _Short_ may be tall, we may guess that this was not the case with some far-off ancestor. Sometimes _man_ was added to these adjectives, and we get names like _Longman_, _Oldman_, etc. Sometimes these names were used in the French of the Normans, and we get two quite different surnames, though they really in the first place had the same meaning. Thus we have _Curt_ for _Short_, and the quite well-known surname _Petit_, which would be _Short_ or _Little_ in English. The name _Goodheart_ was _Bun-Couer_ in Norman-French, and from this came _Bunker_, which, if we knew nothing of its history, would not seem to mean _Goodheart_ at all. So the name _Tait_ came from _Tête_, or _Head_; and we may guess that the first ancestor of the numerous people with this name had something remarkable about their heads. The name _Goodfellow_ is really just the same as _Bonfellow_. The surname _Thin_ has the same meaning as _Meagre_, from which the common name _Meager_ comes. Names like _Russell_ (from the old word _rouselle_, or "red"), _Brown_, _Morell_ ("tan"), _Dun_ ("dull grey"), all came from nicknames referring to people's complexions. _Reed_ and _Reid_ come from the old word _rede_, or "red." We still have the names _Copperbeard_, _Greybeard_, and _Blackbeard_. Sometimes names were given from some peculiarity of clothing. _Scarlet_, an old English name, probably came from the colour of the clothing of the people who were first called by it--scarlet, like all bright colours, being very much liked in the Middle Ages. So we hear of the name _Curtmantle_, or "short cloak," and _Curthose_, which was later changed to _Shorthose_, which is still a well-known name in Derbyshire. The names _Woolward_ and _Woolard_ come from the old word _woolard_, which meant wearing wool without any linen clothing underneath. This was often done by pilgrims and others who wished to do penance for their sins. Many surnames have come down from nicknames given to people because of their good or bad qualities. This is the origin of names like _Wise_, _Gay_, _Hardy_, _Friend_, _Truman_, _Makepeace_, _Sweet_, etc. The people who have these names may well believe that the first of their ancestors who bore them was of a gentle and amiable disposition. Names like _Proud_, _Proudfoot_, _Proudman_, _Paillard_ (French for "lie-a-bed") show that the first people who had them were not so well liked, and were considered proud or lazy. Another way of giving nicknames to people because of something noticeable in their character or appearance was to give them the name of some animal having this quality. The well-known name of _Oliphant_ comes from _elephant_, and was probably first given to some one very large, and perhaps a little ungraceful. _Bullock_ as a surname probably had the same sort of origin. The names _Falcon_, _Hawk_, _Buzzard_, must have been first given to people whose friends and neighbours saw some resemblance to the quickness or fierceness or sureness or some other quality of these birds in them. The names _Jay_, _Peacock_, and _Parrott_ point to showiness and pride and empty talkativeness. A very great number of surnames are really only old Christian names either with or without an ending added to them. A very common form of surname is a Christian name with _son_ added to it. The first man who handed on the name _Wilson_ (or _Willson_, as it is still sometimes spelt) was himself the "son of Will." Any one can think of many names of this kind--_Williamson_, _Davidson_, _Adamson_, etc. Sometimes the founder of a family had taken his name from his mother. This was the origin of names like _Margerison_ ("Marjorie's son") and _Alison_ ("Alice's son"). This was a very common way of inventing surnames. The Norman _Fitz_ meant "son of," and the numerous names beginning with _Fitz_ have this origin. _Fitzpatrick_ originally meant the "son of Patrick," _Fitzstephen_ the "son of Stephen," and so on. The Irish prefix _O'_ has the same meaning. The ancestor of all the O'Neills was himself the son of _Neill_. The Scandinavian _Nillson_ is really the same name, though it sounds so different. The Scotch _Mac_ has the same meaning, and so have the Welsh words _map_, _mab_, _ap_, and _ab_. One very interesting way of making surnames was to take them from the trade or occupation of the founder of the family. Perhaps the commonest of English surnames is _Smith_. And the word for _Smith_ is the commonest surname in almost every country of Europe. In France we have _Favier_. The reason for this is easy to see. The smith, or man who made iron and other metals into plough-shares and swords, was one of the most important of all the workers in the early days when surnames were being made. There were many smiths, and John the Smith and Tom the Smith easily became John Smith and Tom Smith, and thus had a surname to pass on to their families. As time went on there came to be many different kinds of smiths. There was the smith who worked in gold, and was called a "goldsmith," from which we get the well-known surname _Goldsmith_, the name of a great English writer. Then there was the "nail smith," from which trade came the name _Nasmith_; the "sickle smith," from which came _Sixsmith_; the "shear smith," which gave us _Shearsmith_--and so on. In mediæval England the manufacture of cloth from the wool of the great flocks of sheep which fed on the pasture lands of the monasteries and other great houses, was the chief industry of the nation. This trade of wool-weaving has given us many surnames, such as _Woolmer_, _Woolman_, _Carder_, _Kempster_, _Towser_, _Weaver_, _Webster_, etc. Some of these referred to the general work of wool-weaving and others to special branches. Any child can think in a moment of several names which have come in this way from trades. We have _Taylor_ for a beginning. But many surnames which are taken from the names of trades come from Old English words which are now seldom or never used. _Chapman_, a common name now, was the Old English word for a general dealer. _Spicer_ was the old name for grocer, and is now a fairly common surname. The well-known name of _Fletcher_ comes from the almost forgotten word _flechier_, "an arrowmaker." _Coltman_ came from the name of the man who had charge of the colts. _Runciman_ was the man who had charge of horses too, and comes from another Old English word, _rouncy_, "a horse." The _Parkers_ are descended from a park-keeper who used to be called by that name. The _Horners_ come from a maker of horns; the _Crockers_ and _Crokers_ from a "croker," or "crocker," a maker of pottery. _Hogarth_ comes from "hoggart," a hog-herd; _Calvert_ from "calf-herd;" and _Seward_ from "sow-herd." _Lambert_ sometimes came from "lamb-herd." But we cannot always be sure of the origin of even the commonest surnames. For instance, every person named _Smith_ is not descended from a smith, for the name also comes from the old word _smoth_, or "smooth," and this is the origin of _Smith_ in _Smithfield_. A great many English surnames were taken from places. _Street_, _Ford_, _Lane_, _Brooke_, _Styles_, are names of this kind. Sometimes they were prefixed by the Old English _atte_ ("at") or the French _de la_ ("of the"), but these prefixes have been dropped since. _Geoffrey atte Style_ was the Geoffrey who lived near the stile--and so on. Nearly all the names ending in _hurst_ and _shaw_ are taken from places. A _hurst_ was a wood or grove; a _shaw_ was a shelter for fowls and animals. The chief thing about a man who got the surname of _Henshaw_ or _Ramshaw_ was probably that he owned, or had the care of, such a shelter for hens or rams. Names ending in _ley_ generally came into existence in the same way, a _ley_ being also a shelter for domestic animals. So we have _Horsley_, _Cowley_, _Hartley_, _Shipley_ (from "sheep"). Sometimes the name was taken from the kind of trees which closed such a shelter in, names like _Ashley_, _Elmsley_, _Oakley_, _Lindley_, etc. Surnames as well as Christian names were often taken from the names of saints. From such a beautiful name as _St. Hugh_ the Normans had _Hugon_, and from this we get the rather commonplace names of _Huggins_, _Hutchins_, _Hutchinson_, and several others. So _St. Clair_ is still a surname, though often changed into _Sinclair_. St. Gilbert is responsible for the names _Gibbs_, _Gibbons_, _Gibson_, etc. Sometimes in Scotland people were given, as Christian names, names meaning _servant_ of Christ, or some saint. The word for servant was _giollo_, or _giolla_. It was in this way that names like _Gilchrist_, _Gilpatrick_, first came to be used. They were at first Christian names, and then came to be passed on as surnames. So _Gillespie_ means "servant of the bishop." Some surnames, though they seem quite English now, show that the first member of the family to bear the name was looked upon as a foreigner. Such names are _Newman_, _Newcome_, _Cumming_ (from _cumma_, "a stranger"). Sometimes the nationality to which the stranger belonged is shown by the name. The ancestors of the people called _Fleming_, for instance, must have come from Flanders, as so many did in the Middle Ages. The _Brabazons_ must have come from Brabant. Perhaps the most peculiar origin of all belongs to some surnames which seem to have come from oaths or exclamations. The fairly common names _Pardoe_, _Pardie_, etc., come from the older name _Pardieu_, or "By God," a solemn form of oath. We have, too, the English form in the name _Bigod_. Names like _Rummiley_ come from the old cry of sailors, _Rummylow_, which they used as sailors use "Heave-ho" now. But many chapters could be written on the history of names. This chapter shows only some of the ways in which we got our Christian names and surnames. CHAPTER III. STORIES IN THE NAMES OF PLACES. The stories which the names of places can tell us are many more in number, and even more wonderful, than the stories in the names of people. Some places have very old names, and others have quite new ones, and the names have been given for all sorts of different reasons. If we take the names of the continents, we find that some of them come from far-off times, and were given by men who knew very little of what the world was like. The names _Europe_ and _Asia_ were given long ago by sailors belonging to the Semitic race (the race to which the Jews belong), who sailed up and down the �gean Sea, and did not venture to leave its waters. All the land which lay to the west they called _Ereb_, which was their word for "sunset," or "west," and the land to the east they called _Acu_, which meant "sunrise," or "east;" and later, when men knew more about these lands, these names, changed a little, remained as the names of the great continents, Europe and Asia. _Africa_, too, is an old name, though not so old as these. We think of Africa now as a "dark continent," the greater part of which has only lately become known to white men, and with a native population of negroes. But for hundreds of years the north of Africa was one of the most civilized parts of the Roman Empire. Before that time part of it had belonged to the Carthaginians, whom the Romans conquered. _Africa_ was a Carthaginian name, and was first used by the Romans as the name of the district round Carthage, and in time it came to be the name of the whole continent. _America_ got its name in quite a different way. It was not until the fifteenth century that this great continent was discovered, and then it took its name, not from the brave Spaniard, Christopher Columbus, who first sailed across the "Sea of Darkness" to find it, but from Amerigo Vespucci, the man who first landed on the mainland. _Australia_ got its name, which means "land of the south," from Portuguese and Spanish sailors, who reached its western coasts early in the sixteenth century. They never went inland, or made any settlements, but in the queer, inaccurate maps which early geographers made, they put down a _Terra Australis_, or "southern land," and later, when Englishmen did at last explore and colonize the continent, they kept this name _Australia_. This Latin name reminds us of the fact that Latin was in the Middle Ages the language used by all scholars in their writings, and names on maps were written in Latin too, and so a great modern continent like Australia came to have an old Latin name. There is a great deal of history in the names of countries. Take the names of the countries of Europe. _England_ is the land of the _Angles_, and from this we learn that the Angles were the chief people of all the tribes who came over and settled in Britain after the Romans left it. They spread farthest over the land, and gave their name to it; just as the _Franks_, another of these Northern peoples, gave their name to France, and the _Belgæ_ gave theirs to _Belgium_. The older name of _Britain_ did not die out, but it was seldom used. It has really been used much more in modern times than it ever was in the Middle Ages. It is used especially in poetry or in fine writing, just as _Briton_ is instead of _Englishman_, as in the line-- "Britons never, never, never shall be slaves." The name _Briton_ is now used also to mean Irish, Scotch, and Welsh men--in fact, any British subject. We also speak of _Great Britain_, which means England and Scotland. When the Scottish Parliament was joined to the English in 1702 some name had to be found to describe the new "nation," and this was how the name _Great Britain_ came into use, just as the _United Kingdom_ was the name invented to describe Great Britain and Ireland together when the Irish Parliament too was joined to the English in 1804. We see how Gaul and Britain, as France and England were called in Roman times, had their names changed after the fall of the Roman Empire; but most of the countries round the Mediterranean Sea kept their old names, just as they kept for the most part their old languages. Italy, Greece, and Spain all kept their old names, although new peoples flocked down into these lands too. But though new peoples came, in all these lands they learned the ways and languages of the older inhabitants, instead of changing everything, as the English did in Britain. And so it was quite natural that they should keep their own names too. Most of the other countries in Europe took their names from the people who settled there. Germany (the Roman _Germania_) was the part of Europe where most of the tribes of the German race settled down. The divisions of Germany, like Saxony, Bavaria, Frisia, were the parts of Germany where the German tribes known as Saxons, Bavarians, and Frisians settled. The name _Austria_ comes from _Osterreich_, the German for "eastern kingdom." Holland, on the other hand, takes its name from the character of the land. It comes from _holt_, meaning "wood," and _lant_, meaning "land." The little country of Albania is so called from _Alba_, or "white," because of its snowy mountains. But perhaps the names of the old towns of the old world tell us the best stories of all. The greatest city the world has ever seen was Rome, and many scholars have quarrelled about the meaning of that great name. It seems most likely that it came from an old word meaning "river." It would be quite natural for the people of early Rome to give such a name to their city, for it was a most important fact to them that they had built their city just where it was on the river Tiber. One of the best places on which a town could be built, especially in early days, was the banks of a river, from which the people could get water, and by which the refuse and rubbish of the town could be carried away. Then, again, one of the chief things which helped Rome to greatness was her position on the river Tiber, far enough from the sea to be safe from the enemy raiders who infested the seas in those early days, and yet near enough to send her ships out to trade with other lands. Thus it was, probably, that a simple word meaning "river" came to be used as the name of the world's greatest city. Others among the great cities of the ancient world were founded in a quite different way. The great conqueror, Alexander the Great, founded cities in every land he conquered, and their names remain even now to keep his memory alive. The city of _Alexandria_, on the north coast of Africa, was, of course, called after Alexander himself, and became after his death more civilized and important than any of the Greek cities which Alexander admired so much, and which he tried to imitate everywhere. Now Alexandria is no longer a centre of learning, but a fairly busy port. Only its name recalls the time when it helped in the great work for which Alexander built it--to spread Greek learning and Greek civilization over Europe and Asia. Another city which Alexander founded, but which afterwards fell into decay, was _Bucephalia_, which the great conqueror set up in the north of India when he made his wonderful march across the mountains into that continent. It was called after "_Bucephalus_," the favourite horse of Alexander, which had been wounded, and died after the battle. The town was built over the place where the horse was buried, and though its story is not so interesting as that of Alexandria, as the town so soon fell into decay, still it is worth remembering. Another of the world's ancient and greatest cities, Constantinople, also took its name from a great ruler. In the days when the Roman Empire was beginning to decay, and new nations from the north began to pour into her lands, the emperor, Constantine the Great, the ruler who made Christianity the religion of the empire, chose a new capital instead of Rome. He loved Eastern magnificence and Eastern ways, and he chose for his new capital the old Greek colony of Byzantium, the beautiful city on the Golden Horn, which Constantine soon made into a new Rome, with churches and theatres and baths, like the old Rome. The new Rome was given a new name. Constantine had turned Byzantium into a new city, and it has ever since been known as _Constantinople_, or the "city of Constantine." We can nearly always tell from the names of places something of their history. If we think of the names of some of our English towns, we notice that many of them end in the same way. There are several whose names begin or end in _don_, like _London_ itself. Many others end in _caster_ or _chester_, _ham_, _by_, _borough_ or _burgh_. We may be sure that most of the places whose names begin or end in _don_ were already important places in the time before the Britons were conquered by the Romans. The Britons were divided into tribes, and lived in villages scattered over the land; but each tribe had its little fortress or stronghold, the "dun," as it was called, with walls and ditches round it, in which all the people of the tribe could take shelter if attacked by a strong enemy. And so the name of London takes us back to the time when this greatest city of the modern world, spreading into four counties, and as big as a county itself, with its marvellous buildings, old and new, and its immense traffic, was but a British fort into which scantily-clothed people fled from their huts at the approach of an enemy. But the British showed themselves wise enough in their choice of places to build their _duns_, which, as in the case of London, often became centres of new towns, which grew larger and larger through Roman times, and on into the Middle Ages and modern times. The great French fortress town of Verdun, which everybody has heard of because of its wonderful resistance to the German attacks in 1916, is also an old Celtic town with this Celtic ending to its name. It was already an important town when the Romans conquered Gaul, and it has played a notable part in history ever since. Its full name means "the fort on the water," just as _Dundee_ (from _Dun-tatha_) probably meant "the fort on the Tay." By merely looking at a map of England, any one who knows anything of the Latin language can pick out many names which come from that language, and which must have been given in the days when the Romans had conquered Britain. The ending _caster_ of so many names in the north of England, and _chester_ in the Midlands, _xeter_ in the west of England, and _caer_ in Wales, all come from the same Latin word, _castrum_, which means a military camp or fortified place. So that we might guess, if we did not know, that at Lancaster, Doncaster, Manchester, Winchester, Exeter, and at the old capital of the famous King Arthur, Caerleon, there were some of those Roman camps which were dotted over England in the days when the Romans ruled the land. Here the Roman officers lived with their wives and families, and the Roman soldiers too, and here they built churches and theatres and baths, such as they were used to in their cities at home in Italy. Here, too, it was that many of the British nobles learned Roman ways of living and thinking; and from here the Roman priests and monks went out to teach the Britons that the religion of the Druids was false, and instruct them in the Christian religion. Another common Latin ending or beginning to the names of places was _strat_, _stret_, or _street_, and wherever we find this we may know that through these places ran some of the _viæ stratæ_, or great Roman roads which the Romans built in all the provinces of their great empire. There are many remains of these Roman roads still to be seen up and down England; but even where no trace remains, the direction of some, at least, of the great roads could be found from the names of the towns which were dotted along them. Among these towns are _Stratford_ in Warwickshire, _Chester-le-Street_ in Durham, _Streatham_, etc. Then, again, some of the towns with _port_ and _lynne_ as part of their names show us where the Romans had their ports and trading towns. It is interesting to see the different names which the English gave to the villages in which they dwelt when the Romans had left Britain, and these new tribes had won it for themselves. Nearly all towns ending in _ham_ and _ford_, and _burgh_ or _borough_, date from the first few hundred years after the English won Britain. _Ham_ and _ford_ merely meant "home," or "village." Thus _Buckingham_ was the home of the Bockings, a village in which several families all related to each other, and bearing this name, lived. Of course the name did not change when later the village grew into a town. Buckingham is a very different place now from the little village in which the Bockings settled, each household having its house and yard, but dividing the common meadow and pasture land out between them each year. _Wallingford_ was the home of the Wallings. Places whose names ended in _ford_ were generally situated where a ford, or means of crossing a river or stream, had to be made. Oxford was in Old English _Oxenford_, or "ford of the oxen." Towns whose names end in _borough_ are often very old, but not so old as some of those ending in _ham_ and _ford_. There were _burhs_ in the first days of the English Conquest, but generally they were only single fortified houses and not villages. We first hear of the more important _burghs_ or _boroughs_ in the last hundred years or so before the Norman Conquest. _Edinburgh_, which was at first an English town, is a very early example. Its name means "Edwin's borough or town," and it was so called because it was founded by Edwin, who was king of England from 617 to 633. The special point about boroughs was that they were really free towns. They had courts of justice of their own, and were free from the Hundred courts, the next court above them being the Shire court, ruled over by the sheriff. So we know that most of the towns whose names end in _burgh_ or _borough_ had for their early citizens men who loved freedom, and worked hard to win their own courts of justice. There are other endings to the names of towns which go back to the days before the Norman Conquest, but which are not really English. If a child were told to pick out on the map of England all the places whose names end in _by_ or _thwaite_, he or she would find that most of them are in the eastern part of England. The reason for this might be guessed, perhaps, by a very thoughtful child. Both _by_ and _thwaite_ are Danish words, and they are found in the eastern parts of England, because it was in those parts that the Danes settled down when the great King Alfred forced them to make peace in the Treaty of Wallingford. After this, of course, the Danes lived in England for many years, settling down, and becoming part of the English people. Naturally they gave their own names to many villages and towns, and many of these remain to this day to remind us of this fierce race which helped to build up the English nation. The Normans did not make many changes in the names of places when they won England, and most of our place-names come down to us from Roman and old English times. The places have changed, but the names have not. But though towns and counties have had their names from those times, it is to be noticed that the names of our rivers and hills come down to us from Celtic times. To the Britons, living a more or less wild life, these things were of the greatest importance. There are several rivers in England with the name of _Avon_, and this is an old British name. The rivers _Usk_, _Esk_, and _Ouse_ were all christened by the Britons, and all these names come from a British word meaning "water." Curiously enough, the name _whisky_ comes from the same word. From all these different ways in which places have got their names we get glimpses of past history, and history helps us to understand the stories that these old names tell us. CHAPTER IV. NEW NAMES FOR NEW PLACES. We have seen in how many different ways many of the old places of this world got their names. Some names go so far back that no one knows what is their meaning, or how they first came to be used. But we know that a great part of the world has only been discovered since the fifteenth century, and that a great part of what was already known has only been colonized in modern times. With the discovery of the New World and the colonization of the Dark Continent and other far-off lands, a great many new names were invented. We could almost write a history of North or South America from an explanation of their place-names. In learning the geography of South America we notice the beautiful Spanish names of most of the places. The reason for this is that it was the Spaniards who colonized South America in the sixteenth century. Very little of this continent now belongs to Spain, but in those days Spain was the greatest country in Europe. The proud and brave Spanish adventurers were in those days sailing over the seas and founding colonies, just as the English sailors of Queen Elizabeth soon began to do in North America. Let us look at some of these names--_Los Angelos_ ("The Angels"), _Santa Cruz_ ("The Holy Cross"), _Santiago_ ("St. James"), all names of saints and holy things. Any one who knew no history at all might guess, from the number of places with Spanish names spread over South America, that it was the Spaniards who colonized this land. He would also guess that the Spaniards in those days must have been a very great nation indeed. And he would be right. He would guess, too, that the Spaniards had clung passionately to the Catholic religion. Here, again, he would be right. Any great enthusiasm will make a nation great, and the Spaniards in the sixteenth century were filled with a great love for the old Church against which the new Protestantism was fighting. The Pope looked upon Spain as the great bulwark of Catholicism. The new religious feeling, which had swept over Europe, and which had made the Protestants ready to suffer and die for their new-found faith, took the form in Spain of this great love for the old religion. The nation seemed inspired. It is when these things happen that a people turns to great enterprises and adventure. The Spaniards of the sixteenth century regarded themselves, and were almost regarded by the other nations, as unconquerable. The great aim of Elizabethan Englishmen was to "break the power of Spain," and this they did at last when they scattered the "Invincible Armada" in 1588. But before this Spain had done great things. The Portuguese had been the first great adventurers, but they were soon left far behind by the Spanish sailors, who explored almost every part of South America, settling there, and sending home great shiploads of gold to make Spain rich. And wherever they explored and settled they spread about these beautiful names to honour the saints and holy things which their religion told them to love and honour. It was the great discoverer Christopher Columbus who first gave one of these beautiful names to a place in South America. He had already discovered North America, and made a second voyage there, when he determined to explore the land south of the West Indies. He sailed south through the tropical seas while the heat melted the tar of the rigging. But Columbus never noticed danger and discomfort. He had made a vow to call the first land he saw after the Holy Trinity, and when at last he caught sight of three peaks jutting up from an island he gave the island the name of _La Trinidad_, and "Trinidad" it remains to this day, though it now belongs to the British. As he sailed south Columbus caught sight of what was really the mainland of South America, but he thought it was another island, and called it _Isla Santa_, or "Holy Island." It might seem curious that as Columbus had discovered both North and South America, the continent was given the name of another man. As we have seen, its name was taken from that of another explorer, Amerigo Vespucci. The reason for this was that Columbus never really knew that he had discovered a "New World." He believed that he had come by another way to the eastern coast of Asia or Africa. The islands which he first discovered were for this reason called the _Indies_, and the _West Indies_ they remain to this day. It was Amerigo Vespucci who first announced to the world, in a book which he published in 1507 (three years after Christopher Columbus had died in loneliness and poverty), that the new lands were indeed a great new continent, and not Asia or Africa at all. People later on said that Amerigo Vespucci had discovered a new continent, and that it ought to be called by his name. This is how the name _America_ came into use; but of course the work of Vespucci was not to be compared with that of the great adventurer who first sailed across the "Sea of Darkness," and was the real discoverer of the New World. Though it was the Spaniards who discovered North America, it was the English who chiefly colonized it. It is interesting to notice the names which the early English colonists scattered over the northern continent. We might gather from them that, just as the love of their Church was the great passion of the sixteenth-century Spaniards, so the love of their country was the ruling passion of the great English adventurers. (Of course the Spaniards had shown their love for their old country in some of the names they gave, as when Columbus called one place _Isabella_, in honour of the noble Spanish queen who had helped and encouraged him when other rulers of European countries had refused to listen to what they thought were the ravings of a madman.) The English in Reformation days had a very different idea of religion from the Spanish. Naturally they did not sprinkle the names of saints over the new lands. But the English of Elizabeth's day were filled with a great new love for England. The greatest of all the Elizabethan adventurers, Sir Francis Drake, when in his voyage round the world he put into a harbour which is now known as San Francisco, set up "a plate of brass fast nailed to a great and firm post, whereon is engraved Her Grace's name, and the day and the year of our arrival there." The Indian king of these parts had freely owned himself subject to the English, taking the crown from his own head and putting it on Drake's head. Sir Francis called his land _New Albion_, using the old poetic name for England. But the colonization of North America was not successfully begun until after the death of Elizabeth, though one or two attempts at founding colonies, or "plantations," as they were then called, were made in her time. Sir Walter Raleigh tried to set up one colony in North America, and called it _Virginia_, after the virgin queen whom all Englishmen delighted to honour. Virginia did not prosper, and Raleigh's colony broke up; but later another and successful attempt at colonizing it was made, and the same name kept. Virginia--"Earth's only Paradise," as the poet Drayton called it--was the first English colony successfully settled in North America. This was in the year 1607, when two hundred and forty-three settlers landed, and made the first settlement at a point which they called _Jamestown_, in honour of the new English king, James I. The first settlers in Virginia were men whose chief aim was to become rich, but it was not long before a new kind of settler began to seek refuge in the lands north of Virginia, to which the great colonizer, Captain John Smith, had by this time given the name of _New England_. It was in 1620 that the "Pilgrim Fathers," because they were not free to worship God as they thought right at home, sailed from Southampton in the little _Mayflower_, and landed far to the north of Virginia, and made a settlement at a place which Smith had already called _Plymouth_. Before long new colonies began to spring up all over New England; and though we find some new names, like the Indian name of the great colony _Massachusetts_, we may read the story of the great love which the colonists felt for the old towns of the mother-country in the way they gave their names to the new settlements. A curious thing is that many of these new towns, christened after little old towns at home, became later very important and prosperous places, while the places after which they were called are sometimes almost forgotten. Many people to whom the name of the great American city of Boston is familiar do not know that there still stands on the coast of Lincolnshire the sleepy little town of Boston, from which it took its name. Boston is the chief town of Massachusetts; but the first capital was _Charlestown_, called after King Charles I., who had by this time succeeded his father, James I. The place on which Charlestown was built, on the north bank of the Charles River, was, however, found to be unhealthy. The settlers, therefore, deserted it, and Boston was built on the south bank. It was not long before the Massachusetts settlers built a college at a place near Boston which had been called _Cambridge_. This is a case in which the old town at home remained, of course, much more important than its godchild. If a person speaks of Cambridge, one's mind immediately flies to the English university city on the banks of the river Cam. Still the college built at the American Cambridge, and called "Harvard College," after John Harvard, one of the early settlers, who gave a great deal of money towards its building, is famous now throughout the world. It was natural and suitable that the early settlers should use the old English names to show their love for the mother-country; but it was not such a wise thing to choose the names of the great historic towns of Europe, and give them to the new settlements. To give the almost sacred name of _Rome_ to a modern American town seems almost ridiculous. Certainly one would have always to be very careful to add "Georgia, U.S.A." in addressing letters there. The United States has several of these towns bearing old historic names. _Paris_ as the name of an American town seems almost as unsuitable as Rome. But this mistake was not made by the early colonists. If we think of the names of the colonies which stretched along the east of North America, we find nearly always that the names are chosen to do honour to the English king or queen, or to keep the memory fresh of some beloved spot in the old country. In 1632 the Catholic Lord Baltimore founded a new colony, the only one where the Catholic religion was tolerated, and called it _Maryland_, in honour of Charles I.'s queen, Henrietta Maria. Just after the Restoration of Charles II. in 1660, when the country was full of loyalty, a new colony, _Carolina_, was founded, taking its name from _Carolus_, the Latin for "Charles." Afterwards this colony was divided into two, and became North and South Carolina. To the north of Maryland lay the _New Netherlands_, for Holland had also colonized here. In the seventeenth century this little nation was for a time equal to the greatest nations in Europe. The Dutch had very soon followed the example of that other little nation Portugal, which, directed by the famous Prince Henry of Portugal, had been the first of all the European nations to explore far-off lands. Holland was as important on the seas as Spain or England; but this could not last long. The Dutch and the English fought several campaigns, and in the end the Dutch were beaten. In 1667 the New Netherlands were yielded up to England. The name of the colony was changed to _New York_, and its capital, New Amsterdam, was given the same name. This was in honour of the sailor prince, James, Duke of York, afterwards the unhappy King James II. Another of the Stuarts who gave his name to a district of North America was Prince Rupert, the nephew of Charles I., who fought so hard for the king against Cromwell. In 1670 the land round Hudson Bay was given the name of _Rupertsland_. Sometimes, but not often, the new colonies were given the names of their founders. William Penn, who founded the Quaker colony of _Pennsylvania_, gave it this name in honour of his father, Admiral Penn. _Sylvania_ means "land of woods," and comes from the Latin _sylvanus_, or "woody." But it is not only in America that the place-names tell us the stories of heroism and romance. All over the world, from the icy lands round the Poles to the tropical districts of Africa, India, and Australia, these stories can be read. The spirit in which the early Portuguese adventurers sailed along the coast of Africa is shown in the name they gave to what we now know as the _Cape of Good Hope_. Bartholomew Diaz called it the _Cape of Storms_, for he had discovered it only after terrible battlings with the waves; but when he sailed home to tell his news the king of Portugal said that this was not a good name, but it should instead be called the _Cape of Good Hope_, for past it lay the sea passage to India which men had been seeking for years. And so the _Cape of Good Hope_ it remains to this day. After this it was not long before the Portuguese explored the south and east coasts of Africa and the west coast of India to the very south, where they took the _Spice Islands_ for their own. From these the Portuguese brought home great quantities of spices, which they sold at high prices in Europe. It was the great explorer Ferdinand Magellan who first sailed round the world, being sure, as he said, that he could reach the Spice Islands by sailing west. And so he started on this expedition, sailing through the straits which have ever since been known as the _Magellan Straits_ to the south of South America, into the Pacific, or "Peaceful," Ocean, and then ever west, until he came round by the east to Spain again, after three years of great hardship and wonderful adventure. The adventures of the early explorers most often took the form of seeking a new and shorter passage from one ocean to another, and so many straits bear the names of the explorers. The Elizabethan explorer, Martin Frobisher, sought for a "North-west Passage" from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and for a time it was thought that he had found it in the very north of North America. But it was afterwards found that the "passage," which had already been given the name of _Frobisher's Straits_, was really only an inlet, and afterwards it became known as _Lumley's Inlet_. Frobisher never discovered a North-west Passage, for the ships of those days were not fitted out in a way to enable the sailors to bear the icy cold of these northern regions. Many brave explorers tried later to discover it. Three times John Davis made a voyage for this purpose but never succeeded, though _Davis Strait_ commemorates his heroic attempts. Hudson and Baffin explored in these waters, as the names _Hudson Bay_ and _Baffin Bay_ remind us. It was nearly two hundred years later that Sir John Franklin sailed with an expedition in two boats, the _Erebus_ and _Terror_, determined to find the passage. He found it, but died in the attempt; but, strangely enough, his name was not given to any strait, though later it was given to all the islands of the Arctic Archipelago. The winning of India by the British in the eighteenth century did not give us many new English names. India was not, like the greater part of America, a wild country inhabited by savage peoples. It had an older civilization than the greater part of Europe, and the only reason that it was weak enough to be conquered was that the many races who lived there could not agree among themselves. Most of the place-names of India are native names given by natives, for centuries before France and England began to struggle for its possession in the eighteenth century India had passed through a long and varied history. When we remember that the natives of India have no name to describe the whole continent, it helps us to understand that India is in no way a single country. The British Government have given the continent the name _India_, taking it from the great river Indus, which itself takes its name from an old word, _sindhu_, meaning "river." In the days of the early explorers, after the islands discovered by Columbus were called the _West Indies_, some people began to call the Indian continent the _East Indies_, to distinguish it; and some of the papers about India drawn up for the information of Parliament about Indian affairs still use this name, but it is not a familiar use to most people. The mistake which Columbus and the early explorers made in thinking America was India has caused a good deal of confusion. The natives of North America were called Indians, and it was only long afterwards, in fact quite lately, that people began to write and speak of the natives of India as _Indians_. When it was printed in the newspapers that Indians were fighting for the British Empire with the armies in France, the use of the word _Indian_ seemed wrong to a great many people; but it is now becoming so common that it will probably soon seem quite right. When it is used with the old meaning we shall have to say the "Indians of North America." Some people use the word _Hindu_ to describe the natives of India; but this is not correct, as only _some_ of the natives of India are Hindus, just as the name _Hindustan_ (a Persian name meaning "land of the Hindus," as _Afghanistan_ means "land of the Afghans"), which some old writers on geography used for India, is really the name of one part of the land round the river Ganges, where the language known as _Hindi_ is spoken. The place-names of India given by natives of the many different races which have lived in the land could fill a book with their stories alone. We can only mention a few. The name of the great range of mountains which runs across the north of the continent, the _Himalayas_, means in Sanskrit, the oldest language used in India, the "home of snow." _Bombay_ takes its name from _Mumba_, the name of a goddess of an early tribe who occupied the district round Bombay. _Calcutta_, which stretches over ground where there were formerly several villages, takes its name from one of these. Its old form was _Kalikuti_, which means the "ghauts," or passes, leading to the temple of the goddess Kali. In Australia, where a beginning of colonization was made through the discoveries of Captain Cook towards the end of the eighteenth century, the place-names were sometimes given from places at home, sometimes after persons, but they have hardly the same romance as the early American names. _Botany Bay_ was the name chosen by Captain Cook in a moment of enthusiasm for an inlet of New South Wales. He gave it this name because of the great number of plants and flowers which grow there. In Africa a good deal of history can be learned from the place-names. Although the north of Africa had for many hundreds of years had its part in the civilization of the countries round the Mediterranean Sea, the greater part of Africa had remained an unexplored region--the "Dark Continent," as it was called. In the fifteenth century the Portuguese sailors crept along the western coast, and afterwards along the south, as we have seen, past the Cape of Good Hope. But the interior of the continent remained for long an unexplored region. The Dutch had, very soon after the discovery of the Cape, made a settlement there, which was known as _Cape Colony_. This was afterwards won by the English; but many Dutchmen still stayed there, and though, since the Boer War, when the Boers, or Dutch, in South Africa tried to win their independence, the whole of South Africa belongs to the British Empire, still there are naturally many Dutch names given by the early Dutch settlers. Some of these became very well known to English people in the Boer War. _Bloemfontein_ is one of these names, coming from the Dutch word for "spring" (_fontein_), and that of Jan Bloem, one of the farmers who first settled there. Another well-known place in the Transvaal, _Pietermaritzburg_, took its name from the two leaders who led the Boers out of Cape Colony when they felt that the English were becoming too strong there. These leaders were Pieter Retief and Georit Maritz. This movement of the Boers into the Transvaal was called the "Great Trek," _trek_ being a Dutch word for a journey or migration of this sort. Since the days of the Boer War this word has been regularly used in English with this same meaning. Like the English settlers in America, the Dutch settlers in South Africa sometimes gave the names of places in Holland to their new settlements. _Utrecht_ is an example of this. Up to the very end of the nineteenth century no European country besides England had any great possessions in Africa. The Portuguese still held the coast lands between Zululand (so called from the fierce black natives who lived there) and Mozambique. Egypt had come practically under British rule soon after the days of Napoleon, and in the middle of the nineteenth century the great explorers Livingstone and Stanley had explored the lands along the Zambesi River and a great part of Central Africa. Stanley went right across the centre of the continent, and discovered the lake _Albert Edward Nyanza_. _Nyanza_ is the African word for "lake," and the name Albert Edward was given in honour of the Prince Consort. _Victoria Nyanza_, so called after Queen Victoria, had been discovered some years before. It was all these discoveries which led to the colonization of Africa by the nations of Europe. In 1884 the great German statesman, Prince Bismarck, set up the German flag in Damaraland, the coast district to the north of the Orange River; and soon after a German colony was set up in the lands between the Portuguese settlements and the Equator. This was simply called German East Africa. At the same time the other nations of Europe suddenly realized that if they meant to have part of Africa they must join in the scramble at once. There were soon a British East Africa, a Portuguese East Africa, a Portuguese West Africa, a German South-west Africa, and so on. All these are names which might have been given in a hurry, and in them we seem to read the haste of the European nations to seize on the only lands in the world which were still available. They are very different from the descriptive names which the early Portuguese adventurers had strewn along the coast, like _Sierra Leone_, or "the lion mountain;" _Cape Verde_, or "the green cape," so called from its green grass. Still, romance was not dead even yet. There is one district of South Africa which takes its name in the old way from that of a person. _Rhodesia_, the name given to Mashonaland and Matabeleland, was so called after Mr. Cecil Rhodes, a young British emigrant, who went out from England in very weak health and became perfectly strong, at the same time winning a fortune for himself in the diamond fields of Kimberley. He devoted himself heart and soul to the strengthening of British power in South Africa, and it is fitting that this province should by its name keep his memory fresh. The story of the struggle in South Africa between Boer and Briton can be partly read in its place-names; and the story of the struggle between old and new settlers in Canada can be similarly read in the place-names of that land. The first settlers in Canada were the French, and the descendants of these first settlers form a large proportion of the Canadian population. Many places in Canada still have, of course, the names which the first French settlers gave them. The Italian, John Cabot, had sailed to Canada a few years after Columbus discovered America, sent by the English king, Henry VII., but no settlements were made. Thirty-seven years later the French sailor, Jacques Cartier, was sent by the French king, Francis I., to explore there. Cartier sailed up the Gulf of St. Lawrence as far as the spot where Montreal now stands. The name was given by Cartier, and means "royal mount." It was Cartier, too, who gave Canada its name; but he thought that this was already the Indian name for the land. A story is told that some Red Indians were trying to talk to him and making signs, and they pointed to some houses, saying, "Cannata." Cartier thought they meant that this was the name of the country, but he was mistaken. They were, perhaps, pointing out their village, for _cannata_ is the Indian name for "village." Cartier, like Cabot, sailed away again, and the first real founder of a settlement in Canada was the Frenchman, Samuel de Champlain, who made friends with the Indians, and explored the upper parts of the river Lawrence, and gave his name to the beautiful _Lake Champlain_, which he discovered. It was he who founded _Quebec_, giving it this Breton name. Sailors from Brittany had ventured as far as the coast of Canada in the time of Columbus, and had given its name to _Cape Breton_. And so French names spread through Canada. Later, in one of the wars of the eighteenth century, England won Canada from France; but these French names still remain to tell the tale of French adventure and heroism in that land. We have seen many names in new lands, some of them given by people from the Old World who settled in these lands. In the great European War we have seen people from these new lands coming back to fight in some of the most ancient countries of the Old World. The splendid Australian troops who fought in Gallipoli sprinkled many new names over the land they won and lost. One, at least, will always remain on the maps. _Anzac_, where the Colonials made their historic landing, will never be forgotten. It was a new name, made up of the initial letters of the words "Australian and New Zealand Army Corps," and will remain for ever one of the most honoured names invented in the twentieth century. Children who like history can read whole chapters in the place-names of the old world and the new. CHAPTER V. STORIES IN OLD LONDON NAMES. It is not only in the names of continents, countries, and towns that stories of the past can be read. The names of the old streets and buildings (or even of new streets which have kept their old names) in our old towns are full of stories. Especially is this true about London, the centre of the British Empire, and almost the centre of the world's history. It will be interesting not only to little Londoners, but to other children as well, to examine some of the old London names, and see what stories they can tell. Naturally the most interesting names of all are to be found in what we now call "the City," meaning the centre of London, which was at one time all the London there was. We have seen that London was in the time of the Britons just a fort, and that it became important in Roman times, and a town grew up around it. But this town in the Middle Ages, and even so late as the eighteenth century, was not at all like the London we know to-day. London now is really a county, and stretches away far into four counties; but mediæval London was like a small country town, though a very important and gay and busy town, because it was the capital. Many of the names in the City take us back to the very earliest days of the capital. This part of London stands on slightly rising ground, and near the river Thames, just the sort of ground which early people would choose upon which to build a fortress or a village. The names of two of the chief City streets, the Strand and Fleet Street, help to show us something of what London was like in its earliest days. A few years ago, in a famous case in a court of law, one of the lawyers asked a witness what he was doing in the Strand at a certain time. The witness, a witty Irishman, answered with a solemn face, "Picking seaweed." Everybody laughed, because the idea of picking seaweed in the very centre of London was so funny. But a strand _is_ a shore, and when the name was given to the London _Strand_ it was not a paved street at all, but the muddy shore of the river Thames. Then _Fleet Street_ marks the path by which the little river Fleet ran into the Thames. The river had several tributaries, which were covered over in this way, and several of them are used as sewers to carry away the sewage of the city. There is a _Fleet Street_, too, in Hampstead, in the north-west of London, and this marks the beginning of the course of the same little river Fleet which got its water from the high ground of Hampstead. This river has given us still another famous London name. It flowed past what is now called King's Cross, and here its banks were so steep that it was called _Hollow_, or _Hole-bourne_, and from this we get the name _Holborn_. The City being the centre of London had a certain amount of trading and bargaining from the earliest times. In those times there were no such things as shops. People bought and sold in markets, and the name of the busy City street, _Cheapside_, reminds us of this. It was called in early times the _Chepe_, and took its name from the Old English word _ceap_, "a bargain." At the end of Cheapside runs the street called _Poultry_, and this, so an old chronicler tells us, has its name from the fact that a fowl or poultry market was regularly held there up to the sixteenth century. The name of another famous City street, _Cornhill_, tells us that a corn market used to be held there. Another name, _Gracechurch Street_, reminds us of an old grass market. It took its name from an old church, St. Benet Grasschurch, which was probably so called because the grass market was held under its walls. _Smithfield_ is the great London meat market now; but its name means "smooth field," and in the Middle Ages it was used as a cattle and hay market, and on days which were not market days games and tournaments took place there. Later its name became famous in English history for the "fires of Smithfield," when men and women were burned to death there for refusing to accept the state religion. Many London names come from churches and buildings which no longer exist. The names help us to picture a London very different from the London of to-day. One of the busiest streets in that part of the City round Fleet Street where editors and journalists, and printers and messengers are working day and night to produce the newspapers which carry the news of the day far and wide over England, is _Blackfriars_. This is a very different place from the spot where the Dominicans, or "Black Friars," built their priory in the thirteenth century. In those days the friars chose the busiest parts of the little English towns to build their houses in, so that they could preach and help the people. They thought that the earlier monks had chosen places for their monasteries too far from the people. There were grey friars and white friars, Austin friars and crutched friars, all of whose names remain in the London of to-day. There were many monasteries and convents in the larger London which soon grew up round the City, and in the City itself we have a street whose name keeps the memory of one convent of nuns. The street called the _Minories_ marks the place where a convent of nuns of St. Clare was founded in the thirteenth century. The Latin name for these nuns is _Sorores Minores_, or "Lesser Sisters," just as the Franciscans, or grey friars, were _Fratres Minores_, or "Lesser Brethren." And so from the Latin _minores_ we get the name Minories as the name of a London street, standing where this convent once stood. The name of the street _London Wall_ reminds us of the time when London was a walled city with its gates, which were closed at night and opened every morning. Many streets keep the names of the old gates, like _Ludgate Hill_, _Aldersgate_, _Bishopsgate_. The great _Tower of London_ still stands to show us how London was defended in the old feudal days; but _Tower Bridge_, the bridge which crosses the river at that point, is a modern bridge, built in 1894. The name _Cripplegate_ still remains, and the story it has to tell us is that in the Middle Ages there stood outside the city walls beyond this gate the hospital of St. Giles-in-the-Fields. It was a hospital for lepers; but St. Giles is the patron saint of cripples, and so this gate of the city got the name of Cripplegate, because it was the nearest to the church of the patron saint of cripples. This church of St. Giles-in-the-Fields no longer remains; but we have _St. Martin's-in-the-Fields_, to remind us of the difference between Trafalgar Square to-day and its condition not quite two hundred years ago, when this church was built. It must be remembered that even at the very end of the eighteenth century London was just a tiny town lying along the river. At that time many of the nobles and rich merchants were building their mansions in what is now the West Central district of London. The north side of Queen Square, Bloomsbury, was left open, so that the people who lived there could enjoy the view of the Highgate and Hampstead hills, to which the open country stretched. Even now this end of Queen Square is closed only by a railing, but a great mass of streets and houses stretches far beyond Hampstead and Highgate now. _Trafalgar Square_ itself got its name in honour of Nelson, the hero of the great victory of Trafalgar. The great column with the statue of Nelson stands in the square. This brings us to one of the most interesting of old London names. On one side of the square stands _Charing Cross_, the busiest spot in London. At this point there once stood the last of the nine beautiful crosses which King Edward III. set up at the places where the coffin of his wife, Eleanor, was set to rest in the long journey from Lincolnshire, where she died, to her grave in Westminster Abbey; and so it got its name. A fine modern cross has been set up in memory of Edward's cross, which has long since disappeared. The district of Westminster takes its name, of course, from the abbey; and the name _Broad Sanctuary_ remains to remind us of the sanctuary in which, as in many churches of the Middle Ages, people could take refuge even from the Law. _Covent Garden_ took its name from a convent garden belonging to the abbey. One of the oldest parts of London is _Charterhouse Square_, where, until a year or two ago, there stood the famous boys' school of this name. The school took its name from the old monastery of the Charterhouse, which King Henry VIII. brought to an end because the monks would not own that he was head of the Church instead of the Pope. They suffered a dreadful death, being hanged, drawn, and quartered as traitors. The monastery was taken, like so many others, by the king, and afterwards became a school. But the school was removed in 1872 to an airier district at Godalming. Part of the old building is still used as a boys' day school. The word _Charterhouse_ was the English name for a house of Carthusians, a very strict order of monks, whose first house was the Grande Chartreuse in France. Not far from the Charterhouse is _Ely Place_, with the beautiful old church of St. Ethelreda. This was, in the Middle Ages, a chapel used by the Bishop of Ely when he came to London, and that is how Ely Place, still one of the quietest and quaintest spots in London, got its name. People who go along Ludgate Hill to St. Paul's must have noticed many curious names. Perhaps the quaintest of all is _Paternoster Row_. This street, which takes its name from the Latin name of the "Our Father," or Lord's Prayer, got its name from the fact that in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries many sellers of prayer-books and texts collected at this spot, on account of it being near the great church of St. Paul's. Paternoster Row is still full of booksellers. _Ave Maria Lane_ and _Amen Corner_, just near, got their names in imitation of Paternoster Row, the _Ave Maria_, or "Hail, Mary!" being the words used by the angel Gabriel to the Blessed Virgin at the Annunciation, and _Amen_ being, of course, the ending to the _paternoster_, as to most prayers. Not far from St. Paul's is the Church of _St. Mary-le-Bow_. It used to be said that the true Londoner had to be born within the sound of Bow-bells, and the old story tells us that it was these bells which Dick Whittington heard telling him to turn back when he had lost hope of making his fortune, and was leaving London for the country again. The present Church of St. Mary-le-Bow was built by Sir Christopher Wren, the great seventeenth-century architect, who built St. Paul's and several other of the most beautiful London churches after they had been destroyed by the Great Fire of 1666. But underneath the present Church of St. Mary-le-Bow is the crypt, which was not destroyed in the fire. This crypt was built, like the former church, in Norman times, and the church took its name of _bow_ from the arches upon which it was built in the Norman way, it being the first church in London to be built in this way. The church is generally called "Bow Church." Another famous old London church, the _Temple Church_, which is now used as the chapel of the lawyers at the Inns of Court, got its name from the fact that it belonged to and was built by the Knights Templars in the twelfth century. These knights were one of those peculiar religious orders which joined the life of a soldier to that of a monk, and played a great part in the Crusades. King Edward III. brought the order to an end, and took their property; but the Temple Church, with its tombs and figures of armoured knights in brass, remains to keep their memory fresh. We may mention two other names of old London streets which take us back to the Middle Ages. In the City we have the street called _Old Jewry_, and this reminds us of the time when in all the more important towns of England in the early Middle Ages a part was put aside for the Jews. This was called the _Ghetto_. The Jews were much disliked in the Middle Ages because of the treatment of Our Lord by their forefathers; but the kings often protected them because, in spite of everything, the Jews grew rich, and the kings were able to borrow money of them. In 1290, however, Edward I. banished all the Jews from England, and they did not return until the days of Cromwell. But the name of the Old Jewry reminds us of the ghetto which was an important part of old London. Another famous City street, _Lombard Street_, the street of bankers, got its name from the Italian merchants from Lombardy who set up their business there, and who became the bankers and money-lenders when there were no longer any Jews to lend money to the English king and nobles. As time went on London began to grow in a way which seemed alarming to the people of the seventeenth century, though even then it was but a tiny town in comparison with the London of to-day. The fashionable people and courtiers began to build houses in the western "suburbs," as they were then called, though now they are looked upon as very central districts. It was chiefly in the seventeenth century that what we now know as the _West End_ became a residential quarter. Some parts of the West End are, of course, still the most fashionable parts of London; but some, like Covent Garden and Lincoln's Inn Fields, have been given over to business. Most of the best-known names in the West End date from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The most fashionable street of all, _Piccadilly_, probably got its name from the very fashionable collar called a _pickadil_ (from the Spanish word _picca_, "a spear") which the fine gentlemen wore as they swaggered through the West End in the early seventeenth century. _Pall Mall_ and the _Mall_ in St. James's Park took their names from a game which was very fashionable after the Restoration, but which was already known in the time of Charles I. The game was called _pall-mall_, from the French _paille-maille_. After the Restoration Charles II. allowed the people to use St. James's Park, which was a royal park, and Londoners used to watch respectfully and admiringly as Charles and his brother James played this game. _Spring Gardens_, also in St. James's Park, reminds us of the lively spirits of Restoration times. It was so called because of a fountain which stood there, and which was so arranged that when a passer-by trod by accident on a certain valve the waters spurted forth and drenched him. We should not think this so funny now as people did then. At the same time that the West End was growing, poorer districts were spreading to the north and east of the City. _Moorfields_ (which tells us by its name what it was like in the early London days) was built over. _Spitalfields_ (which took its name from one of the many hospitals which religious people built in and near mediæval London) and _Whitechapel_ also filled up, and became centres of trade and manufacture. The games and sports which amused the people in these poorer quarters were not so refined as the ball-throwing of the princes and courtiers. In the name _Balls Pond Road_, Islington, we are reminded of the duck-hunting which was one of the sports of the common people. As time went on and London became larger and more crowded, the fashionable people began to go away each summer to drink the waters at Bath and Tunbridge Wells. But in London itself there were several springs and wells whose waters were supposed to be good for people's health, and these have given us some of the best-known London names. Near _Holywell Street_ there were several of these wells; and along _Well Walk_, in the north-west suburb of Hampstead, a procession of gaily-dressed people might regularly be seen in Charles II.'s time going to drink the waters. _Clerkenwell_ also took its name from a well which was believed to be mediæval and even miraculous. _Bridewell_, the name of the famous prison, also came from the name of a well dedicated to St. Bride. Many of the great streets and squares of the West End of London have taken their names from the houses of noblemen who have lived there, or from the names of the rich owners of property in these parts. _Northumberland Avenue_, opening off Trafalgar Square, takes its name from Northumberland House, built there in the time of James I. _Arundel Street_, running down to the Embankment from the Strand, is so called in memory of Arundel House, the home of the Earl of Arundel, which used to stand here. It was there that the famous collection of statues known as the "Arundel Marbles" was first collected. They were presented to Oxford University in 1667. Just near Charing Cross there is a part of old London called the _Adelphi_. This district takes its name from a fine group of buildings put up there in the middle of the eighteenth century by the two famous brother architects Robert and William Adam. _Adelphi_ is the Greek word for "brothers," but the name seems very peculiar applied in this way. The name of _Mayfair_, the very centre of fashion in the West End, reminds us that in this magnificent quarter of London a fair used to be held in May in the time of Charles II. This gives us an idea of how the district must have changed since then. _Farm Street_, in Mayfair, has its name from a farm which was still there in the middle of the eighteenth century. The ground is now taken up by stables and coach-houses. _Half-Moon Street_, another fashionable street running out of Piccadilly, takes its name from a public house which was built on this corner in 1730. These old names give us some idea of what London was like at different times in the past; but another very interesting group of names are those which are being made in the greater London of to-day. One of the commonest words used by Londoners to-day is the _Underground_. If an eighteenth-century Londoner could come back and talk to us to-day he would not know what we meant by this word. For the great system of underground railways to which it refers was only made in the later years of the nineteenth century. The _Twopenny Tube_ was the name of one of the first lines of these underground railways. It was so called because the trains ran through great circular tunnels, like the underground railways which connect all parts of London to-day. It has now become quite a habit of Londoners to talk of going "by Tube" when they mean by any of the underground railways. One of these lines has a very peculiar and rather ugly name. It is called the _Bakerloo Railway_, because it runs from Baker Street to Waterloo. It certainly makes us think that the Londoners of long ago showed much better taste in the names they invented. CHAPTER VI. WORDS MADE BY GREAT WRITERS. As we have seen, languages while they are living are always growing and changing. We have seen how new names have been made as time went on. But many new words besides names are constantly being added to a language; for just as grown-up people use more words than children, and educated people use more words than uneducated or less educated people, so, too, _nations_ use more words as time goes on. Every word must have been used a first time by some one; but of course it is impossible to know who were the makers of most words. Even new words cannot often be traced to their makers. Some one uses a new word, and others pick it up, and it passes into general use, while everybody has forgotten who made it. But one very common way in which people learn to use new words is through reading the books of great writers. Sometimes these writers have made new words which their readers have seen to be very good, and have then begun to use themselves. Sometimes these great writers have made use of words which, though not new, were very rare, and immediately these words have become popular and ordinary words. The first great English poet was Chaucer, and the great English philologists feel sure that he must have made many new words and made many rare words common; but it is not easy to say that Chaucer made any particular word, because we do not know enough of the language which was in use at that time to say so. One famous phrase of Chaucer is often quoted now: "after the schole of Stratford-atte-Bowe," which he used in describing the French spoken by one of the Canterbury Pilgrims in his great poem. He meant that this was not pure French, but French spoken in the way and with the peculiar accent used at Stratford (a part of London near Bow Church). We now often use the phrase to describe any accent which is not perfect. But though we do not know for certain which words Chaucer introduced, we do know that this first great English poet must have introduced many, especially French words; while Wyclif, the first great English prose writer, who translated part of the Bible from Latin into English, must also have given us many new words, especially from the Latin. The English language never changed so much after the time of Chaucer and Wyclif as it had done before. The next really great English poet, Edmund Spenser, who wrote his wonderful poem, "The Faerie Queene," in the days of Queen Elizabeth, invented a great many new words. Some of these were seldom or never used afterwards, but some became ordinary English words. Sometimes his new words were partly formed out of old words which were no longer used. The word _elfin_, which became quite a common word, seems to have been invented by Spenser. He called a boasting knight by the name _Braggadocio_, and we still use the word _braggadocio_ for vain boasting. A common expression which we often find used in romantic tales, and especially in the novels of Sir Walter Scott, _derring-do_, meaning "adventurous action," was first used by Spenser. He, however, took it from Chaucer, who had used it as a _verb_, speaking of the _dorring-do_ (or "daring to do") that belonged to a knight. Spenser made a mistake in thinking Chaucer had used it as a noun, and used it so himself, making in this way quite a new and very well-sounding word. Another word which Spenser made, and which is still sometimes used, was _fool-happy_; but other words, like _idlesse_, _dreariment_, _drowsihead_, are hardly seen outside his poetry. One reason for this is that Spenser was telling stories of quaint and curious things, and he used quaint and curious words which would not naturally pass into ordinary language. The next great name in English literature, and the greatest name of all, is Shakespeare. Shakespeare influenced the English language more than any writer before or since. First of all he made a great many new words, some very simple and others more elaborate, but all of them so suitable that they have become a part of the language. Such a common word as _bump_, which it would be difficult to imagine ourselves without, is first found in Shakespeare's writings. _Hurry_, which seems to be the only word to express what it stands for, seems also to have been made by Shakespeare, and also the common word _dwindle_. Some other words which Shakespeare made are _lonely_, _orb_ (meaning "globe"), _illumine_, and _home-keeping_. Many others might be quoted, but the great influence which Shakespeare had on the English language was not through the new words he made, but in the way his expressions and phrases came to be used as ordinary expressions. Many people are constantly speaking Shakespeare without knowing it, for the phrases he used were so exactly right and expressive that they have been repeated ever since, and often, of course, by people who do not know where they first came from. We can only mention a few of these phrases, such as "a Daniel come to judgment," which Shylock says to Portia in the "Merchant of Venice," and which is often used now sarcastically. From the same play comes the expression "pound of flesh," which is now often used to mean what a person knows to be due to him and is determined to have. "Full of sound and fury, signifying nothing," "to gild refined gold," "to wear one's heart upon one's sleeve,"--these and hundreds of other phrases are known by most people to come from Shakespeare; they are used by many who do not. They describe so splendidly so many things which are constantly happening that they seem to be the only or at least the best way of expressing the meanings they signify. But not only have hundreds of Shakespeare's own words and phrases passed into everyday English, but the way in which he turned his phrases is often imitated. It was Shakespeare who used the phrase to "out-Herod Herod," and now this is a common form of speech. A statesman could now quite suitably use the phrase to "out-Asquith Asquith." The next great poet after Shakespeare was Milton. He also gave us a great many new words and phrases, but not nearly so many as Shakespeare. Still there are a few phrases which are now so common that many people use them without even knowing that they come from Milton's writings. Some of these are "the human face divine," "to hide one's diminished head," "a dim religious light," "the light fantastic toe." It was Milton who invented the name _pandemonium_ for the home of the devils, and now people regularly speak of a state of horrible noise and disorder as "a pandemonium." Many of those who use the expression have not the slightest idea of where it came from. The few words which we know were made by Milton are very expressive words. It was he who invented _anarch_ for the spirit of anarchy or disorder, and no one has found a better word to express the idea. _Satanic_, _moon-struck_, _gloom_ (to mean "darkness"), _echoing_, and _bannered_ are some more well-known words invented by Milton. It is not always the greatest writers who have given us the greatest number of new words. A great prose writer of the seventeenth century, Sir Thomas Browne, is looked upon as a classical writer, but his works are only read by a few, not like the great works of Shakespeare and Milton. Yet Sir Thomas Browne has given many new words to the English language. This is partly because he deliberately made many new words. One book of his gave us several hundreds of these words. The reason his new words remained in the language was that there was a real need of them. Many seventeenth-century writers of plays invented hundreds of new words, but they tried to invent curious and queer-sounding words, and very few people liked them. These words never really became part of the English language. They are "one-man" words, to be found only in the writings of their inventors. Yet it was one of these fanciful writers who invented the very useful word _dramatist_ for "a writer of plays." But the words made by Sir Thomas Browne were quite different. Such ordinary words as _medical_, _literary_, and _electricity_ were first used by him. He made many others too, not quite so common, but words which later writers and speakers could hardly do without. Another seventeenth-century writer, John Evelyn, the author of the famous _Diary_ which has taught us so much about the times in which he lived, was a great maker of words. Most of his new words were made from foreign words, and as he was much interested in art and music, many of his words relate to these things. It was Evelyn who introduced the word _opera_ into English, and also _outline_, _altitude_, _monochrome_ ("a painting in one shade"), and _pastel_, besides many other less common words. Robert Boyle, a great seventeenth-century writer on science, gave many new scientific words to the English language. The words _pendulum_ and _intensity_ were first used by him, and it was he who first used _fluid_ as a noun. The poets Dryden and Pope gave us many new words too. Dr. Johnson, the maker of the first great English dictionary, added some words to the language. As everybody knows who has read that famous book, Boswell's _Life of Johnson_, Dr. Johnson was a man who always said just what he thought, and had no patience with anything like stupidity. The expression _fiddlededee_, another way of telling a person that he is talking nonsense, was made by him. _Irascibility_, which means "tendency to be easily made cross or angry," is also one of his words, and so are the words _literature_ and _comic_. The great statesman and political writer, Edmund Burke, was the inventor of many of our commonest words relating to politics. _Colonial_, _colonization_, _electioneering_, _diplomacy_, _financial_, and many other words which are in everyday use now, were made by him. At the beginning of the nineteenth century there was a great revival in English literature, since known as the "Romantic Movement." After the rather stiff manners and writing of the eighteenth century, people began to have an enthusiasm for all sorts of old and adventurous things, and a new love for nature and beauty. Sir Walter Scott was the great novelist of the movement, and also wrote some fine, stirring ballads and poems. In these writings, which dealt chiefly with the adventurous deeds of the Middle Ages, Scott used again many old words which had been forgotten and fallen out of use. He made them everyday words again. The old word _chivalrous_, which had formerly been used to describe the institutions connected with knighthood, he used in a new way, and the word has kept this meaning ever since. It has now always the meaning of courtesy and gentleness towards the weak, but before Sir Walter Scott used it it had not this meaning at all. Scott also revived words like _raid_ and _foray_, his novels, of course, being full of descriptions of fighting on the borders of England and Scotland. It was this same writer who introduced the Scottish word _gruesome_ into the language. Later in the century another Scotsman, Thomas Carlyle, made many new words which later writers and speakers have used. They are generally rather forcible and not very dignified words, for Carlyle's writings were critical of almost everything and everybody, and he seemed to love rather ugly words, which made the faults he described seem contemptible or ridiculous. It was he who made the words _croakery_, _dry-as-dust_, and _grumbly_, and he introduced also the Scottish word _feckless_, which describes a person who is a terribly bad manager, careless and disorderly in his affairs, the sort of person whom Carlyle so much despised. The great writers of the present time seem to be unwilling to make new words. The chief word-makers of to-day are the people who talk a new slang (and of these we shall see something in another chapter), and the scientific writers, who, as they are constantly making new discoveries, have to find words to describe them. Some of the poets of the present day have used new words and phrases, but they are generally strange words, which no one thinks of using for himself. The poet John Masefield used the word _waps_ and the phrase _bee-loud_, which is very expressive, but which we cannot imagine passing into ordinary speech. Two poets of the Romantic Movement, Southey and Coleridge, used many new and strange words just in this way, but these, again, never passed into the ordinary speech of English people. One maker of new words in the nineteenth century must not be forgotten. This was Lewis Carroll, the author of "Alice in Wonderland" and "Through the Looking-Glass." He made many new and rather queer words; but they expressed so well the meaning he gave to them that some of them have become quite common. This writer generally made these curious words out of two others. The word _galumph_ (which is now put as an ordinary word in English dictionaries) he made out of _gallop_ and _triumph_. It means "to go galloping in triumph." Another of Lewis Carroll's words, _chortle_, is even more used. It also has the idea of "triumphing," and is generally used to mean "chuckling (either inwardly or outwardly) in triumph." It was probably made out of the words _chuckle_ and _snort_. But great writers have not only added new words and phrases to the language by inventing them; sometimes the name of a book itself has taken on a general meaning. Sir Thomas More in the time of Henry VIII. wrote his famous book, "Utopia," to describe a country in which everything was done as it should be. _Utopia_ (which means "Nowhere," More making the word out of two Greek words, _ou_, "not," and _topos_, "place") was the name of the ideal state he described, and ever since such imaginary states where all goes well have been described as "Utopias." Then, again, a scene or place in a great book may be so splendidly described, and interest people so much, that it, too, comes to be used in a general way. People often use the name _Vanity Fair_ to describe a frivolous way of life. But the original _Vanity Fair_ was, of course, one of the places of temptation through which Christian had to pass on his way to the Heavenly City in John Bunyan's famous book, the "Pilgrim's Progress." Another of these places was the _Slough of Despond_, which is now quite generally used to describe a condition of great discouragement and depression. The adjective _Lilliputian_, meaning "very small," comes from _Lilliput_, the land of little people in which Gulliver found himself in Swift's famous book, "Gulliver's Travels." Then many common expressions are taken from characters in well-known books. We often speak of some one's _Man Friday_, meaning a right-hand man or general helper; but the original Man Friday was, of course, the savage whom Robinson Crusoe found on his desert island, and who acted afterwards as his servant. In describing a person as _quixotic_ we do not necessarily think of the original Don Quixote in the novel of the great Spanish writer, Cervantes. Don Quixote was always doing generous but rather foolish things, and the adjective _quixotic_ now describes this sort of action. A quite different character, the Jew in Shakespeare's play, "The Merchant of Venice," has given us the expression "a Shylock." From Dickens's famous character Mrs. Gamp in "Martin Chuzzlewit," who always carried a bulgy umbrella, we get the word _gamp_, rather a vulgar name for "umbrella." We speak of "a Sherlock Holmes" when we mean to describe some one who is very quick at finding out things. Sherlock Holmes is the hero of the famous detective stories of Conan Doyle. It is a very great testimony to the power of a writer when the names of persons or places in his books become in this way part of the English language. CHAPTER VII. WORDS THE BIBLE HAS GIVEN US. A great English historian, writing of the sixteenth century, once said, "The English people became the people of a book." The book he meant was, of course, the Bible. When England became Protestant the people found a new interest in the Bible. In Catholic times educated people, like priests, had read the Bible chiefly in Latin, though the New Testament had been translated into English. But most of the people could not even read. They knew the Bible stories only from the sermons and teaching of the priests, and from the great number of statues of Biblical kings and prophets which covered the beautiful churches of the Middle Ages. But the new Protestant teachers were much more enthusiastic about the Bible. Many of them found the whole of their religion in its pages, and were constantly quoting texts of Scripture. New translations of the New Testament were made, and at last, in 1611, the wonderful translation of the whole Bible known as the "Authorised Version," because it was the translation ordered and approved by the Government, was published. About the same time a translation into English was made for Catholics, and this was hardly less beautiful. It is known as the "Douai Bible" because it was published at Douai by Catholics who had fled from England. From that time the Bible has been the book which English people have read most, and it has had an immense influence on the English language. Even in the Middle Ages the Bible had given many new words to the language. Names of Eastern animals, trees, and plants, etc., like _lion_, _camel_, _cedar_, _palm_, _myrrh_, _hyssop_, _gem_, are examples of new words learned from the Bible at this time. But the translations of the Bible in the Reformation period had a much greater effect than this. Many words which were already dying out were used by the translators, and so kept their place in the English language. Examples of such words are _apparel_ and _raiment_ for "clothes." These words are not used so often as the more ordinary word _clothes_ even now, but it is quite probable that they would have passed out of use altogether if the translators of the Bible had not saved them. There are many words of this sort which were saved in this way, but they are chiefly used in poetry and "fine" writing. We do not speak of the "firmament" in an ordinary way; but this word, taken from the first chapter of the Bible, is still used as a more poetical name for _sky_. But the translators of the Bible must also be put among the makers of new English words. Sometimes the translator could not find what he considered a satisfactory word to express the meaning of the Greek word he wished to translate. He, therefore, made a new word, or put two old words together to express exactly what he thought the Greek word meant. The word _beautiful_ may not have been actually invented by the translator, William Tyndale, but it is not found in any book earlier than his translation of the New Testament. It seems a very natural and necessary word to us now. It was Tyndale who first used the words _peacemaker_ and _scapegoat_ and the compound word _long-suffering_; and another famous translator, Miles Coverdale, who invented the expressions _loving-kindness_ and _tender mercy_. But the great effect which the Bible has had on the English language is not in the preserving of old words and the making of new. Its chief effect has been in the way many of its expressions and phrases have passed into everyday use, so that people often use Biblical phrases without even knowing that they are doing so, just as we saw was the case with many phrases taken from Shakespeare's works. Every one knows the expression to _cast pearls before swine_, and its meaning, "to give good things to people who are too ignorant to appreciate them." This expression, taken from the Gospel of St. Matthew, has now become an ordinary English expression. The same is the case with the expression, _the eleventh hour_, meaning "just in time." But perhaps not every one who uses it remembers that it comes from the parable of the Labourers in the Vineyard, though, of course, most people would. Other common Biblical expressions are, _a labour of love_, _to hope against hope_, _the shadow of death_, and so on. When a child is described as the _Benjamin_ of the family, we know that this means the youngest and best loved, because the story of Jacob's love for Benjamin is familiar to every one. Again, when a person is described as a _Pharisee_ no one needs to have a description of his qualities, for every one knows the story of the Pharisee and the Publican. The Bible is, of course, full of the most poetical ideas and the most vivid language, and the fact that this language has become the everyday speech of Englishmen has been most important in the development of the English language. Without the Bible, which is full of the richness and colour of Eastern things and early peoples, the English language might have been much duller and less expressive. But the religious writers of the Reformation period gave us another kind of word besides those found in the translations of the Bible. Many of these writers thought it was their duty to abuse the people who did not agree with them on the subject of religion. Tyndale himself, who invented such beautiful words in his translations, was the first to use the word _dunce_. He called the Catholics by this name, which he made out of the name of a philosopher of the Middle Ages called Duns Scotus. The Protestants despised the Catholic or scholastic philosophy. But Duns Scotus was quite a clever man in his day, and it is curious that his name should have given us the word _dunce_, which became quite a common word as time went on. Other new words which the Protestants used against the Catholics were _Romish_, _Romanist_ (which Luther had used, but which Coverdale was the first to use in English), _popery_, _popishness_, _papistical_, _monkish_, all of which are still used to-day, and still have an anti-Catholic meaning. It was then that Rome was first described as _Babylon_, the meaning of the Protestants being that the city was as wicked as ancient Babylon, the name of which is used as a type of all wickedness in the Apocalypse, and these writers often used the words _Babylonian_ and _Babylonish_ instead of _Roman_. The name _Scarlet Woman_, also taken from the Apocalypse, was also often used to describe the Catholic Church. The expression _Roman Catholic_, to which no one objects, was invented later, at the time that it was thought that Charles I. was going to marry a Spanish princess, and, of course, a Catholic. It was invented as being more polite than the terms by which the Protestants had so often abused the Catholics, and it has been used ever since. Other new words came from the breaking up of Protestantism into different sects. _Puritan_ was the name given to those who wished to "purify" the Protestant religion from all the old ceremonies of Catholicism. The Calvinists (or followers of the French reformer, John Calvin) believed that souls were "predestined" to go to heaven or to be lost. The people who were predestined to be lost they described as _reprobate_, and this word we still use, but with a different meaning. A reprobate nowadays is a person who is looked upon as hopelessly bad, and the word is also sometimes used jokingly. The name _Protestant_ itself is interesting. It was first used to describe the Lutherans, who "protested" against, and would not agree with, the decisions made by the Emperor Charles V. on the subject of religion. The names of the different forms of Protestantism are often very interesting, and were, of course, new words invented to describe the different forms of belief. The first great division was between the _Lutherans_ and the _Calvinists_. The meaning of these names is plain. They were merely the followers of Martin Luther and John Calvin. But later on there were many divisions, such as the _Baptists_, who were so called because they thought that people should not be baptized until they were grown up. They also administered the sacrament in a different way from most other Churches, the person baptized being dipped in the water. At one time these people were called _Anabaptists_, _ana_ being the Greek word for "again." But this was supposed to be a term of abuse similar to those showered on the Roman Catholics, and in time it died out. Then there were the _Independents_, who were so called because they believed that each congregation should be independent of every other. Perhaps the most peculiar name applied to one of the many sects in the England of the seventeenth century was that of the _Quakers_. This, too, was a name of abuse at first; but the "Society of Friends," to whom it was applied, came sometimes to use it themselves. They were a people who believed in great simplicity of life and manners and dress, and had no priests. At their religious meetings silence was kept until some one was moved to speak. The name was taken from the text, "quaking at the word of the Lord." The names chosen by religious leaders, and those applied to the sects by their enemies, can teach us a great deal of history. CHAPTER VIII. WORDS FROM THE NAMES OF PEOPLE. Many words have been taken from the names of people, saints and sinners, men who have helped on human progress and men who have tried to stand in its way, from queens and kings and nobles, and from quite humble people. One large group of words has been made from the names of great inventors. All through history men have been inventing new things. We realize this if we think of what England is like to-day, and what it was like in the days of the early Britons. But even by the time of the early Britons many things had been invented which the earlier races of men had not known. Perhaps the greatest inventor the world has ever known was the man who first discovered how to make fire; but we shall never know who he was. The people who discovered how to make metal weapons instead of the stone weapons which early men used were great inventors too; and those who discovered how to grow crops of corn and wheat, and so gave new food to the human race. But all this happened in times long past, before men had any idea of writing down their records, and so these inventors have not left their names for us to admire. But in historical times, and especially in the centuries since the Renaissance, there have been many inventors, and it will be interesting to see how the things they invented got their names. The word _inventor_ itself means a "finder," and comes to us from the Latin word _invenio_, "I find." The greatest number of inventions have been made in the last hundred and fifty years. The printing-press was, of course, a great invention of the fifteenth century, but it was simply called the _printing-press_, and did not take the name of its inventor. Yet this was a new name too, for the people of the Middle Ages would not have known what a printing-press was. Several early printers have, however, had their names preserved in the description of the beautiful books they produced. All lovers of rare books are admirers of what they call _Aldines_ and _Elzevirs_--that is, books printed at the press of Aldo Manuzio and his family at Venice in the sixteenth century, and by the Elzevir family in Holland in the seventeenth century. We speak of a _Bradshaw_ and a _Baedeker_ to describe the best-known of all railway guides and guide-books. The first takes its name from George Bradshaw, a map engraver, who was born in Manchester in 1801, and lived there till he died, in 1853. In 1839 he published on his own account "Bradshaw's Railway Time Table," of which he changed the name to "Railway Companion" in the next year. He corrected it a few days after the beginning of each month by the railway time sheets, but even then the railway companies sometimes made changes later in the month. In a short time, however, the companies agreed to fix their time tables monthly, and in December 1841 Bradshaw was able to publish the first number of "Bradshaw's Monthly Railway Guide." Six years afterwards he published the first number of "Bradshaw's Continental Railway Guide." The famous series of guides now called _Baedekers_ take their name from Karl Baedeker, a German publisher, who in the first half of the nineteenth century began to publish this famous series. Members of Parliament still speak of the volumes containing the printed record of what goes on in Parliament as _Hansard_. This name comes from that of the first publisher of such records, Luke Hansard, who was printer to the House of Commons from 1798 until he died, in 1828. His family continued to print the reports as late as 1889, and though the work is now shared by other firms, the name is still kept. Not only books but musical instruments are frequently called after their makers. The two most famous and valuable kinds of old violins take their names from the Italian family of the Amati, who made violins in the sixteenth century, and Antonio Stradivari, who was their pupil. An _Amati_ and a _Stradivarius_, often called a "Strad" for short, are the names now given by musicians to the splendid old violins made by these people. The names of many flowers have been taken from the names of persons, and this still goes on to-day when new varieties of roses or sweet peas are called after the person who first grew them, or some friend of this person. These modern names are not, as a rule, very romantic, but some of the older ones are interesting. The _dahlia_, for instance, was called after Dahl, a Swedish botanist, who was a pupil of the great botanist Linnæus, after whom the chief botanical society in England, the _Linnæan Society_, is called. The _lobelia_ was so called after Matthias de Lobel, a Flemish botanist and physician to King James I. The _fuchsia_ took its name from Leonard Fuchs, a sixteenth-century botanist, the first German who really studied botany. There are many more new things and names to-day than in earlier times, names which our grand-parents and even our parents did not know when they were children. We talk familiarly now about _aeroplanes_ and the different kinds of aeroplanes, such as the _monoplane_, _biplane_, etc. But these are new names invented in the last twenty years. Some of the names of airships and aeroplanes are very interesting. The _Taube_, for instance, is so called from the German word meaning "dove," because it looks very like a bird when it is up in the sky. The great German airships called _Zeppelins_ took their name from the German Count Zeppelin, who invented them; and the splendid French airships called _Fokkers_ also take their name from their inventor, and so does the _Gotha_--name of ill-fame. The man who first discovered gunpowder is forgotten, but many of the powerful guns which are used in modern warfare are called after their inventors. The _Gatling gun_ is not much talked of to-day, but it was a famous gun in its time, and took its name from the American inventor, Richard Jordan Gatling, who lived in the early nineteenth century, and devoted his life to inventions. Some were peaceable inventions, like machines for sowing cotton and rice; but he is best remembered by the great gun to which he gave his name. Another famous gun of which we have heard a great deal in the Great War is the _Maxim gun_, which again took its name from its inventor, Sir Hiram Maxim. The _shrapnel_, of which also so much was heard in the Great War, the terrible shells which burst a certain time after leaving the gun without striking against anything, took its name from its inventor. The chief peculiarity of shrapnel is that the bullets fall from above in a shower from the shell as it bursts in the air. But there are many other names which we should not easily guess to come from the names of inventors. People talk of a macadamized road without knowing that these roads are so called because they are made in the way invented by John M'Adam, who lived from 1756 to 1836. The name _macadam_ is often used now to denote the material used in making roads. Sometimes this material is of a sort which John M'Adam would not have approved of at all, for he did not believe in pouring a fluid material over the stones, or in the heavy rollers which are now often used in making new roads. Another useful article, the homely _mackintosh_, takes its name from that of another Scotsman, Charles Macintosh, who lived at the same time as M'Adam. It was he who first, in 1823, finished the invention of a waterproof cloth. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries many great discoveries were made in science, and many names of discoverers and inventors have been preserved in scientific words. _Galvanism_, one branch of electricity, took its name from Luigi Galvani, an Italian professor, who made great discoveries about electricity in the bodies of animals. Every one has heard of a galvanic battery, but not everybody knows how it got its name. _Mesmerism_, or the science by which the human mind is influenced by suggestions from itself or another mind, took its name from Friedrich Anton Mesmer, who first made great discoveries about animal magnetism. Another famous discoverer of the powers of electricity, and one who is still a young man, is Guglielmo Marconi, a native of Bologna. It was he who invented the great system of wireless telegraphy which is now used in nearly all big ships. In 1899 he first succeeded in sending a message in this way from England to France, and in the next year he sent one right across the Atlantic. Now ships frequently send a _Marconigram_ home when they are right in the middle of the ocean; and many lives have been saved through ships in distress having been able to send out wireless messages which have brought other vessels steaming up to their aid. In fact, this invention of Marconi's is, perhaps, the greatest of all modern inventions, and it is but right that it should preserve his name. A different kind of invention has preserved the name of the fourth Earl of Sandwich, an eighteenth-century nobleman, who was so fond of card games that he could not bear to leave the card table even to eat his meals, and so invented what has ever since been called by his name--the _sandwich_. Not unlike the origin of the name sandwich is that of _Abernethy_ biscuits, so called after the doctor who invented the recipe for making them. It was another doctor, the French physician, Joseph Ignace Guillotin, who gave his name to the _guillotine_, the terrible knife with which people were beheaded in thousands during the French Revolution. Guillotin did not really invent it, nor was he himself guillotined, as has often been said. The guillotine is supposed to have been invented long ago in Persia, and was used in the Middle Ages both in Italy and Germany. The Frenchman whose name it bears was a kindly person, who merely advised this method of execution at the time of the French Revolution, because he thought, and rightly, that if people were to be beheaded at all, it should be done swiftly and not clumsily. But many things are called by the names of persons who were not inventors at all. Sometimes a new kind of clothing is called after some great person just to make it seem distinguished. A _Chesterfield_ overcoat is so called because the tailor who first gave this kind of coat that name wished to suggest that it had all the elegance displayed in the clothing of the famous eighteenth-century dandy, the fourth Earl of Chesterfield. So the well-known _Raglan_ coats and sleeves took their name first from an English general, Baron Raglan, who fought in the Crimean War. Both Wellington and Blücher, the two generals who fought together and defeated Napoleon at Waterloo, gave their names to different kinds of boots. _Bluchers_ are strong leather half boots or high shoes, and _Wellingtons_ are high riding boots reaching to the bend of the knee at the back of the leg, and covering the knee in front. Wellington is supposed to have worn such boots in his campaigns. Another article of clothing which was very popular with ladies at one time was the _Garibaldi_ blouse, which was so called after the red shirts which were worn by the followers of the famous soldier who won liberty for Italy, Garibaldi. The rather vulgar name for ladies' divided skirts--_bloomers_--came from the name of an American woman, Mrs. Amelia Jenks Bloomer, who used to wear a skirt which reached to her knee, and then was divided into Turkish trousers tied round her ankles. A great many different kinds of carriages and vehicles have been called by the names of people. The _brougham_, which is still a favourite form of closed carriage, got its name from Lord Brougham. The old four-wheeled carriage with a curved glass front got its name from the Duke of Clarence, who afterwards became King William IV.; and the carriage known as the _Victoria_ was so called as a compliment to Queen Victoria. We do not hear much of this kind of carriage now; but the two-wheeled cab known as the _hansom_ is still to be seen in the streets of London, in spite of the coming of the taxicab. This form of conveyance took its name from an architect who invented it in 1834. An earlier kind of two-wheeled carriage invented a few years before this, but which was displaced by the hansom, was the _stanhope_, also called after its inventor. The general name for a two-wheeled carriage of this sort used to be the _phaeton_, and this was not taken from any person, but from the sun-chariot in which, according to the old Greek story, the son of Helios rode to destruction when he had roused the anger of the great Greek god, Zeus. The names of old Greeks and Romans have given us many words. We speak of a very rich man as a _Croesus_, a word which was the name of a fabulously rich tyrant in Ancient Greece. A person who is supposed to be a great judge of food, and devoted to the pleasures of the table, is called an _epicure_, from the old Greek philosopher Epicurus, who taught that the chief aim of life was to feel pleasure. The word _cynic_, too, comes from the name given to certain Greek philosophers who despised pleasure. The name was originally a nickname for these philosophers, and was taken from the Greek word _kunos_, "dog." We describe a person who chooses to live a very hard life as a _Spartan_, because the people of the old Greek state of Sparta planned their lives so that every one should be disciplined and drilled to make good soldiers, and were never allowed to indulge in too much comfort or too many amusements, lest they should become lazy in mind and weak in body. A _Draconian_ system of law is one which has no mercy, and preserves the name of Draco, a statesman who was appointed to draw up laws for the Athenians six hundred and twenty-one years before the birth of Our Lord, and who drew up a very strict code of laws. The word _mausoleum_, which is now used to describe any large or distinguished tomb, comes from the tomb built for Mausolus, king of Caria (in Greek Asia Minor), by his widow, Artemisia, in 353 B.C. The tomb itself, which rises to a height of over one hundred and twelve feet, is now to be seen in the British Museum. The verb _to hector_, meaning "to bully," is taken from the name of the Trojan hero Hector, in the famous old Greek poem, the Iliad. Hector was not, as a matter of fact, a bully, but a very brave man, and it is curious that his name should have come to be used in this unpleasant sense. The other great Greek poem, the Odyssey, has given us the name of one of its characters for a fairly common English word. A _mentor_ is a person who gives us wise advice, but the original Mentor was a character in this great poem, the wise counsellor of Telemachus. From the names of great Romans, too, we have many words. If we describe a person as a _Nero_, every one knows that this means a cruel tyrant. Nero was the worst of all the Roman emperors, and the story tells that he was so heartless that he played on his violin while watching the burning of Rome. Some people even said that he himself set the city on fire. Again, the name of Julius Cæsar, who was the first imperial governor of Rome, though he was never called emperor, has given us a common name. _Cæsar_ came to mean "an emperor;" and the modern German _Kaiser_ and the Russian _Tsar_ come from this name of the "noblest Roman of them all." An earlier Roman was Fabius Cunctator (or "Fabius the Procrastinator"), a general who, instead of fighting actual battles with the Carthaginian Hannibal, the great enemy of Rome, preferred to tire him out by keeping him waiting and never giving battle. His name has given us the word _Fabian_, to describe this kind of tactics. The name by which people often describe an unscrupulous politician now is _Machiavellian_, an adjective made from the name of a great writer on the government of states. At the time of the Renaissance in Italy, Machiavelli, in his famous book called "The Prince," took it for granted that every ruler would do anything, good or bad, to arrive at the results he desired. Another common word taken at first from politics, but now used in a general sense, is _boycott_. To boycott a person means to be determined to ignore or take no notice of him. A child may be "boycotted" by disagreeable companions at school. Another expression for the same disagreeable method is to "send to Coventry." But the political boycotting from which the word passed into general use took place in Ireland, when any one with whose politics the Irish did not agree was treated in this way. The first victim of this kind of treatment was Captain Boycott of County Mayo in 1880. So useful has this word been found that both the French and Germans have borrowed it. The French have now the word _boycotter_, and the Germans _boycottieren_. Another Irish name which has given us a common word is Burke. Sometimes in a discussion one person will tell another that he _burkes_ the question. This means that he is avoiding the real subject of debate. Or a rumour may be _burked_, or "hushed up." In this way the subject is, as it were, smothered. And it was from this meaning that the name came to be used as a general word. William Burke was an Irish labourer who was executed in 1829, when he was found guilty of having murdered several people. His habit had been to smother them, so that their bodies did not show how they had died, and sell their bodies to a doctor for dissection. From this dreadful origin we have the new use of this fine old Irish name. People who love books are often very indignant when the editors of a new edition of an old book think it proper to leave out certain passages which they think are indecent or unsuitable for people to read. This is called "expurgating" the book; but people who disapprove often call it to _bowdlerize_. This word comes from the name of Dr. Thomas Bowdler, who in 1818 published an edition of Shakespeare's works in which, as he said, "those words and expressions are omitted which cannot with propriety be read aloud in a family." Sometimes a badly-dressed or peculiar-looking person is described as a _guy_. This word comes from the name of Guy Fawkes, the Gunpowder Plotter, through the effigies, or "guys," which are often burned in bonfires on November 5th. Certain Christian names have, for reasons which it is not easy to see, given us words which mean "fool" or "stupid person." The word _ninny_ comes from Innocent. _Noddy_ probably comes from Nicodemus or Nicholas. Both these names are used to mean "foolish person" in France, and so is _benêt_, which comes from Benedict. Some saints' names have given us words which do not seem at first sight to have any connection with them. The word _maudlin_, by which we mean "foolishly sentimental," comes from the name of St. Mary Magdalen, a saint whose name immediately suggests to us sorrow and weeping. The word _maudlin_ suggests the idea of being ready to weep unnecessarily. In this way a word describing a disagreeable quality is taken from the name of one of the most honoured saints. The word _tawdry_, by which we mean cheap and showy things with no real beauty, comes from St. Audrey, another name for St. Etheldreda, who founded Ely Cathedral. In the Middle Ages St. Audrey's Fair used to be held at Ely, and as fairs are always full of cheap and showy things, it was from this that the word _tawdry_ came. _St. Anthony's fire_ is a well-known name for erysipelas, and _St. Vitus's dance_ for another distressing disease. These names came from the fact that these saints used to be chosen out as the special patrons of people suffering from such diseases. In the same way the disease which used to be called the _King's Evil_ was so named because people formerly believed that persons suffering from it would be cured if touched by the hands of the king or the queen. On certain occasions, even down to the time of Queen Anne, English kings and queens "touched" crowds of sufferers from this disease. So in these words taken from the names of people we may read many a story of love and sorrow and wonder, of disgust and every human passion. CHAPTER IX. WORDS FROM THE NAMES OF ANIMALS. It is easy to see how names of persons have sometimes changed into general words. But we have also a great number of general words which are taken from animals' names. Most often these words are used to describe people's characters. Sometimes people are merely compared with the animals whose qualities they are supposed to have, and sometimes they are actually called by the names of these animals. Thus we may say that a person is "as sly as a fox," or we may call him an "old fox," and every one understands the same thing by both expressions. The cause of this continual comparison of human beings with animals is that long ago, when these expressions first began to be used, animals, and especially wild animals, played a great part in the lives of the people. In the Middle Ages great parts of England, now dotted over with big towns, were covered with forest land. Wolves roamed in the woods, and the fighting of some wild animals and the taming of others formed a most important part of people's lives. The same thing was, of course, the case in other countries. So familiar were people in those days with animals that they thought of them almost as human beings and believed that they had their own languages. It was people who believed these things who made up many of the old fairy tales about animals--stories like "Red Riding Hood" and the "Three Bears." We often say that we are "as hungry as a wolf;" but we who have never seen wolves except behind the bars of their cages at the Zoological Gardens do not know how hungry a wild wolf can be. Those, however, who first used this expression thought of the lean and hungry wolves who prowled round the farms and cottages in the hard winter weather, driven by starvation to men's very doors. We also have the expression, "a wolf in sheep's clothing." By this we mean a person who is really dangerous and harmful, but who puts on a harmless and gentle manner to deceive his victim. Another use of the word _wolf_ is as a verb, meaning to eat in a very quick and greedy manner, as we might imagine a hungry wolf would do, and as our forefathers knew by experience that they did do. Most of the people who use the names of the wolf and the fox in these ways do not know anything of the habits of these animals, but the expressions have become part of the common language. The same thing is, of course, true about the lion, with which even our far-off English ancestors had never to fight. But the lion is such a fierce and magnificent animal that it naturally appeals to our imagination, and we find numerous comparisons with it, chiefly in poetical language. We say a soldier is as "brave as a lion," or describe him as a "lion in the fight." A less complimentary comparison is an expression we often hear, "as stubborn as a mule." Only a few of the people who use this expression can have had any experience of the stubbornness of mules. Sometimes a stubborn person is described quite simply as a "mule." Another compliment of the same sort is to call a person who seems to us to be acting stupidly a "donkey." We may say a person is as "greedy as a pig," or describe him with disgust as a "pig," which may mean either that they are very greedy or that they are behaving in a very ungracious or unmannerly way. A more common description of a person of this sort is "a hog." Every one has heard of the "road hogs," who drive their motors regardless of other people's convenience or safety; and of the "food hogs," who tried to store up food, or refused to ration themselves, and so shortened other people's supplies of food in the Great War. Other common expressions comparing people with animals are--"sulky as a bear," "gay as a lark," "busy as a bee." We might also call a cross person a "bear," but should not without some explanation call a person a "lark" or a "bee." We may say a person "chatters like a magpie," or we may call him or her a "magpie." A person who talks without thinking, merely repeating what other people have said, is often called a "parrot." Sometimes names of common animals or birds used to describe people are complimentary, but more often they are not. It seems as though the people who made these metaphors were more eloquent in anger than in love. A very nice child will be described by its friends as a "little duck." A mischievous child may also be described good-temperedly as a "monkey;" but there are far more words of abuse taken from the names of animals than more or less amiable words like these. A bad-tempered woman is described as a "vixen," or female fox; a lazy person as a "drone," or the bee which does no work. A stupid person may be called a "sheep" or a "goose" (which is not quite so insulting). _Dog_, _hound_, _cur_, and _puppy_ are all used as words of abuse; and contempt for some one who is regarded as very mean-spirited is sometimes shown by describing such a person as a "worm," or worse, if possible, a "reptile." A "bookworm," on the other hand, the name of a little insect which lives in books and eats away at paper and bindings, is applied to people who love books in another way--great readers--and is, of course, not at all an uncomplimentary word. A foolish person who has been easily deceived in some matter is often described as a "gull," or is said to have been "gulled." _Gull_ is now the name of a sea-bird, but in Early English it was used to describe any young bird, and from the idea that it is easy to deceive such youngsters came the use of the word to describe foolish people. Another name of a bird used with almost the opposite meaning is _rook_. This name is given to people who are constantly cheating others, especially at card games. It was earlier used, like _gull_, to describe the person cheated. It then came to be used as a verb meaning "to cheat," and from this was used to describe the person cheating instead of the person cheated. Other names of birds not quite so common used to describe stupid people are _dotterel_ and _dodo_. The dotterel is a bird which is very easily caught, and it was from this fact that it got its name, which comes from _dote_, to be "silly" or "feeble-minded." When the name of the bird is used to describe a silly person, the word is really, as an interesting writer on the history of words says, turning "a complete somersault." The same is the case with _dodo_, which is also used, but not so often, to describe a stupid person. This bird also got its name from a word which meant "foolish." It comes from the Portuguese word _doudo_, which means "simpleton." We have a few verbs also taken from the names of animals and birds. We say a person "apes" another when he tries to imitate him. This word comes, of course, from the fact that the ape is always imitating any action performed by other people. A person who follows another persistently is said to "dog" his steps. This expression comes, of course, from the fact of dogs following their masters. Another expression is to "hound" a person to do something, by which we mean persecute him. This comes from the idea of a hound tracking its victim down. Another of these words which has the idea of persecution is _badger_. When some one constantly talks about a subject which is unpleasant to another, or continually tries to persuade him to do something against his will, he is said to be "badgering" him. The badger is an animal which burrows into the ground in winter, and dogs are set to worry it out of its hiding-place. The badger is the victim and not the persecutor, as we might think from the use of the verb. The verb _henpeck_, to describe the teasing of her husband by a disagreeable wife, comes, of course, from the idea of the continual pecking of a hen. Many common articles are named after animals which they resemble in some way. A "ram" is an instrument, generally of wood, used to drive things into place by pressure. In olden days war-ships used to have a "battering-ram," or projecting beak, at their prow, with which to "ram" other vessels. The Romans called such a beak an _aries_, which is the Latin for "ram," a male sheep. This was probably from the habit of rams butting an enemy with their horns. The Romans often had the ends of their battering-rams carved into the shape of the head of a ram. A "ramrod" gets its name from the same idea. It is an instrument for pressing in the ammunition when loading the muzzle of a gun. The word "ram" has now several more general uses. We speak of a person "ramming" things into a drawer or bag when we mean pushing them hastily and untidily into too small a place. Or a man may "ram" his hat down on his head. Again, we may have a lesson or unpleasant fact "rammed" into us by some one who is determined to make the subject clear whether we want to hear about it or not. And all this comes from the simple idea of the ram butting people whom it considers unpleasant. More commonplace instruments having animals' names are the "clothes'-horse" and "fire-dogs." We have other words, which we should not guess to be from animals' names, but which really are so. We say that a person who is always changing his mind, and wanting first one thing and then another, is "capricious." Or we speak of a curious or unreasonable desire as a "caprice." These words really come from the Latin name for a goat--_caper_. The mind of the capricious person skips about just like a goat. At least that is what the word _capricious_ literally says about him. The word _caper_, meaning to "jump about playing tricks," comes from the Latin word _capra_, a "she-goat." The word _coward_ comes from the name of an animal, but _not_ the cow. In a famous French story of the Middle Ages, in which all the characters are animals, the "Roman de Renard," the hare is called _couard_, and it is from this that the word _coward_ ("one who runs away from danger") comes. All these words from the names of animals take us back, then, to the days when every man was a kind of naturalist. In those early days, when town life hardly existed, everybody knew all about animals and their habits. Their conversation was full of this sort of thing. And so it is that in hundreds of our words which we use to-day, without thinking of the literal meaning at all, we have a picture of the lives of our ancestors preserved. We have, too, words taken from the names of some animals which never existed at all. The writers of the Middle Ages told many tales or fables of animals and monsters which were purely imaginary, but in which the people of those days firmly believed. We sometimes hear people use the expression a "basilisk glare," which other people would describe as a "look that kills," meaning a look of great severity or displeasure. There is a little American lizard which zoologists call the "basilisk," but this is not the basilisk from which this expression comes. The basilisk which the people of the Middle Ages imagined, but which never existed, was a monstrous reptile hatched by a serpent from a cock's egg. By its breath or even its look it could destroy all who approached it. Another invention of the Middle Ages was the bird called the "phoenix." We now use the word _phoenix_ to describe some one who is unique in some good quality. A commoner way of expressing the same idea would be that "there is no one like him." It was believed in the Middle Ages that only one of these wonderful birds could exist in the world at one time. The story was that the phoenix, after living through five or six hundred years in the Arabian desert, prepared a funeral pile for itself, and was burned to death, but rose again, youthful and strong as ever, from the ashes. In these words we are reminded once again of another side of the life of our ancestors. CHAPTER X. WORDS FROM THE NAMES OF PLACES. We have already seen something of the stories which the names of places, old and new, can tell us. But the names of places themselves often give us new words, and from these, too, we can learn many interesting facts. Many manufactured things, and especially woven cloths, silks, etc., are called by the name of the place from which they come, or from which they first came. _Cashmere_, a favourite smooth woollen material, is called after Cashmir, in India. _Damask_, the material of which table linen is generally made, takes its name from Damascus; as does _holland_, the light brownish cotton stuff used so much for children's frocks and overalls, from Holland, and the rough woollen material known as _frieze_ from Friesland. _Cambric_, the fine white material often used for handkerchiefs, takes its name from Cambrai in France, the place where it was first made. The word _cambric_, however, came into English from _Kamerijk_, the Dutch name for Cambrai. So the other fine material known as _lawn_ got its name from Laon, another French town. Another fine material of this kind, _muslin_, takes its name from Mussolo, a town in Mesopotamia, from which this kind of material first came. Another commoner kind of stuff is _fustian_, made of cotton, but thick, with a short nap, and generally dyed a dark colour. The word _fustian_ has also come to be used figuratively to describe a showy manner of speaking or writing, or anything which tries to appear better than it is. The word comes from Fustat, a suburb of Cairo. A more substantial material, _tweed_, which is largely made in Scotland, really takes its name from people pronouncing _twill_ badly; but the form _tweed_ spread more quickly because people associated the material with the country beyond the river Tweed. Another kind of stuff which we generally associate with Scotland is _tartan_, because this woollen stuff, with its crossed stripes of different colours, is chiefly used for Scottish plaids and kilts, especially of the Highland regiments. But the word _tartan_ does not seem to be a Scottish word, and probably comes from _Tartar_, which was formerly used to describe almost any Eastern people. Perhaps the fact that Eastern peoples love bright colours caused this name to be given to these bright materials, though there is nothing at all Eastern in the designs of the Scottish tartans. Another material with an Eastern name is _sarcenet_, or _sarsenet_, a soft, silky stuff now chiefly used for linings. Often in tales of olden times we read of people hiding behind the "arras." This was a wall covering of tapestry, often hung sufficiently far from the wall to leave room for a person to pass. The word _arras_ comes from Arras, a town in France, which was famous for its beautiful tapestries. We know the word _tabby_ chiefly as the name of a kind of striped cat, but this use of the word came from the Old French word _tabis_, and described a material with marks which the markings on a "tabby" cat resemble. The French word came from the Arab word _utabi_, which perhaps came from the name of a suburb of the famous city of Baghdad. _Worsted_, the name of a certain kind of knitting-wool, comes from the name of the town of Worstead, in Norfolk. The close-fitting woollen garments worn by sailors and often by children are known as _jerseys_--a word which is taken from the name of one of the Channel Islands, Jersey. Sometimes, but not so commonly, they are called _guernseys_, from the name of the chief of the other Channel Islands, Guernsey. Another piece of wearing apparel, the Turkish cap known as a _fez_, gets its name, perhaps, from Fez, a town in Morocco. Besides woven stuffs, many other things are called by the names of the places from which they come. _China_, the general name for very fine earthenware, is the same name as that of the great Eastern country which is famous for its beautiful pottery. Another kind of ornamented earthenware is the Italian _majolica_, and this probably gets its name from the island of Majorca; while _delf_ is the name of the glazed earthenware made at Delft (which in earlier times was called "Delf"), in Holland. The beautiful leather much used for the bindings of books, _morocco_, takes its name from Morocco, where it was first made by tanning goatskins. It is now made in several countries of Europe, but it keeps its old name. Another old kind of leather, but whose name is no longer used, was _cordwain_, a Spanish leather for the making of shoes, which took its name from Cordova in Spain. _Cordwainer_ was the old name for "shoemaker," and is still kept in the names of shoemakers' guilds and societies. Many wines are simply called by the names (sometimes altered a little through people mispronouncing them) of the places from which they come. _Champagne_ is the wine of Champagne, _Burgundy_ of Burgundy, _Sauterne_ of Sauterne, _Chablis_ of Chablis--all French wines. _Port_ takes its name from Oporto, in Portugal; and _sherry_, which used to be called "sherris," comes from the name of Xeres, a Spanish town. Many less well-known wines have merely the name of the place where they are produced printed on the label, and they tend to be called by these names--such as _Capri bianco Vesuvio_, etc. _Malmsey_, the old wine in which the Duke of Clarence was supposed to have been drowned when his murder was ordered by his brother, and which is also called _malvoisie_, got its name from Monemvasia, a town in the peninsula of Morea. Not only wine but other liquids are sometimes called after the places from which they come. The oil known as _macassar_ comes from Maugkasara, the name of a district in the island of Celebes. This oil was at one time very much used as a dressing for the hair, and from this we get the name _antimacassar_ for the coverings which used to be (and are sometimes still) thrown over the backs of easy-chairs and couches to prevent their being soiled by such aids to beauty. _Antimacassar_ means literally a "protection against macassar oil," _anti_ being the Latin word for "against." The tobacco known as _Latakia_ takes its name from the town called by the Turks Latakia, the old town of Laodicea. (Laodicea also gives us another common expression. We describe an indifferent person who has no enthusiasm for anything as "a Laodicean," from the reproach to the Church of the Laodiceans, in the Book of Revelation in the Bible, that they were "neither cold nor hot" in their religion.) Both the words _bronze_ and _copper_ come from the names of places. _Bronze_ is from _Brundusium_, the ancient name of the South Italian town which we now call Brindisi. The Latin name for this metal was _aes Brundusinum_, or "brass of Brindisi." _Copper_ was in Latin _aes Cyprium_, or "brass of Cyprus." Some coins take their names from the names of places. The _florin_, or two-shilling piece, takes its name from Florence. _Dollar_ is the same word as the German _thaler_, the name of a silver coin which was formerly called a _Joachimstaler_, from the silver-mine of Joachimstal, or "Joachim's Dale," in Bohemia. The _ducat_, a gold coin which was used in nearly all the countries of Europe in the Middle Ages, and which was worth about nine shillings, got its name from the duchy (in Italian, _ducato_) of Apulia, where it was first coined in the twelfth century. It was an Italian town, Milan, which gave us our word _milliner_. This came from the fact that many fancy materials and ornaments used in millinery were imported from Milan. Many old dances take their names from places. We hear a great deal nowadays of the "morris dances" which used to be danced in England in olden times. But _morris_ comes from _morys_, an old word for "Moorish." In the Middle Ages this word was used, like "Turk" or "Tartar," to describe almost any Eastern people, and the name came, perhaps, from the fact that in these dances people dressed up, and so looked strange and foreign. The name of a very well-known dance, the _polka_, really means "Polish woman." _Mazurka_, the name of another dance, means "woman of Masovia." The old-fashioned slow dance known as the _polonaise_ took its name from Poland, and was really a Polish dance. The well-known Italian dance called the _tarantella_ took its name from the South Italian town Tarento. The word _canter_, which describes another kind of movement, comes from Canterbury. _Canter_ is only the short for "Canterbury gallop," an expression which was used to describe the slow jogging pace at which many pilgrims in the Middle Ages rode along the Canterbury road to pray at the famous shrine of St. Thomas Becket in that city. Several fruits take their names from places. The _damson_, which used in the Middle Ages to be called the "damascene," was called in Latin _prunum damascenum_, or "plum of Damascus." The name _peach_ comes to us from the Late Latin word _pessica_, which was a bad way of saying "Persica." _Currants_ used to be known as "raisins of Corauntz," or Corinth raisins. _Parchment_ gets its name from Pergamum, a city in Asia Minor. _Pistol_ came into English from the Old French word _pistole_, and this came from an Italian word, _pistolese_, which meant "made at Pistoja." We do not think of _spaniels_ as foreign dogs; but the name means "Spanish," having come into English from the Old French word _espagneul_, with that meaning. A derivation which it would be even harder to guess is that of the word _spruce_. We now use this word to describe a kind of leather, a kind of ginger beer, and a variety of the fir tree, and also in the same sense as "spick and span." The word used to be _pruce_, and meant "Prussia." The name of the famous London fish-market, _Billingsgate_, has long been used to mean very violent and abusive language supposed to resemble the scoldings of the fishwomen in the market. Another word describing a certain kind of speaking, and which also comes from the name of a place, is _bunkum_. When a person tells a story which we feel sure is not true, or tells a long tale to excuse himself from doing something, we often say it is all "bunkum." This word comes from the name of the American town of Buncombe, in North Carolina, and came into use through the member for Buncombe in the House of Representatives insisting on making a speech just when every one else wanted to proceed with the voting on a bill. He knew that he had nothing of importance to say, but explained that he must make a speech "for Buncombe"--that is, so that the people of Buncombe, who had elected him, might know that he was doing his duty by them. And so the expression _bunkum_ came into use. Another word which may go with these, because it also begins with the letter _b_, is _bedlam_. We describe a scene of great noise and confusion, as when a number of children insist on talking all together, as a "perfect bedlam." The word _bedlam_ comes from Bethlehem. In the Middle Ages there was a hospital in London kept by monks of the Order of St. Mary of Bethlehem. In time this house came to be known as "Bedlam," and as after a while the hospital came to be an asylum for mad people, this name came to be used for any lunatic asylum. From that it came to have its modern use of any great noise or confusion. The sport of shooting pheasants is very English, and few people think that the pheasant is a foreign bird, introduced into England, just as in fact the turkey, which seems to belong especially to the English Christmas, came to us from America. The _pheasant_ gets its name from the river Phasis, in the Eastern country of Pontus. It may seem peculiar that a bird coming from America should be called a _turkey_; but we saw in an earlier chapter how vague the people of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries were about America. When Columbus reached the shore of that continent, people thought he had sailed round by another way to the "Indies." In nearly all European countries the turkey got names which show that most people thought it came from India, or at least from some part of the "Indies." Even in England it was called for a time "cok off Inde." In Italy it was _gallina d'India_ (or "Indian hen"). The modern French words for male and female turkeys come from this mistake. In French the bird was at first known as _pouille d'Inde_ (or "Indian fowl"). The name came to be shortened into the one word _dinde_, and then, as people thought this must mean the female turkey, they made a new word for the male, _dindon_. But though so many words come from the names of places, and some of these would not seem to do so at first sight, there are other words which seem to come from place-names which do not do so at all. _Brazil_ wood is found in large quantities in Brazil, but the wood is not called after the country. On the contrary, the country is called after the wood. This kind of wood was already used in Europe in the twelfth century, and its name is found in several European languages. When the Portuguese adventurers found such large quantities in this part of South America they gave it the name of _Brazil_ from the wood. The island of _Madeira_ got its name in the same way, this being the word for "timber," from the Latin word _materia_. Again, guinea-pigs do not come from Guinea, on the west coast of Africa, though guinea-fowls do so. Guinea-pigs really come from Brazil. The name _guinea-pig_ was given to these little animals because, when the sailors brought them home, people thought they had come from Africa. But in the seventeenth century a common voyage for ships was to sail from English or other European ports to the west coast of Africa, where bands of poor negroes were seized or bought, and carried over the Atlantic to be sold as slaves in the American "plantations." The ships naturally did not come home empty, but often people were not very clear as to whether the articles they brought back came from Africa or America. Again, _India ink_ comes, not from India, but from China. _Indian corn_ comes from America. _Sedan chairs_ had nothing to do with Sedan in France, but probably take their name from the Latin verb _sedere_, "to sit." In these words, as in many others, we can see that it is never safe to _guess_ the derivation of words. Many of the old philologists used to do this, and then write down their guesses as facts. This caused a great deal of extra work for modern scholars, who will not, of course, accept any "derivation" for a word until they have clear proof that it is true. CHAPTER XI. PICTURES IN WORDS. Everybody who has thought at all about our ways of speech must have noticed that we are all constantly saying things in a way which is not literally true. We say a child is a "sunbeam in the house;" but, of course, we only mean that she is gay and happy, and cheers every one up by her merriment. Or we describe some one as a "pearl among women," meaning that by her splendid qualities she is superior to most women as a pearl is to common stones. Or, again, we may read in the newspaper that a statesman "spoke with sudden fire;" by which, of course, we understand that in the course of a calm speech he suddenly broke out passionately into words which showed how keenly he felt on the subject of which he was speaking. Our language is full of this kind of speaking and writing, which is called "metaphorical." The word metaphor comes from two Greek words meaning "to carry over." In "metaphorical" speech a name or description of one thing is transferred to another thing to which it could not apply in ordinary commonplace language. By means of metaphors we express more vividly and strikingly our feelings on any subject. We draw our metaphors from many different sources. Many of them naturally come from Nature, for the facts of Nature are all around us. We speak of a "sea of trouble" when we feel that the spirit is overwhelmed by sadness so great that it suggests the vastness of the sea swallowing up all that it meets. Or we speak of a "storm of anger," because what takes place in a person's soul in such a state is similar in some way to the confusion and force of a storm in Nature. Again, an expression like a "torrent of words" is made possible by our familiarity with the quick pouring forth of water in a torrent. By this expression, of course, we wish to suggest a similar quick rushing of words. Other expressions of this kind are "a wave of anguish," the "sun of good fortune," and there are hundreds of which every one can think. Another source from which many metaphors have come is war, which has given men some of the most vivid action possible to humankind. Thus we speak of "a war of words," of a person "plunging into the fray," when we mean that he or she joins in a keen argument or quarrel. Or we speak more generally of the "battle of life," picturing the troubles and difficulties of life as the obstacles against which soldiers have to fight in battle. Shakespeare has the expression, "the slings and arrows of outrageous fortune." We have a great many metaphorical expressions taken from painting, sculpture, and other arts. Thus we speak of "moulding" one's own life, picturing ourselves as sculptors, with our lives as the clay to be shaped as we will. Shakespeare has a similar metaphor,-- "There's a divinity which shapes our ends, Rough-hew them how we will." We may, he says, roughly arrange our way of life, but the final result belongs to a greater artist--God. Again, we speak of "building our hopes" on a thing, of "moulding" a person's character, of the "canvas of history," imagining history as a picture of things past. We speak of a person describing something very enthusiastically as "painting it in glowing colours," and so on. We also describe the making of new words as "coining them." But not only are the sentences we make full of metaphors, but most of our words--all, in fact, except the names of the simplest things--are really metaphors themselves. The first makers of such words were speaking "in metaphor," as we should say now; but when the words passed into general use this fact was not noticed. A great many of the metaphors found in words are the same in many languages. Many of them are taken from agriculture, which is, of course, after hunting, the earliest occupation of all peoples. We can easily think of many words now used in a general sense which originally applied to some simple country practice. We speak of being "goaded" to do a thing when some one persuades or threatens or irritates us into doing it. But a _goad_ was originally a spiked stick used to drive cattle forward. The word _goad_, then, as we use it now, is a real metaphor. Again, we speak of our feelings being "harrowed." The word _harrow_ first meant, and still means, the drawing of a frame with iron teeth (itself called a _harrow_) over ploughed land to break up the clods. From this meaning it has come to have the figurative meaning of wounding or ruffling the feelings. Another word connected with agriculture which has passed into a general sense is _glean_. We may now speak of "gleaning" certain facts or news, but to glean was originally (and still means in its literal sense) to gather the ears of corn remaining after the reapers have got in the harvest. We speak of a nation groaning under the "yoke" of a foreign tyrant, or again of the "yoke" of matrimony, and in the Bible we have the text, "My yoke is easy." In these and in many other cases the word _yoke_ is used figuratively to denote something weighing on the spirit; but the original use of _yoke_, and again one which remains, was to name the wooden cross-piece fastened over the necks of two oxen, and attached to a plough or wagon which they have to draw. The word _earn_ reminds us of a time when the chief way of earning money or payment of any kind was field-labour; for this word, which means so many things now, comes from an old Teutonic word meaning field-labour. The same word became in German _ernte_, which means "harvest." Another common word with somewhat the same meaning as _earn_ is _gain_; and this, again, takes us back to a time when our early ancestors won their profits by the grazing of their flocks. The word _gain_ came into English from an Old French word, but this word in its turn came from a Teutonic word meaning to graze or pasture. The first people who used the word _earn_ for other ways of getting payment than field-labour, and the word _gain_ in a general sense, were really making metaphors. Some of our commonest words take us back to a time before our ancestors even settled down to cultivate the land, or perhaps even before the days when they had learned to tame and give pasturage to their flocks. Some of our simplest words contain the idea of _travelling_ or _wandering_. The word _fear_, which would not seem to have anything to do with journeying, comes from the same root-word as _fare_, the Old English word for "travel." Probably it came to be used because people travelling through the wild forests and swamps of Europe in those far-off days found much to terrify them, and so the word _fear_ was made, containing this idea of moving from place to place. But again this was a metaphor. Until after the Norman Conquest the word _fear_ meant a sudden or terrible happening. Only later it came to mean the feeling which such an event or the expectation of it would cause. We may become tired in mind or body from many causes; but when we say we are "weary" we are literally saying that we have travelled far over difficult ground, for the word _weary_ comes from an Old English word meaning this. Some of our words are really metaphors showing the effect which different aspects of Nature had on the men who made them. When we say we are astonished we do not mean that we are "struck by thunder," but that is what the word literally means. It comes from the Latin word _attonare_, which means this. The words _astound_ and _stun_ contain the same hidden metaphor, which we use in a plainer way when we say we are "thunder-struck," meaning that we are very much surprised. In the Middle Ages people believed that the stars had a great effect on the lives of men. If the stars were in a certain position at the time of a person's birth, he would be lucky all his life; if in another, he was doomed to unhappiness. From this belief we still use the expression "born under a lucky star" to describe a person who seems always to be fortunate. But the same metaphor is contained in single words. We speak of an unfortunate enterprise as "ill-starred," and the metaphor is clear. But when the newspapers speak of a railway "disaster," very few people realize that they are speaking the language of the mediæval astrologers, men who studied the fortunes of nations and individuals from the stars. _Disaster_ literally means such a misfortune as would be caused by adverse stars, and comes from the Greek word for star, _astron_, and the Latin _dis_. The words _jovial_ and _mercurial_, used to describe people of merry and lively temper, are metaphors of the same kind. A person born under the planet Jupiter (the star called after the Roman god Jupiter or Jove) was supposed to be of a merry disposition, and a person born when the planet Mercury was visible in the heavens was expected to be lively and ready-witted. When we use these words now to describe people, we do not, of course, mean that they were born under any particular star, but the words are metaphors which literally do mean this. The word _auspicious_ comes from a similar source. We speak of an "inauspicious" undertaking, meaning one which seems destined to be unlucky. But really what the word _inauspicious_ says is that the "auspices are against" the undertaking. And this takes us back to Roman times, when no important thing was done in the state without the magistrates "taking the auspices." This they did from observing the flight of certain birds. In war the commander-in-chief of the Roman armies alone had the right to "take the auspices." We should think such a proceeding very foolish now, but in the words _auspicious_ and _inauspicious_ we are literally saying that the auspices have been favourable or unfavourable. One of the common practices of the scholars who studied astrology and other sciences in the Middle Ages was the search for the philosopher's stone, which they believed had the power of giving eternal youth. They would melt metals in pots for this purpose. These pots were called by the Old Latin name of _test_. From this word we now have the modern word _test_, used in the sense of _trial_--another metaphor from the Middle Ages. Many common English words are really metaphors made from old English sports, such as hunting and hawking. It is curious to think how these words are chiefly used to-day by people who know nothing of these pastimes, while the people who made the words were so familiar with them that they naturally expressed themselves in this way. We speak of a person being in another's "toils," when we mean in his "power." The word _toils_ comes from the French _toiles_, meaning "cloths," and also used for the nets put round part of a wood, in which birds are being preserved for shooting, to prevent their escaping. The expression to "turn" or be "at bay," by which we mean that there is no chance of escape, but that the person in such a situation must either give in or fight, comes from hunting. The hare or the fox is said to be "at bay" when it comes to a wall or other object which prevents its running farther, and so turns and faces its pursuers. _Bay_ is the deep barking of the hounds. The word _crestfallen_, by which we mean looking ashamed and depressed, comes from the old sport of cock-fighting. The bird whose crest (or tuft of hair on the head) drooped after the fight was naturally the one which had been beaten. The word _pounce_ comes from hawking, _pounces_ being the old word for a hawk's claws. The word _haggard_, which now generally means worn and sometimes a little wild-looking through grief or anxiety, was originally the name given to a hawk caught, not, like most hawks used for hawking, when it was quite young, but when it was already grown up. Such a hawk would naturally have a wild look, and would never become so tame as the birds caught young. Several words meaning to entice a person come from fowling. We speak of persons being "decoyed" when we mean that they are deceived into going to some dangerous place. The person who entices them away is called a "decoy;" but the first use of the word was to describe a duck trained to induce other ducks to fly or walk into nets laid over ponds by trappers. Another word of this kind is _allure_, which means to persuade a person to do something by making it seem very attractive. This word really means to bring a person (originally an animal) to the "lure" or "bait" prepared to catch him. The word _trap_, which may now mean to show a person to be guilty by a trick, or to put him in the wrong in some way, is a metaphorical use. The word literally means to catch an animal in a trap. Many words contain metaphors drawn from the older and simpler trades. We speak of a thing being "brand-new"--that is, as new as though just stamped with a "brand" or iron stamp. Another expression which has changed its meaning a little with time used to have exactly the same meaning. We now say a person looks "spick and span" when he or she is very neatly dressed. Formerly the expression was "spick and span new"--that is, as new as a spike (or spoon) just made or a chip newly cut. We may safely say that very few people who now use the expression "spick and span" have any idea of what it means literally. The metaphor is well hidden, but it is there. Another metaphor, connected with metals and coins, is contained in the word _sterling_. We speak of "sterling qualities" or a "sterling character" in praising people for being straightforward and truthful, and not boastful. But the expression originally applied only to metals and coins. Sterling gold or silver is gold or silver of a certain standard of purity and not mixed with too much of any base metal. Even the art of the baker has given us a word with a hidden metaphor. We speak of sending out another "batch" of men to the front; but _batch_ originally meant, and still means, the loaves of bread produced at one baking. It is now used generally to describe a number of things coming together or in a set. The butcher's shop has given us the word _shambles_, by which we now mean a place of slaughter. Thus we speak of a terrible battlefield as a "shambles." This metaphor is really due to a mistake. People came to think that a shambles was a singular noun meaning slaughter-house, or place where cattle were killed; but really the shambles were the benches on which the meat was spread for sale. We speak of a person being the "tool" of another, and this is a metaphor taken from the general idea of work. The "tool" is merely used by the other person for some purpose of his own, just as a workman uses his tools. The greatest poem, or book, or picture of a poet, writer, or painter is often described as a "masterpiece." This word now means a "splendid piece of work," but in the Middle Ages a "masterpiece" was a piece of work by which a person working at a trade showed himself sufficiently good to be allowed to be a "master." Before that he was a "journeyman," and worked for a master himself, and, earlier still, an apprentice merely learning his trade. We often now use the expression to try one's "'prentice hand" on a thing when we mean that we are going to do a thing for the first time. The commonest actions have naturally given us most metaphorical words, for these were the actions of which the word-makers were most easily reminded. We speak of our passions or emotions being "kindled," taking the metaphor from the common action of lighting a fire. The two words _lord_ and _lady_ contain very homely metaphors. The lord was the "loaf-keeper," in Old English _hlaford_, the person on whom the household depended for their food. The lady might even make the bread, and often did so; and the word lady comes from _hlæfdige_--_dig_ being the Old English word for _knead_. The common word _maul_ may mean to beat and bruise a person, but it means more often merely to handle something carelessly and roughly. Literally it means "to hit with a hammer," and comes from _maul_ or _mall_, the name of a certain very heavy kind of hammer; so that when a child is told not to "maul" a book, it is literally being told not to hit it with a heavy hammer. We have made many metaphorical words from joining together two Latin words and making a new meaning. We speak of a person having an "obsession" about something when he is always thinking of one thing. But the word _obsession_ comes from the Latin word _obsidere_, "to besiege;" and so in the word _obsession_ the constant thought is pictured as continually trying to gain entrance into the mind. We use the word _besiege_ in the same metaphorical sense. We speak of being "besieged" with questions, and so on. Another word used now most often metaphorically comes also from this idea of siege warfare. In all fortified places there are holes at intervals along the walls of defence, through which the defenders may shoot at the attackers. These are called "loop-holes." This word is now used much oftener in a figurative sense than to describe the actual thing. When two persons are arguing and one has plainly shown the other to be wrong, we say he has "not a loophole" of escape from the other's reasoning. Or if a person objects very much to doing something, and makes many excuses, every one of which is shown to be worthless, we again say he has "no loophole for escape." Every child has heard of the Crusades, in which the nobles and knights and soldiers of the Middle Ages went to fight against the Turks to win back the Holy Sepulchre. These wars were called "crusades," from the cross which the Crusaders wore as badges. The word was made from the Latin word _crux_, which means "cross." But _crusade_ has now become a general word. We speak of a "temperance crusade," of a "peace crusade," and so on. The word has come to have the general meaning of efforts made by people for something which they believe to be good; but literally every person who works for such a "crusade" is a knight buckling on his armour, signed with the cross, and sallying forth to the East. This word _sally_ also comes from siege warfare. A "sally" means a rush of defenders from a besieged place, attempting to get past the besiegers by taking them by surprise. It also has the more general meaning of an excursion, such as the going forth to a crusade. It means literally a "leaping out," and comes from the Latin word _salire_, "to leap." The word _sally_ is also used to mean a sudden lively remark generally rather against some person or thing. It is interesting to notice that the fish salmon also probably takes its name from this Latin word meaning "to leap." Any child with a dictionary can find for himself many hidden metaphors in the commonest words; and he will learn a great deal and amuse himself at the same time. CHAPTER XII. WORDS FROM NATIONAL CHARACTER. There is one group of metaphorical words which is specially interesting for the stories of the past which they tell us if we examine into their meaning. Many names of ancient tribes and nations, and some names of modern peoples, have come to be used as general words; but the new meanings they have now tell us what other peoples have thought of the nations bearing these names in history. One of the best things that can be said about a boy or a girl is that he or she is "frank," by which we mean open and straightforward. The Franks were, of course, the Teutonic tribe which conquered Gaul (the country we now call France) in the sixth century. Unlike the English when they conquered the Britons, the Franks mixed with the Gauls and the Roman population which they conquered; but for a long time the Franks were the only people who were altogether free. From this fact the word _frank_ came into use, meaning "free." A "frank" person is one who speaks out freely and without restraint. The name _Frank_ has given us a word with a very pleasant meaning, but this was not the case with all the Teutonic tribes which broke in upon the Roman Empire. A person who is very uncivilized in his manners is sometimes called a "Goth." The word is often especially used to describe a person who does not appreciate pictures and books and works of art. Sometimes architects will pull down beautiful old buildings to make place for new, and the people who appreciate beautiful things describe them as "Goths." More often, perhaps, the word _Vandal_ is used to describe such people. The Goths and Vandals were two of the fiercest and most barbaric of the German tribes which overran the Roman Empire from the third to the fifth century. They showed no respect for the beautiful buildings and the great works of art which were spread over the empire. They robbed and burned like savages, and in a few years destroyed many of the beautiful things which had been made with so much care and skill by the Greek and Roman artists. So deep an impression did their destructiveness make on the world of that time that their names have been handed down through sixteen centuries, and are used to-day in the unpleasant sense of wilful destroyers of beautiful things. The words _barbarian_ and _barbarous_ are used in the same way. We describe a child who behaves in a rough way as "a little barbarian," or a grown-up person without ordinary good manners as "a mere barbarian." And the word _barbarous_ has an even worse meaning. It is used to describe very coarse, uncivilized behaviour; but most often it has also the sense of cruelty as well as coarseness. Thus we speak of the barbarous behaviour of the Germans in Belgium. But when the word _barbarous_ was first used it meant merely "foreign." To the Greeks there were only two classes of people--Greeks, and non-Greeks or "barbarians." The name _barbarian_ meant a bearded man, and came from the Greek word _barbaros_. The Greeks were clean-shaven, and distinguished themselves from the "bearded" peoples who knew nothing of Greek civilization. The Romans conquered Greece, and learned much from its civilization. To them all who were not Greeks or Romans were "barbarians." Some Roman writers, like Cicero, use the word in the modern sense of unmannerly or even savage, but this was not a common use. St. Paul was a Roman citizen, for he belonged to Tarsus, a city in Asia Minor which had been given full Roman rights; but he was a Greek by birth, and he uses the word in the Greek way. He speaks of all men being equal according to the Christian religion, saying, "There is neither Greek nor ... barbarian, bond nor free." The word _slave_, again, contains in itself whole chapters of European history. It comes from the word _Slav_. The Slavs are the race of people to which the Russians, Poles, and many other nations in the East of Europe belong. The Great War has been partly fought for the freedom of the small Slav nations, of which Serbia is one. The Slavs have a long history of oppression and tyranny behind them. They have been subject to stronger nations, such as the Turks, and, in Hungary, the Magyars. The first "slaves" in mediæval Europe belonged to this race, and the word "slave" is only another form of _Slav_. The word gives us an idea of the impression which the misfortunes of the Slavs made on the people of the Middle Ages. The words _Turk_ and _Tartar_ have almost the opposite meaning to _slave_ when they are used in a general sense. We call an unmanageable baby a "young Turk," and in this expression we have the idea of all the trouble the Turks have given the people of Europe since they swarmed in from the East in the twelfth century. The word _Turk_ in this sense is now generally used amusingly to describe a troublesome child; but a grown-up person with a very quick temper or very difficult to get on with is often described also, chiefly in fun, as a "Tartar." Tartar is the name of the race of people to which the Turks, Cossacks, and several other peoples belong. The name by which they called themselves was _Tatar_; but Europeans changed it to _Tartar_, from the Latin word _Tartarus_, which means "hell." This gives us some idea of the impression these fierce people made on mediæval Europe--an impression which is kept in memory by the present humorous use of the word. It is chiefly Eastern peoples whose names have passed into common words meaning fierce and cruel people. Our fairy tales are full of tales of "ogres." It is not quite certain, but it is probable that this word comes from _Hungarian_. The chief people of Hungary are the Magyars; but the first person who used the name _Hungarian_ in the sense of "ogre" probably did not know this, but thought of them as Huns, or perhaps Tartars, and therefore as very fierce, cruel people. The first person who is known to have used it is Perrault, a French writer of fairy tales in the seventeenth century. The Great War has given us another of these national names used in a new way. Many people referred to the Germans all through the war as the "Huns." The Huns were half-savage people, who in the early Middle Ages moved about in great hordes over Europe killing and burning. They were at last conquered in East and West, and finally disappeared from history. But their name remained as a synonym for cruelty. The Kaiser, in an unfortunate speech, exhorted his soldiers to make themselves as terrible as Huns; and when people heard of the ill-treatment of the Belgians when their country was invaded at the beginning of the war, they said that the Germans had indeed behaved like the Huns of long ago. The name clung to them, and during the war, when people spoke of the "Huns," they generally meant the Germans, and not the fierce, half-savage little men who followed their famous chief Attila, plundering and burning through Europe about fifteen centuries ago. Another name with a somewhat similar meaning is _assassin_, which most people would not guess to have ever been the name of a collection of people. An assassin is a person who arranges beforehand to take some one by surprise and kill him. But the original assassins were an Eastern people who believed that the murder of people of a religion other than their own was pleasing to their God. The Arabs first called this sect by the name _hashshash_, which the scholars of the Middle Ages translated into the Latin _assassinus_. The Arab name was given because these people were great eaters of "hashish" or dry herbs. The name _Arab_ itself has come to be used with a special meaning which has nothing to do with the people whose name it is. A rough little boy who spends most of his time in the streets is described as a "street Arab," and this comes from the fact that we think of the Arabs as a wandering people. The "street Arab" is a wanderer also, of another sort. Another name of a wandering people has also come to have a special meaning in English. The French word for gipsy is _bohemien_, and from this we have the English word _Bohemian_. When we say a person is "a Bohemian," we mean that he lives in the way he really likes, and does not care whether other people think he is quite respectable or not. It was the novelist Thackeray who first used the word _Bohemian_ in this sense. _Bohemia_ is, of course, the name of a country in Germany, but it is also used figuratively to describe the region or community in which "Bohemian" or unconventional people live. The word _gipsy_ itself is used to describe a very dark person, or almost any kind of people travelling round the country in caravans. But _gipsy_ really means "Egyptian." When the real gipsies first appeared in England, in the sixteenth century, people thought they came from Egypt, and so gave them this name. Another name often given to very dark people is _blackamoor_, a name by which negroes are sometimes described. This really means "Black Moor," and shows us how confused the people who first used the word were about different races of people. The Moors were a quite different people from the negroes, being related to the Arabs. But to some people every one who is not white is a "nigger." _Nigger_ comes, of course, from _negro_. The Moors inhabited a part of North-west Africa. It was also a North African people, the Algerians, who gave us the word _Zouave_. Every one has seen since the Great War began pictures of the handsome and quaintly-dressed French soldiers called "Zouaves." Perhaps some children wondered why they wore such a strange Eastern dress. It is because the Zouave regiments, which are now chiefly composed of Frenchmen, were originally formed from an Algerian mountain tribe called the Zouaves--Algeria being a French possession. The name is almost forgotten as that of a foreign tribe, but has become instead the name of these light infantry French regiments. The name of the most famous of Eastern nations now spread all over the world, the Jews, has become a term of reproach. For hundreds of years after the spread of Christianity over Europe the Jews were looked upon as a wicked and hateful people. In many countries they were not allowed to live at all; in others a portion of the towns was set apart for them, and they were allowed to live there because they were useful as money-lenders. Naturally the Jews, persecuted and distrusted, made as much profit as they could out of the people who treated them in this way. Perhaps with the growth of their wealth they grew to love money for its own sake. In any case, before long the Jews were looked upon as people who were decidedly ungenerous in the matter of money. Everybody knows the story of the Jew Shylock in Shakespeare's great play "The Merchant of Venice." Nowadays a person who is not really a Jew is often described contemptuously as a "Jew" if he shows himself mean in money matters; and some people even use a slang expression, "to jew," meaning to cheat or be very mean over a money affair. Another name of a nation which stands for dishonesty of another sort (and much more excusable) is _Gascon_. The Gascons are the natives of Gascony, a province in the south of France. It is proverbial among other Frenchmen that the Gascons are always boasting, and even in English we sometimes use the word _Gascon_ to describe a great boaster, while _gasconade_ is now a common term for a boastful story. Another word which we use to describe this sort of thing is _romance_. We often hear the expression, "Oh, he is only romancing," by which we mean that a person is saying what is not true, inventing harmless details to improve his story. The word _romance_ has now many meanings, generally containing the idea of _imagination_. A person is called "romantic" when he or she is full of imaginings of great deeds and events. Or we say a person is a "romantic figure" when we mean that from his looks or speech, or from some other qualities, he seems fit for adventures. But _romance_, from which we get romantic, was at first merely an adjective used to describe the languages which are descended from the Latin language, like French, Italian, and Spanish. In the Middle Ages scholars wrote in Latin, but poets and taletellers began to write in the language of the people--the _romance_ languages in France and Italy. The tales of adventure and things which we should now call "romantic" were written in the "romance" languages; and from being used to describe the language, the word came to be used to describe the kind of story contained in these poems and tales. Gradually the words _romantic_ and _romance_ got the meaning which they have to-day. We have seen in another chapter that we have a number of words taken from the names of persons in ancient history. We have also a modern and special use of words formed from the names of some of the ancient nations. We saw that we use the word _Spartan_ to describe any very severe discipline, or a person who willingly uses such discipline for himself. There are several other such names used in a more or less complimentary way. We speak of "Roman" firmness, and every one who has read Roman history will agree that this is a good use of the word. On the other hand, we have the expression "Punic faith" to describe treachery. The Romans had had many reasons for mistrusting their great enemy, the Carthaginians, and they used this expression, _Fides Punica_, which we have simply borrowed from the Latin. We use the expression "Attic (or Athenian) salt" to describe a very refined wit or humour. The Romans used the word _sal_, or "salt," in this sense of _wit_, and their expression _sal Atticum_ shows the high opinion they had of the Athenians, from whom, indeed, they learned much in art and in literature. It is this same expression which we use to-day, having borrowed and translated it also from the Latin. We speak of a "Parthian shot" when some one finishes a conversation or an argument with a sharp or witty remark, leaving no chance for an answer. This expression comes from the story of the Parthians, a people who lived on the shores of the Caspian Sea, and were famous as good archers among the ancient nations. The way in which the names of nations and peoples have taken on more general meanings gives us many glimpses into history. CHAPTER XIII. WORDS MADE BY WAR. Since the earliest ages men have made war on one another, and we have a great crowd of words, new and old, connected with war. Some of these are very simple words, especially the names of early weapons; some are more elaborate and more interesting in their derivation. The chief of all weapons, the sword, has its simple name from the Old English language itself, and so has the spear. But it was after the Norman conquest of England that war became more elaborate, with armoured knights and fortified towers, and nearly all the names connected with war of this sort come to us from the French of that time. The word _war_ itself comes from the Old French word _werre_. _Battle_, too, comes from the French of this time; and so do _armour_, _arms_, _fortress_, _siege_, _conquer_, _pursue_, _tower_, _banner_, and many other words. All of these words came into French originally from Latin. _Knight_, however, is an Old English word. The French word for knight, _chevalier_, never passed into English, but from it we got the word _chivalry_. The great weapons of modern warfare are the gun and the bayonet. There are, of course, many kinds of guns, small and large. Formerly it was the fashion to call the big guns by the name of _cannon_, but in the great European war this word has hardly been used at all. They are all "guns," from the rifles carried by the foot soldiers to the Maxims and the great howitzers which each require a company of men to serve them. The word _cannon_ comes from the French _canon_, and is sometimes spelt in this way in English too. It means "great tube." The derivation of the word _gun_ is more interesting. Gunpowder was not really discovered until the fifteenth century, but long before this a kind of machine, or gun, for hurling great stones, or sometimes arrows, had been used. These instruments were called by the Latin word _ballista_ (for the Romans had also had machines of this sort), which comes from the Greek word _ballo_, meaning "throw." In the Middle Ages weapons of this sort were called by proper names, just as ships are now. A common name for them was the woman's name _Gunhilda_, which would be turned into _Gunna_ for short. It is probably from this that we get the word _gun_. The most interesting of all the guns used in the Great War has only a number for its name. It is the famous French '75, and takes this name merely from a measurement. The special weapon of the foot soldier, or infantryman, is the bayonet. This is a short blade which the foot soldier fixes on the muzzle of his rifle before he advances to an attack. In the trenches his weapon is the rifle; before the order is given to go "over the parapet"--that is, to climb out of the trenches, to run forward and attack the enemy at close quarters--he "fixes his bayonet." The word _bayonet_ probably comes from _Bayonne_, the name of a town in France. The word _infantry_ itself, now used to describe regiments of foot soldiers armed with the ordinary weapons, comes to us, like most of our words connected with war, from the French. We have already seen that the words of this sort which we borrowed in the Middle Ages were Norman-French words descended from Latin. But after the use of gunpowder in war became general there were many new terms; and as at this time the Italians were the people who fought most, and wrote most about fighting, many words relating to the methods of war after the close of the Middle Ages were Italian words. It is true that we learned them from the French, for the great writers on military matters in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were Frenchmen. But they borrowed many words from the Italian writers of the fifteenth century. One of these words is _infantry_, which means a number of junior soldiers or "infants"--the regiments of foot soldiers being made up of young men, while the older and more experienced soldiers made up the cavalry. This, again, is a word which we borrowed from the French, and which the French had borrowed from the Italians. _Cavalry_ is, of course, the name for horse soldiers, and the Italian word _cavalleria_, from which it comes, was itself derived from the Latin word _caballus_, "a horse." The general weapon for a cavalryman is the "sabre," a sword with a curved blade. This, again, comes to us from the French, but was probably originally an Eastern word. It is quite common for officers, in reckoning the number of men in an army, to speak of so many "bayonets" and so many "sabres," instead of "infantry" and "cavalry." Many of the words which people began to use familiarly during the great European war first came into English in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, a time when it seemed to be the ordinary state of affairs for some, at least, of the European countries to be at war with one another. _Bivouac_ is a word which was used a good deal in descriptions of earlier wars. It is a German word, which came into English at the time of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) in Germany. It means an encampment for a short time only (often for the night), without tents. It plainly has not much connection with modern trench warfare. Another word which came from the German at the same time may serve to remind us that the German soldier of to-day is not very much unlike his ancestors of three hundred years ago. The word _plunder_ was originally a German word meaning "bed-clothes" or other household furnishing. From the fact that so much of this kind of thing was carried off in the fighting of this terrible war, the word came to have its present sense of anything taken violently from its rightful owner. It must be confessed that the word was also used a great deal in the English Civil War, which was, of course, fought at the same time as the end of the Thirty Years' War. It was also in the English Civil War that we first find the word _capitulation_, which now generally means to surrender on certain conditions. Before this, _capitulation_ had more the meaning which it still keeps in _recapitulation_. It meant an arrangement under headings, and the word probably was transferred from describing the terms of surrender to describing the surrender itself. One of the many words connected with war which came into the English language from the French in the seventeenth century was _parade_, which means the showing off of troops, and came into French from an Italian word which itself came from the Latin word _parare_, "to prepare." Another of these words which has been much used in descriptions of the battles of the Great War, and especially in the "Battle of the Rivers" in the autumn of 1914, is _pontoon_. Pontoons are flat-bottomed boats by means of which soldiers make a temporary bridge across rivers, generally when the permanent bridges have been destroyed by the enemy. The word is _ponton_ in French, and comes from the Latin _pons_, "a bridge." Most words of this sort in French ending in _on_ take the ending _oon_ in English. Thus _ballon_ in French becomes _balloon_ in English. _Barracks_ also comes from the French _baraque_, and the French had it from the Spanish or Italian _barraca_ or _baraca_; but no one knows whence these languages got the word. The word _bombard_, also much used during the Great War, came into English at the end of the seventeenth century from the French word _bombarder_, which came from the Latin word _bombarda_, an engine for throwing stones, and which in its turn came from the Latin word _bombus_, meaning "hum." Even a stone hurled with great force through the air makes a humming noise, and the "singing" of the bombs and shells hurled through the air became a very familiar sound to the soldiers who fought in the Great War. The word _bomb_, too, comes from the French _bombe_. The words _brigade_ and _brigadier_ also came from the French at this time. So, too, did the word _fusilier_, a name which some British regiments still keep (for example, the Royal Fusiliers), though they are no longer armed with the old-fashioned musket known as the _fusil_, the name of which also came from the French, which had it from the Latin word _focus_, "a hearth" or "fire." It is curious how the names of modern British regiments, not even carrying the weapons from which they have their names, should take us back in this way to the days of early Rome. The word _patrol_, which was used very much especially in the early days of the Great War, has an interesting origin. It may mean a small body of soldiers or police sent out to go round a garrison, or camp, or town, to keep watch; or, again, it may mean a small body of troops sent on before an advancing army to "reconnoitre"--that is, to spy out the land, the position of the enemy, etc. The word _patrol_ literally means to "paddle in mud," for the French word, _patrouille_, from which it came into English in the seventeenth century, came from an earlier word with this meaning. The word _campaign_, by which we mean a number of battles fought within a certain time, and generally according to a plan arranged beforehand, also came from the French word _campagne_ at the beginning of the eighteenth century--a century of great wars and many campaigns. The word was more used in those earlier wars than it is now, because in those days the armies used practically never to fight in the winter, and so each summer during a war had its "campaign." The earlier meaning of the French word _campagne_, and one which it still keeps besides this later meaning, is "open country," the kind of country over which battles were generally fought. _Recruit_ is another word which came into English from the French at this time. It, again, is a word which has been used a great deal in the European war. It came from the French word _recrue_, which also means a newly-enlisted soldier. The French word _croître_, from which _recrue_ came, was derived from the Latin word _crescere_, "to increase." All these words, we should notice, have now a figurative use. We speak of "recruits" not only to the army, but to any society. Thus we may say a person is a valuable "recruit" to the cause of temperance, etc. A "campaign" can be fought not only on the field of battle, but through newspapers, meetings, etc. It is in this sense that we speak of the "campaign" for women's suffrage, etc. Many words relating to the dress and habits of our soldiers have curious origins. We say now quite naturally that a man is "in khaki" when we mean that he is a soldier, because the peculiar yellow-brown colour which is known as "khaki" is now the regular colour of the uniform of the British soldier. In earlier days the British soldier was generally a "redcoat," but in modern trench warfare it is so important that the enemy should not be able to pick out easily the position of groups of men in order to "shell" them, that the armies of all nations use gray or brown or other dull shades. _Khaki_ is a word which came into English through the South African War, when the policy of clothing the soldiers in this way was first begun on a large scale. It comes from a Hindu word, _khak_, which means "dust." The object of this kind of clothing for our soldiers is that they shall not be easily distinguished from the soil of the trenches and battle-fields. When a soldier or officer or any other person who is generally in uniform wears ordinary clothes we say he is "in mufti." This, again, is an Arab word meaning "Mohammedan priest." The soldiers in the Great War used many new words which became a regular part of their speech. They were chiefly "slang," but it is quite possible that some of them may pass into good English. We shall see something of them in a later chapter. CHAPTER XIV. PROVERBS. Every child knows what a proverb is, though every child may not, perhaps, be able to say in its own words just what makes a proverb. A proverb has been defined as "a wise saying in a few words." At any rate, if it is not always wise, the person who first said it and the people who repeat it think it is. Most proverbs are very old, and take us back, just as we saw that words formed from the names of animals do, to the early days before the growth of large towns. In those days life was simple, and people thought chiefly of simple things. When they thought children or young persons were going to do something foolish they gave them good advice, and tried to teach them a little lesson from their own experience of what happened among the common things around them. A boy or a girl who was very enthusiastic about some new thing was warned that "new brooms sweep clean." When several people were anxious to help in doing one thing, they were pushed aside (just as they are now) with the remark that "too many cooks spoil the broth." The people who use this proverb now generally know very little about broth and still less about cooking. They say it because it expresses a certain truth in a striking way; but the first person who said it knew all about cooks and kitchens, and spoke out of the fullness of her (it must have been a woman) experience. Again, a person who is discontented with the way in which he lives and is anxious to change it is warned lest he jump "out of the frying-pan into the fire." Again the wisdom comes from the kitchen. And we may remark that these sayings are difficult to contradict. But there are other proverbs which contain statements about birds and animals and things connected with nature, and sometimes these seem only half true to the people who think about them. We sometimes hear it said of a person who is very quiet and does not speak much that "still waters run deep." This is true in Nature. A little shallow brook will babble along, while the surface of a deep pool will have hardly a ripple on it. But a quiet person is not necessarily a person of great character or lofty thoughts. Some people hardly speak at all, because, as a matter of fact, they find nothing to say. They are quiet, not because they are "deep," but because they are shallow. Still, the proverb is not altogether foolish, for when people use it about some one they generally mean that they think this particular quiet person is one with so much going on in his or her mind that there is no temptation to speak much. "Empty vessels make most sound" is another of these proverbs which is literally true, but is not always true when applied to people. A person who talks a great deal with very little to say quite deserves to have this proverb quoted about him or her. But there are some people who are great talkers just because they are so full of ideas, and to them the proverb does not apply. Another of these nature proverbs, and one which has exasperated many a late riser, is, "The early bird catches the worm." Many people have inquired in their turn, "And what about the worm?" But the proverb is quite true, all the same. Again, "A rolling stone gathers no moss" is a proverb which has been repeated over and over again with many a headshake when young people have refused to settle down, but have changed from one thing to another and roamed from place to place. And this is quite true. But we may ask, "Is it a good thing for stones to gather moss?" After all, the adventurous people sometimes win fortunes which they could never have won if they had been afraid to move about. And the adventurous people, too, win other things--knowledge and experience--which are better than money. Of course the proverb is wise to a certain degree, for mere foolish changing without any reason cannot benefit any one. But things can gather _rust_ as well as moss by keeping still, and this is certainly not a good thing. "Where there's a will there's a way." So the old proverb says, and this is probably nearly always true, except that no one can do what is impossible. "Look before you leap" is also good advice for impetuous people, who are apt to do a thing rashly and wonder afterwards whether they have done wisely. The most interesting thing about proverbs to the student of words is that they are always made up of simple words such as early peoples always used. But we go on repeating them, using sometimes words which we should never choose in ordinary speech, and yet never noticing that they are old-fashioned and quaint. It is true that there are some sayings which are so often quoted that they seem almost like proverbs. But a line of poetry or prose, however often it may be quoted, is not a proverb if it is taken from the writings of a person whom we know to have used it for the first time. These are merely quotations. No one can say who was the first person to use any particular proverb. Even so long ago as the days of the great Greek philosopher Aristotle many proverbs which are used in nearly every land to-day were ages old. Aristotle describes them as "fragments of an elder wisdom." Clearly, then, however true some quotations from Shakespeare and Pope and Milton may be, and however often repeated, they are not proverbs. "A little learning is a dangerous thing." This line expresses a deep truth, and is as simply expressed as any proverb, but it is merely a quotation from Pope. Again, "Fools rush in where angels fear to tread" is true enough, and well enough expressed to bear frequent quotation, but it is not a "fragment of elder wisdom." It is merely Pope's excellent way of saying that foolish people will interfere in delicate matters in which wise people would never think of meddling. Here, again, the language is not particularly simple as in proverbs, and this will help us to remember that quotations are not proverbs. There is, however, a quotation from a poem by Patrick A. Chalmers, a present-day poet, which has become as common as a proverb:-- "What's lost upon the roundabouts We pulls up on the swings." The fact that this is expressed simply and even ungrammatically does not, of course, turn it into a proverb. Though many of the proverbs which are repeated in nearly all the languages of the world are without date, we know the times when a few of them were first quoted. In Greek writings we already find the half-true proverb, "Rolling stones gather no moss;" and, "There's many a slip 'twixt the cup and the lip," which warned the Greeks, as it still warns us, of the uncertainty of human things. We can never be sure of anything until it has actually happened. In Latin writings we find almost the same idea expressed in the familiar proverb, "A bird in hand is worth two in the bush"--a fact which no one will deny. St. Jerome, who translated the Bible from Greek into Latin in the fourth century and wrote many wise books besides, quotes two proverbs which we know well: "It is not wise to look a gift horse in the mouth," and, "Liars must have good memories." The first again deals, like so many of the early proverbs, with the knowledge of animals. A person who knows about horses can tell from the state of their mouths much about their age, health, and general value. But, the proverb warns us, it is neither gracious nor wise to examine too closely what is given to us freely. It may not be quite to our liking, but after all it is a present. The proverb, "Liars must have good memories," means, of course, that people who tell lies are liable to forget just what tale they have told on any particular occasion, and may easily contradict themselves, and so show that they have been untruthful. It is necessary, then, for such a person, unless he wishes to be found out, to remember exactly what lies he has told. Many proverbs have remained in the English language, not so much for the wisdom they contain as for the way in which they express it. Some are in the form of a rhyme--as, "Birds of a feather flock together," and "East and west, home is best." These are always favourites. Others catch the ear because of their alliteration; that is to say, two or three of their words begin with the same letter. Examples of this are: "Look before you leap." The proverb "A stitch in time saves nine" has something of both these attractions, though it is not exactly a rhyme. Other examples of alliteration in proverbs are: "Delays are dangerous," "Speech is silvern, silence is golden." A few proverbs are witty as well as wise, and these are, perhaps, the best of all, since they do not, as a rule, exasperate the people to whom they are quoted, as many proverbs are apt to do. Usually these witty proverbs are metaphors. CHAPTER XV. SLANG. Every child has some idea of what is meant by "slang," because most schoolboys and schoolgirls have been corrected for using it. By slang we mean words and expressions which are not the ordinary words for the ideas which they express, but which are invented as new names or phrases for these ideas, and are at first known and used only by a few people who use them just among themselves. There are all kinds of slang--slang used by schoolboys and schoolgirls in general, slang used by the pupils of each special school, slang used by soldiers, a different slang used by their officers, and even slang used by members of Parliament. The chief value of slang to the people who use it is that at first, at any rate, it is only understood by the inventors and their friends. The slang of any public school is continually changing, because as soon as the expressions become known and used by other people the inventors begin to invent once more, and get a new set of slang terms. Sometimes a slang word will be used for years by one class of people without becoming common because it describes something of which ordinary people have no experience, and therefore do not mention. The making of slang is really the making of language. Early men must have invented new words just as the slang-makers do to-day. The difference is that there are already words to describe the things which the slang words describe. It may seem curious, then, that people should trouble to find new words. The reason they do so is often that they want to be different from other people, and sometimes because the slang word is much more expressive than the ordinary word. This is one reason that the slang of a small number of people spreads and becomes general. Sometimes the slang word is so much better in this way than the old word that it becomes more generally used than it, and finds its way into the ordinary dictionaries. When this happens it is no longer slang. But, as a rule, slang is ugly or meaningless, and it is very often vulgar. However common its use may become, the best judges will not use such expressions, and they remain mere slang. A writer on the subject of slang has given us two good examples of meaningless and expressive slang. The people who first called marmalade "swish" could have no reason for inventing the new name except to seem odd and different from other people. _Swish_ is certainly not a more expressive or descriptive word than _marmalade_. The one means nothing, while the other has an interesting history coming to us through the French from two old Greek words meaning "apple" and "honey." The expressive word which this writer quotes is _swag_, a slang word for "stolen goods." There is no doubt that _swag_ is a much more expressive word than any of the ordinary words used to describe the same thing. One gets a much more vivid picture from the sentence, "The thieves got off with the _swag_," than he would had the word _prize_ or even _plunder_ or _booty_ been used. Yet there is no sign that the word _swag_ will become good English. Expressive as it is, there is a vulgar flavour about it which would make people who are at all fastidious in their language very unwilling to use it. Yet many words and phrases which must have seemed equally vulgar when first used have come to be accepted as good English. And in fact much of our language, and especially metaphorical words and phrases, were once slang. It will be interesting to examine some examples of old slang which have now become good English. One common form of slang is the use of expressions connected with sport as metaphors in speaking of other things. Thus it is slang to say that we were "in at the death" when we mean that we stayed to the end of a meeting or performance. This is, of course, a metaphor from hunting. People who follow the hounds until the fox is caught and killed are "in at the death." Another such expression is to "toe the mark." We say a person is made to "toe the line" or "toe the mark" when he or she is subjected to discipline; but it is a slang phrase, and only good English in its literal meaning of standing with the toes touching a line in starting a race, etc., so that all may have an equal chance. We say a person has "hit below the belt" if we think he has done or said something unfair in an argument or quarrel. This is a real slang phrase, and is only good English in the literal sense in which it is used in boxing, where it is against the rules to "hit below the belt." The term "up to you," by which is expressed in a slang way that the person so addressed is expected to do something, is a slang expression borrowed from cards. Even from these few examples we can see that there are various degrees in slang. A person who would be content to use the expression "toe the line" might easily think it rather coarse to accuse an opponent of "hitting below the belt." There comes a time when some slang almost ceases to be slang, and though good writers will not use it in writing, quite serious people will use it in merely speaking. It has passed out of the stage of mere slang to become a "colloquialism." The phrases we have quoted from present-day sport when used in a general sense are still for the most part slang; but many phrases taken from old sports and games, and which must have been slang in their time, are now quite good English and even dignified style. We speak of "wrestling with a difficulty" or "parrying a thrust" (a metaphor taken, of course, from fencing), of "winning the palm," and so on, all of which are not only picturesque but quite dignified English. A very common form of slang is what are called "clipped" words. Such words are _gov_ for "governor," _bike_ for "bicycle," _flu_ for "influenza," _indi_ for "indigestion," _rec_ for "recreation," _loony_ for "lunatic," _pub_ for "public house," _exam_ for "examination," _maths_ for "mathematics." All of these words are real slang, and most of them are quite vulgar. There is no sign that any of them will become good English. The most likely to survive in ordinary speech is perhaps _exam_. Yet we have numbers of short words which have now become the ordinary names for certain articles, and yet which are only short forms of the original names of those articles. The first man who said _bus_ for "omnibus" must have seemed quite an adventurer. He probably struck those who heard him as a little vulgar; but hardly any one now uses the word _omnibus_ (which is in itself an interesting word, being the Latin word meaning "for all"), except, perhaps, the omnibus companies in their posters. Again, very few people use the full phrase "Zoological Gardens" now. Children are taken to the _Zoo_. _Cycle_ for "bicycle" is quite dignified and proper, though _bike_ is certainly vulgar. In the hurry of life to-day people more frequently _phone_ than "telephone" to each other, and we can send a wire instead of a "telegram" without any risk of vulgarity. The word _cab_ replaced the more magnificent "cabriolet," and then with the progress of invention we got the "taxicab." It is now the turn of _cab_ to be dropped, and when we are in haste we hail a _taxi_. No one nowadays, except the people who sell them, speaks of "pianofortes." They have all become _pianos_ in ordinary speech. The way in which good English becomes slang is well illustrated by an essay of the great English writer Dean Swift, in the famous paper called "The Tatler," in 1710. He, as a fastidious user of English, was much vexed by what he called the "continual corruption of the English tongue." He objected especially to the clipping of words--the use of the first syllable of a word instead of the whole word. "We cram one syllable and cut off the rest," he said, "as the owl fattened her mice after she had cut off their legs to prevent their running away." One word the Dean seemed especially to hate--_mob_, which, indeed, was richer by one letter in his day, for he sometimes wrote it _mobb_. _Mob_ is, of course, quite good English now to describe a disorderly crowd of people, and we should think it very curious if any one used the full expression for which it stands. _Mob_ is short for the Latin phrase _mobile vulgus_, which means "excitable crowd." Other words to which Swift objected, though most of them are not the words of one syllable with which he declared we were "overloaded," and which he considered the "disgrace of our language," were _banter_, _sham_, _bamboozle_, _bubble_, _bully_, _cutting_, _shuffling_, and _palming_. We may notice that some of these words, such as _banter_ and _sham_, are now quite good English, and most of the others have at least passed from the stage of slang into that of colloquialism. The word _bamboozle_ is still almost slang, though perhaps more common than it was two hundred years ago, when Swift attacked it. Even now we do not know where it came from. There was a slang word used at the time but now forgotten--_bam_, which meant a trick or practical joke; and some scholars have thought that _bamboozle_ (which, of course, means "to deceive") came from this. On the other hand, it may have been the other way about, and that the shorter word came from the longer. The word _bamboozle_ shows us how hard it is for meaningless slang to become good English even after a struggle of two hundred years. We have seen how many slang words in English have become good English, so that people use with propriety expressions that would have seemed improper or vulgar fifty or ten or even five years ago. Other interesting words are some which are perfectly good English as now used, but which have been borrowed from other languages, and in those languages are or were mere slang. The word _bizarre_, which we borrowed from the French, and which means "curious," in a fantastic or half-savage way, is a perfectly dignified word in English; but it must have been a slang word at one time in French. It meant long ago in French "soldierly," and literally "bearded"--that is, if it came from the Spanish word _bizarra_, "beard." Another word which we use in English has a much less dignified use in French. We can speak of the _calibre_ of a person, meaning the quality of his character or intellect; but in French the word _calibre_ is only in ordinary speech applied to things. To speak of a "person of a certain calibre" in French is very bad slang indeed. Again, the word _fiasco_, which we borrowed from the Italian, and which means the complete failure of something from which we had hoped much, was at first slang in Italian. It was applied especially to the failure of a play in a theatre. To break down was _far fiasco_, which literally means "make a bottle." The phrase does not seem to have any very clear meaning, but at any rate it is far removed from the dignified word _fiasco_ as used in English. The word _sack_ as used in describing the sack of a town in war is a picturesque and even poetic word; but as it comes from the French _sac_, meaning "pack" or "plunder," it is really a kind of slang. On the other hand, words which belong to quite good and ordinary speech in their own languages often become slang when adopted into another. A slang word much used in America and sometimes in England (for American expressions are constantly finding their way into the English language) is _vamoose_, which means "depart." _Vamoose_ comes from a quite ordinary Mexican word, _vamos_, which is Spanish for "let us go." It is very interesting to find that many of our most respectable words borrowed from Latin have a slang origin. Sometimes these words were slang in Latin itself; sometimes they were used as slang only after they passed into English. The French word _tête_, which means "head," comes from the Latin _testa_, "a pot." (We have seen that this is the word from which we get our word _test_.) Some Romans, instead of using _caput_, the real Latin word for "head," would sometimes in slang fashion speak of some one's _testa_, or "pot," and from this slang word the French got their regular word for head. The word _insult_ comes from the Latin _insultarc_, which meant at first "to spring or leap at," and afterwards came to have the same meaning as it has with us. The persons who first used this expression in the second sense were really using slang, picturing a person who said something unpleasant to them as "jumping at them." We have the same kind of slang in the expression "to jump down one's throat," when we mean "to complain violently of some one's behaviour." The word _effrontery_, which comes to us from the French _effronterie_, is really the same expression as the vulgar terms _face_ and _cheek_, meaning "impudence." For the word comes from the Latin _frons_, "the forehead." An example of a word which was quite good English, and then came to be used as slang in a special sense, and then in this same special sense became good English again, is _grit_. The word used to mean in English merely "sand" or "gravel," and it came to mean especially the texture or grain of stones used for grinding. Then in American slang it came to be used to mean all that we mean now when we say a person has "grit"--namely, courage, and strength, and firmness. This use of the word seemed so good that it rapidly became good English; but the American slang-makers soon found another word to replace it, and now talk of people having "sand," which is not by any means so expressive, and will probably never pass out of the realm of slang. An example of a word which was at first used as slang not many years ago, and is now, if not the most elegant English, at least a quite respectable word for newspaper use, is _maffick_. This word means to make a noisy show of joy over news of a victory. It dates from the relief of Mafeking by the British in 1900. When news of its relief came people at home seemed to go mad with joy. They rushed into the streets shouting and cheering, and there was a great deal of noise and confusion. It was noticed over and over again that there was no "mafficking" over successes in the Great War. People felt it too seriously to make a great noise about it. A slang word which has become common in England during the Great War is _sträfe_. This is the German word for "punish," and became quite familiar to English people through the hope and prayer to which the Germans were always giving expression that God would "sträfe" England. The soldiers caught hold of the word, and it was very much used in a humorous way both at home and abroad. But it is not at all likely to become a regular English word, and perhaps will not even remain as slang after the war. Besides the fact that slang often becomes good English, we have to notice that good English often becomes slang. One of the most common forms of slang is to use words, and especially adjectives, which mean a great deal in themselves to describe quite small and ordinary things. To speak of a "splendid" or "magnificent" breakfast, for instance, is to use words out of proportion to the subject, though of course they are excellent words in themselves; but this is a mild form of slang. There are many people now who fill their conversation with superlatives, although they speak of the most commonplace things. A theatrical performance will be "perfectly heavenly," an actress "perfectly divine." Apart from the fact that nothing and no one merely human can be "divine," divinity itself is perfection, and it is therefore not only unnecessary but actually incorrect to add "perfectly." A scene or landscape may very properly be described as "enchanting," but when the adjective is applied too easily it is a case of good English becoming slang. Then, besides the use of superlative adjectives to describe things which do not deserve such descriptions, there is a crowd of rarer words used in a special sense to praise things. Every one knows what a "stunning blow" is, but few people can ever have been stunned by the beauty of another's clothes. Yet the expression "stunning hat" or "stunning tie" is quite common. Expressions like a "ripping time" are even more objectionable, because they are even more meaningless. Then, besides the slang use of terms of praise, there are also many superlatives expressing disgust which the slangmongers use instead of ordinary mild expressions of displeasure. To such people it is not simply "annoying" to have to wait for a lift on the underground railways; for them it is "perfectly sickening." _Horrid_, a word which means so much if used properly, is applied to all sorts of slightly unpleasant things and people. When one thinks of the literal Latin meaning of this word ("so dreadful as to cause us to shudder"), the foolishness of using it so lightly is plain. People frequently now declare that they have a "shocking cold"--a description which, again, is too violent for the subject. Another form of slang is to combine a word which generally expresses unpleasant with one which expresses pleasant ideas. So we get such expressions as "awfully nice" and "frightfully pleased," which are actually contradictions in terms. This kind of slang is the worst kind of all. It soon loses any spice of novelty. It is not really expressive, like some of the quaint terms of school or university slang, and it does a great deal of harm by tending to spoil the full force of some of our best and finest words. It is very difficult to avoid the use of slang if one is constantly hearing it, but, at any rate, any one who feels the beauty of language must soon be disgusted by this particular kind of slang. CHAPTER XVI. WORDS WHICH HAVE CHANGED THEIR MEANING. We have seen in the chapter on "slang" how people are continually using old words in new ways, and how, through this, slang often becomes good English and good English becomes slang. The same thing has been going on all through the history of language. Other words besides those used as slang have been constantly getting new uses. Many English words to-day have quite different meanings from those which they had in the Middle Ages; some even have exactly opposite meanings to their original sense. Sometimes words keep both the old meaning and the new. In this matter the English language is very different from the German. The English language has many words which the Germans have too, but their meanings are different. The Germans have kept the original meanings which these words had hundreds of years ago; but the thousands of words which have come down to us from the English language of a thousand years ago have nearly all changed their meanings. We have two of these old words which have now each two exactly opposite meanings. The word _fast_ means sometimes "immovable," and sometimes it means the exact opposite--"moving rapidly." We say a key is "fast" in a lock when we cannot get it out, and we say a person runs "fast" when we mean that he runs quickly. The first meaning of steadiness is the original meaning; then the word came to be used to mean "moving steadily." A person who ran on, keeping up a steady movement, was said to run fast, and then it was easy to use the word for rapidity as well as steadiness in motion or position. This is how the word _fast_ came to have two opposite meanings. Another word, _fine_, has the same sort of history. We speak of a "fine needle" when we mean that it is thin, and a "fine baby" when we mean that it is fat. The first meaning is nearer to the original, which was "well finished off." Often a thing which had a great deal of "fine" workmanship spent on it would be delicate and "fine" in the first sense, and so the word came to have this meaning. On the other hand, the thing finished off in this way would generally be beautiful. People came to think of "fine" things as things to be admired, and as they like their babies to be fat, a fat baby will generally be considered a fine baby. It was in this kind of way that "fine" came to have its second meaning of "large." The common adjectives _glad_ and _sad_ had quite different meanings in Old English from those they have now. In Old English glad meant "shining," or "bright," but in a very short time it came to mean "cheerful." Now it means something rather different from this, for though we may speak of a "glad heart" or "glad spirit," such expressions are chiefly used in poetry. Generally in ordinary speech when we say that we are "glad" we mean that we are pleased about some special thing, as "glad that you have come." _Sad_ in Old English meant to have as much as one wanted of anything. Then it came to mean "calm" and "serious," perhaps from the idea that people who have all they want are in a mood to settle down and attend to things seriously. Already in Shakespeare's writings we find the word with its present meaning of "sorrowful." It has quite lost its earlier meaning, but has several special new meanings besides the general one of "sorrowful." A "sad tint," or colour, is one which is dull. "Sad bread" in the north of England is "heavy" bread which has not risen properly. Again, we describe as "sad" some people who are not at all sorrowful. We say a person is a "sad" liar when we mean that he is a hopeless liar. The word _tide_, which we now apply to the regular rise and fall of the sea, used to mean in Old English "time;" and it still keeps this meaning in the words _Christmastide_, _Whitsuntide_, etc. One common way in which words change is in going from a general to a more special meaning. Thus in Old English the word _chest_ meant "box" in general, but has come now to be used as the name of a special kind of box only, and also as the name of a part of the body. The first person who used the word in this sense must have thought of the "chest" as a box containing the lungs and the heart. _Glass_ is, of course, the name of the substance out of which we make our windows and some of our drinking vessels, etc., and this was at one time its only use; but we now use the name _glass_ for several special articles--for example, a drinking-vessel, a telescope, a barometer, a mirror (or "looking-glass"), and so on. _Copper_ is another word the meaning of which has become specialized in this way as time has gone on. From being merely the name of a metal it has come to be used for a copper coin and for a large cauldron especially used in laundry work. Another example of a rather different kind of this "specialization" which changes the meaning of words is the word _congregation_. _Congregation_ used to mean "any gathering together of people in one place," and we still use the word _congregate_ in this sense. Thus we might say "the people congregated in Trafalgar Square," but we should never think of speaking of a crowd listening to a lecturer there as a "congregation." The word has now come to mean an assembly for religious worship in a chapel or church. Some words have changed their meaning in just the opposite way. From having one special meaning they have come by degrees to have a much more general sense. The word _bureau_, which came into English from the French, meant at first merely a "desk" in both languages. It still has this meaning in both languages, but a wider meaning as well. It can now be used to describe an office (a place associated with the idea of desks). Thus we have "employment bureau," and can get English money for foreign at a "bureau de change." From this use of the word we have the word _bureaucracy_, by which we describe a government which is carried on by a great number of officials. A better example of how a word containing one special idea can extend its meaning is the word _bend_. This word originally meant to pull the string of a bow in order to let fly an arrow. The expression "bend a bow" was used, and as the result of pulling the string was to curve the wooden part of the arrow, people came in time to think that "bending the bow" was this making the wood to curve. From this came our general use of "bend" to mean forcing a thing which is straight into a curve or angle. We have, of course, also the metaphorical use of the word, as when we speak of bending our will to another's. Another word which has had a similar history is _carry_. When this word was first borrowed from Old French it meant to move something from place to place in a cart or other wheeled vehicle. The general word for our modern _carry_ was _bear_, which we still use, but chiefly in poetry. In time _carry_ came to have its modern general sense of lifting a thing from one place and removing it to another. A well-known writer on the history of the English language has suggested that this came about first through people using the word in this sense half in fun, just as the word _cart_ is now sometimes used. A person may say (a little vulgarly), "Do you expect me to cart all these things to another room?" instead of using the ordinary word carry. If history were to repeat itself in this case, _cart_ might in time become the generally used word, and _carry_ in its turn be relegated to the realm of poetry. Words often come to have several meanings through being used to describe things which are connected in some way with the things for which they were originally used. The word _house_ originally had one meaning, which it still keeps, but to which several others have been added. It was a building merely, but came in time to be used to mean the building and the people living in it. Thus we say one person "disturbs the whole house." From this sense it got the meaning of a royal family, and we speak of the House of York, Lancaster, Tudor, or Stuart. We also use the word in a large sense when we speak of the "House of Lords" and the "House of Commons," by which we hardly ever mean the actual buildings known generally as the "Houses of Parliament," but the members of the two Houses. The word _world_ has had almost the opposite history to the word _house_. World originally applied only to persons and not to any place. It meant a "generation of men," and then came to mean men and the earth they live on, and then the earth itself; until it has a quite general sense, as when we speak of "other worlds than ours." Many words which are used at present to describe bad or disagreeable things were used quite differently originally. The word _villain_ is, perhaps, the most expressive we can use to show our opinion of the depths of a person's wickedness. Yet in the Middle Ages a villain, or "villein," was merely a serf or labourer bound to work on the land of a particular lord. The word in Saxon times would have been _churl_. As time went on both these words became terms of contempt. The lords in the Middle Ages were certainly often more wicked than the serfs, as we see in the stories of the days of Robin Hood; but by degrees the people of the higher classes began to use the word _villain_ more and more contemptuously. Many of them imagined that only people of their own class were capable of high thoughts and noble conduct. Gradually "villainy" came to mean all that was low and vulgar, and by degrees it came to have the meaning it has now of "sheer wickedness." At the end of the Middle Ages there were practically no longer any serfs in England; but the word _villain_ has remained in this new sense, and gives us a complete story of the misunderstanding and dislike which must have existed between "noble" and "simple" to cause such a change in the meaning of the word. The word _churl_ has a somewhat similar history. We say now that a sulky, ungracious person is a "mere churl," or behaves in a "churlish" manner, never thinking of the original meaning of the word. Here, again, is a little story of injustice. The present use of the word comes from the supposition that only the mere labourer could behave in a sulky or bad-tempered way. _Knave_ is another of those words which originally described persons of poor condition and have now come to mean a wicked or deceitful person. A knave, as we now understand the word, means a person who cheats in a particularly mean way, but formerly the word meant merely "boy." It then came to mean "servant," just as the word _garçon_ ("boy") is used for all waiters in French restaurants. Another word which now means, as a rule, some one unutterably wicked, is _wretch_, though it is also used rather contemptuously to describe some one who is not wicked but unutterably miserable. Yet in Old English this word merely meant an "exile." An exile was a person to be pitied, and also sometimes a person who had done something wrong, and we get both these ideas in the modern uses of the word. The word _blackguard_, which now means a "scoundrel," was also once a word for "scullion;" but it does not go back as far as "knave" and "villain," being found chiefly in writings of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Another word in which the "villeins" and "knaves" and "churls" seem to have their revenge on the "upper classes" is _surly_. This word used to be spelt _sirly_, and meant behaving as a "sire," or gentleman, behaves. Originally this meant "haughty" or "arrogant," but by degrees came to have the idea of sulkiness and ungraciousness, much like _churlish_. Several adjectives which are now used as terms of blame were not only harmless descriptions originally, but were actually terms of praise. No one likes to be called "cunning," "sly," or "crafty" to-day; but these were all complimentary adjectives once. A _cunning_ man was one who knew his work well, a _sly_ person was wise and skilful, and a _crafty_ person was one who could work well at his trade or "craft." Two words which we use to-day with a better sense than any of these, and yet which have a slightly uncomplimentary sense, are _knowing_ and _artful_. It is surely good to "know" things, and to be full of art; but both words have already an idea of slyness, and may in time come to have quite as unpleasant a meaning as these three which have the same literal meaning. _Fellow_, a word which has now nearly always a slightly contemptuous sense, had originally the quite good sense of _partner_. It came from an Old English word which meant the man who marked out his land next to yours. The word still has this good sense in _fellowship_, _fellow-feeling_, etc., and as used to describe a "fellow" of a college or society. But the more general use is as a less respectful word for man. One man may say of another that he is a "nice fellow" without any disrespect; but the word has no dignity, and people, even though they use it of an equal, would not think of using it to describe a superior, and the more general use is that of blame or contempt, as in the expressions, "a disagreeable fellow" or "a stupid fellow." The word _bully_ was at one time a word which showed affection, and meant even "lover." In English now, of course, a bully is a person, especially a boy, who tyrannizes over people weaker than himself; but the Americans still use the word in a good sense when they say "bully for you," meaning "bravo." We have seen many words whose meanings have become less dignified than their original meaning; but sometimes the opposite happens. Every one now speaks with respect of a "pioneer," whether we mean by that people who are the first to venture into strange lands, or, in a more figurative sense, people who make some new discovery in science or introduce some new way of thinking or acting. Yet "pioneers" were originally merely the soldiers who did the hard work of clearing the way for an advancing army. They were looked upon as belonging to a lower class than the ordinary soldiers. But this new and at first figurative use of the word, applied first to geographical and then to scientific and moral explorers, has given the word a new dignity. A group of words which had originally very humble meanings, and have been elevated in an even more accidental way, are the names of the officials of royal courts. The word _steward_ originally meant, as it still means, a person who manages property for some one else. The steward on a ship is a servant; but the steward of the king's household was no mean person, and was dignified with the title of the "Lord High Steward of England." The royal house of Stuart took its name from the fact that the heads of the family were in earlier times hereditary stewards of the Scottish kings. So _marshal_, the name of another high official at court, means "horse boy;" _seneschal_, "old servant;" _constable_, "an attendant to horses' stalls," and so on. Some of these words have kept both a dignified and a commoner meaning. _Constable_, besides being the name of a court official, is also another term for "policeman." The word _silly_ meant in Old English "blessed" or "happy," but of course has wandered far from this meaning. On the other hand, several words which once meant "foolish" have now quite different meanings. _Giddy_ and _dizzy_ both had this sense in Old English, and so had the word _nice_. But later the French word _fol_, from which we get _foolish_, was introduced into English, and these words soon ceased to be used in this sense. Before this the two words _dizzy_ and _giddy_ had occasionally been used in the sense in which they are used now, to describe the condition of a person whose head "swims;" this now became their general meaning, though _giddy_ has gone back again to something of its old meaning in its later use to describe a person's conduct. A _giddy_ person is another description for one of frivolous character. The word _nice_ has had a rather more varied history. It had its original meaning of "foolish" from the literal meaning of the Latin word _nescius_, "ignorant," from which it was derived. Gradually it came to mean "foolishly particular about small things;" and we still have a similar use of the word, as when we say a person has a "nice taste in wines," or is a "nice observer," or speak of a "nice distinction," by which we mean a subtle distinction not very easily observed. But this is, of course, not the commonest sense in which we use the word. By _nice_ we generally mean the opposite of _nasty_. A "nice" observer was a good observer, and from this kind of idea the word _nice_ came to have the general sense of "good" in some way. _Nice_ is not a particularly dignified word, and is little used by good writers, except in its more special and earlier sense. It is, perhaps, less used in America than in England, and it is interesting to notice that _nasty_, the word which in English always seems to be the opposite of _nice_, is not considered a respectable word in America, where it has kept its earlier meaning of "filthy," or absolutely disgusting in some way. Again, the word _disgust_, by which we express complete loathing for anything, used merely to mean "dislike" or "distaste." In the same way, the word _loathe_, by which we mean "to hate" or feel the greatest disgust for, originally meant merely "to dislike." The stronger meaning came from the fact that the word was often used to describe the dislike a sick person feels for food. Every one knows how strong this feeling can be, and it is from this that _loathe_ and _loathsome_ took the strong meaning they now have. Curiously enough, the adjective _loath_ or _loth_, from the same word, has kept the old mild meaning. When we say we are "loth" to do a thing, we do not mean that we hate doing it, but merely that we feel rather unwilling to do it. In Old English, too, the word _filth_ and its derivative _foul_ were not quite such strong words as _dirt_ and _dirty_. Again, the words _stench_ and _stink_ in Old English meant merely "smell" or "odour." One could then speak of the "sweet stench" of a flower; but in the later Middle Ages these words came to have their present meaning of "smelling most disagreeably." We saw how the taking of the word _fol_ from the French, meaning "foolish," caused the meaning of several English words which before had this meaning to be changed. The coming in of foreign words has been a very common cause for such changes of meaning. The word _fiend_ in English has now a quite different meaning from its original meaning in English, when it simply meant "enemy," the opposite to "friend." When the word "enemy" itself was borrowed from the French, the word _fiend_ came to be less and less often used in this sense. In time _fiend_ came to be another word for _devil_, the chief enemy of mankind. But in modern times we do not use the word much in this sense. It is most often now applied to persons. It sounds rather milder than calling a person a "devil," but it means exactly the same thing. The word _stool_ came to have its present special meaning through the coming into English from the French of the word _chair_. Before the Norman Conquest any kind of seat for one person was a "stool," even sometimes a royal throne. The word _deer_ also had in Old English the meaning of "beast" in general, but the coming in of the word _beast_ from the French led to its falling into disuse, and by degrees it became the special name of the chief beast of chase. Again, the Latin word _spirit_ led to the less frequent use of the word _ghost_, which was previously the general word for _spirit_. When spirit came to be generally used, _ghost_ came to have the special meaning which it has for us now--that of the apparition of a dead person. A great many words have changed their meaning even since the time of Shakespeare through being transferred from the subject of the feeling they describe to the object, or from the object to the subject. Thus one example of this is the word _grievous_. We speak now of a "grievous wrong," or a "grievous sin," or a "grievous mistake," and all these phrases suggest a certain sorrow in ourselves for the fact described. But this was not the case in the time of Queen Elizabeth, when it was decreed that a "sturdy beggar," a man who could work but begged instead, should be "grievously whipped." In this case _grievously_ merely meant "severely." On the other hand, the word _pitiful_, which used to mean "compassionate," is no longer applied to what we feel at seeing a sad thing, but to the sadness of the thing itself. We do not now say a person is pitiful when he feels sorry for some one, but we speak of a "pitiful sight" or a "pitiful plight." The word _pity_ itself is used still in both ways, subjectively and objectively. A person can feel "pity," and there is "pity" in the thing for which we feel sorry. This is the sense in which it is used in such expressions as "Oh, the pity of it!" The word _hateful_ once meant "full of hate," but came to be used for the thing inspiring hate instead of for the people feeling it. So, _painful_ used to mean "painstaking," but of course has no longer this meaning. One very common way in which words have changed their meanings is through the name of one thing being given to another which resembles it. The word _pen_ comes from the Latin _penna_, "a feather;" and as in olden days the ordinary pens were "quills" of birds, the name was very good. We still keep it, of course, for the steel pens and gold pens of to-day, which we thus literally speak of as feathers. _Pencil_ is a word with a somewhat similar history. It comes from the Latin _penicillus_, which itself came from _peniculus_, or "little tail," a kind of cleaning instrument which the Romans used as we use brushes. _Pencil_ was originally the name of a very fine painter's brush, and from this it became the name of an instrument made of lead which was used for making marks. Then it was passed on to various kinds of pencils, including what we know as a lead-pencil, in which, as a writer on words has pointed out, there is really neither lead nor pencil. The word _handkerchief_ is also an interesting word. The word _kerchief_ came from the French _couvre-chef_, "a covering for the head." Another similar word is one which the Normans brought into England, _curfew_, which means "cover fire." When the curfew bell rang the people were obliged to extinguish all lights and fires. The "kerchief" was originally a covering for the head. Then the fashion arose of carrying a square of similar material in the hand, and so we get _handkerchief_, and later _pocket-handkerchief_, which, if we analyse it, is rather a clumsy word, "pocket-hand-cover-head." The reason it is so is that the people who added _pocket_ and _hand_ knew nothing of the real meaning of _kerchief_. There are several words which used to mean "at the present time" which have now come to mean "at a future time." This can only have come about through the people who used them not keeping their promises, but putting off doing things until later. The word _soon_ in Old English meant "immediately," so that when a person said that he would do a thing soon he meant that he would do it "instantly." The trouble was that often he did _not_, and so often did this happen that the meaning of the word changed, and _soon_ came to have its present meaning of "in a short time." The same thing happened with the words _presently_ and _directly_, and the phrase _by-and-by_, all of which used to mean "instantly." _Presently_ and _directly_ seem to promise things in a shorter time than _soon_, but _by-and-by_ is a very uncertain phrase indeed. It is perhaps because Scotch people are superior to the English in the matter of doing things to time that with them _presently_ still really means "instantly." In all the examples we have seen of changes in the meaning of words it is fairly easy to see how the changes have come about. But there are some words which have changed so much in meaning that their present sense seems to have no connection with their earlier meaning. The word _treacle_ is a splendid example of this. It comes from a Greek word meaning "having to do with a wild beast," and this seems to have no connection whatever with our present use of the word _treacle_ as another word for _syrup of sugar_. The steps by which this word came to change its meaning so enormously were these. From the general meaning of "having to do with a wild beast," it came to mean "remedy for the bite of a wild beast." As remedies for wounds and bites were, in the old days, generally thick syrups, the word came in time to mean merely "syrup," and lastly the sweet syrup which we now know as "treacle." Another word which has changed immensely in its meaning is _premises_. By the word _premises_ we generally mean a house or shop and the land just round it. But the real meaning of the word _premises_ is the "things already mentioned." It came to have its present sense from the frequent use of the word in documents drawn up by lawyers. In these, which very frequently dealt with business relating to houses, the "things before mentioned" meant the "house, etc.," and in time people came to think that this was the actual meaning of _premises_, and so we get the present use of the word. The word _humour_ is one which has changed its meaning very much in the course of its history. It comes to us from the Latin word _humor_, which means a "fluid" or "liquid." By "humour" we now mean either "temper," as when we speak of being in a "good" or "bad" humour, or that quality in a person which makes him very quick to find "fun" in things. And from the first meaning of "temper" we have the verb "to humour," by which we mean to give in to or indulge a person's whims. But in the Middle Ages "humour" was a word used by writers on philosophy to describe the four liquids which they believed (like the Greek philosophers) that the human body contained. These four "humours" were blood, phlegm, yellow bile (or choler), and black bile (or melancholy). According to the balance of these humours a man's character showed itself. From this belief we get the adjectives--which we still use without any thought of their origin--_sanguine_ ("hopeful"), _phlegmatic_ ("indifferent and not easily excited"), _choleric_ ("easily roused to anger"), and _melancholy_ ("inclined to sadness"). A person had these various temperaments according as the amount of blood, phlegm, yellow or black bile was uppermost in his composition. From the idea that having too much of any of the "humours" would make a person diseased or odd in character, we got the use of the word _humours_ to describe odd and queer things; and from this it came to have its modern meaning, which takes us very far from the original Latin. It was from this same curious idea of the formation of the human body that we get two different uses of the word _temper_. _Temper_ was originally the word used to describe the right mixture of the four "humours." From this we got the words _good-tempered_ and _bad-tempered_. Perhaps because it is natural to notice more when people are bad-tempered rather than good, not more than a hundred years ago the word _temper_ came to mean in one use "bad temper." For this is what we mean when we say we "give way to temper." But we have the original sense of "good temper" in the expression to "keep one's temper." So here we have the same word meaning two opposite things. Several words which used to have a meaning connected with religion have now come to have a more general meaning which seems very different from the original. A word of this sort in English is _order_, which came through the French word _ordre_, from the Latin _ordo_. Though the Latin word had the meaning which we now give to the word _order_, in the English of the thirteenth century it had only the special meaning (which it still keeps as one of its meanings) of an "order" or "society" of monks. In the fourteenth century it began to have the meaning of "fixed arrangement," but the adjective _orderly_ and the noun _orderliness_ did not come into use until the sixteenth century. The word _regular_ has a similar history. Coming from the Latin _regula_, "a rule," its modern general meaning in English of "according to rule" seems very natural; but the word which began to be used in English in the fourteenth century did not take the modern meaning until the end of the sixteenth century. Before this, it too was used as a word to describe monastic orders. The "regular" clergy were priests who were also monks, while the "secular" clergy were priests but not monks. The words _regularity_, _regulation_, and _regulate_ did not come into use until the seventeenth century. Another word which has now a quite different meaning from its original meaning is _clerk_. A "clerk" nowadays is a person who is employed in an office to keep accounts, write letters, etc. But a "clerk" in the Middle Ages was what we should now more generally call a "cleric," a man in Holy Orders. As the "clerks" in the Middle Ages were practically the only people who could read and write, it is, perhaps, not unnatural that the name should be now used to describe a class of people whose chief occupation is writing (whether with the hand or a typewriter). People in the Middle Ages would have wondered what could possibly be meant by a word which is common in Scotland for a "woman clerk"--_clerkess_. The words which change their meanings in this way tell us the longest, and perhaps the best, stories of all. CHAPTER XVII. DIFFERENT WORDS WITH THE SAME MEANING, AND THE SAME WORDS WITH DIFFERENT MEANINGS. We have seen that there are great numbers of words in English which come from the Latin language. Sometimes they have come to us through Old French words borrowed from the Latin, and sometimes from the Latin words directly, or modern French words taken from the Latin. The fact that we have borrowed from the Latin in these two ways has led sometimes to our borrowing twice over from the same word. Different forms going back in this way to the same origin are known as "doublets." The English language is full of them, and they, too, can tell us some interesting stories. Many of these pairs of words seem to have no relation at all with each other, so much has one or the other, or both, changed in meaning from that of the original word from which they come. A familiar pair of doublets is _dainty_ and _dignity_, both of which come from the Latin word _dignitas_. _Dignity_, which came into the English language either directly from the Latin or through the modern French word _dignité_, has not wandered at all from the meaning of the Latin word, which had first the idea of "merit" or "value," and then that of honourable position or character which the word _dignity_ has in English. _Dainty_ has a quite different meaning; though it, too, came from _dignitas_, but through the less dignified way of the Old French word _daintie_. The English words _dish_, _dais_, _desk_, and _disc_ all come from the Latin word _discus_, by which the Romans meant first a round flat plate thrown in certain games (a "quoit"), and secondly a plate or dish. In Old English this word became _dish_. In Old French it became _deis_, and from this we have the English _dais_--the raised platform of a throne. In Italian it became _desco_, from which we got _desk_; and the scientific men of modern times, in their need of a word to describe exactly a round, flat object, have gone back as near as possible to the Latin and given us _disc_. It is to be noticed that the original idea of the Latin word--"having a flat surface"--is kept in these four descendants of a remote ancestor. The words _chieftain_ and _captain_ are doublets coming from the Late Latin word _capitaneus_, "chief;" the former through the Old French word _chevetaine_, and the latter more directly from the Latin. _Frail_ and _fragile_ are another pair, coming from the Latin word _fragilis_, "easily broken;" the one through Old French, and the other through Modern French. Both these pairs of words have kept fairly close to the original meaning; but _caitiff_ and _captive_, another pair of doublets, have quite different meanings from each other. Both come from the Latin word _captivus_, "captive," the one indirectly and the other directly. _Caitiff_, which is not a word used now except occasionally in poetry, means a "base, cowardly person;" but _captive_ has, of course, the original meaning of the Latin word. Another pair of doublets, which are quite different in form and almost opposite to each other in meaning, are _guest_ and _hostile_. These two words come from the same root word; but this goes further back than Latin, to the language known as the Aryan, from which nearly all the languages of Europe and the chief language of India come. _Hostile_ comes from the Latin _hostis_, "an enemy;" but _hostis_ itself comes from the same Aryan word as that from which _guest_ comes, and so these two words are doublets in English. They express very different ideas: we are not generally "hostile" or "full of enmity" against a "guest," one who partakes of our hospitality. Another pair of doublets not from the Latin are _shirt_ and _skirt_, which are both old Germanic words. _Skirt_ came later into the language, being from the Scandinavian, while _shirt_ is an Old English word. The word _cross_ and the many words in English beginning with _cruci_--such as _crucial_, _crucifix_, and _cruciform_--the adverb _across_, as well as the less common word _crux_, all come from the Latin word _crux_, "a cross." The word _cross_ first came into the English language with Christianity itself, for the death of our Lord on the cross was, of course, the first story which converts to Christianity were told. It came through the Irish from the Norwegian word _cros_, which came direct from the Latin. All the words beginning with _cruci_ come straight from the Latin. _Cruciform_ and _crucifix_ refer to the form of a cross, and so sometimes does the word _crucial_. But, as a rule, _crucial_ is used as the adjective of the word _crux_, which means the "test," or "difficult point," in deciding or doing something. The Romans did not use _crux_ in this sense; but it is interesting to notice that they did use it in the figurative sense of "trouble" just as we do. This came from the fact that the common form of execution for all subjects of the Roman Empire except Roman citizens was crucifixion. Two such different words as _tavern_ and _tabernacle_, the one meaning an inn and the other the most sacred part of the sanctuary in a church, are doublets from the Latin word _tabernaculum_, "tent." The first comes from the French _taverne_, and the second directly from the Latin. The words _mint_ and _money_ both come from the Latin word _moneta_, which was an adjective attached by the Romans to the name of the goddess Juno. The place where the Romans coined their money was attached to the temple of Juno Moneta, or Juno the Adviser. From this fact the Romans themselves came to use _moneta_ as the name for coins, or what we call money. The word passed into French as _monnaie_, which is still the French word both for _money_ and _mint_, the place where we coin our money. In German it became _munze_, which has the same meanings. In English it became _mint_. But the English language, as we have seen, has a fine gift for borrowing. In time it acquired the French word _monnaie_, which became _money_ as the name for coins, while it kept the word _mint_ to describe the place where coins are made. The words _bower_, formerly the name of a sleeping-place for ladies and now generally meaning a summer-house, and _byre_, the place where cows sleep, both come from the Old English word _bur_, "a bower." The word _flour_ (which so late as the eighteenth century Dr. Johnson did not include in his great dictionary) is the same word as _flower_. Flour is merely the flower of wheat. Again, _poesy_ and _posy_ are really the same word, _posy_ being derived from _poesy_. _Posy_ used to mean a copy of verses presented to some one with a bouquet. Now it stands either for verses, as when we speak of the "posy of a ring," or more commonly a bunch of flowers without any verses. The words _bench_ and _bank_ both come from the same Teutonic word which became _benc_ in Old English and _banc_ in French. _Bench_ comes from _benc_, but _bank_ has a more complicated history. From the French _banc_ we borrowed the word to use in the old expression a "bank of oars." From the Scandinavians, who also had the word, we got _bank_, used for the "bank of a river." Meanwhile the Italians had also borrowed the old Germanic word which became with them _banca_ or _banco_, the bench or table of a money-changer. From this the French got _banque_, and this became in English _bank_ as we use it in connection with money. The Latin word _ratio_, "reckoning," has given three words to the English language. It passed into Old French as _resoun_, and from this we got the word _reason_. Later on the French made a new word direct from the Latin--_ration_; which, again, passed into English as a convenient name for the allowance of food to a soldier. It has now a more general sense, as when in the Great War people talk of the whole nation being put "on rations." Then again, as every child who is old enough to study mathematics knows, we use the Latin word itself, _ratio_, as a mathematical term. Another Latin word which has given three different words to the English language is _gentilis_. From it we have _gentile_, _gentle_, and _genteel_. Yet the Latin word had not the same meaning as any of these words. _Gentilis_ meant "belonging to the same _gens_ or 'clan.'" It became later a distinguishing term from _Jew_. All who were not Jews were _Gentiles_, and this is still the meaning of the word _gentile_ in English. It came directly from the Latin. But _gentilis_ became _gentil_ in French; and we have borrowed twice from this word, getting _gentle_, which expresses one idea contained in the French word, though the French word means more than our word _gentle_. It has the sense of "very amiable and attractive." The last word of the three, _genteel_, is rather a vulgar word. It means "like gentlemen and ladies have to do," and only rather ignorant people use the word seriously. Doublets from Latin words for the most part resemble each other in meaning and form, though, as we have seen, this is not always the case. We could give a long list of examples where both sense and form are similar, but there is only space to mention a few. _Poor_ and _pauper_ (a miserably poor person) both come from the Latin _pauper_, "poor." _Story_ and _history_ both come from _historia_, a word which had both meanings in Latin. _Human_ and _humane_ are both from the Latin _humanus_, "belonging to mankind." _Sure_ and _secure_ are both from the Latin _securus_, "safe." _Nourishment_ and _nutriment_ are both from the Latin _nutrimentum_. _Amiable_ and _amicable_ are both from the Latin _amicabilis_, "friendly." Examples of doublets which are similar in form but not in sense are _chant_ and _cant_, which both come from the Latin _cantare_, "to sing." _Chant_ has the original idea, being a form of singing, especially in church; but _cant_ has wandered far from the original sense, meaning insincere words, especially such as are used by people pretending to be religious or pious. The word _cant_ was first used in describing the chanting or whining of beggars, who were supposed often to be telling lies; and from this it got its present use, which has nothing to do with singing. _Blame_ and _blaspheme_, both coming from the Latin _blasphemare_, itself taken from a Hebrew word, are not, perhaps, quite so different in sense; but _blame_ means merely to find fault with a person, while _blaspheme_ means to speak against God. _Chance_ and _cadence_ both come from the Latin _cadere_, "to fall," but have very little resemblance in meaning. _Chance_ is what happens or befalls, and _cadence_ is movement measured by the fall of the voice in speaking or singing. But the most interesting doublets of all are those which have neither form nor sense in common. No one would guess that the words _hyena_ and _sow_, the names of two such different animals, are doublets. Both come from the Greek word _sus_ or _hus_, "sow." The Saxons, when they first settled in England, had the words _su_, "pig," and _sugu_, "sow;" and later the word _hyena_ was taken from the Latin word _hyaena_, itself derived from the Greek _huaina_, "sow." The words _furnish_ and _veneer_, again, are doublets which do not resemble each other very closely either in sound or in sense. Both come from the Old French word _furnir_, which has become _fournir_ in Modern French, and means "to furnish." The English word _furnish_ was taken direct from the French, while the word _veneer_, which used to be spelt _fineer_, came into English from a German word also borrowed from the French _furnir_. No one would easily guess that the name _nutmeg_ had anything to do with _musk_; but the word comes from the name which Latin writers in the Middle Ages gave to this useful seed--_nux muscata_, "musky nut." It seems strange, when we come to think of it, that great English sailors like Admiral Jellicoe and Admiral Beatty are called by a title which is really the same as the name of an Arabian chieftain--_Emir_. _Admiral_ comes from the Arab phrase _amir al bahr_, "emir on the sea." Just the opposite to doublets which do not resemble each other are many pairs of words which are pronounced alike and sometimes spelled alike. Very often these words come from two different languages, and there are many of them in English through the habit the language has always had of borrowing freely whenever the need of a new word has been felt. The word _weed_, "a wild plant," comes from an Old English word, _weod_; while "widows' weeds" take their name from the Old English word _woede_, "garment." The word _vice_, meaning the opposite of _virtue_, comes through the French from the Latin _vitium_, "a fault;" while a "_vice_," the instrument for taking a perfectly tight hold on anything, comes from the Latin _vitis_, "a vine," through the French _vis_, "a screw." Yet another _vice_, as in _viceroy_, _vice-president_, etc., comes from the Latin _vice_, "in the place of." _Angle_, meaning the sport of fishermen, comes from an Old English word, _angel_, "fish-hook;" while _angle_, "a corner," comes from the Latin word _angulus_, which had the same meaning. We might imagine that the word _temple_, as the name of a part of the head, was a metaphor describing the head as the temple of the mind, but it has no such romantic meaning. _Temple_, the name of a place of worship, comes from the Latin _templum_, "a temple;" but _temple_, the name of a part of the head, is from the Latin word _tempus_, which had the same meaning in Latin, and also the earlier meaning of "the fitting time." It has been suggested that in Latin _tempus_ came to mean "the temple," because it is "the fitting place" for a fatal blow, the temple being the most delicate part of the head. _Tattoo_, meaning a "drum beat," comes from the Dutch _tap-toe_, "tap-to," an order for drinking-houses to shut. But _tattoo_, describing the cutting away of the skin and dyeing of the flesh so common among sailors, is a word borrowed from the South Sea Islanders. _Sound_ meaning "a noise," and _sound_ meaning "to find out the depth of," as in _sounding-rod_, are two quite different words. The one comes from the word _son_, found both in Old English and French, and the other from the Old English words _sundgyrd_, _sund line_, "a sounding line;" while _sound_ meaning "healthy" or "uninjured," as in the expression "safe and sound," comes from the Old English word _sund_, and perhaps from the Latin _sanus_, "healthy." The existence of so many pairs of words of this sort, which have the same sound and which yet come from such different origins--origins as far apart as the speech of the people of Holland and that of the South Sea Islanders, as we saw in the word _tattoo_--illustrates in a very interesting way the wonderful history of the English language. CHAPTER XVIII. NICE WORDS FOR NASTY THINGS. In the days of Queen Elizabeth there were in England certain writers who were called "Euphuists." They got this name from the title of a book, "Euphues," written by one of them, John Lyly. The chief characteristic of the writings of these Euphuists was the grandiose way in which they wrote of the simplest things. Their writings were full of metaphors and figures of speech. The first Euphuists were looked upon as "refiners of speech," and Queen Elizabeth and the ladies at her court did their best to speak as much in the manner of Euphues as they could. But all men at all times are unconscious Euphuists, in so far as they try to say ugly and unpleasant things in a way which will make them sound pleasant. This tendency in speech is called "euphemism," a word which is made from two Greek words meaning "to speak well." It is a true description of what the word means if by "well" we understand "as pleasantly as possible." The word _euphemeîte_, "speak fair," was used as a warning to worshippers in Greek temples, in the belief that the speaking of an unfortunate word might bring disaster instead of blessing from the sacrifice. Every day, and often in a day, we use euphemisms. How often do we hear people say, "if anything should happen to him," meaning "if he died;" and on tombstones the plain fact of a person's death is nearly always stated in phrases such as "he passed away," "fell asleep," or "departed this life." People often refer to a dead person as the "deceased" or the "departed," or as the "_late_ so-and-so." The fact is that, death being to most people the unpleasantest thing in the world, there is a general tendency to mention it as little as possible, and, when the subject cannot be avoided, to use vague and less realistic phrases than the words _death_, _dead_, or _die_. One reason for this avoidance of an unpleasant subject is the superstitious feeling that mentioning a thing will bring it to pass. Or, again, if a misfortune has happened, many people feel that it only makes it worse to talk about it. While everybody avoids speaking on the subject, we can half pretend to ourselves that it is not true. We might imagine that this kind of "refinement of speech" (which when carried to excess really becomes vulgar) was the result of modern people being so "nervous." But this is not the case. Complete savages have the same custom. If civilized people have a superstitious feeling that to mention a misfortune may bring it to pass, savages firmly believe that this is the case. Not only will they not mention the subject of death in plain words, but some will not even mention the name of a dead person or give that name to a new-born child, so that in some tribes names die out in this way. Many civilized people have this same idea that it is unlucky for a new-born child to be called by the name of a brother or sister who has already died. The subject of death has gathered more euphemisms around it than almost any other. Some of them are ugly and almost vulgar, while others, from the way in which they have been used, are almost poetical. To speak of the "casualties" in a battle, meaning the number of killed and wounded men, seems almost heartless; but to say a man "fell in battle," though it means the same thing, is almost poetical, because it suggests an idea of courage and sacrifice. The expression, "Roll of Honour," is a euphemism, but poetical. It suggests the one consoling thought which relieves the horror of the bald expression, "list of casualties." Another cause of the use of euphemisms, besides the superstitious fear of bringing misfortune by mentioning it too plainly, is the fear of being vulgar or indecent. Through this feeling words which are quite proper at one time pass out of use among refined people. English people do not freely use the word "stomach" in conversation, and are often a little shocked when they hear French people describing their ailments in this region of the body. In the same way, names of articles of underclothing pass out of use. The old word for the garment which is now generally called a "chemise" was _smock_; but this in time became tinged with vulgarity, and the word _shift_ was used. This in its turn fell out of use among refined people, who began to use the French word _chemise_. Even this, and the word _drawers_, which was also once a most refined expression, are falling into disuse, and people talk vaguely of "underlinen" in speaking of these garments. The shops which are always refined to the verge of vulgarity only allow themselves to use the French word _lingerie_. Again, the faults of our friends and acquaintances, and even the graver offences of criminals, are matters with which we tend to deal lightly. Such offences have gathered a whole throng of euphemisms about them. When we do not like to say boldly that a person is a liar, we say the same thing by means of the euphemism a "stranger to the truth." Other lighter ways of saying that a person is lying is to say that he is "romancing," or "drawing the long bow," or "drawing on the imagination," or "telling a fairy tale." A thief will be described as a "defaulter," and we may say of a man who has stolen his employer's money as it passed through his hands that he is "short in his accounts." Especially among the poorer or less respectable people, to whom the idea of crime becomes familiar, the use of slang euphemisms on this subject grows up. A person for whom the police are searching is "wanted." A man who is hanged "swings." These expressions may seem very dreadful to more refined people, but their use really comes from the same desire to be indulgent which leads more educated people to use euphemisms to cover up as far as possible the faults of their friends. Again, misfortunes which come not from outside happenings but from some defect in a person's mind and body are often the subject of euphemisms. In Scotland a person who is quite an imbecile will be described as an "innocent"--a milder way of saying the same thing. _Insane_ and _crazy_ were originally euphemisms for _mad_, but now have come to be equally unpleasant descriptions. So for _drunken_ the euphemism _intemperate_ came to be used, but is now hardly a more polite description. We would not willingly speak of a person being "fat" in his presence. If it is necessary to touch on the subject, the word "stout" is more favoured. In the absence of the fat person the humorous euphemism may be used by which he or she is said to "have a good deal of _embonpoint_." Many words are euphemisms in themselves, just as many words are complete metaphors in themselves. The word _ill_ means literally "uncomfortable," but has come to have a much more serious meaning. _Disease_ means literally "not being at ease," but the sense in which we use it describes something much more serious than the literal meaning. The word _ruin_ is literally merely a "falling." One result of words being used euphemistically is that they often cease to have their milder original meaning, and cease therefore to seem euphemistic at all. _Vile_, which now means everything that is bad, is in its literal and earlier use merely "cheap." _Base_, which has the meaning of unutterable meanness, is literally merely "low." _Mercenary_ is not exactly a complimentary description now. It means that a person thinks far too much of money, but originally it merely meant "serving for pay," a thing which most men are obliged to do. _Transgression_ is generally used now to describe some rather serious offence, but it literally means only a "stepping across." The "step" which it describes being, however, in the wrong direction, the word has come to have a more and more serious meaning. The study of euphemisms can teach us much about men's thoughts and manners in the past and the present. CHAPTER XIX. THE MORAL OF THESE STORIES. Most stories have a moral. At least grown-up people have a habit of tacking a little lesson on to the end of the stories they tell to children. And as a rule the children will listen to the moral for the sake of the story. And so even the stories which words tell us have their lessons for us too, and, let us hope, the stories are sufficiently interesting to pay for the moral. One thing that these stories must have shown us is that the English language is a very ancient and wonderful thing. We have only been able to get mere glimpses of its wonderful development since the days when the ancestors of the peoples of Europe and many of the peoples of India spoke the one Aryan tongue. All the history of Europe and of India--we might almost say of the world--is contained in the languages which have descended from that Aryan tongue. Another point which these stories have impressed upon us is that language is a kind of mirror to thought. For every new idea people must find a word, and as ideas change words change with them. These stories have given us some idea of the wonderful growth of ideas in the minds of men in the past; they have shown us men daring all dangers for the sake of adventure and discovery and for pride of country; they have shown us the growth of new ideas of religion and kindness, new notions about science and learning: in fact, they have given us glimpses of the whole story of human progress. The great lesson which these stories ought to teach us is respect for words. Seeing as we do what a beautiful and wonderful thing the English language has become, it ought to be the resolution of each one of us never to do anything to spoil that beauty. Every writer ought to choose his words carefully, neither inventing nor copying ugly forms of speech. We have seen also from these stories, especially in the chapter on "Slang," how people have misused certain words, until speakers and writers of good taste can no longer use them in their original sense, and therefore do not use them at all. There are many other faults in speaking and in writing which take away from the beauty and dignity of the language. We shall see what some of these faults are; but one golden rule can be laid down which, if people keep it, will help them to avoid all these faults. No one should ever try to write in a fine style. The chief aim which all young writers should keep before them is to say exactly what they mean, and in as few and simple words as possible. If on reading what they have written they find that it is not perfectly clear, they should not immediately begin to rewrite, but instead set themselves to find out whether their _thoughts_ are perfectly clear. There is no idea which has no word to fit it. Of course some writers must use difficult language. The ordinary reader can sometimes not understand a sentence of a book of philosophy. This is not because the philosophers do not write clearly, but because the ideas with which they have to deal are very subtle, and hard for the ordinary person to understand. But for ordinary people writing on ordinary things there is no excuse for writing so as not to be clearly understood, or for writing in such a long and round-about way that people are tired instead of refreshed by reading. Nor is there any excuse for the use of words and phrases which are vulgar or too colloquial for the subject; yet how often is this done in the modern newspaper. It may seem unnecessary to speak to boys and girls of the faults of newspaper writers. But the boys and girls of to-day are the newspaper writers and readers of the future, and the habits which young writers form cling to them afterwards. Of course many of the faults which the worse kind of journalists commit in writing would not occur to boys and girls; but one fault leads to another. The motive at the root of most poor and showy writing is the desire to "shine." The faults which seem so detestable to the critical reader seem very ingenious and brilliant to the writer of poor taste. To the journalist, as to the schoolboy and the schoolgirl, the golden rule is, "Be simple." Let us see what some of the commonest faults of showy and poor writers of English are--always with the moral before us that they are to be avoided. One great fault of newspaper writers and of young writers in general is to sprinkle their compositions thickly with quotations, until some beautiful and expressive lines from the greatest poetry and prose have almost lost their force through the ear having become tired by hearing them too often. Some such phrases are-- "Tell it not in Gath;" "Heap coals of fire upon his head;" "Sufficient unto the day is the evil thereof:" all fine and picturesque lines, the apt quotation of which must have been very impressive, until, through frequent repetition, they have become almost commonplace. A similar hackneyed fault is the too frequent application of the name of some historical or Biblical personage to describe the character of some person of whom we are writing. It is much more expressive now to describe a person as a "doubter" than as a "doubting Thomas," though the latter phrase may serve to show that the writer knows something of his New Testament. The first man who called a sceptic a "doubting Thomas" was certainly a witty and cultivated person; but this cannot now be said of the use of this hackneyed phrase. Again, it is better to say a "traitor" than a "Judas," a "wise man" than a "Solomon," a "tyrant" than a "Nero," a "great general" than a "Napoleon;" for all these names used in this way have lost their force. A similar fault is the describing of a person by some abstract noun such as a "joy," a "delight," an "inspiration"--a way of speaking which savours both of slang and affectation, and which is not likely to appeal to people of good taste. Of course it is quite different when the poet writes-- "She was a vision of delight;" for poetry has its own rules, just as it has its own range of ideas and inspiration, and we are speaking now of the writing of mere prose. Another bad fault of the same kind, but more colloquial, and more often met with in speaking than in writing, is the too frequent use of a word or phrase. Some people say "I mean," or "personally," or "I see," or "you see," or similar expressions, at nearly every second sentence, until people listening to them begin to count the number of times these expressions occur, instead of attending to the subject of conversation. Another very common fault in writing made by newspaper writers, and even more so by young beginners in composition, is the use of long words derived from Latin instead of the simpler words which have come down from the Old English. This does not mean that these words are not so good or so beautiful as the Old English words. As we have seen, these words were borrowed by our language to express ideas for which no native word could be found. But a person who deliberately chooses long Latin words because they are longer, and, as he thinks, sound grander, is sure to write a poor style. A saying which is perhaps becoming almost as "hackneyed" as some of the quotations already mentioned in this chapter is, "The style is the man." This means that if a person thinks clearly and sincerely he will write clearly and sincerely. If a person's thoughts are lofty, he will naturally find dignified words to express them. No good writer will deliberately choose "high-sounding" words to express his ideas. All young writers should avoid what have been called "flowery flourishes." Again, young writers should be very careful not to use really foreign words to express an idea for which we have already a good word in English. Sometimes the foreign word comes first to our pen, but this may be because of the bad habit which has grown up of using these words in place of the English words which are quite as correct and expressive. Sometimes, on the other hand, the foreign word expresses a shade of meaning which the English word misses, and then, of course, it is quite right to use it. For instance, _amour propre_ is not in any way better than "self-love," _bêtise_ than "stupid action," _camaraderie_ than "comradeship," _savoir faire_ than "knowledge of the world," _chef d'oeuvre_ than "masterpiece," and so on. One disadvantage of borrowing such words is that they often come to be used in a different sense from their use in their native language; and people with an imperfect knowledge of these languages will say rather vulgar or shocking things when using them in the English manner in those languages. Thus, to speak of a person of a certain "calibre" in French is exceedingly vulgar; and refined people do not use the word _chic_ as freely as the English use of it would suggest. Examples of foreign words which we could hardly replace by English expressions are _blasé_, _tête-à-tête_, _brusque_, _bourgeois_, _deshabille_. These have been borrowed, just as words have been borrowed all through its history, by the English language to fill gaps. They have really become English words. But there are many foreign expressions now scattered freely through newspapers the sense of which can only be plain to those who have had a classical education. Unfortunately it is only the minority of readers who have had this. The effect is to make whole passages unintelligible or only half intelligible to the majority of readers. This is not writing good English. Thus people will write _le tout Paris_ instead of "all Paris," _mémoires pour servir_ instead of "documents," _ipsis Hibernis Hiberniores_ for "more Irish than the Irish." Such phrases are quite unsuitable to the general reader, and as perfect equivalents can be found in English, there would be no point in using them, even if writing for a learned society. Modern English, and especially colloquial English, has borrowed a great deal from the American way of speaking English. The people of the United States, though their language is that of the mother-country, have modified it so that it is, as it were, a mirror of the difference between American and English life. In America there is more hurry and bustle and less dignity. It is this difference which makes Americans and the American way of speaking appear interesting and piquant to English people. But this is no good reason for the adoption of American mannerisms into the English language. A typically American word is _boom_, meaning a sudden coming into popularity of something. Thus one may speak of a "boom" in motors, and the word has become quite common in English; but it is not beautiful, and we could easily have done without it. Words which sound quite natural when used by Americans often seem unnecessarily "slangy" when used by English people. * * * * * 
3214	----	Mr Honey's Insurance Dictionary (German-English) (C)2001, 2002 by Winfried Honig This is a work in progress dictionary of phrases commonly used. This book contains English and equivalent German phrases. We are releasing two versions of this book, sorted for the English reader and sorted for the German reader. Dieses Buch wurde uns freundlicherweise von dem Verfasser zur Verfügung gestellt. This book was generously donated to us by the author. ------------------Acknowledgement: In the 1970s Winfried Honig, known as Mr Honey, started compiling and computerizing English/German dictionaries, partly to provide his colleagues and students with samples of the language of business, partly to collect convincing material for his State Department of Education to illustrate the need for special dictionaries covering the special language used in different branches of the industry. In 1997 Mr Honey began to feed his wordlists into the LEO Online Dictionary http://dict.leo.org of the Technische Universität München, and in 2000 into the DicData Online Dictionary http://www.dicdata.de While more than 500.000 daily visitors use the online versions, CD-ROM versions are available, see: http://www.leo.org/dict/cd_en.html http://www.dicdata.de http://mrhoney.purespace.de/latest.htm Mr. Honey would be pleased to answer questions sent to winfried.honig@online.de. Permission granted to use the word-lists, on condition that links to the sites of LEO, DICDATA and MR HONEY are maintained. Mr Honey's services are non-commercial to promote the language of business both in English and in German.------------------- History and Philosophy Die Anfänge dieses Wörterbuches gehen zurück in die Zeit als England der Europäischen Gemeinschaft beitreten wollte. In einer Gemeinschaftsarbeit von BBC, British Council, dem Dept. of Educ. und der OUP machte man sich Gedanken, wie man dem Führungsnachwuchs auf dem Kontinent die englische Wirtschaftssprache beibringen könnte. Als einer der wenigen Dozenten, die damals in London Wirtschaftsenglisch lehrten, kam ich in Kontakt mit dem Projekt. Da ich mich zu jener Zeit für eine Karriere in der Daten-verarbeitung oder als Hochschullehrer für Wirtschaftsenglisch entscheiden musste, wählte ich eine Kombination von beidem. Als Dozent der FH machte ich den Einsatz von Multimedia in der Vermittlung von brauchbarem Wirtschaftsenglisch zu meiner Aufgabe. Für die Anforderungen verschiedener Seminare, Schwerpunkte, Zielgruppen entstanden aus der praktischen Arbeit die Wortlisten und Wörterbücher. Aufgewachsen und geschult in der praktischen Denkweise von A.S. Hornby, einem Fellow des University College London, legte ich besonderen Wert auf die hohe Zahl möglichst dienlicher Anwendungsbeispiele. Die indizierten sequentiellen Wortlisten der Kompaktversionen, --anders und meines Erachtens noch viel besser--die großen sequentiellen Wortlisten der CD-ROM-Versionen mit der stufenweisen bis globalen Suche in den Wort- und Beispiellisten zunehmenden Umfangs, ermöglichen eine optimale sprachliche Orientierung in einem umfangreichen wirtschaftlichen Sprachsschatz. Dabei sehe ich neue Wege und Möglichkeiten des Erwerbs und des Umgangs mit der Fachsprache. Wahrscheinlich bietet sich hier weit mehr als sich im ersten Eindruck erahnen läßt. Spielerisch sollte es möglich sein, leichter, schneller und intensiver zu lernen. Durch die Vielzahl der Assoziationen dürfte sich schneller als bisher eine gehobene fachsprachliche Kompetenz entwickeln. A Abandon abandonment Abandon, Überlassen abandonment abandonnieren, überlassen, preisgeben abandon Abenteuer, wagen adventure Abfindung lump-sum settlement Abfindungserklärung acceptance of lump-sum settlement Abfindungswert amount payable on settlement abgelaufen expired abhanden gekommenes Dokument lost document Abhilfe, Rechtsbehelf, Heilmittel remedy Ablauf des Vertrages expiration of contract Ablauf, Ende expiration ablaufen, enden expire ablehnen decline abnehmendes Risiko decreasing risk Abnutzung, Verschleiß wear and tear abändern amend Abänderung amendment Abonnentenversicherung subscribers' insurance Abschlagszahlung payment on account Abschluss acquisition Abschlusskosten acquisition costs Abschlussort place of signature Abschlussprovision acquisition commission Abschlussvermittlung acquisition agent Abschätzung estimation Abschätzung des Schadens appraisal of damage abschreiben write off Abschreibepolice declaration policy Abschreibepolice floating policy Absicht intent Absicht intention absichtlich intentional Absplittern chipping abtreten, zedieren cede abweichen deviate Abweichung discrepancy Abweichung von der Reiseroute deviation from the voyage abwesend absent Abwesender absentee Abwesenheit absence Abzug deduction abzugsfähiger Betrag deductible amount ändern modify ändern, Änderung change Änderung modification Änderung des Reiseziels change of voyage Änderung des Risikos change in the risk ärztliche Ansicht medical opinion ärztliche Auslese medical selection ärztliche Behandlung medical treatment ärztliche Beobachtung medical observation ärztliche Betreuung medical care ärztliche Hilfe, ärztliche Behandlung medical attendance ärztliche Untersuchung medical examination ärztliche Untersuchung medical inspection ärztliche Untersuchung physical examination ärztliches Attest medical certificate ärztliches Gutachten medical estimate ärztliches Honorar medical fee äußere Beschädigung external damage Agentur, Vertretung agency Aggregattafel aggregate table Aktien von Versicherungsgesellschaften insurance shares Aktuar actuary Alleininhaber sole owner allgemein verbindlich generally binding allgemeine Kosten general expenses allgemeine Versicherungsbedingungen general conditions of insurance allgemeine Versicherungsbedingungen general policy conditions Alterruhegeld, Altersrente, Pension old-age pension Alterserhöhung addition to age Altersgrenze age limit Altersrente pension annuity Altersrente retirement annuity Altersruhegeld old age pension Alterversicherung old-age insurance am Verlust beteiligt sein participate in a loss amtlich beglaubigt legally attested an die Stelle treten von take the place of an erster Stelle stehen rank first anbieten, Preisangabe machen quote Anfangsprämie initial premium anfechtbar voidable Anfrage, Nachforschung inquiry anfragen, nachforschen inquire Angelegenheit von Bedeutung matter of consequences angemessene Entschädigung adequate compensation angemessene Entschädigung fair compensation angemessene Entschädigung fair damages angemessene Entschädigung reasonable compensation angemessene Kündigungsfrist reasonable period of notice angemessene Sorgfalt adequate care angemessene Sorgfalt reasonable diligence angenommen accepted angenommener Schaden constructive loss angenommener Totalschaden constructive total loss angepasst adapted angrenzend adjoining Anhäufung accumulation Anlauf der Versicherungspolice expiry of the policy Anlieger adjacent owner Anmeldung einer Forderung filing of a claim Anmerkung, Kommentar, Erläuterung annotation Annahme acceptance Annahme, Vermutung assumption Annahmepflicht obligation to accept Annahmeschein acceptance slip annehmen accept annehmen, voraussetzen, vermuten assume annehmen, übernehmen adopt annähernd proximate Annuität annuity anomal abnormal anpassbare Versicherung, offene Versicherung adjustable insurance anpassen adapt Anpassung, Schadensregulierung adjustment Anschaffungswert acquisition value Anschaffungswert cost value Anschrift des Antragstellers address of applicant Ansichtssache matter of opinion ansonsten otherwise Anspruch claim Anspruch erheben raise a claim Anspruchsbegründung proof of claim Anspruchsteller claimant Anteil des Arbeitsgebers, Arbeitgeberanteil employer's contribution Anteil des Arbeitsnehmers, Arbeitnehmeranteil employee's contribution Anteil, Aktie share Antragsformular proposal form Antragsfrist term of application Antragsteller applicant for insurance anwachsend, ansammelnd, auflaufend accruing Anzeigepflicht obligation to disclose Arbeitsfähigkeit, Erwerbsfähigkeit capacity to work Arbeitslosenversicherung unemployment insurance Arbeitsunfall accident at work Arbeitsunfall industrial accident Arbeitsunfähigkeit disablement Arbeitsunfähigkeit, Erwerbsunfähigkeit invalidity Arbeitsunfähigkeitsversicherung disability insurance Arbitrage arbitration arglistige Täuschung moral fraud arglistige Täuschung willful deceit arglistige Täuschung willful deception Art der Lebensversicherung type of assurance Art der Vereinbarung type of agreement Art des Schadens type of loss Arzneikosten cost of medicaments Arztgebühren medical fees Atomrisiko, Kernenergierisiko nuclear risk Atomrisikoversicherung nuclear risk insurance attestieren, Attest attest auf alle Fälle at all hazards auf den Inhaber ausstellen make out to bearer auf einen Rechtsanspruch verzichten waive a claim auf neuesten Stand bringen update auf Schadensersatz verzichten waive the compensation aufgeben und abtreten abandon and cede aufgeben, verzichten abandon aufgegebenes Schiffswrack abandoned shipwreck aufgelaufen, angewachsen accrued aufgelaufener Zins accrued interest aufgeschobene Rente deferred annuity aufgeschobene Rente, verzögerte Rente deferred annuity aufheben suspend Aufhebung suspension Aufhebung des Versicherungsschutzes suspension of cover Aufopferung sacrifice Aufopferung von Gütern unter großer Havarie general averages sacrifice Aufräumungskosten cost of clearance of debris Aufruhrklausel riots clause aufsetzen draw up Aufwand expenditure aus der Haftung entlassen discharge from liability aus Versehen, versehentlich by mistake Ausbildungshilfe educational endowment Ausbildungszeit period of training Ausfuhrkreditversicherung export credit insurance Ausgabetag date of issue Ausgangsperiode base period ausgeben hand out ausgeschlossenes Risiko hazard not covered ausgleichend compensatory Ausgleichsverfahren method of compensation Aushändigung, Anlieferung delivery Auskunft disclosure Auskunftspflicht, Anzeigepflicht duty of disclosure Auslandsauftrag foreign order Auslandsgeschäft business transacted overseas Auslandsgeschäft foreign transaction Auslandsreise journey abroad auslegen interpret Auslegung interpretation Auslegungsfrage, Sache der Auslegung question of construction Auslegungsfrage, Sache der Auslegung question of interpretation Ausmaß der Entschädigung measure of indemnity Ausmaß des Schadens degree of damage Ausmaß, Umfang extent ausrecht erhalten hold up ausreichend, hinreichend adequate Ausrüstung, maschinelle Ausstattung equipment Ausschaltung von Risiken elimination of risks ausschließen eliminate ausschließen exclude Ausschließlichkeit exclusiveness Ausschluss, Ausschließung exclusion Aussichten, Chancen chances Ausstattungsversicherung child endowment insurance ausstellen issue Aussteuerversicherung child's deferred assurance Aussteuerversicherung dowry insurance Auswahl choice Auswahl von Risiken selection of risks Auszahlung des Schadensersatzes loss payment Automatenversicherung coin machine insurance automatisch automatic Außendienst field service Außendienstarbeit field work Außendienstorganisation field organization Außenseiter outsider außer Frage out of question außer Kraft setzen overrule außerhalb der Arbeitszeit off the job außerordentliche Sorgfalt extraordinary diligence außerstande, unfähig unable B Bankeinlagenversicherung bank deposit insurance Baratterie (Form des Betrugs) barratry Barwert cash value Basis base Bauhaftpflichtversicherung builder's risk insurance beachten, beobachten, einhalten observe Beachtung, Einhaltung, Beobachtung observance beanspruchbar claimable bedarf des förmlichen Vertragsabschlusses subject to formal contract Bedingung qualification Bedingungen terms Bedingungen der Versicherungspolice terms of the policy Bedingungen einhalten keep the conditions bedingungslos unconditional bedingungslos, absolut, unumschränkt absolute Bedüftigkeitstest means test beeinträchtigen affect beeinträchtigen impair Beeinträchtigung impairment beenden terminate beendigen terminate beendigen termination Beendigung des Vertrags termination of contract Beerdigungskosten funeral expenses Befrachter shipper Befrachtungsvertrag contract of affreightment befristete Garantie limited guarantee Beginn inception Beginn des Risikos commencement of risk beginnen commence begrenzte Prämie., gekürzte Prämie limited premium begründen, verursachen, veranlassen cause begünstigt, gewünscht, beliebt favoured Begünstigter beneficiary Begünstigter, Bezugsberechtigter beneficiary behindern hinder Behinderung hindrance beidseitig, zweiseitig bilateral beipflichten assent beispiellos unparalleled Beitrag zur Sozialversicherung social security contribution Beitragsleistung, Beitragszahlung payment of contribution Beitragszahler contributor bekräftigen, bestätigen affirm belasten, Belastung debit Beleihung einer Police policy loan beraten advise Beratungsfunktion advisory function Beraubung pilferage Berechnung calculation Berechnung der Wahrscheinlichkeit calculation of probability Berechnungsgrundlage calculation basis Berechnungsmethode method of calculation berechtigt entitled berechtigtes Interesse legitimate interest bergen, retten, sparen, ersparen save Bergung aus Seenot maritime salvage Bergung, Bergelohn salvage Bergung, Rettung, Einsparung, Ersparnis saving Bergungskosten salvage charges Bergungskosten salvage costs Bergungsmannschaft, Rettungsmannschaft rescue party Bergungsschaden salvage loss berichten, Bericht report berichten, Rechenschaft ablegen account berichtigen rectify berichtigte Wahrscheinlichkeit corrected probability Berufshaftpflichtversicherung professional liability insurance Berufskrankheit occupational disease Berufskrankheit occupational illness Berufsrisiko occupational hazard Berufsunfall occupational accident Berufsunfallversicherung workmen's compensation insurance Berufung einlegen lodge an appeal berücksichtigen consider berücksichtigen make allowance for berücksichtigen take into consideration Berücksichtigung consideration Bescheinigung certificate Beschlagnahme confiscation Beschlagnahmeklausel free of capture and seizure clause Beschlagnahmerisiko risk of seizure beschleunigen accelerate Beschäftigungsumfang volume of employment Beschreibung des Risikos description of risk beschränken restrain Beschränkung restraint besondere Gefahren extraneous perils besondere Havarie particular average besondere Risiken, besondere Gefahren special risks besondere Sorgfalt special diligence besonders, ungewöhnlich, speziell particular besprechen talk over Bestand, Portefeuille portfolio bestimmt, sicherlich certain bestimmtes Ereignis definite event Bestimmung destination bestätigen certify Bestätigung acknowledgment Beteiligung participation Betrag, betragen amount Betrieb eines Kraftfahrzeugs operation of a vehicle Betriebsgefahr operational risk Betriebsgefahren operational hazards Betriebshaftpflichtversicherung employer's liability insurance Betriebsleitung general management Betriebsunfall industrial accident Betriebsunterbrechungsversicherung business interruption insurance Betriebsversicherung factory insurance beträchtliche Schadensersatzleistung substantial damages Betrugsabsicht intention to defraud betrügerisch fraudulent beurteilen, Richter judge Beweggrund, Motiv motive bewegliche Gerätschaften movable equipment bewegliche Sache chattel Beweis erbringen supply evidence Beweislast burden of proof Beweismaterial means of evidence bewertet, veranlagen, bemessen assessed Bewertung valuation Bewertung, Veranlagung, Bemessung assessment bewohnbar habitable bezahlter Schaden claim paid Bezirksdirektion general agency Bezirksdirektion regional head office Bilanzwert book value Billigung finden meet with approval binden, verpflichten bind Binnenschifffahrtstransportversicherung inland marine insurance Binnentransportversicherung inland marine insurance Binnentransportversicherung inland transportation insurance Binnenwasserstraßentransportversicherung inland waterways insurance Binnenwassertransportversicherung inland marine insurance Bonus bonus Bonusrücklage bonus reserve Branchenrisiko risk peculiar to the trade Brandgefahr fire hazard Brandgefahren fire hazards Brandkasse fire office Brandmauer fire wall Brandrisiko, Feuerrisiko fire risk Brandschaden fire damage Brandschaden fire loss Brandschaden loss by fire Brandschadenabteilung fire department Brandschadenersatzleistung fire indemnity Brandstiftung arson Brandursache cause of conflagration Brandversicherungspolice fire policy Brauch usage brechen, zerbrechen break Bruch, Verlust durch Bruch, Bruchschaden breakage Bruchschaden breakage Bruttoprämie gross premium Bruttoverlust gross loss buchen, verbuchen book buchmäßiger Verlust book loss D damals then damals berechtigt then entitled damals gültig then in force Dampfkesselversicherung steam boiler insurance darauf ankommen lassen, riskieren take one's chance Darlehen loan Darlehen gewähren grant a loan das Ausland betreffend foreign datieren date Dauer duration Dauer der Invalidität period of invalidity Dauer der Verlängerung period of extension Dauer des Zahlungsverzugs period of delay in payment Dauer, Zeit, Zeitraum period Dauerinvalidität permanent invalidity dauernde Erwerbsunfähigkeit, Dauerinvalidität permanent disability decken cover Deckung anbieten offer cover Deckung aufrechterhalten maintain cover Deckung gewähren grant cover Deckung, Schutz cover Deckungsbestätigung cover note Deckungszeitraum, Versicherungsdauer term of insurance Deckungszusage (US) binder Defizit deficit Delcredereversicherung credit insurance dementsprechend accordingly detaillieren, volle Angaben machen give full particulars Diebstahl larceny Diebstahl theft Dienstunfähigkeit disability for service direkte Versicherung direct insurance direkter Schaden direct damage direktes Geschäft direct business Dispache general-average statement Dispacheur general average adjuster doppelter Schadensersatz double damages Doppelversicherung double insurance dringend, dringlich urgent Dringlichkeit urgency Dringlichkeitsstufe degree of urgency drohen, Bedrohung threat Durchschnittsdauer average duration Durchschnittserwartung average expectation Durchschnittssatz average rate E echte Gefahr genuine risk echter Wert real value effektiver Wert, realer Wert, Sachwert real value Eid oath eigenes Verschulden actual fault eigenhändig unterschreiben sign personally Eigenrisiko, eigenes Risiko own risk Eigentumsrechte proprietary rights Eigentumsübergang mutation Eigentumsübergang passage of title Eigentümer owner Eigentümer eines Gegenstandes owner of an article Eigenversicherung insurance for one's own account ein Darlehen aufnehmen take up a loan ein Limit vorgeben give a limit ein Recht aufgeben abandon a right ein Recht übertragen confer a right ein Risiko übernehmen underwrite a risk ein Schiff verlassen abandon a ship einbezahlt paid up Einbrecher housebreaker Einbruch housebreaking Einbruch- und Diebstahlversicherung burglary insurance eine Frage behandeln enter into a question eine Frist bestimmen fix a time limit eine Versicherungspolice ausstellen issue a policy einem Hindernis begegnen meet with an obstacle einen Antrag einreichen present an application einen Bericht vorlegen submit a report einen Eid ablegen take an oath einen Unfall melden report an accident einer Sache nachgehen, tiefer eindringen go further into a question einfache Havarie simple average eingeschränkte Garantie limited guarantee eingetragener Sitz der Firma registered office Einhaltung von Vorschriften compliance with formalities Einheitspolice standard policy einklagbar actionable Einkommen income Einkommen der Familie family income Einkommensverlust loss of income Einmalprämie single premium einreichen hand in einschließen include Einschluss inclusion Einschreibsendung registered mail einschränkende Bedingung restrictive condition einseitig unilateral einseitiges Risiko unilateral risk Einspruch erheben, Einspruch object Einspruch, Widerspruch objection Einstufung tariff classification einsturzgefährdetes Bauwerk dangerous structure Eintrittsalter age at entry einträglich gainful Einvernehmen, Verständnis understanding Einwand erheben raise an objection Einzelheiten full particulars Einzelheiten particulars einzelne Sendung individual shipment Einzelperson individual Einzelprämie single premium Einzelprämienversicherung single-premium insurance Einzelversicherer individual insurer Einzelversicherer individual underwriter Einzelzahlung individual payment Element, Grundbestandteil element Elementarrisiken natural hazards Empfangstag date of receipt empfindlicher Verlust considerable loss Endalter age at expiry Ende der Versicherungsdauer expiration of period Ende der Versicherungsdauer expiry of the policy Ende des Risikos termination of risk Endwert final value entbinden, entlassen, Entlassung discharge Entbindungsheim maternity home entgangener Gewinn lost profit Entgegenkommen accommodation entgegenkommen, unterbringen accommodate enthüllen, aufdecken disclose Enthüllung, Aufdeckung disclosure entscheiden decide Entscheidung decision Entschluss fassen take a decision entschädigen compensate entschädigen indemnify Entschädigung indemnification Entschädigung indemnity for damages Entschädigung für Verlust oder Beschädigung compensation for loss or damage Entschädigung für Verluste indemnity for losses Entschädigung in einer runden Summe lump-sum settlement Entschädigungsanspruch, Entschädigungsklage claim for compensation Entschädigungsbetrag indemnity sum Entschädigungsforderung claim for compensation entschädigungspflichtige Verletzung compensable injury entstandener Schaden loss occurred entstehend arising Erbschaftssteuerversicherung estate duty Erdbebenrisiko earthquake hazard Erdbebenversicherung earthquake insurance Erdbebenrisiko, Erdbebengefahr earthquake risk erfahren come to know Erfahrung experience Erforschung des Sachverhalts fact finding Erfüllung performance Erfüllung einer Verpflichtung performance of an obligation ergänzen amend ergänzend supplementary erhöhen, Erhöhung increase erhöhen, Erhöhung raise erhöht increased erhöhte Kosten increased costs erhöhte Lebenserwartung increased expectation of life erhöhte Lebenshaltungskosten increased cost of living Erhöhung des Risikos increase in the risk erklären declare erklärter Wille declared intention Erklärung declaration Erklärungsbasis declaration basis Erlebensfallversicherung endowment insurance erlittener Verlust sustained loss Ermessen discretion Ermessenentscheidung arbitrary decision ermächtigen authorize Ermüdung fatigue erneuern renew erneuern, verlängern renew Erneuerung der Versicherungspolice renewal of the policy Erneuerung wird fällig renewal falls due Erneuerung, Verlängerung renewal Ernteverlust, Verlust der Ernte crop loss Ernteversicherung crop insurance Ernteversicherung growing crops insurance errechnen compute Errechnung computation Ersatz für einen Schaden indemnity for a loss Ersatz für mittelbaren Schaden consequential damages Ersatz, Ersatzteil replacement Ersatzwert, Neuwert, Wiederbeschaffungswert replacement value Ersparnisse savings erstattet erhalten, wiedererlangen recover erstattungsfähig recoverable erste Prämie first premium Erstprämie first premium Erstversicherer direct insurer Erstzahlung initial payment Ertrag yield erwartete Gefahren expected perils erwarteter Gewinn anticipated profit Erwartung eines Verlustes expectation of loss Erwerb acquisition erwerben acquire Erwerbsquelle means of subsistence erwerbsunfähig, arbeitsunfähig disabled Erwerbsunfähigkeit incapacity to work erzielbare Entschädigung recoverable sum Erzwingungsmöglichkeit means of enforcing erörtern, begründen, Grund, Vernunft reason etwas wieder gut machen make up for something Exportkreditgarantie export credits guarantee Exportkreditversicherung export credit insurance F Facharzt medical specialist Fachkenntnisse technical know-how Fachkenntnisse, Erfahrung know-how Fachmann, Sachverständiger, Experte expert fahrlässige Handlung negligent act Fahrlässigkeit negligence Fahrraddiebstahlversicherung cycle theft insurance Fahrradversicherung cycle insurance Fahrzeug vehicle Fahrzeughalter owner of a motor vehicle Faktor, Einfluss factor fakultativ, wahlfrei facultative Fall, Beispiel instance fallen unter come under falsch beurteilen misjudge falsch darstellen misrepresent falsche Angaben false statement falsche Auslegung misinterpretation falsche Aussage false evidence falsche Beschreibung misdescription falsche Darstellung misstatement falscher Alarm false alarm Fehlberechnung, falsche Berechnung miscalculation fehlend missing Fehler mistake Fehlerart type of error fehlerhaft defective fehlerhaft faulty Fehlerhaftigkeit faultiness Fehlschluss false conclusion Fertigungsumfang volume of production feste Bedingungen set terms feste Prämie fixed premium feste Summe fixed sum fester Betrag fixed sum festgesetzt, festgelegt fixed festgestellt ascertained festsetzen ascertain feststehende Tatsache established fact Feststellung der Brandursache fire inquest Feststellung des Schadens ascertainment of damage Feststellung des Schadens ascertainment of loss Feststellung des Schadens assessment of damage Feststellung des Schadenswertes assessment of damage Feuerbestattungskosten cremation expenses Feuerbestattungskostenversicherung cremation expenses insurance Feuergefahr fire hazards feuerhemmend fire-resisting Feuerleiter fire escape Feuerlöscher fire extinguisher Feuerlöschkosten fire extinguishing costs Feuermeldesystem fire alarm system Feuermeldevorrichtung fire alarm device Feuersbrunst, Brand conflagration Feuerschutz fire protection Feuerschutzabgabe fire brigade charge Feuersgefahr fire peril Feuersgefahr, Feuerrisiko fire hazard Feuersicherheit fire safety Feuerverhütung fire prevention Feuerversicherung, Brandversicherung fire insurance Feuerversicherungsgesellschaft fire underwriter Feuerwehr fire brigade Feuerwehrmann fireman Filmtheaterversicherung cinema insurance finanzielle Verluste pecuniary losses finanzieller Verlust financial loss Firmeninhaber owner of a firm Firmenname firm name Fluggastversicherung air passenger insurance Fluggastversicherung aircraft passenger insurance Fluglinie, Fluggesellschaft airline Flugrisiko aviation risk Flugzeugentführer hi-jacker Flugzeugentführung hi-jacking Flugzeugkaskoversicherung aircraft hull insurance Flut, Überschwemmung flood Folge von Ereignissen chain of events Folgeprämie renewal premium Folgeschaden consequential damage Folgeschaden consequential loss fällig due fällig werden fall due fällig zur Zahlung due for payment fällige Entschädigung accrued compensation fällige Prämie premium due Fälligkeit der Prämie premium due rate fälschen falsify fälschen forge Fälschung falsification Forderungsübergang subrogation formaler Fehler lack of form Formblatt ausfüllen fill in a form Formsache matter of form Formvorschrift formality Forstversicherung insurance of growing timber Fortdauer, Fortsetzung continuation fortsetzen continue Frachtaufkommen volume of cargo Frachtversicherer cargo underwriter Frachtversicherung cargo insurance Frachtversicherung cargo policy Frachtversicherung hull insurance Frachtversicherung insurance on freight Frage question Frage von Bedeutung question of substance Franchise franchise Franchiseklausel franchise clause frei von Beschädigung außer im Strandungsfall free of particular average frei von Leckage free from leakage freie Wahl free choice freie Wahl des Arztes free choice of medical practitioner freiwillige Leistung, Kulanzleistung ex-gratis payment freiwillige Versicherung voluntary insurance Frist einhalten comply with a term Frist einhalten keep a term Frist überschreiten exceed a term Frist, zeitliche Begrenzung time limit Frostversicherung frost insurance Fundbüro lost property office Fundsache, verlorene Sache lost property für den Schaden aufkommen bear the damage für eine bestimmte Zeit for a time certain für einen Schaden haftbar liable for a loss für weniger als ein Jahr for less than a year G Garantie guarantee Garantie, Gewährleistung, Zusicherung warranty Garantiedauer duration of guarantee Garantievertrag contract of indemnity Garantiezeit guarantee period Garantiezeit, Versicherungsdauer duration of cover Gebäudeversicherung insurance of buildings gebunden, verpflichtet bound Geburtenziffer birth rate Gebühr fee Gebühr, belasten charge Gebührentabelle table of fees gedeckt covered geeignet qualified Gefahr danger Gefahr, Risiko, Zufall hazard Gefahren der See dangers of the sea Gefahren der See hazards of the sea Gefahren der See, Seegefahren, Seerisiken perils of the sea Gefahren der Seefahrt dangers of navigation Gefahrenabnahme, Gefahrenminderung decrease of risk Gefahrenart type of risk Gefahrengut, gefährliche Ladung dangerous goods Gefahrenklasse class of risk Gefahrenzone danger zone gefährlich dangerous gefährlich, riskant hazardous gefährliche Ladung dangerous cargo gefährliche Tiere dangerous animals gefährliche Vorführungen dangerous performances gegen alle Gefahren against all risks gegen eine Regel verstoßen infringe a rule gegen, zuwider contrary to Gegenseitigkeit mutuality Gegenstand subject-matter Gegenstand der Versicherung object insured gegenwärtiger Wert, Barwert present value geistige Ermüdung mental fatigue geistige Störung mental defect gekündigt, storniert cancelled gekürzte Prämie limited premium Geld heraus bekommen get money back Geldtransport cash transport Geldverlust loss of cash Gelegenheit, Grund, Ereignis occasion gelegentlich occasional gemischt mixed gemischte Police mixed policy gemäß according to genehmigungspflichtig subject to approval Generalpolice open policy Generalvertreter general agent Genesungsheim, Kuranstalt convalescent home Genesungszeit, Erholungszeit convalescence Gepäckversicherung baggage insurance gerecht just gerecht und zumutbar just and reasonable gerichtliche Maßnahmen ergreifen take legal measures Gerichtskosten legal expenses gerichtsmedizinisch medico-legal gesamt overall Gesamtbetrag aggregate amount Gesamtprüfung general examination gesamtschuldnerisch haftend jointly and severally liable gesamtschuldnerische Haftung joint liability Gesamtversicherung all-risk insurance Geschädigter aggrieved party Geschäfte durchführen transact business Geschäfte tätigen transact business geschäftliches Risiko business risk Geschäftsausfallversicherung loss of profit insurance Geschäftsbedingungen terms and conditions Geschäftshaftpflichtversicherung business liability insurance Geschäftsräume business premises Geschäftsstelle branch office Geschäftsumfang volume of business geschätzter Wert estimated value Gesetz der großen Zahl law of large numbers Gesetzeslücke loophole in the law gesetzlich begründeter Schadensersatzanspruch lawful damages gesetzlich haftbar legally liable gesetzliche Haftpflicht legal liability gesetzliche Rücklage legal reserve gesetzliche Verpflichtung legal obligation gesiegelte Urkunde deed gestohlenes Fahrzeug stolen vehicle gestufter Tarif graduated tariff gesund healthy Gesundheit physical health Gesundheit wiederherstellen restore health Gesundheitsamt local health authority getrennt halten keep apart Gewahrsam keeping Gewahrsamsklausel bailee clause gewerbliche Feuerversicherung industrial fire risk insurance gewerbliches Fahrzeug commercial vehicle gewerbliches Risiko industrial risk Gewichtsverlust loss in weight Gewinn, Vorteil gain Gewinnanteil, Dividende dividend Gewinnplan, Dividendensystem bonus scheme Gewinnverteilung bonus allocation gewissermaßen in some measure Gewissheit, Sicherheit certainty gewähren, gestatten allow Gewässerverschmutzung water pollution gewöhnlich ordinary Glasversicherung glass breakage insurance Glasversicherung plate glass insurance gleichbleibende Prämie level premium gleichbleibendes Risiko constant risk gleichsam quasi gleichzeitig concurrent Grad der Invalidität degree of disablement Grenze der Entschädigung limit of indemnity grobe Fahrlässigkeit gross fault große Havarie, Havarie-grosse general average große Sorgfalt high diligence großenteils in a great measure Großfeuer conflagration Großlebensversicherung ordinary life insurance Grund der Kündigung cause of cancellation Grund, Ursache, Veranlassung cause Grundbesitz real property holding Grundbesitz, Immobilien real estate Grundbesitzer land owner Grundbesitzer landholder Grundbesitzer owner of an estate Grundgebühr base fee grundlos, ohne Basis baseless Grundprämie basic premium Grundstückeigentümer, Hausherr landlord Grundstückeigentümerhaftpflicht landlord's liability Grundstücksverwaltungsabteilung real estate department Grundstückswert value of the property Grundtarif basic rate Gruppenlebensversicherung group life insurance Gruppenversicherung collective insurance Gruppenversicherung group insurance Gruppenversicherung, Kollektivversicherung group insurance grüne Versicherungskarte green card gültig in force gültig valid gültiger Einwand valid objection gültiger Tarif tariff in force Gültigkeit validity Gültigkeitsdauer validity period günstigste Bedingungen most favourable terms gütlich, außer Gericht, außergerichtlich amicably gütlich, unter Freunden amicable gütliche Beilegung, Schlichtung amicable adjustment gütlicher Vergleich, Vergleich amicable settlement H Hafenrisiken port risks haftbar werden become liable haftbar, verantwortlich accountable haftbar, verantwortlich liable Haftpflicht liability Haftpflichthöchstgrenze maximum liability Haftpflichtversicherung third-party insurance Haftpflichtversicherung (US) liability insurance Haftpflichtversicherung des Arbeitsgebers employer's liability insurance Haftung des Grundpächters landholder's liability Haftung gegen Dritten third-party liability Haftungsdauer indemnity period Haftungsumfang accountability Hagelschaden damage by hail Hagelversicherung hail insurance halbamtlich quasi official Halbjahresprämie semi-annual premium halten, festhalten, besitzen hold halten, Lebensunterhalt keep Handlung act harte Bedingung, strenge Bedingung stringent condition hauptberuflicher Vertreter full-time agent Hauptpolice master policy Hauptursache chief cause Haus- und Geschäftsräume domestic and business premises Hausbesitzer house owner Hausbesitzer owner of a house Hauseigentümer homeowner Hauseigentümerversicherung house owner's policy Hausrat- und Haftpflichtversicherung householder's comprehensive insurance Hausrat household and personal effects Hausrat residence contents Hausratsversicherung household insurance Hausratversicherung insurance of contents Hausschwamm dry rot Hausversicherung home insurance Hausversicherung residence insurance Hausvertreter home-service insurance man Havarie-grosse Klausel general-average clause Havariebericht, Schadensbericht survey report Havarieeinschuss general average deposit Havariehandlung general average act Havariekommissar average adjuster Havariekommissar surveyor Havariekommissar von Lloyd Lloyd's agent Havarieverteilung adjustment of average Hebegebühr collection charge Heizkesselversicherung boiler insurance herabsetzen reduce herrenlos unowned herrenloses Gut abandoned property Herstellerhaftpflichtversicherung producer's liability insurance Hilfe, Fürsorge aid Hilfeleistung assistance after accident Hindernis obstacle Hinreise outward journey Hinterbliebene surviving dependants Hinterbliebenenrente survivorship annuity Hintertür loophole hinzufügen add Honorar des Arztes, ärztliches Honorar doctor's fee häufig frequent Häufigkeit frequency häuslicher Unfall domestic accident Hypothekenabteilung mortgage department Hypothekendarlehen mortgage loan hypothetische Frage hypothetical question Höchstalter limiting age Höchstalter, Altersgrenze age limit Höchstbetrag maximum amount Höchstgrenze maximum limit Höchstsatz, Höchstprämie maximum rate Höchstschaden maximum loss Höchstwert maximum value Höchstzahl maximum number Höhe des Schadens quantum of damages höher im Rang sein rank before höhere Gewalt Act of God höhere Gewalt force majeure I Identität identity im Auftrag des Kunden on behalf of the client im Ausland wohnhaft resident abroad im Außendienst tätig sein work in the field im Falle des Verlusts in the event of loss im Falle des Verlusts, im Schadensfalle in case of loss im Falle von in case of im Falle von in the event of im Klagewege, durch eine Klage by way of action im Obligo on risk im Schadensfalle in the event of damage im Schadensfalle in the event of loss im Todesfalle in the event of death im voraus bezahlt prepaid im voraus bezahlte Prämie premium paid in advance imaginäre Schadensersatzforderung imaginary damages imaginärer Gewinn anticipated profit imaginärer Gewinn imaginary profit in Anbetracht in view of in Arbeit befindliche Ware goods in process in Betracht kommen come into question in Betracht ziehen take into consideration in gewisser Hinsicht in a way in gutem Zustand halten keep in good repair in Pension gehen, in Rente gehen go on pension in Ruhestand gehen retire in Zukunft, nachstehend hereafter in Übereinstimmung mit in accord with identifizieren identify Index index Indexklausel index clause Indexversicherung insurance with index clause indirekter Schaden indirect loss or damage indirekter Schaden, mittelbarer Schaden indirect damage indossieren, ergänzen endorse Inflationsgefahr inflation peril Inhaber holder Inhalt, Hausrat, Mobilien contents Inkasso vornehmen collect Inkassoabteilung collection department Inkassokosten collection costs Inkrafttreten coming into force Innendienstbelegschaft inside staff insbesondere in particular Insolvenz insolvency Instandsetzungsabteilung maintenance department Interesse, Zins interest Internationale Versicherungskarte international insurance card internationales Versicherungsgeschäft international insurance business Invalide disabled person Invalidenrente disability benefits Invalidität disability Invaliditätegrad disability percentage Invaliditätsrente, Invalidenrente disability annuity Investition investment irreführen mislead irreführend misleading irren be mistaken irrige Auffassung mistaken idea irrtümlicherweise mistakenly J Jagdhaftpflichtversicherung hunting liability insurance Jagdunfall hunting accident Jahr year Jahresabrechnung annual account Jahresprämie annual premium jedes Frachtstück separat versichert each package separately insured jährlich yearly jährliche Tilgungsrate annual amortization jährliche Zahlung annual payment K Kapitalanlagen capital investments Karenzzeit qualifying period Kartell cartel Kassenbote cash messenger Kassenbotenversicherung cash messengerv insurance Katastrophe catastrophe katastrophenartig, katastrophal catastrophic Katastrophenreserve, außerordentliche Reserve catastrophe reserve Katastrophenrückversicherung catastrophe reinsurance Kausalzusammenhang causal connection Kautionsversicherung fidelity guarantee insurance Kautionsversicherung surety insurance Kenntnis knowledge Kindersterblichkeit infant mortality Klage vor Gericht legal action Klage, Beschwerde complaint Klage, Handlung action klar, ohne Zweifel clear klassifizieren, einstufen classify Klausel betreffend bürgerliche Unruhen civil commotions clause Klausel betreffend vorzeitige Fälligkeit acceleration clause klein halten, minimieren minimize kleine Havarie petty average kleinerer Schaden, Bagatellschaden minor loss Kleingeld loose cash Kleinlebensversicherung home service office Kleinlebensversicherung industrial life insurance Knappschaftsversicherung miners' insurance Kollisionsklausel beidseitiges Verschulden both-to-blame collision clause Kompensation, Entschädigung, Ausgleich compensation Kompromiss, Kompromiss schließen compromise Konnossementsklausel bill of lading clause Konstruktionsfehler fault in construction Kontinuität continuity Konto auflösen, Konto abschließen close an account Konto, Abrechnung account kontrollieren, Kontrolle control Konzession concession Kraftfahrer motorist Kraftfahrzeughaftpflichtversicherung motor car liability insurance Kraftfahrzeughaftpflichtversicherung motor third party insurance Kraftfahrzeuginsassenversicherung motor vehicle passenger insurance Kraftfahrzeugmissbrauch misuse of motor cars Kraftfahrzeugsbesitzer, Fahrzeughalter owner of a car Kraftfahrzeugskaskoversicherung motor hull insurance Kraftfahrzeugversicherung automobile insurance Kraftfahrzeugversicherung motor car insurance Kraftfahrzeugversicherung motor vehicle insurance Krankengeld sick pay Krankengeld sickness benefits Krankenhauskosten hospitality expense Krankenhausunterbringung hospital accommodation Krankenkasse sickness fund Krankenversicherung health insurance Krankheit illness Krankheitsnachweis evidence of sickness Krankienhauskosten hospital expense Kreditgrenze credit margin Kreditumfang volume of credit Kreditversicherung bad debts insurance Kreditversicherung guarantee insurance Kriegsgebiet operational zone Kriegsrente war pension Kriegsrisikenvereinbarung war risk agreement Kriegsrisiko war risk Kriegsrisikoversicherung war risk insurance kumulative accumulative Kursverlust loss by redemption kurzfristig short term kurzfristige Deckung short period cover Körperschaden, Verletzung bodily harm Körperschaden, Verletzung bodily injury Körperschaden, Verletzung physical injury Körperschaft corporation Körperverletzung battery Körperverletzung mit Todesfolge bodily harm with fatal consequences kündbar, rückzahlbar terminable kündigen, stornieren cancel Kündigung cancellation Kündigung der Versicherungspolice cancellation of the policy Kündigungsfrist period of cancellation Kündigungsschreiben letter of cancellation L Lagerversicherung warehouse insurance landwirtschaftliche Versicherung agricultural insurance langfristig long term Last burden laufende Risiken current risks laufende Versicherung, offene Police open policy Laufzeit der Garantie, Garantiezeit term of guarantee Laufzeit der Versicherungspolice policy period Lebendgeburt live birth Lebenserwartung expectation of life Lebenserwartung life expectancy Lebensgefahr danger to life Lebenshaltungskosten cost of living Lebenshaltungskostenindex cost of living index lebenslänglich Begünstigter life beneficiary lebenslängliche Rente, Leibrente life annuity Lebensversicherung assurance Lebensversicherung life assurance Lebensversicherung life insurance Lebensversicherung abschließen take out a life policy Lebensversicherung auf Erleben und Todesfall mixed life assurance Lebensversicherungsgesellschaft life insurance company Lebensversicherungsgesellschaft life office Lebensversicherungspolice life insurance policy Lebensversicherungsverein auf Gegenseitigkeitmutual life office Lebensversicherungsvertrag life insurance contract lebenswichtig vital Lebenszeit life time Leck leak Leckage leakage Leckage und Bruch leakage and breakage Leckageklausel leakage clause Leibrente life annuity Leibrentner life annuitant Leiche dead body leichte Fahrlässigkeit slight fault leihen gegen Sicherheit, beleihen lend against security leihen, beleihen, ausleihen lend Leistungen beantragen claim benefits Leistungen beziehen draw benefits leistungsberechtigt entitled to benefits Leistungsdauer period of indemnification Leitungswasserversicherung water damage insurance Leuchtstoffröhre fluorescent tube Liegezeit, Ruhezeit idle period Liegezeit, Stillstandszeit idle period Lizenz license Lloyds Makler Lloyd's broker Lloyds Schiffsregister Lloyd's Register of Shipment Lloyds Versicherer Lloyd's underwriter Lohnausfall loss of pay Londoner Versicherungsbörse Lloyd's Luftfahrtversicherung aircraft insurance Luftfahrtversicherung aviation insurance Luftreise air journey Lufttransportversicherung air transport insurance Luftverschmutzung air pollution löschen delete Löschfahrzeug fire engine Löschfahrzeug fire truck Löschung extinction M Makler broker Mangel defect mangels failing mangels for want of mangels Beweis for want of evidence mangels Deckung for want of cover mangels Vertrauen for want of confidence mangels Zahlung for want of payment Manipulation, Handhabung manipulation manipulieren manipulate Marktwert, Verkehrswert market value Maschinenversicherung machinery breakdown insurance Maschinenversicherung machinery insurance mathematischer Erwartungswert actuarial expectation mathematischer Wert mathematical value medizinischer Beweis medical evidence mehrfache Risiken multiple perils Mehrzahl aller Fälle majority of cases meistbegünstigt most favoured meistbegünstigter Rückversicherer most favoured reinsurer Meistbegünstigungsklausel most favoured reinsurer clause Menge quantum messen, bemessen, Maß, Maßnahme measure Mietverlustversicherung rent insurance Minderlieferung short delivery Minderung des Wertes depreciation Minderung des Wertes, Wertminderung loss in value Mindestbetrag minimum amount Mindestgebühr minimum charge Mindestlohn minimum wage Mindestprämie minimum premium Mindestversicherung minimum insurance Minenrisiko mine risk Missachtung contempt Missbrauch, missbrauchen misuse missbrauchen, Missbrauch abuse Missverhältnis, schlechte Regelung maladjustment Missverständnis, Irrtum misapprehension mit Ausnahme von other than mit ausreichender Bestimmtheit with reasonable certainty mit besonderer Havarie with particular average mit Maschine geschrieben typewritten mit Verlust at a sacrifice mit vollem Namen unterzeichnen sign in full Miteigentümer joint owner Mitglied member Mitversicherer co-insurer Mitversicherung co-insurance mitwirken, zusammentreffen concur Missverhältnis, Unangemessenheit inadequacy Monatsbeitrag monthly contribution Monatsprämie monthly premium Mord, Totschlag, Ermordung homicide Motorradversicherung motor cycle insurance multiplizieren multiply Musikinstrumenteversicherung musical instruments insurance Muttergesellschaft parent company Mutterschaftsgeld maternity benefit Mutterschaftsversicherung maternity insurance Mutterschutzfrist maternity period müßig idle N nach Möglichkeit, soweit wie möglich as far as possible Nachbarschaftsrisiko neighbouring risk nachfolgend subsequent Nachfrist days of grace Nachname family name Nachprämie, Anpassungsprämie adjustment premium Nachschuss additional contribution nachschüssige Zahlung payment in arrear Nachteil disadvantage nachteilig disadvantageous Nachversicherungspolice subsequent policy Nachweis erbringen provide evidence Nachweis, Beweis, beweismaterial evidence nackte Tatsachen hard facts Name, benennen name Namen feststellen, Namen festhalten secure the name namens in the name of Namenspolice named policy Naturalersatz replacement in kind natürlicher Tod natural death nebenberuflicher Vertreter part-time agent Nebengewinn extra gain Nebenkosten related costs Nettoprämie net premium Nettoverlust clear loss neu für alt new for old neue Art von Risiko new type of risk Neuwert reinstatement value Neuwertversicherung reinstatement policy nicht beachten ignore nicht einklagbar non-actionable nicht erhältlich unavailable nicht formgerecht bad in form nicht klagbar unenforceable nicht mehr gut zu machender Verlust irreparable loss nicht versicherbar uninsurable nicht wieder gut zu machender Schaden irreparable damages Nichtauslieferung non-delivery Nichteinhaltung der Garantie breach of warrantee nichtgelandete Ware short-landed goods nichtgelieferte Ware short-shipped goods nichtig void by law Nichtlieferung non-delivery Nichtmitglied nonmember Nichtzahlung failure to pay noch nicht abgelaufen unexpired noch unerledigt still outstanding nähere Angaben statement of particulars Nominalwert nominal value nomineller Schaden nominal damage nomineller Schadensersatz nominal damages Normalpolice standard policy normieren standardize Notausgang emergency exit Notausgang fire exit notfalls in case of emergency Nothafen harbour of refuge Notlage distress Notlage emergency Notmaßnahmen emergency steps notwendige Sorgfalt necessary diligence Null zero Nummer der Versicherungspolice policy number nur dem Namen nach, nominell nominal nur für einen kurzen Zeitraum for a short term only nur gegen Totalverlust total loss only Nutzen ziehen benefit from Nutzfeuer friendly fire Nutzungsschaden, Entgang der Nutzung loss of use O objektives Risiko physical hazard obligatorisch obligatory obligatorische Rückversicherung obligatory reinsurance obligatorische Versicherung obligatory insurance offene Deckung, Generalpolice open cover offene Police, Abschreibepolice floating policy offene Police, Generalpolice open policy ohne Datum, undatiert undated ohne Frage without question ohne Garantie without guarantee ohne ärztliche Untersuchung without medical examination ohne Vollmacht, nicht bevollmächtigt unauthorized Operationskosten surgery costs Operationskostenversicherung surgical fees insurance Optimum, optimal optimum Organisationsabteilung coordination department Ort location Oxydation oxidation P Paketpolice package policy Paketversicherung parcel post insurance Paragraf, Abschnitt, Absatz paragraph Partei, Seite, Beteiligter party Passagierflugzeug airliner Passagiergut registered luggage Pauschale lump-sum Pauschale, Pauschalbetrag lump sum Pauschalentschädigung damages at large Pauschalversicherung global cover Pauschalversicherung, Gesamtversicherung all-in insurance Pension pension Pension retirement pay Pension beantragen, Rente beantragen apply for a pension Pensionsalter pension age Pensionsalter pensionable age pensionsberechtigt entitled to a pension pensionsberechtigt, rentenberechtigt pensionable Personenversicherung insurance of persons Personenversicherung personal insurance persönlich haftend individually liable Pfand, verpfänden pledge Pflichtrückversicherung obligatory reinsurance Pflichtversicherung compulsory insurance Pflichtversicherung obligatory insurance Pfändung distraint physisch tot actually dead Pirat, auf See überfallen pirate Piraterie, Seeräuberei piracy Platzierung, Unterbringung placement Plünderung looting Police abändern amend a policy Police ausfertigen issue a policy Police ausstellen effect a policy Police beleihen borrow on a policy Police erneuern renew a policy Police für eine einzige Fahrt voyage policy Police kündigen cancel a policy Police ohne Wertangabe open policy Policenbüro policy signing office Policendarlehen, Beleihung einer Police loan on policy praktischer Arzt medical practioner Preisangebot quotation Preisverlust loss in price Prinzip der Entschädigung principle of indemnity private Unfallversicherung personal accident insurance Privathaftpflichtversicherung personal liability insurance Privatversicherer private insurer pro Tag per diem Produktionsausfall loss of production Prämie premium Prämie berechnen charge a premium Prämie berichtigen adjust the premium Prämie festsetzen fix the premium Prämie für eigene Rechnung premium for own account Prämie ist fällig premium is due Prämie rückerstatten refund a premium Prämienabrechnung premium statement Prämienart type of premium prämienfrei free of premium prämienfreie Versicherung paid-up insurance Prämieninkasso collection of premiums Prämienquittung premium receipt Prämienrabatt premium discount Prämienrate installment premium Prämienrate premium installment Prämienrichtlinien, Einstufungsrichtlinien rating principles Prämienrückgewähr, Prämienrückvergütung return of premium Prämienrückzahlung refund of premium Prämiensatz premium rate Prämientarif insurance tariff Prämienvolumen volume of premiums proportionale Verteilung proportional allotment Proportionalregel average clause provisorisch, einstweilig provisional Prozent percent Prozentsatz percentage Prozesskostenversicherung legal expenses insurance prüfen, untersuchen examine Prüfung des Antrags examination of proposal psychische Verfassung mental health Q Qualität, Beschaffenheit quality quantitativ quantitative Quote quota Quotenrückversicherung quota share reinsurance R Rabatt discount radioaktive Strahlung nuclear radiation Rahmenvereinbarung general agreement Rang einnehmen, rangieren rank Rat advice Raub, Beraubung robbery rechenschaftspflichtig liable to account rechnen, berechnen, errechnen calculate Rechnungsjahr financial year Recht der Fahrlässigkeitshaftung law of negligence Recht erwerben become entitled Recht, Anrecht right rechtfertigen justify rechtliche Bedeutung legal meaning rechtmäßig lawful rechtmäßig vertretbar justifiable rechtmäßiger Eigentümer lawful owner rechtmäßiger Erbe true heir Rechtsanwaltskosten lawyer's fees Rechtsgeschäft transaction rechtskräftig werden become final Rechtsmangel lack of title rechtsverbindlich legally binding rechtswidrig illegal rechtswidrig unlawful rechtswidrige Handlung unlawful act rechtswirksam legally effective Reduktionsfaktor, Minderungsfaktor reduction factor Reduktionswert reduction value Reeder owner of a ship Reeder ship owner regelmäßig wiederkehrende Zahlung periodical payment regelmäßige Leistungen regular periodical payments regelmäßige Zahlungen regular payments Regenversicherung pluvious insurance Regenversicherung rain insurance Regenwasser rainwater Regenwasserschaden rainwater damage Register, registrieren register Regress, Rückgriff recourse Regulierung adjustment Regulierungskosten adjustment costs Rehabilitierung, Wiedereingliederung rehabilitation Reise journey Reiseausfallkostenversicherung insurance of traveling expenses Reisegepäckversicherung luggage insurance Reisepolice voyage policy Reiseunfallversicherung traveler's accident insurance Reiseunfallversicherung travelers' accident insurance Reiseversicherung travel insurance Rente annuity Rente bewilligen, Pension bewilligen grant a pension Rente beziehen, Pension beziehen draw a pension Rente beziehen, Pension beziehen receive a pension rentenberechtigt, pensionsberechtigt eligible for pension Rentenempfänger annuitant Rentenempfänger holder of an annuity Rentenversicherung annuity insurance Rentenversicherungsvertrag annuity contract Rentenzahlung pension payment Rentner pensioner Reparaturkosten cost of repair Reparaturkosten cost of repairs Reserve reserve Reserve für Leibrenten life annuity fund Reserven des Versicherers underwriting reserves Restbetrag balance Restwert salvage value Richtlinie guideline Risiken eingehen take hazards Risiko begrenzen limit a risk Risiko decken cover a risk Risiko der Aufbringung risk of capture Risiko der Kollision collision risk Risiko der Strandung stranding risk Risiko der Verfügungsbeschränkung restraint risk Risiko des Auf-Grund-Laufens risk of running aground Risiko des Aufruhrs riot risk Risiko des Aufstands insurrection risk Risiko des Maschinenschadens breakdown of machinery risk Risiko des Sinkens, Risiko des Untergangs sinking risk Risiko kriegerischer Handlungen warlike operations risk Risiko verteilen spread a risk Risiko von Feindseligkeiten hostilities risk Risiko übernehmen take a risk Risiko, Gefahr hazard Risiko, Gefahr risk Risikobegrenzung bei Katastrophen catastrophe limit Risikoeinstufung classification of risks Risikohäufung accumulation of risk Rost rust Ruhestand retirement rückdatieren backdate Rückgang des Geschäfts decline of business Rückkaufswert surrender value Rücklagen für schwebende Schäden reserve for pending claims Rücknahme einer Klage waiver of an action Rückreise return journey Rücktrittsklausel cancellation clause rückvergütete Prämie returned premium Rückversicherer reinsurer rückversichern reinsure Rückversicherung reinsurance Rückversicherung annehmen accept reinsurance Rückversicherungsgesellschaft reinsurance company Rückversicherungspolice reinsurance policy Rückversicherungsprovision reinsurance commission Rückversicherungsvertrag reinsurance contract Rückzahlung refund S Sachlage circumstances Sachschaden damage to property Sachschaden material damage Sachschaden property damage Sachschaden, Sachverlust loss of property Sachverhalt circumstances of the case Sachversicherung insurance of property Sachversicherung property insurance Sachverständigengutachten expertise Sachverständiger in Havarieangelegenheiten despacheur Sammelversicherung group insurance Sammelversicherung, Gruppenversicherung collective insurance Schaden damage Schaden durch Rost und Oxydierung loss by rust and oxidation Schaden durch Seewasser, Seewasserschaden damage by sea water Schaden durch Seewasser, Seewasserschaden sea-water damage Schaden durch Süßwasser, Süßwasserschaden damage by fresh water Schaden durch Süßwasser, Süßwasserschaden fresh-water damage Schaden erleiden meet with a loss Schaden erleiden suffer a loss Schaden erleiden sustain a loss Schaden ersetzen make good a loss Schaden mindern minimize loss Schaden regulieren adjust a claim Schaden regulieren settle a claim Schaden vergüten, Schaden ersetzen make up for a loss Schaden verursachen occasion a loss Schaden zufügen, Verlust zufügen inflict a loss Schaden, Nachteil harm Schadenbeteiligungsrückversicherung quota share reinsurance Schadenersatz damages Schadenersatz in nautura compensation in kind Schadenersatzleistung payment of damages Schadenfestsetzung fixing of damages Schadenminderungsklausel sue and labour clause Schadensabteilung claims department Schadensabteilung claims office Schadensanzeige loss advice Schadensanzeige notice of claim Schadensanzeige notice of loss Schadensanzeige erstatten give notice of loss Schadensbearbeiter adjuster Schadensbearbeitungskosten claims expenses Schadensbenachrichtigung, Schadensmeldung notification of claim Schadensbetrag amount of damage Schadensbüro adjustment bureau Schadensbüro adjustment office Schadensbüro claims department Schadensereignis damaging event Schadensersatz indemnity Schadensersatz für Spätfolgen remote damages Schadensersatz gewähren award damages Schadensersatzbemessung measure of damages Schadensersatzforderung, Ersatzanspruch claim for indemnification Schadensersatzklage action for damages schadensersatzpflichtig answerable for damages schadensersatzpflichtig held for damages schadensersatzpflichtig liable for damages schadensersatzpflichtig liable to indemnify schadensersatzpflichtig liable to pay damages Schadenserwartung expectation of loss Schadensfall case of loss Schadensfall event of damage or loss Schadensfestsetzung, Schadenbegutachtung loss assessment Schadensfeststellung, Schadensausmaß measure of damages Schadensfeuer hostile fire Schadensfälle bearbeiten handle claims Schadensfreiheitsrabatt no-claims bonus Schadenshäufigkeit incidence of loss Schadenshäufigkeit loss frequency Schadensmeldung, Meldung des Schadens notification of loss Schadensquote loss ratio Schadensreferent claims agent Schadensregulierung adjustment of a loss Schadensregulierung claim settlement Schadensregulierung loss settlement Schadensrisiko durch Aussperrung lockout risk Schadensrisiko durch Streikhandlungen strike risk Schadenssachverständiger insurance adjuster Schadensstatistik loss statistics Schadenssumme amount of loss Schadensumfang, Schadensausmaß extent of loss Schadensverhütung loss prevention Schadensverteilung loss repartition Schadenswahrscheinlichkeit chance of loss Schadenswahrscheinlichkeit probability of loss Schadenswert, Schadensumfang, Schadenshöhe amount of loss schadhaft damaged Schiedsgericht court of arbitration Schiedsgerichtsbarkeit arbitration Schiedsspruch arbitration award Schiedsspruch annehmen abide by an award Schiedsverfahren arbitration proceedings Schiffsschweiß ship's sweat Schimmel, Verschimmeln mould schlecht regeln maladjust schlecht verwalten mismanage Schlichtung conciliation Schmerzensgeld damages for pain and suffering Schmuck, Schmucksachen jewelry Schmuckversicherung, Juwelenversicherung jeweler insurance schädlich, nachteilig harmful schädlich, schädigend, nachteilig hurtful schätzen estimate Schätzwert appraised value Schätzwert estimated value Schreibfehler clerical mistake schriftliche Anzeige written information schriftliche Zusicherung written agreement schriftliche Übereinkunft written agreement schriftlicher Beweis literal proof schriftlicher Vertrag written agreement Schuttaufräumung clearance of debris Schutz aufheben suspend cover Schutz gewähren extend cover Schutz gewähren give cover Schutz gewähren provide cover Schwachstromanlage low tension installation Schwankungsrückstellung equalisation fund schwebender Schaden, drohender Schaden pending loss schwere Einbußen, schwerer Schaden heavy losses schwere Körperverletzung grievous bodily harm schwere Verluste heavy losses Schwindel humbug Seegefahren, Seerisiko marine adventure Seegefahren, Seerisiko marine peril Seehaftpflichtversicherung marine liability insurance Seekaskoversicherer hull underwriter Seekaskoversicherung marine hull insurance Seeprotest ship's protest Seeraub, Piraterie piracy Seetransport marine transport Seetransportversicherung ocean marine insurance Seeversicherer marine insurer Seeversicherer marine underwriter Seeversicherung marine insurance Seeversicherung maritime insurance Seeversicherung, Seetransportversicherung marine insurance Seeversicherung, Überseetransportversicherung ocean marine insurance Seeversicherungspolice marine insurance policy Seeversicherungspolice marine policy Seewurf, Überbordwerfen, über Bord werfen jettison Selbstentzündung spontaneous combustion Selbstversicherung self-insurance Selbstverstümmelung maiming oneself Sendung consignment Sendung shipment sich beteiligen participate sich enthalten, sich zurückhalten abstain sicheres Ereignis certain event Sicherheit safety Sicherheit stellen give security Sicherheitsabstand, Sicherheitsspanne safety margin Sicherheitsbedingung safety condition Sicherheitseinrichtungen safety installations Sicherheitsfaktor safety factor Sicherheitsingenieur, Sicherheitsbeauftragter safety engineer Sicherheitsmaßnahmen safety precautions Sicherheitsmaßnehmen, Sicherkeitsvorkehrungen safety measures Sicherheitsreserve contingency fund Sicherheitsrücklage reserve for contingencies Sicherheitsvorrichtungen safety appliances Sicherheitsüberwachungsabteilung safety engineering department sichern, schützen, Gewähr leisten safeguard sichtbar visible Sinnestäuschung mental delusion so bald wie möglich as soon as practicable sofort beginnende Rente immediate annuity sofort und auf der Stelle then and there sofortig immediately sofortiger Tod instantaneous death Sonderrechtsklausel liberties clause sonstige strittige Punkte other matters in difference sorglos, unachtsam careless sorgsam, sorgfältig careful säumig dafaulting Säumiger defaulter Sozialversicherung social insurance Sozialversicherung (Br.) National Insurance Sozialversicherung (Br.) National Security Sozialversicherungsbeiträge national insurance contributions Sozialversicherungsgesetz (Br.) National Insurance Act Sozialversicherungskarte (Br.) National Insurance Card Sozialversicherungskarte (US) Social Security Card Sozialversicherungsleistungen social insurance benefits Sozialversicherungsträger social insurance carrier spekulatives Risiko speculative risk Sperrgebiet prohibited zone spezialisieren specialize spezialisiert specialized Spezialisierung specialization spezielle Schadensversicherung specific insurance Sportbootversicherung small craft insurance Sprinkleranlage sprinkler installation staatliche Aufsicht government supervision staatliche Aufsicht state supervision staatliche Versicherung state insurance staatlicher Gesundheitsdienst (Br.) National Health Service statisticshe Tabelle statistical table Statistiker statistician statistische Aufstellung statistical table statistische Aufzeichnungen statistical records steigendes Risiko increasing risk Sterbegeld death benefit Sterbegeld death grant Sterbegeld funeral benefit Sterbegeldversicherung funeral costs insurance Sterbegeldversicherung funeral expense insurance Sterberegister register of deaths Sterberisiko mortality risk Sterbeurkunde death certificate Sterblichkeit mortality Sterblichkeitsgewinn mortality gain Sterblichkeitsstruktur pattern of mortality Sterblichkeitstafel mortality table Sterblichkeitsverlust mortality loss Sterblichkeitsziffer mortality rate stichhaltiges Argument valid argument stillschweigend tacit stillschweigende Biligung tacit approval stillschweigende Vereinbarung tacit agreement stillschweigende Zustimmung tacit consent strafrechtlich haftbar criminally liable Strahlenrisiken radiation hazards Strahlungsrisiko nuclear radiation risk Straßenräuberei highway robbery Streikklausel strikes clause Streit, streiten quarrel strikt stringent strittige Angelegenheit matter in dispute strittige Frage question in dispute strittiger Punkt question at issue Sturmversicherung tornado insurance Sturmversicherung windstorm insurance subjektiver Schaden sentimental damage subjektives Risiko moral hazard subjektives Risiko des Versicherten moral hazard Summenrabatt discount for large sums T Tabelle table Tagesgeld daily allowance Tagesgeld daily benefits Tarif festlegen make a tariff Tariffestsetzung tariff making Tarifprämie tariff rate Tatsache fact tatsächliche Lage, Stand der Dinge actual state of affairs tatsächliche Todesfälle actual deaths tatsächlicher Betrag actual amount tatsächlicher Gesamtschaden actual total loss tatsächlicher Schaden actual loss tatsächlicher Totalschaden actual total loss tatsächlicher Verlust, tatsächlicher Schaden actual loss tatsächlicher Wert, wirklicher Wert actual value Taxpolice valued policy technische Überprüfung technical check technischer Verlust technical loss Teilabtretung partial assignment Teilbetrag partial amount Teilhaberversicherung business partnership insurance Teilinvalidität partial disability Teilinvalidität partial disablement teilnehmen participate teilnehmen an take an active part in Teilschaden part damage Teilschaden partial loss Teilschaden, Beschädigung partial damage Teilschaden, Teilverlust partial loss Teilsendung partial shipment teilweise bezahlt, nur zum Teil bezahlt partly paid teilweise, unvollständig, nur zum Teil partial Teilzahlung partial payment Tierversicherung, Viehversicherung livestock insurance tilgen amortize Tilgung amortization Todesfallrisiko death risk Todesfallversicherung whole life insurance Todesnachweis proof of death Todestag day of death Todesursache cause of death Totalschaden, Totalverlust total loss Totalverlust total loss Totalverlust, Totalschaden total loss Totenschein, Sterbeurkunde death certificate täuschen deceive täuschend deceptive Täuschung deceit Transitverlust, Transportschaden loss in transit Transportrisiko peril of transportation Transportrisiko risk of transport Transportrisiko transportation risk Transportversicherung goods in transit insurance Transportversicherung insurance of goods in transit Transportversicherung transit insurance Transportversicherung transport insurance Treibgut flotsam Tresorfachversicherung safe deposit box insurance treten in Kraft come into force Treuhandvertrag deed of trust treulos unfaithful Tropenkrankheit tropical disease tödlicher Unfall fatal accident U Überbrückungszeitraum transitory period Übereinstimmung accord Überentschädigung overcompensation Überfall, überfallen raid Überlassung cession Überlebender survivor Überprüfung der Gesundheit health examination Überschlagen eines Fahrzeugs overturning of a vehicle Überschuss excess Überschwemmungsversicherung flood insurance Überversicherung double insurance Überversicherung excess insurance Überversicherung over-insurance Überversicherung over insurance Überwachungsstelle supervisory board Überzahlung overpayment örtliche Bedingungen local terms über Bord geworfene Ladung, Strandgut jetsam über Durchschnitt, überdurchschnittlich above average überfluten, überschwemmen overflow überfällig overdue überfällige Prämie premium overdue übergeben hand over übergeben, überlassen, aufgeben surrender überhöhter Schadensersatz excessive damages überleben survive überprüfen check übertragbar transferable übertragen confer überversichern over insure überweisen, zahlen remit übliche Abzüge customary deductions Umfang extent Umfang der Versicherungen volume of insurances contracted umfassen, beinhalten, einschließen comprise umfassend comprehensive umfassende Police comprehensive policy umgehend at your earliest convenience Umsatzvolumen volume of trade Umstand, Sachlage circumstance Umstände außer unserer Kontrolle circumstances beyond control Umzugsversicherung furniture-in-transit insurance unabänderlich unalterable unabwendbar, unvermeidlich, unvermeidbar inevitable Unachtsamkeit carelessness unanfechtbar incontestable unangemessen, unzureichend inadequate unausgesprochen unexpressed unbeabsichtigt unintentional unbedacht unmindful unbeglaubigt unauthenticated unbegründet unfounded unbegründeter Anspruch bad claim unbekannt unknown unbenutzt unused unberechtigte Forderung false claim unbeschädigt undamaged unbeschränkt unlimited unbeschränkt haftbar liable without limitation unbeschränkter Eigentümer absolute owner unbestimmt indefinite unbestimmt unascertained unbestritten uncontradicted unbezahlt unpaid unechter Ersatzanspruch fictitious claim unerledigt outstanding unerledigt lassen, nicht tun fail unersetzlicher Verlust irrecoverable loss unerwartet unexpected Unfall accident Unfall durch Ermüdung fatigue accident Unfallentschädigung accident indemnity Unfallrente accident benefit Unfallrisiko accident hazard Unfallrisiko accident risk Unfallsentschädigung compensation for an accident Unfallstatistik accident statistics Unfallverhütung accident prevention Unfallvermeidung accident avoidance Unfallversicherung accident insurance Unfallversicherung casualty insurance Unfallversicherung (US) casualty insurance Unfallversicherungsgesellschaft casualty company Unfallzusatzversicherung (verdoppelt Wert) double-indemnity clause ungedeckt uncovered ungeeignet unfit ungeeignet unqualified ungerechtfertigt unjustified ungesichert unsecured ungewiss, unberechenbar incalculable Ungültigkeit nullity unkontrolliert uncontrolled unlauter unfair unlautere Methoden unfair practices unmittelbar. sofort immediate unmittelbare Folge immediate consequence unmittelbarer Schaden direct loss unregelmäßige Zahlungen irregular payments unrichtige Angabe false pretence unschädlich, ohne Nachteil harmless unsicheres Ereignis uncertain event unsichtbar invisible untauglich unfit unter Ausschluss von Havarie free from average unter Eid on oath unterbewerten underrate unterbewertet, unter Tarif underrated unterbrechen discontinue unterbrechen interrupt Unterbrechung discontinuance Unterbrechung interruption untergegangene Sachen, verlorene Sachen goods destroyed Unterhalt, Lebensunterhalt, Versorgung maintenance Unterhaltungskosten maintenance expenses unterlassen leave something undone unternehmerisches Risiko business hazard unterschätzen underestimate Unterschrift signature Unterstützung benefit unterverpachten, untervermieten underlet unterversichern underinsure unterversichert underinsured Unterversicherung underinsurance ununterbrochen uninterrupted ununterrichtet uninformed unverbrauchte Prämie unearned premium Unverfallbarkeit non-forfeiture unverheiratet unmarried unvermeidbares Ereignis inevitable event unvermeidlich inevitable unvermeidlich unavoidable unvermeidlicher Unfall inevitable accident unverändert unchanged unverpackt, lose loose unverschuldet unindebted unverschuldet without one's fault unversicherbar uninsurable unvorhergesehen unforeseen unvorteilhaft unprofitable unwesentlich unessential unwichtig unimportant Unwissenheit ignorance unwissend ignorant unzureichend versichert inadequately insured Ursache eines Schadens cause of a loss Ursache, Verursachung, verursachen cause Urteil judgment V Valorenversicherung insurance of specie in transit Vandalismus, mutwillige Beschädigung vandalism variabel variable verantwortlich machen, haftbar machen hold responsible Verbesserung betterment verbindlich binding verborgener Fehler latent defect verbrauchte Prämie earned premium verbunden joint verbundene Versicherung comprehensive insurance verdeckter Schaden hidden damage Verdienstausfall loss of earnings vereinbarter Wert agreed value Verfalldatum expiry date verfallen, hinfällig werden, ablaufen lapse verfallene Police lapsed policy Vergleich compromise vergleichbar comparable vergleichen compare Verhaltensstruktur behaviour pattern verheimlichen, verschweigen conceal Verheimlichung, Verschweigen concealment Verjährung des Anspruchs limitation of claim Verjährungsfrist period of limitation Verkaufsumfang volume of sales Verkaufswert selling value Verkehrsdelikt motoring offence Verkehrsrisiko road risk Verkehrsunfall automobile accident Verkehrsunfall motoring accident Verkehrsunfall traffic accident Verkehrsunfallprozess, Prozess wegen Unfalls accident action verlangen, benötigen, wünschen want verlieren lose verlängern extend Verlängerung extension Verlängerung extension of a period Verlängerung der Frist extension of time verloren lost verloren gehen get lost Verlust loss Verlust ausgleichen set off a loss Verlust der Fracht loss of cargo Verlust des Arbeitsplatzes loss of employment Verlust des Schiffes loss of ship Verlust durch Auslaufen loss by leakage Verlust durch Auslaufen ullage, leakage Verlust erleiden experience a loss Verlust in Kauf nehmen take a loss Verlust tragen bear a loss Verlust von Dienstleistungen loss of services Verlust, Schaden loss Verlustausgleich, Entschädigung loss compensation Verlustkonto loss account Verlustrisiko durch Bruchschaden breakage risk Verlustrisiko durch Kesselschaden boilers risk Verlustrisiko durch Revolution revolution risk Verlustvortrag loss carried forward vermeiden avoid Vermeidung avoidance Vermögen fortune Vermögensschaden pecuniary loss Vermögensschaden property loss Vermögensschaden erleiden suffer pecuniary loss Vermögensschäden financial losses vernünftig, zumutbar reasonable veränderliches Risiko, wechselndes Risiko variable risk verpflichten oblige verpflichten undertake Verpflichtung obligation Verpflichtung nicht einhalten default Verpflichtung zu zahlen obligation to pay Verpflichtungen nachkommen meet one's obligations Verrsicherung mit Optionen insurance with options verschiedene Risiken, gemischte Risiken miscellaneous risks Verschwiegenheit secrecy Verschwiegenheitspflicht obligation of secrecy Versehen accidental slip versicherbar insurable versicherbar, versicherungsfähig insurable versicherbare Sache, versicherbares Eigentum insurable property versicherbarer Wert insurable value versicherbares Interesse insurable interest versicherbares Risiko insurable risk Versicherer insurer Versicherer, Versicherungsgeber insurer versichern insure versichert covered by insurance versichert gegen Feuer insured against fire versicherte Gefahr peril insured against versicherte Gefahren, gedeckte Risiken perils insured against versicherte Person insured person versicherte Person person insured versicherte Sache insured object versicherte Sache property insured versicherte Sache, versicherter Gegenstand subject-matter insured Versicherter, Versicherungsnehmer insurant versichertes Objekt, versicherter Gegenstand object insured Versicherung insurance Versicherung nehmen take out insurance Versicherung abschließen effect a policy Versicherung abschließen effect insurance Versicherung abschließen take out insurance Versicherung auf Gegenseitigkeit mutual office Versicherung auf Gegenseitigkeit reciprocal insurance Versicherung auf verbundene Leben joint life assurance Versicherung beantragen apply for insurance Versicherung beantragen propose an insurance Versicherung decken cover insurance Versicherung der Seefrachtgüter cargo insurance Versicherung der Ware insurance of goods Versicherung gegen alle Risiken all-risk insurance Versicherung gegen alle üblichen Risiken insurance against all risks Versicherung gegen Beschädigung insurance against damage Versicherung gegen Bruchschaden insurance against breakage Versicherung gegen Erdbeben earthquake insurance Versicherung gegen Explosion explosion insurance Versicherung gegen Frostschäden frost damage insurance Versicherung kündigen cancel a policy Versicherung mit Prämienrückgewähr insurance with bonus Versicherung mit Selbstbeteiligung co-insurance Versicherung ohne Prämienrückgewähr insurance without bonus Versicherung ohne ärztliche Untersuchung insurance without medical examination Versicherung verkaufen sell insurance Versicherung von Lagerbeständen insurance of stocks Versicherung von Schiff und Ladung insurance of ship and cargo Versicherung zum Wiederbeschaffungswert replacement value insurance Versicherung übernehmen accept insurance Versicherungs-Aktiengesellschaft joint-stock insurance company Versicherungsabteilung insurance department Versicherungsanspruch insurance claim Versicherungsanstalt insurance institution Versicherungsantrag insurance proposal Versicherungsantrag proposal form Versicherungsantrag, Antragsformular application form Versicherungsart type of insurance Versicherungsarten classes of insurance Versicherungsaufsicht insurance control Versicherungsbeamter insurance officer Versicherungsbesteuerung insurance taxation Versicherungsbestimmungen insurance regulations Versicherungsbestimmungen provisions of an insurance policy Versicherungsbetrag amount insured Versicherungsbetrug insurance fraud Versicherungsbrauch, Versicherungstechnik actuarial practice Versicherungsdauer term of insurance Versicherungsdienst insurance service Versicherungsfall insured event Versicherungsfähigkeit insurability Versicherungsgebühr insurance fee Versicherungsgegenstand, Versicherungsobjekt object insured Versicherungsgenossenschaft co-operative insurance association Versicherungsgeschäft insurance business Versicherungsgeschäft nach Einheitstarifen tariff business Versicherungsgeschäft nach Einheitstarifen tariff insurance Versicherungsgeschäfte insurance transactions Versicherungsgeschäfte tätigen transact insurance business Versicherungsgesellschaft insurance company Versicherungsgesellschaft auf Gegenseitigkeit mutual insurance society Versicherungsgesetzgebung insurance legislation Versicherungsgewerbe, Versicherungswesen insurance industry Versicherungsinspektor insurance inspector Versicherungsjahr insurance year Versicherungskalkulation actuarial calculation Versicherungsklausel insurance clause Versicherungskombination insurance combination Versicherungskonsortium syndicate of underwriters Versicherungskosten insurance charges Versicherungskosten insurance expenses Versicherungsleistungen insurance payments Versicherungsmakler insurance broker Versicherungsmarkt insurance market Versicherungsmathematik insurance mathematics Versicherungsmathematiker actuary versicherungsmathematisch actuarial versicherungsmathematische Abteilung actuarial department versicherungsmathematische Tabellen actuarial tables Versicherungsmedizin medico-actuarial science Versicherungsnehmer insurance holder Versicherungsnehmer policy owner Versicherungsnehmer policyholder Versicherungsnummer insurance policy number Versicherungsort insurance location Versicherungsperiode period of insurance Versicherungspolice policy Versicherungsprämie insurance rate Versicherungsprämiensatz insurance rate Versicherungsprovision insurance commission Versicherungsrecht insurance law Versicherungsrisiken underwriting risks Versicherungssachverständiger insurance adjuster Versicherungsschutz insurance cover Versicherungsschutz insurance coverage Versicherungsstatistik actuarial statistics Versicherungsstatistik insurance statistics Versicherungssteuer insurance tax Versicherungssumme sum insured Versicherungstätigkeiten insurance activities Versicherungsträger insurance carrier Versicherungsträger insurance company Versicherungsträger insurer Versicherungsverein auf Gegenseitigkeit mutual insurance association Versicherungsverein auf Gegenseitigkeit (US) mutual insurance corporation Versicherungsverkäufer insurance salesman Versicherungsvertrag contract of insurance Versicherungsvertrag insurance agreement Versicherungsvertrag insurance contract Versicherungsvertreter insurance agent Versicherungsvertreter insurance canvasser Versicherungsvertreter insurance salesman Versicherungswerber insurance canvasser Versicherungswert actuarial value Versicherungswert insurable value Versicherungswert insurance value Versicherungswert, versicherter Wert insured value Versicherungswirtschaft insurance industry Versicherungszertifikat certificate of insurance Versicherungszertifikat insurance certificate Versicherungszweig class of insurance Versorgung, Reserve, Rücklage provision Versorgungsklausel maintenance clause Versäumnis failure Versäumnis lapse versperren obstruct versteckter Fehler hidden fault versteckter Mangel hidden defect verstehen understand Versteuerung von Versicherungen insurance taxation Verteilung der Rückvergütung allotment of bonus Verteilung des Risikos, Risikoverteilung distribution of risks Verteilungsmethode method of allocation Vertrag auf Lebenszeit life contract Vertrag für nichtig erklären avoid a contract Vertrag unterzeichnen sign a contract vertraglich verpflichtet liable under a contract vertragliche Vereinbarung contractual agreement Vertragserfüllung performance of a contract Vertragserneuerung renewal of contract vertragsähnliche Vereinbarung quasi agreement Vertragspartei party to the contract Vertragsschaden damage for breach of contract vertrauen, Vertrauen trust vertraulich confidential Vertreter agent Vertreter einer Versicherungsgesellschaft insurance representative Vertreterstab, Vertreterorganisation sales force verursachter Schaden damage caused verursachter Schaden damage done Verwaltung administration Verwaltung management Verwaltungsabteilung administration department Verwaltungskosten management costs Verwaltungskosten management expenses Verwaltungsrat administrative board verwechseln, Verwechslung mistake Verwechslung mistake in name Verzicht waiver verzichten waive Verzichterklärung notice of abandonment Viehversicherung cattle insurance Vierteljahresprämie quarterly premium voll gedeckter Schaden loss fully covered by insurance voller Wert full value Vollinvalidität total disability Vollkasko- und Insassenversicherung fully comprehensive cover Vollkaskopolice comprehensive policy Vollkaskoversicherung comprehensive insurance Vollmacht authority vollständiger Name full name von Fall zu Fall as the case arises von Haus zu Haus warehouse to warehouse von jetzt ab as from now vor Verlust bewahren, vor Schaden bewahren save from a loss voraussetzen, als gegeben annehmen take for granted vorbereiten prepare vordatieren antedate vordatieren date forward Vorfall, Ereignis incident Vorfall, Ereignis occurrence vorfallen, ereignen occur vorgehen, maßgeblich sein override vorherige Krankheit previous illness vorherige Versicherung, Vorversicherung previous insurance vorlegen, einreichen, unterbreiten submit vorlegen, vorbringen lay vorliegende Sache, vorliegender Fall matter in hand vorläufiger Versicherungsschein insurance note vorläufiger Versicherungsschutz provisional cover Vorrang haben take priority Vorrang, Vorrecht, Priorität priority Vorrecht eines Anspruchs priority of a claim Vorschlag, Antrag proposal Vorschrift, Verordnung, Bestimmung, Klausel provision Vorschriften einhalten comply with formalities Vorschuss advance vorschüssige Zahlung payment in advance vorsehen, verordnen, bestimmen provide Vorsicht, Warnung, warnen caution Vorsorgereserve provident fund vorsätzlich willfully vorsätzliche Handlung willful act vorsätzliche Körperverletzung malicious injury vorsätzliche Unterlassung willful default vorsätzliches Missverhalten willful misconduct Vorspiegelung falscher Tatsachen false pretences Vorspiegelung falscher Tatsachen willful misrepresentation Vorteil advantage Vorteil ziehen aus take advantage of vorteilhaft advantageous Vorvertrag preliminary contract Vorwand pretence vorzeitige Fälligkeit acceleration vorübergehend temporary vorübergehende Arbeitsunfähigkeit temporary disability vorübergehende Invalidität temporary disability vorübergehender Zeitraum transitory period W Wagendiebstahl car theft wahrheitsgetreue Kopie true copy wahrscheinlich likely wahrscheinliche Lebensdauer probable duration of life Wahrscheinlichkeit likelihood Wahrscheinlichkeit probability Wahrscheinlichkeit eines Ereignisses probability of an event Wahrscheinlichkeit eines Schadens probability of a loss Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung calculus of probability Wahrscheinlichkeitstheorie theory of probability Waldversicherung forest insurance Warengattung type of goods Warengattung type of merchandise Warengattung, Art von Ware kind of goods Warenversicherung insurance of merchandise warten wait Wartezeit waiting period Wasserschaden water damage Wasserschadenversicherung water damage insurance Wasserschadenversicherung sprinkler leakage insurance Wegabweichungsklausel deviation clause wegen eines Formfehlers for want of form Weglassung omission weitere Angaben, weitere Einzelheiten further particulars weiteres Beweismaterial other evidence Weltpolice world-wide policy Werbeabteilung advertising department Werbeabteilung public relations department Werbeabteilung publicity department Wert value Wert der beschädigten Ware damaged value Wert der unbeschädigten Ware sound value Wert des Wagens value of car Wert einer Ware value of a good Wert eines Gebäudes value of a building Wert im beschädigten Zustand damaged value Wert im unbeschädigten Zustand sound value Wertabnahme, Wertminderung decrease in value Wertbrief insured letter Werterhöhungen, Verbesserungen improvements Wertminderung depreciation in value Wertminderung, Verfall deterioration Wertpaket insured parcel Wertsachen valuables Wertsachenversicherung insurance of valuables wertvoll valuable Wertzunahme increase in value wesentlich falsche Darstellung material misrepresentation wesentlicher Bestandteil essential element Wetterversicherung, Regenversicherung weather insurance wie vereinbart as per agreement wie üblich as customary wieder flott machen refloat Wiedereingliederung, Rehabilitation rehabilitation Wiedererstattung, Rückerstattung recovery wiederherstellen restore Wiederinkraftsetzung reinstatement Wiederinkraftsetzungsklausel reinstatement clause Wiederinkraftsetzungswert reinstatement value willkürlich arbitrary wirklich berechtigt actually entitled wirkliche Sachverhalt real facts wirksam werden come into operation wirksam werden take effect wirtschaftliches Risiko economic risk wissentlich knowing Witwenrente widow's annuity Witwenrente widow's pension Witwenversicherung widow's insurance Wochenbeitrag weekly contribution Wochengeld maternity allowance Wochengeld, Wochenhilfe, Mutterschaftsgeld maternity benefit wohlbehalten safe and sound Wohltätigkeitsverein auf Gegenseitigkeit mutual benefit association Wohngebiet residential zone wohnhaft resident Wohnungseinbruchsversicherung residence burglary insurance während der Arbeitszeit on the job X Y Z zahlbar werden become payable Zahlung der Prämie, Prämienzahlung premium pay Zahlung eines Pauschalbetrages lump sum payment Zahlung in Raten payment by installments Zahlungserleichterungen facilities of payment Zahlungsfrist term of payment zahlungspflichtig liable to pay Zahlungsunfähigkeit insolvency Zahlungsweise mode of payment Zahnärztliche Behandlung dental treatment zeichnungsberechtigt authorized to sign Zeitdauer term Zeitpolice time policy Zeitrente, Rente auf Zeit temporary annuity Zeitverlust loss of time Zeitwert present value Zentrale general office Zentrale, Hauptbüro head office Zentralverwaltung, Hauptverwaltung head office Zession cession Zettel slip Zinseszins compound interest Zinssatz, Zinsrate rate of interest Zinstabelle interest table Zinstabelle table of interest Zone zone zu beanstanden objectionable zu den Akten nehmen take on file zu einem Vergleich kommen come to terms zu einer Pension berechtigend pensionable zu erneuern renewable zu gunsten von for the benefit of zu günstigen Bedingungen on easy terms zu hoch bezahlen overpay zu zahlender Betrag amount payable Zufall, Aissicht chance zufällig accidentally zufällig accidental zufällig incidental zufälliger Verlust, zufälliger Schaden loss by accident zufälliges Ereignis fortuitous event zum Schein in pretence zur Rückversicherung angenommen reinsurance accepted zur Selbsthilfe greifen take the law into one's hands zur Zeit, bis auf weiteres for the time being zurück erhalten get back zurück datieren date back zurückgeben return zurückziehen, widerrufen take back Zusage, Versprechen, zusagen, versprechen promise Zusammenbruch breakdown Zusammenfassung, Kurzfassung, Auszug abstract Zusammenstoß collision zusammentreffen concurrence Zusatz, Abänderung amendment Zusatz, Ergänzung endorsement Zusatz, Zugang addition Zusatzbedingungen additional conditions Zusatzpolice supplementary policy Zusatzprämie additional premium Zusatzprämie supplementary premium Zusatzversicherung, Ergänzungsversicherung complementary insurance Zusatzversicherung, zusätzliche Versicherung additional insurance zusichern assure Zusicherung assurance zusätzlich additional zusätzliche Kosten additional expenses zusätzliche Sicherheit additional security zusätzliche Zahlung additional payment zuviel Entschädigung zahlen overcompensate zuviel zahlen overpay Zuwachs accrual zuwachsen, auflaufen accrue zuweisen allocate zuweisen allot Zuweisung allocation Zuweisung allotment Zuweisung an die Reserven allocation to reserves Zweck, Absicht, Ziel purpose Zweifel, Bedenken, zweifeln, bezweifeln doubt zweifelhaft doubtful zweiseitiges Risiko bilateral risk zweite Versicherung eingehen effect a second policy zwingend, obligatorisch, obligat obligatory zzzzz zzzzz zzzz COPYRIGHT WINFRIED HONIG zzzzz zzzzz NUERNBERG 2001 zzzzz zzzzz zzzzz zzzzz WINFRIED HONIG zzzzz zzzzz FRANZ-REICHEL-RING 12 zzzzz zzzzz 90473 Nuernberg zzzzz zzzzz Germany zzzzz zzzzz zzzzz zzzzz Tel. 0911 / 80 84 45 zzzzz zzzzz zzzzz zzzzz winfried.honig@online.de zzzzz zzzzz zzzzz zzzzz http://dict.leo.org zzzzz zzzzz http://www.dicdata.de zzzzz zzzzz http://mrhoney.purespace.de/latest.htm zzzzz zzzzz zzzzz End of Mr Honey's Insurance Dictionary (German-English) (C)2001, 2002 by Winfried Honig 
37134	----	[ Transcriber's Notes: Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as possible, including inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation. Some corrections of spelling and punctuation have been made. They are listed at the end of the text. Where examples were printed in two columns in the original, the left column has been indented by two spaces, the right one by four. Italic text has been marked with _underscores_. Bold text has been marked with =equals signs=. ] THE ELEMENTS OF STYLE BY WILLIAM STRUNK, Jr. PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH IN CORNELL UNIVERSITY NEW YORK HARCOURT, BRACE AND COMPANY COPYRIGHT, 1918, 1919, BY WILLIAM STRUNK, JR. COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY HARCOURT, BRACE AND HOWE, INC. THE MAPLE PRESS YORK PA CONTENTS Page I. Introductory 5 II. Elementary Rules of Usage 7 1. Form the possessive singular of nouns by adding _'s_ 7 2. In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma after each term except the last 7 3. Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas 8 4. Place a comma before a conjunction introducing a co-ordinate clause 10 5. Do not join independent clauses by a comma 11 6. Do not break sentences in two 12 7. A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject 13 III. Elementary Principles of Composition 15 8. Make the paragraph the unit of composition: one paragraph to each topic 15 9. As a rule, begin each paragraph with a topic sentence; end it in conformity with the beginning 17 10. Use the active voice 19 11. Put statements in positive form 21 12. Use definite, specific, concrete language 22 13. Omit needless words 24 14. Avoid a succession of loose sentences 25 15. Express co-ordinate ideas in similar form 26 16. Keep related words together 28 17. In summaries, keep to one tense 29 18. Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end 31 IV. A Few Matters of Form 33 V. Words and Expressions Commonly Misused 36 VI. Spelling 48 VII. Exercises on Chapters II and III 50 I. INTRODUCTORY This book aims to give in brief space the principal requirements of plain English style. It aims to lighten the task of instructor and student by concentrating attention (in Chapters II and III) on a few essentials, the rules of usage and principles of composition most commonly violated. In accordance with this plan it lays down three rules for the use of the comma, instead of a score or more, and one for the use of the semicolon, in the belief that these four rules provide for all the internal punctuation that is required by nineteen sentences out of twenty. Similarly, it gives in Chapter III only those principles of the paragraph and the sentence which are of the widest application. The book thus covers only a small portion of the field of English style. The experience of its writer has been that once past the essentials, students profit most by individual instruction based on the problems of their own work, and that each instructor has his own body of theory, which he may prefer to that offered by any textbook. The numbers of the sections may be used as references in correcting manuscript. The writer's colleagues in the Department of English in Cornell University have greatly helped him in the preparation of his manuscript. Mr. George McLane Wood has kindly consented to the inclusion under Rule 10 of some material from his _Suggestions to Authors_. The following books are recommended for reference or further study: in connection with Chapters II and IV, F. Howard Collins, _Author and Printer_ (Henry Frowde); Chicago University Press, _Manual of Style_; T. L. De Vinne, _Correct Composition_ (The Century Company); Horace Hart, _Rules for Compositors and Printers_ (Oxford University Press); George McLane Wood, _Extracts from the Style-Book of the Government Printing Office_ (United States Geological Survey); in connection with Chapters III and V, _The King's English_ (Oxford University Press); Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch, _The Art of Writing_ (Putnam), especially the chapter, Interlude on Jargon; George McLane Wood, _Suggestions to Authors_ (United States Geological Survey); John Lesslie Hall, _English Usage_ (Scott, Foresman and Co.); James P. Kelley, _Workmanship in Words_ (Little, Brown and Co.). In these will be found full discussions of many points here briefly treated and an abundant store of illustrations to supplement those given in this book. It is an old observation that the best writers sometimes disregard the rules of rhetoric. When they do so, however, the reader will usually find in the sentence some compensating merit, attained at the cost of the violation. Unless he is certain of doing as well, he will probably do best to follow the rules. After he has learned, by their guidance, to write plain English adequate for everyday uses, let him look, for the secrets of style, to the study of the masters of literature. II. ELEMENTARY RULES OF USAGE 1. Form the possessive singular of nouns by adding 's. Follow this rule whatever the final consonant. Thus write, Charles's friend Burns's poems the witch's malice This is the usage of the United States Government Printing Office and of the Oxford University Press. Exceptions are the possessive of ancient proper names in _-es_ and _-is_, the possessive _Jesus'_, and such forms as _for conscience' sake_, _for righteousness' sake_. But such forms as _Achilles' heel_, _Moses' laws_, _Isis' temple_ are commonly replaced by the heel of Achilles the laws of Moses the temple of Isis The pronominal possessives _hers_, _its_, _theirs_, _yours_, and _oneself_ have no apostrophe. 2. In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma after each term except the last. Thus write, red, white, and blue gold, silver, or copper He opened the letter, read it, and made a note of its contents. This is also the usage of the Government Printing Office and of the Oxford University Press. In the names of business firms the last comma is omitted, as, Brown, Shipley & Co. 3. Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas. The best way to see a country, unless you are pressed for time, is to travel on foot. This rule is difficult to apply; it is frequently hard to decide whether a single word, such as _however_, or a brief phrase, is or is not parenthetic. If the interruption to the flow of the sentence is but slight, the writer may safely omit the commas. But whether the interruption be slight or considerable, he must never insert one comma and omit the other. Such punctuation as Marjorie's husband, Colonel Nelson paid us a visit yesterday, or My brother you will be pleased to hear, is now in perfect health, is indefensible. If a parenthetic expression is preceded by a conjunction, place the first comma before the conjunction, not after it. He saw us coming, and unaware that we had learned of his treachery, greeted us with a smile. Always to be regarded as parenthetic and to be enclosed between commas (or, at the end of the sentence, between comma and period) are the following: (1) the year, when forming part of a date, and the day of the month, when following the day of the week: February to July, 1916. April 6, 1917. Monday, November 11, 1918. (2) the abbreviations _etc._ and _jr._ (3) non-restrictive relative clauses, that is, those which do not serve to identify or define the antecedent noun, and similar clauses introduced by conjunctions indicating time or place. The audience, which had at first been indifferent, became more and more interested. In this sentence the clause introduced by _which_ does not serve to tell which of several possible audiences is meant; what audience is in question is supposed to be already known. The clause adds, parenthetically, a statement supplementing that in the main clause. The sentence is virtually a combination of two statements which might have been made independently: The audience had at first been indifferent. It became more and more interested. Compare the restrictive relative clause, not set off by commas, in the sentence, The candidate who best meets these requirements will obtain the place. Here the clause introduced by _who_ does serve to tell which of several possible candidates is meant; the sentence cannot be split up into two independent statements. The difference in punctuation in the two sentences following is based on the same principle: Nether Stowey, where Coleridge wrote _The Rime of the Ancient Mariner_, is a few miles from Bridgewater. The day will come when you will admit your mistake. Nether Stowey is completely identified by its name; the statement about Coleridge is therefore supplementary and parenthetic. The _day_ spoken of is identified only by the dependent clause, which is therefore restrictive. Similar in principle to the enclosing of parenthetic expressions between commas is the setting off by commas of phrases or dependent clauses preceding or following the main clause of a sentence. Partly by hard fighting, partly by diplomatic skill, they enlarged their dominions to the east, and rose to royal rank with the possession of Sicily, exchanged afterwards for Sardinia. Other illustrations may be found in sentences quoted under Rules 4, 5, 6, 7, 16, and 18. The writer should be careful not to set off independent clauses by commas: see under Rule 5. 4. Place a comma before a conjunction introducing a co-ordinate clause. The early records of the city have disappeared, and the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed. The situation is perilous, but there is still one chance of escape. Sentences of this type, isolated from their context, may seem to be in need of rewriting. As they make complete sense when the comma is reached, the second clause has the appearance of an afterthought. Further, _and_ is the least specific of connectives. Used between independent clauses, it indicates only that a relation exists between them without defining that relation. In the example above, the relation is that of cause and result. The two sentences might be rewritten: As the early records of the city have disappeared, the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed. Although the situation is perilous, there is still one chance of escape. Or the subordinate clauses might be replaced by phrases: Owing to the disappearance of the early records of the city, the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed. In this perilous situation, there is still one chance of escape. But a writer may err by making his sentences too uniformly compact and periodic, and an occasional loose sentence prevents the style from becoming too formal and gives the reader a certain relief. Consequently, loose sentences of the type first quoted are common in easy, unstudied writing. But a writer should be careful not to construct too many of his sentences after this pattern (see Rule 14). Two-part sentences of which the second member is introduced by _as_ (in the sense of _because_), _for_, _or_, _nor_, and _while_ (in the sense of _and at the same time_) likewise require a comma before the conjunction. If the second member is introduced by an adverb, a semicolon, not a comma, is required (see Rule 5). The connectives _so_ and _yet_ may be used either as adverbs or as conjunctions, accordingly as the second clause is felt to be co-ordinate or subordinate; consequently either mark of punctuation may be justified. But these uses of _so_ (equivalent to _accordingly_ or to _so that_) are somewhat colloquial and should, as a rule, be avoided in writing. A simple correction, usually serviceable, is to omit the word _so_ and begin the first clause with _as_ or _since_: I had never been in the place before; so I had difficulty in finding my way about. As I had never been in the place before, I had difficulty in finding my way about. If a dependent clause, or an introductory phrase requiring to be set off by a comma, precedes the second independent clause, no comma is needed after the conjunction. The situation is perilous, but if we are prepared to act promptly, there is still one chance of escape. When the subject is the same for both clauses and is expressed only once, a comma is required if the connective is _but_. If the connective is _and_, the comma should be omitted if the relation between the two statements is close or immediate. I have heard his arguments, but am still unconvinced. He has had several years' experience and is thoroughly competent. 5. Do not join independent clauses by a comma. If two or more clauses, grammatically complete and not joined by a conjunction, are to form a single compound sentence, the proper mark of punctuation is a semicolon. Stevenson's romances are entertaining; they are full of exciting adventures. It is nearly half past five; we cannot reach town before dark. It is of course equally correct to write the above as two sentences each, replacing the semicolons by periods. Stevenson's romances are entertaining. They are full of exciting adventures. It is nearly half past five. We cannot reach town before dark. If a conjunction is inserted the proper mark is a comma (Rule 4). Stevenson's romances are entertaining, for they are full of exciting adventures. It is nearly half past five, and we cannot reach town before dark. A comparison of the three forms given above will show clearly the advantage of the first. It is, at least in the examples given, better than the second form, because it suggests the close relationship between the two statements in a way that the second does not attempt, and better than the third, because briefer and therefore more forcible. Indeed it may be said that this simple method of indicating relationship between statements is one of the most useful devices of composition. The relationship, as above, is commonly one of cause or of consequence. Note that if the second clause is preceded by an adverb, such as _accordingly_, _besides_, _then_, _therefore_, or _thus_, and not by a conjunction, the semicolon is still required. Two exceptions to the rule may be admitted. If the clauses are very short, and are alike in form, a comma is usually permissible: Man proposes, God disposes. The gate swung apart, the bridge fell, the portcullis was drawn up. Note that in these examples the relation is not one of cause or consequence. Also in the colloquial form of expression, I hardly knew him, he was so changed, a comma, not a semicolon, is required. But this form of expression is inappropriate in writing, except in the dialogue of a story or play, or perhaps in a familiar letter. 6. Do not break sentences in two. In other words, do not use periods for commas. I met them on a Cunard liner several years ago. Coming home from Liverpool to New York. He was an interesting talker. A man who had traveled all over the world and lived in half a dozen countries. In both these examples, the first period should be replaced by a comma, and the following word begun with a small letter. It is permissible to make an emphatic word or expression serve the purpose of a sentence and to punctuate it accordingly: Again and again he called out. No reply. The writer must, however, be certain that the emphasis is warranted, and that he will not be suspected of a mere blunder in syntax or in punctuation. Rules 3, 4, 5, and 6 cover the most important principles in the punctuation of ordinary sentences; they should be so thoroughly mastered that their application becomes second nature. 7. A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject. Walking slowly down the road, he saw a woman accompanied by two children. The word _walking_ refers to the subject of the sentence, not to the woman. If the writer wishes to make it refer to the woman, he must recast the sentence: He saw a woman accompanied by two children, walking slowly down the road. Participial phrases preceded by a conjunction or by a preposition, nouns in apposition, adjectives, and adjective phrases come under the same rule if they begin the sentence. On arriving in Chicago, his friends met him at the station. When he arrived (or, On his arrival) in Chicago, his friends met him at the station. A soldier of proved valor, they entrusted him with the defence of the city. A soldier of proved valor, he was entrusted with the defence of the city. Young and inexperienced, the task seemed easy to me. Young and inexperienced, I thought the task easy. Without a friend to counsel him, the temptation proved irresistible. Without a friend to counsel him, he found the temptation irresistible. Sentences violating this rule are often ludicrous. Being in a dilapidated condition, I was able to buy the house very cheap. Wondering irresolutely what to do next, the clock struck twelve. III. ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION 8. Make the paragraph the unit of composition: one paragraph to each topic. If the subject on which you are writing is of slight extent, or if you intend to treat it very briefly, there may be no need of subdividing it into topics. Thus a brief description, a brief summary of a literary work, a brief account of a single incident, a narrative merely outlining an action, the setting forth of a single idea, any one of these is best written in a single paragraph. After the paragraph has been written, examine it to see whether subdivision will not improve it. Ordinarily, however, a subject requires subdivision into topics, each of which should be made the subject of a paragraph. The object of treating each topic in a paragraph by itself is, of course, to aid the reader. The beginning of each paragraph is a signal to him that a new step in the development of the subject has been reached. The extent of subdivision will vary with the length of the composition. For example, a short notice of a book or poem might consist of a single paragraph. One slightly longer might consist of two paragraphs: A. Account of the work. B. Critical discussion. A report on a poem, written for a class in literature, might consist of seven paragraphs: A. Facts of composition and publication. B. Kind of poem; metrical form. C. Subject. D. Treatment of subject. E. For what chiefly remarkable. F. Wherein characteristic of the writer. G. Relationship to other works. The contents of paragraphs C and D would vary with the poem. Usually, paragraph C would indicate the actual or imagined circumstances of the poem (the situation), if these call for explanation, and would then state the subject and outline its development. If the poem is a narrative in the third person throughout, paragraph C need contain no more than a concise summary of the action. Paragraph D would indicate the leading ideas and show how they are made prominent, or would indicate what points in the narrative are chiefly emphasized. A novel might be discussed under the heads: A. Setting. B. Plot. C. Characters. D. Purpose. An historical event might be discussed under the heads: A. What led up to the event. B. Account of the event. C. What the event led up to. In treating either of these last two subjects, the writer would probably find it necessary to subdivide one or more of the topics here given. As a rule, single sentences should not be written or printed as paragraphs. An exception may be made of sentences of transition, indicating the relation between the parts of an exposition or argument. Frequent exceptions are also necessary in textbooks, guidebooks, and other works in which many topics are treated briefly. In dialogue, each speech, even if only a single word, is a paragraph by itself; that is, a new paragraph begins with each change of speaker. The application of this rule, when dialogue and narrative are combined, is best learned from examples in well-printed works of fiction. 9. As a rule, begin each paragraph with a topic sentence, end it in conformity with the beginning. Again, the object is to aid the reader. The practice here recommended enables him to discover the purpose of each paragraph as he begins to read it, and to retain this purpose in mind as he ends it. For this reason, the most generally useful kind of paragraph, particularly in exposition and argument, is that in which (a) the topic sentence comes at or near the beginning; (b) the succeeding sentences explain or establish or develop the statement made in the topic sentence; and (c) the final sentence either emphasizes the thought of the topic sentence or states some important consequence. Ending with a digression, or with an unimportant detail, is particularly to be avoided. If the paragraph forms part of a larger composition, its relation to what precedes, or its function as a part of the whole, may need to be expressed. This can sometimes be done by a mere word or phrase (_again_; _therefore_; _for the same reason_) in the topic sentence. Sometimes, however, it is expedient to precede the topic sentence by one or more sentences of introduction or transition. If more than one such sentence is required, it is generally better to set apart the transitional sentences as a separate paragraph. According to the writer's purpose, he may, as indicated above, relate the body of the paragraph to the topic sentence in one or more of several different ways. He may make the meaning of the topic sentence clearer by restating it in other forms, by defining its terms, by denying the contrary, by giving illustrations or specific instances; he may establish it by proofs; or he may develop it by showing its implications and consequences. In a long paragraph, he may carry out several of these processes. 1 Now, to be properly enjoyed, a walking tour should be gone upon alone. 2 If you go in a company, or even in pairs, it is no longer a walking tour in anything but name; it is something else and more in the nature of a picnic. 3 A walking tour should be gone upon alone, because freedom is of the essence; because you should be able to stop and go on, and follow this way or that, as the freak takes you; and because you must have your own pace, and neither trot alongside a champion walker, nor mince in time with a girl. 4 And you must be open to all impressions and let your thoughts take colour from what you see. 5 You should be as a pipe for any wind to play upon. 6 "I cannot see the wit," says Hazlitt, "of walking and talking at the same time. 7 When I am in the country, I wish to vegetate like the country," which is the gist of all that can be said upon the matter. 8 There should be no cackle of voices at your elbow, to jar on the meditative silence of the morning. 9 And so long as a man is reasoning he cannot surrender himself to that fine intoxication that comes of much motion in the open air, that begins in a sort of dazzle and sluggishness of the brain, and ends in a peace that passes comprehension.--Stevenson, _Walking Tours_. 1 Topic sentence. 2 The meaning made clearer by denial of the contrary. 3 The topic sentence repeated, in abridged form, and supported by three reasons; the meaning of the third ("you must have your own pace") made clearer by denying the contrary. 4 A fourth reason, stated in two forms. 5 The same reason, stated in still another form. 6-7 The same reason as stated by Hazlitt. 8 Repetition, in paraphrase, of the quotation from Hazlitt. 9 Final statement of the fourth reason, in language amplified and heightened to form a strong conclusion. 1 It was chiefly in the eighteenth century that a very different conception of history grew up. 2 Historians then came to believe that their task was not so much to paint a picture as to solve a problem; to explain or illustrate the successive phases of national growth, prosperity, and adversity. 3 The history of morals, of industry, of intellect, and of art; the changes that take place in manners or beliefs; the dominant ideas that prevailed in successive periods; the rise, fall, and modification of political constitutions; in a word, all the conditions of national well-being became the subject of their works. 4 They sought rather to write a history of peoples than a history of kings. 5 They looked especially in history for the chain of causes and effects. 6 They undertook to study in the past the physiology of nations, and hoped by applying the experimental method on a large scale to deduce some lessons of real value about the conditions on which the welfare of society mainly depend.--Lecky, _The Political Value of History_. 1 Topic sentence. 2 The meaning of the topic sentence made clearer; the new conception of history defined. 3 The definition expanded. 4 The definition explained by contrast. 5 The definition supplemented: another element in the new conception of history. 6 Conclusion: an important consequence of the new conception of history. In narration and description the paragraph sometimes begins with a concise, comprehensive statement serving to hold together the details that follow. The breeze served us admirably. The campaign opened with a series of reverses. The next ten or twelve pages were filled with a curious set of entries. But this device, if too often used, would become a mannerism. More commonly the opening sentence simply indicates by its subject with what the paragraph is to be principally concerned. At length I thought I might return towards the stockade. He picked up the heavy lamp from the table and began to explore. Another flight of steps, and they emerged on the roof. The brief paragraphs of animated narrative, however, are often without even this semblance of a topic sentence. The break between them serves the purpose of a rhetorical pause, throwing into prominence some detail of the action. 10. Use the active voice. The active voice is usually more direct and vigorous than the passive: I shall always remember my first visit to Boston. This is much better than My first visit to Boston will always be remembered by me. The latter sentence is less direct, less bold, and less concise. If the writer tries to make it more concise by omitting "by me," My first visit to Boston will always be remembered, it becomes indefinite: is it the writer, or some person undisclosed, or the world at large, that will always remember this visit? This rule does not, of course, mean that the writer should entirely discard the passive voice, which is frequently convenient and sometimes necessary. The dramatists of the Restoration are little esteemed to-day. Modern readers have little esteem for the dramatists of the Restoration. The first would be the right form in a paragraph on the dramatists of the Restoration; the second, in a paragraph on the tastes of modern readers. The need of making a particular word the subject of the sentence will often, as in these examples, determine which voice is to be used. As a rule, avoid making one passive depend directly upon another. Gold was not allowed to be exported. It was forbidden to export gold (The export of gold was prohibited). He has been proved to have been seen entering the building. It has been proved that he was seen to enter the building. In both the examples above, before correction, the word properly related to the second passive is made the subject of the first. A common fault is to use as the subject of a passive construction a noun which expresses the entire action, leaving to the verb no function beyond that of completing the sentence. A survey of this region was made in 1900. This region was surveyed in 1900. Mobilization of the army was rapidly effected. The army was rapidly mobilized. Confirmation of these reports cannot be obtained. These reports cannot be confirmed. Compare the sentence, "The export of gold was prohibited," in which the predicate "was prohibited" expresses something not implied in "export." The habitual use of the active voice makes for forcible writing. This is true not only in narrative principally concerned with action, but in writing of any kind. Many a tame sentence of description or exposition can be made lively and emphatic by substituting a verb in the active voice for some such perfunctory expression as _there is_, or _could be heard_. There were a great number of dead leaves lying on the ground. Dead leaves covered the ground. The sound of a guitar somewhere in the house could be heard. Somewhere in the house a guitar hummed sleepily. The reason that he left college was that his health became impaired. Failing health compelled him to leave college. It was not long before he was very sorry that he had said what he had. He soon repented his words. 11. Put statements in positive form. Make definite assertions. Avoid tame, colorless, hesitating, non-committal language. Use the word _not_ as a means of denial or in antithesis, never as a means of evasion. He was not very often on time. He usually came late. He did not think that studying Latin was much use. He thought the study of Latin useless. _The Taming of the Shrew_ is rather weak in spots. Shakespeare does not portray Katharine as a very admirable character, nor does Bianca remain long in memory as an important character in Shakespeare's works. The women in _The Taming of the Shrew_ are unattractive. Katharine is disagreeable, Bianca insignificant. The last example, before correction, is indefinite as well as negative. The corrected version, consequently, is simply a guess at the writer's intention. All three examples show the weakness inherent in the word _not_. Consciously or unconsciously, the reader is dissatisfied with being told only what is not; he wishes to be told what is. Hence, as a rule, it is better to express even a negative in positive form. not honest dishonest not important trifling did not remember forgot did not pay any attention to ignored did not have much confidence in distrusted The antithesis of negative and positive is strong: Not charity, but simple justice. Not that I loved Caesar less, but Rome the more. Negative words other than _not_ are usually strong: The sun never sets upon the British flag. 12. Use definite, specific, concrete language. Prefer the specific to the general, the definite to the vague, the concrete to the abstract. A period of unfavorable weather set in. It rained every day for a week. He showed satisfaction as he took possession of his well-earned reward. He grinned as he pocketed the coin. There is a general agreement among those who have enjoyed the experience that surf-riding is productive of great exhilaration. All who have tried surf-riding agree that it is most exhilarating. If those who have studied the art of writing are in accord on any one point, it is on this, that the surest method of arousing and holding the attention of the reader is by being specific, definite, and concrete. Critics have pointed out how much of the effectiveness of the greatest writers, Homer, Dante, Shakespeare, results from their constant definiteness and concreteness. Browning, to cite a more modern author, affords many striking examples. Take, for instance, the lines from _My Last Duchess_, Sir, 'twas all one! My favour at her breast, The dropping of the daylight in the west, The bough of cherries some officious fool Broke in the orchard for her, the white mule She rode with round the terrace--all and each Would draw from her alike the approving speech, Or blush, at least, and those which end the poem, Notice Neptune, though, Taming a sea-horse, thought a rarity, Which Claus of Innsbruck cast in bronze for me. These words call up pictures. Recall how in _The Bishop Orders his Tomb in St. Praxed's Church_ "the Renaissance spirit--its worldliness, inconsistency, pride, hypocrisy, ignorance of itself, love of art, of luxury, of good Latin," to quote Ruskin's comment on the poem, is made manifest in specific details and in concrete terms. Prose, in particular narrative and descriptive prose, is made vivid by the same means. If the experiences of Jim Hawkins and of David Balfour, of Kim, of Nostromo, have seemed for the moment real to countless readers, if in reading Carlyle we have almost the sense of being physically present at the taking of the Bastille, it is because of the definiteness of the details and the concreteness of the terms used. It is not that every detail is given; that would be impossible, as well as to no purpose; but that all the significant details are given, and not vaguely, but with such definiteness that the reader, in imagination, can project himself into the scene. In exposition and in argument, the writer must likewise never lose his hold upon the concrete, and even when he is dealing with general principles, he must give particular instances of their application. "This superiority of specific expressions is clearly due to the effort required to translate words into thoughts. As we do not think in generals, but in particulars--as whenever any class of things is referred to, we represent it to ourselves by calling to mind individual members of it, it follows that when an abstract word is used, the hearer or reader has to choose, from his stock of images, one or more by which he may figure to himself the genus mentioned. In doing this, some delay must arise, some force be expended; and if by employing a specific term an appropriate image can be at once suggested, an economy is achieved, and a more vivid impression produced." Herbert Spencer, from whose _Philosophy of Style_ the preceding paragraph is quoted, illustrates the principle by the sentences: In proportion as the manners, customs, and amusements of a nation are cruel and barbarous, the regulations of their penal code will be severe. In proportion as men delight in battles, bull-fights, and combats of gladiators, will they punish by hanging, burning, and the rack. 13. Omit needless words. Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts. This requires not that the writer make all his sentences short, or that he avoid all detail and treat his subjects only in outline, but that he make every word tell. Many expressions in common use violate this principle: the question as to whether whether (the question whether) there is no doubt but that no doubt (doubtless) used for fuel purposes used for fuel he is a man who he in a hasty manner hastily this is a subject which this subject His story is a strange one. His story is strange. In especial the expression _the fact that_ should be revised out of every sentence in which it occurs. owing to the fact that since (because) in spite of the fact that though (although) call your attention to the fact that remind you (notify you) I was unaware of the fact that I was unaware that (did not know) the fact that he had not succeeded his failure the fact that I had arrived my arrival See also under _case_, _character_, _nature_, _system_ in Chapter V. _Who is_, _which was_, and the like are often superfluous. His brother, who is a member of the same firm His brother, a member of the same firm Trafalgar, which was Nelson's last battle Trafalgar, Nelson's last battle As positive statement is more concise than negative, and the active voice more concise than the passive, many of the examples given under Rules 11 and 12 illustrate this rule as well. A common violation of conciseness is the presentation of a single complex idea, step by step, in a series of sentences or independent clauses which might to advantage be combined into one. Macbeth was very ambitious. This led him to wish to become king of Scotland. The witches told him that this wish of his would come true. The king of Scotland at this time was Duncan. Encouraged by his wife, Macbeth murdered Duncan. He was thus enabled to succeed Duncan as king. (51 words.) Encouraged by his wife, Macbeth achieved his ambition and realized the prediction of the witches by murdering Duncan and becoming king of Scotland in his place. (26 words.) There were several less important courses, but these were the most important, and although they did not come every day, they came often enough to keep you in such a state of mind that you never knew what your next move would be. (43 words.) These, the most important courses of all, came, if not daily, at least often enough to keep one under constant strain. (21 words.) 14. Avoid a succession of loose sentences: This rule refers especially to loose sentences of a particular type, those consisting of two co-ordinate clauses, the second introduced by a conjunction or relative. Although single sentences of this type may be unexceptionable (see under Rule 4), a series soon becomes monotonous and tedious. An unskilful writer will sometimes construct a whole paragraph of sentences of this kind, using as connectives _and_, _but_, _so_, and less frequently, _who_, _which_, _when_, _where_, and _while_, these last in non-restrictive senses (see under Rule 3). The third concert of the subscription series was given last evening, and a large audience was in attendance. Mr. Edward Appleton was the soloist, and the Boston Symphony Orchestra furnished the instrumental music. The former showed himself to be an artist of the first rank, while the latter proved itself fully deserving of its high reputation. The interest aroused by the series has been very gratifying to the Committee, and it is planned to give a similar series annually hereafter. The fourth concert will be given on Tuesday, May 10, when an equally attractive programme will be presented. Apart from its triteness and emptiness, the paragraph above is weak because of the structure of its sentences, with their mechanical symmetry and sing-song. Contrast with them the sentences in the paragraphs quoted under Rule 9, or in any piece of good English prose, as the preface (Before the Curtain) to _Vanity Fair_. If the writer finds that he has written a series of sentences of the type described, he should recast enough of them to remove the monotony, replacing them by simple sentences, by sentences of two clauses joined by a semicolon, by periodic sentences of two clauses, by sentences, loose or periodic, of three clauses--whichever best represent the real relations of the thought. 15. Express co-ordinate ideas in similar form. This principle, that of parallel construction, requires that expressions of similar content and function should be outwardly similar. The likeness of form enables the reader to recognize more readily the likeness of content and function. Familiar instances from the Bible are the Ten Commandments, the Beatitudes, and the petitions of the Lord's Prayer. The unskillful writer often violates this principle, from a mistaken belief that he should constantly vary the form of his expressions. It is true that in repeating a statement in order to emphasize it he may have need to vary its form. For illustration, see the paragraph from Stevenson quoted under Rule 9. But apart from this, he should follow the principle of parallel construction. Formerly, science was taught by the textbook method, while now the laboratory method is employed. Formerly, science was taught by the textbook method; now it is taught by the laboratory method. The left-hand version gives the impression that the writer is undecided or timid; he seems unable or afraid to choose one form of expression and hold to it. The right-hand version shows that the writer has at least made his choice and abided by it. By this principle, an article or a preposition applying to all the members of a series must either be used only before the first term or else be repeated before each term. The French, the Italians, Spanish, and Portuguese The French, the Italians, the Spanish, and the Portuguese In spring, summer, or in winter In spring, summer, or winter (In spring, in summer, or in winter) Correlative expressions (_both, and_; _not, but_; _not only, but also_; _either, or_; _first, second, third_; and the like) should be followed by the same grammatical construction, that is, virtually, by the same part of speech. (Such combinations as "both Henry and I," "not silk, but a cheap substitute," are obviously within the rule.) Many violations of this rule (as the first three below) arise from faulty arrangement; others (as the last) from the use of unlike constructions. It was both a long ceremony and very tedious. The ceremony was both long and tedious. A time not for words, but action. A time not for words, but for action. Either you must grant his request or incur his ill will. You must either grant his request or incur his ill will. My objections are, first, the injustice of the measure; second, that it is unconstitutional. My objections are, first, that the measure is unjust; second, that it is unconstitutional. See also the third example under Rule 12 and the last under Rule 13. It may be asked, what if a writer needs to express a very large number of similar ideas, say twenty? Must he write twenty consecutive sentences of the same pattern? On closer examination he will probably find that the difficulty is imaginary, that his twenty ideas can be classified in groups, and that he need apply the principle only within each group. Otherwise he had best avoid difficulty by putting his statements in the form of a table. 16. Keep related words together. The position of the words in a sentence is the principal means of showing their relationship. The writer must therefore, so far as possible, bring together the words, and groups of words, that are related in thought, and keep apart those which are not so related. The subject of a sentence and the principal verb should not, as a rule, be separated by a phrase or clause that can be transferred to the beginning. Wordsworth, in the fifth book of _The Excursion_, gives a minute description of this church. In the fifth book of _The Excursion_, Wordsworth gives a minute description of this church. Cast iron, when treated in a Bessemer converter, is changed into steel. By treatment in a Bessemer converter, cast iron is changed into steel. The objection is that the interposed phrase or clause needlessly interrupts the natural order of the main clause. Usually, however, this objection does not hold when the order is interrupted only by a relative clause or by an expression in apposition. Nor does it hold in periodic sentences in which the interruption is a deliberately used means of creating suspense (see examples under Rule 18). The relative pronoun should come, as a rule, immediately after its antecedent. There was a look in his eye that boded mischief. In his eye was a look that boded mischief. He wrote three articles about his adventures in Spain, which were published in _Harper's Magazine_. He published in _Harper's Magazine_ three articles about his adventures in Spain. This is a portrait of Benjamin Harrison, grandson of William Henry Harrison, who became President in 1889. This is a portrait of Benjamin Harrison, grandson of William Henry Harrison. He became President in 1889. If the antecedent consists of a group of words, the relative comes at the end of the group, unless this would cause ambiguity. The Superintendent of the Chicago Division, who A proposal to amend the Sherman Act, which has been variously judged. A proposal, which has been variously judged, to amend the Sherman Act. A proposal to amend the much-debated Sherman Act. The grandson of William Henry Harrison, who William Henry Harrison's grandson, who A noun in apposition may come between antecedent and relative, because in such a combination no real ambiguity can arise. The Duke of York, his brother, who was regarded with hostility by the Whigs Modifiers should come, if possible, next to the word they modify. If several expressions modify the same word, they should be so arranged that no wrong relation is suggested. All the members were not present. Not all the members were present. He only found two mistakes. He found only two mistakes. Major R. E. Joyce will give a lecture on Tuesday evening in Bailey Hall, to which the public is invited, on "My Experiences in Mesopotamia" at eight P. M. On Tuesday evening at eight P. M., Major R. E. Joyce will give in Bailey Hall a lecture on "My Experiences in Mesopotamia." The public is invited. 17. In summaries, keep to one tense. In summarizing the action of a drama, the writer should always use the present tense. In summarizing a poem, story, or novel, he should preferably use the present, though he may use the past if he prefers. If the summary is in the present tense, antecedent action should be expressed by the perfect; if in the past, by the past perfect. An unforeseen chance prevents Friar John from delivering Friar Lawrence's letter to Romeo. Meanwhile, owing to her father's arbitrary change of the day set for her wedding, Juliet has been compelled to drink the potion on Tuesday night, with the result that Balthasar informs Romeo of her supposed death before Friar Lawrence learns of the non-delivery of the letter. But whichever tense be used in the summary, a past tense in indirect discourse or in indirect question remains unchanged. The Friar confesses that it was he who married them. Apart from the exceptions noted, whichever tense the writer chooses, he should use throughout. Shifting from one tense to the other gives the appearance of uncertainty and irresolution (compare Rule 15). In presenting the statements or the thought of some one else, as in summarizing an essay or reporting a speech, the writer should avoid intercalating such expressions as "he said," "he stated," "the speaker added," "the speaker then went on to say," "the author also thinks," or the like. He should indicate clearly at the outset, once for all, that what follows is summary, and then waste no words in repeating the notification. In notebooks, in newspapers, in handbooks of literature, summaries of one kind or another may be indispensable, and for children in primary schools it is a useful exercise to retell a story in their own words. But in the criticism or interpretation of literature the writer should be careful to avoid dropping into summary. He may find it necessary to devote one or two sentences to indicating the subject, or the opening situation, of the work he is discussing; he may cite numerous details to illustrate its qualities. But he should aim to write an orderly discussion supported by evidence, not a summary with occasional comment. Similarly, if the scope of his discussion includes a number of works, he will as a rule do better not to take them up singly in chronological order, but to aim from the beginning at establishing general conclusions. 18. Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end. The proper place in the sentence for the word, or group of words, which the writer desires to make most prominent is usually the end. Humanity has hardly advanced in fortitude since that time, though it has advanced in many other ways. Humanity, since that time, has advanced in many other ways, but it has hardly advanced in fortitude. This steel is principally used for making razors, because of its hardness. Because of its hardness, this steel is principally used in making razors. The word or group of words entitled to this position of prominence is usually the logical predicate, that is, the _new_ element in the sentence, as it is in the second example. The effectiveness of the periodic sentence arises from the prominence which it gives to the main statement. Four centuries ago, Christopher Columbus, one of the Italian mariners whom the decline of their own republics had put at the service of the world and of adventure, seeking for Spain a westward passage to the Indies as a set-off against the achievements of Portuguese discoverers, lighted on America. With these hopes and in this belief I would urge you, laying aside all hindrance, thrusting away all private aims, to devote yourself unswervingly and unflinchingly to the vigorous and successful prosecution of this war. The other prominent position in the sentence is the beginning. Any element in the sentence, other than the subject, may become emphatic when placed first. Deceit or treachery he could never forgive. So vast and rude, fretted by the action of nearly three thousand years, the fragments of this architecture may often seem, at first sight, like works of nature. A subject coming first in its sentence may be emphatic, but hardly by its position alone. In the sentence, Great kings worshipped at his shrine, the emphasis upon _kings_ arises largely from its meaning and from the context. To receive special emphasis, the subject of a sentence must take the position of the predicate. Through the middle of the valley flowed a winding stream. The principle that the proper place for what is to be made most prominent is the end applies equally to the words of a sentence, to the sentences of a paragraph, and to the paragraphs of a composition. IV. A FEW MATTERS OF FORM =Headings.= Leave a blank line, or its equivalent in space, after the title or heading of a manuscript. On succeeding pages, if using ruled paper, begin on the first line. =Numerals.= Do not spell out dates or other serial numbers. Write them in figures or in Roman notation, as may be appropriate. August 9, 1918 (9 August 1918) Rule 3 Chapter XII 352nd Infantry =Parentheses.= A sentence containing an expression in parenthesis is punctuated, outside of the marks of parenthesis, exactly as if the expression in parenthesis were absent. The expression within is punctuated as if it stood by itself, except that the final stop is omitted unless it is a question mark or an exclamation point. I went to his house yesterday (my third attempt to see him), but he had left town. He declares (and why should we doubt his good faith?) that he is now certain of success. (When a wholly detached expression or sentence is parenthesized, the final stop comes before the last mark of parenthesis.) =Quotations.= Formal quotations, cited as documentary evidence, are introduced by a colon and enclosed in quotation marks. The provision of the Constitution is: "No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state." Quotations grammatically in apposition or the direct objects of verbs are preceded by a comma and enclosed in quotation marks. I recall the maxim of La Rochefoucauld, "Gratitude is a lively sense of benefits to come." Aristotle says, "Art is an imitation of nature." Quotations of an entire line, or more, of verse, are begun on a fresh line and centered, but need not be enclosed in quotation marks. Wordsworth's enthusiasm for the Revolution was at first unbounded: Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive, But to be young was very heaven! Quotations introduced by _that_ are regarded as in indirect discourse and not enclosed in quotation marks. Keats declares that beauty is truth, truth beauty. Proverbial expressions and familiar phrases of literary origin require no quotation marks. These are the times that try men's souls. He lives far from the madding crowd. The same is true of colloquialisms and slang. =References.= In scholarly work requiring exact references, abbreviate titles that occur frequently, giving the full forms in an alphabetical list at the end. As a general practice, give the references in parenthesis or in footnotes, not in the body of the sentence. Omit the words _act_, _scene_, _line_, _book_, _volume_, _page_, except when referring by only one of them. Punctuate as indicated below. In the second scene of the third act In III.ii (still better, simply insert III.ii in parenthesis at the proper place in the sentence) After the killing of Polonius, Hamlet is placed under guard (IV.ii. 14). _2 Samuel_ i:17-27 _Othello_ II.iii. 264-267, III.iii. 155-161. =Syllabication.= If there is room at the end of a line for one or more syllables of a word, but not for the whole word, divide the word, unless this involves cutting off only a single letter, or cutting off only two letters of a long word. No hard and fast rule for all words can be laid down. The principles most frequently applicable are: (a) Divide the word according to its formation: know-ledge (not knowl-edge); Shake-speare (not Shakes-peare); de-scribe (not des-cribe); atmo-sphere (not atmos-phere); (b) Divide "on the vowel:" edi-ble (not ed-ible); propo-sition; ordi-nary; espe-cial; reli-gious; oppo-nents; regu-lar; classi-fi-ca-tion (three divisions allowable); deco-rative; presi-dent; (c) Divide between double letters, unless they come at the end of the simple form of the word: Apen-nines; Cincin-nati; refer-ring; but tell-ing. (d) Do not divide before final _-ed_ if the _e_ is silent: treat-ed (but not roam-ed or nam-ed). The treatment of consonants in combination is best shown from examples: for-tune; pic-ture; sin-gle; presump-tuous; illus-tration; sub-stan-tial (either division); indus-try; instruc-tion; sug-ges-tion; incen-diary. The student will do well to examine the syllable-division in a number of pages of any carefully printed book. =Titles.= For the titles of literary works, scholarly usage prefers italics with capitalized initials. The usage of editors and publishers varies, some using italics with capitalized initials, others using Roman with capitalized initials and with or without quotation marks. Use italics (indicated in manuscript by underscoring), except in writing for a periodical that follows a different practice. Omit initial _A_ or _The_ from titles when you place the possessive before them. The _Iliad_; the _Odyssey_; _As You Like It_; _To a Skylark_; _The Newcomes_; _A Tale of Two Cities_; Dickens's _Tale of Two Cities_. V. WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS COMMONLY MISUSED (Some of the forms here listed, as _like I did_, are downright bad English; others, as the split infinitive, have their defenders, but are in such general disfavor that it is at least inadvisable to use them; still others, as _case_, _factor_, _feature_, _interesting_, _one of the most_, are good in their place, but are constantly obtruding themselves into places where they have no right to be. If the writer will make it his purpose from the beginning to express accurately his own individual thought, and will refuse to be satisfied with a ready-made formula that saves him the trouble of doing so, this last set of expressions will cause him little trouble. But if he finds that in a moment of inadvertence he has used one of them, his proper course will probably be not to patch up the sentence by substituting one word or set of words for another, but to recast it completely, as illustrated in a number of examples below and in others under Rules 12 and 13.) =All right.= Idiomatic in familiar speech as a detached phrase in the sense, "Agreed," or "Go ahead." In other uses better avoided. Always written as two words. =As good or better than.= Expressions of this type should be corrected by rearranging the sentence. My opinion is as good or better than his. My opinion is as good as his, or better (if not better). =As to whether.= _Whether_ is sufficient; see under Rule 13. =Bid.= Takes the infinitive without _to_. The past tense in the sense, "ordered," is _bade_. =But.= Unnecessary after _doubt_ and _help_. I have no doubt but that I have no doubt that He could not help see but that He could not help seeing that The too frequent use of _but_ as a conjunction leads to the fault discussed under Rule 14. A loose sentence formed with _but_ can always be converted into a periodic sentence formed with _although_, as illustrated under Rule 4. Particularly awkward is the following of one _but_ by another, making a contrast to a contrast or a reservation to a reservation. This is easily corrected by re-arrangement. America had vast resources, but she seemed almost wholly unprepared for war. But within a year she had created an army of four million men. America seemed almost wholly unprepared for war, but she had vast resources. Within a year she had created an army of four million men. =Can.= Means _am (is, are) able_. Not to be used as a substitute for _may_. =Case.= The _Concise Oxford Dictionary_ begins its definition of this word: "instance of a thing's occurring; usual state of affairs." In these two senses, the word is usually unnecessary. In many cases, the rooms were poorly ventilated. Many of the rooms were poorly ventilated. It has rarely been the case that any mistake has been made. Few mistakes have been made. See Wood, _Suggestions to Authors_, pp. 68-71, and Quiller-Couch, _The Art of Writing_, pp. 103-106. =Certainly.= Used indiscriminately by some writers, much as others use _very_, to intensify any and every statement. A mannerism of this kind, bad in speech, is even worse in writing. =Character.= Often simply redundant, used from a mere habit of wordiness. Acts of a hostile character Hostile acts =Claim, vb.= With object-noun, means _lay claim to_. May be used with a dependent clause if this sense is clearly involved: "He claimed that he was the sole surviving heir." (But even here, "claimed to be" would be better.) Not to be used as a substitute for _declare_, _maintain_, or _charge_. =Clever.= This word has been greatly overused; it is best restricted to ingenuity displayed in small matters. =Compare.= To _compare to_ is to point out or imply resemblances, between objects regarded as essentially of different order; to _compare with_ is mainly to point out differences, between objects regarded as essentially of the same order. Thus life has been compared to a pilgrimage, to a drama, to a battle; Congress may be compared with the British Parliament. Paris has been compared to ancient Athens; it may be compared with modern London. =Consider.= Not followed by _as_ when it means "believe to be." "I consider him thoroughly competent." Compare, "The lecturer considered Cromwell first as soldier and second as administrator," where "considered" means "examined" or "discussed." =Data.= A plural, like _phenomena_ and _strata_. These data were tabulated. =Dependable.= A needless substitute for _reliable_, _trustworthy_. =Different than.= Not permissible. Substitute _different from_, _other than_, or _unlike_. =Divided into.= Not to be misused for _composed of_. The line is sometimes difficult to draw; doubtless plays are divided into acts, but poems are composed of stanzas. =Don't.= Contraction of _do not_. The contraction of _does not_ is _doesn't_. =Due to.= Incorrectly used for _through_, _because of_, or _owing to_, in adverbial phrases: "He lost the first game, due to carelessness." In correct use related as predicate or as modifier to a particular noun: "This invention is due to Edison;" "losses due to preventable fires." =Folk.= A collective noun, equivalent to _people_. Use the singular form only. =Effect.= As noun, means _result_; as verb, means _to bring about_, _accomplish_ (not to be confused with _affect_, which means "to influence"). As noun, often loosely used in perfunctory writing about fashions, music, painting, and other arts: "an Oriental effect;" "effects in pale green;" "very delicate effects;" "broad effects;" "subtle effects;" "a charming effect was produced by." The writer who has a definite meaning to express will not take refuge in such vagueness. =Etc.= Equivalent to _and the rest_, _and so forth_, and hence not to be used if one of these would be insufficient, that is, if the reader would be left in doubt as to any important particulars. Least open to objection when it represents the last terms of a list already given in full, or immaterial words at the end of a quotation. At the end of a list introduced by _such as_, _for example_, or any similar expression, _etc._ is incorrect. =Fact.= Use this word only of matters of a kind capable of direct verification, not of matters of judgment. That a particular event happened on a given date, that lead melts at a certain temperature, are facts. But such conclusions as that Napoleon was the greatest of modern generals, or that the climate of California is delightful, however incontestable they may be, are not properly facts. On the formula _the fact that_, see under Rule 13. =Factor.= A hackneyed word; the expressions of which it forms part can usually be replaced by something more direct and idiomatic. His superior training was the great factor in his winning the match. He won the match by being better trained. Heavy artillery has become an increasingly important factor in deciding battles. Heavy artillery has played a constantly larger part in deciding battles. =Feature.= Another hackneyed word; like _factor_ it usually adds nothing to the sentence in which it occurs. A feature of the entertainment especially worthy of mention was the singing of Miss A. (Better use the same number of words to tell what Miss A. sang, or if the programme has already been given, to tell how she sang.) As a verb, in the advertising sense of _offer as a special attraction_, to be avoided. =Fix.= Colloquial in America for _arrange_, _prepare_, _mend_. In writing restrict it to its literary senses, _fasten_, _make firm or immovable_, etc. =Get.= The colloquial _have got_ for _have_ should not be used in writing. The preferable form of the participle is _got_. =He is a man who.= A common type of redundant expression; see Rule 13. He is a man who is very ambitious. He is very ambitious. Spain is a country which I have always wanted to visit. I have always wanted to visit Spain. =Help.= See under =But=. =However.= In the meaning _nevertheless_, not to come first in its sentence or clause. The roads were almost impassable. However, we at last succeeded in reaching camp. The roads were almost impassable. At last, however, we succeeded in reaching camp. When _however_ comes first, it means _in whatever way_ or _to whatever extent_. However you advise him, he will probably do as he thinks best. However discouraging the prospect, he never lost heart. =Interesting.= Avoid this word as a perfunctory means of introduction. Instead of announcing that what you are about to tell is interesting, make it so. An interesting story is told of (Tell the story without preamble.) In connection with the anticipated visit of Mr. B. to America, it is interesting to recall that he Mr. B., who it is expected will soon visit America =Kind of.= Not to be used as a substitute for _rather_ (before adjectives and verbs), or except in familiar style, for _something like_ (before nouns). Restrict it to its literal sense: "Amber is a kind of fossil resin;" "I dislike that kind of notoriety." The same holds true of _sort of_. =Less.= Should not be misused for _fewer_. He had less men than in the previous campaign He had fewer men than in the previous campaign _Less_ refers to quantity, _fewer_ to number. "His troubles are less than mine" means "His troubles are not so great as mine." "His troubles are fewer than mine" means "His troubles are not so numerous as mine." It is, however, correct to say, "The signers of the petition were less than a hundred," where the round number _a hundred_ is something like a collective noun, and _less_ is thought of as meaning a less quantity or amount. =Like.= Not to be misused for _as_. _Like_ governs nouns and pronouns; before phrases and clauses the equivalent word is _as_. We spent the evening like in the old days. We spent the evening as in the old days. He thought like I did. He thought as I did (like me). =Line, along these lines.= _Line_ in the sense of _course of procedure_, _conduct_, _thought_, is allowable, but has been so much overworked, particularly in the phrase _along these lines_, that a writer who aims at freshness or originality had better discard it entirely. Mr. B. also spoke along the same lines. Mr. B. also spoke, to the same effect. He is studying along the line of French literature. He is studying French literature. =Literal, literally.= Often incorrectly used in support of exaggeration or violent metaphor. A literal flood of abuse. A flood of abuse. Literally dead with fatigue Almost dead with fatigue (dead tired) =Lose out.= Meant to be more emphatic than _lose_, but actually less so, because of its commonness. The same holds true of _try out_, _win out_, _sign up_, _register up_. With a number of verbs, _out_ and _up_ form idiomatic combinations: _find out_, _run out_, _turn out_, _cheer up_, _dry up_, _make up_, and others, each distinguishable in meaning from the simple verb. _Lose out_ is not. =Most.= Not to be used for _almost_. Most everybody Almost everybody Most all the time Almost all the time =Nature.= Often simply redundant, used like _character_. Acts of a hostile nature Hostile acts Often vaguely used in such expressions as a "lover of nature;" "poems about nature." Unless more specific statements follow, the reader cannot tell whether the poems have to do with natural scenery, rural life, the sunset, the untracked wilderness, or the habits of squirrels. =Near by.= Adverbial phrase, not yet fully accepted as good English, though the analogy of _close by_ and _hard by_ seems to justify it. _Near_, or _near at hand_, is as good, if not better. Not to be used as an adjective; use _neighboring_. =Oftentimes, ofttimes.= Archaic forms, no longer in good use. The modern word is _often_. =One hundred and one.= Retain the _and_ in this and similar expressions, in accordance with the unvarying usage of English prose from Old English times. =One of the most.= Avoid beginning essays or paragraphs with this formula, as, "One of the most interesting developments of modern science is, etc.;" "Switzerland is one of the most interesting countries of Europe." There is nothing wrong in this; it is simply threadbare and forcible-feeble. A common blunder is to use a singular verb in a relative clause following this or a similar expression, when the relative is the subject. One of the ablest men that has attacked this problem. One of the ablest men that have attacked this problem. =Participle for verbal noun.= Do you mind me asking a question? Do you mind my asking a question? There was little prospect of the Senate accepting even this compromise. There was little prospect of the Senate's accepting even this compromise. In the left-hand column, _asking_ and _accepting_ are present participles; in the right-hand column, they are verbal nouns (gerunds). The construction shown in the left-hand column is occasionally found, and has its defenders. Yet it is easy to see that the second sentence has to do not with a prospect of the Senate, but with a prospect of accepting. In this example, at least, the construction is plainly illogical. As the authors of _The King's English_ point out, there are sentences apparently, but not really, of this type, in which the possessive is not called for. I cannot imagine Lincoln refusing his assent to this measure. In this sentence, what the writer cannot imagine is Lincoln himself, in the act of refusing his assent. Yet the meaning would be virtually the same, except for a slight loss of vividness, if he had written, I cannot imagine Lincoln's refusing his assent to this measure. By using the possessive, the writer will always be on the safe side. In the examples above, the subject of the action is a single, unmodified term, immediately preceding the verbal noun, and the construction is as good as any that could be used. But in any sentence in which it is a mere clumsy substitute for something simpler, or in which the use of the possessive is awkward or impossible, should of course be recast. In the event of a reconsideration of the whole matter's becoming necessary If it should become necessary to reconsider the whole matter There was great dissatisfaction with the decision of the arbitrators being favorable to the company. There was great dissatisfaction that the arbitrators should have decided in favor of the company. =People.= _The people_ is a political term, not to be confused with _the public_. From the people comes political support or opposition; from the public comes artistic appreciation or commercial patronage. =Phase.= Means a stage of transition or development: "the phases of the moon;" "the last phase." Not to be used for _aspect_ or _topic_. Another phase of the subject Another point (another question) =Possess.= Not to be used as a mere substitute for _have_ or _own_. He possessed great courage. He had great courage (was very brave). He was the fortunate possessor of He owned =Prove.= The past participle is _proved_. =Respective, respectively.= These words may usually be omitted with advantage. Works of fiction are listed under the names of their respective authors. Works of fiction are listed under the names of their authors. The one mile and two mile runs were won by Jones and Cummings respectively. The one mile and two mile runs were won by Jones and by Cummings. In some kinds of formal writing, as geometrical proofs, it may be necessary to use _respectively_, but it should not appear in writing on ordinary subjects. =Shall, Will.= The future tense requires _shall_ for the first person, _will_ for the second and third. The formula to express the speaker's belief regarding his future action or state is _I shall_; _I will_ expresses his determination or his consent. =Should.= See under =Would=. =So.= Avoid, in writing, the use of _so_ as an intensifier: "so good;" "so warm;" "so delightful." On the use of _so_ to introduce clauses, see Rule 4. =Sort of.= See under =Kind of=. =Split Infinitive.= There is precedent from the fourteenth century downward for interposing an adverb between _to_ and the infinitive which it governs, but the construction is in disfavor and is avoided by nearly all careful writers. To diligently inquire To inquire diligently =State.= Not to be used as a mere substitute for _say_, _remark_. Restrict it to the sense of _express fully or clearly_, as, "He refused to state his objections." =Student Body.= A needless and awkward expression meaning no more than the simple word _students_. A member of the student body A student Popular with the student body Liked by the students The student body passed resolutions. The students passed resolutions. =System.= Frequently used without need. Dayton has adopted the commission system of government. Dayton has adopted government by commission. The dormitory system Dormitories =Thanking You in Advance.= This sounds as if the writer meant, "It will not be worth my while to write to you again." In making your request, write, "Will you please," or "I shall be obliged," and if anything further seems necessary write a letter of acknowledgment later. =They.= A common inaccuracy is the use of the plural pronoun when the antecedent is a distributive expression such as _each_, _each one_, _everybody_, _every one_, _many a man_, which, though implying more than one person, requires the pronoun to be in the singular. Similar to this, but with even less justification, is the use of the plural pronoun with the antecedent _anybody_, _any one_, _somebody_, _some one_, the intention being either to avoid the awkward "he or she," or to avoid committing oneself to either. Some bashful speakers even say, "A friend of mine told me that they, etc." Use _he_ with all the above words, unless the antecedent is or must be feminine. =Very.= Use this word sparingly. Where emphasis is necessary, use words strong in themselves. =Viewpoint.= Write _point of view_, but do not misuse this, as many do, for _view_ or _opinion_. =While.= Avoid the indiscriminate use of this word for _and_, _but_, and _although_. Many writers use it frequently as a substitute for _and_ or _but_, either from a mere desire to vary the connective, or from uncertainty which of the two connectives is the more appropriate. In this use it is best replaced by a semicolon. The office and salesrooms are on the ground floor, while the rest of the building is devoted to manufacturing. The office and salesrooms are on the ground floor; the rest of the building is devoted to manufacturing. Its use as a virtual equivalent of _although_ is allowable in sentences where this leads to no ambiguity or absurdity. While I admire his energy, I wish it were employed in a better cause. This is entirely correct, as shown by the paraphrase, I admire his energy; at the same time I wish it were employed in a better cause. Compare: While the temperature reaches 90 or 95 degrees in the daytime, the nights are often chilly. Although the temperature reaches 90 or 95 degrees in the daytime, the nights are often chilly. The paraphrase, The temperature reaches 90 or 95 degrees in the daytime; at the same time the nights are often chilly, shows why the use of _while_ is incorrect. In general, the writer will do well to use _while_ only with strict literalness, in the sense of _during the time that_. =Whom.= Often incorrectly used for _who_ before _he said_ or similar expressions, when it is really the subject of a following verb. His brother, whom he said would send him the money His brother, who he said would send him the money The man whom he thought was his friend The man who (that) he thought was his friend (whom he thought his friend) =Worth while.= Overworked as a term of vague approval and (with _not_) of disapproval. Strictly applicable only to actions: "Is it worth while to telegraph?" His books are not worth while. His books are not worth reading (are not worth one's while to read; do not repay reading; are worthless). The use of _worth while_ before a noun ("a worth while story") is indefensible. =Would.= A conditional statement in the first person requires _should_, not _would_. I should not have succeeded without his help. The equivalent of _shall_ in indirect quotation after a verb in the past tense is _should_, not _would_. He predicted that before long we should have a great surprise. To express habitual or repeated action, the past tense, without _would_, is usually sufficient, and from its brevity, more emphatic. Once a year he would visit the old mansion. Once a year he visited the old mansion. VI. SPELLING The spelling of English words is not fixed and invariable, nor does it depend on any other authority than general agreement. At the present day there is practically unanimous agreement as to the spelling of most words. In the list below, for example, _rime_ for _rhyme_ is the only allowable variation; all the other forms are co-extensive with the English language. At any given moment, however, a relatively small number of words may be spelled in more than one way. Gradually, as a rule, one of these forms comes to be generally preferred, and the less customary form comes to look obsolete and is discarded. From time to time new forms, mostly simplifications, are introduced by innovators, and either win their place or die of neglect. The practical objection to unaccepted and over-simplified spellings is the disfavor with which they are received by the reader. They distract his attention and exhaust his patience. He reads the form _though_ automatically, without thought of its needless complexity; he reads the abbreviation _tho_ and mentally supplies the missing letters, at the cost of a fraction of his attention. The writer has defeated his own purpose. WORDS OFTEN MISSPELLED accidentally advice affect believe benefit challenge coarse course criticize deceive definite describe despise develop disappoint dissipate duel ecstasy effect embarrass existence fascinate fiery formerly humorous hypocrisy immediately impostor incident incidentally latter led lose marriage mischief murmur necessary occurred opportunity parallel Philip playwright preceding prejudice principal principle privilege pursue repetition rhyme rhythm ridiculous sacrilegious seize separate shepherd siege similar simile too tragedy tries undoubtedly until villain Note that a single consonant (other than _v_) preceded by a stressed short vowel is doubled before _-ed_ and _-ing_: _planned_, _letting_, _beginning_. (_Coming_ is an exception.) Write _to-day_, _to-night_, _to-morrow_ (but not _together_) with a hyphen. Write _any one_, _every one_, _some one_, _some time_ (except in the sense of _formerly_) as two words. VII. EXERCISES ON CHAPTERS II AND III I. Punctuate: 1. In 1788 the King's advisers warned him that the nation was facing bankruptcy therefore he summoned a body called the States-General believing that it would authorize him to levy new taxes. The people of France however were suffering from burdensome taxation oppressive social injustice and acute scarcity of food and their representatives refused to consider projects of taxation until social and economic reforms should be granted. The King who did not realize the gravity of the situation tried to overawe them collecting soldiers in and about Versailles where the sessions were being held. The people of Paris seeing the danger organized militia companies to defend their representatives. In order to supply themselves with arms they attacked the Invalides and the Bastille which contained the principal supplies of arms and munitions in Paris. 2. On his first continental tour begun in 1809 Byron visited Portugal Spain Albania Greece and Turkey. Of this tour he composed a poetical journal Childe Harold's Pilgrimage in which he ascribed his experiences and reflections not to himself but to a fictitious character Childe Harold described as a melancholy young nobleman prematurely familiar with evil sated with pleasures and embittered against humanity. The substantial merits of the work however lay not in this shadowy and somewhat theatrical figure but in Byron's spirited descriptions of wild or picturesque scenes and in his eloquent championing of Spain and Greece against their oppressors. On his return to England in 1811 he was persuaded rather against his own judgment into allowing the work to be published. Its success was almost unprecedented in his own words he awoke and found himself famous. II. Explain the difference in meaning: 3. 'God save thee, ancyent Marinere! 'From the fiends that plague thee thus-- _Lyrical Ballads_, 1798. 'God save thee, ancient Mariner! From the fiends, that plague thee thus!-- _Lyrical Ballads_, 1800. III. Explain and correct the errors in punctuation: 4. This course is intended for Freshmen, who in the opinion of the Department are not qualified for military drill. 5. A restaurant, not a cafeteria where good meals are served at popular prices.--_Advt._ 6. The poets of _The Nation_, for all their intensity of patriotic feeling, followed the English rather than the Celtic tradition, their work has a political rather than a literary value and bears little upon the development of modern Irish verse. 7. We were in one of the strangest places imaginable. A long and narrow passage overhung on either side by a stupendous barrier of black and threatening rocks. 8. Only a few years ago after a snow storm in the passes not far north of Jerusalem no less than twenty-six Russian pilgrims perished amidst the snow. One cannot help thinking largely because they made little attempt to save themselves. IV. Point out and correct the faults in the following sentences: 9. During childhood his mother had died. 10. Any language study is good mind training while acquiring vocabulary. 11. My farm consisted of about twenty acres of excellent land, having given a hundred pounds for my predecessor's lease. 12. Prepared to encounter a woman of disordered mind, the appearance presented by Mrs. Taylor at his entrance greatly astonished him. 13. Pale and swooning, with two broken legs, they carried him into the house. 14. Count Cassini, the Russian plenipotentiary, had several long and intimate conversations during the tedious weeks of the conference with his British colleague, Sir Arthur Nicholson. 15. But though they had been victorious in the land engagements, they were so little decisive as to lead to no important results. 16. Knowing nothing of the rules of the college or of its customs, it was with the greatest difficulty that the Dean could make me comprehend wherein my wrong-doing lay. 17. Fire, therefore, was the first object of my search. Happily, some embers were found upon the hearth, together with potato-stalks and dry chips. Of these, with much difficulty, I kindled a fire, by which some warmth was imparted to our shivering limbs. 18. In this connection a great deal of historic fact is introduced into the novel about the past history of the cathedral and of Spain. 19. Over the whole scene hung the haze of twilight that is so peaceful. 20. Compared with Italy, living is more expensive. 21. It is a fundamental principle of law to believe a man innocent until he is proved guilty, and once proved guilty, to remain so until proved to the contrary. 22. Not only had the writer entrée to the titled families of Italy in whose villas she was hospitably entertained, but by royalty also. 23. It is not a strange sight to catch a glimpse of deer along the shore. 24. Earnings from other sources are of such a favorable character as to enable a splendid showing to be made by the company. 25. But while earnings have mounted amazingly, the status of affairs is such as to make it impossible to predict the course events may take, with any degree of accuracy. [ Transcriber's Note: The following is a list of corrections made to the original. The first line is the original line, the second the corrected one. University have greatly helped him in the preparation of his manuscript University have greatly helped him in the preparation of his manuscript. Compare the sentence. "The export of gold was prohibited," in which the Compare the sentence, "The export of gold was prohibited," in which the Stevenson quoted under Rule 10. But apart from this, he should follow the Stevenson quoted under Rule 9. But apart from this, he should follow the "ordered") is _bade_. "ordered," is _bade_. =Effect.= As noun, means _result_; as verb, means t_o bring about_, =Effect.= As noun, means _result_; as verb, means _to bring about_, incontestable they ma ybe, are not properly facts. incontestable they may be, are not properly facts. Acts of a hostile nature. Acts of a hostile nature Dayton has adopted the commission system of government Dayton has adopted the commission system of government. embarass embarrass ] 
35094	----	The Augustan Reprint Society EDWARD BYSSHE _The Art of English Poetry_ (1708) With an Introduction by A. Dwight Culler Publication Number 40 Los Angeles William Andrews Clark Memorial Library University of California 1953 GENERAL EDITORS H. Richard Archer, _Clark Memorial Library_ Richard C. Boys, _University of Michigan_ Ralph Cohen, _University of California, Los Angeles_ Vinton A. Dearing, _University of California, Los Angeles_ ASSISTANT EDITOR W. Earl Britton, _University of Michigan_ ADVISORY EDITORS Emmett L. Avery, _State College of Washington_ Benjamin Boyce, _Duke University_ Louis Bredvold, _University of Michigan_ John Butt, _King's College, University of Durham_ James L. Clifford, _Columbia University_ Arthur Friedman, _University of Chicago_ Edward Niles Hooker, _University of California, Los Angeles_ Louis A. Landa, _Princeton University_ Samuel H. Monk, _University of Minnesota_ Earnest Mossner, _University of Texas_ James Sutherland, _University College, London_ H. T. Swedenberg, Jr., _University of California, Los Angeles_ CORRESPONDING SECRETARY Edna C. Davis, _Clark Memorial Library_ INTRODUCTION The _Art of English Poetry_ (1702) may be roughly described as an English version of the _Gradus ad Parnassum_. At least that is the tradition to which it belongs. Its immediate predecessor was the pleasant _English Parnassus: Or, a Helpe to English Poesie_ (1657) compiled by a Middlesex schoolmaster named Joshua Poole, and this work was avowedly modeled on Ravisius Textor's _Epitheta_ and the _Thesaurus Poeticus_ of Joannes Buchler. But whereas the _English Parnassus_ was designed for the schoolroom, the _Art of English Poetry_ was designed for the world of polite letters, and so may be called the first example in English of the handbook for the serious poet. In its original form the work was an octavo of nearly four hundred pages divided into three parts: "Rules For making English Verse," a rhyming dictionary, and a poetical commonplace book containing all the "Most Natural, Agreeable, and Noble _Thoughts_" of the English poets digested alphabetically by their subject. Only the first part is reproduced here, but it seems desirable to say something about the book as a whole.[1] It is one of those works which is scorned by all, and used by all who scorn it. In the sixty years after its publication it went through nine editions, and though Charles Gildon thought it "a book too scandalously mean to name," he was constrained to admit that it had "spread, by many editions, thro' all _England_" and had "carried off so many Impressions, as have made it with the ignorant, the _Standard_ of Writing."[2] Not only with the ignorant. Pope knew and used the work, and likewise Richardson, Fielding, Isaac Watts, Johnson, Goldsmith, Walpole, Blake, Sir Walter Scott, Bulwer-Lytton, and many others. Indeed, it would be safe to say that there was hardly a literary man in the eighteenth century who was not familiar with it. If he used a rhyming dictionary, he used that in Bysshe, at least until 1775, when it was superseded by John Walker's _Dictionary of the English Language_. And if he used a poetical commonplace book, he used either Bysshe or one of the five other works which were produced in imitation of Bysshe. "Quoi qu'ils en disent," said the Abbé du Bos of a similar work in French, "ils ont tous ce livre dans leur arrière cabinet." The _Art of English Poetry_ is dominated in every part by the concept of the heroic poem. The rhyming dictionary, which was enlarged and improved from that in Poole, contains only those words which "both for their Sense and Sound are judg'd most proper for the Rhymes of Heroick Poetry;"[3] and the quotations in the commonplace book are drawn chiefly from the heroic poem and the heroic drama. In the last revised edition (1718) the most frequently quoted authors were Lee (104 passages), Rowe (116), Milton (117), Shakespeare (118), Blackmore (125), Otway (127), Butler (140), Cowley (143), Pope (155), and Dryden (1,201). Dryden, therefore, was the great exemplar of the heroic poet, and his _Aeneid_, which was cited 493 times, was the great exemplar of the heroic poem. Its meter, the heroic couplet, was for Bysshe the only serious poetic instrument, all longer lines being used merely to vary and decorate it and the shorter ones being fit only for masks and operas and Pindaric odes. As for stanzas, the rhyme royal was not "follow'd" anymore, Spenser's choice was "unlucky," and in general, as Cowley had said, "no kind of Staff is proper for a Heroic Poem; as being all too lirical...."[4] The "Rules For making English Verse," which is the most important part of Bysshe's work, is the first attempt to treat English prosody in a systematic and comprehensive way. As the title indicates, it is prescriptive in tone, and it is strictly syllabic in what it prescribes. The English verse line, according to Bysshe, consists of a specified number of syllables, usually ten, but permissably from four to twelve with double rhyme adding an uncounted syllable. A verse with an extra or a missing syllable (as compared with the pattern established by the rest of the poem) is either a faulty verse or, more properly, just a verse of a different kind. There are no feet in English poetry. Nevertheless, accent, which Bysshe apparently considered a variation in pitch rather than in duration or loudness, is recognized, and its role is clearly prescribed. It falls on the even syllables in verses whose total number is even and on the odd syllables in verses whose odd number is not due to double rhyme. This, of course, means duple time only, and Bysshe recognizes no other. When he quotes Congreve's verse, "Apart let me view then each Heavenly fair," he feels that the measure is somehow disagreeable, but he does not notice that the accents fall other than he had prescribed, and he apparently thinks that the line is distinguished from heroic verse only in having eleven syllables instead of ten. This is highly important because it shows that although the nomina basis of his prosody is both accentual and syllabic, the latter element is really its defining principle. In a syllabic prosody it is clearly necessary to determine the number of syllables in a word whenever that is doubtful and also, if convenient, to provide ways of regulating that number by syncope and elision. A large part of Bysshe's treatise, therefore, is concerned with this task, and in order to understand this part it is necessary to realize that the shortened forms which he recommends (_am'rous_, _ta'en_, and the like) were not originally "poetic" in character. By his day some very few had become slightly archaic and hence were usually restricted to poetry; others existed side by side, in both prose and poetic speech, with the longer forms which at last superseded them; but the great majority represent the regular colloquial idiom of the late seventeenth and early eighteenth century. Bysshe wanted them used in poetry because he wanted the language of poetry to conform to that of cultivated conversation and prose and because he did not want the heroic line weakened by allowing for syllables that were not there, or were there only to the eye. Bysshe says that he extracted his rules from the practice of the best poets, but this is not true. He extracted them almost entirely from the _Quatre Traitez de Poësies, Latine, Françoise, Italienne, et Espagnole_ (1663) by Claude Lancelot, one of the Port Royal educators. From the Italian, Spanish, and possibly the Latin sections of this work Bysshe took his rules on the position of the caesura and a few other hints; but from the French section, the "Breve Instruction sur les Regles de la Poësie Françoise," he took almost his entire prosodical system. Indeed, his "Rules" are simply a translation and adaptation of the "Breve Instruction" with English examples replacing the French. The opening sentence, for example, which contains the very heart of his doctrine, reads: "The Structure of our Verses, whether Blank, or in Rhyme, consists in a certain Number of Syllables; not in Feet compos'd of long and short Syllables, as the Verses of the _Greeks_ and _Romans_." And the source: "La structure ne consiste qu'en vn certain nombre de syllabes, & non pas en pieds composez de syllabes longues & breves, comme les vers des Grecs & des Romains."[5] Needless to say, this description is accurate when applied to French verse, but it is not accurate when applied to English. The rhythm of English verse consists in the regular recurrence of a unit whose exact nature is variously conceived but which is easily identified by the accent which signalizes it. In French, however, stress in connected speech is too weak and uncertain to be made the basis of a satisfactory rhythm and is replaced in this function by the verse unit itself. These units are made equal by their having an equal number of syllables, and their recurrence is signalized by the final pause, by rhyme, and by the accentuation of the rhymed syllable. In each language there are, of course, other subsidiary rhythms, but the basic rhythm is founded upon the verse unit in French and upon a unit within the verse in English. Clearly, a prosody which applied to one system could not apply to the other, and to suppose that it did was Bysshe's sole but disastrous mistake. He was not the first to make it. What prosody there had been before him had hesitated uncertainly among three systems, the quantitative, the accentual, and the syllabic, but Bysshe, by formulating for the first time a complete and explicit _prosodia_, confirmed it in the one it was already favoring, the syllabic system of the French. Through him the mistake became irreparable for over a hundred years, and thus his "Rules" have an importance which is far beyond their merit. Critically, they are nothing; but historically, they dominated the popular prosodic thought of the eighteenth century. Their supremacy was finally ended in 1816 by the preface to _Christabel_. There Coleridge wrote that the meter of the poem was not, properly speaking, irregular, though it might seem so from its being founded on "a new principle: namely, that of counting in each line the accents, not the syllables."[6] Scholars have wondered what was "new" about this, and the answer is that it was not new in English poetry, but in English prosodical criticism it was new, for it was a departure from Bysshe. A. Dwight Culler Yale University A NOTE ON THE TEXT The nine editions of the _Art of English Poetry_ were as follows: 1702, 1705, 1708, 1710, 1714, 1718, 1724, 1737, and 1762. Four of these--1705, 1708, 1710, and 1718--represent a revision of the preceding edition, that of 1718 only in the matter of adding new passages to the commonplace book. The last revised text of the "Rules," therefore, is that of the fourth edition (1710), but since this differs from the third only by the omission of one passage, which is of some interest, it seemed best to reproduce the text of the third edition (1708). The omitted passage is the last five lines, beginning "and therefore ...," of the second paragraph on page 22. NOTES TO THE INTRODUCTION [1] For a fuller discussion see my "Edward Bysshe and the Poet's Handbook," _PMLA_ LXIII (September, 1948), 858-885, from which the material for this introduction is largely taken. I am indebted to the Editor for permission to use it again. [2] Charles Gildon, _The Laws of Poetry_ (London, 1721), p. 72, and _The Complete Art of Poetry_ (London, 1718), I, 93. [3] Edward Bysshe, _The Art of English Poetry_ (London, 1708), p. ii of the rhyming dictionary (the three parts are paginated separately). [4] _Ibid._, "Rules," pp. 32-33; Cowley is quoted in Dryden, tr., _The Works of Virgil_ (London, 1697), sig. fl^v. [5] _Ibid._, "Rules," p. 1; _Quatre Traitez_, p. 51. Lancelot adds that Italian and Spanish verse, "like that of all other vernacular languages," are syllabic (_ibid._, p. 93). [6] Coleridge, _Complete Poetical Works_, ed. E. H. Coleridge (Oxford, 1912), I, 215. THE ART OF ENGLISH POETRY CONTAINING I. _Rules_ for making _VERSES_. II. A _Collection_ of the most Natural, Agreeable, and Sublime _THOUGHTS_, viz. Allusions, Similes, Descriptions and Characters, of Persons and Things; that are to be found in the best _ENGLISH_ POETS. III. A _Dictionary_ of _RHYMES_. _By_ Edw. Bysshe. _Gent._ The Third Edition, with large Improvements. _LONDON_ Printed for Sam. Buckley, at the _Dolphin_ in _Little Britain_. MDCCVIII. _The PREFACE._ So many are the Qualifications, as well natural as acquir'd, that are essentially requisite to the making of a good Poet, that 'tis in vain for any Man to aim at a great Reputation on account of his Poetical Performances, by barely following the Rules of others, and reducing their Speculations into Practice. It may not be impossible indeed for Men, even of indifferent Parts, by making Examples to the Rules hereafter given, to compose Verses smooth, and well-sounding to the Ear; yet if such Verses want strong Sense, Propriety and Elevation of Thought, or Purity of Diction, they will be at best but what _Horace_ calls them, _Versus inopes rerum, nugæque canoræ_, and the Writers of them not Poets, but versifying Scriblers. I pretend not therefore by the following Sheets to teach a Man to be a Poet in spight of Fate and Nature, but only to be of Help to the few who are born to be so, and whom _audit vocatus Apollo_. To this End I give in the first Place _Rules for making_ English _Verse_: And these Rules I have, according to the best of my Judgment, endeavour'd to extract from the Practice, and to frame after the Examples of the Poets that are most celebrated for a fluent and numerous Turn of Verse. Another Part of this Treatise, is a _Dictionary of Rhymes_: To which having prefix'd a large Preface shewing the Method and Usefulness of it, I shall trouble the Reader in this place no farther than to acquaint him, that if it be as useful and acceptable to the Publick, as the composing it was tedious and painful to me, I shall never repent me of the Labour. What I shall chiefly speak of here, is the largest Part of this Treatise, which I call a _Collection of the most natural and sublime Thoughts that are in the best_ English _Poets_. And to be ingenuous in the Discovery, this was the Part of it that principally induc'd me to undertake the Whole: The Task was indeed laborious, but pleasing; and the sole Praise I expected from it, was, that I made a judicious Choice and proper Disposition of the Passages I extracted. A Mixture of so many different Subjects, and such a Variety of Thoughts upon them, may possibly not satisfy the Reader so well, as a Composition perfect in its Kind on one intire Subject; but certainly it will divert and amuse him better; for here is no Thread of Story, nor Connexion of one Part with another, to keep his Mind intent, and constrain him to any Length of Reading. I detain him therefore only to acquaint him, why it is made a Part of this Book, and how Serviceable it may be to the main Design of it. Having drawn up Rules for making Verses, and a Dictionary of Rhymes, which are the Mechanick Tools of a Poet; I came in the next Place to consider, what other human Aid could be offer'd him; a Genius and Judgment not being mine to give. Now I imagin'd that a Man might have both these, and yet sometimes, for the sake of a Syllable or two more or less, to give a Verse its true Measure, be at a stand for Epithets and Synonymes, with which I have seen Books of this Nature in several Languages plentifully furnish'd. Now, tho' I have differ'd from them in Method, yet I am of Opinion this Collection may serve to the same End, with equal Profit and greater Pleasure to the Reader. For, what are Epithets, but Adjectives that denote and express the Qualities of the Substantives to which they are join'd? as _Purple_, _Rosie_, _Smiling_, _Dewy_, Morning: _Dim_, _Gloomy_, _Silent_, Night. What Synonymes, but Words of a like Signification? as _Fear_, _Dread_, _Terrour_, _Consternation_, _Affright_, _Dismay_, &c. Are they not then naturally to be sought for in the Descriptions of Persons and Things? And can we not better judge by a Piece of Painting, how Beautifully Colours may be dispos'd; than by seeing the same several Colours scatter'd without Design on a Table? When you are at a Loss therefore for proper Epithets or Synonymes, look in this Alphabetical Collection for any Word under which the Subject of your Thought may most probably be rang'd; and you will find what have been imploy'd by our best Writers, and in what Manner. It would have been as easie a Task for me as it has been to others before me, to have threaded tedious Bead-rolls of Synonymes and Epithets together, and put them by themselves: But when they stand alone, they appear bald, insipid, uncouth, and offensive both to the Eye and Ear. In that Disposition they may indeed help the Memory, but cannot direct the Judgment in the Choice. But besides, to confess a Secret, I am very unwilling it should be laid to my Charge, that I have furnish'd Tools, and given a Temptation of Versifying, to such as in spight of Art and Nature undertake to be Poets; and who mistake their Fondness to Rhyme, or Necessity of Writing, for a true Genius of Poetry, and lawful Call from _Apollo_. Such Debasers of Rhyme and Dablers in Poetry would do well to consider, that a Man would justly deserve a higher Esteem in the World by being a good Mason or Shoo-maker, or by excelling in any other Art that his Talent inclines him to, and that is useful to Mankind, than by being an indifferent or second-Rate Poet. Such have no Claim to that Divine Appellation: _Neque enim concludere Versum Dixeris esse satis: Neque, si quis scribat, uti nos, Sermoni propiora, putes hunc esse Poetam. Ingenium cui sit, cui Mens divinior, atque Os Magna sonaturum, des Nominis hujus Honorem._ Horat. I resolv'd therefore to place these, the principal Materials, under the awful Guard of the immortal _Shakespear_, _Milton_, _Dryden_, &c. _Procul o procul este Profani!_ Virg. But let Men of better Minds be excited to a generous Emulation. I have inserted not only Similes, Allusions, Characters, and Descriptions; but also the most Natural and Sublime Thoughts of our Modern Poets on all Subjects whatever. I say, of our Modern; for tho' some of the Antient, as _Chaucer_, _Spencer_, and others, have not been excell'd, perhaps not equall'd, by any that have succeeded them, either in Justness of Description, or in Propriety and Greatness of Thought; yet their Language is now become so antiquated and obsolete, that most Readers of our Age have no Ear for them: And this is the Reason that the good _Shakespear_ himself is not so frequently cited in this Collection, as he would otherwise deserve to be. I have endeavour'd to give the Passages as naked and stript of Superfluities and foreign Matter, as possibly I could: but often found my self oblig'd for the sake of the Connexion of the Sense, which else would have been interrupted, and consequently obscure, to insert some of them under Heads, to which every Part or Line of them may be thought not properly to belong: Nay, I sometimes even found it difficult to chuse under what Head to place several of the best Thoughts; but the Reader may be assur'd, that if he find them not where he expects, he will not wholly lose his Labour; for _The Search it self rewards his Pains; And if like Chymists his great End he miss, Yet things well worth his Toil he gains; And does his Charge and Labour pay With good unsought Experiments by the way._ Cowley. That the Reader may judge of every Passage with due Deference for each Author, he will find their Names at the End of the last Line; and as the late Versions of the Greek and Roman Poets have not a little contributed to this Collection, _Homer_, _Anacreon_, _Lucretius_, _Catullus_, _Virgil_, _Horace_, _Ovid_, _Juvenal_, &c. are cited with their Translators: And after each Author's Name are quoted their Plays and other Poems, from whence the Passages are extracted. The Reader will likewise observe, that I have sometimes ascrib'd to several Authors the Quotations taken from one and the same Play. Thus to those from the first and third Act of _Oedipus_, I have put _Dryden_; to those from the three other, _Lee_: Because the first and third Act of that Play were written by _Dryden_, the three other by _Lee_. To those from _Troilus_ and _Cressida_ I have sometimes put _Shakespear_, sometimes _Dryden_; because he having alter'd that Play, whatever I found not in the Edition of _Shakespear_, ought to be ascrib'd to him. And in like manner of several other Plays. As no Thought can be justly said to be fine, unless it be true, I have all along had a great regard for Truth; except only in Passages that are purely Satirical, where some Allowance must be given: For Satire may be fine and true Satire, tho' it be not directly and according to the Letter, true: 'tis enough that it carry with it a Probability or Semblance of Truth. Let it not here be objected, that I have from the Translators of the Greek and Roman Poets, taken some Descriptions meerly fabulous: for the well-invented Fables of the Antients were design'd only to inculcate the Truth with more Delight, and to make it shine with greater Splendour. _Rien n'est beau que le Vrai. Le Vrai seul est Aimable: Il doit regner par tout; & meme dans la Fable: De toute Fiction l'adroite Fausseté Ne tend qu' à faire aux yeux briller la Verité._ Boileau. I have upon every Subject given both _Pro_ and _Con_ whenever I met with them, or that I judg'd them worth giving: and if both are not always found, let none imagine that I wilfully suppress'd either; or that what is here uncontradicted must be unanswerable. If any take Offence at the Loosness of some of the Thoughts, as particularly upon _Love_, where I have given the different Sentiments which Mankind, according to their several Temperaments, ever had, and ever will have of it; such may observe, that I have strictly avoided all manner of Obscenity throughout the whole Collection: And tho' here and there a Thought may perhaps have a Cast of Wantonness, yet the cleanly Metaphors palliate the Broadness of the Meaning, and the Chastness of the Words qualifies the Lasciviousness of the Images they represent. And let them farther know, that I have not always chosen what I most approv'd, but what carries with it the best Stroaks for Imitation: For, upon the whole matter, it was not my Business to judge any farther, than of the Vigour and Force of Thought, of the Purity of Language, of the Aptness and Propriety of Expression; and above all, of the Beauty of Colouring, in which the Poet's Art chiefly consists. Nor, in short, would I take upon me to determine what things should have been said; but have shewn only what are said, and in what manner. RULES For making ENGLISH VERSE. In the _English_ Versification there are two Things chiefly to be consider'd; 1. The Verses. 2. The several Sorts of Poems, or Compositions in Verse. But because in the Verses there are also two Things to be observ'd; The Structure of the Verse; and the Rhyme; this Treatise shall be divided into three Chapters. I. Of the Structure of _English_ Verses. II. Of Rhyme. III. Of the several Sorts of Poems, or Compositions in Verse. CHAP. I. _Of the Structure of_ English _Verses._ The Structure of our Verses, whether Blank, or in Rhyme, consists in a certain Number of Syllables; not in Feet compos'd of long and short Syllables, as the Verses of the _Greeks_ and _Romans_. And though some ingenious Persons formerly puzzled themselves in prescribing Rules for the Quantity of _English_ Syllables, and, in Imitation of the _Latins_, compos'd Verses by the measure of _Spondees_, _Dactyls_, &c., yet the Success of their Undertaking has fully evinc'd the Vainness of their Attempt, and given ground to suspect they had not throughly weigh'd what the Genius of our Language would bear; nor reflected that each Tongue has its peculiar Beauties, and that what is agreeable and natural to one, is very often disagreeable, nay, inconsistent with another. But that Design being now wholly exploded, it is sufficient to have mention'd it. Our Verses then consist in a certain Number of Syllables; but the Verses of double Rhyme require a Syllable more than those of single Rhyme. Thus in a Poem whose Verses consist of ten Syllables, those of the same Poem that are accented on the last save one, which we call Verses of double Rhyme, must have eleven; as may be seen by these Verses. _A Man so various that he seem'd to be Not one, but all Mankind's Epitome: Stiff in Opinion, always in the Wrong, Was ev'ry thing by starts, and nothing long: But, in the Course of one revolving Moon, Was Fidler, Chymist, Statesman, and Buffoon: Then all for Women, Painting, Rhyming, Drinking; Besides ten thousand Freaks that dy'd in Thinking. Praising and Railing were his usual Themes; And both, to shew his Judgment, in Extreams. So over-violent, or over-civil, That every Man with him was God or Devil._ Dryd. Where the 4 Verses that are accented on the last save one, have 11 Syllables; the others, accented on the last, but 10. In a Poem whose Verses consist of 8, the double Rhymes require 9, as, _When hard Words, Jealousies and Fears, Set Folks together by the Ears; And made 'em fight, like mad, or drunk, For Dame Religion, as for Punk; Whose Honesty they all durst swear for, Tho' not a Man of 'em know wherefore: Then did Sir Knight abandon Dwelling, And out he rode a Collonelling._ Hud. In a Poem whose Verses consist of 7, the double Rhymes require 8, as, _All thy Verse is softer far Than the downy Feathers are Of my Wings, or of my Arrows; Of my Mother's Doves or Sparrows._ Cowl. This must also be observ'd in Blank Verse; as, _Welcom, thou worthy Partner of my Lawrels! Thou Brother of my Choice! a Band more sacred Than Nature's brittle Tye. By holy Friendship! Glory and Fame stood still for thy Arrival, My Soul seem'd wanting of its better Half, And languish'd for thy Absence, like a Prophet, Who waits the Inspiration of his God._ Rowe. And this Verse of _Milton_, _Void of all Succour and needful Comfort,_ wants a Syllable; for, being accented on the last save one, it ought to have 11, as all the Verses, but two, of the preceeding Example have: But if we transpose the Words thus, _Of Succour and all needful Comfort void,_ it then wants nothing of its due Measure, because it is accented on the last Syllable. SECT. I. _Of the several Sorts of Verses; and first of those of ten Syllables. Of the due Observation of the Accent; and of the Pause._ Our Poetry admits for the most part but of three sorts of Verses; that is to say, of Verses of 10, 8, or 7 Syllables: Those of 4, 6, 9, 11, 12, and 14, are generally imploy'd in Masks and Operas, and in the Stanzas of Lyrick and Pindarick Odes, and we have few intire Poems compos'd in any of those sorts of Verses. Those of 12, and of 14 Syllables, are frequently inserted in our Poems in Heroick Verse, and when rightly made use of, carry a peculiar Grace with them. _See the next Section towards the end._ The Verses of 10 Syllables, which are our Heroick, are us'd in Heroick Poems, in Tragedies, Comedies, Pastorals, Elegies; and sometimes in Burlesque. In these Verses two things are chiefly to be consider'd. 1. The Seat of the Accent. 2. The Pause. For, 'tis not enough that Verses have their just Number of Syllables: the true Harmony of them depends on a due Observation of the Accent and Pause. The Accent is an Elevation, or a Falling of the Voice, on a certain Syllable of a Word. The Pause is a Rest or Stop that is made in pronouncing the Verse, and that divides it, as it were, into two parts; each of which is call'd an Hemistich, or Half-Verse. But this Division is not always equal, that is to say, one of the Half-verses does not always contain the same Number of Syllables as the other: and this Inequality proceeds from the Seat of the Accent that is strongest, and prevails most in the first Half-verse. For, the Pause must be observ'd at the end of the Word where such Accent happens to be, or at the end of the following Word. Now in a Verse of 10 Syllables, this Accent must be either on the 2d, 4th, or 6th; which produces 5 several Pauses, that is to say, at the 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th, or 7th Syllable of the Verse; For, When it happens to be on the 2d, the Pause will be either at the 3d, or 4th. At the 3d, in two manners: 1. When the Syllable accented happens to be the last save one of a Word; as, _As busy--as intentive Emmets are; Or Cities--whom unlook'd-for Sieges scare._ Dav. 2. Or, when the Accent is on the last of a Word, and the next a Monosyllable, whose Construction is govern'd by that on which the Accent is; as, _Despise it,--and more noble Thoughts pursue._ Dryd. When the Accent falls on the 2d Syllable of the Verse, and the last save two of a Word, the Pause will be at the 4th; as, _He meditates--his absent Enemy._ Dryd. When the Accent is on the 4th of a Verse, the Pause will be either at the same Syllable, or at the 5th, or 6th. At the same, when the Syllable of the Accent happens to be the last of a Word; as, _Such huge Extreams--inhabit thy great Mind, God-like, unmov'd,--and yet, like Woman, kind._ Wall. At the 5th in 2 manners: 1. When it happens to be the last save one of a Word; as, _Like bright_ Aurora--_whose refulgent Ray Foretells the Fervour--of ensuing Day; And warns the Shepherd--with his Flocks, retreat To leafy Shadows--from the threaten'd Heat._ Wall. 2. Or the last of the Word, if the next be a Monosyllable govern'd by it; as, _So fresh the Wound is--and the Grief so vast._ Wall. At the 6th, when the Syllable of the Accent happens to be the last save two of a Word; as, _Those Seeds of Luxury,--Debate, and Pride._ Wall. Lastly, When the Accent is on the 6th Syllable of the Verse, the Pause will be either at the same Syllable, or at the 7th. At the same, when the Syllable of the Accent happens to be the last of a Word; as, _She meditates Revenge--resolv'd to die._ Wall. At the 7th in two manners: 1. When it happens to be the last save one of a Word; as, _Nor when the War is over,--is it Peace._ Dryd. _Mirrors are taught to flatter,--but our Springs._ Wall. 2. Or the last of a Word, if the following one be a Monosyllable whose Construction depends on the preceeding Word on which the Accent is; as, _And since he could not save her,--with her dy'd._ Dryd. From all this it appears, that the Pause is determin'd by the Seat of the Accent; but if the Accents happen to be equally strong, on the 2d, 4th, and 6th Syllable of a Verse, the Sense and Construction of the Words must then guide to the Observation of the Pause: For Example; In one of the Verses I cited as an Instance of it at the 7th Syllable, _Mirrors are taught to flatter, but our Springs._ The Accent is as strong on _Taught_, as on the first Syllable of _Flatter_, and if the Pause were observ'd at the 4th Syllable of the Verse, it would have nothing disagreeable in its Sound: as, _Mirrors are taught--to flatter, but our Springs Present th' impartial Images of things._ Which tho' it be no Violence to the Ear, yet it is to the Sense, and that ought always carefully to be avoided in reading or in repeating of Verses. For this Reason it is, that the Construction or Sense should never end at a Syllable where the Pause ought not to be made; as at the 8th and 2d in the two following Verses: _Bright_ Hesper _twinkles from afar:--Away My Kids!--for you have had a Feast to day._ Staff. Which Verses have nothing disagreeable in their Structure but the Pause; which in the first of them must be observ'd at the 8th Syllable, in the 2d at the 2d; and so unequal a Division can produce no true Harmony. And for this Reason too, the Pauses at the 3d and 7th Syllables, tho' not wholly to be condemn'd, ought to be but sparingly practis'd. The foregoing Rules ought indispensibly to be follow'd in all our Verses of 10 Syllables; and the observation of them, like that of right Time in Musick, will produce Harmony; the neglect of them, Harshness and Discord; as appears by the following Verses. _None think Rewards render'd worthy their Worth. And both Lovers, both thy Disciples were,_ Dav. In which tho' the true Number of Syllables be observ'd, yet neither of them have so much as the Sound of a Verse: Now their Disagreeableness proceeds from the undue Seat of the Accent: For Example, the first of them is accented on the 5th and 7th Syllables; but if we change the Words, and remove the Accent to the 4th and 6th, the Verse will become smooth and easie; as, _None think Rewards are equal to their Worth._ The harshness of the last of them proceeds from its being accented on the 3d Syllable, which may be mended thus, by transposing only one Word; _And Lovers both, both thy Disciples were._ In like manner the following Verses, _To be massacred, not in Battle slain._ Blac. _But forc'd, harsh, and uneasie unto all._ Cowl. _Against the Insults of the Wind and Tide._ Blac. _A second Essay will the Pow'rs appease._ Blac. _With_ Scythians _expert in the Dart and Bow._ Dryd. are rough, because the foregoing Rules are not observ'd in their Structure: For Example, the first, where the Pause is at the 5th Syllable, and the Accent on the 3d, is contrary to the Rule which says, that the Accent that determines the Pause must be on the 2d, 4th, or 6th Syllable of the Verse; and to mend that Verse we need only place the Accent on the 4th, and then the Pause at the 5th will have nothing disagreeable, as, _Thus to be murther'd, not in Battle slain._ The second Verse is Accented on the 3d Syllable, and the Pause is there too; which makes it indeed the thing it expresses, forc'd, harsh, and uneasie; it may be mended thus, _But forc'd and harsh, uneasie unto all._ The 3d, 4th, and 5th of those Verses, have like faults; for the Pauses are at the 5th, and the Accent there too, which is likewise contrary to the foregoing Rules: Now they will be made smooth and flowing, by taking the Accent from the 5th, and removing the Seat of the Pause; as, _Against th' Insults both of the Wind and Tide. A second Trial will the Pow'rs appease. With_ Scythians _skilfull in the Dart and Bow._ From whence we conclude, that in all Verses of 10 Syllables, the most prevailing Accents ought to be on the 2d, 4th, or 6th Syllables; for if they are on the 3d, 5th, or 7th, the Verses will be rough and disagreeable, as has been prov'd by the preceeding Instances. In short, the wrong placing of the Accent is as great a fault in our Versification, as false Quantity was in that of the Antients; and therefore we ought to take equal care to avoid it, and endeavour so to dispose the Words, that they may create a certain Melody in the Ear, without Labour to the Tongue, or Violence to the Sense. SECT. II. _Of the other Sorts of Verses that are us'd in our Poetry._ After the Verses of 10 Syllables, those of 8 are most frequent, and we have many intire Poems compos'd in them. In the Structure of these Verses, as well as of those of 10 Syllables, we must take care that the most prevailing Accents be neither on the 3d nor 5th Syllables of them. They also require a Pause to be observ'd in pronouncing them, which is generally at the 4th, or 5th Syllable; as, _I'll sing of Heroes,--and of Kings, } In mighty Numbers--mighty things; } Begin, my_ Muse,--_but lo the Strings, } To my great Song--rebellious prove, The Strings will sound--of nought but Love._ Cowl. The Verses of 7 Syllables, which are call'd _Anacreontick_, are most beautiful when the strongest Accent is on the 3d, and the Pause either there, or at the 4th, as, _Fill the Bowl--with rosy Wine, Round our Temples--Roses twine; Crown'd with Roses--we contemn_ Gyges _wealthy--Diadem._ Cowl. The Verses of 9, and of 11 Syllables, are of two sorts, one is those that are accented upon the last save one, which are only the Verses of double Rhyme that belong to those of 8 and 10 Syllables, of which Examples have already been given. The other is those that are accented on the last Syllable, which are employ'd only in Compositions for Musick, and in the lowest sort of Burlesque Poetry; the disagreeableness of their Measure having wholly excluded them from grave and serious Subjects. They who desire to see Examples of them, may find some scatter'd here and there in our Masks, and Operas, and in our Burlesque Writers. I will give but two. Hilas, O Hilas, _why sit we mute? Now that each Bird saluteth the Spring._ Wall. _Apart let me view then each Heavenly Fair, For three at a time there's no Mortal can bear._ Congr. The Verses of 12 Syllables are truly Heroick, both in their Measure and Sound; tho' we have no intire Works compos'd in them; and they are so far from being a Blemish to the Poems they are in, that on the contrary, when rightly employed, they conduce not a little to the Ornament of them; particularly in the following Rencounters. 1. When they conclude an Episode in an Heroick Poem: Thus _Stafford_ ends his Translation of that of _Camilla_ from the 11th Æneid, with a Verse of 12 Syllables. _The ling'ring Soul th' unwelcom Doom receives, And, murm'ring with Disdain, the beauteous Body leaves._ 2. When they conclude a Triplet and full Sense together; as, _Millions of op'ning Mouths to Fame belong; } And every Mouth is furnish'd with a Tongue; } And round with list'ning Ears the flying Plague is hung._ Dryd. } And here we may observe by the way, that whenever a Triplet is made use of in an Heroick Poem, it is a fault not to close the Sense at the end of the Triplet, but to continue it into the next Line; as _Dryden_ has done in his Translation of the 11th Æneid in those Lines. _With Olives crown'd, the Presents they shall bear, } A Purple Robe, a Royal Iv'ry Chair, } And all the Marks of Sway that_ Latian _Monarchs wear, } And Sums of Gold_, &c. And in the 7th Æneid he has committed the like fault. _Then they, whose Mothers, frantick with their Fear, } In Woods and Wilds the Flags of_ Bacchus _bear, } And lead his Dances with dishevel'd Hair, } Increase the Clamour_, &c. But the Sense is not confin'd to the Couplet, for the Close of it may fall into the middle of the next Verse, that is the Third, and sometimes farther off: Provided the last Verse of the Couplet exceed not the Number of ten Syllables; for then the Sense ought always to conclude with it. Examples of this are so frequent, that 'tis needless to give any. 3. When they conclude the Stanzas of Lyrick or Pindarick Odes; Examples of which are often seen in _Dryden_, and others. In these Verses the Pause ought to be at the 6th Syllable, as may be seen in the foregoing Examples. We sometimes find it, tho' very rarely, at the 7th; as, _That such a cursed Creature--lives so long a space._ When it is at the 4th, the Verse will be rough and hobbling: as, _And Midwife Time--the ripen'd Plot to Murther brought._ Dryd. _The Prince pursu'd--and march'd along with equal Pace._ Dryd. In the last of which it is very apparent, that if the Sense and Construction would allow us to make the Pause at the 6th Syllable, _The Prince pursu'd, and march'd--along with equal Pace._ the Verse would be much more flowing and easie. The Verses of 14 Syllables are less frequent than those of 12; they are likewise inserted in Heroick Poems, _&c._ and are agreeable enough when they conclude a Triplet and Sense, and follow a Verse of 12; as, _For thee the Land in fragrant Flowers is drest; } For thee the Ocean smiles, and smooths her wavy Breast, Dryd.} And Heav'n it self with more serene and purer Light is blest._ } But if they follow one of 10 Syllables, the Inequality of the Measure renders them less agreeable; as, _While all thy Province, Nature, I survey, (Dryd.} And sing to_ Memmius _an Immortal Lay } Of Heav'n and Earth; and every where thy wondrous Pow'r display_ } Especially if it be the last of a Couplet only; as, _With Court-Informers haunts, and Royal Spies, Things done relates, not done she feigns, and mingles Truth with Lies._ (Dryd. But this is only in Heroicks; for in Pindaricks and Lyricks, Verses of 12 or 14 Syllables are frequently and gracefully plac'd, not only after those of 12 or 10, but of any other number of Syllables whatsoever. The Verses of 4 and 6 Syllables have nothing worth observing, and therefore I shall content my self with having made mention of them. They are, as I said before, us'd only in Operas, and Masks, and in Lyrick and Pindarick Odes. Take one Example of them. _To rule by Love, To shed no Blood, May be extoll'd above; But here below, Let Princes know, 'Tis fatal to be good._ Dryd. SECT. III. _Several Rules conducing to the Beauty of our Versification._ Our Poetry being very much polish'd and refin'd since the Days of _Chaucer_, _Spencer_ and the other antient Poets, some Rules which they neglected, and that conduce very much to the Ornament of it, have been practis'd by the best of the Moderns. The first is, to avoid as much as possible the Concourse of Vowels, which occasions a certain ill-sounding Gaping, call'd by the Latins _Hiatus_; and which they thought so disagreeable to the Ear, that, to avoid it, whenever a Word ended in a Vowel, and the next began with one, they never, even in Prose, sounded the Vowel of the first Word, but lost it in the Pronunciation; and it is a fault in our Poets not to do the like, whenever our Language will admit of it. For this Reason, the _e_ of the Particle _The_ ought always to be cut off before the Words that begin by a Vowel; as, _With weeping Eyes she heard th' unwelcome News._ Dryd. And it is a fault to make _The_ and the first Syllable of the following word two distinct Syllables, as in this, _Refrain'd a while by the unwelcome Night._ Wall. A second sort of _Hiatus_, and that ought no less to be avoided is, when a Word that ends in a Vowel that cannot be cut off, is plac'd before one that begins by the same Vowel, or one that has the like Sound; as, _Should thy Iambicks swell into a Book._ Wall. The second Rule is, to contract the two last Syllables of the Preterperfect Tenses of all the Verbs that will admit of it; which are all the Regular Verbs whatsoever, except only those ending in D or T, and DE or TE. And it is a fault to make _Amazed_ of three Syllables, and _Loved_ of two; instead of _Amaz'd_ of two, and _Lov'd_ of one. And the second Person of the Present and Preterperfect Tenses of all Verbs ought to be contracted in like manner; as _thou lov'st_, for _thou lovest_, &c. The third Rule is, not to make use of several Words in a Verse that begin by the same Letter; as, _The Court he knew to steer in Storms of State. He in these Miracles Design discern'd._ Dav. Yet we find an Instance of such a Verse in _Dryden's_ Translation of the first Pastoral of _Virgil_; _Till then a helpless, hopeless, homely Swain._ Which I am perswaded he left not thus through Negligence or Inadvertency, but with design to paint in the Number and Sound of the Words the thing he describ'd, a Shepherd in whom _Nec spes libertatis erat, nec cura peculi._ Now how far the Sound of the _H_ aspirate, with which three Feet of that Verse begin, expresses the Despair of the Swain, let the Judicious judge: I have taken notice of it only to say, that 'tis a great Beauty in Poetry, when the Words and Numbers are so dispos'd, as by their Order and Sound to represent the things describ'd. The fourth is, to avoid ending a Verse by an Adjective whose Substantive begins the following; as, _Some lost their quiet Rivals, some their kind Parents_, &c. Dav. Or, by a Preposition when the Case it governs begins the Verse that follows; as, _The daily less'ning of our Life, shews by A little dying, how outright to dye._ Wall. The fifth is, to avoid the frequent Use of Words of many Syllables, which are proper enough in Prose, but come not into Verse without a certain Violence altogether disagreeable; particularly those whose Accent is on the fourth Syllable from the last; as _Undutifulness_. SECT. IV. _Doubts concerning the Number of Syllables of certain Words._ There is no Language whatsoever, that so often joyns several Vowels together to make Diphthongs of them, as ours; this appears in our having several compos'd of three different Vowels: as EAU, and EOU in _Beauteous_: IOU in _Glorious_, UAI in _Acquaint_, &c. Now from hence may arise some Difficulties concerning the true Pronunciation of those Vowels: Whether they ought to be sounded separately in two Syllables, or joyntly in one. The antient Poets made them sometimes of two Syllables, sometimes but of one, as the Measure of their Verse requir'd; but they are now become to be but of one, and it is a fault to make them of two: From whence we may draw this general Rule; That whenever one Syllable of a Word ends in a Vowel, and the next begins by one, provided the first of those Syllables be not that on which the Word is accented, those two Syllables ought in Verse to be contracted and made but one. Thus _Beauteous_ is but two Syllables, _Victorious_ but three, and it is a fault in _Dryden_, to make it four, as he has done in this Verse: _Your Arms are on the_ Rhine _victorious._ To prove that this Verse wants a Syllable of its due Measure, we need but add one to it; as, _Your Arms are on the_ Rhine _victorious now._ Where tho' the Syllable _now_ be added to the Verse, it has no more than its due number of Syllables, which plainly proves it wanted it. But if the Accent be upon the first of these Syllables, they cannot be contracted to make a Diphthong, but must be computed as two distinct Syllables: Thus _Poet_, _Lion_, _Quiet_, and the like, must always be us'd as two Syllables: _Poetry_ and the like, as three. And it is a fault to make _Riot_, for Example, one Syllable, as _Milton_ has done in this Verse. _Their Riot ascends above their lofty Tow'rs._ The same Poet has in another place made use of a like Word twice in one Verse, and made it two Syllables each time. _With Ruin upon Ruin, Rout on Rout._ And any Ear may discover that this last Verse has its true Measure, the other not. But there are some Words that may be excepted; as _Diamond_, _Violet_, _Violent_, _Diadem_, _Hyacinth_, and perhaps some others, which, though they are accented upon the first Vowel, are sometimes us'd but as two Syllables; as in the following Verses, _From Diamond Quarries hewn, and Rocks of Gold._ Milt. _With Poppies, Daffadils, and Violets joyn'd._ Tate. _With vain, but violent Force their Darts they flung._ Cowl. _His Ephod, Mitre, well-cut Diadem on._ Cowl. _My blushing Hyacinths, and my Bays I keep._ Dryd. Sometimes as three; as _A Mount of rocky Diamond did rise._ Blac. _Hence the blue Violet and blushing Rose._ Blac. _And set soft Hyacinths of Iron Blue._ Dryd. When they are us'd but as two Syllables they suffer an Elision of one of their Vowels, and are generally written thus, _Di'mond_, _Vi'let_, &c. This Contraction is not always made of Syllables of the same Word only; for the Particle _A_ being plac'd after a Word that ends in a Vowel, will sometimes admit of the like Contraction: For Example, after the Word _many_; as, _Tho' many a Victim from my Folds was bought, And many a Cheese to Country-Markets brought._ Dryd. _They many a Trophy gain'd with many a Wound._ Dav. After _To_; as, _Can he to a Friend, to a Son so bloody grow._ Cowl. After _They_; as, _From thee, their long-known King, they a King desire._ Cowl. After _By_; as, _When we by a foolish Figure say._ Cowl. And perhaps after some others. There are also other Words whose Syllables are sometimes contracted, sometimes not: as, _Bower_, _Heaven_, _Prayer_, _Nigher_, _Towards_, and many more of the like Nature: But they generally ought to be us'd but as one Syllable; and then they suffer an Elision of the Vowel that precedes their final Consonant, and ought to be written thus: _Pow'r_, _Heav'n_, _Pray'r_, _Nigh'r_, _tow'rds_. The Termination ISM is always us'd but as one Syllable; as _Where griesly Schism and raging Strife appear._ Cowl. _And Rhumatisms I send to rack the Joynts._ Dryd. And, indeed, considering that it has but one Vowel, it may seem absurd to assert that it ought to be reckon'd two Syllables; yet in my Opinion, those Verses seem to have a Syllable more than their due Measure, and would run better if we took one from them; as, _Where griesly Schism, raging Strife appear. I Rhumatisms send to rack the Joynts._ Yet this Opinion being contrary to the constant practice of our Poets, I shall not presume to advance it as a Rule for others to follow; but leave it to be decided by such as are better Judges of Poetical Numbers. The like may be said of the Terminations ASM and OSM. SECT. V. _Of the Elisions that are allow'd in our Versification._ Our Verses consisting only of a certain Number of Syllables, nothing can be of more ease, or greater use to our Poets, than the retaining or cutting off a Syllable from a Verse, according as the measure of it requires; and therefore it is requisite to treat of the Elisions that are allowable in our Poetry, some of which have been already taken notice of in the preceding Section. By Elision, I mean the cutting off one or more Letters from a Word, whereby two Syllables come to be contracted into one; or the taking away an intire Syllable. Now when in a Word of more than two Syllables, which is accented on the last save two, the Liquid R, happens to be between two Vowels, that which precedes the Liquid admits of an Elision, Of this nature are many Words in ANCE, ENCE, ENT, ER, OUS, and RY; as _Temperance_, _Preference_, _Different_, _Flatterer_, _Amorous_, _Victory_: Which are Words of three Syllables, and often us'd as such in Verse; but they may also be contracted into two, by cutting off the Vowel that precedes the Liquid; as _Temp'rance_, _Pref'rence_, _Diff'rent_, _Flatt'rer_, _Am'rous_, _Vict'ry_. The like Elision is sometimes us'd, when any of the other Liquids L, M, or N, happen to be between two Vowels, in Words accented like the former, as _Fabulous_, _Enemy_, _Mariner_, which may be contracted _Fab'lous_, _En'my_, _Mar'ner_. But this is not so frequent. Observe, that I said accented on the last save two; for if the Word be accented on the last save one, that is to say, on the Vowel that precedes the Liquid, that Vowel may not be cut off. And therefore it is a fault to make, for Example, _Sonorous_ of two Syllables, as in this Verse; _With Son'rous Metals wak'd the drowsie Day._ Blac. Which always ought to be of three; as in this, _Sonorous Metals blowing martial Sounds._ Milt. In like manner; whenever the Letter S happens to be between two Vowels in Words of three Syllables, accented on the first, one of the Vowels may be cut off; as _Pris'ner_, _Bus'ness_, &c. Or the Letter C when 'tis sounded like S; that is to say, whenever it preceds the Vowels E or I; as _Med'cine_, for _Medicine_. Or V Consonant; as _Cov'nant_ for _Covenant_. To these may be added the Gerunds of all Verbs whose Infinitives end in any of the Liquids, preceded by a Vowel or Diphthong, and that are accented on the last save one: for the Gerunds being form'd by adding the Syllable ING to the Infinitive, the Liquid that was their final Letter, comes thereby to be between two Vowels; and the Accent that was on the last save one of the Infinitive, comes to be on the last save two of the Gerund: And therefore the Vowel or Diphthong, that precedes the Liquid, may be cut off; by means whereof the Gerund of three Syllables comes to be but of two, as from _Travel_, _Travelling_, or _Trav'ling_; from _Endeavour_, _Endeavouring_, or _Endeav'ring_, &c. But if the Accent be on the last Syllable of such a Verb, its Gerund will not suffer such an Elision: Thus the Gerund of _Devour_ must always be three Syllables, _Devouring_, not _Dev'ring_; because all Derivatives still retain the Accent of their Primitives, that is, on the same Syllable: and the Accent always obliges the Syllable on which it is, to remain entire. The Gerunds of the Verbs in OW, accented on the last save two, suffer an Elision of the O that precedes the W; as _Foll'wing_, _Wall'wing_. The Particle _It_ admits of an Elision of its Vowel before _Is_, _Was_, _Were_, _Will_, _Would_; as _'Tis_, _'Twas_, _'Twere_, _'Twill_, _'Twould_, for _It is_, _It was_, &c. _It_ likewise sometimes suffers the like Elision, when plac'd after a Word that ends in a Vowel; as _By't_ for _By it_, _Do't_ for _Do it_: Or that ends in a Consonant after which the Letter T can be pronounc'd; as _Was't_ for _Was it_, _In't_ for _In it_, and the like: But this is not so frequent in Heroick Verse. The Particle _Is_ may lose its _I_ after any Word that ends in a Vowel, or in any of the Consonants after which the Letter S may be sounded; as _she's_ for _she is_: The _Air's_ for the _Air is_, &c. _To_ (sign of the Infinitive Mood) may lose its O before any Verb that begins by a Vowel; as _T' amaze_, _t' undo_, &c. _To_ (Sign of the Dative Case) may likewise lose its O before any Noun that begins with a Vowel; as _t' Air_, _t' every_, _&c._ But this Elision is not so allowable as the former. _Are_ may lose its _A_ after the Pronouns Personal, _We_, _You_, _They_; as _We're_, _You're_, _They're_: And thus it is that this Elision ought to be made, and not as some do, by cutting off the final Vowels of the Pronouns Personal; _W'are_, _Y'are_, _Th'are_. _Will_ and _Would_ may lose all their first Letters, and retain only their final one, after any of the Pronouns Personal; as _I'll_ for _I will_; _He'd_ for _He would_; or after _Who_, as _who'll_ for _who will_; _who'd_ for _who would_. _Have_, may lose its two first Letters after _I_, _You_, _We_, _They_; as _I've_, _You've_, _We've_, _They've_. _Not_, its two first Letters after can; as _Can't_ for _Can not_. _Am_, its _A_ after _I_: _I'm_ for _I am_. _Us_, its _U_ after _Let_: _Let's_ for _Let us_. _Taken_, its _K_, as _Ta'en_: for so it ought to be written, not _ta'ne_. _Heaven_, _Seven_; _Even_, _Eleven_, and the Participles _Driven_, _Given_, _Thriven_, and their Compounds, may lose their last Vowel, as _Heav'n_, _Forgiv'n_, &c. _See the foregoing Section, p. 13._ To these may be added _Bow'r_, _Pow'r_, _Flow'r_, _Tow'r_, _Show'r_, for _Bower_, _Power_, &c. _Never_, _Ever_, _Over_, may lose their _V_; and are contracted thus, _Ne'er_, _E'er_, _O'er_. Some Words admit of an Elision of their first Syllable; as _'Tween_, _'Twixt_, _'Mong_, _'Mongst_, _'Gainst_, _'Bove_, _'Cause_, _'Fore_, for _Between_, _Betwixt_, _Among_, _Amongst_, _Against_, _Above_, _Because_, _Before_. And some others that may be observ'd in reading our Poets. I have already, in the 3d Section of this Chapter, spoken of the Elision of the _e_ of the Particle _The_ before Vowels: But it is requisite likewise to take notice, that it sometimes loses its Vowel before a Word that begins by a Consonant, and then its two remaining Letters are joyn'd to the preceding Word; as _To th' Wall_, for _To the Wall_; _By th' Wall_, for _By the Wall_, &c. But this is scarce allowable in Heroick Poetry. The Particles _In_, _Of_, and _On_, sometimes lose their Consonants, and are joyn'd to the Particle _The_ in like manner; as _i'th'_, _o'th'_, for _in the_, _of the_. In some of our Poets we find the Pronoun _His_ lose its two first Letters after any Word that ends in a Vowel; as _to's_, _by's_, &c. for _to his_, _by his_, &c. Or after many Words that end in a Consonant, after which the Letter S can be pronounc'd; as _In's_, _for's_, for _In his_, _for his_, &c. This is frequent in _Cowley_, who often takes too great a Liberty in his Contractions; as _t' your_ for _to your_, _t' which_ for _to which_, and many others; in which we must be cautious of following his Example: But the contracting of the Pronoun _His_ in the manner I mention'd, is not wholly to be condemn'd. We sometimes find the Word _Who_, contracted before Words that begin by a Vowel; as, _Wh' expose to Scorn and Hate both them and it._ Cowl. And the Preposition _By_ in like manner; as, _B' unequal Fate, and Providence's Crime._ Dryd. _Well did he know how Palms b' Oppression speed._ Cowl. And the Pronouns personal, _He_, _She_, _They_, _We_; as, _Timely h' obeys her wife Advice, and strait To unjust Force sh' opposes just Deceit._ Cowl. _Themselves at first against themselves th' excite._ Cowl. _Shame and Woe to us, if w' our Wealth obey._ Cowl. But these and the like Contractions are very rare in our most correct Poets, and ought indeed wholly to be avoided: For 'tis a general Rule, that no Vowel can be cut off before another, when it cannot be sunk in the pronunciation of it: And therefore we ought to take care never to place a Word that begins by a Vowel, after a Word that ends in one (mute E only excepted) unless the final Vowel of the former can be lost in its Pronunciation: For, to leave two Vowels opening on each other, causes a very disagreeable _Hiatus_. Whenever therefore a Vowel ends a Word, the next ought to begin with a Consonant, or what is Equivalent to it; as our W, and H aspirate, plainly are. For which reason 'tis a Fault in some of our Poets to cut off the _e_ of the Particle _The_, for Example, before a Word that begins by an H aspirate; as _And th' hasty Troops march'd loud and chearful down._ Cowl. But if the H aspirate be follow'd by another E, that of the Particle _The_ may be cut off; As, _Th' Heroick Prince's Courage or his Love._ Wall. _Th'_ Hesperian _Fruit, and made the Dragon sleep._ Wall. CHAP. II. _Of Rhyme._ SECT. I. _What Rhyme is, and the several Sorts of it._ Rhyme is a Likeness or Uniformity of Sound in the terminations of two Words, I say, of Sound, not of Letters; for the Office of Rhyme being to content and please the Ear, and not the Eye, the Sound only is to be regarded, not the Writing: Thus _Maid_ and _Perswade_, _Laugh_ and _Quaff_, tho' they differ in Writing, rhyme very well: But _Plough_ and _Cough_, tho' written alike, rhyme not at all. In our Versification we may observe 3 several sorts of Rhyme; Single, Double, and Treble. The single Rhyme is of two sorts: One of the Words that are accented on the last Syllable: Another, of those that have their Accent on the last save two. The Words accented on the last Syllable, if they end in a Consonant, or mute E, oblige the Rhyme to begin at the vowel that precedes their last Consonant, and to continue to the end of the Word: In a Consonant; as, _Here might be seen that Beauty, Wealth, and Wit, And Prowess, to the Pow'r of Love submit._ Dryd. In mute E; as, _A Spark of Virtue by the deepest Shade Of sad Adversity, is fairer made._ Wall. But if a Diphthong precede the last Consonant, the Rhyme must begin at that Vowel of it whose Sound most prevails; as, _Next to the Pow'r of waking Tempests cease, Was in that Storm to have so calm a Peace._ Wall. If the Words accented on the last Syllable end in any of the Vowels except mute E, or in a Diphthong, the Rhyme is made only to that Vowel or Diphthong. To the Vowel; as _So wing'd with Praise we penetrate the Sky, Teach Clouds and Stars to praise him as we fly._ Wall. To the Diphthong; as, _So hungry Wolves, tho' greedy of their Prey, Stop when they find a Lion in the way._ Wall. The other sort of single Rhyme is of the Words that have their Accent on the last Syllable save two. And these rhyme to the other in the same manner as the former; that is to say, if they end in any of the Vowels, except mute E, the Rhyme is made only to that Vowel; as, _So seems to speak the youthful Deity; Voice, Colour, Hair, and all like_ Mercury. Wall. But if they end in a Consonant or mute E, the Rhyme must begin at the Vowel that precedes that Consonant, and continue to the end of the Word. As has been shewn by the former Examples. But we must take notice, that all the Words that are accented on the last save two, will rhyme, not only to one another, but also to all the Words whose Terminations have the same Sound, tho' they are accented on the last Syllable. Thus _Tenderness_ rhymes not only to _Poetess_, _Wretchedness_, and the like, that are accented on the last save two, but also to _Confess_, _Excess_, &c. that are accented on the last; as, _Thou art my Father now, these Words confess, That Same, and that indulgent Tenderness._ Dryd. SECT. II. _Of Double and Treble Rhyme._ All Words that are accented on the last save one, require the Rhyme to begin at the Vowel of that Syllable, and to continue to the end of the Word; and this is what we call Double Rhyme; as, _Then all for Women, Painting, Rhyming, Drinking, Besides ten Thousand Freaks that dy'd in Thinking._ Dryd. But it is convenient to take notice, that the ancient Poets did not always observe this Rule, and took care only that the last Syllables of the Words should be alike in Sound, without any regard to the Seat of the Accent. Thus _Nation_ and _Affection_, _Tenderness_ and _Hapless_, _Villany_ and _Gentry_, _Follow_ and _Willow_, and the like, were allow'd as Rhymes to each other in the Days of _Chaucer_, _Spencer_, and the rest of the Antients; but this is now become a fault in our Versification; and these two Verses of _Cowley_ rhyme not at all. _A clear and lively brown was_ Merab's _Dye; Such as the proudest Colours might envy._ Nor these of _Dryden_. _Thus Air was void of Light, and Earth unstable, And Waters dark Abyss unnavigable._ Because we may not place an Accent on the last Syllable of _Envy_, nor on the last save one of _unnavigable_; which nevertheless we must be oblig'd to do, if we make the first of them rhyme to _Dye_, the last to _Unstable_. But we may that observe in Burlesque Poetry, it is permitted to place an Accent upon a Syllable that naturally has none; as, _When Pulpit, Drum Ecclesiastick, Was beat with Fist instead of a Stick._ Where unless we pronounce the Particle A with a strong Accent upon it, and make it sound like the Vowel _a_ in the last Syllable but one of _Ecclesiastick_, the Verse will lose all its Beauty and Rhyme. But this is allowable in Burlesque Poetry only. Observe that these double Rhymes may be compos'd of two several Words; provided the Accent be on the last Syllable of the first of them; as in these Verses of _Cowley_, speaking of Gold; _A Curse on him who did refine it, A Curse on him who first did coin it._ Or some of the Verses may end in an entire word, and the Rhyme to it be compos'd of several; as, _Tho' stor'd with Deletery Med'cines, Which whosoever took is dead since._ Hud. The Treble Rhyme is, when in words accented on the last save two we begin the Rhyme at the Vowel of that Syllable, and continue it to the end of the word: Thus _Charity_ and _Parity_, _Tenderness_ and _Slenderness_, &c., are treble Rhymes. And these too, as well as the double, may be compos'd of several words; as, _There was an ancient sage Philosopher, That had read_ Alexander Ross _over._ Hud. The Treble Rhyme is very seldom us'd, and ought wholly to be excluded from serious Subjects; for it has a certain flatness, unworthy the Gravity requir'd in Heroick Verse. In which _Dryden_ was of Opinion that even the double Rhymes ought very cautiously to find place; and in all his Translation of _Virgil_, he has made use of none except only in such words as admit of a Contraction, and therefore cannot properly be said to be double Rhymes; as _Giv'n_, _Driv'n_, _Tow'r_, _Pow'r_, and the like. And indeed, considering their Measure is different from that of an Heroick Verse, which consists but of 10 Syllables, they ought not to be too frequently us'd in Heroick Poems; but they are very graceful in the Lyrick, to which, as well as to the Burlesque, those Rhymes more properly belong. SECT. III. _Further Instructions concerning Rhyme._ The Consonants, that precede the Vowels where the Rhyme begins, must be different in Sound, and not the same; for then the Rhyme will be too perfect; as _Light_, _Delight_; _Vice_, _Advice_, and the like; for tho' such Rhymes were allowable in the Days of _Spencer_ and the other old Poets, they are not so now; nor can there be any Musick in one single Note. _Cowley_ himself owns, that they ought not to be employed except in Pindarick Odes, which is a sort of free Poetry, and there too very sparingly, and not without a third Rhyme to answer to both; as, _In barren Age wild and inglorious lye, And boast of past Fertility, } The poor Relief of present Poverty._ Cowl.} Where the words _Fertility_ and _Poverty_ rhyme very well to the last word of the first Verse, _Lye_; but cannot rhyme to each other, because the Consonants that precede the last Vowels are the same, both in Writing and Sound. But this is yet less allowable if the Accent be on the Syllable of the Rhyme; as, _Her Language melts Omnipotence, arrests His Hand, and thence the vengeful Lightning wrests._ Blac. From hence it follows that a word cannot rhyme to it self, tho' the signification be different; as _He Leaves_ to _the Leaves_, &c. Nor the words that differ both in Writing and Sense, if they have the same Sound, as _Maid_ and _Made_, _Prey_ and _Pray_, _to Bow_ and _a Bough_: as, _How gawdy Fate may be in Presents_ sent, _And creep insensibly by Touch or_ Scent. Oldh. Nor a Compound to its Simple; as _Move_ to _Remove_, _Taught_ to _Untaught_, &c. Nor the Compounds of the same Words to one another, as _Disprove_ to _Approve_, and the like. All which proceeds from what I said before, _viz._ That the Consonants that precede the Vowel where the Rhyme begins, must not be the same in Sound, but different. In all which we vary from our Neighbours; for neither the _French_, _Italians_ not _Spaniards_ will allow that a Rhyme can be too perfect: And we meet with frequent Examples in their Poetry, where not only the Compounds rhyme to their Simples, and to themselves; but even where words written and pronounc'd exactly alike, provided they have a different Signification, are made use of as Rhymes to one another: But this is not permitted in our Poetry; and therefore, tho' in the two former Editions of this Book I said that _Rhyme is only a Sameness of Sound at the End of Words_, I have in this given it a Definition which I take to be more agreeable to our Practice, and call'd it _a Likeness or Uniformity of Sound in the Terminations of two Words_. We must take care not to place a Word at the middle of a Verse that rhymes to the last Word of it; as, _So young in show, as if he still should grow._ But this fault is still more inexcusable, if the second Verse rhyme to the middle and end of the first; as, _Knowledge he only sought, and so soon caught, As if for him Knowledge had rather sought._ Cowl. _Here Passion sways; but there the Muse shall raise Eternal Monuments of louder Praise._ Wall. Or both the middle and end of the second to the last Word of the first; as, _Farewell, she cry'd, my Sister, thou dear Part, Thou sweetest part of my divided Heart._ Dryd. Where the tenderness of Expression will not attone for the Jingle. CHAP. III. _Of the several sorts of Poems, or Compositions in Verse._ All our Poems may be divided into two sorts; the first of those that are compos'd in Couplets; the second are those that are compos'd in Stanzas consisting of several Verses. SECT. I. _Of the Poems compos'd in Couplets._ In the Poems compos'd in Couplets, the Rhymes follow one another, and end at each Couplet; that is to say, the 2d Verse rhymes to the 1st, the 4th to the 3d, the 6th to the 5th, and in like manner to the end of the Poem. The Verses employ'd in this sort of Poems, are either Verses of 10 Syllables; as, _Oh! could I flow like thee, and make thy Stream My great Example, as it is my Theme; The deep, yet clear tho' gentle, yet net dull; Strong, without Rage; without o'erflowing, full._ Denh. Or of 8; as, _O fairest Piece of well-form'd Earth, Why urge you thus your haughty Birth; The Pow'r, which you have o'er us, lies Not in your Race, but in your Eyes. Smile but on me, and you shall scorn Henceforth to be of Princes born; I can describe the shady Grove, Where your lov'd Mother slept with_ Jove; _And yet excuse the faultless Dame, Caught with her Spouse's Shape and Name; Thy matchless Form will Credit bring, To all the Wonders I shall sing._ Wall. Or of 7; as, Phillis, _why should we delay Pleasures shorter than the Day? Could we, which we never can, Stretch our lives beyond their Span. Beauty like a Shadow flies, and our Youth before us dies,_ _Or would Youth and Beauty stay, Love has Wings, and will away. Love has swifter Wings than Time._ Wall. But the second Verse of the Couplet does not always contain a like number of Syllables with the first; as, _What shall I do to be for ever known, And make the Age to come my own? I shall like Beasts and common People dye, Unless you write my Elegy._ Cowl. SECT. II. _Of the Poems compos'd in Stanzas: And first, of the Stanzas consisting of three, and of four Verses._ In the Poems composed in Stanzas, each Stanza contains a certain number of Verses consisting for the most part of a different number of Syllables: And a Poem that consists of several Stanzas, we generally call an Ode; and this is Lyrick Poetry. But we must not forget to observe that our Antient Poets frequently made use of intermixed Rhyme in their Heroick Poems, which they dispos'd into Stanzas and Cantos. Thus the _Troilus_ and _Cressida_ of _Chaucer_ is compos'd in Stanzas consisting of 7 Verses; the _Fairy Queen_ of _Spencer_ in Stanzas of 9, _&c._ And this they took from _Italians_, whose Heroick Poems generally consist in Stanzas of 8. But this is now wholly laid aside, and _Davenant_, who compos'd his _Gondibert_ in Stanzas of Verses in alternate Rhyme, was the last that followed their Example of intermingling Rhymes in Heroick Poems. The Stanzas employ'd in our Poetry, cannot consist of less than three, and are seldom of more than 12 Verses, except in Pindarick Odes, where the Stanzas are different from one another in number of Verses, as shall be shewn. But to treat of all the different Stanzas that are employ'd or may be admitted in our Poetry, would be a labour no less tedious than useless; it being easie to demonstrate, that they may be vary'd almost to an Infinity, that would be different from one another, either in the Number of the Verses of each Stanza, or in the Number of the Syllables of each Verse; or lastly, in the various intermingling of the Rhyme. I shall therefore confine my self to mention only such as are most frequently us'd by the best of our modern Poets. And first of the Stanzas consisting of three Verses. In the Stanzas of three Verses, or Triplets, the Verses of each Stanza rhyme to one another; and are either Heroick; as, _Nothing, thou Elder Brother e'en to shade! } Thou hadst a Being e'er the World was made. } And, (well-fix'd) art alone of ending not afraid._ Roch.} Or else they consist of 8 Syllables; as these of _Waller_, _Of a fair Lady playing with a Snake_. _Strange that such Horrour and such Grace } Should dwell together in one Place, } A Fury's Arm, an Angel's Face,_ } Nor do the Verses of these Stanzas always contain a like number of Syllables; for the first and third may have ten, the second but eight; as, _Men without Love have oft so cunning grown, } That something like it they have shewn, } But none who had it, ev'r seem'd to have none. } Love's of a strangely open, simple kind, } Can no Arts or Disguises find, } But thinks none sees it, 'cause it self is blind._ Cowl.} In the Stanzas of 4 Verses, the Rhyme may be intermix'd in two different manners; for either the 1st and 3d Verse may rhyme to each other, and by consequence the 2d and 4th, and this is call'd Alternate Rhyme; or the 1st and 4th may rhyme, and by consequence the 2d and 3d. But there are some Poems in Stanzas of four Verses, where the Rhymes follow one another, and the Verses differ in number of syllables only; as in _Cowley's_ Hymn to the Light, which begins thus, _First born of_ Chaos! _who so fair didst come From the old Negro's darksom Womb: Which, when it saw the lovely Child, The melancholy Mass put on kind Looks and smil'd._ But these Stanzas are generally in Alternate Rhyme, and the Verses consist either of 10 Syllables; as, _She ne'er saw Courts, but Courts could have undone With untaught Looks and an unpractis'd Heart: Her Nets the most prepar'd could never shun; For Nature spread them in the scorn of Art._ Dav. Or of 8; as, _Had_ Echo _with so sweet a Grace,_ Narcissus _loud Complaints return'd: Not for Reflexion of his Face, But of his Voice the Boy had burn'd._ Wall. Or of 10 and 8. that is to say, the 1st and 3d of 10; the 2d and 4th of 8; as, _Love from Time's Wings has stol'n the Feathers sure, He has, and put them to his own; For Hours of late as long as Days endure. And very Minutes Hours are grown._ Cowl. Or of 8 and 6 in the like manner; as, _Then ask not Bodies doom'd to dye, To what Abode they go; Since Knowledge is but Sorrow's Spy, 'Tis better not to know._ Dav. Or of 7; as, _Not the silver Doves that fly, Yoak'd in_ Cytherea's _Car; Nor the Wings that lift so high, And convey her Son so far;_ _Are so lovely sweet and fair, Or do more ennoble Love; Are so choicely match'd a Pair, Or with more consent do move._ Wall. _Note_, That it is absolutely necessary that both the Construction and Sense should end with the Stanza, and not fall into the beginning of the following one, as it does in the last Example, which is a fault wholly to be avoided. SECT. III. _Of the Stanzas of Six Verses._ The Stanzas of 6 Verses, are generally only one of the before-mention'd Quadrans or Stanzas of 4 Verses, with two Verses at the end that rhyme to one another; as, _A Rural Judge dispos'd of Beautie's Prize, A simple Shepherd was prefer'd to_ Jove; _Down to the Mountains from the partial Skies Came_ Juno, Pallas, _and the Queen of Love, To plead for that which was so justly giv'n To the bright_ Carlisle _of the Courts of Heav'n._ Wall. Where the 4 first Verses are only a Quadran, and consist of 10 Syllables each in Alternate Rhyme. The following Stanza in like manner is compos'd of a Quadran, whose Verses consist of 8 Syllables; and to which 2 Verses that rhyme to one another are added at the end; as, _Hope waits upon the flowry Prime, And Summer, tho' it be less gay, Yet is not look'd on as a time Of Declination and Decay, For with a full Hand that does bring All that was promised by the Spring._ Wall. Sometimes the Quadran ends the Stanza; and the two Lines of the same Rhyme begin it; as, _Here's to thee_, Dick, _this whining Love despise: Pledge me, my Friend, and drink till thou be'st wise. It sparkles brighter far than she; 'Tis pure and right without Deceit; And such no Woman e'er can be; No, they are all Sophisticate._ Cowl. Or as in these, where the first and last Verses of the Stanza consist of 10 Syllables; _When Chance or cruel Bus'ness parts us two, What do our Souls, I wonder, do? While Sleep does our dull Bodies tie, Methinks at home they should not stay Content with Dreams, but boldly fly Abroad, and meet each other half the way._ Cowl. Or as in the following Stanza, where the 4th and 5th Verses rhyme to each other, and the 3d and 6th; _While what I write I do not see, I dare thus ev'n to you write Poetry, Ah foolish Muse! that dost so high aspire, And know'st her Judgment well, How much it does thy Pow'r excell; Yet dar'st be read by thy just Doom the Fire._ Cowl. (Written in Juice of Lemon. But in some of these Stanzas, the Rhymes follow one another; as, _Take heed, take heed, thou lovely Maid, Nor be by glitt'ring Ills betray'd: Thy self for Money! Oh! let no Man know The Price of Beauty fall'n so low: What dangers oughtst thou not to dread When Love that's blind, is by blind Fortune led?_ Cowl. Lastly, some of these Stanzas are compos'd of 2 Triplets; as, _The Lightning, which tall Oaks oppose in vain, To strike sometimes does net disdain The humble Furzes of the Plain. She being so high, and I so low, Her Pow'r by this does greater show, Who at such Distance gives so sure a Blow._ Cowl. SECT. IV. _Of the Stanzas of 8 Verses._ I have already said, that the _Italians_ compose their Heroick Poems in Stanzas of 8 Verses, where the Rhyme is dispos'd as follows; the 1st, 2d, and 5th Verses rhyme to one another, and the 2d, 4th, and 6th, the two last always rhyme to each other. Now our Translators of their Heroick Poems have observ'd the same Stanza and Disposition of Rhyme; of which take the following Example from _Fairfax's_ Translation of _Tasso's Goffredo_, _Cant._ 1. _Stan._ 3d. _Thither thou know'st the World is best inclin'd, Where luring_ Parnass _most his Beams imparts; And Truth convey'd in Verse of gentlest kind, To read sometimes, will move the dullest Hearts; So we, if Children young diseas'd we find, Anoint with Sweets the Vessel's foremost parts, To make them taste the Potions sharp we give; They drink deceiv'd, and so deceiv'd they live._ But our Poets seldom imploy this Stanza in Compositions of their own; where the following Stanzas of 8 Verses are most frequent. _Some others may with safety tell The mod'rate Flames which in them dwell; And either find some Med'cine there, Or cure themselves ev'n by Despair: My Love's so great, that it might prove Dang'rous to tell her that I love. So tender is my Wound, it cannot bear Any Salute, tho' of the kindest Air._ Cowl. Where the Rhymes follow one another, and the six first Verses consist of 8 Syllables each, the two last of 10. We have another sort of Stanza of 8 Verses, where the 4th rhymes to the 1st, the 3d to the ad, and the four last are two Couplets; and where the 1st, 4th, 6th and 8th, are of 10 Syllables each, the 4 others but of 8; as, _I've often wish'd to love: What shall I do? Me still the cruel Boy does spare; And I a double Task must bear, First to wooe him, and then a Mistress too. Come at last, and strike for shame, If thou art any thing besides a Name; I'll think thee else no God to be, But Poets, rather, Gods, who first created thee._ Cowl. Another, when the 2 first and 2 last Verses consist of 10 Syllables each, and rhyme to one another, the 4 other but of 8 in alternate Rhyme. _Tho' you be absent hence, I needs must say, The Trees as beauteous are, and Flowers as gay, As ever they were wont so be: Nay the Birds rural Musick too Is as melodious and free, As if they sung to pleasure you. I saw a Rose-bud ope this Morn; I'll swear The blushing Morning open'd not more fair._ Cowl. Another where the 4 first Verses are two Couplets, the 4 last in alternate Rhyme; as in _Cowley's_ Ode, _Of a Lady that made Posies for Rings_. _I little thought the time would ever be, That I should Wit in dwarfish Posies see. As all Words in few Letters live, Thou to few Words all Sense dost give. 'Twas Nature taught you this rare Art, In such a Little Much to shew; Who all the Good she did impart To Womankind, epitomis'd in you._ SECT. V. _Of the Stanzas of 10 and of 12 Verses._ The Stanzas of 10 and 12 Verses are seldom employed in our Poetry, it being very difficult to confine our selves to a certain Disposition of Rhyme, and measure of Verse, for so many Lines together; for which Reason those of 4, 6, and 8 Verses are the most frequent. However we sometimes find some of 10 and 12; as in _Cowley's_ Ode which he calls _Verses left upon a Wager_, where the Rhymes follow one another, but the Verses differ in Number of Syllables. _As seen hereafter will I Wagers lay 'Gainst what an Oracle shall say: Fool that I was to venture to deny A Tongue so us'd to Victory. A Tongue so blest by Nature and by Art, That never yet it spoke, but gain'd a Heart. Tho' what you said had not been true, If spoke by any else but you; Your Speech will govern Destiny, And Fate will change, rather than you shall lye._ Cowl. The same Poet furnishes us with an Example of a Stanza of 12 Verses in the Ode he calls the _The Prophet_, where the Rhymes are observ'd in the same manner as in the former Example. _Teach me to Love! Go teach thy self more Wit: I chief Professor am of it. Teach Craft to_ Scots, _and Thrift to_ Jews, _Teach Boldness to the Stews. In tyrants Courts teach supple Flattery, Teach_ Jesuits _that have travell'd far, to lye. Tenth Fire to burn, and Winds to blow, Teach restless Fountains how to flow, Teach the dull Earth fixt to abide, Teach Womankind Inconstancy and Pride. See if your Diligence there will useful prove; But, prithee teach not me to Love._ SECT. VI. _Of the Stanzas that consist of an odd Number of Verses._ We have also Stanzas that consist of odd numbers of Verses, as of 5, 7, 9, and 11; in all which it of necessity follows, that three Verses of the Stanza rhyme to one another, or that one of them be a blank Verse. In the Stanzas of 5 Verses, the 1st and 3d may rhyme, and the 2d and two last; as, _Sees not my Love how Time resumes The Beauty which he lent these Flow'rs: Tho' none should taste of their Perfumes, Yet they must live but some few Hours: Time what we forbear, devours._ Wall. Which is only a Stanza of 4 Verses in alternate Rhyme, to which a 5th Verse is added that rhymes to the 2d and 4th. See also an Instance of a Stanza of 5 Verses where the Rhymes are intermix'd in the same manner as the former, but the 1st and 3d Verses are composed but of 4 Syllables each. _Go lovely Rose, Tell her that wastes her Time and me, That now she knows, When I resemble her to thee, How sweet and fair she seems to be._ Wall. In the following Example the two first Verses rhyme, and the three last. _'Tis well, 'tis well with them, said I, Whose short-liv'd Passions with themselves can dye. For none can be unhappy, who 'Midst all his Ills a Time does know, The ne'er so long, when he shall not be so._ Cowl. In this Stanza, the 2 first and the last, and the 3d and 4th rhyme to one another. _It is enough, enough of time and pain Hast thou consum'd in vain: Leave, wretched Cowley, leave, Thy self with Shadows to deceive. Think that already lost which than must never gain._ Cowl. The Stanzas of 7 Verses are frequent enough in our Poetry, especially among the Ancients, who compos'd many of their Poems in this sort of Stanza: See an Example of one of them taken from _Spencer_ in _The Ruines of Time_, where the 1st and 3d Verses rhyme to one another, the 2d, 4th and 5th, and the two last. _But Fame with Golden Wings aloft doth fly Above the reach of ruinous Decay, And with brave Plumes does beat the Azure Sky, Admir'd of base-born Men from far away: Then whoso will with virtuous Deeds essay To mount to Heaven, on_ Pegasus _must ride, And in sweet Poets Verse be glorify'd._ I have rather chosen to take notice of this Stanza, because that Poet and _Chaucer_ have made use of it in many of their Poems, tho' they have not been follow'd in it by any of the Moderns: whose Stanza's of 7 Verses are generally compos'd as follows. Either the four first Verses are a Quadran in Alternate Rhyme, and the three last rhyme to one another; as, _Now by my Love, the greatest Oath that is, None loves you half so well as I; I do not ask your Love for this, But for Heaven's sake believe me, or I dye. No Servant sure but did deserve His Master should believe that he did serve; And I'll ask no more Wages tho' I starve._ Cowl. Or the four first are two Couplets, and the three last a Triplet; as, _Indeed I must confess When Souls mix 'tis a Happiness, But not compleat till Bodies too combine, And closely as our Minds together joyn. But Half of Heav'n the Souls in Glory taste, 'Till by Love in Heav'n at last, Their Bodies too are plac'd._ Cowl. Or, on the contrary, the three first may rhyme, and the four last be in Rhymes that follow one another; as, _From Hate, Fear, Hope, Anger, and Envy free, And all the Passions else that be, In vain I boast of Liberty: In vain this State a Freedom call, Since I have Love; and Love is all. Sot that I am! who think it fit to brag That I have no Disease besides the Plague._ Cowl. Or the 1st may rhyme to the two last, the 2d to the 5th, and the 3d and 4th to one another; as, _In vain thou drowsie God I thee invoke, For thou who dost from Fumes arise, Then who Man's Soul do'st overshade With a Thick Cloud by Vapours made, Canst have no Pow'r to shut his Eyes, Or passage of his Spirits to choak, Whose Flame's so pure, that it sends up no smoke._ Cowl. Or lastly, the four first and two last may be in following Rhyme, and the 5th a Blank Verse; as, _Thou robb'st my Days of Bus'ness and Delights, Of Sleep thou robb'st my Nights: Ah lovely Thief! what wilt thou do? What, rob me of Heav'n too! Thou ev'n my Prayers dost from me steal, And I with wild Idolatry Begin to God, and end them all to thee._ Cowl. The Stanzas of 9 and of 11 Syllables are not so frequent as those of 5 and of 7. _Spencer_ has composed his _Fairy Queen_ in Stanzas of 9 Verses, where the 1st rhymes to the 3d, the 2d to the 4th 5th and 7th; and the 6th to the two last. But this Stanza is very difficult to maintain, and the unlucky choice of it reduc'd him often to the necessity of making use of many exploded Words; nor has he, I think, been follow'd in it by any of the Moderns; whose 6 first Verses of the Stanzas that consist of 9, are generally in Rhymes that follow one another, and the three last a Triplet; as, _Beauty, Love's Scene and Masquerade, So well by well-plac'd Lights, and Distance made; False Coin! with which th' Impostor cheats us still, The Stamp and Colour good, but Metal ill: Which light or base we find, when we Weigh by Enjoyment, and examine thee. For tho' thy Being be but Show, 'Tis chiefly Night which Men to thee allow, And chuse t' enjoy thee, when thou least art thou._ Cowl. In the following Example the like Rhyme is observ'd, but the Verses differ in Measure from the former. _Beneath this gloomy Shade, By Nature only for my Sorrows made, I'll spend this Voice in Cries; In Tears I'll waste these Eyes, By Love so vainly fed: So Lust of old, the Deluge punished. Ah wretched Youth! said I; Ah wretched Youth! twice did I sadly cry; Ah wretched Youth! the Fields and Floods reply._ Cowl. The Stanzas consisting of 11 Verses are yet less frequent than those of 9, and have nothing particular to be observ'd in them. Take an Example of one of them, where the 6 first are 3 Couplets, the three next a Triplet, the two last a Couplet; and where the 4th, the 7th, and the last Verses are of 10 Syllables each, the others of 8. _No, to what purpose should I speak? No, wretched Heart, swell till you break; She cannot love me if she would; And, to say Truth, 'twere pity that she should. No, to the Grave thy Sorrows bear, As silent as they will be there: Since that lov'd Hand this mortal Wound does give, So handsomely the thing contrive, That she may guiltless of it live: So perish, that her killing thee May a Chance-medley, and no Murther be._ Cowl. SECT. VII. _Of Pindarick Odes, and Poems in Blank Verse._ The Stanzas of Pindarick Odes are neither confin'd to a certain number of Verses, nor the Verses to a certain number of Syllables, nor the Rhyme to a certain Distance. Some Stanzas contain 50 Verses or more, others not above 10, and sometimes not so many: Some Verses 14, nay, 16 Syllables, others not above 4: Sometimes the Rhymes follow one another for several Couplets together, sometimes they are remov'd 6 Verses from each other; and all this in the same Stanza. _Cowley_ was the first who introduc'd this sort of Poetry into our Language: Nor can the nature of it be better describ'd than as he himself has done it, in one of the Stanzas of his Ode upon _Liberty_, which I will transcribe, not as an Example, for none can properly be given where no Rule can be prescrib'd, but to give an Idea of the Nature of this sort of Poetry. _If Life should a well-order'd Poem be, In which he only hits the White, Who joyns true Profit with the best Delight; The more Heroick Strain let others take, Mine the Pindarick way I'll make: The Matter shall be grave, the Numbers loose and free, It shall not keep one settled pace of Time, In the same Tune it shall not always Chime, Nor shall each day just to his Neighbour rhyme. A thousand Liberties it shall dispence, And yet shall manage all without offence, Or to the sweetness of the Sound, or Greatness of the Sense._ _Nor shall it never from one Subject start, Nor seek Transitions to depart; Nor its set way o'er Stiles and Bridges make, Nor thro' Lanes a Compass take, As if it fear'd some Trespass to commit, When the wide Air's a Road for it. So the Imperial Eagle does not stay Till the whole Carcass he devour, That's fall'n into his Pow'r, As if his gen'rous Hunger understood, That he can never want plenty of Food; He only sucks the tastful Blood, And to fresh Game flies chearfully away, To Kites and meaner Birds he leaves the mangled Prey._ This sort of Poetry is employed in all manner of Subjects; in Pleasant, in Grave, in Amorous, in Heroick, in Philosophical, in Moral, and in Divine. Blank Verse is where the Measure is exactly kept without Rhyme; _Shakespear_, to avoid the troublesome Constraint of Rhyme, was the first who invented it; our Poets since him have made use of it in many of their Tragedies and Comedies: but the most celebrated Poem in this kind of Verse is _Milton's Paradise Lost_; from the 5th Book of which I have taken the following Lines for an Example of Blank Verse. _These are thy glorious Works, Parent of Good! Almighty! thine this universal Frame, Thus wondrous fair! thy self how wondrous then! Speak you, who best can tell, ye Sons of Light, Angels! for you behold him, and with Songs, And Choral Symphonies, Day without Night Circle his Throne rejoycing, you in Heaven. On Earth! joyn all ye Creatures, to extol Him first, him last, him midst, and without end. Fairest of Stars! last in the Train of Night, Is better thou belong not to the Dawn, Sure Pledge of Day, that crown'st the smiling Morn, With thy bright Circlet, praise him in thy Sphere, While Day arises, that sweet Hour of Prime! Thou Sun! of this great World, both Eye and Soul, Acknowledge him thy Greater, sound his Praise In thy Eternal Course, both when thou climb'st And when high Noon hast gain'd, and when thou fall'st. Moon! that now meet'st the Orient Sun, now fly'st With the fix'd Stars, fix'd in their Orb that flies, And ye five other wandring Fires! that move In Mystick Dance, not without Song, resound_ _His Praise, who out of Darkness call'd up Light. Air! and ye Elements! the eldest Birth Of Nature's Womb, that in Quaternion run Perpetual Circle multiform, and mix And nourish all things; let your ceaseless Change Vary to our great Maker still new Praise. To Mists and Exhalations! that now rise From Hill or steaming Lake, dusky or grey, Till the sun paint your fleecy Skirts with Gold, In Honour to the World's great Author rise; Whether to deck with Clouds th' uncolour'd Sky, Or wet the thirsty Earth with falling Showr's, Rising or falling, still advance his Praise. His Praise, ye Winds! that from four Quarters blow, Breathe soft or loud; and wave your Tops, ye Pines! With ev'ry Plant, in sign of Worship, wave. Fountains! and ye that warble as you flow Melodious Murmurs, warbling tune his Praise. Join Voices all ye living Souls, ye Birds! That singing, up to Heav'n's high Gate ascend, Bear on your Wings, and in your Notes his Praise. Ye that in Waters glide! and ye that walk The Earth! and stately tread, or lowly creep; Witness if I be silent, Ev'n or Morn, To Hill or Valley, Fountain or fresh Shade, Made vocal by my Song, and taught his Praise._ Thus I have given a short Account of all the sorts of Poems, that are most us'd in our Language. The Acrosticks, Anagrams, _&c._ deserve not to be mention'd, and we may say of them what an Ancient Poet said long ago. _Stultum est difficiles habere Nugas, Et stultus Labor est ineptiarum._ _FINIS._ * * * * * PUBLICATIONS OF THE AUGUSTAN REPRINT SOCIETY First Year (1946-47) Numbers 1-6 out of print. Second Year (1947-1948) 7. John Gay's _The Present State of Wit_ (1711); and a section on Wit from _The English Theophrastus_ (1702). 8. Rapin's _De Carmine Pastorali_, translated by Creech (1684). 9. T. Hanmer's (?) _Some Remarks on the Tragedy of Hamlet_ (1736). 10. Corbyn Morris' _Essay towards Fixing the True Standards of Wit, etc._ (1744). 11. Thomas Purney's _Discourse on the Pastoral_ (1717). 12. Essays on the Stage, selected, with an Introduction by Joseph Wood Krutch. Third Year (1948-1949) 13. Sir John Falstaff (pseud.), _The Theatre_ (1720). 14. Edward Moore's _The Gamester_ (1753). 15. John Oldmixon's _Reflections on Dr. Swift's Letter to Harley_ (1712); and Arthur Mainwaring's _The British Academy_ (1712). 16. Nevil Payne's _Fatal Jealousy_ (1673). 17. Nicholas Rowe's _Some Account of the Life of Mr. William Shakespeare_ (1709). 18. "Of Genius," in _The Occasional Paper_, Vol. III, No. 10 (1719); and Aaron Hill's Preface to _The Creation_ (1720). Fourth Year (1949-1950) 19. Susanna Centlivre's _The Busie Body_ (1709). 20. Lewis Theobold's _Preface to The Works of Shakespeare_ (1734). 21. _Critical Remarks on Sir Charles Grandison, Clarissa, and Pamela_ (1754). 22. Samuel Johnson's _The Vanity of Human Wishes_ (1749) and Two _Rambler_ papers (1750). 23. John Dryden's _His Majesties Declaration Defended_ (1681). 24. Pierre Nicole's _An Essay on True and Apparent Beauty in Which from Settled Principles is Rendered the Grounds for Choosing and Rejecting Epigrams_, translated by J. V. Cunningham. Fifth Year (1950-51) 25. Thomas Baker's _The Fine Lady's Airs_ (1709). 26. Charles Macklin's _The Man of the World_ (1792). 27. Frances Reynolds' _An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Taste, and of the Origin of Our Ideas of Beauty, etc._ (1785). 28. John Evelyn's _An Apologie for the Royal Party_ (1659); and _A Panegyric to Charles the Second_ (1661). 29. Daniel Defoe's _A Vindication of the Press_ (1718). 30. Essays on Taste from John Gilbert Cooper's _Letters Concerning Taste_, 3rd edition (1757), & John Armstrong's _Miscellanies_ (1770). Sixth Year (1951-1952) 31. Thomas Gray's _An Elegy Wrote in a Country Church Yard_ (1751); and _The Eton College Manuscript_. 32. Prefaces to Fiction; Georges de Scudéry's Preface to _Ibrahim_ (1674), etc. 33. Henry Gally's _A Critical Essay_ on Characteristic-Writings (1725). 34. Thomas Tyers' A Biographical Sketch of Dr. Samuel Johnson (1785). 35. James Boswell, Andrew Erskine, and George Dempster. _Critical Strictures on the New Tragedy of Elvira, Written by Mr. David Malloch_ (1763). 36. Joseph Harris's _The City Bride_ (1696). 37. Thomas Morrison's _A Pindarick Ode on Painting_ (1767). 38. John Phillips' _A Satyr Against Hypocrites_. 39. Thomas Warton's _A History of English Poetry_. William Andrews Clark Memorial Library: University of California THE AUGUSTAN REPRINT SOCIETY _General Editors_ H. Richard Archer Wm. Andrews Clark Memorial Library R. C. Boys University of Michigan Ralph Cohen University of California, Los Angeles Vinton A. Dearing University of California, Los Angeles _Corresponding Secretary_: Mrs. Edna C. Davis, Wm. Andrews Clark Memorial Library The Society exists to make available inexpensive reprints (usually facsimile reproductions) of rare seventeenth and eighteenth century works. The editorial policy of the Society remains unchanged. As in the past, the editors welcome suggestions concerning publications. All income of the Society is devoted to defraying cost of publication and mailing. All correspondence concerning subscriptions in the United States and Canada should be addressed to the William Andrews Clark Memorial Library, 2205 West Adams Boulevard, Los Angeles 18, California. Correspondence concerning editorial matters may be addressed to any of the general editors. The membership fee is $3.00 a year for subscribers in the United States and Canada and 15/- for subscribers in Great Britain and Europe. British and European subscribers should address B. H. Blackwell, Broad Street, Oxford, England. * * * * * Publications for the seventh year [1952-1953] (At least six items, most of them from the following list, will be reprinted.) _Selections from the Tatler, the Spectator, the Guardian._ Introduction by Donald F. Bond. Bernard Mandeville: _A Letter to Dion_ (1732). Introduction by Jacob Viner. M. C. Sarbiewski: _The Odes of Casimire_ (1646). Introduction by Maren-Sofie Roestvig. _An Essay on the New Species of Writing Founded by Mr. Fielding_ (1751). Introduction by James A. Work. [Thomas Morrison]: _A Pindarick Ode on Painting_ (1767). Introduction by Frederick W. Hilles. [John Phillips]: _Satyr Against Hypocrits_ (1655). Introduction by Leon Howard. _Prefaces to Fiction._ Second series. Selected with an introduction by Charles Davies. Thomas Warton: _A History of English Poetry: An Unpublished Continuation._ Introduction by Rodney M. Baine. Publications for the first six years (with the exception of NOS. 1-6, which are out of print) are available at the rate of $3.00 a year. Prices for individual numbers may be obtained by writing to the Society. * * * * * THE AUGUSTAN REPRINT SOCIETY _WILLIAM ANDREWS CLARK MEMORIAL LIBRARY_ 2205 West Adams Boulevard, Los Angeles 18, California Make check or money order payable to The Regents of the University of California. * * * * * Transcriber's Notes The main text dates from the 18th Century, when English spelling had not yet been normalised. Only the following obvious typos have been amended: On title page of the main text, "THOUHGTS" amended to "THOUGHTS". P. 1, "&c, yet the" amended to "&c., yet the". P. 5, "2 Or the last ..." amended to "2. Or the last ..." Also on P. 5, "Dry'd" amended to "Dryd.", and a missing period added after "Staff". P. 6, After "In like manner the following Verses" the period has been amended to a comma. P. 16, comma added after "W'are". P. 20, "&cc," amended to "&c.," in "&c., are treble Rhymes". P. 23, after "Or of 8; as", a comma has been added. P. 33, "last" amended to "last." in "to the two last." P. 34, "descib'd" amended to "describ'd" in "be better describ'd". P. 36, "onr" amended to "our" in "most us'd in our Language". In the Preface, the French phrase "consiste qu'en vn [typo for un?] certain nombre de syllabes, & non pas en pieds composez [composés] de syllabes" has been left unchanged. Also in the Preface, in the quote from Boileau, missing accents have not been supplied in "Il doit regner par tout; & meme dans la Fable". On P. 13, "Bower" should match "Pow'r" a few lines further on. Not amended as it is not clear whether "Bower" and "Bow'r" or "Power" and "Pow'r" was intended. The one example of [oe], "Maren-Sofie Roestvig" on the final page, has been changed to oe. 
29765	----	as, volcanic tufa. 3. Changed or affected by the heat of a volcano. Volcanic bomb, a mass ejected from a volcano, often of molten lava having a rounded form. -- Volcanic cone, a hill, conical in form, built up of cinders, tufa, or lava, during volcanic eruptions. -- Volcanic foci, the subterranean centers of volcanic action; the points beneath volcanoes where the causes producing volcanic phenomena are most active. -- Volcanic glass, the vitreous form of lava, produced by sudden cooling; obsidian. See Obsidian. -- Volcanic mud, fetid, sulphurous mud discharged by a volcano. -- Volcanic rocks, rocks which have been produced from the discharges of volcanic matter, as the various kinds of basalt, trachyte, scoria, obsidian, etc., whether compact, scoriaceous, or vitreous. VOLCANICALLY Vol*can"ic*al*ly, adv. Defn: Like a volcano. VOLCANICITY Vol`can*ic"i*ty, n. Etym: [Cf. F. volcanicité.] Defn: Quality or state of being volcanic; volcanic power. VOLCANIC NECK Vol*can"ic neck. (Geol.) Defn: A column of igneous rock formed by congelation of lava in the conduit of a volcano and later exposed by the removal of surrounding rocks. VOLCANIC WIND Volcanic wind. (Meteorol.) Defn: A wind associated with a volcanic outburst and due to the eruption or to convection currents over hot lava. VOLCANISM Vol"can*ism, n. Defn: Volcanic power or action; volcanicity. VOLCANIST Vol"can*ist, n. Etym: [Cf. F. volcaniste, vulcaniste.] 1. One versed in the history and phenomena of volcanoes. 2. One who believes in the igneous, as opposed to the aqueous, origin of the rocks of the earth's crust; a vulcanist. Cf. Neptunist. VOLCANITY Vol*can"i*ty, n. Etym: [See Volcanic, and Volcanicity.] Defn: The quality or state of being volcanic, or volcanic origin; volcanicity. [R.] VOLCANIZATION Vol`can*i*za"tion, n. Defn: The act of volcanizing, or the state of being volcanized; the process of undergoing volcanic heat, and being affected by it. VOLCANIZE Vol"can*ize, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Volcanized; p. pr. & vb. n. Volcanizing.] Etym: [Cf. Vulcanize.] Defn: To subject to, or cause to undergo, volcanic heat, and to be affected by its action. VOLCANO Vol*ca"no, n.; pl. Volcanoes. Etym: [It. volcano, vulcano, fr. L. Vulcanus Vulkan, the god of fire. See Vulkan.] (Geol.) Defn: A mountain or hill, usually more or less conical in form, from which lava, cinders, steam, sulphur gases, and the like, are ejected; -- often popularly called a burning mountain. Note: Volcanoes include many of the most conspicuous and lofty mountains of the earth, as Mt. Vesuvius in Italy (4,000 ft. high), Mt. Loa in Hawaii (14,000 ft.), Cotopaxi in South America (nearly 20,000 ft.), which are examples of active volcanoes. The crater of a volcano is usually a pit-shaped cavity, often of great size. The summit crater of Mt. Loa has a maximum length of 13,000 ft., and a depth of nearly 800 feet. Beside the chief crater, a volcano may have a number of subordinate craters. VOLE Vole, n. Etym: [F.] Defn: A deal at cards that draws all the tricks. Swift. VOLE Vole, v. i. (Card Playing) Defn: To win all the tricks by a vole. Pope. VOLE Vole, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of numerous species of micelike rodents belonging to Arvicola and allied genera of the subfamily Arvicolinæ. They have a thick head, short ears, and a short hairy tail. Note: The water vole, or water rat, of Europe (Arvicola amphibius) is a common large aquatic species. The short-tailed field vole (A. agrestis) of Northern and Central Europe, and Asia, the Southern field vole (A. arvalis), and the Siberian root vole (A. oeconomus), are important European species. The common species of the Eastern United States (A. riparius) (called also meadow mouse) and the prairie mouse (A. austerus) are abundant, and often injurious to vegetation. Other species are found in Canada. VOLERY Vol"er*y, n. Etym: [F. volerie a flying, volière a large bird cage, fr. voler to fly, L. volare. See Volatile.] 1. A flight of birds. [R.] Locke. 2. A large bird cage; an aviary. VOLGE Volge, n. Etym: [L. vulgus.] Defn: The common sort of people; the crowd; the mob. [Obs.] Fuller. VOLITABLE Vol"i*ta*ble, a. Defn: Volatilizable. [Obs.] VOLITATION Vol`i*ta"tion, n. Etym: [L. volitare, volitatum, to fly to and fro, v. freq. from volare to fly.] Defn: The act of flying; flight. [R.] Sir T. Browne. VOLITIENT Vo*li"tient, a. Etym: [See Volition.] Defn: Exercising the will; acting from choice; willing, or having power to will. "What I do, I do volitient, not obedient." Mrs. Browning. VOLITION Vo*li"tion, n. Etym: [F., fr. L. volo I will, velle to will, be willing. See Voluntary.] 1. The act of willing or choosing; the act of forming a purpose; the exercise of the will. Volition is the actual exercise of the power the mind has to order the consideration of any idea, or the forbearing to consider it. Locke. Volition is an act of the mind, knowingly exerting that dominion it takes itself to have over any part of the man, by employing it in, or withholding it from, any particular action. Locke. 2. The result of an act or exercise of choosing or willing; a state of choice. 3. The power of willing or determining; will. Syn. -- Will; choice; preference; determination; purpose. -- Volition, Choice. Choice is the familiar, and volition the scientific, term for the same state of the will; viz., an "elective preference." When we have "made up our minds" (as we say) to a thing, i. e., have a settled state of choice respecting it, that state is called an immanent volition; when we put forth any particular act of choice, that act is called an emanent, or executive, or imperative, volition. When an immanent, or settled state of, choice, is one which controls or governs a series of actions, we call that state a predominant volition; while we give the name of subordinate volitions to those particular acts of choice which carry into effect the object sought for by the governing or "predominant volition." See Will. VOLITIONAL Vo*li"tion*al, a. Defn: Belonging or relating to volition. "The volitional impulse." Bacon. VOLITIVE Vol"i*tive, a. Etym: [See Volition.] 1. Of or pertaining to the will; originating in the will; having the power to will. "They not only perfect the intellectual faculty, but the volitive." Sir M. Hale. 2. (Gram.) Defn: Used in expressing a wish or permission as, volitive proposition. VOLKSLIED Volks"lied, n.; pl. Volkslieder Etym: [G.] (Mus.) Defn: A popular song, or national air. VOLKSRAAD Volks"raad`, n. [D.] Defn: A legislative assembly or parliament of any one of several countries colonized by the Dutch, esp. that of the South African Republic, or the Transvaal, and that of the Orange Free State. VOLLEY Vol"ley, n.; pl. Volleys. Etym: [F. volée; flight, a volley, or discharge of several guns, fr. voler to fly, L. volare. See Volatile.] 1. A flight of missiles, as arrows, bullets, or the like; the simultaneous discharge of a number of small arms. Fiery darts in flaming volleys flew. Milton. Each volley tells that thousands cease to breathe. Byron. 2. A burst or emission of many things at once; as, a volley of words. "This volley of oaths." B. Jonson. Rattling nonsense in full volleys breaks. Pope. 3. (a) (Tennis) A return of the ball before it touches the ground. (b) (Cricket) A sending of the ball full to the top of the wicket. Half volley. (a) (Tennis) A return of the ball immediately after is has touched the ground. (b) (Cricket) A sending of the ball so that after touching the ground it flies towards the top of the wicket. R. A. Proctor. -- On the volley, at random. [Obs.] "What we spake on the volley begins work." Massinger. -- Volley gun, a gun with several barrels for firing a number of shots simultaneously; a kind of mitrailleuse. VOLLEY Vol"ley, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Volleyed; p. pr. & vb. n. Volleying.] Defn: To discharge with, or as with, a volley. VOLLEY Vol"ley, v. i. 1. To be thrown out, or discharged, at once; to be discharged in a volley, or as if in a volley; to make a volley or volleys. Tennyson. 2. (a) (Tennis) To return the ball before it touches the ground. (b) (Cricket) To send the ball full to the top of the wicket. R. A. Proctor. VOLLEY BALL Vol"ley ball. Defn: A game played by volleying a large inflated ball with the hands over a net 7 ft. 6 in. high. VOLLEYED Vol"leyed, a. Defn: Discharged with a sudden burst, or as if in a volley; as, volleyed thunder. VOLOST Vo"lost, n. [Russ. volost'.] Defn: In the greater part of Russia, a division for local government consisting of a group of mirs, or village communities; a canton. VOLOW Vol"ow, v. t. Etym: [From the answer, Volo I will, in the baptismal service. Richardson (Dict.).] Defn: To baptize; -- used in contempt by the Reformers. [Obs.] Tyndale. VOLPLANE Vol"plane`, v. i. [F. vol plané act of volplaning; vol flight + plané, p.p.; cf. planer to hover.] (Aëronautics) Defn: To glide in a flying machine. VOLT Volt, n. Etym: [F. volte; cf. It. volta. See Vault.] 1. (Man.) Defn: A circular tread; a gait by which a horse going sideways round a center makes two concentric tracks. 2. (Fencing) Defn: A sudden movement to avoid a thrust. VOLT Volt, n. Etym: [After Alessandro Volta, the Italian electrician.] (Elec.) Defn: The unit of electro-motive force; -- defined by the International Electrical Congress in 1893 and by United States Statute as, that electro-motive force which steadily applied to a conductor whose resistance is one ohm will produce a current of one ampère. It is practically equivalent to VOLTA Vol"ta, n.; pl. Volte. Etym: [It. volta a turn, turning, a time. See Volt a tread.] (Mus.) Defn: A turning; a time; -- chiefly used in phrases signifying that the part is to be repeated one, two, or more times; as, una volta, once. Seconda volta, second time, points to certain modifications in the close of a repeated strain. VOLTA-ELECTRIC Vol"ta-e*lec"tric, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to voltaic electricity, or voltaism. VOLTA-ELECTROMETER Vol`ta-e`lec*trom"e*ter, n. Defn: An instrument for the exact measurement of electric currents. VOLTAGE Vol"tage, n. (Elec.) Defn: Electric potential or potential difference, expressed in volts. VOLTAGRAPHY Vol*tag"ra*phy, n. Etym: [Voltaic + -graphy.] Defn: In electrotypy, the act or art of copying, in metals deposited by electrolytic action, a form or pattern which is made the negative electrode. [R.] VOLTAIC Vol*ta"ic, a. Etym: [Cf. F. voltaïque, It. voltaico.] 1. Of or pertaining to Alessandro Volta, who first devised apparatus for developing electric currents by chemical action, and established this branch of electric science; discovered by Volta; as, voltaic electricity. 2. Of or pertaining to voltaism, or voltaic electricity; as, voltaic induction; the voltaic arc. Note: See the Note under Galvanism. Voltaic arc, a luminous arc, of intense brilliancy, formed between carbon points as electrodes by the passage of a powerful voltaic current. -- Voltaic battery, an apparatus variously constructed, consisting of a series of plates or pieces of dissimilar metals, as copper and zinc, arranged in pairs, and subjected to the action of a saline or acid solution, by which a current of electricity is generated whenever the two poles, or ends of the series, are connected by a conductor; a galvanic battery. See Battery, 4. (b), and Note. -- Voltaic circuit. See under Circuit. -- Voltaic couple or element, a single pair of the connected plates of a battery. -- Voltaic electricity. See the Note under Electricity. -- Voltaic pile, a kind of voltaic battery consisting of alternate disks of dissimilar metals, separated by moistened cloth or paper. See 5th Pile. -- Voltaic protection of metals, the protection of a metal exposed to the corrosive action of sea water, saline or acid liquids, or the like, by associating it with a metal which is positive to it, as when iron is galvanized, or coated with zinc. VOLTAIREAN Vol*tair"e*an, a. Etym: [Cf. F. voltairien.] Defn: Of or relating to Voltaire, the French author. J. Morley. VOLTAIRISM Vol*tair"ism, n. Defn: The theories or practice of Voltaire. J. Morley. VOLTAISM Vol"ta*ism, n. Etym: [Cf. F. voltaïsme.] (Physics) Defn: That form of electricity which is developed by the chemical action between metals and different liquids; voltaic electricity; also, the science which treats of this form of electricity; -- called also galvanism, from Galvani, on account of his experiments showing the remarkable influence of this agent on animals. VOLTAMETER Vol*tam"e*ter, n. Etym: [Voltaic + -meter.] (Physics) Defn: An instrument for measuring the voltaic electricity passing through it, by its effect in decomposing water or some other chemical compound acting as an electrolyte. VOLTAMMETER Volt*am"me`ter, n. Defn: A wattmeter. VOLT AMPERE Volt ampère. (Elec.) Defn: A unit of electric measurement equal to the product of a volt and an ampere. For direct current it is a measure of power and is the same as a watt; for alternating current it is a measure of apparent power. VOLTAPLAST Vol"ta*plast, n. Etym: [Voltaic + Gr. Defn: A form of voltaic, or galvanic, battery suitable for use electrotyping. G. Francis. VOLTATYPE Vol"ta*type, n. Etym: [Voltaic + type.] Defn: An electrotype. [R.] VOLTI Vol"ti, imperative. Etym: [It., fr. voltare to turn. See Volt a tread.] (Mus.) Defn: Turn, that is, turn over the leaf. Volti subito Etym: [It.] (Mus.), turn over quickly. VOLTIGEUR Vol`ti*geur, n. Etym: [F., fr. voltiger to vault, It. volteggiare. See Volt a tread.] 1. A tumbler; a leaper or vaulter. 2. (Mil.) Defn: One of a picked company of irregular riflemen in each regiment of the French infantry. VOLTMETER Volt"me`ter, n. Etym: [2d volt + -meter.] (elec.) Defn: An instrument for measuring in volts the differences of potential between different points of an electrical circuit. VOLTZITE Voltz"ite, n. Etym: [So named in honor of Voltz, a French engineer.] (Min.) Defn: An oxysulphide of lead occurring in implanted spherical globules of a yellowish or brownish color; -- called also voltzine. VOLUBILATE; VOLUBILE Vo*lu"bi*late, Vol"u*bile}, a. Etym: [See Voluble.] Defn: Turning, or whirling; winding; twining; voluble. VOLUBILITY Vol`u*bil"i*ty, n. Etym: [L. volubilitas: cf. F. volubilité.] Defn: The quality or state of being voluble (in any of the senses of the adjective). VOLUBLE Vol"u*ble, a. Etym: [L. volubilis, fr. volvere, volutum, to roll, to turn round; akin to Gr. welle a wave: cf. F. voluble. Cf. F. Well of water, Convolvulus, Devolve, Involve, Revolt, Vault an arch, Volume, Volute.] 1. Easily rolling or turning; easily set in motion; apt to roll; rotating; as, voluble particles of matter. 2. Moving with ease and smoothness in uttering words; of rapid speech; nimble in speaking; glib; as, a flippant, voluble, tongue. [Cassio,] a knave very voluble. Shak. Note: Voluble was used formerly to indicate readiness of speech merely, without any derogatory suggestion. "A grave and voluble eloquence." Bp. Hacket. 3. Changeable; unstable; fickle. [Obs.] 4. (Bot.) Defn: Having the power or habit of turning or twining; as, the voluble stem of hop plants. Voluble stem (Bot.), a stem that climbs by winding, or twining, round another body. -- Vol"u*ble*ness, n. -- Vol"u*bly, adv. VOLUME Vol"ume, n. Etym: [F., from L. volumen a roll of writing, a book, volume, from volvere, volutum, to roll. See Voluble.] 1. A roll; a scroll; a written document rolled up for keeping or for use, after the manner of the ancients. [Obs.] The papyrus, and afterward the parchment, was joined together [by the ancients] to form one sheet, and then rolled upon a staff into a volume (volumen). Encyc. Brit. 2. Hence, a collection of printed sheets bound together, whether containing a single work, or a part of a work, or more than one work; a book; a tome; especially, that part of an extended work which is bound up together in one cover; as, a work in four volumes. An odd volume of a set of books bears not the value of its proportion to the set. Franklin. 4. Anything of a rounded or swelling form resembling a roll; a turn; a convolution; a coil. So glides some trodden serpent on the grass, And long behind wounded volume trails. Dryden. Undulating billows rolling their silver volumes. W. Irving. 4. Dimensions; compass; space occupied, as measured by cubic units, that is, cubic inches, feet, yards, etc.; mass; bulk; as, the volume of an elephant's body; a volume of gas. 5. (Mus.) Defn: Amount, fullness, quantity, or caliber of voice or tone. Atomic volume, Molecular volume (Chem.), the ratio of the atomic and molecular weights divided respectively by the specific gravity of the substance in question. -- Specific volume (Physics & Chem.), the quotient obtained by dividing unity by the specific gravity; the reciprocal of the specific gravity. It is equal (when the specific gravity is referred to water at 4º C. as a standard) to the number of cubic centimeters occupied by one gram of the substance. VOLUMED Vol"umed, a. 1. Having the form of a volume, or roil; as, volumed mist. The distant torrent's rushing sound Tells where the volumed cataract doth roll. Byron. 2. Having volume, or bulk; massive; great. VOLUMENOMETER Vol`u*me*nom"e*ter, n. Etym: [L. volumen volume + -meter.] (Physics) Defn: An instrument for measuring the volume of a body, especially a solid, by means of the difference in tension caused by its presence and absence in a confined portion of air. VOLUMENOMETRY Vol`u*me*nom"e*try, n. (Chem. & Physics) Defn: The method or process of measuring volumes by means of the volumenometer. VOLUMESCOPE Vol*u"me*scope, n. Etym: [Volume + -scope.] (Physics) Defn: An instrument consisting essentially of a glass tube provided with a graduated scale, for exhibiting to the eye the changes of volume of a gas or gaseous mixture resulting from chemical action, and the like. VOLUMESCOPE Vo*lu"me*scope, n. [Volume + -scope.] (Physics) Defn: An instrument consisting essentially of a glass tube provided with a graduated scale, for exhibiting to the eye the changes of volume of a gas or gaseous mixture resulting from chemical action, etc. VOLUMETER Vol*u"me*ter, n. Etym: [Cf. F. volumètre. See Volumetric.] (Physics) Defn: An instrument for measuring the volumes of gases or liquids by introducing them into a vessel of known capacity. VOLUMETRIC Vol`u*met"ric, a. Etym: [Volume + -metric.] Defn: Of or pertaining to the measurement of volume. Volumetric analysis (Chem.), that system of the quantitative analysis of solutions which employs definite volumes of standardized solutions of reagents, as measured by burettes, pipettes, etc.; also, the analysis of gases by volume, as by the eudiometer. VOLUMETRICAL Vol`u*met"ric*al, a. Defn: Volumetric. -- Vol`u*met"ric*al*ly, adv. VOLUMINOUS Vo*lu"mi*nous, a. Etym: [L. voluminosus: cf. F. volumineux.] Defn: Of or pertaining to volume or volumes. Specifically: -- (a) Consisting of many folds, coils, or convolutions. But ended foul in many a scaly fold, Voluminous and vast. Milton. Over which dusky draperies are hanging, and voluminous curtains have long since fallen. De Quincey. (b) Of great volume, or bulk; large. B. Jonson. (c) Consisting of many volumes or books; as, the collections of Muratori are voluminous. (d) Having written much, or produced many volumes; copious; diffuse; as, a voluminous writer. -- Vo*lu"mi*nous*ly, adv. -- Vo*lu"mi*nous*ness, n. VOLUMIST Vol"u*mist, n. Defn: One who writes a volume; an author. [Obs.] Milton. VOLUNTARILY Vol"un*ta*ri*ly, adv. Defn: In a voluntary manner; of one's own will; spontaneously. VOLUNTARINESS Vol"un*ta*ri*ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being voluntary; spontaneousness; specifically, the quality or state of being free in the exercise of one's will. VOLUNTARISM Vol"un*ta*rism, n. Defn: Any theory which conceives will to be the dominant factor in experience or in the constitution of the world; -- contrasted with intellectualism. Schopenhauer and Fichte are typical exponents of the two types of metaphysical voluntarism, Schopenhauer teaching that the evolution of the universe is the activity of a blind and irrational will, Fichte holding that the intelligent activity of the ego is the fundamental fact of reality. VOLUNTARY Vol"un*ta*ry, a. Etym: [L. voluntarius, fr. voluntas will, choice, from the root of velle to will, p. pr. volens; akin to E. will: cf. F. volontaire, Of. also voluntaire. See Will, v. t., and cf. Benevolent, Volition, Volunteer.] 1. Proceeding from the will; produced in or by an act of choice. That sin or guilt pertains exclusively to voluntary action is the true principle of orthodoxy. N. W. Taylor. 2. Unconstrained by the interference of another; unimpelled by the influence of another; not prompted or persuaded by another; done of his or its own accord; spontaneous; acting of one's self, or of itself; free. Our voluntary service he requires. Milton. She fell to lust a voluntary prey. Pope. 3. Done by design or intention; intentional; purposed; intended; not accidental; as, if a man kills another by lopping a tree, it is not voluntary manslaughter. 4. (Physiol.) Defn: Of or pertaining to the will; subject to, or regulated by, the will; as, the voluntary motions of an animal, such as the movements of the leg or arm (in distinction from involuntary motions, such as the movements of the heart); the voluntary muscle fibers, which are the agents in voluntary motion. 5. Endowed with the power of willing; as, man is a voluntary agent. God did not work as a necessary, but a voluntary, agent, intending beforehand, and decreeing with himself, that which did outwardly proceed from him. Hooker. 6. (Law) Defn: Free; without compulsion; according to the will, consent, or agreement, of a party; without consideration; gratuitous; without valuable consideration. 7. (Eccl.) Defn: Of or pertaining to voluntaryism; as, a voluntary church, in distinction from an established or state church. Voluntary affidavit or oath (Law), an affidavit or oath made in extrajudicial matter. -- Voluntary conveyance (Law), a conveyance without valuable consideration. -- Voluntary escape (Law), the escape of a prisoner by the express consent of the sheriff. -- Voluntary jurisdiction. (Eng. Eccl. Law) See Contentious jurisdiction, under Contentious. -- Voluntary waste. (Law) See Waste, n., 4. Syn. -- See Spontaneous. VOLUNTARY Vol"un*ta*ry, n.; pl. Voluntaries (. 1. One who engages in any affair of his own free will; a volunteer. [R.] Shak. 2. (Mus.) Defn: A piece played by a musician, often extemporarily, according to his fancy; specifically, an organ solo played before, during, or after divine service. 3. (Eccl.) Defn: One who advocates voluntaryism. VOLUNTARYISM Vol"un*ta*ry*ism, n. (Eccl.) Defn: The principle of supporting a religious system and its institutions by voluntary association and effort, rather than by the aid or patronage of the state. VOLUNTEER Vol`un*teer", n. Etym: [F. volontaire. See Voluntary, a.] 1. One who enters into, or offers for, any service of his own free will. 2. (Mil.) Defn: One who enters into service voluntarily, but who, when in service, is subject to discipline and regulations like other soldiers; -- opposed to conscript; specifically, a voluntary member of the organized militia of a country as distinguished from the standing army. 3. (Law) Defn: A grantee in a voluntary conveyance; one to whom a conveyance is made without valuable consideration; a party, other than a wife or child of the grantor, to whom, or for whose benefit, a voluntary conveyance is made. Burrill. VOLUNTEER Vol`un*teer", a. Defn: Of or pertaining to a volunteer or volunteers; consisting of volunteers; voluntary; as, volunteer companies; volunteer advice. VOLUNTEER Vol`un*teer", v. t. [imp. & p. p. Volunteered; p. pr. & vb. n. Volunteering.] Defn: To offer or bestow voluntarily, or without solicitation or compulsion; as, to volunteer one's services. VOLUNTEER Vol`un*teer", v. i. Defn: To enter into, or offer for, any service of one's own free will, without solicitation or compulsion; as, he volunteered in that undertaking. VOLUNTEER NAVY Vol`un*teer" na"vy. Defn: A navy of vessels fitted out and manned by volunteers who sail under the flag of the regular navy and subject to naval discipline. Prussia in 1870, in the Franco-German war, organized such a navy, which was commanded by merchant seamen with temporary commissions, with the claim (in which England acquiesced) that it did not come within the meaning of the term privateer. VOLUNTEERS OF AMERICA Vol`un*teers" of America. Defn: A religious and philanthropic organization, similar to the Salvation Army, founded (1896) by Commander and Mrs. Ballington Booth. VOLUNTEER STATE Volunteer State. Defn: Tennessee; -- a nickname. VOLUPERE Vol"u*pere, n. Etym: [Cf. Envelop.] Defn: A woman's cap. [Obs.] Chaucer. VOLUPTUARY Vo*lup"tu*a*ry, n.; pl. Voluptuaries. Etym: [L. voluptuarius or voluptarius, fr. voluptas pleasure.] Defn: A voluptuous person; one who makes his physical enjoyment his chief care; one addicted to luxury, and the gratification of sensual appetites. A good-humored, but hard-hearted, voluptuary. Sir W. Scott. Syn. -- Sensualist; epicure. VOLUPTUARY Vo*lup"tu*a*ry, a. Defn: Voluptuous; luxurious. VOLUPTUOUS Vo*lup"tu*ous, a. Etym: [F. voluptueux, L. voluptuosus, fr. voluptas pleasure, volup agreeably, delightfully; probably akin to Gr. velle to wish. See Voluntary.] 1. Full of delight or pleasure, especially that of the senses; ministering to sensuous or sensual gratification; exciting sensual desires; luxurious; sensual. Music arose with its voluptuous swell. Byron. Sink back into your voluptuous repose. De Quincey. 2. Given to the enjoyments of luxury and pleasure; indulging to excess in sensual gratifications. "The jolly and voluptuous livers." Atterbury. Softened with pleasure and voluptuous life. Milton. -- Vo*lup"tu*ous*ly, adv. -- , n. VOLUPTY Vo*lup"ty, n. Etym: [Cf. F. volupté pleasure. See Voluptuous.] Defn: Voluptuousness. [Obs.] VOLUTA Vo*lu"ta, n.; pl. E. Volutas, L. Volutæ. Etym: [L., a spiral scroll. See Volute.] (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of numerous species of large, handsome marine gastropods belonging to Voluta and allied genera. VOLUTATION Vol`u*ta"tion, n. Etym: [L. volutatio, from volutare to roll, wallow, verb freq. volvere, volutum, to roll.] Defn: A rolling of a body; a wallowing. [R.] Sir T. Browne. VOLUTE Vo*lute", n. Etym: [F. volute (cf. It. voluta), L. voluta, from volvere, volutum, to roll. See Voluble.] 1. (Arch.) Defn: A spiral scroll which forms the chief feature of the Ionic capital, and which, on a much smaller scale, is a feature in the Corinthian and Composite capitals. See Illust. of Capital, also Helix, and Stale. 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: A spiral turn, as in certain shells. 3. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any voluta. Volute spiring, a spring formed of a spiral scroll of plate, rod, or wire, extended or extensible in the direction of the axis of the coil, in which direction its elastic force is exerted and employed. VOLUTED Vo*lut"ed, a. Defn: Having a volute, or spiral scroll. VOLUTION Vo*lu"tion, n. Etym: [Cf. LL. volutio an arch, vault.] 1. A spiral turn or wreath. 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: A whorl of a spiral shell. VOLVA Vol"va, n. Etym: [L. volva, vulva, covering.] (Bot.) Defn: A saclike envelope of certain fungi, which bursts open as the plant develops. VOLVOX Vol"vox, n. (Bot.) Defn: A genus of minute, pale-green, globular, organisms, about one fiftieth of an inch in diameter, found rolling through water, the motion being produced by minute colorless cilia. It has been considered as belonging to the flagellate Infusoria, but is now referred to the vegetable kingdom, and each globule is considered a colony of many individuals. The commonest species is Volvox globator, often called globe animalcule. VOLVULUS Vol"vu*lus, n. Etym: [NL., fr. L. volvere to turn about, to roll.] (Med.) (a) The spasmodic contraction of the intestines which causes colic. (b) Any twisting or displacement of the intestines causing obstruction; ileus. See Ileus. VOLYER Vol"yer, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A lurcher. [Prov. Eng.] VOMER Vo"mer, n. Etym: [L., a plowshare.] (Anat.) (a) A bone, or one of a pair of bones, beneath the ethmoid region of the skull, forming a part a part of the partition between the nostrils in man and other mammals. (b) The pygostyle. VOMERINE Vo"mer*ine, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to the vomer. VOMICA Vom"i*ca, n. Etym: [L., fr. vomere to throw up, vomit.] (Med.) (a) An abscess cavity in the lungs. (b) An abscess in any other parenchymatous organ. VOMICINE Vom"i*cine, n. Etym: [From nux vomica.] (Chem.) Defn: See Brucine. VOMIC NUT Vom"ic nut`. Etym: [Cf. F. noix vomique.] Defn: Same as Nux vomica. VOMIT Vom"it, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Vomited; p. pr. & vb. n. Vomiting.] Etym: [Cf. L. vomere, vomitum, and v. freq. vomitare. See Vomit, n.] Defn: To eject the contents of the stomach by the mouth; to puke; to spew. VOMIT Vom"it, v. t. 1. To throw up; to eject from the stomach through the mouth; to disgorge; to puke; to spew out; -- often followed by up or out. The fish . . . vomited out Jonah upon the dry land. Jonah ii. 10. 2. Hence, to eject from any hollow place; to belch forth; to emit; to throw forth; as, volcanoes vomit flame, stones, etc. Like the sons of Vulcan, vomit smoke. Milton. VOMIT Vom"it, n. Etym: [L. vomitus, from vomere, vomitum, to vomit; akin to Gr. vam, Lith. vemiti. Cf. Emetic, Vomito.] 1. Matter that is vomited; esp., matter ejected from the stomach through the mouth. Like vomit from his yawning entrails poured. Sandys. 2. (Med.) Defn: That which excites vomiting; an emetic. He gives your Hollander a vomit. Shak. Black vomit. (Med.) See in the Vocabulary. -- Vomit nut, nux vomica. VOMITING Vom"it*ing, n. Defn: The spasmodic ejection of matter from the stomach through the mouth. VOMITION Vo*mi"tion, n. Etym: [L. vomitio.] Defn: The act or power of vomiting. Grew. VOMITIVE Vom"i*tive, a. Etym: [Cf. F. vomitif.] Defn: Causing the ejection of matter from the stomach; emetic. VOMITO Vo*mi"to, n. Etym: [Sp. vómito, fr. L. vomitus. See Vomit, n.] (Med.) Defn: The yellow fever in its worst form, when it is usually attended with black vomit. See Black vomit. VOMITORY Vom"i*to*ry, a. Etym: [L. vomitorious.] Defn: Causing vomiting; emetic; vomitive. VOMITORY Vom"i*to*ry, n.; pl. Vomitories (. 1. An emetic; a vomit. Harvey. 2. Etym: [L. vomitorium.] (Arch.) Defn: A principal door of a large ancient building, as of an amphitheater. Sixty-four vomitories . . . poured forth the immense multitude. Gibbon. VOMITURITION Vom`i*tu*ri"tion, n. Etym: [Cf. F. vomiturition.] (Med.) (a) An ineffectual attempt to vomit. (b) The vomiting of but little matter; also, that vomiting which is effected with little effort. Dunglison. VONDSIRA Vond*si"ra, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: Same as Vansire. VOODOO Voo"doo, n. 1. See Voodooism. 2. One who practices voodooism; a negro sorcerer. VOODOO Voo"doo, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to voodooism, or a voodoo; as, voodoo incantations. VOODOOISM Voo"doo*ism, n. Etym: [Probably (through Creole French vaudoux a negro sorcerer) fr. F. Vaudois Waldensian, because the Waldenses were accused of sorcery.] Defn: A degraded form of superstition and sorcery, said to include human sacrifices and cannibalism in some of its rites. It is prevalent among the negroes of Hayti, and to some extent in the United States, and is regarded as a relic of African barbarism. VOORTREKER Voor"trek`er, n. [D. (in South Africa).] Defn: One who treks before or first; a pioneer. [South Africa] VORACIOUS Vo*ra"cious, a. Etym: [L. vorax, -acis, fr. vorare to devour; akin to Gr. gar. Cf. Devour.] Defn: Greedy in eating; very hungry; eager to devour or swallow; ravenous; gluttonous; edacious; rapacious; as, a voracious man or appetite; a voracious gulf or whirlpool. Dampier. -- Vo*ra"cious*ly, adv. -- Vo*ra"cious*ness, n. VORACITY Vo*rac"i*ty, n. Etym: [L. voracitas: cf. F. voracité.] Defn: The quality of being voracious; voraciousness. VORAGINOUS Vo*rag"i*nous, a. Etym: [L. voraginosus, fr. vorago an abyss, fr. vorare to swallow up.] Defn: Pertaining to a gulf; full of gulfs; hence, devouring. [R.] Mallet. VORTEX Vor"tex, n.; pl. E. Vortexes, L. Vortices. Etym: [L. vortex, vertex, -icis, fr. vortere, vertere, to turn. See Vertex.] 1. A mass of fluid, especially of a liquid, having a whirling or circular motion tending to form a cavity or vacuum in the center of the circle, and to draw in towards the center bodies subject to its action; the form assumed by a fluid in such motion; a whirlpool; an eddy. 2. (Cartesian System) Defn: A supposed collection of particles of very subtile matter, endowed with a rapid rotary motion around an axis which was also the axis of a sun or a planet. Descartes attempted to account for the formation of the universe, and the movements of the bodies composing it, by a theory of vortices. 3. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of numerous species of small Turbellaria belonging to Vortex and allied genera. See Illustration in Appendix. Vortex atom (Chem.), a hypothetical ring-shaped mass of elementary matter in continuous vortical motion. It is conveniently regarded in certain mathematical speculations as the typical form and structure of the chemical atom. -- Vortex wheel, a kind of turbine. VORTEX FILAMENT Vor"tex fil"a*ment. Defn: A vortex tube of infinitesimal cross section. VORTEX FRINGE Vor"tex fringe. Defn: The region immediately surrounding a disk moving flatwise through air; -- so called because the air has a cyclic motion as in vortex ring. VORTEX LINE Vortex line. Defn: A line, within a rotating fluid, whose tangent at every point is the instantaneous axis of rotation as that point of the fluid. VORTEX RING Vortex ring. (Physics) Defn: A ring-shaped mass of moving fluid which, by virtue of its motion of rotation around an axis disposed in circular form, attains a more or less distinct separation from the surrounding medium and has many of the properties of a solid. VORTEX THEORY Vortex theory. (Chem. & Physics) Defn: The theory, advanced by Thomson (Lord Kelvin) on the basis of investigation by Helmholtz, that the atoms are vortically moving ring-shaped masses (or masses of other forms having a similar internal motion) of a homogeneous, incompressible, frictionless fluid. Various properties of such atoms (vortex atoms) can be mathematically deduced. VORTEX TUBE Vortex tube. (Physics) Defn: An imaginary tube within a rotating fluid, formed by drawing the vortex lines through all points of a closed curve. VORTICAL Vor"ti*cal, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to a vortex or vortexes; resembling a vortex in form or motion; whirling; as, a vortical motion. -- Vor"ti*cal*ly, adv. VORTICEL Vor"ti*cel, n. Etym: [Cf. F. vorticelle. See Vortex.] (Zoöl.) Defn: A vorticella. VORTICELLA Vor`ti*cel"la, n.; pl. E. Vorticellas (, L. Vorticellæ (. Etym: [NL., dim. fr. L. vortex. See Vortex.] (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of numerous species of ciliated Infusoria belonging to Vorticella and many other genera of the family Vorticellidæ. They have a more or less bell-shaped body with a circle of vibrating cilia around the oral disk. Most of the species have slender, contractile stems, either simple or branched. VORTICOSE Vor"ti*cose`, a. Etym: [L. vorticosus.] Defn: Vortical; whirling; as, a vorticose motion. VORTIGINOUS Vor*tig"i*nous, a. Etym: [Cf. Vertiginous.] Defn: Moving rapidly round a center; vortical. [R.] Cowper. VOTARESS Vo"ta*ress, n. Etym: [See Votary, n.] Defn: A woman who is a votary. Shak. VOTARIST Vo"ta*rist, n. Etym: [See Votary.] Defn: A votary. Like a sad votarist in palmer's weed. Milton. VOTARY Vo"ta*ry, a. Etym: [From L. votus, p. p. vovere to vow, to devote. See Vote, Vow.] Defn: Consecrated by a vow or promise; consequent on a vow; devoted; promised. Votary resolution is made equipollent to custom. Bacon. VOTARY Vo"ta*ry, n.; pl. Votaries (. Defn: One devoted, consecrated, or engaged by a vow or promise; hence, especially, one devoted, given, or addicted, to some particular service, worship, study, or state of life. "You are already love's firm votary." Shak. 'T was coldness of the votary, not the prayer, that was in fault. Bp. Fell. But thou, my votary, weepest thou Emerson. VOTE Vote, n. Etym: [L. votum a vow, wish, will, fr. vovere, votum, to vow: cf. F. vote. See Vow.] 1. An ardent wish or desire; a vow; a prayer. [Obs.] Massinger. 2. A wish, choice, or opinion, of a person or a body of persons, expressed in some received and authorized way; the expression of a wish, desire, will, preference, or choice, in regard to any measure proposed, in which the person voting has an interest in common with others, either in electing a person to office, or in passing laws, rules, regulations, etc.; suffrage. 3. That by means of which will or preference is expressed in elections, or in deciding propositions; voice; a ballot; a ticket; as, a written vote. The freeman casting with unpurchased hand The vote that shakes the turrets of the land. Holmes. 4. Expression of judgment or will by a majority; legal decision by some expression of the minds of a number; as, the vote was unanimous; a vote of confidence. 5. Votes, collectively; as, the Tory vote; the labor vote. Casting vote, Cumulative vote, etc. See under Casting, Cumulative, etc. VOTE Vote, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Voted; p. pr. & vb. n. Voting.] Etym: [Cf. F. voter.] Defn: To express or signify the mind, will, or preference, either viva voce, or by ballot, or by other authorized means, as in electing persons to office, in passing laws, regulations, etc., or in deciding on any proposition in which one has an interest with others. The vote for a duelist is to assist in the prostration of justice, and, indirectly, to encourage the crime. L. Beecher. To vote on large principles, to vote honestly, requires a great amount of information. F. W. Robertson. VOTE Vote, v. t. 1. To choose by suffrage; to elecas, to vote a candidate into office. 2. To enact, establish, grant, determine, etc., by a formal vote; as, the legislature voted the resolution. Parliament voted them one hundred thousand pounds. Swift. 3. To declare by general opinion or common consent, as if by a vote; as, he was voted a bore. [Colloq.] 4. To condemn; to devote; to doom. [Obs.] Glanvill. VOTER Vot"er, n. Defn: One who votes; one who has a legal right to vote, or give his suffrage; an elector; a suffragist; as, as, an independent voter. VOTING Vot"ing, Defn: a. & n. from Vote, v. Voting paper, a form of ballot containing the names of more candidates than there are offices to be filled, the voter making a mark against the preferred names. [Eng.] VOTIST Vot"ist, n. Defn: One who makes a vow. [Obs.] Chapman. VOTIVE Vo"tive, a. Etym: [L. votivus, fr. votum a vow: cf. F. votif. See Vow.] Defn: Given by vow, or in fulfillment of a vow; consecrated by a vow; devoted; as, votive offerings; a votive tablet. "Votive incense." Keble. We reached a votive stone, that bears the name Of Aloys Reding. Wordsworth. Embellishments of flowers and votive garlands. Motley. Votive medal, a medal struck in grateful commemoration of some auspicious event. -- Votive offering, an offering in fulfillment of a religious vow, as of one's person or property. -- Vo"tive*ly, adv. -- Vo"tive*ness, n. VOTRESS Vo"tress, n. Defn: A votaress. Dryden. VOUCH Vouch, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Vouched; p. pr. & vb. n. Vouching.] Etym: [OE. vouchen, OF. vochier to call, fr. L. vocare to call, fr. vox, vocis, voice. See Voice, and cf. Avouch.] 1. To call; to summon. [Obs.] [They] vouch (as I might say) to their aid the authority of the writers. Sir T. Elyot. 2. To call upon to witness; to obtest. Vouch the silent stars and conscious moon. Dryden. 3. To warrant; to maintain by affirmations; to attest; to affirm; to avouch. They made him ashamed to vouch the truth of the relation, and afterwards to credit it. Atterbury. 4. To back; to support; to confirm; to establish. Me damp horror chilled At such bold words vouched with a deed so bold. Milton. 5. (Law) Defn: To call into court to warrant and defend, or to make good a warranty of title. He vouches the tenant in tail, who vouches over the common vouchee. Blackstone. Syn. -- To obtest; declare; affirm; attest; warrant; confirm; asseverate; aver; protest; assure. VOUCH Vouch, v. i. 1. To bear witness; to give testimony or full attestation. He will not believe her until the elector of Hanover shall vouch for the truth of what she has . . . affirmed. Swift. 2. To assert; to aver; to declare. Shak. VOUCH Vouch, n. Defn: Warrant; attestation. [Obs.] The vouch of very malice itself. Shak. VOUCHEE Vouch*ee", n. (Law) Defn: The person who is vouched, or called into court to support or make good his warranty of title in the process of common recovery. Blackstone. VOUCHER Vouch"er, n. 1. One who vouches, or gives witness or full attestation, to anything. Will his vouchers vouch him no more Shak. The great writers of that age stand up together as vouchers for one another's reputation. Spectator. 2. A book, paper, or document which serves to vouch the truth of accounts, or to confirm and establish facts of any kind; also, any acquittance or receipt showing the payment of a debt; as, the merchant's books are his vouchers for the correctness of his accounts; notes, bonds, receipts, and other writings, are used as vouchers in proving facts. 3. (Law) (a) The act of calling in a person to make good his warranty of title in the old form of action for the recovery of lands. (b) The tenant in a writ of right; one who calls in another to establish his warranty of title. In common recoveries, there may be a single voucher or double vouchers. Blackstone. VOUCHMENT Vouch"ment, n. Defn: A solemn assertion. [R.] VOUCHOR Vouchor, n. (Law) Defn: Same as Voucher, 3 (b). VOUCHSAFE Vouch*safe", v. t. [imp. & p. p. Vouchsafed; p. pr. & vb. n. Vouchsafing.] Etym: [Vouch + safe, that is, to vouch or answer for safety.] 1. To condescend to grant; to concede; to bestow. If ye vouchsafe that it be so. Chaucer. Shall I vouchsafe your worship a word or two Shak. It is not said by the apostle that God vouchsafed to the heathens the means of salvation. South. 2. To receive or accept in condescension. [Obs.] Shak. VOUCHSAFE Vouch*safe", v. i. Defn: To condescend; to deign; to yield; to descend or stoop. Chaucer. Vouchsafe, O Lord, to keep us this day without sin. Bk. of Com. Prayer. Vouchsafe, illustrious Ormond, to behold What power the charms of beauty had of old. Dryden. VOUCHSAFEMENT Vouch*safe"ment, n. Defn: The act of vouchsafing, or that which is vouchsafed; a gift or grant in condescension. Glanvill. VOUSSOIR Vous`soir", n. Etym: [F., akin to voûte an arch, a vault.] (Arch.) Defn: One of the wedgelike stones of which an arch is composed. VOW Vow, n. Etym: [OE. vou, OF. vou, veu, vo, vu, F. v, from L. votum, from vovere, to vow. Cf. Avow, Devout, Vote.] 1. A solemn promise made to God, or to some deity; an act by which one consecrates or devotes himself, absolutely or conditionally, wholly or in part, for a longer or shorter time, to some act, service, or condition; a devotion of one's possessions; as, a baptismal vow; a vow of poverty. "Nothing . . . that may . . . stain my vow of Nazarite." Milton. I pray thee, let me go and pay my vow. 2 Sam. xv. 7. I am combined by a sacred vow. Shak. 2. Specifically, a promise of fidelity; a pledge of love or affection; as, the marriage vow. Knights of love, who never broke their vow; Firm to their plighted faith. Dryden. VOW Vow, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Vowed; p. pr. & vb. n. Vowing.] Etym: [OE. vouen, OF. vouer, voer, F. vouer, LL. votare. See Vow, n.] 1. To give, consecrate, or dedicate to God, or to some deity, by a solemn promise; to devote; to promise solemnly. "When thou vowest a vow unto God, defer not to pay it." Eccl. v. 4. [Men] that vow a long and weary pilgrimage. Shak. 2. To assert solemnly; to asseverate. VOW Vow, v. i. Defn: To make a vow, or solemn promise. Better is it that thou shouldest not vow, than that thou shouldest vow and not pay. Eccl. v. 5. VOWEL Vow"el, n. Etym: [F. voyelle, or an OF. form without y, L. vocalis (sc. littera), from vocalis sounding, from vox, vocis, a voice, sound. See Vocal.] (Phon.) Defn: A vocal, or sometimes a whispered, sound modified by resonance in the oral passage, the peculiar resonance in each case giving to each several vowel its distinctive character or quality as a sound of speech; -- distinguished from a consonant in that the latter, whether made with or without vocality, derives its character in every case from some kind of obstructive action by the mouth organs. Also, a letter or character which represents such a sound. See Guide to Pronunciation, §§ 5, 146-149. Note: In the English language, the written vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. The spoken vowels are much more numerous. Close vowel. See under Close, a. -- Vowel point. See under Point, n. VOWEL Vow"el, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to a vowel; vocal. VOWELED Vow"eled, a. Defn: Furnished with vowels. [Written also vowelled.] Dryden. VOWELISH Vow"el*ish, a. Defn: Of the nature of a vowel. [R.] "The power [of w] is always vowelish." B. Jonson. VOWELISM Vow"el*ism, n. Defn: The use of vowels. [R.] VOWELIZE Vow"el*ize, v. t. Defn: To give the quality, sound, or office of a vowel to. VOWER Vow"er, n. Defn: One who makes a vow. Bale. VOW-FELLOW Vow"-fel`low, n. Defn: One bound by the same vow as another. [R.] Shak. VOX Vox, n. Etym: [L. See Voice.] Defn: A voice. Vox humana ( Etym: [L., human voice] (Mus.), a reed stop in an organ, made to imitate the human voice. VOX ANGELICA Vox` an*gel"i*ca. [L. angelica angelic.] (Music) Defn: An organ stop of delicate stringlike quality, having for each finger key a pair of pipes, of which one is tuned slightly sharp to give a wavy effect to their joint tone. VOYAGE Voy"age (; 48), n. Etym: [OE. veage, viage, OF. veage, viage, veiage, voiage, F. voyage, LL. viaticum, fr. L. viaticum traveling money, provision for a journey, from viaticus belonging to a road or journey, fr. via way, akin to E. way. See Way, n., and cf. Convey, Deviate, Devious, Envoy, Trivial, Viaduct, Viaticum.] 1. Formerly, a passage either by sea or land; a journey, in general; but not chiefly limited to a passing by sea or water from one place, port, or country, to another; especially, a passing or journey by water to a distant place or country. I love a sea voyage and a blustering tempest. J. Fletcher. So steers the prudent crane Her annual voyage, borne on winds. Milton. All the voyage of their life Is bound in shallows and in miseries. Shak. 2. The act or practice of traveling. [Obs.] Nations have interknowledge of one another by voyage into foreign parts, or strangers that come to them. Bacon. 3. Course; way. [Obs.] Shak. VOYAGE Voy"age, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Voyaged; p. pr. & vb. n. Voyaging.] Etym: [Cf. F. voyager.] Defn: To take a voyage; especially, to sail or pass by water. A mind forever Voyaging through strange seas of thought alone. Wordsworth. VOYAGE Voy"age, v. t. Defn: To travel; to pass over; to traverse. With what pain [I] voyaged the unreal, vast, unbounded deep. Milton. VOYAGEABLE Voy"age*a*ble, a. Etym: [Cf. F. voyageable.] Defn: That may be sailed over, as water or air; navigable. VOYAGER Voy"a*ger, n. Etym: [Cf. F. voyager traveling.] Defn: One who voyages; one who sails or passes by sea or water. VOYAGEUR Voy`a`geur", n. Etym: [F., fr. voyager to travel. See Voyage.] Defn: A traveler; -- applied in Canada to a man employed by the fur companies in transporting goods by the rivers and across the land, to and from the remote stations in the Northwest. VOYOL Voy"ol, n. (Naut.) (a) See Viol, 2. (b) The block through which a messenger passes. [Written also viol, and voyal.] VRAISEMBLANCE Vrai`sem`blance", n. Etym: [F.] Defn: The appearance of truth; verisimilitude. VUGG; VUGH Vugg, Vugh, n. (Mining) Defn: A cavity in a lode; -- called also vogle. VULCAN Vul"can, n. Etym: [L. Vulcanus, Volcanus: cf. Skr. ulka a firebrand, meteor. Cf. Volcano.] (Rom. Myth.) Defn: The god of fire, who presided over the working of metals; -- answering to the Greek Hephæstus. VULCANIAN Vul*ca"ni*an, a. Etym: [L. Vulcanius.] 1. Of or pertaining to Vulcan; made by Vulcan; hence, of or pertaining to works in iron or other metals. Ingenious allusions to the Vulcanian panoply which Achilles lent to his feebler friend. Macaulay. 2. (Geol.) Defn: Volcanic. VULCANIC Vul*can"ic, a. 1. Of or pertaining to Vulcan; made by Vulcan; Vulcanian. 2. Of or pertaining to volcanoes; specifically, relating to the geological theory of the Vulcanists, or Plutonists. VULCANICITY Vul`can*ic"i*ty, n. Defn: Volcanicity. VULCANISM Vul"can*ism, n. Defn: Volcanism. VULCANIST Vul"can*ist, n. Defn: A volcanist. VULCANITE Vul"can*ite, n. Defn: Hard rubber produced by vulcanizing with a large proportion of sulphur. VULCANIZATION Vul`can*i*za"tion, n. Etym: [See Vulcan.] Defn: The act or process of imparting to caoutchouc, gutta-percha, or the like, greater elasticity, durability, or hardness by heating with sulphur under pressure. VULCANIZE Vul"can*ize, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Vulcanized; p. pr. & vb. n. Vulcanizing.] Defn: To change the properties of, as caoutchouc, or India rubber, by the process of vulcanization. Vulcanized fiber, paper, paper pulp, or other fiber, chemically treated, as with metallic chlorides, so as to form a substance resembling ebonite in texture, hardness, etc. Knight. -- Vulcanized rubber, India rubber, vulcanized. VULCANIZER Vul"can*i`zer, n. Defn: One who, or that which, vulcanizes; esp., an apparatus for vulcanizing caoutchouc. VULCANO Vul*ca"no, n. Defn: A volcano. [Obs.] VULCANOLOGY Vul`can*ol"o*gy, n. Etym: [See Vulcan, and -logy.] Defn: The science which treats of phenomena due to plutonic action, as in volcanoes, hot springs, etc. [R.] VULCAN POWDER Vul"can pow"der. Defn: A dynamite composed of nitroglycerin (30 parts), sodium nitrate (52.5), charcoal (10.5), and sulphur (7), used in mining and blasting. VULGAR Vul"gar, a. Etym: [L. vulgaris, from vulgus the multitude, the common people; of uncertain origin: cf. F. vulgaire. Cf. Divulge.] 1. Of or pertaining to the mass, or multitude, of people; common; general; ordinary; public; hence, in general use; vernacular. "As common as any the most vulgar thing to sense. " Shak. Things vulgar, and well-weighed, scarce worth the praise. Milton. It might be more useful to the English reader . . . to write in our vulgar language. Bp. Fell. The mechanical process of multiplying books had brought the New Testament in the vulgar tongue within the reach of every class. Bancroft. 2. Belonging or relating to the common people, as distinguished from the cultivated or educated; pertaining to common life; plebeian; not select or distinguished; hence, sometimes, of little or no value. "Like the vulgar sort of market men." Shak. Men who have passed all their time in low and vulgar life. Addison. In reading an account of a battle, we follow the hero with our whole attention, but seldom reflect on the vulgar heaps of slaughter. Rambler. 3. Hence, lacking cultivation or refinement; rustic; boorish; also, offensive to good taste or refined feelings; low; coarse; mean; base; as, vulgar men, minds, language, or manners. Be thou familiar, but by no means vulgar. Shak. Vulgar fraction. (Arith.) See under Fraction. VULGAR Vul"gar, n. Etym: [Cf. F. vulgaire.] 1. One of the common people; a vulgar person. [Obs.] These vile vulgars are extremely proud. Chapman. 2. The vernacular, or common language. [Obs.] VULGARIAN Vul*ga"ri*an, n. Defn: A vulgar person; one who has vulgar ideas. Used also adjectively. VULGARISM Vul"gar*ism, n. Etym: [Cf. F. vulgarisme.] 1. Grossness; rudeness; vulgarity. 2. A vulgar phrase or expression. A fastidious taste will find offense in the occasional vulgarisms, or what we now call "slang," which not a few of our writers seem to have affected. Coleridge. VULGARITY Vul*gar"i*ty, n. Etym: [Cf. F. vulgarité, L. vulgaritas the multitude.] 1. The quality or state of being vulgar; mean condition of life; the state of the lower classes of society. Sir T. Browne. 2. Grossness or clownishness of manners of language; absence of refinement; coarseness. The reprobate vulgarity of the frequenters of Bartholomew Fair. B. Jonson. VULGARIZATION Vul`gar*i*za"tion, n. Defn: The act or process of making vulgar, or common. VULGARIZE Vul"gar*ize, v. t. & i. [imp. & p. p. Vulgarized; p. pr. & vb. n. Vulgarizing.] Etym: [Cf. F. vulgariser, LL. vulgarizare.] Defn: To make vulgar, or common. Exhortation vulgarized by low wit. V. Knox. VULGARLY Vul"gar*ly, adv. Defn: In a vulgar manner. VULGARNESS Vul"gar*ness, n. Defn: The quality of being vulgar. VULGATE Vul"gate, n. Etym: [NL. vulgata, from L. vulgatus usual, common, p. p. of vulgare to make general, or common, fr. vulgus the multitude: cf. F. vulgate. See Vulgar, a.] Defn: An ancient Latin version of the Scripture, and the only version which the Roman Church admits to be authentic; -- so called from its common use in the Latin Church. Note: The Vulgate was made by Jerome at the close of the 4th century. The Old Testament he translated mostly from the Hebrew and Chaldaic, and the New Testament he revised from an older Latin version. The Douay version, so called, is an English translation from the Vulgate. See Douay Bible. VULGATE Vul"gate, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to the Vulgate, or the old Latin version of the Scriptures. VULNERABILITY Vul`ner*a*bil"i*ty, n. Defn: The quality or state of being vulnerable; vulnerableness. VULNERABLE Vul"ner*a*ble, a. Etym: [L. vulnerabilis wounding, injurious, from vulnerare to wound, vulnus a wound; akin to Skr. vra: cf. F. vulnérable.] 1. Capable of being wounded; susceptible of wounds or external injuries; as, a vulnerable body. Achilles was vulnerable in his heel; and there will be wanting a Paris to infix the dart. Dr. T. Dwight. 2. Liable to injury; subject to be affected injuriously; assailable; as, a vulnerable reputation. His skill in finding out the vulnerable parts of strong minds was consummate. Macaulay. VULNERABLENESS Vul"ner*a*ble*ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being vulnerable; vulnerability. VULNERARY Vul"ner*a*ry, a. Etym: [L. vulnearius: cf. F. vulnéraire.] Defn: Useful in healing wounds; adapted to the cure of external injuries; as, vulnerary plants or potions. "Such vulnerary remedies." Sir W. Scott. -- n. Etym: [Cf. F. vulnéraire.] (Med.) Defn: A vulnerary remedy. VULNERATE Vul"ner*ate, v. t. Etym: [L. vulneratus, p. p. of vulnerare to wound.] Defn: To wound; to hurt. [Obs.] VULNERATION Vul`ner*a"tion, n. Etym: [L. vulneratio.] Defn: The act of wounding, or the state of being wounded. [Obs.] VULNEROSE Vul"ner*ose`, a. Defn: Full of wounds; wounded. VULNIFIC; VULNIFICAL Vul*nif"ic, Vul*nif"ic*al, a. Etym: [L. vulnificus; vulnus a wound + facere to make.] Defn: Causing wounds; inflicting wounds; wounding. VULNOSE Vul*nose", a. Defn: Having wounds; vulnerose. [R.] VULPES Vul"pes, n. Etym: [L., a fox.] (Zoöl.) Defn: A genus of Carnivora including the foxes. VULPIC Vul"pic, a. (Chem.) Defn: Pertaining to, derived from, or designating, an acid obtained from a lichen (Cetraria vulpina) as a yellow or red crystalline substance which on decomposition yields pulvinic acid. VULPICIDE Vul"pi*cide, n. Etym: [L. vulpes a fox + caedere to kill.] Defn: One who kills a fox, except in hunting; also, the act of so killing a fox. [Written also vulpecide.] VULPINE Vul"pine, a. Etym: [L. vulpinus, from vulpes a fox.] Defn: Of or pertaining to the fox; resembling the fox; foxy; cunning; crafty; artful. Vulpine phalangist (Zoöl.), an Australian carnivorous marsupial (Phalangista, or Trichosurus, vulpina); -- called also vulpine phalanger, and vulpine opossum. VULPINIC Vul*pin"ic, a. (Chem.) Defn: Same as Vulpic. VULPINISM Vul"pin*ism, n. Defn: The quality of being cunning like the fox; craft; artfulness. [R.] He was without guile, and had no vulpinism at all. Carlyle. VULPINITE Vul"pi*nite, n. Etym: [So called after Vulpino, in Italy.] (Min.) Defn: A scaly granular variety of anhydrite of a grayish white color, used for ornamental purposes. VULTERN Vul"tern, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The brush turkey (Talegallus Lathami) of Australia. See Brush turkey. VULTURE Vul"ture, n. Etym: [OE. vultur, L. vultur: cf. OF. voltour, F. vautour.] (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of numerous species of rapacious birds belonging to Vultur, Cathartes, Catharista, and various other genera of the family Vulturidæ. Note: In most of the species the head and neck are naked or nearly so. They feed chiefly on carrion. The condor, king vulture, turkey buzzard, and black vulture (Catharista atrata) are well known American species. The griffin, lammergeir, and Pharaoh's chicken, or Egyptian vulture, are common Old World vultures. VULTURINE Vul"tur*ine, a. Etym: [L. vulturinus.] Defn: Of or pertaining to a vulture; resembling a vulture in qualities or looks; as, the vulturine sea eagle (Gypohierax Angolensis); vulturine rapacity. The vulturine nose, which smells nothing but corruption, is no credit to its possessor. C. Kingsley. VULTURISH Vul"tur*ish, a. Defn: Vulturous. VULTURISM Vul"tur*ism, n. Defn: The quality or state of being like a vulture; rapaciousness. VULTUROUS Vul"tur*ous, a. Defn: Like a vulture; rapacious. VULVA Vul"va, n. Etym: [L. vulva, volva, from volvere to roll.] 1. (Anat.) Defn: The external parts of the female genital organs; sometimes, the opening between the projecting parts of the external organs. 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: The orifice of the oviduct of an insect or other invertebrate. VULVIFORM Vul"vi*form, a. Etym: [L. vulva, volva, a wrapper + -form.] (Bot.) Defn: Like a cleft with projecting edges. VULVITIS Vul*vi"tis, n. Etym: [NL. See Vulva, and -itis.] (Med.) Defn: Inflammation of the vulva. VULVO-UTERINE Vul`vo-u"ter*ine, a. (Anat.) Defn: Pertaining both to the vulva and the uterus. VULVOVAGINAL Vul`vo*vag"i*nal, a. (Anat.) Defn: Pertaining both to the vulva and the vagina. VYCE Vyce, n. Etym: [Cf. Vise.] (Coopering) Defn: A kind of clamp with gimlet points for holding a barrel head while the staves are being closed around it. Knight. VYING Vy"ing, Defn: a. & n. from Vie. -- Vy"ing*ly, adv. W Defn: W, the twenty-third letter of the English alphabet, is usually a consonant, but sometimes it is a vowel, forming the second element of certain diphthongs, as in few, how. It takes its written form and its name from the repetition of a V, this being the original form of the Roman capital letter which we call U. Etymologically it is most related to v and u. See V, and U. Some of the uneducated classes in England, especially in London, confuse w and v, substituting the one for the other, as weal for veal, and veal for weal; wine for vine, and vine for wine, etc. See Guide to Pronunciation, §§ 266-268. WAAG Waag, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The grivet. WAAHOO Waa*hoo", n. (Bot.) Defn: The burning bush; -- said to be called after a quack medicine made from it. WABBLE Wab"ble, v. i. Etym: [Cf. Prov. G. wabbeln to wabble, and E. whap. Cf. Quaver.] Defn: To move staggeringly or unsteadily from one side to the other; to vacillate; to move the manner of a rotating disk when the axis of rotation is inclined to that of the disk; -- said of a turning or whirling body; as, a top wabbles; a buzz saw wabbles. wobble. WABBLE Wab"ble, n. Defn: A hobbling, unequal motion, as of a wheel unevenly hung; a staggering to and fro. WABBLY Wab"bly, a. Defn: Inclined to wabble; wabbling. WACKE; WACKY Wack"e, Wack"y, n. Etym: [G. wacke, MHG.wacke a large stone, OHG. waggo a pebble.] (Geol.) Defn: A soft, earthy, dark-colored rock or clay derived from the alteration of basalt. WAD Wad, n. Etym: [See Woad.] Defn: Woad. [Obs.] WAD Wad, n. Etym: [Probably of Scand. origin; cf. Sw. vadd wadding, Dan vat, D. & G. watte. Cf. Wadmol.] 1. A little mass, tuft, or bundle, as of hay or tow. Holland. 2. Specifically: A little mass of some soft or flexible material, such as hay, straw, tow, paper, or old rope yarn, used for retaining a charge of powder in a gun, or for keeping the powder and shot close; also, to diminish or avoid the effects of windage. Also, by extension, a dusk of felt, pasteboard, etc., serving a similar purpose. 3. A soft mass, especially of some loose, fibrous substance, used for various purposes, as for stopping an aperture, padding a garment, etc. Wed hook, a rod with a screw or hook at the end, used for removing the wad from a gun. WAD Wad, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Waded; p. pr. & vb. n. Wadding.] 1. To form into a mass, or wad, or into wadding; as, to wad tow or cotton. 2. To insert or crowd a wad into; as, to wad a gun; also, to stuff or line with some soft substance, or wadding, like cotton; as, to wad a cloak. WAD; WADD Wad, Wadd, n. (Min.) (a) An earthy oxide of manganese, or mixture of different oxides and water, with some oxide of iron, and often silica, alumina, lime, or baryta; black ocher. There are several varieties. (b) Plumbago, or black lead. WADDIE Wad"die, n. & v. Defn: See Waddy. WADDING Wad"ding, n. Etym: [See Wad a little mass.] 1. A wad, or the materials for wads; any pliable substance of which wads may be made. 2. Any soft stuff of loose texture, used for stuffing or padding garments; esp., sheets of carded cotton prepared for the purpose. WADDLE Wad"dle, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Waddled; p. pr. & vb. n. Waddling.] Etym: [Freq. of wade; cf. AS. wædlian to beg, from wadan to go. See Wade.] Defn: To walk with short steps, swaying the body from one side to the other, like a duck or very fat person; to move clumsily and totteringly along; to toddle; to stumble; as, a child waddles when he begins to walk; a goose waddles. Shak. She drawls her words, and waddles in her pace. Young. WADDLE Wad"dle, v. t. Defn: To trample or tread down, as high grass, by walking through it. [R.] Drayton. WADDLER Wad"dler, n. Defn: One who, or that which, waddles. WADDLINGLY Wad"dling*ly, adv. Defn: In a waddling manner. WADDY Wad"dy, n.; pl. Waddies. [Written also waddie, whaddie.] [Native name. Thought by some to be a corrup. of E. wood.] [Australia] 1. An aboriginal war club. 2. A piece of wood; stick; peg; also, a walking stick. WADDY Wad"dy, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Waddied; p. pr. & vb. n. Waddying.] Defn: To attack or beat with a waddy. WADDYWOOD Wad"dy*wood`, n. Defn: An Australian tree (Pittosporum bicolor); also, its wood, used in making waddies. WADE Wade, n. Defn: Woad. [Obs.] Mortimer. WADE Wade, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Waded; p. pr. & vb. n. Wading.] Etym: [OE. waden to wade, to go, AS. wadan; akin to OFries. wada, D. waden, OHG. watan, Icel. va, Sw. vada, Dan. vade, L. vadere to go, walk, vadum a ford. Cf. Evade, Invade, Pervade, Waddle.] 1. To go; to move forward. [Obs.] When might is joined unto cruelty, Alas, too deep will the venom wade. Chaucer. Forbear, and wade no further in this speech. Old Play. 2. To walk in a substance that yields to the feet; to move, sinking at each step, as in water, mud, sand, etc. So eagerly the fiend . . . With head, hands, wings, or feet, pursues his way, And swims, or sinks, or wades, or creeps, or flies. Milton. 3. Hence, to move with difficulty or labor; to proceed as, to wade through a dull book. And wades through fumes, and gropes his way. Dryden. The king's admirable conduct has waded through all these difficulties. Davenant. WADE Wade, v. t. Defn: To pass or cross by wading; as, he waded . WADE Wade, n. Defn: The act of wading. [Colloq.] WADER Wad"er, n. 1. One who, or that which, wades. 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any long-legged bird that wades in the water in search of food, especially any species of limicoline or grallatorial birds; -- called also wading bird. See Illust. g, under Aves. WADING Wad"ing, Defn: a. & n. from Wade, v. Wading bird. (Zoöl.) See Wader, 2. WADMOL Wad"mol, n. Etym: [Of Scand. origin; cf. Icel.va a woollen stuff, Dan vadmel. Cf. Wad a small mass, and Woodmeil.] Defn: A coarse, hairy, woolen cloth, formerly used for garments by the poor, and for various other purposes. [Spelled also wadmal, wadmeal, wadmoll, wadmel, etc.] Beck (Draper's Dict.). Sir W. Scott. WADSET Wad"set, n. Etym: [Scot. wad a pledge; akin to Sw. vad a wager. See Wed.] (Scots Law) Defn: A kind of pledge or mortgage. [Written also wadsett.] WADSETTER Wad"set*ter, n. Defn: One who holds by a wadset. WADY Wad"y, n.; pl. Wadies. Etym: [Ar. wadi a valley, a channel of a river, a river.] Defn: A ravine through which a brook flows; the channel of a water course, which is dry except in the rainy season. WAE Wae, n. Defn: A wave. [Obs.] Spenser. WAEG Waeg, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The kittiwake. [Scot.] WAFER Wa"fer, n. Etym: [OE. wafre, OF. waufre, qaufre, F. qaufre; of Teutonic origin; cf. LG. & D. wafel, G. waffel, Dan. vaffel, Sw. våffla; all akin to G. wabe a honeycomb, OHG. waba, being named from the resemblance to a honeycomb. G. wabe is probably akin to E. weave. See Weave, and cf. Waffle, Gauffer.] 1. (Cookery) Defn: A thin cake made of flour and other ingredients. Wafers piping hot out of the gleed. Chaucer. The curious work in pastry, the fine cakes, wafers, and marchpanes. Holland. A woman's oaths are wafers -- break with making B. Jonson. 2. (Eccl.) Defn: A thin cake or piece of bread (commonly unleavened, circular, and stamped with a crucifix or with the sacred monogram) used in the Eucharist, as in the Roman Catholic Church. 3. An adhesive disk of dried paste, made of flour, gelatin, isinglass, or the like, and coloring matter, -- used in sealing letters and other documents. Wafer cake, a sweet, thin cake. Shak. -- Wafer irons, or Wafer tongs (Cookery), a pincher-shaped contrivance, having flat plates, or blades, between which wafers are baked. -- Wafer woman, a woman who sold wafer cakes; also, one employed in amorous intrigues. Beau. & Fl. WAFER Wa"fer, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wafered; p. pr. & vb. n. Wafering.] Defn: To seal or close with a wafer. WAFERER Wa"fer*er, n. Defn: A dealer in the cakes called wafers; a confectioner. [Obs.] Chaucer. WAFFLE Waffle, n. Etym: [D. wafel. See Wafer.] 1. A thin cake baked and then rolled; a wafer. 2. A soft indented cake cooked in a waffle iron. Waffle iron, an iron utensil or mold made in two parts shutting together, -- used for cooking waffles over a fire. WAFT Waft, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wafted; p. pr. & vb. n. Wafting.] Etym: [Prob. originally imp. & p. p. of wave, v. t. See Wave to waver.] 1. To give notice to by waving something; to wave the hand to; to beckon. [Obs.] But soft: who wafts us yonder Shak. 2. To cause to move or go in a wavy manner, or by the impulse of waves, as of water or air; to bear along on a buoyant medium; as, a balloon was wafted over the channel. A gentle wafting to immortal life. Milton. Speed the soft intercourse from soul to soul, And waft a sigh from Indus to the pole. Pope. 3. To cause to float; to keep from sinking; to buoy. [Obs.] Sir T. Browne. Note: This verb is regular; but waft was formerly somwafted. WAFT Waft, v. i. Defn: To be moved, or to pass, on a buoyant medium; to float. And now the shouts waft near the citadel. Dryden. WAFT Waft, n. 1. A wave or current of wind. "Everywaft of the air." Longfellow. In this dire season, oft the whirlwind's wing Sweeps up the burden of whole wintry plains In one wide waft. Thomson. 2. A signal made by waving something, as a flag, in the air. 3. An unpleasant flavor. [Obs.] 4. (Naut.) Defn: A knot, or stop, in the middle of a flag. [Written also wheft.] Note: A flag with a waft in it, when hoisted at the staff, or half way to the gaff, means, a man overboard; at the peak, a desire to communicate; at the masthead, "Recall boats." WAFTAGE Waft"age, n. Defn: Conveyance on a buoyant medium, as air or water. Shak. Boats prepared for waftage to and fro. Drayton. WAFTER Waft"er, n. 1. One who, or that which, wafts. O Charon, Thou wafter of the soul to bliss or bane. Beau. & FL. 2. A boat for passage. Ainsworth. WAFTURE Waf"ture, n. Defn: The act of waving; a wavelike motion; a waft. R. Browning. An angry wafture of your hand. Shak. WAG Wag, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wagged; p. pr. & vb. n. Wagging.] Etym: [OE. waggen; probably of Scand. origin; cf. Sw. vagga to rock a cradle, vagga cradle, Icel. vagga, Dan. vugge; akin to AS. wagian to move, wag, wegan to bear, carry, G. & D. bewegen to move, and E. weigh. *136. See Weigh.] Defn: To move one way and the other with quick turns; to shake to and fro; to move vibratingly; to cause to vibrate, as a part of the body; as, to wag the head. No discerner durst wag his tongue in censure. Shak. Every one that passeth thereby shall be astonished, and wag his head. Jer. xviii. 16. Note: Wag expresses specifically the motion of the head and body used in buffoonery, mirth, derision, sport, and mockery. WAG Wag, v. i. 1. To move one way and the other; to be shaken to and fro; to vibrate. The resty sieve wagged ne'er the more. Dryden. 2. To be in action or motion; to move; to get along; to progress; to stir. [Colloq.] "Thus we may see," quoth he, "how the world wags." Shak. 3. To go; to depart; to pack oft. [R.] I will provoke him to 't, or let him wag. Shak. WAG Wag, n. Etym: [From Wag, v.] 1. The act of wagging; a shake; as, a wag of the head. [Colloq.] 2. Etym: [Perhaps shortened from wag-halter a rogue.] Defn: A man full of sport and humor; a ludicrous fellow; a humorist; a wit; a joker. We wink at wags when they offend. Dryden. A counselor never pleaded without a piece of pack thread in his hand, which he used to twist about a finger all the while he was speaking; the wags used to call it the thread of his discourse. Addison. WAGATI Wa*ga"ti, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A small East Indian wild cat (Felis wagati), regarded by some as a variety of the leopard cat. WAGE Wage, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Waged; p. pr. & vb. n. Waging.] Etym: [OE. wagen, OF. wagier, gagier, to pledge, promise, F. gager to wager, lay, bet, fr. LL. wadium a pledge; of Teutonic origin; cf. Goth. wadi a pledge, gawadjon to pledge, akin to E. wed, G. wette a wager. See Wed, and cf. Gage.] 1. To pledge; to hazard on the event of a contest; to stake; to bet, to lay; to wager; as, to wage a dollar. Hakluyt. My life I never but as a pawn To wage against thy enemies. Shak. 2. To expose one's self to, as a risk; to incur, as a danger; to venture; to hazard. "Too weak to wage an instant trial with the king." Shak. To wake and wage a danger profitless. Shak. 3. To engage in, as a contest, as if by previous gage or pledge; to carry on, as a war. [He pondered] which of all his sons was fit To reign and wage immortal war with wit. Dryden. The two are waging war, and the one triumphs by the destruction of the other. I. Taylor. 4. To adventure, or lay out, for hire or reward; to hire out. [Obs.] "Thou . . . must wage thy works for wealth." Spenser. 5. To put upon wages; to hire; to employ; to pay wages to. [Obs.] Abundance of treasure which he had in store, wherewith he might wage soldiers. Holinshed. I would have them waged for their labor. Latimer. 6. (O. Eng. Law) Defn: To give security for the performance of. Burrill. To wage battle (O. Eng. Law), to give gage, or security, for joining in the duellum, or combat. See Wager of battel, under Wager, n. Burrill. -- To wage one's law (Law), to give security to make one's law. See Wager of law, under Wager, n. WAGE Wage, v. i. Defn: To bind one's self; to engage. [Obs.] WAGE Wage, n. Etym: [OF. wage, gage, guarantee, engagement. See Wage, v. t. ] 1. That which is staked or ventured; that for which one incurs risk or danger; prize; gage. [Obs.] "That warlike wage." Spenser. 2. That for which one labors; meed; reward; stipulated payment for service performed; hire; pay; compensation; -- at present generally used in the plural. See Wages. "My day's wage." Sir W. Scott. "At least I earned my wage." Thackeray. "Pay them a wage in advance." J. Morley. "The wages of virtue." Tennyson. By Tom Thumb, a fairy page, He sent it, and doth him engage, By promise of a mighty wage, It secretly to carry. Drayton. Our praises are our wages. Shak. Existing legislation on the subject of wages. Encyc. Brit. Note: Wage is used adjectively and as the first part of compounds which are usually self-explaining; as, wage worker, or wage-worker; wage-earner, etc. Board wages. See under 1st Board. Syn. -- Hire; reward; stipend; salary; allowance; pay; compensation; remuneration; fruit. WAGEL Wag"el, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: See Waggel. WAGENBOOM Wa"gen*boom`, n. Etym: [D., literally, wagon tree.] (Bot.) Defn: A south African proteaceous tree (Protea grandiflora); also, its tough wood, used for making wagon wheels. WAGER Wa"ger, n. Etym: [OE. wager, wajour, OF. wagiere, or wageure, E. gageure. See Wage, v. t.] 1. Something deposited, laid, or hazarded on the event of a contest or an unsettled question; a bet; a stake; a pledge. Besides these plates for horse races, the wagers may be as the persons please. Sir W. Temple. If any atheist can stake his soul for a wager against such an inexhaustible disproportion, let him never hereafter accuse others of credulity. Bentley. 2. (Law) Defn: A contract by which two parties or more agree that a certain sum of money, or other thing, shall be paid or delivered to one of them, on the happening or not happening of an uncertain event. Bouvier. Note: At common law a wager is considered as a legal contract which the courts must enforce unless it be on a subject contrary to public policy, or immoral, or tending to the detriment of the public, or affecting the interest, feelings, or character of a third person. In many of the United States an action can not be sustained upon any wager or bet. Chitty. Bouvier. 3. That on which bets are laid; the subject of a bet. Wager of battel, or Wager of battle (O. Eng. Law), the giving of gage, or pledge, for trying a cause by single combat, formerly allowed in military, criminal, and civil causes. In writs of right, where the trial was by champions, the tenant produced his champion, who, by throwing down his glove as a gage, thus waged, or stipulated, battle with the champion of the demandant, who, by taking up the glove, accepted the challenge. The wager of battel, which has been long in disuse, was abolished in England in 1819, by a statute passed in consequence of a defendant's having waged his battle in a case which arose about that period. See Battel. -- Wager of law (Law), the giving of gage, or sureties, by a defendant in an action of debt, that at a certain day assigned he would take a law, or oath, in open court, that he did not owe the debt, and at the same time bring with him eleven neighbors (called compurgators), who should avow upon their oaths that they believed in their consciences that he spoke the truth. -- Wager policy. (Insurance Law) See under Policy. WAGER Wa"ger, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wagered; p. pr. & vb. n. Wagering.] Defn: To hazard on the issue of a contest, or on some question that is to be decided, or on some casualty; to lay; to stake; to bet. And wagered with him Pieces of gold 'gainst this which he wore. Shak. WAGER Wa"ger, v. i. Defn: To make a bet; to lay a wager. 'T was merry when You wagered on your angling. Shak. WAGERER Wa"ger*er, n. Defn: One who wagers, or lays a bet. WAGERING Wa"ger*ing, a. Defn: Hazarding; pertaining to the act of one who wagers. Wagering policy. (Com.) See Wager policy, under Policy. WAGES Wa"ges, n. plural in termination, but singular in signification. Etym: [Plural of wage; cf. F. gages, pl., wages, hire. See Wage, n.] Defn: A compensation given to a hired person for services; price paid for labor; recompense; hire. See Wage, n., 2. The wages of sin is death. Rom. vi. 23. Wages fund (Polit. Econ.), the aggregate capital existing at any time in any country, which theoretically is unconditionally destined to be paid out in wages. It was formerly held, by Mill and other political economists, that the average rate of wages in any country at any time depended upon the relation of the wages fund to the number of laborers. This theory has been greatly modified by the discovery of other conditions affecting wages, which it does not take into account. Encyc. Brit. Syn. -- See under Wage, n. WAGGEL Wag"gel, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The young of the great black-backed gull (Larus marinus), formerly considered a distinct species. [Prov. Eng.] WAGGERY Wag"ger*y, n.; pl. Waggeries. Etym: [From Wag.] Defn: The manner or action of a wag; mischievous merriment; sportive trick or gayety; good-humored sarcasm; pleasantry; jocularity; as, the waggery of a schoolboy. Locke. A drollery and lurking waggery of expression. W. Irving. WAGGIE Wag"gie, n. Defn: The pied wagtail. [Prov. Eng.] WAGGISH Wag"gish, a. 1. Like a wag; mischievous in sport; roguish in merriment or good humor; frolicsome. "A company of waggish boys." L'Estrange. 2. Done, made, or laid in waggery or for sport; sportive; humorous; as, a waggish trick. -- Wag"gish*ly, adv. -- Wag"gish*ness, n. WAGGLE Wag"gle, v. i. Etym: [Freq. of wag; cf. D. waggelen, G. wackeln.] Defn: To reel, sway, or move from side to side; to move with a wagging motion; to waddle. Why do you go nodding and waggling so L'Estrange. WAGGLE Wag"gle, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Waggled; p. pr. & vb. n. Waggling.] Defn: To move frequently one way and the other; to wag; as, a bird waggles his tail. WAG-HALTER Wag"-hal`ter, n. Etym: [Wag + halter.] Defn: One who moves or wears a halter; one likely to be hanged. [Colloq. & Obs.] I can tell you, I am a mad wag-halter. Marston. WAGNERIAN Wag*ne"ri*an, a. Defn: Of, pertaining to, or resembling the style of, Richard Wagner, the German musical composer. WAGNERITE Wag"ner*ite, n. (Min.) Defn: A fluophosphate of magnesia, occurring in yellowish crystals, and also in massive forms. WAGON Wag"on, n. Etym: [D. wagen. sq. root136. See Wain.] 1. A wheeled carriage; a vehicle on four wheels, and usually drawn by horses; especially, one used for carrying freight or merchandise. Note: In the United States, light wagons are used for the conveyance of persons and light commodities. 2. A freight car on a railway. [Eng.] 3. A chariot [Obs.] Spenser. 4. (Astron.) Defn: The Dipper, or Charles's Wain. Note: This word and its compounds are often written with two g's (waggon, waggonage, etc.), chiefly in England. The forms wagon, wagonage, etc., are, however, etymologically preferable, and in the United States are almost universally used. Wagon boiler. See the Note under Boiler, 3. -- Wagon ceiling (Arch.), a semicircular, or wagon-headed, arch or ceiling; -- sometimes used also of a ceiling whose section is polygonal instead of semicircular. -- Wagon master, an officer or person in charge of one or more wagons, especially of those used for transporting freight, as the supplies of an army, and the like. -- Wagon shoe, a skid, or shoe, for retarding the motion of a wagon wheel; a drag. -- Wagon vault. (Arch.) See under 1st Vault. WAGON Wag"on, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wagoned; p. pr. & vb. n. Wagoning.] Defn: To transport in a wagon or wagons; as, goods are wagoned from city to city. WAGON Wag"on, v. i. Defn: To wagon goods as a business; as, the man wagons between Philadelphia and its suburbs. WAGONAGE Wag"on*age, n. 1. Money paid for carriage or conveyance in wagon. 2. A collection of wagons; wagons, collectively. Wagonage, provender, and a piece or two of cannon. Carlyle. WAGONER Wag"on*er, n. 1. One who conducts a wagon; one whose business it is to drive a wagon. 2. (Astron.) Defn: The constellation Charles's Wain, or Ursa Major. See Ursa major, under Ursa. WAGONETTE Wag`on*ette", n. Defn: A kind of pleasure wagon, uncovered and with seats extended along the sides, designed to carry six or eight persons besides the driver. WAGONFUL Wag"on*ful, n.; pl. Wagonfuls (. Defn: As much as a wagon will hold; enough to fill a wagon; a wagonload. WAGON-HEADED Wag"on-head`ed, a. Defn: Having a top, or head, shaped like the top of a covered wagon, or resembling in section or outline an inverted U, thus as, a wagonheaded ceiling. WAGONLOAD Wag"on*load`, n. Defn: Same as Wagonful. WAGON-ROOFED Wag"on-roofed`, a. Defn: Having a roof, or top, shaped like an inverted U; wagon-headed. WAGONRY Wag"on*ry, n. Defn: Conveyance by means of a wagon or wagons. [Obs.] Milton. WAGONWRIGHT Wag"on*wright`, n. Defn: One who makes wagons. WAGTAIL Wag"tail`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of many species of Old World singing birds belonging to Motacilla and several allied genera of the family Motacillidæ. They have the habit of constantly jerking their long tails up and down, whence the name. Field wagtail, any one of several species of wagtails of the genus Budytes having the tail shorter, the legs longer, and the hind claw longer and straighter, than do the water wagtails. Most of the species are yellow beneath. Called also yellow wagtail. -- Garden wagtail, the Indian black-breasted wagtail (Nemoricola Indica). -- Pied wagtail, the common European water wagtail (Motacilla lugubris). It is variegated with black and white. The name is applied also to other allied species having similar colors. Called also pied dishwasher. -- Wagtail flycatcher, a true flycatcher (Sauloprocta motacilloides) common in Southern Australia, where it is very tame, and frequents stock yards and gardens and often builds its nest about houses; -- called also black fantail. -- Water wagtail. (a) Any one of several species of wagtails of the restricted genus Motacilla. They live chiefly on the shores of ponds and streams. (b) The American water thrush. See Water thrush. -- Wood wagtail, an Asiatic wagtail; (Calobates sulphurea) having a slender bill and short legs. WAH Wah (wä), n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The panda. WAHABEE Wa*ha"bee, n. Etym: [Ar. wahabi.] Defn: A follower of Abdel Wahab (b. 1691; d. 1787), a reformer of Mohammedanism. His doctrines prevail particularly among the Bedouins, and the sect, though checked in its influence, extends to most parts of Arabia, and also into India. [Written also Wahaby.] WAHOO Wa*hoo", n. Any of various American trees or shrubs; specif.: (a) A certain shrub (Evonymus atropurpureus) having purple capsules which in dehiscence expose the scarlet-ariled seeds; -- called also burning bush. (b) Cascara buckthorn. (c) Basswood. WAHOO Wa*hoo", n. Defn: A dark blue scombroid food fish (Acanthocibium solandri or petus) of Florida and the West Indies. WAID Waid, a. Etym: [For weighed.] Defn: Oppressed with weight; crushed; weighed down. [Obs.] Tusser. WAIF Waif, n. Etym: [OF. waif, gaif, as adj., lost, unclaimed, chose gaive a waif, LL. wayfium, res vaivae; of Scand. origin. See Waive.] 1. (Eng. Law.) Defn: Goods found of which the owner is not known; originally, such goods as a pursued thief threw away to prevent being apprehended, which belonged to the king unless the owner made pursuit of the felon, took him, and brought him to justice. Blackstone. 2. Hence, anything found, or without an owner; that which comes along, as it were, by chance. "Rolling in his mind old waifs of rhyme." Tennyson. 3. A wanderer; a castaway; a stray; a homeless child. A waif Desirous to return, and not received. Cowper. WAIFT Waift, n. Defn: A waif. [Obs.] Spenser. WAIL Wail, v. t. Etym: [Cf. Icel. val choice, velja to choose, akin to Goth. waljan, G. wählen.] Defn: To choose; to select. [Obs.] "Wailed wine and meats." Henryson. WAIL Wail, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wailed; p. pr. & vb. n. Wailing.] Etym: [OE. wailen, weilen, probably fr. Icel. væla; cf. Icel. væ, vei, woe, and E. wayment, also OE. wai, wei, woe. Cf. Woe.] Defn: To lament; to bewail; to grieve over; as, to wail one's death. Shak. WAIL Wail, v. i. Defn: To express sorrow audibly; to make mournful outcry; to weep. Therefore I will wail and howl. Micah i. 8. WAIL Wail, n. Defn: Loud weeping; violent lamentation; wailing. "The wail of the forest." Longfellow. WAILER Wail"er, n. Defn: One who wails or laments. WAILERESS Wail"er*ess, n. Defn: A woman who wails. [Obs.] WAILFUL Wail"ful, a. Defn: Sorrowful; mournful. " Like wailful widows." Spenser. "Wailful sonnets." Shak. WAILINGLY Wail"ing*ly, adv. Defn: In a wailing manner. WAILMENT Wail"ment, n. Defn: Lamentation; loud weeping; wailing. [Obs.] Bp. Hacket. WAIMENT Wai"ment. v. & n. Defn: See Wayment. [Obs.] WAIN Wain, n. Etym: [OE. wain, AS. wægn; akin to D. & G. wagen, OHG. wagan, Icel. & Sw. vagn, Dan. vogn, and E. way. Way, Weigh, and cf. Wagon.] 1. A four-wheeled vehicle for the transportation of goods, produce, etc.; a wagon. The wardens see nothing but a wain of hay. Jeffrey. Driving in ponderous wains their household goods to the seashore. Longfellow. 2. A chariot. [Obs.] The Wain. (Astron.) See Charles's Wain, in the Vocabulary. -- Wain rope, a cart rope. Shak. WAINABLE Wain"a*ble, a. Defn: Capable of being plowed or cultivated; arable; tillable. [Obs.] Cowell. WAINAGE Wain"age (; 48), n. Etym: [From Wain.] Defn: A finding of carriages, carts, etc., for the transportation of goods, produce, etc. Ainsworth. WAINAGE Wain"age, n. (O. Eng. Law) Defn: See Gainage, a. WAINBOTE Wain"bote`, n. Etym: [Wain + bote.] (O. Eng. Law) Defn: See Cartbote. See also the Note under Bote. WAINSCOT Wain"scot, n. Etym: [OD. waeghe-schot, D. wagen-schot, a clapboard, fr. OD. waeg, weeg, a wall (akin to AS. wah; cf. Icel. veggr) + schot a covering of boards (akin to E. shot, shoot).] 1. Oaken timber or boarding. [Obs.] A wedge wainscot is fittest and most proper for cleaving of an oaken tree. Urquhart. Inclosed in a chest of wainscot. J. Dart. 2. (Arch.) Defn: A wooden lining or boarding of the walls of apartments, usually made in panels. 3. 3. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of numerous species of European moths of the family Leucanidæ. Note: They are reddish or yellowish, streaked or lined with black and white. Their larvæ feed on grasses and sedges. WAINSCOT Wain"scot, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wainscoted; p. pr. & vb. n. Wainscoting.] Defn: To line with boards or panelwork, or as if with panelwork; as, to wainscot a hall. Music soundeth better in chambers wainscoted than hanged. Bacon. The other is wainscoted with looking-glass. Addison. WAINSCOTING Wain"scot*ing, n. 1. The act or occupation of covering or lining with boards in panel. 2. The material used to wainscot a house, or the wainscot as a whole; panelwork. WAINWRIGHT Wain"wright`, n. Defn: Same as Wagonwright. WAIR Wair, n. (Carp.) Defn: A piece of plank two yard Bailey. WAIST Waist, n. Etym: [OE. wast; originally, growth, akin to AS. weaxan to grow; cf. AS. wæstm growth. See Wax to grow.] 1. That part of the human body which is immediately below the ribs or thorax; the small part of the body between the thorax and hips. Chaucer. I am in the waist two yards about. Shak. 2. Hence, the middle part of other bodies; especially (Naut.), that part of a vessel's deck, bulwarks, etc., which is between the quarter-deck and the forecastle; the middle part of the ship. 3. A garment, or part of a garment, which covers the body from the neck or shoulders to the waist line. 4. A girdle or belt for the waist. [Obs.] Shak. Waist anchor. See Sheet anchor, 1, in the Vocabulary. WAISTBAND Waist"band, n. 1. The band which encompasses the waist; esp., one on the upper part of breeches, trousers, pantaloons, skirts, or the like. 2. A sash worn by women around the waist. [R.] WAISTCLOTH Waist"cloth, n. 1. A cloth or wrapper worn about the waist; by extension, such a garment worn about the hips and passing between the thighs. 2. (Naut.) Defn: A covering of canvas or tarpaulin for the hammocks, stowed on the nettings, between the quarterdeck and the forecastle. WAISTCOAT Waist"coat, n. (a) A short, sleeveless coat or garment for men, worn under the coat, extending no lower than the hips, and covering the waist; a vest. (b) A garment occasionally worn by women as a part of fashionable costume. Note: The waistcoat was a part of female attire as well as male . . . It was only when the waistcoat was worn without a gown or upper dress that it was considered the mark of a mad or profligate woman. Nares. Syn. -- See Vest. WAISTCOATEER Waist`coat*eer", n. Defn: One wearing a waistcoat; esp., a woman wearing one uncovered, or thought fit for such a habit; hence, a loose woman; strumpet. [Obs.] Do you think you are here, sir, Amongst your waistcoateers, your base wenches Beau. & Fl. WAISTCOATING Waist"coat*ing, n. Defn: A fabric designed for waistcoats; esp., one in which there is a pattern, differently colored yarns being used. WAISTER Waist"er, n. (Naut.) Defn: A seaman, usually a green hand or a broken-down man, stationed in the waist of a vessel of war. R. H. Dana, Jr. WAIT Wait, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Waited; p. pr. & vb. n. Waiting.] Etym: [OE. waiten, OF. waitier, gaitier, to watch, attend, F. guetter to watch, to wait for, fr. OHG. wahta a guard, watch, G. wacht, from OHG. wahhen to watch, be awake. *134. See Wake, v. i.] 1. To watch; to observe; to take notice. [Obs.] "But [unless] ye wait well and be privy, I wot right well, I am but dead," quoth she. Chaucer. 2. To stay or rest in expectation; to stop or remain stationary till the arrival of some person or event; to rest in patience; to stay; not to depart. All the days of my appointed time will I wait, till my change come. Job xiv. 14. They also serve who only stand and wait. Milton. Haste, my dear father; 't is no time to wait. Dryden. To wait on or upon. (a) To attend, as a servant; to perform services for; as, to wait on a gentleman; to wait on the table. "Authority and reason on her wait." Milton. "I must wait on myself, must I" Shak. (b) To attend; to go to see; to visit on business or for ceremony. (c) To follow, as a consequence; to await. "That ruin that waits on such a supine temper." Dr. H. More. (d) To look watchfully at; to follow with the eye; to watch. [R.] "It is a point of cunning to wait upon him with whom you speak with your eye." Bacon. (e) To attend to; to perform. "Aaron and his sons . . . shallwait on their priest's office." Num. iii. 10. (f) (Falconry) To fly above its master, waiting till game is sprung; -- said of a hawk. Encyc. Brit. WAIT Wait, v. t. 1. To stay for; to rest or remain stationary in expectation of; to await; as, to wait orders. Awed with these words, in camps they still abide, And wait with longing looks their promised guide. Dryden. 2. To attend as a consequence; to follow upon; to accompany; to await. [Obs.] 3. To attend on; to accompany; especially, to attend with ceremony or respect. [Obs.] He chose a thousand horse, the flower of all His warlike troops, to wait the funeral. Dryden. Remorse and heaviness of heart shall wait thee, And everlasting anguish be thy portion. Rowe. 4. To cause to wait; to defer; to postpone; -- said of a meal; as, to wait dinner. [Colloq.] WAIT Wait, n. Etym: [OF. waite, guaite, gaite, F. guet watch, watching, guard, from OHG. wahta. See Wait, v. i.] 1. The act of waiting; a delay; a halt. There is a wait of three hours at the border Mexican town of El Paso. S. B. Griffin. 2. Ambush. "An enemy in wait." Milton. 3. One who watches; a watchman. [Obs.] 4. pl. Defn: Hautboys, or oboes, played by town musicians; not used in the singular. [Obs.] Halliwell. 5. pl. Defn: Musicians who sing or play at night or in the early morning, especially at Christmas time; serenaders; musical watchmen. [Written formerly wayghtes.] Hark! are the waits abroad Beau & Fl. The sound of the waits, rude as may be their minstrelsy, breaks upon the mild watches of a winter night with the effect of perfect harmony. W. Irving. To lay wait, to prepare an ambuscade. -- To lie in wait. See under 4th Lie. WAIT-A-BIT Wait"-a-bit`, n. Defn: Any of several plants bearing thorns or stiff hooked appendages, which catch and tear the clothing, as: (a) The greenbrier. (b) Any of various species of hawthorn. (c) In South Africa, one of numerous acacias and mimosas. (d) The grapple plant. (e) The prickly ash. WAITER Wait"er, n. 1. One who, or that which, waits; an attendant; a servant in attendance, esp. at table. The waiters stand in ranks; the yeomen cry, "Make room," as if a duke were passing by. Swift. 2. A vessel or tray on which something is carried, as dishes, etc.; a salver. Coast waiter. See under Coast, n. WAITING Wait"ing, Defn: a. & n. from Wait, v. In waiting, in attendance; as, lords in waiting. [Eng.] -- Waiting gentlewoman, a woman who waits upon a person of rank. -- Waiting maid, Waiting woman, a maid or woman who waits upon another as a personal servant. WAITINGLY Wait"ing*ly, adv. Defn: By waiting. WAITRESS Wait"ress, n. Defn: A female waiter or attendant; a waiting maid or waiting woman. WAIT--WHILE Wait"-a-while`, n. (a) One of the Australian wattle trees (Acacia colletioides), so called from the impenetrability of the thicket which it makes. (b) = Wait-a-bit. WAIVE Waive, n. Etym: [See Waive, v. t. ] 1. A waif; a castaway. [Obs.] Donne. 2. (O. Eng. Law) Defn: A woman put out of the protection of the law. See Waive, v. t., 3 (b), and the Note. WAIVE Waive, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Waived; p. pr. & vb. n. Waiving.] Etym: [OE. waiven, weiven, to set aside, remove, OF. weyver, quesver, to waive, of Scand. origin; cf. Icel. veifa to wave, to vibrate, akin to Skr. vip to tremble. Cf. Vibrate, Waif.] [Written also wave.] 1. To relinquish; to give up claim to; not to insist on or claim; to refuse; to forego. He waiveth milk, and flesh, and all. Chaucer. We absolutely do renounce or waive our own opinions, absolutely yielding to the direction of others. Barrow. 2. To throw away; to cast off; to reject; to desert. 3. (Law) (a) To throw away; to relinquish voluntarily, as a right which one may enforce if he chooses. (b) (O. Eng. Law) Defn: To desert; to abandon. Burrill. Note: The term was applied to a woman, in the same sense as outlaw to a man. A woman could not be outlawed, in the proper sense of the word, because, according to Bracton, she was never in law, that is, in a frankpledge or decennary; but she might be waived, and held as abandoned. Burrill. WAIVE Waive, v. i. Defn: To turn aside; to recede. [Obs.] To waive from the word of Solomon. Chaucer. WAIVER Waiv"er, n. (Law) Defn: The act of waiving, or not insisting on, some right, claim, or privilege. WAIVURE Waiv"ure, n. Defn: See Waiver. [R.] WAIWODE Wai"wode, n. Defn: See Waywode. WAI WU PU Wai Wu Pu. [Chinese wai foreign + wu affairs + pu office.] Defn: The Department of Foreign Affairs in the Chinese government. The Tsung-li Yamen, or Foreign Office, created by a decree of January 19, 1861, was in July, 1902, superseded by the formation of a new Foreign Office called the Wai Wu Pu, . . . with precedence before all other boards. J. Scott Keltie. WAKE Wake, n. Etym: [Originally, an open space of water svök a hole, opening in ice, Sw. vak, Dan. vaage, perhaps akin to E. humid.] Defn: The track left by a vessel in the water; by extension, any track; as, the wake of an army. This effect followed immediately in the wake of his earliest exertions. De Quincey. Several humbler persons . . . formed quite a procession in the dusty wake of his chariot wheels. Thackeray. WAKE Wake, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Waked or Woke (p. pr. & vb. n. Waking.] Etym: [AS. wacan, wacian; akin to OFries. waka, OS. wak, D. waken, G. wachen, OHG. wahh, Icel. vaka, Sw. vaken, Dan. vaage, Goth. wakan, v. i., uswakjan, v. t., Skr. vajay to rouse, to impel. Vigil, Wait, v. i., Watch, v. i.] 1. To be or to continue awake; to watch; not to sleep. The father waketh for the daughter. Ecclus. xlii. 9. Though wisdom wake, suspicion sleeps. Milton. I can not think any time, waking or sleeping, without being sensible of it. Locke. 2. To sit up late festive purposes; to hold a night revel. The king doth wake to-night, and takes his rouse, Keeps wassail, and the swaggering upspring reels. Shak. 3. To be excited or roused from sleep; to awake; to be awakened; to cease to sleep; -- often with up. He infallibly woke up at the sound of the concluding doxology. G. Eliot. 4. To be exited or roused up; to be stirred up from a dormant, torpid, or inactive state; to be active. Gentle airs due at their hour To fan the earth now waked. Milton. Then wake, my soul, to high desires. Keble. WAKE Wake, v. t. 1. To rouse from sleep; to awake. The angel . . . came again and waked me. Zech. iv. 1. 2. To put in motion or action; to arouse; to excite. "I shall waken all this company." Chaucer. Lest fierce remembrance wake my sudden rage. Milton. Even Richard's crusade woke little interest in his island realm. J. R. Green. 3. To bring to life again, as if from the sleep of death; to reanimate; to revive. To second life Waked in the renovation of the just. Milton. 4. To watch, or sit up with, at night, as a dead body. WAKE Wake, n. 1. The act of waking, or being awaked; also, the state of being awake. [Obs. or Poetic] Making such difference 'twixt wake and sleep. Shak. Singing her flatteries to my morning wake. Dryden. 2. The state of forbearing sleep, especially for solemn or festive purposes; a vigil. The warlike wakes continued all the night, And funeral games played at new returning light. Dryden. The wood nymphs, decked with daises trim, Their merry wakes and pastimes keep. Milton. 3. Specifically: (a) (Ch. of Eng.) An annual parish festival formerly held in commemoration of the dedication of a church. Originally, prayers were said on the evening preceding, and hymns were sung during the night, in the church; subsequently, these vigils were discontinued, and the day itself, often with succeeding days, was occupied in rural pastimes and exercises, attended by eating and drinking, often to excess. Great solemnities were made in all churches, and great fairs and wakes throughout all England. Ld. Berners. And every village smokes at wakes with lusty cheer. Drayton. (b) The sitting up of persons with a dead body, often attended with a degree of festivity, chiefly among the Irish. "Blithe as shepherd at a wake." Cowper. Wake play, the ceremonies and pastimes connected with a wake. See Wake, n., 3 (b), above. [Obs.] Chaucer. WAKEFUL Wake"ful, a. Defn: Not sleeping; indisposed to sleep; watchful; vigilant. Dissembling sleep, but wakeful with the fright. Dryden. -- Wake"ful*ly, adv. -- Wake"ful*ness, n. WAKEN Wak"en, v. i. [imp. & p. pr. Wakened; p. pr. & vb. n. Wakening.] Etym: [OE. waknen, AS. wæcnan; akin to Goth. gawaknan. See Wake, v. i.] Defn: To wake; to cease to sleep; to be awakened. Early, Turnus wakening with the light. Dryden. WAKEN Wak"en, v. t. 1. To excite or rouse from sleep; to wake; to awake; to awaken. "Go, waken Eve." Milton. 2. To excite; to rouse; to move to action; to awaken. Then Homer's and Tyrtæus' martial muse Wakened the world. Roscommon. Venus now wakes, and wakens love. Milton. They introduce Their sacred song, and waken raptures high. Milton. WAKENER Wak"en*er, n. Defn: One who wakens. WAKENING Wak"en*ing, n. 1. The act of one who wakens; esp., the act of ceasing to sleep; an awakening. 2. (Scots Law) Defn: The revival of an action. Burrill. They were too much ashamed to bring any wakening of the process against Janet. Sir W. Scott. WAKER Wak"er, n. Defn: One who wakes. WAKE-ROBIN Wake"-rob`in, n. (Bot.) Defn: Any plant of the genus Arum, especially, in England, the cuckoopint (Arum maculatum). Note: In America the name is given to several species of Trillium, and sometimes to the Jack-in-the-pulpit. WAKETIME Wake"time`, n. Defn: Time during which one is awake. [R.] Mrs. Browning. WAKF Wakf (wukf), n. [Ar. waqf.] (Moham. Law) Defn: The granting or dedication of property in trust for a pious purpose, that is, to some object that tends to the good of mankind, as to support a mosque or caravansary, to provide for support of one's family, kin, or neighbors, to benefit some particular person or persons and afterward the poor, etc.; also, the trust so created, or the property in trust. WAKIF Wa"kif (wä"kif), n. [Ar. waqif.] (Moham. Law) Defn: The person creating a wakf. WAKING Wak"ing, n. 1. The act of waking, or the state or period of being awake. 2. A watch; a watching. [Obs.] "Bodily pain . . . standeth in prayer, in wakings, in fastings." Chaucer. In the fourth waking of the night. Wyclif (Matt. xiv. 25). WALAWAY Wa"la*way, interj. Defn: See Welaway. [Obs.] WALD Wald, n. Etym: [AS. weald. See Wold.] Defn: A forest; -- used as a termination of names. See Weald. WALDENSES Wal*den"ses, n. pl. Etym: [So called from Petrus Waldus, or Peter Waldo, a merchant of Lyons, who founded this sect about a. d. 1170.] (Eccl. Hist.) Defn: A sect of dissenters from the ecclesiastical system of the Roman Catholic Church, who in the 13th century were driven by persecution to the valleys of Piedmont, where the sect survives. They profess substantially Protestant principles. WALDENSIAN Wal*den"sian, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to the Waldenses. -- n. Defn: One Holding the Waldensian doctrines. WALDGRAVE Wald"grave, n. Etym: [See Wald, and Margrave.] Defn: In the old German empire, the head forest keeper. WALDHEIMIA Wald*hei"mi*a, n. Etym: [NL.] (Zoöl.) Defn: A genus of brachiopods of which many species are found in the fossil state. A few still exist in the deep sea. WALE Wale, n. Etym: [AS. walu a mark of stripes or blows, probably originally, a rod; akin to Icel. völr, Goth. walus a rod, staff. sq. root146. Cf. Goal, Weal a wale.] 1. A streak or mark made on the skin by a rod or whip; a stripe; a wheal. See Wheal. Holland. 2. A ridge or streak rising above the surface, as of cloth; hence, the texture of cloth. Thou 'rt rougher far, And of a coarser wale, fuller of pride. Beau & Fl. 3. (Carp.) Defn: A timber bolted to a row of piles to secure them together and in position. Knight. 4. (Naut.) (a) pl. Defn: Certain sets or strakes of the outside planking of a vessel; as, the main wales, or the strakes of planking under the port sills of the gun deck; channel wales, or those along the spar deck, etc. (b) A wale knot, or wall knot. Wale knot. (Naut.) See Wall knot, under 1st Wall. WALE Wale, v. t. 1. To mark with wales, or stripes. 2. To choose; to select; specifically (Mining), to pick out the refuse of (coal) by hand, in order to clean it. [Prov. Eng. & Scot.] WALER Wal"er, n. [From Wales, i.e., New South Wales.] Defn: A horse imported from New South Wales; also, any Australian horse. [Colloq.] Kipling. The term originated in India, whither many horses are exported from Australia (mostly from New South Wales), especially for the use of cavalry. WALHALLA Wal*hal"la, n. Etym: [Cf. G. walhalla, See Valhalla.] Defn: See Valhalla. WALING Wal"ing, n. (Naut.) Defn: Same as Wale, n., 4. WALK Walk (wask), v. i. [imp. & p. p. Walked; p. pr. & vb. n. Walking.] Etym: [OE. walken, probably from AS. wealcan to roll, turn, revolve, akin to D. walken to felt hats, to work a hat, G. walken to full, OHG. walchan to beat, to full, Icel. valka to roll, to stamp, Sw. valka to full, to roll, Dan. valke to full; cf. Skr. valg to spring; but cf. also AS. weallian to roam, ramble, G. wallen. sq. root130.] 1. To move along on foot; to advance by steps; to go on at a moderate pace; specifically, of two-legged creatures, to proceed at a slower or faster rate, but without running, or lifting one foot entirely before the other touches the ground. At the end of twelve months, he walked in the palace of the kingdom of Babylon. Dan. iv. 29. When Peter was come down out of the ship, he walked on the water, to go to Jesus. Matt. xiv. 29. Note: In the walk of quadrupeds, there are always two, and for a brief space there are three, feet on the ground at once, but never four. 2. To move or go on the feet for exercise or amusement; to take one's exercise; to ramble. 3. To be stirring; to be abroad; to go restlessly about; -- said of things or persons expected to remain quiet, as a sleeping person, or the spirit of a dead person; to go about as a somnambulist or a specter. I have heard, but not believed, the spirits of the dead May walk again. Shak. When was it she last walked Shak. 4. To be in motion; to act; to move; to wag. [Obs.] "Her tongue did walk in foul reproach." Spenser. Do you think I'd walk in any plot B. Jonson. I heard a pen walking in the chimney behind the cloth. Latimer. 5. To behave; to pursue a course of life; to conduct one's self. We walk perversely with God, and he will walk crookedly toward us. Jer. Taylor. 6. To move off; to depart. [Obs. or Colloq.] He will make their cows and garrans to walk. Spenser. To walk in, to go in; to enter, as into a house. -- To walk after the flesh (Script.), to indulge sensual appetites, and to live in sin. Rom. viii. 1. -- To walk after the Spirit (Script.), to be guided by the counsels and influences of the Spirit, and by the word of God. Rom. viii. 1. -- To walk by faith (Script.), to live in the firm belief of the gospel and its promises, and to rely on Christ for salvation. 2 Cor. v. 7. -- To walk in darkness (Script.), to live in ignorance, error, and sin. 1 John i. 6. -- To walk in the flesh (Script.), to live this natural life, which is subject to infirmities and calamities. 2 Cor. x. 3. -- To walk in the light (Script.), to live in the practice of religion, and to enjoy its consolations. 1 John i. 7. -- To walk over, in racing, to go over a course at a walk; -- said of a horse when there is no other entry; hence, colloquially, to gain an easy victory in any contest. -- To walk through the fire (Script.), to be exercised with severe afflictions. Isa. xliii. 2. -- To walk with God (Script.), to live in obedience to his commands, and have communion with him. WALK Walk, v. t. 1. To pass through, over, or upon; to traverse; to perambulate; as, to walk the streets. As we walk our earthly round. Keble. 2. To cause to walk; to lead, drive, or ride with a slow pace; as to walk one's horses. " I will rather trust . . . a thief to walk my ambling gelding." Shak. 3. Etym: [AS. wealcan to roll. See Walk to move on foot.] Defn: To subject, as cloth or yarn, to the fulling process; to full. [Obs. or Scot.] To walk the plank, to walk off the plank into the water and be drowned; -- an expression derived from the practice of pirates who extended a plank from the side of a ship, and compelled those whom they would drown to walk off into the water; figuratively, to vacate an office by compulsion. Bartlett. WALK Walk, n. 1. The act of walking, or moving on the feet with a slow pace; advance without running or leaping. 2. The act of walking for recreation or exercise; as, a morning walk; an evening walk. 3. Manner of walking; gait; step; as, we often know a person at a distance by his walk. 4. That in or through which one walks; place or distance walked over; a place for walking; a path or avenue prepared for foot passengers, or for taking air and exercise; way; road; hence, a place or region in which animals may graze; place of wandering; range; as, a sheep walk. A woody mountain . . . with goodliest trees Planted, with walks and bowers. Milton. He had walk for a hundred sheep. Latimer. Amid the sound of steps that beat The murmuring walks like rain. Bryant. 5. A frequented track; habitual place of action; sphere; as, the walk of the historian. The mountains are his walks. Sandys. He opened a boundless walk for his imagination. Pope. 6. Conduct; course of action; behavior. 7. The route or district regularly served by a vender; as, a milkman's walk. [Eng.] WALKABLE Walk"a*ble, a. Defn: Fit to be walked on; capable of being walked on or over. [R.] Swift. WALKER Walk"er, n. 1. One who walks; a pedestrian. 2. That with which one walks; a foot. [Obs.] Lame Mulciber, his walkers quite misgrown. Chapman. 3. (Law) Defn: A forest officer appointed to walk over a certain space for inspection; a forester. 4. Etym: [AS. wealcere. See Walk, v. t., 3.] Defn: A fuller of cloth. [Obs. or Prov. Eng. & Scot.] She cursed the weaver and the walker The cloth that had wrought. Percy's Reliques. 5. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any ambulatorial orthopterous insect, as a stick insect. WALKING Walk"ing, Defn: a. & n. from Walk, v. Walking beam. See Beam, 10. -- Walking crane, a kind of traveling crane. See under Crane. -- Walking fern. (Bot.) See Walking leaf, below. -- Walking fish (Zoöl.), any one of numerous species of Asiatic fishes of the genus Ophiocephalus, some of which, as O. marulius, become over four feet long. They have a special cavity over the gills lined with a membrane adapted to retain moisture to aid in respiration, and are thus able to travel considerable distances over the land at night, whence the name. They construct a curious nest for their young. Called also langya. -- Walking gentleman (Theater), an actor who usually fills subordinate parts which require a gentlemanly appearance but few words. [Cant] -- Walking lady (Theater), an actress who usually fills such parts as require only a ladylike appearance on the stage. [Cant] -- Walking leaf. (a) (Bot.) A little American fern (Camptosorus rhizophyllus); -- so called because the fronds taper into slender prolongations which often root at the apex, thus producing new plants. (b) (Zoöl.) A leaf insect. See under Leaf. -- Walking papers, or Walking ticket, an order to leave; dismissal, as from office. [Colloq.] Bartlett. -- Walking stick. (a) A stick or staff carried in the hand for hand for support or amusement when walking; a cane. (b) (Zoöl.) A stick insect; -- called also walking straw. See Illust. of Stick insect, under Stick. -- Walking wheel (Mach.), a prime mover consisting of a wheel driven by the weight of men or animals walking either in it or on it; a treadwheel. WALK-MILL Walk"-mill`, n. Etym: [Walk to Walking Leaf, or full + mill.] Defn: A fulling mill. [Prov. Eng.] Halliwell. WALK-OVER Walk"-o`ver, n. Defn: In racing, the going over a course by a horse which has no competitor for the prize; hence, colloquially, a one-sided contest; an uncontested, or an easy, victory. WALKYR Wal"kyr, n. (Scand. Myth.) Defn: See Valkyria. WALL Wall, n. (Naut.) Defn: A kind of knot often used at the end of a rope; a wall knot; a wale. Wall knot, a knot made by unlaying the strands of a rope, and making a bight with the first strand, then passing the second over the end of the first, and the third over the end of the second and through the bight of the first; a wale knot. Wall knots may be single or double, crowned or double-crowned. WALL Wall, n. Etym: [AS. weall, from L. vallum a wall, vallus a stake, pale, palisade; akin to Gr. Interval.] 1. A work or structure of stone, brick, or other materials, raised to some height, and intended for defense or security, solid and permanent inclosing fence, as around a field, a park, a town, etc., also, one of the upright inclosing parts of a building or a room. The plaster of the wall of the King's palace. Dan. v. 5. 2. A defense; a rampart; a means of protection; in the plural, fortifications, in general; works for defense. The waters were a wall unto them on their right hand, and on their left. Ex. xiv. 22. In such a night, Troilus, methinks, mounted the Troyan walls. Shak. To rush undaunted to defend the walls. Dryden. 3. An inclosing part of a receptacle or vessel; as, the walls of a steam-engine cylinder. 4. (Mining) (a) The side of a level or drift. (b) The country rock bounding a vein laterally. Raymond. Note: Wall is often used adjectively, and also in the formation of compounds, usually of obvious signification; as in wall paper, or wall-paper; wall fruit, or wall-fruit; wallflower, etc. Blank wall, Blind wall, etc. See under Blank, Blind, etc. -- To drive to the wall, to bring to extremities; to push to extremes; to get the advantage of, or mastery over. -- To go to the wall, to be hard pressed or driven; to be the weaker party; to be pushed to extremes. -- To take the wall. to take the inner side of a walk, that is, the side next the wall; hence, to take the precedence. "I will take the wall of any man or maid of Montague's." Shak. -- Wall barley (Bot.), a kind of grass (Hordeum murinum) much resembling barley; squirrel grass. See under Squirrel. -- Wall box. (Mach.) See Wall frame, below. -- Wall creeper (Zoöl.), a small bright-colored bird (Tichodroma muraria) native of Asia and Southern Europe. It climbs about over old walls and cliffs in search of insects and spiders. Its body is ash- gray above, the wing coverts are carmine-red, the primary quills are mostly red at the base and black distally, some of them with white spots, and the tail is blackish. Called also spider catcher. -- Wall cress (Bot.), a name given to several low cruciferous herbs, especially to the mouse-ear cress. See under Mouse-ear. -- Wall frame (Mach.), a frame set in a wall to receive a pillow block or bearing for a shaft passing through the wall; -- called also wall box. -- Wall fruit, fruit borne by trees trained against a wall. -- Wall gecko (Zoöl.), any one of several species of Old World geckos which live in or about buildings and run over the vertical surfaces of walls, to which they cling by means of suckers on the feet. -- Wall lizard (Zoöl.), a common European lizard (Lacerta muralis) which frequents houses, and lives in the chinks and crevices of walls; -- called also wall newt. -- Wall louse, a wood louse. -- Wall moss (Bot.), any species of moss growing on walls. -- Wall newt (Zoöl.), the wall lizard. Shak. -- Wall paper, paper for covering the walls of rooms; paper hangings. -- Wall pellitory (Bot.), a European plant (Parictaria officinalis) growing on old walls, and formerly esteemed medicinal. -- Wall pennywort (Bot.), a plant (Cotyledon Umbilicus) having rounded fleshy leaves. It is found on walls in Western Europe. -- Wall pepper (Bot.), a low mosslike plant (Sedum acre) with small fleshy leaves having a pungent taste and bearing yellow flowers. It is common on walls and rocks in Europe, and is sometimes seen in America. -- Wall pie (Bot.), a kind of fern; wall rue. -- Wall piece, a gun planted on a wall. H. L. Scott. -- Wall plate (Arch.), a piece of timber placed horizontally upon a wall, and supporting posts, joists, and the like. See Illust. of Roof. -- Wall rock, granular limestone used in building walls. [U. S.] Bartlett. -- Wall rue (Bot.), a species of small fern (Asplenium Ruta-muraria) growing on walls, rocks, and the like. -- Wall spring, a spring of water issuing from stratified rocks. -- Wall tent, a tent with upright cloth sides corresponding to the walls of a house. -- Wall wasp (Zoöl.), a common European solitary wasp (Odynerus parietus) which makes its nest in the crevices of walls. WALL Wall (, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Walled (; p. pr. & vb. n. Walling.] 1. To inclose with a wall, or as with a wall. "Seven walled towns of strength." Shak. The king of Thebes, Amphion, That with his singing walled that city. Chaucer. 2. To defend by walls, or as if by walls; to fortify. The terror of his name that walls us in. Denham. 3. To close or fill with a wall, as a doorway. WALLABA Wal"la*ba, n. (Bot.) Defn: A leguminous tree (Eperua falcata) of Demerara, with pinnate leaves and clusters of red flowers. The reddish brown wood is used for palings and shingles. J. Smith (Dict. Econ. Plants). WALLABY Wal"la*by, n.; pl. Wallabies. Etym: [From a native name.] (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of numerous species of kangaroos belonging to the genus Halmaturus, native of Australia and Tasmania, especially the smaller species, as the brush kangaroo (H. Bennettii) and the pademelon (H. thetidis). The wallabies chiefly inhabit the wooded district and bushy plains. [Written also wallabee, and whallabee.] WALLACHIAN Wal*la"chi*an, a. [Also Walachian, Wallach, Wallack, Vlach, etc.] Defn: Of or pertaining to Wallachia, a former principality, now part of the kingdom, of Roumania. -- n. Defn: An inhabitant of Wallachia; also, the language of the Wallachians; Roumanian. WALLACK Wal"lack, a. & n. Defn: See Wallachian. WALLAH Wal"lah, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A black variety of the jaguar; -- called also tapir tiger. [Written also walla.] WALLAROO Wal`la*roo", n. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of several species of kangaroos of the genus Macropus, especially M. robustus, sometimes called the great wallaroo. WALLBIRD Wall"bird`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The spotted flycatcher. [Prov. Eng.] WALLER Wall"er, n. Defn: One who builds walls. WALLER Wall"er, n. Etym: [G.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The wels. WALLERIAN DEGENERATION Wal*le"ri*an de*gen`er*a"tion. (Med.) Defn: A form of degeneration occurring in nerve fibers as a result of their division; -- so called from Dr. Waller, who published an account of it in 1850. WALLET Wal"let, n. Etym: [OE. walet, probably the same word as OE. watel a bag. See Wattle.] 1. A bag or sack for carrying about the person, as a bag for carrying the necessaries for a journey; a knapsack; a beggar's receptacle for charity; a peddler's pack. [His hood] was trussed up in his walet. Chaucer. 2. A pocketbook for keeping money about the person. 3. Anything protuberant and swagging. "Wallets of flesh." Shak. WALLETEER Wal`let*eer", n. Defn: One who carries a wallet; a foot traveler; a tramping beggar. [Colloq.] Wright. WALL-EYE Wall"-eye`, n. Etym: [See Wall-eyed.] 1. An eye in which the iris is of a very light gray or whitish color; -- said usually of horses. Booth. Note: Jonson has defined wall-eye to be "a disease in the crystalline humor of the eye; glaucoma." But glaucoma is not a disease of the crystalline humor, nor is wall-eye a disease at all, but merely a natural blemish. Tully. In the north of England, as Brockett states, persons are said to be wall-eyed when the white of the eye is very large and distorted, or on one side. 2. (Zoöl.) (a) An American fresh-water food fish (Stizostedion vitreum) having large and prominent eyes; -- called also glasseye, pike perch, yellow pike, and wall-eyed perch. (b) A California surf fish (Holconotus argenteus). (c) The alewife; -- called also wall-eyed herring. WALL-EYED Wall"-eyed`, a. Etym: [Icel. valdeygedhr, or vagleygr; fr. vagl a beam, a beam in the eye (akin to Sw. vagel a roost, a perch, a sty in the eye) + eygr having eyes (from auga eye). See Eye.] Defn: Having an eye of a very light gray or whitish color. Booth. Note: Shakespeare, in using wall-eyed as a term of reproach (as "wall-eyed rage," a "wall-eyed wretch"), alludes probably to the idea of unnatural or distorted vision. See the Note under Wall-eye. It is an eye which is utterly and incurably perverted, an eye that knows no pity. WALLFLOWER Wall"flow`er, n. 1. (Bot.) Defn: A perennial, cruciferous plant (Cheiranthus Cheiri), with sweet-scented flowers varying in color from yellow to orange and deep red. In Europe it very common on old walls. Note: The name is sometimes extended to other species of Cheiranthus and of the related genus Erysimum, especially the American Western wallflower (Erysimum asperum), a biennial herb with orange-yellow flowers. 2. A lady at a ball, who, either from choice, or because not asked to dance, remains a spectator. [Colloq.] WALLHICK Wall"hick`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The lesser spotted woodpecker (Dryobates minor). [Prov. Eng.] WALLING Wall"ing, n. 1. The act of making a wall or walls. 2. Walls, in general; material for walls. Walling wax, a composition of wax and tallow used by etchers and engravers to make a bank, or wall, round the edge of a plate, so as to form a trough for holding the acid used in etching, and the like. Fairholt. WALLOONS Wal*loons", n. pl.; sing. Walloon (. Etym: [Cf. F. wallon.] Defn: A Romanic people inhabiting that part of Belgium which comprises the provinces of Hainaut, Namur, Liége, and Luxembourg, and about one third of Brabant; also, the language spoken by this people. Used also adjectively. [Written also Wallons.] "A base Walloon . . . thrust Talbot with a spear." Shak. Walloon guard, the bodyguard of the Spanish monarch; -- so called because formerly consisting of Walloons. WALLOP Wal"lop, v. i. Etym: [Cf. OFlem. walop a gallop; of uncertain origin. Cf. Gallop.] Defn: To move quickly, but with great effort; to gallop. [Prov. Eng. & Scot.] WALLOP Wal"lop, n. Defn: A quick, rolling movement; a gallop. [Prov. Eng. & Scot.] WALLOP Wal"lop, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Walloped; p. pr. & vb. n. Walloping.] Etym: [Probably fr. AS. weallan to spring up, to boil or bubble. sq. root147. See Well, n. & v. i.] 1. To boil with a continued bubbling or heaving and rolling, with noise. [Prov. Eng.] Brockett. 2. To move in a rolling, cumbersome manner; to waddle. [Prov. Eng.] Halliwell. 3. To be slatternly. [Prov. Eng.] Halliwell. WALLOP Wal"lop, v. t. 1. To beat soundly; to flog; to whip. [Prov. Eng., Scot., & Colloq. U. S.] 2. To wrap up temporarily. [Prov. Eng.] 3. To throw or tumble over. [Prov. Eng.] WALLOP Wal"lop, n. 1. A thick piece of fat. Halliwell. 2. A blow. [Prov. Eng., Scot., & Colloq. U.S.] WALLOW Wal"low, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Wallowed; p. pr. & vb. n. Wallowing.] Etym: [OE. walwen, AS. wealwian; akin to Goth. walwjan (in comp.) to roll, L. volvere; cf. Skr. val to turn. *147. Cf. Voluble Well, n.] 1. To roll one's self about, as in mire; to tumble and roll about; to move lazily or heavily in any medium; to flounder; as, swine wallow in the mire. I may wallow in the lily beds. Shak. 2. To live in filth or gross vice; to disport one's self in a beastly and unworthy manner. God sees a man wallowing in his native impurity. South. 3. To wither; to fade. [Prov. Eng. & Scot.] WALLOW Wal"low, v. t. Defn: To roll; esp., to roll in anything defiling or unclean. "Wallow thyself in ashes." Jer. vi. 26. WALLOW Wal"low, n. Defn: A kind of rolling walk. One taught the toss, and one the new French wallow. Dryden. WALLOWER Wal"low*er, n. 1. One who, or that which, wallows. 2. (Mach.) Defn: A lantern wheel; a trundle. WALLOWISH Wal"low*ish, a. Etym: [Scot. wallow to fade or wither.] Defn: Flat; insipid. [Obs.] Overbury. WALL-PLAT Wall"-plat`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The spotted flycatcher. It builds its nest on walls. [Prov. Eng.] WALL-SIDED Wall"-sid`ed, a. (Naut.) Defn: Having sides nearly perpendicular; -- said of certain vessels to distinguish them from those having flaring sides, or sides tumbling home (see under Tumble, v. i.). WALL STREET Wall Street. Defn: A street towards the southern end of the borough of Manhattan, New York City, extending from Broadway to the East River; -- so called from the old wall which extended along it when the city belonged to the Dutch. It is the chief financial center of the United States, hence the name is often used for the money market and the financial interests of the country. WALLWORT Wall"wort`, n. (Bot.) Defn: The dwarf elder, or danewort (Sambucus Ebulus). WALM Walm, v. i. Etym: [AS. weallan; cf. wælm, billow. *147.] Defn: To roll; to spout; to boil up. [Obs.] Holland. WALNUT Wal"nut, n. Etym: [OE. walnot, AS. wealh-hnutu a Welsh or foreign nut, a walnut; wealh foreign, strange, n., a Welshman, Celt (akin to OHG. Walh, properly, a Celt, from the name of a Celtic tribe, in L. Volcae) + hnutu a nut; akin to D. walnoot, G. walnuss, Icel. valhnot, Sw. valnöt, Dan valnöd. See Nut, and cf. Welsh.] (Bot.) Defn: The fruit or nut of any tree of the genus Juglans; also, the tree, and its timber. The seven or eight known species are all natives of the north temperate zone. Note: In some parts of America, especially in New England, the name walnut is given to several species of hickory (Carya), and their fruit. Ash-leaved walnut, a tree (Juglans fraxinifolia), native in Transcaucasia. -- Black walnut, a North American tree (J. nigra) valuable for its purplish brown wood, which is extensively used in cabinetwork and for gunstocks. The nuts are thick-shelled, and nearly globular. -- English, or European, walnut, a tree (J. regia), native of Asia from the Caucasus to Japan, valuable for its timber and for its excellent nuts, which are also called Madeira nuts. -- Walnut brown, a deep warm brown color, like that of the heartwood of the black walnut. -- Walnut oil, oil extracted from walnut meats. It is used in cooking, making soap, etc. -- White walnut, a North American tree (J. cinerea), bearing long, oval, thick-shelled, oily nuts, commonly called butternuts. See Butternut. WALRUS Wal"rus, n. Etym: [D. walrus; of Scand. origin; cf. Dan valros, Sw. vallross, Norw. hvalros; literally, whale horse; akin to Icel. hrosshvalr, AS. horshwæl. See Whale, and Horse.] (Zoöl.) Defn: A very large marine mammal (Trichecus rosmarus) of the Seal family, native of the Arctic Ocean. The male has long and powerful tusks descending from the upper jaw. It uses these in procuring food and in fighting. It is hunted for its oil, ivory, and skin. It feeds largely on mollusks. Called also morse. Note: The walrus of the North Pacific and Behring Strait (Trichecus obesus) is regarded by some as a distinct species, by others as a variety of the common walrus. WALTER Wal"ter, v. i. Etym: [See Welter.] Defn: To roll or wallow; to welter. [Obs. or Prov. Eng. & Scot.] WALTRON Wal"tron, n. Defn: A walrus. [Obs.] Woodward. WALTY Wal"ty, a. Etym: [Cf. Walter to roll.] Defn: Liable to roll over; crank; as, a walty ship. [R.] Longfellow. WALTZ Waltz, n. Etym: [G. walzer, from walzen to roll, revolve, dance, OHG. walzan to roll; akin to AS. wealtan. See Welter.] Defn: A dance performed by two persons in circular figures with a whirling motion; also, a piece of music composed in triple measure for this kind of dance. WALTZ Waltz, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Waltzed; p. pr. & vb. n. Waltzing.] Defn: To dance a waltz. WALTZER Waltz"er, n. Defn: A person who waltzes. WALWE Wal"we, v. Defn: To wallow. [Obs.] Chaucer. WALY Wa"ly, interj. Etym: [Cf. Welaway.] Defn: An exclamation of grief. [Obs. or Prov. Eng. & Scot.] WAMBLE Wam"ble, v. i. Etym: [Cf. Dan. vamle, and vammel squeamish, ready to vomit, Icel. væma to feel nausea, væminn nauseous.] 1. To heave; to be disturbed by nausea; -- said of the stomach. L'Estrange. 2. To move irregularly to and fro; to roll. WAMBLE Wam"ble, n. Defn: Disturbance of the stomach; a feeling of nausea. Holland. WAMBLE-CROPPED Wam"ble-cropped`, a. Defn: Sick at the stomach; also, crestfallen; dejected. [Slang] WAMMEL Wam"mel, v. i. Defn: To move irregularly or awkwardly; to wamble, or wabble. [Prov. Eng.] WAMP Wamp, n. Etym: [From the North American Indian name.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The common American eider. WAMPEE Wam*pee", n. (Bot.) (a) A tree (Cookia punctata) of the Orange family, growing in China and the East Indies; also, its fruit, which is about the size of a large grape, and has a hard rind and a peculiar flavor. (b) The pickerel weed. [Southern U.S.] WAMPUM Wam"pum, n. Etym: [North American Indian wampum, wompam, from the Mass. wómpi, Del. wape, white.] Defn: Beads made of shells, used by the North American Indians as money, and also wrought into belts, etc., as an ornament. Round his waist his belt of wampum. Longfellow. Girded with his wampum braid. Whittier. Note: These beads were of two kinds, one white, and the other black or dark purple. The term wampum is properly applied only to the white; the dark purple ones are called suckanhock. See Seawan. "It [wampum] consisted of cylindrical pieces of the shells of testaceous fishes, a quarter of an inch long, and in diameter less than a pipestem, drilled . . . so as to be strung upon a thread. The beads of a white color, rated at half the value of the black or violet, passed each as the equivalent of a farthing in transactions between the natives and the planters." Palfrey. WAN Wan, obs. imp. of Win. Defn: Won. Chaucer. WAN Wan (, a. Etym: [AS. wann, wonn, wan, won, dark, lurid, livid, perhaps originally, worn out by toil, from winnan to labor, strive. See Win.] Defn: Having a pale or sickly hue; languid of look; pale; pallid. "Sad to view, his visage pale and wan." Spenser. My color . . . [is] wan and of a leaden hue. Chaucer. Why so pale and wan, fond lover Suckling. With the wan moon overhead. Longfellow. WAN Wan, n. Defn: The quality of being wan; wanness. [R.] Tinged with wan from lack of sleep. Tennyson. WAN Wan, v. i. Defn: To grow wan; to become pale or sickly in looks. "All his visage wanned." Shak. And ever he mutter'd and madden'd, and ever wann'd with despair. Tennyson. WAND Wand, n. Etym: [Of Scand. origin; cf. Icel. vöndr, akin to Dan. vaand, Goth. wandus; perhaps originally, a pliant twig, and akin to E. wind to turn.] 1. A small stick; a rod; a verge. With good smart blows of a wand on his back. Locke. 2. Specifically: (a) A staff of authority. Though he had both spurs and wand, they seemed rather marks of sovereignty than instruments of punishment. Sir P. Sidney. (b) A rod used by conjurers, diviners, magicians, etc. Picus bore a buckler in his hand; His other waved a long divining wand. Dryden. Wand of peace (Scots Law), a wand, or staff, carried by the messenger of a court, which he breaks when deforced (that is, hindered from executing process), as a symbol of the deforcement, and protest for remedy of law. Burrill. WANDER Wan"der, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Wandered; p. pr. & vb. n. Wandering.] Etym: [OE. wandren, wandrien, AS. wandrian; akin to G. wandern to wander; fr. AS. windan to turn. See Wind to turn.] 1. To ramble here and there without any certain course or with no definite object in view; to range about; to stroll; to rove; as, to wander over the fields. They wandered about in sheepskins and goatskins. Heb. xi. 37. He wandereth abroad for bread. Job xv. 23. 2. To go away; to depart; to stray off; to deviate; to go astray; as, a writer wanders from his subject. When God caused me to wander from my father's house. Gen. xx. 13. O, let me not wander from thy commandments. Ps. cxix. 10. 3. To be delirious; not to be under the guidance of reason; to rave; as, the mind wanders. Syn. -- To roam; rove; range; stroll; gad; stray; straggly; err; swerve; deviate; depart. WANDER Wan"der, v. t. Defn: To travel over without a certain course; to traverse; to stroll through. [R.] "[Elijah] wandered this barren waste." Milton. WANDERER Wan"der*er, n. Defn: One who wanders; a rambler; one who roves; hence, one who deviates from duty. WANDERING Wan"der*ing, Defn: a. & n. from Wander, v. Wandering albatross (Zoöl.), the great white albatross. See Illust. of Albatross. -- Wandering cell (Physiol.), an animal cell which possesses the power of spontaneous movement, as one of the white corpuscles of the blood. -- Wandering Jew (Bot.), any one of several creeping species of Tradescantia, which have alternate, pointed leaves, and a soft, herbaceous stem which roots freely at the joints. They are commonly cultivated in hanging baskets, window boxes, etc. -- Wandering kidney (Med.), a morbid condition in which one kidney, or, rarely, both kidneys, can be moved in certain directions; -- called also floating kidney, movable kidney. -- Wandering liver (Med.), a morbid condition of the liver, similar to wandering kidney. -- Wandering mouse (Zoöl.), the whitefooted, or deer, mouse. See Illust. of Mouse. -- Wandering spider (Zoöl.), any one of a tribe of spiders that wander about in search of their prey. WANDERINGLY Wan"der*ing*ly, adv. Defn: In a wandering manner. WANDERMENT Wan"der*ment, n. Defn: The act of wandering, or roaming. [Obs.] Bp. Hall. WANDEROO Wan`der*oo", n. Etym: [Cingalese wanderu a monkey.] (Zoöl.) Defn: A large monkey (Macacus silenus) native of Malabar. It is black, or nearly so, but has a long white or gray beard encircling the face. Called also maha, silenus, neelbhunder, lion-tailed baboon, and great wanderoo. [Written also ouanderoo.] Note: The name is sometimes applied also to other allied species. WANDY Wand"y, a. Defn: Long and flexible, like a wand. [Prov. Eng.] Brockett. WANE Wane, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Waned; p. pr. & vb. n. Waning.] Etym: [OE. wanien, AS. wanian, wonian, from wan, won, deficient, wanting; akin to D. wan-, G. wahnsinn, insanity, OHG. wan, wana-, lacking, wan to lessen, Icel. vanr lacking, Goth. vans; cf. Gr. wanting, inferior. Want lack, and Wanton.] 1. To be diminished; to decrease; -- contrasted with wax, and especially applied to the illuminated part of the moon. Like the moon, aye wax ye and wane. Waning moons their settled periods keep. Addison. 2. To decline; to fail; to sink. You saw but sorrow in its waning form. Dryden. Land and trade ever will wax and wane together. Sir J. Child. WANE Wane, v. t. Defn: To cause to decrease. [Obs.] B. Jonson. WANE Wane, n. 1. The decrease of the illuminated part of the moon to the eye of a spectator. 2. Decline; failure; diminution; decrease; declension. An age in which the church is in its wane. South. Though the year be on the wane. Keble. 3. An inequality in a board. [Prov. Eng.] Halliwell. WANEY Wan"ey, n. Defn: A sharp or uneven edge on a board that is cut from a log not perfectly squared, or that is made in the process of squaring. See Wany, a. WANG Wang, n. Etym: [OE. wange, AS. wange, wonge, cheek, jaw; akin to D. wang, OS. & OHG. wanga, G. wange.] 1. The jaw, jawbone, or cheek bone. [Obs. or Prov. Eng.] So work aye the wangs in his head. Chaucer. 2. A slap; a blow. [Prov. Eng.] Halliwell. Wang tooth, a cheek tooth; a molar. [Obs.] Chaucer. WANG Wang, n. Defn: See Whang. [Obs. or Prov. Eng.] WANGAN Wan"gan, n. Etym: [American Indian.] Defn: A boat for conveying provisions, tools, etc.; -- so called by Maine lumbermen. [Written also wangun.] Bartlett. WANGER Wang"er, n. Etym: [AS. wangere. See 1st Wang.] Defn: A pillow for the cheek; a pillow. [Obs. & R.] His bright helm was his wanger. Chaucer. WANGHEE Wang*hee", n. Etym: [Chin. wang yellow + he a root.] (Bot.) Defn: The Chinese name of one or two species of bamboo, or jointed cane, of the genus Phyllostachys. The slender stems are much used for walking sticks. [Written also whanghee.] WANGO Wang"o, n. Defn: A boomerang. WANHOPE Wan"hope`, n. Etym: [AS. wan, won, deficient, wanting + hopa hope: cf. D. wanhoop. . See Wane, and Hope.] Defn: Want of hope; despair; also, faint or delusive hope; delusion. [Obs.] Piers Plowman. "Wanhope and distress." Chaucer. WANHORN Wan"horn` n. Etym: [Corruption fr. Siamese wanhom.] (Bot.) Defn: An East Indian plant (Kæmpferia Galanga) of the Ginger family. See Galanga. WANIAND Wan"i*and, n. Etym: [See Wanion.] Defn: The wane of the moon. [Obs.] Halliwell. WANING Wan"ing, n. Defn: The act or process of waning, or decreasing. This earthly moon, the Church, hath fulls and wanings, and sometimes her eclipses. Bp. Hall. WANION Wan"ion, n. Etym: [Probably for OE. waniand waning, p. pr. of wanien; hence, used of the waning of the moon, supposed to be an unlucky time. See Wane.] Defn: A word of uncertain signification, used only in the phrase with a wanion, apparently equivalent to with a vengeance, with a plague, or with misfortune. [Obs.] B. Jonson. Latimer. WANKLE Wan"kle, a. Etym: [AS. wancol.] Defn: Not to be depended on; weak; unstable. [Prov. Eng.] Grose. WANLY Wan"ly, adv. Defn: In a wan, or pale, manner. WANNED Wanned, a. Defn: Made wan, or pale. WANNESS Wan"ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being wan; a sallow, dead, pale color; paleness; pallor; as, the wanness of the cheeks after a fever. WANNISH Wan"nish, a. Defn: Somewhat wan; of a pale hue. No sun, but a wannish glare, In fold upon fold of hueless cloud. Tennyson. WANT Want (277), n. Etym: [Originally an adj., from Icel. vant, neuter of vanr lacking, deficient. sq. root139. See Wane, v. i.] 1. The state of not having; the condition of being without anything; absence or scarcity of what is needed or desired; deficiency; lack; as, a want of power or knowledge for any purpose; want of food and clothing. And me, his parent, would full soon devour For want of other prey. Milton. From having wishes in consequence of our wants, we often feel wants in consequence of our wishes. Rambler. Pride is as loud a beggar as want, and more saucy. Franklin. 2. Specifically, absence or lack of necessaries; destitution; poverty; penury; indigence; need. Nothing is so hard for those who abound in riches, as to conceive how others can be in want. Swift. 3. That which is needed or desired; a thing of which the loss is felt; what is not possessed, and is necessary for use or pleasure. Habitual superfluities become actual wants. Paley. 4. (Mining) Defn: A depression in coal strata, hollowed out before the subsequent deposition took place. [Eng.] Syn. -- Indigence; deficiency; defect; destitution; lack; failure; dearth; scarceness. WANT Want, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wanted; p. pr. & vb. n. Wanting.] 1. To be without; to be destitute of, or deficient in; not to have; to lack; as, to want knowledge; to want judgment; to want learning; to want food and clothing. They that want honesty, want anything. Beau. & Fl. Nor think, though men were none, That heaven would want spectators, God want praise. Milton. The unhappy never want enemies. Richardson. 2. To have occasion for, as useful, proper, or requisite; to require; to need; as, in winter we want a fire; in summer we want cooling breezes. 3. To feel need of; to wish or long for; to desire; to crave. " What wants my son" Addison. I want to speak to you about something. A. Trollope. WANT Want, v. i. Etym: [Icel. vanta to be wanting. See Want to lack.] 1. To be absent; to be deficient or lacking; to fail; not to be sufficient; to fall or come short; to lack; -- often used impersonally with of; as, it wants ten minutes of four. The disposition, the manners, and the thoughts are all before it; where any of those are wanting or imperfect, so much wants or is imperfect in the imitation of human life. Dryden. 2. To be in a state of destitution; to be needy; to lack. You have a gift, sir (thank your education), Will never let you want. B. Jonson. For as in bodies, thus in souls, we find What wants in blood and spirits, swelled with wind. Pope. Note: Want was formerly used impersonally with an indirect object. "Him wanted audience." Chaucer. WA'N'T Wa'n't. Defn: A colloquial contraction of was not. WANTAGE Want"age, n. Defn: That which is wanting; deficiency. WANTING Want"ing, a. Defn: Absent; lacking; missing; also, deficient; destitute; needy; as, one of the twelve is wanting; I shall not be wanting in exertion. WANTLESS Want"less, a. Defn: Having no want; abundant; fruitful. WANTON Wan"ton, a. Etym: [OE. wantoun, contr. from wantowen; pref. wan- wanting (see Wane, v. i.), hence expressing negation + towen, p. p., AS. togen, p. p. of teón to draw, to educate, bring up; hence, properly, ill bred. See Tug, v. t.] 1. Untrained; undisciplined; unrestrained; hence, loose; free; luxuriant; roving; sportive. "In woods and wanton wilderness." Spenser. "A wild and wanton herd." Shak. A wanton and a merry [friar]. Chaucer. [She] her unadorned golden tresses wore Disheveled, but in wanton ringlets waved. Milton. How does your tongue grow wanton in her praise! Addison. 2. Wandering from moral rectitude; perverse; dissolute. "Men grown wanton by prosperity." Roscommon. 3. Specifically: Deviating from the rules of chastity; lewd; lustful; lascivious; libidinous; lecherous. Not with wanton looking of folly. Chaucer. [Thou art] froward by nature, enemy to peace, Lascivious, wanton. Shak. 4. Reckless; heedless; as, wanton mischief. WANTON Wan"ton, n. 1. A roving, frolicsome thing; a trifler; -- used rarely as a term of endearment. I am afeard you make a wanton of me. Shak. Peace, my wantons; he will do More than you can aim unto. B. Jonson. 2. One brought up without restraint; a pampered pet. Anything, sir, That's dry and wholesome; I am no bred wanton. Beau. & Fl. 3. A lewd person; a lascivious man or woman. WANTON Wan"ton, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Wantoned; p. pr. & vb. n. Wantoning.] 1. To rove and ramble without restraint, rule, or limit; to revel; to play loosely; to frolic. Nature here wantoned as in her prime. Milton. How merrily we would sally into the fields, and strip under the first warmth of the sun, and wanton like young dace in the streams! Lamb. 2. To sport in lewdness; to play the wanton; to play lasciviously. WANTON Wan"ton, v. t. Defn: To cause to become wanton; also, to waste in wantonness. [Obs.] WANTONIZE Wan"ton*ize, v. i. Defn: To behave wantonly; to frolic; to wanton. [R.] Lamb. WANTONLY Wan"ton*ly, adv. 1. In a wanton manner; without regularity or restraint; loosely; sportively; gayly; playfully; recklessly; lasciviously. 2. Unintentionally; accidentally. [Obs.] J. Dee. WANTONNESS Wan"ton*ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being wanton; negligence of restraint; sportiveness; recklessness; lasciviousness. Gower. The tumults threatened to abuse all acts of grace, and turn them into wantonness. Eikon Basilike. Young gentlemen would be as sad as night Only for wantonness. Shak. WANTRUST Wan"trust`, n. Etym: [Pref. wan- as in wanton + trust.] Defn: Failing or diminishing trust; want of trust or confidence; distrust. [Obs.] Chaucer. WANTWIT Want"wit`, n. Defn: One destitute of wit or sense; a blockhead; a fool. [Obs.] Shak. WANTY Wan"ty, n. Etym: [For womb tie, that is, bellyWomb, and Tie.] Defn: A surcingle, or strap of leather, used for binding a load upon the back of a beast; also, a leather tie; a short wagon rope. [Prov. Eng.] WANY Wan"y, v. i. Defn: To wane. [Obs.] Chaucer. WANY Wan"y, a. 1. Waning or diminished in some parts; not of uniform size throughout; -- said especially of sawed boards or timber when tapering or uneven, from being cut too near the outside of the log. 2. Spoiled by wet; -- said of timber. Halliwell. WANZE Wanze, v. i. Defn: To wane; to wither. [Obs.] WAP Wap, v. t. & i. Etym: [See Whap.] Defn: To beat; to whap. [Obs. or Prov. Eng.] Sir T. Malory. WAP Wap, n. Defn: A blow or beating; a whap. [Prov. Eng.] WAPACUT Wap"a*cut, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The American hawk owl. See under Hawk. WAPATOO Wap"a*too`, n. (Bot.) Defn: The edible tuber of a species of arrowhead (Sagittaria variabilis); -- so called by the Indians of Oregon. [Written also wappato.] WAPED Waped, a. Etym: [Prov. E. wape pale, v., to stupefy, akin to wap to beat. Cf. Whap, and Wappened.] Defn: Cast down; crushed by misery; dejected. [Obs.] WAPENTAKE Wap"en*take, n. Etym: [AS. w, w, from Icel. vapnatak, literally, a weapon taking or weapon touching, hence an expression of assent ("si displicuit sententia fremitu aspernantur; sin placuit frameas concutiunt." Tacitus, "Germania," xi.). See Weapon, and Take. This name had its origin in a custom of touching lances or spears when the hundreder, or chief, entered on his office. "Cum quis accipiebat præfecturam wapentachii, die statuto in loco ubi consueverant congregari, omnes majores natu contra eum conveniebant, et descendente eo de equo suo, omnes assurgebant ei. Ipse vero, erecta lancea sua, ab omnibus secundum morem foedus accipiebat; omnes enim quot-quot venissent cum lanceis suis ipsius hastam tangebant, et ita se confirmabant per contactum armorum, pace palam concessa. Wæpnu enim arma sonat; tac, tactus est -- hac de causa totus ille conventus dicitur Wapentac, eo quod per tactum armorum suorum ad invicem confoederati sunt." L L. Edward Confessor, 33. D. Wilkins.] Defn: In some northern counties of England, a division, or district, answering to the hundred in other counties. Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, and Nottinghamshire are divided into wapentakes, instead of hundreds. [Written also wapentac.] Selden. Blackstone. WAPINSCHAW Wap"in*schaw, n. Etym: [Scot. See Weapon, and Show.] Defn: An exhibition of arms. according to the rank of the individual, by all persons bearing arms; -- formerly made at certain seasons in each district. [Scot.] Jamieson. Sir W. Scott. WAPITI Wap"i*ti, n. Etym: [Probably the Iroquois name. Bartlett.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The American elk (Cervus Canadensis). It is closely related to the European red deer, which it somewhat exceeds in size. Note: By some writers it is thought to be a variety of the red deer, but it is considered a distinct species by others. It is noted for the large, branching antlers of the male. WAPP Wapp, n. Etym: [CF. Prov. E. wap to wrap up.] (Naut.) (a) A fair-leader. (b) A rope with wall knots in it with which the shrouds are set taut. WAPPATO Wap"pa*to, n. (Bot.) Defn: See Wapatoo. WAPPENED Wap"pened, a. Etym: [Cf. Waped, Wapper.] Defn: A word of doubtful meaning used once by Shakespeare. This [gold] is it That makes the wappen'd widow wed again. Note: It is conjectured by some that it is an error for wappered, meaning tremulous or exhausted. WAPPER Wap"per, v. t. & i. Etym: [freq. of wap, v.; cf. dial. G. wappern, wippern, to move up and down, to rock.] Defn: To cause to shake; to tremble; to move tremulously, as from weakness; to totter. [Obs.] WAPPER Wap"per, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A gudgeon. [Prov. Eng.] WAPPET Wap"pet, n. Defn: A small yelping cur. [Prov. Eng.] WAPPING Wap"ping, n. Defn: Yelping. [R.] Fuller. WAR War, a. Defn: Ware; aware. [Obs.] Chaucer. WAR War, n. Etym: [OE. & AS. werre; akin to OHG. werra scandal, quarrel, sedition, werran to confound, mix, D. warren, G. wirren, verwirren, to embroil, confound, disturb, and perhaps to E. worse; cf. OF. werre war, F. querre, of Teutonic origin. Cf. Guerrilla, Warrior.] 1. A contest between nations or states, carried on by force, whether for defence, for revenging insults and redressing wrongs, for the extension of commerce, for the acquisition of territory, for obtaining and establishing the superiority and dominion of one over the other, or for any other purpose; armed conflict of sovereign powers; declared and open hostilities. Men will ever distinguish war from mere bloodshed. F. W. Robertson. Note: As war is the contest of nations or states, it always implies that such contest is authorized by the monarch or the sovereign power of the nation. A war begun by attacking another nation, is called an offensive war, and such attack is aggressive. War undertaken to repel invasion, or the attacks of an enemy, is called defensive. 2. (Law) Defn: A condition of belligerency to be maintained by physical force. In this sense, levying war against the sovereign authority is treason. 3. Instruments of war. [Poetic] His complement of stores, and total war. Prior. 4. Forces; army. [Poetic] On their embattled ranks the waves return, And overwhelm their war. Milton. 5. The profession of arms; the art of war. Thou art but a youth, and he is a man of war from his youth. 1 Sam. xvii. 33. 6. a state of opposition or contest; an act of opposition; an inimical contest, act, or action; enmity; hostility. "Raised impious war in heaven." Milton. The words of his mouth were smoother than butter, but war was in his heart. Ps. lv. 21. Civil war, a war between different sections or parties of the same country or nation. -- Holy war. See under Holy. -- Man of war. (Naut.) See in the Vocabulary. -- Public war, a war between independent sovereign states. -- War cry, a cry or signal used in war; as, the Indian war cry. -- War dance, a dance among savages preliminary to going to war. Among the North American Indians, it is begun by some distinguished chief, and whoever joins in it thereby enlists as one of the party engaged in a warlike excursion. Schoolcraft. -- War field, a field of war or battle. -- War horse, a horse used in war; the horse of a cavalry soldier; especially, a strong, powerful, spirited horse for military service; a charger. -- War paint, paint put on the face and other parts of the body by savages, as a token of going to war. "Wash the war paint from your faces." Longfellow. -- War song, a song of or pertaining to war; especially, among the American Indians, a song at the war dance, full of incitements to military ardor. -- War whoop, a war cry, especially that uttered by the American Indians. WAR War, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Warred; p. pr. & vb. n. Warring.] 1 Defn: To make war; to invade or attack a state or nation with force of arms; to carry on hostilities; to be in a state by violence. Rezin the king of Syria, and Pekah the son of Remaliah, king of Israel, went up toward Jerusalem to war against it. Isa. vii. 1. Why should I war without the walls of Troy Shak. Our countrymen were warring on that day! Byron. 2. To contend; to strive violently; to fight. "Lusts which war against the soul." 1 Pet. ii. 11. WAR War, v. t. 1. To make war upon; to fight. [R.] To war the Scot, and borders to defend. Daniel. 2. To carry on, as a contest; to wage. [R.] That thou . . . mightest war a good warfare. Tim. i. 18. WAR-BEATEN War"-beat`en, a. Defn: Warworn. WARBLE War"ble, n. Etym: [Cf. Wormil.] 1. (Far.) (a) A small, hard tumor which is produced on the back of a horse by the heat or pressure of the saddle in traveling. (b) A small tumor produced by the larvæ of the gadfly in the backs of horses, cattle, etc. Called also warblet, warbeetle, warnles. 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: See Wormil. WARBLE War"ble, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Warbled; p. pr. & vb. n. Warbling.] Etym: [OE. werbelen, OF. werbler; of Teutonic origin; cf. G. wirbeln to turn, to warble, D. wervelen, akin to E. whirl. See Whirl.] 1. To sing in a trilling, quavering, or vibratory manner; to modulate with turns or variations; to trill; as, certain birds are remarkable for warbling their songs. 2. To utter musically; to modulate; to carol. If she be right invoked in warbled song. Milton. Warbling sweet the nuptial lay. Trumbull. 3. To cause to quaver or vibrate. "And touch the warbled string." Milton. WARBLE War"ble, v. i. 1. To be quavered or modulated; to be uttered melodiously. Such strains ne'er warble in the linnet's throat. Gay. 3. To sing in a trilling manner, or with many turns and variations. "Birds on the branches warbling." Milton. 3. To sing with sudden changes from chest to head tones; to yodel. WARBLE War"ble, n. Defn: A quavering modulation of the voice; a musical trill; a song. And he, the wondrous child, Whose silver warble wild Outvalued every pulsing sound. Emerson. WARBLER War"bler, n. 1. One who, or that which, warbles; a singer; a songster; -- applied chiefly to birds. In lulling strains the feathered warblers woo. Tickell. 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of numerous species of small Old World singing birds belonging to the family Sylviidæ, many of which are noted songsters. The bluethroat, blackcap, reed warbler (see under Reed), and sedge warbler (see under Sedge) are well-known species. 3. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of numerous species of small, often bright colored, American singing birds of the family or subfamily Mniotiltidæ, or Sylvicolinæ. They are allied to the Old World warblers, but most of them are not particularly musical. Note: The American warblers are often divided, according to their habits, into bush warblers, creeping warblers, fly-catching warblers, ground warblers, wood warblers, wormeating warblers, etc. Bush warbler (Zoöl.) any American warbler of the genus Opornis, as the Connecticut warbler (O. agilis). -- Creeping warbler (Zoöl.), any one of several species of very small American warblers belonging to Parula, Mniotilta, and allied genera, as the blue yellow-backed warbler (Parula Americana), and the black-and-white creeper (Mniotilta varia). -- Fly-catching warbler (Zoöl.), any one of several species of warblers belonging to Setophaga, Sylvania, and allied genera having the bill hooked and notched at the tip, with strong rictal bristles at the base, as the hooded warbler (Sylvania mitrata), the black- capped warbler (S. pusilla), the Canadian warbler (S. Canadensis), and the American redstart (see Redstart). -- Ground warbler (Zoöl.), any American warbler of the genus Geothlypis, as the mourning ground warbler (G. Philadelphia), and the Maryland yellowthroat (see Yellowthroat). -- Wood warbler (Zoöl.), any one of numerous American warblers of the genus Dendroica. Among the most common wood warblers in the Eastern States are the yellowbird, or yellow warbler (see under Yellow), the black-throated green warbler (Dendroica virens), the yellow-rumped warbler (D. coronata), the blackpoll (D. striata), the bay-breasted warbler (D. castanea), the chestnut-sided warbler (D. Pennsylvanica), the Cape May warbler (D. tigrina), the prairie warbler (see under Prairie), and the pine warbler (D. pinus). See also Magnolia warbler, under Magnolia, and Blackburnian warbler. WARBLINGLY War"bling*ly, adv. Defn: In a warbling manner. WARBURG'S TINCTURE War"burg's tinc"ture. (Pharm.) Defn: A preparation containing quinine and many other ingredients, often used in the treatment of malarial affections. It was invented by Dr. Warburg of London. -WARD; -WARDS -ward, -wards. Etym: [AS. -weard, -weardes; akin to OS. & OFries. - ward. OHG. -wert, G. -wärts, Icel. -verthr, Goth. -vaírÞs, L. vertere to turn, versus toward, and E. worth to become. *143. See Worth. v. i., and cf. Verse. Adverbs ending in -wards (AS. -weardes) and some other adverbs, such as besides, betimes, since (OE. sithens). etc., were originally genitive forms used adverbially.] Defn: Suffixes denoting course or direction to; motion or tendency toward; as in backward, or backwards; toward, or towards, etc. WARD Ward, n. Etym: [AS. weard, fem., guard, weard, ward a watcher, warden, G. wart, OHG. wart, Icel. vör a warden, a watch, Goth. -wards in daúrawards a doorkeeper, and E. wary; cf. OF. warde guard, from the German. See Ware, a., Wary, and cf. Guard, Wraith.] 1. The act of guarding; watch; guard; guardianship; specifically, a guarding during the day. See the Note under Watch, n., 1. Still, when she slept, he kept both watch and ward. Spenser. 2. One who, or that which, guards; garrison; defender; protector; means of guarding; defense; protection. For the best ward of mine honor. Shak. The assieged castle's ward Their steadfast stands did mightily maintain. Spenser. For want of other ward, He lifted up his hand, his front to guard. Dryden. 3. The state of being under guard or guardianship; confinement under guard; the condition of a child under a guardian; custody. And he put them in ward in the house of the captain of the guard. Gen. xl. 3. I must attend his majesty's command, to whom I am now in ward. Shak. It is also inconvenient, in Ireland, that the wards and marriages of gentlemen's children should be in the disposal of any of those lords. Spenser. 4. A guarding or defensive motion or position, as in fencing; guard. "Thou knowest my old ward; here I lay, and thus I bore my point." Shak. 5. One who, or that which, is guarded. Specifically: -- (a) A minor or person under the care of a guardian; as, a ward in chancery. "You know our father's ward, the fair Monimia." Otway. (b) A division of a county. [Eng. & Scot.] (c) A division, district, or quarter of a town or city. Throughout the trembling city placed a guard, Dealing an equal share to every ward. Dryden. (d) A division of a forest. [Eng.] (e) A division of a hospital; as, a fever ward. 6. (a) A projecting ridge of metal in the interior of a lock, to prevent the use of any key which has not a corresponding notch for passing it. (b) A notch or slit in a key corresponding to a ridge in the lock which it fits; a ward notch. Knight. The lock is made . . . more secure by attaching wards to the front, as well as to the back, plate of the lock, in which case the key must be furnished with corresponding notches. Tomlinson. Ward penny (O. Eng. Law), money paid to the sheriff or castellan for watching and warding a castle. -- Ward staff, a constable's or watchman's staff. [Obs.] WARD Ward, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Warded; p. pr. & vb. n. Warding.] Etym: [OE. wardien, AS. weardian to keep, protect; akin to OS. ward to watch, take care, OFries. wardia, OHG. wart, G. warten to wait, wait on, attend to, Icel. var to guarantee defend, Sw. vårda to guard, to watch; cf. OF. warder, of German origin. See Ward, n., and cf. Award, Guard, Reward.] 1. To keep in safety; to watch; to guard; formerly, in a specific sense, to guard during the day time. Whose gates he found fast shut, no living wight To ward the same. Spenser. 2. To defend; to protect. Tell him it was a hand that warded him From thousand dangers. Shak. 3. To defend by walls, fortifications, etc. [Obs.] 4. To fend off; to repel; to turn aside, as anything mischievous that approaches; -- usually followed by off. Now wards a felling blow, now strikes again. Daniel. The pointed javelin warded off his rage. Addison. It instructs the scholar in the various methods of warding off the force of objections. I. Watts. WARD Ward, v. i. 1. To be vigilant; to keep guard. 2. To act on the defensive with a weapon. She redoubling her blows drove the stranger to no other shift than to ward and go back. Sir P. Sidney. WARD-CORN Ward"-corn`, n. Etym: [Ward + F. corne horn, L. cornu.] (O. Eng. Law) Defn: The duty of keeping watch and ward (see the Note under Watch, n., 1) with a horn to be blown upon any occasion of surprise. Burrill. WARDCORPS Ward"corps`, n. Etym: [Wars + corps.] Defn: Guardian; one set to watch over another. [Obs.] "Though thou preyedest Argus . . . to be my wardcorps." Chaucer. WARDEN Ward"en, n. Etym: [OE. wardein, OF. wardein, gardein, gardain, F. gardien. See Guardian, and Ward guard.] 1. A keeper; a guardian; a watchman. He called to the warden on the . . . battlements. Sir. W. Scott. 2. An officer who keeps or guards; a keeper; as, the warden of a prison. 3. A head official; as, the warden of a college; specifically (Eccl.), a churchwarden. 4. Etym: [Properly, a keeping pear.] Defn: A large, hard pear, chiefly used for baking and roasting. [Obs.] I would have had him roasted like a warden. Beau. & Fl. Warden pie, a pie made of warden pears. [Obs.] Shak. WARDENRY; WARDENSHIP Ward"en*ry, Ward"en*ship, n. Defn: The office or jurisdiction of a warden. WARDER Ward"er, n. 1. One who wards or keeps; a keeper; a guard. "The warders of the gate." Dryden. 2. A truncheon or staff carried by a king or a commander in chief, and used in signaling his will. When, lo! the king suddenly changed his mind, Casts down his warder to arrest them there. Daniel. Wafting his warder thrice about his head, He cast it up with his auspicious hand, Which was the signal, through the English spread, This they should charge. Drayton. WARDIAN Ward"i*an, a. Defn: Designating, or pertaining to, a kind of glass inclosure for keeping ferns, mosses, etc., or for transporting growing plants from a distance; as, a Wardian case of plants; -- so named from the inventor, Nathaniel B. Ward, an Englishman. WARDMOTE Ward"mote`, n. Defn: Anciently, a meeting of the inhabitants of a ward; also, a court formerly held in each ward of London for trying defaults in matters relating to the watch, police, and the like. Brande & C. "Wards and wardmotes." Piers Plowman. WARDROBE Ward"robe`, n. Etym: [OE. warderobe, OF. warderobe, F. garderobe; of German origin. See Ward, v. t., and Robe.] 1. A room or apartment where clothes are kept, or wearing apparel is stored; a portable closet for hanging up clothes. 2. Wearing apparel, in general; articles of dress or personal decoration. Flowers that their gay wardrobe wear. Milton. With a pair of saddlebags containing his wardrobe. T. Hughes. 3. A privy. [Obs.] Chaucer. WARDROOM Ward"room`, n. 1. (Naut.) Defn: A room occupied as a messroom by the commissioned officers of a war vessel. See Gunroom. Totten. 2. A room used by the citizens of a city ward, for meetings, political caucuses, elections, etc. [U.S.] -WARDS -wards. Defn: See -ward. WARDSHIP Ward"ship, n. 1. The office of a ward or keeper; care and protection of a ward; guardianship; right of guardianship. Wardship is incident to tenure in socage. Blackstone. 2. The state of begin under a guardian; pupilage. It was the wisest act . . . in my wardship. B. Jonson. WARDSMAN Wards"man, n.; pl. Wardsmen (. Defn: A man who keeps ward; a guard. [R.] Sydney Smith. WARE Ware, obs. imp. of Wear. Defn: Wore. WARE Ware, v. t. (Naut.) Defn: To wear, or veer. See Wear. WARE Ware, n. Etym: [AS. war.] (Bot.) Defn: Seaweed. [Obs. or Prov. Eng.] Ware goose (Zoöl.), the brant; -- so called because it feeds on ware, or seaweed. [Prov. Eng.] WARE Ware, n. Etym: [OE. ware, AS. waru; akin to D. waar, G. waare, Icel. & Sw. vara, Dan. vare; and probably to E. worth, a. See Worth, a.] Defn: Articles of merchandise; the sum of articles of a particular kind or class; style or class of manufactures; especially, in the plural, goods; commodities; merchandise. "Retails his wares at wakes." Shak. "To chaffer with them and eke to sell them their ware." Chaucer. It the people of the land bring ware or any victuals on the Sabbath day to sell, that we would not buy it of them on the Sabbath, or on the holy day. Neh. x. 31. Note: Although originally and properly a collective noun, it admits of a plural form, when articles of merchandise of different kinds are meant. It is often used in composition; as in hardware, glassware, tinware, etc. WARE Ware, a. Etym: [OE. war, AS. wær. sq. root142. See Wary.] Defn: A ware; taking notice; hence, wary; cautious; on one's guard. See Beware. [Obs.] She was ware and knew it bet [better] than he. Chaucer. Of whom be thou ware also. 2. Tim. iv. 15. He is ware enough; he is wily and circumspect for stirring up any sedition. Latimer. The only good that grows of passed fear Is to be wise, and ware of like again. Spenser. WARE Ware, n. Etym: [AS. waru caution.] Defn: The state of being ware or aware; heed. [Obs.] Wyclif. WARE Ware, v. t. Etym: [As. warian.] Defn: To make ware; to warn; to take heed of; to beware of; to guard against. "Ware that I say." Chaucer. God . . . ware you for the sin of avarice. Chaucer. Then ware a rising tempest on the main. Dryden. WAREFUL Ware"ful, a. Defn: Wary; watchful; cautious. [Obs.] WAREFULNESS Ware"ful*ness, n. Defn: Wariness; cautiousness. [Obs.] "Full of warefulness." Sir P. Sidney. WAREGA FLY Wa*re"ga fly`. Defn: (Zoöl.) A Brazilian fly whose larvæ live in the skin of man and animals, producing painful sores. WAREHOUSE Ware"house`, n.; pl. Warehouses (. Defn: A storehouse for wares, or goods. Addison. WAREHOUSE Ware"house`, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Warehoused; p. pr. & vb. n. Warehousing.] 1. To deposit or secure in a warehouse. 2. To place in the warehouse of the government or customhouse stores, to be kept until duties are paid. WAREHOUSEMAN Ware"house`man, n.; pl. Warehousemen (. 1. One who keeps a warehouse; the owner or keeper of a dock warehouse or wharf store. 2. One who keeps a wholesale shop or store for Manchester or woolen goods. [Eng.] Warehouseman's itch (Med.), a form of eczema occurring on the back of the hands of warehousemen. WAREHOUSING Ware"hous`ing, n. Defn: The act of placing goods in a warehouse, or in a customhouse store. Warehousing system, an arrangement for lodging imported articles in the customhouse stores, without payment of duties until they are taken out for home consumption. If reëxported, they are not charged with a duty. See Bonded warehouse, under Bonded, a. WARELESS Ware"less, a. Etym: [See Ware, n.] Defn: Unwary; incautious; unheeding; careless; unaware. [Obs.] And wareless of the evil That by themselves unto themselves is wrought. Spenser. WARELY Ware"ly, adv. Defn: Cautiously; warily. [Obs.] They bound him hand and foot with iron chains, And with continual watch did warely keep. Spenser. WARENCE War"ence, n. Etym: [OF. warance. F. garance, LL. warentia, garantia.] (Bot.) Defn: Madder. WAREROOM Ware"room`, n. Defn: A room in which goods are stored or exhibited for sale. WARES Wares, n. pl. Defn: See 4th Ware. WARFARE War"fare`, n. Etym: [War + OE. fare a journey, a passage, course, AS. faru. See Fare, n.] 1. Military service; military life; contest carried on by enemies; hostilities; war. The Philistines gathered their armies together for warfare, to fight with Israel. I Sam. xxviii. 1. This day from battle rest; Faithful hath been your warfare. Milton. 2. Contest; struggle. The weapons of our warfare are not carnal. 2 Cor. x. 4. WARFARE War"fare`, v. i. Defn: To lead a military life; to carry on continual wars. Camden. WARFARER War"far`er, n. Defn: One engaged in warfare; a military man; a soldier; a warrior. WARHABLE War"ha`ble, a. Etym: [War + hable.] Defn: Fit for war. [Obs.] "Warhable youth." Spenser. WARIANGLE War`i*an"gle, n. Etym: [OE. wariangel, weryangle; cf. AS. wearg outlaw, criminal, OHG, warg, warch, Goth. wargs (in comp.), G. würgengel, i. e., destroying angel, destroyer, killer, and E. worry.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The red-backed shrike (Lanius collurio); -- called also würger, worrier, and throttler. [Written also warriangle, weirangle, etc.] [Obs. or Prov. Eng.] WARILY Wa"ri*ly, adv. Defn: In a wary manner. WARIMENT Wa"ri*ment, n. Defn: Wariness. [Obs.] Spenser. WARINE War"ine, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A South American monkey, one of the sapajous. WARINESS Wa"ri*ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being wary; care to foresee and guard against evil; cautiousness. "An almost reptile wariness." G. W. Cable. To determine what are little things in religion, great wariness is to be used. Sprat. Syn. -- Caution; watchfulness; circumspection; foresight; care; vigilance; scrupulousness. WARISH War"ish, v. t. Etym: [OF. warir to protect, heal, cure, F. guéri to cure; of Teutonic origin; cf. OHG. werian, weren, to protect, to hinder. See Garret.] Defn: To protect from the effects of; hence, to cure; to heal. [Obs.] My brother shall be warished hastily. Chaucer. Varro testifies that even at this day there be some who warish and cure the stinging of serpents with their spittle. Holland. WARISH War"ish, v. i. Defn: To be cured; to recover. [Obs.] Your daughter . . . shall warish and escape. Chaucer. WARISON War"i*son, n. Etym: [OF. warison safety, supplies, cure, F. guérison cure. See Warish, v. t.] 1. Preparation; protection; provision; supply. [Obs.] 2. Reward; requital; guerdon. [Obs. or Scot.] Wit and wisdom is good warysoun. Proverbs of Hending. WARK Wark, n. Etym: [See Work.] Defn: Work; a building. [Obs. or Scot.] Spenser. WARKLOOM Wark"loom, n. Defn: A tool; an implement. [Scot.] WARLIKE War"like`, a. 1. Fit for war; disposed for war; as, a warlike state; a warlike disposition. Old Siward, with ten thousand warlike men. Shak. 2. Belonging or relating to war; military; martial. The great archangel from his warlike toil Surceased. Milton. Syn. -- Martial; hostile; soldierly. See Martial. WARLIKENESS War"like`ness, n. Defn: Quality of being warlike. WARLING War"ling, n. Defn: One often quarreled with; -- darling. [Obs.] Better be an old man's darling than a young man's warling. Camde WARLOCK War"lock, n. Etym: [OE. warloghe a deceiver, a name or the Devil, AS. w a belier or breaker of his agreement, word, or pledge; w covenant, troth (akiverus true; see Very) + loga a liar (in comp.), leógan to lie. See 3d Lie.] Defn: A male witch; a wizard; a sprite; an imp. [Written also warluck.] Dryden. It was Eyvind Kallda's crew Of warlocks blue, With their caps of darkness hooded! Longfellow. WARLOCK War"lock, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to a warlock or warlock; impish. [R.] Thou shalt win the warlock fight. J. R. Drak WARLOCKRY War"lock*ry, n. Defn: Impishness; magic. WARLY War"ly, a. Defn: Warlike. Burns. WARM Warm, a. [Compar. Warmer; superl. Warmest.] Etym: [AS. wearm; akin to OS., OFries., D., & G. warm, Icel. varmr, Sw. & Dan. varm, Goth. warmjan to warm; probably akin to Lith. virti to cook, boil; or perhaps to Skr. gharma heat, OL. formus warm. 1. Having heat in a moderate degree; not cold as, warm milk. "Whose blood is warm within." Shak. Warm and still is the summer night. Longfellow. 2. Having a sensation of heat, esp. of gentle heat; glowing. 3. Subject to heat; having prevalence of heat, or little or no cold weather; as, the warm climate of Egypt. 4. Fig.: Not cool, indifferent, lukewarm, or the like, in spirit or temper; zealous; ardent; fervent; excited; sprightly; irritable; excitable. Mirth, and youth, and warm desire! Milton. Each warm wish springs mutual from the heart. Pope. They say he's warm man and does not care to be madAddison. I had been none of the warmest of partisans. Hawthor 5. Violent; vehement; furious; excited; passionate; as, a warm contest; a warm debate. Welcome, daylight; we shall have warm work on't. Dryden. 6. Being well off as to property, or in good circumstances; forehanded; rich. [Colloq.] Warm householders, every one of them. W. Irving. You shall have a draft upon him, payable at sight: and let me tell you he as warm a man as any within five miles round him. Goldsmith. 7. In children's games, being near the object sought for; hence, being close to the discovery of some person, thing, or fact concealed. [Colloq.] Here, indeed, young Mr. Dowse was getting "warm," Black. 8. (Paint.) Defn: Having yellow or red for a basis, or in their composition; -- said of colors, and opposed to cold which is of blue and its compounds. Syn. -- Ardent; zealous; fervent; glowing; enthusiastic; cordial; keen; violent; furious; hot. WARM Warm, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Warmed (; p. pr. & vb. n. Warming.] Etym: [AS. wearmian. See Warm, a.] 1. To communicate a moderate degree of heat to; to render warm; to supply or furnish heat to; as, a stove warms an apartment. Then shall it [an ash tree] be for a man to burn; for he will take thereof and warm himself. Isa. xliv 15 Enough to warm, but not enough to burn. Longfellow. 2. To make engaged or earnest; to interest; to engage; to excite ardor or zeal; to enliven. I formerly warmed my head with reading controversial writings. Pope. Bright hopes, that erst bosom warmed. Keble. WARM Warm, v. i. Etym: [AS. wearmian.] 1. To become warm, or moderately heated; as, the earth soon warms in a clear day summer. There shall not be a coal to warm at. Isa. xlvii. 14. 2. To become ardent or animated; as, the speakewarms as he proceeds. WARM Warm, n. Defn: The act of warming, or the state of being warmed; a warming; a heating. [Colloq.] Dickens. WARM-BLOODED Warm"-blood`ed, a. (Physiol.) Defn: Having warm blood; -- applied especially to those animals, as birds and mammals, which have warm blood, or, more properly, the power of maintaining a nearly uniform temperature whatever the temperature of the surrounding air. See Homoiothermal. WARMER Warm"er, n. Defn: One who, or that which, warms. WARMFUL Warm"ful, a. Defn: Abounding in capacity to warm; giving warmth; as, a warmful garment. [R.] Chapman. WARM-HEARTED Warm"-heart`ed, a. Defn: Having strong affection; cordial; sincere; hearty; sympathetic. -- Warm"-heart`ed*ness, n. WARMING Warm"ing, Defn: a. & n. from Warm, v. Warming pan, a long-handled covered pan into which live coals are put, -- used for warming beds. Shak. WARMLY Warm"ly, adv. Defn: In a warm manner; ardently. WARMNESS Warm"ness, n. Defn: Warmth. Chaucer. WARMONGER War"mon`ger, n. Defn: One who makes ar a trade or business; a mercenary. [R.] Spenser. WARMOUTH War"mouth, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: An American freshwater bream, or sunfish (Chænobryttus gulosus); -- called also red-eyed bream. WARMTH Warmth, n. 1. The quality or state of being warm; gentle heat; as, the warmth of the sun; the warmth of the blood; vital warmth. Here kindly warmth their mounting juice ferments. Addison. 2. A state of lively and excited interest; zeal; ardor; fervor; passion; enthusiasm; earnestness; as, the warmth of love or piety; he replied with much warmth. "Spiritual warmth, and holy fires." Jer. Taylor. That warmth . . . which agrees with Christian zeal. Sprat. 3. (Paint.) Defn: The glowing effect which arises from the use of warm colors; hence, any similar appearance or effect in a painting, or work of color. Syn. -- Zeal; ardor; fervor; fervency; heat; glow; earnestness; cordiality; animation; eagerness; excitement; vehemence. WARMTHLESS Warmth"less, a. Defn: Being without warmth; not communicating warmth; cold. [R.] Coleridge. WARN Warn (wasrn), v. t. Etym: [OE. wernen, AS. weornan, wyrnan. Cf. Warn to admonish.] Defn: To refuse. [Written also wern, worn.] [Obs.] Chaucer. WARN Warn, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Warned; p. pr. & vb. n. Warning.] Etym: [OE. warnen, warnien, AS. warnian, wearnian, to take heed, to warn; akin to AS. wearn denial, refusal, OS. warning, wernian, to refuse, OHG. warnen, G. warnen to warn, OFries. warna, werna, Icel. varna to refuse; and probably to E. wary. 1. To make ware or aware; to give previous information to; to give notice to; to notify; to admonish; hence, to notify or summon by authority; as, to warn a town meeting; to warn a tenant to quit a house. "Warned of the ensuing fight." Dryden. Cornelius the centurion . . . was warned from God by an holy angel to send for thee. Acts x. 22. Who is it that hath warned us to the walls Shak. 2. To give notice to, of approaching or probable danger or evil; to caution against anything that may prove injurious. "Juturna warns the Daunian chief of Lausus' danger, urging swift relief." Dryden. 3. To ward off. [Obs.] Spenser. WARNER Warn"er, n. Defn: One who warns; an admonisher. WARNER Warn"er, n. Defn: A warrener. [Obs.] Piers Plowman. WARNING Warn"ing, a. Defn: Giving previous notice; cautioning; admonishing; as, a warning voice. That warning timepiece never ceased. Longfellow. Warning piece, Warning wheel (Horol.), a piece or wheel which produces a sound shortly before the clock strikes. WARNING Warn"ing, n. 1. Previous notice. "At a month's warning." Dryden. A great journey to take upon so short a warning. L'Estrange. 2. Caution against danger, or against faults or evil practices which incur danger; admonition; monition. Could warning make the world more just or wise. Dryden. WARNINGLY Warn"ing*ly, adv. Defn: In a warning manner. WARNSTORE Warn"store, v. t. Etym: [Cf. OF. warnesture, garnesture, provisions, supplies, and E. garnish.] Defn: To furnish. [Obs.] "To warnstore your house." Chaucer. WARP Warp, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Warped; p. pr. & vb. n. Warping.] Etym: [OE. warpen; fr. Icel. varpa to throw, cast, varp a casting, fr. verpa to throw; akin to Dan. varpe to warp a ship, Sw. varpa, AS. weorpan to cast, OS. werpan, OFries. werpa, D. & LG. werpen, G. werfen, Goth. waírpan; cf. Skr. vrj to twist. Wrap.] 1. To throw; hence, to send forth, or throw out, as words; to utter. [Obs.] Piers Plowman. 2. To turn or twist out of shape; esp., to twist or bend out of a flat plane by contraction or otherwise. The planks looked warped. Coleridge. Walter warped his mouth at this To something so mock solemn, that I laughed. Tennyson. 3. To turn aside from the true direction; to cause to bend or incline; to pervert. This first avowed, nor folly warped my mind. Dryden. I have no private considerations to warp me in this controversy. Addison. We are divested of all those passions which cloud the intellects, and warp the understandings, of men. Southey. 4. To weave; to fabricate. [R. & Poetic.] Nares. While doth he mischief warp. Sternhold. 5. (Naut.) Defn: To tow or move, as a vessel, with a line, or warp, attached to a buoy, anchor, or other fixed object. 6. To cast prematurely, as young; -- said of cattle, sheep, etc. [Prov. Eng.] 7. (Agric.) Defn: To let the tide or other water in upon (lowlying land), for the purpose of fertilization, by a deposit of warp, or slimy substance. [Prov. Eng.] 8. (Rope Making) Defn: To run off the reel into hauls to be tarred, as yarns. 9. (Weaving) Defn: To arrange (yarns) on a warp beam. Warped surface (Geom.), a surface generated by a straight line moving so that no two of its consecutive positions shall be in the same plane. Davies & Peck. WARP Warp, v. i. 1. To turn, twist, or be twisted out of shape; esp., to be twisted or bent out of a flat plane; as, a board warps in seasoning or shrinking. One of you will prove a shrunk panel, and, like green timber, warp, warp. Shak. They clamp one piece of wood to the end of another, to keep it from casting, or warping. Moxon. 2. to turn or incline from a straight, true, or proper course; to deviate; to swerve. There is our commission, From which we would not have you warp. Shak. 3. To fly with a bending or waving motion; to turn and wave, like a flock of birds or insects. A pitchy cloud Of locusts, warping on the eastern wind. Milton. 4. To cast the young prematurely; to slink; -- said of cattle, sheep, etc. [Prov. Eng.] 5. (Weaving) Defn: To wind yarn off bobbins for forming the warp of a web; to wind a warp on a warp beam. WARP Warp, n. Etym: [AS. wearp; akin to Icel. varp a casting, throwing, Sw. varp the draught of a net, Dan. varp a towline, OHG. warf warp, G. werft. See Warp, v.] 1. (Weaving) Defn: The threads which are extended lengthwise in the loom, and crossed by the woof. 2. (Naut.) Defn: A rope used in hauling or moving a vessel, usually with one end attached to an anchor, a post, or other fixed object; a towing line; a warping hawser. 3. (Agric.) Defn: A slimy substance deposited on land by tides, etc., by which a rich alluvial soil is formed. Lyell. 4. A premature casting of young; -- said of cattle, sheep, etc. [Prov. Eng.] 5. Four; esp., four herrings; a cast. See Cast, n., 17. [Prov. Eng.] Wright. 6. Etym: [From Warp, v.] Defn: The state of being warped or twisted; as, the warp of a board. Warp beam, the roller on which the warp is wound in a loom. -- Warp fabric, fabric produced by warp knitting. -- Warp frame, or Warp-net frame, a machine for making warp lace having a number of needles and employing a thread for each needle. -- Warp knitting, a kind of knitting in which a number of threads are interchained each with one or more contiguous threads on either side; -- also called warp weaving. -- Warp lace, or Warp net, lace having a warp crossed by weft threads. WARPAGE Warp"age, n. Defn: The act of warping; also, a charge per ton made on shipping in some harbors. WARPATH War"path`, n. Defn: The route taken by a party of Indians going on a warlike expedition. Schoolcraft. On the warpath, on a hostile expedition; hence, colloquially, about to attack a person or measure. WARPER Warp"er, n. 1. One who, or that which, warps or twists out of shape. 2. One who, or that which, forms yarn or thread into warps or webs for the loom. WARPING Warp"ing, n. 1. The act or process of one who, or that which, warps. 2. The art or occupation of preparing warp or webs for the weaver. Craig. Warping bank, a bank of earth raised round a field to retain water let in for the purpose of enriching land. Craig. -- Warping hook, a hook used by rope makers for hanging the yarn on, when warping it into hauls for tarring. -- Warping mill, a machine for warping yarn. -- Warping penny, money, varying according to the length of the thread, paid to the weaver by the spinner on laying the warp. [Prov. Eng.] Wright. -- Warping post, a strong post used in warping rope-yarn. WARP KNITTING Warp knitting. Defn: A kind of knitting in which a number of threads are interchained each with one or more contiguous threads on either side. WARPROOF War"proof`, n. Defn: Valor tried by war. WARRAGAL War"ra*gal, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The dingo. WARRANDICE War"ran*dice, n. Etym: [See Warrantise.] (Scots Law) Defn: The obligation by which a person, conveying a subject or a right, is bound to uphold that subject or right against every claim, challenge, or burden arising from circumstances prior to the conveyance; warranty. [Written also warrandise.] Craig. WARRANT War"rant, n. Etym: [OE. warant, OF. warant a warrant, a defender, protector, F. garant, originally a p. pr. pf German origin, fr. OHG. weren to grant, warrant, G. gewähren; akin to OFries. wera. Cf. Guarantee.] 1. That which warrants or authorizes; a commission giving authority, or justifying the doing of anything; an act, instrument, or obligation, by which one person authorizes another to do something which he has not otherwise a right to do; an act or instrument investing one with a right or authority, and thus securing him from loss or damage; commission; authority. Specifically: -- (a) A writing which authorizes a person to receive money or other thing. (b) (Law) A precept issued by a magistrate authorizing an officer to make an arrest, a seizure, or a search, or do other acts incident to the administration of justice. (c) (Mil. & Nav.) An official certificate of appointment issued to an officer of lower rank than a commissioned officer. See Warrant officer, below. 2. That which vouches or insures for anything; guaranty; security. I give thee warrant of thy place. Shak. His worth is warrant for his welcome hither. Shak. 3. That which attests or proves; a voucher. 4. Right; legality; allowance. [Obs.] Shak. Bench warrant. (Law) See in the Vocabulary. -- Dock warrant (Com.), a customhouse license or authority. -- General warrant. (Law) See under General. -- Land warrant. See under Land. -- Search warrant. (Law) See under Search, n. -- Warrant of attorney (Law), written authority given by one person to another empowering him to transact business for him; specifically, written authority given by a client to his attorney to appear for him in court, and to suffer judgment to pass against him by confession in favor of some specified person. Bouvier. -- Warrant officer, a noncommissioned officer, as a sergeant, corporal, bandmaster, etc., in the army, or a quartermaster, gunner, boatswain, etc., in the navy. -- Warrant to sue and defend. (a) (O. Eng. Law) A special warrant from the crown, authorizing a party to appoint an attorney to sue or defend for him. (b) A special authority given by a party to his attorney to commence a suit, or to appear and defend a suit in his behalf. This warrant is now disused. Burrill. WARRANT War"rant, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Warranted; p. pr. & vb. n. Warranting.] Etym: [OE. waranten, OF. warantir, garantir, guarantir, garentir, garandir, F. garantir to warrant, fr. OF. warant, garant, guarant, a warrant, a protector, a defender, F. garant. sq. root142. See Warrant, n.] 1. To make secure; to give assurance against harm; to guarantee safety to; to give authority or power to do, or forbear to do, anything by which the person authorized is secured, or saved harmless, from any loss or damage by his action. That show I first my body to warrant. Chaucer. I'll warrant him from drowning. Shak. In a place Less warranted than this, or less secure, I can not be. Milton. 2. To support by authority or proof; to justify; to maintain; to sanction; as, reason warrants it. True fortitude is seen in great exploits, That justice warrants, and that wisdom guides. Addison. How little while it is since he went forth out of his study, -- chewing a Hebrew text of Scripture in his mouth, I warrant. Hawthorne. 3. To give a warrant or warranty to; to assure as if by giving a warrant to. [My neck is] as smooth as silk, I warrant ye. L' Estrange. 4. (Law) (a) To secure to, as a grantee, an estate granted; to assure. (b) To secure to, as a purchaser of goods, the title to the same; to indemnify against loss. (c) To secure to, as a purchaser, the quality or quantity of the goods sold, as represented. See Warranty, n., 2. (d) To assure, as a thing sold, to the purchaser; that is, to engage that the thing is what it appears, or is represented, to be, which implies a covenant to make good any defect or loss incurred by it. WARRANTABLE War"rant*a*ble, a. Defn: Authorized by commission, precept, or right; justifiable; defensible; as, the seizure of a thief is always warrantable by law and justice; falsehood is never warrantable. His meals are coarse and short, his employment warrantable, his sleep certain and refreshing. South. -- War"rant*a*ble*ness, n. -- War"rant*bly, adv. WARRANTEE War`ran*tee", n. (Law) Defn: The person to whom a warrant or warranty is made. WARRANTER War"rant*er, n. 1. One who warrants, gives authority, or legally empowers. 2. (Law) Defn: One who assures, or covenants to assure; one who contracts to secure another in a right, or to make good any defect of title or quality; one who gives a warranty; a guarantor; as, the warranter of a horse. WARRANTISE War"rant*ise, n. Etym: [OF. warentise, warandise, garantise. See Warrant, n.] Defn: Authority; security; warranty. [Obs.] Shak. WARRANTISE War"rant*ise, v. t. Defn: To warrant. [Obs.] Hakluyt. WARRANTOR War"rant*or, n. (Law) Defn: One who warrants. WARRANTY War"rant*y, n.; pl. Warranties. Etym: [OF. warantie, F. garantie. See Warrant, n., and cf. Guaranty.] 1. (Anc. Law) Defn: A covenant real, whereby the grantor of an estate of freehold and his heirs were bound to warrant and defend the title, and, in case of eviction by title paramount, to yield other lands of equal value in recompense. This warranty has long singe become obsolete, and its place supplied by personal covenants for title. Among these is the covenant of warranty, which runs with the land, and is in the nature of a real covenant. Kent. 2. (Modern Law) Defn: An engagement or undertaking, express or implied, that a certain fact regarding the subject of a contract is, or shall be, as it is expressly or impliedly declared or promised to be. In sales of goods by persons in possession, there is an implied warranty of title, but, as to the quality of goods, the rule of every sale is, Caveat emptor. Chitty. Bouvier. 3. (Insurance Law) Defn: A stipulation or engagement by a party insured, that certain things, relating to the subject of insurance, or affecting the risk, exist, or shall exist, or have been done, or shall be done. These warranties, when express, should appear in the policy; but there are certain implied warranties. Bouvier. 4. Justificatory mandate or precept; authority; warrant. [R.] Shak. If they disobey precept, that is no excuse to us, nor gives us any warranty . . . to disobey likewise. Kettlewe 5. Security; warrant; guaranty. The stamp was a warranty of the public. Locke. Syn. -- See Guarantee. WARRANTY War"rant*y, v. t. Defn: To warrant; to guarantee. WARRAY War"ray, v. t. Etym: [OF. werreier, werrier, guerroier, F. guerroyer, from OF. werre war, F. guerre; of German origin. See War.] Defn: To make war upon. [Obs.] Fairfax. "When a man warrayeth truth." Chaucer. WARRE Warre, a. Etym: [OE. werre; of Scand. origin. See Worse.] Defn: Worse. [Obs.] They say the world is much warre than it wont. Spenser. WARREN War"ren, n. Etym: [Of. waresne, warenne, garene, F. garenne, from OF. warer, garer, to beware, to take care; of Teutonic origin; cf. OHG. war (in comp.), OS. war to take care, to observe, akin to E. wary. Wary.] 1. (Eng Law) (a) A place privileged, by prescription or grant the king, for keeping certain animals (as hares, conies, partridges, pheasants, etc.) called beasts and fowls of warren. Burrill. (b) A privilege which one has in his lands, by royal grant or prescription, of hunting and taking wild beasts and birds of warren, to the exclusion of any other person not entering by his permission. Spelman. They wend both warren and in waste. Piers Plowman. Note: The warren is the next franchise in degree to the park; and a forest, which is the highest in dignity, comprehends a chase, a park, and a free warren. 2. A piece of ground for the breeding of rabbits. 3. A place for keeping flash, in a river. WARRENER War"ren*er, n. Defn: The keeper of a warren. WARRIANGLE War`ri*an"gle, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: See Wariangle. [Obs. or Prov. Eng.] WARRIE War"rie, v. t. Defn: See Warye. [Obs.] WARRIN War"rin, n. Etym: [From a native name.] (Zoöl.) Defn: An Australian lorikeet (Trichoglossus multicolor) remarkable for the variety and brilliancy of its colors; -- called also blue- bellied lorikeet, and blue-bellied parrot. WARRIOR War"rior, n. Etym: [OE. werreour, OF. werreour, guerreor, from guerre, werre, war. See War, and Warray.] Defn: A man engaged or experienced in war, or in the military life; a soldier; a champion. Warriors old with ordered spear and shield. Milton. Warrior ant (Zoöl.), a reddish ant (Formica sanguinea) native of Europe and America. It is one of the species which move in armies to capture and enslave other ants. WARRIORESS War"rior*ess, n. Defn: A female warrior. [Obs.] Spenser. WARRY War"ry, v. t. Defn: See Warye. [Obs.] WARSAW War"saw, n. (Zoöl.) (a) The black grouper (Epinephelus nigritus) of the southern coasts of the United States. (b) The jewfish; -- called also guasa. WART Wart, n. Etym: [OE. werte, AS. wearte; akin to D. wrat, G. warze, OHG. warza, Icel. varta, Sw. vårta, Dan. vorte; perh. orig., a growth, and akin to E. wort; or cf. L. verruca wart.] 1. (Med.) Defn: A small, usually hard, tumor on the skin formed by enlargement of its vascular papillæ, and thickening of the epidermis which covers them. 2. An excrescence or protuberance more or less resembling a true wart; specifically (Bot.), a glandular excrescence or hardened protuberance on plants. Fig wart, Moist wart (Med.), a soft, bright red, pointed or tufted tumor found about the genitals, often massed into groups of large size. It is a variety of condyloma. Called also pointed wart, venereal wart. L. A. Duhring. -- Wart cress (Bot.), the swine's cress. See under Swine. -- Wart snake (Zoöl.), any one of several species of East Indian colubrine snakes of the genus Acrochordus, having the body covered with wartlike tubercles or spinose scales, and lacking cephalic plates and ventral scutes. -- Wart spurge (Bot.), a kind of wartwort (Euphorbia Helioscopia). WARTED Wart"ed, a. (Bot.) Defn: Having little knobs on the surface; verrucose; as, a warted capsule. WART HOG Wart" hog`. (Zoöl.) Defn: Either one of two species of large, savage African wild hogs of the genus Phacochoerus. These animals have a pair of large, rough, fleshy tubercles behind the tusks and second pair behind the eyes. The tusks are large and strong, and both pairs curve upward. The body is scantily covered with bristles, but there is long dorsal mane. The South African species (Phacochoerus Æthiopicus) is the best known. Called also vlacke vark. The second species (P. Æliani) is native of the coasts of the Red Sea. WARTLESS Wart"less, a. Defn: Having no wart. WARTWEED Wart"weed`, n. (Bot.) Defn: Same as Wartwort. WARTWORT Wart"wort`, n. (Bot.) Defn: A name given to several plants because they were thought to be a cure for warts, as a kind of spurge (Euphorbia Helioscopia), and the nipplewort (Lampsana communis). WARTY Wart"y, a. 1. Having warts; full of warts; overgrow with warts; as, a warty leaf. 2. Of the nature of warts; as, a warty excrescence. Warty egg (Zoöl.), a marine univalve shell (Ovulum verrucosum), having the surface covered with wartlike elevations. WARTY-BACK Wart"y-back`, n. Defn: An American fresh-water mussel (Quadrula pustulosa). Its shell is used in making buttons. WARWICKITE War"wick*ite, n. (Min.) Defn: A dark brown or black mineral, occurring in prismatic crystals imbedded in limestone near Warwick, New York. It consists of the borate and titanate of magnesia and iron. WARWORN War"worn`, a. Defn: Worn with military service; as, a warworn soldier; a warworn coat. Shak. WARY Wa"ry, a. [Compar. Warier; superl. Wariest.] Etym: [OE. war, AS. wær; akin to Icel. v, Dan. & Sw. var, Goth. wars, G. gewahr aware, OHG. wara notice, attention, Gr. Aware, Garment, Garnish, Garrison, Panorama, Ward, v. t. Ware, a., Warren.] 1. Cautious of danger; carefully watching and guarding against deception, artifices, and dangers; timorously or suspiciously prudent; circumspect; scrupulous; careful. "Bear a wary eye." Shak. We should be wary, therefore, what persecution we raise against the living labors of public men. Milton. 2. Characterized by caution; guarded; careful. It behoveth our words to be wary and few. Hooker. Syn. -- Cautious; circumspect; watchful. See Cautious. WARYE War"ye, v. t. Etym: [AS. wergian, wyrgean. Cf. Worry.] Defn: To curse; to curse; to execrate; to condemn; also, to vex. [Obs.] [Spelled also warrie, warry, and wary.] "Whom I thus blame and warye." Chaucer. WAS Was. Etym: [AS. wæs, 2d pers. wære, 3d pers. wæs, pl. wæron, with the inf. wesan to be; akin to D. wezen, imp. was, OHG. wesan, imp. was, G. wesen, n., a being, essence, war was, Icel. vera to be, imp. var, Goth. wisan to be, to dwell, to remain, imp. was, Skr. vas to remain, to dwell. sq. root148. Cf. Vernacular, Wassail, Were, v.] Defn: The first and third persons singular of the verb be, in the indicative mood, preterit (imperfect) tense; as, I was; he was. WASE Wase, n. Etym: [Cf. Sw. vase a sheaf.] Defn: A bundle of straw, or other material, to relieve the pressure of burdens carried upon the head. [Prov. Eng.] Halliwell. WASH Wash, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Washed; p. pr. & vb. n. Washing.] Etym: [OE. waschen, AS. wascan; akin to D. wasschen, G. waschen, OHG. wascan, Icel. & Sw. vaska, Dan. vaske, and perhaps to E. water. sq. root150.] 1. To cleanse by ablution, or dipping or rubbing in water; to apply water or other liquid to for the purpose of cleansing; to scrub with water, etc., or as with water; as, to wash the hands or body; to wash garments; to wash sheep or wool; to wash the pavement or floor; to wash the bark of trees. When Pilate saw that he could prevail nothing, . . . he took water and washed his hands before the multitude, saying, I am innocent of the blood of this just person. Matt. xxvii. 24. 2. To cover with water or any liquid; to wet; to fall on and moisten; hence, to overflow or dash against; as, waves wash the shore. Fresh-blown roses washed with dew. Milton. [The landscape] washed with a cold, gray mist. Longfellow. 3. To waste or abrade by the force of water in motion; as, heavy rains wash a road or an embankment. 4. To remove by washing to take away by, or as by, the action of water; to drag or draw off as by the tide; -- often with away, off, out, etc.; as, to wash dirt from the hands. Arise, and be baptized, and wash away thy sins. Acts xxii. 16. The tide will wash you off. Shak. 5. To cover with a thin or watery coat of color; to tint lightly and thinly. 6. To overlay with a thin coat of metal; as, steel washed with silver. To wash gold, etc., to treat earth or gravel, or crushed ore, with water, in order to separate the gold or other metal, or metallic ore, through their superior gravity. -- To wash the hands of. See under Hand. WASH Wash, v. i. 1. To perform the act of ablution. Wash in Jordan seven times. 2 Kings v. 10. 2. To clean anything by rubbing or dipping it in water; to perform the business of cleansing clothes, ore, etc., in water. "She can wash and scour." Shak. 3. To bear without injury the operation of being washed; as, some calicoes do not wash. [Colloq.] 4. To be wasted or worn away by the action of water, as by a running or overflowing stream, or by the dashing of the sea; -- said of road, a beach, etc. WASH Wash, n. 1. The act of washing; an ablution; a cleansing, wetting, or dashing with water; hence, a quantity, as of clothes, washed at once. 2. A piece of ground washed by the action of a sea or river, or sometimes covered and sometimes left dry; the shallowest part of a river, or arm of the sea; also, a bog; a marsh; a fen; as, the washes in Lincolnshire. "The Wash of Edmonton so gay." Cowper. These Lincoln washes have devoured them. Shak. 3. Substances collected and deposited by the action of water; as, the wash of a sewer, of a river, etc. The wash of pastures, fields, commons, and roads, where rain water hath a long time settled. Mortimer. 4. Waste liquid, the refuse of food, the collection from washed dishes, etc., from a kitchen, often used as food for pigs. Shak. 5. (Distilling) (a) The fermented wort before the spirit is extracted. (b) A mixture of dunder, molasses, water, and scummings, used in the West Indies for distillation. B. Edwards. 6. That with which anything is washed, or wetted, smeared, tinted, etc., upon the surface. Specifically: -- (a) A liquid cosmetic for the complexion. (b) A liquid dentifrice. (c) A liquid preparation for the hair; as, a hair wash. (d) A medical preparation in a liquid form for external application; a lotion. (e) (Painting) A thin coat of color, esp. water color. (j) A thin coat of metal laid on anything for beauty or preservation. 7. (Naut.) (a) The blade of an oar, or the thin part which enters the water. (b) The backward current or disturbed water caused by the action of oars, or of a steamer's screw or paddles, etc. 8. The flow, swash, or breaking of a body of water, as a wave; also, the sound of it. 9. Ten strikes, or bushels, of oysters. [Prov. Eng.] Wash ball, a ball of soap to be used in washing the hands or face. Swift. -- Wash barrel (Fisheries), a barrel nearly full of split mackerel, loosely put in, and afterward filled with salt water in order to soak the blood from the fish before salting. -- Wash bottle. (Chem.) (a) A bottle partially filled with some liquid through which gases are passed for the purpose of purifying them, especially by removing soluble constituents. (b) A washing bottle. See under Washing. -- Wash gilding. See Water gilding. -- Wash leather, split sheepskin dressed with oil, in imitation of chamois, or shammy, and used for dusting, cleaning glass or plate, etc.; also, alumed, or buff, leather for soldiers' belts. WASH Wash, a. 1 Defn: Washy; weak. [Obs.] Their bodies of so weak and wash a temper. Beau. & Fl. 2. Capable of being washed without injury; washable; as, wash goods. [Colloq.] WASHABLE Wash"a*ble, a. Defn: Capable of being washed without damage to fabric or color. WASHBOARD Wash"board`, n. 1. A fluted, or ribbed, board on which clothes are rubbed in washing them. 2. A board running round, and serving as a facing for, the walls of a room, next to the floor; a mopboard. 3. (Naut.) Defn: A broad, thin plank, fixed along the gunwale of boat to keep the sea from breaking inboard; also, a plank on the sill of a lower deck port, for the same purpose; -- called also wasteboard. Mar. Di WASHBOWL Wash"bowl`, n. Defn: A basin, or bowl, to hold water for washing one's hands, face, etc. WASHDISH Wash"dish`, n. 1. A washbowl. 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: Same as Washerwoman, 2. [Prov. Eng.] WASH DRAWING Wash drawing. (Art) Defn: In water-color painting, work in, or a work done chiefly in, washes, as distinguished from that done in stipple, in body color, etc. WASHED Washed, a. (Zoöl.) Defn: Appearing as if overlaid with a thin layer of different color; -- said of the colors of certain birds and insects. WASHED SALE Washed sale. Defn: Same as Wash sale. WASHEN Wash"en, obs. Defn: p. p. of Wash. Chaucer. WASHER Wash"er, n. Etym: [AS. wæscere.] 1. One who, or that which, washes. 2. A ring of metal, leather, or other material, or a perforated plate, used for various purposes, as around a bolt or screw to form a seat for the head or nut, or around a wagon axle to prevent endwise motion of the hub of the wheel and relieve friction, or in a joint to form a packing, etc. 3. (Plumbing) Defn: A fitting, usually having a plug, applied to a cistern, tub, sink, or the like, and forming the outlet opening. 4. (Zoöl.) Defn: The common raccoon. 5. (Zoöl.) Defn: Same as Washerwoman, 2. [Prov. Eng.] WASHERMAN Wash"er*man, n.; pl. Washermen (. Defn: A man who washes clothes, esp. for hire, or for others. WASHERWOMAN Wash"er*wom`an, n.; pl. Washerwomen (. 1. A woman who washes clothes, especially for hire, or for others. 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: The pied wagtail; -- so called in allusion to its beating the water with its tail while tripping along the leaves of water plants. [Prov. Eng.] WASHHOUSE Wash"house`, n. Defn: An outbuilding for washing, esp. one for washing clothes; a laundry. WASHINESS Wash"i*ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being washy, watery, or weak. WASHING Wash"ing, n. 1. The act of one who washes; the act of cleansing with water; ablution. 2. The clothes washed, esp. at one time; a wash. Washing bear (Zoöl.), the raccoon. -- Washing bottle (Chem.), a bottle fitted with glass tubes passing through the cork, so that on blowing into one of the tubes a stream of water issuing from the other may be directed upon anything to be washed or rinsed, as a precipitate upon a filter, etc. -- Washing fluid, a liquid used as a cleanser, and consisting usually of alkaline salts resembling soaps in their action. -- Washing machine, a machine for washing; specifically, a machine for washing clothes. -- Washing soda. (Chem.) See Sodium carbonate, under Sodium. -- Washing stuff, any earthy deposit containing gold enough to pay for washing it; -- so called among gold miners. WASHINGTONIAN Wash`ing*to"ni*an, a. 1. Pertaining to, or characteristic of, George Washington; as, a Washingtonian policy. Lowell. 2. Designating, or pertaining to, a temperance society and movement started in Baltimore in 1840 on the principle of total abstinence. -- n. Defn: A member of the Washingtonian Society. WASHOE PROCESS Wash"oe proc`ess. [From the Washoe district, Nevada.] Defn: The process of treating silver ores by grinding in pans or tubs with the addition of mercury, and sometimes of chemicals such as blue vitriol and salt. WASH-OFF Wash"-off`, a. (Calico Printing) Defn: Capable of being washed off; not permanent or durable; -- said of colors not fixed by steaming or otherwise. WASHOUT Wash"out`, n. Defn: The washing out or away of earth, etc., especially of a portion of the bed of a road or railroad by a fall of rain or a freshet; also, a place, especially in the bed of a road or railroad, where the earth has been washed away. WASHPOT Wash"pot`, n. 1. A pot or vessel in which anything is washed. 2. (Tin-Plate Manuf.) Defn: A pot containing melted tin into which the plates are dipped to be coated. WASH SALE Wash sale. (Stock Exchange) Defn: A sale made in washing. See Washing, n., 3, above. WASHSTAND Wash"stand`, n. Defn: A piece of furniture holding the ewer or pitcher, basin, and other requisites for washing the person. WASH STAND Wash stand. Defn: In a stable or garage, a place in the floor prepared so that carriages or automobiles may be washed there and the water run off. [Cant] WASHTUB Wash"tub`, n. Defn: A tub in which clothes are washed. WASHY Wash"y, a. Etym: [From Wash.] 1. Watery; damp; soft. "Washy ooze." Milton. 2. Lacking substance or strength; weak; thin; dilute; feeble; as, washy tea; washy resolutions. A polish . . . not over thin and washy. Sir H. Wotton. 3. Not firm or hardy; liable to sweat profusely with labor; as, a washy horse. [Local, U. S.] WASITE Wa"site, n. Etym: [See Wasium.] (Min.) Defn: A variety of allanite from Sweden supposed to contain wasium. WASIUM Wa"si*um, n. Etym: [NL. So called from Wasa, or Vasa, the name of a former royal family of Sweden.] (Chem.) Defn: A rare element supposed by Bahr to have been extracted from wasite, but now identified with thorium. WASP Wasp, n. Etym: [OE. waspe, AS. wæps, wæfs; akin to D. wesp, G. wespe, OHG. wafsa, wefsa, Lith. vapsa gadfly, Russ. osa wasp, L. vespa, and perhaps to E. weave.] (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of numerous species of stinging hymenopterous insects, esp. any of the numerous species of the genus Vespa, which includes the true, or social, wasps, some of which are called yellow jackets. Note: The social wasps make a complex series of combs, of a substance like stiff paper, often of large size, and protect them by a paperlike covering. The larvæ are reared in the cells of the combs, and eat insects and insect larvæ brought to them by the adults, but the latter feed mainly on the honey and pollen of flowers, and on the sweet juices of fruit. See Illust. in Appendix. Digger wasp, any one of numerous species of solitary wasps that make their nests in burrows which they dig in the ground, as the sand wasps. See Sand wasp, under Sand. -- Mud wasp. See under Mud. -- Potter wasp. See under Potter. -- Wasp fly, a species of fly resembling a wasp, but without a sting. WASPISH Wasp"ish, a. 1. Resembling a wasp in form; having a slender waist, like a wasp. 2. Quick to resent a trifling affront; characterized by snappishness; irritable; irascible; petulant; snappish. He was naturally a waspish and hot man. Bp. Hall. Much do I suffer, much, to keep in peace This jealous, waspish, wrong-head, rhyming race. Pope. Syn. -- Snappish; petulant; irritable; irascible; testy; peevish; captious. -- Wasp"ish*ly, adv. -- Wasp"ish*ness, n. WASSAIL Was"sail, n. Etym: [AS. wes hal (or an equivalent form in another dialect) be in health, which was the form of drinking a health. The form wes is imperative. See Was, and Whole.] 1. An ancient expression of good wishes on a festive occasion, especially in drinking to some one. Geoffrey of Monmouth relates, on the authority of Walter Calenius, that this lady [Rowena], the daughter of Hengist, knelt down on the approach of the king, and, presenting him with a cup of wine, exclaimed, Lord king wæs heil, that is, literally, Health be to you. N. Drake. 2. An occasion on which such good wishes are expressed in drinking; a drinking bout; a carouse. "In merry wassail he . . . peals his loud song." Sir W. Scott. The king doth wake to-night and takes his rouse, Keeps wassail. Shak. The victors abandoned themselves to feasting and wassail. Prescott. 3. The liquor used for a wassail; esp., a beverage formerly much used in England at Christmas and other festivals, made of ale (or wine) flavored with spices, sugar, toast, roasted apples, etc.; -- called also lamb's wool. A jolly wassail bowl, A wassail of good ale. Old Song. 4. A festive or drinking song or glee. [Obs.] Have you done your wassail! 'T is a handsome, drowsy ditty, I'll assure you. Beau. & Fl. WASSAIL Was"sail, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to wassail, or to a wassail; convivial; as, a wassail bowl. "Awassail candle, my lord, all tallow." Shak. Wassail bowl, a bowl in which wassail was mixed, and placed upon the table. "Spiced wassail bowl." J. Fletcher. "When the cloth was removed, the butler brought in a huge silver vessel . . . Its appearance was hailed with acclamation, being the wassail bowl so renowned in Christmas festivity." W. Irving. -- Wassail cup, a cup from which wassail was drunk. WASSAIL Was"sail, v. i. Defn: To hold a wassail; to carouse. Spending all the day, and good part of the night, in dancing, caroling, and wassailing. Sir P. Sidney. WASSAILER Was"sail*er, n. Defn: One who drinks wassail; one who engages in festivity, especially in drinking; a reveler. The rudeness and swilled insolence Of such late wassailers. Milton. WAST Wast. Defn: The second person singular of the verb be, in the indicative mood, imperfect tense; -- now used only in solemn or poetical style. See Was. WASTAGE Wast"age, n. Defn: Loss by use, decay, evaporation, leakage, or the like; waste. WASTE Waste, a. Etym: [OE. wast, OF. wast, from L. vastus, influenced by the kindred German word; cf. OHG. wuosti, G. wüst, OS. w, D. woest, AS. weste. Cf. Vast.] 1. Desolate; devastated; stripped; bare; hence, dreary; dismal; gloomy; cheerless. The dismal situation waste and wild. Milton. His heart became appalled as he gazed forward into the waste darkness of futurity. Sir W. Scott. 2. Lying unused; unproductive; worthless; valueless; refuse; rejected; as, waste land; waste paper. But his waste words returned to him in vain. Spenser. Not a waste or needless sound, Till we come to holier ground. Milton. Ill day which made this beauty waste. Emerson. 3. Lost for want of occupiers or use; superfluous. And strangled with her waste fertility. Milton. Waste gate, a gate by which the superfluous water of a reservoir, or the like, is discharged. -- Waste paper. See under Paper. -- Waste pipe, a pipe for carrying off waste, or superfluous, water or other fluids. Specifically: (a) (Steam Boilers) An escape pipe. See under Escape. (b) (Plumbing) The outlet pipe at the bottom of a bowl, tub, sink, or the like. -- Waste steam. (a) Steam which escapes the air. (b) Exhaust steam. -- Waste trap, a trap for a waste pipe, as of a sink. WASTE Waste, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wasted; p. pr. & vb. n. Wasting.] Etym: [OE. wasten, OF. waster, guaster, gaster, F. gâter to spoil, L. vastare to devastate, to lay waste, fr. vastus waste, desert, uncultivated, ravaged, vast, but influenced by a kindred German word; cf. OHG. wuosten, G. wüsten, AS. westan. See Waste, a.] 1. To bring to ruin; to devastate; to desolate; to destroy. Thou barren ground, whom winter's wrath hath wasted, Art made a mirror to behold my plight. Spenser. The Tiber Insults our walls, and wastes our fruitful grounds. Dryden. 2. To wear away by degrees; to impair gradually; to diminish by constant loss; to use up; to consume; to spend; to wear out. Until your carcasses be wasted in the wilderness. Num. xiv. 33. O, were I able To waste it all myself, and leave ye none! Milton. Here condemned To waste eternal days in woe and pain. Milton. Wasted by such a course of life, the infirmities of age daily grew on him. Robertson. 3. To spend unnecessarily or carelessly; to employ prodigally; to expend without valuable result; to apply to useless purposes; to lavish vainly; to squander; to cause to be lost; to destroy by scattering or injury. The younger son gathered all together, and . . . wasted his substance with riotous living. Luke xv. 13. Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, And waste its sweetness on the desert air. Gray. 4. (Law) Defn: To damage, impair, or injure, as an estate, voluntarily, or by suffering the buildings, fences, etc., to go to decay. Syn. -- To squander; dissipate; lavish; desolate. WASTE Waste, v. i. 1. To be diminished; to lose bulk, substance, strength, value, or the like, gradually; to be consumed; to dwindle; to grow less. The time wasteth night and day. Chaucer. The barrel of meal shall not waste. 1 Kings xvii. 14. But man dieth, and wasteth away. Job xiv. 10. 2. (Sporting) Defn: To procure or sustain a reduction of flesh; -- said of a jockey in preparation for a race, etc. WASTE Waste, n. Etym: [OE. waste; cf. the kindred AS. w, OHG. w, wuosti, G. wüste. See Waste, a. & v.] 1. The act of wasting, or the state of being wasted; a squandering; needless destruction; useless consumption or expenditure; devastation; loss without equivalent gain; gradual loss or decrease, by use, wear, or decay; as, a waste of property, time, labor, words, etc. "Waste . . . of catel and of time." Chaucer. For all this waste of wealth loss of blood. Milton. He will never . . . in the way of waste, attempt us again. Shak. Little wastes in great establishments, constantly occurring, may defeat the energies of a mighty capital. L. Beecher. 2. That which is wasted or desolate; a devastated, uncultivated, or wild country; a deserted region; an unoccupied or unemployed space; a dreary void; a desert; a wilderness. "The wastes of Nature." Emerson. All the leafy nation sinks at last, And Vulcan rides in triumph o'er the waste. Dryden. The gloomy waste of waters which bears his name is his tomb and his monument. Bancroft. 3. That which is of no value; worthless remnants; refuse. Specifically: Remnants of cops, or other refuse resulting from the working of cotton, wool, hemp, and the like, used for wiping machinery, absorbing oil in the axle boxes of railway cars, etc. 4. (Law) Defn: Spoil, destruction, or injury, done to houses, woods, fences, lands, etc., by a tenant for life or for years, to the prejudice of the heir, or of him in reversion or remainder. Note: Waste is voluntary, as by pulling down buildings; or permissive, as by suffering them to fall for want of necessary repairs. Whatever does a lasting damage to the freehold is a waste. Blackstone. 5. (Mining) Defn: Old or abandoned workings, whether left as vacant space or filled with refuse. Syn. -- Prodigality; diminution; loss; dissipation; destruction; devastation; havoc; desolation; ravage. WASTEBASKET Waste"bas`ket, n. Defn: A basket used in offices, libraries, etc., as a receptacle for waste paper. WASTEBOARD Waste"board`, n. (Naut.) Defn: See Washboard, 3. WASTEBOOK Waste"book`, n. (Com.) Defn: A book in which rough entries of transactions are made, previous to their being carried into the journal. WASTEFUL Waste"ful, c. 1. Full of waste; destructive to property; ruinous; as; wasteful practices or negligence; wasteful expenses. 2. Expending, or tending to expend, property, or that which is valuable, in a needless or useless manner; lavish; prodigal; as, a wasteful person; a wasteful disposition. 3. Waste; desolate; unoccupied; untilled. [Obs.] In wilderness and wasteful desert strayed. Spenser. Syn. -- Lavish; profuse; prodigal; extravagant. -- Waste"ful*ly, adv. -- Waste"ful*ness, n. WASTEL Was"tel, n. Etym: [OF. wastel, gastel, F. gâteau, LL. wastellus, fr. MHG. wastel a kind of bread; cf. OHG. & AS. wist food.] Defn: A kind of white and fine bread or cake; -- called also wastel bread, and wastel cake. [Obs.] Roasted flesh or milk and wasted bread. Chaucer. The simnel bread and wastel cakes, which were only used at the tables of the highest nobility. Sir W. Scott. WASTENESS Waste"ness, n. 1. The quality or state of being waste; a desolate state or condition; desolation. A day of trouble and distress, a day of wasteness. Zeph. i. 15. 2. That which is waste; a desert; a waste. [R.] Through woods and wasteness wide him daily sought. Spenser. WASTER Wast"er, n. Etym: [OE. wastour, OF. wasteor, gasteor. See Waste, v. t.] 1. One who, or that which, wastes; one who squanders; one who consumes or expends extravagantly; a spendthrift; a prodigal. He also that is slothful in his work is brother to him that is a great waster. Prov. xviii. 9. Sconces are great wasters of candles. Swift. 2. An imperfection in the wick of a candle, causing it to waste; -- called also a thief. Halliwell. 3. A kind of cudgel; also, a blunt-edged sword used as a foil. Half a dozen of veneys at wasters with a good fellow for a broken head. Beau. & Fl. Being unable to wield the intellectual arms of reason, they are fain to betake them unto wasters. Sir T. Browne. WASTETHRIFT Waste"thrift`, n. Defn: A spendthrift. [Obs.] WASTEWEIR Waste"weir`, n. Defn: An overfall, or weir, for the escape, or overflow, of superfluous water from a canal, reservoir, pond, or the like. WASTING Wast"ing, a. Defn: Causing waste; also, undergoing waste; diminishing; as, a wasting disease; a wasting fortune. Wasting palsy (Med.), progressive muscular atrophy. See under Progressive. WASTOR Wast"or, n. Defn: A waster; a thief. [Obs. or R.] [Written also wastour.] Chaucer. Southey. WASTOREL Wast"o*rel, n. Defn: See Wastrel. [Obs.] WASTREL Wast"rel, n. 1. Any waste thing or substance; as: (a) Waste land or common land. [Obs.] Carew. (b) A profligate. [Prov. Eng.] (c) A neglected child; a street Arab. [Eng.] 2. Anything cast away as bad or useless, as imperfect bricks, china, etc. [Obs. or Prov. Eng.] WATCH Watch, n. Etym: [OE. wacche, AS. wæcce, fr. wacian to wake; akin to D. wacht, waak, G. wacht, wache. Wake, v. i. ] 1. The act of watching; forbearance of sleep; vigil; wakeful, vigilant, or constantly observant attention; close observation; guard; preservative or preventive vigilance; formerly, a watching or guarding by night. Shepherds keeping watch by night. Milton. All the long night their mournful watch they keep. Addison. Note: Watch was formerly distinguished from ward, the former signifying a watching or guarding by night, and the latter a watching, guarding, or protecting by day Hence, they were not unfrequently used together, especially in the phrase to keep watch and ward, to denote continuous and uninterrupted vigilance or protection, or both watching and guarding. This distinction is now rarely recognized, watch being used to signify a watching or guarding both by night and by day, and ward, which is now rarely used, having simply the meaning of guard, or protection, without reference to time. Still, when she slept, he kept both watch and ward. Spenser. Ward, guard, or custodia, is chiefly applied to the daytime, in order to apprehend rioters, and robbers on the highway . . . Watch, is properly applicable to the night only, . . . and it begins when ward ends, and ends when that begins. Blackstone. 2. One who watches, or those who watch; a watchman, or a body of watchmen; a sentry; a guard. Pilate said unto them, Ye have a watch; go your way, make it as sure as ye can. Matt. xxvii. 65. 3. The post or office of a watchman; also, the place where a watchman is posted, or where a guard is kept. He upbraids Iago, that he made him Brave me upon the watch. Shak. 4. The period of the night during which a person does duty as a sentinel, or guard; the time from the placing of a sentinel till his relief; hence, a division of the night. I did stand my watch upon the hill. Shak. Might we but hear . . . Or whistle from the lodge, or village cock Count the night watches to his feathery dames. Milton. 5. A small timepiece, or chronometer, to be carried about the person, the machinery of which is moved by a spring. Note: Watches are often distinguished by the kind of escapement used, as an anchor watch, a lever watch, a chronometer watch, etc. (see the Note under Escapement, n., 3); also, by the kind of case, as a gold or silver watch, an open-faced watch, a hunting watch, or hunter, etc. 6. (Naut.) (a) An allotted portion of time, usually four hour for standing watch, or being on deck ready for duty. Cf. Dogwatch. (b) That part, usually one half, of the officers and crew, who together attend to the working of a vessel for an allotted time, usually four hours. The watches are designated as the port watch, and the starboard watch. Anchor watch (Naut.), a detail of one or more men who keep watch on deck when a vessel is at anchor. -- To be on the watch, to be looking steadily for some event. -- Watch and ward (Law), the charge or care of certain officers to keep a watch by night and a guard by day in towns, cities, and other districts, for the preservation of the public peace. Wharton. Burrill. -- Watch and watch (Naut.), the regular alternation in being on watch and off watch of the two watches into which a ship's crew is commonly divided. -- Watch barrel, the brass box in a watch, containing the mainspring. -- Watch bell (Naut.), a bell struck when the half-hour glass is run out, or at the end of each half hour. Craig. -- Watch bill (Naut.), a list of the officers and crew of a ship as divided into watches, with their stations. Totten. -- Watch case, the case, or outside covering, of a watch; also, a case for holding a watch, or in which it is kept. -- Watch chain. Same as watch guard, below. -- Watch clock, a watchman's clock; see under Watchman. -- Watch fire, a fire lighted at night, as a signal, or for the use of a watch or guard. -- Watch glass. (a) A concavo-convex glass for covering the face, or dial, of a watch; -- also called watch crystal. (b) (Naut.) A half- hour glass used to measure the time of a watch on deck.(Chem.) A round concavo-convex glass of shallow depth used for certain manipulations of chemicals in a laboratory. -- Watch guard, a chain or cord by which a watch is attached to the person. -- Watch gun (Naut.), a gun sometimes fired on shipboard at 8 p. m., when the night watch begins. -- Watch light, a low-burning lamp used by watchers at night; formerly, a candle having a rush wick. -- Watch night, The last night of the year; -- so called by the Methodists, Moravians, and others, who observe it by holding religious meetings lasting until after midnight. -- Watch paper, an old-fashioned ornament for the inside of a watch case, made of paper cut in some fanciful design, as a vase with flowers, etc. -- Watch tackle (Naut.), a small, handy purchase, consisting of a tailed double block, and a single block with a hook. WATCH Watch, v. i. Etym: [Cf. AS. woeccan, wacian. sq. root134. See Watch, n., Wake, v. i. ] 1. To be awake; to be or continue without sleep; to wake; to keep vigil. I have two nights watched with you. Shak. Couldest thou not watch one hour Mark xiv. 37. 2. To be attentive or vigilant; to give heed; to be on the lookout; to keep guard; to act as sentinel. Take ye heed, watch and pray. Mark xiii. 33. The Son gave signal high To the bright minister that watched. Milton. 3. To be expectant; to look with expectation; to wait; to seek opportunity. My soul waiteth for the Lord more than they that watch for the morning. Ps. cxxx. 6. 4. To remain awake with any one as nurse or attendant; to attend on the sick during the night; as, to watch with a man in a fever. 5. (Naut.) Defn: To serve the purpose of a watchman by floating properly in its place; -- said of a buoy. To watch over, to be cautiously observant of; to inspect, superintend, and guard. WATCH Watch, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Watched; p. pr. & vb. n. Watching.] 1. To give heed to; to observe the actions or motions of, for any purpose; to keep in view; not to lose from sight and observation; as, to watch the progress of a bill in the legislature. Saul also sent messengers unto David's house to watch him, and to slay him. 1 Sam. xix. 11 I must cool a little, and watch my opportunity. Landor. In lazy mood I watched the little circles die. Longfellow. 2. To tend; to guard; to have in keeping. And flaming ministers, to watch and tend Their earthy charge. Milton. Paris watched the flocks in the groves of Ida. Broome. WATCHDOG Watch"dog`, n. Defn: A dog kept to watch and guard premises or property, and to give notice of the approach of intruders. WATCHER Watch"er, n. Defn: One who watches; one who sits up or continues; a diligent observer; specifically, one who attends upon the sick during the night. WATCHES Watch"es, n. pl. (Bot.) Defn: The leaves of Sarace. See Trumpets. WATCHET Watchet, a. Etym: [Probably from F. vaciet bilberry, whortleberry; cf. L. vaccinium blueberry, whortleberry.] Defn: Pale or light blue. [Obs.] "Watchet mantles." Spenser. Who stares in Germany at watchet eyes Dryden. WATCHFUL Watch"ful, a. Defn: Full of watch; vigilant; attentive; careful to observe closely; observant; cautious; -- with of before the thing to be regulated or guarded; as, to be watchful of one's behavior; and with against before the thing to be avoided; as, to be watchful against the growth of vicious habits. "Many a watchful night." Shak. "Happy watchful shepherds." Milton. 'Twixt prayer and watchful love his heart dividing. Keble. Syn. -- Vigilant; attentive; cautious; observant; circumspect; wakeful; heedful. -- Watch"ful*ly, adv. -- Watch"ful*ness, n. WATCHHOUSE Watch"house`, n.; pl. Watchhouses (. 1. A house in which a watch or guard is placed. 2. A place where persons under temporary arrest by the police of a city are kept; a police station; a lockup. WATCHMAKER Watch"mak`er, n. Defn: One whose occupation is to make and repair watches. WATCHMAN Watch"man, n.; pl. Watchmen (. 1. One set to watch; a person who keeps guard; a guard; a sentinel. 2. Specifically, one who guards a building, or the streets of a city, by night. Watchman beetle (Zoöl.), the European dor. -- Watchman's clock, a watchman's detector in which the apparatus for recording the times of visiting several stations is contained within a single clock. -- Watchman's detector, or Watchman's time detector, an apparatus for recording the time when a watchman visits a station on his rounds. -- Watchman's rattle, an instrument having at the end of a handle a revolving arm, which, by the action of a strong spring upon cogs, produces, when in motion, a loud, harsh, rattling sound. WATCH MEETING Watch meeting. Defn: A religious meeting held in the closing hours of the year. WATCHTOWER Watch"tow`er, n. Defn: A tower in which a sentinel is placed to watch for enemies, the approach of danger, or the like. WATCHWORD Watch"word`, n. 1. A word given to sentinels, and to such as have occasion to visit the guards, used as a signal by which a friend is known from an enemy, or a person who has a right to pass the watch from one who has not; a countersign; a password. 2. A sentiment or motto; esp., one used as a rallying cry or a signal for action. Nor deal in watchwords overmuch. Tennyson. WATER Wa"ter, n. Etym: [AS. wæter; akin to OS. watar, OFries. wetir, weter, LG. & D. water, G. wasser, OHG. wazzar, Icel. vatn, Sw. vatten, Dan. vand, Goth. wat, O. Slav. & Russ. voda, Gr. udan water, ud to wet, and perhaps to L. unda wave. Dropsy, Hydra, Otter, Wet, Whisky.] 1. The fluid which descends from the clouds in rain, and which forms rivers, lakes, seas, etc. "We will drink water." Shak."Powers of fire, air, water, and earth." Milton. Note: Pure water consists of hydrogen and oxygen, H2O, and is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, transparent liquid, which is very slightly compressible. At its maximum density, 39º Fahr. or 4º C., it is the standard for specific gravities, one cubic centimeter weighing one gram. It freezes at 32º Fahr. or 0º C. and boils at 212º Fahr. or 100º C. (see Ice, Steam). It is the most important natural solvent, and is frequently impregnated with foreign matter which is mostly removed by distillation; hence, rain water is nearly pure. It is an important ingredient in the tissue of animals and plants, the human body containing about two thirds its weight of water. 2. A body of water, standing or flowing; a lake, river, or other collection of water. Remembering he had passed over a small water a poor scholar when first coming to the university, he kneeled. Fuller. 3. Any liquid secretion, humor, or the like, resembling water; esp., the urine. 4. (Pharm.) Defn: A solution in water of a gaseous or readily volatile substance; as, ammonia water. U. S. Pharm. 5. The limpidity and luster of a precious stone, especially a diamond; as, a diamond of the first water, that is, perfectly pure and transparent. Hence, of the first water, that is, of the first excellence. 6. A wavy, lustrous pattern or decoration such as is imparted to linen, silk, metals, etc. See Water, v. t., 3, Damask, v. t., and Damaskeen. 7. An addition to the shares representing the capital of a stock company so that the aggregate par value of the shares is increased while their value for investment is diminished, or "diluted." [Brokers' Cant] Note: Water is often used adjectively and in the formation of many self-explaining compounds; as, water drainage; water gauge, or water- gauge; waterfowl, water-fowl, or water fowl; water-beaten; water- borne, water-circled, water-girdled, water-rocked, etc. Hard water. See under Hard. -- Inch of water, a unit of measure of quantity of water, being the quantity which will flow through an orifice one inch square, or a circular orifice one inch in diameter, in a vertical surface, under a stated constant head; also called miner's inch, and water inch. The shape of the orifice and the head vary in different localities. In the Western United States, for hydraulic mining, the standard aperture is square and the head from 4 to 9 inches above its center. In Europe, for experimental hydraulics, the orifice is usually round and the head from -- Mineral water, waters which are so impregnated with foreign ingredients, such as gaseous, sulphureous, and saline substances, as to give them medicinal properties, or a particular flavor or temperature. -- Soft water, water not impregnated with lime or mineral salts. -- To hold water. See under Hold, v. t. -- To keep one's head above water, to keep afloat; fig., to avoid failure or sinking in the struggles of life. [Colloq.] -- To make water. (a) To pass urine. Swift. (b) (Naut.) To admit water; to leak. -- Water of crystallization (Chem.), the water combined with many salts in their crystalline form. This water is loosely, but, nevertheless, chemically, combined, for it is held in fixed and definite amount for each substance containing it. Thus, while pure copper sulphate, CuSO4, is a white amorphous substance, blue vitriol, the crystallized form, CuSO4.5H2O, contains five molecules of water of crystallization. -- Water on the brain (Med.), hydrocephalus. -- Water on the chest (Med.), hydrothorax. Note: Other phrases, in which water occurs as the first element, will be found in alphabetical order in the Vocabulary. WATER Wa"ter, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Watered; p. pr. & vb. n. Watering.] Etym: [AS. wæterian, gewæterian.] 1. To wet or supply with water; to moisten; to overflow with water; to irrigate; as, to water land; to water flowers. With tears watering the ground. Milton. Men whose lives gilded on like rivers that water the woodlands. Longfellow. 2. To supply with water for drink; to cause or allow to drink; as, to water cattle and horses. 3. To wet and calender, as cloth, so as to impart to it a lustrous appearance in wavy lines; to diversify with wavelike lines; as, to water silk. Cf. Water, n., 6. 4. To add water to (anything), thereby extending the quantity or bulk while reducing the strength or quality; to extend; to dilute; to weaken. To water stock, to increase the capital stock of a company by issuing new stock, thus diminishing the value of the individual shares. Cf. Water, n., 7. [Brokers' Cant] WATER Wa"ter, v. i. 1. To shed, secrete, or fill with, water or liquid matter; as, his eyes began to water. If thine eyes can water for his death. Shak. 2. To get or take in water; as, the ship put into port to water. The mouth waters, a phrase denoting that a person or animal has a longing desire for something, since the sight of food often causes one who is hungry to have an increased flow of saliva. WATER ADDER Wa"ter ad"der. (Zoöl.) (a) The water moccasin. (b) The common, harmless American water snake (Tropidonotus sipedon). See Illust. under Water Snake. WATERAGE Wa"ter*age (; 48), n. Defn: Money paid for transportation of goods, etc., by water. [Eng.] WATER AGRIMONY Wa"ter ag"ri*mo*ny. (Bot.) Defn: A kind of bur marigold (Bidens tripartita) found in wet places in Europe. WATER ALOE Wa"ter al"oe. (Bot.) Defn: See Water soldier. WATER ANTELOPE Wa"ter an"te*lope. Defn: See Water buck. WATER ARUM Wa"ter a"rum. (Bot.) Defn: An aroid herb (Calla palustris) having a white spathe. It is an inhabitant of the north temperate zone. WATER BACK Wa"ter back`. Defn: See under 1st Back. WATER BAILIFF Wa"ter bail"iff. Defn: An officer of the customs, whose duty it is to search vessels. [Eng.] WATER BALLAST Wa"ter bal"last. (Naut.) Defn: Water confined in specially constructed compartments in a vessel's hold, to serve as ballast. WATER BAROMETER Wa"ter ba*rom"e*ter. (Physics) Defn: A barometer in which the changes of atmospheric pressure are indicated by the motion of a column of water instead of mercury. It requires a column of water about thirty-three feet in height. WATER BATH Wa"ter bath`. Defn: A device for regulating the temperature of anything subjected to heat, by surrounding the vessel containing it with another vessel containing water which can be kept at a desired temperature; also, a vessel designed for this purpose. WATER BATTERY Wa"ter bat"ter*y. 1. (Elec.) Defn: A voltaic battery in which the exciting fluid is water. 2. (Mil.) Defn: A battery nearly on a level with the water. WATER BEAR Wa"ter bear`. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any species of Tardigrada, 2. See Illust. of Tardigrada. WATER-BEARER Wa"ter-bear`er, n. (Astron.) Defn: The constellation Aquarius. WATER BED Wa"ter bed`. Defn: A kind of mattress made of, or covered with, waterproof fabric and filled with water. It is used in hospitals for bedridden patients. WATER BEECH Wa"ter beech`. (Bot.) Defn: The American hornbeam. See Hornbeam. WATER BEETLE Wa"ter bee"tle. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of numerous species of aquatic beetles belonging to Dytiscus and allied genera of the family Dytiscidæ, and to various genera of the family Hydrophilidæ. These beetles swim with great agility, the fringed hind legs acting together like oars. WATER BELLOWS Wa"ter bel"lows. Defn: Same as Tromp. WATER BIRD Wa"ter bird`. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any aquatic bird; a water fowl. WATER BLACKBIRD Wa"ter black"*bird. (Zoöl.) Defn: The European water ousel, or dipper. WATERBOARD Wa"ter*board`, n. Defn: A board set up to windward in a boat, to keep out water. Ham. Nav. Encyc. WATER BOATMAN Wa"ter boat`man. (Zoöl.) Defn: A boat bug. WATERBOK Wa"ter*bok`, n. Etym: [D.] (Zoöl.) Defn: A water buck. WATER-BOUND Wa"ter-bound`, a. Defn: Prevented by a flood from proceeding. WATER BRAIN Wa"ter brain`. Defn: A disease of sheep; gid. WATER BRASH Wa"ter brash`. (Med.) Defn: See under Brash. WATER BREATHER Wa"ter breath"er. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any arthropod that breathes by means of gills. WATER BRIDGE Wa"ter bridge`. (Steam Boilers) Defn: See Water table. WATER BUCK Wa"ter buck`. (Zoöl.) Defn: A large, heavy antelope (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) native of Central Africa. It frequents the banks of rivers and is a good swimmer. It has a white ring around the rump. Called also photomok, water antelope, and waterbok. Note: The name is also applied to other related species, as the leche (Kobus leche), which has similar habits. WATER BUFFALO Wa"ter buf"fa*lo. (Zoöl.) Defn: The European buffalo. WATER BUG Wa"ter bug`. (Zoöl.) (a) The Croton bug. (b) Any one of numerous species of large, rapacious, aquatic, hemipterous insects belonging to Belostoma, Benacus, Zaitha, and other genera of the family Belostomatidæ. Their hind legs are long and fringed, and act like oars. Some of these insects are of great size, being among the largest existing Hemiptera. Many of them come out of the water and fly about at night. WATER BUTT Wa"ter butt`. Defn: A large, open-headed cask, set up on end, to contain water. Dickens. WATER CALTROP Wa"ter cal"trop. (Bot.) Defn: The water chestnut. WATER CAN Wa"ter can`. (Bot.) Defn: Any one of several species of Nuphar; the yellow frog lily; -- so called from the shape of the seed vessel. See Nuphar, and cf. Candock. Dr. Prior. WATER CANKER Wa"ter can"ker. (Med.) Defn: See Canker, n., 1. WATER CARRIAGE Wa"ter car"riage. 1. Transportation or conveyance by water; means of transporting by water. 2. A vessel or boat. [Obs.] Arbuthnot. WATER CART Wa"ter cart`. Defn: A cart carrying water; esp., one carrying water for sale, or for sprinkling streets, gardens, etc. WATER CAVY Wa"ter ca"vy. (Zoöl.) Defn: The capybara. WATER CELERY Wa"ter cel"er*y. (Bot.) Defn: A very acrid herb (Ranunculus sceleratus) growing in ditches and wet places; -- called also cursed crowfoot. WATER CELL Wa"ter cell`. Defn: A cell containing water; specifically (Zoöl.), one of the cells or chambers in which water is stored up in the stomach of a camel. WATER CEMENT Wa"ter ce*ment". Defn: Hydraulic cement. WATER CHESTNUT Wa"ter chest"nut. (Bot.) Defn: The fruit of Trapa natans and Trapa bicornis, Old World water plants bearing edible nutlike fruits armed with several hard and sharp points; also, the plant itself; -- called also water caltrop. WATER CHEVROTAIN Wa"ter chev`ro*tain". (Zoöl.) Defn: A large West African chevrotain (Hyæmoschus aquaticus). It has a larger body and shorter legs than the other allied species. Called also water deerlet. WATER CHICKEN Wa"ter chick"en. (Zoöl.) Defn: The common American gallinule. WATER CHICKWEED Wa"ter chick"weed`. (Bot.) Defn: A small annual plant (Montia fontana) growing in wet places in southern regions. WATER CHINQUAPIN Wa"ter chin"qua*pin. (Bot.) Defn: The American lotus, and its edible seeds, which somewhat resemble chinquapins. Cf. Yoncopin. WATER CLOCK Wa"ter clock`. Defn: An instrument or machine serving to measure time by the fall, or flow, of a certain quantity of water; a clepsydra. WATER-CLOSET Wa"ter-clos`et, n. Defn: A privy; especially, a privy furnished with a contrivance for introducing a stream of water to cleanse it. WATER COCK Wa"ter cock`. (Zoöl.) Defn: A large gallinule (Gallicrex cristatus) native of Australia, India, and the East Indies. In the breeding season the male is black and has a fleshy red caruncle, or horn, on the top of its head. Called also kora. WATER COLOR Wa"ter col`or. (Paint.) 1. A color ground with water and gum or other glutinous medium; a color the vehicle of which is water; -- so called in distinction from oil color. Note: It preserves its consistency when dried in a solid cake, which is used by rubbing off a portion on a moistened palette. Moist water colors are water colors kept in a semifluid or pasty state in little metal tubes or pans. 2. A picture painted with such colors. WATER-COLORIST Wa"ter-col`or*ist, n. Defn: One who paints in water colors. WATER COURSE Wa"ter course`. 1. A stream of water; a river or brook. Isa. xliv. 4. 2. A natural channel for water; also, a canal for the conveyance of water, especially in draining lands. 3. (Law) Defn: A running stream of water having a bed and banks; the easement one may have in the flowing of such a stream in its accustomed course. A water course may be sometimes dry. Angell. Burrill. WATERCOURSE Wa"ter*course`, n. (Shipbuilding) Defn: One of the holes in floor or other plates to permit water to flow through. WATER CRAFT Wa"ter craft`. Defn: Any vessel or boat plying on water; vessels and boats, collectively. WATER CRAKE Wa"ter crake`. (Zoöl.) (a) The dipper. (b) The spotted crake (Porzana maruetta). See Illust. of Crake. (c) The swamp hen, or crake, of Australia. WATER CRANE Wa"ter crane`. Defn: A goose-neck apparatus for supplying water from an elevated tank, as to the tender of a locomotive. WATER CRESS Wa"ter cress`. (Bot.) Defn: A perennial cruciferous herb (Nasturtium officinale) growing usually in clear running or spring water. The leaves are pungent, and used for salad and as an antiscorbutic. WATER CROW Wa"ter crow`. Etym: [So called in allusion to its dark plumage.] (Zoöl.) (a) The dipper. (b) The European coot. WATER CROWFOOT Wa"ter crow"foot`. (Bot.) Defn: An aquatic kind of buttercup (Ranunculus aquatilis), used as food for cattle in parts of England. Great water crowfoot, an American water plant (Ranunculus multifidus), having deep yellow flowers. WATER CURE Wa"ter cure`. 1. (Med.) Defn: Hydropathy. 2. A hydropathic institution. WATER DECK Wa"ter deck`. Defn: A covering of painting canvas for the equipments of a dragoon's horse. Wilhelm. WATER DEER Wa"ter deer`. (Zoöl.) (a) A small Chinese deer (Hydropotes inermis). Both sexes are destitute of antlers, but the male has large, descending canine tusks. (b) The water chevrotain. WATER DEERLET Wa"ter deer"let. Defn: See Water chevrotain. WATER DEVIL Wa"ter dev"il. (Zoöl.) Defn: The rapacious larva of a large water beetle (Hydrophilus piceus), and of other similar species. See Illust. of Water beetle. WATER DOCK Wa"ter dock`. (Bot.) Defn: A tall, coarse dock growing in wet places. The American water dock is Rumex orbiculatus, the European is R. Hydrolapathum. WATER DOCTOR Wa"ter doc"tor. (Med.) (a) One who professes to be able to divine diseases by inspection of the urine. (b) A physician who treats diseases with water; an hydropathist. WATER DOG Wa"ter dog`. 1. (Zoöl.) Defn: A dog accustomed to the water, or trained to retrieve waterfowl. Retrievers, waters spaniels, and Newfoundland dogs are so trained. 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: The menobranchus. 3. A small floating cloud, supposed to indicate rain. 4. A sailor, esp. an old sailor; an old salt. [Colloq.] WATER DRAIN Wa"ter drain`. Defn: A drain or channel for draining off water. WATER DRAINAGE Wa"ter drain"age (; 48). Defn: The draining off of water. WATER DRESSING Wa"ter dress"ing. (Med.) Defn: The treatment of wounds or ulcers by the application of water; also, a dressing saturated with water only, for application to a wound or an ulcer. WATER DROPWORT Wa"ter drop"wort`. (Bot.) Defn: A European poisonous umbelliferous plant (Enanthe fistulosa) with large hollow stems and finely divided leaves. WATER EAGLE Wa"ter ea"gle. (Zoöl.) Defn: The osprey. WATER ELDER Wa"ter el"der. (Bot.) Defn: The guelder-rose. WATER ELEPHANT Wa"ter el"e*phant. (Zoöl.) Defn: The hippopotamus. [R.] WATER ENGINE Wa"ter en"gine. Defn: An engine to raise water; or an engine moved by water; also, an engine or machine for extinguishing fires; a fire engine. WATERER Wa"ter*er, n. Defn: One who, or that which, waters. WATERFALL Wa"ter*fall`, n. 1. A fall, or perpendicular descent, of the water of a river or stream, or a descent nearly perpendicular; a cascade; a cataract. 2. (Hairdressing) Defn: An arrangement of a woman's back hair over a cushion or frame in some resemblance to a waterfall. 3. A certain kind of neck scarf. T. Hughes. WATER FEATHER; WATER FEATHER-FOIL Wa"ter feath"er or Wa"ter feath"er-foil`. (Bot.) Defn: The water violet (Hottonia palustris); also, the less showy American plant H. inflata. WATER FLAG Wa"ter flag`. (Bot.) Defn: A European species of Iris (Iris Pseudacorus) having bright yellow flowers. WATER FLANNEL Wa"ter flan"nel. (Bot.) Defn: A floating mass formed in pools by the entangled filaments of a European fresh-water alga (Cladophora crispata). WATER FLEA Wa"ter flea`. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of numerous species of small aquatic Entomostraca belonging to the genera Cyclops, Daphnia, etc; -- so called because they swim with sudden leaps, or starts. WATERFLOOD Wa"ter*flood`, n. Etym: [AS. wæterflod.] Defn: A flood of water; an inundation. WATER FLOUNDER Wa"ter floun"der. (Zoöl.) Defn: The windowpane (Pleuronectes maculatus). [Local, U. S.] WATERFOWL Wa"ter*fowl`, n. Defn: Any bird that frequents the water, or lives about rivers, lakes, etc., or on or near the sea; an aquatic fowl; -- used also collectively. Note: Of aquatic fowls, some are waders, or furnished with long legs; others are swimmers, or furnished with webbed feet. WATER FOX Wa"ter fox`. (Zoöl.) Defn: The carp; -- so called on account of its cunning. Walton. WATER FRAME Wa"ter frame`. Defn: A name given to the first power spinning machine, because driven by water power. WATER FURROW Wa"ter fur"row. (Agric.) Defn: A deep furrow for conducting water from the ground, and keeping the surface soil dry. WATER-FURROW Wa"ter-fur"row, v. t. Defn: To make water furrows in. WATER GAGE Wa"ter gage`. Defn: See Water gauge. WATER GALL Wa"ter gall`. 1. A cavity made in the earth by a torrent of water; a washout. 2. A watery appearance in the sky, accompanying the rainbow; a secondary or broken rainbow. These water galls, in her dim element, Foretell new storms to those already spent. Shak. False good news are [is] always produced by true good, like the water gall by the rainbow. Walpole. WATER GANG Wa"ter gang`. (O. E. Law) Defn: A passage for water, such as was usually made in a sea wall, to drain water out of marshes. Burrill. WATER GAS Wa"ter gas`. (Chem.) Defn: See under Gas. WATER GATE Wa"ter gate`. Defn: A gate, or valve, by which a flow of water is permitted, prevented, or regulated. WATER GAUGE Wa"ter gauge`. [Written also water gage.] 1. A wall or bank to hold water back. Craig. 2. An instrument for measuring or ascertaining the depth or quantity of water, or for indicating the height of its surface, as in the boiler of a steam engine. See Gauge. WATER GAVEL Wa"ter gav"el. (O. Eng. Law) Defn: A gavel or rent paid for a privilege, as of fishing, in some river or water. WATER GERMANDER Wa"ter ger*man"der. (Bot.) Defn: A labiate plant (Teucrium Scordium) found in marshy places in Europe. WATER GILDING Wa"ter gild"ing. Defn: The act, or the process, of gilding metallic surfaces by covering them with a thin coating of amalgam of gold, and then volatilizing the mercury by heat; -- called also wash gilding. WATER GLASS Wa"ter glass`. (Chem.) Defn: See Soluble glass, under Glass. WATER GOD Wa"ter god`. (Myth.) Defn: A fabulous deity supposed to dwell in, and preside over, some body of water. WATER GRASS Water grass. (a) A tall march perennial grass (Paspalum dilatatum) of the southern United States and the American tropics. (b) Manna grass. (c) The grass Chloris elegans. (d) [Dial. Eng.] (1) Velvet grass. (2) Defn: The water cress. (3) Defn: One of various horsetails. WATER GRUEL Wa"ter gru"el. Defn: A liquid food composed of water and a small portion of meal, or other farinaceous substance, boiled and seasoned. WATER HAMMER Wa"ter ham"mer. (Physics) 1. A vessel partly filled with water, exhausted of air, and hermetically sealed. When reversed or shaken, the water being unimpeded by air, strikes the sides in solid mass with a sound like that of a hammer. 2. A concussion, or blow, made by water in striking, as against the sides of a pipe or vessel containing it. WATER HARE Wa"ter hare. (Zoöl.) Defn: A small American hare or rabbit (Lepus aquaticus) found on or near the southern coasts of the United States; -- called also water rabbit, and swamp hare. WATER HEMLOCK Wa"ter hem"lock. (Bot) (a) A poisonous umbelliferous plant (Cicuta virosa) of Europe; also, any one of several plants of that genus. (b) A poisonous plant () resembling the above. WATER HEMP Wa"ter hemp`. (Bot.) Defn: See under Hemp. WATER HEN Wa"ter hen`. 1. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any gallinule. 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: The common American coot. WATER HOG Wa"ter hog`. (Zoöl.) Defn: The capybara. WATER HOREHOUND Wa"ter hore"hound`. (Bot.) Defn: Bugleweed. WATERHORSE Wa"ter*horse`, n. Defn: A pile of salted fish heaped up to drain. WATER HYACINTH Wa"ter hy"a*cinth. (Bot.) Defn: Either of several tropical aquatic plants of the genus Eichhornia, related to the pickerel weed. WATER ICE Wa"ter ice`. Defn: Water flavored, sweetened, and frozen, to be eaten as a confection. WATERIE Wa"ter*ie, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The pied wagtail; -- so called because it frequents ponds. WATER INCH Wa"ter inch`. Defn: Same as Inch of water, under Water. WATERINESS Wa"ter*i*ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being watery; moisture; humidity. WATERING Wa"ter*ing, Defn: a. & n. from Water, v. Watering call (Mil.), a sound of trumpet or bugle summoning cavalry soldiers to assemble for the purpose of watering their horses. -- Watering cart, a sprinkling cart. See Water. -- Watering place. (a) A place where water may be obtained, as for a ship, for cattle, etc. (b) A place where there are springs of medicinal water, or a place by the sea, or by some large body of water, to which people resort for bathing, recreation, boating, etc. -- Watering pot. (a) A kind of bucket fitted with a rose, or perforated nozzle, -- used for watering flowers, paths, etc. (b) (Zoöl.) Any one of several species of marine bivalve shells of the genus Aspergillum, or Brechites. The valves are small, and consolidated with the capacious calcareous tube which incases the entire animal. The tube is closed at the anterior end by a convex disk perforated by numerous pores, or tubules, and resembling the rose of a watering pot. -- Watering trough, a trough from which cattle, horses, and other animals drink. WATERISH Wa"ter*ish, a. Etym: [AS. wæterisc.] 1. Resembling water; thin; watery. Feed upon such nice and waterish diet. Shak. 2. Somewhat watery; moist; as, waterish land. WATERISHNESS Wa"ter*ish*ness, n. Defn: The quality of being waterish. WATER JACKET Wa"ter jac"ket. Defn: A chamber surrounding a vessel or tube in which water may be circulated, thereby regulating the temperature or supply of heat to the vessel. Used in laboratory and manufacturing equipment. water- jacketed. Having a water jacket; -- as, a water-jacketed condenser. WATER JOINT Wa"ter joint`. (Arch.) Defn: A joint in a stone pavement where the stones are left slightly higher than elsewhere, the rest of the surface being sunken or dished. The raised surface is intended to prevent the settling of water in the joints. WATER JUNKET Wa"ter jun"ket. (Zoöl.) Defn: The common sandpiper. WATER-LAID Wa"ter-laid`, a. Defn: Having a left-hand twist; -- said of cordage; as, a water-laid, or left-hand, rope. WATERLANDER; WATERLANDIAN Wa`ter*land"er, Wa`ter*land"i*an n. (Eccl. Hist.) Defn: One of a body of Dutch Anabaptists who separated from the Mennonites in the sixteenth century; -- so called from a district in North Holland denominated Waterland. WATER LAVEROCK Wa"ter la"ver*ock. (Zoöl.) Defn: The common sandpiper. WATERLEAF Wa"ter*leaf`, n. (Bot.) Defn: Any plant of the American genus Hydrophyllum, herbs having white or pale blue bell-shaped flowers. Gray. WATER LEG Wa"ter leg`. (Steam Boilers) Defn: See Leg, 7. WATER LEMON Wa"ter lem"on. (Bot.) Defn: The edible fruit of two species of passion flower (Passiflora laurifolia, and P. maliformis); -- so called in the West Indies. WATERLESS Wa"ter*less, a. Defn: Destitute of water; dry. Chaucer. WATER LETTUCE Wa"ter let"tuce. (Bot.) Defn: A plant (Pistia stratiotes) which floats on tropical waters, and forms a rosette of spongy, wedge-shaped leaves. J. Smith (Dict. Econ. Plants). WATER LEVEL Wa"ter lev"el. 1. The level formed by the surface of still water. 2. A kind of leveling instrument. See under Level, n. WATER LILY Wa"ter lil`y. (Bot.) Defn: A blossom or plant of any species of the genus Nymphæa, distinguished for its large floating leaves and beautiful flowers. See Nymphæa. Note: The name is extended to various plants of other related genera, as Nuphar, Euryale, Nelumbo, and Victoria. See Euryale, Lotus, and Victoria, 1. WATER LIME Wa"ter lime`. Defn: Hydraulic lime. WATER LINE Wa"ter line`. 1. (Shipbuilding) Defn: Any one of certain lines of a vessel, model, or plan, parallel with the surface of the water at various heights from the keel. Note: In a half-breadth plan, the water lines are outward curves showing the horizontal form of the ship at their several heights; in a sheer plan, they are projected as straight horizontal lines. 2. (Naut.) Defn: Any one of several lines marked upon the outside of a vessel, corresponding with the surface of the water when she is afloat on an even keel. The lowest line indicates the vessel's proper submergence when not loaded, and is called the light water line; the highest, called the load water line, indicates her proper submergence when loaded. Water-line model (Shipbuilding), a model of a vessel formed of boards which are shaped according to the water lines as shown in the plans and laid upon each other to form a solid model. WATER LIZARD Wa"ter liz"ard. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any aquatic lizard of the genus Varanus, as the monitor of the Nile. See Monitor, n., 3. WATER LOCUST Wa"ter lo"cust. (Bot.) Defn: A thorny leguminous tree (Gleditschia monosperma) which grows in the swamps of the Mississippi valley. WATER-LOGGED Wa"ter-logged, a. Defn: Filled or saturated with water so as to be heavy, unmanageable, or loglike; -- said of a vessel, when, by receiving a great quantity of water into her hold, she has become so heavy as not to be manageable by the helm. WATERMAN Wa"ter*man, n.; pl. Watermen (. 1. A man who plies for hire on rivers, lakes, or canals, or in harbors, in distinction from a seaman who is engaged on the high seas; a man who manages fresh-water craft; a boatman; a ferryman. 2. An attendant on cab stands, etc., who supplies water to the horses. [Eng.] Dickens. 3. A water demon. Tylor. WATERMANSHIP Wa"ter*man*ship`, n. 1. The business or skill of a waterman. 2. Art of, or skill in, rowing; oarsmanship; specif., skill in managing the blade in the water, as distinguished from managing arms, body, etc., in the stroke. WATERMARK Wa"ter*mark`, n. 1. A mark indicating the height to which water has risen, or at which it has stood; the usual limit of high or low water. 2. A letter, device, or the like, wrought into paper during the process of manufacture. Note: "The watermark in paper is produced by bending the wires of the mold, or by wires bent into the shape of the required letter or device, and sewed to the surface of the mold; -- it has the effect of making the paper thinner in places. The old makers employed watermarks of an eccentric kind. Those of Caxton and other early printers were an oxhead and star, a collared dog's head, a crown, a shield, a jug, etc. A fool's cap and bells, employed as a watermark, gave the name to foolscap paper; a postman's horn, such as was formerly in use, gave the name to post paper." Tomlinson. 3. (Naut.) Defn: See Water line, 2. [R.] WATER MEADOW Wa"ter mead"ow. (Agric.) Defn: A meadow, or piece of low, flat land, capable of being kept in a state of fertility by being overflowed with water from some adjoining river or stream. WATER MEASURE Wa"ter meas"ure. Defn: A measure formerly used for articles brought by water, as coals, oysters, etc. The water-measure bushel was three gallons larger than the Winchester bushel. Cowell. WATER MEASURER Wa"ter meas"ur*er. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of numerous species of water; the skater. See Skater, n., 2. WATERMELON Wa"ter*mel`on, n. (Bot.) Defn: The very large ovoid or roundish fruit of a cucurbitaceous plant (Citrullus vulgaris) of many varieties; also, the plant itself. The fruit sometimes weighs many pounds; its pulp is usually pink in color, and full of a sweet watery juice. It is a native of tropical Africa, but is now cultivated in many countries. See Illust. of Melon. WATER METER Wa"ter me"ter. Defn: A contrivance for measuring a supply of water delivered or received for any purpose, as from a street main. WATER MILFOIL Wa"ter mil"foil. (Bot.) Defn: Any plant of the genus Myriophyllum, aquatic herbs with whorled leaves, the submersed ones pinnately parted into capillary divisions. WATER MILL Wa"ter mill`. Defn: A mill whose machinery is moved by water; -- distinguished from a windmill, and a steam mill. WATER MINT Wa"ter mint`. Defn: A kind of mint (Mentha aquatica) growing in wet places, and sometimes having a perfume resembling bergamot. WATER MITE Wa"ter mite`. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any of numerous species of aquatic mites belonging to Hydrachna and allied genera of the family Hydrachnidæ, usually having the legs fringed and adapted for swimming. They are often red or red and black in color, and while young are parasites of fresh-water insects and mussels. Called also water tick, and water spider. WATER MOCCASIN Wa"ter moc"ca*sin. (Zoöl.) Defn: A venomous North American snake (Ancistrodon piscivorus) allied to the rattlesnake but destitute of a rattle. It lives in or about pools and ponds, and feeds largely of fishes. Called also water snake, water adder, water viper. WATER MOLE Wa"ter mole`. (Zoöl.) (a) The shrew mole. See under Shrew. (b) The duck mole. See under Duck. WATER MONITOR Wa"ter mon"i*tor. (Zoöl.) Defn: A very large lizard (Varanaus salvator) native of India. It frequents the borders of streams and swims actively. It becomes five or six feet long. Called also two-banded monitor, and kabaragoya. The name is also applied to other aquatic monitors. WATER MONKEY Water monkey. Defn: A jar or bottle, as of porous earthenware, in which water is cooled by evaporation. WATER MOTOR Wa"ter mo"tor. 1. A water engine. 2. A water wheel; especially, a small water wheel driven by water from a street main. WATER MOUSE Wa"ter mouse`. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of several species of mice belonging to the genus Hydromys, native of Australia and Tasmania. Their hind legs are strong and their toes partially webbed. They live on the borders of streams, and swim well. They are remarkable as being the only rodents found in Australia. WATER MURRAIN Wa"ter mur"rain. Defn: A kind of murrain affecting cattle. Crabb. WATER NEWT Wa"ter newt`. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of numerous species of aquatic salamanders; a triton. WATER NYMPH Wa"ter nymph`. 1. (Myth.) Defn: A goddess of any stream or other body of water, whether one of the Naiads, Nereids, or Oceanides. 2. (Bot.) Defn: A water lily (Nymphæa). WATER OAT Wa"ter oat`. Defn: Indian rice. See under Rice. WATER OPOSSUM Wa"ter o*pos"sum. (Zoöl.) Defn: See Yapock, and the Note under Opossum. WATER ORDEAL Wa"ter or"de*al. Defn: Same as Ordeal by water. See the Note under Ordeal, n., 1. WATER OUSEL; WATER OUZEL Wa"ter ou"sel, Wa"ter ou"zel. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of several species of small insessorial birds of the genus Cinclus (or Hydrobates), especially the European water ousel (C. aquaticus), and the American water ousel (C. Mexicanus). These birds live about the water, and are in the habit of walking on the bottom of streams beneath the water in search of food. WATER PARSNIP Wa"ter pars"nip. (Bot.) Defn: Any plant of the aquatic umbelliferous genus Sium, poisonous herbs with pinnate or dissected leaves and small white flowers. WATER PARTING Water parting. (Phys. Geog.) Defn: A summit from the opposite sides of which rain waters flow to different streams; a line separating the drainage districts of two streams or coasts; a divide. WATER PARTRIDGE Wa"ter par"tridge. (Zoöl.) Defn: The ruddy duck. [Local, U. S.] WATER PENNYWORT Wa"ter pen"ny*wort`. (Bot.) Defn: Marsh pennywort. See under Marsh. WATER PEPPER Wa"ter pep"per. (Bot.) (a) Smartweed. (b) Waterwort. WATER PHEASANT Wa"ter pheas"ant. (Zoöl.) (a) The pintail. See Pintail, n., 1. (b) The goosander. (c) The hooded merganser. WATER PIET Wa"ter pi"et. (Zoöl.) Defn: The water ousel. WATER PIG Wa"ter pig`. 1. (Zoöl.) Defn: The capybara. 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: The gourami. WATER PILLAR Wa"ter pil"lar. Defn: A waterspout. [Obs.] WATER PIMPERNEL Wa"ter pim"per*nel. (Bot.) Defn: A small white-flowered shrub; brookweed. WATER PIPE Wa"ter pipe. Defn: A pipe for conveying water. WATER PITCHER Wa"ter pitch"er. 1. A pitcher for water. 2. (Bot.) Defn: One of a family of plants having pitcher-shaped leaves. The sidesaddle flower (Sarracenia purpurea) is the type. WATER PLANT Wa"ter plant`. Defn: A plant that grows in water; an aquatic plant. WATER PLANTAIN Wa"ter plan"tain. (Bot.) Defn: A kind of plant with acrid leaves. See under 2d Plantain. WATER PLATE Wa"ter plate`. Defn: A plate heated by hot water contained in a double bottom or jacket. Knight. WATER POA Wa"ter po"a. (Bot.) Defn: Meadow reed grass. See under Reed. WATER POCKET Water pocket. Defn: A water hole in the bed of an intermittent stream, esp. the bowl at the foot of a cliff over which the stream leaps when in the flood stage. [Western U. S.] WATER POISE Wa"ter poise`. Defn: A hydrometer. WATER PORE Wa"ter pore` 1. (Zoöl.) Defn: A pore by which the water tubes of various invertebrates open externally. 2. (Bot.) Defn: One of certain minute pores in the leaves of some plants. They are without true guardian cells, but in other respects closely resemble ordinary stomata. Goodale. WATERPOT Wa"ter*pot`, n. Defn: A vessel for holding or conveying water, or for sprinkling water on cloth, plants, etc. WATER POWER Wa"ter pow"er. 1. The power of water employed to move machinery, etc. 2. A fall of water which may be used to drive machinery; a site for a water mill; a water privilege. WATER POX Wa"ter pox`. (Med.) Defn: A variety of chicken pox, or varicella. Dunglison. WATER PRIVILEGE Wa"ter priv"i*lege. Defn: The advantage of using water as a mechanical power; also, the place where water is, or may be, so used. See under Privilege. WATERPROOF Wa"ter*proof`, a. Defn: Proof against penetration or permeation by water; impervious to water; as, a waterproof garment; a waterproof roof. WATERPROOF Wa"ter*proof`, n. 1. A substance or preparation for rendering cloth, leather, etc., impervious to water. 2. Cloth made waterproof, or any article made of such cloth, or of other waterproof material, as rubber; esp., an outer garment made of such material. WATERPROOF Wa"ter*proof`, v. t. Defn: To render impervious to water, as cloth, leather, etc. WATERPROOFING Wa"ter*proof`ing, n. 1. The act or process of making waterproof. 2. Same as Waterproof, n., 1. WATER PURSLANE Wa"ter purs"lane. (Bot.) Defn: See under Purslane. WATER QUALM Wa"ter qualm`. (Med.) Defn: See Water brash, under Brash. WATER RABBIT Wa"ter rab"bit. (Zoöl.) Defn: See Water hare. WATER RADISH Wa"ter rad"ish. (Bot.) Defn: A coarse yellow-flowered plant (Nasturtium amphibium) related to the water cress and to the horse-radish. WATER RAIL Wa"ter rail`. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of numerous species of rails of the genus Rallus, as the common European species (Rallus aquaticus). See Illust. of Rail. WATER RAM Wa"ter ram`. Defn: An hydraulic ram. WATER RAT Wa"ter rat`. 1. (Zoöl.) (a) The water vole. See under Vole. (b) The muskrat. (c) The beaver rat. See under Beaver. 2. A thief on the water; a pirate. WATER RATE Wa"ter rate`. Defn: A rate or tax for a supply of water. WATER RATTLE; WATER RATTLER Wa"ter rat"tle or Wa"ter rat"tler. (Zoöl.) Defn: The diamond rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus); -- so called from its preference for damp places near water. WATER-RET Wa"ter-ret`, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Water-retted; p. pr. & vb. n. Water- retting.] Defn: To ret, or rot, in water, as flax; to water-rot. WATER RICE Wa"ter rice". Defn: Indian rice. See under Rice. WATER ROCKET Wa"ter rock"et. 1. (Bot.) Defn: A cruciferous plant (Nasturtium sylvestre) with small yellow flowers. 2. A kind of firework to be discharged in the water. WATER-ROT Wa"ter-rot`, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Water-rotted; p. pr. & vb. n. Water- rotting.] Defn: To rot by steeping in water; to water-ret; as, to water-rot hemp or flax. WATER SAIL Wa"ter sail`. (Naut.) Defn: A small sail sometimes set under a studding sail or under a driver boom, and reaching nearly to the water. WATER SAPPHIRE Wa"ter sap"phire. Etym: [Equiv. to F. saphir d'eau.] (Min.) Defn: A deep blue variety of iolite, sometimes used as a gem; -- called also saphir d'eau. WATERSCAPE Wa"ter*scape", n. Etym: [Cf. Landscape.] Defn: A sea view; -- distinguished from landscape. [Jocose] Fairholt. WATER SCORPION Wa"ter scor"pi*on. (Zoöl.) Defn: See Nepa. WATER SCREW Wa"ter screw`. Defn: A screw propeller. WATERSHED Wa"ter*shed`, n. Etym: [Cf. G. wasserscheide; wasser water + scheide a place where two things separate, fr. scheiden to separate.] 1. The whole region or extent of country which contributes to the supply of a river or lake. 2. The line of division between two adjacent rivers or lakes with respect to the flow of water by natural channels into them; the natural boundary of a basin. WATER SHIELD Wa"ter shield`. (Bot.) Defn: An aquatic American plant (Brasenia peltata) having floating oval leaves, and the covered with a clear jelly. WATERSHOOT Wa"ter*shoot`, n. 1. A sprig or shoot from the root or stock of a tree. [Obs.] 2. (Arch.) Defn: That which serves to guard from falling water; a drip or dripstone. 3. A trough for discharging water. WATER SHREW Wa"ter shrew`. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of several species of shrews having fringed feet and capable of swimming actively. The two common European species (Crossopus fodiens, and C. ciliatus) are the best known. The most common American water shrew, or marsh shrew (Neosorex palustris), is rarely seen, owing to its nocturnal habits. WATER SNAIL Wa"ter snail`. 1. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any aquatic pulmonate gastropod belonging to Planorbis, Limnæa, and allied genera; a pond snail. 2. (Mech.) Defn: The Archimedean screw. [R.] WATER SNAKE Wa"ter snake`. (Zoöl.) (a) A common North American colubrine snake (Tropidonotus sipedon) which lives chiefly in the water. (b) Any species of snakes of the family Homalopsidæ, all of which are aquatic in their habits. WATER-SOAK Wa"ter-soak`, v. t. Defn: To soak water; to fill the interstices of with water. WATER SOLDIER Wa"ter sol`dier. (Bot.) Defn: An aquatic European plant (Stratiotes aloides) with bayonet- shaped leaves. WATER SOUCHY Wa"ter souch`y. (Cookery) Defn: A dish consisting of small fish stewed and served in a little water. [Written also water souchet.] See Zoutch. WATER SPANIEL Wa"ter span"iel. Defn: A curly-haired breed of spaniels, naturally very fond of the water. WATER SPARROW Wa"ter spar"row. (Zoöl.) (a) The reed warbler. [Prov. Eng.] (b) The reed bunting. [Prov. Eng.] WATER SPEEDWELL Wa"ter speed"well. (Bot.) Defn: A kind of speedwell (Veronica Anagallis) found in wet places in Europe and America. WATER SPIDER Wa"ter spi"der. (Zoöl.) (a) An aquatic European spider (Argyoneta aquatica) which constructs its web beneath the surface of the water on water plants. It lives in a bell-shaped structure of silk, open beneath like a diving bell, and filled with air which the spider carries down in the form of small bubbles attached one at a time to the spinnerets and hind feet. Called also diving spider. (b) A water mite. (c) Any spider that habitually lives on or about the water, especially the large American species (Dolomedes lanceolatus) which runs rapidly on the surface of water; -- called also raft spider. WATER SPINNER Wa"ter spin`ner. (Zoöl.) Defn: The water spider. WATERSPOUT Wa"ter*spout`, n. Defn: A remarkable meteorological phenomenon, of the nature of a tornado or whirlwind, usually observed over the sea, but sometimes over the land. Note: Tall columns, apparently of cloud, and reaching from the sea to the clouds, are seen moving along, often several at once, sometimes straight and vertical, at other times inclined and tortuous, but always in rapid rotation. At their bases, the sea is violently agitated and heaped up with a leaping or boiling motion, water, at least in some cases, being actually carried up in considerable quantity, and scattered round from a great height, as solid bodies are by tornadoes on land. Sir J. Herschel. WATER SPRITE Wa"ter sprite`. Defn: A sprite, or spirit, imagined as inhabiting the water. J. R. Drake. WATER-STANDING Wa"ter-stand`ing, a. Defn: Tear-filled. [R.] "Many an orphan's water-standing eye." Shak. WATER STAR GRASS Wa"ter star" grass`. (Bot.) Defn: An aquatic plant (Schollera graminea) with grassy leaves, and yellow star-shaped blossoms. WATER STARWORT Wa"ter star"wort`. Defn: See under Starwort. WATER SUPPLY Wa"ter sup*ply". Defn: A supply of water; specifically, water collected, as in reservoirs, and conveyed, as by pipes, for use in a city, mill, or the like. WATER TABBY Wa"ter tab"by. Defn: A kind of waved or watered tabby. See Tabby, n., 1. WATER TABLE Wa"ter ta"ble. (Arch.) Defn: A molding, or other projection, in the wall of a building, to throw off the water, -- generally used in the United States for the first table above the surface of the ground (see Table, n., 9), that is, for the table at the top of the foundation and the beginning of the upper wall. WATERTATH Wa"ter*tath`, n. Etym: [Water + tath, n.] Defn: A kind of coarse grass growing in wet grounds, and supposed to be injurious to sheep. [Prov. Eng.] WATER TELESCOPE Water telescope. 1. (Optics) A telescope in which the medium between the objective and the eye piece is water instead of air, used in some experiments in aberration. 2. A telescope devised for looking into a body of water. WATER TENDER Water tender. (Nav.) Defn: In the United States navy, a first-class petty officer in charge in a fireroom. He "tends" water to the boilers, sees that fires are properly cleaned and stoked, etc. There is also a rating of chief water tender, who is a chief petty officer. WATER THERMOMETER Wa"ter ther*mom"e*ter. (Physics) Defn: A thermometer filled with water instead of mercury, for ascertaining the precise temperature at which water attains its maximum density. This is about 39º Fahr., or 4º Centigrade; and from that point down to 32º Fahr., or 0º Centigrade, or the freezing point, it expands. WATER THIEF Wa"ter thief`. Defn: A pirate. [R.] Shak. WATER THRUSH Wa"ter thrush`. (Zoöl.) (a) A North American bird of the genus Seiurus, belonging to the Warbler family, especially the common species (S. Noveboracensis). (b) The European water ousel. (b) The pied wagtail. WATER THYME Wa"ter thyme`. (Bot.) Defn: See Anacharis. WATER TICK Wa"ter tick`. Defn: Same as Water mite. WATER TIGER Wa"ter ti"ger. (Zoöl.) Defn: A diving, or water, beetle, especially the larva of a water beetle. See Illust. b of Water beetle. WATER-TIGHT Wa"ter-tight`, a. Defn: So tight as to retain, or not to admit, water; not leaky. WATER TORCH Wa"ter torch`. (Bot.) Defn: The common cat-tail (Typha latifolia), the spike of which makes a good torch soaked in oil. Dr. Prior. WATER TOWER Wa"ter tow"er. Defn: A large metal pipe made to be extended vertically by sections, and used for discharging water upon burning buildings. WATER TREE Wa"ter tree`. (Bot.) Defn: A climbing shrub (Tetracera alnifolia, or potatoria) of Western Africa, which pours out a watery sap from the freshly cut stems. WATER TREFOIL Wa"ter tre"foil`. (Bot.) Defn: The buck bean. WATER TUBE Wa"ter tube`. (Zoöl.) Defn: One of a system of tubular excretory organs having external openings, found in many invertebrates. They are believed to be analogous in function to the kidneys of vertebrates. See Illust. under Trematodea, and Sporocyst. WATER TUPELO Wa"ter tu"pe*lo. (Bot.) Defn: A species of large tupelo (Nyssa aquatica) growing in swamps in the southern of the United States. See Ogeechee lime. WATER TURKEY Wa"ter tur"key. (Zoöl.) Defn: The American snakebird. See Snakebird. WATER TU TUYERE Wa"ter tu tu`yère". Defn: A tuyère kept cool by water circulating within a casing. It is used for hot blast. WATER TU TWIST Wa"ter tu twist`. Defn: Yarn made by the throstle, or water frame. WATER VINE Wa"ter vine`. (Bot.) Defn: Any plant of the genus Phytocrene, climbing shrubs of Asia and Africa, the stems of which are singularly porous, and when cut stream with a limpid potable juice. WATER VIOLET Wa"ter vi"o*let. (Bot.) Defn: See under Violet. WATER VIPER Wa"ter vi"per. (Zoöl.) Defn: See Water moccasin. WATER VOLE Wa"ter vole`. (Zoöl.) Defn: See under Vole. WATER WAGTAIL Wa"ter wag"tail`. Defn: See under Wagtail. WATERWAY Wa"ter*way`, n. (Naut.) Defn: Heavy plank or timber extending fore and aft the whole length of a vessel's deck at the line of junction with the sides, forming a channel to the scuppers, which are cut through it. In iron vessels the waterway is variously constructed. WATER WAY Wa"ter way`. Defn: Same as Water course. WATERWEED Wa"ter*weed`, n. (Bot.) Defn: See Anacharis. WATER WHEEL Wa"ter wheel`. 1. Any wheel for propelling machinery or for other purposes, that is made to rotate by the direct action of water; -- called an overshot wheel when the water is applied at the top, an undershot wheel when at the bottom, a breast wheel when at an intermediate point; other forms are called reaction wheel, vortex wheel, turbine wheel, etc. 2. The paddle wheel of a steam vessel. 3. A wheel for raising water; a noria, or the like. WATER-WHITE Wa"ter-white`, n. (Bot.) Defn: A vinelike plant (Vitis Caribæa) growing in parched districts in the West Indies, and containing a great amount of sap which is sometimes used for quenching thirst. WATER WILLOW Wa"ter wil`low. (Bot.) Defn: An American aquatic plant (Dianthera Americana) with long willowlike leaves, and spikes of small purplish flowers. WATER WING Wa"ter wing`. (Arch.) Defn: One of two walls built on either side of the junction of a bridge with the bank of a river, to protect the abutment of the bridge and the bank from the action of the current. WATER WITCH Wa"ter witch`. (Zoöl.) (a) The dabchick. (b) The stormy petrel. [Prov. Eng.] WATER-WITHE Wa"ter-withe`, n. (Bot.) Defn: A vinelike plant (Vitis Caribæa) growing in parched districts in the West Indies, and containing a great amount of sap which is sometimes used for quenching thirst. WATERWORK Wa"ter*work`, n. 1. (Paint.) Defn: Painting executed in size or distemper, on canvas or walls, -- formerly, frequently taking the place of tapestry. Shak. Fairholt. 2. An hydraulic apparatus, or a system of works or fixtures, by which a supply of water is furnished for useful or ornamental purposes, including dams, sluices, pumps, aqueducts, distributing pipes, fountains, etc.; -- used chiefly in the plural. WATERWORN Wa"ter*worn`, a. Defn: Worn, smoothed, or polished by the action of water; as, waterworn stones. WATERWORT Wa"ter*wort`, n. (Bot.) Defn: Any plant of the natural order Elatineæ, consisting of two genera (Elatine, and Bergia), mostly small annual herbs growing in the edges of ponds. Some have a peppery or acrid taste. WATERY Wa"ter*y, a. Etym: [AS. wæterig.] 1. Of or pertaining to water; consisting of water. "The watery god." Dryden. "Fish within their watery residence." Milton. 2. Abounding with water; wet; hence, tearful. 3. Resembling water; thin or transparent, as a liquid; as, watery humors. The oily and watery parts of the aliment. Arbuthnot. 4. Hence, abounding in thin, tasteless, or insipid fluid; tasteless; insipid; vapid; spiritless. WATT Watt, n. Etym: [From the distinguished mechanician and scientist, James Watt.] (Physics) Defn: A unit of power or activity equal to 107 C.G.S. units of power, or to work done at the rate of one joule a second. An English horse power is approximately equal to 746 watts. WATTEAU Wat*teau", a. (Art) Defn: Having the appearance of that which is seen in pictures by Antoine Watteau, a French painter of the eighteenth century; --said esp. of women's garments; as, a Watteau bodice. WATTEAU BACK Watteau back. Defn: The back of a woman's gown in which one or more very broad folds are carried from the neck to the floor without being held in at the waist, while the front and sides of the gown are shaped to the person and have a belt or its equivalent. WATTLE Wat"tle, n. Etym: [AS. watel, watul, watol, hurdle, covering, wattle; cf. OE. watel a bag. Cf. Wallet.] 1. A twig or flexible rod; hence, a hurdle made of such rods. And there he built with wattles from the marsh A little lonely church in days of yore. Tennyson. 2. A rod laid on a roof to support the thatch. 3. (Zoöl.) (a) A naked fleshy, and usually wrinkled and highly colored, process of the skin hanging from the chin or throat of a bird or reptile. (b) Barbel of a fish. 4. (a) The astringent bark of several Australian trees of the genus Acacia, used in tanning; -- called also wattle bark. (b) (Bot.) The trees from which the bark is obtained. See Savanna wattle, under Savanna. Wattle turkey. (Zoöl.) Same as Brush turkey. WATTLE Wat"tle, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wattled; p. pr. & vb. n. Wattling.] 1. To bind with twigs. 2. To twist or interweave, one with another, as twigs; to form a network with; to plat; as, to wattle branches. 3. To form, by interweaving or platting twigs. The folded flocks, penned in their wattled cotes. Milton. WATTLEBIRD Wat"tle*bird`, n. 1. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of several species of honey eaters belonging to Anthochæra and allied genera of the family Meliphagidæ. These birds usually have a large and conspicuous wattle of naked skin hanging down below each ear. They are natives of Australia and adjacent islands. Note: The best-known species (Anthochæra carunculata) has the upper parts grayish brown, with a white stripe on each feather, and the wing and tail quills dark brown or blackish, tipped with withe. Its wattles, in life, are light blood-red. Called also wattled crow, wattled bee-eater, wattled honey eater. Another species (A. inauris) is streaked with black, gray, and white, and its long wattles are white, tipped with orange. The bush wattlebirds, belonging to the genus Anellobia, are closely related, but lack conspicuous wattles. The most common species (A. mellivora) is dark brown, finely streaked with white. Called also goruck creeper. 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: The Australian brush turkey. WATTLED Wat"tled, a. Defn: Furnished with wattles, or pendent fleshy processes at the chin or throat. The wattled cocks strut to and fro. Longfellow. WATTLESS Watt"less, a. (Elec.) Defn: Without any power (cf. Watt); -- said of an alternating current or component of current when it differs in phase by ninety degrees from the electromotive force which produces it, or of an electromotive force or component thereof when the current it produces differs from it in phase by 90 degrees. WATTLING Wat"tling, n. Defn: The act or process of binding or platting with twigs; also, the network so formed. Made with a wattling of canes or sticks. Dampier. WATTMETER Watt"me`ter, n. Etym: [Watt + meter.] (Physics) Defn: An instrument for measuring power in watts, -- much used in measuring the energy of an electric current. WAUCHT; WAUGHT Waucht, Waught, n. Etym: [Cf. Quaff.] Defn: A large draught of any liquid. [Scot.] Jamieson. WAUL Waul, v. i. Etym: [Of imitative origin.] Defn: To cry as a cat; to squall; to wail. [Written also wawl.] The helpless infant, coming wauling and crying into the world. Sir W. Scott. WAUR Waur, a. Etym: [See Worse.] Defn: Worse. [Scot.] Murder and waur than number. Sir W. Scott. WAVE Wave, v. t. Defn: See Wave. Sir H. Wotton. Burke. WAVE Wave, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Waved; p. pr. & vb. n. Waving.] Etym: [OE. waven, AS. wafian to waver, to hesitate, to wonder; akin to wæfre wavering, restless, MHG. wabern to be in motion, Icel. vafra to hover about; cf. Icel. vafa to vibrate. Cf. Waft, Waver.] 1. To play loosely; to move like a wave, one way and the other; to float; to flutter; to undulate. His purple robes waved careless to the winds. Trumbull. Where the flags of three nations has successively waved. Hawthorne. 2. To be moved to and fro as a signal. B. Jonson. 3. To fluctuate; to waver; to be in an unsettled state; to vacillate. [Obs.] He waved indifferently 'twixt doing them neither good nor harm. Shak. WAVE Wave, v. t. 1. To move one way and the other; to brandish. "[Æneas] waved his fatal sword." Dryden. 2. To raise into inequalities of surface; to give an undulating form a surface to. Horns whelked and waved like the enridged sea. Shak. 3. To move like a wave, or by floating; to waft. [Obs.] Sir T. Browne. 4. To call attention to, or give a direction or command to, by a waving motion, as of the hand; to signify by waving; to beckon; to signal; to indicate. Look, with what courteous action It waves you to a more removed ground. Shak. She spoke, and bowing waved Dismissal. Tennyson. WAVE Wave, n. Etym: [From Wave, v.; not the same word as OE. wawe, waghe, a wave, which is akin to E. wag to move. Wave, v. i.] 1. An advancing ridge or swell on the surface of a liquid, as of the sea, resulting from the oscillatory motion of the particles composing it when disturbed by any force their position of rest; an undulation. The wave behind impels the wave before. Pope. 2. (Physics) Defn: A vibration propagated from particle to particle through a body or elastic medium, as in the transmission of sound; an assemblage of vibrating molecules in all phases of a vibration, with no phase repeated; a wave of vibration; an undulation. See Undulation. 3. Water; a body of water. [Poetic] "Deep drank Lord Marmion of the wave." Sir W. Scott. Build a ship to save thee from the flood, I 'll furnish thee with fresh wave, bread, and wine. Chapman. 4. Unevenness; inequality of surface. Sir I. Newton. 5. A waving or undulating motion; a signal made with the hand, a flag, etc. 6. The undulating line or streak of luster on cloth watered, or calendered, or on damask steel. 7. Fig.: A swelling or excitement of thought, feeling, or energy; a tide; as, waves of enthusiasm. Wave front (Physics), the surface of initial displacement of the particles in a medium, as a wave of vibration advances. -- Wave length (Physics), the space, reckoned in the direction of propagation, occupied by a complete wave or undulation, as of light, sound, etc.; the distance from a point or phase in a wave to the nearest point at which the same phase occurs. -- Wave line (Shipbuilding), a line of a vessel's hull, shaped in accordance with the wave-line system. -- Wave-line system, Wave-line theory (Shipbuilding), a system or theory of designing the lines of a vessel, which takes into consideration the length and shape of a wave which travels at a certain speed. -- Wave loaf, a loaf for a wave offering. Lev. viii. 27. -- Wave moth (Zoöl.), any one of numerous species of small geometrid moths belonging to Acidalia and allied genera; -- so called from the wavelike color markings on the wings. -- Wave offering, an offering made in the Jewish services by waving the object, as a loaf of bread, toward the four cardinal points. Num. xviii. 11. -- Wave of vibration (Physics), a wave which consists in, or is occasioned by, the production and transmission of a vibratory state from particle to particle through a body. -- Wave surface. (a) (Physics) A surface of simultaneous and equal displacement of the particles composing a wave of vibration. (b) (Geom.) A mathematical surface of the fourth order which, upon certain hypotheses, is the locus of a wave surface of light in the interior of crystals. It is used in explaining the phenomena of double refraction. See under Refraction. -- Wave theory. (Physics) See Undulatory theory, under Undulatory. WAVED Waved, a. 1. Exhibiting a wavelike form or outline; undulating; intended; wavy; as, waved edge. 2. Having a wavelike appearance; marked with wavelike lines of color; as, waved, or watered, silk. 3. (Her.) Defn: Having undulations like waves; -- said of one of the lines in heraldry which serve as outlines to the ordinaries, etc. WAVELESS Wave"less, a. Defn: Free from waves; undisturbed; not agitated; as, the waveless sea. WAVELET Wave"let, n. Defn: A little wave; a ripple. WAVELLITE Wa"vel*lite, n. Etym: [After Dr. Wm. Wavel, the discoverer.] (Min.) Defn: A hydrous phosphate of alumina, occurring usually in hemispherical radiated forms varying in color from white to yellow, green, or black. WAVER Wa"ver, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Wavered; p. pr. & vb. n. Wavering.] Etym: [OE. waveren, from AS. wæfre wavering, restless. See Wave, v. i.] 1. To play or move to and fro; to move one way and the other; hence, to totter; to reel; to swing; to flutter. With banners and pennons wavering with the wind. Ld. Berners. Thou wouldst waver on one of these trees as a terror to all evil speakers against dignities. Sir W. Scott. 2. To be unsettled in opinion; to vacillate; to be undetermined; to fluctuate; as, to water in judgment. Let us hold fast . . . without wavering. Heb. x. 23. In feeble hearts, propense enough before To waver, or fall off and join with idols. Milton. Syn. -- To reel; totter; vacillate. See Fluctuate. WAVER Wa"ver, n. Etym: [From Wave, or Waver, v.] Defn: A sapling left standing in a fallen wood. [Prov. Eng.] Halliwell. WAVERER Wa"ver*er, n. Defn: One who wavers; one who is unsettled in doctrine, faith, opinion, or the like. Shak. WAVERINGLY Wa"ver*ing*ly, adv. Defn: In a wavering manner. WAVERINGNESS Wa"ver*ing*ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of wavering. WAVESON Wave"son, n. Etym: [From Wave; cf. Jetsam.] (O. Eng. Law) Defn: Goods which, after shipwreck, appear floating on the waves, or sea. WAVE-WORN Wave"-*worn`, a. Defn: Worn by the waves. The shore that o'er his wave-worn basis bowed. Shak. WAVEY Wa"vey, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The snow goose. [Canadian, & Local U. S.] WAVINESS Wav"i*ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being wavy. WAVURE Wav"ure, n. Defn: See Waivure. [R.] WAVY Wav"y, a. 1. Rising or swelling in waves; full of waves. "The wavy seas." Chapman. 2. Playing to and fro; undulating; as, wavy flames. Let her glad valleys smile with wavy corn. Prior. 3. (Bot.) Defn: Undulating on the border or surface; waved. WAWASKEESH Wa*was"keesh, n. Etym: [From an Indian name.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The wapiti, or wapiti, or American elk. WAWE Wawe, n. Etym: [See Woe.] Defn: Woe. [Obs.] WAWE Wawe, n. Etym: [OE. wawe, waghe; cf. Icel. vagr; akin to E. wag; not the same word as wave.] Defn: A wave. [Obs.] Chaucer. Spenser. WAWL Wawl, v. i. Defn: See Waul. Shak. WAX Wax, v. i. [imp. Waxed; p. p. Waxed, and Obs. or Poetic Waxen (; p. pr. & vb. n. Waxing.] Etym: [AS. weaxan; akin to OFries. waxa, D. wassen, OS. & OHG. wahsan, G. wachsen, Icel. vaxa, Sw. växa, Dan. voxe, Goth. wahsjan, Gr. waksh, uksh, to grow. Waist.] 1. To increase in size; to grow bigger; to become larger or fuller; - - opposed to wane. The waxing and the waning of the moon. Hakewill. Truth's treasures . . . never shall wax ne wane. P. Plowman. 2. To pass from one state to another; to become; to grow; as, to wax strong; to wax warmer or colder; to wax feeble; to wax old; to wax worse and worse. Your clothes are not waxen old upon you. Deut. xxix. 5. Where young Adonis oft reposes, Waxing well of his deep wound. Milton. Waxing kernels (Med.), small tumors formed by the enlargement of the lymphatic glands, especially in the groins of children; -- popularly so called, because supposed to be caused by growth of the body. Dunglison. WAX Wax, n. Etym: [AS. weax; akin to OFries. wax, D. was, G. wachs, OHG. wahs, Icel. & Sw. vax, Dan. vox, Lith. vaszkas, Russ. vosk'.] 1. A fatty, solid substance, produced by bees, and employed by them in the construction of their comb; -- usually called beeswax. It is first excreted, from a row of pouches along their sides, in the form of scales, which, being masticated and mixed with saliva, become whitened and tenacious. Its natural color is pale or dull yellow. Note: Beeswax consists essentially of cerotic acid (constituting the more soluble part) and of myricyl palmitate (constituting the less soluble part). 2. Hence, any substance resembling beeswax in consistency or appearance. Specifically: --(a) (Physiol.) Defn: Cerumen, or earwax. See Cerumen. (b) A waxlike composition used for uniting surfaces, for excluding air, and for other purposes; as, sealing wax, grafting wax, etching wax, etc. (c) A waxlike composition used by shoemakers for rubbing their thread. (d) (Zoöl.) A substance similar to beeswax, secreted by several species of scale insects, as the Chinese wax. See Wax insect, below. (e) (Bot.) A waxlike product secreted by certain plants. See Vegetable wax, under Vegetable. (f) (Min.) Defn: A substance, somewhat resembling wax, found in connection with certain deposits of rock salt and coal; -- called also mineral wax, and ozocerite. (g) Thick sirup made by boiling down the sap of the sugar maple, and then cooling. [Local U.S.] Japanese wax, a waxlike substance made in Japan from the berries of certain species of Rhus, esp. R. succedanea. -- Mineral wax. (Min.) See Wax, 2 (f), above. -- Wax cloth. See Waxed cloth, under Waxed. -- Wax end. See Waxed end, under Waxed. -- Wax flower, a flower made of, or resembling, wax. -- Wax insect (Zoöl.), any one of several species of scale insects belonging to the family Coccidæ, which secrete from their bodies a waxlike substance, especially the Chinese wax insect (Coccus Sinensis) from which a large amount of the commercial Chinese wax is obtained. Called also pela. -- Wax light, a candle or taper of wax. -- Wax moth (Zoöl.), a pyralid moth (Galleria cereana) whose larvæ feed upon honeycomb, and construct silken galleries among the fragments. The moth has dusky gray wings streaked with brown near the outer edge. The larva is yellowish white with brownish dots. Called also bee moth. -- Wax myrtle. (Bot.) See Bayberry. -- Wax painting, a kind of painting practiced by the ancients, under the name of encaustic. The pigments were ground with wax, and diluted. After being applied, the wax was melted with hot irons and the color thus fixed. -- Wax palm. (Bot.) (a) A species of palm (Ceroxylon Andicola) native of the Andes, the stem of which is covered with a secretion, consisting of two thirds resin and one third wax, which, when melted with a third of fat, makes excellent candles. (b) A Brazilian tree (Copernicia cerifera) the young leaves of which are covered with a useful waxy secretion. -- Wax paper, paper prepared with a coating of white wax and other ingredients. -- Wax plant (Bot.), a name given to several plants, as: (a) The Indian pipe (see under Indian). (b) The Hoya carnosa, a climbing plant with polished, fleshy leaves. (c) Certain species of Begonia with similar foliage. -- Wax tree (Bot.) (a) A tree or shrub (Ligustrum lucidum) of China, on which certain insects make a thick deposit of a substance resembling white wax. (b) A kind of sumac (Rhus succedanea) of Japan, the berries of which yield a sort of wax. (c) A rubiaceous tree (Elæagia utilis) of New Grenada, called by the inhabitants "arbol del cera." -- Wax yellow, a dull yellow, resembling the natural color of beeswax. WAX Wax, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Waxed; p. pr. & vb. n. Waxing.] Defn: To smear or rub with wax; to treat with wax; as, to wax a thread or a table. Waxed cloth, cloth covered with a coating of wax, used as a cover, of tables and for other purposes; -- called also wax cloth. -- Waxed end, a thread pointed with a bristle and covered with shoemaker's wax, used in sewing leather, as for boots, shoes, and the like; -- called also wax end. Brockett. WAXBERRY Wax"ber`ry, n. (Bot.) Defn: The wax-covered fruit of the wax myrtle, or bayberry. See Bayberry, and Candleberry tree. WAXBILL Wax"bill`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of numerous species of finchlike birds belonging to Estrelda and allied genera, native of Asia, Africa, and Australia. The bill is large, conical, and usually red in color, resembling sealing wax. Several of the species are often kept as cage birds. WAXBIRD Wax"bird`, (Zoöl.) Defn: The waxwing. WAXEN Wax"en, a. 1. Made of wax. "The female bee, that . . . builds her waxen cells." Milton. 2. Covered with wax; waxed; as, a waxen tablet. 3. Resembling wax; waxy; hence, soft; yielding. Men have marble, women waxen, minds. Shak. Waxen chatterer (Zoöl.), the Bohemian chatterer. WAXINESS Wax"i*ness, n. Defn: Quality or state of being waxy. WAXWING Wax"wing`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of several species of small birds of the genus Ampelis, in which some of the secondary quills are usually tipped with small horny ornaments resembling red sealing wax. The Bohemian waxwing (see under Bohemian) and the cedar bird are examples. Called also waxbird. WAXWORK Wax"work`, n. 1. Work made of wax; especially, a figure or figures formed or partly of wax, in imitation of real beings. 2. (Bot.) Defn: An American climbing shrub (Celastrus scandens). It bears a profusion of yellow berrylike pods, which open in the autumn, and display the scarlet coverings of the seeds. WAXWORKER Wax"work`er, n. 1. One who works in wax; one who makes waxwork. 2. A bee that makes or produces wax. WAXWORKS Wax"works`, n. pl. Defn: An exhibition of wax figures, or the place of exhibition. WAXY Wax"y, a. Defn: Resembling wax in appearance or consistency; viscid; adhesive; soft; hence, yielding; pliable; impressible. "Waxy to persuasion." Bp. Hall. Waxy degeneration (Med.), amyloid degeneration. See under Amyloid. -- Waxy kidney, Waxy liver, etc. (Med.), a kidney or liver affected by waxy degeneration. WAY Way, adv. Etym: [Aphetic form of away.] Defn: Away. [Obs. or Archaic] Chaucer. To do way, to take away; to remove. [Obs.] "Do way your hands." Chaucer. -- To make way with, to make away with. See under Away. [Archaic] WAY Way, n. Etym: [OE. wey, way, AS. weg; akin to OS., D., OHG., & G. weg, Icel. vegr, Sw. väg, Dan. vei, Goth. wigs, L. via, and AS. wegan to move, L. vehere to carry, Skr. vah. sq. root136. Cf. Convex, Inveigh, Vehicle, Vex, Via, Voyage, Wag, Wagon, Wee, Weigh.] 1. That by, upon, or along, which one passes or processes; opportunity or room to pass; place of passing; passage; road, street, track, or path of any kind; as, they built a way to the mine. "To find the way to heaven." Shak. I shall him seek by way and eke by street. Chaucer. The way seems difficult, and steep to scale. Milton. The season and ways were very improper for his majesty's forces to march so great a distance. Evelyn. 2. Length of space; distance; interval; as, a great way; a long way. And whenever the way seemed long, Or his heart began to fail. Longfellow. 3. A moving; passage; procession; journey. I prythee, now, lead the way. Shak. 4. Course or direction of motion or process; tendency of action; advance. If that way be your walk, you have not far. Milton. And let eternal justice take the way. Dryden. 5. The means by which anything is reached, or anything is accomplished; scheme; device; plan. My best way is to creep under his gaberdine. Shak. By noble ways we conquest will prepare. Dryden. What impious ways my wishes took! Prior. 6. Manner; method; mode; fashion; style; as, the way of expressing one's ideas. 7. Regular course; habitual method of life or action; plan of conduct; mode of dealing. "Having lost the way of nobleness." Sir. P. Sidney. Her ways are ways of pleasantness, and all her paths are peace. Prov. iii. 17. When men lived in a grander way. Longfellow. 8. Sphere or scope of observation. Jer. Taylor. The public ministers that fell in my way. Sir W. Temple. 9. Determined course; resolved mode of action or conduct; as, to have one's way. 10. (Naut.) (a) Progress; as, a ship has way. (b) pl. Defn: The timbers on which a ship is launched. 11. pl. (Mach.) Defn: The longitudinal guides, or guiding surfaces, on the bed of a planer, lathe, or the like, along which a table or carriage moves. 12. (Law) Defn: Right of way. See below. By the way, in passing; apropos; aside; apart from, though connected with, the main object or subject of discourse. -- By way of, for the purpose of; as being; in character of. -- Covert way. (Fort.) See Covered way, under Covered. -- In the family way. See under Family. -- In the way, so as to meet, fall in with, obstruct, hinder, etc. -- In the way with, traveling or going with; meeting or being with; in the presence of. -- Milky way. (Astron.) See Galaxy, 1. -- No way, No ways. See Noway, Noways, in the Vocabulary. -- On the way, traveling or going; hence, in process; advancing toward completion; as, on the way to this country; on the way to success. -- Out of the way. See under Out. -- Right of way (Law), a right of private passage over another's ground. It may arise either by grant or prescription. It may be attached to a house, entry, gate, well, or city lot, as well as to a country farm. Kent. -- To be under way, or To have way (Naut.), to be in motion, as when a ship begins to move. -- To give way. See under Give. -- To go one's way, or To come one's way, to go or come; to depart or come along. Shak. -- To go the way of all the earth, to die. -- To make one's way, to advance in life by one's personal efforts. -- To make way. See under Make, v. t. -- Ways and means. (a) Methods; resources; facilities. (b) (Legislation) Means for raising money; resources for revenue. -- Way leave, permission to cross, or a right of way across, land; also, rent paid for such right. [Eng] -- Way of the cross (Eccl.), the course taken in visiting in rotation the stations of the cross. See Station, n., 7 (c). -- Way of the rounds (Fort.), a space left for the passage of the rounds between a rampart and the wall of a fortified town. -- Way pane, a pane for cartage in irrigated land. See Pane, n., 4. [Prov. Eng.] -- Way passenger, a passenger taken up, or set down, at some intermediate place between the principal stations on a line of travel. -- Ways of God, his providential government, or his works. -- Way station, an intermediate station between principal stations on a line of travel, especially on a railroad. -- Way train, a train which stops at the intermediate, or way, stations; an accommodation train. -- Way warden, the surveyor of a road. Syn. -- Street; highway; road. -- Way, Street, Highway, Road. Way is generic, denoting any line for passage or conveyance; a highway is literally one raised for the sake of dryness and convenience in traveling; a road is, strictly, a way for horses and carriages; a street is, etymologically, a paved way, as early made in towns and cities; and, hence, the word is distinctively applied to roads or highways in compact settlements. All keep the broad highway, and take delight With many rather for to go astray. Spenser. There is but one road by which to climb up. Addison. When night Darkens the streets, then wander forth the sons Of Belial, flown with insolence and wine. Milton. WAY Way, v. t. Defn: To go or travel to; to go in, as a way or path. [Obs.] "In land not wayed." Wyclif. WAY Way, v. i. Defn: To move; to progress; to go. [R.] On a time as they together wayed. Spenser. WAYBILL Way"bill`, n. Defn: A list of passengers in a public vehicle, or of the baggage or gods transported by a common carrier on a land route. When the goods are transported by water, the list is called a bill of lading. WAYBREAD Way"bread`, n. Etym: [AS. wegbr. See Way, and Broad.] (Bot.) Defn: The common dooryard plantain (Plantago major). WAYBUNG Way"bung`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: An Australian insessorial bird (Corcorax melanorhamphus) noted for the curious actions of the male during the breeding season. It is black with a white patch on each wing. WAYED Wayed, a. Defn: Used to the way; broken. [R.] A horse that is not well wayed; he starts at every bird that flies out the hedge. Selden. WAYFARE Way"fare`, v. i. Etym: [Way + fare to go.] Defn: To journey; to travel; to go to and fro. [Obs.] A certain Laconian, as he wayfared, came unto a place where there dwelt an old friend of his. Holland. WAYFARE Way"fare`, n. Defn: The act of journeying; travel; passage. [Obs.] Holland. WAYFARER Way"far`er, n. Defn: One who travels; a traveler; a passenger. WAYFARING Way"far`ing, a. Defn: Traveling; passing; being on a journey. "A wayfaring man." Judg. xix. 17. Wayfaring tree (Bot.), a European shrub (Viburnum lantana) having large ovate leaves and dense cymes of small white flowers. -- American wayfaring tree (Bot.), the (Viburnum lantanoides). WAYGATE Way"gate`, n. Defn: The tailrace of a mill. Knight. WAY-GOING Way"-go`ing, a. Defn: Going away; departing; of or pertaining to one who goes away. Way-going crop (Law of Leases), a crop of grain to which tenants for years are sometimes entitled by custom; grain sown in the fall to be reaped at the next harvest; a crop which will not ripen until after the termination of the lease. Burrill. WAY-GOOSE Way"-goose`, n. Defn: See Wayz-goose, n., 2. [Eng.] WAYK Wayk, a. Defn: Weak. [Obs.] Chaucer. WAYLAY Way"lay`, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Waylaid; p. pr. & vb. n. Waylaying.] Etym: [Way + lay.] Defn: To lie in wait for; to meet or encounter in the way; especially, to watch for the passing of, with a view to seize, rob, or slay; to beset in ambush. Falstaff, Bardolph, Peto, and Gadshill shall rob those men that we have already waylaid. Shak. She often contrived to waylay him in his walks. Sir W. Scott. WAYLAYER Way"lay`er, n. Defn: One who waylays another. WAYLESS Way"less, a. Defn: Having no road or path; pathless. WAYLEWAY Way"le*way, interj. Defn: See Welaway. [Obs.] WAYMAKER Way"mak`er, n. Defn: One who makes a way; a precursor. [R.] Bacon. WAYMARK Way"mark`, n. Defn: A mark to guide in traveling. WAYMENT Way"ment, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Waymented; p. pr. & vb. n. Waymenting.] Etym: [OE. waymenten, OF. waimenter, gaimenter, guaimenter, from wai, guai, woe! (of Teutonic origin; see Woe) and L. lamentari to lament. See Lament.] Defn: To lament; to grieve; to wail. [Written also waiment.] [Obs.] Thilke science . . . maketh a man to waymenten. Chaucer. For what boots it to weep and wayment, When ill is chanced Spenser. WAYMENT Way"ment, n. Defn: Grief; lamentation; mourning. [Written also waiment.] [Obs.] Spenser. -WAYS -ways. Defn: A suffix formed from way by the addition of the adverbial -s (see -wards). It is often used interchangeably with wise; as, endways or endwise; noways or nowise, etc. WAY SHAFT Way" shaft`. 1. (Mach.) Defn: A rock shaft. 2. (Mining) Defn: An interior shaft, usually one connecting two levels. Raymond. WAYSIDE Way"side`, n. Defn: The side of the way; the edge or border of a road or path. WAYSIDE Way"side`, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to the wayside; as, wayside flowers. "A wayside inn." Longfellow. WAYWARD Way"ward, a. Etym: [OE. weiward, for aweiward, i. e., turned away. See Away, and -ward.] Defn: Taking one's own way; disobedient; froward; perverse; willful. My wife is in a wayward mood. Shak. Wayward beauty doth not fancy move. Fairfax. Wilt thou forgive the wayward thought Keble. -- Way"ward*ly, adv. -- Way"ward*ness, n. WAY-WISE Way"-wise`, a. Defn: Skillful in finding the way; well acquainted with the way or route; wise from having traveled. WAYWISER Way"wis`er, n. Etym: [Cf. G. wegweiser a waymark, a guide; weg way + weisen to show, direct.] Defn: An instrument for measuring the distance which one has traveled on the road; an odometer, pedometer, or perambulator. The waywiser to a coach, exactly measuring the miles, and showing them by an index. Evelyn. WAYWODE Way"wode, n. Etym: [Russ. voevoda, or Pol. woiewoda; properly, a leader of an army, a leader in war. Cf. Vaivode.] Defn: Originally, the title of a military commander in various Slavonic countries; afterwards applied to governors of towns or provinces. It was assumed for a time by the rulers of Moldavia and Wallachia, who were afterwards called hospodars, and has also been given to some inferior Turkish officers. [Written also vaivode, voivode, waiwode, and woiwode.] WAYWODESHIP Way"wode*ship, n. Defn: The office, province, or jurisdiction of a waywode. WAYWORN Way"worn`, a. Defn: Wearied by traveling. WAYZ-GOOSE Wayz"-goose`, n. Etym: [Wase stubble + goose.] 1. A stubble goose. [Obs. or Prov. Eng.] 2. An annual feast of the persons employed in a printing office. [Written also way-goose.] [Eng.] WE We, pron.; pl. of I. [Poss. Our (our) or Ours (; obj. Us (. See I.] Etym: [As. w; akin to OS. wi, OFries. & LG. wi, D. wij, G. wir, Icel. v, Sw. & Dan. vi, Goth. weis, Skr. vayam. sq. root190.] Defn: The plural nominative case of the pronoun of the first person; the word with which a person in speaking or writing denotes a number or company of which he is one, as the subject of an action expressed by a verb. Note: We is frequently used to express men in general, including the speaker. We is also often used by individuals, as authors, editors, etc., in speaking of themselves, in order to avoid the appearance of egotism in the too frequent repetition of the pronoun I. The plural style is also in use among kings and other sovereigns, and is said to have been begun by King John of England. Before that time, monarchs used the singular number in their edicts. The German and the French sovereigns followed the example of King John in a. d. 1200. WEAK Weak, a. [Compar. Weaker; superl. Weakest.] Etym: [OE. weik, Icel. veikr; akin to Sw. vek, Dan. veg soft, flexible, pliant, AS. wac weak, soft, pliant, D. week, G. weich, OHG. weih; all from the verb seen in Icel. vikja to turn, veer, recede, AS. wican to yield, give way, G. weichen, OHG. wihhan, akin to Skr. vij, and probably to E. week, L. vicis a change, turn, Gr. Week, Wink, v. i. Vicissitude.] 1. Wanting physical strength. Specifically: -- (a) Deficient in strength of body; feeble; infirm; sickly; debilitated; enfeebled; exhausted. A poor, infirm, weak, and despised old man. Shak. Weak with hunger, mad with love. Dryden. (b) Not able to sustain a great weight, pressure, or strain; as, a weak timber; a weak rope. (c) Not firmly united or adhesive; easily broken or separated into pieces; not compact; as, a weak ship. (d) Not stiff; pliant; frail; soft; as, the weak stalk of a plant. (e) Not able to resist external force or onset; easily subdued or overcome; as, a weak barrier; as, a weak fortress. (f) Lacking force of utterance or sound; not sonorous; low; small; feeble; faint. A voice not soft, weak, piping, and womanish. Ascham. (g) Not thoroughly or abundantly impregnated with the usual or required ingredients, or with stimulating and nourishing substances; of less than the usual strength; as, weak tea, broth, or liquor; a weak decoction or solution; a weak dose of medicine. (h) Lacking ability for an appropriate function or office; as, weak eyes; a weak stomach; a weak magistrate; a weak regiment, or army. 2. Not possessing or manifesting intellectual, logical, moral, or political strength, vigor, etc. Specifically: - (a) Feeble of mind; wanting discernment; lacking vigor; spiritless; as, a weak king or magistrate. To think every thing disputable is a proof of a weak mind and captious temper. Beattie. Origen was never weak enough to imagine that there were two Gods. Waterland. (b) Resulting from, or indicating, lack of judgment, discernment, or firmness; unwise; hence, foolish. If evil thence ensue, She first his weak indulgence will accuse. Milton. (c) Not having full confidence or conviction; not decided or confirmed; vacillating; wavering. Him that is weak in the faith receive ye, but not to doubtful disputations. Rom. xiv. 1. (d) Not able to withstand temptation, urgency, persuasion, etc.; easily impressed, moved, or overcome; accessible; vulnerable; as, weak resolutions; weak virtue. Guard thy heart On this weak side, where most our nature fails. Addison. (e) Wanting in power to influence or bind; as, weak ties; a weak sense of honor of duty. (f) Not having power to convince; not supported by force of reason or truth; unsustained; as, a weak argument or case. "Convinced of his weak arguing." Milton. A case so weak . . . hath much persisted in. Hooker. (g) Wanting in point or vigor of expression; as, a weak sentence; a weak style. (h) Not prevalent or effective, or not felt to be prevalent; not potent; feeble. "Weak prayers." Shak. (i) Lacking in elements of political strength; not wielding or having authority or energy; deficient in the resources that are essential to a ruler or nation; as, a weak monarch; a weak government or state. I must make fair weather yet awhile, Till Henry be more weak, and I more strong. Shak. (k) (Stock Exchange) Defn: Tending towards lower prices; as, a weak market. 3. (Gram.) (a) Pertaining to, or designating, a verb which forms its preterit (imperfect) and past participle by adding to the present the suffix - ed, -d, or the variant form -t; as in the verbs abash, abashed; abate, abated; deny, denied; feel, felt. See Strong, 19 (a). (b) Pertaining to, or designating, a noun in Anglo-Saxon, etc., the stem of which ends in -n. See Strong, 19 (b). Note: Weak is often used in the formation of self-explaining compounds; as, weak-eyed, weak-handed, weak-hearted, weak-minded, weak-spirited, and the like. Weak conjugation (Gram.), the conjugation of weak verbs; -- called also new, or regular, conjugation, and distinguished from the old, or irregular, conjugation. -- Weak declension (Anglo-Saxon Gram.), the declension of weak nouns; also, one of the declensions of adjectives. -- Weak side, the side or aspect of a person's character or disposition by which he is most easily affected or influenced; weakness; infirmity. -- Weak sore or ulcer (Med.), a sore covered with pale, flabby, sluggish granulations. WEAK Weak, v. t. & i. Etym: [Cf. AS. w. wacian. See Weak, a.] Defn: To make or become weak; to weaken. [R.] Never to seek weaking variety. Marston. WEAKEN Weak"en, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Weakened; p. pr. & vb. n. Weakening.] 1. To make weak; to lessen the strength of; to deprive of strength; to debilitate; to enfeeble; to enervate; as, to weaken the body or the mind; to weaken the hands of a magistrate; to weaken the force of an objection or an argument. Their hands shall be weakened from the work, that it be not done. Neh. vi. 9. 2. To reduce in quality, strength, or spirit; as, to weaken tea; to weaken any solution or decoction. WEAKEN Weak"en, v. i. Defn: To become weak or weaker; to lose strength, spirit, or determination; to become less positive or resolute; as, the patient weakened; the witness weakened on cross-examination. "His notion weakens, his discernings are lethargied." Shak. WEAKENER Weak"en*er, n. Defn: One who, or that which, weakens. "[Fastings] weakeners of sin." South. WEAKFISH Weak"fish`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any fish of the genus Cynoscion; a squeteague; -- so called from its tender mouth. See Squeteague. Spotted weakfish (Zoöl.), the spotted squeteague. WEAK-HEARTED Weak"-heart`ed, a. Defn: Having little courage; of feeble spirit; dispirited; faint- hearted. "Weak-hearted enemies." Shak. WEAKISH Weak"ish, a. Defn: Somewhat weak; rather weak. WEAKISHNESS Weak"ish*ness, n. Defn: Quality or state of being weakish. WEAK-KNEED Weak"-kneed`, a. Defn: Having weak knees; hence, easily yielding; wanting resolution. H. James. WEAKLING Weak"ling, n. Etym: [Weak + -ling.] Defn: A weak or feeble creature. Shak. "All looking on him as a weakling, which would post to the grave." Fuller. We may not be weaklings because we have a strong enemy. Latimer. WEAKLING Weak"ling, a. Defn: Weak; feeble. Sir T. North. WEAKLY Weak"ly, adv. Defn: In a weak manner; with little strength or vigor; feebly. WEAKLY Weak"ly, a. [Compar. Weaklier; superl. Weakliest.] Defn: Not strong of constitution; infirm; feeble; as, a weakly woman; a man of a weakly constitution. WEAK-MINDED Weak"-mind`ed, a. Defn: Having a weak mind, either naturally or by reason of disease; feebleminded; foolish; idiotic. -- Weak"-mind`ed*ness, n. WEAKNESS Weak"ness, n. 1. The quality or state of being weak; want of strength or firmness; lack of vigor; want of resolution or of moral strength; feebleness. 2. That which is a mark of lack of strength or resolution; a fault; a defect. Many take pleasure in spreading abroad the weakness of an exalted character. Spectator. Syn. -- Feebleness; debility; languor; imbecility; infirmness; infirmity; decrepitude; frailty; faintness. WEAL Weal, n. Defn: The mark of a stripe. See Wale. WEAL Weal, v. t. Defn: To mark with stripes. See Wale. WEAL Weal, n. Etym: [OE. wele, AS. wela, weola, wealth, from wel well. See Well, adv., and cf. Wealth.] 1. A sound, healthy, or prosperous state of a person or thing; prosperity; happiness; welfare. God . . . grant you wele and prosperity. Chaucer. As we love the weal of our souls and bodies. Bacon. To him linked in weal or woe. Milton. Never was there a time when it more concerned the public weal that the character of the Parliament should stand high. Macaulay. 2. The body politic; the state; common wealth. [Obs.] The special watchmen of our English weal. Shak. WEAL Weal, v. t. Defn: To promote the weal of; to cause to be prosperous. [Obs.] Beau. & Fl. WEAL-BALANCED Weal"-bal`anced, a. Defn: Balanced or considered with reference to public weal. [Obs.] Shak. WEALD Weald, n. Etym: [AS. See Wold.] Defn: A wood or forest; a wooded land or region; also, an open country; -- often used in place names. Fled all night long by glimmering waste and weald, And heard the spirits of the waste and weald Moan as she fled. Tennyson. Weald clay (Geol.), the uppermost member of the Wealden strata. See Wealden. WEALDEN Weald"en, a. Etym: [AS. weald, wald, a forest, a wood. So called because this formation occurs in the wealds, or woods, of Kent and Sussex. See Weald.] (Geol.) Defn: Of or pertaining to the lowest division of the Cretaceous formation in England and on the Continent, which overlies the Oölitic series. WEALDEN Weald"en, n. (Geol.) Defn: The Wealden group or strata. WEALDISH Weald"ish, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to a weald, esp. to the weald in the county of Kent, England. [Obs.] Fuller. WEALFUL Weal"ful, a. Defn: Weleful. [Obs.] Chaucer. WEALSMAN Weals"man, n.; pl. Wealsmen. Etym: [Weal + man.] Defn: A statesman; a politician. [R.] Shak. WEALTH Wealth, n. Etym: [OE. welthe, from wele; cf. D. weelde luxury. See Weal prosperity.] 1. Weal; welfare; prosperity; good. [Obs.] "Let no man seek his own, but every man another's wealth." 1 Cor. x. 24. 2. Large possessions; a comparative abundance of things which are objects of human desire; esp., abundance of worldly estate; affluence; opulence; riches. I have little wealth to lose. Shak. Each day new wealth, without their care, provides. Dryden. Wealth comprises all articles of value and nothing else. F. A. Walker. Active wealth. See under Active. Syn. -- Riches; affluence; opulence; abundance. WEALTHFUL Wealth"ful, a. Defn: Full of wealth; wealthy; prosperous. [R.] Sir T. More. -- Wealth"ful*ly, adv. [R.] WEALTHILY Wealth"i*ly, adv. Defn: In a wealthy manner; richly. I come to wive it wealthily in Padua. Shak. WEALTHINESS Wealth"i*ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being wealthy, or rich; richness; opulence. WEALTHY Wealth"y, a. [Compar. Wealthier; superl. Wealthiest.] 1. Having wealth; having large possessions, or larger than most men, as lands, goods, money, or securities; opulent; affluent; rich. A wealthy Hebrew of my tribe. Shak. Thou broughtest us out into a wealthy place. Ps. lxvi. 12. 2. Hence, ample; full; satisfactory; abundant. [R.] The wealthy witness of my pen. B. Jonson. WEAN Wean, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Weaned; p. pr. & vb. n. Weaning.] Etym: [OE. wenen, AS. wenian, wennan, to accustom; akin to D. wennen, G. gewöhnen, OHG. giwennan, Icel. venja, Sw. vänja, Dan. vænne, Icel. vanr accustomed, wont; cf. AS. awenian to wean, G. entwöhnen. See Wont, a.] 1. To accustom and reconcile, as a child or other young animal, to a want or deprivation of mother's milk; to take from the breast or udder; to cause to cease to depend on the mother nourishment. And the child grew, and was weaned; and Abraham made a great feast the same day that Isaac was weaned. Gen. xxi. 8. 2. Hence, to detach or alienate the affections of, from any object of desire; to reconcile to the want or loss of anything. "Wean them from themselves." Shak. The troubles of age were intended . . . to wean us gradually from our fondness of life. Swift. WEAN Wean, n. Defn: A weanling; a young child. I, being but a yearling wean. Mrs. Browning. WEANEDNESS Wean"ed*ness, n. Defn: Quality or state of being weaned. WEANEL Wean"el, n. Defn: A weanling. [Obs.] Spenser. WEANLING Wean"ling, Defn: a. & n. from Wean, v. The weaning of the whelp is the great test of the skill of the kennel man. J. H. Walsh. Weaning brash. (Med.) See under Brash. WEANLING Wean"ling, n. Etym: [Wean + -ling.] Defn: A child or animal newly weaned; a wean. WEANLING Wean"ling, a. Defn: Recently weaned. Milton. WEAPON Weap"on, n. Etym: [OE. wepen, AS. w; akin to OS. w, OFries. w, w, D. wapen, G. waffe, OHG. waffan, wafan, Icel. vapn, Dan. vaaben, Sw. vapen, Goth. w, pl.; of uncertain origin. Cf. Wapentake.] 1. An instrument of offensive of defensive combat; something to fight with; anything used, or designed to be used, in destroying, defeating, or injuring an enemy, as a gun, a sword, etc. The weapons of our warfare are not carnal. 2 Cor. x. 4. They, astonished, all resistance lost, All courage; down their idle weapons dropped. Milton. 2. Fig.: The means or instrument with which one contends against another; as, argument was his only weapon. "Woman's weapons, water drops." Shak. 3. (Bot.) Defn: A thorn, prickle, or sting with which many plants are furnished. Concealed weapons. See under Concealed. -- Weapon salve, a salve which was supposed to cure a wound by being applied to the weapon that made it. [Obs.] Boyle. WEAPONED Weap"oned, a. Defn: Furnished with weapons, or arms; armed; equipped. WEAPONLESS Weap"on*less, a. Defn: Having no weapon. WEAPONRY Weap"on*ry, n. Defn: Weapons, collectively; as, an array of weaponry. [Poetic] WEAR Wear, n. Defn: Same as Weir. WEAR Wear, v. t. Etym: [Cf. Veer.] (Naut.) Defn: To cause to go about, as a vessel, by putting the helm up, instead of alee as in tacking, so that the vessel's bow is turned away from, and her stern is presented to, the wind, and, as she turns still farther, her sails fill on the other side; to veer. WEAR Wear, v. t. [imp. Wore; p. p. Worn; p. pr. & vb. n. Wearing. Before the 15th century wear was a weak verb, the imp. & p. p. being Weared.] Etym: [OE. weren, werien, AS. werian to carry, to wear, as arms or clothes; akin to OHG. werien, weren, to clothe, Goth. wasjan, L. vestis clothing, vestire to clothe, Gr. vas. Cf. Vest.] 1. To carry or bear upon the person; to bear upon one's self, as an article of clothing, decoration, warfare, bondage, etc.; to have appendant to one's body; to have on; as, to wear a coat; to wear a shackle. What compass will you wear your farthingale Shak. On her white breast a sparkling cross swore, Which Jews might kiss, and infidels adore. Pope. 2. To have or exhibit an appearance of, as an aspect or manner; to bear; as, she wears a smile on her countenance. "He wears the rose of youth upon him." Shak. His innocent gestures wear A meaning half divine. Keble. 3. To use up by carrying or having upon one's self; hence, to consume by use; to waste; to use up; as, to wear clothes rapidly. 4. To impair, waste, or diminish, by continual attrition, scraping, percussion, on the like; to consume gradually; to cause to lower or disappear; to spend. That wicked wight his days doth wear. Spenser. The waters wear the stones. Job xiv. 19. 5. To cause or make by friction or wasting; as, to wear a channel; to wear a hole. 6. To form or shape by, or as by, attrition. Trials wear us into a liking of what, possibly, in the first essay, displeased us. Locke. To wear away, to consume; to impair, diminish, or destroy, by gradual attrition or decay. -- To wear off, to diminish or remove by attrition or slow decay; as, to wear off the nap of cloth. -- To wear on or upon, to wear. [Obs.] "[I] weared upon my gay scarlet gites [gowns.]" Chaucer. -- To wear out. (a) To consume, or render useless, by attrition or decay; as, to wear out a coat or a book. (b) To consume tediously. "To wear out miserable days." Milton. (c) To harass; to tire. "[He] shall wear out the saints of the Most High." Dan vii. 25. (d) To waste the strength of; as, an old man worn out in military service. -- To wear the breeches. See under Breeches. [Colloq.] WEAR Wear, v. i. 1. To endure or suffer use; to last under employment; to bear the consequences of use, as waste, consumption, or attrition; as, a coat wears well or ill; -- hence, sometimes applied to character, qualifications, etc.; as, a man wears well as an acquaintance. 2. To be wasted, consumed, or diminished, by being used; to suffer injury, loss, or extinction by use or time; to decay, or be spent, gradually. "Thus wore out night." Milton. Away, I say; time wears. Shak. Thou wilt surely wear away, both thou and this people that is with thee. Ex. xviii. 18. His stock of money began to wear very low. Sir W. Scott. The family . . . wore out in the earlier part of the century. Beaconsfield. To wear off, to pass away by degrees; as, the follies of youth wear off with age. -- To wear on, to pass on; as, time wears on. G. Eliot. -- To wear weary, to become weary, as by wear, long occupation, tedious employment, etc. WEAR Wear, n. 1. The act of wearing, or the state of being worn; consumption by use; diminution by friction; as, the wear of a garment. 2. The thing worn; style of dress; the fashion. Motley wear. Shak. Wear and tear, the loss by wearing, as of machinery in use; the loss or injury to which anything is subjected by use, accident, etc. WEARABLE Wear"a*ble, a. Defn: Capable of being worn; suitable to be worn. WEARER Wear"er, n. 1. One who wears or carries as appendant to the body; as, the wearer of a cloak, a sword, a crown, a shackle, etc. Cowls, hoods, and habits, with their wearers, tossed, And fluttered into rags. Milton. 2. That which wastes or diminishes. WEARIABLE Wea"ri*a*ble, a. Defn: That may be wearied. WEARIFUL Wea"ri*ful, a. Defn: Abounding in qualities which cause weariness; wearisome. -- Wea"ri*ful*ly, adv. WEARILESS Wea"ri*less, a. Defn: Incapable of being wearied. WEARILY Wea"ri*ly, adv. Defn: In a weary manner. WEARINESS Wea"ri*ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being weary or tried; lassitude; exhaustion of strength; fatigue. With weariness and wine oppressed. Dryden. A man would die, though he were neither valiant nor miserable, only upon a weariness to do the same thing so oft over and over. Bacon. WEARING Wear"ing, n. 1. The act of one who wears; the manner in which a thing wears; use; conduct; consumption. Belike he meant to ward, and there to see his wearing. Latimer. 2. That which is worn; clothes; garments. [Obs.] Give me my nightly wearing and adieu. Shak. WEARING Wear"ing, a. Defn: Pertaining to, or designed for, wear; as, wearing apparel. WEARISH Wear"ish, a. Etym: [Etymol. uncertain, but perhaps akin to weary.] 1. Weak; withered; shrunk. [Obs.] "A wearish hand." Ford. A little, wearish old man, very melancholy by nature. Burton. 2. Insipid; tasteless; unsavory. [Obs.] Wearish as meat is that is not well tasted. Palsgrave. WEARISOME Wea"ri*some, a. Defn: Causing weariness; tiresome; tedious; weariful; as, a wearisome march; a wearisome day's work; a wearisome book. These high wild hills and rough uneven ways Draws out our miles, and makes them wearisome. Shak. Syn. -- Irksome; tiresome; tedious; fatiguing; annoying; vexatious. See Irksome. -- Wea"ri*some*ly, adv. -- Wea"ri*some*ness, n. WEARY Wea"ry, a. [Compar. Wearier; superl. Weariest.] Etym: [OE. weri, AS. w; akin to OS. w, OHG. wu; of uncertain origin; cf. AS. w to ramble.] 1. Having the strength exhausted by toil or exertion; worn out in respect to strength, endurance, etc.; tired; fatigued. I care not for my spirits if my legs were not weary. Shak. [I] am weary, thinking of your task. Longfellow. 2. Causing weariness; tiresome. "Weary way." Spenser. "There passed a weary time." Coleridge. 3. Having one's patience, relish, or contentment exhausted; tired; sick; -- with of before the cause; as, weary of marching, or of confinement; weary of study. Syn. -- Fatigued; tiresome; irksome; wearisome. WEARY Wea"ry, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wearied; p. pr. & vb. n. Wearying.] 1. To reduce or exhaust the physical strength or endurance of; to tire; to fatigue; as, to weary one's self with labor or traveling. So shall he waste his means, weary his soldiers. Shak. 2. To make weary of anything; to exhaust the patience of, as by continuance. I stay too long by thee; I weary thee. Shak. 3. To harass by anything irksome. I would not cease To weary him with my assiduous cries. Milton. To weary out, to subdue or exhaust by fatigue. Syn. -- To jade; tire; fatigue; fag. See Jade. WEARY Wea"ry, v. i. Defn: To grow tired; to become exhausted or impatient; as, to weary of an undertaking. WEASAND Wea"sand, n. Etym: [OE. wesand, AS. wasend; akin to OFries. wasende, wasande; cf. OHG. weisunt.] Defn: The windpipe; -- called also, formerly, wesil. [Formerly, written also, wesand, and wezand.] Cut his weasand with thy knife. Shak. WEASEL Wea"sel, n. Etym: [OE. wesele, AS. wesle; akin to D. wezel, G. wiesel, OHG. wisala, Icel. hreyivisla, Dan. väsel, Sw. vessla; of uncertain origin; cf. Gr. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of various species of small carnivores belonging to the genus Putorius, as the ermine and ferret. They have a slender, elongated body, and are noted for the quickness of their movements and for their bloodthirsty habit in destroying poultry, rats, etc. The ermine and some other species are brown in summer, and turn white in winter; others are brown at all seasons. Malacca weasel, the rasse. -- Weasel coot, a female or young male of the smew; -- so called from the resemblance of the head to that of a weasel. Called also weasel duck. -- Weasel lemur, a short-tailed lemur (Lepilemur mustelinus). It is reddish brown above, grayish brown below, with the throat white. WEASEL-FACED Wea"sel-faced`, a. Defn: Having a thin, sharp face, like a weasel. WEASER Wea"ser, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The American merganser; -- called also weaser sheldrake. [Local, U. S.] WEASINESS Wea"si*ness, n. Defn: Quality or state of being weasy; full feeding; sensual indulgence. [Obs.] Joye. WEASY Wea"sy, a. Etym: [Cf. Weasand.] Defn: Given to sensual indulgence; gluttonous. [Obs.] Joye. WEATHER Weath"er, n. Etym: [OE. weder, AS. weder; akin to OS. wedar, OFries. weder, D. weder, weêr, G. wetter, OHG. wetar, Icel. veedhr, Dan. veir, Sw. väder wind, air, weather, and perhaps to OSlav. vedro fair weather; or perhaps to Lith. vetra storm, Russ. vieter', vietr', wind, and E. wind. Cf. Wither.] 1. The state of the air or atmosphere with respect to heat or cold, wetness or dryness, calm or storm, clearness or cloudiness, or any other meteorological phenomena; meteorological condition of the atmosphere; as, warm weather; cold weather; wet weather; dry weather, etc. Not amiss to cool a man's stomach this hot weather. Shak. Fair weather cometh out of the north. Job xxxvii. 22. 2. Vicissitude of season; meteorological change; alternation of the state of the air. Bacon. 3. Storm; tempest. What gusts of weather from that gathering cloud My thoughts presage! Dryden. 4. A light rain; a shower. [Obs.] Wyclif. Stress of weather, violent winds; force of tempests. -- To make fair weather, to flatter; to give flattering representations. [R.] -- To make good, or bad, weather (Naut.), to endure a gale well or ill; -- said of a vessel. Shak. -- Under the weather, ill; also, financially embarrassed. [Colloq. U. S.] Bartlett. -- Weather box. Same as Weather house, below. Thackeray. -- Weather breeder, a fine day which is supposed to presage foul weather. -- Weather bureau, a popular name for the signal service. See Signal service, under Signal, a. [U.S.] -- Weather cloth (Naut.), a long piece of canvas of tarpaulin used to preserve the hammocks from injury by the weather when stowed in the nettings. -- Weather door. (Mining) See Trapdoor, 2. -- Weather gall. Same as Water gall, 2. [Prov. Eng.] Halliwell. -- Weather house, a mechanical contrivance in the form of a house, which indicates changes in atmospheric conditions by the appearance or retirement of toy images. Peace to the artist whose ingenious thought Devised the weather house, that useful toy! Cowper. -- Weather molding, or Weather moulding (Arch.), a canopy or cornice over a door or a window, to throw off the rain. -- Weather of a windmill sail, the obliquity of the sail, or the angle which it makes with its plane of revolution. -- Weather report, a daily report of meteorological observations, and of probable changes in the weather; esp., one published by government authority. -- Weather spy, a stargazer; one who foretells the weather. [R.] Donne. -- Weather strip (Arch.), a strip of wood, rubber, or other material, applied to an outer door or window so as to cover the joint made by it with the sill, casings, or threshold, in order to exclude rain, snow, cold air, etc. WEATHER Weath"er, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Weathered; p. pr. & vb. n. Weathering.] 1. To expose to the air; to air; to season by exposure to air. [An eagle] soaring through his wide empire of the air To weather his broad sails. Spenser. This gear lacks weathering. Latimer. 2. Hence, to sustain the trying effect of; to bear up against and overcome; to sustain; to endure; to resist; as, to weather the storm. For I can weather the roughest gale. Longfellow. You will weather the difficulties yet. F. W. Robertson. 3. (Naut.) Defn: To sail or pass to the windward of; as, to weather a cape; to weather another ship. 4. (Falconry) Defn: To place (a hawk) unhooded in the open air. Encyc. Brit. To weather a point. (a) (Naut.) To pass a point of land, leaving it on the lee side. (b) Hence, to gain or accomplish anything against opposition. -- To weather out, to encounter successfully, though with difficulty; as, to weather out a storm. WEATHER Weath"er, v. i. Defn: To undergo or endure the action of the atmosphere; to suffer meteorological influences; sometimes, to wear away, or alter, under atmospheric influences; to suffer waste by weather. The organisms . . . seem indestructible, while the hard matrix in which they are imbedded has weathered from around them. H. Miller. WEATHER Weath"er, a. (Naut.) Defn: Being toward the wind, or windward -- opposed to lee; as, weather bow, weather braces, weather gauge, weather lifts, weather quarter, weather shrouds, etc. Weather gauge. (a) (Naut.) The position of a ship to the windward of another. (b) Fig.: A position of advantage or superiority; advantage in position. To veer, and tack, and steer a cause Against the weather gauge of laws. Hudibras. -- Weather helm (Naut.), a tendency on the part of a sailing vessel to come up into the wind, rendering it necessary to put the helm up, that is, toward the weather side. -- Weather shore (Naut.), the shore to the windward of a ship. Totten. -- Weather tide (Naut.), the tide which sets against the lee side of a ship, impelling her to the windward. Mar. Dict. WEATHER-BEATEN Weath"er-beat`en, a. Defn: Beaten or harassed by the weather; worn by exposure to the weather, especially to severe weather. Shak. WEATHER-BIT Weath"er-bit`, n. (Naut.) Defn: A turn of the cable about the end of the windlass, without the bits. WEATHERBIT Weath"er*bit`, v. t. (Naut.) Defn: To take another turn with, as a cable around a windlass. Totten. WEATHER-BITTEN Weath"er-bit`ten, a. Defn: Eaten into, defaced, or worn, by exposure to the weather. Coleridge. WEATHERBOARD Weath"er*board`, n. 1. (Naut.) (a) That side of a vessel which is toward the wind; the windward side. (b) A piece of plank placed in a porthole, or other opening, to keep out water. 2. (a) (Arch.) A board extending from the ridge to the eaves along the slope of the gable, and forming a close junction between the shingling of a roof and the side of the building beneath. (b) A clapboard or feather-edged board used in weatherboarding. WEATHER-BOARD Weath"er-board`, v. t. (Arch.) Defn: To nail boards upon so as to lap one over another, in order to exclude rain, snow, etc. Gwilt. WEATHERBOARDING Weath"er*board`ing, n. (Arch.) (a) The covering or siding of a building, formed of boards lapping over one another, to exclude rain, snow, etc. (b) Boards adapted or intended for such use. WEATHER-BOUND Weath"er-bound`, a. Defn: Kept in port or at anchor by storms; delayed by bad weather; as, a weather-bound vessel. WEATHERCOCK Weath"er*cock`, n. 1. A vane, or weather vane; -- so called because originally often in the figure of a cock, turning on the top of a spire with the wind, and showing its direction. "As a wedercok that turneth his face with every wind." Chaucer. Noisy weathercocks rattled and sang of mutation. Longfellow. 2. Hence, any thing or person that turns easily and frequently; one who veers with every change of current opinion; a fickle, inconstant person. WEATHERCOCK Weath"er*cock`, v. t. Defn: To supply with a weathercock; to serve as a weathercock for. Whose blazing wyvern weathercock the spire. Tennyson. WEATHER-DRIVEN Weath"er-driv`en, a. Defn: Driven by winds or storms; forced by stress of weather. Carew. WEATHERED Weath"ered, a. 1. (Arch.) Defn: Made sloping, so as to throw off water; as, a weathered cornice or window sill. 2. (Geol.) Defn: Having the surface altered in color, texture, or composition, or the edges rounded off by exposure to the elements. WEATHER-FEND Weath"er-fend`, v. t. Defn: To defend from the weather; to shelter. Shak. [We] barked the white spruce to weather-fend the roof. Emerson. WEATHERGLASS Weath"er*glass`, n. Defn: An instrument to indicate the state of the atmosphere, especially changes of atmospheric pressure, and hence changes of weather, as a barometer or baroscope. Poor man's weatherglass. (Bot.) See under Poor. WEATHERING Weath"er*ing, n. (Geol.) Defn: The action of the elements on a rock in altering its color, texture, or composition, or in rounding off its edges. WEATHERLINESS Weath"er*li*ness, n. (Naut.) Defn: The quality of being weatherly. WEATHERLY Weath"er*ly, a. (Naut.) Defn: Working, or able to sail, close to the wind; as, a weatherly ship. Cooper. WEATHER MAP Weath"er map. Defn: A map or chart showing the principal meteorological elements at a given hour and over an extended region. Such maps usually show the height of the barometer, the temperature of the air, the relative humidity, the state of the weather, and the direction and velocity of the wind. Isobars and isotherms outline the general distribution of temperature and pressure, while shaded areas indicate the sections over which rain has just fallen. Other lines inclose areas where the temperature has fallen or risen markedly. In tabular form are shown changes of pressure and of temperature, maximum and minimum temperatures, and total rain for each weather station since the last issue, usually 12 hours. WEATHERMOST Weath"er*most`, a. (Naut.) Defn: Being farthest to the windward. WEATHERPROOF Weath"er*proof`, a. Defn: Proof against rough weather. WEATHER SIGNAL Weather signal. Defn: Any signal giving information about the weather. The system used by the United States Weather Bureau includes temperature, cold or hot wave, rain or snow, wind direction, storm, and hurricane signals. WEATHER STATION Weather station. (Meteor.) Defn: A station for taking meteorological observations, making weather forecasts, or disseminating such information. Such stations are of the first order when they make observations of all the important elements either hourly or by self-registering instruments; of the second order when only important observations are taken; of the third order when simpler work is done, as to record rainfall and maximum and minimum temperatures. WEATHERWISE Weath"er*wise`, a. Defn: Skillful in forecasting the changes of the weather. Hakluyt. WEATHERWISER Weath"er*wis`er, n. Etym: [Cf. Waywiser.] Defn: Something that foreshows the weather. [Obs.] Derham. WEATHERWORN Weath"er*worn`, a. Defn: Worn by the action of, or by exposure to, the weather. WEAVE Weave, v. t. [imp. Wove; p. p. Woven, Wove; p. pr. & vb. n. Weaving. The regular imp. & p. p. Weaved (, is rarely used.] Etym: [OE. weven, AS. wefan; akin to D. weven, G. weben, OHG. weban, Icel. vefa, Sw. väfva, Dan. væve, Gr. spider, lit., wool weaver. Cf. Waper, Waffle, Web, Weevil, Weft, Woof.] 1. To unite, as threads of any kind, in such a manner as to form a texture; to entwine or interlace into a fabric; as, to weave wool, silk, etc.; hence, to unite by close connection or intermixture; to unite intimately. This weaves itself, perforce, into my business. Shak. That in their green shops weave the smooth-haired silk To deck her sons. Milton. And for these words, thus woven into song. Byron. 2. To form, as cloth, by interlacing threads; to compose, as a texture of any kind, by putting together textile materials; as, to weave broadcloth; to weave a carpet; hence, to form into a fabric; to compose; to fabricate; as, to weave the plot of a story. When she weaved the sleided silk. Shak. Her starry wreaths the virgin jasmin weaves. Ld. Lytton. WEAVE Weave, v. i. 1. To practice weaving; to work with a loom. 2. To become woven or interwoven. WEAVE Weave, n. Defn: A particular method or pattern of weaving; as, the cassimere weave. WEAVER Weav"er, n. 1. One who weaves, or whose occupation is to weave. "Weavers of linen." P. Plowman. 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: A weaver bird. 3. (Zoöl.) Defn: An aquatic beetle of the genus Gyrinus. See Whirling. Weaver bird (Zoöl.), any one of numerous species of Asiatic, Fast Indian, and African birds belonging to Ploceus and allied genera of the family Ploceidæ. Weaver birds resemble finches and sparrows in size, colors, and shape of the bill. They construct pensile nests composed of interlaced grass and other similar materials. In some of the species the nest is retort-shaped, with the opening at the bottom of the tube. -- Weavers' shuttle (Zoöl.), an East Indian marine univalve shell (Radius volva); -- so called from its shape. See Illust. of Shuttle shell, under Shuttle. WEAVERFISH Weav"er*fish`, n. Etym: [See Weever.] (Zoöl.) Defn: See Weever. WEAVING Weav"ing, n. 1. The act of one who, or that which, weaves; the act or art of forming cloth in a loom by the union or intertexture of threads. 2. (Far.) Defn: An incessant motion of a horse's head, neck, and body, from side to side, fancied to resemble the motion of a hand weaver in throwing the shuttle. Youatt. WEAZAND Wea"zand, n. Defn: See Weasand. [Obs.] WEAZEN Wea"zen, a. Etym: [See Wizen.] Defn: Thin; sharp; withered; wizened; as, a weazen face. They were weazen and shriveled. Dickens. WEAZENY Wea"zen*y, a. Defn: Somewhat weazen; shriveled. [Colloq.] "Weazeny, baked pears." Lowell. WEB Web, n. Etym: [OE. webbe, AS. webba. See Weave.] Defn: A weaver. [Obs.] Chaucer. WEB Web, n. Etym: [OE. web, AS. webb; akin to D. web, webbe, OHG. weppi, G. gewebe, Icel. vefr, Sw. väf, Dan. væv. See Weave.] 1. That which is woven; a texture; textile fabric; esp., something woven in a loom. Penelope, for her Ulysses' sake, Devised a web her wooers to deceive. Spenser. Not web might be woven, not a shuttle thrown, or penalty of exile. Bancroft. 2. A whole piece of linen cloth as woven. 3. The texture of very fine thread spun by a spider for catching insects at its prey; a cobweb. "The smallest spider's web." Shak. 4. Fig.: Tissue; texture; complicated fabrication. The somber spirit of our forefathers, who wove their web of life with hardly a . . . thread of rose-color or gold. Hawthorne. Such has been the perplexing ingenuity of commentators that it is difficult to extricate the truth from the web of conjectures. W. Irving. 5. (Carriages) Defn: A band of webbing used to regulate the extension of the hood. 6. A thin metal sheet, plate, or strip, as of lead. And Christians slain roll up in webs of lead. Fairfax. Specifically: - (a) The blade of a sword. [Obs.] The sword, whereof the web was steel, Pommel rich stone, hilt gold. Fairfax. (b) The blade of a saw. (c) The thin, sharp part of a colter. (d) The bit of a key. 7. (Mach. & Engin.) Defn: A plate or thin portion, continuous or perforated, connecting stiffening ribs or flanges, or other parts of an object. Specifically: -- (a) The thin vertical plate or portion connecting the upper and lower flanges of an lower flanges of an iron girder, rolled beam, or railroad rail. (b) A disk or solid construction serving, instead of spokes, for connecting the rim and hub, in some kinds of car wheels, sheaves, etc. (c) The arm of a crank between the shaft and the wrist. (d) The part of a blackmith's anvil between the face and the foot. 8. (Med.) Defn: Pterygium; -- called also webeye. Shak. 9. (Anat.) Defn: The membrane which unites the fingers or toes, either at their bases, as in man, or for a greater part of their length, as in many water birds and amphibians. 10. (Zoöl.) Defn: The series of barbs implanted on each side of the shaft of a feather, whether stiff and united together by barbules, as in ordinary feathers, or soft and separate, as in downy feathers. See Feather. Pin and web (Med.), two diseases of the eye, caligo and pterygium; -- sometimes wrongly explained as one disease. See Pin, n., 8, and Web, n., 8. "He never yet had pinne or webbe, his sight for to decay." Gascoigne. -- Web member (Engin.), one of the braces in a web system. -- Web press, a printing press which takes paper from a roll instead of being fed with sheets. -- Web system (Engin.), the system of braces connecting the flanges of a lattice girder, post, or the like. WEB Web, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Webbed; p. pr. & vb. n. Webbing.] Defn: To unite or surround with a web, or as if with a web; to envelop; to entangle. WEBBED Webbed, a. 1. Provided with a web. 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: Having the toes united by a membrane, or web; as, the webbed feet of aquatic fowls. WEBBER Web"ber, n. Defn: One who forms webs; a weaver; a webster. [Obs.] WEBBING Web"bing, n. Defn: A woven band of cotton or flax, used for reins, girths, bed bottoms, etc. WEBBY Web"by, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to a web or webs; like a web; filled or covered with webs. Bats on their webby wings in darkness move. Crabbe. WEBER We"ber, n. Etym: [From the name of Professor Weber, a German electrician.] (Elec.) Defn: The standard unit of electrical quantity, and also of current. See Coulomb, and Amp. [Obs.] WEBEYE Web"eye`, n. (Med.) Defn: See Web, n., 8. WEB-FINGERED Web"-fin`gered, a. Defn: Having the fingers united by a web for a considerable part of their length. WEBFOOT Web"foot`, n.; pl. Webfeet (. 1. A foot the toes of which are connected by a membrane. 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any web-footed bird. WEB-FOOTED Web"-foot`ed, a. Defn: Having webbed feet; palmiped; as, a goose or a duck is a web- footed fowl. WEBSTER Web"ster, n. Etym: [AS. webbestre. See Web, Weave, and -ster.] Defn: A weaver; originally, a female weaver. [Obs.] Brathwait. WEBSTERITE Web"ster*ite, n. Etym: [So named after Webster, the geologist.] (Min.) Defn: A hydrous sulphate of alumina occurring in white reniform masses. WEB-TOED Web"-toed`, a. Defn: Having the toes united by a web for a considerable part of their length. WEBWORM Web"worm`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of various species of moths whose gregarious larvæ eat the leaves of trees, and construct a large web to which they retreat when not feeding. Note: The most destructive webworms belong to the family Bombycidæ, as the fall webworm (Hyphantria textor), which feeds on various fruit and forest trees, and the common tent caterpillar, which feeds on various fruit trees (see Tent caterpillar, under Tent.) The grapevine webworm is the larva of a geometrid moth (see Vine inchworm, under Vine). WED Wed (wêd), n. Etym: [AS. wedd; akin to OFries. wed, OD. wedde, OHG, wetti, G. wette a wager, Icel. veedh a pledge, Sw. vad a wager, an appeal, Goth. wadi a pledge, Lith. vaduti to redeem (a pledge), LL. vadium, L. vas, vadis, bail, security, vadimonium security, and Gr. Athlete, Gage a pledge, Wage.] Defn: A pledge; a pawn. [Obs.] Gower. Piers Plowman. Let him be ware, his neck lieth to wed [i. e., for a security]. Chaucer. WED Wed, v. t. [imp. Wedded; p. p. Wedded or Wed; p. pr. & vb. n. Wedding.] Etym: [OE. wedden, AS. weddian to covenant, promise, to wed, marry; akin to OFries. weddia to promise, D. wedden to wager, to bet, G. wetten, Icel. veedhja, Dan. vedde, Sw. vädja to appeal, Goth. gawadjon to betroth. See Wed, n.] 1. To take for husband or for wife by a formal ceremony; to marry; to espouse. With this ring I thee wed. Bk. of Com. Prayer. I saw thee first, and wedded thee. Milton. 2. To join in marriage; to give in wedlock. And Adam, wedded to another Eve, Shall live with her. Milton. 3. Fig.: To unite as if by the affections or the bond of marriage; to attach firmly or indissolubly. Thou art wedded to calamity. Shak. Men are wedded to their lusts. Tillotson. [Flowers] are wedded thus, like beauty to old age. Cowper. 4. To take to one's self and support; to espouse. [Obs.] They positively and concernedly wedded his cause. Clarendon. WED Wed, v. i. Defn: To contact matrimony; to marry. "When I shall wed." Shak. WEDDAHS Wed"dahs, n. pl. (Ethnol.) Defn: See Veddahs. WEDDED Wed"ded, a. 1. Joined in wedlock; married. Let wwedded dame. Pope. 2. Of or pertaining to wedlock, or marriage. "Wedded love." Milton. WEDDER Wed"der, n. Defn: See Wether. Sir W. Scott. WEDDING Wed"ding, n. Etym: [AS. wedding.] Defn: Nuptial ceremony; nuptial festivities; marriage; nuptials. Simple and brief was the wedding, as that of Ruth and of Boaz. Longfellow. Note: Certain anniversaries of an unbroken marriage have received fanciful, and more or less appropriate, names. Thus, the fifth anniversary is called the wooden wedding; the tenth, the tin wedding; the fifteenth, the crystal wedding; the twentieth, the china wedding; the twenty-fifth, the silver wedding; the fiftieth, the golden wedding; the sixtieth, the diamond wedding. These anniversaries are often celebrated by appropriate presents of wood, tin, china, silver, gold, etc., given by friends. Note: Wedding is often used adjectively; as, wedding cake, wedding cards, wedding clothes, wedding day, wedding feast, wedding guest, wedding ring, etc. Let her beauty be her wedding dower. Shak. Wedding favor, a marriage favor. See under Marriage. WEDER Wed"er, n. Defn: Weather. [Obs.] Chaucer. WEDGE Wedge, n. Etym: [OE. wegge, AS. wecg; akin to D. wig, wigge, OHG. wecki, G. weck a (wedge-shaped) loaf, Icel. veggr, Dan. vægge, Sw. vigg, and probably to Lith. vagis a peg. Cf. Wigg.] 1. A piece of metal, or other hard material, thick at one end, and tapering to a thin edge at the other, used in splitting wood, rocks, etc., in raising heavy bodies, and the like. It is one of the six elementary machines called the mechanical powers. See Illust. of Mechanical powers, under Mechanical. 2. (Geom.) Defn: A solid of five sides, having a rectangular base, two rectangular or trapezoidal sides meeting in an edge, and two triangular ends. 3. A mass of metal, especially when of a wedgelike form. "Wedges of gold." Shak. 4. Anything in the form of a wedge, as a body of troops drawn up in such a form. In warlike muster they appear, In rhombs, and wedges, and half-moons, and wings. Milton. 5. The person whose name stands lowest on the list of the classical tripos; -- so called after a person (Wedgewood) who occupied this position on the first list of 1828. [Cant, Cambridge Univ., Eng.] C. A. Bristed. Fox wedge. (Mach. & Carpentry) See under Fox. -- Spherical wedge (Geom.), the portion of a sphere included between two planes which intersect in a diameter. WEDGE Wedge, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wedged; p. pr. & vb. n. Wedging.] 1. To cleave or separate with a wedge or wedges, or as with a wedge; to rive. "My heart, as wedged with a sigh, would rive in twain." Shak. 2. To force or drive as a wedge is driven. Among the crowd in the abbey where a finger Could not be wedged in more. Shak. He 's just the sort of man to wedge himself into a snug berth. Mrs. J. H. Ewing. 3. To force by crowding and pushing as a wedge does; as, to wedge one's way. Milton. 4. To press closely; to fix, or make fast, in the manner of a wedge that is driven into something. Wedged in the rocky shoals, and sticking fast. Dryden. 5. To fasten with a wedge, or with wedges; as, to wedge a scythe on the snath; to wedge a rail or a piece of timber in its place. 6. (Pottery) Defn: To cut, as clay, into wedgelike masses, and work by dashing together, in order to expel air bubbles, etc. Tomlinson. WEDGEBILL Wedge"bill`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: An Australian crested insessorial bird (Sphenostoma cristatum) having a wedge-shaped bill. Its color is dull brown, like the earth of the plains where it lives. WEDGE-FORMED Wedge"-formed`, a. Defn: Having the form of a wedge; cuneiform. Wedge-formed characters. See Arrow-headed characters, under Arrowheaded. WEDGE GAUGE; WEDGE GAGE Wedge gauge or gage . Defn: A wedge with a graduated edge, to measure the width of a space into which it is thrust. WEDGE GEAR Wedge gear. Defn: A friction gear wheel with wedge-shaped circumferential grooves. -- Wedge gearing. WEDGE-SHAPED Wedge"-shaped`, a. 1. Having the shape of a wedge; cuneiform. 2. (Bot.) Defn: Broad and truncate at the summit, and tapering down to the base; as, a wedge-shaped leaf. WEDGE-SHELL Wedge"-shell`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of numerous species of small marine bivalves belonging to Donax and allied genera in which the shell is wedge-shaped. WEDGE-TAILED Wedge"-tailed", a. (Zoöl.) Defn: Having a tail which has the middle pair of feathers longest, the rest successively and decidedly shorter, and all more or less attenuate; -- said of certain birds. See Illust. of Wood hoopoe, under Wood. Wedge-tailed eagle, an Australian eagle (Aquila audax) which feeds on various small species of kangaroos, and on lambs; -- called also mountain eagle, bold eagle, and eagle hawk. -- Wedge-tailed gull, an arctic gull (Rhodostethia rosea) in which the plumage is tinged with rose; -- called also Ross's gull. WEDGEWISE Wedge"wise`, adv. Defn: In the manner of a wedge. WEDGWOOD WARE Wedg"wood` ware`. Etym: [From the name of the inventor, Josiah Wedgwood, of England.] Defn: A kind of fine pottery, the most remarkable being what is called jasper, either white, or colored throughout the body, and capable of being molded into the most delicate forms, so that fine and minute bas-reliefs like cameos were made of it, fit even for being set as jewels. WEDGY Wedg"y, a. Defn: Like a wedge; wedge-shaped. WEDLOCK Wed"lock, n. Etym: [AS. wedlac a pledge, be trothal; wedd a pledge + lac a gift, an offering. See Wed, n., and cf. Lake, v. i., Knowledge.] 1. The ceremony, or the state, of marriage; matrimony. "That blissful yoke . . . that men clepeth [call] spousal, or wedlock." Chaucer. For what is wedlock forced but a hell, An age of discord or continual strife Shak. 2. A wife; a married woman. [Obs.] B. Jonson. Syn. -- See Marriage. WEDLOCK Wed"lock, v. t. Defn: To marry; to unite in marriage; to wed. [R.] "Man thus wedlocked." Milton. WEDNESDAY Wednes"day (; 48), n. Etym: [OE. wednesdai, wodnesdei, AS. Wodnes dæg, i. e., Woden's day (a translation of L. dies Mercurii); fr. Woden the highest god of the Teutonic peoples, but identified with the Roman god Mercury; akin to OS. Wodan, OHG. Wuotan, Icel. Oedhinn, D. woensdag Wednesday, Icel. oedhinsdagr, Dan. & Sw. onsdag. See Day, and cf. Woden, Wood, a.] Defn: The fourth day of the week; the next day after Tuesday. Ash Wednesday. See in the Vocabulary. WEE Wee, n. Etym: [OE. we a bit, in a little we, probably originally meaning, a little way, the word we for wei being later taken as synonymous with little. See Way.] Defn: A little; a bit, as of space, time, or distance. [Obs. or Scot.] WEE Wee, a. Defn: Very small; little. [Colloq. & Scot.] A little wee face, with a little yellow beard. Shak. WEECH-ELM Weech"-elm`, n. (Bot.) Defn: The wych-elm. [Obs.] Bacon. WEED Weed, n. Etym: [OE. wede, AS. w, w; akin to OS. wadi, giwadi, OFries, w, w, OD. wade, OHG. wat, Icel. va, Zend vadh to clothe.] 1. A garment; clothing; especially, an upper or outer garment. "Lowweeds." Spenser. "Woman's weeds." Shak. "This beggar woman's weed." Tennyson. He on his bed sat, the soft weeds he wore Put off. Chapman. 2. An article of dress worn in token of grief; a mourning garment or badge; as, he wore a weed on his hat; especially, in the plural, mourning garb, as of a woman; as, a widow's weeds. In a mourning weed, with ashes upon her head, and tears abundantly flowing. Milton. WEED Weed, n. Defn: A sudden illness or relapse, often attended with fever, which attacks women in childbed. [Scot.] WEED Weed, n. Etym: [OE. weed, weod, AS. weód, wiód, akin to OS. wiod, LG. woden the stalks and leaves of vegetables D. wieden to weed, OS. wiodon.] 1. Underbrush; low shrubs. [Obs. or Archaic] One rushing forth out of the thickest weed. Spenser. A wild and wanton pard . . . Crouched fawning in the weed. Tennyson. 2. Any plant growing in cultivated ground to the injury of the crop or desired vegetation, or to the disfigurement of the place; an unsightly, useless, or injurious plant. Too much manuring filled that field with weeds. Denham. Note: The word has no definite application to any particular plant, or species of plants. Whatever plants grow among corn or grass, in hedges, or elsewhere, and are useless to man, injurious to crops, or unsightly or out of place, are denominated weeds. 3. Fig.: Something unprofitable or troublesome; anything useless. 4. (Stock Breeding) Defn: An animal unfit to breed from. 5. Tobacco, or a cigar. [Slang] Weed hook, a hook used for cutting away or extirpating weeds. Tusser. WEED Weed, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Weeded; p. pr. & vb. n. Weeding.] Etym: [AS. weódian. See 3d Weed.] 1. To free from noxious plants; to clear of weeds; as, to weed corn or onions; to weed a garden. 2. To take away, as noxious plants; to remove, as something hurtful; to extirpate. "Weed up thyme." Shak. Wise fathers . . . weeding from their children ill things. Ascham. Revenge is a kind of wild justice, which the more man's nature runs to, the more ought law to weed it out. Bacon. 3. To free from anything hurtful or offensive. He weeded the kingdom of such as were devoted to Elaiana. Howell. 4. (Stock Breeding) Defn: To reject as unfit for breeding purposes. WEEDER Weed"er, n. Defn: One who, or that which, weeds, or frees from anything noxious. WEEDERY Weed"er*y, n. Defn: Weeds, collectively; also, a place full of weeds or for growing weeds. [R.] Dr. H. More. WEEDING Weed"ing, Defn: a. & n. from Weed, v. Weeding chisel, a tool with a divided chisel-like end, for cutting the roots of large weeds under ground. -- Weeding forceps, an instrument for taking up some sorts of plants in weeding. -- Weeding fork, a strong, three-pronged fork, used in clearing ground of weeds; -- called also weeding iron. -- Weeding hook. Same as Weed hook, under 3d Weed. -- Weeding iron. See Weeding fork, above. -- Weeding tongs. Same as Weeding forceps, above. WEEDING-RHIM Weed"ing-rhim`, n. Etym: [Cf. Prov. E. rim to remove.] Defn: A kind of implement used for tearing up weeds esp. on summer fallows. [Prov. Eng.] WEEDLESS Weed"less, a. Defn: Free from weeds or noxious matter. WEEDY Weed"y, a. [Compar. Weedier; superl. Weediest.] 1. Of or pertaining to weeds; consisting of weeds. "Weedy trophies." Shak. 2. Abounding with weeds; as, weedy grounds; a weedy garden; weedy corn. See from the weedy earth a rivulet break. Bryant. 3. Scraggy; ill-shaped; ungainly; -- said of colts or horses, and also of persons. [Colloq.] WEEDY Weed"y, a. Defn: Dressed in weeds, or mourning garments. [R. or Colloq.] She was as weedy as in the early days of her mourning. Dickens. WEEK Week, n. Etym: [OE. weke, wike, woke, wuke AS. weocu, wicu, wucu; akin to OS. wika, OFries. wike, D. week, G. woche, OHG. wohha, wehha, Icel. vika, Sw. vecka, Dan. uge, Goth. wik, probably originally meaning, a succession or change, and akin to G. wechsel change, L. vicis turn, alternation, and E. weak. Cf. Weak.] Defn: A period of seven days, usually that reckoned from one Sabbath or Sunday to the next. I fast twice in the week. Luke xviii. 12. Note: Although it [the week] did not enter into the calendar of the Greeks, and was not introduced at Rome till after the reign of Theodesius, it has been employed from time immemorial in almost all Eastern countries. Encyc. Brit. Feast of Weeks. See Pentecost, 1. -- Prophetic week, a week of years, or seven years. Dan. ix. 24. -- Week day. See under Day. WEEK-END Week"-end", n. Defn: The end of the week; specif., though loosely, the period observed commonly as a holiday, from Saturday noon or Friday night to Monday; as, to visit one for a week-end; also, a house party during a week-end. WEEKLY Week"ly, a. 1. Of or pertaining to a week, or week days; as, weekly labor. 2. Coming, happening, or done once a week; hebdomadary; as, a weekly payment; a weekly gazette. WEEKLY Week"ly, n.; pl. Weeklies (. Defn: A publication issued once in seven days, or appearing once a week. WEEKLY Week"ly, adv. Defn: Once a week; by hebdomadal periods; as, each performs service weekly. WEEKWAM Week"wam, n. Defn: See Wigwam. [R.] WEEL Weel, a. & adv. Defn: Well. [Obs. or Scot.] WEEL Weel, n. Etym: [AS. wæl. *147.] Defn: A whirlpool. [Obs.] WEEL; WEELY Weel, Weel"y,Etym: [Prov. E. weel, weal, a wicker basket to catch eels; prob. akin to willow, and so called as made of willow twigs.] Defn: A kind of trap or snare for fish, made of twigs. [Obs.] Carew. WEEN Ween, v. i. Etym: [OE. wenen, AS. w, fr. w hope, expectation, opinion; akin to D. waan, OFries. w, OS. & OHG. wan, G. wahn delusion, Icel. van hope, expectation, Goth. w, and D. wanen to fancy, G. wähnen, Icel. vana to hope, Goth. w, and perhaps to E. winsome, wish.] Defn: To think; to imagine; to fancy. [Obs. or Poetic] Spenser. Milton. I have lost more than thou wenest. Chaucer. For well I ween, Never before in the bowers of light Had the form of an earthly fay been seen. J. R. Drake. Though never a dream the roses sent Of science or love's compliment, I ween they smelt as sweet. Mrs. Browning. WEEP Weep, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The lapwing; the wipe; -- so called from its cry. WEEP Weep, obs. Defn: imp. of Weep, for wept. Chaucer. WEEP Weep, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Wept; p. pr. & vb. n. Weeping.] Etym: [OE. wepen, AS. w, from w lamentation; akin to OFries. w to lament, OS. w lamentation, OHG. wuof, Icel. a shouting, crying, OS. w to lament, OHG. wuoffan, wuoffen, Icel. , Goth. w. 1. Formerly, to express sorrow, grief, or anguish, by outcry, or by other manifest signs; in modern use, to show grief or other passions by shedding tears; to shed tears; to cry. And they all wept sore, and fell on Paul's neck. Acts xx. 37. Phocion was rarely seen to weep or to laugh. Mitford. And eyes that wake to weep. Mrs. Hemans. And they wept together in silence. Longfellow. 2. To lament; to complain. "They weep unto me, saying, Give us flesh, that we may eat." Num. xi. 13. 3. To flow in drops; to run in drops. The blood weeps from my heart. Shak. 4. To drop water, or the like; to drip; to be soaked. 5. To hang the branches, as if in sorrow; to be pendent; to droop; -- said of a plant or its branches. WEEP Weep, v. t. 1. To lament; to bewail; to bemoan. "I weep bitterly the dead." A. S. Hardy. We wandering go Through dreary wastes, and weep each other's woe. Pope. 2. To shed, or pour forth, as tears; to shed drop by drop, as if tears; as, to weep tears of joy. Tears, such as angels weep, burst forth. Milton. Groves whose rich trees wept odorous gums and balm. Milton. WEEPER Weep"er, n. 1. One who weeps; esp., one who sheds tears. 2. A white band or border worn on the sleeve as a badge of mourning. Goldsmith. 3. (Zoöl.) Defn: The capuchin. See Capuchin, 3 (a). WEEPFUL Weep"ful, a. Defn: Full of weeping or lamentation; grieving. [Obs.] Wyclif. WEEPING Weep"ing, n. Defn: The act of one who weeps; lamentation with tears; shedding of tears. WEEPING Weep"ing, a. 1. Grieving; lamenting; shedding tears. "Weeping eyes." I. Watts. 2. Discharging water, or other liquid, in drops or very slowly; surcharged with water. "Weeping grounds." Mortimer. 3. Having slender, pendent branches; -- said of trees; as, weeping willow; a weeping ash. 4. Pertaining to lamentation, or those who weep. Weeping cross, a cross erected on or by the highway, especially for the devotions of penitents; hence, to return by the weeping cross, to return from some undertaking in humiliation or penitence. -- Weeping rock, a porous rock from which water gradually issues. -- Weeping sinew, a ganglion. See Ganglion, n., 2. [Colloq.] -- Weeping spring, a spring that discharges water slowly. -- Weeping willow (Bot.), a species of willow (Salix Babylonica) whose branches grow very long and slender, and hang down almost perpendicularly. WEEPINGLY Weep"ing*ly, adv. Defn: In a weeping manner. WEEPING-RIPE Weep"ing-ripe`, a. Defn: Ripe for weeping; ready to weep. [Obs.] Shak. WEEPING TREE Weep"ing tree. (a) Any tree having pendulous branches. (b) A tree from which honeydew or other liquid secretions of insects drip in considerable quantities, esp. one infested by the larvæ of any species of the genus Ptylus, allied to the cuckoo spits, which in tropical countries secrete large quantities of a watery fluid. WEERISH Weer"ish, a. Defn: See Wearish. [Obs.] WEESEL Wee"sel, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: See Weasel. WEET Weet, a. & n. Defn: Wet. [Obs.] Chaucer. WEET Weet, v. i. [imp. Wot.] Etym: [See Wit to know.] Defn: To know; to wit. [Obs.] Tyndale. Spenser. WEET-BIRD Weet"-bird`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The wryneck; -- so called from its cry. [Prov. Eng.] WEETINGLY Weet"ing*ly, adv. Defn: Knowingly. [Obs.] Spenser. WEETLESS Weet"less, a. Defn: Unknowing; also, unknown; unmeaning. [Obs.] Spenser. WEET-WEET Weet"-weet`, n. Etym: [So called from its piping cry when disturbed.] (Zoöl.) (a) The common European sandpiper. (b) The chaffinch. [Prov. Eng.] WEETWEET Weet"*weet`, n. [Native name in Victoria.] Defn: A throwing toy, or implement, of the Australian aborigines, consisting of a cigar-shaped stick fastened at one end to a flexible twig. It weighs in all about two ounces, and is about two feet long. WEEVER Wee"ver, n. Etym: [Probably from F. vive, OF. vivre, a kind of fish, L. vipera viper. Cf. Viper.] (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of several species of edible marine fishes belonging to the genus Trachinus, of the family Trachinidæ. They have a broad spinose head, with the eyes looking upward. The long dorsal fin is supported by numerous strong, sharp spines which cause painful wounds. Note: The two British species are the great, or greater, weever (Trachinus draco), which becomes a foot long (called also gowdie, sea cat, stingbull, and weaverfish), and the lesser weever (T. vipera), about half as large (called also otter pike, and stingfish). WEEVIL Wee"vil, n. Etym: [OE. wivel, wevil, AS. wifel, wibil; akin to OD. wevel, OHG. wibil, wibel, G. wiebel, wibel, and probably to Lith. vabalas beetle, and E. weave. See Weave.] (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of numerous species of snout beetles, or Rhynchophora, in which the head is elongated and usually curved downward. Many of the species are very injurious to cultivated plants. The larvæ of some of the species live in nuts, fruit, and grain by eating out the interior, as the plum weevil, or curculio, the nut weevils, and the grain weevil (see under Plum, Nut, and Grain). The larvæ of other species bore under the bark and into the pith of trees and various other plants, as the pine weevils (see under Pine). See also Pea weevil, Rice weevil, Seed weevil, under Pea, Rice, and Seed. WEEVILED Wee"viled, a. Defn: Infested by weevils; as, weeviled grain. [Written also weevilled.] WEEVILY Wee"vil*y, a. Defn: Having weevils; weeviled. [Written also weevilly.] WEEZEL Wee"zel, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: See Weasel. WEFT Weft, obs. Defn: imp. & p. p. of Wave. WEFT Weft, n. Etym: [Cf. Waif.] Defn: A thing waved, waived, or cast away; a waif. [Obs.] "A forlorn weft." Spenser. WEFT Weft, n. Etym: [AS. weft, wefta, fr. wefan, to weave. See Weave.] 1. The woof of cloth; the threads that cross the warp from selvage to selvage; the thread carried by the shuttle in weaving. 2. A web; a thing woven. WEFTAGE Weft"age, n. Defn: Texture. [Obs.] Grew. WEGOTISM We"go*tism, n. Etym: [From we, in imitation of egotism.] Defn: Excessive use of the pronoun we; -- called also weism. [Colloq. or Cant] WEHRGELD; WEHRGELT Wehr"geld`, Wehr"gelt`, n. (O. Eng. Law) Defn: See Weregild. WEHRWOLF Wehr"wolf`, n. Defn: See Werewolf. WEIGELA; WEIGELIA Wei"gel*a, Wei*ge"li*a, n. Etym: [NL. So named after C. E. Weigel, a German naturalist.] (Bot.) Defn: A hardy garden shrub (Diervilla Japonica) belonging to the Honeysuckle family, with withe or red flowers. It was introduced from China. WEIGH Weigh, n. (Naut.) Defn: A corruption of Way, used only in the phrase under weigh. An expedition was got under weigh from New York. Thackeray. The Athenians . . . hurried on board and with considerable difficulty got under weigh. Jowett (Thucyd.). WEIGH Weigh, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Weighed; p. pr. & vb. n. Weighing.] Etym: [OE. weien, weyen, weghen, AS. wegan to bear, move; akin to D. wegen to weigh, G. wägen, wiegen, to weigh, bewegen to move, OHG. wegan, Icel. vega to move, carry, lift, weigh, Sw. väga to weigh, Dan. veie, Goth. gawigan to shake, L. vehere to carry, Skr. vah. Way, and cf. Wey.] 1. To bear up; to raise; to lift into the air; to swing up; as, to weigh anchor. "Weigh the vessel up." Cowper. 2. To examine by the balance; to ascertain the weight of, that is, the force with which a thing tends to the center of the earth; to determine the heaviness, or quantity of matter of; as, to weigh sugar; to weigh gold. Thou art weighed in the balances, and art found wanting. Dan. v. 27. 3. To be equivalent to in weight; to counterbalance; to have the heaviness of. "A body weighing divers ounces." Boyle. 4. To pay, allot, take, or give by weight. They weighed for my price thirty pieces of silver. Zech. xi. 12. 5. To examine or test as if by the balance; to ponder in the mind; to consider or examine for the purpose of forming an opinion or coming to a conclusion; to estimate deliberately and maturely; to balance. A young man not weighed in state affairs. Bacon. Had no better weighed The strength he was to cope with, or his own. Milton. Regard not who it is which speaketh, but weigh only what is spoken. Hooker. In nice balance, truth with gold she weighs. Pope. Without sufficiently weighing his expressions. Sir W. Scott. 6. To consider as worthy of notice; to regard. [Obs. or Archaic] "I weigh not you." Shak. All that she so dear did weigh. Spenser. To weigh down. (a) To overbalance. (b) To oppress with weight; to overburden; to depress. "To weigh thy spirits down." Milton. WEIGH Weigh, v. i. 1. To have weight; to be heavy. "They only weigh the heavier." Cowper. 2. To be considered as important; to have weight in the intellectual balance. Your vows to her and me . . . will even weigh. Shak. This objection ought to weigh with those whose reading is designed for much talk and little knowledge. Locke. 3. To bear heavily; to press hard. Cleanse the stuffed bosom of that perilous stuff Which weighs upon the heart. Shak. 4. To judge; to estimate. [R.] Could not weigh of worthiness aright. Spenser. To weigh down, to sink by its own weight. WEIGH Weigh, n. Etym: [See Wey.] Defn: A certain quantity estimated by weight; an English measure of weight. See Wey. WEIGHABLE Weigh"a*ble, a. Defn: Capable of being weighed. WEIGHAGE Weigh"age (; 48), n. Defn: A duty or toil paid for weighing merchandise. Bouvier. WEIGHBEAM Weigh"beam`, n. Defn: A kind of large steelyard for weighing merchandise; -- also called weighmaster's beam. WEIGHBOARD Weigh"board`, n. (Mining) Defn: Clay intersecting a vein. Weale. WEIGHBRIDGE Weigh"bridge`, n. Defn: A weighing machine on which loaded carts may be weighed; platform scales. WEIGHER Weigh"er, n. Defn: One who weighs; specifically, an officer whose duty it is to weigh commodities. WEIGH-HOUSE Weigh"-*house`, n.; pl. Weigh-houses (. Defn: A building at or within which goods, and the like, are weighed. WEIGHING Weigh"ing, Defn: a. & n. from Weigh, v. Weighing cage, a cage in which small living animals may be conveniently weighed. -- Weighing house. See Weigh-house. -- Weighing machine, any large machine or apparatus for weighing; especially, platform scales arranged for weighing heavy bodies, as loaded wagons. WEIGHLOCK Weigh"lock`, n. Defn: A lock, as on a canal, in which boats are weighed and their tonnage is settled. WEIGHMASTER Weigh"mas`ter, n. Defn: One whose business it is to weigh ore, hay, merchandise, etc.; one licensed as a public weigher. WEIGHT Weight, n. Etym: [OE. weght, wight, AS. gewiht; akin to D. gewigt, G. gewicht, Icel. vætt, Sw. vigt, Dan. vægt. See Weigh, v. t.] 1. The quality of being heavy; that property of bodies by which they tend toward the center of the earth; the effect of gravitative force, especially when expressed in certain units or standards, as pounds, grams, etc. Note: Weight differs from gravity in being the effect of gravity, or the downward pressure of a body under the influence of gravity; hence, it constitutes a measure of the force of gravity, and being the resultant of all the forces exerted by gravity upon the different particles of the body, it is proportional to the quantity of matter in the body. 2. The quantity of heaviness; comparative tendency to the center of the earth; the quantity of matter as estimated by the balance, or expressed numerically with reference to some standard unit; as, a mass of stone having the weight of five hundred pounds. For sorrow, like a heavy-hanging bell, Once set on ringing, with his own weight goes. Shak. 3. Hence, pressure; burden; as, the weight of care or business. "The weight of this said time." Shak. For the public all this weight he bears. Milton. [He] who singly bore the world's sad weight. Keble. 4. Importance; power; influence; efficacy; consequence; moment; impressiveness; as, a consideration of vast weight. In such a point of weight, so near mine honor. Shak. 5. A scale, or graduated standard, of heaviness; a mode of estimating weight; as, avoirdupois weight; troy weight; apothecaries' weight. 6. A ponderous mass; something heavy; as, a clock weight; a paper weight. A man leapeth better with weights in his hands. Bacon. 7. A definite mass of iron, lead, brass, or other metal, to be used for ascertaining the weight of other bodies; as, an ounce weight. 8. (Mech.) Defn: The resistance against which a machine acts, as opposed to the power which moves it. [Obs.] Atomic weight. (Chem.) See under Atomic, and cf. Element. -- Dead weight, Feather weight, Heavy weight, Light weight, etc. See under Dead, Feather, etc. -- Weight of observation (Astron. & Physics), a number expressing the most probable relative value of each observation in determining the result of a series of observations of the same kind. Syn. -- Ponderousness; gravity; heaviness; pressure; burden; load; importance; power; influence; efficacy; consequence; moment; impressiveness. WEIGHT Weight, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Weighted; p. pr. & vb. n. Weighting.] 1. To load with a weight or weights; to load down; to make heavy; to attach weights to; as, to weight a horse or a jockey at a race; to weight a whip handle. The arrows of satire, . . . weighted with sense. Coleridge. 2. (Astron. & Physics) Defn: To assign a weight to; to express by a number the probable accuracy of, as an observation. See Weight of observations, under Weight. WEIGHTILY Weight"i*ly, adv. Defn: In a weighty manner. WEIGHTINESS Weight"i*ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being weighty; weight; force; importance; impressiveness. WEIGHTLESS Weight"less, a. Defn: Having no weight; imponderable; hence, light. Shak. WEIGHTY Weight"y, a. [Compar. Weightier; superl. Weightiest.] 1. Having weight; heavy; ponderous; as, a weighty body. 2. Adapted to turn the balance in the mind, or to convince; important; forcible; serious; momentous. "For sundry weighty reasons." Shak. Let me have your advice in a weighty affair. Swift. 3. Rigorous; severe; afflictive. [R.] "Attend our weightier judgment." Shak. Syn. -- Heavy; ponderous; burdensome; onerous; forcible; momentous; efficacious; impressive; cogent. WEIL'S DISEASE Weil's disease. (Med.) Defn: An acute infectious febrile disease, resembling typhoid fever, with muscular pains, disturbance of the digestive organs, jaundice, etc. WEIR; WEAR Weir, Wear, n. Etym: [OE. wer, AS. wer; akin to G. wehr, AS. werian to defend, protect, hinder, G. wehren, Goth. warjan; and perhaps to E. wary; or cf. Skr. vr to check, hinder. sq. root142. Cf. Garret.] 1. A dam in a river to stop and raise the water, for the purpose of conducting it to a mill, forming a fish pond, or the like. 2. A fence of stakes, brushwood, or the like, set in a stream, tideway, or inlet of the sea, for taking fish. 3. A long notch with a horizontal edge, as in the top of a vertical plate or plank, through which water flows, -- used in measuring the quantity of flowing water. WEIRD Weird, n. Etym: [OE. wirde, werde, AS. wyrd fate, fortune, one of the Fates, fr. weor to be, to become; akin to OS. wurd fate, OHG. wurt, Icel. ur. Worth to become.] 1. Fate; destiny; one of the Fates, or Norns; also, a prediction. [Obs. or Scot.] 2. A spell or charm. [Obs. or Scot.] Sir W. Scott. WEIRD Weird, a. 1. Of or pertaining to fate; concerned with destiny. 2. Of or pertaining to witchcraft; caused by, or suggesting, magical influence; supernatural; unearthly; wild; as, a weird appearance, look, sound, etc. Myself too had weird seizures. Tennyson. Those sweet, low tones, that seemed like a weird incantation. Longfellow. Weird sisters, the Fates. [Scot.] G. Douglas. Note: Shakespeare uses the term for the three witches in Macbeth. The weird sisters, hand in hand, Posters of the sea and land. Shak. WEIRD Weird, v. t. Defn: To foretell the fate of; to predict; to destine to. [Scot.] Jamieson. WEIRDNESS Weird"ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being weird. WEISM We"ism, n. Defn: Same as Wegotism. WEISMANNISM Weis"mann*ism, n. (Biol.) Defn: The theories and teachings in regard to heredity propounded by the German biologist August Weismann, esp. in regard to germ plasm as the basis of heredity and the impossibility of transmitting acquired characteristics; -- often called neo-Darwinism. WEISS BEER Weiss beer. [G. weissbier white beer.] Defn: A light-colored highly effervescent beer made by the top- fermentation process. WEIVE Weive, v. t. Defn: See Waive. [Obs.] Gower. WEKA We"ka, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A New Zealand rail (Ocydromus australis) which has wings so short as to be incapable of flight. WEKAU We"kau, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A small New Zealand owl (Sceloglaux albifacies). It has short wings and long legs, and lives chiefly on the ground. WEKEEN We*keen", n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The meadow pipit. [Prov. Eng.] WELAWAY Wel"a*way, interj. Etym: [OE. welaway, walaway, weilawey; wei wo! (Icel. vei) + la lo! (AS. la) + wei wo!; cf. AS. wa la wa. See Woe.] Defn: Alas! [Obs.] Then welaway, for she undone was clean. Wyatt. WEL-BEGONE Wel"-be*gone`, a. Etym: [OE. wel-begon. See Well, and Begone.] Defn: Surrounded with happiness or prosperity. [Obs.] Fair and rich and young and wel-begone. Chaucer. WELCH Welch, a. Defn: See Welsh. [R.] WELCHER Welch"er, n. Defn: See Welsher. WELCHMAN Welch"man, n. Defn: See Welshman. [R.] WELCOME Wel"come, a. Etym: [OE. welcome, welcume, wilcume, AS. wilcuma a welcome guest, from wil-, as a prefix, akin to willa will + cuma a comer, fr. cuman to come; hence, properly, one who comes so as to please another's will; cf. Icel. velkominn welcome, G. willkommen. See Will, n., and Come.] 1. Received with gladness; admitted willingly to the house, entertainment, or company; as, a welcome visitor. When the glad soul is made Heaven's welcome guest. Cowper. 2. Producing gladness; grateful; as, a welcome present; welcome news. "O, welcome hour!" Milton. 3. Free to have or enjoy gratuitously; as, you are welcome to the use of my library. Note: Welcome is used elliptically for you are welcome. "Welcome, great monarch, to your own." Dryden. Welcome-to-our-house (Bot.), a kind of spurge (Euphorbia Cyparissias). Dr. Prior. WELCOME Wel"come, n. 1. Salutation to a newcomer. "Welcome ever smiles." Shak. 2. Kind reception of a guest or newcomer; as, we entered the house and found a ready welcome. His warmest welcome at an inn. Shenstone. Truth finds an entrance and a welcome too. South. To bid welcome, to receive with professions of kindness. To thee and thy company I bid A hearty welcome. Shak. WELCOME Wel"come, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Welcomed; p. pr. & vb. n. Welcoming.] Etym: [AS. wilcumian.] Defn: To salute with kindness, as a newcomer; to receive and entertain hospitably and cheerfully; as, to welcome a visitor; to welcome a new idea. "I welcome you to land." Addison. Thus we salute thee with our early song, And welcome thee, and wish thee long. Milton. WELCOMELY Wel"come*ly, adv. Defn: In a welcome manner. WELCOMENESS Wel"come*ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being welcome; gratefulness; agreeableness; kind reception. WELCOMER Wel"com*er, n. Defn: One who welcomes; one who salutes, or receives kindly, a newcomer. Shak. WELD Weld, v. t. Defn: To wield. [Obs.] Chaucer. WELD Weld, n. Etym: [OE. welde; akin to Scot. wald, Prov. G. waude, G. wau, Dan. & Sw. vau, D. wouw.] 1. (Bot.) Defn: An herb (Reseda luteola) related to mignonette, growing in Europe, and to some extent in America; dyer's broom; dyer's rocket; dyer's weed; wild woad. It is used by dyers to give a yellow color. [Written also woald, wold, and would.] 2. Coloring matter or dye extracted from this plant. WELD Weld, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Welded; p. pr. & vb. n. Welding.] Etym: [Probably originally the same word as well to spring up, to gush; perhaps from the Scand.; cf. Sw. välla to weld, uppvälla to boil up, to spring up, Dan. vælde to gush, G. wellen to weld. See Well to spring.] 1. To press or beat into intimate and permanent union, as two pieces of iron when heated almost to fusion. Note: Very few of the metals, besides iron and platinum. are capable of being welded. Horn and tortoise shell possess this useful property. 2. Fig.: To unite closely or intimately. Two women faster welded in one love. Tennyson. WELD Weld, n. Defn: The state of being welded; the joint made by welding. Butt weld. See under Butt. -- Scarf weld, a joint made by overlapping, and welding together, the scarfed ends of two pieces. WELDABLE Weld"a*ble, a. Defn: Capable of being welded. WELDER Weld"er, n. Defn: One who welds, or unites pieces of iron, etc., by welding. WELDER Weld"er, n. 1. One who welds, or wields. [Obs.] 2. A manager; an actual occupant. [Ireland. Obs.] "The welder . . . who . . . lives miserably." Swift. WELDON'S PROCESS Wel"don's proc"ess, (Chem.) Defn: A process for the recovery or regeneration of manganese dioxide in the manufacture of chlorine, by means of milk of lime and the oxygen of the air; -- so called after the inventor. WELD STEEL Weld steel. Defn: A compound of iron, such as puddled steel, made without complete fusion. WELE Wele, n. Etym: [See Weal prosperity.] Defn: Prosperity; happiness; well-being; weal. [Obs.] Chaucer. WELEFUL Wele"ful, a. Defn: Producing prosperity or happiness; blessed. [Obs.] Chaucer. WELEW We"lew, v. t. Defn: To welk, or wither. [Obs.] WELFARE Wel"fare`, n. Etym: [Well + fare to go, to proceed, to happen.] Defn: Well-doing or well-being in any respect; the enjoyment of health and the common blessings of life; exemption from any evil or calamity; prosperity; happiness. How to study for the people's welfare. Shak. In whose deep eyes Men read the welfare of the times to come. Emerson. WELFARING Wel"far`ing, a. Defn: Faring well; prosperous; thriving. [Obs.] "A welfaring person." Chaucer. WELK Welk, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Welked; p. pr. & vb. n. Welking.] Etym: [OE. welken; cf. D. & G. welken to wither, G. welk withered, OHG. welc moist. See Welkin, and cf. Wilt.] Defn: To wither; to fade; also, to decay; to decline; to wane. [Obs.] When ruddy Phwelk in west. Spenser. The church, that before by insensible degrees welked and impaired, now with large steps went down hill decaying. Milton. WELK Welk, v. t. 1. To cause to wither; to wilt. [Obs.] Mot thy welked neck be to-broke [broken]. Chaucer. 2. To contract; to shorten. [Obs.] Now sad winter welked hath the day. Spenser. 3. To soak; also, to beat severely. [Prov. Eng.] WELK Welk, n. Defn: A pustule. See 2d Whelk. WELK Welk, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A whelk. [R.] WELKED Welked, v. t. Defn: See Whelked. WELKIN Wel"kin, n. Etym: [OE. welken, welkene, welkne, wolcne, weolcne, AS. wolcen, pl. wolcnu, a cloud; akin to D. wolk, OFries. wolken, OS. wolkan, G. wolke, OHG. wolchan, and probably to G. welk withered, OHG. welc moist, Russ. & OSlav. vlaga moisture, Lith. vilgyti to moisten.] Defn: The visible regions of the air; the vault of heaven; the sky. On the welkne shoon the sterres lyght. Chaucer. The fair welkin foully overcast. Spenser. When storms the welkin rend. Wordsworth. Note: Used adjectively by Shakespeare in the phase, "Your welkin eye," with uncertain meaning. WELL Well, n. Etym: [OE. welle, AS. wella, wylla, from weallan to well up, surge, boil; akin to D. wel a spring or fountain. Well, v. i.] 1. An issue of water from the earth; a spring; a fountain. Begin, then, sisters of the sacred well. Milton. 2. A pit or hole sunk into the earth to such a depth as to reach a supply of water, generally of a cylindrical form, and often walled with stone or bricks to prevent the earth from caving in. The woman said unto him, Sir, thou hast nothing to draw with, and the well is deep. John iv. 11. 3. A shaft made in the earth to obtain oil or brine. 4. Fig.: A source of supply; fountain; wellspring. "This well of mercy." Chaucer. Dan Chaucer, well of English undefiled. Spenser. A well of serious thought and pure. Keble. 5. (Naut.) (a) An inclosure in the middle of a vessel's hold, around the pumps, from the bottom to the lower deck, to preserve the pumps from damage and facilitate their inspection. (b) A compartment in the middle of the hold of a fishing vessel, made tight at the sides, but having holes perforated in the bottom to let in water for the preservation of fish alive while they are transported to market. (c) A vertical passage in the stern into which an auxiliary screw propeller may be drawn up out of water. (d) A depressed space in the after part of the deck; -- often called the cockpit. 6. (Mil.) Defn: A hole or excavation in the earth, in mining, from which run branches or galleries. 7. (Arch.) Defn: An opening through the floors of a building, as for a staircase or an elevator; a wellhole. 8. (Metal.) Defn: The lower part of a furnace, into which the metal falls. Artesian well, Driven well. See under Artesian, and Driven. -- Pump well. (Naut.) See Well, 5 (a), above. -- Well boring, the art or process of boring an artesian well. -- Well drain. (a) A drain or vent for water, somewhat like a well or pit, serving to discharge the water of wet land. (b) A drain conducting to a well or pit. -- Well room. (a) A room where a well or spring is situated; especially, one built over a mineral spring. (b) (Naut.) A depression in the bottom of a boat, into which water may run, and whence it is thrown out with a scoop. -- Well sinker, one who sinks or digs wells. -- Well sinking, the art or process of sinking or digging wells. -- Well staircase (Arch.), a staircase having a wellhole (see Wellhole (b)), as distinguished from one which occupies the whole of the space left for it in the floor. -- Well sweep. Same as Sweep, n., 12. -- Well water, the water that flows into a well from subterraneous springs; the water drawn from a well. WELL Well, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Welled; p. pr. & vb. n. Welling.] Etym: [OE. wellen, AS. wyllan, wellan, fr. weallan; akin to OFries. walla, OS. & OHG. wallan, G. wallen, Icel. vella, G. welle, wave, OHG. wella, walm, AS. wylm; cf. L. volvere to roll, Gr. Voluble, Wallop to boil, Wallow, Weld of metal.] Defn: To issue forth, as water from the earth; to flow; to spring. "[Blood] welled from out the wound." Dryden. "[Yon spring] wells softly forth." Bryant. From his two springs in Gojam's sunny realm, Pure welling out, he through the lucid lake Of fair Dambea rolls his infant streams. Thomson. WELL Well, v. t. Defn: To pour forth, as from a well. Spenser. WELL Well, adv. [Compar. and superl. wanting, the deficiency being supplied by better and best, from another root.] Etym: [OE. wel, AS. wel; akin to OS., OFries., & D. wel, G. wohl, OHG. wola, wela, Icel. & Dan. vel, Sw. väl, Goth. waíla; originally meaning, according to one's will or wish. See Will, v. t., and cf. Wealth.] 1. In a good or proper manner; justly; rightly; not ill or wickedly. If thou doest not well, sin lieth at the door. Gen. iv. 7. 2. Suitably to one's condition, to the occasion, or to a proposed end or use; suitably; abundantly; fully; adequately; thoroughly. Lot . . . beheld all the plain of Jordan, that it was well watered everywhere. Gen. xiii. 10. WE are wellable to overcome it. Num. xiii. 30. She looketh well to the ways of her household. Prov. xxxi. 27. Servant of God, well done! well hast thou fought The better fight. Milton. 3. Fully or about; -- used with numbers. [Obs.] "Well a ten or twelve." Chaucer. Well nine and twenty in a company. Chaucer. 4. In such manner as is desirable; so as one could wish; satisfactorily; favorably; advantageously; conveniently. "It boded well to you." Dryden. Know In measure what the mind may well contain. Milton. All the world speaks well of you. Pope. 5. Considerably; not a little; far. Abraham and Sarah were old and well stricken in age. Gen. xviii. 11. Note: Well is sometimes used elliptically for it is well, as an expression of satisfaction with what has been said or done, and sometimes it expresses concession, or is merely expletive; as, well, the work is done; well, let us go; well, well, be it so. Note: Well, like above, ill, and so, is used before many participial adjectives in its usual adverbial senses, and subject to the same custom with regard to the use of the hyphen (see the Note under Ill, adv.); as, a well-affected supporter; he was well affected toward the project; a well-trained speaker; he was well trained in speaking; well-educated, or well educated; well-dressed, or well dressed; well- appearing; well-behaved; well-controlled; well-designed; well- directed; well-formed; well-meant; well-minded; well-ordered; well- performed; well-pleased; well-pleasing; well-seasoned; well-steered; well-tasted; well-told, etc. Such compound epithets usually have an obvious meaning, and since they may be formed at will, only a few of this class are given in the Vocabulary. As well. See under As. -- As well as, and also; together with; not less than; one as much as the other; as, a sickness long, as well as severe; London is the largest city in England, as well as the capital. -- Well enough, well or good in a moderate degree; so as to give satisfaction, or so as to require no alteration. -- Well off, in good condition; especially, in good condition as to property or any advantages; thriving; prosperous. -- Well to do, well off; prosperous; -- used also adjectively. "The class well to do in the world." J. H. Newman. -- Well to live, in easy circumstances; well off; well to do. Shak. WELL Well, a. 1. Good in condition or circumstances; desirable, either in a natural or moral sense; fortunate; convenient; advantageous; happy; as, it is well for the country that the crops did not fail; it is well that the mistake was discovered. It was well with us in Egypt. Num. xi. 18. 2. Being in health; sound in body; not ailing, diseased, or sick; healthy; as, a well man; the patient is perfectly well. "Your friends are well." Shak. Is your father well, the old man of whom ye spake Gen. xliii. 27. 3. Being in favor; favored; fortunate. He followed the fortunes of that family, and was well with Henry the Fourth. Dryden. 4. (Marine Insurance) Defn: Safe; as, a chip warranted well at a certain day and place. Burrill. WE'LL We'll. Defn: Contraction for we will or we shall. "We'll follow them." Shak. WELLADAY Well"a*day, interj. Etym: [Corrupted from wela way.] Defn: Alas! Welaway! Shak. WELLAT Wel"lat, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The king parrakeet See under King. WELL-BEING Well"-be`ing, n. Defn: The state or condition of being well; welfare; happiness; prosperity; as, virtue is essential to the well-being of men or of society. WELL-BORN Well"-born`, a. Defn: Born of a noble or respect able family; not of mean birth. WELL-BRED Well"-bred`, a. Defn: Having good breeding; refined in manners; polite; cultivated. I am as well-bred as the earl's granddaughter. Thackera WELLDOER Well"do`er, n. Defn: One who does well; one who does good to another; a benefactor. WELLDOING Well"do`ing, n. Defn: A doing well; right performance of duties. Also used adjectively. WELLDRAIN Well"drain`, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Welldrained; p. pr. & vb. n. Well- draining.] Defn: To drain, as land; by means of wells, or pits, which receive the water, and from which it is discharged by machinery. WELLFARE Well"fare`, n. Defn: See Welfare. [Obs.] WELL-FAVORED Well"-fa"vored, a. Defn: Handsome; wellformed; beautiful; pleasing to the eye. Rachel was beautiful and well-favored. Gen. xxix. 17. WELLHEAD Well"head`, n. Defn: A source, spring, or fountain. At the wellhead the purest streams arise. Spenser. Our public-school and university life is a great wellhead of new and irresponsible words. Earle. WELLHOLE Well"hole`, n. 1. (Arch.) (a) The open space in a floor, to accommodate a staircase. (b) The open space left beyond the ends of the steps of a staircase. 2. A cavity which receives a counterbalancing weight in certain mechanical contrivances, and is adapted also for other purposes. W. M. Buchanan. WELL-INFORMED Well`-in*formed", a. Defn: Correctly informed; provided with information; well furnished with authentic knowledge; intelligent. WELLINGTON BOOT Wel"ling*ton boot. [After the Duke of Wellington.] Defn: A riding boot for men, the front of which came above the knee; also, a similar shorter boot worn under the trousers. WELLINGTONIA Wel`ling*to"ni*a, n. Etym: [NL. So named after the Duke of Wellington.] (Bot.) Defn: A name given to the "big trees" (Sequoia gigantea) of California, and still used in England. See Sequoia. WELLINGTONS Wel"ling*tons, n. pl. Etym: [After the Duke of Wellington.] Defn: A kind of long boots for men. WELL-INTENTIONED Well`-in*ten"tioned, a. Defn: Having upright intentions or honorable purposes. Dutchmen who had sold themselves to France, as the wellintentioned party. Macaulay. WELL-KNOWN Well"-known`, a. Defn: Fully known; generally known or acknowledged. A church well known with a well-known rite. M. Arnold. WELL-LIKING Well"-lik`ing, a. Defn: Being in good condition. [Obs. or Archaic] They also shall bring forth more fruit in their age, and shall be fat and well-liking. Bk. of Com. Prayer (Ps. xcii.). WELL-MANNERED Well`-man"nered, a. Defn: Polite; well-bred; complaisant; courteous. Dryden. WELL-MEANER Well"-mean`er, n. Defn: One whose intention is good. "Well-meaners think no harm." Dryden. WELL-MEANING Well"-mean`ing, a. Defn: Having a good intention. WELL-NATURED Well`-na"tured, a. Defn: Good-natured; kind. Well-natured, temperate, and wise. Denham. WELL-NIGH Well"-nigh`, adv. Defn: Almost; nearly. Chaucer. WELL-PLIGHTED Well"-plight`ed, a. Defn: Being well folded. [Obs.] "Her well-plighted frock." Spenser. WELL-READ Well"-read`, a. Defn: Of extensive reading; deeply versed; -- often followed by in. WELL-SEEN Well"-seen`, a. Defn: Having seen much; hence, accomplished; experienced. [Obs.] Beau. & Fl. Well-seen in arms and proved in many a fight. Spenser. WELL-SET Well"-set`, a. 1. Properly or firmly set. 2. Well put together; having symmetry of parts. WELL-SPED Well"-sped`, a. Defn: Having good success. WELL-SPOKEN Well"-spo`ken, a. Etym: [Well + speak.] 1. Speaking well; speaking with fitness or grace; speaking kindly. "A knight well-spoken." Shak. 2. Spoken with propriety; as, well-spoken words. WELLSPRING Well"spring` n. Defn: A fountain; a spring; a source of continual supply. Understanding is a wellspring of life unto him that hath it; but the instruction of fools is folly. Prov. xvi. 22. WELL-WILLER Well"-will`er, n. Defn: One who wishes well, or means kindly. [R.] "A well-willer of yours." Brydges. WELL-WISH Well"-wish` n. Defn: A wish of happiness. "A well-wish for his friends." Addison. WELLWISHER Well"wish`er, n. Defn: One who wishes another well; one who is benevolently or friendlily inclined. WELS Wels, n. Etym: [G.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The sheatfish; -- called also waller. WELSBACH Wels"bach, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to Auer von Welsbach or the incandescent gas burner invented by him. -- Welsbach burner, a burner in which the combustion of a mixture of air and gas or vapor is employed to heat to incandescence a mantle composed of thoria and ceria. The mantle is made by soaking a "stocking" in a solution of nitrates of thorium and cerium (approx. 99 : 1), drying, and, for use, igniting to burn the thread and convert the nitrates into oxides, which remain as a fragile ash. The light far exceeds that obtained from the same amount of gas with the ordinary fishtail burner, but has a slight greenish hue. WELSH Welsh, a. Etym: [AS. wælisc, welisc, from wealh a stranger, foreigner, not of Saxon origin, a Welshman, a Celt, Gael; akin to OHG. walh, whence G. wälsch or welsch, Celtic, Welsh, Italian, French, Foreign, strange, OHG. walhisc; from the name of a Celtic tribe. See Walnut.] Defn: Of or pertaining to Wales, or its inhabitants. [Sometimes written also Welch.] Welsh flannel, a fine kind of flannel made from the fleece of the flocks of the Welsh mountains, and largely manufactured by hand. -- Welsh glaive, or Welsh hook, a weapon of war used in former times by the Welsh, commonly regarded as a kind of poleax. Fairholt. Craig. -- Welsh mortgage (O. Eng. Law), a species of mortgage, being a conveyance of an estate, redeemable at any time on payment of the principal, with an understanding that the profits in the mean time shall be received by the mortgagee without account, in satisfaction of interest. Burrill. -- Welsh mutton, a choice and delicate kind of mutton obtained from a breed of small sheep in Wales. -- Welsh onion (Bot.), a kind of onion (Allium fistulosum) having hollow inflated stalks and leaves, but scarcely any bulb, a native of Siberia. It is said to have been introduced from Germany, and is supposed to have derived its name from the German term wälsch foreign. -- Welsh parsley, hemp, or halters made from hemp. [Obs. & Jocular] J. Fletcher. -- Welsh rabbit. See under Rabbit. WELSH Welsh, n. 1. The language of Wales, or of the Welsh people. 2. pl. Defn: The natives or inhabitants of Wales. Note: The Welsh call themselves Cymry, in the plural, and a Welshman Cymro, and their country Cymru, of which the adjective is Cymreig, and the name of their language Cymraeg. They are a branch of the Celtic family, and a relic of the earliest known population of England, driven into the mountains of Wales by the Anglo-Saxon invaders. WELSHER Welsh"er, n. Defn: One who cheats at a horse race; one who bets, without a chance of being able to pay; one who receives money to back certain horses and absconds with it. [Written also welcher.] [Slang, Eng.] WELSHMAN Welsh"man, n.; pl. Welshmen (. 1. A native or inhabitant of Wales; one of the Welsh. 2. (Zoöl.) (a) A squirrel fish. (b) The large-mouthed black bass. See Black bass. [Southern U. S.] WELSOME Wel"some, a. Defn: Prosperous; well. [Obs.] Wyclif. -- Wel"some*ly, adv. Wyclif. WELT Welt, n. Etym: [OE. welte, probably fr. W. gwald a hem, a welt, gwaldu to welt or to hem.] 1. That which, being sewed or otherwise fastened to an edge or border, serves to guard, strengthen, or adorn it; as; (a) A small cord covered with cloth and sewed on a seam or border to strengthen it; an edge of cloth folded on itself, usually over a cord, and sewed down. (b) A hem, border, or fringe. [Obs.] (c) In shoemaking, a narrow strip of leather around a shoe, between the upper leather and sole. (d) In steam boilers and sheet-iron work, a strip riveted upon the edges of plates that form a butt joint. (e) In carpentry, a strip of wood fastened over a flush seam or joint, or an angle, to strengthen it. (f) In machine-made stockings, a strip, or flap, of which the heel is formed. 2. (Her.) Defn: A narrow border, as of an ordinary, but not extending around the ends. Welt joint, a joint, as of plates, made with a welt, instead of by overlapping the edges. See Weld, n., 1 (d). WELT Welt, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Welted; p. pr. & vb. n. Welting.] Defn: To furnish with a welt; to sew or fasten a welt on; as, to welt a boot or a shoe; to welt a sleeve. WELT Welt, v. t. Defn: To wilt. [R.] WELTANSCHAUUNG Welt"an"schau`ung, n.; pl. Weltanschauungen (#). [G.] Defn: Lit., world view; a conception of the course of events in, and of the purpose of, the world as a whole, forming a philosophical view or apprehension of the universe; the general idea embodied in a cosmology. WELTE Welte, obs. Defn: imp. of Weld, to wield. Chaucer. WELTER Wel"ter, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Weltered; p. pr. & vb. n. Weltering.] Etym: [Freq. of OE. walten to roll over, AS. wealtan; akin to LG. weltern, G. walzen to roll, to waltz, sich wälzen to welter, OHG. walzan to roll, Icel. velta, Dan. vælte, Sw. vältra, välta; cf. Goth. waltjan; probably akin to E. wallow, well, v. i. Well, v. i., and cf. Waltz.] 1. To roll, as the body of an animal; to tumble about, especially in anything foul or defiling; to wallow. When we welter in pleasures and idleness, then we eat and drink with drunkards. Latimer. These wizards welter in wealth's waves. Spenser. He must not float upon his watery bier Unwept, and welter to the parching wind, Without the meed of some melodious tear. Milton. The priests at the altar . . . weltering in their blood. Landor. 2. To rise and fall, as waves; to tumble over, as billows. "The weltering waves." Milton. Waves that, hardly weltering, die away. Wordsworth. Through this blindly weltering sea. Trench. WELTER Wel"ter, v. t. Etym: [Cf. Wilt, v. i.] Defn: To wither; to wilt. [R.] Weltered hearts and blighted . . . memories. I. Taylor. WELTER Wel"ter, a. (Horse Racing) Defn: Of, pertaining to, or designating, the most heavily weighted race in a meeting; as, a welter race; the welter stakes. WELTER Wel"ter, n. 1. That in which any person or thing welters, or wallows; filth; mire; slough. The foul welter of our so-called religious or other controversies. Carlyle. 2. A rising or falling, as of waves; as, the welter of the billows; the welter of a tempest. WELTERWEIGHT Wel"ter*weight`, n. 1. (Horse Racing) A weight of 28 pounds (one of 40 pounds is called a heavy welterweight) sometimes imposed in addition to weight for age, chiefly in steeplechases and hurdle races. 2. A boxer or wrestler whose weight is intermediate between that of a lightweight and that of a middleweight. WELTSCHMERTZ Welt"schmertz`, n. [G., fr. welt world + schmertz pain. See World; Smart, v. i.] Defn: Sorrow or sadness over the present or future evils or woes of the world in general; sentimental pessimism. WELWITSCHIA Wel*witsch"i*a, n. Etym: [NL. So named after the discoverer, Dr. Friedrich Welwitsch.] (Bot.) Defn: An African plant (Welwitschia mirabilis) belonging to the order Gnetaceæ. It consists of a short, woody, topshaped stem, and never more than two leaves, which are the cotyledons enormously developed, and at length split into diverging segments. WEM Wem, n. Etym: [Cf. Womb.] Defn: The abdomen; the uterus; the womb. [Obs.] WEM Wem, n. Etym: [AS. wam, wamm.] Defn: Spot; blemish; harm; hurt. [Obs.] Wyclif. Withouten wem of you, through foul and fair. Chaucer. WEM Wem, v. t. Etym: [AS. wemman.] Defn: To stain; to blemish; to harm; to corrupt. [Obs.] WEMLESS Wem"less, a. Defn: Having no wem, or blemish; spotless. [Obs.] "Virgin wemless." Chaucer. WEN Wen, n. Etym: [AS. wenn; akin to D. wen, LG. wenne.] (Med.) Defn: An indolent, encysted tumor of the skin; especially, a sebaceous cyst. WENCH Wench, n. Etym: [OE. wenche, for older wenchel a child, originally, weak, tottering; cf. AS. wencle a maid, a daughter, wencel a pupil, orphan, wincel, winclu, children, offspring, wencel weak, wancol unstable, OHG. wanchol; perhaps akin to E. wink. See Wink.] 1. A young woman; a girl; a maiden. Shak. Lord and lady, groom and wench. Chaucer. That they may send again My most sweet wench, and gifts to boot. Chapman. He was received by the daughter of the house, a pretty, buxom, blue- eyed little wench. W. Black. 2. A low, vicious young woman; a drab; a strumpet. She shall be called his wench or his leman. Chaucer. It is not a digression to talk of bawds in a discourse upon wenches. Spectator. 3. A colored woman; a negress. [U. S.] WENCH Wench, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Wenched; p. pr. & vb. n. Wenching.] Defn: To frequent the company of wenches, or women of ill fame. WENCHER Wench"er, n. Defn: One who wenches; a lewd man. WENCHLESS Wench"less, a. Defn: Being without a wench. Shak. WEND Wend, obs. Defn: p. p. of Wene. Chaucer. WEND Wend, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Wended, Obs. Went; p. pr. & vb. n. Wending.] Etym: [AS. wendan to turn, to go, caus. of windan to wind; akin to OS. wendian, OFries. wenda, D. wenden to turn, G. wenden, Icel. venda, Sw. vända, Dan. vende, Goth. wandjan. See Wind to turn, and cf. Went.] 1. To go; to pass; to betake one's self. "To Canterbury they wend." Chaucer. To Athens shall the lovers wend. Shak. 2. To turn round. [Obs.] Sir W. Raleigh. WEND Wend, v. t. Defn: To direct; to betake;- used chiefly in the phrase to wend one's way. Also used reflexively. "Great voyages to wend." Surrey. WEND Wend, n. (O. Eng. Law) Defn: A large extent of ground; a perambulation; a circuit. [Obs.] Burrill. WENDE Wende, obs. Defn: imp. of Wene. Chaucer. WENDIC; WENDISH Wend"ic, Wend"ish, a. Defn: Of or pertaining the Wends, or their language. WENDIC Wend"ic, n. Defn: The language of the Wends. WENDS Wends, n. pl.; sing. Wend. (Ethnol.) Defn: A Slavic tribe which once occupied the northern and eastern parts of Germany, of which a small remnant exists. WENE Wene, v. i. Defn: To ween. [Obs.] Chaucer. WEN-LI Wên"-li`, n. [Chin. wên li.] Defn: The higher literary idiom of Chinese, that of the canonical books and of all composition pretending to literary standing. It employs a classical or academic diction, and a more condensed and sententious style than Mandarin, and differs also in the doubling and arrangement of words. WENLOCK GROUP Wen"lock group`, (Geol.) Defn: The middle subdivision of the Upper Silurian in Great Britain; -- so named from the typical locality in Shropshire. WENNEL Wen"nel, n. Defn: See Weanel. [Obs.] Tusser. WENNISH; WENNY Wen"nish, Wen"ny, a. Etym: [From Wen.] Defn: Having the nature of a wen; resembling a wen; as, a wennish excrescence. WENONA We*no"na, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A sand snake (Charina plumbea) of Western North America, of the family Erycidæ. WENT Went, Defn: imp. & p. p. of Wend; -- now obsolete except as the imperfect of go, with which it has no etymological connection. See Go. To the church both be they went. Chaucer. WENT Went, n. Defn: Course; way; path; journey; direction. [Obs.] "At a turning of a wente." Chaucer. But here my weary team, nigh overspent, Shall breathe itself awhile after so long a went. Spenser. He knew the diverse went of mortal ways. Spenser. WENTLETRAP Wen"tle*trap`, n. Etym: [D. wenteltrap a winding staircase; cf. G. wendeltreppe.] [Obs.] Defn: Any one of numerous species of elegant, usually white, marine shells of the genus Scalaria, especially Scalaria pretiosa, which was formerly highly valued; -- called also staircase shell. See Scalaria. WEP Wep, obs. Defn: imp. of Weep. WEPEN Wep"en, n. Defn: Weapon. [Obs.] WEPT Wept, Defn: imp. & p. p. of Weep. WERCHE Werche, v. t. & i. Defn: To work. [Obs.] Chaucer. WERE Were, v. t. & i. Defn: To wear. See 3d Wear. [Obs.] Chaucer. WERE Were, n. Defn: A weir. See Weir. [Obs.] Chaucer. Sir P. Sidney. WERE Were, v. t. Etym: [AS. werian.] Defn: To guard; to protect. [Obs.] Chaucer. WERE Were. Etym: [AS. wre (thou) wast, w (we, you, they) were, w imp. subj. See Was.] Defn: The imperfect indicative plural, and imperfect subjunctive singular and plural, of the verb be. See Be. WERE Were, n. Etym: [AS. wer; akin to OS. & OHG. wer, Goth. waír, L. vir, Skr. vira. Cf. Weregild, and Werewolf.] 1. A man. [Obs.] 2. A fine for slaying a man; the money value set upon a man's life; weregild. [Obs.] Every man was valued at a certain sum, which was called his were. Bosworth. WEREGILD Were"gild`, n. Etym: [AS. wergild; wer a man, value set on a man's life + gild payment of money; akin to G. wehrgeld. Were a man, and Geld, n.] (O. Eng. Law) Defn: The price of a man's head; a compensation paid of a man killed, partly to the king for the loss of a subject, partly to the lord of a vassal, and partly to the next of kin. It was paid by the murderer. [Written also weregeld, weregelt, etc.] Blackstone. WEREWOLF Were"wolf`, n.; pl. Werewolves. Etym: [AS. werwulf; wer a man + wulf a wolf; cf. G. wärwolf, währwolf, wehrwolf, a werewolf, MHG. werwolf. Were a man, and Wolf, and cf. Virile, World.] Defn: A person transformed into a wolf in form and appetite, either temporarily or permanently, whether by supernatural influences, by witchcraft, or voluntarily; a lycanthrope. Belief in werewolves, formerly general, is not now extinct. The werwolf went about his prey. William of Palerne. The brutes that wear our form and face, The werewolves of the human race. Longfellow. WERK; WERKE Werk, n., Werke, v. Defn: See Work. [Obs.] WERN Wern, v. t. Etym: [See 1st Warn.] Defn: To refuse. [Obs.] He is too great a niggard that will wern A man to light a candle at his lantern. Chaucer. WERNERIAN Wer*ne"ri*an, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to A. G. Werner, The German mineralogist and geologist, who classified minerals according to their external characters, and advocated the theory that the strata of the earth's crust were formed by depositions from water; designating, or according to, Werner's system. WERNERITE Wer"ner*ite, n. Etym: [See Wernerian.] (Min.) Defn: The common grayish or white variety of soapolite. WEROOLE We*roo"le, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: An Australian lorikeet (Ptilosclera versicolor) noted for the variety of its colors; -- called also varied lorikeet. WERRE Werre, n. Defn: War. [Obs.] Chaucer. WERREY Wer"rey, v. t. Defn: To warray. [Obs.] Chaucer. WERST Werst, n. Defn: See Verst. WERT Wert Defn: , The second person singular, indicative and subjunctive moods, imperfect tense, of the verb be. It is formed from were, with the ending -t, after the analogy of wast. Now used only in solemn or poetic style. WERT Wert, n. Defn: A wart. [Obs.] Chaucer. WERYANGLE Wer`y*an"gle, n. Defn: See Wariangle. [Obs.] Chaucer. WESAND We"sand, n. Defn: See Weasand. [Obs.] WESH Wesh, obs. imp. of Wash. Defn: Washed. Chaucer. WESIL We"sil n. Defn: See Weasand. [Obs.] WESLEYAN Wes"ley*an, a. Etym: [See Wesleyanism.] Defn: Of or pertaining to Wesley or Wesleyanism. WESLEYAN Wes"ley*an, n. (Eccl.) Defn: One who adopts the principles of Wesleyanism; a Methodist. WESLEYANISM Wes"ley*an*ism, n. (Eccl.) Defn: The system of doctrines and church polity inculcated by John Wesley (b. 1703; d. 1791), the founder of the religious sect called Methodist; Methodism. See Methodist, n., 2. WEST West, n. Etym: [AS. west, adv.; akin to D. west, G. west, westen, OHG. westan, Icel. vestr, Sw. vest, vester, vestan, Dan. vest, vesten, and perhaps to L. vesper evening, Gr. Vesper, Visigoth.] 1. The point in the heavens where the sun is seen to set at the equinox; or, the corresponding point on the earth; that one of the four cardinal points of the compass which is in a direction at right angles to that of north and south, and on the left hand of a person facing north; the point directly opposite to east. And fresh from the west is the free wind's breath. Bryant. 2. A country, or region of country, which, with regard to some other country or region, is situated in the direction toward the west. 3. Specifically: (a) The Westen hemisphere, or the New World so called, it having been discovered by sailing westward from Europe; the Occident. (b) (U. S. Hist. & Geog.) Formerly, that part of the United States west of the Alleghany mountains; now, commonly, the whole region west of the Mississippi river; esp., that part which is north of the Indian Territory, New Mexico, etc. Usually with the definite article. West by north, West by south, according to the notation of the mariner's compass, that point which lies 11 -- West northwest, West southwest, that point which lies 22Illust. of Compass. WEST West, a. Defn: Lying toward the west; situated at the west, or in a western direction from the point of observation or reckoning; proceeding toward the west, or coming from the west; as, a west course is one toward the west; an east and west line; a west wind blows from the west. This shall be your west border. Num. xxxiv. 6. West end, the fashionable part of London, commencing from the east, at Charing Cross. WEST West, adv. Etym: [AS. west.] Defn: Westward. WEST West, v. i. 1. To pass to the west; to set, as the sun. [Obs.] "The hot sun gan to west." Chaucer. 2. To turn or move toward the west; to veer from the north or south toward the west. WESTERING West"er*ing, a. Defn: Passing to the west. Toward heaven's descent had sloped his westering wheel. Milton. WESTERLY West"er*ly, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to the west; toward the west; coming from the west; western. WESTERLY West"er*ly, adv. Defn: Toward the west; westward. WESTERN West"ern, a. 1. Of or pertaining to the west; situated in the west, or in the region nearly in the direction of west; being in that quarter where the sun sets; as, the western shore of France; the western ocean. Far o'er the glowing western main. Keble. 2. Moving toward the west; as, a ship makes a western course; coming from the west; as, a western breeze. Western Church. See Latin Church, under Latin. -- Western empire (Hist.), the western portion of the Roman empire, as divided, by the will of Theodosius the Great, between his sons Honorius and Arcadius, a. d. 395. WESTERNER West"ern*er, n. Defn: A native or inhabitant of the west. WESTERNMOST West"ern*most`, a. Defn: Situated the farthest towards the west; most western. WEST INDIA; WEST INDIAN West` In"di*a, West` In"di*an. Defn: Belonging or relating to the West Indies. West India tea (Bot.), a shrubby plant (Capraria biflora) having oblanceolate toothed leaves which are sometimes used in the West Indies as a substitute for tea. WEST INDIAN West` In"di*an. Defn: A native of, or a dweller in, the West Indies. WESTING West"ing, n. (Naut. & Surv.) Defn: The distance, reckoned toward the west, between the two meridians passing through the extremities of a course, or portion of a ship's path; the departure of a course which lies to the west of north. WESTLING West"ling, n. Defn: A westerner. [R.] WESTMINSTER ASSEMBLY West"min`ster As*sem"bly. Defn: See under Assembly. WESTMOST West"most`, a. Defn: Lying farthest to the west; westernmost. WESTWARD; WESTWARDS West"ward, West"wards, adv. Etym: [AS. westweard. See West, and - ward. ] Defn: Toward the west; as, to ride or sail westward. Westward the course of empire takes its way. Berkeley. WESTWARD West"ward, a. Defn: Lying toward the west. Yond same star that's westward from the pole. Shak. WESTWARD West"ward, n. Defn: The western region or countries; the west. WESTWARDLY West"ward*ly, adv. Defn: In a westward direction. WESTY West"y, a. Defn: Dizzy; giddy. [Prov. Eng.] WET Wet, a. [Compar. Wetter; superl. Wettest.] Etym: [OE. wet, weet, AS. wt; akin to OFries. wt, Icel. vatr, Sw. våt, Dan. vaad, and E. water. Water.] 1. Containing, or consisting of, water or other liquid; moist; soaked with a liquid; having water or other liquid upon the surface; as, wet land; a wet cloth; a wet table. "Wet cheeks." Shak. 2. Very damp; rainy; as, wet weather; a wet season. "Wet October's torrent flood." Milton. 3. (Chem.) Defn: Employing, or done by means of, water or some other liquid; as, the wet extraction of copper, in distinction from dry extraction in which dry heat or fusion is employed. 4. Refreshed with liquor; drunk. [Slang] Prior. Wet blanket, Wet dock, etc. See under Blanket, Dock, etc. -- Wet goods, intoxicating liquors. [Slang] Syn. -- Nasty; humid; damp; moist. See Nasty. WET Wet, n. Etym: [AS. wæta. See Wet, a.] 1. Water or wetness; moisture or humidity in considerable degree. Have here a cloth and wipe away the wet. Chaucer. Now the sun, with more effectual beams, Had cheered the face of earth, and dried the wet From drooping plant. Milton. 2. Rainy weather; foggy or misty weather. 3. A dram; a drink. [Slang] WET Wet, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wet (rarely Wetted); p. pr. & vb. n. Wetting.] Etym: [AS. wætan.] Defn: To fill or moisten with water or other liquid; to sprinkle; to cause to have water or other fluid adherent to the surface; to dip or soak in a liquid; as, to wet a sponge; to wet the hands; to wet cloth. "[The scene] did draw tears from me and wetted my paper." Burke. Ye mists and exhalations, that now rise . . . Whether to deck with clouds the uncolored sky, Or wet the thirsty earth with falling showers. Milton. To wet one's whistle, to moisten one's throat; to drink a dram of liquor. [Colloq.] Let us drink the other cup to wet our whistles. Walton. WETBIRD Wet"bird`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The chaffinch, whose cry is thought to foretell rain. [Prov. Eng.] WET-BULB THERMOMETER Wet-bulb thermometer. (Physics) Defn: That one of the two similar thermometers of a psychrometer the bulb of which is moistened; also, the entire instrument. WETHER Weth"er, n. Etym: [OE. wether, AS. we; akin to OS. wethar, withar, a ram, D. weder, G. widder, OHG. widar, Icel. ver, Sw. vädur, Dan. vædder, Goth. wiprus a lamb, L. vitulus calf, Skr. vatsa, L. vetus old, Gr. Veal, Veteran.] Defn: A castrated ram. WETNESS Wet"ness, n. 1. The quality or state of being wet; moisture; humidity; as, the wetness of land; the wetness of a cloth. 2. A watery or moist state of the atmosphere; a state of being rainy, foggy, or misty; as, the wetness of weather or the season. Note: Wetness generally implies more water or liquid than is implied by humidness or moisture. WET NURSE Wet" nurse`. Defn: A nurse who suckles a child, especially the child of another woman. Cf. Dry nurse. WET PLATE Wet plate. (Photog.) Defn: A plate the film of which retains its sensitiveness only while wet. The film used in such plates is of collodion impregnated with bromides and iodides. Before exposure the plate is immersed in a solution of silver nitrate, and immediately after exposure it is developed and fixed. WET-SHOD Wet"-shod`, a. Defn: Having the feet, or the shoes on the feet, wet. WETTISH Wet"tish, a. Defn: Somewhat wet; moist; humid. WEVIL We"vil, n. Defn: See Weevil. WEX Wex, v. t. & i. Defn: To grow; to wax. [Obs.] Chaucer. "Each wexing moon." Dryden. WEX Wex, obs. imp. of Wex. Defn: Waxed. Chaucer. WEX Wex, n. Defn: Wax. [Obs.] "Yelwe as wex." Chaucer. WEY Wey, n. Defn: Way; road; path. [Obs.] Chaucer. WEY Wey, v. t. & i. Defn: To weigh. [Obs.] Chaucer. WEY Wey, n. Etym: [OE. weye, AS. w weight. Weight.] Defn: A certain measure of weight. [Eng.] "A weye of Essex cheese." Piers Plowman. Note: A wey is 6 Simmonds. WEYLE Weyle, v. t. & i. Defn: To wail. [Obs.] Chaucer. WEYLEWAY Wey"le*way, interj. Defn: See Welaway. [Obs.] WEYVE Weyve, v. t. Defn: To waive. [Obs.] Chaucer. WEZAND We"zand, n. Defn: See Weasand. [Obs.] WHAAP Whaap, n. Etym: [So called from one of its notes.] (Zoöl.) (a) The European curlew; -- called also awp, whaup, great whaup, and stock whaup. (b) The whimbrel; -- called also May whaup, little whaup, and tang whaup. [Prov. Eng. & Scot.] WHACK Whack, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Whacked; p. pr. & vb. n. Whacking.] Etym: [Cf. Thwack.] Defn: To strike; to beat; to give a heavy or resounding blow to; to thrash; to make with whacks. [Colloq.] Rodsmen were whackingtheir way through willow brakes. G. W. Cable. WHACK Whack, v. i. Defn: To strike anything with a smart blow. To whack away, to continue striking heavy blows; as, to whack away at a log. [Colloq.] WHACK Whack, n. Defn: A smart resounding blow. [Colloq.] WHACKER Whack"er, n. 1. One who whacks. [Colloq.] 2. Anything very large; specif., a great lie; a whapper. [Colloq.] Halliwell. WHACKING Whack"ing, a. Defn: Very large; whapping. [Colloq.] WHAHOO Wha*hoo", n. (Bot.) Defn: An American tree, the winged elm. (Ulmus alata). WHALA Whala, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Whaled; p. pr. & vb. n. Whaling.] Etym: [Cf. Wale. ] Defn: To lash with stripes; to wale; to thrash; to drub. [Prov. Eng. & Colloq. U. S.] Halliwell. Bartlett. WHALE Whale, n. Etym: [OE. whal, AS. hwæl; akin to D. walvisch, G. wal, walfisch, OHG. wal, Icel. hvalr, Dan. & Sw. hval, hvalfisk. Cf. Narwhal, Walrus.] (Zoöl.) Defn: Any aquatic mammal of the order Cetacea, especially any one of the large species, some of which become nearly one hundred feet long. Whales are hunted chiefly for their oil and baleen, or whalebone. Note: The existing whales are divided into two groups: the toothed whales (Odontocete), including those that have teeth, as the cachalot, or sperm whale (see Sperm whale); and the baleen, or whalebone, whales (Mysticete), comprising those that are destitute of teeth, but have plates of baleen hanging from the upper jaw, as the right whales. The most important species of whalebone whales are the bowhead, or Greenland, whale (see Illust. of Right whale), the Biscay whale, the Antarctic whale, the gray whale (see under Gray), the humpback, the finback, and the rorqual. Whale bird. (Zoöl.) (a) Any one of several species of large Antarctic petrels which follow whaling vessels, to feed on the blubber and floating oil; especially, Prion turtur (called also blue petrel), and Pseudoprion desolatus. (b) The turnstone; -- so called because it lives on the carcasses of whales. [Canada] -- Whale fin (Com.), whalebone. Simmonds. -- Whale fishery, the fishing for, or occupation of taking, whales. -- Whale louse (Zoöl.), any one of several species of degraded amphipod crustaceans belonging to the genus Cyamus, especially C. ceti. They are parasitic on various cetaceans. -- Whale's bone, ivory. [Obs.] -- Whale shark. (Zoöl.) (a) The basking, or liver, shark. (b) A very large harmless shark (Rhinodon typicus) native of the Indian Ocean. It sometimes becomes sixty feet long. -- Whale shot, the name formerly given to spermaceti. -- Whale's tongue (Zoöl.), a balanoglossus. WHALEBACK Whale"back`, n. (Naut.) Defn: A form of vessel, often with steam power, having sharp ends and a very convex upper deck, much used on the Great Lakes, esp. for carrying grain. WHALEBOAT Whale"boat`, n. (Naut.) Defn: A long, narrow boat, sharp at both ends, used by whalemen. WHALEBONE Whale"bone`, n. Defn: A firm, elastic substance resembling horn, taken from the upper jaw of the right whale; baleen. It is used as a stiffening in stays, fans, screens, and for various other purposes. See Baleen. Note: Whalebone is chiefly obtained from the bowhead, or Greenland, whale, the Biscay whale, and the Antarctic, or southern, whale. It is prepared for manufacture by being softened by boiling, and dyed black. WHALEMAN Whale"man, n.; pl. Whalemen (. Defn: A man employed in the whale fishery. WHALER Whal"er, n. Defn: A vessel or person employed in the whale fishery. WHALER Whal"er, n. Defn: One who whales, or beats; a big, strong fellow; hence, anything of great or unusual size. [Colloq. U. S.] WHALING Whal"ing, n. Defn: The hunting of whales. WHALING Whal"ing, a. Defn: Pertaining to, or employed in, the pursuit of whales; as, a whaling voyage; a whaling vessel. WHALL Whall, n. Etym: [See Wall-eye.] Defn: A light color of the iris in horses; wall-eye. [Written also whaul.] WHALLY Whall"y, a. Defn: Having the iris of light color; -- said of horses. "Whally eyes." Spenser. WHAME Whame, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A breeze fly. WHAMMEL Wham"mel, v. t. Etym: [Cf. Whelm.] Defn: To turn over. [Prov. Eng.] WHAN Whan, adv. Defn: When. [Obs.] Chaucer. WHANG Whang, n. Etym: [Cf. Thong.] Defn: A leather thong. [Prov. Eng. & Colloq. U. S.] WHANG Whang, v. t. Defn: To beat. [Prov. Eng. & Colloq. U. S.] WHANGDOODLE Whang"doo`dle, n. Defn: An imaginary creature, of undefined character. [Slang] WHANGHEE Whang*hee", n. (Bot.) Defn: See Wanghee. WHAP; WHOP Whap, Whop, v. i. Etym: [Cf. OE. quappen to palpitate, E. quob, quaver, wabble, awhape, wap.] Defn: To throw one's self quickly, or by an abrupt motion; to turn suddenly; as, she whapped down on the floor; the fish whapped over. Bartlett. Note: This word is used adverbially in the north of England, as in the United States, when anything vanishes, or is gone suddenly; as, whap went the cigar out of my mouth. WHAP; WHOP Whap, Whop, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Whapped; p. pr. & vb. n. Whapping.] Defn: To beat or strike. WHAP; WHOP Whap, Whop, n. Defn: A blow, or quick, smart stroke. WHAPPER; WHOPPER Whap"per, Whop"per, n. Etym: [See Whap.] Defn: Something uncommonly large of the kind; something astonishing; -- applied especially to a bold lie. [Colloq.] WHAPPING; WHOPPING Whap"ping, Whop"ping, a. Defn: Very large; monstrous; astonishing; as, a whapping story. [Colloq.] WHARF Wharf, n.; pl. Wharfs or Wharves. Etym: [AS. hwerf, hwearf, a returning, a change, from hweorfan to turn, turn about, go about; akin to D. werf a wharf, G. werft, Sw. varf a shipbuilder's yard, Dan. verft wharf, dockyard, G. werben to enlist, to engage, woo, OHG. werban to turn about, go about, be active or occupied, Icel. hverfa to turn, Goth. hwaírban, hwarbon, to walk. Cf. Whirl.] 1. A structure or platform of timber, masonry, iron, earth, or other material, built on the shore of a harbor, river, canal, or the like, and usually extending from the shore to deep water, so that vessels may lie close alongside to receive and discharge cargo, passengers, etc.; a quay; a pier. Commerce pushes its wharves into the sea. Bancroft. Out upon the wharfs they came, Knight and burgher, lord and dame. Tennyson. Note: The plural of this word is generally written wharves in the United States, and wharfs in England; but many recent English writers use wharves. 2. Etym: [AS. hwearf.] Defn: The bank of a river, or the shore of the sea. [Obs.] "The fat weed that roots itself in ease on Lethe wharf." Shak. Wharf boat, a kind of boat moored at the bank of a river, and used for a wharf, in places where the height of the water is so variable that a fixed wharf would be useless. [U. S.] Bartlett. -- Wharf rat. (Zoöl.) (a) The common brown rat. (b) A neglected boy who lives around the wharfs. [Slang] WHARF Wharf, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wharfed; p. pr. & vb. n. Wharfing.] 1. To guard or secure by a firm wall of timber or stone constructed like a wharf; to furnish with a wharf or wharfs. 2. To place upon a wharf; to bring to a wharf. WHARFAGE Wharf"age, n. 1. The fee or duty paid for the privilege of using a wharf for loading or unloading goods; pierage, collectively; quayage. 2. A wharf or wharfs, collectively; wharfing. WHARFING Wharf"ing, n. 1. Wharfs, collectively. 2. (Hydraul. Engin.) Defn: A mode of facing sea walls and embankments with planks driven as piles and secured by ties. Knight. WHARFINGER Wharf"in*ger, n. Etym: [For wharfager.] Defn: A man who owns, or has the care of, a wharf. WHARL; WHARLING Wharl, Wharl"ing, n. Defn: A guttural pronunciation of the letter r; a burr. See Burr, n., 6. A strange, uncouth wharling in their speech. Fuller. WHARP Wharp, n. Defn: A kind of fine sand from the banks of the Trent, used as a polishing powder. [Eng.] WHAT What, pron., a., & adv. Etym: [AS. hwæt, neuter of hwa who; akin to OS. hwat what, OFries. hwet, D. & LG. wat, G. was, OHG. waz, hwaz, Icel. hvat, Sw. & Dan. hvad, Goth. hwa. sq. root182. See Who.] 1. As an interrogative pronoun, used in asking questions regarding either persons or things; as, what is this what did you say what poem is this what child is lost What see'st thou in the ground Shak. What is man, that thou art mindful of him Ps. viii. 4. What manner of man is this, that even the winds and the sea obey him! Matt. viii. 27. Note: Originally, what, when, where, which, who, why, etc., were interrogatives only, and it is often difficult to determine whether they are used as interrogatives or relatives. What in this sense, when it refers to things, may be used either substantively or adjectively; when it refers to persons, it is used only adjectively with a noun expressed, who being the pronoun used substantively. 2. As an exclamatory word: -- (a) Used absolutely or independently; - - often with a question following. "What welcome be thou." Chaucer. What, could ye not watch with me one hour Matt. xxvi. 40. (b) Used adjectively, meaning how remarkable, or how great; as, what folly! what eloquence! what courage! What a piece of work is man! Shak. O what a riddle of absurdity! Young. Note: What in this use has a or an between itself and its noun if the qualitative or quantitative importance of the object is emphasized. (c) Sometimes prefixed to adjectives in an adverbial sense, as nearly equivalent to how; as, what happy boys! What partial judges are our and hate! Dryden. 3. As a relative pronoun: -- (a) Used substantively with the antecedent suppressed, equivalent to that which, or those [persons] who, or those [things] which; -- called a compound relative. With joy beyond what victory bestows. Cowper. I'm thinking Captain Lawton will count the noses of what are left before they see their whaleboats. Cooper. What followed was in perfect harmony with this beginning. Macaulay. I know well . . . how little you will be disposed to criticise what comes to you from me. J. H. Newman. (b) Used adjectively, equivalent to the . . . which; the sort or kind of . . . which; rarely, the . . . on, or at, which. See what natures accompany what colors. Bacon. To restrain what power either the devil or any earthly enemy hath to work us woe. Milton. We know what master laid thy keel, What workmen wrought thy ribs of steel. Longfellow. (c) Used adverbially in a sense corresponding to the adjectival use; as, he picked what good fruit he saw. 4. Whatever; whatsoever; what thing soever; -- used indefinitely. "What after so befall." Chaucer. Whether it were the shortness of his foresight, the strength of his will, . . . or what it was. Bacon. 5. Used adverbially, in part; partly; somewhat; -- with a following preposition, especially, with, and commonly with repetition. What for lust [pleasure] and what for lore. Chaucer. Thus, what with the war, what with the sweat, what with the gallows, and what with poverty, I am custom shrunk. Shak. The year before he had so used the matter that what by force, what by policy, he had taken from the Christians above thirty small castles. Knolles. Note: In such phrases as I tell you what, what anticipates the following statement, being elliptical for what I think, what it is, how it is, etc. "I tell thee what, corporal Bardolph, I could tear her." Shak. Here what relates to the last clause, "I could tear her;" this is what I tell you. What not is often used at the close of an enumeration of several particulars or articles, it being an abbreviated clause, the verb of which, being either the same as that of the principal clause or a general word, as be, say, mention, enumerate, etc., is omitted. "Men hunt, hawk, and what not." Becon. "Some dead puppy, or log, orwhat not." C. Kingsley. "Battles, tournaments, hunts, and what not." De Quincey. Hence, the words are often used in a general sense with the force of a substantive, equivalent to anything you please, a miscellany, a variety, etc. From this arises the name whatnot, applied to an étagère, as being a piece of furniture intended for receiving miscellaneous articles of use or ornament. But what is used for but that, usually after a negative, and excludes everything contrary to the assertion in the following sentence. "Her needle is not so absolutely perfect in tent and cross stitch but what my superintendence is advisable." Sir W. Scott. "Never fear but what our kite shall fly as high." Ld. Lytton. What ho! an exclamation of calling. -- What if, what will it matter if; what will happen or be the result if. "What if it be a poison" Shak. -- What of this that it etc., what follows from this, that, it, etc., often with the implication that it is of no consequence. "All this is so; but what of this, my lord" Shak. "The night is spent, why, what of that" Shak. -- What though, even granting that; allowing that; supposing it true that. "What though the rose have prickles, yet't is plucked." Shak. -- What time, or What time as, when. [Obs. or Archaic] "What time I am afraid, I will trust in thee." Ps. lvi. 3. What time the morn mysterious visions brings. Pope. WHAT What, n. Defn: Something; thing; stuff. [Obs.] And gave him for to feed, Such homely what as serves the simple Spenser. WHAT What, interrog. adv. Defn: Why For what purpose On what account [Obs.] What should I tell the answer of the knight. Chaucer. But what do I stand reckoning upon advantages and gains lost by the misrule and turbulency of the prelates What do I pick up so thriftily their scatterings and diminishings of the meaner subject Milton. WHATE'ER What*e'er", pron. Defn: A contraction of what-ever; -- used in poetry. "Whate'er is in his way." Shak. WHATEVER What*ev"er, pron. Defn: Anything soever which; the thing or things of any kind; being this or that; of one nature or another; one thing or another; anything that may be; all that; the whole that; all particulars that; -- used both substantively and adjectively. Whatever fortune stays from his word. Shak. Whatever Earth, all-bearing mother, yields. Milton. Whatever be its intrinsic value. J. H. Newman. Note: Whatever often follows a noun, being used elliptically. "There being no room for any physical discovery whatever" [sc. it may be]. Whately. WHATNOT What"not, n. Etym: [See the Note under What, pron., 5.] Defn: A kind of stand, or piece of furniture, having shelves for books, ornaments, etc.; an étagère. WHATSO What"so, indef. pron. Defn: Whatsoever; whosoever; whatever; anything that. [Obs.] Whatso he were, of high or low estate. Chaucer. Whatso the heaven in his wide vault contains. Spenser. WHATSOE'ER What`so*e'er", pron. Defn: A contraction of whatsoever; -- used in poetry. Shak. WHATSOEVER What`so*ev"er, pron. & a. Defn: Whatever. "In whatsoever shape he lurk." Milton. Whatsoever God hath said unto thee, do. Gen. xxxi. 16. Note: The word is sometimes divided by tmesis. "What things soever ye desire." Mark xi. 24. WHAUL Whaul, n. Defn: Same as Whall. WHAUP Whaup, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: See Whaap. [Prov. Eng.] WHEAL Wheal, n. Etym: [OE. whele, AS. hwele putrefaction, hwelian to putrefy.] Defn: A pustule; a whelk. Wiseman. WHEAL Wheal, n. Etym: [Cf. Wale.] 1. A more or less elongated mark raised by a stroke; also, a similar mark made by any cause; a weal; a wale. 2. Specifically (Med.), a flat, burning or itching eminence on the skin, such as is produced by a mosquito bite, or in urticaria. WHEAL Wheal, n. Etym: [Cornish hwel.] (Mining) Defn: A mine. WHEALWORM Wheal"worm`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The harvest mite; -- so called from the wheals, caused by its bite. WHEAT Wheat, n. Etym: [OE. whete, AS. hwte; akin to OS. hwti, D. weit, G. weizen, OHG. weizzi, Icel. hveiti, Sw. hvete, Dan. hvede, Goth. hwaiteis, and E. while. See White.] (Bot.) Defn: A cereal grass (Triticum vulgare) and its grain, which furnishes a white flour for bread, and, next to rice, is the grain most largely used by the human race. Note: Of this grain the varieties are numerous, as red wheat, white wheat, bald wheat, bearded wheat, winter wheat, summer wheat, and the like. Wheat is not known to exist as a wild native plant, and all statements as to its origin are either incorrect or at best only guesses. Buck wheat. (Bot.) See Buckwheat. -- German wheat. (Bot.) See 2d Spelt. -- Guinea wheat (Bot.), a name for Indian corn. -- Indian wheat, or Tartary wheat (Bot.), a grain (Fagopyrum Tartaricum) much like buckwheat, but only half as large. -- Turkey wheat (Bot.), a name for Indian corn. -- Wheat aphid, or Wheat aphis (Zoöl.), any one of several species of Aphis and allied genera, which suck the sap of growing wheat. -- Wheat beetle. (Zoöl.) (a) A small, slender, rusty brown beetle (Sylvanus Surinamensis) whose larvæ feed upon wheat, rice, and other grains. (b) A very small, reddish brown, oval beetle (Anobium paniceum) whose larvæ eat the interior of grains of wheat. -- Wheat duck (Zoöl.), the American widgeon. [Western U. S.] -- Wheat fly. (Zoöl.) Same as Wheat midge, below. -- Wheat grass (Bot.), a kind of grass (Agropyrum caninum) somewhat resembling wheat. It grows in the northern parts of Europe and America. -- Wheat jointworm. (Zoöl.) See Jointworm. -- Wheat louse (Zoöl.), any wheat aphid. -- Wheat maggot (Zoöl.), the larva of a wheat midge. -- Wheat midge. (Zoöl.) (a) A small two-winged fly (Diplosis tritici) which is very destructive to growing wheat, both in Europe and America. The female lays her eggs in the flowers of wheat, and the larvæ suck the juice of the young kernels and when full grown change to pupæ in the earth. (b) The Hessian fly. See under Hessian. -- Wheat moth (Zoöl.), any moth whose larvæ devour the grains of wheat, chiefly after it is harvested; a grain moth. See Angoumois Moth, also Grain moth, under Grain. -- Wheat thief (Bot.), gromwell; -- so called because it is a troublesome weed in wheat fields. See Gromwell. -- Wheat thrips (Zoöl.), a small brown thrips (Thrips cerealium) which is very injurious to the grains of growing wheat. -- Wheat weevil. (Zoöl.) (a) The grain weevil. (b) The rice weevil when found in wheat. WHEATBIRD Wheat"bird`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A bird that feeds on wheat, especially the chaffinch. WHEATEAR Wheat"ear`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A small European singing bird (Saxicola oenanthe). The male is white beneath, bluish gray above, with black wings and a black stripe through each eye. The tail is black at the tip and in the middle, but white at the base and on each side. Called also checkbird, chickell, dykehopper, fallow chat, fallow finch, stonechat, and whitetail. WHEATEN Wheat"en, a. Etym: [AS. hwæten.] Defn: Made of wheat; as, wheaten bread. Cowper. WHEAT RUST Wheat rust. Defn: A disease of wheat and other grasses caused by the rust fungus Puccinia graminis; also, the fungus itself. WHEAT SAWFLY Wheat sawfly. (a) A small European sawfly (Cephus pygmæus) whose larva does great injury to wheat by boring in the stalks. (b) Any of several small American sawflies of the genus Dolerus, as D. sericeus and D. arvensis, whose larvæ injure the stems or heads of wheat. (c) Pachynematus extensicornis, whose larvæ feed chiefly on the blades of wheat; -- called also grass sawfly. WHEATSEL BIRD Wheat"sel bird`. (Zoöl.) Defn: The male of the chaffinch. [Prov. Eng.] WHEATSTONE'S BRIDGE Wheat"stone's bridge`. (Elec.) Defn: See under Bridge. WHEATSTONE'S RODS Wheat"stone's rods. (Acoustics) Defn: Flexible rods the period of vibration of which in two planes at right angles are in some exact ratio to one another. When one end of such a rod is fixed, the free end describes in vibrating the corresponding Lissajous figure. So called because devised by Sir Charles Wheatstone. WHEATWORM Wheat"worm`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A small nematode worm (Anguillula tritici) which attacks the grains of wheat in the ear. It is found in wheat affected with smut, each of the diseased grains containing a large number of the minute young of the worm. WHEDER Whed"er pron. & conj. Defn: Whether. [Obs.] WHEEDLE Whee"dle, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wheedled; p. pr. & vb. n. Wheedling.] Etym: [Cf. G. wedeln to wag with the tail, as a dog, wedel a fan, tail, brush, OHG. wadal; akin to G. wehen to blow, and E. wind, n.] 1. To entice by soft words; to cajole; to flatter; to coax. The unlucky art of wheedling fools. Dryden. And wheedle a world that loves him not. Tennyson. 2. To grain, or get away, by flattery. A deed of settlement of the best part of her estate, which I wheedled out of her. Congreve. WHEEDLE Whee"dle, v. i. Defn: To flatter; to coax; to cajole. WHEEL Wheel, n. Etym: [OE. wheel, hweol, AS. hweól, hweogul, hweowol; akin to D. wiel, Icel. hvel, Gr. cakra; cf. Icel. hjol, Dan. hiul, Sw. hjul. *218 Cf. Cycle, Cyclopedia.] 1. A circular frame turning about an axis; a rotating disk, whether solid, or a frame composed of an outer rim, spokes or radii, and a central hub or nave, in which is inserted the axle, -- used for supporting and conveying vehicles, in machinery, and for various purposes; as, the wheel of a wagon, of a locomotive, of a mill, of a watch, etc. The gasping charioteer beneath the wheel Of his own car. Dryden. 2. Any instrument having the form of, or chiefly consisting of, a wheel. Specifically: -- (a) A spinning wheel. See under Spinning. (b) An instrument of torture formerly used. His examination is like that which is made by the rack and wheel. Addison. Note: This mode of torture is said to have been first employed in Germany, in the fourteenth century. The criminal was laid on a cart wheel with his legs and arms extended, and his limbs in that posture were fractured with an iron bar. In France, where its use was restricted to the most atrocious crimes, the criminal was first laid on a frame of wood in the form of a St. Andrew's cross, with grooves cut transversely in it above and below the knees and elbows, and the executioner struck eight blows with an iron bar, so as to break the limbs in those places, sometimes finishing by two or three blows on the chest or stomach, which usually put an end to the life of the criminal, and were hence called coups-de-grace -- blows of mercy. The criminal was then unbound, and laid on a small wheel, with his face upward, and his arms and legs doubled under him, there to expire, if he had survived the previous treatment. Brande. (c) (Naut.) A circular frame having handles on the periphery, and an axle which is so connected with the tiller as to form a means of controlling the rudder for the purpose of steering. (d) (Pottery) A potter's wheel. See under Potter. Then I went down to the potter's house, and, behold, he wrought a work on the wheels. Jer. xviii. 3. Turn, turn, my wheel! This earthen jar A touch can make, a touch can mar. Longfellow. (e) (Pyrotechny) Defn: A firework which, while burning, is caused to revolve on an axis by the reaction of the escaping gases. (f) (Poetry) The burden or refrain of a song. Note: "This meaning has a low degree of authority, but is supposed from the context in the few cases where the word is found." Nares. You must sing a-down a-down, An you call him a-down-a. O, how the wheel becomes it! Shak. 3. A bicycle or a tricycle; a velocipede. 4. A rolling or revolving body; anything of a circular form; a disk; an orb. Milton. 5. A turn revolution; rotation; compass. According to the common vicissitude and wheel of things, the proud and the insolent, after long trampling upon others, come at length to be trampled upon themselves. South. [He] throws his steep flight in many an aëry wheel. Milton. A wheel within a wheel, or Wheels within wheels, a complication of circumstances, motives, etc. -- Balance wheel. See in the Vocab. -- Bevel wheel, Brake wheel, Cam wheel, Fifth wheel, Overshot wheel, Spinning wheel, etc. See under Bevel, Brake, etc. -- Core wheel. (Mach.) (a) A mortise gear. (b) A wheel having a rim perforated to receive wooden cogs; the skeleton of a mortise gear. -- Measuring wheel, an odometer, or perambulator. -- Wheel and axle (Mech.), one of the elementary machines or mechanical powers, consisting of a wheel fixed to an axle, and used for raising great weights, by applying the power to the circumference of the wheel, and attaching the weight, by a rope or chain, to that of the axle. Called also axis in peritrochio, and perpetual lever, -- the principle of equilibrium involved being the same as in the lever, while its action is continuous. See Mechanical powers, under Mechanical. -- Wheel animal, or Wheel animalcule (Zoöl.), any one of numerous species of rotifers having a ciliated disk at the anterior end. -- Wheel barometer. (Physics) See under Barometer. -- Wheel boat, a boat with wheels, to be used either on water or upon inclined planes or railways. -- Wheel bug (Zoöl.), a large North American hemipterous insect (Prionidus cristatus) which sucks the blood of other insects. So named from the curious shape of the prothorax. -- Wheel carriage, a carriage moving on wheels. -- Wheel chains, or Wheel ropes (Naut.), the chains or ropes connecting the wheel and rudder. -- Wheel cutter, a machine for shaping the cogs of gear wheels; a gear cutter. -- Wheel horse, one of the horses nearest to the wheels, as opposed to a leader, or forward horse; -- called also wheeler. -- Wheel lathe, a lathe for turning railway-car wheels. -- Wheel lock. (a) A letter lock. See under Letter. (b) A kind of gunlock in which sparks were struck from a flint, or piece of iron pyrites, by a revolving wheel. (c) A kind of brake a carriage. -- Wheel ore (Min.), a variety of bournonite so named from the shape of its twin crystals. See Bournonite. -- Wheel pit (Steam Engine), a pit in the ground, in which the lower part of the fly wheel runs. -- Wheel plow, or Wheel plough, a plow having one or two wheels attached, to render it more steady, and to regulate the depth of the furrow. -- Wheel press, a press by which railway-car wheels are forced on, or off, their axles. -- Wheel race, the place in which a water wheel is set. -- Wheel rope (Naut.), a tiller rope. See under Tiller. -- Wheel stitch (Needlework), a stitch resembling a spider's web, worked into the material, and not over an open space. Caulfeild & S. (Dict. of Needlework). -- Wheel tree (Bot.), a tree (Aspidosperma excelsum) of Guiana, which has a trunk so curiously fluted that a transverse section resembles the hub and spokes of a coarsely made wheel. See Paddlewood. -- Wheel urchin (Zoöl.), any sea urchin of the genus Rotula having a round, flat shell. -- Wheel window (Arch.), a circular window having radiating mullions arranged like the spokes of a wheel. Cf. Rose window, under Rose. WHEEL Wheel, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wheeled; p. pr. & vb. n. Wheeling.] 1. To convey on wheels, or in a wheeled vehicle; as, to wheel a load of hay or wood. 2. To put into a rotatory motion; to cause to turn or revolve; to cause to gyrate; to make or perform in a circle. "The beetle wheels her droning flight." Gray. Now heaven, in all her glory, shone, and rolled Her motions, as the great first mover's hand First wheeled their course. Milton. WHEEL Wheel, v. i. 1. To turn on an axis, or as on an axis; to revolve; to more about; to rotate; to gyrate. The moon carried about the earth always shows the same face to us, not once wheeling upon her own center. Bentley. 2. To change direction, as if revolving upon an axis or pivot; to turn; as, the troops wheeled to the right. Being able to advance no further, they are in a fair way to wheel about to the other extreme. South. 3. To go round in a circuit; to fetch a compass. Then wheeling down the steep of heaven he flies. Pope. 4. To roll forward. Thunder mixed with hail, Hail mixed with fire, must rend the Egyptian sky, And wheel on the earth, devouring where it rolls. Milton. WHEELBAND Wheel"band`, n. Defn: The tire of a wheel. WHEELBARROW Wheel"bar`row, n. Defn: A light vehicle for conveying small loads. It has two handles and one wheel, and is rolled by a single person. WHEEL BASE Wheel base. Defn: The figure inclosed by lines through the points contact of the wheels of a vehicle, etc., with the surface or rails on which they run; more esp., the length of this figure between the points of contact of the two extreme wheels on either side. WHEELBIRD Wheel"bird`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The European goatsucker. [Prov. Eng.] WHEELED Wheeled, a. Defn: Having wheels; -- used chiefly in composition; as, a four- wheeled carriage. WHEELER Wheel"er, n. 1. One who wheels, or turns. 2. A maker of wheels; a wheelwright. [Obs.] 3. A wheel horse. See under Wheel. 4. (Naut.) Defn: A steam vessel propelled by a paddle wheel or by paddle wheels; -- used chiefly in the terms side-wheeler and stern-wheeler. 5. A worker on sewed muslin. [Eng.] 6. (Zoöl.) Defn: The European goatsucker. [Prov. Eng.] WHEELHOUSE Wheel"house`, n. (Naut.) (a) A small house on or above a vessel's deck, containing the steering wheel. (b) A paddle box. See under Paddle. WHEELING Wheel"ing, n. 1. The act of conveying anything, or traveling, on wheels, or in a wheeled vehicle. 2. The act or practice of using a cycle; cycling. 3. Condition of a road or roads, which admits of passing on wheels; as, it is good wheeling, or bad wheeling. 4. A turning, or circular movement. WHEELMAN Wheel"man, n.; pl. Wheelmen (. Defn: One who rides a bicycle or tricycle; a cycler, or cyclist. WHEEL OF FORTUNE Wheel of fortune. Defn: A gambling or lottery device consisting of a wheel which is spun horizontally, articles or sums to which certain marks on its circumference point when it stops being distributed according to varying rules. WHEEL-SHAPED Wheel"-shaped`, a. 1. Shaped like a wheel. 2. (Bot.) Defn: Expanding into a flat, circular border at top, with scarcely any tube; as, a wheel-shaped corolla. WHEELSWARF Wheel"swarf`, n. Defn: See Swarf. WHEELWORK Wheel"work`, n. (Mach.) Defn: A combination of wheels, and their connection, in a machine or mechanism. WHEEL-WORN Wheel"-worn`, a. Defn: Worn by the action of wheels; as, a wheel-worn road. WHEELWRIGHT Wheel"wright`, n. Defn: A man whose occupation is to make or repair wheels and wheeled vehicles, as carts, wagons, and the like. WHEELY Wheel"y, a. Defn: Circular; suitable to rotation. WHEEN Wheen, n. Etym: [Cf. AS. hw, hw, a little, somewhat, hw little, few.] Defn: A quantity; a goodly number. [Scot.] "A wheen other dogs." Sir W. Scott. WHEEZE Wheeze, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Wheezed; p. pr. & vb. n. Wheezing.] Etym: [OE. whesen, AS. hwsan (cf. Icel. hvæsa to hiss, Sw. hväsa, Dan. hvæse); akin to AS. hwsta a cough, D. hoest, G. husten, OHG. huosto, Icel. h, Lith. kosti to cough, Skr. k. sq. root43. Cf. Husky hoarse.] Defn: To breathe hard, and with an audible piping or whistling sound, as persons affected with asthma. "Wheezing lungs." Shak. WHEEZE Wheeze, n. 1. A piping or whistling sound caused by difficult respiration. 2. (Phon.) Defn: An ordinary whisper exaggerated so as to produce the hoarse sound known as the "stage whisper." It is a forcible whisper with some admixture of tone. WHEEZY Wheez"y, a. Defn: Breathing with difficulty and with a wheeze; wheezing. Used also figuratively. WHEFT Wheft, n. (Naut.) Defn: See Waft, n., 4. WHELK Whelk, n. Etym: [OE. welk, wilk, AS. weoloc, weloc, wiloc. Cf. Whilk, and Wilk.] (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one numerous species of large marine gastropods belonging to Buccinum and allied genera; especially, Buccinum undatum, common on the coasts both of Europe and North America, and much used as food in Europe. Whelk tingle, a dog whelk. See under Dog. WHELK Whelk, n. Etym: [OE. whelke, dim. of whele. See Wheal a pustule.] 1. A papule; a pustule; acne. "His whelks white." Chaucer. 2. A stripe or mark; a ridge; a wale. Chin whelk (Med.), sycosis. -- Rosy whelk (Med.), grog blossom. WHELKED Whelked, a. Defn: Having whelks; whelky; as, whelked horns. Shak. WHELKY Whelk"y, a. 1. Having whelks, ridges, or protuberances; hence, streaked; striated. 2. Shelly. "Whelky pearls." Spenser. WHELM Whelm, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Whelmed; p. pr. & vb. n. Whelming.] Etym: [OE. whelmen to turn over, akin to OE. whelven, AS. whelfan, hwylfan, in , , to overwhelm, cover over; akin to OS. bihwelbian, D. welven to arch, G. wölben, OHG. welben, Icel. hvelfa to overturn; cf. Gr. 1. To cover with water or other fluid; to cover by immersion in something that envelops on all sides; to overwhelm; to ingulf. She is my prize, or ocean whelm them all! Shak. The whelming billow and the faithless oar. Gay. 2. Fig.: To cover completely, as if with water; to immerse; to overcome; as, to whelm one in sorrows. "The whelming weight of crime." J. H. Newman. 3. To throw (something) over a thing so as to cover it. [Obs.] Mortimer. WHELP Whelp, n. Etym: [AS. hwelp; akin to D. welp, G. & OHG. welf, Icel. hvelpr, Dan. hvalp, Sw. valp.] 1. One of the young of a dog or a beast of prey; a puppy; a cub; as, a lion's whelps. "A bear robbed of her whelps." 2 Sam. xvii. 8. 2. A child; a youth; -- jocosely or in contempt. That awkward whelp with his money bags would have made his entrance. Addison. 3. (Naut.) Defn: One of the longitudinal ribs or ridges on the barrel of a capstan or a windless; -- usually in the plural; as, the whelps of a windlass. 4. One of the teeth of a sprocket wheel. WHELP Whelp, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Whelped; p. pr. & vb. n. Whelping.] Defn: To bring forth young; -- said of the female of the dog and some beasts of prey. WHELP Whelp, v. t. Defn: To bring forth, as cubs or young; to give birth to. Unless she had whelped it herself, she could not have loved a thing better. B. Jonson. Did thy foul fancy whelp so black a scheme Young. WHEN When, adv. Etym: [OE. when, whan, whenne, whanne, AS. hwænne, hwanne, hwonne; akin to OS. hwan, OD. wan, OHG. wanne, G. wann when, wenn if, when, Goth. hwan when, and to E. who. Who.] 1. At what time; -- used interrogatively. When shall these things be Matt. xxiv. 3. Note: See the Note under What, pron., 1. 2. At what time; at, during, or after the time that; at or just after, the moment that; -- used relatively. Kings may Take their advantage when and how they list. Daniel. Book lore ne'er served, when trial came, Nor gifts, when faith was dead. J. H. Newman. 3. While; whereas; although; -- used in the manner of a conjunction to introduce a dependent adverbial sentence or clause, having a causal, conditional, or adversative relation to the principal proposition; as, he chose to turn highwayman when he might have continued an honest man; he removed the tree when it was the best in the grounds. 4. Which time; then; -- used elliptically as a noun. I was adopted heir by his consent; Since when, his oath is broke. Shak. Note: When was formerly used as an exclamation of surprise or impatience, like what! Come hither; mend my ruff: Here, when! thou art such a tedious lady! J. Webster. When as, When that, at the time that; when. [Obs.] When as sacred light began to dawn. Milton. When that mine eye is famished for a look. Shak. WHENAS When"as`, conj. Defn: Whereas; while [Obs.] Whenas, if they would inquire into themselves, they would find no such matter. Barrow. WHENCE Whence, adv. Etym: [OE. whennes, whens (with adverbial s, properly a genitive ending; -- see -wards), also whenne, whanene, AS. hwanan, hwanon, hwonan, hwanone; akin to D. when. See When, and cf. Hence, Thence.] 1. From what place; hence, from what or which source, origin, antecedent, premise, or the like; how; -- used interrogatively. Whence hath this man this wisdom Matt. xiii. 54. Whence and what art thou Milton. 2. From what or which place, source, material, cause, etc.; the place, source, etc., from which; -- used relatively. Grateful to acknowledge whence his good Descends. Milton. Note: All the words of this class, whence, where, whither, whereabouts, etc., are occasionally used as pronouns by a harsh construction. O, how unlike the place from whence they fell Milton. Note: From whence, though a pleonasm, is fully authorized by the use of good writers. From whence come wars and fightings among you James iv. 1. Of whence, also a pleonasm, has become obsolete. WHENCEEVER Whence*ev"er, adv. & conj. Defn: Whencesoever. [R.] WHENCEFORTH Whence`forth", adv. Defn: From, or forth from, what or which place; whence. [Obs.] Spenser. WHENCESOEVER Whence`so*ev"er, adv. & conj. Defn: From what place soever; from what cause or source soever. Any idea, whencesoever we have it. Locke. WHENE'ER When*e'er, adv. & conj. Defn: Whenever. WHENEVER When*ev"er, adv. & conj. Defn: At whatever time. "Whenever that shall be." Milton. WHENNES When"nes, adv. Defn: Whence. [Obs.] Chaucer. WHENSOEVER When`so*ev"er, adv. & conj. Defn: At what time soever; at whatever time; whenever. Mark xiv. 7. WHER; WHERE Wher, Where (, pron. & conj. Etym: [See Whether.] Defn: Whether. [Sometimes written whe'r.] [Obs.] Piers Plowman. Men must enquire (this is mine assent), Wher she be wise or sober or dronkelewe. Chaucer. WHERE Where, adv. Etym: [OE. wher, whar, AS. hw; akin to D. waar, OS. hw, OHG. hwar, war, wa, G. wo, Icel. and Sw. hvar, Dan. hvor, Goth. hwar, and E. who; cf. Skr. karhi when. sq. root182. See Who, and cf. There.] 1. At or in what place; hence, in what situation, position, or circumstances; -- used interrogatively. God called unto Adam, . . . Where art thou Gen. iii. 9. Note: See the Note under What, pron., 1. 2. At or in which place; at the place in which; hence, in the case or instance in which; -- used relatively. She visited that place where first she was so happy. Sir P. Sidney. Where I thought the remnant of mine age Should have been cherished by her childlike duty. Shak. Where one on his side fights, thousands will fly. Shak. But where he rode one mile, the dwarf ran four. Sir W. Scott. 3. To what or which place; hence, to what goal, result, or issue; whither; -- used interrogatively and relatively; as, where are you going But where does this tend Goldsmith. Lodged in sunny cleft, Where the gold breezes come not. Bryant. Note: Where is often used pronominally with or without a preposition, in elliptical sentences for a place in which, the place in which, or what place. The star . . . stood over where the young child was. Matt. ii. 9. The Son of man hath not where to lay his head. Matt. viii. 20. Within about twenty paces of where we were. Goldsmith. Where did the minstrels come from Dickens. Note: Where is much used in composition with preposition, and then is equivalent to a pronoun. Cf. Whereat, Whereby, Wherefore, Wherein, etc. Where away (Naut.), in what direction; as, where away is the land Syn. -- See Whither. WHERE Where, conj. Defn: Whereas. And flight and die is death destroying death; Where fearing dying pays death servile breath. Shak. WHERE Where, n. Defn: Place; situation. [Obs. or Colloq.] Finding the nymph asleep in secret where. Spenser. WHEREABOUT; WHEREABOUTS Where"a*bout`, Where"a*bouts`, adv. 1. About where; near what or which place; -- used interrogatively and relatively; as, whereabouts did you meet him Note: In this sense, whereabouts is the common form. 2. Concerning which; about which. "The object whereabout they are conversant." Hooker. WHEREABOUT; WHEREABOUTS Where"a*bout`, Where"a*bouts`, n. Defn: The place where a person or thing is; as, they did not know his whereabouts. Shak. A puzzling notice of thy whereabout. Wordsworth. WHEREAS Where*as", adv. Defn: At which place; where. [Obs.] Chaucer. At last they came whereas that lady bode. Spenser. WHEREAS Where*as", conj. 1. Considering that; it being the case that; since; -- used to introduce a preamble which is the basis of declarations, affirmations, commands, requests, or like, that follow. 2. When in fact; while on the contrary; the case being in truth that; although; -- implying opposition to something that precedes; or implying recognition of facts, sometimes followed by a different statement, and sometimes by inferences or something consequent. Are not those found to be the greatest zealots who are most notoriously ignorant whereas true zeal should always begin with true knowledge. Sprat. WHEREAT Where*at", adv. 1. At which; upon which; whereupon; -- used relatively. They vote; whereat his speech he thus renews. Milton. Whereat he was no less angry and ashamed than desirous to obey Zelmane. Sir P. Sidney. 2. At what; -- used interrogatively; as, whereat are you offended WHEREBY Where*by", adv. 1. By which; -- used relatively. "You take my life when you take the means whereby I life." Shak. 2. By what; how; -- used interrogatively. Whereby shall I know this Luke i. 18. WHERE'ER Wher*e'er", adv. Defn: Wherever; -- a contracted and poetical form. Cowper. WHEREFORE Where"fore, adv.& conj. Etym: [Where + for.] 1. For which reason; so; -- used relatively. Wherefore by their fruits ye shall know them. Matt. vii. 20. 2. For what reason; why; -- used interrogatively. But wherefore that I tell my tale. Chaucer. Wherefore didst thou doubt Matt. xiv. 31. WHEREFORE Where"fore, n. Defn: the reason why. [Colloq.] WHEREFORM Where*form", adv. Etym: [Where + from.] Defn: From which; from which or what place. Tennyson. WHEREIN Where*in", adv. 1. In which; in which place, thing, time, respect, or the like; -- used relatively. Her clothes wherein she was clad. Chaucer. There are times wherein a man ought to be cautious as well as innocent. Swift. 2. In what; -- used interrogatively. Yet ye say, Wherein have we wearied him! Mal. ii. 17. WHEREINTO Where`in*to", adv. 1. Into which; -- used relatively. Where is that palace whereinto foul things Sometimes intrude not Shak. The brook, whereinto he loved to look. Emerson. 2. Into what; -- used interrogatively. WHERENESS Where"ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of having a place; ubiety; situation; position. [R.] A point hath no dimensions, but only a whereness, and is next to nothing. Grew. WHEREOF Where*of", adv. 1. Of which; of whom; formerly, also, with which; -- used relatively. I do not find the certain numbers whereof their armies did consist. Sir J. Davies. Let it work like Borgias' wine, Whereof his sire, the pope, was poisoned. Marlowe. Edward's seven sons, whereof thyself art one. Shak. 2. Of what; -- used interrogatively. Whereof was the house built Johnson. WHEREON Where*on", adv. 1. On which; -- used relatively; as, the earth whereon we live. O fair foundation laid whereon to build. Milton. 2. On what; -- used interrogatively; as, whereon do we stand WHEREOUT Where*out", adv. Defn: Out of which. [R.] The cleft whereout the lightning breaketh. Holland. WHERESO Where"so, adv. Defn: Wheresoever. [Obs.] WHERESOE'ER Where`so*e'er", adv. Defn: Wheresoever. [Poetic] "Wheresoe'er they rove." Milton. WHERESOEVER Where`so*ev"er, adv. Defn: In what place soever; in whatever place; wherever. WHERETHROUGH Where*through", adv. Defn: Through which. [R.] "Wherethrough that I may know." Chaucer. Windows . . . wherethrough the sun Delights to peep, to gaze therein on thee. Shak. WHERETO Where*to", adv. 1. To which; -- used relatively. "Whereto we have already attained." Phil. iii. 16. Whereto all bonds do tie me day by day. Shak. 2. To what; to what end; -- used interrogatively. WHEREUNTO Where`un*to", adv. Defn: Same as Whereto. WHEREUPON Where`up*on", adv. Defn: Upon which; in consequence of which; after which. The townsmen mutinied and sent to Essex; whereupon he came thither. Clarendon. WHEREVER Wher*ev"er, adv. Defn: At or in whatever place; wheresoever. He can not but love virtue wherever it is. Atterbury. WHEREWITH Where*with", adv. 1. With which; -- used relatively. The love wherewith thou hast loved me. John xvii. 26. 2. With what; -- used interrogatively. Wherewith shall I save Israel Judg. vi. 15. WHEREWITH Where*with", n. Defn: The necessary means or instrument. So shall I have wherewith to answer him. Ps. cxix. 42. The wherewith to meet excessive loss by radiation. H. Spencer. WHEREWITHAL Where`with*al", adv. & n. Defn: Wherewith. "Wherewithal shall we be clothed" Matt. vi. 31. Wherewithal shall a young man cleanse his way Ps. cxix. 9. [The builders of Babel], still with vain design, New Babels, had they wherewithal, would build. Milton. WHERRET Wher"ret, v. t. Etym: [From Whir.] 1. To hurry; to trouble; to tease. [Obs.] Bickerstaff. 2. To box (one) on the ear; to strike or box. (the ear); as, to wherret a child. [Obs.] WHERRET Wher"ret, n. Defn: A box on the ear. [Obs.] Beau. & Fl. WHERRY Wher"ry, n.; pl. Wherries. Etym: [Cf. Icel. hverfr shifty, crank, hverfa to turn, E. whirl, wharf.] (Naut.) (a) A passenger barge or lighter plying on rivers; also, a kind of light, half-decked vessel used in fishing. [Eng.] (b) A long, narrow, light boat, sharp at both ends, for fast rowing or sailing; esp., a racing boat rowed by one person with sculls. WHERRY Wher"ry, n. Etym: [Cf. W. chwerw bitter.] Defn: A liquor made from the pulp of crab apples after the verjuice is expressed; -- sometimes called crab wherry. [Prov. Eng.] Halliwell. WHERSO Wher"so, adv. Defn: Wheresoever. [Obs.] Chaucer. WHET Whet, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Whetted; p. pr. & vb. n. Whetting.] Etym: [AS. hwettan; akin to D. wetten, G. wetzen, OHG. wezzen, Icel. hvetja, Sw. vättja, and AS. hwæt vigorous, brave, OS. hwat, OHG. waz, was, sharp, Icel. hvatr, bold, active, Sw. hvass sharp, Dan. hvas, Goth. hwassaba sharply, and probably to Skr. cud to impel, urge on.] 1. To rub or on with some substance, as a piece of stone, for the purpose of sharpening; to sharpen by attrition; as, to whet a knife. The mower whets his scythe. Milton. Here roams the wolf, the eagle whets his beak. Byron. 2. To make sharp, keen, or eager; to excite; to stimulate; as, to whet the appetite or the courage. Since Cassius first did whet me against Cæsar, I have not slept. Shak. To whet on, To whet forward, to urge on or forward; to instigate. Shak. WHET Whet, n. 1. The act of whetting. 2. That which whets or sharpens; esp., an appetizer. "Sips, drams, and whets." Spectator. Whet slate (Min.), a variety of slate used for sharpening cutting instruments; novaculite; -- called also whetstone slate, and oilstone. WHETHER Wheth"er, pron. Etym: [OE. whether, AS. hwæ; akin to OS. hwe, OFries. hweder, OHG. hwedar, wedar, G. weder, conj., neither, Icel. hvarr whether, Goth. hwa, Lith. katras, L. uter, Gr. katara, from the interrogatively pronoun, in AS. hwa who. Who, and cf. Either, Neither, Or, conj.] Defn: Which (of two); which one (of two); -- used interrogatively and relatively. [Archaic] Now choose yourself whether that you liketh. Chaucer. One day in doubt I cast for to compare Whether in beauties' glory did exceed. Spenser. Whether of them twain did the will of his father Matt. xxi. 31. WHETHER Wheth"er, conj. Defn: In case; if; -- used to introduce the first or two or more alternative clauses, the other or others being connected by or, or by or whether. When the second of two alternatives is the simple negative of the first it is sometimes only indicated by the particle not or no after the correlative, and sometimes it is omitted entirely as being distinctly implied in the whether of the first. And now who knows But you, Lorenzo, whether I am yours Shak. You have said; but whether wisely or no, let the forest judge. Shak. For whether we live, we live unto the Lord; and whether we die, we die unto the Lord; whether we live therefore, or die, we are the Lord's. Rom. xiv. 8. But whether thus these things, or whether not; Whether the sun, predominant in heaven, Rise on the earth, or earth rise on the sun, . . . Solicit not thy thoughts with matters hid. Milton. Whether or no, in either case; in any case; as, I will go whether or no. -- Whether that, whether. Shak. WHETHERING Wheth"er*ing, n. Defn: The retention of the afterbirth in cows. Gardner. WHETILE Whet"ile, n. Etym: [Cf. Whitile.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The green woodpecker, or yaffle. See Yaffle. [Prov. Eng.] WHETSTONE Whet"stone`, n. Etym: [AS. hwetstan.] Defn: A piece of stone, natural or artificial, used for whetting, or sharpening, edge tools. The dullness of the fools is the whetstone of the wits. Shak. Diligence is to the understanding as the whetstone to the razor. South. Note: Some whetstones are used dry, others are moistened with water, or lubricated with oil. To give the whetstone, to give a premium for extravagance in falsehood. [Obs.] WHETTER Whet"ter, n. 1. One who, or that which, whets, sharpens, or stimulates. 2. A tippler; one who drinks whets. [Obs.] Steele. WHETTLEBONES Whet"tle*bones, n. pl. Defn: The vertebræ of the back. [Prov. Eng.] Dunglison. WHEW Whew (hwu), n. & interj. Defn: A sound like a half-formed whistle, expressing astonishment, scorn, or dislike. Whew duck, the European widgeon. [Prov. Eng.] WHEW Whew, v. i. Defn: To whistle with a shrill pipe, like a plover. [Prov. Eng. & Scot.] WHEWELLITE Whew"ell*ite, n. Etym: [So named after Prof. Whewell of Cambridge, England.] (Min.) Defn: Calcium oxalate, occurring in colorless or white monoclinic crystals. WHEWER Whew"er, n. Etym: [Cf. W. chwiwell a widgeon, chwiws widgeons, waterfowls; or cf. E. whew, v. i.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The European widgeon. [Prov. Eng.] WHEY Whey, n. Etym: [AS. hwæg; cf. D. wei, hui, Fries. weye, LG. wey, waje. ] Defn: The serum, or watery part, of milk, separated from the more thick or coagulable part, esp. in the process of making cheese. In this process, the thick part is called curd, and the thin part whey. WHEY CURE Whey cure. Defn: Treatment with whey as a drink and in baths. WHEYEY Whey"ey, a. Defn: Of the nature of, or containing, whey; resembling whey; wheyish. Bacon. WHEYFACE Whey"face`, n. Defn: One who is pale, as from fear. WHEY-FACED Whey"-faced`, a. Defn: Having a pale or white face, as from fright. "Whey-faced cavaliers." Aytoun. WHEYISH Whey"ish, a. Defn: Somewhat like whey; wheyey. J. Philips. -- Whey"ish*ness, n. WHICH Which, pron. Etym: [OE. which, whilk, AS. hwilc, hwylc, hwelc, from the root of hwa who + lic body; hence properly, of what sort or kind; akin to OS. hwilik which, OFries. hwelik, D. welk, G. welch, OHG. welih, hwelih, Icel. hvilikr, Dan. & Sw. hvilken, Goth. hwileiks, hwleiks; cf. L. qualis. Who, and Like, a., and cf. Such.] 1. Of what sort or kind; what; what a; who. [Obs.] And which they weren and of what degree. Chaucer. 2. A interrogative pronoun, used both substantively and adjectively, and in direct and indirect questions, to ask for, or refer to, an individual person or thing among several of a class; as, which man is it which woman was it which is the house he asked which route he should take; which is best, to live or to die See the Note under What, pron., 1. Which of you convinceth me of sin John viii. 46. 3. A relative pronoun, used esp. in referring to an antecedent noun or clause, but sometimes with reference to what is specified or implied in a sentence, or to a following noun or clause (generally involving a reference, however, to something which has preceded). It is used in all numbers and genders, and was formerly used of persons. And when thou fail'st -- as God forbid the hour! --Must Edward fall, which peril heaven forfend! Shak. God . . . rested on the seventh day from all his work which he had made. Gen. ii. 2. Our Father, which art in heaven. Matt. vi. 9. The temple of God is holy, which temple ye are. 1 Cor. iii. 17. 4. A compound relative or indefinite pronoun, standing for any one which, whichever, that which, those which, the . . . which, and the like; as, take which you will. Note: The which was formerly often used for which. The expressions which that, which as, were also sometimes used by way of emphasis. Do not they blaspheme that worthy name by the which ye are called James ii. 7. Note: Which, referring to a series of preceding sentences, or members of a sentence, may have all joined to it adjectively. "All which, as a method of a proclamation, is very convenient." Carlyle. WHICHEVER; WHICHSOEVER Which*ev"er, Which`so*ev"er, pron. & a. Defn: Whether one or another; whether one or the other; which; that one (of two or more) which; as, whichever road you take, it will lead you to town. WHIDAH BIRD Whid"ah bird`, (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of several species of finchlike birds belonging to the genus Vidua, native of Asia and Africa. In the breeding season the male has very long, drooping tail feathers. Called also vida finch, whidah finch, whydah bird, whydah finch, widow bird, and widow finch. Note: Some of the species are often kept as cage birds, especially Vidua paradisea, which is dark brownish above, pale buff beneath, with a reddish collar around the neck. WHIDER Whid"er, adv. Defn: Whither. [Obs.] Chaucer. WHIFF Whiff, n. Etym: [OE. weffe vapor, whiff, probably of imitative origin; cf. Dan. vift a puff, gust, W. chwiff a whiff, puff.] 1. A sudden expulsion of air from the mouth; a quick puff or slight gust, as of air or smoke. But with the whiff and wind of his fell sword The unnerved father falls. Shak. The skipper, he blew a whiff from his pipe, And a scornful laugh laughed he. Longfellow. 2. A glimpse; a hasty view. [Prov. Eng.] 3. (Zoöl.) Defn: The marysole, or sail fluke. WHIFF Whiff, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Whiffed; p. pr. & vb. n. Whiffing.] 1. To throw out in whiffs; to consume in whiffs; to puff. 2. To carry or convey by a whiff, or as by a whiff; to puff or blow away. Old Empedocles, . . . who, when he leaped into Etna, having a dry, sear body, and light, the smoke took him, and whiffed him up into the moon. B. Jonson. WHIFF Whiff, v. i. Defn: To emit whiffs, as of smoke; to puff. WHIFFET Whif"fet, n. Defn: A little whiff or puff. WHIFFING Whiff"ing, n. 1. The act of one who, or that which, whiffs. 2. A mode of fishing with a hand line for pollack, mackerel, and the like. WHIFFLE Whif"fle, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Whiffled; p. pr. & vb. n. Whiffling.] Etym: [Freq. of whiff to puff, perhaps influenced by D. weifelen to waver.] 1. To waver, or shake, as if moved by gusts of wind; to shift, turn, or veer about. D 2. To change from one opinion or course to another; to use evasions; to prevaricate; to be fickle. A person of whiffing and unsteady turn of mind can not keep close to a point of controversy. I. Watts. WHIFFLE Whif"fle, v. t. 1. To disperse with, or as with, a whiff, or puff; to scatter. [Obs.] Dr. H. More. 2. To wave or shake quickly; to cause to whiffle. WHIFFLE Whif"fle, n. Defn: A fife or small flute. [Obs.] Douce. WHIFFLER Whif"fler, n. 1. One who whiffles, or frequently changes his opinion or course; one who uses shifts and evasions in argument; hence, a trifler. Every whiffler in a laced coat who frequents the chocolate house shall talk of the constitution. Swift. 2. One who plays on a whiffle; a fifer or piper. [Obs.] 3. An officer who went before procession to clear the way by blowing a horn, or otherwise; hence, any person who marched at the head of a procession; a harbinger. Which like a mighty whiffler 'fore the king, Seems to prepare his way. Shak. Note: "Whifflers, or fifers, generally went first in a procession, from which circumstance the name was transferred to other persons who succeeded to that office, and at length was given to those who went forward merely to clear the way for the procession. . . . In the city of London, young freemen, who march at the head of their proper companies on the Lord Mayor's day, sometimes with flags, were called whifflers, or bachelor whifflers, not because they cleared the way, but because they went first, as whifflers did." Nares. 4. (Zoöl) Defn: The golden-eye. [Local, U.S.] WHIFFLETREE Whif"fle*tree`, n. Defn: Same as Whippletree. WHIG Whig, n. Etym: [See Whey.] Defn: Acidulated whey, sometimes mixed with buttermilk and sweet herbs, used as a cooling beverage. [Obs. or Prov. Eng.] WHIG Whig, n. Etym: [Said to be from whiggam, a term used in Scotland in driving horses, whiggamore one who drives horses (a term applied to some western Scotchmen), contracted to whig. In 1648, a party of these people marched to Edinburgh to oppose the king and the duke of Hamilton (the Whiggamore raid), and hence the name of Whig was given to the party opposed to the court. Cf. Scot. whig to go quickly.] 1. (Eng. Politics) Defn: One of a political party which grew up in England in the seventeenth century, in the reigns of Charles I. and II., when great contests existed respecting the royal prerogatives and the rights of the people. Those who supported the king in his high claims were called Tories, and the advocates of popular rights, of parliamentary power over the crown, and of toleration to Dissenters, were, after 1679, called Whigs. The terms Liberal and Radical have now generally superseded Whig in English politics. See the note under Tory. 2. (Amer. Hist.) (a) A friend and supporter of the American Revolution; -- opposed to Tory, and Royalist. (b) One of the political party in the United States from about 1829 to 1856, opposed in politics to the Democratic party. WHIG Whig, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to the Whigs. WHIGGAMORE Whig"ga*more, n. Etym: [See Whig.] Defn: A Whig; -- a cant term applied in contempt to Scotch Presbyterians. [Scot.] Sir W. Scott. WHIGGARCHY Whig"gar*chy, n. Etym: [Whig + -archy.] Defn: Government by Whigs. [Cont] Swift. WHIGGERY Whig"ger*y, n. Defn: The principles or practices of the Whigs; Whiggism. WHIGGISH Whig"gish, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to Whigs; partaking of, or characterized by, the principles of Whigs. WHIGGISHLY Whig"gish*ly, adv. Defn: In a Whiggish manner. WHIGGISM Whig"gism, n. Defn: The principles of the Whigs. WHIGLING Whig"ling, n. Defn: A petty or inferior Whig; -- used in contempt. Spectator. WHILE While, n. Etym: [AS. hwil; akin to OS. hwil, hwila, OFries. hwile, D. wigl, G. weile, OHG. wila, hwila, hwil, Icel. hvila a bed, hvild rest, Sw. hvila, Dan. hvile, Goth. hweila a time, and probably to L. quietus quiet, and perhaps to Gr. Quiet, Whilom.] 1. Space of time, or continued duration, esp. when short; a time; as, one while we thought him innocent. "All this while." Shak. This mighty queen may no while endure. Chaucer. [Some guest that] hath outside his welcome while, And tells the jest without the smile. Coleridge. I will go forth and breathe the air a while. Longfellow. 2. That which requires time; labor; pains. [Obs.] Satan . . . cast him how he might quite her while. Chaucer. At whiles, at times; at intervals. And so on us at whiles it falls, to claim Powers that we dread. J. H. Newman. -- The while, The whiles, in or during the time that; meantime; while. Tennyson. -- Within a while, in a short time; soon. -- Worth while, worth the time which it requires; worth the time and pains; hence, worth the expense; as, it is not always worth while for a man to prosecute for small debts. WHILE While, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Whiled; p. pr. & vb. n. Whiling.] Defn: To cause to pass away pleasantly or without irksomeness or disgust; to spend or pass; -- usually followed by away. The lovely lady whiled the hours away. Longfellow. WHILE While, v. i. Defn: To loiter. [R.] Spectator. WHILE While, conj. 1. During the time that; as long as; whilst; at the same time that; as, while I write, you sleep. "While I have time and space." Chaucer. Use your memory; you will sensibly experience a gradual improvement, while you take care not to overload it. I. Watts. 2. Hence, under which circumstances; in which case; though; whereas. While as, While that, during or at the time that. [Obs.] WHILE While, prep. Defn: Until; till. [Obs. or Prov. Eng. & Scot.] I may be conveyed into your chamber; I'll lie under your bed while midnight. Beau. & Fl. WHILERE Whil`ere", adv. Etym: [While + ere] Defn: A little while ago; recently; just now; erewhile. [Obs.] Helpeth me now as I did you whilere. Chaucer. He who, with all heaven's heraldry, whilere Entered the world. Milton. WHILES Whiles, adv. Etym: [See While, n., and -wards.] 1. Meanwhile; meantime. [R.] The good knight whiles humming to himself the lay of some majored troubadour. Sir. W. Scott. 2. sometimes; at times. [Scot.] Sir W. Scott. The whiles. See under While, n. WHILES Whiles, conj. Defn: During the time that; while. [Archaic] Chaucer. Fuller. Agree with thine adversary quickly, whiles thou art in the way with him. Matt. v. 25. WHILK Whilk, n. Etym: [See Whelk a mollusk.] 1. (Zoöl.) Defn: A kind of mollusk, a whelk. [Prov. Eng.] 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: The scoter. [Prov. Eng.] WHILK Whilk, pron. Defn: Which. [Obs. or Scot.] Note: Whilk is sometimes used in Chaucer to represent the Northern dialect. WHILOM Whi"lom, adv. Etym: [AS. hwilum, properly, at times, dative pl. of hwil; akin to G. weiland formerly, OHG. hwilm, See While, n.] Defn: Formerly; once; of old; erewhile; at times. [Obs. or Poetic] Spenser. Whilom, as olde stories tellen us, There was a duke that highte Theseus. Chaucer. WHILST Whilst, adv. Etym: [From Whiles; cf. Amongst.] Defn: While. [Archaic] Whilst the emperor lay at Antioch. Gibbon. The whilst, in the meantime; while. [Archaic.] Shak. WHIM Whim, n. Etym: [Cf. Whimbrel.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The European widgeon. [Prov. Eng.] WHIM Whim, n. Etym: [Cf. Icel. hwima to wander with the eyes, vim giddiness, Norw. kvima to whisk or flutter about, to trifle, Dan. vimse to skip, whisk, jump from one thing to another, dial. Sw. hvimsa to be unsteady, dizzy, W. chwimio to move briskly.] 1. A sudden turn or start of the mind; a temporary eccentricity; a freak; a fancy; a capricious notion; a humor; a caprice. Let every man enjoy his whim. Churchill. 2. (Mining) Defn: A large capstan or vertical drum turned by horse power or steam power, for raising ore or water, etc., from mines, or for other purposes; -- called also whim gin, and whimsey. Whim gin (Mining), a whim. See Whim, 2. -- Whim shaft (Mining), a shaft through which ore, water, etc., is raised from a mine by means of a whim. Syn. -- Freak; caprice; whimsey; fancy. -- Whim, Freak, Caprice. Freak denotes an impulsive, inconsiderate change of mind, as by a child or a lunatic. Whim is a mental eccentricity due to peculiar processes or habits of thought. Caprice is closely allied in meaning to freak, but implies more definitely a quality of willfulness or wantonness. WHIM Whim, v. i. Defn: To be subject to, or indulge in, whims; to be whimsical, giddy, or freakish. [R.] Congreve. WHIMBREL Whim"brel, n. Etym: [Cf. Whimper.] (Zoöl) Defn: Any one of several species of small curlews, especially the European species (Numenius phæopus), called also Jack curlew, half curlew, stone curlew, and tang whaup. See Illustration in Appendix. Hudsonian or, Eskimo, whimbreal, the Hudsonian curlew. WHIMLING Whim"ling, n. Etym: [Whim + -ling.] Defn: One given to whims; hence, a weak, childish person; a child. Go, whimling, and fetch two or three grating loaves. Beau. & Fl. WHIMMY Whim"my, a. Defn: Full of whims; whimsical. The study of Rabbinical literature either finds a man whimmy or makes him so. Coleridge. WHIMPER Whim"per, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Whimpered; p. pr. & vb. n. Whimpering.] Etym: [Cf. Scot. whimmer, G. wimmern.] Defn: To cry with a low, whining, broken voice; to whine; to complain; as, a child whimpers. Was there ever yet preacher but there were gainsayers that spurned, that winced, that whimpered against him Latimer. WHIMPER Whim"per, v. t. Defn: To utter in alow, whining tone. WHIMPER Whim"per, n. Defn: A low, whining, broken cry; a low, whining sound, expressive of complaint or grief. WHIMPERER Whim"per*er, n. Defn: One who whimpers. WHIMPLE Whim"ple, v. t. Defn: See Wimple. WHIMPLE Whim"ple, v. i. Etym: [Cf. Whiffle.] Defn: To whiffle; to veer. WHIMSEY; WHIMSY Whim"sey, Whimsy, n.; pl. Whimseys or Whimsies. Etym: [See Whim.] 1. A whim; a freak; a capricious notion, a fanciful or odd conceit. "The whimsies of poets and painters." Ray. Men's folly, whimsies, and inconstancy. Swift. Mistaking the whimseys of a feverish brain for the calm revelation of truth. Bancroft. 2. (Mining) Defn: A whim. WHIMSEY Whim"sey, v. t. Defn: To fill with whimseys, or whims; to make fantastic; to craze. [R.] To have a man's brain whimsied with his wealth. J. Fletcher. WHIMSICAL Whim"si*cal, a. Etym: [From Whimsey.] 1. Full of, or characterized by, whims; actuated by a whim; having peculiar notions; queer; strange; freakish. "A whimsical insult." Macaulay. My neighbors call me whimsical. Addison. 2. Odd or fantastic in appearance; quaintly devised; fantastic. "A whimsical chair." Evelyn. Syn. -- Quaint; capricious; fanciful; fantastic. WHIMSICALITY Whim`si*cal"i*ty, n. Defn: The quality or state of being whimsical; whimsicalness. WHIMSICALLY Whim"si*cal*ly, adv. Defn: In a whimsical manner; freakishly. WHIMSICALNESS Whim"si*cal*ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being whimsical; freakishness; whimsical disposition. WHIMSY Whim"sy, n. Defn: A whimsey. WHIMWHAM Whim"wham, n. Etym: [Formed from whim by reduplication.] 1. A whimsical thing; an odd device; a trifle; a trinket; a gimcrack. [R.] They'll pull ye all to pieces for your whimwhams. Bear. & Fl. 2. A whim, or whimsey; a freak. WHIN Whin, n. Etym: [W. chwyn weeds, a single weed.] 1. (Bot.) (a) Gorse; furze. See Furze. Through the whins, and by the cairn. Burns. (b) Woad-waxed. Gray. 2. Same as Whinstone. [Prov. Eng.] Moor whin or Petty whin (Bot.), a low prickly shrub (Genista Anglica) common in Western Europe. -- Whin bruiser, a machine for cutting and bruising whin, or furze, to feed cattle on. -- Whin Sparrow (Zoöl.), the hedge sparrow. [Prov. Eng.] -- Whin Thrush (Zoöl.), the redwing. [Prov. Eng.] WHINBERRY Whin"ber*ry, n. (Bot.) Defn: The English bilberry; -- so called because it grows on moors among the whins, or furze. Dr. Prior. WHINCHAT Whin"chat`, n. Etym: [So called because it frequents whins.] (Zoöl.) Defn: A small warbler (Pratincola rubetra) common in Europe; -- called also whinchacker, whincheck, whin-clocharet. WHINE Whine, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Whined; p. pr. & vb. n. Whining.] Etym: [OE. whinen, AS. hwinan to make a whistling, whizzing sound; akin to Icel. hvina, Sw. hvina, Dan. hvine, and probably to G. wiehern to neigh, OHG. wihn, hweijn; perhaps of imitative origin. Cf. Whinny, v. i.] Defn: To utter a plaintive cry, as some animals; to mean with a childish noise; to complain, or to tell of sorrow, distress, or the like, in a plaintive, nasal tone; hence, to complain or to beg in a mean, unmanly way; to moan basely. "Whining plovers." Spenser. The hounds were . . . staying their coming, but with a whining accent, craving liberty. Sir P. Sidney. Dost thou come here to whine Shak. WHINE Whine, v. t. Defn: To utter or express plaintively, or in a mean, unmanly way; as, to whine out an excuse. WHINE Whine, n. Defn: A plaintive tone; the nasal, childish tone of mean complaint; mean or affected complaint. WHINER Whin"er, n. Defn: One who, or that which, whines. WHINGE Whinge, v. i. Defn: To whine. [Scot.] Burns. WHINGER Whing"er, n. Etym: [See Whinyard.] Defn: A kind of hanger or sword used as a knife at meals and as a weapon. [Scot. & Prov. Eng.] The chief acknowledged that he had corrected her with his whinger. Sir W. Scott. WHININGLY Whin"ing*ly, adv. Defn: In a whining manner; in a tone of mean complaint. WHINNER Whin"ner, v. i. Defn: To whinny. [Colloq.] WHINNY Whin"ny, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Whinnied; p. pr. & vb. n. Whinnying.] Etym: [From Whine] Defn: To utter the ordinary call or cry of a horse; to neigh. WHINNY Whin"ny, n.; pl. Whinnies (. Defn: The ordinary cry or call of a horse; a neigh. "The stately horse . . . stooped with a low whinny." Tennyson. WHINNY Whin"ny, a. Defn: Abounding in whin, gorse, or furze. A fine, large, whinny, . . . unimproved common. Sterne. WHINOCK Whin"ock, n. Etym: [Cf. Scot. whin, quhene, a few, AS. hw, hwne, a little, hwn little, few. Cf. Wheen.] Defn: The small pig of a litter. [Local, U. S.] WHINSTONE Whin"stone", n. Etym: [Whin + stone; cf. Scot. quhynstane.] Defn: A provincial name given in England to basaltic rocks, and applied by miners to other kind of dark-colored unstratified rocks which resist the point of the pick. -- for example, to masses of chert. Whin-dikes, and whin-sills, are names sometimes given to veins or beds of basalt. WHINYARD Whin"yard, n. Etym: [Cf. Prov. E. & Scot. whingar, whinger; perhaps from AS. winn contention, war + geard, gyrd, a staff, rod, yard; or cf. AS. hwinan to whistle, E. whine.] 1. A sword, or hanger. [Obs.] 2. Etym: [From the shape of the bill.] (Zoöl) (a) The shoveler. [Prov. Eng.] (b) The poachard. [Prov. Eng.] WHIP Whip, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Whipped; p. pr. & vb. n. Whipping.] Etym: [OE. whippen to overlay, as a cord, with other cords, probably akin to G. & D. wippen to shake, to move up and down, Sw. vippa, Dan. vippe to swing to and fro, to shake, to toss up, and L. vibrare to shake. Cf. Vibrate.] 1. To strike with a lash, a cord, a rod, or anything slender and lithe; to lash; to beat; as, to whip a horse, or a carpet. 2. To drive with lashes or strokes of a whip; to cause to rotate by lashing with a cord; as, to whip a top. 3. To punish with a whip, scourge, or rod; to flog; to beat; as, to whip a vagrant; to whip one with thirty nine lashes; to whip a perverse boy. Who, for false quantities, was whipped at school. Dryden. 4. To apply that which hurts keenly to; to lash, as with sarcasm, abuse, or the like; to apply cutting language to. They would whip me with their fine wits. Shak. 5. To thrash; to beat out, as grain, by striking; as, to whip wheat. 6. To beat (eggs, cream, or the like) into a froth, as with a whisk, fork, or the like. 7. To conquer; to defeat, as in a contest or game; to beat; to surpass. [Slang, U. S.] 8. To overlay (a cord, rope, or the like) with other cords going round and round it; to overcast, as the edge of a seam; to wrap; -- often with about, around, or over. Its string is firmly whipped about with small gut. Moxon. 9. To sew lightly; specifically, to form (a fabric) into gathers by loosely overcasting the rolled edge and drawing up the thread; as, to whip a ruffle. In half-whipped muslin needles useless lie. Gay. 10. To take or move by a sudden motion; to jerk; to snatch; -- with into, out, up, off, and the like. She, in a hurry, whips up her darling under her arm. L'Estrange. He whips out his pocketbook every moment, and writes descriptions of everything he sees. Walpole. 11. (Naut.) (a) To hoist or purchase by means of a whip. (b) To secure the end of (a rope, or the like) from untwisting by overcasting it with small stuff. 12. To fish (a body of water) with a rod and artificial fly, the motion being that employed in using a whip. Whipping their rough surface for a trout. Emerson. To whip in, to drive in, or keep from scattering, as hounds in a hurt; hence, to collect, or to keep together, as member of a party, or the like. -- To whip the cat. (a) To practice extreme parsimony. [Prov. Eng.] Forby. (b) To go from house to house working by the day, as itinerant tailors and carpenters do. [Prov. & U. S.] WHIP Whip, v. i. Defn: To move nimbly; to start or turn suddenly and do something; to whisk; as, he whipped around the corner. With speed from thence he whipped. Sackville. Two friends, traveling, met a bear upon the way; the one whips up a tree, and the other throws himself flat upon the ground. L'Estrange. WHIP Whip, n. Etym: [OE. whippe. See Whip, v. t.] 1. An instrument or driving horses or other animals, or for correction, consisting usually of a lash attached to a handle, or of a handle and lash so combined as to form a flexible rod. "[A] whip's lash." Chaucer. In his right hand he holds a whip, with which he is supposed to drive the horses of the sun. Addison. 2. A coachman; a driver of a carriage; as, a good whip. Beaconsfield. 3. (Mach.) (a) One of the arms or frames of a windmill, on which the sails are spread. (b) The length of the arm reckoned from the shaft. 4. (Naut.) (a) A small tackle with a single rope, used to hoist light bodies. (b) The long pennant. See Pennant (a) 5. A huntsman who whips in the hounds; whipper-in. 6. (Eng. Politics) (a) A person (as a member of Parliament) appointed to enforce party discipline, and secure the attendance of the members of a Parliament party at any important session, especially when their votes are needed. (b) A call made upon members of a Parliament party to be in their places at a given time, as when a vote is to be taken. Whip and spur, with the utmost haste. -- Whip crane, or Whip purchase, a simple form of crane having a small drum from which the load is suspended, turned by pulling on a rope wound around larger drum on the same axle. -- Whip gin. See Gin block, under 5th Gin. -- Whip grafting. See under Grafting. -- Whip hand, the hand with which the whip is used; hence, advantage; mastery; as, to have or get the whip hand of a person. Dryden. -- Whip ray (Zoöl.), the European eagle ray. See under Ray. -- Whip roll (Weaving), a roll or bar, behind the reeds in a loom, on which the warp threads rest. -- Whip scorpion (Zoöl.), any one of numerous species of arachnids belonging to Thelyphonus and allied genera. They somewhat resemble true scorpions, but have a long, slender bristle, or lashlike organ, at the end of the body, instead of a sting. -- Whip snake (Zoöl.), any one of various species of slender snakes. Specifically: (a) A bright green South American tree snake (Philodryas viridissimus) having a long and slender body. It is not venomous. Called also emerald whip snake. (b) The coachwhip snake. WHIPCORD Whip"cord`, n. Defn: A kind of hard-twisted or braided cord, sometimes used for making whiplashes. WHIPGRAFT Whip"graft`, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Whipgrafted; p. pr. & vb. n. Whipgrafting.] Defn: To graft by cutting the scion and stock in a certain manner. See Whip grafting, under Grafting. WHIPLASH Whip"lash`, n. Defn: The lash of a whip, -- usually made of thongs of leather, or of cords, braided or twisted. WHIPPAREE Whip`pa*ree", n. (Zoöl.) (a) A large sting ray (Dasybatis, or Trygon, Sayi) native of the Southern United States. It is destitute of large spines on the body and tail. (b) A large sting ray (Rhinoptera bonasus, or R. quadriloba) of the Atlantic coast of the United States. Its snout appears to be four- lobed when viewed in front, whence it is also called cow-nosed ray. WHIPPER Whip"per, n. 1. One who whips; especially, an officer who inflicts the penalty of legal whipping. 2. One who raises coal or merchandise with a tackle from a chip's hold. [Eng.] 3. (Spinning) Defn: A kind of simple willow. WHIPPERIN Whip"per*in`, n. 1. A huntsman who keeps the hounds from wandering, and whips them in, if necessary, to the of chase. 2. Hence, one who enforces the discipline of a party, and urges the attendance and support of the members on all necessary occasions. WHIPPERSNAPPER Whip"per*snap`per, n. Defn: A diminutive, insignificant, or presumptuous person. [Colloq.] "Little whippersnappers like you." T. Hughes. WHIPPING Whip"ping, Defn: a & n. from Whip, v. Whipping post, a post to which offenders are tied, to be legally whipped. WHIPPLETREE Whip"ple*tree`, n. Etym: [See Whip, and cf. Whiffletree.] 1. The pivoted or swinging bar to which the traces, or tugs, of a harness are fastened, and by which a carriage, a plow, or other implement or vehicle, is drawn; a whiffletree; a swingletree; a singletree. See Singletree. [People] cut their own whippletree in the woodlot. Emerson. 2. (Bot.) Defn: The cornel tree. Chaucer. WHIP-POOR-WILL Whip"-poor-will`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: An American bird (Antrostomus vociferus) allied to the nighthawk and goatsucker; -- so called in imitation of the peculiar notes which it utters in the evening. [Written also whippowil.] WHIPSAW Whip"saw`, n. Defn: A saw for dividing timber lengthwise, usually set in a frame, and worked by two persons; also, a fret saw. WHIP-SHAPED Whip"-shaped`, a. Defn: Shaped like the lash of a whip; long, slender, round, and tapering; as, a whip-shaped root or stem. WHIPSTAFF Whip"staff`, n. (Naut.) Defn: A bar attached to the tiller, for convenience in steering. WHIPSTALK Whip"stalk`, n. Defn: A whipstock. WHIPSTER Whip"ster, n. Etym: [Whip + -ster.] Defn: A nimble little fellow; a whippersnapper. Every puny whipster gets my sword. Shak. WHIPSTICK Whip"stick`, n. Defn: Whip handle; whipstock. WHIPSTITCH Whip"stitch`, n. 1. A tailor; -- so called in contempt. 2. Anything hastily put or stitched together; hence, a hasty composition. [R.] Dryden. 3. (Agric.) Defn: The act or process of whipstitching. WHIPSTITCH Whip"stitch`, v. t. (Agric.) Defn: To rafter; to plow in ridges, as land. [Eng.] WHIPSTOCK Whip"stock`, n. Defn: The rod or handle to which the lash of a whip is fastened. WHIPT Whipt, imp. & p. p. of Whip. Defn: Whipped. WHIP-TOM-KELLY Whip"-tom`-kel"ly, n. Etym: [So called in imitation of its notes.] (Zoöl.) Defn: A vireo (Vireo altiloquus) native of the West Indies and Florida; -- called also black-whiskered vireo. WHIPWORM Whip"worm`, n. Etym: [So called from its shape.] (Zoöl.) Defn: A nematode worm (Trichocephalus dispar) often found parasitic in the human intestine. Its body is thickened posteriorly, but is very long and threadlike anteriorly. WHIR Whir, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Whirred; p. pr. & vb. n. Whirring.] Etym: [Perhaps of imitative origin; cf. D. hvirre to whirl, and E. hurr, hurry, whirl. Defn: To whirl round, or revolve, with a whizzing noise; to fly or more quickly with a buzzing or whizzing sound; to whiz. The partridge bursts away on whirring wings. Beattie. WHIR Whir, v. t. Etym: [See Whir to whiz.] Defn: To hurry a long with a whizzing sound. [R.] This world to me is like a lasting storm, Whirring me from my friends. Shak. WHIR Whir, n. Defn: A buzzing or whizzing sound produced by rapid or whirling motion; as, the whir of a partridge; the whir of a spinning wheel. WHIRL Whirl, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Whirled; p. pr. & vb. n. Whirling.] Etym: [OE. whirlen, probably from the Scand.; cf. Icel. & Sw. hvirfla, Dan. hvirvle; akin to D. wervelen, G. wirbeln, freq. of the verb seen in Icel. hverfa to turn. sq. root16. See Wharf, and cf. Warble, Whorl.] 1. To turn round rapidly; to cause to rotate with velocity; to make to revolve. He whirls his sword around without delay. Dryden. 2. To remove or carry quickly with, or as with, a revolving motion; to snatch; to harry. Chaucer. See, see the chariot, and those rushing wheels, That whirled the prophet up at Chebar flood. Milton. The passionate heart of the poet is whirl'd into folly. Tennyson. WHIRL Whirl, v. i. 1. To be turned round rapidly; to move round with velocity; to revolve or rotate with great speed; to gyrate. "The whirling year vainly my dizzy eyes pursue." J. H. Newman. The wooden engine flies and whirls about. Dryden. 2. To move hastily or swiftly. But whirled away to shun his hateful sight. Dryden. WHIRL Whirl, n. Etym: [Cf. Dan. hvirvel, Sw. hvirfvel, Icel. hvirfill the crown of the head, G. wirbel whirl, crown of the head, D. wervel. See Whirl, v. t.] 1. A turning with rapidity or velocity; rapid rotation or circumvolution; quick gyration; rapid or confusing motion; as, the whirl of a top; the whirl of a wheel. "In no breathless whirl." J. H. Newman. The rapid . . . whirl of things here below interrupt not the inviolable rest and calmness of the noble beings above. South. 2. Anything that moves with a whirling motion. He saw Falmouth under gray, iron skies, and whirls of March dust. Carlyle. 3. A revolving hook used in twisting, as the hooked spindle of a rope machine, to which the threads to be twisted are attached. 4. (Bot. & Zoöl.) Defn: A whorl. See Whorl. WHIRLABOUT Whirl"a*bout`, n. Defn: Something that whirls or turns about in a rapid manner; a whirligig. WHIRLBAT Whirl"bat`, n. Defn: Anything moved with a whirl, as preparatory for a blow, or to augment the force of it; -- applied by poets to the cestus of ancient boxers. The whirlbat and the rapid race shall be Reserved for Cæsar. Dryden. WHIRL-BLAST Whirl"-blast`, n. Defn: A whirling blast or wind. A whirl-blast from behind the hill. Wordsworth. WHIRLBONE Whirl"bone`, n. (Anat.) (a) The huckle bone. [Obs.] (b) The patella, or kneepan. [Obs.] Ainsworth. WHIRLER Whirl"er, n. Defn: One who, or that which, whirls. WHIRLICOTE Whirl"i*cote, n. Defn: An open car or chariot. [Obs.] Of old time coaches were not known in this island, but chariots, or whirlicotes. Stow. WHIRLIGIG Whirl"i*gig, n. Etym: [Whirl + gig.] 1. A child's toy, spun or whirled around like a wheel upon an axis, or like a top. Johnson. 2. Anything which whirls around, or in which persons or things are whirled about, as a frame with seats or wooden horses. With a whirligig of jubilant mosquitoes spinning about each head. G. W. Cable. 3. A mediæval instrument for punishing petty offenders, being a kind of wooden cage turning on a pivot, in which the offender was whirled round with great velocity. 4. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of numerous species of beetles belonging to Gyrinus and allied genera. The body is firm, oval or boatlike in form, and usually dark colored with a bronzelike luster. These beetles live mostly on the surface of water, and move about with great celerity in a gyrating, or circular, manner, but they are also able to dive and swim rapidly. The larva is aquatic. Called also weaver, whirlwig, and whirlwig beetle. WHIRLING Whirl"ing, Defn: a. & n. from Whirl, v. t. Whirling table. (a) (Physics) An apparatus provided with one or more revolving disks, with weights, pulleys, and other attachments, for illustrating the phenomena and laws of centrifugal force, and the like. (b) A potter's wheel. WHIRLPIT Whirl"pit`, n. Defn: A whirlpool. [Obs.] "Raging whirlpits." Sandys. WHIRLPOOL Whirl"pool`, n. 1. An eddy or vortex of water; a place in a body of water where the water moves round in a circle so as to produce a depression or cavity in the center, into which floating objects may be drawn; any body of water having a more or less circular motion caused by its flowing in an irregular channel, by the coming together of opposing currents, or the like. 2. A sea monster of the whale kind. [Obs.] Spenser. The Indian Sea breedeth the most and the biggest fishes that are; among which the whales and whirlpools, called "balænæ," take up in length as much as four . . . arpents of land. Holland. WHIRLWIG Whirl"wig`, n. Etym: [Cf. Earwig.] (Zoöl.) Defn: A whirligig. WHIRLWIND Whirl"wind`, n. Etym: [Cf. Icel. hvirfilvindr, Sw. hvirfvelvind, Dan. hvirvelvind, G. wirbelwind. See Whirl, and Wind, n.] 1. A violent windstorm of limited extent, as the tornado, characterized by an inward spiral motion of the air with an upward current in the center; a vortex of air. It usually has a rapid progressive motion. The swift dark whirlwind that uproots the woods. And drowns the villages. Bryant. Note: Some meteorologists apply the word whirlwind to the larger rotary storm also, such as cyclones. 2. Fig.: A body of objects sweeping violently onward. "The whirlwind of hounds and hunters." Macaulay. WHIRRY Whir"ry, v. i. Defn: To whir. [Obs.] WHIRTLE Whir"tle, n. (Mech.) Defn: A perforated steel die through which wires or tubes are drawn to form them. WHISK Whisk, n. Etym: [See Whist, n.] Defn: A game at cards; whist. [Obs.] Taylor (1630). WHISK Whisk, n. Etym: [Probably for wisk, and of Scand. origin; cf. Icel. visk a wisp; akin to Dan. visk, Sw. viska, D. wisch, OHG. wisc, G. wisch. See Wisp.] 1. The act of whisking; a rapid, sweeping motion, as of something light; a sudden motion or quick puff. This first sad whisk Takes off thy dukedom; thou art but an earl. J. Fletcher. 2. A small bunch of grass, straw, twigs, hair, or the like, used for a brush; hence, a brush or small besom, as of broom corn. 3. A small culinary instrument made of wire, or the like, for whisking or beating eggs, cream, etc. Boyle. 4. A kind of cape, forming part of a woman's dress. My wife in her new lace whisk. Pepys. 5. An impertinent fellow. [Prov. Eng.] Halliwell. 6. A plane used by coopers for evening chines. WHISK Whisk, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Whisked; p. pr. & vb. n. Whisking.] Etym: [Cf. Dan. viske, Sw. viska, G. wischen, D. wisschen. See Whisk, n.] 1. To sweep, brush, or agitate, with a light, rapid motion; as, to whisk dust from a table; to whisk the white of eggs into a froth. 2. To move with a quick, sweeping motion. He that walks in gray, whisking his riding rod. J. Fletcher. I beg she would not impale worms, nor whisk carp out of one element into another. Walpole. WHISK Whisk, v. i. Defn: To move nimbly at with velocity; to make a sudden agile movement. WHISKER Whisk"er, n. 1. One who, or that which, whisks, or moves with a quick, sweeping motion. 2. Formerly, the hair of the upper lip; a mustache; -- usually in the plural. Hoary whiskers and a forky beard. Pope. 3. pl. Defn: That part of the beard which grows upon the sides of the face, or upon the chin, or upon both; as, side whiskers; chin whiskers. 4. A hair of the beard. 5. One of the long, projecting hairs growing at the sides of the mouth of a cat, or other animal. 6. pl. (Naut.) Defn: Iron rods extending on either side of the bowsprit, to spread, or guy out, the stays, etc. WHISKERED Whisk"ered, a. 1. Formed into whiskers; furnished with whiskers; having or wearing whiskers. Our forefathers, a grave, whiskered race. Cowper. 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: Having elongated hairs, feathers, or bristles on the cheeks. The whiskered vermin race. Grainger. WHISKERLESS Whisk"er*less, a. Defn: Being without whiskers. WHISKET Whis"ket, n. Etym: [Cf. Wisket.] 1. A basket; esp., a straw provender basket. [Prov. Eng.] Halliwell. 2. (Mach.) Defn: A small lathe for turning wooden pins. WHISKEY Whis"key, n. Defn: Same as Whisky, a liquor. WHISKEY; WHISKY Whis"key, Whis"ky, n.; pl. Whiskeys or Whiskies. Etym: [See Whisk, v. t. & n.] Defn: A light carriage built for rapid motion; -- called also tim- whiskey. WHISKIN Whisk"in, n. Defn: A shallow drinking bowl. [Prov. Eng.] Ray. WHISKING Whisk"ing, a. 1. Sweeping along lightly. 2. Large; great. [Prov. Eng.] WHISKY; WHISKEY Whis"ky, Whis"key, n. Etym: [Ir. or Gael. uisge water (perhaps akin to E. wash, water) in uisgebeatha whiskey, properly, water of life. Cf. Usquebaugh.] Defn: An intoxicating liquor distilled from grain, potatoes, etc., especially in Scotland, Ireland, and the United States. In the United States, whisky is generally distilled from maize, rye, or wheat, but in Scotland and Ireland it is often made from malted barley. Bourbon whisky, corn whisky made in Bourbon County, Kentucky. -- Crooked whisky. See under Crooked. -- Whisky Jack (Zoöl.), the Canada jay (Perisoreus Canadensis). It is noted for its fearless and familiar habits when it frequents the camps of lumbermen in the winter season. Its color is dull grayish blue, lighter beneath. Called also moose bird. WHISKYFIED; WHISKEYFIED Whis"ky*fied, Whis"key*fied, a. Etym: [Whisky + -fy.] Defn: Drunk with whisky; intoxicated. [Humorous] Thackeray. WHISKY RING; WHISKEY RING Whisky, or Whiskey, Ring . (U. S. Hist.) Defn: A conspiracy of distillers and government officials during the administration of President Grant to defraud the government of the excise taxes. The frauds were detected in 1875 through the efforts of the Secretary of the Treasury. B. H. Bristow, and most of the offenders were convicted. WHISP Whisp, n. Defn: See Wisp. WHISP Whisp, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A flock of snipe. WHISPER Whis"per, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Whispered; p. pr. & vb. n. Whispering.] Etym: [AS. hwisprian; akin to G. wispern, wispeln, OHG. hwispal, Icel. hviskra, Sw. hviska, Dan. hviske; of imitative origin. Cf. Whistle.] 1. To speak softly, or under the breath, so as to be heard only by one near at hand; to utter words without sonant breath; to talk without that vibration in the larynx which gives sonorous, or vocal, sound. See Whisper, n. 2. To make a low, sibilant sound or noise. The hollow, whispering breeze. Thomson. 3. To speak with suspicion, or timorous caution; to converse in whispers, as in secret plotting. All that hate me whisper together against me. Ps. xli. 7. WHISPER Whis"per, v. t. 1. To utter in a low and nonvocal tone; to say under the breath; hence, to mention privately and confidentially, or in a whisper. They might buzz and whisper it one to another. Bentley. 2. To address in a whisper, or low voice. [Archaic] And whisper one another in the ear. Shak. Where gentlest breezes whisper souls distressed. Keble. 3. To prompt secretly or cautiously; to inform privately. [Obs.] "He came to whisper Wolsey." Shak. WHISPER Whis"per, n. 1. A low, soft, sibilant voice or utterance, which can be heard only by those near at hand; voice or utterance that employs only breath sound without tone, friction against the edges of the vocal cords and arytenoid cartilages taking the place of the vibration of the cords that produces tone; sometimes, in a limited sense, the sound produced by such friction as distinguished from breath sound made by friction against parts of the mouth. See Voice, n., 2, and Guide to Pronunciation, §§ 5, 153, 154. The inward voice or whisper can not give a tone. Bacon. Soft whispers through the assembly went. Dryden. 2. A cautious or timorous speech. South. 3. Something communicated in secret or by whispering; a suggestion or insinuation. 4. A low, sibilant sound. "The whispers of the leaves." Tennyson. WHISPERER Whis"per*er, n. 1. One who whispers. 2. A tattler; one who tells secrets; a conveyer of intelligence secretly; hence; a backbiter; one who slanders secretly. Prov. xvi. 28. WHISPERING Whis"per*ing, Defn: a. & n. from Whisper. v. t. Whispering gallery, or Whispering dome, one of such a form that sounds produced in certain parts of it are concentrated by reflection from the walls to another part, so that whispers or feeble sounds are audible at a much greater distance than under ordinary circumstances. WHISPERINGLY Whis"per*ing*ly, adv. Defn: In a whisper, or low voice; in a whispering manner; with whispers. Tennyson. WHISPEROUSLY Whis"per*ous*ly, adv. Defn: Whisperingly. [R.] WHIST Whist, interj. Etym: [Cf. G. st! pst! bst! Hist.] Defn: Be silent; be still; hush; silence. WHIST Whist, n. Etym: [From Whist, interj.] Defn: A certain game at cards; -- so called because it requires silence and close attention. It is played by four persons (those who sit opposite each other being partners) with a complete pack of fifty-two cards. Each player has thirteen cards, and when these are played out, he hand is finished, and the cards are again shuffled and distributed. Note: Points are scored for the tricks taken in excess of six, and for the honors held. In long whist, now seldom played, ten points make the game; in short whist, now usually played in England, five points make the game. In American whist, so-called, honors are not counted, and seven points by tricks make the game. WHIST Whist, v. t. Etym: [From Whist, interj.] Defn: To hush or silence. [Obs.] Spenser. WHIST Whist, v. i. Defn: To be or become silent or still; to be hushed or mute. [R.] Surrey. WHIST Whist, a. Etym: [Properly p. p. of whist, v.] Defn: Not speaking; not making a noise; silent; mute; still; quiet. "So whist and dead a silence." Sir J. Harrington. The winds, with wonder whist, Smoothly the waters kissed. Milton. Note: This adjective generally follows its noun, or is used predicatively. WHISTLE Whis"tle, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Whistled; p. pr. & vb. n. Whistling.] Etym: [AS. hwistlian; akin to Sw. hvissla, Dan. hvisle, Icel. hvisla to whisper, and E. whisper. Whisper.] 1. To make a kind of musical sound, or series of sounds, by forcing the breath through a small orifice formed by contracting the lips; also, to emit a similar sound, or series of notes, from the mouth or beak, as birds. The weary plowman leaves the task of day, And, trudging homeward, whistles on the way. Gay. 2. To make a shrill sound with a wind or steam instrument, somewhat like that made with the lips; to blow a sharp, shrill tone. 3. To sound shrill, or like a pipe; to make a sharp, shrill sound; as, a bullet whistles through the air. The wild winds whistle, and the billows roar. Pope. WHISTLE Whis"tle, v. t. 1. To form, utter, or modulate by whistling; as, to whistle a tune or an air. 2. To send, signal, or call by a whistle. He chanced to miss his dog; we stood still till he had whistled him up. Addison. To whistle off. (a) To dismiss by a whistle; -- a term in hawking. "AS a long-winged hawk when he is first whistled off the fist, mounts aloft." Burton. (b) Hence, in general, to turn loose; to abandon; to dismiss. I 'ld whistle her off, and let her down the wind To prey at fortune. Shak. Note: "A hawk seems to have been usually sent off in this way, against the wind when sent in search of prey; with or down the wind, when turned loose, and abandoned." Nares. WHISTLE Whis"tle, n. Etym: [AS. hwistle a pipe, flute, whistle. See Whistle, v. i.] 1. A sharp, shrill, more or less musical sound, made by forcing the breath through a small orifice of the lips, or through or instrument which gives a similar sound; the sound used by a sportsman in calling his dogs; the shrill note of a bird; as, the sharp whistle of a boy, or of a boatswain's pipe; the blackbird's mellow whistle. Might we but hear The folded flocks, penned in their wattled cotes, . . . Or whistle from the lodge. Milton. The countryman could not forbear smiling, . . . and by that means lost his whistle. Spectator. They fear his whistle, and forsake the seas. Dryden. 2. The shrill sound made by wind passing among trees or through crevices, or that made by bullet, or the like, passing rapidly through the air; the shrill noise (much used as a signal, etc.) made by steam or gas escaping through a small orifice, or impinging against the edge of a metallic bell or cup. 3. An instrument in which gas or steam forced into a cavity, or against a thin edge, produces a sound more or less like that made by one who whistles through the compressed lips; as, a child's whistle; a boatswain's whistle; a steam whistle (see Steam whistle, under Steam). The bells she jingled, and the whistle blew. Pope. 4. The mouth and throat; -- so called as being the organs of whistling. [Colloq.] So was her jolly whistle well ywet. Chaucer. Let's drink the other cup to wet our whistles. Walton. Whistle duck (Zoöl.), the American golden-eye. WHISTLEFISH Whis"tle*fish`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A gossat, or rockling; -- called also whistler, three-bearded rockling, sea loach, and sorghe. WHISTLER Whis"tler, n. Etym: [AS. hwistlere.] 1. One who, or that which, whistles, or produces or a whistling sound. 2. (Zoöl.) (a) The ring ousel. (b) The widgeon. [Prov. Eng.] (c) The golden-eye. (d) The golden plover and the gray plover. 3. (Zoöl.) Defn: The hoary, or northern, marmot (Arctomys pruinosus). 4. (Zoöl.) Defn: The whistlefish. WHISTLEWING Whis"tle*wing`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The American golden-eye. WHISTLEWOOD Whis"tle*wood`, n. (Bot.) Defn: The moosewood, or striped maple. See Maple. WHISTLING Whis"tling, Defn: a. & n. from Whistle, v. Whistling buoy. (Naut.) See under Buoy. -- Whistling coot (Zoöl.), the American black scoter. -- Whistling Dick. (Zoöl.) (a) An Australian shrike thrush (Colluricincla Selbii). (b) The song thrush. [Prov. Eng.] -- Whistling duck. (Zoöl.) (a) The golden-eye. (b) A tree duck. -- Whistling eagle (Zoöl.), a small Australian eagle (Haliastur sphenurus); -- called also whistling hawk, and little swamp eagle. -- Whistling plover. (Zoöl.) (a) The golden plover. (b) The black- bellied, or gray, plover. -- Whistling snipe (Zoöl.), the American woodcock. -- Whistling swan. (Zoöl.) (a) The European whooper swan; -- called also wild swan, and elk. (b) An American swan (Olor columbianus). See under Swan. -- Whistling teal (Zoöl.), a tree duck, as Dendrocygna awsuree of India. -- Whistling thrush. (Zoöl.) (a) Any one of several species of singing birds of the genus Myiophonus, native of Asia, Australia, and the East Indies. They are generally black, glossed with blue, and have a patch of bright blue on each shoulder. Their note is a loud and clear whistle. (b) The song thrush. [Prov. Eng.] WHISTLINGLY Whis"tling*ly, adv. Defn: In a whistling manner; shrilly. WHISTLY Whist"ly, adv. Defn: In a whist manner; silently. [Obs.] WHIT Whit, n. Etym: [OE. wight, wiht, AS. wiht a creature, a thing. See Wight, and cf. Aught, Naught.] Defn: The smallest part or particle imaginable; a bit; a jot; an iota; -- generally used in an adverbial phrase in a negative sentence. "Samuel told him every whit." 1 Sam. iii. 18. "Every whit as great." South. So shall I no whit be behind in duty. Shak. It does not me a whit displease. Cowley. WHITE White, a. [Compar. Whiter; superl. Whitest.] Etym: [OE. whit, AS. hw; akin to OFries. and OS. hwit, D. wit, G. weiss, OHG. wiz, hwiz, Icel. hvitr, Sw. hvit, Dan. hvid, Goth. hweits, Lith. szveisti, to make bright, Russ. sviet' light, Skr. white, to be bright. Wheat, Whitsunday.] 1. Reflecting to the eye all the rays of the spectrum combined; not tinted with any of the proper colors or their mixtures; having the color of pure snow; snowy; -- the opposite of Ant: black or dark; as, white paper; a white skin. "Pearls white." Chaucer. White as the whitest lily on a stream. Longfellow. 2. Destitute of color, as in the cheeks, or of the tinge of blood color; pale; pallid; as, white with fear. Or whispering with white lips, "The foe! They come! they come!" Byron. 3. Having the color of purity; free from spot or blemish, or from guilt or pollution; innocent; pure. White as thy fame, and as thy honor clear. Dryden. No whiter page than Addison's remains. Pope. 4. Gray, as from age; having silvery hair; hoary. Your high engendered battles 'gainst a head So old and white as this. Shak. 5. Characterized by freedom from that which disturbs, and the like; fortunate; happy; favorable. On the whole, however, the dominie reckoned this as one of the white days of his life. Sir W. Scott. 6. Regarded with especial favor; favorite; darling. Come forth, my white spouse. Chaucer. I am his white boy, and will not be gullet. Ford. Note: White is used in many self-explaining compounds, as white- backed, white-bearded, white-footed. White alder. (Bot.) See Sweet pepper bush, under Pepper. -- White ant (Zoöl.), any one of numerous species of social pseudoneuropterous insects of the genus Termes. These insects are very abundant in tropical countries, and form large and complex communities consisting of numerous asexual workers of one or more kinds, of large-headed asexual individuals called soldiers, of one or more queens (or fertile females) often having the body enormously distended by the eggs, and, at certain seasons of numerous winged males, together with the larvæ and pupæ of each kind in various stages of development. Many of the species construct large and complicated nests, sometimes in the form of domelike structures rising several feet above the ground and connected with extensive subterranean galleries and chambers. In their social habits they closely resemble the true ants. They feed upon animal and vegetable substances of various kinds, including timber, and are often very destructive to buildings and furniture. -- White arsenic (Chem.), arsenious oxide, As2O3, a substance of a white color, and vitreous adamantine luster, having an astringent, sweetish taste. It is a deadly poison. -- White bass (Zoöl.), a fresh-water North American bass (Roccus chrysops) found in the Great Likes. -- White bear (Zoöl.), the polar bear. See under Polar. -- White blood cell. (Physiol.) See Leucocyte. -- White brand (Zoöl.), the snow goose. -- White brass, a white alloy of copper; white copper. -- White campion. (Bot.) (a) A kind of catchfly (Silene stellata) with white flowers. (b) A white-flowered Lychnis (Lychnis vespertina). -- White canon (R. C. Ch.), a Premonstratensian. -- White caps, the members of a secret organization in various of the United States, who attempt to drive away or reform obnoxious persons by lynch-law methods. They appear masked in white. -- White cedar (Bot.), an evergreen tree of North America (Thuja occidentalis), also the related Cupressus thyoides, or Chamæcyparis sphæroidea, a slender evergreen conifer which grows in the so-called cedar swamps of the Northern and Atlantic States. Both are much valued for their durable timber. In California the name is given to the Libocedrus decurrens, the timber of which is also useful, though often subject to dry rot. Goodale. The white cedar of Demerara, Guiana, etc., is a lofty tree (Icica, or Bursera, altissima) whose fragrant wood is used for canoes and cabinetwork, as it is not attacked by insect. -- White cell. (Physiol.) See Leucocyte. -- White cell-blood (Med.), leucocythæmia. -- White clover (Bot.), a species of small perennial clover bearing white flowers. It furnishes excellent food for cattle and horses, as well as for the honeybee. See also under Clover. -- White copper, a whitish alloy of copper. See German silver, under German. -- White copperas (Min.), a native hydrous sulphate of iron; coquimbite. -- White coral (Zoöl.), an ornamental branched coral (Amphihelia oculata) native of the Mediterranean. -- White corpuscle. (Physiol.) See Leucocyte. -- White cricket (Zoöl.), the tree cricket. -- White crop, a crop of grain which loses its green color, or becomes white, in ripening, as wheat, rye, barley, and oats, as distinguished from a green crop, or a root crop. -- White currant (Bot.), a variety of the common red currant, having white berries. -- White daisy (Bot.), the oxeye daisy. See under Daisy. -- White damp, a kind of poisonous gas encountered in coal mines. Raymond. -- White elephant (Zoöl.), a whitish, or albino, variety of the Asiatic elephant. -- White elm (Bot.), a majestic tree of North America (Ulmus Americana), the timber of which is much used for hubs of wheels, and for other purposes. -- White ensign. See Saint George's ensign, under Saint. -- White feather, a mark or symbol of cowardice. See To show the white feather, under Feather, n. -- White fir (Bot.), a name given to several coniferous trees of the Pacific States, as Abies grandis, and A. concolor. -- White flesher (Zoöl.), the ruffed grouse. See under Ruffed. [Canada] -- White frost. See Hoarfrost. -- White game (Zoöl.), the white ptarmigan. -- White garnet (Min.), leucite. -- White grass (Bot.), an American grass (Leersia Virginica) with greenish-white paleæ. -- White grouse. (Zoöl.) (a) The white ptarmigan. (b) The prairie chicken. [Local, U. S.] -- White grub (Zoöl.), the larva of the June bug and other allied species. These grubs eat the roots of grasses and other plants, and often do much damage. -- White hake (Zoöl.), the squirrel hake. See under Squirrel. -- White hawk, or kite (Zoöl.), the hen harrier. -- White heat, the temperature at which bodies become incandescent, and appear white from the bright light which they emit. -- White hellebore (Bot.), a plant of the genus Veratrum (V. album) See Hellebore, 2. -- White herring, a fresh, or unsmoked, herring, as distinguished from a red, or cured, herring. [R.] Shak. -- White hoolet (Zoöl.), the barn owl. [Prov. Eng.] -- White horses (Naut.), white-topped waves; whitecaps. -- The White House. See under House. -- White ibis (Zoöl.), an American ibis (Guara alba) having the plumage pure white, except the tips of the wings, which are black. It inhabits tropical America and the Southern United States. Called also Spanish curlew. -- White iron. (a) Thin sheets of iron coated with tin; tinned iron. (b) A hard, silvery-white cast iron containing a large proportion of combined carbon. -- White iron pyrites (Min.), marcasite. -- White land, a tough clayey soil, of a whitish hue when dry, but blackish after rain. [Eng.] -- White lark (Zoöl.), the snow bunting. -- White lead. (a) A carbonate of lead much used in painting, and for other purposes; ceruse. (b) (Min.) Native lead carbonate; cerusite. -- White leather, buff leather; leather tanned with alum and salt. -- White leg (Med.), milk leg. See under Milk. -- White lettuce (Bot.), rattlesnake root. See under Rattlesnake. -- White lie. See under Lie. -- White light. (a) (Physics) Light having the different colors in the same proportion as in the light coming directly from the sun, without having been decomposed, as by passing through a prism. See the Note under Color, n., 1. (b) A kind of firework which gives a brilliant white illumination for signals, etc. -- White lime, a solution or preparation of lime for whitewashing; whitewash. -- White line (Print.), a void space of the breadth of a line, on a printed page; a blank line. -- White meat. (a) Any light-colored flesh, especially of poultry. (b) Food made from milk or eggs, as butter, cheese, etc. Driving their cattle continually with them, and feeding only upon their milk and white meats. Spenser. -- White merganser (Zoöl.), the smew. -- White metal. (a) Any one of several white alloys, as pewter, britannia, etc. (b) (Metal.) A fine grade of copper sulphide obtained at a certain stage in copper smelting. -- White miller. (Zoöl.) (a) The common clothes moth. (b) A common American bombycid moth (Spilosoma Virginica) which is pure white with a few small black spots; -- called also ermine moth, and virgin moth. See Woolly bear, under Woolly. -- White money, silver money. -- White mouse (Zoöl.), the albino variety of the common mouse. -- White mullet (Zoöl.), a silvery mullet (Mugil curema) ranging from the coast of the United States to Brazil; -- called also blue- back mullet, and liza. -- White nun (Zoöl.), the smew; -- so called from the white crest and the band of black feathers on the back of its head, which give the appearance of a hood. -- White oak. (Bot.) See under Oak. -- White owl. (Zoöl.) (a) The snowy owl. (b) The barn owl. -- White partridge (Zoöl.), the white ptarmigan. -- White perch. (Zoöl.) (a) A North American fresh-water bass (Morone Americana) valued as a food fish. (b) The croaker, or fresh- water drum. (c) Any California surf fish. -- White pine. (Bot.) See the Note under Pine. -- White poplar (Bot.), a European tree (Populus alba) often cultivated as a shade tree in America; abele. -- White poppy (Bot.), the opium-yielding poppy. See Poppy. -- White powder, a kind of gunpowder formerly believed to exist, and to have the power of exploding without noise. [Obs.] A pistol charged with white powder. Beau. & Fl. -- White precipitate. (Old Chem.) See under Precipitate. -- White rabbit. (Zoöl.) (a) The American northern hare in its winter pelage. (b) An albino rabbit. -- White rent, (a) (Eng. Law) Formerly, rent payable in silver; -- opposed to black rent. See Blackmail, n., 3. (b) A rent, or duty, of eight pence, payable yearly by every tinner in Devon and Cornwall to the Duke of Cornwall, as lord of the soil. [Prov. Eng.] -- White rhinoceros. (Zoöl.) (a) The one-horned, or Indian, rhinoceros (Rhinoceros Indicus). See Rhinoceros. (b) The umhofo. -- White ribbon, the distinctive badge of certain organizations for the promotion of temperance or of moral purity; as, the White-ribbon Army. -- White rope (Naut.), untarred hemp rope. -- White rot. (Bot.) (a) Either of several plants, as marsh pennywort and butterwort, which were thought to produce the disease called rot in sheep. (b) A disease of grapes. See White rot, under Rot. -- White sage (Bot.), a white, woolly undershrub (Eurotia lanata) of Western North America; -- called also winter fat. -- White salmon (Zoöl.), the silver salmon. -- White salt, salt dried and calcined; decrepitated salt. -- White scale (Zoöl.), a scale insect (Aspidiotus Nerii) injurious to the orange tree. See Orange scale, under Orange. -- White shark (Zoöl.), a species of man-eating shark. See under Shark. -- White softening. (Med.) See Softening of the brain, under Softening. -- White spruce. (Bot.) See Spruce, n., 1. -- White squall (Naut.), a sudden gust of wind, or furious blow, which comes up without being marked in its approach otherwise than by whitecaps, or white, broken water, on the surface of the sea. -- White staff, the badge of the lord high treasurer of England. Macaulay. -- White stork (Zoöl.), the common European stork. -- White sturgeon. (Zoöl.) See Shovelnose (d). -- White sucker. (Zoöl.) (a) The common sucker. (b) The common red horse (Moxostoma macrolepidotum). -- White swelling (Med.), a chronic swelling of the knee, produced by a strumous inflammation of the synovial membranes of the kneejoint and of the cancellar texture of the end of the bone forming the kneejoint; -- applied also to a lingering chronic swelling of almost any kind. -- White tombac. See Tombac. -- White trout (Zoöl.), the white weakfish, or silver squeteague (Cynoscion nothus), of the Southern United States. -- White vitriol (Chem.), hydrous sulphate of zinc. See White vitriol, under Vitriol. -- White wagtail (Zoöl.), the common, or pied, wagtail. -- White wax, beeswax rendered white by bleaching. -- White whale (Zoöl.), the beluga. -- White widgeon (Zoöl.), the smew. -- White wine. any wine of a clear, transparent color, bordering on white, as Madeira, sherry, Lisbon, etc.; -- distinguished from wines of a deep red color, as port and Burgundy. "White wine of Lepe." Chaucer. -- White witch, a witch or wizard whose supernatural powers are supposed to be exercised for good and beneficent purposes. Addison. Cotton Mather. -- White wolf. (Zoöl.) (a) A light-colored wolf (Canis laniger) native of Thibet; -- called also chanco, golden wolf, and Thibetan wolf. (b) The albino variety of the gray wolf. -- White wren (Zoöl.), the willow warbler; -- so called from the color of the under parts. WHITE White, n. 1. The color of pure snow; one of the natural colors of bodies, yet not strictly a color, but a composition of all colors; the opposite of black; whiteness. See the Note under Color, n., 1. Finely attired in a of white. Shak. 2. Something having the color of snow; something white, or nearly so; as, the white of the eye. 3. Specifically, the central part of the butt in archery, which was formerly painted white; the center of a mark at which a missile is shot. 'T was I won the wager, though you hit the white. Shak. 4. A person with a white skin; a member of the white, or Caucasian, races of men. 5. A white pigment; as, Venice white. 6. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of numerous species of butterflies belonging to Pieris, and allied genera in which the color is usually white. See Cabbage butterfly, under Cabbage. Black and white. See under Black. -- Flake white, Paris white, etc. See under Flack, Paris, etc. -- White of a seed (Bot.), the albumen. See Albumen, 2. -- White of egg, the viscous pellucid fluid which surrounds the yolk in an egg, particularly in the egg of a fowl. In a hen's egg it is alkaline, and contains about 86 per cent of water and 14 per cent of solid matter, the greater portion of which is egg albumin. It likewise contains a small amount of globulin, and traces of fats and sugar, with some inorganic matter. Heated above 60º C. it coagulates to a solid mass, owing to the albumin which it contains. Parr. -- White of the eye (Anat.), the white part of the ball of the eye surrounding the transparent cornea. WHITE White, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Whited; p. pr. & vb. n. Whiting.] Etym: [AS. hwitan.] Defn: To make white; to whiten; to whitewash; to bleach. Whited sepulchers, which indeed appear beautiful outward, but are within full of . . . uncleanness. Matt. xxiii. 27. So as no fuller on earth can white them. Mark. ix. 3. WHITEBACK White"back`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The canvasback. WHITEBAIT White"bait`, n. (Zoöl.) (a) The young of several species of herrings, especially of the common herring, esteemed a great delicacy by epicures in England. (b) A small translucent fish (Salanx Chinensis) abundant at certain seasons on the coasts of China and Japan, and used in the same manner as the European whitebait. WHITEBEAM White"beam`, n. (Bot.) Defn: The common beam tree of England (Pyrus Aria); -- so called from the white, woolly under surface of the leaves. WHITEBEARD White"beard`, n. Defn: An old man; a graybeard. WHITEBELLY White"bel`ly, n. (Zoöl.) (a) The American widgeon, or baldpate. (b) The prairie chicken. WHITEBILL White"bill`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The American coot. WHITE-BLAZE White"-blaze`, n. Defn: See White-face. WHITEBLOW White"blow`, n. (Bot.) Defn: Same as Whitlow grass, under Whitlow. WHITEBOY White"boy`, n. 1. A favorite. [Obs.] See White, a., 6. "One of God's whiteboys." Bunyan. 2. One of an association of poor Roman catholics which arose in Ireland about 1760, ostensibly to resist the collection of tithes, the members of which were so called from the white shirts they wore in their nocturnal raids. WHITEBOYISM White"boy`ism, n. Defn: The conduct or principle of the Whiteboys. WHITECAP White"cap`, n. 1. (Zoöl.) (a) The European redstart; -- so called from its white forehead. (b) The whitethroat; -- so called from its gray head. (c) The European tree sparrow. 2. A wave whose crest breaks into white foam, as when the wind is freshening. WHITECOAT White"coat`, n. Defn: The skin of a newborn seal; also, the seal itself. [Sealers' Cant] WHITE-EAR White"-ear`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The wheatear. WHITE ELEPHANT White elephant. Defn: Something requiring much care and expense and yielding little profit; any burdensome possession. [Slang] WHITE-EYE White"-eye`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of several species of small Old World singing of the genus Zosterops, as Zosterops palpebrosus of India, and Z. coerulescens of Australia. The eyes are encircled by a ring of white feathers, whence the name. Called also bush creeper, and white-eyed tit. WHITE-FACE White"-face`, n. Defn: A white mark in the forehead of a horse, descending almost to the nose; -- called also white-blaze. WHITEFISH White"fish`, n. (Zoöl.) (a) Any one of several species of Coregonus, a genus of excellent food fishes allied to the salmons. They inhabit the lakes of the colder parts of North America, Asia, and Europe. The largest and most important American species (C. clupeiformis) is abundant in the Great Lakes, and in other lakes farther north. Called also lake whitefish, and Oswego bass. (b) The menhaden. (c) The beluga, or white whale. Note: Various other fishes are locally called whitefish, as the silver salmon, the whiting (a), the yellowtail, and the young of the bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix). WHITEFLAW White"flaw`, n. Etym: [See Whitlow.] (Med.) Defn: A whitlow. [Obs.] Holland. WHITE FLY White fly. Defn: Any one of numerous small injurious hemipterous insects of the genus Aleyrodes, allied to scale insects. They are usually covered with a white or gray powder. WHITE-FOOT White"-foot`, n. (Far.) Defn: A white mark on the foot of a horse, between the fetlock and the coffin. WHITE FRIAR White" fri`ar. (Eccl.) Defn: A mendicant monk of the Carmelite order, so called from the white cloaks worn by the order. See Carmelite. WHITE-FRONTED White`-front"ed, a. Defn: Having a white front; as, the white-fronted lemur. White- fronted goose (Zoöl.), the white brant, or snow goose. See Snow goose, under Snow. WHITEHEAD White"head`, n. (Zoöl.) (a) The blue-winged snow goose. (b) The surf scoter. WHITEHEAD TORPEDO; WHITEHEAD White"head` tor*pe"do, or White"head`, n. Defn: A form of self-propelling torpedo. WHITE-HEART White"-heart`, n. (Bot.) Defn: A somewhat heart-shaped cherry with a whitish skin. WHITE HORSE White horse. Defn: A large mass of tough sinewy substance in the head of sperm whales, just above the upper jaw and extending in streaks into the junk above it. It resembles blubber, but contains no oil. Also, the part of the head in which it occurs. WHITE-HOT White"-hot`, a. Defn: White with heat; heated to whiteness, or incandescence. WHITE-LIMED White"-limed`, a. Defn: Whitewashed or plastered with lime. "White-limed walls." Shak. WHITE LIST White list. (a) A list of business concerns regarded as worthy of patronage by reason of compliance with certain conditions, as in regard to treatment of employees; as, the white list of the Consumers' League. [Cant] (b) (New York Stock Exchange) The official list of all transactions, published daily on white paper, divided into sales from 10 to 12, 12 to 2, and 2 to 3. WHITE-LIVERED White"-liv`ered, a. Defn: Having a pale look; feeble; hence, cowardly; pusillanimous; dastardly. They must not be milksops, nor white-livered knights. Latimer. WHITELY White"ly, a. Defn: Like, or coming near to, white. [Obs.] WHITE MUSTARD White mustard. Defn: A kind of mustard (Sinapis alba) with rough-hairy foliage, a long-beaked hispid pod, and pale seeds, which yield mustard and mustard oil. The plant is also grown for forage. WHITEN Whit"en, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Whitened; p. pr. & vb. n. Whitening.] Etym: [OE. whitenen; cf. Icel. hvitna.] Defn: To grow white; to turn or become white or whiter; as, the hair whitens with age; the sea whitens with foam; the trees in spring whiten with blossoms. WHITEN Whit"en, v. t. Defn: To make white; to bleach; to blanch; to whitewash; as, to whiten a wall; to whiten cloth. The broad stream of the Foyle then whitened by vast flocks of wild swans. Macaulay. Syn. -- See Blanch. WHITENER Whit"en*er, n. Defn: One who, or that which, whitens; a bleacher; a blancher; a whitewasher. WHITENESS White"ness, n. Etym: [AS. hwitness.] 1. The quality or state of being white; white color, or freedom from darkness or obscurity on the surface. Chaucer. 2. Want of a sanguineous tinge; paleness; as from terror, grief, etc. "The whiteness in thy cheek." Shak. 3. Freedom from stain or blemish; purity; cleanness. He had kept The whiteness of his soul, and thus men o'er him wept. Byron. 4. Nakedness. [Obs.] Chapman. 5. (Zoöl.) Defn: A flock of swans. WHITENING Whit"en*ing, n. 1. The act or process of making or becoming white. 2. That which is used to render white; whiting. [R.] Whitening stone, a sharpening and polishing stone used by cutlers; also, a finishing grindstone of fine texture. WHITE PERSON White person. Defn: A person of the Caucasian race (6 Fed. Rep. 256). In the time of slavery in the United States white person was generally construed as a person without admixture of colored blood. In various statutes and decisions in different States since 1865 white person is construed as in effect: one not having any negro blood (Ark., Okla.); one having less than one eighth of negro blood (Ala., Fla., Ga., Ind., Ky., Md., Minn., Miss., Mo., N.C., S.C., Tenn., Tex.); one having less than one fourth (Mich., Neb., Ore., Va.); one having less than one half (Ohio). WHITE PLAGUE White plague. Defn: Tuberculosis, esp. of the lungs. WHITE-POT White"-pot`, n. Defn: A kind of food made of milk or cream, eggs, sugar, bread, etc., baked in a pot. King. WHITERUMP White"rump`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The American black-tailed godwit. WHITES Whites, n. pl. 1. (Med.) Defn: Leucorrh 2. The finest flour made from white wheat. 3. Cloth or garments of a plain white color. WHITESIDE White"side`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The golden-eye. WHITE SLAVE White slave. Defn: A woman held in involuntary confinement for purposes of prostitution; loosely, any woman forced into unwilling prostitution. WHITE SLAVER White slaver. Defn: A person engaged in procuring or holding a woman or women for unwilling prostitution. WHITE SLAVING White slaving. Defn: The action of one who procures or holds a woman or women for unwilling prostitution. WHITESMITH White"smith`, n. 1. One who works in tinned or galvanized iron, or white iron; a tinsmith. 2. A worker in iron who finishes or polishes the work, in distinction from one who forges it. WHITESTER White"ster, n. Etym: [White + -ster.] Defn: A bleacher of lines; a whitener; a whitster. [Prov. Eng.] WHITETAIL White"tail`, n. 1. (Zoöl.) Defn: The Virginia deer. 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: The wheatear. [Prov. Eng.] WHITETHORN White"thorn`, n. (Bot.) Defn: The hawthorn. WHITETHROAT White"throat`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of several species of Old World warblers, esp. the common European species (Sylvia cinerea), called also strawsmear, nettlebird, muff, and whitecap, the garden whitethroat, or golden warbler (S. hortensis), and the lesser whitethroat (S. curruca). WHITETOP White"top`, n. (Bot.) Defn: Fiorin. WHITEWALL White"wall`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The spotted flycatcher; -- so called from the white color of the under parts. [Prov. Eng.] WHITEWASH White"wash` (, n. 1. Any wash or liquid composition for whitening something, as a wash for making the skin fair. Addison. 2. A composition of line and water, or of whiting size, and water, or the like, used for whitening walls, ceilings, etc.; milk of lime. WHITEWASH White"wash`, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Whitewashed; p. pr. & vb. n. Whitewashing.] 1. To apply a white liquid composition to; to whiten with whitewash. 2. To make white; to give a fair external appearance to; to clear from imputations or disgrace; hence, to clear (a bankrupt) from obligation to pay debts. WHITEWASHER White"wash`er, n. Defn: One who whitewashes. WHITE-WATER White"-wa`ter, n. (Far.) Defn: A dangerous disease of sheep. WHITEWEED White"weed`, n. (Bot.) Defn: A perennial composite herb (Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum) with conspicuous white rays and a yellow disk, a common weed in grass lands and pastures; -- called also oxeye daisy. WHITEWING White"wing`, n. (Zoöl.) (a) The chaffinch; -- so called from the white bands on the wing. (b) The velvet duck. WHITEWOOD White"wood`, n. Defn: The soft and easily-worked wood of the tulip tree (Liriodendron). It is much used in cabinetwork, carriage building, etc. Note: Several other kinds of light-colored wood are called whitewood in various countries, as the wood of Bignonia leucoxylon in the West Indies, of Pittosporum bicolor in Tasmania, etc. Whitewood bark. See the Note under Canella. WHITEWORT White"wort`, n. (Bot.) (a) Wild camomile. (b) A kind of Solomon's seal (Polygonum officinale). WHITFLAW Whit"flaw`, n. Etym: [See Whitlow.] Defn: Whitlow. [Obs.] "The nails fallen off by whitflaws." Herrick. WHITHER Whith"er, adv. Etym: [OE. whider. AS. hwider; akin to E. where, who; cf. Goth. hvadre whither. See Who, and cf. Hither, Thither.] 1. To what place; -- used interrogatively; as, whither goest thou "Whider may I flee" Chaucer. Sir Valentine, whither away so fast Shak. 2. To what or which place; -- used relatively. That no man should know . . . whither that he went. Chaucer. We came unto the land whither thou sentest us. Num. xiii. 27. 3. To what point, degree, end, conclusion, or design; whereunto; whereto; -- used in a sense not physical. Nor have I . . . whither to appeal. Milton. Any whither, to any place; anywhere. [Obs.] "Any whither, in hope of life eternal." Jer. Taylor. -- No whither, to no place; nowhere. [Obs.] 2 Kings v. 25. Syn. -- Where. -- Whither, Where. Whither properly implies motion to place, and where rest in a place. Whither is now, however, to a great extent, obsolete, except in poetry, or in compositions of a grave and serious character and in language where precision is required. Where has taken its place, as in the question, "Where are you going" WHITHERSOEVER Whith`er*so*ev"er, adv. Etym: [Whither + soever.] Defn: To whatever place; to what place soever; wheresoever; as, I will go whithersoever you lead. WHITHERWARD Whith"er*ward, adv. Defn: In what direction; toward what or which place. R. of Brunne. Whitherward to turn for a good course of life was by no means too apparent. Carlyle. WHITILE Whit"ile, n. Etym: [Perhaps properly, the cutter (see Whittle, v.), or cf. whitewall, witwal.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The yaffle. [Prov. Eng.] WHITING Whit"ing, n. Etym: [From White.] 1. (Zoöl.) (a) A common European food fish (Melangus vulgaris) of the Codfish family; -- called also fittin. (b) A North American fish (Merlucius vulgaris) allied to the preceding; -- called also silver hake. (c) Any one of several species of North American marine sciænoid food fishes belonging to genus Menticirrhus, especially M. Americanus, found from Maryland to Brazil, and M. littoralis, common from Virginia to Texas; -- called also silver whiting, and surf whiting. Note: Various other fishes are locally called whiting, as the kingfish (a), the sailor's choice (b), the Pacific tomcod, and certain species of lake whitefishes. 2. Chalk prepared in an impalpable powder by pulverizing and repeated washing, used as a pigment, as an ingredient in putty, for cleaning silver, etc. Whiting pollack. (Zoöl.) Same as Pollack. -- Whiting pout (Zoöl.), the bib, 2. WHITING-MOP Whit"ing-mop`, n. [Obs.] 1. (Zoöl.) Defn: A young whiting. [Prov. Eng.] 2. A fair lass. "This pretty whiting-mop." Massinger. WHITISH Whit"ish, a. Etym: [From White.] 1. Somewhat white; approaching white; white in a moderate degree. 2. (Bot.) Defn: Covered with an opaque white powder. WHITISHNESS Whit"ish*ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being whitish or somewhat white. WHITLEATHER Whit"leath`er, n. Etym: [White + leather.] 1. Leather dressed or tawed with alum, salt, etc., remarkable for its pliability and toughness; white leather. 2. (Anat.) Defn: The paxwax. See Paxwax. WHITLING Whit"ling, n. Etym: [White + -ling.] (Zoöl.) Defn: A young full trout during its second season. [Prov. Eng.] WHITLOW Whit"low, n. Etym: [Prov. E. whickflaw, for quickflaw, i. e., a flaw or sore at the quick; cf. Icel. kvika the quick under the nail or under a horse's hoof. See Quick, a., and Flaw.] 1. (Med.) Defn: An inflammation of the fingers or toes, generally of the last phalanx, terminating usually in suppuration. The inflammation may occupy any seat between the skin and the bone, but is usually applied to a felon or inflammation of the periosteal structures of the bone. 2. (Far.) Defn: An inflammatory disease of the feet. It occurs round the hoof, where an acrid matter is collected. Whitlow grass (Bot.), name given to several inconspicuous herbs, which were thought to be a cure for the whitlow, as Saxifraga tridactylites, Draba verna, and several species of Paronychia. WHITLOW-WORT Whit"low-wort`, n. (Bot.) Defn: Same as Whitlow grass, under Whitlow. WHITMONDAY Whit"mon`day, n. (Eccl.) Defn: The day following Whitsunday; -- called also Whitsun Monday. WHITNEYITE Whit"ney*ite, n. Etym: [So called after J.D. Whitney, an American geologist.] (Min.) Defn: an arsenide of copper from Lake Superior. WHITSON Whit"son, a. Defn: See Whitsun. [Obs.] WHITSOUR Whit"sour`, n. Etym: [White + sour.] (Bot.) Defn: A sort of apple. WHITSTER Whit"ster, n. Etym: [Contracted fr. whitester.] Defn: A whitener; a bleacher; a whitester. [Obs.] The whitsters in Datchet mead. Shak. WHITSUN Whit"sun, a. Defn: Of, pertaining to, or observed at, Whitsuntide; as, Whitsun week; Whitsun Tuesday; Whitsun pastorals. WHITSUNDAY Whit"sun*day, n. Etym: [White + Sunday.] 1. (Eccl.) Defn: The seventh Sunday, and the fiftieth day, after Easter; a festival of the church in commemoration of the descent of the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost; Pentecost; -- so called, it is said, because, in the primitive church, those who had been newly baptized appeared at church between Easter and Pentecost in white garments. 2. (Scots Law) Defn: See the Note under Term, n., 12. WHITSUNTIDE Whit"sun*tide`, n. Etym: [Whitsunday + tide.] Defn: The week commencing with Whitsunday, esp. the first three days -- Whitsunday, Whitsun Monday, and Whitsun Tuesday; the time of Pentecost. R. of Gloucester. WHITTEN TREE Whit"ten tree`. Etym: [Probably from white; cf. AS. hwitingtreów.] (Bot.) Defn: Either of two shrubs (Viburnum Lantana, and V. Opulus), so called on account of their whitish branches. WHITTERICK Whit"ter*ick, n. Defn: The curlew. [Prov. Eng.] WHITTLE Whit"tle, n. Etym: [AS. hwitel, from hwit white; akin to Icel. hvitill a white bed cover. See White.] (a) A grayish, coarse double blanket worn by countrywomen, in the west of England, over the shoulders, like a cloak or shawl. C. Kingsley. (b) Same as Whittle shawl, below. Whittle shawl, a kind of fine woolen shawl, originally and especially a white one. WHITTLE Whit"tle, n. Etym: [OE. thwitel, fr. AS. pwitan to cut. Cf. Thwittle, Thwaite a piece of ground.] Defn: A knife; esp., a pocket, sheath, or clasp knife. "A butcher's whittle." Dryden. "Rude whittles." Macaulay. He wore a Sheffield whittle in his hose. Betterton. WHITTLE Whit"tle, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Whittled; p. pr. & vb. n. Whittling.] 1. To pare or cut off the surface of with a small knife; to cut or shape, as a piece of wood held in the hand, with a clasp knife or pocketknife. 2. To edge; to sharpen; to render eager or excited; esp., to excite with liquor; to inebriate. [Obs.] "In vino veritas." When men are well whittled, their tongues run at random. Withals. WHITTLE Whit"tle, v. i. Defn: To cut or shape a piece of wood with am small knife; to cut up a piece of wood with a knife. Dexterity with a pocketknife is a part of a Nantucket education; but I am inclined to think the propensity is national. Americans must and will whittle. Willis. WHITTLINGS Whit"tlings, n. pl. Defn: Chips made by one who whittles; shavings cut from a stick with a knife. WHITTRET Whit"tret, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A weasel. [Scot.] WHITTUESDAY Whit"tues`day, n. (Eccl.) Defn: The day following Whitmonday; -- called also Whitsun Tuesday. WHITWALL Whit"wall`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: Same as Whetile. WHITWORTH BALL Whit"worth ball`. (Gun.) Defn: A prejectile used in the Whitworth gun. WHITWORTH GUN Whit"worth gun`. (Gun.) Defn: A form of rifled cannon and small arms invented by Sir Joseph Whitworth, of Manchester, England. Note: In Mr. Whitworth's system, the bore of the gun has a polygonal section, and the twist is rapid. The ball, which is pointed in front, is made to fit the bore accurately, and is very much elongated, its length being about three and one half times as great as its diameter. H. L. Scott. WHITY-BROWN Whit"y-brown`, a. Defn: Of a color between white and brown. Pegge. WHIZ Whiz, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Whizzed; p. pr. & vb. n. Whizzing.] Etym: [Of imitative origin. Whistle, and Hiss.] Defn: To make a humming or hissing sound, like an arrow or ball flying through the air; to fly or move swiftly with a sharp hissing or whistling sound. [Written also whizz.] It flew, and whizzing, cut the liquid way. Dryden. WHIZ Whiz, n. Defn: A hissing and humming sound. Like the whiz of my crossbow. Coleridge. WHIZZINGLY Whiz"zing*ly, adv. Defn: With a whizzing sound. WHO Who, pron. [Possess. whose; object. Whom.] Etym: [OE. who, wha, AS. hwa, interrogative pron., neut. hwæt; akin to OFries. hwa, neut. hwet, OS. hwe, neut. hwat, D. wie, neut. wat, G. wer, neut.was, OHG. wer, hwer, neut. waz, hwaz, Icel. hvat, neut., Dan. hvo, neut. hvad, Sw. ho, hvem, neut. hvad, Goth. hwas, fem. hwo, neut. hwa, Lith. kas, Ir. & Gael. co, W. pwy, L. quod, neuter of qui, Gr. po`teros whether, Skr. kas. sq. root182. Cf. How, Quantity, Quorum, Quote, Ubiquity, What, When, Where, Whether, Which, Whither, Whom, Why.] 1. Originally, an interrogative pronoun, later, a relative pronoun also; -- used always substantively, and either as singular or plural. See the Note under What, pron., 1. As interrogative pronouns, who and whom ask the question: What or which person or persons Who and whom, as relative pronouns (in the sense of that), are properly used of persons (corresponding to which, as applied to things), but are sometimes, less properly and now rarely, used of animals, plants, etc. Who and whom, as compound relatives, are also used especially of persons, meaning the person that; the persons that; the one that; whosoever. "Let who will be President." Macaulay. [He] should not tell whose children they were. Chaucer. There thou tell'st of kings, and who aspire; Who fall, who rise, who triumph, who do moan. Daniel. Adders who with cloven tongues Do hiss into madness. Shak. Whom I could pity thus forlorn. Milton. How hard is our fate, who serve in the state. Addison. Who cheapens life, abates the fear of death. Young. The brace of large greyhounds, who were the companions of his sports. Sir W. Scott. 2. One; any; one. [Obs., except in the archaic phrase, as who should say.] As who should say, it were a very dangerous matter if a man in any point should be found wiser than his forefathers were. Robynson (More's Utopia). WHOA Whoa, interj. Defn: Stop; stand; hold. See Ho, 2. WHOBUB Who"bub, n. Defn: Hubbub. [Obs.] Beau. & Fl. WHOEVER Who*ev"er, pron. Defn: Whatever person; any person who; be or she who; any one who; as, he shall be punished, whoever he may be. "Whoever envies or repines." Milton. "Whoever the king favors." Shak. WHOLE Whole, a. Etym: [OE. hole, hol, hal, hool, AS. hal well, sound, healthy; akin to OFries. & OS. h, D. heel, G. heil, Icel. heill, Sw. hel whole, Dan. heel, Goth. hails well, sound, OIr. c augury. Cf. Hale, Hail to greet, Heal to cure, Health, Holy.] 1. Containing the total amount, number, etc.; comprising all the parts; free from deficiency; all; total; entire; as, the whole earth; the whole solar system; the whole army; the whole nation. "On their whole host I flew unarmed." Milton. The whole race of mankind. Shak. 2. Complete; entire; not defective or imperfect; not broken or fractured; unimpaired; uninjured; integral; as, a whole orange; the egg is whole; the vessel is whole. My life is yet whole in me. 2 Sam. i. 9. 3. Possessing, or being in a state of, heath and soundness; healthy; sound; well. [She] findeth there her friends hole and sound. Chaucer. They that be whole need not a physician. Matt. ix. 12. When Sir Lancelot's deadly hurt was whole. Tennyson. Whole blood. (Law of Descent) See under Blood, n., 2. -- Whole note (Mus.), the note which represents a note of longest duration in common use; a semibreve. -- Whole number (Math.), a number which is not a fraction or mixed number; an integer. Whole snipe (Zoöl.), the common snipe, as distinguished from the smaller jacksnipe. [Prov. Eng.] Syn. -- All; total; complete; entire; integral; undivided; uninjured; unimpaired; unbroken; healthy. -- Whole, Total, Entire, Complete. When we use the word whole, we refer to a thing as made up of parts, none of which are wanting; as, a whole week; a whole year; the whole creation. When we use the word total, we have reference to all as taken together, and forming a single totality; as, the total amount; the total income. When we speak of a thing as entire, we have no reference to parts at all, but regard the thing as an integer, i. e., continuous or unbroken; as, an entire year; entire prosperity. When we speak of a thing as complete, there is reference to some progress which results in a filling out to some end or object, or a perfected state with no deficiency; as, complete success; a complete victory. All the whole army stood agazed on him. Shak. One entire and perfect chrysolite. Shak. Lest total darkness should by night regain Her old possession, and extinguish life. Milton. So absolute she seems, And in herself complete. Milton. WHOLE Whole, n. 1. The entire thing; the entire assemblage of parts; totality; all of a thing, without defect or exception; a thing complete in itself. "This not the whole of life to live, Nor all of death to die. J. Montgomery. 2. A regular combination of parts; a system. Parts answering parts shall slide into a whole. Pope. Committee of the whole. See under Committee. -- Upon the whole, considering all things; taking everything into account; in view of all the circumstances or conditions. Syn. -- Totality; total; amount; aggregate; gross. WHOLE-HOOFED Whole"-hoofed`, a. Defn: Having an undivided hoof, as the horse. WHOLE-LENGTH Whole"-length`, a. Defn: Representing the whole figure; -- said of a picture or statue. -- n. Defn: A portrait or statue representing the whole figure. WHOLENESS Whole"ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being whole, entire, or sound; entireness; totality; completeness. WHOLESALE Whole"sale`, n. Defn: Sale of goods by the piece or large quantity, as distinguished from retail. By wholesale, in the mass; in large quantities; without distinction or discrimination. Some, from vanity or envy, despise a valuable book, and throw contempt upon it by wholesale. I. Watts. WHOLESALE Whole"sale`, a. 1. Pertaining to, or engaged in, trade by the piece or large quantity; selling to retailers or jobbers rather than to consumers; as, a wholesale merchant; the wholesale price. 2. Extensive and indiscriminate; as, wholesale slaughter. "A time for wholesale trust." Mrs. Humphry Ward. WHOLESOME Whole"some, a. [Compar. Wholesomer; superl. Wholesomest.] Etym: [Whole + some; cf. Icel. heilsamr, G. heilsam, D. heilzaam.] 1. Tending to promote health; favoring health; salubrious; salutary. Wholesome thirst and appetite. Milton. From which the industrious poor derive an agreeable and wholesome variety of food. A Smith. 2. Contributing to the health of the mind; favorable to morals, religion, or prosperity; conducive to good; salutary; sound; as, wholesome advice; wholesome doctrines; wholesome truths; wholesome laws. A wholesome tongue is a tree of life. Prov. xv. 4. I can not . . . make you a wholesome answer; my wit's diseased. Shak. A wholesome suspicion began to be entertained. Sir W. Scott. 3. Sound; healthy. [Obs.] Shak. -- Whole"some*ly, adv. -- Whole"some*ness, n. WHOLE-SOULED Whole"-souled`, a. Defn: Thoroughly imbued with a right spirit; noble-minded; devoted. WHOLLY Whol"ly, adv. 1. In a whole or complete manner; entirely; completely; perfectly. Nor wholly overcome, nor wholly yield. Dryden. 2. To the exclusion of other things; totally; fully. They employed themselves wholly in domestic life. Addison. WHOM Whom, pron. Etym: [OE. wham, AS. dative hwam, hw. See Who.] Defn: The objective case of who. See Who. Note: In Old English, whom was also commonly used as a dative. Cf. Him. And every grass that groweth upon root She shall eke know, and whom it will do boot. Chaucer. WHOMSOEVER Whom`so*ev"er, pron. Defn: The objective of whosoever. See Whosoever. The Most High ruleth in the kingdow of men, and giveth it to whomsoever he will. Dan. iv. 17. WHOOBUB Whoo"bub, n. Defn: Hubbub. [Obs.] Shak. WHOOP Whoop (, n. Etym: [See Hoopoe.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The hoopoe. WHOOP Whoop, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Whooped; p. pr. & vb. n. Whooping.] Etym: [OE. houpen. See Hoop, v. i.] 1. To utter a whoop, or loud cry, as eagerness, enthusiasm, or enjoyment; to cry out; to shout; to halloo; to utter a war whoop; to hoot, as an owl. Each whooping with a merry shout. Wordsworth. When naught was heard but now and then the howl Of some vile cur, or whooping of the owl. W. Browne. 2. To cough or breathe with a sonorous inspiration, as in whooping cough. WHOOP Whoop, v. t. Defn: To insult with shouts; to chase with derision. And suffered me by the voice of slaves to be Whooped out of Rome. Shak. WHOOP Whoop, n. 1. A shout of pursuit or of war; a very of eagerness, enthusiasm, enjoyment, vengeance, terror, or the like; an halloo; a hoot, or cry, as of an owl. A fox, crossing the road, drew off a considerable detachment, who clapped spurs to their horses, and pursued him with whoops and halloos. Addison. The whoop of the crane. Longfellow. 2. A loud, shrill, prolonged sound or sonorous inspiration, as in whooping cough. WHOOPER Whoop"er, n. Defn: One who, or that which, whooops. Woopher swan. (Zoöl.) See the Note under Swan. WHOOPING Whoop"ing, Defn: a. & n. from Whoop, v. t. Whooping cough (Med.), a violent, convulsive cough, returning at longer or shorter intervals, and consisting of several expirations, followed by a sonorous inspiration, or whoop; chin cough; hooping cough. Dunglison. -- Whooping crane (Zoöl.), a North American crane (Crus Americana) noted for the loud, whooplike note which it utters. -- Whooping swan (Zoöl.), the whooper swan. See the Note under Swan. WHOOT Whoot, v. i. Etym: [See Hoot.] Defn: To hoot. [Obs.] WHOP Whop, v. t. Defn: Same as Whap. Forby. WHOP Whop, n. Defn: Same as Whap. WHOPPER Whop"per, n. Etym: [Cf. Whapper.] 1. One who, or that which, whops. 2. Same as Whapper. WHORE Whore, n. Etym: [OE. hore, AS. h; akin to D. hoer, hoere, G. hure, OHG. huora, huorra, Icel. h, Dan. hore, Sw. hora, Goth. h an adulterer, AS. h adultery, OHG. huor, and probably to L. carus dear. Cf. Charity.] Defn: A woman who practices unlawful sexual commerce with men, especially one who prostitutes her body for hire; a prostitute; a harlot. Wyclif. Syn. -- Harlot; courtesan; prostitute; strumpet. WHORE Whore, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Whored; p. pr. & vb. n. Whoring.] Etym: [Cf. Icel. h. See Whore, n.] 1. To have unlawful sexual intercourse; to practice lewdness. 2. (Script.) Defn: To worship false and impure gods. WHORE Whore, v. t. Defn: To corrupt by lewd intercourse; to make a whore of; to debauch. [R.] Congreve. WHOREDOM Whore"dom, n. Etym: [OE. hordom; cf. Icel. h.] 1. The practice of unlawful intercourse with the other sex; fornication; lewdness. 2. (Script.) Defn: The sin of worshiping idols; idolatry. O Ephraim, thou committest whoredom, and Israel is defiled; they will not . . . turn unto their God. Hos. v. 3, 4. WHOREMASTER Whore"mas`ter, n. 1. A man who practices lewdness; a lecher; a whoremonger. 2. One keeps or procures whores for others; a pimp; a procurer. WHOREMASTERLY Whore"mas`ter*ly, a. Defn: Having the character of a whoremaster; lecherous; libidinous. WHOREMONGER Whore"mon`ger, n. Defn: A whoremaster; a lecher; a man who frequents the society of whores. WHORESON Whore"son, n. Defn: A bastard; colloquially, a low, scurvy fellow; -- used generally in contempt, or in coarse humor. Also used adjectively. [Archaic] Shak. WHORISH Whor"ish, a. Defn: Resembling a whore in character or conduct; addicted to unlawful pleasures; incontinent; lewd; unchaste. -- Whor"ish*ly, adv. -- Whor"ish*ness, n. WHORL Whorl, n. Etym: [OE. whorvil the whirl of a spindle; akin to AS. hweorfa the whirl of a spindle, hweorfan to turn; cf. OD. worvel the whirl of a spindle. See Whirl, n. & v.] 1. (Bot.) Defn: A circle of two or more leaves, flowers, or other organs, about the same part or joint of a stem. 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: A volution, or turn, of the spire of a univalve shell. 3. (Spinning) Defn: The fly of a spindle. WHORLED Whorled, a. Defn: Furnished with whorls; arranged in the form of a whorl or whorls; verticillate; as, whorled leaves. WHORLER Whorl"er, n. Defn: A potter's wheel. WHORT Whort, n. Etym: [See Whortleberry.] (Bot.) Defn: The whortleberry, or bilberry. See Whortleberry (a). WHORTLE Whor"tle, n. (Bot.) Defn: The whortleberry, or bilberry. [He] looked ahead of him from behind a tump of whortles. R. D. Blackmore. WHORTLEBERRY Whor"tle*ber`ry, n. Etym: [AS. wyrtil a small shrub (dim. of wyrt wort) + E. berry. See Wort, and cf. Huckleberry, Hurtleberry.] (Bot.) (a) In England, the fruit of Vaccinium Myrtillus; also, the plant itself. See Bilberry, 1. (b) The fruit of several shrubby plants of the genus Gaylussacia; also, any one of these plants. See Huckleberry. WHOSE Whose, pron. Etym: [OE. whos, whas, AS. hwæs, gen. of hwa. See Who.] Defn: The possessive case of who or which. See Who, and Which. Whose daughter art thou tell me, I pray thee. Gen. xxiv. 23. The question whose solution I require. Dryden. WHOSESOEVER Whose`so*ev"er, pron. Defn: The possessive of whosoever. See Whosoever. WHOSO Who"so, pron. Defn: Whosoever. Piers Plowman. Whoso shrinks or falters now, . . . Brand the craven on his brow! Whittier. WHOSOEVER Who`so*ev"er, pron. Defn: Whatsoever person; any person whatever that; whoever. Whosoever will, let him take . . . freely. Rev. xxii. 17. WHOT Whot, a. Defn: Hot. [Obs.] Spenser. WHUR Whur, v. i. Etym: [Probably of imitative origin. Cf. Hurr, Hurry, Whir.] 1. To make a rough, humming sound, like one who pronounces the letter r with too much force; to whir; to birr. 2. To snarl or growl, as a dog. Halliwell. WHUR Whur, n. Defn: A humming or whirring sound, like that of a body moving through the air with velocity; a whir. WHURRY Whur"ry, v. t. Etym: [See Hurry.] Defn: To whisk along quickly; to hurry. [R.] Whurrying the chariot with them to the shore. Vicars. WHURT Whurt, n. (Bot.) Defn: See Whort. WHY Why, adv. Etym: [OE. whi, why, AS. hwi, hw, instrumental case of hwa, hwæt; akin to Icel. hvi why, Dan. & Sw. hvi; cf. Goth. hw. Who.] 1. For what cause, reason, or purpose; on what account; wherefore; -- used interrogatively. See the Note under What, pron., 1. Turn ye, turn ye from your evil ways; for why will ye die, O house of Israel Ezek. xxxiii. 11. 2. For which; on account of which; -- used relatively. No ground of enmity between us known Why he should mean me ill or seek to harm. Milton. Turn the discourse; I have a reason why I would not have you speak so tenderly. Dryden. 3. The reason or cause for which; that on account of which; on what account; as, I know not why he left town so suddenly; -- used as a compound relative. Note: Why is sometimes used as an interjection or an expletive in expression of surprise or content at a turn of affairs; used also in calling. "Why, Jessica!" Shak. If her chill heart I can not move, Why, I'll enjoy the very love. Cowley. Sometimes, also, it is used as a noun. The how and the why and the where. Goldsmith. For why, because; why. See Forwhy. [Obs. or Colloq.] WHY Why, n. Defn: A young heifer. [Prov. Eng.] Grose. WHYDAH BIRD; WHYDAH FINCH Whyd"ah bird`, or Whyd"ah finch`. (Zoöl.) Defn: The whidah bird. WHY-NOT Why"-not`, n. Defn: A violent and peremptory procedure without any assigned reason; a sudden conclusive happening. [Obs.] When the church Was taken with a why-not in the lurch. Hudibras. This game . . . was like to have been lost with a why-not. Nugæ Antiq. WICH Wich, n. Defn: A variant of 1st Wick. WICHITAS Wich"i*tas, n. pl.; sing. Wichita (. (Ethnol.) Defn: A tribe of Indians native of the region between the Arkansas and Red rivers. They are related to the Pawnees. See Pawnees. WICK; WICH Wick, or Wich, n. Etym: [AS. wic village, fr. L. vicus. In some names of places, perhaps fr. Icel. vik an inlet, creek, bay. See Vicinity, and cf. Villa.] 1. A street; a village; a castle; a dwelling; a place of work, or exercise of authority; -- now obsolete except in composition; as, bailiwick, Warwick, Greenwick. Stow. 2. (Curling) Defn: A narrow port or passage in the rink or course, flanked by the stones of previous players. WICK Wick, n. Etym: [OE. wicke, weyke, weke, AS. weoca or wecca; cf. D. wiek a roll of lint, Prov. G. wicke, and wieche, OHG. wiohha, Sw. veke, Dan. væge; of uncertain origin.] Defn: A bundle of fibers, or a loosely twisted or braided cord, tape, or tube, usually made of soft spun cotton threads, which by capillary attraction draws up a steady supply of the oil in lamps, the melted tallow or wax in candles, or other material used for illumination, in small successive portions, to be burned. But true it is, that when the oil is spent The light goes out, and wick is thrown away. Spenser. WICK Wick, v. i. (Curling) Defn: To strike a stone in an oblique direction. Jamieson. WICKE Wick"e, a. Defn: Wicked. [Obs.] Piers Plowman. "With full wikke intent." Chaucer. WICKED Wicked, a. Defn: Having a wick; -- used chiefly in composition; as, a two-wicked lamp. WICKED Wick"ed a. Etym: [OE. wicked, fr. wicke wicked; probably originally the same word as wicche wizard, witch. See Witch.] 1. Evil in principle or practice; deviating from morality; contrary to the moral or divine law; addicted to vice or sin; sinful; immoral; profligate; -- said of persons and things; as, a wicked king; a wicked woman; a wicked deed; wicked designs. Hence, then, and evil go with thee along, Thy offspring, to the place of evil, hell, Thou and thy wicked crew! Milton. Never, never, wicked man was wise. Pope. 2. Cursed; baneful; hurtful; bad; pernicious; dangerous. [Obs.] "Wicked dew." Shak. This were a wicked way, but whoso had a guide. P. Plowman. 3. Ludicrously or sportively mischievous; disposed to mischief; roguish. [Colloq.] Pen looked uncommonly wicked. Thackeray. Syn. -- Iniquitous; sinful; criminal; guilty; immoral; unjust; unrighteous; unholy; irreligious; ungodly; profane; vicious; pernicious; atrocious; nefarious; heinous; flagrant; flagitious; abandoned. See Iniquitous. WICKEDLY Wick"ed*ly, adv. Defn: In a wicked manner; in a manner, or with motives and designs, contrary to the divine law or the law of morality; viciously; corruptly; immorally. I have sinned, and I have done wickedly. 2 Sam. xxiv. 17. WICKEDNESS Wick"ed*ness, n. 1. The quality or state of being wicked; departure from the rules of the divine or the moral law; evil disposition or practices; immorality; depravity; sinfulness. God saw that the wickedness of man was great. Gen. vi. 5. Their inward part is very wickedness. Ps. v. 9. 2. A wicked thing or act; crime; sin; iniquity. I'll never care what wickedness I do, If this man comes to good. Shak. WICKEN TREE Wick"en tree`. Defn: Same as Quicken tree. WICKER Wick"er, n. Etym: [OE. wiker, wikir, osier, probably akin to AS. wican to give way. Cf. Weak.] 1. A small pliant twig or osier; a rod for making basketwork and the like; a withe. 2. Wickerwork; a piece of wickerwork, esp. a basket. Then quick did dress His half milk up for cheese, and in a press Of wicker pressed it. Chapman. 3. Same as 1st Wike. [Prov. Eng.] WICKER Wick"er, a. Defn: Made of, or covered with, twigs or osiers, or wickerwork. Each one a little wicker basket had, Made of fine twigs, entrailéd curiously. Spenser. WICKERED Wick"ered, a. Defn: Made of, secured by, or covered with, wickers or wickerwork. Ships of light timber, wickered with osier between, and covered over with leather. Milton. WICKERWORK Wick"er*work`, n. Defn: A texture of osiers, twigs, or rods; articles made of such a texture. WICKET Wick"et, n. Etym: [OE. wiket, OF. wiket, guichet, F. quichet; probably of Scand. origin; cf. Icel. v a small creek, inlet, bay, vik a corner.] 1. A small gate or door, especially one forming part of, or placed near, a larger door or gate; a narrow opening or entrance cut in or beside a door or gate, or the door which is used to close such entrance or aperture. Piers Plowman. "Heaven's wicket." Milton. And so went to the high street, . . . and came to the great tower, but the gate and wicket was fast closed. Ld. Berners. The wicket, often opened, knew the key. Dryden. 2. A small gate by which the chamber of canal locks is emptied, or by which the amount of water passing to a water wheel is regulated. 3. (Cricket) (a) A small framework at which the ball is bowled. It consists of three rods, or stumps, set vertically in the ground, with one or two short rods, called bails, lying horizontally across the top. (b) The ground on which the wickets are set. 4. A place of shelter made of the boughs of trees, -- used by lumbermen, etc. [Local, U. S.] Bartlett. 5. (Mining) Defn: The space between the pillars, in postand-stall working. Raymond. Wicket door, Wicket gate, a small door or gate; a wicket. See def. 1, above. Bunyan. -- Wicket keeper (Cricket), the player who stands behind the wicket to catch the balls and endeavor to put the batsman out. WICKING Wick"ing, n. Defn: the material of which wicks are made; esp., a loosely braided or twisted cord or tape of cotton. WICKIUP WICKYUP { Wick"i*up Wick"y*up }, n. Defn: Vars of Wikiup. WICLIFITE; WICKLIFFITE Wic"lif*ite, Wick"liff*ite, n. Defn: See Wyclifite. WICOPY Wic"o*py, n. (Bot.) Defn: See Leatherwood. WIDAL'S TEST; WIDAL TEST; WIDAL'S REACTION; WIDAL REACTION Wi*dal's", or Wi*dal", test or reaction . [After Fernand Widal (b. 1862), French physician.] (Med.) Defn: A test for typhoid fever based on the fact that blood serum of one affected, in a bouillon culture of typhoid bacilli, causes the bacilli to agglutinate and lose their motility. WIDDY Wid"dy, n. Etym: [Cf. Withy.] Defn: A rope or halter made of flexible twigs, or withes, as of birch. [Scot.] WIDE Wide, a. [Compar. Wider; superl. Widest.] Etym: [OE. wid, wyde, AS. wid; akin to OFries. & OS. wid, D. wijd, G. weit, OHG. wit, Icel. vi\'ebr, Sw. & Dan. vid; of uncertain origin.] 1. Having considerable distance or extent between the sides; spacious across; much extended in a direction at right angles to that of length; not narrow; broad; as, wide cloth; a wide table; a wide highway; a wide bed; a wide hall or entry. The chambers and the stables weren wyde. Chaucer. Wide is the gate . . . that leadeth to destruction. Matt. vii. 18. 2. Having a great extent every way; extended; spacious; broad; vast; extensive; as, a wide plain; the wide ocean; a wide difference. "This wyde world." Chaucer. For sceptered cynics earth were far too wide a den. Byron. When the wide bloom, on earth that lies, Seems of a brighter world than ours. Bryant. 3. Of large scope; comprehensive; liberal; broad; as, wide views; a wide understanding. Men of strongest head and widest culture. M. Arnold. 4. Of a certain measure between the sides; measuring in a direction at right angles to that of length; as, a table three feet wide. 5. Remote; distant; far. The contrary being so wide from the truth of Scripture and the attributes of God. Hammond. 6. Far from truth, from propriety, from necessity, or the like. "Our wide expositors." Milton. It is far wide that the people have such judgments. Latimer. How wide is all this long pretense ! Herbert. 7. On one side or the other of the mark; too far side-wise from the mark, the wicket, the batsman, etc. Surely he shoots wide on the bow hand. Spenser. I was but two bows wide. Massinger. 8. (Phon.) Defn: Made, as a vowel, with a less tense, and more open and relaxed, condition of the mouth organs; -- opposed to primary as used by Mr. Bell, and to narrow as used by Mr. Sweet. The effect, as explained by Mr. Bell, is due to the relaxation or tension of the pharynx; as explained by Mr. Sweet and others, it is due to the action of the tongue. The wide of e (eve) is î (îll); of a (ate) is ê (ênd), etc. See Guide to Pronunciation, § 13-15. Note: Wide is often prefixed to words, esp. to participles and participial adjectives, to form self-explaining compounds; as, wide- beaming, wide-branched, wide-chopped, wide-echoing, wide-extended, wide-mouthed, wide-spread, wide-spreading, and the like. Far and wide. See under Far. -- Wide gauge. See the Note under Cauge, 6. WIDE Wide, adv. Etym: [As. w.] 1. To a distance; far; widely; to a great distance or extent; as, his fame was spread wide. [I] went wyde in this world, wonders to hear. Piers Plowman. 2. So as to leave or have a great space between the sides; so as to form a large opening. Shak. 3. So as to be or strike far from, or on one side of, an object or purpose; aside; astray. WIDE Wide, n. 1. That which is wide; wide space; width; extent. "The waste wide of that abyss." Tennyson. 2. That which goes wide, or to one side of the mark. WIDE-ANGLE Wide"-an`gle, a. (Photog. & Optics) Defn: Having or covering an angle wider than the ordinary; -- applied to certain lenses of relatively short focus. Lenses for ordinary purposes have an angle of 50º or less. Wide-angle lenses may cover as much as 100º and are useful for photographing at short range, but the pictures appear distorted. WIDE-AWAKE Wide`-a*wake", a. Defn: Fully awake; not Dickens. WIDE-AWAKE Wide`-a*wake", n. Defn: A broad-brimmed, low-crowned felt hat. WIDEGAP Wide"gap`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The angler; -- called also widegab, and widegut. WIDELY Wide"ly, adv. 1. In a wide manner; to a wide degree or extent; far; extensively; as, the gospel was widely disseminated by the apostles. 2. Very much; to a great degree or extent; as, to differ widely in opinion. WIDEN Wid"en, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Widened; p. pr. & vb. n. Widening.] Defn: To make wide or wider; to extend in breadth; to increase the width of; as, to widen a field; to widen a breach; to widen a stocking. WIDEN Wid"en, v. i. Defn: To grow wide or wider; to enlarge; to spread; to extend. Arches widen, and long aisles extend. Pope. WIDENESS Wide"ness, n. 1. The quality or state of being wide; breadth; width; great extent from side to side; as, the wideness of a room. "I landed in a small creek about the wideness of my canoe." Swift. 2. Large extent in all directions; broadness; greatness; as, the wideness of the sea or ocean. WIDESPREAD Wide"spread`, a. Defn: Spread to a great distance; widely extended; extending far and wide; as, widespread wings; a widespread movement. WIDEWHERE Wide"where`, adv. Etym: [See Wide, and Where.] Defn: Widely; far and wide. [Obs.] Chaucer. WIDGEON Widg"eon, n. Etym: [Probably from an old French form of F. vigeon, vingeon, gingeon; of uncertain origin; cf. L. vipio, -onis, a kind of small crane.] (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of several species of fresh-water ducks, especially those belonging to the subgenus Mareca, of the genus Anas. The common European widgeon (Anas penelope) and the American widgeon (A. Americana) are the most important species. The latter is called also baldhead, baldpate, baldface, baldcrown, smoking duck, wheat, duck, and whitebelly. Bald-faced, or Green-headed, widgeon, the American widgeon. -- Black widgeon, the European tufted duck. -- Gray widgeon. (a) The gadwall. (b) The pintail duck. -- Great headed widgeon, the poachard. -- Pied widgeon. (a) The poachard. (b) The goosander. Saw-billed widgeon, the merganser. -- Sea widgeon. See in the Vocabulary. -- Spear widgeon, the goosander. [Prov. Eng.] -- Spoonbilled widgeon, the shoveler. -- White widgeon, the smew. -- Wood widgeon, the wood duck. WIDISH Wid"ish, a. Defn: Moderately wide. Tyndall. WIDMANSTATTEN FIGURES; WIDMANSTAETTEN FIGURES Wid"man*stät`ten fig"ures. (Min.) Defn: Certain figures appearing on etched meteoric iron; -- so called after A. B. Widmanstätten, of Vienna, who first described them in 1808. See the Note and Illust. under Meteorite. WIDOW Wid"ow, n. Etym: [OE. widewe, widwe, AS. weoduwe, widuwe, wuduwe; akin to OFries. widwe, OS. widowa, D. weduwe, G. wittwe, witwe, OHG. wituwa, witawa, Goth. widuw, Russ. udova, OIr. fedb, W. gweddw, L. vidua, Skr. vidhava; and probably to Skr. vidh to be empty, to lack; cf. Gr. Vidual.] Defn: A woman who has lost her husband by death, and has not married again; one living bereaved of a husband. "A poor widow." Chaucer. Grass widow. See under Grass. -- Widow bewitched, a woman separated from her husband; a grass widow. [Colloq.] Widow-in-mourning (Zoöl.), the macavahu. -- Widow monkey (Zoöl.), a small South American monkey (Callithrix lugens); -- so called on account of its color, which is black except the dull whitish arms, neck, and face, and a ring of pure white around the face. -- Widow's chamber (Eng. Law), in London, the apparel and furniture of the bedchamber of the widow of a freeman, to which she was formerly entitled. WIDOW Wid"ow, a. Defn: Widowed. "A widow woman." 1 Kings xvii. 9. "This widow lady." Shak. WIDOW Wid"ow, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Widowed; p. pr. & vb. n. Widowing.] 1. To reduce to the condition of a widow; to bereave of a husband; -- rarely used except in the past participle. Though in thus city he Hath widowed and unchilded many a one, Which to this hour bewail the injury. Shak. 2. To deprive of one who is loved; to strip of anything beloved or highly esteemed; to make desolate or bare; to bereave. The widowed isle, in mourning, Dries up her tears. Dryden. Tress of their shriveled fruits Are widowed, dreary storms o'er all prevail. J. Philips. Mourn, widowed queen; forgotten Sion, mourn. Heber. 3. To endow with a widow's right. [R.] Shak. 4. To become, or survive as, the widow of. [Obs.] Let me be married to three kings in a forenoon, and widow them all. Shak. WIDOW BIRD Wid"ow bird`. (Zoöl.) Defn: See Whidan bird. WIDOWER Wid"ow*er, n. Defn: A man who has lost his wife by death, and has not married again. Shak. WIDOWERHOOD Wid"ow*er*hood, n. Defn: The state of being a widower. WIDOWHOOD Wid"ow*hood, n. 1. The state of being a widow; the time during which a woman is widow; also, rarely, the state of being a widower. Johnson clung to her memory during a widowhood of more than thirty years. Leslie Stephen. 2. Estate settled on a widow. [Obs.] "I 'll assure her of her widowhood . . . in all my lands." Shak. WIDOW-HUNTER Wid"ow-hunt`er, n. Defn: One who courts widows, seeking to marry one with a fortune. Addison. WIDOWLY Wid"ow*ly, a. Defn: Becoming or like a widow. WIDOW-MAKER Wid"ow-mak`er, n. Defn: One who makes widows by destroying husbands. [R.] Shak. WIDOW-WAIL Wid"ow-wail`, n. (Bot.) Defn: A low, narrowleaved evergreen shrub (Cneorum tricoccon) found in Southern Europe. WIDTH Width, n. Etym: [From Wide.] Defn: The quality of being wide; extent from side to side; breadth; wideness; as, the width of cloth; the width of a door. WIDUAL Wid"u*al, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to a widow; vidual. [Obs.] Bale. WIDWE Wid"we, n. Defn: A widow. [Obs.] Chaucer. WIELD Wield, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wielded; p. pr. & vb. n. Wielding.] Etym: [OE. welden to govern, to have power over, to possess, AS. geweldan, gewyldan, from wealdan; akin to OS. waldan, OFries. walda, G. walten, OHG. waltan, Icel. valda, Sw. vålla to occasion, to cause, Dan. volde, Goth. waldan to govern, rule, L. valere to be strong. Cf. Herald, Valiant.] 1. To govern; to rule; to keep, or have in charge; also, to possess. [Obs.] When a strong armed man keepeth his house, all things that he wieldeth ben in peace. Wyclif (Luke xi. 21). Wile [ne will] ye wield gold neither silver ne money in your girdles. Wyclif (Matt. x. 9.) 2. To direct or regulate by influence or authority; to manage; to control; to sway. The famous orators . . . whose resistless eloquence Wielded at will that fierce democraty. Milton. Her newborn power was wielded from the first by unprincipled and ambitions men. De Quincey. 3. To use with full command or power, as a thing not too heavy for the holder; to manage; to handle; hence, to use or employ; as, to wield a sword; to wield the scepter. Base Hungarian wight! wilt thou the spigot wield! Shak. Part wield their arms, part curb the foaming steed. Milton. Nothing but the influence of a civilized power could induce a savage to wield a spade. S. S. Smith. To wield the scepter, to govern with supreme command. WIELDABLE Wield"a*ble, a. Defn: Capable of being wielded. WIELDANCE Wield"ance, n. Defn: The act or power of wielding. [Obs.] "Our weak wieldance." Bp. Hall. WIELDER Wield"er, n. Defn: One who wields or employs; a manager; a controller. A wielder of the great arm of the war. Milton. WIELDING Wield"ing, n. Defn: Power; authority; rule. [Obs.] To have them in your might and in your wielding. Chaucer. WIELDLESS Wield"less, a. Defn: Not to be wielded; unmanageable; unwieldy. [R.] "Wieldless might." Spenser. WIELDSOME Wield"some, a. Defn: Admitting of being easily wielded or managed. [Obs.] Golding. WIELDY Wield"y, a. Defn: Capable of being wielded; manageable; wieldable; -- opposed to unwieldy. [R.] Johnson. WIENER SCHNITZEL Wie"ner Schnit"zel. [G., Vienna cutlet.] Defn: A veal cutlet variously seasoned garnished, often with lemon, sardines, and capers. WIER Wier, n. Defn: Same as Weir. WIERANGLE Wier`an"gle, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: Same as Wariangle. [Obs. or Prov. Eng.] WIERY Wier"y, a. Etym: [Cf. Wearish.] Defn: Wet; moist; marshy. [Obs.] WIERY Wi"er*y, a. Etym: [From Wire; cf. Fiery.] Defn: Wiry. [Obs.] "Wiery gold." Peacham. WIFE Wife, n.; pl; Wives. Etym: [OE. wif, AS. wif; akin to OFries. & OS. wif, D. wijf, G. weib, OHG. wib, Icel. vif, Dan. viv; and perhaps to Skr. vip excited, agitated, inspired, vip to tremble, L. vibrare to vibrate, E. vibrate. Cf. Tacitus, [" Germania" 8]: Inesse quin etiam sanctum aliquid et providum putant, nec aut consilia earum aspernantur aut responsa neglegunt. Cf. Hussy a jade, Woman.] 1. A woman; an adult female; -- now used in literature only in certain compounds and phrases, as alewife, fishwife, goodwife, and the like. " Both men and wives." Piers Plowman. On the green he saw sitting a wife. Chaucer. 2. The lawful consort of a man; a woman who is united to a man in wedlock; a woman who has a husband; a married woman; -- correlative of husband. " The husband of one wife." 1 Tin. iii. 2. Let every one you . . . so love his wife even as himself, and the wife see that she reverence her husband. Eph. v. 33. To give to wife, To take to wife, to give or take (a woman) in marriage. -- Wife's equity (Law), the equitable right or claim of a married woman to a reasonable and adequate provision, by way of settlement or otherwise, out of her choses in action, or out of any property of hers which is under the jurisdiction of the Court of Chancery, for the support of herself and her children. Burrill. WIFEHOOD Wife"hood, n. Etym: [AS. wifhad.] 1. Womanhood. [Obs.] Chaucer. 2. The state of being a wife; the character of a wife. WIFELESS Wife"less, a. Defn: Without a wife; unmarried. Chaucer. WIFELIKE Wife"like`, a. Defn: Of, pertaining to, or like, a wife or a woman. " Wifelike government." Shak. WIFELY Wife"ly, a. Etym: [AS. wiflic.] Defn: Becoming or life; of or pertaining to a wife. "Wifely patience." Chaucer. With all the tenderness of wifely love. Dryden. WIG Wig, n. Etym: [Abbreviation from periwig.] 1. A covering for the head, consisting of hair interwoven or united by a kind of network, either in imitation of the natural growth, or in abundant and flowing curls, worn to supply a deficiency of natural hair, or for ornament, or according to traditional usage, as a part of an official or professional dress, the latter especially in England by judges and barristers. 2. An old seal; -- so called by fishermen. Wig tree. (Bot.) See Smoke tree, under Smoke. WIG Wig, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wigged; p. pr. & vb. n. Wigging.] Defn: To censure or rebuke; to hold up to reprobation; to scold. [Slang] WIGAN Wig"an, n. Defn: A kind of canvaslike cotton fabric, used to stiffen and protect the lower part of trousers and of the skirts of women's dresses, etc.; -- so called from Wigan, the name of a town in Lancashire, England. WIGEON Wi"geon, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A widgeon. [R.] WIGG; WIG Wigg, Wig, n. Etym: [Cf. D. wegge a sort of bread, G. weck, orig., a wedge-shaped loaf or cake. See Wedge.] Defn: A kind of raised seedcake. "Wiggs and ale." Pepys. WIGGED Wigged Defn: , a. Having the head covered with a wig; wearing a wig. WIGGERY Wig"ger*y, n. 1. A wig or wigs; false hair. [R.] A. Trollope. 2. Any cover or screen, as red-tapism. [R.] Fire peels the wiggeries away from them [facts.] Carlyle. WIGGLE Wig"gle, v. t. & i. Etym: [Cf. Wag, v. t., Waggle.] Defn: To move to and fro with a quick, jerking motion; to bend rapidly, or with a wavering motion, from side to side; to wag; to squirm; to wriggle; as, the dog wiggles his tail; the tadpole wiggles in the water. [Prov. Eng. & Colloq. U. S.] WIGGLE Wig"gle, n. Defn: Act of wiggling; a wriggle. [Colloq.] WIGGLER Wig"gler, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The young, either larva or pupa, of the mosquito; -- called also wiggletail. WIGHER Wig"her, v. i. Etym: [Cf. G. wiehern, E. whine.] Defn: To neigh; to whinny. [Obs.] Beau. & Fl. WIGHT Wight, n. Defn: Weight. [Obs.] WIGHT Wight, n. Etym: [OE. wight, wiht, a wight, a whit, AS. wiht, wuht, a creature, a thing; skin to D. wicht a child, OS. & OHG. wiht a creature, thing, G. wicht a creature, Icel. vætt a wight, vætt a whit, Goth. waíhts, waíht, thing; cf. Russ. veshche a thing. Whit.] 1. A whit; a bit; a jot. [Obs.] She was fallen asleep a little wight. Chaucer. 2. A supernatural being. [Obs.] Chaucer. 3. A human being; a person, either male or female; -- now used chiefly in irony or burlesque, or in humorous language. "Worst of all wightes." Chaucer. Every wight that hath discretion. Chaucer. Oh, say me true if thou wert mortal wight. Milton. WIGHT Wight, a. Etym: [OE. wight, wiht, probably of Scand. origin; cf. Icel. vigr in fighting condition, neut. vigh war, akin to AS. wig See Vanquish.] Defn: Swift; nimble; agile; strong and active. [Obs. or Poetic] 'T is full wight, God wot, as is a roe. Chaucer. He was so wimble and so wight. Spenser. They were Night and Day, and Day and Night, Pilgrims wight with steps forthright. Emerson. WIGHTLY Wight"ly, adv. Defn: Swiftly; nimbly; quickly. [Obs.] WIGLESS Wig"less, a. Defn: Having or wearing no wig. WIGWAG Wig"wag`, v. i. Etym: [See Wag, v. t.] (Naut.) Defn: To signal by means of a flag waved from side to side according to a code adopted for the purpose. [Colloq.] WIGWAM Wig"wam, n. Etym: [From the Algonquin or Massachusetts Indian word wek, "his house," or "dwelling place;" with possessive and locative affixes, we-kou-om-ut, "in his (or their) house," contracted by the English to weekwam, and wigwam.] Defn: An Indian cabin or hut, usually of a conical form, and made of a framework of poles covered with hides, bark, or mats; -- called also tepee. [Sometimes written also weekwam.] Very spacious was the wigwam, Made of deerskin dressed and whitened, With the gods of the Dacotahs Drawn and painted on its curtains. Longfellow. Note: "The wigwam, or Indian house, of a circular or oval shape, was made of bark or mats laid over a framework of branches of trees stuck in the ground in such a manner as to converge at the top, where was a central aperture for the escape of smoke from the fire beneath. The better sort had also a lining of mats. For entrance and egress, two low openings were left on opposite sides, one or the other of which was closed with bark or mats, according to the direction of the wind." Palfrey. WIKE Wike, n. Defn: A temporary mark or boundary, as a bough of a tree set up in marking out or dividing anything, as tithes, swaths to be mowed in common ground, etc.; -- called also wicker. [Prov. Eng.] WIKE Wike, n. Etym: [AS. wic. See Wick a village.] Defn: A home; a dwelling. [Obs. or Prov. Eng.] WIKIUP Wik"i*up`, n. [Of North American Indian origin; cf. Dakota wakeya, wokeya.] Defn: The hut used by the nomadic Indian tribes of the arid regions of the west and southwest United States, typically elliptical in form, with a rough frame covered with reed mats or grass or brushwood. WIKKE Wik"ke, a. Defn: Wicked. [Obs.] Chaucer. WILD Wild, a. [Compar. Wilder; superl. Wildest.] Etym: [OE. wilde, AS. wilde; akin to OFries. wilde, D. wild, OS. & OHG. wildi, G. wild, Sw. & Dan. vild, Icel. villr wild, bewildered, astray, Goth. wilpeis wild, and G. & OHG. wild game, deer; of uncertain origin.] 1. Living in a state of nature; inhabiting natural haunts, as the forest or open field; not familiar with, or not easily approached by, man; not tamed or domesticated; as, a wild boar; a wild ox; a wild cat. Winter's not gone yet, if the wild geese fly that way. Shak. 2. Growing or produced without culture; growing or prepared without the aid and care of man; native; not cultivated; brought forth by unassisted nature or by animals not domesticated; as, wild parsnip, wild camomile, wild strawberry, wild honey. The woods and desert caves, With wild thyme and gadding vine o'ergrown. Milton. 3. Desert; not inhabited or cultivated; as, wild land. "To trace the forests wild." Shak. 4. Savage; uncivilized; not refined by culture; ferocious; rude; as, wild natives of Africa or America. 5. Not submitted to restraint, training, or regulation; turbulent; tempestuous; violent; ungoverned; licentious; inordinate; disorderly; irregular; fanciful; imaginary; visionary; crazy. "Valor grown wild by pride." Prior. "A wild, speculative project." Swift. What are these So withered and so wild in their attire Shak. With mountains, as with weapons, armed; which makes Wild work in heaven. Milton. The wild winds howl. Addison. Search then the ruling passion, there, alone The wild are constant, and the cunning known. Pope. 6. Exposed to the wind and sea; unsheltered; as, a wild roadstead. 7. Indicating strong emotion, intense excitement, or as, a wild look. 8. (Naut.) Defn: Hard to steer; -- said of a vessel. Note: Many plants are named by prefixing wild to the names of other better known or cultivated plants to which they a bear a real or fancied resemblance; as, wild allspice, wild pink, etc. See the Phrases below. To run wild, to go unrestrained or untamed; to live or untamed; to live or grow without culture or training. -- To sow one's wild oats. See under Oat. Wild allspice. (Bot.), spicewood. -- Wild balsam apple (Bot.), an American climbing cucurbitaceous plant (Echinocystis lobata). -- Wild basil (Bot.), a fragrant labiate herb (Calamintha Clinopodium) common in Europe and America. -- Wild bean (Bot.), a name of several leguminous plants, mostly species of Phaseolus and Apios. -- Wild bee (Zoöl.), any one of numerous species of undomesticated social bees, especially the domestic bee when it has escaped from domestication and built its nest in a hollow tree or among rocks. -- Wild bergamot. (Bot.) See under Bergamot. -- Wild boar (Zoöl.), the European wild hog (Sus scrofa), from which the common domesticated swine is descended. -- Wild brier (Bot.), any uncultivated species of brier. See Brier. -- Wild bugloss (Bot.), an annual rough-leaved plant (Lycopsis arvensis) with small blue flowers. -- Wild camomile (Bot.), one or more plants of the composite genus Matricaria, much resembling camomile. -- Wild cat. (Zoöl.) (a) A European carnivore (Felis catus) somewhat resembling the domestic cat, but larger stronger, and having a short tail. It is destructive to the smaller domestic animals, such as lambs, kids, poultry, and the like. (b) The common American lynx, or bay lynx. (c) (Naut.) A wheel which can be adjusted so as to revolve either with, or on, the shaft of a capstan. Luce. -- Wild celery. (Bot.) See Tape grass, under Tape. -- Wild cherry. (Bot.) (a) Any uncultivated tree which bears cherries. The wild red cherry is Prunus Pennsylvanica. The wild black cherry is P. serotina, the wood of which is much used for cabinetwork, being of a light red color and a compact texture. (b) The fruit of various species of Prunus. -- Wild cinnamon. See the Note under Canella. -- Wild comfrey (Bot.), an American plant (Cynoglossum Virginicum) of the Borage family. It has large bristly leaves and small blue flowers. -- Wild cumin (Bot.), an annual umbelliferous plant (Lagoecia cuminoides) native in the countries about the Mediterranean. -- Wild drake (Zoöl.) the mallard. -- Wild elder (Bot.), an American plant (Aralia hispida) of the Ginseng family. -- Wild fowl (Zoöl.) any wild bird, especially any of those considered as game birds. -- Wild goose (Zoöl.), any one of several species of undomesticated geese, especially the Canada goose (Branta Canadensis), the European bean goose, and the graylag. See Graylag, and Bean goose, under Bean. -- Wild goose chase, the pursuit of something unattainable, or of something as unlikely to be caught as the wild goose. Shak. -- Wild honey, honey made by wild bees, and deposited in trees, rocks, the like. -- Wild hyacinth. (Bot.) See Hyacinth, 1 (b). Wild Irishman (Bot.), a thorny bush (Discaria Toumatou) of the Buckthorn family, found in New Zealand, where the natives use the spines in tattooing. -- Wild land. (a) Land not cultivated, or in a state that renders it unfit for cultivation. (b) Land which is not settled and cultivated. -- Wild licorice. (Bot.) See under Licorice. -- Wild mammee (Bot.), the oblong, yellowish, acid fruit of a tropical American tree (Rheedia lateriflora); -- so called in the West Indies. -- Wild marjoram (Bot.), a labiate plant (Origanum vulgare) much like the sweet marjoram, but less aromatic. -- Wild oat. (Bot.) (a) A tall, oatlike kind of soft grass (Arrhenatherum avenaceum). (b) See Wild oats, under Oat. -- Wild pieplant (Bot.), a species of dock (Rumex hymenosepalus) found from Texas to California. Its acid, juicy stems are used as a substitute for the garden rhubarb. -- Wild pigeon. (Zoöl.) (a) The rock dove. (b) The passenger pigeon. -- Wild pink (Bot.), an American plant (Silene Pennsylvanica) with pale, pinkish flowers; a kind of catchfly. -- Wild plantain (Bot.), an arborescent endogenous herb (Heliconia Bihai), much resembling the banana. Its leaves and leaf sheaths are much used in the West Indies as coverings for packages of merchandise. -- Wild plum. (Bot.) (a) Any kind of plum growing without cultivation. (b) The South African prune. See under Prune. -- Wild rice. (Bot.) See Indian rice, under Rice. -- Wild rosemary (Bot.), the evergreen shrub Andromeda polifolia. See Marsh rosemary, under Rosemary. -- Wild sage. (Bot.) See Sagebrush. -- Wild sarsaparilla (Bot.), a species of ginseng (Aralia nudicaulis) bearing a single long-stalked leaf. -- Wild sensitive plant (Bot.), either one of two annual leguminous herbs (Cassia Chamæcrista, and C. nictitans), in both of which the leaflets close quickly when the plant is disturbed. -- Wild service.(Bot.) See Sorb. -- Wild Spaniard (Bot.), any one of several umbelliferous plants of the genus Aciphylla, natives of New Zealand. The leaves bear numerous bayonetlike spines, and the plants form an impenetrable thicket. -- Wild turkey. (Zoöl.) See 2d Turkey. WILD Wild, n. Defn: An uninhabited and uncultivated tract or region; a forest or desert; a wilderness; a waste; as, the wilds of America; the wilds of Africa. then Libya first, of all her moisture drained, Became a barren waste, a wild of sand. Addison. WILD Wild, adv. Defn: Wildly; as, to talk wild. Shak. WILD-CAT Wild"-cat`, a. 1. Unsound; worthless; irresponsible; unsafe; -- said to have been originally applied to the notes of an insolvent bank in Michigan upon which there was the figure of a panther. 2. (Railroad) Defn: Running without control; running along the line without a train; as, a wild-cat locomotive. WILDEBEEST Wilde"beest`, n. Etym: [D. wild wild + beeste beast.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The gnu. WILDED Wild"ed, a. Defn: Become wild. [R.] An old garden plant escaped and wilded. J. Earle. WILDER Wil"der, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wildered; p. pr. & vb. n. Wildering.] Etym: [Akin to E. wild, Dan. forvilde to bewilder, Icel. villr bewildered, villa to bewilder; cf. AS. wildor a wild animal. See Wild, a., and cf. Wilderness.] Defn: To bewilder; to perplex. Long lost and wildered in the maze of fate. Pope. Again the wildered fancy dreams Of spouting fountains, frozen as they rose. Bryant. WILDERING Wild"er*ing, n. (Bot.) Defn: A plant growing in a state of nature; especially, one which has run wild, or escaped from cultivation. WILDERMENT Wil"der*ment, n. Defn: The state of being bewildered; confusion; bewilderment. And snatched her breathless from beneath This wilderment of wreck and death. Moore. WILDERNESS Wil"der*ness, n. Etym: [OE. wildernesse, wilderne,probably from AS. wildor a wild beast; cf. D. wildernis wilderness. See Wilder, v. t.] 1. A tract of land, or a region, uncultivated and uninhabited by human beings, whether a forest or a wide, barren plain; a wild; a waste; a desert; a pathless waste of any kind. The wat'ry wilderness yields no supply. Waller. 2. A disorderly or neglected place. Cowper. 3. Quality or state of being wild; wildness. [Obs.] These paths and bowers doubt not but our joint hands. Will keep from wilderness with ease. Milton. WILDFIRE Wild"fire, n. 1. A composition of inflammable materials, which, kindled, is very hard to quench; Greek fire. Brimstone, pitch, wildfire . . . burn cruelly, and hard to quench. Bacon. 2. (Med.) (a) An old name for erysipelas. (b) A disease of sheep, attended with inflammation of the skin. 3. A sort of lightning unaccompanied by thunder. [R.] WILDGRAVE Wild"grave`, n. Etym: [G. wildgraf or D. wildgraaf. See Wild, and cf. Margrave.] Defn: A waldgrave, or head forest keeper. See Waldgrave. The wildgrave winds his bugle horn. Sir W. Scott. WILDING Wild"ing, n. (Bot.) Defn: A wild or uncultivated plant; especially, a wild apple tree or crab apple; also, the fruit of such a plant. Spenser. Ten ruddy wildings in the wood I found. Dryden. The fruit of the tree . . . is small, of little juice, and bad quality. I presume it to be a wilding. Landor. WILDING Wild"ing, a. Defn: Not tame, domesticated, or cultivated; wild. [Poetic] "Wilding flowers." Tennyson. The ground squirrel gayly chirps by his den, And the wilding bee hums merrily by. Bryant. WILDISH Wild"ish, a. Defn: Somewhat wild; rather wild. "A wildish destiny." Wordsworth. WILDLY Wild"ly, adv. Defn: In a wild manner; without cultivation; with disorder; rudely; distractedly; extravagantly. WILDNESS Wild"ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being wild; an uncultivated or untamed state; disposition to rove or go unrestrained; rudeness; savageness; irregularity; distraction. WILDWOOD Wild"wood, n. Defn: A wild or unfrequented wood. Also used adjectively; as, wildwood flowers; wildwood echoes. Burns. WILE Wile, n. Etym: [OE. wile, AS. wil; cf. Icel. v, væl. Cf. Guile.] Defn: A trick or stratagem practiced for insnaring or deception; a sly, insidious; artifice; a beguilement; an allurement. Put on the whole armor of God, that ye may be able to stand against the wiles of the devil. Eph. vi. 11. Not more almighty to resist our might, Than wise to frustrate all our plots and wiles. Milton. WILE Wile, v. t. 1. To practice artifice upon; to deceive; to beguile; to allure. [R.] Spenser. 2. To draw or turn away, as by diversion; to while or while away; to cause to pass pleasantly. Tennyson. WILEFUL Wile"ful, a. Defn: Full of wiles; trickish; deceitful. WILFLEY TABLE Wil"fley ta`ble. (Ore Dressing) Defn: An inclined percussion table, usually with longitudinal grooves in its surface, agitated by side blows at right angles to the flow of the pulp; -- so called after the inventor. WILFUL; WILFULLY; WILFULNESS Wil"ful, a., Wil"ful*ly, adv., Wil"ful*ness, n. Defn: See Willful, Willfully, and Willfulness. WILINESS Wi"li*ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being wily; craftiness; cunning; guile. WILK Wilk, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: See Whelk. [Obs.] WILL Will, n. Etym: [OE. wille, AS. willa; akin to OFries. willa, OS. willeo, willio, D. wil, G. wille, Icel. vili, Dan. villie, Sw. vilja, Goth wilja. See Will, v.] 1. The power of choosing; the faculty or endowment of the soul by which it is capable of choosing; the faculty or power of the mind by which we decide to do or not to do; the power or faculty of preferring or selecting one of two or more objects. It is necessary to form a distinct notion of what is meant by the word "volition" in order to understand the import of the word will, for this last word expresses the power of mind of which "volition" is the act. Stewart. Will is an ambiguous word, being sometimes put for the faculty of willing; sometimes for the act of that faculty, besides [having] other meanings. But "volition" always signifies the act of willing, and nothing else. Reid. Appetite is the will's solicitor, and the will is appetite's controller; what we covet according to the one, by the other we often reject. Hooker. The will is plainly that by which the mind chooses anything. J. Edwards. 2. The choice which is made; a determination or preference which results from the act or exercise of the power of choice; a volition. The word "will," however, is not always used in this its proper acceptation, but is frequently substituted for "volition", as when I say that my hand mover in obedience to my will. Stewart. 3. The choice or determination of one who has authority; a decree; a command; discretionary pleasure. Thy will be done. Matt. vi. 10. Our prayers should be according to the will of God. Law. 4. Strong wish or inclination; desire; purpose. Note: "Inclination is another word with which will is frequently confounded. Thus, when the apothecary says, in Romeo and Juliet, -- My poverty, but not my will, consents; . . . Put this in any liquid thing you will, And drink it off. the word will is plainly used as, synonymous with inclination; not in the strict logical sense, as the immediate antecedent of action. It is with the same latitude that the word is used in common conversation, when we speak of doing a thing which duty prescribes, against one's own will; or when we speak of doing a thing willingly or unwillingly." Stewart. 5. That which is strongly wished or desired. What's your will, good friar Shak. The mariner hath his will. Coleridge. 6. Arbitrary disposal; power to control, dispose, or determine. Deliver me not over unto the will of mine enemies. Ps. xxvii. 12. 7 7 (Law) Defn: The legal declaration of a person's mind as to the manner in which he would have his property or estate disposed of after his death; the written instrument, legally executed, by which a man makes disposition of his estate, to take effect after his death; testament; devise. See the Note under Testament, 1. Note: Wills are written or nuncupative, that is, oral. See Nuncupative will, under Nuncupative. At will (Law), at pleasure. To hold an estate at the will of another, is to enjoy the possession at his pleasure, and be liable to be ousted at any time by the lessor or proprietor. An estate at will is at the will of both parties. -- Good will. See under Good. -- Ill will, enmity; unfriendliness; malevolence. -- To have one's will, to obtain what is desired; to do what one pleases. -- Will worship, worship according to the dictates of the will or fancy; formal worship. [Obs.] -- Will worshiper, one who offers will worship. [Obs.] Jer. Taylor. -- With a will, with willingness and zeal; with all one's heart or strength; earnestly; heartily. WILL Will, v. t. & auxiliary. [imp. Would. Indic. present, I will (Obs. I wol), thou wilt, he will (Obs. he wol); we, ye, they will.] Etym: [OE. willen, imp. wolde; akin to OS. willan, OFries. willa, D. willen, G. wollen, OHG. wollan, wellan, Icel. & Sw. vilja, Dan. ville, Goth. wiljan, OSlav. voliti, L. velle to wish, volo I wish; cf. Skr. vrs to choose, to prefer. Cf. Voluntary, Welcome, Well, adv.] 1. To wish; to desire; to incline to have. A wife as of herself no thing ne sholde [should] Wille in effect, but as her husband wolde [would]. Chaucer. Caleb said unto her, What will thou Judg. i. 14. They would none of my counsel. Prov. i. 30. 2. As an auxiliary, will is used to denote futurity dependent on the verb. Thus, in first person, "I will" denotes willingness, consent, promise; and when "will" is emphasized, it denotes determination or fixed purpose; as, I will go if you wish; I will go at all hazards. In the second and third persons, the idea of distinct volition, wish, or purpose is evanescent, and simple certainty is appropriately expressed; as, "You will go," or "He will go," describes a future event as a fact only. To emphasize will denotes (according to the tone or context) certain futurity or fixed determination. Note: Will, auxiliary, may be used elliptically for will go. "I'll to her lodgings." Marlowe. Note: As in shall (which see), the second and third persons may be virtually converted into the first, either by question or indirect statement, so as to receive the meaning which belongs to will in that person; thus, "Will you go" (answer, "I will go") asks assent, requests, etc.; while "Will he go" simply inquires concerning futurity; thus, also,"He says or thinks he will go," "You say or think you will go," both signify willingness or consent. Note: Would, as the preterit of will, is chiefly employed in conditional, subjunctive, or optative senses; as, he would go if he could; he could go if he would; he said that he would go; I would fain go, but can not; I would that I were young again; and other like phrases. In the last use, the first personal pronoun is often omitted; as, would that he were here; would to Heaven that it were so; and, omitting the to in such an adjuration. "Would God I had died for thee." Would is used for both present and future time, in conditional propositions, and would have for past time; as, he would go now if he were ready; if it should rain, he would not go; he would have gone, had he been able. Would not, as also will not, signifies refusal. "He was angry, and would not go in." Luke xv. 28. Would is never a past participle. Note: In Ireland, Scotland, and the United States, especially in the southern and western portions of the United States, shall and will, should and would, are often misused, as in the following examples: -- I am able to devote as much time and attention to other subjects as I will [shall] be under the necessity of doing next winter. Chalmers. A countryman, telling us what he had seen, remarked that if the conflagration went on, as it was doing, we would [should] have, as our next season's employment, the Old Town of Edinburgh to rebuild. H. Miller. I feel assured that I will [shall] not have the misfortune to find conflicting views held by one so enlightened as your excellency. J. Y. Mason. WILL Will, v. i. Defn: To be willing; to be inclined or disposed; to be pleased; to wish; to desire. And behold, there came a leper and worshiped him, saying, Lord if thou wilt, thou canst make me clean. And Jesus . . . touched him, saying, I will; be thou clean. Matt. viii. 2, 3. Note: This word has been confused with will, v. i., to choose, which, unlike this, is of the weak conjugation. Will I, nill I, or Will ye, hill ye, or Will he, nill he, whether I, you, or he will it or not; hence, without choice; compulsorily; -- sometimes corrupted into willy nilly. "If I must take service willy nilly." J. H. Newman. "Land for all who would till it, and reading and writing will ye, nill ye." Lowell. WILL Will, v. t. [imp. & p. p Willed; p. pr. & vb. n. Willing. Indic. present I will, thou willeth, he wills; we, ye, they will.] Etym: [Cf. AS. willian. See Will, n.] 1. To form a distinct volition of; to determine by an act of choice; to ordain; to decree. "What she will to do or say." Milton. By all law and reason, that which the Parliament will not, is no more established in this kingdom. Milton. Two things he [God] willeth, that we should be good, and that we should be happy. Barrow. 2. To enjoin or command, as that which is determined by an act of volition; to direct; to order. [Obs. or R.] They willed me say so, madam. Shak. Send for music, And will the cooks to use their best of cunning To please the palate. Beau. & Fl. As you go, will the lord mayor . . . To attend our further pleasure presently. J. Webster. 3. To give or direct the disposal of by testament; to bequeath; to devise; as, to will one's estate to a child; also, to order or direct by testament; as, he willed that his nephew should have his watch. WILL Will, v. i. Defn: To exercise an act of volition; to choose; to decide; to determine; to decree. At Winchester he lies, so himself willed. Robert of Brunne. He that shall turn his thoughts inward upon what passes in his own mind when he wills. Locke. I contend for liberty as it signifies a power in man to do as he wills or pleases. Collins. WILLEMITE Wil"lem*ite, n. Etym: [From Willem I., king of the Netherlands.] (Min.) Defn: A silicate of zinc, usually occurring massive and of a greenish yellow color, also in reddish crystals (troostite) containing manganese. WILLER Will"er, n. Defn: One who wills. WILLET Wil"let, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A large North American snipe (Symphemia semipalmata); -- called also pill-willet, will-willet, semipalmated tattler, or snipe, duck snipe, and stone curlew. Carolina willet, the Hudsonian godwit. WILLFUL Will"ful, a. Etym: [Will + full.] Etym: [Written also wilful.] 1. Of set purpose; self-determined; voluntary; as, willful murder. Foxe. In willful poverty chose to lead his life. Chaucer. Thou to me Art all things under heaven, all places thou, Who, for my willful crime, art banished hence. Milton. 2. Governed by the will without yielding to reason; obstinate; perverse; inflexible; stubborn; refractory; as, a willful man or horse. -- Will"ful*ly, adv. -- Will"ful*ness, n. WILLIER Wil"li*er, n. Defn: One who works at a willying machine. WILLING Will"ing, a. Etym: [From Will, v. t.] 1. Free to do or to grant; having the mind inclined; not opposed in mind; not choosing to refuse; disposed; not averse; desirous; consenting; complying; ready. Felix, willing to show the Jews a pleasure, left Paul bound. Acts xxiv. 27. With wearied wings and willing feet. Milton. [Fruit] shaken in August from the willing boughs. Bryant. 2. Received of choice, or without reluctance; submitted to voluntarily; chosen; desired. [They] are held, with his melodious harmony, In willing chains and sweet captivity. Milton. 3. Spontaneous; self-moved. [R.] No spouts of blood run willing from a tree. Dryden. WILLINGLY Will"ing*ly, adv. Defn: In a willing manner; with free will; without reluctance; cheerfully. Chaucer. The condition of that people is not so much to be envied as some would willingly represent it. Addison. WILLINGNESS Will"ing*ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being willing; free choice or consent of the will; freedom from reluctance; readiness of the mind to do or forbear. Sweet is the love which comes with willingness. Dryden. WILLIWAW; WILLYWAW Wil"li*waw, Wil"ly*waw, n. (Naut.) Defn: A whirlwind, or whirlwind squall, encountered in the Straits of Magellan. W. C. Russell. WILLOCK Wil"lock, n. (Zoöl.) (a) The common guillemot. (b) The puffin. [Prov. Eng.] WILL-O'-THE-WISP Will"-o'-the-wisp`, n. Defn: See Ignis fatuus. WILLOW Wil"low, n. Etym: [OE. wilowe, wilwe, AS. wilig, welig; akin to OD. wilge, D. wilg, LG. wilge. Cf. Willy.] 1. (Bot.) Defn: Any tree or shrub of the genus Salix, including many species, most of which are characterized often used as an emblem of sorrow, desolation, or desertion. "A wreath of willow to show my forsaken plight." Sir W. Scott. Hence, a lover forsaken by, or having lost, the person beloved, is said to wear the willow. And I must wear the willow garland For him that's dead or false to me. Campbell. 2. (Textile Manuf.) Defn: A machine in which cotton or wool is opened and cleansed by the action of long spikes projecting from a drum which revolves within a box studded with similar spikes; -- probably so called from having been originally a cylindrical cage made of willow rods, though some derive the term from winnow, as denoting the winnowing, or cleansing, action of the machine. Called also willy, twilly, twilly devil, and devil. Almond willow, Pussy willow, Weeping willow. (Bot.) See under Almond, Pussy, and Weeping. -- Willow biter (Zoöl.) the blue tit. [Prov. Eng.] -- Willow fly (Zoöl.), a greenish European stone fly (Chloroperla viridis); -- called also yellow Sally. -- Willow gall (Zoöl.), a conical, scaly gall produced on willows by the larva of a small dipterous fly (Cecidomyia strobiloides). -- Willow grouse (Zoöl.), the white ptarmigan. See ptarmigan. -- Willow lark (Zoöl.), the sedge warbler. [Prov. Eng.] -- Willow ptarmigan (Zoöl.) (a) The European reed bunting, or black-headed bunting. See under Reed. (b) A sparrow (Passer salicicolus) native of Asia, Africa, and Southern Europe. -- Willow tea, the prepared leaves of a species of willow largely grown in the neighborhood of Shanghai, extensively used by the poorer classes of Chinese as a substitute for tea. McElrath. -- Willow thrush (Zoöl.), a variety of the veery, or Wilson's thrush. See Veery. -- Willow warbler (Zoöl.), a very small European warbler (Phylloscopus trochilus); -- called also bee bird, haybird, golden wren, pettychaps, sweet William, Tom Thumb, and willow wren. WILLOW Wil"low, v. t. Defn: To open and cleanse, as cotton, flax, or wool, by means of a willow. See Willow, n., 2. WILLOWED Wil"lowed, a. Defn: Abounding with willows; containing willows; covered or overgrown with willows. "Willowed meads." Collins. WILLOWER Wil"low*er, n. Defn: A willow. See Willow, n., 2. WILLOW-HERB Wil"low-herb`, n. (Bot.) Defn: A perennial herb (Epilobium spicatum) with narrow willowlike leaves and showy rose-purple flowers. The name is sometimes made to include other species of the same genus. Spiked willow-herb, a perennial herb (Lythrum Salicaria) with willowy leaves and spiked purplish flowers. WILLOWISH Wil"low*ish, a. Defn: Having the color of the willow; resembling the willow; willowy. Walton. WILLOW-THORN Wil"low-thorn`, n. (Bot.) Defn: A thorny European shrub (Hippophaë rhamnoides) resembling a willow. WILLOW-WEED Wil"low-weed`, n. (Bot.) (a) A European species of loosestrife (Lysimachia vulgaris). (b) Any kind of Polygonum with willowlike foliage. WILLOW-WORT Wil"low-wort`, n. (Bot.) (a) Same as Willow-weed. (b) Any plant of the order Salicaceæ, or the Willow family. WILLOWY Wil"low*y, a. 1. Abounding with willows. Where willowy Camus lingers with delight. Gray. 2. Resembling a willow; pliant; flexible; pendent; drooping; graceful. WILLSOME Will"some, a. Etym: [Written also wilsome.] 1. Willful; obstinate. [Obs.] 2. Fat; indolent. [Prov. Eng.] Halliwell. 3. Doubtful; uncertain. [Prov. Eng.] Halliwell. -- Will"some*ness, n. [Obs.] WILLY Wil"ly, n. Etym: [Cf. Willow.] 1. A large wicker basket. [Prov. Eng.] Halliwell. 2. (Textile Manuf.) Defn: Same as 1st Willow, 2. WILLYING Wil"ly*ing, n. Defn: The process of cleansing wool, cotton, or the like, with a willy, or willow. Willying machine. Same as 1st Willow, 2 WILLY NILLY Wil"ly nil"ly. Defn: See Will I, nill I, etc., under 3d Will. WILNE Wil"ne, v. t. Etym: [AS. wilnian.] Defn: To wish; to desire. [Obs.] "He willneth no destruction." Chaucer. WILT Wilt, Defn: 2d pers. sing. of Will. WILT Wilt, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Wilting.] Etym: [Written also welt, a modification of welk.] Defn: To begin to wither; to lose freshness and become flaccid, as a plant when exposed when exposed to drought, or to great heat in a dry day, or when separated from its root; to droop;. to wither. [Prov. Eng. & U. S.] WILT Wilt, v. t. 1. To cause to begin to wither; to make flaccid, as a green plant. [Prov. Eng. U. S.] 2. Hence, to cause to languish; to depress or destroy the vigor and energy of. [Prov. Eng. & U. S.] Despots have wilted the human race into sloth and imbecility. Dr. T. Dwight. WILTON CARPET Wil"ton car`pet. Defn: A kind of carpet woven with loops like the Brussels, but differing from it in having the loops cut so as to form an elastic velvet pile; -- so called because made originally at Wilton, England. WILWE Wil"we, n. Defn: Willow. [Obs.] Chaucer. WILY Wil"y, a. [Compar. Wilier; superl. Wiliest.] Etym: [From Wile.] Defn: Full of wiles, tricks, or stratagems; using craft or stratagem to accomplish a purpose; mischievously artful; subtle. "Wily and wise." Chaucer. "The wily snake." Milton. This false, wily, doubling disposition of mind. South. Syn. -- Cunning; artful; sly; crafty. See Cunning. WIMBLE Wim"ble, n. Etym: [OE. wimbil; akin to Dan. vimmel, OD. wemelen to bore. Cf. Gimlet.] Defn: An instrument for boring holes, turned by a handle. Specifically: (a) A gimlet. " It is but like the little wimble, to let in the greater auger." Selden. (b) A stonecutter's brace for boring holes in stone. (c) An auger used for boring in earth. WIMBLE Wim"ble, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wimbled; p. pr. & vb. n. Wimbling.] Defn: To bore or pierce, as with a wimble. "A foot soldier . . . wimbled also a hole through said coffin." Wood. WIMBLE Wim"ble, a. Etym: [Cf. Sw. vimmelkantig giddy, whimsical, dial. Sw. vimmla to be giddy or skittish, and E. whim.] Defn: Active; nimble.[Obs.] Spenser. WIMBREL Wim"brel, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The whimbrel. WIMPLE Wim"ple, n. Etym: [OE. wimpel, AS. winpel; akin to D. & G. wimpel a pennant, streamer, OHG. wimpal a veil, Icel. vimpill, Dan. & Sw. vimpel a pennant, streamer; of uncertain origin. Cf. Gimp.] 1. A covering of silk, linen, or other material, for the neck and chin, formerly worn by women as an outdoor protection, and still retained in the dress of nuns. Full seemly her wympel ipinched is. Chaucer. For she had laid her mournful stole aside, And widowlike sad wimple thrown away. Spenser. Then Vivian rose, And from her brown-locked head the wimple throws. M. Arnold. 2. A flag or streamer. Weale. WIMPLE Wim"ple, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wimpled; p. pr. & vb. n. Wimpling.] 1. To clothe with a wimple; to cover, as with a veil; hence, to hoodwink. "She sat ywympled well." Chaucer. This wimpled, whining, purblind, wayward boy. Shak. 2. To draw down, as a veil; to lay in folds or plaits, as a veil. 3. To cause to appear as if laid in folds or plaits; to cause to ripple or undulate; as, the wind wimples the surface of water. WIMPLE Wim"ple, v. i. Defn: To lie in folds; also, to appear as if laid in folds or plaits; to ripple; to undulate. "Wimpling waves." Longfellow. For with a veil, that wimpled everywhere, Her head and face was hid. Spenser. With me through . . . meadows stray, Where wimpling waters make their way. Ramsay. WIN Win, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Won, Obs. Wan (; p. pr. & vb. n. Winning.] Etym: [OE. winnen, AS. winnan to strive, labor, fight, endure; akin to OFries. winna, OS. winnan, D. winnen to win, gain, G. gewinnen, OHG. winnan to strive, struggle, Icel. vinna to labor, suffer, win, Dan. vinde to win, Sw. vinna, Goth. winnan to suffer, Skr.van to wish, get, gain, conquer. sq. root138. Cf. Venerate, Winsome, Wish, Wont, a.] 1. To gain by superiority in competition or contest; to obtain by victory over competitors or rivals; as, to win the prize in a gate; to win money; to win a battle, or to win a country. "This city for to win." Chaucer. "Who thus shall Canaan win." Milton. Thy well-breathed horse Impels the flying car, and wins the course. Dryden. 2. To allure to kindness; to bring to compliance; to gain or obtain, as by solicitation or courtship. Thy virtue wan me; with virtue preserve me. Sir P. Sidney. She is a woman; therefore to be won. Shak. 3. To gain over to one's side or party; to obtain the favor, friendship, or support of; to render friendly or approving; as, to win an enemy; to win a jury. 4. To come to by toil or effort; to reach; to overtake. [Archaic] Even in the porch he him did win. Spenser. And when the stony path began, By which the naked peak they wan, Up flew the snowy ptarmigan. Sir W. Scott. 5. (Mining) Defn: To extract, as ore or coal. Raymond. Syn. -- To gain; get; procure; earn. See Gain. WIN Win, v. i. Defn: To gain the victory; to be successful; to triumph; to prevail. Nor is it aught but just That he, who in debate of truth hath won, should win in arms. Milton. To win of, to be conqueror over. [Obs.] Shak. -- To win on or upon. (a) To gain favor or influence with. "You have a softness and beneficence winning on the hearts of others." Dryden. (b) To gain ground on. "The rabble . . . will in time win upon power." Shak. WINCE Wince, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Winced; p. pr. & vb. n. Wincing.] Etym: [OE. wincen, winchen, OF. quencir, guenchir, guenchier, giencier, guinchier, and (assumed) winchier, winchir, to give way, to turn aside, fr. OHG. wankjan, wenken, to give way, to waver, fr. winchan to turn aside, to nod, akin to E. wink. See Wink.] 1. To shrink, as from a blow, or from pain; to flinch; to start back. I will not stir, nor wince, nor speak a word. Shak. 2. To kick or flounce when unsteady, or impatient at a rider; as, a horse winces. WINCE Wince, n. Defn: The act of one who winces. WINCE Wince, n. Etym: [See Winch.] (Dyeing & Calico Printing) Defn: A reel used in dyeing, steeping, or washing cloth; a winch. It is placed over the division wall between two wince pits so as to allow the cloth to descend into either compartment. at will. Wince pit, Wince pot, a tank or a pit where cloth in the process of dyeing or manufacture is washed, dipped in a mordant, or the like. WINCER Win"cer, n. Defn: One who, or that which, winces, shrinks, or kicks. WINCEY Win"cey, n. Defn: Linsey-woolsey. WINCH Winch, v. i. Etym: [See Wince.] Defn: To wince; to shrink; to kick with impatience or uneasiness. WINCH Winch, n. Defn: A kick, as of a beast, from impatience or uneasiness. Shelton. WINCH Winch, n. Etym: [OE. winche, AS. wince a winch, a reel to wind thread upon. Cf. Wink.] 1. A crank with a handle, for giving motion to a machine, a grindstone, etc. 2. An instrument with which to turn or strain something forcibly. 3. An axle or drum turned by a crank with a handle, or by power, for raising weights, as from the hold of a ship, from mines, etc.; a windlass. 4. A wince. WINCING Win"cing, n. Defn: The act of washing cloth, dipping it in dye, etc., with a wince. Wincing machine. (a) A wince. Ure. (b) A succession of winces. See Wince. Knight. WINCOPIPE Win"co*pipe, n. (Bot.) Defn: A little red flower, no doubt the pimpernel, which, when it opens in the morning, is supposed to bode a fair day. See Pimpernel. There is small red flower in the stubble fields, which country people call the wincopipe; which if it opens in the morning, you may be sure a fair day will follow. Bacon. WIND Wind, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wound (wound) (rarely Winded); p. pr. & vb. n. Winding.] Etym: [OE. winden, AS. windan; akin to OS. windan, D. & G. winden, OHG. wintan, Icel. & Sw. vinda, Dan. vinde, Goth. windan (in comp.). Cf. Wander, Wend.] 1. To turn completely, or with repeated turns; especially, to turn about something fixed; to cause to form convolutions about anything; to coil; to twine; to twist; to wreathe; as, to wind thread on a spool or into a ball. Whether to wind The woodbine round this arbor. Milton. 2. To entwist; to infold; to encircle. Sleep, and I will wind thee in arms. Shak. 3. To have complete control over; to turn and bend at one's pleasure; to vary or alter or will; to regulate; to govern. "To turn and wind a fiery Pegasus." Shak. In his terms so he would him wind. Chaucer. Gifts blind the wise, and bribes do please And wind all other witnesses. Herrick. Were our legislature vested in the prince, he might wind and turn our constitution at his pleasure. Addison. 4. To introduce by insinuation; to insinuate. You have contrived . . . to wind Yourself into a power tyrannical. Shak. Little arts and dexterities they have to wind in such things into discourse. Gov. of Tongue. 5. To cover or surround with something coiled about; as, to wind a rope with twine. To wind off, to unwind; to uncoil. -- To wind out, to extricate. [Obs.] Clarendon. -- To wind up. (a) To coil into a ball or small compass, as a skein of thread; to coil completely. (b) To bring to a conclusion or settlement; as, to wind up one's affairs; to wind up an argument. (c) To put in a state of renewed or continued motion, as a clock, a watch, etc., by winding the spring, or that which carries the weight; hence, to prepare for continued movement or action; to put in order anew. "Fate seemed to wind him up for fourscore years." Dryden. "Thus they wound up his temper to a pitch." Atterbury. (d) To tighten (the strings) of a musical instrument, so as to tune it. "Wind up the slackened strings of thy lute." Waller. WIND Wind, v. i. 1. To turn completely or repeatedly; to become coiled about anything; to assume a convolved or spiral form; as, vines wind round a pole. So swift your judgments turn and wind. Dryden. 2. To have a circular course or direction; to crook; to bend; to meander; as, to wind in and out among trees. And where the valley winded out below, The murmuring main was heard, and scarcely heard, to flow. Thomson. He therefore turned him to the steep and rocky path which . . . winded through the thickets of wild boxwood and other low aromatic shrubs. Sir W. Scott. 3. To go to the one side or the other; to move this way and that; to double on one's course; as, a hare pursued turns and winds. The lowing herd wind Gray. To wind out, to extricate one's self; to escape. Long struggling underneath are they could wind Out of such prison. Milton. WIND Wind, n. Defn: The act of winding or turning; a turn; a bend; a twist; a winding. WIND Wind (wînd, in poetry and singing often wind; 277), n. Etym: [AS. wind; akin to OS., OFries., D., & G. wind, OHG. wint, Dan. & Sw. vind, Icel. vindr, Goth winds, W. gwynt, L. ventus, Skr. vata (cf. Gr. 'ah`ths a blast, gale, 'ah^nai to breathe hard, to blow, as the wind); originally a p. pr. from the verb seen in Skr. va to blow, akin to AS. wawan, D. waaijen, G. wehen, OHG. waen, wajen, Goth. waian. sq. root131. Cf. Air, Ventail, Ventilate, Window, Winnow.] 1. Air naturally in motion with any degree of velocity; a current of air. Except wind stands as never it stood, It is an ill wind that turns none to good. Tusser . Winds were soft, and woods were green. Longfellow. 2. Air artificially put in motion by any force or action; as, the wind of a cannon ball; the wind of a bellows. 3. Breath modulated by the respiratory and vocal organs, or by an instrument. Their instruments were various in their kind, Some for the bow, and some for breathing wind. Dryden. 4. Power of respiration; breath. If my wind were but long enough to say my prayers, I would repent. Shak. 5. Air or gas generated in the stomach or bowels; flatulence; as, to be troubled with wind. 6. Air impregnated with an odor or scent. A pack of dogfish had him in the wind. Swift. 7. A direction from which the wind may blow; a point of the compass; especially, one of the cardinal points, which are often called the four winds. Come from the four winds, O breath, and breathe upon these slain. Ezek. xxxvii. 9. Note: This sense seems to have had its origin in the East. The Hebrews gave to each of the four cardinal points the name of wind. 8. (Far.) Defn: A disease of sheep, in which the intestines are distended with air, or rather affected with a violent inflammation. It occurs immediately after shearing. 9. Mere breath or talk; empty effort; idle words. Nor think thou with wind Of airy threats to awe. Milton. 10. (Zoöl.) Defn: The dotterel. [Prov. Eng.] Note: Wind is often used adjectively, or as the first part of compound words. All in the wind. (Naut.) See under All, n. -- Before the wind. (Naut.) See under Before. -- Between wind and water (Naut.), in that part of a ship's side or bottom which is frequently brought above water by the rolling of the ship, or fluctuation of the water's surface. Hence, colloquially, (as an injury to that part of a vessel, in an engagement, is particularly dangerous) the vulnerable part or point of anything. -- Cardinal winds. See under Cardinal, a. -- Down the wind. (a) In the direction of, and moving with, the wind; as, birds fly swiftly down the wind. (b) Decaying; declining; in a state of decay. [Obs.] "He went down the wind still." L'Estrange. -- In the wind's eye (Naut.), directly toward the point from which the wind blows. -- Three sheets in the wind, unsteady from drink. [Sailors' Slang] - - To be in the wind, to be suggested or expected; to be a matter of suspicion or surmise. [Colloq.] -- To carry the wind (Man.), to toss the nose as high as the ears, as a horse. -- To raise the wind, to procure money. [Colloq.] -- To take, or have, the wind, to gain or have the advantage. Bacon. -- To take the wind out of one's sails, to cause one to stop, or lose way, as when a vessel intercepts the wind of another. [Colloq.] -- To take wind, or To get wind, to be divulged; to become public; as, the story got wind, or took wind. -- Wind band (Mus.), a band of wind instruments; a military band; the wind instruments of an orchestra. -- Wind chest (Mus.), a chest or reservoir of wind in an organ. -- Wind dropsy. (Med.) (a) Tympanites. (b) Emphysema of the subcutaneous areolar tissue. -- Wind egg, an imperfect, unimpregnated, or addled egg. -- Wind furnace. See the Note under Furnace. -- Wind gauge. See under Gauge. -- Wind gun. Same as Air gun. -- Wind hatch (Mining), the opening or place where the ore is taken out of the earth. -- Wind instrument (Mus.), an instrument of music sounded by means of wind, especially by means of the breath, as a flute, a clarinet, etc. -- Wind pump, a pump moved by a windmill. -- Wind rose, a table of the points of the compass, giving the states of the barometer, etc., connected with winds from the different directions. -- Wind sail. (a) (Naut.) A wide tube or funnel of canvas, used to convey a stream of air for ventilation into the lower compartments of a vessel. (b) The sail or vane of a windmill. -- Wind shake, a crack or incoherence in timber produced by violent winds while the timber was growing. -- Wind shock, a wind shake. -- Wind side, the side next the wind; the windward side. [R.] Mrs. Browning. -- Wind rush (Zoöl.), the redwing. [Prov. Eng.] -- Wind wheel, a motor consisting of a wheel moved by wind. -- Wood wind (Mus.), the flutes and reed instruments of an orchestra, collectively. WIND Wind, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Winded; p. pr. & vb. n. Winding.] 1. To expose to the wind; to winnow; to ventilate. 2. To perceive or follow by the scent; to scent; to nose; as, the hounds winded the game. 3. (a) To drive hard, or force to violent exertion, as a horse, so as to render scant of wind; to put out of breath. (b) To rest, as a horse, in order to allow the breath to be recovered; to breathe. To wind a ship (Naut.), to turn it end for end, so that the wind strikes it on the opposite side. WIND Wind, v. t. Etym: [From Wind, moving air, but confused in sense and in conjugation with wind to turn.] [imp. & p. p. Wound (wound), R. Winded; p. pr. & vb. n. Winding.] Defn: To blow; to sound by blowing; esp., to sound with prolonged and mutually involved notes. "Hunters who wound their horns." Pennant. Ye vigorous swains, while youth ferments your blood, . . . Wind the shrill horn. Pope. That blast was winded by the king. Sir W. Scott. WINDAGE Wind"age, n. Etym: [From Wind air in motion.] 1. (Gun.) Defn: The difference between the diameter of the bore of a gun and that of the shot fired from it. 2. The sudden compression of the air caused by a projectile in passing close to another body. WINDAS Wind"as, n. Defn: See 3d Windlass. [Obs.] Chaucer. WINDBORE Wind"bore`, n. Defn: The lower, or bottom, pipe in a lift of pumps in a mine. Ansted. WINDBOUND Wind"bound`, a. (Naut.) Defn: prevented from sailing, by a contrary wind. See Weatherbound. WIND-BREAK Wind"-break`, v. t. Defn: To break the wind of; to cause to lose breath; to exhaust. [R.] 'T would wind-break a mule to vie burdens with her. Ford. WIND-BREAK Wind"-break`, n. Defn: A clump of trees serving for a protection against the force of wind. [Local, U. S.] WIND-BROKEN Wind"-bro`ken, a. Defn: Having the power of breathing impaired by the rupture, dilatation, or running together of air cells of the lungs, so that while the inspiration is by one effort, the expiration is by two; affected with pulmonary emphysema or with heaves; -- said of a horse. Youatt. WINDER Wind"er, n. Etym: [From Wind to turn.] 1. One who, or that which, winds; hence, a creeping or winding plant. 2. An apparatus used for winding silk, cotton, etc., on spools, bobbins, reels, or the like. 3. (Arch.) Defn: One in a flight of steps which are curved in plan, so that each tread is broader at one end than at the other; -- distinguished from flyer. WINDER Wind"er, v. t. & i. Etym: [Prov. E. winder a fan, and to winnow. Winnow.] Defn: To fan; to clean grain with a fan. [Prov. Eng.] WINDER Wind"er, n. Defn: A blow taking away the breath. [Slang] WINDER Wind"er, v. i. Defn: To wither; to fail. [Obs.] Holland. WINDFALL Wind"fall`, n. 1. Anything blown down or off by the wind, as fruit from a tree, or the tree itself, or a portion of a forest prostrated by a violent wind, etc. "They became a windfall upon the sudden." Bacon. 2. An unexpected legacy, or other gain. He had a mighty windfall out of doubt. B. Jonson. WINDFALLEN Wind"fall`en, a. Defn: Blown down by the wind. WIND-FERTILIZED Wind"-fer`ti*lized, a. (Bot.) Defn: Anemophilous; fertilized by pollen borne by the wind. WINDFLOWER Wind"flow`er, n. (Bot.) Defn: The anemone; -- so called because formerly supposed to open only when the wind was blowing. See Anemone. WINDGALL Wind"gall`, n. (Far.) Defn: A soft tumor or synovial swelling on the fetlock joint of a horse; -- so called from having formerly been supposed to contain air. WINDHOVER Wind"hov`er, n. Etym: [From its habit of hovering over one spot.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The kestrel; -- called also windbibber, windcuffer, windfanner. [Prov. Eng.] WINDINESS Wind"i*ness, n. 1. The quality or state of being windy or tempestuous; as, the windiness of the weather or the season. 2. Fullness of wind; flatulence. 3. Tendency to generate wind or gas; tendency to produce flatulence; as, the windiness of vegetables. 4. Tumor; puffiness. The swelling windiness of much knowledge. Brerewood. WINDING Wind"ing, n. Etym: [From Wind to blow.] (Naut.) Defn: A call by the boatswain's whistle. WINDING Wind"ing, a. Etym: [From Wind to twist.] Defn: Twisting from a direct line or an even surface; circuitous. Keble. WINDING Wind"ing, n. Defn: A turn or turning; a bend; a curve; flexure; meander; as, the windings of a road or stream. To nurse the saplings tall, and curl the grove With ringlets quaint, and wanton windings wove. Milton. Defn: A line- or ribbon-shaped material (as wire, string, or bandaging) wound around an object; as, the windings (conducting wires) wound around the armature of an electric motor or generator. Winding engine, an engine employed in mining to draw up buckets from a deep pit; a hoisting engine. -- Winding sheet, a sheet in which a corpse is wound or wrapped. -- Winding tackle (Naut.), a tackle consisting of a fixed triple block, and a double or triple movable block, used for hoisting heavy articles in or out of a vessel. Totten. WINDINGLY Wind"ing*ly, adv. Defn: In a winding manner. WINDJAMMER Wind"jam`mer, n. 1. (Naut.) A sailing vessel or one of its crew; -- orig. so called contemptuously by sailors on steam vessels. [Colloq.] 2. An army bugler or trumpeter; any performer on a wind instrument. [Slang] WINDLACE Wind"lace, n. & v. Defn: See Windlass. [Obs.] Two arblasts, . . . with windlaces and quarrels. Sir W. Scott. WINDLASS Wind"lass, n.Etym: [Perhaps from wind to turn + lace.] Defn: A winding and circuitous way; a roundabout course; a shift. WINDLASS Wind"lass, v. i. Defn: To take a roundabout course; to work warily or by indirect means. [Obs.] Hammond. WINDLASS Wind"lass, n. Etym: [OE. windelas, windas, Icel. vindilass, vindas, fr. vinda to wind + ass a pole; cf. Goth. ans a beam. See Wind to turn.] 1. A machine for raising weights, consisting of a horizontal cylinder or roller moving on its axis, and turned by a crank, lever, or similar means, so as to wind up a rope or chain attached to the weight. In vessels the windlass is often used instead of the capstan for raising the anchor. It is usually set upon the forecastle, and is worked by hand or steam. 2. An apparatus resembling a winch or windlass, for bending the bow of an arblast, or crossbow. [Obs.] Shak. Chinese windlass. See Differential windlass, under Differential. WINDLASS Wind"lass, v. t. & i. Defn: To raise with, or as with, a windlass; to use a windlass. The Century. WINDLE Win"dle, n. Etym: [From Wind to turn.] 1. A spindle; a kind of reel; a winch. 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: The redwing. [Prov. Eng.] WINDLESS Wind"less, a. 1. Having no wind; calm. 2. Wanting wind; out of breath. WINDLESTRAE; WINDLESTRAW Win"dle*strae`, Win"dle*straw`, n. (Bot.) Defn: A grass used for making ropes or for plaiting, esp. Agrostis Spica-ventis. [Prov. Eng. & Scot.] Shelley. WINDMILL Wind"mill`, n. Defn: A mill operated by the power of the wind, usually by the action of the wind upon oblique vanes or sails which radiate from a horizontal shaft. Chaucer. WINDORE Win"dore, n. Etym: [A corrupt. of window; or perh. coined on the wrong assumption that window is from wind + door.] Defn: A window. [Obs.] Hudibras. WINDOW Win"dow, n. Etym: [OE. windowe, windoge, Icel. vindauga window, properly, wind eye; akin to Dan. vindue. Wind, n., and Eye.] 1. An opening in the wall of a building for the admission of light and air, usually closed by casements or sashes containing some transparent material, as glass, and capable of being opened and shut at pleasure. I leaped from the window of the citadel. Shak. Then to come, in spite of sorrow, And at my window bid good morrow. Milton. 2. (Arch.) Defn: The shutter, casement, sash with its fittings, or other framework, which closes a window opening. 3. A figure formed of lines crossing each other. [R.] Till he has windows on his bread and butter. King. French window (Arch.), a casement window in two folds, usually reaching to the floor; -- called also French casement. -- Window back (Arch.), the inside face of the low, and usually thin, piece of wall between the window sill and the floor below. -- Window blind, a blind or shade for a window. -- Window bole, part of a window closed by a shutter which can be opened at will. [Scot.] -- Window box, one of the hollows in the sides of a window frame for the weights which counterbalance a lifting sash. -- Window frame, the frame of a window which receives and holds the sashes or casement. -- Window glass, panes of glass for windows; the kind of glass used in windows. -- Window martin (Zoöl.), the common European martin. [Prov. Eng.] - - Window oyster (Zoöl.), a marine bivalve shell (Placuna placenta) native of the East Indies and China. Its valves are very broad, thin, and translucent, and are said to have been used formerly in place of glass. -- Window pane. (a) (Arch.) See Pane, n., 3 (b). (b) (Zoöl.) See Windowpane, in the Vocabulary. -- Window sash, the sash, or light frame, in which panes of glass are set for windows. -- Window seat, a seat arranged in the recess of a window. See Window stool, under Stool. -- Window shade, a shade or blind for a window; usually, one that is hung on a roller. -- Window shell (Zoöl.), the window oyster. -- Window shutter, a shutter or blind used to close or darken windows. -- Window sill (Arch.), the flat piece of wood, stone, or the like, at the bottom of a window frame. -- Window swallow (Zoöl.), the common European martin. [Prov. Eng.] -- Window tax, a tax or duty formerly levied on all windows, or openings for light, above the number of eight in houses standing in cities or towns. [Eng.] WINDOW Win"dow, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Windowed; p. pr. & vb. n. Windowing.] 1. To furnish with windows. 2. To place at or in a window. [R.] Wouldst thou be windowed in great Rome and see Thy master thus with pleach'd arms, bending down His corrigible neck Shak. WINDOWED Win"dowed, a. Defn: Having windows or openings. [R.] "Looped and windowed raggedness." Shak. WINDOWLESS Win"dow*less, a. Defn: Destitute of a window. Carlyle. WINDOWPANE Win"dow*pane`, n. 1. (Arch.) Defn: See Pane, n., (3) b. [In this sense, written also window pane.] 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: A thin, spotted American turbot (Pleuronectes maculatus) remarkable for its translucency. It is not valued as a food fish. Called also spotted turbot, daylight, spotted sand flounder, and water flounder. WINDOWY Win"dow*y, a. Defn: Having little crossings or openings like the sashes of a window. [R.] Donne. WINDPIPE Wind"pipe`, n. (Anat.) Defn: The passage for the breath from the larynx to the lungs; the trachea; the weasand. See Illust. under Lung. WIND-PLANT Wind"-plant`, n. (Bot.) Defn: A windflower. WIND-RODE Wind"-rode`, a. (Naut.) Defn: Caused to ride or drive by the wind in opposition to the course of the tide; -- said of a vessel lying at anchor, with wind and tide opposed to each other. Totten. WINDROW Wind"row`, n. Etym: [Wind + row.] 1. A row or line of hay raked together for the purpose of being rolled into cocks or heaps. 2. Sheaves of grain set up in a row, one against another, that the wind may blow between them. [Eng.] 3. The green border of a field, dug up in order to carry the earth on other land to mend it. [Eng.] WINDROW Wind"row, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Windrowed; p. pr. & vb. n. Windrowing.] Defn: To arrange in lines or windrows, as hay when newly made. Forby. WIND-SHAKEN Wind"-shak`en, a. Defn: Shaken by the wind; specif. (Forestry), Defn: affected by wind shake, or anemosis (which see, above). WIND SIGNAL Wind signal. Defn: In general, any signal announcing information concerning winds, and esp. the expected approach of winds whose direction and force are dangerous to shipping, etc. The wind-signal system of the United States Weather Bureau consists of storm, information, hurricane, hot wind, and inland storm signals. WINDSOR Wind"sor, n. Defn: A town in Berkshire, England. Windsor bean. (Bot.) See under Bean. -- Windsor chair, a kind of strong, plain, polished, wooden chair. Simmonds. -- Windsor soap, a scented soap well known for its excellence. WINDSTORM Wind"storm, n. Defn: A storm characterized by high wind with little or no rain. WIND-SUCKER Wind"-suck`er, n. 1. (Far.) A horse given to wind-sucking Law. 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: The kestrel. B. Jonson. WIND-SUCKING Wind"-suck`ing, n. (Far.) Defn: A vicious habit of a horse, consisting in the swallowing of air; -- usually associated with crib-biting, or cribbing. See Cribbing, 4. WINDTIGHT Wind"tight`, a. Defn: So tight as to prevent the passing through of wind. Bp. Hall. WIND-UP Wind"-up`, n. Defn: Act of winding up, or closing; a concluding act or part; the end. WINDWARD Wind"ward, n. Defn: The point or side from which the wind blows; as, to ply to the windward; -- opposed to Ant: leeward. To lay an anchor to the windward, a figurative expression, signifying to adopt precautionary or anticipatory measures for success or security. WINDWARD Wind"ward, a. Defn: Situated toward the point from which the wind blows; as, the Windward Islands. WINDWARD Wind"ward, adv. Defn: Toward the wind; in the direction from which the wind blows. WINDY Wind"y, a. [Compar. Windier; superl. Windiest.] Etym: [AS. windig.] 1. Consisting of wind; accompanied or characterized by wind; exposed to wind. "The windy hill." M. Arnold. Blown with the windy tempest of my heart. Shak. 2. Next the wind; windward. It keeps on the windy side of care. Shak. 3. Tempestuous; boisterous; as, windy weather. 4. Serving to occasion wind or gas in the intestines; flatulent; as, windy food. 5. Attended or caused by wind, or gas, in the intestines. "A windy colic." Arbuthnot. 6. Fig.: Empty; airy. "Windy joy." Milton. Here's that windy applause, that poor, transitory pleasure, for which I was dishonored. South. WINE Wine, n. Etym: [OE. win, AS. win, fr. L. vinum (cf. Icel. vin; all from the Latin); akin to Gr. o'i^nos, , and E. withy. Cf. Vine, Vineyard, Vinous, Withy.] 1. The expressed juice of grapes, esp. when fermented; a beverage or liquor prepared from grapes by squeezing out their juice, and (usually) allowing it to ferment. "Red wine of Gascoigne." Piers Plowman. Wine is a mocker, strong drink is raging, and whosoever is deceived thereby is not wise. Prov. xx. 1. Bacchus, that first from out the purple grape Crushed the sweet poison of misused wine. Milton. Note: Wine is essentially a dilute solution of ethyl alcohol, containing also certain small quantities of ethers and ethereal salts which give character and bouquet. According to their color, strength, taste, etc., wines are called red, white, spirituous, dry, light, still, etc. 2. A liquor or beverage prepared from the juice of any fruit or plant by a process similar to that for grape wine; as, currant wine; gooseberry wine; palm wine. 3. The effect of drinking wine in excess; intoxication. Noah awoke from his wine. Gen. ix. 24. Birch wine, Cape wine, etc. See under Birch, Cape, etc. -- Spirit of wine. See under Spirit. -- To have drunk wine of ape or wine ape, to be so drunk as to be foolish. [Obs.] Chaucer. -- Wine acid. (Chem.) See Tartaric acid, under Tartaric. [Colloq.] - - Wine apple (Bot.), a large red apple, with firm flesh and a rich, vinous flavor. -- Wine bag, a wine skin. -- Wine biscuit, a kind of sweet biscuit served with wine. -- Wine cask, a cask for holding wine, or which holds, or has held, wine. -- Wine cellar, a cellar adapted or used for storing wine. -- Wine cooler, a vessel of porous earthenware used to cool wine by the evaporation of water; also, a stand for wine bottles, containing ice.a drink composed of approximately equal parts of wine and some carbonated beverage (soda). Also called California cooler. -- Wine fly (Zoöl.), small two-winged fly of the genus Piophila, whose larva lives in wine, cider, and other fermented liquors. -- Wine grower, one who cultivates a vineyard and makes wine. -- Wine measure, the measure by which wines and other spirits are sold, smaller than beer measure. -- Wine merchant, a merchant who deals in wines. -- Wine of opium (Pharm.), a solution of opium in aromatized sherry wine, having the same strength as ordinary laudanum; -- also Sydenham's laudanum. -- Wine press, a machine or apparatus in which grapes are pressed to extract their juice. -- Wine skin, a bottle or bag of skin, used, in various countries, for carrying wine. -- Wine stone, a kind of crust deposited in wine casks. See 1st Tartar, 1. -- Wine vault. (a) A vault where wine is stored. (b) A place where wine is served at the bar, or at tables; a dramshop. Dickens. -- Wine vinegar, vinegar made from wine. -- Wine whey, whey made from milk coagulated by the use of wine. WINEBERRY Wine"ber`ry, n. (Bot.) (a) The red currant. (b) The bilberry. (c) A peculiar New Zealand shrub (Coriaria ruscifolia), in which the petals ripen and afford an abundant purple juice from which a kind of wine is made. The plant also grows in Chili. WINEBIBBER Wine"bib`ber, n. Defn: One who drinks much wine. Prov. xxiii. 20. -- Wine"bib`bing, n. WINEGLASS Wine"glass`, n. Defn: A small glass from to drink wine. WINEGLASSFUL Wine"glass`ful;, n. pl. Wineglassfuls (. Defn: As much as a wineglass will hold; enough to fill a wineglass. It is usually reckoned at two fluid ounces, or four tablespoonfuls. WINELESS Wine"less, a. Defn: destitute of wine; as, wineless life. WINERY Win"er*y, n. Etym: [Cf. F. vinerie.] Defn: A place where grapes are converted into wine. WINESAP Wine"sap`, n. [Wine + sap for sop.] Defn: A variety of winter apple of medium size, deep red color, and yellowish flesh of a rich, rather subacid flavor. WING Wing, n. Etym: [OE. winge, wenge; probably of Scand. origin; cf. Dan. & Sw. vinge, Icel. vængr.] 1. One of the two anterior limbs of a bird, pterodactyl, or bat. They correspond to the arms of man, and are usually modified for flight, but in the case of a few species of birds, as the ostrich, auk, etc., the wings are used only as an assistance in running or swimming. As an eagle stirreth up her nest, fluttereth over her young, spreadeth abroad her wings, taketh them, beareth them on her wings. Deut. xxxii. 11. Note: In the wing of a bird the long quill feathers are in series. The primaries are those attached to the ulnar side of the hand; the secondaries, or wing coverts, those of the forearm: the scapulars, those that lie over the humerus; and the bastard feathers, those of the short outer digit. See Illust. of Bird, and Plumage. 2. Any similar member or instrument used for the purpose of flying. Specifically: (Zoöl.) (a) One of the two pairs of upper thoracic appendages of most hexapod insects. They are broad, fanlike organs formed of a double membrane and strengthened by chitinous veins or nervures. (b) One of the large pectoral fins of the flying fishes. 3. Passage by flying; flight; as, to take wing. Light thickens; and the crow Makes wing to the rooky wood. Shak. 4. Motive or instrument of flight; means of flight or of rapid motion. Fiery expedition be my wing. Shak. 5. Anything which agitates the air as a wing does, or which is put in winglike motion by the action of the air, as a fan or vane for winnowing grain, the vane or sail of a windmill, etc. 6. An ornament worn on the shoulder; a small epaulet or shoulder knot. 7. Any appendage resembling the wing of a bird or insect in shape or appearance. Specifically: (a) (Zoöl.) Defn: One of the broad, thin, anterior lobes of the foot of a pteropod, used as an organ in swimming. (b) (Bot.) Any membranaceous expansion, as that along the sides of certain stems, or of a fruit of the kind called samara. (c) (Bot.) Either of the two side petals of a papilionaceous flower. 8. One of two corresponding appendages attached; a sidepiece. Hence: (a) (Arch.) A side building, less than the main edifice; as, one of the wings of a palace. (b) (Fort.) The longer side of crownworks, etc., connecting them with the main work. (c) (Hort.) A side shoot of a tree or plant; a branch growing up by the side of another. [Obs.] (d) (Mil.) Defn: The right or left division of an army, regiment, etc. (e) (Naut.) That part of the hold or orlop of a vessel which is nearest the sides. In a fleet, one of the extremities when the ships are drawn up in line, or when forming the two sides of a triangle. Totten. (f) One of the sides of the stags in a theater. On the wing. (a) Supported by, or flying with, the wings another. -- On the wings of the wind, with the utmost velocity. -- Under the wing, or wings, of, under the care or protection of. -- Wing and wing (Naut.), with sails hauled out on either side; -- said of a schooner, or her sails, when going before the wind with the foresail on one side and the mainsail on the other; also said of a square-rigged vessel which has her studding sails set. Cf. Goosewinged. -- Wing case (Zoöl.), one of the anterior wings of beetles, and of some other insects, when thickened and used to protect the hind wings; an elytron; -- called also wing cover. -- Wing covert (Zoöl.), one of the small feathers covering the bases of the wing quills. See Covert, n., 2. -- Wing gudgeon (Mach.), an iron gudgeon for the end of a wooden axle, having thin, broad projections to prevent it from turning in the wood. See Illust. of Gudgeon. -- Wing shell (Zoöl.), wing case of an insect. -- Wing stroke, the stroke or sweep of a wing. -- Wing transom (Naut.), the uppermost transom of the stern; -- called also main transom. J. Knowles. WING Wing, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Winged; p. pr. & vb. n. Winging.] 1. To furnish with wings; to enable to fly, or to move with celerity. Who heaves old ocean, and whowings the storms. Pope. Living, to wing with mirth the weary hours. Longfellow. 2. To supply with wings or sidepieces. The main battle, whose puissance on either side Shall be well winged with our chiefest horse. Shak. 3. To transport by flight; to cause to fly. I, an old turtle, Will wing me to some withered bough. Shak. 4. To move through in flight; to fly through. There's not an arrow wings the sky But fancy turns its point to him. Moore. 5. To cut off the wings of; to wound in the wing; to disable a wing of; as, to wing a bird. To wing a flight, to exert the power of flying; to fly. WINGED Winged, a. 1. Furnished with wings; transported by flying; having winglike expansions. 2. Soaring with wings, or as if with wings; hence, elevated; lofty; sublime. [R.] How winged the sentiment that virtue is to be followed for its own sake. J. S. Harford. 3. Swift; rapid. "Bear this sealed brief with winged haste to the lord marshal." Shak. 4. Wounded or hurt in the wing. 5. (Bot.) Defn: Furnished with a leaflike appendage, as the fruit of the elm and the ash, or the stem in certain plants; alate. 6. (Her.) Defn: Represented with wings, or having wings, of a different tincture from the body. 7. Fanned with wings; swarming with birds. "The winged air darked with plumes." Milton. WINGER Wing"er, n. (Naut.) Defn: One of the casks stowed in the wings of a vessel's hold, being smaller than such as are stowed more amidships. Totten. WINGFISH Wing"fish`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A sea robin having large, winglike pectoral fins. See Sea robin, under Robin. WING-FOOTED Wing"-foot`ed, a. 1. Having wings attached to the feet; as, wing-footed Mercury; hence, swift; moving with rapidity; fleet. Drayton. 2. (Zoöl.) (a) Having part or all of the feet adapted for flying. (b) Having the anterior lobes of the foot so modified as to form a pair of winglike swimming organs; -- said of the pteropod mollusks. WING-HANDED Wing"-hand`ed, a. (Zoöl.) Defn: Having the anterior limbs or hands adapted for flight, as the bats and pterodactyls. WING-LEAVED Wing"-leaved`, a. (Bot.) Defn: Having pinnate or pinnately divided leaves. WINGLESS Wing"less, a. Defn: Having no wings; not able to ascend or fly. Wingless bird (Zoöl.), the apteryx. WINGLET Wing"let, n. 1. A little wing; a very small wing. 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: A bastard wing, or alula. WINGMANSHIP Wing"man*ship, n. Etym: [From Wing, in imitation of horsemanship.] Defn: Power or skill in flying. [R.] Duke of Argyll. WING-SHELL Wing"-shell`, n. (Zoöl.) (a) Any one of various species of marine bivalve shells belonging to the genus Avicula, in which the hinge border projects like a wing. (b) Any marine gastropod shell of the genus Strombus. See Strombus. (c) Any pteropod shell. WINGY Wing"y, a. 1. Having wings; rapid. With wingy speed outstrip the eastern wind. Addison. 2. Soaring with wings, or as if with wings; volatile airy. [Obs. or R.] Those wingy mysteries in divinity. Sir T. Browne. WINK Wink, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Winked; p. pr. & vb. n. Winking.] Etym: [OE. winken, AS. wincian; akin to D. wenken, G. winken to wink, nod, beckon, OHG. winchan, Sw. vinka, Dan. vinke, AS. wancol wavering, OHG. wanchal wavering, wanch to waver, G. wanken, and perhaps to E. weak; cf. AS. wincel a corner. Cf. Wench, Wince, v. i.] 1. To nod; to sleep; to nap. [Obs.] "Although I wake or wink." Chaucer. 2. To shut the eyes quickly; to close the eyelids with a quick motion. He must wink, so loud he would cry. Chaucer. And I will wink, so shall the day seem night. Shak. They are not blind, but they wink. Tillotson. 3. To close and open the eyelids quickly; to nictitate; to blink. A baby of some three months old, who winked, and turned aside its little face from the too vivid light of day. Hawthorne. 4. To give a hint by a motion of the eyelids, often those of one eye only. Wink at the footman to leave him without a plate. Swift. 5. To avoid taking notice, as if by shutting the eyes; to connive at anything; to be tolerant; -- generally with at. The times of this ignorance God winked at. Acts xvii. 30. And yet, as though he knew it not, His knowledge winks, and lets his humors reign. Herbert. Obstinacy can not be winked at, but must be subdued. Locke. 6. To be dim and flicker; as, the light winks. Winking monkey (Zoöl.), the white-nosed monkey (Cersopithecus nictitans). WINK Wink, v. t. Defn: To cause (the eyes) to wink.[Colloq.] WINK Wink, n. 1. The act of closing, or closing and opening, the eyelids quickly; hence, the time necessary for such an act; a moment. I have not slept one wink. Shak. I could eclipse and cloud them with a wink. Donne. 2. A hint given by shutting the eye with a significant cast. Sir. P. Sidney. The stockjobber thus from Change Alley goes down, And tips you, the freeman, a wink. Swift. WINKER Wink"er, n. 1. One who winks. Pope. 2. A horse's blinder; a blinker. WINKINGLY Wink"ing*ly, adv. Defn: In a winking manner; with the eye almost closed. Peacham. WINKLE Win"kle, n. Etym: [AS. wincle.] (Zoöl.) (a) Any periwinkle. Holland. (b) Any one of various marine spiral gastropods, esp., in the United States, either of two species of Fulgar (F. canaliculata, and F. carica). Note: These are large mollusks which often destroy large numbers of oysters by drilling their shells and sucking their blood. Sting winkle, a European spinose marine shell (Murex erinaceus). See Illust. of Murex. WINKLE-HAWK Win"kle-hawk`, n. Etym: [D. winkel-haak a carpenter's square.] Defn: A rectangular rent made in cloth; -- called also winkle-hole. [Local, U. S.] Bartlett. WINNARD Win"nard, n. Defn: The redwing. [Prov. Eng.] WINNEBAGOES Win`ne*ba"goes, n.; sing. Winnebago (. (Ethnol.) Defn: A tribe of North American Indians who originally occupied the region about Green Bay, Lake Michigan, but were driven back from the lake and nearly exterminated in 1640 by the IIlinnois. WINNER Win"ner, n. Defn: One who wins, or gains by success in competition, contest, or gaming. WINNING Win"ning, a. Defn: Attracting; adapted to gain favor; charming; as, a winning address. "Each mild and winning note." Keble. WINNING Win"ning, n. 1. The act of obtaining something, as in a contest or by competition. 2. The money, etc., gained by success in competition or contest, esp, in gambling; -- usually in the plural. Ye seek land and sea for your winnings. Chaucer. 3. (Mining) (a) A new opening. (b) The portion of a coal field out for working. Winning headway (Mining), an excavation for exploration, in post-and-stall working. -- Winning post, the post, or goal, at the end of a race. WINNINGLY Win"ning*ly, adv. Defn: In a winning manner. WINNINGNESS Win"ning*ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being winning. "Winningness in style." J. Morley. WINNINISH Win"nin*ish, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The land-locked variety of the common salmon. [Canada] WINNOW Win"now, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Winnowed; p. pr. & vb. n. Winnowing.] Etym: [OE. windewen, winewen, AS. windwian; akin to Goth. winpjan (in comp.), winpi-skauro a fan, L. ventilare to fan, to winnow; cf. L. wannus a fan for winnowing, G. wanne, OHG. wanna. . See Wind moving air, and cf. Fan., n., Ventilate.] 1. To separate, and drive off, the chaff from by means of wind; to fan; as, to winnow grain. Ho winnoweth barley to-night in the threshing floor. Ruth. iii. 2. 2. To sift, as for the purpose of separating falsehood from truth; to separate, as had from good. Winnow well this thought, and you shall find This light as chaff that flies before the wind. Dryden. 3. To beat with wings, or as with wings.[Poetic] Now on the polar winds; then with quick fan Winnows the buxom air. Milton. WINNOW Win"now, v. i. Defn: To separate chaff from grain. Winnow not with every wind. Ecclus. v. 9. WINNOWER Win"now*er, n. Defn: One who, or that which, winnows; specifically, a winnowing machine. WINNOWING Win"now*ing, n. Defn: The act of one who, or that which, winnows. WINROW Win"row`, n. Defn: A windrow. WINSING Win"sing, a. Defn: Winsome. [Obs.] Chaucer. WINSOME Win"some, a. [Compar. Winsomer; superl. Winsomest.] Etym: [AS. wynsum, fr. wynn joy; akin to OS. wunnia, OHG. wunna, wunni, G. wonne, Goth. wunan to rejoice (in unwunands sad), AS. wunian to dwell. Win, v. t., Wont, a.] 1. Cheerful; merry; gay; light-hearted. Misled by ill example, and a winsome nature. Jeffrey. 2. Causing joy or pleasure; gladsome; pleasant. Still plotting how their hungry ear That winsome voice again might hear. Emerson. WINSOMENESS Win"some*ness, n. Defn: The characteristic of being winsome; attractiveness of manner. J. R. Green. WINTER Win"ter, n. Etym: [AS. winter; akin to OFries. & D. winter, OS. & OHG. wintar, G. winter, D. & Sw. vinter, Icel. vetr, Goth. wintrus; of uncertain origin; cf. Old Gallic vindo- white (in comp.), OIr. find white. 1. The season of the year in which the sun shines most obliquely upon any region; the coldest season of the year. "Of thirty winter he was old." Chaucer. And after summer evermore succeeds Barren winter, with his wrathful nipping cold. Shak. Winter lingering chills the lap of May. Goldsmith. Note: North of the equator, winter is popularly taken to include the months of December, January, and February (see Season). Astronomically, it may be considered to begin with the winter solstice, about December 21st, and to end with the vernal equinox, about March 21st. 2. The period of decay, old age, death, or the like. Life's autumn past, I stand on winter's verge. Wordsworth. Winter apple, an apple that keeps well in winter, or that does not ripen until winter. -- Winter barley, a kind of barley that is sown in autumn. -- Winter berry (Bot.), the name of several American shrubs (Ilex verticillata, I. lævigata, etc.) of the Holly family, having bright red berries conspicuous in winter. -- Winter bloom. (Bot.) (a) A plant of the genus Azalea. (b) A plant of the genus Hamamelis (H. Viginica); witch-hazel; -- so called from its flowers appearing late in autumn, while the leaves are falling. -- Winter bud (Zoöl.), a statoblast. -- Winter cherry (Bot.), a plant (Physalis Alkekengi) of the Nightshade family, which has, a red berry inclosed in the inflated and persistent calyx. See Alkekengi. -- Winter cough (Med.), a form of chronic bronchitis marked by a cough recurring each winter. -- Winter cress (Bot.), a yellow-flowered cruciferous plant (Barbarea vulgaris). -- Winter crop, a crop which will bear the winter, or which may be converted into fodder during the winter. -- Winter duck. (Zoöl.) (a) The pintail. (b) The old squaw. -- Winter egg (Zoöl.), an egg produced in the autumn by many invertebrates, and destined to survive the winter. Such eggs usually differ from the summer eggs in having a thicker shell, and often in being enveloped in a protective case. They sometimes develop in a manner different from that of the summer eggs. -- Winter fallow, ground that is fallowed in winter. -- Winter fat. (Bot.) Same as White sage, under White. -- Winter fever (Med.), pneumonia. [Colloq.] -- Winter flounder. (Zoöl.) See the Note under Flounder. -- Winter gull (Zoöl.), the common European gull; -- called also winter mew. [Prov. Eng.] -- Winter itch. (Med.) See Prarie itch, under Prairie. -- Winter lodge, or Winter lodgment. (Bot.) Same as Hibernaculum. -- Winter mew. (Zoöl.) Same as Winter gull, above. [Prov. Eng.] -- Winter moth (Zoöl.), any one of several species of geometrid moths which come forth in winter, as the European species (Cheimatobia brumata). These moths have rudimentary mouth organs, and eat no food in the imago state. The female of some of the species is wingless. -- Winter oil, oil prepared so as not to solidify in moderately cold weather. -- Winter pear, a kind of pear that keeps well in winter, or that does not ripen until winter. -- Winter quarters, the quarters of troops during the winter; a winter residence or station. -- Winter rye, a kind of rye that is sown in autumn. -- Winter shad (Zoöl.), the gizzard shad. -- Winter sheldrake (Zoöl.), the goosander. [Local, U.S.] -- Winter sleep (Zoöl.), hibernation. -- Winter snipe (Zoöl.), the dunlin. -- Winter solstice. (Astron.) See Solstice, 2. -- Winter teal (Zoöl.), the green-winged teal. -- Winter wagtail (Zoöl.), the gray wagtail (Motacilla melanope). [Prov. Eng.] -- Winter wheat, wheat sown in autumn, which lives during the winter, and ripens in the following summer. -- Winter wren (Zoöl.), a small American wren (Troglodytes hiemalis) closely resembling the common wren. WINTER Win"ter, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Wintered; p. pr. & vb. n. Wintering.] Defn: To pass the winter; to hibernate; as, to winter in Florida. Because the haven was not commodious to winter in, the more part advised to depart thence. Acts xxvii. 12. WINTER Win"ter, v. i. Defn: To keep, feed or manage, during the winter; as, to winter young cattle on straw. WINTER-BEATEN Win"ter-beat`en, a. Defn: Beaten or harassed by the severe weather of winter. Spenser. WINTERGREEN Win"ter*green`, n. (Bot.) Defn: A plant which keeps its leaves green through the winter. Note: In England, the name wintergreen is applied to the species of Pyrola which in America are called English wintergreen, and shin leaf (see Shin leaf, under Shin.) In America, the name wintergreen is given to Gaultheria procumbens, a low evergreen aromatic plant with oval leaves clustered at the top of a short stem, and bearing small white flowers followed by red berries; -- called also checkerberry, and sometimes, though improperly, partridge berry. Chickweed wintergreen, a low perennial primulaceous herb (Trientalis Americana); -- also called star flower. -- Flowering wintergreen, a low plant (Polygala paucifolia) with leaves somewhat like those of the wintergreen (Gaultheria), and bearing a few showy, rose-purple blossoms. -- Spotted wintergreen, a low evergreen plant (Chimaphila maculata) with ovate, white-spotted leaves. WINTER-GROUND Win"ter-ground`, v. t. Defn: To coved over in the season of winter, as for protection or shelter; as, to winter-ground the roods of a plant. The ruddock would . . . bring thee all this, Yea, and furred moss besides, when flowers are none To winter-ground thy corse. Shak. WINTERKILL Win"ter*kill`, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Winterkilled; p. pr. & vb. n. Winterkilling.] Defn: To kill by the cold, or exposure to the inclemency of winter; as, the wheat was winterkilled. [U. S.] WINTERLY Win"ter*ly, a. Defn: Like winter; wintry; cold; hence, disagreeable, cheerless; as, winterly news. [R.] Shak. The sir growing more winterly in the month of April. Camden. WINTER-PROUD Win"ter-proud`, a. Defn: Having too rank or forward a growth for winter. When either corn is winter-proud, or other plants put forth and bud too early. Holland. WINTER-RIG Win"ter-rig`, v. t. Etym: [See Winter and Ridge.] Defn: To fallow or till in winter. [Prov. Eng.] WINTER'S BARK Win"ter's bark`. (Bot.) Defn: The aromatic bark of tree (Drimys, or Drymis, Winteri) of the Magnolia family, which is found in Southern Chili. It was first used as a cure for scurvy by its discoverer, Captain John Winter, vice admiral to sir Francis Drake, in 1577. WINTERTIDE Win"ter*tide`, n. Defn: Winter time. Tennyson. WINTERWEED Win"ter*weed`, n. (Bot.) Defn: A kind of speedwell (Veronica hederifolia) which spreads chiefly in winter. Dr. Prior. WINTERY Win"ter*y, a. Defn: Wintry. WINTRY Win"try, a. Etym: [AS. wintrig.] Defn: Suitable to winter; resembling winter, or what belongs to winter; brumal; hyemal; cold; stormy; wintery. Touch our chilled hearts with vernal smile, Our wintry course do thou beguile. Keble. WINY Win"y, a. Defn: Having the taste or qualities of wine; vinous; as, grapes of a winy taste. Dampier. WINZE Winze, n. (Mining.) Defn: A small shaft sunk from one level to another, as for the purpose of ventilation. WIPE Wipe, n. Etym: [Cf. Sw. vipa, Dan. vibe, the lapwing.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The lapwing. [Prov. Eng.] WIPE Wipe, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wiped; p. pr. & vb. n. Wiping.] Etym: [OE. vipen, AS. wipian; cf. LG. wiep a wisp of straw, Sw. vepa to wrap up, to cuddle one's self up, vepa a blanket; perhaps akin to E. whip.] 1. To rub with something soft for cleaning; to clean or dry by rubbing; as, to wipe the hands or face with a towel. Let me wipe thy face. Shak. I will wipe Jerusalem as a man wipeth a dish, wiping it, and turning it upside down. 2 Kings xxi. 13. 2. To remove by rubbing; to rub off; to obliterate; -- usually followed by away, off or out. Also used figuratively. "To wipe out our ingratitude." Shak. Some natural tears they dropped, but wiped them soon. Milton. 3. To cheat; to defraud; to trick; -- usually followed by out. [Obs.] Spenser. If they by coveyne [covin] or gile be wiped beside their goods. Robynson (More's Utopia) To wipe a joint (Plumbing), to make a joint, as between pieces of lead pipe, by surrounding the junction with a mass of solder, applied in a plastic condition by means of a rag with which the solder is shaped by rubbing. -- To wipe the nose of, to cheat. [Old Slang] WIPE Wipe, n. 1. Act of rubbing, esp. in order to clean. 2. A blow; a stroke; a hit; a swipe. [Low] 3. A gibe; a jeer; a severe sarcasm. Swift. 4. A handkerchief. [Thieves' Cant or Slang] 5. Stain; brand. [Obs.] "Slavish wipe." Shak. WIPER Wip"er, n. 1. One who, or that which, wipes. 2. Something used for wiping, as a towel or rag. 3. (Mach.) Defn: A piece generally projecting from a rotating or swinging piece, as an axle or rock shaft, for the purpose of raising stampers, lifting rods, or the like, and leaving them to fall by their own weight; a kind of cam. 4. (Firearms) Defn: A rod, or an attachment for a rod, for holding a rag with which to wipe out the bore of the barrel. WIRBLE Wir"ble, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Wirbled; p. pr. & vb. n. Wirbling.] Etym: [Cf. Warble, Whirl.] Defn: To whirl; to eddy. [R.] The waters went wirbling above and around. Owen. Meredith. WIRCHE Wirche, v. i. & t. Defn: To work [Obs.] Chaucer. WIRE Wire, n. Etym: [OE. wir, AS. wir; akin to Icel. virr, Dan. vire, LG. wir, wire; cf. OHG. wiara fine gold; perhaps akin to E. withy. .] 1. A thread or slender rod of metal; a metallic substance formed to an even thread by being passed between grooved rollers, or drawn through holes in a plate of steel. Note: Wire is made of any desired form, as round, square, triangular, etc., by giving this shape to the hole in the drawplate, or between the rollers. 2. A telegraph wire or cable; hence, an electric telegraph; as, to send a message by wire. [Colloq.] Wire bed, Wire mattress, an elastic bed bottom or mattress made of wires interwoven or looped together in various ways. -- Wire bridge, a bridge suspended from wires, or cables made of wire. -- Wire cartridge, a shot cartridge having the shot inclosed in a wire cage. -- Wire cloth, a coarse cloth made of woven metallic wire, -- used for strainers, and for various other purposes. -- Wire edge, the thin, wirelike thread of metal sometimes formed on the edge of a tool by the stone in sharpening it. -- Wire fence, a fence consisting of posts with strained horizontal wires, wire netting, or other wirework, between. -- Wire gauge or gage. (a) A gauge for measuring the diameter of wire, thickness of sheet metal, etc., often consisting of a metal plate with a series of notches of various widths in its edge. (b) A standard series of sizes arbitrarily indicated, as by numbers, to which the diameter of wire or the thickness of sheet metal in usually made, and which is used in describing the size or thickness. There are many different standards for wire gauges, as in different countries, or for different kinds of metal, the Birmingham wire gauges and the American wire gauge being often used and designated by the abbreviations B. W.G. and A. W.G. respectively. -- Wire gauze, a texture of finely interwoven wire, resembling gauze. -- Wire grass (Bot.), either of the two common grasses Eleusine Indica, valuable for hay and pasture, and Poa compressa, or blue grass. See Blue grass. -- Wire grub (Zoöl.), a wireworm. -- Wire iron, wire rods of iron. -- Wire lathing, wire cloth or wire netting applied in the place of wooden lathing for holding plastering. -- Wire mattress. See Wire bed, above. -- Wire micrometer, a micrometer having spider lines, or fine wires, across the field of the instrument. -- Wire nail, a nail formed of a piece of wire which is headed and pointed. -- Wire netting, a texture of woven wire coarser than ordinary wire gauze. -- Wire rod, a metal rod from which wire is formed by drawing. -- Wire rope, a rope formed wholly, or in great part, of wires. WIRE Wire, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wired; p. pr. & vb. n. Wiring.] 1. To bind with wire; to attach with wires; to apply wire to; as, to wire corks in bottling liquors. 2. To put upon a wire; as, to wire beads. 3. To snare by means of a wire or wires. 4. To send (a message) by telegraph. [Colloq.] WIRE Wire, v. i. 1. To pass like a wire; to flow in a wirelike form, or in a tenuous stream. [R.] P. Fletcher. 2. To send a telegraphic message. [Colloq.] WIREDRAW Wire"draw`, v. t. [imp. Wiredrew; p. p. Wiredrawn; p. pr. & vb. n. Wiredrawing.] 1. To form (a piece of metal) into wire, by drawing it through a hole in a plate of steel. 2. Hence, to draw by art or violence. My sense has been wiredrawn into blasphemy. Dryden. 3. Hence, also, to draw or spin out to great length and tenuity; as, to wiredraw an argument. Such twisting, such wiredrawing, was never seen in a court of justice. Macaulay. 4. (Steam Engine) Defn: To pass, or to draw off, (as steam) through narrow ports, or the like, thus reducing its pressure or force by friction. WIRE-DRAWER Wire"-draw`er, n. Defn: One who draws metal into wire. WIRE GUN Wire gun. Defn: = Wire-wound gun. WIRE-HEEL Wire"-heel`, n. (Far.) Defn: A disease in the feet of a horse or other beast. WIRELESS Wire"less, a. Defn: Having no wire; specif. (Elec.), Defn: designating, or pertaining to, a method of telegraphy, telephony, etc., in which the messages, etc., are transmitted through space by electric waves; as, a wireless message. -- Wireless telegraphy or telegraph (Elec.), any system of telegraphy employing no connecting wire or wires between the transmitting and receiving stations. Although more or less successful researchers were made on the subject by Joseph Henry, Hertz, Oliver Lodge, and others, the first commercially successful system was that of Guglielmo Marconi, patented in March, 1897. Marconi employed electric waves of high frequency set up by an induction coil in an oscillator, these waves being launched into space through a lofty antenna. The receiving apparatus consisted of another antenna in circuit with a coherer and small battery for operating through a relay the ordinary telegraphic receiver. This apparatus contains the essential features of all the systems now in use. -- Wireless telephone, an apparatus or contrivance for wireless telephony. --Wireless telephony, telephony without wires, usually employing electric waves of high frequency emitted from an oscillator or generator, as in wireless telegraphy. A telephone transmitter causes fluctuations in these waves, it being the fluctuations only which affect the receiver. WIRELESS Wire"less, n. Defn: Short for Wireless telegraphy, Wireless telephony, etc.; as, to send a message by wireless. WIRE-PULLER Wire"-pull`er, n. Defn: One who pulls the wires, as of a puppet; hence, one who operates by secret means; an intriguer. Political wire-pullers and convention packers. Lowell. WIRE-PULLING Wire"-pull`ing, n. Defn: The act of pulling the wires, as of a puppet; hence, secret influence or management, especially in politics; intrigue. WIRE-TAILED Wire"-tailed`, a. (Zoöl.) Defn: Having some or all of the tail quills terminated in a long, slender, pointed shaft, without a web or barbules. WIRE TAPPER Wire tapper. Defn: One that taps, or cuts in on, telegraph wires and intercepts messages; hence (Slang), Defn: a swindler who pretends to tap wires or otherwise intercept advance telegraphic news for betting. -- Wire tapping. WIREWORK Wire"work`, n. Defn: Work, especially openwork, formed of wires. WIRE-WORKER Wire"-work`er, n. Defn: One who manufactures articles from wire. WIREWORM Wire"worm`, n. (Zoöl.) (a) One of the larvæ of various species of snapping beetles, or elaters; -- so called from their slenderness and the uncommon hardness of the integument. Wireworms are sometimes very destructive to the roots of plants. Called also wire grub. (b) A galleyworm. WIRE-WOUND GUN Wire"-wound` gun. (Ordnance) Defn: A gun in the construction of which an inner tube (either entire or in segments) is wound with wire under tension to insure greater soundness and uniformity of resistance. In modern construction hoops and jackets are shrunk on over the wire. WIRINESS Wir"i*ness, n. Defn: The quality of being wiry. WIRING Wir"ing, n. 1. The act of one that wires anything. 2. The wires or conductors employed in a system of electric distribution. WIRY Wir"y, a. Etym: [Written also wiery.] 1. Made of wire; like wire; drawn out like wire. 2. Capable of endurance; tough; sinewy; as, a wiry frame or constitution. "A little wiry sergeant of meek demeanor and strong sense." Dickens. He bore his age well, and seemed to retain a wiry vigor and alertness. Hawthorne. WIS Wis, adv. Etym: [Aphetic form of iwis, ywis; or fr. Icel. viss certain. See Ywis.] Defn: Certainly; really; indeed. [Obs.] "As wis God helpe me." Chaucer. WIS Wis, v. t. Etym: [Due to mistaking OE. iwis certain, AS. gewiss, for I wis. See Ywis.] Defn: To think; to suppose; to imagine; -- used chiefly in the first person sing. present tense, I wis. See the Note under Ywis. [Obs. or Poetic] "Howe'er you wis." R. Browning. Nor do I know how long it is (For I have lain entranced, I wis). Coleridge. WISARD Wis"ard, n. Defn: See Wizard. WISDOM Wis"dom (-dûm), n. Etym: [AS. wisdom. See Wise, a., and -dom.] 1. The quality of being wise; knowledge, and the capacity to make due use of it; knowledge of the best ends and the best means; discernment and judgment; discretion; sagacity; skill; dexterity. We speak also not in wise words of man's wisdom, but in the doctrine of the spirit. Wyclif (1 Cor. ii. 13). Behold, the fear of the Lord, that is wisdom; and to depart from evil is understanding. Job xxviii. 28. It is hoped that our rulers will act with dignity and wisdom that they will yield everything to reason, and refuse everything to force. Ames. Common sense in an uncommon degree is what the world calls wisdom. Coleridge. 2. The results of wise judgments; scientific or practical truth; acquired knowledge; erudition. Moses was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and was mighty in words and in deeds. Acts vii. 22. Syn. -- Prudence; knowledge. Wisdom, Prudence, Knowledge. Wisdom has been defined to be "the use of the best means for attaining the best ends." "We conceive," says Whewell, " prudence as the virtue by which we select right means for given ends, while wisdom implies the selection of right ends as well as of right means." Hence, wisdom implies the union of high mental and moral excellence. Prudence (that is, providence, or forecast) is of a more negative character; it rather consists in avoiding danger than in taking decisive measures for the accomplishment of an object. Sir Robert Walpole was in many respects a prudent statesman, but he was far from being a wise one. Burke has said that prudence, when carried too far, degenerates into a "reptile virtue," which is the more dangerous for its plausible appearance. Knowledge, a more comprehensive term, signifies the simple apprehension of facts or relations. "In strictness of language," says Paley, " there is a difference between knowledge and wisdom; wisdom always supposing action, and action directed by it." Knowledge and wisdom, far from being one, Have ofttimes no connection. Knowledge dwells In heads replete with thoughts of other men; Wisdom, in minds attentive to their own. Knowledge, a rude, unprofitable mass, The mere materials with which wisdom builds, Till smoothed, and squared, and fitted to its place, Does but encumber whom it seems to enrich. Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much; Wisdom is humble that he knows no more. Cowper. Wisdom tooth, the last, or back, tooth of the full set on each half of each jaw in man; -- familiarly so called, because appearing comparatively late, after the person may be supposed to have arrived at the age of wisdom. See the Note under Tooth, 1. WISDOM LITERATURE Wis"dom lit"er*a*ture. Defn: The class of ancient Hebrew writings which deal reflectively with general ethical and religious topics, as distinguished from the prophetic and liturgical literature, and from the law. It is comprised chiefly in the books of Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiasticus, Ecclesiastes, and Wisdom of Solomon. The "wisdom" (Hokhmah) of these writings consists in detached sage utterances on concrete issues of life, without the effort at philosophical system that appeared in the later Hellenistic reflective writing beginning with Philo Judæus. WISE Wise, a. [Compar. Wiser; superl. Wisest.] Etym: [OE. wis, AS. wis; akin to OS. & OFries. wis, D. wijs, G. weise, OHG. wis, wisi, Icel. viss, Sw. vis, Dan. viis, Goth. weis; akin to wit, v. i. See Wit, v., and cf. Righteous, Wisdom.] 1. Having knowledge; knowing; enlightened; of extensive information; erudite; learned. They are wise to do evil, but to do good they have no knowledge. Jer. iv. 22. 2. Hence, especially, making due use of knowledge; discerning and judging soundly concerning what is true or false, proper or improper; choosing the best ends and the best means for accomplishing them; sagacious. When clouds appear, wise men put their cloaks. Shak. From a child thou hast known the holy scriptures, which are able to make thee wise unto salvation. 2 Tim. iii. 15. 3. Versed in art or science; skillful; dexterous; specifically, skilled in divination. Fal. There was, mine host, an old fat woman even now with me; but she's gone. Sim. Pray you, sir, was't not the wise woman of Brentford Shak. 4. Hence, prudent; calculating; shrewd; wary; subtle; crafty. [R.] "Thou art . . . no novice, but a governor wily and wise." Chaucer. Nor, on the other side, Will I be penuriously wise As to make money, that's my slave, my idol. Beau. & Fl. Lords do not care for me: I am too wise to die yet. Ford. 5. Dictated or guided by wisdom; containing or exhibiting wisdom; well adapted to produce good effects; judicious; discreet; as, a wise saying; a wise scheme or plan; wise conduct or management; a wise determination. "Eminent in wise deport." Milton. To make it wise, to make it a matter of deliberation. [Obs.] " We thought it was not worth to make it wise." Chaucer. -- Wise in years, old enough to be wise; wise from age and experience; hence, aged; old. [Obs.] A very grave, state bachelor, my dainty one; He's wise in years, and of a temperate warmth. Ford. You are too wise in years, too full of counsel, For my green experience. Ford. WISE Wise, a. Etym: [OE. wise, AS. wise; akin to OS. wisa, OFries. wis, D. wijs, wijze, OHG. wisa, G. weise, Sw. vis, Dan. viis, Icel. övis otherwise; from the root of E. wit; hence, originally, knowledge, skill. See Wit, v., and cf. Guise.] Defn: Way of being or acting; manner; mode; fashion. "All armed in complete wise." Spenser. To love her in my beste wyse. Chaucer. This song she sings in most commanding wise. Sir P. Sidney. Let not these blessings then, sent from above, Abused be, or spilt in profane wise. Fairfax. Note: This word is nearly obsolete, except in such phrases as in any wise, in no wise, on this wise, etc. " Fret not thyself in any wise to do evil." Ps. xxxvii. 8. "He shall in no wise lose his reward." Matt. x. 42. " On this wise ye shall bless the children of Israel." Num. vi. 23. Note: Wise is often used as a suffix in composition, as in likewise, nowise, lengthwise, etc., in which words -ways is often substituted with the same sense; as, noways, lengthways, etc. WISEACRE Wise"a*cre, n. Etym: [OD. wijssegger or G. weissager a foreteller, prophet, from weissagen to foretell, to prophesy, OHG. wissag, corrupted (as if compounded of the words for wise and say) fr. wizzag, fr. wizzag a prophet, akin to AS. witiga, witga, from the root of E. wit. See Wit, v.] 1. A learned or wise man. [Obs.] Pythagoras learned much . . . becoming a mighty wiseacre. Leland. 2. One who makes undue pretensions to wisdom; a would-be-wise person; hence, in contempt, a simpleton; a dunce. WISE-HEARTED Wise"-heart`ed, a. Defn: Wise; knowing; skillful; sapient; erudite; prudent. Ex. xxviii. 3. WISE-LIKE Wise"-like`, a. Defn: Resembling that which is wise or sensible; judicious. The only wise-like thing I heard anybody say. Sir W. Scott. WISELING Wise"ling, n. Defn: One who pretends to be wise; a wiseacre; a witling. Donne. WISELY Wise"ly, adv. Defn: In a wise manner; prudently; judiciously; discreetly; with wisdom. And wisely learn to curb thy sorrows wild. Milton. WISENESS Wise"ness, n. Defn: Wisdom. [Obs.] Spenser. WISH Wish, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Wished; p. pr. & vb. n. Wishing.] Etym: [OE. wischen, weschen, wuschen, AS. w; akin to D. wenschen, G. wünschen, Icel. æeskja, Dan. önske, Sw. önska; from AS. w a wish; akin to OD. & G. wunsch, OHG. wunsc, Icel. , Skr. va a wish, va to wish; also to Skr. van to like, to wish. Winsome, Win, v. t., and cf. Wistful.] 1. To have a desire or yearning; to long; to hanker. They cast four anchors out of the stern, and wished for the day. Acts xxvii. 29. This is as good an argument as an antiquary could wish for. Arbuthnot. WISH Wish, v. t. 1. To desire; to long for; to hanker after; to have a mind or disposition toward. I would not wish Any companion in the world but you. Shak. I wish above all things that thou mayest prosper. 3. John 2. 2. To frame or express desires concerning; to invoke in favor of, or against, any one; to attribute, or cal down, in desire; to invoke; to imprecate. I would not wish them to a fairer death. Shak. I wish it may not prove some ominous foretoken of misfortune to have met with such a miser as I am. Sir P. Sidney. Let them be driven backward, and put to shame, that wish me evil. Ps. xl. 14. 3. To recommend; to seek confidence or favor in behalf of. [Obs.] Shak. I would be glad to thrive, sir, And I was wished to your worship by a gentleman. B. Jonson. Syn. -- See Desire. WISH Wish, n. 1. Desire; eager desire; longing. Behold, I am according to thy wish in God a stead. Job xxxiii. 6. 2. Expression of desire; request; petition; hence, invocation or imprecation. Blistered be thy tongue for such a wish. Shak. 3. A thing desired; an object of desire. Will he, wise, let loose at once his ire . . . To give his enemies their wish! Milton. WISHABLE Wish"a*ble, a. Defn: Capable or worthy of being wished for; desirable. Udall. WISHBONE Wish"bone`, n. Defn: The forked bone in front of the breastbone in birds; -- called also merrythought, and wishing bone. See Merrythought, and Furculum. WISHEDLY Wish"ed*ly, adv. Defn: According to wish; conformably to desire. [Obs.] Chapman. WISHER Wish"er, n. Defn: One who wishes or desires; one who expresses a wish. Shak. WISHFUL Wish"ful, a. Etym: [Cf. Wistful.] 1. Having desire, or ardent desire; longing. 2. Showing desire; as, wishful eyes. From Scotland am I stolen, even of pure love To greet mine own land with my wishful sight. Shak. 3. Desirable; exciting wishes. [R.] Chapman. -- Wish"ful*ly, adv. -- Wish"ful*ness, n. WISHING Wish"ing, Defn: a. & n. from Wish, v. t. Wishing bone. See Wishbone. -- Wishing cap, a cap fabled to give one whatever he wishes for when wearing it. WISHLY Wish"ly, adv. Defn: According to desire; longingly; with wishes. [Obs. or Prov. Eng.] Chapman. WISHTONWISH Wish"ton*wish, n. Etym: [Probably of American Indian origin.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The prairie dog. WISH-WASH Wish"-wash`, n. Defn: Any weak, thin drink. WISHY-WASHY Wish"y-wash`y, a. Etym: [See Wash.] Defn: Thin and pale; weak; without strength or substance; -- originally said of liquids. Fig., weak-minded; spiritless. A weak wishy-washy man who had hardly any mind of his own. A. Trollope. WISHY-WASHY Wish"y-wash`y, n. Defn: A weak or thin drink or liquor; wish-wash. WISKET Wis"ket, n. Defn: A whisket, or basket. [Prov. Eng.] Ainsworth. WISLY Wis"ly, adv. Etym: [See Wis, adv.] Defn: Certainly. [Obs.] "God so wisly have mercy on me." Chaucer. WISP Wisp, n. Etym: [OE. wisp, wips; probably akin to D. & G. wisch, Icel. visk, and perhaps to L. virga a twig, rod. Cf. Verge a rod, Whisk, n.] 1. A small bundle, as of straw or other like substance. In a small basket, on a wisp of hay. Dryden. 2. A whisk, or small broom. 3. A Will-o'-the-wisp; an ignis fatuus. The wisp that flickers where no foot can tread. Tennyson. WISP Wisp, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wisped; p. pr. & vb. n. Wisping.] 1. To brush or dress, an with a wisp. 2. To rumple. [Prov. Eng.] Halliwell. WISPEN Wisp"en, a. Defn: Formed of a wisp, or of wisp; as, a wispen broom. [Obs.] WISSE Wis"se, v. t. Etym: [AS. wisian. See Wise, a.] Defn: To show; to teach; to inform; to guide; to direct. [Obs.] Ere we depart I shall thee so well wisse That of mine house ne shalt thou never misse. Chaucer. WIST Wist, archaic imp. & p. p. of Wit, v. Defn: Knew. WISTARIA Wis*ta"ri*a, n. Etym: [NL.] Etym: [So named after Caspar Wistar, an American anatomist.] (Bot.) Defn: A genus of climbing leguminous plants bearing long, pendulous clusters of pale bluish flowers. Note: The species commonest in cultivation is the Wistaria Sinensis from Eastern Asia. W. fruticosa grows wild in the southern parts of the United States. WISTFUL Wist"ful, a. Etym: [For wishful; perhaps influenced by wistly, which is probably corrupted from OE. wisly certainly (from Icel. viss certain, akin to E. wit). See Wish.] 1. Longing; wishful; desirous. Lifting up one of my sashes, I cast many a wistful, melancholy look towards the sea. Swift. 2. Full of thought; eagerly attentive; meditative; musing; pensive; contemplative. That he who there at such an hour hath been, Will wistful linger on that hallowed spot. Byron. -- Wist"ful*ly, adv. -- Wist"ful*ness, n. WISTIT Wis"tit, n. Etym: [Prob. from native name: cf. F. ouistiti.] (Zoöl.) Defn: A small South American monkey; a marmoset. [Written also wistiti, and ouistiti.] WISTLY Wist"ly, adv. Etym: [See Wistful.] Defn: Attentively; observingly. [Obs.] Shak. WISTONWISH Wis"ton*wish, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: See Wishtonwish. WIT Wit, v. t. & i. [inf. (To) Wit; pres. sing. Wot; pl. Wite; imp. Wist(e); p. p. Wist; p. pr. & vb. n. Wit(t)ing. See the Note below.] Etym: [OE. witen, pres. ich wot, wat, I know (wot), imp. wiste, AS. witan, pres. wat, imp. wiste, wisse; akin to OFries. wita, OS. witan, D. weten, G. wissen, OHG. wizzan, Icel. vita, Sw. veta, Dan. vide, Goth. witan to observe, wait I know, Russ. vidiete to see, L. videre, Gr. vid to know, learn; cf. Skr. vid to find. History, Idea, Idol, - oid, Twit, Veda, Vision, Wise, a. & n., Wot.] Defn: To know; to learn. "I wot and wist alway." Chaucer. Note: The present tense was inflected as follows; sing. 1st pers. wot; 2d pers. wost, or wot(t)est; 3d pers. wot, or wot(t)eth; pl. witen, or wite. The following variant forms also occur; pres. sing. 1st & 3d pers. wat, woot; pres. pl. wyten, or wyte, weete, wote, wot; imp. wuste (Southern dialect); p. pr. wotting. Later, other variant or corrupt forms are found, as, in Shakespeare, 3d pers. sing. pres. wots. Brethren, we do you to wit [make you to know] of the grace of God bestowed on the churches of Macedonia. 2 Cor. viii. 1. Thou wost full little what thou meanest. Chaucer. We witen not what thing we prayen here. Chaucer. When that the sooth in wist. Chaucer. Note: This verb is now used only in the infinitive, to wit, which is employed, especially in legal language, to call attention to a particular thing, or to a more particular specification of what has preceded, and is equivalent to namely, that is to say. WIT Wit, n. Etym: [AS. witt, wit; akin to OFries. wit, G. witz, OHG. wizzi, Icel. vit, Dan. vid, Sw. vett. sq. root133. See Wit, v.] 1. Mind; intellect; understanding; sense. Who knew the wit of the Lord or who was his counselor Wyclif (Rom. xi. 34). A prince most prudent, of an excellent And unmatched wit and judgment. Shak. Will puts in practice what wit deviseth. Sir J. Davies. He wants not wit the dander to decline. Dryden. 2. A mental faculty, or power of the mind; -- used in this sense chiefly in the plural, and in certain phrases; as, to lose one's wits; at one's wits' end, and the like. "Men's wittes ben so dull." Chaucer. I will stare him out of his wits. Shak. 3. Felicitous association of objects not usually connected, so as to produce a pleasant surprise; also. the power of readily combining objects in such a manner. The definition of wit is only this, that it is a propriety of thoughts and words; or, in other terms, thoughts and words elegantly adapted to the subject. Dryden. Wit which discovers partial likeness hidden in general diversity. Coleridge. Wit lying most in the assemblage of ideas, and putting those together with quickness and variety wherein can be found any resemblance or congruity, thereby to make up pleasant pictures in the fancy. Locke. 4. A person of eminent sense or knowledge; a man of genius, fancy, or humor; one distinguished for bright or amusing sayings, for repartee, and the like. In Athens, where books and wits were ever busier than in any other part of Greece, I find but only two sorts of writings which the magistrate cared to take notice of; those either blasphemous and atheistical, or libelous. Milton. Intemperate wits will spare neither friend nor foe. L'Estrange. A wit herself, Amelia weds a wit. Young. The five wits, the five senses; also, sometimes, the five qualities or faculties, common wit, imagination, fantasy, estimation, and memory. Chaucer. Nares. But my five wits nor my five senses can Dissuade one foolish heart from serving thee. Shak. Syn. -- Ingenuity; humor; satire; sarcasm; irony; burlesque. -- Wit, Humor. Wit primarily meant mind; and now denotes the power of seizing on some thought or occurrence, and, by a sudden turn, presenting it under aspects wholly new and unexpected -- apparently natural and admissible, if not perfectly just, and bearing on the subject, or the parties concerned, with a laughable keenness and force. "What I want," said a pompous orator, aiming at his antagonist, "is common sense." "Exactly!" was the whispered reply. The pleasure we find in wit arises from the ingenuity of the turn, the sudden surprise it brings, and the patness of its application to the case, in the new and ludicrous relations thus flashed upon the view. Humor is a quality more congenial to the English mind than wit. It consists primarily in taking up the peculiarities of a humorist (or eccentric person) and drawing them out, as Addison did those of Sir Roger de Coverley, so that we enjoy a hearty, good-natured laugh at his unconscious manifestation of whims and oddities. From this original sense the term has been widened to embrace other sources of kindly mirth of the same general character. In a well-known caricature of English reserve, an Oxford student is represented as standing on the brink of a river, greatly agitated at the sight of a drowning man before him, and crying out, "O that I had been introduced to this gentleman, that I might save his life! The, "Silent Woman" of Ben Jonson is one of the most humorous productions, in the original sense of the term, which we have in our language. WITAN Wit"an, n. pl. [AS., pl. of wita sage, councilor.] Defn: Lit., wise men; specif. (A.-S. Hist.), Defn: the members of the national, or king's, council which sat to assist the king in administrative and judicial matters; also, the council. WITCH Witch, n. Etym: [Cf. Wick of a lamp.] Defn: A cone of paper which is placed in a vessel of lard or other fat, and used as a taper. [Prov. Eng.] WITCH Witch, n. Etym: [OE. wicche, AS. wicce, fem., wicca, masc.; perhaps the same word as AS. witiga, witga, a soothsayer (cf. Wiseacre); cf. Fries. wikke, a witch, LG. wikken to predict, Icel. vitki a wizard, vitka to bewitch.] 1. One who practices the black art, or magic; one regarded as possessing supernatural or magical power by compact with an evil spirit, esp. with the Devil; a sorcerer or sorceress; -- now applied chiefly or only to women, but formerly used of men as well. There was a man in that city whose name was Simon, a witch. Wyclif (Acts viii. 9). He can not abide the old woman of Brentford; he swears she's a witch. Shak. 2. An ugly old woman; a hag. Shak. 3. One who exercises more than common power of attraction; a charming or bewitching person; also, one given to mischief; -- said especially of a woman or child. [Colloq.] 4. (Geom.) Defn: A certain curve of the third order, described by Maria Agnesi under the name versiera. 5. (Zoöl.) Defn: The stormy petrel. Witch balls, a name applied to the interwoven rolling masses of the stems of herbs, which are driven by the winds over the steppes of Tartary. Cf. Tumbleweed. Maunder (Treas. of Bot.) -- Witches' besoms (Bot.), tufted and distorted branches of the silver fir, caused by the attack of some fungus. Maunder (Treas. of Bot.) -- Witches' butter (Bot.), a name of several gelatinous cryptogamous plants, as Nostoc commune, and Exidia glandulosa. See Nostoc. -- Witch grass (Bot.), a kind of grass (Panicum capillare) with minute spikelets on long, slender pedicels forming a light, open panicle. -- Witch meal (Bot.), vegetable sulphur. See under Vegetable. WITCH Witch, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Witched; p. pr. & vb. n. Witching.] Etym: [AS. wiccian.] Defn: To bewitch; to fascinate; to enchant. [I 'll] witch sweet ladies with my words and looks. Shak. Whether within us or without The spell of this illusion be That witches us to hear and see. Lowell. WITCHCRAFT Witch"craft`, n. Etym: [AS. wiccecræft.] 1. The practices or art of witches; sorcery; enchantments; intercourse with evil spirits. 2. Power more than natural; irresistible influence. He hath a witchcraft Over the king in 's tongue. Shak. WITCH-ELM Witch"-elm`, n. (Bot.) Defn: See Wych-elm. WITCHERY Witch"er*y, n; pl. Witcheries (. 1. Sorcery; enchantment; witchcraft. Great Comus, Deep skilled in all his mother's witcheries. Milton. A woman infamous . . . for witcheries. Sir W. Scott. 2. Fascination; irresistible influence; enchantment. He never felt The witchery of the soft blue sky. Wordsworth. The dear, dear witchery of song. Bryant. WITCH-HAZEL Witch"-ha`zel, n. Etym: [See Wych-elm, and Hazel.] (Bot.) Defn: The wych-elm. (b) An American shrub or small tree (Hamamelis Virginica), which blossoms late in autumn. WITCHING Witch"ing, a. Defn: That witches or enchants; suited to enchantment or witchcraft; bewitching. "The very witching time of night." Shak. -- Witch"ing*ly, adv. WITCH-TREE Witch"-tree`, n. (Bot.) Defn: The witch-hazel. WITCHUCK Wit"chuck`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The sand martin, or bank swallow. [Prov. Eng.] WIT-CRACKER Wit"-crack`er, n. Defn: One who breaks jests; a joker. [Obs.] Shak. WITCRAFT Wit"craft`, n. 1. Art or skill of the mind; contrivance; invention; wit. [Obs.] Camden. 2. The art of reasoning; logic. [R.] WITE Wite, v. t. Etym: [AS. witan; akin to D. wijten, G. verweisen, Icel. vita to mulct, and E. wit; cf. AS. witan to see, L. animadvertere to observe, to punish. Wit, v.] Defn: To reproach; to blame; to censure; also, to impute as blame. [Obs. or Scot.] Spenser. Though that I be jealous, wite me not. Chaucer. There if that I misspeak or say, Wite it the ale of Southwark, I you pray. Chaucer. WITE Wite, n. Etym: [AS. wite punishment. Wite, v.] Defn: Blame; reproach. [Obs. or Scot.] Chaucer. WITELESS Wite"less, a. Defn: Blameless. [Obs.] Spenser. WITEN Wit"en, obs. Defn: pl. pres. of Wit. Chaucer. WITENAGEMOTE Wit"e*na*ge*mote`, n. Etym: [AS. witena gemot an assembly of the wise; wita a wise man + gemot assembly.] (AS. Hist.) Defn: A meeting of wise men; the national council, or legislature, of England in the days of the Anglo-Saxons, before the Norman Conquest. WITFISH Wit"fish`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The ladyfish (a). WITFUL Wit"ful, a. Defn: Wise; sensible. [R.] Chapman. WITH With, n. Defn: See Withe. WITH With, prep. Etym: [OE. with, AS. wi with, against; akin to AS. wi against, OFries. with, OS. wi, wi, D. weder, weêr (in comp.), G. wider against, wieder gain, OHG. widar again, against, Icel. vi against, with, by, at, Sw. vid at, by, Dan. ved, Goth. wipra against, Skr. vi asunder. Cf. Withdraw, Withers, Withstand.] Defn: With denotes or expresses some situation or relation of nearness, proximity, association, connection, or the like. It is used especially: -- 1. To denote a close or direct relation of opposition or hostility; - - equivalent to against. Thy servant will . . . fight with this Philistine. 1 Sam. xvii. 32. Note: In this sense, common in Old English, it is now obsolete except in a few compounds; as, withhold; withstand; and after the verbs fight, contend, struggle, and the like. 2. To denote association in respect of situation or environment; hence, among; in the company of. I will buy with you, talk with you, walk with you, and so following; but I will not eat with you, drink with you, nor pray with you. Shak. Pity your own, or pity our estate, Nor twist our fortunes with your sinking fate. Dryden. See where on earth the flowery glories lie; With her they flourished, and with her they die. Pope. There is no living with thee nor without thee. Tatler. Such arguments had invincible force with those pagan philosophers. Addison. 3. To denote a connection of friendship, support, alliance, assistance, countenance, etc.; hence, on the side of. Fear not, for I am with thee, and will bless thee. Gen. xxvi. 24. 4. To denote the accomplishment of cause, means, instrument, etc; -- sometimes equivalent to by. That with these fowls I be all to-rent. Chaucer. Thou wilt be like a lover presently, And tire the hearer with a book of words. Shak. [He] entertained a coffeehouse with the following narrative. Addison. With receiving your friends within and amusing them without, you lead a good, pleasant, bustling life of it. Goldsmith. 5. To denote association in thought, as for comparison or contrast. Can blazing carbuncles with her compare. Sandys. 6. To denote simultaneous happening, or immediate succession or consequence. With that she told me . . . that she would hide no truth from me. Sir P. Sidney. With her they flourished, and with her they die. Pope. With this he pointed to his face. Dryden. 7. To denote having as a possession or an appendage; as, the firmament with its stars; a bride with a large fortune. "A maid with clean hands." Shak. Note: With and by are closely allied in many of their uses, and it is not easy to lay down a rule by which to distinguish their uses. See the Note under By. WITHAL With*al", adv. Etym: [With + all.] 1. With this; with that. [Obs.] He will scarce be pleased withal. Shak. 2. Together with this; likewise; at the same time; in addition; also. [Archaic] Fy on possession But if a man be virtuous withal. Chaucer. If you choose that, then I am yours withal. Shak. How modest in exception, and withal How terrible in constant resolution. Shak. WITHAL With*al", prep. Defn: With; -- put after its object, at the end of sentence or clause in which it stands. [Obs.] This diamond he greets your wife withal. Shak. Whatsoever uncleanness it be that a man shall be defiled withal. Lev. v. 3. WITHAMITE With"am*ite, n. Etym: [From its discoverer, H. Witham.] (Min.) Defn: A variety of epidote, of a reddish color, found in Scotland. WITHDRAW With*draw", v. t. [imp. Withdrew; p. p. Withdrawn; p. pr. & vb. n. Withdrawing.] Etym: [With against + draw.] 1. To take back or away, as what has been bestowed or enjoyed; to draw back; to cause to move away or retire; as, to withdraw aid, favor, capital, or the like. Impossible it is that God should withdraw his presence from anything. Hooker. 2. To take back; to recall or retract; as, to withdraw false charges. WITHDRAW With*draw", v. i. Defn: To retire; to retreat; to quit a company or place; to go away; as, he withdrew from the company. "When the sea withdrew." King Horn. Syn. -- To recede; retrograde; go back. WITHDRAWAL With*draw"al, n. Defn: The act of withdrawing; withdrawment; retreat; retraction. Fielding. WITHDRAWER With*draw"er, n. Defn: One who withdraws; one who takes back, or retracts. WITHDRAWING-ROOM With*draw"ing-room`, n. Etym: [See Withdraw, and cf. Drawing-room.] Defn: A room for retirement from another room, as from a dining room; a drawing-room. A door in the middle leading to a parlor and withdrawing-room. Sir W. Scott. WITHDRAWMENT With*draw"ment, n. Defn: The act of withdrawing; withdrawal. W. Belsham. WITHE Withe, n. Etym: [OE. withe. Withy, n.] [Written also with.] 1. A flexible, slender twig or branch used as a band; a willow or osier twig; a withy. 2. A band consisting of a twig twisted. 3. (Naut.) Defn: An iron attachment on one end of a mast or boom, with a ring, through which another mast or boom is rigged out and secured; a wythe. R. H. Dana, Jr. 4. (Arch.) Defn: A partition between flues in a chimney. WITHE Withe, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Withed; p. pr. & vb. n. Withing.] Defn: To bind or fasten with withes. You shall see him withed, and haltered, and staked, and baited to death. Bp. Hall. WITHER With"er, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Withered; p. pr. & vb. n. Withering.] Etym: [OE. wideren; probably the same word as wederen to weather (see Weather, v. & n.); or cf. G. verwittern to decay, to be weather- beaten, Lith. vysti to wither.] 1. To fade; to lose freshness; to become sapless; to become sapless; to dry or shrivel up. Shall he hot pull up the roots thereof, and cut off the fruit thereof, that it wither Ezek. xvii. 9. 2. To lose or want animal moisture; to waste; to pin This is man, old, wrinkled, faded, withered. Shak. There was a man which had his hand withered. Matt. xii. 10. Now warm in love, now with'ring in the grave. Dryden. 3. To lose vigor or power; to languish; to pass away. "Names that must not wither." Byron. States thrive or wither as moons wax and wane. Cowper. WITHER With"er, v. t. 1. To cause to fade, and become dry. The sun is no sooner risen with a burning heat, but it withereth the grass, and the flower thereof falleth. James i. 11. 2. To cause to shrink, wrinkle, or decay, for want of animal moisture. "Age can not wither her." Shak. Shot forth pernicious fire Among the accursed, that withered all their strength. Milton. 3. To cause to languish, perish, or pass away; to blight; as, a reputation withered by calumny. The passions and the cares that wither life. Bryant. WITHERBAND With"er*band`, n. Etym: [Withers + band.] (Far.) Defn: A piece of iron in a saddle near a horse's withers, to strengthen the bow. WITHERED With"ered, a. Defn: Faded; dried up; shriveled; wilted; wasted; wasted away. -- With"ered*ness, n. Bp. Hall. WITHERING With"er*ing, a. Defn: Tending to wither; causing to shrink or fade. -- With"er*ing*ly, adv. WITHERITE With"er*ite, n. Etym: [So called after Dr. W. Withering.] (Min.) Defn: Barium carbonate occurring in white or gray six-sided twin crystals, and also in columnar or granular masses. WITHERLING With"er*ling, n. Etym: [Wither + -ling.] Defn: A withered person; one who is decrepit. [Obs.] Chapman. WITHERNAM With"er*nam, n. Etym: [AS. withernam; wither against + nam a seizure, fr. niman to take.] (Law) Defn: A second or reciprocal distress of other goods in lieu of goods which were taken by a first distress and have been eloigned; a taking by way of reprisal; -- chiefly used in the expression capias in withernam, which is the name of a writ used in connection with the action of replevin (sometimes called a writ of reprisal), which issues to a defendant in replevin when he has obtained judgment for a return of the chattels replevied, and fails to obtain them on the writ of return. Blackstone. WITHE-ROD Withe"-rod`, n. (Bot.) Defn: A North American shrub (Viburnum nudum) whose tough osierlike shoots are sometimes used for binding sheaves. WITHERS With"ers, n. pl. Etym: [Properly, the parts which resist the pull or strain in drawing a load; fr. OE. wither resistance, AS. withre, fr. wither against; akin to G. widerrist withers. See With, prep.] Defn: The ridge between the shoulder bones of a horse, at the base of the neck. See Illust. of Horse. Let the galled jade wince; our withers are unwrung. Shak. WITHER-WRUNG With"er-wrung`, a. Defn: Injured or hurt in the withers, as a horse. WITHHOLD With*hold", v. t. [imp. Withheld; p. p. Withheld, Obs. or Archaic Withholden (; p. pr. & vb. n. Withholding.] Etym: [With again, against, back + hold.] 1. To hold back; to restrain; to keep from action. Withhold, O sovereign prince, your hasty hand From knitting league with him. Spenser. 2. To retain; to keep back; not to grant; as, to withhold assent to a proposition. Forbid who will, none shall from me withhold Longer thy offered good. Milton. 3. To keep; to maintain; to retain. [Obs.] To withhold it the more easily in heart. Chaucer. WITHHOLDER With*hold"er, n. Defn: One who withholds. WITHHOLDMENT With*hold"ment, n. Defn: The act of withholding. WITHIN With*in", prep. Etym: [OE. withinne, withinnen, AS. withinnan; with with, against, toward + innan in, inwardly, within, from in in. See With, prep., In, prep.] 1. In the inner or interior part of; inside of; not without; as, within doors. O, unhappy youth! Come not within these doors; within this roof The enemy of all your graces lives. Shak. Till this be cured by religion, it is as impossible for a man to be happy -- that is, pleased and contented within himself -- as it is for a sick man to be at ease. Tillotson. 2. In the limits or compass of; not further in length than; as, within five miles; not longer in time than; as, within an hour; not exceeding in quantity; as, expenses kept within one's income. "That he repair should again within a little while." Chaucer. Within these five hours lived Lord Hastings, Untainted, unexamined, free, at liberty. Shak. 3. Hence, inside the limits, reach, or influence of; not going outside of; not beyond, overstepping, exceeding, or the like. Both he and she are still within my power. Dryden. Within himself The danger lies, yet lies within his power. Milton. Were every action concluded within itself, and drew no consequence after it, we should, undoubtedly, never err in our choice of good. Locke. WITHIN With*in", adv. 1. In the inner part; inwardly; internally. "The wound festers within." Carew. Ills from within thy reason must prevent. Dryden. 2. In the house; in doors; as, the master is within. WITHINFORTH With*in"forth`, adv. Defn: Within; inside; inwardly. [Obs.] Wyclif. [It is much greater] labor for to withinforth call into mind, without sight of the eye withoutforth upon images, what he before knew and thought upon. Bp. Peacock. WITHINSIDE With*in"side`, adv. Defn: In the inner parts; inside. [Obs.] Graves. WITHOUT With*out", prep. Etym: [OE. withoute, withouten, AS. with; with with, against, toward + outside, fr. out. See With, prep., Out.] 1. On or at the outside of; out of; not within; as, without doors. Without the gate Some drive the cars, and some the coursers rein. Dryden. 2. Out of the limits of; out of reach of; beyond. Eternity, before the world and after, is without our reach. T. Burnet. 3. Not with; otherwise than with; in absence of, separation from, or destitution of; not with use or employment of; independently of; exclusively of; with omission; as, without labor; without damage. I wolde it do withouten negligence. Chaucer. Wise men will do it without a law. Bacon. Without the separation of the two monarchies, the most advantageous terms . . . must end in our destruction. Addison. There is no living with thee nor without thee. Tatler. To do without. See under Do. -- Without day Etym: [a translation of L. sine die], without the appointment of a day to appear or assemble again; finally; as, the Fortieth Congress then adjourned without day. -- Without recourse. See under Recourse. WITHOUT With*out", conj. Defn: Unless; except; -- introducing a clause. You will never live to my age without you keep yourselves in breath with exercise, and in heart with joyfulness. Sir P. Sidney. Note: Now rarely used by good writers or speakers. WITHOUT With*out", adv. 1. On or art the outside; not on the inside; not within; outwardly; externally. Without were fightings, within were fears. 2 Cor. vii. 5. 2. Outside of the house; out of doors. The people came unto the house without. Chaucer. WITHOUT-DOOR With*out"-door`, a. Defn: Outdoor; exterior. [Obs.] "Her without-door form." Shak. WITHOUTEN With*out"en, prep. Defn: Without. [Obs.] Chaucer. WITHOUTFORTH With*out"forth`, adv. Defn: Without; outside' outwardly. Cf. Withinforth. [Obs.] Chaucer. WITHSAY With*say", v. t. Defn: To contradict; to gainsay; to deny; to renounce. [Obs.] Gower. If that he his Christendom withsay. Chaucer. WITHSET With*set", v. t. Defn: To set against; to oppose. [Obs.] "Their way he them withset." R. of Brunne. WITHSTAND With*stand", v. t. [imp. & p. p. Withstood; p. pr. & vb. n. Withstanding.] Etym: [AS. wiedhstandan. See With, prep., and Stand.] Defn: To stand against; to oppose; to resist, either with physical or moral force; as, to withstand an attack of troops; to withstand eloquence or arguments. Piers Plowman. I withstood him to the face. Gal. ii. 11. Some village Hampden, that, with dauntless breast. The little tyrant of his fields withstood. Gray. WITHSTANDER With*stand"er, n. Defn: One who withstands, or opposes; an opponent; a resisting power. WITHSTOOD With*stood", imp. & p. p. Defn: oWithstand. WITHVINE With"vine`, n. Etym: [Withe + vine.] (Bot.) Defn: Quitch grass. WITHWIND With"wind`, n. Etym: [AS. wiedhowinde.] (Bot.) Defn: A kind of bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis). He bare a burden ybound with a broad list, In a withewyndes wise ybounden about. Piers Plowman. WITHWINE With"wine`, n. (Bot.) Defn: Same as Withvine. WITHY With"y, n.; pl. Withies. Etym: [OE. withe, wipi, AS. wi a willow, willow twig; akin to G. weide willow, OHG. wida, Icel. vi, a withy, Sw. vide a willow twig, Dan. vidie a willow, osier, Gr. vitis a vine, viere to plait, Russ. vite. sq. root141. Cf. Wine, Withe.] 1. (Bot.) Defn: The osier willow (Salix viminalis). See Osier, n. (a). 2. A withe. See Withe, 1. WITHY With"y, a. Defn: Made of withes; like a withe; flexible and tough; also, abounding in withes. The stream is brimful now, and lies high in this little withy plantation. G. Eliot. WITING Wit"ing, n. Etym: [See Wit, v.] Defn: Knowledge. [Obs.] "Withouten witing of any other wight." Chaucer. WITLESS Wit"less, a. Defn: Destitute of wit or understanding; wanting thought; hence, indiscreet; not under the guidance of judgment. "Witless bravery." Shak. A witty mother! witless else her son. Shak. Witless pity breedeth fruitless love. Fairfax. -- Wit"less*ly, adv. -- Wit"less*ness, n. WITLING Wit"ling, n. Etym: [Wit + -ling; cf. G. witzling.] Defn: A person who has little wit or understanding; a pretender to wit or smartness. A beau and witing perished in the forming. Pope. Ye newspaper witlings! ye pert scribbling folks! Goldsmith. WITNESS Wit"ness, n. Etym: [AS. witness, gewitnes, from witan to know. sq. root133. See Wit, v. i.] 1. Attestation of a fact or an event; testimony. May we with . . . the witness of a good conscience, pursue him with any further revenge Shak. If I bear witness of myself, my witness is not true. John v. 31. 2. That which furnishes evidence or proof. Laban said to Jacob, . . . This heap be witness, and this pillar be witness. Gen. xxxi. 51, 52. 3. One who is cognizant; a person who beholds, or otherwise has personal knowledge of, anything; as, an eyewitness; an earwitness. "Thyself art witness I am betrothed." Shak. Upon my looking round, I was witness to appearances which filled me with melancholy and regret. R. Hall. 4. (Law) (a) One who testifies in a cause, or gives evidence before a judicial tribunal; as, the witness in court agreed in all essential facts. (b) One who sees the execution of an instrument, and subscribes it for the purpose of confirming its authenticity by his testimony; one who witnesses a will, a deed, a marriage, or the like. Privileged witnesses. (Law) See under Privileged. -- With a witness, effectually; to a great degree; with great force, so as to leave some mark as a testimony. [Colloq.] This, I confess, is haste with a witness. South. WITNESS Wit"ness, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Witnessed; p. pr. & vb. n. Witnessing.] 1. To see or know by personal presence; to have direct cognizance of. This is but a faint sketch of the incalculable calamities and horrors we must expect, should we ever witness the triumphs of modern infidelity. R. Hall. General Washington did not live to witness the restoration of peace. Marshall. 2. To give testimony to; to testify to; to attest. Behold how many things they witness against thee. Mark xv. 4. 3. (Law) Defn: To see the execution of, as an instrument, and subscribe it for the purpose of establishing its authenticity; as, to witness a bond or a deed. WITNESS Wit"ness, v. i. Defn: To bear testimony; to give evidence; to testify. Chaucer. The men of Belial witnessed against him. 1 Kings xxi. 13. The witnessing of the truth was then so generally attended with this event [martyrdom] that martyrdom now signifies not only to witness, but to witness to death. South. WITNESSER Wit"ness*er, n. Defn: One who witness. WIT-SNAPPER Wit"-snap`per, n. Defn: One who affects repartee; a wit-cracker. [Obs.] Shak. WIT-STARVED Wit"-starved`, a. Defn: Barren of wit; destitute of genius. Examiner. WITTED Wit"ted, a. Defn: Having (such) a wit or understanding; as, a quick-witted boy. WITTICASTER Wit"tic*as`ter, n. Etym: [Formed like criticaster.] Defn: A witling. [R.] Milton. WITTICISM Wit"ti*cism, n. Etym: [From Witty.] Defn: A witty saying; a sentence or phrase which is affectedly witty; an attempt at wit; a conceit. Milton. He is full of conceptions, points of epigram, and witticisms; all which are below the dignity of heroic verse. Addison. WITTIFIED Wit"ti*fied, a. Etym: [Witty + -fy + -ed.] Defn: Possessed of wit; witty. [R.] R. North. WITTILY Wit"ti*ly, adv. Defn: In a witty manner; wisely; ingeniously; artfully; with it; with a delicate turn or phrase, or with an ingenious association of ideas. Who his own harm so wittily contrives. Dryden. WITTINESS Wit"ti*ness, n. Defn: The quality of being witty. WITTINGLY Wit"ting*ly, adv. Etym: [See Wit, v.] Defn: Knowingly; with knowledge; by design. WITTOL Wit"tol, n. Etym: [Said to be for white tail, and so called in allusion to its white tail; but cf. witwal.] 1. (Zoöl.) Defn: The wheatear. [Prov. Eng.] 2. A man who knows his wife's infidelity and submits to it; a tame cuckold; -- so called because the cuckoo lays its eggs in the wittol's nest. [Obs.] Shak. WITTOLLY Wit"tol*ly, a. Defn: Like a wittol; cuckoldly. [Obs.] Shak. WITTS Witts, n. (Mining) Defn: Tin ore freed from earthy matter by stamping. Knight. WITTY Wit"ty, a. [Compar. Wittier; superl. Wittiest.] Etym: [AS. witig, wittig. See Wit, n.] 1. Possessed of wit; knowing; wise; skillful; judicious; clever; cunning. [Obs.] "The deep-revolving witty Buckingham." Shak. 2. Especially, possessing wit or humor; good at repartee; droll; facetious; sometimes, sarcastic; as, a witty remark, poem, and the like. "Honeycomb, who was so unmercifully witty upon the women." Addison. Syn. -- Acute; smart; sharp; arch; keen; facetious; amusing; humorous; satirical; ironical; taunting. WITWAL; WITWALL Wit"wal`, Wit"wall`, n. Etym: [Akin to G. wittewal, wiedewall, MHG. witewal, D. wiedewaal, wielewaal, OD. weduwael, and perhaps the same word as OE. wodewale. Cf. Wood, n., Wittol.] (Zoöl.) (a) The golden oriole. (b) The greater spotted woodpecker. [Prov. Eng.] WITWORM Wit"worm`, n. Defn: One who, or that which, feeds on or destroys wit. [Obs.] B. Jonson. WIVE Wive, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Wived; p. pr. & vb. n. Wiving.] Etym: [AS. wifian, gewifian. See Wite.] Defn: To marry, as a man; to take a wife. Wherefore we pray you hastily to wive. Chaucer. WIVE Wive, v. t. 1. To match to a wife; to provide with a wife. "An I could get me but a wife . . . I were manned, horsed, and wived." Shak. 2. To take for a wife; to marry. I have wived his sister. Sir W. Scott. WIVEHOOD Wive"hood, n. Defn: Wifehood. [Obs.] Spenser. WIVELESS Wive"less, a. Defn: Wifeless. [Obs.] Homilies. WIVELY Wive"ly, a. Defn: Wifely. [Obs.] Udall. WIVER; WIVERN Wiv"er, Wiv"ern, n. Etym: [OE. wivere a serpent, OF. wivre, guivre, F. givre, guivre, wiver, from L. vipera; probably influenced by OHG. wipera, from the Latin. See Viper, and cf. Weever.] 1. (Her.) Defn: A fabulous two-legged, winged creature, like a cockatrice, but having the head of a dragon, and without spurs. [Written also wyvern.] The jargon of heraldry, its griffins, its mold warps, its wiverns, and its dragons. Sir W. Scott. 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: The weever. WIVES Wives, n. Defn: , pl of Wife. WIZARD Wiz"ard, n. Etym: [Probably from wise + -ard.] 1. A wise man; a sage. [Obs.] See how from far upon the eastern road The star-led wizards [Magi] haste with odors sweet! Milton. 2. One devoted to the black art; a magician; a conjurer; a sorcerer; an enchanter. The wily wizard must be caught. Dryden. WIZARD Wiz"ard, a. 1. Enchanting; charming. Collins. 2. Haunted by wizards. Where Deva spreads her wizard stream. Milton. WIZARDLY Wiz"ard*ly, a. Defn: Resembling or becoming a wizard; wizardlike; weird. WIZARDRY Wiz"ard*ry, n. Defn: The character or practices o "He acquired a reputation bordering on wizardry." J. A. Symonds. WIZEN Wiz"en, v. i. Etym: [OE. wisenen, AS. wisnian akin to weornian to decay, OHG. wesan to grow dry, G. verwesen to rot, Icel. visna to wither, Sw. vissna, Dan. visne, and probably to L. virus an offensive odor, poison. Cf. Virus.] Defn: To wither; to dry. [Prov. Eng. & Scot.] WIZEN Wiz"en, a. Defn: Wizened; thin; weazen; withered. A little lonely, wizen, strangely clad boy. Dickens. WIZEN Wiz"en, n. Defn: The weasand. [Prov. Eng. & Scot.] WIZENED Wiz"ened, a. Defn: Dried; shriveled; withered; shrunken; weazen; as, a wizened old man. WIZEN-FACED Wiz"en-faced`, a. Defn: Having a shriveled, thin, withered face. WLATSOME Wlat"some, a. Etym: [AS. wlatian to disgust, irk, wl loathing.] Defn: Loathsome; disgusting; hateful. [Obs.] Murder is . . . wlatsom and abhominable to God. Chaucer. WO Wo, n. & a. Defn: See Woe. [Obs.] Chaucer. WOAD Woad, n. Etym: [OE. wod, AS. wad; akin to D. weede, G. waid, OHG. weit, Dan. vaid, veid, Sw. veide, L. vitrum.] [Written also wad, and wade.] 1. (Bot.) Defn: An herbaceous cruciferous plant (Isatis tinctoria). It was formerly cultivated for the blue coloring matter derived from its leaves. 2. A blue dyestuff, or coloring matter, consisting of the powdered and fermented leaves of the Isatis tinctoria. It is now superseded by indigo, but is somewhat used with indigo as a ferment in dyeing. Their bodies . . . painted with woad in sundry figures. Milton. Wild woad (Bot.), the weld (Reseda luteola). See Weld. -- Woad mill, a mill grinding and preparing woad. WOADED Woad"ed, a. Defn: Colored or stained with woad. "Man tattoed or woaded, winter- clad in skins." Tennyson. WOAD-WAXEN Woad"-wax`en, n. Etym: [Cf. Wood-wax.] (Bot.) Defn: A leguminous plant (Genista tinctoria) of Europe and Russian Asia, and adventitious in America; -- called also greenwood, greenweed, dyer's greenweed, and whin, wood-wash, wood-wax, and wood- waxen. WOALD Woald, n. Defn: See Weld. WOBBLE Wob"ble, v. i. Defn: See Wabble. WODE Wode, a. Etym: [AS. wod.] Defn: Mad. See Wood, a. [Obs. or Prov. Eng.] Chaucer. WODE Wode, n. Defn: Wood. Chaucer. WODEGELD Wode"geld`, n. Etym: [See Wood, and Geld.] (O. Eng. Law) Defn: A geld, or payment, for wood. Burrill. WODEN Wo"den, n. Etym: [AS. Woden; akin to OS. Wodan, OHG. Wuotan, Icel. Othinn, and probably to E. wood, a. Cf. Wednesday.] (Northern Myth.) Defn: A deity corresponding to Odin, the supreme deity of the Scandinavians. Wednesday is named for him. See Odin. WOE Woe, n. Etym: [OE. wo, wa, woo, AS. wa, interj.; akin to D. wee, OS. & OHG. we, G. weh, Icel. vei, Dan. vee, Sw. ve, Goth. wai; cf. L. vae, Gr. Wail.] [Formerly written also wo.] 1. Grief; sorrow; misery; heavy calamity. Thus saying, from her side the fatal key, Sad instrument of all our woe, she took. Milton. [They] weep each other's woe. Pope. 2. A curse; a malediction. Can there be a woe or curse in all the stores of vengeance equal to the malignity of such a practice South. Note: Woe is used in denunciation, and in exclamations of sorrow. " Woe is me! for I am undone." Isa. vi. 5. O! woe were us alive [i.e., in life]. Chaucer. Woe unto him that striveth with his Maker! Isa. xlv. 9. Woe worth, Woe be to. See Worth, v. i. Woe worth the chase, woe worth the day, That costs thy life, my gallant gray! Sir W. Scott. WOE Woe, a. Defn: Woeful; sorrowful. [Obs.] His clerk was woe to do that deed. Robert of Brunne. Woe was this knight and sorrowfully he sighed. Chaucer. And looking up he waxed wondrous woe. Spenser. WOE-BEGONE Woe"-be*gone`, a. Etym: [OE. wo begon. See Woe, and Begone, p. p.] Defn: Beset or overwhelmed with woe; immersed in grief or sorrow; woeful. Chaucer. So woe-begone was he with pains of love. Fairfax. WOEFUL; WOFUL Woe"ful, Wo"ful, a. 1. Full of woe; sorrowful; distressed with grief or calamity; afflicted; wretched; unhappy; sad. How many woeful widows left to bow To sad disgrace! Daniel. 2. Bringing calamity, distress, or affliction; as, a woeful event; woeful want. O woeful day! O day of woe! Philips. 3. Wretched; paltry; miserable; poor. What woeful stuff this madrigal would be! Pope. WOEFULLY; WOFULLY Woe"ful*ly, Wo"ful*ly, adv. Defn: In a woeful manner; sorrowfully; mournfully; miserably; dolefully. WOEFULNESS; WOFULNESS Woe"ful*ness, Wo"ful*ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being woeful; misery; wretchedness. WOESOME Woe"some, a. Defn: Woeful. [Obs.] Langhorne. WOKE Woke, imp. & p. p. Defn: Wake. WOL Wol, v. t. & i. Defn: See 2d Will. [Obs.] Chaucer. WOLD Wold, n. Etym: [OE. wold, wald, AS. weald, wald, a wood, forest; akin to OFries. & OS. wald, D. woud, G. wald, Icel. völlr, a field, and probably to Gr. va a garden, inclosure. Cf. Weald.] 1. A wood; a forest. 2. A plain, or low hill; a country without wood, whether hilly or not. And from his further bank Ætolia's wolds espied. Byron. The wind that beats the mountain, blows More softly round the open wold. Tennyson. WOLD Wold, n. Defn: See Weld. WOLDE Wolde, obs. Defn: imp. of Will. See Would. WOLF Wolf, n.; pl. Wolves. Etym: [OE. wolf, wulf, AS. wulf; akin to OS. wulf, D. & G. wolf, Icel. ulfr, Sw. ulf, Dan. ulv, Goth. wulfs, Lith. vilkas, Russ. volk', L. lupus, Gr. ly`kos, Skr. vrska; also to Gr. "e`lkein to draw, drag, tear in pieces. sq. root286. Cf. Lupine, a., Lyceum.] 1. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of several species of wild and savage carnivores belonging to the genus Canis and closely allied to the common dog. The best-known and most destructive species are the European wolf (Canis lupus), the American gray, or timber, wolf (C. occidentalis), and the prairie wolf, or coyote. Wolves often hunt in packs, and may thus attack large animals and even man. 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: One of the destructive, and usually hairy, larvæ of several species of beetles and grain moths; as, the bee wolf. 3. Fig.: Any very ravenous, rapacious, or destructive person or thing; especially, want; starvation; as, they toiled hard to keep the wolf from the door. 4. A white worm, or maggot, which infests granaries. 5. An eating ulcer or sore. Cf. Lupus. [Obs.] If God should send a cancer upon thy face, or a wolf into thy side. Jer. Taylor. 6. (Mus.) (a) The harsh, howling sound of some of the chords on an organ or piano tuned by unequal temperament. (b) In bowed instruments, a harshness due to defective vibration in certain notes of the scale. 7. (Textile Manuf.) Defn: A willying machine. Knight. Black wolf. (Zoöl.) (a) A black variety of the European wolf which is common in the Pyrenees. (b) A black variety of the American gray wolf. -- Golden wolf (Zoöl.), the Thibetan wolf (Canis laniger); -- called also chanco. -- Indian wolf (Zoöl.), an Asiatic wolf (Canis pallipes) which somewhat resembles a jackal. Called also landgak. -- Prairie wolf (Zoöl.), the coyote. -- Sea wolf. (Zoöl.) See in the Vocabulary. -- Strand wolf (Zoöl.) the striped hyena. -- Tasmanian wolf (Zoöl.), the zebra wolf. -- Tiger wolf (Zoöl.), the spotted hyena. -- To keep the wolf from the door, to keep away poverty; to prevent starvation. See Wolf, 3, above. Tennyson. -- Wolf dog. (Zoöl.) (a) The mastiff, or shepherd dog, of the Pyrenees, supposed by some authors to be one of the ancestors of the St. Bernard dog. (b) The Irish greyhound, supposed to have been used formerly by the Danes for chasing wolves. (c) A dog bred between a dog and a wolf, as the Eskimo dog. -- Wolf eel (Zoöl.), a wolf fish. -- Wolf fish (Zoöl.), any one of several species of large, voracious marine fishes of the genus Anarrhichas, especially the common species (A. lupus) of Europe and North America. These fishes have large teeth and powerful jaws. Called also catfish, sea cat, sea wolf, stone biter, and swinefish. -- Wolf net, a kind of net used in fishing, which takes great numbers of fish. -- Wolf's peach (Bot.), the tomato, or love apple (Lycopersicum esculentum). -- Wolf spider (Zoöl.), any one of numerous species of running ground spiders belonging to the genus Lycosa, or family Lycosidæ. These spiders run about rapidly in search of their prey. Most of them are plain brown or blackish in color. See Illust. in App. -- Zebra wolf (Zoöl.), a savage carnivorous marsupial (Thylacinus cynocephalus) native of Tasmania; -- called also Tasmanian wolf. WOLFBERRY Wolf"ber`ry, n. (Bot.) Defn: An American shrub (Symphoricarpus occidentalis) which bears soft white berries. WOLFFIAN Wolff"i*an, a (Anat.) Defn: Discovered, or first described, by Caspar Friedrich Wolff (1733-1794), the founder of modern embryology. Wolffian body, the mesonephros. -- Wolffian duct, the duct from the Wolffian body. WOLFHOUND Wolf"hound`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: Originally, a large hound used in hunting wolves; now, any one of certain breeds of large dogs, some of which are nearly identical with the great Danes. WOLFISH Wolf"ish, a. Defn: Like a wolf; having the qualities or form of a wolf; as, a wolfish visage; wolfish designs. -- Wolf"ish*ly, adv. -- Wolf"ish*ness, n. WOLFKIN Wolf"kin, n. Defn: A little or young wolf. Tennyson. WOLFLING Wolf"ling, n. Defn: A young wolf. Carlyle. WOLFRAM Wol"fram, n. Etym: [G.] (Min.) Defn: Same as Wolframite. WOLFRAMATE Wol"fram*ate, n. (Chem.) Defn: A salt of wolframic acid; a tungstate. WOLFRAMIC Wol*fram"ic, a. (Chem.) Defn: Of or pertaining to wolframium. See Tungstic. WOLFRAMITE Wol"fram*ite, n. Etym: [G., wolframit, wolfram; wolf wolf + rahm cream, soot; cf. G. wolfsruss wolfram, lit., wolf's soot.] (Min.) Defn: Tungstate of iron and manganese, generally of a brownish or grayish black color, submetallic luster, and high specific gravity. It occurs in cleavable masses, and also crystallized. Called also wolfram. WOLFRAMIUM Wol*fra"mi*um, n. Etym: [NL. See Wolfram.] (Chem.) Defn: The technical name of the element tungsten. See Tungsten. WOLFRAM STEEL Wol"fram steel. Defn: Same as Tungsten steel. WOLFSBANE Wolfs"bane`, n. (Bot.) Defn: A poisonous plant (Aconitum Lycoctonum), a kind of monkshood; also, by extension, any plant or species of the genus Aconitum. See Aconite. WOLF'S-CLAW Wolf's"-claw`, n. (Bot.) Defn: A kind of club moss. See Lycopodium. WOLF'S-FOOT Wolf's"-foot`, n. (Bot.) Defn: Club moss. See Lycopodium. WOLF'S-MILK Wolf's"-milk`, n. (Bot.) Defn: Any kind of spurge (Euphorbia); -- so called from its acrid milky juice. WOLL Woll, v. t. & i. Defn: See 2d Will. [Obs.] WOLLASTONITE Wol"las*ton*ite, n. Etym: [After Dr. W. H. Wollaston, an English chemist, who died in 1828.] (Min.) Defn: A silicate of lime of a white to gray, red, or yellow color, occurring generally in cleavable masses, rarely in tabular crystals; tabular spar. WOLLASTON'S DOUBLET Wol"las*ton's dou"blet. [After W. H. Wollaston, English physicist.] (Optics) Defn: A magnifying glass consisting of two plano-convex lenses. It is designed to correct spherical aberration and chromatic dispersion. WOLLE Wolle, n. Defn: Wool. [Obs.] Chaucer. WOLVERENE; WOLVERINE Wol`ver*ene", Wol`ver*ine", n. Etym: [From Wolf, with a dim suffix; prob. so called from its supposed wolfish qualities.] 1. (Zoöl.) Defn: The glutton. 2. A nickname for an inhabitant of Michigan. [U. S.] WOLVERENE STATE Wol`ver*ene" State. Defn: Michigan; -- a nickname. WOLVES Wolves, n., Defn: pl. of Wolf. WOLVISH Wolv"ish, a. Defn: Wolfish. Shak. WOMAN Wom"an n.; pl. Women. Etym: [OE. woman, womman, wumman, wimman, wifmon, AS. wifmann, wimmann; wif woman, wife + mann a man. See Wife, and Man.] 1. An adult female person; a grown-up female person, as distinguished from a man or a child; sometimes, any female person. Women are soft, mild pitiful, and flexible. Shak. And the rib, which the Lord God had taken from man, made he a woman. Gen. ii. 22. I have observed among all nations that the women ornament themselves more than the men; that, wherever found, they are the same kind, civil, obliging, humane, tender beings, inclined to be gay and cheerful, timorous and modest. J. Ledyard. 2. The female part of the human race; womankind. Man is destined to be a prey to woman. Thackeray. 3. A female attendant or servant. " By her woman I sent your message." Shak. Woman hater, one who hates women; one who has an aversion to the female sex; a misogynist. Swift. WOMAN Wom"an, v. t. 1. To act the part of a woman in; -- with indefinite it. Daniel. 2. To make effeminate or womanish. [R.] Shak. 3. To furnish with, or unite to, a woman. [R.] "To have him see me woman'd." Shak. WOMANHEAD; WOMANHEDE Wom"an*head, Wom"an*hede, n. Defn: Womanhood. [Obs.] Chaucer. WOMANHOOD Wom"an*hood, n. 1. The state of being a woman; the distinguishing character or qualities of a woman, or of womankind. Unspotted faith, and comely womanhood. Spenser. Perhaps the smile and the tender tone Came out of her pitying womanhood. Tennyson. 2. Women, collectively; womankind. WOMANISH Wom"an*ish, a. Defn: Suitable to a woman, having the qualities of a woman; effeminate; not becoming a man; -- usually in a reproachful sense. See the Note under Effeminate. " Thy tears are womanish." Shak. " Womanish entreaties." Macaulay. A voice not soft, weak, piping, and womanish, but audible, strong, and manlike. Ascham. -- Wom"an*ish*ly, adv. -- Wom"an*ish*ness, n. WOMANIZE Wom"an*ize, v. t. Defn: To make like a woman; to make effeminate. [Obs.] V. Knox. WOMANKIND Wom"an*kind`, n. Defn: The females of the human race; women, collectively. A sanctuary into which womankind, with her tools of magic, the broom and mop, has very infrequent access. Hawthorne. WOMANLESS Wom"an*less, a. Defn: Without a woman or women. WOMANLIKE Wom"an*like, a. Defn: Like a woman; womanly. Womanlike, taking revenge too deep. Tennyson. WOMANLINESS Wom"an*li*ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being womanly. There is nothing wherein their womanliness is more honestly garnished than with silence. Udall. WOMANLY Wom"an*ly, a. Defn: Becoming a woman; feminine; as, womanly behavior. Arbuthnot. A blushing, womanly discovering grace. Donne. WOMANLY Wom"an*ly, adv. Defn: In the manner of a woman; with the grace, tenderness, or affection of a woman. Gascoigne. WOMAN'S CHRISTIAN TEMPERANCE UNION Woman's Christian Temperance Union. Defn: An association of women formed in the United States in 1874, for the advancement of temperance by organizing preventive, educational, evangelistic, social, and legal work. WOMB Womb, n. Etym: [OE. wombe, wambe, AS. wamb, womb; akin to D. wam belly, OS. & OHG. wamba, G. wamme, wampe, Icel. vömb, Sw. v&mb, Dan. vom, Goth. wamba.] 1. The belly; the abdomen. [Obs.] Chaucer. And he coveted to fill his woman of the cods that the hogs eat, and no man gave him. Wyclif (Luke xv. 16). An I had but a belly of any indifferency, I were simply the most active fellow in Europe. My womb, my womb, my womb undoes me. Shak. 2. (Anat.) Defn: The uterus. See Uterus. 3. The place where anything is generated or produced. The womb of earth the genial seed receives. Dryden. 4. Any cavity containing and enveloping anything. The center spike of gold Which burns deep in the bluebell's womb. R. Browning. WOMB Womb, v. t. Defn: To inclose in a womb, or as in a womb; to breed or hold in secret. [Obs.] Shak. WOMBAT Wom"bat, n. Etym: [From the native name, womback, wombach, in Australia.] (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of three species of Australian burrowing marsupials of the genus Phascolomys, especially the common species (P. ursinus). They are nocturnal in their habits, and feed mostly on roots. WOMBY Womb"y, a. Defn: Capacious. [Obs.] Shak. WOMEN Wom"en, n., Defn: pl. of Woman. WON Won, Defn: imp. & p. p. of Win. WON Won, v. i. Etym: [See 1st Wone.] Defn: To dwell or abide. [Obs. or Scot.] " Where he wans in forest wild." Milton. This land where I have woned thus long. Spenser. WON Won, n. Defn: Dwelling; wone. [Obs.] Spenser. WONDER Won"der, n. Etym: [OE. wonder, wunder, AS. wundor; akin to D. wonder, OS. wundar, OHG. wuntar, G. wunder, Icel. undr, Sw. & Dan. under, and perhaps to Gr. 1. That emotion which is excited by novelty, or the presentation to the sight or mind of something new, unusual, strange, great, extraordinary, or not well understood; surprise; astonishment; admiration; amazement. They were filled with wonder and amazement at that which had happened unto him. Acts iii. 10. Wonder is the effect of novelty upon ignorance. Johnson. Note: Wonder expresses less than astonishment, and much less than amazement. It differs from admiration, as now used, in not being necessarily accompanied with love, esteem, or approbation. 2. A cause of wonder; that which excites surprise; a strange thing; a prodigy; a miracle. " Babylon, the wonder of all tongues." Milton. To try things oft, and never to give over, doth wonders. Bacon. I am as a wonder unto many. Ps. lxxi. 7. Seven wonders of the world. See in the Dictionary of Noted Names in Fiction. WONDER Won"der, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Wondered; p. pr. & vb. n. Wondering.] Etym: [AS. wundrian.] 1. To be affected with surprise or admiration; to be struck with astonishment; to be amazed; to marvel. I could not sufficiently wonder at the intrepidity of these diminutive mortals. Swift. We cease to wonder at what we understand. Johnson. 2. To feel doubt and curiosity; to wait with uncertain expectation; to query in the mind; as, he wondered why they came. I wonder, in my soul, What you would ask me, that I should deny. Shak. WONDER Won"der, a. Defn: Wonderful. [Obs.] Gower. After that he said a wonder thing. Chaucer. WONDER Won"der, adv. Defn: Wonderfully. [Obs.] Chaucer. WONDERED Won"dered, a. Defn: Having performed wonders; able to perform wonderful things. [Obs.] Shak. WONDERER Won"der*er, n. Defn: One who wonders. WONDERFUL Won"der*ful, a. Defn: Adapted to excite wonder or admiration; surprising; strange; astonishing. Syn. -- Marvelous; amazing. See Marvelous. -- Won"der*ful*ly, adv. -- Won"der*ful*ness, n. WONDERINGLY Won"der*ing*ly, adv. Defn: In a wondering manner. WONDERLAND Won"der*land`, n. Defn: A land full of wonders, or marvels. M. Arnold. WONDERLY Won"der*ly, adv. Etym: [AS. wundorlice.] Defn: Wonderfully; wondrously. [Obs.] Chaucer. WONDERMENT Won"der*ment, n. Defn: Surprise; astonishment; a wonderful appearance; a wonder. Bacon. All the common sights they view, Their wonderment engage. Sir W. Scott. WONDEROUS Won"der*ous, a. Defn: Same as Wondrous. WONDERS Won"ders, adv. Defn: See Wondrous. [Obs.] They be wonders glad thereof. Sir T. More. WONDERSTRUCK Won"der*struck`, a. Defn: Struck with wonder, admiration, or surprise. Dryden. WONDERWORK Won"der*work`, n. Etym: [AS. wundorweorc.] Defn: A wonderful work or act; a prodigy; a miracle. Such as in strange land He found in wonderworks of God and Nature's hand. Byron. WONDER-WORKER Won"der-work`er, n. Defn: One who performs wonders, or miracles. WONDER-WORKING Won"der-work`ing, a. Defn: Doing wonders or surprising things. WONDROUS Won"drous, adv. Etym: [OE. wonders, adv. (later also adj.). See Wonder, n., and cf. -wards.] Defn: In a wonderful or surprising manner or degree; wonderfully. For sylphs, yet mindful of their ancient race, Are, as when women, wondrous fond of place. Pope. And now there came both mist and snow, And it grew wondrous cold. Coleridge. WONDROUS Won"drous, a. Defn: Wonderful; astonishing; admirable; marvelous; such as excite surprise and astonishment; strange. That I may . . . tell of all thy wondrous works. Ps. xxvi. 7. -- Won"drous*ly, adv. -- Won"drous*ness, n. Chloe complains, and wondrously's aggrieved. Granville. WONE Wone, v. i. Etym: [OE. wonen, wunen, wonien, wunien, AS. wunian. Wont, a.] Defn: To dwell; to abide. [Obs.] Piers Plowman. Their habitation in which they woned. Chaucer. WONE Wone, n. Etym: [OE. See Wone, v. i., Wont, a.] 1. Dwelling; habitation; abode. [Obs.] Chaucer. 2. Custom; habit; wont; use; usage. [Obs.] To liven in delight was all his wone. Chaucer. WONG Wong, n. Etym: [AS. wang, wong.] Defn: A field. [Obs.] Spelman. "Woods and wonges." Havelok the Dane. WONGER Wong"er, n. Defn: See Wanger. [Obs.] Chaucer. WONING Won"ing, n. Defn: Dwelling. [Obs.] Chaucer. WON'T Won't. Defn: A colloquial contraction of woll not. Will not. See Will. Note: Often pronounced wûnt in New England. WONT Wont, a. Etym: [For woned, p. p. of won, wone, to dwell, AS. wunian; akin to D. wonen, OS. wun, OHG, won, G. wohnen, and AS. wund, gewuna, custom, habit; orig. probably, to take pleasure; cf. Icel. una to dwell, to enjoy, Goth. wunan to rejoice (in unwunands sad); and akin to Skr. van to like, to wish. Wean, Win.] Defn: Using or doing customarily; accustomed; habituated; used. "As he was wont to go." Chaucer. If the ox were wont to push with his horn. Ex. xxi. 29. WONT Wont, n. Defn: Custom; habit; use; usage. They are . . . to be called out to their military motions, under sky or covert, according to the season, as was the Roman wont. Milton. From childly wont and ancient use. Cowper. WONT Wont, v. i. [imp. Wont, p. p. Wont, or Wonted; p. pr. & vb. n. Wonting.] Defn: To be accustomed or habituated; to be used. A yearly solemn feast she wont to make. Spenser. WONT Wont, v. t. Defn: To accustom; -- used reflexively. WONTED Wont"ed, a. Defn: Accustomed; customary; usual. Again his wonted weapon proved. Spenser. Like an old piece of furniture left alone in its wonted corner. Sir W. Scott. She was wonted to the place, and would not remove. L'Estrange. WONTEDNESS Wont"ed*ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being accustomed. [R.] Eikon Basilike. WONTLESS Wont"less, a. Defn: Unaccustomed. [Obs.] Spenser. WOO Woo, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wooed; p. pr. & vb. n. Wooing.] Etym: [OE. wowen, wo, AS. w, fr. w bent, crooked, bad; akin to OS. wah evil, Goth. unwahs blameless, Skr. va to waver, and perhaps to E. vaccilate.] 1. To solicit in love; to court. Each, like the Grecian artist, wooes The image he himself has wrought. Prior. 2. To court solicitously; to invite with importunity. Thee, chantress, oft the woods among I woo, to hear thy even song. Milton. I woo the wind That still delays his coming. Bryant. WOO Woo, v. i. Defn: To court; to make love. Dryden. WOOD Wood, a. Etym: [OE. wod, AS. w; akin to OHG. wuot, Icel. , Goth. w, D. woede madness, G. wuth, wut, also to AS. w song, Icel. , L. vates a seer, a poet. Cf. Wednesday.] Defn: Mad; insane; possessed; rabid; furious; frantic. [Obs.] [Written also wode.] Our hoste gan to swear as [if] he were wood. Chaucer. WOOD Wood, v. i. Defn: To grow mad; to act like a madman; to mad. Chaucer. WOOD Wood, n. Etym: [OE. wode, wude, AS. wudu, wiodu; akin to OHG. witu, Icel. vi, Dan. & Sw. ved wood, and probably to Ir. & Gael. fiodh, W. gwydd trees, shrubs.] 1. A large and thick collection of trees; a forest or grove; -- frequently used in the plural. Light thickens, and the crow Makes wing to the rooky wood. Shak. 2. The substance of trees and the like; the hard fibrous substance which composes the body of a tree and its branches, and which is covered by the bark; timber. "To worship their own work in wood and stone for gods." Milton. 3. (Bot.) Defn: The fibrous material which makes up the greater part of the stems and branches of trees and shrubby plants, and is found to a less extent in herbaceous stems. It consists of elongated tubular or needle-shaped cells of various kinds, usually interwoven with the shinning bands called silver grain. Note: Wood consists chiefly of the carbohydrates cellulose and lignin, which are isomeric with starch. 4. Trees cut or sawed for the fire or other uses. Wood acid, Wood vinegar (Chem.), a complex acid liquid obtained in the dry distillation of wood, and containing large quantities of acetic acid; hence, specifically, acetic acid. Formerly called pyroligneous acid. -- Wood anemone (Bot.), a delicate flower (Anemone nemorosa) of early spring; -- also called windflower. See Illust. of Anemone. -- Wood ant (Zoöl.), a large ant (Formica rufa) which lives in woods and forests, and constructs large nests. -- Wood apple (Bot.). See Elephant apple, under Elephant. -- Wood baboon (Zoöl.), the drill. -- Wood betony. (Bot.) (a) Same as Betony. (b) The common American lousewort (Pedicularis Canadensis), a low perennial herb with yellowish or purplish flowers. -- Wood borer. (Zoöl.) (a) The larva of any one of numerous species of boring beetles, esp. elaters, longicorn beetles, buprestidans, and certain weevils. See Apple borer, under Apple, and Pine weevil, under Pine. (b) The larva of any one of various species of lepidopterous insects, especially of the clearwing moths, as the peach-tree borer (see under Peach), and of the goat moths. (c) The larva of various species of hymenopterous of the tribe Urocerata. See Tremex. (d) Any one of several bivalve shells which bore in wood, as the teredos, and species of Xylophaga. (e) Any one of several species of small Crustacea, as the Limnoria, and the boring amphipod (Chelura terebrans). -- Wood carpet, a kind of floor covering made of thin pieces of wood secured to a flexible backing, as of cloth. Knight. -- Wood cell (Bot.), a slender cylindrical or prismatic cell usually tapering to a point at both ends. It is the principal constituent of woody fiber. -- Wood choir, the choir, or chorus, of birds in the woods. [Poetic] Coleridge. -- Wood coal, charcoal; also, lignite, or brown coal. -- Wood cricket (Zoöl.), a small European cricket (Nemobius sylvestris). -- Wood culver (Zoöl.), the wood pigeon. -- Wood cut, an engraving on wood; also, a print from such an engraving. -- Wood dove (Zoöl.), the stockdove. -- Wood drink, a decoction or infusion of medicinal woods. -- Wood duck (Zoöl.) (a) A very beautiful American duck (Aix sponsa). The male has a large crest, and its plumage is varied with green, purple, black, white, and red. It builds its nest in trees, whence the name. Called also bridal duck, summer duck, and wood widgeon. (b) The hooded merganser. (c) The Australian maned goose (Chlamydochen jubata). -- Wood echo, an echo from the wood. -- Wood engraver. (a) An engraver on wood. (b) (Zoöl.) Any of several species of small beetles whose larvæ bore beneath the bark of trees, and excavate furrows in the wood often more or less resembling coarse engravings; especially, Xyleborus xylographus. -- Wood engraving. (a) The act or art engraving on wood; xylography. (b) An engraving on wood; a wood cut; also, a print from such an engraving. -- Wood fern. (Bot.) See Shield fern, under Shield. -- Wood fiber. (a) (Bot.) Fibrovascular tissue. (b) Wood comminuted, and reduced to a powdery or dusty mass. -- Wood fretter (Zoöl.), any one of numerous species of beetles whose larvæ bore in the wood, or beneath the bark, of trees. -- Wood frog (Zoöl.), a common North American frog (Rana sylvatica) which lives chiefly in the woods, except during the breeding season. It is drab or yellowish brown, with a black stripe on each side of the head. -- Wood germander. (Bot.) See under Germander. -- Wood god, a fabled sylvan deity. -- Wood grass. (Bot.) See under Grass. -- Wood grouse. (Zoöl.) (a) The capercailzie. (b) The spruce partridge. See under Spruce. -- Wood guest (Zoöl.), the ringdove. [Prov. Eng.] -- Wood hen. (Zoöl.) (a) Any one of several species of Old World short-winged rails of the genus Ocydromus, including the weka and allied species. (b) The American woodcock. -- Wood hoopoe (Zoöl.), any one of several species of Old World arboreal birds belonging to Irrisor and allied genera. They are closely allied to the common hoopoe, but have a curved beak, and a longer tail. -- Wood ibis (Zoöl.), any one of several species of large, long- legged, wading birds belonging to the genus Tantalus. The head and neck are naked or scantily covered with feathers. The American wood ibis (Tantalus loculator) is common in Florida. -- Wood lark (Zoöl.), a small European lark (Alauda arborea), which, like, the skylark, utters its notes while on the wing. So called from its habit of perching on trees. -- Wood laurel (Bot.), a European evergreen shrub (Daphne Laureola). -- Wood leopard (Zoöl.), a European spotted moth (Zeuzera æsculi) allied to the goat moth. Its large fleshy larva bores in the wood of the apple, pear, and other fruit trees. -- Wood lily (Bot.), the lily of the valley. -- Wood lock (Naut.), a piece of wood close fitted and sheathed with copper, in the throating or score of the pintle, to keep the rudder from rising. -- Wood louse (Zoöl.) (a) Any one of numerous species of terrestrial isopod Crustacea belonging to Oniscus, Armadillo, and related genera. See Sow bug, under Sow, and Pill bug, under Pill. (b) Any one of several species of small, wingless, pseudoneuropterous insects of the family Psocidæ, which live in the crevices of walls and among old books and papers. Some of the species are called also book lice, and deathticks, or deathwatches. -- Wood mite (Zoöl.), any one of numerous small mites of the family Oribatidæ. They are found chiefly in woods, on tree trunks and stones. -- Wood mote. (Eng. Law) (a) Formerly, the forest court. (b) The court of attachment. -- Wood nettle. (Bot.) See under Nettle. -- Wood nightshade (Bot.), woody nightshade. -- Wood nut (Bot.), the filbert. -- Wood nymph. (a) A nymph inhabiting the woods; a fabled goddess of the woods; a dryad. "The wood nymphs, decked with daisies trim." Milton. (b) (Zoöl.) Any one of several species of handsomely colored moths belonging to the genus Eudryas. The larvæ are bright-colored, and some of the species, as Eudryas grata, and E. unio, feed on the leaves of the grapevine. (c) (Zoöl.) Any one of several species of handsomely colored South American humming birds belonging to the genus Thalurania. The males are bright blue, or green and blue. -- Wood offering, wood burnt on the altar. We cast the lots . . . for the wood offering. Neh. x. 34. -- Wood oil (Bot.), a resinous oil obtained from several East Indian trees of the genus Dipterocarpus, having properties similar to those of copaiba, and sometimes substituted for it. It is also used for mixing paint. See Gurjun. -- Wood opal (Min.), a striped variety of coarse opal, having some resemblance to wood. -- Wood paper, paper made of wood pulp. See Wood pulp, below. -- Wood pewee (Zoöl.), a North American tyrant flycatcher (Contopus virens). It closely resembles the pewee, but is smaller. -- Wood pie (Zoöl.), any black and white woodpecker, especially the European great spotted woodpecker. -- Wood pigeon. (Zoöl.) (a) Any one of numerous species of Old World pigeons belonging to Palumbus and allied genera of the family Columbidæ. (b) The ringdove. -- Wood puceron (Zoöl.), a plant louse. -- Wood pulp (Technol.), vegetable fiber obtained from the poplar and other white woods, and so softened by digestion with a hot solution of alkali that it can be formed into sheet paper, etc. It is now produced on an immense scale. -- Wood quail (Zoöl.), any one of several species of East Indian crested quails belonging to Rollulus and allied genera, as the red- crested wood quail (R. roulroul), the male of which is bright green, with a long crest of red hairlike feathers. -- Wood rabbit (Zoöl.), the cottontail. -- Wood rat (Zoöl.), any one of several species of American wild rats of the genus Neotoma found in the Southern United States; -- called also bush rat. The Florida wood rat (Neotoma Floridana) is the best-known species. -- Wood reed grass (Bot.), a tall grass (Cinna arundinacea) growing in moist woods. -- Wood reeve, the steward or overseer of a wood. [Eng.] -- Wood rush (Bot.), any plant of the genus Luzula, differing from the true rushes of the genus Juncus chiefly in having very few seeds in each capsule. -- Wood sage (Bot.), a name given to several labiate plants of the genus Teucrium. See Germander. -- Wood screw, a metal screw formed with a sharp thread, and usually with a slotted head, for insertion in wood. -- Wood sheldrake (Zoöl.), the hooded merganser. -- Wood shock (Zoöl.), the fisher. See Fisher, 2. -- Wood shrike (Zoöl.), any one of numerous species of Old World singing birds belonging to Grallina, Collyricincla, Prionops, and allied genera, common in India and Australia. They are allied to the true shrikes, but feed upon both insects and berries. -- Wood snipe. (Zoöl.) (a) The American woodcock. (b) An Asiatic snipe (Gallinago nemoricola). -- Wood soot, soot from burnt wood. -- Wood sore. (Zoöl.) See Cuckoo spit, under Cuckoo. -- Wood sorrel (Bot.), a plant of the genus Oxalis (Oxalis Acetosella), having an acid taste. See Illust. (a) of Shamrock. -- Wood spirit. (Chem.) See Methyl alcohol, under Methyl. -- Wood stamp, a carved or engraved block or stamp of wood, for impressing figures or colors on fabrics. -- Wood star (Zoöl.), any one of several species of small South American humming birds belonging to the genus Calothorax. The male has a brilliant gorget of blue, purple, and other colors. -- Wood sucker (Zoöl.), the yaffle. -- Wood swallow (Zoöl.), any one of numerous species of Old World passerine birds belonging to the genus Artamus and allied genera of the family Artamidæ. They are common in the East Indies, Asia, and Australia. In form and habits they resemble swallows, but in structure they resemble shrikes. They are usually black above and white beneath. -- Wood tapper (Zoöl.), any woodpecker. -- Wood tar. See under Tar. -- Wood thrush, (Zoöl.) (a) An American thrush (Turdus mustelinus) noted for the sweetness of its song. See under Thrush. (b) The missel thrush. -- Wood tick. See in Vocabulary. -- Wood tin. (Min.). See Cassiterite. -- Wood titmouse (Zoöl.), the goldcgest. -- Wood tortoise (Zoöl.), the sculptured tortoise. See under Sculptured. -- Wood vine (Bot.), the white bryony. -- Wood vinegar. See Wood acid, above. -- Wood warbler. (Zoöl.) (a) Any one of numerous species of American warblers of the genus Dendroica. See Warbler. (b) A European warbler (Phylloscopus sibilatrix); -- called also green wren, wood wren, and yellow wren. -- Wood worm (Zoöl.), a larva that bores in wood; a wood borer. -- Wood wren. (Zoöl.) (a) The wood warbler. (b) The willow warbler. WOOD Wood, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wooded; p. pr. & vb. n. Wooding.] Defn: To supply with wood, or get supplies of wood for; as, to wood a steamboat or a locomotive. WOOD Wood, v. i. Defn: To take or get a supply of wood. WOODBIND Wood"bind`, n. Defn: Woodbine. Dryden. A garland . . . of woodbind or hawthorn leaves. Chaucer. WOODBINE Wood"bine`, n. Etym: [AS. wudubind black ivy; -- so named as binding about trees. See Wood, and Bind, v. t.] (Bot.) (a) A climbing plant having flowers of great fragrance (Lonicera Periclymenum); the honeysuckle. (b) The Virginia creeper. See Virginia creeper, under Virginia. [Local, U. S.] Beatrice, who even now Is couched in the woodbine coverture. Shak. WOOD-BOUND Wood"-bound`, a. Defn: Incumbered with tall, woody hedgerows. WOODBURY-TYPE Wood"bur*y-type`, n. Etym: [After the name of the inventor, W. Woodbury.] 1. A process in photographic printing, in which a relief pattern in gelatin, which has been hardened after certain operations, is pressed upon a plate of lead or other soft metal. An intaglio impression in thus produced, from which pictures may be directly printed, but by a slower process than in common printing. 2. A print from such a plate. WOODCHAT Wood"chat`, n. (Zoöl.) (a) Any one of several species of Asiatic singing birds belonging to the genera Ianthia and Larvivora. They are closely allied to the European robin. The males are usually bright blue above, and more or less red or rufous beneath. (b) A European shrike (Enneoctonus rufus). In the male the head and nape are rufous red; the back, wings, and tail are black, varied with white. WOODCHUCK Wood"chuck`, n. 1. (Zoöl.) Defn: A common large North American marmot (Arctomys monax). It is usually reddish brown, more or less grizzled with gray. It makes extensive burrows, and is often injurious to growing crops. Called also ground hog. 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: The yaffle, or green woodpecker. [Prov. Eng.] WOODCOCK Wood"cock`, n. Etym: [AS. wuducoc.] 1. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of several species of long-billed limicoline birds belonging to the genera Scolopax and Philohela. They are mostly nocturnal in their habits, and are highly esteemed as game birds. Note: The most important species are the European (Scolopax rusticola) and the American woodcock (Philohela minor), which agree very closely in appearance and habits. 2. Fig.: A simpleton. [Obs.] If I loved you not, I would laugh at you, and see you Run your neck into the noose, and cry, "A woodcock!" Beau. & Fl. Little woodcock. (a) The common American snipe. (b) The European snipe. -- Sea woodcock fish, the bellows fish. -- Woodcock owl, the short-eared owl (Asio brachyotus). -- Woodcock shell, the shell of certain mollusks of the genus Murex, having a very long canal, with or without spines. -- Woodcock snipe. See under Snipe. WOODCRACKER Wood"crack`er, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The nuthatch. [Prov. Eng.] WOODCRAFT Wood"craft`, n. Defn: Skill and practice in anything pertaining to the woods, especially in shooting, and other sports in the woods. Men of the glade and forest! leave Your woodcraft for the field of fight. Bryant. WOODCUT Wood"cut`, n. Defn: An engraving on wood; also, a print from it. Same as Wood cut, under Wood. WOODCUTTER Wood"cut`ter, n. 1. A person who cuts wood. 2. An engraver on wood. [R.] WOODCUTTING Wood"cut`ting, n. 1. The act or employment of cutting wood or timber. 2. The act or art of engraving on wood. [R.] WOODED Wood"ed, a. Defn: Supplied or covered with wood, or trees; as, land wooded and watered. The brook escaped from the eye down a deep and wooded dell. Sir W. Scott. WOODEN Wood"en, a. 1. Made or consisting of wood; pertaining to, or resembling, wood; as, a wooden box; a wooden leg; a wooden wedding. 2. Clumsy; awkward; ungainly; stiff; spiritless. When a bold man is out of countenance, he makes a very wooden figure on it. Collier. His singing was, I confess, a little wooden. G. MacDonald. Wooden spoon. (a) (Cambridge University, Eng.) The last junior optime who takes a university degree, -- denoting one who is only fit to stay at home and stir porridge. "We submit that a wooden spoon of our day would not be justified in calling Galileo and Napier blockheads because they never heard of the differential calculus." Macaulay. (b) In some American colleges, the lowest appointee of the junior year; sometimes, one especially popular in his class, without reference to scholarship. Formerly, it was a custom for classmates to present to this person a wooden spoon with formal ceremonies. -- Wooden ware, a general name for buckets, bowls, and other articles of domestic use, made of wood. -- Wooden wedding. See under Wedding. WOODENLY Wood"en*ly, adv. Defn: Clumsily; stupidly; blockishly. R. North. WOODENNESS Wood"en*ness, n. Defn: Quality of being wooden; clumsiness; stupidity; blockishness. We set our faces against the woodenness which then characterized German philology. Sweet. WOOD GUM Wood gum. (Chem.) Defn: Xylan. WOODHACK; WOODHACKER Wood"hack`, Wood"hack`er, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The yaffle. [Prov. Eng.] WOODHEWER Wood"hew`er, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A woodpecker. WOODHOLE Wood"hole`, n. Defn: A place where wood is stored. WOODHOUSE Wood"house`, n. Defn: A house or shed in which wood is stored, and sheltered from the weather. WOOD HYACINTH Wood hyacinth. Defn: A European squill (Scilla nonscripta) having a scape bearing a raceme of drooping blue, purple, white, or sometimes pink, bell- shaped flowers. WOODINESS Wood"i*ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being woody. Evelyn. WOODKNACKER Wood"knack`er, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The yaffle. WOODLAND Wood"land, n. Defn: Land covered with wood or trees; forest; land on which trees are suffered to grow, either for fuel or timber. Here hills and vales, the woodland and the plain, Here earth and water seem to strive again. Pope. Woodlands and cultivated fields are harmoniously blended. Bancroft. WOODLAND Wood"land, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to woods or woodland; living in the forest; sylvan. She had a rustic, woodland air. Wordsworth. Like summer breeze by woodland stream. Keble. Woodland caribou. (Zoöl.) See under Caribou. WOODLANDER Wood"land*er, n. Defn: A dweller in a woodland. WOOD-LAYER Wood"-lay`er, n. (Bot.) Defn: A young oak, or other timber plant, laid down in a hedge among the whitethorn or other plants used in hedges. WOODLESS Wood"less, a. Defn: Having no wood; destitute of wood. Mitford. -- Wood"less*ness, n. WOODLY Wood"ly, adv. Defn: In a wood, mad, or raving manner; madly; furiously. [Obs.] Chaucer. WOODMAN Wood"man, n.; pl. Woodmen (. [Written also woodsman.] 1. A forest officer appointed to take care of the king's woods; a forester. [Eng.] 2. A sportsman; a hunter. [The duke] is a better woodman than thou takest him for. Shak. 3. One who cuts down trees; a woodcutter. Woodman, spare that tree. G. P. Morris. 4. One who dwells in the woods or forest; a bushman. WOODMEIL Wood"meil, n. Defn: See Wadmol. WOODMONGER Wood"mon`ger, n. Defn: A wood seller. [Obs.] WOODNESS Wood"ness, n. Etym: [From Wood mad.] Defn: Anger; madness; insanity; rage. [Obs.] Spenser. Woodness laughing in his rage. Chaucer. WOOD-NOTE Wood"-note`, n. Etym: [Wood, n. + note.] Defn: A wild or natural note, as of a forest bird. [R.] Or sweetest Shakespeare, fancy's child, Warble his native wood-notes wild. Milton. WOOD PARTRIDGE Wood partridge. (a) Any of several small partridges of Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and neighboring regions belonging to the genera Caloperdix, Rollulus, and Melanoperdix. (b) The Canada grouse. [Local, U. S.] WOODPECK Wood"peck`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A woodpecker. [Obs.] WOODPECKER Wood"peck`er, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of numerous species of scansorial birds belonging to Picus and many allied genera of the family Picidæ. Note: These birds have the tail feathers pointed and rigid at the tip to aid in climbing, and a strong chisellike bill with which they are able to drill holes in the bark and wood of trees in search of insect larvæ upon which most of the species feed. A few species feed partly upon the sap of trees (see Sap sucker, under Sap), others spend a portion of their time on the ground in search of ants and other insects. The most common European species are the greater spotted woodpecker (Dendrocopus major), the lesser spotted woodpecker (D. minor), and the green woodpecker, or yaffle (see Yaffle). The best- known American species are the pileated woodpecker (see under Pileated), the ivory-billed woodpecker (Campephilus principalis), which is one of the largest known species, the red-headed woodpecker, or red-head (Melanerpes erythrocephalus), the red-bellied woodpecker (M. Carolinus) (see Chab), the superciliary woodpecker (M. superciliaris), the hairy woodpecker (Dryobates villosus), the downy woodpecker (D. pubescens), the three-toed, woodpecker (Picoides Americanus), the golden-winged woodpecker (see Flicker), and the sap suckers. See also Carpintero. Woodpecker hornbill (Zoöl.), a black and white Asiatic hornbill (Buceros pica) which resembles a woodpecker in color. WOODROCK Wood"rock`, n. (Min.) Defn: A compact woodlike variety of asbestus. WOODRUFF; WOODROOF Wood"ruff`, Wood"roof`, n. Etym: [AS. wudurofe. See Wood, n., and cf. Ruff a plaited collar.] (Bot.) Defn: A little European herb (Asperula odorata) having a pleasant taste. It is sometimes used for flavoring wine. See Illust. of Whorl. WOOD-SARE Wood"-sare`, n. Etym: [Wood + Prov. E. sare for sore.] (Bot.) Defn: A kind of froth seen on herbs. [Obs.] WOOD-SERE Wood"-sere`, n. Defn: The time when there no sap in the trees; the winter season. [Written also wood-seer.] [Obs.] Tusser. WOODSMAN Woods"man, n.; pl. Woodsmen (. Defn: A woodman; especially, one who lives in the forest. WOOD'S METAL Wood's" met"al. Defn: A fusible alloy consisting of one or two parts of cadmium, two parts of tin, four of lead, with seven or eight part of bismuth. It melts at from 66º to 71º C. See Fusible metal, under Fusible. WOODSTONE Wood"stone`, n. (Min.) Defn: A striped variety of hornstone, resembling wood in appearance. WOODSY Woods"y, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to the woods or forest. [Colloq. U. S.] It [sugar making] is woodsy, and savors of trees. J. Burroughs. WOOD TICK Wood" tick`. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of several species of ticks of the genus Ixodes whose young cling to bushes, but quickly fasten themselves upon the bodies of any animal with which they come in contact. When they attach themselves to the human body they often produce troublesome sores. The common species of the Northern United States is Ixodes unipunctata. WOODWALL Wood"wall`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The yaffle. [Written also woodwale, and woodwele.] WOODWARD Wood"ward`, n. (Eng. Forest Law) Defn: An officer of the forest, whose duty it was to guard the woods. WOODWARDIA Wood*war"di*a, n. Etym: [NL. After Thomas J. Woodward, an English botanist.] (Bot.) Defn: A genus of ferns, one species of which (Woodwardia radicans) is a showy plant in California, the Azores, etc. WOOD-WASH; WOOD-WAX; WOOD-WAXEN Wood"-wash`, Wood"-wax`, Wood"-wax`en, n. Etym: [AS. wuduweaxe.] (Bot.) Defn: Same as Woadwaxen. WOODWORK Wood"work`, n. Defn: Work made of wood; that part of any structure which is wrought of wood. WOODWORM Wood"worm`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: See Wood worm, under Wood. WOODY Wood"y, a. 1. Abounding with wood or woods; as, woody land. "The woody wilderness." Bryant. Secret shades Of woody Ida's inmost grove. Milton. 2. Consisting of, or containing, wood or woody fiber; ligneous; as, the woody parts of plants. 3. Of or pertaining to woods; sylvan. [R.] "Woody nymphs, fair Hamadryades." Spenser. Woody fiber. (Bot.) (a) Fiber or tissue consisting of slender, membranous tubes tapering at each end. (b) A single wood cell. See under Wood. Goodale. -- Woody nightshade. (Bot.). See Bittersweet, 3 (a). -- Woody pear (Bot.), the inedible, woody, pear-shaped fruit of several Australian proteaceous trees of the genus Xylomelum; -- called also wooden pear. WOOER Woo"er, n. Etym: [AS. wogere. See Woo, v. t.] Defn: One who wooes; one who courts or solicits in love; a suitor. "A thriving wooer." Gibber. WOOF Woof, n. Etym: [OE. oof, AS. , , aweb; on, an, on + wef, web, fr. wefan to weave. The initial w is due to the influence of E. weave. See On, Weave, and cf. Abb.] 1. The threads that cross the warp in a woven fabric; the weft; the filling; the thread usually carried by the shuttle in weaving. 2. Texture; cloth; as, a pall of softest woof. Pope. WOOFELL Woo"fell, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The European blackbird. "The woofell near at hand that hath a golden bill." Drayton. WOOFY Woof"y, a. Defn: Having a close texture; dense; as, a woofy cloud. J. Baillie. WOOHOO Woo`hoo", n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The sailfish. WOOINGLY Woo"ing*ly, adv. Defn: In a wooing manner; enticingly; with persuasiveness. Shak. WOOK Wook", obs. imp. of Wake. Defn: Woke. Chaucer. WOOL Wool, n. Etym: [OE. wolle, wulle, AS. wull; akin to D. wol, OHG. wolla, G. wolle, Icel. & Sw. ull, Dan. uld, Goth, wulla, Lith. vilna, Russ. volna, L. vellus, Skr. wool, Flannel, Velvet.] 1. The soft and curled, or crisped, species of hair which grows on sheep and some other animals, and which in fineness sometimes approaches to fur; -- chiefly applied to the fleecy coat of the sheep, which constitutes a most essential material of clothing in all cold and temperate climates. Note: Wool consists essentially of keratin. 2. Short, thick hair, especially when crisped or curled. Wool of bat and tongue of dog. Shak. 3. (Bot.) Defn: A sort of pubescence, or a clothing of dense, curling hairs on the surface of certain plants. Dead pulled wool, wool pulled from a carcass. -- Mineral wool. See under Mineral. -- Philosopher's wool. (Chem.) See Zinc oxide, under Zinc. -- Pulled wool, wool pulled from a pelt, or undressed hide. -- Slag wool. Same as Mineral wool, under Mineral. -- Wool ball, a ball or mass of wool. -- Wool burler, one who removes little burs, knots, or extraneous matter, from wool, or the surface of woolen cloth. -- Wool comber. (a) One whose occupation is to comb wool. (b) A machine for combing wool. -- Wool grass (Bot.), a kind of bulrush (Scirpus Eriophorum) with numerous clustered woolly spikes. -- Wool scribbler. See Woolen scribbler, under Woolen, a. -- Wool sorter's disease (Med.), a disease, resembling malignant pustule, occurring among those who handle the wool of goats and sheep. -- Wool staple, a city or town where wool used to be brought to the king's staple for sale. [Eng.] -- Wool stapler. (a) One who deals in wool. (b) One who sorts wool according to its staple, or its adaptation to different manufacturing purposes. -- Wool winder, a person employed to wind, or make up, wool into bundles to be packed for sale. WOOLD Woold, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Woolded; p. pr. & vb. n. Woolding.] Etym: [D. woelen, bewoelen; akin to G. wuhlen, bewuhlen. *146.] (Naut.) Defn: To wind, or wrap; especially, to wind a rope round, as a mast or yard made of two or more pieces, at the place where it has been fished or scarfed, in order to strengthen it. WOOLDER Woold"er, n. 1. (Naut.) Defn: A stick used to tighten the rope in woolding. 2. (Rope Making) Defn: One of the handles of the top, formed by a wooden pin passing through it. See 1st Top, 2. WOOLDING Woold"ing, n. (Naut.) (a) The act of winding or wrapping anything with a rope, as a mast. (b) A rope used for binding masts and spars. WOOL-DYED Wool"-dyed`, a. Defn: Dyed before being made into cloth, in distinction from piece- dyed; ingrain. WOOLED Wooled, a. Defn: Having (such) wool; as, a fine-wooled sheep. WOOLEN Wool"en, a. Etym: [OE. wollen; cf. AS. wyllen. See Wool.] [Written also woollen.] 1. Made of wool; consisting of wool; as, woolen goods. 2. Of or pertaining to wool or woolen cloths; as, woolen manufactures; a woolen mill; a woolen draper. Woolen scribbler, a machine for combing or preparing wool in thin, downy, translucent layers. WOOLEN Wool"en, n. Etym: [Written also woollen.] Defn: Cloth made of wool; woollen goods. WOOLENET Wool`en*et", n. Defn: A thin, light fabric of wool. [Written also woollenet, woolenette, and woollenette.] WOOLERT Woo"lert, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The barn owl. [Prov. Eng.] [Written also oolert, and owlerd.] WOOLFELL Wool"fell`, n. Etym: [Wool + fell a skin.] Defn: A skin with the wool; a skin from which the wool has not been sheared or pulled. [Written also woolfel.] WOOLGATHERING Wool"gath`er*ing, a. Defn: Indulging in a vagrant or idle exercise of the imagination; roaming upon a fruitless quest; idly fanciful. WOOLGATHERING Wool"gath`er*ing, n. Defn: Indulgence in idle imagination; a foolish or useless pursuit or design. His wits were a woolgathering, as they say. Burton. WOOLGROWER Wool"grow`er, n. Defn: One who raises sheep for the production of wool. -- Wool"grow`ing, n. WOOL-HALL Wool"-hall`, n. Defn: A trade market in the woolen districts. [Eng.] WOOLHEAD Wool"head`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The buffel duck. WOOLLINESS Wool"li*ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being woolly. WOOLLY Wool"ly, a. 1. Consisting of wool; as, a woolly covering; a woolly fleece. 2. Resembling wool; of the nature of wool. "My fleece of woolly hair." Shak. 3. Clothed with wool. "Woolly breeders." Shak. 4. (Bot.) Defn: Clothed with a fine, curly pubescence resembling wool. Woolly bear (Zoöl.), the hairy larva of several species of bombycid moths. The most common species in the United States are the salt-marsh caterpillar (see under Salt), the black and red woolly bear, or larva of the Isabella moth (see Illust., under Isabella Moth), and the yellow woolly bear, or larva of the American ermine moth (Spilosoma Virginica). -- Woolly butt (Bot.), an Australian tree (Eucalyptus longifolia), so named because of its fibrous bark. -- Woolly louse (Zoöl.), a plant louse (Schizoneura, or Erisoma, lanigera) which is often very injurious to the apple tree. It is covered with a dense coat of white filaments somewhat resembling fine wool or cotton. In exists in two forms, one of which infests the roots, the other the branches. See Illust. under Blight. -- Woolly macaco (Zoöl.), the mongoose lemur. -- Woolly maki (Zoöl.), a long-tailed lemur (Indris laniger) native of Madagascar, having fur somewhat like wool; -- called also avahi, and woolly lemur. -- Woolly monkey (Zoöl.), any South American monkey of the genus Lagothrix, as the caparro. -- Woolly rhinoceros (Paleon.), an extinct rhinoceros (Rhinoceros tichorhinus) which inhabited the arctic regions, and was covered with a dense coat of woolly hair. It has been found frozen in the ice of Siberia, with the flesh and hair well preserved. WOOLLY-HEAD Wool"ly-head`, n. Defn: A negro. [Low] WOOLMAN Wool"man, n.; pl. Woolmen (. Defn: One who deals in wool. WOOLPACK Wool"pack`, n. Defn: A pack or bag of wool weighing two hundred and forty pounds. WOOLSACK Wool"sack`, n. Defn: A sack or bag of wool; specifically, the seat of the lord chancellor of England in the House of Lords, being a large, square sack of wool resembling a divan in form. WOOLSEY Wool"sey, n. Etym: [From Wool.] Defn: Linsey-woolsey. WOOLSTOCK Wool"stock`, n. Defn: A heavy wooden hammer for milling cloth. WOOLWARD Wool"ward, adv. Etym: [Wool + -ward.] Defn: In wool; with woolen raiment next the skin. [Obs.] WOOLWARD-GOING Wool"ward-go`ing, n. Defn: A wearing of woolen clothes next the skin as a matter of penance. [Obs.] Their . . . woolward-going, and rising at midnight. Tyndale. WOON Woon, n. Defn: Dwelling. See Wone. [Obs.] WOORALI Woo"ra*li, n. Defn: Same as Curare. WOOSY Woos"y, a. Defn: Oozy; wet. [Obs.] Drayton. WOOTZ Wootz (woots), n. Etym: [Perhaps a corruption of Canarese ukku steel.] Defn: A species of steel imported from the East Indies, valued for making edge tools; Indian steel. It has in combination a minute portion of alumina and silica. WOOYEN Woo"yen, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: See Yuen. WOPEN Wo"pen, obs. p. p. of Weep. Defn: Wept. Chaucer. WORBLE Wor"ble, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: See Wormil. WORD Word, n. Etym: [AS. word; akin to OFries. & OS. word, D. woord, G. wort, Icel. oredh, Sw. & Dan. ord, Goth. waúrd, OPruss. wirds, Lith. vardas a name, L. verbum a word; or perhaps to Gr. "rh`twr an orator. Cf. Verb.] 1. The spoken sign of a conception or an idea; an articulate or vocal sound, or a combination of articulate and vocal sounds, uttered by the human voice, and by custom expressing an idea or ideas; a single component part of human speech or language; a constituent part of a sentence; a term; a vocable. "A glutton of words." Piers Plowman. You cram these words into mine ears, against The stomach of my sense. Shak. Amongst men who confound their ideas with words, there must be endless disputes. Locke. 2. Hence, the written or printed character, or combination of characters, expressing such a term; as, the words on a page. 3. pl. Defn: Talk; discourse; speech; language. Why should calamity be full of words Shak. Be thy words severe; Sharp as he merits, but the sword forbear. Dryden. 4. Account; tidings; message; communication; information; -- used only in the singular. I pray you . . . bring me word thither How the world goes. Shak. 5. Signal; order; command; direction. Give the word through. Shak. 6. Language considered as implying the faith or authority of the person who utters it; statement; affirmation; declaration; promise. Obey thy parents; keep thy word justly. Shak. I know you brave, and take you at your word. Dryden. I desire not the reader should take my word. Dryden. 7. pl. Defn: Verbal contention; dispute. Some words there grew 'twixt Somerset and me. Shak. 8. A brief remark or observation; an expression; a phrase, clause, or short sentence. All the law is fulfilled in one word, even in this; Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself. Gal. v. 14. She said; but at the happy word "he lives," My father stooped, re- fathered, o'er my wound. Tennyson. There is only one other point on which I offer a word of remark. Dickens. By word of mouth, orally; by actual speaking. Boyle. -- Compound word. See under Compound, a. -- Good word, commendation; favorable account. "And gave the harmless fellow a good word." Pope. -- In a word, briefly; to sum up. -- In word, in declaration; in profession. "Let us not love in word, . . . but in deed and in truth." 1 John iii. 8. -- Nuns of the Word Incarnate (R. C. Ch.), an order of nuns founded in France in 1625, and approved in 1638. The order, which also exists in the United States, was instituted for the purpose of doing honor to the "Mystery of the Incarnation of the Son of God." -- The word, or The Word. (Theol.) (a) The gospel message; esp., the Scriptures, as a revelation of God. "Bold to speak the word without fear." Phil. i. 14. (b) The second person in the Trinity before his manifestation in time by the incarnation; among those who reject a Trinity of persons, some one or all of the divine attributes personified. John i. 1. -- To eat one's words, to retract what has been said. -- To have the words for, to speak for; to act as spokesman. [Obs.] "Our host hadde the wordes for us all." Chaucer. -- Word blindness (Physiol.), inability to understand printed or written words or symbols, although the person affected may be able to see quite well, speak fluently, and write correctly. Landois & Stirling. -- Word deafness (Physiol.), inability to understand spoken words, though the person affected may hear them and other sounds, and hence is not deaf. -- Word dumbness (Physiol.), inability to express ideas in verbal language, though the power of speech is unimpaired. -- Word for word, in the exact words; verbatim; literally; exactly; as, to repeat anything word for word. -- Word painting, the act of describing an object fully and vividly by words only, so as to present it clearly to the mind, as if in a picture. -- Word picture, an accurate and vivid description, which presents an object clearly to the mind, as if in a picture. -- Word square, a series of words so arranged that they can be read vertically and horizontally with like results. Syn. -- See Term. WORD Word, v. i. Defn: To use words, as in discussion; to argue; to dispute. [R.] WORD Word, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Worded; p. pr. & vb. n. Wording.] 1. To express in words; to phrase. The apology for the king is the same, but worded with greater deference to that great prince. Addison. 2. To ply with words; also, to cause to be by the use of a word or words. [Obs.] Howell. 3. To flatter with words; to cajole. [Obs.] Shak. To word it, to bandy words; to dispute. [Obs.] "To word it with a shrew." L'Estrange. WORDBOOK Word"book`, n. Etym: [Cf. D. woordenboek, G. wörterbuch.] Defn: A collection of words; a vocabulary; a dictionary; a lexicon. WORD-CATCHER Word"-catch`er, n. Defn: One who cavils at words. WORDER Word"er, n. Defn: A speaker. [Obs.] Withlock. WORDILY Word"i*ly, adv. Defn: In a wordy manner. WORDINESS Word"i*ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being wordy, or abounding with words; verboseness. Jeffrey. WORDING Word"ing, n. Defn: The act or manner of expressing in words; style of expression; phrasing. It is believed this wording was above his known style. Milton. WORDISH Word"ish, a. Defn: Respecting words; full of words; wordy. [R.] Sir P. Sidney. -- Word"ish*ness, n. The truth they hide by their dark woordishness. Sir K. Digby. WORDLE Wor"dle, n. Defn: One of several pivoted pieces forming the throat of an adjustable die used in drawing wire, lead pipe, etc. Knight. WORDLESS Word"less, a. Defn: Not using words; not speaking; silent; speechless. Shak. WORD METHOD Word method. (Education) Defn: A method of teaching reading in which words are first taken as single ideograms and later analyzed into their phonetic and alphabetic elements; -- contrasted with the alphabet and sentence methods. WORDPLAY Word"play`, n. Defn: A more or less subtle playing upon the meaning of words. WORDSMAN Words"man, n. Defn: One who deals in words, or in mere words; a verbalist. [R.] "Some speculative wordsman." H. Bushnell. WORDY Word"y, a. [Compar. Wordier; superl. Wordiest.] 1. Of or pertaining to words; consisting of words; verbal; as, a wordy war. Cowper. 2. Using many words; verbose; as, a wordy speaker. 3. Containing many words; full of words. We need not lavish hours in wordy periods. Philips. WORE Wore, Defn: imp. of Wear. WORE Wore, Defn: imp. of Ware. WORK Work, n. Etym: [OE. work, werk, weork, AS. weorc, worc; akin to OFries. werk, wirk, OS., D., & G. werk, OHG. werc, werah, Icel. & Sw. verk, Dan. værk, Goth. gawaúrki, Gr. verez to work. Bulwark, Energy, Erg, Georgic, Liturgy, Metallurgy, Organ, Surgeon, Wright.] 1. Exertion of strength or faculties; physical or intellectual effort directed to an end; industrial activity; toil; employment; sometimes, specifically, physically labor. Man hath his daily work of body or mind Appointed. Milton. 2. The matter on which one is at work; that upon which one spends labor; material for working upon; subject of exertion; the thing occupying one; business; duty; as, to take up one's work; to drop one's work. Come on, Nerissa; I have work in hand That you yet know not of. Shak. In every work that he began . . . he did it with all his heart, and prospered. 2 Chron. xxxi. 21. 3. That which is produced as the result of labor; anything accomplished by exertion or toil; product; performance; fabric; manufacture; in a more general sense, act, deed, service, effect, result, achievement, feat. To leave no rubs or blotches in the work. Shak. The work some praise, And some the architect. Milton. Fancy . . . Wild work produces oft, and most in dreams. Milton. The composition or dissolution of mixed bodies . . . is the chief work of elements. Sir K. Digby. 4. Specifically: (a) That which is produced by mental labor; a composition; a book; as, a work, or the works, of Addison. (b) Flowers, figures, or the like, wrought with the needle; embroidery. I am glad I have found this napkin; . . . I'll have the work ta'en out, And give 't Iago. Shak. (c) pl. Defn: Structures in civil, military, or naval engineering, as docks, bridges, embankments, trenches, fortifications, and the like; also, the structures and grounds of a manufacturing establishment; as, iron works; locomotive works; gas works. (d) pl. Defn: The moving parts of a mechanism; as, the works of a watch. 5. Manner of working; management; treatment; as, unskillful work spoiled the effect. Bp. Stillingfleet. 6. (Mech.) Defn: The causing of motion against a resisting force. The amount of work is proportioned to, and is measured by, the product of the force into the amount of motion along the direction of the force. See Conservation of energy, under Conservation, Unit of work, under Unit, also Foot pound, Horse power, Poundal, and Erg. Energy is the capacity of doing work . . . Work is the transference of energy from one system to another. Clerk Maxwell. 7. (Mining) Defn: Ore before it is dressed. Raymond. 8. pl. (Script.) Defn: Performance of moral duties; righteous conduct. He shall reward every man according to his works. Matt. xvi. 27. Faith, if it hath not works, is dead. James ii. 17. Muscular work (Physiol.), the work done by a muscle through the power of contraction. -- To go to work, to begin laboring; to commence operations; to contrive; to manage. "I 'll go another way to work with him." Shak. -- To set on work, to cause to begin laboring; to set to work. [Obs.] Hooker. -- To set to work, to employ; to cause to engage in any business or labor. WORK Work, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Worked, or Wrought (; p. pr. & vb. n. Working.] Etym: [AS. wyrcean (imp. worthe, wrohte, p. p. geworht, gewroht); akin to OFries. werka, wirka, OS. wirkian, D. werken, G. wirken, Icel. verka, yrkja, orka, Goth. waúrkjan. *145. See Work, n.] 1. To exert one's self for a purpose; to put forth effort for the attainment of an object; to labor; to be engaged in the performance of a task, a duty, or the like. O thou good Kent, how shall I live and work, To match thy goodness Shak. Go therefore now, and work; for there shall no straw be given you. Ex. v. 18. Whether we work or play, or sleep or wake, Our life doth pass. Sir J. Davies. 2. Hence, in a general sense, to operate; to act; to perform; as, a machine works well. We bend to that the working of the heart. Shak. 3. Hence, figuratively, to be effective; to have effect or influence; to conduce. We know that all things work together for good to them that love God. Rom. viii. 28. This so wrought upon the child, that afterwards he desired to be taught. Locke. She marveled how she could ever have been wrought upon to marry him. Hawthorne. 4. To carry on business; to be engaged or employed customarily; to perform the part of a laborer; to labor; to toil. They that work in fine flax . . . shall be confounded. Isa. xix. 9. 5. To be in a state of severe exertion, or as if in such a state; to be tossed or agitated; to move heavily; to strain; to labor; as, a ship works in a heavy sea. Confused with working sands and rolling waves. Addison. 6. To make one's way slowly and with difficulty; to move or penetrate laboriously; to proceed with effort; -- with a following preposition, as down, out, into, up, through, and the like; as, scheme works out by degrees; to work into the earth. Till body up to spirit work, in bounds Proportioned to each kind. Milton. 7. To ferment, as a liquid. The working of beer when the barm is put in. Bacon. 8. To act or operate on the stomach and bowels, as a cathartic. Purges . . . work best, that is, cause the blood so to do, . . . in warm weather or in a warm room. Grew. To work at, to be engaged in or upon; to be employed in. -- To work to windward (Naut.), to sail or ply against the wind; to tack to windward. Mar. Dict. WORK Work, v. t. 1. To labor or operate upon; to give exertion and effort to; to prepare for use, or to utilize, by labor. He could have told them of two or three gold mines, and a silver mine, and given the reason why they forbare to work them at that time. Sir W. Raleigh. 2. To produce or form by labor; to bring forth by exertion or toil; to accomplish; to originate; to effect; as, to work wood or iron into a form desired, or into a utensil; to work cotton or wool into cloth. Each herb he knew, that works or good or ill. Harte. 3. To produce by slow degrees, or as if laboriously; to bring gradually into any state by action or motion. "Sidelong he works his way." Milton. So the pure, limpid stream, when foul with stains Of rushing torrents and descending rains, Works itself clear, and as it runs, refines, Till by degrees the floating mirror shines. Addison. 4. To influence by acting upon; to prevail upon; to manage; to lead. "Work your royal father to his ruin." Philips. 5. To form with a needle and thread or yarn; especially, to embroider; as, to work muslin. 6. To set in motion or action; to direct the action of; to keep at work; to govern; to manage; as, to work a machine. Knowledge in building and working ships. Arbuthnot. Now, Marcus, thy virtue's the proof; Put forth thy utmost strength, work every nerve. Addison. The mariners all 'gan work the ropes, Where they were wont to do. Coleridge. 7. To cause to ferment, as liquor. To work a passage (Naut.), to pay for a passage by doing work. -- To work double tides (Naut.), to perform the labor of three days in two; -- a phrase which alludes to a practice of working by the night tide as well as by the day. -- To work in, to insert, introduce, mingle, or interweave by labor or skill. -- To work into, to force, urge, or insinuate into; as, to work one's self into favor or confidence. -- To work off, to remove gradually, as by labor, or a gradual process; as, beer works off impurities in fermenting. -- To work out. (a) To effect by labor and exertion. "Work out your own salvation with fear and trembling." Phil. ii. 12. (b) To erase; to efface. [R.] Tears of joy for your returning spilt, Work out and expiate our former guilt. Dryden. (c) To solve, as a problem. (d) To exhaust, as a mine, by working. -- To work up. (a) To raise; to excite; to stir up; as, to work up the passions to rage. The sun, that rolls his chariot o'er their heads, Works up more fire and color in their cheeks. Addison. (b) To expend in any work, as materials; as, they have worked up all the stock. (c) (Naut.) To make over or into something else, as yarns drawn from old rigging, made into spun yarn, foxes, sennit, and the like; also, to keep constantly at work upon needless matters, as a crew in order to punish them. R. H. Dana, Jr. WORKABLE Work"a*ble, a. Defn: Capable of being worked, or worth working; as, a workable mine; workable clay. WORKADAY Work"a*day`, n. Defn: See Workyday. WORKBAG Work"bag`, n. Defn: A bag for holding implements or materials for work; especially, a reticule, or bag for holding needlework, and the like. WORKBASKET Work"bas`ket, n. Defn: A basket for holding materials for needlework, or the like. WORKBENCH Work"bench`, n. Defn: A bench on which work is performed, as in a carpenter's shop. WORKBOX Work"box`, n. Defn: A box for holding instruments or materials for work. WORKDAY Work"day`, n. & a. Etym: [AS. weorcdæg.] Defn: A day on which work is performed, as distinguished from Sunday, festivals, etc., a working day. WORKER Work"er, n. 1. One who, or that which, works; a laborer; a performer; as, a worker in brass. Professors of holiness, but workers of iniquity. Shak. 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: One of the neuter, or sterile, individuals of the social ants, bees, and white ants. The workers are generally females having the sexual organs imperfectly developed. See Ant, and White ant, under White. WORKFELLOW Work"fel`low, n. Defn: One engaged in the same work with another; a companion in work. WORKFOLK Work"folk`, n. Defn: People that labor. WORKFUL Work"ful, a. Defn: Full of work; diligent. [R.] WORKHOUSE Work"house`, n.; pl. Workhouses. Etym: [AS. weorch.] 1. A house where any manufacture is carried on; a workshop. 2. A house in which idle and vicious persons are confined to labor. 3. A house where the town poor are maintained at public expense, and provided with labor; a poorhouse. WORKING Work"ing, Defn: a & n. from Work. The word must cousin be to the working. Chaucer. Working beam. See Beam, n. 10. -- Working class, the class of people who are engaged in manual labor, or are dependent upon it for support; laborers; operatives; -- chiefly used in the plural. -- Working day. See under Day, n. -- Working drawing, a drawing, as of the whole or part of a structure, machine, etc., made to a scale, and intended to be followed by the workmen. Working drawings are either general or detail drawings. -- Working house, a house where work is performed; a workhouse. -- Working point (Mach.), that part of a machine at which the effect required; the point where the useful work is done. WORKING-DAY Work"ing-day, a. Defn: Pertaining to, or characteristic of, working days, or workdays; everyday; hence, plodding; hard-working. O, how full of briers in this working-day world. Shak. WORKINGMAN Work"ing*man, n.; pl. Workingmen (. Defn: A laboring man; a man who earns his daily support by manual labor. WORKLESS Work"less, a. 1. Without work; not laboring; as, many people were still workless. 2. Not carried out in practice; not exemplified in fact; as, workless faith. [Obs.] Sir T. More. WORKMAN Work"man, n.; pl. Workmen. Etym: [AS. weorcmann.] 1. A man employed in labor, whether in tillage or manufactures; a worker. 2. Hence, especially, a skillful artificer or laborer. WORKMANLIKE Work"man*like`, a. Defn: Becoming a workman, especially a skillful one; skillful; well performed. WORKMANLY Work"man*ly, a. Defn: Becoming a skillful workman; skillful; well performed; workmanlike. WORKMANLY Work"man*ly, adv. Defn: In a skillful manner; in a manner becoming a skillful workman. Shak. WORKMANSHIP Work"man*ship, n. 1. The art or skill of a workman; the execution or manner of making anything. Due reward For her praiseworthy workmanship to yield. Spenser. Beauty is nature's brag, and must be shown . . . Where most may wonder at the workmanship. Milton. 2. That which is effected, made, or produced; manufacture, something made by manual labor. Not any skilled in workmanship embossed. Spenser. By how much Adam exceeded all men in perfection, by being the immediate workmanship of God. Sir W. Raleigh. WORKMASTER Work"mas`ter, n. Defn: The performer of any work; a master workman. [R.] Spenser. WORKMEN'S COMPENSATION ACT Workmen's compensation act. (Law) Defn: A statute fixing the compensation that a workman may recover from an employer in case of accident, esp. the British act of 6 Edw. VII. c. 58 (1906) giving to a workman, except in certain cases of "serious and willful misconduct," a right against his employer to a certain compensation on the mere occurrence of an accident where the common law gives the right only for negligence of the employer. WORKROOM Work"room`, n. Defn: Any room or apartment used especially for labor. WORKSHIP Work"ship, n. Defn: Workmanship. [R.] WORKSHOP Work"shop`, n. Defn: A shop where any manufacture or handiwork is carried on. WORKTABLE Work"ta`ble, n. Defn: A table for holding working materials and implements; esp., a small table with drawers and other conveniences for needlework, etc. WORKWAYS; WORKWISE Work"ways`, Work"wise`, adv. Defn: In a working position or manner; as, a T rail placed workwise, i.e., resting on its base. WORKWOMAN Work"wom`an, n.; pl. Workwomen (, n. Defn: A woman who performs any work; especially, a woman skilled in needlework. WORKYDAY Work"y*day`, n. Etym: [See Workday, Workingday.] Defn: A week day or working day, as distinguished from Sunday or a holiday. Also used adjectively. [Written also workiday, and workaday.] [Obs. or Colloq.] Prithee, tell her but a workyday fortune. Shak. WORLD World, n. Etym: [OE. world, werld, weorld, weoreld, AS. weorold, worold; akin to OS. werold, D. wereld, OHG. weralt, worolt, werolt, werlt, G. welt, Icel. veröld, Sw. verld, Dan. verden; properly, the age of man, lifetime, humanity; AS. wer a man + a word akin to E. old; cf. AS. yld lifetime, age, ylde men, humanity. Cf. Werewolf, Old.] 1. The earth and the surrounding heavens; the creation; the system of created things; existent creation; the universe. The invisible things of him from the creation of the world are clearly seen. Rom. 1. 20. With desire to know, What nearer might concern him, how this world Of heaven and earth conspicuous first began. Milton. 2. Any planet or heavenly body, especially when considered as inhabited, and as the scene of interests analogous with human interests; as, a plurality of worlds. "Lord of the worlds above." I. Watts. Amongst innumerable stars, that shone Star distant, but high-hand seemed other worlds. Milton. There may be other worlds, where the inhabitants have never violated their allegiance to their almighty Sovereign. W. B. Sprague. 3. The earth and its inhabitants, with their concerns; the sum of human affairs and interests. That forbidden tree, whose mortal taste Brought death into the world, and all our woe. Milton. 4. In a more restricted sense, that part of the earth and its concerns which is known to any one, or contemplated by any one; a division of the globe, or of its inhabitants; human affairs as seen from a certain position, or from a given point of view; also, state of existence; scene of life and action; as, the Old World; the New World; the religious world; the Catholic world; the upper world; the future world; the heathen world. One of the greatest in the Christian world Shall be my surety. Shak. Murmuring that now they must be put to make war beyond the world's end -- for so they counted Britain. Milton. 5. The customs, practices, and interests of men; general affairs of life; human society; public affairs and occupations; as, a knowledge of the world. Happy is she that from the world retires. Waller. If knowledge of the world makes man perfidious, May Juba ever live in ignorance. Addison. 6. Individual experience of, or concern with, life; course of life; sum of the affairs which affect the individual; as, to begin the world with no property; to lose all, and begin the world anew. 7. The inhabitants of the earth; the human race; people in general; the public; mankind. Since I do purpose to marry, I will think nothing to any purpose that the world can say against it. Shak. Tell me, wench, how will the world repute me For undertaking so unstaid a journey Shak. 8. The earth and its affairs as distinguished from heaven; concerns of this life as distinguished from those of the life to come; the present existence and its interests; hence, secular affairs; engrossment or absorption in the affairs of this life; worldly corruption; the ungodly or wicked part of mankind. I pray not for the world, but for them which thou hast given me; for they are thine. John xvii. 9. Love not the world, neither the things that are in the world. If any man love the world, the love of the Father is not in him. For all that is in the world, the lust of the flesh, and the lust of the eyes, and the pride of life, is not of the Father, but is of the world. 1 John ii. 15, 16. 9. As an emblem of immensity, a great multitude or quantity; a large number. "A world of men." Chapman. "A world of blossoms for the bee." Bryant. Nor doth this wood lack worlds of company. Shak. A world of woes dispatched in little space. Dryden. All . . . in the world, all that exists; all that is possible; as, all the precaution in the world would not save him. -- A world to see, a wonder to see; something admirable or surprising to see. [Obs.] O, you are novices; 't is a world to see How tame, when men and women are alone, A meacock wretch can make the curstest shrew. Shak. -- For all the world. (a) Precisely; exactly. (b) For any consideration. -- Seven wonders of the world. See in the Dictionary of Noted Names in Fiction. -- To go to the world, to be married. [Obs.] "Thus goes every one to the world but I . . . ; I may sit in a corner and cry heighho for a husband!" Shak. -- World's end, the end, or most distant part, of the world; the remotest regions. -- World without end, eternally; forever; everlastingly; as if in a state of existence having no end. Throughout all ages, world without end. Eph. iii. 21. WORLDLINESS World"li*ness, n. Defn: The quality of being worldly; a predominant passion for obtaining the good things of this life; covetousness; addictedness to gain and temporal enjoyments; worldly-mindedness. WORLDLING World"ling, Etym: [World + -ling.] Defn: A person whose soul is set upon gaining temporal possessions; one devoted to this world and its enjoyments. A foutre for the world and worldlings base. Shak. If we consider the expectations of futurity, the worldling gives up the argument. Rogers. And worldlings blot the temple's gold. Keble. WORLDLY World"ly, a. Etym: [AS. woroldlic.] 1. Relating to the world; human; common; as, worldly maxims; worldly actions. "I thus neglecting worldly ends." Shak. Many years it hath continued, standing by no other worldly mean but that one only hand which erected it. Hooker. 2. Pertaining to this world or life, in contradistinction from the life to come; secular; temporal; devoted to this life and its enjoyments; bent on gain; as, worldly pleasures, affections, honor, lusts, men. With his soul fled all my worldly solace. Shak. 3. Lay, as opposed to clerical. [Obs.] Chaucer. WORLDLY World"ly, adv. Defn: With relation to this life; in a worldly manner. Subverting worldly strong and worldly wise By simply meek. Milton. WORLDLY-MINDED World"ly-mind`ed, a. Defn: Devoted to worldly interests; mindful of the affairs of the present life, and forgetful of those of the future; loving and pursuing this world's goods, to the exclusion of piety and attention to spiritual concerns. -- World"ly*mind`ed*ness, n. WORLDLYWISE; WORLDLY-WISE World"ly*wise`, World"ly`-*wise`, a. Defn: Wise in regard to things of this world. Bunyan. WORLD-WIDE World"-wide`, a. Defn: Extended throughout the world; as, world-wide fame. Tennyson. WORM Worm (wûrm), n. Etym: [OE. worm, wurm, AS. wyrm; akin to D. worm, OS. & G. wurm, Icel. ormr, Sw. & Dan. orm, Goth. waúrms, L. vermis, Gr. Vermicelli, Vermilion, Vermin.] 1. A creeping or a crawling animal of any kind or size, as a serpent, caterpillar, snail, or the like. [Archaic] There came a viper out of the heat, and leapt on his hand. When the men of the country saw the worm hang on his hand, they said, This man must needs be a murderer. Tyndale (Acts xxviii. 3, 4). 'T is slander, Whose edge is sharper than the sword, whose tongue Outvenoms all the worms of Nile. Shak. When Cerberus perceived us, the great worm, His mouth he opened and displayed his tusks. Longfellow. 2. Any small creeping animal or reptile, either entirely without feet, or with very short ones, including a great variety of animals; as, an earthworm; the blindworm. Specifically: (Zoöl.) (a) Any helminth; an entozoön. (b) Any annelid. (c) An insect larva. (d) pl. Defn: Same as Vermes. 3. An internal tormentor; something that gnaws or afflicts one's mind with remorse. The worm of conscience still begnaw thy soul! Shak. 4. A being debased and despised. I am a worm, and no man. Ps. xxii. 6. 5. Anything spiral, vermiculated, or resembling a worm; as: (a) The thread of a screw. The threads of screws, when bigger than can be made in screw plates, are called worms. Moxon. (b) A spiral instrument or screw, often like a double corkscrew, used for drawing balls from firearms. (c) (Anat.) A certain muscular band in the tongue of some animals, as the dog; the lytta. See Lytta. (d) The condensing tube of a still, often curved and wound to economize space. See Illust. of Still. (e) (Mach.) A short revolving screw, the threads of which drive, or are driven by, a worm wheel by gearing into its teeth or cogs. See Illust. of Worm gearing, below. Worm abscess (Med.), an abscess produced by the irritation resulting from the lodgment of a worm in some part of the body. -- Worm fence. See under Fence. -- Worm gear. (Mach.) (a) A worm wheel. (b) Worm gearing. -- Worm gearing, gearing consisting of a worm and worm wheel working together. -- Worm grass. (Bot.) (a) See Pinkroot, 2 (a). (b) The white stonecrop (Sedum album) reputed to have qualities as a vermifuge. Dr. Prior. -- Worm oil (Med.), an anthelmintic consisting of oil obtained from the seeds of Chenopodium anthelminticum. -- Worm powder (Med.), an anthelmintic powder. -- Worm snake. (Zoöl.) See Thunder snake (b), under Thunder. -- Worm tea (Med.), an anthelmintic tea or tisane. -- Worm tincture (Med.), a tincture prepared from dried earthworms, oil of tartar, spirit of wine, etc. [Obs.] -- Worm wheel, a cogwheel having teeth formed to fit into the spiral spaces of a screw called a worm, so that the wheel may be turned by, or may turn, the worm; -- called also worm gear, and sometimes tangent wheel. See Illust. of Worm gearing, above. WORM Worm, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Wormed; p. pr. & vb. n. Worming.] Defn: To work slowly, gradually, and secretly. When debates and fretting jealousy Did worm and work within you more and more, Your color faded. Herbert. WORM Worm, v. t. 1. To effect, remove, drive, draw, or the like, by slow and secret means; -- often followed by out. They find themselves wormed out of all power. Swift. They . . . wormed things out of me that I had no desire to tell. Dickens. 2. To clean by means of a worm; to draw a wad or cartridge from, as a firearm. See Worm, n. 5 (b). 3. To cut the worm, or lytta, from under the tongue of, as a dog, for the purpose of checking a disposition to gnaw. The operation was formerly supposed to guard against canine madness. The men assisted the laird in his sporting parties, wormed his dogs, and cut the ears of his terrier puppies. Sir W. Scott. 4. (Naut.) Defn: To wind rope, yarn, or other material, spirally round, between the strands of, as a cable; to wind with spun yarn, as a small rope. Ropes . . . are generally wormed before they are served. Totten. To worm one's self into, to enter into gradually by arts and insinuations; as, to worm one's self into favor. WORMAL Wor"mal, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: See Wormil. WORM-EATEN Worm"-eat`en, a. 1. Eaten, or eaten into, by a worm or by worms; as, worm-eaten timber. Concave as a covered goblet, or a worm-eaten nut. Shak. 2. Worn-out; old; worthless. [R.] Sir W. Raleigh. -- Worm"-eat`en*ness, n. [R.] Dr. John Smith. WORMED Wormed, a. Defn: Penetrated by worms; injured by worms; worm-eaten; as, wormed timber. WORMHOLE Worm"hole`, n. Defn: A burrow made by a worm. WORMIAN Wor"mi*an, a. (Anat.) Defn: Discovered or described by Olanus Wormius, a Danish anatomist. Wormian bones, small irregular plates of bone often interposed in the sutures between the large cranial bones. WORMIL Wor"mil, n. Etym: [Cf. 1st Warble.] 1. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any botfly larva which burrows in or beneath the skin of domestic and wild animals, thus producing sores. They belong to various species of Hypoderma and allied genera. Domestic cattle are often infested by a large species. See Gadfly. Called also warble, and worble. [Written also wormal, wormul, and wornil.] 2. (Far.) Defn: See 1st Warble, 1 (b). WORMLING Worm"ling, n. Defn: A little worm. O dusty wormling! dost thou strive and stand With heaven's high monarch Sylvester. WORMSEED Worm"seed`, n. (Bot.) Defn: Any one of several plants, as Artemisia santonica, and Chenopodium anthelminticum, whose seeds have the property of expelling worms from the stomach and intestines. Wormseed mustard, a slender, cruciferous plant (Erysinum cheiranthoides) having small lanceolate leaves. WORM-SHAPED Worm"-shaped`, a. Defn: Shaped like a worm; as, a worm-shaped root. WORM-SHELL Worm"-shell`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any species of Vermetus. WORMUL Wor"mul, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: See Wornil. WORMWOOD Worm"wood, n. Etym: [AS. werm, akin to OHG. wermuota, wormuota, G. wermuth, wermut; of uncertain origin.] 1. (Bot.) Defn: A composite plant (Artemisia Absinthium), having a bitter and slightly aromatic taste, formerly used as a tonic and a vermifuge, and to protect woolen garments from moths. It gives the peculiar flavor to the cordial called absinthe. The volatile oil is a narcotic poison. The term is often extended to other species of the same genus. 2. Anything very bitter or grievous; bitterness. Lest there should be among you a root that beareth gall and wormwood. Deut. xxix. 18. Roman wormwood (Bot.), an American weed (Ambrosia artemisiæfolia); hogweed. -- Tree wormwood (Bot.), a species of Artemisia (probably Artemisia variabilis) with woody stems. -- Wormwood hare (Zoöl.), a variety of the common hare (Lepus timidus); -- so named from its color. WORMY Worm"y, a. [Compar. Wormier; superl. Wormiest.] 1. Containing a worm; abounding with worms. "Wormy beds." Shak. 2. Like or pertaining to a worm; earthy; groveling. WORN Worn, Defn: p. p. of Wear. Worn land, land that has become exhausted by tillage, or which for any reason has lost its fertility. WORNIL Wor"nil, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: See Wormil. WORN-OUT Worn"-out`, a. Defn: Consumed, or rendered useless, by wearing; as, worn-out garments. WORRAL; WORREL Wor"ral, Wor"rel, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: An Egyptian fork-tongued lizard, about four feet long when full grown. WORRIER Wor"ri*er, n. Defn: One who worries. WORRIMENT Wor"ri*ment, n. Etym: [See Worry.] Defn: Trouble; anxiety; worry. [Colloq. U. S.] WORRISOME Wor"ri*some, a. Defn: Inclined to worry or fret; also, causing worry or annoyance. WORRIT Wor"rit, v. t. Defn: To worry; to annoy. [Illiterate] WORRIT Wor"rit, n. Defn: Worry; anxiety. [Illiterate] WORRY Wor"ry, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Worried; p. pr. & vb. n. Worrying.] Etym: [OE. worowen, wirien, to strangle, AS. wyrgan in awyrgan; akin to D. worgen, wurgen, to strangle, OHG. wurgen, G. würgen, Lith. verszti, and perhaps to E. wring.] 1. To harass by pursuit and barking; to attack repeatedly; also, to tear or mangle with the teeth. A hellhound that doth hunt us all to death; That dog that had his teeth before his eyes, To worry lambs and lap their gentle blood. Shak. 2. To harass or beset with importunity, or with care an anxiety; to vex; to annoy; to torment; to tease; to fret; to trouble; to plague. "A church worried with reformation." South. Let them rail, And worry one another at their pleasure. Rowe. Worry him out till he gives consent. Swift. 3. To harass with labor; to fatigue. [Colloq.] WORRY Wor"ry, v. i. Defn: To feel or express undue care and anxiety; to manifest disquietude or pain; to be fretful; to chafe; as, the child worries; the horse worries. WORRY Wor"ry, n.; pl. Worries (. Defn: A state of undue solicitude; a state of disturbance from care and anxiety; vexation; anxiety; fret; as, to be in a worry. "The whir and worry of spindle and of loom." Sir T. Browne. WORRYINGLY Wor"ry*ing*ly, adv. Defn: In a worrying manner. WORSE Worse, a., compar. of Bad. Etym: [OE. werse, worse, wurse, AS. wiersa, wyrsa, a comparative with no corresponding positive; akin to OS. wirsa, OFries. wirra, OHG. wirsiro, Icel. verri, Sw. värre, Dan. värre, Goth. waírsiza, and probably to OHG. werran to bring into confusion, E. war, and L. verrere to sweep, sweep along. As bad has no comparative and superlative, worse and worst are used in lieu of them, although etymologically they have no relation to bad.] Defn: Bad, ill, evil, or corrupt, in a greater degree; more bad or evil; less good; specifically, in poorer health; more sick; -- used both in a physical and moral sense. Or worse, if men worse can devise. Chaucer. [She] was nothing bettered, but rather grew worse. Mark v. 26. Evil men and seducers shall wax worse and worse. 2 Tim. iii. 13. There are men who seem to believe they are not bad while another can be found worse. Rambler. "But I love him." "Love him Worse and worse." Gay. WORSE Worse, n. 1. Loss; disadvantage; defeat. "Judah was put to the worse before Israel." Kings xiv. 12. 2. That which is worse; something less good; as, think not the worse of him for his enterprise. WORSE Worse, adv. Etym: [AS. wiers, wyrs; akin to OS. & OHG. wirs, Icel. verr, Goth, waírs; a comparative adverb with no corresponding positive. See Worse, a.] Defn: In a worse degree; in a manner more evil or bad. Now will we deal worse with thee than with them. Gen. xix. 9. WORSE Worse, v. t. Etym: [OE. wursien, AS. wyrsian to become worse.] Defn: To make worse; to put disadvantage; to discomfit; to worst. See Worst, v. Weapons more violent, when next we meet, May serve to better us and worse our foes. Milton. WORSEN Wors"en, v. t. 1. To make worse; to deteriorate; to impair. It is apparent that, in the particular point of which we have been conversing, their condition is greatly worsened. Southey. 2. To get the better of; to worst. [R.] WORSEN Wors"en, v. i. Defn: To grow or become worse. De Quincey. Indifferent health, which seemed rather to worsen than improve. Carlyle. WORSER Wors"er, a. Defn: Worse. [R.] Thou dost deserve a worser end. Beau. & Fl. From worser thoughts which make me do amiss. Bunyan. A dreadful quiet felt, and, worser far Than arms, a sullen interval of war. Dryden. Note: This old and redundant form of the comparative occurs occasionally in the best authors, although commonly accounted a vulgarism. It has, at least, the analogy of lesser to sanction its issue. See Lesser. "The experience of man's worser nature, which intercourse with ill-chosen associates, by choice or circumstance, peculiarly teaches." Hallam. WORSHIP Wor"ship, n. Etym: [OE. worshipe, wuredhscipe, AS. weoredhscipe; weoredh worth + -scipe -ship. See Worth, a., and -ship.] 1. Excellence of character; dignity; worth; worthiness. [Obs.] Shak. A man of worship and honour. Chaucer. Elfin, born of noble state, And muckle worship in his native land. Spenser. 2. Honor; respect; civil deference. [Obs.] Of which great worth and worship may be won. Spenser. Then shalt thou have worship in the presence of them that sit at meat with thee. Luke xiv. 10. 3. Hence, a title of honor, used in addresses to certain magistrates and others of rank or station. My father desires your worships' company. Shak. 4. The act of paying divine honors to the Supreme Being; religious reverence and homage; adoration, or acts of reverence, paid to God, or a being viewed as God. "God with idols in their worship joined." Milton. The worship of God is an eminent part of religion, and prayer is a chief part of religious worship. Tillotson. 5. Obsequious or submissive respect; extravagant admiration; adoration. 'T is your inky brows, your black silk hair, Your bugle eyeballs, nor your cheek of cream, That can my spirits to your worship. Shak. 6. An object of worship. In attitude and aspect formed to be At once the artist's worship and despair. Longfellow. Devil worship, Fire worship, Hero worship, etc. See under Devil, Fire, Hero, etc. WORSHIP Wor"ship, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Worshiped or Worshipped; p. pr. & vb. n. Worshiping or Worshipping.] 1. To respect; to honor; to treat with civil reverence. [Obsoles.] Chaucer. Our grave . . . shall have a tongueless mouth, Not worshiped with a waxen epitaph. Shak. This holy image that is man God worshipeth. Foxe. 2. To pay divine honors to; to reverence with supreme respect and veneration; to perform religious exercises in honor of; to adore; to venerate. But God is to be worshiped. Shak. When all our fathers worshiped stocks and stones. Milton. 3. To honor with extravagant love and extreme submission, as a lover; to adore; to idolize. With bended knees I daily worship her. Carew. Syn. -- To adore; revere; reverence; bow to; honor. WORSHIP Wor"ship, v. i. Defn: To perform acts of homage or adoration; esp., to perform religious service. Our fathers worshiped in this mountain; and ye say that in Jerusalem is the place where men ought to worship. John iv. 20. Was it for this I have loved . . . and worshiped in silence Longfellow. WORSHIPABILITY Wor`ship*a*bil"i*ty, n. Defn: The quality of being worthy to be worshiped. [R.] Coleridge. WORSHIPABLE Wor"ship*a*ble, a. Defn: Capable of being worshiped; worthy of worship. [R.] Carlyle. WORSHIPER Wor"ship*er, n. Defn: One who worships; one who pays divine honors to any being or thing; one who adores. [Written also worshipper.] WORSHIPFUL Wor"ship*ful, a. Defn: Entitled to worship, reverence, or high respect; claiming respect; worthy of honor; -- often used as a term of respect, sometimes ironically. "This is worshipful society." Shak. [She is] so dear and worshipful. Chaucer. -- Wor"ship*ful*ly, adv. -- Wor"ship*ful*ness, n. WORST Worst, a., superl. of Bad. Etym: [OE. werst, worste, wurste, AS. wyrst, wierst, wierrest. See Worse, a.] Defn: Bad, evil, or pernicious, in the highest degree, whether in a physical or moral sense. See Worse. "Heard so oft in worst extremes." Milton. I have a wife, the worst that may be. Chaucer. If thou hadst not been born the worst of men, Thou hadst been a knave and flatterer. Shak. WORST Worst, n. Defn: That which is most bad or evil; the most severe, pernicious, calamitous, or wicked state or degree. The worst is not So long as we can say, This is the worst. Shak. He is always sure of finding diversion when the worst comes to the worst. Addison. WORST Worst, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Worsted; p. pr. & vb. n. Worsting.] Etym: [See Worse, v. t. & a.] Defn: To gain advantage over, in contest or competition; to get the better of; to defeat; to overthrow; to discomfit. The . . . Philistines were worsted by the captivated ark. South. WORST Worst, v. i. Defn: To grow worse; to deteriorate. [R.] "Every face . . . worsting." Jane Austen. WORSTED Worst"ed, n. Etym: [From Worsted, now spelled Worstead, a town in Norfolk, England; for Worthstead. See Worth, n., and Stead.] 1. Well-twisted yarn spun of long-staple wool which has been combed to lay the fibers parallel, used for carpets, cloth, hosiery, gloves, and the like. 2. Fine and soft woolen yarn, untwisted or lightly twisted, used in knitting and embroidery. WORT Wort, n. Etym: [OE. wort, wurt, AS. wyrt herb, root; akin to OS. wurt, G. wurz, Icel. jurt, urt, Dan. urt, Sw. ört, Goth. waúrts a root, L. radix, Gr. root, n. Cf. Licorice, Orchard, Radish, Root, n., Whortleberry, Wort an infusion of malt.] 1. (Bot.) Defn: A plant of any kind. Note: This word is now chiefly used in combination, as in colewort, figwort, St. John's-wort, woundwort, etc. 2. pl. Defn: Cabbages. WORT Wort, n. Etym: [OE. worte, wurte, AS. wyrte; akin to OD. wort, G. würze, bierwürze, Icel. virtr, Sw. vört. See Wort an herb.] Defn: An infusion of malt which is unfermented, or is in the act of fermentation; the sweet infusion of malt, which ferments and forms beer; hence, any similar liquid in a state of incipient fermentation. Note: Wort consists essentially of a dilute solution of sugar, which by fermentation produces alcohol and carbon dioxide. WORTH Worth, v. i. Etym: [OE. worthen, wurÞen, to become, AS. weorthan; akin to OS. werthan, D. worden, G. werden, OHG. werdan, Icel. vertha, Sw. varda, Goth. waírpan, L. vertere to turn, Skr. vrt, v. i., to turn, to roll, to become. *143. Cf. Verse, -ward, Weird.] Defn: To be; to become; to betide; -- now used only in the phrases, woe worth the day, woe worth the man, etc., in which the verb is in the imperative, and the nouns day, man, etc., are in the dative. Woe be to the day, woe be to the man, etc., are equivalent phrases. I counsel . . . to let the cat worthe. Piers Plowman. He worth upon [got upon] his steed gray. Chaucer. WORTH Worth, a. Etym: [OE. worth, wurÞ, AS. weorth, wurE; akin to OFries. werth, OS. werth, D. waard, OHG. werd, G. wert, werth, Icel. verthr, Sw. värd, Dan. værd, Goth. waírps, and perhaps to E. wary. Cf. Stalwart, Ware an article of merchandise, Worship.] 1. Valuable; of worthy; estimable; also, worth while. [Obs.] It was not worth to make it wise. Chaucer. 2. Equal in value to; furnishing an equivalent for; proper to be exchanged for. A ring he hath of mine worth forty ducats. Shak. All our doings without charity are nothing worth. Bk. of Com. Prayer. If your arguments produce no conviction, they are worth nothing to me. Beattie. 3. Deserving of; -- in a good or bad sense, but chiefly in a good sense. To reign is worth ambition, though in hell. Milton. This is life indeed, life worth preserving. Addison. 4. Having possessions equal to; having wealth or estate to the value of. At Geneva are merchants reckoned worth twenty hundred crowns. Addison. Worth while, or Worth the while. See under While, n. WORTH Worth, n. Etym: [OE. worth, wurÞ, AS. weorth, wurth; weorth, wurth, adj. See Worth, a.] 1. That quality of a thing which renders it valuable or useful; sum of valuable qualities which render anything useful and sought; value; hence, often, value as expressed in a standard, as money; equivalent in exchange; price. What 's worth in anything But so much money as 't will bring Hudibras. 2. Value in respect of moral or personal qualities; excellence; virtue; eminence; desert; merit; usefulness; as, a man or magistrate of great worth. To be of worth, and worthy estimation. Shak. As none but she, who in that court did dwell, Could know such worth, or worth describe so well. Waller. To think how modest worth neglected lies. Shenstone. Syn. -- Desert; merit; excellence; price; rate. WORTHFUL Worth"ful, a. Defn: Full of worth; worthy; deserving. Marston. WORTHILY Wor"thi*ly, adv. Defn: In a worthy manner; excellently; deservedly; according to merit; justly; suitably; becomingly. You worthily succeed not only to the honors of your ancestors, but also to their virtues. Dryden. Some may very worthily deserve to be hated. South. WORTHINESS Wor"thi*ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being worthy; desert; merit; excellence; dignity; virtue; worth. Who is sure he hath a soul, unless It see, and judge, and follow worthiness Donne. She is not worthy to be loved that hath not some feeling of her own worthiness. Sir P. Sidney. The prayers which our Savior made were for his own worthiness accepted. Hooker. WORTHLESS Worth"less, a. Etym: [AS. weorthleás.] Defn: Destitute of worth; having no value, virtue, excellence, dignity, or the like; undeserving; valueless; useless; vile; mean; as, a worthless garment; a worthless ship; a worthless man or woman; a worthless magistrate. 'T is a worthless world to win or lose. Byron. -- Worth"less*ly, adv. -- Worth"less*ness, n. WORTHWHILE worthwhile, adj. Defn: Worth the time or effort spent. See worth while. worthy. -- worthwhileness. WORTHY Wor"thy, a. [Compar. Worthier (; superl. Worthiest.] Etym: [OE. worthi, wurÞi, from worth, wurÞ, n.; cf. Icel. verthugr, D. waardig, G. würdig, OHG. wirdig. See Worth, n.] 1. Having worth or excellence; possessing merit; valuable; deserving; estimable; excellent; virtuous. Full worthy was he in his lordes war. Chaucer. These banished men that I have kept withal Are men endued with worthy qualities. Shak. Happier thou mayst be, worthier canst not be. Milton. This worthy mind should worthy things embrace. Sir J. Davies. 2. Having suitable, adapted, or equivalent qualities or value; -- usually with of before the thing compared or the object; more rarely, with a following infinitive instead of of, or with that; as, worthy of, equal in excellence, value, or dignity to; entitled to; meriting; -- usually in a good sense, but sometimes in a bad one. No, Warwick, thou art worthy of the sway. Shak. The merciless Macdonwald, Worthy to be a rebel. Shak. Whose shoes I am not worthy to bear. Matt. iii. 11. And thou art worthy that thou shouldst not know More happiness. Milton. The lodging is well worthy of the guest. Dryden. 3. Of high station; of high social position. [Obs.] Worthy women of the town. Chaucer. Worthiest of blood (Eng. Law of Descent), most worthy of those of the same blood to succeed or inherit; -- applied to males, and expressive of the preference given them over females. Burrill. WORTHY Wor"thy, n.; pl. Worthies (. Defn: A man of eminent worth or value; one distinguished for useful and estimable qualities; a person of conspicuous desert; -- much used in the plural; as, the worthies of the church; political worthies; military worthies. The blood of ancient worthies in his veins. Cowper. WORTHY Wor"thy, v. t. Defn: To render worthy; to exalt into a hero. [Obs.] Shak. WOST Wost, Defn: 2d pers. sing. pres. of Wit, to know. [Obs.] Spenser. WOT Wot, Defn: 1st & 3d pers. sing. pres. of Wit, to know. See the Note under Wit, v. [Obs.] Brethren, I wot that through ignorance ye did it. Acts iii. 17. WOTEST; WOTTEST Wot"est, Wot"test, Defn: 2d pers. sing. pres. of Wit, to know. [Obs.] WOTETH; WOTTETH Wot"eth, Wot"teth, Defn: 3d pers. sing. pres. of Wit, to know. [Obs.] "He wotteth neither what he babbleth, nor what he meaneth." Tyndale. WOUL Woul, v. i. Defn: To howl. [Obs.] Wyclif. WOULD Would, imp. of Will. Etym: [OE. & AS. wolde. See Will, v. t.] Defn: Commonly used as an auxiliary verb, either in the past tense or in the conditional or optative present. See 2d & 3d Will. Note: Would was formerly used also as the past participle of Will. Right as our Lord hath would. Chaucer. WOULD Would, n. Defn: See 2d Weld. WOULD-BE Would"-be Defn: ' (as, a would-be poet. WOULDING Would"ing, n. Defn: Emotion of desire; inclination; velleity. [Obs.] Hammond. WOULDINGNESS Would"ing*ness, n. Defn: Willingness; desire. [Obs.] WOULFE BOTTLE Woulfe" bot`tle, n. (Chem.) Defn: A kind of wash bottle with two or three necks; -- so called after the inventor, Peter Woulfe, an English chemist. WOUND Wound, Defn: imp. & p. p. of Wind to twist, and Wind to sound by blowing. WOUND Wound, n. Etym: [OE. wounde, wunde, AS. wund; akin to OFries. wunde, OS. wunda, D. wonde, OHG. wunta, G. wunde, Icel. und, and to AS., OS., & G. wund sore, wounded, OHG. wunt, Goth. wunds, and perhaps also to Goth. winnan to suffer, E. win. *140. Cf. Zounds.] 1. A hurt or injury caused by violence; specifically, a breach of the skin and flesh of an animal, or in the substance of any creature or living thing; a cut, stab, rent, or the like. Chaucer. Showers of blood Rained from the wounds of slaughtered Englishmen. Shak. 2. Fig.: An injury, hurt, damage, detriment, or the like, to feeling, faculty, reputation, etc. 3. (Criminal Law) Defn: An injury to the person by which the skin is divided, or its continuity broken; a lesion of the body, involving some solution of continuity. Note: Walker condemns the pronunciation woond as a "capricious novelty." It is certainly opposed to an important principle of our language, namely, that the Old English long sound written ou, and pronounced like French ou or modern English oo, has regularly changed, when accented, into the diphthongal sound usually written with the same letters ou in modern English, as in ground, hound, round, sound. The use of ou in Old English to represent the sound of modern English oo was borrowed from the French, and replaced the older and Anglo-Saxon spelling with u. It makes no difference whether the word was taken from the French or not, provided it is old enough in English to have suffered this change to what is now the common sound of ou; but words taken from the French at a later time, or influenced by French, may have the French sound. Wound gall (Zoöl.), an elongated swollen or tuberous gall on the branches of the grapevine, caused by a small reddish brown weevil (Ampeloglypter sesostris) whose larvæ inhabit the galls. WOUND Wound, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wounded; p. pr. & vb. n. Wounding.] Etym: [AS. wundian. *140. See Wound, n.] 1. To hurt by violence; to produce a breach, or separation of parts, in, as by a cut, stab, blow, or the like. The archers hit him; and he was sore wounded of the archers. 1 Sam. xxxi. 3. 2. To hurt the feelings of; to pain by disrespect, ingratitude, or the like; to cause injury to. When ye sin so against the brethren, and wound their weak conscience, ye sin against Christ. 1 Cor. viii. 12. WOUNDABLE Wound"a*ble, a. Defn: Capable of being wounded; vulnerable. [R.] Fuller. WOUNDER Wound"er, n. Defn: One who, or that which, wounds. WOUNDILY Wound"i*ly, adv. Defn: In a woundy manner; excessively; woundy. [Obs.] WOUNDLESS Wound"less, a. Defn: Free from wound or hurt; exempt from being wounded; invulnerable. "Knights whose woundless armor rusts." Spenser. [Slander] may miss our name, And hit the woundless air. Shak. WOUNDWORT Wound"wort`, n. (Bot.) Defn: Any one of certain plants whose soft, downy leaves have been used for dressing wounds, as the kidney vetch, and several species of the labiate genus Stachys. WOUNDY Wound"y, a. Defn: Excessive. [Obs.] Such a world of holidays, that 't a woundy hindrance to a poor man that lives by his labor. L'Estrange. WOUNDY Wound"y, adv. Defn: Excessively; extremely. [Obs.] A am woundy cold. Ford. WOURALI Wou"ra*li, n. Defn: Same as Curare. WOU-WOU Wou"-wou`, n. Etym: [So called from its cry.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The agile, or silvery, gibbon; -- called also camper. See Gibbon. [Written also wow-wow.] WOVE Wove, Defn: p. pr. & rare vb. n. of Weave. WOVEN Wov"en, Defn: p. p. of Weave. Woven paper, or Wove paper, writing paper having an even, uniform surface, without watermarks. WOWE Wowe, v. t. & i. Defn: To woo. [Obs.] Chaucer. WOWF Wowf, a. Defn: Disordered or unsettled in intellect; deranged. [Scot.] Sir W. Scott. WOWKE Wowke, n. Defn: Week. [Obs.] Chaucer. WOW-WOW Wow"-wow", n. (Zoöl.) Defn: See Wou-wou. WOX Wox, obs. Defn: imp. of Wax. Gower. WOXEN Wox"en, obs. Defn: p. p. of Wax. Chaucer. WRACK Wrack, n. Defn: A thin, flying cloud; a rack. WRACK Wrack, v. t. Defn: To rack; to torment. [R.] WRACK Wrack, n. Etym: [OE. wrak wreck. See Wreck.] 1. Wreck; ruin; destruction. [Obs.] Chaucer. "A world devote to universal wrack." Milton. wrack and ruin 2. Any marine vegetation cast up on the shore, especially plants of the genera Fucus, Laminaria, and Zostera, which are most abundant on northern shores. 3. (Bot.) Defn: Coarse seaweed of any kind. Wrack grass, or Grass wrack (Bot.), eelgrass. WRACK Wrack, v. t. Defn: To wreck. [Obs.] Dryden. WRACKFUL Wrack"ful, a. Defn: Ruinous; destructive. [Obs.] WRAIN-BOLT Wrain"-bolt`, n. Defn: Same as Wringbolt. WRAITH Wraith, n. Etym: [Scot. wraith, warth; probably originally, a guardian angel, from Icel. vörthr a warden, guardian, akin to E. ward. See Ward a guard.] 1. An apparition of a person in his exact likeness, seen before death, or a little after; hence, an apparition; a specter; a vision; an unreal image. [Scot.] She was uncertain if it were the gypsy or her wraith. Sir W. Scott. O, hollow wraith of dying fame. Tennyson. 2. Sometimes, improperly, a spirit thought to preside over the waters; -- called also water wraith. M. G. Lewis. WRANGLE Wran"gle, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Wrangled; p. pr. & vb. n. Wrangling.] Etym: [OE. wranglen to wrestle. See Wrong, Wring.] 1. To argue; to debate; to dispute. [Obs.] 2. To dispute angrily; to quarrel peevishly and noisily; to brawl; to altercate. "In spite of occasional wranglings." Macaulay. For a score of kingdoms you should wrangle. Shak. He did not know what it was to wrangle on indifferent points. Addison. WRANGLE Wran"gle, v. t. Defn: To involve in a quarrel or dispute; to embroil. [R.] Bp. Sanderson. WRANGLE Wran"gle, n. Defn: An angry dispute; a noisy quarrel; a squabble; an altercation. Syn. -- Altercation; bickering; brawl; jar; jangle; contest; controversy. See Altercation. WRANGLER Wran"gler, n. 1. An angry disputant; one who disputes with heat or peevishness. "Noisy and contentious wranglers." I. Watts. 2. One of those who stand in the first rank of honors in the University of Cambridge, England. They are called, according to their rank, senior wrangler, second wrangler, third wrangler, etc. Cf. Optime. WRANGLERSHIP Wran"gler*ship, n. Defn: The honor or position of being a wrangler at the University of Cambridge, England. WRANGLESOME Wran"gle*some, a. Defn: Contentious; quarrelsome. [Prov. Eng.] Halliwell. WRANNOCK; WRANNY Wran"nock, Wran"ny, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The common wren. [Prov. Eng.] WRAP Wrap, v. t. Etym: [A corrupt spelling of rap.] Defn: To snatch up; transport; -- chiefly used in the p. p. wrapt. Lo! where the stripling, wrapt in wonder, roves. Beattie. WRAP Wrap, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wrapped or Wrapt; p. pr. & vb. n. Wrapping.] Etym: [OE. wrappen, probably akin to E. warp. *144. Cf. Warp.] 1. To wind or fold together; to arrange in folds. Then cometh Simon Peter, . . . and seeth . . . the napkin that was about his head, not lying with the linen clothes, but wrapped together in a place by itself. John xx. 6, 7. Like one that wraps the drapery of his couch About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams. Bryant. 2. To cover by winding or folding; to envelop completely; to involve; to infold; -- often with up. I . . . wrapt in mist Of midnight vapor, glide obscure. Milton. 3. To conceal by enveloping or infolding; to hide; hence, to involve, as an effect or consequence; to be followed by. Wise poets that wrap truth in tales. Carew. To be wrapped up in, to be wholly engrossed in; to be entirely dependent on; to be covered with. Leontine's young wife, in whom all his happiness was wrapped up, died in a few days after the death of her daughter. Addison. Things reflected on in gross and transiently . . . are thought to be wrapped up in impenetrable obscurity. Locke. WRAP Wrap, n. Defn: A wrapper; -- often used in the plural for blankets, furs, shawls, etc., used in riding or traveling. WRAPPAGE Wrap"page (; 48), n. 1. The act of wrapping. 2. That which wraps; envelope; covering. WRAPPER Wrap"per, n. 1. One who, or that which, wraps. 2. That in which anything is wrapped, or inclosed; envelope; covering. 3. Specifically, a loose outer garment; an article of dress intended to be wrapped round the person; as, a morning wrapper; a gentleman's wrapper. WRAPRASCAL Wrap"ras`cal, n. Defn: A kind of coarse upper coat, or overcoat, formerly worn. WRASSE Wrasse, n. Etym: [W. gwrachen.] (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of numerous edible, marine, spiny-finned fishes of the genus Labrus, of which several species are found in the Mediterranean and on the Atlantic coast of Europe. Many of the species are bright- colored. Note: Among the European species are the ballan wrasse (Labrus maculatus), the streaked wrasse (L. lineatus), the red wrasse (L. mixtus), the comber wrasse (L. comber), the blue-striped, or cook, wrasse (see Peacock fish, under Peacock), the rainbow wrasse (L. vulgaris), and the seawife. WRASTLE Wras"tle, v. i. Etym: [OE. wrastlen. See Wrestle.] Defn: To wrestle. [Obs. or Prov. Eng. & Colloq. U.S.] Who wrastleth best naked, with oil enoint. Chaucer. WRATH Wrath, n. Etym: [OE. wrathe, wraÞ\'ede, wrethe, wræ\'ebthe, AS. wræ\'ebtho, fr. wra\'eb wroth; akin to Icel. reithi wrath. See Wroth, a.] 1. Violent anger; vehement exasperation; indignation; rage; fury; ire. Wrath is a fire, and jealousy a weed. Spenser. When the wrath of king Ahasuerus was appeased. Esther ii. 1. Now smoking and frothing Its tumult and wrath in. Southey. 2. The effects of anger or indignation; the just punishment of an offense or a crime. "A revenger to execute wrath upon him that doeth evil." Rom. xiii. 4. Syn. -- Anger; fury; rage; ire; vengeance; indignation; resentment; passion. See Anger. WRATH Wrath, a. Defn: See Wroth. [Obs.] WRATH Wrath, v. t. Defn: To anger; to enrage; -- also used impersonally. [Obs.] "I will not wrathen him." Chaucer. If him wratheth, be ywar and his way shun. Piers Plowman. WRATHFUL Wrath"ful, a. 1. Full of wrath; very angry; greatly incensed; ireful; passionate; as, a wrathful man. 2. Springing from, or expressing, wrath; as, a wrathful countenance. "Wrathful passions." Sprat. Syn. -- Furious; raging; indignant; resentful. -- Wrath"ful*ly, adv. -- Wrath"ful*ness, n. WRATHILY Wrath"i*ly, adv. Defn: In a wrathy manner; very angrily; wrathfully. [Colloq.] WRATHLESS Wrath"less, a. Defn: Free from anger or wrath. Waller. WRATHY Wrath"y, a. Defn: Very angry. [Colloq.] WRAW Wraw, a. Etym: [Cf. dial. Sw. vrå willful, disobedient.] Defn: Angry; vexed; wrathful. [Obs.] With this speech the cock wex wroth and wraw. Chaucer. WRAWFUL Wraw"ful, a. Defn: Ill-tempered. [Obs.] Chaucer. WRAWL Wrawl, v. i. Etym: [Cf. Dan. vraale, Sw. vråla to brawl, to roar, Dan. vraal a bawling, roaring, vræle to cry, weep, whine.] Defn: To cry, as a cat; to waul. [Obs.] Spenser. WRAWNESS Wraw"ness, n. Defn: Peevishness; ill temper; anger. [Obs.] Chaucer. WRAY Wray, v. t. Etym: [AS. wr to accuse. See Bewray.] Defn: To reveal; to disclose. [Obs.] To no wight thou shalt this counsel wray. Chaucer. WREAK Wreak, v. i. Defn: To reck; to care. [Obs.] Shak. WREAK Wreak, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wreaked; p. pr. & vb. n. Wreaking.] Etym: [OE. wrek to revenge, punish, drive out, AS. wrecan; akin to OFries. wreka, OS. wrekan to punish, D. wreken to avenge, G. rächen, OHG. rehhan, Icel. reka to drive, to take vengeance, Goth. wrikan to persecute, Lith. vargas distress, vargti to suffer distress, L. urgere to drive, urge, Gr. Urge, Wreck, Wretch.] 1. To revenge; to avenge. [Archaic] He should wreake him on his foes. Chaucer. Another's wrongs to wreak upon thyself. Spenser. Come wreak his loss, whom bootless ye complain. Fairfax. 2. To execute in vengeance or passion; to inflict; to hurl or drive; as, to wreak vengeance on an enemy. On me let Death wreak all his rage. Milton. Now was the time to be avenged on his old enemy, to wreak a grudge of seventeen years. Macaulay. But gather all thy powers, And wreak them on the verse that thou dost weave. Bryant. WREAK Wreak, n. Etym: [Cf. AS. wræc exile, persecution, misery. See Wreak, v. t.] Defn: Revenge; vengeance; furious passion; resentment. [Obs.] Shak. Spenser. WREAKEN Wreak"en, obs. Defn: p. p. of Wreak. Chaucer. WREAKER Wreak"er, n. Etym: [See Wreak.] Defn: Avenger. [Obs.] The stork, the wrekere of avouterye [adultery]. Chaucer. WREAKFUL Wreak"ful, a. Defn: Revengeful; angry; furious. [Obs.] -- Wreak"ful*ly, adv. [Obs.] WREAKLESS Wreak"less, a. Defn: Unrevengeful; weak. [Obs.] WREATH Wreath, n.; pl. Wreaths. Etym: [OE. wrethe, AS. wræedh a twisted band, fr. wriedhan to twist. See Writhe.] 1. Something twisted, intertwined, or curled; as, a wreath of smoke; a wreath of flowers. "A wrethe of gold." Chaucer. [He] of his tortuous train Curled many a wanton wreath. Milton. 2. A garland; a chaplet, esp. one given to a victor. Conquest doth grant He dear wreath to the Grecian combatant. Chapman. Far back in the ages, The plow with wreaths was crowned. Bryant. 3. (Her.) Defn: An appendage to the shield, placed above it, and supporting the crest (see Illust. of Crest). It generally represents a twist of two cords of silk, one tinctured like the principal metal, the other like the principal color in the arms. WREATHE Wreathe, v. t. [imp. Wreathed; p. p. Wreathed; Archaic Wreathen; p. pr. & vb. n. Wreathing.] Etym: [See Wreath, n.] [Written also wreath.] 1. To cause to revolve or writhe; to twist about; to turn. [Obs.] And from so heavy sight his head did wreathe. Spenser. 2. To twist; to convolve; to wind one about another; to entwine. The nods and smiles of recognition into which this singular physiognomy was wreathed. Sir W. Scott. From his slack hand the garland wreathed for Eve Down dropped. Milton. 3. To surround with anything twisted or convolved; to encircle; to infold. Each wreathed in the other's arms. Shak. Dusk faces with withe silken turbants wreathed. Milton. And with thy winding ivy wreathes her lance. Dryden. 4. To twine or twist about; to surround; to encircle. In the flowers that wreathe the sparkling bowl, Fell adders hiss. Prior. WREATHE Wreathe, v. i. Defn: To be intewoven or entwined; to twine together; as, a bower of wreathing trees. Dryden. WREATHEN Wreath"en, a. Defn: Twisted; made into a wreath. "Wreathen work of pure gold." Ex. xxviii. 22. WREATHLESS Wreath"less, a. Defn: Destitute of a wreath. WREATH-SHELL Wreath"-shell`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A marine shell of the genus Turbo. See Turbo. WREATHY Wreath"y, a. Defn: Wreathed; twisted; curled; spiral; also, full of wreaths. "Wreathy spires, and cochleary turnings about." Sir T. Browne. WRECCHE Wrec"che, n. Defn: A wretch. [Obs.] WRECCHE Wrec"che, a. Defn: Wretched. [Obs.] Chaucer. WRECHE Wreche, n. Defn: Wreak. [Obs.] Chaucer. WRECK Wreck, v. t. & n. Defn: See 2d & 3d Wreak. WRECK Wreck, n. Etym: [OE. wrak, AS. wræc exile, persecution, misery, from wrecan to drive out, punish; akin to D. wrak, adj., damaged, brittle, n., a wreck, wraken to reject, throw off, Icel. rek a thing drifted ashore, Sw. vrak refuse, a wreck, Dan. vrag. See Wreak, v. t., and cf. Wrack a marine plant.] [Written also wrack.] 1. The destruction or injury of a vessel by being cast on shore, or on rocks, or by being disabled or sunk by the force of winds or waves; shipwreck. Hard and obstinate As is a rock amidst the raging floods, 'Gainst which a ship, of succor desolate, Doth suffer wreck, both of herself and goods. Spenser. 2. Destruction or injury of anything, especially by violence; ruin; as, the wreck of a railroad train. The wreck of matter and the crush of worlds. Addison. Its intellectual life was thus able to go on amidst the wreck of its political life. J. R. Green. 3. The ruins of a ship stranded; a ship dashed against rocks or land, and broken, or otherwise rendered useless, by violence and fracture; as, they burned the wreck. 4. The remain of anything ruined or fatally injured. To the fair haven of my native home, The wreck of what I was, fatigued I come. Cowper. 5. (Law) Defn: Goods, etc., which, after a shipwreck, are cast upon the land by the sea. Bouvier. WRECK Wreck, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wrecked; p. pr. & vb. n. Wrecking.] 1. To destroy, disable, or seriously damage, as a vessel, by driving it against the shore or on rocks, by causing it to become unseaworthy, to founder, or the like; to shipwreck. Supposing that they saw the king's ship wrecked. Shak. 2. To bring wreck or ruin upon by any kind of violence; to destroy, as a railroad train. 3. To involve in a wreck; hence, to cause to suffer ruin; to balk of success, and bring disaster on. Weak and envied, if they should conspire, They wreck themselves. Daniel. WRECK Wreck, v. i. 1. To suffer wreck or ruin. Milton. 2. To work upon a wreck, as in saving property or lives, or in plundering. WRECKAGE Wreck"age (; 48), n. 1. The act of wrecking, or state of being wrecked. 2. That which has been wrecked; remains of a wreck. WRECKER Wreck"er, n. 1. One who causes a wreck, as by false lights, and the like. 2. One who searches fro, or works upon, the wrecks of vessels, etc. Specifically: (a) One who visits a wreck for the purpose of plunder. (b) One who is employed in saving property or lives from a wrecked vessel, or in saving the vessel; as, the wreckers of Key West. 3. A vessel employed by wreckers. WRECKFISH Wreck"fish`, n. Etym: [So called because it often comes in with wreckage.] (Zoöl.) Defn: A stone bass. WRECKFUL Wreck"ful, a. Defn: Causing wreck; involving ruin; destructive. "By wreckful wind." Spenser. WRECKING Wreck"ing, Defn: a. & n. from Wreck, v. Wrecking car (Railway), a car fitted up with apparatus and implements for removing the wreck occasioned by an accident, as by a collision. -- Wrecking pump, a pump especially adapted for pumping water from the hull of a wrecked vessel. WRECK-MASTER Wreck"-mas`ter, n. Defn: A person appointed by law to take charge of goods, etc., thrown on shore after a shipwreck. WREKE; WREEKE Wreke, Wreeke, v. t. Defn: See 2d Wreak. [Obs.] WREN Wren, n. Etym: [OE. wrenne, AS. wrenna, wrænna, perhaps akin to wr lascivious.] 1. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of numerous species of small singing birds belonging to Troglodytes and numerous allied of the family Troglodytidæ. Note: Among the species best known are the house wren (Troglodytes aëdon) common in both Europe and America, and the American winter wren (T. hiemalis). See also Cactus wren, Marsh wren, and Rock wren, under Cactus, Marsh, and Rock. 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of numerous species of small singing birds more or less resembling the true wrens in size and habits. Note: Among these are several species of European warblers; as, the reed wren (see Reed warbler (a), under Reed), the sedge wren (see Sedge warbler, under Sedge), the willow wren (see Willow warbler, under Willow), the golden-crested wren, and the ruby-crowned wren (see Kinglet). Ant wren, any one of numerous South American birds of the family Formicaridæ, allied to the ant thrushes. -- Blue wren, a small Australian singing bird (Malurus cyaneus), the male of which in the breeding season is bright blue. Called also superb warbler. -- Emu wren. See in the Vocabulary. -- Wren babbler, any one of numerous species of small timaline birds belonging to Alcippe, Stachyris, Timalia, and several allied genera. These birds are common in Southern Asia and the East Indies. -- Wren tit. See Ground wren, under Ground. -- Wren warbler, any one of several species of small Asiatic and African singing birds belonging to Prinia and allied genera. These birds are closely allied to the tailor birds, and build their nests in a similar manner. See also Pincpinc. WRENCH Wrench, n. Etym: [OE. wrench deceit, AS. wrenc deceit, a twisting; akin to G. rank intrigue, crookedness, renken to bend, twist, and E. wring. Wring, and cf. Ranch, v. t.] 1. Trick; deceit; fraud; stratagem. [Obs.] His wily wrenches thou ne mayst not flee. Chaucer. 2. A violent twist, or a pull with twisting. He wringeth them such a wrench. Skelton. The injurious effect upon biographic literature of all such wrenches to the truth, is diffused everywhere. De Quincey. 3. A sprain; an injury by twisting, as in a joint. 4. Means; contrivance. [Obs.] Bacon. 5. An instrument, often a simple bar or lever with jaws or an angular orifice either at the end or between the ends, for exerting a twisting strain, as in turning bolts, nuts, screw taps, etc.; a screw key. Many wrenches have adjustable jaws for grasping nuts, etc., of different sizes. 6. (Mech.) Defn: The system made up of a force and a couple of forces in a plane perpendicular to that force. Any number of forces acting at any points upon a rigid body may be compounded so as to be equivalent to a wrench. Carriage wrench, a wrench adapted for removing or tightening the nuts that confine the wheels on the axles, or for turning the other nuts or bolts of a carriage or wagon. -- Monkey wrench. See under Monkey. -- Wrench hammer, a wrench with the end shaped so as to admit of being used as a hammer. WRENCH Wrench, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wrenched; p. pr. & vb. n. Wrenching.] Etym: [OE. wrenchen, AS. wrencan to deceive, properly, to twist, from wrenc guile, deceit, a twisting. Wrench, n.] 1. To pull with a twist; to wrest, twist, or force by violence. Wrench his sword from him. Shak. Forthwith this frame of mine was wrenched With a woeful agony. Coleridge. 2. To strain; to sprain; hence, to distort; to pervert. You wrenched your foot against a stone. Swift. WREST Wrest, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wrested; p. pr. & vb. n. Wresting.] Etym: [OE. wresten, AS. wr; akin to wr a twisted band, and wri to twist. See Writhe.] 1. To turn; to twist; esp., to twist or extort by violence; to pull of force away by, or as if by, violent wringing or twisting. "The secret wrested from me." Milton. Our country's cause, That drew our swords, now secret wrests them from our hand. Addison. They instantly wrested the government out of the hands of Hastings. Macaulay. 2. To turn from truth; to twist from its natural or proper use or meaning by violence; to pervert; to distort. Wrest once the law to your authority. Shak. Thou shalt not wrest the judgment of thy poor. Ex. xxiii. 6. Their arts of wresting, corrupting, and false interpreting the holy text. South. 3. To tune with a wrest, or key. [Obs.] WREST Wrest, n. 1. The act of wresting; a wrench; a violent twist; hence, distortion; perversion. Hooker. 2. Active or moving power. [Obs.] Spenser. 3. A key to tune a stringed instrument of music. The minstrel . . . wore round his neck a silver chain, by which hung the wrest, or key, with which he tuned his harp. Sir W. Scott. 4. A partition in a water wheel, by which the form of the buckets is determined. Wrest pin (Piano Manuf.), one of the pins around which the ends of the wires are wound in a piano. Knight. -- Wrest plank (Piano Manuf.), the part in which the wrest pins are inserted. WRESTER Wrest"er, n. Defn: One who wrests. WRESTLE Wres"tle, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Wrestled; p. pr. & vb. n. Wrestling.] Etym: [OE. wrestlen, wrastlen, AS. wr, freq. of wr to wrest; akin to OD. wrastelen to wrestle. See Wrest, v. t.] 1. To contend, by grappling with, and striving to trip or throw down, an opponent; as, they wrestled skillfully. To-morrow, sir, I wrestle for my credit, and he that escapes me without some broken limb shall acquit him well. Shak. Another, by a fall in wrestling, started the end of the clavicle from the sternum. Wiseman. 2. Hence, to struggle; to strive earnestly; to contend. Come, wrestle with thy affections. Shak. We wrestle not against flesh and blood. Eph. vi. 12. Difficulties with which he had himself wrestled. M. Arnold. WRESTLE Wres"tle, v. t. Defn: To wrestle with; to seek to throw down as in wrestling. WRESTLE Wres"tle, n. Defn: A struggle between two persons to see which will throw the other down; a bout at wrestling; a wrestling match; a struggle. Whom in a wrestle the giant catching aloft, with a terrible hug broke three of his ribs. Milton. WRESTLER Wres"tler, n. Etym: [AS. wræstlere.] Defn: One who wrestles; one who is skillful in wrestling. WRESTLING Wres"tling, n. Defn: Act of one who wrestles; specif., the sport consisting of the hand-to-hand combat between two unarmed contestants who seek to throw each other. The various styles of wrestling differ in their definition of a fall and in the governing rules. In Greco-Roman wrestling, tripping and taking hold of the legs are forbidden, and a fall is gained (that is, the bout is won), by the contestant who pins both his opponent's shoulders to the ground. In catch-as-catch-can wrestling, all holds are permitted except such as may be barred by mutual consent, and a fall is defined as in Greco-Roman style. Lancashire style wrestling is essentially the same as catch-as-catch- can. In Cumberland and Westmorland wrestling the contestants stand chest to chest, grasping each other around the body. The one first losing his hold, or touching the ground with any part of his body except his feet, loses the bout. If both fall to the ground at the same time, it is a dogfall, and must be wrestled over. In the Cornwall and Devon wrestling, the wrestlers complete in strong loose linen jackets, catching hold of the jacket, or anywhere above the waist. Two shoulders and one hip, or two hips and one shoulder, must touch the ground to constitute a fall, and if a man is thrown otherwise than on his back the contestants get upon their feet and the bout recommences. WRETCH Wretch, n. Etym: [OE. wrecche, AS. wrecca, wræcca, an exile, a wretch, fr. wrecan to drive out, punish; properly, an exile, one driven out, akin to AS. wræc an exile, OS. wrekkio a stranger, OHG. reccheo an exile. See Wreak, v. t.] 1. A miserable person; one profoundly unhappy. "The wretch that lies in woe." Shak. Hovered thy spirit o'er thy sorrowing son, Wretch even then, life's journey just begun Cowper. 2. One sunk in vice or degradation; a base, despicable person; a vile knave; as, a profligate wretch. Note: Wretch is sometimes used by way of slight or ironical pity or contempt, and sometimes to express tenderness; as we say, poor thing. "Poor wretch was never frighted so." Drayton. WRETCHED Wretch"ed, a. 1. Very miserable; sunk in, or accompanied by, deep affliction or distress, as from want, anxiety, or grief; calamitous; woeful; very afflicting. "To what wretched state reserved!" Milton. O cruel! Death! to those you are more kind Than to the wretched mortals left behind. Waller. The wretched refuse of your teeming shore . . . 2. Worthless; paltry; very poor or mean; miserable; as, a wretched poem; a wretched cabin. 3. Hatefully contemptible; despicable; wicked. [Obs.] "Wretched ungratefulness." Sir P. Sidney. Nero reigned after this Claudius, of all men wretchedest, ready to all manner [of] vices. Capgrave. WRETCHEDLY Wretch"ed*ly, adv. Defn: In a wretched manner; miserably; despicable. WRETCHEDNESS Wretch"ed*ness, n. 1. The quality or state of being wretched; utter misery. Sir W. Raleigh. 2. A wretched object; anything despicably. [Obs.] Eat worms and such wretchedness. Chaucer. WRETCHFUL Wretch"ful, a. Defn: Wretched. [Obs.] Wyclif. WRETCHLESS Wretch"less, a. Etym: [See Reckless.] Defn: Reckless; hence, disregarded. [Obs.] -- Wretch"less*ly, adv. [Obs.] -- Wretch"less*ness, n. [Obs.] Bk. of Com. Prayer. Your deaf ears should listen Unto the wretchless clamors of the poor. J. Webster. WREY Wrey, v. t. Defn: See Wray. [Obs.] Chaucer. WRIE Wrie, a. & v. Defn: See Wry. [Obs.] Chaucer. WRIG Wrig, v. i. Defn: To wriggle. [Obs.] Skelton. WRIGGLE Wrig"gle, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Wriggled; p. pr. & vb. n. Wriggling.] Etym: [Freq. of wrig, probably from OE. wrikken to move to and fro; cf. LG. wriggeln, D. wrikken, Sw. vricka, Dan. vrikke.] Defn: To move the body to and fro with short, writhing motions, like a worm; to squirm; to twist uneasily or quickly about. Both he and successors would often wriggle in their seats, as long as the cushion lasted. Swift. WRIGGLE Wrig"gle, v. t. Defn: To move with short, quick contortions; to move by twisting and squirming; like a worm. Covetousness will wriggle itself out at a small hole. Fuller. Wriggling his body to recover His seat, and cast his right leg over. Hudibras. WRIGGLE Wrig"gle, a. Defn: Wriggling; frisky; pliant; flexible. [Obs.] "Their wriggle tails." Spenser. WRIGGLER Wrig"gler, n. Defn: One who, or that which, wriggles. Cowper. WRIGHT Wright, n. Etym: [OE. wrighte, writhe, AS. wyrtha, fr. wyrcean to work. sq. root145. See Work.] Defn: One who is engaged in a mechanical or manufacturing business; an artificer; a workman; a manufacturer; a mechanic; esp., a worker in wood; -- now chiefly used in compounds, as in millwright, wheelwright, etc. He was a well good wright, a carpenter. Chaucer. WRIGHTINE Wright"ine, n. (Chem.) Defn: A rare alkaloid found in the bark of an East Indian apocynaceous tree (Wrightia antidysenterica), and extracted as a bitter white crystalline substance. It was formerly used as a remedy for diarrhoea. Called also conessine, and neriine. WRING Wring, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wrung, Obs. Wringed (; p. pr. & vb. n. Wringing.] Etym: [OE. wringen, AS. wringan; akin to LG. & D. wringen, OHG. ringan to struggle, G. ringen, Sw. vränga to distort, Dan. vringle to twist. Cf. Wrangle, Wrench, Wrong.] 1. To twist and compress; to turn and strain with violence; to writhe; to squeeze hard; to pinch; as, to wring clothes in washing. "Earnestly wringing Waverley's hand." Sir W. Scott. "Wring him by the nose." Shak. [His steed] so sweat that men might him wring. Chaucer. The king began to find where his shoe did wring him. Bacon. The priest shall bring it [a dove] unto the altar, and wring off his head. Lev. i. 15. 2. Hence, to pain; to distress; to torment; to torture. Too much grieved and wrung by an uneasy and strait fortune. Clarendon. Didst thou taste but half the griefs That wring my soul, thou couldst not talk thus coldly. Addison. 3. To distort; to pervert; to wrest. How dare men thus wring the Scriptures Whitgift. 4. To extract or obtain by twisting and compressing; to squeeze or press (out); hence, to extort; to draw forth by violence, or against resistance or repugnance; -- usually with out or form. Your overkindness doth wring tears from me. Shak. He rose up early on the morrow, and thrust the fleece together, and wringed the dew out of the fleece. Judg. vi. 38. 5. To subject to extortion; to afflict, or oppress, in order to enforce compliance. To wring the widow from her 'customed right. Shak. The merchant adventures have been often wronged and wringed to the quick. Hayward. 6. (Naut.) Defn: To bend or strain out of its position; as, to wring a mast. WRING Wring, v. i. Defn: To writhe; to twist, as with anguish. 'T is all men's office to speak patience To those that wring under the load of sorrow. Shak. Look where the sister of the king of France Sits wringing of her hands, and beats her breast. Marlowe. WRING Wring, n. Defn: A writhing, as in anguish; a twisting; a griping. [Obs.] Bp. Hall. WRINGBOLT Wring"bolt`, n. (Shipbuilding) Defn: A bolt used by shipwrights, to bend and secure the planks against the timbers till they are fastened by bolts, spikes, or treenails; -- not to be confounded with ringbolt. WRINGER Wring"er, n. 1. One who, or that which, wrings; hence, an extortioner. 2. A machine for pressing water out of anything, particularly from clothes after they have been washed. WRINGING Wring"ing, Defn: a. & n. from Wring, v. Wringing machine, a wringer. See Wringer, 2. WRINGSTAFF Wring"staff`, n.; pl. Wringstaves (. (Shipbuilding) Defn: A strong piece of plank used in applying wringbolts. WRINKLE Wrin"kle, n. Defn: A winkle. [Local, U.S.] WRINKLE Wrin"kle, n. Etym: [OE. wrinkil, AS. wrincle; akin to OD. wrinckel, and prob. to Dan. rynke, Sw. rynka, Icel. hrukka, OHG. runza, G. runzel, L. ruga. 1. A small ridge, prominence, or furrow formed by the shrinking or contraction of any smooth substance; a corrugation; a crease; a slight fold; as, wrinkle in the skin; a wrinkle in cloth. "The wrinkles in my brows." Shak. Within I do not find wrinkles and used heart, but unspent youth. Emerson. 2. hence, any roughness; unevenness. Not the least wrinkle to deform the sky. Dryden. 3. Etym: [Perhaps a different word, and a dim. AS. wrenc a twisting, deceit. Cf. Wrench, n.] Defn: A notion or fancy; a whim; as, to have a new wrinkle. [Colloq.] WRINKLE Wrin"kle, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wrinkled; p. pr. & vb. n. Wrinkling.] 1. To contract into furrows and prominences; to make a wrinkle or wrinkles in; to corrugate; as, wrinkle the skin or the brow. "Sport that wrinkled Care derides." Milton. Her wrinkled form in black and white arrayed. Pope. 2. Hence, to make rough or uneven in any way. A keen north wind that, blowing dry, Wrinkled the face of deluge, as decayed. Milton. Then danced we on the wrinkled sand. Bryant. To wrinkle at, to sneer at. [Obs.] Marston. WRINKLE Wrin"kle, v. i. Defn: To shrink into furrows and ridges. WRINKLY Wrin"kly, a. Defn: Full of wrinkles; having a tendency to be wrinkled; corrugated; puckered. G. Eliot. His old wrinkly face grew quite blown out at last. Carlyle. WRIST Wrist, n. Etym: [OE. wriste, wrist, AS. wrist; akin to OFries. wriust, LG. wrist, G. rist wrist, instep, Icel. rist instep, Dan. & Sw. vrist, and perhaps to E. writhe.] 1. (Anat.) Defn: The joint, or the region of the joint, between the hand and the arm; the carpus. See Carpus. He took me by the wrist, and held me hard. Shak. 2. (Mach.) Defn: A stud or pin which forms a journal; -- also called wrist pin. Bridle wrist, the wrist of the left hand, in which a horseman holds the bridle. -- Wrist clonus. Etym: [NL. clonus, fr. Gr. Clonic.] (Med.) A series of quickly alternating movements of flexion and extension of the wrist, produced in some cases of nervous disease by suddenly bending the hand back upon the forearm. -- Wrist drop (Med.), paralysis of the extensor muscles of the hand, affecting the hand so that when an attempt is made to hold it out in line with the forearm with the palm down, the hand drops. It is chiefly due to plumbism. Called also hand drop. -- Wrist plate (Steam Engine), a swinging plate bearing two or more wrists, for operating the valves. WRISTBAND Wrist"band, n. Defn: The band of the sleeve of a shirt, or other garment, which covers the wrist. WRISTER Wrist"er, n. Defn: A covering for the wrist. WRISTLET Wrist"let, n. Defn: An elastic band worn around the wrist, as for the purpose of securing the upper part of a glove. WRIT Writ, obs. Defn: 3d pers. sing. pres. of Write, for writeth. Chaucer. WRIT Writ, archaic Defn: imp. & p. p. of Write. Dryden. WRIT Writ, n. Etym: [AS. writ, gewrit. See Write.] 1. That which is written; writing; scripture; -- applied especially to the Scriptures, or the books of the Old and New testaments; as, sacred writ. "Though in Holy Writ not named." Milton. Then to his hands that writ he did betake, Which he disclosing read, thus as the paper spake. Spenser. Babylon, so much spoken of in Holy Writ. Knolles. 2. (Law) Defn: An instrument in writing, under seal, in an epistolary form, issued from the proper authority, commanding the performance or nonperformance of some act by the person to whom it is directed; as, a writ of entry, of error, of execution, of injunction, of mandamus, of return, of summons, and the like. Note: Writs are usually witnessed, or tested, in the name of the chief justice or principal judge of the court out of which they are issued; and those directed to a sheriff, or other ministerial officer, require him to return them on a day specified. In former English law and practice, writs in civil cases were either original or judicial; the former were issued out of the Court of Chancery, under the great seal, for the summoning of a defendant to appear, and were granted before the suit began and in order to begin the same; the latter were issued out of the court where the original was returned, after the suit was begun and during the pendency of it. Tomlins. Brande. Encyc. Brit. The term writ is supposed by Mr. Reeves to have been derived from the fact of these formulæ having always been expressed in writing, being, in this respect, distinguished from the other proceedings in the ancient action, which were conducted orally. Writ of account, Writ of capias, etc. See under Account, Capias, etc. -- Service of a writ. See under Service. WRITABILITY Writ`a*bil"i*ty, n. Defn: Ability or capacity to write. [R.] Walpole. WRITABLE Writ"a*ble, a. Defn: Capable of, or suitable for, being written down. WRITATIVE Writ"a*tive, a. Defn: Inclined to much writing; -- correlative to talkative. [R.] Pope. WRITE Write, v. t. [imp. Wrote; p. p. Written; Archaic imp. & p. p. Writ; p. pr. & vb. n. Writing.] Etym: [OE. writen, AS. writan; originally, to scratch, to score; akin to OS. writan to write, to tear, to wound, D. rijten to tear, to rend, G. reissen, OHG. rizan, Icel. rita to write, Goth. writs a stroke, dash, letter. Cf. Race tribe, lineage.] 1. To set down, as legible characters; to form the conveyance of meaning; to inscribe on any material by a suitable instrument; as, to write the characters called letters; to write figures. 2. To set down for reading; to express in legible or intelligible characters; to inscribe; as, to write a deed; to write a bill of divorcement; hence, specifically, to set down in an epistle; to communicate by letter. Last night she enjoined me to write some lines to one she loves. Shak. I chose to write the thing I durst not speak To her I loved. Prior. 3. Hence, to compose or produce, as an author. I purpose to write the history of England from the accession of King James the Second down to a time within the memory of men still living. Macaulay. 4. To impress durably; to imprint; to engrave; as, truth written on the heart. 5. To make known by writing; to record; to prove by one's own written testimony; -- often used reflexively. He who writes himself by his own inscription is like an ill painter, who, by writing on a shapeless picture which he hath drawn, is fain to tell passengers what shape it is, which else no man could imagine. Milton. To write to, to communicate by a written document to. -- Written laws, laws deriving their force from express legislative enactment, as contradistinguished from unwritten, or common, law. See the Note under Law, and Common law, under Common, a. WRITE Write, v. i. 1. To form characters, letters, or figures, as representative of sounds or ideas; to express words and sentences by written signs. Chaucer. So it stead you, I will write, Please you command. Shak. 2. To be regularly employed or occupied in writing, copying, or accounting; to act as clerk or amanuensis; as, he writes in one of the public offices. 3. To frame or combine ideas, and express them in written words; to play the author; to recite or relate in books; to compose. They can write up to the dignity and character of the authors. Felton. 4. To compose or send letters. He wrote for all the Jews that went out of his realm up into Jewry concerning their freedom. 1 Esdras iv. 49. WRITER Writ"er, n. Etym: [AS. writere.] 1. One who writes, or has written; a scribe; a clerk. They [came] that handle the pen of the writer. Judg. v. 14. My tongue is the pen of a ready writer. Ps. xlv. 1. 2. One who is engaged in literary composition as a profession; an author; as, a writer of novels. This pitch, as ancient writers do report, doth defile. Shak. 3. A clerk of a certain rank in the service of the late East India Company, who, after serving a certain number of years, became a factor. Writer of the tallies (Eng. Law), an officer of the exchequer of England, who acted as clerk to the auditor of the receipt, and wrote the accounts upon the tallies from the tellers' bills. The use of tallies in the exchequer has been abolished. Wharton (Law. Dict.) -- Writer's cramp, palsy, or spasm (Med.), a painful spasmodic affection of the muscles of the fingers, brought on by excessive use, as in writing, violin playing, telegraphing, etc. Called also scrivener's palsy. -- Writer to the signet. See under Signet. WRITERSHIP Writ"er*ship, n. Defn: The office of a writer. WRITHE Writhe, v. t. [imp. Writhed; p. p. Writhed, Obs. or Poetic Writhen (; p. pr. & vb. n. Writhing.] Etym: [OE. writhen, AS. wri to twist; akin to OHG. ridan, Icel. ri, Sw. vrida, Dan. vride. Cf. Wreathe, Wrest, Wroth.] 1. To twist; to turn; now, usually, to twist or turn so as to distort; to wring. "With writhing [turning] of a pin." Chaucer. Then Satan first knew pain, And writhed him to and fro. Milton. Her mouth she writhed, her forehead taught to frown. Dryden. His battle-writhen arms, and mighty hands. Tennyson. 2. To wrest; to distort; to pervert. The reason which he yieldeth showeth the least part of his meaning to be that whereunto his words are writhed. Hooker. 3. To extort; to wring; to wrest. [R.] The nobility hesitated not to follow the example of their sovereign in writhing money from them by every species of oppression. Sir W. Scott. WRITHE Writhe, v. i. Defn: To twist or contort the body; to be distorted; as, to writhe with agony. Also used figuratively. After every attempt, he felt that he had failed, and writhed with shame and vexation. Macaulay. WRITHEN Writh"en, a. Defn: Having a twisted distorted from. A writhen staff his step unstable guides. Fairfax. WRITHLE Wri"thle, v. t. Etym: [Freq. of writhe.] Defn: To wrinkle. [Obs.] Shak. WRITING Writ"ing, n. 1. The act or art of forming letters and characters on paper, wood, stone, or other material, for the purpose of recording the ideas which characters and words express, or of communicating them to others by visible signs. 2. Anything written or printed; anything expressed in characters or letters; as: (a) Any legal instrument, as a deed, a receipt, a bond, an agreement, or the like. (b) Any written composition; a pamphlet; a work; a literary production; a book; as, the writings of Addison. (c) An inscription. And Pilate wrote a title . . . And the writing was, Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews. John xix. 19. 3. Handwriting; chirography. Writing book, a book for practice in penmanship. -- Writing desk, a desk with a sloping top for writing upon; also, a case containing writing materials, and used in a similar manner. -- Writing lark (Zoöl.), the European yellow-hammer; -- so called from the curious irregular lines on its eggs. [Prov. Eng.] -- Writing machine. Same as Typewriter. -- Writing master, one who teaches the art of penmanship. -- Writing obligatory (Law), a bond. -- Writing paper, paper intended for writing upon with ink, usually finished with a smooth surface, and sized. -- Writing school, a school for instruction in penmanship. -- Writing table, a table fitted or used for writing upon. WRITTEN Writ"ten, Defn: p. p. of Write, v. WRIZZLE Wriz"zle, v. t. Defn: To wrinkle. [Obs.] Spenser. WROKEN Wro"ken, obs. Defn: p. p. of Wreak. Chaucer. WRONG Wrong, obs. Defn: imp. of Wring. Wrung. Chaucer. WRONG Wrong, a. Etym: [OE. wrong, wrang, a. & n., AS. wrang, n.; originally, awry, wrung, fr. wringan to wring; akin to D. wrang bitter, Dan. vrang wrong, Sw. vrång, Icel. rangr awry, wrong. See Wring.] 1. Twisted; wry; as, a wrong nose. [Obs.] Wyclif (Lev. xxi. 19). 2. Not according to the laws of good morals, whether divine or human; not suitable to the highest and best end; not morally right; deviating from rectitude or duty; not just or equitable; not true; not legal; as, a wrong practice; wrong ideas; wrong inclinations and desires. 3. Not fit or suitable to an end or object; not appropriate for an intended use; not according to rule; unsuitable; improper; incorrect; as, to hold a book with the wrong end uppermost; to take the wrong way. I have deceived you both; I have directed you to wrong places. Shak. 4. Not according to truth; not conforming to fact or intent; not right; mistaken; erroneous; as, a wrong statement. 5. Designed to be worn or placed inward; as, the wrong side of a garment or of a piece of cloth. Syn. -- Injurious; unjust; faulty; detrimental; incorrect; erroneous; unfit; unsuitable. WRONG Wrong, adv. Defn: In a wrong manner; not rightly; amiss; morally ill; erroneously; wrongly. Ten censure wrong for one that writes amiss. Pope. WRONG Wrong, n. Etym: [AS. wrang. See Wrong, a.] Defn: That which is not right. Specifically: (a) Nonconformity or disobedience to lawful authority, divine or human; deviation from duty; -- the opposite of moral Ant: right. When I had wrong and she the right. Chaucer. One spake much of right and wrong. Milton. (b) Deviation or departure from truth or fact; state of falsity; error; as, to be in the wrong. (c) Whatever deviates from moral rectitude; usually, an act that involves evil consequences, as one which inflicts injury on a person; any injury done to, or received from; another; a trespass; a violation of right. Friend, I do thee no wrong. Matt. xx. 18. As the king of England can do no wrong, so neither can he do right but in his courts and by his courts. Milton. The obligation to redress a wrong is at least as binding as that of paying a debt. E. Evereth. Note: Wrongs, legally, are private or public. Private wrongs are civil injuries, immediately affecting individuals; public wrongs are crimes and misdemeanors which affect the community. Blackstone. WRONG Wrong, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wronged; p. pr. & vb. n. Wronging.] 1. To treat with injustice; to deprive of some right, or to withhold some act of justice from; to do undeserved harm to; to deal unjustly with; to injure. He that sinneth . . . wrongeth his own soul. Prov. viii. 36. 2. To impute evil to unjustly; as, if you suppose me capable of a base act, you wrong me. I rather choose To wrong the dead, to wrong myself and you, Than I will wrong such honorable men. Shak. WRONGDOER Wrong"do`er, n. 1. One who injures another, or who does wrong. 2. (Law) Defn: One who commits a tort or trespass; a trespasser; a tort feasor. Ayliffe. WRONGDOING Wrong"do`ing, n. Defn: Evil or wicked behavior or action. WRONGER Wrong"er, n. Defn: One who wrongs or injures another. Shak. "Wrongers of the world." Tennyson. WRONGFUL Wrong"ful, a. Defn: Full of wrong; injurious; unjust; unfair; as, a wrongful taking of property; wrongful dealing. -- Wrong"ful*ly, adv. -- Wrong"ful*ness, n. WRONGHEAD Wrong"head`, n. Defn: A person of a perverse understanding or obstinate character. [R.] WRONGHEAD Wrong"head`, a. Defn: Wrongheaded. [R.] Pope. WRONGHEADED Wrong"head`ed, a. Defn: Wrong in opinion or principle; having a perverse understanding; perverse. -- Wrong"head`ed*ly, adv. -- Wrong"head`ed*ness, n. Macaulay. WRONGLESS Wrong"less, a. Defn: Not wrong; void or free from wrong. [Obs.] -- Wrong"less*ly, adv. [Obs.] Sir P. Sidney. WRONGLY Wrong"ly, adv. Defn: In a wrong manner; unjustly; erroneously; wrong; amiss; as, he judges wrongly of my motives. "And yet wouldst wrongly win." Shak. WRONGNESS Wrong"ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being wrong; wrongfulness; error; fault. The best great wrongnesses within themselves. Bp. Butler. The rightness or wrongness of this view. Latham. WRONGOUS Wron"gous, a. Etym: [Cf. OE. wrongwis. See Wrong, and cf. Righteous.] 1. Constituting, or of the nature of, a wrong; unjust; wrongful. [R.] 2. (Scots Law) Defn: Not right; illegal; as, wrongous imprisonment. Craig. WRONG-TIMED Wrong"-timed`, a. Defn: Done at an improper time; ill-timed. WROOT Wroot, obs. Defn: imp. of Write. Wrote. Chaucer. WROTE Wrote, v. i. Etym: [OE. wroten. See 1st Root.] Defn: To root with the snout. See 1st Root. [Obs.] Chaucer. WROTE Wrote, Defn: imp. & archaic p. p. of Write. WROTH Wroth, a. Etym: [OE. wroth, wrap, AS. wraedh wroth, crooked, bad; akin to wriedhan to writhe, and to OS. wreedhangry, D. wreed cruel, OHG. reid twisted, Icel. reiedhr angry, Dan. & Sw. vred. See Writhe, and cf. Wrath.] Defn: Full of wrath; angry; incensed; much exasperated; wrathful. "Wroth to see his kingdom fail." Milton. Revel and truth as in a low degree, They be full wroth [i. e., at enmity] all day. Chaucer. Cain was very wroth, and his countenance fell. Gen. iv. 5. WROUGHT Wrought, Defn: imp. & p. p. of Work. Alas that I was wrought [created]! Chaucer. WROUGHT Wrought, a. Defn: Worked; elaborated; not rough or crude. Wrought iron. See under Iron. WRUNG Wrung, Defn: imp. & p. p. of Wring. WRY Wry, v. t. Etym: [AS. wreón.] Defn: To cover. [Obs.] Wrie you in that mantle. Chaucer. WRY Wry, a. [Compar. Wrier; superl. Wriest.] Etym: [Akin to OE. wrien to twist, to bend, AS. wrigian to tend towards, to drive.] 1. Turned to one side; twisted; distorted; as, a wry mouth. 2. Hence, deviating from the right direction; misdirected; out of place; as, wry words. Not according to the wry rigor of our neighbors, who never take up an old idea without some extravagance in its application. Landor. 3. Wrested; perverted. He . . . puts a wry sense upon Protestant writers. Atterbury. Wry face, a distortion of the countenance indicating impatience, disgust, or discomfort; a grimace. WRY Wry, v. i. 1. To twist; to writhe; to bend or wind. 2. To deviate from the right way; to go away or astray; to turn side; to swerve. This Phebus gan awayward for to wryen. Chaucer. How many Must murder wives much better than themselves For wrying but a little! Shak. WRY Wry, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wried; p. pr. & vb. n. Wrying.] Etym: [OE. wrien. See Wry, a.] Defn: To twist; to distort; to writhe; to wrest; to vex. Sir P. Sidney. Guests by hundreds, not one caring If the dear host's neck were wried. R. Browning. WRYBILL Wry"bill`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: See Crookbill. WRYMOUTH Wry"mouth`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of several species of large, elongated, marine fishes of the genus Cryptacanthodes, especially C. maculatus of the American coast. A whitish variety is called ghostfish. WRYNECK Wry"neck, n. (Med.) 1. A twisted or distorted neck; a deformity in which the neck is drawn to one side by a rigid contraction of one of the muscles of the neck; torticollis. 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of several species of Old World birds of the genus Jynx, allied to the woodpeckers; especially, the common European species (J. torguilla); -- so called from its habit of turning the neck around in different directions. Called also cuckoo's mate, snakebird, summer bird, tonguebird, and writheneck. WRYNECKED Wry"necked`, a. Defn: Having a distorted neck; having the deformity called wryneck. WRYNESS Wry"ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being wry, or distorted. W. Montagu. WRYTHEN Wryth"en, obs. p. p. of Writhe. Defn: Writhen. WULFENITE Wul"fen*ite, n. Etym: [So named after F. X. Wulfen, an Australian mineralogist.] (Min.) Defn: Native lead molybdate occurring in tetragonal crystals, usually tabular, and of a bright orange-yellow to red, gray, or brown color; -- also called yellow lead ore. WULL Wull, v. t. & i. Defn: See 2d Will. Pour out to all that wull. Spenser. WUNG-OUT Wung"-out`, a. Defn: Having the sails set in the manner called wing-and-wing. [Sailors' slang] WURBAGOOL Wur"ba*gool, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A fruit bat (Pteropus medius) native of India. It is similar to the flying fox, but smaller. WURMAL Wur"mal, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: See Wormil. WURRALUH Wur"ra*luh, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The Australian white-quilled honey eater (Entomyza albipennis). WUST; WUSTE Wust, Wuste, obs. Defn: imp. of Wit. Piers Plowman. WYANDOTS Wy`an*dots", n. pl.; sing. Wyandot (. (Ethnol.) Defn: Same as Hurons. [Written also Wyandottes, and Yendots.] WYCH-ELM Wych"-elm`, n. Etym: [OE. wiche a kind of elm, AS. wice a kind of tree. Cf. Wicker.] (Bot.) Defn: A species of elm (Ulmus montana) found in Northern and Western Europe; Scotch elm. Note: By confusion this word is often written witch-elm. WYCH-HAZEL Wych"-ha`zel, n. (Bot.) Defn: The wych-elm; -- so called because its leaves are like those of the hazel. WYCLIFITE; WYCLIFFITE Wyc"lif*ite, Wyc"liff*ite, n. Defn: A follower of Wyclif, the English reformer; a Lollard. WYD Wyd, a. Defn: Wide. [Obs.] Chaucer. WYE Wye, n.; pl. Wyes (. 1. The letter Y. 2. A kind of crotch. See Y, n. (a). WYKE Wyke, n. Defn: Week. [Obs.] Chaucer. WYLA Wy"la, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A helmeted Australian cockatoo (Calyptorhynchus funereus); -- called also funeral cockatoo. WYN; WYNN; WEN Wyn, Wynn, n. Also Wen. [AS. wen.] Defn: One of the runes adopted into the Anglo-Saxon, or Old English, alphabet. It had the value of modern English w, and was replaced from about a. d. 1280 at first by uu, later by w. X. WYND Wynd, n. Etym: [See Wind to turn.] Defn: A narrow lane or alley. [Scot.] Jamieson. The narrow wynds, or alleys, on each side of the street. Bryant. WYNKERNEL Wyn"ker*nel, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The European moor hen. [Prov. Eng.] WYNN Wynn, n. Defn: A kind of timber truck, or carriage. WYPE Wype, n. Defn: The wipe, or lapwing. [Prov. Eng.] WYS Wys, a. Defn: Wise. [Obs.] Chaucer. WYTE; WYTEN Wyte, Wy"ten, obs. Defn: pl. pres. of Wit. WYTHE Wythe, n. (Naut.). Defn: Same as Withe, n., 4. WYVERN Wy"vern, n. (Her.) Defn: Same as Wiver. X X (eks). Defn: X, the twenty-fourth letter of the English alphabet, has three sounds; a compound nonvocal sound (that of ks), as in wax; a compound vocal sound (that of gz), as in example; and, at the beginning of a word, a simple vocal sound (that of z), as in xanthic. See Guide to Pronunciation, §§ 217, 270, 271. The form and value of X are from the Latin X, which is from the Greek X, which in some Greek alphabets had the value of ks, though in the one now in common use it represents an aspirated sound of k. XANTHAMIDE Xanth*am"ide, n. [Xanthic + amide.] (Chem.) Defn: An amido derivative of xanthic acid obtained as a white crystalline substance, C2H5O.CS.NH2; -- called also xanthogen amide. XANTHATE Xan"thate, n. [See Xanthic.] (Chem.) Defn: A salt of xanthic; a xanthogenate. XANTHELASMA Xan`the*las"ma, n. [NL.; Gr. xanqo`s yellow + 'e`lasma a metal plate.] (Med.) Defn: See Xanthoma. XANTHIAN Xan"thi*an, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to Xanthus, an ancient town on Asia Minor; -- applied especially to certain marbles found near that place, and now in the British Museum. XANTHIC Xan"thic, a. [Gr. xanqo`s yellow: cf. F. xanthique.] 1. Tending toward a yellow color, or to one of those colors, green being excepted, in which yellow is a constituent, as scarlet, orange, etc. 2. (Chem.) (a) Possessing, imparting, or producing a yellow color; as, xanthic acid. (b) Of or pertaining to xanthic acid, or its compounds; xanthogenic. (c) Of or pertaining to xanthin. Xanthic acid (Chem.), a heavy, astringent, colorless oil, C2H5O.CS.SH, having a pungent odor. It is produced by leading carbon disulphide into a hot alcoholic solution of potassium hydroxide. So called from the yellow color of many of its salts. Called also xanthogenic acid. -- Xanthic colors (Bot.), those colors (of flowers) having some tinge of yellow; -- opposed to cyanic colors. See under Cyanic. XANTHIDE Xan"thide, n. [See Xantho-.] (Chem.) Defn: A compound or derivative of xanthogen. [Archaic] XANTHIDIUM Xan*thid"i*um, n.; pl. Xanthidia (#). [NL., fr. Gr. xanqo`s yellow.] (Bot.) Defn: A genus of minute unicellular algæ of the desmids. These algæ have a rounded shape and are armed with glochidiate or branched aculei. Several species occur in ditches, and others are found fossil in flint or hornstone. XANTHIN Xan"thin, n. [Gr. xanqo`s yellow.] 1. (Physiol. Chem.) A crystalline nitrogenous body closely related to both uric acid and hypoxanthin, present in muscle tissue, and occasionally found in the urine and in some urinary calculi. It is also present in guano. So called from the yellow color of certain of its salts (nitrates). 2. (Chem.) A yellow insoluble coloring matter extracted from yellow flowers; specifically, the coloring matter of madder. [Formerly written also xanthein.] 3. (Chem.) One of the gaseous or volatile decomposition products of the xanthates, and probably identical with carbon disulphide. [Obs.] XANTHINE; XANTHIN Xan"thine, n. Also Xan"thin . [Gr. xanqo`s yellow.] (Physiol. Chem.) Defn: A white microcrystalline nitrogenous compound, C5H4O2N4, present in muscle tissue, in the liver, spleen, pancreas, and other organs, and also in urine (in small quantities) and some urinary calculi, and in the juices of certain plants; -- so called because it leaves a yellow residue when evaporated to dryness with nitric acid. Xanthine is closely related to uric acid. XANTHININE Xan"thi*nine, n. [Gr. xanqo`s yellow + quinine.] (Chem.) Defn: A complex nitrogenous substance related to urea and uric acid, produced as a white powder; -- so called because it forms yellow salts, and because its solution forms a blue fluorescence like quinine. XANTHIUM Xan"thi*um, n. [NL., fr. Gr. xa`nqion a plant used for dyeing the hair yellow, said to be the Xanthium strumarium, from xanqo`s yellow.] (Bot.) Defn: A genus of composite plants in which the scales of the involucre are united so as to form a kind of bur; cocklebur; clotbur. XANTHO- Xan"tho-. Defn: A combining form from Gr. xanqo`s yellow; as in xanthocobaltic salts. Used also adjectively in chemistry. XANTHOCARPOUS Xan`tho*car"pous, a. [Xantho-+ Gr. karpo`s fruit.] (Bot.) Defn: Having yellow fruit. XANTHOCHROI Xan*thoch"ro*i, n. pl. [NL. See Xanthochroic.] (Ethnol.) Defn: A division of the Caucasian races, comprising the lighter- colored members. The Xanthochroi, or fair whites, . . . are the prevalent inhabitants of Northern Europe, and the type may be traced into North Africa, and eastward as far as Hindostan. Tylor. XANTHOCHROIC Xan`tho*chro"ic, a. [Xantho-+ Gr. chro`a color.] (Ethnol.) Defn: Having a yellowish or fair complexion; of or pertaining to the Xanthochroi. XANTHOCHROID Xan"tho*chroid, a. [See under Xanthrochroic, -oid.] (Ethnol.) Defn: Having a yellowish or fair complexion. -- n. Defn: A person having xanthochroid traits. XANTHOCHROISM Xan*thoch"ro*ism, n. Defn: Abnormal coloration of feathers in which yellow replaces the normal color, as in certain parrots. It is commonly due to lack of the dark pigment which with yellow forms green. XANTHODONTOUS Xan`tho*don"tous, a. [Xantho-+ Gr. 'odoy`s, 'odo`ntos, tooth.] Defn: Having yellow teeth. XANTHOGEN Xan"tho*gen, n. [Xantho- + -gen.] (Chem.) (a) The hypothetical radical supposed to be characteristic of xanthic acid. [Archaic] (b) Persulphocyanogen. [R.] XANTHOGENATE Xan"tho*gen*ate, n. (Chem.) Defn: A salt of xanthic acid. XANTHOGENIC Xan`tho*gen"ic, a. [See Xantho-, and -gen.] (Chem.) Defn: Producing a yellow color or compound; xanthic. See Xanthic acid, under Xanthic. XANTHOMA Xan*tho"ma, n. [NL. See Xantho-, and -oma.] (Med.) Defn: A skin disease marked by the development or irregular yellowish patches upon the skin, especially upon the eyelids; -- called also xanthelasma. XANTHOMATOUS Xan*thom"a*tous, a. (Med.) Defn: Of or pertaining to xanthoma. XANTHOMELANOUS Xan`tho*mel"a*nous, a. [Pref. xantho- + Gr. , , black.] (Ethnol.) Defn: Of or pertaining to the lighter division of the Melanochroi, or those races having an olive or yellow complexion and black hair. XANTHOPHANE Xan"tho*phane, n. [Xantho- + Gr. fai`nein to show.] (Physiol.) Defn: The yellow pigment present in the inner segments of the retina in animals. See Chromophane. XANTHOPHYLL Xan"tho*phyll, n. [Xantho- + Gr. fy`llon leaf.] (Bot.) Defn: A yellow coloring matter found in yellow autumn leaves, and also produced artificially from chlorophyll; -- formerly called also phylloxanthin. XANTHOPOUS Xan"tho*pous, a. [Xantho- + Gr. poy`s, podo`s, foot.] (Bot.) Defn: Having a yellow stipe, or stem. XANTHOPROTEIC Xan`tho*pro*te"ic, a. (Physiol. Chem.) Defn: Pertaining to, or derived from, xanthoprotein; showing the characters of xanthoprotein; as, xanthoproteic acid; the xanthoproteic reaction for albumin. XANTHOPROTEIN Xan`tho*pro"te*in, n. [Xantho-+ protein.] (Physiol. Chem.) Defn: A yellow acid substance formed by the action of hot nitric acid on albuminous or proteid matter. It is changed to a deep orange- yellow color by the addition of ammonia. XANTHOPUCCINE Xan`tho*puc"cine, n. [Xantho-+ puccoon + -ine.] (Chem.) Defn: One of three alkaloids found in the root of the yellow puccoon (Hydrastis Canadensis). It is a yellow crystalline substance, and resembles berberine. XANTHORHAMNIN Xan`tho*rham"nin, n. [Xantho-+ NL. Rhamnus, the generic name of the plant bearing Persian berries.] (Chem.) Defn: A glucoside extracted from Persian berries as a yellow crystalline powder, used as a dyestuff. XANTHORHIZA Xan`tho*rhi"za, n. [NL., fr. Gr. xanqo`s yellow + "ri`za root.] (Bot.) Defn: A genus of shrubby ranunculaceous plants of North America, including only the species Xanthorhiza apiifolia, which has roots of a deep yellow color; yellowroot. The bark is intensely bitter, and is sometimes used as a tonic. XANTHORHOEA Xan`tho*rhoe"a, n. Etym: [NL., from Gr. xanqo`s yellow + (Bot.) Defn: A genus of endogenous plants, native to Australia, having a thick, sometimes arborescent, stem, and long grasslike leaves. See Grass tree. XANTHOSE Xan"those, n. (Chem.) Defn: An orange-yellow substance found in pigment spots of certain crabs. XANTHOSIS Xan*tho"sis, n. Etym: [NL., fr. Gr. xanqo`s yellow.] (Med.) Defn: The yellow discoloration often observed in cancerous tumors. XANTHOSPERMOUS Xan`tho*sper"mous, a. Etym: [Xantho- + Gr. (Bot.) Defn: Having yellow seeds. XANTHOUS Xan"thous, a. Etym: [Gr. Defn: Yellow; specifically (Ethnol.), of or pertaining to those races of man which have yellowish, red, auburn, or brown hair. XANTHOXYLENE Xan*thox"y*lene, n. Etym: [See Xanthoxylum.] (Chem.) Defn: A liquid hydrocarbon of the terpene series extracted from the seeds of a Japanese prickly ash (Xanthoxylum pipertium) as an aromatic oil. XANTHOXYLUM Xan*thox"y*lum, n. Etym: [NL., from Gr. xanqo`s yellow + xy`lon wood.] (Bot.) Defn: A genus of prickly shrubs or small trees, the bark and rots of which are of a deep yellow color; prickly ash. Note: The commonest species in the Northern United States is Xanthoxylum Americanum. See Prickly ash, under Prickly. XEBEC Xe"bec, n. Etym: [Sp. jabegue, formerly spelt xabeque, or Pg. xabeco; both from Turk. sumbeki a kind of Asiatic ship; cf. Per. sumbuk, Ar. sumb a small ship.] (Naut.) Defn: A small three-masted vessel, with projecting bow stern and convex decks, used in the Mediterranean for transporting merchandise, etc. It carries large square sails, or both. Xebecs were formerly armed and used by corsairs. XEME Xeme (zem), n. (Zoöl.) Defn: An Arctic fork-tailed gull (Xema Sabinii). XENELASIA Xen`e*la"si*a, n. Etym: [NL., from Gr. (Gr. Antiq.) Defn: A Spartan institution which prohibited strangers from residing in Sparta without permission, its object probably being to preserve the national simplicity of manners. XENIUM Xe"ni*um, n.; pl. Xenia. Etym: [L., from Gr. (Class. Antiq.) Defn: A present given to a guest or stranger, or to a foreign ambassador. XENODOCHIUM Xen`o*do*chi"um, n. Etym: [LL., fr. L. xenodochium a building for the reception of strangers, Gr. (a) (Class. Antiq.) Defn: A house for the reception of strangers. (b) In the Middle Ages, a room in a monastery for the reception and entertainment of strangers and pilgrims, and for the relief of paupers. [Called also Xenodocheion.] XENODOCHY Xe*nod"o*chy, n. Etym: [Gr. Defn: Reception of strangers; hospitality. [R.] XENOGAMY Xe*nog"a*my, n. Etym: [Gr. xe`nos strange, foreign + (Bot.) Defn: Cross fertilization. XENOGENESIS Xen`o*gen"e*sis, n. Etym: [Gr. xe`nos a stranger + E. genesis.] (Biol.) (a) Same as Heterogenesis. (b) The fancied production of an organism of one kind by an organism of another. Huxley. XENOGENETIC Xen`o*ge*net"ic, a. (Biol.) Defn: Of or pertaining to xenogenesis; as, the xenogenetic origin of microzymes. Huxley. XENOMANIA Xen`o*ma"ni*a, n. Etym: [Gr. xe`nos strange + E. mania.] Defn: A mania for, or an inordinate attachment to, foreign customs, institutions, manners, fashions, etc. [R.] Saintsbury. XENOMI Xen"o*mi, n. pl. Etym: [NL., from Gr. xe`nos strange.] (Zoöl.) Defn: A suborder of soft-rayed fresh-water fishes of which the blackfish of Alaska (Dallia pectoralis) is the type. XENON Xen"on, n. [Gr. , neut. of strange.] (Chem.) Defn: A very heavy, inert gaseous element occurring in the atmosphere in the proportion of one volume is about 20 millions. It was discovered by Ramsay and Travers in 1898. It can be condensed to a liquid boiling at -109º C., and to a solid which volatilizes without melting. Symbol Xe or X; atomic weight 130.2. XENOPTERYGII Xe*nop`te*ryg"i*i, n. pl. Etym: [NL., from Gr. xe`nos strange + (Zoöl.) Defn: A suborder of fishes including Gobiesox and allied genera. These fishes have soft-rayed fins, and a ventral sucker supported in front by the pectoral fins. They are destitute of scales. XENOTIME Xen"o*time, n. Etym: [Gr. xe`nos guest, stranger + xenotim.] (Min.) Defn: A native phosphate of yttrium occurring in yellowish-brown tetragonal crystals. XENURINE Xe*nu"rine, n. Etym: [Gr. xe`nos strange + (Zoöl.) Defn: A cabassou. XENYL Xen"yl, n. Etym: [Gr. xe`nos strange + -yl.] (Chem.) Defn: The radical characteristic of xenylic compounds. XENYLIC Xe*nyl"ic, a. (Chem.) Defn: Pertaining to, derived from, designating, certain amido compounds obtained by reducing certain nitro derivatives of diphenyl. XERAPHIM Xer"a*phim, n. Etym: [Pg. xarafin, xerafin, fr. Ar. ashrafi noble, the name of a gold coin.] Defn: An old money of account in Bombay, equal to three fifths of a rupee. XERES Xer"es, n. Defn: Sherry. See Sherry. XERIF Xer"if, n. Defn: A shereef. XERIFF Xer"iff, n. Etym: [See Shereef.] Defn: A gold coin formerly current in Egypt and Turkey, of the value of about 9s. 6d., or about $2.30; -- also, in Morocco, a ducat. XERODERMA Xe`ro*der"ma, n. Etym: [NL., fr. Gr. (Med.) (a) Ichthyosis. (b) A skin disease characterized by the presence of numerous small pigmented spots resembling freckles, with which are subsequently mingled spots of atrophied skin. XERONATE Xe"ro*nate, n. (Chem.) Defn: A salt of xeronic acid. XERONIC Xe*ron"ic, a. Etym: [Gr. conic.] (Chem.) Defn: Pertaining to, or designating, an acid, C8H12O4, related to fumaric acid, and obtained from citraconic acid as an oily substance having a bittersweet taste; -- so called from its tendency to form its anhydride. XEROPHAGY Xe*roph"a*gy, n. Etym: [L. xerophagia, Gr. Defn: Among the primitive Christians, the living on a diet of dry food in Lent and on other fasts. XEROPHILOUS Xe*roph"i*lous, a. Etym: [Gr. (Bot.) Defn: Drought-loving; able withstand the absence or lack of moisture. Plants which are peculiarly adapted to dry climates are termed by De Candolle xerophilous. Goodale. XEROPHTHALMIA Xe`roph*thal"mi*a, n. Etym: [L., fr. Gr. Ophthalmia.] (Med.) Defn: An abnormal dryness of the eyeball produced usually by long- continued inflammation and subsequent atrophy of the conjunctiva. XEROPHTHALMY Xe`roph*thal"my, n. (Med.) Defn: Xerophthalmia. XIPHIAS Xiph"i*as, n. Etym: [L., a swordfish, a sword-shaped comet, fr. Gr. 1. (Zoöl.) Defn: A genus of fishes comprising the common swordfish. 2. (Anat.) (a) The constellation Dorado. (b) A comet shaped like a sword XIPHIDIUM Xi*phid"i*um, n. Etym: [NL., from Gr. xi`fos sword.] (Bot.) Defn: A genus of plants of the order Hæmodraceæ, having two-ranked, sword-shaped leaves. XIPHIOID Xiph"i*oid, a. Etym: [Xiphius + -oid.] (Zoöl.) Defn: Of, pertaining to, or resembling, a cetacean of the genus Xiphius or family Xiphiidæ. XIPHIPLASTRON Xiph"i*plas"tron, n.; pl. Xiphiplastra. Etym: [NL., fr. Gr. xi`fos a sword + plastron.] (Anat.) Defn: The posterior, or fourth, lateral plate in the plastron of turtles; -- called also xiphisternum. XIPHISTERNUM Xiph"i*ster"num, n.; pl. Xiphisterna. Etym: [NL., fr. Gr. xi`fos a sword + sternum.] (Anat.) (a) The posterior segment, or extremity, of the sternum; -- sometimes called metasternum, ensiform cartilage, ensiform process, or xiphoid process. (b) The xiphiplastron. -- Xiph"i*ster"nal a. XIPHIUS Xiph"i*us, n. Etym: [NL., fr. Gr. xi`fos a sword.] (Zoöl.) Defn: A genus of cetaceans having a long, pointed, bony beak, usually two tusklike teeth in the lower jaw, but no teeth in the upper jaw. XIPHODON Xiph"o*don, n. Etym: [Gr. xi`fos a sword + (Paleon.) Defn: An extinct genus of artiodactylous mammals found in the European Tertiary formations. It had slender legs, didactylous feet, and small canine teeth. XIPHOID Xiph"oid, a. Etym: [Gr. xi`fos a sword + xiphoide.] (Anat.) (a) Like a sword; ensiform. (b) Of or pertaining to the xiphoid process; xiphoidian. XIPHOIDIAN Xiph*oid"i*an, a. (Anat.) Defn: Xiphoid. XIPHOPHYLLOUS Xi*phoph"yl*lous, a. Etym: [Gr. xi`fos sword + (Bot.) Defn: Having sword-shaped leaves. XIPHOSURA Xiph`o*su"ra, n. pl. Defn: See Xiphura. XIPHURA Xi*phu"ra, n. pl. Etym: [NL., from Gr. xi`fos sword + (Zoöl.) Defn: Same as Limuloidea. Called also Xiphosura. X ray. See under Ray. XP XP. [Belongs here in appearance only.] Defn: The first two letters of the Greek word XRISTOS, Christ; -- an abbreviation used with the letters separate or, oftener, in a monogram, often inclosed in a circle, as a symbol or emblem of Christ. It use as an emblem was introduced by Constantine the Great, whence it is known as the Constantinian symbol, or monogram. See Labarum. X RAYS; X-RAYS X rays, or X"-rays`, n. pl. Defn: The Röntgen rays; -- so called by their discoverer because of their enigmatical character. X-RAY TUBE X"-ray" tube. (Physics) Defn: A vacuum tube suitable for producing Röntgen rays. XYLAMIDE Xy*lam"ide, n. Etym: [Xylic + amide.] (Chem.) Defn: An acid amide derivative of xylic acid, obtained as a white crystalline substance. XYLAN Xy"lan, n. (Chem.) Defn: A gummy substance of the pentosan class, present in woody tissue, and yielding xylose on hydrolysis; wood gum. XYLANTHRAX Xy*lan"thrax, n. Etym: [Gr. xy`lon wood + Defn: Wood coal, or charcoal; -- so called in distinction from mineral coal. XYLATE Xy"late, n. (Chem.) Defn: A salt of xylic acid. XYLEM Xy"lem, n. Etym: [Gr. xy`lon wood.] (Bot.) Defn: That portion of a fibrovascular bundle which has developed, or will develop, into wood cells; -- distinguished from phloëm. XYLENE Xy"lene, n. Etym: [Gr. xy`lon wood.] (Chem.) Defn: Any of a group of three metameric hydrocarbons of the aromatic series, found in coal and wood tar, and so named because found in crude wood spirit. They are colorless, oily, inflammable liquids, C6H4.(CH3)2, being dimethyl benzenes, and are called respectively orthoxylene, metaxylene, and paraxylene. Called also xylol. Note: Each of these xylenes is the nucleus and prototype of a distinct series of compounds. XYLENOL Xy"le*nol, n. Etym: [Xylene + -ol.] (Chem.) Defn: Any one of six metameric phenol derivatives of xylene, obtained as crystalline substances, (CH3)2.C6H3.OH. XYLETIC Xy*let"ic, a. (Chem.) Defn: Pertaining to, or designating, a complex acid related to mesitylenic acid, obtained as a white crystalline substance by the action of sodium and carbon dioxide on crude xylenol. XYLIC Xy"lic, a. (Chem.) Defn: Pertaining to, derived from, or related to, xylene; specifically, designating any one of several metameric acids produced by the partial oxidation of mesitylene and pseudo-cumene. XYLIDIC Xy*lid"ic, a. (Chem.) Defn: Pertaining to, or designating, either one of two distinct acids which are derived from xylic acid and related compounds, and are metameric with uvitic acid. XYLIDINE Xy"li*dine, n. (Chem.) Defn: Any one of six metameric hydrocarbons, (CH3)2.C6H3.NH2, resembling aniline, and related to xylene. They are liquids, or easily fusible crystalline substances, of which three are derived from metaxylene, two from orthoxylene, and one from paraxylene. They are called the amido xylenes. Note: The xylidine of commerce, used in making certain dyes, consists chiefly of the derivatives of paraxylene and metaxylene. XYLINDEIN Xy*lin"de*in, n. (Chem.) Defn: A green or blue pigment produced by Peziza in certain kinds of decayed wood, as the beech, oak, birch, etc., and extracted as an amorphous powder resembling indigo. XYLITE Xy"lite, n. Etym: [Gr. xy`lon wood.] (Chem.) Defn: A liquid hydrocarbon found in crude wood spirits. XYLITONE Xy"li*tone, n. (Chem.) Defn: A yellow oil having a geraniumlike odor, produced as a side product in making phorone; -- called also xylite oil. XYLO- Xy"lo-. Defn: A combining form from Gr. xy`lon wood; as in xylogen, xylograph. XYLOBALSAMUM Xy`lo*bal"sa*mum, n. Etym: [NL., fr. Gr. xy`lon wood + xylobalsamum balsam wood, Gr. (Med.) Defn: The dried twigs of a Syrian tree (Balsamodendron Gileadense). U. S. Disp. XYLOCARPOUS Xy`lo*car"pous, a. Etym: [Xylo- + Gr. (Bot.) Defn: Bearing fruit which becomes hard or woody. XYLOCOPA Xy*loc"o*pa, n. Etym: [NL., fr. Gr. xy`lon wood + (Zoöl.) Defn: A genus of hymenopterous insects including the carpenter. See Carpenter bee, under Carpenter. -- Xy*loc"o*pine, a. XYLOGEN Xy"lo*gen, n. Etym: [Xylo- + -gen.] (a) (Bot.) Nascent wood; wood cells in a forming state. (b) Lignin. XYLOGRAPH Xy"lo*graph, n. Etym: [Xylo- + -graph.] Defn: An engraving on wood, or the impression from such an engraving; a print by xylography. XYLOGRAPHER Xy*log"ra*pher, n. Defn: One who practices xylography. XYLOGRAPHIC; XYLOGRAPHICAL Xy`lo*graph"ic, Xy`lo*graph"ic*al, a. Etym: [Cf. F. xylographique.] Defn: Of or pertaining to xylography, or wood engraving. XYLOGRAPHY Xy*log"ra*phy, n. Etym: [Xylo- + -graphy: cf. F. xylographie.] 1. The art of engraving on wood. 2. The art of making prints from the natural grain of wood. Knight. 3. A method pf printing in colors upon wood for purposes of house decoration. Ure. XYLOID Xy"loid, a. Etym: [Xylo- + -oid.] Defn: Resembling wood; having the nature of wood. XYLOIDIN Xy*loid"in, n. Etym: [Xylo- + -oid.] (Chem.) Defn: A substance resembling pyroxylin, obtained by the action of nitric acid on starch; -- called also nitramidin. XYLOL Xy"lol, n. Etym: [Xylo- + L. oleum oil.] (Chem.) Defn: Same as Xylene. XYLOLOGY Xy*lol"o*gy, n. [Pref. xylo-+ -logy.] Defn: The branch of dendrology treating of the gross and minute structure of wood. XYLONITE Xy"lon*ite, n. Defn: See Zylonite. XYLOPHAGA Xy*loph"a*ga, n. Etym: [NL. See Xylophagous.] (Zoöl.) Defn: A genus of marine bivalves which bore holes in wood. They are allied to Pholas. XYLOPHAGAN Xy*loph"a*gan, n. Etym: [See Xylophagous.] (Zoöl.) (a) One of a tribe of beetles whose larvæ bore or live in wood. (b) Any species of Xylophaga. (c) Any one of the Xylophagides. XYLOPHAGIDES Xy`lo*phag"i*des, n. pl. Etym: [See Xylophagous.] (Zoöl.) Defn: A tribe or family of dipterous flies whose larvæ live in decayed wood. Some of the tropical species are very large. XYLOPHAGOUS Xy*loph"a*gous, a. Etym: [Gr. xy`lon wood + (Zoöl.) (a) Eating, boring in, or destroying, wood; -- said especially of certain insect larvæ, crustaceans, and mollusks. (b) Of or pertaining to the genus Xylophaga. XYLOPHILAN Xy*loph"i*lan, n. Etym: [See Xylophilous.] (Zoöl.) Defn: One of a tribe of beetles (Xylophili) whose larvæ live on decayed wood. XYLOPHILOUS Xy*loph"i*lous, a. Etym: [Xylo- + Gr. filei^n to love.] (Zoöl.) Defn: Of or pertaining to the xylophilans. XYLOPHONE Xy"lo*phone, n. Etym: [Xylo- + Gr. fwnh` sound.] 1. (Mus.) Defn: An instrument common among the Russians, Poles, and Tartars, consisting of a series of strips of wood or glass graduated in length to the musical scale, resting on belts of straw, and struck with two small hammers. Called in Germany strohfiedel, or straw fiddle. 2. An instrument to determine the vibrative properties of different kinds of wood. Knight. XYLOPLASTIC Xy`lo*plas"tic, a. Etym: [Xylo- + -plastic.] (Technol.) Defn: Formed of wood pulp by molds; relating to casts made of wood pulp in molds. XYLOPYROGRAPHY Xy`lo*py*rog"ra*phy. n. Etym: [Xylo- + Gr. -graphy.] Defn: The art or practice of burning pictures on wood with a hot iron; -- called also poker painting. See Poker picture, under Poker. XYLOQUINONE Xy`lo*qui"none, n. Etym: [Xylene + quinone.] (Chem.) Defn: Any one of a group of quinone compounds obtained respectively by the oxidation of certain xylidine compounds. In general they are yellow crystalline substances. XYLORCIN Xy*lor"cin, n. Etym: [Xylene + orcin.] (Chem.) Defn: A derivative of xylene obtained as a white crystalline substance which on exposure in the air becomes red; -- called also betaorcin. XYLOSE Xy"lose, n. [Pref. xylo- + -ose.] (Chem.) Defn: An unfermentable sugar of the pentose class, C5H10O5, formed by the hydrolysis of xylan; wood sugar. XYLOSTEIN Xy*los"te*in, n. Etym: [Xylo- + Gr. (Chem.) Defn: A glucoside found in the poisonous berries of a species of honeysuckle (Lonicera xylosteum), and extracted as a bitter, white, crystalline substance. XYLOTILE Xy"lo*tile, n. Defn: Same as Parkesine. XYLOTOMIST Xy*lot"o*mist, n. Defn: One versed or engaged in xylotomy. XYLOTOMOUS Xy*lot"o*mous, a. [Pref. xylo-+ root of Gr. to cut.] (Zoöl.) Defn: Capable of boring or cutting wood; -- said of many insects. XYLOTOMY Xy*lot"o*my, n. [Pref. xylo-+ -tomy.] Defn: Art of preparing sections (transverse, tangential, or radial) of wood, esp. by means of a microtome, for microscopic examination. XYLOTRYA Xy*lo"try*a, n. Etym: [NL., fr. Gr. xy`lon wood + (Zoöl.) Defn: A genus of marine bivalves closely allied to Teredo, and equally destructive to timber. One species (Xylotrya fimbriata) is very common on the Atlantic coast of the United States. XYLYL Xy"lyl, n. Etym: [Xylo- + -yl.] (Chem.) Defn: Any one of three metameric radicals which are characteristic respectively of the three xylenes. XYLYLENE Xy"lyl*ene, n. (Chem.) Defn: Any one of three metameric radicals, CH2.C6H4.CH2, derived respectively from the three xylenes. Often used adjectively; as, xylylene alcohol. XYRIDACEOUS Xyr`i*da"ceous, a. (Bot.) Defn: Of or pertaining to a natural order (Xyrideæ) of endogenous plants, of which Xyris is the type. XYRIS Xy"ris, n. Etym: [L., a kind of Iris, Gr. (Bot.) Defn: A genus of endogenous herbs with grassy leaves and small yellow flowers in short, scaly-bracted spikes; yellow-eyed grass. There are about seventeen species in the Atlantic United States. XYST; XYSTUS Xyst, Xys"tus, n. Etym: [L. xystus, Gr. (Anc. Arch.) Defn: A long and open portico, for athletic exercises, as wrestling, running, etc., for use in winter or in stormy weather. XYSTARCH Xyst"arch, n. Etym: [L. xystarches, Gr. (Gr. Antiq.) Defn: An office Dr. W. Smith. XYSTER Xys"ter, n. Etym: [NL., fr. Gr. (Surg.) Defn: An instrument for scraping bone. Y Defn: Y, the twenty-fifth letter of the English alphabet, at the beginning of a word or syllable, except when a prefix (see Y-), is usually a fricative vocal consonant; as a prefix, and usually in the middle or at the end of a syllable, it is a vowel. See Guide to Pronunciation, §§ 145, 178-9, 272. Note: It derives its form from the Latin Y, which is from the Greek u, i, o, and j. g; as in full, fill, AS. fyllan; E. crypt, grotto; young, juvenile; day, AS. dæg. See U, I, and J, G. Note: Y has been called the Pythagorean letter, because the Greek letter Y Y, n.; pl. Y's ( or Ys. Defn: Something shaped like the letter Y; a forked piece resembling in form the letter Y. Specifically: (a) One of the forked holders for supporting the telescope of a leveling instrument, or the axis of a theodolite; a wye. (b) A forked or bifurcated pipe fitting. (c) (Railroads) A portion of track consisting of two diverging tracks connected by a cross track. Y level (Surv.), an instrument for measuring differences of level by means of a telescope resting in Y's. -- Y moth (Zoöl.), a handsome European noctuid moth Plusia gamma) which has a bright, silvery mark, shaped like the letter Y, on each of the fore wings. Its larva, which is green with five dorsal white species, feeds on the cabbage, turnip, bean, etc. Called also gamma moth, and silver Y. Y Y, pron. Defn: I. [Obs.] King Horn. Wyclif. Y-; I- Y-, or I-. Etym: [OE. y-, i-, AS. ge-, akin to D. & G. ge-, OHG. gi-, ga-, Goth. ga-, and perhaps to Latin con-; originally meaning, together. Cf. Com-, Aware, Enough, Handiwork, Ywis.] Defn: A prefix of obscure meaning, originally used with verbs, adverbs, adjectives, nouns, and pronouns. In the Middle English period, it was little employed except with verbs, being chiefly used with past participles, though occasionally with the infinitive Ycleped, or yclept, is perhaps the only word not entirely obsolete which shows this use. That no wight mighte it see neither yheere. Chaucer. Neither to ben yburied nor ybrent. Chaucer. Note: Some examples of Chaucer's use of this prefix are; ibe, ibeen, icaught, ycome, ydo, idoon, ygo, iproved, ywrought. It inough, enough, it is combined with an adjective. Other examples are in the Vocabulary. Spenser and later writers frequently employed this prefix when affecting an archaic style, and sometimes used it incorrectly. YA Ya, adv. Defn: Yea. [Obs.] Chaucer. YACARE Yac"a*re`, n. Etym: [See Jacare.] (Zoöl.) Defn: A South American crocodilian (Jacare sclerops) resembling the alligator in size and habits. The eye orbits are connected together, and surrounded by prominent bony ridges. Called also spectacled alligator, and spectacled cayman. [Written also jacare.] Note: The name is also applied to allied species. YACCA Yac"ca, n. (Bot.) Defn: A West Indian name for two large timber trees (Podocarpus coriaceus, and P. Purdicanus) of the Yew family. The wood, which is much used, is pale brownish with darker streaks. YACHT Yacht, n. Etym: [D. jagt, jacht; perhaps properly, a jagen to chase, hunt, akin to G. jagen, OHG. jag, of uncertain origin; or perhaps akin to OHG. gahi quick, sudden (cf. Gay).] (Naut.) Defn: A light and elegantly furnished vessel, used either for private parties of pleasure, or as a vessel of state to convey distinguished persons from one place to another; a seagoing vessel used only for pleasure trips, racing, etc. Yacht measurement. See the Note under Tonnage, 4. YACHT Yacht, v. i. Defn: To manage a yacht; to voyage in a yacht. YACHTER Yacht"er, n. Defn: One engaged in sailing a jacht. YACHTING Yacht"ing, n. Defn: Sailing for pleasure in a yacht. YACHTMAN Yacht"man, n. Defn: See Yachtsman. YACHTSMAN Yachts"man, n.; pl. Yachtsmen (. Defn: One who owns or sails a yacht; a yachter. YAF Yaf, obs. imp. of Give. Etym: [AS. geaf, imp. of giefan to give. See Give] Defn: Gave. See Give. Chaucer. YAFFINGALE Yaf"fin*gale, n. Etym: [See Yaffle, and cf. Nightingale.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The yaffle. [Prov. Eng.] YAFFLE Yaf"fle, n. Etym: [Probably imitative of its call or cry.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The European green woodpecker (Picus, or Genius, viridis). It is noted for its loud laughlike note. Called also eccle, hewhole, highhoe, laughing bird, popinjay, rain bird, yaffil, yaffler, yaffingale, yappingale, yackel, and woodhack. YAGER Ya"ger, n. Etym: [G. jäger a hunter, from jagen to chase, hunt.] (Mil.) Defn: In the German army, one belonging to a body of light infantry armed with rifles, resembling the chasseur of the French army. [Written also jager.] YAGUARUNDI Ya`gua*run"di, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: Same as Jaguarondi. [Written also yaguarondi, and yagouarondi.] YAHOO Ya"hoo, n. 1. One of a race of filthy brutes in Swift's "Gulliver's Travels." See in the Dictionary of Noted Names in Fiction. 2. Hence, any brutish or vicious character. 3. A raw countryman; a lout; a greenhorn. [U. S.] YAHWEH; YAHWE; JAHVEH; JAHVE Yah"weh, Yah"we, n. Also Jah"veh, Jah"ve, etc. Defn: A modern transliteration of the Hebrew word translated Jehovah in the Bible; -- used by some critics to discriminate the tribal god of the ancient Hebrews from the Christian Jehovah. Yahweh or Yahwe is the spelling now generally adopted by scholars. YAHWISM; JAHVISM Yah"wism, n. Also Jah"vism. 1. The religion or worship of Yahweh (Jehovah), or the system of doctrines, etc., connected with it. 2. Use of Yahweh as a name of God. YAHWIST; JAHVIST; JAHWIST; JEHOVIST Yah"wist, n. Also Jah"vist, Jah"wist, older Je*ho"vist. Defn: The author of the passages of the Old Testament, esp. those of the Hexateuch, in which God is styled Yahweh, or Jehovah; the author of the Yahwistic, or Jehovistic, Prophetic Document (J); also, the document itself. YAJUR-VEDA Yaj"ur-Ve"da, n. Etym: [Skr. yajur-v.] Defn: See Veda. YAK Yak, n. Etym: [Thibetan gyag.] (Zoöl.) Defn: A bovine mammal (Poëphagus grunnies) native of the high plains of Central Asia. Its neck, the outer side of its legs, and its flanks, are covered with long, flowing, fine hair. Its tail is long and bushy, often white, and is valued as an ornament and for other purposes in India and China. There are several domesticated varieties, some of which lack the mane and the long hair on the flanks. Called also chauri gua, grunting cow, grunting ox, sarlac, sarlik, and sarluc. Yak lace, a coarse pillow lace made from the silky hair of the yak. YAKAMILK Yak"a*milk, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: See Trumpeter, 3 (a). YAKARE Yak"a*re`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: Same as Yacare. YAKIN Ya"kin, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A large Asiatic antelope (Budorcas taxicolor) native of the higher parts of the Himalayas and other lofty mountains. Its head and neck resemble those of the ox, and its tail is like that of the goat. Called also budorcas. YAKOOTS Ya*koots", n. pl.; sing. Yakoot (. Defn: (Ethnol.) A nomadic Mongolian tribe native of Northern Siberia, and supposed to be of Turkish stock. They are mainly pastoral in their habits. [Written also Yakuts.] YAKSHA Yak"sha, n. Etym: [Skr.] (Hindoo Myth.) Defn: A kind of demigod attendant on Kuvera, the god of wealth. YAKUT Ya*kut", n. Defn: The Turkish language of the Yakuts, a Mongolian people of northeastern Siberia, which is lingua franca over much of eastern Siberia. YALAH Ya"lah, n. Defn: The oil of the mahwa tree. YAM Yam, n. Etym: [Pg. inhame, probably from some native name.] (Bot.) Defn: A large, esculent, farinaceous tuber of various climbing plants of the genus Dioscorea; also, the plants themselves. Mostly natives of warm climates. The plants have netted-veined, petioled leaves, and pods with three broad wings. The commonest species is D. sativa, but several others are cultivated. Chinese yam, a plant (Dioscorea Batatas) with a long and slender tuber, hardier than most of the other species. -- Wild yam. (a) A common plant (Dioscorea villosa) of the Eastern United States, having a hard and knotty rootstock. (b) An orchidaceous plant (Gastrodia sesamoides) of Australia and Tasmania. YAMA Ya"ma, n. Etym: [Skr. yama a twin.] (Hindoo Myth.) Defn: The king of the infernal regions, corresponding to the Greek Pluto, and also the judge of departed souls. In later times he is more exclusively considered the dire judge of all, and the tormentor of the wicked. He is represented as of a green color, with red garments, having a crown on his head, his eyes inflamed, and sitting on a buffalo, with a club and noose in his hands. YAMEN Ya"men, n. [Chin. ya a civil or military court + men a gate.] Defn: In China, the official headquarters or residence of a mandarin, including court rooms, offices, gardens, prisons, etc.; the place where the business of any public department is transcated. YAMMA Yam"ma, n. Etym: [See Llama.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The llama. YAMP Yamp, n. (Bot.) Defn: An umbelliferous plant (Carum Gairdneri); also, its small fleshy roots, which are eaten by the Indians from Idaho to California. YANG Yang, n. Etym: [Of imitative origin.] Defn: The cry of the wild goose; a honk. YANG Yang, v. i. Defn: To make the cry of the wild goose. YANK Yank, n. Etym: [Cf. Scot. yank a sudden and severe blow.] Defn: A jerk or twitch. [Colloq. U. S.] YANK Yank, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Yanked; p. pr. & vb. n. Yanking.] Defn: To twitch; to jerk. [Colloq. U. S.] YANK Yank, n. Defn: An abbreviation of Yankee. [Slang] YANKEE Yan"kee, n. Etym: [Commonly considered to be a corrupt pronunciation of the word English, or of the French word Anglais, by the native Indians of America. According to Thierry, a corruption of Jankin, a diminutive of John, and a nickname given to the English colonists of Connecticut by the Dutch settlers of New York. Dr. W. Gordon ("Hist. of the Amer. War," ed, 1789, vol. i., pp. 324, 325) says it was a favorite cant word in Cambridge, Mass., as early as 1713, and that it meant excellent; as, a yankee good horse, yankee good cider, etc. Cf. Scot yankie a sharp, clever, and rather bold woman, and Prov. E. bow- yankees a kind of leggins worn by agricultural laborers.] Defn: A nickname for a native of citizen of New England, especially one descended from old New England stock; by extension, an inhabitant of the Northern States as distinguished from a Southerner; also, applied sometimes by foreigners to any inhabitant of the United States. From meanness first this Portsmouth Yankey rose, And still to meanness all his conduct flows. Oppression, A poem by an American (Boston, 1765). YANKEE Yan"kee, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to a Yankee; characteristic of the Yankees. The alertness of the Yankee aspect. Hawthorne. Yankee clover. (Bot.) See Japan clover, under Japan. YANKEE-DOODLE Yan`kee-Doo"dle, n. 1. The name of a tune adopted popularly as one of the national airs of the United States. 2. Humorously, a Yankee. We might have withheld our political noodles From knocking their heads against hot Yankee-Doodles. Moore. YANKEEISM Yan"kee*ism, n. Defn: A Yankee idiom, word, custom, or the like. Lowell. YAOURT Yaourt, n. Etym: [Turk. yoghurt.] Defn: A fermented drink, or milk beer, made by the Turks. YAP Yap, v. i. Etym: [Icel. gjalpa; akin to yelp. Cf. Yaup.] Defn: To bark; to yelp. L'Estrange. YAP Yap, n. Defn: A bark; a yelp. YAPOCK Ya"pock, n. Etym: [Probably from the river Oyapok, between French Guiana and Brazil.] (Zoöl.) Defn: A South American aquatic opossum (Chironectes variegatus) found in Guiana and Brazil. Its hind feet are webbed, and its fore feet do not have an opposable thumb for climbing. Called also water opossum. [Written also yapack.] YAPON Ya"pon, n. (Bot.) Defn: Same as Yaupon. YARAGE Yar"age (; 48), n. Etym: [See Yare, a.] (Naut.) Defn: The power of moving, or being managed, at sea; -- said with reference to a ship. Sir T. North. YARD Yard, n. Etym: [OE. yerd, AS. gierd, gyrd, a rod, ierde, OS. gerda, D. garde, G. gerte, OHG. gartia, gerta, gart, Icel. gaddr a goad, sting, Goth. gazds, and probably to L. hasta a spear. Cf. Gad, n., Gird, n., Gride, v. i., Hastate.] 1. A rod; a stick; a staff. [Obs.] P. Plowman. If men smote it with a yerde. Chaucer. 2. A branch; a twig. [Obs.] The bitter frosts with the sleet and rain Destroyed hath the green in every yerd. Chaucer. 3. A long piece of timber, as a rafter, etc. [Obs.] 4. A measure of length, equaling three feet, or thirty-six inches, being the standard of English and American measure. 5. The penis. 6. (Naut.) Defn: A long piece of timber, nearly cylindrical, tapering toward the ends, and designed to support and extend a square sail. A yard is usually hung by the center to the mast. See Illust. of Ship. Golden Yard, or Yard and Ell (Astron.), a popular name the three stars in the belt of Orion. -- Under yard [i. e., under the rod], under contract. [Obs.] Chaucer. YARD Yard, n. Etym: [OE. yard, yerd, AS. geard; akin to OFries. garda garden, OS. gardo garden, gard yard, D. gaard garden, G. garten, OHG. garto garden, gari inclosure, Icel. gar yard, house, Sw. gård, Dan. g, Goth. gards a house, garda sheepfold, L. hortus garden, Gr. Court, Garden, Garth, Horticulture, Orchard.] 1. An inclosure; usually, a small inclosed place in front of, or around, a house or barn; as, a courtyard; a cowyard; a barnyard. A yard . . . inclosed all about with sticks In which she had a cock, hight chanticleer. Chaucer. 2. An inclosure within which any work or business is carried on; as, a dockyard; a shipyard. Liberty of the yard, a liberty, granted to persons imprisoned for debt, of walking in the yard, or within any other limits prescribed by law, on their giving bond not to go beyond those limits. -- Prison yard, an inclosure about a prison, or attached to it. -- Yard grass (Bot.), a low-growing grass (Eleusine Indica) having digitate spikes. It is common in dooryards, and like places, especially in the Southern United States. Called also crab grass. -- Yard of land. See Yardland. YARD Yard, v. t. Defn: To confine (cattle) to the yard; to shut up, or keep, in a yard; as, to yard cows. YARDARM Yard"arm`, n. (Naut.) Defn: Either half of a square-rigged vessel's yard, from the center or mast to the end. Note: Ships are said to be yardarm and yardarm when so near as to touch, or interlock yards. YARDFUL Yard"ful, n.; pl. Yardfuls (. Defn: As much as a yard will contain; enough to fill a yard. YARDLAND Yard"land`, n. (O. Eng. Law) Defn: A measure of land of uncertain quantity, varying from fifteen to forty acres; a virgate. [Obs.] YARDSTICK Yard"stick`, n. Defn: A stick three feet, or a yard, in length, used as a measure of cloth, etc. YARDWAND Yard"wand`, n. Defn: A yardstick. Tennyson. YARE Yare, a. Etym: [OE. yare, ýaru, AS. gearu; akin to OS. garu, OHG. garo, G. gar, Icel. gerr perfect, görva quite, G. gerben to tan, to curry, OHG. garawen, garwen, to make ready. Cf. Carouse, Garb clothing, Gear, n.] Defn: Ready; dexterous; eager; lively; quick to move. [Obs.] "Be yare in thy preparation." Shak. The lesser [ship] will come and go, leave or take, and is yare; whereas the greater is slow. Sir W. Raleigh. YARE Yare, adv. Defn: Soon. [Obs.] Cursor Mundi. YARELY Yare"ly, adv. Defn: In a yare manner. [Obs.] Shak. YARK Yark, v. t. & i. Defn: To yerk. [Prov. Eng.] YARKE Yar"ke, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: Same as Saki. YARN Yarn, n. Etym: [OE. yarn, ýarn, AS. gearn; akin to D. garen, G., OHG., Icel., Sw., & Dan. garn; of uncertain origin. Cf. Cord.] 1. Spun wool; woolen thread; also, thread of other material, as of cotton, flax, hemp, or silk; material spun and prepared for use in weaving, knitting, manufacturing sewing thread, or the like. 2. (Rope Making) Defn: One of the threads of which the strands of a rope are composed. 3. A story told by a sailor for the amusement of his companions; a story or tale; as, to spin a yarn. [Colloq.] YARNEN Yarn"en, a. Defn: Made of yarn; consisting of yarn. [Obs.] "A pair of yarnen stocks." Turbervile. YARNUT Yar"nut`, n. (Bot.) Defn: See Yernut. YARR Yarr, v. i. Etym: [OE. ýarren.] Defn: To growl or snarl as a dog. [Obs.] Ainsworth. YARRISH Yar"rish, a. Etym: [Prov. E. yar sour, yare brackish.] Defn: Having a rough, dry taste. [Prov. Eng.] YARROW Yar"row, n. Etym: [OE. yarowe, yarwe, ýarowe, AS. gearwe; akin to D. gerw, OHG. garwa, garawa, G. garbe, schafgarbe, and perhaps to E. yare.] (Bot.) Defn: An American and European composite plant (Achillea Millefolium) with very finely dissected leaves and small white corymbed flowers. It has a strong, and somewhat aromatic, odor and taste, and is sometimes used in making beer, or is dried for smoking. Called also milfoil, and nosebleed. YARWHIP Yar"whip`, n. Etym: [So called from its sharp cry uttered when taking wing.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The European bar-tailed godwit; -- called also yardkeep, and yarwhelp. See Godwit. [Prov. Eng.] YATAGHAN Yat"a*ghan, n. Etym: [Turk. yataghan.] Defn: A long knife, or short saber, common among Mohammedan nations, usually having a double curve, sometimes nearly straight. [Written also ataghan, attaghan.] Chaucer. YATE Yate, n. Defn: A gate. See 1st Gate. [Obs. or Prov. Eng.] Spenser. YAUD Yaud, n. Defn: See Yawd. [Prov. Eng. & Scot.] YAUL Yaul, n. (Naut.) Defn: See Yawl. YAULP Yaulp, v. i. Defn: To yaup. YAUP Yaup, v. i. Etym: [See Yap, and Yelp.] Defn: To cry out like a child; to yelp. [Scot. & Colloq. U. S.] [Written also yawp.] YAUP Yaup, n. Etym: [Written also yawp.] 1. A cry of distress, rage, or the like, as the cry of a sickly bird, or of a child in pain. [Scot. & Colloq. U. S.] 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: The blue titmouse. [Prov. Eng.] YAUPER Yaup"er, n. Defn: One who, or that which, yaups. YAUPON Yau"pon, n. (Bot.) Defn: A shrub (Ilex Cassine) of the Holly family, native from Virginia to Florida. The smooth elliptical leaves are used as a substitute for tea, and were formerly used in preparing the black drink of the Indians of North Carolina. Called also South-Sea tea. [Written also yapon, youpon, and yupon.] YAUTIA Yau*ti"a, n. [Native name in the Antilles.] Defn: In Porto Rico, any of several araceous plants or their starchy edible roots, which are cooked and eaten like yams or potatoes, as the taro. YAW Yaw, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Yawed; p. pr. & vb. n. Yawing.] Etym: [Cf. Yew, v. i.] Defn: To rise in blisters, breaking in white froth, as cane juice in the clarifiers in sugar works. YAW Yaw, v. i. & t. Etym: [Cf. Prov. G. gagen to rock, gageln to totter, shake, Norw. gaga to bend backward, Icel. gagr bent back, gaga to throw the neck back.] (Naut.) Defn: To steer wild, or out of the line of her course; to deviate from her course, as when struck by a heavy sea; -- said of a ship. Just as he would lay the ship's course, all yawing being out of the question. Lowell. YAW Yaw, n. (Naut.) Defn: A movement of a vessel by which she temporarily alters her course; a deviation from a straight course in steering. YAWD Yawd, n. Etym: [Cf. Icel. jalda a mare, E. jade a nag.] Defn: A jade; an old horse or mare. [Written also yaud.] [Prov. Eng. & Scot.] Grose. YAWI Yawi, n. Defn: A fore-and-aft-rigged vessel with a mainmast stepped a little farther forward than in a sloop and carrying a mainsail and jibs, with a jigger mast far aft, usually placed abaft the rudder post. YAWL Yawl, n. Etym: [D. jol; akin to LG. & Dan. jolle, Sw. julle. Cf. Jolly-boat.] (Naut.) Defn: A small ship's boat, usually rowed by four or six oars. [Written also yaul.] YAWL Yawl, v. i. Etym: [OE. ýaulen, ýoulen, gaulen, goulen, Icel. gaula to low, bellow. Cf. Gowl.] Defn: To cry out like a dog or cat; to howl; to yell. Tennyson. There howling Scyllas yawling round about. Fairfax. YAWL-RIGGED Yawl"-rigged", a. (Naut.) Defn: Having two masts with fore-and-aft sails, but differing from a schooner in that the after mast is very small, and stepped as far aft as possible. See Illustration in Appendix. YAWN Yawn, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Yawned; p. pr. & vb. n. Yawning.] Etym: [OE. yanien, ýanien, ganien, gonien, AS. ganian; akin to ginian to yawn, ginan to yawn, open wide, G. gähnen to yawn, OHG. ginen, geinon, Icel. gina to yawn, gin the mouth, OSlav. zijati to yawn, L. hiare to gape, yawn; and perhaps to E. begin, cf. Gr. b. Cf. Begin, Gin to begin, Hiatus.] 1. To open the mouth involuntarily through drowsiness, dullness, or fatigue; to gape; to oscitate. "The lazy, yawning drone." Shak. And while above he spends his breath, The yawning audience nod beneath. Trumbull. 2. To open wide; to gape, as if to allow the entrance or exit of anything. 't is now the very witching time of night, When churchyards yawn. Shak. 3. To open the mouth, or to gape, through surprise or bewilderment. Shak. 4. To be eager; to desire to swallow anything; to express desire by yawning; as, to yawn for fat livings. "One long, yawning gaze." Landor. YAWN Yawn, n. 1. An involuntary act, excited by drowsiness, etc., consisting of a deep and long inspiration following several successive attempts at inspiration, the mouth, fauces, etc., being wide open. One person yawning in company will produce a spontaneous yawn in all present. N. Chipman. 2. The act of opening wide, or of gaping. Addison. 3. A chasm, mouth, or passageway. [R.] Now gape the graves, and trough their yawns let loose Imprisoned spirits. Marston. YAWNINGLY Yawn"ing*ly, adv. Defn: In a yawning manner. YAWP Yawp, v. & n. Defn: See Yaup. YAWS Yaws, n. Etym: [African yaw a raspberry.] (Med.) Defn: A disease, occurring in the Antilles and in Africa, characterized by yellowish or reddish tumors, of a contagious character, which, in shape and appearance, often resemble currants, strawberries, or raspberries. There are several varieties of this disease, variously known as framboesia, pian, verrugas, and crab- yaws. YAW-WEED Yaw"-weed`, n. (Bot.) Defn: A low, shrubby, rubiaceous plant (Morinda Royoc) growing along the seacoast of the West Indies. It has small, white, odorous flowers. YAZOO FRAUD Yaz"oo Fraud. (U. S. Hist.) Defn: The grant by the State of Georgia, by Act of Jan. 7, 1795, of 35,000,000 acres of her western territory, for $500,000, to four companies known as the Yazoo Companies from the region granted ; -- commonly so called, the act being known as the Yazoo Frauds Act, because of alleged corruption of the legislature, every member but one being a shareholder in one or more of the companies. The act granting the land was repealed in 1796 by a new legislature, and the repealing provision was incorporated in the State constitution in 1798. In 1802 the territory was ceded to the United States. The claims of the purchasers, whom Georgia had refused to compensate, were sustained by the United States Supreme Court, which (1810) declared the repealing act of 1796 unconstitutional. Congress in 1814 ordered the lands sold and appropriated $5,000,000 to pay the claims. YBE Y*be", obs. p. p. of Be. Defn: Been. Chaucer. YCLEPED Y*cleped", p. p. Etym: [AS. geclipod, p. p. of clipian, cleopian, cliopian, to call. See Clepe, and also the Note under Y-.] Defn: Called; named; -- obsolete, except in archaic or humorous writings. [Spelt also yclept.] It is full fair to ben yclept madame. Chaucer. But come, thou goddess fair and free. In heaven ycleped Euphrosyne. Milton. Those charming little missives ycleped valentines. Lamb. Y CURRENT Y current. (Elec.) Defn: The current through one branch of the star arrangement of a three-phase circuit. YDO Y*do", obs. p. p. of Do. Defn: Done. Chaucer. YDRAD Y*drad", obs. p. p. of Dread. Defn: Dreaded. Yet nothing did he dread, but ever was ydrad. Spenser. YE Ye, Defn: an old method of printing the article the (AS. þe), the "y" being used in place of the Anglo-Saxon thorn. It is sometimes incorrectly pronounced ye. See The, and Thorn, n., 4. YE Y"ë (e"e), n.; pl. Yën (. Defn: An eye. [Obs.] From his yën ran the water down. Chaucer. YE Ye (ye), pron. Etym: [OE. ye, ýe, nom. pl., AS. ge, gi; cf. OS. ge, gi, OFries. gi, i, D. gij, Dan. & Sw. i, Icel. er, OHG. ir, G. ihr, Goth. jus, Lith. jus, Gr. yuyam. Defn: The plural of the pronoun of the second person in the nominative case. Ye ben to me right welcome heartily. Chaucer. But ye are washed, but ye are sanctified. 1 Cor. vi. 11. This would cost you your life in case ye were a man. Udall. Note: In Old English ye was used only as a nominative, and you only as a dative or objective. In the 16th century, however, ye and you became confused and were often used interchangeably, both as nominatives and objectives, and you has now superseded ye except in solemn or poetic use. See You, and also the first Note under Thou. Vain pomp and glory of this world, I hate ye. Shak. I come, kind gentlemen, strange news to tell ye. Dryden. YE Ye, adv. Etym: [See Yea.] Defn: Yea; yes. [Obs.] Chaucer. YEA Yea (ya or ye; 277), adv. Etym: [OE. ye, ya, ýe, ýa, AS. geá; akin to OFries. g, i, OS., D., OHG., G., Dan. & Sw. ja, Icel, ja, Goth. ja, jai, and probably to Gr. Yes.] 1. Yes; ay; a word expressing assent, or an affirmative, or an affirmative answer to a question, now superseded by yes. See Yes. Let your communication be yea, yea; nay, nay. Matt. v. 37. 2. More than this; not only so, but; -- used to mark the addition of a more specific or more emphatic clause. Cf. Nay, adv., 2. I therein do rejoice, yea, and will rejoice. Phil. i. 18. Note: Yea sometimes introduces a clause, with the sense of indeed, verily, truly. "Yea, hath God said, Ye shall not eat of every tree of the garden" Gen. iii. 1. YEA Yea, n. Defn: An affirmative vote; one who votes in the affirmative; as, a vote by yeas and nays. Note: In the Scriptures, yea is used as a sign of certainty or stability. "All the promises of God in him are yea, and in him Amen." 2 Cor. i. 20. YEAD Yead, v. i. Defn: Properly, a variant of the defective imperfect yode, but sometimes mistaken for a present. See the Note under Yede. [Obs.] Years yead away and faces fair deflower. Drant. YEAN Yean, v. t. & i. [imp. & p. p. Yeaned; p. pr. & vb. n. Yeaning.] Etym: [AS. eánian, or geeánian; perhaps akin to E. ewe, or perhaps to L. agnus, Gr. Ean.] Defn: To bring forth young, as a goat or a sheep; to ean. Shak. YEANLING Yean"ling, n. Etym: [Yean + -ling. Cf. Eanling.] Defn: A lamb or a kid; an eanling. Shak. YEAR Year, n. Etym: [OE. yer, yeer, ýer, AS. geár; akin to OFries. i, g, D. jaar, OHG. jar, G. jahr, Icel. ar, Dan. aar, Sw. år, Goth. j, Gr. yare year. sq. root4, 279. Cf. Hour, Yore.] 1. The time of the apparent revolution of the sun trough the ecliptic; the period occupied by the earth in making its revolution around the sun, called the astronomical year; also, a period more or less nearly agreeing with this, adopted by various nations as a measure of time, and called the civil year; as, the common lunar year of 354 days, still in use among the Mohammedans; the year of 360 days, etc. In common usage, the year consists of 365 days, and every fourth year (called bissextile, or leap year) of 366 days, a day being added to February on that year, on account of the excess above 365 days (see Bissextile). Of twenty year of age he was, I guess. Chaucer. Note: The civil, or legal, year, in England, formerly commenced on the 25th of March. This practice continued throughout the British dominions till the year 1752. 2. The time in which any planet completes a revolution about the sun; as, the year of Jupiter or of Saturn. 3. pl. Defn: Age, or old age; as, a man in years. Shak. Anomalistic year, the time of the earth's revolution from perihelion to perihelion again, which is 365 days, 6 hours, 13 minutes, and 48 seconds. -- A year's mind (Eccl.), a commemoration of a deceased person, as by a Mass, a year after his death. Cf. A month's mind, under Month. -- Bissextile year. See Bissextile. -- Canicular year. See under Canicular. -- Civil year, the year adopted by any nation for the computation of time. -- Common lunar year, the period of 12 lunar months, or 354 days. -- Common year, each year of 365 days, as distinguished from leap year. -- Embolismic year, or Intercalary lunar year, the period of 13 lunar months, or 384 days. -- Fiscal year (Com.), the year by which accounts are reckoned, or the year between one annual time of settlement, or balancing of accounts, and another. -- Great year. See Platonic year, under Platonic. -- Gregorian year, Julian year. See under Gregorian, and Julian. -- Leap year. See Leap year, in the Vocabulary. -- Lunar astronomical year, the period of 12 lunar synodical months, or 354 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes, 36 seconds. -- Lunisolar year. See under Lunisolar. -- Periodical year. See Anomalistic year, above. -- Platonic year, Sabbatical year. See under Platonic, and Sabbatical. -- Sidereal year, the time in which the sun, departing from any fixed star, returns to the same. This is 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, and 9.3 seconds. -- Tropical year. See under Tropical. -- Year and a day (O. Eng. Law), a time to be allowed for an act or an event, in order that an entire year might be secured beyond all question. Abbott. -- Year of grace, any year of the Christian era; Anno Domini; A. D. or a. d. YEARA Ye*a"ra, n. (Bot.) Defn: The California poison oak (Rhus diversiloba). See under Poison, a. YEARBOOK Year"book`, n. 1. A book published yearly; any annual report or summary of the statistics or facts of a year, designed to be used as a reference book; as, the Congregational Yearbook. 2. (Eng. Law) Defn: A book containing annual reports of cases adjudged in the courts of England. Note: The Yearbooks are the oldest English reports extant, beginning with the reign of Edward II., and ending with the reign of Henry VIII. They were published annually, and derive their name from that fact. They consist of eleven parts, or volumes, are written in Law French, and extend over nearly two hundred years. There are, however, several hiatuses, or chasms, in the series. Kent. Bouvier. YEARED Yeared, a. Defn: Containing years; having existed or continued many years; aged. [Obs.] B. Jonson. YEARLING Year"ling, n. Etym: [Year + -ling.] Defn: An animal one year old, or in the second year of its age; -- applied chiefly to cattle, sheep, and horses. YEARLING Year"ling, a. Defn: Being a year old. "A yearling bullock to thy name small smoke." Pope. YEARLY Year"ly, a. Etym: [AS. geárlic.] 1. Happening, accruing, or coming every year; annual; as, a yearly income; a yearly feast. 2. Lasting a year; as, a yearly plant. 3. Accomplished in a year; as, the yearly circuit, or revolution, of the earth. Shak. YEARLY Year"ly, adv. Etym: [AS. geárlice.] Defn: Annually; once a year to year; as, blessings yearly bestowed. Yearly will I do this rite. Shak. YEARN Yearn, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Yearned; p. pr. & vb. n. Yearning.] Etym: [Also earn, ern; probably a corruption of OE. ermen to grieve, AS. ierman, yrman, or geierman, geyrman, fr. earm wretched, poor; akin to D. & G. arm, Icel. armr, Goth. arms. The y- in English is perhaps due to the AS. ge (see Y-).] Defn: To pain; to grieve; to vex. [Obs.] "She laments, sir, for it, that it would yearn your heart to see it." Shak. It yearns me not if men my garments wear. Shak. YEARN Yearn, v. i. Defn: To be pained or distressed; to grieve; to mourn. [Obs.] "Falstaff he is dead, and we must yearn therefore." Shak. YEARN Yearn, v. i. & t. Etym: [See Yearnings.] Defn: To curdle, as milk. [Scot.] YEARN Yearn, v. i. Etym: [OE. yernen, , , AS. geornian, gyrnan, fr. georn desirous, eager; akin to OS. gern desirous, girnean, gernean, to desire, D. gaarne gladly, willingly, G. gern, OHG. gerno, adv., gern, a., G. gier greed, OHG. giri greed, ger desirous, ger to desire, G. begehren, Icel. girna to desire, gjarn eager, Goth. faíhugaírns covetous, gaírnjan to desire, and perhaps to Gr. hary to desire, to like. Defn: To be filled with longing desire; to be harassed or rendered uneasy with longing, or feeling the want of a thing; to strain with emotions of affection or tenderness; to long; to be eager. Joseph made haste; for his bowels did yearn upon his brother; and he sought where to weep. Gen. xliii. 30. Your mother's heart yearns towards you. Addison. YEARNFUL Yearn"ful, a. Etym: [OE. , AS. geornfull.] Defn: Desirous. [Obs.] Ormulum. P. Fletcher. YEARNINGLY Yearn"ing*ly, adv. Defn: With yearning. YEARNINGS Yearn"ings, n. pl. Etym: [Cf. AS. geirnan, geyrnan, to rum. See 4th Earn.] Defn: The maws, or stomachs, of young calves, used a rennet for curdling milk. [Scot.] YEAR'S PURCHASE Year's purchase. Defn: The amount that is yielded by the annual income of property; -- used in expressing the value of a thing in the number of years required for its income to yield its purchase price, in reckoning the amount to be paid for annuities, etc. YEARTH Yearth, n. Defn: The earth. [Obs.] "Is my son dead or hurt or on the yerthe felled" Ld. Berners. YEAST Yeast, n. Etym: [OE. ýeest, ýest, AS. gist; akin to D. gest, gist, G. gischt, gäscht, OHG. jesan, jerian, to ferment, G. gischen, gäschen, gähren, Gr. zei^n to boil, Skr. yas. sq. root111.] 1. The foam, or troth (top yeast), or the sediment (bottom yeast), of beer or other in fermentation, which contains the yeast plant or its spores, and under certain conditions produces fermentation in saccharine or farinaceous substances; a preparation used for raising dough for bread or cakes, and making it light and puffy; barm; ferment. 2. Spume, or foam, of water. They melt thy yeast of waves, which mar Alike the Armada's pride, or spoils of Trafalgar. Byron. Defn: A form of fungus which grows as indvidual rounded cells, rather than in a mycelium, and reproduces by budding; esp. members of the orders Endomycetales and Moniliales. Some fungi may grow both as a yeast or as a mycelium, depending on the conditions of growth. Yeast cake, a mealy cake impregnated with the live germs of the yeast plant, and used as a conveniently transportable substitute for yeast. -- Yeast plant (Bot.), the vegetable organism, or fungus, of which beer yeast consists. The yeast plant is composed of simple cells, or granules, about one three-thousandth of an inch in diameter, often united into filaments which reproduce by budding, and under certain circumstances by the formation of spores. The name is extended to other ferments of the same genus. See Saccharomyces. -- Yeast powder, a baling powder, -- used instead of yeast in leavening bread. YEAST-BITTEN Yeast"-bit`ten, a. (Brewing) Defn: A term used of beer when the froth of the yeast has reëntered the body of the beer. YEASTINESS Yeast"i*ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being yeasty, or frothy. YEASTY Yeast"y, a. Defn: Frothy; foamy; spumy, like yeast. YEDDING Yed"ding, n. Etym: [AS. geddung, gidding, giedding, from gieddian, giddian, to sing, speak.] Defn: The song of a minstrel; hence, any song. [Obs.] Chaucer. YEDE Yede, obs. imp. Defn: Went. See Yode. All as he bade fulfilled was indeed This ilke servant anon right out yede. Chaucer. Note: Spenser and some later writers mistook this for a present of the defective imperfect yode. It is, however, only a variant of yode. See Yode, and cf. Yead. [He] on foot was forced for to yeed. Spenser YEEL Yeel, n. Defn: An eel. [Obs.] Holland. YELDHALL Yeld"hall`, n. Defn: Guildhall. [Obs.] Chaucer. YELDRIN; YELDRINE Yel"drin or; Yel"drine, n. Etym: [Cf. Yellow.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The yellow-hammer; -- called also yeldrock, and yoldrin. [Prov. Eng.] YELK Yelk, n. Defn: Same as Yolk. YELL Yell, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Yelled; p. pr. & vb. n. Yelling.] Etym: [OE. yellen, , AS. giellan, gillan, gyllan; akin to D. gillen, OHG. gellan, G. gellen, Icel. gjalla, Sw. gälla to ring, resound, and to AS., OS., & OHG. galan to sing, Icel. gala. Cf. 1st Gale, and Nightingale.] Defn: To cry out, or shriek, with a hideous noise; to cry or scream as with agony or horror. They yelleden as feendes doon in helle. Chaucer. Nor the night raven, that still deadly yells. Spenser. Infernal ghosts and hellish furies round Environed thee; some howled, some yelled. Milton. YELL Yell, v. t. Defn: To utter or declare with a yell; to proclaim in a loud tone. Shak. YELL Yell, n. Defn: A sharp, loud, hideous outcry. Their hideous yells Rend the dark welkin. J. Philips. YELLOW Yel"low, a. [Compar. Yellower; superl. Yellowest.] Etym: [OE. yelow, yelwe, ýelow, ýeoluw, from AS. geolu; akin to D. geel, OS. & OHG. gelo, G. gelb, Icel. gulr, Sw. gul, Dan. guul, L. helvus light bay, Gr. hari tawny, yellowish. Chlorine, Gall a bitter liquid, Gold, Yolk.] Defn: Being of a bright saffronlike color; of the color of gold or brass; having the hue of that part of the rainbow, or of the solar spectrum, which is between the orange and the green. Her yellow hair was browded [braided] in a tress. Chaucer. A sweaty reaper from his tillage brought First fruits, the green ear and the yellow sheaf. Milton. The line of yellow light dies fast away. Keble. Yellow atrophy (Med.), a fatal affection of the liver, in which it undergoes fatty degeneration, and becomes rapidly smaller and of a deep yellow tinge. The marked symptoms are black vomit, delirium, convulsions, coma, and jaundice. -- Yellow bark, calisaya bark. -- Yellow bass (Zoöl.), a North American fresh-water bass (Morone interrupta) native of the lower parts of the Mississippi and its tributaries. It is yellow, with several more or less broken black stripes or bars. Called also barfish. -- Yellow berry. (Bot.) Same as Persian berry, under Persian. -- Yellow boy, a gold coin, as a guinea. [Slang] Arbuthnot. -- Yellow brier. (Bot.) See under Brier. -- Yellow bugle (Bot.), a European labiate plant (Ajuga Chamæpitys). -- Yellow bunting (Zoöl.), the European yellow-hammer. -- Yellow cat (Zoöl.), a yellow catfish; especially, the bashaw. -- Yellow copperas (Min.), a hydrous sulphate of iron; -- called also copiapite. -- Yellow copper ore, a sulphide of copper and iron; copper pyrites. See Chalcopyrite. -- Yellow cress (Bot.), a yellow-flowered, cruciferous plant (Barbarea præcox), sometimes grown as a salad plant. -- Yellow dock. (Bot.) See the Note under Dock. -- Yellow earth, a yellowish clay, colored by iron, sometimes used as a yellow pigment. -- Yellow fever (Med.), a malignant, contagious, febrile disease of warm climates, attended with jaundice, producing a yellow color of the skin, and with the black vomit. See Black vomit, in the Vocabulary. -- Yellow flag, the quarantine flag. See under Quarantine, and 3d Flag. -- Yellow jack. (a) The yellow fever. See under 2d Jack. (b) The quarantine flag. See under Quarantine. -- Yellow jacket (Zoöl.), any one of several species of American social wasps of the genus Vespa, in which the color of the body is partly bright yellow. These wasps are noted for their irritability, and for their painful stings. -- Yellow lead ore (Min.), wulfenite. -- Yellow lemur (Zoöl.), the kinkajou. -- Yellow macauco (Zoöl.), the kinkajou. -- Yellow mackerel (Zoöl.), the jurel. -- Yellow metal. Same as Muntz metal, under Metal. -- Yellow ocher (Min.), an impure, earthy variety of brown iron ore, which is used as a pigment. -- Yellow oxeye (Bot.), a yellow-flowered plant (Chrysanthemum segetum) closely related to the oxeye daisy. -- Yellow perch (Zoöl.), the common American perch. See Perch. -- Yellow pike (Zoöl.), the wall-eye. -- Yellow pine (Bot.), any of several kinds of pine; also, their yellowish and generally durable timber. Among the most common are valuable species are Pinus mitis and P. palustris of the Eastern and Southern States, and P. ponderosa and P. Arizonica of the Rocky Mountains and Pacific States. -- Yellow plover (Zoöl.), the golden plover. -- Yellow precipitate (Med. Chem.), an oxide of mercury which is thrown down as an amorphous yellow powder on adding corrosive sublimate to limewater. -- Yellow puccoon. (Bot.) Same as Orangeroot. -- Yellow rail (Zoöl.), a small American rail (Porzana Noveboracensis) in which the lower parts are dull yellow, darkest on the breast. The back is streaked with brownish yellow and with black, and spotted with white. Called also yellow crake. -- Yellow rattle, Yellow rocket. (Bot.) See under Rattle, and Rocket. -- Yellow Sally (Zoöl.), a greenish or yellowish European stone fly of the genus Chloroperla; -- so called by anglers. -- Yellow sculpin (Zoöl.), the dragonet. -- Yellow snake (Zoöl.), a West Indian boa (Chilobothrus inornatus) common in Jamaica. It becomes from eight to ten long. The body is yellowish or yellowish green, mixed with black, and anteriorly with black lines. -- Yellow spot. (a) (Anat.) A small yellowish spot with a central pit, the fovea centralis, in the center of the retina where vision is most accurate. See Eye. (b) (Zoöl.) A small American butterfly (Polites Peckius) of the Skipper family. Its wings are brownish, with a large, irregular, bright yellow spot on each of the hind wings, most conspicuous beneath. Called also Peck's skipper. See Illust. under Skipper, n., 5. -- Yellow tit (Zoöl.), any one of several species of crested titmice of the genus Machlolophus, native of India. The predominating colors of the plumage are yellow and green. -- Yellow viper (Zoöl.), the fer-de-lance. -- Yellow warbler (Zoöl.), any one of several species of American warblers of the genus Dendroica in which the predominant color is yellow, especially D. æstiva, which is a very abundant and familiar species; -- called also garden warbler, golden warbler, summer yellowbird, summer warbler, and yellow-poll warbler. -- Yellow wash (Pharm.), yellow oxide of mercury suspended in water, -- a mixture prepared by adding corrosive sublimate to limewater. -- Yellow wren (Zoöl.) (a) The European willow warbler. (b) The European wood warbler. YELLOW Yel"low, n. 1. A bright golden color, reflecting more light than any other except white; the color of that part of the spectrum which is between the orange and green. "A long motley coat guarded with yellow." Shak. 2. A yellow pigment. Cadmium yellow, Chrome yellow, Indigo yellow, King's yellow, etc. See under Cadmium, Chrome, etc. -- Naples yellow, a yellow amorphous pigment, used in oil, porcelain, and enamel painting, consisting of a basic lead metantimonate, obtained by fusing together tartar emetic lead nitrate, and common salt. -- Patent yellow (Old Chem.), a yellow pigment consisting essentially of a lead oxychloride; -- called also Turner's yellow. YELLOW Yel"low, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Yellowed; p. pr. & vb. n. Yellowing.] Defn: To make yellow; to cause to have a yellow tinge or color; to dye yellow. YELLOW Yel"low, v. i. Defn: To become yellow or yellower. YELLOWAMMER Yel"low*am`mer, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: See Yellow-hammer. YELLOWBILL Yel"low*bill`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The American scoter. YELLOWBIRD Yel"low*bird`, n. (Zoöl.) (a) The American goldfinch, or thistle bird. See Goldfinch. (b) The common yellow warbler; -- called also summer yellowbird. See Illust. of Yellow warbler, under Yellow, a. YELLOW BOOK Yellow Book. [F. livre jaune.] Defn: In France, an official government publication bound in yellow covers. YELLOW-COVERED Yel"low-cov`ered, a. Defn: Covered or bound in yellow paper. Yellow-covered literature, cheap sensational novels and trashy magazines; -- formerly so called from the usual color of their covers. [Colloq. U. S.] Bartlett. YELLOW-EYED Yel"low-eyed`, a. Defn: Having yellow eyes. Yellow-eyed grass (Bot.), any plant of the genus Xyris. YELLOWFIN Yel"low*fin`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A large squeteague. YELLOWFISH Yel"low*fish`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A rock trout (Pleurogrammus monopterygius) found on the coast of Alaska; -- called also striped fish, and Atka mackerel. YELLOW-GOLDS Yel"low-golds`, n. (Bot.) Defn: A certain plant, probably the yellow oxeye. B. Jonson. YELLOWHAMMER Yel"low*ham`mer, n. Etym: [For yellow-ammer, where ammer is fr. AS. amore a kind of bird; akin to G. ammer a yellow-hammer, OHG. amero.] (Zoöl.) (a) A common European finch (Emberiza citrinella). The color of the male is bright yellow on the breast, neck, and sides of the head, with the back yellow and brown, and the top of the head and the tail quills blackish. Called also yellow bunting, scribbling lark, and writing lark. [Written also yellow-ammer.] (b) The flicker. [Local, U. S.] YELLOWING Yel"low*ing, n. Defn: The act or process of making yellow. Softened . . . by the yellowing which time has given. G. Eliot. YELLOWISH Yel"low*ish, a. Defn: Somewhat yellow; as, amber is of a yellowish color. -- Yel"low*ish*ness, n. YELLOWLEGS Yel"low*legs`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of several species of long-legged sandpipers of the genus Totanus, in which the legs are bright yellow; -- called also stone snipe, tattler, telltale, yellowshanks; and yellowshins. See Tattler, 2. YELLOWNESS Yel"low*ness, n. 1. The quality or state of being yellow; as, the yellowness of an orange. 2. Jealousy. [Obs.] I will possess him with yellowness. Shak. YELLOWROOT Yel"low*root`, n. (Bot.) Defn: Any one of several plants with yellow roots. Specifically: (a) See Xanthorhiza. (b) Same as Orangeroot. YELLOWS Yel"lows, n. 1. (Far.) Defn: A disease of the bile in horses, cattle, and sheep, causing yellowness of the eyes; jaundice. His horse . . . sped with spavins, rayed with the yellows. Shak. 2. (Bot.) Defn: A disease of plants, esp. of peach trees, in which the leaves turn to a yellowish color; jeterus. 3. (Zoöl.) Defn: A group of butterflies in which the predominating color is yellow. It includes the common small yellow butterflies. Called also redhorns, and sulphurs. See Sulphur. YELLOWSEED Yel"low*seed`, n. (Bot.) Defn: A kind of pepper grass (Lepidium campestre). YELLOWSHANKS; YELLOWSHINS Yel"low*shanks`, Yel"low*shins`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: See Yellolegs. YELLOWTAIL Yel"low*tail`, n. (Zoöl.) (a) Any one of several species of marine carangoid fishes of the genus Seriola; especially, the large California species (S. dorsalis) which sometimes weighs thirty or forty pounds, and is highly esteemed as a food fish; -- called also cavasina, and white salmon. (b) The mademoiselle, or silver perch. (c) The menhaden. (d) The runner, 12. (e) A California rockfish (Sebastodes flavidus). (f) The sailor's choice (Diplodus rhomboides). Note: Several other fishes are also locally called yellowtail. YELLOWTHROAT Yel"low*throat`, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of several species of American ground warblers of the genus Geothlypis, esp. the Maryland yellowthroat (G. trichas), which is a very common species. YELLOWTOP Yel"low*top`, n. (Bot.) Defn: A kind of grass, perhaps a species of Agrostis. YELLOWWOOD Yel"low*wood`, n. (Bot.) Defn: The wood of any one of several different kinds of trees; also, any one of the trees themselves. Among the trees so called are the Cladrastis tinctoria, an American leguminous tree; the several species of prickly ash (Xanthoxylum); the Australian Flindersia Oxleyana, a tree related to the mahogany; certain South African species of Podocarpus, trees related to the yew; the East Indian Podocarpus latifolia; and the true satinwood (Chloroxylon Swietenia). All these Old World trees furnish valuable timber. YELLOWWORT Yel"low*wort`, n. (Bot.) Defn: A European yellow-flowered, gentianaceous (Chlora perfoliata). The whole plant is intensely bitter, and is sometimes used as a tonic, and also in dyeing yellow. YELP Yelp, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Yelped; p. pr. & vb. n. Yelping.] Etym: [OE. yelpen, , to boast, boast noisily, AS. gielpan, gilpan, gylpan; akin to OHG. gelph arrogant: cf. Icel. gjalpa to yelp. Cf. Yap.] 1. To boast. [Obs.] I keep [care] not of armes for to yelpe. Chaucer. 2. To utter a sharp, quick cry, as a hound; to bark shrilly with eagerness, pain, or fear; to yaup. A little herd of England's timorous deer, Mazed with a yelping kennel of French curs Shak. At the least flourish of a broomstick or ladle, he would fly to the door with a yelping precipitation. W. Irving. YELP Yelp, n. Defn: A sharp, quick cry; a bark. Chaucer. YELPER Yelp"er, n. Defn: An animal that yelps, or makes a yelping noise. Specifically: (Zoöl.) (a) The avocet; -- so called from its sharp, shrill cry. [Prov. Eng.] (b) The tattler. [Local, U. S.] YELTING Yel"ting, n. [Orig. uncert.] Defn: The Florida and West Indian red snapper (Lutianus aya); also, sometimes, one of certain other allied species, as L. caxis. YEMAN Ye"man, n. Defn: A yeoman. [Obs.] Chaucer. YEN Yen, n. Defn: The unit of value and account in Japan. Since Japan's adoption of the gold standard, in 1897, the value of the yen has been about 50 cents. The yen is equal to 100 sen. YEND Yend, v. t. Defn: To throw; to cast. [Prov. Eng.] YENITE Ye"nite, n. Etym: [After Jena, in Germany.] (Min.) Defn: A silicate of iron and lime occurring in black prismatic crystals; -- also called ilvaite. [Spelt also jenite.] YEOMAN Yeo"man, n.; pl. Yeomen. Etym: [OE. yoman, ýeman, ýoman; of uncertain origin; perhaps the first, syllable is akin to OFries. ga district, region, G. gau, OHG. gewi, gouwi, Goth. gawi. sq. root100.] 1. A common man, or one of the commonly of the first or most respectable class; a freeholder; a man free born. Note: A yeoman in England is considered as next in order to the gentry. The word is little used in the United States, unless as a title in law proceedings and instruments, designating occupation, and this only in particular States. 2. A servant; a retainer. [Obs.] A yeman hadde he and servants no mo. Chaucer. 3. A yeoman of the guard; also, a member of the yeomanry cavalry. [Eng.] 4. (Naut.) Defn: An interior officer under the boatswain, gunner, or carpenters, charged with the stowage, account, and distribution of the stores. Yeoman of the guard, one of the bodyguard of the English sovereign, consisting of the hundred yeomen, armed with partisans, and habited in the costume of the sixteenth century. They are members of the royal household. YEOMANLIKE Yeo"man*like`, a. Defn: Resembling, or suitable to, a yeoman; yeomanly. YEOMANLY Yeo"man*ly, a. Defn: Pertaining to a yeoman; becoming or suitable to, a yeoman; yeomanlike. B. Jonson. Well could he dress his tackle yeomanly. Chaucer. YEOMANRY Yeo"man*ry, n. 1. The position or rank of a yeoman. [Obs.] "His estate of yeomanry." Chaucer. 2. The collective body of yeomen, or freeholders. The enfranchised yeomanry began to feel an instinct for dominion. Bancroft. 3. The yeomanry cavalry. [Eng.] Yeomanry cavalry, certain bodies of volunteer cavalry liable to service in Great Britain only. [Eng.] YEORLING Yeor"ling, n. Etym: [Cf. Yellow.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The European yellow-hammer. YER Yer, prep. Defn: Ere; before. [Obs.] Sylvester. YERBA Yer"ba, n. Etym: [Sp.] (Bot.) Defn: An herb; a plant. Note: This word is much used in compound names of plants in Spanish; as, yerba buena Etym: [Sp., a good herb], a name applied in Spain to several kinds of mint (Mentha sativa, viridis, etc.), but in California universally applied to a common, sweet-scented labiate plant (Micromeria Douglasii). Yerba dol osa. Etym: [Sp., herb of the she-bear.] A kind of buckthorn (Rhamnus Californica). -- Yerba mansa. Etym: [Sp., a mild herb, soft herb.] A plant (Anemopsis Californica) with a pungent, aromatic rootstock, used medicinally by the Mexicans and the Indians. -- Yerba reuma. Etym: [Cf. Sp. reuma rheum, rheumatism.] A low California undershrub (Frankenia grandifolia). YERD Yerd, n. Defn: See 1st & 2d Yard. [Obs.] Chaucer. YERK Yerk, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Yerked; p. pr. & vb. n. Yerking.] Etym: [See Yerk.] 1. To throw or thrust with a sudden, smart movement; to kick or strike suddenly; to jerk. Their wounded steeds . . . Yerk out their armed heels at their dead masters. Shak. 2. To strike or lash with a whip. [Obs. or Scot.] YERK Yerk, v. i. 1. To throw out the heels; to kick; to jerk. They flirt, they yerk, they backward . . . fling. Drayton. 2. To move a quick, jerking motion. YERK Yerk, n. Defn: A sudden or quick thrust or motion; a jerk. YERN Yern, v. i. Defn: See 3d Yearn. [Obs.] YERN Yern, a. Etym: [OE. ýern, ýeorne, AS. georn desirous, eager. See Yearn to long.] Defn: Eager; brisk; quick; active. [Obs.] "Her song . . . loud and yern." Chaucer. YERNE Yerne, adv. Etym: [OE. ýeorne. See Yern, a.] Defn: Eagerly; briskly; quickly. [Obs.] Piers Plowman. My hands and my tongue go so yerne. Chaucer. YERNUT Yer"nut`, n. Etym: [Cf. Dan. jordnöd, Sw. jordnöt, earthnut. Cf. Jarnut.] Defn: An earthnut, or groundnut. See Groundnut (d). [Written also yarnut.] YERST Yerst, adv. Defn: See Erst. [Obs.] Sylvester. YES Yes, adv. Etym: [OE. yis, ýis, ýes, ýise, AS. gese, gise; probably fr. geá yea + swa so. sq. root188. See Yea, and So.] Defn: Ay; yea; -- a word which expresses affirmation or consent; -- opposed to Ant: no. Note: Yes is used, like yea, to enforce, by repetition or addition, something which precedes; as, you have done all this -- yes, you have done more. "Yes, you despise the man books confined." Pope. Note: "The fine distinction between `yea' and `yes,' `nay' and `no,' that once existed in English, has quite disappeared. `Yea' and `nay' in Wyclif's time, and a good deal later, were the answers to questions framed in the affirmative. `Will he come' To this it would have been replied, `Yea' or `Nay', as the case might be. But, `Will he not come' To this the answer would have been `Yes' or `No.' Sir Thomas More finds fault with Tyndale, that in his translation of the Bible he had not observed this distinction, which was evidently therefore going out even then, that is, in the reign of Henry VIII.; and shortly after it was quite forgotten." Trench. YEST Yest, n. Defn: See Yeast. Shak. YESTER Yes"ter, a. Etym: [See Yesterday.] Defn: Last; last past; next before; of or pertaining to yesterday. [An enemy] whom yester sun beheld Mustering her charms. Dryden. Note: This word is now seldom used except in a few compounds; as, yesterday, yesternight, etc. YESTERDAY Yes"ter*day, n. Etym: [OE. ýisterdai, AS. geostran dæg, from geostran, geostra, giestran, gistran, gystran, yesterday (akin to D. gisteren, G. gestern, OHG. gestaron, Icel. gær yesterday, to-morrow, Goth. gistradagis to-morrow, L. heri yesterday, Gr. hyas) + dæg day. Cf. Hestern. 1. The day last past; the day next before the present. All our yesterdays have lighted fools The way to dusty death. Shak. We are but of yesterday, and know nothing. Job viii. 9. 2. Fig.: A recent time; time not long past. The proudest royal houses are but of yesterday, when compared with the line of supreme pontiffs. Macaulay. YESTERDAY Yes"ter*day, adv. Defn: On the day last past; on the day preceding to-day; as, the affair took place yesterday. YESTEREVE; YESTER-EVENING Yes"ter*eve`, Yes"ter-e`ven*ing, n. Defn: The evening of yesterday; the evening last past. YESTERMORN; YESTER-MORNING Yes"ter*morn`, Yes"ter-morn`ing, n. Defn: The morning of yesterday. Coleridge. YESTERN Yes"tern, a. Etym: [See Yester.] Defn: Of or pertaining to yesterday; relating to the day last past. YESTERNIGHT Yes"ter*night`, n. Defn: The last night; the night last past. YESTERNIGHT Yes"ter*night`, adv. Etym: [AS. gystran niht. See Yesterday.] Defn: On the last night. B. Jonson. YESTERNOON Yes"ter*noon`, n. Defn: The noon of yesterday; the noon last past. YESTERWEEK Yes"ter*week`, n. Defn: The week last past; last week. YESTERYEAR Yes"ter*year`, n. Defn: The year last past; last year. YESTREEN Yes`treen", n. Defn: Yester-evening; yesternight; last night. [R. or Scot.] Yestreen I did not know How largely I could live. Bp. Coxe. YESTY Yest"y, a. Defn: See Yeasty. Shak. YET Yet, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of several species of large marine gastropods belonging to the genus Yetus, or Cymba; a boat shell. YET Yet, adv. Etym: [OE. yet, ýet, ýit, AS. git, gyt, giet, gieta; akin to OFries. ieta, eta, ita, MHG. iezuo, ieze, now, G. jetzo, jetzt.] 1. In addition; further; besides; over and above; still. "A little longer; yet a little longer." Dryden. This furnishes us with yet one more reason why our savior, lays such a particular stress acts of mercy. Atterbury. The rapine is made yet blacker by the pretense of piety and justice. L'Estrange. 2. At the same time; by continuance from a former state; still. Facts they had heard while they were yet heathens. Addison. 3. Up to the present time; thus far; hitherto; until now; -- and with the negative, not yet, not up to the present time; not as soon as now; as, Is it time to go Not yet. See As yet, under As, conj. Ne never yet no villainy ne said. Chaucer. 4. Before some future time; before the end; eventually; in time. "He 'll be hanged yet." Shak. 5. Even; -- used emphatically. Men may not too rashly believe the confessions of witches, nor yet the evidence against them. Bacon. YET Yet, conj. Defn: Nevertheless; notwithstanding; however. Yet I say unto you, That even Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these. Matt. vi. 29. Syn. -- See However. YEVE Yeve, v. i. Defn: To give. [Obs.] Chaucer. YEVEN Yev"en, p. p. Defn: Given. [Obs.] Chaucer. YEW Yew, v. i. Defn: See Yaw. YEW Yew, n. Etym: [OE. ew, AS. eów, iw, eoh; akin to D. ijf, OHG. iwa, iha, G. eibe, Icel. ; cf. Ir. iubhar, Gael. iubhar, iughar, W. yw, ywen, Lith. jëva the black alder tree.] 1. (Bot.) Defn: An evergreen tree (Taxus baccata) of Europe, allied to the pines, but having a peculiar berrylike fruit instead of a cone. It frequently grows in British churchyards. 2. The wood of the yew. It is light red in color, compact, fine- grained, and very elastic. It is preferred to all other kinds of wood for bows and whipstocks, the best for these purposes coming from Spain. Note: The American yew (Taxus baccata, var. Canadensis) is a low and straggling or prostrate bush, never forming an erect trunk. The California yew (Taxus brevifolia) is a good-sized tree, and its wood is used for bows, spear handles, paddles, and other similar implements. Another yew is found in Florida, and there are species in Japan and the Himalayas. 3. A bow for shooting, made of the yew. YEW Yew (u), a. Defn: Of or pertaining to yew trees; made of the wood of a yew tree; as, a yew whipstock. YEWEN Yew"en, a. Defn: Made of yew; as, yewen bows. YEX Yex, v. i. Etym: [OE. ýexen, yesken, AS. giscian to sob.] Defn: To hiccough. [Written also yox, yux.] [Obs. or Prov. Eng.] He yexeth and he speaketh through the nose. Chaucer. YEX Yex, n. Etym: [AS. geocsa a sobbing, hiccough. Cf. Yex, v. i.] Defn: A hiccough. [Written also yox, and yux.] [Obs. or Prov. Eng.] "The excessive yex." Holland. YEZDEGERDIAN Yez`de*ger"di*an, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to Yezdegerd, the last Sassanian monarch of Persia, who was overthrown by the Mohammedans; as, the Yezdegerdian era, which began on the 16th of June, a. d. 632. The era is still used by the Parsees. YEZDI Yez"di, n. Defn: Same as Izedi. Taylor. YEZIDEE; YEZIDI Yez"i*dee, Yez"i*di, n. Defn: Same as Izedi. YFERE Y*fere", adv. Defn: Together. See Ifere. [Obs.] As friends do when they be met yfere. Chaucer. YGDRASYL Yg"dra*syl, n. (Scand. Myth.) Defn: See in the Dictionary of Noted Names in Fiction. YGHE Y"ghe, n. Defn: Eye. [Obs.] Chaucer. YGO Y*go", obs. p. p. of Go. Defn: Gone. Chaucer. YGROUND Y*ground", obs. Defn: p. p. of Grind. Chaucer. YHOLDE Y*hold"e, obs. Defn: p. p. of Hold. Chaucer. YID Yid, n. [See Yiddish.] Defn: A Jew. [Slang or Colloq.] "Almost any young Yid who goes out from among her people." John Corbin. YIDDISH Yid"dish, n. [G. jüdisch, prop., Jewish, fr. Jude Jew. See Jew, Jewish.] Defn: A language used by German and other Jews, being a Middle German dialect developed under Hebrew and Slavic influence. It is written in Hebrew characters. YIDDISHER Yid"dish*er, n. [See Yiddish.] Defn: A Yid. [Slang] YIELD Yield, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Yielded; obs. p. p. Yold; p. pr. & vb. n. Yielding.] Etym: [OE. yelden, ýelden, ýilden, AS. gieldan, gildan, to pay, give, restore, make an offering; akin to OFries. jelda, OS. geldan, D. gelden to cost, to be worth, G. gelten, OHG. geltan to pay, restore, make an offering, be worth, Icel. gjalda to pay, give up, Dan. gielde to be worth, Sw. gälla to be worth, gälda to pay, Goth. gildan in fragildan, usgildan. Cf. 1st Geld, Guild.] 1. To give in return for labor expended; to produce, as payment or interest on what is expended or invested; to pay; as, money at interest yields six or seven per cent. To yelde Jesu Christ his proper rent. Chaucer. When thou tillest the ground, it shall not henceforth yield unto thee her strength. Gen. iv. 12. 2. To furnish; to afford; to render; to give forth. "Vines yield nectar." Milton. [He] makes milch kine yield blood. Shak. The wilderness yieldeth food for them and for their children. Job xxiv. 5. 3. To give up, as something that is claimed or demanded; to make over to one who has a claim or right; to resign; to surrender; to relinquish; as a city, an opinion, etc. And, force perforce, I'll make him yield the crown. Shak. Shall yield up all their virtue, all their fame. Milton. 4. To admit to be true; to concede; to allow. I yield it just, said Adam, and submit. Milton. 5. To permit; to grant; as, to yield passage. 6. To give a reward to; to bless. [Obs.] Chaucer. Tend me to-night two hours, I ask no more, And the gods yield you for 't. Shak. God yield thee, and God thank ye. Beau. & Fl. To yield the breath, the ghost, or the life, to die; to expire; -- often followed by up. One calmly yields his willing breath. Keble. YIELD Yield, v. i. 1. To give up the contest; to submit; to surrender; to succumb. He saw the fainting Grecians yield. Dryden. 2. To comply with; to assent; as, I yielded to his request. 3. To give way; to cease opposition; to be no longer a hindrance or an obstacle; as, men readily yield to the current of opinion, or to customs; the door yielded. Will ye relent, And yield to mercy while 't is offered you Shak. 4. To give place, as inferior in rank or excellence; as, they will yield to us in nothing. Nay tell me first, in what more happy fields The thistle springs, to which the lily yields Pope. YIELD Yield, n. Defn: Amount yielded; product; -- applied especially to products resulting from growth or cultivation. "A goodly yield of fruit doth bring." Bacon. YIELDABLE Yield"a*ble, a. Defn: Disposed to yield or comply. [R.] -- Yield"a*ble*ness, n. [R.] Bp. Hall. YIELDANCE Yield"ance, n. 1. The act of producing; yield; as, the yieldance of the earth. [R.] Bp. Hall. 2. The act of yielding; concession. [R.] South. YIELDER Yield"er, n. Defn: One who yields. Shak. YIELDING Yield"ing, a. Defn: Inclined to give way, or comply; flexible; compliant; accommodating; as, a yielding temper. Yielding and paying (Law), the initial words of that clause in leases in which the rent to be paid by the lessee is mentioned and reserved. Burrill. Syn. -- Obsequious; attentive. -- Yielding, Obsequious, Attentive. In many cases a man may be attentive or yielding in a high degree without any sacrifice of his dignity; but he who is obsequious seeks to gain favor by excessive and mean compliances for some selfish end. -- Yield"ing*ly, adv. -- Yield"ing*ness, n. YIELDLESS Yield"less, a. Defn: Without yielding; unyielding. [Obs.] YIFT Yift, n. Defn: Gift. [Obs.] "Great yiftes." Chaucer. YIN Yin, n. Defn: A Chinese weight of 2 YIS Yis, adv. Defn: Yes. [Obs.] "Yis, sir," quod he, "yis, host." Chaucer. YIT Yit, conj. Defn: Yet. [Obs.] Chaucer. YITE Yite, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The European yellow-hammer. YIVE Yive, v. t. & i. Defn: To give. [Obs.] Chaucer. -YL -yl. Etym: [Gr. (Chem.) Defn: A suffix used as a characteristic termination of chemical radicals; as in ethyl, carbonyl, hydroxyl, etc. Note: -yl was first used in 1832 by Liebig and Wöhler in naming benzoyl, in the sense of stuff, or fundamental material, then in 1834 by Dumas and Peligot in naming methyl, in the sense of wood. After this -yl was generally used as in benzoyl, in the sense of stuff, characteristic ground, fundamental material. YLANG-YLANG Y*lang`-y*lang", n. Defn: See Ihlang-ihlang. YLE Yle, n. Defn: Isle. [Obs.] "The barren yle." Chaucer. Y LEVEL Y" lev`el. (Surv.) Defn: See under Y, n. YLICHE; YLIKE Y*liche", Y*like", a. & adv. Defn: Like; alike. [Obs.] "All . . . yliche good." Chaucer. YLLANRATON Yl`lan*ra*ton", n. Etym: [From the native name.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The agouara. YMAKED Y*mak"ed, obs. p. p. of Make. Defn: Made. YMEL Y*mel", prep. Etym: [OE. ymel, imelle, of Scand. origin; cf. Icel. i milli, i millum (properly, in the middle, fr. mi, me, middle, akin to E. middle), Dan. imellem, Sw. emellan. See In, and Middle.] Defn: Among. [Obs.] "Ymel them all." Chaucer. YNAMBU Y*nam"bu, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A South American tinamou (Rhynchotus rufescens); -- called also perdiz grande, and rufous tinamou. See Illust. of Tinamou. YNOUGH; YNOW Y*nough", Y*now", a. Etym: [See Enough.] Defn: Enough. [Obs.] Chaucer. YOCKEL Yock"el, n. Etym: [Cf. Yokel.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The yaffle. YODE Yode, obs. imp. of Go. Etym: [OE. yode, yede, , , eode, AS. eóde, used as the imp. of gan to go; akin to Goth. iddja I, he, went, L. ire to go, Gr. i, ya. Issue.] Defn: Went; walked; proceeded. [Written also yede.] See Yede. Quer [whether] they rade [rode] or yoke. Cursor Mundi. Then into Cornhill anon I yode. Lydgate. YODEL; YODLE Yo"del, Yo"dle, v. t. & i. [imp. & p. p. Yodeled, Yodled; p. pr. & vb. n. Yodeling, Yodling.] Etym: [G. jodeln.] Defn: To sing in a manner common among the Swiss and Tyrolese mountaineers, by suddenly changing from the head voice, or falsetto, to the chest voice, and the contrary; to warble. YODEL; YODLE Yo"del, Yo"dle, n. Defn: A song sung by yodeling, as by the Swiss mountaineers. YODLER Yo"dler, n. Defn: One who yodels. YOGA Yo"ga, n. Etym: [Skr. yoga union.] Defn: A species of asceticism among the Hindoos, which consists in a complete abstraction from all worldly objects, by which the votary expects to obtain union with the universal spirit, and to acquire superhuman faculties. YOGI Yo"gi, n. Etym: [Skr. yogin.] Defn: A follower of the yoga philosophy; an ascetic. [Spelt also yokin.] Whitworth. YOGISM Yo"gism, n. Defn: Yoga, or its practice. YOICKS Yo"icks, interj. (Hunting) Defn: A cry of encouragement to foxhounds. YOIT Yoit, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The European yellow-hammer. [Prov. Eng.] YOJAN Yo"jan, n. Etym: [Skr. y.] Defn: A measure of distance, varying from four to ten miles, but usually about five. [India] [Written also yojana.] YOKE Yoke, n. Etym: [OE. yok, , AS. geoc; akin to D. juk, OHG. joh, G. joch, Icel. & Sw. ok, Dan. aag, Goth. juk, Lith. jungas, Russ. igo, L. jugum, Gr. yuga, and to L. jungere to join, Gr. yui. Join, Jougs, Joust, Jugular, Subjugate, Syzycy, Yuga, Zeugma.] 1. A bar or frame of wood by which two oxen are joined at the heads or necks for working together. A yearling bullock to thy name shall smoke, Untamed, unconscious of the galling yoke. Pope. Note: The modern yoke for oxen is usually a piece of timber hollowed, or made curving, near each end, and laid on the necks of the oxen, being secured in place by two bows, one inclosing each neck, and fastened through the timber. In some countries the yoke consists of a flat piece of wood fastened to the foreheads of the oxen by thongs about the horns. 2. A frame or piece resembling a yoke, as in use or shape. Specifically: (a) A frame of wood fitted to a person's shoulders for carrying pails, etc., suspended on each side; as, a milkmaid's yoke. (b) A frame worn on the neck of an animal, as a cow, a pig, a goose, to prevent passage through a fence. (c) A frame or convex piece by which a bell is hung for ringing it. See Illust. of Bell. (d) A crosspiece upon the head of a boat's rudder. To its ends lines are attached which lead forward so that the boat can be steered from amidships. (e) (Mach.) A bent crosspiece connecting two other parts. (f) (Arch.) A tie securing two timbers together, not used for part of a regular truss, but serving a temporary purpose, as to provide against unusual strain. (g) (Dressmaking) A band shaped to fit the shoulders or the hips, and joined to the upper full edge of the waist or the skirt. 3. Fig.: That which connects or binds; a chain; a link; a bond connection. Boweth your neck under that blissful yoke . . . Which that men clepeth spousal or wedlock. Chaucer. This yoke of marriage from us both remove. Dryden. 4. A mark of servitude; hence, servitude; slavery; bondage; service. Our country sinks beneath the yoke. Shak. My yoke is easy, and my burden is light. Matt. xi. 30. 5. Two animals yoked together; a couple; a pair that work together. I have bought five yoke of oxen, and I go to prove them. Luke xiv. 19. 6. The quantity of land plowed in a day by a yoke of oxen. [Obs.] Gardner. 7. A portion of the working day; as, to work two yokes, that is, to work both portions of the day, or morning and afternoon. [Prov. Eng.] Halliwell. Neck yoke, Pig yoke. See under Neck, and Pig. -- Yoke elm (Bot.), the European hornbeam (Carpinus Betulus), a small tree with tough white wood, often used for making yokes for cattle. YOKE Yoke, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Yoked; p. pr. & vb. n. Yoking.] 1. To put a yoke on; to join in or with a yoke; as, to yoke oxen, or pair of oxen. 2. To couple; to join with another. "Be ye not unequally yoked with unbelievers." 2 Cor. vi. 14. Cassius, you are yoked with a lamb. Shak. 3. To enslave; to bring into bondage; to restrain; to confine. Then were they yoked with garrisons. Milton. The words and promises that yoke The conqueror are quickly broke. Hudibras. YOKE Yoke, v. i. Defn: To be joined or associated; to be intimately connected; to consort closely; to mate. We 'll yoke together, like a double shadow. Shak. YOKEAGE Yoke"age, n. Defn: See Rokeage. [Local, U. S.] YOKEFELLOW Yoke"fel`low, n. Etym: [Yoke + fellow.] Defn: An associate or companion in, or as in; a mate; a fellow; especially, a partner in marriage. Phil. iv. 3. The two languages [English and French] became yokefellows in a still more intimate manner. Earle. Those who have most distinguished themselves by railing at the sex, very often choose one of the most worthless for a companion and yokefellow. Addison. YOKEL Yo"kel, n. Etym: [Perhaps from an AS. word akin to E. gawk.] Defn: A country bumpkin. [Eng.] Dickens. YOKELET Yoke"let, n. Defn: A small farm; -- so called as requiring but one yoke of oxen to till it. [Prov. Eng.] YOKEMATE Yoke"mate`, n. Defn: Same as Yokefellow. YOKE-TOED Yoke"-toed`, a. (Zoöl.) Defn: Having two toes in front and two behind, as the trogons and woodpeckers. YOLD Yold, obs. p. p. of Yield. Defn: Yielded. Spenser. YOLDEN Yold"en, obs. p. p. of Yield. Defn: Yielded. YOLK Yolk, n. Etym: [OE. yolke, yelke, ýolke, ýelke, AS. geoloca, geoleca, fr. geolu yellow. See Yellow.] [Written also yelk.] 1. The yellow part of an egg; the vitellus. 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: An oily secretion which naturally covers the wool of sheep. Yolk cord (Zoöl.), a slender cord or duct which connects the yolk glands with the egg chambers in certain insects, as in the aphids. -- Yolk gland (Zoöl.), a special organ which secretes the yolk of the eggs in many turbellarians, and in some other invertebrates. See Illust. of Hermaphrodite in Appendix. -- Yolk sack (Anat.), the umbilical vesicle. See under Unbilical. YOLL Yoll, v. i. Defn: To yell. [Obs.] Chaucer. YOM Yom, n. [Heb. yom.] Defn: Day; -- a Hebrew word used in the names of various Jewish feast days; as, Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement; Yom Teruah (lit., day of shouting), the Feast of Trumpets. YON Yon, a. Etym: [OE. yon, , AS. geon; akin to G. jener, OHG. jen, Icel. enn, inn; cf. Goth. jains. Beyond, Yond, Yonder.] Defn: At a distance, but within view; yonder. [Poetic] Read thy lot in yon celestial sign. Milton. Though fast yon shower be fleeting. Keble. YON Yon, adv. Defn: Yonder. [Obs. or Poetic] But, first and chiefest, with thee bring Him that yon soars on golden wing. Milton. YONCOPIN Yon"co*pin, n. Etym: [Perhaps corrupted from Illinois micoupena, Chippewa makopin, the American lotus.] (Bot.) Defn: A local name in parts of the Mississippi Valley for the American lotus (Nelumbo lutea). YOND Yond, a. Etym: [Cf. AS. anda, onda, anger, andian to be angry.] Defn: Furious; mad; angry; fierce. [Obs.] "Then wexeth wood and yond." Spenser. YOND Yond, adv. & a. Etym: [OE. yond, ýond, ýeond, through, beyond, over, AS. geond, adv. & prep.; cf. Goth. jaind thither. sq. root188. See Yon, a.] Defn: Yonder. [Obs.] "Yond in the garden." Chaucer. YONDER Yon"der, adv. Etym: [OE. yonder, ýonder; cf. OD. ginder, Goth. jaindr there. Yond, adv.] Defn: At a distance, but within view. Yonder are two apple women scolding. Arbuthnot. YONDER Yon"der, a. Defn: Being at a distance within view, or conceived of as within view; that or those there; yon. "Yon flowery arbors, yonder alleys green." Milton. "Yonder sea of light." Keble. Yonder men are too many for an embassage. Bacon. YONI Yo"ni, n. Etym: [Skr. y.] (Hindoo Myth.) Defn: The symbol under which Sakti, or the personification of the female power in nature, is worshiped. Cf. Lingam. YONKER Yon"ker, n. Etym: [See Younker.] Defn: A young fellow; a younker. [Obs. or Colloq.] Sir W. Scott. YORE Yore, adv. Etym: [OE. , yare, , AS. geára;akin to geár a year, E. year. Year.] Defn: In time long past; in old time; long since. [Obs. or Poetic] As it hath been of olde times yore. Chaucer. Which though he hath polluted oft and yore, Yet I to them for judgment just do fly. Spenser. Of yore, of old time; long ago; as, in times or days of yore. "But Satan now is wiser than of yore." Pope. Where Abraham fed his flock of yore. Keble. YORKER York"er, n. (Cricket) Defn: A tice. YORK RITE York rite. (Freemasonry) Defn: The rite or ceremonial observed by one of the Masonic systems, deriving its name from the city of York, in England; also, the system itself, which, in England, confers only the first three degrees. YORKSHIRE York"shire, n. Defn: A county in the north of England. Yorkshire grit, a kind of stone used for polishing marble, and copperplates for engravers. Simmonds. -- Yorkshire pudding, a batter pudding baked under meat. YORK USE York" use`. (Eccl.) Defn: The one of the three printed uses of England which was followed in the north. It was based on the Sarum use. See Use, n., 6. Shipley. YOT Yot, v. t. Defn: To unite closely. [Prov. Eng.] YOTE Yote, v. t. Etym: [OE. , , to pour, AS. geótan. See Found to cast.] Defn: To pour water on; to soak in, or mix with, water. [Obs. or Prov. Eng.] Grose. My fowls, which well enough, I, as before, found feeding at their trough Their yoted wheat. Chapman. YOU You, pron. [Possess. Your or Yours (; dat. & obj. You.] Etym: [OE. you, eou, eow, dat. & acc., AS. eów, used as dat. & acc. of ge, g, ye; akin to OFries. iu, io, D. u, G. euch, OHG. iu, dat., iuwih, acc., Icel. y, dat. & acc., Goth. izwis; of uncertain origin. sq. root189. Cf. Your.] Defn: The pronoun of the second person, in the nominative, dative, and objective case, indicating the person or persons addressed. See the Note under Ye. Ye go to Canterbury; God you speed. Chaucer. Good sir, I do in friendship counsel you To leave this place. Shak. In vain you tell your parting lover You wish fair winds may waft him over. Prior. Note: Though you is properly a plural, it is in all ordinary discourse used also in addressing a single person, yet properly always with a plural verb. "Are you he that hangs the verses on the trees, wherein Rosalind is so admired " Shak. You and your are sometimes used indefinitely, like we, they, one, to express persons not specified. "The looks at a distance like a new-plowed land; but as you come near it, you see nothing but a long heap of heavy, disjointed clods." Addison. "Your medalist and critic are much nearer related than the world imagine." Addison. "It is always pleasant to be forced to do what you wish to do, but what, until pressed, you dare not attempt." Hook. You is often used reflexively for yourself of yourselves. "Your highness shall repose you at the tower." Shak. YOUL Youl, v. i. Defn: To yell; to yowl. [Obs.] Chaucer. YOUNG Young, a. [Compar. Younger; superl. Youngest.] Etym: [OE. yung, yong, , , AS. geong; akin to OFries. iung, iong, D. joing, OS., OHG., & G. jung, Icel. ungr, Sw. & Dan. ung, Goth. juggs, Lith. jaunas, Russ. iunuii, L. juvencus, juvenis, Skr. juva, juven. Junior, Juniper, Juvenile, Younker, Youth.] 1. Not long born; still in the first part of life; not yet arrived at adolescence, maturity, or age; not old; juvenile; -- said of animals; as, a young child; a young man; a young fawn. For he so young and tender was of age. Chaucer. "Whom the gods love, die young," has been too long carelessly said; . . . whom the gods love, live young forever. Mrs. H. H. Jackson. 2. Being in the first part, pr period, of growth; as, a young plant; a young tree. While the fears of the people were young. De Foe. 3. Having little experience; inexperienced; unpracticed; ignorant; weak. Come, come, elder brother, you are too young in this. Shak. YOUNG Young, n. Defn: The offspring of animals, either a single animal or offspring collectively. [The egg] bursting with kindly rupture, forth disclosed Their callow young. Milton. With young, with child; pregnant. YOUNGGER Young"ger, n. Defn: One who is younger; an inferior in age; a junior. "The elder shall serve the younger." Rom. ix. 12. YOUNGISH Young"ish, a. Defn: Somewhat young. Tatler. YOUNGLING Young"ling, n. Etym: [AS. geongling.] Defn: A young person; a youth; also, any animal in its early life. "More dear . . . than younglings to their dam." Spenser. He will not be so willing, I think, to join with you as with us younglings. Ridley. YOUNGLING Young"ling, a. Defn: Young; youthful. Wordsworth. YOUNGLY Young"ly, a. Etym: [AS. geonglic.] Defn: Like a young person or thing; young; youthful. [Obs.] Shak. YOUNGLY Young"ly, adv. 1. In a young manner; in the period of youth; early in life. [Obs.] Shak. 2. Ignorantly; weakly. [R.] YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION Young Men's Christian Association. Defn: An organization for promoting the spiritual, intellectual, social, and physical welfare of young men, founded, June 6, 1844, by George Williams (knighted therefor by Queen Victoria) in London. In 1851 it extended to the United States and Canada, and in 1855 representatives of similar organizations throughout Europe and America formed an international body. The movement has successfully expanded not only among young men in general, but also specifically among railroad men, in the army and navy, with provision for Indians and negroes, and a full duplication of all the various lines of oepration in the boys' departments. YOUNGNESS Young"ness, n. Defn: The quality or state of being young. YOUNG ONE Young one. Defn: A young human being; a child; also, a young animal, as a colt. YOUNGSTER Young"ster, n. Defn: A young person; a youngling; a lad. [Colloq.] "He felt himself quite a youngster, with a long life before him." G. Eliot. YOUNGTH Youngth, n. Defn: Youth. [Obs.] Youngth is a bubble blown up with breath. Spenser. YOUNGTHLY Youngth"ly, a. Defn: Pertaining to, or resembling, youth; youthful. [Obs.] Spenser. YOUNG WOMEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION Young Women's Christian Association. Defn: An organization for promoting the spiritual, intellectual, social, and economic welfare of young women, originating in 1855 with Lady Kinnaird's home for young women, and Miss Emma Robert's prayer union for young women,in England, which were combined in the year 1884 as a national association. Now nearly all the civilized countries, and esp. the United States, have local, national, and international organizations. YOUNKER Youn"ker, n. Etym: [D. jonker, jonkeer; jong young + heer a lord, sir, gentleman. See Young, a.] Defn: A young person; a stripling; a yonker. [Obs. or Colloq.] That same younker soon was overthrown. Spenser. YOUPON You"pon, n. (Bot.) Defn: Same as Yaupon. YOUR Your, pron. & a. Etym: [OE. your, , eowr, eower, AS. eówer, originally used as the gen. of ge, ge, ye; akin to OFries. iuwer your, OS. iuwar, D. uw, OHG. iuwer, G. euer, Icel. ythar, Goth. izwara, izwar, and E. you. *189. See You.] Defn: The form of the possessive case of the personal pronoun you. Note: The possessive takes the form yours when the noun to which it refers is not expressed, but implied; as, this book is yours. "An old fellow of yours." Chaucer. YOURS Yours, pron. Defn: See the Note under Your. YOURS Yours (ürz), pron. Defn: See the Note under Your. YOURSELF Your*self", pron.; pl. Yourselves. Etym: [Your + self.] Defn: An emphasized or reflexive form of the pronoun of the second person; -- used as a subject commonly with you; as, you yourself shall see it; also, alone in the predicate, either in the nominative or objective case; as, you have injured yourself. Of which right now ye han yourselve heard. Chaucer. If yourselves are old, make it your cause. Shak. Why should you be so cruel to yourself Milton. The religious movement which you yourself, as well as I, so faithfully followed from first to last. J. H. Newman. YOUTH Youth (uth), n.; pl. Youths (uths; 264) or collectively Youth. Etym: [OE. youthe, youhþe, ýuhethe, ýuwethe, ýeoýethe, AS. geoguth, geogoth; akin to OS. jugth, D. jeugd, OHG. jugund, G. jugend, Goth. junda. *281. See Young.] 1. The quality or state of being young; youthfulness; juvenility. "In my flower of youth." Milton. Such as in his face Youth smiled celestial. Milton. 2. The part of life that succeeds to childhood; the period of existence preceding maturity or age; the whole early part of life, from childhood, or, sometimes, from infancy, to manhood. He wondered that your lordship Would suffer him to spend his youth at home. Shak. Those who pass their youth in vice are justly condemned to spend their age in folly. Rambler. 3. A young person; especially, a young man. Seven youths from Athens yearly sent. Dryden. 4. Young persons, collectively. It is fit to read the best authors to youth first. B. Jonson. YOUTHFUL Youth"ful, a. 1. Not yet mature or aged; young. "Two youthful knights." Dryden. Defn: Also used figuratively. "The youthful season of the year." Shak. 2. Of or pertaining to the early part of life; suitable to early life; as, youthful days; youthful sports. "Warm, youthful blood." Shak. "Youthful thoughts." Milton. 3. Fresh; vigorous, as in youth. After millions of millions of ages . . . still youthful and flourishing. Bentley. Syn. -- Puerile; juvenile. -- Youthful, Puerile, Juvenile. Puerile is always used in a bad sense, or at least in the sense of what is suitable to a boy only; as, puerile objections, puerile amusements, etc. Juvenile is sometimes taken in a bad sense, as when speaking of youth in contrast with manhood; as, juvenile tricks; a juvenile performance. Youthful is commonly employed in a good sense; as, youthful aspirations; or at least by way of extenuating; as, youthful indiscretions. "Some men, imagining themselves possessed with a divine fury, often fall into toys and trifles, which are only puerilities." Dryden. "Raw, juvenile writers imagine that, by pouring forth figures often, they render their compositions warm and animated." Blair. -- Youth"ful*ly, adv. -- Youth"ful*ness, n. YOUTHHOOD Youth"hood, n. Etym: [AS. geoguedhhad. See Youth, and -hood.] Defn: The quality or state of being a youth; the period of youth. Cheyne. YOUTHLY Youth"ly, a. Etym: [AS. geoguedhlic.] Defn: Young; youthful. [Obs.] "All my youthly days." Spenser. YOUTHSOME Youth"some, a. Defn: Youthful. [Obs.] Pepys. YOUTHY Youth"y, a. Defn: Young. [Obs.] Spectator. YOUZE Youze, n. Etym: [From a native East Indian name.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The cheetah. YOW Yow, pron. Defn: You. [Obs.] Chaucer. YOWE Yowe, n. Etym: [See Ewe.] (Zoöl.) Defn: A ewe. [Prov. Eng. & Scot.] G. Eliot. YOWL Yowl, v. i. Etym: [See Yawl, v. i.] Defn: To utter a loud, long, and mournful cry, as a dog; to howl; to yell. YOWL Yowl, n. Defn: A loud, protracted, and mournful cry, as that of a dog; a howl. YOWLEY Yow"ley, n. Etym: [Cf. Yellow.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The European yellow-hammer. [Prov. Eng.] YOX Yox, v. i. Defn: See Yex. [Obs.] Chaucer. YPIGHT Y*pight", obs. p. p. of Pitch. Defn: See Pight. YPOCRAS Yp"o*cras, n. Defn: Hippocras. [Obs.] Chaucer. YPRES LACE Y"pres lace`. Defn: Fine bobbin lace made at Ypres in Belgium, usually exactly like Valenciennes lace. YPSILIFORM Yp*sil"i*form, a. Etym: [Gr. -form.] (Biol.) Defn: Resembling the YPSILOID Yp"si*loid, a. (Anat.) Defn: In the form of the letter Y; Y-shaped. YRAFT Y*raft", obs. p. p. of Reave. Defn: Bereft. Chaucer. YREN Yr"en, n. Defn: Iron. [Obs.] Chaucer. YRONNE Y*ron"ne, obs. p. p. of Run. Defn: Run. Chaucer. YSAME Y*same", adv. Etym: [See Same.] Defn: Together. [Obs.] "And in a bag all sorts of seeds ysame." Spenser. YT Yt. Defn: , an old method of printing that (AS. æt, edhæt) the "y" taking the place of the old letter "Þ"). Cf. Ye, the. YT; YT Yt, Yt (that), Defn: an old method of printing that (AS. þæt, ðæt) the "y" taking the place of the old letter "thorn" (þ). Cf. Ye, the. YTHROWE Y*throwe", obs. Defn: p. p. of Throw. Chaucer. YTTERBIC Yt*ter"bic, a. (Chem.) Defn: Pertaining to, or derived from, ytterbium; containing ytterbium. YTTERBIUM Yt*ter"bi*um, n. Etym: [NL., fr. Ytterby, in Sweden. See Erbium.] (Chem.) Defn: A rare element of the boron group, sometimes associated with yttrium or other related elements, as in euxenite and gadolinite. Symbol Yb; provisional atomic weight 173.2. Cf. Yttrium. Note: Ytterbium is associated with other rare elements, and probably has not been prepared in a pure state. YTTRIA Yt"tri*a, n. Etym: [NL. See Yttrium.] (Chem.) Defn: The oxide, Y2O3, or earth, of yttrium. YTTRIC Yt"tric, a. (Chem.) Defn: Pertaining to, derived from, or containing, yttrium. YTTRIFEROUS Yt*trif"er*ous, a. Defn: Bearing or containing yttrium or the allied elements; as, gadolinite is one of the yttriferous minerals. YTTRIOUS Yt"tri*ous, a. (Chem.) Defn: Same as Yttric. YTTRIUM Yt"tri*um, n. Etym: [NL., from Ytterby, in Sweden. See Erbium.] (Chem.) Defn: A rare metallic element of the boron-aluminium group, found in gadolinite and other rare minerals, and extracted as a dark gray powder. Symbol Y. Atomic weight, 89. [Written also ittrium.] Note: Associated with yttrium are certain rare elements, as erbium, ytterbium, samarium, etc., which are separated in a pure state with great difficulty. They are studied by means of their spark or phosphorescent spectra. Yttrium is now regarded as probably not a simple element, but as a mixture of several substances. YTTRO-CERITE Yt`tro-ce"rite, n. (Min.) Defn: A mineral of a violet-blue color, inclining to gray and white. It is a hydrous fluoride of cerium, yttrium, and calcium. YTTRO-COLUMBITE; YTTRO-TANTALITE Yt`tro-co*lum"bite, Yt`tro-tan"ta*lite, n. (Min.) Defn: A tantalate of uranium, yttrium, and calcium, of a brown or black color. YU Yu, n. Etym: [Chin.] (Min.) Defn: Jade. YUCCA Yuc"ca, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: See Flicker, n., 2. YUCCA Yuc"ca, n. Etym: [NL., from Yuca, its name in St. Domingo.] (Bot.) Defn: A genus of American liliaceous, sometimes arborescent, plants having long, pointed, and often rigid, leaves at the top of a more or less woody stem, and bearing a large panicle of showy white blossoms. Note: The species with more rigid leaves (as Yucca aloifolia, Y. Treculiana, and Y. baccata) are called Spanish bayonet, and one with softer leaves (Y. filamentosa) is called bear grass, and Adam's needle. Yucca moth (Zoöl.), a small silvery moth (Pronuba yuccasella) whose larvæ feed on plants of the genus Yucca. YUCCA BORER Yuc"ca bor`er. (a) A California boring weevil (Yuccaborus frontalis). (b) A large mothlike butterfly (Megathymus yuccæ) of the family Megatimidæ, whose larva bores in yucca roots. YUCK Yuck, v. i. Etym: [Cf. G. jucken, D. yeuken, joken. See Itch.] Defn: To itch. [Prov. Eng.] Grose. YUCK Yuck, v. t. Defn: To scratch. [Prov. Eng.] Wright. YUCKEL Yuck"el, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: Same as Yockel. YUEN Yu"en, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The crowned gibbon (Hylobates pileatus), native of Siam, Southern China, and the Island of Hainan. It is entirely arboreal in its habits, and has very long arms. the males are dark brown or blackish, with a caplike mass of long dark hair, and usually with a white band around the face. The females are yellowish white, with a dark spot on the breast and another on the crown. Called also wooyen, and wooyen ape. YUFTS Yufts, n. Etym: [Russ. iufte.] Defn: Russia leather. YUG; YUGA Yug, Yu"ga, n. Etym: [Skr. yuga an age, a yoke. See Yoke.] (Hindoo Cosmog.) Defn: Any one of the four ages, Krita, or Satya, Treta, Dwapara, and Kali, into which the Hindoos divide the duration or existence of the world. YUKE Yuke, v. i. & t. Defn: Same as Yuck. [Prov. Eng.] YULAN Yu"lan, n. (Bot.) Defn: A species of Magnolia (M. conspicua) with large white blossoms that open before the leaves. See the Note under Magnolia. YULE Yule, n. Etym: [OE. yol, ýol, AS. geól; akin to geóla December or January, Icel. jol Yule, Ylir the name of a winter month, Sw. jul Christmas, Dan. juul, Goth. jiuleis November or December. Cf. Jolly.] Defn: Christmas or Christmastide; the feast of the Nativity of our Savior. And at each pause they kiss; was never seen such rule In any place but here, at bonfire, or at Yule. Drayton. Yule block, or Yule log, a large log of wood formerly put on the hearth of Christmas eve, as the foundation of the fire. It was brought in with much ceremony. -- Yule clog, the yule log. Halliwell. W. Irving. YULETIDE Yule"tide`, n. Defn: Christmas time; Christmastide; the season of Christmas. YUMAN Yu"man, a. Defn: Designating, or pertaining to, an important linguistic stock of North American Indians of the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico, nearly all agriculturists and adept potters and basket makers. Their usual dwelling is the brush wikiup, and in their native state they wear little clothing. The Yuma, Maricopa, Mohave, Walapi, and Yavapai are among the chief tribes, all of fine physique. YUMAS Yu"mas, n. pl.; sing. Yuma (. (Ethnol.) Defn: A tribe of Indians native of Arizona and the adjacent parts of Mexico and California. They are agricultural, and cultivate corn, wheat, barley, melons, etc. Note: The a wider sense, the term sometimes includes the Mohaves and other allied tribes. YUNCA Yun"ca (yoon"ka), n. Defn: An Indian of a linguistic stock of tribes of the Peruvian coast who had a developed agricultural civilization at the advent of the Spaniards, before which they had been conquered by the Incas. They constructed irrigation canals which are still in use, adorned their buildings with bas-reliefs and frescoes, and were skilled goldsmiths and silversmiths. -- Yun"can (#), a. YUNX Yunx, n. Etym: [NL., fr. Gr. (Zoöl.) Defn: A genus of birds comprising the wrynecks. YUPON Yu"pon, n. (Bot.) Defn: Same as Yaupon. YUX Yux, n. & v. Defn: See Yex, n. [Obs.] YVEL Y"vel, a. & adv. Defn: Evil; ill. [Obs.] Chaucer. YWAR Y*war", a. Etym: [See Aware.] Defn: Aware; wary. [Obs.] "Be ywar, and his way shun." Piers Plowman. YWIS Y*wis", adv. Etym: [OE. ywis, iwis, AS. gewis certain; akin to D. gewis, G. gewiss, and E. wit to know. See Wit to know, and Y-.] Defn: Certainly; most likely; truly; probably. [Obs. or Archaic] "Ywis," quod he, "it is full dear, I say." Chaucer. She answered me, "I-wisse, all their sport in the park is but a shadow to that pleasure that I find in Plato." Ascham. A right good knight, and true of word ywis. Spenser. Note: The common form iwis was often written with the prefix apart from the rest of the word and capitalized, as, I wis, I wisse, etc. The prefix was mistaken for the pronoun, I and wis, wisse, for a form of the verb wit to know. See Wis, and cf. Wit, to know. Our ship, I wis, Shall be of another form than this. Longfellow. Z Z (ze; in England commonly, and in America sometimes, zêd; formerly, also, îz"zêrd) Defn: Z, the twenty-sixth and last letter of the English alphabet, is a vocal consonant. It is taken from the Latin letter Z, which came from the Greek alphabet, this having it from a Semitic source. The ultimate origin is probably Egyptian. Etymologically, it is most closely related to s, y, and j; as in glass, glaze; E. yoke, Gr. yugum; E. zealous, jealous. See Guide to Pronunciation, §§ 273, 274. ZA Za, n. (Min.) Defn: An old solfeggio name for B flat; the seventh harmonic, as heard in the or æolian string; -- so called by Tartini. It was long considered a false, but is the true note of the chord of the flat seventh. H. W. Poole. ZABAISM; ZABISM Za"ba*ism, Za"bism, n. Defn: See Sabianism. ZABIAN Za"bi*an, a. & n. Defn: See Sabian. ZACCO Zac"co, n. (Arch.) Defn: See Zocco. ZACHUN Za*chun", n. (Bot.) Defn: An oil pressed by the Arabs from the fruit of a small thorny tree (Balanites Ægyptiaca), and sold to piligrims for a healing ointment. J. Smith (Dict. Econ. Plants). ZAERTHE Zaer"the, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: Same as Zärthe. ZAFFER Zaf"fer, n. Etym: [F. zafre, safre; cf. Sp. zafra, safra, It. saffera, G. zaffer; all probably of Arabic origin. Cf. Zaphara.] Defn: A pigment obtained, usually by roasting cobalt glance with sand or quartz, as a dark earthy powder. It consists of crude cobalt oxide, or of an impure cobalt arseniate. It is used in porcelain painting, and in enameling pottery, to produce a blue color, and is often confounded with smalt, from which, however, it is distinct, as it contains no potash. The name is often loosely applied to mixtures of zaffer proper with silica, or oxides of iron, manganese, etc. [Written also zaffre, and formerly zaffree, zaffar, zaffir.] ZAIM Zaim, n. Etym: [Turk. & Ar. za'im.] Defn: A Turkish chief who supports a mounted militia bearing the same name. Smart. ZAIMET Zaim"et, n. Etym: [Turk. & Ar. za'imet.] Defn: A district from which a Zaim draws his revenue. Smart. ZAIN Zain, n. Defn: A horse of a dark color, neither gray nor white, and having no spots. Smart. ZALAMBDODONT Za*lamb"do*dont, a. (Zoöl.) Defn: Of or pertaining to a tribe (Zalambdodonta) of Insectivora in which the molar teeth have but one V-shaped ridge. ZALAMBDODONT Za*lamb"do*dont, n. Defn: One of the Zalambdodonta. The tenrec, solenodon, and golden moles are examples. ZAMANG Za*mang", n. (Bot.) Defn: An immense leguminous tree (Pithecolobium Saman) of Venezuela. Its branches form a hemispherical mass, often one hundred and eighty feet across. The sweet pulpy pods are used commonly for feeding cattle. Also called rain tree. J. Smith (Dict. Econ. Plants). ZAMBO Zam"bo, n.; pl. Zambos. Etym: [See Sambo.] Defn: The child of a mulatto and a negro; also, the child of an Indian and a negro; colloquially or humorously, a negro; a sambo. ZAMIA Za"mi*a, n. Etym: [L. zamia a kind of fir cone, from Gr. (Bot.) Defn: A genus of cycadaceous plants, having the appearance of low palms, but with exogenous wood. See Coontie, and Illust. of Strobile. ZAMINDAR Zam`in*dar", n. Etym: [Hind. zemindar, zamindar, a landholder, Per. zamindar; zamin land dar holding.] Defn: A landowner; also, a collector of land revenue; now, usually, a kind of feudatory recognized as an actual proprietor so long as he pays to the government a certain fixed revenue. [Written also zemindar.] [India] ZAMINDARY; ZAMINDARI Zam"in*da*ry, Zam"in*da*ri, n. Defn: The jurisdiction of a zamindar; the land possessed by a zamindar. [Written also zemindary, zemindari.] ZAMITE Za"mite, n. (Paleon.) Defn: A fossil cycad of the genus Zamia. ZAMOUSE Za*mouse", n. Etym: [From a native name.] (Zoöl.) Defn: A West African buffalo (Bubalus brachyceros) having short horns depressed at the base, and large ears fringed internally with three rows of long hairs. It is destitute of a dewlap. Called also short- horned buffalo, and bush cow. ZAMPOGNA Zam*po"gna, n. Etym: [It.] (Mus.) Defn: A sort of bagpipe formerly in use among Italian peasants. It is now almost obsolete. [Written also zampugna.] ZANDER Zan"der, n. Etym: [Cf. D. zand sand.] (Zoöl.) Defn: A European pike perch (Stizostedion lucioperca) allied to the wall-eye; -- called also sandari, sander, sannat, schill, and zant. ZANDMOLE Zand"mole`, n. Etym: [Cf. D. zand sand. See Sand, and Mole the animal.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The sand mole. ZANTE Zan"te, n. (Bot.) Defn: See Zantewood. ZANTE CURRANT Zan"te cur"rant. Defn: A kind of seedless grape or raisin; -- so called from Zante, one of the Ionian Islands. ZANTEWOOD Zan"te*wood`, n. (Bot.) (a) A yellow dyewood; fustet; -- called also zante, and zante fustic. See Fustet, and the Note under Fustic. (b) Satinwood (Chloroxylon Swietenia). ZANTIOT Zan"ti*ot, n. Defn: A native or inhabitant of Zante, one of the Ionian Islands. ZANY Za"ny, n.; pl. Zanies. Etym: [It. zanni a buffoon, merry-andrew, orig. same as Giovanni John, i. e., merry John, L. Ioannes, Gr. Yokhanan, prop., the Lord graciously gave: cf. F. zani, fr. the Italian. Cf. Jenneting.] Defn: A merry-andrew; a buffoon. Then write that I may follow, and so be Thy echo, thy debtor, thy foil, thy zany. Donne. Preacher at once, and zany of thy age. Pope. ZANY Za"ny, v. t. Defn: To mimic. [Obs.] Your part is acted; give me leave at distance To zany it. Massinger. ZANYISM Za"ny*ism, n. Defn: State or character of a zany; buffoonery. Coleridge. H. Morley. ZAPAS Za*pas", n. [Russ.] Defn: See Army organization, above. ZAPATERA Za`pa*te"ra, n. [Sp. aceituna zapatera.] (Olive trade) Defn: A cured olive which has spoiled or is on the verge of decomposition; loosely, an olive defective because of bruises, wormholes, or the like. ZAPHARA Zaph"a*ra, n. Defn: Zaffer. ZAPHRENTIS Za*phren"tis, n. Etym: [NL.] (Paleon.) Defn: An extinct genus of cyathophylloid corals common in the Paleozoic formations. It is cup-shaped with numerous septa, and with a deep pit in one side of the cup. ZAPOTILLA Zap`o*til"la, n. (Bot.) Defn: See Sapodilla. ZAPTIAH Zap"ti*ah, n. Defn: A Turkish policeman. [Written also zaptieh.] ZARATHUSTRIAN; ZARATHUSTRIC Zar`a*thus"tri*an, Zar`a*thus"tric, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to Zarathustra, or Zoroaster; Zoroastrian. Tylor. ZARATHUSTRISM Zar`a*thus"trism, n. Defn: See Zoroastrianism. ZARATITE Zar"a*tite, n. (Min.) Etym: [Named after Gen. Zarata of Spain.] Defn: A hydrous carbonate of nickel occurring as an emerald-green incrustation on chromite; -- called also emerald nickel. ZAREBA Za*re"ba, n. (Mil.) Defn: An improvised stockade; especially, one made of thorn bushes, etc. [Written also zareeba, and zeriba.] [Egypt] "Ah," he moralizes, "what wonderful instinct on the part of this little creature to surround itself with a zareba like the troops after Osman Digma." R. Jefferies. ZARF Zarf, n. [Ar.] (Art) Defn: A metallic cuplike stand used for holding a finjan. ZARNICH Zar"nich, n. Etym: [F., fr. Ar. az-zernikh, fr. Gr. Arsenic.] (Min.) Defn: Native sulphide of arsenic, including sandarach, or realgar, and orpiment. ZARTHE; ZAERTHE Zär"the, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A European bream (Abramis vimba). [Written also zaerthe.] ZASTRUGI Zas*tru"gi, n. pl.; sing. -ga (#). [Russ. zastruga furrow made on the shore by water.] Defn: Grooves or furrows formed in snow by the action of the wind, and running parallel with the direction of the wind. This formation results from the erosion of transverse waves previously formed. ZATI Za"ti, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A species of macaque (Macacus pileatus) native of India and Ceylon. It has a crown of long erect hair, and tuft of radiating hairs on the back of the head. Called also capped macaque. ZAUSCHNERIA Zau*schne"ri*a, n. Etym: [NL., named for M. Zauschner, a Bohemian botanist.] (Bot.) Defn: A genus of flowering plants. Zauschneria Californica is a suffrutescent perennial, with showy red flowers much resembling those of the garden fuchsia. ZAX Zax, n. Defn: A tool for trimming and puncturing roofing states. [Written also sax.] ZAYAT Za"yat, n. Defn: A public shed, or portico, for travelers, worshipers, etc. [Burmah] ZEA Ze"a, n. Etym: [L., a kind of grain, fr. Gr. yava barley.] (Bot.) Defn: A genus of large grasses of which the Indian corn (Zea Mays) is the only species known. Its origin is not yet ascertained. See Maize. ZEAL Zeal, n. Etym: [F. zèle; cf. Pg. & It. zelo, Sp. zelo, celo; from L. zelus, Gr. Yeast, Jealous.] 1. Passionate ardor in the pursuit of anything; eagerness in favor of a person or cause; ardent and active interest; engagedness; enthusiasm; fervor. "Ambition varnished o'er with zeal." Milton. "Zeal, the blind conductor of the will." Dryden. "Zeal's never-dying fire." Keble. I bear them record that they have a zeal of God, but not according to knowledge. Rom. x. 2. A zeal for liberty is sometimes an eagerness to subvert with little care what shall be established. Johnson. 2. A zealot. [Obs.] B. Jonson. ZEAL Zeal, v. i. Defn: To be zealous. [Obs. & R.] Bacon. ZEALANT Zeal"ant, n. Defn: One who is zealous; a zealot; an enthusiast. [Obs.] To certain zealants, all speech of pacification is odious. Bacon. ZEALED Zealed, a. Defn: Full of zeal; characterized by zeal. [Obs.] "Zealed religion." Beau. & Fl. ZEALFUL Zeal"ful, a. Defn: Full of zeal. [R.] Sylvester. ZEALLESS Zeal"less, a. Defn: Wanting zeal. Hammond. ZEALOT Zeal"ot, n. Etym: [F. zélote, L. zelotes, Gr. Zeal.] Defn: One who is zealous; one who engages warmly in any cause, and pursues his object with earnestness and ardor; especially, one who is overzealous, or carried away by his zeal; one absorbed in devotion to anything; an enthusiast; a fanatical partisan. Zealots for the one [tradition] were in hostile array against zealots for the other. Sir J. Stephen. In Ayrshire, Clydesdale, Nithisdale, Annandale, every parish was visited by these turbulent zealots. Macaulay. ZEALOTICAL Zea*lot"ic*al, a. Defn: Like, or suitable to, a zealot; ardently zealous. [R.] Strype. ZEALOTISM Zeal"ot*ism, n. Defn: The character or conduct of a zealot; zealotry. ZEALOTIST Zeal"ot*ist, n. Defn: A zealot. [Obs.] Howell. ZEALOTRY Zeal"ot*ry, n. Defn: The character and behavior of a zealot; excess of zeal; fanatical devotion to a cause. Enthusiasm, visionariness, seems the tendency of the German; zeal, zealotry, of the English; fanaticism, of the French. Coleridge. ZEALOUS Zeal"ous, a. Etym: [LL. zelosus. See Zeal.] 1. Filled with, or characterized by, zeal; warmly engaged, or ardent, in behalf of an object. He may be zealous in the salvation of souls. Law. 2. Filled with religious zeal. [Obs.] Shak. -- Zeal"ous*ly, adv. -- Zeal"ous*ness, n. ZEBEC Ze"bec, n. (Naut.) Defn: See Xebec. ZEBRA Ze"bra, n. Etym: [Pg. zebra; cf. Sp. cebra; probably from a native African name.] (Zoöl.) Defn: Either one of two species of South African wild horses remarkable for having the body white or yellowish white, and conspicuously marked with dark brown or brackish bands. Note: The true or mountain zebra (Equus, or Asinus, zebra) is nearly white, and the bands which cover the body and legs are glossy black. Its tail has a tuft of black hair at the tip. It inhabits the mountains of Central and Southern Africa, and is noted for its wariness and wildness, as well as for its swiftness. The second species (Equus, or Asinus, Burchellii), known as Burchell's zebra, and dauw, inhabits the grassy plains of South Africa, and differs from the preceding in not having dark bands on the legs, while those on the body are more irregular. It has a long tail, covered with long white flowing hair. Zebra caterpillar, the larva of an American noctuid moth (Mamestra picta). It is light yellow, with a broad black stripe on the back and one on each side; the lateral stripes are crossed with withe lines. It feeds on cabbages, beets, clover, and other cultivated plants. -- Zebra opossum, the zebra wolf. See under Wolf. -- Zebra parrakeet, an Australian grass parrakeet, often kept as a cage bird. Its upper parts are mostly pale greenish yellow, transversely barred with brownish black crescents; the under parts, rump, and upper tail coverts, are bright green; two central tail feathers and the cheek patches are blue. Called also canary parrot, scallop parrot, shell parrot, and undulated parrot. -- Zebra poison (Bot.), a poisonous tree (Euphorbia arborea) of the Spurge family, found in South Africa. Its milky juice is so poisonous that zebras have been killed by drinking water in which its branches had been placed, and it is also used as an arrow poison. J. Smith (Dict. Econ. Plants). -- Zebra shark. Same as Tiger shark, under Tiger. -- Zebra spider, a hunting spider. -- Zebra swallowtail, a very large North American swallow-tailed butterfly (Iphiclides ajax), in which the wings are yellow, barred with black; -- called also ajax. -- Zebra wolf. See under Wolf. ZEBRAWOOD Ze"bra*wood`, n. (a) A kind of cabinet wood having beautiful black, brown, and whitish stripes, the timber of a tropical American tree (Connarus Guianensis). (b) The wood of a small West Indian myrtaceous tree (Eugenia fragrans). (c) The wood of an East Indian tree of the genus Guettarda. ZEBRINE Ze"brine, a. (Zoöl.) Defn: Pertaining to, or resembling, the zebra. ZEBRINNY Ze*brin"ny, n.; pl. -nies. Defn: A cross between a male horse and a female zebra. ZEBRULA; ZEBRULE Ze"bru*la, Ze"brule, n. Defn: A cross between a male zebra and a female horse. ZEBU Ze"bu, n. [zébu; of uncertain origin.] (Zoöl.) Defn: A bovine mammal (Ros Indicus) extensively domesticated in India, China, the East Indies, and East Africa. It usually has short horns, large pendulous ears, slender legs, a large dewlap, and a large, prominent hump over the shoulders; but these characters vary in different domestic breeds, which range in size from that of the common ox to that of a large mastiff. Note: Some of the varieties are used as beasts of burden, and some fore for riding, while others are raised for their milk and flesh. The Brahmin bull, regarded as sacred by the Hindoos, also belongs to this species. The male is called also Indian bull, Indian ox, Madras ox, and sacred bull. ZEBUB Ze"bub, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A large noxious fly of Abyssinia, which like the tsetse fly, is destructive to cattle. ZECHIN Ze"chin, n. Defn: See Sequin. ZECHSTEIN Zech"stein`, n. Etym: [Gr., fr. zeche a mine + stein a stone.] (Geol.) Defn: The upper division of the Permian (Dyas) of Europe. The prevailing rock is a magnesian limestone. ZED Zed, n. Etym: [F., probably through It. zeta, fr. L. zeta. See Zeta.] Defn: The letter Z; -- called also zee, and formerly izzard. "Zed, thou unnecessary letter!" Shak. ZEDOARY Zed"o*a*ry, n. Etym: [F. zédoaire, LL. zedoaria; cf. It. zedoaria, zettovario, Pg. zedoaria, Sp. zedoaria, cedoaria; all fr. Ar. & Per. zedw.] (Med.) Defn: A medicinal substance obtained in the East Indian, having a fragrant smell, and a warm, bitter, aromatic taste. It is used in medicine as a stimulant. Note: It is the rhizome of different species of Curcuma, esp. C. zedoaria, and comes in short, firm pieces, externally of a wrinkled gray, ash-colored appearance, but within of a brownish red color. There are two kinds, round zedoary, and long zedoary. ZEEKOE Zee"koe, n. Etym: [D., sea cow, lake cow.] (Zoöl.) Defn: A hippopotamus. ZEEMAN EFFECT Zee"man ef*fect". (Physics) Defn: The widening and duplication, triplication, etc., of spectral lines when the radiations emanate in a strong magnetic field, first observed in 1896 by P. Zeeman, a Dutch physicist, and regarded as an important confirmation of the electromagnetic theory of light. ZEHNER Zeh"ner, n. Etym: [G.] Defn: An Austrian silver coin equal to ten kreutzers, or about five cents. ZEIN Ze"in, n. Etym: [Cf. F. zé\'8bne. See Zea.] (Chem.) Defn: A nitrogenous substance of the nature of gluten, obtained from the seeds of Indian corn (Zea) as a soft, yellowish, amorphous substance. [Formerly written zeine.] ZEITGEIST Zeit"geist`, n. [G.; zeit time + geist spirit. See Tide, n.; Ghost, n.] Defn: The spirit of the time; the general intellectual and moral state or temper characteristic of any period of time. ZEMINDAR Zem`in*dar", n. Defn: Same as Zamindar. ZEMINDARY; ZEMINDARI Zem"in*da*ry, Zem"in*da*ri, n. Defn: Same as Zamindary. ZEMNI Zem"ni, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The blind mole rat (Spalax typhlus), native of Eastern Europe and Asia. Its eyes and ears are rudimentary, and its fur is soft and brownish, more or less tinged with gray. It constructs extensive burrows. ZEMSTVO Zem"stvo, n. [Russ., fr. zemlya land.] Defn: In Russia, an elective local district and provincial administrative assembly. Originally it was composed of representatives elected by the peasantry, the householders of the towns, and the landed proprietors. In the reign of Alexander III. the power of the noble landowners was increased, the peasants allowed only to elect candidates from whom the governor of the province nominated the deputy, and all acts of the zemstvo subjected to the approval of the governor. Theoretically the zemstvo has large powers relating to taxation, education, public health, etc., but practically these powers are in most cases limited to the adjustment of the state taxation. ZENANA Ze*na"na, n. Etym: [Hind. zenana, zanana, fr. Per. zanana, fr. zan woman; akin to E. queen.] Defn: The part of a dwelling appropriated to women. [India] ZEND Zend, n. Etym: [See Zend-Avesta.] Defn: Properly, the translation and exposition in the Huzvâresh, or literary Pehlevi, language, of the Avesta, the Zoroastrian sacred writings; as commonly used, the language (an ancient Persian dialect) in which the Avesta is written. ZEND-AVESTA Zend`-A*ves"ta, n. Etym: [Properly, the Avesta, or sacred text, and its zend, or interpretation, in a more modern and intelligible language. W. D. Whitney.] Defn: The sacred writings of the ancient Persian religion, attributed to Zoroaster, but chiefly of a later date. ZENDIK Zen"dik, n. Etym: [Ar. zandik.] Defn: An atheist or unbeliever; -- name given in the East to those charged with disbelief of any revealed religion, or accused of magical heresies. ZENICK Ze"nick, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A South African burrowing mammal (Suricata tetradactyla), allied to the civets. It is grayish brown, with yellowish transverse stripes on the back. Called also suricat. ZENIK Ze"nik, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: See Zenick. ZENITH Ze"nith, n. Etym: [OE. senyth, OF. cenith, F. zénith, Sp. zenit, cenit, abbrev. fr. Ar. samt-urras way of the head, vertical place; samt way, path + al the + ras head. Cf. Azimuth.] 1. That point in the visible celestial hemisphere which is vertical to the spectator; the point of the heavens directly overhead; -- opposed to nadir. From morn To noon he fell, from noon to dewy eve, A summer's day; and with the setting sun Dropped from the zenith, like a falling star. Milton. 2. hence, figuratively, the point of culmination; the greatest height; the height of success or prosperity. I find my zenith doth depend upon A most auspicious star. Shak. This dead of midnight is the noon of thought, And wisdom mounts her zenith with the stars. Mrs. Barbauld. It was during those civil troubles . . . this aspiring family reached the zenith. Macaulay. Zenith distance. (Astron.) See under Distance. -- Zenith sector. (Astron.) See Sector, 3. -- Zenith telescope (Geodesy), a telescope specially designed for determining the latitude by means of any two stars which pass the meridian about the same time, and at nearly equal distances from the zenith, but on opposite sides of it. It turns both on a vertical and a horizontal axis, is provided with a graduated vertical semicircle, and a level for setting it to a given zenith distance, and with a micrometer for measuring the difference of the zenith distances of the two stars. ZENITHAL Ze"nith*al, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to the zenith. "The deep zenithal blue." Tyndall. ZEOLITE Ze"o*lite, n. Etym: [Gr. -lite: cf. F. zéolithe.] (Min.) Defn: A term now used to designate any one of a family of minerals, hydrous silicates of alumina, with lime, soda, potash, or rarely baryta. Here are included natrolite, stilbite, analcime, chabazite, thomsonite, heulandite, and others. These species occur of secondary origin in the cavities of amygdaloid, basalt, and lava, also, less frequently, in granite and gneiss. So called because many of these species intumesce before the blowpipe. Needle zeolite, needlestone; natrolite. ZEOLITIC Ze`o*lit"ic, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to a zeolite; consisting of, or resembling, a zeolite. ZEOLITIFORM Ze`o*lit"i*form, a. Defn: Having the form of a zeolite. ZEPHYR Zeph"yr, n. Etym: [L. zephyrus, Gr. zéphyr.] Defn: The west wind; poetically, any soft, gentle breeze. "Soft the zephyr blows." Gray. As gentle As zephyrs blowing below the violet. Shak. Zephyr cloth, a thin kind of cassimere made in Belgium; also, a waterproof fabric of wool. -- Zephyr shawl, a kind of thin, light, embroidered shawl made of worsted and cotton. -- Zephyr yarn, or worsted, a fine, soft kind of yarn or worsted, -- used for knitting and embroidery. ZEPHYRUS Zeph"y*rus, n. Etym: [L. See Zephyr.] Defn: The west wind, or zephyr; -- usually personified, and made the most mild and gentle of all the sylvan deities. Mild as when Zephyrus on Flora breathes. Milton. ZEPPELIN Zep`pe*lin" (tsep`pe*le"; Angl. zep"pe*lin), n. Defn: A dirigible balloon of the rigid type, consisting of a cylindrical trussed and covered frame supported by internal gas cells, and provided with means of propulsion and control. It was first successfully used by Ferdinand Count von Zeppelin. ZEQUIN Ze"quin, n. Defn: See Sequin. ZERDA Zer"da, n. Etym: [Of African origin.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The fennec. ZERIBA Ze*ri"ba, n. (Mil.) Defn: Same as Zareba. ZERO Ze"ro, n; pl. Zeros or Zeroes. Etym: [F. zéro, from Ar. çafrun, çifrun, empty, a cipher. Cf. Cipher.] 1. (Arith.) Defn: A cipher; nothing; naught. 2. The point from which the graduation of a scale, as of a thermometer, commences. Note: Zero in the Centigrade, or Celsius thermometer, and in the Réaumur thermometer, is at the point at which water congeals. The zero of the Fahrenheit thermometer is fixed at the point at which the mercury stands when immersed in a mixture of snow and common salt. In Wedgwood's pyrometer, the zero corresponds with 1077° on the Fahrenheit scale. See Illust. of Thermometer. 3. Fig.: The lowest point; the point of exhaustion; as, his patience had nearly reached zero. Absolute zero. See under Absolute. -- Zero method (Physics), a method of comparing, or measuring, forces, electric currents, etc., by so opposing them that the pointer of an indicating apparatus, or the needle of a galvanometer, remains at, or is brought to, zero, as contrasted with methods in which the deflection is observed directly; -- called also null method. -- Zero point, the point indicating zero, or the commencement of a scale or reckoning. ZEST Zest, n. Etym: [F. zeste, probably fr. L. schistos split, cleft, divided, Gr. Schism.] 1. A piece of orange or lemon peel, or the aromatic oil which may be squeezed from such peel, used to give flavor to liquor, etc. 2. Hence, something that gives or enhances a pleasant taste, or the taste itself; an appetizer; also, keen enjoyment; relish; gusto. Almighty Vanity! to thee they owe Their zest of pleasure, and their balm of woe. Young. Liberality of disposition and conduct gives the highest zest and relish to social intercourse. Gogan. 3. The woody, thick skin inclosing the kernel of a walnut. [Obs.] ZEST Zest, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Zested; p. pr. & vb. n. Zesting.] 1. To cut into thin slips, as the peel of an orange, lemon, etc.; to squeeze, as peel, over the surface of anything. 2. To give a relish or flavor to; to heighten the taste or relish of; as, to zest wine. Gibber. ZETA Ze"ta, n. Etym: [L., from Gr. Zed.] Defn: A Greek letter [z] corresponding to our z. ZETETIC Ze*tet"ic, a. Etym: [Gr. zététique.] Defn: Seeking; proceeding by inquiry. Zetetic method (Math.), the method used for finding the value of unknown quantities by direct search, in investigation, or in the solution of problems. [R.] Hutton. ZETETIC Ze*tet"ic, n. Defn: A seeker; -- a name adopted by some of the Pyrrhonists. ZETETICS Ze*tet"ics, n. Etym: [See Zetetic, a.] (Math.) Defn: A branch of algebra which relates to the direct search for unknown quantities. [R.] ZEUGLODON Zeu"glo*don, n. Etym: [Gr. (Paleon.) Defn: A genus of extinct Eocene whales, remains of which have been found in the Gulf States. The species had very long and slender bodies and broad serrated teeth. See Phocodontia. ZEUGLODONT Zeu"glo*dont, (Zoöl.) Defn: Any species of Zeuglodonta. ZEUGLODONTA Zeu`glo*don"ta, n. pl. Etym: [NL.] (Zoöl.) Defn: Same as Phocodontia. ZEUGMA Zeug"ma, n. Etym: [L., from Gr. Yoke.] (Gram.) Defn: A figure by which an adjective or verb, which agrees with a nearer word, is, by way of supplement, referred also to another more remote; as, "hic illius arma, hic currus fuit;" where fuit, which agrees directly with currus, is referred also to arma. ZEUGMATIC Zeug*mat"ic, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to zeugma; characterized by zeugma. ZEUGOBRANCHIATA Zeu`go*bran`chi*a"ta, n. pl. Etym: [NL., fr. Gr. (Zoöl.) Defn: Same as Zygobranchia. ZEUS Zeus, n. (Gr. Myth.) Defn: The chief deity of the Greeks, and ruler of the upper world (cf. Hades). He was identified with Jupiter. ZEUZERIAN Zeu*ze"ri*an, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of a group of bombycid moths of which the genus Zeuzera is the type. Some of these moths are of large size. The goat moth is an example. ZEYLANITE Zey"lan*ite, n. (Min.) Defn: See Ceylanite. ZIBET; ZIBETH Zib"et, Zib"eth, n. Etym: [Cf. It. zibetto. See Civet.] (Zoöl.) Defn: A carnivorous mammal (Viverra zibetha) closely allied to the civet, from which it differs in having the spots on the body less distinct, the throat whiter, and the black rings on the tail more numerous. Note: It inhabits India, Southern China, and the East Indies. It yields a perfume similar to that of the civet. It is often domesticated by the natives, and then serves the same purposes as the domestic cat. Called also Asiatic, or Indian, civet. ZIEGA Zie"ga, n. Defn: Curd produced from milk by adding acetic acid, after rennet has ceased to cause coagulation. Brande & C. ZIETRISIKITE Zie`tri*si"kite, n. (Min.) Defn: A mineral wax, vert similar to ozocerite. It is found at Zietrisika, Moldavia, whence its name. ZIF Zif, n. Etym: [Heb. ziv.] Defn: The second month of the Jewish ecclesiastical year, corresponding to our May. ZIGGER; ZIGHYR Zig"ger, Zig"hyr, v. i. (Mining) Defn: Same as Sicker. [Prov. Eng.] Raymond. ZIGZAG Zig"zag`, n. Etym: [F. zigzag, G. zickzack, from zacke, zacken, a dentil, tooth. Cf. Tack a small nail.] 1. Something that has short turns or angles. The fanatics going straight forward and openly, the politicians by the surer mode of zigzag. Burke. 2. (Arch.) Defn: A molding running in a zigzag line; a chevron, or series of chevrons. See Illust. of Chevron, 3. 3. (Fort.) Defn: See Boyau. ZIGZAG Zig"zag`, a. Defn: Having short, sharp turns; running this way and that in an onward course. ZIGZAG Zig"zag`, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Zigzagged; p. pr. & vb. n. Zigzagging.] Defn: To form with short turns. ZIGZAG Zig"zag`, v. i. Defn: To move in a zigzag manner; also, to have a zigzag shape. R. Browning. ZIGZAGGERY Zig"zag`ger*y, n. Defn: The quality or state of being zigzag; crookedness. [R.] The . . . zigzaggery of my father's approaches. Sterne. ZIGZAGGY Zig"zag`gy, a. Defn: Having sharp turns. Barham. ZIKKURAT Zik"ku*rat, n. Defn: A temple tower of the Babylonians or Assyrians, consisting of a lofty pyramidal structure, built in successive stages, with outside staircases, and a shrine at the top. ZILLA Zil"la, n. (Bot.) Defn: A low, thorny, suffrutescent, crucifeous plant (Zilla myagroides) found in the deserts of Egypt. Its leaves are boiled in water, and eaten, by the Arabs. ZILLAH Zil"lah, n. Etym: [Ar. zila.] Defn: A district or local division, as of a province. [India] ZIMB Zimb, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A large, venomous, two-winged fly, native of Abyssinia. It is allied to the tsetse fly, and, like the latter, is destructive to cattle. ZIMENT-WATER Zim"ent-wa`ter, n. Etym: [G. cement-wasser. See Cement.] Defn: A kind of water found in copper mines; water impregnated with copper. ZIMOCCA Zi*moc"ca, n. Defn: A sponge (Euspongia zimocca) of flat form and fine quality, from the Adriatic, about the Greek islands, and the coast of Barbary. ZINC Zinc, n. Etym: [G. zinc, probably akin to zinn tin: cf. F. zinc, from the German. Cf. Tin.] (Chem.) Defn: An abundant element of the magnesium-cadmium group, extracted principally from the minerals zinc blende, smithsonite, calamine, and franklinite, as an easily fusible bluish white metal, which is malleable, especially when heated. It is not easily oxidized in moist air, and hence is used for sheeting, coating galvanized iron, etc. It is used in making brass, britannia, and other alloys, and is also largely consumed in electric batteries. Symbol Zn. Atomic weight 64.9 [Formerly written also zink.] Butter of zinc (Old Chem.), zinc chloride, ZnCl2, a deliquescent white waxy or oily substance. -- Oxide of zinc. (Chem.) See Zinc oxide, below. -- Zinc amine (Chem.), a white amorphous substance, Zn(NH2)2, obtained by the action of ammonia on zinc ethyl; -- called also zinc amide. -- Zinc amyle (Chem.), a colorless, transparent liquid, composed of zinc and amyle, which, when exposed to the atmosphere, emits fumes, and absorbs oxygen with rapidity. -- Zinc blende Etym: [cf. G. zinkblende] (Min.), a native zinc sulphide. See Blende, n. (a) -- Zinc bloom Etym: [cf. G. zinkblumen flowers of zinc, oxide of zinc] (Min.), hydrous carbonate of zinc, usually occurring in white earthy incrustations; -- called also hydrozincite. -- Zinc ethyl (Chem.), a colorless, transparent, poisonous liquid, composed of zinc and ethyl, which takes fire spontaneously on exposure to the atmosphere. -- Zinc green, a green pigment consisting of zinc and cobalt oxides; -- called also Rinmann's green. -- Zinc methyl (Chem.), a colorless mobile liquid Zn(CH3)2, produced by the action of methyl iodide on a zinc sodium alloy. It has a disagreeable odor, and is spontaneously inflammable in the air. It has been of great importance in the synthesis of organic compounds, and is the type of a large series of similar compounds, as zinc ethyl, zinc amyle, etc. -- Zinc oxide (Chem.), the oxide of zinc, ZnO, forming a light fluffy sublimate when zinc is burned; -- called also flowers of zinc, philosopher's wool, nihil album, etc. The impure oxide produced by burning the metal, roasting its ores, or in melting brass, is called also pompholyx, and tutty. -- Zinc spinel (Min.), a mineral, related to spinel, consisting essentially of the oxides of zinc and aluminium; gahnite. -- Zinc vitriol (Chem.), zinc sulphate. See White vitriol, under Vitriol. -- Zinc white, a white powder consisting of zinc oxide, used as a pigment. ZINC Zinc, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Zincked or Zinced (; p. pr. & vb. n. Zincking or Zincing (.] Defn: To coat with zinc; to galvanize. ZINCANE Zinc"ane, n. (Chem.) Defn: Zinc chloride. [Obs.] ZINCIC Zinc"ic, a. (Chem.) Defn: Pertaining to, containing, or resembling, zinc; zincous. ZINCIDE Zinc"ide, n. Defn: A binary compound of zinc. [R.] ZINCIFEROUS Zinc*if"er*ous, a. Etym: [Zinc + -ferous.] Defn: Containing or affording zinc. ZINCIFICATION Zinc`i*fi*ca"tion, n. Defn: The act or process of applying zinc; the condition of being zincified, or covered with zinc; galvanization. ZINCIFY Zinc"i*fy, v. t. Etym: [Zinc + -fy.] (Metal.) Defn: To coat or impregnate with zinc. ZINCITE Zinc"ite, n. (Min.) Defn: Native zinc oxide; a brittle, translucent mineral, of an orange-red color; -- called also red zinc ore, and red oxide of zinc. ZINCKING; ZINCING Zinck"ing, or Zinc"ing, n. (Metal.) Defn: The act or process of applying zinc; galvanization. ZINCKY Zinck"y Defn: , Pertaining to zinc, or having its appearance. [Written also zinky.] ZINCO- Zin"co-. Defn: A combining form from zinc; in chemistry, designating zinc as an element of certain double compounds. Also used adjectively. ZINCODE Zinc"ode, n. Etym: [Zinc + -ode, as in electrode.] (Elec.) Defn: The positive electrode of an electrolytic cell; anode. [R.] Miller. ZINCOGRAPH Zin"co*graph, n. Defn: A zinc plate prepared for printing by zincography; also, a print from such a plate. ZINCOGRAPHER Zin*cog"ra*pher, n. Defn: Am engraver on zinc. ZINCOGRAPHIC; ZINCOGRAPHICAL Zin`co*graph"ic, Zin`co*graph"ic*al, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to zincography; as, zincographic processes. ZINCOGRAPHY Zin*cog"ra*phy, n. Etym: [Zinco- + -graphy.] Defn: The art or process of engraving or etching on zinc, in which the design is left in relief in the style of a wood cut, the rest of the ground being eaten away by acid. ZINCOID Zinc"oid, a. Etym: [Zinc + -oid.] Defn: Pertaining to, or resembling, zinc; -- said of the electricity of the zincous plate in connection with a copper plate in a voltaic circle; also, designating the positive pole. [Obs.] ZINCO-POLAR Zin`co-po"lar, a. Etym: [Zinco- + polar.] (Elec.) Defn: Electrically polarized like the surface of the zinc presented to the acid in a battery, which has zincous affinity. [Obs.] ZINCOUS Zinc"ous, a. 1. (Chem.) (a) Of, pertaining to, or containing, zinc; zincic; as, zincous salts. (b) Hence, formerly, basic, basylous, as opposed to chlorous. 2. (Physics) Defn: Of or pertaining to the positive pole of a galvanic battery; electro-positive. ZINGARO Zin"ga*ro, n.; pl. Zingari. Etym: [It.] Defn: A gypsy. ZINGEL Zing"el, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A small, edible, freshwater European perch (Aspro zingel), having a round, elongated body and prominent snout. ZINGIBERACEOUS Zin`gi*ber*a"ceous, a. Etym: [L. zingiber ginger. See Ginger.] (Bot.) Defn: Of or pertaining to ginger, or to a tribe (Zingibereæ) of endogenous plants of the order Scitamineæ. See Scitamineous. ZINK Zink, n. (Chem.) Defn: See Zinc. [Obs.] ZINKENITE Zink"en*ite, n. Etym: [From Zinken, director at one time of the Hanoverian mines.] (Min.) Defn: A steel-gray metallic mineral, a sulphide of antimony and lead. ZINKY Zink"y, a. Defn: See Zincky. Kirwan. ZINNIA Zin"ni*a, n. Etym: [NL. So called after Professor Zinn, of Göttingen.] (Bot.) Defn: Any plant of the composite genus Zinnia, Mexican herbs with opposite leaves and large gay-colored blossoms. Zinnia elegans is the commonest species in cultivation. ZINNWALDITE Zinn"wald*ite, n. Etym: [So called after Zinnwald, in Bohemia, where it occurs.] (Min.) Defn: A kind of mica containing lithium, often associated with tin ore. ZINSANG Zin"sang, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The delundung. ZINZIBERACEOUS Zin`zi*ber*a"ceous, a. (Bot.) Defn: Same as Zingiberaceous. ZION Zi"on, n. Etym: [Heb. tsiy, originally, a hill.] 1. (Jewish Antiq.) Defn: A hill in Jerusalem, which, after the capture of that city by the Israelites, became the royal residence of David and his successors. 2. Hence, the theocracy, or church of God. 3. The heavenly Jerusalem; heaven. ZIONISM Zi"on*ism, n. [Zion + -ism.] Defn: Among the Jews, a theory, plan, or movement for colonizing their own race in Palestine, the land of Zion, or, if that is impracticable, elsewhere, either for religious or nationalizing purposes; -- called also Zion movement. --Zi"on*ist, n. -- Zi`on*is"tic (#), a. ZIP Zip, n. [Imitative.] Defn: A hissing or sibilant sound such as that made by a flying bullet. ZIP Zip, v. i. Defn: To make, or move with, such a sound. ZIPHIOID Ziph"i*oid, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: See Xiphioid. ZIRCO- Zir"co-. (Chem.) Defn: A combining form (also used adjectively) designating zirconium as an element of certain double compounds; zircono-; as in zircofluoric acid, sodium zircofluoride. ZIRCOFLUORIDE Zir`co*flu"or*ide, n. (Chem.) Defn: A double fluoride of zirconium and hydrogen, or some other positive element or radical; as, zircofluoride of sodium. ZIRCON Zir"con, n. Etym: [F., the same word as jargon. See Jargon a variety of zircon.] (Min.) Defn: A mineral occurring in tetragonal crystals, usually of a brown or gray color. It consists of silica and zirconia. A red variety, used as a gem, is called hyacinth. Colorless, pale-yellow or smoky- brown varieties from Ceylon are called jargon. Zircon syenite, a coarse-grained syenite containing zircon crystals and often also elæolite. It is largely developed in Southern Norway. ZIRCONA Zir"co*na, n. Etym: [NL.] (Chem.) Defn: Zirconia. ZIRCONATE Zir"con*ate, n. (Chem.) Defn: A salt of zirconic acid. ZIRCONIA Zir*co"ni*a, n. Etym: [NL.] (Chem.) Defn: The oxide of zirconium, obtained as a white powder, and possessing both acid and basic properties. On account of its infusibility, and brilliant luminosity when incandescent, it is used as an ingredient of sticks for the Drummomd light. ZIRCONIC Zir*con"ic, a. (Chem.) Defn: Pertaining to, containing, or resembling, zirconium; as, zirconic oxide; zirconic compounds. Zirconic acid, an acid of zirconium analogous to carbonic and silicic acids, known only in its salts. ZIRCONIUM Zir*co"ni*um, n. Etym: [NL.] (Chem.) Defn: A rare element of the carbon-silicon group, intermediate between the metals and nonmetals, obtained from the mineral zircon as a dark sooty powder, or as a gray metallic crystalline substance. Symbol Zr. Atomic weight, 90.4. ZIRCON LIGHT Zir"con light. (Physics) Defn: A light, similar to the calcium light, produced by incandescent zirconia. ZIRCONO Zir"co*no. Defn: See Zirco-. ZIRCONOID Zir"con*oid, n. Etym: [Zircon + oid.] (Crystallog.) Defn: A double eight-sided pyramid, a form common with tetragonal crystals; -- so called because this form often occurs in crystals of zircon. ZITHER Zith"er, n. Etym: [G. zither. See Cittern.] (Mus.) Defn: An instrument of music used in Austria and Germany. It has from thirty to forty wires strung across a shallow sounding-board, which lies horizontally on a table before the performer, who uses both hands in playing on it. Note: [Not to be confounded with the old lute-shaped cittern, or cithern.] ZITTERN Zit"tern, n. (Min.) Defn: See Cittern. ZIZANIA Zi*za"ni*a, n. Etym: [NL., from L. zizanium darnel, cockle, Gr. (Bot.) Defn: A genus of grasses including Indian rice. See Indian rice, under Rice. ZIZEL Ziz"el, n. Etym: [G. ziesel.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The suslik. [Written also zisel.] ZIZITH Zi"zith, n. pl. [Heb. tsitsith.] Defn: The tassels of twisted cords or threads on the corners of the upper garment worn by strict Jews. The Hebrew for this word is translated in both the Authorized and Revised Versions (Deut. xxii. 12) by the word "fringes." ZOANTHACEA Zo`an*tha"ce*a, n. pl. Etym: [NL., from Gr. (Zoöl.) Defn: A suborder of Actinaria, including Zoanthus and allied genera, which are permanently attached by their bases. ZOANTHARIA Zo`an*tha"ri*a, n. pl. Etym: [NL.] (Zoöl.) Defn: Same as Anthozoa. ZOANTHARIAN Zo`an*tha"ri*an, a. (Zoöl.) Defn: Of or pertaining to the Zoantharia. -- n. Defn: One of the Anthozoa. ZOANTHODEME Zo*an"tho*deme, n. Etym: [See Zoantharia, and Deme.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The zooids of a compound anthozoan, collectively. ZOANTHOID Zo*an"thoid, a. Etym: [See Zoantharia, and -oid.] (Zoöl.) Defn: Of or pertaining to the Zoanthacea. ZOANTHROPY Zo*an"thro*py, n. Etym: [Gr. (Med.) Defn: A kind of monomania in which the patient believes himself transformed into one of the lower animals. ZOANTHUS Zo*an"thus, n. Etym: [NL. See Zoantharia.] (Zoöl.) Defn: A genus of Actinaria, including numerous species, found mostly in tropical seas. The zooids or polyps resemble small, elongated actinias united together at their bases by fleshy stolons, and thus forming extensive groups. The tentacles are small and bright colored. ZOBO Zo"bo, n. Etym: [Native name.] (Zoöl.) Defn: A kind of domestic cattle reared in Asia for its flesh and milk. It is supposed to be a hybrid between the zebu and the yak. ZOCCO; ZOCCOLO Zoc"co, Zoc"co*lo, n. Etym: [It. fr. L. socculus. See Socle, and cf. Zacco.] (Arch.) Defn: Same as Socle. ZOCLE Zo"cle, n. (Arch.) Defn: Same as Socle. ZODIAC Zo"di*ac, n. Etym: [F. zodiaque (cf. It. zodiaco), fr. L. zodiacus, Gr. 1. (Astron.) (a) An imaginary belt in the heavens, 16º or 18º broad, in the middle of which is the ecliptic, or sun's path. It comprises the twelve constellations, which one constituted, and from which were named, the twelve signs of the zodiac. (b) A figure representing the signs, symbols, and constellations of the zodiac. 2. A girdle; a belt. [Poetic & R.] By his side, As in a glistering zodiac, hung the sword. Milton. ZODIACAL Zo*di"a*cal, a. Etym: [Cf. F. zodiacal.] (Astron.) Defn: Of or pertaining to the zodiac; situated within the zodiac; as, the zodiacal planets. Zodiacal light, a luminous tract of the sky, of an elongated, triangular figure, lying near the ecliptic, its base being on the horizon, and its apex at varying altitudes. It is to be seen only in the evening, after twilight, and in the morning before dawn. It is supposed to be due to sunlight reflected from multitudes of meteoroids revolving about the sun nearly in the plane of the ecliptic. ZOEA Zo"ë*a, n. Etym: [NL., fr. Gr. (Zoöl.) Defn: A peculiar larval stage of certain decapod Crustacea, especially of crabs and certain Anomura. [Written also zoæa.] Note: In this stage the anterior part of the body is relatively large, and usually bears three or four long spines. The years are conspicuous, and the antennæ and jaws are long, fringed organs used in swimming. The thoracic legs are undeveloped or rudimentary, the abdomen long, slender, and often without appendages. The zoëa, after casting its shell, changes to a megalops. ZOETROPE Zo"e*trope, n. Etym: [Gr. Defn: An optical toy, in which figures made to revolve on the inside of a cylinder, and viewed through slits in its circumference, appear like a single figure passing through a series of natural motions as if animated or mechanically moved. ZOHAR Zo"har, n. Etym: [Heb. z candor, splendor.] Defn: A Jewish cabalistic book attributed by tradition to Rabbi Simon ben Yochi, who lived about the end of the 1st century, a. d. Modern critics believe it to be a compilation of the 13th century. Encyc. Brit. ZOIC Zo"ic, a. Etym: [Gr. (Zoöl.) Defn: Of or pertaining to animals, or animal life. ZOIDE Zo"ide, n. (Biol.) Defn: See Meride. ZOILEAN Zo*il"e*an, a. Defn: Having the characteristic of Zoilus, a bitter, envious, unjust critic, who lived about 270 years before Christ. ZOILISM Zo"i*lism, n. Defn: Resemblance to Zoilus in style or manner; carping criticism; detraction. Bring candid eyes the perusal of men's works, and let not Zoilism or detraction blast well-intended labors. Sir T. Browne. ZOISITE Zois"ite, n. Etym: [After its discoverer, Von Zois, an Austrian mineralogist.] (Min.) Defn: A grayish or whitish mineral occurring in orthorhombic, prismatic crystals, also in columnar masses. It is a silicate of alumina and lime, and is allied to epidote. ZOISM Zo"ism, n. [Gr. zwh` life + -ism.] 1. Reverence for animal life or belief in animal powers and influences, as among savages. 2. (Biol.) A doctrine, now discarded, that the phenomena of life are due to a peculiar vital principle; the theory of vital force. ZOKOR Zo"kor, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: An Asiatic burrowing rodent (Siphneus aspalax) resembling the mole rat. It is native of the Altai Mountains. ZOLAESQUE Zo`la*esque", a. Defn: In the style of Zola (see Zolaism). ZOLAISM Zo"la*ism, n. Defn: The literary theories and practices of the French novelist Emile Zola (1840-1902); naturalism, esp. in a derogatory sense. -- Zo"la*ist, n. -- Zo`la*is"tic (#), a. -- Zo"la*ize (#), v. ZOLLNER'S LINES Zöll"ner's lines`. [So called after Friedrich Zöllner, a German physicist.] Defn: Parallel lines that are made to appear convergent or divergent by means of oblique intersections. ZOLLVEREIN Zoll"ve*rein`, n. Etym: [G., from zoll duty + verein union.] Defn: Literally, a customs union; specifically, applied to the several customs unions successively formed under the leadership of Prussia among certain German states for establishing liberty of commerce among themselves and common tariff on imports, exports, and transit. Note: In 1834 a zollverein was established which included most of the principal German states except Austria. This was terminated by the events of 1866, and in 1867 a more closely organized union was formed, the administration of which was ultimately merged in that of the new German empire, with which it nearly corresponds territorially. ZOMBORUK Zom"bo*ruk, n. (Mil.) Defn: See Zumbooruk. ZONA Zo"na, n.; pl. Zonæ. Etym: [L., a girdle. See Zone.] Defn: A zone or band; a layer. Zona pellucida. Etym: [NL.] (Biol.) (a) The outer transparent layer, or envelope, of the ovum. It is a more or less elastic membrane with radiating striæ, and corresponds to the cell wall of an ordinary cell. See Ovum, and Illust. of Microscope. (b) The zona radiata. -- Zona radiata Etym: [NL.] (Biol.), a radiately striated membrane situated next the yolk of an ovum, or separated from it by a very delicate membrane only. ZONAL Zon"al, a. Etym: [L. zonalis.] Defn: Of or pertaining to a zone; having the form of a zone or zones. Zonal equation (Crystallog.), the mathematical relation which belongs to all the planes of a zone, and expresses their common position with reference to the axes. -- Zonal structure (Crystallog.), a structure characterized by the arrangements of color, inclusions, etc., of a crystal in parallel or concentric layers, which usually follow the outline of the crystal, and mark the changes that have taken place during its growth. -- Zonal symmetry. (Biol.) See the Note under Symmetry. ZONAR Zo"nar, n. Etym: [Mod. Gr. Zone.] Defn: A belt or girdle which the Christians and Jews of the Levant were obliged to wear to distinguish them from Mohammedans. [Written also zonnar.] ZONARIA Zo*na"ri*a, n. pl. Etym: [NL.] (Zoöl.) Defn: A division of Mammalia in which the placenta is zonelike. ZONATE Zon"ate, a. (Bot.) Defn: Divided by parallel planes; as, zonate tetraspores, found in certain red algæ. ZONE Zone, n. Etym: [F. zone, L. zona, Gr. j to gird, Zend yah.] 1. A girdle; a cincture. [Poetic] An embroidered zone surrounds her waist. Dryden. Loose were her tresses seen, her zone unbound. Collins. 2. (Geog.) Defn: One of the five great divisions of the earth, with respect to latitude and temperature. Note: The zones are five: the torrid zone, extending from tropic to tropic 46º 56min, or 23º 28min on each side of the equator; two temperate or variable zones, situated between the tropics and the polar circles; and two frigid zones, situated between the polar circles and the poles. Commerce . . . defies every wind, outrides every tempest, and invades. Bancroft. 3. (Math.) Defn: The portion of the surface of a sphere included between two parallel planes; the portion of a surface of revolution included between two planes perpendicular to the axis. Davies & Peck (Math. Dict.) 4. (Nat. Hist.) (a) A band or stripe extending around a body. (b) A band or area of growth encircling anything; as, a zone of evergreens on a mountain; the zone of animal or vegetable life in the ocean around an island or a continent; the Alpine zone, that part of mountains which is above the limit of tree growth. 5. (Crystallog.) Defn: A series of planes having mutually parallel intersections. 6. Circuit; circumference. [R.] Milton. Abyssal zone. (Phys. Geog.) See under Abyssal. -- Zone axis (Crystallog.), a straight line passing through the center of a crystal, to which all the planes of a given zone are parallel. ZONE Zone, v. t. Defn: To girdle; to encircle. [R.] Keats. ZONED Zoned, a. 1. Wearing a zone, or girdle. Pope. 2. Having zones, or concentric bands; striped. 3. (Bot.) Defn: Zonate. ZONELESS Zone"less, a. Defn: Not having a zone; ungirded. The reeling goddess with the zoneless waist. Cowper. In careless folds, loose fell her zoneless vest. Mason. ZONNAR Zon"nar, n. Defn: See Zonar. ZONULAR Zon"u*lar, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to a zone; zone-shaped. "The zonular type of a placenta." Dana. ZONULE Zon"ule, n. Defn: A little zone, or girdle. ZONULET Zon"u*let, n. Defn: A zonule. Herrick. ZONURE Zon"ure, n. Etym: [Zone + Gr. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of several of South African lizards of the genus Zonura, common in rocky situations. ZOO-; ZOOE- Zo"ö-. Defn: A combining form from Gr. zwo^,n an animal, as in zoögenic, zoölogy, etc. ZOOCHEMICAL; ZOOECHEMICAL Zo`ö*chem"ic*al, a. Defn: Pertaining to zoöchemistry. ZOOCHEMISTRY; ZOOECHEMISTRY Zo`ö*chem"is*try, n. Etym: [Zoö- + chemistry.] Defn: Animal chemistry; particularly, the description of the chemical compounds entering into the composition of the animal body, in distinction from biochemistry. ZOOCHEMY; ZOOECHEMY Zo*öch"e*my, n. Etym: [Zoö- + Gr. Defn: Animal chemistry; zoöchemistry. Dunglison. ZOOCHLORELLA; ZOOECHLORELLA Zo`ö*chlo*rel"la, n. Etym: [NL., dim. from Gr. (Zoöl.) Defn: One of the small green granulelike bodies found in the interior of certain stentors, hydras, and other invertebrates. ZOOCYST; ZOOECYST Zo"ö*cyst, n. Etym: [Zoö- + cyst.] (Biol.) Defn: A cyst formed by certain Protozoa and unicellular plants which the contents divide into a large number of granules, each of which becomes a germ. ZOOCYTIUM; ZOOECYTIUM Zo`ö*cy"ti*um, n.; pl. Zoöcytia. Etym: [NL., fr. Gr. (Zoöl.) Defn: The common support, often branched, of certain species of social Infusoria. ZOODENDRIUM; ZOOEDENDRIUM Zo`ö*den"dri*um, n.; pl. Zoödendria. Etym: [NL., fr. Gr. (Zoöl.) Defn: The branched, and often treelike, support of the colonies of certain Infusoria. ZOOECIUM Zo*oe"ci*um, n.; pl. Zooecia. Etym: [NL., fr. Gr. (Zoöl.) Defn: One of the cells or tubes which inclose the feeling zooids of Bryozoa. See Illust. of Sea Moss. ZOOERYTHRINE; ZOOEERYTHRINE Zo`ö*e*ryth"rine, n. Etym: [Zoö- + Gr. (Zoöl.) Defn: A peculiar organic red coloring matter found in the feathers of various birds. ZOOGAMOUS; ZOOEGAMOUS Zo*ög"a*mous, a. Etym: [Zoö- + Gr. (Biol.) Defn: Of or pertaining zoögamy. ZOOGAMY; ZOOEGAMY Zo*ög"a*my, n. (Biol.) Defn: The sexual reproduction of animals. ZOOGENIC; ZOOEGENIC Zo`ö*gen"ic, a. Etym: [Zoö- + -gen + -ic: cf. Gr. (Biol.) Defn: Of or pertaining to zoögeny, animal production. ZOOGENY; ZOOEGENY; ZOOGONY; ZOOEGONY Zo*ög"e*ny, Zo*ög"o*ny, n. Etym: [Zoö- + root of Gr. Defn: The doctrine of the formation of living beings. ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL; ZOOEGEOGRAPHICAL Zo`ö*ge`o*graph"ic*al, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to zoögraphy. ZOOGEOGRAPHY; ZOOEGEOGRAPHY Zo`ö*ge*og"ra*phy, n. Etym: [Zoö- + geography.] Defn: The study or description of the geographical distribution of animals. ZOOGLOEA; ZOOEGLOEA Zo`ö*gloe"a, n. Etym: [NL., from Gr. (Biol.) Defn: A colony or mass of bacteria imbedded in a viscous gelatinous substance. The zoögloea is characteristic of a transitory stage through which rapidly multiplying bacteria pass in the course of their evolution. Also used adjectively. ZOOGRAPHER; ZOOEGRAPHER Zo*ög"ra*pher, n. Defn: One who describes animals, their forms and habits. ZOOGRAPHIC; ZOOEGRAPHIC; ZOOGRAPHICAL; ZOOEGRAPHICAL Zo`ö*graph"ic, Zo`ö*graph"ic*al, a. Etym: [Cf. F. zoographique.] Defn: Of or pertaining to the description of animals. ZOOGRAPHIST; ZOOEGRAPHIST Zo*ög"ra*phist, n. Defn: A zoögrapher. ZOOGRAPHY; ZOOEGRAPHY Zo*ög"ra*phy, n. Etym: [Zoö- + -graphy: cf. F. zoographie.] Defn: A description of animals, their forms and habits. ZOOID Zo"oid, a. Etym: [Zoö- + -oid.] (Biol.) Defn: Pertaining to, or resembling, an animal. ZOOID Zo"oid, n. 1. (Biol.) Defn: An organic body or cell having locomotion, as a spermatic cell or spermatozooid. 2. (Zoöl.) (a) An animal in one of its inferior stages of development, as one of the intermediate forms in alternate generation. (b) One of the individual animals in a composite group, as of Anthozoa, Hydroidea, and Bryozoa; -- sometimes restricted to those individuals in which the mouth and digestive organs are not developed. ZOOIDAL Zo*oid"al, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to a zooid; as, a zooidal form. ZOOLATRY; ZOOELATRY Zo*öl"a*try, n. Etym: [Zoö- + Gr. Defn: The worship of animals. ZOOLOGER; ZOOELOGER Zo*öl"o*ger, n. Defn: A zoölogist. Boyle. ZOOLOGICAL; ZOOELOGICAL Zo`ö*log"ic*al, a. Etym: [Cf. F. zoologique.] Defn: Of or pertaining to zoölogy, or the science of animals. ZOOLOGICALLY; ZOOELOGICALLY Zo`ö*log"ic*al*ly, adv. Defn: In a zoölogical manner; according to the principles of zoölogy. ZOOLOGIST; ZOOELOGIST Zo*öl"o*gist, n. Etym: [Cf. F. zoologiste.] Defn: One who is well versed in zoölogy. ZOOLOGIZE Zo*öl"o*gize, v. i. Defn: To study zoölogy; esp., to collect animals for study. ZOOLOGY; ZOOELOGY Zo*öl"o*gy, n.; pl. Zoölogies. Etym: [Zoö- + -logy: cf. F. zoologie. See Zodiac.] 1. That part of biology which relates to the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals, both living and extinct. 2. A treatise on this science. ZOOMELANIN; ZOOEMELANIN Zo`ö*mel"a*nin, n. Etym: [Zoö- + melanin.] (Physiol. Chem.) Defn: A pigment giving the black color to the feathers of many birds. ZOOMORPHIC; ZOOEMORPHIC Zo`ö*mor"phic, a. Etym: [Zoö- + Gr. Defn: Of or pertaining to zoömorphism. ZOOMORPHISM; ZOOEMORPHISM Zo`ö*mor"phism, n. 1. The transformation of men into beasts. [R.] Smart. 2. The quality of representing or using animal forms; as, zoömorphism in ornament. 3. The representation of God, or of gods, in the form, or with the attributes, of the lower animals. To avoid the error of anthropomorphism, we fall into the vastly greater, and more absurd, error of zoömorphism. Mivart. ZOON; ZOOEN Zo"ön, n.; pl. Zoa. Etym: [NL., fr. Gr. (Zoöl.) (a) An animal which is the sole product of a single egg; -- opposed to zooid. H. Spencer. (b) Any one of the perfectly developed individuals of a compound animal. ZOONIC; ZOOENIC Zo*ön"ic, a. Etym: [Gr. zoonique.] Defn: Of or pertaining to animals; obtained from animal substances. ZOONITE; ZOOENITE Zo"ö*nite, n. (Zoöl.) (a) One of the segments of the body of an articulate animal. (b) One of the theoretic transverse divisions of any segmented animal. ZOONOMY; ZOOENOMY Zo*ön"o*my, n. Etym: [Zoö- + Gr. zoonomie.] Defn: The laws animal life, or the science which treats of the phenomena of animal life, their causes and relations. ZOONULE; ZOOENULE Zo"ö*nule, n. Etym: [Dim. fr. Gr. (Zoöl.) Defn: Same as Zoönite. ZOOPATHOLOGY; ZOOEPATHOLOGY Zo`ö*pa*thol"o*gy, n. Etym: [Zoö- + pathology.] Defn: Animal pathology. ZOOPHAGA; ZOOEPHAGA Zo*öph"a*ga, n. pl. Etym: [NL., fr. Gr. (Zoöl.) Defn: An artificial group comprising various carnivorous and insectivorous animals. ZOOPHAGAN; ZOOEPHAGAN Zo*öph"a*gan, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: A animal that feeds on animal food. ZOOPHAGOUS; ZOOEPHAGOUS Zo*öph"a*gous, a. Etym: [Gr. Defn: Feeding on animals. Note: This is a more general term than either sarcophagous or carnivorous. ZOOPHILIST; ZOOEPHILIST Zo*öph"i*list, n. Etym: [Zoö- + Gr. Defn: A lover of animals. Southey. ZOOPHILY; ZOOEPHILY Zo*öph"i*ly, n. Defn: Love of animals. ZOOPHITE; ZOOEPHITE Zo"ö*phite, n. Defn: A zoöphyte. [R.] ZOOPHORIC; ZOOEPHORIC Zo`ö*phor"ic, a. Etym: [Gr. zoophorique.] Defn: Bearing or supporting the figure of an animal; as, a zoöphoric column. ZOOPHOROUS; ZOOEPHOROUS Zo*öph"o*rous, n. Etym: [L., fr. Gr. Zoöphoric.] (Anc. Arch.) Defn: The part between the architrave and cornice; the frieze; -- so called from the figures of animals carved upon it. ZOOPHYTA; ZOOEPHYTA Zo*öph"y*ta, n. pl. Etym: [NL., from Gr. (Zoöl.) Defn: An extensive artificial and heterogeneous group of animals, formerly adopted by many zoölogists. It included the coelenterates, echinoderms, sponges, Bryozoa, Protozoa, etc. Note: Sometimes the name is restricted to the Coelentera, or to the Anthozoa. ZOOPHYTE; ZOOEPHYTE Zo"ö*phyte, n. Etym: [F. zoophyte, Gr. Zodiac, and Be, v. i.] (Zoöl.) (a) Any one of numerous species of invertebrate animals which more or less resemble plants in appearance, or mode of growth, as the corals, gorgonians, sea anemones, hydroids, bryozoans, sponges, etc., especially any of those that form compound colonies having a branched or treelike form, as many corals and hydroids. (b) Any one of the Zoöphyta. ZOOPHYTIC; ZOOEPHYTIC; ZOOPHYTICAL; ZOOEPHYTICAL Zo`ö*phyt"ic, Zo`ö*phyt"ic*al, a. Etym: [Cf. F. zoophytique.] (Zoöl.) Defn: Of or pertaining to zoöphytes. ZOOPHYTOID; ZOOEPHYTOID Zo*öph"y*toid, a. Etym: [Zoöphyte + -oid.] (Zoöl.) Defn: Pertaining to, or resembling, a zoöphyte. ZOOPHYTOLOGICAL; ZOOEPHYTOLOGICAL Zo`ö*phyt`o*log"ic*al, a. Etym: [Cf. F. zoophytologique.] Defn: Of or pertaining to zoöphytology; as, zoöphytological observations. ZOOPHYTOLOGY; ZOOEPHYTOLOGY Zo*öph`y*tol"o*gy, n. Etym: [Zoöphyte + -logy: cf. F. zoophytologie.] Defn: The natural history zoöphytes. ZOOPRAXISCOPE; ZOOEPRAXISCOPE Zo`ö*prax"i*scope, n. Etym: [Zoö- + Gr. -scope.] Defn: An instrument similar to, or the same as, the, the phenakistoscope, by means of which pictures projected upon a screen are made to exhibit the natural movements of animals, and the like. ZOOPSYCHOLOGY; ZOOEPSYCHOLOGY Zo`ö*psy*chol"o*gy, n. Etym: [Zoö- + psychology.] Defn: Animal psychology. ZOOSPERM; ZOOESPERM Zo"ö*sperm, n. Etym: [Zoö- + sperm.] (Biol.) Defn: One of the spermatic particles; spermatozoid. ZOOSPORANGIUM; ZOOESPORANGIUM Zo`ö*spo*ran"gi*um, n.; pl. -sporangia. Etym: [NL. See Zoö-, and Sporangium.] (Bot.) Defn: A spore, or conceptacle containing zoöspores. ZOOSPORE; ZOOESPORE Zo"ö*spore, n. Etym: [Zoö- + spore.] 1. (Bot.) Defn: A spore provided with one or more slender cilia, by the vibration of which it swims in the water. Zoöspores are produced by many green, and by some olive-brown, algæ. In certain species they are divided into the larger macrozoöspores and the smaller microzoöspores. Called also sporozoid, and swarmspore. 2. (Zoöl.) Defn: See Swarmspore. ZOOSPORIC; ZOOESPORIC Zo`ö*spor"ic, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to zoöspores; of the nature of zoöspores. ZOOTIC; ZOOETIC Zo*öt"ic, a. Etym: [Gr. Defn: Containing the remains of organized bodies; -- said of rock or soil. ZOOTOMICAL; ZOOETOMICAL Zo`ö*tom"ic*al, a. Etym: [Cf. F. zootomique.] Defn: Of or pertaining to zoötomy. ZOOTOMIST; ZOOETOMIST Zo*öt"o*mist, n. Etym: [Cf. F. zootomiste.] Defn: One who dissects animals, or is skilled in zoötomy. ZOOTOMY; ZOOETOMY Zo*öt"o*my, n. Etym: [Zoö- + Gr. zootomie.] Defn: The dissection or the anatomy of animals; -- distinguished from androtomy. ZOOTROPHIC; ZOOETROPHIC Zo`ö*troph"ic, a. Etym: [Gr. Zoö-, and Trophic.] (Physiol.) Defn: Of or pertaining to the nourishment of animals. ZOOZOO Zoo"zoo`, n. Etym: [Of imitative origin.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The wood pigeon. [Prov. Eng.] ZOPE Zope, n. Etym: [G.] (Zoöl.) Defn: A European fresh-water bream (Abramis ballerus). ZOPILOTE Zo"pi*lote, n. Etym: [Sp.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The urubu, or American black vulture. ZORIL Zor"il, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: Same as Zorilla. ZORILLA Zo*ril"la, n. Etym: [Sp. zorilla, zorillo, dim. of zorra, zorro, a fox: cf. F. zorille.] (Zoöl.) Defn: Either one of two species of small African carnivores of the genus Ictonyx allied to the weasels and skunks. [Written also zoril, and zorille.] Note: The best-known species (Ictonyx zorilla) has black shiny fur with white bands and spots. It has anal glands which produce a very offensive secretion, similar to that of the skunk. It feeds upon birds and their eggs and upon small mammals, and is often very destructive to poultry. It is sometimes tamed by the natives, and kept to destroy rats and mice. Called also mariput, Cape polecat, and African polecat. The name is sometimes erroneously applied to the American skunk. ZOROASTRIAN Zo`ro*as"tri*an, a. Defn: Of or pertaining to Zoroaster, or his religious system. ZOROASTRIAN Zo`ro*as"tri*an, n. Defn: A follower of Zoroaster; one who accepts Zoroastrianism. ZOROASTRIANISM Zo`ro*as"tri*an*ism, n. Defn: The religious system of Zoroaster, the legislator and prophet of the ancient Persians, which was the national faith of Persia; mazdeism. The system presupposes a good spirit (Ormuzd) and an opposing evil spirit (Ahriman). Cf. Fire worship, under Fire, and Parsee. ZOROASTRISM Zo`ro*as"trism, n. Defn: Same as Zoroastrianism. Tylor. ZOSTER Zos"ter, n. Etym: [L., fr. Gr. Zone.] (Med.) Defn: Shingles. ZOSTERA Zos"te*ra, n. Etym: [NL.] (Bot.) Defn: A genus of plants of the Naiadaceæ, or Pondweed family. Zostera marina is commonly known as sea wrack, and eelgrass. ZOSTEROPS Zos"ter*ops, n. Etym: [NL., fr. Gr. (Zoöl.) Defn: A genus of birds that comprises the white-eyes. See White-eye. ZOUAVE Zouave, n. Etym: [F., fr. Ar. Zouaoua a tribe of Kabyles living among the Jurjura mountains in Algeria.] (Mil.) (a) One of an active and hardy body of soldiers in the French service, originally Arabs, but now composed of Frenchmen who wear the Arab dress. (b) Hence, one of a body of soldiers who adopt the dress and drill of the Zouaves, as was done by a number of volunteer regiments in the army of the United States in the Civil War, 1861-65. ZOUNDS Zounds, interj. Etym: [Contracted from God's wounds.] Defn: An exclamation formerly used as an oath, and an expression of anger or wonder. ZOUTCH Zoutch, v. t. (Cookery) Defn: To stew, as flounders, eels, etc., with just enough or liquid to cover them. Smart. ZUBR Zubr, n. Etym: [Polish .] (Zoöl.) Defn: The aurochs. ZUCHE Zuche, n. Defn: A stump of a tree. Cowell. ZUCHETTO Zu*chet"to, n. Etym: [It. zucchetto.] (R. C. Ch.) Defn: A skullcap covering the tonsure, worn under the berretta. The pope's is white; a cardinal's red; a bishop's purple; a priest's black. ZUFOLO Zu"fo*lo, n. Etym: [It.] (Mus.) Defn: A little flute or flageolet, especially that which is used to teach birds. [Written also zuffolo.] ZUIAN Zu"ñi*an, a. Defn: Of or pert. to the Zuñis, or designating their linguistic stock. --n. Defn: A Zuñi. ZUISIN Zui"sin, n. (Zoöl.) Defn: The American widgeon. [Local, U. S.] ZULU Zu"lu, n. [Also Zooloo.] 1. Any member of the tribe of Zulus; a Zulu-Kaffir. See Zulus. 2. (Philol.) One of the most important members of the South African, or Bantu, family of languages, spoken partly in Natal and partly in Zululand, but understood, and more or less in use, over a wide territory, at least as far north as the Zambezi; -- called also Zulu- Kaffir. ZULU-KAFFIR Zu"lu-Kaf"fir, n. Defn: A member of the Bantu race comprising the Zulus and the Kaffirs. ZULUS Zu"lus, n. pl.; sing. Zulu (. (Ethnol.) Defn: The most important tribe belonging to the Kaffir race. They inhabit a region on the southeast coast of Africa, but formerly occupied a much more extensive country. They are noted for their warlike disposition, courage, and military skill. ZUMBOORUK Zum*boo"ruk, n. Etym: [Turk. & Ar. zamb, fr. Ar. zamb a hornet.] (Mil.) Defn: A small cannon supported by a swiveled rest on the back of a camel, whence it is fired, -- used in the East. ZUMIC; ZUMOLOGICAL; ZUMOLOGY; ZUMOMETER Zu"mic, a., Zu`mo*log"ic*al, a., Zu*mol"o*gy, n., Zu*mom"e*ter, n., etc. Defn: See Zymic, Zymological, etc. ZUNIS Zu"nis, n. pl.; sing. Zuni (. (Ethnol.) Defn: A tribe of Pueblo Indians occupying a village in New Mexico, on the Zuni River. ZUNYITE Zun"yite, n. (Min.) Defn: A fluosilicate of alumina occurring in tetrahedral crystals at the Zuñi mine in Colorado. ZWANZIGER Zwan"zi*ger, n. Etym: [G.] Defn: Am Austrian silver coin equivalent to 20 kreutzers, or about 10 cents. ZWIEBACK Zwie"back`, n. [G., fr. zwie-two, twice (see Twice) + backen to bake.] Defn: A kind of biscuit or rusk first baked in a loaf and afterwards cut and toasted. ZWINGLIAN Zwing"li*an, a. (Theol.) Defn: Of or pertaining to Ulric Zwingli (1481-1531), the reformer of German Switzerland, who maintained that in the Lord's Supper the true body of Christ is present by the contemplation of faith but not in essence or reality, and that the sacrament is a memorial without mystical elements. -- n. Defn: A follower of Zwingli. ZYGANTRUM Zy*gan"trum, n.; pl. Zygantra. Etym: [Gr. (Anat.) Defn: See under Zygosphene. ZYGAPOPHYSIS Zyg`a*poph"y*sis, n.; pl. Zygapophyses. Etym: [Gr. apophysis.] (Anat.) Defn: One of the articular processes of a vertebra, of which there are usually four, two anterior and two posterior. See under Vertebra. -- Zyg`ap*o*phys"i*al, a. ZYGENID Zyg"e*nid, n. Etym: [Cf. Gr. (Zoöl.) Defn: Any one of numerous species of moths of the family Zygænidæ, most of which are bright colored. The wood nymph and the vine forester are examples. Also used adjectively. ZYGOBRANCHIA Zyg`o*bran"chi*a, n. pl. Etym: [NL., from Gr. (Zoöl.) Defn: A division of marine gastropods in which the gills are developed on both sides of the body and the renal organs are also paired. The abalone (Haliotis) and the keyhole limpet (Fissurella) are examples. ZYGOBRANCHIATE Zyg`o*bran"chi*ate, a. (Zoöl.) Defn: Of or pertaining to the Zygobranchia. ZYGODACTYL; ZYGODACTYLE Zyg`o*dac"tyl, Zyg`o*dac"tyle, n. Etym: [See Zygodactylic.] (Zoöl.) Defn: Any zygodactylous bird. ZYGODACTYLAE Zyg`o*dac"ty*læ, n. pl. Etym: [NL.] (Zoöl.) Defn: The zygodactylous birds. In a restricted sense applied to a division of birds which includes the barbets, toucans, honey guides, and other related birds. ZYGODACTYLI Zyg`o*dac"ty*li, n. pl. Etym: [NL.] (Zoöl.) Defn: Same as Scansores. ZYGODACTYLIC; ZYGODACTYLOUS Zyg`o*dac"ty*lic, Zyg`o*dac"tyl*ous, a. Etym: [Gr. zygodactyle.] (Zoöl.) Defn: Yoke-footed; having the toes disposed in pairs; -- applied to birds which have two toes before and two behind, as the parrot, cuckoo, woodpecker, etc. ZYGOMA Zy*go"ma, n. Etym: [NL., fr. Gr. (Anat.) (a) The jugal, malar, or cheek bone. (b) The zygomatic process of the temporal bone. (c) The whole zygomatic arch. ZYGOMATIC Zyg`o*mat"ic, a. Etym: [Cf. F. zygomatique.] (Anat.) Defn: Of, pertaining to, or in the region of, the zygoma. Zygomatic arch, the arch of bone beneath the orbit, formed in most mammals by the union of the malar, or jugal, with the zygomatic process of the temporal bone. In the lower vertebrates other bones may help to form it, and there may be two arches on each side of the skull, as in some reptiles. -- Zygomatic process, a process of the temporal or squamosal bone helping to form the zygomatic arch. ZYGOMORPHIC; ZYGOMORPHOUS Zyg`o*mor"phic, Zyg`o*mor"phous, a. Etym: [Gr. (Biol.) Defn: Symmetrical bilaterally; -- said of organisms, or parts of organisms, capable of division into two symmetrical halves only in a single plane. ZYGOPHYTE Zy"go*phyte, n. Etym: [Gr. (Bot.) Defn: Any plant of a proposed class or grand division (Zygophytes, Zygophyta, or Zygosporeæ), in which reproduction consists in the union of two similar cells. Cf. Oöphyte. ZYGOSIS Zy*go"sis, n. Etym: [NL., fr. Gr. (Biol.) Defn: Same as Conjugation. ZYGOSPERM Zyg"o*sperm, n. Etym: [Gr. sperm.] (Bot.) Defn: A spore formed by the union of the contents of two similar cells, either of the same or of distinct individual plants. Zygosperms are found in certain orders of algæ and fungi. ZYGOSPHENE Zyg"o*sphene, n. Etym: [Gr. (Anat.) Defn: A median process on the front part of the neural arch of the vertebræ of most snakes and some lizards, which fits into a fossa, called the zygantrum, on the back part of the arch in front. ZYGOSPORE Zyg"o*spore, n. Etym: [Gr. spore.] (Bot.) (a) Same as Zygosperm. (b) A spore formed by the union of several zoöspores; -- called also zygozoöspore. ZYLONITE Zy"lon*ite, n. Etym: [Gr. Defn: Celluloid. ZYMASE Zym"ase, n. Etym: [From Zyme.] (Physiol. Chem.) Defn: A soluble ferment, or enzyme. See Enzyme. ZYME Zyme, n. Etym: [Gr. 1. A ferment. 2. (Med.) Defn: The morbific principle of a zymotic disease. Quain. ZYMIC Zym"ic, a. (Old Chem.) Defn: Pertaining to, or produced by, fermentation; -- formerly, by confusion, used to designate lactic acid. ZYMOGEN Zym"o*gen, n. Etym: [Zyme + -gen.] (Physiol. Chem.) Defn: A mother substance, or antecedent, of an enzyme or chemical ferment; -- applied to such substances as, not being themselves actual ferments, may by internal changes give rise to a ferment. The pancreas contains but little ready-made ferment, though there is present in it a body, zymogen, which gives birth to the ferment. Foster. ZYMOGENE Zym"o*gene, n. Etym: [Zyme + root of Gr. (Biol.) Defn: One of a physiological group of globular bacteria which produces fermentations of diverse nature; -- distinguished from pathogene. ZYMOGENIC Zym`o*gen"ic, a. (Biol.) (a) Pertaining to, or formed by, a zymogene. (b) Capable of producing a definite zymogen or ferment. Zymogenic organism (Biol.), a microörganism, such as the yeast plant of the Bacterium lactis, which sets up certain fermentative processes by which definite chemical products are formed; -- distinguished from a pathogenic organism. Cf. Micrococcus. ZYMOLOGIC; ZYMOLOGICAL Zy`mo*log"ic, Zy`mo*log"ic*al, a. Etym: [Cf. F. zymologique.] Defn: Of or pertaining to zymology. ZYMOLOGIST Zy*mol"o*gist, n. Defn: One who is skilled in zymology, or in the fermentation of liquors. ZYMOLOGY Zy*mol"o*gy, n. Etym: [Zyme + -logy: cf. F. zymologie.] Defn: A treatise on the fermentation of liquors, or the doctrine of fermentation. [Written also zumology.] ZYMOLYSIS Zy*mol"y*sis, n. [NL. See Zyme, and Lysis.] (Physiol. Chem.) Defn: The action of enzymes; also, the changes produced by such action. --Zy`mo*lyt"ic (#), a. ZYMOME Zy"mome, n. Etym: [Gr. (Old Chem.) Defn: A glutinous substance, insoluble in alcohol, resembling legumin; -- now called vegetable fibrin, vegetable albumin, or gluten casein. ZYMOMETER; ZYMOSIMETER Zy*mom"e*ter, Zy`mo*sim"e*ter, n. Etym: [Gr. -meter: cf. F. zymosimètre.] Defn: An instrument for ascertaining the degree of fermentation occasioned by the mixture of different liquids, and the degree of heat which they acquire in fermentation. ZYMOPHYTE Zym"o*phyte, n. Etym: [Zyme + Gr. (Physiol. Chem.) Defn: A bacteroid ferment. ZYMOSE Zy*mose", n. (Chem.) Defn: Invertin. ZYMOSIS Zy*mo"sis, n. Etym: [NL., fr. Gr. (Med.) (a) A fermentation; hence, an analogous process by which an infectious disease is believed to be developed. (b) A zymotic disease. [R.] ZYMOTIC Zy*mot"ic, a. Etym: [Gr. 1. Of, pertaining to, or caused by, fermentation. 2. (Med.) Defn: Designating, or pertaining to, a certain class of diseases. See Zymotic disease, below. Zymotic disease (Med.), any epidemic, endemic, contagious, or sporadic affection which is produced by some morbific principle or organism acting on the system like a ferment. ZYTHEM Zy"them, n. Defn: See Zythum. ZYTHEPSARY Zy*thep"sa*ry, n. Etym: [Gr. Defn: A brewery. [R.] ZYTHUM Zy"thumn. Etym: [L.fr. Gr. Defn: A kind of ancient malt beverage; a liquor made from malt and wheat. [Written also zythem.] 
34251	----	Transcriber's note: In this e-text e-breve is represented by [)e], a-breve by [)a], and o-macron by [=o]. Page numbers enclosed by curly braces (example: {25}) have been incorporated to facilitate the use of the Vocabulary and Index (Chapter XIII). ENGLISH AS WE SPEAK IT IN IRELAND by P. W. JOYCE, LL.D., T.C.D., M.R.I.A. One of the Commissioners for the Publication of the Ancient Laws of Ireland Late Principal of the Government Training College, Marlborough Street, Dublin Late President of the Royal Society of Antiquaries, Ireland * * * * * THE LIFE OF A PEOPLE IS PICTURED IN THEIR SPEECH. * * * * * London: Longmans, Green, & Co. Dublin: M. H. Gill & Son, Ltd. 1910 {v} PREFACE. This book deals with the Dialect of the English Language that is spoken in Ireland. As the Life of a people--according to our motto--is pictured in their speech, our picture ought to be a good one, for two languages were concerned in it--Irish and English. The part played by each will be found specially set forth in Chapters IV and VII; and in farther detail throughout the whole book. The articles and pamphlets that have already appeared on this interesting subject--which are described below--are all short. Some are full of keen observation; but very many are mere lists of dialectical words with their meanings. Here for the first time--in this little volume of mine--our Anglo-Irish Dialect is subjected to detailed analysis and systematic classification. I have been collecting materials for this book for more than twenty years; not indeed by way of constant work, but off and on as detailed below. The sources from which these materials were directly derived are mainly the following. _First._--My own memory is a storehouse both of idiom and vocabulary; for the good reason that from childhood to early manhood I spoke--like those among whom I lived--the rich dialect {vi} of Limerick and Cork--and indeed to some extent speak it still in the colloquial language of everyday life. I have also drawn pretty largely on our Anglo-Irish Folk Songs of which I have a great collection, partly in my memory and partly on printed sheets; for they often faithfully reflect our Dialect. _Second._--Eighteen years ago (1892) I wrote a short letter which was inserted in nearly all the Irish newspapers and in very many of those published outside Ireland, announcing my intention to write a book on Anglo-Irish Dialect, and asking for collections of dialectical words and phrases. In response to this I received a very large number of communications from all parts of Ireland, as well as from outside Ireland, even from America, Australia, and New Zealand--all more or less to the point, showing the great and widespread interest taken in the subject. Their importance of course greatly varied; but many were very valuable. I give at the end of the book an alphabetical list of those contributors: and I acknowledge the most important of them throughout the book. _Third._--The works of Irish writers of novels, stories, and essays depicting Irish peasant life in which the people are made to speak in dialect. Some of these are mentioned in Chapter I., and others are quoted throughout the book as occasion requires. {vii} _Fourth._--Printed articles and pamphlets on the special subject of Anglo-Irish Dialect. Of these the principal that I have come across are the following:-- 'The Provincialisms of Belfast and Surrounding District pointed out and corrected,' by David Patterson. (1860.) 'Remarks on the Irish Dialect of the English Language,' by A. Hume, D.C.L. and LL.D. (1878.) 'A Glossary of Words in use in the Counties of Antrim and Down,' by Wm. Hugh Patterson, M.R.I.A. (1880)--a large pamphlet--might indeed be called a book. 'Don't, Pat,' by 'Colonel O'Critical': a very good and useful little pamphlet, marred by a silly title which turns up perpetually through the whole pamphlet till the reader gets sick of it. (1885.) 'A List of Peculiar Words and Phrases at one time in use in Armagh and South Donegal': by D. A. Simmons. (1890.) This List was annotated by me, at the request of Mr. Simmons, who was, at or about that time, President of the Irish National Teachers' Association. A Series of Six Articles on _The English in Ireland_ by myself, printed in 'The Educational Gazette'; Dublin. (1890.) 'The Anglo-Irish Dialect,' by the Rev. William Burke (an Irish priest residing in Liverpool); published in 'The Irish Ecclesiastical Record' for 1896. A judicious and scholarly essay, which I have very often used. {viii} 'The Irish Dialect of English; its Origins and Vocabulary.' By Mary Hayden, M.A., and Prof. Marcus Hartog (jointly): published in 'The Fortnightly Review' (1909: April and May). A thoughtful and valuable essay. Miss Hayden knows Irish well, and has made full use of her knowledge to illustrate her subject. Of this article I have made much use. Besides these there were a number of short articles by various writers published in Irish newspapers within the last twenty years or so, nearly all of them lists of dialectical words used in the North of Ireland. In the Introduction to the 'Biglow Papers,' Second Series, James Russell Lowell has some valuable observations on modern English dialectical words and phrases derived from Old English forms, to which I am indebted for much information, and which will be found acknowledged through this book: for it touches my subject in many places. In this Introduction Mr. Lowell remarks truly:--'It is always worth while to note down the erratic words or phrases one meets with in any dialect. They may throw light on the meaning of other words, on the relationship of languages, or even history itself.' Of all the above I have made use so far as served my purpose--always with acknowledgment. _Fifth._ For twenty years or more I have kept a large note-book lying just at my hand; and {ix} whenever any peculiar Irish-English expression, or anything bearing on the subject, came before me--from memory, or from reading, or from hearing it in conversation--down it went in the manuscript. In this way an immense mass of materials was accumulated almost imperceptibly. The vast collection derived from all the above sources lay by till early last year, when I went seriously to work at the book. But all the materials were mixed up--_three-na-haila_--'through-other'--and before a line of the book was written they had to be perused, selected, classified, and alphabetised, which was a very heavy piece of work. A number of the Irish items in the great 'Dialect Dictionary' edited for the English Dialect Society by Dr. Joseph Wright were contributed by me and are generally printed with my initials. I have neither copied nor avoided these--in fact I did not refer to them at all while working at my book--and naturally many--perhaps most--of them reappear here, probably in different words. But this is quite proper; for the Dialect Dictionary is a book of reference--six large volumes, very expensive--and not within reach of the general public. Many of the words given in this book as dialectical are also used by the people in the ordinary sense they bear in standard English; such as _break_:--'Poor Tom was broke yesterday' (dialect: dismissed from employment): 'the bowl {x} fell on the flags and was broken in pieces' (correct English): and _dark_: 'a poor dark man' (dialect: blind): 'a dark night' (correct English). This is essentially a subject for popular treatment; and accordingly I have avoided technical and scientific details and technical terms: they are not needed. When a place is named in connexion with a dialectical expression, it is not meant that the expression is confined to that place, but merely that it is, or was, in use there. P. W. J. DUBLIN: _March, 1910_. * * * * * {xi} CONTENTS Chapter Page I. SOURCES OF ANGLO-IRISH DIALECT, 1 II. AFFIRMING, ASSENTING, AND SALUTING, 9 III. ASSERTING BY NEGATIVE OF OPPOSITE, 16 IV. IDIOMS DERIVED FROM THE IRISH LANGUAGE, 23 V. THE DEVIL AND HIS 'TERRITORY,' 56 VI. SWEARING, 66 VII. GRAMMAR AND PRONUNCIATION, 74 VIII. PROVERBS, 105 IX. EXAGGERATION AND REDUNDANCY, 120 X. COMPARISONS, 136 XI. THE MEMORY OF HISTORY AND OF OLD CUSTOMS, 143 XII. A VARIETY OF PHRASES, 185 XIII. VOCABULARY AND INDEX, 209 Alphabetical List of Persons who sent Collections of Dialectical Words and Phrases, 353 * * * * * {1} ENGLISH AS WE SPEAK IT IN IRELAND. CHAPTER I. SOURCES OF ANGLO-IRISH DIALECT. Our Anglo-Irish dialectical words and phrases are derived from three main sources:-- _First_: the Irish language. _Second_: Old English and the dialect of Scotland. _Third_: independently of these two sources, dialectical expressions have gradually grown up among our English-speaking people, as dialects arise everywhere. In the following pages whenever a word or a phrase is not assigned to any origin it is to be understood as belonging to this third class:--that is so far as is known at present; for I have no doubt that many of these will be found, after further research, to be either Irish-Gaelic or Old English. It is to be also observed that a good many of the dialectical expressions given in this book as belonging to Ireland may possibly be found current in England or in Scotland or in both. But that is no reason why they should not be included here. _Influence of Irish._ The Irish language has influenced our Irish-English speech in several ways. To begin with: it {2} has determined the popular pronunciation, in certain combinations, of three English consonants, _t_, _d_, and _th_, but in a way (so far as _t_ and _d_ are concerned) that would not now be followed by anyone even moderately well educated. The sounds of _English t_ and _d_ are not the same as those of the _Irish t_ and _d_; and when the people began to exchange the Irish language for English, they did not quite abandon the Irish sounds of these two letters, but imported them into their English, especially _when they came before r_. That is why we hear among the people in every part of Ireland such vulgarisms as (for _t_) _bitther_, _butther_, _thrue_; and (for _d_) _laddher_ (ladder), _cidher_ (cider), _foddher_, &c. Yet in other positions we sound these letters correctly, as in _fat_, _football_, _white_; _bad_, _hide_, _wild_, &c. No one, however uneducated, will mispronounce the _t_ and _d_ in such words as these. Why it is that the _Irish_ sound is retained before _r_ and not in other combinations--why for instance the Irish people sound the _t_ and _d_ incorrectly in _platter_ and _drive_ [platther, dhrive] and correctly in _plate_ and _dive_--is a thing I cannot account for. As for the English _th_, it may be said that the general run of the Irish people never sound it at all; for it is a very difficult sound to anyone excepting a born Englishman, and also excepting a small proportion of those born and reared on the east coast of Ireland. It has two varieties of sound, heard in _bath_ and _bathe_: and for these two our people use the Irish _t_ and _d_, as heard in the words given above. A couple of centuries ago or more the people had another substitute for this _th_ (in _bathe_) namely _d_, which held its place for a considerable time, and this {3} sound was then considered almost a national characteristic; so that in the song of 'Lillibulero' the English author of the song puts this pronunciation all through in the mouth of the Irishman:--'_Dere_ was an ould prophecy found in a bog.' It is still sometimes heard, but merely as a defect of speech of individuals:--'_De_ books are here: _dat_ one is yours and _dis_ is mine.' Danny Mann speaks this way all through Gerald Griffin's 'Collegians.' There was, and to a small extent still is, a similar tendency--though not so decided--for the other sound of _th_ (as in _bath_):--'I had a hot _bat_ this morning; and I remained in it for _tirty_ minutes': 'I _tink_ it would be well for you to go home to-day.' Another influence of the Irish language is on the letter _s_. In Irish, this letter in certain combinations is sounded the same as the English _sh_; and the people often--though not always--in similar combinations, bring this sound into their English:--'He gave me a blow of his _fisht_'; 'he was _whishling_ St. Patrick's Day'; 'Kilkenny is _sickshty_ miles from this.' You hear this sound very often among the more uneducated of our people. In imitation of this vulgar sound of _s_, the letter _z_ often comes in for a similar change (though there is no such sound in the Irish language). Here the _z_ gets the sound heard in the English words _glazier_, _brazier_:--'He bought a _dozhen_ eggs'; ''tis _drizzhling_ rain'; 'that is _dizhmal_ news.' The second way in which our English is influenced by Irish is in vocabulary. When our Irish forefathers began to adopt English, they brought with them from their native language many single Irish {4} words and used them--as best suited to express what they meant--among their newly acquired English words; and these words remain to this day in the current English of their descendants, and will I suppose remain for ever. And the process still goes on--though slowly--for as time passes, Irish words are being adopted even in the English of the best educated people. There is no need to give many examples here, for they will be found all through this book, especially in the Vocabulary. I will instance the single word _galore_ (plentiful) which you will now often see in English newspapers and periodicals. The adoption of Irish words and phrases into English nowadays is in great measure due to the influence of Irishmen resident in England, who write a large proportion--indeed I think the largest proportion--of the articles in English periodicals of every kind. Other Irish words such as _shamrock_, _whiskey_, _bother_, _blarney_, are now to be found in every English Dictionary. _Smithereens_ too (broken bits after a smash) is a grand word, and is gaining ground every day. Not very long ago I found it used in a public speech in London by a Parliamentary candidate--an Englishman; and he would hardly have used it unless he believed that it was fairly intelligible to his audience. The third way in which Irish influences our English is in idiom: that is, idiom borrowed from the Irish language. Of course the idioms were transferred about the same time as the single words of the vocabulary. This is by far the most interesting and important feature. Its importance was pointed out by me in a paper printed twenty years {5} ago, and it has been properly dwelt upon by Miss Hayden and Professor Hartog in their recently written joint paper mentioned in the Preface. Most of these idiomatic phrases are simply translations from Irish; and when the translations are literal, Englishmen often find it hard or impossible to understand them. For a phrase may be correct in Irish, but incorrect, or even unintelligible, in English when translated word for word. Gerald Griffin has preserved more of these idioms (in 'The Collegians,' 'The Coiner,' 'Tales of a Jury-room,' &c.) than any other writer; and very near him come Charles Kickham (in 'Knocknagow'), Crofton Croker (in 'Fairy Legends') and Edward Walsh. These four writers almost exhaust the dialect of the South of Ireland. On the other hand Carleton gives us the Northern dialect very fully, especially that of Tyrone and eastern Ulster; but he has very little idiom, the peculiarities he has preserved being chiefly in vocabulary and pronunciation. Mr. Seumas MacManus has in his books faithfully pictured the dialect of Donegal (of which he is a native) and of all north-west Ulster. In the importation of Irish idiom into English, Irish writers of the present day are also making their influence felt, for I often come across a startling Irish expression (in English words of course) in some English magazine article, obviously written by one of my fellow-countrymen. Here I ought to remark that they do this with discretion and common sense, for they always make sure that the Irish idiom they use is such as that any Englishman can understand it. {6} There is a special chapter (iv) in this book devoted to Anglo-Irish phrases imported direct from Irish; but instances will be found all through the book. It is safe to state that by far the greatest number of our Anglo-Irish idioms come from the Irish language. _Influence of Old English and of Scotch._ From the time of the Anglo-Norman invasion, in the twelfth century, colonies of English and of Welsh-English people were settled in Ireland--chiefly in the eastern part--and they became particularly numerous in the time of Elizabeth, three or four centuries ago, when they were spread all over the country. When these Elizabethan colonists, who were nearly all English, settled down and made friends with the natives and intermarried with them, great numbers of them learned to use the Irish language; while the natives on their part learned English from the newcomers. There was give and take in every place where the two peoples and the two languages mixed. And so the native Irish people learned to speak Elizabethan English--the very language used by Shakespeare; and in a very considerable degree the old Gaelic people and those of English descent retain it to this day. For our people are very conservative in retaining old customs and forms of speech. Many words accordingly that are discarded as old-fashioned--or dead and gone--in England, are still flourishing--alive and well--in Ireland. They are now regarded as vulgarisms by the educated--which no doubt they are--but they are vulgarisms of respectable origin, {7} representing as they do the classical English of Shakespeare's time. Instances of this will be found all through the book; but I may here give a passing glance at such pronunciations as _tay_ for _tea_, _sevare_ for _severe_, _desaive_ for _deceive_; and such words as _sliver_, _lief_, _afeard_, &c.--all of which will be found mentioned farther on in this book. It may be said that hardly any of those incorrect forms of speech, now called vulgarisms, used by our people, were invented by them; they are nearly all survivals of usages that in former times were correct--in either English or Irish. In the reign of James I.--three centuries ago--a large part of Ulster--nearly all the fertile land of six of the nine counties--was handed over to new settlers, chiefly Presbyterians from Scotland, the old Catholic owners being turned off. These settlers of course brought with them their Scotch dialect, which remains almost in its purity among their descendants to this day. This dialect, it must be observed, is confined to Ulster, while the remnants of the Elizabethan English are spread all over Ireland. As to the third main source--the gradual growth of dialect among our English-speaking people--it is not necessary to make any special observations about it here; as it will be found illustrated all through the book. Owing to these three influences, we speak in Ireland a very distinct dialect of English, which every educated and observant Englishman perceives the moment he sets foot in this country. It is most marked among our peasantry; but in fact none of us are free from it, no matter how well educated. {8} This does not mean that we speak bad English; for it is generally admitted that our people on the whole, including the peasantry, speak better English--nearer to the literary standard--than the corresponding classes of England. This arises mainly--so far as we are concerned--from the fact that for the last four or five generations we have learned our English in a large degree from books, chiefly through the schools. So far as our dialectical expressions are vulgar or unintelligible, those who are educated among us ought of course to avoid them. But outside this a large proportion of our peculiar words and phrases are vivid and picturesque, and when used with discretion and at the right time, give a sparkle to our conversation; so that I see no reason why we should wipe them out completely from our speech so as to hide our nationality. To be hypercritical here is often absurd and sometimes silly. I well remember on one occasion when I was young in literature perpetrating a pretty strong Hibernicism in one of my books. It was not forbidding, but rather bright and expressive: and it passed off, and still passes off very well, for the book is still to the fore. Some days after the publication, a lady friend who was somewhat of a pedant and purist in the English language, came to me with a look of grave concern--so solemn indeed that it somewhat disconcerted me--to direct my attention to the error. Her manner was absurdly exaggerated considering the occasion. Judging from the serious face and the voice of bated breath, you might almost imagine that I had committed a secret murder and {9} that she had come to inform me that the corpse had just been found. * * * * * CHAPTER II. AFFIRMING, ASSENTING, AND SALUTING. The various Irish modes of affirming, denying, &c., will be understood from the examples given in this short chapter better than from any general observations. The Irish _ní'l lá fós é_ [neel law fo-say: it isn't day yet] is often used for emphasis in asseveration, even when persons are speaking English; but in this case the saying is often turned into English. 'If the master didn't give Tim a tongue-dressing, _'tisn't day yet_' (which would be said either by day or by night): meaning he gave him a very severe scolding. 'When I saw the mad dog running at me, if I didn't get a fright, _neel-law-fo-say_.' 'I went to town yesterday in all the rain, and if I didn't get a wetting _there isn't a cottoner in Cork_': meaning I got a very great wetting. This saying is very common in Munster; and workers in cotton were numerous in Cork when it was invented. A very usual emphatic ending to an assertion is seen in the following:--'That horse is a splendid animal _and no mistake_.' '_I'll engage_ you visited Peggy when you were in town': i.e. I assert it without much fear of contradiction: I warrant. Much in the same sense we use _I'll go bail_:--'I'll go bail you never got that {10} money you lent to Tom': 'An illigant song he could sing I'll go bail' (Lever): 'You didn't meet your linnet (i.e. your girl--your sweetheart) this evening I'll go bail' (Robert Dwyer Joyce in 'The Beauty of the Blossom Gate'). 'I'll hold you' introduces an assertion with some emphasis: it is really elliptical: I'll hold you [a wager: but always a fictitious wager]. I'll hold you I'll finish that job by one o'clock, i.e. I'll warrant I will--you may take it from me that I will. The phrase 'if you go to that of it' is often added on to a statement to give great emphasis, amounting almost to a sort of defiance of contradiction or opposition. 'I don't believe you could walk four miles an hour': 'Oh don't you: I could then, or five if you go to that of it': 'I don't believe that Joe Lee is half as good a hurler as his brother Phil.' 'I can tell you he is then, and a great deal better if you go to that of it.' Lowry Looby, speaking of St. Swithin, says:--'He was then, buried more than once if you go to that of it.' (Gerald Griffin: 'Collegians': Munster.) 'Is it cold outside doors?' Reply, 'Aye is it,' meaning 'it is certainly.' An emphatic assertion (after the Gaelic construction) frequently heard is 'Ah then, 'tis I that wouldn't like to be in that fight.' 'Ah 'tis my mother that will be delighted.' 'What did he do to you?' 'He hit me with his stick, _so he did_, and it is a great shame, so it is.' 'I like a cup of tea at night, so I do.' In the South an expression of this kind is very often added on as a sort of clincher to give emphasis. Similar are the very usual endings as seen in these {11} assertions:--'He is a great old schemer, _that's what he is_': 'I spoke up to the master and showed him he was wrong--_I did begob_.' I asked a man one day: 'Well, how is the young doctor going on in his new place?' and he replied 'Ah, how but well'; which he meant to be very emphatic: and then he went on to give particulars. A strong denial is often expressed in the following way: 'This day will surely be wet, so don't forget your umbrella': 'What a fool I am': as much as to say, 'I should be a fool indeed to go without an umbrella to-day, and I think there's no mark of a fool about me.' 'Now Mary don't wait for the last train [from Howth] for there will be an awful crush.' 'What a fool I'd be ma'am.' 'Oh Mr. Lory I thought you were gone home [from the dance] two hours ago': 'What a fool I am,' replies Lory ('Knocknagow'), equivalent to 'I hadn't the least notion of making such a fool of myself while there's such fun here.' This is heard everywhere in Ireland, 'from the centre all round to the sea.' Much akin to this is Nelly Donovan's reply to Billy Heffernan who had made some flattering remark to her:--'Arrah now Billy what sign of a fool do you see on me?' ('Knocknagow.') An emphatic assertion or assent: 'Yesterday was very wet.' Reply:--'You may say it was,' or 'you may well say that.' 'I'm greatly afeard he'll try to injure me.' Answer:--''Tis fear _for_ you' (emphasis on _for_), meaning 'you have good reason to be afeard': merely a translation of the Irish _is eagal duitse_. {12} 'Oh I'll pay you what I owe you.' ''Tis a pity you wouldn't indeed,' says the other, a satirical reply, meaning 'of course you will and no thanks to you for that; who'd expect otherwise?' 'I am going to the fair to-morrow, as I want to buy a couple of cows.' Reply, 'I know,' as much as to say 'I see,' 'I understand.' This is one of our commonest terms of assent. An assertion or statement introduced by the words 'to tell God's truth' is always understood to be weighty and somewhat unexpected, the introductory words being given as a guarantee of its truth:--'Have you the rest of the money you owe me ready now James?' 'Well to tell God's truth I was not able to make it all up, but I can give you £5.' Another guarantee of the same kind, though not quite so solemn, is 'my hand to you,' or 'I give you my hand and word.' 'My hand to you I'll never rest till the job is finished.' 'Come and hunt with me in the wood, and my hand to you we shall soon have enough of victuals for both of us.' (Clarence Mangan in Ir. Pen. Journ.) 'I've seen--and here's my hand to you I only say what's true-- A many a one with twice your stock not half so proud as you.' (CLARENCE MANGAN.) 'Do you know your Catechism?' Answer, 'What would ail me not to know it?' meaning 'of course I do--'twould be a strange thing if I didn't.' 'Do you think you can make that lock all right?' 'Ah what would ail me,' i.e., 'no doubt I can--of course I can; if I couldn't do that it would be a sure sign {13} that something was amiss with me--that something ailed me.' 'Believe Tom and who'll believe you': a way of saying that Tom is not telling truth. An emphatic 'yes' to a statement is often expressed in the following way:--'This is a real wet day.' Answer, 'I believe you.' 'I think you made a good bargain with Tim about that field.' 'I believe you I did.' A person who is offered anything he is very willing to take, or asked to do anything he is anxious to do, often answers in this way:--'James, would you take a glass of punch?' or 'Tom, will you dance with my sister in the next round?' In either case the answer is, 'Would a duck swim?' A weak sort of assent is often expressed in this way:--'Will you bring Nelly's book to her when you are going home, Dan?' Answer, 'I don't mind,' or 'I don't mind if I do.' To express unbelief in a statement or disbelief in the usefulness or effectiveness of any particular line of action, a person says 'that's all in my eye,' or ''Tis all in my eye, Betty Martin--O'; but this last is regarded as slang. Sometimes an unusual or unexpected statement is introduced in the following manner, the introductory words being usually spoken quickly:--'_Now do you know what I'm going to tell you_--that ragged old chap has £200 in the bank.' In Derry they make it--'Now listen to what I'm going to say.' In some parts of the South and West and Northwest, servants and others have a way of replying to directions that at first sounds strange or even {14} disrespectful:--'Biddy, go up please to the drawing-room and bring me down the needle and thread and stocking you will find on the table.' 'That will do ma'am,' replies Biddy, and off she goes and brings them. But this is their way of saying 'yes ma'am,' or 'Very well ma'am.' So also you say to the hotel-keeper:--'Can I have breakfast please to-morrow morning at 7 o'clock?' 'That will do sir.' This reply in fact expresses the greatest respect, as much as to say, 'A word from you is quite enough.' 'I caught the thief at my potatoes.' 'No, but did you?' i.e., is it possible you did so? A very common exclamation, especially in Ulster. 'Oh man' is a common exclamation to render an assertion more emphatic, and sometimes to express surprise:--'Oh man, you never saw such a fine race as we had.' In Ulster they duplicate it, with still the same application:--'Oh man-o-man that's great rain.' 'Well John you'd hardly believe it, but I got £50 for my horse to-day at the fair.' Reply, 'Oh man that's a fine price.' 'Never fear' is heard constantly in many parts of Ireland as an expression of assurance:--'Now James don't forget the sugar.' 'Never fear ma'am.' 'Ah never fear there will be plenty flowers in that garden this year.' 'You will remember to have breakfast ready at 7 o'clock.' 'Never fear sir,' meaning 'making your mind easy on the point--it will be all right.' _Never fear_ is merely a translation of the equally common Irish phrase, _ná bí heagal ort_. Most of our ordinary salutations are translations from Irish. _Go m-beannuighe Dia dhuit_ is literally {15} 'May God bless you,' or 'God bless you' which is a usual salutation in English. The commonest of all our salutes is 'God save you,' or (for a person entering a house) 'God save all here'; and the response is 'God save you kindly' ('Knocknagow'); where _kindly_ means 'of a like kind,' 'in like manner,' 'similarly.' Another but less usual response to the same salutation is, 'And you too,' which is appropriate. ('Knocknagow.') 'God save all here' is used all over Ireland except in the extreme North, where it is hardly understood. To the ordinary salutation, 'Good-morrow,' which is heard everywhere, the usual response is 'Good-morrow kindly.' 'Morrow Wat,' said Mr. Lloyd. 'Morrow kindly,' replied Wat. ('Knocknagow.') 'The top of the morning to you' is used everywhere, North and South. In some places if a woman throws out water at night at the kitchen door, she says first, 'Beware of the water,' lest the 'good people' might happen to be passing at the time, and one or more of them might get splashed. A visitor coming in and finding the family at dinner:--'Much good may it do you.' In very old times it was a custom for workmen on completing any work and delivering it finished to give it their blessing. This blessing was called _abarta_ (an old word, not used in modern Irish), and if it was omitted the workman was subject to a fine to be deducted from his hire equal to the seventh part of the cost of his feeding. (_Senchus Mór_ and 'Cormac's Glossary.') It was especially incumbent on women to bless the work of other women. This custom, which is more than a thousand years old, has {16} descended to our day; for the people on coming up to persons engaged in work of any kind always say 'God bless your work,' or its equivalent original in Irish, _Go m-beannuighe Dia air bhur n-obair_. (See my 'Social History of Ancient Ireland,' II., page 324.) In modern times tradesmen have perverted this pleasing custom into a new channel not so praise-worthy. On the completion of any work, such as a building, they fix a pole with a flag on the highest point to ask the employer for his _blessing_, which means money for a drink. * * * * * CHAPTER III. ASSERTION BY NEGATIVE OF OPPOSITE. Assertions are often made by using the negative of the opposite assertion. 'You must be hungry now Tom, and this little rasher will do you no harm,' meaning it will do you good. An old man has tired himself dancing and says:--'A glass of whiskey will do us no harm after that.' (Carleton.) A lady occupying a furnished house at the seaside near Dublin said to the boy who had charge of the premises:--'There may be burglars about here; wouldn't it be well for you to come and close the basement shutters at night?' 'Why then begob ma'am _'twould be no har-um_.' Here is a bit of rustic information (from Limerick) that might be useful to food experts:-- 'Rye bread will do you good, Barley bread _will do you no harm_, Wheaten bread will sweeten your blood, Oaten bread will strengthen your arm.' {17} This curious way of speaking, which is very general among all classes of people in Ireland and in every part of the country, is often used in the Irish language, from which we have imported it into our English. Here are a few Irish examples; but they might be multiplied indefinitely, and some others will be found through this chapter. In the Irish tale called 'The Battle of Gavra,' the narrator says:--[The enemy slew a large company of our army] 'and that was no great help to us.' In 'The Colloquy,' a piece much older than 'The Battle of Gavra,' Kylta, wishing to tell his audience that when the circumstance he is relating occurred he was very young, expresses it by saying [at that time] 'I myself was not old.' One night a poet was grossly insulted: 'On the morrow he rose and he was not thankful.' (From the very old Irish tale called 'The Second Battle of Moytura': Rev. Celt.) Another old Irish writer, telling us that a certain company of soldiers is well out of view, expresses it in this way:--_Ní fhuil in cuire gan chleith_, literally, 'the company is not without concealment.' How closely these and other old models are imitated in our English will be seen from the following examples from every part of Ireland:-- 'I can tell you Paddy Walsh is no chicken now,' meaning he is very old. The same would be said of an old maid:--'She's no chicken,' meaning that she is old for a girl. 'How are your potato gardens going on this year?' 'Why then they're not too good'; i.e. only middling or bad. A usual remark among us conveying mild approval {18} is 'that's not bad.' A Dublin boy asked me one day:--'Maybe you wouldn't have e'er a penny that you'd give me, sir?' i.e., 'Have you a penny to give me?' 'You wouldn't like to have a cup of tea, would you?' An invitation, but not a cordial one. This is a case of '_will you_ was never a good fellow' (for which see Vocabulary). 'No joke' is often used in the sense of 'very serious.' 'It was no joke to be caught in our boat in such a storm as that.' 'The loss of £10 is no joke for that poor widow.' 'As for Sandy he worked like a downright demolisher-- Bare as he is, yet _his lick is no polisher_.' (THOMAS MOORE in the early part of his career.) You remark that a certain person has some fault, he is miserly, or extravagant, or dishonest, &c.: and a bystander replies, 'Yes indeed, and 'tisn't to-day or yesterday it happened him'--meaning that it is a fault of long standing. A tyrannical or unpopular person goes away or dies:--'There's many a dry eye after him.' (Kildare.) 'Did Tom do your work as satisfactorily as Davy?' 'Oh, it isn't alike': to imply that Tom did the work very much better than Davy. 'Here is the newspaper; and 'tisn't much you'll find in it.' 'Is Mr. O'Mahony good to his people?' 'Oh, indeed he is no great things': or another way of saying it:--'He's no great shakes.' 'How do you like your new horse?' 'Oh then he's no great shakes'--or 'he's {19} not much to boast of.' Lever has this in a song:--'You think the Blakes are no great shakes.' But I think it is also used in England. A consequential man who carries his head rather higher than he ought:--'He thinks no small beer of himself.' Mrs. Slattery gets a harmless fall off the form she is sitting on, and is so frightened that she asks of the person who helps her up, 'Am I killed?' To which he replies ironically--'Oh there's great fear of you.' ('Knocknagow.') [Alice Ryan is a very purty girl] 'and she doesn't want to be reminded of that same either.' ('Knocknagow.') A man has got a heavy cold from a wetting and says: 'That wetting did me no good,' meaning 'it did me great harm.' 'There's a man outside wants to see you, sir,' says Charlie, our office attendant, a typical southern Irishman. 'What kind is he Charlie? does he look like a fellow wanting money?' Instead of a direct affirmative, Charlie answers, 'Why then sir I don't think he'll give you much anyway.' 'Are people buried there now?' I asked of a man regarding an old graveyard near Blessington in Wicklow. Instead of answering 'very few,' he replied: 'Why then not too many sir.' When the roads are dirty--deep in mire--'there's fine walking overhead.' In the Irish Life of St. Brigit we are told of a certain chief:--'It was not his will to sell the bondmaid,' by which is meant, it was his will _not_ to sell her. {20} So in our modern speech the father says to the son:--'It is not my wish that you should go to America at all,' by which he means the positive assertion:--'It is my wish that you should not go.' Tommy says, 'Oh, mother, I forgot to bring you the sugar.' 'I wouldn't doubt you,' answers the mother, as much as to say, 'It is just what I'd expect from you.' When a message came to Rory from absent friends, that they were true to Ireland:-- '"My _sowl_, I never doubted them" said Rory of the hill.' (Charles Kickham.) 'It wouldn't be wishing you a pound note to do so and so': i.e. 'it would be as bad as the loss of a pound,' or 'it might cost you a pound.' Often used as a sort of threat to deter a person from doing it. 'Where do you keep all your money?' 'Oh, indeed, _it's not much I have_': merely translated from the Gaelic, _Ní mórán atâ agum_. To a silly foolish fellow:--'There's a great deal of sense outside your head.' 'The only sure way to conceal evil is not to do it.' 'I don't think very much of these horses,' meaning 'I have a low opinion of them.' 'I didn't pretend to understand what he said,' appears a negative statement; but it is really one of our ways of making a positive one:--'I pretended not to understand him.' To the same class belongs the common expression 'I don't think':--'I don't think you bought that horse too dear,' meaning 'I think you did not buy him too dear'; 'I don't think this day will be wet,' equivalent to 'I think it will not be wet.' {21} Lowry Looby is telling how a lot of fellows attacked Hardress Cregan, who defends himself successfully:--'Ah, it isn't a goose or a duck they had to do with when they came across Mr. Cregan.' (Gerald Griffin.) Another way of expressing the same idea often heard:--'He's no sop (wisp) in the road'; i.e. 'he's a strong brave fellow.' 'It was not too wise of you to buy those cows as the market stands at present,' i.e. it was rather foolish. 'I wouldn't be sorry to get a glass of wine, meaning, 'I would be glad.' An unpopular person is going away:-- 'Joy be with him and a bottle of moss, And if he don't return he's no great loss.' 'How are you to-day, James?' 'Indeed I can't say that I'm very well': meaning 'I am rather ill.' 'You had no right to take that book without my leave'; meaning 'You were wrong in taking it--it was wrong of you to take it.' A translation of the Irish _ní cóir duit_. 'A bad right' is stronger than 'no right.' 'You have no right to speak ill of my uncle' is simply negation:--'You are wrong, for you have no reason or occasion to speak so.' 'A bad right you have to speak ill of my uncle:' that is to say, 'You are doubly wrong' [for he once did you a great service]. 'A bad right anyone would have to call Ned a screw' [for he is well known for his generosity]. ('Knocknagow.') Another way of applying the word--in the sense of _duty_--is seen in the following:--A member at an Urban Council {22} meeting makes an offensive remark and refuses to withdraw it: when another retorts:--'You have a right to withdraw it'--i.e. 'it is your duty.' So:--'You have a right to pay your debts.' 'Is your present farm as large as the one you left?' Reply:--'Well indeed it doesn't want much of it.' A common expression, and borrowed from the Irish, where it is still more usual. The Irish _beagnach_ ('little but') and _acht ma beag_ ('but only a little') are both used in the above sense ('doesn't want much'), equivalent to the English _almost_. A person is asked did he ever see a ghost. If his reply is to be negative, the invariable way of expressing it is: 'I never saw anything worse than myself, thanks be to God.' A person is grumbling without cause, making out that he is struggling in some difficulty--such as poverty--and the people will say to him ironically: 'Oh how bad you are.' A universal Irish phrase among high and low. A person gives a really good present to a girl:--'He didn't affront her by that present.' (Patterson: Antrim and Down.) How we cling to this form of expression--or rather how it clings to us--is seen in the following extract from the Dublin correspondence of one of the London newspapers of December, 1909:--'Mr. ---- is not expected to be returned to parliament at the general election'; meaning it _is_ expected that he will _not_ be returned. So also:--'How is poor Jack Fox to-day?' 'Oh he's not expected'; i.e. not expected to live,--he is _given over_. This expression, _not expected_, is a very common Irish phrase in cases of death sickness. {23} * * * * * CHAPTER IV. IDIOMS DERIVED FROM THE IRISH LANGUAGE. In this chapter I am obliged to quote the original Irish passages a good deal as a guarantee of authenticity for the satisfaction of Irish scholars: but for those who have no Irish the translations will answer equally well. Besides the examples I have brought together here, many others will be found all through the book. I have already remarked that the great majority of our idiomatic Hibernian-English sayings are derived from the Irish language. When existence or modes of existence are predicated in Irish by the verb _tá_ or _atá_ (English _is_), the Irish preposition _in_ (English _in_) in some of its forms is always used, often with a possessive pronoun, which gives rise to a very curious idiom. Thus, 'he is a mason' is in Irish _tá sé 'n a shaor_, which is literally _he is in his mason_: 'I am standing' is _tá mé a m' sheasamh_, lit. _I am in my standing_. This explains the common Anglo-Irish form of expression:--'He fell on the road out of his standing': for as he is 'in his standing' (according to the Irish) when he is standing up, he is 'out of his standing' when he falls. This idiom with _in_ is constantly translated literally into English by the Irish people. Thus, instead of saying, 'I sent the wheat thrashed into corn to the mill, and it came home as flour,' they will rather say, 'I sent the wheat _in corn_ to the mill, and it came home _in flour_.' Here the _in_ denotes identity: 'Your {24} hair is in a wisp'; i.e. it _is_ a wisp: 'My eye is in whey in my head,' i.e. it _is_ whey. (John Keegan in Ir. Pen. Journ.) But an idiom closely resembling this, and in some respects identical with it, exists in English (though it has not been hitherto noticed--so far as I am aware)--as may be seen from the following examples:--'The Shannon ... rushed through Athlone _in_ a deep and rapid stream (Macaulay), i.e. it _was_ a deep and rapid stream (like our expression 'Your handkerchief is in ribbons'). 'Where heaves the turf _in_ many a mouldering heap.' (GRAY'S 'Elegy.') 'Hence bards, like Proteus, long in vain tied down, Escape _in_ monsters and amaze the town.' (POPE: 'Dunciad.') 'The bars forming the front and rear edges of each plane [of the flying-machine] are always _in_ one piece' (Daily Mail). Shelley's 'Cloud' says, 'I laugh _in_ thunder' (meaning I laugh, and my laugh _is_ thunder.) 'The greensand and chalk were continued across the weald _in_ a great dome.' (Lord Avebury.) 'Just to the right of him were the white-robed bishops _in a group_.' (Daily Mail.) 'And men _in_ nations' (Byron in 'The Isles of Greece'): 'The people came _in_ tens and twenties': 'the rain came down _in_ torrents': 'I'll take £10 _in_ gold and the rest _in_ silver': 'the snow gathered _in_ a heap.' 'The money came [home] sometimes _in_ specie and sometimes _in_ goods' (Lord Rothschild, speech in House of Lords, 29th November, 1909), exactly like 'the corn came home _in_ flour,' quoted above. The {25} preceding examples do not quite fully represent the Irish idiom in its entirety, inasmuch as the possessive pronouns are absent. But even these are sometimes found, as in the familiar phrases, 'the people came _in their_ hundreds.' 'You are _in your_ thousands' [here at the meeting], which is an exact reproduction of the Gaelic phrase in the Irish classical story:--_Atá sibh in bhur n-ealaibh_, 'Ye are swans' (lit. 'Ye are in your swans'). When mere existence is predicated, the Gaelic _ann_ (_in it_, i.e. 'in existence') is used, as _atá sneachta ann_, 'there is snow'; lit. 'there is snow _there_,' or 'there is snow _in it_,' i.e. in existence. The _ann_ should be left blank in English translation, i.e. having no proper representative. But our people will not let it go waste; they bring it into their English in the form of either _in it_ or _there_, both of which in this construction carry the meaning of _in existence_. Mrs. Donovan says to Bessy Morris:--'Is it yourself that's _in it_?' ('Knocknagow'), which would stand in correct Irish _An tusa atá ann_? On a Sunday one man insults and laughs at another, who says, 'Only for the day that's _in it_ I'd make you laugh at the wrong side of your mouth': 'the weather that's _in it_ is very hot.' 'There's nothing at all _there_ (in existence) as it used to be' (Gerald Griffin: 'Collegians'): 'this day is bad for growth, there's a sharp east wind _there_.' I do not find this use of the English preposition _in_--namely, to denote identity--referred to in English dictionaries, though it ought to be. The same mode of expressing existence by _an_ or _in_ is found in the Ulster and Scotch phrase for {26} _to be alone_, which is as follows, always bringing in the personal pronoun:--'I am in my lone,' 'he is in his lone,' 'they are in their lone'; or more commonly omitting the preposition (though it is always understood): 'She is living her lone.' All these expressions are merely translations from Gaelic, in which they are constantly used; 'I am in my lone' being from _Tá me am' aonar_, where _am'_ is 'in my' and _aonar_, 'lone.' _Am' aonar seal do bhiossa_, 'Once as I was alone.' (Old Irish Song.) In north-west Ulster they sometimes use the preposition _by_:--'To come home by his lone' (Seumas Mac Manus). Observe the word _lone_ is always made _lane_ in Scotland, and generally in Ulster; and these expressions or their like will be found everywhere in Burns or in any other Scotch (or Ulster) dialect writer. Prepositions are used in Irish where it might be wrong to use them in corresponding constructions in English. Yet the Irish phrases are continually translated literally, which gives rise to many incorrect dialect expressions. Of this many examples will be found in what follows. 'He put lies _on_ me'; a form of expression often heard. This might have one or the other of two meanings, viz. either 'he accused me of telling lies,' or 'he told lies about me.' 'The tinker took fourpence _out of_ that kettle,' i.e. he earned 4d. by mending it. St. Patrick left his name _on_ the townland of Kilpatrick: that nickname remained _on_ Dan Ryan ever since. 'He was vexed _to_ me' (i.e. with me): 'I was _at him_ for half a year' (with him); 'You could find no fault _to it_' (with it). All these are in use. {27} 'I took the medicine according to the doctor's order, but I found myself nothing the better _of it_.' 'You have a good time _of it_.' I find in Dickens however (in his own words) that the wind 'was obviously determined to make a night _of it_.' (See p. 10 for a peculiarly Irish use of _of it_.) In the Irish poem _Bean na d-Tri m-Bo_, 'The Woman of Three Cows,' occurs the expression, _As do bhólacht ná bí teann_, 'Do not be haughty _out of_ your cattle.' This is a form of expression constantly heard in English:--'he is as proud as a peacock _out of_ his rich relations.' So also, 'She has great thought _out of_ him,' i.e. She has a very good opinion of him. (Queen's Co.) 'I am without a penny,' i.e. I haven't a penny: very common: a translation from the equally common Irish expression, _tá me gan pinghín_. In an Irish love song the young man tells us that he had been vainly trying to win over the colleen _le bliadhain agus le lá_, which Petrie correctly (but not literally) translates 'for a year and for a day.' As the Irish preposition _le_ signifies _with_, the literal translation would be '_with_ a year and _with_ a day,' which would be incorrect English. Yet the uneducated people of the South and West often adopt this translation; so that you will hear such expressions as 'I lived in Cork _with_ three years.' There is an idiomatic use of the Irish preposition _air_, 'on,' before a personal pronoun or before a personal name and after an active verb, to intimate injury or disadvantage of some kind, a violation of right or claim. Thus, _Do bhuail Seumas mo ghadhar orm_ [where _orm_ is _air me_], 'James struck my dog {28} _on me_,' where _on me_ means to my detriment, in violation of my right, &c. _Chaill sé mo sgian orm_; 'he lost my knife _on me_.' This mode of expression exists in the oldest Irish as well as in the colloquial languages--both Irish and English--of the present day. When St. Patrick was spending the Lent on Croagh Patrick the demons came to torment him in the shape of great black hateful-looking birds: and the Tripartite Life, composed (in the Irish language) in the tenth century, says, 'The mountain was filled with great sooty-black birds _on him_' (to his torment or detriment). In 'The Battle of Rossnaree,' Carbery, directing his men how to act against Conor, his enemy, tells them to send some of their heroes _re tuargain a sgéithe ar Conchobar_, 'to smite Conor's shield _on him_.' The King of Ulster is in a certain hostel, and when his enemies hear of it, they say:--'We are pleased at that for we shall [attack and] take the hostel _on him_ to-night.' (Congal Claringneach.) It occurs also in the _Amra_ of Columkille--the oldest of all--though I cannot lay my hand on the passage. This is one of the commonest of our Anglo-Irish idioms, so that a few examples will be sufficient. 'I saw thee ... thrice _on Tara's champions_ win the goal.' (FERGUSON: 'Lays of the Western Gael.') I once heard a grandmother--an educated Dublin lady--say, in a charmingly petting way, to her little grandchild who came up crying:--'What did they do to you on me--did they beat you on me?' The Irish preposition _ag_--commonly translated 'for' in this connexion--is used in a sense much like _air_, viz. to carry an idea of some sort of injury {29} to the person represented by the noun or pronoun. Typical examples are: one fellow threatening another says, 'I'll break your head _for you_': or 'I'll soon _settle his hash for him_.' This of course also comes from Irish; _Gur scoilt an plaosg aige_, 'so that he broke his skull _for him_' (Battle of Gavra); _Do ghearr a reim aige beo_, 'he shortened his career for him.' ('The Amadán Mór.') See 'On' in Vocabulary. There is still another peculiar usage of the English preposition _for_, which is imitated or translated from the Irish, the corresponding Irish preposition here being _mar_. In this case the prepositional phrase is added on, not to denote injury, but to express some sort of mild depreciation:--'Well, how is your new horse getting on?' 'Ah, I'm tired of him _for a horse_: he is little good.' A dog keeps up a continuous barking, and a person says impatiently, 'Ah, choke you _for a dog_' (may you be choked). Lowry Looby, who has been appointed to a place and is asked how he is going on with it, replies, 'To lose it I did _for a place_.' ('Collegians.') In the Irish story of _Bodach an Chota Lachtna_ ('The Clown with the Grey Coat'), the Bodach offers Ironbones some bones to pick, on which Ironbones flies into a passion; and Mangan, the translator, happily puts into the mouth of the Bodach:--'Oh, very well, then we will not have any more words about them, _for bones_.' Osheen, talking in a querulous mood about all his companions--the Fena--having left him, says, [were I in my former condition] _Ni ghoirfinn go bráth orruibh, mar Fheinn_, 'I would never call on you, _for Fena_.' This last and its like are the models on which the Anglo-Irish phrases are formed. {30} 'Of you' (where _of_ is not intended for _off_) is very frequently used in the sense of _from you_: 'I'll take the stick _of you_ whether you like it or not.' 'Of you' is here simply a translation of the Irish _díot_, which is always used in this connexion in Irish: _bainfead díot é_, 'I will take it of you.' In Irish phrases like this the Irish _uait_ ('from you') is not used; if it were the people would say 'I'll take it _from you_,' not _of you_. (Russell.) 'Oh that news was _on_ the paper yesterday.' 'I went _on_ the train to Kingstown.' Both these are often heard in Dublin and elsewhere. Correct speakers generally use _in_ in such cases. (Father Higgins and Kinahan.) In some parts of Ulster they use the preposition _on_ after _to be married_:--'After Peggy McCue had been married _on_ Long Micky Diver' (Sheumas MacManus). 'To make a speech _takes a good deal out of me_,' i.e. tires me, exhausts me, an expression heard very often among all classes. The phrase in italics is merely the translation of a very common Irish expression, _baineann sé rud éigin asam_, it takes something out of me. 'I am afraid of her,' 'I am frightened at her,' are both correct English, meaning 'she has frightened me': and both are expressed in Donegal by 'I am afeard _for_ her,' 'I am frightened _for_ her,' where in both cases _for_ is used in the sense of 'on account of.' In Irish any sickness, such as fever, is said to be _on_ a person, and this idiom is imported into English. If a person wishes to ask 'What ails you?' he often {31} gives it the form of 'What is on you?' (Ulster), which is exactly the English of _Cad é sin ort_? A visitor stands up to go. 'What hurry is on you?' A mild invitation to stay on (Armagh). In the South, 'What hurry are you in?' She had _a nose on her_, i.e. looked sour, out of humour ('Knocknagow'). Much used in the South. 'They never asked me had I a mouth on me': universally understood and often used in Ireland, and meaning 'they never offered me anything to eat or drink.' I find Mark Twain using the same idiom:--[an old horse] 'had a neck _on him_ like a bowsprit' ('Innocents Abroad'); but here I think Mark shows a touch of the Gaelic brush, wherever he got it. 'I tried to knock another shilling out of him, but all in vain': i.e. I tried to persuade him to give me another shilling. This is very common with Irish-English speakers, and is a word for word translation of the equally common Irish phrase _bain sgilling eile as_. (Russell.) 'I came against you' (more usually _agin you_) means 'I opposed you and defeated your schemes.' This is merely a translation of an Irish phrase, in which the preposition _le_ or _re_ is used in the sense of _against_ or _in opposition to_: _do tháinic me leat annsin_. (S. H. O'Grady.) 'His sore knee came _against him_ during the walk.' _Against_ is used by us in another sense--that of meeting: 'he went against his father,' i.e. he went to meet his father [who was coming home from town]. This, which is quite common, is, I think, pure {32} Anglo-Irish. But 'he laid up a supply of turf against the winter' is correct English as well as Anglo-Irish. 'And the cravat of hemp was surely spun _Against_ the day when their race was run.' ('Touchstone' in 'Daily Mail.') A very common inquiry when you meet a friend is:--'How are all your care?' Meaning chiefly your family, those persons that are under your care. This is merely a translation of the common Irish inquiry, _Cionnos tá do chúram go léir_? A number of idiomatic expressions cluster round the word _head_, all of which are transplanted from Irish in the use of the Irish word _ceann_ [cann] 'head'. _Head_ is used to denote the cause, occasion, or motive of anything. 'Did he really walk that distance in a day?' Reply in Irish, _Ní'l contabhairt air bith ann a cheann_: 'there is no doubt at all _on the head of it_,' i.e. about it, in regard to it. 'He is a bad head to me,' i.e. he treats me badly. Merely the Irish _is olc an ceann dom é_. _Bhi fearg air da chionn_, he was vexed on the head of it. A dismissed clerk says:--'I made a mistake in one of the books, and I was sent away _on the head of_ that mistake.' A very common phrase among us is, 'More's the pity':--'More's the pity that our friend William should be so afflicted.' 'More's the pity one so pretty As I should live alone.' (Anglo-Irish Folk-Song.) This is a translation of a very common Irish expression as seen in:--_Budh mhó an sgéile Diarmaid_ {33} _do bheith marbh_: 'More's the pity Dermot to be dead.' (Story of 'Dermot and Grania.') 'Who should come up to me in the fair but John.' Intended not for a question but for an assertion--an assertion of something which was hardly expected. This mode of expression, which is very common, is a Gaelic construction. Thus in the song _Fáinne geal an lae:--Cia gheabhainn le m'ais acht cúilfhionn deas_: 'Whom should I find near by me but the pretty fair haired girl.' 'Who should walk in only his dead wife.' (Gerald Griffin: 'Collegians.') 'As we were walking along what should happen but John to stumble and fall on the road.' The pronouns _myself_, _himself_, &c., are very often used in Ireland in a peculiar way, which will be understood from the following examples:--'The birds were singing _for themselves_.' 'I was looking about the fair _for myself_' (Gerald Griffin: 'Collegians'): 'he is pleasant _in himself_ (ibid.): 'I felt dead [dull] _in myself_' (ibid.). 'Just at that moment I happened to be walking by myself' (i.e. alone: Irish, _liom féin_). Expressions of this kind are all borrowed direct from Irish. We have in our Irish-English a curious use of the personal pronouns which will be understood from the following examples:--'He interrupted me _and I writing_ my letters' (as I was writing). 'I found Phil there too _and he playing_ his fiddle for the company.' This, although very incorrect English, is a classic idiom in Irish, from which it has been imported as it stands into our English. Thus:--_Do chonnairc me Tomás agus é n'a shuidhe cois na teine_: 'I saw Thomas _and he sitting_ beside the fire.' 'How could you see {34} me there _and I to be in bed at the time_?' This latter part is merely a translation from the correct Irish:--_agus meise do bheith mo luidhe ag an am sin_ (Irish Tale). Any number of examples of this usage might be culled from both English and Irish writings. Even so classical a writer as Wolfe follows this usage in 'The Burial of Sir John Moore':-- 'We thought ... That the foe and the stranger would tread o'er his head, _And we far away_ on the billow.' (I am reminded of this by Miss Hayden and Prof. Hartog.) But there is a variety in our English use of the pronouns here, namely, that we often use the objective (or accusative) case instead of the nominative. 'How could you expect Davy to do the work _and him so very sick_?' 'My poor man fell into the fire a Sunday night _and him hearty_' (_hearty_, half drunk: Maxwell, 'Wild Sports of the West'). 'Is that what you lay out for me, mother, _and me after turning the Voster_' (i.e. after working through the whole of Voster's Arithmetic: Carleton). 'John and Bill were both reading and _them eating their dinner_' (while they were eating their dinner). This is also from the Irish language. We will first take the third person plural pronoun. The pronoun 'they' is in Irish _siad_: and the accusative 'them' is the Irish _iad_. But in some Irish constructions this _iad_ is (correctly) used as a nominative; and in imitation of this our people often use 'them' as a nominative:--'_Them_ are just the gloves I want.' '_Them_ are the boys' is exactly translated from the correct Irish _is_ {35} _iad sin na buachaillidhe_. 'Oh she melted the hearts of the swains in _them_ parts.' ('The Widow Malone,' by Lever.) In like manner with the pronouns _sé_, _sí_ (he, she), of which the accusatives _é_ and _í_ are in certain Irish constructions (correctly) used for the nominative forms, which accusative forms are (incorrectly) imported into English. _Do chonnairc mé Seadhán agus é n'a shuidhe_, 'I saw Shaun and _him_ sitting down,' i.e. 'as he was sitting down.' So also 'don't ask me to go and _me_ having a sore foot.' 'There's the hen and _her_ as fat as butter,' i.e. 'she (the hen) being as fat as butter.' The little phrase 'the way' is used among us in several senses, all peculiar, and all derived from Irish. Sometimes it is a direct translation from _amhlaidh_ ('thus,' 'so,' 'how,' 'in a manner'). An old example of this use of _amhlaidh_ in Irish is the following passage from the _Boroma_ (_Silva Gadelica_):--_Is amlaid at chonnaic [Concobar] Laigin ocus Ulaid mán dabaig ocá hól_: 'It is how (or 'the way') [Concobar] saw the Lagenians and the Ulstermen [viz. they were] round the vat drinking from it.' _Is amhlaidh do bhi Fergus_: 'It is thus (or the way) Fergus was [conditioned; that his shout was heard over three cantreds].' This same sense is also seen in the expression, 'this is the way I made my money,' i.e. 'this is how I made it.' When this expression, 'the way,' or 'how,' introduces a statement it means ''tis how it happened.' 'What do you want, James?' ''Tis the way ma'am, my mother sent me for the loan of the {36} shovel.' This idiom is very common in Limerick, and is used indeed all through Ireland. Very often 'the way' is used in the sense of 'in order that':--'Smoking carriages are lined with American cloth _the way_ they wouldn't keep the smell'; 'I brought an umbrella _the way_ I wouldn't get wet'; 'you want not to let the poor boy do for himself [by marrying] _the way_ that you yourself should have all.' (Ir. Pen. Mag.) You constantly hear this in Dublin, even among educated people. Sometimes the word _way_ is a direct translation from the Irish _caoi_, 'a way,' 'a road'; so that the common Irish salutation, _Cad chaoi bh-fuil tu_? is translated with perfect correctness into the equally common Irish-English salute, 'What way are you?' meaning 'How are you?' 'This way' is often used by the people in the sense of 'by this time':--'The horse is ready this way,' i.e. 'ready by this time.' (Gerald Griffin, 'Collegians.') The word _itself_ is used in a curious way in Ireland, which has been something of a puzzle to outsiders. As so used it has no gender, number, or case; it is not in fact a pronoun at all, but a substitute for the word _even_. This has arisen from the fact that in the common colloquial Irish language the usual word to express both _even_ and _itself_, is _féin_; and in translating a sentence containing this word _féin_, the people rather avoided _even_, a word not very familiar to them in this sense, and substituted the better known _itself_, in cases where _even_ would be the correct word, and _itself_ would be incorrect. Thus _da mbeith an meud sin féin agum_ is correctly rendered 'if I had {37} even that much': but the people don't like _even_, and don't well understand it (as applied here), so they make it 'If I had that much _itself_.' This explains all such Anglo-Irish sayings as 'if I got it itself it would be of no use to me,' i.e. 'even if I got it': 'If she were there itself I wouldn't know her'; 'She wouldn't go to bed till you'd come home, and if she did itself she couldn't sleep.' (Knocknagow.) A woman is finding some fault with the arrangements for a race, and Lowry Looby (Collegians) puts in 'so itself what hurt' i.e. 'even so what harm.' (Russell and myself.) The English _when_ is expressed by the Irish _an uair_, which is literally 'the hour' or 'the time.' This is often transplanted into English; as when a person says 'the time you arrived I was away in town.' When you give anything to a poor person the recipient commonly utters the wish 'God increase you!' (meaning your substance): which is an exact translation of the equally common Irish wish _Go meádaighe Dia dhuit_. Sometimes the prayer is 'God increase your store,' which expresses exactly what is meant in the Irish wish. The very common aspiration 'God help us' [you, me, them, &c.] is a translation of the equally common _Go bh-fóireadh Dia orruinn_ [_ort_, &c.]. In the north-west instead of 'your father,' 'your sister,' &c., they often say 'the father of you,' 'the sister of you,' &c.; and correspondingly as to things:--'I took the hand of her' (i.e. her hand) (Seumas Mac Manus). All through Ireland you will hear _show_ used instead of _give_ or _hand_ (verb), in such phrases as {38} 'Show me that knife,' i.e. hand it to me. 'Show me the cream, please,' says an Irish gentleman at a London restaurant; and he could not see why his English friends were laughing. 'He passed me in the street _by the way_ he didn't know me'; 'he refused to give a contribution _by the way_ he was so poor.' In both, _by the way_ means 'pretending.' 'My own own people' means my immediate relations. This is a translation of _mo mhuinterse féin_. In Irish the repetition of the emphatic pronominal particles is very common, and is imported into English; represented here by 'own own.' A prayer or a wish in Irish often begins with the particle _go_, meaning 'that' (as a conjunction): _Go raibh maith agut_, '_that_ it may be well with you,' i.e. 'May it be well with you.' In imitation or translation of this the corresponding expression in English is often opened by this word _that_: 'that you may soon get well,' i.e., 'may you soon get well.' Instead of 'may I be there to see' (John Gilpin) our people would say 'that I may be there to see.' A person utters some evil wish such as 'may bad luck attend you,' and is answered 'that the prayer may happen the preacher.' A usual ending of a story told orally, when the hero and heroine have been comfortably disposed of is 'And if they don't live happy _that we may_.' When a person sees anything unusual or unexpected, he says to his companion, 'Oh do you mind that!' 'You want me to give you £10 for that cow: well, I'm not so soft _all out_.' 'He's not so bad as that _all out_.' {39} A common expression is 'I was talking to him to-day, and I _drew down about_ the money,' i.e. I brought on or introduced the subject. This is a translation of the Irish form _do tharraing me anuas_ 'I drew down.' Quite a common form of expression is 'I had like to be killed,' i.e., I was near being killed: I had a narrow escape of being killed: I escaped being killed _by the black of my nail_. Where the English say _it rains_, we say 'it is raining': which is merely a translation of the Irish way of saying it:--_ta se ag fearthainn_. The usual Gaelic equivalent of 'he gave a roar' is _do léig sé géim as_ (met everywhere in Irish texts), 'he let a roar out of him'; which is an expression you will often hear among people who have not well mastered English--who in fact often speak the Irish language with English words. 'I put it before me to do it,' meaning I was resolved to do it, is the literal translation of _chuireas rómhaim é to dheunamh_. Both Irish and Anglo-Irish are very common in the respective languages. When a narrator has come to the end of some minor episode in his narrative, he often resumes with the opening 'That was well and good': which is merely a translation of the Gaelic _bhí sin go maith_. Lowry Looby having related how the mother and daughter raised a terrible _pillilu_, i.e., 'roaring and bawling,' says after a short pause 'that was well and good,' and proceeds with his story. (Gerald Griffin: 'Collegians.') A common Irish expression interjected into a narrative or discourse, as a sort of stepping stone {40} between what is ended and what is coming is _Ní'l tracht air_, 'there is no talking about it,' corresponding to the English 'in short,' or 'to make a long story short.' These Irish expressions are imported into our English, in which popular phrases like the following are very often heard:--'I went to the fair, and _there's no use in talking_, I found the prices real bad.' 'Wisha my bones are exhausted, and _there's no use in talking_, My heart is scalded, _a wirrasthru_.' (Old Song.) 'Where is my use in staying here, so there's no use in talking, go I will.' ('Knocknagow.') Often the expression takes this form:--'Ah 'tis a folly to talk, he'll never get that money.' Sometimes the original Irish is in question form. _Cid tracht_ ('what talking?' i.e. 'what need of talking?') which is Englished as follows:--'Ah what's the use of talking, your father will never consent.' These expressions are used in conversational Irish-English, not for the purpose of continuing a narrative as in the original Irish, but--as appears from the above examples--merely to add emphasis to an assertion. 'It's a fine day that.' This expression, which is common enough among us, is merely a translation from the common Irish phrase _is breagh an lá é sin_, where the demonstrative _sin_ (that) comes last in the proper Irish construction: but when imitated in English it looks queer to an English listener or reader. '_There is no doubt_ that is a splendid animal.' This expression is a direct translation from the Irish _Ní'l contabhairt ann_, and is equivalent to the English 'doubtless.' It occurs often in the Scottish dialect also:--'Ye need na doubt I held my whisht' (Burns). {41} You are about to drink from a cup. 'How much shall I put into this cup for you?' 'Oh you may give me _the full of it_.' This is Irish-English: in England they would say--'Give it to me full.' Our expression is a translation from the Irish language. For example, speaking of a drinking-horn, an old writer says, _a lán do'n lionn_, literally, 'the full of it of ale.' In Silva Gadelica we find _lán a ghlaice deise do losaibh_, which an Irishman translating literally would render 'the full of his right hand of herbs,' while an Englishman would express the same idea in this way--'his right hand full of herbs.' Our Irish-English expression 'to come round a person' means to induce or _circumvent_ him by coaxing cuteness and wheedling: 'He came round me by his _sleudering_ to lend him half a crown, fool that I was': 'My grandchildren came round me to give them money for sweets.' This expression is borrowed from Irish:--'When the Milesians reached Erin _tanic a ngáes timchioll Tuathi De Danand_, 'their cuteness circumvented (lit. 'came round') the Dedannans.' (Opening sentence in _Mesca Ulad_ in Book of Leinster: Hennessy.) 'Shall I do so and so?' 'What would prevent you?' A very usual Hibernian-English reply, meaning 'you may do it of course; there is nothing to prevent you.' This is borrowed or translated from an Irish phrase. In the very old tale _The Voyage of Maildune_, Maildune's people ask, 'Shall we speak to her [the lady]?' and he replies _Cid gatas uait ce atberaid fria_. 'What [is it] that takes [anything] from you though ye speak to her,' as much as to say, 'what harm will it do you if you speak to her?' {42} equivalent to 'of course you may, there's nothing to prevent you.' That old horse is _lame of one leg_, one of our very usual forms of expression, which is merely a translation from _bacach ar aonchois_. (MacCurtin.) 'I'll seem to be lame, quite useless of one of my hands.' (Old Song.) Such constructions as _amadán fir_ 'a fool of a man' are very common in Irish, with the second noun in the genitive (_fear_ 'a man,' gen. _fir_) meaning 'a man who is a fool.' _Is and is ail ollamhan_, 'it is then he is a rock of an _ollamh_ (doctor), i.e. a doctor who is a rock [of learning]. (Book of Rights.) So also 'a thief of a fellow,' 'a steeple of a man,' i.e. a man who is a steeple--so tall. This form of expression is however common in England both among writers and speakers. It is noticed here because it is far more general among us, for the obvious reason that it has come to us from two sources (instead of one)--Irish and English. 'I removed to Dublin this day twelve months, and this day two years I will go back again to Tralee.' 'I bought that horse last May was a twelvemonth, and he will be three years old come Thursday next.' 'I'll not sell my pigs till coming on summer': a translation of _air theacht an t-samhraidh_. Such Anglo-Irish expressions are very general, and are all from the Irish language, of which many examples might be given, but this one from 'The Courtship of Emer,' twelve or thirteen centuries old, will be enough. [It was prophesied] that the boy would come to Erin that day seven years--_dia secht m-bliadan_. (Kuno Meyer.) {43} In our Anglo-Irish dialect the expression _at all_ is often duplicated for emphasis: 'I'll grow no corn this year at all at all': 'I have no money at all at all.' So prevalent is this among us that in a very good English grammar recently published (written by an Irishman) speakers and writers are warned against it. This is an importation from Irish. One of the Irish words for 'at all' is _idir_ (always used after a negative), old forms _itir_ and _etir_:--_nir bo tol do Dubthach recc na cumaile etir_, 'Dubthach did not wish to sell the bondmaid at all.' In the following old passage, and others like it, it is duplicated for emphasis _Cid beac, itir itir, ges do obar_: 'however little it is forbidden to work, at all at all.' ('Prohibitions of beard,' O'Looney.) When it is a matter of indifference which of two things to choose, we usually say 'It is equal to me' (or 'all one to me'), which is just a translation of _is cuma liom_ (best rendered by 'I don't care'). Both Irish and English expressions are very common in the respective languages. Lowry Looby says:--'It is equal to me whether I walk ten or twenty miles.' (Gerald Griffin.) 'I am a bold bachelor, airy and free, Both cities and counties are equal to me.' (Old Song.) 'Do that out of the face,' i.e. begin at the beginning and finish it out and out: a translation of _deun sin as eudan_. 'The day is rising' means the day is clearing up,--the rain, or snow, or wind is ceasing--the weather is becoming fine: a common saying in Ireland: a translation of the usual Irish expression _tá an lá_ {44} _ag éirghidh_. During the height of the great wind storm of 1842 a poor _shooler_ or 'travelling man' from Galway, who knew little English, took refuge in a house in Westmeath, where the people were praying in terror that the storm might go down. He joined in, and unconsciously translating from his native Irish, he kept repeating 'Musha, that the Lord may rise it, that the Lord may rise it.' At which the others were at first indignant, thinking he was asking God to _raise_ the wind higher still. (Russell.) Sometimes two prepositions are used where one would do:--'The dog got _in under_ the bed:' 'Where is James? He's _in in_ the room--or inside in the room.' 'Old woman, old woman, old woman,' says I, 'Where are you going up so high?' 'To sweep the cobwebs _off o'_ the sky.' Whether this duplication _off of_ is native Irish or old English it is not easy to say: but I find this expression in 'Robinson Crusoe':--'For the first time since the storm _off of_ Hull.' Eva, the witch, says to the children of Lir, when she had turned them into swans:--_Amach daoibh a chlann an righ_: 'Out with you [on the water] ye children of the king.' This idiom which is quite common in Irish, is constantly heard among English speakers:--'Away with you now'--'Be off with yourself.' 'Are you going away now?' One of the Irish forms of answering this is _Ní fós_, which in Kerry the people translate 'no yet,' considering this nearer to the original than the usual English 'not yet.' {45} The usual way in Irish of saying _he died_ is _fuair sé bás_, i.e. 'he found (or got) death,' and this is sometimes imitated in Anglo-Irish:--'He was near getting his death from that wetting'; 'come out of that draught or you'll get your death.' The following curious form of expression is very often heard:--'Remember you have gloves to buy for me in town'; instead of 'you have to buy me gloves.' 'What else have you to do to-day?' 'I have a top to bring to Johnny, and when I come home I have the cows to put in the stable'--instead of 'I have to bring a top'--'I have to put the cows.' This is an imitation of Irish, though not, I think, a direct translation. What may be called the Narrative Infinitive is a very usual construction in Irish. An Irish writer, relating a past event (and using the Irish language) instead of beginning his narrative in this way, 'Donall O'Brien went on an expedition against the English of Athlone,' will begin 'Donall O'Brien _to go_ on an expedition,' &c. No Irish examples of this need be given here, as they will be found in every page of the Irish Annals, as well as in other Irish writings. Nothing like this exists in English, but the people constantly imitate it in the Anglo-Irish speech. 'How did you come by all that money?' Reply:--'To get into the heart of the fair' (meaning 'I got into the heart of the fair'), and to cry _old china_, &c. (Gerald Griffin.) 'How was that, Lowry?' asks Mr. Daly: and Lowry answers:--'Some of them Garryowen boys sir to get about Danny Mann.' (Gerald Griffin: 'Collegians.') 'How did the mare get that hurt?' 'Oh Tom Cody to leap {46} her over the garden wall yesterday, and she to fall on her knees on the stones.' The Irish language has the word _annso_ for _here_, but it has no corresponding word _derived from annso_, to signify _hither_, though there are words for this too, but not from _annso_. A similar observation applies to the Irish for the words _there_ and _thither_, and for _where_ and _whither_. As a consequence of this our people do not use _hither_, _thither_, and _whither_ at all. They make _here_, _there_, and _where_ do duty for them. Indeed much the same usage exists in the Irish language too: _Is ann tigdaois eunlaith_ (Keating): 'It is _here_ the birds used to come,' instead of _hither_. In consequence of all this you will hear everywhere in Anglo-Irish speech:--'John came here yesterday': 'come here Patsy': 'your brother is in Cork and you ought to go _there_ to see him': '_where_ did you go yesterday after you parted from me?' 'Well Jack how are you these times?' 'Oh, indeed Tom I'm purty well thank you--_all that's left of me_': a mock way of speaking, as if the hard usage of the world had worn him to a thread. 'Is Frank Magaveen there?' asks the blind fiddler. 'All that's left of me is here,' answers Frank. (Carleton.) These expressions, which are very usual, and many others of the kind, are borrowed from the Irish. In the Irish tale, 'The Battle of Gavra,' poor old Osheen, the sole survivor of the Fena, says:--'I know not where to follow them [his lost friends]; and this makes _the little remnant that is left of me_ wretched. (_D'fúig sin m'iarsma_). Ned Brophy, introducing his wife to Mr. Lloyd, says, 'this is _herself_ sir.' This is an extremely {47} common form of phrase. 'Is _herself_ [i.e. the mistress] at home Jenny?' 'I'm afraid himself [the master of the house] will be very angry when he hears about the accident to the mare.' This is an Irish idiom. The Irish chiefs, when signing their names to any document, always wrote the name in this form, _Misi O'Neill_, i.e. 'Myself O'Neill.' A usual expression is 'I have no Irish,' i.e. I do not know or speak Irish. This is exactly the way of saying it in Irish, of which the above is a translation:--_Ní'l Gaodhlainn agum_. To _let on_ is to pretend, and in this sense is used everywhere in Ireland. 'Oh your father is very angry': 'Not at all, he's only letting on.' 'If you meet James don't let on you saw me,' is really a positive, not a negative request: equivalent to--'If you meet James, let on (pretend) that you didn't see me.' A Dublin working-man recently writing in a newspaper says, 'they passed me on the bridge (Cork), and never let on to see me' (i.e. 'they let on not to see me'). 'He is all _as one as_ recovered now'; he is nearly the same as recovered. At the proper season you will often see auctioneers' posters:--'To be sold by auction 20 acres of splendid meadow _on foot_,' &c. This term _on foot_, which is applied in Ireland to _growing_ crops of all kinds--corn, flax, meadow, &c.--is derived from the Irish language, in which it is used in the oldest documents as well as in the everyday spoken modern Irish; the usual word _cos_ for 'foot' being used. Thus in the Brehon Laws we are told that a wife's share of the flax is one-ninth if it be on foot (_for a cois_, {48} 'on its foot,' modern form _air a chois_) one-sixth after being dried, &c. In one place a fine is mentioned for appropriating or cutting furze if it be 'on foot.' (Br. Laws.) This mode of speaking is applied in old documents to animals also. Thus in one of the old Tales is mentioned a present of a swine and an ox _on foot_ (_for a coiss_, 'on their foot') to be given to Mac Con and his people, i.e. to be sent to them alive--not slaughtered. (Silva Gadelica.) But I have not come across this application in our modern Irish-English. To give a thing 'for God's sake,' i.e. to give it in charity or for mere kindness, is an expression very common at the present day all over Ireland. 'Did you sell your turf-rick to Bill Fennessy?' Oh no, I gave it to him for God's sake: he's very badly off now poor fellow, and I'll never miss it.' Our office attendant Charlie went to the clerk, who was chary of the pens, and got a supply with some difficulty. He came back grumbling:--'A person would think I was asking them for God's sake' (a thoroughly Hibernian sentence). This expression is common also in Irish, both ancient and modern, from which the English is merely a translation. Thus in the Brehon Laws we find mention of certain young persons being taught a trade 'for God's sake' (_ar Dia_), i.e. without fee: and in another place a man is spoken of as giving a poor person something 'for God's sake.' The word _'nough_, shortened from _enough_, is always used in English with the possessive pronouns, in accordance with the Gaelic construction in such phrases as _gur itheadar a n-doithin díobh_, 'So that {49} they ate their enough of them' ('Diarmaid and Grainne'): _d'ith mo shaith_ 'I ate my enough.' Accordingly uneducated people use the word _'nough_ in this manner, exactly as _fill_ is correctly used in 'he ate his fill.' Lowry Looby wouldn't like to be 'a born gentleman' for many reasons--among others that you're expected 'not to ate half your 'nough at dinner.' (Gerald Griffin: 'Collegians.') The words _world_ and _earth_ often come into our Anglo-Irish speech in a way that will be understood and recognised from the following examples:--'Where in the world are you going so early?' 'What in the world kept you out so long?' 'What on earth is wrong with you?' 'That cloud looks for all the world like a man.' 'Oh you young thief of the world, why did you do that?' (to a child). These expressions are all thrown in for emphasis, and they are mainly or altogether imported from the Irish. They are besides of long standing. In the 'Colloquy'--a very old Irish piece--the king of Leinster says to St. Patrick:--'I do not know _in the world_ how it fares [with my son].' So also in a still older story, 'The Voyage of Maildune':--'And they [Maildune and his people] knew not whither _in the world_ (_isan bith_) they were going. In modern Irish, _Ní chuirionn sé tábhacht a n-éinidh san domhuin_: 'he minds nothing in the world.' (Mac Curtin.) But I think some of the above expressions are found in good English too, both old and new. For example in a letter to Queen Elizabeth the Earl of Ormond (an Irishman--one of the Butlers) designates a certain Irish chief 'that most arrogant, {50} vile, traitor of the world Owney McRorye' [O'Moore]. But perhaps he wrote this with an Irish pen. A person does something to displease me--insults me, breaks down my hedge--and I say 'I will not let that go with him': meaning I will bring him to account for it, I will take satisfaction, I will punish him. This, which is very usual, is an Irish idiom. In the story of The Little Brawl of Allen, Goll boasts of having slain Finn's father; and Finn answers _bud maith m'acfainnse ar gan sin do léicen let_, 'I am quite powerful enough not to let that go with you.' ('Silva Gadelica.') Sometimes this Anglo-Irish phrase means to vie with, to rival. 'There's no doubt that old Tom Long is very rich': 'Yes indeed, but I think Jack Finnerty _wouldn't let it go with him_.' Lory Hanly at the dance, seeing his three companions sighing and obviously in love with three of the ladies, feels himself just as bad for a fourth, and sighing, says to himself that he 'wouldn't let it go with any of them.' ('Knocknagow.') 'I give in to you' means 'I yield to you,' 'I assent to (or believe) what you say,' 'I acknowledge you are right': 'He doesn't give in that there are ghosts at all.' This is an Irish idiom, as will be seen in the following:--[A lion and three dogs are struggling for the mastery and] _adnaigit [an triur eile] do [an leomain]_ 'And the three others gave in to the [lion].' This mode of expression is however found in English also:--[Beelzebub] 'proposes a third undertaking which the whole assembly gives in to.' (Addison in 'Spectator.') {51} _For_ is constantly used before the infinitive: 'he bought cloth _for to_ make a coat.' 'And "Oh sailor dear," said she, "How came you here by me?" And then she began _for to cry_.' (Old Irish Folk Song.) 'King James he pitched his tents between His lines _for to retire_.' (Old Irish Folk Song: 'The Boyne Water.') This idiom is in Irish also: _Deunaidh duthracht le leas bhur n-anma a dheunadh_: 'make an effort _for to accomplish_ the amendment of your souls.' ('Dunlevy.') Two Irish prepositions are used in this sense of _for_: _le_ (as above) and _chum_. But this use of _for_ is also very general in English peasant language, as may be seen everywhere in Dickens. _Is ceangailte do bhidhinn_, literally 'It is bound I should be,' i.e. in English 'I should be bound.' This construction (from 'Diarmaid and Grainne'), in which the position of the predicate as it would stand according to the English order is thrown back, is general in the Irish language, and quite as general in our Anglo-Irish, in imitation or translation. I once heard a man say in Irish _is e do chailleamhuin do rinn me_: 'It is to lose it I did' (I lost it). The following are everyday examples from our dialect of English: ''Tis to rob me you want': 'Is it at the young woman's house the wedding is to be?' ('Knocknagow'): 'Is it reading you are?' ''Twas to dhrame it I did sir' ('Knocknagow'): 'Maybe 'tis turned out I'd be' ('Knocknagow'): 'To lose it I did' (Gerald Griffin: 'Collegians'): 'Well John I am glad to {52} see you, and it's right well you look': [Billy thinks the fairy is mocking him, and says:--] 'Is it after making a fool of me you'd be?' (Crofton Croker): 'To make for Rosapenna (Donegal) we did:' i.e., 'We made for Rosapenna': 'I'll tell my father about your good fortune, and 'tis he that will be delighted.' In the fine old Irish story the 'Pursuit of Dermot and Grania,' Grania says to her husband Dermot:--[Invite guests to a feast to our daughter's house] _agus ní feas nach ann do gheubhaidh fear chéile_; 'and there is no knowing but that there she may get a husband.' This is almost identical with what Nelly Donovan says in our own day--in half joke--when she is going to Ned Brophy's wedding:--'There'll be some likely lads there to-night, and who knows what luck I might have.' ('Knocknagow.') This expression 'there is no knowing but' or 'who knows but,' borrowed as we see from Gaelic, is very common in our Anglo-Irish dialect. 'I want the loan of £20 badly to help to stock my farm, but how am I to get it?' His friend answers:--'Just come to the bank, and who knows but that they will advance it to you on my security:' meaning 'it is not unlikely--I think it rather probable--that they will advance it' 'He looks like a man _that there would be_ no money in his pocket': 'there's _a man that his wife leaves him_ whenever she pleases.' These phrases and the like are heard all through the middle of Ireland, and indeed outside the middle: they are translations from Irish. Thus the italics of the second phrase would be in Irish _fear dá d-tréigeann a bhean é_ (or _a thréigeas a bhean é_). 'Poor brave honest Mat Donovan that everyone is proud of _him_ and fond {53} of _him_' ('Knocknagow'): 'He was a descendant of Sir Thomas More that Henry VIII. cut his head off' (whose head Henry VIII. cut off). The phrases above are incorrect English, as there is redundancy; but they, and others like them, could generally be made correct by the use of _whose_ or _of whom_:--'He looks like a man in whose pocket,' &c.--'A man whose wife leaves him.' But the people in general do not make use of _whose_--in fact they do not know how to use it, except at the beginning of a question:--'Whose knife is this?' (Russell.) This is an excellent example of how a phrase may be good Irish but bad English. A man possesses some prominent quality, such as generosity, for which his father was also distinguished, and we say 'kind father for him,' i.e. 'He is of the same _kind_ as his father--he took it from his father.' So also ''Tis kind for the cat to drink milk'--'cat after kind'--''Tis kind for John to be good and honourable' [for his father or his people were so before him]. All this is from Irish, in which various words are used to express the idea of _kind_ in this sense:--_bu cheneulta do_--_bu dhual do_--_bu dhuthcha do_. Very anxious to do a thing: ''Twas all his trouble to do so and so' ('Collegians'): corresponding to the Irish:--'_Is é mo chúram uile_,' 'He (or it) is all my care.' (MacCurtin.) Instead of 'The box will hold all the parcels' or 'All the parcels will fit into the box,' we in Ireland commonly say 'All the parcels _will go_ into the box.' This is from a very old Gaelic usage, as may be seen from this quotation from the 'Boroma':--_Coire mór uma í teigtís dá muic déc_: 'A large bronze caldron {54} into which _would go_ (téigtís) twelve [jointed] pigs.' ('Silva Gadelica.') _Chevilles._ What is called in French a _cheville_--I do not know any Irish or English name for it--is a phrase interjected into a line of poetry merely to complete either the measure or the rhyme, with little or no use besides. The practice of using chevilles was very common in old Irish poetry, and a bad practice it was; for many a good poem is quite spoiled by the constant and wearisome recurrence of these _chevilles_. For instance here is a translation of a couple of verses from 'The Voyage of Maildune' with their _chevilles_:-- 'They met with an island after sailing-- _wonderful the guidance_. 'The third day after, on the end of the rod-- _deed of power_-- The chieftain found--_it was a very great joy_-- a cluster of apples.' In modern _Irish_ popular poetry we have _chevilles_ also; of which I think the commonest is the little phrase _gan go_, 'without a lie'; and this is often reflected in our Anglo-Irish songs. In 'Handsome Sally,' published in my 'Old Irish Music and Songs,' these lines occur:-- 'Young men and maidens I pray draw near-- _The truth to you I will now declare_-- How a fair young lady's heart was won All by the loving of a farmer's son.' And in another of our songs:-- 'Good people all I pray draw near-- _No lie I'll tell to ye_-- About a lovely fair maid, And her name is Polly Lee.' {55} This practice is met with also in English poetry, both classical and popular; but of course this is quite independent of the Irish custom. _Assonance._ In the modern Irish language the verse rhymes are _assonantal_. Assonance is the correspondence of the vowels: the consonants count for nothing. Thus _fair_, _may_, _saint_, _blaze_, _there_, all rhyme assonantally. As it is easy to find words that rhyme in this manner, the rhymes generally occur much oftener in Anglo-Irish verse than in pure English, in which the rhymes are what English grammarians call _perfect_. Our rustic poets rhyme their English (or Irish-English) verse assonantally in imitation of their native language. For a very good example of this, see the song of Castlehyde in my 'Old Irish Music and Songs'; and it may be seen in very large numbers of our Anglo-Irish Folk-songs. I will give just one example here, a free translation of an elegy, rhyming like its original. To the ear of a person accustomed to assonance--as for instance to mine--the rhymes here are as satisfying as if they were _perfect_ English rhymes. You remember our _neigh_bour Mac_Bra_dy we buried last YEAR; His death it _amaz_ed me and _daz_ed me with sorrow and GRIEF; From _cra_dle to _grave_ his _name_ was held in ESTEEM; For at _fairs_ and at _wakes_ there was no one like him for a SPREE; And 'tis he knew the _way_ how to _make_ a good cag of potTHEEN. He'd make verses in _Gael_ic quite _ais_y most _plaz_ing to READ; And he knew how to _plaze_ the fair _maids_ with his soothering SPEECH. He could clear out a _fair_ at his _aise_ with his ash clehalPEEN; But ochone he's now _laid_ in his _grave_ in the churchyard of KEEL. {56} * * * * * CHAPTER V. THE DEVIL AND HIS 'TERRITORY.' Bad as the devil is he has done us some service in Ireland by providing us with a fund of anecdotes and sayings full of drollery and fun. This is all against his own interests; for I remember reading in the works of some good old saint--I think it is St. Liguori--that the devil is always hovering near us watching his opportunity, and that one of the best means of scaring him off is a good honest hearty laugh. Those who wish to avoid uttering the plain straight name 'devil' often call him 'the Old Boy,' or 'Old Nick.' In some of the stories relating to the devil he is represented as a great simpleton and easily imposed upon: in others as clever at everything. In many he gets full credit for his badness, and all his attributes and all his actions are just the reverse of the good agencies of the world; so that his attempts at evil often tend for good, while anything he does for good--or pretending to be for good--turns to evil. When a person suffers punishment or injury of any kind that is well deserved--gets his deserts for misconduct or culpable mismanagement or excessive foolishness of any kind--we say 'the devil's cure to him,' or 'the devil mend him' (as much as to say {57} in English 'serve him right'); for if the devil goes to cure or to mend he only makes matters ten times worse. Dick Millikin of Cork (the poet of 'The Groves of Blarney') was notoriously a late riser. One morning as he was going very late to business, one of his neighbours, a Quaker, met him. 'Ah friend Dick thou art very late to-day: remember the early bird picks the worm.' 'The devil mend the worm for being out so early,' replied Dick. So also 'the devil bless you' is a bad wish, because the devil's blessing is equivalent to the curse of God; while 'the devil's curse to you' is considered a good wish, for the devil's curse is equal to God's blessing. (Carleton.) The devil comes in handy in many ways. What could be more expressive than this couplet of an old song describing a ruffian in a rage:-- 'He stamped and he cursed and he swore he would fight, And I saw the _ould_ devil between his two eyes.' Sometimes the devil is taken as the type of excellence or of great proficiency in anything, or of great excess, so that you often hear 'That fellow is as old as the devil,' 'That beefsteak is as tough as the devil,' 'He beats the devil for roguery,' 'My landlord is civil, but dear as the divil.' (Swift: who wrote this with a pen dipped in Irish ink.) A poor wretch or a fellow always in debt and difficulty, and consequently shabby, is a 'poor devil'; and not very long ago I heard a friend say to another--who was not sparing of his labour--'Well, there's no doubt but you're a hard-working old devil.' {58} Very bad potatoes:--'Wet and watery, scabby and small, thin in the ground and hard to dig, hard to wash, hard to boil, and _the devil to eat them_.' 'I don't wonder that poor Bill should be always struggling, for he has the devil of an extravagant family.' 'Oh confusion to you Dan,' says the T. B. C., 'You're the devil of a man,' says the T. B. C. (Repeal Song of 1843.) (But this form of expression occurs in Dickens--'Our Mutual Friend'--'I have a devil of a temper myself'). An emphatic statement:--'I wouldn't like to trust him, for he's the _devil's own_ rogue.' 'There's no use in your trying that race against Johnny Keegan, for Johnny is the very devil at running.' 'Oh your reverence,' says Paddy Galvin, 'don't ax me to fast; but you may put as much prayers on me as you like: for, your reverence, I'm very bad at fasting, but I'm the divel at the prayers.' According to Mr. A. P. Graves, in 'Father O'Flynn,' the 'Provost and Fellows of Trinity' [College, Dublin] are 'the divels an' all at Divinity.' This last expression is truly Hibernian, and is very often heard:--A fellow is boasting how he'll leather Jack Fox when next he meets him. 'Oh yes, you'll do the _devil an' all_ while Jack is away; but wait till he comes to the fore.' In several of the following short stories and sayings the simpleton side of Satan's character is well brought out. Damer of Shronell, who lived in the eighteenth century, was reputed to be the richest man in Ireland--a sort of Irish Croesus: so that 'as rich as {59} Damer' has become a proverb in the south of Ireland. An Irish peasant song-writer, philosophising on the vanity of riches, says:-- 'There was ould Paddy Murphy had money galore, And Damer of Shronell had twenty times more-- They are now on their backs under nettles and stones.' Damer's house in ruins is still to be seen at Shronell, four miles west of Tipperary town. The story goes that he got his money by selling his soul to the devil for as much gold as would fill his boot--a top boot, i.e. one that reaches above the knee. On the appointed day the devil came with his pockets well filled with guineas and sovereigns, as much as he thought was sufficient to fill any boot. But meantime Damer had removed the heel and fixed the boot in the floor, with a hole in the boards underneath, opening into the room below. The devil flung in handful after handful till his pockets were empty, but still the boot was not filled. He then sent out a signal, such as they understand in hell--for they had wireless telegraphy there long before Mr. Marconi's Irish mother was born--on which a crowd of little imps arrived all laden with gold coins, which were emptied into the boot, and still no sign of its being filled. He had to send them many times for more, till at last he succeeded in filling _the room beneath_ as well as the boot; on which the transaction was concluded. The legend does not tell what became of Damer in the end; but such agreements usually wind up (in Ireland) by the sinner tricking Satan out of his bargain. When a person does an evil deed under cover of some untruthful but plausible justification, or utters {60} a wicked saying under a disguise: that's 'blindfolding the devil in the dark.' The devil is as cute in the dark as in the light: and blindfolding him is useless and foolish: he is only laughing at you. 'You're a very coarse Christian,' as the devil said to the hedgehog. (Tyrone.) The name and fame of the great sixteenth-century magician, Dr. Faust or Faustus, found way somehow to our peasantry; for it was quite common to hear a crooked knavish man spoken of in this way:--'That fellow is a match for the devil and _Dr. Fosther_.' (Munster.) The magpie has seven drops of the devil's blood in its body: the water-wagtail has three drops. (Munster.) When a person is unusually cunning, cute, and tricky, we say 'The devil is a poor scholar to you.' ('Poor scholar' here means a bad shallow scholar.) 'Now since James is after getting all the money, _the devil can't howld him_': i.e. he has grown proud and overbearing. '_Firm and ugly_, as the devil said when he sewed his breeches with gads.' Here is how it happened. The devil was one day pursuing the soul of a sinner across country, and in leaping over a rough thorn hedge, he tore his breeches badly, so that his tail stuck out; on which he gave up the chase. As it was not decent to appear in public in that condition, he sat down and stitched up the rent with next to hand materials--viz. slender tough osier withes or _gads_ as we call them in Ireland. When the job was finished he spread out the garment before him on his {61} knees, and looking admiringly on his handiwork, uttered the above saying--'Firm and ugly!' The idea of the 'old boy' pursuing a soul appears also in the words of an old Anglo-Irish song about persons who commit great crimes and die unrepentant:-- 'For committing those crimes unrepented The devil shall after them run, And slash him for that at a furnace Where coal sells for nothing a ton.' A very wet day--teeming rain--raining cats and dogs--_a fine day for young ducks_:--'The devil wouldn't send out his dog on such a day as this.' 'Did you ever see the devil With the wooden spade and shovel Digging praties for his supper And his tail cocked up?' A person struggling with poverty--constantly in money difficulties--is said to be 'pulling the devil by the tail.' 'Great noise and little wool,' as the devil said when he was shearing a pig. 'What's got over the devil's back goes off under the devil's belly.' This is another form of _ill got ill gone_. Don't enter on a lawsuit with a person who has in his hands the power of deciding the case. This would be 'going to law against the devil with the courthouse in hell.' Jack hates that man and all belonging to him 'as the devil hates holy water.' _Yerra_ or _arrah_ is an exclamation very much in use in the South: a phonetic representation of the Irish _air[)e]_, meaning _take care_, _look out_, _look you_:--'Yerra {62} Bill why are you in such a hurry?' The old people didn't like our continual use of the word; and in order to deter us we were told that _Yerra_ or _Arrah_ was the name of the devil's mother! This would point to something like domestic conditions in the lower regions, and it is in a way corroborated by the words of an old song about a woman--a desperate old reprobate of a virago--who kicked up all sorts of ructions the moment she got inside the gate:-- 'When she saw the _young devils_ tied up in their chains She up with her crutch and knocked one of their brains.' 'Sufficient for the day is the evil thereof.' The people of Munster do not always put it that way; they have a version of their own:--'Time enough to bid the devil good-morrow when you meet him.' But an intelligent correspondent from Carlow puts a somewhat different interpretation on the last saying, namely, 'Don't go out of your way to seek trouble.' 'When needs must the devil drives': a man in a great fix is often driven to illegal or criminal acts to extricate himself. When a man is threatened with a thrashing, another will say to him:--'You'll get Paddy Ryan's supper--_hard knocks and the devil to eat_': common in Munster. 'When you sup with the devil have a long spoon': that is to say, if you have any dealings with rogues or criminals, adopt very careful precautions, and don't come into closer contact with them than is absolutely necessary. (Lover: but used generally.) 'Speak the truth and shame the devil' is a very common saying. {63} 'The devil's children have the devil's luck'; or 'the devil is good to his own': meaning bad men often prosper. But it is now generally said in joke to a person who has come in for an unexpected piece of good luck. A holy knave--something like our modern Pecksniff--dies and is sent in the downward direction: and--according to the words of the old folk-song--this is his reception:-- 'When hell's gate was opened the devil jumped with joy, Saying "I have a warm corner for you my holy boy."' A man is deeply injured by another and threatens reprisal:--'I'll make you smell hell for that'; a bitter threat which may be paraphrased: I'll persecute you to death's door; and for you to be near death is to be near hell--I'll put you so near that you'll smell the fumes of the brimstone. A usual imprecation when a person who has made himself very unpopular is going away: 'the devil go with him.' One day a fellow was eating his dinner of dry potatoes, and had only one egg half raw for _kitchen_. He had no spoon, and took the egg in little sips intending to spread it over the dinner. But one time he tilted the shell too much, and down went the whole contents. After recovering from the gulp, he looked ruefully at the empty shell and blurted out--_the devil go with you down_! Many people think--and say it too--that it is an article of belief with Catholics that all Protestants when they die go straight to hell--which is a libel. Yet it is often kept up in joke, as in this and other {64} stories:--The train was skelping away like mad along the main line to hell--for they have railways _there_ now--till at last it pulled up at the junction. Whereupon the porters ran round shouting out, 'Catholics change here for purgatory: Protestants keep your places!' This reminds us of Father O'Leary, a Cork priest of the end of the eighteenth century, celebrated as a controversialist and a wit. He was one day engaged in gentle controversy--or _argufying religion_ as we call it in Ireland--with a Protestant friend, who plainly had the worst of the encounter. 'Well now Father O'Leary I want to ask what have you to say about purgatory?' 'Oh nothing,' replied the priest, 'except that you might go farther and fare worse.' The same Father O'Leary once met in the streets a friend, a witty Protestant clergyman with whom he had many an encounter of wit and repartee. 'Ah Father O'Leary, have you heard the bad news?' 'No,' says Father O'Leary. 'Well, the bottom has fallen out of purgatory, and all the poor Papists have gone down into hell.' 'Oh the Lord save us,' answered Father O'Leary, 'what a crushing the poor Protestants must have got!' Father O'Leary and Curran--the great orator and wit--sat side by side once at a dinner party, where Curran was charmed with his reverend friend. 'Ah Father O'Leary,' he exclaimed at last, 'I wish you had the key of heaven.' 'Well Curran it might be better for you that I had the key of the other place.' A parish priest only recently dead, a well-known wit, sat beside a venerable Protestant clergyman at {65} dinner; and they got on very agreeably. This clergyman rather ostentatiously proclaimed his liberality by saying:--'Well Father ---- I have been for _sixty years in this world_ and I could never understand that there is any great and essential difference between the Catholic religion and the Protestant.' 'I can tell you,' replied Father ----, 'that when you die you'll not be _sixty minutes in the other world_ before you will understand it perfectly.' The preceding are all in joke: but I once heard the idea enunciated in downright earnest. In my early life, we, the village people, were a mixed community, about half and half Catholics and Protestants, the latter nearly all Palatines, who were Methodists to a man. We got on very well together, and I have very kindly memories of my old playfellows, Palatines as well as Catholics. One young Palatine, Peter Stuffle, differed in one important respect from the others, as he never attended Church Mass or Meeting. He emigrated to America; and being a level headed fellow and keeping from drink, he got on. At last he came across Nelly Sullivan, a bright eyed colleen all the way from Kerry, a devoted Catholic, and fell head and ears in love with her. She liked him too, but would have nothing to say to him unless he became a Catholic: in the words of the old song, 'Unless that you turn a _Roman_ you ne'er shall get me for your bride.' Peter's theology was not proof against Nelly's bright face: he became a Catholic, and a faithful one too: for once he was inside the gate his wife took care to instruct him, and kept him well up to his religious duties. {66} They prospered; so that at the end of some years he was able to visit his native place. On his arrival nothing could exceed the consternation and rage of his former friends to find that instead of denouncing the Pope, he was now a flaming papist: and they all disowned and boycotted him. So he visited round his Catholic neighbours who were very glad to receive him. I was present at one of the conversations: when Peter, recounting his successful career, wound up with:--'So you see, James, that I am now well off, thanks be to God and to Nelly. I have a large farm, with ever so many horses, and a fine _baan_ of cows, and you could hardly count the sheep and pigs. I'd be as happy as the days are long now, James, only for one thing that's often troubling me; and that is, to think that my poor old father and mother are in hell.' * * * * * CHAPTER VI. SWEARING. The general run of our people do not swear much; and those that do commonly limit themselves to the name of the devil either straight out or in some of its various disguised forms, or to some harmless imitation of a curse. You do indeed come across persons who go higher, but they are rare. Yet while keeping themselves generally within safe bounds, it must be confessed that many of the people have a sort of sneaking admiration--lurking secretly and seldom expressed in words--for a good well-balanced curse, so long as it does not shock by its profanity. I once knew a doctor--not in {67} Dublin--who, it might be said, was a genius in this line. He could, on the spur of the moment, roll out a magnificent curse that might vie with a passage of the Iliad in the mouth of Homer. 'Oh sir'--as I heard a fellow say--''tis grand to listen to him when he's in a rage.' He was known as a skilled physician, and a good fellow in every way, and his splendid swearing crowned his popularity. He had discretion however, and knew when to swear and when not; but ultimately he swore his way into an extensive and lucrative practice, which lasted during his whole life--a long and honourable one. Parallel to this is Maxwell's account of the cursing of Major Denis O'Farrell--'the Mad Major,' who appears to have been a dangerous rival to my acquaintance, the doctor. He was once directing the evolutions at a review in presence of Sir Charles, the General, when one important movement was spoiled by the blundering of an incompetent little adjutant. In a towering passion the Mad Major addressed the General:--'Stop, Sir Charles, do stop; just allow me two minutes to curse that rascally adjutant.' To so reasonable a request (Maxwell goes on to say), Sir Charles readily assented. He heard the whole malediction out, and speaking of it afterwards, he said that 'he never heard a man cursed to his perfect satisfaction until he heard (that adjutant) anathematised in the Phoenix Park.' The Mad Major was a great favourite; and when he died, there was not a dry eye in the regiment on the day of the funeral. Two months afterwards when an Irish soldier was questioned on the merits of his successor:--'The man is well enough,' said Pat, {68} with a heavy sigh, 'but where will we find the equal of the Major? By japers, it was a comfort to be cursed by him!' ('Wild Sports of the West.') In my part of the country there is--or was--a legend--a very circumstantial one too--which however I am not able to verify personally, as the thing occurred a little before my time--that Father Buckley, of Glenroe, cured Charley Coscoran, the greatest swearer in the barony--cured him in a most original way. He simply directed him to cut out a button from some part of his dress, no matter where--_to whip it out on the instant_--every time he uttered a serious curse, i.e, one involving the Sacred Name. Charley made the promise with a light heart, thinking that by only using a little caution he could easily avoid snipping off his buttons. But inveterate habit is strong. Only very shortly after he had left the priest he saw a cow in one of his cornfields playing havoc: out came a round curse, and off came a button on the spot. For Charley was a manly fellow, with a real sense of religion at bottom: and he had no notion of shirking his penance. Another curse after some time and another button. Others again followed:--coat, waistcoat, trousers, shirt-collar, were brought under contribution till his clothes began to fall off him. For a needle and thread were not always at hand, and at any rate Charley was no great shakes at the needle. At last things came to that pass with poor Charley, that life was hardly worth living; till he had to put his mind seriously to work, and by careful watching he gradually cured himself. But many score buttons passed through his hands during the process. {69} Most persons have a sort of craving or instinct to utter a curse of some kind--as a sort of comforting interjection--where there is sufficient provocation; and in order to satisfy this without incurring the guilt, people have invented ejaculations in the form of curses, but still harmless. Most of them have some resemblance in sound to the forbidden word--they are near enough to satisfy the craving, but still far enough off to avoid the guilt: the process may in fact be designated _dodging a curse_. Hence we have such blank cartridges as _begob_, _begor_, by my _sowkins_, by _Jove_, by the _laws_ [Lord], by _herrings_ [heavens], by _this and by that_, _dang_ it, &c.; all of them ghosts of curses, which are very general among our people. The following additional examples will sufficiently illustrate this part of our subject. The expression _the dear knows_ (or correctly _the deer knows_), which is very common, is a translation from Irish of one of those substitutions. The original expression is _thauss ag Dhee_ [given here phonetically], meaning _God knows_; but as this is too solemn and profane for most people, they changed it to _Thauss ag fee_, i.e. _the deer knows_; and this may be uttered by anyone. _Dia_ [Dhee] God: _fiadh_ [fee], a deer. Says Barney Broderick, who is going through his penance after confession at the station, and is interrupted by a woman asking him a question:--'Salvation seize your soul--God forgive me for cursing--be off out of that and don't set me astray!' ('Knocknagow.') Here the substitution has turned a wicked imprecation into a benison: for the first word in the original is not _salvation_ but _damnation_. {70} 'By the hole in my coat,' which is often heard, is regarded as a harmless oath: for if there is no hole you are swearing by nothing: and if there is a hole--still the hole is nothing. 'Bad manners to you,' a mild imprecation, to avoid 'bad luck to you,' which would be considered wicked: reflecting the people's horror of rude or offensive manners. 'By all the goats in Kerry,' which I have often heard, is always said in joke, which takes the venom out of it. In Leinster they say, 'by all the goats in Gorey'--which is a big oath. Whether it is a big oath now or not, I do not know; but it was so formerly, for the name _Gorey_ (Wexford), like the Scotch _Gowrie_, means 'swarming with goats.' 'Man,' says the pretty mermaid to Dick Fitzgerald, when he had captured her from the sea, 'man will you eat me?' '_By all the red petticoats and check aprons between Dingle and Tralee_,' cried Dick, jumping up in amazement, 'I'd as soon eat myself, my jewel! Is it I to eat you, my pet!' (Crofton Croker.) 'Where did he get the whiskey?' 'Sorrow a know I know,' said Leary. 'Sorrow fly away with him.' (Crofton Croker.) In these and such like--which you often hear--_sorrow_ is a substitute for _devil_. Perhaps the most general exclamations of this kind among Irish people are _begor_, _begob_, _bedad_, _begad_ (often contracted to _egad_), _faith_ and _troth_. _Faith_, contracted from _in faith_ or _i' faith_, is looked upon by many people as not quite harmless: it is a little too serious to be used indiscriminately--'Faith I feel this day very cold': 'Is that tea good?' {71} 'Faith it is no such thing: it is very weak.' 'Did Mick sell his cows to-day at the fair?' 'Faith I don't know.' People who shrink from the plain word often soften it to _faix_ or _haith_ (or _heth_ in Ulster). An intelligent contributor makes the remark that the use of this word _faith_ (as above) is a sure mark of an Irishman all over the world. Even some of the best men will occasionally, in an unguarded moment or in a hasty flash of anger, give way to the swearing instinct. Father John Burke of Kilfinane--I remember him well--a tall stern-looking man with heavy brows, but really gentle and tender-hearted--held a station at the house of our neighbour Tom Coffey, a truly upright and pious man. All had gone to confession and Holy Communion, and the station was over. Tom went out to bring the priest's horse from the paddock, but in leading him through a gap in the hedge the horse stood stock still and refused obstinately to go an inch farther. Tom pulled and tugged to no purpose, till at last his patience went to pieces, and he flung this, in no gentle voice, at the animal's head:--'Blast your _sowl_ will you come on!' Just then unluckily Father Burke walked up behind: he had witnessed and heard all, and you may well say that Tom's heart dropped down into his shoes; for he felt thoroughly ashamed. The crime was not great; but it looked bad and unbecoming under the circumstances; and what could the priest do but perform his duty: so the black brows contracted, and on the spot he gave poor Tom _down-the-banks_ and no mistake. I was at that station, though I did not witness the horse scene. {72} If a person pledges himself to anything, clinching the promise with an adjuration however mild or harmless, he will not by any means break the promise, considering it in a manner as a vow. The old couple are at tea and have just one egg, which causes a mild dispute. At last the father says decisively--'The divel a bit of it I'll eat, so there's an end of it': when the mother instantly and with great solemnity--'FAITH I won't eat it--there now!' The result was that neither would touch it; and they gave it to their little boy who demolished it without the least scruple. I was one time a witness of a serio-comic scene _on the head of_ one of these blank oaths when I was a small boy attending a very small school. The master was a truly good and religious man, but very severe (a _wicked_ master, as we used to say), and almost insane in his aversion to swearing in any shape or form. To say _begob_ or _begor_ or _by Jove_ was unpardonably wicked; it was nothing better than blindfolding the devil in the dark. One day Jack Aimy, then about twelve years of age--_the saint_ as we used to call him--for he was always in mischief and always in trouble--said exultingly to the boy sitting next him:--'Oh _by the hokey_, Tom, I have my sum finished all right at last.' In evil hour for him the master happened to be standing just behind his back; and then came the deluge. In an instant the school work was stopped, and poor Jack was called up to stand before the judgment seat. There he got a long lecture--with the usual quotations--as severe and solemn as if he were a man and had perjured himself half a {73} dozen times. As for the rest of us, we sat in the deadly silence shivering in our skins; for we all, to a man, had a guilty consciousness that we were quite as bad as Jack, if the truth were known. Then poor Jack was sent to his seat so wretched and crestfallen after his lecture that a crow wouldn't pick his bones. 'By the hokey' is to this day common all over Ireland. When we, Irish, go abroad, we of course bring with us our peculiarities and mannerisms--with now and then a little meteoric flash of eccentricity--which on the whole prove rather attractive to foreigners, including Englishmen. One Sunday during the South African war, Mass was celebrated as usual in the temporary chapel, which, after the rough and ready way of the camp, served for both Catholics and Protestants: Mass first; Protestant Service after. On this occasion an Irish officer, a splendid specimen of a man, tall, straight, and athletic--a man born to command, and well known as a strict and devoted Catholic--was serving Mass--aiding and giving the responses to the priest. The congregation was of course of mixed nationalities--English, Irish, and Scotch, and the chapel was filled. Just outside the chapel door a nigger had charge of the big bell to call the congregations. On this day, in blissful ignorance and indifference, he began to ring for the Protestant congregation too soon--while Mass was still going on--so as greatly to disturb the people at their devotions. The officer was observed to show signs of impatience, growing more and more restless as the ringing went {74} on persistently, till at last one concentrated series of bangs burst up his patience utterly. Starting up from his knees during a short interval when his presence was not required--it happened to be after the most solemn part of the Mass--he strode down the middle passage in a mighty rage--to the astonishment of everybody--till he got to the door, and letting fly--in the midst of the perfect silence,--a tremendous volley of _damns_, _blasts_, _scoundrels_, _blackguards_, &c., &c., at the head of the terrified nigger, he shut him up, himself and his bell, while a cat would be licking her ear. He then walked back and resumed his duties, calm and collected, and evidently quite unconscious that there was anything unusual in the proceeding. The whole thing was so sudden and odd that the congregation were convulsed with suppressed silent laughter; and I am afraid that some people observed even the priest's sides shaking in spite of all he could do. This story was obtained from a person who was present at that very Mass; and it is given here almost in his own words. * * * * * CHAPTER VII. GRAMMAR AND PRONUNCIATION. _Shall_ and _Will_. It has been pretty clearly shown that the somewhat anomalous and complicated niceties in the English use of _shall_ and _will_ have been developed within the last 300 years or so. It is of course well known that our Irish popular manner of using these {75} two particles is not in accordance with the present correct English standard; yet most of our shall-and-will Hibernianisms represent the classical usage of two or three centuries ago: so that this is one of those Irish 'vulgarisms' that are really survivals in Ireland of the correct old English usages, which in England have been superseded by other and often incorrect forms. On this point I received, some years ago, a contribution from an English gentleman who resided long in Ireland, Mr. Marlow Woollett, a man of wide reading, great culture, and sound judgment. He gives several old examples in illustration, of which one is so much to the point--in the use of _will_--that you might imagine the words were spoken by an Irish peasant of the present day. Hamlet says: 'I will win for him an (if) I can; if not I _will_ gain nothing but my shame and the odd hits.' ('Hamlet,' Act v., scene ii.) This (the second _will_) exactly corresponds with what many of us in Ireland would say now:--'I will win the race if I can; if not I _will_ get some discredit': 'If I go without my umbrella I am afraid I will get wet.' So also in regard to _shall_; modern English custom has departed from correct ancient usage and etymology, which in many cases we in Ireland have retained. The old and correct sense of _shall_ indicated obligation or duty (as in Chaucer:--'The faith I shal to God') being derived from A.S. _sceal_ 'I owe' or 'ought': this has been discarded in England, while we still retain it in our usage in Ireland. You say to an attentive Irish waiter, 'Please have breakfast for me at 8 o'clock to-morrow morning'; and he answers, 'I shall sir.' When I was a boy I was {76} present in the chapel of Ardpatrick one Sunday, when Father Dan O'Kennedy, after Mass, called on the two schoolmasters--candidates for a school vacancy--to come forward to him from where they stood at the lower end of the chapel; when one of them, Mat Rea, a good scholar but a terrible pedant, called out magniloquently, 'Yes, doctor, we SHALL go to your reverence,' unconsciously following in the footsteps of Shakespeare. The language both of the waiter and of Mat Rea is exactly according to the old English usage. '_Lady Macbeth_ (_to Macbeth_):--Be bright and jovial among your guests to-night. '_Macbeth_:--So shall I, love.' ('Macbeth,' Act iii. scene ii.) '_Second Murderer_:--We shall, my lord, Perform what you command us.' (_Ibid._, Act iii. scene i.) But the Irish waiter's answer would now seem strange to an Englishman. To him, instead of being a dutiful assent, as it is intended to be, and as it would be in England in old times, it would look too emphatic and assertive, something like as if it were an answer to a command _not_ to do it. (Woollett.) The use of _shall_ in such locutions was however not universal in Shakespearian times, as it would be easy to show; but the above quotations--and others that might be brought forward--prove that this usage then prevailed and was correct, which is sufficient for my purpose. Perhaps it might rather be said that _shall_ and _will_ were used in such cases indifferently:-- '_Queen_:--Say to the king, I would attend his leisure For a few words. '_Servant_: Madam, I will.' ('Macbeth,' Act iii. scene ii.) {77} Our use of _shall_ and _will_ prevails also in Scotland, where the English change of custom has not obtained any more than it has in Ireland. The Scotch in fact are quite as bad (or as good) in this respect as we are. Like many another Irish idiom this is also found in American society chiefly through the influence of the Irish. In many parts of Ireland they are shy of using _shall_ at all: I know this to be the case in Munster; and a correspondent informs me that _shall_ is hardly ever heard in Derry. The incorrect use of _will_ in questions in the first person singular ('Will I light the fire ma'am?' 'Will I sing you a song?'--instead of 'Shall I?') appears to have been developed in Ireland independently, and not derived from any former correct usage: in other words we have created this incorrect locution--or vulgarism--for ourselves. It is one of our most general and most characteristic speech errors. _Punch_ represents an Irish waiter with hand on dish-cover, asking:--'Will I sthrip ma'am?' What is called the _regular_ formation of the past tense (in _ed_) is commonly known as the weak inflection:--_call, called_: the _irregular_ formation (by changing the vowel) is the strong inflection:--_run, ran_. In old English the strong inflection appears to have been almost universal; but for some hundreds of years the English tendency is to replace strong by weak inflection. But our people in Ireland, retaining the old English custom, have a leaning towards the strong inflection, and not only use many of the old-fashioned English strong past tenses, but often form strong ones in their own way:--We use _slep_ and _crep_, old English; and we coin others. 'He _ruz_ his hand {78} to me,' 'I _cotch_ him stealing the turf,' 'he _gother_ sticks for the fire,' 'he _hot_ me on the head with his stick,' he _sot_ down on the chair' (very common in America). Hyland, the farm manager, is sent with some bullocks to the fair; and returns. 'Well Hyland, are the bullocks sold?'--'Sowld and _ped_ for sir.' _Wor_ is very usual in the south for _were_: 'tis long since we _wor_ on the road so late as this.' (Knocknagow.) '_Wor_ you at the fair--did you see the wonder-- Did you see Moll Roe riding on the gander?' _E'er_ and _ne'er_ are in constant use in Munster:--'Have you e'er a penny to give me sir? No, I have ne'er a penny for you this time.' Both of these are often met with in Shakespeare. The Irish schoolmasters knew Irish well, and did their best--generally with success--to master English. This they did partly from their neighbours, but in a large measure from books, including dictionaries. As they were naturally inclined to show forth their learning, they made use, as much as possible, of long and unusual words, mostly taken from dictionaries, but many coined by themselves from Latin. Goldsmith's description of the village master with his 'words of learned length and thundering sound,' applies exactly to a large proportion of the schoolmasters of the eighteenth and first half of the nineteenth century all over Ireland. You heard these words often in conversation, but the schoolmasters most commonly used them in song-writing. Here also they made free use of the classical mythology; but I will not touch on this {79} feature, as I have treated of it, and have given specimens, in my 'Old Irish Folk Music and Songs,' pp. 200-202. As might be expected, the schoolmasters, as well as others, who used these strange words often made mistakes in applying them; which will be seen in some of the following examples. Here is one whole verse of a song about a young lady--'The Phoenix of the Hall.' 'I being quite captivated and so infatuated I then prognosticated my sad forlorn case; But I quickly ruminated--suppose I was _defaited_, I would not be implicated or treated with disgrace; So therefore I awaited with my spirits elevated, And no more I ponderated let what would me befall; I then to her _repated_ how Cupid had me _thrated_, And thus expostulated with The Phoenix of the Hall.' In another verse of this song the poet tells us what he might do for the Phoenix if he had greater command of language:-- 'Could I indite like Homer that celebrated _pomer_.' One of these schoolmasters, whom I knew, composed a poem in praise of Queen Victoria just after her accession, of which I remember only two lines:-- 'In England our queen resides with _alacrity_, With civil authority and kind urbanity.' Another opens his song in this manner:-- 'One morning serene as I roved in solitude, Viewing the magnitude of th' orient ray. The author of the song in praise of Castlehyde speaks of 'The bees _perfuming_ the fields with music'; {80} and the same poet winds up by declaring, 'In all my ranging and _serenading_ I met no _aiquel_ to Castlehyde.' _Serenading_ here means wandering about leisurely. The author of 'The Cottage Maid' speaks of the danger of Mercury abducting the lady, even 'Though an _organising_ shepherd be her guardian'; where _organising_ is intended to mean playing on an _organ_, i.e. a shepherd's reed. But endless examples of this kind might be given. Occasionally you will find the peasantry attempting long or unusual words, of which some examples are scattered through this chapter; and here also there are often misapplications: 'What had you for dinner to-day?' 'Oh I had bacon and goose and several other _combustibles_' (comestibles). I have repeatedly heard this word. Sometimes the simple past tense is used for one of the subjunctive past forms. 'If they had gone out in their boat that night they were lost men'; i.e. 'they would have been lost men.' 'She is now forty, and 'twas well if she was married' ('it would be well'). 'Oh Father Murphy, had aid come over, the green flag floated from shore to shore' (i.e. would have floated). See my 'Old Irish Folk Music and Songs,' p. 242. 'A summons from William to Limerick, a summons to open their gate, Their fortress and stores to surrender, else the sword and the gun _were_ their fate.' (R. D. JOYCE: Ballads of Irish Chivalry, p. 15.) {81} _See_ is very often used for _saw_:--'Did you ever see a cluricaun Molly?' 'Oh no sir, I never see one myself.' (Crofton Croker.) 'Come here Nelly, and point out the bride to us.' 'I never see her myself Miss' [so I don't know her] replied Nelly. (Knocknagow.) This is a survival from old English, in which it was very common. It is moreover general among the English peasantry at the present day, as may be seen everywhere in Dickens. The imperative of verbs is often formed by _let_:--instead of 'go to the right 'or 'go you to the right,' our people say 'let you go to the right': 'let you look after the cows and I will see to the horses.' A fellow is arrested for a crime and dares the police with:--'Let ye prove it.' In Derry porridge or stirabout always takes the plural: 'Have you dished _them_ yet?' 'I didn't go to the fair _'cause why_, the day was too wet.' This expression _'cause why_, which is very often heard in Ireland, is English at least 500 years old: for we find it in Chaucer. You often hear _us_ for _me_: 'Give us a penny sir to buy sweets' (i.e. 'Give me'). In Waterford and South Wexford the people often use such verbal forms as is seen in the following:--'Does your father grow wheat still?' 'He _do_.' 'Has he the old white horse now?' 'He _have_.' As to _has_, Mr. MacCall states that it is unknown in the barony of Forth: there you always hear 'that man _have_ plenty of money'--he _have_--she _have_, &c. The Rev. William Burke tells us that _have_ is found as above (a third person singular) all through the old Waterford Bye-Laws; which would render it {82} pretty certain that both _have_ and _do_ in these applications are survivals from the old English colony in Waterford and Wexford. In Donegal and thereabout _the yon_ is often shortened to _thon_, which is used as equivalent to _that_ or _those_: 'you may take _thon_ book.' In Donegal 'such a thing' is often made _such an a thing_.' I have come across this several times: but the following quotation is decisive--'No, Dinny O'Friel, I don't want to make you say any such an a thing.' (Seamus MacManus.) There is a tendency to put _o_ at the end of some words, such as boy-o, lad-o. A fellow was tried for sheep-stealing before the late Judge Monahan, and the jury acquitted him, very much against the evidence. 'You may go now,' said the judge, 'as you are acquitted; but you stole the sheep all the same, my buck-o.' 'I would hush my lovely laddo In the green arbutus shadow.' (A. P. GRAVES: 'Irish Songs and Ballads.') This is found in Irish also, as in '_a vick-o_' ('my boy,' or more exactly 'my son,' where _vick_ is _mhic_, vocative of _mac_, son) heard universally in Munster: 'Well Billy a vick-o, how is your mother this morning?' I suppose the English practice is borrowed from the Irish. In Irish there is only one article, _an_, which is equivalent to the English definite article _the_. This article (_an_) is much more freely used in Irish than _the_ is in English, a practice which we are inclined to imitate in our Anglo-Irish speech. Our use of _the_ {83} often adds a sort of emphasis to the noun or adjective:--'Ah John was the man,' i.e. the real man, a man pre-eminent for some quality--bravery, generosity, &c. 'Ah that was the trouble in earnest.' The Irish chiefs of long ago 'were the men in the gap' (Thomas Davis):--i.e. the real men and no mistake. We often use the article in our speech where it would not be used in correct English:--'I am perished with _the_ cold.' 'I don't know much Greek, but I am good at _the_ Latin.' 'That was the dear journey to me.' A very common form of expression, signifying that 'I paid dearly for it'--'it cost me dear.' Hugh Reynolds when about to be hanged for attempting the abduction of Catherine McCabe composes (or is supposed to compose) his 'Lamentation,' of which the verses end in 'She's the dear maid to me.' (See my 'Old Irish Folk Music and Songs,' p. 135.) A steamer was in danger of running down a boat rowed by one small boy on the Shannon. 'Get out of the way you young rascal or we'll run over you and drown you!' Little Jacky looks up defiantly and cries out:--'Ye'll drownd me, will ye: if ye do, I'll make it the dear drownding to ye!' In such expressions it is however to be observed that the indefinite article _a_ is often used--perhaps as often as _the_:--'That was a dear transaction for me.' 'Oh, green-hilled pleasant Erin you're a dear land to me!' (Robert Dwyer Joyce's 'Ballads of Irish Chivalry,' p. 206.) In Ulster they say:--'When are you going?' 'Oh I am going _the day_,' i.e. to-day. I am much better _the day_ than I was yesterday. In this _the day_ {84} is merely a translation of the Irish word for to-day--_andiu_, where _an_ is 'the' and _diu_ a form of the Irish for 'day.' The use of the singular of nouns instead of the plural after a numeral is found all through Ireland. Tom Cassidy our office porter--a Westmeath man--once said to me 'I'm in this place now forty-four year': and we always use such expressions as _nine head of cattle_. A friend of mine, a cultivated and scholarly clergyman, always used phrases like 'that bookcase cost thirteen _pound_.' This is an old English survival. Thus in Macbeth we find 'this three mile.' But I think this phraseology has also come partly under the influence of our Gaelic in which _ten_ and numerals that are multiples of _ten_ always take the singular of nouns, as _tri-caogad laoch_, 'thrice fifty heroes'--lit. 'thrice fifty _hero_.' In the south of Ireland _may_ is often incorrectly used for _might_, even among educated people:--'Last week when setting out on my long train journey, I brought a book that I _may_ read as I travelled along.' I have heard and read, scores of times, expressions of which this is a type--not only among the peasantry, but from newspaper correspondents, professors, &c.--and you can hear and read them from Munstermen to this day in Dublin. In Ulster _till_ is commonly used instead of _to_:--'I am going _till_ Belfast to-morrow': in like manner _until_ is used for _unto_. There are two tenses in English to which there is nothing corresponding in Irish:--what is sometimes called the perfect--'I _have finished_ my work'; and the pluperfect--'I _had finished_ my work' [before you {85} arrived]. The Irish people in general do not use--or know how to use--these in their English speech; but they feel the want of them, and use various expedients to supply their places. The most common of these is the use of the word _after_ (commonly with a participle) following the verb _to be_. Thus instead of the perfect, as expressed above, they will say 'I am after finishing my work,' 'I am after my supper.' ('Knocknagow.') 'I'm after getting the lend of an American paper' (_ibid._); and instead of the pluperfect (as above) they will say 'I was after finishing my work' [before you arrived]. Neither of these two expressions would be understood by an Englishman, although they are universal in Ireland, even among the higher and educated classes. This word _after_ in such constructions is merely a translation of the Irish _iar_ or _a n-diaigh_--for both are used in corresponding expressions in Irish. But this is only one of the expedients for expressing the perfect tense. Sometimes they use the simple past tense, which is ungrammatical, as our little newsboy in Kilkee used to do: 'Why haven't you brought me the paper?' 'The paper didn't come from the station yet sir.' Sometimes the present progressive is used, which also is bad grammar: 'I am sitting here waiting for you for the last hour' (instead of 'I have been sitting'). Occasionally the _have_ or _has_ of the perfect (or the _had_ of the pluperfect) is taken very much in its primary sense of having or possessing. Instead of 'You have quite distracted me with your talk,' the people will say 'You have me quite distracted,' &c.: {86} 'I have you found out at last.' 'The children had me vexed.' (Jane Barlow.) 'And she is a comely maid That has my heart betrayed.' (Old Irish Folk-Song.) '... I fear, That some cruel goddess _has him captivated_, And has left here in mourning his dear Irish maid.' (See my Old Irish Folk Music and Songs, p. 208.) Corresponding devices are resorted to for the pluperfect. Sometimes the simple past is used where the pluperfect ought to come in:--'An hour before you came yesterday I finished my work': where it should be 'I had finished.' Anything to avoid the pluperfect, which the people cannot manage. In the Irish language (but not in English) there is what is called the consuetudinal tense, i.e. denoting habitual action or existence. It is a very convenient tense, so much so that the Irish, feeling the want of it in their English, have created one by the use of the word _do_ with _be_: 'I do be at my lessons every evening from 8 to 9 o'clock.' 'There does be a meeting of the company every Tuesday.' ''Tis humbuggin' me they _do be_.' ('Knocknagow.') Sometimes this is expressed by _be_ alone without the _do_; but here the _be_ is also often used in the ordinary sense of _is_ without any consuetudinal meaning. 'My father _bees_ always at home in the morning': 'At night while I _bees_ reading my wife bees knitting.' (Consuetudinal.) 'You had better not wait till it bees night.' (Indicative.) 'I'll seek out my Blackbird wherever he be.' (Indicative.) (Old Folk Song--'The Blackbird.') {87} This use of _be_ for _is_ is common in the eastern half of Ireland from Wexford to Antrim. Such old forms as _anear_, _adown_, _afeard_, _apast_, _afore_, &c., are heard everywhere in Ireland, and are all of old English origin, as it would be easy to show by quotations from English classical writers. 'If my child was standing _anear_ that stone.' (Gerald Griffin: 'Collegians.') 'She was never a-shy or ashamed to show' [her respect for me]. ('Knocknagow.') The above words are considered vulgar by our educated people: yet many others remain still in correct English, such as _aboard_, _afoot_, _amidst_, &c. I think it likely that the Irish language has had some influence in the adoption and retention of those old English words; for we have in Irish a group of words identical with them both in meaning and structure: such as _a-n-aice_ (a-near), where _aice_ is 'near.' (The _n_ comes in for a grammatical reason.) 'I be to do it' in Ulster is used to express 'I have to do it': 'I am bound to do it'; 'it is destined that I shall do it.' 'I be to remain here till he calls,' I am bound to remain. 'The only comfort I have [regarding some loss sure to come on] is that it be to be,' i.e. that 'it is fated to be'--'it is _unavoidable_.' 'What bees to be maun be' (must be). Father William Burke points out that we use 'every other' in two different senses. He remains at home always on Monday, but goes to town 'every other' day--meaning every day of the week except Monday: which is the most usual application among us. 'My father goes to town every other day,' i.e. {88} every alternate day. This last is rarely used by our people, who prefer to express it 'My father goes to town _every second day_.' Of two persons it is stated: 'You'd like to see them drinking from one cup, They took so loving _every second sup_.' (Old Irish Folk Song.) The simple phrase 'the other day' means a few days ago. 'When did you see your brother John?' 'Oh I saw him the other day.' 'The other day he sailed away and parted his dear Nancy.' (Old Folk Song.) The dropping of _thou_ was a distinct loss to the English language: for now _you_ has to do double duty--for both singular and plural--which sometimes leads to obscurity. The Irish try to avoid this obscurity by various devices. They always use _ye_ in the plural whenever possible: both as a nominative and as an objective: 'Where are ye going to-day?' 'I'm afeard that will be a dear journey to ye.' Accepting the _you_ as singular, they have created new forms for the plural such as _yous_, _yez_, _yiz_, which do not sound pleasant to a correct speaker, but are very clear in sense. In like manner they form a possessive case direct on _ye_. Some English soldiers are singing 'Lillibulero'-- 'And our skeans we'll make good at de Englishman's throat,' on which Cus Russed (one of the ambush) says--'That's true for ye at any rate. I'm laughing at the way we'll carry out _yeer_ song afore the day is over.' ('The House of Lisbloom,' by Robert D. Joyce.) Similarly '_weer_ own' is sometimes used for 'our own.' {89} The distributive _every_ requires to be followed by pronouns in the singular: but this rule is broken even by well-known English writers:--'Every one for themselves' occurs in Robinson Crusoe; and in Ireland plurals are almost universally used. '_Let every one mind themselves_ as the ass said when he leaped into a flock of chickens.' Father Burke has shown--a matter that had escaped me--that we often use the verbs _rest_ and _perish_ in an active sense. The first is seen in the very general Irish prayer 'God rest his soul.' Mangan uses the word in this sense in the Testament of Cathaeir Mór:-- 'Here is the Will of Cathaeir Mór, God rest him.' And John Keegan in 'Caoch O'Leary':-- 'And there he sleeps his last sweet sleep-- God rest you, Caoch O'Leary.' _Perish_ is quoted below in the saying--'That breeze would perish the Danes.' We have many intensive words, some used locally, some generally:--'This is a _cruel_ wet day'; 'that old fellow is _cruel_ rich': that's a _cruel_ good man (where _cruel_ in all means _very_: Ulster). 'That girl is _fine and fat_: her cheeks are _fine and red_.' 'I was _dead fond_ of her' (very fond): but _dead certain_ occurs in 'Bleak House.' 'That tree has a _mighty_ great load of apples.' 'I want a drink badly; my throat is _powerful_ dry.' ('Shanahan's Ould Shebeen,' New York.) 'John Cusack is the finest dancer _at all_.' 'This day is _mortal_ cold.' 'I'm _black out_ with you.' {90} 'I'm very glad _entirely_ to hear it.' 'He is very sick _entirely_.' This word _entirely_ is one of our most general and characteristic intensives. 'He is a very good man _all out_.' 'This day is _guy and_ wet': 'that boy is _guy and_ fat' (Ulster). A half fool of a fellow looking at a four-wheeled carriage in motion: 'Aren't the little wheels _damn good_ not to let the big wheels overtake them.' In the early days of cycling a young friend of mine was riding on a five-foot wheel past two countrymen; when one remarked to the other:--'Tim, that's a _gallows_ way of travelling.' 'I was up _murdering_ late last night.' (Crofton Croker.) In the Irish language there are many diminutive terminations, all giving the idea of 'little,' which will be found fully enumerated and illustrated in my 'Irish Names of Places,' vol. ii, chap. ii. Of these it may be said that only one--_ín_ or _een_--has found its way into Ireland's English speech, carrying with it its full sense of smallness. There are others--_án_ or _aun_, and _óg_ or _oge_; but these have in great measure lost their original signification; and although we use them in our Irish-English, they hardly convey any separate meaning. But _een_ is used everywhere: it is even constantly tacked on to Christian names (especially of boys and girls):--_Mickeen_ (little Mick), _Noreen_, _Billeen_, _Jackeen_ (a word applied to the conceited little Dublin citizen). So also you hear _Birdeen_, _Robineen_-redbreast, _bonniveen_, &c. A boy who apes to be a man--puts on airs like a man--is called a _manneen_ in contempt (exactly equivalent to the English _mannikin_). I knew a boy named Tommeen Trassy: and the name stuck to him even when he {91} was a great big whacker of a fellow six feet high. In the south this diminutive is long (_een_) and takes the accent: in the north it is made short (_in_) and is unaccented. It is well known that three hundred years ago, and even much later, the correct English sound of the diphthong _ea_ was the same as long _a_ in _fate_: _sea_ pronounced _say_, &c. Any number of instances could be brought together from the English poets in illustration of this:-- 'God moves in a mysterious way, His wonders to perform; He plants His footsteps in the _sea_, And rides upon the storm.' (COWPER (18th century).) This sound has long since been abandoned in England, but is still preserved among the Irish people. You will hear everywhere in Ireland, 'a pound of _mate_,' 'a cup of _tay_,' 'you're as deep as the _say_,' &c. 'Kind sir be _aisy_ and do not _taize_ me with your false _praises_ most jestingly.'--(Old Irish Folk Song.) (In this last line _easy_ and _teaze_ must be sounded so as to rhyme--assonantally--with _praises_). Many years ago I was travelling on the long car from Macroom to Killarney. On the other side--at my back--sat a young gentleman--a 'superior person,' as anyone could gather from his _dandified_ speech. The car stopped where he was to get off: a tall fine-looking old gentleman was waiting for him, and nothing could exceed the dignity and kindness with which he received him. Pointing to {92} his car he said 'Come now and they'll get you a nice refreshing cup of _tay_.' 'Yes,' says the dandy, 'I shall be very glad to get a cup of _tee_'--laying a particular stress on _tee_. I confess I felt a shrinking of shame for our humanity. Now which of these two was the vulgarian? The old sound of _ea_ is still retained--even in England--in the word _great_; but there was a long contest in the English Parliament over this word. Lord Chesterfield adopted the affected pronunciation (_greet_), saying that only an Irishman would call it _grate_. 'Single-speech Hamilton'--a Dublin man--who was considered, in the English House of Commons, a high authority on such matters, stoutly supported _grate_, and the influence of the Irish orators finally turned the scale. (Woollett.) A similar statement may be made regarding the diphthong _ei_ and long _e_, that is to say, they were both formerly sounded like long _a_ in _fate_. 'Boast the pure blood of an illustrious race, In quiet flow from Lucrece to _Lucrece_.' (POPE: 'Essay on Man.') In the same essay Pope rhymes _sphere_ with _fair_, showing that he pronounced it _sphaire_. Our _hedge_ schoolmaster did the same thing in his song:-- Of all the maids on this terrestrial _sphaire_ Young Molly is the fairest of the fair. 'The plots are fruitless which my foe Unjustly did _conceive_; The pit he digg'd for me has proved His own untimely grave.' (TATE AND BRADY.) {93} Our people generally retain the old sounds of long _e_ and _ei_; for they say _persaive_ for perceive, and _sevare_ for _severe_. 'The pardon he gave me was hard and _sevare_; 'Twas bind him, confine him, he's the rambler from Clare.' Our Irish way of sounding both _ea_ and long _e_ is exemplified in what I heard a man say--a man who had some knowledge of Shakespeare--about a girl who was becoming somewhat of an old maid: 'She's now getting into the _sair_ and _yallow laif_.' Observe, the correct old English sound of _ie_ and _ee_ has not changed: it is the same at present in England as it was formerly; and accordingly the Irish people always sound these correctly. They never say _praste_ for priest, _belave_ for believe, _indade_ for indeed, or _kape_ for keep, as some ignorant writers set down. _Ate_ is pronounced _et_ by the educated English. In Munster the educated people pronounce it _ait_: 'Yesterday I _ait_ a good dinner'; and when _et_ is heard among the uneducated--as it generally is--it is considered very vulgar. It appears that in correct old English _er_ was sounded _ar_--Dryden rhymes _certain_ with _parting_--and this is still retained in correct English in a few words, like _sergeant_, _clerk_, &c. Our people retain the old sound in most such words, as _sarvant_, _marchant_, _sartin_. But sometimes in their anxiety to avoid this vulgarity, they overdo the refinement: so that you will hear girls talk mincingly about _derning_ a stocking. This is like what happened in the case of one of our servant girls who took it into her head that {94} _mutton_ was a vulgar way of pronouncing the word, like _pudden'_ for _pudding_; so she set out with her new grand pronunciation; and one day rather astonished our butcher by telling him she wanted a small leg of _mutting_. I think this vulgarism is heard among the English peasantry too: though we have the honour and glory of evolving it independently. All over Ireland you will hear the words _vault_ and _fault_ sounded _vaut_ and _faut_. 'If I don't be able to shine it will be none of my _faut_.' (Carleton, as cited by Hume.) We have retained this sound from old English: Let him not dare to vent his dangerous thought: A noble fool was never in a _fault_ [faut]. (POPE, cited by Hume.) Goldsmith uses this pronunciation more than once; but whether he brought it from Ireland or took it from classical English writers, by whom it was used (as by Pope) almost down to his time, it is hard to say. For instance in 'The Deserted Village' he says of the Village Master:-- 'Yet he was kind, or if severe in aught The love he bore to learning was in _fault_' [faut]. I remember reading many years ago a criticism of Goldsmith by a well-known Irish professor of English literature, in which the professor makes great fun, as a 'superior person,' of the _Hibernicism_ in the above couplet, evidently ignorant of the fact, which Dr. Hume has well brought out, that it is classical English. {95} In many parts of Munster there is a tendency to give the long _a_ the sound of _a_ in _car_, _father_:-- Were I Paris whose deeds are _vaarious_ And _arbithraather_ on Ida's hill. (Old Folk Song--'The Colleen Rue.')[1] The _gladiaathers_ both bold and darling, Each night and morning to watch the flowers. (Old Folk Song--'Castlehyde.')[1] So, an intelligent peasant,--a born orator, but illiterate in so far as he could neither read nor write,--told me that he was a _spectaathor_ at one of O'Connell's Repeal meetings: and the same man, in reply to a strange gentleman's inquiry as to who planted a certain wood up the hill, replied that the trees were not planted--they grew _spontaan-yus_. I think this is a remnant of the old classical teaching of Munster: though indeed I ought to mention that the same tendency is found in Monaghan, where on every possible occasion the people give this sound to long a. _D_ before long _u_ is generally sounded like _j_; as in _projuce_ for _produce_: the _Juke_ of Wellington, &c. Many years ago I knew a fine old gentleman from Galway. He wished to make people believe that in the old fighting times, when he was a young man, he was a desperate _gladiaathor_; but he really was a gentle creature who never in all his born days hurt man or mortal. Talking one day to some workmen in Kildare, and recounting his exploits, he told them {96} that he was now _harrished_ every night by the ghosts of all the _min_ he killed in _juels_. So _s_ before long _u_ is sounded _sh_: Dan Kiely, a well-to-do young farmer, told the people of our neighbourhood that he was now looking out for a wife that would _shoot_ him. This pronunciation is however still sometimes heard in words of correct English, as in _sure_. There are some consonants of the Irish language which when they come together do not coalesce in sound, as they would in an English word, so that when they are uttered a very short obscure vowel sound is heard between them: and a native Irish speaker cannot avoid this. By a sort of hereditary custom this peculiarity finds its way into our pronunciation of English. Thus _firm_ is sounded in Ireland _ferrum_--two distinct syllables: 'that bird is looking for a _wurrum_.' _Form_ (a seat) we call a _furrum_. 'His sire he'd seek no more nor descend to Mammon's shore, Nor venture on the tyrant's dire _alaa-rums_, But daily place his care on that emblematic fair, Till he'd barter coronations for her _chaa-rums_.' (Old Folk Song.)[2] _Herb_ is sounded _errub_: and we make two syllables of the name Charles [Char-less]. At the time of the Bulgarian massacres, I knew a Dublin doctor, a Tipperary man, who felt very strongly on the subject and was constantly talking about the poor _Bullugarians_. In the County Monaghan and indeed elsewhere {97} in Ireland, _us_ is sounded _huz_, which might seem a Cockney vulgarism, but I think it is not. In Roscommon and in the Munster counties a thong is called a _fong_. _Chaw_ for _chew_, _oncet_ [wonst] for _once_, _twiced_ for _twice_, and _heighth_, _sighth_, for _height_, _sight_, which are common in Ireland, are all old English survivals. Thus in the 'Faerie Queene' (Bk. I., Canto IV., XXX.):-- 'And next to him malicious Envy rode Upon a ravenous wolfe and still did _chaw_ Between his cankred teeth a venomous tode.' _Chaw_ is also much used in America. '_Onst_ for once, is in the Chester Plays' (Lowell); and _highth_ for _height_ is found all through 'Paradise Lost.' So also we have _drooth_ for _drought_:-- 'Like other historians I'll stick to the truth While I sing of the monarch who died of the _drooth_.' (SAM LOVER.) _Joist_ is sounded _joice_ in Limerick; and _catch_ is everywhere pronounced _ketch_. The word _hither_ is pronounced in Ireland _hether_, which is the correct old English usage, but long since abandoned in England. Thus in a State Paper of 1598, we read that two captains returned _hether_: and in Spenser's 'View,' he mentions a 'colony [sent] _hether_ out of Spaine.' 'An errant knight or any other wight That _hether_ turns his steps.' ('Faerie Queene.') Hence we have coined the word _comether_, for _come-hether_, to denote a sort of spell brought about {98} by coaxing, wheedling, making love, &c.--as in the phrase 'she put her _comether_ on him, so that he married her up at once.' 'There'll not be six girls in the fair he'll not be putting the _comether_ on.' (Seumas MacManus.) The family name 'Bermingham' is always made _Brimmigem_ in Ireland, which is a very old English corruption. In Friar Clyn's Annals (Latin) written in the fourteenth century, the death is recorded in 1329 of Johannes de _Brimegham_, i.e., the celebrated Sir John Bermingham who defeated Edward Bruce at Faughart. Leap is pronounced _lep_ by our people; and in racing circles it is still so pronounced by all classes. The little village of Leap in the County Cork is always called _Lep_. There is a curious tendency among us to reverse the sounds of certain letters, as for instance _sh_ and _ch_. 'When you're coming home to-morrow bring the spade and _chovel_, and a pound of butter fresh from the _shurn_.' 'That _shimney_ doesn't draw the smoke well.' So with the letters _u_ and _i_. 'When I was crossing the _brudge_ I dropped the sweeping _brish_ into the _ruvver_.' 'I never saw _sich_ a sight.' But such words are used only by the very uneducated. _Brudge_ for _bridge_ and the like are however of old English origin. 'Margaret, mother of Henry VII, writes _seche_ for _such_' (Lowell). So in Ireland:--'_Jestice_ is all I ax,' says Mosy in the story ('Ir. Pen. Mag.); and _churries_ for _cherries_ ('Knocknagow'). This tendency corresponds with the vulgar use of _h_ in London and elsewhere in England. 'The 'en has just laid a _hegg_': 'he was singing My 'art's in the {99} 'ighlands or The Brave Old _Hoak_.' (Washington Irving.) _Squeeze_ is pronounced _squeedge_ and _crush_ _scroodge_ in Donegal and elsewhere; but corruptions like these are found among the English peasantry--as may be seen in Dickens. 'You had better _rinsh_ that glass' is heard everywhere in Ireland: an old English survival; for Shakespeare and Lovelace have _renched_ for _rinced_ (Lowell): which with the Irish sound of short _e_ before _n_ gives us our word _rinshed_. Such words as _old_, _cold_, _hold_ are pronounced by the Irish people _ould_, _cowld_, _hould_ (or _howlt_); _gold_ is sounded _goold_ and _ford_ _foord_. I once heard an old Wicklow woman say of some very rich people 'why these people could _ait goold_.' These are all survivals of the old English way of pronouncing such words. In the State Papers of Elizabeth's time you will constantly meet with such words as _hoult_ and _stronghowlt_ (hold and stronghold.) In my boyhood days I knew a great large sinewy active woman who lived up in the mountain gap, and who was universally known as 'Thunder the _cowlt_ from Poulaflaikeen' (_cowlt_ for _colt_); Poulaflaikeen, the high pass between Glenosheen and Glenanaar, Co. Limerick, for which see Dr. R. D. Joyce's 'Ballads of Irish Chivalry,' pp. 102, 103, 120. Old Tom Howlett, a Dublin job gardener, speaking to me of the management of fruit trees, recommended the use of butchers' waste. 'Ah sir'--said he, with a luscious roll in his voice as if he had been licking his lips--'Ah sir, there's nothing for the roots of an apple tree like a big tub of fine rotten _ould_ guts,' {100} Final _d_ is often omitted after _l_ and _n_: you will see this everywhere in Seumas MacManus's books for Donegal. Recently we were told by the attendant boy at one of the Dublin seaside baths that the prices were--'a shilling for the hot and sixpence for the _cowl_.' So we constantly use _an'_ for _and_: in a Waterford folk song we have 'Here's to the swan that sails on the _pon_' (the 'swan' being the poet's sweetheart): and I once heard a man say to another in a fair:--'That horse is sound in win' and limb.' Short _e_ is always sounded before _n_ and _m_, and sometimes in other positions, like short _i_: 'How many arrived?' '_Tin min_ and five women': 'He always smoked a pipe with a long _stim_.' If you ask a person for a pin, he will inquire 'Is it a brass pin or a writing _pin_ you want?' _Again_ is sounded by the Irish people _agin_, which is an old English survival. 'Donne rhymes _again_ with _sin_, and Quarles repeatedly with _in_.' (Lowell.) An Irishman was once landed on the coast of some unknown country where they spoke English. Some violent political dispute happened to be going on there at the time, and the people eagerly asked the stranger about his political views; on which--instinctively giving expression to the feelings he brought with him from the 'ould sod'--he promptly replied before making any inquiry--'I'm agin the Government.' This story, which is pretty well known, is a faked one; but it affords us a good illustration. _Onion_ is among our people always pronounced _ingion_: constantly heard in Dublin. 'Go out Mike {101} for the _ingions_,' as I once heard a woman say in Limerick. 'Men are of different opinions, Some like leeks and some like _ingions_.' This is old English; 'in one of Dodsley's plays we have _onions_ rhyming with _minions_' (Lowell.) The general _English_ tendency is to put back the accent as far from the end of the word as possible. But among our people there is a contrary tendency--to throw forward the accent; as in _ex-cel´lent_, his _Ex-cel´-lency_--Nas-sau´ Street (Dublin), Ar-bu´-tus, commit-tee´, her-e-dit´tary. 'Tele-mach´us though so grand ere the sceptre reached his hand.' (Old Irish Folk Song.) In Gough's Arithmetic there was a short section on the laws of radiation and of pendulums. When I was a boy I once heard one of the old schoolmasters reading out, in his grandiloquent way, for the people grouped round Ardpatrick chapel gate after Mass, his formidable prospectus of the subjects he could teach, among which were 'the _raddiation_ of light and heat and the vibrations of swinging _pen-joo´lums_.' The same fine old scholarly pedant once remarked that our neighbourhood was a very _moun-taan´-yus_ locality. A little later on in my life, when I had written some pieces in high-flown English--as young writers will often do--one of these schoolmasters--a much lower class of man than the last--said to me by way of compliment: 'Ah! Mr. Joyce, you have a fine _voca-bull´ery_.' _Mischievous_ is in the south accented on the second syllable--_Mis-chee´-vous_: but I have come across this {102} in Spenser's Faerie Queene. We accent _character_ on the second syllable:-- 'Said he in a whisper to my benefactor, Though good your _charac´ter_ has been of that lad.' (Song by Mr. Patrick Murray of Kilfinane, a schoolmaster of great ability: about 1840). One of my school companions once wrote an ode in praise of Algebra, of which unfortunately I remember only the opening line: but this fragment shows how we pronounced the word in our old schools in the days of yore:-- 'Hail sweet _al-jib´era_, you're my heart's delight.' There is an Irish ballad about the people of Tipperary that I cannot lay my hands on, which speaks of the 'Tipperary boys, Although we are cross and _contrairy_ boys'; and this word 'contrairy' is universal in Munster. In Tipperary the vowel _i_ is generally sounded _oi_. Mick Hogan a Tipperary boy--he was a man indeed--was a pupil in Mr. Condon's school in Mitchelstown, with the full rich typical accent. One morning as he walked in, a fellow pupil, Tom Burke--a big fellow too--with face down on desk over a book, said, without lifting his head--to make fun of him--'_foine_ day, Mick.' 'Yes,' said Mick as he walked past, at the same time laying his hand on Tom's poll and punching his nose down hard against the desk. Tom let Mick alone after that 'foine day.' Farther south, and in many places all over Ireland, they do the reverse:--'The kettle is _biling_'; 'She smiled on me like the morning sky, And she won the heart of the prentice _bye_.' (Old Irish Folk Song.) {103} The old English pronunciation of _oblige_ was _obleege_:-- 'Dreaded by fools, by flatterers besieged, And so obliging that he ne'er obliged.' (POPE.) Among the old-fashioned and better-educated of our peasantry you will still hear this old pronunciation preserved:--I am very much obleeged to you. It is now generally heard in Kildare among all classes. A similar tendency is in the sound of _whine_, which in Munster is always made _wheen_: 'What's that poor child _wheening_ for?' also everywhere heard:--'All danger [of the fever] is now past: he is over his _creesis_.' Metathesis, or the changing of the place of a letter or syllable in a word, is very common among the Irish people, as _cruds_ for _curds_, _girn_ for _grin_, _purty_ for _pretty_. I heard a man quoting from Shakespeare about Puck--from hearsay: he said he must have been a wonderful fellow, for he could put a _griddle_ round about the earth in forty minutes.' I knew a fellow that could never say _traveller_: it was always _throlliver_. There is a tendency here as elsewhere to shorten many words: You will hear _garner_ for _gardener_, _ornary_ for _ordinary_. The late Cardinal Cullen was always spoken of by a friend of mine who revered him, as _The Carnal_. _My_ and _by_ are pronounced _me_ and _be_ all over Ireland: Now _me_ boy I expect you home _be_ six o'clock. The obscure sound of _e_ and _i_ heard in _her_ and _fir_ is hardly known in Ireland, at least among the general run of people. _Her_ is made either _herr_ or _hur_. They sound _sir_ either _surr_ (to rhyme with cur), {104} or _serr_; but in this latter case they always give the _r_ or _rr_ what is called the slender sound in Irish, which there is no means of indicating by English letters. _Fir_ is also sounded either _fur_ or _ferr_ (a _fur_ tree or a _ferr_ tree). _Furze_ is pronounced rightly; but they take it to be a plural, and so you will often hear the people say _a fur bush_ instead of _a furze bush_. In other classes of words _i_ before _r_ is mispronounced. A young fellow, Johnny Brien, objected to go by night on a message that would oblige him to pass by an empty old house that had the reputation of being haunted, because, as he said, he was afeard of the _sperrit_. In like manner, _miracle_ is pronounced _merricle_. Jack Finn--a little busybody noted for perpetually jibing at sacred things--Jack one day, with innocence in his face, says to Father Tom, 'Wisha I'd be terrible thankful entirely to your reverence to tell me what a merricle is, for I could never understand it.' 'Oh yes Jack,' says the big priest good-naturedly, as he stood ready equipped for a long ride to a sick call--poor old Widow Dwan up in the mountain gap: 'Just tell me exactly how many cows are grazing in that field there behind you.' Jack, chuckling at the fun that was coming on, turned round to count, on which Father Tom dealt him a hearty kick that sent him sprawling about three yards. He gathered himself up as best he could; but before he had time to open his mouth the priest asked, 'Did you feel that Jack?' 'Oh Blood-an ... Yerra of course I did your reverence, why the blazes wouldn't I!' 'Well Jack,' replied Father Tom, benignly, 'If you didn't feel it--_that_ would be a _merricle_.' {105} * * * * * CHAPTER VIII. PROVERBS. The Irish delighted in sententious maxims and apt illustrations compressed into the fewest possible words. Many of their proverbs were evolved in the Irish language, of which a collection with translations by John O'Donovan may be seen in the 'Dublin Penny Journal,' I. 258; another in the Rev. Ulick Bourke's Irish Grammar; and still another in the Ulster Journ. of Archæology (old series) by Mr. Robert MacAdam, the Editor. The same tendency continued when the people adopted the English language. Those that I give here in collected form were taken from the living lips of the people during the last thirty or forty years. 'Be first in a wood and last in a bog.' If two persons are making their way, one behind the other, through a wood, the hinder man gets slashed in the face by the springy boughs pushed aside by the first: if through a bog, the man behind can always avoid the dangerous holes by seeing the first sink into them. This proverb preserves the memory of a time when there were more woods and bogs than there are now: it is translated from Irish. In some cases a small amount added on or taken off makes a great difference in the result: 'An inch is a great deal in a man's nose.' In the Crimean war an officer happened to be walking past an Irish soldier on duty, who raised hand to cap to salute. {106} But the hand was only half way when a stray bullet whizzed by and knocked off the cap without doing any injury. Whereupon Paddy, perfectly unmoved, stooped down, replaced the cap and completed the salute. The officer, admiring his coolness, said 'That was a narrow shave my man!' 'Yes your honour: an inch is as good as a mile.' This is one of our commonest sayings. A person is reproved for some trifling harmless liberty, and replies:--'Oh a cat can look at a king.' (A translation from Irish.) A person who fails to get what he was striving after is often glad to accept something very inferior: 'When all fruit fails welcome haws.' When a person shows no sign of gratitude for a good turn as if it passed completely from his memory, people say 'Eaten bread is soon forgotten.' A person is sent upon some dangerous mission, as when the persons he is going to are his deadly enemies:--that is 'Sending the goose on a message to the fox's den.' If a dishonest avaricious man is put in a position of authority over people from whom he has the power to extort money; that is 'putting the fox to mind the geese.' 'You have as many kinds of potatoes on the table as if you took them from a beggarman's bag': referring to the good old time when beggarmen went about and usually got a _lyre_ of potatoes in each house. 'No one can tell what he is able to do till he tries,' as the duck said when she swallowed a dead kitten. {107} You say to a man who is suffering under some continued hardship:--'This distress is only temporary: have patience and things will come round soon again.' 'O yes indeed; _Live horse till you get grass_.' A person in your employment is not giving satisfaction; and yet you are loth to part with him for another: 'Better is the devil you know than the devil you don't know.' 'Least said, soonest mended.' 'You spoke too late,' as the fool said when he swallowed a bad egg, and heard the chicken chirp going down his throat. 'Good soles bad uppers.' Applied to a person raised from a low to a high station, who did well enough while low, but in his present position is overbearing and offensive. I have done a person some service: and now he ill-naturedly refuses some reasonable request. I say: 'Oh wait: _apples will grow again_.' He answers--'Yes _if the trees baint cut_'--a defiant and ungrateful answer, as much as to say--you may not have the opportunity to serve me, or I may not want it. Turf or peat was scarce in Kilmallock (Co. Limerick): whence the proverb, 'A Kilmallock fire--two sods and a _kyraun_' (a bit broken _off of_ a sod). People are often punished even in this world for their misdeeds: 'God Almighty often pays debts without money.' (Wicklow.) I advise you not to do so without the master's permission:--'Leave is light.' A very general saying. {108} When a person gives much civil talk, makes plausible excuses or fair promises, the remark is made 'Soft words butter no parsnips.' Sometimes also 'Talk is cheap.' A person who is too complaisant--over anxious to please everyone--is 'like Lanna Mochree's dog--he will go a part of the road with everyone.' (Moran Carlow.) (A witness said this of a policeman in the Celbridge courthouse--Kildare--last year, showing that it is still alive.) 'The first drop of the broth is the hottest': the first step in any enterprise is usually the hardest. (Westmeath.) The light, consisting of a single candle, or the jug of punch from which the company fill their tumblers, ought always to be placed on the middle of the table when people are sitting round it:--'Put the priest in the middle of the parish.' 'After a gathering comes a scattering.' 'A narrow gathering, a broad scattering.' Both allude to the case of a thrifty man who gathers up a fortune during a lifetime, and is succeeded by a spendthrift son who soon _makes ducks and drakes_ of the property. No matter how old a man is he can get a wife if he wants one: 'There never was an old slipper but there was an old stocking to match it.' (Carlow.) 'You might as well go to hell with a load as with a _pahil_': 'You might as well hang for a sheep as for a lamb': both explain themselves. A _pahil_ or _paghil_ is a bundle of anything. (Derry.) If a man treats you badly in any way, you threaten to pay him back in his own coin by saying, 'The cat hasn't eaten the year yet.' (Carlow.) {109} 'A fool and his money are easily parted.' 'A dumb priest never got a parish,' as much as to say if a man wants a thing he must ask and strive for it. 'A slip of the tongue is no fault of the mind.' (Munster.) You merely hint at something requiring no further explanation:--'A nod is as good as a wink to a blind horse.' (Sam Lover: but heard everywhere.) A very wise proverb often heard among us is:--'Let well enough alone.' 'When a man is down, down with him': a bitter allusion to the tendency of the world to trample down the unfortunate and helpless. 'The friend that can be bought is not worth buying.' (Moran: Carlow.) 'The life of an old hat is to cock it.' To cock an old hat is to set it jauntingly on the head with the leaf turned up at one side. (S. E. counties.) 'The man that wears the shoe knows where it pinches.' It is only the person holding any position that knows the troubles connected with it. 'Enough and no waste is as good as a _faist_.' 'There are more ways of killing a dog than by choking him with butter.' Applied when some insidious cunning attempt that looks innocent is made to injure another. 'Well James are you quite recovered now?' 'Oh yes, I'm _on the baker's list_ again': i.e., I am well and have recovered my appetite. 'An Irishman before answering a question always asks another': he wants to know why he is asked. Dan O'Loghlin, a working man, drove up to our {110} house one day on an outside car. It was a sixpenny drive, but rather a long one; and the carman began to grumble. Whereupon Dan, in the utmost good humour, replied:--'Oh you must take the little potato with the big potato.' A very apt maxim in many of life's affairs, and often heard in and around Dublin. 'Good goods are tied up in small parcels': said of a little man or a little woman, in praise or mitigation. (Moran: Carlow.) 'Easy with the hay, there are boys on the ladder.' When a man is on the top of the stack forking down hay, he is warned to look out and be careful if other _boys_ are mounting up the ladder, lest he may pitch it on their heads. The proverb is uttered when a person is incautiously giving expression to words likely to offend some one present. (Moran: Carlow.) Be cautious about believing the words of a man speaking ill of another against whom he has a grudge: 'Spite never spoke well.' (Moran: Carlow.) Don't encroach too much on a privilege or it may be withdrawn: don't ask too much or you may get nothing at all:--'Covetousness bursts the bag.' Three things not to be trusted--a cow's horn, a dog's tooth, and a horse's hoof. Three disagreeable things at home:--a scolding wife; a squalling child; and a smoky chimney. Three good things to have. I heard this given as a toast exactly as I give it here, by a fine old gentleman of the old times:--'Here's that we may always have a _clane_ shirt; a _clane_ conscience; and a guinea in our pocket.' {111} Here is another toast. A happy little family party round the farmer's fire with a big jug on the table (a jug of what, do you think?) The old blind piper is the happiest of all, and holding up his glass says:--'Here's, if this be war may we never have peace.' (Edw. Walsh.) Three things no person ever saw:--a highlander's kneebuckle, a dead ass, a tinker's funeral. 'Take care to lay by for the sore foot': i.e., Provide against accidents, against adversity or want; against the rainy day. When you impute another person's actions to evil or unworthy motives: that is 'measuring other people's corn in your own bushel.' A person has taken some unwise step: another expresses his intention to do a similar thing, and you say:--'One fool is enough in a parish.' In the middle of last century, the people of Carlow and its neighbourhood prided themselves on being able to give, on the spur of the moment, toasts suitable to the occasion. Here is one such: 'Here's to the herring that never took a bait'; a toast reflecting on some person present who had been made a fool of in some transaction. (Moran: Carlow.) 'A man cannot grow rich without his wife's leave': as much as to say, a farmer's wife must co-operate to ensure success and prosperity. (Moran: Carlow.) When something is said that has a meaning under the surface the remark is made 'There's gravel in that.' 'Pity people barefoot in cold frosty weather, But don't make them boots with other people's leather.' {112} That is to say: don't be generous at other people's expense. Many years ago this proverb was quoted by the late Serjeant Armstrong in addressing a jury in Wicklow. 'A wet night: a dry morning': said to a man who is _craw-sick_--thirsty and sick--after a night's boozing. (Moran: Carlow.) This last reminds me of an invitation I once got from a country gentleman to go on a visit, holding out as an inducement that he would give me 'a dry bed and a wet bottle.' 'If he's not fishing he's mending his nets': said of a man who always makes careful preparations and lays down plans for any enterprise he may have in view. 'If he had a shilling in his pocket it would burn a hole through it': said of a man who cannot keep his money together--a spendthrift. 'A bird with one wing can't fly': said to a person to make him take a second glass. (Moran: Carlow.) Protect your rights: 'Don't let your bone go with the dog.' 'An old dog for a hard road': said in commendation of a wary person who has overcome some difficulty. _Hard_ in this proverb means 'difficult.' (Moran: Carlow.) 'No use sending a boy on a man's errand': Don't be satisfied with inadequate steps when undertaking a difficult work: employ a sure person to carry out a hard task. Oh however he may have acted towards you he has been a good friend to me at any rate; and I go by the old saying, 'Praise the ford as you find it.' This {113} proverb is a translation from the Irish. It refers to a time when bridges were less general than now; and rivers were commonly crossed by fords--which were sometimes safe, sometimes dangerous, according to the weather. 'Threatened dogs live long.' Abuses often go on for a long time, though people are constantly complaining and threatening to correct them. (Ulster.) He who expects a legacy when another man dies thinks the time long. 'It is long waiting for a dead man's boots.' (Moran: Carlow.) A person waiting impatiently for something to come on always thinks the time longer than usual:--'A watched pot never boils.' 'A poor man must have a poor wedding': people must live according to their means. 'I could carry my wet finger to him': i.e. he is here present, but I won't name him. 'Oh that's all _as I roved out_': to express unbelief in what someone says as quite unworthy of credit. In allusion to songs beginning 'As I roved out,' which are generally fictitious. 'Your father was a bad glazier': said to a person who is standing in one's light. 'As the old cock crows the young cock learns': generally applied to a son who follows the evil example of his father. A person remarks that the precautions you are taking in regard to a certain matter are unnecessary or excessive, and you reply 'Better be sure than sorry.' 'She has a good many nicks in her horn': said of a girl who is becoming an old maid. A cow is said to have a nick in her horn for every year. {114} A man of property gets into hopeless debt and difficulty by neglecting his business, and his creditors sell him out. 'Well, how did he get out of it?' asks a neighbour. 'Oh, he got out of it just by a break-up, _as Katty got out of the pot_.' This is how Katty got out of the pot. One day at dinner in the kitchen Katty Murphy the servant girl sat down on a big pot (as I often saw women do)--for seats were scarce; and in the middle of the dinner, through some incautious movement, down she went. She struggled to get up, but failed. Then the others came to help her, and tugged and pulled and tried in every way, but had to give it up; till at last one of them brought a heavy hammer, and with one blow made smithereens of the pot. 'Putting a thing on the long finger' means postponing it. On the evil of procrastination:--'_Time enough_ lost the ducks.' The ducks should have been secured at once as it was known that a fox was prowling about. But they were not, and---- '_Will you_ was never a good fellow.' The bad fellow says 'Will you have some lunch?' (while there is as yet nothing on the table), on the chance that the visitor will say 'No, thank you.' The good hospitable man asks no questions, but has the food brought up and placed before the guest. 'Cut the _gad_ next the throat': that is to say, attend to the most urgent need first. You find a man hanging by a _gad_ (withe), and you cut him down to save him. Cutting the _gad_ next the throat explains itself. When a work must be done slowly:--'I will do {115} it by degrees as lawyers go to heaven.' (Moran: Carlow.) 'That's not a good fit,' as the serpent said when he swallowed a buck goat, horns and all. Time and patience would bring a snail to America. 'The cold stone leaves the water on St. Patrick's Day.' About the 17th March (St. Patrick's Day), the winter's cold is nearly gone, and the weather generally takes a milder turn. 'There are more turners than dishmakers'; meaning, there may be many members of a profession, but only few of them excel in it: usually pointed at some particular professional man, who is considered not clever. It is only the most skilful turners that can make wooden dishes. A person who talks too much cannot escape saying things now and then that would be better left unsaid:--'The mill that is always going grinds coarse and fine.' 'If you lie down with dogs you will get up with fleas': if you keep company with bad people you will contract their evil habits. (Moran: Carlow.) If you do a kindness don't mar it by any unpleasant drawback: in other words do a kind act graciously:--'If you give away an old coat don't cut off the buttons.' Two good things:--A young man courting, an old man smoking: Two bad things:--An old man courting, a young man smoking. (MacCall: Wexford.) What is the world to a man when his wife is a widow. Giving help where it is needed is 'helping the lame dog over the stile.' {116} 'Leave him to God': meaning don't you attempt to punish him for the injury he has done you: let God deal with him. Often carried too far among us. A hard man at driving a bargain:--'He always wants an egg in the penn'orth.' (Kildare.) A satirical expression regarding a close-fisted ungenerous man:--'If he had only an egg he'd give you the shell.' (Kildare.) A man wishes to say to another that they are both of about the same age; and this is how he expresses it:--'When I die of old age you may quake with fear.' (Kildare.) Speaking of a man with more resources than one:--'It wasn't on one leg St. Patrick came to Ireland.' When there is a prospect of a good harvest, or any mark of prosperity:--'That's no sign of small potatoes.' (Kildare.) Your friend is in your pocket. (Kildare.) [As a safe general principle]:--'If anybody asks you, say you don't know.' 'A good run is better than a bad stand.' When it becomes obvious that you cannot defend your position (whatever it is), better yield than encounter certain defeat by continuing to resist. (Queenstown.) A man depending for success on a very uncertain contingency:--'God give you better meat than a running hare.' (Tyrone.) To express the impossibility of doing two inconsistent things at the same time:--'You can't whistle and chaw meal.' {117} A man who has an excess of smooth plausible talk is 'too sweet to be wholesome.' 'The fox has a good name in his own parish.' They say that a fox does not prey on the fowls in his own neighbourhood. Often said of a rogue whose friends are trying to _whitewash_ him. 'A black hen lays white eggs.' A man with rough manners often has a gentle heart and does kindly actions. Much in the same sense:--'A crabtree has a sweet blossom.' A person who has smooth words and kind professions for others, but never acts up to them, 'has a hand for everybody but a heart for nobody.' (Munster.) A person readily finds a lost article when it is missed, and is suspected to have hidden it himself:--'What the Pooka writes he can read.' (Munster.) A man is making no improvement in his character or circumstances but rather the reverse as he advances in life:--'A year older and a year worse.' 'A shut mouth catches no flies.' Much the same as the English 'Speech is silvern, silence is golden.' To the same effect is 'Hear and see and say nothing.' A fool and his money are easily parted. Oh I see you expect that Jack (a false friend) will stand at your back. Yes, indeed, 'he'll stand at your back while your nose is breaking.' 'You wouldn't do that to your match' as Mick Sheedy said to the fox. Mick Sheedy the gamekeeper had a hut in the woods where he often took {118} shelter and rested and smoked. One day when he had arrived at the doorway he saw a fox sitting at the little fire warming himself. Mick instantly spread himself out in the doorway to prevent escape. And so they continued to look at each other. At last Reynard, perceiving that some master-stroke was necessary, took up in his mouth one of a fine pair of shoes that were lying in a corner, brought it over, and deliberately placed it on the top of the fire. We know the rest! (Limerick.) 'There's a hole in the house'; meant to convey that there is a tell-tale listening. (Meath.) We are inclined to magnify distant or only half known things: 'Cows far off have long horns.' 'He'll make Dungarvan shake': meaning he will do great things, cut a great figure. Now generally said in ridicule. (Munster.) A man is told something extraordinary:--'That takes the coal off my pipe'; i.e. it surpasses all I have seen or heard. A man fails to obtain something he was looking after--a house or a farm to rent--a cow to buy--a girl he wished to marry, &c.--and consoles himself by reflecting or saying:--'There's as good fish in the _say_ as ever was caught.' Well, you were at the dance yesterday--who were there? Oh 'all the world and Garrett Reilly' were there. (Wicklow and Waterford.) When a fellow puts on empty airs of great consequence, you say to him, 'Why you're _as grand as Mat Flanagan with the cat_': always said contemptuously. Mat Flanagan went to London one time. After two years he came home on a visit; but he was {119} now transformed into such a mass of grandeur that he did not recognise any of the old surroundings. He didn't know what the old cat was. 'Hallo, mother,' said he with a lofty air and a killing Cockney accent, 'What's yon long-tailed fellow in yon _cawner_?' A person reproaching another for something wrong says:--'The back of my hand to you,' as much as to say 'I refuse to shake hands with you.' To a person hesitating to enter on a doubtful enterprise which looks fairly hopeful, another says:--Go on Jack, try your fortune: 'faint heart never won fair lady.' A person who is about to make a third and determined attempt at anything exclaims (in assonantal rhyme):-- 'First and second go alike: The third throw takes the bite.' I express myself confident of outwitting or circumventing a certain man who is notoriously cautious and wide-awake, and the listener says to me:--'Oh, what a chance you have--_catch a weasel asleep_' (general). In connexion with this may be given another proverb: of a notoriously wide-awake cautious man, it is said:--'He sleeps a hare's sleep--with one eye open.' For it was said one time that weasels were in the habit of sucking the blood of hares in their sleep; and as weasels had much increased, the hares took to the plan of sleeping with one eye at a time; 'and when that's rested and _slep_ enough, they open it and shut the other.' (From 'The Building of Mourne,' by Dr. Robert Dwyer Joyce.) {120} This last perpetuates a legend as old as our literature. In one of the ancient Irish classical tales, the story is told of a young lady so beautiful that all the young chiefs of the territory were in love with her and laying plans to take her off. So her father, to defeat them, slept with only one eye at a time. * * * * * CHAPTER IX. EXAGGERATION AND REDUNDANCY. I have included both in this Chapter, for they are nearly related; and it is often hard to draw a precise line of distinction. We in Ireland are rather prone to exaggeration, perhaps more so than the average run of peoples. Very often the expressions are jocose, or the person is fully conscious of the exaggeration; but in numerous cases there is no joke at all: but downright seriousness: all which will be seen in the following examples. A common saying about a person of persuasive tongue or with a beautiful voice in singing:--'He would coax the birds off the bushes.' This is borrowed from the Irish. In the 'Lament of Richard Cantillon' (in Irish) he says that at the musical voice of the lady 'the seals would come up from the deep, the stag down from the mist-crag, and the thrush from the tree.' (Petrie: 'Anc. Mus. of Ireland.') Of a noted liar and perjurer it was said 'He would swear that a coal porter was a canary.' {121} A man who is unlucky, with whom everything goes wrong:--'If that man got a hen to hatch duck eggs, the young ducks would be drowned.' Or again, 'If that man sowed oats in a field, a crop of turnips would come up.' Or: 'He is always in the field when luck is on the road.' The following expression is often heard:--'Ah, old James Buckley is a fine piper: _I'd give my eyes_ to be listening to him.' That fellow is so dirty that if you flung him against a wall he'd stick. (Patterson: Ulster.) Two young men are about to set off to seek their fortunes, leaving their young brother Rory to stay with their mother. But Rory, a hard active merry cute little fellow, proposes to go with them:--'I'll follow ye to the world's end.' On which the eldest says to him--a half playful threat:--'You presumptious little atomy of a barebones, if I only see the size of a thrush's ankle of you follyin' us on the road, I'll turn back and bate that wiry and freckled little carcase of yours into frog's-jelly!' (Robert Dwyer Joyce: 'The Building of Mourne.') 'Did Johnny give you any of his sugar-stick?' 'Oh not very much indeed: hardly the size of a thrush's ankle.' This term is often used. Of a very morose sour person you will hear it said:--'If that man looked at a pail of new milk he'd turn it into curds and whey.' A very thin man, or one attenuated by sickness:--'You could blow him off your hand.' A poor fellow complains of the little bit of meat he got for his dinner:--'It was no more than a daisy in a bull's mouth!' Another says of _his_ dinner {122} when it was in his stomach:--'It was no more than a midge in the Glen of the Downs.' Exhorting a messenger to be quick:--'Don't be there till you're back again.' Another way:--'Now run as quick as you can, and if you fall don't wait to get up.' Warning a person to be expeditious in any work you put him to:--'Now don't let grass grow under your feet.' Barney urging on the ass to go quickly:--'Come Bobby, don't let grass grow under your feet.' ('Knocknagow.') If a person is secretly very willing to go to a place--as a lover to the house of the girl's parents:--'You could lead him there with a halter of snow.' 'Is this razor sharp?' 'Sharp!--why _'twould shave a mouse asleep_.' A lazy fellow, fond of sitting at the fire, _has the A B C on his shins_, i.e. they are blotched with the heat. Of an inveterate talker:--That man would talk the teeth out of a saw. A young fellow gets a great fright:--'It frightened him out of a year's growth.' When Nancy saw the master so angry she was frightened out of her wits: or frightened out of her seven senses. When I saw the horse ride over him I was frightened out of my life. A great liar, being suddenly pressed for an answer, told the truth for once. He told the truth because he was _shook_ for a lie; i.e. no lie was ready at hand. _Shook_, to be bad, in a bad way: shook for a thing, to be badly in want of it and not able to get it. Of a very lazy fellow:--He would not knock a coal off his foot: i.e. when a live coal happens to {123} fall on his foot while sitting by the fire, he wouldn't take the trouble to knock it off. Says the dragon to Manus:--'If ever I see you here again I'll hang a quarter of you on every tree in the wood.' (Crofton Croker.) If a person is pretty badly hurt, or suffers hardship, he's _kilt_ (killed): a fellow gets a fall and his friend comes up to inquire:--'Oh let me alone I'm kilt and speechless.' I heard a Dublin nurse say, 'Oh I'm kilt minding these four children.' 'The bloody throopers are coming to kill and quarther an' murther every mother's sowl o' ye.' (R. D. Joyce.) The parlour bell rings impatiently for the third time, and Lowry Looby the servant says, 'Oh murther there goes the bell again, I'll be kilt entirely.' (Gerald Griffin.) If a person is really badly hurt he's _murthered entirely_. A girl telling about a fight in a fair:--'One poor boy was kilt dead for three hours on a car, breathing for all the world like a corpse!' If you don't stop your abuse I'll give you a shirt full of sore bones. Yes, poor Jack was once well off, but now he hasn't as much money as would jingle on a tombstone. That cloth is very coarse: why you could shoot straws through it. Strong dislike:--I don't like a bone in his body. 'Do you know Bill Finnerty well?' 'Oh indeed I know every bone in his body,' i.e. I know him and all his ways intimately. A man is low stout and very fat: if you met him in the street you'd rather jump over him than walk round him. {124} He knew as much Latin as if he swallowed a dictionary. (Gerald Griffin.) The word _destroy_ is very often used to characterize any trifling damage easily remedied:--That car splashed me, and my coat is all destroyed. 'They kept me dancin' for 'em in the kitchen,' says Barney Broderick, 'till I hadn't a leg to put under me.' ('Knocknagow.') This farm of mine is as bad land as ever a crow flew over. He's as great a rogue as ever stood in shoe-leather. When Jack heard the news of the money that was coming to him he was _jumping out of his skin_ with delight. I bought these books at an auction, and I got them for a song: in fact I got them for half nothing. Very bad slow music is described as _the tune the old cow died of_. A child is afraid of a dog: '_Yerra_ he won't touch you': meaning 'he won't bite you.' A man having a very bad aim in shooting:--'He wouldn't hit a hole in a ladder.' Carleton's blind fiddler says to a young girl: 'You could dance _the Colleen dhas dhown_ [a jig] upon a spider's cobweb without breaking it.' An ill-conducted man:--'That fellow would shame a field of tinkers.' The tinkers of sixty years ago, who were not remarkable for their honesty or good conduct, commonly travelled the country in companies, and camped out in fields or wild places. I was dying to hear the news; i.e. excessively anxious. {125} Where an Englishman will say 'I shall be pleased to accept your invitation,' an Irishman will say 'I will be delighted to accept,' &c. Mick Fraher is always eating garlick and his breath has a terrible smell--a smell of garlick strong enough to hang your hat on. A mean thief:--He'd steal a halfpenny out of a blind beggarman's hat. (P. Reilly: Kild.) A dexterous thief:--He'd steal the sugar out of your punch. An inveterate horse thief:--Throw a halter in his grave and he'll start up and steal a horse. Of an impious and dexterous thief:--'He'd steal the cross off an ass's back,' combining skill and profanation. According to the religious legend the back of the ass is marked with a cross ever since the day of our Lord's public entry into Jerusalem upon an ass. A man who makes unreasonably long visits--who outstays his welcome:--'If that man went to a wedding he'd wait for the christening.' I once asked a young Dublin lady friend was she angry at not getting an invitation to the party: 'Oh I was fit to be tied.' A common expression among us to express great indignation. A person is expressing confidence that a certain good thing will happen which will bring advantage to everyone, but which after all is very unlikely, and someone replies:--'Oh yes: when the sky falls we'll all catch larks.' A useless unavailing proceeding, most unlikely to be attended with any result, such as trying to persuade a person who is obstinately bent on having his {126} own way:--'You might as well be whistling jigs to a milestone' [expecting it to dance]. 'Would you know him if you saw him?' 'Would I know him!--why I'd know his skin in a tan-yard'--'I'd know his shadow on a furze-bush!' A person considered very rich:--That man is _rotten with money_. He doesn't know what to do with his money. You gave me a great start: you put the heart across in me: my heart jumped into my mouth. The people said that Miss Mary Kearney put the heart across in Mr. Lowe, the young Englishman visitor. ('Knocknagow.') I heard Mat Halahan the tailor say to a man who had just fitted on a new coat:--That coat fits you just as if you were melted into it. He is as lazy as the dog that always puts his head against the wall to bark. (Moran: Carlow.) In running across the field where the young people were congregated Nelly Donovan trips and falls: and Billy Heffernan, running up, says:--'Oh Nelly did you fall: come here till I take you up.' ('Knocknagow.') 'The road flew under him,' to express the swiftness of a man galloping or running afoot. Bessie Morris was such a flirt that Barney Broderick said she'd coort a haggard of sparrows. ('Knocknagow.') I wish I were on yonder hill, 'Tis there I'd sit and cry my fill, Till ev'ry tear would turn a mill. (_Shool Aroon_: 'Old Irish Folk Song.') {127} But after all this is not half so great an exaggeration as what the cultivated English poet wrote:-- I found her on the floor In all the storm of grief, yet beautiful, Pouring forth tears at such a lavish rate, That were the world on fire it might have drowned The wrath of Heaven and quenched the mighty ruin. A great dandy wears his hat on three hairs of his head. He said such funny things that the company were _splitting their sides_ laughing. Matt Donovan (in 'Knocknagow') says of his potatoes that had fine stalks but little produce--_desavers_ as he called them--Every stalk of 'em would make a rafter for a house. But put the best man in the parish to dig 'em and a duck would swallow all he'd be able to turn out from morning till night. Sometimes distinct numbers come in where they hardly apply. Not long ago I read in an article in the 'Daily Mail' by Mr. Stead, of British 'ships all over the seven seas.' So also here at home we read 'round the four seas of Ireland' (which is right enough): and 'You care for nothing in the world but your own four bones' (i.e. nothing but yourself). 'Come on then, old beer-swiller, and try yourself against the four bones of an Irishman' (R. D. Joyce: 'The House of Lisbloom.') _Four bones_ in this sense is very common. A person meeting a friend for the first time after a long interval says 'Well, it's a cure for sore eyes to see you.' 'I haven't seen you now for a month of {128} Sundays,' meaning a long time. _A month of Sundays_ is thirty-one Sundays--seven or eight months. Said jokingly of a person with very big feet:--He wasn't behind the door anyway when the feet were giving out. When a man has to use the utmost exertion to accomplish anything or to escape a danger he says: 'That business put me to the pin of my collar.' The allusion is to a fellow whose clothes are falling off him for want of buttons and pins. At last to prevent the final catastrophe he has to pull out the brass pin that fastens his collar and pin waistcoat and trousers-band together. A poor woman who is about to be robbed shrieks out for help; when the villain says to her:--'Not another word or I'll stick you like a pig and give you your guts for garters.' ('Ir. Penny Magazine.') A man very badly off--all in rags:--'He has forty-five ways of getting into his coat now.' (MacCall: Wexford.) A great miser--very greedy for money:--He heard the money jingling in his mother's pockets before he was born. (MacCall: Wexford.) A drunken man is a terrible curse, But a drunken woman is twice as worse; For she'd drink Lough Erne dry. (MACCALL.) To a person who habitually uses unfortunate blundering expressions:--'You never open your mouth but you put your foot in it.' A girl to express that it is unlikely she will ever be married says: 'I think, miss, my husband's intended mother died an old maid.' ('Penelope in Ireland.') {129} A young man speaking of his sweetheart says, in the words of the old song:-- 'I love the ground she walks upon, _mavourneen gal mochree_' (thou fair love of my heart). A conceited pompous fellow approaches:--'Here comes _half the town_!' A translation from the Irish _leath an bhaile_. Billy Heffernan played on his fife a succession of jigs and reels that might 'cure a paralytic' [and set him dancing]. ('Knocknagow.') In 'Knocknagow' Billy Heffernan being requested to play on his fife longer than he considered reasonable, asked did they think that he had the bellows of Jack Delany the blacksmith in his stomach? Said of a great swearer:--'He'd swear a hole in an iron pot.' Of another:--'He'd curse the bladder out of a goat.' Of still another:--'He could quench a candle at the other side of the kitchen with a curse.' A person is much puzzled, or is very much elated, or his mind is disturbed for any reason:--'He doesn't know whether it is on his head or his heels he's standing. A penurious miserable creature who starves himself to hoard up:--He could live on the smell of an oil-rag. (Moran: Carlow.) A man complaining that he has been left too long fasting says:--'My stomach will think that my throat is cut.' (MacCall: Wexford.) 'Do you like the new American bacon?' 'Oh not at all: I tried it once and that's enough for me: _I_ {130} _wouldn't touch it with a tongs._' Very common and always used in depreciation as here. We in Ireland are much inclined to redundancy in our speech. It is quite observable--especially to an outsider--that even in our ordinary conversation and in answering simple questions we use more words than we need. We hardly ever confine ourselves to the simple English _yes_ or _no_; we always answer by a statement. 'Is it raining, Kitty?' 'Oh no sir, it isn't raining at all.' 'Are you going to the fair to-day?' 'No indeed I am not.' 'Does your father keep on the old business still?' 'Oh yes certainly he does: how could he get on without it?' 'Did last night's storm injure your house?' 'Ah you may well say it did.' A very distinguished Dublin scholar and writer, having no conscious leanings whatever towards the Irish language, mentioned to me once that when he went on a visit to some friends in England they always observed this peculiarity in his conversation, and often laughed at his roundabout expressions. He remarked to me--and an acute remark it was--that he supposed there must be some peculiarity of this kind in the Irish language; in which conjecture he was quite correct. For this peculiarity of ours--like many others--is borrowed from the Irish language, as anyone may see for himself by looking through an Irish book of question and answer, such as a Catechism. 'Is the Son God?' 'Yes certainly He is.' 'Will God reward the good and punish the wicked?' 'Certainly: there is no doubt He will.' 'Did God always exist?' 'He did; because He has neither beginning nor end.' And questions and answers like these--from Donlevy's {131} Irish Catechism for instance--might be given to any length. But in many other ways we show our tendency to this wordy overflow--still deriving our mannerism from the Irish language--that is to say, from modern and middle Irish. For in very old Irish--of the tenth, eleventh, and earlier centuries for instance, the tendency is the very reverse. In the specimens of this very old language that have come down to us, the words and phrases are so closely packed, that it is impossible to translate them either into English or Latin by an equal number of words.[3] But this old language is too far off from us to have any influence in our present every-day English speech; and, as already remarked, we derive this peculiarity from modern Irish, or from middle Irish through modern. Here is a specimen in translation of over-worded modern Irish (Battle of Gavra, p. 141), a type of what was very common:--'Diarmuid himself [fighting] continued in the enjoyment of activity, strength, and vigour, without intermission of action, of weapons, or of power; until at length he dealt a full stroke of his keen hard-tempered sword on the king's head, by which he clove the skull, and by a second stroke swept his head off his huge body.' Examples like this, from Irish texts, both modern and middle, might be multiplied to any extent. {132} But let us now have a look at some of our Anglo-Irish redundancies, mixed up as they often are with exaggeration. A man was going to dig by night for a treasure, which of course had a supernatural guardian, like all hidden treasures, and what should he see running towards him but 'a great big red mad bull, with fire flaming out of his eyes, mouth, and nose.' (Ir. Pen. Mag.) Another man sees a leprechaun walking up to him--'a weeny deeny dawny little atomy of an idea of a small taste of a gentleman.' (_Ibid._) Of a person making noise and uproar you will be told that he was roaring and screeching and bawling and making a terrible hullabulloo all through the house. Of an emaciated poor creature--'The breath is only just in and out of him, and the grass doesn't know of him walking over it.' 'The gentlemen are not so pleasant _in themselves_' [now as they used to be]. (Gerald Griffin.) Expressions like this are very often heard: 'I was dead in myself,' i.e., I felt dull and lifeless. [Dermot struck the giant and] 'left him dead without life.' ('Dermot and Grainne.') Further on we find the same expression--_marbh gan anam_, dead without life. This Irish expression is constantly heard in our English dialect: 'he fell from the roof and was _killed dead_.' Oh brave King Brian, he knew the way To keep the peace and to make the hay: For those who were bad he cut off their head; And those who were worse he killed them dead. Similarly the words 'dead and buried' are used all through Munster:--Oh indeed poor Jack Lacy is {133} dead and buried for the last two years: or 'the whole family are dead and gone these many years.' A very common Irish expression is 'I invited _every single one_ of them.' This is merely a translation from Irish, as we find in 'Gabhra':--_Do bhéarmaois gach aon bhuadh_: we were wont to win every single victory. 'We do not want any single one of them,' says Mr. Hamilton Fyfe ('Daily Mail'). He puts the saying into the mouth of another; but the phraseology is probably his own: and at any rate I suppose we may take it as a phrase from Scotch Gaelic, which is all but the same as Irish Gaelic. Emphatic particles and words, especially the pronouns with _self_, are often used to excess. I heard a highly educated fellow-countryman say, 'I must say myself that I don't believe it': and I am afraid I often use such expressions myself. 'His companions remained standing, but he found it more convenient to sit down himself.' A writer or speaker has however to be on his guard or he may be led into a trap. A writer having stated that some young ladies attended a cookery-class, first merely looking on, goes on to say that after a time they took part in the work, and soon learned _to cook themselves_. I once heard a man say:--'I disown the whole family, _seed, breed and generation_.' Very common in Ireland. Goldsmith took the expression from his own country, and has immortalised it in his essay, 'The Distresses of a Common Soldier.' He was on the tip-top of the steeple--i.e., the very top. This expression is extended in application: that {134} meadow is tip-top, i.e., very excellent: he is a tip-top hurler. 'By no means' is sometimes expanded:--'I asked him to lend me a pound, but he answered that _by no manner of means_ would he do any such thing.' 'If you do that you'll be crying down salt tears,' i.e., 'you'll deeply regret it.' _Salt tears_ is however in Shakespeare in the same sense. ('Hen. VI.') 'Down with you now on your two bended knees and give thanks to God.' If you don't stop, I'll wring the head off o' your neck. (Rev. Maxwell Close.) The roof of the house fell down on the top of him. (Father Higgins.) The Irish _air sé_ ('says he') is very often repeated in the course of a narrative. It is correct in Irish, but it is often heard echoed in our English where it is incorrect:--And says he to James 'where are you going now?' says he. In a trial in Dublin a short time ago, the counsel asked of witness:--'Now I ask you in the most solemn manner, had you hand, act, or part in the death of Peter Heffernan?' A young man died after injuries received in a row, and his friend says:--'It is dreadful about the poor boy: they made at him in the house and killed him there; then they dragged him out on the road and killed him entirely, so that he lived for only three days after. I wouldn't mind if they shot him at once and put an end to him: but to be murdering him like that--it is terrible.' The fairy says to Billy:--'I am a thousand years old to-day, and I think it is time for me to get {135} married.' To which Billy replies:--'I think it is quite time without any kind of doubt at all.' (Crofton Croker.) The squire walks in to Patrick's cabin: and Patrick says:--'Your honour's honour is quite welcome entirely.' (Crofton Croker.) An expression you will often hear even in Dublin:--'Lend me the loan of your umbrella.' 'She doats down on him' is often used to express 'She is very fond of him.' 'So, my Kathleen, you're going to leave me All alone by myself in this place.' (LADY DUFFERIN.) He went to America seven years ago, and from that day to this we have never heard any tale or tidings of him. 'Did he treat you hospitably?' 'Oh indeed he pretended to forget it entirely, and I never took bit, bite, or sup in his house.' This form of expression is heard everywhere in Ireland. We have in Ireland an inveterate habit--from the highest to the lowest--educated and uneducated--of constantly interjecting the words 'you know' into our conversation as a mere expletive, without any particular meaning:--'I had it all the time, you know, in my pocket: he had a seat, you know, that he could arrange like a chair: I was walking, you know, into town yesterday, when I met your father.' 'Why in the world did you lend him such a large sum of money?' 'Well, you know, the fact is I couldn't avoid it.' This expression is often varied to 'don't you know.' In Munster a question is often introduced by the {136} words 'I don't know,' always shortened to _I'd'no_ (three syllables with the _I_ long and the _o_ very short--barely sounded) 'I'd'no is John come home yet?' This phrase you will often hear in Dublin from Munster people, both educated and uneducated. 'The t'other' is often heard in Armagh: it is, of course, English:-- 'Sirs,' cried the umpire, cease your pother, The creature's neither one nor t'other. * * * * * CHAPTER X. COMPARISONS. Some of the items in this chapter would fit very well in the last; but this makes no matter; for 'good punch drinks well from either dandy or tumbler.' You attempt in vain to bring a shameless coarse-minded man to a sense of the evil he has done:--'Ye might as well put a blister on a hedgehog.' (Tyrone.) You're as cross all this day as _a bag of cats_. If a man is inclined to threaten much but never acts up to his threats--severe in word but mild in act:--His bark is worse than his bite. That turf is as dry as a bone (very common in Munster.) _Bone-dry_ is the term in Ulster. When a woman has very thick legs, thick almost down to the feet, she is 'like a Mullingar heifer, beef to the heels.' The plains of Westmeath round Mullingar are noted for fattening cattle. {137} He died roaring like Doran's bull. A person restless, uneasy, fidgety, and impatient for the time being, is 'like a hen on a hot griddle.' Of a scapegrace it is said he is past _grace_ like a limeburner's brogue (shoe). The point will be caught up when it is remembered that _grease_ is pronounced _grace_ in Ireland. You're as blind as a bat. When a person is boastful--magnifies all his belongings--'all his geese are swans.' She has a tongue that would _clip a hedge_. The tongue of another would _clip clouts_ (cut rags). (Ulster.) He went _as fast as hops_. When a fellow is hopping along on one leg, he has to go fast, without stopping. Of a coarse ill-mannered man who uses unmannerly language:--'What could you expect from a pig but a _grunt_.' (Carlow.) A person who seems to be getting smaller is growing down like a cow's tail. Of a wiry muscular active man people say 'he's as hard as nails.' A person who acts inconsiderately and rudely without any restraint and without respect for others, is 'like a bull in a china shop.' Of a clever artful schemer: 'If he didn't go to school he met the scholars.' An active energetic person is 'all alive like a bag of fleas.' That man knows no more about farming _than a cow knows of a holiday_. A tall large woman:--'That's a fine doorful of a woman.' (MacCall: Wexford.) {138} He has a face as yellow as a kite's claw. (Crofton Croker: but heard everywhere.) Jerry in his new clothes is as proud as a whitewashed pig. (MacCall: Wexford.) That man is as old as a field. (Common in Tipperary.) 'Are you well protected in that coat?' 'Oh yes I'm _as warm as wool_.' (Very common in the south.) Idle for want of weft _like the Drogheda weavers_. Said of a person who runs short of some necessary material in doing any work. (Limerick.) I watched him as closely as a cat watches a mouse. He took up the book; but seeing the owner suddenly appear, he dropped it _like a hot potato_. 'You have a head and so has a pin,' to express contempt for a person's understanding. How are your new stock of books selling? Oh they are _going like hot cakes_. Hot cakes are a favourite viand, and whenever they are brought to table disappear quickly enough. He's as poor as a church mouse. A person expressing love mockingly:--'Come into my heart and pick sugar.' An extremely thin emaciated person is _like death upon wires_; alluding to a human skeleton held together by wires. Oh you need never fear that Mick O'Brien will cheat you: _Mick is as honest as the sun_. A person who does not persevere in any one study or pursuit, who is perpetually changing about from one thing to another, is 'like a daddy-long-legs dancing on a window.' {139} A bitter tongue that utters cutting words is like the keen wind of March that blows at every side of the hedge. A person praising strong whiskey says:--I felt it like a torchlight procession going down my throat. A man with a keen sharp look in his face:--'He has an eye like a questing hawk.' Usually said in an unfavourable sense. If any commodity is supplied plentifully it is knocked about _like snuff at a wake_. Snuff was supplied free at wakes; and the people were not sparing of it as they got it for nothing. A chilly day:--'There's a stepmother's breath in the air.' Now Biddy clean and polish up those spoons and knives and forks carefully; don't stop till you make them shine _like a cat's eye under a bed_. (Limerick.) It is foolish to threaten unless you have--and show that you have--full power to carry out your threats:--'Don't show your teeth till you're able to bite.' _Greasing the fat sow's lug_: i.e. giving money or presents to a rich man who does not need them. (Kildare.) I went on a visit to Tom and he _fed me like a fighting cock_. That little chap is as cute as a pet fox. A useless worthless fellow:--He's fit to mind mice at a cross-roads. (Kildare.) How did he look? Oh he had a weaver's blush--pale cheek and a red nose. (Wexford.) When a person clinches an argument, or puts a hard fact in opposition, or a poser of any kind hard to answer:--'Put that in your pipe and smoke it.' {140} 'My stomach is as dry as a lime-burner's wig.' There were professional lime-burners then: alas, we have none now. I want a drink badly: my throat is as dry as the pipe of Dick the blacksmith's bellows. Poor Manus was terribly frightened; he stood shaking _like a dog in a wet sack_. (Crofton Croker: but heard everywhere in Ireland.) 'As happy as the days are long': that is to say happy while the days last--uninterruptedly happy. Spending your money before you get it--going in debt till pay day comes round: that's 'eating the calf in the cow's belly.' He hasn't as much land as would sod a lark; as much as would make a sod for a lark in a cage. That fellow is _as crooked an a ram's horn_; i.e. he is a great schemer. Applied also in general to anything crooked. 'Do you mean to say he is a thief?' 'Yes I do; last year he stole sheep _as often as he has fingers and toes_' (meaning very often). You're as welcome as the flowers of May. 'Biddy, are the potatoes boiling?' Biddy takes off the lid to look, and replies 'The _white horses_ are on 'em ma'am.' The _white horses_ are patches of froth on the top of the pot when the potatoes are coming near boiling. That's as firm as the Rock of Cashel--as firm as the hob of hell. That man would tell lies as fast as a horse would trot. A person who does his business briskly and energetically 'works like a hatter'--'works like a {141} nailer'--referring to the fussy way of these men plying their trade. A conceited fellow having a dandy way of lifting and placing his legs and feet in moving about 'walks like a hen in stubbles.' A person who is cool and collected under trying circumstances is 'as cool as a cucumber.' Here the alliteration helps to popularise the saying. I must put up the horses now and have them 'as clean as a new pin' for the master. A person who does good either to an individual or to his family or to the community, but afterwards spoils it all by some contrary course of conduct, is like a cow that fills the pail, but kicks it over in the end. A person quite illiterate 'wouldn't know a B from a bull's foot.' The catching point here is partly alliteration, and partly that a bull's foot has some resemblance to a B. Another expression for an illiterate man:--He wouldn't know a C from a chest of drawers--where there is a weak alliteration. He'll tell you a story as long as to-day and to-morrow. Long enough: for you have to wait on indefinitely for 'to-morrow': or as they say 'to-morrow come never.' 'You'll lose that handkerchief _as sure as a gun_.' That furrow is _as straight as a die_. A person who does neither good nor harm--little ill, little good--is 'like a chip in porridge': almost always said as a reproach. I was _on pins and needles_ till you came home: i.e. I was very uneasy. {142} The story went round like wildfire: i.e. circulated rapidly. Of a person very thin:--He's 'as fat as a hen in the forehead.' A man is staggering along--not with drink:--That poor fellow is 'drunk with hunger like a showman's dog.' Dick and Bill are 'as great as inkle-weavers:' a saying very common in Limerick and Cork. _Inkle_ is a kind of broad linen tape: a Shakespearian word. 'Several pieces of it were formerly woven in the same loom, by as many boys, who sat close together on the same seat-board.' (Dr. A. Hume.) William is 'the spit out of his father's mouth'; i.e. he is strikingly like his father either in person or character or both. Another expression conveying the same sense:--'Your father will never die while you are alive': and 'he's a chip off the old block.' Still another, though not quite so strong:--'He's his father's son.' Another saying to the same effect--'kind father for him'--is examined elsewhere. 'I'm a man in myself like Oliver's bull,' a common saying in my native place (in Limerick), and applied to a confident self-helpful person. The Olivers were the local landlords sixty or seventy years ago. (For a tune with this name see my 'Old Irish Music and Songs,' p. 46.) A person is asked to do any piece of work which ought to be done by his servant:--'Aye indeed, _keep a dog and bark myself_.' That fellow walks as straight up and stiff as if he took _a breakfast of ramrods_. A man who passes through many dangers or {143} meets with many bad accidents and always escapes has 'as many lives as a cat.' Everyone knows that a cat has nine lives. _Putting on the big pot_ means empty boasting and big talk. Like a woman who claps a large pot of water on the fire to boil a weeny little bit of meat--which she keeps out of sight--pretending she has _launa-vaula_, _lashings and leavings_, full and plenty. If a man is in low spirits--depressed--down in the mouth--'his heart is as low as a keeroge's kidney' (_keeroge_, a beetle or clock). This last now usually said in jest. James O'Brien is a good scholar, but he's not _in it_ with Tom Long: meaning that he is not at all to be compared with Tom Long. If a person is indifferent about any occurrence--doesn't care one way or the other--he is 'neither glad nor sorry like a dog at his father's wake.' (South.) * * * * * CHAPTER XI. THE MEMORY OF HISTORY AND OF OLD CUSTOMS. _Church_, _Chapel_, _Scallan_. All through Ireland it is customary to call a Protestant place of worship a 'church,' and that belonging to Roman Catholics a 'chapel': and this usage not only prevails among the people, but has found its way into official documents. For instance, take the Ordnance maps. In almost every village and town on the map you will {144} see in one place the word 'Church,' while near by is printed 'R.C. Chapel.' This custom has its roots far back in the time when it was attempted to extend the doctrines of the Reformation to Ireland. Then wherever the authority of the government prevailed, the church belonging to the Catholics was taken from them; the priest was expelled; and a Protestant minister was installed. But the law went much farther, and forbade under fearful penalties the celebration of Mass--penalties for both priest and congregation. As the people had now no churches, the custom began of celebrating Mass in the open air, always in remote lonely places where there was little fear of discovery. Many of these places retain to this day names formed from the Irish word _Affrionn_ [affrin], the Mass; such as the mountain called Knockanaffrinn in Waterford (the hill of the Mass), Ardanaffrinn, Lissanaffrinn, and many others. While Mass was going on, a watcher was always placed on an adjacent height to have a look-out for the approach of a party of military, or of a spy with the offered reward in view. After a long interval however, when the sharp fangs of the Penal Laws began to be blunted or drawn, the Catholics commenced to build for themselves little places of worship: very timidly at first, and always in some out-of-the-way place. But they had many difficulties to contend with. Poverty was one of them; for the great body of the congregations were labourers or tradesmen, as the Catholic people had been almost crushed out of existence, soul and body, for five or six generations, by the terrible Penal Laws, which, with careful attention to details, omitted nothing {145} that could impoverish and degrade them. But even poverty, bad as it was, never stood decidedly in the way; for the buildings were not expensive, and the poor people gladly contributed shillings coppers and labour for the luxury of a chapel. A more serious obstacle was the refusal of landlords in some districts to lease a plot of land for the building. In Donegal and elsewhere they had a movable little wooden shed that just sheltered the priest and the sacred appliances while he celebrated Mass, and which was wheeled about from place to place in the parish wherever required. A shed of this kind was called a _scallan_ (Irish: a shield, a protecting shelter). Some of these _scallans_ are preserved with reverence to this day, as for instance one in Carrigaholt in Clare, where a large district was for many years without any Catholic place of worship, as the local landlord obstinately refused to let a bit of land. You may now see that very _scallan_--not much larger than a sentry-box--beside the new chapel in Carrigaholt. And so those humble little buildings gradually rose up all over the country. Then many of the small towns and villages through the country presented this spectacle. In one place was the 'decent church' that had formerly belonged to the Catholics, now in possession of a Protestant congregation of perhaps half a dozen--church, minister, and clerk maintained by contributions of tithes forced from the Catholic people; and not far off a poor little thatched building with clay floor and rough walls for a Roman Catholic congregation of 500, 1000, or more, all except the few that found room within kneeling on {146} the ground outside, only too glad to be able to be present at Mass under any conditions. These little buildings were always called 'chapels,' to distinguish them from what were now the Protestant churches. Many of these primitive places of worship remained in use to a period within living memory--perhaps some remain still. When I was a boy I generally heard Mass in one of them, in Ballyorgan, Co. Limerick: clay floor, no seats, walls of rough stone unplastered, thatch not far above our heads. Just over the altar was suspended a level canopy of thin boards, to hide the thatch from the sacred spot: and on its under surface was roughly painted by some rustic artist a figure of a dove--emblematic of the Holy Ghost--which to my childish fancy was a work of art equal at least to anything ever executed by Michael Angelo. Many and many a time I heard exhortations from that poor altar, sometimes in English, sometimes in Irish, by the Rev. Darby Buckley, the parish priest of Glenroe (of which Ballyorgan formed a part), delivered with such earnestness and power as to produce extraordinary effects on the congregation. You saw men and women in tears everywhere around you, and at the few words of unstudied peroration they flung themselves on their knees in a passionate burst of piety and sorrow. Ah, God be with Father Darby Buckley: a small man, full of fire and energy: somewhat overbearing, and rather severe in judging of small transgressions; but all the same, a great and saintly parish priest. That little chapel has long been superseded by a solid structure, suitable to the neighbourhood and its people. {147} What has happened in the neighbouring town of Kilfinane is still more typical of the advance of the Catholics. There also stood a large thatched chapel with a clay floor: and the Catholics were just beginning to emerge from their state of servility when the Rev. Father Sheehy was appointed parish priest about the beginning of the last century. He was a tall man of splendid physique: when I was a boy I knew him in his old age, and even then you could not help admiring his imposing figure. At that time the lord of the soil was Captain Oliver, one of that Cromwellian family to whom was granted all the district belonging to their Catholic predecessors, Sir John Ponsonby and Sir Edward Fitzharris, both of whom were impeached and disinherited, On the Monday morning following the new priest's first Mass he strolled down to have a good view of the chapel and grounds, and was much astonished to find in the chapel yard a cartload of oats in sheaf, in charge of a man whom he recognized as having been at Mass on the day before. He called him over and questioned him, on which the man told him that the captain had sent him with the oats to have it threshed on the chapel floor, as he always did. The priest was amazed and indignant, and instantly ordered the man off the grounds, threatening him with personal chastisement, which--considering the priest's brawny figure and determined look--he perhaps feared more than bell book and candle. The exact words Father Sheehy used were, 'If ever I find you here again with a load of oats or a load of anything else, _I'll break your back for you_: and then I'll go up and break your master's back too!' The {148} fellow went off hot foot with his load, and told his master, expecting all sorts of ructions. But the captain took it in good part, and had his oats threshed elsewhere: and as a matter of fact he and the priest soon after met and became acquainted. In sending his corn to be threshed on the chapel floor, it is right to remark that the captain intended no offence and no undue exercise of power; and besides he was always careful to send a couple of men on Saturday evening to sweep the floor and clean up the chapel for the service of next day. But it was a custom of some years' standing, and Father Sheehy's predecessor never considered it necessary to expostulate. It is likely enough indeed that he himself got a few scratches in his day from the Penal Laws, and thought it as well to let matters go on quietly. After a little time Father Sheehy had a new church built, a solid slate-roofed structure suitable for the time, which, having stood for nearly a century, was succeeded by the present church. This, which was erected after almost incredible labour and perseverance in collecting the funds by the late parish priest, the Very Rev. Patrick Lee, V.F., is one of the most beautiful parish churches in all Ireland. What has happened in Ballyorgan and Kilfinane may be considered a type of what has taken place all over the country. Within the short space of a century the poor thatched clay-floor chapels have been everywhere replaced by solid or beautiful or stately churches, which have sprung up all through Ireland as if by magic, through the exertions of the pastors, and the contributions of the people. {149} This popular application of the terms 'chapel' and 'church' found--and still finds--expression in many ways. Thus a man who neglects religion: 'he never goes to Church, Mass, or Meeting' (this last word meaning Non-conformist Service). A man says, 'I didn't see Jack Delany at Mass to-day': 'Oh, didn't you hear about him--sure he's going to _church_ now' (i.e. he has turned Protestant). 'And do they never talk of those [young people] who go to church' [i.e. Protestants]. (Knocknagow.) The term 'chapel' has so ingrained itself in my mind that to this hour the word instinctively springs to my lips when I am about to mention a Catholic place of worship; and I always feel some sort of hesitation or reluctance in substituting the word 'church.' I positively could not bring myself to say, 'Come, it is time now to set out for church': it must be either 'Mass' or 'the chapel.' I see no reason against our retaining these two words, with their distinction; for they tell in brief a vivid chapter in our history. _Hedge-Schools._ Evil memories of the bad old penal days come down to us clustering round this word. At the end of the seventeenth century, among many other penal enactments,[4] a law was passed that Catholics were not to be educated. Catholic schoolmasters were forbidden to teach, either in schools or in private houses; and Catholic parents were forbidden to send their children to any foreign country to be educated--all under heavy penalties; from which it will be seen that care was taken to {150} deprive Catholics--as such--altogether of the means of education. But priests and schoolmasters and people combined all through the country--and not without some measure of success--to evade this unnatural law. Schools were kept secretly, though at great risk, in remote places--up in the mountain glens or in the middle of bogs. Half a dozen young men with spades and shovels built up a rude cabin in a few hours, which served the purpose of a schoolhouse: and from the common plan of erecting these in the shelter of hedges, walls, and groves, the schools came to be known as 'Hedge Schools.' These hedge schools held on for generations, and kept alive the lamp of learning, which burned on--but in a flickering ineffective sort of way--'burned through long ages of darkness and storm'--till at last the restrictions were removed, and Catholics were permitted to have schools of their own openly and without let or hindrance. Then the ancient hereditary love of learning was free to manifest itself once more; and schools sprang up all over the country, each conducted by a private teacher who lived on the fees paid by his pupils. Moreover, the old designation was retained; for these schools, no longer held in wild places, were called--as they are sometimes called to this day--'hedge schools.' The schools that arose in this manner, which were of different classes, were spread all over the country during the eighteenth century and the first half of the nineteenth. The most numerous were little elementary schools, which will be described farther on. The higher class of schools, which {151} answered to what we now call Intermediate schools, were found all over the southern half of Ireland, especially in Munster. Some were for classics, some for science, and not a few for both; nearly all conducted by men of learning and ability; and they were everywhere eagerly attended. 'Many of the students had professions in view, some intended for the priesthood, for which the classical schools afforded an admirable preparation; some seeking to become medical doctors, teachers, surveyors, &c. But a large proportion were the sons of farmers, tradesmen, shopkeepers, or others, who had no particular end in view, but, with the instincts of the days of old, studied classics or mathematics for the pure love of learning. I knew many of that class. 'These schools continued to exist down to our own time, till they were finally broken up by the famine of 1847. In my own immediate neighbourhood were some of them, in which I received a part of my early education; and I remember with pleasure several of my old teachers; rough and unpolished men many of them, but excellent solid scholars and full of enthusiasm for learning--which enthusiasm they communicated to their pupils. All the students were adults or grown boys; and there was no instruction in the elementary subjects--reading, writing, and arithmetic--as no scholar attended who had not sufficiently mastered these. Among the students were always half a dozen or more "poor scholars" from distant parts of Ireland, who lived free in the hospitable farmers' houses all round: just as the scholars from Britain and elsewhere {152} were supported in the time of Bede--twelve centuries before.'[5] In every town all over Munster there was--down to a period well within my memory--one of those schools, for either classics or science--and in most indeed there were two, one for each branch, besides one or more smaller schools for the elementary branches, taught by less distinguished men. There was extraordinary intellectual activity among the schoolmasters of those times: some of them indeed thought and dreamed and talked of nothing else but learning; and if you met one of them and fell into conversation, he was sure to give you a strong dose as long as you listened, heedless as to whether you understood him or not. In their eyes learning was the main interest of the world. They often met on Saturdays; and on these occasions certain subjects were threshed out in discussion by the principal men. There were often formal disputations when two of the chief men of a district met, each attended by a number of his senior pupils, to discuss some knotty point in dispute, of classics, science, or grammar. There was one subject that long divided the teachers of Limerick and Tipperary into two hostile camps of learning--the verb _To be_. There is a well-known rule of grammar that 'the verb _to be_ takes the same case after it as goes before it.' One party headed by the two Dannahys, father and son, very scholarly men, of north Limerick, held that the verb {153} _to be governed_ the case following; while the other, at the head of whom was Mr. Patrick Murray of Kilfinane in south Limerick, maintained that the correspondence of the two cases, after and before, was mere _agreement_, not _government_. And they argued with as much earnestness as the Continental Nominalists and Realists of an older time. Sometimes the discussions on various points found their way into print, either in newspapers or in special broadsheets coarsely printed; and in these the mutual criticisms were by no means gentle. There were poets too, who called in the aid of the muses to help their cause. One of these, who was only a schoolmaster in embryo--one of Dannahy's pupils--wrote a sort of pedagogic Dunciad, in which he impaled most of the prominent teachers of south Limerick who were followers of Murray. Here is how he deals with Mr. Murray himself:-- Lo, forward he comes, in oblivion long lain, Great Murray, the soul of the light-headed train; A punster, a mimic, a jibe, and a quiz, His acumen stamped on his all-knowing phiz: He declares that the subsequent noun should _agree_ With the noun or the pronoun preceding _To be_. Another teacher, from Mountrussell, was great in astronomy, and was continually holding forth on his favourite subject and his own knowledge of it. The poet makes him say:-- The course of a comet with ease I can trail, And with my ferula I measure his tail; On the wings of pure Science without a balloon Like Baron Munchausen I visit the moon; Along the ecliptic and great milky way, In mighty excursions I soaringly stray; With legs wide extended on the poles I can stand, And like marbles the planets I toss in my hand. {154} The poet then, returning to his own words, goes on to say The gods being amused at his logical blab, They built him a castle near Cancer the Crab. But this same astronomer, though having as we see a free residence, never went to live there: he emigrated to Australia where he entered the priesthood and ultimately became a bishop. One of the ablest of all the Munster teachers of that period was Mr. Patrick Murray, already mentioned, who kept his school in the upper story of the market house of Kilfinane in south Limerick. He was particularly eminent in English Grammar and Literature. I went to his school for one year when I was very young, and I am afraid I was looked upon as very slow, especially in his pet subject Grammar. I never could be got to parse correctly such complications as 'I might, could, would, or should have been loving.' Mr. Murray was a poet too. I will give here a humorous specimen of one of his parodies. It was on the occasion of his coming home one night very late, and not as sober as he should be, when he got 'Ballyhooly' and no mistake from his wife. It was after Moore's 'The valley lay smiling before me'; and the following are two verses of the original with the corresponding two of the parody, of which the opening line is 'The candle was lighting before me.' But I have the whole parody in my memory. MOORE: I flew to her chamber--'twas lonely As if the lov'd tenant lay dead; Ah would it were death and death only, But no, the young false one had fled. {155} And _there_ hung the lute that could soften My very worst pains into bliss, And the hand that had waked it so often Now throbb'd to my proud rival's kiss. Already the curse is upon her And strangers her valleys profane; They come to divide--to dishonour-- And tyrants there long will remain: But onward--the green banner rearing, Go flesh ev'ry brand to the hilt: On _our_ side is Virtue and Erin, And _theirs_ is the Saxon and Guilt. . . . . . . MURRAY: I flew to the room--'twas _not_ lonely: My wife and her _grawls_ were in bed; You'd think it was then and then only The tongue had been placed in her head. For there raged the voice that could soften My very worst pains into bliss, And those lips that embraced me so often I dared not approach with a kiss. A change has come surely upon her:-- The child which she yet did not _wane_ She flung me--then rolled the clothes on her, And naked we both now remain. But had I been a man less forbearing Your blood would be certainly spilt, For on _my_ side there's plunging and tearing And on _yours_ both the blankets and quilt. I was a pupil in four of the higher class of schools, in which was finished my school education such as it was. The best conducted was that of Mr. John Condon which was held in the upper story of the market house in Mitchelstown, Co. Cork, a large apartment fully and properly furnished, forming an admirable schoolroom. This was one of the best {156} schools in Munster. It was truly an excellent Intermediate school, and was attended by all the school-going students of the town, Protestant as well as Catholic--with many from the surrounding country. Mr. Condon was a cultured and scholarly man, and he taught science, including mathematics, surveying, and the use of the globes, and also geography and English grammar. He had an assistant who taught Greek and Latin. I was one of the very few who attempted the double work of learning both science and classics. To learn surveying we went once a week--on Saturdays--to Mr. Condon's farm near the town, with theodolite and chain, in the use of which we all--i.e. those of us learning the subject--had to take part in turn. Mr. Condon was thorough master of the science of the Use of the Globes, a very beautiful branch of education which gave the learners a knowledge of the earth, of the solar system, and of astronomy in general. But the use of the globes no longer forms a part of our school teaching:--more's the pity. The year before going to Mitchelstown I attended a science school of a very different character kept by Mr. Simon Cox in Galbally, a little village in Limerick under the shadow of the Galty Mountains. This was a very rough sort of school, but mathematics and the use of the globes were well taught. There were about forty students. Half a dozen were grown boys, of whom I was one; the rest were men, mostly young, but a few in middle life--schoolmasters bent on improving their knowledge of science in preparation for opening schools in their own parts of the country. {157} In that school, and indeed in all schools like it through the country, there were 'poor scholars,' a class already spoken of, who paid for nothing--they were taught for nothing and freely entertained, with bed, supper, and breakfast in the farmers' houses of the neighbourhood. We had four or five of these, not one of whom knew in the morning where he was to sleep at night. When school was over they all set out in different directions, and called at the farmers' houses to ask for lodging; and although there might be a few refusals, all were sure to be put up for the night. They were expected however to help the children at their lessons for the elementary school before the family retired. In some cases if a farmer was favourably impressed with a poor scholar's manner and character he kept him--lodging and feeding him in his house--during the whole time of his schooling--the young fellow paying nothing of course, but always helping the little ones at their lessons. As might be expected many of these poor scholars were made of the best stuff; and I have now in my eye one who was entertained for a couple of years in my grandmother's house, and who subsequently became one of the ablest and most respected teachers in Munster. Let us remark here that this entertainment of poor scholars was not looked upon in the light of a charity: it was regarded as a duty; for the instinct ran in the people's blood derived from ancient times when Ireland was the 'Island of Saints and Scholars.'[6] It was a custom of long standing; for {158} the popular feeling in favour of learning was always maintained, even through the long dark night of the Penal Laws. 'Tis marvellous how I escaped smoking: I had many opportunities in early life, of which surely the best of all was this Galbally school. For every one I think smoked except the half dozen boys, and even of these one or two were learning industriously. And each scholar took his smoke without ceremony in the schoolroom whenever he pleased, so that the room was never quite clear of the fragrant blue haze. I remember well on one occasion, a class of ten, of whom I was one, sitting round the master, whose chair stood on a slightly elevated platform, and all, both master and scholars, were smoking, except myself. The lesson was on some of the hard problems in Luby's Euclid, which we had been unable to solve, and of which Mr. Cox was now showing us the solutions. He made his diagram for each problem on a large slate turned towards us; and as we knew the meaning of almost every turn and twist of his pencil as he developed the solution, he spoke very little; and we followed him over the diagram, _twigging_ readily the function of every point, line, angle, and circle. And when at last someone had to ask a brief question, Mr. Cox removed his pipe with his left hand and uttered a few monosyllabic words, which enabled us to pick up the lost thread; then replacing the pipe, he went on in silence as before. I was the delight and joy of that school; for I generally carried in my pocket a little fife from which I could roll off jigs, reels, hornpipes, hop-jigs, {159} song tunes, &c., without limit. The school was held in a good-sized room in the second story of a house, of which the landlady and her family lived in the kitchen and bedrooms beneath--on the ground-floor. Some dozen or more of the scholars were always in attendance in the mornings half an hour or so before the arrival of the master, of whom I was sure to be one--what could they do without me?--and then out came the fife, and they cleared the floor for a dance. It was simply magnificent to see and hear these athletic fellows dancing on the bare boards with their thick-soled well-nailed heavy shoes--so as to shake the whole house. And not one in the lot was more joyous than I was; for they were mostly good dancers and did full justice to my spirited strains. At last in came the master: there was no cessation; and he took his seat, looking on complacently till that bout was finished, when I put up my fife, and the serious business of the day was commenced. We must now have a look at the elementary schools--for teaching Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic to children. They were by far the most numerous, for there was one in every village and hamlet, and two or three or more in every town. These schools were very primitive and rude. The parish priests appointed the teachers, and kept an eye over the schools, which were generally mixed--boys and girls. There was no attempt at classification, and little or no class teaching; the children were taught individually. Each bought whatever Reading Book he or his parents pleased. So there was an odd mixture. A very usual book was a 'Spelling and {160} Reading book,' which was pretty sure to have the story of Tommy and Harry. In this there were almost always a series of lessons headed 'Principles of Politeness,' which were in fact selected from the writings of Chesterfield. In these there were elaborate instructions how we were to comport ourselves in a drawing room; and we were to be particularly careful when entering not to let our sword get between our legs and trip us up. We were to bear offences or insults from our companions as long as possible, but if a fellow went too far we were to 'call him out.' It must be confessed there was some of the 'calling out' business--though not in Chesterfield's sense; and if the fellows didn't fight with pistols and swords, they gave and got some black eyes and bloody noses. But this was at their peril; for if the master came to hear of it, they were sure to get further punishment, though not exactly on the face. Then some scholars had 'The Seven Champions of Christendom,' others 'St. George and the Dragon,' or 'Don Bellianis of Greece,' 'The Seven Wonders of the World,' or 'The History of Reynard the Fox,' a great favourite, translated from an old German mock heroic. And sometimes I have seen girls learning to read from a Catholic Prayerbook. Each had his lesson for next day marked in pencil by the master, which he was to prepare. The pupils were called up one by one each to read his own lesson--whole or part--for the master, and woe betide him if he stumbled at too many words. The schools were nearly always held in the small ordinary dwelling-houses of the people, or perhaps a {161} barn was utilised: at any rate there was only one room. Not unfrequently the family that owned the house lived in that same room--the kitchen--and went on with their simple household work while the school was buzzing about their ears, neither in any way interfering with the other. There was hardly ever any _school_ furniture--no desks of any kind. There were seats enough, of a motley kind--one or two ordinary forms placed at the walls: some chairs with _sugaun_ seats; several little stools, and perhaps a few big stones. In fine weather the scholars spent much of their time in the front yard in the open air, where they worked their sums or wrote their copies with the copybooks resting on their knees. When the priest visited one of these schools, which he did whenever in the neighbourhood, it was a great event for both master and scholars. Conor Leahy was one of those masters--a very rough diamond indeed, though a good teacher and not over severe--whose school was in Fanningstown near my home. One day Billy Moroney ran in breathless, with eyes starting out of his head, to say--as well as he could get it out--that Father Bourke was coming up the road. Now we were all--master and scholars--mortally afraid of Father Bourke and his heavy brows--though never was fear more misplaced (p. 71). The master instantly bounced up and warned us to be of good behaviour--not to stir hand or foot--while the priest was present. He happened to be standing at the fireplace; and he finished up the brief and vigorous exhortation by thumping his fist down on the hob:--'By this stone, if one of ye opens your mouth while the priest is here, I'll knock your {162} brains out after he's gone away!' That visit passed off in great style. These elementary teachers, or 'hedge teachers,' as they were commonly called, were a respectable body of men, and were well liked by the people. Many of them were rough and uncultivated in speech, but all had sufficient scholarship for their purpose, and many indeed very much more. They were poor, for they had to live on the small fees of their pupils; but they loved learning--so far as their attainments went--and inspired their pupils with the same love. These private elementary schools gradually diminished in numbers as the National Schools spread, and finally disappeared about the year 1850. These were the schools of the small villages and hamlets, which were to be found everywhere--all over the country: and such were the schools that the Catholic people were only too glad to have after the chains had been struck off--the very schools in which many men that afterwards made a figure in the world received their early education. The elementary schools of the towns were of a higher class. The attendance was larger; there were generally desks and seats of the ordinary kind; and the higher classes were commonly taught something beyond Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic; such as Grammar, or Book-keeping, with occasionally a spice of Euclid, Mensuration, Surveying, or Algebra. It very often happened that the school took its prevailing tone from the taste of the master; so that the higher classes in one were great at Grammar, those of another at Penmanship, some at Higher {163} Arithmetic, some at 'Short Accounts' (i.e. short methods of Mental Arithmetic), others at Book-keeping. For there were then no fixed Programmes and no Inspectors, and each master (in addition to the ordinary elementary subjects) taught just whatever he liked best, and lit up his own special tastes among his pupils. So far have these words, _church_, _chapel_, _scallan_, _hedge-school_, led us through the bye-ways of History; and perhaps the reader will not be sorry to turn to something else. _Rattle the hasp: Tent pot._ During Fair-days--all over the country--there were half a dozen or more booths or tents on the fair field, put up by publicans, in which was always uproarious fun; for they were full of people--young and old--eating and drinking, dancing and singing and match-making. There was sure to be a piper or a fiddler for the young people; and usually a barn door, lifted off its hinges--hasp and all--was laid flat, or perhaps two or three doors were laid side by side, for the dancers; a custom adopted elsewhere as well as in fairs-- 'But they couldn't keep time on the cold earthen floor, So to humour the music they danced on the door.' (CROFTON CROKER: _Old Song_.) There was one particular tune--a jig--which, from the custom of dancing on a door, got the name of 'Rattle the hasp.' Just at the mouth of the tent it was common to have a great pot hung on hooks over a fire sunk in the ground underneath, and full of pigs cheeks, flitches of bacon, pigs' legs and _croobeens_ galore, kept {164} perpetually boiling like the chiefs' caldrons of old, so that no one need be hungry or thirsty so long as he had a penny in his pocket. These pots were so large that they came to be spoken of as a symbol of plenty: 'Why you have as much bacon and cabbage there as would fill a tent-pot.' One day--long long ago--at the fair of Ardpatrick in Limerick--I was then a little boy, but old enough to laugh at the story when I heard it in the fair--a fellow with a wattle in his hand having a sharp iron spike on the end, walked up to one of these tent-pots during the momentary absence of the owner, and thrusting the spike into a pig's cheek, calmly stood there holding the stick in his hand till the man came up. 'What are you doing there?'--When the other looking sheepish and frightened:--'Wisha sir I have a little bit of a pig's cheek here that isn't done well enough all out, and I was thinking that may be you wouldn't mind if I gave it a couple of _biles_ in your pot.' 'Be off out of that you impudent blaa-guard, yourself and your pig's cheek, or I'll break every bone in your body.' The poor innocent boy said nothing, but lifted the stick out of the pot with the pig's cheek on the end of it, and putting it on his shoulder, walked off through the fair with meek resignation. More than a thousand years ago it was usual in Ireland for ladies who went to banquets with their husbands or other near relations to wear a mask. This lady's mask was called _fethal_, which is the old form of the word, modern form _fidil_. The memory of this old custom is preserved in the name now given to a mask by both English and Irish speakers--_i fiddle_, _eye-fiddle_, _hi-fiddle_, or _hy-fiddle_ (the first two {165} being the most correct). The full Irish name is _aghaidh-fidil_, of which the first part _agaidh_, pronounced _i_ or _eye_, means the face:--_agaidh-fidil_, 'face-mask.' This word was quite common in Munster sixty or seventy years ago, when we, boys, made our own _i-fiddles_, commonly of brown paper, daubed in colour--hideous-looking things when worn--enough to frighten a horse from his oats. Among those who fought against the insurgents in Ireland during the Rebellion of 1798 were some German cavalry called Hessians. They wore a sort of long boots so remarkable that boots of the same pattern are to this day called _Hessian boots_. One day in a skirmish one of the rebels shot down a Hessian, and brought away his fine boots as his lawful prize. One of his comrades asked him for the boots: and he answered 'Kill a Hessian for yourself,' which has passed into a proverb. When by labour and trouble you obtain anything which another seeks to get from you on easy terms, you answer _Kill a Hessian for yourself_. During the War of the Confederation in Ireland in the seventeenth century Murrogh O'Brien earl of Inchiquin took the side of the Government against his own countrymen, and committed such merciless ravages among the people that he is known to this day as 'Murrogh the Burner'; and his name has passed into a proverb for outrage and cruelty. When a person persists in doing anything likely to bring on heavy punishment of some kind, the people say 'If you go on in that way _you'll see Murrogh_,' meaning 'you will suffer for it.' Or when a person seems scared or frightened:--'He saw Murrogh or {166} the bush next to him.' The original sayings are in Irish, of which these are translations, which however are now heard oftener than the Irish. In Armagh where Murrogh is not known they say in a similar sense, 'You'll catch Lanty,' Lanty no doubt being some former local bully. When one desires to give another a particularly evil wish he says, 'The curse of Cromwell on you!' So that Cromwell's atrocities are stored up in the people's memories to this day, in the form of a proverb. In Ulster they say 'The curse of _Crummie_.' 'Were you talking to Tim in town to-day?' 'No, but I saw him _from me_ as the soldier saw Bunratty.' Bunratty a strong castle in Co. Clare, so strong that besiegers often had to content themselves with viewing it from a distance. 'Seeing a person from me' means seeing him at a distance. 'Did you meet your cousin James in the fair to-day?' 'Oh I just caught sight of him _from me_ for a second, but I wasn't speaking to him.' _Sweating-House._--We know that the Turkish bath is of recent introduction in these countries. But the hot-air or vapour bath, which is much the same thing, was well known in Ireland from very early times, and was used as a cure for rheumatism down to a few years ago. The structures in which these baths were given are known by the name of _tigh 'n alluis_ [teenollish], or in English, 'sweating-house' (_allus_, 'sweat'). They are still well known in the northern parts of Ireland--small houses entirely of stone, from five to seven feet long inside, with a low little door through which one must creep: {167} always placed remote from habitations: and near by was commonly a pool or tank of water four or five feet deep. They were used in this way. A great fire of turf was kindled inside till the house became heated like an oven; after which the embers and ashes were swept out, and water was splashed on the stones, which produced a thick warm vapour. Then the person, wrapping himself in a blanket, crept in and sat down on a bench of sods, after which the door was closed up. He remained there an hour or so till he was in a profuse perspiration: and then creeping out, plunged right into the cold water; after emerging from which he was well rubbed till he became warm. After several baths at intervals of some days he commonly got cured. Persons are still living who used these baths or saw them used. (See the chapter on 'Ancient Irish Medicine' in 'Smaller Soc. Hist. of Anc. Ireland,' from which the above passage is taken.) The lurking conviction that times long ago were better than at present--a belief in 'the good old times'--is indicated in the common opening to a story:--'Long and merry ago, there lived a king,' &c. 'That poor man is as thin as a _whipping_ post': a very general saying in Ireland. Preserving the memory of the old custom of tying culprits to a firm post in order to be whipped. A whipping post received many of the slashes, and got gradually worn down. The hardiness of the northern rovers--the Danes--who made a great figure in Ireland, as in England and elsewhere, is still remembered, after nine or ten centuries, in the sayings of our people. Scores of {168} times I heard such expressions as the following:--'Ah shut that door: there's a breeze in through it that _would perish the Danes_.' The cardinal points are designated on the supposition that the face is turned to the east: a custom which has descended in Ireland from the earliest times of history and tradition, and which also prevailed among other ancient nations. Hence in Irish 'east' is 'front'; 'west' is 'behind' or 'back'; north is 'left hand'; and south is 'right hand.' The people sometimes import these terms into English. 'Where is the tooth?' says the dentist. 'Just here sir, in the _west_ of my jaw,' replies the patient--meaning at the back of the jaw. Tailors were made the butt of much good-natured harmless raillery, often founded on the well-known fact that a tailor is the ninth part of a man. If a person leaves little after a meal, or little material after any work--that is 'tailor's leavings'; alluding to an alleged custom of the craft. According to this calumny your tailor, when sending home your finished suit, sends with it a few little scraps as what was left of the cloth you gave him, though he had really much left, which he has cribbed. When you delay the performance of any work, or business with some secret object in view, you 'put the pot in the tailor's link.' Formerly tailors commonly worked in the houses of the families who bought their own material and employed them to make the clothes. The custom was to work till supper time, when their day ended. Accordingly the good housewife often hung the pot-hangers on the highest hook or link of the pot-hooks so as to raise {169} the supper-pot well up from the fire and delay the boiling. (Ulster.) The following two old rhymes are very common:-- Four and twenty tailors went out to kill a snail, The biggest of them all put his foot upon his tail-- The snail put out his horns just like a cow: 'O Lord says the tailor we're all killed now!' As I was going to Dub-l-in I met a pack of tailors, I put them in my pocket, In fear the ducks might _ait_ them. In the Co. Down the Roman Catholics are called 'back-o'-the-hill folk': an echo of the Plantations of James I--three centuries ago--when the Catholics, driven from their rich lowland farms, which were given to the Scottish Presbyterian planters, had to eke out a living among the glens and mountains. When a person does anything out of the common--which is not expected of him--especially anything with a look of unusual prosperity:--'It is not every day that Manus kills a bullock.' (Derry.) This saying, which is always understood to refer to Roman Catholics, is a memorial, in one flash, of the plantation of the northern districts. Manus is a common Christian name among the Catholics round Derry, who are nearly all very poor: how could they be otherwise? That Manus--i.e. a Catholic--should kill a bullock is consequently taken as a type of things very unusual, unexpected and exceptional. Maxwell, in 'Wild Sports of the West,' quotes this saying as he heard it in Mayo; but naturally enough the saying alone had reached the west without its background of history, which is not known there as it is in Derry. {170} Even in the everyday language of the people the memory of those Plantations is sometimes preserved, as in the following sayings and their like, which are often heard. 'The very day after Jack Ryan was evicted, he _planted himself_ on the bit of land between his farm and the river.' 'Bill came and _planted_ himself on my chair, right in front of the fire.' 'He that calls the tune should pay the piper' is a saying that commemorates one of our dancing customs. A couple are up for a dance: the young man asks the girl in a low voice what tune she'd like, and on hearing her reply he calls to the piper (or fiddler) for the tune. When the dance is ended and they have made their bow, he slips a coin into her hand, which she brings over and places in the hand of the piper. That was the invariable formula in Munster sixty years ago. The old Irish name of May-day--the 1st May--was _Belltaine_ or _Beltene_ [Beltina], and this name is still used by those speaking Irish; while in Scotland and Ulster they retain it as a common English word--Beltane:-- 'Ours is no sapling, chance sown by the fountain, Blooming at Beltane, in winter to fade.' ('Lady of the Lake.') Before St. Patrick's time there was a great pagan festival in Ireland on 1st May in honour of the god _Bél_ [Bail], in which fire played a prominent part: a custom evidently derived in some way from the Phoenician fire festival in honour of the Phoenician god _Baal_. For we know that the Phoenicians were well acquainted with Ireland, and that wherever they went they introduced the worship of Baal with his festivals. {171} Among other usages the Irish drove cattle through or between big fires to preserve them from the diseases of the year; and this custom was practised in Limerick and Clare down a period within my own memory: I saw it done. But it was necessary that the fires should be kindled from _tenaigin_ [_g_ sounded as in _pagan_]--'forced fire'--i.e., fire produced by the friction of two pieces of dry wood rubbed together till they burst into a flame: Irish _teine-éigin_ from _tein[)e]_, fire, and _éigean_, force. This word is still known in the South; so that the memory of the old pagan May-day festival and its fire customs is preserved in these two words _Beltane_ and _tenaigin_. Mummers were companies of itinerant play-actors, who acted at popular gatherings, such as fairs, _patterns_, weddings, wakes, &c. Formerly they were all masked, and then young _squireens_, and the young sons of strong farmers, often joined them for the mere fun of the thing; but in later times masking became illegal, after which the breed greatly degenerated. On the whole they were not unwelcome to the people, as they were generally the source of much amusement; but their antics at weddings and wakes were sometimes very objectionable, as well as very offensive to the families. This was especially the case at wakes, if the dead person had been unpopular or ridiculous, and at weddings if an old woman married a boy, or a girl an old man for the sake of his money. Sometimes they came bent on mischievous tricks as well as on a _shindy_; and if wind of this got out, the faction of the family gathered to protect them; and then there was sure to be a fight. (Kinahan.) {172} Mummers were well known in England, from which the custom was evidently imported to Ireland. The mummers are all gone, but the name remains. We know that in former times in Ireland the professions ran in families; so that members of the same household devoted themselves to one particular Science or Art--Poetry, History, Medicine, Building, Law, as the case might be--for generations (of this custom a full account may be seen in my 'Smaller Social History of Ancient Ireland,' chap. vii., especially page 184). A curious example of how the memory of this is preserved occurs in Armagh. There is a little worm called _dirab_ found in bog-water. If this be swallowed by any accident it causes a swelling, which can be cured only by a person of the name of Cassidy, who puts his arms round the patient, and the worm dies. The O'Cassidys were hereditary physicians to the Maguires, chiefs of Fermanagh. Several eminent physicians of the name are commemorated in the Irish Annals: and it is interesting to find that they are still remembered in tradition--though quite unconsciously--for their skill in leechcraft. 'I'll make you dance Jack Lattin'--a threat of chastisement, often heard in Kildare. John Lattin of Morristown House county Kildare (near Naas) wagered that he'd dance home to Morristown from Dublin--more than twenty miles--changing his dancing-steps every furlong: and won the wager. 'I'll make you dance' is a common threat heard everywhere: but 'I'll make you dance Jack Lattin' is ten times worse--'I'll make you dance excessively.' {173} Morristown, Jack Lattin's residence, is near Lyons the seat of Lord Cloncurry, where Jack was often a guest, in the first half of the last century. Lady Morgan has an entry in her Memoirs (1830):--'Returned from Lyons--Lord Cloncurry's, a large party--the first day good--Sheil, Curran, Jack Lattin.' It is worthy of remark that there is a well-known Irish tune called 'Jack Lattin,' which some of our Scotch friends have quietly appropriated; and not only that, but have turned Jack himself into a Scotchman by calling the tune 'Jockey Latin'! They have done precisely the same with our 'Eileen Aroon' which they call 'Robin Adair.' The same Robin Adair--or to call him by his proper name Robert Adair--was a well-known county Wicklow man and a member of the Irish Parliament. The word _sculloge_ or _scolloge_ is applied to a small farmer, especially one that does his own farm work: it is often used in a somewhat depreciatory sense to denote a mere rustic: and in both senses it is well known all over the South. This word has a long history. It was originally applied--a thousand years ago or more--to the younger monks of a monastery, who did most of the farm work on the land belonging to the religious community. These young men were of course students indoors, as well as tillers outside, and hence the name, from _scol_, a school:--_scológ_ a young scholar. But as farm work constituted a large part of their employment the name gradually came to mean a working farmer; and in this sense it has come down to our time. To a rich man whose forefathers made their {174} money by smuggling _pottheen_ (illicit whiskey) from Innishowen in Donegal (formerly celebrated for its pottheen manufacture), they say in Derry 'your granny was a Dogherty who wore a tin pocket.' (Doherty a prevalent name in the neighbourhood.) For this was a favourite way of smuggling from the highlands--bringing the stuff in a tin pocket. Tom Boyle had a more ambitious plan:--he got a tinker to make a hollow figure of tin, something like the figure of his wife, who was a little woman, which Tom dressed up in his wife's clothes and placed on the pillion behind him on the horse--filled with pottheen: for in those times it was a common custom for the wife to ride behind her husband. At last a sharp-eyed policeman, seeing the man's affectionate attention so often repeated, kept on the watch, and satisfied himself at last that Tom had a tin wife. So one day, coming behind the animal he gave the poor little woman a whack of a stick which brought forth, not a screech, but a hard metallic sound, to the astonishment of everybody: and then it was all up with poor Tom and his wife. There are current in Ireland many stories of gaugers and pottheen distillers which hardly belong to my subject, except this one, which I may claim, because it has _left its name on_ a well-known Irish tune:--'Paddy outwitted the gauger,' also called by three other names, 'The Irishman's heart for the ladies,' 'Drops of brandy,' and _Cummilum_ (Moore's: 'Fairest put on Awhile'). Paddy Fogarty kept a little public-house at the cross-roads in which he sold 'parliament,' i.e. legal whiskey on which the duty had been paid; but it was well known that friends could get a little drop {175} of pottheen too, on the sly. One hot July day he was returning home from Thurles with a ten-gallon cag on his back, slung by a strong _soogaun_ (hay rope). He had still two good miles before him, and he sat down to rest, when who should walk up but the new gauger. 'Well my good fellow, what have you got in that cask?' Paddy dropped his jaw, looking the picture of terror, and mumbled out some tomfoolery like an excuse. 'Ah, my man, you needn't think of coming over me: I see how it is: I seize this cask in the name of the king.' Poor Paddy begged and prayed, and talked about Biddy and the childher at home--all to no use: the gauger slung up the cag on his back (about a hundredweight) and walked on, with Paddy, heart-broken, walking behind--for the gauger's road lay towards Paddy's house. At last when they were near the cross-roads the gauger sat down to rest, and laying down the big load began to wipe his face with his handkerchief. 'Sorry I am,' says Paddy, 'to see your honour so dead _bet_ up: sure you're sweating like a bull: maybe I could relieve you.' And with that he pulled his legal _permit_ out of his pocket and laid it on the cag. The gauger was astounded: 'Why the d---- didn't you show me that before?' 'Why then 'tis the way your honour,' says Paddy, looking as innocent as a lamb, 'I didn't like to make so bould as I wasn't axed to show it?' So the gauger, after a volley of something that needn't be particularised here, walked off _with himself without an inch of the tail_. 'Faix,' says Paddy, ''tis easy to know 'twasn't our last gauger, ould Warnock, that was here: 'twouldn't be so easy to come round him; for he had a nose that would _smell a needle in a forge_.' {176} In Sligo if a person is sick in a house, and one of the cattle dies, they say 'a life for a life,' and the patient will recover. Mr. Kinahan says, 'This is so universal in the wilds of Sligo that Protestants and Catholics believe it alike.' As an expression of welcome, a person says, 'We'll spread green rushes under your feet'; a memory of the time when there were neither boards nor carpets on the floors--nothing but the naked clay--in Ireland as well as in England; and in both countries, it was the custom to strew the floors of the better class of houses with rushes, which were renewed for any distinguished visitor. This was always done by the women-servants: and the custom was so general and so well understood that there was a knife of special shape for cutting the rushes. (See my 'Smaller Social Hist. of Ancient Ireland,' p. 305.) A common exclamation of drivers for urging on a horse, heard everywhere in Ireland, is _hupp, hupp!_ It has found its way even into our nursery rhymes; as when a mother is dancing her baby up and down on her knee, she sings:-- 'How many miles to Dub-l-in? Three score and ten, Will we be there by candle light? Yes and back again: _Hupp, hupp_ my little horse, _Hupp, hupp_ again.' This Irish word, insignificant as it seems, has come down from a period thirteen or fourteen hundred years ago, or probably much farther back. In the library of St. Gall in Switzerland there is a manuscript written in the eighth century by some scholarly Irish {177} monk--who he was we cannot tell: and in this the old writer _glosses_ or explains many Latin words by corresponding Irish words. Among others the Latin interjection _ei_ or _hei_ (meaning ho! quick! come on) is explained by _upp_ or _hupp_ (Zeuss). Before Christianity had widely spread in Ireland, the pagans had a numerous pantheon of gods and goddesses, one of which was _Badb_ [bibe], a terrible war-fury. Her name is pronounced _Bibe_ or _Bybe_, and in this form it is still preserved all over Cork and round about, not indeed for a war-fury, but for what--in the opinion of some people--is nearly as bad, a _scolding woman_. (For _Badb_ and all the other pagan Irish gods and goddesses, see my 'Smaller Social History of Ancient Ireland,' chap. v.) From the earliest times in Ireland animals were classified with regard to grazing; and the classification is recognised and fully laid down in the Brehon Law. The legal classification was this:--two geese are equivalent to a sheep; two sheep to a _dairt_ or one-year-old heifer; two _dairts_ to one _colpach_ or _collop_ (as it is now called) or two-year-old heifer; two _collops_ to one cow. Suppose a man had a right to graze a certain number of cows on a common (i.e. pasture land not belonging to individuals but common to all the people of the place collectively); he might turn out the exact number of cows or the equivalent of any other animals he pleased, so long as the total did not exceed the total amount of his privilege. In many parts of Ireland this system almost exactly as described above is kept up to this day, the collop being taken as the unit: it was universal in my native place sixty years ago; and in a way it exists {178} there still. The custom is recognised in the present-day land courts, with some modifications in the classification--as Mr. Maurice Healy informs me in an interesting and valuable communication--the _collop_ being still the unit--and constantly referred to by the lawyers in the conduct of cases. So the old Brehon Law process has existed continuously from old times, and is repeated by the lawyers of our own day; and its memory is preserved in the word _collop_. (See my 'Smaller Soc. Hist. of Anc. Ireland,' p. 431.) In pagan times the religion of Ireland was Druidism, which was taught by the druids: and far off as the time is the name of these druids still exists in our popular speech. The Irish name for a druid is _drui_ [dree]; and in the South any crabbed cunning old-fashioned-looking little boy is called--even by speakers of English--a _shoundree_, which exactly represents in sound the Irish _sean-drui_, old druid; from _sean_ [shoun or shan], old. (See 'Irish Names of Places,' I. 98.) There are two words much in use in Munster, of which the phonetic representations are _thoothach_ or _thoohagh_ and _hóchan_ (_ó_ long), which tell a tale of remote times. A _thoothach_ or _thoohagh_ is an ignorant unmannerly clownish fellow: and _hóchan_ means much the same thing, except that it is rather lower in the sense of ignorance or uncouthness. Passing through the Liberties of Dublin I once heard a woman--evidently from Limerick--call a man a dirty _hóchan_. Both words are derived from _tuath_ [thooa], a layman, as distinguished from a cleric or a man of learning. The Irish form of the first is _tuathtach_: of the second _thuathcháin_ (vocative). Both are a memory of the {179} time when illiterate people were looked down upon as boorish and ill-mannered as compared with clerics or with men of learning in general. The people had great respect and veneration for the old families of landed gentry--the _real old stock_ as they were called. If a man of a lower class became rich so as to vie with or exceed in possessions many of the old families, he was never recognised as on their level or as a gentleman. Such a man was called by the people a _half-sir_, which bears its meaning on its face. Sixty years ago people very generally used home-made and home-grown produce--frieze--linen--butter--bacon--potatoes and vegetables in general. A good custom, for 'a cow never burst herself by chewing her cud.' (MacCall: Wexford.) To see one magpie or more is a sign of bad or good luck, viz.:--'One for sorrow; two for mirth; three for a wedding; four for a birth.' (MacCall: Wexford.) The war-cry of the great family of O'Neill of Tyrone was _Lauv-derg-aboo_ (the Red Hand to Victory: the Red Hand being the cognisance of the O'Neills): and this cry the clansmen shouted when advancing to battle. It is many a generation since this same cry was heard in battle; and yet it is remembered in popular sayings to this day. In Tyrone when a fight is expected one man will say to another 'there will be _Dergaboos_ to-day': not that the cry will be actually raised; but _Dergaboo_ has come to be a sort of symbolic name for a fight. In and around Ballina in Mayo, a great strong fellow is called an _allay-foozee_, which represents the {180} sound of the French _Allez-fusil_ (musket or musketry forward), preserving the memory of the landing of the French at Killala (near Ballina) in 1798. When a person looks as if he were likely to die soon:--'He's in the raven's book.' Because when a person is about to die, the raven croaks over the house. (MacCall: Wexford.) A 'cross' was a small old Irish coin so called from a figure of St. Patrick stamped on it with a conspicuous cross. Hence a person who has no money says 'I haven't a cross.' In Wexford they have the same saying with a little touch of drollery added on:--'There isn't as much as a cross in my pocket to keep the devil from dancing in it.' (MacCall.) For of course the devil dare not come near a cross of any shape or form. A _keenoge_ (which exactly represents the pronunciation of the Irish _cíanóg_) is a very small coin, a farthing or half a farthing. It was originally applied to a small foreign coin, probably Spanish, for the Irish _cían_ is 'far off,' 'foreign': _óg_ is the diminutive termination. It is often used like 'cross': 'I haven't as much as a keenoge in my pocket.' 'Are you not going to lend me any money at all?' 'Not a keenoge.' A person not succeeding in approaching the house or spot he wants to reach; hitting wide of the mark in shooting; not coming to the point in argument or explanation:--'Oh you didn't come within the bray of an ass of it.' This is the echo of a very old custom. More than a thousand years ago distance was often vaguely measured in Ireland by sound. A man felling a tree was 'bound by the Brehon Law {181} to give warning as far as his voice could reach,' so as to obviate danger to cattle or people. We find a like measure used in Donegal to this day:--[The Dublin house where you'll get the book to buy is on the Quays] 'about a mountain man's call below the Four Courts.' (Seumas MacManus.) The crow of a cock and the sound of a bell (i.e. the small hand-bell then used) as measures of distances are very often met with in ancient Irish writings. An old commentator on the Brehon Laws defines a certain distance to be 'as far as the sound of the bell or the crow of a barn-door cock could be heard. This custom also prevailed among other ancient nations. (See my 'Smaller Soc. Hist. of Anc. Ireland,' p. 473.) _The 'Duty'._ Formerly all through Ireland the tenants were obliged to work for their landlords on a certain number of days free, except that they generally got food. Such work was commonly called in English the 'duty.' In Wicklow for example--until very recently--or possibly still--those who had horses had to draw home the landlord's turf on certain days. In Wexford they had in a similar way to draw stones for the embankments on the Barrow. The tenants commonly collected in numbers on the same day and worked all together. The Irish word used to designate such gatherings was _bal_--still so called in Connaught. It was usual to hear such English expressions as--'Are you going to the duty?' or 'Are you going to the bal?' (Kinahan.) (N.B. I do not know the Irish word _bal_ in this sense, and cannot find it in the Dictionaries.) 'Duty' is used in a religious sense by Roman {182} Catholics all through Ireland to designate the obligation on all Catholics to go to Confession and Holy Communion at Easter time. 'I am going to my duty, please God, next week.' 'I'll return you this book on next Saturday _as sure as the hearth-money_': a very common expression in Ireland. The old English oppressive impost called _hearth-money_--a tax on hearths--which every householder had to pay, was imported into Ireland by the English settlers. Like all other taxes it was certain to be called for and gathered at the proper time, so that our saying is an apt one; but while the bad old impost is gone, its memory is preserved in the everyday language of the people. A king, whether of a small or large territory, had in his service a champion or chief fighting man whose duty it was to avenge all insults or offences offered to the families of the king and tribe, particularly murder; like the 'Avenger of blood' of the Jews and other ancient nations. In any expected danger from without he had to keep watch--with a sufficient force--at the most dangerous ford or pass--called _bearna baoghaill_ [barna beel] or gap of danger--on that part of the border where invasion was expected, and prevent the entrance of any enemy. This custom, which is as old as our race in Ireland, is remembered in our present-day speech, whether Irish or Anglo-Irish; for the man who courageously and successfully defends any cause or any position, either by actual fighting or by speeches or written articles, is 'the man in the gap.' Of the old Irish chiefs Thomas Davis writes:-- 'Their hearts were as soft as the child in the lap, Yet they were the men in the gap.' {183} In the old heroic semi-historic times in Ireland, a champion often gave a challenge by standing in front of the hostile camp or fort and striking a few resounding blows with the handle of his spear either on his own shield or on a shield hung up for the purpose at the entrance gate outside.[7] The memory of this very old custom lives in a word still very common in the South of Ireland--_boolimskee_, Irish _buailim-sciath_, 'I strike the shield,' applied to a man much given to fighting, a quarrelsome fellow, a swaggering bully--a swash-buckler. Paying on the nail, paying down on the nail; paying on the spot--ready cash. This expression had its origin in a custom formerly prevailing in Limerick city. In a broad thoroughfare under the Exchange stood a pillar about four feet high, on the top of which was a circular plate of copper about three feet in diameter. This pillar was called 'The Nail.' The purchaser of anything laid down the stipulated price or the earnest _on the nail_, i.e. on the brass plate, which the seller took up: when this was done before witnesses the transaction was as binding as if entered on parchment. (O'Keeffe's Recollections.) 'The Nail' is still to the fore, and may now be seen in the Museum of the Carnegie Library building, to which it was transferred a short time ago. The change in the Calendar from the old style to the new style, a century and a half ago, is noted in the names for Christmas. All through the South, {184} and in other parts of Ireland, the 6th January ('Twelfth Day') is called 'Old Christmas' and 'Little Christmas' (for before the change of style it was _the_ Christmas): and in many parts of the north our present Christmas is called New Christmas. So in Donegal the 12th of May is called by the people 'Old May day.' (Seumas MacManus.) _Palm, Palm-Sunday._ The usual name in Ireland for the yew-tree is 'palm,' from the custom of using yew branches instead of the real palm, to celebrate Palm Sunday--the Sunday before Easter--commemorating the palm branches that were strewed before our Lord on His public entry into Jerusalem. I was quite a grown boy before I knew the yew-tree by its proper name--it was always _palm-tree_. _Oliver's Summons._--When a lazy fellow was driven to work either by hunger or by any unavoidable circumstance he was said to have got _Oliver's Summons_, a common household word in parts of the county Limerick in my younger days, originating in the following circumstance. When a good plentiful harvest came round, many of the men of our neighbourhood at this time--about the beginning of last century--the good old easy-going times--worked very little--as little as ever they could. What was the use of working when they had plenty of beautiful floury potatoes for half nothing, with salt or _dip_, or perhaps a piggin of fine thick milk to crown the luxury. Captain Oliver, the local landlord, and absolute monarch so far as ordinary life was concerned, often--in those seasons--found it hard or impossible to get men to come to do the necessary work about his grounds--though paying {185} the usual wages--till at last he hit on an original plan. He sent round, the evening before, to the houses of the men he wanted, a couple of fellows with a horse and cart, who seized some necessary article in each house--a spinning-wheel, a bed, the pot, the single table, &c.--and brought them all away body and bones, and kept them impounded. Next morning he was sure to have half a dozen or more strapping fellows, who fell to work; and when it was finished and wages paid, the captain sent home the articles. I had this story from old men who saw the carts going round with their loads. * * * * * CHAPTER XII. A VARIETY OF PHRASES. Among fireside amusements propounding riddles was very general sixty or seventy years ago. This is a custom that has existed in Ireland from very early times, as the reader may see by looking at my 'Old Celtic Romances,' pp. 69, 186, 187, where he will find some characteristic ancient Irish ones. And we know that it was common among other ancient nations. I have a number of our modern Irish riddles, many in my memory, and some supplied to me from Wexford by Mr. Patrick J. MacCall of Dublin, who knows Wexford well. Some are easy enough: but there are others that might defy the Witch of Endor to answer them. They hardly come within my scope, but I will give a few examples. {186} A steel grey with a flaxen tail and a brass boy driving. Answer: needle and thread; thimble. Little Jennie Whiteface has a red nose, The longer she lives the shorter she grows. Answer: a lighted candle. A man without eyes Went out to view the skies, He saw a tree with apples on: He took no apples, He ate no apples, And still he left no apples on. Answer: a one-eyed man: the tree had two apples: he took one. Long legs, crooked thighs, little head, no eyes. Answer: a tongs. Ink-ank under a bank ten drawing four. Answer: a girl milking a cow. Four-and-twenty white bulls tied in a stall: In comes a red bull and over licks them all. Answer: teeth and tongue. These are perhaps not very hard, though not quite so easy as the Sphinx's riddle to the Thebans, which Oedipus answered to his immortal renown. But I should like to see Oedipus try his hand at the following. Samson's riddle about the bees is hard enough, but ours beats it hollow. Though Solomon solved all the puzzles propounded to him by the Queen of Sheba, I think this would put him to the pin of his collar. I learned it in Limerick two generations ago; and I have got a Wexford version from Mr. MacCall. Observe the delightful inconsequence of riddle and answer. {187} Riddle me, riddle me right: What did I see last night? The wind blew, The cock crew, The bells of heaven Struck eleven. 'Tis time for my poor _sowl_ to go to heaven. Answer: the fox burying his mother under a holly tree. To a person who begins his dinner without saying grace: 'You begin your meal like a fox': for a fox never says grace. A fox once ran off with a cock--neck in mouth--to make a meal of him. Just as he was about to fall to, the cock said--'Won't you thank God?' So the fox opened his mouth to say grace, and the cock escaped and flew up into a tree. On which the fox swore he'd never more say grace or any other prayer. (From Clare: Healy.) In depreciation of a person's honour: 'Your honour and goat's wool would make good stockings': i.e. your honour is as far from true honour as goat's hair is from wool. 'For the life of me' I can't see why you vex yourself for so small a matter. Of a pair of well-matched bad men:--'They might lick thumbs.' Also 'A pity to spoil two houses with them.' (Moran: Carlow.) A person is said to be 'belled through the parish' when some discreditable report concerning him has gone about in the neighbourhood. The allusion is to a bellman announcing something to the public. (Moran: Carlow.) {188} A person addresses some abusive and offensive words to another, who replies 'Talk away: _your tongue is no scandal_.' The meaning is, 'You are so well known for the foulness of your tongue that no one will pay any attention to you when you are speaking evil of another.' (Moran: Carlow.) 'Come and have a drink,' said the dragoon. 'I don't take anything; _thank you all the same_,' replied Billy Heffernan. (Knocknagow.) Very general everywhere in Ireland. Regarding a person in consumption:-- March will _sarch_ [search], April will try, May will see Whether you'll live or die. (MACCALL: Wexford.) When a man inherits some failing from his parents, 'He didn't catch it in the wind'--'It wasn't off the wind he took it.' (Moran: Carlow.) When a man declines to talk with or discuss matters with another, he says 'I owe you no discourse'--used in a more or less offensive sense--and heard all through Ireland. When a person shows himself very cute and clever another says to him 'Who let you out?'--an ironical expression of fun: as much as to say that he must have been confined in an asylum as a confirmed fool. (Moran: Carlow.) When a person for any reason feels elated, he says 'I wouldn't call the king my uncle.' ('Knocknagow'; but heard everywhere in Ireland.) When a person who is kind enough while he is with {189} you grows careless about you once he goes away:--'Out of sight out of mind.' To go _with your finger in your mouth_ is to go on a fool's errand, to go without exactly knowing why you are going--without knowing particulars. When a person singing a song has to stop up because he forgets the next verse, he says (mostly in joke) 'there's a hole in the ballad'--throwing the blame on the old ballad sheet on which the words were imperfect on account of a big hole. Searching for some small article where it is hard to find it among a lot of other things is 'looking for a needle in a bundle of straw.' When a mistake or any circumstance that entails loss or trouble is irreparable--'there's no help for spilt milk.' Seventy or eighty years ago the accomplishments of an Irishman should be: To smoke his dudheen, To drink his cruiskeen, To flourish his alpeen, To wallop a spalpeen. (MACCALL: Wexford.) It is reported about that Tom Fox stole Dick Finn's sheep: but he didn't. Driven to desperation by the false report, Tom now really steals one, and says:--'As I have the name of it, I may as well have the gain of it.' A person is told of some extraordinary occurrence and exclaims--'Well such a thing as that was never before heard of _since Adam was a boy_.' This last expression is very general. The Chairman of the Banbridge Board of Guardians {190} lately asked a tramp what was his occupation: to which the fellow--cancelling his impudence by his drollery--replied:--'I'm a hailstone maker out of work owing to the want of snow.' My partner in any business has acted against my advice and has persisted, notwithstanding my repeated friendly remonstrances, till at last he brings failure and discredit. Yet when the trial comes I _stand black for him_; i.e. I act loyally towards him--I defend him: I take my share of the blame, and never give the least hint that the failure is all his doing. _Standing black_ often heard. 'He's not all there,' i.e. he is a little daft, a little _cracked_, weak-minded, foolish, has a slight touch of insanity: 'there's a slate off,' 'he has a bee in his bonnet' (Scotch): 'he wants a square' (this last Old English). A man gets into an angry fit and you take no trouble to pacify him:--'Let him cool in the skin he heated in.' (Moran: Carlow.) A person asks me for money: I give him all I have, which is less than he asked for:--'That is all [the corn] there's threshed.' (Moran: Carlow.) A man with a very thin face 'could kiss a goat between the horns.' (Moran: Carlow.) 'Never put a tooth on it': an invitation to speak out plainly, whatever the consequences. A woman giving evidence at Drumcondra Petty Sessions last year says 'I was born and reared in Finglas, and there isn't one--man or woman--that dare say _black was the white of my eye_': that is, no one could allege any wrong-doing against her. Heard everywhere in Ireland. {191} A man who is going backwards or down the hill in circumstances is said to be 'going after his back.' The sense is obvious. (Moran: Wexford.) 'Come day go day God send Sunday,' applied to an easy-going idle good-for-nothing person, who never looks to the future. When a person is asked about something of which for some reason he does not wish to speak, he says 'Ask me no questions and I'll tell you no lies.' (General.) A man who is of opinion that his friend has bought a cow too dear says 'You bought every hair in her tail.' To a person everlastingly talking:--'Give your tongue a holiday.' He always visits us _of a Saturday_. Halliwell says this is common in several English dialects. (Rev. Wm. Burke.) Johnny Dunn, a job gardener of Dublin, being asked about his young wife, who was living apart from him:--'Oh she's just doing nothing, but walking about town with a _mug of consequence_ on her.' 'I'm blue-moulded for want of a beating,' says a fellow who pretends to be anxious for a fight, but can find no one to fight with him. A whistling woman and a crowing hen Will make a man wealthy but deer knows when. (Moran: Carlow.) The people have an almost superstitious dislike for both: they are considered unlucky. 'I'll make him scratch where he doesn't itch': meaning I'll punish him sorely in some way. (Moran: Carlow.) {192} When flinging an abusive epithet at a person, 'you' is often put in twice, first as an opening tip, and last as a finishing home blow:--'What else could I expect from your like, _you unnatural vagabone, you_!' 'I'm afraid he turns up his little finger too often'; i.e.--he is given to drink: alluding to the position of the hand when a person is taking a glass. My neighbour Jack Donovan asked me one day, How many strawberries grew in the _say_; I made him an answer as well as I could, As many red herrings as grew in the wood. When a person is obliged to utter anything bordering on coarseness, he always adds, by way of a sort of apology, 'saving your presence': or 'with respect to you.' Small trifling things are expressed by a variety of words:--'Those sausages are not worth a _mallamadee_': 'I don't care a _traneen_ what he says': 'I don't care two rows of pins.' To be rid of a person or thing is expressed by 'I got shut of him,' or 'I am done of it.' (Limerick.) 'How did you travel to town?' 'Oh I went _on shanks' mare_:' i.e. I walked. 'His bread is baked'; i.e. he is doomed to die soon. (See p. 109 bottom.) Banagher is a village in King's Co. on the Shannon: Ballinasloe is a town in Galway at the other side of the river. When anything very unusual or unexpected occurs, the people say,'Well that bangs Banagher!' or 'that bangs Banagher and Ballinasloe!' 'Have you got a shilling to spare for a friend?' 'Indeed I have not.' 'Ah you must give it to me; it {193} is for your cousin Tom.' 'Oh, _that's a horse of another colour_.' (So he gives it.) '_Well done mother!_' says the blacksmith when the tooth was out. This is how it was pulled. He tied one end of a strong string round the tooth, and the other end to the horn of the anvil, and made the old woman keep back her head so as to tighten the string. '_Asy_ now mother,' says he. Then taking the flaming horseshoe from the fire with the tongs he suddenly thrust it towards her face. Anyone can finish the story. If she catches you she'll _comb your hair with the creepy stool_: i.e. she'll whack and beat you with it. (Ulster.) They say pigs can see the wind, and that it is red. In very old times the Irish believed that there were twelve different winds with twelve colours. (For these see my 'Smaller Soc. Hist. of Anc. Ireland,' p. 527.) The people also will tell you that a pig will swim till the water cuts its throat. Ah, I see you want _to walk up my sleeve_: i.e. you want to deceive me--_to take me in_. (Kerry.) An expression often heard in the South:--Such and such a thing will happen now and then _if you were to put your eyes on sticks_; i.e. however watchful you may be. 'Well, if I was to put my eyes upon sticks, Misther Mann, I never would know your sister again.' (Gerald Griffin.) He _is down in the mouth_, i.e. he is in low spirits. I suppose this is from the dropping down of the corners of the mouth. To scold a person--to reprimand him--to give him a good 'setting down'--to give him 'all sorts'--to give him 'the rough side of your tongue.' {194} Anything that cheers you up 'takes the cockles off your heart': 'Here drink this [glass of punch, wine, &c.] and 'twill take the cockles off your heart.' 'It raises the very cockles o' my heart to see you.' ('Collegians.') ''Twould rise the cockles av your heart to hear her singing the Coolin.' ('Knocknagow.') Probably the origin is this:--Cares and troubles clog the heart as cockles clog a ship. Instead of 'No blame to you' or 'Small blame to you,' the people often say, ''Tis a stepmother would blame you.' 'Cut your stick, now,' 'cut away'; both mean _go away_: the idea being that you want a walking stick and that it is time for you to cut it. 'I hear William is out of his situation.' 'Yes indeed, that is true.' 'And how is he living?' 'I don't know; I suppose he's living _on the fat of his guts_': meaning he is living on whatever he has saved. But it is sometimes used in the direct sense. Poor old Hill, while his shop prospered, had an immense paunch, but he became poor and had to live on poor food and little of it, so that the belly got flat; and the people used to say--he's living now on the fat of his guts, poor old fellow. Tom Hogan is managing his farm in a way likely to bring him to poverty, and Phil Lahy says to him--'Tom, you'll scratch a beggarman's back yet': meaning that Tom will himself be the beggarman. ('Knocknagow.') Common all over Munster. The people have a gentle laudable habit of mixing up sacred names and pious phrases with their ordinary conversation, in a purely reverential spirit. This is one of the many peculiarities of Anglo-Irish {195} speech derived from the Irish language: for pious expressions pervaded Irish to its very heart, of which the people lost a large part when they ceased to speak the language. Yet it continues very prevalent among our English-speaking people; and nearly all the expressions they use are direct translations from Irish. 'I hear there is a mad dog running about the town.' 'Oh do you tell me so--the Lord between us and harm!' or 'the Lord preserve us!' both very common exclamations in case of danger. Sudden news is brought about something serious happening to a neighbour, and the people say:--'Oh, God bless the hearers,' or 'God bless the mark.' This last is however generally used in derision. John Cox, a notorious schemer and miser, 'has put down his name for £20 for a charity--God bless the mark!' an intimation that the £20 will never be heard of again. When a person goes away for ever or dies, the friends and people say 'God be with him,' a very beautiful expression, as it is the concentration of human affection and regret, and also a prayer. It is merely the translation of the Irish _Dia leis_, which has forms for all the three persons and two genders:--'with her,' 'with you, 'with them,' &c. Under any discouraging or distressing circumstances, the expressions 'God help me' and 'God help us' are continually in the mouths of the people. They are merely translations of _go bh-fóireadh Día orruinn_, &c. Similarly, expressions of pity for another such as 'That poor woman is in great trouble, God help her,' are translations. {196} In Dublin, Roman Catholics when passing a Catholic church (or 'chapel') remove the hat or cap for a moment as a mark of respect, and usually utter a short aspiration or prayer under breath. This custom is I think spreading. When one expresses his intention to do anything even moderately important, he always adds 'please God.' Even in our English speech this is of old standing. During the Irish wars of Elizabeth, it was told to an Irish chief that one of the English captains had stated he would take such and such a castle, when the chief retorted, 'Oh yes, but did he say _please God_': as much as to say, 'yes if God pleases, but not otherwise.' 'This sickness kept me from Mass for a long time; but _with the help of God_, I'll venture next Sunday.' 'Yes, poor Kitty is in great danger, but _with the help of God_ she will pull through.' 'I am afraid that poor Nellie will die after that accident.' 'Oh, God forbid,' is the response. People have a pleasing habit of applying the word _blessèd_ [2-syll.] to many natural objects, to days, nights, &c. 'Well, you have teased me terribly the whole of this blessèd day--you young vagabone.' 'Were it not that full of sorrow from my people forth I go, By the blessèd sun 'tis royally I'd sing thy praise Mayo.' Translation of Irish Song on 'The County Mayo.' A mother says to her mischievous child, 'Oh blessèd hour, what am I to do with you at all at all!' 'Oh we're in a precious plight By your means this blessèd night.' (Repeal Song of 1843.) {197} 'God help me this blessèd night.' ('Mun Carberry and the Pooka' by Robert Dwyer Joyce.) A man is on the verge of ruin, or in some other great trouble, and the neighbours will say, 'the Lord will open a gap for him': meaning God will find some means of extricating him. Father Higgins, who sent me this, truly remarks:--'This is a fine expressive phrase showing the poetical temperament of our people, and their religious spirit too.' When anything happens very much out of the common:--'Glory be to God, isn't that wonderful.' At the mention of the name of a person that is dead, the Roman Catholic people invariably utter the little prayer 'God rest his soul' or 'the Lord have mercy on him.' The people thank God for everything, whatever it may be His will to send, good or bad. 'Isn't this a beautiful day, Mike.' ''Tis indeed, thank God.' 'This is a terrible wet day, William, and very bad for the crops.' 'It is indeed Tom, thanks be to God for all: He knows best.' As might be expected where expressions of this kind are so constantly in the people's mouths, it happens occasionally that they come in rather awkwardly. Little Kitty, running in from the dairy with the eyes starting out of her head, says to her mother who is talking to a neighbour in the kitchen: 'Oh, mother, mother, I saw a terrible thing in the cream.' 'Ah, never mind, child,' says the mother, suspecting the truth and anxious to hush it up, 'it's nothing but the grace of God.' 'Oh but mother, sure the grace of God hasn't a long tail.' The following story was current when I was a {198} child, long before Charles Kickham wrote 'Knocknagow,' in which he tells the story too: but I will give it in his words. A station is held at Maurice Kearney's, where the family and servants and the neighbours go to Confession and receive Holy Communion: among the rest Barney Broderick the stable boy. After all was over, Father MacMahon's driver provokes and insults Barney, who is kept back, and keeps himself back with difficulty from falling on him and 'knocking his two eyes into one' and afterwards 'breaking every tooth in his head.' 'Damn well the _blagard_ knows,' exclaims Barney, 'that I'm in a state of grace to-day. But'--he continued, shaking his fist at the fellow--'but, please God I won't be in a state of grace always.' When a person is smooth-tongued, meek-looking, over civil, and deceitful, he is _plauzy_ [plausible], 'as mild as ever on stirabout smiled.' 'Oh she is sly enough; she looks as if _butter wouldn't melt in her mouth_.' (Charles Macklin--an Irish writer--in _The Man of the World_.) This last expression of Macklin's is heard everywhere here. A person is in some sore fix, or there is trouble before him: 'I wouldn't like to be _in his shoes_ just now.' A person falls in for some piece of good fortune:--'Oh you're _made up_, John: you're a _med_ man; you're _on the pig's back_ now.' In a house where the wife is master--the husband henpecked:--'the grey mare is the better horse.' (General.) He got the father of a beating; i.e. a great beating. {199} 'How did poor Jack get that mark on his face?' 'Oh he fell over his shadow': meaning he fell while he was drunk. A good dancer 'handles his feet well.' (MacCall: Wexford.) A pensioner, a loafer, or anyone that has nothing to do but walk about, is _an inspector of public buildings_. Those who leave Ireland commonly become all the more attached to it: they get to love _the old sod_ all the more intensely. A poor old woman was dying in Liverpool, and Father O'Neill came and administered the last sacraments. He noticed that she still hesitated as if she wished to say something more; and after some encouragement she at length said:--'Well, father, I only wanted to ask you, _will my soul pass through Ireland on its journey?_' ('Knocknagow.') According to a religious legend in 'The Second Vision of Adamnan' the soul, on parting from the body, visits four places before setting out for its final destination:--the place of birth, the place of death, the place of baptism, and the place of burial. So this poor old woman got her wish. 'Well, I don't like to say anything bad about you; and as for the other side, _the less I praise you the less I lie_.' (North.) There is a touch of heredity in this:--'You're nothing but a schemer like your seven generations before you.' (Kildare.) 'Oh you need not be afraid: I'll call only very seldom henceforward.' Reply:--'The seldomer the welcomer.' {200} 'Never dread the winter till the snow is on the blanket': i.e. as long as you have a roof over your head. An allusion to the misery of those poor people--numerous enough in the evil days of past times--who were evicted from house and home. (P. Reilly: Kildare.) Of a lucky man:--'That man's ducks are laying.' When a baby is born, the previous baby's 'nose is out of joint.' Said also of a young man who is supplanted by another in courtship. A man who supplants another in any pursuit or design is said to 'come inside him.' A person is speaking bitterly or uncharitably of one who is dead; and another says reprovingly--'let the dead rest.' When it is proposed to give a person something he doesn't need or something much too good for him, you oppose or refuse it by saying:--'_Cock him up with it_--how much he wants it!--I'll do no such thing.' Two gentlemen staying for a night in a small hotel in a remote country town ordered toast for breakfast, which it seems was very unusual there. They sat down to breakfast, but there was no sign of the toast. 'What about the toast?' asks one. Whereupon the impudent waiter replies--'Ah, then cock yez up with toast: how bad yez are for it.' A very general form of expression to point to a person's identity in a very vague way is seen in the following example:--'From whom did you buy that horse, James?' Reply:--'From _a man of the Burkes_ living over there in Ballinvreena': i.e. a man named Burke. Mr. Seumas MacManus has adopted {201} this idiom in the name of one of his books:--'A Lad of the O'Friels.' 'I never saw the froth of your pot or the bead of your naggin': i.e. you have never entertained me. _Bead_, the string of little bubbles that rise when you shake whiskey in a bottle. (Kildare.) Of a man likely to die: 'he'll soon be a load for four': i.e. the four coffin-bearers. (Reilly: Kildare.) When a person attempts to correct you when you are not in error:--'Don't take me up till I fall.' When you make a good attempt:--'If I didn't knock it down, I staggered it.' 'Love daddy, love mammy, love yourself best.' Said of a very selfish person. An odd expression:--'You are making such noise that _I can't hear my ears_.' (Derry; and also Limerick.) Plato to a young man who asked his advice about getting married:--'If you don't get married you'll be sorry: and if you do you'll be sorry.' Our Irish cynic is more bitter:-- If a man doesn't marry he'll rue it sore: And if he gets married he'll rue it more. The children were great pets with their grandmother: 'She wouldn't let anyone _look crooked_ at them': i.e. she wouldn't permit the least unkindness. 'Can he read a Latin book?' 'Read one! why, he can write Latin books, _let alone_ reading them.' _Let alone_ in this sense very common all over Ireland. A person offers to do you some kindness, and you accept it jokingly with 'Sweet is your hand in a pitcher of honey.' (Crofton Croker.) {202} When a man falls into error, not very serious or criminal--gets drunk accidentally for instance--the people will say, by way of extenuation:--''Tis a good man's case.' You may be sure Tim will be at the fair to-morrow, _dead or alive or a-horseback_. 'You never spoke but you said something': said to a person who makes a silly remark or gives foolish advice. (Kinahan). 'He will never comb a grey hair': said of a young person who looks unhealthy and is likely to die early. Two persons had an angry dispute; and _one word borrowed another_ till at last they came to blows. Heard everywhere in Ireland. The robin and the wren are God's cock and hen. 'I'll take the book _and no thanks to you_,' i.e. I'll take it in spite of you, whether you like or no, against your will--'I'll take it in spite of your teeth'--'in spite of your nose': all very common. A person arrives barely in time for his purpose or to fulfil his engagement:--'You have just saved your distance.' To _put a person off the walk_ means to kill him, to remove him in some way. (Meath.) A man has had a long fit of illness, and the wife, telling about it, says:--'For six weeks coal nor candle never went out.' (Antrim.) 'To cure a person's hiccup' means to make him submit, to bring him to his senses, to make him acknowledge his error, by some decided course of action. A shopkeeper goes to a customer for payment of a debt, and gets no satisfaction, but, on the {203} contrary, impudence. 'Oh well, I'll send you an attorney's letter to-morrow, and may be that will cure your hiccup.' The origin of this expression is the general belief through Ireland that a troublesome fit of hiccup may be cured by suddenly making some very startling and alarming announcement to the person--an announcement in which he is deeply concerned: such as that the stacks in the haggard are on fire--that three of his cows have just been drowned, &c. Fiachra MacBrady, a schoolmaster and poet, of Stradone in Cavan (1712), wrote a humorous description of his travels through Ireland of which the translation has this verse:-- 'I drank till quite mellow, then like a brave fellow, Began for to bellow and shouted for more; But my host held his stick up, which soon _cured my hiccup_, As no cash I could pick up to pay off the score.' The host was the publican, and the stick that he held up was the tally stick on which were marked in nicks all the drinks poor MacBrady had taken--a usual way of keeping accounts in old times. The sight of the _score_ brought him to his senses at once--_cured his hiccup_. A verse of which the following is a type is very often found in our Anglo-Irish songs:-- 'The flowers in those valleys no more shall spring, The blackbirds and thrushes no more shall sing, The sea shall dry up and no water shall be, At the hour I'll prove false to sweet graw-mochree.' So in Scotland:--'I will luve thee still, my dear, till a' the seas gang dry.' (Burns.) A warning sometimes given to a messenger:--'Now don't forget it like Billy and the pepper': This {204} is the story of Billy and the pepper. A gander got killed accidentally; and as the family hardly ever tasted meat, there was to be a great treat that day. To top the grandeur they sent little Billy to town for a pennyworth of pepper. But Billy forgot the name, and only remembered that it was something hot; so he asked the shopman for a penn'orth of _hot-thing_. The man couldn't make head or tail of the _hot-thing_, so he questioned Billy. Is it mustard? No. Is it ginger? No. Is it pepper? Oh that's just it--_gandher's pepper_. A man has done me some intentional injury, and I say to him, using a very common phrase:--'Oh, well, wait; _I'll pay you off_ for that': meaning 'I'll punish you for it--I'll have satisfaction.' _Dry_ for _thirsty_ is an old English usage; for in Middleton's Plays it is found used in this sense. (Lowell.) It is almost universal in Ireland, where of course it survives from old English. There is an old Irish air and song called 'I think it no treason to drink when I'm _dry_': and in another old Folk Song we find this couplet: 'There was an old soldier riding by, He called for a quart because he was _dry_.' Instances of the odd perversion of sense by misplacing some little clause are common in all countries: and I will give here just one that came under my own observation. A young friend, a boy, had remained away an unusually long time without visiting us; and on being asked the reason he replied:--'I could not come, sir; I got a bite in the leg of dog'--an example which I think is unique. {205} On the first appearance of the new moon, a number of children linked hands and danced, keeping time to the following verse-- I see the moon, the moon sees me, God bless the moon and God bless me: There's grace in the cottage and grace in the hall; And the grace of God is over us all. For the air to which this was sung see my 'Old Irish Folk Music and Songs,' p. 60. 'Do you really mean to drive that horse of William's to pound?' 'Certainly I will.' 'Oh very well; let ye take what you'll get.' Meaning you are likely to pay dear for it--you may take the consequences. (Ulster.) 'If he tries to remove that stone without any help _it will take him all his time_': it will require his utmost exertions. (Ulster: very common.) When rain is badly wanted and often threatens but still doesn't come they say:--'It has great _hould_ [hold] of the rain.' On the other hand when there is long continued wet weather:--'It is very fond of the rain.' When flakes of snow begin to fall:--'They are plucking the geese in Connaught.' 'Formerly in all the congested districts of Ireland [which are more common in Connaught than elsewhere] goose and duck feathers formed one of the largest industries.' (Kinahan.) Now James you should put down your name for more than 5s.: there's Tom Gallagher, not half so well off as you, _put the shame on you_ by subscribing £1. (Kinahan: pretty general.) {206} In stories 'a day' is often added on to a period of time, especially to a year. A person is banished out of Ireland for a year and a day. The battle of Ventry Harbour lasted for a year and a day, when at last the foreigners were defeated. There's a colleen fair as May, For a year and for a day I have sought by ev'ry way Her heart to gain. (PETRIE.) 'Billy MacDaniel,' said the fairy, 'you shall be my servant for seven years and a day.' (Crofton Croker.) Borrowed from the Irish. The word _all_ is often used by our rustic poets exactly as it is found in English folk-songs. Gay has happily imitated this popular usage in 'Black-eyed Susan':-- 'All in the Downs the fleet was moored'-- and Scott in 'The Lay of the Last Minstrel':-- 'All as they left the listed plain.' Any number of examples might be given from our peasant songs, but these two will be sufficient:-- 'As I roved out one evening two miles below Pomeroy I met a farmer's daughter _all on_ the mountains high.' 'How a young lady's heart was won _All by_ the loving of a farmer's son.' (The two lovely airs of these will be found in two of my books: for the first, see 'The Mountains high' in 'Ancient Irish Music'; and for the second {207} see 'Handsome Sally' in 'Old Irish Folk Music and Songs.') 'He saw her on that day, and _never laid eyes on her_ alive afterwards.' (Speech of Irish counsel in murder case: 1909.) A common expression. A wish for success either in life or in some particular undertaking--purely figurative of course:--'That the road may rise under you.' As the road continually rises under foot there is always an easy down hill in front. (Kerry.) Regarding some proposal or offer:--'I never said against it'; i.e. I never disapproved of it--declined it--refused it. Be said by me: i.e. take my advice. (General.) When a cart-wheel screeches because the axle-tree has not been greased, it is _cursing for grease_. (Munster.) When a person wishes to keep out from another--to avoid argument or conflict, he says:--'The child's bargain--let me alone and I'll let you alone.' When a person goes to law expenses trying to recover a debt which it is very unlikely he will recover, that is 'throwing good money after bad.' 'I'm the second tallest man in Mitchelstown'--or 'I'm the next tallest.' Both mean 'there is just one other man in Mitchelstown taller than me, and I come next to him.' 'Your honour.' Old English: very common as a term of courtesy in the time of Elizabeth, and to be met with everywhere in the State papers and correspondence of that period. Used now all through Ireland by the peasantry when addressing persons very much above them. {208} _The cabman's answer._ I am indebted to this cabman for giving me an opportunity of saying something here about myself. It is quite a common thing for people to write to me for information that they could easily find in my books: and this is especially the case in connexion with Irish place-names. I have always made it a point to reply to these communications. But of late they have become embarrassingly numerous, while my time is getting more circumscribed with every year of my long life. Now, this is to give notice to _all the world and Garrett Reilly_ that henceforward I will give these good people the reply that the Dublin cabman gave the lady. 'Please, sir,' said she, 'will you kindly tell me the shortest way to St. Patrick's Cathedral.' He opened the door of his cab with his left hand, and pointing in with the forefinger of his right, answered--'In there ma'am.' {209} * * * * * CHAPTER XIII. VOCABULARY AND INDEX. [In this Vocabulary, as well indeed as through the whole book, _gh_ and _ch_ are to be sounded guttural, as in _lough_ and _loch_, unless otherwise stated or implied. Those who cannot sound the guttural may take the sound of _k_ instead, and they will not be far wrong.] Able; strong, muscular, and vigorous:--'Nagle was a strong able man.' Able dealer; a schemer. (Limerick.) Acushla; see Cushlamochree. Adam's ale; plain drinking-water. Affirming, assenting, and saluting, 9. Agra or Agraw: a term of endearment; my love: vocative of Irish _grádh_, love. Ahaygar; a pet term; my friend, my love: vocative of Irish _téagur_, love, a dear person. Aims-ace; a small amount, quantity, or distance. Applied in the following way very generally in Munster:--'He was within an aim's-ace of being drowned' (very near). A survival in Ireland of the old Shakesperian word _ambs-ace_, meaning two aces or two single points in throwing dice, the smallest possible throw. Air: a visitor comes in:--'Won't you sit down Joe and take an _air_ of the fire.' (Very usual.) Airt used in Ulster and Scotland for a single point of the compass:-- 'Of a' the airts the wind can blaw I dearly like the west.' (BURNS.) It is the Irish _áird_, a point of the compass. {210} Airy; ghostly, fearsome: an _airy_ place, a haunted place. Same as Scotch _eerie_. From Gaelic _áedharaigh_, same sound and meaning. A survival of the old Irish pagan belief that air-demons were the most malignant of all supernatural beings: see Joyce's 'Old Celtic Romances,' p. 15. Alanna; my child: vocative case of Irish _leanbh_ [lannav], a child. Allow; admit. 'I allow that you lent me a pound': 'if you allow that you cannot deny so and so.' This is an old English usage. (Ducange.) To advise or recommend: 'I would not allow you to go by that road' ('I would not recommend'). 'I'd allow you to sow that field with oats' (advise). All to; means except:--'I've sold my sheep all to six,' i.e. except six. This is merely a translation from the Irish as in _Do marbhadh na daoine uile go haon triúr_: 'The people were slain all to a single three.' (Keating.) Along of; on account of. Why did you keep me waiting [at night] so long at the door, Pat?' 'Why then 'twas all along of Judy there being so much afraid of the fairies.' (Crofton Croker.) Alpeen, a stick or hand-wattle with a knob at the lower end: diminutive of Irish _alp_, a knob. Sometimes called a _clehalpeen_: where _cleh_ is the Irish _cleath_ a stick. _Clehalpeen_, a knobbed cudgel. Amadaun, a fool (man or boy), a half-fool, a foolish person. Irish _amadán_, a fool: a form of _onmitán_; from _ón_, a fool: see _Oanshagh_. American wake; a meeting of friends on the evening before the departure of some young people for {211} America, as a farewell celebration. (See my 'Old Irish Folk-Music and Songs,' p. 191.) Amplush, a fix, a difficulty: he was in a great amplush. (North and South.) (Edw. Walsh in Dub. Pen. Journal.) Amshagh; a sudden hurt, an accident. (Derry.) Ang-ishore; a poor miserable creature--man or woman. It is merely the Irish word _aindeiseóir_. (Chiefly South.) Any is used for _no_ (in _no more_) in parts of West and North-west. 'James, you left the gate open this morning and the calves got out.' 'Oh I'm sorry sir; I will do it any more.' This is merely a mistranslation of _níos mo_, from some confused idea of the sense of two (Irish) negatives (_níos_ being one, with another preceding) leading to the omission of an English negative from the correct construction--'I will _not_ do it anymore:' _Níos mo_ meaning in English 'no more' or 'any more' according to the omission or insertion of an English negative. Aree often used after _ochone_ (alas) in Donegal and elsewhere. _Aree_ gives the exact pronunciation of _a Righ_, and _neimhe_ (heaven) is understood. The full Irish exclamation is _ochón a Righ neimhe_, 'alas, O King of heaven.' Arnaun or arnaul, to sit up working at night later than usual. Irish _airneán_ or _airneál_, same meaning. Aroon, a term of endearment, my love, my dear: _Eileen Aroon_, the name of a celebrated Irish air: vocative of Irish _rún_ [roon], a secret, a secret treasure. In Limerick commonly shortened to _aroo_. 'Where are you going now _aroo_?' {212} Art-loochra or arc-loochra, a harmless lizard five or six inches long: Irish _art_ or _arc_ is a lizard: _luachra_, rushes; the 'lizard of the rushes.' Ask, a water-newt, a small water-lizard: from _esc_ or _easc_ [ask], an old Irish word for water. From the same root comes the next word, the diminutive form-- Askeen; land made by cutting away bog, which generally remains more or less watery. (Reilly: Kildare.) Asthore, a term of endearment, 'my treasure.' The vocative case of Irish _stór_ [store], treasure. Athurt; to confront:--'Oh well I will athurt him with that lie he told about me.' (Cork.) Possibly a mispronunciation of _athwart_. Avourneen, my love: the vocative case of Irish _muirnín_, a sweetheart, a loved person. Baan: a field covered with short grass:--'A baan field': 'a _baan_ of cows': i.e. a grass farm with its proper number of cows. Irish _bán_, whitish. Back; a faction: 'I have a good back in the country, so I defy my enemies.' Back of God-speed; a place very remote, out of the way: so far off that the virtue of your wish of _God-speed_ to a person will not go with him so far. Bacon: to 'save one's bacon'; to succeed in escaping some serious personal injury--death, a beating, &c. 'They fled from the fight to save their bacon': 'Here a lodging I'd taken, but loth to awaken, for fear of my bacon, either man, wife, or babe.' (Old Anglo-Irish poem.) {213} Bad member; a doer of evil; a bad character; a treacherous fellow: 'I'm ruined,' says he, 'for some bad member has wrote to the bishop about me.' ('Wild Sports of the West.') Baffity, unbleached or blay calico. (Munster.) Bails or bales, frames made of perpendicular wooden bars in which cows are fastened for the night in the stable. (Munster.) Baithershin; may be so, perhaps. Irish _b'féidir-sin_, same sound and meaning. Ballowr (Bal-yore in Ulster); to bellow, roar, bawl, talk loudly and coarsely. Ballyhooly, a village near Fermoy in Cork, formerly notorious for its faction fights, so that it has passed into a proverb. A man is late coming home and expects _Ballyhooly_ from his wife, i.e. 'the length and breadth of her tongue.' Father Carroll has neglected to visit his relatives, the Kearneys, for a long time, so that he knows he's _in the black books_ with Mrs. Kearney, and expects Ballyhooly from her the first time he meets her. ('Knocknagow.') Ballyorgan in Co. Limerick, 146. Banagher and Ballinasloe, 192. Bannalanna: a woman who sells ale over the counter. Irish _bean-na-leanna_, 'woman of the ale,' 'ale-woman' (_leann_, ale). Ballyrag; to give loud abuse in torrents. (General.) Bandle; a 2-foot measure for home-made flannel. (Munster.) Bang-up; a frieze overcoat with high collar and long cape. {214} Banshee´; a female fairy: Irish _bean-sidhe_ [banshee], a 'woman from the _shee_ or fairy-dwelling.' This was the original meaning; but in modern times, and among English speakers, the word _banshee_ has become narrowed in its application, and signifies a female spirit that attends certain families, and is heard _keening_ or crying aloud at night round the house when some member of the family is about to die. Barcelona; a silk kerchief for the neck:-- 'His clothes spick and span new without e'er a speck; A neat Barcelona tied round his white neck.' (EDWARD LYSAGHT, in 'The Sprig of Shillelah.') So called because imported from Barcelona, preserving a memory of the old days of smuggling. Barsa, barsaun; a scold. (Kild. and Ulst.) Barth; a back-load of rushes, straw, heath, &c. Irish _beart_. Baury, baura, baur-y[)a], bairy; the goal in football, hurling, &c. Irish _báire_ [2-syll.], a game, a goal. Bawn; an enclosure near a farmhouse for cattle, sheep, &c.; in some districts, simply a farmyard. Irish _badhun_ [bawn], a cow-keep, from _ba_, cows, and _dún_, a keep or fortress. Now generally applied to the green field near the homestead where the cows are brought to be milked. Bawneen; a loose whitish jacket of home-made undyed flannel worn by men at out-door work. Very general: _banyan_ in Derry. From Irish _bán_ [bawn], whitish, with the diminutive termination. Bawnoge; a dancing-green. (MacCall: Leinster.) {215} From _bán_ [baan], a field covered with short grass; and the dim. _óg_ (p. 90). Bawshill, a _fetch_ or double. (See Fetch.) (MacCall: S. Wexford.) I think this is a derivative of _Bow_, which see. Beestings; new milk from a cow that has just calved. Be-knownst; known: unbe-knownst; unknown. (Antrim.) Better than; more than:--'It is better than a year since I saw him last'; 'better than a mile,' &c. (Leinster and Munster.) Bian´ [by-ann´]; one of Bianconi's long cars. (See Jingle.) Binnen; the rope tying a cow to a stake in a field. (Knowles: Ulster.) Birragh; a muzzle-band with spikes on a calf's or a foal's muzzle to prevent it sucking its mother. From Irish _bir_, a sharp spit: _birragh_, full of sharp points or spits. (Munster: see Gubbaun.) Blackfast: among Roman Catholics, there is a 'black fast' on Ash Wednesday, Spy Wednesday, and Good Friday, i.e. no flesh meat or _whitemeat_ is allowed--no flesh, butter, eggs, cheese, or milk. Blackfeet. The members of one of the secret societies of a century ago were called 'Ribbonmen.' Some of them acknowledged the priests: those were 'whitefeet': others did not--'blackfeet.' Black man, black fellow; a surly vindictive implacable irreconcilable fellow. Black man; the man who accompanies a suitor to the house of the intended father-in-law, to help to make the match. {216} Black of one's nail. 'You just escaped by the black of your nail': 'there's no cloth left--not the size of the black of my nail.' (North and South.) Black swop. When two fellows have two wretched articles--such as two old penknives--each thinking his own to be the worst in the universe, they sometimes agree for the pure humour of the thing to make a _black swop_, i.e. to swop without first looking at the articles. When they are looked at after the swop, there is always great fun. (See Hool.) Blarney; smooth, plausible, cajoling talk. From Blarney Castle near Cork, in which there is a certain stone hard to reach, with this virtue, that if a person kisses it, he will be endowed with the gift of _blarney_. Blast; when a child suddenly fades in health and pines away, he has got a blast,--i.e. a puff of evil wind sent by some baleful sprite has struck him. _Blast_ when applied to fruit or crops means a blight in the ordinary sense--nothing supernatural. Blather, bladdher; a person who utters vulgarly foolish boastful talk: used also as a verb--to blather. Hence _blatherumskite_, applied to a person or to his talk in much the same sense; 'I never heard such a blatherumskite.' Ulster and Scotch form _blether_, _blethering_: Burns speaks of stringing 'blethers up in rhyme.' ('The Vision.') Blaze, blazes, blazing: favourite words everywhere in Ireland. Why are you in such a blazing hurry? Jack ran away like blazes: now work at that job like blazes: he is blazing drunk. Used also by the English _peasantry_:--'That's a blazing strange {217} answer,' says Jerry Cruncher in 'A Tale of Two Cities.' There's a touch of slang in some of these: yet the word has been in a way made classical by Lord Morley's expression that Lord Salisbury never made a speech without uttering 'some blazing indiscretion.' Blind Billy. In coming to an agreement take care you don't make 'Blind Billy's Bargain,' by either overreaching yourself or allowing the other party to overreach you. Blind Billy was the hangman in Limerick, and on one particular occasion he flatly refused to do his work unless he got £50 down on the nail: so the high sheriff had to agree and the hangman put the money in his pocket. When all was over the sheriff refused point-blank to send the usual escort without a fee of £50 down. So Blind Billy had to hand over the £50--for if he went without an escort he would be torn in pieces--and had nothing in the end for his job. Blind lane; a lane stopped up at one end. Blind window; an old window stopped up, but still plain to be seen. Blink; to exercise an evil influence by a glance of the 'evil eye'; to 'overlook'; hence 'blinked,' blighted by the eye. When the butter does not come in churning, the milk has been _blinked_ by some one. Blirt; to weep: as a noun, a rainy wind. (Ulster.) Blob (_blab_ often in Ulster), a raised blister: a drop of honey, or of anything liquid. Blue look-out; a bad look-out, bad prospect. Boal or bole; a shelved recess in a room. (North.) Boarhaun; dried cowdung used for fuel like turf. Irish _boithreán_ [boarhaun], from bo, a cow. {218} Boccach [accented on 2nd syll. in Munster, but elsewhere on 1st]; a lame person. From the fact that so many beggars are lame or pretend to be lame, _boccach_ has come to mean a beggar. Irish _bacach_, a lame person: from _bac_, to halt. _Bockady_, another form of _boccach_ in Munster. _Bockeen_ (the diminutive added on to _bac_), another form heard in Mayo. Boddagh [accented on 2nd syll. in Munster; in Ulster on 1st], a rich churlish clownish fellow. Tom Cuddihy wouldn't bear insult from any purse-proud old _boddagh_. ('Knocknagow.') Body-coat; a coat like the present dress-coat, cut away in front so as to leave a narrow pointed tail-skirt behind: usually made of frieze and worn with the knee-breeches. Body-glass; a large mirror in which the whole body can be seen. (Limerick.) Body-lilty; heels over head. (Derry.) Bog; what is called in England a 'peat moss.' Merely the Irish _bog_, soft. Bog (verb), to be bogged; to sink in a bog or any soft soil or swampy place. Bog-butter; butter found deep in bogs, where it had been buried in old times for a purpose, and forgotten: a good deal changed now by the action of the bog. (See Joyce's 'Smaller Soc. Hist. of Anc. Ireland,' p. 260.) Bog-Latin; bad incorrect Latin; Latin that had been learned in the hedge schools among the bogs. This derisive and reproachful epithet was given in bad old times by pupils and others of the favoured, legal, and endowed schools, sometimes with reason, {219} but oftener very unjustly. For those _bog_ or hedge schools sent out numbers of scholarly men, who afterwards entered the church or lay professions. (See p. 151.) Boghaleen; the same as Crusheen, which see. Bohaun; a cabin or hut. Irish _both_ [boh], a hut, with the diminutive _án_. Bold; applied to girls and boys in the sense of 'forward,' 'impudent.' Boliaun, also called _booghalaun bwee_ and _ge[=o]sadaun_; the common yellow ragwort: all these are Irish words. Bolting-hole; the second or backward entrance made by rats, mice, rabbits, &c., from their burrows, so that if attacked at the ordinary entrance, they can escape by this, which is always left unused except in case of attack. (Kinahan.) Bones. If a person magnifies the importance of any matter and talks as if it were some great affair, the other will reply:--'Oh, you're _making great bones_ about it.' Bonnive, a sucking-pig. Irish _banbh_, same sound and meaning. Often used with the diminutive--bonniveen, bonneen. 'Oh look at the _baby pigs_,' says an Irish lady one day in the hearing of others and myself, ashamed to use the Irish word. After that she always bore the nickname 'Baby pig':--'Oh, there's the Baby pig.' Bonnyclabber; thick milk. Irish _bainne_ [bonny] milk; and _clabar_, anything thick or half liquid. 'In use all over America.' (Russell.) Boochalawn bwee; ragweed: same as boliaun, which see. {220} Boolanthroor; three men threshing together, instead of the usual two: striking always in time. Irish _buail-an-triúr_, 'the striking of three.' Booley as a noun; a temporary settlement in the grassy uplands where the people of the adjacent lowland village lived during the summer with their cattle, and milked them and made butter, returning in autumn--cattle and all--to their lowland farms to take up the crops. Used as a verb also: _to booley_. See my 'Smaller Soc. Hist. of Anc. Ireland,' p. 431; or 'Irish Names of Places,' I. 239. Boolthaun, boulhaun, booltheen, boolshin: the striking part of a flail: from Irish _buail_ [bool], to strike, with the diminutive. Boon in Ulster, same as _Mihul_ elsewhere; which see. Boreen or bohereen, a narrow road. Irish _bóthar_ [boher], a road, with the diminutive. Borick; a small wooden ball used by boys in hurling or goaling, when the proper leather-covered ball is not to hand. Called in Ulster a _nag_ and also a _golley_. (Knowles.) Borreen-brack, 'speckled cake,' speckled with currants and raisins, from Irish _bairghin_ [borreen], a cake, and _breac_ [brack], speckled: specially baked for Hallow-eve. Sometimes corruptly called _barm-brack_ or _barn-brack_. Bosthoon: a flexible rod or whip made of a number of green rushes laid together and bound up with single rushes wound round and round. Made by boys in play--as I often made them. Hence '_bosthoon_' is applied contemptuously to a soft {221} worthless spiritless fellow, in much the same sense as _poltroon_. Bother; merely the Irish word _bodhar_, deaf, used both as a noun and a verb in English (in the sense of deafening, annoying, troubling, perplexing, teasing): a person deaf or partially deaf is said to be _bothered_:--'Who should come in but _bothered_ Nancy Fay. Now be it known that _bothered_ signifies deaf; and Nancy was a little old cranky _bothered_ woman.' (Ir. Pen. Mag.) You 'turn the _bothered_ ear' to a person when you do not wish to hear what he says or grant his request. In these applications _bother_ is universal in Ireland among all classes--educated as well as uneducated: accordingly, as Murray notes, it was first brought into use by Irishmen, such as Sheridan, Swift, and Sterne; just as Irishmen of to-day are bringing into currency _galore_, _smithereens_, and many other Irish words. In its primary sense of deaf or to deafen, _bother_ is used in the oldest Irish documents: thus in the Book of Leinster we have:--_Ro bodrais sind oc imradud do maic_, 'You have made us deaf (you have _bothered_ us) talking about your son' (Kuno Meyer): and a similar expression is in use at the present day in the very common phrase 'don't _bother_ me' (don't deafen me, don't annoy me), which is an exact translation of the equally common Irish phrase _ná bí am' bhodradh_. Those who derive _bother_ from the English _pother_ make a guess, and not a good one. See Bowraun. Bottheen, a short thick stick or cudgel: the Irish _bata_ with the diminutive:--_baitin_. Bottom; a clue or ball of thread. One of the tricks {222} of girls on Hallow-eve to find out the destined husband is to go out to the limekiln at night with a ball of yarn; throw in the ball still holding the thread; re-wind the thread, till it is suddenly stopped; call out 'who _howlds_ my bottom of yarn?' when she expects to hear the name of the young man she is to marry. Bouchal or boochal, a boy: the Irish _buachaill_, same meaning. Bouilly-bawn, white home-made bread of wheaten flour; often called _bully-bread_. (MacCall: Wexford.) From Irish _bul_ or _búilidhe_, a loaf, and _bán_, white. Boundhalaun, a plant with thick hollow stem with joints, of which boys make rude syringes. From Irish _banndal_ or _bannlamh_, a _bandle_ (which see), with the dim. termination _án_, I never saw true boundhalauns outside Munster. Bourke, the Rev. Father, 71, 161. Bownloch, a sore on the sole of the foot always at the edge: from _bonn_ the foot-sole [pron. bown in the South], and _loch_ a mere termination. Also called a _Bine-lock_. Bowraun, a sieve-shaped vessel for holding or measuring out corn, with the flat bottom made of dried sheepskin stretched tight; sometimes used as a rude tambourine, from which it gets the name _bowraun_; Irish _bodhur_ [pron. bower here], deaf, from the _bothered_ or indistinct sound. (South.) Bow [to rhyme with _cow_]; a _banshee_, a _fetch_ (both which see. MacCall: South Leinster). This word has come down to us from very old times, for it preserves the memory of _Bugh_ [Boo], a _banshee_ or fairy queen once very celebrated, the daughter of {223} Bove Derg king of the Dedannans or faery-race, of whom information will be obtained in the classical Irish story, 'The Fate of the Children of Lir,' the first in my 'Old Celtic Romances.' She has given her name to many hills all through Ireland. (See my 'Irish Names of Places,' I. 182, 183. See Bawshill.) Box and dice; used to denote the whole lot: I'll send you all the books and manuscripts, box and dice. Boxty; same as the Limerick _muddly_, which see. Boy. Every Irishman is a 'boy' till he is married, and indeed often long after. (Crofton Croker: 'Ir. Fairy Legends.') Brablins: a crowd of children: a rabble. (Monaghan.) Bracket; speckled: a 'bracket cow.' Ir. _breac_, speckled. Braddach; given to mischief; roguish. Ir. _bradach_, a thief: in the same sense as when a mother says to her child, 'You young thief, stop that mischief.' Often applied to cows inclined to break down and cross fences. (Meath and Monaghan.) Brander; a gridiron. (North.) From Eng. _brand_. Brash; a turn of sickness (North.) Water-brash (Munster), severe acidity of the stomach with a flow of watery saliva from the mouth. Brash (North), a short turn at churning, or at anything; a stroke of the churndash: 'Give the churn a few brashes.' In Donegal you will hear 'that's a good brash of hail.' Brave; often used as an intensive:--'This is a brave fine day'; 'that's a brave big dog': (Ulster.) Also fine or admirable 'a brave stack of hay': {224} tall, strong, hearty (not necessarily brave in fighting):--'I have as brave a set of sons as you'd find in a day's walk.' 'How is your sick boy doing?' 'Oh bravely, thank you.' Braw; fine, handsome: Ir. _breagh_, same sound and meanings. (Ulster.) Break. You _break_ a grass field when you plough or dig it up for tillage. 'I'm going to break the kiln field.' ('Knocknagow.') Used all over Ireland: almost in the same sense as in Gray's Elegy:--'Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe _has bróke_.' Break; to dismiss from employment: 'Poor William O'Donnell was _broke_ last week.' This usage is derived from the Irish language; and a very old usage it is; for we read in the Brehon Laws:--'_Cid nod m-bris in fer-so a bo-airechus?_' 'What is it that breaks (dismisses, degrades) this man from his bo-aireship (i.e. from his position as _bo-aire_ or chief)?' My car-driver asked me one time:--'Can an inspector of National Schools be broke, sir?' By which he meant could he be dismissed at any time without any cause. Breedoge [_d_ sounded like _th_ in _bathe_]; a figure dressed up to represent St. Brigit, which was carried about from house to house by a procession of boys and girls in the afternoon of the 31st Jan. (the eve of the saint's festival), to collect small money contributions. With this money they got up a little rustic evening party with a dance next day, 1st Feb. 'Breedoge' means 'little _Brighid_ or _Brighit_,' _Breed_ (or rather _Breedh_) representing the sound of Brighid, with _óg_ the old diminutive feminine termination. {225} Brecham, the straw collar put on a horse's or an ass's neck: sometimes means the old-fashioned straw saddle or pillion. (Ulster.) Brehon Law; the old native law of Ireland. A judge or a lawyer was called a 'brehon.' Brew; a margin, a brink: 'that lake is too shallow to fish from the brews': from the Irish _bru_, same sound and meaning. See Broo. Brief; prevalent: 'fever is very brief.' Used all over the southern half of Ireland. Perhaps a mistake for _rife_. Brillauns or brill-yauns, applied to the poor articles of furniture in a peasant's cottage. Dick O'Brien and Mary Clancy are getting married as soon as they can gather up the few _brill-yauns_ of furniture. (South-east of Ireland.) Brine-oge; 'a young fellow full of fun and frolic.' (Carleton: Ulster.) Bring: our peculiar use of this (for 'take') appears in such phrases as:--'he brought the cows to the field': 'he brought me to the theatre.' (Hayden and Hartog.) See Carry. Brock, brockish; a badger. It is just the Irish _broc_. Brock, brocket, brockey; applied to a person heavily pock-marked. I suppose from _broc_, a badger. (Ulster.) Brogue, a shoe: Irish _bróg_. Used also to designate the Irish accent in speaking English: for the old Irish thong-stitched brogue was considered so characteristically Irish that the word was applied to our accent; as a clown is called a _cauboge_ (which see: Munster). {226} Brohoge or bruhoge; a small batch of potatoes roasted. See Brunoge. Broken; bankrupt: quite a common expression is:--Poor Phil Burke is 'broken horse and foot'; i.e. utterly bankrupt and ruined. Broo, the edge of a potato ridge along which cabbages are planted. Irish _bru_, a margin, a brink. Brosna, brusna, bresna; a bundle of sticks for firing: a faggot. This is the Irish _brosna_, universally used in Ireland at the present day, both in Irish and English; and used in the oldest Irish documents. In the Tripartite Life of St. Patrick, written in Irish ten centuries ago, we are told that when Patrick was a boy, his foster-mother sent him one day for a _brossna_ of withered branches to make a fire. Broth of a boy; a _good_ manly brave boy: the essence of manhood, as broth is the essence of meat. Brough; a ring or halo round the moon. It is the Irish _bruach_, a border. Broughan; porridge or oatmeal stirabout. Irish _brochán_. (Ulster.) Bruggadauns [_d_ sounded like _th_ in _they_]; the stalks of ferns found in meadows after mowing. (Kerry.) Brulliagh; a row, a noisy scuffle. (Derry.) Brunoge; a little batch of potatoes roasted in a fire made in the potato field at digging time: always dry, floury and palatable. (Roscommon.) Irish _bruithneóg_. See Brohoge. Bruss or briss; small broken bits mixed up with dust: very often applied to turf-dust. Irish _brus_, _bris_, same sounds and meaning. (South.) {227} Brutteen, brutin, bruteens; the Ulster words for caulcannon; which see. Irish _brúightín_. Buckaun; the upright bar of a hinge on which the other part with the door hangs. Irish _bocán_. Buckley, Father Darby, 68, 146. Bucknabarra; any non-edible fungus. (Fermanagh.) See Pookapyle. Buck teeth; superfluous teeth which stand out from the ordinary row. (Knowles: Ulster.) Buddaree [_dd_ sounded like _th_ in _they_]; a rich purse-proud vulgar farmer. (Munster.) Irish. Buff; the skin; to strip to one's buff is to strip naked. Two fellows going to fight with fists strip to their buff, i.e. naked from the waist up. (Munster.) Buggaun (Munster), buggeen (Leinster); an egg without a shell. Irish _bog_, soft, with the dim. termination. Bullaun, a bull calf. Irish, as in next word. Bullavaun, bullavogue; a strong, rough, bullying fellow. From _bulla_ the Irish form of _bull_. (Moran: Carlow.) Bullaworrus; a spectral bull 'with fire blazing from his eyes, mouth, and nose,' that guards buried treasure by night. (Limerick.) Irish. Bullia-bottha (or boolia-botha); a fight with sticks. (Simmons: Armagh.) Irish _buaileadh_, striking; and _bata_, a stick. Bullagadaun [_d_ sounded like _th_ in _they_]; a short stout pot-bellied fellow. (Munster.) From Irish _bolg_ [pron. bullog], a belly, and the dim. _dán_. Bullshin, bullsheen; same as _Bullaun_. {228} Bum; to cart turf to market: _bummer_, a person who does so as a way of living, like Billy Heffernan in 'Knocknagow.' Bum-bailiff, a bog bailiff. (Grainger: Arm.) Used more in the northern half of Ireland than in the southern. Bun; the tail of a rabbit. (Simmons: Arm.) Irish _bun_, the end. Bunnans; roots or stems of bushes or trees. (Meath.) From Irish _bun_ as in last word. Bunnaun; a long stick or wattle. (Joyce: Limerick.) Bunnioch; the last sheaf bound up in a field of reaped corn. The binder of this (usually a girl) will die unmarried. (MacCall: Wexford.) Butt; a sort of cart boarded at bottom and all round the sides, 15 or 18 inches deep, for potatoes, sand, &c. (Limerick.) In Cork any kind of horse-cart or donkey-cart is called a _butt_, which is a departure from the (English) etymology. In Limerick any kind of cart except a butt is called a _car_; the word _cart_ is not used at all. Butthoon has much the same meaning as _potthalowng_, which see. Irish _butún_, same sound and meaning. (Munster.) Butter up; to flatter, to cajole by soft sugary words, generally with some selfish object in view:--'I suspected from the way he was buttering me up that he came to borrow money.' Byre: the place where the cows are fed and milked; sometimes a house for cows and horses, or a farmyard. By the same token: this needs no explanation; it is a survival from Tudor English. (Hayden and Hartog.) {229} Cabin-hunting; going about from house to house to gossip. (South.) Cabman's Answer, The, 208. Cadday´ [strong accent on -day] to stray idly about. As a noun an idle _stray_ of a fellow. Cadge; to hawk goods for sale. (Simmons: Armagh.) To go about idly from house to house, picking up _a bit and a sup_, wherever they are to be had. (Moran: Carlow.) Caffler; a contemptible little fellow who gives saucy _cheeky_ foolish talk. Probably a mispronunciation of _caviller_. (Munster.) Cagger; a sort of pedlar who goes to markets and houses selling small goods and often taking others in exchange. (Kinahan: South and West.) Cahag; the little cross-piece on the end of a spade-handle, or of any handle. (Mon.) Cailey; a friendly evening visit in order to have a gossip. There are usually several persons at a cailey, and along with the gossiping talk there are songs or music. Irish _céilidh_, same sound and meaning. Used all over Ireland, but more in the North than elsewhere. Calleach na looha [Colleagh: accented on 2nd syll. in South; on 1st in North] 'hag of the ashes.' Children--and sometimes _old children_--think that a little hag resides in the ashpit beside the fire. Irish _cailleach_, an old woman: _luaith_, ashes. Calleach-rue ('red hag'); a little reddish brown fish about 4 inches long, plentiful in small streams. We boys thought them delicious when broiled on the turf-coals. We fished for them either with a loop-snare made of a single {230} horsehair on the end of a twig, with which it was very hard to catch them; for, as the boys used to say, 'they were cute little divels'--or directly--like the sportsmen of old--with a spear--the same spear being nothing but _an ould fork_. Caish; a growing pig about 6 months old. (Munster.) Call; claim, right: 'put down that spade; you have no call to it.' 'Bedad,' says he, 'this sight is queer, My eyes it does bedizen--O; What _call_ have you marauding here, Or how daar you leave your prison--O?' (Repeal Song: 1843.) Need, occasion: they lived so near each other that there was no call to send letters. 'Why are you shouting that way?' 'I have a good call to shout, and that blackguard running away with my apples.' Father O'Flynn could preach on many subjects:--'Down from mythology into thayology, Troth! and conchology if he'd the call.' (A. P. Graves.) Used everywhere in Ireland in these several senses. Call; custom in business: Our new shopkeeper is getting great call, i.e. his customers are numerous. (South.) Cam or caum; a metal vessel for melting resin to make _sluts_ or long torches; also used to melt metal for coining. (Simmons: Armagh.) Called a _grisset_ in Munster. Usually of a curved shape: Irish _cam_, curved. Candle. 'Jack Brien is a good scholar, but he couldn't hold a candle to Tom Murphy': i.e. he {231} is very inferior to him. The person that holds a candle for a workman is a mere attendant and quite an inferior. Cannags; the stray ears left after the corn has been reaped and gathered. (Morris: Mon.) Called _liscauns_ in Munster. Caper: oat-cake and butter. (Simmons: Armagh.) Caravat and Shanavest; the names of two hostile factions in Kilkenny and all round about there, of the early part of last century. Like Three-year-old and Four-year-old. Irish _Caravat_, a cravat; and _Shanavest_, old vest: which names were adopted, but no one can tell why. Card-cutter; a fortune-teller by card tricks. Card-cutters were pretty common in Limerick in my early days: but it was regarded as disreputable to have any dealings with them. Cardia; friendship, a friendly welcome, additional time granted for paying a debt. (All over Ireland.) Ir. _cáirde_, same meanings. Cardinal Points, 168. Carleycue; a very small coin of some kind. Used like _keenoge_ and _cross_. (Very general.) Carn; a heap of anything; a monumental pile of stones heaped up over a dead person. Irish _carn_, same meanings. Caroline or 'Caroline hat'; a tall hat. ('Knocknagow': all over Munster.) Caroogh, an expert or professional card-player. (Munster.) Irish _cearrbhach_, same sound and meaning. Carra, Carrie; a weir on a river. (Derry.) Irish _carra_, same meaning. {232} Carrigaholt in Clare, 145. Carry; to lead or drive: 'James, carry down those cows to the river' (i.e. drive): 'carry the horse to the forge' (lead). 'I will carry my family this year to Youghal for the salt water.' (Kinahan: South, West, and North-west.) See Bring. Case: the Irish _cás_, and applied in the same way: 'It is a poor case that I have to pay for your extravagance.' _Nách dubhach bocht un cás bheith ag tuitim le ghrádh_: 'isn't it a poor case to be failing through love.'--Old Irish Song. Our dialectical Irish _case_, as above, is taken straight from the Irish _cás_; but this and the standard English _case_ are both borrowed from Latin. Cassnara; respect, anything done out of respect: 'he put on his new coat for a _casnara_.' (Morris: South Mon.) Castor oil was our horror when we were children. No wonder; for this story went about of how it was made. A number of corpses were hanging from hooks round the walls of the _factory_, and drops were continually falling from their big toes into vessels standing underneath. This was castor oil. Catin clay; clay mixed with rushes or straws used in building the mud walls of cottages. (Simmons: Arm.) Cat of a kind: they're 'cat of a kind,' both like each other and both objectionable. Cat's lick; used in and around Dublin to express exactly the same as the Munster _Scotch lick_, which see. A cat has a small tongue and does not do much licking. {233} Caubeen; an old shabby cap or hat: Irish _cáibín_: he wore a 'shocking bad caubeen.' Cauboge; originally an old hat, like caubeen; but now applied--as the symbol of vulgarity--to an ignorant fellow, a boor, a bumpkin: 'What else could you expect from that cauboge?' (South.) Caulcannon, Calecannon, Colecannon, Kalecannon; potatoes mashed with butter and milk, with chopped up cabbage and pot-herbs. In Munster often made and eaten on Hallow Eve. The first syllable is the Irish _cál_, cabbage; _cannon_ is also Irish, meaning speckled. Caur, kindly, good-natured, affable. (Morris: South Mon.) Cawmeen; a mote: 'there's a cawmeen in my eye.' (Moran: Carlow.) Irish with the diminutive. Cawsha Pooka; the big fungus often seen growing on old trees or elsewhere. From Irish _cáise_, cheese: the 'Pooka's cheese.' See Pooka and Pookapyle and Bucknabarra. Cead míle fáilte [caidh meela faultha], a hundred thousand welcomes. Irish, and universal in Ireland as a salute. Ceólaun [keolaun], a trifling contemptible little fellow. (Munster.) Cess; very often used in the combination _bad cess_ (bad luck):--'Bad cess to me but there's something comin' over me.' (Kickham: 'Knocknagow.') Some think this is a contraction of _success_; others that it is to be taken as it stands--a _cess_ or contribution; which receives some little support from its use in Louth to mean 'a quantity of corn in for threshing.' {234} Chalk Sunday; the first Sunday after Shrove Tuesday (first Sunday in Lent), when those young men who should have been married, but were not, were marked with a heavy streak of chalk on the back of the _Sunday coat_, by boys who carried bits of chalk in their pockets for that purpose, and lay in wait for the bachelors. The marking was done while the congregation were assembling for Mass: and the young fellow ran for his life, always laughing, and often singing the concluding words of some suitable doggerel such as:--'And you are not married though Lent has come!' This custom prevailed in Munster. I saw it in full play in Limerick: but I think it has died out. For the air to which the verses were sung, see my 'Old Irish Music and Songs,' p. 12. Champ (Down); the same as 'caulcannon,' which see. Also potatoes mashed with butter and milk; same as 'pandy,' which see. Chanter; to go about grumbling and fault-finding. (Ulster.) Chapel: Church: Scallan, 143. Chaw for _chew_, 97. 'Chawing the rag'; continually grumbling, jawing, and giving abuse. (Kinahan.) Cheek; impudence; _brass_: cheeky; presumptuous. Chincough, whooping-cough: from _kink-cough_. See Kink. Chittering; constantly muttering complaints. (Knowles.) Chook chook [the _oo_ sounded rather short]; a call for hens. It is the Irish _tiuc_, come. Christian; a human being as distinguished from one of the lower animals:--'That dog has nearly as much sense as a Christian.' {235} Chuff: full.--'I'm chuffey after my dinner.' (MacCall: Wexford.) Clabber, clobber, or clawber; mud: thick milk. See Bonnyclabber. Clamp; a small rick of turf, built up regularly. (All through Ireland.) Clamper; a dispute, a wrangle. (Munster.) Irish _clampar_, same meaning. Clarsha; a lazy woman. (Morris: South Monaghan.) Clart; an untidy dirty woman, especially in preparing food. (Simmons: Armagh.) Clash, to carry tales: Clashbag, a tale-bearer. (Simmons: Armagh.) Classy; a drain running through a byre or stable-yard. (Morris: South Monaghan.) Irish _clais_, a trench, with the diminutive _y_ added. Clat; a slovenly untidy person; dirt, clay: 'wash the _clat_ off your hands': clatty; slovenly, untidy--(Ulster): called _clotty_ in Kildare;--a slattern. Clatch; a brood of chickens. (Ulster.) See Clutch. Cleean [2-syll.]; a relation by marriage--such as a father-in-law. Two persons so related are _cleeans_. Irish _cliamhan_, same sound and meaning. Cleever; one who deals in poultry; because he carries them in a _cleeve_ or large wicker basket. (Morris: South Monaghan.) Irish _cliabh_ [cleeve], a basket. Cleevaun; a cradle: also a crib or cage for catching birds. The diminutive of Irish _cliabh_ or cleeve, a wicker basket. Clegg; a horsefly. (Ulster and Carlow.) Clehalpeen; a shillelah or cudgel with a knob at the end. (South.) From Irish _cleath_, a wattle, and _ailpin_ dim. of _alp_, a knob. {236} Clever is applied to a man who is tall, straight, and well made. Clevvy; three or four shelves one over another in a wall: a sort of small open cupboard like a dresser. (All over the South.) Clibbin, clibbeen; a young colt. (Donegal.) Irish _clibín_, same sound and meaning. Clibbock; a young horse. (Derry.) Clift; a light-headed person, easily roused and rendered foolishly excited. (Ulster.) Clipe-clash: a tell-tale. (Ulster.) See Clash. Clochaun, clochan; a row of stepping-stones across a river. (General.) From Irish _cloch_, a stone, with the diminutive _án_. Clock; a black beetle. (South.) Clocking hen; a hen hatching. (General.) From the sound or _clock_ she utters. Clooracaun or cluracaun, another name for a leprachaun, which see. Close; applied to a day means simply warm:--'This is a very close day.' Clout; a blow with the hand or with anything. Also a piece of cloth, a rag, commonly used in the diminutive form in Munster--_cloutheen_. _Cloutheens_ is specially applied to little rags used with an infant. _Clout_ is also applied to a clownish person:--'It would be well if somebody would teach that _clout_ some manners.' Clove; to clove flax is to _scutch_ it--to draw each handful repeatedly between the blades of a 'cloving tongs,' so as to break off and remove the brittle husk, leaving the fibre smooth and free. (Munster.) {237} Clutch; a brood of chickens or of any fowls: same as clatch. I suppose this is English: Waterton (an English traveller) uses it in his 'Wanderings'; but it is not in the Dictionaries of Chambers and Webster. Cluthoge; Easter eggs. (P. Reilly; Kildare.) Cly-thoran; a wall or ditch between two estates. (Roscommon.) Irish _cladh_ [cly], a raised dyke or fence; _teóra_, gen. _teórann_ [thoran], a boundary. Cobby-house; a little house made by children for play. (Munster.) Cockles off the heart, 194. Cog; to copy surreptitiously; to crib something from the writings of another and pass it off as your own. One schoolboy will sometimes copy from another:--'You cogged that sum.' Coghil; a sort of long-shaped pointed net. (Armagh.) Irish _cochal_, a net. Coldoy; a bad halfpenny: a spurious worthless article of jewellery. (Limerick.) Colleen; a young girl. (All over Ireland.) Irish _cailín_, same sound and meaning. Colley; the woolly dusty fluffy stuff that gathers under furniture and in remote corners of rooms. Light soot-smuts flying about. Colloge; to talk and gossip in a familiar friendly way. An Irish form of the Latin or English word 'colloquy.' Collop; a standard measure of grazing land, p. 177. Collop; the part of a flail that is held in the hand. (Munster.) See Boolthaun. Irish _colpa_. Come-all-ye; a nickname applied to Irish Folk Songs and Music; an old country song; from the {238} beginning of many of the songs:--'Come all ye tender Christians,' &c. This name, intended to be reproachful, originated among ourselves, after the usual habit of many 'superior' Irishmen to vilify their own country and countrymen and all their customs and peculiarities. Observe, this opening is almost equally common in English Folk-songs; yet the English do not make game of them by nicknames. Irish music, which is thus vilified by some of our brethren, is the most beautiful Folk Music in the world. Comether; _come hether_ or _hither_, 97. Commaun, common; the game of goaling or hurley. So called from the _commaun_ or crooked-shaped stick with which it is played: Irish _cam_ or _com_, curved or crooked; with the diminutive--_camán_. Called _hurling_ and _goaling_ by English speakers in Ireland, and _shinney_ in Scotland. Commons; land held in common by the people of a village or small district: see p. 177. Comparisons, 136. Conacre; letting land in patches for a short period. A farmer divides a large field into small portions--¼ acre, ½ acre, &c.--and lets them to his poorer neighbours usually for one season for a single crop, mostly potatoes, or in Ulster flax. He generally undertakes to manure the whole field, and charges high rents for the little lettings. I saw this in practice more than 60 years ago in Munster. Irish _con_, common, and Eng. _acre_. Condition; in Munster, to 'change your condition' is to get married. Condon, Mr. John, of Mitchelstown, 155. {239} Conny, canny; discreet, knowing, cute. Contrairy, for _contrary_, but accented on second syll.; cross, perverse, cranky, crotchety, 102. Convenient: see Handy. Cool: hurlers and football players always put one of their best players to _mind cool_ or _stand cool_, i.e. to stand at their own goal or gap, to intercept the ball if the opponents should attempt to drive it through. Universal in Munster. Irish _cúl_ [cool], the back. The full word is _cool-baur-ya_ where 'baur-ya' is the goal or gap. The man standing cool is often called 'the man in the gap' (see p. 182). Cool; a good-sized roll of butter. (Munster.) Cooleen or coulin; a fair-haired girl. This is the name of a celebrated Irish air. From _cúl_ the back [of the head], and _fionn_, white or fair:--_cúil-fhionn_, [pron. cooleen or coolin]. Coonagh; friendly, familiar, _great_ (which see):--'These two are very _coonagh_.' (MacCall: Wexford.) Irish _cuaine_, a family. Coonsoge, a bees' nest. (Cork.) Irish _cuansa_ [coonsa], a hiding-place, with the diminutive _óg_. Cooramagh; kindly, careful, thoughtful, provident:--'No wonder Mrs. Dunn would look well and happy with such a _cooramagh_ husband.' Irish _curamach_, same meaning. Coord [_d_ sounded like _th_ in _bathe_], a friendly visit to a neighbour's house. Irish _cuaird_, a visit. Coordeeagh, same meaning. (Munster.) Cope-curley; to stand on the head and throw the heels over; to turn head over heels. (Ulster.) Core: work given as a sort of loan to be paid back. {240} I send a man on _core_ for a day to my neighbour: when next I want a man he will send me one for a day in return. So with horses: two one-horse farmers who work their horses in pairs, borrowing alternately, are said to be in _core_. Very common in Munster. Irish _cobhair_ or _cabhair_ [core or co-ir, 2-syll.] help, support. Coreeagh; a man who has a great desire to attend funerals--goes to every funeral that he can possibly reach. (Munster.) Same root as last. Corfuffle; to toss, shake, confuse, mix up. (Derry.) Correesk; a crane. (Kildare.) Irish _corr_, a bird of the crane kind, and _riasc_ [reesk], a marsh. C[=o]sher [the _o_ long as in _motion_]; banqueting, feasting. In very old times in Ireland, certain persons went about with news from place to place, and were entertained in the high class houses: this was called _coshering_, and was at one time forbidden by law. In modern times it means simply a friendly visit to a neighbour's house to have a quiet talk. Irish _cóisir_; a banquet, feasting. Costnent. When a farm labourer has a cottage and garden from his employer, and boards himself, he lives _costnent_. He is paid small wages (called _costnent_ wages) as he has house and plot free. (Derry.) Cot; a small boat: Irish _cot_. See 'Irish Names of Places,' I. 226, for places deriving their names from _cots_. Cowlagh; an old ruined house. (Kerry.) Irish _coblach_ [cowlagh]. Coward's blow; a blow given to provoke a boy to fight or else be branded as a coward. {241} Cow's lick. When the hair in front over the forehead turns at the roots upward and backward, that is a _cow's lick_, as if a cow had licked it upwards. The idea of a cow licking the hair is very old in Irish literature. In the oldest of all our miscellaneous Irish MSS.--The Book of the Dun Cow--Cuculainn's hair is so thick and smooth that king Laery, who saw him, says:--'I should imagine it is a cow that licked it.' Cox, Mr. Simon, of Galbally, 156. Craags; great fat hands; big handfuls. (Morris: South Mon.) Crab; a cute precocious little child is often called an _old crab_. 'Crabjaw' has the same meaning. Cracked; crazy, half mad. Cracklins; the browned crispy little flakes that remain after _rendering_ or melting lard and pouring it off. (Simmons: Armagh.) Crahauns or Kirraghauns; very small potatoes not used by the family: given to pigs. (Munster.) Irish _creathán_. Crans (always in pl.); little tricks or dodges. (Limk). Crapper; a half glass of whiskey. (Moran: Carlow.) Craw-sick; ill in the morning after a drunken bout. Crawtha; sorry, mortified, pained. (Limerick.) Irish _cráidhte_ [crawtha], same meaning. Crawthumper; a person ostentatiously devotional. Creelacaun; see Skillaun. Creel; a strong square wicker frame, used by itself for holding turf, &c., or put on asses' backs (in pairs), or put on carts for carrying turf or for taking calves, _bonnives_, &c., to market. Irish _criol_. (All through Ireland.) {242} Creepy; a small stool, a stool. (Chiefly in Ulster.) Crith; hump on the back. Irish _cruit_, same sound and meaning. From this comes _critthera_ and _crittheen_, both meaning a hunchback. Cro, or cru: a house for cows. (Kerry.) Irish _cro_, a pen, a fold, a shed for any kind of animals. Croaked; I am afraid poor Nancy is croaked, i.e. doomed to death. The raven croaks over the house when one of the family is about to die. (MacCall: Wexford.) Croft; a water bottle, usually for a bedroom at night. You never hear _carafe_ in Ireland: it is always _croft_. Cromwell, Curse of, 166. Crumel´ly. (Limerick.) More correctly _curr amílly_. (Donegal.) An herb found in grassy fields with a sweet root that children dig up and eat. Irish 'honey-root.' Cronaun, croonaun; a low humming air or song, any continuous humming sound: 'the old woman was cronauning in the corner.' Cronebane, cronebaun; a bad halfpenny, a worthless copper coin. From Cronebane in Co. Wicklow, where copper mines were worked. Croobeen or crubeen; a pig's foot. Pigs' croobeens boiled are a grand and favourite viand among us--all through Ireland. Irish _crúb_ [croob], a foot, with the diminutive. Croost; to throw stones or clods from the hand:--'Those boys are always _croosting_ stones at my hens.' Irish _crústa_ [croostha], a missile, a clod. Croudy: see Porter-meal. Crowl or Croil; a dwarf, a very small person: the smallest _bonnive_ of the litter. An Irish word. {243} Cruiskeen; a little cruise for holding liquor. Used all over Ireland. 'In a shady nook one moonlight night A _leprechaun_ I spied; With scarlet cap and coat of green, A _cruiskeen_ by his side.' The _Cruiskeen Laun_ is the name of a well-known Irish air--the Scotch call it 'John Anderson my Jo.' Irish _cruiscín_, a pitcher: _lán_ [laun], full: i.e. in this case full of _pottheen_. Crusheen; a stick with a flat crosspiece fastened at bottom for washing potatoes in a basket. Irish _cros_, a cross, with the diminutive. Also called a _boghaleen_, from Irish _bachal_, a staff, with diminutive. (Joyce: Limerick.) Cuck; a tuft: applied to the little tuft of feathers on the head of some birds, such as plovers, some hens and ducks, &c. Irish _coc_: same sound and meaning. (General.) Cuckles; the spiky seed-pods of the thistle: thistle heads. (Limerick.) Cuckoo spit; the violet: merely the translation of the Irish name, _sail-chuach_, spittle of cuckoos. Also the name of a small frothy spittle-like substance often found on leaves of plants in summer, with a little greenish insect in the middle of it. (Limerick.) Cugger-mugger; whispering, gossiping in a low voice: Jack and Bessie had a great _cugger-mugger_. Irish _cogar_, whisper, with a similar duplication meaning nothing, like tip-top, shilly-shally, gibble-gabble, clitter-clatter, &c. I think {244} 'hugger-mugger' is a form of this: for _hugger_ can't be derived from anything, whereas _cugger_ (_cogur_) is a plain Irish word. Cull; when the best of a lot of any kind--sheep, cattle, books, &c.--have been picked out, the bad ones that are left--the refuse--are the _culls_. (Kinahan: general.) Culla-greefeen; when foot or hand is 'asleep' with the feeling of 'pins and needles.' The name is Irish and means 'Griffin's sleep'; but why so called I cannot tell. (Munster.) Cup-tossing; reading fortunes from tea-leaves thrown out on the saucer from the tea-cup or teapot. (General.) Cur; a twist: a _cur_ of a rope. (Joyce: Limerick.) Curate; a common little iron poker kept in use to spare the grand one: also a grocer's assistant. (Hayden and Hartog.) Curcuddiagh; cosy, comfortable. (Maxwell: 'Wild Sports of the West': Irish: Mayo.) Curifixes; odd _curious_ ornaments or _fixtures_ of any kind. (General.) Peter Brierly, looking at the knocker:--'I never see such _curifixes_ on a _doore_ afore.' (Edw. Walsh: very general.) Curragh; a wicker boat covered formerly with hides but now with tarred canvass. (See my 'Smaller Social Hist. of Anc. Ireland.') Current; in good health: he is not current; his health is not current. (Father Higgins: Cork.) Curwhibbles, currifibbles, currywhibbles; any strange, odd, or unusual gestures; or any unusual twisting of words, such as prevarication; wild puzzles and puzzling talk:--'The horsemen are in regular currywhibles about something.' (R. D. Joyce.) {245} Cush; a sort of small horse, from _Cushendall_ in Antrim. Cushlamochree; pulse of my heart. Irish _Cuisl[)e]_, vein or pulse; _mo_, my; _croidhe_ [cree], heart. Cushoge; a stem of a plant; sometimes used the same as _traneen_, which see. (Moran: Carlow; and Morris: Monaghan.) Cut; a county or barony cess tax; hence Cutman, the collector of it. (Kinahan: Armagh and Donegal.) 'The three black _cuts_ will be levied.' (Seumas MacManus: Donegal.) Daisy-picker; a person who accompanies two lovers in their walk; why so called obvious. Brought to keep off gossip. Dalk, a thorn. (De Vismes Kane: North and South.) Irish _dealg_ [dallog], a thorn. Dallag [_d_ sounded like _th_ in _that_]; any kind of covering to blindfold the eyes (Morris: South Monaghan): 'blinding,' from Irish _dall_, blind. Dallapookeen; blindman's buff. (Kerry.) From Irish _dalladh_ [dalla] blinding; and _puicín_ [pookeen], a covering over the eyes. Daltheen [the _d_ sounded like _th_ in _that_], an impudent conceited little fellow: a diminutive of _dalta_, a foster child. The diminutive _dalteen_ was first applied to a horseboy, from which it has drifted to its present meaning. Dancing customs, 170, 172. Dannagh; mill-dust and mill-grains for feeding pigs. (Moran: Carlow: also Tip.) Irish _deanach_, same sound and meaning. {246} Dander [second _d_ sounded like _th_ in _hither_], to walk about leisurely: a leisurely walk. Dandy; a small tumbler; commonly used for drinking punch. Darradail or daradeel [the _d_'s sounded like _th_ in _that_] a sort of long black chafer or beetle. It raises its tail when disturbed, and has a strong smell of apples. There is a religious legend that when our Lord was escaping from the Jews, barefoot, the stones were marked all along by traces of blood from the bleeding feet. The daradail followed the traces of blood; and the Jews following, at length overtook and apprehended our Lord. Hence the people regard the daradail with intense hatred, and whenever they come on it, kill it instantly. Irish _darbh-daol_. Dark; blind: 'a dark man.' (Very general.) Used constantly even in official and legal documents, as in workhouse books, especially in Munster. (Healy.) Darrol; the smallest of the brood of pigs, fowl, &c. (Mayo.) Irish _dearóil_, small, puny, wretched. Davis, Thomas, vi. 83, &c. Dead beat or dead _bet_; tired out. Dear; used as a sort of intensive adjective:--'Tom ran for the dear life' (as fast as he could). (Crofton Croker.) 'He got enough to remember all the dear days of his life.' ('Dub. Pen. Journ.') Dell; a lathe. Irish _deil_, same sound and meaning. (All over Munster.) Devil's needle; the dragon-fly. Translation of the Irish name _snathad-a'-diabhail_ [snahad-a-dheel]. Deshort [to rhyme with _port_]; a sudden interruption, a surprise: 'I was taken at a _deshort_.' (Derry.) {247} Devil, The, and his 'territory,' 56. Dickonce; one of the disguised names of the devil used in _white_ cursing: 'Why then the dickonce take you for one gander.' (Gerald Griffin.) Diddy; a woman's pap or breast: a baby sucks its mother's diddy. Diminutive of Irish _did_, same. Dido; a girl who makes herself ridiculous with fantastic finery. (Moran: Carlow.) Didoes (singular _dido_); tricks, antics: 'quit your didoes.' (Ulster.) Dildron or dildern; a bowraun, which see. Dillesk, dulsk, dulse or dilse; a sort of sea plant growing on rocks, formerly much used (when dried) as an article of food (as _kitchen_), and still eaten in single leaves as a sort of relish. Still sold by basket-women in Dublin. Irish _duilesc_. Dip. When the family dinner consisted of dry potatoes, i.e. potatoes without milk or any other drink, dip was often used, that is to say, gravy or broth, or water flavoured in any way in plates, into which the potato was dipped at each bit. I once saw a man using dip of plain water with mustard in it, and eating his dinner with great relish. You will sometimes read of 'potatoes and point,' namely, that each person, before taking a bite, _pointed_ the potato at a salt herring or a bit of bacon hanging in front of the chimney: but this is mere fun, and never occurred in real life. Disciple; a miserable looking creature of a man. Shane Glas was a long lean scraggy wretched looking fellow (but really strong and active), and another says to him--jibing and railing--'Away with ye, ye miserable _disciple_. Arrah, by the hole {248} of my coat, after you dance your last jig upon nothing, with your hemp cravat on, I'll coax yer miserable carcase from the hangman to frighten the crows with.' (Edw. Walsh in 'Pen. Journ.') Disremember; to forget. Good old English; now out of fashion in England, but common in Ireland. Ditch. In Ireland a ditch is a raised fence or earthen wall or mound, and a dyke (or _sheuch_ as they call it in Donegal and elsewhere in Ulster) is a deep cutting, commonly filled with water. In England both words mean exactly the reverse. Hence 'hurlers on the ditch,' or 'the best hurlers are on the ditch' (where speakers of pure English would use 'fence') said in derision of persons who are mere idle spectators sitting up on high watching the game--whatever it may be--and boasting how they would _do the devil an' all_ if they were only playing. Applied in a broad sense to those who criticise persons engaged in any strenuous affair--critics who think they could do better. Dollop; to adulterate: 'that coffee is dolloped.' Donny; weak, in poor health. Irish _donaidhe_, same sound and meaning. Hence _donnaun_, a poor weakly creature, same root with the diminutive. From still the same root is _donsy_, sick-looking. Donagh-dearnagh, the Sunday before Lammas (1st August). (Ulster.) Irish _Domnach_, Sunday; and _deireannach_, last, i.e. last Sunday of the period before 1st August. Doodoge [the two _d_'s sounded like _th_ in _thus_]; a big pinch of snuff. [Limk.] Irish _dúdóg_. Dooraght [_d_ sounded as in the last word]; tender care and kindness shown to a person. Irish {249} _dúthracht_, same sound and meaning. In parts of Ulster it means a small portion given over and above what is purchased (Simmons and Knowles); called elsewhere a _tilly_, which see. This word, in its sense of kindness, is very old; for in the Brehon Law we read of land set aside by a father for his daughter through _dooraght_. Doorshay-daurshay [_d_ in both sounded as _th_ in _thus_], mere hearsay or gossip. The first part is Irish, representing the sound of _dubhairt-sé_, 'said he.' The second part is a mere doubling of the first, as we find in many English words, such as 'fiddle-faddle,' 'tittle-tattle' (which resembles our word). Often used by Munster lawyers in court, whether Irish-speaking or not, in depreciation of hearsay evidence in contradistinction to the evidence of looking-on. 'Ah, that's all mere _doorshay-daurshay_.' Common all over Munster. The information about the use of the term in law courts I got from Mr. Maurice Healy. A different form is sometimes heard:--_D'innis bean dom gur innis bean di_, 'a woman told me that a woman told her.' Dornoge [_d_ sounded as in doodoge above]; a small round lump of a stone, fit to be cast from the hand. Irish _dorn_, the shut hand, with the dim. _óg_. Double up; to render a person helpless either in fight or in argument. The old tinker in the fair got a blow of an amazon's fist which 'sent him sprawling and _doubled_ him up for the rest of the evening.' (Robert Dwyer Joyce: 'Madeline's Vow.') Down in the heels; broken down in fortune (one mark of which is the state of the heels of shoes). {250} Down blow; a heavy or almost ruinous blow of any kind:--'The loss of that cow was a down blow to poor widow Cleary.' Downface; to persist boldly in an assertion (whether true or no): He downfaced me that he returned the money I lent him, though he never did. Down-the-banks; a scolding, a reprimand, punishment of any kind. Dozed: a piece of timber is dozed when there is a dry rot in the heart of it. (Myself for Limk.: Kane for North.) Drad; a grin or contortion of the mouth. (Joyce.) Drag home. (Simmons; Armagh: same as Hauling home, which see.) Drass; a short time, a turn:--'You walk a drass now and let me ride': 'I always smoke a drass before I go to bed of a night.' ('Collegians,' Limerick.) Irish _dreas_, same sound and meaning. Drench: a form of the English _drink_, but used in a peculiar sense in Ireland. A _drench_ is a philtre, a love-potion, a love-compelling drink over which certain charms were repeated during its preparation. Made by boiling certain herbs (_orchis_) in water or milk, and the person drinks it unsuspectingly. In my boyhood time a beautiful young girl belonging to a most respectable family ran off with an ill-favoured obscure beggarly diseased wretch. The occurrence was looked on with great astonishment and horror by the people--no wonder; and the universal belief was that the fellow's old mother had given the poor girl a _drench_. To this hour I cannot make any guess at the cause of that astounding elopement: and it is {251} not surprising that the people were driven to the supernatural for an explanation. Dresser; a set of shelves and drawers in a frame in a kitchen for holding plates, knives, &c. Drisheen is now used in Cork as an English word, to denote a sort of pudding made of the narrow intestines of a sheep, filled with blood that has been cleared of the red colouring matter, and mixed with meal and some other ingredients. So far as I know, this viand and its name are peculiar to Cork, where _drisheen_ is considered suitable for persons of weak or delicate digestion. (I should observe that a recent reviewer of one of my books states that drisheen is also made in Waterford.) Irish _dreas_ or driss, applied to anything slender, as a bramble, one of the smaller intestines, &c.--with the diminutive. Drizzen, a sort of moaning sound uttered by a cow. (Derry). Drogh; the worst and smallest bonnive in a litter. (Armagh.) Irish _droch_, bad, evil. (See Eervar.) Droleen; a wren: merely the Irish word _dreóilín_. Drop; a strain of any kind 'running in the blood.' A man inclined to evil ways 'has a bad drop' in him (or 'a black drop'): a miser 'has a hard drop.' The expression carries an idea of heredity. Drugget; a cloth woven with a mixture of woollen and flaxen thread: so called from Drogheda where it was once extensively manufactured. Now much used as cheap carpeting. Druids and Druidism, 178. Drumaun; a wide back-band for a ploughing horse, {252} with hooks to keep the traces in place. (Joyce: Limerick.) From Irish _druim_, the back. Drummagh; the back strap used in yoking two horses. (Joyce: Limerick.) Irish _druim_, the back, with the termination _-ach_, equivalent to English _-ous_ and _-y_. Dry potatoes; potatoes eaten without milk or any other drink. Dry lodging; the use of a bed merely, without food. Drynaun-dun or drynan-dun [two _d_'s sounded like _th_ in _that_]; the blackthorn, the sloe-bush. Irish _droigheanán_ [drynan or drynaun], and _donn_, brown-coloured. Ducks; trousers of snow-white canvas, much used as summer wear by gentle and simple fifty or sixty years ago. Dudeen [both _d_'s sounded like _th_ in _those_]; a smoking-pipe with a very short stem. Irish _dúidín_, _dúd_, a pipe, with the diminutive. Duggins; rags: 'that poor fellow is all in duggins.' (Armagh.) Dull; a loop or eye on a string. (Monaghan.) Dullaghan [_d_ sounded as _th_ in _those_]; a large trout. (Kane: Monaghan.) An Irish word. Dullaghan; 'a hideous kind of hobgoblin generally met with in churchyards, who can take off and put on his head at will.' (From 'Irish Names of Places,' I. 193, which see for more about this spectre. See Croker's 'Fairy Legends.') Dullamoo [_d_ sounded like _th_ in _those_]; a wastrel, a scapegrace, a _ne'er-do-weel_. Irish _dul_, going; _amudha_ [amoo], astray, to loss:--_dullamoo_, 'a person going to the bad,' 'going to the dogs.' {253} Dundeen; a lump of bread without butter. (Derry.) Dunisheen; a small weakly child. (Moran: Carlow.) Irish _donaisín_, an unfortunate being; from _donas_, with diminutive. See Donny. Dunner; to knock loudly at a door. (Ulster.) Dunt (sometimes _dunch_), to strike or butt like a cow or goat with the head. A certain lame old man (of Armagh) was nicknamed 'Dunt the pad (path'). (Ulster.) Durneen, one of the two handles of a scythe that project from the main handle. Irish _doirnín_, same sound and meaning: diminutive from _dorn_, the fist, the shut hand. Durnoge; a strong rough leather glove, used on the left hand by faggot cutters. (MacCall: Wexford.) _Dornoge_, given above, is the same word but differently applied. Duty owed by tenants to landlords, 181. Earnest; 'in earnest' is often used in the sense of 'really and truly':--'You're a man in earnest, Cus, to strike the first blow on a day [of battle] like this.' (R. D. Joyce.) Eervar; the last pig in a litter. This _bonnive_ being usually very small and hard to keep alive is often given to one of the children for a pet; and it is reared in great comfort in a warm bed by the kitchen fire, and fed on milk. I once, when a child, had an eervar of my own which was the joy of my life. Irish _iarmhar_ [eervar], meaning 'something after all the rest'; the hindmost. (Munster.) See Drogh for Ulster. Elder; a cow's udder. All over Ireland. {254} Elegant. This word is used among us, not in its proper sense, but to designate anything good or excellent of its kind:--An elegant penknife, an elegant gun: 'That's an elegant pig of yours, Jack?' Our milkman once offered me a present for my garden--'An elegant load of dung.' I haven't the _janius_ for work, For 'twas never the gift of the Bradys; But I'd make a most _elegant_ Turk, For I'm fond of tobacco and ladies. (LEVER.) 'How is she [the sick girl] coming on?' 'Elegant,' was the reply. ('Knocknagow.') Elementary schools, 159. Exaggeration and redundancy, 120. Existence, way of predicating, 23. Eye of a bridge; the arch. Faireen (south), fairin (north); a present either given in a fair or brought from it. Used in another sense--a lasting injury of any kind:--'Poor Joe got a faireen that day, when the stone struck him on the eye, which I'm afraid the eye will never recover.' Used all over Ireland and in Scotland. Ah Tam, ah Tam, thou'lt get thy fairin', In hell they'll roast thee like a herrin'. (BURNS.) Fair-gurthra; 'hungry grass.' There is a legend all through Ireland that small patches of grass grow here and there on mountains; and if a person in walking along happens to tread on one of them he is instantly overpowered with hunger so as to {255} be quite unable to walk, and if help or food is not at hand he will sink down and perish. That persons are attacked and rendered helpless by sudden hunger on mountains in this manner is certain. Mr. Kinahan gives me an instance where he had to carry his companion, a boy, on his back a good distance to the nearest house: and Maxwell in 'Wild Sports of the West' gives others. But he offers the natural explanation: that a person is liable to sink suddenly with hunger if he undertakes a hard mountain walk with a long interval after food. Irish _feur_, grass; _gorta_, hunger. Fairy breeze. Sometimes on a summer evening you suddenly feel a very warm breeze: that is a band of fairies travelling from one fort to another; and people on such occasions usually utter a short prayer, not knowing whether the 'good people' are bent on doing good or evil. (G. H. Kinahan.) Like the Shee-geeha, which see. Fairy-thimble, the same as 'Lusmore,' which see. Famished; distressed for want of something:--'I am famished for a smoke--for a glass,' &c. Farbreaga; a scarecrow. Irish _fear_, a man: _breug_ falsehood: a false or pretended man. Farl; one quarter of a griddle cake. (Ulster.) Faúmera [the _r_ has the slender sound]; a big strolling beggarman or idle fellow. From the Irish _Fomor_. The _Fomors_ or _Fomora_ or Fomorians were one of the mythical colonies that came to Ireland (see any of my Histories of Ireland, Index): some accounts represent them as giants. In Clare the country people that go to the seaside in summer for the benefit of the 'salt water' are {256} called _Faumeras_. In Tramore they are called _olishes_ [o long]; because in the morning before breakfast they go down to the strand and take a good _swig_ of the salt water--an essential part of the cure--and when one meets another he (or she) asks in Irish '_ar ólish_,' 'did you drink?' In Kilkee the dogfish is called _Faumera_, for the dogfish is among the smaller fishes like what legend represents the Fomorians in Ireland. Faustus, Dr., in Irish dialect, 60. Fear is often used among us in the sense of _danger_. Once during a high wind the ship's captain neatly distinguished it when a frightened lady asked him:--'Is there any fear, sir?' 'There's plenty of fear, madam, but no danger.' Feck or fack; a spade. From the very old Irish word, _fec_, same sound and meaning. Fellestrum, the flagger (marsh plant). Irish _felestrom_. (South.) Fetch; what the English call a _double_, a preternatural apparition of a living person, seen usually by some relative or friend. If seen in the morning the person whose fetch it is will have a long and prosperous life: if in the evening the person will soon die. Finane or Finaun; the white half-withered long grass found in marshy or wet land. Irish _finn_ or _fionn_, white, with the diminutive. Finely and poorly are used to designate the two opposite states of an invalid. 'Well, Mrs. Lahy, how is she?' [Nora the poor sick little girl]. 'Finely, your reverence,' Honor replied (going on well). The old sinner Rody, having accidentally {257} shot himself, is asked how he is going on:--'Wisha, poorly, poorly' (badly). (G. Griffin.) Finger--to put a finger in one's eye; to overreach and cheat him by cunning:--'He'd be a clever fellow that would put a finger in Tom's eye.' First shot, in distilling pottheen; the weak stuff that comes off at the first distillation: also called singlings. Flahoolagh, plentiful; 'You have a flahoolagh hand, Mrs. Lyons': 'Ah, we got a flahoolagh dinner and no mistake.' Irish _flaith_ [flah], a chief, and _amhail_ [ooal], like, with the adjectival termination _ach_: _flahoolagh_, 'chieftain-like.' For the old Irish chiefs kept open houses, with full and plenty--_launa-vaula_--for all who came. (South.) Flipper; an untidy man. (Limerick.) Flitters; tatters, rags:--'His clothes were all in _flitters_.' Flog; to beat, to exceed:--'That flogs Europe' ('Collegians'), i.e. it beats Europe: there's nothing in Europe like it. Fluke, something very small or nothing at all. 'What did you get from him?' 'Oh I got flukes' (or 'flukes in a hand-basket')--meaning nothing. Sometimes it seems to mean a small coin, like _cross_ and _keenoge_. 'When I set out on that journey I hadn't a fluke.' (North and South.) Fockle; a big torch made by lighting a sheaf of straw fixed on a long pole: fockles were usually lighted on St. John's Eve. (Limerick.) It is merely the German word _fackel_, a torch, brought to Limerick by the Palatine colony. (See p. 65.) Fog-meal; a great meal or big feed: a harvest dinner. {258} Fooster; hurry, flurry, fluster, great fuss. Irish _fústar_, same sound and meaning. (Hayden and Hartog.) 'Then Tommy jumped about elate, Tremendous was his _fooster_--O; Says he, "I'll send a message straight To my darling Mr. Brewster--O!"' (Repeal Song of 1843.) Forbye; besides. (Ulster.) For good; finally, for ever: 'he left home for good.' Fornent, fornenst, forenenst; opposite: he and I sat fornenst each other in the carriage. 'Yet here you strut in open day Fornenst my house so freely--O.' (Repeal Song of 1843.) An old English word, now obsolete in England, but very common in Ireland. Foshla; a marshy weedy rushy place; commonly applied to the ground left after a cut-away bog. (Roscommon.) Four bones; 'Your own four bones,' 127. Fox; (verb) to pretend, to feign, to sham: 'he's not sick at all, he's only foxing.' Also to cut short the ears of a dog. Frainey; a small puny child:--'Here, eat this bit, you little _frainey_.' Fraughans; whortleberries. Irish _fraoch_, with the diminutive. See Hurt. Freet; a sort of superstition or superstitious rite. (Ulster.) Fresh and Fresh:--'I wish you to send me the butter every morning: I like to have it fresh and fresh.' {259} This is English gone out of fashion: I remember seeing it in Pope's preface to 'The Dunciad.' Frog's jelly; the transparent jelly-like substance found in pools and ditches formed by frogs round their young tadpoles, 121. Fum; soft spongy turf. (Ulster.) Called _soosaun_ in Munster. Gaatch [_aa_ long as in _car_], an affected gesture or movement of limbs body or face: _gaatches_; assuming fantastic ridiculous attitudes. (South.) Gad; a withe: 'as tough as a gad.' (Irish _gad_, 60.) Gadderman; a boy who puts on the airs of a man; a mannikin or _manneen_, which see. (Simmons: Armagh.) Gaffer; an old English word, but with a peculiar application in Ireland, where it means a boy, a young chap. 'Come here, gaffer, and help me.' Gag; a conceited foppish young fellow, who tries to figure as a swell. Gah´ela or gaherla; a little girl. (Kane: Ulster.) Same as _girsha_. Gaileen; a little bundle of rushes placed under the arms of a beginner learning to swim. (Joyce: Limerick.) When you support the beginner's head keeping it above water with your hands while he is learning the strokes: that we used to designate '_giving a gaileen_.' Galbally, Co. Limerick, 156. Galoot: a clownish fellow. Galore; plenty, plentiful. Irish adverb _go leór_, 4. Gankinna; a fairy, a leprachaun. (Morris: South Mon.) Irish _gann_, small. {260} Gannoge; an undefined small quantity. (Antrim.) Irish _gann_, small, with diminutive _óg_. Garden, in the South, is always applied to a field of growing potatoes. 'In the land courts we never asked "How many acres of potatoes?"; but "How many acres of garden?"' (Healy.) A usual inquiry is 'How are your gardens going on?' meaning 'How are your potato crops doing?' Garlacom; a lingering disease in cows believed to be caused by eating a sort of herb. (P. Moran: Meath.) Garland Sunday; the first Sunday in August (sometimes called Garlick Sunday.) Garron, garraun; an old worn-out horse. (Irish _gearrán_.) Gash; a flourish of the pen in writing so as to form an ornamental curve, usually at the end. (Limerick.) Gatha; an effeminate fellow who concerns himself in women's business: a _Sheela_. (Joyce: Limerick.) Gatherie; a splinter of bog-deal used as a torch. (Moran: Carlow.) Also a small cake (commonly smeared with treacle) sold in the street on market days. Irish _geataire_ [gatthera], same meanings. Gaug; a sore crack in the heel of a person who goes barefooted. (Moran: Carlow.) Irish _gág_ [gaug], a cleft, a crack. Gaulsh; to loll. (MacCall: Wexford.) Gaunt or gant; to yawn. (Ulster.) Gaurlagh; a little child, a baby: an unfledged bird. Irish _gárlach_, same sound and meanings. Gawk; a tall awkward fellow. (South.) {261} Gawm, gawmoge; a soft foolish fellow. (South.) Irish _gám_, same meaning. See Gommul. Gazebo; a tall building; any tall object; a tall awkward person. Gazen, gazened; applied to a wooden vessel of any kind when the joints open by heat or drought so that it leaks. (Ulster.) Gallagh-gunley; the harvest moon. (Ulster.) _Gallagh_ gives the sound of Irish _gealach_, the moon, meaning whitish, from _geal_, white. Geck; to mock, to jeer, to laugh at. (Derry.) Geenagh, geenthagh; hungry, greedy, covetous. (Derry.) Irish _gionach_ or _giontach_, gluttonous. Geens; wild cherries. (Derry.) Gentle; applied to a place or thing having some connexion with the fairies--haunted by fairies. A thornbush where fairies meet is a 'gentle bush': the hazel and the foxglove (fairy-thimble) are gentle plants. Geócagh; a big strolling idle fellow. (Munster.) Irish _geocach_, same sound and meaning. Geosadaun or Yosedaun [_d_ in both sounded like _th_ in _they_]; the yellow rag-weed: called also boliaun [2-syll.] and booghalaun. Get; a bastard child. (North and South.) Gibbadaun; a frivolous person. (Roscommon.) From the Irish _giob_, a scrap, with the diminutive ending _dán_: a _scrappy_ trifling-minded person. Gibbol [_g_ hard as in _get_]; a rag: your jacket is all hanging down in gibbols.' (Limerick.) Irish _giobal_, same sound and meaning. Giddhom; restlessness. In Limerick it is applied to cows when they gallop through the fields with {262} tails cocked out, driven half mad by heat and flies: 'The cows are galloping with giddhom.' Irish _giodam_, same sound and meaning. Gill-gowan, a corn-daisy. (Tyrone.) From Irish _geal_, white, and _gowan_, the Scotch name for a daisy. Girroge [two _g_'s sounded as in _get_, _got_]. Girroges are the short little drills where the plough runs into a corner. (Kildare and Limerick.) Irish _gearr_, short, with the diminutive _óg_: _girroge_, any short little thing. Girsha; a little girl. (North and South.) Irish _geirrseach_ [girsagh], from _gearr_, short or small, with the feminine termination _seach_. Gistra [_g_ sounded as in _get_], a sturdy, active old man. (Ulster.) Irish _giostaire_, same sound and meaning. Gladiaathor [_aa_ long as in _car_]; a gladiator, a fighting quarrelsome fellow: used as a verb also:--'he went about the fair _gladiaatherin_,' i.e. shouting and challenging people to fight him. Glaum, glam; to grab or grasp with the whole hand; to maul or pull about with the hands. Irish _glám_ [glaum], same meaning. Glebe; in Ireland this word is almost confined to the land or farm attached to a Protestant rector's residence: hence called _glebe-land_. See p. 143. Gleeag; a small handful of straw used in plaiting straw mats: a sheaf of straw threshed. (Kildare and Monaghan.) Gleeks: to give a fellow the gleeks is to press the forefingers into the butt of the ears so as to cause pain: a rough sort of play. (Limerick.) Glenroe, Co. Limerick, 68, 146. {263} Gliggeen; a voluble silly talker. (Munster.) Irish _gluigín_ [gliggeen], a little bell, a little tinkler: from _glog_, same as _clog_, a bell. Gliggerum; applied to a very bad old worn-out watch or clock. (Limerick.) Glit; slimy mud; the green vegetable (_ducksmeat_) that grows on the surface of stagnant water. (Simmons: Armagh.) Gloit; a blockhead of a young fellow. (Knowles.) Glory be to God! Generally a pious exclamation of thankfulness, fear, &c.: but sometimes an ejaculation of astonishment, wonder, admiration, &c. Heard everywhere in Ireland. Glower; to stare or glare at: 'what are you glowerin' at!' (Ulster.) Glugger [_u_ sounded as in _full_]; empty noise; the noise made by shaking an addled egg. Also an addled egg. Applied very often in a secondary sense to a vain empty foolish boaster. (Munster.) Glunter: a stupid person. (Knowles: Ulster.) Goaling: same as Hurling, which see. Gob; the mouth including lips: 'Shut your gob.' Irish _gob_, same meaning. Scotch, 'greedy _gab_.' (Burns.) Gobshell; a big spittle direct from the mouth. (Limerick.) From Irish _gob_, the mouth, and _seile_ [shella], a spittle. Gobs or jackstones; five small round stones with which little girls play against each other, by throwing them up and catching them as they fall; 'there are Nelly and Sally playing gobs.' Gods and goddesses of Pagan Ireland, 177. Godspeed: see Back of God-speed. {264} God's pocket. Mr. Kinahan writes to me:--'The first time I went to the Mullingar hotel I had a delicate child, and spoke to the landlady as to how he was to be put up [during the father's absence by day on outdoor duty]. "Oh never fear sir," replied the good old lady, "the poor child will be _in God's pocket_ here."' Mr. K. goes on to say:--I afterwards found that in all that part of Leinster they never said 'we will make you comfortable,' but always 'you will be in God's pocket,' or 'as snug as in God's pocket.' I heard it said of a widow and orphans whose people were kind to them, that they were in 'God's pocket.' Whether Seumas MacManus ever came across this term I do not know, but he has something very like it in 'A Lad of the O'Friels,' viz., 'I'll make the little girl as happy as if she was _in Saint Peter's pocket_.' Goggalagh, a dotard. (Munster.) Irish _gogail_, the cackling of a hen or goose; also doting; with the usual termination _ach_. Going on; making fun, joking, teasing, chaffing, bantering:--'Ah, now I see you are only _going on_ with me.' 'Stop your _goings on_.' (General.) Golder [_d_ sounded like _th_ in further]; a loud sudden or angry shout. (Patterson: Ulster.) Goleen; an armful. See Gwaul. Gombeen man; a usurer who lends money to small farmers and others of like means, at ruinous interest. The word is now used all over Ireland. Irish _goimbín_ [gombeen], usury. Gommul, gommeril, gommula, all sometimes shortened to _gom_; a simple-minded fellow, a half {265} fool. Irish _gamal_, _gamaille_, _gamairle_, _gamarail_, all same meaning. (_Gamal_ is also Irish for a camel.) Used all over Ireland. Good deed; said of some transaction that is a well-deserved punishment for some wrong or unjust or very foolish course of action. Bill lends some money to Joe, who never returns it, and a friend says:--''Tis a good deed Bill, why did you trust such a schemer?' Barney is bringing home a heavy load, and is lamenting that he did not bring his ass:--''Tis a good deed: where was I coming without Bobby?' (the ass). ('Knocknagow') 'I'm wet to the skin': reply:--''Tis a good deed: why did you go out without your overcoat?' Good boy: in Limerick and other parts of Munster, a young fellow who is good--strong and active--at all athletic exercises, but most especially if he is brave and tough in fighting, is 'a good boy.' The people are looking anxiously at a sailing boat labouring dangerously in a storm on the Shannon, and one of them remarks:--''Tis a good boy that has the rudder in his hand.' (Gerald Griffin.) Good people; The fairies. The word is used merely as _soft sawder_, to _butter them up_, to curry favour with them--to show them great respect at least from the teeth out--lest they might do some injury to the speaker. Googeen [two _g_'s as in _good_ and _get_]; a simple soft-minded person. (Moran: Carlow.) Irish _guag_, same meaning, with the diminutive: _guaigín_. Gopen, gowpen; the full of the two hands used together. (Ulster.) Exactly the same meaning as _Lyre_ in Munster, which see. {266} Gor; the coarse turf or peat which forms the surface of the bog. (Healy: for Ulster.) Gorb; a ravenous eater, a glutton. (Ulster.) Gorsoon: a young boy. It is hard to avoid deriving this from French _garçon_, all the more as it has no root in Irish. Another form often used is _gossoon_, which is derived from Irish:--_gas_, a stem or stalk, a young boy. But the termination _oon_ or _ún_ is suspicious in both cases, for it is not a genuine Irish suffix at all. Gossip; a sponsor in baptism. Goster; gossipy talk. Irish _gastair[)e]_, a prater, a chatterer. 'Dermot go 'long with your goster.' (Moore--in his youth.) Gouloge; a stick with a little fork of two prongs at the end, for turning up hay, or holding down furze while cutting. (South.) Used in the North often in the form of _gollog_. Irish _gabhal_ [gowl], a fork, with the dim. _óg_. Gounau; housewife [huzzif] thread, strong thread for sewing, pack thread. Irish _gabhshnáth_ (Fr. Dinneen), same sound and meaning: from _snáth_, a thread: but how comes in _gabh_? In one of the Munster towns I knew a man who kept a draper's shop, and who was always called _Gounau_, in accordance with the very reprehensible habit of our people to give nicknames. Goureen-roe: a snipe, a jacksnipe. (Munster.) Irish _gabhairín-reó_, the 'little goat of the frost' (reó, frost): because on calm frosty evenings you hear its quivering sound as it flies in the twilight, very like the sound emitted by a goat. Gra, grah; love, fondness, liking. Irish _grádh_ {267} [graw]. 'I have great gra for poor Tom.' I asked an Irishman who had returned from America and settled down again here and did well:--'Why did you come back from America?' 'Ah,' he replied, 'I have great _gra_ for the old country.' Graanbroo; wheat boiled in new milk and sweetened: a great treat to children, and generally made from their own gleanings or _liscauns_, gathered in the fields. Sometimes called _brootheen_. (Munster.) The first from Irish _grán_, grain, and _brúgh_, to break or bruise, to reduce to pulp, or cook, by boiling. _Brootheen_ (also applied to mashed potatoes) is from _brúgh_, with the diminutive. Graanoge, graan-yoge [_aa_ in both long like _a_ in _car_], a hedgehog. Irish _gráineóg_, same sound. Graanshaghaun [_aa_ long as in _car_]; wheat (in grain) boiled. (Joyce: Limerick.) In my early days what we called _graanshaghaun_ was wheat in grains, not boiled, but roasted in an iron pot held over the fire, the wheat being kept stirred till done. Graffaun; a small axe with edge across like an adze for grubbing or _graffing_ land, i.e. rooting out furze and heath in preparation for tillage. Used all through the South. 'This was the word used in Co. Cork law courts.' (Healy.) Irish _grafán_, same sound and meaning. Graip or grape; a dung-fork with three or four prongs. Irish _grápa_. Grammar and Pronunciation, 74. Grammel; to grope or fumble or gather with both hands. (Derry.) Graves, Mr. A. P., 58, &c. Grawls; children. Paddy Corbett, thinking he is {268} ruined, says of his wife:--'God comfort poor Jillian and the grawls I left her.' (Edward Walsh.) 'There's Judy and myself and the poor little grawls.' (Crofton Croker: p. 155.) Grawvar; loving, affectionate:--'That's a grawver poor boy.' (Munster.) Irish _grádhmhar_, same sound and meaning: from _grádh_, love. Grazier; a young rabbit. (South and West.) Great; intimate, closely acquainted:--'Tom Long and Jack Fogarty are very great.' (All over Ireland.) 'Come gie's your hand and sae we're _greet_.' (Burns.) Greedy-gut; a glutton; a person who is selfish about stuffing himself, wishing to give nothing to anyone else. Gorrane Mac Sweeny, when his mistress is in want of provisions, lamenting that the eagles (over Glengarriff) were devouring the game that the lady wanted so badly, says:--'Is it not the greatest pity in life ... that these greedy-guts should be after swallowing the game, and my sweet mistress and her little ones all the time starving.' (Caesar Otway in 'Pen. Journ.') Greenagh; a person that hangs round hoping to get food (Donegal and North-West): a 'Watch-pot.' Greesagh; red hot embers and ashes. 'We roasted our potatoes and eggs in the greesagh.' (All over Ireland.) Irish _gríosach_, same sound. Greet; to cry. 'Tommy was greetin' after his mother.' (Ulster.) Greth; harness of a horse: a general name for all the articles required when yoking a horse to the cart. (Knowles: Ulster.) Griffin, Gerald, author of 'The Collegians,' 5, &c. {269} Grig (greg in Sligo): a boy with sugarstick holds it out to another and says, 'grig, grig,' to triumph over him. Irish _griog_, same sound and meaning. Grinder; a bright-coloured silk kerchief worn round the neck. (Edward Walsh: all over Munster.) Gripe; a trench, generally beside a high ditch or fence. 'I got down into the gripe, thinking to [hide myself].' (Crofton Croker.) Griskin or greeskeen; a small bit of meat cut off to be roasted--usually on the coals. Irish _gríscín_. Grisset; a shallow iron vessel for melting things in, such as grease for dipping rushes, resin for dipping torches (_sluts_ or _paudioges_, which see), melting lead for various purposes, white metals for coining, &c. If a man is growing rapidly rich:--'You'd think he had the grisset down.' Groak or groke; to look on silently--like a dog--at people while they are eating, hoping to be asked to eat a bit. (Derry.) Grogue; three or four sods of turf standing on end, supporting each other like a little pyramid on the bog to dry. (Limerick.) Irish _gruag_, same meaning. Groodles; the broken bits mixed with liquid left at the bottom of a bowl of soup, bread and milk, &c. Group or grup; a little drain or channel in a cow-house to lead off the liquid manure. (Ulster.) Grue or grew; to turn from with disgust:--'He grued at the physic.' (Ulster). Grug; sitting on one's grug means sitting on the heels without touching the ground. (Munster.) Same as Scotch _hunkers_. 'Sit down on your grug and thank God for a seat.' Grumagh or groomagh; gloomy, {270} ill-humoured:--'I met Bill this morning looking very _grumagh_.' (General.) From Irish _gruaim_ [_grooim_], gloom, ill-humour, with the usual suffix _-ach_, equivalent to English _-y_ as in _gloomy_. Grumpy; surly, cross, disagreeable. (General.) Gubbadhaun; a bird that follows the cuckoo. (Joyce.) Gubbaun; a strap tied round the mouth of a calf or foal, with a row of projecting nail points, to prevent it sucking the mother. From Irish _gob_, the mouth, with the diminutive. (South.) Gubbalagh; a mouthful. (Munster.) Irish _goblach_, same sound and meaning. From _gob_, the mouth, with the termination _lach_. Gullion; a sink-pool. (Ulster.) Gulpin; a clownish uncouth fellow. (Ulster.) Gulravage, gulravish; noisy boisterous play. (North-east Ulster.) Gunk; a 'take in,' a 'sell'; as a verb, to 'take in,' to cheat. (Ulster.) Gushers; stockings with the soles cut off. (Morris: Monaghan.) From the Irish. Same as triheens. Gurry; a _bonnive_, a young pig. (Morris: Mon.) Gutter; wet mud on a road (_gutters_ in Ulster). Gwaul [_l_ sounded as in _William_]; the full of the two arms of anything: 'a gwaul of straw.' (Munster.) In Carlow and Wexford, they add the diminutive, and make it _goleen_. Irish _gabháil_. Hain; to hain a field is to let it go to meadow, keeping the cows out of it so as to let the grass grow: possibly from _hayin'_. (Waterford: Healy.) In Ulster _hain_ means to save, to economise. {271} Half a one; half a glass of whiskey. One day a poor blind man walked into one of the Dublin branch banks, which happened to be next door to a public-house, and while the clerks were looking on, rather puzzled as to what he wanted, he slapped two pennies down on the counter; and in no very gentle voice:--'Half a one!' Half joke and whole earnest; an expression often heard in Ireland which explains itself. 'Tim told me--half joke and whole earnest--that he didn't much like to lend me his horse.' Hand; to make a hand of a person is to make fun of him; to humbug him: Lowry Looby, thinking that Mr. Daly is making game of him, says:--''Tis making a hand of me your honour is.' (Gerald Griffin.) Other applications of _hand_ are 'You made a bad hand of that job,' i.e. you did it badly. If a man makes a foolish marriage: 'He made a bad hand of himself, poor fellow.' Hand-and-foot; the meaning of this very general expression is seen in the sentence 'He gave him a hand-and-foot and tumbled him down.' Hand's turn; a very trifling bit of work, an occasion:--'He won't do a hand's turn about the house': 'he scolds me at every hand's turn,' i.e. on every possible occasion. Handy; near, convenient:--'The shop lies handy to me'; an adaptation of the Irish _láimh le_ (meaning _near_). _Láimh le Corcaig_, lit. _at hand with Cork_--near Cork. This again is often expressed _convenient to Cork_, where _convenient_ is intended to mean simply _near_. So it comes that we in Ireland regard _convenient_ and _near_ as exactly synonymous, {272} which they are not. In fact on almost every possible occasion, we--educated and uneducated--use _convenient_ when _near_ would be the proper word. An odd example occurs in the words of the old Irish folk-song:-- 'A sailor courted a farmer's daughter, Who lived _convaynient_ to the Isle of Man.' Hannel; a blow with the spear or spike of a pegging-top (or 'castle-top') down on the wood of another top. Boys often played a game of tops for a certain number of hannels. At the end of the game the victor took his defeated opponent's top, sunk it firmly down into the grassy sod, and then with his own top in his hand struck the other top a number of hannels with the spear of his own to injure it as much as possible. 'Your castle-tops came in for the most hannels.' ('Knocknagow.') Hap; to wrap a person round with any covering, to tuck in the bedclothes round a person. (Ulster.) Hard word (used always with _the_); a hint, an inkling, a tip, a bit of secret information:--'They were planning to betray and cheat me, but Ned gave me the hard word, and I was prepared for them, so that I defeated their schemes.' Hare; to make a hare of a person is to put him down in argument or discussion, or in a contest of wit or cunning; to put him in utter confusion. 'While you were speaking to the little boy that made a hare of you.' (Carleton in Ir. Pen. Journ.) 'Don't talk of your Provost and Fellows of Trinity, Famous for ever at Greek and Latinity, Faix and the divels and all at Divinity-- Father O'Flynn 'd make hares of them all!' (A. P. GRAVES.) {273} Harvest; always used in Ireland for autumn:--'One fine day in harvest.' (Crofton Croker.) Hauling home; bringing home the bride, soon after the wedding, to her husband's house. Called also a 'dragging-home.' It is always made the occasion of festivity only next in importance to the wedding. For a further account, and for a march played at the Hauling home, see my 'Old Irish Folk Music and Songs,' p. 130. Hausel; the opening in the iron head of an axe, adze, or hammer, for the handle. (Ulster.) Haverel: a rude coarse boor, a rough ignorant fellow. (Moran: Carlow.) Havverick; a rudely built house, or an old ruined house hastily and roughly restored:--'How can people live in that old havverick?' (Limerick.) Hayden, Miss Mary, M.A., 5, &c. Healy, Mr. Maurice, 178, &c. Head or harp; a memorial of the old Irish coinage, corresponding with English _head or tail_. The old Irish penny and halfpenny had the king's head on one side and the Irish harp on the other. 'Come now, head or harp,' says the person about to throw up a halfpenny of any kind. Heard tell; an expression used all throughout Ireland:--'I heard tell of a man who walked to Glendalough in a day.' It is old English. Heart-scald; a great vexation or mortification. (General.) Merely the translation of _scallach-croidhe_ [scollagh-cree], _scalding_ of the heart. Hearty; tipsy, exhilarated after a little 'drop.' Hedge schools, 149. {274} Higgins, The Rev. Father, p. 244, and elsewhere. Hinch; the haunch, the thigh. To hinch a stone is to _jerk_ (or _jurk_ as they say in Munster), to hurl it from under instead of over the shoulder. (Ulster.) Hinten; the last sod of the ridge ploughed. (Ulster.) Ho; equal. Always used with a negative, and also in a bad sense, either seriously or in play. A child spills a jug of milk, and the mother says:--'Oh Jacky, there's no _ho_ to you for mischief' (no equal to you). The old woman says to the mischievous gander:--'There's no ho with you for one gander.' (Gerald Griffin: 'The Coiner.') This _ho_ is an Irish word: it represents the sound of the Irish prefix _cho_ or _chomh_, equal, as much as, &c. 'There's no ho to Jack Lynch' means there's no one for whom you can use _cho_ (equal) in comparing him with Jack Lynch. Hobbler; a small cock of fresh hay about 4 feet high. (Moran: Carlow.) Hobby; a kind of Irish horse, which, three or four centuries ago, was known all over Europe 'and held in great esteem for their easy amble: and from this kind of horse the Irish light-armed bodies of horse were called hobellers.' (Ware. See my 'Smaller Social History of Ancient Ireland,' p. 487.) Hence a child's toy, a hobby-horse. Hence a favourite pursuit is called a 'hobby.' Hoil; a mean wretched dwelling: an uncomfortable situation. (Morris: South Monaghan.) Hollow; used as an adverb as follows:--'Jack Cantlon's horse beat the others hollow in the race': i.e. beat them utterly. {275} Holy show: 'You're a holy show in that coat,' i.e. it makes quite a show of you; makes you look ridiculous. (General.) Holy well; a well venerated on account of its association with an Irish saint: in most cases retaining the name of the saint:--'Tober-Bride,' St. Bride's or Brigit's well. In these wells the early saints baptised their converts. They are found all through Ireland, and people often pray beside them and make their _rounds_. (See 'Smaller Social History of Ancient Ireland.') Hool or hooley; the same as a Black swop. Hot-foot; at once, immediately:--'Off I went hot-foot.' 'As soon as James heard the news, he wrote a letter hot-foot to his father.' Houghle; to wobble in walking. (Armagh.) Hugger-mugger: see Cugger-mugger. Huggers or hogars, stockings without feet. (Ulster.) Hulk; a rough surly fellow. (Munster.) A bad person. (Simmons: Armagh.) Irish _olc_, bad. Hungry-grass: see Fair-gurtha. Hunker-slide; to slide on ice sitting on the hunkers (or as they would say in Munster, sitting on one's _grug_) instead of standing up straight: hence to act with duplicity: to shirk work:--'None of your hunker-sliding for me.' (Ulster.) Hurling; the common game of ball and hurley or _commaun_. The chief terms (besides those mentioned elsewhere) are:--_Puck_, the blow of the hurley on the ball: The _goals_ are the two gaps at opposite sides of the field through which the players try to drive the ball. When the ball is thrown high up between two players with their {276} commauns ready drawn to try which will strike it on its way down: that is _high-rothery_. When two adjacent parishes or districts contended (instead of two small parties at an ordinary match), that was _scoobeen_ or 'conquering goal' (Irish _scuab_, a broom: _scoobeen_, _sweeping_ the ball away). I have seen at least 500 on each side engaged in one of these _scoobeens_; but that was in the time of the eight millions--before 1847. Sometimes there were bad blood and dangerous quarrels at scoobeens. See Borick, Sippy, Commaun, and Cool. (For the ancient terms see my 'Smaller Social History of Ancient Ireland,' p. 513.) For examples of these great contests, see Very Rev. Dr. Sheehan's 'Glenanaar,' pp. 4, 231. Hurt: a whortleberry: hurts are _fraughans_, which see. From _whort_. (Munster.) Husho or rather huzho; a lullaby, a nurse-song, a cradle-song; especially the chorus, consisting of a sleepy _cronaun_ or croon--like 'shoheen-sho Loo-lo-lo,' &c. Irish _suantraighe_ [soontree]. 'The moaning of a distant stream that kept up a continual _cronane_ like a nurse _hushoing_.' 'My mother was hushoing my little sister, striving to quieten her.' (Both from Crofton Croker.) 'The murmur of the ocean _huzhoed_ me to sleep.' (Irish Folk Song:--'McKenna's Dream.') Idioms; influence of the Irish language on, 4:--derived from Irish, 23. If; often used in the sense of _although_, _while_, or some such signification, which will be best understood from the following examples:--A Dublin {277} jarvey who got sixpence for a long drive, said in a rage:--'I'm in luck to-day; but _if I am_, 'tis blazing _bad_ luck.' 'Bill ran into the house, and if he did, the other man seized him round the waist and threw him on his back.' If that. This is old English, but has quite disappeared from the standard language of the present day, though still not unfrequently heard in Ireland:--'If that you go I'll go with you.' '_If_ from Sally _that_ I get free, My dear I love you most tenderlie.' (Irish Folk Song--'Handsome Sally.') 'And _if that_ you wish to go further Sure God He made Peter His own, The keys of His treasures He gave him, To govern the old Church of Rome.' (Old Irish Folk Song.) Inagh´ or in-yah´ [both strongly accented on second syll.]; a satirical expression of dissent or disbelief, like the English _forsooth_, but much stronger. A fellow boasting says:--'I could run ten miles in an hour': and another replies, 'You could _inah_': meaning 'Of course I don't believe a word of it.' A man coming back from the other world says to a woman:--'I seen your [dead] husband there too, ma'am;' to which she replies:--'My husband _inah_.' (Gerald Griffin: 'Collegians.') Irish _an eadh_, same sound and meaning. Inch; a long strip of level grassy land along a river. Very general. Irish _inis_ [innish], of the same family as Lat. _insula_: but _inis_ is older than _insula_ which is a diminutive and consequently a derived form. 'James, go out and drive the cows down to the inch.' Insense´; to make a person understand;--'I can't {278} insense him into his letters.' 'I insensed him into the way the job was to be done.' [Accent on -sense´.] In tow with; in close acquaintance with, courting. John is in tow with Jane Sullivan. Ire, sometimes _ira_; children who go barefoot sometimes get _ire_ in the feet; i.e. the skin chapped and very sore. Also an inflamed spot on the skin rendered sore by being rubbed with some coarse seam, &c. Irish language; influence of, on our dialect, 1, 23. Jackeen; a nickname for a conceited Dublin citizen of the lower class. Jack Lattin, 172. Jap or jop; to splash with mud. (Ulster.) Jaw; impudent talk: _jawing_; scolding, abusing:-- 'He looked in my face and he gave me some jaw, Saying "what brought you over from Erin-go-braw?"' (Irish Folk Song.) Jingle; one of Bianconi's long cars. Johnny Magorey; a hip or dog-haw; the fruit of the dog-rose. (Central and Eastern counties.) Join; to begin at anything; 'the child joined to cry'; 'my leg joined to pain me'; 'the man joined to plough.' (North.) Jokawn; an oaten stem cut off above the joint, with a tongue cut in it, which sounds a rude kind of music when blown by the mouth. (Limerick.) Irish _geocán_, same sound and meaning. Jowlter, fish-jowlter; a person who hawks about fish through the country, to sell. (South.) Just: often used as a final expletive--more in {279} Ulster than elsewhere:--'Will you send anyone?' 'Yes, Tommy just.' 'Where are you going now?' 'To the fair just.' Keenagh or keenagh-lee: mildew often seen on cheese, jam, &c. In a damp house everything gets covered with _keenagh-lee_. Irish _caonach_, moss; _caonach-lee_, mildew: _lee_ is Irish _liagh_ [lee], grey. (North and North-West of Ireland.) Keeping: a man is _on his keeping_ when he is hiding away from the police, who are on his track for some offence. This is from the Irish _coiméad_, keeping; _air mo choiméad_, 'on my keeping.' Keeroge; a beetle or clock. Irish _ciar_ [keer], dark, black, with the diminutive _óg_: _keeroge_, 'black little fellow.' Kelters, money, coins: 'He has the kelthers,' said of a rich man. _Yellow kelters_, gold money: 'She has the kelthers': means she has a large fortune. (Moran: Carlow.) Kemp or camp; to compete: two or more persons kemp against each other in any work to determine which will finish first. (Ulster.) See Carleton's story, 'The Rival Kempers.' Keolaun; a contemptible little creature, boy or man. (South and West.) Keowt; a low contemptible fellow. Kepper; a slice of bread with butter, as distinguished from a _dundon_, which see. Kesh; a rough bridge over a river or morass, made with poles, wickerwork, &c.--overlaid with bushes and _scraws_ (green sods). Understood all through Ireland. A small one over a drain in a bog is {280} often called in Tipperary and Waterford a _kishoge_, which is merely the diminutive. Kib; to put down or plant potatoes, each seed in a separate hole made with a spade. Irish _ciob_, same sound and meaning. Kickham, Charles, author of 'Knocknagow,' 5, &c. Kiddhoge, a wrap of any kind that a woman throws hastily over her shoulders. (Ulster.) Irish _cuideóg_, same sound and sense here. Kilfinane, Co. Limerick, 147. Killeen; a quantity:--'That girl has a good killeen of money. (Ulster.) Irish _cillín_ [killeen]. Killeen; an old churchyard disused except for the occasional burial of unbaptised infants. Irish _cill_, a church, with the diminutive _ín_. Kimmeen; a sly deceitful trick; kimmeens or kymeens, small crooked ways:--'Sure you're not equal to the _kimmeens_ of such complete deceivers at all at all.' (Sam Lover in Ir. Pen. Mag.) Irish _com_, crooked; diminutive _cuimín_ [kimmeen]. Kimmel-a-vauleen; uproarious fun. Irish _cimel-a'-mháilín_, literally 'rub-the-bag.' There is a fine Irish jig with this name. (South.) Kink; a knot or short twist in a cord. Kink; a fit of coughing or laughing: 'they were in kinks of laughing.' Hence _chincough_, for whooping-cough, i.e. _kink_-cough. I know a holy well that has the reputation of curing whooping-cough, and hence called the 'Kink-well.' Kinleen or keenleen, or kine-leen; a single straw or corn stem. (South.) Irish _caoinlín_, same sound. Kinleen-roe; an icicle: the same word as last with the addition of _reo_ [roe], frost: 'frost-stem.' {281} Kinnatt´, [1st syll. very short; accent on 2nd syll.: to rhyme with _cat_]; an impertinent conceited impudent little puppy. Kippen or kippeen; any little bit of stick: often used as a sort of pet name for a formidable cudgel or shillelah for fighting. Irish _cip_ [kip], a stake or stock, with the diminutive. Kish; a large square basket made of wattles and wickerwork used for measuring turf or for holding turf on a cart. Sometimes (South) called a _kishaun_. Irish _cis_ or _ciseán_, same sounds and meanings: also called _kishagh_. Kishtha; a treasure: very common in Connaught, where it is often understood to be hidden treasure in a fort under the care of a leprachaun. Irish _ciste_, same sound and meaning. Kitchen; any condiment or relish eaten with the plain food of a meal, such as butter, dripping, &c. A very common saying in Tyrone against any tiresome repetition is:--'Butter to butter is no kitchen.' As a verb; to use sparingly, to economise:--'Now kitchen that bit of bacon for you have no more.' Kitthoge or kitthagh; a left-handed person. Understood through all Ireland. Irish _ciotóg_, _ciotach_, same sounds and meaning. Kitterdy; a simpleton, a fool. (Ulster.) Knauvshauling [the _k_ sounded distinctly]; grumbling, scolding, muttering complaints. (Limerick.) From Irish _cnamh_ [knauv: _k_ sounded], a bone, the jawbone. The underlying idea is the same as when we speak of a person giving _jaw_. See Jaw. 'Knocknagow ': see Kickham. Kybosh; some sort of difficulty or 'fix':--'He put the kybosh on him: he defeated him.' (Moran: Carlow.) {282} Kyraun, keeraun; a small bit broken off from a sod of turf. Irish _caor_, or with the diminutive, _caorán_, same sound and meaning. Laaban; a rotten sterile egg (Morris: for South Monaghan): same as _Glugger_, which see. Irish _láb_ or _láib_, mire, dirt, with diminutive. Lad; a mischievous tricky fellow:--'There's no standing them lads.' (Gerald Griffin.) Lagheryman or Logheryman. (Ulster.) Same as Leprachaun, which see. Lambaisting; a sound beating. Quite common in Munster. Langel; to tie the fore and the hind leg of a cow or goat with a spancel or fetter to prevent it going over fences. (Ulster.) Irish _langal_, same sound and meaning. Lapcock; an armful or roll of grass laid down on the sward to dry for hay. (Ulster.) Lark-heeled; applied to a person having long sharp heels. See Saulavotcheer. Larrup; to wallop, to beat soundly. (Donegal and South.) Lashings, plenty: lashings and leavings, plenty and to spare: specially applied to food at meals. (General.) Lassog, a blaze of light. (Morris: South Monaghan.) From Irish _las_, light, with the diminutive. Lauchy; applied to a person in the sense of pleasant, good-natured, lovable. Irish _láchaiidhe_, same sound and sense. (Banim: general in the South.) 'He's a _lauchy_ boy.' Laudy-daw; a pretentious fellow that sets up to be a great swell. (Moran: Carlow; and South.) {283} Launa-vaula; full and plenty:--There was launa-vaula at the dinner. Irish _lán-a-mhála_ (same sound), 'full bags.' Lazy man's load. A lazy man takes too many things in one load to save the trouble of going twice, and thereby often lets them fall and breaks them. Learn is used for _teach_ all over Ireland, but more in Ulster than elsewhere. Don't forget to 'larn the little girl her catechiz.' (Seumas Mac Manus.) An old English usage: but dead and gone in England now. Leather; to beat:--'I gave him a good leathering,' i.e., a beating, a thrashing. This is not derived, as might be supposed, from the English word _leather_ (tanned skin), but from Irish, in which it is of very old standing:--_Letrad_ (modern _leadradh_), cutting, hacking, lacerating: also a champion fighter, a warrior, a _leatherer_. (Corm. Gloss.--9th cent.) Used all through Ireland. Leather-wing; a bat. (South.) Lee, the Very Rev. Patrick, V. F., of Kilfinane, 148. Lebbidha; an awkward, blundering, half-fool of a fellow. (South.) Irish _leibide_, same sound and meaning. Leg bail; a person gives (or takes) _leg bail_ when he runs away, absconds. (General.) Lend; loan. Ned came 'for the _lend_ of the ould mare.' ('Knocknagow.') Often used in the following way:--'Come and lend a hand,' i.e., give some help. 'Our shooting party comes off to-morrow: will you _lend_ your gun': an invitation to join the party. (Kinahan.) {284} Leprachaun; a sort of fairy, called by several names in different parts of Ireland:--luricaun, cluricaun, lurragadaun, loghryman, luprachaun. This last is the nearest to the Gaelic original, all the preceding anglicised forms being derived from it. Luprachaun itself is derived by a metathesis from Irish _luchorpán_, from _lu_, little, and _corpán_, the dim. of _corp_, a body:--'weeny little body.' The reader will understand all about this merry little chap from the following short note and song written by me and extracted from my 'Ancient Irish Music' (in which the air also will be found). The leprachaun is a very tricky little fellow, usually dressed in a green coat, red cap, and knee-breeches, and silver shoe-buckles, whom you may sometimes see in the shades of evening, or by moonlight, under a bush; and he is generally making or mending a shoe: moreover, like almost all fairies, he would give the world for _pottheen_. If you catch him and hold him, he will, after a little threatening, show you where treasure is hid, or give you a purse in which you will always find money. But if you once take your eyes off him, he is gone in an instant; and he is very ingenious in devising tricks to induce you to look round. It is very hard to catch a leprachaun, and still harder to hold him. I never heard of any man who succeeded in getting treasure from him, except one, a lucky young fellow named MacCarthy, who, according to the peasantry, built the castle of Carrigadrohid near Macroom in Cork with the money. Every Irishman understands well the terms _cruiskeen_ and _mountain dew_, some indeed a little too well; but {285} for the benefit of the rest of the world, I think it better to state that a _cruískeen_ is a small jar, and that _mountain dew_ is _pottheen_ or illicit whiskey. In a shady nook one moonlight night, A leprachaun I spied; With scarlet cap and coat of green; A cruiskeen by his side. 'Twas tick tack tick, his hammer went, Upon a weeny shoe; And I laughed to think of a purse of gold; But the fairy was laughing too. With tip-toe step and beating heart, Quite softly I drew nigh: There was mischief in his merry face;-- A twinkle in his eye. He hammered and sang with tiny voice, And drank his mountain dew: And I laughed to think he was caught at last:-- But the fairy was laughing too. As quick as thought I seized the elf; 'Your fairy purse!' I cried; 'The purse!' he said--''tis in her hand-- 'That lady at your side!' I turned to look: the elf was off! Then what was I to do? O, I laughed to think what a fool I'd been; And the fairy was laughing too. Let out; a spree, an entertainment. (General.) 'Mrs. Williams gave a great let out.' Libber; this has much the same meaning as _flipper_, which see: an untidy person careless about his dress and appearance--an easy-going _ould sthreel_ of a man. I have heard an old fellow say, regarding those that went before him--father, {286} grandfather, &c.--that they were 'ould _aancient_ libbers,' which is the Irish peasant's way of expressing Gray's 'rude forefathers of the hamlet.' Lief; willing: 'I had as lief be working as not.' 'I had liefer': I had rather. (General.) This is an old English word, now fallen out of use in England, but common here. Lifter; a beast that is so weak from starvation (chiefly in March when grass is withered up) that it can hardly stand and has to be lifted home from the hill-pasture to the stable. (Kinahan: Connemara.) Light; a little touched in the head, a little crazed:--'Begor sir if you say I know nothing about sticks your head must be getting light in earnest.' (Robert Dwyer Joyce.) Likely; well-looking: 'a likely girl'; 'a _clane_ likely boy.' Likes; 'the likes of you': persons or _a person_ like you or in your condition. Very common in Ireland. 'I'll not have any dealings with the likes of him.' Colonel Lake, Inspector General of Constabulary in last century, one afternoon met one of his recruits on the North Circular Road, Dublin, showing signs of liquor, and stopped him. 'Well, my good fellow, what is your name please?' The recruit replied:--'Who are you, and what right have you to ask my name?' 'I am Colonel Lake, your inspector general.' The recruit eyed him closely:--'Oh begor your honour, if that's the case it's not right for the likes of me to be talking to the likes of you': on which he turned round and took leg bail on the spot like a deer, leaving {287} the inspector general standing on the pathway. The Colonel often afterwards told that story with great relish. Linnaun-shee or more correct _Lannaun-shee_; a familiar spirit or fairy that attaches itself to a mortal and follows him. From Irish _leannán_, a lover, and _sídh_ [shee], a fairy: _lannaun-shee_, 'fairy-lover.' Linnie; a long shed--a sort of barn--attached to a a farm house for holding farm-yard goods and articles of various kinds--carts, spades, turnips, corn, &c. (Munster.) Irish _lann-iotha_, lit. 'corn-house.' Lint; in Ulster, a name for flax. Linthern or lenthern; a small drain or sewer covered with flags for the passage of water, often under a road from side to side. (Munster.) Irish _lintreán_, _linntreach_ [lintran, lintragh]. Liscauns; gleanings of corn from the field after reaping: 'There's Mary gathering _liscauns_.' (South.) Irish. Loanen; a lane, a _bohereen_. (Ulster.) Lob; a quantity, especially of money or of any valuable commodity:--''Tis reported that Jack got a great lob of money with his wife.' A person is trying to make himself out very useful or of much consequence, and another says satirically--generally in play:--'Oh what a _lob_ you are!' Lock; a quantity or batch of anything--generally small:--a lock of straw; a lock of sheep. (General.) Logey; heavy or fat as applied to a person. (Moran: Carlow.) Also the fireplace in a flax-kiln. Lone; unmarried:--'A lone man'; 'a lone woman.' {288} Long family; a common expression for a large family. Lood, loodh, lude; ashamed: 'he was lude of himself when he was found out.' (South.) Loody; a loose heavy frieze coat. (Munster.) Loof; the open hand, the palm of the hand. (Ulster.) Irish _lámh_ [lauv], the hand. Loo-oge or lu-oge; the eel-fry a couple of inches long that come up the southern Blackwater periodically in myriads, and are caught and sold as food. (Waterford: Healy.) Irish _luadhóg_, same sound and meaning. Loose leg; when a person is free from any engagement or impediment that bound him down--'he has a loose leg'--free to act as he likes. 'I have retired from the service with a pension, so that now I have a loose leg.' The same is often said of a prisoner discharged from jail. Lord; applied as a nickname to a hunchback. The hunchback Danny Mann in 'The Collegians' is often called 'Danny the lord.' Losset; a kneading tray for making cakes. Lossagh; a sudden blaze from a turf fire. Irish _las_ [loss], a blaze, with the usual termination _ach_. Lossoge; a handful or little bundle of sticks for firing. (Mayo.) Irish _las_ [loss], fire, a blaze, with the diminutive termination. Low-backed car; a sort of car common in the southern half of Ireland down to the middle of the last century, used to bring the country people and their farm produce to markets. Resting on the shafts was a long flat platform placed lengthwise {289} and sloping slightly downwards towards the back, on which were passengers and goods. Called trottle-car in Derry. Loy; a spade. Used in the middle of Ireland all across from shore to shore. Irish _láighe_, same sound and meaning. Luck-penny; a coin given by the seller to the buyer after a bargain has been concluded: given to make sure that the buyer will have luck with the animal or article he buys. Ludeen or loodeen [_d_ sounded like _th_ in _then_]; the little finger. Irish _lúidín_, same sound and meaning. From _lu_, little, with the diminutive termination. Lu-oge: see Loo-oge. Luscan; a spot on the hillside from which the furze and heath have been burned off. (Wicklow and round about.) From Irish _losc_ to burn: _luscan_, 'burned little spot.' Lusmore; fairy-thimble, fairy-finger, foxglove, _Digitalis purpurea_; an herb of mighty power in fairy lore. Irish _lus_, herb; _mór_, great; 'mighty herb.' Lybe; a lazy fellow. (MacCall: Wex.) See Libber. Lyre; the full of the two hands used together: a beggar usually got a _lyre_ of potatoes. (Munster: same as _gopen_ in Ulster.) Irish _ladhar_, same sound and meaning. MacManus, Seumas, 5, &c. Mad; angry. There are certain Irish words, such as _buileamhail_, which might denote either _mad_ or very _angry_: hence in English you very often hear:--'Oh the master is very mad with you,' {290} i.e. angry. 'Excessively angry' is often expressed this way in dialect language:--'The master is blazing mad about that accident to the mare.' But even this expression is classical Irish; for we read in the Irish Bible that Moses went away from Pharaoh, _air lasadh le feírg_, 'blazing with anger.' 'Like mad' is often used to denote very quickly or energetically: Crofton Croker speaks of people who were 'dancing like mad.' This expression is constantly heard in Munster. Maddha-brishtha; an improvised tongs, such as would be used with a fire in the fields, made from a strong twig bent sharp. (Derry.) Irish _maide_ [maddha], a stick; _briste_, broken:--'broken stick.' Maddhiaghs or muddiaghs; same as last, meaning simply 'sticks': the two ends giving the idea of plurality. (Armagh.) Maddhoge or middhoge; a dagger. (North and South.) Irish _meadóg_ or _miodóg_. Made; fortunate:--'I'm a made man' (or 'a _med_ man'), meaning 'my fortune is made.' (Crofton Croker--but used very generally.) Mag; a swoon:--'Light of grace,' she exclaimed, dropping in a _mag_ on the floor. (Edward Walsh: used all over Munster.) Maisled; speckled; a lazy young fellow's shins get maisled from sitting before the fire. (Knowles: Ulster.) Make; used in the South in the following way:--'This will make a fine day': 'That cloth will make a fine coat': 'If that fellow was shaved he'd make a handsome young man' (Irish folk-song): 'That Joe of yours is a clever fellow: no doubt he'll {291} make a splendid doctor.' The noun _makings_ is applied similarly:--'That young fellow is the makings of a great scholar.' Man above. In Irish God is often designated _an Fear suas_ or _an t-� suas_ ('the Man above,' 'the Person above'): thus in Hardiman's 'Irish Minstrelsy' (I. 228):--_Comarc an t-� tá shuas ort_: 'the protection of the Person who is above be on thee': _an Fear suas_ occurs in the Ossianic Poems. Hence they use this term all through the South:--'As cunning as he is he can't hide his knavery from _the Man above_.' Man in the gap, 182. Mankeeper; used North and South as the English name of the little lizard called in Irish 'Art-loochra,' which see. Mannam; my soul: Irish _m'anam_, same sound and meaning:--'Mannam on ye,' used as an affectionate exclamation to a child. (Scott: Derry.) Many; 'too many' is often used in the following way, when two persons were in rivalry of any kind, whether of wit, of learning, or of strength:--'James was too many for Dick,' meaning he was an overmatch for him. Maol, Mail, Maileen, Moileen, Moilie (these two last forms common in Ulster; the others elsewhere); a hornless cow. Irish _Maol_ [mwail], same meaning. Quite a familiar word all through Ireland. One night Jacky was sent out, much against his will, for an armful of turf, as the fire was getting low; and in a moment afterwards, the startled family heard frantic yells. Just as they jumped up Jacky rushed in still yelling with his whole throat. {292} 'What's the matter--what's wrong!' 'Oh I saw the divel!' 'No you didn't, you fool, 'twas something else you saw.' 'No it wasn't, 'twas the divel I saw--didn't I know him well!' 'How did you know him--did you see his horns?' 'I didn't: he had no horns--he was a _mwail_ divel--sure that's how I knew him!' They ran out of course; but the _mwail_ divel was gone, leaving behind him, standing up against the turf-rick, the black little _Maol_ Kerry cow. Margamore; the 'Great Market' held in Derry immediately before Christmas or Easter. (Derry.) Irish _margadh_ [marga], a market, _mór_ [more], great. Martheen; a stocking with the foot cut off. (Derry.) Irish _mairtín_, same sound and meaning. _Martheens_ are what they call in Munster _triheens_, which see. Mass, celebration of, 144. Mau-galore; nearly drunk: Irish _maith_ [mau], good: _go leór_, plenty: 'purty well I thank you,' as the people often say: meaning almost the same as Burns's 'I was na fou but just had plenty.' (Common in Munster.) Mauleen; a little bag: usually applied in the South to the little sack slung over the shoulder of a potato-planter, filled with the _potato-sets_ (or _skillauns_), from which the setter takes them one by one to plant them. In Ulster and Scotland, the word is _mailin_, which is sometimes applied to a purse:--'A _mailin_ plenished (filled) fairly.' (Burns.) Maum; the full of the two hands used together {293} (Kerry); the same as _Lyre_ and _Gopan_, which see. Irish _Mám_, same sound and meaning. Mavourneen; my love. (Used all through Ireland.) Irish _Mo-mhúirnín_, same sound and meaning. See Avourneen. May-day customs, 170. Méaracaun [mairacaun]; a thimble. Merely the Irish _méaracán_, same sound and meaning: from _méar_, a finger, with the diminutive termination _cán_. Applied in the South to the fairy-thimble or foxglove, with usually a qualifying word:--Mearacaun-shee (_shee_, a fairy--fairy thimble) or Mearacaun-na-man-shee (where na-man-shee is the Irish _na-mban-sidhe_, of the _banshees_ or fairy-women). 'Lusmore,' another name, which see. Mearing; a well-marked boundary--but not necessarily a raised _ditch_--a fence between two farms, or two fields, or two bogs. Old English. Mease: a measure for small fish, especially herrings:--'The fisherman brought in ten mease of herrings.' Used all round the Irish coast. It is the Irish word _mías_ [meece], a dish. Mee-aw; a general name for the potato blight. Irish _mí-adh_ [mee-aw], ill luck: from Irish _mí_, bad, and _ádh_, luck. But _mee-aw_ is also used to designate 'misfortune' in general. Meela-murder; 'a thousand murders': a general exclamation of surprise, alarm, or regret. The first part is Irish--_míle_ [meela], a thousand; the second is of course English. Meelcar´ [_car_ long like the English word _car_]; also called _meelcartan_; a red itchy sore on the sole of the foot just at the edge. It is believed by the {294} people to be caused by a red little flesh-worm, and hence the name _míol_ [meel], a worm, and _cearr_ [car], an old Irish word for red:--Meel-car, 'red-worm.' (North and South.) Meeraw; ill luck. (Munster.) From Irish _mí_, ill, and ráth [raw], luck:--'There was some _meeraw_ on the family. Melder of corn; the quantity sent to the mill and ground at one time. (Ulster.) Memory of History and of Old Customs, 143. Merrow; a mermaid. Irish _murrughagh_ [murrooa], from _muir_, the sea. She dives and travels under sea by means of a hood and cape called _cohuleen-dru_: _cochall_, a hood and cape (with diminutive termination); _druádh_, druidical: 'magical cape.' Midjilinn or middhilin; the thong of a flail. (Morris: South Monaghan.) Mihul or mehul [_i_ and _e_ short]; a number of men engaged in any farm-work, especially corn-reaping, still used in the South and West. It is the very old Irish word _meithel_, same sound and meaning. Mills. The old English game of 'nine men's morris' or 'nine men's merrils' or _mills_ was practised in my native place when I was a boy. We played it on a diagram of three squares one within another, connected by certain straight lines, each player having nine counters. It is mentioned by Shakespeare ('Midsummer-Night's Dream'). I learned to be a good player, and could play it still if I could meet an antagonist. How it reached Limerick I do not know. A few years ago I saw two persons playing mills in a hotel in Llandudno; and my heart went out to them. {295} Mind; often used in this way:--'Will you write that letter to-day?' 'No: I won't mind it to-day: I'll write it to-morrow.' Minnikin; a very small pin. Minister; always applied in Ireland to a Protestant clergyman. Miscaun, mescaun, mescan, miscan; a roll or lump of butter. Irish _mioscán_ [miscaun]. Used all over Ireland. Mitch; to play truant from school. Mitchelstown, Co. Cork, 155. Moanthaun; boggy land. Moantheen; a little bog. (Munster.) Both dims. of Irish _móin_, a bog. Molly; a man who busies himself about women's affairs or does work that properly belongs to women. (Leinster.) Same as _sheela_ in the South. Moneen; a little _moan_ or bog; a green spot in a bog where games are played. Also a sort of jig dance-tune: so called because often danced on a green _moneen_. (Munster.) Month's Mind; Mass and a general memorial service for the repose of the soul of a person, celebrated a month after death. The term was in common use in England until the change of religion at the Reformation; and now it is not known even to English Roman Catholics. (Woollett.) It is in constant use in Ireland, and I think among Irish Catholics everywhere. But the practice is kept up by Catholics all over the world. Mind, 'Memory.' Mootch: to move about slowly and meaninglessly: without intelligence. A mootch is a slow stupid person. (South.) {296} Moretimes; often used as corresponding to _sometimes_: 'Sometimes she employs herself at sewing, and moretimes at knitting.' Mor-yah; a derisive expression of dissent to drive home the untruthfulness of some assertion or supposition or pretence, something like the English 'forsooth,' but infinitely stronger:--A notorious schemer and cheat puts on airs of piety in the chapel and thumps his breast in great style; and a spectator says:--Oh how pious and holy Joe is growing--_mar-yah_! 'Mick is a great patriot, mor-yah!--he'd sell his country for half a crown.' Irish _mar-sheadh_ [same sound], 'as it were.' Mossa; a sort of assertive particle used at the opening of a sentence, like the English _well_, _indeed_: carrying little or no meaning. 'Do you like your new house?'--'Mossa I don't like it much.' Another form of _wisha_, and both anglicised from the Irish _má'seadh_, used in Irish in much the same sense. Mountain dew; a fanciful and sort of pet name for pottheen whiskey: usually made in the _mountains_. Mounthagh, mounthaun; a toothless person. (Munster.) From the Irish _mant_ [mounth], the gum, with the terminations. Both words are equivalent to _gummy_, a person whose mouth is _all gums_. Moutre. In very old times a mill-owner commonly received as payment for grinding corn one-tenth of the corn ground--in accordance with the Brehon Law. This custom continued to recent times--and probably continues still--in Ulster, {297} where the quantity given to the miller is called _moutre_, or _muter_, or _mooter_. Mulharten; a flesh-worm: a form of meelcartan. See Meelcar. Mullaberta; arbitration. (Munster.) Merely the Irish _moladh-beirte_, same sound and meaning: in which _moladh_ [mulla] is 'appraisement'; and _beirt[)e]_, gen. of _beart_, 'two persons':--lit. 'appraisement of two.' The word mullaberta has however in recent times drifted to mean a loose unbusinesslike settlement. (Healy.) Mummers, 171. Murray, Mr. Patrick, schoolmaster of Kilfinane, 153, 154, and under 'Roasters,' below. Murrogh O'Brien, Earl of Inchiquin, 165. Musicianer for musician is much in use all over Ireland. Of English origin, and used by several old English writers, among others by Collier. Nab; a knowing old-fashioned little fellow. (Derry.) Naboc´lesh; never mind. (North and South.) Irish _ná-bac-leis_ (same sound), 'do not stop to mind it,' or 'pass it over.' Nail, paying on the nail, 183. Naygur; a form of _niggard_: a wretched miser:-- 'I certainly thought my poor heart it would bleed To be trudging behind that old naygur.' (Old Munster song; 'The Spalpeen's Complaint': from 'Old Irish Folk Music and Songs.') 'In all my ranging and serenading, I met no naygur but humpy Hyde.' (See 'Castlehyde' in my 'Old Irish Music and Songs.') {298} Nicely: often used in Ireland as shown here:-- 'Well, how is your [sick] mother to-day?' 'Oh she's nicely,' or 'doing nicely, thank you'; i.e. getting on very well--satisfactorily. A still stronger word is _bravely_. 'She's doing bravely this morning'; i.e. extremely well--better than was expected. Nim or nym; a small bit of anything. (Ulster.) Noggin; a small vessel, now understood to hold two glasses; also called naggin. Irish _noigín_. Nose; to pay through the nose; to pay and be made to pay, against your grain, the full sum without delay or mitigation. Oanshagh; a female fool, corresponding with omadaun, a male fool. Irish _óinseach_, same sound and meaning: from _ón_, a fool, and _seach_, the feminine termination. Offer; an attempt:--'I made an offer to leap the fence but failed.' Old English, influence of, on our dialect, 6. Oliver's summons, 184. On or upon; in addition to its functions as explained at pp. 27, 28, it is used to express obligation:-- 'Now I put it _upon_ you to give Bill that message for me': one person meeting another on Christmas Day says:--'My Christmas box _on_ you,' i.e. 'I put it as an obligation on you to give me a Christmas box.' Once; often used in this manner:--'Once he promises he'll do it' (Hayden and Hartog): 'Once you pay the money you are free,' i.e. _if_ or _when_ you pay. O'Neills and their war-cry, 179. {299} Oshin [sounded nearly the same as the English word ocean]; a weakly creature who cannot do his fair share of work. (Innishowen, Donegal.) Out; used, in speaking of time, in the sense of _down_ or _subsequently_:--'His wife led him a mighty uneasy life from the day they married _out_.' (Gerald Griffin: Munster.) 'You'll pay rent for your house for the first seven years, and you will have it free from that _out_.' Out; to call a person _out of his name_ is to call him by a wrong name. Out; 'be off out of that' means simply _go away_. Out; 'I am out with him' means I am not on terms with him--I have fallen out with him. Overright; opposite, in front of: the same meaning as _forenenst_; but _forenenst_ is English, while overright is a wrong translation from an Irish word--_ós-cómhair_. _Os_ means over, and _comhair_ opposite: but this last word was taken by speakers to be _cóir_ (for both are sounded alike), and as _cóir_ means _right_ or just, so they translated _os-comhair_ as if it were _ós-cóir_, 'over-right.' (Russell: Munster.) Paddhereen; a prayer: dim. of Latin _Pater_ (_Pater Noster_). _Paddereen Paurtagh_, the Rosary: from Irish _páirteach_, sharing or partaking: because usually several join in it. Páideóge [paudh-yoge]; a torch made of a wick dipped in melted rosin (Munster): what they call a _slut_ in Ulster. Paghil or pahil; a lump or bundle, 108. (Ulster.) Palatines, 65. Palleen; a rag: a torn coat is 'all in _paleens_.' (Derry.) {300} Palm; the yew-tree, 184. Pampooty; a shoe made of untanned hide. (West.) Pandy; potatoes mashed up with milk and butter. (Munster.) Pannikin; now applied to a small tin drinking-vessel: an old English word that has fallen out of use in England, but is still current in Ireland: applied down to last century to a small earthenware pot used for boiling food. These little vessels were made at Youghal and Ardmore (Co. Waterford). The earthenware pannikins have disappeared, their place being supplied by tinware. (Kinahan.) Parisheen; a foundling; one brought up in childhood by the _parish_. (Kildare.) Parson; was formerly applied to a Catholic parish priest: but in Ireland it now always means a Protestant minister. Parthan; a crab-fish. (Donegal.) Merely the Irish _partan_, same sound and meaning. Parts; districts, territories:--'Prince and plinnypinnytinshary of these parts' (King O'Toole and St. Kevin): 'Welcome to these parts.' (Crofton Croker.) Past; 'I wouldn't put it _past_ him,' i.e. I think him bad or foolish enough (to do it). Past; more than: 'Our landlord's face we rarely see past once in seven years'--Irish Folk Song. Pattern (i.e. _patron_); a gathering at a holy well or other relic of a saint on his or her festival day, to pray and perform _rounds_ and other devotional acts in honour of the patron saint. (General.) Pattha; a pet, applied to a young person who is brought up over tenderly and indulged too {301} much:--'What a _pattha_ you are!' This is an extension of meaning; for the Irish _peata_ [pattha] means merely a _pet_, nothing more. Pelt; the skin:--'He is in his pelt,' i.e. naked. Penal Laws, 144, and elsewhere through the book. Personable; comely, well-looking, handsome:--'Diarmid Bawn the piper, as personable a looking man as any in the five parishes.' (Crofton Croker: Munster.) Pickey; a round flat little stone used by children in playing _transe_ or Scotch-hop. (Limerick.) Piggin; a wooden drinking-vessel. It is now called _pigín_ in Irish; but it is of English origin. Pike; a pitchfork; commonly applied to one with two prongs. (Munster.) Pike or croppy-pike; the favourite weapon of the rebels of 1798: it was fixed on a very long handle, and had combined in one head a long sharp spear, a small axe, and a hook for catching the enemy's horse-reins. Pillibeen or pillibeen-meeg; a plover. (Munster.) 'I'm king of Munster when I'm in the bog, and the _pillibeens_ whistling about me.' ('Knocknagow.') Irish _pilibín-míog_, same sound and meaning. Pindy flour; flour that has begun to ferment slightly on account of being kept in a warm moist place. Cakes made from it were uneatable as they were soft and clammy and slightly sour. (Limerick.) Pinkeen; a little fish, a stickleback: plentiful in small streams. Irish _pincín_, same sound and meaning. See Scaghler. Piper's invitation; 'He came on the piper's invitation,' i.e. uninvited. (Cork.) A translation of {302} Irish _cuireadh-píobaire_ [curra-peebara]. Pipers sometimes visited the houses of well-to-do people and played--to the great delight of the boys and girls--and they were sure to be well treated. But that custom is long since dead and gone. Pishminnaan´ [the _aa_ long as _a_ in _car_]; common wild peas. (Munster.) They are much smaller--both plant and peas--than the cultivated pea, whence the above anglicised name, which has the same sound as the Irish _pise-mionnáin_, 'kid's peas.' Pishmool; a pismire, an ant. (Ulster.) Pishoge, pisheroge, pishthroge; a charm, a spell, witchcraft:--'It is reported that someone took Mrs. O'Brien's butter from her by _pishoges_.' Place; very generally used for house, home, homestead:--'If ever you come to Tipperary I shall be very glad to see you at _my place_.' This is a usage of the Irish language; for the word _baile_ [bally], which is now used for _home_, means also, and in an old sense, a place, a spot, without any reference to home. Plaikeen; an old shawl, an old cloak, any old covering or wrap worn round the shoulders. (South.) Plantation; a colony from England or Scotland settled down or _planted_ in former times in a district in Ireland from which the rightful old Irish owners were expelled, 7, 169, 170. Plaumause [to rhyme with _sauce_]; soft talk, plausible speech, flattery--conveying the idea of insincerity. (South.) Irish _plámás_, same sound and meaning. Plauzy; full of soft, flattering, _plausible_ talk. Hence {303} the noun _pláusoge_ [plauss-oge], a person who is plauzy. (South.) Plerauca; great fun and noisy revelry. Irish _pléaráca_, same sound and meaning. Pluddogh; dirty water. (MacCall: Wexford.) From Irish _plod_ [pludh], a pool of dirty water, with the termination _ach_. Pluvaun; a kind of soft weed that grows excessively on tilled moory lands and chokes the crop. (Moran: Carlow.) Poll-talk; backbiting: from the _poll_ of the head: the idea being the same as in _back_biting. Polthogue; a blow; a blow with the fist. Irish _palltóg_, same sound and meaning. Pooka; a sort of fairy: a mischievous and often malignant goblin that generally appears in the form of a horse, but sometimes as a bull, a buck-goat, &c. The great ambition of the pooka horse is to get some unfortunate wight on his back; and then he gallops furiously through bogs, marshes, and woods, over rocks, glens, and precipices; till at last when the poor wretch on his back is nearly dead with terror and fatigue, the pooka pitches him into some quagmire or pool or briar-brake, leaving him to extricate himself as best he can. But the goblin does not do worse: he does not kill people. Irish _púca_. Shakespeare has immortalised him as Puck, the goblin of 'A Midsummer-Night's Dream.' Pookapyle, also called Pookaun; a sort of large fungus, the toadstool. Called also _causha pooka_. All these names imply that the Pooka has something to do with this poisonous fungus. See Causha-pooka (pooka's cheese). {304} Pookeen; a play--blindman's buff: from Irish _púic_, a veil or covering, from the covering put over the eyes. Pookeen is also applied in Cork to a cloth muzzle tied on calves or lambs to prevent sucking the mother. The face-covering for blindman's buff is called _pookoge_, in which the dim. _óg_ is used instead of _ín_ or _een_. The old-fashioned _coal-scuttle_ bonnets of long ago that nearly covered the face were often called _pookeen_ bonnets. It was of a bonnet of this kind that the young man in Lover's song of 'Molly Carew' speaks:-- Oh, _lave_ off that bonnet or else I'll _lave_ on it The loss of my wandering sowl:-- because it hid Molly's face from him. Poor mouth; making the poor mouth is trying to persuade people you are very poor--making out or pretending that you are poor. Poor scholars, 151, 157. Poreens; very small potatoes--mere _crachauns_ (which see)--any small things, such as marbles, &c. (South: _porrans_ in Ulster.) Porter-meal: oatmeal mixed with porter. Seventy or eighty years ago, the carters who carried bags of oatmeal from Limerick to Cork (a two-day journey) usually rested for the night at Mick Lynch's public-house in Glenosheen. They often took lunch or dinner of porter-meal in this way:--Opening the end of one of the bags, the man made a hollow in the oatmeal into which he poured a quart of porter, stirring it up with a spoon: then he ate an immense bellyful of the mixture. But those fellows could digest like an ostrich. {305} In Ulster, oatmeal mixed in this manner with buttermilk, hot broth, &c., and eaten with a spoon, is called _croudy_. Potthalowng; an awkward unfortunate mishap, not very serious, but coming just at the wrong time. When I was a boy 'Jack Mullowney's _potthalowng_' had passed into a proverb. Jack one time went _courting_, that is, to spend a pleasant evening with the young lady at the house of his prospective father-in-law, and to make up the match with the old couple. He wore his best of course, body-coat, white waistcoat, caroline hat (tall silk), and _ducks_ (ducks, snow-white canvas trousers.) All sat down to a grand dinner given in his honour, the young couple side by side. Jack's plate was heaped up with beautiful bacon and turkey, and white cabbage swimming in fat, that would make you lick your lips to look at it. Poor Jack was a bit sheepish; for there was a good deal of banter, as there always is on such occasions. He drew over his plate to the very edge of the table; and in trying to manage a turkey bone with knife and fork, he turned the plate right over into his lap, down on the ducks. The marriage came off all the same; but the story went round the country like wildfire; and for many a long day Jack had to stand the jokes of his friends on the _potthalowng_. Used in Munster. The Irish is _patalong_, same sound and meaning; but I do not find it in the dictionaries. Pottheen; illicit whiskey: always distilled in some remote lonely place, as far away as possible from the nose of a gauger. It is the Irish word _poitín_ {306} [pottheen], little pot. We have partly the same term still; for everyone knows the celebrity of _pot_-still whiskey: but this is _Parliament_ whiskey, not _pottheen_, see p. 174. Power; a large quantity, a great deal: Jack Hickey has a power of money: there was a _power of cattle in the fair yesterday_: there's a power of ivy on that old castle. Miss Grey, a small huckster who kept a little vegetable shop, was one day showing off her rings and bracelets to our servant. 'Oh Miss Grey,' says the girl, 'haven't you a terrible lot of them.' 'Well Ellen, you see I want them all, for I go into _a power of society_.' This is an old English usage as is shown by this extract from Spenser's 'View':--'Hee also [Robert Bruce] sent over his said brother Edward, with a power of Scottes and Red-Shankes into Ireland.' There is a corresponding Irish expression (_neart airgid_, a power of money), but I think this is translated from English rather than the reverse. The same idiom exists in Latin with the word _vis_ (power): but examples will not be quoted, as they would take up a power of space. Powter [_t_ sounded like _th_ in _pith_]; to root the ground like a pig; to root up potatoes from the ground with the hands. (Derry.) Prashagh, more commonly called prashagh-wee; wild cabbage with yellow blossoms, the rape plant. Irish _praiseach-bhuidhe_ [prashagh-wee], yellow cabbage. _Praiseach_ is borrowed from Latin _brassica_. Prashameen; a little group all clustered together:--'The children sat in a prashameen on the floor.' I have heard this word a hundred times in Limerick {307} among English speakers: its Irish form should be _praisimín_, but I do not find it in the dictionaries. Prashkeen; an apron. Common all over Ireland. Irish _praiscín_, same sound and meaning. Prawkeen; raw oatmeal and milk (MacCall: South Leinster.) See Porter-meal. Prepositions, incorrect use of, 26, 32, 44. Presently; at present, now:--'I'm living in the country presently.' A Shakespearian survival:--Prospero:--'Go bring the rabble.' Ariel:--'Presently?' [i.e. shall I do so now?] Prospero:--'Ay, with a wink.' Extinct in England, but preserved and quite common in Ireland. Priested; ordained: 'He was priested last year.' Priest's share; the soul. A mother will say to a refractory child:--'I'll knock the priest's share out of you.' (Moran: Carlow.) Professions hereditary, 172. Pronunciation, 2, 91 to 104. Protestant herring: Originally applied to a bad or a stale herring: but in my boyhood days it was applied, in our neighbourhood, to almost anything of an inferior quality:--'Oh that butter is a Protestant herring.' Here is how it originated:--Mary Hewer of our village had been for time out of mind the only huckster who sold salt herrings, sending to Cork for a barrel from time to time, and making good profit. At last Poll Alltimes sent for a barrel and set up an opposition shop, taking away a large part of Mary's custom. Mary was a Catholic and Poll a Protestant: and then our herrings became sharply distinguished as Catholic herrings and Protestant herrings: each party eating herrings {308} of their own creed. But after some time a horrible story began to go round--whispered at first under people's breath--that Poll found _the head of a black_ with long hair packed among the herrings half way down in her barrel. Whether the people believed it or not, the bare idea was enough; and Protestant herrings suddenly lost character, so that poor Poll's sale fell off at once, while Mary soon regained all her old customers. She well deserved it, if anyone ever deserved a reward for a master-stroke of genius. But I think this is all 'forgotten lore' in the neighbourhood now. Proverbs, 105. Puck; to play the puck with anything: a softened equivalent of _playing the devil_. _Puck_ here means the Pooka, which see. Puck; a blow:--'He gave him a puck of a stick on the head.' More commonly applied to a punch or blow of the horns of a cow or goat. 'The cow gave him a puck (or pucked him) with her horns and knocked him down.' The blow given by a hurler to the ball with his _caman_ or hurley is always called a _puck_. Irish _poc_, same sound and meaning. Puckaun; a he-goat. (South.) Irish _poc_, a he-goat, with the diminutive. Puke; a poor puny unhealthy-looking person. Pulling a cord (or _the cord_); said of a young man and a young woman who are courting:--'Miss Anne and himself that's pulling the cord.' ('Knocknagow.') Pulloge; a quantity of hidden apples: usually hidden by a boy who steals them. (Limerick.) Diminutive of the Irish _poll_, a hole. {309} Pusheen; the universal word for a kitten in Munster: a diminutive of the English word _puss_; exactly equivalent to _pussy_. Puss [_u_ sounded as in _full_]; the mouth and lips, always used _in dialect_ in an offensive or contemptuous sense:--'What an ugly _puss_ that fellow has.' 'He had a puss on him,' i.e. he looked sour or displeased--with lips contracted. I heard one boy say to another:--'I'll give you a _skelp_ (blow) on the puss.' (General.) Irish _pus_, the mouth, same sound. Pusthaghaun; a puffed up conceited fellow. The corresponding word applied to a girl is _pusthoge_ (MacCall: Wexford): the diminutive termination _aun_ or _chaun_ being masculine and _óg_ feminine. Both are from _pus_ the mouth, on account of the consequential way a conceited person squares up the lips. Quaw or quagh; a _quag_ or quagmire:--'I was unwilling to attempt the _quagh_.' (Maxwell: 'Wild Sports': Mayo, but used all over Ireland.) Irish _caedh_ [quay], for which and for the names derived from it, see 'Irish Names of Places': II. 396. Quality; gentlemen and gentlewomen as distinguished from the common people. Out of use in England, but general in Ireland:--'Make room for the quality.' Queer, generally pronounced _quare_; used as an intensive in Ulster:--This day is quare and hot (very hot); he is quare and sick (very sick): like _fine and fat_ elsewhere (see p. 89). Quin or quing; the swing-tree, a piece of wood used {310} to keep the chains apart in ploughing to prevent them rubbing the horses. (Cork and Kerry.) Irish _cuing_ [quing], a yoke. Quit: in Ulster 'quit that' means _cease from that_:--'quit your crying.' In Queen's County they say _rise out of that_. Rabble; used in Ulster to denote a fair where workmen congregate on the hiring day to be hired by the surrounding farmers. See Spalpeen. Rack. In Munster an ordinary comb is called a _rack_: the word _comb_ being always applied and confined to a small close fine-toothed one. Rackrent; an excessive rent of a farm, so high as to allow to the occupier a bare and poor subsistence. Not used outside Ireland except so far as it has been recently brought into prominence by the Irish land question. Rag on every bush; a young man who is caught by and courts many girls but never proposes. Raghery; a kind of small-sized horse; a name given to it from its original home, the island of Rathlin or Raghery off Antrim. Rake; to cover up with ashes the live coals of a turf fire, which will keep them alive till morning:--'Don't forget to rake the fire.' Randy; a scold. (Kinahan: general.) Rap; a bad halfpenny: a bad coin:--'He hasn't a rap in his pocket.' Raumaush or raumaish; _romance_ or fiction, but now commonly applied to foolish senseless brainless talk. Irish _rámás_ or _rámáis_, which is merely adapted from the word _romance_. {311} Raven's bit; a beast that is going to die. (Kinahan.) Rawney; a delicate person looking in poor health; a poor sickly-looking animal. (Connaught.) Irish _ránaidhe_, same sound and meaning. Reansha; brown bread: sometimes corrupted to _range_-bread. (MacCall: Wexford.) Red or redd; clear, clear out, clear away:--Redd the road, the same as the Irish _Fág-a-ballagh_, 'clear the way.' If a girl's hair is in bad tangles, she uses a _redding-comb_ first to open it, and then a finer comb. Redden; to light: 'Take the bellows and redden the fire.' An Irishman hardly ever _lights_ his pipe: he _reddens_ it. Redundancy, 52, 130. Ree; as applied to a horse means restive, wild, almost unmanageable. Reek; a rick:--A reek of turf: so the Kerry mountains, 'MacGillicuddy's Reeks.' Reel-foot; a club-foot, a deformed foot. (Ulster.) 'Reel-footed and hunch-backed forbye, sir.' (Old Ulster song.) Reenaw´lee; a slow-going fellow who dawdles and delays and hesitates about things. (Munster.) Irish _ríanálaidhe_, same sound and meaning: from _rían_, a way, track, or road: _ríanalaidhe_ , a person who wanders listlessly along the _way_. Reign. This word is often used in Munster, Leinster, and Connaught, in the sense of to occupy, to be master of: 'Who is in the Knockea farm?' 'Mr. Keating reigns there now.' 'Who is your landlord?' 'The old master is dead and his son Mr. William reigns over us now.' 'Long may {312} your honour [the master] reign over us.' (Crofton Croker.) In answer to an examination question, a young fellow from Cork once answered me, 'Shakespeare reigned in the sixteenth century.' This usage is borrowed from Irish, in which the verb _riaghail_ [ree-al] means both to rule (as a master), and to reign (as a king), and as in many other similar cases the two meanings were confounded in English. (Kinahan and myself.) Relics of old decency. When a man goes down in the world he often preserves some memorials of his former rank--a ring, silver buckles in his shoes, &c.--'the relics of old decency.' Revelagh; a long lazy gadding fellow. (Morris: Monaghan.) Rib; a single hair from the head. A poet, praising a young lady, says that 'every golden _rib_ of her hair is worth five guineas.' Irish _ruibe_ [ribbe], same meaning. Rickle; a little heap of turf peats standing on ends against each other. (Derry.) Irish _ricil_, same sound and meaning. Riddles, 185. Ride and tie. Two persons set out on a journey having one horse. One rides on while the other sets out on foot after him. The first man, at the end of a mile or two, ties up the horse at the roadside and proceeds on foot. When the second comes to the horse he mounts and rides till he is one or two miles ahead of his comrade and then ties. And so to the end of the journey. A common practice in old times for courier purposes; but not in use now, I think. {313} Rife, a scythe-sharpener, a narrow piece of board punctured all over and covered with grease on which fine sand is sprinkled. Used before the present emery sharpener was known. (Moran: Carlow.) Irish _ríabh_ [reev], a long narrow stripe. Right or wrong: often heard for _earnestly_: 'he pressed me right or wrong to go home with him.' Ringle-eyed; when the iris is light-coloured, and the circle bounding it is very marked, the person is _ringle-eyed_. (Derry.) Rings; often used as follows:--'Did I sleep at all?' 'Oh indeed you did--you _slept rings round you_.' Rip; a coarse ill-conditioned woman with a bad tongue. (General.) Roach lime; lime just taken from the kiln, burnt, _before_ being slaked and while still in the form of stones. This is old English from French _roche_, a rock, a stone. Roasters; potatoes kept crisping on the coals to be brought up to table hot at the end of the dinner--usually the largest ones picked out. But the word _roaster_ was used only among the lower class of people: the higher classes considered it vulgar. Here is how Mr. Patrick Murray (see p. 154) describes them about 1840 in a parody on Moore's 'One bumper at parting' (a _lumper_, in Mr. Murray's version, means a big potato):-- 'One _lumper_ at parting, though many Have rolled on the board since we met, The biggest the hottest of any Remains in the round for us yet.' In the higher class of houses they were peeled and brought up at the end nice and brown in {314} a dish. About eighty years ago a well-known military gentleman of Baltinglass in the County Wicklow--whose daughter told me the story--had on one occasion a large party of friends to dinner. On the very day of the dinner the waiter took ill, and the stable boy--a big coarse fellow--had to be called in, after elaborate instructions. All went well till near the end of the dinner, when the fellow thought things were going on rather slowly. Opening the diningroom door he thrust in his head and called out in the hearing of all:--'Masther, are ye ready for the _roasthers_?' A short time ago I was looking at the house and diningroom where that occurred. Rocket; a little girl's frock. (Very common in Limerick.) It is of course an old application of the English-French _rochet_. Rodden; a _bohereen_ or narrow road. (Ulster.) It is the Irish _róidín_, little road. Roman; used by the people in many parts of Ireland for _Roman Catholic_. I have already quoted what the Catholic girl said to her Protestant lover:--'Unless that you turn a _Roman_ you ne'er shall get me for your bride.' Sixty or seventy years ago controversial discussions--between a Catholic on the one hand and a Protestant on the other--were very common. I witnessed many when I was a boy--to my great delight. Garrett Barry, a Roman Catholic, locally noted as a controversialist, was arguing with Mick Cantlon, surrounded by a group of delighted listeners. At last Garrett, as a final clincher, took up the Bible, opened it at a certain place, and handed it to his opponent, {315} with:--'Read that heading out for us now if you please.' Mick took it up and read 'St. Paul's Epistle to the _Romans_.' 'Very well,' says Garrett: 'now can you show me in any part of that Bible, 'St. Paul's Epistle to the _Protestants_'? This of course was a down blow; and Garrett was greeted with a great hurrah by the Catholic part of his audience. This story is in 'Knocknagow,' but the thing occurred in my neighbourhood, and I heard about it long before 'Knocknagow' was written. Rookaun; great noisy merriment. Also a drinking-bout. (Limerick.) Room. In a peasant's house the _room_ is a special apartment distinct from the kitchen or living-room, which is not a 'room' in this sense at all. I slept in the kitchen and John slept in the 'room.' (Healy and myself: Munster.) Round coal; coal in lumps as distinguished from slack or coal broken up small and fine. Ruction, ructions; fighting, squabbling, a fight, a row. It is a memory of the _Insurrection_ of 1798, which was commonly called the 'Ruction.' Rue-rub; when a person incautiously scratches an itchy spot so as to break the skin: that is _rue-rub_. (Derry.) From _rue_, regret or sorrow. Rury; a rough hastily-made cake or bannock. (Morris: Monaghan.) Rut; the smallest bonnive in a litter. (Kildare and Carlow.) Saluting, salutations, 14. Sapples; soap suds: _sapple_, to wash in suds. (Derry.) {316} Saulavotcheer; a person having _lark-heels_. (Limerick.) The first syll. is Irish; _sál_ [saul], heel. Sauvaun; a rest, a light doze or nap. (Munster.) Irish _sámhán_, same sound and meaning, from _sámh_ [sauv], pleasant and tranquil. Scagh; a whitethorn bush. (General.) Irish _sceach_, same sound and meaning. Scaghler: a little fish--the pinkeen or thornback: Irish _sceach_ [scagh], a thorn or thornbush, and the English termination _ler_. Scald: to be _scalded_ is to be annoyed, mortified, sorely troubled, vexed. (Very general.) Translated from one or the other of two Irish words, _loisc_ [lusk], to burn; and _scall_, to _scald_. Finn Bane says:--'Guary being angry with me he scorched me (_romloisc_), burned me, _scalded_ me, with abuse.' ('Colloquy.') 'I earned that money hard and 'tis a great _heart-scald_ (_scollach-croidhe_) to me to lose it.' There is an Irish air called 'The _Scalded_ poor man.' ('Old Irish Music and Songs.') Scalder, an unfledged bird (South): _scaldie_ and _scaulthoge_ in the North. From the Irish _scal_ (bald), from which comes the Irish _scalachán_, an unfledged bird. Scallan; a wooden shed to shelter the priest during Mass, 143, 145. Scalp, scolp, scalpeen; a rude cabin, usually roofed with _scalps_ or grassy sods (whence the name). In the famine times--1847 and after--a scalp was often erected for any poor wanderer who got stricken down with typhus fever: and in that the people tended him cautiously till he recovered or died. (Munster.) Irish _scaílp_ [scolp]. {317} Scalteen: see Scolsheen. Scollagh-cree; ill-treatment of any kind. (Moran: Carlow.) Irish _scallach-croidhe_, same sound and meaning: a 'heart scald'; from _scalladh_, scalding, and _croidhe_, heart. Scollop; the bended rod pointed at both ends that a thatcher uses to fasten down the several straw-wisps. (General.) Irish _scolb_ [scollub]. Scolsheen or scalteen; made by boiling a mixture of whiskey, water, sugar, butter and pepper (or caraway seeds) in a pot: a sovereign cure for a cold. In the old mail-car days there was an inn on the road from Killarney to Mallow, famous for scolsheen, where a big pot of it was always kept ready for travellers. (Kinahan and Kane.) Sometimes the word _scalteen_ was applied to unmixed whiskey burned, and used for the same purpose. From the Irish _scall_, burn, singe, _scald_. Sconce; to chaff, banter, make game of:--'None of your sconcing.' (Ulster.) Sconce; to shirk work or duty. (Moran: Carlow.) Scotch Dialect: influence of, on our Dialect, 6, 7. Scotch lick; when a person goes to clean up anything--a saucepan, a floor, his face, a pair of shoes, &c.--and only half does it, he (or she) has given it a _Scotch lick_. General in South. In Dublin it would be called a 'cat's lick': for a cat has only a small tongue and doesn't do much in the way of licking. Scout; a reproachful name for a bold forward girl. Scouther; to burn a cake on the outside before it is fully cooked, by over haste in baking:--burned outside, half raw inside. Hence 'to scouther' {318} means to do anything hastily and incompletely. (Ulster.) Scrab; to scratch:--'The cat near scrabbed his eyes out.' (Patterson: Ulster.) In the South it is _scraub_:--'He scraubed my face.' Scrab; to gather the stray potatoes left after the regular crop, when they are afterwards turned out by plough or spade. Scraddhin; a scrap; anything small--smaller than usual, as a small potato: applied contemptuously to a very small man, exactly the same as the Southern _sprissaun_. Irish _scraidín_, same sound and meaning. (East Ulster.) Scran; 'bad scran to you,' an evil wish like 'bad luck to you,' but much milder: English, in which _scran_ means broken victuals, food-refuse, fare--very common. (North and South.) Scraw; a grassy sod cut from a grassy or boggy surface and often dried for firing; also called _scrahoge_ (with diminutive _óg_). Irish _scrath_, _scrathóg_, same sounds and meaning. Screenge; to search for. (Donegal and Derry.) Scunder or Scunner; a dislike; to take a dislike or disgust against anything. (Armagh.) Scut; the tail of a hare or rabbit: often applied in scorn to a contemptible fellow:--'He's just a scut and nothing better.' The word is Irish, as is shown by the following quotation:--'The billows [were] conversing with the _scuds_ (sterns) and the beautiful prows [of the ships].' (Battle of Moylena: and note by Kuno Meyer in 'Rev. Celt.') (General.) Seeshtheen; a low round seat made of twisted straw. {319} (Munster.) Irish _suidhistín_, same sound and meaning: from _suidhe_ [see], to sit, with diminutive. Set: all over Ireland they use _set_ instead of _let_ [a house or lodging]. A struggling housekeeper failed to let her lodging, which a neighbour explained by:--'Ah she's no good at _setting_.' Set; used in a bad sense, like _gang_ and _crew_:--'They're a dirty set.' Settle bed; a folding-up bed kept in the kitchen: when folded up it is like a sofa and used as a seat. (All over Ireland.) Seven´dable [accent on _ven_], very great, _mighty great_ as they would say:--'Jack gave him a _sevendable_ thrashing.' (North.) Shaap [the _aa_ long as in _car_]; a husk of corn, a pod. (Derry.) Shamrock or Shamroge; the white trefoil (_Trifolium repens_). The Irish name is _seamar_ [shammer], which with the diminutive makes _seamar-óg_ [shammer-oge], shortened to _shamrock_. Shanachus, shortened to _shanagh_ in Ulster, a friendly conversation. 'Grandfather would like to have a shanahus with you.' ('Knocknagow.') Irish _seanchus_, antiquity, history, an old story. Shandradan´ [accented strongly on _-dan_]; an old rickety rattle-trap of a car. The first syllable is Irish _sean_ [shan], old. Shanty: a mean hastily put up little house. (General.) Probably from Irish _sean_, old, and _tigh_ [tee], a house. Shaugh; a turn or smoke of a pipe. (General.) Irish _seach_, same sound and meaning. {320} Shaughraun; wandering about: to be _on the shaughraun_ is to be out of employment and wandering idly about looking for work. Irish _seachrán_, same sound and meaning. Shebeen or sheebeen; an unlicensed public-house or alehouse where spirits are sold on the sly. (Used all over Ireland.) Irish _síbín_, same sound and meaning. Shee; a fairy, fairies; also meaning the place where fairies live, usually a round green little hill or elf-mound having a glorious palace underneath: Irish _sidhe_, same sound and meanings. _Shee_ often takes the diminutive form--_sheeoge_. Shee-geeha; the little whirl of dust you often see moving along the road on a calm dusty day: this is a band of fairies travelling from one _lis_ or elf-mound to another, and you had better turn aside and avoid it. Irish _sidhe-gaoithe_, same sound and meaning, where _gaoithe_ is wind: 'wind-fairies': called 'fairy-blast' in Kildare. Sheehy, Rev. Father, of Kilfinane, 147. Sheela; a female Christian name (as in 'Sheela Ni Gyra'). Used in the South as a reproachful name for a boy or a man inclined to do work or interest himself in affairs properly belonging to women. See 'Molly.' Sheep's eyes: when a young man looks fondly and coaxingly on his sweetheart he is 'throwing sheep's eyes' at her. Sherral; an offensive term for a mean unprincipled fellow. (Moran: South Mon.) Sheugh or Shough; a deep cutting, elsewhere called a ditch, often filled with water. (Seumas MacManus: N.W. Ulster.) {321} Shillelah; a handstick of oak, an oaken cudgel for fighting. (Common all over Ireland.) From a district in Wicklow called Shillelah, formerly noted for its oak woods, in which grand shillelahs were plentiful. Shingerleens [shing-erleens]; small bits of finery; ornamental tags and ends--of ribbons, bow-knots, tassels, &c.--hanging on dress, curtains, furniture, &c. (Munster.) Shire; to pour or drain off water or any liquid, quietly and without disturbing the solid parts remaining behind, such as draining off the whey-like liquid from buttermilk. Shlamaan´ [_aa_ like _a_ in _car_]; a handful of straw, leeks, &c. (Morris: South Monaghan.) Shoggle; to shake or jolt. (Derry.) Shoneen; a _gentleman_ in a small way: a would-be gentleman who puts on superior airs. Always used contemptuously. Shook; in a bad way, done up, undone:--'I'm shook by the loss of that money': 'he was shook for a pair of shoes.' Shooler; a wanderer, a stroller, a vagrant, a tramp, a rover: often means a mendicant. (Middle and South of Ireland.) From the Irish _siubhal_ [shool], to walk, with the English termination _er_: lit. 'walker.' Shoonaun; a deep circular basket, made of twisted rushes or straw, and lined with calico; it had a cover and was used for holding linen, clothes, &c. (Limerick and Cork.) From Irish _sibhinn_ [shiven], a rush, a bulrush: of which the diminutive _siubhnán_ [shoonaun] is our word: signifying {322} 'made of rushes.' Many a shoonaun I saw in my day; and I remember meeting a man who was a shoonaun maker by trade. Short castle or short castles; a game played by two persons on a square usually drawn on a slate with the two diagonals: each player having three counters. See Mills. Shore; the brittle woody part separated in bits and dust from the fibre of flax by scutching or _cloving_. Called _shores_ in Monaghan. Shraff, shraft; Shrovetide: on and about Shrove Tuesday:--'I bought that cow last shraff.' Shraums, singular shraum; the matter that collects about the eyes of people who have tender eyes: matter running from sore eyes. (Moran: Carlow.) Irish _sream_ [sraum]. Same meaning. Shrule; to rinse an article of clothing by pulling it backwards and forwards in a stream. (Moran: Carlow.) Irish _srúil_, a stream. Shrough; a rough wet place; an incorrect anglicised form of Irish _srath_, a wet place, a marsh. Shuggy-shoo; the play of see-saw. (Ulster.) Shurauns; any plants with large leaves, such as hemlock, wild parsnip, &c. (Kinahan: Wicklow.) Sighth (for sight); a great number, a large quantity. (General.) 'Oh Mrs. Morony haven't you a _sighth_ of turkeys': 'Tom Cassidy has a sighth of money.' This is old English. Thus in a Quaker's diary of 1752:--'There was a great sight of people passed through the streets of Limerick.' This expression is I think still heard in England, and is very much in use in America. Very general in Ireland. {323} Sign; a very small quantity--a trace. Used all over Ireland in this way:--'My gardens are _every sign_ as good as yours': 'he had no sign of drink on him': 'there's no sign of sugar in my tea' (Hayden and Hartog): 'look out to see if Bill is coming': 'no--there's no sign of him.' This is a translation from the Irish _rian_, for which see next entry. Sign's on, sign is on, sign's on it; used to express the result or effect or proof of any proceeding:--'Tom Kelly never sends his children to school, and sign's on (or sign's on it) they are growing up like savages': 'Dick understands the management of fruit trees well, and sign's on, he is making lots of money by them.' This is a translation from Irish, in which _rian_ means _track_, _trace_, _sign_: and 'sign's on it' is _ta a rian air_ ('its sign is on it'). Silenced; a priest is silenced when he is suspended from his priestly functions by his ecclesiastical superiors: 'unfrocked.' Singlings; the weak pottheen whiskey that comes off at the first distillation: agreeable to drink but terribly sickening. Also called 'First shot.' Sippy; a ball of rolled _sugans_ (i.e. hay or straw ropes), used instead of a real ball in hurling or football. (Limerick.) Irish _suipigh_, same sound and meaning. A diminutive of _sop_, a wisp. Skeeagh [2-syll.]; a shallow osier basket, usually for potatoes. (South.) Skeedeen; a trifle, anything small of its kind; a small potato. (Derry and Donegal.) Irish _scídín_, same sound and meaning. {324} Skellig, Skellig List--On the Great Skellig rock in the Atlantic, off the coast of Kerry, are the ruins of a monastery, to which people at one time went on pilgrimage--and a difficult pilgrimage it was. The tradition is still kept up in some places, though in an odd form; in connection with the custom that marriages are not solemnised in Lent, i.e. after Shrove Tuesday. It is well within my memory that--in the south of Ireland--young persons who should have been married before Ash-Wednesday, but were not, were supposed to set out on pilgrimage to Skellig on Shrove Tuesday night: but it was all a make-believe. Yet I remember witnessing occasionally some play in mock imitation of the pilgrimage. It was usual for a local bard to compose what was called a 'Skellig List'--a jocose rhyming catalogue of the unmarried men and women of the neighbourhood who went on the sorrowful journey--which was circulated on Shrove Tuesday and for some time after. Some of these were witty and amusing: but occasionally they were scurrilous and offensive doggerel. They were generally too long for singing; but I remember one--a good one too--which--when I was very young--I heard sung to a spirited air. It is represented here by a single verse, the only one I remember. (See also 'Chalk Sunday,' p. 234, above.) As young Rory and Moreen were talking, How Shrove Tuesday was just drawing near; For the tenth time he asked her to marry; But says she:--'Time enough till next year. {325} Then ochone I'm going to Skellig: O Moreen, what will I do? 'Tis the woeful road to travel; And how lonesome I'll be without you!'[8] Here is a verse from another:-- Poor Andy Callaghan with doleful nose Came up and told his tale of many woes:-- Some lucky thief from him his sweetheart stole, Which left a weight of grief upon his soul: With flowing tears he sat upon the grass, And roared sonorous like a braying ass. Skelly; to aim askew and miss the mark; to squint. (Patterson: all over Ulster.) Skelp; a blow, to give a blow or blows; a piece cut off:--'Tom gave Pat a skelp': 'I cut off a skelp of the board with a hatchet.' To run fast:--'There's Joe skelping off to school.' Skib; a flat basket:--'We found the people collected round a skibb of potatoes.' ('Wild Sports of the West.') Skidder, skiddher; broken thick milk, stale and sour. (Munster.) Skillaun. The piece cut out of a potato to be used as seed, containing one germinating _eye_, from which the young stalk grows. Several skillauns will be cut from one potato; and the irregular part left is a _skilloge_ (Cork and Kerry), or a _creelacaun_ (Limerick). Irish _sciollán_, same sound and meaning. Skit; to laugh and giggle in a silly way:--'I'll be {326} bail they didn't skit and laugh.' (Crofton Croker.) 'Skit and laugh,' very common in South. Skite; a silly frivolous light-headed person. Hence Blatherumskite (South), or (in Ulster), bletherumskite. Skree; a large number of small things, as a skree of potatoes, a skree of chickens, &c. (Morris: South Monaghan.) Skull-cure for a bad toothache. Go to the nearest churchyard alone by night, to the corner where human bones are usually heaped up, from which take and bring away a skull. Fill the skull with water, and take a drink from it: that will cure your toothache. Sky farmer; a term much used in the South with several shades of meaning: but the idea underlying all is a farmer without land, or with only very little--having broken down since the time when he had a big farm--who often keeps a cow or two grazing along the roadsides. Many of these struggling men acted as intermediaries between the big corn merchants and the large farmers in the sale of corn, and got thereby a percentage from the buyers. A 'sky farmer' has his farm _in the sky_. Slaan [_aa_ long as the _a_ in _car_]; a sort of very sharp spade, used in cutting turf or peat. Universal in the South. Slack-jaw; impudent talk, continuous impertinences:--'I'll have none of your slack-jaw.' Slang; a narrow strip of land along a stream, not suited to cultivation, but grazed. (Moran: Carlow.) Sleeveen; a smooth-tongued, sweet-mannered, sly, {327} guileful fellow. Universal all over the South and Middle. Irish _slíghbhín_, same sound and meaning; from _slígh_, a way: _binn_, sweet, melodious: 'a _sweet-mannered_ fellow.' Slewder, sluder [_d_ sounded like _th_ in _smooth_]; a wheedling coaxing fellow: as a verb, to wheedle. Irish _sligheadóir_ [sleedore], same meaning. Sliggin; a thin flat little stone. (Limerick.) Irish. Primary meaning _a shell_. Sling-trot; when a person or an animal is going along [not walking but] trotting or running along at a leisurely pace. (South.) Slinge [slinj]; to walk along slowly and lazily. In some places, playing truant from school. (South.) Slip; a young girl. A young pig, older than a _bonnive_, running about almost independent of its mother. (General.) Slipe; a rude sort of cart or sledge without wheels used for dragging stones from a field. (Ulster.) Slitther; a kind of thick soft leather: also a ball covered with that leather, for hurling. (Limerick.) Sliver; a piece of anything broken or cut off, especially cut off longitudinally. An old English word, obsolete in England, but still quite common in Munster. Slob; a soft fat quiet simple-minded girl or boy:--'Your little Nellie is a quiet poor slob': used as a term of endearment. Sloke, sloak, sluke, sloukaun; a sea plant of the family of _laver_ found growing on rocks round the coast, which is esteemed a table delicacy--dark-coloured, almost black; often pickled and eaten with pepper, vinegar, &c. Seen in all the Dublin {328} fish shops. The name, which is now known all over the Three Kingdoms, is anglicised from Irish _sleabhac_, _sleabhacán_ [slouk, sloukaun]. Slug; a drink: as a verb, to drink:--'Here take a little slug from this and 'twill do you good.' Irish _slog_ to swallow by drinking. (General.) Whence _slugga_ and _sluggera_, a cavity in a river-bed into which the water is _slugged_ or swallowed. Slugabed; a sluggard. (General in Limerick.) Old English, obsolete in England:--'Fie, you slug-a-bed.' ('Romeo and Juliet.') Slush; to work and toil like a slave: a woman who toils hard. (General.) Slut; a torch made by dipping a long wick in resin. (Armagh.) Called a _paudheoge_ in Munster. Smaadher [_aa_ like _a_ in _car_]; to break in pieces. Jim Foley was on a _pooka's_ back on the top of an old castle, and he was afraid he'd 'tumble down and be _smathered_ to a thousand pieces.' (Ir. Mag.) Smalkera; a rude home-made wooden spoon. Small-clothes; kneebreeches. (Limerick.) So called to avoid the plain term _breeches_, as we now often say _inexpressibles_. Small farmer; has a small farm with small stock of cattle: a struggling man as distinguished from a 'strong' farmer. Smeg, smeggeen, smiggin; a tuft of hair on the chin. (General.) Merely the Irish _smeig_, _smeigín_; same sounds and meaning. Smithereens; broken fragments after a smash, 4. Smullock [to rhyme with _bullock_]; a fillip of the finger. (Limerick.) Irish _smallóg_, same meaning. {329} Smur, smoor, fine thick mist. (North.) Irish _smúr_, mist. Smush [to rhyme with _bush_]: anything reduced to fine small fragments, like straw or hay, dry peat-mould in dust, &c. Smush, used contemptuously for the mouth, a hairy mouth:--'I don't like your ugly _smush_.' Snachta-shaidhaun: dry powdery snow blown about by the wind. Irish _sneachta_, snow, and _séideán_, a breeze. (South.) Snaggle-tooth; a person with some teeth gone so as to leave gaps. Snap-apple; a play with apples on Hallow-eve, where big apples are placed in difficult positions and are to be caught by the teeth of the persons playing. Hence Hallow-Eve is often called 'Snap-apple night.' Snauvaun; to move about slowly and lazily. From Irish _snámh_ [snauv], to swim, with the diminutive:--Moving slowly like a person swimming. Sned; to clip off, to cut away, like the leaves and roots of a turnip. Sned also means the handle of a scythe. Snig; to cut or clip with a knife:--'The shoots of that apple-tree are growing out too long: I must snig off the tops of them.' Snish; neatness in clothes. (Morris: Carlow.) Snoboge; a rosin torch. (Moran: Carlow.) Same as _slut_ and _paudheoge_. Snoke; to scent or snuff about like a dog. (Derry.) So. This has some special dialectical senses among us. It is used for _if_:--'I will pay you well _so_ you do the work to my liking.' This is old English:--'I am content _so_ thou wilt have it so.' {330} ('Rom. and Jul.') It is used as a sort of emphatic expletive carrying accent or emphasis:--'Will you keep that farm?' 'I will _so_,' i.e. 'I will for certain.' 'Take care and don't break them' (the dishes): 'I won't _so_.' ('Collegians.') It is used in the sense of 'in that case':--'I am not going to town to-day'; 'Oh well I will not go, _so_'--i.e. 'as you are not going.' Sock; the tubular or half-tubular part of a spade or shovel that holds the handle. Irish _soc_. Soft day; a wet day. (A usual salute.) Soil; fresh-cut grass for cattle. Sold; betrayed, outwitted:--'If that doesn't frighten him off you're sold' (caught in the trap, betrayed, ruined. Edw. Walsh in Ir. Pen. Journal). Something like; excellent:--'That's something like a horse,' i.e. a fine horse and no mistake. Sonaghan; a kind of trout that appears in certain lakes in November, coming from the rivers. (Prof. J. Cooke, M.A., of Dublin: for Ulster):--Irish _samhain_ [sowan], November: _samhnachán_ with the diminutive _án_ or _chán_, 'November-fellow.' Sonoohar; a good wife, a good partner in marriage; a good marriage: generally used in the form of a wish:--'Thankee sir and sonoohar to you.' Irish _sonuachar_, same sound and meaning. Sonsy; fortunate, prosperous. Also well-looking and healthy:--'A fine _sonsy_ girl.' Irish _sonas_, luck; _sonasach_, _sonasaigh_, same sound and meaning. Soogan, sugan, sugaun; a straw or hay rope twisted by the hand. Soss; a short trifling fall with no harm beyond a smart shock. (Moran: Carlow.) {331} Sough; a whistling or sighing noise like that of the wind through trees. 'Keep a calm sough' means keep quiet, keep silence. (Ulster.) Soulth; 'a formless luminous apparition.' (W. B. Yeats.) Irish _samhailt_ [soulth], a ghost, an apparition; _lit._ a 'likeness,' from _samhai_ [sowel], like. Sources of Anglo-Irish Dialect, 1. Sowans, sowens; a sort of flummery or gruel usually made and eaten on Hallow Eve. Very general in Ulster and Scotland; merely the Irish word _samhain_, the first of November; for Hallow Eve is really a November feast, as being the eve of the first of that month. In old times in Ireland, the evening went with the coming night. Spalpeen. Spalpeens were labouring men--reapers, mowers, potato-diggers, &c.--who travelled about in the autumn seeking employment from the farmers, each with his spade, or his scythe, or his reaping-hook. They congregated in the towns on market and fair days, where the farmers of the surrounding districts came to hire them. Each farmer brought home his own men, fed them on good potatoes and milk, and sent them to sleep in the barn on dry straw--a bed--as one of them said to me--'a bed fit for a lord, let alone a spalpeen.' The word _spalpeen_ is now used in the sense of a low rascal. Irish _spailpín_, same sound and meaning. (See my 'Old Irish Folk Music and Songs,' p. 216; and for the Ulster term see Rabble above.) Spaug; a big clumsy foot:--'You put your ugly spaug down on my handkerchief.' Irish _spág_, same sound and sense. {332} Speel; to climb. (Patterson: Ulster.) Spink; a sharp rock, a precipice. (Tyrone.) _Splink_ in Donegal. Irish _spinnc_ and _splinnc_, same sounds and meaning. Spit; the soil dug up and turned over, forming a long trench as deep as the spade will go. 'He dug down three spits before he came to the gravel.' Spoileen; a coarse kind of soap made out of scraps of inferior grease and meat: often sold cheap at fairs and markets. (Derry and Tyrone.) Irish _spóilín_, a small bit of meat. Spoocher; a sort of large wooden shovel chiefly used for lifting small fish out of a boat. (Ulster.) Spreece; red-hot embers, chiefly ashes. (South.) Irish _sprís_, same sound and meaning. Same as _greesagh_. Sprissaun; an insignificant contemptible little chap. Irish _spriosán_ [same sound], the original meaning of which is a twig or spray from a bush. (South.) 'To the devil I pitch ye ye set of sprissauns.' (Old Folk Song, for which see my 'Ancient Irish Music,' p. 85.) Sprong: a four-pronged manure fork. (MacCall: South-east counties.) Spruggil, spruggilla; the craw of a fowl. (Morris: South Monaghan.) Irish _sprogal_ [spruggal], with that meaning and several others. Sprunge [sprunj], any animal miserable and small for its age. (Ulster.) Spuds; potatoes. Spunk; tinder, now usually made by steeping {333} brown paper in a solution of nitre; lately gone out of use from the prevalence of matches. Often applied in Ulster and Scotland to a spark of fire: 'See is there a spunk of fire in the hearth.' Spunk also denotes spirit, courage, and dash. 'Hasn't Dick great spunk to face that big fellow, twice his size?' 'I'm sure if you had not been drunk With whiskey, rum, or brandy--O, You would not have the gallant spunk To be half so bold or manly--O.' (Old Irish Folk Song.) Irish _sponnc_. Spy farleys; to pry into secrets: to visit a house, in order to spy about what's going on. (Ulster.) Spy-Wednesday; the Wednesday before Easter. According to the religious legend it got the name because on the Wednesday before the Crucifixion Judas was spying about how best he could deliver up our Lord. (General.) Squireen; an Irish gentleman in a small way who apes the manners, the authoritative tone, and the aristocratic bearing of the large landed proprietors. Sometimes you can hardly distinguish a squireen from a _half-sir_ or from a _shoneen_. Sometimes the squireen was the son of the old squire: a worthless young fellow, who loafed about doing nothing, instead of earning an honest livelihood: but he was too grand for that. The word is a diminutive of _squire_, applied here in contempt, like many other diminutives. The class of squireen is nearly extinct: 'Joy be with them.' Stackan; the stump of a tree remaining after the {334} tree itself has been cut or blown down. (Simmons: Armagh.) Irish _staic_, a stake, with the diminutive. Stad; the same as _sthallk_, which see. Stag; a potato rendered worthless or bad by frost or decay. Stag; a cold-hearted unfeeling selfish woman. Stag; an informer, who turns round and betrays his comrades:--'The two worst informers against a private [pottheen] distiller, barring a _stag_, are a smoke by day and a fire by night.' (Carleton in 'Ir. Pen. Journ.') 'Do you think me a _stag_, that I'd inform on you.' (Ibid.) Staggeen [the _t_ sounded like _th_ in _thank_], a worn-out worthless old horse. Stand to or by a person, to act as his friend; to stand _for_ an infant, to be his sponsor in baptism. The people hardly ever say, 'I'm his godfather,' but 'I stood for him.' Stare; the usual name for a starling (bird) in Ireland. Station. The celebration of Mass with confessions and Holy Communion in a private house by the parish priest or one of his curates, for the convenience of the family and their neighbours, to enable them the more easily to receive the sacraments. Latterly the custom has been falling into disuse. Staukan-vorraga [_t_ sounded like _th_ in _thorn_], a small high rick of turf in a market from which portions were continually sold away and as continually replaced: so that the _sthauca_ stood always in the people's way. Applied also to a big awkward fellow always visiting when he's not wanted, and {335} always in the way. (John Davis White, of Clonmel.) Irish _stáca 'n mharga_ [sthaucan-vorraga], the 'market stake or stack.' Stelk or stallk; mashed potatoes mixed with beans or chopped vegetables. (North.) Sthallk; a fit of sulk in a horse--or in a child. (Munster.) Irish _stailc_, same sound and meaning. Sthoakagh; a big idle wandering vagabond fellow. (South.) Irish _stócach_, same sound and meaning. Sthowl; a jet or splash of water or of any liquid. (South.) Irish _steall_, same sound and meaning. Stim or stime; a very small quantity, an _iota_, an atom, a particle:--'You'll never have a stim of sense' ('Knocknagow'): 'I couldn't see a stim in the darkness.' Stook; a shock of corn, generally containing twelve sheaves. (General.) Irish _stuaic_, same sound and meaning, with several other meanings. Stoon; a fit, the worst of a fit: same as English _stound_: a sting of pain:--'Well Bridget how is the toothache?' 'Ah well sir the stoon is off.' (De Vismes Kane: Ulster.) Store pig; a pig nearly full grown, almost ready to be fattened. (Munster.) Str. Most of the following words beginning with _str_ are derived from Irish words beginning with _sr_. For as this combination _sr_ does not exist in English, when an Irish word with this beginning is borrowed into English, a _t_ is always inserted between the _s_ and _r_ to bring it into conformity with English usage and to render it more easily pronounced by English-speaking tongues. See this subject discussed in 'Irish Names of Places,' {336} vol. I., p. 60. Moreover the _t_ in _str_ is almost always sounded the same as _th_ in _think_, _thank_. Straar or sthraar [to rhyme with _star_]; the rough straddle which supports the back band of a horse's harness--coming between the horse's back and the band. (Derry.) The old Irish word _srathar_ [same sound], a straddle, a pack-saddle. Straddy; a street-walker, an idle person always sauntering along the streets. There is a fine Irish air named 'The Straddy' in my 'Old Irish Music and Songs,' p. 310. From Irish _sráid_, a street. Strahane, strahaun, _struhane_; a very small stream like a mill stream or an artificial stream to a pottheen still. Irish _sruth_ [sruh] stream, with dim. Strammel; a big tall bony fellow. (Limerick.) Strap; a bold forward girl or woman; the word often conveys a sense slightly leaning towards lightness of character. Strath; a term used in many parts of Ireland to denote the level watery meadow-land along a river. Irish _srath_. Stravage [to rhyme with _plague_]; to roam about idly:--'He is always _stravaging_ the streets.' In Ulster it is made _stavage_. Streel; a very common word all through Ireland to denote a lazy untidy woman--a slattern: often made _streeloge_ in Connaught, the same word with the diminutive. As a verb, _streel_ is used in the sense of to drag along in an untidy way:--'Her dress was streeling in the mud.' Irish _sríl_ [sreel], same meanings. Streel is sometimes applied to an untidy slovenly-looking man too, as I once heard it {337} applied under odd circumstances when I was very young. Bartholomew Power was long and lanky, with his clothes hanging loose on him. On the morning when he and his newly-married wife--whom I knew well, and who was then no chicken--were setting out for his home, I walked a bit of the way with the happy bride to take leave of her. Just when we were about to part, she turned and said to me--these were her very words--'Well Mr. Joyce, you know the number of nice young men I came across in my day (naming half a dozen of them), and,' said she--nodding towards the bride-groom, who was walking by the car a few perches in front--'isn't it a heart-scald that at the end of all I have now to walk off with that streel of a devil.' Strickle; a scythe-sharpener covered with emery, (Simmons: Armagh.) Strig; the _strippings_ or milk that comes last from a cow. (Morris: South Monaghan.) Striffin; the thin pellicle or skin on the inside of an egg-shell. (Ulster.) Strippings; the same as strig, the last of the milk that comes from the cow at milking--always the richest. Often called in Munster _sniug_. Stroansha; a big idle lazy lump of a girl, always gadding about. Irish _stróinse_, same sound and meaning. Strock´ara [accent on _strock-_]; a very hard-working man. (Munster.) Irish _stracaire_, same sound and meaning, with several other meanings. Strong; well in health, without any reference to muscular strength. 'How is your mother these times?' 'She's very strong now thank God.' {338} Strong farmer; a very well-to-do prosperous farmer, with a large farm and much cattle. In contradistinction to a 'small farmer.' Stroup or stroop; the spout of a kettle or teapot or the lip of a jug. (Ulster.) Strunt; to sulk. (Simmons: Armagh.) Same as _sthallk_ for the South. Stum; a sulky silent person. (Antrim and Down.) Stumpy; a kind of coarse heavy cake made from grated potatoes from which the starch has been squeezed out: also called muddly. (Munster.) Sturk, stirk, sterk; a heifer or bullock about two years old: a pig three or four months old. Often applied to a stout low-sized boy or girl. Irish _storc_. Sugan; a straw or hay rope: same as soogan. Sugeen; water in which oatmeal has been steeped: often drunk by workmen on a hot day in place of plain water. (Roscommon.) From Ir. _sugh_, juice. Sulter; great heat [of a day]: a word formed from _sultry_:--'There's great _sulther_ to-day.' Summachaun; a soft innocent child. (Munster.) Irish _somachán_, same sound and meaning. In Connaught it means a big ignorant puffed up booby of a fellow. Sup; one mouthful of liquid: a small quantity drunk at one time. This is English:--'I took a small sup of rum.' ('Robinson Crusoe.') 'We all take a sup in our turn.' (Irish Folk Song.) Sure; one of our commonest opening words for a sentence: you will hear it perpetually among gentle and simple: 'Don't forget to lock up the fowls.' 'Sure I did that an hour ago.' 'Sure {339} you won't forget to call here on your way back?' 'James, sure I sold my cows.' Swan-skin; the thin finely-woven flannel bought in shops; so called to distinguish it from the coarse heavy home-made flannel. (Limerick.) Swearing, 66. Tally-iron or tallin-iron; the iron for _crimping_ or curling up the borders of women's caps. A corruption of _Italian-iron_. Targe; a scolding woman, a _barge_. (Ulster.) Tartles: ragged clothes; torn pieces of dress. (Ulster.) Taste; a small bit or amount of anything:--'He has no taste of pride': 'Aren't you ashamed of yourself?' 'Not a taste': 'Could you give me the least taste in life of a bit of soap?' Tat, tait; a tangled or matted wad or mass of hair on a girl or on an animal. 'Come here till I comb the _tats_ out of your hair. (Ulster.) Irish _tath_ [tah]. In the anglicised word the aspirated _t_ (th), which sounds like _h_ in Irish, is restored to its full sound in the process of anglicisation in accordance with a law which will be found explained in 'Irish Names of Places,' vol. i., pp. 42-48. Teem; to strain off or pour off water or any liquid. To _teem_ potatoes is to pour the water off them when they are boiled. In a like sense we say it is _teeming_ rain. Irish _taom_, same sound and sense. Ten commandments. 'She put her ten commandments on his face,' i.e. she scratched his face with her ten finger-nails. (MacCall: Wexford.) {340} Tent; the quantity of ink taken up at one time by a pen. Terr; a provoking ignorant presumptuous fellow. (Moran: Carlow.) Thacka, thuck-ya, thackeen, thuckeen; a little girl. (South.) Irish _toice_, _toicín_ [thucka, thuckeen]. Thaheen; a handful of flax or hay. Irish _tath_, _taithín_ [thah, thaheen], same meaning. (Same Irish word as Tat above: but in _thaheen_ the final _t_ is aspirated to _h_, following the Irish word.) Thauloge: a boarded-off square enclosure at one side of the kitchen fire-place of a farmhouse, where candlesticks, brushes, wet boots, &c., are put. (Moran: Carlow.) Thayvaun or theevaun; the short beam of the roof crossing from one rafter to the opposite one. (South.) Irish _taobh_ [thaiv], a 'side,' with the diminutive. Theeveen; a patch on the side of a shoe. (General.) Irish _taobh_ [thaiv], a side with the dim. _een_; taoibhín [theeveen], 'little side.' Thick; closely acquainted: same meaning as 'Great,' which see. 'Dick is very thick with Joe now.' Thiescaun thyscaun, [thice-caun], or thayscaun: a quantity of anything, as a small load of hay drawn by a horse: 'When you're coming home with the cart from the bog, you may as well bring a little _thyscaun_ of turf. (South.) Irish _taoscán_ [thayscaun], same meaning. Think long: to be longing for anything--home, friends, an event, &c. (North.) 'I am thinking long till I see my mother.' {341} Thirteen. When the English and Irish currencies were different, the English shilling was worth thirteen pence in Ireland: hence a shilling was called a _thirteen_ in Ireland:--'I gave the captain six thirteens to ferry me over to Park-gate.' (Irish Folk Song.) Thivish; a spectre, a ghost. (General.) Irish _taidhbhse_ [thivshe], same meaning. Thole; to endure, to bear:--'I had to thole hardship and want while you were away.' (All over Ulster.) Thon, thonder; yon, yonder:--'Not a tree or a thing only thon wee couple of poor whins that's blowing up thonder on the rise.' (Seumas MacManus, for North-West Ulster.) Thoun´thabock: a good beating. Literally 'strong tobacco: Ir. _teann-tabac_ [same sound]. 'If you don't mind your business, I'll give you thounthabock.' Thrape or threep; to assert vehemently, boldly, and in a manner not to brook contradiction. Common in Meath and from that northward. Thrashbag; several pockets sewed one above another along a strip of strong cloth for holding thread, needles, buttons, &c., and rolled up when not in use. (Moran: Carlow.) Thraulagh, or thaulagh; a soreness or pain in the wrist of a reaper, caused by work. (Connaught.) Irish--two forms--_trálach_ and _tádhlach_ [thraulagh, thaulagh.] Three-na-haila; mixed up all in confusion:--'I must arrange my books and papers: they are all _three-na-haila_.' (South.) Irish _trí n-a chéile_, 'through each other.' The translation 'through-other' is universal in Ulster. {342} Three-years-old and Four-years-old; the names of two hostile factions in the counties of Limerick, Tipperary, and Cork, of the early part of last century, who fought whenever they met, either individually or in numbers, each faction led by its redoubtable chief. The weapons were sticks, but sometimes stones were used. We boys took immense delight in witnessing those fights, keeping at a safe distance however for fear of a stray stone. Three-years and Four-years battles were fought in New Pallas in Tipperary down to a few years ago. Thrisloge; a long step in walking, a long jump. (Munster.) Irish _trioslóg_, same sound. Throllop; an untidy woman, a slattern, a _streel_. (Banim: very general in the South.) Thurmus, thurrumus; to sulk from food. (Munster.) Irish _toirmesc_ [thurrumask], same meaning:--'Billy won't eat his supper: he is _thurrumusing_.' Tibb's-Eve; 'neither before nor after Christmas,' i.e., never: 'Oh you'll get your money by Tibb's-Eve.' Till; used in many parts of Ireland in the sense of 'in order that':--'Come here Micky _till_ I comb your hair.' Tilly; a small quantity of anything given over and above the quantity purchased. Milkmen usually give a tilly with the pint or quart. Irish _tuilledh_, same sound and meaning. Very general. Tinges; goods that remain long in a draper's hands. (Moran: Carlow.) Togher [toher]; a road constructed through a bog or swamp; often of brambles or wickerwork covered over with gravel and stones. {343} Tootn-egg [3-syll.], a peculiar-shaped brass or white-metal button, having the stem fastened by a conical-shaped bit of metal. I have seen it explained as _tooth-and-egg_; but I believe this to be a guess. (Limerick.) Tory-top; the seed cone of a fir-tree. (South.) Towards; in comparison with:--'That's a fine horse towards the one you had before.' Tradesman; an artisan, a working mechanic. In Ireland the word is hardly ever applied to a shopkeeper. Trake; a long tiresome walk: 'you gave me a great trake for nothing,' (Ulster.) Tram or tram-cock; a hay-cock--rather a small one. (Moran: Carlow.) Trams; the ends of the cart shafts that project behind. (North.) Called _heels_ in the South. Trance; the name given in Munster to the children's game of Scotch hop or pickey. Traneen or trawneen; a long slender grass-stalk, like a knitting-needle. Used all over Ireland. In some places _cushoge_. Travel; used in Ulster for walking as distinguished from driving or riding:--'Did you drive to Derry?' 'Oh no, I travelled.' Trice; to make an agreement or bargain. (Simmons: Armagh.) Triheens; a pair of stockings with only the legs: the two feet cut off. It is the Irish _troigh_ [thro], a foot, with the diminutive--_troighthín_ [triheen]. In Roscommon this word is applied to the handle of a loy or spade which has been broken and patched together again. (Connaught and Munster.) {344} Trindle; the wheel of a wheelbarrow. (Morris for South Monaghan.) Trinket; a small artificial channel for water: often across and under a road. (Simmons and Patterson: East Ulster.) See Linthern. Turf; peat for fuel: used in this sense all over Ireland. We hardly ever use the word in the sense of 'Where heaves the _turf_ in many a mouldering heap.' Turk; an ill-natured surly boorish fellow. Twig; to understand, to discern, to catch the point:--'When I hinted at what I wanted, he twigged me at once.' Irish _tuig_ [twig], to understand. Ubbabo; an exclamation of wonder or surprise;--'Ubbabo,' said the old woman, 'we'll soon see to that.' (Crofton Croker.) Ullagone; an exclamation of sorrow; a name applied to any lamentation:--'So I sat down ... and began to sing the Ullagone.' (Crofton Croker.) 'Mike was ullagoning all day after you left.' (Irish.) Ullilu; an interjection of sorrow equivalent to the English _alas_ or _alack and well-a-day_. (Irish.) Unbe-knownst; unknown, secret. (De Vismes Kane for Monaghan: but used very generally.) Under has its peculiar uses:--'She left the fish out under the cats, and the jam out under the children.' (Hayden and Hartog: for Dublin and its neighbourhood: but used also in the South.) Under-board; 'the state of a corpse between death and interment.' (Simmons: Armagh.) 'From the board laid on the breast of the corpse, with a plate of snuff and a Bible or Prayerbook laid on it.' (S. Scott, Derry.) {345} Variety of Phrases, A, 185. Venom, generally pronounced _vinnom_; energy:--'He does his work with great venom.' An attempted translation from an Irish word that bears more than one meaning, and the wrong meaning is brought into English:--viz. _neim_ or _neimh_, literally _poison_, _venom_, but figuratively _fierceness_, _energy_. John O'Dugan writes in Irish (500 years ago):--_Ris gach ndruing do niad a neim_: 'against every tribe they [the Clann Ferrall] exert their _neim_' (literally their _poison_, but meaning their energy or bravery). So also the three sons of Fiacha are endowed _coisin neim_ 'with fierceness,' lit. with _poison_ or _venom_. (Silva Gadelica.) In an old Irish tale a lady looks with intense earnestness on a man she admires: in the Irish it is said 'She put _nimh a súl_ on him, literally the '_venom_ of her eyes,' meaning the keenest glance of her eyes. Hence over a large part of Ireland, especially the South, you will hear: 'Ah, Dick is a splendid man to hire: he works with such _venom_.' A countryman (Co. Wicklow), speaking of the new National Teacher:--'Indeed sir he's well enough, but for all that he hasn't the _vinnom_ of poor Mr. O'Brien:' i.e. he does not teach with such energy. Very fond; when there is a long spell of rain, frost, &c., people say:--'It is very fond of the rain,' &c. Voteen; a person who is a _devotee_ in religion: nearly always applied in derision to one who is excessively and ostentatiously devotional. (General.) {346} Wad; a wisp of straw or hay pressed tightly together. A broken pane in a window is often stuffed with a wad of straw. 'Careless and gay, like a wad in a window': old saying. (General.) Walsh, Edward, 5, &c. Wangle; the handful of straw a thatcher grasps in his left hand from time to time while thatching, twisted up tight at one end. By extension of meaning applied to a tall lanky weak young fellow. (Moran: middle eastern counties.) Wangrace; oatmeal gruel for sick persons. (Simmons: Armagh.) Want; often used in Ulster in the following way:--'I asked Dick to come back to us, for we couldn't want him,' i.e. couldn't do without him. Wap; a bundle of straw; as a verb, to make up straw into a bundle. (Derry and Monaghan.) Warrant; used all over Ireland in the following way--nearly always with _good_, _better_, or _best_, but sometimes with _bad_:--'You're a good warrant (a good hand) to play for us [at hurling] whenever we ax you.' ('Knocknagow.') 'She was a good warrant to give a poor fellow a meal when he wanted it': 'Father Patt gave me a tumbler of _rale_ stiff punch, and the divel a better warrant to make the same was within the province of Connaught.' ('Wild Sports of the West.') Watch-pot; a person who sneaks into houses about meal times hoping to get a bit or to be asked to join. Way. 'A dairyman's _way_, a labourer's _way_, means the privileges or perquisites which the dairyman or labourer gets, in addition to the main contract. A {347} _way_ might be grazing for a sheep, a patch of land for potatoes, &c.' (Healy: for Waterford.) Wearables; articles of clothing. In Tipperary they call the old-fashioned wig 'Dwyer's wearable.' Weather-blade, in Armagh, the same as 'Goureen-roe' in the South, which see. Wee (North), weeny (South); little. Well became. 'When Tom Cullen heard himself insulted by the master, well became him he up and defied him and told him he'd stay no longer in his house.' 'Well became' here expresses approval of Tom's action as being the correct and becoming thing to do. I said to little Patrick 'I don't like to give you any more sweets you're so near your dinner'; and well became him he up and said:--'Oh I get plenty of sweets at home before my dinner.' 'Well became Tom he paid the whole bill.' Wersh, warsh, worsh; insipid, tasteless, needing salt or sugar. (Simmons and Patterson: Ulster.) Wet and dry; 'Tom gets a shilling a day, wet and dry'; i.e. constant work and constant pay in all weathers. (General.) Whack: food, sustenance:--'He gets 2s. 6d. a day and his _whack_.' Whassah or fassah; to feed cows in some unusual place, such as along a lane or road: to herd them in unfenced ground. The food so given is also called _whassah_. (Moran: for South Mon.) Irish _fásach_, a wilderness, any wild place. Whatever; at any rate, anyway, anyhow: usually put in this sense at the end of a sentence:--'Although she can't speak on other days of {348} the week, she can speak on Friday, whatever.' ('Collegians.') 'Although you wouldn't take anything else, you'll drink this glass of milk, whatever.' (Munster.) Curious, I find this very idiom in an English book recently published: 'Lord Tweedmouth. Notes and Recollections,' viz.:--'We could not cross the river [in Scotland], but he would go [across] _whatever_.' The writer evidently borrowed this from the English dialect of the Highlands, where they use _whatever_ exactly as we do. (William Black: 'A Princess of Thule.') In all these cases, whether Irish or Scotch, _whatever_ is a translation from the Gaelic _ar mhodh ar bíth_ or some such phrase. Wheeling. When a fellow went about flourishing a cudgel and shouting out defiance to people to fight him--shouting for his faction, side, or district, he was said to be 'wheeling':--'Here's for Oola!' 'here's _three years_!' 'here's Lillis!' (Munster.) Sometimes called _hurrooing_. See 'Three-years-old.' Wheen; a small number, a small quantity:--'I was working for a wheen o' days': 'I'll eat a wheen of these gooseberries.' (Ulster.) Whenever is generally used in Ulster for _when_:--'I was in town this morning and whenever I came home I found the calf dead in the stable.' Which. When a person does not quite catch what another says, there is generally a query:--'eh?' 'what?' or 'what's that you say?' Our people often express this query by the single word 'which?' I knew a highly educated and highly {349} placed Dublin official who always so used the word. (General.) Whipster; a bold forward romping impudent girl. (Ulster.) In Limerick it also conveys the idea of a girl inclined to _whip_ or steal things. Whisht, silence: used all over Ireland in such phrases as 'hold your whisht' (or the single word 'whisht'), i.e., be silent. It is the Gaelic word _tost_, silence, with the first _t_ aspirated as it ought to be, which gives it the sound of _h_. They pronounce it as if it were written _thuist_, which is exactly sounded _whisht_. The same word--taken from the Gaelic of course--is used everywhere in Scotland:--When the Scottish Genius of Poetry appeared suddenly to Burns (in 'The Vision'):--'Ye needna doubt, I held my whisht!' Whisper, whisper here; both used in the sense of 'listen,' 'listen to me':--'Whisper, I want to say something to you,' and then he proceeds to say it, not in a whisper, but in the usual low conversational tone. Very general all over Ireland. 'Whisper' in this usage is simply a translation of _cogar_ [cogger], and 'whisper here' of _cogar annso_; these Irish words being used by Irish speakers exactly as their dialectical English equivalents are used in English: the English usage being taken from the Irish. White-headed boy or white-haired boy; a favourite, a person in favour, whether man or boy:--'Oh you're the white-headed boy now.' Whitterit or whitrit; a weasel. (Ulster.) Whose owe? the same as 'who owns?':--'Whose owe is this book?' Old English. My correspondent {350} states that this was a common construction in Anglo-Saxon. (Ulster.) Why; a sort of terminal expletive used in some of the Munster counties:--'Tom is a strong boy why': 'Are you going to Ennis why?' 'I am going to Cork why.' Why for? used in Ulster as an equivalent to 'for what?' Why but? 'Why not?' (Ulster.) 'Why but you speak your mind out?' i.e. 'Why should you not?' (Kane: Armagh.) Why then; used very much in the South to begin a sentence, especially a reply, much as _indeed_ is used in English:--'When did you see John Dunn?' 'Why then I met him yesterday at the fair': 'Which do you like best, tea or coffee?' 'Why then I much prefer tea.' 'Why then Pat is that you; and how is _every rope's length_ of you?' Wicked; used in the South in the sense of severe or cross. 'Mr. Manning our schoolmaster is very wicked.' Widow-woman and widow-man; are used for _widow_ and _widower_, especially in Ulster: but _widow-woman_ is heard everywhere. Wigs on the green; a fight: so called for an obvious reason:--'There will be wigs on the green in the fair to-day.' _Will you_ was never a good fellow, 18, 114. Wine or wynd of hay; a small temporary stack of hay, made up on the meadow. All the small wynds are ultimately made up into one large rick or stack in the farmyard. {351} Wipe, a blow: all over Ireland: he gave him a wipe on the face. In Ulster, a goaly-wipe is a great blow on the ball with the _camaun_ or hurley: such as will send it to the goal. Wire. To _wire in_ is to begin work vigorously: to join in a fight. Wirra; an exclamation generally indicating surprise, sorrow, or vexation: it is the vocative of 'Muire' (_A Mhuire_), Mary, that is, the Blessed Virgin. Wirrasthru, a term of pity; alas. It is the phonetic form of _A Mhuire is truaigh_, 'O Mary it is a pity (or a sorrow),' implying the connexion of the Blessed Virgin with sorrow. Wit; sense, which is the original meaning. But this meaning is nearly lost in England while it is extant everywhere in Ireland:--A sharp Ulster woman, entering her little boy in a Dublin Infant School, begged of the mistress to teach him a little _wut_. Witch: black witches are bad; white witches good. (West Donegal.) Wish; esteem, friendship:--'Your father had a great wish for me,' i.e. held me in particular esteem, had a strong friendship. (General.) In this application it is merely the translation of the Irish _meas_, respect:--_Tá meás mór agum ort_; I have great esteem for you, I have a great _wish_ for you, I hold you in great respect. Wisha; a softening down of _mossa_, which see. With that; thereupon: used all over Ireland. Irish _leis sin_, which is often used, has the same exact meaning; but still I think _with that_ is of old {352} English origin, though the Irish equivalent may have contributed to its popularity. 'With that her couverchef from her head she braid And over his litel eyen she it laid.' (CHAUCER.) Word; trace, sign. (Ulster.) 'Did you see e'er a word of a black-avised (black-visaged) man travelling the road you came?' Wrap and run: 'I gathered up every penny I could wrap and run,' is generally used: the idea being to wrap up hastily and run for it. Yoke; any article, contrivance, or apparatus for use in some work. 'That's a _quare_ yoke Bill,' says a countryman when he first saw a motor car. * * * * * {353} ALPHABETICAL LIST OF PERSONS Who sent me Collections of Dialectical Words and Phrases in response to my letter of February, 1892, published in the newspapers. The names and addresses are given exactly as I received them. The collections of those marked with an asterisk (*) were very important. Allen, Mary; Armagh. Atkinson, M.; The Pavilion, Weedon. Bardan, Patrick; Coralstown, Killucan, Westmeath. Bentley, William; Hurdlestown, Broadford, Co. Clare. Bermingham, T. C.; Whitechurch Nat. School, Cappoquin, Co. Waterford. Boyd, John; Union Place, Dungannon. Boyd, John; Dean's Bridge, Armagh. Brady, P.; Brackney Nat. School, Kilkeel, Down. Brady, P.; Anne Street, Dundalk. Breen, E.; Killarney. Brenan, Rev. Samuel Arthur, Rector; Cushendun, Antrim. Brett, Miss Elizabeth C.; Crescent, Holywood, Co. Down. Brophy, Michael; Tullow Street, Carlow. Brown, Edith; Donaghmore, Tyrone. Brown, Mrs. John; Seaforde, Clough, Co. Down. Brownlee, J. A.; Armagh. Buchanan, Colonel; Edenfel, Omagh. Burke, W. S.; 187 Clonliffe Road, Dublin. Bushe, Charles P.; 2 St. Joseph's Terrace, Sandford Road, Dublin. Burrows, A.; Grass Valley, Nevada Co., California. Byers, J. W.; Lower Crescent, Belfast. Byrne, James, J.P.; Wallstown Castle, Castletownroche, Co. Cork. Caldwell, Mrs.; Dundrum, Dublin. *Campbell, Albert; Ballynagarde House, Derry. Campbell, John; Blackwatertown, Armagh. Cangley, Patrick; Co. Meath. (North.) Carroll, John; Pallasgrean, Co. Limerick. Chute, Jeanie L. B.; Castlecoote, Roscommon. Clements, M. E.; 61 Marlborough Road, Dublin. Close, Mary A.; Limerick. *Close, Rev. Maxwell; Dublin. Coakley, James; Currabaha Nat. School, Kilmacthomas, Waterford. Coleman, James; Southampton. (Now of Queenstown.) {354} Colhoun, James; Donegal. Connolly, Mrs. Susan; The Glebe, Foynes. Corrie, Sarah; Monaghan. Counihan, Jeremiah; Killarney. Cox, M.; Co. Roscommon. Crowe, A.; Limerick. Cullen, William; 131 North King Street, Dublin. Curry, S.; General Post Office, Dublin. Daunt, W. J. O'N.; Kilcascan, Ballyneen, Co. Cork. Davies, W. W.; Glenmore Cottage, Lisburn. Delmege, Miss F.; N. Teacher, Central Model School, Dublin. Dennehy, Patrick; Curren's Nat. School, Farranfore, Co. Cork. Devine, The Rev. Father Pius; Mount Argus, Dublin. Dobbyn, Leonard; Hollymount, Lee Road, Cork. Dod, R.; Royal Academical Institution, Belfast; The Lodge, Castlewellan. Doherty, Denis; Co. Cork. *Drew, Sir Thomas; Dublin. Dunne, Miss; Aghavoe House, Ballacolla, Queen's Co. Egan, F. W.; Albion House, Dundrum, Dublin. Egan, J.; 34 William Street, Limerick. Fetherstonhaugh, R. S.; Rock View, Killucan, Westmeath. FitzGerald, Lord Walter; Kilkea Castle, Co. Kildare. Fleming, Mrs. Elizabeth; Ventry Parsonage, Dingle, Kerry. Fleming, John; Rathgormuck Nat. School, Waterford. Flynn, John; Co. Clare. Foley, M.; Killorglin, Kerry. Foster, Elizabeth J.; 7 Percy Place, Dublin. G. K. O'L. (a lady from Kilkenny, I think). Garvey, John; Ballina, Co. Mayo. Gilmour, Thomas; Antrim. Glasgow, H. L.; 'Midland Ulster Mail,' Cookstown, Co. Tyrone. Glover, W. W.; Ballinlough Nat. School, Co. Roscommon. Graham, Lizzie F.; Portadown. Greene, Dr. G. E. J.; The Well, Ballycarney, Ferns, Co. Wexford. Hamilton, A.; Desertmartin, Belfast. Hannon, John; Crossmaglen Nat. School, Armagh. Harkin, Daniel; Ramelton, Donegal. *Harrington, Private Thomas; 211 Strand, London, W.C. (For Munster.) Haugh, John; Co. Clare. Haughton, Kate M.; Lady's Island Nat. School, Wexford. *Healy, Maurice, M.P., 37 South Mall, Cork. Henry, Robert; Coleraine. *Higgins, The Rev. Michael, C.C.; Queenstown, Cork. {355} Hunt, M.; Ballyfarnan, Roscommon. *Hunter, Robert; 39 Gladstone Street, Clonmel. Irwin, A. J., B.A.; Glenfern, Ballyarton, Derry. *Jones, Miss; Knocknamohill, Ovoca, Co. Wicklow. *Joyce, W. B., B.A.; Limerick. *Kane, W. Francis de Vismes; Sloperton Lodge, Kingstown, Dublin. (For Ulster.) Keegan, T.; Rosegreen Nat. School, Clonmel. Kelly, Eliza, Co. Mayo. Kelly, George A. P., M.A.; 6 Upper Pembroke Street, Dublin. (For Roscommon.) Kennedy, J. J.; Faha Nat. School, Beaufort, Killarney. Kenny, The Rev. M. J., P.P.; Scarriff, Co. Clare. Kenny, Charles W.; Caledon, Co. Tyrone. Kilmartin, Mary; Tipperary. Kilpatrick, George; Kilrea, Derry. *Kinahan, G. H.; Dublin. (Collection gathered from all Ireland.) Kingham, S. H.; Co. Down. *Knowles, W. J.; Flixton Place, Ballymena. Knox, W.; Tedd, Irvinestown. Lawlor, Patrick; Ballinclogher Nat. School, Lixnaw, Kerry. Linn, Richard; 259 Hereford St., Christchurch, New Zealand. (For Antrim.) Lynch, M. J.; Kerry. *MacCall, Patrick J.; 25 Patrick St., Dublin. McCandless, T.; Ballinrees Nat. School, Coleraine. McClelland, F. J.; Armagh. McCormac, Emily; Cnoc Aluin, Dalkey, Dublin. MacDonagh, Mr.; Ward Schls., Bangor, Co. Down. McGloin, Louisa; Foxford, Mayo. MacSheehy, Brian, LL.D., Head Inspector of Nat. Schools, Dublin. McKenna, A.; Clones, Co. Monaghan. McKeown, R.; Co. Tyrone. McNulty, Robert; Raphoe. Maguire, John; Co. Cavan. Maguire, M.; Mullinscross, Louth. Mason, Thos. A. H.; 29 Marlborough Road, Dublin. Mason, Thos.; Hollymount, Buxton Hill, Cork. Montgomery, Maggie; Antrim. *Moran, Patrick; 14 Strand Road, Derry, Retired Head Constable R. I. Constabulary, native of Carlow, to which his collection mainly belongs. *Morris, Henry; Cashlan East, Carrickmacross, Monaghan. Murphy, Christopher O'B.; 48 Victoria St., Dublin. Murphy, Ellie; Co. Cork. Murphy, J.; Co. Cork. Murphy, T.; Co. Cork. Neville, Anne; 48 Greville Road, Bedminster. {356} Niven, Richard; Lambeg, Lisburn. Norris, A.; Kerry. O'Brien, Michael; Munlough Nat. School, Cavan. O'Connor, James; Ballyglass House, Sligo. O'Donnell, Patrick; Mayo. *O'Donohoe, Timothy; Carrignavar, Cork. ('Tadg O'Donnchadha.') O'Farrell, Fergus; Redington, Queenstown. O'Farrell, W. (a lady). Same place. O'Flanagan, J. R.; Grange House, Fermoy, Cork. O'Hagan, Philip; Buncrana, Donegal. O'Hara, Isa; Tyrone. O'Leary, Nelius; Nat. School, Kilmallock, Limerick. O'Reilly, P.; Nat. School, Granard. O'Sullivan, D. J.; Shelburne Nat. School, Kenmare. O'Sullivan, Janie; Kerry. Reen, Denis T.; Kingwilliamstown, Cork. Reid, George R.; 23 Cromwell Road, Belfast. Reid, Samuel W.; Armagh. *Reilly, Patrick; Cemetery Lodge, Naas, Co. Kildare. Rice, Michael; Castlewellan, Co. Down. Riley, Lizzie; Derry. *Russell, T. O'Neill; Dublin. (For central counties.) Ryan, Ellie; Limerick. Scott, J.; Milford Nat. School, Donegal. *Scott, S.; Derry. *Simmons, D. A.; Nat. School, Armagh. Simpson, Thomas; Derry. Skirving, R. Scot; 29 Drummond Place, Edinburgh. Smith, Owen; Nobber, Co. Meath. *Stafford, Wm.; Baldwinstown, Bridgetown, Wexford. Stanhope, Mr.; Paris. Supple, D. J.; Royal Irish Constabulary, Robertstown, Kildare. (For Kerry.) Thompson, L.; Ballyculter, Co. Down. Tighe, T. F.; Ulster Bank, Ballyjamesduff, Co. Cavan. Tobin, J. E.; 8 Muckross Parade, N. C. Road, Dublin. Tuite, Rev. P., P.P.; Parochial House, Tullamore. Walshe, Charlotte; Waterford. Ward, Emily G.; Castleward, Downpatrick. White, Eva; Limerick. White, Rev. H. V.; All SS. Rectory, Waterford. White, John Davis; Cashel, Co. Tipperary. (Newspaper Editor.) Weir, Rev. George; Creeslough, Donegal. Weir, J.; Ballymena. Wood-Martin, Col., A.D.C.; Cleveragh, Sligo. *Woollett, Mr. Marlow; Dublin. * * * * * WORKS BY P. W. JOYCE, M.A., LL.D., T.C.D.; M.R.I.A. ONE OF THE COMMISSIONERS FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE ANCIENT LAWS OF IRELAND; LATE PRESIDENT OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES, IRELAND LATE PRINCIPAL, MARLBOROUGH STREET (GOVERNMENT) TRAINING COLLEGE, DUBLIN. _Two Splendid Volumes, richly gilt, both cover and top. With 361 Illustrations. 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Price--Cloth, 3s.; Wrapper, 1s. 6d._ ANCIENT IRISH MUSIC, Containing One Hundred Airs never before published, and a number of Popular Songs. * * * * * _Paper cover. 4to. Price 1s._ IRISH MUSIC AND SONG. A Collection of Songs in the Irish language, set to the old Irish airs. (Edited by Dr. JOYCE for the "Society for the Preservation of the Irish Language.") * * * * * _Second Edition. Paper cover. Crown 8vo. Price 6d. net._ IRISH PEASANT SONGS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. With the old Irish airs: the words set to the Music. * * * * * _Twentieth Edition. 86th Thousand. Fcap. 8vo. Cloth. Price 3s. 6d._ A HAND-BOOK OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND METHODS OF TEACHING. * * * * * _Price--Cloth gilt, 2s. net; Paper, 1s. net._ BALLADS OF IRISH CHIVALRY By ROBERT DWYER JOYCE, M.D. Edited, with Annotations, by his brother, P. W. JOYCE, LL.D. * * * * * _Now ready. Cloth, richly gilt. Price 10s. 6d. net._ OLD IRISH FOLK MUSIC AND SONGS. A Collection of 842 Irish Airs and Songs never before published. With Analytical Preface and a running Commentary all through. * * * * * _Now ready (March, 1910); 350 pages: Cloth gilt, 2s. 6d. net._ ENGLISH AS WE SPEAK IT IN IRELAND. CONTENTS.--Chap. I. Sources of Anglo-Irish Dialect--II. Affirming, Assenting, and Saluting--III. Asserting by Negative of Opposite, IV. Idioms derived from the Irish Language--V. The Devil and his 'Territory'--VI. Swearing--VII. Grammar and Pronunciation--VIII. Proverbs--IX. Exaggeration and Redundancy--X. Comparisons--XI. The Memory of History and of Old Customs--XII. A Variety of Phrases--XIII. Vocabulary and Index.--Alphabetical List of Persons who sent Collections of Dialectical Words and Phrases. * * * * * Notes [1] For both of these songs see my 'Old Irish Folk Music and Songs.' [2] See my 'Old Irish Folk Music and Songs,' p. 202. [3] See the interesting remarks of O'Donovan in Preface to 'Battle of Magh Rath,' pp. ix-xv. Sir Samuel Ferguson also has some valuable observations on the close packing of the very old Irish language, but I cannot lay my hands on them. From him I quote (from memory) the remark about translating old Irish into English or Latin. [4] For the Penal Laws, see my 'Child's Hist. of Ireland,' chaps. lv, lvi. [5] For 'Poor Scholars,' see O'Curry, 'Man. & Cust.,' i. 79, 80: Dr. Healy, 'Ireland's Anc. Sch.,' 475: and, for a modern instance, Carleton's story, 'The Poor Scholar.' The above passage is quoted from my 'Social Hist. of Anc. Ireland.' [6] See my 'Smaller Social Hist. of Anc. Ireland,' chap, vii. [7] See for an example Dr. Hyde's 'Children of the King of Norway,' 153. (Irish Texts Soc.) [8] From my 'Old Irish Folk Music and Songs,' p. 56, in which also will be found the beautiful air of this. 
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5742	----	THE BIRD-WOMAN OF THE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION A SUPPLEMENTARY READER FOR FIRST AND SECOND GRADES BY KATHERINE CHANDLER Author of "Habits of California Plants" and "In the Reign of Coyote: Folk-Lore from the Pacific" 1905 To my friend GENEVRA SISSON SNEDDEN whose interest in this little book has encouraged its completion PREFACE. Because children invariably ask for "more" of the stories they find interesting, this little book of continuous narrative has been written. Every incident is found in the Lewis and Clark Journals, so that the child's frequent question, "Is it true?" can be answered in the affirmative. The vocabulary consists of fewer than 700 words. Over half of these are found in popular primers. Therefore, the child should have no difficulty in reading this historical story after completing a first reader. The illustrations on pages 13, 15, 29, 64, and the last one on page 79, are redrawn from Catlin's "Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs, and Conditions of the North-American Indians." My acknowledgments are due Miss Lilian Bridgman, of San Francisco, for help in arranging the vocabulary. KATHERINE CHANDLER. SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA. July 1, 1905. CONTENTS THE BIRD-WOMAN WHO THE WHITE MEN WERE WHY SACAJAWEA WENT WEST AT FORT MANDAN THE BLACK MAN SACAJAWEA'S BABY MAKING FRIENDS WITH THE INDIANS SACAJAWEA SAVES THE CAPTAINS' GOODS SACAJAWEA'S RIVER THE FIRST SIGHT OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS SACAJAWEA IS ILL HOW THE INDIANS HUNTED BUFFALO THE FALLS OF THE MISSOURI THE CACHE NEAR THE FALLS OF THE MISSOURI HOW SACAJAWEA CURED RATTLESNAKE BITES GOING AROUND THE FALLS GRIZZLY BEARS AT THE TOP OF THE FALLS THE CLOUD-BURST AT THE SOURCE OF THE MISSOURI SACAJAWEA FINDS ROOTS AND SEED SACAJAWEA'S PEOPLE SACAJAWEA'S BROTHER SACAJAWEA'S PEOPLE WILL SHOW THE WAY THE INDIANS TRY TO LEAVE THE WHITES CROSSING THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS AT THE COLUMBIA RIVER HOW THE INDIANS DRIED SALMON THE WAPPATOO TO THE PACIFIC OCEAN THE PACIFIC OCEAN SACAJAWEA ON THE OCEAN BEACH THE WHALE SACAJAWEA'S BELT AT FORT CLATSOP THE START HOME AT CAMP CHOPUNNISH OVER THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS GOING HOME EAST OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS AGAIN SACAJAWEA SAYS GOOD-BYE TO THE SOLDIERS THE CENTENNIAL [Illustration: THE STATUE OF SACAJAWEA, THE BIRD WOMAN, UNVEILED AT THE LEWIS AND CLARK CENTENNIAL, IN PORTLAND, OREGON, IN 1905] a go hun dred Sa ca ja we a years THE BIRD-WOMAN. The Bird-Woman was an Indian. She showed the white men the way into the West. There were no roads to the West then. That was one hundred years ago. This Indian woman took the white men across streams. She took them over hills. She took them through bushes. She seemed to find her way as a bird does. The white men said, "She goes like a bird. We will call her the Bird-Woman." Her Indian name was Sacajawea. Clark A mer i can Lew is met cap tains part sol diers twen ty nine peo pie Mis sou ri Riv er WHO THE WHITE MEN WERE. The white men Sacajawea went with were soldiers. There were twenty-nine soldiers. There were two captains. The name of one captain was Lewis. The name of the other captain was Clark. They were American soldiers. [Illustration: CAPTAIN CLARK.] [Illustration: CAPTAIN LEWIS.] They carried the American flag into the West. No white men knew about that part of the West then. The captains wished to learn all about the West. They wished to tell the people in the East about it. They had been going West a long time before they met Sacajawea. They had rowed up the Missouri River. They had come to many little streams. They did not know what the Indians called these streams. So they gave them new names for the white men. camp Fourth of Ju ly Man dan cheered French man rest ed ice In de pend ence creek hus band Kan sas snow On Fourth of July they named one stream Fourth of July Creek. They named another Independence Creek. We still call this stream by that name. You can find it on the map of Kansas. On Fourth of July the men rested. The soldier who woke first fired a gun. Then they all woke up and cheered for the Fourth of July. At night they fired another gun. Then the soldiers danced around the camp fire. After a time the ice and snow would not let them go on. They made a winter camp near the Mandan Indians. Here they met Sacajawea and her husband. Her husband was a Frenchman who knew a little about the West. Sacajawea was the only one there who had been to the far West. Lewis and Clark told the Frenchman they would pay him to go with them. He said he would go. Then he and Sacajawea came to live at the soldiers' camp. be longed roots tribe mar ried Snake twelve Rocky Mountains thought war WHY SACAJAWEA WENT WEST. Sacajawea belonged in the West. Her tribe was called the Snake Indians. They lived in the Rocky Mountains. Sacajawea lived in the Mountains until she was twelve years old. Then her tribe went to war with the Mandans from the East. One day Sacajawea and some other girls were getting roots. They were down by a stream. Some Mandans came upon them. The girls ran fast to get away. [Illustration: MANDAN DRAWING ON A BUFFALO ROBE] Sacajawea ran into the stream. An Indian caught her. He took her up on his horse. He carried her away to the East, to the country of the Mandans. There she married the Frenchman. There the Americans found her. She was glad when her husband said he would go West with Lewis and Clark. She thought she would see her own tribe again. an i mals coun try friends med i cine read y chiefs froz en plants wrote fort sweat house AT FORT MANDAN. The soldiers called their winter camp Fort Mandan. They had a hard winter there. It was so cold that many men were ill. They had no time to be ill. They had to work to be ready to go West when Spring opened. The captains wrote in their books about the Indians and animals and plants they had seen. They made maps of the country they had come through. They had long talks with the Indian chiefs. They made friends with the Indians by giving them medicine. An Indian boy had his feet frozen near the soldiers' camp. The captains kept him until his feet were well again. His people all came and thanked the captains. [Illustration: AN INDIAN SWEAT-HOUSE] The Indians told each other about the white men's medicine. They said, "The white men's medicine is better than our sweat-house." So they came for miles to the white camp to get the medicine. They gave the captains food. They wanted to be friends with them. ar rows din ner hunt ed mon ey beads fid dle knives pie ces blan kets gal lons med als stove The soldiers hunted animals for food and for their skins. One soldier cut an old stove into pieces. The Indians wanted these pieces to make arrows and knives. They would give eight gallons of corn for one piece. The Indians did not know what money was. The captains did not carry money with them. They took flags and medals, knives and blankets, looking-glasses and beads, and many other things. With these they could get food from the Indians. On Christmas Day, 1804, the soldiers put the American flag up over the fort. They told the Indians not to come to see them on that day. They said it was the best day of their year. It was a cold day, with much ice and snow. They had a good dinner and after dinner the soldiers danced. On New Year's Day, 1805, they fired off all their guns. The captains let the soldiers go to the Mandan camp. They took their fiddle and danced for the Indians. One soldier danced on his hands with his head down. The Indians liked this dancing very much. They gave the soldiers some corn and some skins. sur prised hair paint ed stran ger fin ger wa ter helped York THE BLACK MAN. Captain Clark had his black man, York, with him. The Indians were always surprised to see the black man. They thought he was stranger than the white men. One Mandan chief said, "This is a white man painted black." He wet his finger and tried to wash the black off York's skin. The black would not come off. Then York took off his hat. The chief had not seen such hair before. Then the chief said, "You are not like a white man. You are a black man." The Indians told each other of this black man. They came from far to see him. York helped make them friends with the whites. The captains named a river for York. The river had only a little water in it. They named it York's Dry River. bas ket laugh weeks born su gar SACAJAWEA'S BABY. At Fort Mandan, Sacajawea's baby boy was born. He was only eight weeks old when the white men began to go to the far West. Sacajawea made a basket of skins for her baby. She put it on her back. The baby could sleep in the basket as Sacajawea walked. The soldiers liked the baby. They gave it sugar. They made it playthings of wood. They danced to make it laugh. Indian babies do not laugh much and they do not cry much. Once in the West the baby was ill. Then the soldiers camped for some days. They were very still. Captain Lewis gave the baby medicine. This made the baby well again. Then the men laughed. They said, "Let us sing and dance for the baby." The baby laughed as it looked at the men. A pril par ty shot broke shoot warm The warm April sun broke up the ice in the Missouri River. Then the party got into their boats and rowed on up the river. From this time on, Sacajawea and her baby were a help to the soldiers. When the Indians saw a woman and a baby with the men, they knew it was not a war party. Indians would not take a woman and baby to war. Only men go to war. The Indians did not shoot at the men. They came up to see what they wanted. If Sacajawea had not been there, they would have shot the white men. The Indians thought that all strangers wanted war. They thought this until the strangers showed that they were friends. bare foot ed cov ered prick ly threw cor ners pears same moc ca sins true MAKING FRIENDS WITH THE INDIANS. Sacajawea showed the captains how to make friends with the Indians. The Indians on the upper Missouri River and in the Rocky Mountains showed that they wanted to be friends in the same way. When they saw strangers, they stood still and talked to each other. If they wished to be friends, the chief walked out ahead of his people. He took off his blanket. He took hold of it by two corners. He threw it up high. Then he put it on the ground. This showed that he was putting down a skin for a friend to sit on. He did this three times. Then the strangers came up to him. They sat down together. They took off their moccasins. This showed that they wished to be true friends. If they were not true friends, they would go barefooted all their days. They thought it hard to go barefooted. The ground was covered with prickly pears. The prickly pears would hurt their feet. great pres ents smoked pipes send Wash ing ton When the strangers had their moccasins off, they smoked some pipes together. Then they gave each other presents. Then they told each other why they had come together. Captain Lewis and Captain Clark always told the Indians: "We have come from the Great Father in Washington. He sends you these presents. He wants you to be friends with the white men. He wants you to be friends with the other Indians. When you all are friends, the men can get many animals and the women can get many roots. The Great Father will send you out the white men's goods when you are all friends." The Indians always said to Lewis and Clark: "We are glad to hear from the Great Father in Washington. We like his presents. We shall be glad to get the white men's goods. We will be friends with all men with Indians and with white men." a fraid com pass canoe straight ened turned hit rud der SACAJAWEA SAVES THE CAPTAINS' GOODS. Going up the Missouri, the compass, the books, and the maps were in one canoe. The captains had the compass to find the West. One day a big wind hit this canoe and turned it nearly over. Sacajawea's husband was at the rudder. He was afraid and let go. The water came into the canoe. The maps and books came up to the top of the water. Sacajawea saw them going out into the river. She took the compass into her lap. She caught the books. She called to her husband. He took the rudder again. He straightened the boat again. Then Sacajawea caught the maps that were on top of the river. Crook ed Mon ta na wide hand some saved yards SACAJAWEA'S RIVER. As the maps and books were wet, the soldiers had to camp two days. They put the maps and the books and the compass in the sun. When these were dry, they went on again. Ten days after, they came to a river that no white man had seen before. Captain Lewis wrote in his book, "It is a handsome river about 50 yards wide." They did not know the Indian name for it. The captains were so glad Sacajawea had saved their things that they named it for her. They said, "We will call it the Sacajawea or Bird-Woman's River." This river is still running. Look on a map of Montana. Do you see a stream named "Crooked Creek?" That is the stream Lewis and Clark named Sacajawea's River. Which do you think is the prettier name? Which do you think we should call it? blew elk pleas ure cross plains steep buf fa lo mos qui toes sight THE FIRST SIGHT OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. Going up the Missouri, the party had to drink the river water. It was not good and it made them ill. The sand blew in their eyes. The mosquitoes bit them all the time. But still the soldiers were happy. They carried their goods in boats. They walked when they wished to. They hunted buffalo and elk on the plains near the river. They had all they wanted to eat. One day in May, Captain Lewis was out hunting. He went up a little hill. Then far off to the West he saw the Rocky Mountains high and steep. Captain Lewis was the first white man to see these mountains. He wrote in his book that he felt a great pleasure on first seeing them. He knew they would be very hard to cross. They were all white with snow. But he was ready to go on so as to get to the West. He went back to the boats and told the others about the mountains. The men were happy and worked harder to get near them. grew fell hot sul phur worse SACAJAWEA IS ILL. Going up the Missouri, Sacajawea fell ill. She could not eat. She grew worse each day. Captain Clark gave her some medicine. It did not make her well. The soldiers had to camp until she could go on. They could not go on without her. They wanted her with them to make friends with her tribe. One day the soldiers found a hot sulphur spring. They carried Sacajawea to this spring. The water made her well. In a week she could go on. bank killed hole to ward HOW THE INDIANS HUNTED BUFFALO. On the plains of the Missouri there were many buffaloes. Sacajawea told the soldiers how the Indians hunted them. An Indian put on a buffalo skin. The buffalo's head was over his head. He walked out to where the buffaloes were eating. He stood between them and a high bank of the river. The other Indians went behind the buffaloes. The buffaloes ran toward the man in the buffalo skin. He ran fast toward the river. Then the buffaloes ran fast toward the river. At the high bank the man ran down and hid in a hole. The buffaloes came so fast that they could not stop at the bank. They fell over the bank on to the rocks near the river. Many were killed. Then the Indians came around the bank. They skinned the buffaloes. They dried the meat. They dried the skins to make blankets and houses. June won der ful draw pic ture spray write cache THE FALLS OF THE MISSOURI. One June day Captain Lewis was walking ahead of the boats. He heard a great noise up the River. He pushed on fast. After walking seven miles, he came to the great Falls of the Missouri. He was the first white man to see these Falls. He sat down on a rock and watched the water dash and spray. He tried to draw a picture of the Falls. He tried to write about it in his book. But he said it was so wonderful that he could not draw it well nor picture it in words. When the men came up, they could not take their boats near the Falls. The Falls are very, very high. The highest fall is eighty-seven feet high, and the water comes down with a great rush. So the soldiers had to go around the Falls. That was a long, long way. It would be hard to carry all their things around the Falls. The captains said, "We will make a cache here. "We will put in the skins and plants and maps. "We can get them all again when we are coming home." The soldiers made two caches. In these they hid all the things they could do without. Without so much to carry, it would not be so hard to go around the Falls. dried dug ring sod bot tom branch es earth sides THE CACHE NEAR THE FALLS OF THE MISSOURI. To make a cache, the soldiers made a ring on the ground. They took up the sod inside the ring. They dug straight down for a foot. They put dried branches on the bottom and at the sides of this hole. They put dried skins over the branches. Then they put their goods into the hole, or cache. They put dried skins over the goods. Then they put the earth in. Then they put the sod on. The ring did not look as if it had been dug up. The Indians would not think to look there for goods. bite fresh rat tle snakes cure morn ing sev en teen beat HOW SACAJAWEA CURED RATTLESNAKE BITES. Near the Falls of the Missouri, the party met many rattlesnakes. The snakes liked to lie in the sun on the river banks. Some times they went up trees and lay on the branches. One night Captain Lewis was sleeping under a tree. In the morning he looked up through the tree. He saw a big rattlesnake on a branch. It was going to spring at him. He caught his gun and killed it. It had seventeen rattles. Sometimes the soldiers had to go barefooted. The snakes bit their bare feet. Sacajawea knew how to cure the bite. She took a root she called the rattlesnake root. She beat it hard. She opened the snake bite. She tied the root on it. She put fresh root on two times a day. It cured the snake bite. The root would kill a man if he should eat it, but it will cure a snake bite. ax les even hail tongues bears e nough knocked wheels griz zly cot ton wood mast wil low GOING AROUND THE FALLS. The party had to go up a high hill to get around the Falls. It would take too long to carry the canoes on their backs. They could see only one big tree on the plains. It was a cottonwood. The soldiers cut it down. They cut wheels and tongues from it. The cottonwood is not hard enough for axles. The soldiers cut up the mast of their big boat for axles. They began to go up the hill. In a little time the axles broke. They put in willow axles. Then the cottonwood tongues broke. Then the men had to carry the goods on their backs. It was very hot. The mosquitoes and blow-flies bit them all the time. The prickly pear hurt their feet. It hurt them even through their moccasins. If they drank water, they were ill. One day it hailed hard. The hail knocked some of the men down. At night the grizzly bears took their food. load point ed large safe mouth roared fierce waist GRIZZLY BEARS. After many hard days, they got all the goods to the top of the Falls. The party saw many grizzly bears near the Falls. They were the first white men to see the grizzly bear. They found it a very large and very fierce bear. One day Captain Lewis was out hunting. He had killed a buffalo for dinner. He turned around to load his gun again. He saw a big bear coming after him. It was only twenty feet away. He did not have time to load his gun. There was no tree near. There was no rock near. The river bank was not high. Captain Lewis ran to the river. The bear ran after him with open mouth. It nearly caught him. Captain Lewis ran into the river. He turned around when the water was up to his waist. He pointed his gun at the bear. It stopped still. Then it roared and ran away. Captain Lewis did not know why the bear roared and ran, but he was glad to be safe. body de feat ed shoul der brave ly ing angry One day six of the soldiers saw a big bear lying on a little hill near the river. The six soldiers came near him. They were all good shots. Four shot at him. Four balls went into his body. He jumped up. He ran at them with open mouth. Then the two other men fired. Their balls went into his body, too. One ball broke his shoulder. Still he ran at them. The men ran to the river. Two jumped into their canoe. The others hid in the willows. They loaded their guns as fast as they could. They shot him again. The shots only made him angry. He came very near two of the men. They threw away their guns and jumped down twenty feet into the river. The bear jumped in after them. He nearly caught the last one. Then one soldier in the willows shot the bear in the head. This shot killed him. The soldiers pulled the bear out of the river. They found eight balls in him. They took his skin to show the captains. They said he was a brave old bear. They named a creek near-by for him. They called it "The Brown-Bear-Defeated Creek." be cause fright ened climb kicked wait One day a grizzly bear ran after a soldier. The soldier tried to shoot the bear. His gun would not go off. The gun was wet because he had been in the river all day. He ran to a tree. He got to the tree just in time. As the soldier climbed, he kicked the bear. The grizzly bear can not climb a tree. This grizzly sat at the foot of the tree to wait until the soldier would come down. The soldier called out loud. Two other soldiers heard him. They came running to help him. They saw the man in the tree. They saw the bear at the foot of the tree. They shot off their guns and made a big noise. The grizzly grew frightened. It ran away. Then the soldier came down from the tree. He was glad that his friends had come to his help. a ble beans su et ba con dump lings played a mused them selves shake AT THE TOP OF THE FALLS. After the men had carried all the goods to the top of the Falls, they made canoes to take them up the river. They were camping at the top of the Falls on the Fourth of July, 1805. Captain Lewis wrote that they had a good dinner that day. He said they had as good as if they were at home. They had "bacon, beans, buffalo meat, and suet dumplings." After dinner a soldier played the fiddle. Captain Lewis wrote: "Such as were able to shake a foot amused themselves in dancing on the green." burst fif teen ra vine cloud clothes wave THE CLOUD-BURST. One day Captain Clark took Sacajawea and her husband with him to look over the top of the Falls. Sacajawea's baby was in his basket on her back. Captain Clark saw a black cloud. He said, "It will rain soon. Let us go into that ravine." They sat under some big rocks. Sacajawea took off the baby's basket and put it at her feet. All the baby's clothes were in the basket. Sacajawea took the baby in her lap. It began to rain a little. The rain did not get to them. It rained harder. Then the cloud burst just over the ravine. The rain and hail made a big wave in the little ravine. Captain Clark saw the wave coming. He jumped up and caught his gun in his left hand. With his right hand he pushed Sacajawea up the bank. The wave was up to their waists. They ran faster and got to the top of the bank. Then the wave was fifteen feet high. It made a big noise as it ran down the ravine. Soon it would have caught them and carried them over the Falls. It did carry away the baby's basket and his clothes, and Captain Clark's compass. The next day a soldier found the compass in the mud. a live be stride min er als be gin ning ra pid nar row source Co lum bia AT THE SOURCE OF THE MISSOURI. When the canoes were ready, the party started up the river above the Falls. As they reached the mountains, the river grew narrow. It was not deep, but it was rapid. The soldiers had to pull the canoes with ropes. The river did not run straight. One day the men dragged the canoes twelve miles. Then they were only four miles from where they had started. They had to walk in the river all day. Their feet were cut by the rocks. They were ill from being wet so much. It was hot in the day and cold at night. They had no wood but willow. They could not make a good fire. But they had enough to eat. Then the river grew very narrow. The canoes could not go up it. The soldiers put the canoes under water with rocks in them. They made another cache. In it they put skins, plants, seeds, minerals, maps, and some medicines. Captain Lewis and some men went ahead. They were looking for Indians. They wanted to buy some horses. After a time the river grew so narrow that a soldier put one foot on one bank and his other foot on the other bank. Then he said, "Thank God, I am alive to bestride the mighty Missouri." Before this, people did not know where the Missouri began. A little way off was the beginning of the mighty Columbia River. The soldiers reached this place in August. Captain Lewis was very happy as he drank some cold water from the beginnings of these two rivers. Captain Clark and the other men were coming behind. Sacajawea was with them. They had all the goods and walked slowly. a nise grease pound bread mixed pow der hun gry mush roast ed tastes um brel la yamp SACAJAWEA FINDS ROOTS AND SEEDS. Far up on the Missouri, Sacajawea knew the plants that were good to eat. The captains and soldiers were glad that she did. They had only a little corn left, and there were not many animals near. Sacajawea told Captain Clark all about the yamp plant, as her tribe knew it. It grew in wet ground. It had one stem and deeply cut leaves. Its stem and leaves were dark green. It had an umbrella of white flowers at the top of the stem. The Indian women watched the yamp until the stem dried up. Then they dug for the roots. The yamp root is white and hard. The Indians eat it fresh or dried. When it is dry, they pound it into a fine white powder. The Indian women make the yamp powder into a mush. Indian children like yamp mush as much as white children like candy. It tastes like our anise seed. The soldiers liked the yamp mush that Sacajawea made. Sacajawea also made a sunflower mush. She roasted sunflower seeds. Then she pounded them into a powder and made a mush with hot water. She made a good drink of the sunflower powder and cold water. She mixed the sunflower powder with bear grease and roasted it on hot rocks. This made a bread the soldiers liked very much. Without Sacajawea the soldiers would have been hungry. They did not know the plants. Some plants would kill them. But Sacajawea knew those good to eat. meet sang sucked own short taken SACAJAWEA'S PEOPLE. One day near the head of the Missouri, Sacajawea stopped short as she walked. She looked hard to the West. She saw far away some Indians on horseback. She began to dance and jump. She waved her arms. She laughed and called out. She turned to Captain Clark and sucked her fingers. This showed that these Indians were her own people. She ran ahead to meet them. After a time a woman from the Indians ran out to meet Sacajawea. When they came together, they put their arms around each other. They danced together. They cried together. This woman had been Sacajawea's friend from the time when they were babies. She had been taken East by the same Indians that took Sacajawea. On the way East she got away from these Indians. She found her way home. She had been afraid she would never see Sacajawea again. Now they were happy to meet. They danced and sang and cried and laughed with their arms around each other. broth er sent tied sell shells SACAJAWEA'S BROTHER. The party went with Sacajawea's people to their camp. Captain Clark was taken to the chief's house. The house was made of a ring of willows. The chief put his arms about Captain Clark. He made him sit on a white skin. He tied in his hair six shells. Each one then took off his moccasins. Then they smoked without talking. When they wanted to talk, they sent for Sacajawea. She came into the house and sat down. She looked at the chief. She saw that he was her brother. She jumped up and ran to him. She threw her blanket over his head. She cried aloud in joy. He was glad to see her. He did not cry nor jump. He did not like to show that he was glad. Sacajawea told him about the white men. She said they wanted to go across the Rocky Mountains to the Big Water in the West. She did not know the way across the mountains. The Indians could help them. They could sell them horses and show them the way across the steep mountain tops. Ca me ah wa it kind Sacajawea said the white men had many things the Indians would like. If they found a good way over the mountains, the white men would send these things to the Indians each summer. Sacajawea said the white men were kind to her and her baby. If they had not taken care of her when she was ill, she would not have seen her brother again. Her brother said he was glad that the white men had been kind to her. He would help them over the mountains. He would talk to his men about it. He said to Captain Clark: "You have been kind to Sacajawea. I am your friend until my days are over. You shall own my house. You shall sit on my blanket. You shall have what I kill. You shall bear my name. My name belonged to me only, but now it is yours. You are Cameahwait." After that, all this tribe called Captain Clark "Cameahwait." Ah hi e! death oars pleased bought nev er sad dles SACAJAWEA'S PEOPLE WILL SHOW THE WAY. Cameahwait told his people how good the white men were. He told them what good things they had. He said, "If we sell them horses and take them over the mountains, they can get back soon. No goods will come to us until they go back to their home. If we do not help them, they cannot cross the mountains. They do not know the way. They cannot carry food enough. They will meet death in the mountains. Then we shall never get their goods. Shall we help them, my brothers?" And the people said, "Ah hi e! Ah hi e!" That means, "We are pleased." They got horses to carry the goods. They could not get enough horses to give the men to ride. The captains bought a horse for Sacajawea to ride. The soldiers made saddles from the oars tied together with pieces of skins. Then they started up the steep mountain. heard must to-night slipped THE INDIANS TRY TO LEAVE THE WHITES. When they were in the mountain tops, Sacajawea overheard some Indians talking. They said: "We do not want to go across the mountains with the whites. We want to go down to the plains and hunt buffalo. We are hungry here. On the plains are many buffalo. We must hunt them now for our winter food. We do not care for the white men's goods. Our fathers lived without their goods. We can live without them. We will go off to-night and leave them. They will meet death in the mountains. In the Spring we can come back and get their goods." Sacajawea went to Captain Lewis. She told him what she had heard. He called the chiefs together. They smoked a pipe together. Sacajawea slipped a piece of sugar into Cameahwait's hand. As he sucked it, she said, "You will get this good thing from the white men if you are friends with them." gone land word keep prom ise yes Then Captain Lewis said, "Are you men of your word?" The Indians said, "Yes." He said, "Did you not promise to carry our goods over the mountains?" The Indians said, "Yes." "Then," he said, "why are you going to leave us now? If you had not promised, we would have gone back down the Missouri. Then no other white man would come to your land. You wish the whites to be your friends. You want them to give you goods. You should keep you promise to them. I will keep my promise to you. You seem afraid to keep your promise." The chiefs said, "We are not afraid. We will keep our promise." They sent out word to all their men to keep their promise. Captain Lewis thanked Sacajawea. If she had not told him, the Indians would have gone off in the night. The whites would have been left in the steep Rocky Mountains with no horses and no way of getting food. stiff Pa cif ic O cean melt sharp trip CROSSING THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. The trip across the mountains was very hard. The mountain tops were steep. There was no road. The ground was made of sharp rocks. The horses slipped and fell down. The men's feet were cut and black and blue. It rained many days and snowed nights. They had no houses. Before they could start on each day, they had to melt the snow off their goods. The men grew stiff from the wet and the cold. The only way they could get warm was to keep on walking. They had little food. They had only a little corn when they started across the mountains. This was soon gone. There were no animals, no fish, and no roots on the way. They had to kill their horses. They had only horsemeat to eat. The soldiers grew sick. Some could hardly stand. But they did not want to turn back. They knew the Indians could find the way down to the Columbia River. Then they could get to the Pacific Ocean without the Indians. So they went on. sud den ly fun salm on watch AT THE COLUMBIA RIVER. At last they got across the mountains and down on the Columbia River. The Indians who had showed them the way went home again. There were other Indians near the Columbia. These Indians gave the men salmon and roots. They ate so much that they were ill. The captains and all the soldiers were ill. But they started to make canoes to ride down the Columbia. They did not get well. So they bought some dogs. They cooked the dogs and ate them. For days they could eat only dog. The Indians laughed at them for eating dog. They said, "Dogs are good to watch the camp. They are not good to eat. We do not eat them. What poor men these must be to eat dog!" Suddenly the captains fired off their guns and a soldier played the fiddle. Then the Indians stopped laughing. They had never heard a gun before. They had never before heard a fiddle. They thought the white men must be wonderful people to have guns and fiddles. They wished to be friends with such wonderful people. So they did not make fun of them any more. full grass stones HOW THE INDIANS DRIED SALMON. The soldiers left their horses here on the Columbia River. They asked the Indians to keep them until they should come back from the West. Then they started down the river in canoes. On the Columbia, the party saw some Indians drying salmon. They opened the fish. Then they put it in the sun. When it was well dried, they pounded it to powder between two stones. Then they put it into a basket. The basket was made of grass. It had dried salmon skin inside. The Indians pounded the powdered salmon down hard into the basket. When a basket was full, they put dried salmon skin on the top. Then the basket was put where it would keep dry. The salmon powder would keep for years. Only one tribe of Indians knew how to make it well. The other tribes bought it from them. All the tribes liked it. The white men, too, liked it. gath ered ar row head sum mer wap pa to pond toes THE WAPPATO. The party found a root new to them on the lower Columbia. The Indians called it wappato. Captain Clark called it arrowhead. The wappato grew all the year. The Indian women gathered it. A woman carried a light canoe to a pond. She waded into the pond. She put the canoe on the water. With her toes she pulled up the wappato from the bottom of the pond. The woman caught it and put it in the canoe. She was in the water many hours, summer and winter. When her canoe was full, she put it on her head and carried it home. She roasted the wappato on hot stones. It tasted very good. The soldiers said it was the best root they had tasted. The Indian women used to put some wappato in grass baskets and sell it to the tribes up the river. anx ious cheer ful view break ing dis tinct ly shores TO THE PACIFIC OCEAN. The party went down the Columbia River in canoes. It was a hard trip. It rained all the time. Each day the men were wet to the skin. They had to carry their goods around some rapids. They could not be very cheerful. One day it stopped raining for a little time. The low clouds went away. The party saw that the river was very wide. They rowed on. Then they saw the great ocean lying in the sun. They became very happy. They cheered and laughed and sang. They rowed on very fast. Captain Lewis wrote in his book: "Ocean in view! O! the joy! We are in VIEW of the Ocean, this great Pacific Ocean, which we have been so long anxious to see. The noise made by the waves breaking on the rocky shores may be heard distinctly." half for got jour ney troub les THE PACIFIC OCEAN. The party saw that they had come to the end of their journey. They had come 4,134 miles from the mouth of the Missouri River. It had taken them a year and a half to come. But now they forgot their troubles. They forgot the times they had been hungry. They forgot their cut feet and their black and blue backs. They forgot the bears and the snakes and the mosquitoes. They saw the Pacific Ocean before them. They sang because they were the first white men to make this journey. They did not care for the troubles going back. They knew that they could go home faster than they had come. And they sang together, "The Ocean! The Ocean! O joy! O joy!" beach blub ber line thun der Clat sop salt whale sand SACAJAWEA ON THE OCEAN BEACH. The party made a winter camp at the mouth of the Columbia River. They called it Fort Clatsop. The Indians near-by were the Clatsop tribe. These Indians gave the whites some whale blubber. They said that a whale was on the ocean beach. Captain Clark and some men got ready to go to see it. Sacajawea came to Captain Clark and said, "May I go, too? I have come over the mountains with you to find the Great Water and I have not been to it yet. Now I would see the Big Animal and the Great Water, too." Captain Clark was glad to have her go. He wrote in his book that this was the only time she asked for anything. She took her baby on her back and walked with Captain Clark. When she got near the ocean, she was afraid. The noise seemed to her like thunder. She always had been afraid of thunder. When she saw the waves, she was afraid they would come over the earth. She had never before seen any big body of water. She had seen only rivers and ponds. The ocean looked very big. She would not go near the waves. Then Captain Clark showed her the high water line. He told her that the waves would not go over that line. She sat down on the sand with her baby in her lap. She watched the waves a long time. Then she was not afraid. She walked out to the waves. When they came to shore, she ran before them. She let them come over her feet. She took some ocean water in her hand and tasted it. She did not like its salt taste. But she did like to run after the waves. bags oil wood en eight y pork trough THE WHALE. Captain Clark and his party walked all day before they came to where the whale lay. The waves had carried it up on the shore. It was a very big animal. It was longer than most houses. It was eighty feet long. The Indians were cutting it up. They put the meat into a large wooden trough. Then they put hot stones into the trough. The hot stones melted out the oil. The Indians put the oil into skin bags. They used it to eat with roots and mush. They did not wish to sell the oil. But after a time, they did sell some oil to Captain Clark. They sold him some blubber, too. The blubber was white and looked like pork fat. The soldiers cooked some and ate it. They liked it very much. Sacajawea was happy to see the whale. She walked all around it. She made her baby to look well at it. She told him he might never see one again. The baby did not care for the whale, but he laughed because Sacajawea laughed. beau ti ful robe sor ry belt sea-ot ter wear SACAJAWEA'S BELT. The Clatsop chief came to Fort Clatsop to see the captains. He had on a robe made of two sea-otter skins. The skins were the most beautiful the captains had yet seen. They wanted the chief to sell the robe. He did not want to sell it, as sea-otters are hard to get. They said they would give him anything they had for it. Still he would not sell it. Sacajawea saw him looking at her blue bead belt. She had made this belt from beads Captain Clark had given her. She used to wear it all the time. She said to the Clatsop chief, "Will you sell the robe for my belt?" He said, "Yes, I will sell it for the chief beads." The Indians called blue beads "chief beads." Sacajawea thought a little time. Then she gave her belt to him. He put it around his neck. He gave her his sea-otter robe. She gave it to Captain Clark for a present. She was sorry to give up her belt. The captains had no more blue beads to give her to make another. But she was glad to give Captain Clark the beautiful sea-otter skins. boiled crust five pairs burned filled kegs treat AT FORT CLATSOP. At Fort Clatsop, the captains wrote in their books. They wrote about all they had seen coming to the Pacific. They wrote about things near Fort Clatsop. They made maps of the land near the Missouri River, in the Rocky Mountains, and on the banks of the Columbia. Some of the men hunted. They made the skins of animals into clothes and moccasins. They made between three and four hundred pairs of moccasins. They saved these to wear on the way home. Five soldiers were sent down to the ocean beach to make salt. Each had a big kettle. They filled the kettles with ocean water. They burned a fire under the kettles day and night. In time, the water all boiled away. A crust of salt was left on the inside of the kettles. The soldiers gathered this salt into wooden kegs. It took seven weeks to make enough salt for their journey home. Captain Lewis wrote, "This salt was a great treat to many of the party." He liked salt very much. Captain Clark wrote that he did not care if he had salt or not. hand ker chief un der wear wea sel mer ry wak en wel come On Christmas Day, 1805, the soldiers got up without making any noise. They fired their guns all at one time to waken the captains. Then they sang an old Christmas song. Then they wished the captains "Merry Christmas." They gave each other presents. Captain Clark wrote that he had twelve weasel tails, some underwear, some moccasins, and an Indian blanket for his Christmas presents. He gave a handkerchief or some little present to each man. There was no snow and no ice, but there was much rain. The soldiers had to stay in their log fort all day. They had only poor elk, poor roots, and some bad dried salmon for dinner. But they were cheerful. They danced and sang into the night. On New Year's Day, they fired their guns to welcome in the New Year. They had more to eat than on Christmas Day. The captains wrote, "Our greatest pleasure to-day is thinking about New Year's, 1807. Then we shall be home." game or der let ters stol en THE START HOME. In March, the elk left the woods near Fort Clatsop. The soldiers could not get enough to eat. The captains said, "It is time to start home." They bought a canoe with a soldier-coat and some little things. They took another canoe from the Clatsops for some elk meat that the Indians had stolen. They had not many things left to get food and horses with on the way home. But their guns were in good order. They had good powder and balls. They could kill game on the way. They cut up their big flag into five robes. They could sell them robes for food. The captains gave the Clatsops letters to give to any white men who should come there. These letters told about the party's trip out West. They told how they were going back East. The Clatsops promised to give these letters to the first white men who should come. Then the party said good-bye to the Clatsops. This was in the month of March. They started up the Columbia River, singing. They were happy because they were going home. awl nee dles skeins Cho pun nish ounce thread knit ting-pin rib bon ver mil ion AT CAMP CHOPUNNISH. On the way up the Columbia, the soldiers killed game. They gave some to the Indians for roots. They came to the foot of the mountains in May. There was too much snow then for them to cross They made a camp near the Chopunnish Indians. They called it Camp Chopunnish. They sent out to get the horses they had left when camping there before. They tried to get enough food to last them over the mountains. Many of the Indians were ill. Captain Clark gave them medicine. They gave him food and horses for the medicine. Captain Lewis talked with the Indian chiefs all day. They promised to let some young Indians show the way over the mountains. The captains gave each soldier some of their goods and sent him out to get food. Captain Lewis wrote that each man had "only one awl and one knitting- pin, half an ounce of vermilion, two needles, a few skeins of thread, and a yard of ribbon." Two of the men took their goods with them in a canoe. The canoe turned over. They lost all their goods. They just saved their lives. bot tles bush els pris on ers' base box es but tons raft ra ces Two other men went up the river with their goods on a horse. The horse slipped down a steep bank into the river. He got safe to the bank across the river. An Indian made him swim back to the two soldiers. On the way, most of the goods were lost. The paint melted, and the horse's back was all red. The Indians on the bank across the river saw what the soldiers wanted. They loaded some roots and bread on a raft. They tried to cross to the soldiers. A high wind sent the raft on a rock. The raft turned over. The roots and bread were lost. Then the captains and men felt unhappy. They cut the buttons from their clothes. They gathered up all the bottles and medicine boxes they had. With these things, two soldiers went out to get food. They got three bushels of roots and some bread. The other men hunted. They dried some meat, and gave some to the Indians for roots. They became good friends with the Chopunnish Indians. They used to run fast races together. Both soldiers and Indians could run fast. The soldiers took sides and played prisoners' base. ear ly sec ond fold ed means Yo me kol lick la ter OVER THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS GOING HOME. The party wanted to start over the mountains in early June. The Indians were not ready to go with them then. The party started to go without the Indians. They could not find food for the horses. There was snow all over the ground. They had to turn back and camp where there was grass. A week later the Indians were ready to go with them. They started a second time. The Indians showed them the way. They found food for the horses each night. The trip across the mountains was not so hard as it had been the year before. Now the snow covered all the sharp rocks. The snow was so hard that the horses could walk on it. Now they had enough food. All the men had horses. They went many miles each day. All were happy. One of the Indians liked Captain Lewis so much that he gave him his name, "Yomekollick." [Illustration: YOMEKOLLICK] This means "White Bear-skin Folded." The Indians thought their names were the best thing they could give to any one. dif fer ent di vide ser vice third good-bye south Yel low stone EAST OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS AGAIN. Before they left the mountains, the captains said: "We will divide our party. Then we can go different ways. Then we shall see more of the country east of the Rocky Mountains." So Captain Lewis and nine men started in a straight line to the Falls of the Missouri. Captain Clark and the others went more to the South. Sacajawea went with Captain Clark. The two parties promised to meet again down on the Missouri. They said good-bye to each other on July third. On the next day, Captain Clark wrote that they had a good Fourth of July dinner. They had fat deer and roots. Then they went on until time to sleep. They had no time to dance now. They were going home. Captain Lewis and his men pushed on all day. He did not write that they thought of the Fourth of July. Captain Clark sent ten men down the Missouri River the way they had come West. He went with Sacajawea and ten other men across to the Yellowstone River. Sacajawea found the way for him. She also found roots good to eat. Captain Clark wrote that she was of "great service" to him. Captain Clark's party went down the Yellowstone River to the Missouri River. Here they met two white men. These were the first white men besides themselves that they had seen for a year and four months. They were glad to hear news from the East. Soon after they met these white men, Captain Lewis and the other soldiers came down to them. This was in August. Captain Lewis had been shot by one of his best men. The man thought that Captain Lewis was an elk, because his clothes were brown. The man was very sorry for having shot him. Captain Lewis soon got well. The soldiers were happy to be together again. They forgot their troubles. They went down the Missouri, singing. [Illustration: THE WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE AS DRAWN BY CAPTAIN LEWIS IN HIS JOURNAL] They were glad they had gone West. They had taken the country for the Americans. They had made friends with the Indians. They knew where food could be found. They knew about the animals and plants. Now other people could find the way from the maps the captains had made. dol lars vil lage SACAJAWEA SAYS GOOD-BYE TO THE SOLDIERS. Sacajawea's husband would not go to the captains' home. He wanted to live with the Mandans. [Illustration: A MANDAN EARTH LODGE] So Sacajawea had to say good-bye to the soldiers. The captains gave her husband five hundred dollars. They did not give Sacajawea any money. In those days, people did not think of paying women. All the party were sorry to leave Sacajawea and the baby. Sacajawea was sorry to stay behind. She stood on the bank of the river watching the soldiers as long as she could see them. The soldiers went down the Missouri to its mouth. When they saw the village there, they fired off all their guns. The people came out to see them and cheered that they were home again. Cen ten nial Port land Or e gon for est ry build ing not ed fair hon or stat ue suc cess THE CENTENNIAL. The American people have always been glad that Lewis and Clark made this long, hard journey. That was just one hundred years ago. In this year of 1905, the American people are holding a centennial fair in honor of the Lewis and Clark journey. The Fair is at Portland, Oregon, because Lewis and Clark reached the Pacific Ocean in Oregon. At the Fair, there is a statue of Sacajawea and her baby. This statue is put there because Lewis and Clark wrote in their books: "The wonderful Bird-Woman did a full man's share to make the trip a success, besides taking care of her baby. She was one of the best of mothers." Some day, you can read these books for yourself, and learn more about Sacajawea and Captains Lewis and Clark. [Illustration: THE FORESTRY BUILDING, LEWIS AND CLARK CENTENNIAL] The forestry building is made from the large trees for which Oregon is noted. Fort Clatsop was built from the large trees of Oregon, too, but the soldiers did not know how to make such a fine building as this one hundred years ago. 
30036	----	TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES--PART VI, NO. 32 WORD STUDY AND ENGLISH GRAMMAR A PRIMER _of_ INFORMATION ABOUT WORDS THEIR RELATIONS AND THEIR USES BY FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, LL.D. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR UNITED TYPOTHETÆ OF AMERICA PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA 1918 COPYRIGHT, 1918 UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA CHICAGO, ILL. PREFACE This volume, and those which follow it in Part VI of this series, is a compilation from various sources. The occasion does not call for an original treatise, but it does call for something somewhat different from existing text-books. The books prepared for school use are too academic and too little related to the specific needs of the apprentice to serve the turn of those for whom this book is intended. On the other hand the books for writers and printers are as a rule too advanced for the best service to the beginner. The authors of this Part, therefore, have tried to compile from a wide range of authorities such material as would be suited to the needs and the experience of the young apprentice. The "Rules for the Use and Arrangement of Words" are taken with some modifications from "How to Write Clearly," Edwin A. Abbott, Boston; Roberts Bros. This is a very excellent little book but is now, I believe, out of print. The tables of irregular verbs are the same as those used in "English Grammar for Common Schools," Robert C. and Thomas Metcalf, New York; American Book Co. The student is recommended to study some good grammar with great care. There are many good grammars. The one used in the schools in the apprentice's locality will probably do as well as any. The student should learn to use the dictionary intelligently and should accustom himself to using it freely and frequently. The student should also learn to use words correctly and freely. There are many good books devoted to the study of words, some of which ought to be easily available. One of the latest and one of the best is "Putnam's Word Book" published by Putnams, New York. It costs about a dollar and a half. CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION: IMPORTANCE OF THE SUBJECT 1 THE WORD FAMILIES 1 NOUNS 2 ADJECTIVES 5 ARTICLES 8 VERBS 8 PRONOUNS 15 ADVERBS 16 PREPOSITIONS 17 CONJUNCTIONS 17 INTERJECTIONS 18 GENERAL NOTES 18 RULES FOR CORRECT WRITING 20 THE SENTENCE 21 THE PARAGRAPH 21 RULES FOR THE USE AND ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS 22 COMMON ERRORS IN THE USE OF WORDS 24 TABLES OF IRREGULAR VERBS 40 SUPPLEMENTARY READING 47 REVIEW QUESTIONS 48 GLOSSARY OF TERMS 52 WORD STUDY AND ENGLISH GRAMMAR _Importance of the Subject_ Word study and English grammar are important to the young printer for several reasons. In the first place, disregard of the correct use and combination of words is a distinct mark of inferiority and a serious bar to business and social advancement. A man's use of words is commonly taken as a measure of his knowledge and even of his intelligence. Carelessness in this regard often causes a man to be held in much less esteem than he really deserves. In the second place, it is quite as important that the printer should know something about the words and sentences which he puts on paper as it is that he should know something about the paper on which he puts them, or the type, ink, and press by means of which he puts them there. In the third place, knowledge of words and their uses is indispensable to correct proofreading which is itself a branch of the printer's craft. A working knowledge of words and their relations, that is, of rhetoric and grammar is therefore a tool and a very important tool of the printer. This little book is not intended to be either a rhetoric or a grammar. It is only intended to review some of the simplest principles of both subjects, to point out a few of the commonest mistakes, and to show the importance to the apprentice of the careful study and constant use of some of the many books on words, their combinations, and their uses. _The Word Families_ All the words in the English language belong to one or another of nine families, each of which family has a special duty. If you will always remember to which family a word belongs and just what that family does, you will be saved from many very common errors. These nine families are: 1, nouns; 2, adjectives; 3, articles; 4, verbs; 5, pronouns; 6, adverbs; 7, prepositions; 8, conjunctions; 9, interjections. This order of enumeration is not exactly the same as will be found in the grammars. It is used here because it indicates roughly the order of the appearance of the nine families in the logical development of language. Some forms of interjections, however, may very probably have preceded any language properly so called. _Nouns_ A noun is a word used as the name of anything that can be thought of, _John_, _boy_, _paper_, _cold_, _fear_, _crowd_. There are three things about a noun which indicate its relation to other words, its number, its gender, and its case. There are two numbers, singular meaning one, and plural meaning more than one. The plural is generally formed by adding _s_ to the singular. There are a small number of nouns which form their plurals differently, _mouse_, _mice_; _child_, _children_; _foot_, _feet_. These must be learned individually from a dictionary or spelling book. There are some nouns which undergo changes in the final syllable when the _s_ is added, _torch_, _torches_; _staff_, _staves_; _fly_, _flies_. These also must be learned individually. There are some nouns which have no singular, such as _cattle_, _clothes_, some which have no plural, such as _physics_, _honesty_, _news_, and some which are the same in both singular and plural, such as _deer_, _trout_, _series_. Care must be taken in the use of these nouns, as in some cases their appearance is misleading, e. g., _mathematics_, _physics_, and the like are singular nouns having no plural, but owing to their form they are often mistaken for plurals. Compound nouns, that is to say, nouns formed by the combination of two or three words which jointly express a single idea, generally change the principal word in the forming of the plural, _hangers-on_, _ink rollers_, but in a few cases both words change, for example, _men-servants_. These forms must be learned by observation and practice. It is very important, however, that they be thoroughly learned and correctly used. Do not make such mistakes as _brother-in-laws_, _man-servants_. Perhaps the most important use of number is in the relation between the noun and the verb. The verb as well as the noun has number forms and the number of the noun used as subject should always agree with that of the verb with which it is connected. Such expressions as "pigs is pigs," "how be you?" and the like, are among the most marked evidences of ignorance to be found in common speech. When this paragraph was originally written a group of high school boys were playing football under the writer's window. Scraps of their talk forced themselves upon his attention. Almost invariably such expressions as "you was," "they was," "he don't," "it aint," and the like took the place of the corresponding correct forms of speech. Collective nouns, that is the nouns which indicate a considerable number of units considered as a whole, such as _herd_, _crowd_, _congress_, present some difficulties because the idea of the individuals in the collection interferes with the idea of the collection itself. The collective nouns call for the singular form of the verb except where the thought applies to the individual parts of the collection rather than to the collection as a whole, for instance, we say, The crowd looks large. but we say, The crowd look happy. because in one case we are thinking of the crowd and in the other of the persons who compose the crowd. So in speaking of a committee, we may say The Committee thinks that a certain thing should be done. or that The Committee think that a certain thing should be done. The first phrase would indicate that the committee had considered and acted on the subject and the statement represented a formal decision. The second phrase would indicate the individual opinions of the members of the committee which might be in agreement but had not been expressed in formal action. In doubtful cases it is safer to use the plural. Entire accuracy in these cases is not altogether easy. As in the case with all the nice points of usage it requires practice and continual self-observation. By these means a sort of language sense is developed which makes the use of the right word instinctive. It is somewhat analogous to that sense which will enable an experienced bank teller to throw out a counterfeit bill instinctively when running over a large pile of currency even though he may be at some pains to prove its badness when challenged to show the reason for its rejection. The young student should not permit himself to be discouraged by the apparent difficulty of the task of forming the habit of correct speech. It is habit and rapidly becomes easier after the first efforts. The relation of a noun to a verb, to another noun, or to a preposition is called its case. There are three cases called the nominative, objective, and possessive. When the noun does something it is in the nominative case and is called the subject of the verb. The man cuts. When the noun has something done to it it is in the objective case and is called the object of the verb. The man cuts paper. When a noun depends on a preposition, it is also in the objective case and is called the object of the preposition. The paper is cut by machinery. The preposition on which a noun depends is often omitted when not needed for clearness. The foreman gave (to) the men a holiday. He came (on) Sunday. Near (to) the press. He was ten minutes late (late by ten minutes). He is 18 years old (old by or to the extent of 18 years). The nominative and objective cases of nouns do not differ in form. They are distinguished by their positions in the sentence and their relations to other words. When one noun owns another the one owning is in the possessive case. The man's paper is cut. The possessive case is shown by the form of the noun. It is formed by adding _s_ preceded by an apostrophe to the nominative case, thus, John's hat. There is a considerable difference of usage regarding the formation of the possessives of nouns ending in _s_ in the singular. The general rule is to proceed as in other nouns by adding the apostrophe and the other _s_ as _James's hat_. DeVinne advises following the pronunciation. Where the second _s_ is not pronounced, as often happens to avoid the prolonged hissing sound of another _s_, he recommends omitting it in print. Moses' hat, for Moses's hat. For conscience' sake. Plural nouns ending in _s_ add the apostrophe only; ending in other letters they add the apostrophe and _s_ like singular nouns, _the Jones' house_, _the children's toys_. The possessive pronouns never take the apostrophe. We say _hers_, _theirs_, _its_. _It's_ is an abbreviation for _it is_. Care should be taken in forming the possessives of phrases containing nouns in apposition, or similar compound phrases. We should say "I called at Brown the printer's" or "since William the Conqueror's time." _Adjectives_ An adjective is a word used to qualify, limit, or define a noun, or a word or phrase which has the value of a noun. Nouns are ordinarily very general and indefinite in meaning, for example, _man_ conveys only a very general idea. To make that idea definite we need the help of one or more descriptive words such as _black_, _tall_, _stout_, _good_. I saw a man. gives no definite idea of the person seen. I saw a tall, thin, dark, old man. presents a very definite picture. It will be noted that these descriptive words have a way of forming combinations among themselves. It must be remembered, however, that all the words thus used describe the noun. Adjectives are sometimes used as substitutes for nouns. This is one of the many verbal short cuts in which the English language abounds. The good die young means good people die young. We should seek the good and beautiful means we should seek good or beautiful things, or persons, or qualities, or perhaps everything good and beautiful. When adjectives indicate a quality they have three forms called degrees indicating the extent or amount of the quality possessed by the noun especially as compared with other objects of the same sort, _a big man_, _a bigger man_, _the biggest man_. These degrees are called positive, indicating possession of bigness; comparative, indicating possession of more bigness than some other man; superlative, indicating possession of more bigness than any other man. When we wish to tell the amount of the quality without comparing the possessor with any other object or group of objects we use a modifying word later to be described called an adverb. I saw a very big man, indicates that the man possessed much bigness, but makes no comparison with any other man or group of men. Comparison is generally indicated in two ways, first, by adding to the adjectives the terminations _er_ and _est_ as _high_, _higher_, _highest_, or, second, by using the words _more_ and _most_, as _splendid_, _more splendid_, _most splendid_. The question which of the two methods should be used is not always easy to decide. It depends somewhat on usage and on euphony or agreeableness of sound. Adjectives of three or more syllables use the long form, that is, the additional word. We should not say _beautifuler_ or _beautifulest_. Adjectives of two syllables may often be compared either way; for example, it would be equally correct to say _nobler_ and _noblest_ or _more noble_ and _most noble_. An example of the influence of euphony may be found in the adjective _honest_. We might say _honester_ without hesitation but we should be less likely to say _honestest_ on account of the awkward combination of syllables involved. Adjectives of one syllable usually take the short form but not invariably. The exceptions, however, are more common in poetry than in prose. When any question rises it is usually safer to use the long form of comparison in the case of two-syllable adjectives and to use the short form in the case of one-syllable adjectives. The proper use of the long form is one of those niceties of diction which come only with careful observation and with training of the ear and of the literary sense. The word _most_ should never be used, as it often is, in the place of _almost_. Careless people say "I am most ready" meaning "I am almost, or nearly ready." The phrase "I am most ready," really means "I am in the greatest possible readiness." Such use of _most_ is common in old English but much less so in modern speech. Two very common adjectives are irregularly compared. They are _good_, _better_, _best_, and _bad_, _worse_, _worst_. In spite of the fact that these adjectives are among the most common in use and their comparison may be supposed to be known by everybody, one often hears the expressions _gooder_, _goodest_, _more better_, _bestest_, _bader_, _badest_, _worser_, and _worsest_. Needless to say, these expressions are without excuse except that _worser_ is sometimes found in old English. Illiterate people sometimes try to make their speech more forceful by combining the two methods of comparison in such expressions as _more prettier_, _most splendidest_. Such compounds should never be used. Some adjectives are not compared. They are easily identified by their meaning. They indicate some quality which is of such a nature that it must be possessed fully or not at all, _yearly_, _double_, _all_. Some adjectives have a precise meaning in which they cannot be compared and a loose or popular one in which they can be; for example, a thing either is or is not _round_ or _square_. Nevertheless we use these words in such a loose general way that it is not absolutely incorrect to say _rounder_ and _roundest_ or _squarer_ and _squarest_. Such expressions should be used with great care and avoided as far as possible. None but the very ignorant would say _onliest_, but one often sees the expressions _more_ and _most unique_. This is particularly bad English. Unique does not mean _rare_, _unusual_; it means one of a kind, absolutely unlike anything else. Clearly this is a quality which cannot be possessed in degrees. An object either does or does not have it. _Articles_ An article is a little adjective which individualizes the noun, _a_ boy, _an_ apple, _the_ crowd. _A_ which is used before consonantal sounds and _an_ which is used before vowel sounds are called indefinite articles because they individualize without specializing. _The_ is called the definite article because it both individualizes and specializes. _A_ may be used before _o_ and _u_ if the sound is really consonantal as in _such a one_, _a use_, _a utility_. _An_ may be used before _h_ if the _h_ is not sounded, for example, _an hour_ but _a horror_. _Verbs_ A verb is a word which asserts or declares. In other words, it makes a noun or pronoun tell something. _John paper_ tells nothing. _John wastes paper_ tells something. Verbs are the most difficult of all the parts of speech to understand and to use properly. As a rule, an English verb has something more than fifty parts which, with their uses, should be thoroughly learned from a grammar. This is not so difficult a matter as it might appear, except to those whose native speech is not English. Nevertheless you should be on the guard against such blunders as _I seen_, _I seed_, for _I saw_, _I runned_ for _I ran_, _I et_ for _I ate_, _I throwed_ for _I threw_, and the like. In most verbs these parts are regular. In some they are irregular. A list of irregular verbs will be found at the end of this volume. While the plan of this book does not call for a systematic study of verbs any more than of any other words, it is desirable to call attention to some points as being the occasions of frequent mistakes. A simple sentence consists of a verb, its subject, and its object. The verb indicates the action, the subject is the noun (name of a person or thing) which does the act, the object is the noun to which the thing is done. Verbs have forms denoting person and number, for example: Singular Plural 1st I love 1st We love 2nd You love (thou lovest) 2nd You love formal and archaic. 3rd He loves 3rd They love Singular Plural 1st I was 1st We were 2nd You were (thou wast) 2nd You were 3rd He was 3rd They were Verbs agree with their subjects in person and number. We all know this but we do not always remember it. Unless you are very careful, you will find yourself using a singular subject with a plural verb or the reverse. Mistakes of this sort are particularly liable to happen in the case of collective nouns, in the use of personal pronouns as subjects, and in cases where the subject and the verb are far separated in the sentence. Those forms of the verb which tell whether the subject is acting or is acted upon are called voices. When the subject is acting the verb is said to be in the active voice. When the subject is acted upon the verb is said to be in the passive voice. Verbs in the passive voice have no objects because the subject, being acted upon, is itself in the place of an object. Those forms of the verb which tell whether the time of the action is past, present, or future, are called tenses. They are six, viz. Present, I _print_ (_am printing_) the book. Past or imperfect, I _printed_ the book. Future, I _shall print_ the book. Perfect, or present perfect, I _have printed_ the book. Pluperfect or past perfect, I _had printed_ the book before you wrote. Future perfect, I will notify you when I _shall have printed_ the book. When adverbs denoting time are indicated care should be taken to see that the verb is consistent with the adverb. "I _printed_ it yesterday," not "I _have printed_ it yesterday;" "I _have not_ yet _printed_ it," not "I _did_ not _print_ it yet;" "I _have printed_ it already," not "I _printed_ it already." Trouble is sometimes found in choosing the right forms of the verb to be used in subordinate clauses. The rule is: Verbs in subordinate sentences and clauses must be governed by the tense of the principal verb. This rule rests on the exact meaning of the forms and words used and its application can be checked by careful examination of these meanings. "He _said_ he _did_ it." "He _said_ he _would do_ it." "He _says_ he _will_ do it." Note that when the statement in the subordinate clause is of universal application the present tense is always used whatever the tense of the principal verb. "The lecturer said that warm weather always softens rollers." Those forms of the verb which tell whether the action is an actual fact, a possibility, a condition, or a command are called moods. There are three moods, the indicative, subjunctive, and imperative. The indicative mood indicates that the action is a fact. It is also used in asking questions. The subjunctive mood is less used in modern than in old English. It is most commonly found in clauses beginning with _if_, though _if_ is not to be regarded as the sign of the subjunctive in any such sense as _to_ is the sign of the infinitive. The subjunctive _were_ should be used in purely hypothetical clauses such as "If I were in your place." The subjunctive _be_ should be used in the hypothesis or supposition of a scientific demonstration, If the triangle A be placed on the triangle B. The subjunctive without _if_ is often used in wishes or prayers, God forgive him. O, that my brother were here. The subjunctive is sometimes used to express condition, Had you not been a coward, you would not have run away. The imperative mood indicates a command, Put that on the press. The subject of the imperative mood is only expressed when it is emphatic, Go thou and do likewise. Older grammarians speak of a fourth mood called potential. The present tendency among grammarians is to treat these forms separately. They are verb phrases which express ability, possibility, obligation, or necessity. They are formed by the use of the auxiliary verbs _may_, _can_, _must_, _might_, _could_, _would_, and _should_, with the infinitive without _to_. _May_ is used (a) to show that the subject is permitted to do something, "You may go out," or (b) to indicate possibility or doubtful intention, "I may not go to work tomorrow." _Can_ is used to show that the subject is able to do something, "I can feed a press." These two forms are often confused, with results which would be ridiculous if they were not too common to attract attention. The confusion perhaps arises from the fact that the ability to do a thing often appears to depend on permission to do it. "May I see a proof?" means "Have I permission, or will you allow me, to see a proof?" and is the proper way to put the question. The common question, "Can I see a proof?" is absurd. Of course you can, if you have normal eyesight. _Must_ shows necessity or obligation. You must obey the rules of the office. _Ought_ which is sometimes confounded with _must_ in phrases of this sort expresses moral obligation as distinguished from necessity. You ought to obey the rules of the office, indicates that it is your duty to obey because it is the right thing to do even though no penalty is attached. You must obey the rules of the office, indicates that you will be punished if you do not obey. Those forms of the verb which express the time of the action are called tenses. No particular difficulty attends the use of the tenses except in the case of _shall_ and _will_ and _should_ and _would_. _Shall_ and _will_ are used as follows: In simple statements to express mere futurity, use _shall_ in the first person, _will_ in the second and third; to express volition, promise, purpose, determination, or action which the speaker means to control use _will_ in the first person, _shall_ in the second and third. The following tables should be learned and practiced in a large variety of combinations. Futurity Volition, etc. I shall We shall I will We will You will You will You shall You shall He will They will He shall They shall A good example of the misuse of the words is found in the old story of the foreigner who fell into the water and cried out in terror and despair "I _will_ drown, nobody _shall_ help me." In asking questions, for the first person always use _shall_, for the second and third use the auxiliary expected in the answer. Futurity Shall I (I shall) Shall we (We shall) Shall you (I shall) Shall you (We shall) Will he (He will) Will they (They will) Volition, etc. ---- ---- ---- ---- Will you (I will) Will you (We will) Shall he (He shall) Shall he (He shall) In all other cases, as in subordinate clauses _shall_ is used in all persons to express mere futurity, _will_ to express volition, etc. In indirect discourse, when the subject of the principal clause is different from the noun clause, the usage is like that in direct statement, for example, The teacher says that James will win the medal. (futurity), but when the subject of the principal clause is the same as that of the noun clause, the usage is like that in subordinate clauses, The teacher says that he shall soon resign. (futurity). Exceptions. _Will_ is often used in the second person to express an official command. You will report to the superintendent at once. _Shall_ is sometimes used in the second and third persons in a prophetic sense. Ye shall know the truth and the truth shall make you free. The use of _should_ and _would_ is in general the same as that of _shall_ and _will_ in indirect statement. Futurity. I should We would You would You should He would They should In asking questions use _should_ in the first person to express mere futurity and _would_ to express volition, etc; in the second and third persons use the form that is expected in the answer. Futurity Should I (I should) Should we (We should) Should You (I should) Should You (We should) Would he (He would) Would they (They would) Volition, etc. Would I (I would) Would we (We would) Would You (You would) Would You (We would) Should he (He should) Should they (They should) In subordinate clauses _should_ is used in all persons to express futurity, _would_ to express volition, etc. In indirect discourse the usage is similar to that in direct statement. The teacher said that John would win the medal. Exceptions. _Should_ is often used to express moral obligation. You should be honest under all conditions. _Would_ is sometimes used to express frequentive action. He would walk the floor night after night. Mistakes are often made in the use of compound tenses on account of failure to grasp the meaning of the words used. I should have liked to have seen you, is correct grammar but probably not correct statement of fact, as it states a past desire to have done something at a period still further remote, that is to say, "I should have liked (yesterday) to have seen you (day before yesterday)." What is generally meant is either "I should have liked to see you," that is "I (then) wished to see you," or "I should like to have seen you," that is "I (now) wish I had seen you (then)." Every word has its own value and nearly all our mistakes arise from lack of regard for the exact value of the words to be used. Where a participial construction is used as the object of a verb, the noun or pronoun in the object should be in the possessive case and not in the objective. You should not say, "I object to him watching me," but "I object to his watching me." Care should be taken not to give objects to passive verbs. The very common expression "The man was given a chance" is incorrect. It should be "A chance was given to the man." Care should also be taken to avoid the omission of the prepositions which are needed with certain verbs, for example, "beware the dog," "What happened him" should be "beware _of_ the dog," "What happened _to_ him." On the other hand superfluous prepositions are sometimes used in such phrases as _consider of_, _accept of_ and the like. Such errors are to be avoided by careful study of the meaning of words and careful observation of the best written and spoken speech. _Pronouns_ Pronouns are substitutes for nouns. They are labor saving devices. We could say everything which we need to say without them, but at the expense of much repetition of longer words. A child often says "John wants Henry's ball" instead of "I want your ball." Constant remembrance of this simple fact, that a pronoun is only a substitute for a noun, is really about all that is needed to secure correct usage after the pronouns themselves have once become familiar. A construction which appears doubtful can often be decided by substituting nouns for pronouns and vice versa. A very common error is the use of the plural possessive pronouns with the words _any_, _every_, _each_, _somebody_, _everybody_, and _nobody_, all of which are always singular. We could accomplish this if every one would do their part. is wrong. It should be We could accomplish this if every one would do his part. Another common mistake is the confusion of the nominative and objective cases in objective clauses where two pronouns or a noun and a pronoun occur. All this was done for you and I. is a very common but entirely inexcusable mistake. One would hardly think of saying "All this was done for I." I saw John and he leaving the shop. is almost equally common and quite equally bad. Do not allow yourself to be confused by a double object. In general great care should be taken to avoid ambiguity in the use of pronouns. It is very easy to multiply and combine pronouns in such a way that while grammatical rules may not be broken the reader may be left hopelessly confused. Such ambiguous sentences should be cleared up, either by a rearrangement of the words or by substitution of nouns for some of the pronouns. _Adverbs_ An adverb is a helper to a verb, "I fear greatly," "that press works badly." Adverbs modify or help verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs just as adjectives modify nouns and pronouns. The use of adverbs presents some difficulties, mainly arising from the adverbial use of many other parts of speech and from the close relation between adverbs and adjectives. It should never be forgotten that while adverbs never modify nouns or pronouns, adjectives never modify anything but nouns or pronouns. Remembrance of this simple fact will settle most questions as to the use of adverbs or adjectives. Careful observation and care in forming correct habits of expression will do the rest. Do not multiply negatives. They cancel each other like the factors in an arithmetical problem. "He never did wrong" is correct in statement and clear in meaning. "He never did nothing wrong" does not add force, it reverses the meaning. The negatives have cancelled each other and you are saying "He did wrong." "He never did nothing wrong to nobody" leaves us with an odd negative and brings us back to the first statement, very badly expressed. _Prepositions_ A preposition is a hook for a noun or pronoun to hang on. It usually precedes the noun or pronoun which hangs, or depends upon it, as indicated by its name which is derived from the Latin _pre_-before and _pono_-I place. John is behind the press. I shall work until Sunday. A preposition shows the relation of a noun or pronoun used as its object to some other word or words in the sentence or, as it has been otherwise stated, makes the noun or pronoun to which it is joined equivalent to an adjective or an adverb. The expression "John is behind the press" is equivalent to an adjective describing John. That is, he is "John behind-the-press." Prepositions are governing words and the words governed by or depending on them are always in the objective case. _Conjunctions_ A conjunction is the coupling link between the parts of a train of thought. It is of no purpose whatever except to connect. I am cold and hungry and tired and I am going home. Care should be taken to avoid confusing _and_ and _but_ and _and_ and _or_. He sees the right and does the wrong. should be He sees the right but does the wrong. The ideas are contrasted, not associated. I did not see Thomas and John. should be I did not see Thomas or John. The first phrase means that I did not see them together, it says nothing about seeing them separately. _Either_--_or_ and _neither_--_nor_ are called correlative conjunctions. They should always be paired in this way. _Neither_ should never be paired with _or_ nor _either_ with _nor_. Each member of the pair should be placed in the same relative position, that is before the same part of speech. I could neither see him nor his father. is wrong. It should be I could see neither him nor his father. This rule applies to all other correlatives, that is since they are correlatives in form they should be correlatives in position also. It is correct to say It belongs both to you and to me. or It belongs to both you and me. but not It belongs both to you and me. _Interjections_ An interjection is a word or sound expressing emotion only such as a shout, a groan, a hiss, a sob, or the like, such as _Oh_, _alas_, _hush_. _General Notes_ The position of words in a sentence is often very important. Misplacement will frequently cause ambiguities and absurdities which punctuation will not remove. What does the phrase "I only saw him" mean? A newspaper advertisement describing a certain dog which was offered for sale says "He is thoroughly house-broken, will eat anything, is very fond of children." As a rule modifiers should be kept close to the words, clauses, or phrases which they modify, but due regard should be given to sense and to ease of expression. A word or phrase which can be easily supplied from the context may often be omitted. Care must be used in making these omissions or the result will be either ambiguous or slovenly. Washington is nearer New York than Chicago. What exactly does this mean? One might get into serious trouble over the interpretation of the phrase "He likes me better than you." _All day_ and _all night_ are recognized as good expressions sanctioned by long usage. _All morning_ and _all afternoon_ are not yet sanctioned by good usage and give a decided impression of slovenliness. Another objectionable omission is that of _to_ before _place_ and similar words in such expressions as "Let's go some place" and the like. It should be _to some place_ or, generally better, _somewhere_. A decidedly offensive abbreviation is the phrase _Rev. Smith_. It should be _Rev. John Smith_ or _Rev. Mr. Smith_. _Rev._ is not a title, or a noun in apposition, but an adjective. It would be entirely correct to say _Pastor Smith_ or _Bishop Smith_. The same error sometimes occurs in using the prefix _Hon._ A knowledge of the correct use and combination of words is fully as important as a knowledge of their grammatical forms and their relations. This knowledge should be acquired by the use of books on rhetoric and by careful study of words themselves. The materials for such study may be found in the books named in the "Supplementary Reading" or in other books of a similar character. The task of the writer or speaker is to say what he has to say correctly, clearly, and simply. He must say just what he means. He must say it definitely and distinctly. He must say it, so far as the subject matter will permit, in words that people of ordinary intelligence and ordinary education cannot misunderstand. "The right word in the right place" should be the motto of every man who speaks or writes, and this rule should apply to his everyday talk as well as to more formal utterances. Three abuses are to be avoided. Do not use slang as a means of expression. There are occasions when a slang phrase may light up what you are saying or may carry it home to intellects of a certain type. Use it sparingly if at all, as you would use cayenne pepper or tabasco sauce. Do not use it in writing at all. Slang is the counterfeit coin of speech. It is a substitute, and a very poor substitute, for language. It is the refuge of those who neither understand real language nor know how to express themselves in it. Do not use long, unusual words. Use short and simple words whenever they will serve your turn. It is a mistake to suppose that a fluent use of long words is a mark either of depth of thought or of extent of information. The following bit of nonsense is taken from the news columns of a newspaper of good standing: "The topography about Puebla avails itself easily to a force which can utilize the heights above the city with cannon." What was meant was probably something like this, "The situation of Puebla is such as to give a great advantage to a force which can plant cannon on the high ground overlooking the city." Do not use inflated or exaggerated words. A _heavy shower_ is not a _cloud burst_; a _gale_ is not a _blizzard_; a _fire_ is not a _conflagration_; an _accident_ or a _defeat_ is not a _disaster_; a _fatal accident_ is not a _holocaust_; a _sharp criticism_ is not an _excoriation_ or _flaying_, and so on. _Rules for Correct Writing_ More than a century ago the great Scotch rhetorician Campbell framed five canons or rules for correct writing. They have never been improved. They should be learned by heart, thoroughly mastered, and constantly practiced by every writer and speaker. They are as follows: Canon 1.--When, of two words or phrases in equally good use, one is susceptible of two significations and the other of but one, preference should be given to the latter: e. g., _admittance_ is better than _admission_, as the latter word also means _confession_; _relative_ is to be preferred to _relation_, as the latter also means the telling of a story. Canon 2.--In doubtful cases regard should be given to the analogy of the language; _might better_ should be preferred to _had better_, and _would rather_ is better than _had rather_. Canon 3.--The simpler and briefer form should be preferred, other things being equal, e. g., omit the bracketed words in expressions such as, _open_ (_up_), _meet_ (_together_), _follow_ (_after_), _examine_ (_into_), _trace_ (_out_), _bridge_ (_over_), _crave_ (_for_), etc. Canon 4.--Between two forms of expression in equally good use, prefer the one which is more euphonious: e. g., _most beautiful_ is better than _beautifullest_, and _more free_ is to be preferred to _freer_. Canon 5.--In cases not covered by the four preceding canons, prefer that which conforms to the older usage: e. g., _begin_ is better than _commence_. _The Sentence_ The proper construction of sentences is very important to good writing. The following simple rules will be of great assistance in sentence formation. They should be carefully learned and the pupil should be drilled in them. 1. Let each sentence have one, and only one, principal subject of thought. Avoid heterogeneous sentences. 2. The connection between different sentences must be kept up by adverbs used as conjunctions, or by means of some other connecting words at the beginning of the sentence. 3. The connection between two long sentences or paragraphs sometimes requires a short intervening sentence showing the transition of thought. _The Paragraph_ The proper construction of paragraphs is also of great importance. The following rules will serve as guides for paragraphing. They should be learned and the pupil should be drilled in their application. 1. A sentence which continues the topic of the sentence which precedes it rather than introduces a new topic should never begin a paragraph. 2. Each paragraph should possess a single central topic to which all the statements in the paragraph should relate. The introduction of a single statement not so related to the central topic violates the unity. 3. A sentence or short passage may be detached from the paragraph to which it properly belongs if the writer wishes particularly to emphasize it. 4. For ease in reading, a passage which exceeds three hundred words in length may be broken into two paragraphs, even though no new topic has been developed. 5. Any digression from the central topic, or any change in the viewpoint in considering the central topic, demands a new paragraph. 6. Coherence in a paragraph requires a natural and logical order of development. 7. Smoothness of diction in a paragraph calls for the intelligent use of proper connective words between closely related sentences. A common fault, however, is the incorrect use of such words as _and_ or _but_ between sentences which are not closely related. 8. In developing the paragraph, emphasis is secured by a careful consideration of the relative values of the ideas expressed, giving to each idea space proportionate to its importance to the whole. This secures the proper climax. 9. The paragraph, like the composition itself, should possess clearness, unity, coherence, and emphasis. It is a group of related sentences developing a central topic. Its length depends upon the length of the composition and upon the number of topics to be discussed. _Rules for the Use and Arrangement of Words_ The following rules for the use and arrangement of words will be found helpful in securing clearness and force. 1. Use words in their proper sense. 2. Avoid useless circumlocution and "fine writing." 3. Avoid exaggerations. 4. Be careful in the use of _not_ ... _and_, _any_, _but_, _only_, _not_ ... _or_, _that_. 5. Be careful in the use of ambiguous words, e. g., _certain_. 6. Be careful in the use of _he_, _it_, _they_, _these_, etc. 7. Report a speech in the first person where necessary to avoid ambiguity. 8. Use the third person where the exact words of the speaker are not intended to be given. 9. When you use a participle implying _when_, _while_, _though_, or _that_, show clearly by the context what is implied. 10. When using the relative pronoun, use _who_ or _which_, if the meaning is _and he_ or _and it_, _for he_ or _for it_. 11. Do not use _and which_ for _which_. 12. Repeat the antecedent before the relative where the non-repetition causes any ambiguity. 13. Use particular for general terms. Avoid abstract nouns. 14. Avoid verbal nouns where verbs can be used. 15. Use particular persons instead of a class. 16. Do not confuse metaphor. 17. Do not mix metaphor with literal statement. 18. Do not use poetic metaphor to illustrate a prosaic subject. 19. Emphatic words must stand in emphatic positions; i. e., for the most part, at the beginning or the end of the sentence. 20. Unemphatic words must, as a rule, be kept from the end. 21. The Subject, if unusually emphatic, should often be transferred from the beginning of the sentence. 22. The object is sometimes placed before the verb for emphasis. 23. Where several words are emphatic make it clear which is the most emphatic. Emphasis can sometimes be given by adding an epithet, or an intensifying word. 24. Words should be as near as possible to the words with which they are grammatically connected. 25. Adverbs should be placed next to the words they are intended to qualify. 26. _Only_; the strict rule is that _only_ should be placed before the word it affects. 27. When _not only_ precedes _but also_ see that each is followed by the same part of speech. 28. _At least_, _always_, and other adverbial adjuncts sometimes produce ambiguity. 29. Nouns should be placed near the nouns that they define. 30. Pronouns should follow the nouns to which they refer without the intervention of any other noun. 31. Clauses that are grammatically connected should be kept as close together as possible. Avoid parentheses. 32. In conditional sentences the antecedent or "if-clauses" must be kept distinct from the consequent clauses. 33. Dependent clauses preceded by _that_ should be kept distinct from those that are independent. 34. Where there are several infinitives those that are dependent on the same word must be kept distinct from those that are not. 35. In a sentence with _if_, _when_, _though_, etc. put the "if-clause" first. 36. Repeat the subject where its omission would cause obscurity or ambiguity. 37. Repeat a preposition after an intervening conjunction especially if a verb and an object also intervene. 38. Repeat conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, and pronominal adjectives. 39. Repeat verbs after the conjunctions _than_, _as_, etc. 40. Repeat the subject, or some other emphatic word, or a summary of what has been said, if the sentence is so long that it is difficult to keep the thread of meaning unbroken. 41. Clearness is increased when the beginning of the sentence prepares the way for the middle and the middle for the end, the whole forming a kind of ascent. This ascent is called "climax." 42. When the thought is expected to ascend but descends, feebleness, and sometimes confusion, is the result. The descent is called "bathos." 43. A new construction should not be introduced unexpectedly. _Common Errors in the Use of Words_ The following pages contain a short list of the more common errors in the use of words. Such a list might be extended almost indefinitely. It is only attempted to call attention to such mistakes as are, for various reasons, most liable to occur. _A_ should be repeated for every individual. "A red and black book" means one book, "a red and a black book" means two. _Abbreviate_, and _abridge_; _abbreviation_ is the shortening of a piece of writing no matter how accomplished. An _abridgement_ is a condensation. _Ability_, power to do something, should be distinguished from _capacity_, power to receive something. _Above_ should not be used as an adjective, e. g., "The statement made in _above_ paragraph." Substitute _preceding_, _foregoing_, or some similar adjective. _Accept_, not _accept of_. _Accredit_, to give one credentials should be distinguished from _credit_, to believe what one says. _Administer_ is often misused. One _administers_ a dose of medicine, the laws, an oath, or the government; one does not _administer_ a blow. _Administer to_ is often incorrectly used for _minister to_, e. g., "The red cross nurse _administers to_ the wounded." _Admire_ should not be used to express delight, as in the phrase "I should _admire_ to do so." _Admit_ should be distinguished from _confess_. _Advent_ should be distinguished from _arrival_, _advent_ meaning an epoch-making _arrival_. _Affable_ means "easy to speak to" and should not be confused with _agreeable_. _Affect_ should be distinguished from _effect_. To _affect_ is to influence; to _effect_ is to cause or bring about. _Aggravate_ should not be used for _annoy_ or _vex_ or _provoke_. It means "to make worse." _Ain't_ is a corruption of _am not_. It is inelegant though grammatical to say I _ain't_ but absolutely incorrect in other persons and numbers. _Alike_ should not be accompanied by _both_ as in the phrase "They are _both alike_ in this respect." _All_, _All right_ should never be written _alright_. _All_ and _universally_ should never be used together. _All_ should not be accompanied by _of_, e. g., "He received _all of_ the votes." Be careful about the use of _all_ in negative statements. Do not say "All present are not printers" when you mean "Not all present are printers." The first statement means there are no printers present, the second means there are some printers present. _Allege_ is a common error for _say_, _state_, and the like. It means "to declare," "to affirm," or "to assert with the idea of positiveness" and is not applicable to ordinary statements not needing emphasis. _Allow_ means _permit_, never _think_ or _admit_. _Allude to_ is not the same as _mention_. A person or thing alluded to is not mentioned but indirectly implied. _Alone_ which means _unaccompanied_ should be distinguished from _only_ which means _no other_. _Alternative_ should never be used in speaking of more than two things. _Altogether_ is not the same as _all together_. _Among_ should not be used with _one another_, e. g., "They divided the spoil _among one another_." It should be "among themselves." _And_ should not be placed before a relative pronoun in such a position as to interfere with the construction. It should not be substituted for _to_ in such cases as "Try _and_ take more exercise." _And which_ should not be used for _which_. _Another_ should be followed by _than_ not _from_, e. g., "Men of another temper _from_ (_than_) the Greeks." _Answer_ is that which is given to a question; _reply_ to an assertion. _Anticipate_ should not be used in the sense of _expect_. It means "to forestall." _Anxious_ should not be confused with _desirous_. It means "feeling anxiety." _Any_ is liable to ambiguity unless it is used with care. "Any of them" may be either singular or plural. "It is not intended for _any_ machine" may mean "There is no machine for which it is intended," or "It is not intended for every machine, but only for a special type." _Anybody else's_, idiomatic and correct. _Anyhow_, bad, do not use it. _Apparently_ is used of what seems to be real but may not be so. It should not be confused with _evidently_ which is used of what both seems to be and is real. _Appear_ is physical in its meaning and should be distinguished from _seem_ which expresses a mental experience. "The forest _appears_ to be impenetrable," "This does not _seem_ to me to be right." _Apt_ means "skilful" and should never be used in place of _likely_ or _liable_. It also means "having a natural tendency." _As_ should not be used as a causal conjunction, e. g., "Do not expect me _as_ I am too uncertain of my time." The word _as_ stands here as a contraction of inasmuch. Substitute a semicolon, or make two sentences. _As to_ is redundant in such expressions as "_As to_ how far we can trust him I cannot say." _At_ is often incorrectly used for _in_, e. g., "He lives _at_ Chicago." It is also improperly used in such expressions as "Where is he _at_?" _As that_ should not be used for _that_ alone. Do not say "So _as that_ such and such a thing may happen." _Audience_ is not the same as _spectators_. An _audience_ listens; _spectators_ merely see. A concert has an _audience_; a moving picture show has _spectators_. _Aught_ means "anything" and should not be confused with _naught_ or the symbol _0_ which means "nothing." _Avenge_ means to redress wrongs done to others; _revenge_ wrong done to ourselves. _Avenge_ usually implies just retribution. _Revenge_ may be used of malicious retaliation. _Avocation_ should not be confused with _vocation_. A man's _vocation_ is his principal occupation. His _avocation_ is his secondary occupation. _Aware_ is not the same as _conscious_. We are _aware_ of things outside of ourselves; we are _conscious_ of sensations or things within ourselves. _Awful_ and _awfully_ are two very much abused words. They mean "awe inspiring" and should never be used in any other sense. _Badly_ should not be used for _very much_. It should not be confused with the adjective _bad_. "He looks badly" means he makes a bad use of his eyes, say "He looks bad." _Bank on_ is slang. Say _rely on_ or _trust in_. _Beg_ is often incorrectly used in the sense of _beg leave_, not "I _beg_ to say" but "I _beg leave_ to say." _Beside_, meaning "by the side of" should not be confused with _besides_ meaning "in addition to." _Between_ applies only to two persons or things. _Blame on_ as a verb should never be used. _Both_, when _both--and_ are used be sure they connect the right words, "He can both spell and punctuate" not "He both can spell and punctuate." Do not use such expressions as "They both resemble each other." Be careful to avoid confusion in the use of negative statements. Do not say "Both cannot go" when you mean that one can go. _Bound_ in the sense of _determined_ is an Americanism and is better avoided. We say "he is _bound_ to do it" meaning "he is _determined_ to do it," but the phrase really means "He is under bonds, or obligation to do it." _Bring_ should be carefully distinguished from _fetch_, _carry_ and _take_. _Bring_ means to transfer toward the speaker. _Fetch_ means to go and bring back. _Carry_ and _take_ mean to transfer from the speaker, e. g., "_Bring_ a book home from the library." "_Fetch_ me a glass of water." "_Carry_ this proof to the proofreader." "_Take_ this book home." _But_ is sometimes used as a preposition and when so used takes the objective case. "The boy stood on the burning deck whence all _but_ him had fled." _But_ should not be used in connection with _that_ unless intended to express the opposite of what the meaning would be without it, e. g., "I have no doubt _but that_ he will die" is incorrect because his death is expected. "I have no fear _but that_ he will come" is correct, as the meaning intended is "I am sure he will come." _But what_ is often incorrectly used for _but that_. "I cannot believe _but what_ he is guilty" probably means "I can but believe that he is guilty." "I _cannot but_ believe" means "I must believe." _Calculate_ does not mean _think_ or _suppose_. _Calculated_ does not mean _likely_. It means "intended or planned for the purpose." _Can_ which indicates ability is to be distinguished from _may_ which indicates permission. _Cannot but_ should be carefully distinguished from _can but_, e. g., "I _can but_ try" means "All I can do is try." "I _cannot but try_" means "I cannot help trying." _Can't seem_ should not be used for _seem unable_, e. g., "I _can't seem_ to see it." _Childlike_ should be carefully distinguished from _childish_. _Childish_ refers particularly to the weakness of the child. _Come_ should not be confused with _Go_. _Come_ denotes motion toward the speaker; _go_ motion from the speaker, "If you will come to see me, I will go to see you." _Common_ should be distinguished from _mutual_. _Common_ means "shared in common." _Mutual_ means "reciprocal" and can refer to but two persons or things. A _common_ friend is a friend two or more friends have in common. _Mutual_ friendship is the friendship of two persons for each other. _Compare to_, _liken to_, _compare with_, means "measure by" or "point out similarities and differences." _Condign_ means "suitable" or "deserved," not necessarily _severe_. _Condone_ means "to forgive" or "nullify by word or act," not "make amends for." _Consider_ in the sense of _regard as_ should not usually be followed by _as_, e. g., "I consider him a wise man," not "_as_ a wise man." _Contemptible_ is used of an object of contempt and it should be distinguished from _contemptuous_ which is used of what is directed at such an object, e. g., "He is a _contemptible_ fellow." "I gave him a _contemptuous_ look." _Continual_ should not be confused with _continuous_. _Continual_ means "frequently repeated." _Continuous_ means "uninterrupted." _Convene_, which means "to come together," should not be confused with _convoke_ which means "to bring or call together." A legislature _convenes_. It cannot be _convened_ by another, but it can be _convoked_. _Crime_ is often used for offenses against the speaker's sense of right. Properly _crime_ is a technical word meaning "offenses against law." A most innocent action may be a _crime_ if it is contrary to a statute. The most sinful, cruel, or dishonest action is no _crime_ unless prohibited by a statute. _Dangerous_ should not be used for _dangerously ill_. _Data_ is plural. _Deadly_, "that which inflicts death" should not be confused with _deathly_, "that which resembles death." _Decided_ must not be confused with _decisive_. A _decided_ victory is a clear and unmistakable victory. A _decisive_ victory is one which decides the outcome of a war or of a campaign. _Decimate_ means to take away one-tenth. It is not properly used in a general way of the infliction of severe losses. _Definite_ which means "well defined" should not be confused with _definitive_ which means "final." _Demean_ is related to _demeanor_ and means "behave." It should be carefully distinguished from _degrade_ or _lower_. _Die._ We die _of_ a certain disease, not _with_ or _from_ it. _Differ_ in the sense of disagree is followed by _with_. "I _differ with_ you." _Differ_ as indicating unlikeness is followed by _from_. _Different_ should be followed by _from_ never by _with_, _than_, or _to_. _Directly_ should not be used for _as soon as_. _Discover_, "to find something which previously existed" should be distinguished from _invent_ something for the first time. _Disinterested_ means "having no financial or material interest in a thing." It should be carefully distinguished from _uninterested_ which means "taking no interest in" a thing. _Dispense_, "to distribute" should not be confused with _dispense with_, "to do without." _Disposition_ is not the same as _disposal_. _Distinguish_ which means "to perceive differences" should not be confused with _differentiate_ which means "to make or constitute a difference." _Divide_ should be carefully distinguished from _distribute_. _Don't_ is a contraction of do not. _Doesn't_ is the contraction for does not. _I don't_, _they don't_, _he doesn't_. _Due_ should not be used for _owing to_ or _because of_. _Each_ is distributive and is always singular. _Each other_ which is applicable to two only should not be confused with _one another_ which is applicable to more than two. _Egotist_, a man with a high or conceited opinion of himself, should not be confused with _egoist_ which is the name for a believer in a certain philosophical doctrine. _Either_ is distributive and therefore singular and should never be used of more than two. _Elegant_ denotes delicacy and refinement and should not be used as a term of general approval. _Else_ should be followed by _than_, not by _but_. "No one else _than_ (not _but_) he could have done so much." _Emigrant_, one who goes out of a country should not be confused with _immigrant_, one who comes into a country. _Enormity_ is used of wickedness, cruelty, or horror, not of great size, for which _enormousness_ should be used. We speak of the _enormity_ of an offence but of the _enormousness_ of a crowd. _Enthuse_ should not be used as a verb. _Equally as_ well; say _equally well_, or _as well_. _Every place_ used adverbially should be _everywhere_. _Except_ should never be used in the sense of _unless_ or _but_. _Exceptional_ which means "unusual," "forming an exception" should not be confused with _exceptionable_ which means "open to objection." _Expect_ which involves a sense of the future should not be confused with _suppose_ and similar words, as in the phrase "I _expect_ you know all about it." _Factor_ is not to be confounded with _cause_. _Falsity_ applies to things, _falseness_ to persons. _At fault_ means "at a loss of what to do next." _In fault_ means "in the wrong." _Favor_ should not be used in the sense of _resemble_. _Female_ should not be used for _woman_. The words _female_, _woman_, and _lady_ should be used with careful attention to their respective shades of meaning. _Few_, which emphasizes the fact that the number is small should be distinguished from _a few_ which emphasizes the fact that there is a number though it be small. "_Few_ shall part where many meet." "_A few_ persons were saved in the ark." _Fewer_ applies to number; _less_ to quantity. _Firstly_ should not be used for _first_ although secondly and thirdly may be used to complete the series. _Fix_ should not be used in the sense of _repair_, _arrange_, or _settle_. _Former_ and _latter_ should never be used where more than two things are involved. _Frequently_ should be distinguished from commonly, _generally_, _perpetually_, _usually_. _Commonly_ is the antithesis of _rarely_, _frequently_ of _seldom_, _generally_ of _occasionally_, _usually_ of _casually_. _Funny_ should not be used to mean _strange_ or _remarkable_. _Gentleman Friend_ and _Lady Friend_ are expressions which should be avoided, say "man or woman friend" or "man or woman of my acquaintance" or even "gentleman or lady of my acquaintance." _Good_ should not be used in the sense of _well_. "I feel _good_." _Got_ is said to be the most misused word in the language. The verb means to secure by effort and should be used only with this meaning, e. g., "I have _got_ the contract." _Have got_ to indicate mere possession is objectionable. Mere possession is indicated by _have_ alone. Another common mistake is the use of _got_ to express obligation or constraint. "I have _got_ to do it." _Guess_ should not be used in the sense of _think_ or _imagine_. _Handy_ should never be used to express nearness. _Hanged_ should be used to express the execution of a human being. _Hung_ is the past participle in all other uses. _Hardly._ "I _can hardly_ see it," not "I _can't hardly_ see it." _Healthy_ which means "possessed of health" should be distinguished from _healthful_ and _wholesome_ which mean "health giving." _High_ should not be confused with _tall_. _Home_ is not a synonym for _house_. A beautiful _house_ is a very different thing from a beautiful _home_. _Honorable_ as a title should always be preceded by _the_. _How_ should not be used for _what_, or for _that_. It means "in what manner." _How that_ should not be used when either one will do alone. Such a sentence as "We have already noted how that Tillotson defied rubrical order...." is very bad. _If_ should not be used in the sense of _where_ or _that_. _Ilk_ means "the same" not _kind_ or _sort_. _Ill_ is an adverb as well as an adjective. Do not say illy. _In_ should not be used for _into_ when motion is implied. You ride _in_ a car but you get _into_ it. _Inaugurate_ should not be used for _begin_. _Individual_ should not be used for _person_. _Inside of_ should not be used as an expression of time. _Invaluable_, meaning "of very great value" should not be confused with _valueless_, meaning "of no value." _Invite_ should not be used for _invitation_. _Kind_ is not plural. Do not say "These" or "those" _kind_ of things. _Kind of_ should never be followed by the indefinite article. "What _kind of_ man is he?" not "What _kind of a_ man is he?" _Kind of_ or _sort of_ should not be used in the sense of _rather_ or _somewhat_. _Kindly_ is often misused in such expressions as "You are _kindly_ requested to recommend a compositor." Undoubtedly the idea of kindness is attached to the recommendation not to the request and the sentence should be so framed as to express it. _Last_ is often misused for _latest_. "The _last_ number of the paper" is not the one that appeared this morning but the one that finally closes publication. _Latter_ applies only to the last of two. If a longer series than two is referred to, say _the last_. _Lay_, which is a transitive verb, should not be confused with _lie_. _Lay_ is a verb which expresses causitive action; _lie_ expresses passivity. "He _lays_ plans." "He _lies_ down." The past tense of _lay_ is _laid_, that of _lie_ is _lay_. _Learn_ should not be used in place of _teach_. _Lengthy_ is a very poor substitute for _long_, which needs no substitute. _Liable_ should not be used for _likely_. _Liable_ means an unpleasant probability. _Likely_ means any probability. _Liable_ is also used to express obligation. He is _liable_ for this debt. _Like_ must never be used in the sense of _as_. "Do _like_ I do" should be "Do _as_ I do." _Literally_ implies that a statement to which it is attached is accurately and precisely true. It is frequently misused. _Loan_ is a noun, not a verb. _Locate_ should not be used in the sense of _settle_. _Lot_ or _lots_ should not be used to indicate a _great deal_. _Love_ expresses affection or, in its biblical sense, earnest benevolence. _Like_ expresses taste. Do not say "I should _love_ to go." _Lovely_ means "worthy of affection" and, like _elegant_, should never be used as a term of general approbation. _Luxuriant_ which means "superabundant in growth or production" should not be confounded with _luxurious_ which means "given over to luxury." Vegetation is _luxuriant_, men are _luxurious_. _Mad_ means _insane_ and is not a synonym for _angry_. _Means_ may be either singular or plural. _Meet_ should not be used in the sense of _meeting_ except in the case of a few special expressions such as "a race meet." _Mighty_ should not be used in the sense of _very_. _Mind_ should not be used in the sense of _obey_. _Minus_ should not be used in the sense of _without_ or _lacking_. _Most_ should not be used instead of _almost_, as in such expressions as "It rained _most_ every day." _Must_ should not be used for _had to_ or _was obliged_. In its proper use it refers to the present or future only. _Necessities_ should be carefully distinguished from _necessaries_. _Negligence_, which denotes a quality of character should be distinguished from _neglect_ which means "a failure to act." _Neither_ denotes one of two and should not be used for _none_ or _no one_. As a correlative conjunction it should be followed by _nor_ never by _or_. _New beginner_. _Beginner_ is enough; all beginners are new. _News_ is singular in construction. _Never_ is sometimes used as an emphatic negative but such usage is not good. _Nice_ should not be used in the sense of _pleasant_ or _agreeable_. _No how_ should not be used for _anyway_. _No place_ should be written as _nowhere_. _None_ should be treated as a singular. _Not_, like _neither_, must be followed by the correlative _nor_, e. g., "Not for wealth nor for fame did he strive." _Not_ ... _but_ to express a negative is a double negative and therefore should not be used, e. g., "I have _not_ had _but_ one meal to-day." _Nothing like_ and _nowhere near_ should not be used for _not nearly_. _O_ should be used for the vocative and without punctuation. _Oh_ should be used for the ejaculation and should be followed by a comma or an exclamation point. _Obligate_ should not be used for _oblige_. _Observe_ should not be used for _say_. _Observation_ should not be used for _observance_. _Of_ is superfluous in such phrases as _smell of_, _taste of_, _feel of_. _Off_ should never be used with _of_; one or the other is superfluous. _Other._ After _no other_ use _than_, not _but_. _Ought_ must never be used in connection with _had_ or _did_. "You _hadn't ought_ or _didn't ought_ to do it" should be "You ought not to have done it." _Out loud_ should never be used for _aloud_. _Panacea_ is something that cures all diseases, not an effective remedy for one disease. _Partake of_ should not be used in the sense of _eat_. It means "to share with others." _Party_ should never be used for _person_ except in legal documents. _Per_ should be used in connection with other words of Latin form but not with English words. _Per diem_, _per annum_, and the like are correct. _Per day_ or _per year_ are incorrect. It should be _a day_, or _a year_. _Perpendicular_, which merely means at right angles to something else mentioned, should not be used for _vertical_. _Plenty_, a noun should not be confused with the adjective _plentiful_. _Politics_ is singular. _Post_ does not mean _inform_. _Predicate_ should not be used in the sense of _predict_ or in the sense of _base_ or _found_. _Premature_ means "before the proper time." It should not be used in a general way as equivalent to _false_. _Pretty_ should not be used in the modifying sense, nor as a synonym for _very_ in such phrases as "pretty good," "pretty near," and the like. _Preventative_, no such word, say _preventive_. _Promise_ should not be used in the sense of _assure_. _Propose_, meaning "to offer" should not be confused with _purpose_ meaning "to intend." _Proposition_ should not be confounded with _proposal_. A _proposition_ is a statement of a statement or a plan. A _proposal_ is the presentation or statement of an offer. _Providing_ should not be used for _provided_. _Quality_ should never be used as an adjective or with an adjective sense. "Quality clothes" is meaningless: "Clothes of quality" equally so. All clothes have quality and the expression has meaning only when the quality is defined as good, bad, high, low, and so forth. _Quit_, "to go away from" is not the same as _stop_. _Quite_ means "entirely," "wholly," and should never be used in the modifying sense as if meaning _rather_ or _somewhat_. "Quite a few" is nonsense. _Raise_ is a much abused word. It is never a noun. As a verb it should be distinguished from _rear_ and _increase_, as in such phrases as "He was _raised_ in Texas." "The landlord _raised_ my rent." _Rarely ever_ should not be used for _rarely_ or _hardly ever_. _Real_ should not be used in the sense of _very_. _Reference_ should be used with _with_ rather than _in_. Say _with_ reference to, not _in_ reference to. The same rule applies to the words _regard_ and _respect_. Do not say "_in regards to_," say "_with regard to_." _Remember_ is not the same as _recollect_, which means "to remember by an effort." _Rendition_ should not be used for _rendering_. _Researcher_ has no standing as a word. _Reside_ in the sense of live, and residence in the sense of house or dwelling are affectations and should never be used. _Retire_ should not be used in the sense of "go to bed." _Right_ should not be used in the sense of _duty_. "You _had a right_ to warn me," should be "It was your duty to warn me, or you ought to have warned me." _Right_ should not be used in the sense of _very_. Such expressions as _right now_, _right off_, _right away_, _right here_ are not now in good use. _Same_ should not be used as a pronoun. This is a common usage in business correspondence but it is not good English and can be easily avoided without sacrificing either brevity or sense. _Same as_ in the sense of _just as_, _in the same manner_ should be avoided. _Score_ should not be used for _achieve_ or _accomplish_. _Set_ should not be confused with _sit_. To set means "to cause to sit." _Sewage_, meaning the contents of a sewer, should not be confused with _sewerage_ which means the system. _Show_ should not be used in the sense of _play_ or _performance_. _Show up_ should not be used for _expose_. _Since_ should not be used for _ago_. _Size up_ should not be used for _estimate_ or _weigh_. _Some_ should not be used for _somewhat_ as "I feel _some_ better." _Sort of_ should not be used for _rather_. _Splendid_ means _shining_ or _brilliant_ and should not be used as a term of general commendation. _Stand for_ means "be responsible for." Its recent use as meaning _stand_, _endure_, or _permit_, should be avoided. _Start_ should not be used for _begin_, e. g., "He _started_ (began) to speak." _State_ should not be used for _say_. _Stop_ should not be used for _stay_. _Such_ should not be used for _so_. Say "I have never seen _so_ beautiful a book before" not "I have never seen such a beautiful book before." _Sure_ should not be used as an adverb. Say _surely_. _Take_ is superfluous in connection with other verbs, e. g., "Suppose we _take_ and _use_ that type." _Take_ should not be confused with _bring_. _Take stock in_ should not be used for _rely_ or _trust in_. _That_ should not be used in the sense of _so_. "I did not know it was _that_ big." _Think_ should not have the word _for_ added, e. g., "It is more important than you _think for_." _This_ should not be used as an adverb. "This much is clear" should be "Thus much is clear." _Through_ should not be used for _finished_. _To_ is superfluous and wrong in such expressions as "Where did you go _to_?" _Too_ alone should not modify a past participle. "He was _too_ (much) excited to reply." _Transpire_ does not mean _happen_. It means to come to light or become known. _Treat_ should be followed by _of_ rather than _on_. This volume treats _of_ grammar, not _on_ grammar. _Try_ should be followed by _to_ rather than _and_. "I will try _to_ go," not "I will try _and_ go." _Ugly_ should never be used in the sense of _bad tempered_ or _vicious_. It means "repulsive to the eye." _Unique_ does not mean _rare_, _odd_, or _unusual_. It means alone of its kind. _Upward of_ should not be used in the sense of _more than_. _Venal_ should not be confused with _venial_. _Verbal_ should not be confused with _oral_. A _verbal_ message means only a message in words; an _oral_ message is a message by word of mouth. _Very_ should be used sparingly. It is a word of great emphasis and like all such words defeats its purpose when used too frequently. _Visitor_ is a human caller. _Visitant_ a supernatural caller. _Want_ should not be used in the sense of _wish_, e. g., "I _want_ it" really means "I feel the want of it" or "I lack it." _Want_, _wish_, and _need_ should be carefully distinguished. _Way_ should not be used in the sense of _away_ in such expressions as "_Way_ down East." _Ways_ should not be used for _way_, e. g., "It is quite a _ways_ (way) off." _What_ is often misused for _that_, e. g., "He has no doubt but _what_ (that) he will succeed." _Whence_ means "from what place or cause" and should not be preceded by _from_. This applies equally to hence which means "from this place." _Which_ should not be used with a clause as its antecedent, e. g., "He replied hotly, _which_ was a mistake" should be "He replied hotly; this was a mistake." _Which_ being a neuter pronoun should not be used to represent a masculine or feminine noun. Use who. Between the two neuter pronouns _which_ and _that_ let euphony decide. _Who_ should not be misused for _whom_ or _whose_, e. g., "_Who_ (whom) did you wish to see?" "Washington, than _who_ (whose) no greater name is recorded." Impersonal objects should be referred to by _which_ rather than _who_. _Without_ should not be used for _unless_, e. g., "I will not go _without_ (unless) you go with me." _Witness_ should not be used for _see_. _Worst kind_ or _worst kind of way_ should not be used for _very much_. _Womanly_ means "belonging to woman as woman." _Womanish_ means _effeminate_. _Tables of Irregular Verbs_ Table 1 contains the principal parts of all irregular verbs whose past tense and perfect participle are unlike. Most errors in the use of irregular verbs occur with those in Table 1. The past tense must not be used with _have_ (_has_, _had_). Do not use such expressions as _have drove_ and _has went_. Equally disagreeable is the use of the perfect participle for the past tense; as, _she seen_, _they done_. TABLE I Present Tense Past Tense Perf. Part. arise arose arisen be or am was been bear, _bring forth_ bore born[1], borne bear, _carry_ bore borne beat beat beaten, beat begin began begun bid bade, bid bidden, bid bite bit bitten, bit blow blew blown break broke broken chide chid chidden, chid choose chose chosen cleave, _split_ {cleft, clove {cleft, cleaved, {(clave)[2] {cloven come came come do did done draw drew drawn drink drank drunk, drunken drive drove driven eat ate (eat) eaten (eat) fall fell fallen fly flew flown forbear forbore forborne forget forgot forgotten, forgot forsake forsook forsaken freeze froze frozen give gave given go went gone grow grew grown hide hid hidden, hid know knew known lie, _recline_ lay lain ride rode ridden ring rang, rung rung rise rose risen run ran run see saw seen shake shook shaken shrink shrank, shrunk shrunk, shrunken sing sung, sang sung sink sank, sunk sunk slay slew slain slide slid slidden, slid smite smote smitten speak spoke (spake) spoken spring sprang, spring sprung steal stole stolen stride strode stridden strike struck struck, stricken strive strove striven swear swore (sware) sworn swim swam, swum swum take took taken tear tore torn throw threw thrown tread trod trodden, trod wear wore worn weave wove woven write wrote written TABLE II This table contains the principal parts of all irregular verbs whose past tense and perfect participles are alike. Present Tense Past Tense and Present Tense Past Tense and Perf. Part. Perf. Part. abide abode mean meant behold beheld meet met beseech besought pay paid bind bound put put bleed bled read read breed bred rend rent bring brought say said build built seek sought burst burst sell sold buy bought send sent cast cast set set catch caught shed shed cling clung shoe shod cost cost shoot shot creep crept shut shut cut cut sit sat deal dealt sleep slept feed fed sling slung feel felt slink slunk fight fought spend spent find found spin spun (span) flee fled spit spit (spat) fling flung split split get got (gotten) spread spread grind ground stand stood have had stick stuck hear heard sting stung hit hit string strung hold held sweep swept hurt hurt swing swung keep kept teach taught lay laid tell told lead led think thought leave left thrust thrust lend lent weep wept let let win won lose lost wring wrung make made TABLE III This table includes verbs that are both regular and irregular. A Verbs in which the regular form is preferred. Present Tense Past Tense Perf. Part. bend bended, bent bended, bent bereave bereaved, bereft bereaved, bereft blend blended, blent blended, blent bless blessed, blest blessed, blest burn burned, burnt burned, burnt cleave, _stick_ cleaved (clave) cleaved clothe clothed, clad clothed, clad curse cursed, curst cursed, curst dive dived (dove) dived (dove) dream dreamed, dreamt dreamed, dreamt dress dressed, drest dressed, drest gild gilded, gilt gilded, gilt heave heaved, hove heaved, hove hew hewed hewed, hewn lade laded laded, laden lean leaned, leant leaned, leant leap leaped, leapt leaped, leapt learn learned, learnt learned, learnt light lighted, lit lighted, lit mow mowed mowed, mown pen, _shut up_ penned, pent penned, pent plead {pleaded (plead _or_ {pleaded (plead _or_ {pled) {pled) prove proved proved, proven reave reaved, reft reaved, reft rive rived rived, riven saw sawed sawed, sawn seethe seethed (sod) seethed, sodden shape shaped shaped, shapen shave shaved shaved, shaven shear sheared sheared, shorn smell smelled, smelt smelled, smelt sow sowed sowed, sown spell spelled, spelt spelled, spelt spill spilled, spilt spilled, spilt spoil spoiled, spoilt spoiled, spoilt stave staved, stove staved, stove stay stayed, staid stayed, staid swell swelled swelled, swollen wake waked, woke waked, woke wax, _grow_ waxed waxed (waxen) wed wedded wedded, wed whet whetted, whet whetted, whet work worked, wrought worked, wrought B Verbs in which the irregular form is preferred. Present Tense Past Tense Perf. Part. awake awoke, awaked awaked, awoke belay belaid, belayed belaid, belayed bet bet, betted bet, betted crow crew, crowed crowed dare durst, dared dared dig dug, digged dug, digged dwell dwelt, dwelled dwelt, dwelled gird girt, girded girt, girded grave graved graven, graved hang hung, hanged[3] hung, hanged kneel knelt, kneeled knelt, kneeled knit knit, knitted knit, knitted quit quit, quitted quit, quitted rap rapt, rapped rapt, rapped rid rid, ridded rid, ridded shine shone (shined) shone (shined) show showed shown, showed shred shred, shredded shred, shredded shrive shrived, shrove shriven, shrived slit slit, slitted slit, slitted speed sped, speeded sped, speeded strew strewed strewn, strewed strow strowed strown, strowed sweat sweat, sweated sweat, sweated thrive throve, thrived thrived, thriven wet wet (wetted) wet (wetted) wind wound (winded) wound (winded) The verbs of the following list also are irregular; but as they lack one or more of the principal parts, they are called defective verbs. _Defective Verbs_ Present Past Present Past can could ought ..... may might ..... quoth must ..... beware ..... shall should methinks methought will would All the participles are wanting in defective verbs. The verb _ought_, when used to express past duty or obligation, is followed by what is called the perfect infinitive--a use peculiar to itself because _ought_ has no past form. _Example:_ I ought _to have gone_ yesterday. Other verbs expressing past time are used in the past tense followed by the root infinitive. _Example:_ I intended _to go_ yesterday. SUPPLEMENTARY READING Composition and Rhetoric. By Lockwood and Emerson. Ginn & Co., Boston. The Art of Writing and Speaking the English Language. By Sherwin Cody. The Old Greek Press, Chicago. The Writer's Desk Book. By William Dana Orcutt. Frederick Stokes Company, New York. A Manual for Writers. By John Matthews Manly and John Arthur Powell. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Any good Grammar. Putnam's Word Book. By Louis A. Flemming. G. P. Putnam's Sons, Chicago. (For reference.) QUESTIONS In addition to the questions here given there should be constant and thorough drill in the use of grammatical forms and the choice of words. Frequent short themes should be required. In these themes attention should be given to grammatical construction, choice of words, spelling, capitalization, punctuation, sentence construction, and paragraphing. 1. Why is the subject important? 2. How many families of words are there, and what are they? 3. What is a noun? 4. What are the three things about a noun which indicates its relation to other words? 5. How many numbers are there, and what do they mean? 6. How do ordinary nouns form their plurals? 7. How do compound nouns form their plurals? 8. What is one very important use of number? 9. What can you say of the use of the verb with collective nouns? 10. What is case? 11. How many cases are there, and what does each indicate? 12. What can you say about the relation of a noun to a preposition? 13. Are prepositions ever omitted, and why? 14. How are the nominative and objective cases distinguished? 15. How is the possessive case formed in the plural? 16. Do possessive pronouns take an apostrophe? 17. What is _it's_? 18. How are compound nouns, appositives, etc., treated in the possessive? 19. What is an adjective? 20. What do degrees indicate, and how many are there? 21. How are adjectives compared? 22. When should the long form of comparison be used and when the short? 23. What danger attends the use of _most_? 24. Give two irregular adjectives and compare them. 25. Should the two methods of comparison ever be combined? 26. Why are some adjectives never compared? 27. What is an article? 28. How many articles are there? 29. What kinds of articles are there? 30. When should you use _a_? 31. When should you use _an_? 32. What is a verb? 33. Of what three parts does a simple sentence consist? 34. Name them and describe each. 35. What is the relation of the verb to the subject with regard to person and number? 36. What is voice? 37. How many voices are there, what is each called, and what does it indicate? 38. What is tense? 39. How many tenses are there, and what are they called? 40. What is the rule for tense in subordinate clauses? 41. What is the reason for the rule, and how can accuracy be determined? 42. What happens when the statement in the subordinate clause is of universal application? 43. What is mood? 44. How many moods are there, and what are they called? 45. How is the indicative mood used? 46. How is the subjunctive mood used? 47. How is the imperative mood used? 48. What is the potential mood? 49. What is the exact meaning of (a) _may_, (b) _can_, (c) _must_, (d) _ought_? 50. What is tense? 51. How are _shall_ and _will_ used in direct discourse (a) in simple statements, (b) in questions, (c) in other cases? 52. How are _shall_ and _will_ used in indirect discourse? 53. What are the exceptions in the use of _shall_ and _will_? 54. What is the general use of _should_ and _would_? 55. How are should and would used in subordinate clauses, in indirect discourse? 56. What exceptions are there in the use of _should_ and _would_? 57. Why do we make mistakes in the use of compound tenses? 58. What is the case of the object in participial construction? 59. What should be avoided in the use of prepositions? 60. Do passive verbs ever have objects? 61. What is a pronoun? 62. What common error occurs in the use of plural possessive pronouns? 63. What common error occurs in the use of cases in subordinate clauses? 64. What danger is there in the use of pronouns, and how can it be avoided? 65. What is an adverb? 66. What is the important distinction in the use of adverbs and adjectives? 67. What rule is to be observed in the use of negatives? 68. What is a preposition? 69. Where is it placed in the sentence? 70. What is a conjunction? 71. What is said of _and_ and _but_? 72. How should we pair _either_, _neither_, _or_, and _nor_? 73. What is the rule about placing correlatives? 74. What is an interjection? 75. Does it make much difference where words are put in a sentence? Why? 76. What is the general rule for placing words? 77. When may words be omitted? 78. What is the danger in such omission? 79. Mention some objectionable abbreviations of this sort. 80. What is the writer's task? 81. What three abuses are to be avoided? 82. What are Campbell's five canons? 83. What are the rules for the formation of sentences? 84. What are the rules for the formation of paragraphs? GLOSSARY AMBIGUITY--The possibility of more than one meaning. APPOSITION--When the meaning of a noun or pronoun is made clear or emphatic by the use of another noun or pronoun the two are said to be in apposition, e. g., John, the old pressman. AUXILIARY VERB--A verb used to help to express the meaning of another verb by showing its voice, mood or tense. CLAUSE--A group of words consisting of a subject and predicate with their modifiers and forming a part of a sentence: a sentence within a sentence. COLLECTIVE NOUN--A noun indicating a collection of units considered as a whole, e. g., _crowd_. COMPOUND WORDS--Words made up of two or more words used together to express one idea. CONTEXT--The entire writing from which a text or passage is taken. CORRELATIVE--A term applied to pairs of conjunctions or other words or phrases which imply or involve each other. DICTION--The choice and use of words. GRAMMAR--The science that treats of the principles that govern the correct use of language in either spoken or written form; the science of the sentence and its elements. HETEROGENEOUS SENTENCES--Sentences containing unrelated ideas or dealing with a variety of separate things. HYPOTHESIS--A supposition, or imaginary state of things assumed as a basis for reasoning. HYPOTHETICAL CLAUSE--A clause containing a supposition. METAPHOR--A figure of speech in which one thing is likened to another by speaking of it as if it were that other, or calling it that other. NOUN CLAUSE--A clause used as a noun. OBJECT (OF A VERB)--The thing acted on. PARTICIPIAL CONSTRUCTION--A participle and its modifiers used as the subject or object of a verb. PHRASE--An expression, consisting usually of but a few words, denoting a single idea, or forming a separate part of a sentence. PREDICATE (OF A SENTENCE)--That which is said of the subject. See subject. PRINCIPAL VERB--The verb in the main statement of a sentence. PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVE--An adjective used as a pronoun. RHETORIC--The art of perfecting man's power of communicating to others his mental acts or states by means of language: art of discourse. SUBJECT (OF A SENTENCE)--The thing spoken about in the sentence. See predicate. SUBJECT (OF A VERB)--The thing acting. SUBORDINATE CLAUSE--A clause explaining or otherwise modifying the main statement of the sentence. TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES The following list of publications, comprising the TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES, has been prepared under the supervision of the Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America for use in trade classes, in course of printing instruction, and by individuals. Each publication has been compiled by a competent author or group of authors, and carefully edited, the purpose being to provide the printers of the United States--employers, journeymen, and apprentices--with a comprehensive series of handy and inexpensive compendiums of reliable, up-to-date information upon the various branches and specialties of the printing craft, all arranged in orderly fashion for progressive study. The publications of the series are of uniform size, 5 x 8 inches. Their general make-up, in typography, illustrations, etc., has been, as far as practicable, kept in harmony throughout. A brief synopsis of the particular contents and other chief features of each volume will be found under each title in the following list. Each topic is treated in a concise manner, the aim being to embody in each publication as completely as possible all the rudimentary information and essential facts necessary to an understanding of the subject. Care has been taken to make all statements accurate and clear, with the purpose of bringing essential information within the understanding of beginners in the different fields of study. Wherever practicable, simple and well-defined drawings and illustrations have been used to assist in giving additional clearness to the text. In order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible help for use in trade-school classes and for self-instruction, each title is accompanied by a list of Review Questions covering essential items of the subject matter. A short Glossary of technical terms belonging to the subject or department treated is also added to many of the books. These are the Official Text-books of the United Typothetae of America. Address all orders and inquiries to COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, U. S. A. PART I--_Types, Tools, Machines, and Materials_ 1. =Type: a Primer of Information= By A. A. Stewart Relating to the mechanical features of printing types; their sizes, font schemes, etc., with a brief description of their manufacture. 44 pp.; illustrated; 74 review questions; glossary. 2. =Compositors' Tools and Materials= By A. A. Stewart A primer of information about composing sticks, galleys, leads, brass rules, cutting and mitering machines, etc. 47 pp.; illustrated; 50 review questions; glossary. 3. =Type Cases, Composing Room Furniture= By A. A. Stewart A primer of information about type cases, work stands, cabinets, case racks, galley racks, standing galleys, etc. 43 pp.; illustrated; 33 review questions; glossary. 4. =Imposing Tables and Lock-up Appliances= By A. A. Stewart Describing the tools and materials used in locking up forms for the press, including some modern utilities for special purposes. 59 pp.; illustrated; 70 review questions; glossary. 5. =Proof Presses= By A. A. Stewart A primer of information about the customary methods and machines for taking printers' proofs. 40 pp.; illustrated; 41 review questions; glossary. 6. =Platen Printing Presses= By Daniel Baker A primer of information regarding the history and mechanical construction of platen printing presses, from the original hand press to the modern job press, to which is added a chapter on automatic presses of small size. 51 pp.; illustrated; 49 review questions; glossary. 7. =Cylinder Printing Presses= By Herbert L. Baker Being a study of the mechanism and operation of the principal types of cylinder printing machines. 64 pp.; illustrated; 47 review questions; glossary. 8. =Mechanical Feeders and Folders= By William E. Spurrier The history and operation of modern feeding and folding machines; with hints on their care and adjustments. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. 9. =Power for Machinery in Printing Houses= By Carl F. Scott A treatise on the methods of applying power to printing presses and allied machinery with particular reference to electric drive. 53 pp.; illustrated; 69 review questions; glossary. 10. =Paper Cutting Machines= By Niel Gray, Jr. A primer of information about paper and card trimmers, hand-lever cutters, power cutters, and other automatic machines for cutting paper. 70 pp.; illustrated; 115 review questions; glossary. 11. =Printers' Rollers= By A. A. Stewart A primer of information about the composition, manufacture, and care of inking rollers. 46 pp.; illustrated; 61 review questions; glossary. 12. =Printing Inks= By Philip Ruxton Their composition, properties and manufacture (reprinted by permission from Circular No. 53, United States Bureau of Standards); together with some helpful suggestions about the everyday use of printing inks by Philip Ruxton. 80 pp.; 100 review questions; glossary. 13. =How Paper is Made= By William Bond Wheelwright A primer of information about the materials and processes of manufacturing paper for printing and writing. 68 pp.; illustrated; 62 review questions; glossary. 14. =Relief Engravings= By Joseph P. Donovan Brief history and non-technical description of modern methods of engraving; woodcut, zinc plate, halftone; kind of copy for reproduction; things to remember when ordering engravings. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. 15. =Electrotyping and Stereotyping= By Harris B. Hatch and A. A. Stewart A primer of information about the processes of electrotyping and stereotyping. 94 pp.; illustrated; 129 review questions; glossaries. PART II--_Hand and Machine Composition_ 16. =Typesetting= By A. A. Stewart A handbook for beginners, giving information about justifying, spacing, correcting, and other matters relating to typesetting. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. 17. =Printers' Proofs= By A. A. Stewart The methods by which they are made, marked, and corrected, with observations on proofreading. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. 18. =First Steps in Job Composition= By Camille DeVéze Suggestions for the apprentice compositor in setting his first jobs, especially about the important little things which go to make good display in typography. 63 pp.; examples; 55 review questions; glossary. 19. =General Job Composition= How the job compositor handles business stationery, programs and miscellaneous work. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. 20. =Book Composition= By J. W. Bothwell Chapters from DeVinne's "Modern Methods of Book Composition," revised and arranged for this series of text-books by J. W. Bothwell of The DeVinne Press, New York. Part I: Composition of pages. Part II: Imposition of pages. 229 pp.; illustrated; 525 review questions; glossary. 21. =Tabular Composition= By Robert Seaver A study of the elementary forms of table composition, with examples of more difficult composition. 36 pp.; examples; 45 review questions. 22. =Applied Arithmetic= By E. E. Sheldon Elementary arithmetic applied to problems of the printing trade, calculation of materials, paper weights and sizes, with standard tables and rules for computation, each subject amplified with examples and exercises. 159 pp. 23. =Typecasting and Composing Machines= A. W. Finlay, Editor Section I--The Linotype By L. A. Hornstein Section II--The Monotype By Joseph Hays Section III--The Intertype By Henry W. Cozzens Section IV--Other Typecasting and Typesetting Machines By Frank H. Smith A brief history of typesetting machines, with descriptions of their mechanical principles and operations. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. PART III--_Imposition and Stonework_ 24. =Locking Forms for the Job Press= By Frank S. Henry Things the apprentice should know about locking up small forms, and about general work on the stone. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. 25. =Preparing Forms for the Cylinder Press= By Frank S. Henry Pamphlet and catalog imposition; margins; fold marks, etc. Methods of handling type forms and electrotype forms. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. PART IV--_Presswork_ 26. =Making Ready on Platen Presses= By T. G. McGrew The essential parts of a press and their functions; distinctive features of commonly used machines. Preparing the tympan, regulating the impression, underlaying and overlaying, setting gauges, and other details explained. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. 27. =Cylinder Presswork= By T. G. McGrew Preparing the press; adjustment of bed and cylinder, form rollers, ink fountain, grippers and delivery systems. Underlaying and overlaying; modern overlay methods. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. 28. =Pressroom Hints and Helps= By Charles L. Dunton Describing some practical methods of pressroom work, with directions and useful information relating to a variety of printing-press problems. 87 pp.; 176 review questions. 29. =Reproductive Processes of the Graphic Arts= By A. W. Elson A primer of information about the distinctive features of the relief, the intaglio, and the planographic processes of printing. 84 pp.; illustrated; 100 review questions; glossary. PART V--_Pamphlet and Book Binding_ 30. =Pamphlet Binding= By Bancroft L. Goodwin A primer of information about the various operations employed in binding pamphlets and other work in the bindery. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. 31. =Book Binding= By John J. Pleger Practical information about the usual operations in binding books; folding; gathering, collating, sewing, forwarding, finishing. Case making and cased-in books. Hand work and machine work. Job and blank-book binding. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. PART VI--_Correct Literary Composition_ 32. =Word Study and English Grammar= By F. W. Hamilton A primer of information about words, their relations, and their uses. 68 pp.; 84 review questions; glossary. 33. =Punctuation= By F. W. Hamilton A primer of information about the marks of punctuation and their use, both grammatically and typographically. 56 pp.; 59 review questions; glossary. 34. =Capitals= By F. W. Hamilton A primer of information about capitalization, with some practical typographic hints as to the use of capitals. 48 pp.; 92 review questions; glossary. 35. =Division of Words= By F. W. Hamilton Rules for the division of words at the ends of lines, with remarks on spelling, syllabication and pronunciation. 42 pp.; 70 review questions. 36. =Compound Words= By F. W. Hamilton A study of the principles of compounding, the components of compounds, and the use of the hyphen. 34 pp.; 62 review questions. 37. =Abbreviations and Signs= By F. W. Hamilton A primer of information about abbreviations and signs, with classified lists of those in most common use. 58 pp.; 32 review questions. 38. =The Uses of Italic= By F. W. Hamilton A primer of information about the history and uses of italic letters. 31 pp.; 37 review questions. 39. =Proofreading= By Arnold Levitas The technical phases of the proofreader's work; reading, marking, revising, etc.; methods of handling proofs and copy. Illustrated by examples. 59 pp.; 69 review questions; glossary. 40. =Preparation of Printers' Copy= By F. W. Hamilton Suggestions for authors, editors, and all who are engaged in preparing copy for the composing room. 36 pp.; 67 review questions. 41. =Printers' Manual of Style= A reference compilation of approved rules, usages, and suggestions relating to uniformity in punctuation, capitalization, abbreviations, numerals, and kindred features of composition. 42. =The Printer's Dictionary= By A. A. Stewart A handbook of definitions and miscellaneous information about various processes of printing, alphabetically arranged. Technical terms explained. Illustrated. PART VII--_Design, Color, and Lettering_ 43. =Applied Design for Printers= By Harry L. Gage A handbook of the principles of arrangement, with brief comment on the periods of design which have most influenced printing. Treats of harmony, balance, proportion, and rhythm; motion; symmetry and variety; ornament, esthetic and symbolic. 37 illustrations; 46 review questions; glossary; bibliography. 44. =Elements of Typographic Design= By Harry L. Gage Applications of the principles of decorative design. Building material of typography paper, types, ink, decorations and illustrations. Handling of shapes. Design of complete book, treating each part. Design of commercial forms and single units. Illustrations; review questions, glossary; bibliography. 45. =Rudiments of Color in Printing= By Harry L. Gage Use of color: for decoration of black and white, for broad poster effect, in combinations of two, three, or more printings with process engravings. Scientific nature of color, physical and chemical. Terms in which color may be discussed: hue, value, intensity. Diagrams in color, scales and combinations. Color theory of process engraving. Experiments with color. Illustrations in full color, and on various papers. Review questions; glossary; bibliography. 46. =Lettering in Typography= By Harry L. Gage Printer's use of lettering: adaptability and decorative effect. Development of historic writing and lettering and its influence on type design. Classification of general forms in lettering. Application of design to lettering. Drawing for reproduction. Fully illustrated; review questions; glossary; bibliography. 47. =Typographic Design in Advertising= By Harry L. Gage The printer's function in advertising. Precepts upon which advertising is based. Printer's analysis of his copy. Emphasis, legibility, attention, color. Method of studying advertising typography. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; bibliography. 48. =Making Dummies and Layouts= By Harry L. Gage A layout: the architectural plan. A dummy: the imitation of a proposed final effect. Use of dummy in sales work. Use of layout. Function of layout man. Binding schemes for dummies. Dummy envelopes. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; bibliography. PART VIII--_History of Printing_ 49. =Books Before Typography= By F. W. Hamilton A primer of information about the invention of the alphabet and the history of bookmaking up to the invention of movable types. 62 pp.; illustrated; 64 review questions. 50. =The Invention of Typography= By F. W. Hamilton A brief sketch of the invention of printing and how it came about. 64 pp.; 62 review questions. 51. =History of Printing=--Part I By F. W. Hamilton A primer of information about the beginnings of printing, the development of the book, the development of printers' materials, and the work of the great pioneers. 63 pp.; 55 review questions. 52. =History of Printing=--Part II By F. W. Hamilton A brief sketch of the economic conditions of the printing industry from 1450 to 1789, including government regulations, censorship, internal conditions and industrial relations. 94 pp.; 128 review questions. 53. =Printing in England= By F. W. Hamilton A short history of printing in England from Caxton to the present time. 89 pp.; 65 review questions. 54. =Printing in America= By F. W. Hamilton A brief sketch of the development of the newspaper, and some notes on publishers who have especially contributed to printing. 98 pp.; 84 review questions. 55. =Type and Presses in America= By F. W. Hamilton A brief historical sketch of the development of type casting and press building in the United States. 52 pp.; 61 review questions. PART IX--_Cost Finding and Accounting_ 56. =Elements of Cost in Printing= By Henry P. Porter The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. Glossary. 57. =Use of a Cost System= By Henry P. Porter The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. Glossary. 58. =The Printer as a Merchant= By Henry P. Porter The selection and purchase of materials and supplies for printing. The relation of the cost of raw material and the selling price of the finished product. Review questions. Glossary. 59. =Fundamental Principles of Estimating= By Henry P. Porter The estimator and his work; forms to use; general rules for estimating. Review questions. Glossary. 60. =Estimating and Selling= By Henry P. Porter An insight into the methods used in making estimates, and their relation to selling. Review questions. Glossary. 61. =Accounting for Printers= By Henry P. Porter A brief outline of an accounting system for printers; necessary books and accessory records. Review questions. Glossary. PART X--_Miscellaneous_ 62. =Health, Sanitation, and Safety= By Henry P. Porter Hygiene in the printing trade; a study of conditions old and new; practical suggestions for improvement; protective appliances and rules for safety. 63. =Topical Index= By F. W. Hamilton A book of reference covering the topics treated in the Typographic Technical Series, alphabetically arranged. 64. =Courses of Study= By F. W. Hamilton A guidebook for teachers, with outlines and suggestions for classroom and shop work. ACKNOWLEDGMENT This series of Typographic Text-books is the result of the splendid co-operation of a large number of firms and individuals engaged in the printing business and its allied industries in the United States of America. The Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America, under whose auspices the books have been prepared and published, acknowledges its indebtedness for the generous assistance rendered by the many authors, printers, and others identified with this work. While due acknowledgment is made on the title and copyright pages of those contributing to each book, the Committee nevertheless felt that a group list of co-operating firms would be of interest. The following list is not complete, as it includes only those who have co-operated in the production of a portion of the volumes, constituting the first printing. As soon as the entire list of books comprising the Typographic Technical Series has been completed (which the Committee hopes will be at an early date), the full list will be printed in each volume. The Committee also desires to acknowledge its indebtedness to the many subscribers to this Series who have patiently awaited its publication. COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA. HENRY P. PORTER, _Chairman_, E. LAWRENCE FELL, A. M. GLOSSBRENNER, J. CLYDE OSWALD, TOBY RUBOVITS. FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, _Education Director_. CONTRIBUTORS =For Composition and Electrotypes= ISAAC H. BLANCHARD COMPANY, New York, N. Y. S. H. BURBANK & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. J. S. CUSHING & CO., Norwood, Mass. THE DEVINNE PRESS, New York, N. Y. R. R. DONNELLEY & SONS CO., Chicago, Ill. GEO. H. ELLIS CO., Boston, Mass. EVANS-WINTER-HEBB, Detroit, Mich. FRANKLIN PRINTING COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa. F. H. GILSON COMPANY, Boston, Mass. STEPHEN GREENE & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. W. F. HALL PRINTING CO., Chicago, Ill. J. B. LIPPINCOTT CO., Philadelphia, Pa. MCCALLA & CO. INC., Philadelphia, Pa. THE PATTESON PRESS, New York, New York THE PLIMPTON PRESS, Norwood, Mass. POOLE BROS., Chicago, Ill. EDWARD STERN & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. THE STONE PRINTING & MFG. CO., Roanoke, Va. C. D. TRAPHAGEN, Lincoln, Neb. THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, Cambridge, Mass. =For Composition= BOSTON TYPOTHETAE SCHOOL OF PRINTING, Boston, Mass. WILLIAM F. FELL CO., Philadelphia, Pa. THE KALKHOFF COMPANY, New York, N. Y. OXFORD-PRINT, Boston, Mass. TOBY RUBOVITS, Chicago, Ill. =For Electrotypes= BLOMGREN BROTHERS CO., Chicago, Ill. FLOWER STEEL ELECTROTYPING CO., New York, N. Y. C. J. PETERS & SON CO., Boston, Mass. ROYAL ELECTROTYPE CO., Philadelphia, Pa. H. C. WHITCOMB & CO., Boston, Mass. =For Engravings= AMERICAN TYPE FOUNDERS CO., Boston, Mass. C. B. COTTRELL & SONS CO., Westerly, R. I. GOLDING MANUFACTURING CO., Franklin, Mass. HARVARD UNIVERSITY, Cambridge, Mass. INLAND PRINTER CO., Chicago, Ill. LANSTON MONOTYPE MACHINE COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa. MERGENTHALER LINOTYPE COMPANY, New York, N. Y. GEO. H. MORRILL CO., Norwood, Mass. OSWALD PUBLISHING CO., New York, N. Y. THE PRINTING ART, Cambridge, Mass. B. D. RISING PAPER COMPANY, Housatonic, Mass. THE VANDERCOOK PRESS, Chicago, Ill. =For Book Paper= AMERICAN WRITING PAPER CO., Holyoke, Mass. WEST VIRGINIA PULP & PAPER CO., Mechanicville, N. Y. FOOTNOTES: [1] _Born_ is used only in the passive voice. [2] The words in parentheses in this and the following tables represent forms which, though at one time common, are now seldom used. [3] Referring to execution by suspension, _hanged_ is preferable to _hung_. Transcriber's Notes: Passages in italics are indicated by _underscore_. Passages in bold are indicated by =bold=. The misprint "Sterotyping" was corrected to "Stereotyping" (pg. iii-ads). 
40415	----	file was made using scans of public domain works in the International Children's Digital Library.) TOWER'S LITTLE PRIMER, FOR THE YOUNGEST CLASS IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS. [Illustration] BY ANNA E. TOWER. BOSTON: BROWN, TAGGARD & CHASE. 1857. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1857, by ANNA E. TOWER, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the District of Massachusetts. ELECTROTYPED AT THE BOSTON STEREOTYPE FOUNDRY. PREFACE. Teachers will observe that only a FEW LETTERS _at a time_ are given to the pupil, and with them _words_ formed of those _few letters_. Thus the alphabet as presented to a child in detached portions, and each successive portion practically used in _words_ before the next is learned. This method is claimed as a peculiar feature of this book, except so far as it is used in the "GRADUAL PRIMER." The alphabets at the beginning of the book are for those who prefer to teach in the old way, and for all to learn the old order of arrangement. No word is used in the book till it has first been given to the pupil in a spelling lesson. This book will be an easy introduction to the "GRADUAL PRIMER," the First Reader of Tower's Series; also to his "PICTORIAL PRIMER;" and, in short, to _any_ Series of readers. It is especially designed for the LOWEST CLASS in the primary schools, to encourage children by making their first step simple, easy, attractive, and interesting. JANUARY, 1857. +---+---+---+---+ | a | b | c | d | +---+---+---+---+ | e | f | g | h | +---+---+---+---+ | i | j | k | l | +---+---+---+---+ | m | n | o | p | +---+---+---+---+ | q | r | s | t | +---+---+---+---+ | u | v | w | x | +---+---+---+---+ [Illustration]| y | z |[Illustration] +---+---+ +-----+-----+----+-----+ | A a | B b | C c | D d | +-----+-----+-----+-----+ | E e | F f | G g | H h | +-----+-----+-----+-----+ | I i | J j | K k | L l | +-----+-----+-----+-----+ | M m | N n | O o | P p | +-----+-----+-----+-----+ | Q q | R r | S s | T t | +-----+-----+-----+-----+ | U u | V v | W w | X x | +-----+-----+-----+-----+ [Illustration]| Y y | Z z |[Illustration] +-----+-----+ +---+---+---+---+ | A | B | C | D | +---+---+---+---+ | E | F | G | H | +---+---+---+---+ | I | J | K | L | +---+---+---+---+ | M | N | O | P | +---+---+---+---+ | Q | R | S | T | +---+---+---+---+ | U | V | W | X | +---+---+---+---+ [Illustration]| Y | Z |[Illustration] +---+---+ [Illustration] +---+ +---+ +---+ | e | | m | | w | +---+ +---+ +---+ +---------+ +---------+ | m e, me | | w e, we | +---------+ +---------+ +----+ +----+ | me | | we | +----+ +----+ [Illustration] +---+ +---+ +---+ +---+ | e | | b | | h | | y | +---+ +---+ +---+ +---+ +---------+ +---------+ | h e, he | | b e, be | +---------+ +---------+ +---------+ | y e, ye | +---------+ +----+ +----+ +----+ | he | | be | | ye | +----+ +----+ +----+ Me, we, he, be, ye. [Illustration] +---+ +---+ +---+ +---+ | I | | y | | b | | m | +---+ +---+ +---+ +---+ +---------+ +---------+ | m y, my | | b y, by | +---------+ +---------+ +---+ +----+ +----+ | I | | my | | by | +---+ +----+ +----+ I, by, my. [Illustration] +---+ +---+ +---+ | l | | n | | o | +---+ +---+ +---+ +---------+ +---------+ | n o, no | | l o, lo | +---------+ +---------+ +---+ +----+ +----+ | O | | no | | lo | +---+ +----+ +----+ O, lo, no, I, by, my. [Illustration] +---+ +---+ +---+ | o | | g | | s | +---+ +---+ +---+ +---------+ +---------+ | g o, go | | s o, so | +---------+ +---------+ +----+ +----+ | go | | so | +----+ +----+ O no. Go so. I go so. [Illustration] +---+ +---+ +---+ | o | | d | | t | +---+ +---+ +---+ +---------+ +---------+ | d o, do | | t o, to | +---------+ +---------+ +----+ +----+ | do | | to | +----+ +----+ I do, we do; I do so. [Illustration] +---+ +---+ +---+ | a | | m | | n | +---+ +---+ +---+ +---------+ +---------+ | a m, am | | a n, an | +---------+ +---------+ +----+ +----+ | am | | an | +----+ +----+ Do we go? No; I am to go. [Illustration] +---+ +---+ +---+ +---+ | a | | s | | t | | x | +---+ +---+ +---+ +---+ +---------+ +---------+ | a t, at | | a s, as | +---------+ +---------+ +---------+ | a x, ax | +---------+ +----+ +----+ +----+ | at | | as | | ax | +----+ +----+ +----+ [Illustration] +---+ +---+ +---+ | i | | n | | s | +---+ +---+ +---+ +---------+ +---------+ | i n, in | | i s, is | +---------+ +---------+ +----+ +----+ | in | | is | +----+ +----+ Am I in? No. He is in. [Illustration] +---+ +---+ +---+ | i | | f | | t | +---+ +---+ +---+ +---------+ +---------+ | i f, if | | i t, it | +---------+ +---------+ +----+ +----+ | if | | it | +----+ +----+ Is it he? It is he. It is in. [Illustration] +---+ +---+ +---+ | o | | n | | f | +---+ +---+ +---+ +---------+ +---------+ | o n, on | | o f, of | +---------+ +---------+ +----+ +----+ | on | | of | +----+ +----+ I am on it, he is in it. [Illustration] +---+ +---+ +---+ | o | | r | | x | +---+ +---+ +---+ +---------+ +---------+ | o r, or | | o x, ox | +---------+ +---------+ +----+ +----+ | or | | ox | +----+ +----+ It is an ox, he is my ox. [Illustration] +---+ +---+ +---+ | u | | p | | s | +---+ +---+ +---+ +---------+ +---------+ | u p, up | | u s, us | +---------+ +---------+ +----+ +----+ | up | | us | +----+ +----+ Lo, it is up. He is up. [Illustration] +---+ +---+ +---+ | c | | v | | z | +---+ +---+ +---+ +---+ +---+ +---+ | j | | k | | q | +---+ +---+ +---+ Ye do go. We go so. We do go on. We do so. [Illustration] +-----------+ +-----------+ | b ee, bee | | s ee, see | +-----------+ +-----------+ +-----------+ +-----------+ | sh e, she | | th e, the | +-----------+ +-----------+ +-----+ +-----+ +-----+ +-----+ | bee | | see | | she | | the | +-----+ +-----+ +-----+ +-----+ It is a bee. See the bee. +-----+-------+-------+-----+ | am | | an | +-----+[Illustration] +----+ | at | | ax | +-----+ +-----+ | if | | in | +-----+ +-----+ | is | | it | +-----+-------+-------+-----+ | of | on | or | ox | +-----+-------+-------+-----+ | up | us | by | my | +-----+-------+-------+-----+ | go | no | lo | so | +-----+-------+-------+-----+ | be | he | me | we | +-----+-------+-------+-----+ | ye | to | do | as | +-----+-------+-------+-----+ | bee | see | the | she | +-----+-------+-------+-----+ [Illustration] +-----+-----+-----+ | her | run | can | +-----+-----+-----+ I am on it. Ye go on. We go on. It is on. It is up. See me go on. She is up. He is on. She is by me. I see it. See her go. I can see it run. [Illustration] +-----+-----+-----+ | cat | hen | egg | +-----+-----+-----+ It is a hen. We can see the hen. A hen can eat. The hen can go. A hen can see. She is up. See her go on. It is my hen. We can eat the egg of a hen. [Illustration] +-----+-----+-----+ | boy | and | dog | +-----+-----+-----+ The boy and his dog. It is my dog. See me and my dog. The dog is by me. He can run, and so can I run. The dog can eat. I am to go, and my dog is to go. [Illustration] +-----+-----+-----+ | man | bag | put | +-----+-----+-----+ I see a man and a bag. He can put the bag in. The man can do it. I am in. She is in. Put the bag in, so we can go on. Kate is in, and she is to go. The man is to go. +------+------+--------+-------+ | bind | will | things | all | +------+------+--------+-------+ | him | flat | great | sit | +------+------+--------+-------+ | not | hold | small | yet | +------+------+--------+-------+ | old | feed | kind | how | +------+------+--------+-------+ | wet | tree | loves | close | +------+------+--------+-------+ | but | skin | home | draw | +------+------+--------+-------+ | may | this | with | like | +------+------+--------+-------+ | get | load | once | full | +------+------+--------+-------+ | for | glad | more | good | +------+------+--------+-------+ | sky | fly | side | now | +------+------+--------+-------+ | put | way | who | get | +------+------+--------+-------+ [Illustration] +------+-----+------+ | doll | new | here | +------+-----+------+ Here is a doll. It is a new doll. The new doll is for Kate. Can the doll see? No, but we can see the doll. Kate is glad to get the new doll. [Illustration] +------+-------+------+ | look | mouth | poor | +------+-------+------+ Look at the cat. She has a bird in her mouth. She will eat the bird. Poor bird! it can not fly now. See the cat run. [Illustration] +------+------+------+ | rain | line | fish | +------+------+------+ Here is a man in the rain. He is by the tree. He will be wet to the skin. I see his line, but I do not see a fish yet. Look at him! How close he is now to the old tree. [Illustration] +-------+------+-----+ | skate | sled | ice | +-------+------+-----+ Jane is on the ice. She can skate. Kate can not skate, but she may sit on the sled. John can skate and draw her on the sled. [Illustration] +-------+-------+------+ | horse | white | ride | +-------+-------+------+ See Grace ride on her white horse. It is good for her to ride. The dog is glad to run by her side. [Illustration] +------+------+------+ | boat | pond | sail | +------+------+------+ See the boat sail on the pond. It is a flat boat. I see a man sit on the side. The boat is full. [Illustration] +-----+-------+------+ | rye | field | cart | +-----+-------+------+ Here is Jane in a field; her dog is with her. The men load the cart with rye. A man is on the cart. [Illustration] +-------+------+------+ | tries | does | calf | +-------+------+------+ Look at the great boy; see him hold the calf. The small boy tries to feed the calf, but the calf will not eat; he does not like this new way. The calf is a great pet. [Illustration] +--------+------+-------+ | points | asks | gives | +--------+------+-------+ Here is Kate once more. She points up to the sky, and asks if it is the home of God, who is so good and kind to all, who loves us, and gives us all things. 
4983	----	This eBook was produced by Jim Weiler, xooqi.com. Slips of Speech A helpful book for everyone who aspires to correct the everyday errors of speaking and writing. __________________________________________ By JOHN H. BECHTEL Author of "Practical Synonyms," "Pronunciation," etc. Philadelphia The Penn Publishing Company 1901 ______________ COPYRIGHT 1895 BY THE PENN PUBLISHING COMPANY ______________ CONTENTS CHAP. PAGE INTRODUCTION, . . . . . . . . . . . 3 I. TASTE, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 II. CHOICE OF WORDS, . . . . . . . . . . 15 III. CONTRACTIONS, . . . . . . . . . . . 118 IV. POSSESSIVE CASE, . . . . . . . . . . 124 V. PRONOUNS, . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 VI. NUMBER, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 VII. ADVERBS, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 VIII. CONJUNCTIONS, . . . . . . . . . . . 156 IX. CORRELATIVES, . . . . . . . . . . . 162 X. THE INFINITIVE, . . . . . . . . . . 166 XI. PARTICIPLES, . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 XII. PREPOSITIONS, . . . . . . . . . . . 174 XIII. THE ARTICLE, . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 XIV. REDUNDANCY, . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 XV. TWO NEGATIVES, . . . . . . . . . . . 194 XVI. ACCORDANCE OF VERB WITH SUBJECT, . . 198 _________________________________________________________________ 3 INTRODUCTION _______ Homer, in all probability, knew no rules of rhetoric, and was not tortured with the consideration of grammatical construction, and yet his verse will endure through time. If everybody possessed the genius of Homer, rules and cautions in writing would be unnecessary. To-day all men speak, and most men write, but it is observed that those who most closely follow Homer's method of writing without rules are most unlike Homer in the results. The ancient bard was a law unto himself; we need rules for our guidance. Rules of writing are the outgrowth of the study of the characteristics and qualities of style which distinguish the best writers from those of inferior skill and ability. Grammarians and rhetoricians, according to their several lines of investigation, set forth the laws and principles governing speech, and formulate rules whereby we may follow the true, and avoid the false. Grammar and rhetoric, as too often presented in the schools, are such uninviting studies that when _________________________________________________________________ 4 school-days are ended, the books are laid aside, and are rarely consulted afterward. The custom of formally burning the text-books after the final examinations-- a custom that prevails in some institutions-- is but an emphatic method of showing how the students regard the subjects treated in the books. If all the rules and principles had been thoroughly mastered, the huge bonfire of text-books in grammar and rhetoric might be regarded a fitting celebration of the students' victory over the difficulties of "English undefiled." But too often these rules are merely memorized by the student for the purpose of recitation, and are not engrafted upon his everyday habit of speech. They are, therefore, soon forgotten, and the principles involved are subject to daily violation. Hence arises the need of books like SLIPS OF SPEECH, in which the common faults of speakers and writers are pointed out, and the correct use of words shown. Brief and informal in treatment, they will be read and consulted when the more voluminous text-books will be left untouched. The copious index appended to this volume will afford a ready reference to the many subjects discussed, and will contribute greatly to the convenience and permanent value of the book. _________________________________________________________________ 5 _________________________________________________________________ 6 _________________________________________________________________ 7 SLIPS OF SPEECH "We should be as careful of our words as of our actions."-- CICERO. CHAPTER I Taste Taste is a universal gift. It has been found in some degree in all nations, races, and ages. It is shown by the savage in his love of personal decoration; by the civilized man in his love of art. But while it is thus universal, it is as different among men as their faces, complexions, characters, or languages. Even among people of the same nation, it is as different as the degrees of society. The same individual at different periods of life, shows this variableness of taste. These diversities of taste imply a susceptibility to improvement. Good taste in writing forms no exception to the rule. While it seems to require some basis in nature, no degree of inborn aptitude will compensate for the lack of careful training. To give his natural taste firmness and fineness a writer needs to read the best literature, not merely so _________________________________________________________________ 8 as to know it, but so as to feel the beauty, the fitness, the charm, the strength, the delicacy of a well-chosen word. The study of the proper arrangement and the most effective expression of our thoughts prompts us to think more accurately. So close is the connection between the thought and its expression that looseness of style in speaking and writing may nearly always be traced to indistinctness and feebleness in the grasp of the subject. No degree of polish in expression will compensate for inadequacy of knowledge. But with the fullest information upon any subject, there is still room for the highest exercise of judgment and good sense in the proper choice and arrangement of the thoughts, and of the words with which to express them. The concurrent testimony of those best qualified to render a decision, has determined what authors reflect the finest literary taste, and these writers should be carefully studied by all who aspire to elegance, accuracy, and strength in literary expression. Fine Writing Never hesitate to call a spade a spade. One of the most frequent violations of good taste consists in the effort to dress a common subject in high-sounding language. The ass in the fable showed his stupidity _________________________________________________________________ 9 when he put on the lion's skin and expected the other animals to declare him to be the king of beasts. The distinction of a subject lies in its own inherent character, and no pompous parade of words will serve to exalt a commonplace theme. Poetic Terms In the expression of homely ideas and the discussion of affairs of every-day life, avoid such poetic forms as o'er for over, ne'er for never, 'mid for amid, e'en for even, 'gan for began, 'twixt for betwixt, 'neath for beneath, list for listen, oft for often, morn for morning, eve for evening, e'er for ever, ere for before, 'tis for it is, 'twas for it was. In all prose composition, avoid such poetic forms as swain, wight, mead, brake, dingle, dell, zephyr. Foreign Words The unrestrained use of foreign words, whether from the ancient or from the modern languages, savors of pedantry and affectation. The ripest scholars, in speaking and writing English, make least use of foreign words or phrases. Persons who indulge in their use incur the risk of being charged with a desire to exhibit their linguistic attainments. On the other hand, occasions arise when the use of words from a foreign tongue by one who is thoroughly _________________________________________________________________ 10 familiar with them, will add both grace and exactness to his style. Rarely use a foreign term when your meaning can be as well expressed in English. Instead of blase, use surfeited, or wearied; for cortege use procession for couleur de rose, rose-color; for dejeuner, breakfast; for employe, employee; for en route, on the way; for entre nous, between ourselves; for fait accompli, an accomplished fact; for in toto, wholly, entirely; for penchant, inclination; for raison d'etre, reason for existence; for recherche, choice, refined; for role, part; for soiree dansante, an evening dancing party; for sub rosa, secretly, etc. The following incident from the Detroit Free Press is in point: The gentleman from the West pulled his chair up to the hotel table, tucked his napkin under his chin, picked up the bill-of-fare and began to study it intently. Everything was in restaurant French, and he didn't like it. "Here, waiter," he said, sternly, "there's nothing on this I want." "Ain't there nothin' else you would like for dinner, sir?" inquired the waiter, politely. "Have you got any sine qua non?" The waiter gasped. "No, sir," he replied. _________________________________________________________________ 11 "Got any bon mots?" "N-- no, sir." "Got any semper idem?" "No, sir, we hain't." "Got any jeu d'esprits?" "No, sir; not a one." "Got any tempus fugit?" "I reckon not, sir." "Got any soiree dansante?" "No, sir." The waiter was edging off. "Got any sine die?" "We hain't, sir." "Got any e pluribus unum?" The waiter's face showed some sign of intelligence. "Seems like I heard ob dat, sir," and he rushed out to the kitchen, only to return empty-handed. "We ain't got none, sir," he said, in a tone of disappointment. "Got any mal de mer?" "N-- no, sir." The waiter was going to pieces fast. The gentleman from the West, was as serene as a May morning. "Got any vice versa?" he inquired again. The waiter could only shake his head. _________________________________________________________________ 12 "No? Well, maybe you've got some bacon and cabbage, and a corn dodger?" "'Deed we have, sir," exclaimed the waiter, in a tone of the utmost relief, and he fairly flew out to the kitchen. Trite Expressions Words and phrases which may once have been striking and effective, or witty and felicitous, but which have become worn out by oft-repeated use, should be avoided. The following hackneyed phrases will serve to illustrate: "The staff of life," "gave up the ship," "counterfeit presentment," "the hymeneal altar," "bold as a lion," "throw cold water upon," "the rose upon the cheek," "lords of creation," "the weaker sex," "the better half," "the rising generation," "tripping the light fantastic toe," "the cup that cheers but does not inebriate," "in the arms of Morpheus," "the debt of nature," "the bourne whence no traveler returns," "to shuffle off this mortal coil," "the devouring element," "a brow of alabaster." Pet Words Avoid pet words, whether individual, provincial, or national in their use. Few persons are entirely free from the overuse of certain words. Young people largely employ such words as delightful, delicious, _________________________________________________________________ 13 exquisite, and other expressive adjectives, which constitute a kind of society slang. Overworked Expressions Words and phrases are often taken up by writers and speakers, repeated, and again taken up by others, and thus their use enlarges in ever-widening circles until the expressions become threadbare. Drop them before they have reached that state. Function, environment, trend, the masses, to be in touch with, to voice the sentiments of-- these are enough to illustrate the kind of words referred to. Very Vulgar Vulgarisms No one who has any regard for purity of diction and the proprieties of cultivated society will be guilty of the use of such expressions as yaller for yellow, feller for fellow, kittle for kettle, kiver for cover, ingons for onions, cowcumbers for cucumbers, sparrowgrass for asparagus, yarbs for herbs, taters for potatoes, tomats for tomatoes, bile for boil, hain't for ain't or isn't, het for heated, kned for kneaded, sot for sat or set, teeny for tiny, fooling you for deceiving you, them for those, shut up for be quiet, or be still, or cease speaking, went back on me for deceived me or took advantage of me, a power of people for a great many _________________________________________________________________ 14 people, a power of money for great wealth, a heap of houses for many houses, lots of books for many books, lots of corn for much corn or large quantities of corn, gents for gentlemen, and many others of a similar character. _________________________________________________________________ 15 CHAPTER II Choice of Words Our American writers evince much variety in their graces of diction, but in the accurate choice of words James Russell Lowell and William Cullen Bryant stand out conspicuous above the rest. So careful and persistent was the latter, that during the time that he was editor of The Evening Post, of New York City, he required the various writers upon that paper to avoid the use of a long list of words and expressions which he had prepared for them, and which were commonly employed by other papers. This list was not only used, but enlarged by his successors. Strive to cultivate the habit of observing words; trace their delicate shades of meaning as employed by the most polished writers; note their suggestiveness; mark the accuracy with which they are chosen. In this way your mind will be kept on the alert to discover the beauties as well as the blemishes of all the thought pictures that are presented, and your vocabulary will be greatly enlarged and enriched. _________________________________________________________________ 16 BRYANT'S LIST OF OBJECTIONABLE EXPRESSIONS Above, and over, use more than. Artiste, use artist. Aspirant. Authoress Beat, use defeat. Bagging, use capturing. Balance, use remainder. Banquet, use dinner or supper. Bogus. Casket, use coffin. Claimed, use asserted. Collided. Commence, use begin. Compete. Cortege, use procession. Cotemporary, use contemporary. Couple, use two. Darkey, use negro. Day before yesterday, use the day before yesterday. Debut. Decease, as a verb. Democracy, applied to a political party. Develop, use expose. Devouring element, use fire. Donate. Employe. Enacted, use acted. Endorse, use approve. En route. Esq. Graduate, use is graduated. Gents, use gentlemen. Hon. House, use House of Representatives. Humbug. Inaugurate, use begin. In our midst. Item, use particle, extract, or paragraph. Is being done, and all similar passive forms. Jeopardize. Jubilant, use rejoicing. _________________________________________________________________ 17 Juvenile, use boy. Lady, use wife. Last, use latest. Lengthy, use long. Leniency, use lenity. Loafer. Loan, or loaned, use lend or lent. Located. Majority, use most. Mrs. President. Mrs. Governor. Mrs. General. Mutual, use common. Official, use officer. Ovation. On yesterday. Over his signature. Pants, use pantaloons. Parties, use persons. Partially, use partly. Past two weeks, use last two weeks. Poetess. Portion, use part. Posted, use informed. Progress, use advance. Quite, when prefixed to good, large, etc. Raid, use attack. Realized, use obtained. Reliable, use trustworthy. Rendition, use performance. Repudiate, use reject or disown. Retire, as an active verb.v Rev., use the Rev. Role, use part. Roughs. Rowdies. Secesh. Sensation, use noteworthy event. Standpoint, use point of view. Start, in the sense of setting out. State, use say. Taboo. Talent, use talents or ability. Talented. Tapis. The deceased. War, use dispute or disagreement. _________________________________________________________________ 18 STILTS Avoid bombastic language. Work for plain expressions rather than for the unusual. Use the simplest words that the subject will bear. The following clipping, giving an account of the commencement exercises of a noted female college, strikingly illustrates what to avoid: "Like some beacon-light upon a rock-bound coast against which the surges of the ocean unceasingly roll, and casting its beams far across the waters warning the mariner from the danger near, the college, like a Gibraltar, stands upon the high plains of learning, shedding its rays of knowledge, from the murmurings of the Atlantic to the whirlwinds of the Pacific, guiding womankind from the dark valley of ignorance, and wooing her with wisdom's lore, leads creation's fairest, purest, best into flowery dells where she can pluck the richest food of knowledge, and crowns her brow with a coronet of gems whose brilliancy can never grow dim: for they glisten with the purest thought, that seems as a spark struck from the mind of Deity. There is no need for the daughters of this community to seek colleges of distant climes whereat to be educated, for right here in their own city, God's paradise on earth, is situated a noble college, the bright diadem of that paradise, that has done more for the higher education of woman than any institution in our land." _________________________________________________________________ 19 PURITY An author's diction is pure when he uses such words only as belong to the idiom of the language. The only standard of purity is the practice of the best writers and speakers. A violation of purity is called a barbarism. Unlike the Latin, Greek, or Hebrew, the English is a living language, and, like all living organisms, manifests its life by taking in new material and casting off old waste continually. Science, art, and philosophy give rise to new ideas which, in turn, demand new words for their expression. Of these, some gain a permanent foothold, while others float awhile upon the currents of conversation and newspaper literature and then disappear. Good usage is the only real authority in the choice of reputable words; and to determine, in every case, what good usage dictates, is not an easy matter. Authors, like words, must be tested by time before their forms of expression may become a law for others. Pope, in his Essay on Criticism, laid down a rule which, for point and brevity, has never been excelled: "In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold; Alike fantastic, if too new or old; Be not the first by whom the new are tried, Nor yet the last to lay the old aside." _________________________________________________________________ 20 BARBARISMS Campbell, in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, says that a word to be legitimate must have these three signs of authority: 1. It must be reputable, or that of educated people, as opposed to that of the ignorant or vulgar. 2. It must be national, as opposed to what is either local or technical. 3. It must be present, as opposed to what is obsolete. Any word that does not have these three qualities may, in general, be styled a barbarism. ANGLICIZED WORDS Many foreign words, in process of time, become so thoroughly domesticated that their translation, or the use of an awkward equivalent, would be a greater mark of pedantry than the use of the foreign words. The proper use of such terms as fiat, palladium, cabal, quorum, omnibus, antique, artiste, coquette, ennui, physique, regime, tableau, amateur, cannot be censured on the ground of their foreign character. OBSOLETE WORDS Some writers affect an antiquated style by the introduction of such words as peradventure, perchance, _________________________________________________________________ 21 anon, behest, quoth, erewhile. The use of such words gives a strange sound to the sentence, and generally indicates that the writer is not thoroughly in earnest. The expression is lowered in tone and is made to sound fantastic. NEW WORDS A word should not be condemned because it is new. If it is really needed it will be welcomed, and soon find a permanent place. Shakespeare, Addison, and Johnson introduced many new words, to which their names afterward gave a sanction. Carlyle, Coleridge, Tennyson, and Browning have introduced or given currency to new words, and made strange ones familiar. New words are objectionable when they are employed without proper authority. The chief sources of supply of the objectionable kind are the current slang of the street and the sensational newspaper. They are often the result of a desire to say things in such a manner as to reflect smartness upon the speaker, or to present things in a humorous or picturesque way. That they are frequently very effective cannot be gainsaid. Sometimes they are coined in the heat of political or social discussion, and, for a time, express what everybody is talking about; but it is impossible to tell whether they will live beyond _________________________________________________________________ 22 the occasion that produced them. So long as their usage is doubtful it is safer not to employ them. SLANG Slang is somewhat like chicken-pox or measles, very catching, and just as inevitable in its run; and very few of us escape it. It is severest, too, where the sanitary conditions are most favorable to its development. Where there is least thought and culture to counteract its influence slang words crowd out those of a more serious character, until, in time, the young and inexperienced speaker or writer is unable to distinguish between the counterfeit and the genuine. While most persons condemn slang, there are very few who are entirely free from its use. It varies greatly in its degrees of coarseness or refinement, and adapts itself to all classes and conditions. Many know no other language, and we are unwillingly compelled to admit that while their speech is often ungrammatical and unrhetorical, it is generally clear, concise, and forcible. Strive to acquire a vocabulary so large and to cultivate a taste so fine that when a slang expression rises to your mind you can use it if you think it best fits the occasion, or substitute something better in its place. Purity of diction is a garden of slow growth even under the most favorable conditions, and the _________________________________________________________________ 23 unrestrained indulgence in slang is like scattering seeds of the vilest plants among the choicest flowers. SOCIETY SLANG "This is an elegant day," "that is an elegant view," "Mary is awfully nice," "Jennie is dreadfully sweet," "Gertrude is delicious," and "Tom is perfectly splendid." The use of such extravagant phrases tends to weaken the significance of the words when legitimately employed. COMMERCIAL SLANG Commercial terms are employed in the common language of everyday life to such an extent as to constitute a form of commercial slang. The following will serve for illustration; "The balance of the journey" for remainder, "he was well posted." for well informed, "I calculate he will come to-morrow" for believe or think, "I reckon he is your friend" for I suppose. COMMON SLANG To materialize, to burglarize, to enthuse, to suicide, to wire, to jump upon, to sit upon, to take in, are a few of the many examples of slang that should be avoided. _________________________________________________________________ 24 PROVINCIALISMS A word that is used only in a limited part of the country is called a provincialism. It must be known and recognized for what it is worth, but not obtruded where it does not belong. Whatever may be said of the faults of speech of the American people, it is doubtful if any other nation, whether it covers a large territory or is limited in area, speaks the language native to the country with the uniformity that we do. Yet, there are peculiarities that mark the expression of most of our people, even among the best informed. The words calculate, reckon, and guess are not the only words that betray the locality of the speaker. Any person who has been five hundred miles from home cannot fail to have observed words that were used differently from the way in which he had been accustomed to use them, and he probably heard terms of expression that seemed strange to him. In like manner, his own expressions sounded strange to those who heard him. That which distinguished his speech from theirs and theirs from his would, in large part, be covered by the word "provincialism." Not only do we have local and sectional peculiarities of speech, but we may be said to have national mannerisms. Mr. Alexander Melville Bell, the eminent _________________________________________________________________ 25 elocutionist, relates that some years ago when residing in Edinburgh, a stranger called to make some inquiries in regard to professional matters. "I have called on you, sir, for the purpose of," etc. "When did you cross the Atlantic?" I asked. The stranger looked up with surprise amounting almost to consternation. "How do you know that I have crossed the Atlantic?" "Your manner of using the little word 'sir' is not heard in England or Scotland." This gentleman, Mr. Bell says, was one of the most eminent teachers of elocution in America, and his speech was perfectly free from ordinary local coloring, in all but the one little element which had escaped observation. WHICH? Much diversity of usage exists and some difference of opinion prevails concerning the proper expression to use when you are addressed, and fail to understand just what has been said. Such interrogative rejoinders as "What?" "How?" "Which?" "Hey?" are plainly objectionable. "Sir?" and "Madam!" once common, are no longer tolerated in society. The English expression "Beg pardon" has found favor, but it is not wholly acceptable. "Excuse me" _________________________________________________________________ 26 is suggested by a writer on the subject. It has no more syllables than "Beg pardon," and is nearly equivalent in signification, but it is also subject to the objection that it is often used to imply a difference of opinion, as when a person makes a statement to which you take exception, you begin your reply with the expression, "Excuse me." Whatever is adopted will doubtless be a convenient contraction, like "Beg pardon," which is a short way of saying, "I beg your pardon for failing to understand what you said;" or "Excuse me," which is a condensation of "Excuse me for not fully grasping your meaning." WORDS IMPROPERLY USED Commodious--Convenient A word of caution in the use of the smaller dictionaries is necessary. The most elaborate definition often fails to give an adequate idea of the signification of a term unless it is accompanied with one or more quotations illustrating its use. The small dictionaries give only the briefest definitions, without illustration, and therefore should be interpreted with caution. Some years ago a young man of moderate attainments was very desirous of enlarging his vocabulary _________________________________________________________________ 27 and of using words beyond the ordinary vernacular of his neighborhood. To this end, he made a small vest-pocket lexicon his constant companion. Having consulted it in the course of a conversation with a friend, he remarked, as he was about to return it to his pocket, "What a commodious book this is." His friend suggested that he again consult the "commodious" volume. With a look of the utmost confidence he turned to the word, and exclaimed: "There! I knew I was right. Commodious means convenient, and that is just what this little book is." It was useless to explain that smallness sometimes renders a thing inconvenient, and this young man, doubtless, still felicitates himself upon his intimate acquaintance with that commodious pocket dictionary. Ability, Capacity A fond mother was told by the principal of a boarding-school that her daughter would not be graduated, as she lacked capacity. "Get her a capacity. Her father don't stand on the matter of expense. Get her anything she wants. He'll foot the bill." But for once the indulgent mother was obliged to learn that there are some things money will not purchase. The father had the financial ability, but the daughter lacked the necessary intellectual capacity. _________________________________________________________________ 28 But we may have literary as well as financial ability. Ability implies the power of doing; capacity the faculty of receiving. About, Almost "This work is about done." Use "almost done." Acceptance, Acceptation These words cannot be used interchangeably. "He wrote signifying his acceptance of the office." "According to the common acceptation of this term, he is a knave." Access, Accession "He gained access to the fort." "The only accession, which the Roman empire received was the province of Britain." Accident, Injury Accident is sometimes used incorrectly for injury. as "His accident was very painful." Mutual, Common Some men seek to be great by copying great men's faults. Dickens may say "Our Mutual Friend," but Dickens's strong point was not grammar. If you have a friend in common with Smith, in speaking of him to Smith, say our common friend. The word mutual should always convey a sense of reciprocity, as "Happy in our mutual help and mutual love." _________________________________________________________________ 29 Myself This word is generally used for emphasis, as "I myself will do it," "I wrote it myself." It should not be used for the unemphatic pronouns I and me, as in "James and myself are going to town," "He gave the books to James and myself." It is properly used with a reflexive verb without emphasis, as "I will defend myself." Negligence, Neglect Negligence is the habit, neglect the act, of leaving things undone. The adjectives negligent and neglectful should, in like manner, be discriminated. Never, Not The word never is sometimes colloquially used for not, as "I never remember to have seen Lincoln." Say "I do not remember," etc. Never should not be used in reference to events that can take place but once, as "Warren never died at Lexington." Love, Like We may love our parents, our children, our country, the truth; and we may like roast turkey and cranberry sauce. "I love cherries," "I adore strawberries," are school-girl expressions that should be avoided. Love is an emotion of the heart, and not of the palate. _________________________________________________________________ 30 Cheap, Low-priced These words are often used synonymously. A picture purchased for ten thousand dollars may be cheap; another, for which ten dollars was paid, although low-priced, may be dear. Mad, Angry The frequent use of mad in the sense of angry should be avoided. A person who is insane is mad. A dog that has hydrophobia is mad. Figuratively we say mad, with rage, mad with terror, mad with pain; but to be vexed, or angry, or out of patience, does not justify the use of so strong a term as mad. Most, Almost, Very Sometimes incorrectly used for almost, as "He writes to me most every week." It is often loosely used in the sense of very, as "This is a most interesting book." Aim to use most only as the superlative of much, or many. Do not use the indefinite article before it, as "This is a most beautiful picture." We may say "This is the most beautiful picture," for here comparison is implied. Portion, Part "Give me the portion of goods that falleth to me." "We traveled a part of the distance on foot." Portion is applied to that which is set aside for a special _________________________________________________________________ 31 purpose, often as the share or allotment of an individual, as the wife's portion, the portion of the oldest son, etc. Part is a more general term. Postal Bryant would not have said, "I will send you a postal by to-morrow's mail." Postal card or post card would be better. Practical, Practicable These words are sometimes confounded. Practicable means "that may be done or accomplished," and implies that the means or resources are available; as, a practicable road, a practicable aim. Practical means "capable of being turned to use or account;" as, "The practical man begins by doing; the theorist often ends by thinking." Predicate This word is sometimes incorrectly used in the sense of form or base; as, "He predicated his statement on the information he had just received." Neither should it be used in the sense of predict; as, "The sky is overcast, and I predicate a storm tomorrow." Prefer--than "I prefer to walk than to ride." Say "I prefer walking to riding;" or, "I would rather walk than _________________________________________________________________ 32 ride." "To skate is preferable than to coast." Say "Skating is preferable to coasting." Amount, Number Amount applies to what is thought of in the mass or bulk, as money, wheat, coal. Number is used when we think of the individuals composing the mass, as men, books, horses, vessels. Answer, Reply An answer implies a question. We may reply to a remark or assertion. A reply is more formal than an answer. Antagonize, Alienate, Oppose The word antagonize should not be used in the sense of alienate; as, "Your proposition will antagonize many supporters of the measure." "The Senate opposed the bill which passed the House" is better than "antagonized the bill." Anticipate, Expect "The arrival of the President was hourly anticipated" is pompous. Use expected. Any, At all "He was so far from the speaker's platform that he could not hear any." Better "that he could not hear," or "hear at all," or "hear what was said." _________________________________________________________________ 33 Apparent, Evident These words are often used interchangeably. That which is apparent may be what it appears to be, or it may be very different; that which is evident admits of no doubt. The same is true of apparently and evidently. Prejudice "He is not the best person for the position, but his many kindnesses to me prejudice me in his favor." We may be prejudiced against a person or thing, but cannot be prejudiced in favor. Use predispose. Presume This word is often employed when think, believe, or daresay would be better. Pretend, Profess "I do not pretend to be an orator." Pretend means to feign, to sham; as, "He pretends to be asleep," and should not be used when claim or profess would better suit the purpose. Preventative The correct form of the word is preventive, not preventative. Previous, Previously The adjective previous is often incorrectly used for the adverb previously; as, "Previous to his imprisonment he made a confession of his crime." _________________________________________________________________ 34 Promise, Assure "I promise you we had a good time yesterday." Promise relates to the future, hence "I assure you," etc., would be better. Propose, Purpose To propose is to set before the mind for consideration; to purpose is to intend. "I propose sending my son to college" should be "I purpose," etc. "I propose that you go to college, my son." "Thank you, father, I accept the proposal." Sparrowgrass, Asparagus The word sparrowgrass, which is a corruption of the word asparagus, illustrates how readily the uneducated mind associates an unusual term with another that is familiar, and as the mental impression is received through the ear, and lacks that definiteness which the printed form would give, the new idea, when repeated, often assumes a picturesque, if not a ludicrous, form. Many of Mrs. Partington's quaint sayings furnish further illustration. The following incident, from a Western paper, shows the successive stages in the farmer's mental operations from the familiar terms skin, hide, oxhide, up to the unfamiliar chemical term oxide, through which he was obliged to pass before he succeeded in making known his wants: _________________________________________________________________ 35 The man was in a brown study when he went into the drug store. "What can we do for you?" inquired the clerk. "I want black-- something of something," he said; "have you got any?" "Probably we have," replied the clerk, "but you'll have to be more definite than that to get it." The farmer thought for a moment. "Got any black sheepskin of something?" he asked. "No; we don't keep sheepskins. We have chamois-skins, though." "That ain't it, I know," said the customer. "Got any other kind of skins?" "No." "Skins-- skins-- skins!" slowly repeated the man, struggling with his slippery memory. "Calfskin seems to be something like it. Got any black calfskins of anything?" "No, not one," and the clerk laughed. The customer grew red in the face. "Confound it!" he said, "if it ain't a skin, what in thunder is it?" "Possibly it's a hide?" suggested the clerk. "That's it! That's it!" exclaimed the man. "Have you got any black hides of something or anything?" _________________________________________________________________ 36 The clerk shook his head sadly as the man tramped up and down the store. "Got any black cowhide of anything?" he asked, after a moment's thought. The clerk's face showed a gleam of intelligence, and then broke into a smile. "Possibly it's black oxide of manganese you want?" he said, quietly. "Of course, that's it!" he exclaimed, as he threw his arms around the clerk's neck. "I knowed blamed well there was a skin or hide or something somewhere about the thing," and he calmed down quietly and waited for what he wanted. Accord, Give "They accorded him due praise." "They gave him the desired information." Act, Action "The best portion of a good man's life is his little, nameless, unremembered acts of kindness and of love." "Suit the action to the word." Action suggests the operation; act, the accomplished result. Adherence, Adhesion These words were once interchangeable, but are now distinct. Adhesion relates to physical bodies; adherence to mental states. _________________________________________________________________ 37 Adopt, Take "What course will you take?" is better than "What course will you adopt?" Affect, Effect These words are sometimes confounded. "The climate affected their health." "They sailed away without effecting their purpose." Aggravate, Exasperate To aggravate means to intensify, to make worse; to exasperate means to provoke, to irritate. "To aggravate the horrors of the scene." "His remarks exasperated me." "His conduct aggravates me" should be "His conduct annoys (or displeases, or irritates, or exasperates) me." Alleviate, Relieve These words differ chiefly in degree. The latter is the stronger word. Proposal, Proposition A proposition implies consideration or discussion; a proposal contemplates acceptance or rejection. "Your proposition to build our new warehouse has received favorable consideration, and we are ready to receive your proposals." Providing, Provided "You may go to skate, providing you first finish your task." Incorrect. You should say provided. _________________________________________________________________ 38 Proved, Proven Proven is sometimes incorrectly used for proved. "The evidence was complete and his guilt was fully proved." Not proven is a legal term used in England to denote that the guilt of the accused is not made out, though not disproved. Quantity, Number Quantity refers to the how much; number to the how many. "He purchased a large quantity of wheat, corn, apples, lime, and sand, and a number of houses, stores, chairs, and books." It is, therefore, incorrect to say, "There was a large quantity of bicycles in the yard," "He sold a large quantity of books at auction." Quite a few In some parts of the country this expression is in common use in the sense of many, a large number, etc. "How many people were at church to-day?" "Quite a few," meaning a considerable number. Commence, Begin Some persons always commence, but never begin. The tendency toward pomp and parade in speech prompts many persons to avoid the use of our strong, rugged Anglo-Saxon words, and to substitute their high-sounding Latin equivalents, until, in time, the preferable native forms come to be regarded as _________________________________________________________________ 39 commonplace and objectionable. American usage is more faulty than English in this regard. Use begin and beginning more, and commence and, commencement less. Complete, Finished There is a distinction in the use of these words that is not always observed. Complete signifies nothing lacking, every element and part being supplied. That which is finished has had all done to it that was intended. A vessel may be finished and yet be incomplete. Conclusion, End The more pretentious word conclusion is often used where the simple Anglo-Saxon word end would be preferable. Conscious, Aware "He was aware of the enemy's designs." "Conscious of his fate, he boldly approached the furious beast." Conscious relates to what is within our own mind; aware to what is without. Continual, Continuous Continuous implies uninterrupted, unbroken. Continual relates to acts that are frequently repeated. "The continuous ride is often finished in five hours, but owing to continual delays we were eight hours on the way." _________________________________________________________________ 40 Convict, Convince The Irishman who brandished his club and, exclaimed that he was open to conviction, but he would like to see the man that could convince him, used a form of argument that was most convincing, but failed in his discrimination of language. Convict refers to the outer condition, and generally applies to something wrong; convince, which may be used of either right or wrong, refers to the judgment. Custom, Habit Habit is a tendency which leads us to do easily; custom grows out of the habitual doing or frequent repetition of the same act. Custom refers to the usages of society, or of the individual; habit refers more frequently to the individual acts. "Ill habits gather by unseen degrees." "Man yields to custom as he bows to fate, In all things ruled-- mind, body, and estate." Want, Need These words are often used interchangeably, but should be discriminated. Need implies the lack; want also implies the lack, but couples with it the wish to supply the lack. "Some men need help, but will not ask for it; others want help (that is, they need help, or think they do, and ask for it) and get it, too." _________________________________________________________________ 41 Way, Away "He is way down in Florida," is incorrect. "He is away down in Florida" is better grammar. "He is in Florida" is still better. Down indicates the direction, and away magnifies the distance. As most persons know the direction, and as modern railway travel shortens long distances, the abbreviated sentence is sufficiently full. Ways, Way "He is a long ways from home" is a very common, but faulty expression. Say "Uncle Charles is now a long way on his journey." "The boat is a good way off the shore." Whole, All "The whole of the scholars went to the fair to-day." "All of the school went to the fair to-day." The sentences will be improved by transposing whole and all. "All of the scholars went to the fair to-day," not half of them. "The whole school went to the fair to-day," not a part of it. All refers to the individual scholars; whole to the school as a unit. Without, Unless "He cannot miss the way without he forgets my instructions." "I will not dig the potatoes without Tom comes to help." Use unless instead of without. _________________________________________________________________ 42 Worse, More "He dislikes arithmetic worse than grammar." Use more instead of worse. Rarely, Rare "It is rarely that you hear of a prodigal youth growing into an economical man." Rarely should be rare to form the adjective attribute of the verb. Real, Really Real is often incorrectly used as an adverb, especially by schoolgirls; as, "I think he is real mean." The grammar will be improved by substituting really for real, but the expression, as a whole, being applied to all kinds and degrees of offenses, has become meaningless. Real is often carelessly used in the sense of very; as real pretty, real bright, real kind. Recipe, Receipt A recipe is a formula for making some mixture or preparation of materials; a receipt is an acknowledgment of that which has been received. Region, Neighborhood Region is a broader and more comprehensive term, and should not be applied to the narrow limits of a neighborhood. _________________________________________________________________ 43 Remit, Send The word remit is often used when send would be better. Remit means to send back, to forgive, to relax. In its commercial sense it means to transmit or send money in payment of a demand; as, "He remitted the amount by mail." Residence, House This pretentious word is often used when house or home would be in better taste. Deface, Disfigure "The walls of many public buildings are defaced by persons who desire that their names shall remain when they are gone." "They disfigure their faces that they may appear unto men to fast." Disfigure applies more generally to persons; deface, to things. Demean, Degrade The word demean is often incorrectly used in the sense of degrade, lower. It should be used in the sense of behave, conduct, deport, and not in the sense of degrade. Depot, Station For many years the word depot was largely employed in the sense of a railway station. Its primary meaning is a warehouse or storehouse or military station. As applied to a stopping place for railroad trains the _________________________________________________________________ 44 English word station is greatly to be preferred to the French word depot, and is rapidly coming into general use in this country. Description, Kind "Flowers of every description were found in his garden." In the above sense the word kind or variety would be more appropriate. Bring, Fetch, Carry Bring implies motion from the object toward the person who issues the command or makes the request. Fetch implies two motions, first, toward the object; second, toward the person who wishes it. The gardener, who is in the garden, calls to his servant, who is at the barn, "John, bring me the rake. You will find it in the barn." And if John is with him in the garden, he would say, "John, fetch me the rake from the barn." The use of fetch is more common among English writers than with us. In fact, many speakers and writers in America rarely use the word. Carry is a more general term, and means to convey, without thought of the direction. Character, Reputation These words are often confounded. "Character," says Abbott, "is what a person is; reputation is what he is supposed to be. Character is in himself, _________________________________________________________________ 45 reputation is in the minds of others. Character is injured by temptations and by wrong-doing; reputation by slanders and libels. Character endures throughout defamation in every form, but perishes where there is a voluntary transgression; reputation may last through numerous transgressions, but be destroyed by a single, and even an unfounded, accusation or aspersion." Farther, Further Although these words are often used interchangeably even by good writers, yet a finer taste and a keener power of discrimination is shown in the use of farther when referring to literal distance, and of further in reference to quantity or degree; as, "Each day's journey removes them farther from home," "He concluded his speech by remarking that he had nothing further to say." Farther is the comparative of far; further is the comparative of forth. Fault, Defect Speakers and writers often fail to discriminate in the use of these words. A defect implies a deficiency, a lack, a falling short, while a fault signifies that there is something wrong. "Men still had faults, and men will have them still, He that hath none, and lives as angels do Must be an angel." _________________________________________________________________ 46 "It is in general more profitable to reckon up our defects than to boast of our attainments." Few, Little These words and their comparatives, fewer, less, are often confounded. Few relates to number, or to what may be counted; little refers to quantity, or to what may be measured. A man may have few books and little money; he may have fewer friends and less influence than his neighbor. But do not say "The man has less friends than his neighbor." Each other, One another While some excellent authorities use these expressions interchangeably, most grammarians and authors employ each other in referring to two persons or things, and one another when more than two are considered; as, "Both contestants speak kindly of each other." "Gentlemen are always polite to one another." Those who prefer to have wide latitude in speech will be glad to know that Murray, in one of the rules in his grammar, says, "Two negatives in English destroy one another." Shakespeare says, "It is a good divine that follows his own instructions. I can easier teach twenty what were good to be done, than be one of _________________________________________________________________ 47 the twenty to follow mine own teaching." This is as true of expression as of morals. Either, Neither "Palms and beautiful flowers lined the hall on either side," is a common but faulty form of expression. Either refers to one of two things. In the foregoing sentence the thought is that both sides of the hall were lined, hence the word both should have been used. If, however, each side of the hall is thought of separately, then each, would be the proper word to employ. "Either of the two books will please you." "Any of the three books will prove satisfactory." "Any one of the five men would make a good candidate." "Neither of the two men will serve." "None of the ten men were present." "Not one of all the houses was left standing." These sentences represent the best usage with regard to either, neither, and also of any, none, any one, not one. These kind Adjectives implying number must agree with the nouns which they qualify. This and that qualify nouns in the singular; these and those belong to nouns in the plural. "These kind of potatoes grow well in this soil." Use this. "This twenty years have I known him." _________________________________________________________________ 48 Use these. "The beam was two foot above my head," Use feet. "For this, among other reasons, I abandoned the profession." Say "For this reason, among others, I abandoned the profession." "He rides the bicycle daily, and by this means he preserves his health." "The partners were all honest, courteous, and industrious, and by these means acquired wealth." The word means being either singular or plural, the two preceding sentences are both correct. Some means or another "By some means or another he always gets the better part of the bargain." This sentence may be corrected by saying "one means or another," or "some means or other." Than After other, otherwise, else, or an adjective in the comparative degree, than should be used, and not but or except. "No other way but this was open to him." Use than. "History and philosophy cannot otherwise affect the mind but for its enlargement and benefit." Use than. "Flowers are often nothing else but cultivated weeds." Use than. "He no sooner entered the bridge but he met an infuriated bull coming toward him." Use than. _________________________________________________________________ 49 "He offered no other objection except the one already mentioned." Use than. "He read five other books on 'Crime and Its Causes' in addition to those you named." Use than. With equal propriety we may say, "He offered no objection except the one already mentioned," or "He read five books on 'Crime and Its Causes' in addition to those you named." It is the use of the word other, or otherwise, or else, that makes necessary the correlative term than. Besides After else and other the preposition besides is sometimes employed. "Other boys besides these are mischievous." "Other arts besides music are elevating and inspiring." "We must have recourse to something else besides punishment." It will be observed that the use of besides in this section differs from the use of than in the preceding discussion. "Other... than" is exclusive of those mentioned; whereas, "other... besides" includes those mentioned. Other "Iron is more useful than all the metals." The faultiness of this sentence becomes apparent when _________________________________________________________________ 50 we remember that iron itself is a metal and is included in the word metals, which forms one side of the comparison. In short, "Iron is more useful than iron together with all the other metals." This statement is absurd. The sentence should, therefore, read, "Iron is more useful than all the other metals." "The Washington monument is higher than any monument in America." Since it is in America, and as it cannot be higher than itself, the sentence is made correct by adding the word other; as, "The Washington monument is higher than any other monument in America." "This book, which I have just finished, is superior to any work on the subject that I have yet seen." Say "to any other work." "Of all other creatures, man is the most highly endowed." Say "of all creatures," etc. "No general was ever so beloved by his soldiers." Say "No other general," etc. "Nothing delights him so much as a storm at sea." "Nothing else delights him," etc. One's, His Whether we should say "One ought to know one's own mind," or "One ought to know his own mind," is a question that the critics have earnestly discussed, but have never settled, except as each settles it for _________________________________________________________________ 51 himself. The masculine pronoun is often used with an antecedent whose gender is not known. There can, therefore, be no objection to the use of his on the question of gender. As a matter of euphony, his is preferable to one's. Both have the sanction of good usage. None Although literally signifying no one, the word none may be used with a plural verb, having the force of a collective noun. "None but the brave deserves the fair."-- Dryden. "None knew thee but to love thee, None named thee but to praise."-- Halleck. "I look for ghosts; but none will force Their way to me."-- Wordsworth. "Of all the girls that e'er were seen, There's none so fine as Nelly."-- Swift. All, Whole The word all is often incorrectly used for the whole. "The river rose and spread over all the valley." This should be "over the whole valley." "The day being stormy, the members of Class A were all the children at school to-day." Correct by saying "were the only children at school to-day." _________________________________________________________________ 52 Perpetually, Continually Perpetually is not synonymous with continually. Perpetually means never-ceasing. That which is done continually may be subject to interruptions. Persuade, Advise "Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian." Paul had advised many persons to become Christians, some of whom, like Agrippa, were almost persuaded. Wharf, Dock These words are sometimes confounded. The wharf is the pier, or landing, upon which the vessel unloads her cargo. The dock is the artificial waterway, or basin, formed by the wharves. "The vessel came into the dock and was made fast to the wharf." Contemptible, Contemptuous Contemptible is sometimes incorrectly used for contemptuous. A story is told of Richard Parson, an English scholar and critic. A gentleman being in dispute with him, angrily exclaimed, "My opinion of you is most contemptible, sir," upon which Parson quickly retorted, "I never knew an opinion of yours that was not contemptible." Healthy, Wholesome These terms are not synonymous. Toadstools may be healthy, but they would not be regarded as wholesome. _________________________________________________________________ 53 Plants and animals are healthy when the conditions of their growth are favorable. They are wholesome when, as food, they promote the health of those persons who eat them. In a fix Many persons instead of saying "He is in trouble," or "He is in an awkward position," or "He is perplexed," or embarrassed, employ the vulgarism, "He is in a fix." Although Shakespeare may say, "This was the most unkindest cut of all," and De Quincey may write, "Poor Aroar cannot live and cannot die-- so that he is in an almighty fix," we lesser mortals are forbidden such expressions. Fly, Flee In a general sense fly is applied to winged creatures and flee to persons. "What exile from himself can flee?" "When the swallows homeward fly." The past tense forms are sometimes confused, as, "The inhabitants flew to the fort for safety," "The wild geese have all fled to the South." The principal parts of the verbs are: Present. Past. Perf. part. fly, flew, flown. flee, fled, fled. The verbs flew and fled in the foregoing sentences should be transposed. Fly implies motion either _________________________________________________________________ 54 from or toward. Flee implies motion from. Fly may be used, in a figurative sense, of persons, to indicate great speed as of wings. "I flew to his rescue." "He flew to my rescue." "Resist the devil and he will flee from you." The word flown is sometimes used erroneously as the past tense or perfect participle of the verb flow. The parts of this verb are flow, flowed, flowed. "The river has overflowed (not overflown) its banks." Get, Got Because a horse is willing is no reason why he should be ridden to death. The verb get and its past-tense form got admit of many meanings, as the following, from an old English publication, fully proves: "I got on horseback within ten minutes after I got your letter. When I got to Canterbury I got a chaise for town; but I got wet through before I got to Canterbury, and I have got such a cold as I shall not be able to get rid of in a hurry. I got to the Treasury about noon, but, first of all, I got shaved and dressed. I soon got into the secret of getting a memorial before the Board, but I could not get an answer then. However, I got intelligence from the messenger that I should most likely get an answer the next morning. As soon as I got back to my inn I got my supper and got to bed. It was not long before I got to sleep. _________________________________________________________________ 55 When I got up in the morning I got myself dressed, and then got my breakfast, that I might get out in time to get an answer to my memorial. As soon as I got it I got into the chaise and got to Canterbury by three, and about teatime I got home. I have got nothing more to say." Those who are disposed to overwork the words get and got will find it interesting and profitable to read the foregoing exercise, substituting other words for those in italics. With have the word got is generally superfluous; as, "I have got a cold," "I have got to go to Boston this evening," "Have you got Hires's root-beer on draught?" For "I did not get to meet your cousin," say "I had no opportunity," or "I was prevented," etc. Another very faulty use of got is heard in such expressions as "He got killed," "They got beaten," "She got cured," etc. Was or were would be more appropriate. Since to get means to obtain, to procure, to gain, the use of the word is justified in such expressions as "I have got a larger farm than you have, because I have worked harder for it." "I have got a better knowledge of the Pacific coast than he has, because I traveled extensively through that region." And yet, when we have been overworked, the physician usually prescribes a period of absolute rest; so, in _________________________________________________________________ 56 view of the multifarious uses to which get has been applied, would it not be well to permit it to retire for a time, in order that it may the more quickly be rejuvenated. Guess, Reckon, Calculate, Allow "I guess he is not going to vote to-day." "I reckon we are going to have fair weather now." "I calculate this ground would grow good potatoes." "I allow she's the prettiest girl that ever visited these parts." The foregoing sentences may be improved by recasting them. "I think he is not going to (or will not) vote to-day." "I believe we shall now have fair weather." "I suppose this ground would yield fine potatoes." "I regard her as the handsomest lady that has ever visited this place (or neighborhood, or locality). Gums, Overshoes "Tom is outside, cleaning his gums on the mat." While a mat will do very well for overshoes, a tooth-brush and sozodont would be better for the gums. Funny "Isn't it funny that Smith, who resided in Chicago, should have died the same day that his father died in Boston?" "Isn't it funny that the murderer who escaped hanging on a mere technicality of the law _________________________________________________________________ 57 should have been killed the next day in a railroad accident?" "How funny that these maples should grow so tall on this mountain top!" "It is funny to think that James, who now pays his addresses to me, should once have been in love with my youngest sister." The foregoing illustrations are not more incongruous than those we daily hear. Odd, strange, peculiar, unusual, represent some of the ideas intended to be conveyed by that much-abused word. Good deal, Great deal This idiom is defended by some authorities as being in perfectly good use, and by others it is denounced as being incorrect. Both good deal and greet deal are somewhat colloquial, and should be used sparingly in writing. Had better, Would better Like a good deal and some other idioms, this expression is denounced by some writers and defended by others. Grammatical construction supports more strongly the forms would better, would rather, etc. "I had rather be a doorkeeper in the house of my God, than to dwell in the tents of wickedness." "I would rather read than drive to-day." "I would rather not go." Omit rather and the superiority of would over had becomes apparent. _________________________________________________________________ 58 If, Whether "I do not know if he sold his farm or exchanged it for city property." Use whether. Illy, Ill Do not use illy for ill. The former is becoming obsolete, and the latter, as an adverb, is taking its place. Say "An ill-ventilated room," not "an illy-ventilated room." Implicit This word means tacitly understood, resting on the word or authority of another. It should not be used in the sense of unbounded, unlimited. Individual This word should not be used broadly in the sense of a person, but should always convey some thought of a single thing or person, as opposed to many. Journal As this word is from the French, jour, day, it should not be applied to a monthly or quarterly magazine. Know as "I do not know as I can see you to-day." Say know that. _________________________________________________________________ 59 Last, Latest "Did you receive my last letter?" "I hope not. I enjoy your letters very much, and I trust you may live to write many more." Cunning This word is much used by young ladies in speaking of what is small, or dainty, or pleasing, as "A cunning little bonnet," "A cunning little watch," etc. While the word properly embodies the idea of skill or dexterity on the part of the workman, and while the appreciation of such skill, in speaking of the artist or artisan, might be expressed by cunning, it is better not to use the word in referring to the product of the workmanship. Curious Curious means inquisitive, rare. In the sense of strange or remarkable, its use should be guarded. Cute This word is often used colloquially in the sense of clever, sharp, shrewd, ingenious, cunning. It is doubtless an abbreviation of acute. It is not found in good literary usage. Favor, Resemble The use of the word favor in the sense of resemble is a provincialism that should be avoided. "The _________________________________________________________________ 60 son favors the father" is correct if the meaning be that the son shows favor or kindness to the father; but if reference to their similarity of appearance is intended, the verb resemble should be employed. Balance, Remainder This word, like numerous others, has been borrowed from the commercial world, and has had such a wide use that its faultiness is not noticed even by many who regard themselves as careful speakers and writers. "I cut down part of the timber this year, and expect to cut the balance next spring." "My cousin will remain with us the balance of this week." "James ate half of the melon to-day, and will eat the balance to-morrow." In these and all similar cases the word remainder should be used. Balance is a term that applies to accounts, and signifies the amount necessary to be added to one side of the account in order to make it equal the other. Behave "Now, my children, you must behave while I am gone." The mother intended to ask her children to behave well, but as behave is a neutral word, and may be followed by well or ill, her form of expression permits the children to supply whichever adverb suits them the better. Behave requires a qualifying word to make the meaning clear. _________________________________________________________________ 61 Bound "He was determined to study medicine," not "He was bound," etc. Bound implies that he was under a bond or obligation to another, rather than impelled by the action of his own mind. Better, Best While some good writers violate the rule, yet the best authorities restrict the use of the comparative degree to two objects. "Mary is the better scholar of the two." "Although both are young, Susan is the younger." "Of two evils, choose the lesser," not the least. Former, First Former and latter being adjectives of the comparative degree, should be used in speaking of two objects. When more than two objects are named, use first and last. "My sons, John and Luther, are both at college. The first expects to study law, and the last to study medicine." Use former and latter. "New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago are the most populous cities in the United States. The former has long been at the front; the latter has only recently entered the race." Use first and last instead of former and latter. _________________________________________________________________ 62 These, Those When objects near and remote are referred to, this and its plural these are applied to the objects near at hand, that and its plural those to objects at a distance. When reference is made to contrasted antecedent terms, this and these are applied to the latter; that and those to the former, as "Farewell my friends! farewell my foes! My peace with these, my love with those!" -- Burns. Fictitious Writer Do not say a fictitious writer when you mean a writer of fiction. Firstly First is an adverb as well as an adjective. We should, therefore, say first, secondly, thirdly, and not firstly, secondly, etc. First-rate An article may be rated in quality as first, or second, or third. If it rates first, it may be called a first-rate article. The word is properly used as an adjective, but should not be employed as an adverb, as in the sentence, "He sings first-rate." Fix, Mend, Repair Fix means to make fast, but its incorrect use in the sense of mend, repair, arrange, is so common that the _________________________________________________________________ 63 word when properly used sounds strange, if not strained. "To fix up the room," "to fix up the accounts," "to fix up matters with my creditors," "to fix the rascals who betrayed me," are examples illustrating the looseness with which the word is used. Round, Square When a thing is round or square it cannot be rounder or squarer. These adjectives do not admit of comparative and superlative forms. But we may say more nearly round or less nearly square. States, Says "He states he is going fishing to-morrow." States is too formal a word, and should be used only of some important assertion. "He says he is going," etc. Stop, Stay To stop is to cease moving. "At what hotel do you stop" should be "At what hotel do you stay." "When you come to the city stay with me," not stop with me. Subtile, Subtle Subtile means thin, fine, rare, delicate; subtle means sly, artful, cunning, elusive. "More subtile web Arachne cannot spin." "He had to contend with a subtle foe." _________________________________________________________________ 64 Summons He was summonsed to appear before the judge" should be "He was summoned to appear," etc. Tasty Often used in colloquial speech when tasteful would be better. Tastily for tastefully is still worse. Team Properly this word relates only to the horses, and does not include the carriage. Those kind, These sort "It is unpleasant to have to associate with those kind of people." "These sort of sheep are the most profitable." Kind and sort are nouns of the singular number; these and those are plural, and, according to the laws of grammar, the adjective and noun must agree in number. The corrected sentences will read: "It is unpleasant to have to associate with this kind of people." "This sort of sheep is the most profitable." The fault arises by associating in the mind the adjectives these and those with the nouns sheep and people, which nouns are more prominent in the mind than the nouns kind and sort. If the ear is not satisfied, the sentences may readily be recast; as, "It is unpleasant to have to associate with people of that kind." "Sheep of this sort are the most profitable." _________________________________________________________________ 65 Transpire, Happen This word, from trans, across, through, and spirare, to breathe, means, physiologically, to pass off in the form of vapor or insensible perspiration, or, botanically, to evaporate from living cells. Its general meaning is to become known, to escape from secrecy. It is frequently employed in the sense of to occur, to come to pass, but this use is condemned by the best critics in England and America. "The proceedings of the secret session of the council soon transpired." This sentence illustrates the true meaning of the word. Make, Manufacture These words may, in some cases, be used interchangeably, but make has much the wider range of meanings. The following story, related by Eli Perkins, will illustrate this fact: I was talking one day with Mr. Depew, President of the New York Central Railroad, about demand and supply. I said the price of any commodity is always controlled by the demand and supply. "Not always, Eli," said Depew; "demand and supply don't always govern prices. Business tact sometimes governs them." "When," I asked, "did an instance ever occur when the price did not depend on demand and supply?" _________________________________________________________________ 66 "Well," said Mr. Depew, "the other day I stepped up to a German butcher, and, out of curiosity, asked: "'What's the price of sausages?' "'Dwenty cends a bound,' he said. "'You asked twenty-five this morning,' I replied. "'Yah; dot vas ven I had some. Now I ain't got none, I sell him for dwenty cents. Dot makes a repudation for selling cheab, und I don't lose noddings.' "You see," said Mr. Depew, laughing, "I didn't want any sausage and the man didn't have any; no demand and no supply, and still the price of sausage went down five cents." "Well, there are strange things in this world," I said. "Now, take the words manufacture and make. I always thought that both words meant the same thing." "Why, they do, Eli," said Mr. Depew. "Not always," I said. "Now, when could they have a different meaning?" "Why, this morning I came down from Albany on a Central car manufactured to carry fifty passengers, but it was made to carry seventy-two people." "Yes, I dare say; but we'll now talk about the Behring Sea question." _________________________________________________________________ 67 Truth, Veracity "The veracity of his statement is doubted." The sentence should be, "The truth of his statement is doubted," or "In making that statement his veracity is doubted." Veracity is applied to the person; truth to the thing. Try the experiment "They are trying the experiment of running railroad trains by electricity." This should be, "They are making the experiment," etc. The word experiment contains the idea of trial, hence, to try the experiment is to try the trial. Little piece "I will go with you a little piece." A short distance or a part of the way would be more appropriate. Every confidence "I have every confidence in his ability to succeed." Confidence is a unit; every implies several units considered separately. "I have the greatest confidence in his ability to succeed" is correct. Ugly This word properly applies to the appearance of a person or thing, hence such expressions as "He has an ugly temper," "This is an ugly customer," "That was an ugly rumor," etc., although common in colloquial discourse, should be avoided in dignified address. _________________________________________________________________ 68 Unbeknown This is a provincialism that should be avoided. Use unknown. Underhanded Often incorrectly used for underhand; as "That was a contemptible and underhanded trick." Calligraphy This word means not writing, simply, but beautiful writing; hence, to say, "His calligraphy is wretched" is equivalent to saying, "His excellent writing is poor," which is a contradiction of terms. Can but, Cannot but These expressions are sometimes confounded. "If I perish, I can but perish," means "I can only perish," or "I can do no more than perish." "I cannot but speak of the things I have heard" means that I am under a moral necessity to speak of these things. The past tense forms could but and could not but should be, in like manner, discriminated. Casualty, Casuality The latter word is sometimes used in place of the former. The first is legitimate; the second is without authority. The words specialty and speciality have a termination similar to the above. They may generally be used interchangeably and are both legitimate. _________________________________________________________________ 69 Complected. "The lady is light complected, has blue eyes, and auburn hair." Complected is a provincialism without sanction. "The lady is of light complexion, has blue eyes," etc. Disremember This word is obsolete. Use forget, or "I do not remember." Lie, Lay The verbs lie and lay are often confounded, even by intelligent persons. Lie does not take an object. We cannot lie a thing. It is therefore intransitive. Lay, which means to place in position, requires an object. We lay a book on a table, or bricks on the wall. It is therefore transitive. The principal parts of the first verb are lie, lay, lain; and of the second, lay, laid, laid. The word lay is found in both, and this is, in part, accountable for the confusion. The most frequent errors result from using laid, the past tense form of the transitive verb, when the word lay, the past tense form of the intransitive verb, should be used. The ear naturally expects the usual past tense ending of the d or t sound, and as that is absent in the past tense of lie, the past tense form of the other verb is substituted. For the same reason the participle form laid is often incorrectly used for lain. _________________________________________________________________ 70 "He told me to lie down, and I lay down," not laid down. "I told him to lay the book down, and he laid it down." "The ship lay at anchor." "They lay by during the storm." "The book is lying on the shelf." "He lay on the ground and took cold." "They lay in ambush." "Lie low or he will discover you." "The goods are still lying on his hands." "Time lay heavily on their hands." "We must lie over at the next station." "A motion was made that the resolution lie on the table." "Now I lie down to sleep." "Now I lay me down to sleep." The foregoing sentences illustrate the correct usage of these confusing verbs. As, That "Did your cousin go to town yesterday?" "Not as I know." Better, "Not that I know." Better still, "I do not know." "I do not know as I shall go." Use that for as. Bad toothache As it is a rare thing to have a good toothache, we scarcely need the adjective bad to distinguish between the two kinds of toothache. Say severe. Beautifully, Beautiful After verbs of seeing, feeling, tasting, and smelling, the adverb is often incorrectly used for the adjective. _________________________________________________________________ 71 "The colonel looked handsomely in his military dress," "I feel splendidly to-day," "This peach tastes badly," "The rose smells sweetly," are incorrect. Use handsome for handsomely, very well or in good spirits for splendidly, tastes bad or has a disagreeable taste for badly, and sweet for sweetly. Beg, Beg leave "I beg to announce the sale of a collection of rare and costly rugs." "I beg to acknowledge your kindness in sending me this handsome present." In each case say "I beg leave to," etc. Due, Owing His success was due to his honesty and energy." That is due which should be paid as a debt; that is owing which is referred to as a cause or source. "The bill is now due and payable at the gas office." "His success was owing to his honesty and energy." Each, Every "I see him at his office each day of the week." In this sentence the word every would be better. Each refers to single days particularized. Here reference is made to what occurs on all days without exception. Both words refer to nouns in the singular, hence such expressions as the following are incorrect: _________________________________________________________________ 72 "Every soldier and sailor stood at their post." "The prisoners were discharged and went each their several ways." Correct by saying, "The prisoners were discharged and went each his several way," "Every soldier and sailor stood at his post." Each, Both "Both parties maintained their original positions." As the parties are thought of separately, the sentence should be: "Each party maintained its original position." "Both parties strove to place their best candidates upon the ticket" is correct, because the parties are thought of collectively. Both, Both of Both is used alone before nouns and both of before pronouns. "Both men have studied the currency question." "Both of them are well informed in matters relating to the currency." Ever, Never "Let him be ever so rich," says Emerson. "You spend ever so much money in entertaining your equals and betters," says Thackeray. "Though he run ever so fast, he cannot win the race." Writers and grammarians differ, some preferring ever, others never. _________________________________________________________________ 73 Every once in a while This is a cumbersome, awkward expression that should be avoided. Occasionally, frequently, at intervals, are among the expressions that may be used in its place. Exceptionable, Exceptional "He enjoyed exceptionable opportunities for acquiring the Greek language." Say exceptional opportunities. Female, Woman The word female is often employed when woman would be better. Female applies to all of the feminine gender, including the brute creation. Poet, Poetess The tendency to increase the number of nouns with the feminine ending ess should be checked. Avoid poetess, authoress, doctress, and other newly-invented words of this kind. Fewer, Less Fewer refers to number, less to quantity. "He had less friends than I, and yet he was elected." Say "He had fewer friends." "There were no less than fifty cows in the field." Use fewer. Right smart In some portions of the South the expression right smart is employed in colloquial discourse to convey _________________________________________________________________ 74 the idea of a large quantity or in large measure; as, "We have right smart of peaches this summer," meaning "We have a large crop of peaches;" "He knows right smart of Latin" for "He knows considerable Latin" or "He is well versed in Latin." Little bit "Will you have some of this pudding?" "If you please. Give me a little bit." "Did you injure yourself when you fell?" "No; but I soiled my clothing a little bit." A small portion or piece, in the first sentence, and slightly, in the second, would serve as good equivalents for a little bit. Sight "There was a sight of people at the fair to-day." In the sense of a large number, this word, like the word lot, should be avoided. Crowd A dozen persons may constitute a crowd if they push and jostle one another by reason of insufficient space. A thousand men will not form a crowd if all have ample room to sit or stand or move about. Chuck-full This word is not authorized. Chock-full and choke-full may be used, but are not elegant. _________________________________________________________________ 75 Contemplate, Propose Contemplate is often incorrectly used for propose; as, "I contemplate going to the country." Dispense, Dispense with These expressions are not synonymous. To dispense is to give; to dispense with is to do without. The pharmacist dispenses medicines; we should be pleased if we could dispense with them. Dry, Thirsty Dry is often incorrectly used in the sense of thirsty; as, "I am dry; let me have a glass of water." To say, "I am dry; my waterproof and umbrella kept out the rain," is correct. Dutch, German Do not call a German a Dutchman. A Dutchman comes from Holland, a German from Germany. Evacuate, Vacate Evacuate means to make empty, and should not be used in the sense of to go away, to vacate. Different than, Different to "The school is conducted in a very different manner than it used to be." "This basket of roses is different to yours." The above and similar expressions are decided vulgarisms, and should be avoided. _________________________________________________________________ 76 "The school is conducted in a very different manner from what it used to be." "This basket of roses is different from yours." Drive, Ride Some confusion exists in the use of the words drive and ride. In England the distinction is made of applying ride to going on horseback and drive to going in a carriage, whether you ride or drive. That usage is not closely followed in this country. He who guides the horse drives; the rest of the company ride. The noun and participial forms are more excusable than the verb. "Jones asked me to drive with him this afternoon." But as Jones expects to do the driving himself, the speaker should have said, "Jones asked me to take a ride," or "go driving," or "take a drive," etc. Couple, Several The word couple is often incorrectly used in the sense of several; as, a couple of horses, mules, birds, trees, houses, etc. The use of the word couple is not only limited to two, but to two that may be coupled or yoked together. A man and wife are spoken of as a couple. We speak of a span of horses, a yoke of oxen, a brace of ducks, a pair of gloves. _________________________________________________________________ 77 Directly, Immediately, As soon as A faulty English use of the above words has found some favor in the United States. "Directly the whistle blew the workmen left the shop." Say "As soon as the whistle blew," etc. "Immediately he closed his speech his opponent rose to reply." Say "When" or "As soon as he closed his speech," etc. Directly denotes without any delay; immediately implies without any interposition of other occupation. Agreeably disappointed When our hopes are blasted, our plans balked, our expectations defeated, our intentions thwarted, we are disappointed. We prefer the agreeable to the disagreeable, and plan and labor to secure it. When our plans fail we are disappointed, but not agreeably disappointed. If the new conditions, which are not of our seeking, prove agreeable, it is only after the sense of disappointment has vanished. Allude to, Refer to, Mention The word allude is often incorrectly used. Allusion is the by-play of language. It means to hint at by remote suggestions, to speak of figuratively or sportively. Whatever is directly mentioned, or spoken of, or described, cannot be said to be alluded to. The terms _________________________________________________________________ 78 differ in degree, the first being the weakest. An allusion is an indirect reference. Among the rest "Mary sat on the beach among the rest." Say "with the rest." Peruse This is one of those high-sounding terms too often employed when read would be much better. Emigrants, Immigrants These words are sometimes confounded. "Did you see the emigrants on the 'Indiana,' which arrived this morning?" "Did the immigrants go directly to Italy?" Exchange the italicized words in the two sentences and they will be correctly used. Somewheres The terminal s should be omitted in such words as anywheres, somewheres, nowheres, anyways, hereabouts, thereabouts, whereabouts. In such cases as "Whereabouts did you find him?" and "We knew his whereabouts," the s is properly retained. Apart, Aside "May I see you apart from the others?" It should be, "May I see you privately" or "aside"? Fire, Throw We fire a gun, but throw a stone. To fire a stone, fire him out of the house, fire him out of our employ, may _________________________________________________________________ 79 be graphic ways of presenting the thought, but good writers never use them and good speakers should avoid them. The First, Single "I have not found the first objection to his candidacy." Say "a single objection," or "no objection." First two Such has been the strong desire to continue to use forms of expression that we have long used that not a little time and effort have been expended in the endeavor to make the wrong appear right. It is an accepted fact, however, that a large majority of the best speakers and writers now say the first two, the last five, etc., rather than the two first, the five last. Future, Subsequent The word future is sometimes used instead of subsequent; as, "Until he was eighteen years old his conduct was marked by cruelty and malice, but his future life was characterized by kindness and generosity." Future looks forward from the present, and not from some point of time in the past. Gent's pants "Gent's pants scoured and pressed." Business signs and business advertisements are responsible for many vulgarisms. Never say gent's nor pants. Even pantaloons is not so good a word as trousers. _________________________________________________________________ 80 Sit, Set Few words afford a more fertile field for grammatical blundering than the verbs sit and set. The important fact to remember in the use of the words is that sit, in modern usage, is an intransitive verb, and does not take an object, while set, which means to place in position, is transitive, and requires an object to complete its meaning. You cannot sit a thing, but you do set or place a thing. The verb sit undergoes a slight change with the change of tense or time. "I sit at the window today." "I sat at the window yesterday." "I have sat at the window daily for many years." "Sitting at the window, I saw the storm arise." "Having sat at his table, I can testify to his hospitality." The transitive verb set undergoes no tense changes. "See me set this vase on the table." "He set his seal to the paper yesterday." "Jones will not set the world on fire with his writings." "Having set my affairs in order, I returned home." "I sit down." "I sat down." "I set him down." There are many intransitive uses of the verb set; as, "The sun sets," "The tide sets toward the south," "The fruit has set," "He set out for Boston." There is a difference of opinion as to whether we should say "The coat sets well" or "The coat sits well," with the greater weight in favor of sits. "The _________________________________________________________________ 81 hen sits on her eggs." "She is a sitting hen." When the verb is used reflexively use set and not sat; as, "I set me down beside her," not "I sat me down beside her." Anyhow This word can scarcely be regarded as elegant, and should not be used except in colloquial style. Awful Few words among the many that go to make up the vocabulary of American slang have been in longer use and have a wider range than the word awful. From the loftiest and most awe-inspiring themes to the commonest trifle, this much-abused word has been employed. A correct speaker or writer almost fears to use the word lest he should suggest the idea of slang, and thus detract from the subject to which the word might most fitly be applied. Even the grammatical form of the word is often violated in such expressions as "Isn't he awful nice?" "That hat of hers is awful pretty." To say awfully nice and awfully pretty would improve the grammar, but the gross vulgarism remains. The word, when properly used, means "inspiring with awe or dread" often accompanied with reverence, as when Milton says: _________________________________________________________________ 82 "The trumpet spake not to the armed throng; And kings sat still with awful eye, As if they surely knew their sovran Lord was by." Back up In the sense of support, this, and the shorter expression back, are doubtless borrowed from the commercial world. While they may be tolerated in conversation, they must be regarded as slang. Bulk This word is often incorrectly used for most or the greater part; as, "The bulk of the people opposed the measure." Bulk refers to size, not to numbers. Burglarize This word is often used by the more sensational reporters in their reports of crime. It should be avoided. But what, But that "I don't know but what I shall have to punish him." The sentence should read, "I don't know but that I shall have to punish him." It is equivalent to, "I think that I shall have to punish him." The omission of but will convey the opposite meaning. "I don't know that I shall have to punish him" is equivalent to "I think that I shall not have to punish him." _________________________________________________________________ 83 Calculate A provincialism often used in the sense of think, deem, suppose, believe; as, "I calculate the train will be here in ten minutes." Calculated, Liable This word is often incorrectly used in the sense of likely, liable, apt; as, "His utterances are calculated to injure his cause." In the proper use of the word there is present the idea of purpose or intent. Leave, Quit Leave is often incorrectly used for quit; as, "That eminent actor expects soon to leave the stage." It would be a misfortune if he should take the stage with him. Say "quit the stage." "Henry has quit smoking." Here left off or stopped would be better. "The President gave me lief to speak with him." Say "gave me leave." Let it alone and let me be are preferable to leave it alone and leave me be. A 1 "I have just read an A 1 article on the currency, question in the last issue of the North American Review!" This is an expression from the vocabulary of business converted into the slang of the street. _________________________________________________________________ 84 Luck Luck, like behavior, may be either good or bad. "The carpenter has met with luck; he fell and broke his leg." "The manager has met with luck; his salary has been doubled." The adjective lucky and the adverb luckily are used only in a favorable sense. Make way with This expression is often incorrectly used for make away with; as, "The Judge gave the boot-blacks a Christmas dinner, and the begrimed urchins quickly made way with the turkey and cranberry sauce." Say "made away with," etc. To make way is to make room, to provide a way, to dispatch. In our midst "The doctor settled in our midst." Say "among us," or "in our neighborhood." Indorse, Endorse From the Latin dorsum, the back, these words have come to mean the writing of one's name across the back of a check or draft or other commercial paper to signify its transfer to another or to secure its payment. To indorse a man's arguments or opinions is an incorrect use of the word. While both forms of spelling the word are in good usage, indorse seems to be coming into more general favor. _________________________________________________________________ 85 In, Into In is often incorrectly used for into; as, "He hurried up the street and rushed in the store." We walk in a room when the walking is wholly within the apartment; we walk into a room when we enter it from some other room or from the outside. Just going to "I was just going to write you a letter." Say "I was just about to write you a letter." Kind of "James swallowed the dose, and now feels kind of sick." Use slightly or somewhat, or some other modifier, instead of kind of. Knowing Do not use knowing for skilful or intelligent. "He is a knowing artist." "See him prick up his ears; he is a knowing cur." Clever, Smart In England the word clever is applied to one who is bright, intelligent, ready, apt; in the United States it is often misapplied to one who is good-natured, kind, or accommodating. "Do you believe in corporal punishment for stupid school-children?" "Yes; a spanking always makes them smart." _________________________________________________________________ 86 To express cleverness, brightness, intelligence, aptness, the adjectives clever, bright, intelligent, apt, are better than the word smart. Posted, Informed "He is well posted on all matters relating to cattle-breeding." Say informed. Perspire, Sweat While all mankind belongs to the animal kingdom, and no person can feel offended at being called an animal, yet society observes certain distinctions in speaking of men and of beasts. To sweat and to feed are expressions that apply to the latter; to perspire and to eat to the former. Empty The Mississippi river flows, or discharges its water into the Gulf of Mexico, but it can not empty so long as any water remains in the river. Enjoyed poor health "Gold that buys health can never be ill spent, Nor hours laid out in harmless merriment." The negative form of expression, "I have not enjoyed good health," is not only correct, but is, at the same time, a polite way of modestly stating a fact. To say "I have enjoyed poor health for the past year" is to express a kind of enjoyment not generally appreciated. It is like being agreeably disappointed. _________________________________________________________________ 87 Aberration of intellect "He is afflicted with a slight aberration of intellect." Simplicity would suggest, "He is slightly insane." Above, Foregoing "Let me call your attention to the above passage." The highest authority does not sanction the use of above as an adjective. Say "the foregoing passage." Allowed, Said "He allowed this was the best speech he had heard." This is a provincialism that should be avoided. Use said, or declared, or admitted, according to the meaning. Alternation This word is sometimes used in the sense of an unbroken series. It properly signifies a reciprocal succession, as "The alternation of summer and winter produces an ever-changing scene." Alternative Etymologically and by general use, this word refers to a choice between two; as, "If this demand is refused the alternative is war." But Gladstone is quoted as saying, "My decided preference is for the fourth and last of these alternatives." Anniversary From annus, a year, means recurring every year. Centennial means once in a hundred years. What then does centennial anniversary mean? Use centenary. _________________________________________________________________ 88 Learn, Teach "I taught him grammar," not "I learned him grammar." "He taught us history." Lease, Let, Rent, Hire We may lease to or from. "I leased the farm to my neighbor." "I leased this house from Brown." We let to another; as, "I let my house to my cousin." We may rent to or from another. We may hire from another," as, "I hired a servant;" "he hired a boat." With out and reflexively we may hire to another; as," I hired out my horses;" "he hired himself to the miller." Like, As Avoid the use of like in the sense of as. "He thinks just as (not like) his father does." That Anthony Trollope, Hugh Conway and other writers are chargeable with this offence does not justify the use of like for as, but rather proves the need of constant vigilance in order to avoid such errors. Lit, Lighted, Alighted "He lighted the candle." "The crow alighted on the top of the tree." Avoid the use of lit in such cases, and also that slang form, as, "I lit on a beautiful passage in Browning," in the sense of met with. Lend, Loan "Will you lend me your book," is better than "Will you loan me your book." _________________________________________________________________ 89 Near, Nearly "James is not near so good a scholar as his brother is." Use nearly. Nasty, Nice Nasty is a strong adjective, and should be used only in reference to what is offensively filthy, foul, or defiled. Such expressions as a nasty day, a nasty rain, mark a loose and careless use of the word. The word nice once meant foolish, ignorant, weak, effeminate. It has now come to mean exact, fine, finished, exciting admiration on account of skill or exactness; as nice proportions, nice workmanship, a nice distinction in philosophy. It is loosely and colloquially used in application to what is pleasing, agreeable, delightful, good. A bright young lady was once asked, "Don't you think nice is a nasty word?" She replied, "And do you think nasty is a nice word." The subject was abruptly changed. Nicely "How do you feel this morning?" "Nicely, thank you." The foregoing use of the word is as incorrect as it is common. Use very well instead. No good, No use "How does that new machine work?" "It's no good." "Shall I try again?" "No; it's no use." The answers should have been, "It is of no good, it is of no use." _________________________________________________________________ 90 O, Oh While good usage is far from uniform, many excellent authors employ O only in cases of direct address and oh when strong and sudden emotion is to be expressed. O is always written with a capital letter, and should be followed by the name of the person or thing addressed, and the exclamation or interrogation point placed at the end of the sentence; as, "O Death, where is thy sting? O Grave, where is thy victory?" "O the cold and cruel winter!" Oh in the body of a sentence may begin with a small letter, and is immediately followed by the exclamation point; as, "Oh! how terrible was his fate!" "The sad intelligence was gently given, but oh! the shock was almost unbearable." Observe, Say "He observed that the orphan pines while the oppressor feeds." To observe is to notice carefully, to attend closely to what one sees. In the above sentence said or remarked should be used instead of observed. Of any, Of all "This is the largest tree of any I have seen." The meaning clearly is, that of all the trees I have seen this is the largest. Hence, of any should be changed to of all. _________________________________________________________________ 91 Older, Elder Elder and eldest are terms applied chiefly to persons, generally in speaking of members of the same family, while older and oldest are applied to persons of different families, and also to things. "His elder brother died yesterday." "His eldest sister has gone to Italy on her wedding trip." "Our oldest neighbor was born in 1825." "This oak is older than that pine." The foregoing sentences illustrate the best usage as applied to the comparatives older and elder and the superlatives oldest and eldest. When the direct comparison is made the word older is used, followed by the conjunction than; as, "My father is older than my mother." But when the comparison is assumed the word elder should be employed; as, "My father is the elder of my parents." Only Perhaps no other word in the language is so often misplaced as the word only. The only general rule is to place it as near as possible to the word which it modifies. "He only lent me a dollar" means that he did not make me a present of the dollar, but expects me to return it. "He lent me only a dollar" means that the sum lent was neither greater nor less than one dollar. The former expression is often used when the latter should be. _________________________________________________________________ 92 "Only the man walked to the post-office to-day." The woman did not walk with him. "The man only walked to the post-office to-day." He did not ride or drive. "The man walked only to the post-office to-day." He did not go so far as the store. "The man walked to the post-once only to-day." Yesterday he rode and the day before he drove. Today is the only day that he walked. George Eliot, in Middlemarch, says: "I only know two gentlemen who sing at all well," and in another place, "I have only seen her once before." The word only should be placed before two in the first sentence, and before once in the second. Onto There is a growing tendency to write the words on and to as one word. "Although nearly drowned he yet had strength enough to climb onto the rock." The use of upon or on is generally better. When neither of these can be used write on and to as separate words. Outstart This word is sometimes used when outset should be employed. Over and Above "He earned twenty dollars over and above his expenses." Use more than or above. _________________________________________________________________ 93 Party, Person "Is she the party of whom you spoke?" "No; she is the person." One man may be a party to a contract or agreement. Several men may form a party. When no contract is implied, one man or woman must be spoken of as a person, not as a party. Patron, Customer Unless there is a sense of obligation or condescension, use the term customer and not patron. In like manner, use custom instead of patronage. Per Per is a Latin preposition and should be used only with Latin nouns. We should say per annum, but not per year; per diem, and not per day; per capita, and not per head. "He received a thousand dollars a year is shorter and better than "he received a thousand dollars per year." Perchance, Peradventure These are poetic and archaic forms that should be avoided in ordinary prose. Performers "The entertainment consisted of reading, recitations, and singing, and the performers acquitted themselves well." Readers, reciters, and singers are not _________________________________________________________________ 94 performers. The term is applied to the stage, and to those who play on musical instruments. Even in the latter application, "he plays well on the piano," is better than "he performs well on the piano." Period, Point Do not use period for a point of time. Period implies extended time. Nothing like "James is nothing like so successful as his brother" illustrates a colloquialism that should be avoided. Use not nearly so, etc. Notorious, Noted "He was elected to Congress, then Governor, and we now think of sending him to the United States Senate. He is becoming quite notorious." The word notorious implies some bad or doubtful quality or characteristic, and must not be used in the sense of noted or famous. Nowhere near so "He trapped nowhere near so many rabbits as his cousin." This vulgarism should be avoided. Use not nearly. Plead The past tense of read is read, but the past tense of plead is pleaded, not plead. "The prisoner pleaded for mercy." _________________________________________________________________ 95 Plenty, Plentiful "Money is plenty this summer." Plenty is a noun and should not be used as an adjective. Therefore "money is plentiful this summer." Shakespeare says, "If reasons were as plenty as blackberries," etc., but words have settled into more definite grooves since Shakespeare's time. "This house is plenty large enough." Neither is plenty an adverb. Say, "This house is quite large enough," or, simply, large enough. About, around "She was pleased with the conversation about her." Use "around her." "She was pained by the conversation about her." Use "concerning her." Overlook, Oversee This word means to look down upon from a place that is over or above; as, "From the top of the Washington monument you can readily overlook the city." But it also means to look over and beyond an object in order to see a second object, thus missing the view of the first object; hence, to refrain from bestowing notice upon, to neglect. The confounding of these two ideas begets ambiguity, as "Brown's business was to overlook the workmen in the shop." His business was to oversee or superintend them, and not to neglect or overlook them. _________________________________________________________________ 96 Revolting To revolt is to rebel, to renounce allegiance, but the participial form revolting also means repugnant, loathsome. In the sentence, "A band of revolting Huns has just passed down the street," we should be in doubt whether the speaker referred to their acts against the government or to their appearance. The use of the word rebellious in the former sense, and of disagreeable or disgusting, or the stronger adjectives given above, for the latter meaning, would make the sentence clear. Unexampled Such adjectives as unexampled, unparalleled, unprecedented, do not admit of comparison, hence such expressions as the most unexampled bravery, the most unparalleled heroism, etc., should be avoided. Utter This verb should be distinguished from express or say. Utter carries with it the idea of articulate expression, except in the sense of uttering false coins or forged notes. As an adjective it is defined by complete, perfect, absolute, etc., but it can be applied only to what is unpleasant or unfavorable. "I enjoyed utter happiness" would be an absurd expression, but "I was doomed to utter misery" illustrates a proper use of the word. _________________________________________________________________ 97 Valuable, Valued These words are not synonymous; valuable means precious, costly, having value; valued refers to our estimation of the worth. "He is one of our most valued contributors," not valuable, unless you are thinking of the value of his contributions and the smallness of the compensation. Very pleased A few participles used as adjectives may be directly modified by too or very; as, "I was very tired," "He was too fatigued to go farther." We sometimes hear the expression, "I was very pleased," but the critics insist upon "I was very much pleased," or "greatly pleased," or "very greatly pleased." Vicinity Often too high-sounding a word for the thought; neighborhood is less pretentious. The old man The use of such words as dad, daddy, mam, mammy, the old man, the old woman, when applied to parents, not only indicates a lack of refinement, but shows positive disrespect. The words pap, pappy, governor, etc., are also objectionable. After the first lispings of childhood the words papa and mamma, properly accented, should be insisted upon by parents, and at _________________________________________________________________ 98 the age of twelve or fifteen the words father and mother should be substituted and ever after used, as showing a proper respect on the part of children. Great big "He gave me a great big apple." This is a colloquialism that should be avoided. Use large. Argue, Augur "The hollow whistling of the wind among the trees argues an approaching storm." Use augurs. Barbaric, Barbarous Barbaric refers to a people; barbarous to their low state of life and their habits of cruelty. Cut in half A colloquialism in very frequent use. "I will cut this melon in half and share it with you." Say, cut in two, or cut in halves, or cut in two parts. Hearty meal "He ate a hearty meal before starting on his journey." Hearty applies to the eater rather than to the meal. "He ate heartily," etc. Some better "John has been right sick, but is now some better." Somewhat, rather, or slightly may take the place of some. The sentence may be otherwise improved. "John has been quite ill, but is now somewhat better." _________________________________________________________________ 99 Through, Finished Unless you have fallen through a trap door and finished your career, do not say, "I am through," when you mean "I have finished." The school-boy says, "I am through with, that lesson," when he should say, "I have finished that lesson." The farmer asks the man in his employ, "Are you through with that field?" when he should have asked, "Have you finished ploughing that field?" You ask your friend, "Are you through, with Trilby?" when you should ask, "Have you finished reading Trilby." Winterish Do not say summerish and winterish, but summery, or summerlike, and wintry. Wish The word hope should be employed instead of wish in such cases as, "I wish you may succeed in your undertaking." Right This little word has many meanings and is put to many uses. In the following senses it should be avoided: "Stand right here." In most instances the briefer expression, "Stand here," is sufficient. If it is necessary to locate the place more definitely or to emphasize the position, "Stand just here," or "Stand on this very spot," may be better. _________________________________________________________________ 100 "The train came to a standstill right here." Better, "The train stopped just here." "Do it right away." This is a colloquialism that should be avoided. Immediately, instantly, at once, without delay, are expressions that may safely be substituted for right away. "I heard of your misfortune, and came to you right away." "John, post this letter for me right off." Directly or immediately, in the place of right away and right off, is better English. "James is right sick, and the doctor comes to see him right often." The use of right as an intensive with adjectives and adverbs is very common in many quarters. Quite ill or very ill is better than right sick, and often or frequently is better than right often. "We have a right good crop of wheat this year." Use very instead of right. "You have as good a right to be punished as I have." The person addressed would gladly relinquish his right. "You merit punishment as well as I," or "You deserve to be punished," etc. Shall, Will, Should, Would Few persons can claim to be entirely free from slips of speech in the use of these auxiliaries. Simply to express a future action or event, shall is used with the first person and will with the second and third; as, _________________________________________________________________ 101 I shall read, We shall read, You will read, You will read, He will read, They will read. But when I desire to show determination on my part to do a certain thing, or when I exercise my authority over another, or express promise, command, or threat, will is used in the first person and shall in the second and third; as, I will read, We will read, You shall read, You shall read, He shall read, They shall read. Shall primarily implies obligation; will implies intention or purpose. Will and would should be used whenever the subject names the one whose will controls the action; shall and should must be employed whenever the one named by the subject is under the control of another. The difference between should and would is, in general, about the same as that between shall and will. The foregoing suggestions cover the ordinary uses of these auxiliaries, but there are some special cases deserving attention. Will, in the first person, expresses assent or promise, as well as determination; as, "I will read this poem for you since you have requested it." _________________________________________________________________ 102 "I will meet you to-morrow at the time appointed." Will, in the second person, may express a command; as, "You will take the places assigned you." "You will report immediately at my office." Will is sometimes employed to express a general fact, without conveying the idea of futurity; as, "Accidents will happen." "Differences will arise." Will is sometimes incorrectly used instead of shall; as, "Will I go?" for "Shall I go?" This fault is common in Scotland, and prevails to some extent in this country. Will is also used where may would be more appropriate; as, "Be that as it will." Shall you? Will you? The distinction between shall and will in the interrogative forms of the second person are not very clearly defined. Many writers and speakers use them interchangeably. The answer should have the same auxiliary as the question. "Shall you go to town to-morrow?" "I shall." "Will you attend to this matter promptly?" "I will." Should, Would, Ought Should is often used in the sense of ought; as, "Mary should remain at home to-day and wait upon her sick mother." _________________________________________________________________ 103 Should and would are employed to express a conditional assertion; as, "I should go to college, if I could secure the necessary means." "He would have gone fishing, if his father had been willing." Would is often used to express a custom, a determination, or a wish; as, "He would sit all day and moan." "Would to God we had died in the land of Egypt." "He would go, and his parents could not prevent him." Talented Certain authors and critics, including Coleridge, have objected strongly to the use of talented. One writer argues that since there is no such verb as to talent, the formation of such a participle as talented cannot be defended, and he further declares that no good writer is known to use it, Webster (The International Dictionary) states that, as a formative, talented is just as analogical and legitimate as gifted, bigoted, moneyed, lauded, lilied, honeyed, and numerous other adjectives having a participial form, but derived directly from nouns and not from verbs. We must therefore conclude that the use of talented as an adjective is entirely legitimate. Climb down The critics generally oppose the use of the expression climb down. When the verb is employed without _________________________________________________________________ 104 its adverbial modifier, the upward direction is always understood. In figurative language, as "Black vapors climb aloft, and cloud the day," "The general climbed the heights of fame," the upward direction is also understood. But in a specific sense climb is defined "to mount laboriously, especially by the use of hands and feet." Here the manner seems to be as important as the direction. When the same manner must be employed in descending, as a tree, a mast, or a steep, rocky cliff, the general term descend fails to convey the meaning, and to use slip, slide, drop, tumble, fall, would be incorrect. We are then left to choose between the short and clear, but objectionable, expression climb down and some long and cumbersome equivalent. Mighty Never use mighty in the sense of very, or exceedingly. It is not only inappropriate but inelegant. Of, From "She had consumption and died from the disease." Say, "died of the disease." On, Over, Upon "Mary called upon her friend." Say, "called on her friend." "The Senator prevailed over his friends to support his bill." Say, "prevailed upon his _________________________________________________________________ 105 friends." "The candidate prevailed over his enemies." Partake This word means to take a part of, to share with another. It is often incorrectly used for ate, as "He partook sparingly of the food." Powerful sight This is a Westernism to be avoided. It is used indiscriminately for a large number, a great quantity, a vast amount, etc. Apprehend, Comprehend To apprehend is to take into the mind; to comprehend is to understand fully what is already there. We may apprehend many truths which we do not comprehend. Introduce, Present Present implies more formality than introduce. We introduce one friend to another. An envoy is presented to the King. Foreign ministers are presented to the President of the United States. Same as "This is the same story as I read last week." Use same that. _________________________________________________________________ 106 Section "We raise finer horses in our section." This is an Americanism that should be avoided. Neighborhood, vicinity, region, part of the country or State, may be substituted for section. Seldom or ever This incorrect expression is sometimes used instead of seldom or never or seldom if ever. "I have seldom if ever heard so eloquent an oration." "I have seldom or never seen the man." Sewage, Sewerage These words have distinct meanings. Sewage refers to the contents of the sewer; sewerage to the system of sewers. Sociable, Social "He is one of the most sociable men I have met. He is fond of society, and is very ready in conversation." Sociable means companionable; social applies to the relations of men in society; as social duties, social pleasures, social interests. Specialty, Speciality These words are interchangeable, but the former is the better word. Requirement, Requisition, Requisite While these words have something in common, each has a meaning peculiar to itself. Requirement _________________________________________________________________ 107 means that which is required as an essential condition, or as something necessary; requisition, that which is required as of right, a demand or application made as by authority; requisite, that which is required by the nature of things, or by circumstances, that which cannot be dispensed with. "She understood the nature of the child and of its requirements." "The officer made a requisition for more troops." "This is as much a requisite as food and clothing." Sick, Ill There is a growing tendency to discriminate between sickness and illness, limiting the words sick and sickness to some slight disturbance of the physical system, as nausea, and applying the words ill and illness to protracted disease and disordered health. Scholar, Pupil Although these words are often used synonymously and with good authority, it would be better to limit the former to learned persons and to apply the latter to persons under instruction. Commenced to write "I commenced to write at a very early age." After the verb commence the best writers use the verbal _________________________________________________________________ 108 noun instead of the infinitive with to; as, "I commenced writing at a very early age." Beside, Besides These words were formerly used interchangeably, but the best writers of to-day make a distinction. Beside means by the side of. Besides means in addition to. Besides is sometimes incorrectly used for except; as, "No trees will grow here besides the pine." Bountiful, Plentiful Bountiful applies to the giver; plentiful to the things furnished. "The bountiful Giver of all good furnishes a plentiful supply of all things needful for our comfort and happiness." Do not say a bountiful repast, a bountiful harvest. Attacked, Burst, Drowned The incorrect past tense forms attackted, bursted, drownded, are sometimes heard; as, "The cashier was attackted by three of the ruffians," "The cannon bursted and killed the gunners,"" The fishermen were drownded off the bar." Use attacked, burst, drowned. All This little word is used in a great many ways, some of which are quite colloquial, and in some cases provincial. When the grocer's clerk has taken your order he is prompted to say, "Is that all?" Or if _________________________________________________________________ 109 he should say, "Is there anything else that you wish?" you are likely to reply, "No; that is all." Whether used in the question or in the reply, the word all should be avoided, or else the expression should be expanded so as to make a clear sentence. A friend calls to see you, and, finding you alone when he expected to meet others with you, he says, "Good morning; I see you are all alone." All is not a good equivalent for quite or entirely, either of which words would be better than all. In truth, the sentence is as clear and as strong and more concise without the use of a modifier. "I see you are alone." Inaugurate To inaugurate means to induct into office or to set in motion with formality and serious ceremony. Pompous writers too often employ the word in referring to commonplace events. A new business is established. A new hall or library is opened. A new pastor is installed. A new order of procedure is adopted. In general, the word begin or commence would be more appropriate than inaugurate. Came across, Met with "I came across the passage quite unexpectedly." Better, "I chanced upon," or "happened upon,," or "met with the passage quite unexpectedly." _________________________________________________________________ 110 Expect Few words are more frequently incorrectly used than expect. "I expect you went to town yesterday," "I expect you will hear from me to-morrow," "I expect the train has arrived," represent some of the uses to which this word is often put. Expect refers wholly to the future, and should not refer to present or past events; as, "I expect you to write me from Liverpool." "John expects to see his father to-morrow." Among the expressions that can most readily and appropriately be substituted for expect are suspect, suppose, think, believe, presume, daresay. Over with "After the supper was over with the guests departed." Omit with. Overflown "The lowlands along the river are overflown." Use overflowed. The perfect participle of overflow is overflowed, not overflown. Good piece "I have come a good piece to see you." Say "I have come a long distance to see you." Stand a chance "He does not stand any chance of an election." Say, "It is not probable that he will be elected." _________________________________________________________________ 111 No more than I could help "As I was not in sympathy with the cause, I gave no more than I could help." So accustomed are we to hearing this awkward, blundering expression that we readily understand the meaning it is intended to convey, and should be sorely puzzled to interpret the correct form. Let us analyze it. I gave five dollars. That much I could not help (giving). I gave no more. Hence, "I gave no more than I could not help." This last form appears to be correct. By changing the phraseology the sentence can be greatly improved. "I gave no more than I felt compelled to give." "I made my contribution as small as possible." "My gift was limited to the measure of my sense of obligation." Above, More than, Preceding "It is above a week since I heard from my brother." We may say "above the earth," "above the housetops," but in the preceding sentence it is better to say, "It is more than a week since I heard from my brother." "In the above paragraph he quotes from Horace." Say, "In the preceding or foregoing paragraph," etc. The awkwardness of the use of the word above becomes very apparent when the line in which it occurs is found at the top of a page, and the passage _________________________________________________________________ 112 to which reference is made appears at the bottom of the previous page. Climax The Greek word climax means literally a ladder, and implies ascent, upward movement. The best authors use it only in this sense, and not to denote the highest point. Factor This word, from the Latin factor, a doer, an agent, signifies working, doing, effecting. Its frequent use in the sense of source or part should be avoided. "All are but factors of one stupendous whole, Whose body Nature is, and God the soul." Pope employs the better word parts. Hung, Hanged Pictures, signs, bells, and other inanimate objects are hung; men are hanged. While some writers ignore this distinction, the best authorities observe it. Healthy, Healthful A lady wrote to a paper asking, "Are plants in a sleeping-room unhealthy?" The answer came, "Not necessarily; we have seen some very healthy plants growing in sleeping-rooms." Persons are healthy or unhealthy. A plant or tree is _________________________________________________________________ 113 healthy or unhealthy according as it possesses vigor. Food, surroundings and conditions are healthful or unhealthful according as they promote or destroy health. Idea, Opinion "Many persons think that the interior of the earth is a mass of fire; what is your idea?" Say, "What is your opinion?" Alone, Only "An only child" is one that has neither brother nor sister. "A child alone" is one that is left to itself. "Virtue alone makes us happy" means that virtue unaccompanied by any other advantages is sufficient to make us happy. "Virtue only makes us happy" means that nothing else can do it. Grow, Raise, Rear "We grow wheat, corn, oats, and potatoes on our farm." "We raise wheat," etc., would be better. With the same propriety we might use sleep for lodge, and eat for feed, or supply with food; as, "We can eat and sleep fifty persons at one time." The word raise is often incorrectly used in the sense of rear; as, "She raised a family of nine children." It is sometimes employed in the sense of increase, as, "The landlord raised my rent." Increased would be better. _________________________________________________________________ 114 Has went "He goes to school," "He went to school yesterday," "He has gone to the West." Avoid such ungrammatical forms as "He has went," "I have saw." Badly, Greatly Badly is often incorrectly used for greatly or very much, as, "I need it badly," "He was badly hurt." "That fence wants painting badly, I think I'll do it myself," said the economical husband. "Yes," said his wife, "you had better do it yourself if you think it wants to be done badly." At you "If you don't stop teasing me I will do something at you," meaning "I will punish you." That form of expression is very common in some localities, and it is even more inelegant than common. The use of the preposition to instead of at would be a slight improvement, but the sentence should be entirely recast. Haply, Happily In the reading of the Scriptures the word happily is sometimes used where the archaic word haply should be employed. In like manner the word thoroughly is substituted for the old form throughly. Both words should be pronounced as they are spelled. _________________________________________________________________ 115 Thanks To say "I thank you" requires but little more effort than to say "Thanks," and it will be received as a more sincere token of thankfulness. Got to This inelegant expression is often employed where must would serve the purpose better. "This work has got to be done." Say, "Must be done." Hangs on "The cold weather hangs on." Better, "The cold weather continues." Under the Weather "Are you well?" "No; I have been quite under the weather." Substitute sick or ill, for the colloquial expression under the weather. Again, Against Again is often erroneously used for against; as, "He leaned again the tree for support." Say, "He leaned against the tree for support." Could, Can, Will Could is often incorrectly employed where can or will would be more appropriate. "Could you lend me a dollar this morning?" If the thought of the inquirer is, "Are you willing to lend," etc., he should have used will instead of could; _________________________________________________________________ 116 but if his thought was, "Are you able to lend," or "Do you have a dollar to spare this morning," he should have used can. Bravery, Courage Bravery is inborn; courage is the result of reason and determination. The brave are often reckless; the courageous are always cautious. Hate Avoid the use of hate for dislike, and all other intensive words when the thought is more correctly expressed by a milder word. Pretty, Very Pretty is often incorrectly used in the sense of very or moderately, as "He was pretty badly hurt," "He is a pretty good scholar," "She is pretty wealthy," "Thomas is pretty ugly." So common is this provincialism in some localities that the incongruity of such an expression as the last would pass undiscovered. Lot, Number The use of lot for number or many is a colloquialism that should be avoided. "He collected a lot (large number) of books on the subject." "A lot of policemen were gathered there" "I ate lots of oranges while I was in Florida." _________________________________________________________________ 117 Lead a dance "He led his companion a fine dance." This expression, as generally used, is ironical, and implies that the leader conducts those who are led through experiences unfamiliar to them and usually to their disadvantage. To lead astray, to deceive, to corrupt the morals of, may be substituted for the foregoing inelegant expression. Try and "Have you been to the country this summer?" "No; but I will try and go next week.". The second speaker intends to convey the idea that it is his purpose to go if nothing occurs to prevent, but his going is still a matter of uncertainty. His statement, however, when properly interpreted means that he not only will try, but that he positively will go. "Try and finish that work to-day." Here the purpose is not to command that the work shall be finished, but that the trial shall be made. As the sentence stands two distinct commands are given, first, that the trial shall be made, and, second, that the work must be completed. The sentence should read, "Try to finish that work to-day." Use to instead of and in such expressions as "Try and make it convenient to come," "Try and do your work properly," "Try and think of your lessons," "Try and go and see our sick neighbor." _________________________________________________________________ 118 CHAPTER III Contractions Whatever may be said against employing contractions in dignified discourse, their use in colloquial speech is too firmly established to justify our censure. But, in their use, as, indeed, in the use of all words, proper discrimination must be shown. Just why haven't, hasn't, doesn't, isn't, wasn't, are regarded as being in good repute, and ain't, weren't, mightn't, oughtn't, are regarded with less favor, and why shalln't, willn't are absolutely excluded, it would be difficult to explain. Use determines the law of language, whether for single words, grammatical forms, or grammatical constructions. Wherever a people, by common consent, employ a particular word to mean a certain thing, that word becomes an inherent part of the language of that people, whether it has any basis in etymology or not. We must not wrest this law to our own convenience, however, by assuming that such words and phrases as are introduced and employed by the illiterate, or even by the educated, within a circumscribed territory, are, therefore, to be regarded as _________________________________________________________________ 119 reputable words. The sanction of all classes, the educated as well as the uneducated, throughout the entire country in which the language is spoken, is necessary and preliminary to the proper introduction of a new word into the language. Ain't This word is a contraction of am not or are not, and can, therefore, be used only with the singular pronouns I and you, and with the plural pronouns we, you, and they, and with nouns in the plural. I am not pleased. I ain't pleased. You are not kind. You ain't kind. They are not gentlemen. They ain't gentlemen. These sentences will serve to illustrate the proper use of ain't, if it is ever proper to use such an inelegant word as that. "James ain't a good student," "Mary ain't a skillful musician," or "This orange ain't sweet," are expressions frequently heard, yet those who use them would be shocked to hear the same expressions with the proper equivalent am not or are not substituted for the misleading ain't. The expression ain't is compounded of the verb am or are and the adverb not, and by the contraction the three vocal impulses I-am-not, or you-are-not, or they-are-not, are reduced to two. By compounding the pronoun with the verb and preserving the full adverb, _________________________________________________________________ 120 as in "I'm not," "You're not," "They're not," we also reduce the three vocal impulses to two, thus securing as short a contraction in sound and one that is as fully adapted to colloquial speech, and that is, at the same time, in much better taste. The old form for ain't was an't, but this has now become obsolete. It will be a blessing to the English-speaking people when the descendant shall sleep with his father. Are not is sometimes contracted into aren't, but this form has not found much favor. Can't and Couldn't As cannot and could not may be used with pronouns of the first, second, or third person, in either number, and with nouns in both numbers, no error is likely to follow the use of their contracted forms. Why cannot is properly written as one word, and could not requires two, is not founded upon any principle of philosophy. The concurrent sanction of all classes in all parts of the English-speaking world establishes it as law. Observe that the a in the verb can't is broader in sound than the short a in the noun cant. Don't and Didn't Don't is a contraction of do not. It is in very general use and in good repute. It may be employed _________________________________________________________________ 121 wherever the expanded expression do not could be applied, and only there. "One swallow don't make a spring" is equivalent to saying, "One swallow do not make a spring." We may say "I don't," "You don't," "We don't," "They don't," "The men (or birds, or trees) don't," but we must use doesn't with he, or she, or it, or the man, the grove, the cloud, etc. Unlike the verb do, its past tense form did undergoes no change in conjugation, hence the contraction didn't is also uniform. Haven't, Hasn't, and Hadn't The verb have, like the verb do, has a distinct form for the third person singular. The same change affects the contraction. I haven't, you haven't, he hasn't. The construction hadn't undergoes no change. Haint, Taint Haint is used indiscriminately for haven't and hasn't. Taint is used for tisn't. Their use is indicative of an entire lack of culture. Isn't No one need hesitate to use this word. It is smooth in utterance and contributes much to the freedom and ease of social intercourse. Its equivalent is too stately for colloquial forms of speech, and is often _________________________________________________________________ 122 suggestive of pedantry. Compare "Isn't he an eloquent speaker?" "Isn't this a beautiful flower?" with "Is not he an eloquent speaker?" "Is this not a beautiful flower?" Wasn't Although not so elegant as the present tense form isn't, yet the contraction wasn't is in excellent repute. It is properly used only in the first and third persons singular. No one who makes any pretension to culture would be guilty of saying" You was my neighbor, but you wasn't my friend," "We was engaged in trade, and they wasn't of any use to us." Say we were or were not, but never wasn't or wa'nt. Weren't The forms aren't, and weren't do not have the sanction of the best speakers and writers, and should be used sparingly, if at all. Shouldn't and Wouldn't These are frequently used in speech, but are not so common in writing. Mustn't, Mayn't, Mightn't, and Oughtn't Mustn't may be used in light conversation, but not in writing. The others should be avoided in speech and writing. _________________________________________________________________ 123 I'm, You're, He's, She's, It's, We're, They're The contractions formed by compounding the pronoun with the verb are very common, and tend to preserve conversation from becoming stiff and formal. Nouns in the singular are sometimes compounded in like manner; as, "John's going by the early train," "Mary's caught a bird." Not many verbs beside is and has are thus compounded, and the practice should be discouraged. Mayst, Mightst Although mayst, canst, mightst, couldst, wouldst, and shouldst are contracted forms, the apostrophe is not employed to indicate the contraction. Daren't, Dursent Dare not is sometimes contracted to daren't and durst not to dursent, but the practice should not be encouraged. Let's While verbs are often contracted when compounded with pronouns, as it's, he's, I'm, you're, etc., the pronoun must not be contracted to form a combination with the verb. It may be a poor rule, but it will not work both ways. Let's should therefore be let us. _________________________________________________________________ 124 CHAPTER IV Possessive Case Some time ago a shoe merchant called upon the writer to know how to arrange the points in the wording of a new sign that he was preparing to place over his door. He made a specialty of shoes for men and boys. He presented a paper containing the lines: Men's and Boy's Shoes. Mens' and Boys' Shoes. He was politely informed that both were incorrect; that the two words form their plurals differently, and that the possessive case is, therefore, formed in a different manner. The plural of man is men,; the plural of boy is boys. The possessive of man is man's; of men is men's. The possessive of boy is boy's; of boys is boys'. In the latter case we are obliged to place the apostrophe after the s in order to distinguish the possessive plural from the possessive singular. All nouns that form their plurals by adding s to the singular, form their possessive case as the word boy does. The sign should therefore read: Men's and Boys' Shoes. _________________________________________________________________ 125 Singular Nouns All nouns in the singular form their possessive case by adding the apostrophe and the letter s; as, child's, girl's, woman's, bird's, brother's, sister's, judge's, sailor's. When the noun ends in s, sh, ch, ce, se, or x, the additional s makes another syllable in pronouncing the word; as, James's, Charles's, witness's, duchess's, countess's, Rush's, March's, prince's, horse's, fox's. In poetry the terminal s is sometimes omitted for the sake of the meter. While writers differ, the tendency in modern usage is toward the additional s in such expressions as Mrs. Hemans's Poems, Junius's Letters, Knowles's "Virginius," Knox's Sermons, Brooks's Arithmetics, Rogers's Essays. By long-established usage such expressions as for conscience' sake, for righteousness' sake, for qoodness' sake, for Jesus' sake, have become idioms. Some authorities justify the omission of the possessive s when the next word begins with s, as in Archimedes' screw, Achilles' sword. Plural Nouns Most nouns form their plurals by adding s or es to the singular. These plurals form their possessive by adding the apostrophe; as, horses', countesses', foxes', churches', princes'. Nouns whose plurals are formed otherwise than by adding s or es, form their possessive _________________________________________________________________ 126 case by adding the apostrophe and s, just as nouns in the singular do; as, men's, women's, children's, seraphim's. Pronouns Sometimes the mistake is made of using the apostrophe with the possessive personal pronouns; as, her's, our's, it's. The personal and relative pronouns do not require the apostrophe, but the indefinite pronouns one and other form their possessives in the same manner as nouns; as, "each other's eyes," "a hundred others' woes." Double Possessives "John and Mary's sled," means one sled belonging jointly to John and Mary. "John's and Mary's sleds" means that one sled belongs to John, the other to Mary. "Men, women, and children's shoes for sale here." When several possessives connected by and refer to the same noun, the sign of the possessive is applied to the last one only. When a disjunctive word or words are used, the sign must be annexed to each word; as, "These are Charles's or James's books." Possessive of Nouns in Apposition When two nouns are in apposition, or constitute a title, the possessive sign is affixed to the last, as _________________________________________________________________ 127 "For David my servant's sake," "Give me here John the Baptist's head in a charger," "The Prince of Wales's yacht," "Frederick the Great's kindness." After "of" By a peculiarity of idiom the possessive sign is used with a noun in the objective; as, "This is a story of Lincoln's," "That is a letter of the President's," "A patient of Dr. Butler's," "A pupil of Professor Ludlam's." In ordinary prose the custom of the best writers is to limit the use of the possessive chiefly to persons and personified objects; to time expressions, as, an hour's delay, a moment's thought; and to such idioms as for brevity's sake. Avoid such expressions as, "America's champion baseball player," "Chicago's best five-cent cigar," "Lake Michigan's swiftest steamer." Somebody else's The question whether we should say "This is somebody's else pencil," or "This is somebody else's pencil," has been warmly argued by the grammarians, the newspapers, and the schools. If some leading journal or magazine were to write somebody else as one word, others would, doubtless, follow, and the question of the possessive would settle itself. The word notwithstanding is composed of three separate words, _________________________________________________________________ 128 which are no more closely united in thought than are the three words some, body, and else. Two of the latter are already united, and the close mental union of the third with the first and second would justify the innovation. But the words are at present disunited. A majority of the best writers still conform to the old custom of placing the possessive with else. "People were so ridiculous with their illusions, carrying their fool's caps unawares, thinking their own lies opaque, while everybody else's were transparent."-- George Eliot. Some make a distinction by placing the possessive with else when the noun follows, and with somebody when the noun precedes; as, "This is somebody else's pencil," and "This pencil is somebody's else." This distinction is not generally followed. _________________________________________________________________ 129 CHAPTER V Pronouns The correct use of the pronouns, personal and relative, involves a degree of skill which many speakers and writers fail to possess. The choice of the appropriate pronoun, the agreement with its antecedent, the proper case form, are matters that require careful consideration. Case Forms Following am, are, is, was, and other forms of the verb to be, the pronoun must be in the nominative case. "Are you the person that called?" "Yes; I am him." The answer should have been, "I am he." "I saw a man trespassing on my grounds, and I think you are him." Say, "You are he." "It is only me; don't be afraid." "It is only I" is the correct form. "It was him that struck you, not me." Change him, to he, and me to I. "It might have been him that sent you the present." Use he, not him. _________________________________________________________________ 130 "It is him whom you said it was." The sentence should be, "It is he who you said it was." "That was but a picture of him and not him himself." Say, "and not he himself." After Verbs and Prepositions When a pronoun depends upon a verb or a preposition the pronoun must be in the objective case. "Between you and I, that picture is very faulty." The pronouns you and I depend upon the preposition between. The pronoun I should therefore be in the objective case, and the sentence should be, "Between you and me, that picture is very faulty." "The president of the meeting appointed you and I upon the committee." As both pronouns are objects of the transitive verb appointed, both should be in the objective case. You having the same form in the objective as in the nominative is, therefore, correct, but I should be changed to me. "The teacher selected he and I to represent the class." The pronouns are the objects of the verb selected, and should be changed to him and me. The infinitive to represent, like other infinitives, can have no subject, and, therefore, does not control the case of the pronouns. Interrogatives When a question is asked, the subject is usually placed after the verb, or between the auxiliary and _________________________________________________________________ 131 the verb; as, "Did you go to town?" "Will he sail to-day?" "Has your uncle arrived?" "Hearest thou thy mother's call?" The object or attribute of the verb, when a pronoun, is often used to introduce the sentence. "Who should I see coming toward me but my old friend?" Who should be whom, for it is the object, and not the subject, of the verb should see. "Whom do you think that tall gentleman is?" Whom should be who, as it is the attribute of the verb is. "Who do you take me for?" Being the object of the preposition for, who should be whom. After "To be" "I knew it was him" is incorrect, because the word which forms the pronoun attribute of the verb was must be in the nominative case. But the infinitive of the neuter verb requires the objective case. Therefore we must say, "I knew it to be him," not "I knew it to be he." The latter faulty form is very frequently employed. "Who did you suppose it to be?" Incorrect. Say, "whom." "Whom did you suppose it was?" Incorrect. Say, "who." _________________________________________________________________ 132 After the Imperative The imperative mood requires the objective case after it. "Let you and I try it." It should be, "Let you and me try it." "Let he who made thee answer that."-- Byron. He should have said, "Let him who made thee answer that." "Let him be whom, he may." Him is the objective after the imperative let, and is correct. Whom should be who, as pronoun attribute of the verb may be. "Who he may be, I cannot tell," is correct. "Who he may be, let him be," is also correct. By transposing, and by omitting be, we have "Let him be who he may." "Let the sea roar, and the fullness thereof; the world, and they that dwell therein." When, as in this case, the verb is widely separated from its object, we need to give particular care to the case of the pronoun which constitutes the object. They should be them. Silent Predicate "Who will go with us to the woods? Me." The complete answer would be," Me will go with you to the woods," the faultiness of which is evident. The answer should be "I." After "Than" and "As" The objective pronoun is often incorrectly used for the nominative after than or as. _________________________________________________________________ 133 "He can swim better than me." The complete sentence would be, "He can swim better than I can swim." The omission of the verb can swim affords no reason for changing I to me. "He is no better than me." Say, "He is no better than I," meaning, I am. "They are common people, such as you and me." Such people "as you and I are." The pronoun should be I, not me. Parenthetical Expressions When a parenthetical expression comes between a pronoun in the nominative case and its verb, the objective is often incorrectly used instead of the nominative. "She sang for the benefit of those whom she thought might be interested." The explanatory parenthesis "she thought" comes between the pronominal subject and its verb might be interested. Omit the explanatory clause and the case of the pronoun becomes clear. "She sang for the benefit of those who might be interested." Agreement with Antecedent A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, person, and number. The gender and person usually take care of themselves, but the number of pronouns is a serious obstacle to correct speech. _________________________________________________________________ 134 "One tells the quality of their minds when they try to talk well"-- George Eliot, in Middlemarch. The pronouns their and they should be singular. "Everybody has something to say which they think is worthy of being heard." Everybody refers to persons singly, and not collectively. They think should be he thinks, he being the proper pronoun to employ when the gender is not indicated. "Every nation has laws and customs of their own." The use of the word every necessitates a pronoun in the singular, hence their should be its. "Every one is accountable for their own acts." Use his. "She studied his countenance like an inscription, and deciphered each rapt expression that crossed it, and stored them in her memory." Change them to it. "Each of them, in their turn, received the reward to which they were entitled." This should be "Each of them in his turn received the reward to which he was entitled." No and not, like each and every, when they qualify a plural antecedent, or one consisting of two or more nouns, require a pronoun in the singular. "No policeman, no employee, no citizen dared to lift their hand" Say, his hand. _________________________________________________________________ 135 Or, Nor When the antecedent consists of two or more nouns separated by or, nor, as well as, or any other disjunctive, the pronoun must be singular. "Neither spelling nor parsing receive the attention they once received." Verb and pronoun should be singular, receives and it. Collective Noun When a noun of multitude or collective noun is the antecedent, the pronoun, like the verb, must be plural or singular according to the sense intended to be conveyed. Ambiguity Never leave the antecedent of your pronoun in doubt. "John tried to see his father in the crowd, but could not, because he was so short." If the father was short, repeat the noun and omit the pronoun, as "John tried to see his father in the crowd but could not because his father was so short." If John was short, recast the sentence: "John, being short of stature, tried in vain to see his father in the crowd." "He said to his friend that, if he did not feel better soon, he thought he had better go home." This sentence is susceptible of four interpretations. We shall omit the first part of the sentence in the last _________________________________________________________________ 136 three interpretations, as it is the same in all. "He said to his friend: 'If I do not feel better soon, I think I had better go home.'" "If I do not feel better soon, I think you had better go home." "If you do not feel better soon, I think I had better go home." "If you do not feel better soon, I think you had better go home." "The lad cannot leave his father; for, if he should leave him, he would die." To avoid ambiguity substitute his father for the italicised pronouns. The repetition is not pleasant, but it is the lesser of two evils. Needless Pronouns Avoid all pronouns and other words that are not essential to the meaning. "The father he died, the mother she soon followed after, and the children they were all taken down sick." "Let every one turn from his or her evil ways." Unless there is special reason for emphasizing the feminine pronoun, avoid the awkward expression his or her. The pronoun his includes the other. Mixed Pronouns Do not use two styles of the pronoun in the same Sentence. "Enter thou into the joy of your Lord." "Love thyself last, and others will love you." _________________________________________________________________ 137 Them, Those It should not be necessary to caution the reader against the use of them for those. "Fetch me them books." "Did you see them, fat oxen?" "Them's good; I'll take another dish." Which, Who "Those which say so are mistaken." Who is applied to persons; which, to the lower animals and to inanimate things. "He has some friends which I know." Whom, the objective case form of the pronoun who, should here be used. "The dog, who was called Rover, went mad." Use which. What, That That is applied to persons, animals, and things. What is applied to things. The antecedent of what should not be expressed. What is both antecedent and relative. "All what he saw he described." Say, "What he saw," or "All that he saw," etc. Uniform Relatives When several relative clauses relate to the same antecedent, they should have the same relative pronoun. "It was Joseph that was sold into Egypt, who became _________________________________________________________________ 138 governor of the land, and which saved his father and brothers from famine." Change that and which to who. Choice of Relatives Since who and that are both applied to persons, and which and that are both applied to animals and things, it often becomes a serious question which relative we shall employ. Much has been written upon the subject, but the critics still differ in theory and in practice. The following is probably as simple a statement of the general rule as can be found: If the relative clause is of such a nature that it could be introduced by and he, and she, and it, and they, etc., the relative who (for persons) and which (for animals or things) should be used in preference to the relative that. "Man that is born of a woman is of few days, and full of trouble." The language of the Bible and of Shakespeare must stand, although the forms of expression differ greatly from those employed at the present day. According to modern standards, that should be who. "The earth is enveloped by an ocean of air that is a compound of oxygen and nitrogen!" Change that to which. The relative that should be used in preference to who or which: _________________________________________________________________ 139 (1) When the antecedent names both persons and things; (2) When it would prevent ambiguity; (3) After the words same, very, all; (4) After the interrogative pronoun who; (5) After adjectives expressing quality in the highest degree. "The wisest men who ever lived made mistakes." Use that. See (5). "He lived near a stagnant pool which was a nuisance." Use that. See (2). "All who knew him loved him." Say that. See (3). "Who who saw him did not pity him." See (4). "He spake of the men and things which he had seen." See (1). "These are my pupils which I have brought to see you." Use whom, as which is not applied to persons. "This is the window whose panes were broken by the rude boys." Use "the panes of which." Because of its convenience, perhaps, the faulty whose is very largely used; as, "The eagle whose wings," "The house whose gables," "The ocean whose waves," "The vessel whose sails," "The play whose chief merit," "Music whose chief attraction," etc. _________________________________________________________________ 140 Which and Who after "And" Which and who cannot follow and unless there has been a preceding which or who in the same sentence and in the same construction. "The more important rules, definitions and observations, and which are therefore the most proper to be committed to memory, are printed with a large type."-- Murray's Grammar. In Moore's Bad English the sentence is corrected thus: "The rules, definitions, and observations which are the more important, and which are therefore the most proper to be committed to memory, are printed in larger type." Adverbs for Relative Pronouns Adverbs are often employed where a preposition with a relative pronoun would better express the sense. "There is no method known how his safety may be assured." Use by which instead of how. "He wrote me a letter where he repeated his instructions." "Letter in which he repeated," etc. "And curse the country where their fathers dwelt." "In which their fathers dwelt." "This is a case where large interests are involved." The preposition and relative will better express the meaning; as, "This is a case in which large interests are involved." _________________________________________________________________ 141 Misplaced Relative The relative should be so placed as to prevent ambiguity, and as near as possible to its antecedent. "Mr. Smith needs a surgeon, who has broken his arm." Say, "Mr. Smith, who has broken," etc. "The figs were in small wooden boxes, which we ate." "The figs which we ate," etc. "He needs no boots that cannot walk." "He that cannot walk," etc. Omitted Relatives The relative pronoun is often omitted when it should be expressed. "The next falsehood he told was the worst of all." Say, "The next falsehood that he told," etc. "It is little we know of the divine perfections." Say, "Little that we know." "Almost all the irregularities in the construction of any language have arisen from the ellipsis of some words which were originally inserted in the sentence and made it regular."-- Murray's Grammar. The sentence should end with "and which made it regular." The one, the other When the one and the other refer to things previously mentioned, the one applies to the first mentioned, and the other to the last mentioned. "Homer was a genius, Virgil an artist: in the one we most admire the man; in the other, the work." _________________________________________________________________ 142 CHAPTER VI Number Many persons of moderate education regard nouns that do not end with s or es as singular. Even the gifted pen of Addison once slipped so far as to betray him into using the word seraphim, in the singular. Cherubim, Seraphim The words cherub and seraph, are singular. Cherub, as applied to a little child, takes the English plural, cherubs. As applied to an order of angels, it takes the Hebrew plural, cherubim. The singular, seraph, has an English plural, seraphs, as well as the Hebrew plural, seraphs. The double plurals, cherubims and seraphims, although found in the King James version of the Bible, are regarded as faulty in modern writing, and should be avoided. News Although plural in form, the word news is singular in meaning; as, "The news from Europe this morning is quite interesting." _________________________________________________________________ 143 Acoustics Names of sciences ending in ics, are generally regarded as singular. "Acoustics is a very considerable branch of physics." Do not say, "The acoustics of this hall are good," but "The acoustic properties of this hall are good." Dialectics, dynamics, economics, mathematics, ethics, politics, tactics, when used as substantives, require a verb in the singular. Analysis Many words like analysis, crisis, ellipsis, emphasis, hypothesis, oasis, parenthesis, synopsis, form their plurals by changing the termination is into es; as, analyses, crises, etc. The word iris takes the English plural irises; Latin plural is irides. Chrysalis has only the Latin plural, chrysalides; but chrysalid, which means the same as chrysalis, takes the English plural, chrysalids. Terminus Terminus, radius, alumnus, and some other words ending in us, form their plurals by changing the termination us into i; as termini, radii, etc. Many words ending in us that formerly were written with only the Latin plural, are now given an English plural also; as, focuses, foci; cactuses, cacti; sarcophaguses, sarcophagi; convolvuluses, convolvuli ; funguses, fungi; nucleuses, nuclei. _________________________________________________________________ 144 Isthmus, prospectus, rebus, take only the English plural. Apparatus has no plural. Avoid apparatuses. The plural of genius, as applied to a man of unusual vigor of mind, is geniuses. When applied to a good or bad spirit, the plural is genii. Formula Formulas, larvas, stigmas, are regular English plurals; formulae, larvae, and stigmata are the classical plurals. Nebulae and alumnae are the proper plurals, the latter being the feminine noun corresponding to the masculine plural alumni. Datum, Phenomenon Datum, erratum, candelabrum, and memorandum form their plurals by changing um to a; as, data, errata, etc. The last two also take the English plurals, memorandums, candelabrums. The plural of phenomenon and criterion are phenomena, criteria, although criterions is sometimes employed. The plural forms, data, strata, and phenomena, are so much more frequently used than their singular forms, datum, stratum, and phenomenon, that some writers have slipped into the habit of using the plurals with a singular meaning; as, "The aurora borealis is a very strange phenomena." "Our data is insufficient to establish a theory." "The strata is broken and irregular." _________________________________________________________________ 145 Mussulmans While most words ending in man become plural by changing this termination to men, as gentlemen, noblemen, clergymen, statesmen, the following simply add s: dragomans, Mussulmans, Ottomnans, talismans "A dozen dragomans offered their services as guides and interpreters." "A band of Mussulmans cut off our retreat." "Those fierce Ottomans proved to be very revengeful." "He purchased five finely upholstered ottomans for his drawing-room." Heroes, Cantos Most nouns ending in o add es to form the plural; as, heroes, negroes, potatoes, stuccoes, manifestoes, mosquitoes. Words ending in io or yo add s; as, folios, nuncios, olios, ratios, embryos. The following words, being less frequently used, often puzzle us to know whether to add s or es to form the plural: armadillos, cantos, cuckoos, halos, juntos, octavos, provisos, salvos, solos, twos, tyros, virtuosos. Alms, Odds, Riches Many nouns that end in s have a plural appearance, and we are often perplexed to know whether to use this or these, and whether to employ a singular or a plural verb when the noun is used as a substantive. Amends is singular. Assets, dregs, eaves, bees, pincers, riches, scissors, sheers, tongs, vitals, are plural. When we _________________________________________________________________ 146 say a pair of pincers, or scissors, or shears, or tongs, the verb should be singular. Tidings, in Shakespeare's time, was used indiscriminately with a singular or plural verb, but is now generally regarded as plural. Alms and headquarters are usually made plural, but are occasionally found with a singular verb. Pains is usually singular. Means, odds, and species are singular or plural, according to the meaning. "By this means he accomplished his purpose." "What other means is left to us?" "Your means are very slender, and your waste is great." Proper Names These are usually pluralized by adding s; as, the Stuarts, the Caesars, the Beechers, the Brownings. Titles with Proper Names Shall we say the Miss Browns, the Misses Brown, or the Misses Browns? Great diversity of opinion prevails. Gould Brown says: "The name and not the title is varied to form the plural; as, the Miss Howards, the two Mr. Clarks." Alexander Bain, LL. D., says: "We may say the Misses Brown, or the Miss Browns, or even the Misses Browns." The chief objection to the last two forms is found when the proper name ends with s, as when we say, the Miss Brookses, the Miss Joneses, the Miss Pottses, the _________________________________________________________________ 147 Miss Blisses. The form the Misses Brooks is objected to by some on the ground that it sounds affected. On the whole the rule given by Gould Brown is the best, and is quite generally observed. Knight Templar Both words are made plural, Knights Templars, a very unusual way of forming the plural. Plural Compounds The plural sign of a compound word is affixed to the principal part of the word, to the part that conveys the predominant idea; as, fathers-in-law, man-servants, outpourings, ingatherings. In such words as handfuls, cupfuls, mouthfuls, the plural ending is added to the subordinate part because the ideas are so closely associated as to blend into one. Beaus, Beaux Some words ending in eau have only the English plurals, as bureaus, portmanteaus; others take both the English and the French plurals, as beaus, beaux; flambeaus, flambeaux; plateaus, plateaux; and still others take only the foreign plural; as, bateaux, chateaux, tableaux. Pair, Couple, Brace After numerals, the singular form of such words as these is generally employed; as, five pair of gloves, eight couple of dancers, three brace of pigeons, five _________________________________________________________________ 148 dozen of eggs, four score years, twenty sail of ships, fifty head of cattle, six hundred of these men, two thousand of these cattle, etc. After such indefinite adjectives as few, many, several, some of the above words take the plural form; as, several hundreds, many thousands. Index, Appendix Indexes of books; indices, if applied to mathematical signs in algebra. Appendixes or appendices. Fish, Fly The plural of fish is fishes when considered individually, and fish when considered collectively. "My three pet fishes feed out of my hand." "Six barrels of fish were landed from the schooner." Most words ending in y change this termination into ies, as duties, cities, etc. The plural of fly, the insect, is formed in the usual manner, but fly, a light carriage, adds s; as, "Six flys carried the guests to their homes." Animalcule The plural of this word is animalcules. There is no plural animalculae. The plural of the Latin animalculum is animalcula. Bandit This word has two plural forms, bandits and banditti. _________________________________________________________________ 149 Brother Plural brothers, when referring to members of the same family; brethren, when applied to members of the same church or society. Die Plural dies, when the stamp with which seals are impressed is meant; dice, the cubes used in playing backgammon. Herring The plural is herrings, but shad, trout, bass, pike, pickerel, grayling, have no plural form. "I caught three bass and seven fine pickerel this morning." Grouse The names of game birds, as grouse, quail, snipe, woodcock, usually take no plural form. Pea Considered individually the plural is peas; when referring to the crop the proper form is pease. Penny "He gave me twelve bright new pennies," referring to the individual coins. "I paid him twelve pence," meaning a shilling. Wharf Plural, generally wharves in America; wharfs in England. _________________________________________________________________ 150 CHAPTER VII Adverbs The clearness of the sentence is often dependent upon the proper placing of the adverb. No absolute rule can be laid down, but it should generally be placed before the word it qualifies. It is sometimes necessary to place it after the verb, and occasionally between the auxiliary and the verb, but it should never come between to and the infinitive. "I have thought of marrying often." As the adverb relates to the thinking, and not to the marrying, the sentence should read, "I have often thought of marrying." "We have often occasion to speak of health." This should be, "We often have occasion," etc, "It remains then undecided whether we shall go to Newport or Saratoga." Place undecided before then. Adjective or Adverb? There is often a doubt in the mind of the speaker whether to use the adjective or the adverb, and too frequently he reaches a wrong decision. When the limiting word expresses a quality or state of the subject _________________________________________________________________ 151 or of the object of a verb, the adjective must be employed; but if the manner of the action is to be expressed, the adverb must be used. The verbs be, seem, look, taste, smell, and feel furnish many stumbling-blocks. "This rose smells sweetly." As the property or quality of the rose is here referred to, and not the manner of smelling, the adjective sweet should be employed, and not the adverb sweetly. "Thomas feels quite badly about it." Here, again, it is the condition of Thomas's mind, and not the manner of feeling, that is to be expressed; hence, badly should be bad or uncomfortable. "Didn't she look beautifully upon the occasion of her wedding?" No; she looked beautiful. "The sun shines brightly." Bright is the better word. "The child looks cold," refers to the condition of the child. "The lady looked coldly upon her suitor," refers to the manner of looking. "The boy feels warm" is correct. "The boy feels warmly the rebuke of his teacher" is equally correct. While license is granted to the poets to use the adjective for the adverb, as in the line "They fall successive and successive rise," in prose the one must never be substituted for the other. _________________________________________________________________ 152 "Agreeably to my promise, I now write," not "Agreeable to my promise." "An awful solemn funeral," should be "An awfully solemn funeral." "He acts bolder than was expected," should be "He acts more boldly." "Helen has been awful sick, but she is now considerable better." "Helen has been very ill, but she is now considerably better." Do not use coarser for more coarsely, finer for more finely, harsher for more harshly, conformable for conformably, decided for decidedly, distinct for distinctly, fearful for fearfully, fluent for fluently. Do not say "This melon is uncommon good," but "This melon is uncommonly good." The word ill is both an adjective and an adverb. Do not say "He can illy afford to live in such a house," but "He can ill afford." "That was a dreadful solemn sermon." To say "That was a dreadfully solemn sermon" would more grammatically express what the speaker intended, but very or exceedingly would better express the meaning. Such, So Such is often improperly used for the adverb so. "In such a mild and healthful climate." This should be, "In so mild and healthful a climate." _________________________________________________________________ 153 "With all due deference to such a high authority on such a very important matter." Change to, "With all due deference to so high an authority on so very important a matter." Good, Well Many intelligent persons carelessly use the adjective good in the sense of the adverb well; as, "I feel good to-day." "Did you sleep good last night?" "Does this coat look good enough to wear on the street?" "I can do it as good as he can." The frequent indulgence in such errors dulls the sense of taste and weakens the power of discrimination. Very much of "She is very much of a lady." Say, "She is very ladylike." "He is very much of a gentleman." Say, "He is very gentlemanly." Quite This adverb is often incorrectly used in the sense of very or rather. It should be employed only in the sense of wholly or entirely. These sentences are therefore incorrect: "He was wounded quite severely." "James was quite tired of doing nothing." _________________________________________________________________ 154 How This word is sometimes used when another would be more appropriate. "He said how he would quit farming." Use that. "Ye see how that not many wise men are called." We must read the Bible as we find it, but in modern English the sentence would be corrected by omitting how. "Be careful how you offend him." If the manner of offending is the thought to be expressed, the sentence is correct. But the true meaning is doubtless better expressed by, "Be careful lest you offend him." No, Not "I cannot tell whether he will come or no." "Whether he be a sinner or no I know not." In such cases not should be used instead of no. This much "This much can be said in his favor." Change this much to so much or thus much. That far The expressions this far and that far, although they are very common, are, nevertheless, incorrect. Thus far or so far should be used instead. _________________________________________________________________ 155 Over, More than "There were not over thirty persons present." Over is incorrect; above has some sanction; but more than, is the best, and should be used. Real good This is one of those good-natured expressions that insinuate themselves into the speech of even cultured people. Very good is just as short, and much more correct. Really good scarcely conveys the thought intended. So nice "This basket of flowers is so nice." So nice does not tell how nice. So requires a correlative to complete its meaning. Use very nice or very pretty. Pell-mell "He rushes pell-mell down the street." One bird cannot flock by itself, nor can one man rush pell-mell. It will require at least several men to produce the intermixing and confusion which the word is intended to convey. _________________________________________________________________ 156 CHAPTER VIII Conjunctions As a general rule, sentences should not begin with conjunctions. And, or, and nor are often needlessly employed to introduce a sentence. The disjunctive but may sometimes be used to advantage in this position, and in animated and easy speech or writing the coordinate conjunction and may be serviceable, but these and all other conjunctions, when made to introduce sentences, should be used sparingly. Reason, Because "The reason I ask you to tell the story is because you can do it better than I." Because means "for the reason." This makes the sentence equivalent to "The reason I ask you to tell the story is for the reason that you can do it better than I." Use that instead of because. "Because William studied law is no reason why his brother should not do so." The following is better: "That William studied law is no reason why his brother should not do so." _________________________________________________________________ 157 Only, Except, But "The house was as convenient as his, only that it was a trifle smaller." Use except for only. "The field was as large as his, only the soil was less fertile." Use but for only. But, Except "Being the eldest of the brothers but Philip, who was an invalid, he assumed charge of his father's estate." Except is better than but. But what, But that "Think no man so perfect but what he may err." Say, "but that he may err." "I could not think but what he was insane." Use but that. But, If "I should not wonder but the assembly would adjourn to-day." Use if instead of but. But, That "I have no doubt but he will serve you well." Say, "that he will serve you well." That, That "I wished to show, by your own writings, that so far were you from being competent to teach others English composition, that you had need yourself to study its first principles."-- Moon, Dean's English. The second that is superfluous. This fault is very _________________________________________________________________ 158 common with writers who use long sentences. The intervention of details between the first that and the clause which it is intended to introduce causes the writer to forget that he has used the introductory word, and prompts him to repeat it unconsciously. But "There is no doubt but that he is the greatest painter of the age." The word but is superfluous. "He never doubted but that he was the best fisherman on the coast." Omit but. That "He told me he would write as soon as he reached London." Say, "He told me that he would write," etc. Than "The Romans loved war better than the Greeks." Such ambiguous forms should be avoided. As it is not probable that the speaker intended to say that the Romans loved war better than they loved the Greeks, he should have framed his sentence thus: "The Romans loved war better than the Greeks did." But that "He suffered no inconvenience but that arising from the dust." But that, or except that, is correct. Some persons improperly use than that after no. "I don't know but that I shall go to Europe." Omit that. "I don't know but I shall go," etc. _________________________________________________________________ 159 Other than "We suffered no other inconvenience but that arising from the dust." This is incorrect. After other we should use than. Therefore, "We suffered no other inconvenience than that arising from the dust." After else, other, rather, and all comparatives, the latter term of comparison should be introduced by the conjunction than. Either the "Passengers are requested not to converse with either conductor or driver." This is one of those business notices that are often more concise than correct. It implies that there are two conductors and two drivers. The sentence should read, "Passengers are requested not to converse with either the conductor or the driver." Lest, That "I feared lest I should be left behind." Use the copulative that, and not the disjunctive lest. "I feared that I should be left behind." Otherwise than "He cannot do otherwise but follow your direction." Use than, not but, after otherwise. Hence, "He cannot do otherwise than follow," etc. After that "After that I have attended to the business I will call upon you." The word that is superfluous. _________________________________________________________________ 160 But what "His parents will never believe but what he was enticed away by his uncle." Omit what. The use of but that would be equally objectionable. But is sufficient. A reconstruction of the sentence would improve it. "His parents will always believe," or "Will never cease to believe that," etc. Doubt not but "I doubt not but your friend will return." Say, "I doubt not that your friend will return." Not impossible but "It is not impossible but he may call to-day." Use that instead of but. Whether, Whether "Ginevra has not decided whether she will study history or whether she will study philosophy." As there is nothing gained in clearness or in emphasis by the repetition of "whether she will," this shorter sentence would be better: "Ginevra has not decided whether she will study history or philosophy." As though "He spoke as though, he had a customer for his house." Say, "as if he had a purchaser," etc. _________________________________________________________________ 161 Except "I will not let thee go except thou bless me." This use of the word except occurs frequently in the Scriptures, but it is now regarded as obsolete. The word unless should be used instead. "Few speakers except Burke could have held their attention." In this sentence, besides should take the place of except. _________________________________________________________________ 162 CHAPTER IX Correlatives Certain adverbs and conjunctions, in comparison or antithesis, require the use of corresponding adverbs and conjunctions. Such corresponding words are called correlatives. The following are the principal ones in use: as, as. not merely, but also. as, so. not merely, but even. both, and. so, as. if, then. so, that. either, or. such, as. neither, nor. such, that. not only, but. though, yet. not only, but also. when, then. not only, but even. where, there. not merely, but. whether, or. The improper grouping of these correlatives is the cause of many errors in speech and writing. As... as "She is as wise as she is good." "Mary is as clever as her brother." The correlatives as... as are _________________________________________________________________ 163 employed in expressing equality. Their use in any other connection is considered inelegant. "As far as I am able to judge, he would make a very worthy officer." This is a very common error. The sentence should be, "So far as I am able," etc. As is often followed by so. "As thy days, so shall thy strength be." So... as In such negative assertions as, "This is not as fine a tree as that," the first as should be changed to so. Say, "She is not so handsome as she once was." "This edition of Tennyson is not so fine as that." Either, Neither The correlatives either, or, and neither, nor, are employed when two objects are mentioned; as, "Either you or I must go to town to-day," "Neither James nor Henry was proficient in history." "He neither bought, sold, or exchanged stocks and bonds." The sentence should be, "He neither bought, sold, nor exchanged stocks and bonds." "That is not true, neither." As we already have one negative in the word not, the word neither should be changed to either, to avoid the double negation. A negative other than neither may take either or or nor as its correlative, "She was not so handsome as her mother, or so brilliant as her father." "He was never happy nor contented afterward." _________________________________________________________________ 164 Position of correlatives The placing of correlatives requires care. "He not only gave me advice, but also money." This is a faulty construction because the first member of the correlative, not only, being placed before the verb gave leads us to expect that the action of giving is to be contrasted with some other action. The close of the sentence reveals the fact that the words advice and money represent the ideas intended for contrast. The first correlative should, therefore, have been placed before advice, and the sentence should read, "He gave me not only advice, but also money." "I remember that I am not here as a censor either of manners or morals." This sentence from Richard Grant White will be improved by changing the position of the first member of the correlative. "I remember that I am not here as a censor of either manners or morals." "I neither estimated myself highly nor lowly." It should be, "I estimated myself neither highly nor lowly." "He neither attempted to excite anger, nor ridicule, nor admiration." The sentence should be, "He attempted to excite neither anger, nor ridicule, nor admiration." But here we have the correlative neither, nor, used with more than two objects, which is a violation of a principle previously stated. The _________________________________________________________________ 165 sentence is purposely introduced to call attention to the fact that many respectable writers not only use neither, nor, with three or more objects, but also defend it. This usage may be avoided by a reconstruction of the sentence; as, "He did not attempt to excite anger, nor ridicule, nor admiration." _________________________________________________________________ 166 CHAPTER X The Infinitive Many errors arise from not knowing how to use the infinitive mood. Perhaps the most common fault is to interpose an adverb between the preposition to and the infinitive verb; as, "It is not necessary to accurately relate all that he said." "You must not expect to always find people agreeable." Whether we shall place the adverb before the verb or after it must often be determined by considerations of emphasis and smoothness as well as of clearness and correctness. In the foregoing sentences it is better to place accurately after the verb, and always before the preposition to. Supply "to" The preposition to as the sign of the infinitive is often improperly omitted. "Please write clearly, so that we may understand," "Your efforts will tend to hinder rather than hasten the work," "Strive so to criticise as not to embarrass _________________________________________________________________ 167 nor discourage your pupil." These sentences will be corrected by inserting to before the italicized words. In such expressions as "Please excuse my son's absence," "Please write me a letter," "Please hand me the book," many authorities insist upon the use of to before the verb. The sentences may, however, be regarded as softened forms of the imperative; as, "Hand me the book, if you please." Transposed, "If you please, hand me the book." Contracted, "Please, hand me the book." From this, the comma may have slipped out and left the sentence as first written. Omit "to" When a series of infinitives relate to the same object, the word to should be used before the first verb and omitted before the others; as, "He taught me to read, write, and cipher." "The most accomplished way of using books at present is to serve them as some do lords-- learn their titles and then brag of their acquaintance." The active verbs bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see, and their participles, usually take the infinitive after them, without the preposition to. Such expressions, as "He bade me to depart," "I dare to say he is a villain," "I had difficulty in making him to see his error," are, therefore, wrong, and are corrected by omitting to. _________________________________________________________________ 168 Incomplete Infinitive Such incomplete expressions as the following are very common: "He has not gone to Europe, nor is he likely to." "She has not written her essay, nor does she intend to." "Can a man arrive at excellence who has no desire to?" The addition of the word go to the first sentence, and of write it, to the second would make them complete. In the case of the third sentence it would be awkward to say, "Can a man arrive at excellence who has no desire to arrive at excellence." We therefore substitute the more convenient expression "to do so." _________________________________________________________________ 169 CHAPTER XI Participles Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by prepositions. Those ending in ing should not be made the subjects or objects of verbs while they retain the government and adjuncts of participles. They may often be converted into nouns or take the form of the infinitive. "Not attending to this rule is the cause of a very common error." Better, "Inattention to this rule," etc. "He abhorred being in debt." Better, "He abhorred debt," "Cavilling and objecting upon any subject is much easier than clearing up difficulties." Say, "To cavil and object upon any subject is much easier than to clear up difficulties." Omit "of" Active participles have the same government as the verbs from which they are derived. The preposition of, therefore, should not be used after the participle, when the verb would not require it. Omit of in such expressions as these: "Keeping of one day _________________________________________________________________ 170 in seven," "By preaching of repentance," "They left beating of Paul," "From calling of names they came to blows," "They set about repairing of the walls." If the article the occurs before the participle, the preposition of must be retained; as, "They strictly observed the keeping of one day in seven." When a transitive participle is converted into a noun, of must be inserted to govern the object following. "He was very exact in forming his sentences," "He was very exact in the formation of his sentences." Omit the possessive The possessive case should not be prefixed to a participle that is not taken in all respects as a noun. It should, therefore, be expunged in the following sentences: "By our offending others, we expose ourselves." "She rewarded the boy for his studying so diligently." "He errs in his giving the word a double construction." The possessives in such cases as the following should be avoided: "I have some recollection of his father's being a judge." "To prevent its being a dry detail of terms." These sentences may be improved by recasting them. "I have some recollection that his father was a judge." "To prevent it from being a dry detail of terms." _________________________________________________________________ 171 When the noun or pronoun to which the participle relates is a passive subject, it should not have the possessive form; as, "The daily instances of men's dying around us remind us of the brevity of human life." "We do not speak of a monosyllable's having a primary accent." Change men's to men, and monosyllable's to monosyllable. After verbs Verbs do not govern participles. "I intend doing it," "I remember meeting Longfellow," and similar expressions should be changed by the substitution of the infinitive for the participle; as, "I intend to do it," "I remember to have met Longfellow." After verbs signifying to persevere, to desist, the participle ending in ing is permitted; as, "So when they continued asking him, he lifted up himself, and said unto them." Place In the use of participles and of verbal nouns, the leading word in sense should always be made the leading word, and not the adjunct, in the construction. "They did not give notice of the pupil leaving." Here, the leading idea is leaving. Pupil should, therefore, be subordinate by changing its form to the possessive; as, "They did not give notice of the pupil's leaving." Better still, "They did not give notice that the pupil had left." _________________________________________________________________ 172 Clearness The word to which the participle relates should stand out clearly. "By giving way to sin, trouble is encountered." This implies that trouble gives way to sin. The relation of the participle is made clear by saying, "By giving way to sin, we encounter trouble." "By yielding to temptation, our peace is sacrificed." This should be, "By yielding to temptation we sacrifice our peace." "A poor child was found in the streets by a wealthy and benevolent gentleman, suffering from cold and hunger." Say, "A poor child, suffering from cold and hunger, was found," etc. Awkward Construction Such awkward sentences as the following should be avoided. In most cases they will require to be recast. "But as soon as the whole body is attempted to be carved, a disproportion between its various parts results." "The offence attempted to be charged should be alleged under another section of the statute." The following is a better arrangement: "But as soon as an attempt is made to carve the whole body," etc. "The offence which it is attempted to charge," etc. _________________________________________________________________ 173 Is building The active participle in a passive sense is employed by many excellent writers and is condemned by others. "Corn is selling for fifty cents a bushel." "Corn is being sold for fifty cents a bushel." The commercial world evidently prefers the former sentence. There is a breeziness and an energy in it that is lacking in the latter. It must, however, be used with caution. In the following examples the passive form is decidedly better than the active: "The foundation was being laid," "They are being educated," "While the speech was being delivered," etc. _________________________________________________________________ 174 CHAPTER XII Prepositions Clearness and elegance of style are, in no small degree, dependent upon the choice and right use of prepositions. Many rules have been formulated, some of which are deserving of consideration, while others are nearly or quite useless. Among the latter may be mentioned, by way of illustration, the oft-repeated rule that between or betwixt must invariably be used when only two things are referred to, and that among must be employed when more than two are named. While it is true that the order could not be reversed, that among, when used, must be employed in reference to three or more persons or things, and that between may always be employed in speaking of two objects, yet the practice of many of the best writers does not limit the use of between to two objects. In fact, there are cases in which among will not take the place of between; as, "I set out eighty trees with ample space between them." "The stones on his farm were so plentiful that the grass could not grow up between them." _________________________________________________________________ 175 Between, Among "The seven children divided the apples between them." Two children may divide apples between, them, but in this case it is better to say, "The seven children divided the apples among them." George Eliot, in Middlemarch, says: "The fight lay entirely between Pinkerton, the old Tory member; Bagster, the new Whig member; and Brook, the Independent member." In this case, between or with is more satisfactory than among, although three persons are referred to. Choice Many sentences betoken ignorance and others indicate extreme carelessness on the part of the writers by the inapt choice of their prepositions, which often express relations so delicate in their distinctions that nothing short of an extended study of the best writers will confer the desired skill. We present some examples. By, In "We do not accept the proposition referred to by your letter." The writer should have employed the preposition in. Differ with, From We differ with a person in opinion or belief; we differ from him in appearance, in attainments, in wealth, in rank, etc. _________________________________________________________________ 176 Different from, To, Than "Your story is very plausible, but Henry's is different to that." "My book is quite different than his." The adjective different must not be followed by the preposition to or than. The sentences will be correct when from is substituted. At, To Never use the vulgar expression, "He is to home." Say at home. Preferred before, To "He was preferred before me." Say preferred to me. With, Of "He died with consumption." Of is the proper preposition to employ. But we say, He is afflicted with rheumatism, or bronchitis, or other disease. In respect of, To "In respect of this matter, he is at fault." Better, "to this matter." Of, From "He was acquitted from the charge of larceny." Acquitted of the charge. In, Into Into implies direction or motion. "They walked into the church," means that they entered it from the outside. "They walked in the church," means that they walked back and forth within the church. _________________________________________________________________ 177 "The vessel is in port." "She came into port yesterday." Of, In "There was no use of asking his permission, for he would not grant it." In asking. In, On "He is a person in whom you can rely." "That is a man in whose statements you can depend." Use on for in. To, With Two persons are reconciled to each other; two doctrines or measures are reconciled with each other when they are made to agree. "This noun is in apposition to that." Use with. With, By These two prepositions are often confounded. They have a similarity of signification with a difference of use. Both imply a connection between some instrument or means and the agent by whom it is used. With signifies the closer relation and by the more remote one. It is said that an ancient king of Scotland once asked his nobles by what tenure they held their lands. The chiefs drew their swords, saying, "By these we acquired our lands, and with these we will defend them." By often relates to the person; with to the instrument. _________________________________________________________________ 178 "He lay on the ground half concealed with a clump of bushes." "That speech was characterized with eloquence." Use by in the last two sentences. With, To We correspond with a person when we exchange letters. In speaking of the adaptation of one object to another, the preposition to should be used after the verb correspond; as, "This picture corresponds to that." With is often incorrectly used in such cases instead of to. Position The old grammarian gave a very good rule when he said, "A preposition is a very bad word to end a sentence with;" but it is sometimes easier to follow his example than his precept. In general, the strength of a sentence is improved by not placing small particles at the end. "Which house do you live in?" Better, "In which house do you live?" "Avarice is a vice which most men are guilty of." Say, "of which most men are guilty." "He is a man that you should be acquainted with." Say, "with whom you should be acquainted." "Is this the man that you spoke of?" Better, "of whom you spoke." "These are principles that our forefathers died for." Rather, "for which our forefathers died." _________________________________________________________________ 179 Omission Prepositions are often omitted when their use is necessary to the correct grammatical construction of the sentence. "They now live on this side the river." Say, "on this side of the river." "Esther and Helen sit opposite each other." It is more correct to say, "sit opposite to each other." "John is worthy our help." Better, "of our help." "What use is this to us?" Of what use, etc. "This law was passed the same year that I was born." Say, "In the same year," etc. "Washington was inaugurated President April 30, 1789." Some critics insist upon the insertion of on before a date, as "on April 30," but general usage justifies its omission. With equal force they might urge the use of in before 1789. The entire expression of day, month, and year is elliptical. If the same preposition be required by several nouns or pronouns, it must be repeated in every case if it be repeated at all. "He is interested in philosophy, history, and in science." This sentence may be corrected by placing in before history or by omitting it before science. The several subjects are individualized more strongly by the use of in before each noun. This is shown in the greater obscurity given to history by the omission of the preposition in the foregoing sentence. _________________________________________________________________ 180 "We may have a feeling of innocence or of guilt, of merit or demerit." Insert of before demerit. Needless Prepositions Prepositions, like other parts of speech that contribute nothing to the meaning, should not be suffered to cumber the sentence. Where am I at? Where is my book at? I went there at about noon. In what latitude is Chicago in? Where are you going to? Take your hat off of the table. Where has James been to? They offered to Caesar a crown. This is a subject of which I intended to speak about (omit of or about, but not both). She has a sister of ten years old. Leap in with me into this angry flood. The older writers employed the useless for in such expressions as, What went ye out for to see? The apostles and elders came together for to consider of this matter. All of A very common error is the unnecessary use of the preposition of after all; as, "during all of this period," "in all of these cases," "for all of the conditions," etc. Up above In most cases one of these prepositions will be found useless. "The ladder reached up above the chimney." From hence The adverbs hence, thence, whence, include the idea of from. The preposition should, therefore, be omitted. _________________________________________________________________ 181 CHAPTER XIII The Article A, which is a shortened form of an, signifies one, or any. An was formerly used before nouns beginning with either a consonant or a vowel sound, but now an is used before a vowel sound and a before a consonant sound; as, a book, a hat, an apple, an eagle. It will be observed that an heiress, an herb, an honest man, an honorable career, an hourly visit, a euchre party, a euphemism, a eulogy, a union, etc., are not exceptions to the foregoing rule, for the h being silent in heiress, herb, etc., the article an precedes a vowel sound, and in euphemism, eulogy, union, the article a precedes the consonant sound of y. Compare u-nit with you knit. In like manner some persons have felt disposed to say many an one instead of many a one because of the presence of the vowel o. But the sound is the consonant sound of w as in won, and the article should be a and not an. There is a difference of opinion among writers concerning the use of a and an, before words beginning _________________________________________________________________ 182 with h, when not silent, especially when the accent falls on the second syllable; as, a harpoon, a hegira, a herbarium, a herculean effort, a hiatus, a hidalgo, a hydraulic engine, a hyena, a historian. The absence of the accent weakens the h sound, and makes it seem as if the article a was made to precede a vowel. The use of an is certainly more euphonious and is supported by Webster's Dictionary and other high authority. The Honorable, The Reverend Such titles as Honorable and Reverend require the article the; as, "The Honorable William R. Gladstone is often styled 'The Grand Old Man,'" "The Reverend Henry Ward Beecher was an eloquent orator," not Honorable William, E. Gladstone, or Reverend Henry Ward Beecher. Article omitted "A clergyman and philosopher entered the hall together." "A clergyman and philosopher" means one person who is both clergyman and philosopher. The article should be repeated. "A clergyman and a philosopher entered the hall together." "A red and white flag" means one flag of two colors. "A red and a white flag" means two flags, a red flag and a white flag. "A great and a good man has departed." The verb has implies that only _________________________________________________________________ 183 one man has departed, hence the sentence should be, "A great and good man has departed." "They sang the first and second verse," should be, "They sang the first and the second verse." "The literal and figurative meaning of words" should be, "The literal and the figurative meaning of words." "In framing of his sentences he was very exact," should be, "In the framing," etc., or, "In framing his sentences he was very exact." "The masculine and feminine gender," should be, "The masculine and the feminine gender." "After singing a hymn, Miss Willard made a stirring address." If Miss Willard alone sang the hymn the sentence is correct. If the congregation sang the hymn the sentence should be, "After the singing of a hymn, Miss Willard made a stirring address." "He is but a poor writer at best." Say, "at the best." "He received but a thousand votes at most." Say, "at the most." "John came day before yesterday." Say, "the day before yesterday." Article redundant "Shakespeare was a greater writer than an actor," should be, "Shakespeare was a greater writer than actor." "This is the kind of a tree of which he was speaking," _________________________________________________________________ 184 should be, "This is the kind of tree," etc. "What kind of a bird is this?" should be, "What kind of bird." "The one styled the Provost is the head of the University," should be, "The one styled Provost." "The nominative and the objective cases," should be "The nominative and objective cases." "He made a mistake in the giving out the text." Say "in giving out the text," or, "in the giving out of the text." In the latter instance, the participle becomes a noun and may take the article before it. Articles interchanged "An elephant is the emblem of Siam," should be, "The elephant is the emblem," etc. "A digraph is the union of two letters to represent one sound." Should be, "A digraph is a union," etc. _________________________________________________________________ 185 CHAPTER XIV Redundancy We are all creatures of habit. Our sayings, as well as our doings, are largely a series of habits. In some instances we are unconscious of our peculiarities and find it almost impossible to shake them off. The following are verbatim expressions as they dropped from the lips of a young clergyman in the pulpit. They show a deeply-seated habit of repetition of thought. As he was a graduate of one of the first colleges in the land, we are the more surprised that the habit was not checked before he passed through his college and seminary courses. The expressions are here given as a caution to others to be on their guard: "Supremest and highest," "separate and sever us," "derision, sarcasm, and contempt," "disobedient and disloyal and sinful," "hold aloof from iniquity, from sin," "necessity of being reclaimed and brought back," "their beautiful and their elegant city," "so abandoned and given up to evil and iniquity," "soaked and stained with human gore and blood," "beautiful and resplendent," "hardened and solidified into stone and adamant," "this _________________________________________________________________ 186 arctic splendor and brilliancy," "were being slaughtered and cut down," "in the rapidity and the swiftness of the train," "with all the mightiness and the splendor of his genius," "the force and the pressure it brings to bear," "has and possesses the power," "lights flashed and gleamed." The above were all taken from a single discourse. Another peculiarity of the same speaker was his use of the preposition between. Instead of saying, "Between him and his father there was a perfect understanding of the matter," he would say, "Between him and between his father there was a perfect understanding of the matter." Young writers will find it a valuable exercise to go through a letter, essay, or other composition which they have written, with the view of ascertaining how many words they can eliminate without diminishing the force of what has been written. An article or two from the daily paper, and an occasional page from some recent work of fiction will afford further opportunity for profitable practice in pruning. Widow woman "And Jeroboam the son of Nebat, an Ephrathite of Zereda, Solomon's servant, whose mother's name was Zeruah, a widow woman, even he lifted up his hand against the king."-- I Kings xi, 26. _________________________________________________________________ 187 The expression is now regarded as an archaism, and not to be used in modern speech or writing. Omit woman. Why Many persons have a foolish habit of beginning their answer to a question with the word why. In some cases it doubtless has its origin in the desire to gain time while the mind is preparing the answer, but in most instances it is merely a habit. Some persons prefix the word why to the statement of a fact or to the asking of a question. This is even worse than to employ it to introduce the answer. Restrict it to its legitimate use. Look at here This is one of the numerous expressions designed to call the attention of the person addressed to the speaker. It is both ungrammatical and vulgar. The omission of at will render it grammatical. "See here" is still better. Look and see "Look and see if the teacher is coming." The words "look and" are superfluous. "See whether the teacher is coming" is a better expression. Recollect of The word of is superfluous in such expressions; as, "I recollect of crossing Lake Champlain on the ice," "Do you recollect of his paying you a compliment?" _________________________________________________________________ 188 Settle up, down "He has settled up his father's affairs." "He has settled down upon the old farm." Up and down may be omitted. "He has settled down to business" is a colloquial expression which may be improved by recasting the sentence. In so far "He is not to blame in so far as I understand the circumstances." "In so far as I know he is a thoroughly honest man." "In so far as I have influence it shall be exerted in your favor." Omit in. Pocket-handkerchief The word handkerchief conveys the full meaning. Pocket is therefore superfluous and should be omitted. If a cloth or tie for the neck is meant, call it a neck tie or a neckerchief, but not a neck-handkerchief. Have got "I have got a fine farm." "He has got four sons and three daughters." "James has got a rare collection of butterflies." In such expressions got is superfluous. But, if the idea of gaining or acquiring is to be conveyed, the word got may be retained; as, "I have got my license," "I have got my degree," "I have got my reward." _________________________________________________________________ 189 Off of "Can I borrow a pencil off of you?" "I bought a knife off of him yesterday." Such faulty expressions are very common among school children, and should be promptly checked by the teacher. The off is superfluous. "He jumped off of the boat." Say, "He jumped off the boat." The young lady appointed to sell articles at a church fair entreated her friends to "buy something off of me." She should say, "Please buy something from me," or "Make your purchases at my table." For to see "But what went ye out for to see? A man clothed in soft raiment?" Matt. xi, 8. "I will try for to do what you wish." This form of expression, once very common, is now obsolete. Omit for. Appreciate highly To appreciate is to set a full value upon a thing. We may value highly, or prize highly, or esteem highly, but the word highly when used with appreciate is superfluous. Ascend up "With great difficulty they ascended up the hill." As they could not ascend down the hill it is evident that the word up is superfluous. _________________________________________________________________ 190 Been to "Where has he been to?" The sentence is not only more concise, but more elegant without the terminal to. Both The sentence, "The two children both resembled each other," will be greatly improved by omitting the word both. So also in "These baskets are both alike," "William and I both went to Cuba." But that "I do not doubt but that my uncle will come." The sentence is shorter and more clear without the word but. "I have no idea but that the crew was drowned." Here but is necessary. Without it the opposite meaning would be conveyed. Equally as well "James did it well, but Henry did it equally as well." As well or equally well should be used instead of equally as well. "This method will be equally as efficacious." Omit as. Everywheres "I have looked everywheres for the book, and I cannot find it." This is a vulgarism that should be avoided. Say everywhere. Feel like "I feel like as if I should be sick." The word like is unnecessary. _________________________________________________________________ 191 Few "There are a few persons who read well." This sentence will be improved by saying, "Few persons read well." Help but be This is an awkward expression which is improved by being reduced to the two words help being; as, "I could not help being moved by his appeal." Kind of a "He jumped into a kind of a chaise, and hurried off to the station." A kind of chaise would be better. New beginner "Mary plays on the piano very well for a new beginner." If she is a beginner she must of necessity be new to it. Opens up "This story opens up beautifully." The up is superfluous. Seeming paradox The word paradox alone implies all that the word seeming is intended to convey, hence seeming is superfluous. "This was once a paradox but time now gives it proof." Different "There were ten different men ready to accept the offer." As no reference to the appearance or characteristics of the men is intended, the word different is unnecessary. _________________________________________________________________ 192 Rise up "They rose up early and started on their journey." Up is superfluous and should be omitted. Sink down "The multitude sank down upon the ground." As they could not sink up or in any other direction than down, the latter word should be omitted. Smell of "Did you smell of the roses?" "No; but I smelled them and found them very fragrant." "The gardener smelt of them for he has been culling them all morning and his clothing is perfumed with them." The of is superfluous in such expressions as taste of, feel of, and usually in smell of. Think for "He is taller than you think for." For is unnecessary. "He is taller than you think" is the contracted form of "He is taller than you think he is." Differ among themselves "The authorities differed among themselves." The words among themselves may be omitted. End up "That ends up the business." Say "that ends (or closes) the business." Had have "Had I have known that he was a lawyer I should have consulted him." Omit have. _________________________________________________________________ 193 Had ought to "I had ought to have gone to school to-day; I hadn't ought to have gone fishing." Incorrect. Say, "I ought to have gone (or I should have gone) to school to-day; I ought not to have gone fishing." If the second clause is not an after-thought the sentence can be still further improved by condensing it; as, "I should have gone to school to-day, and not to have gone fishing." _________________________________________________________________ 194 CHAPTER XV Two Negatives The use of two negatives in a sentence is much more common than is generally supposed. To assume that only those who are grossly ignorant of grammatical rules and constructions employ them, is an error. Writers whose names are as bright stars in the constellation of literature have slipped on this treacherous ground. A negation, in English, admits of only one negative word. The use of a single negative carries the meaning halfway around the circle. The meaning is therefore diametrically opposed to that which would be expressed without the negative. The use of a second negative would carry the meaning the remaining distance around the circle, thus bringing it to the starting point, and making it equivalent to the affirmative. The second negative destroys the effect of the first. The two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative. Double Negatives While two negatives in the same sentence destroy each other, a double negative has the effect of a more _________________________________________________________________ 195 exact and guarded affirmative; as, "It is not improbable that Congress will convene in special session before the end of the summer." "It is not unimportant that, he attend to the matter at once." "His story was not incredible." "The fund was not inexhaustible." Redundant Negatives "No one else but the workmen had any business at the meeting." Omit else. "Let us see whether or not there was not a mistake in the record." Omit either or not or the second not. "The boat will not stop only when the signal flag is raised." Omit not or change only to except. "He will never return, I don't believe." Say, "He will never return," or, if that statement is two emphatic, say, "I don't believe he will ever return." Don't want none "I don't want none," "I ain't got nothing," "He can't do no more," are inelegant expressions that convey a meaning opposed to that intended. "I don't want any," or, "I do not want any," or, "I want none," are correct equivalents for the first sentence; "I haven't anything," or, "I have nothing," should take the place of the second; and, "He can't do any more," or, "He can do no more," or "He cannot do more," will serve for the third. _________________________________________________________________ 196 Not--Hardly "I cannot stop to tell you hardly any of the adventures that befell Theseus." Change cannot to can. "I have not had a moment's time to read hardly since I left school." Say, "I have hardly a moment's time," etc. No--no "The faculties are called into no exercise by doing a thing merely because others do it, no more than by believing a thing only because others believe it," says George P. Marsh. He should have used any instead of the second no. Nothing--nor "There was nothing at the Columbian Exposition more beautiful, nor more suggestive of the progress of American art, than Tiffany's display." Change nor to or. Can't do nothing "He says he can't do nothing for me." Use "He can do nothing," or "He can't do anything for me." Cannot by no means This double negative should be avoided. "I cannot by no means permit you to go." Say, "I cannot possibly," or "I cannot, under any consideration, permit you to go." _________________________________________________________________ 197 Nor--no "Give not me counsel, nor let no comforter delight mine ear," says Shakespeare. "There can be no rules laid down, nor no manner recommended," says Sheridan. "No skill could obviate, nor no remedy dispel the terrible infection." The foregoing sentences may be corrected by changing nor to and. Not--no "I pray you bear with me; I cannot go no further," says Shakespeare. "I can go no further," or "I cannot go any further," will make the sentence correct. Nor--not "I never did repent for doing good, nor shall not now." "We need not, nor do not, confine the purposes of God." "Which do not continue, nor are not binding." "For my part I love him not, nor hate him not." In these sentences, change nor to and. _________________________________________________________________ 198 CHAPTER XVI Accordance of Verb with Subject No rule of grammar is more familiar to the schoolboy than that which relates to the agreement of the verb with its subject, or nominative, and none that is more frequently violated. It would be a mistake, however, to assume that the schoolboy is the only transgressor. Ladies and gentlemen of culture and refinement, writers and speakers of experience and renown, have alike been caught in the quicksands of verb constructions. "This painting is one of the finest masterpieces that ever was given to the world." A transposition of the sentence will show that the verb should be were, and not was. "Of the finest masterpieces that ever were given to the world, this painting is one." "His essay on 'Capital and Labor' is one of the best that has ever been written on the subject." The verb should be have. "The steamer, with all her passengers and crew, were lost." The subject is steamer, and the verb should be was. _________________________________________________________________ 199 Interrogative sentences "What signifies his good resolutions, when he does not possess strength of purpose sufficient to put them into practice?" Resolutions is the subject, and the verb should be signify. "Of what profit is his prayers, while his practices are the abomination of the neighborhood?" Prayers being plural, the verb should be are. "What avails good sentiments with a bad life?" Use avail. Subject after the Verb "In virtue and piety consist the happiness of man." Happiness, the subject, being singular, the verb should be consists, to agree with its nominative. "To these recommendations were appended a copy of the minority report." A transposition of the sentence will show that the verb should be was, and not were. "A copy of the minority report was appended to these recommendations." Whenever the sentence is introduced by a phrase consisting in part of a noun in the plural, or several nouns in the singular or plural, and, especially, where the subject follows the verb; care must be taken to keep the nominative well in mind, so that the verb may be in strict accord with it. _________________________________________________________________ 200 Compound Subjects When a verb has two or more nominatives it must be plural. These nominatives may or may not be connected by and or other connecting particle. The nominatives may consist of nouns or pronouns, either singular or plural, or they may be phrases. "Washington and Lincoln were chosen instruments of government." "Judges and senates have been bought for gold, Esteem and love were never to be sold."-- Pope. "Art, empire, earth itself, to change are doomed."-- Beattie. "You and he resemble each other." "To read and to sing are desirable accomplishments." "To be wise in our own eyes, to be wise in the opinion of the world, and to be wise in the sight of our Creator, are three things so very different as rarely to coincide."-- Blair. Singular in Meaning Nominatives are sometimes plural in form but singular in meaning. Such nominatives require a verb in the singular. "The philosopher and poet was banished from his country." Was is correct, because philosopher and poet are the same person. _________________________________________________________________ 201 "Ambition, and not the safety of the state, was concerned." Was is correct, because ambition is the subject. The words, "and not the safety of the state," simply emphasize the subject, but do not give it a plural meaning. "Truth, and truth only, is worth seeking for its own sake." Another case of emphasis. Each, Every, No, Not When two or more nominatives are qualified by one of the foregoing words the verb must be singular. "Every limb and feature appears with its respective grace."-- Steele. "Not a bird, not a beast, not a tree, not a shrub were to be seen." Use was instead of were. Poetical Construction When the verb separates its nominatives, it agrees with that which precedes it. "Forth in the pleasing spring, Thy beauty walks, thy tenderness, and love."-- Thomson. Or, Nor, As well as, But, Save When two or more nominatives in the singular are separated by such words as the preceding, the verb must be singular. "Veracity, as well as justice, is to be our rule of life."-- Butler. _________________________________________________________________ 202 "Not a weed nor a blade of grass were to be seen." Change were to was. "Nothing but wailings were heard." Transpose. "Nothing was heard but wailings." The verb should be was. "Either one or the other of them are in the wrong." The verb should be is. If, however, one or more of the nominatives are plural, the verb must be plural. "It is not his wealth, or gifts, or culture that gives him this distinction." Gifts being plural, the verb should be give. Some authorities say that the verb should agree in number with the subject which is placed next before it, and be understood (or silent) to the rest; as, "Neither he nor his brothers were there," "Neither his brothers nor he was there," "Neither you nor I am concerned." Prof. Genung, author of Outlines of Rhetoric, says: "When a clash of concord arises, either choose subjects that have the same number, or choose a verb that has the same form for both numbers." He gives this sentence to show the change of verb: "Fame or the emoluments of valor were (was) never to be his." "Fame or the emoluments of valor could never be his." And this sentence to show the change of one of the subjects: "Neither the halter nor bayonets _________________________________________________________________ 203 are (is) sufficient to prevent us from obtaining our rights." "Neither the halter nor the bayonet is sufficient to prevent us from obtaining our rights." Collective Nouns Collective nouns, like army, committee, class, peasantry, nobility, are, grammatically, singular, but they are often so modified by their surroundings as to convey a plural idea, and when so modified the verb must be plural. When the collective noun conveys the idea of unity, the verb must be singular. "The army was disbanded." "The council were divided." "A number of men and women were present." "The people rejoice in their freedom." "The peasantry go barefoot, and the middle sort make use of wooden shoes." "The world stands in awe of your majesty." "All the world are spectators of your conduct." Weights, Measures, and Values The names of weights, measures, and values, when considered as wholes, require singular verbs, and when considered as units require verbs in the plural. "There is twenty shillings in my purse," meaning one pound in value. "There are twenty shillings in my purse," meaning twenty separate coins, each being a shilling. "Sixty-three gallons equals a hogshead." "Ten tons of coal are consumed daily." _________________________________________________________________ 204 Titles of Books Whether the form be singular or plural, the title is considered a unit, and requires a verb in the singular; as, "'The Merry Wives of Windsor' was written by Shakespeare." "Dr. Holmes's American Annals was published in 1805." Whereabouts "The whereabouts of his cousins were not known to him." The plural form of this word is misleading. The verb should be was. Phenomena, Effluvia "A strange phenomena," "A disagreeable effluvia" are incorrect forms not infrequently met with. Both words are plural, and require plural verbs and also the omission of the article a. You was This very incorrect form is often employed by those who know better, and who use it, seemingly, out of courtesy to the uneducated people with whom they are brought in contact. If it be a courtesy, it is one that is "more honored in the breach than in the observance." Those who use the expression ignorantly are not likely to read this book, or any other of a similar character, and need scarcely be told that was should be were. _________________________________________________________________ INDEX _______ A, An, 181. Aberration of intellect, 87. A 1,83. A hundred others' woes-- Pronouns, 126. Ability, Capacity, 27. About, Almost, 28. About, Around, 95. Above, More than, Preceding, 111. Above, Foregoing, 87. Above up, 180. Acceptance, Acceptation, 28. Access, Accession, 28. Accident, Injury, 28. Accord, Give, 86. Accordance of Verb with Subject, 198. Collective Nouns, 203. Compound Subjects, 200. Each, Every, No, Not, 201. Interrogative sentences, 199. Or, Nor, As well as, But, Save, 201. Phenomena, Effluvia, 204. Poetical Construction, 201. Singular in Meaning, 200. Subject after the Verb, 199. Titles of Books, 204. Weights, Measures, and Values, 203. Whereabouts, 204. You was, 204. Acoustics, Ethics, Politics, 143. Act, Action, 86. Adherence, Adhesion, 36. Adjective or Adverb, 150. Adopt, Take, 37. Adverbs, 150. Adverbs for Relative Pronouns, 140. Advise, Persuade, 52. Affect, Effect, 37. After of-- Possessive case, 127. After than and as-- Pronouns, 132. After that, 159. After the Imperative-- Pronouns, 132. After verbs-- Participles, 171. After the verb To be-- Pronouns, 131. After verbs and prepositions-- Pronouns, 130. Again, Against, 115. Aggravate, Exasperate, 37. Agreeably disappointed, 77. Agreement with Antecedent-- Pronouns, 133. Ain't, 119. Alex. Melville Bell, 24. Alienate, Antagonize, Oppose, 32. Alighted, Lit, Lighted, 88. All, Is that all? 108. All of, 180. All, Whole, 41, 51. Alleviate, Relieve, 37. Allow, Guess, Reckon, Calculate, 56. Allowed, Said, 87. Allude to, Refer to, 77. Almost, About, 28. Almost, Most, Very, 30. Alms, Odds, Riches, 145. Alone, Only, 113. Alternative, 87. Alternation, 87. Alumna, Formula, 144, Alumnus, Terminus, Cactus, 143. Ambiguity-- Pronouns, 135. Among the rest, 78. Among, Between, 175. Amount, Number, 32. Analysis, Crises, 143. And, To-- Try and, 117. Anglicized Words, 20. Angry, Mad, 30. Animalcules, not Animalculae, 148. Anniversary, 87. Answer, Reply, 32. Antagonize, Alienate, Oppose, 32. Anticipate, Expect, 32. Any, At all, 32. Anyhow, 81. Anyways, Somewheres, Thereabouts, 78. Apart, Aside, 78. Apparent, Evident, 33. Appendix, Index, 148. Appointed you and I-- after verbs and prepositions, 130. Appreciate highly, 189. Apprehend, Comprehend, 105. Archimedes' Screw, 125. Argue, Augur, 98. Around, About, 95. Articles, 181. A, An, 181. Interchanged, 184. Omitted, 182. Redundant, 183. Titles-- The Reverend, 182. As after Equally, 190. As... as, 162. As, Like, 88. As... so, 163. As soon as, Directly, Immediately, 77. As, That, 70. As though, As if, 160. As well as, Or, Nor, But, Save, 201. Ascend up, 189. Aside, Apart, 78. Asparagus, Sparrowgrass, 34. Assets, Alms, Scissors, 145. Assure, Promise, 34. At all, Any, 32. At, To, 176. At you, 114. Attacked, Burst, Drowned, 108. Aware, Conscious, 39. Away, Way, 41. Awful, 81. Awkward construction-- Participles, 172. Back up, Support, 82. Badly, Greatly, 114. Bad toothache, 70. Balance, Remainder, 60. Bandits, Banditti, 148. Barbaric, Barbarous, 98. Barbarisms, 20. Beaus, Tableaux, Chateaux, 147. Beautifully, Beautiful, 70. Because, Reason, 156. Been to, 190. Beg, Beg leave, 71. Beg pardon, Which? 26. Begin, Commence, 38. Behave, 60. Bell, Alex. Melville, 24. Besides, 49. Beside, Besides, 108. Better, Best, 61. Between, Among, 175. Between you and I-- After verbs and prepositions, 130. Black Oxide of Manganese, 36. Bombastic Language, 18. Both, 190. Both, Both of, 72. Both, Each, 72. Bound, 61. Bountiful, Plentiful, 108. Brace, Pair, Couple, 147. Bravery, Courage, 116. Bring, Fetch, Carry, 44. Brooks's Arithmetics, 125. Brothers, Brethren, 149. Bryant's list, 16. Bulk, 82. Burglarize, 82. Burst, Attacked, Drowned, 108. But, Except, 157. But, If, 157. But, Only, Except, 157. But, Or, Nor, Save-- As well as, 201. But superfluous, 158. But that, 158, 190. But that, But what, 82, 157. But that, 157. But that, Than that, 158. But what, 160. But what, But that, 82, 157. By, In, 175. By, With, 177. Calculate, 83. Calculate, Guess, Reckon, Allow, 56. Calculated, Liable, 83. Calligraphy, 68. Came across, Met with, 109. Campbell's law, 20. Can, Could, Will, 115. Can but, Cannot but, 68. Cannot by no means, 196. Can't and Couldn't, 120. Can't do nothing, 196. Cantos, Heroes, 145. Capacity, Ability, 27. Carry, Bring, Fetch, 44. Case forms-- Pronouns, 129. Casualty, Casuality, 68. Character, Reputation, 44. Chauncey Depew and Eli Perkins, 65. Cheap, Low-priced, 30. Cherubim, Seraphim, 142. Choice of prepositions, 175. Choice of relatives-- Pronouns, 138. Choice of words, 15. Chrysalis, Analysis, 143. Chuck-full, 74. Clearness-- Participles, 172. Clever, Smart, 85. Climax, 112. Climb down, 103. Collective nouns, 203. Collective nouns-- Pronouns, 135. Commence, Begin, 38. Commenced to write, 107. Commercial slang, 23. Commodious, Convenient, 26. Common, Mutual, 28. Common slang, 23. Complected, 69. Complete, Finished, Through, 39, 99. Compound subject, 200. Comprehend, Apprehend, 105. Conclusion, End, 39. Conjunctions, 156. Conscious, Aware, 39. Contemplate, Propose, 75. Contemptible, Contemptuous, 52. Continual, Continuous, 39. Continually, Perpetually, 52. Contractions, 118. Convenient, Commodious, 26. Convict, Convince, 40. Correlatives, 162. Could, Can, Will, 115. Couldn't, Can't, 120. Couple, Pair, Brace, 147. Couple, Several, 76. Courage, Bravery, 116. Criterion, Datum, 144. Crowd, 74. Cunning, 59. Cupfuls-- Plural compounds, 147. Curious, 59. Custom, Habit, 40. Customer, Patron, 93. Cute, 59. Cut in half, 98. Daren't, Dursen't, 123. Data, Strata, 144. Datum, Phenomenon, 144, 204. Deface, Disfigure, 43. Defect, Fault, 45. Degrade, Demean, 43. Depot, Station, 43. Description, Kind, 44. Didn't, Don't, 120. Dies, Dice, 149. Differ among themselves, 192. Different, 191. Differ with, From, 175. Different from, to, than, 75, 176. Directly, Immediately, As soon as, 77. Disfigure, Deface, 43. Disremember, 69. Dispense, Dispense with, 75. Dock, Wharf, 52. Don't and Didn't, 120. Don't want none, 195. Double negatives, 194. Double possessives, 126. Doubt not but, 160. Dreadful solemn-- Adjective or adverb? 152. Drive, Ride, 76. Drowned, Attacked, Burst, 108. Dry, Thirsty, 75. Due, Owing, 71. Dursent, Daren't, 123. Dutch, German, 75. Each, Both, 72. Each, Every, 71. Each, Every, No, Not, 201. Each other, One another, 46. Each other's eyes-- Pronouns, 126. Each... their-- Agreement with antecedent, 134. Effect, Affect, 37. Effluvia, Phenomena, 144, 204. Either, Neither, 47, 163. Either the... or the, 159. Elder, Older, 91. Eli Perkins and Chauncey Depew, 65. Ellipsis, Analysis, 143. Else ...besides, 49. Else than, Other than, 159. Emigrants, Immigrants, 78. Empty, 86. End, Conclusion, 39. Endorse, Indorse, 84. End up, 192. Enjoy, 86. Enjoyed poor health, 36. Equally as well, 190. Evacuate, Vacate, 75. Ever, Never, 72. Every confidence, 67. Every, Each, 71. Every, Each, No, Not, 201. Everybody else's, 128. Everybody... they-- Agreement with antecedent, 134. Every once in awhile, 73. Everywheres, 190. Evident, Apparent, 33. Exasperate, Aggravate, 37. Except, But, 157. Except, But, Only, 157. Except, Unless, Besides, 161. Exceptionable, Exceptional, 73. Excuse me-- Which? 26. Expect, Anticipate, 32. Expect, Suspect, Suppose, 110. Factor, 112. Farther, Further, 45. Fathers-in-law-- Plural compounds, 147. Fault, Defect, 45. Favor, Resemble, 59. Feel like, 190. Feels badly-- Adjective or adverb? 151. Female, Woman, 73. Fetch, Bring, Carry, 44. Few, 191. Few, Little, 46. Fewer, Less, 73. Fictitious writer, 62. Fine writing, 8. Finished, Complete, Through, 39, 99. Fire, Throw, 78. First, Firstly, 62. First, Former, 61. First-rate, 62. First two, 79. Fish, Fly, 148. Fix, In a, 53. Fix, Mend, Repair, 62. Fly, Flee, 53. Flys, Fishes, 148. Foregoing, Above, 87. Foreign words, 9. Former, First, 61. Formulas, Larvas, Stigmas, 144. For to see, 189. Frederick the Great's Kindness-- Nouns in apposition, 127. From hence, thence, whence, 180. From, Of, 104, 176. Funny, 56. Further, Farther, 45. Future, Subsequent, 79. Gent's pants, 79. German, Dutch, 75. Get, Got, 54. Give, Accord, 36. Good deal, Great deal, 57. Good piece, Long distance, 110. Good usage, 19. Good, Well, 158. Got to, Must, 115. Governor, the old man, 97. Great big, 98. Great deal, Good deal, 57. Greatly, Badly, 114. Grouse, Quail, Snipe, 149. Grow, Raise, Rear, 113. Guess, Reckon, Calculate, Allow, 56. Gums, Overshoes, 56. Habit, Custom, 40. Had better, Would better, 57. Had have, 192. Had ought to, 193. Hadn't, Haven't, Hasn't, 121. Haint, Taint, 121. Hangs on, Continues, 115. Have got, 188. Have saw, Has went, 114. Haven't, Hasn't, Hadn't, 121. Haply, Happily, 114. Happen, Transpire, 65. Has went, Have saw, 114. Hate, Dislike, 116. Healthy, Wholesome, 52. Healthy, Healthful, 112. Hearty meal, 98. He is no better than me-- After than and as, 133. Help but be, 191. Heroes, Cantos, Stuccoes, 145. Herrings, Trout, Pike, 149. He's, She's, It's, 123. Hey? Which? 25. Hire, Lease, Let, Rent, 88. His, One's, 50. His or her-- Needless pronouns, 136. Hope, Wish, 99. House, Residence, 43. How for by which-- Adverbs for relative pronouns, 140 How, That, 154. Hung, Hanged, 112. I am him-Case forms, 129. Idea, Opinion, 113. If, But, 157. If, Whether, 58. Ill, Sick, 107. Illy, Ill, 58. Immediately, Directly, As soon as, 77. Immigrants, Emigrants, 78. Implicit, 58. I'm, You're, He's, She's, It's, We're, They're, 123. In a fix, 53. In, By, 175. In, Into, 85, 176. In, Of, 177. In, On, 177. In our midst, 84. In respect of, To, 176. In so far, 188. Inaugurate, 109. Incomplete Infinitive, 168. Index, Appendix, 148. Individual, 58. Indorse, Endorse, 84. Infinitive, 166. Infinitive, Incomplete, 168. Infinitive needed-- Supply To, 166. Infinitive unnecessary-- Omit "To," 167. Informed, Posted, 86. Injury, Accident, 28. Interchanged Articles, 184. Interrogatives-- Pronouns, 130. Interrogative sentences, 199. Into, In, 85, 176. Introduce, Present, 105. "Is building," 173. Isn't, 121. It's, He's, She's, 123. It is me-- Case forms, 129. John and Mary's sled-- Double possessives, 126. Journal, 68. Junius's letters, 125. Juntos, Heroes, Virtuosos, 145. Just going to, 85. Kind, Description, 44. Kind of, 85. Kind of a, 191. Knights Templars, 147. Know as, Know that, 58. Knowing, 85. Last, Latest, 59. Lay, Lie, 69. Lead a dance, 117. Learn, Teach, 88. Lease, Let, Rent, Hire, 88. Leave, Quit, 83. Lend, Loan, 88. Less, Fewer, 73. Lest, That, 159. Let it alone, Leave it alone, 83. Let, Lease, Rent, Hire, 88. Let you and I try it-- After the Imperative, 132. Let's, 123. Liable, Calculated, 83. Lie, Lay, 69. Lighted, Lit, Alighted, 88. Like, As, 88. Like, Love, 29. List of Principal Correlatives, 162. Lit, Lighted, 88. Little, Few, 46. Little piece, Short distance, 67. Little bit, 74. Loan, Lend, 88. Look and see, 187. Look at here, 187. Lot, Number, 116. Love, Like, 29. Low-priced, Cheap, 30. Luck, 84. Mad, Angry, 30. Make, Manufacture, 65. Make way with, 84. Mayn't, Mustn't, Mightn't, Oughtn't, 122. Mayst, Mightest, 123. Means, Alms, Headquarters, 146. Measures, Weights, Values, 203. Memorandum, Datum, 144. Mend, Fix, Repair, 62. Mention, Allude to, Refer to, 77. Men's and boys' shoes, 124. Men, women, and children's shoes-- Double possessives, 126. Met with, Came across, 109. Mightn't, Mustn't, Mayn't, Oughtn't, 122. Mightst, Mayst, 123. Mighty, Very, 104. Misplaced relatives-- Pronouns, 141. Mixed pronouns, 136. More than, Above, Preceding, 111. More than, Over, 155. More, Worse, 42. Mosquitoes, Heroes, Halos, 145. Most, Almost, Very, 30. Musselmans, Dragomans, 145. Mustn't, Mayn't, Mightn't, and Oughtn't, 122. Mutual, Common, 28. Myself, 29. Nasty, Nice, 89. Near, Nearly, 89. Need, Want, 40. Needless Articles, 183. Needless Prepositions, 180. Needless Pronouns, 136. Negatives, 194. Negligence, Neglect, 29. Neighborhood, Region, 42. Neither, Either, 47, 163. Neither... nor, Either, 163. Never, Ever, 72. Never... nor (or or), Either, 163. Never, Not, 29. News, 142. New beginner, 191. New Words, 21. Nice, Nasty, 89. Nicely, 89. No, Each, Every, Not, 201. No... no, 154, 196. No, Not, 154. No good, No use, 89. No more than I could help, 111. No use, No good, 89. Nor... no, 197. Nor, Or-- Pronouns, 135. Nor, Or, As well as, But, Save, 201. Nor... not, 197. None, Singular or plural, 51. Not... hardly, 196. Not impossible but, 160. Not... neither, Either, 163. Not, Never, 29. Not... or (or nor), Either, 163. Not... no, 197. Noted, Notorious, 94. Nothing like, 94. Nothing... nor, 196. Notorious, Noted, 94. Nouns in Apposition-- Possessive Case 126. Nouns, Plural-Possessive Case, 125. Nouns, Singular-- Possessive Case, 125. Nowhere near so, 94. Nucleus, Terminus, Fungus, 143. Number, 142. Number, Amount, 32. Number, Lot, 116. Number, Quantity, 38. O, Oh, 90. Observe, Say, 90. Obsolete Words, 20. Odds, Alms, Riches, 145. Of any, Of all, 90. Of, From, 104,176. Of, In, 177. "Of" redundant, 169. Of, With, 176. Off of, 189. Older, Elder, 91. Omission of Article, 182. Omit the Possessive, 170. Omission of Preposition, 179. Omit "Of," 169. Omit "To," 167. Omitted Relatives-- Pronouns, 141. On, Over, Upon, 104. One another, Each other, 46. One... they-- Agreement with Antecedent, 134. One's, His, 50. Only, 91. Only, Alone, 113. Only, Except, But, 157. Onto, Upon, 92. Opens up, 191. Opinion, Idea, 113. Oppose, antagonize, Alienate, 32. Or. Nor, As well as, But, Save, 201. Or, Nor-- Pronouns, 135. Other, 49. Other... besides, 49. Other than, 159. Other than, Otherwise than, 48. Otherwise than, Otherwise but, 159. Ottomans, Mussulmans, 145. Ought, Should, Would, 102. Oughtn't, Mustn't, Mayn't, Mightn't, 122. Outstart, 92. Over and Above, More than, 92. Over, More than, 155. Over, On, Upon, 104. Over with, 110. Overflown, Overflowed, 110. Overlook, Oversee, 95. Overshoes, Gums, 56. Overworked Expressions, 13. Owing, Due, 71. Oxide of Manganese, Black, 36. Pair, Couple, Brace, 147. Pants, Gent's, 79. Pappy, the Old Man, 97. Parenthetical Expressions-- Pronouns, 133. Part, Portion, 30. Partake, Ate, 105. Participles, 169, After Verbs, 171. Awkward Construction, 172. Clearness, 172. "Is building," 173. "Of" redundant, 169. Omit the Possessive, 170. Place of, 171. Party, Person, 93. Patron, Customer, 93. Peas, Pease, 149. Pell-mell, 155. Pennies, Pence, 149. Per, 93. Peradventure, Perchance, 93. Performers, 93. Period, Point, 94. Perpetually, Continually, 52. Person, Party, 93. Perspire, Sweat, 86. Persuade, Advise, 52. Peruse, 78. Pet Words, 12. Phenomena, Data, Effluvia, 144, 204. Place of Participles, 171. Plead, Pleaded, 94. Plenty, Plentiful, 95. Plural Compounds, 147. Plural Nouns, 125. Pocket-handkerchief, 188. Poet, Poetess, 73. Poetic Terms, 9. Poetical Construction, 201. Point, Period, 94. Politics, Acoustics, Ethics, 143. Portion, Part, 30. Position of Correlatives, 164. Position of Preposition, 178. Possessive Case, 124. After of, 127. Double possessives, 126. Nouns, Singular, 125. " Plural, 125. " in apposition, 126. Pronouns, 126. Somebody else's, 127. Postal, 31. Posted, Informed, 86. Powerful sight, 105. Practical, Practicable, 31. Preceding, Above, More than, 111. Predicate, 31. Prefer than, 31. Preferred before, to, 176. Prejudice, 33. Prepositions, 174. All of, 180. At, To, 176. Between, Among, 175. By, In, 175. Choice, 175. Differ with, from, 175. Different from, to, than, 176. From hence, 180. In, Into, 176. In, On, 177. In respect of, to, 176. Needless prepositions, 180. Of, In, 177. Of, From, 176. Omission of prepositions, 179. Position, 178. Preferred before, to, 176. To, With, 177. Up above, 180. With, By, 177. With, Of, 176. With, To, 178. Present, Introduce, 105. Presume, Think, Believe, 33. Pretend, Profess, 33. Pretty, Very, 116. Preventative, Preventive, 33. Previous, Previously, 33. Profess, Pretend, 33. Promise, Assure, 34. Pronouns, 129. Adverbs for Relative Pronouns, 140. After than and as, 132. " the Imperative, 132. " To be, 131. " Verbs and Prepositions, 130. Agreement with Antecedent, 133. Ambiguity, 135. Case Forms, 129. Choice of Relatives, 138. Collective Nouns, 135. Interrogatives, 130. Misplaced Relatives, 141. Mixed, 136. Needless, 136. Omitted Relatives, 141. Or, Nor, 135. Parenthetical expressions, 133. Silent Predicate, 132. The one, the other, 141. Uniform Relatives, 137. Which and who after and, 140. Pronouns-- Possessive Case, 126. Pronouns-- Personal and Relative, 129. Proper Names-- Plurals, 146. Propose, Purpose, 34. Proposal, Proposition, 37. Propose, Contemplate, 75. Prospectus, Terminus, Apparatus, 148. Proved, Proven, 38. Providing, Provided, 37. Provincialisms, 24. Pupil, Scholar, 107. Purity of Diction, 19. Purpose, Propose, 34. Quail, Grouse, Woodcock, 149. Quantity, Number, 38. Quite, Very, Rather, 153. Quite a few, 38. Quit, Leave, 83. Raise, Grow, Rear, 113. Rarely, Rare, 42. Rather than, Other than, 159. Real, Really, 42. Real good, 155. Rear, Raise, Grow, 113. Reason, Because, 156. Receipt, Recipe, 42. Reckon, Guess, Calculate, Allow, 56. Recollect of, 187. Redundancy, 185. Redundant Article, 183. Redundant Negatives, 195. Refer to, Allude to, 77. Region, Neighborhood, 42. Relieve, Alleviate, 37. Remainder, Balance, 60. Remit, Send, 43. Rent, Lease, Let, Hire, 88. Repair, Fix, Mend, 62. Reply, Answer, 32. Reputation, Character, 44. Requisite, Requisition, Requirement, 106. Resemble, Favor, 59. Residence, House, 43. Restaurant French, 10. Revolting, 96. Reverend, 182. Riches, Alms, Odds, 145. Ride, Drive, 76. Right, Right here, Just here, 99. Right smart, 73. Rise up, 192. Round, Square, 63. Said, Allowed, 87. Same as, Same that, 105. Save, But, Or, Nor, As well as, 201. Say, Observe, 90. Says, States, 63. Scholar, Pupil, 107. Section, Region, 106. Seeming Paradox, 191. Seldom or ever, 106. Send, Remit, 43. Seraphim, Cherubim, 142. Set, Sit, 80. Settle up, down, 188. Several, Couple, 76. Sewage, Sewerage, 106. Shall, Will, Should, Would, 100. Shall you? Will you? 102. She's, He's, It's, 123. Should, Would, Ought, 102. Should, Would, Shall, Will, 100. Shouldn't and Wouldn't, 122. Sick, Ill, 107. Sight, Many, 74. Silent Predicate-- Pronouns, 132. Single, The first, 79. Singular Nouns, 125. Singular in Meaning, 201. Sink down, 192. Sit, Set, 80. Slang, 22. Slang, Commercial, Common, and Society, 23. Smart, Clever, 85. Smell of, 192. Smells sweetly-- Adjective or Adverb? 151. Sociable, Social, 106. Society Slang, 23. So... as, 163. So far, That far, 154. So nice, 155. So, Such, 152. Solos, Heroes, Octavos, 145. Some better, 98. Some means or another, 48. Somebody else's, 127. Somewheres, Anyways, Thereabouts, 78. Sparrowgrass, Asparagus, 34. Specialty, Speciality, 106. Square, Round, 63. Stand a chance, 110. States, Says, 63. Station, Depot, 43. Stay, Stop, 63. Stilts, 18. Stop, Stay, 63. Strata, Data, 144. Subject after the verb, 199. Subsequent, Future, 79. Subtile, Subtle, 63. Such as you and me-- After than and as, 133. Such, So, 152. Summerish, Winterish, 99. Summons, 64. Supply "To," 166. Support, Back up, 82. Sweat, Perspire, 86. Tableaux, Beaus, Plateaus, 147. Tactics, Acoustics, 143. Taint, Haint, 121. Take, Adopt, 37. Talented, 103. Taste, 7. Tasty, Tasteful, 64. Team, 64. Teach, Learn, 88. Terminus, Radius, Focus, 143. Than, 48. Than ambiguous, 158. Thanks, I thank you, 115. That, As, 70. That, But, 157. That far, Thus far, 154. That, Lest, 159. That omitted, 158. That, that, 157. The father he died-- Needless pronouns, 136. The first, Single, 79. The Honorable, the Reverend, 182. The Infinitive, 166. The Miss Browns-- Titles, 146. The Old Man, 97. The one, the other-- Pronouns, 141. Them books, 137. Thereabouts, Somewheres, Any ways, 78. These kind, Those kind, 47. These sort, Those kind, 64. These, Those, 62. They're, We're, You're, 123. Think for, 192. Thirsty, Dry, 75. This much, 154. This twenty years, These kind, 47. Those kind, These sort, 64. Through, Finished, Complete, 39, 99. Throw, Fire, 78. Titles of Books, 204. Titles-- The Reverend, the Honorable, 182. Titles with Proper Names, 146. To always find-- The Infinitive, 166. To, With, 177, 178. To, At, 176. Transpire, Happen, 65. Trite Expressions, 12. Truth, Veracity, 67. Try and, Try to, 117. Try the experiment, 67. Two foot, These kind, 48. Two Negatives, 194. Ugly, 67. Unbeknown, 68. Underhanded, 68. Under the weather, Ill, 115. Unexampled, 96. Uniform Relatives-- Pronouns, 137. Unless, Without, 41. Up above, 180. Upon, On, Over, 104. Utter, Express, 96. Vacate, Evacuate, 75. Valuable, Valued, 97. Values, Weights, Measures, 203. Veracity, Truth, 67. Very, Most, Almost, 30. Very much of, 153. Very pleased, 97. Very, Pretty, 116. Very Vulgar Vulgarisms, 13. Vicinity, Neighborhood, 97. Vulgarisms, 13. Want, Need, 40. Wasn't, 122. Way, Away, 41. Ways, way, 41. Weights, Measures, and Values, 203. Well, Good, 153. Weren't, 122. We're, They're, You're, 123. Wharf, Dock, 52. Wharf, Wharves, 149. What for that, 137. What? Which? Hey? 25. Whereabouts, 204. Where for in which-- Adverbs for Relative Pronouns, 140. Whether, If, 58. Whether... Whether, 160. Which? 25. Which? Beg pardon, 25. Which for who, 137. Which? What? 25. Which and who after and-- Pronouns, 140. Who should I see-- Interrogatives, 131. Whole, All, 41, 51. Wholesome, Healthy, 52. Whom do you think he is-- Interrogatives, 131. Why, 187. Widow woman, 186. Will, Could, Can, 115. Will, Shall, Should, Would, 100. Will you? Shall you? 102. Winterish, Summerish, 99. Wish, Hope, 99. With, By, 177. With, Of, 176. With, To, 177, 178. Without, Unless, 41. Woman, Female, 73. Words, Anglicized, 20. Words Improperly Used, 26. Words, New, 21. Words, Obsolete. 20. Words to be avoided, 18. Worse, More, 42. Would better, Had better, 57. Would Should, Ought, 102. Would, Should, Shall, Will, 100. Wouldn't, Shouldn't, 122. You are him-- Case Forms, 129. You're, We're, They're, 123. You was, 204. _________________________________________________________________ Popular Handbooks _________________ SOME books are designed for entertainment, others for information. This series combines both features. The information is not only complete and reliable, it is compact and readable. In this busy, bustling age it is required that the information which books contain shall be ready to hand and presented in the clearest and briefest manner possible. These volumes are replete with valuable information, compact in form and unequalled in point of merit and cheapness. They are the latest as well as the best books on the subjects of which they treat. No one wishing to have a fund of general information or who has the desire for self-improvement can afford to be without them. Cloth, each, 50 Cents _________________ The Penn Publishing Company 923 ARCH STREET PHILADELPHIA _________________________________________________________________ ETIQUETTE By Agnes H. Morton There is no passport to good society like good manners. Even though a person possess wealth and intelligence, his success in life may be marred by ignorance of social customs. A perusal of this book will prevent such blunders. It is a book for everybody, for the select sets as well as for the less ambitious. The subject is presented in a bright and interesting manner, and represents the latest vogue. _________________________________________________________________ LETTER WRITING By Agnes H. Morton Why do most persons dislike letter writing? Is it not because they cannot say the right thing in the right place? This admirable book not only shows by numerous examples just what kind of letters to write, but by directions and suggestions enables the reader to become an accomplished original letter writer. There are forms for all kinds of business and social letters, including invitations, acceptances, letters of sympathy, congratulations, and love letters. _________________________________________________________________ QUOTATIONS By Agnes H. Morton A clever compilation of pithy quotations, selected from a great variety of sources, and alphabetically arranged according to the sentiment. In addition to all the popular quotations in current use, it contains many rare bits of prose and verse not generally found in similar collections. An important feature of the book is the characteristic lines from well known authors, in which the familiar sayings are credited to their original sources. _________________________________________________________________ THINGS WORTH KNOWING By John H. Bechtel It is a comparatively easy task to fill a book with a mass of uninteresting statistical matter. It is quite another thing to get together a vast accumulation of valuable material on all conceivable subjects. This book is thoroughly up to date, and embraces many subjects not usually found in works of this kind. It contains information for everybody, whether it pertains to health, household, business, affairs of state, foreign countries, or the planets, and all most conveniently indexed. _________________________________________________________________ A DICTIONARY OF MYTHOLOGY By John H. Bechtel The average person dislikes to look up a mythological subject because of the time occupied. This book remedies that difficulty because in it can be found at a glance just what is wanted. It is comprehensive, convenient, condensed, and the information is presented in such an interesting manner as when once read to be always remembered. A distinctive feature of the book is the pronunciation of the proper names, something found in few other works. _________________________________________________________________ SLIPS OF SPEECH By John H. Bechtel Who does not make them? The best of us do. Why not avoid them? Any one inspired with the spirit of self-improvement can readily do so. No necessity for studying rules of grammar or rhetoric when this book can be had. It teaches both without the study of either. It is a counsellor, a critic, a companion, and a guide, and is written in a most entertaining and chatty style. _________________________________________________________________ HANDBOOK OF PRONUNCIATION By John H. Bechtel What is more disagreeable than a faulty pronunciation? No other defect so clearly shows a lack of culture. This book contains over 5,000 words on which most of us are apt to trip. They are here pronounced in the clearest and simplest manner, and according to the best authority. It is more readily consulted than a dictionary, and is just as reliable. _________________________________________________________________ PRACTICAL SYNONYMS By John H. Bechtel Any one with the least desire to add to his vocabulary or to improve his choice of words should have a copy of this book. It is designed mainly to meet the wants of busy merchants or lawyers, thoughtful clergymen or teachers, and wide-awake school-boys or girls who are ambitious to express the thoughts of the mind in more fitting phrases than they are at present capable of doing. _________________________________________________________________ TOASTS By William Pittenger Most men dread being called upon to respond to a toast or to make an address. What would you not give for the ability to be rid of this embarrassment? No need to give much when you can learn the art from this little book. It will tell you how to do it; not only that, but by example it will show the way. It is valuable not alone to the novice, but the experienced speaker will gather from it many suggestions. _________________________________________________________________ THE DEBATER'S TREASURY By William Pittenger There is no greater ability than the power of skillful and forcible debate, and no accomplishment more readily acquired if the person is properly directed. In this little volume are directions for organizing and conducting debating societies and practical suggestions for all who desire to discuss questions in public. There is also a list of over 200 questions for debate, with arguments both affirmative and negative. _________________________________________________________________ PUNCTUATION By Paul Allardyce Few persons can punctuate properly; to avoid mistakes, many do not punctuate at all. A perusal of this book will remove all difficulties and make all points clear. The rules are clearly stated and freely illustrated, thus furnishing a most useful volume. The author is everywhere recognized as the leading authority upon the subject, and what he has to say is practical, concise, and comprehensive. _________________________________________________________________ ORATORY By Henry Ward Beecher It must be conceded that few men ever enjoyed a wider experience or achieved a higher reputation in the realm of public oratory than Mr. Beecher. What he had to say on this subject was born of experience, and his own inimitable style was at once both statement and illustration of his theme. This volume is a unique and masterly treatise on the fundamental principles of true oratory. 
28900	----	English Synonyms and Antonyms _A Practical and Invaluable Guide to Clear and Precise Diction for Writers, Speakers, Students, Business and Professional Men_ Connectives of English Speech "The work is likely to prove of great value to all writers."--_Washington Evening Star._ "The book will receive high appreciation from thoughtful students who seek the most practical help."--_Grand Rapids Herald._ "It is written in a clear and pleasing style and so arranged that but a moment's time is needed to find any line of the hundreds of important though small words which this book discusses."--_Chattanooga Times._ "Its practical reference value is great, and it is a great satisfaction to note the care and attention to detail and fine shades of meaning the author has bestowed upon the words he discusses."--_Church Review_, Hartford. "A work of great practical helpfulness to a large class of people."--_Louisville Courier-Journal._ "This is one of the most useful books for writers, speakers, and all who care for the use of language, which has appeared in a long time."--_Cumberland Presbyterian_, Nashville. "It is a book of great value to all who take any interest in correct and elegant language."--_Methodist_, Baltimore. "This work is a welcome aid to good writing and good speech. It is worthy the close study of all who would cultivate finished style. Its admirable arrangement and a good index make it easy for reference."--_Christian Observer._ "His book has some excellent qualities. In the first place, it is absolutely free from dogmatic assertion; in the second place, it contains copious examples from good authors, which should guide aright the person investigating any word, if he is thoroughly conversant with English."--_The Sun_, New York. _STANDARD EDUCATIONAL SERIES_ ENGLISH SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS WITH NOTES ON THE CORRECT USE OF PREPOSITIONS DESIGNED AS A COMPANION FOR THE STUDY AND AS A TEXT-BOOK FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS BY JAMES C. FERNALD, L.H.D. _Editor of Synonyms, Antonyms, and Prepositions in the Standard Dictionary_ _NINETEENTH EDITION_ FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY NEW YORK AND LONDON _Copyright, 1896, by FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY._ _Registered at Stationers' Hall, London, Eng._ PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES Transcriber's Note: Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note, whilst a list of significant amendments can be found at the end of the text. Inconsistent hyphenation and conflicting variant spellings have been standardised, except where used for emphasis. Non-standard characters have been represented as follows: [=a] _a_ with upper macron; [=o] _o_ with upper macron. CONTENTS. PAGE. PREFACE vii PART I. SYNONYMS, ANTONYMS AND PREPOSITIONS 1 PART II. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 377 INDEX 509 PREFACE. The English language is peculiarly rich in synonyms, as, with such a history, it could not fail to be. From the time of Julius Cæsar, Britons, Romans, Northmen, Saxons, Danes, and Normans fighting, fortifying, and settling upon the soil of England, with Scotch and Irish contending for mastery or existence across the mountain border and the Channel, and all fenced in together by the sea, could not but influence each other's speech. English merchants, sailors, soldiers, and travelers, trading, warring, and exploring in every clime, of necessity brought back new terms of sea and shore, of shop and camp and battlefield. English scholars have studied Greek and Latin for a thousand years, and the languages of the Continent and of the Orient in more recent times. English churchmen have introduced words from Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, through Bible and prayer-book, sermon and tract. From all this it results that there is scarcely a language ever spoken among men that has not some representative in English speech. The spirit of the Anglo-Saxon race, masterful in language as in war and commerce, has subjugated all these various elements to one idiom, making not a patchwork, but a composite language. Anglo-Saxon thrift, finding often several words that originally expressed the same idea, has detailed them to different parts of the common territory or to different service, so that we have an almost unexampled variety of words, kindred in meaning but distinct in usage, for expressing almost every shade of human thought. Scarcely any two of such words, commonly known as synonyms, are identical at once in signification and in use. They have certain common ground within which they are interchangeable; but outside of that each has its own special province, within which any other word comes as an intruder. From these two qualities arises the great value of synonyms as contributing to beauty and effectiveness of expression. As interchangeable, they make possible that freedom and variety by which the diction of an accomplished writer or speaker differs from the wooden uniformity of a legal document. As distinct and specific, they enable a master of style to choose in every instance the one term that is the most perfect mirror of his thought. To write or speak to the best purpose, one should know in the first place all the words from which he may choose, and then the exact reason why in any case any particular word should be chosen. To give such knowledge in these two directions is the office of a book of synonyms. Of Milton's diction Macaulay writes: "His poetry acts like an incantation. Its merit lies less in its obvious meaning than in its occult power. There would seem, at first sight, to be no more in his words than in other words. But they are words of enchantment. No sooner are they pronounced, than the past is present and the distant near. New forms of beauty start at once into existence, and all the burial places of the memory give up their dead. Change the structure of the sentence; _substitute one synonym for another_, and the whole effect is destroyed. The spell loses its power; and he who should then hope to conjure with it would find himself as much mistaken as Cassim in the Arabian tale, when he stood crying, 'Open Wheat,' 'Open Barley,' to the door which obeyed no sound but 'Open Sesame.' The miserable failure of Dryden in his attempt to translate into his own diction some parts of the 'Paradise Lost' is a remarkable instance of this." Macaulay's own writings abound in examples of that exquisite precision in the choice of words, which never seems to be precise, but has all the aspect of absolute freedom. Through his language his thought bursts upon the mind as a landscape is seen instantly, perfectly, and beautifully from a mountain height. A little vagueness of thought, a slight infelicity in the choice of words would be like a cloud upon the mountain, obscuring the scene with a damp and chilling mist. Let anyone try the experiment with a poem like Gray's "Elegy," or Goldsmith's "Traveller" or "Deserted Village," of substituting other words for those the poet has chosen, and he will readily perceive how much of the charm of the lines depends upon their fine exactitude of expression. In our own day, when so many are eager to write, and confident that they can write, and when the press is sending forth by the ton that which is called literature, but which somehow lacks the imprint of immortality, it is of the first importance to revive the study of synonyms as a distinct branch of rhetorical culture. Prevalent errors need at times to be noted and corrected, but the teaching of pure English speech is the best defense against all that is inferior, unsuitable, or repulsive. The most effective condemnation of an objectionable word or phrase is that it is not found in scholarly works, and a student who has once learned the rich stores of vigorous, beautiful, exact, and expressive words that make up our noble language, is by that very fact put beyond the reach of all temptation to linguistic corruption. Special instruction in the use of synonyms is necessary, for the reason that few students possess the analytical power and habit of mind required to hold a succession of separate definitions in thought at once, compare them with each other, and determine just where and how they part company; and the persons least able to do this are the very ones most in need of the information. The distinctions between words similar in meaning are often so fine and elusive as to tax the ingenuity of the accomplished scholar; yet when clearly apprehended they are as important for the purposes of language as the minute differences between similar substances are for the purposes of chemistry. Often definition itself is best secured by the comparison of kindred terms and the pointing out where each differs from the other. We perceive more clearly and remember better what each word is, by perceiving where each divides from another of kindred meaning; just as we see and remember better the situation and contour of adjacent countries, by considering them as boundaries of each other, rather than by an exact statement of the latitude and longitude of each as a separate portion of the earth's surface. The great mass of untrained speakers and writers need to be reminded, in the first place, _that there are synonyms_--a suggestion which they would not gain from any precision of separate definitions in a dictionary. The deplorable repetition with which many slightly educated persons use such words as "elegant," "splendid," "clever," "awful," "horrid," etc., to indicate (for they can not be said to express) almost any shade of certain approved or objectionable qualities, shows a limited vocabulary, a poverty of language, which it is of the first importance to correct. Many who are not given to such gross misuse would yet be surprised to learn how often they employ a very limited number of words in the attempt to give utterance to thoughts and feelings so unlike, that what is the right word on one occasion must of necessity be the wrong word at many other times. Such persons are simply unconscious of the fact that there are other words of kindred meaning from which they might choose; as the United States surveyors of Alaska found "the shuddering tenant of the frigid zone" wrapping himself in furs and cowering over a fire of sticks with untouched coal-mines beneath his feet. Such poverty of language is always accompanied with poverty of thought. One who is content to use the same word for widely different ideas has either never observed or soon comes to forget that there is any difference between the ideas; or perhaps he retains a vague notion of a difference which he never attempts to define to himself, and dimly hints to others by adding to his inadequate word some such phrase as "you see" or "you know," in the helpless attempt to inject into another mind by suggestion what adequate words would enable him simply and distinctly to say. Such a mind resembles the old maps of Africa in which the interior was filled with cloudy spaces, where modern discovery has revealed great lakes, fertile plains, and mighty rivers. One main office of a book of synonyms is to reveal to such persons the unsuspected riches of their own language; and when a series of words is given them, from which they may choose, then, with intelligent choice of words there comes of necessity a clearer perception of the difference of the ideas that are to be expressed by those different words. Thus, copiousness and clearness of language tend directly to affluence and precision of thought. Hence there is an important use for mere lists of classified synonyms, like Roget's Thesaurus and the works of Soule and Fallows. Not one in a thousand of average students would ever discover, by independent study of the dictionary, that there are fifteen synonyms for _beautiful_, twenty-one for _beginning_, fifteen for _benevolence_, twenty for _friendly_, and thirty-seven for _pure_. The mere mention of such numbers opens vistas of possible fulness, freedom, and variety of utterance, which will have for many persons the effect of a revelation. But it is equally important to teach _that synonyms are not identical_ and to explain why and how they differ. A person of extensive reading and study, with a fine natural sense of language, will often find all that he wants in the mere list, which recalls to his memory the appropriate word. But for the vast majority there is needed some work that compares or contrasts synonymous words, explains their differences of meaning or usage, and shows in what connections one or the other may be most fitly used. This is the purpose of the present work, to be a guide to selection from the varied treasures of English speech. This work treats within 375 pages more than 7500 synonyms. It has been the study of the author to give every definition or distinction in the fewest possible words consistent with clearness of statement, and this not merely for economy of space, but because such condensed statements are most easily apprehended and remembered. The method followed has been to select from every group of synonyms one word, or two contrasted words, the meaning of which may be settled by clear definitive statement, thus securing some fixed point or points to which all the other words of the group may be referred. The great source of vagueness, error, and perplexity in many discussions of synonyms is, that the writer merely associates stray ideas loosely connected with the different words, sliding from synonym to synonym with no definite point of departure or return, so that a smooth and at first sight pleasing statement really gives the mind no definite resting-place and no sure conclusion. A true discussion of synonyms is definition by comparison, and for this there must be something definite with which to compare. When the standard is settled, approximation or differentiation can be determined with clearness and certainty. It is not enough to tell something about each word. The thing to tell is how each word is related to others of that particular group. When a word has more than one prominent meaning, the synonyms for one signification are treated in one group and a reference is made to some other group in which the synonyms for another signification are treated, as may be seen by noting the synonyms given under APPARENT, and following the reference to EVIDENT. It has been impossible within the limits of this volume to treat in full all the words of each group of synonyms. Sometimes it has been necessary to restrict the statement to a mere suggestion of the correct use; in some cases only the chief words of a group could be considered, giving the key to the discussion, and leaving the student to follow out the principle in the case of other words by reference to the definitive statements of the dictionary. It is to be hoped that at some time a dictionary of synonyms may be prepared, giving as full a list as that of Roget or of Soule, with discriminating remarks upon every word. Such a work would be of the greatest value, but obviously beyond the scope of a text-book for the class-room. The author has here incorporated, by permission of the publishers of the Standard Dictionary, much of the synonym matter prepared by him for that work. All has been thoroughly revised or reconstructed, and much wholly new matter has been added. The book contains also more than 3700 antonyms. These are valuable as supplying definition by contrast or by negation, one of the most effective methods of defining being in many cases to tell what a thing is not. To speakers and writers antonyms are useful as furnishing oftentimes effective antitheses. Young writers will find much help from the indication of the correct use of prepositions, the misuse of which is one of the most common of errors, and one of the most difficult to avoid, while their right use gives to style cohesion, firmness, and compactness, and is an important aid to perspicuity. To the text of the synonyms is appended a set of Questions and Examples to adapt the work for use as a text-book. Aside from the purposes of the class-room, this portion will be found of value to the individual student. Excepting those who have made a thorough study of language most persons will discover with surprise how difficult it is to answer any set of the Questions or to fill the blanks in the Examples without referring to the synonym treatment in Part I., or to a dictionary, and how rarely they can give any intelligent reason for preference even among familiar words. There are few who can study such a work without finding occasion to correct some errors into which they have unconsciously fallen, and without coming to a new delight in the use of language from a fuller knowledge of its resources and a clearer sense of its various capabilities. _West New Brighton, N. Y._, Sept. 4, 1896. PART I. BOOKS OF REFERENCE. Crabb's "English Synonymes Explained." [H.] Soule's "Dictionary of English Synonyms." [L.] Smith's "Synonyms Discriminated." [BELL.] Graham's "English Synonyms." [A.] Whateley's "English Synonyms Discriminated." [L. & S.] Campbell's "Handbook of Synonyms." [L. & S.] Fallows' "Complete Dictionary of Synonyms and Antonyms." [F. H. R.] Roget's "Thesaurus of English Words." [F. & W. CO.] Trench's "Study of English Words." [W. J. W.] Richard Grant White, "Words and their Uses," and "Every Day English." [H. M. & CO.] Geo. P. Marsh, "Lectures on the English Language," and "Origin and History of the English Language." [S.] Fitzedward Hall, "False Philology." [S.] Maetzner's "English Grammar," tr. by Grece. [J. M.] The Synonyms of the Century and International Dictionaries have also been consulted and compared. The Funk & Wagnalls Standard Dictionary has been used as the authority throughout. * * * * * ABBREVIATIONS USED. A. D. Appleton & Co. | K.-F. Krauth-Fleming AS. Anglo-Saxon | "Vocabulary of Philosophy." BELL; B. & S. Bell & Sons | L. Latin; Lippincott & Co. F. French | L. & S. Lee & Shepard F. H. R. Fleming H. Revell | M. Murray's New English Dictionary F. & W. CO. Funk & Wagnalls Co. | MACM. Macmillan & Co. G. German | S. Chas. Scribner's Sons Gr. Greek | Sp. Spanish H. Harper & Bros. | T. & F. Ticknor & Fields H. M. & CO. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. | T. & H. Troutman & Hayes It. Italian | T. & M. Taylor, Walton & Maberley J. M. John Murray | W. J. W. W. J. Widdleton PART I. SYNONYMS, ANTONYMS AND PREPOSITIONS. * * * * * ABANDON. Synonyms: abdicate, desert, leave, resign, abjure, discontinue, quit, retire from, cast off, forego, recant, retract, cease, forsake, relinquish, surrender, cede, forswear, renounce, vacate, depart from, give up, repudiate, withdraw from. _Abandon_ is a word of wide signification, applying to persons or things of any kind; _abdicate_ and _resign_ apply to office, authority, or power; _cede_ to territorial possessions; _surrender_ especially to military force, and more generally to any demand, claim, passion, etc. _Quit_ carries an idea of suddenness or abruptness not necessarily implied in _abandon_, and may not have the same suggestion of finality. The king _abdicates_ his throne, _cedes_ his territory, _deserts_ his followers, _renounces_ his religion, _relinquishes_ his titles, _abandons_ his designs. A cowardly officer _deserts_ his ship; the helpless passengers _abandon_ it. We _quit_ business, _give up_ property, _resign_ office, _abandon_ a habit or a trust. _Relinquish_ commonly implies reluctance; the fainting hand _relinquishes_ its grasp; the creditor _relinquishes_ his claim. _Abandon_ implies previous association with responsibility for or control of; _forsake_ implies previous association with inclination or attachment, real or assumed; a man may _abandon_ or _forsake_ house or friends; he _abandons_ an enterprise; _forsakes_ God. _Abandon_ is applied to both good and evil action; a thief _abandons_ his designs, a man his principles. _Forsake_, like _abandon_, may be used either in the favorable or unfavorable sense; _desert_ is always unfavorable, involving a breach of duty, except when used of mere localities; as, "the Deserted Village." While a monarch _abdicates_, a president or other elected or appointed officer _resigns_. It was held that James II. _abdicated_ his throne by _deserting_ it. Antonyms: adopt, defend, occupy, seek, advocate, favor, prosecute, support, assert, haunt, protect, undertake, cherish, hold, pursue, uphold, claim, keep, retain, vindicate. court, maintain, * * * * * ABASE. Synonyms: bring low, depress, dishonor, lower, cast down, discredit, humble, reduce, debase, disgrace, humiliate, sink. degrade, _Abase_ refers only to outward conditions. "Exalt him that is low, and _abase_ him that is high." _Ezek._ xxi, 26. _Debase_ applies to quality or character. The coinage is _debased_ by excess of alloy, the man by vice. _Humble_ in present use refers chiefly to feeling of heart; _humiliate_ to outward conditions; even when one is said to _humble_ himself, he either has or affects to have humility of heart. To _disgrace_ may be to bring or inflict odium upon others, but the word is chiefly and increasingly applied to such moral odium as one by his own acts brings upon himself; the noun _disgrace_ retains more of the passive sense than the verb; he _disgraced_ himself by his conduct; he brought _disgrace_ upon his family. To _dishonor_ a person is to deprive him of honor that should or might be given. To _discredit_ one is to injure his reputation, as for veracity or solvency. A sense of unworthiness _humbles_; a shameful insult _humiliates_; imprisonment for crime _disgraces_. _Degrade_ may refer to either station or character. An officer is _degraded_ by being _reduced_ to the ranks, _disgraced_ by cowardice; vile practises _degrade_; drunkenness is a _degrading_ vice. Misfortune or injustice may _abase_ the good; nothing but their own ill-doing can _debase_ or _disgrace_ them. Antonyms: advance, elevate, honor, raise, aggrandize, exalt, promote, uplift. dignify, * * * * * ABASH. Synonyms: bewilder, daunt, embarrass, mortify, chagrin, discompose, humble, overawe, confound, disconcert, humiliate, shame. confuse, dishearten, Any sense of inferiority _abashes_, with or without the sense of wrong. The poor are _abashed_ at the splendor of wealth, the ignorant at the learning of the wise. "I might have been _abashed_ by their authority." GLADSTONE _Homeric Synchron._, p. 72. [H. '76.] To _confuse_ is to bring into a state of mental bewilderment; to _confound_ is to overwhelm the mental faculties; to _daunt_ is to subject to a certain degree of fear. _Embarrass_ is a strong word, signifying primarily hamper, hinder, impede. A solitary thinker may be _confused_ by some difficulty in a subject, or some mental defect; one is _embarrassed_ in the presence of others, and because of their presence. Confusion is of the intellect, embarrassment of the feelings. A witness may be _embarrassed_ by annoying personalities, so as to become _confused_ in statements. To _mortify_ a person is to bring upon him a painful sense of humiliation, whether because of his own or another's fault or failure. A pupil is _confused_ by a perplexing question, a general _confounded_ by overwhelming defeat. A hostess is _discomposed_ by the tardiness of guests, a speaker _disconcerted_ by a failure of memory. The criminal who is not _abashed_ at detection may be _daunted_ by the officer's weapon. Sudden joy may _bewilder_, but will not _abash_. The true worshiper is _humbled_ rather than _abashed_ before God. The parent is _mortified_ by the child's rudeness, the child _abashed_ at the parent's reproof. The _embarrassed_ speaker finds it difficult to proceed. The mob is _overawed_ by the military, the hypocrite _shamed_ by exposure. "A man whom no denial, no scorn could _abash_." FIELDING _Amelia_ bk. iii, ch. 9, p. 300. [B. & S. '71.] Compare CHAGRIN; HINDER. Antonyms: animate, cheer, encourage, rally, buoy, embolden, inspirit, uphold. * * * * * ABATE. Synonyms: decline, ebb, mitigate, reduce, decrease, lessen, moderate, subside. diminish, lower, The storm, the fever, the pain _abates_. Interest _declines_. Misfortunes may be _mitigated_, desires _moderated_, intense anger _abated_, population _decreased_, taxes _reduced_. We _abate_ a nuisance, _terminate_ a controversy, _suppress_ a rebellion. See ALLEVIATE. Antonyms: aggravate, enhance, foment, rage, amplify, enlarge, increase, raise, continue, extend, magnify, revive. develop, Prepositions: Abate _in_ fury; abated _by_ law. * * * * * ABBREVIATION. Synonyms: abridgment, contraction. An _abbreviation_ is a shortening by any method; a _contraction_ is a reduction of size by the drawing together of the parts. A _contraction_ of a word is made by omitting certain letters or syllables and bringing together the first and last letters or elements; an _abbreviation_ may be made either by omitting certain portions from the interior or by cutting off a part; a _contraction_ is an _abbreviation_, but an _abbreviation_ is not necessarily a _contraction_; _rec't_ for receipt, _mdse._ for merchandise, and _Dr._ for debtor are _contractions_; they are also _abbreviations_; _Am._ for American is an _abbreviation_, but not a _contraction_. _Abbreviation_ and _contraction_ are used of words and phrases, _abridgment_ of books, paragraphs, sentences, etc. Compare ABRIDGMENT. * * * * * ABET. Synonyms: advocate, countenance, incite, sanction, aid, embolden, instigate, support, assist, encourage, promote, uphold. _Abet_ and _instigate_ are now used almost without exception in a bad sense; one may _incite_ either to good or evil. One _incites_ or _instigates_ to the doing of something not yet done, or to increased activity or further advance in the doing of it; one _abets_ by giving sympathy, countenance, or substantial aid to the doing of that which is already projected or in process of commission. _Abet_ and _instigate_ apply either to persons or actions, _incite_ to persons only; one _incites_ a person _to_ an action. A clergyman will _advocate_ the claims of justice, _aid_ the poor, _encourage_ the despondent, _support_ the weak, _uphold_ the constituted authorities; but he will not _incite_ to a quarrel, _instigate_ a riot, or _abet_ a crime. The originator of a crime often _instigates_ or _incites_ others to _abet_ him in it, or one may _instigate_ or _incite_ others to a crime in the commission of which he himself takes no active part. Compare HELP. Antonyms: baffle, deter, dissuade, hinder, confound, disapprove, expose, impede, counteract, disconcert, frustrate, obstruct. denounce, discourage, * * * * * ABHOR. Synonyms: abominate, dislike, loathe, scorn, despise, hate, nauseate, shun. detest, _Abhor_ is stronger than _despise_, implying a shuddering recoil, especially a moral recoil. "How many _shun_ evil as inconvenient who do not _abhor_ it as hateful." TRENCH _Serm. in Westm. Abbey_ xxvi, 297. [M.] _Detest_ expresses indignation, with something of contempt. _Loathe_ implies disgust, physical or moral. We _abhor_ a traitor, _despise_ a coward, _detest_ a liar. We _dislike_ an uncivil person. We _abhor_ cruelty, _hate_ tyranny. We _loathe_ a reptile or a flatterer. We _abhor_ Milton's heroic Satan, but we can not _despise_ him. Antonyms: admire, crave, esteem, love, approve, desire, like, relish. covet, enjoy, * * * * * ABIDE. Synonyms: anticipate, dwell, remain, stop, await, endure, reside, tarry, bear, expect, rest, tolerate, bide, inhabit, sojourn, wait, confront, live, stay, watch. continue, lodge, To _abide_ is to remain continuously without limit of time unless expressed by the context: "to-day I must _abide_ at thy house," _Luke_ xix, 5; "a settled place for thee to _abide_ in forever," _1 Kings_ viii, 13; "_Abide_ with me! fast falls the eventide," LYTE _Hymn_. _Lodge_, _sojourn_, _stay_, _tarry_, and _wait_ always imply a limited time; _lodge_, to pass the night; _sojourn_, to _remain_ temporarily; _live_, _dwell_, _reside_, to have a permanent home. _Stop_, in the sense of _stay_ or _sojourn_, is colloquial, and not in approved use. Compare ENDURE; REST. Antonyms: abandon, forfeit, migrate, reject, avoid, forfend, move, resist, depart, journey, proceed, shun. Prepositions: Abide _in_ a place, _for_ a time, _with_ a person, _by_ a statement. * * * * * ABOLISH. Synonyms: abate, eradicate, prohibit, stamp out, abrogate, exterminate, remove, subvert, annihilate, extirpate, repeal, supplant, annul, nullify, reverse, suppress, destroy, obliterate, revoke, terminate. end, overthrow, set aside, _Abolish_, to do away with, bring absolutely to an end, especially as something hostile, hindering, or harmful, was formerly used of persons and material objects, a usage now obsolete except in poetry or highly figurative speech. _Abolish_ is now used of institutions, customs, and conditions, especially those wide-spread and long existing; as, to _abolish_ slavery, ignorance, intemperance, poverty. A building that is burned to the ground is said to be _destroyed_ by fire. _Annihilate_, as a philosophical term, signifies to put absolutely out of existence. As far as our knowledge goes, matter is never _annihilated_, but only changes its form. Some believe that the wicked will be _annihilated_. _Abolish_ is not said of laws. There we use _repeal_, _abrogate_, _nullify_, etc.: _repeal_ by the enacting body, _nullify_ by revolutionary proceedings; a later statute _abrogates_, without formally _repealing_, any earlier law with which it conflicts. An appellate court may _reverse_ or _set aside_ the decision of an inferior court. _Overthrow_ may be used in either a good or a bad sense; _suppress_ is commonly in a good, _subvert_ always in a bad sense; as, to _subvert_ our liberties; to _suppress_ a rebellion. The law _prohibits_ what may never have existed; it _abolishes_ an existing evil. We _abate_ a nuisance, _terminate_ a controversy. Compare CANCEL; DEMOLISH; EXTERMINATE. Antonyms: authorize, establish, reinstate, revive, cherish, institute, renew, set up, confirm, introduce, repair, support, continue, legalize, restore, sustain. enact, promote, * * * * * ABOMINATION. Synonyms: abhorrence, curse, hatred, plague, abuse, detestation, horror, shame, annoyance, disgust, iniquity, villainy, aversion, evil, nuisance, wickedness. crime, execration, offense, _Abomination_ (from the L. _ab omen_, a thing of ill omen) was originally applied to anything held in religious or ceremonial _aversion_ or _abhorrence_; as, "The things which are highly esteemed among men are _abomination_ in the sight of God." _Luke_ xvi, 15. The word is oftener applied to the object of such _aversion_ or _abhorrence_ than to the state of mind that so regards it; in common use _abomination_ signifies something very much disliked or loathed, or that deserves to be. Choice food may be an object of _aversion_ and _disgust_ to a sick person; vile food would be an _abomination_. A toad is to many an object of _disgust_; a foul sewer is an _abomination_. As applied to crimes, _abomination_ is used of such as are especially brutal, shameful, or revolting; theft is an _offense_; infanticide is an _abomination_. Antonyms: affection, blessing, enjoyment, joy, appreciation, delight, esteem, satisfaction, approval, desire, gratification, treat. benefit, * * * * * ABRIDGMENT. Synonyms: abbreviation, compend, epitome, summary, abstract, compendium, outline, synopsis. analysis, digest, An _abridgment_ gives the most important portions of a work substantially as they stand. An _outline_ or _synopsis_ is a kind of sketch closely following the plan. An _abstract_ or _digest_ is an independent statement of what the book contains. An _analysis_ draws out the chief thoughts or arguments, whether expressed or implied. A _summary_ is the most condensed statement of results or conclusions. An _epitome_, _compend_, or _compendium_ is a condensed view of a subject, whether derived from a previous publication or not. We may have an _abridgment_ of a dictionary, but not an _analysis_, _abstract_, _digest_, or _summary_. We may have an _epitome_ of religion, a _compendium_ of English literature, but not an _abridgment_. Compare ABBREVIATION. * * * * * ABSOLUTE. Synonyms: arbitrary, compulsory, haughty, peremptory, arrogant, controlling, imperative, positive, authoritative, despotic, imperious, supreme, autocratic, dictatorial, irresponsible, tyrannical, coercive, dogmatic, lordly, unconditional, commanding, domineering, overbearing, unequivocal. compulsive, exacting, In the strict sense, _absolute_, free from all limitation or control, and _supreme_, superior to all, can not properly be said of any being except the divine. Both words are used, however, in a modified sense, of human authorities; _absolute_ then signifying free from limitation by other authority, and _supreme_ exalted over all other; as, an _absolute_ monarch, the _supreme_ court. _Absolute_, in this use, does not necessarily carry any unfavorable sense, but as _absolute_ power in human hands is always abused, the unfavorable meaning predominates. _Autocratic_ power knows no limits outside the ruler's self; _arbitrary_ power, none outside the ruler's will or judgment, _arbitrary_ carrying the implication of wilfulness and capriciousness. _Despotic_ is commonly applied to a masterful or severe use of power, which is expressed more decidedly by _tyrannical_. _Arbitrary_ may be used in a good sense; as, the pronunciation of proper names is _arbitrary_; but the bad sense is the prevailing one; as, an _arbitrary_ proceeding. _Irresponsible_ power is not necessarily bad, but eminently dangerous; an executor or trustee should not be _irresponsible_; an _irresponsible_ ruler is likely to be _tyrannical_. A perfect ruler might be _irresponsible_ and not _tyrannical_. _Authoritative_ is used always in a good sense, implying the right to claim authority; _imperative_, _peremptory_, and _positive_ are used ordinarily in the good sense; as, an _authoritative_ definition; an _imperative_ demand; a _peremptory_ command; _positive_ instructions; _imperious_ signifies assuming and determined to command, rigorously requiring obedience. An _imperious_ demand or requirement may have in it nothing offensive; it is simply one that resolutely insists upon compliance, and will not brook refusal; an _arrogant_ demand is offensive by its tone of superiority, an _arbitrary_ demand by its unreasonableness; an _imperious_ disposition is liable to become _arbitrary_ and _arrogant_. A person of an independent spirit is inclined to resent an _imperious_ manner in any one, especially in one whose superiority is not clearly recognized. _Commanding_ is always used in a good sense; as, a _commanding_ appearance; a _commanding_ eminence. Compare DOGMATIC; INFINITE; PERFECT. Antonyms: accountable, constitutional, gentle, lowly, responsible, complaisant, contingent, humble, meek, submissive, compliant, docile, lenient, mild, yielding. conditional, ductile, limited, * * * * * ABSOLVE. Synonyms: acquit, exculpate, forgive, pardon, clear, exempt, free, release, discharge, exonerate, liberate, set free. To _absolve_, in the strict sense, is to _set free_ from any bond. One may be _absolved_ from a promise by a breach of faith on the part of one to whom the promise was made. To _absolve_ from sins is formally to remit their condemnation and penalty, regarded as a bond upon the soul. "Almighty God ... _pardoneth_ and _absolveth_ all those who truly repent, and unfeignedly believe his holy Gospel." _Book of Common Prayer, Declar. of Absol._ To _acquit_ of sin or crime is to _free_ from the accusation of it, pronouncing one guiltless; the innocent are rightfully _acquitted_; the guilty may be mercifully _absolved_. Compare PARDON. Antonyms: accuse, charge, condemn, impeach, obligate, bind, compel, convict, inculpate, oblige. Preposition: One is absolved _from_ (rarely _of_) a promise, a sin, etc. * * * * * ABSORB. Synonyms: consume, engross, suck up, take in, drink in, exhaust, swallow, take up. drink up, imbibe, swallow up, A fluid that is _absorbed_ is _taken up_ into the mass of the _absorbing_ body, with which it may or may not permanently combine. Wood expands when it _absorbs_ moisture, iron when it _absorbs_ heat, the substance remaining perhaps otherwise substantially unchanged; quicklime, when it _absorbs_ water, becomes a new substance with different qualities, hydrated or slaked lime. A substance is _consumed_ which is destructively appropriated by some other substance, being, or agency, so that it ceases to exist or to be recognized as existing in its original condition; fuel is _consumed_ in the fire, food in the body; _consume_ is also applied to whatever is removed from the market for individual use; as, silk and woolen goods are _consumed_. A great talker _engrosses_ the conversation. A credulous person _swallows_ the most preposterous statement. A busy student _imbibes_ or _drinks in_ knowledge; he is _absorbed_ in a subject that takes his whole attention. "I only postponed it because I happened to get _absorbed_ in a book." KANE _Grinnell Exped._ ch. 43, page 403. [H. '54.] Antonyms: cast out, dissipate, emit, put forth, shoot forth, disgorge, distract, exude, radiate, throw off, disperse, eject, give up, send out, vomit. Prepositions: Plants absorb moisture _from_ the air; the student is absorbed _in_ thought; nutriment may be absorbed _into_ the system _through_ the skin. * * * * * ABSTINENCE. Synonyms: abstemiousness, frugality, self-denial, sobriety, continence, moderation, self-restraint, temperance. fasting, self-control, _Abstinence_ from food commonly signifies going without; _abstemiousness_, partaking moderately; _abstinence_ may be for a single occasion, _abstemiousness_ is habitual _moderation_. _Self-denial_ is giving up what one wishes; _abstinence_ may be refraining from what one does not desire. _Fasting_ is _abstinence_ from food for a limited time, and generally for religious reasons. _Sobriety_ and _temperance_ signify maintaining a quiet, even temper by moderate indulgence in some things, complete _abstinence_ from others. We speak of _temperance_ in eating, but of _abstinence_ from vice. _Total abstinence_ has come to signify the entire abstaining from intoxicating liquors. Antonyms: drunkenness, greed, reveling, sensuality, excess, intemperance, revelry, wantonness. gluttony, intoxication, self-indulgence, Preposition: The negative side of virtue is abstinence _from_ vice. * * * * * ABSTRACT, _v._ Synonyms: appropriate, distract, purloin, steal, detach, divert, remove, take away, discriminate, eliminate, separate, withdraw. distinguish, The central idea of _withdrawing_ makes _abstract_ in common speech a euphemism for _appropriate_ (unlawfully), _purloin_, _steal_. In mental processes we _discriminate_ between objects by _distinguishing_ their differences; we _separate_ some one element from all that does not necessarily belong to it, _abstract_ it, and view it alone. We may _separate_ two ideas, and hold both in mind in comparison or contrast; but when we _abstract_ one of them, we drop the other out of thought. The mind is _abstracted_ when it is _withdrawn_ from all other subjects and concentrated upon one, _diverted_ when it is drawn away from what it would or should attend to by some other interest, _distracted_ when the attention is divided among different subjects, so that it can not be given properly to any. The trouble with the _distracted_ person is that he is not _abstracted_. Compare DISCERN. Antonyms: add, complete, fill up, restore, unite. combine, conjoin, increase, strengthen, Prepositions: The purse may be abstracted _from_ the pocket; the substance _from_ the accidents; a book _into_ a compend. * * * * * ABSTRACTED. Synonyms: absent, heedless, listless, preoccupied, absent-minded, inattentive, negligent, thoughtless. absorbed, indifferent, oblivious, As regards mental action, _absorbed_, _abstracted_, and _preoccupied_ refer to the cause, _absent_ or _absent-minded_ to the effect. The man _absorbed_ in one thing will appear _absent_ in others. A _preoccupied_ person may seem _listless_ and _thoughtless_, but the really _listless_ and _thoughtless_ have not mental energy to be _preoccupied_. The _absent-minded_ man is _oblivious_ of ordinary matters, because his thoughts are elsewhere. One who is _preoccupied_ is intensely busy in thought; one may be _absent-minded_ either through intense concentration or simply through inattention, with fitful and aimless wandering of thought. Compare ABSTRACT. Antonyms: alert, on hand, ready, wide-awake. attentive, prompt, thoughtful, * * * * * ABSURD. Synonyms: anomalous, ill-considered, ludicrous, ridiculous, chimerical, ill-judged, mistaken, senseless, erroneous, inconclusive, monstrous, stupid, false, incorrect, nonsensical, unreasonable, foolish, infatuated, paradoxical, wild. ill-advised, irrational, preposterous, That is _absurd_ which is contrary to the first principles of reasoning; as, that a part should be greater than the whole is _absurd_. A _paradoxical_ statement appears at first thought contradictory or _absurd_, while it may be really true. Anything is _irrational_ when clearly contrary to sound reason, _foolish_ when contrary to practical good sense, _silly_ when petty and contemptible in its folly, _erroneous_ when containing error that vitiates the result, _unreasonable_ when there seems a perverse bias or an intent to go wrong. _Monstrous_ and _preposterous_ refer to what is overwhelmingly _absurd_; as, "_O monstrous!_ eleven buckram men grown out of two," SHAKESPEARE _1 King Henry IV_, act ii, sc. 4. The _ridiculous_ or the _nonsensical_ is worthy only to be laughed at. The lunatic's claim to be a king is _ridiculous_; the Mother Goose rimes are _nonsensical_. Compare INCONGRUOUS. Antonyms: certain, incontrovertible, rational, substantial, consistent, indisputable, reasonable, true, demonstrable, indubitable, sagacious, undeniable, demonstrated, infallible, sensible, unquestionable, established, logical, sound, wise. incontestable, * * * * * ABUSE. Synonyms: aggrieve, impose on _or_ oppress, ruin, damage, upon, persecute, slander, defame, injure, pervert, victimize, defile, malign, prostitute, vilify, disparage, maltreat, rail at, violate, harm, misemploy, ravish, vituperate, ill-treat, misuse, reproach, wrong. ill-use, molest, revile, _Abuse_ covers all unreasonable or improper use or treatment by word or act. A tenant does not _abuse_ rented property by "reasonable wear," though that may _damage_ the property and _injure_ its sale; he may _abuse_ it by needless defacement or neglect. It is possible to _abuse_ a man without _harming_ him, as when the criminal _vituperates_ the judge; or to _harm_ a man without _abusing_ him, as when the witness tells the truth about the criminal. _Defame_, _malign_, _rail at_, _revile_, _slander_, _vilify_, and _vituperate_ are used always in a bad sense. One may be justly _reproached_. To _impose on_ or to _victimize_ one is to _injure_ him by _abusing_ his confidence. To _persecute_ one is to _ill-treat_ him for opinion's sake, commonly for religious belief; to _oppress_ is generally for political or pecuniary motives. "Thou shalt not _oppress_ an hired servant that is poor and needy," _Deut._ xxiv, 14. _Misemploy_, _misuse_, and _pervert_ are commonly applied to objects rather than to persons. A dissolute youth _misemploys_ his time, _misuses_ his money and opportunities, _harms_ his associates, _perverts_ his talents, _wrongs_ his parents, _ruins_ himself, _abuses_ every good gift of God. Antonyms: applaud, conserve, favor, protect, sustain, benefit, consider, laud, regard, tend, care for, eulogize, panegyrize, respect, uphold, cherish, extol, praise, shield, vindicate. * * * * * ACCESSORY. Synonyms: abetter _or_ abettor, associate, companion, henchman, accomplice, attendant, confederate, participator, ally, coadjutor, follower, partner, assistant, colleague, helper, retainer. _Colleague_ is used always in a good sense, _associate_ and _coadjutor_ generally so; _ally_, _assistant_, _associate_, _attendant_, _companion_, _helper_, either in a good or a bad sense; _abetter_, _accessory_, _accomplice_, _confederate_, almost always in a bad sense. _Ally_ is oftenest used of national and military matters, or of some other connection regarded as great and important; as, _allies_ of despotism. _Colleague_ is applied to civil and ecclesiastical connections; members of Congress from the same State are _colleagues_, even though they may be bitter opponents politically and personally. An _Associate_ Justice of the Supreme Court is near in _rank_ to the Chief Justice. A surgeon's _assistant_ is a physician or medical student who shares in the treatment and care of patients; a surgeon's _attendant_ is one who rolls bandages and the like. _Follower_, _henchman_, _retainer_ are persons especially devoted to a chief, and generally bound to him by necessity, fee, or reward. _Partner_ has come to denote almost exclusively a business connection. In law, an _abettor_ (the general legal spelling) is always present, either actively or constructively, at the commission of the crime; an _accessory_ never. An _accomplice_ is usually a principal; an _accessory_ never. If present, though only to stand outside and keep watch against surprise, one is an _abettor_, and not an _accessory_. At common law, an _accessory_ implies a principal, and can not be convicted until after the conviction of the principal; the _accomplice_ or _abettor_ can be convicted as a principal. _Accomplice_ and _abettor_ have nearly the same meaning, but the former is the popular, the latter more distinctively the legal term. Compare APPENDAGE; AUXILIARY. Antonyms: adversary, chief, foe, leader, principal, antagonist, commander, hinderer, opponent, rival. betrayer, enemy, instigator, opposer, Prepositions: An accessory _to_ the crime; _before_ or _after_ the fact; the accessories _of_ a figure _in_ a painting. * * * * * ACCIDENT. Synonyms: adventure, contingency, happening, misfortune, calamity, disaster, hazard, mishap, casualty, fortuity, incident, possibility. chance, hap, misadventure, An _accident_ is that which happens without any one's direct intention; a _chance_ that which happens without any known cause. If the direct cause of a railroad _accident_ is known, we can not call it a _chance_. To the theist there is, in strictness, no _chance_, all things being by divine causation and control; but _chance_ is spoken of where no special cause is manifest: "By _chance_ there came down a certain priest that way," _Luke_ x, 31. We can speak of a game of _chance_, but not of a game of _accident_. An _incident_ is viewed as occurring in the regular course of things, but subordinate to the main purpose, or aside from the main design. _Fortune_ is the result of inscrutable controlling forces. _Fortune_ and _chance_ are nearly equivalent, but _chance_ can be used of human effort and endeavor as _fortune_ can not be; we say "he has a _chance_ of success," or "there is one _chance_ in a thousand," where we could not substitute _fortune_; as personified, _Fortune_ is regarded as having a fitful purpose, _Chance_ as purposeless; we speak of fickle _Fortune_, blind _Chance_; "_Fortune_ favors the brave." The slaughter of men is an _incident_ of battle; unexpected defeat, the _fortune_ of war. Since the unintended is often the undesirable, _accident_ tends to signify some _calamity_ or _disaster_, unless the contrary is expressed, as when we say a fortunate or happy _accident_. An _adventure_ is that which may turn out ill, a _misadventure_ that which does turn out ill. A slight disturbing _accident_ is a _mishap_. Compare EVENT; HAZARD. Antonyms: appointment, decree, intention, ordainment, preparation, calculation, fate, law, ordinance, provision, certainty, foreordination, necessity, plan, purpose. Prepositions: The accident _of_ birth; an accident _to_ the machinery. * * * * * ACQUAINTANCE. Synonyms: association, experience, fellowship, intimacy, companionship, familiarity, friendship, knowledge. _Acquaintance_ between persons supposes that each knows the other; we may know a public man by his writings or speeches, and by sight, but can not claim _acquaintance_ unless he personally knows us. There may be pleasant _acquaintance_ with little _companionship_; and conversely, much _companionship_ with little _acquaintance_, as between busy clerks at adjoining desks. So there may be _association_ in business without _intimacy_ or _friendship_. _Acquaintance_ admits of many degrees, from a slight or passing to a familiar or intimate _acquaintance_; but _acquaintance_ unmodified commonly signifies less than _familiarity_ or _intimacy_. As regards persons, _familiarity_ is becoming restricted to the undesirable sense, as in the proverb, "_Familiarity_ breeds contempt;" hence, in personal relations, the word _intimacy_, which refers to mutual knowledge of thought and feeling, is now uniformly preferred. _Friendship_ includes _acquaintance_ with some degree of _intimacy_, and ordinarily _companionship_, though in a wider sense _friendship_ may exist between those who have never met, but know each other only by word and deed. _Acquaintance_ does not involve _friendship_, for one may be well acquainted with an enemy. _Fellowship_ involves not merely _acquaintance_ and _companionship_, but sympathy as well. There may be much _friendship_ without much _fellowship_, as between those whose homes or pursuits are far apart. There may be pleasant _fellowship_ which does not reach the fulness of _friendship_. Compare ATTACHMENT; FRIENDSHIP; LOVE. As regards studies, pursuits, etc., _acquaintance_ is less than _familiarity_, which supposes minute _knowledge_ of particulars, arising often from long _experience_ or _association_. Antonyms: ignorance, ignoring, inexperience, unfamiliarity. Prepositions: Acquaintance _with_ a subject; _of_ one person _with_ another; _between_ persons. * * * * * ACRIMONY. Synonyms: acerbity, harshness, severity, tartness, asperity, malignity, sharpness, unkindness, bitterness, moroseness, sourness, virulence. causticity, _Acerbity_ is a _sharpness_, with a touch of _bitterness_, which may arise from momentary annoyance or habitual impatience; _asperity_ is keener and more pronounced, denoting distinct irritation or vexation; in speech _asperity_ is often manifested by the tone of voice rather than by the words that are spoken. _Acrimony_ in speech or temper is like a corrosive acid; it springs from settled character or deeply rooted feeling of aversion or unkindness. One might speak with momentary _asperity_ to his child, but not with _acrimony_, unless estrangement had begun. _Malignity_ is the extreme of settled ill intent; _virulence_ is an envenomed hostility. _Virulence_ of speech is a quality in language that makes the language seem as if exuding poison. _Virulence_ is outspoken; _malignity_ may be covered with smooth and courteous phrase. We say intense _virulence_, deep _malignity_. _Severity_ is always painful, and may be terrible, but carries ordinarily the implication, true or false, of justice. Compare ANGER; BITTER; ENMITY. Antonyms: amiability, gentleness, kindness, smoothness, courtesy, good nature, mildness, sweetness. * * * * * ACT, _n._ Synonyms: accomplishment, execution, movement, achievement, exercise, operation, action, exertion, performance, consummation, exploit, proceeding, deed, feat, transaction, doing, motion, work. effect, An _act_ is strictly and originally something accomplished by an exercise of power, in which sense it is synonymous with _deed_ or _effect_. _Action_ is a _doing_. _Act_ is therefore single, individual, momentary; _action_ a complex of _acts_, or a process, state, or habit of exerting power. We say a virtuous _act_, but rather a virtuous course of _action_. We speak of the _action_ of an acid upon a metal, not of its _act_. _Act_ is used, also, for the simple _exertion_ of power; as, an _act_ of will. In this sense an _act_ does not necessarily imply an external _effect_, while an _action_ does. Morally, the _act_ of murder is in the determination to kill; legally, the _act_ is not complete without the striking of the fatal blow. _Act_ and _deed_ are both used for the thing done, but _act_ refers to the power put forth, _deed_ to the result accomplished; as, a voluntary _act_, a bad _deed_. In connection with other words _act_ is more usually qualified by the use of another noun, _action_ by an adjective preceding; we may say a kind _act_, though oftener an _act_ of kindness, but only a kind _action_, not an _action_ of kindness. As between _act_ and _deed_, _deed_ is commonly used of great, notable, and impressive _acts_, as are _achievement_, _exploit_, and _feat_. _Festus_: We live in _deeds_, not years; in thoughts, not breaths. BAILEY _Festus, A Country Town_, sc. 7. A _feat_ exhibits strength, skill, personal power, whether mental or physical, especially the latter; as, a _feat_ of arms, a _feat_ of memory. An _exploit_ is a conspicuous or glorious _deed_, involving valor or heroism, usually combined with strength, skill, loftiness of thought, and readiness of resource; an _achievement_ is the doing of something great and noteworthy; an _exploit_ is brilliant, but its effect may be transient; an _achievement_ is solid, and its effect enduring. _Act_ and _action_ are both in contrast to all that is merely passive and receptive. The intensest _action_ is easier than passive endurance. Antonyms: cessation, immobility, inertia, quiet, suffering, deliberation, inaction, passion,[A] repose, suspension. endurance, inactivity, quiescence, rest, [A] In philosophic sense. * * * * * ACTIVE. Synonyms: agile, energetic, officious, sprightly, alert, expeditious, prompt, spry, brisk, industrious, quick, supple, bustling, lively, ready, vigorous, busy, mobile, restless, wide awake. diligent, nimble, _Active_ refers to both quickness and constancy of action; in the former sense it is allied with _agile_, _alert_, _brisk_, etc.; in the latter, with _busy_, _diligent_, _industrious_. The _active_ love employment, the _busy_ are actually employed, the _diligent_ and the _industrious_ are habitually _busy_. The _restless_ are _active_ from inability to keep quiet; their activity may be without purpose, or out of all proportion to the purpose contemplated. The _officious_ are undesirably _active_ in the affairs of others. Compare ALERT; ALIVE; MEDDLESOME. Antonyms: dull, inactive, lazy, slow, heavy, indolent, quiescent, sluggish, idle, inert, quiet, stupid. Prepositions: Active _in_ work, _in_ a cause; _for_ an object, as _for_ justice; _with_ persons or instrumentalities; _about_ something, as _about_ other people's business. * * * * * ACUMEN. Synonyms: acuteness, insight, perspicacity, sharpness, cleverness, keenness, sagacity, shrewdness. discernment, penetration, _Sharpness_, _acuteness_, and _insight_, however keen, and _penetration_, however deep, fall short of the meaning of _acumen_, which implies also ability to use these qualities to advantage. There are persons of keen _insight_ and great _penetration_ to whom these powers are practically useless. _Acumen_ is _sharpness_ to some purpose, and belongs to a mind that is comprehensive as well as keen. _Cleverness_ is a practical aptitude for study or learning. _Insight_ and _discernment_ are applied oftenest to the judgment of character; _penetration_ and _perspicacity_ to other subjects of knowledge. _Sagacity_ is an uncultured skill in using quick perceptions for a desired end, generally in practical affairs; _acumen_ may increase with study, and applies to the most erudite matters. _Shrewdness_ is _keenness_ or _sagacity_, often with a somewhat evil bias, as ready to take advantage of duller intellects. _Perspicacity_ is the power to see clearly through that which is difficult or involved. We speak of the _acuteness_ of an observer or a reasoner, the _insight_ and _discernment_ of a student, a clergyman, or a merchant, the _sagacity_ of a hound, the _keenness_ of a debater, the _shrewdness_ of a usurer, the _penetration_, _perspicacity_, and _acumen_ of a philosopher. Antonyms: bluntness, dulness, obtuseness, stupidity. * * * * * ADD. Synonyms: adjoin, annex, augment, extend, make up, affix, append, cast up, increase, subjoin, amplify, attach, enlarge, join on, sum up. To _add_ is to _increase_ by _adjoining_ or _uniting_: in distinction from multiply, which is to _increase_ by repeating. To _augment_ a thing is to _increase_ it by any means, but this word is seldom used directly of material objects; we do not _augment_ a house, a farm, a nation, etc. We may _enlarge_ a house, a farm, or an empire, _extend_ influence or dominion, _augment_ riches, power or influence, _attach_ or _annex_ a building to one that it _adjoins_ or papers to the document they refer to, _annex_ a clause or a codicil, _affix_ a seal or a signature, _annex_ a territory, _attach_ a condition to a promise. A speaker may _amplify_ a discourse by a fuller treatment throughout than was originally planned, or he may _append_ or _subjoin_ certain remarks without change of what has gone before. We _cast up_ or _sum up_ an account, though _add up_ and _make up_ are now more usual expressions. Antonyms: abstract, diminish, lessen, remove, withdraw. deduct, dissever, reduce, subtract, Preposition: Other items are to be added _to_ the account. * * * * * ADDICTED. Synonyms: abandoned, devoted, given over, inclined, accustomed, disposed, given up, prone, attached, given, habituated, wedded. One is _addicted_ to that which he has allowed to gain a strong, habitual, and enduring hold upon action, inclination, or involuntary tendency, as to a habit or indulgence. A man may be _accustomed_ to labor, _attached_ to his profession, _devoted_ to his religion, _given_ to study or to gluttony (in the bad sense, _given over_, or _given up_, is a stronger and more hopeless expression, as is _abandoned_). One _inclined_ to luxury may become _habituated_ to poverty. One is _wedded_ to that which has become a second nature; as, one is _wedded_ to science or to art. _Prone_ is used only in a bad sense, and generally of natural tendencies; as, our hearts are _prone_ to evil. _Abandoned_ tells of the acquired viciousness of one who has given himself up to wickedness. _Addicted_ may be used in a good, but more frequently a bad sense; as, _addicted_ to study; _addicted_ to drink. _Devoted_ is used chiefly in the good sense; as, a mother's _devoted_ affection. Antonyms: averse, disinclined, indisposed, unaccustomed. Preposition: Addicted _to_ vice. * * * * * ADDRESS, _v._ Synonyms: cost, approach, hail, speak to, apostrophize, court, salute, woo. appeal, greet, To _accost_ is to speak first, to friend or stranger, generally with a view to opening conversation; _greet_ is not so distinctly limited, since one may return another's _greeting_; _greet_ and _hail_ may imply but a passing word; _greeting_ may be altogether silent; to _hail_ is to _greet_ in a loud-voiced and commonly hearty and joyous way, as appears in the expression "_hail_ fellow, well met." To _salute_ is to _greet_ with special token of respect, as a soldier his commander. To _apostrophize_ is to solemnly _address_ some person or personified attribute apart from the audience to whom one is speaking; as, a preacher may _apostrophize_ virtue, the saints of old, or even the Deity. To _appeal_ is strictly to call for some form of help or support. _Address_ is slightly more formal than _accost_ or _greet_, though it may often be interchanged with them. One may _address_ another at considerable length or in writing; he _accosts_ orally and briefly. Antonyms: avoid, elude, overlook, pass by, cut, ignore, pass, shun. Prepositions: Address the memorial _to_ the legislature; the president addressed the people _in_ an eloquent speech; he addressed an intruder _with_ indignation. * * * * * ADDRESS, _n._ Synonyms: adroitness, discretion, manners, readiness, courtesy, ingenuity, politeness, tact. dexterity, _Address_ is that indefinable something which enables a man to gain his object without seeming exertion or contest, and generally with the favor and approval of those with whom he deals. It is a general power to direct to the matter in hand whatever qualities are most needed for it at the moment. It includes _adroitness_ and _discretion_ to know what to do or say and what to avoid; _ingenuity_ to devise; _readiness_ to speak or act; the _dexterity_ that comes of practise; and _tact_, which is the power of fine touch as applied to human character and feeling. _Courtesy_ and _politeness_ are indispensable elements of good _address_. Compare SPEECH. Antonyms: awkwardness, clumsiness, ill-breeding, stupidity, boorishness, fatuity, ill manners, unmannerliness, clownishness, folly, rudeness, unwisdom. Prepositions: Address _in_ dealing with opponents; the address _of_ an accomplished intriguer; an address _to_ the audience. * * * * * ADEQUATE. Synonyms: able, competent, fitted, satisfactory, adapted, equal, fitting, sufficient, capable, fit, qualified, suitable. commensurate, _Adequate_, _commensurate_, and _sufficient_ signify _equal_ to some given occasion or work; as, a sum _sufficient_ to meet expenses; an _adequate_ remedy for the disease. _Commensurate_ is the more precise and learned word, signifying that which exactly measures the matter in question. _Adapted_, _fit_, _suitable_, and _qualified_ refer to the qualities which match or suit the occasion. A clergyman may have strength _adequate_ to the work of a porter; but that would not be a _fit_ or _suitable_ occupation for him. Work is _satisfactory_ if it satisfies those for whom it is done, though it may be very poor work judged by some higher standard. _Qualified_ refers to acquired abilities; _competent_ to both natural and acquired; a _qualified_ teacher may be no longer _competent_, by reason of ill health. _Able_ and _capable_ suggest general ability and reserved power, _able_ being the higher word of the two. An _able_ man will do something well in any position. A _capable_ man will come up to any ordinary demand. We say an _able_ orator, a _capable_ accountant. Antonyms: disqualified, inferior, unequal, unsatisfactory, useless, inadequate, insufficient, unfit, unsuitable, worthless. incompetent, poor, unqualified, Prepositions: Adequate _to_ the demand; _for_ the purpose. * * * * * ADHERENT. Synonyms: aid, ally, disciple, partisan, supporter. aider, backer, follower, An _adherent_ is one who is devoted or attached to a person, party, principle, cause, creed, or the like. One may be an _aider_ and _supporter_ of a party or church, while not an _adherent_ to all its doctrines or claims. An _ally_ is more independent still, as he may differ on every point except the specific ground of union. The _Allies_ who overthrew Napoleon were united only against him. _Allies_ are regarded as equals; _adherents_ and _disciples_ are followers. The _adherent_ depends more on his individual judgment, the _disciple_ is more subject to command and instruction; thus we say the _disciples_ rather than the _adherents_ of Christ. _Partisan_ has the narrow and odious sense of adhesion to a party, right or wrong. One may be an _adherent_ or _supporter_ of a party and not a _partisan_. _Backer_ is a sporting and theatrical word, personal in its application, and not in the best usage. Compare ACCESSORY. Antonyms: adversary, betrayer, enemy, opponent, traitor. antagonist, deserter, hater, renegade, Prepositions: Adherents _to_ principle; adherents _of_ Luther. * * * * * ADHESIVE. Synonyms: cohesive, gummy, sticky, viscous. glutinous, sticking, viscid, _Adhesive_ is the scientific, _sticking_ or _sticky_ the popular word. That which is _adhesive_ tends to join itself to the surface of any other body with which it is placed in contact; _cohesive_ expresses the tendency of particles of the same substance to hold together. Polished plate glass is not _adhesive_, but such plates packed together are intensely _cohesive_. An _adhesive_ plaster is in popular language a _sticking_-plaster. _Sticky_ expresses a more limited, and generally annoying, degree of the same quality. _Glutinous_, _gummy_, _viscid_, and _viscous_ are applied to fluid or semi-fluid substances, as pitch or tar. Antonyms: free, inadhesive, loose, separable. Preposition: The stiff, wet clay, adhesive _to_ the foot, impeded progress. * * * * * ADJACENT. Synonyms: abutting, bordering, contiguous, neighboring, adjoining, close, coterminous, next, attached, conterminous, near, nigh. beside, _Adjacent_ farms may not be connected; if _adjoining_, they meet at the boundary-line. _Conterminous_ would imply that their dimensions were exactly equal on the side where they adjoin. _Contiguous_ may be used for either _adjacent_ or _adjoining_. _Abutting_ refers rather to the end of one building or estate than to the neighborhood of another. Buildings may be _adjacent_ or _adjoining_ that are not _attached_. _Near_ is a relative word, places being called _near_ upon the railroad which would elsewhere be deemed remote. _Neighboring_ always implies such proximity that the inhabitants may be neighbors. _Next_ views some object as the nearest of several or many; _next_ neighbor implies a neighborhood. Antonyms: detached, disconnected, disjoined, distant, remote, separate. Preposition: The farm was adjacent _to_ the village. * * * * * ADMIRE. Synonyms: adore, delight in, extol, respect, venerate, applaud, enjoy, honor, revere, wonder. approve, esteem, love, In the old sense of _wonder_, _admire_ is practically obsolete; the word now expresses a delight and approval, in which the element of wonder unconsciously mingles. We _admire_ beauty in nature and art, _delight in_ the innocent happiness of children, _enjoy_ books or society, a walk or a dinner. We _approve_ what is excellent, _applaud_ heroic deeds, _esteem_ the good, _love_ our friends. We _honor_ and _respect_ noble character wherever found; we _revere_ and _venerate_ it in the aged. We _extol_ the goodness and _adore_ the majesty and power of God. Antonyms: abhor, contemn, detest, execrate, ridicule, abominate, despise, dislike, hate, scorn. Preposition: _Admire at_ may still very rarely be found in the old sense of _wonder at_. * * * * * ADORN. Synonyms: beautify, decorate, garnish, illustrate, bedeck, embellish, gild, ornament. deck, To _embellish_ is to brighten and enliven by adding something that is not necessarily or very closely connected with that to which it is added; to _illustrate_ is to add something so far like in kind as to cast a side-light upon the principal matter. An author _embellishes_ his narrative with fine descriptions, the artist _illustrates_ it with beautiful engravings, the binder _gilds_ and _decorates_ the volume. _Garnish_ is on a lower plane; as, the feast was _garnished_ with flowers. _Deck_ and _bedeck_ are commonly said of apparel; as, a mother _bedecks_ her daughter with silk and jewels. To _adorn_ and to _ornament_ alike signify to add that which makes anything beautiful and attractive, but _ornament_ is more exclusively on the material plane; as, the gateway was _ornamented_ with delicate carving. _Adorn_ is more lofty and spiritual, referring to a beauty which is not material, and can not be put on by ornaments or decorations, but seems in perfect harmony and unity with that to which it adds a grace; if we say, the gateway was _adorned_ with beautiful carving, we imply a unity and loftiness of design such as _ornamented_ can not express. We say of some admirable scholar or statesman, "he touched nothing that he did not _adorn_." At church, with meek and unaffected grace, His looks _adorned_ the venerable place. GOLDSMITH _Deserted Village_, l. 178. Antonyms: deface, deform, disfigure, mar, spoil. Preposition: Adorn his temples _with_ a coronet. * * * * * AFFRONT. Synonyms: aggravate, exasperate, offend, vex, annoy, insult, provoke, wound. displease, irritate, tease, One may be _annoyed_ by the well-meaning awkwardness of a servant, _irritated_ by a tight shoe or a thoughtless remark, _vexed_ at some careless neglect or needless misfortune, _wounded_ by the ingratitude of child or friend. To _tease_ is to give some slight and perhaps playful annoyance. _Aggravate_ in the sense of _offend_ is colloquial. To _provoke_, literally to call out or challenge, is to begin a contest; one _provokes_ another to violence. To _affront_ is to offer some defiant offense or indignity, as it were, to one's face; it is somewhat less than to _insult_. Compare PIQUE. Antonyms: conciliate, content, gratify, honor, please. * * * * * AGENT. Synonyms: actor, factor, means, operator, promoter. doer, instrument, mover, performer, In strict philosophical usage, the prime _mover_ or _doer_ of an act is the _agent_. Thus we speak of man as a voluntary _agent_, a free _agent_. But in common usage, especially in business, an _agent_ is not the prime _actor_, but only an _instrument_ or _factor_, acting under orders or instructions. Compare CAUSE. Antonyms: chief, inventor, originator, principal. Prepositions: An agent _of_ the company _for_ selling, etc. * * * * * AGREE. Synonyms: accede, admit, coincide, concur, accept, approve, combine, consent, accord, assent, comply, harmonize. acquiesce, _Agree_ is the most general term of this group, signifying to have like qualities, proportions, views, or inclinations, so as to be free from jar, conflict, or contradiction in a given relation. To _concur_ is to _agree_ in general; to _coincide_ is to _agree_ in every particular. Whether in application to persons or things, _concur_ tends to expression in action more than _coincide_; we may either _concur_ or _coincide_ in an opinion, but _concur_ in a decision; views _coincide_, causes _concur_. One _accepts_ another's terms, _complies_ with his wishes, _admits_ his statement, _approves_ his plan, _conforms_ to his views of doctrine or duty, _accedes_ or _consents_ to his proposal. _Accede_ expresses the more formal agreement, _consent_ the more complete. To _assent_ is an act of the understanding; to _consent_, of the will. We may _concur_ or _agree_ with others, either in opinion or decision. One may silently _acquiesce_ in that which does not meet his views, but which he does not care to contest. He _admits_ the charge brought, or the statement made, by another--_admit_ always carrying a suggestion of reluctance. _Assent_ is sometimes used for a mild form of _consent_, as if agreement in the opinion assured approval of the decision. Antonyms: contend, demur, disagree, oppose, contradict, deny, dispute, protest, decline, differ, dissent, refuse. Prepositions: I agree _in_ opinion _with_ the speaker; _to_ the terms proposed; persons agree _on_ or _upon_ a statement of principles, rules, etc.; we must agree _among_ ourselves. * * * * * AGRICULTURE. Synonyms: cultivation, gardening, kitchen-gardening, culture, horticulture, market-gardening, farming, husbandry, tillage. floriculture, _Agriculture_ is the generic term, including at once the science, the art, and the process of supplying human wants by raising the products of the soil, and by the associated industries; _farming_ is the practise of _agriculture_ as a business; there may be theoretical _agriculture_, but not theoretical _farming_; we speak of the science of _agriculture_, the business of _farming_; scientific _agriculture_ may be wholly in books; scientific _farming_ is practised upon the land; we say an _agricultural_ college rather than a college of _farming_. _Farming_ refers to the _cultivation_ of considerable portions of land, and the raising of the coarser crops; _gardening_ is the close _cultivation_ of a small area for small fruits, flowers, vegetables, etc., and while it may be done upon a farm is yet a distinct industry. _Gardening_ in general, _kitchen-gardening_, the _cultivation_ of vegetables, etc., for the household, _market-gardening_, the raising of the same for sale, _floriculture_, the _culture_ of flowers, and _horticulture_, the _culture_ of fruits, flowers, or vegetables, are all departments of _agriculture_, but not strictly nor ordinarily of _farming_; _farming_ is itself one department of _agriculture_. _Husbandry_ is a general word for any form of practical _agriculture_, but is now chiefly poetical. _Tillage_ refers directly to the work bestowed upon the land, as plowing, manuring, etc.; _cultivation_ refers especially to the processes that bring forward the crop; we speak of the _tillage_ of the soil, the _cultivation_ of corn; we also speak of land as in a state of _cultivation_, under _cultivation_, etc. _Culture_ is now applied to the careful development of any product to a state of perfection, especially by care through successive generations; the choice varieties of the strawberry have been produced by wise and patient _culture_; a good crop in any year is the result of good _cultivation_. * * * * * AIM. Synonyms: aspiration, endeavor, intention, tendency. design, goal, mark, determination, inclination, object, end, intent, purpose, The _aim_ is the direction in which one shoots, or sometimes that which is aimed at. The _mark_ is that at which one shoots; the _goal_, that toward which one runs. All alike indicate the direction of _endeavor_. The _end_ is the point at which one expects or hopes to close his labors; the _object_, that which he would grasp as the reward of his labors. _Aspiration_, _design_, _endeavor_, _purpose_, referring to the mental acts by which the _aim_ is attained, are often used as interchangeable with _aim_. _Aspiration_ applies to what are viewed as noble _aims_; _endeavor_, _design_, _intention_, _purpose_, indifferently to the best or worst. _Aspiration_ has less of decision than the other terms; one may aspire to an _object_, and yet lack the fixedness of _purpose_ by which alone it can be attained. _Purpose_ is stronger than _intention_. _Design_ especially denotes the adaptation of means to an end; _endeavor_ refers to the exertions by which it is to be attained. One whose _aims_ are worthy, whose _aspirations_ are high, whose _designs_ are wise, and whose _purposes_ are steadfast, may hope to reach the _goal_ of his ambition, and will surely win some _object_ worthy of a life's _endeavor_. Compare AMBITION; DESIGN. Antonyms: aimlessness, heedlessness, negligence, purposelessness, avoidance, neglect, oversight, thoughtlessness. carelessness, * * * * * AIR. Synonyms: appearance, demeanor, manner, sort, bearing, expression, mien, style, behavior, fashion, port, way. carriage, look, _Air_ is that combination of qualities which makes the entire impression we receive in a person's presence; as, we say he has the _air_ of a scholar, or the _air_ of a villain. _Appearance_ refers more to the dress and other externals. We might say of a travel-soiled pedestrian, he has the _appearance_ of a tramp, but the _air_ of a gentleman. _Expression_ and _look_ especially refer to the face. _Expression_ is oftenest applied to that which is habitual; as, he has a pleasant _expression_ of countenance; _look_ may be momentary; as, a _look_ of dismay passed over his face. We may, however, speak of the _look_ or _looks_ as indicating all that we look at; as, he had the _look_ of an adventurer; I did not like his _looks_. _Bearing_ is rather a lofty word; as, he has a noble _bearing_; _port_ is practically identical in meaning with _bearing_, but is more exclusively a literary word. _Carriage_, too, is generally used in a good sense; as, that lady has a good _carriage_. _Mien_ is closely synonymous with _air_, but less often used in a bad sense. We say a rakish _air_ rather than a rakish _mien_. _Mien_ may be used to express some prevailing feeling; as, "an indignant _mien_." _Demeanor_ goes beyond _appearance_, including conduct, behavior; as, a modest _demeanor_. _Manner_ and _style_ are, in large part at least, acquired. Compare BEHAVIOR. * * * * * AIRY. Synonyms: aerial, ethereal, frolicsome, joyous, lively, animated, fairylike, gay, light, sprightly. _Aerial_ and _airy_ both signify of or belonging to the air, but _airy_ also describes that which seems as if made of air; we speak of _airy_ shapes, _airy_ nothings, where we could not well say _aerial_; _ethereal_ describes its object as belonging to the upper air, the pure ether, and so, often, heavenly. _Sprightly_, spiritlike, refers to light, free, cheerful activity of mind and body. That which is _lively_ or _animated_ may be agreeable or the reverse; as, an _animated_ discussion; a _lively_ company. Antonyms: clumsy, heavy, ponderous, sluggish, wooden. dull, inert, slow, stony, * * * * * ALARM. Synonyms: affright, disquietude, fright, solicitude, apprehension, dread, misgiving, terror, consternation, fear, panic, timidity. dismay, _Alarm_, according to its derivation _all'arme_, "to arms," is an arousing to meet and repel danger, and may be quite consistent with true courage. _Affright_ and _fright_ express sudden _fear_ which, for the time at least, overwhelms courage. The sentinel discovers with _alarm_ the sudden approach of the enemy; the unarmed villagers view it with _affright_. _Apprehension_, _disquietude_, _dread_, _misgiving_, and _solicitude_ are in anticipation of danger; _consternation_, _dismay_, and _terror_ are overwhelming _fear_, generally in the actual presence of that which is terrible, though these words also may have an anticipative force. _Timidity_ is a quality, habit, or condition, a readiness to be affected with _fear_. A person of great _timidity_ is constantly liable to needless _alarm_ and even _terror_. Compare FEAR. Antonyms: assurance, calmness, confidence, repose, security. Prepositions: Alarm was felt _in_ the camp, _among_ the soldiers, _at_ the news. * * * * * ALERT. Synonyms: active, lively, prepared, vigilant, brisk, nimble, prompt, watchful, hustling, on the watch, ready, wide-awake. _Alert_, _ready_, and _wide-awake_ refer to a watchful promptness for action. _Ready_ suggests thoughtful preparation; the wandering Indian is _alert_, the trained soldier is _ready_. _Ready_ expresses more life and vigor than _prepared_. The gun is _prepared_; the man is _ready_. _Prompt_ expresses readiness for appointment or demand at the required moment. The good general is _ready_ for emergencies, _alert_ to perceive opportunity or peril, _prompt_ to seize occasion. The sense of _brisk_, _nimble_ is the secondary and now less common signification of _alert_. Compare ACTIVE; ALIVE; NIMBLE; VIGILANT. Antonyms: drowsy, dull, heavy, inactive, slow, sluggish, stupid. * * * * * ALIEN, _a._ Synonyms: conflicting, distant, inappropriate, strange, contradictory, foreign, irrelevant, unconnected, contrary, hostile, opposed, unlike. contrasted, impertinent, remote, _Foreign_ refers to difference of birth, _alien_ to difference of allegiance. In their figurative use, that is _foreign_ which is _remote_, _unlike_, or _unconnected_; that is _alien_ which is _conflicting_, _hostile_, or _opposed_. _Impertinent_ and _irrelevant_ matters can not claim consideration in a certain connection; _inappropriate_ matters could not properly be considered. Compare ALIEN, _n._; CONTRAST, _v._ Antonyms: akin, apropos, germane, proper, appropriate, essential, pertinent, relevant. Prepositions: Such a purpose was alien _to_ (or _from_) my thought: _to_ preferable. * * * * * ALIEN, _n._ Synonyms: foreigner, stranger. A naturalized citizen is not an _alien_, though a _foreigner_ by birth, and perhaps a _stranger_ in the place where he resides. A person of foreign birth not naturalized is an _alien_, though he may have been resident in the country a large part of a lifetime, and ceased to be a _stranger_ to its people or institutions. He is an _alien_ in one country if his allegiance is to another. The people of any country still residing in their own land are, strictly speaking, _foreigners_ to the people of all other countries, rather than _aliens_; but _alien_ and _foreigner_ are often used synonymously. Antonyms: citizen, fellow-countryman, native-born inhabitant, countryman, native, naturalized person. Prepositions: Aliens _to_ (more rarely _from_) our nation and laws; aliens _in_ our land, _among_ our people. * * * * * ALIKE. Synonyms: akin, equivalent, kindred, same, analogous, homogeneous, like, similar, equal, identical, resembling, uniform. _Alike_ is a comprehensive word, signifying as applied to two or more objects that some or all qualities of one are the same as those of the other or others; by modifiers _alike_ may be made to express more or less resemblance; as, these houses are somewhat (_i. e._, partially) _alike_; or, these houses are exactly (_i. e._, in all respects) _alike_. Cotton and wool are _alike_ in this, that they can both be woven into cloth. Substances are _homogeneous_ which are made up of elements of the _same_ kind, or which are the _same_ in structure. Two pieces of iron may be _homogeneous_ in material, while not _alike_ in size or shape. In geometry, two triangles are _equal_ when they can be laid over one another, and fit, line for line and angle for angle; they are _equivalent_ when they simply contain the same amount of space. An _identical_ proposition is one that says the same thing precisely in subject and predicate. _Similar_ refers to close resemblance, which yet leaves room for question or denial of complete likeness or identity. To say "this is the _identical_ man," is to say not merely that he is _similar_ to the one I have in mind, but that he is the very _same_ person. Things are _analogous_ when they are _similar_ in idea, plan, use, or character, tho perhaps quite unlike in appearance; as, the gills of fishes are said to be _analogous_ to the lungs in terrestrial animals. Antonyms: different, dissimilar, distinct, heterogeneous, unlike. Prepositions: The specimens are alike _in_ kind; they are all alike _to_ me. * * * * * ALIVE. Synonyms: active, breathing, live, quick, alert, brisk, lively, subsisting, animate, existent, living, vivacious. animated, existing, _Alive_ applies to all degrees of life, from that which shows one to be barely _existing_ or _existent_ as a living thing, as when we say he is just _alive_, to that which implies the very utmost of vitality and power, as in the words "he is all _alive_," "thoroughly _alive_." So the word _quick_, which began by signifying "having life," is now mostly applied to energy of life as shown in swiftness of action. _Breathing_ is capable of like contrast. We say of a dying man, he is still _breathing_; or we speak of a _breathing_ statue, or "_breathing_ and sounding, beauteous battle," TENNYSON _Princess_ can. v, l. 155, where it means having, or seeming to have, full and vigorous breath, abundant life. Compare ACTIVE; ALERT; NIMBLE. Antonyms: dead, defunct, dull, lifeless, deceased, dispirited, inanimate, spiritless. Prepositions: Alive _in_ every nerve; alive _to_ every noble impulse; alive _with_ fervor, hope, resolve; alive _through_ all his being. * * * * * ALLAY. Synonyms: alleviate, compose, quiet, still, appease, mollify, soothe, tranquilize. calm, pacify, _Allay_ and _alleviate_ are closely kindred in signification, and have been often interchanged in usage. But, in strictness, to _allay_ is to lay to rest, _quiet_ or _soothe_ that which is excited; to _alleviate_, on the other hand, is to lighten a burden. We _allay_ suffering by using means to _soothe_ and _tranquilize_ the sufferer; we _alleviate_ suffering by doing something toward removal of the cause, so that there is less to suffer; where the trouble is wholly or chiefly in the excitement, to _allay_ the excitement is virtually to remove the trouble; as, to _allay_ rage or panic; we _alleviate_ poverty, but do not _allay_ it. _Pacify_, directly from the Latin, and _appease_, from the Latin through the French, signify to bring to peace; to _mollify_ is to soften; to _calm_, _quiet_, or _tranquilize_ is to make still; _compose_, to place together, unite, adjust to a calm and settled condition; to _soothe_ (originally to assent to, humor) is to bring to pleased quietude. We _allay_ excitement, _appease_ a tumult, _calm_ agitation, _compose_ our feelings or countenance, _pacify_ the quarrelsome, _quiet_ the boisterous or clamorous, _soothe_ grief or distress. Compare ALLEVIATE. Antonyms: agitate, excite, kindle, rouse, stir up. arouse, fan, provoke, stir, * * * * * ALLEGE. Synonyms: adduce, asseverate, claim, maintain, produce, advance, assign, declare, offer, say, affirm, aver, introduce, plead, state. assert, cite, To _allege_ is formally to state as true or capable of proof, but without proving. To _adduce_, literally to lead to, is to bring the evidence up to what has been _alleged_. _Adduce_ is a secondary word; nothing can be _adduced_ in evidence till something has been _stated_ or _alleged_, which the evidence is to sustain. An _alleged_ fact stands open to question or doubt. To speak of an _alleged_ document, an _alleged_ will, an _alleged_ crime, is either to question, or at least very carefully to refrain from admitting, that the document exists, that the will is genuine, or that the crime has been committed. _Alleged_ is, however, respectful; to speak of the "so-called" will or deed, etc., would be to cast discredit upon the document, and imply that the speaker was ready to brand it as unquestionably spurious; _alleged_ simply concedes nothing and leaves the question open. To _produce_ is to bring forward, as, for instance, papers or persons. _Adduce_ is not used of persons; of them we say _introduce_ or _produce_. When an _alleged_ criminal is brought to trial, the counsel on either side are accustomed to _advance_ a theory, and _adduce_ the strongest possible evidence in its support; they will _produce_ documents and witnesses, _cite_ precedents, _assign_ reasons, _introduce_ suggestions, _offer_ pleas. The accused will usually _assert_ his innocence. Compare STATE. * * * * * ALLEGIANCE. Synonyms: devotion, fealty, loyalty, obedience, subjection. faithfulness, homage, _Allegiance_ is the obligation of fidelity and obedience that an individual owes to his government or sovereign, in return for the protection he receives. The feudal uses of these words have mostly passed away with the state of society that gave them birth; but their origin still colors their present meaning. A patriotic American feels an enthusiastic _loyalty_ to the republic; he takes, on occasion, an oath of _allegiance_ to the government, but his _loyalty_ will lead him to do more than mere _allegiance_ could demand; he pays _homage_ to God alone, as the only king and lord, or to those principles of right that are spiritually supreme; he acknowledges the duty of _obedience_ to all rightful authority; he resents the idea of _subjection_. _Fealty_ is becoming somewhat rare, except in elevated or poetic style. We prefer to speak of the _faithfulness_ rather than the _fealty_ of citizen, wife, or friend. Antonyms: disaffection, disloyalty, rebellion, sedition, treason. Prepositions: We honor the allegiance _of_ the citizen _to_ the government; the government has a right to allegiance _from_ the citizen. * * * * * ALLEGORY. Synonyms: fable, fiction, illustration, metaphor, parable, simile. In modern usage we may say that an _allegory_ is an extended _simile_, while a _metaphor_ is an abbreviated _simile_ contained often in a phrase, perhaps in a word. The _simile_ carries its comparison on the surface, in the words _as_, _like_, or similar expressions; the _metaphor_ is given directly without any note of comparison. The _allegory_, _parable_, or _fable_ tells its story as if true, leaving the reader or hearer to discover its fictitious character and learn its lesson. All these are, in strict definition, _fictions_; but the word _fiction_ is now applied almost exclusively to novels or romances. An _allegory_ is a moral or religious tale, of which the moral lesson is the substance, and all descriptions and incidents but accessories, as in "The Pilgrim's Progress." A _fable_ is generally briefer, representing animals as the speakers and actors, and commonly conveying some lesson of practical wisdom or shrewdness, as "The _Fables_ of Æsop." A _parable_ is exclusively moral or religious, briefer and less adorned than an _allegory_, with its lesson more immediately discernible, given, as it were, at a stroke. Any comparison, analogy, instance, example, tale, anecdote, or the like which serves to let in light upon a subject may be called an _illustration_, this word in its widest use including all the rest. Compare FICTION; STORY. Antonyms: chronicle, fact, history, narrative, record. * * * * * ALLEVIATE. Synonyms: abate, lighten, reduce, remove, assuage, mitigate, relieve, soften. lessen, moderate, Etymologically, to _alleviate_ is to lift a burden toward oneself, and so _lighten_ it for the bearer; to _relieve_ is to lift it back from the bearer, nearly or quite away; to _remove_ is to take it away altogether. _Alleviate_ is thus less than _relieve_; _relieve_, ordinarily, less than _remove_. We _alleviate_, _relieve_ or _remove_ the trouble; we _relieve_, not _alleviate_, the sufferer. _Assuage_ is, by derivation, to sweeten; _mitigate_, to make mild; _moderate_, to bring within measure; _abate_, to beat down, and so make less. We _abate_ a fever; _lessen_ anxiety; _moderate_ passions or desires; _lighten_ burdens; _mitigate_ or _alleviate_ pain; _reduce_ inflammation; _soften_, _assuage_, or _moderate_ grief; we _lighten_ or _mitigate_ punishments; we _relieve_ any suffering of body or mind that admits of help, comfort, or remedy. _Alleviate_ has been often confused with _allay_. Compare ALLAY. Antonyms: aggravate, embitter, heighten, intensify, make worse. augment, enhance, increase, magnify, * * * * * ALLIANCE. Synonyms: coalition, confederation, fusion, partnership, compact, federation, league, union. confederacy, _Alliance_ is in its most common use a connection formed by treaty between sovereign states as for mutual aid in war. _Partnership_ is a mercantile word; _alliance_ chiefly political or matrimonial. _Coalition_ is oftenest used of political parties; _fusion_ is now the more common word in this sense. In an _alliance_ between nations there is no surrender of sovereignty, and no _union_ except for a specified time and purpose. _League_ and _alliance_ are used with scarcely perceptible difference of meaning. In a _confederacy_ or _confederation_ there is an attempt to unite separate states in a general government without surrender of sovereignty. _Union_ implies so much concession as to make the separate states substantially one. _Federation_ is mainly a poetic and rhetorical word expressing something of the same thought, as in Tennyson's "_federation_ of the world," _Locksley Hall_, l. 128. The United States is not a _confederacy_ nor an _alliance_; the nation might be called a _federation_, but prefers to be styled a federal _union_. Antonyms: antagonism, disunion, enmity, schism, separation, discord, divorce, hostility, secession, war. Prepositions: Alliance _with_ a neighboring people; _against_ the common enemy; _for_ offense and defense; alliance _of_, _between_, or _among_ nations. * * * * * ALLOT. Synonyms: appoint, destine, give, portion out, apportion, distribute, grant, select, assign, divide, mete out, set apart. award, _Allot_, originally to assign by lot, applies to the giving of a definite thing to a certain person. A portion or extent of time is _allotted_; as, I expect to live out my _allotted_ time. A definite period is _appointed_; as, the audience assembled at the _appointed_ hour. _Allot_ may also refer to space; as, to _allot_ a plot of ground for a cemetery; but we now oftener use _select_, _set apart_, or _assign_. _Allot_ is not now used of persons. _Appoint_ may be used of time, space, or person; as, the _appointed_ day; the _appointed_ place; an officer was _appointed_ to this station. _Destine_ may also refer to time, place, or person, but it always has reference to what is considerably in the future; a man _appoints_ to meet his friend in five minutes; he _destines_ his son to follow his own profession. _Assign_ is rarely used of time, but rather of places, persons, or things. We _assign_ a work to be done and _assign_ a man to do it, who, if he fails, must _assign_ a reason for not doing it. That which is _allotted_, _appointed_, or _assigned_ is more or less arbitrary; that which is _awarded_ is the due requital of something the receiver has done, and he has right and claim to it; as, the medal was _awarded_ for valor. Compare APPORTION. Antonyms: appropriate, deny, resume, seize, confiscate, refuse, retain, withhold. Prepositions: Allot _to_ a company _for_ a purpose. * * * * * ALLOW. Synonyms: admit, consent to, let, sanction, tolerate, concede, grant, permit, suffer, yield. We _allow_ that which we do not attempt to hinder; we _permit_ that to which we give some express authorization. When this is given verbally it is called permission; when in writing it is commonly called a permit. There are establishments that any one will be _allowed_ to visit without challenge or hindrance; there are others that no one is _allowed_ to visit without a permit from the manager; there are others to which visitors are _admitted_ at specified times, without a formal permit. We _allow_ a child's innocent intrusion; we _concede_ a right; _grant_ a request; _consent_ to a sale of property; _permit_ an inspection of accounts; _sanction_ a marriage; _tolerate_ the rudeness of a well-meaning servant; _submit_ to a surgical operation; _yield_ to a demand or necessity against our wish or will, or _yield_ something under compulsion; as, the sheriff _yielded_ the keys at the muzzle of a revolver, and _allowed_ the mob to enter. _Suffer_, in the sense of mild concession, is now becoming rare, its place being taken by _allow_, _permit_, or _tolerate_. Compare PERMISSION. Antonyms: deny, disapprove, protest, reject, withstand. disallow, forbid, refuse, resist, See also synonyms for PROHIBIT. Prepositions: To allow _of_ (in best recent usage, simply to _allow_) such an action; allow one _in_ such a course; allow _for_ spending-money. * * * * * ALLOY. Synonyms: admixture, adulteration, debasement, deterioration. _Alloy_ may be either some admixture of baser with precious metal, as for giving hardness to coin or the like, or it may be a compound or mixture of two or more metals. _Adulteration_, _debasement_, and _deterioration_ are always used in the bad sense; _admixture_ is neutral, and may be good or bad; _alloy_ is commonly good in the literal sense. An excess of _alloy_ virtually amounts to _adulteration_; but _adulteration_ is now mostly restricted to articles used for food, drink, medicine, and kindred uses. In the figurative sense, as applied to character, etc., _alloy_ is unfavorable, because there the only standard is perfection. * * * * * ALLUDE. Synonyms: advert, indicate, intimate, point, signify, hint, insinuate, mention, refer, suggest. imply, _Advert_, _mention_, and _refer_ are used of language that more or less distinctly utters a certain thought; the others of language from which it may be inferred. We _allude_ to a matter slightly, perhaps by a word or phrase, as it were in byplay; we _advert_ to it when we turn from our path to treat it; we _refer_ to it by any clear utterance that distinctly turns the mind or attention to it; as, marginal figures _refer_ to a parallel passage; we _mention_ a thing by explicit word, as by naming it. The speaker _adverted_ to the recent disturbances and the remissness of certain public officers; tho he _mentioned_ no name, it was easy to see to whom he _alluded_. One may _hint_ at a thing in a friendly way, but what is _insinuated_ is always unfavorable, generally both hostile and cowardly. One may _indicate_ his wishes, _intimate_ his plans, _imply_ his opinion, _signify_ his will, _suggest_ a course of action. Compare SUGGESTION. Preposition: The passage evidently alludes _to_ the Jewish Passover. * * * * * ALLURE. Synonyms: attract, captivate, decoy, entice, lure, tempt, cajole, coax, draw, inveigle, seduce, win. To _allure_ is to _draw_ as with a lure by some charm or some prospect of pleasure or advantage. We may _attract_ others to a certain thing without intent; as, the good unconsciously _attract_ others to virtue. We may _allure_ either to that which is evil or to that which is good and noble, by purpose and endeavor, as in the familiar line, "_Allured_ to brighter worlds, and led the way," GOLDSMITH _Deserted Village_, l. 170. _Lure_ is rather more akin to the physical nature. It is the word we would use of drawing on an animal. _Coax_ expresses the attraction of the person, not of the thing. A man may be _coaxed_ to that which is by no means _alluring_. _Cajole_ and _decoy_ carry the idea of deceiving and ensnaring. To _inveigle_ is to lead one blindly in. To _tempt_ is to endeavor to lead one wrong; to _seduce_ is to succeed in _winning_ one from good to ill. _Win_ may be used in either a bad or a good sense, in which latter it surpasses the highest sense of _allure_, because it succeeds in that which _allure_ attempts; as, "He that _winneth_ souls is wise," _Prov._ xi, 30. Antonyms: chill, damp, deter, dissuade, drive away, repel, warn. Prepositions: Allure _to_ a course; allure _by_ hopes; allure _from_ evil _to_ good. * * * * * ALSO. Synonyms: as well, in addition, likewise, too, as well as, in like manner, similarly, withal. besides, While some distinctions between these words and phrases will appear to the careful student, yet in practise the choice between them is largely to secure euphony and avoid repetition. The words fall into two groups; _as well as_, _besides_, _in addition_, _too_, _withal_, simply add a fact or thought; _also_ (all so), _in like manner_, _likewise_, _similarly_, affirm that what is added is like that to which it is added. _As well_ follows the word or phrase to which it is joined. We can say the singers _as well as_ the players, or the players, and the singers _as well_. Antonyms: but, nevertheless, on the contrary, yet. in spite of, notwithstanding, on the other hand, * * * * * ALTERNATIVE. Synonyms: choice, election, option, pick, preference, resource. A _choice_ may be among many things; an _alternative_ is in the strictest sense a _choice_ between two things; oftener it is one of two things between which a _choice_ is to be made, and either of which is the _alternative_ of the other; as, the _alternative_ of surrender is death; or the two things between which there is a _choice_ may be called the _alternatives_; both Mill and Gladstone are quoted as extending the meaning of _alternative_ to include several particulars, Gladstone even speaking of "the fourth and last of these _alternatives_." _Option_ is the right or privilege of choosing; _choice_ may be either the right to choose, the act of choosing, or the thing chosen. A person of ability and readiness will commonly have many _resources_. _Pick_, from the Saxon, and _election_, from the Latin, picture the objects before one, with freedom and power to choose which he will; as, there were twelve horses, among which I could take my _pick_. A _choice_, _pick_, _election_, or _preference_ is that which suits one best; an _alternative_ is that to which one is restricted; a _resource_, that to which one is glad to betake oneself. Antonyms: compulsion, necessity. * * * * * AMASS. Synonyms: accumulate, collect, heap up, hoard up, store up. aggregate, gather, hoard, pile up, To _amass_ is to bring together materials that make a mass, a great bulk or quantity. With some occasional exceptions, _accumulate_ is applied to the more gradual, _amass_ to the more rapid gathering of money or materials, _amass_ referring to the general result or bulk, _accumulate_ to the particular process or rate of gain. We say interest is _accumulated_ (or _accumulates_) rather than is _amassed_; he _accumulated_ a fortune in the course of years; he rapidly _amassed_ a fortune by shrewd speculations. Goods or money for immediate distribution are said to be _collected_ rather than _amassed_. They may be _stored up_ for a longer or shorter time; but to _hoard_ is always with a view of permanent retention, generally selfish. _Aggregate_ is now most commonly used of numbers and amounts; as, the expenses will _aggregate_ a round million. Antonyms: disperse, divide, portion, spend, waste. dissipate, parcel, scatter, squander, Prepositions: Amass _for_ oneself; _for_ a purpose; _from_ a distance; _with_ great labor; _by_ industry. * * * * * AMATEUR. Synonyms: connoisseur, critic, dilettante, novice, tyro. Etymologically, the _amateur_ is one who loves, the _connoisseur_ one who knows. In usage, the term _amateur_ is applied to one who pursues any study or art simply from the love of it; the word carries a natural implication of superficialness, tho marked excellence is at times attained by _amateurs_. A _connoisseur_ is supposed to be so thoroughly informed regarding any art or work as to be able to criticize or select intelligently and authoritatively; there are many incompetent _critics_, but there can not, in the true sense, be an incompetent _connoisseur_. The _amateur_ practises to some extent that in regard to which he may not be well informed; the _connoisseur_ is well informed in regard to that which he may not practise at all. A _novice_ or _tyro_ may be a _professional_; an _amateur_ never is; the _amateur_ may be skilled and experienced as the _novice_ or _tyro_ never is. _Dilettante_, which had originally the sense of _amateur_, has to some extent come to denote one who is superficial, pretentious, and affected, whether in theory or practise. Preposition: An amateur _in_ art. * * * * * AMAZEMENT. Synonyms: admiration, awe, confusion, surprise, astonishment, bewilderment, perplexity, wonder. _Amazement_ and _astonishment_ both express the momentary overwhelming of the mind by that which is beyond expectation. _Astonishment_ especially affects the emotions, _amazement_ the intellect. _Awe_ is the yielding of the mind to something supremely grand in character or formidable in power, and ranges from apprehension or dread to reverent worship. _Admiration_ includes delight and regard. _Surprise_ lies midway between _astonishment_ and _amazement_, and usually respects matters of lighter consequence or such as are less startling in character. _Amazement_ may be either pleasing or painful, as when induced by the grandeur of the mountains, or by the fury of the storm. We can say pleased _surprise_, but scarcely pleased _astonishment_. _Amazement_ has in it something of _confusion_ or _bewilderment_; but _confusion_ and _bewilderment_ may occur without _amazement_, as when a multitude of details require instant attention. _Astonishment_ may be without _bewilderment_ or _confusion_. _Wonder_ is often pleasing, and may be continuous in view of that which surpasses our comprehension; as, the magnitude, order, and beauty of the heavens fill us with increasing _wonder_. Compare PERPLEXITY. Antonyms: anticipation, composure, expectation, preparation, steadiness, calmness, coolness, indifference, self-possession, stoicism. Preposition: I was filled with amazement _at_ such reckless daring. * * * * * AMBITION. Synonyms: aspiration, competition, emulation, opposition, rivalry. _Aspiration_ is the desire for excellence, pure and simple. _Ambition_, literally a going around to solicit votes, has primary reference to the award or approval of others, and is the eager desire of power, fame, or something deemed great and eminent, and viewed as a worthy prize. The prizes of _aspiration_ are virtue, nobility, skill, or other high qualities. The prizes of _ambition_ are advancement, fame, honor, and the like. There is a noble and wise or an ignoble, selfish, and harmful _ambition_. _Emulation_ is not so much to win any excellence or success for itself as to equal or surpass other persons. There is such a thing as a noble _emulation_, when those we would equal or surpass are noble, and the means we would use worthy. But, at the highest, _emulation_ is inferior as a motive to _aspiration_, which seeks the high quality or character for its own sake, not with reference to another. _Competition_ is the striving for something that is sought by another at the same time. _Emulation_ regards the abstract, _competition_ the concrete; _rivalry_ is the same in essential meaning with _competition_, but differs in the nature of the objects contested for, which, in the case of _rivalry_, are usually of the nobler sort and less subject to direct gaging, measurement, and rule. We speak of _competition_ in business, _emulation_ in scholarship, _rivalry_ in love, politics, etc.; _emulation_ of excellence, success, achievement; _competition_ for a prize; _rivalry_ between persons or nations. _Competition_ may be friendly, _rivalry_ is commonly hostile. _Opposition_ is becoming a frequent substitute for _competition_ in business language; it implies that the competitor is an opponent and hinderer. Antonyms: carelessness, contentment, humility, indifference, satisfaction. * * * * * AMEND. Synonyms: advance, correct, meliorate, rectify, ameliorate, emend, mend, reform, better, improve, mitigate, repair. cleanse, make better, purify, To _amend_ is to change for the better by removing faults, errors, or defects, and always refers to that which at some point falls short of a standard of excellence. _Advance_, _better_, and _improve_ may refer either to what is quite imperfect or to what has reached a high degree of excellence; we _advance_ the kingdom of God, _improve_ the minds of our children, _better_ the morals of the people. But for matters below the point of ordinary approval we seldom use these words; we do not speak of _bettering_ a wretched alley, or _improving_ a foul sewer. There we use _cleanse_, _purify_, or similar words. We _correct_ evils, _reform_ abuses, _rectify_ incidental conditions of evil or error; we _ameliorate_ poverty and misery, which we can not wholly remove. We _mend_ a tool, _repair_ a building, _correct_ proof; we _amend_ character or conduct that is faulty, or a statement or law that is defective. A text, writing, or statement is _amended_ by the author or by some adequate authority; it is often _emended_ by conjecture. A motion is _amended_ by the mover or by the assembly; a constitution is _amended_ by the people; an ancient text is _emended_ by a critic who believes that what seems to him the better reading is what the author wrote. Compare ALLEVIATE. Antonyms: aggravate, debase, harm, mar, tarnish, blemish, depress, impair, spoil, vitiate. corrupt, deteriorate, injure, * * * * * AMIABLE. Synonyms: agreeable, engaging, lovable, pleasing, attractive, gentle, lovely, sweet, benignant, good-natured, loving, winning, harming, kind, pleasant, winsome. _Amiable_ combines the senses of _lovable_ or _lovely_ and _loving_; the _amiable_ character has ready affection and kindliness for others, with the qualities that are adapted to win their love; _amiable_ is a higher and stronger word than _good-natured_ or _agreeable_. _Lovely_ is often applied to externals; as, a _lovely_ face. _Amiable_ denotes a disposition desirous to cheer, please, and make happy. A selfish man of the world may have the art to be _agreeable_; a handsome, brilliant, and witty person may be _charming_ or even _attractive_, while by no means _amiable_. The _engaging_, _winning_, and _winsome_ add to amiability something of beauty, accomplishments, and grace. The _benignant_ are calmly kind, as from a height and a distance. _Kind_, _good-natured_ people may be coarse and rude, and so fail to be _agreeable_ or _pleasing_; the really _amiable_ are likely to avoid such faults by their earnest desire to please. The _good-natured_ have an easy disposition to get along comfortably with every one in all circumstances. A _sweet_ disposition is very sure to be _amiable_, the _loving_ heart bringing out all that is _lovable_ and _lovely_ in character. Antonyms: acrimonious, crusty, hateful, ill-tempered, surly, churlish, disagreeable, ill-conditioned, morose, unamiable, crabbed, dogged, ill-humored, sour, unlovely, cruel, gruff, ill-natured, sullen, * * * * * AMID. Synonyms: amidst, amongst, betwixt, mingled with, among, between, in the midst of, surrounded by. _Amid_ or _amidst_ denotes _surrounded by_; _among_ or _amongst_ denotes _mingled with_. _Between_ (archaic or poetic, _betwixt_) is said of two persons or objects, or of two groups of persons or objects. "Let there be no strife, I pray thee, _between_ me and thee, and _between_ my herdmen and thy herdmen," _Gen._ xiii, 9; the reference being to two bodies of herdmen. _Amid_ denotes mere position; _among_, some active relation, as of companionship, hostility, etc. Lowell's "_Among_ my Books" regards the books as companions; _amid_ my books would suggest packing, storing, or some other incidental circumstance. We say _among_ friends, or _among_ enemies, _amidst_ the woods, _amid_ the shadows. _In the midst of_ may have merely the local meaning; as, I found myself _in the midst of_ a crowd; or it may express even closer association than _among_; as, "I found myself _in the midst of_ friends" suggests their pressing up on every side, oneself the central object; so, "where two or three are met together in my name, there am I _in the midst of_ them," _Matt._ xviii, 20; in which case it would be feebler to say "_among_ them," impossible to say "_amid_ them," not so well to say "_amidst_ them." Antonyms: afar from, away from, beyond, far from, outside, without. * * * * * AMPLIFY. Synonyms: augment, dilate, expand, extend, unfold, develop, enlarge, expatiate, increase, widen. _Amplify_ is now rarely used in the sense of _increase_, to add material substance, bulk, volume, or the like; it is now almost wholly applied to discourse or writing, signifying to make fuller in statement, whether with or without adding matter of importance, as by stating fully what was before only implied, or by adding illustrations to make the meaning more readily apprehended, etc. The chief difficulty of very young writers is to _amplify_, to get beyond the bare curt statement by _developing_, _expanding_, _unfolding_ the thought. The chief difficulty of those who have more material and experience is to condense sufficiently. So, in the early days of our literature _amplify_ was used in the favorable sense; but at present this word and most kindred words are coming to share the derogatory meaning that has long attached to _expatiate_. We may _develop_ a thought, _expand_ an illustration, _extend_ a discussion, _expatiate_ on a hobby, _dilate_ on something joyous or sad, _enlarge_ a volume, _unfold_ a scheme, _widen_ the range of treatment. Antonyms: abbreviate, amputate, condense, cut down, reduce, summarize, abridge, "boil down," curtail, epitomize, retrench, sum up. Prepositions: To amplify _on_ or _upon_ the subject is needless. Amplify this matter _by_ illustrations. * * * * * ANALOGY. Synonyms: affinity, likeness, relation, similarity, coincidence, parity, resemblance, simile, comparison, proportion, semblance, similitude. _Analogy_ is specifically a _resemblance_ of relations; a _resemblance_ that may be reasoned from, so that from the _likeness_ in certain respects we may infer that other and perhaps deeper relations exist. _Affinity_ is a mutual attraction with or without seeming likeness; as, the _affinity_ of iron for oxygen. _Coincidence_ is complete agreement in some one or more respects; there may be a _coincidence_ in time of most dissimilar events. _Parity_ of reasoning is said of an argument equally conclusive on subjects not strictly analogous. _Similitude_ is a rhetorical comparison of one thing to another with which it has some points in common. _Resemblance_ and _similarity_ are external or superficial, and may involve no deeper relation; as, the _resemblance_ of a cloud to a distant mountain. Compare ALLEGORY. Antonyms: disagreement, disproportion, dissimilarity, incongruity, unlikeness. Prepositions: The analogy _between_ (or _of_) nature and revelation; the analogy _of_ sound _to_ light; a family has some analogy _with_ (or _to_) a state. * * * * * ANGER. Synonyms: animosity, fury, offense, rage, choler, impatience, passion, resentment, displeasure, indignation, peevishness, temper, exasperation, ire, pettishness, vexation, fretfulness, irritation, petulance, wrath. _Displeasure_ is the mildest and most general word. _Choler_ and _ire_, now rare except in poetic or highly rhetorical language, denote a still, and the latter a persistent, _anger_. _Temper_ used alone in the sense of _anger_ is colloquial, tho we may correctly say a hot _temper_, a fiery _temper_, etc. _Passion_, tho a word of far wider application, may, in the singular, be employed to denote _anger_; "did put me in a towering _passion_," SHAKESPEARE _Hamlet_ act v, sc. 2. _Anger_ is violent and vindictive emotion, which is sharp, sudden, and, like all violent passions, necessarily brief. _Resentment_ (a feeling back or feeling over again) is persistent, the bitter brooding over injuries. _Exasperation_, a roughening, is a hot, superficial intensity of _anger_, demanding instant expression. _Rage_ drives one beyond the bounds of prudence or discretion; _fury_ is stronger yet, and sweeps one away into uncontrollable violence. _Anger_ is personal and usually selfish, aroused by real or supposed wrong to oneself, and directed specifically and intensely against the person who is viewed as blameworthy. _Indignation_ is impersonal and unselfish _displeasure_ at unworthy acts (L. _indigna_), _i. e._, at wrong as wrong. Pure _indignation_ is not followed by regret, and needs no repentance; it is also more self-controlled than _anger_. _Anger_ is commonly a sin; _indignation_ is often a duty. _Wrath_ is deep and perhaps vengeful _displeasure_, as when the people of Nazareth were "filled with _wrath_" at the plain words of Jesus (_Luke_ iv, 28); it may, however, simply express the culmination of righteous _indignation_ without malice in a pure being; as, the _wrath_ of God. _Impatience_, _fretfulness_, _irritation_, _peevishness_, _pettishness_, _petulance_, and _vexation_ express the slighter forms of anger. _Irritation_, _petulance_, and _vexation_ are temporary and for immediate cause. _Fretfulness_, _pettishness_, and _peevishness_ are chronic states finding in any petty matter an occasion for their exercise. Compare ACRIMONY; ENMITY; HATRED. Antonyms: amiability, leniency, mildness, peacefulness, charity, lenity, patience, self-control, forbearance, long-suffering, peace, self-restraint. gentleness, love, peaceableness, Prepositions: Anger _at_ the insult prompted the reply. Anger _toward_ the offender exaggerates the offense. * * * * * ANIMAL. Synonyms: beast, fauna, living organism, sentient being. brute, living creature, An _animal_ is a _sentient being_, distinct from inanimate matter and from vegetable life on the one side and from mental and spiritual existence on the other. Thus man is properly classified as an _animal_. But because the animal life is the lowest and rudest part of his being and that which he shares with inferior _creatures_, to call any individual man an _animal_ is to imply that the animal nature has undue supremacy, and so is deep condemnation or utter insult. The _brute_ is the _animal_ viewed as dull to all finer feeling; the _beast_ is looked upon as a being of appetites. To call a man a _brute_ is to imply that he is unfeeling and cruel; to call him a _beast_ is to indicate that he is vilely sensual. We speak of the cruel father as a _brute_ to his children; of the drunkard as making a _beast_ of himself. So firmly are these figurative senses established that we now incline to avoid applying _brute_ or _beast_ to any creature, as a horse or dog, for which we have any affection; we prefer in such cases the word _animal_. _Creature_ is a word of wide signification, including all the things that God has created, whether inanimate objects, plants, animals, angels, or men. The _animals_ of a region are collectively called its _fauna_. Antonyms: angel, man, mind, soul, substance (material), inanimate object, matter, mineral, spirit, vegetable. * * * * * ANNOUNCE. Synonyms: advertise, give notice (of), proclaim, reveal, circulate, give out, promulgate, say, communicate, herald, propound, spread abroad, declare, make known, publish, state, enunciate, notify, report, tell. To _announce_ is to give intelligence of in some formal or public way. We may _announce_ that which has occurred or that which is to occur, tho the word is chiefly used in the anticipative sense; we _announce_ a book when it is in press, a guest when he arrives. We _advertise_ our business, _communicate_ our intentions, _enunciate_ our views; we _notify_ an individual, _give notice_ to the public. _Declare_ has often an authoritative force; to _declare_ war is to cause war to be, where before there may have been only hostilities; we say _declare_ war, _proclaim_ peace. We _propound_ a question or an argument, _promulgate_ the views of a sect or party, or the decision of a court, etc. We _report_ an interview, _reveal_ a secret, _herald_ the coming of some distinguished person or great event. _Publish_, in popular usage, is becoming closely restricted to the sense of issuing through the press; we _announce_ a book that is to be _published_. Antonyms: bury, cover (up), hush, keep secret, suppress, conceal, hide, keep back, secrete, withhold. Prepositions: The event was announced _to_ the family _by_ telegraph. * * * * * ANSWER. Synonyms: rejoinder, repartee, reply, response, retort. A verbal _answer_ is a return of words to something that seems to call for them, and is made to a charge as well as to a question; an _answer_ may be even made to an unspoken implication or manifestation; see _Luke_ v, 22. In a wider sense, anything said or done in return for some word, action, or suggestion of another may be called an _answer_. The blow of an enraged man, the whinny of a horse, the howling of the wind, the movement of a bolt in a lock, an echo, etc., may each be an _answer_ to some word or movement. A _reply_ is an unfolding, and ordinarily implies thought and intelligence. A _rejoinder_ is strictly an _answer_ to a _reply_, tho often used in the general sense of _answer_, but always with the implication of something more or less controversial or opposed, tho lacking the conclusiveness implied in _answer_; an _answer_, in the full sense, to a charge, an argument, or an objection is adequate, and finally refutes and disposes of it; a _reply_ or _rejoinder_ may be quite inadequate, so that one may say, "This _reply_ is not an _answer_;" "I am ready with an _answer_" means far more than "I am ready with a _reply_." A _response_ is accordant or harmonious, designed or adapted to carry on the thought of the words that called it forth, as the _responses_ in a liturgical service, or to meet the wish of him who seeks it; as, the appeal for aid met a prompt and hearty _response_. _Repartee_ is a prompt, witty, and commonly good-natured _answer_ to some argument or attack; a _retort_ may also be witty, but is severe and may be even savage in its intensity. Prepositions: An answer _in_ writing, or _by_ word of mouth, _to_ the question. * * * * * ANTICIPATE. Synonyms: apprehend, forecast, hope, expect, foretaste, look forward to. To _anticipate_ may be either to take before in fact or to take before in thought; in the former sense it is allied with _prevent_; in the latter, with the synonyms above given. This is coming to be the prevalent and favorite use. We _expect_ that which we have good reason to believe will happen; as, a boy _expects_ to grow to manhood. We _hope_ for that which we much desire and somewhat _expect_. We _apprehend_ what we both _expect_ and fear. _Anticipate_ is commonly used now, like _foretaste_, of that which we _expect_ both with confidence and pleasure. In this use it is a stronger word than _hope_, where often "the wish is father to the thought." I _hope_ for a visit from my friend, tho I have no word from him; I _expect_ it when he writes that he is coming; and as the time draws near I _anticipate_ it with pleasure. Compare ABIDE; PREVENT. Antonyms: despair of, doubt, dread, fear, recall, recollect, remember. distrust, * * * * * ANTICIPATION. Synonyms: antepast, expectation, foresight, hope, apprehension, foreboding, foretaste, presentiment, expectancy, forecast, forethought, prevision. _Expectation_ may be either of good or evil; _presentiment_ almost always, _apprehension_ and _foreboding_ always, of evil; _anticipation_ and _antepast_, commonly of good. Thus, we speak of the pleasures of _anticipation_. A _foretaste_ may be of good or evil, and is more than imaginary; it is a part actually received in advance. _Foresight_ and _forethought_ prevent future evil and secure future good by timely looking forward, and acting upon what is foreseen. Compare ANTICIPATE. Antonyms: astonishment, despair, dread, fear, surprise, consummation, doubt, enjoyment, realization, wonder. * * * * * ANTIPATHY. Synonyms: abhorrence, disgust, hatred, repugnance, antagonism, dislike, hostility, repulsion, aversion, distaste, opposition, uncongeniality. detestation, _Antipathy_, _repugnance_, and _uncongeniality_ are instinctive; other forms of _dislike_ may be acquired or cherished for cause. _Uncongeniality_ is negative, a want of touch or sympathy. An _antipathy_ to a person or thing is an instinctive recoil from connection or association with that person or thing, and may be physical or mental, or both. _Antagonism_ may result from the necessity of circumstances; _opposition_ may spring from conflicting views or interests; _abhorrence_ and _detestation_ may be the result of religious and moral training; _distaste_ and _disgust_ may be acquired; _aversion_ is a deep and permanent _dislike_. A natural _antipathy_ may give rise to _opposition_ which may result in _hatred_ and _hostility_. Compare ACRIMONY; ANGER; ENMITY; HATRED. Antonyms: affinity, attraction, fellow-feeling, kindliness, sympathy. agreement, congeniality, harmony, regard, Prepositions: Antipathy _to_ (less frequently _for_ or _against_) a person or thing; antipathy _between_ or _betwixt_ two persons or things. * * * * * ANTIQUE. Synonyms: ancient, old-fashioned, quaint, superannuated. antiquated, _Antique_ refers to an _ancient_, _antiquated_ to a discarded style. _Antique_ is that which is either _ancient_ in fact or _ancient_ in style. The reference is to the style rather than to the age. We can speak of the _antique_ architecture of a church just built. The difference between _antiquated_ and _antique_ is not in the age, for a Puritan style may be scorned as _antiquated_, while a Roman or Renaissance style may be prized as _antique_. The _antiquated_ is not so much out of date as out of vogue. _Old-fashioned_ may be used approvingly or contemptuously. In the latter case it becomes a synonym for _antiquated_; in the good sense it approaches the meaning of _antique_, but indicates less duration. We call a wide New England fireplace _old-fashioned_; a coin of the Cæsars, _antique_. _Quaint_ combines the idea of age with a pleasing oddity; as, a _quaint_ gambrel-roofed house. _Antiquated_ is sometimes used of persons in a sense akin to _superannuated_. The _antiquated_ person is out of style and out of sympathy with the present generation by reason of age; the _superannuated_ person is incapacitated for present activities by reason of age. Compare OLD. Antonyms: fashionable, fresh, modern, modish, new, recent, stylish. * * * * * ANXIETY. Synonyms: anguish, disquiet, foreboding, perplexity, apprehension, disturbance, fretfulness, solicitude, care, dread, fretting, trouble, concern, fear, misgiving, worry. _Anxiety_ is, according to its derivation, a choking _disquiet_, akin to _anguish_; _anxiety_ is mental; _anguish_ may be mental or physical; _anguish_ is in regard to the known, _anxiety_ in regard to the unknown; _anguish_ is because of what has happened, _anxiety_ because of what may happen. _Anxiety_ refers to some future event, always suggesting hopeful possibility, and thus differing from _apprehension_, _fear_, _dread_, _foreboding_, _terror_, all of which may be quite despairing. In matters within our reach, _anxiety_ always stirs the question whether something can not be done, and is thus a valuable spur to doing; in this respect it is allied to _care_. _Foreboding_, _dread_, etc., commonly incapacitate for all helpful thought or endeavor. _Worry_ is a more petty, restless, and manifest _anxiety_; _anxiety_ may be quiet and silent; _worry_ is communicated to all around. _Solicitude_ is a milder _anxiety_. _Fretting_ or _fretfulness_ is a weak complaining without thought of accomplishing or changing anything, but merely as a relief to one's own _disquiet_. _Perplexity_ often involves _anxiety_, but may be quite free from it. A student may be _perplexed_ regarding a translation, yet, if he has time enough, not at all anxious regarding it. Antonyms: apathy, calmness, confidence, light-heartedness, satisfaction, assurance, carelessness, ease, nonchalance, tranquillity. Prepositions: Anxiety _for_ a friend's return; anxiety _about_, _in regard to_, or _concerning_ the future. * * * * * APATHY. Synonyms: calmness, indifference, quietness, stoicism, composure, insensibility, quietude, tranquillity, immobility, lethargy, sluggishness, unconcern, impassibility, phlegm, stillness, unfeelingness. _Apathy_, according to its Greek derivation, is a simple absence of feeling or emotion. There are persons to whom a certain degree of _apathy_ is natural, an innate _sluggishness_ of the emotional nature. In the _apathy_ of despair, a person gives up, without resistance or sensibility, to what he has fiercely struggled to avoid. While _apathy_ is want of feeling, _calmness_ is feeling without agitation. _Calmness_ is the result of strength, courage, or trust; _apathy_ is the result of dulness or weakness. _Composure_ is freedom from agitation or disturbance, resulting ordinarily from force of will, or from perfect confidence in one's own resources. _Impassibility_ is a philosophical term applied to the Deity, as infinitely exalted above all stir of passion or emotion. _Unfeelingness_, the Saxon word that should be the exact equivalent of _apathy_, really means more, a lack of the feeling one ought to have, a censurable hardness of heart. _Indifference_ and _insensibility_ designate the absence of feeling toward certain persons or things; _apathy_, entire absence of feeling. _Indifference_ is a want of interest; _insensibility_ is a want of feeling; _unconcern_ has reference to consequences. We speak of _insensibility_ of heart, _immobility_ of countenance. _Stoicism_ is an intentional suppression of feeling and deadening of sensibilities, while _apathy_ is involuntary. Compare CALM; REST; STUPOR. Antonyms: agitation, disturbance, feeling, sensibility, sympathy, alarm, eagerness, frenzy, sensitiveness, turbulence, anxiety, emotion, fury, storm, vehemence, care, excitement, passion, susceptibility, violence. distress, Prepositions: The apathy _of_ monastic life; apathy _toward_ good. * * * * * APIECE. Synonyms: distributively, each, individually, separately, severally. There is no discernible difference in sense between so much _apiece_ and so much _each_; the former is the more common and popular, the latter the more elegant expression. _Distributively_ is generally used of numbers and abstract relations. _Individually_ emphasizes the independence of the individuals; _separately_ and _severally_ still more emphatically hold them apart. The signers of a note may become jointly and _severally_ responsible, that is, _each_ liable for the entire amount, as if he had signed it alone. Witnesses are often brought _separately_ into court, in order that no one may be influenced by the testimony of another. If a company of laborers demand a dollar _apiece_, that is a demand that _each_ shall receive that sum; if they _individually_ demand a dollar, _each_ individual makes the demand. Antonyms: accumulatively, confusedly, indiscriminately, together, unitedly. collectively, _en masse_, synthetically, * * * * * APOLOGY. Synonyms: acknowledgment, defense, excuse, plea, confession, exculpation, justification, vindication. All these words express one's answer to a charge of wrong or error that is or might be made. _Apology_ has undergone a remarkable change from its old sense of a valiant _defense_--as in Justin Martyr's _Apologies_ for the Christian faith--to its present meaning of humble _confession_ and concession. He who offers an _apology_ admits himself, at least technically and seemingly, in the wrong. An _apology_ is for what one has done or left undone; an _excuse_ may be for what one proposes to do or leave undone as well; as, one sends beforehand his _excuse_ for not accepting an invitation; if he should fail either to be present or to excuse himself, an _apology_ would be in order. An _excuse_ for a fault is an attempt at partial justification; as, one alleges haste as an _excuse_ for carelessness. _Confession_ is a full _acknowledgment_ of wrong, generally of a grave wrong, with or without _apology_ or _excuse_. _Plea_ ranges in sense from a prayer for favor or pardon to an attempt at full _vindication_. _Defense_, _exculpation_, _justification_, and _vindication_ are more properly antonyms than synonyms of _apology_ in its modern sense, and should be so given, but for their connection with its historic usage. Compare CONFESS; DEFENSE. Antonyms: accusation, charge, condemnation, injury, offense, censure, complaint, imputation, insult, wrong. Prepositions: An apology _to_ the guest _for_ the oversight would be fitting. * * * * * APPARENT. Synonyms: likely, presumable, probable, seeming. The _apparent_ is that which appears; the word has two contrasted senses, either of that which is manifest, visible, certain, or of that which merely seems to be and may be very different from what is; as, the _apparent_ motion of the sun around the earth. _Apparent_ kindness casts a doubt on the reality of the kindness; _apparent_ neglect implies that more care and pains may have been bestowed than we are aware of. _Presumable_ implies that a thing may be reasonably supposed beforehand without any full knowledge of the facts. _Probable_ implies that we know facts enough to make us moderately confident of it. _Seeming_ expresses great doubt of the reality; _seeming_ innocence comes very near in meaning to _probable_ guilt. _Apparent_ indicates less assurance than _probable_, and more than _seeming_. A man's _probable_ intent we believe will prove to be his real intent; his _seeming_ intent we believe to be a sham; his _apparent_ intent may be the true one, tho we have not yet evidence on which to pronounce with certainty or even with confidence. _Likely_ is a word with a wide range of usage, but always implying the belief that the thing is, or will be, true; it is often used with the infinitive, as the other words of this list can not be; as, it is _likely_ to happen. Compare EVIDENT. Antonyms: doubtful, dubious, improbable, unimaginable, unlikely. Prepositions: (When _apparent_ is used in the sense of evident): His guilt is apparent _in_ every act _to_ all observers. * * * * * APPEAR. Synonyms: have the appearance _or_ semblance, look, seem. _Appear_ and _look_ refer to what manifests itself to the senses; to a semblance or probability presented directly to the mind. _Seem_ applies to what is manifest to the mind on reflection. It suddenly _appears_ to me that there is smoke in the distance; as I watch, it _looks_ like a fire; from my knowledge of the locality and observation of particulars, it _seems_ to me a farmhouse must be burning. Antonyms: be, be certain, real, _or_ true, be the fact, exist. Prepositions: Appear _at_ the front; _among_ the first; _on_ or _upon_ the surface; _to_ the eye; _in_ evidence, _in_ print; _from_ reports; _near_ the harbor; _before_ the public; _in_ appropriate dress; _with_ the insignia of his rank; _above_ the clouds; _below_ the surface; _under_ the lee; _over_ the sea; _through_ the mist; appear _for_, _in behalf of_, or _against_ one in court. * * * * * APPENDAGE. Synonyms: accessory, addition, appurtenance, concomitant, accompaniment, adjunct, attachment, extension, addendum, appendix, auxiliary, supplement. An _adjunct_ (something joined to) constitutes no real part of the thing or system to which it is joined, tho perhaps a valuable _addition_; an _appendage_ is commonly a real, tho not an essential or necessary part of that with which it is connected; an _appurtenance_ belongs subordinately to something by which it is employed, especially as an instrument to accomplish some purpose. A horse's tail is at once an ornamental _appendage_ and a useful _appurtenance_; we could not call it an _adjunct_, tho we might use that word of his iron shoes. An _attachment_ in machinery is some mechanism that can be brought into optional connection with the principal movement; a hemmer is a valuable _attachment_ of a sewing-machine. An _extension_, as of a railroad or of a franchise, carries out further something already existing. We add an _appendix_ to a book, to contain names, dates, lists, etc., which would encumber the text; we add a _supplement_ to supply omissions, as, for instance, to bring it up to date. An _appendix_ may be called an _addendum_; but _addendum_ may be used of a brief note, which would not be dignified by the name of _appendix_; such notes are often grouped as _addenda_. An _addition_ might be matter interwoven in the body of the work, an index, plates, editorial notes, etc., which might be valuable _additions_, but not within the meaning of _appendix_ or _supplement_. Compare ACCESSORY; AUXILIARY. Antonyms: main body, original, total, whole. Prepositions: That which is thought of as added we call an appendage _to_; that which is looked upon as an integral part is called an appendage _of_. * * * * * APPETITE. Synonyms: appetency, impulse, lust, propensity, craving, inclination, passion, relish, desire, liking, proclivity, thirst, disposition, longing, proneness, zest. _Appetite_ is used only of the demands of the physical system, unless otherwise expressly stated, as when we say an _appetite_ for knowledge; _passion_ includes all excitable impulses of our nature, as anger, fear, love, hatred, etc. _Appetite_ is thus more animal than _passion_; and when we speak of _passions_ and _appetites_ as conjoined or contrasted, we think of the _appetites_ as wholly physical and of the _passions_ as, in part at least, mental or spiritual. We say an _appetite_ for food, a _passion_ for fame. Compare DESIRE. Antonyms: antipathy, disgust, distaste, indifference, repugnance, aversion, dislike, hatred, loathing, repulsion. detestation, disrelish, Compare ANTIPATHY. Preposition: He had an insatiable appetite _for_ the marvellous. * * * * * APPORTION. Synonyms: allot, appropriate, deal, distribute, grant, appoint, assign, dispense, divide, share. To _allot_ or _assign_ may be to make an arbitrary division; the same is true of _distribute_ or _divide_. That which is _apportioned_ is given by some fixed rule, which is meant to be uniform and fair; as, representatives are _apportioned_ among the States according to population. To _dispense_ is to give out freely; as, the sun _dispenses_ light and heat. A thing is _appropriated_ to or for a specific purpose (to which it thus becomes _proper_, in the original sense of being its own); money _appropriated_ by Congress for one purpose can not be expended for any other. One may _apportion_ what he only holds in trust; he _shares_ what is his own. Compare ALLOT. Antonyms: cling to, consolidate, gather together, receive, collect, divide arbitrarily, keep together, retain. Prepositions: Apportion _to_ each a fair amount; apportion the property _among_ the heirs, _between_ two claimants; apportion _according to_ numbers, etc. * * * * * APPROXIMATION. Synonyms: approach, likeness, neighborhood, resemblance, contiguity, nearness, propinquity, similarity. In mathematics, _approximation_ is not guesswork, not looseness, and not error. The process of _approximation_ is as exact and correct at every point as that by which an absolute result is secured; the result only fails of exactness because of some inherent difficulty in the problem. The attempt to "square the circle" gives only an _approximate_ result, because of the impossibility of expressing the circumference in terms of the radius. But the limits of error on either side are known, and the _approximation_ has practical value. Outside of mathematics, the correct use of _approximation_ (and the kindred words _approximate_ and _approximately_) is to express as near an approach to accuracy and certainty as the conditions of human thought or action in any given case make possible. _Resemblance_ and _similarity_ may be but superficial and apparent; _approximation_ is real. _Approach_ is a relative term, indicating that one has come nearer than before, tho the distance may yet be considerable; an _approximation_ brings one really near. _Nearness_, _neighborhood_, and _propinquity_ are commonly used of place; _approximation_, of mathematical calculations and abstract reasoning; we speak of _approach_ to the shore, _nearness_ to the town, _approximation_ to the truth. Antonyms: difference, distance, error, remoteness, unlikeness, variation. Prepositions: The approximation _of_ the vegetable _to_ the animal type. * * * * * ARMS. Synonyms: accouterments, armor, harness, mail, weapons. _Arms_ are implements of attack; _armor_ is a defensive covering. The knight put on his _armor_; he grasped his _arms_. With the disuse of defensive _armor_ the word has practically gone out of military use, but it is still employed in the navy, where the distinction is clearly preserved; any vessel provided with cannon is an _armed_ vessel; an _armored_ ship is an ironclad. Anything that can be wielded in fight may become a _weapon_, as a pitchfork or a paving-stone; _arms_ are especially made and designed for conflict. * * * * * ARMY. Synonyms: armament, forces, military, soldiers, array, host, multitude, soldiery, force, legions, phalanx, troops. An _army_ is an organized body of men armed for war, ordinarily considerable in numbers, always independent in organization so far as not to be a constituent part of any other command. Organization, unity, and independence, rather than numbers are the essentials of an _army_. We speak of the invading _army_ of Cortes or Pizarro, tho either body was contemptible in numbers from a modern military standpoint. We may have a little _army_, a large _army_, or a vast _army_. _Host_ is used for any vast and orderly assemblage; as, the stars are called the heavenly _host_. _Multitude_ expresses number without order or organization; a _multitude_ of armed men is not an _army_, but a mob. _Legion_ (from the Latin) and _phalanx_ (from the Greek) are applied by a kind of poetic license to modern _forces_; the plural _legions_ is preferred to the singular. _Military_ is a general word for land-_forces_; the _military_ may include all the armed _soldiery_ of a nation, or the term may be applied to any small detached company, as at a fort, in distinction from civilians. Any organized body of men by whom the law or will of a people is executed is a _force_; the word is a usual term for the police of any locality. * * * * * ARRAIGN. Synonyms: accuse, charge, impeach, prosecute, censure, cite, indict, summon. _Arraign_ is an official word; a person accused of crime is _arraigned_ when he is formally called into court, the indictment read to him, and the demand made of him to plead guilty or not guilty; in more extended use, to _arraign_ is to call in question for fault in any formal, public, or official way. One may _charge_ another with any fault, great or trifling, privately or publicly, formally or informally. _Accuse_ is stronger than _charge_, suggesting more of the formal and criminal; a person may _charge_ a friend with unkindness or neglect; he may _accuse_ a tramp of stealing. _Censure_ carries the idea of fault, but not of crime; it may be private and individual, or public and official. A judge, a president, or other officer of high rank may be _impeached_ before the appropriate tribunal for high crimes; the veracity of a witness may be _impeached_ by damaging evidence. A person of the highest character may be _summoned_ as defendant in a civil suit; or he may be _cited_ to answer as administrator, etc. _Indict_ and _arraign_ apply strictly to criminal proceedings, and only an alleged criminal is _indicted_ or _arraigned_. One is _indicted_ by the grand jury, and _arraigned_ before the appropriate court. Antonyms: acquit, discharge, exonerate, overlook, release, condone, excuse, forgive, pardon, set free. Prepositions: Arraign _at_ the bar, _before_ the tribunal, _of_ or _for_ a crime; _on_ or _upon_ an indictment. * * * * * ARRAY. Synonyms: army, collection, line of battle, parade, arrangement, disposition, order, show, battle array, exhibition, order of battle, sight. The phrase _battle array_ or _array of battle_ is archaic and poetic; we now say in _line_ or _order of battle_. The _parade_ is for _exhibition_ and oversight, and partial rehearsal of military manual and maneuvers. _Array_ refers to a continuous _arrangement_ of men, so that all may be seen or reviewed at once. This is practically impossible with the vast _armies_ of our day. We say rather the _disposition_ of troops, which expresses their location so as to sustain and support, though unable to see or readily communicate with each other. Compare DRESS. * * * * * ARREST. Synonyms: apprehend, detain, restrain, stop, capture, hold, secure, take into custody, catch, make prisoner, seize, take prisoner. The legal term _arrest_ carries always the implication of a legal offense; this is true even of _arresting_ for debt. But one may be _detained_ by process of law when no offense is alleged against him, as in the case of a witness who is _held_ in a house of detention till a case comes to trial. One may be _restrained_ of his liberty without arrest, as in an insane asylum; an individual or corporation may be _restrained_ by injunction from selling certain property. In case of an arrest, an officer may _secure_ his prisoner by fetters, by a locked door, or other means effectually to prevent escape. _Capture_ is commonly used of seizure by armed force; as, to _capture_ a ship, a fort, etc. Compare HINDER; OBSTRUCT. Antonyms: discharge, dismiss, free, liberate, release, set free. Prepositions: Arrested _for_ crime, _on_ suspicion, _by_ the sheriff; _on_, _upon_, or _by virtue of_ a warrant; _on_ final process; _in_ execution. * * * * * ARTIFICE. Synonyms: art, craft, finesse, invention, stratagem, blind, cunning, fraud, machination, subterfuge, cheat, device, guile, maneuver, trick, contrivance, dodge, imposture, ruse, wile. A _contrivance_ or _device_ may be either good or bad. A _cheat_ is a mean advantage in a bargain; a _fraud_, any form of covert robbery or injury. _Imposture_ is a deceitful _contrivance_ for securing charity, credit, or consideration. A _stratagem_ or _maneuver_ may be of the good against the bad, as it were a skilful movement of war. A _wile_ is usually but not necessarily evil. E'en children followed with endearing _wile_. GOLDSMITH _Deserted Village_, l. 184. A _trick_ is often low, injurious, and malicious; we say a mean _trick_; the word is sometimes used playfully with less than its full meaning. A _ruse_ or a _blind_ may be quite innocent and harmless. An _artifice_ is a carefully and delicately prepared _contrivance_ for doing indirectly what one could not well do directly. A _device_ is something studied out for promoting an end, as in a mechanism; the word is used of indirect action, often, but not necessarily directed to an evil, selfish, or injurious end. _Finesse_ is especially subtle _contrivance_, delicate _artifice_, whether for good or evil. Compare FRAUD. Antonyms: artlessness, frankness, ingenuousness, openness, sincerity, candor, guilelessness, innocence, simplicity, truth. fairness, honesty, * * * * * ARTIST. Synonyms: artificer, artisan, mechanic, operative, workman. _Artist_, _artificer_ and _artisan_ are all from the root of _art_, but _artist_ holds to the esthetic sense, while _artificer_ and _artisan_ follow the mechanical or industrial sense of the word (see ART under SCIENCE). _Artist_ thus comes only into accidental association with the other words of this group, not being a synonym of any one of them and having practically no synonym of its own. The work of the _artist_ is creative; that of the _artisan_ mechanical. The man who paints a beautiful picture is an _artist_; the man who makes pin-heads all day is an _artisan_. The _artificer_ is between the two, putting more thought, intelligence, and taste into his work than the _artisan_, but less of the idealizing, creative power than the _artist_. The sculptor, shaping his model in clay, is _artificer_, as well as _artist_; patient _artisans_, working simply by rule and scale, chisel and polish the stone. The man who constructs anything by mere routine and rule is a _mechanic_. The man whose work involves thought, skill, and constructive power is an _artificer_. The hod-carrier is a _laborer_; the bricklayer is a _mechanic_; the master mason is an _artificer_. Those who operate machinery nearly self-acting are _operatives_. * * * * * ASK. Synonyms: beg, crave, entreat, petition, request, solicit, beseech, demand, implore, pray, require, supplicate. One _asks_ what he feels that he may fairly claim and reasonably expect; "if a son shall _ask_ bread of any of you that is a father," _Luke_ xi, 11; he _begs_ for that to which he advances no claim but pity. _Demand_ is a determined and often an arrogant word; one may rightfully _demand_ what is his own or his due, when it is withheld or denied; or he may wrongfully _demand_ that to which he has no claim but power. _Require_ is less arrogant and obtrusive than _demand_, but is exceedingly strenuous; as, the court _requires_ the attendance of witnesses. _Entreat_ implies a special earnestness of asking, and _beseech_, a still added and more humble intensity; _beseech_ was formerly often used as a polite intensive for _beg_ or _pray_; as, I _beseech_ you to tell me. To _implore_ is to _ask_ with weeping and lamentation; to _supplicate_ is to _ask_, as it were, on bended knees. _Crave_ and _request_ are somewhat formal terms; _crave_ has almost disappeared from conversation; _request_ would seem distant between parent and child. _Pray_ is now used chiefly of address to the Supreme Being; _petition_ is used of written request to persons in authority; as, to _petition_ the legislature to pass an act, or the governor to pardon an offender. Antonyms: claim, deny, enforce, exact, extort, insist, refuse, reject. command, Prepositions: Ask a person _for_ a thing; ask a thing _of_ or _from_ a person; ask _after_ or _about_ one's health, welfare, friends, etc. * * * * * ASSOCIATE. Synonyms: accomplice, coadjutor, comrade, fellow, mate, ally, colleague, confederate, friend, partner, chum, companion, consort, helpmate, peer. An _associate_ as used officially implies a chief, leader, or principal, to whom the _associate_ is not fully equal in rank. _Associate_ is popularly used of mere friendly relations, but oftener implies some work, enterprise, or pursuit in which the associated persons unite. We rarely speak of _associates_ in crime or wrong, using _confederates_ or _accomplices_ instead. _Companion_ gives itself with equal readiness to the good or evil sense, as also does _comrade_. One may be a _companion_ in travel who would not readily become an _associate_ at home. A lady advertises for a _companion_; she would not advertise for an _associate_. _Peer_ implies equality rather than companionship; as, a jury of his _peers_. _Comrade_ expresses more fellowship and good feeling than _companion_. _Fellow_ has almost gone out of use in this connection, except in an inferior or patronizing sense. _Consort_ is a word of equality and dignity, as applied especially to the marriage relation. Compare ACCESSORY; ACQUAINTANCE; FRIENDSHIP. Antonyms: antagonist, foe, hinderer, opponent, opposer, rival, stranger. enemy, Prepositions: These were the associates _of_ the leader _in_ the enterprise. * * * * * ASSOCIATION. Synonyms: alliance, confederacy, familiarity, lodge, club, confederation, federation, participation, community, conjunction, fellowship, partnership, companionship, connection, fraternity, society, company, corporation, friendship, union. We speak of an _alliance_ of nations, a _club_ of pleasure-seekers, a _community_ of Shakers, a _company_ of soldiers or of friends, a _confederacy_, _confederation_, _federation_, or _union_ of separate states under one general government, a _partnership_ or _company_ of business men, a _conjunction_ of planets. The whole body of Freemasons constitute a _fraternity_; one of their local organizations is called a _lodge_. A _corporation_ or _company_ is formed for purposes of business; an _association_ or _society_ (tho also incorporated) is for learning, literature, benevolence, religion, etc. Compare ASSOCIATE; ACQUAINTANCE; FRIENDSHIP. Antonyms: disintegration, independence, isolation, separation, solitude. Prepositions: An association _of_ scholars _for_ the advancement of knowledge; association _with_ the good is ennobling. * * * * * ASSUME. Synonyms: accept, arrogate, postulate, put on, affect, claim, presume, take, appropriate, feign, pretend, usurp. The distinctive idea of _assume_ is to _take_ by one's own independent volition, whether well or ill, rightfully or wrongfully. One may _accept_ an obligation or _assume_ an authority that properly belongs to him, or he may _assume_ an obligation or indebtedness that could not be required of him. He may _assume_ authority or office that is his right; if he _assumes_ what does not belong to him, he is said to _arrogate_ or _usurp_ it. A man may _usurp_ the substance of power in the most unpretending way; what he _arrogates_ to himself he _assumes_ with a haughty and overbearing manner. One _assumes_ the robes or insignia of office by _putting_ them _on_, with or without right. If he _takes_ to himself the credit and appearance of qualities he does not possess, he is said to _affect_ or _feign_, or to _pretend_ to, the character he thus _assumes_. What a debater _postulates_ he openly states and _takes_ for granted without proof; what he _assumes_ he may take for granted without mention. A favorite trick of the sophist is quietly to _assume_ as true what would at once be challenged if expressly stated. What a man _claims_ he asserts his right to _take_; what he _assumes_ he _takes_. * * * * * ASSURANCE. Synonyms: arrogance, boldness, impudence, self-confidence, assertion, confidence, presumption, self-reliance, assumption, effrontery, self-assertion, trust. _Assurance_ may have the good sense of a high, sustained _confidence_ and _trust_; as, the saint's _assurance_ of heaven. _Confidence_ is founded upon reasons; _assurance_ is largely a matter of feeling. In the bad sense, _assurance_ is a vicious courage, with belief of one's ability to outwit or defy others; the hardened criminal is remarkable for habitual _assurance_. For the calm conviction of one's own rectitude and ability, _self-confidence_ is a better word than _assurance_; _self-reliance_ expresses confidence in one's own resources, independently of others' aid. In the bad sense _assurance_ is less gross than _impudence_, which is (according to its etymology) a shameless _boldness_. _Assurance_ is in act or manner; _impudence_ may be in speech. _Effrontery_ is _impudence_ defiantly displayed. Compare FAITH; PRIDE. Antonyms: bashfulness, consternation, distrust, hesitancy, shyness, confusion, dismay, doubt, misgiving, timidity. * * * * * ASTUTE. Synonyms: acute, discerning, penetrating, sharp, clear-sighted, discriminating, penetrative, shrewd, crafty, keen, perspicacious, subtile, cunning, knowing, sagacious, subtle. _Acute_, from the Latin, suggests the sharpness of the needle's point; _keen_, from the Saxon, the sharpness of the cutting edge. _Astute_, from the Latin, with the original sense of _cunning_ has come to have a meaning that combines the sense of _acute_ or _keen_ with that of _sagacious_. The _astute_ mind adds to _acuteness_ and _keenness_ an element of cunning or finesse. The _astute_ debater leads his opponents into a snare by getting them to make admissions, or urge arguments, of which he sees a result that they do not perceive. The _acute_, _keen_ intellect may take no special advantage of these qualities; the _astute_ mind has always a point to make for itself, and seldom fails to make it. A _knowing_ look, air, etc., in general indicates practical knowledge with a touch of shrewdness, and perhaps of cunning; in regard to some special matter, it indicates the possession of reserved knowledge which the person could impart if he chose. _Knowing_ has often a slightly invidious sense. We speak of a _knowing_ rascal, meaning _cunning_ or _shrewd_ within a narrow range, but of a _knowing_ horse or dog, in the sense of _sagacious_, implying that he knows more than could be expected of such an animal. A _knowing_ child has more knowledge than would be looked for at his years, perhaps more than is quite desirable, while to speak of a child as _intelligent_ is altogether complimentary. Antonyms: blind, idiotic, shallow, stolid, undiscerning, dull, imbecile, short-sighted, stupid, unintelligent. * * * * * ATTACHMENT. Synonyms: adherence, devotion, friendship, regard, adhesion, esteem, inclination, tenderness, affection, estimation, love, union. An _attachment_ is a feeling that binds a person by ties of heart to another person or thing; we speak of a man's _adherence_ to his purpose, his _adhesion_ to his party, or to anything to which he clings tenaciously, tho with no special tenderness; of his _attachment_ to his church, to the old homestead, or to any persons or objects that he may hold dear. _Affection_ expresses more warmth of feeling; we should not speak of a mother's _attachment_ to her babe, but of her _affection_ or of her _devotion_. _Inclination_ expresses simply a tendency, which may be good or bad, yielded to or overcome; as, an _inclination_ to study; an _inclination_ to drink. _Regard_ is more distant than _affection_ or _attachment_, but closer and warmer than _esteem_; we speak of high _esteem_, kind _regard_. Compare ACQUAINTANCE; APPENDAGE; FRIENDSHIP; LOVE; UNION. Antonyms: alienation, aversion, distance, estrangement, repugnance, animosity, coolness, divorce, indifference, separation, antipathy, dislike, enmity, opposition, severance. Prepositions: Attachment _of_ a true man _to_ his friends; attachment _to_ a leader _for_ his nobility of character; the attachments _between_ two persons or things; attachment _by_ muscular fibers, or _by_ a rope, etc. * * * * * ATTACK, _v._ Synonyms: assail, beset, combat, invade, assault, besiege, encounter, set upon, beleaguer, charge, fall upon, storm. To _attack_ is to begin hostilities of any kind. A general _invades_ a country by marching in troops; he _attacks_ a city by drawing up an army against it; he _assaults_ it by hurling his troops directly upon its defenses. _Assail_ and _assault_, tho of the same original etymology, have diverged in meaning, so that _assault_ alone retains the meaning of direct personal violence. One may _assail_ another with reproaches; he _assaults_ him with a blow, a brandished weapon, etc. Armies or squadrons _charge_; _combat_ and _encounter_ may be said of individual contests. To _beset_ is to set around, or, so to speak, to stud one's path, with menaces, attacks, or persuasions. To _besiege_ and _beleaguer_ are the acts of armies. To _encounter_ is to meet face to face, and may be said either of the _attacking_ or of the resisting force or person, or of both. Antonyms: aid, cover, protect, shelter, support, uphold, befriend, defend, resist, shield, sustain, withstand. Prepositions: We were attacked _by_ the enemy _with_ cannon and musketry. * * * * * ATTACK, _n._ Synonyms: aggression, incursion, invasion, onslaught, assault, infringement, onset, trespass. encroachment, intrusion, An _attack_ may be by word; an _aggression_ is always by deed. An _assault_ may be upon the person, an _aggression_ is upon rights, possessions, etc. An _invasion_ of a nation's territories is an act of _aggression_; an _intrusion_ upon a neighboring estate is a _trespass_. _Onslaught_ signifies intensely violent _assault_, as by an army or a desperado, tho it is sometimes used of violent speech. Antonyms: defense, repulsion, resistance, retreat, submission, surrender. Prepositions: The enemy made an attack _upon_ (or _on_) our works. * * * * * ATTAIN. Synonyms: accomplish, arrive at, gain, master, reach, achieve, compass, get, obtain, secure, acquire, earn, grasp, procure, win. A person may _obtain_ a situation by the intercession of friends, he _procures_ a dinner by paying for it. _Attain_ is a lofty word, pointing to some high or desirable result; a man _attains_ the mountain summit, he _attains_ honor or learning as the result of strenuous and earnest labor. Even that usage of _attain_ which has been thought to refer to mere progress of time carries the thought of a result desired; as, to _attain_ to old age; the man desires to live to a good old age; we should not speak of his _attaining_ his dotage. One may _attain_ an object that will prove not worth his labor, but what he _achieves_ is in itself great and splendid; as, the Greeks at Marathon _achieved_ a glorious victory. Compare DO; GET; REACH. Antonyms: abandon, fail, forfeit, give up, let go, lose, miss. * * * * * ATTITUDE. Synonyms: pose, position, posture. _Position_ as applied to the arrangement or situation of the human body or limbs may denote that which is conscious or unconscious, of the living or the dead; but we do not speak of the _attitude_, _pose_, or _posture_ of a corpse; unless, in some rare case, we might say the body was found in a sitting _posture_, where the _posture_ is thought of as assumed in life, or as, at first glance, suggesting life. A _posture_ is assumed without any special reference to expression of feeling; as, an erect _posture_, a reclining _posture_; _attitude_ is the _position_ appropriate to the expression of some feeling; the _attitude_ may be unconsciously taken through the strength of the feeling; as, an _attitude_ of defiance; or it may be consciously assumed in the attempt to express the feeling; as, he assumed an _attitude_ of humility. A _pose_ is a _position_ studied for artistic effect, or considered with reference to such effect; the unconscious _posture_ of a spectator or listener may be an admirable _pose_ from an artist's standpoint. * * * * * ATTRIBUTE, _v._ Synonyms: ascribe, associate, connect, impute, refer. assign, charge, We may _attribute_ to a person either that which belongs to him or that which we merely suppose to be his. We _attribute_ to God infinite power. We may _attribute_ a wrong intent to an innocent person. We may _attribute_ a result, rightly or wrongly, to a certain cause; in such case, however, _attribute_ carries always a concession of uncertainty or possible error. Where we are quite sure, we simply _refer_ a matter to the cause or class to which it belongs or _ascribe_ to one what is surely his, etc. Many diseases formerly _attributed_ to witchcraft are now _referred_ to the action of micro-organisms. We may _attribute_ a matter in silent thought; we _ascribe_ anything openly in speech or writing; King Saul said of the singing women, "They have _ascribed_ unto David ten thousands, and to me they have _ascribed_ but thousands." We _associate_ things which may have no necessary or causal relation; as, we may _associate_ the striking of a clock with the serving of dinner, tho the two are not necessarily connected. We _charge_ a person with what we deem blameworthy. We may _impute_ good or evil, but more commonly evil. Antonyms: deny, disconnect, dissociate, separate, sever, sunder. Prepositions: It is uncharitable to attribute evil motives _to_ (archaic _unto_) others. * * * * * ATTRIBUTE, _n._ Synonyms: property, quality. A _quality_ (L. _qualis_, such)--the "suchness" of anything, according to the German idiom--denotes what a thing really is in some one respect; an _attribute_ is what we conceive a thing to be in some one respect; thus, while _attribute_ may, _quality_ must, express something of the real nature of that to which it is ascribed; we speak of the _attributes_ of God, the _qualities_ of matter. "Originally 'the _attributes_ of God' was preferred, probably, because men assumed no knowledge of the actual _qualities_ of the Deity, but only of those more or less fitly attributed to him." J. A. H. MURRAY. [M.] Holiness is an _attribute_ of God; the _attributes_ of many heathen deities have been only the _qualities_ of wicked men joined to superhuman power. A _property_ (L. _proprius_, one's own) is what belongs especially to one thing as its own peculiar possession, in distinction from all other things; when we speak of the _qualities_ or the _properties_ of matter, _quality_ is the more general, _property_ the more limited term. A _quality_ is inherent; a _property_ may be transient; physicists now, however, prefer to term those _qualities_ manifested by all bodies (such as impenetrability, extension, etc.), _general properties_ of matter, while those peculiar to certain substances or to certain states of those substances (as fluidity, malleability, etc.) are termed _specific properties_; in this wider use of the word _property_, it becomes strictly synonymous with _quality_. Compare CHARACTERISTIC; EMBLEM. Antonyms: being, essence, nature, substance. * * * * * AUGUR. Synonyms: betoken, divine, foretell, predict, prognosticate, bode, forebode, portend, presage, prophesy. "Persons or things _augur_; persons only _forebode_ or _presage_; things only _betoken_ or _portend_." CRABB _English Synonymes_. We _augur_ well for a voyage from past good fortune and a good start; we _presage_ success from the stanchness of the ship and the skill of the captain. We _forebode_ misfortune either from circumstances that _betoken_ failure, or from gloomy fancies for which we could not give a reason. Dissipation among the officers and mutiny among the crew _portend_ disaster. _Divine_ has reference to the ancient soothsayers' arts (as in _Gen._ xliv, 5, 15), and refers rather to reading hearts than to reading the future. We say I could not _divine_ his motive, or his intention. Antonyms: assure, demonstrate, establish, make sure, settle, calculate, determine, insure, prove, warrant. Prepositions: I augur _from_ all circumstances a prosperous result; I augur ill _of_ the enterprise; "augurs ill _to_ the rights of the people," THOMAS JEFFERSON _Writings_ vol. ii, p. 506. [T. & M. '53.] I augur well, or this augurs well, _for_ your cause. * * * * * AUTHENTIC. Synonyms: accepted, certain, original, sure, accredited, current, real, true, authoritative, genuine, received, trustworthy, authorized, legitimate, reliable, veritable. That is _authentic_ which is true to the facts; that is _genuine_ which is true to its own claims; as, _authentic_ history; _genuine_ money. A '_genuine_' work is one written by the author whose name it bears; an '_authentic_' work is one which relates truthfully the matters of which it treats. For example, the apocryphal Gospel of St. Thomas is neither '_genuine_' nor '_authentic_.' It is not '_genuine_,' for St. Thomas did not write it; it is not '_authentic_,' for its contents are mainly fables and lies. TRENCH _On the Study of Words_ lect. vi, p. 189. [W. J. W.] _Authentic_ is, however, used by reputable writers as synonymous with _genuine_, tho usually where genuineness carries a certain authority. We speak of _accepted_ conclusions, _certain_ evidence, _current_ money, _genuine_ letters, a _legitimate_ conclusion or _legitimate_ authority, _original_ manuscripts, _real_ value, _received_ interpretation, _sure_ proof, a _true_ statement, a _trustworthy_ witness, a _veritable_ discovery. Antonyms: apocryphal, counterfeit, exploded, false, spurious, baseless, disputed, fabulous, fictitious, unauthorized. * * * * * AUXILIARY. Synonyms: accessory, ally, coadjutor, helper, promoter, aid, assistant, confederate, mercenary, subordinate. An _auxiliary_ is a person or thing that helps in a subordinate capacity. _Allies_ unite as equals; _auxiliaries_ are, at least technically, inferiors or subordinates. Yet the _auxiliary_ is more than a mere _assistant_. The word is oftenest found in the plural, and in the military sense; _auxiliaries_ are troops of one nation uniting with the armies, and acting under the orders, of another. _Mercenaries_ serve only for pay; _auxiliaries_ often for reasons of state, policy, or patriotism as well. Compare ACCESSORY; APPENDAGE. Antonyms: antagonist, hinderer, opponent, opposer. Prepositions: The auxiliaries _of_ the Romans; an auxiliary _in_ a good cause; an auxiliary _to_ learning. * * * * * AVARICIOUS. Synonyms: close, greedy, niggardly, penurious, sordid, covetous, miserly, parsimonious, rapacious, stingy. _Avaricious_ and _covetous_ refer especially to acquisition, _miserly_, _niggardly_, _parsimonious_, and _penurious_ to expenditure. The _avaricious_ man has an eager craving for money, and ordinarily desires both to get and to keep, the _covetous_ man to get something away from its possessor; tho one may be made _avaricious_ by the pressure of great expenditures. _Miserly_ and _niggardly_ persons seek to gain by mean and petty savings; the _miserly_ by stinting themselves, the _niggardly_ by stinting others. _Parsimonious_ and _penurious_ may apply to one's outlay either for himself or for others; in the latter use, they are somewhat less harsh and reproachful terms than _niggardly_. The _close_ man holds like a vise all that he gets. _Near_ and _nigh_ are provincial words of similar import. The _rapacious_ have the robber instinct, and put it in practise in some form, as far as they dare. The _avaricious_ and _rapacious_ are ready to reach out for gain; the _parsimonious_, _miserly_, and _niggardly_ prefer the safer and less adventurous way of avoiding expenditure. _Greedy_ and _stingy_ are used not only of money, but often of other things, as food, etc. The _greedy_ child wishes to enjoy everything himself; the _stingy_ child, to keep others from getting it. Antonyms: bountiful, free, generous, liberal, munificent, prodigal, wasteful. Preposition: The monarch was avaricious _of_ power. * * * * * AVENGE. Synonyms: punish, retaliate, revenge, vindicate, visit. _Avenge_ and _revenge_, once close synonyms, are now far apart in meaning. To _avenge_ is to _visit_ some offense with punishment, in order to _vindicate_ the righteous, or to uphold and illustrate the right by the suffering or destruction of the wicked. "And seeing one of them suffer wrong, he _avenged_ him that was oppressed, and smote the Egyptian," _Acts_ vii, 24. To _revenge_ is to inflict harm or suffering upon another through personal anger and resentment at something done to ourselves. _Avenge_ is unselfish; _revenge_ is selfish. _Revenge_, according to present usage, could not be said of God. To _retaliate_ may be necessary for self-defense, without the idea of _revenge_. Compare REVENGE. Prepositions: Avenge _on_ or _upon_ (rarely, avenge oneself _of_) a wrong-doer. * * * * * AVOW. Synonyms: knowledge, aver, confess, own, profess, testify, admit, avouch, declare, proclaim, protest, witness. _Acknowledge_, _admit_, and _declare_ refer either to oneself or to others; all the other words refer only to one's own knowledge or action. To _avow_ is to declare boldly and openly, commonly as something one is ready to justify, maintain, or defend. A man _acknowledges_ another's claim or his own promise; he _admits_ an opponent's advantage or his own error; he _declares_ either what he has seen or experienced or what he has received from another; he _avers_ what he is sure of from his own knowledge or consciousness; he gives his assurance as the voucher for what he _avouches_; he _avows_ openly a belief or intention that he has silently held. _Avow_ and _avouch_ take a direct object; _aver_ is followed by a conjunction: a man _avows_ his faith, _avouches_ a deed, _avers_ that he was present. _Avow_ has usually a good sense; what a person _avows_ he at least does not treat as blameworthy, criminal, or shameful; if he did, he would be said to _confess_ it; yet there is always the suggestion that some will be ready to challenge or censure what one _avows_; as, the clergyman _avowed_ his dissent from the doctrine of his church. _Own_ applies to all things, good or bad, great or small, which one takes as his own. Compare CONFESS; STATE. Antonyms: contradict, deny, disavow, disclaim, disown, ignore, repudiate. * * * * * AWFUL. Synonyms: alarming, direful, frightful, majestic, solemn, appalling, dread, grand, noble, stately, august, dreadful, horrible, portentous, terrible, dire, fearful, imposing, shocking, terrific. _Awful_ should not be used of things which are merely disagreeable or annoying, nor of all that are _alarming_ and _terrible_, but only of such as bring a solemn awe upon the soul, as in the presence of a superior power; as, the _awful_ hush before the battle. That which is _awful_ arouses an oppressive, that which is _august_ an admiring reverence; we speak of the _august_ presence of a mighty monarch, the _awful_ presence of death. We speak of an _exalted_ station, a _grand_ mountain, an _imposing_ presence, a _majestic_ cathedral, a _noble_ mien, a _solemn_ litany, a _stately_ march, an _august_ assembly, the _awful_ scene of the Judgment Day. Antonyms: base, contemptible, inferior, paltry, beggarly, despicable, lowly, undignified, commonplace, humble, mean, vulgar. * * * * * AWKWARD. Synonyms: boorish, clumsy, rough, unhandy, bungling, gawky, uncouth, unskilful. clownish, maladroit, ungainly, _Awkward_, from _awk_ (kindred with _off_, from the Norwegian), is _off-ward_, turned the wrong way; it was anciently used of a back-handed or left-handed blow in battle, of squinting eyes, etc. _Clumsy_, on the other hand (from _clumse_, also through the Norwegian), signifies benumbed, stiffened with cold; this is the original meaning of _clumsy_ fingers, _clumsy_ limbs. Thus, _awkward_ primarily refers to action, _clumsy_ to condition. A tool, a vehicle, or the human frame may be _clumsy_ in shape or build, _awkward_ in motion. The _clumsy_ man is almost of necessity _awkward_, but the _awkward_ man may not be naturally _clumsy_. The finest untrained colt is _awkward_ in harness; a horse that is _clumsy_ in build can never be trained out of awkwardness. An _awkward_ statement has an uncomfortable, and perhaps recoiling force; a statement that contains ill-assorted and incongruous material in ill-chosen language is _clumsy_. We speak of an _awkward_ predicament, an _awkward_ scrape. An _awkward_ excuse commonly reflects on the one who offers it. We say the admitted facts have an _awkward_ appearance. In none of these cases could _clumsy_ be used. _Clumsy_ is, however, applied to movements that seem as unsuitable as those of benumbed and stiffened limbs. A dancing bear is both _clumsy_ and _awkward_. Antonyms: adroit, clever, dexterous, handy, skilful. Prepositions: The raw recruit is awkward _in_ action; _at_ the business. * * * * * AXIOM. Synonym: truism. Both the _axiom_ and the _truism_ are instantly seen to be true, and need no proof; but in an _axiom_ there is progress of thought, while the _truism_ simply says the same thing over again, or says what is too manifest to need saying. The _axiom_ that "things which are equal to the same thing are equal to one another" unfolds in the latter part of the sentence the truth implied in the first part, which might have been overlooked if not stated. In the _truism_ that "a man can do all he is capable of," the former and the latter part of the sentence are simply identical, and the mind is left just where it started. Hence the _axiom_ is valuable and useful, while the _truism_ is weak and flat, unless the form of statement makes it striking or racy, as "all fools are out of their wits." Compare PROVERB. Antonyms: absurdity, contradiction, demonstration, nonsense, paradox, sophism. * * * * * BABBLE. Synonyms: blab, cackle, gabble, murmur, prattle, blurt, chat, gossip, palaver, tattle, blurt out, chatter, jabber, prate, twaddle. Most of these words are onomatopoetic. The _cackle_ of a hen, the _gabble_ of a goose, the _chatter_ of a magpie, the _babble_ of a running stream, as applied to human speech, indicate a rapid succession of what are to the listener meaningless sounds. _Blab_ and _blurt_ (commonly _blurt out_) refer to the letting out of what the lips can no longer keep in; _blab_, of a secret; _blurt out_, of passionate feeling. To _chat_ is to talk in an easy, pleasant way, not without sense, but without special purpose. _Chatting_ is the practise of adults, _prattling_ that of children. To _prate_ is to talk idly, presumptuously, or foolishly, but not necessarily incoherently. To _jabber_ is to utter a rapid succession of unintelligible sounds, generally more noisy than _chattering_. To _gossip_ is to talk of petty personal matters, as for pastime or mischief. To _twaddle_ is to talk feeble nonsense. To _murmur_ is to utter suppressed or even inarticulate sounds, suggesting the notes of a dove, or the sound of a running stream, and is used figuratively of the half suppressed utterances of affection or pity, or of complaint, resentment, etc. Compare SPEAK. Prepositions: Babies babble _for_ the moon; the crowd babbles _of_ a hero; the sick man babbles _of_ home. * * * * * BANISH. Synonyms: ban, dismiss, evict, expatriate, ostracize, discharge, drive out, exile, expel, oust. dislodge, eject, _Banish_, primarily to put under _ban_, to compel by authority to leave a place or country, perhaps with restriction to some other place or country. From a country, a person may be _banished_, _exiled_, or _expatriated_; _banished_ from any country where he may happen to be, but _expatriated_ or _exiled_ only from his own. One may _expatriate_ or _exile_ himself; he is _banished_ by others. _Banish_ is a word of wide import; one may _banish_ disturbing thoughts; care may _banish_ sleep. To _expel_ is to _drive out_ with violence or rudeness, and so often with disgrace. Prepositions: Cataline was banished _from_ Rome; John the Apostle was banished _to_ Patmos. * * * * * BANK. Synonyms: beach, bound, brink, edge, margin, shore, border, brim, coast, marge, rim, strand. _Bank_ is a general term for the land along the edge of a water course; it may also denote a raised portion of the bed of a river, lake, or ocean; as, the _Banks_ of Newfoundland. A _beach_ is a strip or expanse of incoherent wave-worn sand, which is often pebbly or full of boulders; we speak of the _beach_ of a lake or ocean; a _beach_ is sometimes found in the bend of a river. _Strand_ is a more poetic term for a wave-washed shore, especially as a place for landing or embarking; as, the keel grates on the _strand_. The whole line of a country or continent that borders the sea is a _coast_. _Shore_ is any land, whether cliff, or sand, or marsh, bordering water. We do not speak of the _coast_ of a river, nor of the _banks_ of the ocean, tho there may be _banks_ by or under the sea. _Edge_ is the line where land and water meet; as, the water's _edge_. _Brink_ is the place from which one may fall; as, the river's _brink_; the _brink_ of a precipice; the _brink_ of ruin. * * * * * BANTER. Synonyms: badinage, derision, jeering, raillery, sarcasm, chaff, irony, mockery, ridicule, satire. _Banter_ is the touching upon some fault, weakness, or fancied secret of another in a way half to pique and half to please; _badinage_ is delicate, refined _banter_. _Raillery_ has more sharpness, but is usually good-humored and well meant. _Irony_, the saying one thing that the reverse may be understood, may be either mild or bitter. All the other words have a hostile intent. _Ridicule_ makes a person or thing the subject of contemptuous merriment; _derision_ seeks to make the object derided seem utterly despicable--to laugh it to scorn. _Chaff_ is the coarse witticism of the streets, perhaps merry, oftener malicious; _jeering_ is loud, rude _ridicule_, as of a hostile crowd or mob. _Mockery_ is more studied, and may include mimicry and personal violence, as well as scornful speech. A _satire_ is a formal composition; a _sarcasm_ may be an impromptu sentence. The _satire_ shows up follies to keep people from them; the _sarcasm_ hits them because they are foolish, without inquiring whether it will do good or harm; the _satire_ is plainly uttered; the _sarcasm_ is covert. * * * * * BARBAROUS. Synonyms: atrocious, brutal, merciless, uncivilized, barbarian, cruel, rude, uncouth, barbaric, inhuman, savage, untamed. Whatever is not civilized is _barbarian_; _barbaric_ indicates rude magnificence, uncultured richness; as, _barbaric_ splendor, a _barbaric_ melody. _Barbarous_ refers to the worst side of _barbarian_ life, and to revolting acts, especially of cruelty, such as a civilized man would not be expected to do; as, a _barbarous_ deed. We may, however, say _barbarous_ nations, _barbarous_ tribes, without implying anything more than want of civilization and culture. _Savage_ is more distinctly bloodthirsty than _barbarous_. In this sense we speak of a _savage_ beast and of _barbarous_ usage. Antonyms: civilized, cultured, elegant, humane, polite, tender, courtly, delicate, graceful, nice, refined, urbane. * * * * * BARRIER. Synonyms: bar, bulwark, obstruction, rampart, barricade, hindrance, parapet, restraint, breastwork, obstacle, prohibition, restriction. A _bar_ is something that is or may be firmly fixed, ordinarily with intent to prevent entrance or egress; as, the _bars_ of a prison cell; the _bars_ of a wood-lot. A _barrier_ obstructs, but is not necessarily impassable. _Barrier_ is used of objects more extensive than those to which _bar_ is ordinarily applied. A mountain range may be a _barrier_ to exploration; but a mass of sand across the entrance to a harbor is called a _bar_. Discovered falsehood is a _bar_ to confidence. _Barricade_ has become practically a technical name for an improvised street fortification, and, unless in some way modified, is usually so understood. A _parapet_ is a low or breast-high wall, as about the edge of a roof, terrace, etc., especially, in military use, such a wall for the protection of troops; a _rampart_ is the embankment surrounding a fort, on which the _parapet_ is raised; the word _rampart_ is often used as including the _parapet_. _Bulwark_ is a general word for any defensive wall or _rampart_; its only technical use at present is in nautical language, where it signifies the raised side of a ship above the upper deck, topped by the rail. Compare BOUNDARY; IMPEDIMENT. Antonyms: admittance, opening, road, transit, entrance, passage, thoroughfare, way. Prepositions: A barrier _to_ progress, _against_ invasion; a barrier _between_ nations. * * * * * BATTLE. Synonyms: action, combat, encounter, passage of arms, affair, conflict, engagement, skirmish, bout, contest, fight, strife. _Conflict_ is a general word which describes opponents, whether individuals or hosts, as dashed together. One continuous _conflict_ between entire armies is a _battle_. Another _battle_ may be fought upon the same field after a considerable interval; or a new _battle_ may follow immediately, the armies meeting upon a new field. An _action_ is brief and partial; a _battle_ may last for days. _Engagement_ is a somewhat formal expression for _battle_; as, it was the commander's purpose to avoid a general _engagement_. A protracted war, including many _battles_, may be a stubborn _contest_. _Combat_, originally a hostile _encounter_ between individuals, is now used also for extensive _engagements_. A _skirmish_ is between small detachments or scattered troops. An _encounter_ may be either purposed or accidental, between individuals or armed forces. _Fight_ is a word of less dignity than _battle_; we should not ordinarily speak of Waterloo as a _fight_, unless where the word is used in the sense of fighting; as, I was in the thick of the _fight_. Antonyms: armistice, concord, peace, suspension of hostilities, truce. Prepositions: A battle _of_ giants; battle _between_ armies; a battle _for_ life, _against_ invaders; a battle _to_ the death; the battle _of_ (more rarely _at_) Marathon. * * * * * BEAT. Synonyms: bastinado, chastise, overcome, spank, thrash, batter, conquer, pommel, strike, vanquish, belabor, cudgel, pound, surpass, whip, bruise, defeat, scourge, switch, worst. castigate, flog, smite, _Strike_ is the word for a single blow; to _beat_ is to _strike_ repeatedly, as a bird _beats_ the air with its wings. Others of the above words describe the manner of _beating_, as _bastinado_, to _beat_ on the soles of the feet; _belabor_, to inflict a comprehensive and exhaustive _beating_; _cudgel_, to _beat_ with a stick; _thrash_, as wheat was _beaten_ out with the old hand-flail; to _pound_ (akin to L. _pondus_, a weight) is to _beat_ with a heavy, and _pommel_ with a blunt, instrument. To _batter_ and to _bruise_ refer to the results of _beating_; that is _battered_ which is broken or defaced by repeated blows on the surface (compare synonyms for SHATTER); that is _bruised_ which has suffered even one severe contusion. The metaphorical sense of _beat_, however, so far preponderates that one may be very badly _bruised_ and _battered_, and yet not be said to be _beaten_, unless he has got the worst of the _beating_. To _beat_ a combatant is to disable or dishearten him for further fighting. Hence _beat_ becomes the synonym for every word which implies getting the advantage of another. Compare CONQUER. Antonyms: fail, fall, get the worst of, go down, go under, surrender. Almost all antonyms in this class are passive, and can be formed indefinitely from the conquering words by the use of the auxiliary _be_; as, be beaten, be defeated, be conquered, etc. Prepositions: Beat _with_ a stick _over_ the head; beat _by_ a trick; _out of_ town; beat _to_ the ground; _into_ submission. * * * * * BEAUTIFUL. Synonyms: attractive, charming, exquisite, handsome, beauteous, comely, fair, lovely, bewitching, delightful, fine, picturesque, bonny, elegant, graceful, pretty. The definition of beauty, "perfection of form," is a good key to the meaning of _beautiful_, if we understand "form" in its widest sense. There must also be harmony and unity, and in human beings spiritual loveliness, to constitute an object or a person really _beautiful_. Thus, we speak of a _beautiful_ landscape, a _beautiful_ poem. But _beautiful_ implies also, in concrete objects, softness of outline and delicacy of mold; it is opposed to all that is hard and rugged, hence we say a _beautiful_ woman, but not a _beautiful_ man. _Beautiful_ has the further limit of not transcending our powers of appreciation. _Pretty_ expresses in a far less degree that which is pleasing to a refined taste in objects comparatively small, slight, and dainty; as, a _pretty_ bonnet; a _pretty_ girl. That is _handsome_ which is not only superficially pleasing, but well and harmoniously proportioned, with usually the added idea that it is made so by art, breeding, or training; as, a _handsome_ horse; a _handsome_ house. _Handsome_ is a term far inferior to _beautiful_; we may even say a _handsome_ villain. _Fair_ denotes what is bright, smooth, clear, and without blemish; as, a _fair_ face. The word applies wholly to what is superficial; we can say "_fair_, yet false." In a specific sense, _fair_ has the sense of blond, as opposed to dark or brunette. One who possesses vivacity, wit, good nature, or other pleasing qualities may be _attractive_ without beauty. _Comely_ denotes an aspect that is smooth, genial, and wholesome, with a certain fulness of contour and pleasing symmetry, tho falling short of the _beautiful_; as, a _comely_ matron. That is _picturesque_ which would make a striking picture. Antonyms: awkward, frightful, grotesque, repulsive, uncouth, clumsy, ghastly, hideous, shocking, ungainly, deformed, grim, horrid, ugly, unlovely, disgusting, grisly, odious, unattractive, unpleasant. Prepositions: Beautiful _to_ the eye; beautiful _in_ appearance, _in_ spirit; "beautiful _for_ situation," _Ps._ xlviii, 2; beautiful _of_ aspect, _of_ its kind. * * * * * BECAUSE. Synonyms: as, for, inasmuch as, since. _Because_, literally _by_-cause, is the most direct and complete word for giving the reason of a thing. _Since_, originally denoting succession in time, signifies a succession in a chain of reasoning, a natural inference or result. _As_ indicates something like, coordinate, parallel. _Since_ is weaker than _because_; _as_ is weaker than _since_; either may introduce the reason before the main statement; thus, _since_ or _as_ you are going, I will accompany you. Often the weaker word is the more courteous, implying less constraint; for example, _as_ you request it, I will come, rather than I will come _because_ you request it. _Inasmuch as_ is a formal and qualified expression, implying by just so much, and no more; thus, _inasmuch as_ the debtor has no property, I abandon the claim. _For_ is a loose connective, giving often mere suggestion or indication rather than reason or cause; as, it is morning, _for_ (not _because_) the birds are singing. Antonyms: altho, however, nevertheless, notwithstanding, yet. Compare synonyms for BUT; NOTWITHSTANDING. * * * * * BECOMING. Synonyms: befitting, congruous, fit, meet, seemly, beseeming, decent, fitting, neat, suitable, comely, decorous, graceful, proper, worthy. That is _becoming_ in dress which suits the complexion, figure, and other qualities of the wearer, so as to produce on the whole a pleasing effect. That is _decent_ which does not offend modesty or propriety. That is _suitable_ which is adapted to the age, station, situation, and other circumstances of the wearer; coarse, heavy boots are _suitable_ for farm-work; a juvenile style of dress is not _suitable_ for an old lady. In conduct much the same rules apply. The dignity and gravity of a patriarch would not be _becoming_ to a child; at a funeral lively, cheery sociability would not be _decorous_, while noisy hilarity would not be _decent_; sumptuous display would not be _suitable_ for a poor person. _Fit_ is a compendious term for whatever fits the person, time, place, occasion, etc.; as, a _fit_ person; a _fit_ abode; a _fit_ place. _Fitting_, or _befitting_, is somewhat more elegant, implying a nicer adaptation. _Meet_, a somewhat archaic word, expresses a moral fitness; as, _meet_ for heaven. Compare BEAUTIFUL. Antonyms: awkward, ill-fitting, indecent, unbecoming, unseemly, ill-becoming, improper, indecorous, unfit, unsuitable. Prepositions: The dress was becoming _to_ the wearer. Such conduct was becoming _in_ him. * * * * * BEGINNING. Synonyms: arising, inauguration, origin, source, commencement, inception, outset, spring, fount, initiation, rise, start. fountain, opening, The Latin _commencement_ is more formal than the Saxon _beginning_, as the verb _commence_, is more formal than _begin_. _Commencement_ is for the most part restricted to some form of action, while _beginning_ has no restriction, but may be applied to action, state, material, extent, enumeration, or to whatever else may be conceived of as having a first part, point, degree, etc. The letter A is at the _beginning_ (not the _commencement_) of every alphabet. If we were to speak of the _commencement_ of the Pacific Railroad, we should be understood to refer to the enterprise and its initiatory act; if we were to refer to the roadway we should say "Here is the _beginning_ of the Pacific Railroad." In the great majority of cases _begin_ and _beginning_ are preferable to _commence_ and _commencement_ as the simple, idiomatic English words, always accurate and expressive. "In the _beginning_ was the word," _John_ i, 1. An _origin_ is the point from which something starts or sets out, often involving, and always suggesting causal connection; as, the _origin_ of evil; the _origin_ of a nation, a government, or a family. A _source_ is that which furnishes a first and continuous supply, that which flows forth freely or may be readily recurred to; as, the _source_ of a river; a _source_ of knowledge; a _source_ of inspiration; fertile land is a _source_ (not an _origin_) of wealth. A _rise_ is thought of as in an action; we say that a lake is the _source_ of a certain river, or that the river takes its _rise_ from the lake. Motley wrote of "The _Rise_ of the Dutch Republic." _Fount_, _fountain_, and _spring_, in their figurative senses, keep close to their literal meaning. Compare CAUSE. Antonyms: See synonyms for END. * * * * * BEHAVIOR. Synonyms: action, breeding, conduct, deportment, manner, bearing, carriage, demeanor, life, manners. _Behavior_ is our _action_ in the presence of others; _conduct_ includes also that which is known only to ourselves and our Maker. _Carriage_ expresses simply the manner of holding the body, especially in sitting or walking, as when it is said of a lady "she has a fine _carriage_." _Bearing_ refers to the bodily expression of feeling or disposition; as, a haughty _bearing_; a noble _bearing_. _Demeanor_ is the bodily expression, not only of feelings, but of moral states; as, a devout _demeanor_. _Breeding_, unless with some adverse limitation, denotes that _manner_ and _conduct_ which result from good birth and training. _Deportment_ is _behavior_ as related to a set of rules; as, the pupil's _deportment_ was faultless. A person's _manner_ may be that of a moment, or toward a single person; his _manners_ are his habitual style of _behavior_ toward or before others, especially in matters of etiquette and politeness; as, good _manners_ are always pleasing. Prepositions: The behavior _of_ the pastor _to_ or _toward_ his people, _on_ or _upon_ the streets, _before_ the multitude, or _in_ the church, _with_ the godly, or _with_ the worldly, was alike faultless. * * * * * BEND. Synonyms: bias, curve, diverge, mold, submit, twist, bow, deflect, incline, persuade, turn, warp, crook, deviate, influence, stoop, twine, yield. In some cases a thing is spoken of as _bent_ where the parts make an angle; but oftener to _bend_ is understood to be to draw to or through a curve; as, to _bend_ a bow. To _submit_ or _yield_ is to _bend_ the mind humbly to another's wishes. To _incline_ or _influence_ is to _bend_ another's wishes toward our own; to _persuade_ is to draw them quite over. To _warp_ is to _bend_ silently through the whole fiber, as a board in the sun. To _crook_ is to _bend_ irregularly, as a _crooked_ stick. _Deflect_, _deviate_, and _diverge_ are said of any turning away; _deviate_ commonly of a slight and gradual movement, _diverge_ of a more sharp and decided one. To _bias_ is to cut across the texture, or incline to one side; in figurative use always with an unfavorable import. _Mold_ is a stronger work than _bend_; we may _bend_ by a superior force that which still resists the constraint; as, a _bent_ bow; we _mold_ something plastic entirely to some desired form. * * * * * BENEVOLENCE. Synonyms: almsgiving, charity, kind-heartedness, munificence, beneficence, generosity, kindliness, philanthropy, benignity, good-will, kindness, sympathy, bounty, humanity, liberality, unselfishness. According to the etymology and original usage, _beneficence_ is the doing well, _benevolence_ the wishing or willing well to others; but _benevolence_ has come to include _beneficence_, and to displace it. We should not now speak of _benevolence_ which did not help, unless where there was no power to help; even then we should rather say _good-will_ or _sympathy_. _Charity_, which originally meant the purest love for God and man (as in _1 Cor._ xiii), is now almost universally applied to some form of _almsgiving_, and is much more limited in meaning than _benevolence_. _Benignity_ suggests some occult power of blessing, such as was formerly ascribed to the stars; we may say a good man has an air of _benignity_. _Kindness_ and _tenderness_ are personal; _benevolence_ and _charity_ are general. _Kindness_ extends to all sentient beings, whether men or animals, in prosperity or in distress. _Tenderness_ especially goes out toward the young, feeble, and needy, or even to the dead. _Humanity_ is so much _kindness_ and _tenderness_ toward man or beast as it would be inhuman not to have; we say of some act of care or _kindness_, "common _humanity_ requires it." _Generosity_ is self-forgetful _kindness_ in disposition or action; it includes much besides giving; as, the _generosity_ of forgiveness. _Bounty_ applies to ample giving, which on a larger scale is expressed by _munificence_. _Liberality_ indicates broad, genial kindly views, whether manifested in gifts or otherwise. We speak of the _bounty_ of a generous host, the _liberality_ or _munificence_ of the founder of a college, or of the _liberality_ of a theologian toward the holders of conflicting beliefs. _Philanthropy_ applies to wide schemes for human welfare, often, but not always, involving large expenditures in _charity_ or _benevolence_. Compare MERCY. Antonyms: barbarity, greediness, ill-will, malignity, self-seeking, brutality, harshness, inhumanity, niggardliness, stinginess, churlishness, illiberality, malevolence, selfishness, unkindness. Prepositions: Benevolence _of_, _on the part of_, or _from_ the wealthy, _to_ or _toward_ the poor. * * * * * BIND. Synonyms: compel, fetter, oblige, restrict, shackle, engage, fix, restrain, secure, tie. fasten, _Binding_ is primarily by something flexible, as a cord or bandage drawn closely around an object or group of objects, as when we _bind_ up a wounded limb. We _bind_ a sheaf of wheat with a cord; we _tie_ the cord in a knot; we _fasten_ by any means that will make things hold together, as a board by nails, or a door by a lock. The verbs _tie_ and _fasten_ are scarcely used in the figurative sense, tho, using the noun, we speak of the _ties_ of affection. _Bind_ has an extensive figurative use. One is _bound_ by conscience or honor; he is _obliged_ by some imperious necessity; _engaged_ by his own promise; _compelled_ by physical force or its moral equivalent. Antonyms: free, loose, set free, unbind, unfasten, unloose, untie. Prepositions: Bind _to_ a pillar; _unto_ an altar; _to_ a service; bind one _with_ chains or _in_ chains; one is bound _by_ a contract; a splint is bound _upon_ a limb; the arms may be bound _to_ the sides or _behind_ the back; bind a wreath _about_, _around_, or _round_ the head; twigs are bound _in_ or _into_ fagots; for military purposes, they are bound _at_ both ends and _in_ the middle; one is bound _by_ a contract, or bound _under_ a penalty to fulfil a contract. * * * * * BITTER. Synonyms: acerb, acidulous, caustic, pungent, stinging, acetous, acrid, cutting, savage, tart, acid, acrimonious, harsh, sharp, vinegarish, acidulated, biting, irate, sour, virulent. _Acid_, _sour_, and _bitter_ agree in being contrasted with _sweet_, but the two former are sharply distinguished from the latter. _Acid_ or _sour_ is the taste of vinegar or lemon-juice; _bitter_ that of quassia, quinine, or strychnine. _Acrid_ is nearly allied to _bitter_. _Pungent_ suggests the effect of pepper or snuff on the organs of taste or smell; as, a _pungent_ odor. _Caustic_ indicates the corroding effect of some strong chemical, as nitrate of silver. In a figurative sense, as applied to language or character, these words are very closely allied. We say a _sour_ face, _sharp_ words, _bitter_ complaints, _caustic_ wit, _cutting_ irony, _biting_ sarcasm, a _stinging_ taunt, _harsh_ judgment, a _tart_ reply. _Harsh_ carries the idea of intentional and severe unkindness, _bitter_ of a severity that arises from real or supposed ill treatment. The _bitter_ speech springs from the sore heart. _Tart_ and _sharp_ utterances may not proceed from an intention to wound, but merely from a wit recklessly keen; _cutting_, _stinging_, and _biting_ speech indicates more or less of hostile intent, the latter being the more deeply malicious. The _caustic_ utterance is meant to burn, perhaps wholesomely, as in the satire of Juvenal or Cervantes. Compare MOROSE. Antonyms: dulcet, honeyed, luscious, nectared, saccharine, sweet. * * * * * BLEACH, _v._ Synonyms: blanch, make white, whiten, whitewash. To _whiten_ is to _make white_ in general, but commonly it means to overspread with white coloring-matter. _Bleach_ and _blanch_ both signify to _whiten_ by depriving of color, the former permanently, as linen; the latter either permanently (as, to _blanch_ celery) or temporarily (as, to _blanch_ the cheek with fear). To _whitewash_ is to _whiten_ superficially, especially by false approval. Antonyms: blacken, color, darken, dye, soil, stain. * * * * * BLEMISH. Synonyms: blot, defacement, disgrace, injury, spot, blur, defect, dishonor, reproach, stain, brand, deformity, fault, smirch, stigma, crack, dent, flaw, soil, taint, daub, disfigurement, imperfection, speck, tarnish. Whatever mars the beauty or completeness of an object is a _blemish_, whether original, as squinting eyes, or the result of accident or disease, etc., as the pits of smallpox. A _blemish_ is superficial; a _flaw_ or _taint_ is in structure or substance. In the moral sense, we speak of a _blot_ or _stain_ upon reputation; a _flaw_ or _taint_ in character. A _defect_ is the want or lack of something; _fault_, primarily a failing, is something that fails of an apparent intent or disappoints a natural expectation; thus a sudden dislocation or displacement of geological strata is called a _fault_. Figuratively, a _blemish_ comes from one's own ill-doing; a _brand_ or _stigma_ is inflicted by others; as, the _brand_ of infamy. * * * * * BLOW. Synonyms: box, concussion, disaster, misfortune, stripe, buffet, cuff, knock, rap, stroke, calamity, cut, lash, shock, thump. A _blow_ is a sudden impact, as of a fist or a club; a _stroke_ is a sweeping movement; as, the _stroke_ of a sword, of an oar, of the arm in swimming. A _shock_ is the sudden encounter with some heavy body; as, colliding railway-trains meet with a _shock_; the _shock_ of battle. A _slap_ is given with the open hand, a _lash_ with a whip, thong, or the like; we speak also of the _cut_ of a whip. A _buffet_ or _cuff_ is given only with the hand; a _blow_ either with hand or weapon. A _cuff_ is a somewhat sidelong _blow_, generally with the open hand; as, a _cuff_ or _box_ on the ear. A _stripe_ is the effect or mark of a _stroke_. In the metaphorical sense, _blow_ is used for sudden, stunning, staggering _calamity_ or sorrow; _stroke_ for sweeping _disaster_, and also for sweeping achievement and success. We say a _stroke_ of paralysis, or a _stroke_ of genius. We speak of the _buffets_ of adverse fortune. _Shock_ is used of that which is at once sudden, violent, and prostrating; we speak of a _shock_ of electricity, the _shock_ of an amputation, a _shock_ of surprise. Compare BEAT. * * * * * BLUFF. Synonyms: abrupt, brusk, impolite, rough, blunt, coarse, inconsiderate, rude, blustering, discourteous, open, uncivil, bold, frank, plain-spoken, unmannerly. _Bluff_ is a word of good meaning, as are _frank_ and _open_. The _bluff_ man talks and laughs loudly and freely, says and does whatever he pleases with fearless good nature, and with no thought of annoying or giving pain to others. The _blunt_ man says things which he is perfectly aware are disagreeable, either from a defiant indifference to others' feelings, or from the pleasure of tormenting. Antonyms: bland, genial, polished, polite, refined, reserved, urbane. courteous, * * * * * BODY. Synonyms: ashes, clay, dust, frame, system, carcass, corpse, form, remains, trunk. _Body_ denotes the entire physical structure, considered as a whole, of man or animal; _form_ looks upon it as a thing of shape and outline, perhaps of beauty; _frame_ regards it as supported by its bony framework; _system_ views it as an assemblage of many related and harmonious organs. _Body_, _form_, _frame_, and _system_ may be either dead or living; _clay_ and _dust_ are sometimes so used in religious or poetic style, tho ordinarily these words are used only of the dead. _Corpse_ and _remains_ are used only of the dead. _Corpse_ is the plain technical word for a dead body still retaining its unity; _remains_ may be used after any lapse of time; the latter is also the more refined and less ghastly term; as, friends are invited to view the _remains_. _Carcass_ applies only to the _body_ of an animal, or of a human being regarded with contempt and loathing. Compare COMPANY. Antonyms: intellect, intelligence, mind, soul, spirit. * * * * * BOTH. Synonyms: twain, two. _Both_ refers to _two_ objects previously _mentioned_, or had in mind, viewed or acting in connection; as, _both_ men fired at once; "_two_ men fired" might mean any two, out of any number, and without reference to any previous thought or mention. _Twain_ is a nearly obsolete form of _two_. _The two_, or _the twain_, is practically equivalent to _both_; _both_, however, expresses a closer unity. We would say _both_ men rushed against the enemy; the _two_ men flew at each other. Compare EVERY. Antonyms: each, either, every, neither, none, no one, not any. * * * * * BOUNDARY. Synonyms: barrier, confines, limit, margin, border, edge, line, term, bound, enclosure, marches, termination, bourn, frontier, marge, verge. bourne, landmark, The _boundary_ was originally the _landmark_, that which marked off one piece of territory from another. The _bound_ is the _limit_, marked or unmarked. Now, however, the difference between the two words has come to be simply one of usage. As regards territory, we speak of the _boundaries_ of a nation or of an estate; the _bounds_ of a college, a ball-ground, etc. _Bounds_ may be used for all within the _limits_, _boundary_ for the limiting line only. _Boundary_ looks to that which is without; _bound_ only to that which is within. Hence we speak of the _bounds_, not the _boundaries_, of a subject, of the universe, etc.; we say the students were forbidden to go beyond the _bounds_. A _barrier_ is something that bars ingress or egress. A _barrier_ may be a _boundary_, as was the Great Wall of China. _Bourn_, or _bourne_, is a poetical expression for _bound_ or _boundary_. A _border_ is a strip of land along the _boundary_. _Edge_ is a sharp terminal line, as where river or ocean meets the land. _Limit_ is now used almost wholly in the figurative sense; as, the _limit_ of discussion, of time, of jurisdiction. _Line_ is a military term; as, within the _lines_, or through the _lines_, of an army. Compare BARRIER; END. Antonyms: center, citadel, estate, inside, interior, land, region, territory. Prepositions: The boundaries _of_ an estate; the boundary _between_ neighboring territories. * * * * * BRAVE. Synonyms: adventurous, courageous, fearless, undaunted, bold, daring, gallant, undismayed, chivalric, dauntless, heroic, valiant, chivalrous, doughty, intrepid, venturesome. The _adventurous_ man goes in quest of danger; the _bold_ man stands out and faces danger or censure; the _brave_ man combines confidence with resolution in presence of danger; the _chivalrous_ man puts himself in peril for others' protection. The _daring_ step out to defy danger; the _dauntless_ will not flinch before anything that may come to them; the _doughty_ will give and take limitless hard knocks. The _adventurous_ find something romantic in dangerous enterprises; the _venturesome_ may be simply heedless, reckless, or ignorant. All great explorers have been _adventurous_; children, fools, and criminals are _venturesome_. The _fearless_ and _intrepid_ possess unshaken nerves in any place of danger. _Courageous_ is more than _brave_, adding a moral element: the _courageous_ man steadily encounters perils to which he may be keenly sensitive, at the call of duty; the _gallant_ are _brave_ in a dashing, showy, and splendid way; the _valiant_ not only dare great dangers, but achieve great results; the _heroic_ are nobly _daring_ and _dauntless_, truly _chivalrous_, sublimely _courageous_. Compare FORTITUDE. Antonyms: afraid, cringing, fearful, pusillanimous, timid, cowardly, faint-hearted, frightened, shrinking, timorous. * * * * * BREAK. Synonyms: bankrupt, crack, destroy, rive, shatter, split, burst, crush, fracture, rupture, shiver, sunder, cashier, demolish, rend, sever, smash, transgress. To _break_ is to divide sharply, with severance of particles, as by a blow or strain. To _burst_ is to _break_ by pressure from within, as a bombshell, but it is used also for the result of violent force otherwise exerted; as, to _burst_ in a door, where the door yields as if to an explosion. To _crush_ is to _break_ by pressure from without, as an egg-shell. To _crack_ is to _break_ without complete severance of parts; a _cracked_ cup or mirror may still hold together. _Fracture_ has a somewhat similar sense. In a _fractured_ limb, the ends of the _broken_ bone may be separated, tho both portions are still retained within the common muscular tissue. A _shattered_ object is _broken_ suddenly and in numerous directions; as, a vase is _shattered_ by a blow, a building by an earthquake. A _shivered_ glass is _broken_ into numerous minute, needle-like fragments. To _smash_ is to _break_ thoroughly to pieces with a crashing sound by some sudden act of violence; a watch once _smashed_ will scarcely be worth repair. To _split_ is to cause wood to crack or part in the way of the grain, and is applied to any other case where a natural tendency to separation is enforced by an external cause; as, to _split_ a convention or a party. To _demolish_ is to beat down, as a mound, building, fortress, etc.; to _destroy_ is to put by any process beyond restoration physically, mentally, or morally; to _destroy_ an army is so to _shatter_ and scatter it that it can not be rallied or reassembled as a fighting force. Compare REND. Antonyms: attach, bind, fasten, join, mend, secure, solder, unite, weld. Prepositions: Break _to_ pieces, or _in_ pieces, _into_ several pieces (when the object is thought of as divided rather than shattered); break _with_ a friend; _from_ or _away from_ a suppliant; break _into_ a house; _out of_ prison; break _across_ one's knee; break _through_ a hedge; break _in upon_ one's retirement; break _over_ the rules; break _on_ or _upon_ the shore, _against_ the rocks. * * * * * BRUTISH. Synonyms: animal, brutal, ignorant, sensual, swinish, base, brute, imbruted, sottish, unintellectual, beastly, carnal, insensible, stolid, unspiritual, bestial, coarse, lascivious, stupid, vile. A _brutish_ man simply follows his _animal_ instincts, without special inclination to do harm; the _brutal_ have always a spirit of malice and cruelty. _Brute_ has no special character, except as indicating what a brute might possess; much the same is true of _animal_, except that _animal_ leans more to the side of sensuality, _brute_ to that of force, as appears in the familiar phrase "_brute_ force." Hunger is an _animal_ appetite; a _brute_ impulse suddenly prompts one to strike a blow in anger. _Bestial_, in modern usage, implies an intensified and degrading animalism. Any supremacy of the _animal_ or _brute_ instincts over the intellectual and spiritual in man is _base_ and _vile_. _Beastly_ refers largely to the outward and visible consequences of excess; as, _beastly_ drunkenness. Compare ANIMAL. Antonyms: elevated, exalted, great, intellectual, noble, enlightened, grand, humane, intelligent, refined. * * * * * BURN. Synonyms: blaze, char, flame, incinerate, set fire to, brand, consume, flash, kindle, set on fire, cauterize, cremate, ignite, scorch, singe. To _burn_ is to subject to the action of fire, or of intense heat so as to effect either partial change or complete combustion; as, to _burn_ wood in the fire; to _burn_ one's hand on a hot stove; the sun _burns_ the face. One _brands_ with a hot iron, but _cauterizes_ with some corrosive substance, as silver nitrate. _Cremate_ is now used specifically for _consuming_ a dead body by intense heat. To _incinerate_ is to reduce to ashes; the sense differs little from that of _cremate_, but it is in less popular use. To _kindle_ is to _set on fire_, as if with a candle; _ignite_ is the more learned and scientific word for the same thing, extending even to the heating of metals to a state of incandescence without burning. To _scorch_ and to _singe_ are superficial, and to _char_ usually so. Both _kindle_ and _burn_ have an extensive figurative use; as, to _kindle_ strife; to _burn_ with wrath, love, devotion, curiosity. Compare LIGHT. Antonyms: cool, extinguish, put out, smother, stifle, subdue. Prepositions: To burn _in_ the fire, burn _with_ fire; burn _to_ the ground, burn _to_ ashes; burn _through_ the skin, or the roof; burn _into_ the soil, etc. * * * * * BUSINESS. Synonyms: affair, commerce, handicraft, trading, art, concern, job, traffic, avocation, craft, occupation, transaction, barter, duty, profession, vocation, calling, employment, trade, work. A _business_ is what one follows regularly; an _occupation_ is what he happens at any time to be engaged in; trout-fishing may be one's _occupation_ for a time, as a relief from _business_; _business_ is ordinarily for profit, while the _occupation_ may be a matter of learning, philanthropy, or religion. A _profession_ implies scholarship; as, the learned _professions_. _Pursuit_ is an _occupation_ which one follows with ardor. An _avocation_ is what calls one away from other work; a _vocation_ or _calling_, that to which one is called by some special fitness or sense of duty; thus, we speak of the gospel ministry as a _vocation_ or _calling_, rather than a _business_. _Trade_ or _trading_ is, in general, the exchanging of one thing for another; in the special sense, a _trade_ is an _occupation_ involving manual training and skilled labor; as, the ancient Jews held that every boy should learn a _trade_. A _transaction_ is a single action, whether in _business_, diplomacy, or otherwise; _affair_ has a similar, but lighter meaning; as, this little _affair_; an important _transaction_. The plural _affairs_ has a distinctive meaning, including all activities where men deal with one another on any considerable scale; as, a man of _affairs_. A _job_ is a piece of work viewed as a single undertaking, and ordinarily paid for as such. _Trade_ and _commerce_ may be used as equivalents, but _trade_ is capable of a more limited application; we speak of the _trade_ of a village, the _commerce_ of a nation. _Barter_ is the direct exchange of commodities; _business_, _trade_, and _commerce_ are chiefly transacted by means of money, bills of exchange, etc. _Business_, _occupation_, etc., may be what one does independently; _employment_ may be in the service of another. _Work_ is any application of energy to secure a result, or the result thus secured; thus, we speak of the _work_ of God. _Art_ in the industrial sense is a system of rules and accepted methods for the accomplishment of some practical result; as, the _art_ of printing; collectively, the _arts_. A _craft_ is some occupation requiring technical skill or manual dexterity, or the persons, collectively, engaged in its exercise; as, the weaver's _craft_. Prepositions: The business _of_ a druggist; in business _with_ his father; doing business _for_ his father; have you business _with_ me? business _in_ New York; business _about_, _concerning_, or _in regard to_ certain property. * * * * * BUT. Synonyms: and, however, notwithstanding, that, barely, just, only, tho, besides, merely, provided, unless, except, moreover, save, yet. further, nevertheless, still, _But_ ranges from the faintest contrast to absolute negation; as, I am willing to go, _but_ (on the other hand) content to stay; he is not an honest man, _but_ (on the contrary) a villain. The contrast may be with a silent thought; as, _but_ let us go (it being understood that we might stay longer). In restrictive use, _except_ and _excepting_ are slightly more emphatic than _but_; we say, no injury _but_ a scratch; or, no injury _except_ some painful bruises. Such expressions as "words are _but_ breath" (nothing _but_) may be referred to the restrictive use by ellipsis. So may the use of _but_ in the sense of _unless_; as, "it never rains _but_ it pours." To the same head must be referred the conditional use; as, "you may go, _but_ with your father's consent" (_i. e._, "_provided_ you have," "_except_ that you must have," etc.). "Doubt _but_" is now less used than the more logical "doubt _that_." _But_ never becomes a full synonym for _and_; _and_ adds something like, _but_ adds something different; "brave _and_ tender" implies that tenderness is natural to the brave; "brave _but_ tender" implies that bravery and tenderness are rarely combined. For the concessive use, compare NOTWITHSTANDING. * * * * * BY. Synonyms: by dint of, by means of, through, with. _By_ refers to the agent; _through_, to the means, cause, or condition; _with_, to the instrument. _By_ commonly refers to persons; _with_, to things; _through_ may refer to either. The road having become impassable _through_ long disuse, a way was opened _by_ pioneers _with_ axes. _By_ may, however, be applied to any object which is viewed as partaking of action and agency; as, the metal was corroded _by_ the acid; skill is gained _by_ practise. We speak of communicating _with_ a person _by_ letter. _Through_ implies a more distant connection than _by_ or _with_, and more intervening elements. Material objects are perceived _by_ the mind _through_ the senses. * * * * * CABAL. Synonyms: combination, confederacy, crew, gang, conclave, conspiracy, faction, junto. A _conspiracy_ is a _combination_ of persons for an evil purpose, or the act of so combining. _Conspiracy_ is a distinct crime under common, and generally under statutory, law. A _faction_ is more extensive than a _conspiracy_, less formal in organization, less definite in plan. _Faction_ and its adjective, _factious_, have always an unfavorable sense. _Cabal_ commonly denotes a _conspiracy_ of leaders. A _gang_ is a company of workmen all doing the same work under one leader; the word is used figuratively only of _combinations_ which it is meant to stigmatize as rude and mercenary; _crew_ is used in a closely similar sense. A _conclave_ is secret, but of larger numbers, ordinarily, than a _cabal_, and may have honorable use; as, the _conclave_ of cardinals. * * * * * CALCULATE. Synonyms: account, consider, enumerate, rate, cast, count, estimate, reckon, compute, deem, number, sum up. _Number_ is the generic term. To _count_ is to _number_ one by one. To _calculate_ is to use more complicated processes, as multiplication, division, etc., more rapid but not less exact. _Compute_ allows more of the element of probability, which is still more strongly expressed by _estimate_. We _compute_ the slain in a great war from the number known to have fallen in certain great battles; _compute_ refers to the present or the past, _estimate_ more frequently to the future; as, to _estimate_ the cost of a proposed building. To _enumerate_ is to mention item by item; as, to _enumerate_ one's grievances. To _rate_ is to _estimate_ by comparison, as if the object were one of a series. We _count_ upon a desired future; we do not _count_ upon the undesired. As applied to the present, we _reckon_ or _count_ a thing precious or worthless. Compare ESTEEM. Prepositions: It is vain to calculate _on_ or _upon_ an uncertain result. * * * * * CALL, _v._ Synonyms: bawl, cry (out), roar, shriek, bellow, ejaculate, scream, vociferate, clamor, exclaim, shout, yell. To _call_ is to send out the voice in order to attract another's attention, either by word or by inarticulate utterance. Animals _call_ their mates, or their young; a man _calls_ his dog, his horse, etc. The sense is extended to include summons by bell, or any signal. To _shout_ is to _call_ or _exclaim_ with the fullest volume of sustained voice; to _scream_ is to utter a shriller cry; to _shriek_ or to _yell_ refers to that which is louder and wilder still. We _shout_ words; in _screaming_, _shrieking_, or _yelling_ there is often no attempt at articulation. To _bawl_ is to utter senseless, noisy cries, as of a child in pain or anger. _Bellow_ and _roar_ are applied to the utterances of animals, and only contemptuously to those of persons. To _clamor_ is to utter with noisy iteration; it applies also to the confused cries of a multitude. To _vociferate_ is commonly applied to loud and excited speech where there is little besides the exertion of voice. In _exclaiming_, the utterance may not be strikingly, tho somewhat, above the ordinary tone and pitch; we may _exclaim_ by mere interjections, or by connected words, but always by some articulate utterance. To _ejaculate_ is to throw out brief, disconnected, but coherent utterances of joy, regret, and especially of appeal, petition, prayer; the use of such devotional utterances has received the special name of "ejaculatory prayer." To _cry out_ is to give forth a louder and more excited utterance than in _exclaiming_ or _calling_; one often _exclaims_ with sudden joy as well as sorrow; if he _cries out_, it is oftener in grief or agony. In the most common colloquial usage, to _cry_ is to express grief or pain by weeping or sobbing. One may _exclaim_, _cry out_, or _ejaculate_ with no thought of others' presence; when he _calls_, it is to attract another's attention. Antonyms: be silent, be still, hark, hearken, hush, list, listen. * * * * * CALM. Synonyms: collected, imperturbable, sedate, still, composed, peaceful, self-possessed, tranquil, cool, placid, serene, undisturbed, dispassionate, quiet, smooth, unruffled. That is _calm_ which is free from disturbance or agitation; in the physical sense, free from violent motion or action; in the mental or spiritual realm, free from excited or disturbing emotion or passion. We speak of a _calm_ sea, a _placid_ lake, a _serene_ sky, a _still_ night, a _quiet_ day, a _quiet_ home. We speak, also, of "_still_ waters," "_smooth_ sailing," which are different modes of expressing freedom from manifest agitation. Of mental conditions, one is _calm_ who triumphs over a tendency to excitement; _cool_, if he scarcely feels the tendency. One may be _calm_ by the very reaction from excitement, or by the oppression of overpowering emotion, as we speak of the calmness of despair. One is _composed_ who has subdued excited feeling; he is _collected_ when he has every thought, feeling, or perception awake and at command. _Tranquil_ refers to a present state, _placid_, to a prevailing tendency. We speak of a _tranquil_ mind, a _placid_ disposition. The _serene_ spirit dwells as if in the clear upper air, above all storm and shadow. The star of the unconquered will, He rises in my breast, _Serene_, and resolute, and _still_, And _calm_, and _self-possessed_. LONGFELLOW _Light of Stars_ st. 7. Antonyms: agitated, excited, frenzied, passionate, ruffled, violent, boisterous, fierce, furious, raging, stormy, wild, disturbed, frantic, heated, roused, turbulent, wrathful. * * * * * CANCEL. Synonyms: abolish, discharge, nullify, rescind, abrogate, efface, obliterate, revoke, annul, erase, quash, rub off _or_ out, blot out, expunge, remove, scratch out, cross off _or_ out, make void, repeal, vacate. _Cancel_, _efface_, _erase_, _expunge_, and _obliterate_ have as their first meaning the removal of written characters or other forms of record. To _cancel_ is, literally, to make a lattice by cross-lines, exactly our English _cross out_; to _efface_ is to _rub off_, smooth away the face, as of an inscription; to _erase_ is to _scratch out_, commonly for the purpose of writing something else in the same space; to _expunge_, is to punch out with some sharp instrument, so as to show that the words are no longer part of the writing; to _obliterate_ is to cover over or remove, as a letter, as was done by reversing the Roman stylus, and _rubbing out_ with the rounded end what had been written with the point on the waxen tablet. What has been _canceled_, _erased_, _expunged_, may perhaps still be traced; what is _obliterated_ is gone forever, as if it had never been. In many establishments, when a debt is _discharged_ by payment, the record is _canceled_. The figurative use of the words keeps close to the primary sense. Compare ABOLISH. Antonyms: approve, enact, establish, perpetuate, reenact, uphold, confirm, enforce, maintain, record, sustain, write. * * * * * CANDID. Synonyms: aboveboard, honest, open, truthful, artless, impartial, simple, unbiased, fair, ingenuous, sincere, unprejudiced, frank, innocent, straightforward, unreserved, guileless, naive, transparent, unsophisticated. A _candid_ statement is meant to be true to the real facts and just to all parties; a _fair_ statement is really so. _Fair_ is applied to the conduct; _candid_ is not; as, _fair_ treatment, "a _fair_ field, and no favor." One who is _frank_ has a fearless and unconstrained truthfulness. _Honest_ and _ingenuous_ unite in expressing contempt for deceit. On the other hand, _artless_, _guileless_, _naive_, _simple_, and _unsophisticated_ express the goodness which comes from want of the knowledge or thought of evil. As truth is not always agreeable or timely, _candid_ and _frank_ have often an objectionable sense; "to be _candid_ with you," "to be perfectly _frank_," are regarded as sure preludes to something disagreeable. _Open_ and _unreserved_ may imply unstudied truthfulness or defiant recklessness; as, _open_ admiration, _open_ robbery. There may be _transparent_ integrity or _transparent_ fraud. _Sincere_ applies to the feelings, as being all that one's words would imply. Antonyms: adroit, cunning, diplomatic, intriguing, sharp, subtle, artful, deceitful, foxy, knowing, shrewd, tricky, crafty, designing, insincere, maneuvering, sly, wily. Prepositions: Candid _in_ debate; candid _to_ or _toward_ opponents; candid _with_ friend or foe; to be candid _about_ or _in regard to_ the matter. * * * * * CAPARISON. Synonyms: accouterments, harness, housings, trappings. _Harness_ was formerly used of the armor of a knight as well as of a horse; it is now used almost exclusively of the straps and appurtenances worn by a horse when attached to a vehicle; the animal is said to be "kind in _harness_." The other words apply to the ornamental outfit of a horse, especially under saddle. We speak also of the _accouterments_ of a soldier. _Caparison_ is used rarely and somewhat slightingly, and _trappings_ quite contemptuously, for showy human apparel. Compare ARMS; DRESS. * * * * * CAPITAL. Synonyms: chief city, metropolis, seat of government. The _metropolis_ is the chief city in the commercial, the _capital_ in the political sense. The _capital_ of an American State is rarely its _metropolis_. * * * * * CARE. Synonyms: anxiety, concern, oversight, trouble, attention, direction, perplexity, vigilance, caution, forethought, precaution, wariness, charge, heed, prudence, watchfulness, circumspection, management, solicitude, worry. _Care_ concerns what we possess; _anxiety_, often, what we do not; riches bring many _cares_; poverty brings many _anxieties_. _Care_ also signifies watchful _attention_, in view of possible harm; as, "This side up with _care_;" "Take _care_ of yourself;" or, as a sharp warning, "Take _care_!" _Caution_ has a sense of possible harm and risk only to be escaped, if at all, by careful deliberation and observation. _Care_ inclines to the positive, _caution_ to the negative; _care_ is shown in doing, _caution_ largely in not doing. _Precaution_ is allied with _care_, _prudence_ with _caution_; a man rides a dangerous horse with _care_; _caution_ will keep him from mounting the horse; _precaution_ looks to the saddle-girths, bit and bridle, and all that may make the rider secure. _Circumspection_ is watchful observation and calculation, but without the timidity implied in _caution_. _Concern_ denotes a serious interest, milder than _anxiety_; as, _concern_ for the safety of a ship at sea. _Heed_ implies _attention_ without disquiet; it is now largely displaced by _attention_ and _care_. _Solicitude_ involves especially the element of desire, not expressed in _anxiety_, and of hopefulness, not implied in _care_. A parent feels constant _solicitude_ for his children's welfare, _anxiety_ as to dangers that threaten it, with _care_ to guard against them. _Watchfulness_ recognizes the possibility of danger, _wariness_ the probability. A man who is not influenced by _caution_ to keep out of danger may display great _wariness_ in the midst of it. _Care_ has also the sense of responsibility, with possible control, as expressed in _charge_, _management_, _oversight_; as, these children are under my _care_; send the money to me in _care_ of the firm. Compare ALARM; ANXIETY; PRUDENCE. Antonyms: carelessness, inattention, negligence, oversight, remissness, disregard, indifference, omission, recklessness, slight. heedlessness, neglect, Prepositions: Take care _of_ the house; _for_ the future; _about_ the matter. * * * * * CAREER. Synonyms: charge, flight, passage, race, course, line of achievement, public life, rush. A _career_ was originally the ground for a race, or, especially, for a knight's _charge_ in tournament or battle; whence _career_ was early applied to the _charge_ itself. If you will use the lance, take ground for your _career_.... The four horsemen met in full _career_. SCOTT _Quentin Durward_ ch. 14, p. 194. [D. F. & CO.] In its figurative use _career_ signifies some continuous and conspicuous work, usually a life-work, and most frequently one of honorable achievement. Compare BUSINESS. * * * * * CARESS. Synonyms: coddle, embrace, fondle, pamper, court, flatter, kiss, pet. To _caress_ is less than to _embrace_; more dignified and less familiar than to _fondle_. A visitor _caresses_ a friend's child; a mother _fondles_ her babe. _Fondling_ is always by touch; _caressing_ may be also by words, or other tender and pleasing attentions. Antonyms: See synonyms for AFFRONT. Prepositions: Caressed _by_ or _with_ the hand; caressed _by_ admirers, _at_ court. * * * * * CARICATURE. Synonyms: burlesque, extravaganza, mimicry, take-off, exaggeration, imitation, parody, travesty. A _caricature_ is a grotesque _exaggeration_ of striking features or peculiarities, generally of a person; a _burlesque_ treats any subject in an absurd or incongruous manner. A _burlesque_ is written or acted; a _caricature_ is more commonly in sketch or picture. A _parody_ changes the subject, but keeps the style; a _travesty_ keeps the subject, but changes the style; a _burlesque_ does not hold itself to either subject or style; but is content with a general resemblance to what it may imitate. A _caricature_, _parody_, or _travesty_ must have an original; a _burlesque_ may be an independent composition. An account of a schoolboys' quarrel after the general manner of Homer's Iliad would be a _burlesque_; the real story of the Iliad told in newspaper style would be a _travesty_. An _extravaganza_ is a fantastic composition, musical, dramatic, or narrative. _Imitation_ is serious; _mimicry_ is either intentionally or unintentionally comical. * * * * * CARRY. Synonyms: bear, convey, move, sustain, transmit, bring, lift, remove, take, transport. A person may _bear_ a load either when in motion or at rest; he _carries_ it only when in motion. The stooping Atlas _bears_ the world on his shoulders; swiftly moving Time _carries_ the hour-glass and scythe; a person may be said either to _bear_ or to _carry_ a scar, since it is upon him whether in motion or at rest. If an object is to be _moved_ from the place we occupy, we say _carry_; if to the place we occupy, we say _bring_. A messenger _carries_ a letter to a correspondent, and _brings_ an answer. _Take_ is often used in this sense in place of _carry_; as, _take_ that letter to the office. _Carry_ often signifies to _transport_ by personal strength, without reference to the direction; as, that is more than he can _carry_; yet, even so, it would not be admissible to say _carry_ it to me, or _carry_ it here; in such case we must say _bring_. To _lift_ is simply to raise from the ground, tho but for an instant, with no reference to holding or moving; one may be able to _lift_ what he could not _carry_. The figurative uses of _carry_ are very numerous; as, to _carry_ an election, _carry_ the country, _carry_ (in the sense of _capture_) a fort, _carry_ an audience, _carry_ a stock of goods, etc. Compare CONVEY; KEEP; SUPPORT. Antonyms: drop, fall under, give up, let go, shake off, throw down, throw off. Prepositions: To carry coals _to_ Newcastle; carry nothing _from_, or _out of_, this house; he carried these qualities _into_ all he did; carry _across_ the street, _over_ the bridge, _through_ the woods, _around_ or _round_ the corner; _beyond_ the river; the cable was carried _under_ the sea. * * * * * CATASTROPHE. Synonyms: calamity, denouement, mischance, mishap, cataclysm, disaster, misfortune, sequel. A _cataclysm_ or _catastrophe_ is some great convulsion or momentous event that may or may not be a cause of misery to man. In _calamity_, or _disaster_, the thought of human suffering is always present. It has been held by many geologists that numerous _catastrophes_ or _cataclysms_ antedated the existence of man. In literature, the final event of a drama is the _catastrophe_, or _denouement_. _Misfortune_ ordinarily suggests less of suddenness and violence than _calamity_ or _disaster_, and is especially applied to that which is lingering or enduring in its effects. In history, the end of every great war or the fall of a nation is a _catastrophe_, tho it may not be a _calamity_. Yet such an event, if not a _calamity_ to the race, will always involve much individual _disaster_ and _misfortune_. Pestilence is a _calamity_; a defeat in battle, a shipwreck, or a failure in business is a _disaster_; sickness or loss of property is a _misfortune_; failure to meet a friend is a _mischance_; the breaking of a teacup is a _mishap_. Antonyms: benefit, boon, favor, pleasure, prosperity, blessing, comfort, help, privilege, success. Preposition: The catastrophe _of_ a play; _of_ a siege; rarely, _to_ a person, etc. * * * * * CATCH. Synonyms: apprehend, comprehend, grasp, overtake, snatch, capture, discover, grip, secure, take, clasp, ensnare, gripe, seize, take hold of. clutch, entrap, lay hold of (on, upon), To _catch_ is to come up with or take possession of something departing, fugitive, or illusive. We _catch_ a runaway horse, a flying ball, a mouse in a trap. We _clutch_ with a swift, tenacious movement of the fingers; we _grasp_ with a firm but moderate closure of the whole hand; we _grip_ or _gripe_ with the strongest muscular closure of the whole hand possible to exert. We _clasp_ in the arms. We _snatch_ with a quick, sudden, and usually a surprising motion. In the figurative sense, _catch_ is used of any act that brings a person or thing into our power or possession; as, to _catch_ a criminal in the act; to _catch_ an idea, in the sense of _apprehend_ or _comprehend_. Compare ARREST. Antonyms: fail of, give up, lose, release, throw aside, fall short of, let go, miss, restore, throw away. Prepositions: To catch _at_ a straw; to catch a fugitive _by_ the collar; to catch a ball _with_ the left hand; he caught the disease _from_ the patient; the thief was caught _in_ the act; the bird _in_ the snare. * * * * * CAUSE. Synonyms: actor, causality, designer, occasion, precedent, agent, causation, former, origin, reason, antecedent, condition, fountain, originator, source, author, creator, motive, power, spring. The efficient _cause_, that which makes anything to be or be done, is the common meaning of the word, as in the saying "There is no effect without a _cause_." Every man instinctively recognizes himself acting through will as the _cause_ of his own actions. The _Creator_ is the Great First _Cause_ of all things. A _condition_ is something that necessarily precedes a result, but does not produce it. An _antecedent_ simply precedes a result, with or without any agency in producing it; as, Monday is the invariable _antecedent_ of Tuesday, but not the _cause_ of it. The direct antonym of _cause_ is _effect_, while that of _antecedent_ is _consequent_. An _occasion_ is some event which brings a _cause_ into action at a particular moment; gravitation and heat are the _causes_ of an avalanche; the steep incline of the mountain-side is a necessary _condition_, and the shout of the traveler may be the _occasion_ of its fall. _Causality_ is the doctrine or principle of causes, _causation_ the action or working of causes. Compare DESIGN; REASON. Antonyms: consequence, development, end, fruit, outcome, product, creation, effect, event, issue, outgrowth, result. Prepositions: The cause _of_ the disaster; cause _for_ interference. * * * * * CEASE. Synonyms: abstain, desist, give over, quit, bring to an end, discontinue, intermit, refrain, come to an end, end, leave off, stop, conclude, finish, pause, terminate. Strains of music may gradually or suddenly _cease_. A man _quits_ work on the instant; he may _discontinue_ a practise gradually; he _quits_ suddenly and completely; he _stops_ short in what he may or may not resume; he _pauses_ in what he will probably resume. What _intermits_ or is _intermitted_ returns again, as a fever that _intermits_. Compare ABANDON; DIE; END; REST. Antonyms: begin, inaugurate, originate, set going, set on foot, commence, initiate, set about, set in operation, start. enter upon, institute, Preposition: Cease _from_ anger. * * * * * CELEBRATE. Synonyms: commemorate, keep, observe, solemnize. To _celebrate_ any event or occasion is to make some demonstration of respect or rejoicing because of or in memory of it, or to perform such public rites or ceremonies as it properly demands. We _celebrate_ the birth, _commemorate_ the death of one beloved or honored. We _celebrate_ a national anniversary with music and song, with firing of guns and ringing of bells; we _commemorate_ by any solemn and thoughtful service, or by a monument or other enduring memorial. We _keep_ the Sabbath, _solemnize_ a marriage, _observe_ an anniversary; we _celebrate_ or _observe_ the Lord's Supper in which believers _commemorate_ the sufferings and death of Christ. Antonyms: contemn, dishonor, forget, neglect, profane, despise, disregard, ignore, overlook, violate. Prepositions: We celebrate the day _with_ appropriate ceremonies; the victory was celebrated _by_ the people, _with_ rejoicing. * * * * * CENTER. Synonyms: middle, midst. We speak of the _center_ of a circle, the _middle_ of a room, the _middle_ of the street, the _midst_ of a forest. The _center_ is equally distant from every point of the circumference of a circle, or from the opposite boundaries on each axis of a parallelogram, etc.; the _middle_ is more general and less definite. The _center_ is a point; the _middle_ may be a line or a space. We say _at_ the _center_; _in_ the _middle_. _Midst_ commonly implies a group or multitude of surrounding objects. Compare synonyms for AMID. Antonyms: bound, boundary, circumference, perimeter, rim. * * * * * CHAGRIN. Synonyms: confusion, discomposure, humiliation, shame, disappointment, dismay, mortification, vexation. _Chagrin_ unites _disappointment_ with some degree of _humiliation_. A rainy day may bring _disappointment_; needless failure in some enterprise brings _chagrin_. _Shame_ involves the consciousness of fault, guilt, or impropriety; _chagrin_ of failure of judgment, or harm to reputation. A consciousness that one has displayed his own ignorance will cause him _mortification_, however worthy his intent; if there was a design to deceive, the exposure will cover him with _shame_. Antonyms: delight, exultation, glory, rejoicing, triumph. Prepositions: He felt deep chagrin _at_ (_because of_, _on account of_) failure. * * * * * CHANGE, _v._ Synonyms: alter, exchange, shift, transmute, commute, metamorphose, substitute, turn, convert, modify, transfigure, vary, diversify, qualify, transform, veer. To _change_ is distinctively to make a thing other than it has been, in some respect at least; to _exchange_ to put or take something else in its place; to _alter_ is ordinarily to _change_ partially, to make different in one or more particulars. To _exchange_ is often to transfer ownership; as, to _exchange_ city for country property. _Change_ is often used in the sense of _exchange_; as, to _change_ horses. To _transmute_ is to _change_ the qualities while the substance remains the same; as, to _transmute_ the baser metals into gold. To _transform_ is to _change_ form or appearance, with or without deeper and more essential change; it is less absolute than _transmute_, tho sometimes used for that word, and is often used in a spiritual sense as _transmute_ could not be; "Be ye _transformed_ by the renewing of your mind," _Rom._ xii, 2. _Transfigure_ is, as in its Scriptural use, to change in an exalted and glorious spiritual way; "Jesus ... was _transfigured_ before them, and his face did shine as the sun, and his raiment was white as the light," _Matt._ xvii, 1, 2. To _metamorphose_ is to make some remarkable change, ordinarily in external qualities, but often in structure, use, or chemical constitution, as of a caterpillar into a butterfly, of the stamens of a plant into petals, or of the crystalline structure of rocks, hence called "metamorphic rocks," as when a limestone is _metamorphosed_ into a marble. To _vary_ is to _change_ from time to time, often capriciously. To _commute_ is to put something easier, lighter, milder, or in some way more favorable in place of that which is _commuted_; as, to _commute_ capital punishment to imprisonment for life; to _commute_ daily fares on a railway to a monthly payment. To _convert_ (L. _con_, with, and _verto_, turn) is to primarily _turn_ about, and signifies to _change_ in form, character, use, etc., through a wide range of relations; iron is _converted_ into steel, joy into grief, a sinner into a saint. To _turn_ is a popular word for _change_ in any sense short of the meaning of _exchange_, being often equivalent to _alter_, _convert_, _transform_, _transmute_, etc. We _modify_ or _qualify_ a statement which might seem too strong; we _modify_ it by some limitation, _qualify_ it by some addition. Antonyms: abide, continue, hold, persist, retain, bide, endure, keep, remain, stay. Prepositions: To change a home toilet _for_ a street dress; to change _from_ a caterpillar _to_ or _into_ a butterfly; to change clothes _with_ a beggar. * * * * * CHANGE, _n._ Synonyms: alteration, mutation, renewing, transmutation, conversion, novelty, revolution, variation, diversity, regeneration, transformation, variety, innovation, renewal, transition, vicissitude. A _change_ is a passing from one state or form to another, any act or process by which a thing becomes unlike what it was before, or the unlikeness so produced; we say a _change_ was taking place, or the _change_ that had taken place was manifest. _Mutation_ is a more formal word for _change_, often suggesting repeated or continual _change_; as, the _mutations_ of fortune. _Novelty_ is a _change_ to what is new, or the newness of that to which a change is made; as, he was perpetually desirous of _novelty_. _Revolution_ is specifically and most commonly a _change_ of government. _Variation_ is a partial _change_ in form, qualities, etc., but especially in position or action; as, the _variation_ of the magnetic needle or of the pulse. _Variety_ is a succession of _changes_ or an intermixture of different things, and is always thought of as agreeable. _Vicissitude_ is sharp, sudden, or violent _change_, always thought of as surprising and often as disturbing or distressing; as, the _vicissitudes_ of politics. _Transition_ is _change_ by passing from one place or state to another, especially in a natural, regular, or orderly way; as, the _transition_ from spring to summer, or from youth to manhood. An _innovation_ is a _change_ that breaks in upon an established order or custom; as, an _innovation_ in religion or politics. For the distinctions between the other words compare the synonyms for CHANGE, _v._ In the religious sense _regeneration_ is the vital _renewing_ of the soul by the power of the divine Spirit; _conversion_ is the conscious and manifest _change_ from evil to good, or from a lower to a higher spiritual state; as, in _Luke_ xxii, 32, "when thou art _converted_, strengthen thy brethren." In popular use _conversion_ is the most common word to express the idea of _regeneration_. Antonyms: constancy, fixedness, invariability, steadiness, continuance, fixity, permanence, unchangeableness, firmness, identity, persistence, uniformity. Prepositions: We have made a change _for_ the better; the change _from_ winter to spring; the change _of_ a liquid _to_ or _into_ a gas; a change _in_ quality; a change _by_ absorption or oxidation. * * * * * CHARACTER. Synonyms: constitution, genius, personality, reputation, temper, disposition, nature, record, spirit, temperament. _Character_ is what one is; _reputation_, what he is thought to be; his _record_ is the total of his known action or inaction. As a rule, a man's _record_ will substantially express his _character_; his _reputation_ may be higher or lower than his _character_ or _record_ will justify. _Repute_ is a somewhat formal word, with the same general sense as _reputation_. One's _nature_ includes all his original endowments or propensities; _character_ includes both natural and acquired traits. We speak of one's physical _constitution_ as strong or weak, etc., and figuratively, always with the adjective, of his mental or moral _constitution_. Compare CHARACTERISTIC. Prepositions: The witness has a character _for_ veracity; his character is _above_ suspicion; the character _of_ the applicant. * * * * * CHARACTERISTIC. Synonyms: attribute, feature, peculiarity, sign, trace, character, indication, property, singularity, trait. distinction, mark, quality, A _characteristic_ belongs to the nature or _character_ of the person, thing, or class, and serves to identify an object; as, a copper-colored skin, high cheek-bones, and straight, black hair are _characteristics_ of the American Indian. A _sign_ is manifest to an observer; a _mark_ or a _characteristic_ may be more difficult to discover; an insensible person may show _signs_ of life, while sometimes only close examination will disclose _marks_ of violence. Pallor is ordinarily a _mark_ of fear; but in some brave natures it is simply a _characteristic_ of intense earnestness. _Mark_ is sometimes used in a good, but often in a bad sense; we speak of the _characteristic_ of a gentleman, the _mark_ of a villain. Compare ATTRIBUTE; CHARACTER. * * * * * CHARMING. Synonyms: bewitching, delightful, enrapturing, fascinating, captivating, enchanting, entrancing, winning. That is _charming_ or _bewitching_ which is adapted to win others as by a magic spell. _Enchanting_, _enrapturing_, _entrancing_ represent the influence as not only supernatural, but irresistible and _delightful_. That which is _fascinating_ may win without delighting, drawing by some unseen power, as a serpent its prey; we can speak of horrible _fascination_. _Charming_ applies only to what is external to oneself; _delightful_ may apply to personal experiences or emotions as well; we speak of a _charming_ manner, a _charming_ dress, but of _delightful_ anticipations. Compare AMIABLE; BEAUTIFUL. * * * * * CHASTEN. Synonyms: afflict, chastise, discipline, punish, refine, subdue, castigate, correct, humble, purify, soften, try. _Castigate_ and _chastise_ refer strictly to corporal punishment, tho both are somewhat archaic; _correct_ and _punish_ are often used as euphemisms in preference to either. _Punish_ is distinctly retributive in sense; _chastise_, partly retributive, and partly corrective; _chasten_, wholly corrective. _Chasten_ is used exclusively in the spiritual sense, and chiefly of the visitation of God. Prepositions: "We are chastened _of_ the Lord," _1 Cor._ xi, 32; "they ... chastened us _after_ their own pleasure, but He _for_ our profit," _Heb._ xii, 10; "chasten _in_ thy hot displeasure," _Ps._ iv, 7; chasten _with_ pain; _by_ trials and sorrows. * * * * * CHERISH. Synonyms: cheer, encourage, harbor, nurse, shelter, cling to, entertain, hold dear, nurture, treasure, comfort, foster, nourish, protect, value. To _cherish_ is both to _hold dear_ and to treat as dear. Mere unexpressed esteem would not be _cherishing_. In the marriage vow, "to love, honor, and _cherish_," the word _cherish_ implies all that each can do by love and tenderness for the welfare and happiness of the other, as by support, protection, care in sickness, comfort in sorrow, sympathy, and help of every kind. To _nurse_ is to tend the helpless or feeble, as infants, or the sick or wounded. To _nourish_ is strictly to sustain and build up by food; to _nurture_ includes careful mental and spiritual training, with something of love and tenderness; to _foster_ is simply to maintain and care for, to bring up; a _foster_-child will be _nourished_, but may not be as tenderly _nurtured_ or as lovingly _cherished_ as if one's own. In the figurative sense, the opinion one _cherishes_ he holds, not with mere cold conviction, but with loving devotion. Antonyms: See synonyms for ABANDON; CHASTEN. * * * * * CHOOSE. Synonyms: cull, elect, pick, pick out, prefer, select. _Prefer_ indicates a state of desire and approval; _choose_, an act of will. Prudence or generosity may lead one to _choose_ what he does not _prefer_. _Select_ implies a careful consideration of the reasons for preference and choice. Among objects so nearly alike that we have no reason to _prefer_ any one to another we may simply _choose_ the nearest, but we could not be said to _select_ it. Aside from theology, _elect_ is popularly confined to the political sense; as, a free people _elect_ their own rulers. _Cull_, from the Latin _colligere_, commonly means to collect, as well as to _select_. In a garden we _cull_ the choicest flowers. Antonyms: cast away, decline, dismiss, refuse, repudiate, cast out, disclaim, leave, reject, throw aside. Prepositions: Choose _from_ or _from among_ the number; choose _out of_ the army; choose _between_ (or _betwixt_) two; _among_ many; choose _for_ the purpose. * * * * * CIRCUMLOCUTION. Synonyms: diffuseness, prolixity, surplusage, verbiage, periphrasis, redundance, tautology, verbosity, pleonasm, redundancy, tediousness, wordiness. _Circumlocution_ and _periphrasis_ are roundabout ways of expressing thought; _circumlocution_ is the more common, _periphrasis_ the more technical word. Constant _circumlocution_ produces an affected and heavy style; occasionally, skilful _periphrasis_ conduces both to beauty and to simplicity. Etymologically, _diffuseness_ is a scattering, both of words and thought; _redundancy_ is an overflow. _Prolixity_ goes into endless petty details, without selection or perspective. _Pleonasm_ is the expression of an idea already plainly implied; _tautology_ is the restatement in other words of an idea already stated, or a useless repetition of a word or words. _Pleonasm_ may add emphasis; _tautology_ is always a fault. "I saw it with my eyes" is a _pleonasm_; "all the members agreed unanimously" is _tautology_. _Verbiage_ is the use of mere words without thought. _Verbosity_ and _wordiness_ denote an excess of words in proportion to the thought. _Tediousness_ is the sure result of any of these faults of style. Antonyms: brevity, compression, condensation, plainness, succinctness, compactness, conciseness, directness, shortness, terseness. * * * * * CIRCUMSTANCE. Synonyms: accompaniment, fact, item, point, concomitant, feature, occurrence, position, detail, incident, particular, situation. event, A _circumstance_ (L. _circum_, around, and _sto_, stand), is something existing or occurring in connection with or relation to some other fact or event, modifying or throwing light upon the principal matter without affecting its essential character; an _accompaniment_ is something that unites with the principal matter, tho not necessary to it; as, the piano _accompaniment_ to a song; a _concomitant_ goes with a thing in natural connection, but in a subordinate capacity, or perhaps in contrast; as, cheerfulness is a _concomitant_ of virtue. A _circumstance_ is not strictly, nor usually, an occasion, condition, effect, or result. (See these words under CAUSE.) Nor is the _circumstance_ properly an _incident_. (See under ACCIDENT.) We say, "My decision will depend upon _circumstances_"--not "upon _incidents_." That a man wore a blue necktie would not probably be the cause, occasion, condition, or _concomitant_ of his committing murder; but it might be a very important _circumstance_ in identifying him as the murderer. All the _circumstances_ make up the _situation_. A certain disease is the cause of a man's death; his suffering is an _incident_; that he is in his own home, that he has good medical attendance, careful nursing, etc., are consolatory _circumstances_. With the same idea of subordination, we often say, "This is not a _circumstance_ to that." So a person is said to be in easy _circumstances_. Compare EVENT. Prepositions: "Mere situation is expressed by '_in_ the circumstances'; action affected is performed '_under_ the circumstances.'" [M.] * * * * * CLASS. Synonyms: association, circle, clique, company, grade, rank, caste, clan, club, coterie, order, set. A _class_ is a number or body of persons or objects having common pursuits, purposes, attributes, or characteristics. A _caste_ is hereditary; a _class_ may be independent of lineage or descent; membership in a _caste_ is supposed to be for life; membership in a _class_ may be very transient; a religious and ceremonial sacredness attaches to the _caste_, as not to the _class_. The rich and the poor form separate _classes_; yet individuals are constantly passing from each to the other; the _classes_ in a college remain the same, but their membership changes every year. We speak of _rank_ among hereditary nobility or military officers; of various _orders_ of the priesthood; by accommodation, we may refer in a general way to the higher _ranks_, the lower _orders_ of any society. _Grade_ implies some regular scale of valuation, and some inherent qualities for which a person or thing is placed higher or lower in the scale; as, the coarser and finer _grades_ of wool; a man of an inferior _grade_. A _coterie_ is a small company of persons of similar tastes, who meet frequently in an informal way, rather for social enjoyment than for any serious purpose. _Clique_ has always an unfavorable meaning. A _clique_ is always fractional, implying some greater gathering of which it is a part; the association breaks up into _cliques_. Persons unite in a _coterie_ through simple liking for one another; they withdraw into a _clique_ largely through aversion to outsiders. A _set_, while exclusive, is more extensive than a _clique_, and chiefly of persons who are united by common social station, etc. _Circle_ is similar in meaning to _set_, but of wider application; we speak of scientific and religious as well as of social _circles_. Prepositions: A class _of_ merchants; the senior class _at_ (sometimes _of_) Harvard; the classes _in_ college. * * * * * CLEANSE. Synonyms: brush, dust, purify, scour, sponge, wash, clean, lave, rinse, scrub, sweep, wipe. disinfect, mop, To _clean_ is to make clean by removing dirt, impurities, or soil of any kind. _Cleanse_ implies a worse condition to start from, and more to do, than _clean_. Hercules _cleansed_ the Augean stables. _Cleanse_ is especially applied to purifying processes where liquid is used, as in the flushing of a street, etc. We _brush_ clothing if dusty, _sponge_ it, or _sponge_ it off, if soiled; or _sponge_ off a spot. Furniture, books, etc., are _dusted_; floors are _mopped_ or _scrubbed_; metallic utensils are _scoured_; a room is _swept_; soiled garments are _washed_; foul air or water is _purified_. _Cleanse_ and _purify_ are used extensively in a moral sense; _wash_ in that sense is archaic. Compare AMEND. Antonyms: befoul, bespatter, debase, deprave, soil, stain, taint, besmear, contaminate, defile, pollute, spoil, sully, vitiate. besmirch, corrupt, Prepositions: Cleanse _of_ or _from_ physical or moral defilement; cleanse _with_ an instrument; _by_ an agent; the room was cleansed _by_ the attendants _with_ soap and water. * * * * * CLEAR. Synonyms: apparent, intelligible, pellucid, transparent, diaphanous, limpid, perspicuous, unadorned, distinct, lucid, plain, unambiguous, evident, manifest, straightforward, unequivocal, explicit, obvious, translucent, unmistakable. _Clear_ (L. _clarus_, bright, brilliant) primarily refers to that which shines, and impresses the mind through the eye with a sense of luster or splendor. A substance is said to be _clear_ that offers no impediment to vision--is not dim, dark, or obscure. _Transparent_ refers to the medium through which a substance is seen, _clear_ to the substance itself, without reference to anything to be seen through it; we speak of a stream as _clear_ when we think of the water itself; we speak of it as _transparent_ with reference to the ease with which we see the pebbles at the bottom. _Clear_ is also said of that which comes to the senses without dimness, dulness, obstruction, or obscurity, so that there is no uncertainty as to its exact form, character, or meaning, with something of the brightness or brilliancy implied in the primary meaning of the word _clear_; as, the outlines of the ship were _clear_ against the sky; a _clear_ view; a _clear_ note; "_clear_ as a bell;" a _clear_, frosty air; a _clear_ sky; a _clear_ statement; hence, the word is used for that which is free from any kind of obstruction; as, a _clear_ field. _Lucid_ and _pellucid_ refer to a shining clearness, as of crystal. A _transparent_ body allows the forms and colors of objects beyond to be seen through it; a _translucent_ body allows light to pass through, but may not permit forms and colors to be distinguished; plate glass is _transparent_, ground glass is _translucent_. _Limpid_ refers to a liquid clearness, or that which suggests it; as, _limpid_ streams. That which is _distinct_ is well defined, especially in outline, each part or object standing or seeming apart from any other, not confused, indefinite, or blurred; _distinct_ enunciation enables the hearer to catch every word or vocal sound without perplexity or confusion; a _distinct_ statement is free from indefiniteness or ambiguity; a _distinct_ apprehension of a thought leaves the mind in no doubt or uncertainty regarding it. That is _plain_, in the sense here considered, which is, as it were, level to the thought, so that one goes straight on without difficulty or hindrance; as, _plain_ language; a _plain_ statement; a _clear_ explanation. _Perspicuous_ is often equivalent to _plain_, but _plain_ never wholly loses the meaning of _unadorned_, so that we can say the style is _perspicuous_ tho highly ornate, when we could not call it at once ornate and _plain_. Compare EVIDENT. Antonyms: ambiguous, dim, foggy, mysterious, opaque, unintelligible, cloudy, dubious, indistinct, obscure, turbid, vague. Prepositions: Clear _to_ the mind; clear _in_ argument; clear _of_ or _from_ annoyances. * * * * * CLEVER. Synonyms: able, capable, happy, keen, sharp, adroit, dexterous, ingenious, knowing, skilful, apt, expert, intellectual, quick, smart, bright, gifted, intelligent, quick-witted, talented. _Clever_, as used in England, especially implies an aptitude for study or learning, and for excellent tho not preeminent mental achievement. The early New England usage as implying simple and weak good nature has largely affected the use of the word throughout the United States, where it has never been much in favor. _Smart_, indicating dashing ability, is now coming to have a suggestion of unscrupulousness, similar to that of the word _sharp_, which makes its use a doubtful compliment. The discriminating use of such words as _able_, _gifted_, _talented_, etc., is greatly preferable to an excessive use of the word _clever_. Compare ACUMEN; ASTUTE; POWER. Antonyms: awkward, clumsy, foolish, ignorant, slow, thick-headed, bungling, dull, idiotic, senseless, stupid, witless. * * * * * COLLISION. Synonyms: clash, concussion, contact, impact, opposition, clashing, conflict, encounter, meeting, shock. _Collision_, the act or fact of striking violently together, is the result of motion or action, and is sudden and momentary; _contact_ may be a condition of rest, and be continuous and permanent; _collision_ is sudden and violent _contact_. _Concussion_ is often by transmitted force rather than by direct _impact_; two railway-trains come into _collision_; an explosion of dynamite shatters neighboring windows by _concussion_. _Impact_ is the blow given by the striking body; as, the _impact_ of the cannon-shot upon the target. An _encounter_ is always violent, and generally hostile. _Meeting_ is neutral, and may be of the dearest friends or of the bitterest foes; of objects, of persons, or of opinions; of two or of a multitude. _Shock_ is the result of _collision_. In the figurative use, we speak of _clashing_ of views, _collision_ of persons. _Opposition_ is used chiefly of persons, more rarely of opinions or interests; _conflict_ is used indifferently of all. Antonyms: agreement, coincidence, concord, conformity, unison, amity, concert, concurrence, harmony, unity. Prepositions: Collision _of_ one object _with_ another; _of_ or _between_ opposing objects. * * * * * COMFORTABLE. Synonyms: agreeable, cheery, genial, snug, at ease, commodious, pleasant, well-off, at rest, contented, satisfactory, well-provided, cheerful, convenient, satisfied, well-to-do. A person is _comfortable_ in mind when _contented_ and measurably _satisfied_. A little additional brightness makes him _cheerful_. He is _comfortable_ in body when free from pain, quiet, _at ease_, _at rest_. He is _comfortable_ in circumstances, or in _comfortable_ circumstances, when things about him are generally _agreeable_ and _satisfactory_, usually with the suggestion of sufficient means to secure that result. Antonyms: cheerless, discontented, distressed, forlorn, uncomfortable, disagreeable, dissatisfied, dreary, miserable, wretched. * * * * * COMMIT. Synonyms: assign, confide, consign, entrust, relegate, trust. _Commit_, in the sense here considered, is to give in charge, put into care or keeping; to _confide_ or _entrust_ is to _commit_ especially to one's fidelity, _confide_ being used chiefly of mental or spiritual, _entrust_ also of material things; we _assign_ a duty, _confide_ a secret, _entrust_ a treasure; we _commit_ thoughts to writing; _commit_ a paper to the flames, a body to the earth; a prisoner is _committed_ to jail. _Consign_ is a formal word in mercantile use; as, to _consign_ goods to an agent. Religiously, we _consign_ the body to the grave, _commit_ the soul to God. Compare DO. Prepositions: Commit _to_ a friend _for_ safe-keeping; in law, commit _to_ prison; _for_ trial; _without_ bail; in default _of_ bail; _on_ suspicion. * * * * * COMPANY. Synonyms: assemblage, concourse, convocation, host, assembly, conference, crowd, meeting, collection, congregation, gathering, multitude, conclave, convention, group, throng. _Company_, from the Latin _cum_, with, and _panis_, bread, denotes primarily the association of those who eat at a common table, or the persons so associated, table-companions, messmates, friends, and hence is widely extended to include any association of those united permanently or temporarily, for business, pleasure, festivity, travel, etc., or by sorrow, misfortune, or wrong; _company_ may denote an indefinite number (ordinarily more than two), but less than a _multitude_; in the military sense a _company_ is a limited and definite number of men; _company_ implies more unity of feeling and purpose than _crowd_, and is a less formal and more familiar word than _assemblage_ or _assembly_. An _assemblage_ may be of persons or of objects; an _assembly_ is always of persons. An _assemblage_ is promiscuous and unorganized; an _assembly_ is organized and united in some common purpose. A _conclave_ is a secret _assembly_. A _convocation_ is an _assembly_ called by authority for a special purpose; the term _convention_ suggests less dependence upon any superior authority or summons. A _group_ is small in number and distinct in outline, clearly marked off from all else in space or time. _Collection_, _crowd_, _gathering_, _group_, and _multitude_ have the unorganized and promiscuous character of the _assemblage_; the other terms come under the general idea of _assembly_. _Congregation_ is now almost exclusively religious; _meeting_ is often so used, but is less restricted, as we may speak of a _meeting_ of armed men. _Gathering_ refers to a coming together, commonly of numbers, from far and near; as, the _gathering_ of the Scottish clans. Antonyms: dispersion, loneliness, privacy, retirement, seclusion, solitude. * * * * * COMPEL. Synonyms: coerce, drive, make, oblige. constrain, force, necessitate, To _compel_ one to an act is to secure its performance by the use of irresistible physical or moral force. _Force_ implies primarily an actual physical process, absolutely subduing all resistance. _Coerce_ implies the actual or potential use of so much force as may be necessary to secure the surrender of the will; the American secessionists contended that the Federal government had no right to _coerce_ a State. _Constrain_ implies the yielding of judgment and will, and in some cases of inclination or affection, to an overmastering power; as, "the love of Christ _constraineth_ us," _2 Cor._ v, 14. Compare DRIVE; INFLUENCE. Antonyms: See synonyms for HINDER. Prepositions: The soldiers were compelled _to_ desertion: preferably with the infinitive, compelled _to_ desert. * * * * * COMPLAIN. Synonyms: croak, growl, grunt, remonstrate, find fault, grumble, murmur, repine. To _complain_ is to give utterance to dissatisfaction or objection, express a sense of wrong or ill treatment. One _complains_ of a real or assumed grievance; he may _murmur_ through mere peevishness or ill temper; he _repines_, with vain distress, at the irrevocable or the inevitable. _Complaining_ is by speech or writing; _murmuring_ is commonly said of half-repressed utterance; _repining_ of the mental act alone. One may _complain_ of an offense to the offender or to others; he _remonstrates_ with the offender only. _Complain_ has a formal and legal meaning, which the other words have not, signifying to make a formal accusation, present a specific charge; the same is true of the noun _complaint_. Antonyms: applaud, approve, commend, eulogize, laud, praise. Prepositions: Complain _of_ a thing _to_ a person; _of_ one person _to_ another, _of_ or _against_ a person _for_ an act; _to_ an officer; _before_ the court; _about_ a thing. * * * * * COMPLEX. Synonyms: abstruse, confused, intricate, mixed, complicated, conglomerate, involved, multiform, composite, entangled, manifold, obscure, compound, heterogeneous, mingled, tangled. That is _complex_ which is made up of several connected parts. That is _compound_ in which the parts are not merely connected, but fused, or otherwise combined into a single substance. In a _composite_ object the different parts have less of unity than in that which is _complex_ or _compound_, but maintain their distinct individuality. In a _heterogeneous_ body unlike parts or particles are intermingled, often without apparent order or plan. _Conglomerate_ (literally, globed together) is said of a _confused_ mingling of masses or lumps of various substances. The New England pudding-stone is a _conglomerate_ rock. In a _complex_ object the arrangement and relation of parts may be perfectly clear; in a _complicated_ mechanism the parts are so numerous, or so combined, that the mind can not readily grasp their mutual relations; in an _intricate_ arrangement the parts are so intertwined that it is difficult to follow their windings; things are _involved_ which are rolled together so as not to be easily separated, either in thought or in fact; things which are _tangled_ or _entangled_ mutually hold and draw upon each other. The conception of a material object is usually _complex_, involving form, color, size, and other elements; a clock is a _complicated_ mechanism; the Gordian knot was _intricate_; the twining serpents of the Laocoon are _involved_. We speak of an _abstruse_ statement, a _complex_ conception, a _confused_ heap, a _heterogeneous_ mass, a _tangled_ skein, an _intricate_ problem; of _composite_ architecture, an _involved_ sentence; of the _complicated_ or _intricate_ accounts of a great business, the _entangled_ accounts of an incompetent or dishonest bookkeeper. Antonyms: clear, homogeneous, plain, uncombined, uniform, direct, obvious, simple, uncompounded, unraveled. * * * * * CONDEMN. Synonyms: blame, convict, doom, reprove, censure, denounce, reprobate, sentence. To _condemn_ is to pass judicial sentence or render judgment or decision against. We may _censure_ silently; we _condemn_ ordinarily by open and formal utterance. _Condemn_ is more final than _blame_ or _censure_; a _condemned_ criminal has had his trial; a _condemned_ building can not stand; a _condemned_ ship can not sail. A person is _convicted_ when his guilt is made clearly manifest to others; in somewhat archaic use, a person is said to be _convicted_ when guilt is brought clearly home to his own conscience (_convict_ in this sense being allied with _convince_, which see under PERSUADE); in legal usage one is said to be _convicted_ only by the verdict of a jury. In stating the penalty of an offense, the legal word _sentence_ is now more common than _condemn_; as, he was _sentenced_ to imprisonment; but it is good usage to say, he was _condemned_ to imprisonment. To _denounce_ is to make public or official declaration against, especially in a violent and threatening manner. From the pulpits in the northern States Burr was _denounced_ as an assassin. COFFIN _Building the Nation_ ch. 10, p. 137. [H. '83.] To _doom_ is to _condemn_ solemnly and consign to evil or destruction or to predetermine to an evil destiny; an inferior race in presence of a superior is _doomed_ to subjugation or extinction. Compare ARRAIGN; REPROVE. Antonyms: absolve, applaud, exonerate, pardon, acquit, approve, justify, praise. Prepositions: The bandit was condemned _to_ death _for_ his crime. * * * * * CONFESS. Synonyms: accept, allow, concede, grant, acknowledge, avow, disclose, own, admit, certify, endorse, recognize. We _accept_ another's statement; _admit_ any point made against us; _acknowledge_ what we have said or done, good or bad; _avow_ our individual beliefs or feelings; _certify_ to facts within our knowledge; _confess_ our own faults; _endorse_ a friend's note or statement; _grant_ a request; _own_ our faults or obligations; _recognize_ lawful authority; _concede_ a claim. _Confess_ has a high and sacred use in the religious sense; as, to _confess_ Christ before men. It may have also a playful sense (often with _to_); as, one _confesses to_ a weakness for confectionery. The chief present use of the word, however, is in the sense of making known to others one's own wrong-doing; in this sense _confess_ is stronger than _acknowledge_ or _admit_, and more specific than _own_; a person _admits_ a mistake; _acknowledges_ a fault; _confesses_ sin or crime. Compare APOLOGY; AVOW. Antonyms: cloak, deny, disown, hide, screen, conceal, disavow, dissemble, mask, secrete, cover, disguise, dissimulate, repudiate, veil. * * * * * CONFIRM. Synonyms: assure, fix, sanction, substantiate, corroborate, prove, settle, sustain, establish, ratify, strengthen, uphold. _Confirm_ (L. _con_, together, and _firmus_, firm) is to add firmness or give stability to. Both _confirm_ and _corroborate_ presuppose something already existing to which the confirmation or corroboration is added. Testimony is _corroborated_ by concurrent testimony or by circumstances; _confirmed_ by _established_ facts. That which is thoroughly _proved_ is said to be _established_; so is that which is official and has adequate power behind it; as, the _established_ government; the _established_ church. The continents are _fixed_. A treaty is _ratified_; an appointment _confirmed_. An act is _sanctioned_ by any person or authority that passes upon it approvingly. A statement is _substantiated_; a report _confirmed_; a controversy _settled_; the decision of a lower court _sustained_ by a higher. Just government should be _upheld_. The beneficent results of Christianity _confirm_ our faith in it as a divine revelation. Antonyms: abrogate, cancel, overthrow, shatter, upset, annul, destroy, shake, unsettle, weaken. Prepositions: Confirm a statement _by_ testimony; confirm a person _in_ a belief. * * * * * CONGRATULATE. Synonym: felicitate. To _felicitate_ is to pronounce one happy or wish one joy; to _congratulate_ is to express hearty sympathy in his joys or hopes. _Felicitate_ is cold and formal. We say one _felicitates_ himself; tho to _congratulate_ oneself, which is less natural, is becoming prevalent. Antonyms: condole with, console. Prepositions: Congratulate one _on_ or _upon_ his success. * * * * * CONQUER. Synonyms: beat, humble, overthrow, subject, checkmate, master, prevail over, subjugate, crush, overcome, put down, surmount, defeat, overmaster, reduce, vanquish, discomfit, overmatch, rout, win, down, overpower, subdue, worst. To _defeat_ an enemy is to gain an advantage for the time; to _vanquish_ is to win a signal victory; to _conquer_ is to _overcome_ so effectually that the victory is regarded as final. _Conquer_, in many cases, carries the idea of possession; as, to _conquer_ respect, affection, peace, etc. A country is _conquered_ when its armies are defeated and its territory is occupied by the enemy; it may be _subjected_ to indemnity or to various disabilities; it is _subjugated_ when it is held helplessly and continuously under military control; it is _subdued_ when all resistance has died out. An army is _defeated_ when forcibly driven back; it is _routed_ when it is converted into a mob of fugitives. Compare BEAT. Antonyms: capitulate, fail, fly, lose, retire, submit, surrender, cede, fall, forfeit, resign, retreat, succumb, yield. * * * * * CONSCIOUS. Synonyms: advised, assured, certain, cognizant, sensible, apprised, aware, certified, informed, sure. One is _aware_ of that which exists without him; he is _conscious_ of the inner workings of his own mind. _Sensible_ may be used in the exact sense of _conscious_, or it may partake of both the senses mentioned above. One may be _sensible_ of his own or another's error; he is _conscious_ only of his own. A person may feel _assured_ or _sure_ of something false or non-existent; what he is _aware_ of, still more what he is _conscious_ of, must be fact. _Sensible_ has often a reference to the emotions where _conscious_ might apply only to the intellect; to say a culprit is _sensible_ of his degradation is more forcible than to say he is _conscious_ of it. Antonyms: cold, dead, deaf, ignorant, insensible, unaware, unconscious. Preposition: On the stormy sea, man is conscious _of_ the limitation of human power. * * * * * CONSEQUENCE. Synonyms: consequent, end, issue, outgrowth, sequel, effect, event, outcome, result, upshot. _Effect_ is the strongest of these words; it is that which is directly produced by the action of an efficient cause; we say, "Every _effect_ must have an adequate cause" (compare CAUSE). In regard to human actions, _effect_ commonly relates to intention; as, the shot took _effect_, _i. e._, the _effect_ intended. A _consequence_ is that which follows an act naturally, but less directly than the _effect_. The motion of the piston is the _effect_, and the agitation of the water under the paddle-wheels a _consequence_ of the expansion of steam in the cylinder. The _result_ is, literally, the rebound of an act, depending on many elements; the _issue_ is that which flows forth directly; we say the _issue_ of a battle, the _result_ of a campaign. A _consequent_ commonly is that which follows simply in order of time, or by logical inference. The _end_ is the actual _outcome_ without determination of its relation to what has gone before; it is ordinarily viewed as either the necessary, natural, or logical _outcome_, any _effect_, _consequence_, or _result_ being termed an _end_; as, the _end_ of such a course must be ruin. The _event_ (L. _e_, out, and _venio_, come) is primarily exactly the same in meaning as _outcome_; but in use it is more nearly equivalent to _upshot_ signifying the sum and substance of all _effects_, _consequences_, and _results_ of a course of action. Compare ACCIDENT; CAUSE; CIRCUMSTANCE; END; EVENT. * * * * * CONSOLE. Synonyms: comfort, condole with, encourage, sympathize with. One _condoles with_ another by the expression of kindly sympathy in his trouble; he _consoles_ him by considerations adapted to soothe and sustain the spirit, as by the assurances and promises of the gospel; he _encourages_ him by the hope of some relief or deliverance; he _comforts_ him by whatever act or word tends to bring mind or body to a state of rest and cheer. We _sympathize with_ others, not only in sorrow, but in joy. Compare ALLEVIATE; PITY. Antonyms: annoy, distress, disturb, grieve, hurt, sadden, trouble, wound. * * * * * CONTAGION. Synonym: infection. _Infection_ is frequently confused with _contagion_, even by medical men. The best usage now limits _contagion_ to diseases that are transmitted by contact with the diseased person, either directly by touch or indirectly by use of the same articles, by breath, effluvia, etc. _Infection_ is applied to diseases produced by no known or definable influence of one person upon another, but where common climatic, malarious, or other wide-spread conditions are believed to be chiefly instrumental. * * * * * CONTINUAL. Synonyms: ceaseless, incessant, regular, uninterrupted, constant, invariable, unbroken, unremitting, continuous, perpetual, unceasing, unvarying. _Continuous_ describes that which is absolutely without pause or break; _continual_, that which often intermits, but as regularly begins again. A _continuous_ beach is exposed to the _continual_ beating of the waves. A similar distinction is made between _incessant_ and _ceaseless_. The _incessant_ discharge of firearms makes the _ceaseless_ roar of battle. _Constant_ is sometimes used in the sense of _continual_; but its chief uses are mental and moral. * * * * * CONTRACT. Synonyms: agreement, cartel, engagement, pledge, arrangement, compact, obligation, promise, bargain, covenant, pact, stipulation. All these words involve at least two parties, tho an _engagement_ or _promise_ may be the act of but one. A _contract_ is a formal agreement between two or more parties for the doing or leaving undone some specified act or acts, and is ordinarily in writing. Mutual _promises_ may have the force of a _contract_. A consideration, or compensation, is essential to convert an _agreement_ into a _contract_. A _contract_ may be oral or written. A _covenant_ in law is a written _contract_ under seal. _Covenant_ is frequent in religious usage, as _contract_ is in law and business. _Compact_ is essentially the same as _contract_, but is applied to international _agreements_, treaties, etc. A _bargain_ is a mutual _agreement_ for an exchange of values, without the formality of a _contract_. A _stipulation_ is a single item in an _agreement_ or _contract_. A _cartel_ is a military _agreement_ for the exchange of prisoners or the like. * * * * * CONTRAST. Synonyms: compare, differentiate, discriminate, oppose. To _compare_ (L. _con_, together, and _par_, equal) is to place together in order to show likeness or unlikeness; to _contrast_ (L. _contra_, against, and _sto_, stand) is to set in opposition in order to show unlikeness. We _contrast_ objects that have been already _compared_. We must _compare_ them, at least momentarily, even to know that they are different. We _contrast_ them when we observe their unlikeness in a general way; we _differentiate_ them when we note the difference exactly and point by point. We distinguish objects when we note a difference that may fall short of _contrast_; we _discriminate_ them when we classify or place them according to their differences. Preposition: We contrast one object _with_ another. * * * * * CONVERSATION. Synonyms: chat, communion, converse, intercourse, colloquy, confabulation, dialogue, parley, communication, conference, discourse, talk. _Conversation_ (Latin _con_, with) is, etymologically, an interchange of ideas with some other person or persons. _Talk_ may be wholly one-sided. Many brilliant talkers have been incapable of _conversation_. There may be _intercourse_ without _conversation_, as by looks, signs, etc.; _communion_ is of hearts, with or without words; _communication_ is often by writing, and may be uninvited and unreciprocated. _Talk_ may denote the mere utterance of words with little thought; thus, we say idle _talk_, empty _talk_, rather than idle or empty _conversation_. _Discourse_ is now applied chiefly to public addresses. A _conference_ is more formal than a _conversation_. _Dialog_ denotes ordinarily an artificial or imaginary _conversation_, generally of two persons, but sometimes of more. A _colloquy_ is indefinite as to number, and generally somewhat informal. Compare BEHAVIOR. Prepositions: Conversation _with_ friends; _between_ or _among_ the guests; _about_ a matter. * * * * * CONVERT. Synonyms: disciple, neophyte, proselyte. The name _disciple_ is given to the follower of a certain faith, without reference to any previous belief or allegiance; a _convert_ is a person who has come to one faith from a different belief or from unbelief. A _proselyte_ is one who has been led to accept a religious system, whether with or without true faith; a _convert_ is always understood to be a believer. A _neophyte_ is a new _convert_, not yet fully indoctrinated, or not admitted to full privileges. The antonyms _apostate_, _pervert_, and _renegade_ are condemnatory names applied to the _convert_ by those whose faith he forsakes. * * * * * CONVEY. Synonyms: carry, give, remove, shift, transmit, change, move, sell, transfer, transport. _Convey_, _transmit_, and _transport_ all imply delivery at a destination; as, I will _convey_ the information to your friend; air _conveys_ sound (to a listener); _carry_ does not necessarily imply delivery, and often does not admit of it. A man _carries_ an appearance, _conveys_ an impression, the appearance remaining his own, the impression being given to another; I will _transmit_ the letter; _transport_ the goods. A horse _carries_ his mane and tail, but does not _convey_ them. _Transfer_ may or may not imply delivery to another person; as, items may be _transferred_ from one account to another or a word _transferred_ to the following line. In law, real estate, which can not be moved, is _conveyed_ by simply _transferring_ title and possession. _Transport_ usually refers to material, _transfer_, _transmit_, and _convey_ may refer to immaterial objects; we _transfer_ possession, _transmit_ intelligence, _convey_ ideas, but do not _transport_ them. In the case of _convey_ the figurative sense now predominates. Compare CARRY. Antonyms: cling to, hold, keep, possess, preserve, retain. Prepositions: Convey _to_ a friend, a purchaser, etc.; convey _from_ the house _to_ the station; convey _by_ express, _by_ hand, etc. * * * * * CONVOKE. Synonyms: assemble, call together, convene, muster, call, collect, gather, summon. A convention is _called_ by some officer or officers, as by its president, its executive committee, or some eminent leaders; the delegates are _assembled_ or _convened_ in a certain place, at a certain hour. _Convoke_ implies an organized body and a superior authority; _assemble_ and _convene_ express more independent action; Parliament is _convoked_; Congress _assembles_. Troops are _mustered_; witnesses and jurymen are _summoned_. Antonyms: adjourn, disband, dismiss, dissolve, scatter, break up, discharge, disperse, prorogue, separate. * * * * * CRIMINAL. Synonyms: abominable, flagitious, immoral, sinful, vile, culpable, guilty, iniquitous, unlawful, wicked, felonious, illegal, nefarious, vicious, wrong. Every _criminal_ act is _illegal_ or _unlawful_, but _illegal_ or _unlawful_ acts may not be _criminal_. Offenses against public law are _criminal_; offenses against private rights are merely _illegal_ or _unlawful_. As a general rule, all acts punishable by fine or imprisonment or both, are _criminal_ in view of the law. It is _illegal_ for a man to trespass on another's land, but it is not _criminal_; the trespasser is liable to a civil suit for damages, but not to indictment, fine, or imprisonment. A _felonious_ act is a _criminal_ act of an aggravated kind, which is punishable by imprisonment in the penitentiary or by death. A _flagitious_ crime is one that brings public odium. _Vicious_ refers to the indulgence of evil appetites, habits, or passions; _vicious_ acts are not necessarily _criminal_, or even _illegal_; we speak of a _vicious_ horse. That which is _iniquitous_, _i. e._, contrary to equity, may sometimes be done under the forms of law. Ingratitude is _sinful_, hypocrisy is _wicked_, but neither is punishable by human law; hence, neither is _criminal_ or _illegal_. Compare SIN. Antonyms: innocent, lawful, meritorious, right, just, legal, moral, virtuous. * * * * * DAILY. Synonym: diurnal. _Daily_ is the Saxon and popular, _diurnal_ the Latin and scientific term. In strict usage, _daily_ is the antonym of _nightly_ as _diurnal_ is of _nocturnal_. _Daily_ is not, however, held strictly to this use; a physician makes _daily_ visits if he calls at some time within each period of twenty-four hours. _Diurnal_ is more exact in all its uses; a _diurnal_ flower opens or blooms only in daylight; a _diurnal_ bird or animal flies or ranges only by day: in contradistinction to _nocturnal_ flowers, birds, etc. A _diurnal_ motion exactly fills an astronomical day or the time of one rotation of a planet on its axis, while a _daily_ motion is much less definite. Antonyms: nightly, nocturnal. * * * * * DANGER. Synonyms: hazard, insecurity, jeopardy, peril, risk. _Danger_ is exposure to possible evil, which may be either near and probable or remote and doubtful; _peril_ is exposure to imminent and sharply threatening evil, especially to such as results from violence. An invalid may be in _danger_ of consumption; a disarmed soldier is in _peril_ of death. _Jeopardy_ is nearly the same as _peril_, but involves, like _risk_, more of the element of chance or uncertainty; a man tried upon a capital charge is said to be put in _jeopardy_ of life. _Insecurity_ is a feeble word, but exceedingly broad, applying to the placing of a dish, or the possibilities of a life, a fortune, or a government. Compare HAZARD. Antonyms: defense, immunity, protection, safeguard, safety, security, shelter. * * * * * DARK. Synonyms: black, dusky, mysterious, sable, somber, dim, gloomy, obscure, shadowy, swart, dismal, murky, opaque, shady, swarthy. Strictly, that which is _black_ is absolutely destitute of color; that which is _dark_ is absolutely destitute of light. In common speech, however, a coat is _black_, tho not optically colorless; the night is _dark_, tho the stars shine. That is _obscure_, _shadowy_, or _shady_ from which the light is more or less cut off. _Dusky_ is applied to objects which appear as if viewed in fading light; the word is often used, as are _swart_ and _swarthy_, of the human skin when quite _dark_, or even verging toward _black_. _Dim_ refers to imperfection of outline, from distance, darkness, mist, etc., or from some defect of vision. _Opaque_ objects, as smoked glass, are impervious to light. _Murky_ is said of that which is at once _dark_, _obscure_, and _gloomy_; as, a _murky_ den; a _murky_ sky. Figuratively, _dark_ is emblematic of sadness, agreeing with _somber_, _dismal_, _gloomy_, also of moral evil; as, a _dark_ deed. Of intellectual matters, _dark_ is now rarely used in the old sense of a _dark_ saying, etc. See MYSTERIOUS; OBSCURE. Antonyms: bright, crystalline, glowing, lucid, shining, brilliant, dazzling, illumined, luminous, transparent, clear, gleaming, light, radiant, white. Compare synonyms for LIGHT. * * * * * DECAY. Synonyms: corrupt, decompose, molder, putrefy, rot, spoil. _Rot_ is a strong word, ordinarily esteemed coarse, but on occasion capable of approved emphatic use; as, "the name of the wicked shall _rot_," _Prov._ x, 7; _decay_ and _decompose_ are now common euphemisms. A substance is _decomposed_ when resolved into its original elements by any process; it is _decayed_ when resolved into its original elements by natural processes; it _decays_ gradually, but may be instantly _decomposed_, as water into oxygen and hydrogen; to say that a thing is _decayed_ may denote only a partial result, but to say it is _decomposed_ ordinarily implies that the change is complete or nearly so. _Putrefy_ and the adjectives _putrid_ and _putrescent_, and the nouns _putridity_ and _putrescence_, are used almost exclusively of animal matter in a state of decomposition, the more general word _decay_ being used of either animal or vegetable substances. * * * * * DECEPTION. Synonyms: craft, dissimulation, finesse, lie, cunning, double-dealing, fraud, lying, deceit, duplicity, guile, prevarication, deceitfulness, fabrication, hypocrisy, trickery, delusion, falsehood, imposition, untruth. _Deceit_ is the habit, _deception_ the act; _guile_ applies to the disposition out of which _deceit_ and _deception_ grow, and also to their actual practise. A _lie_, _lying_, or _falsehood_, is the uttering of what one knows to be false with intent to deceive. The novel or drama is not a _lie_, because not meant to deceive; the ancient teaching that the earth was flat was not a _lie_, because not then known to be false. _Untruth_ is more than lack of accuracy, implying always lack of veracity; but it is a somewhat milder and more dignified word than _lie_. _Falsehood_ and _lying_ are in utterance; _deceit_ and _deception_ may be merely in act or implication. _Deception_ may be innocent, and even unintentional, as in the case of an optical illusion; _deceit_ always involves injurious intent. _Craft_ and _cunning_ have not necessarily any moral quality; they are common traits of animals, but stand rather low in the human scale. _Duplicity_ is the habitual speaking or acting with intent to appear to mean what one does not. _Dissimulation_ is rather a concealing of what is than a pretense of what is not. _Finesse_ is simply an adroit and delicate management of a matter for one's own side, not necessarily involving _deceit_. Compare ARTIFICE; FICTION; FRAUD; HYPOCRISY. Antonyms: candor, frankness, honesty, simplicity, truth, fair dealing, guilelessness, openness, sincerity, veracity. * * * * * DEFENSE. Synonyms: apology, guard, rampart, shelter, bulwark, justification, resistance, shield, fortress, protection, safeguard, vindication. The weak may speak or act in _defense_ of the strong; none but the powerful can assure others of _protection_. A _defense_ is ordinarily against actual attack; _protection_ is against possible as well as actual dangers. We speak of _defense_ against an assault, _protection_ from the cold. _Vindication_ is a triumphant _defense_ of character and conduct against charges of error or wrong. Compare APOLOGY. Antonyms: abandonment, betrayal, capitulation, desertion, flight, surrender. Prepositions: Defense _against_ assault or assailants; in law, defense _to_ an action, _from_ the testimony. * * * * * DEFILE. Synonyms: befoul, corrupt, pollute, spoil, sully, tarnish, contaminate, infect, soil, stain, taint, vitiate. The hand may be _defiled_ by a touch of pitch; swine that have been wallowing in the mud are _befouled_. _Contaminate_ and _infect_ refer to something evil that deeply pervades and permeates, as the human body or mind. _Pollute_ is used chiefly of liquids; as, water _polluted_ with sewage. _Tainted_ meat is repulsive; _infected_ meat contains germs of disease. A _soiled_ garment may be cleansed by washing; a _spoiled_ garment is beyond cleansing or repair. Bright metal is _tarnished_ by exposure; a fair sheet is _sullied_ by a dirty hand. In figurative use, _defile_ may be used merely in the ceremonial sense; "they themselves went not into the judgment hall, lest they should be _defiled_," _John_ xviii, 28; _contaminate_ refers to deep spiritual injury. _Pollute_ has also a reference to sacrilege; as, to _pollute_ a sanctuary, an altar, or an ordinance. The innocent are often _contaminated_ by association with the wicked; the vicious are more and more _corrupted_ by their own excesses. We speak of a _vitiated_ taste or style; fraud _vitiates_ a title or a contract. Antonyms: clean, cleanse, disinfect, hallow, purify, sanctify, wash. Prepositions: The temple was defiled _with_ blood; defiled _by_ sacrilegious deeds. * * * * * DEFINITION. Synonyms: comment, description, exposition, rendering, commentary, explanation, interpretation, translation. A _definition_ is exact, an _explanation_ general; a _definition_ is formal, a _description_ pictorial. A _definition_ must include all that belongs to the object defined, and exclude all that does not; a _description_ may include only some general features; an _explanation_ may simply throw light upon some point of special difficulty. An _exposition_ undertakes to state more fully what is compactly given or only implied in the text; as, an _exposition_ of Scripture. _Interpretation_ is ordinarily from one language into another, or from the language of one period into that of another; it may also be a statement giving the doubtful or hidden meaning of that which is recondite or perplexing; as, the _interpretation_ of a dream, a riddle, or of some difficult passage. _Definition_, _explanation_, _exposition_, and _interpretation_ are ordinarily blended in a _commentary_, which may also include _description_. A _comment_ is upon a single passage; a _commentary_ may be the same, but is usually understood to be a volume of _comments_. * * * * * DELEGATE. Synonyms: deputy, legate, proxy, representative, substitute. These words agree in designating one who acts in the place of some other or others. The _legate_ is an ecclesiastical officer representing the Pope. In strict usage the _deputy_ or _delegate_ is more limited in functions and more closely bound by instructions than a _representative_. A single officer may have a _deputy_; many persons combine to choose a _delegate_ or _representative_. In the United States informal assemblies send _delegates_ to nominating conventions with no legislative authority; _representatives_ are legally elected to Congress and the various legislatures, with lawmaking power. * * * * * DELIBERATE. Synonyms: confer, consult, meditate, reflect, consider, debate, ponder, weigh. An individual _considers_, _meditates_, _ponders_, _reflects_, by himself; he _weighs_ a matter in his own mind, and is sometimes said even to _debate_ with himself. _Consult_ and _confer_ always imply two or more persons, as does _debate_, unless expressly limited as above. _Confer_ suggests the interchange of counsel, advice, or information; _consult_ indicates almost exclusively the receiving of it. A man _confers_ with his associates about a new investment; he _consults_ his physician about his health; he may _confer_ with him on matters of general interest. He _consults_ a dictionary, but does not _confer_ with it. _Deliberate_, which can be applied to a single individual, is also the word for a great number, while _consult_ is ordinarily limited to a few; a committee _consults_; an assembly _deliberates_. _Deliberating_ always carries the idea of slowness; _consulting_ is compatible with haste; we can speak of a hasty consultation, not of a hasty deliberation. _Debate_ implies opposing views; _deliberate_, simply a gathering and balancing of all facts and reasons. We _consider_ or _deliberate_ with a view to action, while _meditation_ may be quite purposeless. Prepositions: We deliberate _on_ or _upon_, also _about_ or _concerning_ a matter: the first two are preferable. * * * * * DELICIOUS. Synonyms: dainty, delightful, exquisite, luscious, savory. That is _delicious_ which affords a gratification at once vivid and delicate to the senses, especially to those of taste and smell; as, _delicious_ fruit; a _delicious_ odor; _luscious_ has a kindred but more fulsome meaning, inclining toward a cloying excess of sweetness or richness. _Savory_ is applied chiefly to cooked food made palatable by spices and condiments. _Delightful_ may be applied to the higher gratifications of sense, as _delightful_ music, but is chiefly used for that which is mental and spiritual. _Delicious_ has a limited use in this way; as, a _delicious_ bit of poetry; the word is sometimes used ironically for some pleasing absurdity; as, this is _delicious_! Compare DELIGHTFUL. Antonyms: acrid, loathsome, nauseous, repulsive, unpalatable, unsavory. bitter, * * * * * DELIGHTFUL. Synonyms: acceptable, delicious, pleasant, refreshing, agreeable, grateful, pleasing, satisfying, congenial, gratifying, pleasurable, welcome. _Agreeable_ refers to whatever gives a mild degree of pleasure; as, an _agreeable_ perfume. _Acceptable_ indicates a thing to be worthy of acceptance; as, an _acceptable_ offering. _Grateful_ is stronger than _agreeable_ or _gratifying_, indicating whatever awakens a feeling akin to gratitude. A _pleasant_ face and _pleasing_ manners arouse _pleasurable_ sensations, and make the possessor an _agreeable_ companion; if possessed of intelligence, vivacity, and goodness, such a person's society will be _delightful_. Criminals may find each other's company _congenial_, but scarcely _delightful_. _Satisfying_ denotes anything that is received with calm acquiescence, as substantial food, or established truth. That is _welcome_ which is received with joyful heartiness; as, _welcome_ tidings. Compare BEAUTIFUL; CHARMING; DELICIOUS. Antonyms: depressing, hateful, miserable, painful, woful, disappointing, horrible, mournful, saddening, wretched. distressing, melancholy, * * * * * DELUSION. Synonyms: error, fallacy, hallucination, illusion, phantasm. A _delusion_ is a mistaken conviction, an _illusion_ a mistaken perception or inference. An _illusion_ may be wholly of the senses; a _delusion_ always involves some mental error. In an optical _illusion_ the observer sees either what does not exist, or what exists otherwise than as he sees it, as when in a mirage distant springs and trees appear close at hand. We speak of the _illusions_ of fancy or of hope, but of the _delusions_ of the insane. A _hallucination_ is a false image or belief which has nothing, outside of the disordered mind, to suggest it; as, the _hallucinations_ of delirium tremens. Compare DECEPTION; INSANITY. Antonyms: actuality, certainty, fact, reality, truth, verity. * * * * * DEMOLISH. Synonyms: destroy, overthrow, overturn, raze, ruin. A building, monument, or other structure is _demolished_ when reduced to a shapeless mass; it is _razed_ when leveled with the ground; it is _destroyed_ when its structural unity is gone, whether or not its component parts remain. An edifice is _destroyed_ by fire or earthquake; it is _demolished_ by bombardment; it is _ruined_ when, by violence or neglect, it has become unfit for human habitation. Compare ABOLISH; BREAK. Antonyms: build, construct, create, make, repair, restore. * * * * * DEMONSTRATION. Synonyms: certainty, consequence, evidence, inference, conclusion, deduction, induction, proof. _Demonstration_, in the strict and proper sense, is the highest form of _proof_, and gives the most absolute _certainty_, but can not be applied outside of pure mathematics or other strictly deductive reasoning; there can be _proof_ and _certainty_, however, in matters that do not admit of _demonstration_. A _conclusion_ is the absolute and necessary result of the admission of certain premises; an _inference_ is a probable _conclusion_ toward which known facts, statements, or admissions point, but which they do not absolutely establish; sound premises, together with their necessary _conclusion_, constitute a _demonstration_. _Evidence_ is that which tends to show a thing to be true; in the widest sense, as including self-_evidence_ or consciousness, it is the basis of all knowledge. _Proof_ in the strict sense is complete, irresistible _evidence_; as, there was much _evidence_ against the accused, but not amounting to _proof_ of guilt. Moral _certainty_ is a conviction resting on such _evidence_ as puts a matter beyond reasonable doubt, while not so irresistible as _demonstration_. Compare HYPOTHESIS; INDUCTION. * * * * * DESIGN. Synonyms: aim, final cause, object, proposal, device, intent, plan, purpose, end, intention, project, scheme. _Design_ refers to the adaptation of means to an _end_, the correspondence and coordination of parts, or of separate acts, to produce a result; _intent_ and _purpose_ overleap all particulars, and fasten on the _end_ itself. _Intention_ is simply the more familiar form of the legal and philosophical _intent_. _Plan_ relates to details of form, structure, and action, in themselves; _design_ considers these same details all as a means to an _end_. The _plan_ of a campaign may be for a series of sharp attacks, with the _design_ of thus surprising and overpowering the enemy. A man comes to a fixed _intention_ to kill his enemy; he forms a _plan_ to entrap him into his power, with the _design_ of then compassing his death; as the law can not read the heart, it can only infer the _intent_ from the evidences of _design_. _Intent_ denotes a straining, stretching forth toward an _object_; _purpose_ simply the placing it before oneself; hence, we speak of the _purpose_ rather than the _intent_ or _intention_ of God. We hold that the marks of _design_ in nature prove it the work of a great Designer. _Intention_ contemplates the possibility of failure; _purpose_ looks to assured success; _intent_ or _intention_ refers especially to the state of mind of the actor; _purpose_ to the result of the action. Compare AIM; CAUSE; IDEA; MODEL. Prepositions: The design _of_ defrauding; the design _of_ a building; a design _for_ a statue. * * * * * DESIRE. Synonyms: appetency, concupiscence, hankering, proclivity, appetite, coveting, inclination, propensity, aspiration, craving, longing, wish. _Inclination_ is the mildest of these terms; it is a quiet, or even a vague or unconscious, tendency. Even when we speak of a strong or decided _inclination_ we do not express the intensity of _desire_. _Desire_ has a wide range, from the highest objects to the lowest; _desire_ is for an object near at hand, or near in thought, and viewed as attainable; a _wish_ may be for what is remote or uncertain, or even for what is recognized as impossible. _Craving_ is stronger than _hankering_; _hankering_ may be the result of a fitful and capricious _appetite_; _craving_ may be the imperious and reasonable demand of the whole nature. _Longing_ is a reaching out with deep and persistent demand for that which is viewed as now distant but at some time attainable; as, the captive's _longing_ for release. _Coveting_ ordinarily denotes wrong _desire_ for that which is another's. Compare APPETITE. Antonyms: See synonyms for ANTIPATHY. Prepositions: The desire _of_ fame; a desire _for_ excellence. * * * * * DESPAIR. Synonyms: desperation, despondency, discouragement, hopelessness. _Discouragement_ is the result of so much repulse or failure as wears out courage. _Discouragements_ too frequent and long continued may produce a settled _hopelessness_. _Hopelessness_ is negative, and may result from simple apathy; _despondency_ and _despair_ are more emphatic and decided. _Despondency_ is an incapacity for the present exercise of hope; _despair_ is the utter abandonment of hope. _Despondency_ relaxes energy and effort and is always attended with sadness or distress; _despair_ may produce a stony calmness, or it may lead to _desperation_. _Desperation_ is energized _despair_, vigorous in action, reckless of consequences. Antonyms: anticipation, confidence, encouragement, expectation, hopefulness, assurance, courage, expectancy, hope, trust. cheer, elation, * * * * * DEXTERITY. Synonyms: adroitness, aptitude, cleverness, expertness, readiness, skill. _Adroitness_ (F. _à_, to, and _droit_, right) and _dexterity_ (L. _dexter_, right, right-hand) might each be rendered "right-handedness;" but _adroitness_ carries more of the idea of eluding, parrying, or checking some hostile movement, or taking advantage of another in controversy; _dexterity_ conveys the idea of doing, accomplishing something readily and well, without reference to any action of others. We speak of _adroitness_ in fencing, boxing, or debate; of _dexterity_ in horsemanship, in the use of tools, weapons, etc. _Aptitude_ (L. _aptus_, fit, fitted) is a natural _readiness_, which by practise may be developed into _dexterity_. _Skill_ is more exact to line, rule, and method than _dexterity_. _Dexterity_ can not be communicated, and, oftentimes can not even be explained by its possessor; _skill_ to a very great extent can be imparted; "_skilled_ workmen" in various trades are numbered by thousands. Compare ADDRESS; CLEVER; POWER; SKILFUL. Prepositions: Dexterity _of_ hand, _of_ movement, _of_ management; _with_ the pen; _in_ action, _in_ manipulating men; _at_ cards. * * * * * DICTION. Synonyms: expression, phrase, style, vocabulary, language, phraseology, verbiage, wording. An author's _diction_ is strictly his choice and use of words, with no special reference to thought; _expression_ regards the words simply as the vehicle of the thought. _Phrase_ and _phraseology_ apply to words or combinations of words which are somewhat technical; as, in legal _phraseology_; in military _phrase_. _Diction_ is general; _wording_ is limited; we speak of the _diction_ of an author or of a work, the _wording_ of a proposition, of a resolution, etc. _Verbiage_ never bears this sense (see CIRCUMLOCUTION.) The _language_ of a writer or speaker may be the national speech he employs; as, the English or French _language_; or the word may denote his use of that _language_; as, the author's _language_ is well (or ill) chosen. _Style_ includes _diction_, _expression_, rhetorical figures such as metaphor and simile, the effect of an author's prevailing tone of thought, of his personal traits--in short, all that makes up the clothing of thought in words; thus, we speak of a figurative _style_, a frigid or an argumentative _style_, etc., or of the _style_ of Macaulay, Prescott, or others. An author's _vocabulary_ is the range of words which he brings into his use. Compare LANGUAGE. * * * * * DIE. Synonyms: cease, decline, expire, perish, decease, depart, fade, wither. _Die_, to go out of life, become destitute of vital power and action, is figuratively applied to anything which has the appearance of life. Where the _dying_ night-lamp flickers. TENNYSON _Locksley Hall_ st. 40. An echo, a strain of music, a tempest, a topic, an issue, _dies_. _Expire_ (literally, to breathe out) is a softer word for _die_; it is used figuratively of things that _cease_ to exist by reaching a natural limit; as, a lease _expires_; the time has _expired_. To _perish_ (literally, in Latin, to go through, as in English we say, "the fire goes out") is oftenest used of death by privation or exposure; as, "I _perish_ with hunger," _Luke_ xv, 17; sometimes, of death by violence. Knowledge and fame, art and empires, may be said to _perish_; the word denotes utter destruction and decay. Antonyms: be born, come into being, flourish, rise again, begin, come to life, grow, rise from the dead, be immortal, exist, live, survive. Prepositions: To die _of_ fever; _by_ violence; rarely, _with_ the sword, famine, etc. (_Ezek._ vii, 15); to die _for_ one's country; to die _at_ sea; _in_ one's bed; _in_ agony; die _to_ the world. * * * * * DIFFERENCE. Synonyms: contrariety, discrimination, distinction, inequality, contrast, disparity, divergence, unlikeness, disagreement, dissimilarity, diversity, variation, discrepancy, dissimilitude, inconsistency, variety. _Difference_ is the state or quality of being unlike or the amount of such unlikeness. A _difference_ is in the things compared; a _discrimination_ is in our judgment of them; a _distinction_ is in our definition or description or mental image of them. Careful _discrimination_ of real _differences_ results in clear _distinctions_. _Disparity_ is stronger than _inequality_, implying that one thing falls far below another; as, the _disparity_ of our achievements when compared with our ideals. _Dissimilarity_ is between things sharply contrasted; there may be a _difference_ between those almost alike. There is a _discrepancy_ in accounts that fail to balance. _Variety_ involves more than two objects; so, in general, does _diversity_; _variation_ is a _difference_ in the condition or action of the same object at different times. _Disagreement_ is not merely the lack, but the opposite, of agreement; it is a mild word for opposition and conflict; _difference_ is sometimes used in the same sense. Antonyms: agreement, harmony, likeness, sameness, uniformity, consonance, identity, resemblance, similarity, unity. Prepositions: Difference _between_ the old and the new; differences _among_ men; a difference _in_ character; _of_ action; _of_ style; (less frequently) a difference (controversy) _with_ a person; a difference _of_ one thing _from_ (incorrectly _to_) another. * * * * * DIFFICULT. Synonyms: arduous, hard, onerous, toilsome, exhausting, laborious, severe, trying. _Arduous_ (L. _arduus_, steep) signifies primarily so steep and lofty as to be difficult of ascent, and hence applies to that which involves great and sustained exertion and ordinarily for a lofty aim; great learning can only be won by _arduous_ toil. _Hard_ applies to anything that resists our endeavors as a scarcely penetrable mass resists our physical force. Anything is _hard_ that involves tax and strain whether of the physical or mental powers. _Difficult_ is not used of that which merely taxes physical force; a dead lift is called _hard_ rather than _difficult_; breaking stone on the road would be called _hard_ rather than _difficult_ work; that is _difficult_ which involves skill, sagacity, or address, with or without a considerable expenditure of physical force; a geometrical problem may be _difficult_ to solve, a tangled skein to unravel; a mountain _difficult_ to ascend. _Hard_ may be active or passive; a thing may be _hard_ to do or _hard_ to bear. _Arduous_ is always active. That which is _laborious_ or _toilsome_ simply requires the steady application of labor or toil till accomplished; _toilsome_ is the stronger word. That which is _onerous_ (L. _onus_, a burden) is mentally burdensome or oppressive. Responsibility may be _onerous_ even when it involves no special exertion. Antonyms: easy, facile, light, pleasant, slight, trifling, trivial. * * * * * DIRECTION. Synonyms: aim, bearing, course, inclination, tendency, way. The _direction_ of an object is the line of motion or of vision toward it, or the line in which the object is moving, considered from our own actual or mental standpoint. _Way_, literally the road or path, comes naturally to mean the _direction_ of the road or path; conversationally, _way_ is almost a perfect synonym of _direction_; as, which _way_ did he go? or, in which _direction_? _Bearing_ is the _direction_ in which an object is seen with reference to another, and especially with reference to the points of the compass. _Course_ is the _direction_ of a moving object; _inclination_, that toward which a stationary object leans; _tendency_, the _direction_ toward which anything stretches or reaches out; _tendency_ is stronger and more active than _inclination_. Compare AIM; CARE; ORDER; OVERSIGHT. * * * * * DISCERN. Synonyms: behold, discriminate, observe, recognize, descry, distinguish, perceive, see. What we _discern_ we _see_ apart from all other objects; what we _discriminate_ we judge apart; what we _distinguish_ we mark apart, or recognize by some special mark or manifest difference. We _discriminate_ by real differences; we _distinguish_ by outward signs; an officer is readily _distinguished_ from a common soldier by his uniform. Objects may be dimly _discerned_ at twilight, when yet we can not clearly _distinguish_ one from another. We _descry_ (originally _espy_) what is difficult to discover. Compare DISCOVER; LOOK. * * * * * DISCOVER. Synonyms: ascertain, detect, disclose, ferret out, find out, descry, discern, expose, find, invent. Of human actions or character, _detect_ is used, almost without exception, in a bad sense; _discover_ may be used in either the good or the bad sense, oftener in the good; he was _detected_ in a fraud; real merit is sure to be _discovered_. In scientific language, _detect_ is used of delicate indications that appear in course of careful watching; as, a slight fluttering of the pulse could be _detected_. We _discover_ what has existed but has not been known to us; we _invent_ combinations or arrangements not before in use; Columbus _discovered_ America; Morse _invented_ the electric telegraph. _Find_ is the most general word for every means of coming to know what was not before certainly known. A man _finds_ in the road some stranger's purse, or _finds_ his own which he is searching for. The expert _discovers_ or _detects_ an error in an account; the auditor _finds_ the account to be correct. Compare DISCERN. Antonyms: See synonyms for HIDE. * * * * * DISEASE. Synonyms: affection, disorder, indisposition, sickness, ailment, distemper, infirmity, unhealthiness, complaint, illness, malady, unsoundness. _Disease_ is the general term for any deviation from health; in a more limited sense it denotes some definite morbid condition; _disorder_ and _affection_ are rather partial and limited; as, a nervous _affection_; a _disorder_ of the digestive system. _Sickness_ was generally used in English speech and literature, till the close of the eighteenth century at least, for every form of physical _disorder_, as abundantly appears in the English Bible: "Jesus went about ... healing all manner of _sickness_ and all manner of _disease_ among the people," _Matt._ iv, 23; "Elisha was fallen _sick_ of his _sickness_ whereof he died," _2 Kings_ xiii, 14. There is now, in England, a tendency to restrict the words _sick_ and _sickness_ to nausea, or "_sickness_ at the stomach," and to hold _ill_ and _illness_ as the only proper words to use in a general sense. This distinction has received but a very limited acceptance in the United States, where _sick_ and _sickness_ have the earlier and wider usage. We speak of trifling _ailments_, a slight _indisposition_, a serious or a deadly _disease_; a slight or severe _illness_; a painful _sickness_. _Complaint_ is a popular term, which may be applied to any degree of ill health, slight or severe. _Infirmity_ denotes a chronic or lingering weakness or disability, as blindness or lameness. Antonyms: health, robustness, soundness, strength, sturdiness, vigor. * * * * * DISPARAGE. Synonyms: belittle, depreciate, discredit, underestimate, carp at, derogate from, dishonor, underrate, decry, detract from, lower, undervalue. To _decry_ is to cry down, in some noisy, public, or conspicuous manner. A witness or a statement is _discredited_; the currency is _depreciated_; a good name is _dishonored_ by unworthy conduct; we _underestimate_ in our own minds; we may _underrate_ or _undervalue_ in statement to others. These words are used, with few exceptions, of things such as qualities, merits, attainments, etc. To _disparage_ is to _belittle_ by damaging comparison or suggestion; it is used only of things. A man's achievements are _disparaged_, his motives _depreciated_, his professions _discredited_; he himself is calumniated, slandered, etc. Compare SLANDER. Antonyms: See synonyms for PRAISE. * * * * * DISPLACE. Synonyms: confuse, derange, disturb, mislay, remove, crowd out, disarrange, jumble, misplace, unsettle. Objects are _displaced_ when moved out of the place they have occupied; they are _misplaced_ when put into a place where they should not be. One may know where to find what he has _misplaced_; what he has _mislaid_ he can not locate. Antonyms: adjust, assort, dispose, order, put in order, set in order, array, classify, group, place, put in place, sort. * * * * * DO. Synonyms: accomplish, carry out, discharge, perform, achieve, carry through, effect, perpetrate, actualize, commit, execute, realize, bring about, complete, finish, transact, bring to pass, consummate, fulfil, work out. _Do_ is the one comprehensive word which includes this whole class. We may say of the least item of daily work, "It is _done_," and of the grandest human achievement, "Well _done_!" _Finish_ and _complete_ signify to bring to an end what was previously begun; there is frequently the difference in usage that _finish_ is applied to the fine details and is superficial, while _complete_ is comprehensive, being applied to the whole ideal, plan, and execution; as, to _finish_ a statue; to _complete_ a scheme of philosophy. To _discharge_ is to _do_ what is given in charge, expected, or required; as, to _discharge_ the duties of the office. To _fulfil_ is to _do_ or to be what has been promised, expected, hoped, or desired; as, a son _fulfils_ a father's hopes. _Realize_, _effect_, _execute_, and _consummate_ all signify to embody in fact what was before in thought. One may _realize_ that which he has done nothing to _bring about_; he may _realize_ the dreams of youth by inheriting a fortune; but he can not _effect_ his early designs except by _doing_ the utmost that is necessary to make them fact. _Effect_ includes all that is _done_ to _accomplish_ the intent; _execute_ refers rather to the final steps; _consummate_ is limited quite sharply to the concluding act. An officer _executes_ the law when he proceeds against its violators; a purchase is _consummated_ when the money is paid and the property delivered. _Execute_ refers more commonly to the commands of another, _effect_ and _consummate_ to one's own designs; as, the commander _effected_ the capture of the fort, because his officers and men promptly _executed_ his commands. _Achieve_--to _do_ something worthy of a chief--signifies always to _perform_ some great and generally some worthy exploit. _Perform_ and _accomplish_ both imply working toward the end; but _perform_ always allows a possibility of not attaining, while _accomplish_ carries the thought of full completion. In Longfellow's lines, "Patience; _accomplish_ thy labor," etc., _perform_ could not be substituted without great loss. As between _complete_ and _accomplish_, _complete_ considers rather the thing as _done_; _accomplish_, the whole process of doing it. _Commit_, as applied to actions, is used only of those that are bad, whether grave or trivial; _perpetrate_ is used chiefly of aggravated crimes or, somewhat humorously, of blunders. A man may _commit_ a sin, a trespass, or a murder; _perpetrate_ an outrage or a felony. We _finish_ a garment or a letter, _complete_ an edifice or a life-work, _consummate_ a bargain or a crime, _discharge_ a duty, _effect_ a purpose, _execute_ a command, _fulfil_ a promise, _perform_ our daily tasks, _realize_ an ideal, _accomplish_ a design, _achieve_ a victory. Compare TRANSACT; TRANSACTION. Antonyms: baffle, defeat, fail, mar, miss, ruin, come short, destroy, frustrate, miscarry, neglect, spoil. * * * * * DOCILE. Synonyms: amenable, manageable, pliant, teachable, compliant, obedient, submissive, tractable, gentle, pliable, tame, yielding. One who is _docile_ is easily taught; one who is _tractable_ is easily led; one who is _pliant_ is easily bent in any direction; _compliant_ represents one as inclined or persuaded to agreement with another's will. Compare DUTY. Antonyms: determined, inflexible, opinionated, self-willed, wilful, dogged, intractable, resolute, stubborn, unyielding. firm, obstinate, * * * * * DOCTRINE. Synonyms: article of belief, belief, precept, teaching, article of faith, dogma, principle, tenet. _Doctrine_ primarily signifies that which is taught; _principle_, the fundamental basis on which the _teaching_ rests. A _doctrine_ is reasoned out, and may be defended by reasoning; a _dogma_ rests on authority, as of direct revelation, the decision of the church, etc. A _doctrine_ or _dogma_ is a statement of some one item of _belief_; a _creed_ is a summary of _doctrines_ or _dogmas_. _Dogma_ has commonly, at the present day, an offensive signification, as of a _belief_ arrogantly asserted. _Tenet_ is simply that which is held, and is applied to a single item of _belief_; it is a neutral word, neither approving nor condemning; we speak of the _doctrines_ of our own church; of the _tenets_ of others. A _precept_ relates not to _belief_, but to conduct. Compare FAITH; LAW. * * * * * DOGMATIC. Synonyms: arrogant, doctrinal, magisterial, positive, authoritative, domineering, opinionated, self-opinionated, dictatorial, imperious, overbearing, systematic. _Dogmatic_ is technically applied in a good sense to that which is formally enunciated by adequate authority; _doctrinal_ to that which is stated in the form of doctrine to be taught or defended. _Dogmatic_ theology, called also "dogmatics," gives definite propositions, which it holds to be delivered by authority; _systematic_ theology considers the same propositions in their logical connection and order as parts of a system; a _doctrinal_ statement is less absolute in its claims than a _dogmatic_ treatise, and may be more partial than the term _systematic_ would imply. Outside of theology, _dogmatic_ has generally an offensive sense; a _dogmatic_ statement is one for which the author does not trouble himself to give a reason, either because of the strength of his convictions, or because of his contempt for those whom he addresses; thus _dogmatic_ is, in common use, allied with _arrogant_ and kindred words. * * * * * DOUBT, _v._ Synonyms: distrust, mistrust, surmise, suspect. To _doubt_ is to lack conviction. Incompleteness of evidence may compel one to _doubt_, or some perverse bias of mind may incline him to. _Distrust_ may express simply a lack of confidence; as, I _distrust_ my own judgment; or it may be nearly equivalent to _suspect_; as, I _distrusted_ that man from the start. _Mistrust_ and _suspect_ imply that one is almost assured of positive evil; one may _distrust_ himself or others; he _suspects_ others. _Mistrust_ is now rarely, if ever, used of persons, but only of motives, intentions, etc. _Distrust_ is always serious; _mistrust_ is often used playfully. Compare SUPPOSE. Compare synonyms for DOUBT, _n._ Antonyms: believe, depend on, depend upon, rely on, rely upon, trust. confide in, * * * * * DOUBT, _n._ Synonyms: disbelief, incredulity, perplexity, suspense, distrust, indecision, question, suspicion, hesitancy, irresolution, scruple, unbelief, hesitation, misgiving, skepticism, uncertainty. _Doubt_ is a lack of conviction that may refer either to matters of belief or to matters of practise. As regards belief, while _doubt_ is lack of conviction, _disbelief_ is conviction, to the contrary; _unbelief_ refers to a settled state of mind, generally accompanied with opposition of heart. _Perplexity_ is active and painful; _doubt_ may be quiescent. _Perplexity_ presses toward a solution; _doubt_ may be content to linger unresolved. Any improbable statement awakens _incredulity_. In theological usage _unbelief_ and _skepticism_ have a condemnatory force, as implying wilful rejection of manifest truth. As regards practical matters, _uncertainty_ applies to the unknown or undecided; _doubt_ implies some negative evidence. _Suspense_ regards the future, and is eager and anxious; _uncertainty_ may relate to any period, and be quite indifferent. _Misgiving_ is ordinarily in regard to the outcome of something already done or decided; _hesitation_, _indecision_, and _irresolution_ have reference to something that remains to be decided or done, and are due oftener to infirmity of will than to lack of knowledge. _Distrust_ and _suspicion_ apply especially to the motives, character, etc., of others, and are more decidedly adverse than _doubt_. _Scruple_ relates to matters of conscience and duty. Antonyms: assurance, certainty, conviction, determination, resolution, belief, confidence, decision, persuasion, resolve. * * * * * DRAW. Synonyms: allure, drag, haul, induce, lure, tow, attract, entice, incline, lead, pull, tug. One object _draws_ another when it moves it toward itself or in the direction of its own motion by the exertion of adequate force, whether slight or powerful. To _attract_ is to exert a force that tends to _draw_, tho it may produce no actual motion; all objects are _attracted_ toward the earth, tho they may be sustained from falling. To _drag_ is to _draw_ against strong resistance; as, to _drag_ a sled over bare ground, or a carriage up a steep hill. To _pull_ is to exert a _drawing_ force, whether adequate or inadequate; as, the fish _pulls_ on the line; a dentist _pulls_ a tooth. To _tug_ is to _draw_, or try to _draw_, a resisting object with a continuous straining motion; as, to _tug_ at the oar. To _haul_ is to _draw_ somewhat slowly a heavy object; as, to _haul_ a seine; to _haul_ logs. One vessel _tows_ another. In the figurative sense, _attract_ is more nearly akin to _incline_, _draw_ to _induce_. We are _attracted_ by one's appearance, _drawn_ to his side. Compare ALLURE; ARRAY; INFLUENCE. Antonyms: alienate, estrange, rebuff, reject, repel, repulse. See synonyms for DRIVE. Prepositions: To draw water _from_ or _out of_ the well; draw the boat _through_ the water, _to_ the shore; draw air _into_ the lungs; draw _with_ cords of love; the wagon is drawn _by_ horses, _along_ the road, _across_ the field, _over_ the stones, _through_ the woods, _to_ the barn. * * * * * DREAM. Synonyms: day-dream, fantasy, reverie, trance, fancy, hallucination, romance, vision. A _dream_ is strictly a train of thoughts, fantasies, and images passing through the mind during sleep; a _vision_ may occur when one is awake, and in clear exercise of the senses and mental powers; _vision_ is often applied to something seen by the mind through supernatural agency, whether in sleep or wakefulness, conceived as more real and authoritative than a _dream_; a _trance_ is an abnormal state, which is different from normal sleep or wakefulness. A _reverie_ is a purposeless drifting of the mind when awake, under the influence of mental images; a _day-dream_ that which passes before the mind in such condition. A _fancy_ is some image presented to the mind, often in the fullest exercise of its powers. _Hallucination_ is the seeming perception of non-existent objects, as in insanity or delirium. In the figurative sense, we speak of _dreams_ of fortune, _visions_ of glory, with little difference of meaning except that the _vision_ is thought of as fuller and more vivid. We speak of a _trance_ of delight when the emotion almost sweeps one away from the normal exercise of the faculties. Antonyms: certainty, fact, reality, realization, substance, verity. * * * * * DRESS. Synonyms: apparel, clothes, garb, habit, uniform, array, clothing, garments, raiment, vestments, attire, costume, habiliments, robes, vesture. _Clothing_ denotes the entire covering of the body, taken as a whole; _clothes_ and _garments_ view it as composed of separate parts. _Clothes_, _clothing_, and _garments_ may be used of inner or outer covering; all the other words in the list (with possible rare exceptions in the case of _raiment_) refer to the outer _garments_. _Array_, _raiment_, and _vesture_ are archaic or poetic; so, too, is _habit_, except in technical use to denote a lady's riding-_dress_. The word _vestments_ is now rare, except in ecclesiastical use. _Apparel_ and _attire_ are most frequently used of somewhat complete and elegant outer _clothing_, tho Shakespeare speaks of "poor and mean _attire_." _Dress_ may be used, specifically, for a woman's gown, and in that sense may be either rich or shabby; but in the general sense it denotes outer _clothing_ which is meant to be elegant, complete, and appropriate to some social or public occasion; as, full _dress_, court _dress_, evening _dress_, etc. _Dress_ has now largely displaced _apparel_ and _attire_. _Garb_ denotes the _clothing_ characteristic of some class, profession, or the like; as, the _garb_ of a priest. _Costume_ is chiefly used for that which befits an assumed character; as, a theatrical _costume_; we sometimes speak of a national _costume_, etc. Antonyms: bareness, dishabille, exposure, nakedness, nudity, undress. disarray, * * * * * DRIVE. Synonyms: compel, propel, repel, resist, thrust, impel, push, repulse, ride, urge on. To _drive_ is to move an object with some force or violence before or away from oneself; it is the direct reverse of _draw_, _lead_, etc. A man leads a horse by the halter, _drives_ him with whip and rein. One may be _driven_ to a thing or from it; hence, _drive_ is a synonym equally for _compel_ or for _repel_ or _repulse_. _Repulse_ is stronger and more conclusive than _repel_; one may be _repelled_ by the very aspect of the person whose favor he seeks, but is not _repulsed_ except by the direct refusal or ignoring of his suit. A certain conventional modern usage, especially in England, requires us to say that we _drive_ in a carriage, _ride_ upon a horse; tho in Scripture we read of _riding_ in a chariot (_2 Kings_ ix, 16; _Jer._ xvii, 25, etc.); good examples of the same usage may be found abundantly in the older English. The propriety of a person's saying that he is going to _drive_ when he is simply to be conveyed in a carriage, where some one else, as the coachman, does all the _driving_, is exceedingly questionable. Many good authorities prefer to use _ride_ in the older and broader sense as signifying to be supported and borne along by any means of conveyance. Compare BANISH; COMPEL; INFLUENCE. Antonyms: See synonyms for DRAW. Prepositions: Drive _to_ market; _to_ despair; drive _into_ exile; _from_ one's presence; _out of_ the city; drive _by_, _with_, or _under_ the lash; drive _by_ or _past_ beautiful estates; _along_ the beach; _beside_ the river; _through_ the park; _across_ the field; _around_ the square; _to_ the door; _into_ the barn; _out of_ the sunshine. * * * * * DUPLICATE. Synonyms: copy, facsimile, likeness, reproduction, counterpart, imitation, replica, transcript. A _copy_ is as nearly like the original as the copyist has power to make it; a _duplicate_ is exactly like the original; a carbon _copy_ of a typewritten document must be a _duplicate_; we may have an inaccurate _copy_, but never an inaccurate _duplicate_. A _facsimile_ is like the original in appearance; a _duplicate_ is the same as the original in substance and effect; a _facsimile_ of the Declaration of Independence is not a _duplicate_. A _facsimile_ of a key might be quite useless; a _duplicate_ will open the lock. A _counterpart_ exactly corresponds to another object, but perhaps without design, while a _copy_ is intentional. An _imitation_ is always thought of as inferior to the original; as, an _imitation_ of Milton. A _replica_ is a _copy_ of a work of art by the maker of the original. In law, a _copy_ of an instrument has in itself no authority; the signatures, as well as other matters, may be copied; a _duplicate_ is really an original, containing the same provisions and signed by the same persons, so that it may have in all respects the same force and effect; a _transcript_ is an official _copy_, authenticated by the signature of the proper officer, and by the seal of the appropriate court. While strictly there could be but one _duplicate_, the word is now extended to an indefinite number of exact _copies_. _Reproduction_ is chiefly applied to living organisms. Antonyms: archetype, model, original, pattern, prototype. * * * * * DUTY. Synonyms: accountability, function, office, right, business, obligation, responsibility, righteousness. Etymologically, _duty_ is that which is owed or due; _obligation_, that to or by which one is bound; _right_, that which is correct, straight, or in the direct line of truth and goodness; _responsibility_, that for which one must answer. _Duty_ and _responsibility_ are thought of as to some person or persons; _right_ is impersonal. One's _duty_ may be to others or to himself; his _obligations_ and _responsibilities_ are to others. _Duty_ arises from the nature of things; _obligation_ and _responsibility_ may be created by circumstances, as by one's own promise, or by the acceptance of a trust, etc. We speak of a parent's _duty_, a debtor's _obligation_; or of a child's _duty_ of obedience, and a parent's _responsibility_ for the child's welfare. _Right_ is that which accords with the moral system of the universe. _Righteousness_ is _right_ incarnated in action. In a more limited sense, _right_ may be used of what one may rightly claim, and so be the converse of _duty_. It is the creditor's _right_ to demand payment, and the debtor's _duty_ to pay. Compare BUSINESS. * * * * * EAGER. Synonyms: animated, desirous, glowing, importunate, longing, anxious, earnest, hot, intense, vehement, ardent, enthusiastic, impatient, intent, yearning, burning, fervent, impetuous, keen, zealous. One is _eager_ who impatiently desires to accomplish some end; one is _earnest_ with a desire that is less impatient, but more deep, resolute, and constant; one is _anxious_ with a desire that foresees rather the pain of disappointment than the delight of attainment. One is _eager_ for the gratification of any appetite or passion; he is _earnest_ in conviction, purpose, or character. _Eager_ usually refers to some specific and immediate satisfaction, _earnest_ to something permanent and enduring; the patriotic soldier is _earnest_ in his devotion to his country, _eager_ for a decisive battle. Antonyms: apathetic, cool, indifferent, regardless, unconcerned, calm, dispassionate, negligent, stolid, uninterested, careless, frigid, phlegmatic, stony, unmindful, cold, heedless, purposeless, stupid, unmoved. Prepositions: Eager _for_ (more rarely _after_) favor, honor, etc.; eager _in_ pursuit. * * * * * EASE. Synonyms: easiness, expertness, facility, knack, readiness. _Ease_ in the sense here considered denotes freedom from conscious or apparent effort, tax, or strain. _Ease_ may be either of condition or of action; _facility_ is always of action; _readiness_ is of action or of expected action. One lives at _ease_ who has no pressing cares; one stands at _ease_, moves or speaks with _ease_, when wholly without constraint. _Facility_ is always active; _readiness_ may be active or passive; the speaker has _facility_ of expression, _readiness_ of wit; any appliance is in _readiness_ for use. _Ease_ of action may imply merely the possession of ample power; _facility_ always implies practise and skill; any one can press down the keys of a typewriter with _ease_; only the skilled operator works the machine with _facility_. _Readiness_ in the active sense includes much of the meaning of _ease_ with the added idea of promptness or alertness. _Easiness_ applies to the thing done, rather than to the doer. _Expertness_ applies to the more mechanical processes of body and mind; we speak of the _readiness_ of an orator, but of the _expertness_ of a gymnast. Compare COMFORTABLE; DEXTERITY; POWER. Antonyms: annoyance, difficulty, irritation, trouble, vexation, awkwardness, discomfort, perplexity, uneasiness, worry. constraint, disquiet, * * * * * EDUCATION. Synonyms: breeding, discipline, learning, study, cultivation, information, nurture, teaching, culture, instruction, reading, training, development, knowledge, schooling, tuition. _Education_ (L. _educere_, to lead or draw out) is the systematic development and cultivation of the mind and other natural powers. "_Education_ is the harmonious development of all our faculties. It begins in the nursery, and goes on at school, but does not end there. It continues through life, whether we will or not.... 'Every person,' says Gibbon, 'has two educations, one which he receives from others, and one more important, which he gives himself.'" JOHN LUBBOCK _The Use of Life_ ch. vii, p. 111. [MACM. '94.] _Instruction_, the impartation of _knowledge_ by others (L. _instruere_, to build in or into) is but a part of education, often the smallest part. _Teaching_ is the more familiar and less formal word for _instruction_. _Training_ refers not merely to the impartation of _knowledge_, but to the exercising of one in actions with the design to form habits. _Discipline_ is systematic and rigorous _training_, with the idea of subjection to authority and perhaps of punishment. _Tuition_ is the technical term for _teaching_ as the business of an instructor or as in the routine of a school; _tuition_ is narrower than _teaching_, not, like the latter word, including _training_. _Study_ is emphatically what one does for himself. We speak of the _teaching_, _training_, or _discipline_, but not of the _education_ or _tuition_ of a dog or a horse. _Breeding_ and _nurture_ include _teaching_ and _training_, especially as directed by and dependent upon home life and personal association; _breeding_ having reference largely to manners with such qualities as are deemed distinctively characteristic of high birth; _nurture_ (literally _nourishing_) having more direct reference to moral qualities, not overlooking the physical and mental. _Knowledge_ and _learning_ tell nothing of mental development apart from the capacity to acquire and remember, and nothing whatever of that moral development which is included in _education_ in its fullest and noblest sense; _learning_, too, may be acquired by one's unaided industry, but any full _education_ must be the result in great part of _instruction_, _training_, and personal association. _Study_ is emphatically what one does for himself, and in which _instruction_ and _tuition_ can only point the way, encourage the student to advance, and remove obstacles; vigorous, persevering _study_ is one of the best elements of _training_. _Study_ is also used in the sense of the thing studied, a subject to be mastered by _study_, a studious pursuit. Compare KNOWLEDGE; REFINEMENT; WISDOM. Antonyms: ignorance, illiteracy. Compare synonyms for IGNORANT. * * * * * EFFRONTERY. Synonyms: assurance, boldness, hardihood, insolence, audacity, brass, impudence, shamelessness. _Audacity_, in the sense here considered, is a reckless defiance of law, decency, public opinion, or personal rights, claims, or views, approaching the meaning of _impudence_ or _shamelessness_, but always carrying the thought of the personal risk that one disregards in such defiance; the merely _impudent_ or _shameless_ person may take no thought of consequences; the _audacious_ person recognizes and recklessly braves them. _Hardihood_ defies and disregards the rational judgment of men. _Effrontery_ (L. _effrons_, barefaced, shameless) adds to _audacity_ and _hardihood_ the special element of defiance of considerations of propriety, duty, and respect for others, yet not to the extent implied in _impudence_ or _shamelessness_. _Impudence_ disregards what is due to superiors; _shamelessness_ defies decency. _Boldness_ is forward-stepping courage, spoken of with reference to the presence and observation of others; _boldness_, in the good sense, is courage viewed from the outside; but the word is frequently used in an unfavorable sense to indicate a lack of proper sensitiveness and modesty. Compare ASSURANCE; BRAVE. Antonyms: bashfulness, diffidence, sensitiveness, shyness, coyness, modesty, shrinking, timidity. * * * * * EGOTISM. Synonyms: conceit, self-assertion, self-confidence, self-esteem, egoism, self-conceit, self-consciousness, vanity. _Egoism_ is giving the "I" undue supremacy in thought; _egotism_ is giving the "I" undue prominence in speech. _Egotism_ is sometimes used in the sense of _egoism_, or supreme regard for oneself. _Self-assertion_ is the claim by word, act, or manner of what one believes to be his due; _self-conceit_ is an overestimate of one's own powers or deserts. _Conceit_ is a briefer expression for _self-conceit_, with always an offensive implication; _self-conceit_ is ridiculous or pitiable; _conceit_ arouses resentment. There is a worthy _self-confidence_ which springs from consciousness of rectitude and of power equal to demands. _Self-assertion_ at times becomes a duty; but _self-conceit_ is always a weakness. _Self-consciousness_ is the keeping of one's thoughts upon oneself, with the constant anxious question of what others will think. _Vanity_ is an overweening admiration of self, craving equal admiration from others; _self-consciousness_ is commonly painful to its possessor, _vanity_ always a source of satisfaction, except as it fails to receive its supposed due. _Self-esteem_ is more solid and better founded than _self-conceit_; but is ordinarily a weakness, and never has the worthy sense of _self-confidence_. Compare ASSURANCE; PRIDE. Antonyms: bashfulness, humility, self-forgetfulness, unobtrusiveness, deference, modesty, shyness, unostentatiousness. diffidence, self-distrust, * * * * * EMBLEM. Synonyms: attribute, figure, image, sign, symbol, token, type. _Emblem_ is the English form of _emblema_, a Latin word of Greek origin, signifying a figure beaten out on a metallic vessel by blows from within; also, a figure inlaid in wood, stone, or other material as a copy of some natural object. The Greek word _symbolon_ denoted a victor's wreath, a check, or any object that might be compared with, or found to correspond with another, whether there was or was not anything in the objects compared to suggest the comparison. Thus an _emblem_ resembles, a _symbol_ represents. An _emblem_ has some natural fitness to suggest that for which it stands; a _symbol_ has been chosen or agreed upon to suggest something else, with or without natural fitness; a _sign_ does actually suggest the thing with or without reason, and with or without intention or choice. A _symbol_ may be also an _emblem_; thus the elements of bread and wine in the Lord's Supper are both appropriate _emblems_ and his own chosen _symbols_ of suffering and death. A statement of doctrine is often called a _symbol_ of faith; but it is not an _emblem_. On the other hand, the same thing may be both a _sign_ and a _symbol_; a letter of the alphabet is a _sign_ which indicates a sound; but letters are often used as mathematical, chemical, or astronomical _symbols_. A _token_ is something given or done as a pledge or expression of feeling or intent; while the _sign_ may be unintentional, the _token_ is voluntary; kind looks may be _signs_ of regard; a gift is a _token_; a ring, which is a natural _emblem_ of eternity, and also its accepted _symbol_, is frequently given as a _token_ of friendship or love. A _figure_ in the sense here considered is something that represents an idea to the mind somewhat as a form is represented to the eye, as in drawing, painting, or sculpture; as representing a future reality, a _figure_ may be practically the same as a _type_. An _image_ is a visible representation, especially in sculpture, having or supposed to have a close resemblance to that which it represents. A _type_ is in religion a representation of a greater reality to come; we speak of one object as the _type_ of the class whose characteristics it exhibits, as in the case of animal or vegetable _types_. An _attribute_ in art is some accessory used to characterize a _figure_ or scene; the _attribute_ is often an _emblem_ or _symbol_; thus the eagle is the _attribute_ of St. John as an _emblem_ of lofty spiritual vision. Compare SIGN. * * * * * EMIGRATE. Synonyms: immigrate, migrate. To _migrate_ is to change one's dwelling-place, usually with the idea of repeated change, or of periodical return; it applies to wandering tribes of men, and to many birds and animals. _Emigrate_ and _immigrate_ carry the idea of a permanent change of residence to some other country or some distant region; the two words are used distinctively of human beings, and apply to the same person and the same act, according to the side from which the action is viewed. Prepositions: A person emigrates _from_ the land he leaves, and immigrates _to_ the land where he takes up his abode. * * * * * EMPLOY. Synonyms: call, engage, engross, hire, make use of, use, use up. In general terms it may be said that to _employ_ is to devote to one's purpose, to _use_ is to render subservient to one's purpose; what is _used_ is viewed as more absolutely an instrument than what is _employed_; a merchant _employs_ a clerk; he _uses_ pen and paper; as a rule, _use_ is not said of persons, except in a degrading sense; as, the conspirators _used_ him as a go-between. Hence the expression common in some religious circles "that God would _use_ me" is not to be commended; it has also the fault of representing the human worker as absolutely a passive and helpless instrument; the phrase is altogether unscriptural; the Scripture says, "We are laborers together with (co-workers with) God." That which is _used_ is often consumed in the _using_, or in familiar phrase _used up_; as, we _used_ twenty tons of coal last winter; in such cases we could not substitute _employ_. A person may be _employed_ in his own work or in that of another; in the latter case the service is always understood to be for pay. In this connection _employ_ is a word of more dignity than _hire_; a general is _employed_ in his country's service; a mercenary adventurer is _hired_ to fight a tyrant's battles. It is unsuitable, according to present usage, to speak of _hiring_ a pastor; the Scripture, indeed, says of the preacher, "The laborer is worthy of his hire;" but this sense is archaic, and _hire_ now implies that the one _hired_ works directly and primarily for the pay, as expressed in the noun "hireling;" a Pastor is properly said to be _called_, or when the business side of the transaction is referred to, _engaged_, or possibly _employed_, at a certain salary. Prepositions: Employ _in_, _on_, _upon_, or _about_ a work, business, etc.; _for_ a purpose; _at_ a stipulated salary. * * * * * END, _v._ Synonyms: break off, close, conclude, expire, quit, terminate, cease, complete, desist, finish, stop, wind up. That _ends_, or is _ended_, of which there is no more, whether or not more was intended or needed; that is _closed_, _completed_, _concluded_, or _finished_ which has come to an expected or appropriate end. A speech may be _ended_ almost as soon as begun, because of the speaker's illness, or of tumult in the audience; in such a case, the speech is neither _closed_, _completed_, nor _finished_, nor, in the strict sense, _concluded_. An argument may be _closed_ with nothing proved; when an argument is _concluded_ all that is deemed necessary to prove the point has been stated. To _finish_ is to do the last thing there is to do; as, "I have _finished_ my course," _2 Tim._ iv, 7. _Finish_ has come to mean, not merely to _complete_ in the essentials, but to perfect in all the minute details, as in the expression "to add the _finishing_ touches." The enumeration is _completed_; the poem, the picture, the statue is _finished_. To _terminate_ may be either to bring to an arbitrary or to an appropriate end; as, he _terminated_ his remarks abruptly; the spire _terminates_ in a cross. A thing _stops_ that comes to rest from motion; or the motion _stops_ or _ceases_ when the object comes to rest; _stop_ frequently signifies to bring or come to a sudden and decided cessation of motion, progress, or action of any kind. Compare DO; TRANSACT. Antonyms: See synonyms for BEGIN. * * * * * END, _n._ Synonyms: accomplishment, effect, limit, achievement, expiration, outcome, bound, extent, period, boundary, extremity, point, cessation, finale, purpose, close, finis, result, completion, finish, termination, conclusion, fulfilment, terminus, consequence, goal, tip, consummation, intent, utmost, design, issue, uttermost. The _end_ is the terminal part of a material object that has length; the _extremity_ is distinctively the terminal _point_, and may thus be but part of the _end_ in the general sense of that word; the _extremity_ is viewed as that which is most remote from some center, or some mean or standard position; the southern _end_ of South America includes all Patagonia, the southern _extremity_ or _point_ is Cape Horn. _Tip_ has nearly the same meaning as _extremity_, but is said of small or slight and tapering objects; as, the _tip_ of the finger; _point_ in such connections is said of that which is drawn out to exceeding fineness or sharpness, as the _point_ of a needle, a fork, or a sword; _extremity_ is said of something considerable; we do not speak of the _extremity_ of a needle. _Terminus_ is chiefly used to designate the _end_ of a line of travel or transportation: specifically, the furthermost station in any direction on a railway, or by extension the town or village where it is situated. _Termination_ is the Latin and more formal word for the Saxon _end_, but is chiefly used of time, words, undertakings, or abstractions of any kind. _Expiration_ signifies the coming to an _end_ in the natural course of things; as, the _expiration_ of a year, or of a lease; it is used of things of some consequence; we do not ordinarily speak of the _expiration_ of an hour or of a day. _Limit_ implies some check to or restraint upon further advance, right, or privilege; as, the _limits_ of an estate (compare BOUNDARY). A _goal_ is an _end_ sought or striven for, as in a race. For the figurative senses of _end_ and its associated words, compare the synonyms for the verb END; also for AIM; CONSEQUENCE; DESIGN. Antonyms: See synonyms for BEGINNING. * * * * * ENDEAVOR, _v._ Synonyms: attempt, essay, strive, try, undertake. To _attempt_ is to take action somewhat experimentally with the hope and purpose of accomplishing a certain result; to _endeavor_ is to _attempt_ strenuously and with firm and enduring purpose. To _attempt_ expresses a single act; to _endeavor_, a continuous exertion; we say I will _endeavor_ (not I will _attempt_) while I live. To _attempt_ is with the view of accomplishing; to _essay_, with a view of testing our own powers. To _undertake_ is to accept or take upon oneself as an obligation, as some business, labor, or trust; the word often implies complete assurance of success; as, I will _undertake_ to produce the witness. To _strive_ suggests little of the result, much of toil, strain, and contest, in seeking it; I will _strive_ to fulfil your wishes, _i. e._, I will spare no labor and exertion to do it. _Try_ is the most comprehensive of these words. The original idea of testing or experimenting is not thought of when a man says "I will _try_." To _attempt_ suggests giving up, if the thing is not accomplished at a stroke; to _try_ implies using other means and studying out other ways if not at first successful. _Endeavor_ is more mild and formal; the pilot in the burning pilot-house does not say "I will _endeavor_" or "I will _attempt_ to hold the ship to her course," but "I'll _try_, sir!" Antonyms: abandon, give up, omit, throw away, dismiss, let go, overlook, throw over, drop, neglect, pass by, throw up. * * * * * ENDEAVOR, _n._ Synonyms: attempt, effort, essay, exertion, struggle, trial. _Effort_ denotes the voluntary putting forth of power to attain or accomplish some specific thing; it reaches toward a definite end; _exertion_ is a putting forth of power without special reference to an object. Every _effort_ is an _exertion_, but not every _exertion_ is an _effort_. _Attempt_ is more experimental than _effort_, _endeavor_ less strenuous but more continuous. An _effort_ is a single act, an _endeavor_ a continued series of acts; an _endeavor_ is sustained and enduring, and may be lifelong; we do not have a society of Christian _Attempt_, or of Christian _Effort_, but of Christian _Endeavor_. A _struggle_ is a violent _effort_ or strenuous _exertion_. An _essay_ is an _attempt_, _effort_, or _endeavor_ made as a test of the powers of the one who makes it. Compare ENDEAVOR, _v._ * * * * * ENDURE. Synonyms: abide, bear, brook, submit to, sustain, afford, bear up under, permit, suffer, tolerate, allow, bear with, put up with, support, undergo. _Bear_ is the most general of these words; it is metaphorically to hold up or keep up a burden of care, pain, grief, annoyance, or the like, without sinking, lamenting, or repining. _Allow_ and _permit_ involve large concession of the will; _put up with_ and _tolerate_ imply decided aversion and reluctant withholding of opposition or interference; whispering is _allowed_ by the school-teacher who does not forbid nor censure it; one _puts up with_ the presence of a disagreeable visitor; a state _tolerates_ a religion which it would be glad to suppress. To _endure_ is to _bear with_ strain and resistance, but with conscious power; _endure_ conveys a fuller suggestion of contest and conquest than _bear_. One may choose to _endure_ the pain of a surgical operation rather than take anesthetics; he _permits_ the thing to come which he must brace himself to _endure_ when it comes. To _afford_ is to be equal to a pecuniary demand, _i. e._, to be able to _bear_ it. To _brook_ is quietly to _put up with_ provocation or insult. _Abide_ combines the senses of await and _endure_; as, I will _abide_ the result. Compare ABIDE; SUPPORT. Antonyms: break, despair, fail, fall, give out, sink, surrender, break down, droop, faint, falter, give up, succumb, yield. * * * * * ENEMY. Synonyms: adversary, antagonist, competitor, foe, opponent, rival. An _enemy_ in private life is one who is moved by hostile feeling with active disposition to injure; but in military language all who fight on the opposite side are called _enemies_ or collectively "the _enemy_," where no personal animosity may be implied; _foe_, which is rather a poetical and literary word, implies intensely hostile spirit and purpose. An _antagonist_ is one who opposes and is opposed actively and with intensity of effort; an _opponent_, one in whom the attitude of resistance is the more prominent; a _competitor_, one who seeks the same object for which another is striving; _antagonists_ in wrestling, _competitors_ in business, _opponents_ in debate may contend with no personal ill will; _rivals_ in love, ambition, etc., rarely avoid inimical feeling. _Adversary_ was formerly much used in the general sense of _antagonist_ or _opponent_, but is now less common, and largely restricted to the hostile sense; an _adversary_ is ordinarily one who not only opposes another in fact, but does so with hostile spirit, or perhaps out of pure malignity; as, the great _Adversary_. Compare synonyms for AMBITION. Antonyms: abettor, accessory, accomplice, ally, friend, helper, supporter. Prepositions: He was the enemy _of_ my friend _in_ the contest. * * * * * ENMITY. Synonyms: acrimony, bitterness, ill will, malignity, animosity, hatred, malevolence, rancor, antagonism, hostility, malice, spite. _Enmity_ is the state of being an enemy or the feeling and disposition characterizing an enemy (compare ENEMY). _Animosity_ denotes a feeling more active and vehement, but often less enduring and determined, than _enmity_. _Enmity_ distinctly recognizes its object as an enemy, to be met or dealt with accordingly. _Hostility_ is _enmity_ in action; the term _hostilities_ between nations denotes actual armed collision. _Bitterness_ is a resentful feeling arising from a belief that one has been wronged; _acrimony_ is a kindred feeling, but deeper and more persistent, and may arise from the crossing of one's wishes or plans by another, where no injustice or wrong is felt. _Antagonism_, as between two competing authors or merchants, does not necessarily imply _enmity_, but ordinarily suggests a shade, at least, of hostile feeling. _Malice_ is a disposition or intent to injure others, for the gratification of some evil passion; _malignity_ is intense and violent _enmity_, _hatred_, or _malice_. Compare synonyms for ACRIMONY; ANGER; HATRED. Antonyms: agreement, amity, friendship, kindliness, regard, alliance, concord, harmony, kindness, sympathy. * * * * * ENTERTAIN. Synonyms: amuse, cheer, disport, enliven, interest, please, beguile, delight, divert, gratify, occupy, recreate. To _entertain_, in the sense here considered, is to engage and pleasantly occupy the attention; to _amuse_ is to occupy the attention in an especially bright and cheerful way, often with that which excites merriment or laughter; as, he _entertained_ us with an _amusing_ story. To _divert_ is to turn from serious thoughts or laborious pursuits to something that lightly and agreeably occupies the mind; one may be _entertained_ or _amused_ who has nothing serious or laborious from which to be _diverted_. To _recreate_, literally to re-create, is to engage mind or body in some pleasing activity that restores strength and energy for serious work. To _beguile_ is, as it were, to cheat into cheer and comfort by something that insensibly draws thought or feeling away from pain or disquiet. We _beguile_ a weary hour, _cheer_ the despondent, _divert_ the preoccupied, _enliven_ a dull evening or company, _gratify_ our friends' wishes, _entertain_, _interest_, _please_ a listening audience, _occupy_ idle time, _disport_ ourselves when merry, _recreate_ when worn with toil; we _amuse_ ourselves or others with whatever pleasantly passes the time without special exertion, each according to his taste. Antonyms: annoy, bore, busy, disquiet, distract, disturb, tire, weary. * * * * * ENTERTAINMENT. Synonyms: amusement, diversion, fun, pleasure, cheer, enjoyment, merriment, recreation, delight, frolic, pastime, sport. _Entertainment_ and _recreation_ imply thought and mental occupation, tho in an agreeable, refreshing way; they are therefore words of a high order. _Entertainment_, apart from its special senses of a public performance or a social party, and predominantly even there, is used of somewhat mirthful mental delight; _recreation_ may, and usually does, combine the mental with the physical. _Amusement_ and _pastime_ are nearly equivalent, the latter probably the lighter word; many slight things may be _pastimes_ which we should hardly dignify by the name of _amusements_. _Sports_ are almost wholly on the physical plane, tho involving a certain grade of mental action; fox-hunting, horse-racing, and baseball are _sports_. Certain _sports_ may afford _entertainment_ or _recreation_ to certain persons, according to their individual tastes; but _entertainment_ and _recreation_ are capable of a meaning so high as never to be approached by any meaning of _sport_. _Cheer_ may be very quiet, as the _cheer_ of a bright fire to an aged traveler; _merriment_ is with liveliness and laughter; _fun_ and _frolic_ are apt to be boisterous. _Amusement_ is a form of _enjoyment_, but _enjoyment_ may be too keen to be called _amusement_. Compare synonyms for ENTERTAIN. Antonyms: ennui, fatigue, labor, lassitude, toil, weariness, work. * * * * * ENTHUSIASM. Synonyms: ardor, excitement, frenzy, transport, devotion, extravagance, inspiration, vehemence, eagerness, fanaticism, intensity, warmth, earnestness, fervency, passion, zeal. ecstasy, fervor, rapture, The old meaning of _enthusiasm_ implies a pseudo-_inspiration_, an almost frantic _extravagance_ in behalf of something supposed to be an expression of the divine will. This sense remains as the controlling one in the kindred noun _enthusiast_. _Enthusiasm_ has now chiefly the meaning of an earnest and commendable _devotion_, an intense and eager interest. Against the hindrances of the world, nothing great and good can be carried without a certain _fervor_, _intensity_, and _vehemence_; these joined with faith, courage, and hopefulness make _enthusiasm_. _Zeal_ is burning _earnestness_, always tending to vigorous action with all the _devotion_ of _enthusiasm_, tho often without its hopefulness. Compare EAGER. Antonyms: calculation, caution, deadness, indifference, policy, timidity, calmness, coldness, dulness, lukewarmness, prudence, wariness. * * * * * ENTRANCE. Synonyms: access, approach, gate, introduction, accession, door, gateway, opening, adit, doorway, ingress, penetration, admission, entrée, inlet, portal. admittance, entry, _Entrance_, the act of entering, refers merely to the fact of passing from without to within some enclosure; _admission_ and _admittance_ refer to entering by or with some one's consent, or at least to opportunity afforded by some one's act or neglect. We may effect or force an _entrance_, but not _admittance_ or _admission_; those we gain, procure, obtain, secure, win. _Admittance_ refers to place, _admission_ refers also to position, privilege, favor, friendship, etc. An intruder may gain _admittance_ to the hall of a society who would not be allowed _admission_ to its membership. _Approach_ is a movement toward another; _access_ is coming all the way to his presence, recognition, and consideration. An unworthy favorite may prevent even those who gain _admittance_ to a king's audience from obtaining any real _access_ to the king. _Entrance_ is also used figuratively for setting out upon some career, or becoming a member of some organization; as, we speak of one's _entrance_ upon college life, or of _entrance_ into the ministry. Antonyms: departure, ejection, exit, refusal, withdrawal. egress, exclusion, expulsion, rejection, Prepositions: Entrance _into_ a place; _on_ or _upon_ a work or course of action; _into_ or _upon_ office; _into_ battle; _by_ or _through_ the door; _within_ the gates; _into_ or _among_ the company. * * * * * ENVIOUS. Synonyms: jealous, suspicious. One is _envious_ who cherishes selfish ill will toward another because of his superior success, endowments, possessions, or the like. A person is _envious_ of that which is another's, and to which he himself has no right or claim; he is _jealous_ of intrusion upon that which is his own, or to which he maintains a right or claim. An _envious_ spirit is always bad; a _jealous_ spirit may be good or bad, according to its object and tendency. A free people must be _jealous_ of their liberties if they would retain them. One is _suspicious_ of another from unfavorable indications or from a knowledge of wrong in his previous conduct, or even without reason. Compare DOUBT. Antonyms: contented, friendly, kindly, satisfied, trustful, well-disposed. Prepositions: Envious _of_ (formerly _at_ or _against_) a person; envious _of_ his wealth or power; envious _of_ him _for_, _because of_, _on account of_ his wealth or power. * * * * * EQUIVOCAL. Synonyms: ambiguous, enigmatical, indistinct, questionable, doubtful, indefinite, obscure, suspicious, dubious, indeterminate, perplexing, uncertain. enigmatic, _Equivocal_ (L. _equus_, equal, and _vox_, voice, word) denotes that which may equally well be understood in either of two or more ways. _Ambiguous_ (L. _ambi_, around, and _ago_, drive, lead) signifies lacking in distinctness or certainty, obscure or doubtful through indefiniteness of expression. _Ambiguous_ is applied only to spoken or written statements; _equivocal_ has other applications. A statement is _ambiguous_ when it leaves the mind of the reader or hearer to fluctuate between two meanings, which would fit the language equally well; it is _equivocal_ when it would naturally be understood in one way, but is capable of a different interpretation; an _equivocal_ expression is, as a rule, intentionally deceptive, while an _ambiguous_ utterance may be simply the result of a want either of clear thought or of adequate expression. That which is _enigmatical_ must be guessed like a riddle; a statement may be purposely made _enigmatical_ in order to provoke thought and study. That is _doubtful_ which is fairly open to doubt; that is _dubious_ which has become the subject of doubts so grave as scarcely to fall short of condemnation; as, a _dubious_ reputation. _Questionable_ may be used nearly in the sense either of _dubious_ or of _doubtful_; a _questionable_ statement is one that must be proved before it can be accepted. To say that one's honesty is _questionable_ is a mild way of saying that in the opinion of the speaker he is likely to prove dishonest. _Equivocal_ is sometimes, tho more rarely, used in this sense. A _suspicious_ character gives manifest reason to be suspected; a _suspicious_ temper is inclined to suspect the motives and intentions of others, with or without reason. Compare CLEAR. Antonyms: certain, evident, lucid, perspicuous, unequivocal, clear, indisputable, manifest, plain, unquestionable, distinct, indubitable, obvious, unambiguous, unquestioned. * * * * * ESTEEM, _v._ Synonyms: appreciate, consider, estimate, prize, think, calculate, deem, hold, regard, value. _Esteem_ and _estimate_ alike imply to set a certain mental value upon, but _esteem_ is less precise and mercantile than _calculate_ or _estimate_. We _esteem_ a jewel precious; we _estimate_ it to be worth so much money. This sense of _esteem_ is now chiefly found in literary or oratorical style, and in certain conventional phrases; as, I _esteem_ it an honor, a favor. In popular usage _esteem_, as said of persons, denotes a union of respect and kindly feeling and, in the highest sense, of moral approbation; as, one whom I highly _esteem_; the word may be used in a similar sense of material things or abstractions; as, one whose friendship I _esteem_; a shell greatly _esteemed_ for inlaid work. To _appreciate_ anything is to be deeply or keenly sensible of or sensitive to its qualities or influence, to see its full import, be alive to its value, importance, or worth; as, to _appreciate_ beauty or harmony; to _appreciate_ one's services in a cause; the word is similarly, tho rarely, used of persons. To _prize_ is to set a high value on for something more than merely commercial reasons. One may _value_ some object, as a picture, beyond all price, as a family heirloom, or may _prize_ it as the gift of an _esteemed_ friend, without at all _appreciating_ its artistic merit or commercial value. To _regard_ (F. _regarder_, look at, observe) is to have a certain mental view favorable or unfavorable; as, I _regard_ him as a friend; or, I _regard_ him as a villain; _regard_ has a distinctively favorable sense as applied to institutions, proprieties, duties, etc., but does not share the use of the noun _regard_ as applied to persons; we _regard_ the Sabbath; we _regard_ a person's feelings; we have a _regard_ for the person. Compare ESTEEM, _n._ * * * * * ESTEEM, _n._ Synonyms: estimate, estimation, favor, regard, respect. _Esteem_ for a person is a favorable opinion on the basis of worth, especially of moral worth, joined with a feeling of interest in and attraction toward the person. _Regard_ for a person is the mental view or feeling that springs from a sense of his value, excellence, or superiority, with a cordial and hearty friendliness. _Regard_ is more personal and less distant than _esteem_, and adds a special kindliness; _respect_ is a more distant word than _esteem_. _Respect_ may be wholly on one side, while _regard_ is more often mutual; _respect_ in the fullest sense is given to what is lofty, worthy, and honorable, or to a person of such qualities; we may pay an external _respect_ to one of lofty station, regardless of personal qualities, showing _respect_ for the office. _Estimate_ has more of calculation; as, my _estimate_ of the man, or of his abilities, is very high. _Estimation_ involves the idea of calculation or appraisal with that of _esteem_ or _regard_, and is especially used of the feeling entertained by numbers of people; as, he stood high in public _estimation_. Compare ESTEEM, _v._; FRIENDSHIP; LOVE. Antonyms: abhorrence, aversion, dislike, loathing, antipathy, contempt, hatred, repugnance. * * * * * ETERNAL. Synonyms: deathless, fadeless, never-failing, undying, endless, immortal, perennial, unending, eonian, imperishable, perpetual, unfading, everlasting, interminable, timeless, unfailing, ever-living, never-ending, unceasing, without end. _Eternal_ strictly signifies without beginning or end, in which sense it applies to God alone; _everlasting_ applies to that which may or may not have beginning, but will never cease; _eternal_ is also used in this more limited sense; _endless_, without end, in its utmost reach, is not distinguishable from _everlasting_; but _endless_ is constantly used in inferior senses, especially in mechanics, as in the phrases an _endless_ screw, an _endless_ chain. _Everlasting_ and _endless_ are both used in a limited sense of protracted, indefinite, but not infinite duration; as, the _everlasting_ hills; _endless_ debates; so we speak of _interminable_ quarrels. _Eternal_ holds quite strictly to the vast and sacred meaning in which it is applied to the Divine Being and the future state. _Everlasting_, _endless_, and _eternal_ may be applied to that which has no life; as, _everlasting_ chains, _endless_ night, _eternal_ death; _immortal_ applies to that which now has life, and is forever exempt from death. _Timeless_ carries, perhaps, the fullest idea of _eternal_, as above and beyond time, and not to be measured by it. * * * * * EVENT. Synonyms: case, contingency, fortune, outcome, chance, end, incident, possibility, circumstance, episode, issue, result, consequence, fact, occurrence, sequel. Etymologically, the _incident_ is that which falls in, the _event_ that which comes out; _event_ is thus greater and more signal than _incident_; we speak of trifling _incidents_, great _events_; _incidents_ of daily life, _events_ of history. _Circumstance_ agrees with _incident_ in denoting a matter of relatively slight importance, but implies a more direct connection with the principal matter; "circumstantial evidence" is evidence from seemingly minor matters directly connected with a case; "incidental evidence" would be some evidence that happened unexpectedly to touch it. An _occurrence_ is, etymologically, that which we run against, without thought of its origin, connection or tendency. An _episode_ is connected with the main course of _events_, like an _incident_ or _circumstance_, but is of more independent interest and importance. _Outcome_ is the Saxon, and _event_ the Latin for expressing the same original idea. _Consequence_ or _result_ would express more of logical connection, and be more comprehensive. The _end_ may be simple cessation; the _event_ is what has been accomplished; the _event_ of a war is victory or defeat; the _end_ of the war is reached when a treaty of peace is signed. Since the future is contingent, _event_ comes to have the meaning of a _contingency_; as, in the _event_ of his death, the policy will at once fall due. Compare CIRCUMSTANCE; CONSEQUENCE; END. * * * * * EVERY. Synonyms: all, any, both, each, either. _All_ and _both_ are collective; _any_, _each_, and _every_ are distributive. _Any_ makes no selection and may not reach to the full limits of _all_; _each_ and _every_ make no exception or omission, and must extend to _all_; _all_ sweeps in the units as part of a total, _each_ and _every_ proceed through the units to the total. A promise made to _all_ omits none; a promise made to _any_ may not reach _all_; a promise made to _every_ one is so made that no individual shall fail to be aware of it; a promise made to _each_ is made to the individuals personally, one by one. _Each_ is thus more individual and specific than _every_; _every_ classifies, _each_ individualizes. _Each_ divides, _both_ unites; if a certain sum is given to _each_ of two persons, _both_ (together) must receive twice the amount; _both_ must be aware of what has been separately communicated to _each_; a man may fire _both_ barrels of a gun by a single movement; if he fires _each_ barrel, he discharges them separately. _Either_ properly denotes one of two, indefinitely, to the exclusion of the other. The use of _either_ in the sense of _each_ or _both_, tho sustained by good authority, is objectionable because ambiguous. His friends sat on _either_ side of the room would naturally mean on one side or the other; if the meaning is on _both_ sides, it would be better to say so. * * * * * EVIDENT. Synonyms: apparent, glaring, overt, tangible, clear, indubitable, palpable, transparent, conspicuous, manifest, patent, unmistakable, discernible, obvious, perceptible, visible. distinct, open, plain, That is _apparent_ which clearly appears to the senses or to the mind as soon as the attention is directed toward it; that is _evident_ of which the mind is made sure by some inference that supplements the facts of perception; the marks of a struggle were _apparent_ in broken shrubbery and trampled ground, and the finding of a mutilated body and a rifled purse made it _evident_ that robbery and murder had been committed. That is _manifest_ which we can lay the hand upon; _manifest_ is thus stronger than _evident_, as touch is more absolute than sight; that the picture was a modern copy of an ancient work was _evident_, and on comparison with the original its inferiority was _manifest_. That is _obvious_ which is directly in the way so that it can not be missed; as, the application of the remark was _obvious_. _Visible_ applies to all that can be perceived by the sense of sight, whether the noonday sun, a ship on the horizon, or a microscopic object. _Discernible_ applies to that which is dimly or faintly _visible_, requiring strain and effort in order to be seen; as, the ship was _discernible_ through the mist. That is _conspicuous_ which stands out so as necessarily or strikingly to attract the attention. _Palpable_ and _tangible_ express more emphatically the thought of _manifest_. Antonyms: concealed, impalpable, latent, secret, unknown, covert, impenetrable, obscure, undiscovered, unseen, dark, imperceptible, occult, unimagined, unthought-of. hidden, invisible, * * * * * EXAMPLE. Synonyms: archetype, ideal, prototype, type, ensample, model, sample, warning. exemplar, pattern, specimen, exemplification, precedent, standard, From its original sense of _sample_ or _specimen_ (L. _exemplum_) _example_ derives the seemingly contradictory meanings, on the one hand of a _pattern_ or _model_, and on the other hand of a _warning_--a _sample_ or _specimen_ of what is to be followed, or of what is to be shunned. An _example_, however, may be more than a _sample_ or _specimen_ of any class; it may be the very _archetype_ or _prototype_ to which the whole class must conform, as when Christ is spoken of as being an _example_ or leaving an _example_ for his disciples. _Example_ comes nearer to the possible freedom of the _model_ than to the necessary exactness of the _pattern_; often we can not, in a given case, exactly imitate the best _example_, but only adapt its teachings to altered circumstances. In its application to a person or thing, _exemplar_ can scarcely be distinguished from _example_; but _example_ is most frequently used for an act, or course of action, for which _exemplar_ is not used; as, one sets a good (or a bad) _example_. An _exemplification_ is an illustrative working out in action of a principle or law, without any reference to its being copied or repeated; an _example_ guides, an _exemplification_ illustrates or explains. _Ensample_ is the same as _example_, but is practically obsolete outside of Scriptural or theological language. Compare MODEL; SAMPLE. * * * * * EXCESS. Synonyms: dissipation, lavishness, redundance, surplus, exorbitance, overplus, redundancy, waste, extravagance, prodigality, superabundance, wastefulness. intemperance, profusion, superfluity, _Excess_ is more than enough of anything, and, since this in very many cases indicates a lack either of judgment or of self-control, the word is used frequently in an unfavorable sense. Careless expenditure in _excess_ of income is _extravagance_; we may have also _extravagance_ of language, professions, etc. As _extravagance_ is _excess_ in outlay, _exorbitance_ is _excess_ in demands, and especially in pecuniary demands upon others. _Overplus_ and _superabundance_ denote in the main a satisfactory, and _superfluity_ an undesirable, _excess_; _lavishness_ and _profusion_, a generous, bountiful, or amiable _excess_; as, a _profusion_ of fair hair; _lavishness_ of hospitality. _Surplus_ is neutral, having none of the unfavorable meaning that often attaches to _excess_; a _surplus_ is that which remains over after all demands are met. _Redundance_ or _redundancy_ refers chiefly to literary style, denoting an _excess_ of words or matter. _Excess_ in the moral sense is expressed by _dissipation_, _prodigality_, _intemperance_, etc. Antonyms: dearth, destitution, frugality, lack, scantiness, defect, economy, inadequacy, need, shortcoming, deficiency, failure, insufficiency, poverty, want. * * * * * EXECUTE. Synonyms: administer, carry out, do, enforce, perform. To _execute_ is to follow through to the end, put into absolute and final effect in action; to _administer_ is to conduct as one holding a trust, as a minister and not an originator; the sheriff _executes_ a writ; the trustee _administers_ an estate, a charity, etc.; to _enforce_ is to put into effect by force, actual or potential. To _administer_ the laws is the province of a court of justice; to _execute_ the laws is the province of a sheriff, marshal, constable, or other executive officer; to _administer_ the law is to declare or apply it; to _execute_ the law is to put it in force; for this _enforce_ is the more general word, _execute_ the more specific. From signifying to superintend officially some application or infliction, _administer_ passes by a natural transition to signify _inflict_, _mete out_, _dispense_, and blows, medicine, etc., are said to be _administered_: a usage thoroughly established and reputable in spite of pedantic objections. _Enforce_ signifies also to present and urge home by intellectual and moral force; as, to _enforce_ a precept or a duty. Compare DO; KILL; MAKE. * * * * * EXERCISE. Synonyms: act, application, exertion, performance, action, drill, occupation, practise, activity, employment, operation, use. _Exercise_, in the ordinary sense, is the easy natural action of any power; _exertion_ is the putting of any power to strain and tax. An _exercise_-drive for a horse is so much as will develop strength and health and not appreciably weary. But by qualifying adjectives we may bring _exercise_ up to the full sense of _exertion_; as, violent _exercise_. _Exercise_ is action taken at any time with a view to employing, maintaining, or increasing power, or merely for enjoyment; _practise_ is systematic _exercise_ with a view to the acquirement of facility and skill in some pursuit; a person takes a walk for _exercise_, or takes time for _practise_ on the piano. _Practise_ is also used of putting into action and effect what one has learned or holds as a theory; as, the _practise_ of law or medicine; a profession of religion is good, but the _practise_ of it is better. _Drill_ is systematic, rigorous, and commonly enforced _practise_ under a teacher or commander. Compare HABIT. Antonyms: idleness, inaction, inactivity, relaxation, rest. * * * * * EXPENSE. Synonyms: cost, expenditure, outgo, outlay. The _cost_ of a thing is whatever one surrenders or gives up for it, intentionally or unintentionally, or even unconsciously; _expense_ is what is laid out by calculation or intention. We say, "he won his fame at the _cost_ of his life;" "I know it to my _cost_;" we speak of a joke at another's _expense_; at another's _cost_ would seem to make it a more serious matter. There is a tendency to use _cost_ of what we pay for a possession, _expense_ of what we pay for a service; we speak of the _cost_ of goods, the _expense_ of making up. _Outlay_ is used of some definite _expenditure_, as for the purchase of supplies; _outgo_ of a steady drain or of incidental _expenses_. See PRICE. Antonyms: gain, proceeds, profit, receipt, return, income, product, profits, receipts, returns. * * * * * EXPLICIT. Synonym: express. Both _explicit_ and _express_ are opposed to what is merely implicit or implied. That which is _explicit_ is unfolded, so that it may not be obscure, doubtful, or ambiguous; that which is _express_ is uttered or stated so decidedly that it may not be forgotten nor overlooked. An _explicit_ statement is too clear to be misunderstood; an _express_ command is too emphatic to be disregarded. Compare CLEAR. Antonyms: ambiguous, implicit, indefinite, uncertain, doubtful, implied, indeterminate, vague. * * * * * EXTEMPORANEOUS. Synonyms: extemporary, impromptu, offhand, extempore, improvised, unpremeditated. _Extemporaneous_, originally signifying _of_ or _from the time_ or _occasion_, has come to mean done or made with but little (if any) preparation, and is now chiefly applied to addresses of which the thought has been prepared, and only the language and incidental treatment left to the suggestion of the moment, so that an _extemporaneous_ speech is understood to be any one that is not read or recited; _impromptu_ keeps its original sense, denoting something that springs from the instant; the _impromptu_ utterance is generally brief, direct, and vigorous; the _extemporaneous_ speech may chance to be prosy. _Offhand_ is still more emphatic as to the readiness and freedom of the utterance. _Unpremeditated_ is graver and more formal, denoting absolute want of preparation, but is rather too heavy a word to be applied to such apt, ready utterance as is generally designated by _impromptu_. Antonyms: elaborated, premeditated, prepared, read, recited, studied, written. * * * * * EXTERMINATE. Synonyms: annihilate, eradicate, overthrow, uproot, banish, expel, remove, wipe out. destroy, extirpate, root out, _Exterminate_ (L. _ex_, out, and _terminus_, a boundary) signified primarily to drive beyond the bounds or limits of a country; the word is applied to races of men or animals, and is now almost exclusively used for removal by death; individuals are now said to be _banished_ or _expelled_. _Eradicate_ (L. _e_, out, and _radix_, root) is primarily applied to numbers or groups of plants which it is desired to remove effectually from the soil; a single tree may be _uprooted_, but is not said to be _eradicated_; we labor to _eradicate_ or _root out_ noxious weeds. To _extirpate_ (L. _ex_, out, and _stirps_, stem, stock) is not only to _destroy_ the individuals of any race of plants or animals, but the very stock, so that the race can never be restored; we speak of _eradicating_ a disease, of _extirpating_ a cancer, _exterminating_ wild beasts or hostile tribes; we seek to _eradicate_ or _extirpate_ all vices and evils. Compare ABOLISH. Antonyms: augment, build up, develop, increase, populate, replenish, beget, cherish, foster, plant, propagate, settle. breed, colonize, * * * * * FAINT. Synonyms: dim, fatigued, irresolute, weak, exhausted, feeble, languid, wearied, faded, half-hearted, listless, worn, faint-hearted, ill-defined, purposeless, worn down, faltering, indistinct, timid, worn out. _Faint_, with the general sense of lacking strength or effectiveness, covers a wide range of meaning, signifying overcome with physical weakness or exhaustion, or lacking in purpose, courage, or energy, as said of persons; or lacking definiteness or distinctness of color or sound, as said of written characters, voices, or musical notes. A person may be _faint_ when physically _wearied_, or when overcome with fear; he may be a _faint_ adherent because naturally _feeble_ or _purposeless_, or because _half-hearted_ in the cause; he may be a _faltering_ supporter because naturally _irresolute_ or because _faint-hearted_ and _timid_ in view of perils that threaten, a _listless_ worker, through want of mental energy and purpose. Written characters may be _faint_ or _dim_, either because originally written with poor ink, or because they have become _faded_ by time and exposure. Antonyms: bright, clear, daring, fresh, resolute, sturdy, brilliant, conspicuous, energetic, hearty, strong, vigorous. Prepositions: Faint _with_ hunger; faint _in_ color. * * * * * FAITH. Synonyms: assent, confidence, credit, opinion, assurance, conviction, creed, reliance, belief, credence, doctrine, trust. _Belief_, as an intellectual process, is the acceptance of some thing as true on other grounds than personal observation and experience. We give _credence_ to a report, _assent_ to a proposition or to a proposal. _Belief_ is stronger than _credence_; _credence_ might be described as a prima facie _belief_; _credence_ is a more formal word than _belief_, and seems to imply somewhat more of volition; we speak of giving _credence_ to a report, but not of giving _belief_. Goods are sold on _credit_; we give one _credit_ for good intentions. _Conviction_ is a _belief_ established by argument or evidence; _assurance_ is _belief_ beyond the reach of argument; as, the Christian's _assurance_ of salvation. An _opinion_ is a general conclusion held as probable, tho without full certainty; a _persuasion_ is a more confident _opinion_, involving the heart as well as the intellect. In religion, a _doctrine_ is a statement of _belief_ regarding a single point; a _creed_ is a summary statement of _doctrines_. _Confidence_ is a firm dependence upon a statement as true, or upon a person as worthy. _Reliance_ is _confidence_ on which we act or are ready to act unquestioningly; we have a calm _reliance_ upon the uniformity of nature. _Trust_ is a practical and tranquil resting of the mind upon the integrity, kindness, friendship, or promises of a person; we have _trust_ in God. _Faith_ is a union of _belief_ and _trust_. _Faith_ is chiefly personal; _belief_ may be quite impersonal; we speak of _belief_ of a proposition, _faith_ in a promise, because the promise emanates from a person. But _belief_ in a person is often used with no appreciable difference from _faith_. In religion it is common to distinguish between intellectual _belief_ of religious truth, as any other truth might be believed, and _belief_ of the heart, or saving _faith_. Antonyms: denial, dissent, doubt, infidelity, rejection, suspicion, disbelief, distrust, incredulity, misgiving, skepticism, unbelief. Prepositions: Have faith _in_ God; the faith _of_ the gospel. * * * * * FAITHFUL. Synonyms: devoted, incorruptible, stanch, true, trusty, firm, loyal, sure, trustworthy, unwavering. A person is _faithful_ who will keep faith, whether with or without power to aid or serve; a person or thing is _trusty_ that possesses such qualities as to justify the fullest confidence and dependence. We may speak of a _faithful_ but feeble friend; we say a _trusty_ agent, a _trusty_ steed, a _trusty_ sword. Antonyms: capricious, false, unfaithful, untrustworthy, faithless, fickle, untrue, wavering. Prepositions: Faithful _in_ service; _to_ duty; _to_ comrade or commander; faithful _among_ the faithless. * * * * * FAME. Synonyms: celebrity, eminence, honor, notoriety, reputation, credit, glory, laurels, renown, repute. distinction, _Fame_ is the widely disseminated report of a person's character, deeds, or abilities, and is oftenest used in the favorable sense. _Reputation_ and _repute_ are more limited than _fame_, and may be either good or bad. _Notoriety_ is evil _repute_ or a dishonorable counterfeit of _fame_. _Eminence_ and _distinction_ may result from rank, station, or character. _Celebrity_ is limited in range; we speak of local _celebrity_, or world-wide _fame_. _Fame_ in its best sense may be defined as the applause of numbers; _renown_, as such applause worthily won; we speak of the conqueror's _fame_, the patriot's _renown_. _Glory_ and _honor_ are of good import; _honor_ may be given for qualities or acts that should not win it, but it is always given as something good and worthy; we can speak of an evil _fame_, but not of evil _honor_; _glory_ has a more exalted and often a sacred sense. Antonyms: contempt, discredit, dishonor, humiliation, infamy, obscurity, contumely, disgrace, disrepute, ignominy, oblivion, shame. * * * * * FANATICISM. Synonyms: bigotry, credulity, intolerance, superstition. _Fanaticism_ is extravagant or even frenzied zeal; _bigotry_ is obstinate and unreasoning attachment to a cause or creed; _fanaticism_ and _bigotry_ usually include _intolerance_, which is unwillingness to tolerate beliefs or opinions contrary to one's own; _superstition_ is ignorant and irrational religious belief. _Credulity_ is not distinctively religious, but is a general readiness to believe without sufficient evidence, with a proneness to accept the marvellous. _Bigotry_ is narrow, _fanaticism_ is fierce, _superstition_ is ignorant, _credulity_ is weak, _intolerance_ is severe. _Bigotry_ has not the capacity to reason fairly, _fanaticism_ has not the patience, _superstition_ has not the knowledge and mental discipline, _intolerance_ has not the disposition. _Bigotry_, _fanaticism_, and _superstition_ are perversions of the religious sentiment; _credulity_ and _intolerance_ often accompany skepticism or atheism. Antonyms: cynicism, free-thinking, indifference, latitudinarianism. * * * * * FANCIFUL. Synonyms: chimerical, fantastic, grotesque, imaginative, visionary. That is _fanciful_ which is dictated or suggested by fancy independently of more serious considerations; the _fantastic_ is the _fanciful_ with the added elements of whimsicalness and extravagance. The _fanciful_ swings away from the real or the ordinary lightly and pleasantly, the _fantastic_ extravagantly, the _grotesque_ ridiculously. A _fanciful_ arrangement of objects is commonly pleasing, a _fantastic_ arrangement is striking, a _grotesque_ arrangement is laughable. A _fanciful_ theory or suggestion may be clearly recognized as such; a _visionary_ scheme is erroneously supposed to have a basis in fact. Compare synonyms for DREAM; IDEA; IMAGINATION. Antonyms: accurate, commonplace, prosaic, regular, sound, calculable, literal, real, sensible, sure, calculated, ordinary, reasonable, solid, true. * * * * * FANCY. Synonyms: belief, desire, imagination, predilection, caprice, humor, inclination, supposition, conceit, idea, liking, vagary, conception, image, mood, whim. An intellectual _fancy_ is a mental _image_ or picture founded upon slight or whimsical association or resemblance; a _conceit_ has less of the picturesque and more of the theoretic than a _fancy_; a _conceit_ is somewhat aside from the common laws of reasoning, as a _fancy_ is lighter and more airy than the common mode of thought. A _conceit_ or _fancy_ may be wholly unfounded, while a _conception_ always has, or is believed to have, some answering reality. (Compare REASON.) An intellectual _fancy_ or _conceit_ may be pleasing or amusing, but is never worth serious discussion; we speak of a mere _fancy_, a droll or odd _conceit_. An emotional or personal _fancy_ is a capricious _liking_ formed with slight reason and no exercise of judgment, and liable to fade as lightly as it was formed. In a broader sense, the _fancy_ signifies the faculty by which _fancies_ or mental images are formed, associated, or combined. Compare synonyms for DREAM; IDEA; IMAGINATION. Antonyms: actuality, certainty, fact, reality, truth, verity. Prepositions: To have a fancy _for_ or take a fancy _to_ a person or thing. * * * * * FAREWELL. Synonyms: adieu, good-by, parting salutation, valedictory. congé, leave-taking, valediction, _Good-by_ is the homely and hearty, _farewell_ the formal English word at parting. _Adieu_, from the French, is still more ceremonious than _farewell_; _congé_, also from the French, is commonly contemptuous or supercilious, and equivalent to dismissal. _Valediction_ is a learned word never in popular use. A _valedictory_ is a public farewell to a company or assembly. Prepositions: I bade farewell _to_ my comrades, or (without preposition) I bade my comrades farewell; I took a sad farewell _of_ my friends. * * * * * FEAR. Synonyms: affright, dismay, horror, timidity, apprehension, disquietude, misgiving, trembling, awe, dread, panic, tremor, consternation, fright, terror, trepidation. _Fear_ is the generic term denoting an emotion excited by threatening evil with a desire to avoid or escape it; _fear_ may be sudden or lingering, in view of present, of imminent, or of distant and only possible danger; in the latter sense _dread_ is oftener used. _Horror_ (etymologically a shivering or shuddering) denotes a shuddering _fear_ accompanied with abhorrence or such a shock to the feelings and sensibilities as may exist without _fear_, as when one suddenly encounters some ghastly spectacle; we say of a desperate but fettered criminal, "I looked upon him with _horror_." Where _horror_ includes _fear_, it is _fear_ mingled with abhorrence. (See ABHOR.) _Affright_, _fright_, and _terror_ are always sudden, and in actual presence of that which is terrible. _Fear_ may overwhelm, or may nerve one to desperate defense; _fright_ and _terror_ render one incapable of defense; _fear_ may be controlled by force of will; _fright_ and _terror_ overwhelm the will; _terror_ paralyzes, _fright_ may cause one to fly, to scream, or to swoon. _Fright_ is largely a matter of the nerves; _fear_ of the intellect and the imagination; _terror_ of all the faculties, bodily and mental. _Panic_ is a sudden _fear_ or _fright_, affecting numbers at once; vast armies or crowded audiences are liable to _panic_ upon slight occasion. In a like sense we speak of a financial _panic_. _Dismay_ is a helpless sinking of heart in view of some overwhelming peril or sorrow. _Dismay_ is more reflective, enduring, and despairing than _fright_; a horse is subject to _fright_ or _terror_, but not to _dismay_. _Awe_ is a reverential _fear_. Compare ALARM. Antonyms: See synonyms for FORTITUDE. * * * * * FEMININE. Synonyms: effeminate, female, womanish, womanly. We apply _female_ to the sex, _feminine_ to the qualities, especially the finer physical or mental qualities that distinguish the _female_ sex in the human family, or to the objects appropriate for or especially employed by them. A _female_ voice is the voice of a woman; a _feminine_ voice may belong to a man. _Womanish_ denotes the undesirable, _womanly_ the admirable or lovely qualities of woman. _Womanly_ tears would suggest respect and sympathy, _womanish_ tears a touch of contempt. The word _effeminate_ is always used reproachfully, and only of men as possessing _womanly_ traits such as are inconsistent with true manliness. Antonyms: See synonyms for MASCULINE. * * * * * FETTER. Synonyms: bondage, custody, gyves, irons, bonds, durance, handcuffs, manacles, chains, duress, imprisonment, shackles. _Bonds_ may be of cord, leather, or any other substance that can bind; _chains_ are of linked metal. _Manacles_ and _handcuffs_ are for the hands, _fetters_ are primarily chains or jointed iron fastenings for the feet; _gyves_ may be for either. A _shackle_ is a metallic ring, clasp, or bracelet-like fastening for encircling and restraining a limb: commonly one of a pair, used either for hands or feet. _Bonds_, _fetters_, and _chains_ are used in a general way for almost any form of restraint. _Gyves_ is now wholly poetic, and the other words are mostly restricted to the literary style; _handcuffs_ is the specific and _irons_ the general term in popular usage; as, the prisoner was put in _irons_. _Bonds_, _chains_, and _shackles_ are frequently used in the metaphorical sense. * * * * * FEUD. Synonyms: affray, brawl, contest, dissension, hostility, animosity, broil, controversy, enmity, quarrel, bitterness, contention, dispute, fray, strife. A _feud_ is _enmity_ between families, clans, or parties, with acts of _hostility_ mutually retaliated and avenged; _feud_ is rarely used of individuals, never of nations. While all the other words of the group may refer to that which is transient, a _feud_ is long-enduring, and often hereditary. _Dissension_ is used of a number of persons, of a party or other organization. _Bitterness_ is in feeling only; _enmity_ and _hostility_ involve will and purpose to oppose or injure. A _quarrel_ is in word or act, or both, and is commonly slight and transient, as we speak of childish _quarrels_; _contention_ and _strife_ may be in word or deed; _contest_ ordinarily involves some form of action. _Contest_ is often used in a good sense, _contention_ and _strife_ very rarely so. _Controversy_ is commonly in words; _strife_ extends from verbal _controversy_ to the _contests_ of armies. _Affray_, _brawl_, and _broil_, like _quarrel_, are words of inferior dignity. An _affray_ or _broil_ may arise at a street corner; the _affray_ always involves physical force; the _brawl_ or _broil_ may be confined to violent language. * * * * * FICTION. Synonyms: allegory, fabrication, invention, myth, romance, apologue, falsehood, legend, novel, story. fable, figment, _Fiction_ is now chiefly used of a prose work in narrative form in which the characters are partly or wholly imaginary, and which is designed to portray human life, with or without a practical lesson; a _romance_ portrays what is picturesque or striking, as a mere _fiction_ may not do; _novel_ is a general name for any continuous fictitious narrative, especially a love-story; _fiction_ and _novel_ are used with little difference of meaning, except that _novel_ characterizes a work in which the emotional element is especially prominent. The moral of the _fable_ is expressed formally; the lesson of the _fiction_, if any, is inwrought. A _fiction_ is studied; a _myth_ grows up without intent. A _legend_ may be true, but can not be historically verified; a _myth_ has been received as true at some time, but is now known to be false. A _fabrication_ is designed to deceive; it is a less odious word than _falsehood_, but is really stronger, as a _falsehood_ may be a sudden unpremeditated statement, while a _fabrication_ is a series of statements carefully studied and fitted together in order to deceive; the _falsehood_ is all false; the _fabrication_ may mingle the true with the false. A _figment_ is something imaginary which the one who utters it may or may not believe to be true; we say, "That statement is a _figment_ of his imagination." The _story_ may be either true or false, and covers the various senses of all the words in the group. _Apologue_, a word simply transferred from Greek into English, is the same as _fable_. Compare ALLEGORY. Antonyms: certainty, fact, history, literalness, reality, truth, verity. * * * * * FIERCE. Synonyms: ferocious, furious, raging, uncultivated, violent, fiery, impetuous, savage, untrained, wild. _Fierce_ signifies having a _furious_ and cruel nature, or being in a _furious_ and cruel mood, more commonly the latter. It applies to that which is now intensely excited, or liable to intense and sudden excitement. _Ferocious_ refers to a state or disposition; that which is _fierce_ flashes or blazes; that which is _ferocious_ steadily burns; we speak of a _ferocious_ animal, a _fierce_ passion. A _fiery_ spirit with a good disposition is quickly excitable in a good cause, but may not be _fierce_ or _ferocious_. _Savage_ signifies _untrained_, _uncultivated_. _Ferocious_ always denotes a tendency to violence; it is more distinctly bloodthirsty than the other words; a person may be deeply, intensely cruel, and not at all _ferocious_; a _ferocious_ countenance expresses habitual ferocity; a _fierce_ countenance may express habitual fierceness, or only the sudden anger of the moment. That which is _wild_ is simply unrestrained; the word may imply no anger or harshness; as, _wild_ delight, _wild_ alarm. Antonyms: affectionate, gentle, kind, patient, submissive, tame, docile, harmless, mild, peaceful, sweet, tender. * * * * * FINANCIAL. Synonyms: fiscal, monetary, pecuniary. These words all relate to money, receipts, or expenditures. _Monetary_ relates to actual money, coin, currency; as, the _monetary_ system; a _monetary_ transaction is one in which money is transferred. _Pecuniary_ refers to that in which money is involved, but less directly; we speak of one's _pecuniary_ affairs or interests, with no special reference to the handling of cash. _Financial_ applies especially to governmental revenues or expenditures, or to private transactions of considerable moment; we speak of a _pecuniary_ reward, a _financial_ enterprise; we give a needy person _pecuniary_ (not _financial_) assistance. It is common to speak of the _fiscal_ rather than the _financial_ year. * * * * * FINE. Synonyms: beautiful, excellent, polished, small, clarified, exquisite, pure, smooth, clear, gauzy, refined, splendid, comminuted, handsome, sensitive, subtile, dainty, keen, sharp, subtle, delicate, minute, slender, tenuous, elegant, nice, slight, thin. _Fine_ (L. _finis_, end) denotes that which has been brought to a full end, finished. From this root-sense many derived meanings branch out, causing words quite remote from each other to be alike synonyms of _fine_. That which is truly finished, brought to an ideal end, is _excellent_ of its kind, and _beautiful_, if a thing that admits of beauty; as, a _fine_ house, _fine_ trees, a _fine_ woman, a _fine_ morning; if a thing that admits of the removal of impurities, it is not finished till these are removed, and hence _fine_ signifies _clarified_, _clear_, _pure_, _refined_; as, _fine_ gold. That which is finished is apt to be _polished_, smooth to the touch, minutely exact in outline; hence _fine_ comes to be a synonym for all words like _dainty_, _delicate_, _exquisite_; as, _fine_ manners, a _fine_ touch, _fine_ perceptions. As that which is _delicate_ is apt to be small, by an easy extension of meaning _fine_ becomes a synonym for _slender_, _slight_, _minute_, _comminuted_; as, a _fine_ thread, _fine_ sand; or for _filmy_, _tenuous_, _thin_; as, a _fine_ lace, _fine_ wire; and as a _thin_ edge is _keen_, _sharp_, _fine_ becomes also a synonym for these words; as, a _fine_ point, a _fine_ edge. Compare BEAUTIFUL; MINUTE. Antonyms: big, clumsy, great, huge, large, stout, blunt, coarse, heavy, immense, rude, thick. * * * * * FIRE. Synonyms: blaze, burning, combustion, conflagration, flame. _Combustion_ is the essential fact which is at the basis of that assemblage of visible phenomenon which we call _fire_; _combustion_ being the continuous chemical combination of a substance with some element, as oxygen, evolving heat, and extending from slow processes, such as those by which the heat of the human body is maintained, to the processes producing the most intense light also, as in a blast-furnace, or on the surface of the sun. _Fire_ is always attended with light, as well as heat; _blaze_, _flame_, etc., designate the mingled light and heat of a _fire_. _Combustion_ is the scientific, _fire_ the popular term. A _conflagration_ is an extensive _fire_. Compare LIGHT. * * * * * FLOCK. Synonyms: bevy, covey, group, herd, lot, set, brood, drove, hatch, litter, pack, swarm. _Group_ is the general word for any gathering of a small number of objects, whether of persons, animals, or inanimate things. The individuals in a _brood_ or _litter_ are related to each other; those in the other _groups_ may not be. _Brood_ is used chiefly of fowls and birds, _litter_ of certain quadrupeds which bring forth many young at a birth; we speak of a _brood_ of chickens, a _litter_ of puppies; _brood_ is sometimes applied to a family of young children. _Bevy_ is used of birds, and figuratively of any bright and lively _group_ of women or children, but rarely of men. _Flock_ is applied to birds and to some of the smaller animals; _herd_ is confined to the larger animals; we speak of a _bevy_ of quail, a _covey_ of partridges, a _flock_ of blackbirds, or a _flock_ of sheep, a _herd_ of cattle, horses, buffaloes, or elephants, a _pack_ of wolves, a _pack_ of hounds, a _swarm_ of bees. A collection of animals driven or gathered for driving is called a _drove_. * * * * * FLUCTUATE. Synonyms: hesitate, swerve, vacillate, veer, oscillate, undulate, vary, waver. To _fluctuate_ (L. _fluctus_, a wave) is to move like a wave with alternate rise and fall. A pendulum _oscillates_; waves _fluctuate_ or _undulate_; a light or a flame _wavers_; a frightened steed _swerves_ from his course; a tool or weapon _swerves_ from the mark or line; the temperature _varies_; the wind _veers_ when it suddenly changes its direction. That which _veers_ may steadily hold the new direction; that which _oscillates_, _fluctuates_, _undulates_, or _wavers_ returns upon its way. As regards mental states, he who _hesitates_ sticks (L. _hærere_) on the verge of decision; he who _wavers_ does not stick to a decision; he who _vacillates_ decides now one way, and now another; one _vacillates_ between contrasted decisions or actions; he may _waver_ between decision and indecision, or between action and inaction. Persons _hesitate_, _vacillate_, _waver_; feelings _fluctuate_ or _vary_. Compare SHAKE. Antonyms: abide, adhere, hold fast, persist, stand fast, stay, stick. * * * * * FLUID. Synonyms: gas, liquid. A _fluid_ is a substance that, like air or water, yields to any force that tends to change its form; a _liquid_ is a body in that state in which the particles move freely among themselves, but remain in one mass, keeping the same volume, but taking always the form of the containing vessel; a _liquid_ is an inelastic _fluid_; a _gas_ is an elastic _fluid_ that tends to expand to the utmost limits of the containing space. All _liquids_ are _fluids_, but not all _fluids_ are _liquids_; air and all the _gases_ are _fluids_, but they are not _liquids_ under ordinary circumstances, tho capable of being reduced to a _liquid_ form by special means, as by cold and pressure. Water at the ordinary temperature is at once a _fluid_ and a _liquid_. * * * * * FOLLOW. Synonyms: accompany, come after, go after, obey, pursue, attend, copy, heed, observe, result, chase, ensue, imitate, practise, succeed. Anything that _comes after_ or _goes after_ another, either in space or in time, is said to _follow_ it. A servant _follows_ or _attends_ his master; a victorious general may _follow_ the retiring enemy merely to watch and hold him in check; he _chases_ or _pursues_ with intent to overtake and attack; the chase is closer and hotter than the pursuit. (Compare synonyms for HUNT.) One event may _follow_ another either with or without special connection; if it _ensues_, there is some orderly connection; as, the _ensuing_ year; if it _results_ from another, there is some relation of effect, consequence, or inference. A clerk _observes_ his employer's directions. A child _obeys_ his parent's commands, _follows_ or _copies_ his example, _imitates_ his speech and manners. The compositor _follows_ copy; the incoming _succeeds_ the outgoing official. * * * * * FOOD. Synonyms: aliment, feed, nourishment, pabulum, sustenance, diet, fodder, nutriment, provender, viands, fare, forage, nutrition, regimen, victuals. _Food_ is, in the popular sense, whatever one eats in contradistinction to what one drinks. Thus, we speak of _food_ and drink, of wholesome, unwholesome, or indigestible _food_; but in a more scientific sense whatever, when taken into the digestive organs, serves to build up structure or supply waste may be termed _food_; the word is extended to plants to signify whatever taken in any way into the organism serves similar purposes; thus, we speak of liquid _food_, plant _food_, etc.; in this wider sense _food_ is closely synonymous with _nutriment_, _nourishment_, and _sustenance_. _Diet_ refers to the quantity and quality of _food_ habitually taken, with reference to preservation of health. _Victuals_ is a plain, homely word for whatever may be eaten; we speak of choice _viands_, cold _victuals_. _Nourishment_ and _sustenance_ apply to whatever can be introduced into the system as a means of sustaining life; we say of a convalescent, he is taking _nourishment_. _Nutriment_ and _nutrition_ have more of scientific reference to the vitalizing principles of various _foods_; thus, wheat is said to contain a great amount of _nutriment_. _Regimen_ considers _food_ as taken by strict rule, but applies more widely to the whole ordering of life. _Fare_ is a general word for all table supplies, good or bad; as, sumptuous _fare_; wretched _fare_. _Feed_, _fodder_, and _provender_ are used only of the food of the lower animals, _feed_ denoting anything consumed, but more commonly grain, _fodder_ denoting hay, cornstalks, or the like, sometimes called "long _feed_;" _provender_ is dry _feed_, whether grain or hay, straw, etc. _Forage_ denotes any kind of _food_ suitable for horses and cattle, primarily as obtained by a military force in scouring the country, especially an enemy's country. * * * * * FORMIDABLE. Synonyms: dangerous, redoubted, terrible, tremendous. That which is _formidable_ is worthy of fear if encountered or opposed; as, a _formidable_ array of troops, or of evidence. _Formidable_ is a word of more dignity than _dangerous_, and suggests more calm and collected power than _terrible_; _formidable_ is less overwhelming than _tremendous_. A loaded gun is _dangerous_; a park of artillery is _formidable_; a charge of cavalry is _terrible_; the full shock of great armies is _tremendous_. A _dangerous_ man is likely to do mischief, and needs watching; a _formidable_ man may not be _dangerous_ if not attacked; an enraged maniac is _terrible_; the force of ocean waves in a storm, and the silent pressure in the ocean depths, are _tremendous_. Antonyms: contemptible, feeble, harmless, helpless, powerless, weak. despicable, Prepositions: Formidable _by_ or _in_ numbers; _in_ strength; formidable _to_ the enemy. * * * * * FORTIFICATION. Synonyms: castle, citadel, fastness, fort, fortress, stronghold. _Fortification_ is the general word for any artificial defensive work; a _fortress_ is a _fortification_ of especial size and strength; a _fortress_ is regarded as permanent, and is ordinarily an independent work; a _fort_ or _fortification_ may be temporary; a _fortification_ may be but part of a defensive system; we speak of the _fortifications_ of a city. A _citadel_ is a _fortification_ within a city, or the fortified inner part of a city or _fortress_, within which a garrison may be placed to overawe the citizens, or to which the defenders may retire if the outer works are captured; the medieval _castle_ was the fortified residence of a king or baron. _Fort_ is the common military term for a detached fortified building or enclosure of moderate size occupied or designed to be occupied by troops. The _fortifications_ of a modern city usually consist of a chain of _forts_. Any defensible place, whether made so by nature or by art, is a _fastness_ or _stronghold_. * * * * * FORTITUDE. Synonyms: courage, endurance, heroism, resolution. _Fortitude_ (L. _fortis_, strong) is the strength or firmness of mind or soul to endure pain or adversity patiently and determinedly. _Fortitude_ has been defined as "passive _courage_," which is a good definition, but not complete. _Fortitude_ might be termed "still _courage_," or "enduring _courage_;" it is that quality which is able not merely to endure pain or trial, but steadily to confront dangers that can not be actively opposed, or against which one has no adequate defense; it takes _courage_ to charge a battery, _fortitude_ to stand still under an enemy's fire. _Resolution_ is of the mind; _endurance_ is partly physical; it requires _resolution_ to resist temptation, _endurance_ to resist hunger and cold. Compare BRAVE; PATIENCE. * * * * * FORTUNATE. Synonyms: favored, lucky, prospered, prosperous, successful. happy, A man is _successful_ in any case if he achieves or gains what he seeks; he is known as a _successful_ man if he has achieved or gained worthy objects of endeavor; he is _fortunate_ or _lucky_ if advantages have come to him without or beyond his direct planning or achieving. _Lucky_ is the more common and colloquial, _fortunate_ the more elegant word; _fortunate_ is more naturally applied to the graver matters, as we speak of the _fortunate_, rather than the _lucky_, issue of a great battle; _lucky_ more strongly emphasizes the element of chance, as when we speak of a _lucky_ hit, a _lucky_ guess, or of one as "born under a _lucky_ star." _Favored_ is used in a religious sense, implying that one is the object of divine favor. _Happy_, in this connection, signifies possessed of the means of happiness. One is said to be _happy_ or _prosperous_ whether his prosperity be the result of fortune or of achievement; _prospered_ rather denotes the action of a superintending Providence. Antonyms: broken, fallen, miserable, unhappy, woful, crushed, ill-starred, unfortunate, unlucky, wretched. * * * * * FRAUD. Synonyms: artifice, deceit, duplicity, swindle, treason, cheat, deception, imposition, swindling, trick. cheating, dishonesty, imposture, treachery, A _fraud_ is an act of deliberate _deception_ with the design of securing something by taking unfair advantage of another. A _deceit_ or _deception_ may be designed merely to gain some end of one's own, with no intent of harming another; an _imposition_, to take some small advantage of another, or simply to make another ridiculous. An _imposture_ is designed to obtain money, credit, or position to which one is not entitled, and may be practised by a street beggar or by the pretender to a throne. All action that is not honest is _dishonesty_, but the term _dishonesty_ is generally applied in business, politics, etc., to deceitful practises which are not directly criminal. _Fraud_ includes _deceit_, but _deceit_ may not reach the gravity of _fraud_; a _cheat_ is of the nature of _fraud_, but of a petty sort; a _swindle_ is more serious than a _cheat_, involving larger values and more flagrant _dishonesty_. _Fraud_ is commonly actionable at law; _cheating_ and _swindling_ are for the most part out of the reach of legal proceedings. _Treachery_ is chiefly used of _dishonesty_ in matters of friendship, social relations, government, or war; _treachery_ may be more harmful than _fraud_, but is not so gross, and is not ordinarily open to legal redress. _Treason_ is a specific form of _treachery_ of a subject to the government to which he owes allegiance, and is definable and punishable at law. Compare ARTIFICE; DECEPTION. Antonyms: fairness, good faith, honesty, integrity, truth, uprightness. * * * * * FRIENDLY. Synonyms: accessible, companionable, genial, neighborly, affable, complaisant, hearty, sociable, affectionate, cordial, kind, social, amicable, favorable, kindly, tender, brotherly, fond, loving, well-disposed. _Friendly_, as said of persons, signifies having the disposition of a friend; as said of acts, it signifies befitting or worthy of a friend. The adjective _friendly_ does not reach the full significance of the nouns "friend" and "friendship;" one may be _friendly_ to those who are not his friends, and to be in _friendly_ relations often signifies little more than not to be hostile. In its application to persons, _accessible_ is used of public and eminent persons, who might, if disposed, hold themselves at a distance from others. _Companionable_ and _sociable_ refer to manner and behavior, _cordial_ and _genial_ express genuine kindliness of heart. We speak of a _cordial_ greeting, a _favorable_ reception, a _neighborly_ call, a _sociable_ visitor, an _amicable_ settlement, a _kind_ interest, a _friendly_ regard, a _hearty_ welcome. The Saxon _friendly_ is stronger than the Latin _amicable_; the _amicable_ may be merely formal; the _friendly_ is from the heart. _Fond_ is commonly applied to an affection that becomes, or at least appears, excessive. _Affectionate_, _devoted_, and _tender_ are almost always used in a high and good sense; as, an _affectionate_ son; a _devoted_ friend; "the _tender_ mercy of our God," _Luke_ i, 78. Compare FRIENDSHIP. Antonyms: adverse, belligerent, distant, ill-disposed, unfriendly, alienated, cold, estranged, indifferent, unkind, antagonistic, contentious, frigid, inimical, warlike. bellicose, disaffected, hostile, * * * * * FRIENDSHIP. Synonyms: affection, comity, esteem, good will, amity, consideration, favor, love, attachment, devotion, friendliness, regard. _Friendship_ is a deep, quiet, enduring _affection_, founded upon mutual respect and _esteem_. _Friendship_ is always mutual; there may be unreciprocated _affection_ or _attachment_, unrequited _love_, or even unrecognized and unappreciated _devotion_, but never unreciprocated or unrequited _friendship_; one may have friendly feelings toward an enemy, but while there is hostility or coldness on one side there can not be _friendship_ between the two. _Friendliness_ is a quality of friendly feeling, without the deep and settled _attachment_ implied in the state of _friendship_. _Comity_ is mutual kindly courtesy, with care of each other's right, and _amity_ a friendly feeling and relation, not necessarily implying special _friendliness_; as, the _comity_ of nations, or _amity_ between neighboring countries. _Affection_ may be purely natural; _friendship_ is a growth. _Friendship_ is more intellectual and less emotional than _love_; it is easier to give reasons for _friendship_ than for _love_; _friendship_ is more calm and quiet, _love_ more fervent; _love_ often rises to intensest passion; we can not speak of the passion of _friendship_. _Friendship_ implies some degree of equality, while _love_ does not; we can speak of man's _love_ toward God, not of his _friendship_ for God. (There is more latitude in the use of the concrete noun _friend_; Abraham was called "the friend of God;" Christ was called "the friend of sinners.") Compare ACQUAINTANCE; LOVE. Antonyms: See synonyms for BATTLE; ENMITY; FEUD; HATRED. Prepositions: The friendship _of_ one person _for_ or _toward_ another, or the friendship _between_ them. * * * * * FRIGHTEN. Synonyms: affright, appal, cow, dismay, scare, alarm, browbeat, daunt, intimidate, terrify. One is _frightened_ by a cause of fear addressed directly and suddenly to the senses; he is _intimidated_ by an apprehension of contingent consequences dependent on some act of his own to be done or forborne; the means of intimidation may act through the senses, or may appeal only to the intellect or the sensibilities. The sudden rush of an armed madman may _frighten_; the quiet leveling of a highwayman's pistol _intimidates_. A savage beast is _intimidated_ by the keeper's whip. Employers may _intimidate_ their employees from voting contrary to their will by threat of discharge; a mother may be _intimidated_ through fear for her child. To _browbeat_ or _cow_ is to bring into a state of submissive fear; to _daunt_ is to give pause or check to a violent, threatening, or even a brave spirit. To _scare_ is to cause sudden, unnerving fear; to _terrify_ is to awaken fear that is overwhelming. Compare ALARM. * * * * * FRUGALITY. Synonyms: economy, parsimony, saving, sparing, miserliness, providence, scrimping, thrift. parsimoniousness, prudence, _Economy_ is a wise and careful administration of the means at one's disposal; _frugality_ is a withholding of expenditure, or _sparing_ of supplies or provision, to a noticeable and often to a painful degree; _parsimony_ is excessive and unreasonable _saving_ for the sake of _saving_. _Frugality_ exalted into a virtue to be practised for its own sake, instead of as a means to an end, becomes the vice of _parsimony_. _Miserliness_ is the denying oneself and others the ordinary comforts or even necessaries of life, for the mere sake of hoarding money. _Prudence_ and _providence_ look far ahead, and sacrifice the present to the future, saving as much as may be necessary for that end. (See PRUDENCE.) _Thrift_ seeks not merely to save, but to earn. _Economy_ manages, _frugality_ saves, _providence_ plans, _thrift_ at once earns and saves, with a view to wholesome and profitable expenditure at a fitting time. See ABSTINENCE. Antonyms: abundance, bounty, liberality, opulence, waste, affluence, extravagance, luxury, riches, wealth. * * * * * GARRULOUS. Synonyms: chattering, loquacious, talkative, verbose. _Garrulous_ signifies given to constant trivial talking. _Chattering_ signifies uttering rapid, noisy, and unintelligible, or scarcely intelligible, sounds, whether articulate words or such as resemble them; _chattering_ is often used of vocal sounds that may be intelligible by themselves but are ill understood owing to confusion of many voices or other cause. The _talkative_ person has a strong disposition to talk, with or without an abundance of words, or many ideas; the _loquacious_ person has an abundant flow of language and much to say on any subject suggested; either may be lively and for a time entertaining; the _garrulous_ person is tedious, repetitious, petty, and self-absorbed. _Verbose_ is applied to utterances more formal than conversation, as to writings or public addresses. We speak of a _chattering_ monkey or a _chattering_ idiot, a _talkative_ child, a _talkative_ or _loquacious_ woman, a _garrulous_ old man, a _verbose_ writer. Compare CIRCUMLOCUTION. Antonyms: laconic, reserved, reticent, silent, speechless, taciturn. * * * * * GENDER. Synonym: sex. _Sex_ is a distinction among living beings; it is also the characteristic by which most living beings are distinguished from inanimate things, which are of no _sex_; _gender_ is a distinction in language partially corresponding to this distinction in nature; while there are but two _sexes_, there are in some languages, as in English and German, three _genders_. The French language has but two _genders_ and makes the names of all inanimate objects either masculine or feminine; some languages are without the distinction of _gender_, and those that maintain it are often quite arbitrary in its application. We speak of the masculine or feminine _gender_, the male or female _sex_. * * * * * GENERAL. Synonyms: common, familiar, ordinary, universal, commonplace, frequent, popular, usual. customary, habitual, prevalent, everyday, normal, public, _Common_ signifies frequently occurring, not out of the regular course, not exceptional; hence, not above the average, not excellent or distinguished, inferior, or even low; _common_ also signifies pertaining to or participated in by two or more persons or things; as, sorrow is _common_ to the race. _General_ may signify pertaining equally to all of a class, race, etc., but very commonly signifies pertaining to the greater number, but not necessarily to all. _Universal_ applies to all without exception; _general_ applies to all with possible or comparatively slight exceptions; _common_ applies to very many without deciding whether they are even a majority. A _common_ remark is one we often hear; a _general_ experience is one that comes to the majority of people; a _universal_ experience is one from which no human being is exempt. It is dangerous for a debater to affirm a _universal_ proposition, since that can be negatived by a single exception, while a _general_ statement is not invalidated even by adducing many exceptions. We say a _common_ opinion, _common_ experience, a _general_ rule, _general_ truth, a _universal_ law. Compare synonyms for NORMAL; USUAL. Antonyms: exceptional, infrequent, rare, singular, uncommon, unknown, unusual. * * * * * GENEROUS. Synonyms: bountiful, free, liberal, noble, chivalrous, free-handed, magnanimous, open-handed, disinterested, free-hearted, munificent, open-hearted. _Generous_ (L. _genus_, a race) primarily signifies having the qualities worthy of noble or honorable birth; hence, free and abundant in giving, giving freely, heartily, and self-sacrificingly. As regards giving, _generous_ refers rather to the self-sacrificing heartiness of the giver, _liberal_ to the amount of the gift; a child may show himself _generous_ in the gift of an apple, a millionaire makes a _liberal_ donation; a _generous_ gift, however, is commonly thought of as both ample and hearty. A _munificent_ gift is vast in amount, whatever the motive of its bestowal. One may be _free_ with another's money; he can be _generous_ only with his own. _Disinterested_ suggests rather the thought of one's own self-denial; _generous_, of one's hearty interest in another's welfare or happiness. One is _magnanimous_ by a greatness of soul (L. _magnus_, great, and _animus_, soul) that rises above all that is poor, mean, or weak, especially above every petty or ignoble motive or feeling pertaining to one's self, and thus above resentment of injury or insult; one is _generous_ by a kindness of heart that would rejoice in the welfare rather than in the punishment of the offender. Antonyms: avaricious, greedy, mean, niggardly, penurious, rapacious, close, ignoble, miserly, parsimonious, petty, stingy. covetous, illiberal, * * * * * GENIUS. Synonyms: talent, talents. _Genius_ is exalted intellectual power capable of operating independently of tuition and training, and marked by an extraordinary faculty for original creation, invention, discovery, expression, etc. _Talent_ is marked mental ability, and in a special sense, a particular and uncommon aptitude for some special mental work or attainment. _Genius_ is higher than _talent_, more spontaneous, less dependent upon instruction, less amenable to training; _talent_ is largely the capacity to learn, acquire, appropriate, adapt oneself to demand. Yet the _genius_ that has won the largest and most enduring success has been joined with tireless industry and painstaking. Compare synonyms for MIND; POWER. Antonyms: dulness, folly, imbecility, obtuseness, senselessness, stupidity. * * * * * GET. Synonyms: achieve, attain, gain, procure, secure, acquire, earn, obtain, receive, win. _Get_ is a most comprehensive word. A person _gets_ whatever he comes to possess or experience, whether with or without endeavor, expectation, or desire; he _gets_ a bargain, a blow, a fall, a fever; he _gains_ what he comes to by effort or striving; the swimmer _gains_ the shore; a man _acquires_ by continuous and ordinarily by slow process; as, one _acquires_ a foreign language. A person is sometimes said to _gain_ and often to _acquire_ what has not been an object of direct endeavor; in the pursuits of trade, he incidentally _gains_ some knowledge of foreign countries; he _acquires_ by association with others a correct or incorrect accent; he _acquires_ a bronzed complexion by exposure to a tropical sun; in such use, what he _gains_ is viewed as desirable, what he _acquires_ as slowly and gradually resulting. A person _earns_ what he gives an equivalent of labor for, tho he may not _get_ it. On the other hand, he may _get_ what he has not _earned_; the temptation to all dishonesty is the desire to _get_ a living or a fortune without _earning_ it. When one _gets_ the object of his desire, he is said to _obtain_ it, whether he has _gained_ or _earned_ it or not. _Win_ denotes contest, with a suggestion of chance or hazard; in popular language, a person is often said to _win_ a lawsuit, or to _win_ in a suit at law, but in legal phrase he is said to _gain_ his suit, case, or cause. In _receiving_, one is strictly passive; he may _get_ an estate by his own exertions or by inheritance; in the latter case he is said to _receive_ it. One _obtains_ a thing commonly by some direct effort of his own; he _procures_ it commonly by the intervention of some one else; he _procures_ a dinner or an interview; he _secures_ what has seemed uncertain or elusive, when he _gets_ it firmly into his possession or under his control. Compare synonyms for ATTAIN; MAKE; REACH. Antonyms: See synonyms for ABANDON. * * * * * GIFT. Synonyms: benefaction, boon, bribe, grant, largess, bequest, bounty, donation, gratuity, present. A _gift_ is in the popular, and also in the legal sense that which is voluntarily bestowed without expectation of return or compensation. _Gift_ is now almost always used in the good sense, _bribe_ always in the evil sense to signify payment for a dishonorable service under the semblance of a _gift_. In Scriptural language _gift_ is often used for _bribe_. "The king by judgment establisheth the land; but he that receiveth _gifts_ overthroweth it." _Prov._ xxix, 4. A _benefaction_ is a charitable _gift_, generally of large amount, and viewed as of enduring value, as an endowment for a college. A _donation_ is something, perhaps of great, never of trivial value, given usually on some public ground, as to a cause or to a person representing a cause, but not necessarily of value beyond the immediate present; as, a _donation_ to a pastor. A _gratuity_ is usually something of moderate value and is always given as to an inferior, and as of favor, not of right; as, a _gratuity_ to a waiter. _Largess_ is archaic for a bountiful _gratuity_, usually to be distributed among many, as among the heralds at ancient tournaments. A _present_ is a _gift_ of friendship, or conciliation, and given as to an equal or a superior; no one's pride is hurt by accepting what is viewed as strictly a _present_. A _boon_ is a _gift_ that has been desired or craved or perhaps asked, or something freely given that meets some great desire. A _grant_ is commonly considerable in amount and given by public authority; as, a _grant_ of public lands for a college. Antonyms: compensation, earnings, guerdon, penalty, remuneration, wages. * * * * * GIVE. Synonyms: bestow, communicate, deliver, grant, supply. cede, confer, furnish, impart, To _give_ is primarily to transfer to another's possession or ownership without compensation; in its secondary sense in popular use, it is to put into another's possession by any means and on any terms whatever; a buyer may say "_Give_ me the goods, and I will _give_ you the money;" we speak of _giving_ answers, information, etc., and often of _giving_ what is not agreeable to the recipient, as blows, medicine, reproof; but when there is nothing in the context to indicate the contrary, _give_ is always understood in its primary sense; as, this book was _given_ me. _Give_ thus becomes, like _get_, a term of such general import as to be a synonym for a wide variety of words. To _grant_ is to put into one's possession in some formal way, or by authoritative act; as, Congress _grants_ lands to a railroad corporation. To speak of _granting_ a favor carries a claim or concession of superiority on the part of the one by whom the _grant_ may be made; to _confer_ has a similar sense; as, to _confer_ a degree or an honor; we _grant_ a request or petition, but do not _confer_ it. To _impart_ is to _give_ of that which one still, to a greater or less degree, retains; the teacher _imparts_ instruction. To _bestow_ is to _give_ that of which the receiver stands in especial need; we _bestow_ alms. Prepositions: We give money _to_ a person _for_ a thing, _for_ a purpose, etc. (or without proposition, _give_ a person a sum of money); we give a thing _to_ or _into_ one's care or keeping; the weary fugitive gave himself up _to_ his pursuers. * * * * * GOVERN. Synonyms: command, curb, influence, mold, reign over, rule, control, direct, manage, reign, restrain, sway. _Govern_ carries the idea of authoritative administration or some exercise of authority that is at once effective and continuous; _control_ is effective, but may be momentary or occasional. One _controls_ what he holds or can hold at will absolutely in check; as, a skilful horseman _controls_ a spirited horse; a person _controls_ his temper; we say to one who is excited, "_control_ yourself." A person _commands_ another when he has, or claims, the right to make that other do his will, with power of inflicting penalty if not obeyed; he _controls_ another whom he can effectually prevent from doing anything contrary to his will; he _governs_ one whom he actually does cause, regularly or constantly, to obey his will; a parent may _command_ a child whom he can not _govern_ or _control_. The best teachers are not greatly prone to _command_, but _govern_ or _control_ their pupils largely by other means. _Command_ is, however, often used in the sense of securing, as well as requiring, submission or obedience, as when we speak of a _commanding_ influence; a man _commands_ the situation when he can shape events as he pleases; a fortress _commands_ the region when no enemy can pass against its resistance. _Govern_ implies the exercise of knowledge and judgment as well as power. To _rule_ is more absolute and autocratic than to _govern_; to _sway_ is to move by quiet but effectual influence; to _mold_ is not only to influence feeling and action, but to shape character; to _manage_ is to secure by skilful contrivance the doing of one's will by those whom one can not directly _control_; a wise mother, by gentle means, _sways_ the feelings and _molds_ the lives of her children; to be able to _manage_ servants is an important element of good housekeeping. The word _reign_, once so absolute, now simply denotes that one holds the official station of sovereign in a monarchy, with or without effective power; the Queen of England _reigns_; the Czar of Russia both _reigns_ and _rules_. Antonyms: be in subjection, be subject, comply, obey, submit, yield. * * * * * GRACEFUL. Synonym: beautiful. That which is _graceful_ is marked by elegance and harmony, with ease of action, attitude, or posture, or delicacy of form. _Graceful_ commonly suggests motion or the possibility of motion; _beautiful_ may apply to absolute fixity; a landscape or a blue sky is _beautiful_, but neither is _graceful_. _Graceful_ commonly applies to beauty as addressed to the eye, tho we often speak of a _graceful_ poem or a _graceful_ compliment. _Graceful_ applies to the perfection of motion, especially of the lighter motions, which convey no suggestion of stress or strain, and are in harmonious curves. Apart from the thought of motion, _graceful_ denotes a pleasing harmony of outline, proportion, etc., with a certain degree of delicacy; a Hercules is massive, an Apollo is _graceful_. We speak of a _graceful_ attitude, _graceful_ drapery. Compare BEAUTIFUL; BECOMING. Antonyms: See synonyms for AWKWARD. * * * * * GRIEF. Synonyms: affliction, melancholy, regret, sorrow, trouble, distress, mourning, sadness, tribulation, wo. _Grief_ is acute mental pain resulting from loss, misfortune, or deep disappointment. _Grief_ is more acute and less enduring than _sorrow_. _Sorrow_ and _grief_ are for definite cause; _sadness_ and _melancholy_ may arise from a vague sense of want or loss, from a low state of health, or other ill-defined cause; _sadness_ may be momentary; _melancholy_ is more enduring, and may become chronic. _Affliction_ expresses a deep heart-sorrow and is applied also to the misfortune producing such _sorrow_; _mourning_ most frequently denotes sorrow publicly expressed, or the public expression of such _sorrow_ as may reasonably be expected; as, it is common to observe thirty days of _mourning_ on the death of an officer of state. Antonyms: See synonyms for HAPPINESS. Prepositions: Grief _at_ a loss; _for_ a friend. * * * * * HABIT. Synonyms: custom, habitude, routine, system, use, fashion, practise, rule, usage, wont. _Habit_ is a tendency or inclination toward an action or condition, which by repetition has become easy, spontaneous, or even unconscious, or an action or regular series of actions, or a condition so induced. _Custom_ is the uniform doing of the same act in the same circumstance for a definite reason; _routine_ is the doing of customary acts in a regular and uniform sequence and is more mechanical than _custom_. It is the _custom_ of tradesmen to open at a uniform hour, and to follow a regular _routine_ of business until closing-time. _Habit_ always includes an involuntary tendency, natural or acquired, greatly strengthened by frequent repetition of the act, and may be uncontrollable, or even unconscious. _Habitude_ is habitual relation or association. _Custom_ is chiefly used of the action of many; _habit_ of the action of one; we speak of the _customs_ of society, the _habits_ of an individual. _Fashion_ is the generally recognized _custom_ in the smaller matters, especially in dress. A _rule_ is prescribed either by some external authority or by one's own will; as, it is the _rule_ of the house; or, I make it my invariable _rule_. _System_ is the coordination of many acts or things into a unity, and is more and better than _routine_. _Use_ and _usage_ denote the manner of using something; we speak of one person's _use_ of language, but of the _usage_ of many; a _use_ or _usage_ is almost always a _habit_. _Practise_ is the active doing of something in a systematic way; we do not speak of the _practise_, but of the _habit_ of going to sleep; we speak of a tradesman's _custom_, a lawyer's or a physician's _practise_. Educationally, _practise_ is the voluntary and persistent attempt to make skill a _habit_; as, _practise_ in penmanship. _Wont_ is blind and instinctive _habit_ like that which attaches an animal to a locality: the word is now almost wholly poetic. Compare DRESS. * * * * * HAPPEN. Synonyms: bechance, chance, fall out, supervene, befall, come to pass, occur, take place. betide, fall, A thing is said to _happen_ when no design is manifest, or none especially thought of; it is said to _chance_ when it appears to be the result of accident (compare synonyms for ACCIDENT). An incident _happens_ or _occurs_; something external or actual _happens_ to one; a thought or fancy _occurs_ to him. _Befall_ and _betide_ are transitive; _happen_ is intransitive; something _befalls_ or _betides_ a person or _happens_ to him. _Betide_ is especially used for anticipated evil, thought of as waiting and coming at its appointed time; as, wo _betide_ him! One event _supervenes_ upon another event, one disease upon another, etc. ["Transpire," in the sense of _happen_, is not authorized by good usage: a thing that has _happened_ is properly said to _transpire_ when it becomes known.] Prepositions: An event happens _to_ a person; a person happens _on_ or _upon_ a fact, discovery, etc. * * * * * HAPPINESS. Synonyms: blessedness, delight, gladness, pleasure, bliss, ecstasy, gratification, rapture, cheer, enjoyment, joy, rejoicing, comfort, felicity, merriment, satisfaction, contentment, gaiety, mirth, triumph. _Gratification_ is the giving any mental or physical desire something that it craves; _satisfaction_ is the giving such a desire all that it craves. _Happiness_ is the positively agreeable experience that springs from the possession of good, the _gratification_ or _satisfaction_ of the desires or the relief from pain and evil. _Comfort_ may be almost wholly negative, being found in security or relief from that which pains or annoys; there is _comfort_ by a warm fireside on a wintry night; the sympathy of a true friend affords _comfort_ in sorrow. _Enjoyment_ is more positive, always implying something to be definitely and consciously delighted in; a sick person finds _comfort_ in relief from pain, while he may be far from a state of _enjoyment_. _Pleasure_ is still more vivid, being an arousing of the faculties to an intensely agreeable activity; _satisfaction_ is more tranquil than _pleasure_, being the agreeable consciousness of having all that our faculties demand or crave; when a worthy _pleasure_ is past, a worthy _satisfaction_ remains. As referring to a mental state, _gratification_ is used to denote a mild form of _happiness_ resulting from some incident not of very great importance; _satisfaction_ should properly express a _happiness_ deeper, more complete, and more abiding; but as intellect or sensibilities of a low order may find _satisfaction_ in that which is very poor or unworthy, the word has come to be feeble and tame in ordinary use. _Happiness_ is more positive than _comfort_, _enjoyment_, or _satisfaction_, more serene and rational than _pleasure_; _pleasure_ is of necessity transient; _happiness_ is abiding, and may be eternal; thus, we speak of _pleasures_, but the plural of _happiness_ is scarcely used. _Happiness_, in the full sense, is mental or spiritual or both, and is viewed as resulting from some worthy _gratification_ or _satisfaction_; we may speak of a brute as experiencing _comfort_ or _pleasure_, but scarcely as in possession of _happiness_; we speak of vicious _pleasure_, _delight_, or _joy_, but not of vicious _happiness_. _Felicity_ is a philosophical term, colder and more formal than _happiness_. _Gladness_ is _happiness_ that overflows, expressing itself in countenance, voice, manner, and action. _Joy_ is more intense than _happiness_, deeper than _gladness_, to which it is akin, nobler and more enduring than _pleasure_. _Gaiety_ is more superficial than _joy_, more demonstrative than _gladness_. _Rejoicing_ is _happiness_ or _joy_ that finds utterance in word, song, festivity, etc. _Delight_ is vivid, overflowing _happiness_ of a somewhat transient kind; _ecstasy_ is a state of extreme or extravagant _delight_ so that the one affected by it seems almost beside himself with _joy_; _rapture_ is closely allied to _ecstasy_, but is more serene, exalted, and enduring. _Triumph_ is such _joy_ as results from victory, success, achievement. _Blessedness_ is at once the state and the sense of being divinely blessed; as, the _blessedness_ of the righteous. _Bliss_ is ecstatic, perfected _happiness_; as, the _bliss_ of heaven. Compare COMFORT. Antonyms: See synonyms for GRIEF. * * * * * HAPPY. Synonyms: blessed, cheering, gay, lucky, rejoiced, blissful, cheery, glad, merry, rejoicing, blithe, delighted, jocund, mirthful, smiling, blithesome, delightful, jolly, pleased, sprightly, bright, dexterous, joyful, prosperous, successful, buoyant, felicitous, joyous, rapturous, sunny. cheerful, fortunate, _Happy_ primarily refers to something that comes "by good hap," a chance that brings prosperity, benefit, or success. And grasps the skirts of _happy_ chance. TENNYSON _In Memoriam_ lxiii, st. 2. In this sense _happy_ is closely allied to _fortunate_ and _lucky_. (See FORTUNATE.) _Happy_ has, however, so far diverged from this original sense as to apply to advantages where chance is not recognized, or is even excluded by direct reference to the divine will, when it becomes almost equivalent to _blessed_. Behold, _happy_ is the man whom God correcteth. _Job_ v, 17. _Happy_ is also applied to the ready dexterity or skill by which favorable results (usually in minor matters) are secured, when it becomes a synonym for _dexterous_, _felicitous_, and the associated words; as, he has a _happy_ wit; _happy_ at retort (compare CLEVER). In its most frequent present use, _happy_ is applied to the state of one enjoying happiness, or to that by which happiness is expressed; as, a _happy_ heart; a _happy_ face; _happy_ laughter; _happy_ tears (compare synonyms for HAPPINESS). _Cheerful_ applies to the possession or expression of a moderate and tranquil happiness. A _cheery_ word spontaneously gives cheer to others; a _cheering_ word is more distinctly planned to cheer and encourage. _Gay_ applies to an effusive and superficial happiness (often not really worthy of that name) perhaps resulting largely from abundant animal spirits: we speak of _gay_ revelers or a _gay_ horse. A _buoyant_ spirit is, as it were, borne up by joy and hope. A _sunny_ disposition has a constant tranquil brightness that irradiates all who come within its influence. Antonyms: Compare synonyms for GRIEF. Prepositions: A happy event _for_ him; happy _at_ a reply; happy _in_ his home, _with_ his friends, _among_ his children; happy _at_ the discovery, _over_ his success. * * * * * HARMONY. Synonyms: accord, concurrence, consistency, uniformity, accordance, conformity, consonance, union, agreement, congruity, symmetry, unison, amity, consent, unanimity, unity. concord, When tones, thoughts, or feelings, individually different, combine to form a consistent and pleasing whole, there is _harmony_. _Harmony_ is deeper and more essential than _agreement_; we may have a superficial, forced, or patched-up _agreement_, but never a superficial, forced, or patched-up _harmony_. _Concord_ is less full and spiritual than _harmony_. _Concord_ implies more volition than _accord_; as, their views were found to be in perfect _accord_; or, by conference _concord_ was secured; we do not secure _accord_, but discover it. We may speak of being in _accord_ with a person on one point, but _harmony_ is wider in range. _Conformity_ is correspondence in form, manner, or use; the word often signifies submission to authority or necessity, and may be as far as possible from _harmony_; as, the attempt to secure _conformity_ to an established religion. _Congruity_ involves the element of suitableness; _consistency_ implies the absence of conflict or contradiction in views, statements, or acts which are brought into comparison, as in the different statements of the same person or the different periods of one man's life; _unanimity_ is the complete hearty _agreement_ of many; _consent_ and _concurrence_ refer to decision or action, but _consent_ is more passive than _concurrence_; one speaks by general _consent_ when no one in the assembly cares to make formal objection; a decision of the Supreme Court depends upon the _concurrence_ of a majority of the judges. Compare AGREE; FRIENDSHIP; MELODY. Antonyms: antagonism, contest, discord, hostility, schism, battle, controversy, disproportion, incongruity, separation, conflict, difference, dissension, inconsistency, variance, contention, disagreement, disunion, opposition, warfare. * * * * * HARVEST. Synonyms: crop, harvest-home, ingathering, result, fruit, harvesting, proceeds, return, growth, harvest-tide, produce, yield. harvest-feast, harvest-time, product, harvest-festival, increase, reaping, _Harvest_, from the Anglo-Saxon, signified originally "autumn," and as that is the usual season of gathering ripened _crops_ in Northern lands, the word came to its present meaning of the season of gathering ripened grain or _fruits_, whether summer or autumn, and hence a _crop_ gathered or ready for gathering; also, the act or process of gathering a _crop_ or _crops_. "The _harvest_ truly is great, but the laborers are few," _Luke_ x, 2. "Lift up your eyes and look on the fields, for they are white already to _harvest_," _John_ iv, 35. _Harvest_ is the elegant and literary word; _crop_ is the common and commercial expression; we say a man sells his _crop_, but we should not speak of his selling his _harvest_; we speak of an ample or abundant _harvest_, a good _crop_. _Harvest_ is applied almost wholly to grain; _crop_ applies to almost anything that is gathered in; we speak of the potato-_crop_, not the potato-_harvest_; we may say either the wheat-_crop_ or the wheat-_harvest_. _Produce_ is a collective word for all that is produced in farming or gardening, and is, in modern usage, almost wholly restricted to this sense; we speak of _produce_ collectively, but of a _product_ or various _products_; vegetables, _fruits_, eggs, butter, etc., may be termed farm-_produce_, or the _products_ of the farm. _Product_ is a word of wider application than _produce_; we speak of the _products_ of manufacturing, the _products_ of thought, or the _product_ obtained by multiplying one number by another. The word _proceeds_ is chiefly used of the _return_ from an investment: we speak of the _produce_ of a farm, but of the _proceeds_ of the money invested in farming. The _yield_ is what the land gives up to the farmer's demand; we speak of the _return_ from an expenditure of money or labor, but of the _yield_ of corn or oats. _Harvest_ has also a figurative use, such as _crop_ more rarely permits; we term a religious revival a _harvest_ of souls; the _result_ of lax enforcement of law is a _harvest_ of crime. As regards time, _harvest_, _harvest-tide_, and _harvest-time_ alike denote the period or season when the crops are or should be gathered (_tide_ being simply the old Saxon word for _time_). _Harvest-home_ ordinarily denotes the _festival_ of _harvest_, and when used to denote simply the season always gives a suggestion of festivity and rejoicing, such as _harvest_ and _harvest-time_ by themselves do not express. * * * * * HATRED. Synonyms: abhorrence, detestation, hostility, rancor, anger, dislike, ill will, repugnance, animosity, enmity, malevolence, resentment, antipathy, grudge, malice, revenge, aversion, hate, malignity, spite. _Repugnance_ applies to that which one feels himself summoned or impelled to do or to endure, and from which he instinctively draws back. _Aversion_ is the turning away of the mind or feelings from some person or thing, or from some course of action, etc. _Hate_, or _hatred_, as applied to persons, is intense and continued _aversion_, usually with disposition to injure; _anger_ is sudden and brief, _hatred_ is lingering and enduring; "Her wrath became a _hate_," TENNYSON _Pelleas and Ettarre_ st. 16. As applied to things, _hatred_ is intense _aversion_, with desire to destroy or remove; _hatred_ of evil is a righteous passion, akin to _abhorrence_, but more vehement. _Malice_ involves the active intent to injure; in the legal sense, _malice_ is the intent to injure, even tho with no personal _ill will_; as, a highwayman would be said to entertain _malice_ toward the unknown traveler whom he attacks. _Malice_ is direct, pressing toward a result; _malignity_ is deep, lingering, and venomous, tho often impotent to act; _rancor_ (akin to _rancid_) is cherished _malignity_ that has soured and festered and is virulent and implacable. _Spite_ is petty _malice_ that delights to inflict stinging pain; _grudge_ is deeper than _spite_; it is sinister and bitter; _grudge_, _resentment_, and _revenge_ are all retaliatory, _grudge_ being the disposition, _revenge_ the determination to repay real or supposed offense with injury; _revenge_ may denote also the retaliatory act; _resentment_, the best word of the three, always holds itself to be justifiable, but looks less certainly to action than _grudge_ or _revenge_. Simple goodness may arouse the _hatred_ of the wicked; they will be moved to _revenge_ only by what they deem an injury or affront. Compare ABOMINATION; ANGER; ANTIPATHY; ENMITY. Antonyms: See synonyms for FRIENDSHIP; LOVE. * * * * * HAVE. Synonyms: be in possession of, hold, occupy, own, possess. be possessed of, _Have_ is the most general word, and is applied to whatever belongs to or is connected with one; a man _has_ a head or a head-ache, a fortune or an opinion, a friend or an enemy; he _has_ time, or _has_ need; he may be said to _have_ what is his own, what he has borrowed, what has been entrusted to him, or what he has stolen. To _possess_ a thing is to _have_ the ownership with control and enjoyment of it. To _hold_ is to _have_ in one's hand, or securely in one's control; a man _holds_ his friend's coat for a moment, or he _holds_ a struggling horse; he _holds_ a promissory note, or _holds_ an office. To _own_ is to _have_ the right of property in; to _possess_ is to _have_ that right in actual exercise; to _occupy_ is to _have_ possession and use, with some degree of permanency, with or without ownership. A man _occupies_ his own house or a room in a hotel; a man may _own_ a farm of which he is not in possession because a tenant _occupies_ it and is determined to _hold_ it; the proprietor _owns_ the property, but the tenant _is in possession_. To _be in possession_ differs from _possess_ in that to _possess_ denotes both right and fact, while to _be in possession_ denotes simply the fact with no affirmation as to the right. To _have_ reason is to be endowed with the faculty; to _be in possession of_ one's reason denotes that the faculty is in actual present exercise. * * * * * HAZARD. Synonyms: accident, chance, danger, jeopardy, risk, casualty, contingency, fortuity, peril, venture. _Hazard_ is the incurring the possibility of loss or harm for the possibility of benefit; _danger_ may have no compensating alternative. In _hazard_ the possibilities of gain or loss are nearly balanced; in _risk_ the possibility of loss is the chief thought; the foolhardy take great _risks_ in mere wantonness; in _chance_ and _venture_ the hope of good predominates; we speak of a merchant's _venture_, but of an insurance company's _risk_; one may be driven by circumstances to run a _risk_; he freely seeks a _venture_; we speak of the _chance_ of winning, the _hazard_ or _risk_ of losing. _Accidents_ are incalculable; _casualties_ may be to a certain extent anticipated; death and wounds are _casualties_ of battle, certain to happen to some, but uncertain as to whom or how many. A _contingency_ is simply an indeterminable future event, which may or may not be attended with _danger_ or _risk_. See ACCIDENT; DANGER. Antonyms: assurance, necessity, protection, safety, surety. certainty, plan, safeguard, security, * * * * * HEALTHY. Synonyms: hale, hygienic, sanitary, vigorous, healthful, salubrious, sound, well, hearty, salutary, strong, wholesome. _Healthy_ is most correctly used to signify possessing or enjoying health or its results; as, a _healthy_ person; a _healthy_ condition. _Healthful_ signifies promotive of health, tending or adapted to confer, preserve, or promote health; as, a _healthful_ climate. _Wholesome_ food in a _healthful_ climate makes a _healthy_ man. With _healthful_ are ranged the words _hygienic_, _salubrious_, _salutary_, _sanitary_, and _wholesome_, while the other words are associated with _healthy_. _Salubrious_ is always used in the physical sense, and is chiefly applied to air or climate. _Salutary_ is now chiefly used in the moral sense; as, a _salutary_ lesson. Antonyms: delicate, failing, ill, unsound, worn, diseased, fainting, sick, wasted, worn down, emaciated, fragile, unhealthy, weak, worn out. exhausted, frail, * * * * * HELP. Synonyms: abet, befriend, foster, succor, uphold. aid, cooperate, second, support, assist, encourage, stand by, sustain, _Help_ expresses greater dependence and deeper need than _aid_. In extremity we say "God _help_ me!" rather than "God _aid_ me!" In time of danger we cry "_help! help!_" rather than "_aid! aid!_" To _aid_ is to _second_ another's own exertions. We can speak of _helping_ the helpless, but not of _aiding_ them. _Help_ includes _aid_, but _aid_ may fall short of the meaning of _help_. In law to _aid_ or _abet_ makes one a principal. (Compare synonyms for ACCESSORY.) To _cooperate_ is to _aid_ as an equal; to _assist_ implies a subordinate and secondary relation. One _assists_ a fallen friend to rise; he _cooperates_ with him in helping others. _Encourage_ refers to mental _aid_, as _uphold_ now usually does; _succor_ and _support_, oftenest to material assistance. We _encourage_ the timid or despondent, _succor_ the endangered, _support_ the weak, _uphold_ those who else might be shaken or cast down. Compare ABET; PROMOTE. Antonyms: counteract, discourage, oppose, resist, thwart, withstand. Prepositions: Help _in_ an enterprise _with_ money; help _to_ success; _against_ the enemy. * * * * * HERETIC. Synonyms: dissenter, heresiarch, non-conformist, schismatic. Etymologically, a _heretic_ is one who takes or chooses his own belief, instead of the belief of his church; hence, a _heretic_ is one who denies commonly accepted views, or who holds opinions contrary to the recognized standard or tenets of any established religious, philosophical, or other system, school, or party; the religious sense of the word is the predominant one; a _schismatic_ is primarily one who produces a split or rent in the church. A _heretic_ differs in doctrine from the religious body with which he is connected; a _schismatic_ differs in doctrine or practise, or in both. A _heretic_ may be reticent, or even silent; a _schismatic_ introduces divisions. A _heresiarch_ is the author of a heresy or the leader of a heretical party, and is thus at once a _heretic_ and a _schismatic_. With advancing ideas of religious liberty, the odious sense once attached to these words is largely modified, and _heretic_ is often used playfully. _Dissenter_ and _non-conformist_ are terms specifically applied to English subjects who hold themselves aloof from the Church of England; the former term is extended to non-adherents of the established church in some other countries, as Russia. * * * * * HETEROGENEOUS. Synonyms: confused, mingled, unhomogeneous, conglomerate, miscellaneous, unlike, discordant, mixed, variant, dissimilar, non-homogeneous, various. Substances quite _unlike_ are _heterogeneous_ as regards each other. A _heterogeneous_ mixture is one whose constituents are not only unlike in kind, but unevenly distributed; cement is composed of substances such as lime, sand, and clay, which are _heterogeneous_ as regards each other, but the cement is said to be homogeneous if the different constituents are evenly mixed throughout, so that any one portion of the mixture is exactly like any other. A substance may fail of being homogeneous and yet not be _heterogeneous_, in which case it is said to be _non-homogeneous_ or _unhomogeneous_; a bar of iron that contains flaws, air-bubbles, etc., or for any other reason is not of uniform structure and density throughout, tho no foreign substance be mixed with the iron, is said to be _non-homogeneous_. A _miscellaneous_ mixture may or may not be _heterogeneous_; if the objects are alike in kind, but different in size, form, quality, use, etc., and without special order or relation, the collection is _miscellaneous_; if the objects differ in kind, such a mixture is also, and more strictly, _heterogeneous_; a pile of unassorted lumber is _miscellaneous_; the contents of a school-boy's pocket are commonly _miscellaneous_ and might usually be termed _heterogeneous_ as well. See COMPLEX. Antonyms: alike, homogeneous, identical, like, pure, same, similar, uniform. * * * * * HIDE. Synonyms: bury, cover, entomb, overwhelm, suppress, cloak, disguise, inter, screen, veil. conceal, dissemble, mask, secrete. _Hide_ is the general term, including all the rest, signifying to put out of sight or beyond ready observation or approach; a thing may be _hidden_ by intention, by accident, or by the imperfection of the faculties of the one from whom it is _hidden_; in their games, children _hide_ the slipper, or _hide_ themselves from each other; a man unconsciously _hides_ a picture from another by standing before it, or _hides_ a thing from himself by laying something else over it. Even an unconscious object may _hide_ another; as, a cloud _hides_ the sun, or a building _hides_ some part of the prospect by intervening between it and the observer's position. As an act of persons, to _conceal_ is always intentional; one may _hide_ his face in anger, grief, or abstraction; he _conceals_ his face when he fears recognition. A house is _hidden_ by foliage; the bird's nest is artfully _concealed_. _Secrete_ is a stronger word than _conceal_, and is used chiefly of such material objects as may be separated from the person, or from their ordinary surroundings, and put in unlooked-for places; a man _conceals_ a scar on his face, but does not _secrete_ it; a thief _secretes_ stolen goods; an officer may also be said to _secrete_ himself to watch the thief. A thing is _covered_ by putting something over or around it, whether by accident or design; it is _screened_ by putting something before it, always with some purpose of protection from observation, inconvenience, attack, censure, etc. In the figurative use, a person may _hide_ honorable feelings; he _conceals_ an evil or hostile intent. Anything which is effectually _covered_ and _hidden_ under any mass or accumulation is _buried_. Money is _buried_ in the ground; a body is _buried_ in the sea; a paper is _buried_ under other documents. Whatever is _buried_ is _hidden_ or _concealed_; but there are many ways of _hiding_ or _concealing_ a thing without _burying_ it. So a person may be _covered_ with wraps, and not _buried_ under them. _Bury_ may be used of any object, _entomb_ and _inter_ only of a dead body. Figuratively, one may be said to be _buried_ in business, in study, etc. Compare IMMERSE; PALLIATE. Antonyms: admit, disclose, exhume, manifest, show, advertise, discover, expose, promulgate, tell, avow, disinter, lay bare, publish, uncover, betray, divulge, lay open, raise, unmask, confess, exhibit, make known, reveal, unveil. * * * * * HIGH. Synonyms: elevated, exalted, noble, steep, towering, eminent, lofty, proud, tall, uplifted. _Deep_, while an antonym of _high_ in usage, may apply to the very same distance simply measured in an opposite direction, _high_ applying to vertical distance measured from below upward, and _deep_ to vertical distance measured from above downward; as, a _deep_ valley nestling between _high_ mountains. _High_ is a relative term signifying greatly raised above any object, base, or surface, in comparison with what is usual, or with some standard; a table is _high_ if it exceeds thirty inches; a hill is not _high_ at a hundred feet. That is _tall_ whose height is greatly in excess of its breadth or diameter, and whose actual height is great for an object of its kind; as, a _tall_ tree; a _tall_ man; _tall_ grass. That is _lofty_ which is imposing or majestic in height; we term a spire _tall_ with reference to its altitude, or _lofty_ with reference to its majestic appearance. That is _elevated_ which is raised somewhat above its surroundings; that is _eminent_ which is far above them; as, an _elevated_ platform; an _eminent_ promontory. In the figurative sense, _elevated_ is less than _eminent_, and this less than _exalted_; we speak of _high_, _lofty_, or _elevated_ thoughts, aims, etc., in the good sense, but sometimes of _high_ feelings, looks, words, etc., in the invidious sense of haughty or arrogant. A _high_ ambition may be merely selfish; a _lofty_ ambition is worthy and _noble_. _Towering_, in the literal sense compares with _lofty_ and majestic; but in the figurative sense, its use is almost always invidious; as, a _towering_ passion; a _towering_ ambition disregards and crushes all opposing considerations, however rational, lovely, or holy. Compare STEEP. Antonyms: base, degraded, dwarfed, inferior, low, mean, short, stunted. deep, depressed, * * * * * HINDER. Synonyms: baffle, clog, foil, obstruct, retard, balk, counteract, frustrate, oppose, stay, bar, delay, hamper, prevent, stop, block, embarrass, impede, resist, thwart. check, encumber, interrupt, To _hinder_ is to keep from action, progress, motion, or growth, or to make such action, progress, motion, or growth later in beginning or completion than it would otherwise have been. An action is _prevented_ by anything that comes in before it to make it impossible; it is _hindered_ by anything that keeps it from either beginning or ending so soon as it otherwise would, or as expected or intended. It is more common, however, to say that the start is _delayed_, the progress _hindered_. An action that is _hindered_ does not take place at the appointed or appropriate time; that which is _prevented_ does not take place at all; to _hinder_ a thing long enough may amount to _preventing_ it. A railroad-train may be _hindered_ by a snow-storm from arriving on time; it may by special order be _prevented_ from starting. To _retard_ is simply to make slow by any means whatever. To _obstruct_ is to _hinder_, or possibly to _prevent_ advance or passage by putting something in the way; to _oppose_ or _resist_ is to _hinder_, or possibly to _prevent_ by directly contrary or hostile action, _resist_ being the stronger term and having more suggestion of physical force; _obstructed_ roads _hinder_ the march of an enemy, tho there may be no force strong enough to _oppose_ it; one _opposes_ a measure, a motion, an amendment, or the like; it is a criminal offense to _resist_ an officer in the discharge of his duty; the physical system may _resist_ the attack of disease or the action of a remedy. Compare CONQUER; IMPEDIMENT; OBSTRUCT. Antonyms: See synonyms for QUICKEN. Prepositions: Hinder one _in_ his progress; _from_ acting promptly; _by_ opposition. * * * * * HISTORY. Synonyms: account, biography, muniment, record, annals, chronicle, narration, register, archives, memoir, narrative, story. autobiography, memorial, recital, _History_ is a systematic record of past events. _Annals_ and _chronicles_ relate events with little regard to their relative importance, and with complete subserviency to their succession in time. _Annals_ are yearly records; _chronicles_ follow the order of time. Both necessarily lack emphasis, selection, and perspective. _Archives_ are public _records_, which may be _annals_, or _chronicles_, or deeds of property, etc. _Memoirs_ generally record the lives of individuals or facts pertaining to individual lives. A _biography_ is distinctively a written _account_ of one person's life and actions; an _autobiography_ is a _biography_ written by the person whose life it records. _Annals_, _archives_, _chronicles_, _biographies_, and _memoirs_ and other _records_ furnish the materials of _history_. _History_ recounts events with careful attention to their importance, their mutual relations, their causes and consequences, selecting and grouping events on the ground of interest or importance. _History_ is usually applied to such an _account_ of events affecting communities and nations, tho sometimes we speak of the _history_ of a single eminent life. Compare RECORD. Antonyms: See synonyms for FICTION. * * * * * HOLY. Synonyms: blessed, devoted, hallowed, saintly, consecrated, divine, sacred, set apart. _Sacred_ is applied to that which is to be regarded as inviolable on any account, and so is not restricted to divine things; therefore in its lower applications it is less than _holy_. That which is _sacred_ may be made so by institution, decree, or association; that which is _holy_ is so by its own nature, possessing intrinsic moral purity, and, in the highest sense, absolute moral perfection. God is _holy_; his commands are _sacred_. _Holy_ may be applied also to that which is _hallowed_; as, "the place whereon thou standest is _holy_ ground," _Ex._ iii, 5. In such use _holy_ is more than _sacred_, as if the very qualities of a spiritual or divine presence were imparted to the place or object. _Divine_ has been used with great looseness, as applying to anything eminent or admirable, in the line either of goodness or of mere power, as to eloquence, music, etc., but there is a commendable tendency to restrict the word to its higher sense, as designating that which belongs to or is worthy of the Divine Being. Compare PERFECT; PURE. Antonyms: abominable, cursed, polluted, unconsecrated, unholy, wicked, common, impure, secular, unhallowed, unsanctified, worldly. * * * * * HOME. Synonyms: abode, dwelling, habitation, hearthstone, ingleside, domicil, fireside, hearth, house, residence. _Abode_, _dwelling_, and _habitation_ are used with little difference of meaning to denote the place where one habitually lives; _abode_ and _habitation_ belong to the poetic or elevated style. Even _dwelling_ is not used in familiar speech; a person says "my _house_," "my _home_," or more formally "my _residence_." _Home_, from the Anglo-Saxon, denoting originally a _dwelling_, came to mean an endeared _dwelling_ as the scene of domestic love and happy and cherished family life, a sense to which there is an increasing tendency to restrict the word--desirably so, since we have other words to denote the mere dwelling-place; we say "The wretched tenement could not be called _home_," or "The humble cabin was dear to him as the _home_ of his childhood." _Home_'s not merely four square walls, Tho with pictures hung and gilded; _Home_ is where affection calls-- Where its shrine the heart has builded. Thus the word comes to signify any place of rest and peace, and especially heaven, as the soul's peaceful and eternal dwelling-place. * * * * * HONEST. Synonyms: candid, frank, ingenuous, true, equitable, genuine, just, trustworthy, fair, good, sincere, trusty, faithful, honorable, straightforward, upright. One who is _honest_ in the ordinary sense acts or is always disposed to act with careful regard for the rights of others, especially in matters of business or property; one who is _honorable_ scrupulously observes the dictates of a personal honor that is higher than any demands of mercantile law or public opinion, and will do nothing unworthy of his own inherent nobility of soul. The _honest_ man does not steal, cheat, or defraud; the _honorable_ man will not take an unfair advantage that would be allowed him, or will make a sacrifice which no one could require of him, when his own sense of right demands it. One who is _honest_ in the highest and fullest sense is scrupulously careful to adhere to all known truth and right even in thought. In this sense _honest_ differs from _honorable_ as having regard rather to absolute truth and right than to even the highest personal honor. Compare CANDID; JUSTICE. Antonyms: deceitful, faithless, hypocritical, perfidious, unfaithful, dishonest, false, lying, traitorous, unscrupulous, disingenuous, fraudulent, mendacious, treacherous, untrue. * * * * * HORIZONTAL. Synonyms: even, flat, level, plain, plane. _Horizontal_ signifies in the direction of or parallel to the horizon. For practical purposes _level_ and _horizontal_ are identical, tho _level_, as the more popular word, is more loosely used of that which has no especially noticeable elevations or inequalities; as, a _level_ road. _Flat_, according to its derivation from the Anglo-Saxon _flet_, a floor, applies to a surface only, and, in the first and most usual sense, to a surface that is _horizontal_ or _level_ in all directions; a line may be _level_, a floor is _flat_; _flat_ is also applied in a derived sense to any _plane_ surface without irregularities or elevations, as a picture may be painted on the _flat_ surface of a perpendicular wall. _Plane_ applies only to a surface, and is used with more mathematical exactness than _flat_. The adjective _plain_, originally the same word as _plane_, is now rarely used except in the figurative senses, but the original sense appears in the noun, as we speak of "a wide _plain_." We speak of a _horizontal_ line, a _flat_ morass, a _level_ road, a _plain_ country, a _plane_ surface (especially in the scientific sense). That which is _level_ may not be _even_, and that which is _even_ may not be _level_; a _level_ road may be very rough; a slope may be _even_. Antonyms: broken, inclined, rolling, rugged, sloping, hilly, irregular, rough, slanting, uneven. * * * * * HUMANE. Synonyms: benevolent, compassionate, human, pitying, benignant, forgiving, kind, sympathetic, charitable, gentle, kind-hearted, tender, clement, gracious, merciful, tender-hearted. _Human_ denotes what pertains to mankind, with no suggestion as to its being good or evil; as, the _human_ race; _human_ qualities; we speak of _human_ achievements, virtues, or excellences, _human_ follies, vices, or crimes. _Humane_ denotes what may rightly be expected of mankind at its best in the treatment of sentient beings; a _humane_ enterprise or endeavor is one that is intended to prevent or relieve suffering. The _humane_ man will not needlessly inflict pain upon the meanest thing that lives; a _merciful_ man is disposed to withhold or mitigate the suffering even of the guilty. The _compassionate_ man sympathizes with and desires to relieve actual suffering, while one who is _humane_ would forestall and prevent the suffering which he sees to be possible. Compare MERCY; PITIFUL; PITY. Antonyms: See synonyms for BARBAROUS. * * * * * HUNT. Synonyms: chase, hunting, inquisition, pursuit, search. A _hunt_ may be either the act of pursuing or the act of seeking, or a combination of the two. A _chase_ or _pursuit_ is after that which is fleeing or departing; a _search_ is for that which is hidden; a _hunt_ may be for that which is either hidden or fleeing; a _search_ is a minute and careful seeking, and is especially applied to a locality; we make a _search_ of or through a house, for an object, in which connection it would be colloquial to say a _hunt_. _Hunt_ never quite loses its association with field-sports, where it includes both _search_ and _chase_; the _search_ till the game is hunted out, and the _chase_ till it is hunted down. Figuratively, we speak of literary _pursuits_, or of the _pursuit_ of knowledge; a _search_ for reasons; the _chase_ of fame or honor; _hunt_, in figurative use, inclines to the unfavorable sense of _inquisition_, but with more of dash and aggressiveness; as, a _hunt_ for heresy. * * * * * HYPOCRISY. Synonyms: affectation, formalism, pretense, sanctimony, cant, pharisaism, sanctimoniousness, sham. dissimulation, pietism, _Pretense_ (L. _prætendo_) primarily signifies the holding something forward as having certain rights or claims, whether truly or falsely; in the good sense, it is now rarely used except with a negative; as, there can be no _pretense_ that this is due; a false _pretense_ implies the possibility of a true _pretense_; but, alone and unlimited, _pretense_ commonly signifies the offering of something for what it is not. _Hypocrisy_ is the false _pretense_ of moral excellence, either as a cover for actual wrong, or for the sake of the credit and advantage attaching to virtue. _Cant_ (L. _cantus_, a song), primarily the singsong iteration of the language of any party, school, or sect, denotes the mechanical and pretentious use of religious phraseology, without corresponding feeling or character; _sanctimoniousness_ is the assumption of a saintly manner without a saintly character. As _cant_ is _hypocrisy_ in utterance, so _sanctimoniousness_ is _hypocrisy_ in appearance, as in looks, tones, etc. _Pietism_, originally a word of good import, is now chiefly used for an unregulated emotionalism; _formalism_ is an exaggerated devotion to forms, rites, and ceremonies, without corresponding earnestness of heart; _sham_ (identical in origin with _shame_) is a trick or device that puts one to shame, or that shamefully disappoints expectation or falsifies appearance. _Affectation_ is in matters of intellect, taste, etc., much what _hypocrisy_ is in morals and religion; _affectation_ might be termed petty _hypocrisy_. Compare DECEPTION. Antonyms: candor, genuineness, ingenuousness, sincerity, truth, frankness, honesty, openness, transparency, truthfulness. * * * * * HYPOCRITE. Synonyms: cheat, deceiver, dissembler, impostor, pretender. A _hypocrite_ (Gr. _hypokrites_, one who answers on the stage, an actor, especially a mimic actor) is one who acts a false part, or assumes a character other than the real. _Deceiver_ is the most comprehensive term, including all the other words of the group. The _deceiver_ seeks to give false impressions of any matter where he has an end to gain; the _dissembler_ or _hypocrite_ seeks to give false impressions in regard to himself. The _dissembler_ is content if he can keep some base conduct or evil purpose from being discovered; the _hypocrite_ seeks not merely to cover his vices, but to gain credit for virtue. The _cheat_ and _impostor_ endeavor to make something out of those they may deceive. The _cheat_ is the inferior and more mercenary, as the thimble-rig gambler; the _impostor_ may aspire to a fortune or a throne. Compare HYPOCRISY. Antonyms: The antonyms of _hypocrite_ are to be found only in phrases embodying the adjectives candid, honest, ingenuous, sincere, true, etc. * * * * * HYPOTHESIS. Synonyms: conjecture, scheme, supposition, system, guess, speculation, surmise, theory. A _hypothesis_ is a statement of what is deemed possibly true, assumed and reasoned upon as if certainly true, with a view of reaching truth not yet surely known; especially, in the sciences, a _hypothesis_ is a comprehensive tentative explanation of certain phenomena, which is meant to include all other facts of the same class, and which is assumed as true till there has been opportunity to bring all related facts into comparison; if the _hypothesis_ explains all the facts, it is regarded as verified; till then it is regarded as a working _hypothesis_, that is, one that may answer for present practical purposes. A _hypothesis_ may be termed a comprehensive _guess_. A _guess_ is a swift conclusion from data directly at hand, and held as probable or tentative, while one confessedly lacks material for absolute certainty. A _conjecture_ is more methodical than a _guess_, while a _supposition_ is still slower and more settled; a _conjecture_, like a _guess_, is preliminary and tentative; a _supposition_ is more nearly final; a _surmise_ is more floating and visionary, and often sinister; as, a _surmise_ that a stranger may be a pickpocket. _Theory_ is used of the mental coordination of facts and principles, that may or may not prove correct; a machine may be perfect in _theory_, but useless in fact. _Scheme_ may be used as nearly equivalent to _theory_, but is more frequently applied to proposed action, and in the sense of a somewhat visionary plan. A _speculation_ may be wholly of the brain, resting upon no facts worthy of consideration; _system_ is the highest of these terms, having most of assurance and fixity; a _system_ unites many facts, phenomena, or doctrines into an orderly and consistent whole; we speak of a _system_ of theology, of the Copernican _system_ of the universe. Compare SYSTEM. Antonyms: certainty, demonstration, discovery, evidence, fact, proof. * * * * * IDEA. Synonyms: apprehension, design, impression, plan, archetype, fancy, judgment, purpose, belief, fantasy, model, sentiment, conceit, ideal, notion, supposition, concept, image, opinion, theory, conception, imagination, pattern, thought. _Idea_ is in Greek a _form_ or an _image_. The word signified in early philosophical use the _archetype_ or primal _image_ which the Platonic philosophy supposed to be the _model_ or _pattern_ that existing objects imperfectly embody. This high sense has nearly disappeared from the word _idea_, and has been largely appropriated by _ideal_, tho something of the original meaning still appears when in theological or philosophical language we speak of the _ideas_ of God. The present popular use of _idea_ makes it to signify any product of mental _apprehension_ or activity, considered as an object of knowledge or thought; this coincides with the primitive sense at but a single point--that an _idea_ is mental as opposed to anything substantial or physical; thus, almost any mental product, as a _belief_, _conception_, _design_, _opinion_, etc., may now be called an _idea_. Compare FANCY; IDEAL. Antonyms: actuality, fact, reality, substance. * * * * * IDEAL. Synonyms: archetype, model, pattern, prototype, standard. idea, original, An _ideal_ is that which is conceived or taken as the highest type of excellence or ultimate object of attainment. The _archetype_ is the primal form, actual or imaginary, according to which any existing thing is constructed; the _prototype_ has or has had actual existence; in the derived sense, as in metrology, a _prototype_ may not be the original form, but one having equal authority with that as a _standard_. An _ideal_ may be primal, or may be slowly developed even from failures and by negations; an _ideal_ is meant to be perfect, not merely the thing that has been attained or is to be attained, but the best conceivable thing that could by possibility be attained. The artist's _ideal_ is his own mental image, of which his finished work is but an imperfect expression. The _original_ is the first specimen, good or bad; the _original_ of a master is superior to all copies. The _standard_ may be below the _ideal_. The _ideal_ is imaginary, and ordinarily unattainable; the _standard_ is concrete, and ordinarily attainable, being a measure to which all else of its kind must conform; as, the _standard_ of weights and measures, of corn, or of cotton. The _idea_ of virtue is the mental concept or image of virtue in general; the _ideal_ of virtue is the mental concept or image of virtue in its highest conceivable perfection. Compare EXAMPLE; IDEA. Antonyms: accomplishment, action, doing, fact, practise, achievement, attainment, embodiment, incarnation, reality, act, development, execution, performance, realization. * * * * * IDIOCY. Synonyms: fatuity, foolishness, incapacity, stupidity. folly, imbecility, senselessness, _Idiocy_ is a state of mental unsoundness amounting almost or quite to total absence of understanding. _Imbecility_ is a condition of mental weakness, which may or may not be as complete as that of _idiocy_, but is at least such as to incapacitate for the serious duties of life. _Incapacity_, or lack of legal qualification for certain acts, necessarily results from _imbecility_, but may also result from other causes, as from insanity or from age, sex, etc.; as, the _incapacity_ of a minor to make a contract. _Idiocy_ or _imbecility_ is weakness of mind, while insanity is disorder or abnormal action of mind. _Folly_ and _foolishness_ denote a want of mental and often of moral balance. _Fatuity_ is sometimes used as equivalent to _idiocy_, but more frequently signifies conceited and excessive _foolishness_ or _folly_. _Stupidity_ is dulness and slowness of mental action which may range all the way from lack of normal readiness to absolute _imbecility_. Compare INSANITY. Antonyms: acuteness, brilliancy, common sense, sagacity, soundness, astuteness, capacity, intelligence, sense, wisdom. * * * * * IDLE. Synonyms: inactive, inert, slothful, trifling, unoccupied, indolent, lazy, sluggish, unemployed, vacant. _Idle_ in all uses rests upon its root meaning, as derived from the Anglo-Saxon _idel_, which signifies vain, empty, useless. _Idle_ thus denotes not primarily the absence of action, but vain action--the absence of useful, effective action; the _idle_ schoolboy may be very actively whittling his desk or tormenting his neighbors. Doing nothing whatever is the secondary meaning of _idle_. One may be temporarily _idle_ of necessity; if he is habitually _idle_, it is his own fault. _Lazy_ signifies indisposed to exertion, averse to labor; idleness is in fact; laziness is in disposition or inclination. A _lazy_ person may chance to be employed in useful work, but he acts without energy or impetus. We speak figuratively of a _lazy_ stream. The _inert_ person seems like dead matter (characterized by inertia), powerless to move; the _sluggish_ moves heavily and toilsomely; the most active person may sometimes find the bodily or mental powers _sluggish_. _Slothful_ belongs in the moral realm, denoting a self-indulgent aversion to exertion. "The _slothful_ hideth his hand in his bosom; it grieveth him to bring it again to his mouth," _Prov._ xxvi, 15. _Indolent_ is a milder term for the same quality; the _slothful_ man hates action; the _indolent_ man loves inaction. Compare VAIN. Antonyms: active, busy, diligent, employed, industrious, occupied, working. * * * * * IGNORANT. Synonyms: ill-informed, unenlightened, unlearned, untaught, illiterate, uninformed, unlettered, untutored. uneducated, uninstructed, unskilled, _Ignorant_ signifies destitute of education or knowledge, or lacking knowledge or information; it is thus a relative term. The most learned man is still _ignorant_ of many things; persons are spoken of as _ignorant_ who have not the knowledge that has become generally diffused in the world; the _ignorant_ savage may be well instructed in matters of the field and the chase, and is thus more properly _untutored_ than _ignorant_. _Illiterate_ is without letters and the knowledge that comes through reading. _Unlettered_ is similar in meaning to _illiterate_, but less absolute; the _unlettered_ man may have acquired the art of reading and writing and some elementary knowledge; the _uneducated_ man has never taken any systematic course of mental training. _Ignorance_ is relative; _illiteracy_ is absolute; we have statistics of _illiteracy_; no statistics of _ignorance_ are possible. Antonyms: educated, learned, sage, skilled, trained, well-informed, wise. instructed, * * * * * IMAGINATION. Synonyms: fancy, fantasy, phantasy. The old psychology treated of the _Reproductive Imagination_, which simply reproduces the images that the mind has in any way acquired, and the _Productive Imagination_ which modifies and combines mental images so as to produce what is virtually new. To this _Reproductive Imagination_ President Noah Porter and others have given the name of _phantasy_ or _fantasy_ (many psychologists preferring the former spelling). _Phantasy_ or _fantasy_, so understood, presents numerous and varied images, often combining them into new forms with exceeding vividness, yet without any true constructive power, but with the mind adrift, blindly and passively following the laws of association, and with reason and will in torpor; the mental images being perhaps as varied and as vivid, but also as purposeless and unsystematized as the visual images in a kaleidoscope; such _fantasy_ (often loosely called _imagination_) appears in dreaming, reverie, somnambulism, and intoxication. _Fantasy_ in ordinary usage simply denotes capricious or erratic _fancy_, as appears in the adjective _fantastic_. _Imagination_ and _fancy_ differ from _fantasy_ in bringing the images and their combinations under the control of the will; _imagination_ is the broader and higher term, including _fancy_; _imagination_ is the act or power of imaging or of reimaging objects of perception or thought, of combining the products of knowledge in modified, new, or ideal forms--the creative or constructive power of the mind; while _fancy_ is the act or power of forming pleasing, graceful, whimsical, or odd mental images, or of combining them with little regard to rational processes of construction; _imagination_ in its lower form. Both _fancy_ and _imagination_ recombine and modify mental images; either may work with the other's materials; _imagination_ may glorify the tiniest flower; _fancy_ may play around a mountain or a star; the one great distinction between them is that _fancy_ is superficial, while _imagination_ is deep, essential, spiritual. Wordsworth, who was the first clearly to draw the distinction between the _fancy_ and the _imagination_, states it as follows: To aggregate and to associate, to evoke and to combine, belong as well to the _imagination_ as to the _fancy_; but either the materials evoked and combined are different; or they are brought together under a different law, and for a different purpose. _Fancy_ does not require that the materials which she makes use of should be susceptible of changes in their constitution from her touch; and where they admit of modification, it is enough for her purpose if it be slight, limited, and evanescent. Directly the reverse of these are the desires and demands of the _imagination_. She recoils from everything but the plastic, the pliant, and the indefinite. She leaves it to _fancy_ to describe Queen Mab as coming: 'In shape no bigger than an agate stone On the forefinger of an alderman.' Having to speak of stature, she does not tell you that her gigantic angel was as tall as Pompey's Pillar; much less that he was twelve cubits or twelve hundred cubits high; or that his dimensions equalled those of Teneriffe or Atlas; because these, and if they were a million times as high, it would be the same, are bounded. The expression is, 'His stature reached the sky!' the illimitable firmament!--When the _imagination_ frames a comparison, ... a sense of the truth of the likeness from the moment that it is perceived grows--and continues to grow--upon the mind; the resemblance depending less upon outline of form and feature than upon expression and effect, less upon casual and outstanding than upon inherent and internal properties.[B] _Poetical Works, Pref. to Ed. of 1815_, p. 646, app. [T. & H. '51.] So far as actual images are concerned, both _fancy_ and _imagination_ are limited to the materials furnished by the external world; it is remarkable that among all the representations of gods or demigods, fiends and demons, griffins and chimæras, the human mind has never invented one organ or attribute that is not presented in human or animal life; the lion may have a human head and an eagle's wings and claws, but in the various features, individually, there is absolutely nothing new. But _imagination_ can transcend the work of _fancy_, and compare an image drawn from the external world with some spiritual truth born in the mind itself, or infuse a series of images with such a spiritual truth, molding them as needed for its more vivid expression. The _imagination_ modifies images, and gives unity to variety; it sees all things in one.... There is the epic _imagination_, the perfection of which is in Milton; and the dramatic, of which Shakspeare is the absolute master. COLERIDGE _Table Talk_ June 23, '34. _Fancy_ keeps the material image prominent and clear, and works not only with it, but for it; _imagination_ always uses the material object as the minister of something greater than itself, and often almost loses the object in the spiritual idea with which she has associated it, and for which alone she values it. _Fancy_ flits about the surface, and is airy and playful, sometimes petty and sometimes false; _imagination_ goes to the heart of things, and is deep, earnest, serious, and seeks always and everywhere for essential truth. _Fancy_ sets off, variegates, and decorates; _imagination_ transforms and exalts. _Fancy_ delights and entertains; _imagination_ moves and thrills. _Imagination_ is not only poetic or literary, but scientific, philosophical, and practical. By _imagination_ the architect sees the unity of a building not yet begun, and the inventor sees the unity and varied interactions of a machine never yet constructed, even a unity that no human eye ever can see, since when the machine is in actual motion, one part may hide the connecting parts, and yet all keep the unity of the inventor's thought. By _imagination_ a Newton sweeps sun, planets, and stars into unity with the earth and the apple that is drawn irresistibly to its surface, and sees them all within the circle of one grand law. Science, philosophy, and mechanical invention have little use for _fancy_, but the creative, penetrative power of _imagination_ is to them the breath of life, and the condition of all advance and success. See also FANCY; IDEA. [B] The whole discussion from which the quotation is taken is worthy of, and will well repay, careful study. * * * * * IMMEDIATELY. Synonyms: at once, instanter, presently, straightway, directly, instantly, right away, this instant, forthwith, now, right off, without delay. The strong and general human tendency to procrastination is shown in the progressive weakening of the various words in this group. _Immediately_ primarily signifies without the intervention of anything as a medium, hence without the intervention of any, even the briefest, interval or lapse of time. _By and by_, which was once a synonym, has become an antonym of _immediately_, meaning at some (perhaps remote) future time. _Directly_, which once meant with no intervening time, now means after some little while; _presently_ no longer means in this very present, but before very long. Even _immediately_ is sliding from its instantaneousness, so that we are fain to substitute _at once_, _instantly_, etc., when we would make promptness emphatic. _Right away_ and _right off_ are vigorous conversational expressions in the United States. Antonyms: after a while, by and by, hereafter, in the future, some time. * * * * * IMMERSE. Synonyms: bury, dip, douse, duck, immerge, plunge, sink, submerge. _Dip_ is Saxon, while _immerse_ is Latin for the same initial act; _dip_ is accordingly the more popular and commonplace, _immerse_ the more elegant and dignified expression in many cases. To speak of baptism by immersion as _dipping_ now seems rude; tho entirely proper and usual in early English. Baptists now universally use the word _immerse_. To _dip_ and to _immerse_ alike signify to _bury_ or _submerge_ some object in a liquid; but _dip_ implies that the object _dipped_ is at once removed from the liquid, while _immerse_ is wholly silent as to the removal. _Immerse_ also suggests more absolute completeness of the action; one may _dip_ his sleeve or _dip_ a sponge in a liquid, if he but touches the edge; if he _immerses_ it, he completely _sinks_ it under, and covers it with the liquid. _Submerge_ implies that the object can not readily be removed, if at all; as, a _submerged_ wreck. To _plunge_ is to _immerse_ suddenly and violently, for which _douse_ and _duck_ are colloquial terms. _Dip_ is used, also, unlike the other words, to denote the putting of a hollow vessel into a liquid in order to remove a portion of it; in this sense we say _dip up_, _dip out_. Compare synonyms for BURY. Preposition: The object is immersed _in_ water. * * * * * IMMINENT. Synonyms: impending, threatening. _Imminent_, from the Latin, with the sense of projecting over, signifies liable to happen at once, as some calamity, dangerous and close at hand. _Impending_, also from the Latin, with the sense of hanging over, is closely akin to _imminent_, but somewhat less emphatic. _Imminent_ is more immediate, _impending_ more remote, _threatening_ more contingent. An _impending_ evil is almost sure to happen at some uncertain time, perhaps very near; an _imminent_ peril is one liable to befall very speedily; a _threatening_ peril may be near or remote, but always with hope that it may be averted. Antonyms: chimerical, doubtful, problematical, unexpected, unlikely. contingent, improbable, * * * * * IMPEDIMENT. Synonyms: bar, clog, encumbrance, obstacle, barrier, difficulty, hindrance, obstruction. _Difficulty_ makes an undertaking otherwise than easy. That which rests upon one as a burden is an _encumbrance_. An _impediment_ is primarily something that checks the foot or in any way makes advance slow or difficult; an _obstacle_ is something that stands across the way, an _obstruction_ something that is built or placed across the way. An _obstruction_ is always an _obstacle_, but an _obstacle_ may not always be properly termed an _obstruction_; boxes and bales placed on the sidewalk are _obstructions_ to travel; an ice-floe is an _obstacle_ to navigation, and may become an _obstruction_ if it closes an inlet or channel. A _hindrance_ (kindred with _hind_, _behind_) is anything that makes one come behind or short of his purpose. An _impediment_ may be either what one finds in his way or what he carries with him; _impedimenta_ was the Latin name for the baggage of a soldier or of an army. The tendency is to view an _impediment_ as something constant or, at least for a time, continuous; as, an _impediment_ in one's speech. A _difficulty_ or a _hindrance_ may be either within one or without; a speaker may find _difficulty_ in expressing himself, or _difficulty_ in holding the attention of restless children. An _encumbrance_ is always what one carries with him; an _obstacle_ or an _obstruction_ is always without. To a marching soldier the steepness of a mountain path is a _difficulty_, loose stones are _impediments_, a fence is an _obstruction_, a cliff or a boulder across the way is an _obstacle_; a knapsack is an _encumbrance_. Antonyms: advantage, aid, assistance, benefit, help, relief, succor. * * * * * IMPUDENCE. Synonyms: assurance, impertinence, intrusiveness, presumption, boldness, incivility, officiousness, rudeness, effrontery, insolence, pertness, sauciness. forwardness, _Impertinence_ primarily denotes what does not pertain or belong to the occasion or the person, and hence comes to signify interference by word or act not consistent with the age, position, or relation of the person interfered with or of the one who interferes; especially, forward, presumptuous, or meddlesome speech. _Impudence_ is shameless _impertinence_. What would be arrogance in a superior becomes _impertinence_ or _impudence_ in an inferior. _Impertinence_ has less of intent and determination than _impudence_. We speak of thoughtless _impertinence_, shameless _impudence_. _Insolence_ is literally that which is against custom, _i. e._, the violation of customary respect and courtesy. _Officiousness_ is thrusting upon others unasked and undesired service, and is often as well-meant as it is annoying. _Rudeness_ is the behavior that might be expected from a thoroughly uncultured person, and may be either deliberate and insulting or unintentional and even unconscious. Compare ARROGANCE; ASSURANCE; EFFRONTERY; PERTNESS. Antonyms: bashfulness, diffidence, lowliness, modesty, coyness, humility, meekness, submissiveness. Prepositions: The impudence _of_, or impudence _from_, a subordinate _to_ a superior. * * * * * INCONGRUOUS. Synonyms: absurd, ill-matched, inharmonious, conflicting, inapposite, irreconcilable, contradictory, inappropriate, mismatched, contrary, incommensurable, mismated, discordant, incompatible, repugnant, discrepant, inconsistent, unsuitable. Two or more things that do not fit well together, or are not adapted to each other, are said to be _incongruous_; a thing is said to be _incongruous_ that is not adapted to the time, place, or occasion; the term is also applied to a thing made up of ill-assorted parts or _inharmonious_ elements. _Discordant_ is applied to all things that jar in association like musical notes that are not in accord; _inharmonious_ has the same original sense, but is a milder term. _Incompatible_ primarily signifies unable to sympathize or feel alike; _inconsistent_ means unable to stand together. Things are _incompatible_ which can not exist together in harmonious relations, and whose action when associated tends to ultimate extinction of one by the other. _Inconsistent_ applies to things that can not be made to agree in thought with each other, or with some standard of truth or right; slavery and freedom are _inconsistent_ with each other in theory, and _incompatible_ in fact. _Incongruous_ applies to relations, _unsuitable_ to purpose or use; two colors are _incongruous_ which can not be agreeably associated; either may be _unsuitable_ for a person, a room, or an occasion. _Incommensurable_ is a mathematical term, applying to two or more quantities that have no common measure or aliquot part. Antonyms: accordant, agreeing, compatible, consistent, harmonious, suitable. Preposition: The illustrations were incongruous _with_ the theme. * * * * * INDUCTION. Synonyms: deduction, inference. _Deduction_ is reasoning from the general to the particular; _induction_ is reasoning from the particular to the general. _Deduction_ proceeds from a general principle through an admitted instance to a conclusion. _Induction_, on the other hand, proceeds from a number of collated instances, through some attribute common to them all, to a general principle. The proof of an _induction_ is by using its conclusion as the premise of a new _deduction_. Thus what is ordinarily known as scientific _induction_ is a constant interchange of _induction_ and _deduction_. In _deduction_, if the general rule is true, and the special case falls under the rule, the conclusion is certain; _induction_ can ordinarily give no more than a probable conclusion, because we can never be sure that we have collated all instances. An _induction_ is of the nature of an _inference_, but while an _inference_ may be partial and hasty, an _induction_ is careful, and aims to be complete. Compare DEMONSTRATION; HYPOTHESIS. * * * * * INDUSTRIOUS. Synonyms: active, busy, employed, occupied, assiduous, diligent, engaged, sedulous. _Industrious_ signifies zealously or habitually applying oneself to any work or business. _Busy_ applies to an activity which may be temporary, _industrious_ to a habit of life. We say a man is _busy_ just now; that is, _occupied_ at the moment with something that takes his full attention. It would be ridiculous or satirical to say, he is _industrious_ just now. But _busy_ can be used in the sense of _industrious_, as when we say he is a _busy_ man. _Diligent_ indicates also a disposition, which is ordinarily habitual, and suggests more of heartiness and volition than _industrious_. We say one is a _diligent_, rather than an _industrious_, reader of the Bible. In the use of the nouns, we speak of plodding _industry_, but not of plodding _diligence_. Compare ACTIVE; INDUSTRY. Antonyms: See synonyms for IDLE. * * * * * INDUSTRY. Synonyms: application, diligence, labor, persistence, assiduity, effort, pains, sedulousness. attention, exertion, patience, constancy, intentness, perseverance, _Industry_ is the quality, action, or habit of earnest, steady, and continued attention or devotion to any useful or productive work or task, manual or mental. _Assiduity_ (L. _ad_, to, and _sedeo_, sit), as the etymology suggests, sits down to a task until it is done. _Diligence_ (L. _diligo_, love, choose) invests more effort and exertion, with love of the work or deep interest in its accomplishment; _application_ (L. _ad_, to, and _plico_, fold) bends to its work and concentrates all one's powers upon it with utmost intensity; hence, _application_ can hardly be as unremitting as _assiduity_. _Constancy_ is a steady devotion of heart and principle. _Patience_ works on in spite of annoyances; _perseverance_ overcomes hindrances and difficulties; _persistence_ strives relentlessly against opposition; _persistence_ has very frequently an unfavorable meaning, implying that one persists in spite of considerations that should induce him to desist. _Industry_ is _diligence_ applied to some avocation, business, or profession. _Labor_ and _pains_ refer to the _exertions_ of the worker and the tax upon him, while _assiduity_, _perseverance_, etc., refer to his continuance in the work. Antonyms: changeableness, idleness, inconstancy, neglect, remissness, fickleness, inattention, indolence, negligence, sloth. * * * * * INFINITE. Synonyms: absolute, illimitable, limitless, unconditioned, boundless, immeasurable, measureless, unfathomable, countless, innumerable, numberless, unlimited, eternal, interminable, unbounded, unmeasured. _Infinite_ (L. _in_, not, and _finis_, limit) signifies without bounds or limits in any way, and may be applied to space, time, quantity, or number. _Countless_, _innumerable_, and _numberless_, which should be the same as _infinite_, are in common usage vaguely employed to denote what it is difficult or practically impossible to count or number, tho perhaps falling far short of _infinite_; as, _countless_ leaves, the _countless_ sands on the seashore, _numberless_ battles, _innumerable_ delays. So, too, _boundless_, _illimitable_, _limitless_, _measureless_, and _unlimited_ are loosely used in reference to what has no apparent or readily determinable limits in space or time; as, we speak of the _boundless_ ocean. _Infinite_ space is without bounds, not only in fact, but in thought; _infinite_ time is truly _eternal_. Compare synonyms for ETERNAL. Antonyms: bounded, finite, measurable, restricted, small, brief, limited, moderate, shallow, transient, circumscribed, little, narrow, short, transitory. evanescent, * * * * * INFLUENCE. Synonyms: actuate, draw, impel, induce, move, stir, compel, drive, incite, instigate, persuade, sway, dispose, excite, incline, lead, prompt, urge. To _influence_ (L. _in_, in or into, and _fluo_, flow) is to affect, modify, or act upon by physical, mental, or moral power, especially in some gentle, subtle, and gradual way; as, vegetation is _influenced_ by light; every one is _influenced_ to some extent by public opinion; _influence_ is chiefly used of power acting from without, tho it may be used of motives regarded as forces acting upon the will. _Actuate_ refers solely to mental or moral power _impelling_ one from within. One may _influence_, but can not directly _actuate_ another; but one may be _actuated_ to cruelty by hatred which another's misrepresentation has aroused. _Prompt_ and _stir_ are words of mere suggestion toward some course of action; _dispose_, _draw_, _incline_, _influence_, and _lead_ refer to the use of mild means to awaken in another a purpose or disposition to act. To _excite_ is to arouse one from lethargy or indifference to action. _Incite_ and _instigate_, to spur or goad one to action, differ in the fact that _incite_ may be to good, while _instigate_ is always to evil (compare ABET). To _urge_ and _impel_ signify to produce strong excitation toward some act. We are _urged_ from without, _impelled_ from within. _Drive_ and _compel_ imply irresistible influence accomplishing its object. One may be _driven_ either by his own passions or by external force or urgency; one is _compelled_ only by some external power; as, the owner was _compelled_ by his misfortunes to sell his estate. Compare COMPEL; DRIVE. Antonyms: deter, dissuade, impede, prevent, restrain, retard. discourage, hinder, inhibit, Prepositions: Actuated _to_ crime _by_ revenge. * * * * * INHERENT. Synonyms: congenital, indispensable, innate, native, essential, indwelling, inseparable, natural, immanent, infixed, internal, subjective. inborn, ingrained, intrinsic, inbred, inhering, inwrought, _Inherent_ signifies permanently united as an element or original quality, naturally existent or incorporated in something so as to have become an integral part. _Immanent_ is a philosophic word, to denote that which dwells in or pervades any substance or spirit without necessarily being a part of it, and without reference to any working out (compare SUBJECTIVE). That which is _inherent_ is an _inseparable_ part of that in which it inheres, and is usually thought of with reference to some outworking or effect; as, an _inherent_ difficulty. God is said to be _immanent_ (not _inherent_) in the universe. Frequently _intrinsic_ and _inherent_ can be interchanged, but _inherent_ applies to qualities, while _intrinsic_ applies to essence, so that to speak of _intrinsic_ excellence conveys higher praise than if we say _inherent_ excellence. _Inherent_ and _intrinsic_ may be said of persons or things; _congenital_, _inborn_, _inbred_, _innate_, apply to living beings. _Congenital_ is frequent in medical and legal use with special application to defects; as, _congenital_ idiocy. _Innate_ and _inborn_ are almost identical, but _innate_ is preferred in philosophic use, as when we speak of _innate_ ideas; that which is _inborn_, _congenital_, or _innate_ may be original with the individual, but that which is _inbred_ is inherited. _Ingrained_ signifies dyed in the grain, and denotes that which is deeply wrought into substance or character. Antonyms: accidental, extrinsic, outward, superficial, supplemental, casual, fortuitous, subsidiary, superfluous, transient, external, incidental, superadded, superimposed, unconnected. * * * * * INJURY. Synonyms: blemish, disadvantage, hurt, loss, prejudice, damage, evil, impairment, mischief, wrong. detriment, harm, injustice, outrage, _Injury_ (L. _in_, not, and _jus, juris_, right, law) signifies primarily something done contrary to law or right; hence, something contrary to some standard of right or good; whatever reduces the value, utility, beauty, or desirableness of anything is an _injury_ to that thing; of persons, whatever is so done as to operate adversely to one in his person, rights, property, or reputation is an _injury_; the word is especially used of whatever mars the integrity of the body or causes pain; as, when rescued from the wreck his _injuries_ were found to be very slight. _Injury_ is the general term including all the rest. _Damage_ (L. _damnum_, loss) is that which occasions _loss_ to the possessor; hence, any impairment of value, often with the suggestion of fault on the part of the one causing it; _damage_ reduces value, utility, or beauty; _detriment_ (L. _deterere_, to rub or wear away) is similar in meaning, but far milder. _Detriment_ may affect value only; _damage_ always affects real worth or utility; as a rule, the slightest use of an article by a purchaser operates to its _detriment_ if again offered for sale, tho the article may have received not the slightest _damage_. _Damage_ is partial; _loss_ is properly absolute as far as it is predicated at all; the _loss_ of a ship implies that it is gone beyond recovery; the _loss_ of the rudder is a _damage_ to the ship; but since the _loss_ of a part still leaves a part, we may speak of a partial or a total _loss_. _Evil_ commonly suggests suffering or sin, or both; as, the _evils_ of poverty, the social _evil_. _Harm_ is closely synonymous with _injury_; it may apply to body, mind, or estate, but always affects real worth, while _injury_ may concern only estimated value. A _hurt_ is an _injury_ that causes pain, physical or mental; a slight _hurt_ may be no real _harm_. _Mischief_ is disarrangement, trouble, or _harm_ usually caused by some voluntary agent, with or without injurious intent; a child's thoughtless sport may do great _mischief_; _wrong_ is _harm_ done with _evil_ intent. An _outrage_ combines insult and _injury_. Compare synonyms for BLEMISH; CRIMINAL; INJUSTICE. Antonyms: advantage, benefit, boon, improvement, service, amelioration, blessing, help, remedy, utility. Prepositions: The injury _of_ the cause; an injury _to_ the structure; injury _by_ fire; _by_ or _from_ collision, interference, etc. * * * * * INJUSTICE. Synonyms: grievance, injury, unfairness, unrighteousness, wrong. iniquity, _Injustice_ is a violation or denial of justice, an act or omission that is contrary to equity or justice; as, the _injustice_ of unequal taxes. In legal usage a _wrong_ involves _injury_ to person, property, or reputation, as the result of evil intent; _injustice_ applies to civil damage or loss, not necessarily involving _injury_ to person or property, as by misrepresentation of goods which does not amount to a legal warranty. In popular usage, _injustice_ may involve no direct _injury_ to person, property, interest, or character, and no harmful intent, while _wrong_ always involves both; one who attributes another's truly generous act to a selfish motive does him an _injustice_. _Iniquity_, in the original sense, is a want of or a deviation from equity; but it is now applied in the widest sense to any form of ill-doing. Compare synonyms for CRIMINAL; SIN. Antonyms: equity, faithfulness, impartiality, lawfulness, righteousness, fairness, honesty, integrity, rectitude, uprightness. fair play, honor, justice, right, * * * * * INNOCENT. Synonyms: blameless, guiltless, inoffensive, spotless, clean, harmless, pure, stainless, clear, immaculate, right, upright, faultless, innocuous, righteous, virtuous. guileless, innoxious, sinless, _Innocent_, in the full sense, signifies not tainted with sin; not having done wrong or violated legal or moral precept or duty; as, an _innocent_ babe. _Innocent_ is a negative word, expressing less than _righteous_, _upright_, or _virtuous_, which imply knowledge of good and evil, with free choice of the good. A little child or a lamb is _innocent_; a tried and faithful man is _righteous_, _upright_, _virtuous_. _Immaculate_, _pure_, and _sinless_ may be used either of one who has never known the possibility of evil or of one who has perfectly and triumphantly resisted it. _Innocent_ is used of inanimate substances in the sense of _harmless_; as, an _innocent_ remedy, that is, one not dangerous, even if not helpful. _Innocent_, in a specific case, signifies free from the guilt of a particular act, even tho the total character may be very evil; as, the thief was found to be _innocent_ of the murder. See CANDID; PURE. Antonyms: Compare synonyms for CRIMINAL. * * * * * INQUISITIVE. Synonyms: curious, meddlesome, peeping, scrutinizing, inquiring, meddling, prying, searching. intrusive, An _inquisitive_ person is one who is bent on finding out all that can be found out by inquiry, especially of little and personal matters, and hence is generally _meddlesome_ and _prying_. _Inquisitive_ may be used in a good sense, tho in such connection _inquiring_ is to be preferred; as, an _inquiring_ mind. As applied to a state of mind, _curious_ denotes a keen and rather pleasurable desire to know fully something to which one's attention has been called, but without the active tendency that _inquisitive_ implies; a well-bred person may be _curious_ to know, but will not be _inquisitive_ in trying to ascertain, what is of interest in the affairs of another. Antonyms: apathetic, heedless, indifferent, unconcerned, uninterested. careless, inattentive, Prepositions: Inquisitive _about_, _concerning_, _in regard to_, _regarding_ trifles. * * * * * INSANITY. Synonyms: aberration, delirium, frenzy, madness, alienation, dementia, hallucination, mania, craziness, derangement, lunacy, monomania. Of these terms _insanity_ is the most exact and comprehensive, including in its widest sense all morbid conditions of mind due to diseased action of the brain or nervous system, but in its more frequent restricted use applied to those forms in which the mental disorder is persistent, as distinguished from those in which it is temporary or transient. _Craziness_ is a vague popular term for any sort of disordered mental action, or for conduct suggesting it. _Lunacy_ originally denoted intermittent _insanity_, supposed to be dependent on the changes of the moon (L. _luna_): the term is now applied in general and legal use to any form of mental unsoundness except idiocy. _Madness_ is the old popular term, now less common, for _insanity_ in its widest sense, but with suggestion of excitement, akin to _mania_. In the derived sense, _lunacy_ denotes what is insanely foolish, _madness_ what is insanely desperate. _Derangement_ is a common euphemism for _insanity_. _Delirium_ is always temporary, and is specifically the _insanity_ of disease, as in acute fevers. _Dementia_ is a general weakening of the mental powers: the word is specifically applied to senile _insanity_, dotage. _Aberration_ is eccentricity of mental action due to an abnormal state of the perceptive faculties, and is manifested by error in perceptions and rambling thought. _Hallucination_ is the apparent perception of that which does not exist or is not present to the senses, as the seeing of specters or of reptiles in delirium tremens. _Monomania_ is mental _derangement_ as to one subject or object. _Frenzy_ and _mania_ are forms of raving and furious _insanity_. Compare synonyms for DELUSION; IDIOCY. Antonyms: clearness, good sense, lucidity, rationality, sanity. * * * * * INTERPOSE. Synonyms: arbitrate, intercept, intermeddle, meddle, intercede, interfere, interrupt, mediate. To _interpose_ is to place or come between other things or persons, usually as a means of obstruction or prevention of some effect or result that would otherwise occur, or be expected to take place. _Intercede_ and _interpose_ are used in a good sense; _intermeddle_ always in a bad sense, and _interfere_ frequently so. To _intercede_ is to come between persons who are at variance, and plead with the stronger in behalf of the weaker. One may _interpose_ with authority; he _intercedes_ by petition. To _intermeddle_ is to thrust oneself into the concerns of others with a petty officiousness; _meddling_ commonly arises from idle curiosity; "every fool will be _meddling_," _Prov._ xx, 3; to _interfere_ is to intrude into others' affairs with more serious purpose, with or without acknowledged right or propriety. _Intercept_ is applied to an object that may be seized or stopped while in transit; as, to _intercept_ a letter or a messenger; _interrupt_ is applied to an action which might or should be continuous, but is broken in upon (L. _rumpere_, to break) by some disturbing power; as, the conversation was _interrupted_. One who _arbitrates_ or _mediates_ must do so by the request or at least with the consent of the contending parties; the other words of the group imply that he steps in of his own accord. Antonyms: avoid, keep aloof, keep out, retire, stand back, hold aloof, keep away, let alone, stand aside, stand off, hold off, keep clear, let be, stand away, withdraw. Prepositions: Interpose _between_ the combatants; _in_ the matter. * * * * * INVOLVE. Synonyms: complicate, embroil, implicate, include, embarrass, entangle, imply, overwhelm. To _involve_ (L. _in_, in, and _volvo_, roll) is to roll or wind up with or in so as to combine inextricably or inseparably, or nearly so; as, the nation is _involved_ in war; the bookkeeper's accounts, or the writer's sentences are _involved_. _Involve_ is a stronger word than _implicate_, denoting more complete entanglement. As applied to persons, _implicate_ is always used in an unfavorable sense, and _involve_ ordinarily so; but _implicate_ applies only to that which is wrong, while _involve_ is more commonly used of that which is unfortunate; one is _implicated_ in a crime, _involved_ in embarrassments, misfortunes, or perplexities. As regards logical connection that which is _included_ is usually expressly stated; that which is _implied_ is not stated, but is naturally to be inferred; that which is _involved_ is necessarily to be inferred; as, a slate roof is _included_ in the contract; that the roof shall be water-tight is _implied_; the contrary supposition _involves_ an absurdity. See COMPLEX. Antonyms: disconnect, distinguish, explicate, extricate, remove, separate. disentangle, * * * * * JOURNEY. Synonyms: excursion, pilgrimage, transit, trip, expedition, tour, travel, voyage. A _journey_ (F. _journée_, from L. _diurnus_, daily) was primarily a day's work; hence, a movement from place to place within one day, which we now describe as "a day's _journey_;" in its extended modern use a _journey_ is a direct going from a starting-point to a destination, ordinarily over a considerable distance; we speak of a day's _journey_, or the _journey_ of life. _Travel_ is a passing from place to place, not necessarily in a direct line or with fixed destination; a _journey_ through Europe would be a passage to some destination beyond or at the farther boundary; _travel_ in Europe may be in no direct course, but may include many _journeys_ in different directions. A _voyage_, which was formerly a _journey_ of any kind, is now a going to a considerable distance by water, especially by sea; as, a _voyage_ to India. A _trip_ is a short and direct _journey_. A _tour_ is a _journey_ that returns to the starting-point, generally over a considerable distance; as, a bridal _tour_, or business _tour_. An _excursion_ is a brief _tour_ or _journey_, taken for pleasure, often by many persons at once; as, an _excursion_ to Chautauqua. _Passage_ is a general word for a _journey_ by any conveyance, especially by water; as, a rough _passage_ across the Atlantic; _transit_, literally the act of passing over or through, is used specifically of the conveyance of passengers or merchandise; rapid _transit_ is demanded for suburban residents or perishable goods. _Pilgrimage_, once always of a sacred character, retains in derived uses something of that sense; as, a _pilgrimage_ to Stratford-on-Avon. Prepositions: A journey _from_ Naples _to_ Rome; _through_ Mexico; _across_ the continent; _over_ the sea; a journey _into_ Asia; _among_ savages; _by_ land, _by_ rail, _for_ health, _on_ foot, _on_ the cars, etc. * * * * * JUDGE. Synonyms: arbiter, arbitrator, justice, referee, umpire. A _judge_, in the legal sense, is a judicial officer appointed or elected to preside in courts of law, and to decide legal questions duly brought before him; the name is sometimes given to other legally constituted officers; as, the _judges_ of election; in other relations, any person duly appointed to pass upon the merits of contestants or of competing articles may be called a _judge_; as, the _judges_ at an agricultural fair, or at a race-track; in the widest sense, any person who has good capacity for judging is called a _judge_; as, a person is said to be a _judge_ of pictures, or a good _judge_ of a horse, etc. In most games the _judge_ is called an _umpire_; as, the _umpire_ of a game of ball or cricket. A _referee_ is appointed by a court to decide disputed matters between litigants; an _arbitrator_ is chosen by the contending parties to decide matters in dispute without action by a court. In certain cases an _umpire_ is appointed by a court to decide where _arbitrators_ disagree. _Arbiter_, with its suggestion of final and absolute decision, has come to be used only in a high or sacred sense; as, war must now be the _arbiter_; the Supreme _Arbiter_ of our destinies. The _judges_ of certain courts, as the United States Supreme Court, are technically known as _justices_. * * * * * JUSTICE. Synonyms: equity, impartiality, legality, rightfulness, fairness, integrity, rectitude, truth, fair play, justness, right, uprightness, faithfulness, law, righteousness, virtue. honor, lawfulness, In its governmental relations, human or divine, _justice_ is the giving to every person exactly what he deserves, not necessarily involving any consideration of what any other may deserve; _equity_ (the quality of being equal) is giving every one as much advantage, privilege, or consideration as is given to any other; it is that which is equally right or just to all concerned; _equity_ is equal _justice_ and is thus a close synonym for _fairness_ and _impartiality_, but it has a philosophical and legal precision that those words have not. In legal proceedings cases arise for which the _law_ has not adequately provided, or in which general provisions, just in the main, would work individual hardship. The system of _equity_, devised to supply the insufficiencies of _law_, deals with cases "to which the _law_ by reason of its universality can not apply." "_Equity_, then, ... is the soul and spirit of all _law_; positive _law_ is construed and rational _law_ is made by it." BLACKSTONE bk. iii, ch. 27, p. 429. In personal and social relations _justice_ is the rendering to every one what is due or merited, whether in act, word, or thought; in matters of reasoning, or literary work of any kind, _justice_ is close, faithful, unprejudiced, and unbiased adherence to essential truth or fact; we speak of the _justice_ of a statement, or of doing _justice_ to a subject. _Integrity_, _rectitude_, _right_, _righteousness_ and _virtue_ denote conformity of personal conduct to the moral law, and thus necessarily include _justice_, which is giving others that which is their due. _Lawfulness_ is an ambiguous word, meaning in its narrower sense mere _legality_, which may be very far from _justice_, but in its higher sense signifying accordance with the supreme _law_ of _right_, and thus including perfect _justice_. _Justness_ refers rather to logical relations than to practical matters; as, we speak of the _justness_ of a statement or of a criticism. See JUDGE, _n._ Antonyms: dishonesty, inequity, partiality, unlawfulness, untruth, favoritism, injustice, unfairness, unreasonableness, wrong. Prepositions: The justice _of_ the king; _to_ or _for_ the oppressed. * * * * * KEEP. Synonyms: carry, defend, hold, preserve, retain, carry on, detain, maintain, protect, support, celebrate, fulfil, obey, refrain, sustain, conduct, guard, observe, restrain, withhold. _Keep_, signifying generally to have and retain in possession, is the terse, strong Saxon term for many acts which are more exactly discriminated by other words. We _keep_, _observe_, or _celebrate_ a festival; we _keep_ or _hold_ a prisoner in custody; we _keep_ or _preserve_ silence, _keep_ the peace, _preserve_ order--_preserve_ being the more formal word; we _keep_ or _maintain_ a horse, a servant, etc.; a man _supports_ his family; we _keep_ or _obey_ a commandment; _keep_ or _fulfil_ a promise. In the expressions to _keep_ a secret, _keep_ one's own counsel, _keep_ faith, or _keep_ the faith, such words as _preserve_ or _maintain_ could not be substituted without loss. A person _keeps_ a shop or store, _conducts_ or _carries on_ a business; he _keeps_ or _carries_ a certain line of goods; we may _keep_ or _restrain_ one from folly, crime, or violence; we _keep_ from or _refrain_ from evil, ourselves. _Keep_ in the sense of _guard_ or _defend_ implies that the defense is effectual. Compare CELEBRATE; RESTRAIN. Prepositions: Keep _in_ hand, _in_ mind, _in_ or _within_ the house; _from_ evil; _out of_ mischief; keep _to_ the subject; keep _for_ a person, an occasion, etc. * * * * * KILL. Synonyms: assassinate, despatch, massacre, put to death, slay. butcher, execute, murder, slaughter, To _kill_ is simply to deprive of life, human, animal, or vegetable, with no suggestion of how or why. _Assassinate_, _execute_, _murder_, apply only to the taking of human life; to _murder_ is to _kill_ with premeditation and malicious intent; to _execute_ is to _kill_ in fulfilment of a legal sentence; to _assassinate_ is to _kill_ by assault; this word is chiefly applied to the _killing_ of public or eminent persons through alleged political motives, whether secretly or openly. To _slay_ is to _kill_ by a blow, or by a weapon. _Butcher_ and _slaughter_ apply primarily to the _killing_ of cattle; _massacre_ is applied primarily and almost exclusively to human beings, signifying to _kill_ them indiscriminately in large numbers; to _massacre_ is said when there is no chance of successful resistance; to _butcher_ when the _killing_ is especially brutal; soldiers mown down in a hopeless charge are said to be _slaughtered_ when no brutality on the enemy's part is implied. To _despatch_ is to _kill_ swiftly and in general quietly, always with intention, with or without right. Prepositions: To kill _with_ or _by_ sword, famine, pestilence, care, grief, etc.; killed _for_ his money, _by_ a robber, _with_ a dagger. * * * * * KIN. Synonyms: affinity, blood, descent, kind, race, alliance, consanguinity, family, kindred, relationship. birth, _Kind_ is broader than _kin_, denoting the most general _relationship_, as of the whole human species in man_kind_, human_kind_, etc.; _kin_ and _kindred_ denote direct _relationship_ that can be traced through either blood or marriage, preferably the former; either of these words may signify collectively all persons of the same blood or members of the same family, relatives or relations. _Affinity_ is _relationship_ by marriage, _consanguinity_ is _relationship_ by blood. There are no true antonyms of _kin_ or _kindred_, except those made by negatives, since strangers, aliens, foreigners, and foes may still be _kin_ or _kindred_. * * * * * KNOWLEDGE. Synonyms: acquaintance, erudition, learning, recognition, apprehension, experience, light, scholarship, cognition, information, lore, science, cognizance, intelligence, perception, wisdom. comprehension, intuition, _Knowledge_ is all that the mind knows, from whatever source derived or obtained, or by whatever process; the aggregate of facts, truths, or principles acquired or retained by the mind, including alike the _intuitions_ native to the mind and all that has been learned respecting phenomena, causes, laws, principles, literature, etc. There is a tendency to regard _knowledge_ as accurate and systematic, and to a certain degree complete. _Information_ is _knowledge_ of fact, real or supposed, derived from persons, books, or observation, and is regarded as casual and haphazard. We say of a studious man that he has a great store of _knowledge_, or of an intelligent man of the world, that he has a fund of varied _information_. _Lore_ is used only in poetic or elevated style, for accumulated _knowledge_, as of a people or age, or in a more limited sense for _learning_ or _erudition_. We speak of _perception_ of external objects, _apprehension_ of intellectual truth. Simple _perception_ gives a limited _knowledge_ of external objects, merely as such; the _cognition_ of the same objects is a _knowledge_ of them in some relation; _cognizance_ is the formal or official _recognition_ of something as an object of _knowledge_; we take _cognizance_ of it. _Intuition_ is primary _knowledge_ antecedent to all teaching or reasoning, _experience_ is _knowledge_ that has entered directly into one's own life; as, a child's _experience_ that fire will burn. _Learning_ is much higher than _information_, being preeminently wide and systematic _knowledge_, the result of long, assiduous study; _erudition_ is recondite _learning_ secured only by extraordinary industry, opportunity, and ability. Compare ACQUAINTANCE; EDUCATION; SCIENCE; WISDOM. Antonyms: ignorance, inexperience, misconception, rudeness, illiteracy, misapprehension, misunderstanding, unfamiliarity. * * * * * LANGUAGE. Synonyms: barbarism, expression, patois, vernacular, dialect, idiom, speech, vocabulary. diction, mother tongue, tongue, _Language_ (F. _langage_ < L. _lingua_, the tongue) signified originally _expression_ of thought by spoken words, but now in its widest sense it signifies _expression_ of thought by any means; as, the _language_ of the eyes, the _language_ of flowers. As regards the use of words, _language_ in its broadest sense denotes all the uttered sounds and their combinations into words and sentences that human beings employ for the communication of thought, and, in a more limited sense, the words or combinations forming a means of communication among the members of a single nation, people, or race. _Speech_ involves always the power of articulate utterance; we can speak of the _language_ of animals, but not of their _speech_. A _tongue_ is the _speech_ or _language_ of some one people, country, or race. A _dialect_ is a special mode of speaking a _language_ peculiar to some locality or class, not recognized as in accordance with the best usage; a _barbarism_ is a perversion of a _language_ by ignorant foreigners, or some usage akin to that. _Idiom_ refers to the construction of phrases and sentences, and the way of forming or using words; it is the peculiar mold in which each _language_ casts its thought. The great difficulty of translation is to give the thought expressed in one _language_ in the _idiom_ of another. A _dialect_ may be used by the highest as well as the lowest within its range; a _patois_ is distinctly illiterate, belonging to the lower classes; those who speak a _patois_ understand the cultured form of their own language, but speak only the degraded form, as in the case of the Italian lazzaroni or the former negro slaves in the United States. _Vernacular_, from the Latin, has the same general sense as the Saxon _mother tongue_, of one's native _language_, or that of a people; as, the Scriptures were translated into the _vernacular_. Compare DICTION. * * * * * LARGE. Synonyms: abundant, coarse, gigantic, long, ample, colossal, grand, massive, big, commodious, great, spacious, broad, considerable, huge, vast, bulky, enormous, immense, wide. capacious, extensive, _Large_ denotes extension in more than one direction, and beyond the average of the class to which the object belongs; we speak of a _large_ surface or a _large_ solid, but of a _long_ line; a _large_ field, a _large_ room, a _large_ apple, etc. A _large_ man is a man of more than ordinary size; a _great_ man is a man of remarkable mental power. _Big_ is a more emphatic word than _large_, but of less dignity. We do not say that George Washington was a _big_ man. Antonyms: brief, limited, minute, scanty, small, diminutive, little, narrow, short, tiny, inconsiderable, mean, paltry, slender, trifling, infinitesimal, microscopic, petty, slight, trivial. insignificant, * * * * * LAW. Synonyms: canon, economy, legislation, principle, code, edict, mandate, regulation, command, enactment, order, rule, commandment, formula, ordinance, statute. decree, jurisprudence, polity, _Law_, in its ideal, is the statement of a _principle_ of right in mandatory form, by competent authority, with adequate penalty for disobedience; in common use, the term is applied to any legislative act, however imperfect or unjust. _Command_ and _commandment_ are personal and particular; as, the _commands_ of a parent; the ten _commandments_. An _edict_ is the act of an absolute sovereign or other authority; we speak of the _edict_ of an emperor, the _decree_ of a court. A _mandate_ is specific, for an occasion or a purpose; a superior court issues its _mandate_ to an inferior court to send up its records. _Statute_ is the recognized legal term for a specific _law_; _enactment_ is the more vague and general expression. We speak of algebraic or chemical _formulas_, municipal _ordinances_, military _orders_, army _regulations_, ecclesiastical _canons_, the _rules_ of a business house. _Law_ is often used, also, for a recognized _principle_, whose violation is attended with injury or loss that acts like a penalty; as, the _laws_ of business; the _laws_ of nature. In more strictly scientific use, a natural _law_ is simply a recognized system of sequences or relations; as, Kepler's _laws_ of planetary distances. A _code_ is a system of _laws_; _jurisprudence_ is the science of _law_, or a system of _laws_ scientifically considered, classed, and interpreted; _legislation_, primarily the act of legislating, denotes also the body of _statutes_ enacted by a legislative body. An _economy_ (Gr. _oikonomia_, primarily the management of a house) is any comprehensive system of administration; as, domestic _economy_; but the word is extended to the administration or government of a state or people, signifying a body of _laws_ and _regulations_, with the entire system, political or religious, especially the latter, of which they form a part; as, the _code_ of Draco, Roman _jurisprudence_, British _legislation_, the Mosaic _economy_. _Law_ is also used as a collective noun for a system of _laws_ or recognized _rules_ or _regulations_, including not only all special _laws_, but the _principles_ on which they are based. The Mosaic _economy_ is known also as the Mosaic _law_, and we speak of the English common _law_, or the _law_ of nations. _Polity_ (Gr. _politeia_, from _polis_, a city) signifies the form, constitution, or method of government of a nation, state, church, or other institution; in usage it differs from _economy_ as applying rather to the system, while _economy_ applies especially to method, or to the system as administered; an _economy_ might be termed a _polity_ considered with especial reference to its practical administration, hence commonly with special reference to details or particulars, while _polity_ has more reference to broad _principles_. * * * * * LIBERTY. Synonyms: emancipation, freedom, independence, license. In general terms, it may be said that _freedom_ is absolute, _liberty_ relative; _freedom_ is the absence of restraint, _liberty_ is primarily the removal or avoidance of restraint; in its broadest sense, it is the state of being exempt from the domination of others or from restricting circumstances. _Freedom_ and _liberty_ are constantly interchanged; the slave is set at _liberty_, or gains his _freedom_; but _freedom_ is the nobler word. _Independence_ is said of states or nations, _freedom_ and _liberty_ of individuals; the _independence_ of the United States did not secure _liberty_ or _freedom_ to its slaves. _Liberty_ keeps quite strictly to the thought of being clear of restraint or compulsion; _freedom_ takes a wider range, applying to other oppressive influences; thus, we speak of _freedom_ from annoyance or intrusion. _License_ is, in its limited sense, a permission or privilege granted by adequate authority, a bounded _liberty_; in the wider sense, _license_ is an ignoring and defiance of all that should restrain, and a reckless doing of all that individual caprice or passion may choose to do--a base and dangerous counterfeit of _freedom_. Compare ALLOW; PERMISSION. Antonyms: captivity, imprisonment, oppression, slavery, compulsion, necessity, serfdom, superstition, constraint, obligation, servitude, thraldom. * * * * * LIGHT. Synonyms: blaze, gleam, glow, shimmer, flame, gleaming, illumination, shine, flare, glimmer, incandescence, shining, flash, glistening, luster, sparkle, flicker, glistering, scintillation, twinkle, glare, glitter, sheen, twinkling. _Light_, strictly denoting a form of radiant energy, is used as a general term for any luminous effect discernible by the eye, from the faintest phosphorescence to the _blaze_ of the noonday sun. A _flame_ is both hot and luminous; if it contains few solid particles it will yield little _light_, tho it may afford intense heat, as in the case of a hydrogen-_flame_. A _blaze_ is an extensive, brilliant _flame_. A _flare_ is a wavering _flame_ or _blaze_; a _flash_ is a _light_ that appears and disappears in an instant; as, a _flash_ of lightning; the _flash_ of gunpowder. The _glare_ and _glow_ are steady, the _glare_ painfully bright, the _glow_ subdued; as, the _glare_ of torches; the _glow_ of dying embers. _Shine_ and _shining_ refer to a steady or continuous emission of _light_; _sheen_ is a faint _shining_, usually by reflection. _Glimmer_, _glitter_, and _shimmer_ denote wavering _light_. We speak of the _glimmer_ of distant lamps through the mist; of the _shimmer_ of waves in sun_light_ or moon_light_. A _gleam_ is not wavering, but transient or intermittent; a sudden _gleam_ of _light_ came through the half-open door; a _glitter_ is a hard _light_; as, the _glitter_ of burnished arms. A _sparkle_ is a sudden _light_, as of sparks thrown out; _scintillation_ is the more exact and scientific term for the actual emission of sparks, also the figurative term for what suggests such emission; as, _scintillations_ of wit or of genius. _Twinkle_ and _twinkling_ are used of the intermittent _light_ of the fixed stars. _Glistening_ is a _shining_ as from a wet surface. _Illumination_ is a wide-spread, brilliant _light_, as when all the windows of a house or of a street are lighted. The _light_ of _incandescence_ is intense and white like that from metal at a white heat. Antonyms: blackness, darkness, dusk, gloominess, shade, dark, dimness, gloom, obscurity, shadow. * * * * * LIKELY. Synonyms: apt, conceivable, liable, probable, credible, conjectural, presumable, reasonable. _Apt_ implies a natural fitness or tendency; an impetuous person is _apt_ to speak hastily. _Liable_ refers to a contingency regarded as unfavorable; as, the ship was _liable_ to founder at any moment. _Likely_ refers to a contingent event regarded as very probable, and usually, tho not always, favorable; as, an industrious worker is _likely_ to succeed. _Credible_ signifies readily to be believed; as, a _credible_ narrative; _likely_ in such connection is used ironically to signify the reverse; as, a _likely_ story! A thing is _conceivable_ of which the mind can entertain the possibility; a thing is _conjectural_ which is conjectured as possible or probable without other support than a conjecture, or tentative judgment; a thing is _presumable_ which, from what is antecedently known, may betaken for granted in advance of proof. _Reasonable_ in this connection signifies such as the reason can be satisfied with, independently of external grounds for belief or disbelief; as, that seems a _reasonable_ supposition. Compare APPARENT. Antonyms: doubtful, improbable, questionable, unreasonable. dubious, incredible, unlikely, * * * * * LISTEN. Synonyms: attend, hark, harken, hear, heed, list. Between _listen_ and _hear_ is a difference like that between the words look and see. (Compare synonyms for LOOK.) To _hear_ is simply to become conscious of sound, to _listen_ is to make a conscious effort or endeavor to _hear_. We may _hear_ without _listening_, as words suddenly uttered in an adjoining room; or we may _listen_ without _hearing_, as to a distant speaker. In _listening_ the ear is intent upon the sound; in _attending_ the mind is intent upon the thought, tho _listening_ implies some attention to the meaning or import of the sound. To _heed_ is not only to _attend_, but to remember and observe. _Harken_ is nearly obsolete. Antonyms: be deaf to, ignore, neglect, scorn, slight. Prepositions: We listen _for_ what we expect or desire to hear; we listen _to_ what we actually do hear; listen _for_ a step, a signal, a train; listen _to_ the debate. * * * * * LITERATURE. Synonyms: belles-lettres, literary productions, publications, books, literary works, writings. _Literature_ is collective, including in the most general sense all the written or printed productions of the human mind in all lands and ages, or in a more limited sense, referring to all that has been published in some land or age, or in some department of human knowledge; as, the _literature_ of Greece; the _literature_ of the Augustan age; the _literature_ of politics or of art. _Literature_, used absolutely, denotes what has been called "polite _literature_" or _belles-lettres_, _i. e._, the works collectively that embody taste, feeling, loftiness of thought, and purity and beauty of style, as poetry, history, fiction, and dramatic compositions, including also much of philosophical writing, as the "Republic" of Plato, and oratorical productions, as the orations of Demosthenes. In the broad sense, we can speak of the _literature_ of science; in the narrower sense, we speak of _literature_ and science as distinct departments of knowledge. _Literature_ is also used to signify literary pursuits or occupations; as, to devote one's life to _literature_. Compare KNOWLEDGE; SCIENCE. * * * * * LOAD, _n._ Synonyms: burden, charge, encumbrance, incubus, pack, cargo, clog, freight, lading, weight. A _burden_ (from the Anglo-Saxon _byrthen_, from the verb _beran_, bear) is what one has to bear, and the word is used always of that which is borne by a living agent. A _load_ (from the Anglo-Saxon _l[=a]d_, a way, course, carrying, or carriage) is what is laid upon a person, animal, or vehicle for conveyance, or what is customarily so imposed; as, a two-horse _load_. _Weight_ measures the pressure due to gravity; the same _weight_ that one finds a moderate _load_ when in his full strength becomes a heavy _burden_ in weariness or weakness. A ship's _load_ is called distinctively a _cargo_, or it may be known as _freight_ or _lading_. _Freight_ denotes merchandise in or for transportation and is used largely of transportation or of merchandise transported by rail, which is, in commercial language, said to be "shipped." A _load_ to be fastened upon a horse or mule is called a _pack_, and the animal is known as a pack-horse or pack-mule. * * * * * LOCK. Synonyms: bar, catch, fastening, hook, bolt, clasp, hasp, latch. A _bar_ is a piece of wood or metal, usually of considerable size, by which an opening is obstructed, a door held fast, etc. A _bar_ may be movable or permanent; a _bolt_ is a movable rod or pin of metal, sliding in a socket and adapted for securing a door or window. A _lock_ is an arrangement by which an enclosed _bolt_ is shot forward or backward by a key, or other device; the _bolt_ is the essential part of the _lock_. A _latch_ or _catch_ is an accessible _fastening_ designed to be easily movable, and simply to secure against accidental opening of the door, cover, etc. A _hasp_ is a metallic strap that fits over a staple, calculated to be secured by a padlock; a simple _hook_ that fits into a staple is also called a _hasp_. A _clasp_ is a fastening that can be sprung into place, to draw and hold the parts of some enclosing object firmly together, as the _clasp_ of a book. * * * * * LOOK. Synonyms: behold, discern, inspect, see, view, contemplate, gaze, regard, stare, watch. descry, glance, scan, survey, To _see_ is simply to become conscious of an object of vision; to _look_ is to make a conscious and direct endeavor to _see_. To _behold_ is to fix the sight and the mind with distinctness and consideration upon something that has come to be clearly before the eyes. We may _look_ without _seeing_, as in pitch-darkness, and we may _see_ without _looking_, as in case of a flash of lightning. To _gaze_ is to _look_ intently, long, and steadily upon an object. To _glance_ is to _look_ casually or momentarily. To _stare_ is to _look_ with a fixed intensity such as is the effect of surprise, alarm, or rudeness. To _scan_ is to _look_ at minutely, to note every visible feature. To _inspect_ is to go below the surface, uncover, study item by item. _View_ and _survey_ are comprehensive, _survey_ expressing the greater exactness of measurement or estimate. _Watch_ brings in the element of time and often of wariness; we _watch_ for a movement or change, a signal, the approach of an enemy, etc. Compare APPEAR. * * * * * LOVE. Synonyms: affection, charity, friendship, regard, attachment, devotion, liking, tenderness. attraction, fondness, _Affection_ is kindly feeling, deep, tender, and constant, going out to some person or object, being less fervent and ardent than _love_, whether applied to persons or things. _Love_ is an intense and absorbing emotion, drawing one toward a person or object and causing one to appreciate, delight in, and crave the presence or possession of the person or object loved, and to desire to please and benefit the person, or to advance the cause, truth, or other object of _affection_; it is the yearning or outgoing of soul toward something that is regarded as excellent, beautiful, or desirable; _love_ may be briefly defined as strong and absorbing _affection_ for and _attraction_ toward a person or object. _Love_ may denote the sublimest and holiest spiritual _affection_ as when we are taught that "God is _love_." _Charity_ has so far swung aside from this original meaning that probably it never can be recalled (compare BENEVOLENCE). The Revised Version uses _love_ in place of _charity_ in _1 Cor._ xiii, and elsewhere. _Love_ is more intense, absorbing, and tender than _friendship_, more intense, impulsive, and perhaps passionate than _affection_; we speak of fervent _love_, but of deep or tender _affection_, or of close, firm, strong _friendship_. _Love_ is used specifically for personal _affection_ between the sexes in the highest sense, the _love_ that normally leads to marriage, and subsists throughout all happy wedded life. _Love_ can never properly denote mere animal passion, which is expressed by such words as appetite, desire, lust. One may properly be said to have _love_ for animals, for inanimate objects, or for abstract qualities that enlist the affections, as we speak of _love_ for a horse or a dog, for mountains, woods, ocean, or of _love_ of nature, and _love_ of virtue. _Love_ of articles of food is better expressed by _liking_, as _love_, in its full sense, expresses something spiritual and reciprocal, such as can have no place in connection with objects that minister merely to the senses. Compare ATTACHMENT; FRIENDSHIP. Antonyms: See synonyms for ANTIPATHY; ENMITY; HATRED. Prepositions: Love _of_ country; _for_ humanity; love _to_ God and man. * * * * * MAKE. Synonyms: become, constrain, fabricate, manufacture, bring about, construct, fashion, occasion, bring into being, create, force, perform, bring to pass, do, frame, reach, cause, effect, get, render, compel, establish, make out, require, compose, execute, make up, shape. constitute, _Make_ is essentially causative; to the idea of _cause_ all its various senses may be traced (compare synonyms for CAUSE). To _make_ is to _cause_ to exist, or to _cause_ to exist in a certain form or in certain relations; the word thus includes the idea of _create_, as in _Gen._ i, 31, "And God saw everything that he had _made_, and, behold, it was very good." _Make_ includes also the idea of _compose_, _constitute_; as, the parts _make up_ the whole. Similarly, to _cause_ a voluntary agent to do a certain act is to _make_ him do it, or _compel_ him to do it, _compel_ fixing the attention more on the process, _make_ on the accomplished fact. Compare COMPEL; DO; INFLUENCE; (make better) AMEND; (make haste) QUICKEN; (make known) ANNOUNCE; AVOW; CONFESS; (make prisoner) ARREST; (make up) ADD; (make void) CANCEL. Antonyms: See synonyms for ABOLISH; BREAK; DEMOLISH. Prepositions: Make _of_, _out of_, or _from_ certain materials, _into_ a certain form, _for_ a certain purpose or person; made _with_ hands, _by_ hand; made _by_ a prisoner, _with_ a jack-knife. * * * * * MARRIAGE. Synonyms: conjugal union, espousals, nuptials, spousals, wedding, espousal, matrimony, spousal, union, wedlock. _Matrimony_ denotes the state of those who are united in the relation of husband and wife; _marriage_ denotes primarily the act of so uniting, but is extensively used for the state as well. _Wedlock_, a word of specific legal use, is the Saxon term for the state or relation denoted by _matrimony_. _Wedding_ denotes the ceremony, with any attendant festivities, by which two persons are united as husband and wife, _nuptials_ being the more formal and stately term to express the same idea. Antonyms: bachelorhood, celibacy, divorce, maidenhood, virginity, widowhood. Prepositions: Marriage _of_ or _between_ two persons; _of_ one person _to_ or _with_ another; _among_ the Greeks. * * * * * MASCULINE. Synonyms: male, manful, manlike, manly, mannish, virile. We apply _male_ to the sex, _masculine_ to the qualities, especially to the stronger, hardier, and more imperious qualities that distinguish the _male_ sex; as applied to women, _masculine_ has often the depreciatory sense of unwomanly, rude, or harsh; as, a _masculine_ face or voice, or the like; tho one may say in a commendatory way, she acted with _masculine_ courage or decision. _Manlike_ may mean only having the outward appearance or semblance of a man, or may be closely equivalent to _manly_. _Manly_ refers to all the qualities and traits worthy of a man; _manful_, especially to the valor and prowess that become a man; we speak of a _manful_ struggle, _manly_ decision; we say _manly_ gentleness or tenderness; we could not say _manful_ tenderness. _Mannish_ is a depreciatory word referring to the mimicry or parade of some superficial qualities of manhood; as, a _mannish_ boy or woman. _Masculine_ may apply to the distinctive qualities of the _male_ sex at any age; _virile_ applies to the distinctive qualities of mature manhood only, as opposed not only to _feminine_ or _womanly_ but to _childish_, and is thus an emphatic word for _sturdy_, _intrepid_, etc. Antonyms: See synonyms for FEMININE. * * * * * MASSACRE. Synonyms: butchery, carnage, havoc, slaughter. A _massacre_ is the indiscriminate killing in numbers of the unresisting or defenseless; _butchery_ is the killing of men rudely and ruthlessly as cattle are killed in the shambles. _Havoc_ may not be so complete as _massacre_, nor so coldly brutal as _butchery_, but is more widely spread and furious; it is destruction let loose, and may be applied to organizations, interests, etc., as well as to human life; "as for Saul, he made _havoc_ of the church," _Acts_ viii, 3. _Carnage_ (Latin _caro, carnis_, flesh) refers to widely scattered or heaped up corpses of the slain; _slaughter_ is similar in meaning, but refers more to the process, as _carnage_ does to the result; these two words only of the group may be used of great destruction of life in open and honorable battle, as when we say the enemy was repulsed with great _slaughter_, or the _carnage_ was terrible. * * * * * MEDDLESOME. Synonyms: impertinent, intrusive, meddling, obtrusive, officious. The _meddlesome_ person interferes unasked in the affairs of others; the _intrusive_ person thrusts himself uninvited into their company or conversation; the _obtrusive_ person thrusts himself or his opinions conceitedly and undesirably upon their notice; the _officious_ person thrusts his services, unasked and undesired, upon others. _Obtrusive_ is oftener applied to words, qualities, actions, etc., than to persons; _intrusive_ is used chiefly of persons, as is _officious_, tho we speak of _officious_ attentions, _intrusive_ remarks; _meddlesome_ is used indifferently of persons, or of words, qualities, actions, etc. Compare INQUISITIVE; INTERPOSE. Antonyms: modest, reserved, retiring, shy, unassuming, unobtrusive. * * * * * MELODY. Synonyms: harmony, music, symphony, unison. _Harmony_ is simultaneous; _melody_ is successive; _harmony_ is the pleasing correspondence of two or more notes sounded at once, _melody_ the pleasing succession of a number of notes continuously following one another. A _melody_ may be wholly in one part; _harmony_ must be of two or more parts. Accordant notes of different pitch sounded simultaneously produce _harmony_; _unison_ is the simultaneous sounding of two or more notes of the same pitch. When the pitch is the same, there may be _unison_ between sounds of very different volume and quality, as a voice and a bell may sound in _unison_. Tones sounded at the interval of an octave are also said to be in _unison_, altho this is not literally exact; this usage arises from the fact that bass and tenor voices in attempting to sound the same note as the soprano and alto will in fact sound a note an octave below. _Music_ may denote the simplest _melody_ or the most complex and perfect _harmony_. A _symphony_ (apart from its technical orchestral sense) is any pleasing consonance of musical sounds, vocal or instrumental, as of many accordant voices or instruments. * * * * * MEMORY. Synonyms: recollection, reminiscence, retrospect, retrospection. remembrance, _Memory_ is the faculty by which knowledge is retained or recalled; in a more general sense, _memory_ is a retention of knowledge within the grasp of the mind, while _remembrance_ is the having what is known consciously before the mind. _Remembrance_ may be voluntary or involuntary; a thing is brought to _remembrance_ or we call it to _remembrance_; the same is true of _memory_. _Recollection_ involves volition, the mind making a distinct effort to recall something, or fixing the attention actively upon it when recalled. _Reminiscence_ is a half-dreamy _memory_ of scenes or events long past; _retrospection_ is a distinct turning of the mind back upon the past, bringing long periods under survey. _Retrospection_ is to _reminiscence_ much what _recollection_ is to _remembrance_. Antonyms: forgetfulness, oblivion, obliviousness, oversight, unconsciousness. * * * * * MERCY. Synonyms: benevolence, favor, kindness, mildness, benignity, forbearance, lenience, pardon, blessing, forgiveness, leniency, pity, clemency, gentleness, lenity, tenderness. compassion, grace, _Mercy_ is the exercise of less severity than one deserves, or in a more extended sense, the granting of _kindness_ or _favor_ beyond what one may rightly claim. _Grace_ is _favor_, _kindness_, or _blessing_ shown to the undeserving; _forgiveness_, _mercy_, and _pardon_ are exercised toward the ill-deserving. _Pardon_ remits the outward penalty which the offender deserves; _forgiveness_ dismisses resentment or displeasure from the heart of the one offended; _mercy_ seeks the highest possible good of the offender. There may be _mercy_ without _pardon_, as in the mitigation of sentence, or in all possible alleviation of necessary severity; there may be cases where _pardon_ would not be _mercy_, since it would encourage to repetition of the offense, from which timely punishment might have saved. _Mercy_ is also used in the wider sense of refraining from harshness or cruelty toward those who are in one's power without fault of their own; as, they besought the robber to have _mercy_. _Clemency_ is a colder word than _mercy_, and without its religious associations, signifying _mildness_ and moderation in the use of power where severity would have legal or military, rather than moral sanction; it often denotes a habitual _mildness_ of disposition on the part of the powerful, and is matter rather of good nature or policy than of principle. _Leniency_ or _lenity_ denotes an easy-going avoidance of severity; these words are more general and less magisterial than _clemency_; we should speak of the _leniency_ of a parent, the _clemency_ of a conqueror. Compare PITY. Antonyms: cruelty, implacability, punishment, rigor, sternness, hardness, justice, revenge, severity, vengeance. harshness, penalty, Prepositions: The mercy _of_ God _to_ or _toward_ sinners; have mercy _on_ or _upon_ one. * * * * * METER. Synonyms: euphony, measure, rhythm, verse. _Euphony_ is agreeable linguistic sound, however produced; _meter_, _measure_, and _rhythm_ denote agreeable succession of sounds in the utterance of connected words; _euphony_ may apply to a single word or even a single syllable; the other words apply to lines, sentences, paragraphs, etc.; _rhythm_ and _meter_ may be produced by accent only, as in English, or by accent and quantity combined, as in Greek or Italian; _rhythm_ or _measure_ may apply either to prose or to poetry, or to music, dancing, etc.; _meter_ is more precise than _rhythm_, applies only to poetry, and denotes a measured _rhythm_ with regular divisions into _verses_, stanzas, strophes, etc. A _verse_ is strictly a metrical line, but the word is often used as synonymous with stanza. _Verse_, in the general sense, denotes metrical writing without reference to the thought involved; as, prose and _verse_. Compare MELODY; POETRY. * * * * * MIND. Synonyms: brain, instinct, reason, spirit, consciousness, intellect, sense, thought, disposition, intelligence, soul, understanding. _Mind_, in a general sense, includes all the powers of sentient being apart from the physical factors in bodily faculties and activities; in a limited sense, _mind_ is nearly synonymous with _intellect_, but includes _disposition_, or the tendency toward action, as appears in the phrase "to have a _mind_ to work." As the seat of mental activity, _brain_ (colloquially _brains_) is often used as a synonym for _mind_, _intellect_, _intelligence_. _Thought_, the act, process, or power of thinking, is often used to denote the thinking faculty, and especially the _reason_. The _instinct_ of animals is now held by many philosophers to be of the same nature as the _intellect_ of man, but inferior and limited; yet the apparent difference is very great. An _instinct_ is a propensity prior to experience and independent of instruction. PALEY _Natural Philosophy_ ch. 18. In this sense we speak of human _instincts_, thus denoting tendencies independent of reasoning or instruction. The _soul_ includes the _intellect_, sensibilities, and will; beyond what is expressed by the word _mind_, the _soul_ denotes especially the moral, the immortal nature; we say of a dead body, the _soul_ (not the _mind_) has fled. _Spirit_ is used especially in contradistinction from matter; it may in many cases be substituted for _soul_, but _soul_ has commonly a fuller and more determinate meaning; we can conceive of _spirits_ as having no moral nature; the fairies, elves, and brownies of mythology might be termed _spirits_, but not _souls_. In the figurative sense, _spirit_ denotes animation, excitability, perhaps impatience; as, a lad of _spirit_; he sang with _spirit_; he replied with _spirit_. _Soul_ denotes energy and depth of feeling, as when we speak of soulful eyes; or it may denote the very life of anything; as, "the hidden _soul_ of harmony," MILTON _L'Allegro_ l. 144. _Sense_ may be an antonym of _intellect_, as when we speak of the _sense_ of hearing; but _sense_ is used also as denoting clear mental action, good judgment, acumen; as, he is a man of _sense_, or, he showed good _sense_; _sense_, even in its material signification, must be reckoned among the activities of _mind_, tho dependent on bodily functions; the _mind_, not the eye, really sees; the _mind_, not the ear, really hears. _Consciousness_ includes all that a sentient being perceives, knows, thinks, or feels, from whatever source arising and of whatever character, kind, or degree, whether with or without distinct thinking, feeling, or willing; we speak of the _consciousness_ of the brute, of the savage, or of the sage. The _intellect_ is that assemblage of faculties which is concerned with knowledge, as distinguished from emotion and volition. _Understanding_ is the Saxon word of the same general import, but is chiefly used of the reasoning powers; the _understanding_, which Sir Wm. Hamilton has called "the faculty of relations and comparisons," is distinguished by many philosophers from _reason_ in that "_reason_ is the faculty of the higher cognitions or a priori truth." Antonyms: body, brawn, brute force, material substance, matter. * * * * * MINUTE. Synonyms: circumstantial, diminutive, little, slender, comminuted, exact, particular, small, critical, fine, precise, tiny. detailed, That is _minute_ which is of exceedingly limited dimensions, as a grain of dust, or which attends to matters of exceedingly slight amount or apparent importance; as, a _minute_ account; _minute_ observation. That which is broken up into _minute_ particles is said to be _comminuted_; things may be termed _fine_ which would not be termed _comminuted_; as, _fine_ sand; _fine_ gravel; but, in using the adverb, we say a substance is finely _comminuted_, _comminuted_ referring more to the process, _fine_ to the result. An account extended to very _minute_ particulars is _circumstantial_, _detailed_, _particular_; an examination so extended is _critical_, _exact_, _precise_. Compare FINE. Antonyms: See synonyms for LARGE. * * * * * MISFORTUNE. Synonyms: adversity, disappointment, ill fortune, ruin, affliction, disaster, ill luck, sorrow, bereavement, distress, misadventure, stroke, blow, failure, mischance, trial, calamity, hardship, misery, tribulation, chastening, harm, mishap, trouble, chastisement, ill, reverse, visitation. _Misfortune_ is adverse fortune or any instance thereof, any untoward event, usually of lingering character or consequences, and such as the sufferer is not deemed directly responsible for; as, he had the _misfortune_ to be born blind. Any considerable _disappointment_, _failure_, or _misfortune_, as regards outward circumstances, as loss of fortune, position, and the like, when long continued or attended with enduring consequences, constitutes _adversity_. For the loss of friends by death we commonly use _affliction_ or _bereavement_. _Calamity_ and _disaster_ are used of sudden and severe _misfortunes_, often overwhelming; _ill fortune_ and _ill luck_, of lighter troubles and failures. We speak of the _misery_ of the poor, the _hardships_ of the soldier. _Affliction_, _chastening_, _trial_, and _tribulation_ have all an especially religious bearing, suggesting some disciplinary purpose of God with beneficent design. _Affliction_ may be keen and bitter, but brief; _tribulation_ is long and wearing. We speak of an _affliction_, but rarely of a _tribulation_, since _tribulation_ is viewed as a continuous process, which may endure for years or for a lifetime; but we speak of our daily _trials_. Compare CATASTROPHE. Antonyms: blessing, consolation, gratification, pleasure, success, boon, good fortune, happiness, prosperity, triumph. comfort, good luck, joy, relief, * * * * * MOB. Synonyms: canaille, dregs of the people, masses, rabble, crowd, lower classes, populace, the vulgar. The _populace_ are poor and ignorant, but may be law-abiding; a _mob_ is disorderly and lawless, but may be rich and influential. The _rabble_ is despicable, worthless, purposeless; a _mob_ may have effective desperate purpose. A _crowd_ may be drawn by mere curiosity; some strong, pervading excitement is needed to make it a _mob_. Compare PEOPLE. * * * * * MODEL. Synonyms: archetype, facsimile, original, representation, copy, image, pattern, standard, design, imitation, prototype, type. example, mold, A _pattern_ is always, in modern use, that which is to be copied; a _model_ may be either the thing to be copied or the _copy_ that has been made from it; as, the _models_ in the Patent Office. A _pattern_ is commonly superficial; a _model_ is usually in relief. A _pattern_ must be closely followed in its minutest particulars by a faithful copyist; a _model_ may allow a great degree of freedom. A sculptor may idealize his living _model_; his workmen must exactly _copy_ in marble or metal the _model_ he has made in clay. Compare EXAMPLE; IDEA; IDEAL. * * * * * MODESTY. Synonyms: backwardness, constraint, reserve, timidity, bashfulness, coyness, shyness, unobtrusiveness. coldness, diffidence, _Bashfulness_ is a shrinking from notice without assignable reason. _Coyness_ is a half encouragement, half avoidance of offered attention, and may be real or affected. _Diffidence_ is self-distrust; _modesty_, a humble estimate of oneself in comparison with others, or with the demands of some undertaking. _Modesty_ has also the specific meaning of a sensitive shrinking from anything indelicate. _Shyness_ is a tendency to shrink from observation; _timidity_, a distinct fear of criticism, error, or failure. _Reserve_ is the holding oneself aloof from others, or holding back one's feelings from expression, or one's affairs from communication to others. _Reserve_ may be the retreat of _shyness_, or, on the other hand, the contemptuous withdrawal of pride and haughtiness. Compare ABASH; PRIDE; TACITURN. Antonyms: abandon, confidence, haughtiness, pertness, arrogance, egotism, impudence, sauciness, assumption, forwardness, indiscretion, self-conceit, assurance, frankness, loquaciousness, self-sufficiency, boldness, freedom, loquacity, sociability. conceit, * * * * * MONEY. Synonyms: bills, cash, funds, property, bullion, coin, gold, silver, capital, currency, notes, specie. _Money_ is the authorized medium of exchange; coined _money_ is called _coin_ or _specie_. What are termed in England bank-_notes_ are in the United States commonly called _bills_; as, a five-dollar _bill_. The _notes_ of responsible men are readily transferable in commercial circles, but they are not _money_; as, the stock was sold for $500 in _money_ and the balance in merchantable paper. _Cash_ is _specie_ or _money_ in hand, or paid in hand; as, the _cash_ account; the _cash_ price. In the legal sense, _property_ is not _money_, and _money_ is not _property_; for _property_ is that which has inherent value, while _money_, as such, has but representative value, and may or may not have intrinsic value. _Bullion_ is either _gold_ or _silver_ uncoined, or the coined metal considered without reference to its coinage, but simply as merchandise, when its value as _bullion_ may be very different from its value as _money_. The word _capital_ is used chiefly of accumulated _property_ or _money_ invested in productive enterprises or available for such investment. * * * * * MOROSE. Synonyms: acrimonious, dogged, ill-natured, splenetic, churlish, gloomy, severe, sulky, crabbed, gruff, snappish, sullen, crusty, ill-humored, sour, surly. The _sullen_ and _sulky_ are discontented and resentful in regard to that against which they are too proud to protest, or consider all protest vain; _sullen_ denotes more of pride, _sulky_ more of resentful obstinacy. The _morose_ are bitterly dissatisfied with the world in general, and disposed to vent their ill nature upon others. The _sullen_ and _sulky_ are for the most part silent; the _morose_ growl out bitter speeches. A _surly_ person is in a state of latent anger, resenting approach as intrusion, and ready to take offense at anything; thus we speak of a _surly_ dog. _Sullen_ and _sulky_ moods may be transitory; one who is _morose_ or _surly_ is commonly so by disposition or habit. Antonyms: amiable, complaisant, gentle, kind, pleasant, benignant, friendly, good-natured, loving, sympathetic, bland, genial, indulgent, mild, tender. * * * * * MOTION. Synonyms: act, change, movement, process, transition. action, move, passage, transit, _Motion_ is _change_ of place or position in space; _transition_ is a passing from one point or position in space to another. _Motion_ may be either abstract or concrete, more frequently the former; _movement_ is always concrete, that is, considered in connection with the thing that moves or is moved; thus, we speak of the _movements_ of the planets, but of the laws of planetary _motion_; of military _movements_, but of perpetual _motion_. _Move_ is used chiefly of contests or competition, as in chess or politics; as, it is your _move_; a shrewd _move_ of the opposition. _Action_ is a more comprehensive word than _motion_. We now rarely speak of mental or spiritual _motions_, but rather of mental or spiritual _acts_ or _processes_, or of the laws of mental _action_, but a formal proposal of _action_ in a deliberative assembly is termed a _motion_. Compare ACT. Antonyms: immobility, quiescence, quiet, repose, rest, stillness. * * * * * MOURN. Synonyms: bemoan, deplore, lament, regret, rue, sorrow. bewail, grieve, To _mourn_ is to feel or express sadness or distress because of some loss, affliction, or misfortune; _mourning_ is thought of as prolonged, _grief_ or _regret_ may be transient. One may _grieve_ or _mourn_, _regret_, _rue_, or _sorrow_ without a sound; he _bemoans_ with suppressed and often inarticulate sounds of grief; he _bewails_ with passionate utterance, whether of inarticulate cries or of spoken words. He _laments_ in plaintive or pathetic words, as the prophet Jeremiah in his "Lamentations." One _deplores_ with settled sorrow which may or may not find relief in words. One is made to _rue_ an act by some misfortune resulting, or by some penalty or vengeance inflicted because of it. One _regrets_ a slight misfortune or a hasty word; he _sorrows_ over the death of a friend. Antonyms: be joyful, exult, joy, make merry, rejoice, triumph. * * * * * MUTUAL. Synonyms: common, correlative, interchangeable, joint, reciprocal. That is _common_ to which two or more persons have the same or equal claims, or in which they have equal interest or participation; in the strictest sense, that is _mutual_ (Latin _mutare_, to change) which is freely interchanged; that is _reciprocal_ in respect to which one act or movement is met by a corresponding act or movement in return; we speak of our _common_ country, _mutual_ affection, _reciprocal_ obligations, the _reciprocal_ action of cause and effect, where the effect becomes in turn a cause. Many good writers hold it incorrect to say "a _mutual_ friend," and insist that "a _common_ friend" would be more accurate; but "_common_ friend" is practically never used, because of the disagreeable suggestion that attaches to _common_, of ordinary or inferior. "_Mutual_ friend" has high literary authority (of Burke, Scott, Dickens, and others), and a considerable usage of good society in its favor, the expression being quite naturally derived from the thoroughly correct phrase _mutual_ friendship. Antonyms: detached, distinct, separated, unconnected, unrequited, disconnected, disunited, severed, unreciprocated, unshared. dissociated, separate, sundered, * * * * * MYSTERIOUS. Synonyms: abstruse, inexplicable, recondite, cabalistic, inscrutable, secret, dark, mystic, transcendental, enigmatical, mystical, unfathomable, hidden, obscure, unfathomed, incomprehensible, occult, unknown. That is _mysterious_ in the true sense which is beyond human comprehension, as the decrees of God or the origin of life. That is _mystic_ or _mystical_ which has associated with it some _hidden_ or _recondite_ meaning, especially of a religious kind; as, the _mystic_ Babylon of the Apocalypse. That is _dark_ which we can not personally see through, especially if sadly perplexing; as, a _dark_ providence. That is _secret_ which is intentionally _hidden_. Compare DARK. Antonyms: See synonyms for CLEAR. * * * * * NAME. Synonyms: agnomen, denomination, prenomen, surname, appellation, designation, style, title. cognomen, epithet, _Name_ in the most general sense, signifying the word by which a person or thing is called or known, includes all other words of this group; in this sense every noun is a _name_; in the more limited sense a _name_ is personal, an _appellation_ is descriptive, a _title_ is official. In the phrase William the Conqueror, King of England, William is the man's _name_, which belongs to him personally, independently of any rank or achievement; Conqueror is the _appellation_ which he won by his acquisition of England; King is the _title_ denoting his royal rank. An _epithet_ (Gr. _epitheton_, something added, from _epi_, on, and _tithemi_, put) is something placed upon a person or thing; the _epithet_ does not strictly belong to an object like a _name_, but is given to mark some assumed characteristic, good or bad; an _epithet_ is always an adjective, or a word or phrase used as an adjective, and is properly used to emphasize a characteristic but not to add information, as in the phrase "the _sounding_ sea;" the idea that an _epithet_ is always opprobrious, and that any word used opprobriously is an _epithet_ is a popular error. _Designation_ may be used much in the sense of _appellation_, but is more distinctive or specific in meaning; a _designation_ properly so called rests upon some inherent quality, while an _appellation_ may be fanciful. Among the Romans the _prenomen_ was the individual part of a man's _name_, the "nomen" designated the gens to which he belonged, the _cognomen_ showed his family and was borne by all patricians, and the _agnomen_ was added to refer to his achievements or character. When scientists _name_ an animal or a plant, they give it a binary or binomial technical _name_ comprising a generic and a specific _appellation_. In modern use, a personal _name_, as John or Mary, is given in infancy, and is often called the given _name_ or Christian _name_, or simply the first _name_ (rarely the _prenomen_); the _cognomen_ or _surname_ is the family _name_ which belongs to one by right of birth or marriage. _Style_ is the legal _designation_ by which a person or house is known in official or business relations; as, the _name_ and _style_ of Baring Brothers. The term _denomination_ is applied to a separate religious organization, without the opprobrious meaning attaching to the word "sect;" also, to designate any class of like objects collectively, especially money or notes of a certain value; as, the sum was in notes of the _denomination_ of one thousand dollars. Compare TERM. * * * * * NATIVE. Synonyms: indigenous, innate, natal, natural, original. _Native_ denotes that which belongs to one by birth; _natal_ that which pertains to the event of birth; _natural_ denotes that which rests upon inherent qualities of character or being. We speak of one's _native_ country, or of his _natal_ day; of _natural_ ability, _native_ genius. Compare INHERENT; PRIMEVAL; RADICAL. Antonyms: acquired, alien, artificial, assumed, foreign, unnatural. * * * * * NAUTICAL. Synonyms: marine, maritime, naval, ocean, oceanic. _Marine_ (L. _mare_, sea) signifies belonging to the ocean, _maritime_, a secondary derivative from the same root, bordering on or connected with the _ocean_; as, _marine_ products; _marine_ animals; _maritime_ nations; _maritime_ laws. _Nautical_ (Gr. _nautes_, a sailor) denotes primarily anything connected with sailors, and hence with ships or navigation; _naval_ (L. _navis_, Gr. _naus_, a ship) refers to the armed force of a nation on the sea, and, by extension, to similar forces on lakes and rivers; as, a _naval_ force; a _nautical_ almanac. _Ocean_, used adjectively, is applied to that which belongs to or is part of the _ocean_; _oceanic_ may be used in the same sense, but is especially applied to that which borders on (or upon) or is connected with, or which is similar to or suggestive of an _ocean_; we speak of _ocean_ currents, _oceanic_ islands, or, perhaps, of an _oceanic_ intellect. * * * * * NEAT. Synonyms: clean, dapper, nice, prim, tidy, cleanly, natty, orderly, spruce, trim. That which is _clean_ is simply free from soil or defilement of any kind. Things are _orderly_ when in due relation to other things; a room or desk is _orderly_ when every article is in place; a person is _orderly_ who habitually keeps things so. _Tidy_ denotes that which conforms to propriety in general; an unlaced shoe may be perfectly _clean_, but is not _tidy_. _Neat_ refers to that which is _clean_ and _tidy_ with nothing superfluous, conspicuous, or showy, as when we speak of plain but _neat_ attire; the same idea of freedom from the superfluous appears in the phrases "a _neat_ speech," "a _neat_ turn," "a _neat_ reply," etc. A _clean_ cut has no ragged edges; a _neat_ stroke just does what is intended. _Nice_ is stronger than _neat_, implying value and beauty; a _cheap_, coarse dress may be perfectly _neat_, but would not be termed _nice_. _Spruce_ is applied to the show and affectation of neatness with a touch of smartness, and is always a term of mild contempt; as, a _spruce_ serving man. _Trim_ denotes a certain shapely and elegant firmness, often with suppleness and grace; as, a _trim_ suit; a _trim_ figure. _Prim_ applies to a precise, formal, affected nicety. _Dapper_ is _spruce_ with the suggestion of smallness and slightness; _natty_, a diminutive of _neat_, suggests minute elegance, with a tendency toward the exquisite; as, a _dapper_ little fellow in a _natty_ business suit. Antonyms: dirty, negligent, slouchy, uncared for, disorderly, rough, slovenly, unkempt, dowdy, rude, soiled, untidy. * * * * * NECESSARY. Synonyms: essential, infallible, required, unavoidable, indispensable, needed, requisite, undeniable. inevitable, needful, That is _necessary_ which must exist, occur, or be true; which in the nature of things can not be otherwise. That which is _essential_ belongs to the essence of a thing, so that the thing can not exist in its completeness without it; that which is _indispensable_ may be only an adjunct, but it is one that can not be spared; vigorous health is _essential_ to an arctic explorer; warm clothing is _indispensable_. That which is _requisite_ (or _required_) is so in the judgment of the person requiring it, but may not be so absolutely; thus, the _requisite_ is more a matter of personal feeling than the _indispensable_. _Inevitable_ (L. _in_, not, and _evito_, shun) is primarily the exact equivalent of the Saxon _unavoidable_; both words are applied to things which some at least would escape or prevent, while that which is _necessary_ may meet with no objection; food is _necessary_, death is _inevitable_; a _necessary_ conclusion satisfies a thinker; an _inevitable_ conclusion silences opposition. An _infallible_ proof is one that necessarily leads the mind to a sound conclusion. _Needed_ and _needful_ are more concrete than _necessary_, and respect an end to be attained; we speak of a _necessary_ inference; _necessary_ food is what one can not live without, while _needful_ food is that without which he can not enjoy comfort, health, and strength. Antonyms: casual, needless, optional, useless, contingent, non-essential, unnecessary, worthless. Prepositions: Necessary _to_ a sequence or a total; _for_ or _to_ a result or a person; unity is necessary _to_ (to constitute) completeness; decision is necessary _for_ command, or _for_ a commander. * * * * * NECESSITY. Synonyms: compulsion, fatality, requisite, destiny, fate, sine qua non, emergency, indispensability, unavoidableness, essential, indispensableness, urgency, exigency, need, want. extremity, requirement, _Necessity_ is the quality of being necessary, or the quality of that which can not but be, become, or be true, or be accepted as true. _Need_ and _want_ always imply a lack; _necessity_ may be used in this sense, but in the higher philosophical sense _necessity_ simply denotes the exclusion of any alternative either in thought or fact; righteousness is a _necessity_ (not a _need_) of the divine nature. _Need_ suggests the possibility of supplying the deficiency which _want_ expresses; to speak of a person's _want_ of decision merely points out a weakness in his character; to say that he has _need_ of decision implies that he can exercise or attain it. As applied to a deficiency, _necessity_ is more imperative than _need_; a weary person is in _need_ of rest; when rest becomes a _necessity_ he has no choice but to stop work. An _essential_ is something, as a quality, or element, that belongs to the essence of something else so as to be inseparable from it in its normal condition, or in any complete idea or statement of it. Compare NECESSARY; PREDESTINATION. Antonyms: choice, doubt, dubiousness, freedom, possibility, contingency, doubtfulness, fortuity, option, uncertainty. Prepositions: The necessity _of_ surrender; a necessity _for_ action; this is a necessity _to_ me. * * * * * NEGLECT. Synonyms: carelessness, heedlessness, negligence, scorn, default, inadvertence, omission, slackness, disregard, inattention, oversight, slight, disrespect, indifference, remissness, thoughtlessness. failure, neglectfulness, _Neglect_ (L. _nec_, not, and _lego_, gather) is the failing to take such care, show such attention, pay such courtesy, etc., as may be rightfully or reasonably expected. _Negligence_, which is the same in origin, may be used in almost the same sense, but with a slighter force, as when Whittier speaks of "the _negligence_ which friendship loves;" but _negligence_ is often used to denote the quality or trait of character of which the act is a manifestation, or to denote the habit of neglecting that which ought to be done. _Neglect_ is transitive, _negligence_ is intransitive; we speak of _neglect_ of his books, friends, or duties, in which cases we could not use _negligence_; _negligence_ in dress implies want of care as to its arrangement, tidiness, etc.; _neglect_ of one's garments would imply leaving them exposed to defacement or injury, as by dust, moths, etc. _Neglect_ has a passive sense which _negligence_ has not; the child was suffering from _neglect_, _i. e._, from being neglected by others; the child was suffering from _negligence_ would imply that he himself was neglectful. The distinction sometimes made that _neglect_ denotes the act, and _negligence_ the habit, is but partially true; one may be guilty of habitual _neglect_ of duty; the wife may suffer from her husband's constant _neglect_, while the _negligence_ which causes a railroad accident may be that of a moment, and on the part of one ordinarily careful and attentive; in such cases the law provides punishment for criminal _negligence_. Antonyms: See synonyms for CARE. Prepositions: Neglect _of_ duty, _of_ the child _by_ the parent; there was neglect _on the part of_ the teacher. * * * * * NEW. Synonyms: fresh, modern, new-made, upstart, juvenile, new-fangled, novel, young, late, new-fashioned, recent, youthful. That which is _new_ has lately come into existence, possession, or use; a _new_ house is just built, or in a more general sense is one that has just come into the possession of the present owner or occupant. _Modern_ denotes that which has begun to exist in the present age, and is still existing; _recent_ denotes that which has come into existence within a comparatively brief period, and may or may not be existing still. _Modern_ history pertains to any period since the middle ages; _modern_ literature, _modern_ architecture, etc., are not strikingly remote from the styles and types prevalent to-day. That which is _late_ is somewhat removed from the present, but not far enough to be called _old_. That which is _recent_ is not quite so sharply distinguished from the past as that which is _new_; _recent_ publications range over a longer time than _new_ books. That which is _novel_ is either absolutely or relatively unprecedented in kind; a _novel_ contrivance is one that has never before been known; a _novel_ experience is one that has never before occurred to the same person; that which is _new_ may be of a familiar or even of an ancient sort, as a _new_ copy of an old book. _Young_ and _youthful_ are applied to that which has life; that which is _young_ is possessed of a comparatively _new_ existence as a living thing, possessing actual youth; that which is _youthful_ manifests the attributes of youth. (Compare YOUTHFUL.) _Fresh_ applies to that which has the characteristics of newness or youth, while capable of deterioration by lapse of time; that which is unworn, unspoiled, or unfaded; as, a _fresh_ countenance, _fresh_ eggs, _fresh_ flowers. _New_ is opposed to _old_, _modern_ to _ancient_, _recent_ to _remote_, _young_ to _old_, _aged_, etc. Antonyms: See synonyms for OLD. * * * * * NIMBLE. Synonyms: active, alert, bustling, prompt, speedy, spry, agile, brisk, lively, quick, sprightly, swift. _Nimble_ refers to lightness, freedom, and quickness of motion within a somewhat narrow range, with readiness to turn suddenly to any point; _swift_ applies commonly to more sustained motion over greater distances; a pickpocket is _nimble_-fingered, a dancer _nimble_-footed; an arrow, a race-horse, or an ocean steamer is _swift_; Shakespeare's "_nimble_ lightnings" is said of the visual appearance in sudden zigzag flash across the sky. Figuratively, we speak of _nimble_ wit, _swift_ intelligence, _swift_ destruction. _Alert_, which is strictly a synonym for _ready_, comes sometimes near the meaning of _nimble_ or _quick_, from the fact that the ready, wide-awake person is likely to be _lively_, _quick_, _speedy_. Compare ACTIVE; ALERT. Antonyms: clumsy, dull, heavy, inactive, inert, slow, sluggish, unready. dilatory, * * * * * NORMAL. Synonyms: common, natural, ordinary, regular, typical, usual. That which is _natural_ is according to nature; that which is _normal_ is according to the standard or rule which is observed or claimed to prevail in nature; a deformity may be _natural_, symmetry is _normal_; the _normal_ color of the crow is black, while the _normal_ color of the sparrow is gray, but one is as _natural_ as the other. _Typical_ refers to such an assemblage of qualities as makes the specimen, genus, etc., a type of some more comprehensive group, while _normal_ is more commonly applied to the parts of a single object; the specimen was _typical_; color, size, and other characteristics, _normal_. The _regular_ is etymologically that which is according to rule, hence that which is steady and constant, as opposed to that which is fitful and changeable; the _normal_ action of the heart is _regular_. That which is _common_ is shared by a great number of persons or things; disease is _common_, a _normal_ state of health is rare. Compare GENERAL; USUAL. Antonyms: abnormal, irregular, peculiar, singular, unprecedented, exceptional, monstrous, rare, uncommon, unusual. * * * * * NOTWITHSTANDING, _conj._ Synonyms: altho(ugh), howbeit, nevertheless, tho(ugh), but, however, still, yet. _However_ simply waives discussion, and (like the archaic _howbeit_) says "be that as it may, this is true;" _nevertheless_ concedes the truth of what precedes, but claims that what follows is none the less true; _notwithstanding_ marshals the two statements face to face, admits the one and its seeming contradiction to the other, while insisting that it can not, after all, withstand the other; as, _notwithstanding_ the force of the enemy is superior, we shall conquer. _Yet_ and _still_ are weaker than _notwithstanding_, while stronger than _but_. _Tho_ and _altho_ make as little as possible of the concession, dropping it, as it were, incidentally; as, "_tho_ we are guilty, thou art good;" to say "we are guilty, _but_ thou art good," would make the concession of guilt more emphatic. Compare BUT; YET. * * * * * NOTWITHSTANDING, _prep._ Synonyms: despite, in spite of. _Notwithstanding_ simply states that circumstances shall not be or have not been allowed to withstand; _despite_ and _in spite of_ refer primarily to personal and perhaps spiteful opposition; as, he failed _notwithstanding_ his good intentions; or, he persevered _in spite of_ the most bitter hostility. When _despite_ and _in spite of_ are applied to inanimate things, it is with something of personification; "_in spite of_ the storm" is said as if the storm had a hostile purpose to oppose the undertaking. * * * * * OATH. Synonyms: adjuration, curse, profane swearing, affidavit, cursing, profanity, anathema, denunciation, reprobation, ban, execration, swearing, blaspheming, imprecation, sworn statement. blasphemy, malediction, vow. In the highest sense, as in a court of justice, "an _oath_ is a reverent appeal to God in corroboration of what one says," ABBOTT _Law Dict._; an _affidavit_ is a _sworn statement_ made in writing in the presence of a competent officer; an _adjuration_ is a solemn appeal to a person in the name of God to speak the truth. An _oath_ is made to man in the name of God; a _vow_, to God without the intervention, often without the knowledge, of man. In the lower sense, an _oath_ may be mere _blasphemy_ or _profane swearing_. _Anathema_, _curse_, _execration_, and _imprecation_ are modes of invoking vengeance or retribution from a superhuman power upon the person against whom they are uttered. _Anathema_ is a solemn ecclesiastical condemnation of a person or of a proposition. _Curse_ may be just and authoritative; as, the _curse_ of God; or, it may be wanton and powerless: "so the _curse_ causeless shall not come," _Prov._ xxvi, 2. _Execration_ expresses most of personal bitterness and hatred; _imprecation_ refers especially to the coming of the desired evil upon the person against whom it is uttered. _Malediction_ is a general wish of evil, a less usual but very expressive word. Compare TESTIMONY. Antonyms: benediction, benison, blessing. * * * * * OBSCURE. Synonyms: abstruse, darksome, dusky, involved, ambiguous, deep, enigmatical, muddy, cloudy, dense, hidden, mysterious, complex, difficult, incomprehensible, profound, complicated, dim, indistinct, turbid, dark, doubtful, intricate, unintelligible. That is _obscure_ which the eye or the mind can not clearly discern or see through, whether because of its own want of transparency, its depth or intricacy, or because of mere defect of light. That which is _complicated_ is likely to be _obscure_, but that may be _obscure_ which is not at all _complicated_ and scarcely _complex_, as a _muddy_ pool. In that which is _abstruse_ (L. _abs_, from, and _trudo_, push) as if removed from the usual course of thought or out of the way of apprehension or discovery, the thought is remote, _hidden_; in that which is _obscure_ there may be nothing to hide; it is hard to see to the bottom of the _profound_, because of its depth, but the most shallow turbidness is _obscure_. Compare COMPLEX; DARK; DIFFICULT; MYSTERIOUS. Antonyms: See synonyms for CLEAR. * * * * * OBSOLETE. Synonyms: ancient, archaic, obsolescent, out of date, antiquated, disused, old, rare. Some of the _oldest_ or most _ancient_ words are not _obsolete_, as father, mother, etc. A word is _obsolete_ which has quite gone out of reputable use; a word is _archaic_ which is falling out of reputable use, or, on the other hand, having been _obsolete_, is taken up tentatively by writers or speakers of influence, so that it may perhaps regain its position as a living word; a word is _rare_ if there are few present instances of its reputable use. Compare OLD. Antonyms: See synonyms for NEW. * * * * * OBSTINATE. Synonyms: contumacious, headstrong, mulish, resolute, decided, heady, obdurate, resolved, determined, immovable, opinionated, stubborn, dogged, indomitable, persistent, unconquerable, firm, inflexible, pertinacious, unflinching, fixed, intractable, refractory, unyielding. The _headstrong_ person is not to be stopped in his own course of action, while the _obstinate_ and _stubborn_ is not to be driven to another's way. The _headstrong_ act; the _obstinate_ and _stubborn_ may simply refuse to stir. The most amiable person may be _obstinate_ on some one point; the _stubborn_ person is for the most part habitually so; we speak of _obstinate_ determination, _stubborn_ resistance. _Stubborn_ is the term most frequently applied to the lower animals and inanimate things. _Refractory_ implies more activity of resistance; the _stubborn_ horse balks; the _refractory_ animal plunges, rears, and kicks; metals that resist ordinary processes of reduction are termed _refractory_. One is _obdurate_ who adheres to his purpose in spite of appeals that would move any tender-hearted or right-minded person. _Contumacious_ refers to a proud and insolent defiance of authority, as of the summons of a court. _Pertinacious_ demand is contrasted with _obstinate_ refusal. The _unyielding_ conduct which we approve we call _decided_, _firm_, _inflexible_, _resolute_; that which we condemn we are apt to term _headstrong_, _obstinate_, _stubborn_. Compare PERVERSE. Antonyms: amenable, dutiful, pliable, tractable, complaisant, gentle, pliant, undecided, compliant, irresolute, submissive, wavering, docile, obedient, teachable, yielding. * * * * * OBSTRUCT. Synonyms: arrest, check, embarrass, interrupt, stay, bar, choke, hinder, oppose, stop. barricade, clog, impede, retard, To _obstruct_ is literally to build up against; the road is _obstructed_ by fallen trees; the passage of liquid through a tube is _obstructed_ by solid deposits. We may _hinder_ one's advance by following and clinging to him; we _obstruct_ his course by standing in his way or putting a barrier across his path. Anything that makes one's progress slower, whether from within or from without, _impedes_; an obstruction is always from without. To _arrest_ is to cause to stop suddenly; _obstructing_ the way may have the effect of _arresting_ progress. Compare HINDER; IMPEDIMENT. Antonyms: accelerate, aid, facilitate, free, open, promote. advance, clear, forward, further, pave the way for, * * * * * OLD. Synonyms: aged, decrepit, immemorial, senile, ancient, elderly, olden, time-honored, antiquated, gray, patriarchal, time-worn, antique, hoary, remote, venerable. That is termed _old_ which has existed long, or which existed long ago. _Ancient_, from the Latin, through the French, is the more stately, _old_, from the Saxon, the more familiar word. Familiarity, on one side, is near to contempt; thus we say, an _old_ coat, an _old_ hat. On the other hand, familiarity is akin to tenderness, and thus _old_ is a word of endearment; as, "the _old_ homestead," the "_old_ oaken bucket." "Tell me the _old, old_ story!" has been sung feelingly by millions; "tell me that _ancient_ story" would remove it out of all touch of human sympathy. _Olden_ is a statelier form of _old_, and is applied almost exclusively to time, not to places, buildings, persons, etc. As regards periods of time, the familiar are also the near; thus, the _old_ times are not too far away for familiar thought and reference; the _olden_ times are more remote, _ancient_ times still further removed. _Gray_, _hoary_, and _moldering_ refer to outward and visible tokens of age. _Aged_ applies chiefly to long-extended human life. _Decrepit_, _gray_, and _hoary_ refer to the effects of age on the body exclusively; _senile_ upon the mind also; as, a _decrepit_ frame, _senile_ garrulousness. One may be _aged_ and neither _decrepit_ nor _senile_. _Elderly_ is applied to those who have passed middle life, but scarcely reached _old_ age. _Remote_ (L. _re_, back or away, and _moveo_, move), primarily refers to space, but is extended to that which is far off in time; as, at some _remote_ period. _Venerable_ expresses the involuntary reverence that we yield to the majestic and long-enduring, whether in the material world or in human life and character. Compare ANTIQUE; OBSOLETE; PRIMEVAL. Antonyms: Compare synonyms for NEW; YOUTHFUL. * * * * * OPERATION. Synonyms: action, effect, force, performance, result. agency, execution, influence, procedure, _Operation_ is _action_ considered with reference to the thing acted upon, and may apply to the _action_ of an intelligent agent or of a material substance or _force_; as, the _operation_ of a medicine. _Performance_ and _execution_ denote intelligent _action_, considered with reference to the actor or to that which he accomplishes; _performance_ accomplishing the will of the actor, _execution_ often the will of another; we speak of the _performance_ of a duty, the _execution_ of a sentence. Compare ACT. Antonyms: failure, ineffectiveness, inutility, powerlessness, uselessness. inaction, inefficiency, * * * * * ORDER. Synonyms: command, injunction, mandate, requirement. direction, instruction, prohibition, _Instruction_ implies superiority of knowledge, _direction_ of authority on the part of the giver; a teacher gives _instructions_ to his pupils, an employer gives _directions_ to his workmen. _Order_ is still more authoritative than _direction_; soldiers, sailors, and railroad employees have simply to obey the _orders_ of their superiors, without explanation or question; an _order_ in the commercial sense has the authority of the money which the one _ordering_ the goods pays or is to pay. _Command_ is a loftier word, as well as highly authoritative, less frequent in common life; we speak of the _commands_ of God, or sometimes, by polite hyperbole, ask of a friend, "Have you any _commands_ for me?" A _requirement_ is imperative, but not always formal, nor made by a personal agent; it may be in the nature of things; as, the _requirements_ of the position. _Prohibition_ is wholly negative; it is a _command_ not to do; _injunction_ is now oftenest so used, especially as the _requirement_ by legal authority that certain action be suspended or refrained from, pending final legal decision. Compare ARRAY; CLASS; LAW; PROHIBIT; SYSTEM. Antonyms: allowance, consent, leave, liberty, license, permission, permit. * * * * * OSTENTATION. Synonyms: boast, flourish, parade, pompousness, vaunt, boasting, pageant, pomp, show, vaunting. display, pageantry, pomposity, _Ostentation_ is an ambitious showing forth of whatever is thought adapted to win admiration or praise; _ostentation_ may be without words; as, the _ostentation_ of wealth in fine residences, rich clothing, costly equipage, or the like; when in words, _ostentation_ is rather in manner than in direct statement; as, the _ostentation_ of learning. _Boasting_ is in direct statement, and is louder and more vulgar than _ostentation_. There may be great _display_ or _show_ with little substance; _ostentation_ suggests something substantial to be shown. _Pageant_, _pageantry_, _parade_, and _pomp_ refer principally to affairs of arms or state; as, a royal _pageant_; a military _parade_. _Pomp_ is some material demonstration of wealth and power, as in grand and stately ceremonial, rich furnishings, processions, etc., considered as worthy of the person or occasion in whose behalf it is manifested; _pomp_ is the noble side of that which as _ostentation_ is considered as arrogant and vain. _Pageant_ and _pageantry_ are inferior to _pomp_, denoting spectacular _display_ designed to impress the public mind, and since the multitude is largely ignorant and thoughtless, the words _pageant_ and _pageantry_ have a suggestion of the transient and unsubstantial. _Parade_ (L. _paro_, prepare) is an exhibition as of troops in camp going through the evolutions that are to be used in battle, and suggests a lack of earnestness and direct or immediate occasion or demand; hence, in the more general sense, a _parade_ is an uncalled for exhibition, and so used is a more disparaging word than _ostentation_; _ostentation_ may spring merely from undue self-gratulation, _parade_ implies a desire to impress others with a sense of one's abilities or resources, and is always offensive and somewhat contemptible; as, a _parade_ of wealth or learning. _Pomposity_ and _pompousness_ are the affectation of _pomp_. Antonyms: diffidence, quietness, retirement, timidity, modesty, reserve, shrinking, unobtrusiveness. * * * * * OUGHT. Synonym: should. One _ought_ to do that which he is under moral obligation or in duty bound to do. _Ought_ is the stronger word, holding most closely to the sense of moral obligation, or sometimes of imperative logical necessity; _should_ may have the sense of moral obligation or may apply merely to propriety or expediency, as in the proverb, "The liar _should_ have a good memory," _i. e._, he will need it. _Ought_ is sometimes used of abstractions or inanimate things as indicating what the mind deems to be imperative or logically necessary in view of all the conditions; as, these goods _ought_ to go into that space; these arguments _ought_ to convince him; _should_ in such connections would be correct, but less emphatic. Compare DUTY. * * * * * OVERSIGHT. Synonyms: care, control, management, surveillance, charge, direction, superintendence, watch, command, inspection, supervision, watchfulness. A person may look over a matter in order to survey it carefully in its entirety, or he may look over it with no attention to the thing itself because his gaze and thought are concentrated on something beyond; _oversight_ has thus two contrasted senses, in the latter sense denoting inadvertent error or omission, and in the former denoting watchful _supervision_, commonly implying constant personal presence; _superintendence_ requires only so much of presence or communication as to know that the superintendent's wishes are carried out; the superintendent of a railroad will personally oversee very few of its operations; the railroad company has supreme _direction_ of all its affairs without _superintendence_ or _oversight_. _Control_ is used chiefly with reference to restraint or the power of restraint; a good horseman has a restless horse under perfect _control_; there is no high character without self-_control_. _Surveillance_ is an invidious term signifying watching with something of suspicion. Compare CARE; NEGLECT. * * * * * PAIN. Synonyms: ache, distress, suffering, torture, agony, pang, throe, twinge, anguish, paroxysm, torment, wo(e). _Pain_ is the most general term of this group, including all the others; _pain_ is a disturbing sensation from which nature revolts, resulting from some injurious external interference (as from a wound, a bruise, a harsh word, etc.), or from some lack of what one needs, craves, or cherishes (as, the _pain_ of hunger or bereavement), or from some abnormal action of bodily or mental functions (as, the _pains_ of disease, envy, or discontent). _Suffering_ is one of the severer forms of _pain_. The prick of a needle causes _pain_, but we should scarcely speak of it as _suffering_. _Distress_ is too strong a word for little hurts, too feeble for the intensest _suffering_, but commonly applied to some continuous or prolonged trouble or need; as, the _distress_ of a shipwrecked crew, or of a destitute family. _Ache_ is lingering _pain_, more or less severe; _pang_, a _pain_ short, sharp, intense, and perhaps repeated. We speak of the _pangs_ of hunger or of remorse. _Throe_ is a violent and thrilling _pain_. _Paroxysm_ applies to an alternately recurring and receding _pain_, which comes as it were in waves; the _paroxysm_ is the rising of the wave. _Torment_ and _torture_ are intense and terrible _sufferings_. _Agony_ and _anguish_ express the utmost _pain_ or _suffering_ of body or mind. _Agony_ of body is that with which the system struggles; _anguish_ that by which it is crushed. Antonyms: comfort, delight, ease, enjoyment, peace, rapture, relief, solace. * * * * * PALLIATE. Synonyms: apologize for, conceal, extenuate, hide, screen, cloak, cover, gloss over, mitigate, veil. _Cloak_, from the French, and _palliate_, from the Latin, are the same in original signification, but have diverged in meaning; a _cloak_ may be used to _hide_ completely the person or some object carried about the person, or it may but partly _veil_ the figure, making the outlines less distinct; _cloak_ is used in the former, _palliate_, in the latter sense; to _cloak_ a sin is to attempt to _hide_ it from discovery; to _palliate_ it is to attempt to _hide_ some part of its blameworthiness. "When we _palliate_ our own or others' faults we do not seek to _cloke_ them altogether, but only to _extenuate_ the guilt of them in part." TRENCH _Study of Words_ lect. vi, p. 266. Either to _palliate_ or to _extenuate_ is to admit the fault; but to _extenuate_ is rather to _apologize_ for the offender, while to _palliate_ is to disguise the fault; hence, we speak of _extenuating_ but not of _palliating_ circumstances, since circumstances can not change the inherent wrong of an act, tho they may lessen the blameworthiness of him who does it; _palliating_ a bad thing by giving it a mild name does not make it less evil. In reference to diseases, to _palliate_ is really to diminish their violence, or partly to relieve the sufferer. Compare ALLEVIATE; HIDE. * * * * * PARDON, _v._ Synonyms: absolve, condone, forgive, pass by, remit. acquit, excuse, overlook, pass over, To _pardon_ is to let pass, as a fault or sin, without resentment, blame, or punishment. _Forgive_ has reference to feelings, _pardon_ to consequences; hence, the executive may _pardon_, but has nothing to do officially with _forgiving_. Personal injury may be _forgiven_ by the person wronged; thus, God at once _forgives_ and _pardons_; the _pardoned_ sinner is exempt from punishment; the _forgiven_ sinner is restored to the divine favor. To _pardon_ is the act of a superior, implying the right to punish; to _forgive_ is the privilege of the humblest person who has been wronged or offended. In law, to _remit_ the whole penalty is equivalent to _pardoning_ the offender; but a part of a penalty may be _remitted_ and the remainder inflicted, as where the penalty includes both fine and imprisonment. To _condone_ is to put aside a recognized offense by some act which restores the offender to forfeited right or privilege, and is the act of a private individual, without legal formalities. To _excuse_ is to _overlook_ some slight offense, error, or breach of etiquette; _pardon_ is often used by courtesy in nearly the same sense. A person may speak of _excusing_ or _forgiving_ himself, but not of _pardoning_ himself. Compare ABSOLVE; PARDON, _n._ Antonyms: castigate, chastise, convict, doom, recompense, sentence, chasten, condemn, correct, punish, scourge, visit. * * * * * PARDON, _n._ Synonyms: absolution, amnesty, forgiveness, oblivion, acquittal, forbearance, mercy, remission. _Acquittal_ is a release from a charge, after trial, as not guilty. _Pardon_ is a removal of penalty from one who has been adjudged guilty. _Acquittal_ is by the decision of a court, commonly of a jury; _pardon_ is the act of the executive. An innocent man may demand _acquittal_, and need not plead for _pardon_. _Pardon_ supposes an offense; yet, as our laws stand, to grant a _pardon_ is sometimes the only way to release one who has been wrongly convicted. _Oblivion_, from the Latin, signifies overlooking and virtually forgetting an offense, so that the offender stands before the law in all respects as if it had never been committed. _Amnesty_ brings the same idea through the Greek. _Pardon_ affects individuals; _amnesty_ and _oblivion_ are said of great numbers. _Pardon_ is oftenest applied to the ordinary administration of law; _amnesty_, to national and military affairs. An _amnesty_ is issued after war, insurrection, or rebellion; it is often granted by "an act of _oblivion_," and includes a full _pardon_ of all offenders who come within its provisions. _Absolution_ is a religious word (compare synonyms for ABSOLVE). _Remission_ is a discharge from penalty; as, the _remission_ of a fine. Antonyms: penalty, punishment, retaliation, retribution, vengeance. Prepositions: A pardon _to_ or _for_ the offenders; _for_ all offenses; the pardon _of_ offenders or offenses. * * * * * PART, _v._ Synonyms: Compare synonyms for PART, _n._ Prepositions: Part _into_ shares; part _in_ the middle; part one _from_ another; part _among_ the claimants; part _between_ contestants (archaic); in general, to part _from_ is to relinquish companionship; to part _with_ is to relinquish possession; we part _from_ a person or _from_ something thought of with some sense of companionship; a traveler parts _from_ his friends; he maybe said also to part _from_ his native shore; a man parts _with_ an estate, a horse, a copyright; part _with_ may be applied to a person thought of in any sense as a possession; an employer parts _with_ a clerk or servant; but _part with_ is sometimes used by good writers as meaning simply to separate from. * * * * * PART, _n._ Synonyms: atom, fraction, member, section, component, fragment, particle, segment, constituent, ingredient, piece, share, division, instalment, portion, subdivision. element, _Part_, a substance, quantity, or amount that is the result of the division of something greater, is the general word, including all the others of this group. A _fragment_ is the result of breaking, rending, or disruption of some kind, while a _piece_ may be smoothly or evenly separated and have a certain completeness in itself. A _piece_ is often taken for a sample; a _fragment_ scarcely would be. _Division_ and _fraction_ are always regarded as in connection with the total; _divisions_ may be equal or unequal; a _fraction_ is one of several equal _parts_ into which the whole is supposed to be divided. A _portion_ is a _part_ viewed with reference to some one who is to receive it or some special purpose to which it is to be applied; in a restaurant one _portion_ (_i. e._, the amount designed for one person) is sometimes, by special order, served to two; a _share_ is a _part_ to which one has or may acquire a right in connection with others; an _instalment_ is one of a series of proportionate payments that are to be continued till the entire claim is discharged; a _particle_ is an exceedingly small _part_. A _component_, _constituent_, _ingredient_, or _element_ is a _part_ of some compound or mixture; an _element_ is necessary to the existence, as a _component_ or _constituent_ is necessary to the completeness of that which it helps to compose; an _ingredient_ may be foreign or accidental. A _subdivision_ is a _division_ of a _division_. We speak of a _segment_ of a circle. Compare PARTICLE; PORTION. * * * * * PARTICLE. Synonyms: atom, grain, mite, scrap, whit. corpuscle, iota, molecule, shred, element, jot, scintilla, tittle, A _particle_ is a very small part of any material substance; as, a _particle_ of sand or of dust; it is a general term, not accurately determinate in meaning. _Atom_ (Gr. _a-_ privative, not, and _temno_, cut) etymologically signifies that which can not be cut or divided, and is the smallest conceivable _particle_ of matter, regarded as absolutely homogeneous and as having but one set of properties; _atoms_ are the ultimate _particles_ of matter. A _molecule_ is made up of _atoms_, and is regarded as separable into its constituent parts; as used by physicists, a _molecule_ is the smallest conceivable part which retains all the characteristics of the substance; thus, a _molecule_ of water is made up of two _atoms_ of hydrogen and one _atom_ of oxygen. _Element_ in chemistry denotes, without reference to quantity, a substance regarded as simple, _i. e._, one incapable of being resolved by any known process into simpler substances; the _element_ gold may be represented by an ingot or by a _particle_ of gold-dust. In popular language, an _element_ is any essential constituent; the ancients believed that the universe was made up of the four _elements_, earth, air, fire, and water; a storm is spoken of as a manifestation of the fury of the _elements_. We speak of _corpuscles_ of blood. Compare PART. Antonyms: aggregate, entirety, mass, quantity, sum, sum total, total, whole. * * * * * PATIENCE. Synonyms: calmness, forbearance, long-suffering, sufferance. composure, fortitude, resignation, endurance, leniency, submission, _Patience_ is the quality or habit of mind shown in bearing passively and uncomplainingly any pain, evil, or hardship that may fall to one's lot. _Endurance_ hardens itself against suffering, and may be merely stubborn; _fortitude_ is _endurance_ animated by courage; _endurance_ may by modifiers be made to have a passive force, as when we speak of "passive endurance;" _patience_ is not so hard as _endurance_ nor so self-effacing as _submission_. _Submission_ is ordinarily and _resignation_ always applied to matters of great moment, while _patience_ may apply to slight worries and annoyances. As regards our relations to our fellow men, _forbearance_ is abstaining from retaliation or revenge; _patience_ is keeping kindliness of heart under vexatious conduct; _long-suffering_ is continued _patience_. _Patience_ may also have an active force denoting uncomplaining steadiness in doing, as in tilling the soil. Compare INDUSTRY. Antonyms: See synonyms for ANGER. Prepositions: Patience _in_ or _amid_ sufferings; patience _with_ (rarely _toward_) opposers or offenders; patience _under_ afflictions; (rarely) patience _of_ heat or cold, etc. * * * * * PAY, _n._ Synonyms: allowance, hire, recompense, salary, compensation, honorarium, remuneration, stipend, earnings, payment, requital, wages. fee, An _allowance_ is a stipulated amount furnished at regular intervals as a matter of discretion or gratuity, as of food to besieged soldiers, or of money to a child or ward. _Compensation_ is a comprehensive word signifying a return for a service done. _Remuneration_ is applied to matters of great amount or importance. _Recompense_ is a still wider and loftier word, with less suggestion of calculation and market value; there are services for which affection and gratitude are the sole and sufficient _recompense_; _earnings_, _fees_, _hire_, _pay_, _salary_, and _wages_ are forms of _compensation_ and may be included in _compensation_, _remuneration_, or _recompense_. _Pay_ is commercial and strictly signifies an exact pecuniary equivalent for a thing or service, except when the contrary is expressly stated, as when we speak of "high _pay_" or "poor _pay_." _Wages_ denotes what a worker receives. _Earnings_ is often used as exactly equivalent to _wages_, but may be used with reference to the real value of work done or service rendered, and even applied to inanimate things; as, the _earnings_ of capital. _Hire_ is distinctly mercenary or menial, but as a noun has gone out of popular use, tho the verb _to hire_ is common. _Salary_ is for literary or professional work, _wages_ for handicraft or other comparatively inferior service; a _salary_ is regarded as more permanent than _wages_; an editor receives a _salary_, a compositor receives _wages_. _Stipend_ has become exclusively a literary word. A _fee_ is given for a single service or privilege, and is sometimes in the nature of a gratuity. Compare REQUITE. * * * * * PEOPLE. Synonyms: commonwealth, nation, race, state, tribe. community, population, A _community_ is in general terms the aggregate of persons inhabiting any territory in common and viewed as having common interests; a _commonwealth_ is such a body of persons having a common government, especially a republican government; as, the _commonwealth_ of Massachusetts. A _community_ may be very small; a _commonwealth_ is ordinarily of considerable extent. A _people_ is the aggregate of any public _community_, either in distinction from their rulers or as including them; a _race_ is a division of mankind in the line of origin and ancestry; the _people_ of the United States includes members of almost every _race_. The use of _people_ as signifying persons collectively, as in the statement "The hall was full of _people_," has been severely criticized, but is old and accepted English, and may fitly be classed as idiomatic, and often better than _persons_, by reason of its collectivism. As Dean Alford suggests, it would make a strange transformation of the old hymn "All _people_ that on earth do dwell" to sing "All _persons_ that on earth do dwell." A _state_ is an organized political _community_ considered in its corporate capacity as "a body politic and corporate;" as, a legislative act is the act of the _state_; every citizen is entitled to the protection of the _state_. A _nation_ is an organized political _community_ considered with reference to the persons composing it as having certain definite boundaries, a definite number of citizens, etc. The members of a _people_ are referred to as persons or individuals; the individual members of a _state_ or _nation_ are called citizens or subjects. The _population_ of a country is simply the aggregate of persons residing within its borders, without reference to _race_, organization, or allegiance; unnaturalized residents form part of the _population_, but not of the _nation_, possessing none of the rights and being subject to none of the duties of citizens. In American usage _State_ signifies one _commonwealth_ of the federal union known as the United _States_. _Tribe_ is now almost wholly applied to rude _peoples_ with very imperfect political organization; as, the Indian _tribes_; nomadic _tribes_. Compare MOB. * * * * * PERCEIVE. Synonyms: apprehend, comprehend, conceive, understand. We _perceive_ what is presented through the senses. We _apprehend_ what is presented to the mind, whether through the senses or by any other means. Yet _perceive_ is used in the figurative sense of seeing through to a conclusion, in a way for which usage would not allow us to substitute _apprehend_; as, "Sir, I _perceive_ that thou art a prophet," _John_ iv, 19. That which we _apprehend_ we catch, as with the hand; that which we _conceive_ we are able to analyze and recompose in our mind; that which we _comprehend_, we, as it were, grasp around, take together, seize, embrace wholly within the mind. Many things may be _apprehended_ which can not be _comprehended_; a child can _apprehend_ the distinction between right and wrong, yet the philosopher can not _comprehend_ it in its fulness. We can _apprehend_ the will of God as revealed in conscience or the Scriptures; we can _conceive_ of certain attributes of Deity, as his truth and justice; but no finite intelligence can _comprehend_ the Divine Nature, in its majesty, power, and perfection. Compare ANTICIPATE; ARREST; CATCH; KNOWLEDGE. Antonyms: fail of, ignore, lose, misapprehend, misconceive, miss, overlook. * * * * * PERFECT. Synonyms: absolute, consummate, holy, spotless, accurate, correct, ideal, stainless, blameless, entire, immaculate, unblemished, complete, faultless, sinless, undefiled. completed, finished, That is _perfect_ to which nothing can be added, and from which nothing can be taken without impairing its excellence, marring its symmetry, or detracting from its worth; in this fullest sense God alone is _perfect_, but in a limited sense anything may be _perfect_ in its kind; as a _perfect_ flower; a copy of a document is _perfect_ when it is _accurate_ in every particular; a vase may be called _perfect_ when _entire_ and _unblemished_, even tho not artistically _faultless_; the best judges never pronounce a work of art _perfect_, because they see always _ideal_ possibilities not yet attained; even the _ideal_ is not _perfect_, by reason of the imperfection of the human mind; a human character faultlessly _holy_ would be morally _perfect_ tho finite. That which is _absolute_ is free from admixture (as _absolute_ alcohol) and in the highest and fullest sense free from imperfection or limitation; as, _absolute_ holiness and love are attributes of God alone. In philosophical language, _absolute_ signifies free from all necessary, or even from all possible relations, not dependent or limited, unrelated and unconditioned; truth immediately known, as intuitive truth, is _absolute_; God, as self-existent and free from all limitation or dependence, is called the _absolute_ Being, or simply the _Absolute_. Compare INNOCENT; INFINITE; RADICAL. Antonyms: bad, defective, imperfect, meager, scant, blemished, deficient, incomplete, perverted, short, corrupt, deformed, inferior, poor, spoiled, corrupted, fallible, insufficient, ruined, worthless. defaced, faulty, marred, * * * * * PERMANENT. Synonyms: abiding, enduring, lasting, steadfast, changeless, fixed, perpetual, unchangeable, constant, immutable, persistent, unchanging. durable, invariable, stable, _Durable_ (L. _durus_, hard) is said almost wholly of material substances that resist wear; _lasting_ is said of either material or immaterial things. _Permanent_ is a word of wider meaning; a thing is _permanent_ which is not liable to change; as, a _permanent_ color; buildings upon a farm are called _permanent_ improvements. _Enduring_ is a higher word, applied to that which resists both time and change; as, _enduring_ fame. Antonyms: See synonyms for TRANSIENT. * * * * * PERMISSION. Synonyms: allowance, authorization, leave, license, authority, consent, liberty, permit. _Authority_ unites the right and power of control; age, wisdom, and character give _authority_ to their possessor; a book of learned research has _authority_, and is even called an _authority_. _Permission_ justifies another in acting without interference or censure, and usually implies some degree of approval. _Authority_ gives a certain right of control over all that may be affected by the action. There may be a failure to object, which constitutes an implied _permission_, tho this is more properly expressed by _allowance_; we _allow_ what we do not oppose, _permit_ what we expressly authorize. The noun _permit_ implies a formal written _permission_. _License_ is a formal _permission_ granted by competent _authority_ to an individual to do some act or pursue some business which would be or is made to be unlawful without such _permission_; as, a _license_ to preach, to solemnize marriages, or to sell intoxicating liquors. A _license_ is _permission_ granted rather than _authority_ conferred; the sheriff has _authority_ (not _permission_ nor _license_) to make an arrest. _Consent_ is _permission_ by the concurrence of wills in two or more persons, a mutual approval or acceptance of something proposed. Compare ALLOW. Antonyms: denial, objection, prevention, refusal, resistance. hindrance, opposition, prohibition, * * * * * PERNICIOUS. Synonyms: bad, evil, mischievous, pestilential, baneful, foul, noisome, poisonous, deadly, harmful, noxious, ruinous, deleterious, hurtful, perverting, unhealthful, destructive, injurious, pestiferous, unwholesome. detrimental, insalubrious, _Pernicious_ (L. _per_, through, and _neco_, kill) signifies having the power of destroying or injuring, tending to hurt or kill. _Pernicious_ is stronger than _injurious_; that which is _injurious_ is capable of doing harm; that which is _pernicious_ is likely to be _destructive_. _Noxious_ (L. _noceo_, hurt) is a stronger word than _noisome_, as referring to that which is _injurious_ or _destructive_. _Noisome_ now always denotes that which is extremely disagreeable or disgusting, especially to the sense of smell; as, the _noisome_ stench proclaimed the presence of _noxious_ gases. Antonyms: advantageous, favorable, helpful, profitable, serviceable, beneficent, good, invigorating, rejuvenating, useful, beneficial, healthful, life-giving, salutary, wholesome. * * * * * PERPLEXITY. Synonyms: amazement, bewilderment, distraction, doubt, astonishment, confusion, disturbance, embarrassment. _Perplexity_ (L. _per_, through, and _plecto_, plait) is the drawing or turning of the thoughts or faculties by turns in different directions or toward contrasted or contradictory conclusions; _confusion_ (L. _confusus_, from _confundo_, pour together) is a state in which the mental faculties are, as it were, thrown into chaos, so that the clear and distinct action of the different powers, as of perception, memory, reason, and will is lost; _bewilderment_ is akin to _confusion_, but is less overwhelming, and more readily recovered from; _perplexity_, accordingly, has not the unsettling of the faculties implied in _confusion_, nor the overwhelming of the faculties implied in _amazement_ or _astonishment_; it is not the magnitude of the things to be known, but the want of full and definite knowledge, that causes _perplexity_. The dividing of a woodland path may cause the traveler the greatest _perplexity_, which may become _bewilderment_ when he has tried one path after another and lost his bearings completely. With an excitable person _bewilderment_ may deepen into _confusion_ that will make him unable to think clearly or even to see or hear distinctly. _Amazement_ results from the sudden and unimagined occurrence of great good or evil or the sudden awakening of the mind to unthought-of truth. _Astonishment_ often produces _bewilderment_, which the word was formerly understood to imply. Compare AMAZEMENT; ANXIETY; DOUBT. * * * * * PERSUADE. Synonyms: allure, dispose, incline, move, bring over, entice, induce, prevail on _or_ upon, coax, impel, influence, urge, convince, incite, lead, win over. Of these words _convince_ alone has no direct reference to moving the will, denoting an effect upon the understanding only; one may be _convinced_ of his duty without doing it, or he may be _convinced_ of truth that has no manifest connection with duty or action, as of a mathematical proposition. To _persuade_ is to bring the will of another to a desired decision by some influence exerted upon it short of compulsion; one may be _convinced_ that the earth is round; he may be _persuaded_ to travel round it; but persuasion is so largely dependent upon conviction that it is commonly held to be the orator's work first to _convince_ in order that he may _persuade_. _Coax_ is a slighter word than _persuade_, seeking the same end by shallower methods, largely by appeal to personal feeling, with or without success; as, a child _coaxes_ a parent to buy him a toy. One may be _brought over_, _induced_, or _prevailed upon_ by means not properly included in persuasion, as by bribery or intimidation; he is _won over_ chiefly by personal influence. Compare INFLUENCE. Antonyms: deter, discourage, dissuade, hinder, hold back, repel, restrain. * * * * * PERTNESS. Synonyms: boldness, forwardness, liveliness, sprightliness. briskness, impertinence, sauciness, flippancy, impudence, smartness, _Liveliness_ and _sprightliness_ are pleasant and commendable; _smartness_ is a limited and showy acuteness or shrewdness, usually with unfavorable suggestion; _pertness_ and _sauciness_ are these qualities overdone, and regardless of the respect due to superiors. _Impertinence_ and _impudence_ may be gross and stupid; _pertness_ and _sauciness_ are always vivid and keen. Compare IMPUDENCE. Antonyms: bashfulness, demureness, diffidence, humility, modesty, shyness. * * * * * PERVERSE. Synonyms: contrary, froward, petulant, untoward, factious, intractable, stubborn, wayward, fractious, obstinate, ungovernable, wilful. _Perverse_ (L. _perversus_, turned the wrong way) signifies wilfully wrong or erring, unreasonably set against right, reason, or authority. The _stubborn_ or _obstinate_ person will not do what another desires or requires; the _perverse_ person will do anything contrary to what is desired or required of him. The _petulant_ person frets, but may comply; the _perverse_ individual may be smooth or silent, but is wilfully _intractable_. _Wayward_ refers to a _perverse_ disregard of morality and duty; _froward_ is practically obsolete; _untoward_ is rarely heard except in certain phrases; as, _untoward_ circumstances. Compare OBSTINATE. Antonyms: accommodating, complaisant, genial, kind, amenable, compliant, governable, obliging. * * * * * PHYSICAL. Synonyms: bodily, corporeal, natural, tangible, corporal, material, sensible, visible. Whatever is composed of or pertains to matter may be termed _material_; _physical_ (Gr. _physis_, nature) applies to _material_ things considered as parts of a system or organic whole; hence, we speak of _material_ substances, _physical_ forces, _physical_ laws. _Bodily_, _corporal_, and _corporeal_ apply primarily to the human body; _bodily_ and _corporal_ both denote pertaining or relating to the body; _corporeal_ signifies of the nature of or like the body; _corporal_ is now almost wholly restricted to signify applied to or inflicted upon the body; we speak of _bodily_ sufferings, _bodily_ presence, _corporal_ punishment, the _corporeal_ frame. Antonyms: hyperphysical, intangible, invisible, moral, unreal, immaterial, intellectual, mental, spiritual, unsubstantial. * * * * * PIQUE. Synonyms: displeasure, irritation, offense, resentment, umbrage. grudge, _Pique_, from the French, signifies primarily a prick or a sting, as of a nettle; the word denotes a sudden feeling of mingled pain and anger, but slight and usually transient, arising from some neglect or _offense_, real or imaginary. _Umbrage_ is a deeper and more persistent _displeasure_ at being overshadowed (L. _umbra_, a shadow) or subjected to any treatment that one deems unworthy of him. It may be said, as a general statement, that _pique_ arises from wounded vanity or sensitiveness, _umbrage_ from wounded pride or sometimes from suspicion. _Resentment_ rests on more solid grounds, and is deep and persistent. Compare ANGER. Antonyms: approval, contentment, gratification, pleasure, satisfaction. complacency, delight, * * * * * PITIFUL. Synonyms: abject, lamentable, paltry, sorrowful, base, miserable, pathetic, touching, contemptible, mournful, piteous, woful, despicable, moving, pitiable, wretched. _Pitiful_ originally signified full of pity; as, "the Lord is very _pitiful_ and of tender mercy," _James_ v, 11; but this usage is now archaic, and the meaning in question is appropriated by such words as merciful and compassionate. _Pitiful_ and _pitiable_ now refer to what may be deserving of pity, _pitiful_ being used chiefly for that which is merely an object of thought, _pitiable_ for that which is brought directly before the senses; as, a _pitiful_ story; a _pitiable_ object; a _pitiable_ condition. Since pity, however, always implies weakness or inferiority in that which is pitied, _pitiful_ and _pitiable_ are often used, by an easy transition, for what might awaken pity, but does awaken contempt; as, a _pitiful_ excuse; he presented a _pitiable_ appearance. _Piteous_ is now rarely used in its earlier sense of feeling pity, but in its derived sense applies to what really excites the emotion; as, a _piteous_ cry. Compare HUMANE; MERCY; PITY. Antonyms: august, dignified, grand, lofty, sublime, beneficent, exalted, great, mighty, superb, commanding, glorious, helpful, noble, superior. * * * * * PITY. Synonyms: commiseration, condolence, sympathy, tenderness. compassion, mercy, _Pity_ is a feeling of grief or pain aroused by the weakness, misfortunes, or distresses of others, joined with a desire to help or relieve. _Sympathy_ (feeling or suffering with) implies some degree of equality, kindred, or union; _pity_ is for what is weak or unfortunate, and so far, at least, inferior to ourselves; hence, _pity_ is often resented where _sympathy_ would be welcome. We have _sympathy_ with one in joy or grief, in pleasure or pain, _pity_ only for those in suffering or need; we may have _sympathy_ with the struggles of a giant or the triumphs of a conqueror; we are moved with _pity_ for the captive or the slave. _Pity_ may be only in the mind, but _mercy_ does something for those who are its objects. _Compassion_, like _pity_, is exercised only with respect to the suffering or unfortunate, but combines with the tenderness of _pity_ the dignity of _sympathy_ and the active quality of _mercy_. _Commiseration_ is as tender as _compassion_, but more remote and hopeless; we have _commiseration_ for sufferers whom we can not reach or can not relieve. _Condolence_ is the expression of _sympathy_. Compare MERCY. Antonyms: barbarity, ferocity, harshness, pitilessness, severity, brutality, hard-heartedness, inhumanity, rigor, sternness, cruelty, hardness, mercilessness, ruthlessness, truculence. Prepositions: Pity _on_ or _upon_ that which we help or spare; pity _for_ that which we merely contemplate; "have pity _upon_ me, O ye my friends," _Job_ xix, 21; "pity _for_ a horse o'erdriven," TENNYSON _In Memoriam_ lxii, st. 1. * * * * * PLANT. Synonyms: seed, seed down, set, set out, sow. We _set_ or _set out_ slips, cuttings, young trees, etc., tho we may also be said to _plant_ them; we _plant_ corn, potatoes, etc., which we put in definite places, as in hills, with some care; we _sow_ wheat or other small grains and seeds which are scattered in the process. Tho by modern agricultural machinery the smaller grains are almost as precisely _planted_ as corn, the old word for broadcast scattering is retained. Land is _seeded_ or _seeded down_ to grass. Antonyms: eradicate, extirpate, root up, uproot, weed out. * * * * * PLEAD. Synonyms: advocate, ask, beseech, implore, solicit, argue, beg, entreat, press, urge. To _plead_ for one is to employ argument or persuasion, or both in his behalf, usually with earnestness or importunity; similarly one may be said to _plead_ for himself or for a cause, etc., or with direct object, to _plead_ a case; in legal usage, _pleading_ is argumentative, but in popular usage, _pleading_ always implies some appeal to the feelings. One _argues_ a case solely on rational grounds and supposably with fair consideration of both sides; he _advocates_ one side for the purpose of carrying it, and under the influence of motives that may range all the way from cold self-interest to the highest and noblest impulses; he _pleads_ a cause, or _pleads_ for a person with still more intense feeling. _Beseech_, _entreat_, and _implore_ imply impassioned earnestness, with direct and tender appeal to personal considerations. _Press_ and _urge_ imply more determined or perhaps authoritative insistence. _Solicit_ is a weak word denoting merely an attempt to secure one's consent or cooperation, sometimes by sordid or corrupt motives. Prepositions: Plead _with_ the tyrant _for_ the captive; plead _against_ the oppression or the oppressor; plead _to_ the indictment; _at_ the bar; _before_ the court; _in_ open court. * * * * * PLEASANT. Synonyms: agreeable, good-natured, kindly, pleasing, attractive, kind, obliging, pleasurable. That is _pleasing_ from which pleasure is received, or may readily be received, without reference to any action or intent in that which confers it; as, a _pleasing_ picture; a _pleasing_ landscape. Whatever has active qualities adapted to give pleasure is _pleasant_; as, a _pleasant_ breeze; a _pleasant_ (not a _pleasing_) day. As applied to persons, _pleasant_ always refers to a disposition ready and desirous to please; one is _pleasant_, or in a _pleasant_ mood, when inclined to make happy those with whom he is dealing, to show kindness and do any reasonable favor. In this sense _pleasant_ is nearly akin to _kind_, but _kind_ refers to act or intent, while _pleasant_ stops with the disposition; many persons are no longer in a _pleasant_ mood if asked to do a troublesome kindness. _Pleasant_ keeps always something of the sense of actually giving pleasure, and thus surpasses the meaning of _good-natured_; there are _good-natured_ people who by reason of rudeness and ill-breeding are not _pleasant_ companions. A _pleasing_ face has good features, complexion, expression, etc.; a _pleasant_ face indicates a _kind_ heart and an _obliging_ disposition, as well as _kindly_ feelings in actual exercise; we can say of one usually _good-natured_, "on that occasion he did not meet me with a _pleasant_ face." _Pleasant_, in the sense of gay, merry, jocose (the sense still retained in _pleasantry_), is now rare, and would not be understood outside of literary circles. Compare AMIABLE; COMFORTABLE; DELIGHTFUL. Antonyms: arrogant, displeasing, glum, ill-humored, repelling, austere, dreary, grim, ill-natured, repulsive, crabbed, forbidding, harsh, offensive, unkind, disagreeable, gloomy, hateful, repellent, unpleasant. Prepositions: Pleasant _to_, _with_, or _toward_ persons, _about_ a matter. * * * * * PLENTIFUL. Synonyms: abounding, bountiful, generous, plenteous, abundant, complete, large, profuse, adequate, copious, lavish, replete, affluent, enough, liberal, rich, ample, exuberant, luxuriant, sufficient, bounteous, full, overflowing, teeming. _Enough_ is relative, denoting a supply equal to a given demand. A temperature of 70° Fahrenheit is _enough_ for a living-room; of 212° _enough_ to boil water; neither is _enough_ to melt iron. _Sufficient_, from the Latin, is an equivalent of the Saxon _enough_, with no perceptible difference of meaning, but only of usage, _enough_ being the more blunt, homely, and forcible word, while _sufficient_ is in many cases the more elegant or polite. _Sufficient_ usually precedes its noun; _enough_ usually and preferably follows. That is _ample_ which gives a safe, but not a large, margin beyond a given demand; that is _abundant_, _affluent_, _bountiful_, _liberal_, _plentiful_, which is largely in excess of manifest need. _Plentiful_ is used of supplies, as of food, water, etc.; as, "a _plentiful_ rain," _Ps._ lxviii, 9. We may also say a _copious_ rain; but _copious_ can be applied to thought, language, etc., where _plentiful_ can not well be used. _Affluent_ and _liberal_ both apply to riches, resources; _liberal_, with especial reference to giving or expending. (Compare synonyms for ADEQUATE.) _Affluent_, referring especially to riches, may be used of thought, feeling, etc. Neither _affluent_, _copious_, nor _plentiful_ can be used of time or space; a field is sometimes called _plentiful_, not with reference to its extent, but to its productiveness. _Complete_ expresses not excess or overplus, and yet not mere sufficiency, but harmony, proportion, fitness to a design, or ideal. _Ample_ and _abundant_ may be applied to any subject. We have time _enough_, means that we can reach our destination without haste, but also without delay; if we have _ample_ time, we may move leisurely, and note what is by the way; if we have _abundant_ time, we may pause to converse with a friend, to view the scenery, or to rest when weary. _Lavish_ and _profuse_ imply a decided excess, oftenest in the ill sense. We rejoice in _abundant_ resources, and honor _generous_ hospitality; _lavish_ or _profuse_ expenditure suggests extravagance and wastefulness. _Luxuriant_ is used especially of that which is _abundant_ in growth; as, a _luxuriant_ crop. Antonyms: deficient, inadequate, narrow, scanty, small, drained, insufficient, niggardly, scarce, sparing, exhausted, mean, poor, scrimped, stingy, impoverished, miserly, scant, short, straitened. Preposition: Plentiful _in_ resources. * * * * * POETRY. Synonyms: meter, numbers, poesy, song, metrical composition, poem, rime, verse. _Poetry_ is that form of literature that embodies beautiful thought, feeling, or action in melodious, rhythmical, and (usually) metrical language, in imaginative and artistic constructions. _Poetry_ in a very wide sense may be anything that pleasingly addresses the imagination; as, the _poetry_ of motion. In ordinary usage, _poetry_ is both imaginative and metrical. There may be _poetry_ without _rime_, but hardly without _meter_, or what in some languages takes its place, as the Hebrew parallelism; but _poetry_ involves, besides the artistic form, the exercise of the fancy or imagination in a way always beautiful, often lofty or even sublime. Failing this, there may be _verse_, _rime_, and _meter_, but not _poetry_. There is much in literature that is beautiful and sublime in thought and artistic in construction, which is yet not _poetry_, because quite devoid of the element of _song_, whereby _poetry_ differs from the most lofty, beautiful, or impassioned prose. Compare METER. Antonyms: prosaic speech, prosaic writing, prose. * * * * * POLITE. Synonyms: accomplished, courtly, genteel, urbane, civil, cultivated, gracious, well-behaved, complaisant, cultured, obliging, well-bred, courteous, elegant, polished, well-mannered. A _civil_ person observes such propriety of speech and manner as to avoid being rude; one who is _polite_ (literally _polished_) observes more than the necessary proprieties, conforming to all that is graceful, becoming, and thoughtful in the intercourse of refined society. A man may be _civil_ with no consideration for others, simply because self-respect forbids him to be rude; but one who is _polite_ has at least some care for the opinions of others, and if _polite_ in the highest and truest sense, which is coming to be the prevailing one, he cares for the comfort and happiness of others in the smallest matters. _Civil_ is a colder and more distant word than _polite_; _courteous_ is fuller and richer, dealing often with greater matters, and is used only in the good sense. _Courtly_ suggests that which befits a royal court, and is used of external grace and stateliness without reference to the prompting feeling; as, the _courtly_ manners of the ambassador. _Genteel_ refers to an external elegance, which may be showy and superficial, and the word is thus inferior to _polite_ or _courteous_. _Urbane_ refers to a politeness that is genial and successful in giving others a sense of ease and cheer. _Polished_ refers to external elegancies of speech and manner without reference to spirit or purpose; as, a _polished_ gentleman or a _polished_ scoundrel; _cultured_ refers to a real and high development of mind and soul, of which the external manifestation is the smallest part. _Complaisant_ denotes a disposition to please or favor beyond what _politeness_ would necessarily require. Antonyms: awkward, clownish, ill-mannered, insulting, uncouth, bluff, coarse, impertinent, raw, unmannerly, blunt, discourteous, impolite, rude, unpolished, boorish, ill-behaved, impudent, rustic, untaught, brusk, ill-bred, insolent, uncivil, untutored. * * * * * POLITY. Synonyms: constitution, policy, form _or_ system of government. _Polity_ is the permanent system of government of a state, a church, or a society; _policy_ is the method of management with reference to the attainment of certain ends; the national _polity_ of the United States is republican; each administration has a _policy_ of its own. _Policy_ is often used as equivalent to expediency; as, many think honesty to be good _policy_. _Polity_ used in ecclesiastical use serves a valuable purpose in distinguishing that which relates to administration and government from that which relates to faith and doctrine; two churches identical in faith may differ in _polity_, or those agreeing in _polity_ may differ in faith. Compare LAW. * * * * * PORTION. Synonyms: lot, parcel, part, proportion, share. When any whole is divided into _parts_, any _part_ that is allotted to some person, thing, subject or purpose is called a _portion_, tho the division may be by no fixed rule or relation; a father may divide his estate by will among his children so as to make their several _portions_ great or small, according to his arbitrary and unreasonable caprice. When we speak of a _part_ as a _proportion_, we think of the whole as divided according to some rule or scale, so that the different _parts_ bear a contemplated and intended relation or ratio to one another; thus, the _portion_ allotted to a child by will may not be a fair _proportion_ of the estate. _Proportion_ is often used where _part_ or _portion_ would be more appropriate. Compare PART. * * * * * POVERTY. Synonyms: beggary, distress, mendicancy, pauperism, privation, destitution, indigence, need, penury, want. _Poverty_ denotes strictly lack of property or adequate means of support, but in common use is a relative term denoting any condition below that of easy, comfortable living; _privation_ denotes a condition of painful lack of what is useful or desirable, tho not to the extent of absolute _distress_; _indigence_ is lack of ordinary means of subsistence; _destitution_ is lack of the comforts, and in part even of the necessaries of life; _penury_ is especially cramping _poverty_, possibly not so sharp as _destitution_, but continuous, while that may be temporary; _pauperism_ is such _destitution_ as throws one upon organized public charity for support; _beggary_ and _mendicancy_ denote _poverty_ that appeals for indiscriminate private charity. * * * * * POWER. Synonyms: ability, competency, expertness, readiness, aptitude, dexterity, faculty, skill, capability, efficacy, force, strength, capacity, efficiency, might, susceptibility, cleverness, energy, qualification, talent. cogency, _Power_ is the most general term of this group, including every quality, property, or _faculty_ by which any change, effect, or result is, or may be, produced; as, the _power_ of the legislature to enact laws, or of the executive to enforce them; the _power_ of an acid to corrode a metal; the _power_ of a polished surface to reflect light. _Ability_ is nearly coextensive with _power_, but does not reach the positiveness and vigor that may be included in the meaning of _power_, _ability_ often implying latent, as distinguished from active _power_; we speak of an exertion of _power_, but not of an exertion of _ability_. _Power_ and _ability_ include _capacity_, which is _power_ to receive; but _ability_ is often distinguished from _capacity_, as power that may be manifested in doing, as _capacity_ is in receiving; one may have great _capacity_ for acquiring knowledge, and yet not possess _ability_ to teach. _Efficiency_ is active _power_ to effect a definite result, the _power_ that actually does, as distinguished from that which may do. _Competency_ is equal to the occasion, _readiness_ prompt for the occasion. _Faculty_ is an inherent quality of mind or body; _talent_, some special mental _ability_. _Dexterity_ and _skill_ are readiness and facility in action, having a special end; _talent_ is innate, _dexterity_ and _skill_ are largely acquired. Our _abilities_ include our natural _capacity_, _faculties_, and _talents_, with all the _dexterity_, _skill_, and _readiness_ that can be acquired. _Efficacy_ is the power to produce an intended effect as shown in the production of it; as, the _efficacy_ of a drug. _Efficiency_ is effectual agency, competent _power_; _efficiency_ is applied in mechanics as denoting the ratio of the effect produced to the _power_ expended in producing it; but this word is chiefly used of intelligent agents as denoting the quality that brings all one's _power_ to bear promptly and to the best purpose on the thing to be done. Compare ADDRESS; DEXTERITY; SKILFUL. Antonyms: awkwardness, helplessness, inability, incompetence, stupidity, dulness, imbecility, inaptitude, inefficiency, unskilfulness, feebleness, impotence, incapacity, maladroitness, weakness. * * * * * PRAISE. Synonyms: acclaim, approbation, compliment, laudation, acclamation, approval, encomium, panegyric, adulation, cheering, eulogy, plaudit, applause, cheers, flattery, sycophancy. _Praise_ is the hearty approval of an individual, or of a number or multitude considered individually, and is expressed by spoken or written words; _applause_, the spontaneous outburst of many at once. _Applause_ is expressed in any way, by stamping of feet, clapping of hands, waving of handkerchiefs, etc., as well as by the voice; _acclamation_ is the spontaneous and hearty approval of many at once, and strictly by the voice alone. Thus one is chosen moderator by _acclamation_ when he receives a unanimous _viva voce_ vote; we could not say he was nominated by _applause_. _Acclaim_ is the more poetic term for _acclamation_, commonly understood in a loftier sense; as, a nation's _acclaim_. _Plaudit_ is a shout of _applause_, and is commonly used in the plural; as, the _plaudits_ of a throng. _Applause_ is also used in the general sense of _praise_. _Approbation_ is a milder and more qualified word than _praise_; while _praise_ is always uttered, _approbation_ may be silent. "_Approbation_ speaks of the thing or action.... _Praise_ is always personal." A. W. AND J. C. HARE _Guesses at Truth_ first series, p. 549. [MACM. '66.] _Acceptance_ refers to an object or action; _approbation_ may refer to character or natural traits. _Approval_ always supposes a testing or careful examination, and frequently implies official sanction; _approbation_ may be upon a general view. The industry and intelligence of a clerk win his employer's _approbation_; his decision in a special instance receives his _approval_. _Praise_ is always understood as genuine and sincere, unless the contrary is expressly stated; _compliment_ is a light form of _praise_ that may or may not be sincere; _flattery_ is insincere and ordinarily fulsome _praise_. Antonyms: abuse, contempt, hissing, repudiation, animadversion, denunciation, ignominy, scorn, blame, disapprobation, obloquy, slander, censure, disapproval, reproach, vilification, condemnation, disparagement, reproof, vituperation. * * * * * PRAY. Synonyms: ask, bid, entreat, invoke, request, beg, call upon, implore, petition, supplicate. beseech, conjure, importune, plead, To _pray_, in the religious sense, is devoutly to address the Supreme Being with reverent petition for divine grace or any favor or blessing, and in the fullest sense with thanksgiving and praise for the divine goodness and mercy; the once common use of the word to express any earnest _request_, as "I _pray_ you to come in," is now rare, unless in writings molded on older literature, or in certain phrases, as "_Pray_ sit down;" even in these "please" is more common; "I _beg_ you" is also frequently used, as expressing a polite humility of _request_. _Beseech_ and _entreat_ express great earnestness of _petition_; _implore_ and _supplicate_ denote the utmost fervency and intensity, _supplicate_ implying also humility. Compare ASK; PLEAD. * * * * * PRECARIOUS. Synonyms: doubtful, hazardous, risky, unsettled, dubious, insecure, unassured, unstable, equivocal, perilous, uncertain, unsteady. _Uncertain_ is applied to things that human knowledge can not certainly determine or that human power can not certainly control; _precarious_ originally meant dependent on the will of another, and now, by extension of meaning, dependent on chance or hazard, with manifest unfavorable possibility verging toward probability; as, one holds office by a _precarious_ tenure, or land by a _precarious_ title; the strong man's hold on life is _uncertain_, the invalid's is _precarious_. Antonyms: actual, immutable, real, steady, undeniable, assured, incontestable, settled, strong, undoubted, certain, infallible, stable, sure, unquestionable. firm, * * * * * PRECEDENT. Synonyms: antecedent, case, instance, pattern, authority, example, obiter dictum, warrant. A _precedent_ is an authoritative _case_, _example_, or _instance_. The communism of the early Christians in Jerusalem is a wonderful _example_ or _instance_ of Christian liberality, but not a _precedent_ for the universal church through all time. _Cases_ decided by irregular or unauthorized tribunals are not _precedents_ for the regular administration of law. An _obiter dictum_ is an opinion outside of the _case_ in hand, which can not be quoted as an authoritative _precedent_. Compare CAUSE; EXAMPLE. * * * * * PREDESTINATION. Synonyms: fate, foreknowledge, foreordination, necessity. _Predestination_ is a previous determination or decision, which, in the divine action, reaches on from eternity. _Fate_ is heathen, an irresistible, irrational power determining all events with no manifest connection with reason or righteousness; _necessity_ is philosophical, a blind something in the nature of things binding the slightest action or motion in the chain of inevitable, eternal sequence; _foreordination_ and _predestination_ are Christian, denoting the rational and righteous order or decree of the supreme and all-wise God. _Foreknowledge_ is simply God's antecedent knowledge of all events, which some hold to be entirely separable from his _foreordination_, while others hold _foreordination_ to be inseparably involved in _foreknowledge_. Antonyms: accident, choice, freedom, independence, chance, free agency, free will, uncertainty. Prepositions: Predestination _of_ believers _to_ eternal life. * * * * * PREJUDICE. Synonyms: bias, preconception, presumption, partiality, prepossession, unfairness. A _presumption_ (literally, a taking beforehand) is a partial decision formed in advance of argument or evidence, usually grounded on some general principle, and always held subject to revision upon fuller information. A _prejudice_ or _prepossession_ is grounded often on feeling, fancy, associations, etc. A _prejudice_ against foreigners is very common in retired communities. There is always a _presumption_ in favor of what exists, so that the burden of proof is upon one who advocates a change. A _prepossession_ is always favorable, a _prejudice_ always unfavorable, unless the contrary is expressly stated. Compare INJURY. Antonyms: certainty, conviction, evidence, reason, conclusion, demonstration, proof, reasoning. Prepositions: _Against_; rarely, _in favor of_, _in one's favor_. * * * * * PRETENSE. Synonyms: affectation, disguise, pretext, simulation, air, dissimulation, ruse, subterfuge, assumption, excuse, seeming, trick, cloak, mask, semblance, wile. color, pretension, show, A _pretense_, in the unfavorable, which is also the usual sense, is something advanced or displayed for the purpose of concealing the reality. A person makes a _pretense_ of something for the credit or advantage to be gained by it; he makes what is allowed or approved a _pretext_ for doing what would be opposed or condemned; a tricky schoolboy makes a _pretense_ of doing an errand which he does not do, or he makes the actual doing of an errand a _pretext_ for playing truant. A _ruse_ is something (especially something slight or petty) employed to blind or deceive so as to mask an ulterior design, and enable a person to gain some end that he would not be allowed to approach directly. A _pretension_ is a claim that is or may be contested; the word is now commonly used in an unfavorable sense. Compare ARTIFICE; HYPOCRISY. Antonyms: actuality, frankness, ingenuousness, reality, sincerity, candor, guilelessness, openness, simplicity, truth. fact, honesty, * * * * * PREVENT. Synonyms: anticipate, forestall, obviate, preclude. The original sense of _prevent_, to come before, act in advance of, which is now practically obsolete, was still in good use when the authorized version of the Bible was made, as appears in such passages as, "When Peter was come into the house, Jesus _prevented_ him" (_i. e._, addressed him first), _Matt._ xvii, 25; "Thou _preventest_ him with the blessings of goodness" (_i. e._, by sending the blessings before the desire is formulated or expressed), _Ps._ xxi, 3. _Anticipate_ is now the only single word usable in this sense; to _forestall_ is to take or act in advance in one's own behalf and to the prejudice of another or others, as in the phrase "to _forestall_ the market." But to _anticipate_ is very frequently used in the favorable sense; as, his thoughtful kindness _anticipated_ my wish (_i. e._, met the wish before it was expressed): or we say, "I was about to accost him when he _anticipated_ me" (by speaking first); or one _anticipates_ a payment (by making it before the time); in neither of these cases could we use _forestall_ or _prevent_. To _obviate_ (literally, to stop the way of or remove from the way), is to _prevent_ by interception, so that something that would naturally withstand or disturb may be kept from doing so; to _preclude_, (literally, to close or shut in advance) is to _prevent_ by anticipation or by logical necessity; walls and bars _precluded_ the possibility of escape; a supposition is _precluded_; a necessity or difficulty is _obviated_. _Prevent_, which at first had only the anticipatory meaning, has come to apply to the stopping of an action at any stage, the completion or conclusion only being thought of as negatived by anticipation; the enemy passed the outworks and were barely _prevented_ from capturing the fortress. Compare HINDER; PROHIBIT. Preposition: He was prevented by illness _from_ joining the expedition. * * * * * PREVIOUS. Synonyms: antecedent, foregoing, front, preceding, anterior, former, introductory, preliminary, earlier, forward, precedent, prior. _Antecedent_ may denote simple priority in time, implying no direct connection between that which goes before and that which follows; as, the striking of one clock may be always _antecedent_ to the striking of another with no causal connection between them. _Antecedent_ and _previous_ may refer to that which goes or happens at any distance in advance, _preceding_ is limited to that which is immediately or next before; an _antecedent_ event may have happened at any time before; the _preceding_ transaction is the one completed just before the one with which it is compared; a _previous_ statement or chapter may be in any part of the book that has gone before; the _preceding_ statement or chapter comes next before without an interval. _Previous_ often signifies first by right; as, a _previous_ engagement. _Foregoing_ is used only of that which is spoken or written; as, the _foregoing_ statements. _Anterior_, while it can be used of time, is coming to be employed chiefly with reference to place; as the _anterior_ lobes of the brain. _Prior_ bears exclusive reference to time, and commonly where that which is first in time is first also in right; as, a _prior_ demand. _Former_ is used of time, or of position in written or printed matter, not of space in general. We can say _former_ times, a _former_ chapter, etc., but not the _former_ part of a garden; we should say the _front_ part of the garden, the _forward_ car of a train. _Former_ has a close relation, or sharp contrast, with something following; the _former_ always implies the latter, even when not fully expressed, as in _Acts_ i, 1, and _Eccles._ vii, 10. Antonyms: after, consequent, hind, hindmost, latter, subsequent, concluding, following, hinder, later, posterior, succeeding. Preposition: Such was the state of things previous _to_ the revolution. [_Previous to_ is often used adverbially, in constructions where _previously to_ would be more strictly correct; as, these arrangements were made _previous to_ my departure.] * * * * * PRICE. Synonyms: charge, cost, expenditure, expense, outlay, value, worth. The _cost_ of a thing is all that has been expended upon it, whether in discovery, production, refinement, decoration, transportation, or otherwise, to bring it to its present condition in the hands of its present possessor; the _price_ of a thing is what the seller asks for it. In regular business, as a rule, the seller's _price_ on his wares must be more than their _cost_ to him; when goods are sold, the _price_ the buyer has paid becomes their _cost_ to himself. In exceptional cases, when goods are sold at _cost_, the seller's _price_ is made the same as the _cost_ of the goods to him, the _cost_ to the seller and the _cost_ to the buyer becoming then identical. _Price_ always implies that an article is for sale; what a man will not sell he declines to put a _price_ on; hence the significance of the taunting proverb that "every man has his _price_." _Value_ is the estimated equivalent for an article, whether the article is for sale or not; the market _value_ is what it would bring if exposed for sale in the open market; the intrinsic _value_ is the inherent utility of the article considered by itself alone; the market _value_ of an old and rare volume may be very great, while its intrinsic _value_ may be practically nothing. _Value_ has always more reference to others' estimation (literally, what the thing will avail with others) than _worth_, which regards the thing in and by itself; thus, intrinsic _value_ is a weaker expression than intrinsic _worth_. _Charge_ has especial reference to services, _expense_ to minor outlays; as, the _charges_ of a lawyer or physician; traveling _expenses_; household _expenses_. * * * * * PRIDE. Synonyms: arrogance, ostentation, self-exaltation, assumption, presumption, self-respect, conceit, reserve, superciliousness, disdain, self-complacency, vainglory, haughtiness, self-conceit, vanity. insolence, self-esteem, _Haughtiness_ thinks highly of itself and poorly of others. _Arrogance_ claims much for itself and concedes little to others. _Pride_ is an absorbing sense of one's own greatness; _haughtiness_ feels one's own superiority to others; _disdain_ sees contemptuously the inferiority of others to oneself. _Presumption_ claims place or privilege above one's right; _pride_ deems nothing too high. _Insolence_ is open and rude expression of contempt and hostility, generally from an inferior to a superior, as from a servant to a master or mistress. In the presence of superiors overweening _pride_ manifests itself in _presumption_ or _insolence_; in the presence of inferiors, or those supposed to be inferior, _pride_ manifests itself by _arrogance_, _disdain_, _haughtiness_, _superciliousness_, or in either case often by cold _reserve_. (See RESERVE under MODESTY.) _Pride_ is too self-satisfied to care for praise; _vanity_ intensely craves admiration and applause. _Superciliousness_, as if by the uplifted eyebrow, as its etymology suggests (L. _supercilium_, eyebrow, from _super_, over and _cilium_, eyelid), silently manifests mingled _haughtiness_ and _disdain_. _Assumption_ quietly takes for granted superiority and privilege which others would be slow to concede. _Conceit_ and _vanity_ are associated with weakness, _pride_ with strength. _Conceit_ may be founded upon nothing; _pride_ is founded upon something that one is, or has, or has done; _vanity_, too, is commonly founded on something real, tho far slighter than would afford foundation for _pride_. _Vanity_ is eager for admiration and praise, is elated if they are rendered, and pained if they are withheld, and seeks them; _pride_ could never solicit admiration or praise. _Conceit_ is somewhat stronger than _self-conceit_. _Self-conceit_ is ridiculous; _conceit_ is offensive. _Self-respect_ is a thoroughly worthy feeling; _self-esteem_ is a more generous estimate of one's own character and abilities than the rest of the world are ready to allow. _Vainglory_ is more pompous and boastful than _vanity_. Compare EGOTISM; OSTENTATION. Antonyms: humility, meekness, modesty, self-abasement, self-distrust. lowliness, * * * * * PRIMEVAL. Synonyms: aboriginal, indigenous, patriarchal, primitive, ancient, native, primal, primordial, autochthonic, old, primary, pristine, immemorial, original, prime, uncreated. _Aboriginal_ (L. _ab_, from, _origo_, origin) signifies pertaining to the _aborigines_ or earliest known inhabitants of a country in the widest sense, including not merely human beings but inferior animals and plants as well. _Autochthonic_ (Gr. _autos_, self, and _chth[=o]n_, earth) signifies sprung from the earth, especially from the soil of one's native land. _Primeval_ (L. _primum_, first, and _ævum_, age), signifies strictly belonging to the first ages, earliest in time, but often only the earliest of which man knows or conceives, _immemorial_. _Aboriginal_, _autochthonic_, and _primeval_ combine the meanings of _ancient_ and _original_; _aboriginal_ inhabitants, _autochthonic_ races, _primeval_ forests. _Prime_ and _primary_ may signify either first in time, or more frequently first in importance; _primary_ has also the sense of elementary or preparatory; we speak of a _prime_ minister, a _primary_ school. _Primal_ is chiefly poetic, in the sense of _prime_; as, the _primal_ curse. _Primordial_ is first in an order of succession or development; as, a _primordial_ leaf. _Primitive_ frequently signifies having the original characteristics of that which it represents, as well as standing first in time; as, the _primitive_ church. _Primitive_ also very frequently signifies having the original or early characteristics without remoteness in time. _Primeval_ simplicity is the simplicity of the earliest ages; _primitive_ simplicity may be found in retired villages now. _Pristine_ is an elegant word, used almost exclusively in a good sense of that which is _original_ and perhaps _ancient_; as, _pristine_ purity, innocence, vigor. That which is both an _original_ and natural product of a soil or country is said to be _indigenous_; that which is actually produced there is said to be _native_, though it may be of foreign extraction; humming-birds are _indigenous_ to America; canaries may be _native_, but are not _indigenous_. _Immemorial_ refers solely to time, independently of quality, denoting, in legal phrase, "that whereof the memory of man runneth not to the contrary;" as, an _immemorial_ custom; an _immemorial_ abuse. Compare OLD. Antonyms: adventitious, foreign, late, new, recent. exotic, fresh, modern, novel, Compare synonyms for NEW. * * * * * PROFIT. Synonyms: advantage, expediency, proceeds, service, avail, gain, receipts, usefulness, benefit, good, return, utility, emolument, improvement, returns, value. The _returns_ or _receipts_ include all that is received from an outlay or investment; the _profit_ is the excess (if any) of the _receipts_ over the outlay; hence, in government, morals, etc., the _profit_ is what is really good, helpful, useful, valuable. _Utility_ is chiefly used in the sense of some immediate or personal and generally some material _good_. _Advantage_ is that which gives one a vantage-ground, either for coping with competitors or with difficulties, needs, or demands; as to have the _advantage_ of a good education; it is frequently used of what one has beyond another or secures at the expense of another; as, to have the _advantage_ of another in an argument, or to take _advantage_ of another in a bargain. _Gain_ is what one secures beyond what he previously possessed. _Benefit_ is anything that does one good. _Emolument_ is _profit_, _return_, or _value_ accruing through official position. _Expediency_ has respect to _profit_ or _advantage_, real or supposed, considered apart from or perhaps in opposition to right, in actions having a moral character. Compare UTILITY. Antonyms: damage, detriment, harm, injury, ruin, destruction, disadvantage, hurt, loss, waste. Prepositions: The profit _of_ labor; _on_ capital; _in_ business. * * * * * PROGRESS. Synonyms: advance, development, improvement, proficiency, advancement, growth, increase, progression. attainment, _Progress_ (L. _pro_, forward, _gradior_, go) is a moving onward or forward, whether in space or in the mental or moral realm, and may be either mechanical, individual, or social. _Attainment_, _development_, and _proficiency_ are more absolute than the other words of the group, denoting some point of advantage or of comparative perfection reached by forward or onward movement; we speak of _attainments_ in virtue or scholarship, _proficiency_ in music or languages, the _development_ of new powers or organs; _proficiency_ includes the idea of skill. _Advance_ may denote either a forward movement or the point gained by forward movement, but always relatively with reference to the point from which the movement started; as, this is a great _advance_. _Advance_ admits the possibility of retreat; _progress_ (L. _progredi_, to walk forward) is steady and constant forward movement, admitting of pause, but not of retreat; _advance_ suggests more clearly a point to be reached, while _progress_ lays the emphasis upon the forward movement; we may speak of slow or rapid _progress_, but more naturally of swift _advance_. _Progress_ is more frequently used of abstractions; as, the _progress_ of ideas; _progression_ fixes the attention chiefly upon the act of moving forward. In a thing good in itself all _advance_ or _progress_ is _improvement_; there is a growing tendency to restrict the words to this favorable sense, using _increase_ indifferently of good or evil; one may say without limitation, "I am an advocate of _progress_." Antonyms: check, delay, falling off, retrogression, stop, decline, falling back, relapse, stay, stoppage. Prepositions: The progress _of_ truth; progress _in_ virtue; _toward_ perfection; _from_ a lower _to_ a higher state. * * * * * PROHIBIT. Synonyms: debar, forbid, inhibit, preclude, disallow, hinder, interdict, prevent. To _prohibit_ is to give some formal command against, and especially to make some authoritative legal enactment against. _Debar_ is said of persons, _disallow_ of acts; one is _debarred_ from anything when shut off, as by some irresistible authority or necessity; one is _prohibited_ from an act in express terms; he may be _debarred_ by silent necessity. An act is _disallowed_ by the authority that might have allowed it; the word is especially applied to acts which are done before they are pronounced upon; thus, a government may _disallow_ the act of its commander in the field or its admiral on the high seas. _Inhibit_ and _interdict_ are chiefly known by their ecclesiastical use. As between _forbid_ and _prohibit_, _forbid_ is less formal and more personal, _prohibit_ more official and judicial, with the implication of readiness to use such force as may be needed to give effect to the enactment; a parent _forbids_ a child to take part in some game or to associate with certain companions; the slave-trade is now _prohibited_ by the leading nations of the world. Many things are _prohibited_ by law which can not be wholly _prevented_, as gambling and prostitution; on the other hand, things may be _prevented_ which are not _prohibited_, as the services of religion, the payment of debts, or military conquest. That which is _precluded_ need not be _prohibited_. Compare ABOLISH; HINDER; PREVENT. Antonyms: allow, empower, let, require, authorize, enjoin, license, sanction, command, give consent, order, suffer, consent to, give leave, permit, tolerate, direct, give permission, put up with, warrant. Prepositions: An act is prohibited _by_ law; a person is prohibited _by_ law _from_ doing a certain act. _Prohibit_ was formerly construed, as _forbid_ still is, with the infinitive, but the construction with _from_ and the verbal noun has now entirely superseded the older usage. * * * * * PROMOTE. Synonyms: advance, encourage, forward, prefer, raise, aid, exalt, foster, push, urge forward, assist, excite, further, push on, urge on. elevate, foment, help, To _promote_ (L. _pro_, forward, and _moveo_, move) is to cause to move forward toward some desired end or to raise to some higher position, rank, or dignity. We _promote_ a person by _advancing_, _elevating_, or _exalting_ him to a higher position or dignity. A person _promotes_ a scheme or an enterprise which others have projected or begun, and which he _encourages_, _forwards_, _furthers_, _pushes_, or _urges on_, especially when he acts as the agent of the prime movers and supporters of the enterprise. One who _excites_ a quarrel originates it; to _promote_ a quarrel is strictly to _foment_ and _urge_ it _on_, the one who _promotes_ keeping himself in the background. Compare ABET; QUICKEN. Antonyms: See synonyms for ABASE; ALLAY. * * * * * PROPITIATION. Synonyms: atonement, expiation, reconciliation, satisfaction. _Atonement_ (at-one-ment), originally denoting _reconciliation_, or the bringing into agreement of those who have been estranged, is now chiefly used, as in theology, in the sense of some offering, sacrifice, or suffering sufficient to win forgiveness or make up for an offense; especially and distinctively of the sacrificial work of Christ in his humiliation, suffering and death. _Expiation_ is the enduring of the full penalty of a wrong or crime. _Propitiation_ is an offering, action, or sacrifice that makes the governing power propitious toward the offender. _Satisfaction_ in this connection denotes the rendering a full legal equivalent for the wrong done. _Propitiation_ appeases the lawgiver; _satisfaction_ meets the requirements of the law. Antonyms: alienation, curse, penalty, reprobation, vengeance, chastisement, estrangement, punishment, retribution, wrath. condemnation, offense, * * * * * PROPITIOUS. Synonyms: auspicious, benignant, favorable, gracious, kindly, benign, clement, friendly, kind, merciful. That which is _auspicious_ is of _favorable_ omen; that which is _propitious_ is of favoring influence or tendency; as, an _auspicious_ morning; a _propitious_ breeze. _Propitious_ applies to persons, implying _kind_ disposition and _favorable_ inclinations, especially toward the suppliant; _auspicious_ is not used of persons. Antonyms: adverse, forbidding, ill-disposed, repellent, unfriendly, antagonistic, hostile, inauspicious, unfavorable, unpropitious. Preposition: May heaven be propitious _to_ the enterprise. * * * * * PROPOSAL. Synonyms: bid, offer, overture, proposition. An _offer_ or _proposal_ puts something before one for acceptance or rejection, _proposal_ being the more formal word; a _proposition_ sets forth truth (or what is claimed to be truth) in formal statement. The _proposition_ is for consideration, the _proposal_ for action; as, a _proposition_ in geometry, a _proposal_ of marriage; but _proposition_ is often used nearly in the sense of _proposal_ when it concerns a matter for deliberation; as, a _proposition_ for the surrender of a fort. A _bid_ is commercial and often verbal; as, a _bid_ at an auction; _proposal_ is used in nearly the same sense, but is more formal. An _overture_ opens negotiation or conference, and the word is especially used of some movement toward reconciliation; as, _overtures_ of peace. Antonyms: acceptance, denial, disapproval, refusal, rejection, repulse. * * * * * PROPOSE. Synonym: purpose. In its most frequent use, _propose_ differs from _purpose_ in that what we _purpose_ lies in our own mind, as a decisive act of will, a determination; what we _propose_ is offered or stated to others. In this use of the word, what we _propose_ is open to deliberation, as what we _purpose_ is not. In another use of the word, one _proposes_ something to or by himself which may or may not be stated to others. In this latter sense _propose_ is nearly identical with _purpose_, and the two words have often been used interchangeably. But in the majority of cases what we _purpose_ is more general, what we _propose_ more formal and definite; I _purpose_ to do right; I _propose_ to do this specific thing because it is right. In the historic sentence, "I _propose_ to move immediately on your works," _purpose_ would not have the same sharp directness. * * * * * PROTRACT. Synonyms: continue, delay, elongate, lengthen, procrastinate, defer, draw out, extend, postpone, prolong. To _protract_ is to cause to occupy a longer time than is usual, expected, or desirable. We _defer_ a negotiation which we are slow to enter upon; we _protract_ a negotiation which we are slow to conclude; _delay_ may be used of any stage in the proceedings; we may _delay_ a person as well as an action, but _defer_ and _protract_ are not used of persons. _Elongate_ is not used of actions or abstractions, but only of material objects or extension in space; _protract_ is very rarely used of concrete objects or extension in space; we _elongate_ a line, _protract_ a discussion. _Protract_ has usually an unfavorable sense, implying that the matter referred to is already unduly long, or would be so if longer _continued_; _continue_ is neutral, applying equally to the desirable or the undesirable. _Postpone_ implies a definite intention to resume, as _defer_ also does, though less decidedly; both are often used with some definite limitation of time; as, to _postpone_ till, until, or to a certain day or hour. One may _defer_, _delay_, or _postpone_ a matter intelligently and for good reason; he _procrastinates_ through indolence and irresolution. Compare HINDER. Antonyms: abbreviate, conclude, curtail, hurry, reduce, abridge, contract, hasten, limit, shorten. Prepositions: To protract a speech _by_ verbosity, _through_ an unreasonable time, _to_, _till_, or _until_ a late hour. * * * * * PROVERB. Synonyms: adage, axiom, maxim, saw, aphorism, byword, motto, saying, apothegm, dictum, precept, truism. The _proverb_ or _adage_ gives homely truth in condensed, practical form, the _adage_ often pictorial. "Hope deferred maketh the heart sick" is a _proverb_; "The cat loves fish, but dares not wet her feet," is an _adage_. Both the _proverb_ and the _adage_, but especially the latter, are thought of as ancient and widely known. An _aphorism_ partakes of the character of a definition; it is a summary statement of what the author sees and believes to be true. An _apothegm_ is a terse statement of what is plain or easily proved. The _aphorism_ is philosophical, the _apothegm_ practical. A _dictum_ is a statement of some person or school, on whom it depends for authority; as, a _dictum_ of Aristotle. A _saying_ is impersonal, current among the common people, deriving its authority from its manifest truth or good sense; as, it is an old _saying_, "the more haste, the worse speed." A _saw_ is a _saying_ that is old, but somewhat worn and tiresome. _Precept_ is a command to duty; _motto_ or _maxim_ is a brief statement of cherished truth, the _maxim_ being more uniformly and directly practical; "God is love" may be a _motto_, "Fear God and fear naught," a _maxim_. The _precepts_ of the Sermon on the Mount will furnish the Christian with invaluable _maxims_ or _mottoes_. A _byword_ is a phrase or _saying_ used reproachfully or contemptuously. * * * * * PROWESS. Synonyms: bravery, gallantry, intrepidity, courage, heroism, valor. _Bravery_, _courage_, _heroism_, and _intrepidity_ may be silent, spiritual, or passive; they may be exhibited by a martyr at the stake. _Prowess_ and _valor_ imply both daring and doing; we do not speak of the _prowess_ of a martyr, a child, or a passive sufferer. _Valor_ meets odds or perils with courageous action, doing its utmost to conquer at any risk or cost; _prowess_ has power adapted to the need; dauntless _valor_ is often vain against superior _prowess_. _Courage_ is a nobler word than _bravery_, involving more of the deep, spiritual, and enduring elements of character; such an appreciation of peril as would extinguish _bravery_ may only intensify _courage_, which is resistant and self-conquering; _courage_ applies to matters in regard to which _valor_ and _prowess_ can have no place, as submission to a surgical operation, or the facing of censure or detraction for conscience' sake. Compare BRAVE; FORTITUDE. Antonyms: cowardice, cowardliness, effeminacy, fear, pusillanimity, timidity. * * * * * PRUDENCE. Synonyms: care, discretion, judgment, carefulness, forecast, judiciousness, caution, foresight, providence, circumspection, forethought, wisdom. consideration, frugality, _Prudence_ may be briefly defined as good _judgment_ and _foresight_, inclining to _caution_ and _frugality_ in practical affairs. _Care_ may respect only the present; _prudence_ and _providence_ look far ahead and sacrifice the present to the future, _prudence_ watching, saving, guarding, _providence_ planning, doing, preparing, and perhaps expending largely to meet the future demand. _Frugality_ is in many cases one form of _prudence_. In a besieged city _prudence_ will reduce the rations, _providence_ will strain every nerve to introduce supplies and to raise the siege. _Foresight_ merely sees the future, and may even lead to the recklessness and desperation to which _prudence_ and _providence_ are so strongly opposed. _Forethought_ is thinking in accordance with wise views of the future, and is nearly equivalent to _providence_, but it is a more popular and less comprehensive term; we speak of man's _forethought_, God's _providence_. Compare CARE; FRUGALITY; WISDOM. Antonyms: folly, imprudence, rashness, thoughtlessness, heedlessness, indiscretion, recklessness, wastefulness. improvidence, prodigality, * * * * * PURCHASE. Synonyms: acquire, barter for, get, procure, secure. bargain for, buy, obtain, _Buy_ and _purchase_ are close synonyms, signifying to _obtain_ or _secure_ as one's own by paying or promising to pay a price; in numerous cases the two words are freely interchangeable, but with the difference usually found between words of Saxon and those of French or Latin origin. The Saxon _buy_ is used for all the homely and petty concerns of common life, the French _purchase_ is often restricted to transactions of more dignity; yet the Saxon word _buy_ is commonly more emphatic, and in the higher ranges of thought appeals more strongly to the feelings. One may either _buy_ or _purchase_ fame, favor, honor, pleasure, etc., but when our feelings are stirred we speak of victory or freedom as dearly _bought_. "_Buy_ the truth, and sell it not" (_Prov._ xxiii, 23) would be greatly weakened by the rendering "_Purchase_ the truth, and do not dispose of it." Compare BUSINESS; GET; PRICE; SALE. Antonyms: barter, dispose of, exchange, put to sale, sell. Prepositions: Purchase _at_ a price; _at_ a public sale; _of_ or _from_ a person; _for_ cash; _with_ money; _on_ time. * * * * * PURE. Synonyms: absolute, guiltless, simple, unmixed, chaste, holy, spotless, unpolluted, classic, immaculate, stainless, unspotted, classical, incorrupt, true, unstained, clean, innocent, unadulterated, unsullied, clear, mere, unblemished, untainted, continent, perfect, uncorrupted, untarnished, genuine, real, undefiled, upright, guileless, sheer, unmingled, virtuous. That is _pure_ which is free from mixture or contact with anything that weakens, impairs, or pollutes. Material substances are called _pure_ in the strict sense when free from foreign admixture of any kind; as, _pure_ oxygen; the word is often used to signify free from any defiling or objectionable admixture (the original sense); we speak of water as _pure_ when it is bright, clear, and refreshing, tho it may contain mineral salts in solution; in the medical and chemical sense, only distilled water (_aqua pura_) is _pure_. In moral and religious use _pure_ is a strong word, denoting positive excellence of a high order; one is _innocent_ who knows nothing of evil, and has experienced no touch of temptation; one is _pure_ who, with knowledge of evil and exposure to temptation, keeps heart and soul _unstained_. _Virtuous_ refers primarily to right action; _pure_ to right feeling and motives; as, "Blessed are the _pure_ in heart: for they shall see God," _Matt._ v, 8. Compare FINE; INNOCENT. Antonyms: adulterated, foul, indecent, obscene, tainted, defiled, gross, indelicate, polluted, tarnished, dirty, immodest, lewd, stained, unchaste, filthy, impure, mixed, sullied, unclean. * * * * * PUT. Synonyms: deposit, lay, place, set. _Put_ is the most general term for bringing an object to some point or within some space, however exactly or loosely; we may _put_ a horse in a pasture, or _put_ a bullet in a rifle or into an enemy. _Place_ denotes more careful movement and more exact location; as, to _place_ a crown on one's head, or a garrison in a city. To _lay_ is to _place_ in a horizontal position; to _set_ is to _place_ in an upright position; we _lay_ a cloth, and _set_ a dish upon a table. To _deposit_ is to _put_ in a place of security for future use; as, to _deposit_ money in a bank; the original sense, to _lay_ down or let down (quietly), is also common; as, the stream _deposits_ sediment. * * * * * QUEER. Synonyms: anomalous, erratic, odd, strange, bizarre, extraordinary, peculiar, uncommon, comical, fantastic, preposterous, unique, crotchety, funny, quaint, unmatched, curious, grotesque, ridiculous, unusual, droll, laughable, singular, whimsical. eccentric, ludicrous, _Odd_ is unmated, as an _odd_ shoe, and so uneven, as an _odd_ number. _Singular_ is alone of its kind; as, the _singular_ number. What is _singular_ is _odd_, but what is _odd_ may not be _singular_; as, a drawerful of _odd_ gloves. A _strange_ thing is something hitherto unknown in fact or in cause. A _singular_ coincidence is one the happening of which is unusual; a _strange_ coincidence is one the cause of which is hard to explain. That which is _peculiar_ belongs especially to a person as his own; as, Israel was called Jehovah's "_peculiar_ people," _i. e._, especially chosen and cherished by him; in its ordinary use there is the implication that the thing _peculiar_ to one is not common to the majority nor quite approved by them, though it may be shared by many; as, the Shakers are _peculiar_. _Eccentric_ is off or aside from the center, and so off or aside from the ordinary and what is considered the normal course; as, genius is commonly _eccentric_. _Eccentric_ is a higher and more respectful word than _odd_ or _queer_. _Erratic_ signifies wandering, a stronger and more censorious term than _eccentric_. _Queer_ is transverse or oblique, aside from the common in a way that is _comical_ or perhaps slightly _ridiculous_. _Quaint_ denotes that which is pleasingly _odd_ and fanciful, often with something of the antique; as, the _quaint_ architecture of medieval towns. That which is _funny_ is calculated to provoke laughter; that which is _droll_ is more quietly amusing. That which is _grotesque_ in the material sense is irregular or misshapen in form or outline or ill-proportioned so as to be somewhat _ridiculous_; the French _bizarre_ is practically equivalent to _grotesque_. Antonyms: common, familiar, normal, regular, customary, natural, ordinary, usual. * * * * * QUICKEN. Synonyms: accelerate, drive on, hasten, promote, advance, expedite, hurry, speed, despatch, facilitate, make haste, urge, drive, further, press forward, urge on. To _quicken_, in the sense here considered, is to increase speed, move or cause to move more rapidly, as through more space or with, a greater number of motions in the same time. To _accelerate_ is to increase the speed of action or of motion. A motion whose speed increases upon itself is said to be _accelerated_, as the motion of a falling body, which becomes swifter with every second of time. To _accelerate_ any work is to _hasten_ it toward a finish, commonly by _quickening_ all its operations in orderly unity toward the result. To _despatch_ is to do and be done with, to get a thing off one's hands. To _despatch_ an enemy is to kill him outright and quickly; to _despatch_ a messenger is to send him in haste; to _despatch_ a business is to bring it quickly to an end. _Despatch_ is commonly used of single items. To _promote_ a cause is in any way to bring it forward, _advance_ it in power, prominence, etc. To _speed_ is really to secure swiftness; to _hasten_ is to attempt it, whether successfully or unsuccessfully. _Hurry_ always indicates something of confusion. The _hurried_ man forgets dignity, appearance, comfort, courtesy, everything but speed; he may forget something vital to the matter in hand; yet, because reckless haste may attain the great object of speed, _hurry_ has come to be the colloquial and popular word for acting quickly. To _facilitate_ is to _quicken_ by making easy; to _expedite_ is to _quicken_ by removing hindrances. A good general will improve roads to _facilitate_ the movements of troops, _hasten_ supplies and perfect discipline to _promote_ the general efficiency of the force, _despatch_ details of business, _expedite_ all preparations, in order to _accelerate_ the advance and victory of his army. Antonyms: check, clog, delay, drag, hinder, impede, obstruct, retard. * * * * * QUOTE. Synonyms: cite, extract, plagiarize, repeat. excerpt, paraphrase, recite, To _quote_ is to give an author's words, either exactly, as in direct quotation, or in substance, as in indirect quotation; to _cite_ is, etymologically, to call up a passage, as a witness is summoned. In _citing_ a passage its exact location by chapter, page, or otherwise, must be given, so that it can be promptly called into evidence; in _quoting_, the location may or may not be given, but the words or substance of the passage must be given. In _citing_, neither the author's words nor his thought may be given, but simply the reference to the location where they may be found. To _quote_, in the proper sense, is to give credit to the author whose words are employed. To _paraphrase_ is to state an author's thought more freely than in indirect quotation, keeping the substance of thought and the order of statement, but changing the language, and commonly interweaving more or less explanatory matter as if part of the original writing. One may _paraphrase_ a work with worthy motive for homiletic, devotional, or other purposes (as in the metrical versions of the Psalms), or he may _plagiarize_ atrociously in the form of _paraphrase_, appropriating all that is valuable in another's thought, with the hope of escaping detection by change of phrase. To _plagiarize_ is to _quote_ without credit, appropriating another's words or thought as one's own. To _recite_ or _repeat_ is usually to _quote_ orally, tho _recite_ is applied in legal phrase to a particular statement of facts which is not a quotation; a kindred use obtains in ordinary speech; as, to _recite_ one's misfortunes. * * * * * RACY. Synonyms: flavorous, lively, pungent, spicy, forcible, piquant, rich, spirited. _Racy_ applies in the first instance to the pleasing flavor characteristic of certain wines, often attributed to the soil from which they come. _Pungent_ denotes something sharply irritating to the organs of taste or smell, as pepper, vinegar, ammonia; _piquant_ denotes a quality similar in kind to _pungent_ but less in degree, stimulating and agreeable; _pungent_ spices may be deftly compounded into a _piquant_ sauce. As applied to literary products, _racy_ refers to that which has a striking, vigorous, pleasing originality; _spicy_ to that which is stimulating to the mental taste, as spice is to the physical; _piquant_ and _pungent_ in their figurative use keep very close to their literal sense. Antonyms: cold, flat, insipid, stale, tasteless, dull, flavorless, prosy, stupid, vapid. * * * * * RADICAL. Synonyms: complete, ingrained, perfect, constitutional, innate, positive, entire, native, primitive, essential, natural, thorough, extreme, organic, thoroughgoing, fundamental, original, total. The widely divergent senses in which the word _radical_ is used, by which it can be at some time interchanged with any word in the above list, are all formed upon the one primary sense of having to do with or proceeding from the root (L. _radix_); a _radical_ difference is one that springs from the root, and is thus _constitutional_, _essential_, _fundamental_, _organic_, _original_; a _radical_ change is one that does not stop at the surface, but reaches down to the very root, and is _entire_, _thorough_, _total_; since the majority find superficial treatment of any matter the easiest and most comfortable, _radical_ measures, which strike at the root of evil or need, are apt to be looked upon as _extreme_. Antonyms: conservative, incomplete, palliative, slight, tentative, inadequate, moderate, partial, superficial, trial. * * * * * RARE. Synonyms: curious, odd, scarce, unique, extraordinary, peculiar, singular, unparalleled, incomparable, precious, strange, unprecedented, infrequent, remarkable, uncommon, unusual. _Unique_ is alone of its kind; _rare_ is _infrequent_ of its kind; great poems are _rare_; "Paradise Lost" is _unique_. To say of a thing that it is _rare_ is simply to affirm that it is now seldom found, whether previously common or not; as, a _rare_ old book; a _rare_ word; to call a thing _scarce_ implies that it was at some time more plenty, as when we say food or money is _scarce_. A particular fruit or coin may be _rare_; _scarce_ applies to demand and use, and almost always to concrete things; to speak of virtue, genius, or heroism as _scarce_ would be somewhat ludicrous. _Rare_ has the added sense of _precious_, which is sometimes, but not necessarily, blended with that above given; as, a _rare_ gem. _Extraordinary_, signifying greatly beyond the ordinary, is a neutral word, capable of a high and good sense or of an invidious, opprobrious, or contemptuous signification; as, _extraordinary_ genius; _extraordinary_ wickedness; an _extraordinary_ assumption of power; _extraordinary_ antics; an _extraordinary_ statement is incredible without overwhelming proof. Antonyms: See synonyms for GENERAL; NORMAL; USUAL. * * * * * REACH. Synonyms: arrive, attain, come to, enter, gain, get to, land. To _reach_, in the sense here considered, is to _come to_ by motion or progress. _Attain_ is now oftenest used of abstract relations; as, to _attain_ success. When applied to concrete matters, it commonly signifies the overcoming of hindrance and difficulty; as, the storm-beaten ship at length _attained_ the harbor. _Come_ is the general word for moving to or toward the place where the speaker or writer is or supposes himself to be. To _reach_ is to _come to_ from a distance that is actually or relatively considerable; to stretch the journey, so to speak, across the distance, as, in its original meaning, one _reaches_ an object by stretching out the hand. To _gain_ is to _reach_ or _attain_ something eagerly sought; the wearied swimmer _reaches_ or _gains_ the shore. One _comes_ in from his garden; he _reaches_ home from a journey. To _arrive_ is to _come to_ a destination, to _reach_ a point intended or proposed. The European steamer _arrives_ in port, or _reaches_ the harbor; the dismantled wreck drifts ashore, or _comes to_ land. Compare ATTAIN. Antonyms: depart, go, go away, leave, set out, set sail, start, weigh anchor. embark, * * * * * REAL. Synonyms: actual, demonstrable, genuine, true, authentic, developed, positive, unquestionable, certain, essential, substantial, veritable. _Real_ (L. _res_, a thing) signifies having existence, not merely in thought, but in fact, or being in fact according to appearance or claim; denoting the thing as distinguished from the name, or the existent as opposed to the non-existent. _Actual_ has respect to a thing accomplished by doing, _real_ to a thing as existing by whatever means or from whatever cause, _positive_ to that which is fixed or established, _developed_ to that which has reached completion by a natural process of unfolding. _Actual_ is in opposition to the supposed, conceived, or reported, and furnishes the proof of its existence in itself; _real_ is opposed to feigned or imaginary, and is capable of demonstration; _positive_, to the uncertain or doubtful; _developed_, to that which is undeveloped or incomplete. The _developed_ is susceptible of proof; the _positive_ precludes the necessity for proof. The present condition of a thing is its _actual_ condition; ills are _real_ that have a substantial reason; proofs are _positive_ when they give the mind certainty; a plant is _developed_ when it has reached its completed stage. _Real_ estate is land, together with trees, water, minerals, or other natural accompaniments, and any permanent structures that man has built upon it. Compare AUTHENTIC. Antonyms: conceived, feigned, illusory, supposed, unreal, fabulous, fictitious, imaginary, supposititious, untrue, fanciful, hypothetical, reported, theoretical, visionary. * * * * * REASON, _v._ Synonyms: argue, debate, discuss, establish, question, contend, demonstrate, dispute, prove, wrangle. controvert, To _reason_ is to examine by means of the reason, to prove by reasoning, or to influence or seek to influence others by reasoning or reasons. Persons may _contend_ either from mere ill will or self-interest, or from the highest motives; "That ye should earnestly _contend_ for the faith which was once delivered to the saints," _Jude_ 3. To _argue_ (L. _arguo_, show) is to make a matter clear by reasoning; to _discuss_ (L. _dis_, apart, and _quatio_, shake) is, etymologically, to shake it apart for examination and analysis. _Demonstrate_ strictly applies to mathematical or exact reasoning; _prove_ may be used in the same sense, but is often applied to reasoning upon matters of fact by what is called probable evidence, which can give only moral and not absolute or mathematical certainty. To _demonstrate_ is to force the mind to a conclusion by irresistible reasoning; to _prove_ is rather to _establish_ a fact by evidence; as, to _prove_ one innocent or guilty. That which has been either _demonstrated_ or _proved_ so as to secure general acceptance is said to be _established_. _Reason_ is a neutral word, not, like _argue_, _debate_, _discuss_, etc., naturally or necessarily implying contest. We _reason_ about a matter by bringing up all that reason can give us on any side. A _dispute_ may be personal, fractious, and petty; a _debate_ is formal and orderly; if otherwise, it becomes a mere _wrangle_. Prepositions: We reason _with_ a person _about_ a subject, _for_ or _against_ an opinion; we reason a person _into_ or _out of_ a course of action; or we may reason _down_ an opponent or opposition; one reasons _from_ a cause _to_ an effect. * * * * * REASON, _n._ Synonyms: account, cause, end, motive, principle, aim, consideration, ground, object, purpose. argument, design, While the _cause_ of any event, act, or fact, as commonly understood, is the power that makes it to be, the _reason_ of or for it is the explanation given by the human mind; but _reason_ is, in popular language, often used as equivalent to _cause_, especially in the sense of _final cause_. In the statement of any reasoning, the _argument_ may be an entire syllogism, or the premises considered together apart from the conclusion, or in logical strictness the middle term only by which the particular conclusion is connected with the general statement. But when the _reasoning_ is not in strict logical form, the middle term following the conclusion is called the _reason_; thus in the statement "All tyrants deserve death; Cæsar was a tyrant; Therefore Cæsar deserved death," "Cæsar was a tyrant" would in the strictest sense be called the _argument_; but if we say "Cæsar deserved death because he was a tyrant," the latter clause would be termed the _reason_. Compare CAUSE; REASON, _v._; MIND; REASONING. Prepositions: The reason _of_ a thing that is to be explained; the reason _for_ a thing that is to be done. * * * * * REASONING. Synonyms: argument, argumentation, debate, ratiocination. _Argumentation_ and _debate_, in the ordinary use of the words, suppose two parties alleging reasons for and against a proposition; the same idea appears figuratively when we speak of a _debate_ or an _argument_ with oneself, or of a _debate_ between reason and conscience. _Reasoning_ may be the act of one alone, as it is simply the orderly setting forth of reasons, whether for the instruction of inquirers, the confuting of opponents, or the clear establishment of truth for oneself. _Reasoning_ may be either deductive or inductive. _Argument_ or _argumentation_ was formerly used of deductive _reasoning_ only. With the rise of the inductive philosophy these words have come to be applied to inductive processes also; but while _reasoning_ may be informal or even (as far as tracing its processes is concerned) unconscious, _argument_ and _argumentation_ strictly imply logical form. _Reasoning_, as denoting a process, is a broader term than _reason_ or _argument_; many _arguments_ or _reasons_ may be included in a single chain of _reasoning_. * * * * * REBELLIOUS. Synonyms: contumacious, mutinous, uncontrollable, disobedient, refractory, ungovernable, insubordinate, seditious, unmanageable. intractable, _Rebellious_ signifies being in a state of rebellion (see REBELLION under REVOLUTION), and is even extended to inanimate things that resist control or adaptation to human use. _Ungovernable_ applies to that which successfully defies authority and power; _unmanageable_ to that which resists the utmost exercise of skill or of skill and power combined; _rebellious_, to that which is defiant of authority, whether successfully or unsuccessfully; _seditious_, to that which partakes of or tends to excite a _rebellious_ spirit, _seditious_ suggesting more of covert plan, scheming, or conspiracy, _rebellious_ more of overt act or open violence. While the _unmanageable_ or _ungovernable_ defies control, the _rebellious_ or _seditious_ may be forced to submission; as, the man has an _ungovernable_ temper; the horses became _unmanageable_; he tamed his _rebellious_ spirit. _Insubordinate_ applies to the disposition to resist and resent control as such; _mutinous_, to open defiance of authority, especially in the army, navy, or merchant marine. A _contumacious_ act or spirit is contemptuous as well as defiant. Compare OBSTINATE; REVOLUTION. Antonyms: compliant, docile, manageable, subservient, controllable, dutiful, obedient, tractable, deferential, gentle, submissive, yielding. Prepositions: Rebellious _to_ or _against_ lawful authority. * * * * * RECORD. Synonyms: account, enrolment, instrument, register, archive, entry, inventory, roll, catalogue, enumeration, memorandum, schedule, chronicle, history, memorial, scroll. document, inscription, muniment, A _memorial_ is any object, whether a writing, a monument, or other permanent thing that is designed or adapted to keep something in remembrance. _Record_ is a word of wide signification, applying to any writing, mark, or trace that serves as a _memorial_ giving enduring attestation of an event or fact; an extended _account_, _chronicle_, or _history_ is a _record_; so, too, may be a brief _inventory_ or _memorandum_; the _inscription_ on a tombstone is a _record_ of the dead; the striæ on a rock-surface are the _record_ of a glacier's passage. A _register_ is a formal or official written _record_, especially a series of entries made for preservation or reference; as, a _register_ of births and deaths. _Archives_, in the sense here considered, are _documents_ or _records_, often legal _records_, preserved in a public or official depository; the word _archives_ is also applied to the place where such _documents_ are regularly deposited and preserved. _Muniments_ (L. _munio_, fortify) are _records_ that enable one to defend his title. Compare HISTORY; STORY. * * * * * RECOVER. Synonyms: be cured _or_ healed, heal, recuperate, restore, be restored, reanimate, regain, resume, cure, recruit, repossess, retrieve. The transitive use of _recover_ in the sense of _cure_, _heal_, etc., as in _2 Kings_ v, 6, "That thou mayest _recover_ him of his leprosy," is now practically obsolete. The chief transitive use of _recover_ is in the sense to obtain again after losing, _regain_, _repossess_, etc.; as, to _recover_ stolen goods; to _recover_ health. The intransitive sense, _be cured_, _be restored_, etc., is very common; as, to _recover_ from sickness, terror, or misfortune. Antonyms: die, fail, grow worse, relapse, sink. Prepositions: _From_; rarely _of_; (_Law_) to recover judgment _against_, to recover damages _of_ or _from_ a person. * * * * * REFINEMENT. Synonyms: civilization, cultivation, culture, elegance, politeness. _Civilization_ applies to nations, denoting the sum of those civil, social, economic, and political attainments by which a community is removed from barbarism; a people may be civilized while still far from _refinement_ or _culture_, but _civilization_ is susceptible of various degrees and of continued progress. _Refinement_ applies either to nations or individuals, denoting the removal of what is coarse and rude, and a corresponding attainment of what is delicate, elegant, and beautiful. _Cultivation_, denoting primarily the process of cultivating the soil or growing crops, then the improved condition of either which is the result, is applied in similar sense to the human mind and character, but in this usage is now largely superseded by the term _culture_, which denotes a high development of the best qualities of man's mental and spiritual nature, with especial reference to the esthetic faculties and to graces of speech and manner, regarded as the expression of a refined nature. _Culture_ in the fullest sense denotes that degree of _refinement_ and development which results from continued _cultivation_ through successive generations; a man's faculties may be brought to a high degree of _cultivation_ in some specialty, while he himself remains uncultured even to the extent of coarseness and rudeness. Compare HUMANE; POLITE. Antonyms: barbarism, brutality, coarseness, rudeness, savagery, boorishness, clownishness, grossness, rusticity, vulgarity. * * * * * REFUTE. Synonyms: confound, confute, disprove, overthrow, repel. To _refute_ and to _confute_ are to answer so as to admit of no reply. To _refute_ a statement is to demonstrate its falsity by argument or countervailing proof; _confute_ is substantially the same in meaning, tho differing in usage. _Refute_ applies either to arguments and opinions or to accusations; _confute_ is not applied to accusations and charges, but to arguments or opinions. _Refute_ is not now applied to persons, but _confute_ is in good use in this application; a person is _confuted_ when his arguments are _refuted_. * * * * * RELIABLE. Synonyms: trustworthy, trusty. The word _reliable_ has been sharply challenged, but seems to have established its place in the language. The objection to its use on the ground that the suffix _-able_ can not properly be added to an intransitive verb is answered by the citation of such words as "available," "conversable," "laughable," and the like, while, in the matter of usage, _reliable_ has the authority of Coleridge, Martineau, Mill, Irving, Newman, Gladstone, and others of the foremost of recent English writers. The objection to the application of _reliable_ to persons is not sustained by the use of the verb "rely," which is applied to persons in the authorized version of the Scriptures, in the writings of Shakespeare and Bacon, and in the usage of good speakers and writers. _Trusty_ and _trustworthy_ refer to inherent qualities of a high order, _trustworthy_ being especially applied to persons, and denoting moral integrity and truthfulness; we speak of a _trusty_ sword, a _trusty_ servant; we say the man is thoroughly _trustworthy_. _Reliable_ is inferior in meaning, denoting merely the possession of such qualities as are needed for safe reliance; as, a _reliable_ pledge; _reliable_ information. A man is said to be _reliable_ with reference not only to moral qualities, but to judgment, knowledge, skill, habit, or perhaps pecuniary ability; a thoroughly _trustworthy_ person might not be _reliable_ as a witness on account of unconscious sympathy, or as a security by reason of insufficient means. A _reliable_ messenger is one who may be depended on to do his errand correctly and promptly; a _trusty_ or _trustworthy_ messenger is one who may be admitted to knowledge of the views and purposes of those who employ him, and who will be faithful beyond the mere letter of his commission. We can speak of a railroad-train as _reliable_ when it can be depended on to arrive on time; but to speak of a _reliable_ friend would be cold, and to speak of a warrior girding on his _reliable_ sword would be ludicrous. * * * * * RELIGION. Synonyms: devotion, godliness, morality, piety, theology, faith, holiness, pietism, righteousness, worship. _Piety_ is primarily filial duty, as of children to parents, and hence, in its highest sense, a loving obedience and service to God as the Heavenly Father; _pietism_ often denotes a mystical, sometimes an affected _piety_; _religion_ is the reverent acknowledgment both in heart and in act of a divine being. _Religion_, in the fullest and highest sense, includes all the other words of this group. _Worship_ may be external and formal, or it may be the adoring reverence of the human spirit for the divine, seeking outward expression. _Devotion_, which in its fullest sense is self-consecration, is often used to denote an act of _worship_, especially prayer or adoration; as, he is engaged in his _devotions_. _Morality_ is the system and practise of duty as required by the moral law, consisting chiefly in outward acts, and thus may be observed without spiritual rectitude of heart; _morality_ is of necessity included in all true _religion_, which involves both outward act and spiritual service. _Godliness_ (primarily godlikeness) is a character and spirit like that of God. _Holiness_ is the highest, sinless perfection of any spirit, whether divine or human, tho often used for purity or for consecration. _Theology_ is the science of _religion_, or the study and scientific statement of all that the human mind can know of God. _Faith_, strictly the belief and trust which the soul exercises toward God, is often used as a comprehensive word for a whole system of _religion_ considered as the object of _faith_; as, the Christian _faith_; the Mohammedan _faith_. Antonyms: atheism, godlessness, irreligion, sacrilege, ungodliness, blasphemy, impiety, profanity, unbelief, wickedness. * * * * * RELUCTANT. Synonyms: averse, disinclined, loath, slow, backward, indisposed, opposed, unwilling. _Reluctant_ (L. _re_, back, and _lucto_, strive, struggle) signifies struggling against what one is urged or impelled to do, or is actually doing; _averse_ (L. _a_, from, and _verto_, turn) signifies turned away as with dislike or repugnance; _loath_ (AS. _lath_, evil, hateful) signifies having a repugnance, disgust, or loathing for, tho the adjective _loath_ is not so strong as the verb _loathe_. A dunce is always _averse_ to study; a good student is _disinclined_ to it when a fine morning tempts him out; he is _indisposed_ to it in some hour of weariness. A man may be _slow_ or _backward_ in entering upon that to which he is by no means _averse_. A man is _loath_ to believe evil of his friend, _reluctant_ to speak of it, absolutely _unwilling_ to use it to his injury. A legislator may be _opposed_ to a certain measure, while not _averse_ to what it aims to accomplish. Compare ANTIPATHY. Antonyms: desirous, disposed, eager, favorable, inclined, willing. * * * * * REMARK. Synonyms: annotation, comment, note, observation, utterance. A _remark_ is a saying or brief statement, oral or written, commonly made without much premeditation; a _comment_ is an explanatory or critical _remark_, as upon some passage in a literary work or some act or speech in common life. A _note_ is something to call attention, hence a brief written statement; in correspondence, a _note_ is briefer than a letter. A _note_ upon some passage in a book is briefer and less elaborate than a _comment_. _Annotations_ are especially brief _notes_, commonly marginal, and closely following the text. _Comments_, _observations_, or _remarks_ may be oral or written, _comments_ being oftenest written, and _remarks_ oftenest oral. An _observation_ is properly the result of fixed attention and reflection; a _remark_ may be the suggestion of the instant. _Remarks_ are more informal than a speech. * * * * * REND. Synonyms: break, cleave, mangle, rive, sever, sunder, burst, lacerate, rip, rupture, slit, tear. _Rend_ and _tear_ are applied to the separating of textile substances into parts by force violently applied (_rend_ also to frangible substances), _tear_ being the milder, _rend_ the stronger word. _Rive_ is a wood-workers' word for parting wood in the way of the grain without a clean cut. To _lacerate_ is to _tear_ roughly the flesh or animal tissue, as by the teeth of a wild beast; a _lacerated_ wound is distinguished from a wound made by a clean cut or incision. _Mangle_ is a stronger word than _lacerate_; _lacerate_ is more superficial, _mangle_ more complete. To _burst_ or _rupture_ is to _tear_ or _rend_ by force from within, _burst_ denoting the greater violence; as, to _burst_ a gun; to _rupture_ a blood-vessel; a steam-boiler may be _ruptured_ when its substance is made to divide by internal pressure without explosion. To _rip_, as usually applied to garments or other articles made by sewing or stitching, is to divide along the line of a seam by cutting or breaking the stitches; the other senses bear some resemblance or analogy to this; as, to _rip_ open a wound. Compare BREAK. Antonyms: heal, mend, reunite, secure, sew, solder, stitch, unite, weld. join, * * * * * RENOUNCE. Synonyms: abandon, disavow, disown, recant, repudiate, abjure, discard, forswear, refuse, retract, deny, disclaim, recall, reject, revoke. _Abjure_, _discard_, _forswear_, _recall_, _recant_, _renounce_, _retract_, and _revoke_, like _abandon_, imply some previous connection. _Renounce_ (L. _re_, back, and _nuntio_, bear a message) is to declare against and give up formally and definitively; as, to _renounce_ the pomps and vanities of the world. _Recant_ (L. _re_, back, and _canto_, sing) is to take back or _deny_ formally and publicly, as a belief that one has held or professed. _Retract_ (L. _re_, back, and _traho_, draw) is to take back something that one has said as not true or as what one is not ready to maintain; as, to _retract_ a charge or accusation; one _recants_ what was especially his own, he _retracts_ what was directed against another. _Repudiate_ (L. _re_, back, or away, and _pudeo_, feel shame) is primarily to _renounce_ as shameful, hence to divorce, as a wife; thus in general to put away with emphatic and determined repulsion; as, to _repudiate_ a debt. To _deny_ is to affirm to be not true or not binding; as, to _deny_ a statement or a relationship; or to refuse to grant as something requested; as, his mother could not _deny_ him what he desired. To _discard_ is to cast away as useless or worthless; thus, one _discards_ a worn garment; a coquette _discards_ a lover. _Revoke_ (L. _re_, back, and _voco_, call), etymologically the exact equivalent of the English _recall_, is to take back something given or granted; as, to _revoke_ a command, a will, or a grant; _recall_ may be used in the exact sense of _revoke_, but is often applied to persons, as _revoke_ is not; we _recall_ a messenger and _revoke_ the order with which he was charged. _Abjure_ (L. _ab_, away, and _juro_, swear) is etymologically the exact equivalent of the Saxon _forswear_, signifying to put away formally and under oath, as an error, heresy, or evil practise, or a condemned and detested person. A man _abjures_ his religion, _recants_ his belief, _abjures_ or _renounces_ his allegiance, _repudiates_ another's claim, _renounces_ his own, _retracts_ a false statement. A person may _deny_, _disavow_, _disclaim_, _disown_ what has been truly or falsely imputed to him or supposed to be his. He may _deny_ his signature, _disavow_ the act of his agent, _disown_ his child; he may _repudiate_ a just claim or a base suggestion. A native of the United States can not _abjure_ or _renounce_ allegiance to the Queen of England, but will promptly _deny_ or _repudiate_ it. Compare ABANDON. Antonyms: acknowledge, assert, cherish, defend, maintain, proclaim, uphold, advocate, avow, claim, hold, own, retain, vindicate. * * * * * REPENTANCE. Synonyms: compunction, contriteness, regret, self-condemnation, contrition, penitence, remorse, sorrow. _Regret_ is _sorrow_ for any painful or annoying matter. One is moved with _penitence_ for wrong-doing. To speak of _regret_ for a fault of our own marks it as slighter than one regarding which we should express _penitence_. _Repentance_ is _sorrow_ for sin with _self-condemnation_, and complete turning from the sin. _Penitence_ is transient, and may involve no change of character or conduct. There may be _sorrow_ without _repentance_, as for consequences only, but not _repentance_ without _sorrow_. _Compunction_ is a momentary sting of conscience, in view either of a past or of a contemplated act. _Contrition_ is a subduing _sorrow_ for sin, as against the divine holiness and love. _Remorse_ is, as its derivation indicates, a biting or gnawing back of guilt upon the heart, with no turning of heart from the sin, and no suggestion of divine forgiveness. Antonyms: approval, content, obduracy, self-complacency, comfort, hardness, obstinacy, self-congratulation, complacency, impenitence, self-approval, stubbornness. Prepositions: Repentance _of_ or _in_ heart, or _from_ the heart; repentance _for_ sins; _before_ or _toward_ God; _unto_ life. * * * * * REPORT. Synonyms: account, narrative, rehearsal, rumor, story, description, recital, relation, statement, tale. narration, record, _Account_ carries the idea of a commercial summary. A _statement_ is definite, confined to essentials and properly to matters within the personal knowledge of the one who states them; as, an ante-mortem _statement_. A _narrative_ is a somewhat extended and embellished _account_ of events in order of time, ordinarily with a view to please or entertain. A _description_ gives especial scope to the pictorial element. A _report_ (L. _re_, back, and _porto_, bring), as its etymology implies, is something brought back, as by one sent to obtain information, and may be concise and formal or highly descriptive and dramatic. Compare ALLEGORY; HISTORY; RECORD. * * * * * REPROOF. Synonyms: admonition, chiding, disapproval, reprimand, animadversion, comment, objurgation, reproach, blame, condemnation, rebuke, reproval, censure, criticism, reflection, upbraiding. check, denunciation, reprehension, _Blame_, _censure_, and _disapproval_ may either be felt or uttered; _comment_, _criticism_, _rebuke_, _reflection_, _reprehension_, and _reproof_ are always expressed. The same is true of _admonition_ and _animadversion_. _Comment_ and _criticism_ may be favorable as well as censorious; they imply no superiority or authority on the part of him who utters them; nor do _reflection_ or _reprehension_, which are simply turning the mind back upon what is disapproved. _Reprehension_ is supposed to be calm and just, and with good intent; it is therefore a serious matter, however mild, and is capable of great force, as expressed in the phrase severe _reprehension_. _Reflection_ is often from mere ill feeling, and is likely to be more personal and less impartial than _reprehension_; we often speak of unkind or unjust _reflections_. _Rebuke_, literally a stopping of the mouth, is administered to a forward or hasty person; _reproof_ is administered to one intentionally or deliberately wrong; both words imply authority in the reprover, and direct expression of _disapproval_ to the face of the person _rebuked_ or _reproved_. _Reprimand_ is official _censure_ formally administered by a superior to one under his command. _Animadversion_ is _censure_ of a high, authoritative, and somewhat formal kind. _Rebuke_ may be given at the outset, or in the midst of an action; _animadversion_, _reflection_, _reprehension_, _reproof_, always follow the act; _admonition_ is anticipatory, and meant to be preventive. _Check_ is allied to _rebuke_, and given before or during action; _chiding_ is nearer to _reproof_, but with more of personal bitterness and less of authority. Compare CONDEMN; REPROVE. Antonyms: applause, approval, encomium, eulogy, panegyric, praise. approbation, commendation, * * * * * REPROVE. Synonyms: admonish, condemn, reprimand, blame, expostulate with, reproach, censure, find fault with, take to task, chasten, rebuke, upbraid, check, remonstrate with, warn. chide, reprehend, To _censure_ is to pronounce an adverse judgment that may or may not be expressed to the person _censured_; to _reprove_ is to _censure_ authoritatively, openly, and directly to the face of the person _reproved_; to _rebuke_ is to _reprove_ with sharpness, and often with abruptness, usually in the midst of some action or course of action deemed censurable; to _reprimand_ is to _reprove_ officially; to _blame_ is a familiar word signifying to pass _censure_ upon, make answerable, as for a fault; _blame_ and _censure_ apply either to persons or acts; _reprove_ and _rebuke_ are applied chiefly, and _reprimand_ exclusively to persons. To _reproach_ is to _censure_ openly and vehemently, and with intense personal feeling as of grief or anger; as, to _reproach_ one for ingratitude; _reproach_ knows no distinction of rank or character; a subject may _reproach_ a king or a criminal judge. To _expostulate_ or _remonstrate with_ is to mingle reasoning and appeal with _censure_ in the hope of winning one from his evil way, _expostulate_ being the gentler, _remonstrate_ the severer word. _Admonish_ is the mildest of _reproving_ words, and may even be used of giving a caution or warning where no wrong is implied, or of simply reminding of duty which might be forgotten. _Censure_, _rebuke_, and _reprove_ apply to wrong that has been done; _warn_ and _admonish_ refer to anticipated error or fault. When one is _admonished_ because of wrong already done, the view is still future, that he may not repeat or continue in the wrong. Compare CONDEMN; REPROOF. Antonyms: abet, approve, countenance, impel, instigate, applaud, cheer, encourage, incite, urge on. * * * * * REQUITE. Synonyms: avenge, punish, remunerate, revenge, compensate, quit, repay, reward, pay, reciprocate, retaliate, satisfy, pay off, recompense, return, settle with. To _repay_ or to _retaliate_, to _punish_ or to _reward_, may be to make some return very inadequate to the benefit or injury received, or the right or wrong done; but to _requite_ (according to its etymology) is to make so full and adequate a _return_ as to _quit_ oneself of all obligation of favor or hostility, of punishment or _reward_. _Requite_ is often used in the more general sense of _recompense_ or _repay_, but always with the suggestion, at least, of the original idea of full equivalent; when one speaks of _requiting_ kindness with ingratitude, the expression gains force from the comparison of the actual with the proper and appropriate _return_. Compare PAY. Antonyms: absolve, excuse, forgive, overlook, pass over, acquit, forget, neglect, pardon, slight. Preposition: To requite injury _with_ injury is human, but not Christian. * * * * * REST. Synonyms: calm, pause, quietness, slumber, calmness, peace, quietude, stay, cessation, peacefulness, recreation, stillness, ease, quiescence, repose, stop, intermission, quiet, sleep, tranquillity. _Ease_ denotes freedom from cause of disturbance, whether external or internal. _Quiet_ denotes freedom from agitation, or especially from annoying sounds. _Rest_ is a _cessation_ of activity especially of wearying or painful activity. _Recreation_ is some pleasing activity of certain organs or faculties that affords _rest_ to other parts of our nature that have become weary. _Repose_ is a laying down, primarily of the body, and figuratively a similar freedom from toil or strain of mind. _Repose_ is more complete than _rest_; a _pause_ is a momentary _cessation_ of activity; a black-smith finds a temporary _rest_ while the iron is heating, but he does not yield to _repose_; in a _pause_ of battle a soldier _rests_ on his arms; after the battle the victor _reposes_ on his laurels. _Sleep_ is the perfection of _repose_, the most complete _rest_; _slumber_ is a light and ordinarily pleasant form of _sleep_. In the figurative sense, _rest_ of mind, soul, conscience, is not mere _cessation_ of activity, but a pleasing, tranquil relief from all painful and wearying activity; _repose_ is even more deep, tranquil, and complete. Antonyms: agitation, disturbance, movement, stir, tumult, commotion, excitement, restlessness, strain, unrest, disquiet, motion, rush, toil, work. * * * * * RESTIVE. Synonyms: balky, impatient, rebellious, restless, fidgety, intractable, recalcitrant, skittish, fractious, mulish, refractory, stubborn, fretful, mutinous, resentful, unruly, frisky, obstinate, restiff, vicious. _Balky_, _mulish_, _obstinate_, and _stubborn_ are synonyms of _restive_ only in an infrequent if not obsolete use; the supposed sense of "tending to rest," "standing stubbornly still," is scarcely supported by any examples, and those cited to support that meaning often fail to do so. The disposition to offer active resistance to control by any means whatever is what is commonly indicated by _restive_ in the best English speech and literature. Dryden speaks of "the pampered colt" as "_restiff_ to the rein;" but the rein is not used to propel a horse forward, but to hold him in, and it is against this that he is "_restiff_." A horse may be made _restless_ by flies or by martial music, but with no refractoriness; the _restive_ animal impatiently resists or struggles to break from control, as by bolting, flinging his rider, or otherwise. With this the metaphorical use of the word agrees, which is always in the sense of such terms as _impatient_, _intractable_, _rebellious_, and the like; a people _restive_ under despotism are not disposed to "rest" under it, but to resist it and fling it off. Antonyms: docile, manageable, passive, quiet, tractable, gentle, obedient, peaceable, submissive, yielding. * * * * * RESTRAIN. Synonyms: abridge, constrain, hold in, keep under, bridle, curb, keep, repress, check, hinder, keep back, restrict, circumscribe, hold, keep down, suppress, confine, hold back, keep in, withhold. To _restrain_ is to _hold back_ from acting, proceeding, or advancing, either by physical or moral force. _Constrain_ is positive; _restrain_ is negative; one is _constrained_ to an action; he is _restrained_ from an action. _Constrain_ refers almost exclusively to moral force, _restrain_ frequently to physical force, as when we speak of putting one under restraint. To _restrain_ an action is to hold it partially or wholly in check, so that it is under pressure even while it acts; to _restrict_ an action is to fix a limit or boundary which it may not pass, but within which it is free. To _repress_, literally to press back, is to hold in check, and perhaps only temporarily, that which is still very active; it is a feebler word than _restrain_; to _suppress_ is finally and effectually to put down; _suppress_ is a much stronger word than _restrain_; as, to _suppress_ a rebellion. Compare ARREST; BIND; KEEP. Antonyms: aid, arouse, encourage, free, incite, release, animate, emancipate, excite, impel, let loose, set free. * * * * * RETIREMENT. Synonyms: loneliness, privacy, seclusion, solitude. In _retirement_ one withdraws from association he has had with others; we speak of the _retirement_ of a public man to private life, tho he may still be much in company. In _seclusion_ one shuts himself away from the society of all except intimate friends or attendants; in _solitude_ no other person is present. While _seclusion_ is ordinarily voluntary, _solitude_ may be enforced; we speak of the _solitude_ rather than the _seclusion_ of a prisoner. As "private" denotes what concerns ourselves individually, _privacy_ denotes freedom from the presence or observation of those not concerned or whom we desire not to have concerned in our affairs; _privacy_ is more commonly temporary than _seclusion_; we speak of a moment's _privacy_. There may be _loneliness_ without _solitude_, as amid an unsympathizing crowd, and _solitude_ without _loneliness_, as when one is glad to be alone. Antonyms: association, companionship, company, converse, fellowship, society. * * * * * REVELATION. Synonyms: apocalypse, disclosure, manifestation. _Revelation_ (L. _re_, back, and _velum_, veil), literally an unveiling, is the act or process of making known what was before secret or hidden, or what may still be future. _Apocalypse_ (Gr. _apo_, from, and _kalypto_, cover), literally an uncovering, comes into English as the name of the closing book of the Bible. The _Apocalypse_ unveils the future, as if to the very gaze of the seer; the whole gospel is a _disclosure_ of the mercy of God; the character of Christ is a _manifestation_ of the divine holiness and love; all Scripture is a _revelation_ of the divine will. Or we might say that nature is a _manifestation_ of the divine character and will, of which Scripture is the fuller and more express _revelation_. Antonyms: cloud, concealment, mystery, shrouding, cloudiness, hiding, obscuration, veiling. * * * * * REVENGE. Synonyms: avenging, retaliation, retribution, vengeance. requital, _Revenge_ is the act of making return for an injury done to oneself by doing injury to another person. _Retaliation_ and _revenge_ are personal and often bitter. _Retaliation_ may be partial; _revenge_ is meant to be complete, and may be excessive. _Vengeance_, which once meant an indignant vindication of justice, now signifies the most furious and unsparing _revenge_. _Revenge_ emphasizes more the personal injury in return for which it is inflicted, _vengeance_ the ill desert of those upon whom it is inflicted. A _requital_ is strictly an even return, such as to quit one of obligation for what has been received, and even if poor or unworthy is given as complete and adequate. _Avenging_ and _retribution_ give a solemn sense of exact justice, _avenging_ being more personal in its infliction, whether by God or man, and _retribution_ the impersonal visitation of the doom of righteous law. Compare AVENGE; HATRED; REQUITE. Antonyms: compassion, forgiveness, mercy, pardon, pity, reconciliation. excuse, grace, Prepositions: To take revenge _upon_ the enemy, _for_ the injury. * * * * * REVOLUTION. Synonyms: anarchy, insurrection, revolt, confusion, lawlessness, riot, disintegration, mutiny, sedition, disorder, rebellion, tumult. insubordination, The essential idea of _revolution_ is a change in the form of government or constitution, or a change of rulers, otherwise than as provided by the laws of succession, election, etc.; while such change is apt to involve armed hostilities, these make no necessary part of the _revolution_. The _revolution_ by which Dom Pedro was dethroned, and Brazil changed from an empire to a republic, was accomplished without a battle, and almost without a shot. _Anarchy_ refers to the condition of a state when human government is superseded or destroyed by factions or other causes. _Lawlessness_ is a temper of mind or condition of the community which may result in _anarchy_. _Confusion_, _disorder_, _riot_, and _tumult_ are incidental and temporary outbreaks of _lawlessness_, but may not be _anarchy_. _Insubordination_ is individual disobedience. _Sedition_ is the plotting, _rebellion_ the fighting, against the existing government, but always with the purpose of establishing some other government in its place. When _rebellion_ is successful it is called _revolution_; but there may be _revolution_ without _rebellion_; as, the English _Revolution_ of 1688. A _revolt_ is an uprising against existing authority without the comprehensive views of change in the form or administration of government that are involved in _revolution_. _Anarchy_, when more than temporary _disorder_, is a proposed _disintegration_ of society, in which it is imagined that social order might exist without government. Slaves make _insurrection_; soldiers or sailors break out in _mutiny_; subject provinces rise in _revolt_. Compare SOCIALISM. Antonyms: authority, domination, government, obedience, sovereignty, command, dominion, law, order, submission, control, empire, loyalty, rule, supremacy. * * * * * REVOLVE. Synonyms: roll, rotate, turn. Any round body _rolls_ which continuously touches with successive portions of its surface successive portions of another surface; a wagon-wheel _rolls_ along the ground. To _rotate_ is said of a body that has a circular motion about its own center or axis; to _revolve_ is said of a body that moves in a curving path, as a circle or an ellipse, about a center outside of itself, so as to return periodically to the same relative position that it held at some previous time. A _revolving_ body may also either _rotate_ or _roll_ at the same time; the earth _revolves_ around the sun, and _rotates_ on its own axis; in popular usage, the earth is often said to _revolve_ about its own axis, or to have a daily "revolution," but _rotate_ and "rotation" are the more accurate terms. A cylinder over which an endless belt is drawn is said to _roll_ as regards the belt, tho it _rotates_ as regards its own axis. Any object that is in contact with or connected with a _rolling_ body is often said to _roll_; as, the car _rolls_ smoothly along the track. Objects whose motion approximates or suggests a rotary motion along a supporting surface are also said to _roll_; as, ocean waves _roll_ in upon the shore, or the ship _rolls_ in the trough of the sea. _Turn_ is a conversational and popular word often used vaguely for _rotate_ or _revolve_, or for any motion about a fixed point, especially for a motion less than a complete "rotation" or "revolution;" a man _turns_ his head or _turns_ on his heel; the gate _turns_ on its hinges. Antonyms: bind, chafe, grind, slide, slip, stand, stick. * * * * * RIDDLE, _n._ Synonyms: conundrum, enigma, paradox, problem, puzzle. _Conundrum_, a word of unknown origin, signifies some question or statement in which some hidden and fanciful resemblance is involved, the answer often depending upon a pun; an _enigma_ is a dark saying; a _paradox_ is a true statement that at first appears absurd or contradictory; a _problem_ is something thrown out for solution; _puzzle_ (from _oppose_) referred originally to the intricate arguments by which disputants opposed each other in the old philosophic schools. The _riddle_ is an ambiguous or paradoxical statement with a hidden meaning to be guessed by the mental acuteness of the one to whom it is proposed; the _riddle_ is not so petty as the _conundrum_, and may require much acuteness for its answer; a _problem_ may require simply study and scholarship, as a _problem_ in mathematics; a _puzzle_ may be in something other than verbal statement, as a dissected map or any perplexing mechanical contrivance. Both _enigma_ and _puzzle_ may be applied to any matter difficult of answer or solution, _enigma_ conveying an idea of greater dignity, _puzzle_ applying to something more commonplace and mechanical; there are many dark _enigmas_ in human life and in the course of providence; the location of a missing object is often a _puzzle_. Antonyms: answer, axiom, explanation, proposition, solution. * * * * * RIGHT, _n._ Synonyms: claim, franchise, liberty, prerogative, exemption, immunity, license, privilege. A _right_ is that which one may properly demand upon considerations of justice, morality, equity, or of natural or positive law. A _right_ may be either general or special, natural or artificial. "Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness" are the natural and inalienable _rights_ of all men; _rights_ of property, inheritance, etc., are individual and special, and often artificial, as the _right_ of inheritance by primogeniture. A _privilege_ is always special, exceptional, and artificial; it is something not enjoyed by all, or only to be enjoyed on certain special conditions, a peculiar benefit, favor, advantage, etc. A _privilege_ may be of doing or avoiding; in the latter case it is an _exemption_ or _immunity_; as, a _privilege_ of hunting or fishing; _exemption_ from military service; _immunity_ from arrest. A _franchise_ is a specific _right_ or _privilege_ granted by the government or established as such by governmental authority; as, the elective _franchise_; a railroad _franchise_. A _prerogative_ is an official _right_ or _privilege_, especially one inherent in the royal or sovereign power; in a wider sense it is an exclusive and peculiar _privilege_ which one possesses by reason of being what he is; as, reason is the _prerogative_ of man; kings and nobles have often claimed _prerogatives_ and _privileges_ opposed to the inherent _rights_ of the people. Compare DUTY; JUSTICE. * * * * * RISE. Synonyms: arise, ascend, emanate, flow, issue, proceed, spring. To _rise_ is to move up or upward whether slowly or quickly, whether through the least or greatest distance; the waves _rise_; the mists _rise_; the river _rises_ after heavy rains; as said of persons, to _rise_ is to come to an erect position after kneeling, sitting, reclining, or lying down; as, to _rise_ from a sick-bed; my friend _rose_ as I entered; the guests _rose_ to depart; so a deliberative assembly or a committee is said to _rise_ when it breaks up a session; a sun or star _rises_ when to our apprehension it comes above the horizon and begins to go up the sky. To _ascend_ is to go far upward, and is often used in a stately sense; as, Christ _ascended_ to heaven. The shorter form _rise_ is now generally preferred to the longer form _arise_, except in poetic or elevated style. The sun _rises_ or _arises_; the river _springs_ at a bound from the foot of the glacier and _flows_ through the lands to the ocean. Smoke _issues_ from a chimney and _ascends_ toward the sky. Light and heat _emanate_ from the sun. Antonyms: decline, descend, drop, fall, go down, set, settle, sink. Prepositions: Rise _from_ slumber; rise _to_ duty; rise _at_ the summons; we rose _with_ the lark. * * * * * ROBBER. Synonyms: bandit, depredator, freebooter, pirate, brigand, despoiler, highwayman, plunderer, buccaneer, footpad, marauder, raider, burglar, forager, pillager, thief. A _robber_ seeks to obtain the property of others by force or intimidation; a _thief_ by stealth and secrecy. In early English _thief_ was freely used in both senses, as in Shakespeare and the Authorized Version of the English Bible, which has "two _thieves_" (_Matt._ xxvii, 38), where the Revised Version more correctly substitutes "two _robbers_." * * * * * ROYAL. Synonyms: august, kingly, majestic, princely, kinglike, magnificent, munificent, regal. _Royal_ denotes that which actually belongs or pertains to a monarch; the _royal_ residence is that which the king occupies, _royal_ raiment that which the king wears. _Regal_ denotes that which in outward state is appropriate for a king; a subject may assume _regal_ magnificence in residence, dress, and equipage. _Kingly_ denotes that which is worthy of a king in personal qualities, especially of character and conduct; as, a _kingly_ bearing; a _kingly_ resolve. _Princely_ is especially used of treasure, expenditure, gifts, etc., as _princely_ munificence, a _princely_ fortune, where _regal_ could not so well be used and _royal_ would change the sense. The distinctions between these words are not absolute, but the tendency of the best usage is as here suggested. Antonyms: beggarly, contemptible, mean, poor, servile, slavish, vile. * * * * * RUSTIC. Synonyms: agricultural, coarse, pastoral, uncouth, artless, countrified, plain, unpolished, awkward, country, rude, unsophisticated, boorish, hoidenish, rural, untaught, bucolic, inelegant, sylvan, verdant. clownish, outlandish, _Rural_ and _rustic_ are alike derived from the Latin _rus_, country, and may be alike defined as pertaining to, characteristic of, or dwelling in the country; but in usage _rural_ refers especially to scenes or objects in the country, considered as the work of nature; _rustic_ refers to their effect upon man or to their condition as affected by human agency; as, a _rural_ scene; a _rustic_ party; a _rustic_ lass. We speak, however, of the _rural_ population, _rural_ simplicity, etc. _Rural_ has always a favorable sense; _rustic_ frequently an unfavorable one, as denoting a lack of culture and refinement; thus, _rustic_ politeness expresses that which is well-meant, but awkward; similar ideas are suggested by a _rustic_ feast, _rustic_ garb, etc. _Rustic_ is, however, often used of a studied simplicity, an artistic rudeness, which is pleasing and perhaps beautiful; as, a _rustic_ cottage; a _rustic_ chair. _Pastoral_ refers to the care of flocks, and to the shepherd's life with the pleasing associations suggested by the old poetic ideal of that life; as, _pastoral_ poetry. _Bucolic_ is kindred to _pastoral_, but is a less elevated term, and sometimes slightly contemptuous. Antonyms: accomplished, cultured, polished, refined, urbane, city-like, elegant, polite, urban, well-bred. * * * * * SACRAMENT. Synonyms: ceremony, eucharist, observance, rite, solemnity. communion, Lord's Supper, ordinance, service, Any religious act, especially a public act, viewed as a means of serving God is called a _service_; the word commonly includes the entire series of exercises of a single occasion of public worship. A religious _service_ ordained as an outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace is called a _sacrament_. _Ceremony_ is a form expressing reverence, or at least respect; we may speak of religious _ceremonies_, the _ceremonies_ of polite society, the _ceremonies_ of a coronation, an inauguration, etc. An _observance_ has more than a formal obligation, reaching or approaching a religious sacredness; a stated religious _observance_, viewed as established by authority, is called an _ordinance_; viewed as an established custom, it is a _rite_. The terms _sacrament_ and _ordinance_, in the religious sense, are often used interchangeably; the _ordinance_ derives its sacredness from the authority that ordained it, while the _sacrament_ possesses a sacredness due to something in itself, even when viewed simply as a representation or memorial. The Lord's Supper is the Scriptural name for the _observance_ commemorating the death of Christ; the word _communion_ is once applied to it (_1 Cor._ x, 16), but not as a distinctive name; at an early period, however, the name _communion_ was so applied, as denoting the communing of Christians with their Lord, or with one another. The term _eucharist_ describes the Lord's Supper as a thanksgiving _service_; it is also called by preeminence _the sacrament_, as the ratifying of a solemn vow of consecration to Christ. * * * * * SAGACIOUS. Synonyms: able, intelligent, perspicacious, sensible, acute, keen, quick of scent, sharp, apt, keen-sighted, quick-scented, sharp-witted, clear-sighted, keen-witted, rational, shrewd, discerning, judicious, sage, wise. _Sagacious_ refers to a power of tracing the hidden or recondite by slight indications, as by instinct or intuition; it is not now applied to mere keenness of sense-perception. We do not call a hound _sagacious_ in following a clear trail; but if he loses the scent, as at the edge of a stream, and circles around till he strikes it again, his conduct is said to be _sagacious_. In human affairs _sagacious_ refers to a power of ready, far-reaching, and accurate inference from observed facts perhaps in themselves very slight, that seems like a special sense; or to a similar readiness to foresee the results of any action, especially upon human motives or conduct--a kind of prophetic common sense. _Sagacious_ is a broader and nobler word than _shrewd_, and not capable of the invidious sense which the latter word often bears; on the other hand, _sagacious_ is less lofty and comprehensive than _wise_ in its full sense, and more limited to matters of direct practical moment. Compare ASTUTE; WISDOM. Antonyms: absurd, futile, obtuse, silly, sottish, undiscerning, dull, ignorant, senseless, simple, stupid, unintelligent. foolish, irrational, * * * * * SALE. Synonyms: bargain, barter, change, deal, exchange, trade. A _bargain_ is strictly an agreement or contract to buy and sell, tho the word is often used to denote the entire transaction and also as a designation for the thing sold or purchased. _Change_ and _exchange_ are words of wider signification, applying only incidentally to the transfer of property or value; a _change_ secures something different in any way or by any means; an _exchange_ secures something as an equivalent or return, tho not necessarily as payment for what is given. _Barter_ is the _exchange_ of one commodity for another, the word being used generally with reference to portable commodities. _Trade_ in the broad sense may apply to vast businesses (as the book-_trade_), but as denoting a single transaction is used chiefly in regard to things of moderate value, when it becomes nearly synonymous with _barter_. _Sale_ is commonly, and with increasing strictness, limited to the transfer of property for money, or for something estimated at a money value or considered as equivalent to so much money in hand or to be paid. A _deal_ in the political sense is a _bargain_, substitution, or transfer for the benefit of certain persons or parties against all others; as, the nomination was the result of a _deal_; in business it may have a similar meaning, but it frequently signifies simply a _sale_ or _exchange_, a dealing; as, a heavy _deal_ in stocks. * * * * * SAMPLE. Synonyms: case, exemplification, instance, example, illustration, specimen. A _sample_ is a portion taken at random out of a quantity supposed to be homogeneous, so that the qualities found in the _sample_ may reasonably be expected to be found in the whole; as, a _sample_ of sugar; a _sample_ of cloth. A _specimen_ is one unit of a series, or a fragment of a mass, all of which is supposed to possess the same essential qualities; as, a _specimen_ of coinage, or of architecture, or a _specimen_ of quartz. No other unit or portion may be exactly like the _specimen_, while all the rest is supposed to be exactly like the _sample_. An _instance_ is a _sample_ or _specimen_ of action. Compare EXAMPLE. Antonyms: abnormality, aggregate, exception, monstrosity, total, whole. * * * * * SATISFY. Synonyms: cloy, fill, sate, suffice, content, glut, satiate, surfeit. To _satisfy_ is to furnish just enough to meet physical, mental, or spiritual desire. To _sate_ or _satiate_ is to gratify desire so fully as for a time to extinguish it. To _cloy_ or _surfeit_ is to gratify to the point of revulsion or disgust. _Glut_ is a strong but somewhat coarse word applied to the utmost satisfaction of vehement appetites and passions; as, to _glut_ a vengeful spirit with slaughter; we speak of _glutting_ the market with a supply so excessive as to extinguish the demand. Much less than is needed to _satisfy_ may _suffice_ a frugal or abstemious person; less than a sufficiency may _content_ one of a patient and submissive spirit. Compare PAY; REQUITE. Antonyms: check, disappoint, restrain, starve, straiten, deny, refuse, restrict, stint, tantalize. Prepositions: Satisfy _with_ food, _with_ gifts, etc.; satisfy one (in the sense of make satisfaction) _for_ labors and sacrifices; satisfy oneself _by_ or _upon_ inquiry. * * * * * SCHOLAR. Synonyms: disciple, learner, pupil, savant, student. The primary sense of a _scholar_ is one who is being schooled; thence the word passes to denote one who is apt in school work, and finally one who is thoroughly schooled, master of what the schools can teach, an erudite, accomplished person: when used without qualification, the word is generally understood in this latter sense; as, he is manifestly a _scholar_. _Pupil_ signifies one under the close personal supervision or instruction of a teacher or tutor. Those under instruction in schools below the academic grade are technically and officially termed _pupils_. The word _pupil_ is uniformly so used in the Reports of the Commissioner of Education of the United States, but popular American usage prefers _scholar_ in the original sense; as, teachers and _scholars_ enjoyed a holiday. Those under instruction in Sunday-schools are uniformly designated as Sunday-school _scholars_. _Student_ is applied to those in the higher grades or courses of study, as the academic, collegiate, scientific, etc. _Student_ suggests less proficiency than _scholar_ in the highest sense, the _student_ being one who is learning, the _scholar_ one who has learned. On the other hand, _student_ suggests less of personal supervision than _pupil_; thus, the college _student_ often becomes the private _pupil_ of some instructor in special studies. For _disciple_, etc., compare synonyms for ADHERENT. Antonyms: dunce, fool, idiot, idler, ignoramus, illiterate person. * * * * * SCIENCE. Synonyms: art, knowledge. _Knowledge_ of a single fact, not known as related to any other, or of many facts not known as having any mutual relations or as comprehended under any general law, does not reach the meaning of _science_; _science_ is _knowledge_ reduced to law and embodied in system. The _knowledge_ of various countries gathered by an observant traveler may be a heterogeneous medley of facts, which gain real value only when coordinated and arranged by the man of _science_. _Art_ always relates to something to be done, _science_ to something to be known. Not only must _art_ be discriminated from _science_, but _art_ in the industrial or mechanical sense must be distinguished from _art_ in the esthetic sense; the former aims chiefly at utility, the latter at beauty. The mechanic _arts_ are the province of the artisan, the esthetic or fine _arts_ are the province of the artist; all the industrial _arts_, as of weaving or printing, arithmetic or navigation, are governed by exact rules. _Art_ in the highest esthetic sense, while it makes use of rules, transcends all rule; no rules can be given for the production of a painting like Raffael's "Transfiguration," a statue like the Apollo Belvedere, or a poem like the Iliad. _Science_ does not, like the mechanic _arts_, make production its direct aim, yet its possible productive application in the _arts_ is a constant stimulus to scientific investigation; the _science_, as in the case of chemistry or electricity, is urged on to higher development by the demands of the _art_, while the _art_ is perfected by the advance of the _science_. Creative _art_ seeking beauty for its own sake is closely akin to pure _science_ seeking _knowledge_ for its own sake. Compare KNOWLEDGE; LITERATURE. * * * * * SECURITY. Synonyms: bail, earnest, gage, pledge, surety. The first four words agree in denoting something given or deposited as an assurance of something to be given, paid, or done. An _earnest_ is of the same kind as that to be given, a portion of it delivered in advance, as when part of the purchase-money is paid, according to the common expression, "to bind the bargain." A _pledge_ or _security_ may be wholly different in kind from that to be given or paid, and may greatly exceed it in value. _Security_ may be of real or personal property--anything of sufficient value to make the creditor secure; a _pledge_ is always of personal property or chattels. Every pawnshop contains unredeemed _pledges_; land, merchandise, bonds, etc., are frequently offered and accepted as _security_. A person may become _security_ or _surety_ for another's payment of a debt, appearance in court, etc.; in the latter case, he is said to become _bail_ for that person; the person accused gives _bail_ for himself. _Gage_ survives only as a literary word, chiefly in certain phrases; as, "the _gage_ of battle." Prepositions: Security _for_ the payment of a debt; security _to_ the state, _for_ the prisoner, _in_ the sum of a thousand dollars. * * * * * SELF-ABNEGATION. Synonyms: self-control, self-devotion, self-renunciation, self-denial, self-immolation, self-sacrifice. _Self-control_ is holding oneself within due limits in pleasures and duties, as in all things else; _self-denial_, the giving up of pleasures for the sake of duty. _Self-renunciation_ surrenders conscious rights and claims; _self-abnegation_ forgets that there is anything to surrender. There have been devotees who practised very little _self-denial_ with very much _self-renunciation_. A mother will care for a sick child with complete _self-abnegation_, but without a thought of _self-denial_. _Self-devotion_ is heart-consecration of self to a person or cause with readiness for any needed sacrifice. _Self-sacrifice_ is the strongest and completest term of all, and contemplates the gift of self as actually made. We speak of the _self-sacrifice_ of Christ, where any other of the above terms would be feeble or inappropriate. Antonyms: self-gratification, selfishness, self-seeking, self-will. self-indulgence, * * * * * SEND. Synonyms: cast, despatch, emit, impel, propel, dart, discharge, fling, lance, sling, delegate, dismiss, forward, launch, throw, depute, drive, hurl, project, transmit. To _send_ is to cause to go or pass from one place to another, and always in fact or thought away from the agent or agency that controls the act. _Send_ in its most common use involves personal agency without personal presence; according to the adage, "If you want your business done, go; if not, _send_;" one _sends_ a letter or a bullet, a messenger or a message. In all the derived uses this same idea controls; if one _sends_ a ball into his own heart, the action is away from the directing hand, and he is viewed as the passive recipient of his own act; it is with an approach to personification that we speak of the bow _sending_ the arrow, or the gun the shot. To _despatch_ is to _send_ hastily or very promptly, ordinarily with a destination in view; to _dismiss_ is to _send_ away from oneself without reference to a destination; as, to _dismiss_ a clerk, an application, or an annoying subject. To _discharge_ is to _send_ away so as to relieve a person or thing of a load; we _discharge_ a gun or _discharge_ the contents; as applied to persons, _discharge_ is a harsher term than _dismiss_. To _emit_ is to _send_ forth from within, with no reference to a destination; as, the sun _emits_ light and heat. _Transmit_, from the Latin, is a dignified term, often less vigorous than the Saxon _send_, but preferable at times in literary or scientific use; as, to _transmit_ the crown, or the feud, from generation to generation; to _transmit_ a charge of electricity. _Transmit_ fixes the attention more on the intervening agency, as _send_ does upon the points of departure and destination. Antonyms: bring, convey, give, hold, receive, carry, get, hand, keep, retain. Prepositions: To send _from_ the hand _to_ or _toward_ (rarely _at_) a mark; send _to_ a friend _by_ a messenger or _by_ mail; send a person _into_ banishment; send a shell _among_ the enemy. * * * * * SENSATION. Synonyms: emotion, feeling, perception, sense. _Sensation_ is the mind's consciousness due to a bodily affection, as of heat or cold; _perception_ is the cognition of some external object which is the cause or occasion of the _sensation_; the _sensation_ of heat may be connected with the _perception_ of a fire. While _sensations_ are connected with the body, _emotions_, as joy, grief, etc., are wholly of the mind. "As the most of them [the _sensations_] are positively agreeable or the opposite, they are nearly akin to those _emotions_, as hope or terror, or those passions, as anger and envy, which are acknowledged by all to belong exclusively to the spirit, and to involve no relation whatever to matter or the bodily organism. Such _feelings_ are not infrequently styled _sensations_, though improperly." PORTER _Human Intellect_ § 112, p. 128. [S. '90.] _Feeling_ is a general term popularly denoting what is felt, whether through the body or by the mind alone, and includes both _sensation_ and _emotion_. A _sense_ is an organ or faculty of _sensation_ or of _perception_. * * * * * SENSIBILITY. Synonyms: feeling, impressibility, sensitiveness, susceptibility. _Sensibility_ in the philosophical sense, denotes the capacity of emotion or feeling, as distinguished from the intellect and the will. (Compare synonyms for SENSATION.) In popular use _sensibility_ denotes sometimes capacity of feeling of any kind; as, _sensibility_ to heat or cold; sometimes, a peculiar readiness to be the subject of feeling, especially of the higher feelings; as, the _sensibility_ of the artist or the poet; a person of great or fine _sensibility_. _Sensitiveness_ denotes an especial delicacy of _sensibility_, ready to be excited by the slightest cause, as displayed, for instance, in the "sensitive-plant." _Susceptibility_ is rather a capacity to take up, receive, and, as it were, to contain feeling, so that a person of great _susceptibility_ is capable of being not only readily but deeply moved; _sensitiveness_ is more superficial, _susceptibility_ more pervading. Thus, in physics, the _sensitiveness_ of a magnetic needle is the ease with which it may be deflected, as by another magnet; its _susceptibility_ is the degree to which it can be magnetized by a given magnetic force or the amount of magnetism it will hold. So a person of great _sensitiveness_ is quickly and keenly affected by any external influence, as by music, pathos, or ridicule, while a person of great _susceptibility_ is not only touched, but moved to his inmost soul. Antonyms: coldness, hardness, insensibility, numbness, unconsciousness. deadness, Prepositions: The sensibility _of_ the organism _to_ atmospheric changes. * * * * * SEVERE. Synonyms: austere, inflexible, rigorous, uncompromising, hard, morose, stern, unmitigated, harsh, relentless, stiff, unrelenting, inexorable, rigid, strict, unyielding. That is _severe_ which is devoid of all softness, mildness, tenderness, indulgence or levity, or (in literature and art) devoid of unnecessary ornament, amplification, or embellishment of any kind; as, a _severe_ style; as said of anything painful, _severe_ signifies such as heavily taxes endurance or resisting power; as, a _severe_ pain, fever, or winter. _Rigid_ signifies primarily _stiff_, resisting any effort to change its shape; a corpse is said to be _rigid_ in death; hence, in metaphorical sense, a _rigid_ person or character is one that resists all efforts to change the will or course of conduct; a _rigid_ rule or statement is one that admits of no deviation. _Rigorous_ is nearly akin to _rigid_, but is a stronger word, having reference to action or active qualities, as _rigid_ does to state or character; a _rigid_ rule may be _rigorously_ enforced. _Strict_ (L. _stringo_, bind) signifies bound or stretched tight, tense, strenuously exact. _Stern_ unites harshness and authority with strictness or severity; _stern_, as said even of inanimate objects, suggests something authoritative or forbidding. _Austere_ signifies severely simple or temperate, _strict_ in self-restraint or discipline, and similarly _unrelenting_ toward others. We speak of _austere_ morality, _rigid_ rules, _rigorous_ discipline, _stern_ commands, _severe_ punishment, _harsh_ speech or a _harsh_ voice, _hard_ requirements, _strict_ injunctions, and _strict_ obedience. _Strict_ discipline holds one exactly and unflinchingly to the rule; _rigorous_ discipline punishes severely any infraction of it. The _austere_ character is seldom lovely, but it is always strong and may be grand, commanding, and estimable. Antonyms: affable, easy, gentle, lenient, pliable, sweet, tractable, bland, genial, indulgent, mild, soft, tender, yielding. * * * * * SHAKE. Synonyms: agitate, jar, quake, shiver, totter, brandish, joggle, quaver, shudder, tremble, flap, jolt, quiver, sway, vibrate, fluctuate, jounce, reel, swing, wave, flutter, oscillate, rock, thrill, waver. A thing is _shaken_ which is subjected to short and abruptly checked movements, as forward and backward, up and down, from side to side, etc. A tree is "_shaken_ with a mighty wind;" a man slowly _shakes_ his head. A thing _rocks_ that is sustained from below; it _swings_ if suspended from above, as a pendulum, or pivoted at the side, as a crane or a bridge-draw; to _oscillate_ is to _swing_ with a smooth and regular returning motion; a _vibrating_ motion may be tremulous or _jarring_. The pendulum of a clock may be said to _swing_, _vibrate_, or _oscillate_; a steel bridge _vibrates_ under the passage of a heavy train; the term _vibrate_ is also applied to molecular movements. _Jolting_ is a lifting from and letting down suddenly upon an unyielding surface; as, a carriage _jolts_ over a rough road. A _jarring_ motion is abruptly and very rapidly repeated through an exceedingly limited space; the _jolting_ of the carriage _jars_ the windows. _Rattling_ refers directly to the sound produced by _shaking_. To _joggle_ is to _shake_ slightly; as, a passing touch _joggles_ the desk on which one is writing. A thing _trembles_ that _shakes_ perceptibly and with an appearance of uncertainty and instability, as a person under the influence of fear; a thing _shivers_ when all its particles are stirred with a slight but pervading tremulous motion, as a human body under the influence of cold; _shuddering_ is a more pronounced movement of a similar kind, in human beings often the effect of emotional or moral recoil; hence, the word is applied by extension to such feelings even when they have no such outward manifestation; as, one says, "I _shudder_ at the thought." To _quiver_ is to have slight and often spasmodic contractile motions, as the flesh under the surgeon's knife. _Thrill_ is applied to a pervasive movement felt rather than seen; as, the nerves _thrill_ with delight; _quiver_ is similarly used, but suggests somewhat more of outward manifestation. To _agitate_ in its literal use is nearly the same as to _shake_, tho we speak of the sea as _agitated_ when we could not say it is _shaken_; the Latin _agitate_ is preferred in scientific or technical use to the Saxon _shake_, and especially as applied to the action of mechanical contrivances; in the metaphorical use _agitate_ is more transitory and superficial, _shake_ more fundamental and enduring; a person's feelings are _agitated_ by distressing news; his courage, his faith, his credit, or his testimony is _shaken_. _Sway_ applies to the movement of a body suspended from above or not firmly sustained from below, and the motion of which is less pronounced than _swinging_, smoother than _vibrating_, and not necessarily constant as _oscillating_; as, the _swaying_ of a reed in the wind. _Sway_ used transitively especially applies to motions of grace or dignity; _brandish_ denotes a threatening or hostile motion; a monarch _sways_ the scepter; the ruffian _brandishes_ a club. To _reel_ or _totter_ always implies liability to fall; _reeling_ is more violent than _swaying_, _tottering_ more irregular; a drunken man _reels_; we speak of the _tottering_ step of age or infancy. An extended mass which seems to lack solidity or cohesion is said to _quake_; as, a _quaking_ bog. _Quaver_ is applied almost exclusively to tremulous sounds of the human voice. _Flap_, _flutter_, and _fluctuate_ refer to wave-like movements, _flap_ generally to such as produce a sharp sound; a cock _flaps_ his wings; _flutter_ applies to a less pronounced and more irregular motion; a captive bird or a feeble pulse _flutters_. Compare FLUCTUATE. * * * * * SHELTER. Synonyms: cover, guard, protect, shield, defend, harbor, screen, ward. Anything is _covered_ over which something is completely extended; a vessel is _covered_ with a lid; the head is _covered_ with a hat. That which _covers_ may also _defend_ or _protect_; thus, troops interposed between some portion of their own army and the enemy are often called a _covering_ party. To _shelter_ is to _cover_ so as to _protect_ from injury or annoyance; as, the roof _shelters_ from the storm; woods _shelter_ from the heat. To _defend_ (L. _defendere_, to strike away) implies the actual, _protect_ (L. _protegere_, to cover before) implies the possible use of force or resisting power; _guard_ implies sustained vigilance with readiness for conflict; we _defend_ a person or thing against actual attack; we _guard_ or _protect_ against possible assault or injury. A powerful person may _protect_ one who is weak by simply declaring himself his friend; he _defends_ him by some form of active championship. An inanimate object may _protect_, as a garment from cold; _defend_ is used but rarely, and by somewhat violent metaphor, in such connection. _Protect_ is more complete than _guard_ or _defend_; an object may be faithfully _guarded_ or bravely _defended_ in vain, but that which is _protected_ is secure. To _shield_ is to interpose something over or before that which is assailed, so as to save from harm, and has a comparatively passive sense; one may _guard_ another by standing armed at his side, _defend_ him by fighting for him, or _shield_ him from a missile or a blow by interposing his own person. _Harbor_ is generally used in an unfavorable sense; confederates or sympathizers _harbor_ a criminal; a person _harbors_ evil thoughts or designs. See CHERISH. Compare synonyms for HIDE; DEFENSE. Antonyms: betray, expel, expose, give up, refuse, reject, surrender. cast out, Prepositions: Shelter _under_ a roof _from_ the storm; _in_ the fortress, _behind_ or _within_ the walls, _from_ attack. * * * * * SIGN. Synonyms: emblem, mark, presage, symbol, token, indication, note, prognostic, symptom, type. manifestation, omen, signal, A _sign_ (L. _signum_) is any distinctive _mark_ by which a thing may be recognized or its presence known, and may be intentional or accidental, natural or artificial, suggestive, descriptive, or wholly arbitrary; thus, a blush may be a _sign_ of shame; the footprint of an animal is a _sign_ that it has passed; the _sign_ of a business house now usually declares what is done or kept within, but formerly might be an object having no connection with the business, as "the _sign_ of the trout;" the letters of the alphabet are _signs_ of certain sounds. While a _sign_ may be involuntary, and even unconscious, a _signal_ is always voluntary, and is usually concerted; a ship may show _signs_ of distress to the casual observer, but _signals_ of distress are a distinct appeal for aid. A _symptom_ is a vital phenomenon resulting from a diseased condition; in medical language a _sign_ is an _indication_ of any physical condition, whether morbid or healthy; thus, a hot skin and rapid pulse are _symptoms_ of pneumonia; dulness of some portion of the lungs under percussion is one of the physical _signs_. Compare AUGUR; CHARACTERISTIC; EMBLEM. * * * * * SIN. Synonyms: crime, fault, misdeed, vice, criminality, guilt, offense, viciousness, delinquency, ill-doing, transgression, wickedness, depravity, immorality, ungodliness, wrong, evil, iniquity, unrighteousness, wrong-doing. _Sin_ is any lack of holiness, any defect of moral purity and truth, whether in heart or life, whether of commission or omission. "All _unrighteousness_ is _sin_," _1 John_ v, 17. _Transgression_, as its etymology indicates, is the stepping over a specific enactment, whether of God or man, ordinarily by overt act, but in the broadest sense, in volition or desire. _Sin_ may be either act or state; _transgression_ is always an act, mental or physical. _Crime_ is often used for a flagrant violation of right, but in the technical sense denotes specific violation of human law. _Guilt_ is desert of and exposure to punishment because of _sin_. _Depravity_ denotes not any action, but a perverted moral condition from which any act of _sin_ may proceed. _Sin_ in the generic sense, as denoting a state of heart, is synonymous with _depravity_; in the specific sense, as in the expression a _sin_, the term may be synonymous with _transgression_, _crime_, _offense_, _misdeed_, etc., or may denote some moral activity that could not be characterized by terms so positive. _Immorality_ denotes outward violation of the moral law. _Sin_ is thus the broadest word, and _immorality_ next in scope; all _crimes_, properly so called, and all _immoralities_, are _sins_; but there may be _sin_, as ingratitude, which is neither _crime_, _transgression_, nor _immorality_; and there may be _immorality_ which is not _crime_, as falsehood. Compare CRIMINAL. Antonyms: blamelessness, goodness, integrity, rectitude, sinlessness, excellence, holiness, morality, right, uprightness, godliness, innocence, purity, righteousness, virtue. Compare synonyms for VIRTUE. * * * * * SING. Synonyms: carol, chant, chirp, chirrup, hum, warble. To _sing_ is primarily and ordinarily to utter a succession of articulate musical sounds with the human voice. The word has come to include any succession of musical sounds; we say the bird or the rivulet _sings_; we speak of "the _singing_ quality" of an instrument, and by still wider extension of meaning we say the teakettle or the cricket _sings_. To _chant_ is to _sing_ in solemn and somewhat uniform cadence; _chant_ is ordinarily applied to non-metrical religious compositions. To _carol_ is to _sing_ joyously, and to _warble_ (kindred with _whirl_) is to _sing_ with trills or quavers, usually also with the idea of joy. _Carol_ and _warble_ are especially applied to the _singing_ of birds. To _chirp_ is to utter a brief musical sound, perhaps often repeated in the same key, as by certain small birds, insects, etc. To _chirrup_ is to utter a somewhat similar sound; the word is often used of a brief, sharp sound uttered as a signal to animate or rouse a horse or other animal. To _hum_ is to utter murmuring sounds with somewhat monotonous musical cadence, usually with closed lips; we speak also of the _hum_ of machinery, etc. * * * * * SKEPTIC. Synonyms: agnostic, deist, doubter, infidel, unbeliever. atheist, disbeliever, freethinker, The _skeptic_ doubts divine revelation; the _disbeliever_ and the _unbeliever_ reject it, the _disbeliever_ with more of intellectual dissent, the _unbeliever_ (in the common acceptation) with indifference or with opposition of heart as well as of intellect. _Infidel_ is an opprobrious term that might once almost have been said to be geographical in its range. The Crusaders called all Mohammedans _infidels_, and were so called by them in return; the word is commonly applied to any decided opponent of an accepted religion. The _atheist_ denies that there is a God; the _deist_ admits the existence of God, but denies that the Christian Scriptures are a revelation from him; the _agnostic_ denies either that we do know or that we can know whether there is a God. Antonyms: believer, Christian. * * * * * SKETCH. Synonyms: brief, draft, outline, plan, design, drawing, picture, skeleton. A _sketch_ is a rough, suggestive presentation of anything, whether graphic or literary, commonly intended to be preliminary to a more complete or extended treatment. An _outline_ gives only the bounding or determining lines of a figure or a scene; a _sketch_ may give not only lines, but shading and color, but is hasty and incomplete. The lines of a _sketch_ are seldom so full and continuous as those of an _outline_, being, like the shading or color, little more than indications or suggestions according to which a finished _picture_ may be made; the artist's first representation of a sunset, the hues of which change so rapidly, must of necessity be a _sketch_. _Draft_ and _plan_ apply especially to mechanical drawing, of which _outline_, _sketch_, and _drawing_ are also used; a _plan_ is strictly a view from above, as of a building or machine, giving the lines of a horizontal section, originally at the level of the ground, now in a wider sense at any height; as, a _plan_ of the cellar; a _plan_ of the attic. A mechanical _drawing_ is always understood to be in full detail; a _draft_ is an incomplete or unfinished _drawing_; a _design_ is such a preliminary _sketch_ as indicates the object to be accomplished or the result to be attained, and is understood to be original. One may make a _drawing_ of any well-known mechanism, or a _drawing_ from another man's _design_; but if he says, "The _design_ is mine," he claims it as his own invention or composition. In written composition an _outline_ gives simply the main divisions, and in the case of a sermon is often called a _skeleton_; a somewhat fuller suggestion of illustration, treatment, and style is given in a _sketch_. A lawyer's _brief_ is a succinct statement of the main facts involved in a case, and of the main heads of his argument on points of law, with reference to authorities cited; the _brief_ has none of the vagueness of a _sketch_, being sufficiently exact and complete to form, on occasion, the basis for the decision of the court without oral argument, when the case is said to be "submitted on _brief_." Compare DESIGN. * * * * * SKILFUL. Synonyms: accomplished, apt, dexterous, happy, proficient, adept, clever, expert, ingenious, skilled, adroit, deft, handy, practised, trained. _Skilful_ signifies possessing and using readily practical knowledge and ability, having alert and well-trained faculties with reference to a given work. One is _adept_ in that for which he has a natural gift improved by practise; he is _expert_ in that of which training, experience, and study have given him a thorough mastery; he is _dexterous_ in that which he can do effectively, with or without training, especially in work of the hand or bodily activities. In the case of the noun, "an expert" denotes one who is "experienced" in the fullest sense, a master of his branch of knowledge. A _skilled_ workman is one who has thoroughly learned his trade, though he may be naturally quite dull; a _skilful_ workman has some natural brightness, ability, and power of adaptation, in addition to his acquired knowledge and dexterity. Compare CLEVER; DEXTERITY; POWER. Antonyms: awkward, clumsy, inexpert, shiftless, unskilled, untrained. bungling, helpless, maladroit, unhandy, untaught, Prepositions: Skilful _at_ or _in_ a work, _with_ a pen or tool of any kind. * * * * * SLANDER. Synonyms: asperse, decry, disparage, revile, backbite, defame, libel, traduce, calumniate, depreciate, malign, vilify. To _slander_ a person is to utter a false and injurious report concerning him; to _defame_ is specifically and directly to attack one's reputation; to _defame_ by spoken words is to _slander_, by written words, to _libel_. To _asperse_ is, as it were, to bespatter with injurious charges; to _malign_ is to circulate studied and malicious attacks upon character; to _traduce_ is to exhibit one's real or assumed traits in an odious light; to _revile_ or _vilify_ is to attack with vile abuse. To _disparage_ is to represent one's admitted good traits or acts as less praiseworthy than they would naturally be thought to be, as for instance, by ascribing a man's benevolence to a desire for popularity or display. To _libel_ or _slander_ is to make an assault upon character and repute that comes within the scope of law; the _slander_ is uttered, the _libel_ written, printed, or pictured. To _backbite_ is to speak something secretly to one's injury; to _calumniate_ is to invent as well as utter the injurious charge. One may "abuse," "assail," or _vilify_ another to his face; he _asperses_, _calumniates_, _slanders_, or _traduces_ him behind his back. Antonyms: defend, eulogize, extol, laud, praise, vindicate. * * * * * SLANG. Synonyms: cant, colloquialism, vulgarism, vulgarity. A _colloquialism_ is an expression not coarse or low, and perhaps not incorrect, but below the literary grade; educated persons are apt to allow themselves some _colloquialisms_ in familiar conversation, which they would avoid in writing or public speaking. _Slang_, in the primary sense, denotes expressions that are either coarse and rude in themselves or chiefly current among the coarser and ruder part of the community; there are also many expressions current in special senses in certain communities that may be characterized as _slang_; as, college _slang_; club _slang_; racing _slang_. In the evolution of language many words originally _slang_ are adopted by good writers and speakers, and ultimately take their place as accepted English. A _vulgarism_ is an expression decidedly incorrect, and the use of which is a mark of ignorance or low breeding. _Cant_, as used in this connection, denotes the barbarous jargon used as a secret language by thieves, tramps, etc. Compare DICTION; LANGUAGE. * * * * * SLOW. Synonyms: dawdling, dilatory, gradual, lingering, slack, delaying, drowsy, inactive, moderate, sluggish, deliberate, dull, inert, procrastinating, tardy. _Slow_ signifies moving through a relatively short distance, or with a relatively small number of motions in a given time; _slow_ also applies to that which is a relatively long while in beginning or accomplishing something; a watch or a clock is said to be _slow_ when its indications are behind those of the standard time. _Tardy_ is applied to that which is behind the proper or desired time, especially in doing a work or arriving at a place. _Deliberate_ and _dilatory_ are used of persons, tho the latter may be used also of things, as of a stream; a person is _deliberate_ who takes a noticeably long time to consider and decide before acting or who acts or speaks as if he were deliberating at every point; a person is _dilatory_ who lays aside, or puts off as long as possible, necessary or required action; both words may be applied either to undertaking or to doing. _Gradual_ (L. _gradus_, a step) signifies advancing by steps, and refers to _slow_ but regular and sure progression. _Slack_ refers to action that seems to indicate a lack of tension, as of muscle or of will, _sluggish_ to action that seems as if reluctant to advance. Antonyms: See synonyms for NIMBLE. * * * * * SNEER. Synonyms: fling, gibe, jeer, mock, scoff, taunt. A _sneer_ may be simply a contemptuous facial contortion, or it may be some brief satirical utterance that throws a contemptuous side-light on what it attacks without attempting to prove or disprove; a depreciatory implication may be given in a _sneer_ such as could only be answered by elaborate argument or proof, which would seem to give the attack undue importance: Who can refute a _sneer_? PALEY _Moral Philosophy_ bk. v, ch. ix. A _fling_ is careless and commonly pettish; a _taunt_ is intentionally insulting and provoking; the _sneer_ is supercilious; the _taunt_ is defiant. The _jeer_ and _gibe_ are uttered; the _gibe_ is bitter, and often sly or covert; the _jeer_ is rude and open. A _scoff_ may be in act or word, and is commonly directed against that which claims honor, reverence, or worship. Compare BANTER. Preposition: Only an essentially vicious mind is capable of a sneer _at_ virtue. * * * * * SOCIALISM. Synonyms: collectivism, communism, fabianism. _Socialism_, as defined by its advocates, is a theory of civil polity that aims to secure the reconstruction of society, increase of wealth, and a more equal distribution of the products of labor through the public collective ownership of land and capital (as distinguished from property), and the public collective management of all industries. Its aim is extended industrial cooperation; _socialism_ is a purely economic term, applying to landownership and productive capital. Many socialists call themselves _collectivists_, and their system _collectivism_. _Communism_ would divide all things, including the profits of individual labor, among members of the community; many of its advocates would abolish marriage and the family relation. _Anarchism_ is properly an antonym of _socialism_, as it would destroy, by violence if necessary, all existing government and social order, leaving the future to determine what, if anything, should be raised upon their ruins. * * * * * SOUND. Synonyms: noise, note, tone. _Sound_ is the sensation produced through the organs of hearing or the physical cause of this sensation. _Sound_ is the most comprehensive word of this group, applying to anything that is audible. _Tone_ is _sound_ considered as having some musical quality or as expressive of some feeling; _noise_ is _sound_ considered without reference to musical quality or as distinctly unmusical or discordant. Thus, in the most general sense _noise_ and _sound_ scarcely differ, and we say almost indifferently, "I heard a _sound_," or "I heard a _noise_." We speak of a fine, musical, or pleasing _sound_, but never thus of a _noise_. In music, _tone_ may denote either a musical _sound_ or the interval between two such _sounds_, but in the most careful usage the latter is now distinguished as the "interval," leaving _tone_ to stand only for the _sound_. _Note_ in music strictly denotes the character representing a _sound_, but in loose popular usage it denotes the _sound_ also, and becomes practically equivalent to _tone_. Aside from its musical use, _tone_ is chiefly applied to that quality of the human voice by which feeling is expressed; as, he spoke in a cheery _tone_; the word is similarly applied to the voices of birds and other animals, and sometimes to inanimate objects. As used of a musical instrument, _tone_ denotes the general quality of its sounds collectively considered. * * * * * SPEAK. Synonyms: announce, converse, discourse, say, articulate, declaim, enunciate, talk, chat, declare, express, tell, chatter, deliver, pronounce, utter. To _utter_ is to give forth as an audible sound, articulate or not. To _talk_ is to _utter_ a succession of connected words, ordinarily with the expectation of being listened to. To _speak_ is to give articulate utterance even to a single word; the officer _speaks_ the word of command, but does not _talk_ it. To _speak_ is also to _utter_ words with the ordinary intonation, as distinguished from singing. To _chat_ is ordinarily to _utter_ in a familiar, conversational way; to _chatter_ is to _talk_ in an empty, ceaseless way like a magpie. Prepositions: Speak _to_ (address) a person; speak _with_ a person (converse with him); speak _of_ or _about_ a thing (make it the subject of remark); speak _on_ or _upon_ a subject; in parliamentary language, speak _to_ the question. * * * * * SPEECH. Synonyms: address, dissertation, oration, speaking, discourse, harangue, oratory, talk, disquisition, language, sermon, utterance. _Speech_ is the general word for _utterance_ of thought in _language_. A _speech_ may be the delivering of one's sentiments in the simplest way; an _oration_ is an elaborate and prepared _speech_; a _harangue_ is a vehement appeal to passion, or a _speech_ that has something disputatious and combative in it. A _discourse_ is a set _speech_ on a definite subject, intended to convey instruction. Compare CONVERSATION; DICTION; LANGUAGE. Antonyms: hush, silence, speechlessness, stillness, taciturnity. * * * * * SPONTANEOUS. Synonyms: automatic, impulsive, involuntary, voluntary, free, instinctive, unbidden, willing. That is _spontaneous_ which is freely done, with no external compulsion and, in human actions, without special premeditation or distinct determination of the will; that is _voluntary_ which is freely done with distinct act of will; that is _involuntary_ which is independent of the will, and perhaps in opposition to it; a _willing_ act is not only in accordance with will, but with desire. Thus _voluntary_ and _involuntary_, which are antonyms of each other, are both partial synonyms of _spontaneous_. We speak of _spontaneous_ generation, _spontaneous_ combustion, _spontaneous_ sympathy, an _involuntary_ start, an _unbidden_ tear, _voluntary_ agreement, _willing_ submission. A babe's smile in answer to that of its mother is _spontaneous_; the smile of a pouting child wheedled into good humor is _involuntary_. In physiology the action of the heart and lungs is called _involuntary_; the growth of the hair and nails is _spontaneous_; the action of swallowing is _voluntary_ up to a certain point, beyond which it becomes _involuntary_ or _automatic_. In the fullest sense of that which is not only without the will but distinctly in opposition to it, or compulsory, _involuntary_ becomes an antonym, not only of _voluntary_ but of _spontaneous_; as, _involuntary_ servitude. A _spontaneous_ outburst of applause is of necessity an act of volition, but so completely dependent on sympathetic impulse that it would seem frigid to call it _voluntary_, while to call it _involuntary_ would imply some previous purpose or inclination not to applaud. * * * * * SPY. Synonyms: detective, emissary, scout. The _scout_ and the _spy_ are both employed to obtain information of the numbers, movements, etc., of an enemy. The _scout_ lurks on the outskirts of the hostile army with such concealment as the case admits of, but without disguise; a _spy_ enters in disguise within the enemy's lines. A _scout_, if captured, has the rights of a prisoner of war; a _spy_ is held to have forfeited all rights, and is liable, in case of capture, to capital punishment. An _emissary_ is rather political than military; sent rather to secretly influence opponents than to bring information concerning them; so far as he does the latter, he is not only an _emissary_, but a _spy_. * * * * * STAIN. Synonyms: blot, discolor, dishonor, soil, sully, tinge, color, disgrace, dye, spot, tarnish, tint. To _color_ is to impart a color desired or undesired, temporary or permanent, or, in the intransitive use, to assume a color in any way; as, he _colored_ with shame and vexation. To _dye_ is to impart a color intentionally and with a view to permanence, and especially so as to pervade the substance or fiber of that to which it is applied. To _stain_ is primarily to _discolor_, to impart a color undesired and perhaps unintended, and which may or may not be permanent. Thus, a character "_dyed_ in the wool" is one that has received some early, permanent, and pervading influence; a character _stained_ with crime or guilt is debased and perverted. _Stain_ is, however, used of giving an intended and perhaps pleasing color to wood, glass, etc., by an application of coloring-matter which enters the substance a little below the surface, in distinction from painting, in which coloring-matter is spread upon the surface; _dyeing_ is generally said of wool, yarn, cloth, or similar materials which are dipped into the _coloring_ liquid. Figuratively, a standard or a garment may be _dyed_ with blood in honorable warfare; an assassin's weapon is _stained_ with the blood of his victim. To _tinge_ is to _color_ slightly, and may also be used of giving a slight flavor, or a slight admixture of one ingredient or quality with another that is more pronounced. * * * * * STATE. Synonyms: affirm, aver, declare, predicate, set forth, allege, avouch, depose, pronounce, specify, assert, avow, express, propound, swear, asseverate, certify, inform, protest, tell, assure, claim, maintain, say, testify. To _state_ (L. _sto_, stand) is to _set forth_ explicitly, formally, or particularly in speech or writing. _Assert_ (L. _ad_, to, and _sero_, bind) is strongly personal, signifying to _state_ boldly and positively what the one making the statement has not attempted and may not attempt to prove. _Affirm_ has less of egotism than _assert_ (as seen in the word _self-assertion_), coming nearer to _aver_. It has more solemnity than _declare_, and more composure and dignity than _asseverate_, which is to _assert_ excitedly. In legal usage, _affirm_ has a general agreement with _depose_ and _testify_; it differs from _swear_ in not invoking the name of God. To _assure_ is to _state_ with such authority and confidence as the speaker feels ought to make the hearer sure. _Certify_ is more formal, and applies rather to written documents or legal processes. _Assure_, _certify_, _inform_, apply to the person; _affirm_, etc., to the thing. _Assert_ is combative; _assure_ is conciliatory. I _assert_ my right to cross the river; I _assure_ my friend it is perfectly safe. To _aver_ is to _state_ positively what is within one's own knowledge or matter of deep conviction. One may _assert_ himself, or _assert_ his right to what he is willing to contend for; or he may _assert_ in discussion what he is ready to maintain by argument or evidence. To _assert_ without proof is always to lay oneself open to the suspicion of having no proof to offer, and seems to arrogate too much to one's personal authority, and hence in such cases both the verb _assert_ and its noun _assertion_ have an unfavorable sense; we say a mere _assertion_, a bare _assertion_, his unsupported _assertion_; he _asserted_ his innocence has less force than he _affirmed_ or _maintained_ his innocence. _Affirm_, _state_, and _tell_ have not the controversial sense of _assert_, but are simply declarative. To _vindicate_ is to defend successfully what is assailed. Almost every criminal will _assert_ his innocence; the honest man will seldom lack means to _vindicate_ his integrity. Antonyms: contradict, controvert, disprove, gainsay, refute, retract, contravene, deny, dispute, oppose, repudiate, waive. * * * * * STEEP. Synonyms: abrupt, high, precipitous, sharp, sheer. _High_ is used of simple elevation; _steep_ is said only of an incline where the vertical measurement is sufficiently great in proportion to the horizontal to make it difficult of ascent. _Steep_ is relative; an ascent of 100 feet to the mile on a railway is a _steep_ grade; a rise of 500 feet to the mile makes a _steep_ wagon-road; a roof is _steep_ when it makes with the horizontal line an angle of more than 45°. A _high_ mountain may be climbed by a winding road nowhere _steep_, while a little hill may be accessible only by a _steep_ path. A _sharp_ ascent or descent is one that makes a sudden, decided angle with the plane from which it starts; a _sheer_ ascent or descent is perpendicular, or nearly so; _precipitous_ applies to that which is of the nature of a precipice, and is used especially of a descent; _abrupt_ is as if broken sharply off, and applies to either acclivity or declivity. Compare HIGH. Antonyms: easy, flat, gentle, gradual, horizontal, level, low, slight. * * * * * STORM. Synonyms: agitation, disturbance, tempest. A _storm_ is properly a _disturbance_ of the atmosphere, with or without rain, snow, hail, or thunder and lightning. Thus we have rain-_storm_, snow-_storm_, etc., and by extension, magnetic _storm_. A _tempest_ is a _storm_ of extreme violence, always attended with some precipitation, as of rain, from the atmosphere. In the moral and figurative use, _storm_ and _tempest_ are not closely discriminated, except that _tempest_ commonly implies greater intensity. We speak of _agitation_ of feeling, _disturbance_ of mind, a _storm_ of passion, a _tempest_ of rage. Antonyms: calm, fair weather, hush, peace, serenity, stillness, tranquillity. * * * * * STORY. Synonyms: account, legend, narrative, recital, relation, anecdote, myth, novel, record, tale. incident, narration, A _story_ is the telling of some series of connected incidents or events, whether real or fictitious, in prose or verse, orally or in writing; or the series of incidents or events thus related may be termed a _story_. In children's talk, a _story_ is a common euphemism for a falsehood. _Tale_ is nearly synonymous with _story_, but is somewhat archaic; it is used for an imaginative, legendary, or fictitious _recital_, especially if of ancient date; as, a fairy _tale_; also, for an idle or malicious report; as, do not tell _tales_; "where there is no _tale_-bearer, the strife ceaseth." _Prov._ xxvi, 20. An _anecdote_ tells briefly some _incident_, assumed to be fact. If it passes close limits of brevity, it ceases to be an _anecdote_, and becomes a _narrative_ or _narration_. A traditional or mythical _story_ of ancient times is a _legend_. A history is often somewhat poetically called a _story_; as, the _story_ of the American civil war. Compare ALLEGORY; FICTION; HISTORY. Antonyms: annals, biography, chronicle, history, memoir. * * * * * STUPIDITY. Synonyms: apathy, insensibility, slowness, stupefaction, dulness, obtuseness, sluggishness, stupor. _Stupidity_ is sometimes loosely used for temporary _dulness_ or partial _stupor_, but chiefly for innate and chronic _dulness_ and _sluggishness_ of mental action, _obtuseness_ of apprehension, etc. _Apathy_ may be temporary, and be dispelled by appeal to the feelings or by the presentation of an adequate motive, but _stupidity_ is inveterate and commonly incurable. Compare APATHY; IDIOCY; STUPOR. Antonyms: acuteness, brilliancy, keenness, sagacity, alertness, cleverness, quickness, sense, animation, intelligence, readiness, sensibility. * * * * * STUPOR. Synonyms: apathy, fainting, stupefaction, syncope, asphyxia, insensibility, swoon, torpor, coma, lethargy, swooning, unconsciousness. _Stupor_ is a condition of the body in which the action of the senses and faculties is suspended or greatly dulled--weakness or loss of sensibility. The _apathy_ of disease is a mental affection, a state of morbid indifference; _lethargy_ is a morbid tendency to heavy and continued sleep, from which the patient may perhaps be momentarily aroused. _Coma_ is a deep, abnormal sleep, from which the patient can not be aroused, or is aroused only with difficulty, a state of profound _insensibility_, perhaps with full pulse and deep, stertorous breathing, and is due to brain-oppression. _Syncope_ or _swooning_ is a sudden loss of sensation and of power of motion, with suspension of pulse and of respiration, and is due to failure of heart-action, as from sudden nervous shock or intense mental emotion. _Insensibility_ is a general term denoting loss of feeling from any cause, as from cold, intoxication, or injury. _Stupor_ is especially profound and confirmed _insensibility_, properly comatose. _Asphyxia_ is a special form of _syncope_ resulting from partial or total suspension of respiration, as in strangulation, drowning, or inhalation of noxious gases. * * * * * SUBJECTIVE. Synonym: objective. _Subjective_ and _objective_ are synonyms in but one point of view, being, for the most part, strictly antonyms. _Subjective_ signifies relating to the subject of mental states, that is, to the person who experiences them; _objective_ signifies relating to the object of mental states, that is, to something outside the perceiving mind; in brief phrase it may be said that _subjective_ relates to something within the mind, _objective_ to something without. A mountain, as a mass of a certain size, contour, color, etc., is an _objective_ fact; the impression our mind receives, the mental picture it forms of the mountain, is _subjective_. But this _subjective_ impression may become itself the object of thought (called "subject-object"), as when we compare our mental picture of the mountain with our idea of a plain or river. The direct experiences of the soul, as joy, grief, hope, fear, are purely _subjective_; the outward causes of these experiences, as prosperity, bereavement, disappointment, are _objective_. That which has independent existence or authority apart from our experience or thought is said to have _objective_ existence or authority; thus we speak of the _objective_ authority of the moral law. Different individuals may receive different _subjective_ impressions from the same _objective_ fact, that which to one is a cause of hope being to another a cause of fear, etc. The style of a writer is called _objective_ when it derives its materials mainly from or reaches out toward external objects; it is called _subjective_ when it derives its materials mainly from or constantly tends to revert to the personal experience of the author. Compare INHERENT. * * * * * SUBSIDY. Synonyms: aid, bounty, indemnity, reward, support, allowance, gift, pension, subvention, tribute. bonus, grant, premium, A _subsidy_ is pecuniary aid directly granted by government to an individual or commercial enterprise, or money furnished by one nation to another to aid it in carrying on war against a common enemy. A nation grants a _subsidy_ to an ally, pays a _tribute_ to a conqueror. An _indemnity_ is in the nature of things limited and temporary, while a _tribute_ might be exacted indefinitely. A nation may also grant a _subsidy_ to its own citizens as a means of promoting the public welfare; as, a _subsidy_ to a steamship company. The somewhat rare term _subvention_ is especially applied to a _grant_ of governmental aid to a literary or artistic enterprise. Governmental _aid_ to a commercial or industrial enterprise other than a transportation company is more frequently called a _bounty_ than a _subsidy_; as, the sugar _bounty_. The word _bounty_ may be applied to almost any regular or stipulated _allowance_ by a government to a citizen or citizens; as, a _bounty_ for enlisting in the army; a _bounty_ for killing wolves. A _bounty_ is offered for something to be done; a _pension_ is granted for something that has been done. * * * * * SUBVERT. Synonyms: destroy, overthrow, ruin, supplant, extinguish, overturn, supersede, suppress. To _subvert_ is to overthrow from or as from the very foundation; utterly destroy; bring to ruin. The word is now generally figurative, as of moral or political ruin. To _supersede_ implies the putting of something that is wisely or unwisely preferred in the place of that which is removed; to _subvert_ does not imply substitution. To _supplant_ is more often personal, signifying to take the place of another, usually by underhanded means; one is _superseded_ by authority, _supplanted_ by a rival. Compare ABOLISH. Antonyms: conserve, keep, perpetuate, preserve, sustain, uphold. * * * * * SUCCEED. Synonyms: achieve, attain, flourish, prevail, prosper, thrive, win. A person _succeeds_ when he accomplishes what he attempts, or _attains_ a desired object or result; an enterprise or undertaking _succeeds_ that has a prosperous result. To _win_ implies that some one loses, but one may _succeed_ where no one fails. A solitary swimmer _succeeds_ in reaching the shore; if we say he _wins_ the shore we contrast him with himself as a possible loser. Many students may _succeed_ in study; a few _win_ the special prizes, for which all compete. Compare FOLLOW. Antonyms: be defeated, come short, fail, fall short, lose, miss, miscarry. * * * * * SUGGESTION. Synonyms: hint, implication, innuendo, insinuation, intimation. A _suggestion_ (L. _sub_, under, and _gero_, bring) brings something before the mind less directly than by formal or explicit statement, as by a partial statement, an incidental allusion, an illustration, a question, or the like. _Suggestion_ is often used of an unobtrusive statement of one's views or wishes to another, leaving consideration and any consequent action entirely to his judgment, and is hence, in many cases, the most respectful way in which one can convey his views to a superior or a stranger. A _suggestion_ may be given unintentionally, and even unconsciously, as when we say an author has "a _suggestive_ style." An _intimation_ is a _suggestion_ in brief utterance, or sometimes by significant act, gesture, or token, of one's meaning or wishes; in the latter case it is often the act of a superior; as, God in his providence gives us _intimations_ of his will. A _hint_ is still more limited in expression, and is always covert, but frequently with good intent; as, to give one a _hint_ of danger or of opportunity. _Insinuation_ and _innuendo_ are used in the bad sense; an _insinuation_ is a covert or partly veiled injurious utterance, sometimes to the very person attacked; an _innuendo_ is commonly secret as well as sly, as if pointing one out by a significant nod (L. _in_, in, to, and _nuo_, nod). * * * * * SUPERNATURAL. Synonyms: miraculous, preternatural, superhuman. The _supernatural_ (_super_, above) is above or superior to the recognized powers of nature; the _preternatural_ (_preter_, beyond) is aside from or beyond the recognized results or operations of natural law, often in the sense of inauspicious; as, a _preternatural_ gloom. _Miraculous_ is more emphatic and specific than _supernatural_, as referring to the direct personal intervention of divine power. Some hold that a miracle, as the raising of the dead, is a direct suspension and even violation of natural laws by the fiat of the Creator, and hence is, in the strictest sense, _supernatural_; others hold that the miracle is simply the calling forth of a power residing in the laws of nature, but not within their ordinary operation, and dependent on a distinct act of God, so that the _miraculous_ might be termed "extranatural," rather than _supernatural_. All that is beyond human power is _superhuman_; as, prophecy gives evidence of _superhuman_ knowledge; the word is sometimes applied to remarkable manifestations of human power, surpassing all that is ordinary. Antonyms: common, commonplace, everyday, natural, ordinary, usual. * * * * * SUPPORT. Synonyms: bear, cherish, keep, maintain, sustain, carry, hold up, keep up, prop, uphold. _Support_ and _sustain_ alike signify to _hold up_ or _keep up_, to prevent from falling or sinking; but _sustain_ has a special sense of continuous exertion or of great strength continuously exerted, as when we speak of _sustained_ endeavor or a _sustained_ note; a flower is _supported_ by the stem or a temple-roof by arches; the foundations of a great building _sustain_ an enormous pressure; to _sustain_ life implies a greater exigency and need than to _support_ life; to say one is _sustained_ under affliction is to say more both of the severity of the trial and the completeness of the _upholding_ than if we say he is _supported_. To _bear_ is the most general word, denoting all _holding up_ or _keeping up_ of any object, whether in rest or motion; in the derived senses it refers to something that is a tax upon strength or endurance; as, to _bear_ a strain; to _bear_ pain or grief. To _maintain_ is to _keep_ in a state or condition, especially in an excellent and desirable condition; as, to _maintain_ health or reputation; to _maintain_ one's position; to _maintain_ a cause or proposition is to hold it against opposition or difficulty. To _support_ may be partial, to _maintain_ is complete; _maintain_ is a word of more dignity than _support_; a man _supports_ his family; a state _maintains_ an army or navy. To _prop_ is always partial, signifying to add _support_ to something that is insecure. Compare ABET; ENDURE; KEEP. Antonyms: abandon, break down, demolish, destroy, let go, throw down, betray, cast down, desert, drop, overthrow, wreck. Prepositions: The roof is supported _by_, _on_, or _upon_ pillars; the family was supported _on_ or _upon_ a pittance, or _by_ charity. * * * * * SUPPOSE. Synonyms: conjecture, deem, guess, imagine, surmise, think. To _suppose_ is temporarily to assume a thing as true, either with the expectation of finding it so or for the purpose of ascertaining what would follow if it were so. To _suppose_ is also to think a thing to be true while aware or conceding that the belief does not rest upon any sure ground, and may not accord with fact; or yet again, to _suppose_ is to imply as true or involved as a necessary inference; as, design _supposes_ the existence of a designer. To _conjecture_ is to put together the nearest available materials for a provisional opinion, always with some expectation of finding the facts to be as _conjectured_. To _imagine_ is to form a mental image of something as existing, tho its actual existence may be unknown, or even impossible. To _think_, in this application, is to hold as the result of thought what is admitted not to be matter of exact or certain knowledge; as, I do not know, but I _think_ this to be the fact: a more conclusive statement than would be made by the use of _conjecture_ or _suppose_. Compare DOUBT; HYPOTHESIS. Antonyms: ascertain, be sure, conclude, discover, know, prove. * * * * * SURRENDER. Synonyms: abandon, cede, give over, relinquish, alienate, give, give up, sacrifice, capitulate, give oneself up, let go, yield. To _surrender_ is to _give up_ upon compulsion, as to an enemy in war, hence to _give up_ to any person, passion, influence, or power. To _yield_ is to give place or give way under pressure, and hence under compulsion. _Yield_ implies more softness or concession than _surrender_; the most determined men may _surrender_ to overwhelming force; when one _yields_, his spirit is at least somewhat subdued. A monarch or a state _cedes_ territory perhaps for a consideration; _surrenders_ an army, a navy, or a fortified place to a conqueror; a military commander _abandons_ an untenable position or unavailable stores. We _sacrifice_ something precious through error, friendship, or duty, _yield_ to convincing reasons, a stronger will, winsome persuasion, or superior force. Compare ABANDON. * * * * * SYNONYMOUS. Synonyms: alike, equivalent, like, similar, correspondent, identical, same, synonymic. corresponding, interchangeable, _Synonymous_ (Gr. _syn_, together, and _onyma_, name) strictly signifies being _interchangeable_ names for the same thing, or being one of two or more _interchangeable_ names for the same thing; to say that two words are _synonymous_ is strictly to say they are _alike_, _equivalent_, _identical_, or the _same_ in meaning; but the use of _synonymous_ in this strict sense is somewhat rare, and rather with reference to statements than to words. To say that we are morally developed is _synonymous_ with saying that we have reaped what some one has suffered for us. H. W. BEECHER _Royal Truths_ p. 294. [T. & F. '66.] In the strictest sense, _synonymous_ words scarcely exist; rarely, if ever, are any two words in any language _equivalent_ or _identical_ in meaning; where a difference in meaning can not easily be shown, a difference in usage commonly exists, so that the words are not _interchangeable_. By _synonymous_ words (or _synonyms_) we usually understand words that coincide or nearly coincide in some part of their meaning, and may hence within certain limits be used interchangeably, while outside of those limits they may differ very greatly in meaning and use. It is the office of a work on synonyms to point out these correspondences and differences, that language may have the flexibility that comes from freedom of selection within the common limits, with the perspicuity and precision that result from exact choice of the fittest words to express each shade of meaning outside of the common limits. To consider _synonymous_ words _identical_ is fatal to accuracy; to forget that they are _similar_, to some extent _equivalent_, and sometimes _interchangeable_, is destructive of freedom and variety. * * * * * SYSTEM. Synonyms: manner, method, mode, order, regularity, rule. _Order_ in this connection denotes the fact or result of proper arrangement according to the due relation or sequence of the matters arranged; as, these papers are in _order_; in alphabetical _order_. _Method_ denotes a process, a general or established way of doing or proceeding in anything; _rule_, an authoritative requirement or an established course of things; _system_, not merely a law of action or procedure, but a comprehensive plan in which all the parts are related to each other and to the whole; as, a _system_ of theology; a railroad _system_; the digestive _system_; _manner_ refers to the external qualities of actions, and to those often as settled and characteristic; we speak of a _system_ of taxation, a _method_ of collecting taxes, the _rules_ by which assessments are made; or we say, as a _rule_ the payments are heaviest at a certain time of year; a just tax may be made odious by the _manner_ of its collection. _Regularity_ applies to the even disposition of objects or uniform recurrence of acts in a series. There may be _regularity_ without _order_, as in the recurrence of paroxysms of disease or insanity; there may be _order_ without _regularity_, as in the arrangement of furniture in a room, where the objects are placed at varying distances. _Order_ commonly implies the design of an intelligent agent or the appearance or suggestion of such design; _regularity_ applies to an actual uniform disposition or recurrence with no suggestion of purpose, and as applied to human affairs is less intelligent and more mechanical than _order_. The most perfect _order_ is often secured with least _regularity_, as in a fine essay or oration. The same may be said of _system_. There is a _regularity_ of dividing a treatise into topics, paragraphs, and sentences, that is destructive of true rhetorical _system_. Compare HABIT; HYPOTHESIS. Antonyms: chaos, derangement, disarrangement, disorder, irregularity. confusion, * * * * * TACITURN. Synonyms: close, mute, reticent, speechless, dumb, reserved, silent, uncommunicative. _Dumb_, _mute_, _silent_ and _speechless_ refer to fact or state; _taciturn_ refers to habit and disposition. The talkative person may be stricken _dumb_ with surprise or terror; the obstinate may remain _mute_; one may be _silent_ through preoccupation of mind or of set purpose; but the _taciturn_ person is averse to the utterance of thought or feeling and to communication with others, either from natural disposition or for the occasion. One who is _silent_ does not speak at all; one who is _taciturn_ speaks when compelled, but in a grudging way that repels further approach. _Reserved_ suggests more of method and intention than _taciturn_, applying often to some special time or topic; one who is communicative regarding all else may be _reserved_ about his business. _Reserved_ is thus closely equivalent to _uncommunicative_, but is a somewhat stronger word, often suggesting pride or haughtiness, as when we say one is _reserved_ toward inferiors. Compare PRIDE. Antonyms: communicative, free, garrulous, loquacious, talkative, unreserved. * * * * * TASTEFUL. Synonyms: artistic, delicate, esthetic, fastidious, nice, chaste, delicious, esthetical, fine, tasty. dainty, elegant, exquisite, _Elegant_ (L. _elegans_, select) refers to that assemblage of qualities which makes anything choice to persons of culture and refinement; it refers to the lighter, finer elements of beauty in form or motion, especially denoting that which exhibits faultless taste and perfection of finish. That which is _elegant_ is made so not merely by nature, but by art and culture; a woodland dell may be beautiful or picturesque, but would not ordinarily be termed _elegant_. _Tasteful_ refers to that in which the element of taste is more prominent, standing, as it were, more by itself, while in _elegant_ it is blended as part of the whole. _Tasty_ is an inferior word, used colloquially in a similar sense. _Chaste_ (primarily _pure_), denotes in literature and art that which is true to the higher and finer feelings and free from all excess or meretricious ornament. _Dainty_ and _delicate_ refer to the lighter and finer elements of taste and beauty, _dainty_ tending in personal use to an excessive scrupulousness which is more fully expressed by _fastidious_. _Nice_ and _delicate_ both refer to exact adaptation to some standard; the bar of a balance can be said to be nicely or delicately poised; as regards matters of taste and beauty, _delicate_ is a higher and more discriminating word than _nice_, and is always used in a favorable sense; a _delicate_ distinction is one worth observing; a _nice_ distinction may be so, or may be overstrained and unduly subtle; _fine_ in such use, is closely similar to _delicate_ and _nice_, but (tho capable of an unfavorable sense) has commonly a suggestion of positive excellence or admirableness; a _fine_ touch does something; _fine_ perceptions are to some purpose; _delicate_ is capable of the single unfavorable sense of frail or fragile; as, a _delicate_ constitution. _Esthetic_ or _esthetical_ refers to beauty or the appreciation of the beautiful, especially from the philosophic point of view. _Exquisite_ denotes the utmost perfection of the _elegant_ in minute details; we speak of an _elegant_ garment, an _exquisite_ lace. _Exquisite_ is also applied to intense keenness of any feeling; as, _exquisite_ delight; _exquisite_ pain. See BEAUTIFUL; DELICIOUS; FINE. Antonyms: clumsy, displeasing, grotesque, inartistic, rough, coarse, distasteful, harsh, inharmonious, rude, deformed, fulsome, hideous, meretricious, rugged, disgusting, gaudy, horrid, offensive, tawdry. * * * * * TEACH. Synonyms: discipline, give instruction, inform, nurture, drill, give lessons, initiate, school, educate, inculcate, instill, train, enlighten, indoctrinate, instruct, tutor. To _teach_ is simply to communicate knowledge; to _instruct_ (originally, to build in or into, put in order) is to impart knowledge with special method and completeness; _instruct_ has also an authoritative sense nearly equivalent to command. To _educate_ is to draw out or develop harmoniously the mental powers, and, in the fullest sense, the moral powers as well. To _train_ is to direct to a certain result powers already existing. _Train_ is used in preference to _educate_ when the reference is to the inferior animals or to the physical powers of man; as, to _train_ a horse; to _train_ the hand or eye. To _discipline_ is to bring into habitual and complete subjection to authority; _discipline_ is a severe word, and is often used as a euphemism for _punish_; to be thoroughly effective in war, soldiers must be _disciplined_ as well as _trained_. To _nurture_ is to furnish the care and sustenance necessary for physical, mental, and moral growth; _nurture_ is a more tender and homelike word than _educate_. Compare EDUCATION. * * * * * TEMERITY. Synonyms: audacity, heedlessness, presumption, foolhardiness, over-confidence, rashness, hardihood, precipitancy, recklessness, hastiness, precipitation, venturesomeness. _Rashness_ applies to the actual rushing into danger without counting the cost; _temerity_ denotes the needless exposure of oneself to peril which is or might be clearly seen to be such. _Rashness_ is used chiefly of bodily acts, _temerity_ often of mental or social matters; there may be a noble _rashness_, but _temerity_ is always used in a bad sense. We say it is amazing that one should have had the _temerity_ to make a statement which could be readily proved a falsehood, or to make an unworthy proposal to one sure to resent it; in such use _temerity_ is often closely allied to _hardihood_, _audacity_, or _presumption_. _Venturesomeness_ dallies on the edge of danger and experiments with it; _foolhardiness_ rushes in for want of sense, _heedlessness_ for want of attention, _rashness_ for want of reflection, _recklessness_ from disregard of consequences. _Audacity_, in the sense here considered, denotes a dashing and somewhat reckless courage, in defiance of conventionalities, or of other men's opinions, or of what would be deemed probable consequences; as, the _audacity_ of a successful financier. Compare EFFRONTERY. Antonyms: care, circumspection, cowardice, hesitation, timidity, wariness. caution, * * * * * TERM. Synonyms: article, denomination, member, phrase, condition, expression, name, word. _Term_ in its figurative uses always retains something of its literal sense of a boundary or limit. The _articles_ of a contract or other instrument are simply the portions into which it is divided for convenience; the _terms_ are the essential statements on which its validity depends--as it were, the landmarks of its meaning or power; a _condition_ is a contingent _term_ which may become fixed upon the happening of some contemplated event. In logic a _term_ is one of the essential members of a proposition, the boundary of statement in some one direction. Thus, in general use _term_ is more restricted than _word_, _expression_, or _phrase_; a _term_ is a _word_ that limits meaning to a fixed point of statement or to a special class of subjects, as when we speak of the definition of _terms_, that is of the key-_words_ in any discussion; or we say, that is a legal or scientific _term_. Compare BOUNDARY; DICTION. * * * * * TERSE. Synonyms: brief, concise, neat, short, compact, condensed, pithy, succinct. compendious, laconic, sententious, Anything _short_ or _brief_ is of relatively small extent. That which is _concise_ (L. _con-_, with, together, and _cædo_, cut) is trimmed down, and that which is _condensed_ (L. _con-_, with, together, and _densus_, thick) is, as it were, pressed together, so as to include as much as possible within a small space. That which is _compendious_ (L. _com-_, together, and _pendo_, weigh) gathers the substance of a matter into a few words, weighty and effective. The _succinct_ (L. _succinctus_, from _sub-_, under, and _cingo_, gird; girded from below) has an alert effectiveness as if girded for action. The _summary_ is compacted to the utmost, often to the point of abruptness; as, we speak of a _summary_ statement or a _summary_ dismissal. That which is _terse_ (L. _tersus_, from _tergo_, rub off) has an elegant and finished completeness within the smallest possible compass, as if rubbed or polished down to the utmost. A _sententious_ style is one abounding in sentences that are singly striking or memorable, apart from the context; the word may be used invidiously of that which is pretentiously oracular. A _pithy_ utterance gives the gist of a matter effectively, whether in rude or elegant style. Antonyms: diffuse, lengthy, long, prolix, tedious, verbose, wordy. * * * * * TESTIMONY. Synonyms: affidavit, attestation, deposition, proof, affirmation, certification, evidence, witness. _Testimony_, in legal as well as in common use, signifies the statements of witnesses. _Deposition_ and _affidavit_ denote _testimony_ reduced to writing; the _deposition_ differs from the _affidavit_ in that the latter is voluntary and without cross-examination, while the former is made under interrogatories and subject to cross-examination. _Evidence_ is a broader term, including the _testimony_ of witnesses and all facts of every kind that tend to prove a thing true; we have the _testimony_ of a traveler that a fugitive passed this way; his footprints in the sand are additional _evidence_ of the fact. Compare DEMONSTRATION; OATH. * * * * * THEREFORE. Synonyms: accordingly, consequently, then, whence, because, hence, thence, wherefore. _Therefore_, signifying for that (or this) reason, is the most precise and formal word for expressing the direct conclusion of a chain of reasoning; _then_ carries a similar but slighter sense of inference, which it gives incidentally rather than formally; as, "All men are mortal; Cæsar is a man; _therefore_ Cæsar is mortal;" or, "The contract is awarded; _then_ there is no more to be said." _Consequently_ denotes a direct result, but more frequently of a practical than a theoretic kind; as, "Important matters demand my attention; _consequently_ I shall not sail to-day." _Consequently_ is rarely used in the formal conclusions of logic or mathematics, but marks rather the freer and looser style of rhetorical argument. _Accordingly_ denotes correspondence, which may or may not be consequence; it is often used in narration; as, "The soldiers were eager and confident; _accordingly_ they sprang forward at the word of command." _Thence_ is a word of more sweeping inference than _therefore_, applying not merely to a single set of premises, but often to all that has gone before, including the reasonable inferences that have not been formally stated. _Wherefore_ is the correlative of _therefore_, and _whence_ of _hence_ or _thence_, appending the inference or conclusion to the previous statement without a break. Compare synonyms for BECAUSE. * * * * * THRONG. Synonyms: concourse, crowd, host, jam, mass, multitude, press. A _crowd_ is a company of persons filling to excess the space they occupy and pressing inconveniently upon one another; the total number in a _crowd_ may be great or small. _Throng_ is a word of vastness and dignity, always implying that the persons are numerous as well as pressed or pressing closely together; there may be a dense _crowd_ in a small room, but there can not be a _throng_. _Host_ and _multitude_ both imply vast numbers, but a _multitude_ may be diffused over a great space so as to be nowhere a _crowd_; _host_ is a military term, and properly denotes an assembly too orderly for crowding. _Concourse_ signifies a spontaneous gathering of many persons moved by a common impulse, and has a suggestion of stateliness not found in the word _crowd_, while suggesting less massing and pressure than is indicated by the word _throng_. * * * * * TIME. Synonyms: age, duration, epoch, period, sequence, term, date, eon, era, season, succession, while. _Sequence_ and _succession_ apply to events viewed as following one another; _time_ and _duration_ denote something conceived of as enduring while events take place and acts are done. According to the necessary conditions of human thought, events are contained in _time_ as objects are in space, _time_ existing before the event, measuring it as it passes, and still existing when the event is past. _Duration_ and _succession_ are more general words than _time_; we can speak of infinite or eternal _duration_ or _succession_, but _time_ is commonly contrasted with eternity. _Time_ is measured or measurable _duration_. * * * * * TIP. Synonyms: cant, dip, incline, list, slope, careen, heel over, lean, slant, tilt. To _tilt_ or _tip_ is to throw out of a horizontal position by raising one side or end or lowering the other; the words are closely similar, but _tilt_ suggests more of fluctuation or instability. _Slant_ and _slope_ are said of things somewhat fixed or permanent in a position out of the horizontal or perpendicular; the roof _slants_, the hill _slopes_. _Incline_ is a more formal word for _tip_, and also for _slant_ or _slope_. To _cant_ is to set slantingly; in many cases _tip_ and _cant_ might be interchanged, but _tip_ is more temporary, often momentary; one _tips_ a pail so that the water flows over the edge; a mechanic _cants_ a table by making or setting one side higher than the other. A vessel _careens_ in the wind; _lists_, usually, from shifting of cargo, from water in the hold, etc. _Careening_ is always toward one side or the other; _listing_ may be forward or astern as well. To _heel over_ is the same as to _careen_, and must be distinguished from "keel over," which is to capsize. * * * * * TIRE. Synonyms: exhaust, fatigue, harass, jade, wear out, weary. fag, To _tire_ is to reduce strength in any degree by exertion; one may be _tired_ just enough to make rest pleasant, or even unconsciously _tired_, becoming aware of the fact only when he ceases the exertion; or, on the other hand, he may be, according to the common phrase, "too _tired_ to stir;" but for this extreme condition the stronger words are commonly used. One who is _fatigued_ suffers from a conscious and painful lack of strength as the result of some overtaxing; an invalid may be _fatigued_ with very slight exertion; when one is _wearied_, the painful lack of strength is the result of long-continued demand or strain; one is _exhausted_ when the strain has been so severe and continuous as utterly to consume the strength, so that further exertion is for the time impossible. One is _fagged_ by drudgery; he is _jaded_ by incessant repetition of the same act until it becomes increasingly difficult or well-nigh impossible; as, a horse is _jaded_ by a long and unbroken journey. Antonyms: invigorate, refresh, relax, relieve, repose, rest, restore. recreate, * * * * * TOOL. Synonyms: apparatus, implement, machine, utensil, appliance, instrument, mechanism, weapon. A _tool_ is something that is both contrived and used for extending the force of an intelligent agent to something that is to be operated upon. Those things by which pacific and industrial operations are performed are alone properly called _tools_, those designed for warlike purposes being designated _weapons_. An _instrument_ is anything through which power is applied and a result produced; in general usage, the word is of considerably wider meaning than _tool_; as, a piano is a musical _instrument_. _Instrument_ is the word usually applied to _tools_ used in scientific pursuits; as, we speak of a surgeon's or an optician's _instruments_. An _implement_ is a mechanical agency considered with reference to some specific purpose to which it is adapted; as, an agricultural _implement_; _implements_ of war. _Implement_ is a less technical and artificial term than _tool_. The paw of a tiger might be termed a terrible _implement_, but not a _tool_. A _utensil_ is that which may be used for some special purpose; the word is especially applied to articles used for domestic or agricultural purposes; as, kitchen _utensils_; farming _utensils_. An _appliance_ is that which is or may be applied to the accomplishment of a result, either independently or as subordinate to something more extensive or important; every mechanical _tool_ is an _appliance_, but not every _appliance_ is a _tool_; the traces of a harness are _appliances_ for traction, but they are not _tools_. _Mechanism_ is a word of wide meaning, denoting any combination of mechanical devices for united action. A _machine_ in the most general sense is any mechanical _instrument_ for the conversion of motion; in this sense a lever is a _machine_; but in more commonly accepted usage a _machine_ is distinguished from a _tool_ by its complexity, and by the combination and coordination of powers and movements for the production of a result. A chisel by itself is a _tool_; when it is set so as to be operated by a crank and pitman, the entire _mechanism_ is called a _machine_; as, a mortising-_machine_. An _apparatus_ may be a _machine_, but the word is commonly used for a collection of distinct articles to be used in connection or combination for a certain purpose--a mechanical equipment; as, the _apparatus_ of a gymnasium; especially, for a collection of _appliances_ for some scientific purpose; as, a chemical or surgical _apparatus_; an _apparatus_ may include many _tools_, _instruments_, or _implements_. _Implement_ is for the most part and _utensil_ is altogether restricted to the literal sense; _instrument_, _machine_, and _tool_ have figurative use, _instrument_ being used largely in a good, _tool_ always in a bad sense; _machine_ inclines to the unfavorable sense, as implying that human agents are made mechanically subservient to some controlling will; as, an _instrument_ of Providence; the _tool_ of a tyrant; a political _machine_. * * * * * TOPIC. Synonyms: division, issue, motion, proposition, subject, head, matter, point, question, theme. A _topic_ (Gr. _topos_, place) is a _head_ of discourse. Since a _topic_ for discussion is often stated in the form of a _question_, _question_ has come to be extensively used to denote a debatable _topic_, especially of a practical nature--an _issue_; as, the labor _question_; the temperance _question_. In deliberative assemblies a _proposition_ presented or moved for acceptance is called a _motion_, and such a _motion_ or other matter for consideration is known as the _question_, since it is or may be stated in interrogative form to be answered by each member with a vote of "aye" or "no;" a member is required to speak to the _question_; the chairman puts the _question_. In speaking or writing the general _subject_ or _theme_ may be termed the _topic_, tho it is more usual to apply the latter term to the subordinate _divisions_, _points_, or _heads_ of discourse; as, to enlarge on this _topic_ would carry me too far from my _subject_; a pleasant drive will suggest many _topics_ for conversation. * * * * * TRACE. Synonyms: footmark, impression, remains, token, trail, footprint, mark, remnant, track, vestige. footstep, memorial, sign, A _memorial_ is that which is intended or fitted to bring to remembrance something that has passed away; it may be vast and stately. On the other hand, a slight _token_ of regard may be a cherished _memorial_ of a friend; either a concrete object or an observance may be a _memorial_. A _vestige_ is always slight compared with that whose existence it recalls; as, scattered mounds containing implements, weapons, etc., are _vestiges_ of a former civilization. A _vestige_ is always a part of that which has passed away; a _trace_ may be merely the _mark_ made by something that has been present or passed by, and that is still existing, or some slight evidence of its presence or of the effect it has produced; as, _traces_ of game were observed by the hunter. Compare CHARACTERISTIC. * * * * * TRANSACT. Synonyms: accomplish, carry on, do, perform, act, conduct, negotiate, treat. There are many acts that one may _do_, _accomplish_, or _perform_ unaided; what he _transacts_ is by means of or in association with others; one may _do_ a duty, _perform_ a vow, _accomplish_ a task, but he _transacts_ business, since that always involves the agency of others. To _negotiate_ and to _treat_ are likewise collective acts, but both these words lay stress upon deliberation with adjustment of mutual claims and interests; _transact_, while it may depend upon previous deliberation, states execution only. Notes, bills of exchange, loans, and treaties are said to be _negotiated_, the word so used covering not merely the preliminary consideration, but the final settlement. _Negotiate_ has more reference to execution than _treat_; nations may _treat_ of peace without result, but when a treaty is _negotiated_, peace is secured; the citizens of the two nations are then free to _transact_ business with one another. Compare DO. * * * * * TRANSACTION. Synonyms: act, action, affair, business, deed, doing, proceeding. One's _acts_ or _deeds_ may be exclusively his own; his _transactions_ involve the agency or participation of others. A _transaction_ is something completed; a _proceeding_ is or is viewed as something in progress; but since _transaction_ is often used to include the steps leading to the conclusion, while _proceedings_ may result in _action_, the dividing line between the two words becomes sometimes quite faint, tho _transaction_ often emphasizes the fact of something done, or brought to a conclusion. Both _transactions_ and _proceedings_ are used of the records of a deliberative body, especially when published; strictly used, the two are distinguished; as, the Philosophical _Transactions_ of the Royal Society of London give in full the papers read; the _Proceedings_ of the American Philological Association give in full the _business_ done, with mere abstracts of or extracts from the papers read. Compare ACT; BUSINESS. * * * * * TRANSCENDENTAL. Synonyms: a priori, intuitive, original, primordial, transcendent. _Intuitive_ truths are those which are in the mind independently of all experience, not being derived from experience nor limited by it, as that the whole is greater than a part, or that things which are equal to the same thing are equal to one another. All _intuitive_ truths or beliefs are _transcendental_. But _transcendental_ is a wider term than _intuitive_, including all within the limits of thought that is not derived from experience, as the ideas of space and time. "Being is _transcendental_.... As being can not be included under any genus, but transcends them all, so the properties or affections of being have also been called _transcendental_." K.-F. _Vocab. Philos._ p. 530. "_Transcendent_ he [Kant] employed to denote what is wholly beyond experience, being neither given as an a posteriori nor _a priori_ element of cognition--what therefore transcends every category of thought." K.-F. _Vocab. Philos._ p. 531. _Transcendental_ has been applied in the language of the Emersonian school to the soul's supposed _intuitive_ knowledge of things divine and human, so far as they are capable of being known to man. Compare MYSTERIOUS. * * * * * TRANSIENT. Synonyms: brief, fleeting, fugitive, short, ephemeral, flitting, momentary, temporary, evanescent, flying, passing, transitory. _Transient_ and _transitory_ are both derived from the same original source (L. _trans_, over, and _eo_, go), denoting that which quickly passes or is passing away, but there is between them a fine shade of difference. A thing is _transient_ which in fact is not lasting; a thing is _transitory_ which by its very nature must soon pass away; a thing is _temporary_ (L. _tempus_, time) which is intended to last or be made use of but a little while; as, a _transient_ joy; this _transitory_ life; a _temporary_ chairman. _Ephemeral_ (Gr. _epi_, on, and _hemera_, day) literally lasting but for a day, often marks more strongly than _transient_ exceeding brevity of duration; it agrees with _transitory_ in denoting that its object is destined to pass away, but is stronger, as denoting not only its certain but its speedy extinction; thus that which is _ephemeral_ is looked upon as at once slight and perishable, and the word carries often a suggestion of contempt; man's life is _transitory_, a butterfly's existence is _ephemeral_; with no solid qualities or worthy achievements a pretender may sometimes gain an _ephemeral_ popularity. That which is _fleeting_ is viewed as in the act of passing swiftly by, and that which is _fugitive_ (L. _fugio_, flee) as eluding attempts to detain it; that which is _evanescent_ (L. _evanesco_, from _e_, out, and _vanus_, empty, vain) as in the act of vanishing even while we gaze, as the hues of the sunset. Antonyms: abiding, eternal, immortal, lasting, perpetual, undying, enduring, everlasting, imperishable, permanent, persistent, unfading. * * * * * UNION. Synonyms: coalition, conjunction, juncture, unification, combination, junction, oneness, unity. _Unity_ is _oneness_, the state of being one, especially of that which never has been divided or of that which can not be conceived of as resolved into parts; as, the _unity_ of God or the _unity_ of the human soul. _Union_ is a bringing together of things that have been distinct, so that they combine or coalesce to form a new whole, or the state or condition of things thus brought together; in a _union_ the separate individuality of the things united is never lost sight of; we speak of the _union_ of the parts of a fractured bone or of the _union_ of hearts in marriage. But _unity_ can be said of that which is manifestly or even conspicuously made up of parts, when a single purpose or ideal is so subserved by all that their possible separateness is lost sight of; as, we speak of the _unity_ of the human body, or of the _unity_ of the church. Compare ALLIANCE; ASSOCIATION; ATTACHMENT; HARMONY; MARRIAGE. Antonyms: analysis, disconnection, disunion, divorce, separation, contrariety, disjunction, division, schism, severance. decomposition, dissociation, * * * * * USUAL. Synonyms: accustomed, everyday, general, ordinary, public, common, familiar, habitual, prevailing, regular, customary, frequent, normal, prevalent, wonted. _Usual_ (L. _usus_, use, habit, wont) signifies such as regularly or often recurs in the ordinary course of events, or is habitually repeated in the life of the same person. _Ordinary_ (L. _ordo_, order) signifies according to an established order, hence of _everyday_ occurrence. In strictness, _common_ and _general_ apply to the greater number of individuals in a class; but both words are in good use as applying to the greater number of instances in a series, so that it is possible to speak of one person's _common_ practise or _general_ custom, tho _ordinary_ or _usual_ would in such case be preferable. Compare GENERAL; NORMAL. Antonyms: exceptional, infrequent, rare, strange, unparalleled, extraordinary, out-of-the-way, singular, uncommon, unusual. * * * * * UTILITY. Synonyms: advantage, expediency, serviceableness, avail, profit, use, benefit, service, usefulness. _Utility_ (L. _utilis_, useful) signifies primarily the quality of being useful, but is somewhat more abstract and philosophical than _usefulness_ or _use_, and is often employed to denote adaptation to produce a valuable result, while _usefulness_ denotes the actual production of such result. We contrast beauty and _utility_. We say of an invention, its _utility_ is questionable, or, on the other hand, its _usefulness_ has been proved by ample trial, or I have found it of _use_; still, _utility_ and _usefulness_ are frequently interchanged. _Expediency_ (L. _ex_, out, and _pes_, foot; literally, the getting the foot out) refers primarily to escape from or avoidance of some difficulty or trouble; either _expediency_ or _utility_ may be used to signify _profit_ or _advantage_ considered apart from right as the ground of moral obligation, or of actions that have a moral character, _expediency_ denoting immediate _advantage_ on a contracted view, and especially with reference to avoiding danger, difficulty, or loss, while _utility_ may be so broadened as to cover all existence through all time, as in the utilitarian theory of morals. _Policy_ is often used in a kindred sense, more positive than _expediency_ but narrower than _utility_, as in the proverb, "Honesty is the best _policy_." Compare PROFIT. Antonyms: disadvantage, futility, inadequacy, inutility, uselessness, folly, impolicy, inexpediency, unprofitableness, worthlessness. * * * * * VACANT. Synonyms: blank, leisure, unfilled, untenanted, void, empty, unemployed, unoccupied, vacuous, waste. That is _empty_ which contains nothing; that is _vacant_ which is without that which has filled or might be expected to fill it; _vacant_ has extensive reference to rights or possibilities of occupancy. A _vacant_ room may not be _empty_, and an _empty_ house may not be _vacant_. _Vacant_, as derived from the Latin, is applied to things of some dignity; _empty_, from the Saxon, is preferred in speaking of slight, common, or homely matters, tho it may be applied with special force to the highest; we speak of _empty_ space, a _vacant_ lot, an _empty_ dish, an _empty_ sleeve, a _vacant_ mind, an _empty_ heart, an _empty_ boast, a _vacant_ office, a _vacant_ or _leisure_ hour. _Void_ and _devoid_ are rarely used in the literal sense, but for the most part confined to abstract relations, _devoid_ being followed by _of_, and having with that addition the effect of a prepositional phrase; as, the article is _devoid of_ sense; the contract is _void_ for want of consideration. _Waste_, in this connection, applies to that which is made so by devastation or ruin, or gives an impression of desolation, especially as combined with vastness, probably from association of the words _waste_ and vast: _waste_ is applied also to uncultivated or unproductive land, if of considerable extent; we speak of a _waste_ track or region, but not of a _waste_ city lot. _Vacuous_ refers to the condition of being _empty_ or _vacant_, regarded as continuous or characteristic. Antonyms: brimful, busy, filled, inhabited, overflowing, brimmed, crammed, full, jammed, packed, brimming, crowded, gorged, occupied, replete. * * * * * VAIN. Synonyms: abortive, futile, shadowy, unsatisfying, baseless, idle, trifling, unserviceable, bootless, inconstant, trivial, unsubstantial, deceitful, ineffectual, unavailing, useless, delusive, nugatory, unimportant, vapid, empty, null, unprofitable, visionary, fruitless, profitless, unreal, worthless. _Vain_ (L. _vanus_, empty) keeps the etymological idea through all changes of meaning; a _vain_ endeavor is _empty_ of result, or of adequate power to produce a result, a _vain_ pretension is _empty_ or destitute of support, a _vain_ person has a conceit that is _empty_ or destitute of adequate cause or reason. That which is _bootless_, _fruitless_, or _profitless_ fails to accomplish any valuable result; that which is _abortive_, _ineffectual_, or _unavailing_ fails to accomplish a result that it was, or was supposed to be, adapted to accomplish. That which is _useless_, _futile_, or _vain_ is inherently incapable of accomplishing a specified result. _Useless_, in the widest sense, signifies not of use for any valuable purpose, and is thus closely similar to _valueless_ and _worthless_. _Fruitless_ is more final than _ineffectual_, as applying to the sum or harvest of endeavor. That which is _useless_ lacks actual fitness for a purpose; that which is _vain_ lacks imaginable fitness. Compare VACANT; OSTENTATION; PRIDE. Antonyms: adequate, effective, powerful, solid, useful, advantageous, efficient, profitable, sound, valid, beneficial, expedient, real, substantial, valuable, competent, potent, serviceable, sufficient, worthy. Compare synonyms for UTILITY. * * * * * VENAL. Synonyms: hireling, mercenary, purchasable, salable. _Venal_ (L. _venalis_, from _venum_, sale) signifies ready to sell one's influence, vote, or efforts for money or other consideration; _mercenary_ (L. _mercenarius_, from _merces_, pay, reward) signifies influenced chiefly or only by desire for gain or reward; thus, etymologically, the _mercenary_ can be hired, while the _venal_ are openly or actually for sale; _hireling_ (AS. _hyrling_, from _hyr_) signifies serving for hire or pay, or having the spirit or character of one who works or of that which is done directly for hire or pay. _Mercenary_ has especial application to character or disposition; as, a _mercenary_ spirit; _mercenary_ motives--_i. e._, a spirit or motives to which money is the chief consideration or the moving principle. The _hireling_, the _mercenary_, and the _venal_ are alike in making principle, conscience, and honor of less account than gold or sordid considerations; but the _mercenary_ and _venal_ may be simply open to the bargain and sale which the _hireling_ has already consummated; a clergyman may be _mercenary_ in making place and pay of undue importance while not _venal_ enough to forsake his own communion for another for any reward that could be offered him. The _mercenary_ may retain much show of independence; _hireling_ service sacrifices self-respect as well as principle; a public officer who makes his office tributary to private speculation in which he is interested is _mercenary_; if he receives a stipulated recompense for administering his office at the behest of some leader, faction, corporation, or the like, he is both _hireling_ and _venal_; if he gives essential advantages for pay, without subjecting himself to any direct domination, his course is _venal_, but not _hireling_. Compare PAY; VENIAL. Antonyms: disinterested, honest, incorruptible, public-spirited, generous, honorable, patriotic, unpurchasable. * * * * * VENERATE. Synonyms: adore, honor, respect, revere, reverence. In the highest sense, to _revere_ or _reverence_ is to hold in mingled love and honor with something of sacred fear, as for that which while lovely is sublimely exalted and brings upon us by contrast a sense of our unworthiness or inferiority; to _revere_ is a wholly spiritual act; to _reverence_ is often, tho not necessarily, to give outward expression to the reverential feeling; we _revere_ or _reverence_ the divine majesty. _Revere_ is a stronger word than _reverence_ or _venerate_. To _venerate_ is to hold in exalted honor without fear, and is applied to objects less removed from ourselves than those we _revere_, being said especially of aged persons, of places or objects having sacred associations, and of abstractions; we _venerate_ an aged pastor, the dust of heroes or martyrs, lofty virtue or self-sacrifice, or some great cause, as that of civil or religious liberty; we do not _venerate_ God, but _revere_ or _reverence_ him. We _adore_ with a humble yet free outflowing of soul. Compare VENERATION. Antonyms: contemn, detest, dishonor, scoff at, slight, despise, disdain, disregard, scorn, spurn. * * * * * VENERATION. Synonyms: adoration, awe, dread, reverence. _Awe_ is inspired by that in which there is sublimity or majesty so overwhelming as to awaken a feeling akin to fear; in _awe_, considered by itself, there is no element of esteem or affection, tho the sense of vastness, power, or grandeur in the object is always present. _Dread_ is a shrinking apprehension or expectation of possible harm awakened by any one of many objects or causes, from that which is overwhelmingly vast and mighty to that which is productive of momentary physical pain; in its higher uses _dread_ approaches the meaning of _awe_, but with more of chilliness and cowering, and without that subjection of soul to the grandeur and worthiness of the object that is involved in _awe_. _Awe_ is preoccupied with the object that inspires it; _dread_ with apprehension of personal consequences. _Reverence_ and _veneration_ are less overwhelming than _awe_ or _dread_, and suggest something of esteem, affection, and personal nearness. We may feel _awe_ of that which we can not _reverence_, as a grandly terrible ocean storm; _awe_ of the divine presence is more distant and less trustful than _reverence_. _Veneration_ is commonly applied to things which are not subjects of _awe_. _Adoration_, in its full sense, is loftier than _veneration_, less restrained and awed than _reverence_, and with more of the spirit of direct, active, and joyful worship. Compare ESTEEM; VENERATE. Antonyms: contempt, disdain, dishonor, disregard, scorn. * * * * * VENIAL. Synonyms: excusable, pardonable, slight, trivial. _Venial_ (L. _venia_, pardon) signifies capable of being pardoned, and, in common use, capable of being readily pardoned, easily overlooked. Aside from its technical ecclesiastical use, _venial_ is always understood as marking some fault comparatively _slight_ or _trivial_. A _venial_ offense is one readily overlooked; a _pardonable_ offense requires more serious consideration, but on deliberation is found to be susceptible of pardon. _Excusable_ is scarcely applied to offenses, but to matters open to doubt or criticism rather than direct censure; so used, it often falls little short of justifiable; as, I think, under those circumstances, his action was _excusable_. Protestants do not recognize the distinction between _venial_ and mortal sins. _Venial_ must not be confounded with the very different word VENAL. Compare VENAL. Antonyms: inexcusable, inexpiable, mortal, unpardonable, unjustifiable. * * * * * VERACITY. Synonyms: candor, honesty, reality, truthfulness, frankness, ingenuousness, truth, verity. _Truth_ is primarily and _verity_ is always a quality of thought or speech, especially of speech, as in exact conformity to fact. _Veracity_ is properly a quality of a person, the habit of speaking and the disposition to speak the _truth_; a habitual liar may on some occasions speak the _truth_, but that does not constitute him a man of _veracity_; on the other hand, a person of undoubted _veracity_ may state (through ignorance or misinformation) what is not the _truth_. _Truthfulness_ is a quality that may inhere either in a person or in his statements or beliefs. _Candor_, _frankness_, _honesty_, and _ingenuousness_ are allied with _veracity_, and _verity_ with _truth_, while _truthfulness_ may accord with either. _Truth_ in a secondary sense may be applied to intellectual action or moral character, in the former case becoming a close synonym of _veracity_; as, I know him to be a man of _truth_. Antonyms: deceit, duplicity, falsehood, fiction, lie, deception, error, falseness, guile, mendacity, delusion, fabrication, falsity, imposture, untruth. Compare synonyms for DECEPTION. * * * * * VERBAL. Synonyms: literal, oral, vocal. _Oral_ (L. _os_, the mouth) signifies uttered through the mouth or (in common phrase) by word of mouth; _verbal_ (L. _verbum_, a word) signifies of, pertaining to, or connected with words, especially with words as distinguished from the ideas they convey; _vocal_ (L. _vox_, the voice) signifies of or pertaining to the voice, uttered or modulated by the voice, and especially uttered with or sounding with full, resonant voice; _literal_ (L. _litera_, a letter) signifies consisting of or expressed by letters, or according to the letter, in the broader sense of the exact meaning or requirement of the words used; what is called "the letter of the law" is its _literal_ meaning without going behind what is expressed by the letters on the page. Thus _oral_ applies to that which is given by spoken words in distinction from that which is written or printed; as, _oral_ tradition; an _oral_ examination. By this rule we should in strictness speak of an _oral_ contract or an _oral_ message, but _verbal_ contract and _verbal_ message, as indicating that which is by spoken rather than by written words, have become so fixed in the language that they can probably never be changed; this usage is also in line with other idioms of the language; as, "I give you my _word_," "a true man's _word_ is as good as his bond," "by _word_ of mouth," etc. A _verbal_ translation may be _oral_ or written, so that it is word for word; a _literal_ translation follows the construction and idiom of the original as well as the words; a _literal_ translation is more than one that is merely _verbal_; both _verbal_ and _literal_ are opposed to _free_. In the same sense, of attending to words only, we speak of _verbal_ criticism, a _verbal_ change. _Vocal_ has primary reference to the human voice; as, _vocal_ sounds, _vocal_ music; _vocal_ may be applied within certain limits to inarticulate sounds given forth by other animals than man; as, the woods were _vocal_ with the songs of birds; _oral_ is never so applied, but is limited to articulate utterance regarded as having a definite meaning; as, an _oral_ statement. * * * * * VICTORY. Synonyms: achievement, conquest, success, triumph. advantage, mastery, supremacy, _Victory_ is the state resulting from the overcoming of an opponent or opponents in any contest, or from the overcoming of difficulties, obstacles, evils, etc., considered as opponents or enemies. In the latter sense any hard-won _achievement_, _advantage_, or _success_ may be termed a _victory_. In _conquest_ and _mastery_ there is implied a permanence of state that is not implied in _victory_. _Triumph_, originally denoting the public rejoicing in honor of a _victory_, has come to signify also a peculiarly exultant, complete, and glorious _victory_. Compare CONQUER. Antonyms: defeat, disappointment, failure, miscarriage, retreat, destruction, disaster, frustration, overthrow, rout. * * * * * VIGILANT. Synonyms: alert, cautious, on the lookout, wary, awake, circumspect, sleepless, watchful, careful, on the alert, wakeful, wide-awake. _Vigilant_ implies more sustained activity and more intelligent volition than _alert_; one may be habitually _alert_ by reason of native quickness of perception and thought, or one may be momentarily _alert_ under some excitement or expectancy; one who is _vigilant_ is so with thoughtful purpose. One is _vigilant_ against danger or harm; he may be _alert_ or _watchful_ for good as well as against evil; he is _wary_ in view of suspected stratagem, trickery, or treachery. A person may be _wakeful_ because of some merely physical excitement or excitability, as through insomnia; yet he may be utterly careless and negligent in his wakefulness, the reverse of _watchful_; a person who is truly _watchful_ must keep himself _wakeful_ while on watch, in which case _wakeful_ has something of mental quality. _Watchful_, from the Saxon, and _vigilant_, from the Latin, are almost exact equivalents; but _vigilant_ has somewhat more of sharp definiteness and somewhat more suggestion of volition; one may be habitually _watchful_; one is _vigilant_ of set purpose and for direct cause, as in the presence of an enemy. Compare ALERT. Antonyms: careless, heedless, inconsiderate, oblivious, drowsy, inattentive, neglectful, thoughtless, dull, incautious, negligent, unwary. * * * * * VIRTUE. Synonyms: chastity, honesty, probity, truth, duty, honor, purity, uprightness, excellence, integrity, rectitude, virtuousness, faithfulness, justice, righteousness, worth, goodness, morality, rightness, worthiness. _Virtue_ (L. _virtus_, primarily manly strength or courage, from _vir_, a man, a hero) is, in its full sense, _goodness_ that is victorious through trial, perhaps through temptation and conflict. _Goodness_, the being morally good, may be much less than _virtue_, as lacking the strength that comes from trial and conflict, or it may be very much more than _virtue_, as rising sublimely above the possibility of temptation and conflict--the infantile as contrasted with the divine _goodness_. _Virtue_ is distinctively human; we do not predicate it of God. _Morality_ is conformity to the moral law in action, whether in matters concerning ourselves or others, whether with or without right principle. _Honesty_ and _probity_ are used especially of one's relations to his fellow men, _probity_ being to _honesty_ much what _virtue_ in some respects is to _goodness_; _probity_ is _honesty_ tried and proved, especially in those things that are beyond the reach of legal requirement; above the commercial sense, _honesty_ may be applied to the highest truthfulness of the soul to and with itself and its Maker. _Integrity_, in the full sense, is moral wholeness without a flaw; when used, as it often is, of contracts and dealings, it has reference to inherent character and principle, and denotes much more than superficial or conventional _honesty_. _Honor_ is a lofty _honesty_ that scorns fraud or wrong as base and unworthy of itself. _Honor_ rises far above thought of the motto that "_honesty_ is the best policy." _Purity_ is freedom from all admixture, especially of that which debases; it is _chastity_ both of heart and life, but of the life because from the heart. _Duty_, the rendering of what is due to any person or in any relation, is, in this connection, the fulfilment of moral obligation. _Rectitude_ and _righteousness_ denote conformity to the standard of right, whether in heart or act; _righteousness_ is used especially in the religious sense. _Uprightness_ refers especially to conduct. _Virtuousness_ is a quality of the soul or of action; in the latter sense it is the essence of virtuous action. Compare INNOCENT; JUSTICE; RELIGION. Antonyms: evil, vice, viciousness, wickedness, wrong. Compare synonyms for SIN. * * * * * WANDER. Synonyms: deviate, diverge, go astray, range, rove, swerve, digress, err, ramble, roam, stray, veer. To _wander_ (AS. _windan_, wind) is to move in an indefinite or indeterminate way which may or may not be a departure from a prescribed way; to _deviate_ (L. _de_, from, and _via_, a way) is to turn from a prescribed or right way, physically, mentally, or morally, usually in an unfavorable sense; to _diverge_ (L. _di_, apart, and _vergo_, incline, tend) is to turn from a course previously followed or that something else follows, and has no unfavorable implication; to _digress_ (L. _di_, apart, aside, and _gradior_, step) is used only with reference to speaking or writing; to _err_ is used of intellectual or moral action, and of the moral with primary reference to the intellectual, an error being viewed as in some degree due to ignorance. _Range_, _roam_, and _rove_ imply the traversing of considerable, often of vast, distances of land or sea; _range_ commonly implies a purpose; as, cattle _range_ for food; a hunting-dog _ranges_ a field for game. _Roam_ and _rove_ are often purposeless, and always without definite aim. To _swerve_ or _veer_ is to turn suddenly from a prescribed or previous course, and often but momentarily; _veer_ is more capricious and repetitious; the horse _swerves_ at the flash of a sword; the wind _veers_; the ship _veers_ with the wind. To _stray_ is to go in a somewhat purposeless way aside from the regular path or usual limits or abode, usually with unfavorable implication; cattle _stray_ from their pastures; an author _strays_ from his subject; one _strays_ from the path of virtue. _Stray_ is in most uses a lighter word than _wander_. _Ramble_, in its literal use, is always a word of pleasant suggestion, but in its figurative use always somewhat contemptuous; as, _rambling_ talk. * * * * * WAY. Synonyms: alley, course, lane, path, route, avenue, driveway, pass, pathway, street, bridle-path, highroad, passage, road, thoroughfare, channel, highway, passageway, roadway, track. Wherever there is room for one object to pass another there is a _way_. A _road_ (originally a ride_way_) is a prepared _way_ for traveling with horses or vehicles, always the latter unless the contrary is expressly stated; a _way_ suitable to be traversed only by foot-passengers or by animals is called a _path_, _bridle-path_, or _track_; as, the _roads_ in that country are mere _bridle-paths_. A _road_ may be private; a _highway_ or _highroad_ is public, _highway_ being a specific name for a _road_ legally set apart for the use of the public forever; a _highway_ may be over water as well as over land. A _route_ is a line of travel, and may be over many _roads_. A _street_ is in some center of habitation, as a city, town, or village; when it passes between rows of dwellings the country _road_ becomes the village _street_. An _avenue_ is a long, broad, and imposing or principal street. _Track_ is a word of wide signification; we speak of a goat-_track_ on a mountain-side, a railroad-_track_, a race-_track_, the _track_ of a comet; on a traveled _road_ the line worn by regular passing of hoofs and wheels in either direction is called the _track_. A _passage_ is between any two objects or lines of enclosure, a _pass_ commonly between mountains. A _driveway_ is within enclosed grounds, as of a private residence. A _channel_ is a water_way_. A _thoroughfare_ is a _way_ through; a _road_ or _street_ temporarily or permanently closed at any point ceases for such time to be a _thoroughfare_. Compare AIR; DIRECTION. * * * * * WISDOM. Synonyms: attainment, insight, prudence, depth, judgment, reason, discernment, judiciousness, reasonableness, discretion, knowledge, sagacity, enlightenment, learning, sense, erudition, prescience, skill, foresight, profundity, understanding. information, _Enlightenment_, _erudition_, _information_, _knowledge_, _learning_, and _skill_ are acquired, as by study or practise. _Insight_, _judgment_, _profundity_ or _depth_, _reason_, _sagacity_, _sense_, and _understanding_ are native qualities of mind, tho capable of increase by cultivation. The other qualities are on the border-line. _Wisdom_ has been defined as "the right use of _knowledge_," or "the use of the most important means for attaining the best ends," _wisdom_ thus presupposing _knowledge_ for its very existence and exercise. _Wisdom_ is mental power acting upon the materials that fullest _knowledge_ gives in the most effective way. There may be what is termed "practical _wisdom_" that looks only to material results; but in its full sense, _wisdom_ implies the highest and noblest exercise of all the faculties of the moral nature as well as of the intellect. _Prudence_ is a lower and more negative form of the same virtue, respecting outward and practical matters, and largely with a view of avoiding loss and injury; _wisdom_ transcends _prudence_, so that while the part of _prudence_ is ordinarily also that of _wisdom_, cases arise, as in the exigencies of business or of war, when the highest _wisdom_ is in the disregard of the maxims of _prudence_. _Judgment_, the power of forming decisions, especially correct decisions, is broader and more positive than _prudence_, leading one to do, as readily as to refrain from doing; but _judgment_ is more limited in range and less exalted in character than _wisdom_; to say of one that he displayed good _judgment_ is much less than to say that he manifested _wisdom_. _Skill_ is far inferior to _wisdom_, consisting largely in the practical application of acquired _knowledge_, power, and habitual processes, or in the ingenious contrivance that makes such application possible. In the making of something perfectly useless there may be great _skill_, but no _wisdom_. Compare ACUMEN; ASTUTE; KNOWLEDGE; MIND; PRUDENCE; SAGACIOUS; SKILFUL. Antonyms: absurdity, folly, imbecility, miscalculation, senselessness, error, foolishness, imprudence, misjudgment, silliness, fatuity, idiocy, indiscretion, nonsense, stupidity. Compare synonyms for ABSURD; IDIOCY. * * * * * WIT. Synonyms: banter, fun, joke, waggery, burlesque, humor, playfulness, waggishness, drollery, jest, pleasantry, witticism. facetiousness, jocularity, raillery, _Wit_ is the quick perception of unusual or commonly unperceived analogies or relations between things apparently unrelated, and has been said to depend upon a union of surprise and pleasure; it depends certainly on the production of a diverting, entertaining, or merrymaking surprise. The analogies with which _wit_ plays are often superficial or artificial; _humor_ deals with real analogies of an amusing or entertaining kind, or with traits of character that are seen to have a comical side as soon as brought to view. _Wit_ is keen, sudden, brief, and sometimes severe; _humor_ is deep, thoughtful, sustained, and always kindly. _Pleasantry_ is lighter and less vivid than _wit_. _Fun_ denotes the merry results produced by _wit_ and _humor_, or by any fortuitous occasion of mirth, and is pronounced and often hilarious. Antonyms: dulness, seriousness, sobriety, solemnity, stolidity, stupidity. gravity, * * * * * WORK. Synonyms: achievement, doing, labor, product, action, drudgery, occupation, production, business, employment, performance, toil. deed, exertion. _Work_ is the generic term for any continuous application of energy toward an end; _work_ may be hard or easy. _Labor_ is hard and wearying _work_; _toil_ is straining and exhausting _work_. _Work_ is also used for any result of working, physical or mental, and has special senses, as in mechanics, which _labor_ and _toil_ do not share. _Drudgery_ is plodding, irksome, and often menial _work_. Compare ACT; BUSINESS. Antonyms: ease, leisure, recreation, relaxation, repose, rest, vacation. idleness, * * * * * YET. Synonyms: besides, further, hitherto, now, still, thus far. _Yet_ and _still_ have many closely related senses, and, with verbs of past time, are often interchangeable; we may say "while he was _yet_ a child," or "while he was _still_ a child." _Yet_, like _still_, often applies to past action or state extending to and including the present time, especially when joined with _as_; we can say "he is feeble _as yet_," or "he is _still_ feeble," with scarcely appreciable difference of meaning, except that the former statement implies somewhat more of expectation than the latter. _Yet_ with a negative applies to completed action, often replacing a positive statement with _still_; "he is not gone _yet_" is nearly the same as "he is here _still_." _Yet_ has a reference to the future which _still_ does not share; "we may be successful _yet_" implies that success may begin at some future time; "we may be successful _still_" implies that we may continue to enjoy in the future such success as we are winning now. * * * * * YOUTHFUL. Synonyms: adolescent, callow, childlike, immature, puerile, boyish, childish, girlish, juvenile, young. _Boyish_, _childish_, and _girlish_ are used in a good sense of those to whom they properly belong, but in a bad sense of those from whom more maturity is to be expected; _childish_ eagerness or glee is pleasing in a child, but unbecoming in a man; _puerile_ in modern use is distinctly contemptuous. _Juvenile_ and _youthful_ are commonly used in a favorable and kindly sense in their application to those still _young_; _youthful_ in the sense of having the characteristics of youth, hence fresh, vigorous, light-hearted, buoyant, may have a favorable import as applied to any age, as when we say the old man still retains his _youthful_ ardor, vigor, or hopefulness; _juvenile_ in such use would belittle the statement. _Young_ is distinctively applied to those in the early stage of life or not arrived at maturity. Compare NEW. Antonyms: Compare synonyms for OLD. SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER. The following exercises have been prepared expressly and solely to accompany the preceding text in which the distinctions of synonyms have been carefully pointed out. It is not expected, intended, or desired that the questions should be answered or the blanks in the examples supplied offhand. In such study nothing can be worse than guesswork. Hence, leading questions have been avoided, and the order of synonyms given in Part I. has frequently been departed from or reversed in Part II. To secure the study of Part I. before coming into class, pupils should not be allowed to open it during recitation, unless on rare occasions to settle doubtful or disputed points. The very best method will be found to be to have the examples included in the lesson, with any others that may be added, copied on the blackboard before recitation, and no books brought into class. The _teacher_ should make a thorough study of the subject, not only mastering what is given in Part I., but going beyond the necessarily brief statements there given, and consulting the ultimate authorities--the best dictionaries and the works of the best speakers and writers. For the latter purpose a good cyclopedia of quotations, like the Hoyt, will be found very helpful. The teacher should so study out the subject as to be distinctly in advance of the class and able to speak authoritatively. Such independent study will be found intensely interesting, and can be made delightful and even fascinating to any intelligent class. In answer to questions calling for definitive statement, the teacher should insist upon the very words of the text, unless the pupil can give in his own words what is manifestly as good. This will often be found not easy to do. Definition by synonym should be absolutely forbidden. Reasonable questions should be encouraged, but the class should not be allowed to become a debating society. The meaning of English words is not a matter of conjecture, and all disputed points should be promptly referred to the dictionary--usually to be looked up after the recitation, and considered, if need be, at the next recitation. The majority of them will not need to be referred to again, as the difficulties will simply represent an inferior usage which the dictionary will brush aside. One great advantage of synonym study is to exterminate colloquialisms. The class should be encouraged to bring quotations from first-class authors with blanks to be filled, such quotations being held authoritative, though not infallible; also quotations from the best newspapers, periodicals, speeches, etc., with words underlined for criticism, such quotations being held open to revision upon consultation of authorities. The change of usage, whereby that may be correct to-day which would not have been so at an earlier period, should be carefully noted, but always upon the authority of an approved dictionary. The examples have been in great part selected from the best literature, and all others carefully prepared for this work. Hence, an appropriate word to fill each blank can always be found by careful study of the corresponding group of synonyms. In a few instances, either of two words would appropriately fill a blank and yield a good sense. In such case, either should be accepted as correct, but the resulting difference of meaning should be clearly pointed out. PART II. QUESTIONS AND EXAMPLES. * * * * * ABANDON (page 1). QUESTIONS. 1. To what objects or classes of objects does _abandon_ apply? _abdicate_? _cede_? _quit_? _resign_? _surrender_? 2. Is _abandon_ used in the favorable or unfavorable sense? _desert_ favorable or unfavorable? _forsake_? 3. What does _abandon_ commonly denote of previous relationship? _forsake_? EXAMPLES. The soldiers ---- his standard in such numbers that the commander found it necessary to ---- the enterprise. France was compelled to ---- Alsace and Lorraine to Germany. In the height of his power Charles V. ---- the throne. Finding resistance vain, the defenders agreed to ---- the fortress. To the surprise of his friends, Senator Conkling suddenly ---- his office. At the stroke of the bell, the men instantly ---- work. * * * * * ABASE (page 2). QUESTIONS. 1. How does _abase_ differ from _debase_? _humble_ from _humiliate_? _degrade_ from _disgrace_? EXAMPLES. To provide funds, the king resolved to ---- the coinage. He came from the scene of his disgrace, haughty and defiant, ---- but not ----. The officer who had ---- himself by cowardice was ---- to the ranks. Only the base in spirit will ---- themselves before wealth, rank, and power. The messenger was so ---- that no heed was paid to his message. * * * * * ABASH (page 3). QUESTIONS. 1. What has the effect to make one _abashed_? 2. How does _confuse_ differ from _abash_? 3. What do we mean when we say that a person is _mortified_? 4. Give an instance of the use of _mortified_ where _abashed_ could not be substituted. Why could not the words be interchanged? 5. Can one be _daunted_ who is not _abashed_? 6. Is _embarrass_ or _mortify_ the stronger word? Give instances. EXAMPLES. The peasant stood ---- in the royal presence. The numerous questions ---- the witness. The speaker was ---- for a moment, but quickly recovered himself. At the revelation of such depravity, I was utterly ----. When sensible of his error, the visitor was deeply ----. * * * * * ABBREVIATION (page 4). QUESTIONS. 1. Is an _abbreviation_ always a _contraction_? 2. Is a _contraction_ always an _abbreviation_? Give instances. 3. Can we have an _abbreviation_ of a book, paragraph, or sentence? What can be _abbreviated_? and what _abridged_? EXAMPLES. The treatise was already so brief that it did not admit of ----. The ---- Dr. is used both for Doctor and Debtor. F. R. S. is an ---- of the title "Fellow of the Royal Society." * * * * * ABET (page 4). QUESTIONS. 1. _Abet_, _incite_, _instigate_: which of these words are used in a good and which in a bad sense? 2. How does _abet_ differ from _incite_ and _instigate_ as to the time of the action? 3. Which of the three words apply to persons and which to actions? Give instances of the use of _abet_; _instigate_; _incite_. EXAMPLES. To further his own schemes, he ---- the viceroy to rebel against the king. To ---- a crime may be worse than to originate it, as arguing less excitement and more calculation and cowardice. The prosecution was evidently malicious, ---- by envy and revenge. And you that do ---- him in this kind Cherish rebellion, and are rebels all. * * * * * ABHOR (page 5). QUESTIONS. 1. Which is the stronger word, _abhor_ or _despise_? 2. What does _abhor_ denote? 3. How does Archbishop Trench illustrate the difference between _abhor_ and _shun_? 4. What does _detest_ express? 5. What does _loathe_ imply? Is it physical or moral in its application? 6. Give illustrations of the appropriate uses of the above words. EXAMPLES. He had sunk to such degradation as to be utterly ---- by all good men. Such weakness can only be ----. Talebearers and backbiters are everywhere ----. ---- that which is evil; cleave to that which is good. * * * * * ABIDE (page 5). QUESTIONS. 1. What limit of time is expressed by _abide_? by _lodge_? by _live_, _dwell_, _reside_? 2. What is the meaning of _sojourn_? 3. Should we say one is _stopping_ or _staying_ at a hotel? and why? 4. Give examples of the extended, and of the limited use of _abide_. EXAMPLES. One generation passeth away and another generation cometh, but the earth ---- forever. And there were in the same country shepherds ---- in the field, keeping watch over their flock by night. So great was the crowd of visitors that many were compelled to ---- in the neighboring villages. He is ---- at the Albemarle. He has ---- for forty years in the same house. By faith he ---- in the land of promise, as in a strange country. * * * * * ABOLISH (page 6). QUESTIONS. 1. Is _abolish_ used of persons or material objects? 2. Of what is it used? Give examples. 3. What does _annihilate_ signify? Is it stronger or weaker than _abolish_? 4. What terms do we use for doing away with _laws_, and how do those terms differ among themselves? 5. What are the differences between _overthrow_, _suppress_, and _subvert_? especially between the last two of those words? 6. How does _prohibit_ differ from _abolish_? 7. What word do we especially use of putting an end to a nuisance? 8. What other words of this class are especially referred to? 9. Give some antonyms of _abolish_. EXAMPLES. The one great endeavor of Buddhism is to ---- sorrow. Modern science seems to show conclusively that matter is never ----. The law, which had long been ---- by the revolutionists, was at last ---- by the legislature. The ancient statute was found to have been ---- by later enactments, though never formally ----. The Supreme Court ---- the adverse decision of the inferior tribunal. Even in a republic, sedition should be promptly ----, or it may result in the ---- of free institutions. From the original settlement of Vineland, New Jersey, the sale of intoxicating liquor has been ----. * * * * * ABOMINATION (page 7). QUESTIONS. 1. To what was _abomination_ originally applied? 2. Does it refer to a state of mind or to some act or other object of thought? 3. How does _abomination_ differ from _aversion_ or _disgust_? 4. How does an _abomination_ differ from an _offense_? from crime in general? EXAMPLES. After the ship began to pitch and roll, we could not look upon food without ----. It is time that such a ---- should be abated. Capital punishment was formerly inflicted in England for trivial ----. In spite of their high attainments in learning and art, the foulest ---- were prevalent among the Greeks and Romans of classic antiquity. * * * * * ABRIDGMENT (page 7). QUESTIONS. 1. How does an _abridgment_ differ from an _outline_ or a _synopsis_? from an _abstract_ or _digest_? 2. How does an _abstract_ or _digest_ differ from an _outline_ or a _synopsis_? 3. Does an _analysis_ of a treatise deal with what is expressed, or with what is implied? 4. What words may we use to express a condensed view of a subject, whether derived from a previous publication or not? EXAMPLES. The New Testament may be regarded as an ---- of religion. There are several excellent ---- of English literature. An ---- of the decision of the court was published in all the leading papers. The publishers determined to issue an ---- of their dictionary. Such ---- as U. S. for United States should be rarely used, unless in hasty writing or technical works. * * * * * ABSOLUTE (page 8). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _absolute_ in the strict sense denote? _supreme_? 2. To what are these words in such sense properly applied? 3. How are they used in a modified sense? 4. Is _arbitrary_ ever used in a good sense? What is the chief use? Give examples. 5. How does _autocratic_ differ from _arbitrary_? both these words from _despotic_? _despotic_ from _tyrannical_? 6. Is _irresponsible_ good or bad in its implication? _arbitrary_? _imperative_? _imperious_? _peremptory_? _positive_? _authoritative_? EXAMPLES. God alone is ---- and ----. The Czar of Russia is an ---- ruler. ---- power tends always to be ---- in its exercise. On all questions of law in the United States the decision of the ---- Court is ---- and final. Learning of the attack on our seamen, the government sent an ---- demand for apology and indemnity. Man's ---- will and ---- intellect have given him dominion over all other creatures on the earth, so that they are either subjugated or exterminated. * * * * * ABSOLVE (page 9). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the original sense of _absolve_? 2. To what does it apply? 3. What is its special sense when used with reference to sins? 4. How does it differ from _acquit_? _forgive_? _justify_? _pardon_? 5. What are the chief antonyms of _absolve_? EXAMPLES. No power under heaven can ---- a man from his personal responsibility. When the facts were known, he was ---- of all blame. * * * * * ABSORB (page 9). QUESTIONS. 1. When is a fluid said to be _absorbed_? 2. Is the substance of the _absorbing_ body changed by that which it _absorbs_? Give instances. 3. How does _consume_ differ from _absorb_? 4. Give instances of the distinctive uses of _engross_, _swallow_, _imbibe_, and _absorb_ in the figurative sense. 5. What is the difference between _absorb_ and _emit_? _absorb_ and _radiate_? EXAMPLES. Tho the fuel was rapidly ---- within the furnace, very little heat was ---- from the outer surface. In setting steel rails special provision must be made for their expansion under the influence of the heat that they ----. Jip stood on the table and barked at Traddles so persistently that he may be said to have ---- the conversation. * * * * * ABSTINENCE (page 10). QUESTIONS. 1. How does _abstinence_ differ from _abstemiousness_? from _self-denial_? 2. What is _temperance_ regarding things lawful and worthy? regarding things vicious and injurious? 3. What is the more exact term for the proper course regarding evil indulgences? EXAMPLES. He was so moderate in his desires that his ---- seemed to cost him no ----. Among the Anglo-Saxons the idea of universal and total ---- from all intoxicants is little more than a century old. * * * * * ABSTRACT, _v._; ABSTRACTED (page 10, 11). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the difference between _abstract_ and _separate_? between _discriminate_ and _distinguish_?[C] 2. How does _abstract_, when said of the mind, differ from _divert_? from _distract_? 3. How do _abstracted_, _absorbed_, and _preoccupied_ differ from _absent-minded_? 4. Can one who is _preoccupied_ be said to be _listless_ or _thoughtless_? one who is _absent-minded_? EXAMPLES. He was so ---- with these perplexities as to be completely ---- of his surroundings. The busy student may be excused if ----; in the merely ---- or ---- it is intolerable. The power to ---- one idea from all its associations and view it alone is the ---- mark of a philosophical mind. Numerous interruptions in the midst of ---- occupations had made him almost ----. [C] NOTE. See these words under DISCERN as referred to at the end of the paragraph on ABSTRACT in Part I. The pupil should be instructed, in all cases, to look up and read over the synonyms referred to by the words in small capitals at the end of the paragraph in Part I. * * * * * ABSURD (page 11). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the difference between _absurd_ and _paradoxical_? 2. What are the distinctions between _irrational_, _foolish_, and _silly_? 3. What is the especial implication in _unreasonable_? 4. How do _monstrous_ and _preposterous_ compare with _absurd_? 5. What is the especial element common to the _ludicrous_, the _ridiculous_, and the _nonsensical_? 6. What are some chief antonyms of _absurd_? EXAMPLES. A statement may be disproved by deducing logically from it a conclusion that is ----. Carlyle delighted in ---- utterances. The ---- hatred of the Jews in the Middle Ages led the populace to believe the most ---- slanders concerning them. I attempted to dissuade him from the ---- plan, but found him altogether ----; many of his arguments were so ---- as to be positively ----. * * * * * ABUSE (page 12). QUESTIONS. 1. To what does _abuse_ apply? 2. How does _abuse_ differ from _damage_ (as in the case of rented property, _e. g._)? 3. How does _abuse_ differ from _harm_? 4. What words of this group are used in a bad sense? 5. Is _reproach_ good or bad? 6. How do _persecute_ and _oppress_ differ? 7. Do _misemploy_, _misuse_, and _pervert_ apply to persons or things? To which does _abuse_ apply? EXAMPLES. The tenant shall not ---- the property beyond reasonable wear. ---- intellectual gifts make the dangerous villain. In his rage he began to ---- and ---- all who had formerly been his friends. To be ---- for doing right can never really ---- a true man. In no way has man ---- his fellow man more cruelly than by ---- him for his religious belief. * * * * * ACCESSORY, _n._ (page 13). QUESTIONS. 1. Which words of this group are used in a good, and which in a bad sense? 2. Which are indifferently either good or bad? 3. To what does _ally_ generally apply? _colleague_? 4. How does an _associate_ compare in rank with a principal? 5. Is _assistant_ or _attendant_ the higher word? How do both these words compare with _associate_? 6. In what sense are _follower_, _henchman_, and _retainer_ used? _partner_? 7. What is the legal distinction between _abettor_ and _accessory_? 8. To what is _accomplice_ nearly equivalent? Which is the preferred legal term? EXAMPLES. The Senator differed with his ---- in this matter. The baron rode into town with a great array of armed ----. France and Russia seem to have become firm ----. The ---- called to the ---- for a fresh bandage. All persons, but especially the young, should take the greatest care in the choice of their ----. As he was not present at the actual commission of the crime, he was held to be only an ---- and not an ----. * * * * * ACCIDENT (page 14). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the difference between _accident_ and _chance_? 2. How does _incident_ differ from both? 3. What is the special significance of _fortune_? 4. How does it differ in usage from _chance_? 5. How are _accident_, _misadventure_, and _mishap_ distinguished? EXAMPLES. Gambling clings almost inseparably to games of ----. Bruises and contusions are regarded as ordinary ---- of the cavalry service. The prudent man is careful not to tempt ---- too far. The misplacement of the switch caused a terrible ----. Great thoughts and high purposes keep one from being greatly disturbed by the little ---- of daily life. * * * * * ACQUAINTANCE (page 15). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _acquaintance_ between persons imply? 2. How does _acquaintance_ differ from _companionship_? _acquaintance_ from _friendship_? from _intimacy_? 3. How does _fellowship_ differ from _friendship_? EXAMPLES. A public speaker becomes known to many persons whom he does not know, but who are ready promptly to claim ---- with him. The ---- of life must bring us into ---- with many who can not be admitted within the inner circle of ----. The ---- of school and college life often develop into the most beautiful and enduring ----. Between those most widely separated by distance of place and time, by language, station, occupation, and creed, there may yet be true ---- of soul. * * * * * ACRIMONY (page 15). QUESTIONS. 1. How does _acerbity_ differ from _asperity_? _asperity_ from _acrimony_? 2. How is _acrimony_ distinguished from _malignity_? _malignity_ from _virulence_? 3. What is implied in the use of the word _severity_? EXAMPLES. A certain ---- of speech had become habitual with him. To this ill-timed request, he answered with sudden ----. A constant sense of injustice may deepen into a settled ----. This smooth and pleasing address veiled a deep ----. Great ---- will be patiently borne if the sufferer is convinced of its essential justice. * * * * * ACT (page 16). QUESTIONS. 1. How is _act_ distinguished from _action_? from _deed_? 2. Which of the words in this group necessarily imply an external effect? Which may be wholly mental? EXAMPLES. He who does the truth will need no instruction as to individual ----s. ---- is the truth of thought. The ---- is done. * * * * * ACTIVE (page 17). QUESTIONS. 1. With what two sets of words is _active_ allied? 2. How does _active_ differ from _busy_? from _industrious_? 3. How do _active_ and _restless_ compare? 4. To what sort of activity does _officious_ refer? 6. What are some chief antonyms of _active_? EXAMPLES. Being of an ---- disposition and without settled purpose or definite occupation, she became ---- as a hornet. He had his ---- days and hours, but could never be properly said to be ----. An ---- attendant instantly seized upon my baggage. The true student is ---- from the mere love of learning, independently of its rewards. * * * * * ACUMEN (page 18). QUESTIONS. 1. How do _sharpness_, _acuteness_, _penetration_, and _insight_ compare with _acumen_? 2. What is the special characteristic of _acumen_? To what order of mind does it belong? 3. What is _sagacity_? Is it attributed to men or brutes? 4. What is _perspicacity_? 5. What is _shrewdness_? Is it ordinarily good or evil? 6. Give illustrations of the uses of the above words as regards the possessors of the corresponding qualities. EXAMPLES. The treatise displays great critical ----. The Indians had developed a practical ---- that enabled them to follow a trail by scarcely perceptible signs almost as unerringly as the hound by scent. * * * * * ADD (page 18). QUESTIONS. 1. How is _add_ related to _increase_? How does it differ from _multiply_? 2. What does _augment_ signify? Of what is it ordinarily used? 3. To what does _amplify_ apply? 4. In what ways may a discourse or treatise be _amplified_? EXAMPLES. Care to our coffin ---- a nail no doubt; And every grin, so merry, draws one out. ---- up at night, what thou hast done by day; And in the morning what thou hast to do. * * * * * ADDRESS, _v._ (page 19). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _accost_ always signify? _greet_? _hail_? 2. How does _salute_ differ from _accost_ or _greet_? _address_? 3. What is it to _apostrophize_? EXAMPLES. The pale snowdrop is springing To ---- the glowing sun. ---- to the Chief who in triumph advances. His faithful dog ---- the smiling guest. ---- ye heroes! heaven-born band! Who fought and died in freedom's cause. * * * * * ADDRESS, _n._ (page 20). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _address_ in the sense here considered? 2. What is _tact_? 3. What qualities are included in _address_? EXAMPLES. And the tear that is wiped with a little ---- May be follow'd perhaps by a smile. The ---- of doing doth expresse No other but the doer's willingnesse. I have very poor and unhappy brains for drinking; I could wish ---- would invent some other custom of entertainment. * * * * * ADEQUATE (page 21). QUESTIONS. 1. What do _adequate_, _commensurate_, and _sufficient_ alike signify? How does _commensurate_ specifically differ from the other two words? Give examples. 2. To what do _adapted_, _fit_, _suitable_, and _qualified_ refer? 3. Is _satisfactory_ a very high recommendation of any work? Why? 4. Is _able_ or _capable_ the higher word? Illustrate. EXAMPLES. We know not of what we are ---- till the trial comes. Indeed, left nothing ---- for your purpose untouched, slightly handled, in discourse. * * * * * ADHERENT (page 21). QUESTIONS. 1. What is an _adherent_? 2. How does an _adherent_ differ from a _supporter_? from a _disciple_? 3. How do both the above words differ from _ally_? 4. Has _partisan_ a good or a bad sense, and why? 5. Is it well to speak of a _supporter_ as a _backer_? EXAMPLES. Also of your own selves shall men arise speaking perverse things to draw away ----s after them. Woman is woman's natural ----. Self-defense compelled the European nations to be ----s against Napoleon. The deposed monarch was found to have a strong body of ----s. * * * * * ADJACENT (page 22). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the difference between _adjacent_ and _adjoining_? _contiguous_? _conterminous_? 2. What distance is implied in _near_? _neighboring_? 3. What does _next_ always imply? 4. Give antonyms of _adjacent_; _near_. EXAMPLES. Stronger by weakness, wiser men become, As they draw ---- to their eternal home. * * * * * ADMIRE (page 23). QUESTIONS. 1. In what sense was _admire_ formerly used? What does it now express? 2. How does _admire_ compare with _revere_? _venerate_? _adore_? Give instances of the use of these words. EXAMPLES. The beautiful are sure to be ----. Henceforth the majesty of God ----; Fear him, and you have nothing else to fear. I value Science--none can prize it more, It gives ten thousand motives to ----: Be it religious, as it ought to be, The heart it humbles, and it bows the knee. * * * * * ADORN (page 23). QUESTIONS. 1. How does _adorn_ differ from _ornament_? from _garnish_? from _deck_ or _bedeck_? from _decorate_? EXAMPLES. At church, with meek and unaffected grace, His looks ---- the venerable place. The red breast oft, at evening hours, Shall kindly lend his little aid, With hoary moss, and gathered flowers, To ---- the ground where thou art laid. * * * * * AFFRONT (page 24). QUESTIONS. 1. What is it to _affront_? 2. How does _affront_ compare with _insult_? with _tease_? _annoy_? EXAMPLES. It is safer to ---- some people than to oblige them; for the better a man deserves, the worse they will speak of him. Oh, rather give me commentators plain, Who with no deep researches ---- the brain. The petty desire to ---- is simply a perversion of the human love of power. They rushed to meet the ---- foe. * * * * * AGENT (page 24). QUESTIONS. 1. How does _agent_ in the philosophical sense compare with _mover_ or _doer_? 2. What different sense has it in business usage? EXAMPLES. That morality may mean anything, man must be held to be a free ----. The ---- declined to take the responsibility in the absence of the owner. * * * * * AGREE (page 25). QUESTIONS. 1. How do _concur_ and _coincide_ differ in range of meaning? How with reference to expression in action? 2. How does _accede_ compare with _consent_? 3. Which is the most general word of this group? EXAMPLES. A woman's lot is made for her by the love she ----. My poverty, but not my will, ----. * * * * * AGRICULTURE (page 25). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _agriculture_ include? How does it differ from _farming_? 2. What is _gardening_? _floriculture_? _horticulture_? EXAMPLES. Loan oft loses both itself and friend; And borrowing dulls the edge of ----. A field becomes exhausted by constant ----. * * * * * AIM (page 26). QUESTIONS. 1. What is an _aim_? How does it differ from _mark_? from _goal_? 2. How do _end_ and _object_ compare? 3. To what does _aspiration_ apply? How does it differ in general from _design_, _endeavor_, or _purpose_? 4. How does _purpose_ compare with _intention_? 5. What is _design_? EXAMPLES. In deeds of daring rectitude, in scorn For miserable ---- that end with self. O yet we trust that somehow good Will be the final ---- of ill. How quickly nature falls into revolt, When gold becomes her ----. It is not ----, but ambition that is the mother of misery in man. * * * * * AIR (page 27). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _air_ in the sense here considered? 2. How does _air_ differ from _appearance_? 3. What is the difference between _expression_ and _look_? 4. What is the sense of _bearing_? _carriage_? 5. How does _mien_ differ from _air_? 6. What does _demeanor_ include? EXAMPLES. I never, with important ----, In conversation overbear. Vice is a monster of so frightful ----, As, to be hated, needs but to be seen. Grief fills the room up of my absent child, Lies in his bed, walks up and down with me, Puts on his pretty ----, repeats his words. * * * * * AIRY (page 27). QUESTIONS. 1. How does _airy_ agree with and differ from _aerial_? Give instances of the uses of the two words. 2. What does _ethereal_ signify? _sprightly_? 3. Are _lively_ and _animated_ used in the favorable or unfavorable sense? EXAMPLES. ---- tongues that syllable men's names, on sands and shores and desert wildernesses. The ---- mold Incapable of stain, would soon expel Her mischief, and purge off the baser fire, Victorious. Society became my glittering bride, And ---- hopes my children. Soft o'er the shrouds ---- whispers breathe, That seemed but zephyrs to the train beneath. * * * * * ALARM (page 28). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the derivation and distinctive meaning of _alarm_? 2. What do _affright_ and _fright_ express? Give an illustration of the contrasted terms. 3. How are _apprehension_, _disquietude_, _dread_, and _misgiving_ related to the danger that excites them? 4. What are _consternation_, _dismay_, and _terror_, and how are they related to the danger? 5. What is _timidity_? * * * * * ALERT (page 28). QUESTIONS. 1. To what do _alert_, _wide-awake_, and _ready_ refer? 2. How does _ready_ differ from _alert_? from _prepared_? 3. What does _prompt_ signify? 4. What is the secondary meaning of _alert_? EXAMPLES. To be ---- for war is one of the most effectual ways of preserving peace. He who is not ---- to-day will be less so to-morrow. Thus ending loudly, as he would o'erleap His destiny, ---- he stood. * * * * * ALIEN, _a. & n._ (page 29). QUESTIONS. 1. How does _alien_ differ from _foreign_? 2. Is a _foreigner_ by birth necessarily an _alien_? 3. Are the people of one country while residing in their own land _foreigners_ or _aliens_ to the people of other lands? 4. How can one residing in a _foreign_ country cease to be an _alien_ in that country? 5. How do _foreign_ and _alien_ differ in their figurative use? EXAMPLES. By ---- hands thy dying eyes were closed . . . By ---- hands thy humble grave adorned By strangers honored and by strangers mourned. What is religion? Not a ---- inhabitant, nor something ---- to our nature, which comes and takes up its abode in the soul. ---- from the commonwealth of Israel and ---- from the covenants of promise. * * * * * ALIKE (page 30). QUESTIONS. 1. How does _alike_ compare with _similar_? with _identical_? 2. What is the distinction often made between _equal_ and _equivalent_? 3. What is the sense of _analogous_? (Compare synonyms for ANALOGY.) 4. In what sense is _homogeneous_ used? EXAMPLES. Sometimes gentle, sometimes capricious, sometimes awful; never the ---- for two moments together. Fashioned for himself, a bride; An ----, taken from his side. * * * * * ALLAY (page 31). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the distinction between _allay_ and _alleviate_? Which word implies a partial removal of the cause of suffering, or an actual _lightening_ of the burden? 2. With which of the above words are we to class _appease_, _pacify_, _soothe_, and the like? 3. With what words is _alleviate_ especially to be grouped? (See synonyms for ALLEVIATE.) EXAMPLES. Such songs have power to ---- The restless pulse of care, And come like the benediction That follows after prayer. Many a word, at random spoken May ---- or wound a heart that's broken! * * * * * ALLEGE (page 31). QUESTIONS. 1. Which is the primary and which the secondary word, _allege_ or _adduce_? Why? 2. How much of certainty is implied in _allege_? 3. How much does one admit when he speaks of an _alleged_ fact, document, signature, or the like? EXAMPLES. In many ---- cases of haunted houses, the spirits have not ventured to face an armed man who has passed the night there. I can not ---- one thing and mean another. If I can't pray I will not make believe! * * * * * ALLEGORY (page 33). QUESTIONS. 1. How does _allegory_ compare with _simile_? _Simile_ with _metaphor_? 2. What are the distinctions between _allegory_, _fable_, and _parable_? 3. Under what general term are all these included? 4. To what is _fiction_ now most commonly applied? EXAMPLES. In argument ---- are like songs in love: They much describe; they nothing prove. And He spake many things unto them in ----, saying, Behold a sower went forth to sow. * * * * * ALLEVIATE (page 33). QUESTIONS. 1. How does _alleviate_ differ from _relieve_? from _remove_? 2. Is _alleviate_ used of persons? 3. What are the special significations of _abate_? _assuage_? _mitigate_? _moderate_? 4. How does _alleviate_ compare with _allay_? (Compare synonyms for ALLAY.) EXAMPLES. To pity distress is but human; to ---- it is Godlike. But, O! what mighty magician can ---- A woman's envy? * * * * * ALLIANCE (page 34). QUESTIONS. 1. What is an _alliance_? how does it differ from _partnership_? from _coalition_? from _league_? 2. How does a _confederacy_ or _federation_ differ from a _union_? EXAMPLES. The two nations formed an offensive and defensive ---- against the common enemy. Till the war-drum throbbed no longer, and the battle-flags were furled, In the Parliament of man, the ---- of the world. Business ---- are the warrant for the existence of trade ----. * * * * * ALLOT (page 34). QUESTIONS. 1. Does _allot_ refer to time, place, or person? 2. To what does _appoint_ refer? _assign_? 3. How does _destine_ differ from _appoint_? 4. How does _award_ differ from _allot_, _appoint_, and _assign_? EXAMPLES. Man hath his daily work of body or mind ----. He ----eth the moon for seasons; the sun knoweth his going down. The king is but as the hind ... Who may not wander from the ---- field Before his work be done. * * * * * ALLOW (page 35). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the difference between _allow_ and _permit_? between a _permit_ and _permission_? 2. What instances can you give of the use of these words, also of _tolerate_ and _submit_? 3. What does _yield_ imply? EXAMPLES. Frederick ---- the Austrians to cross the mountains that he might attack them on a field of his own choosing. The cruelty and envy of the people ---- by our dastard nobles, who Have all forsook me, hath devoured the rest. State churches have ever been unwilling to ---- dissent. * * * * * ALLUDE (page 36). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the distinctive sense of _allude_? of _advert_? of _refer_? 2. How do the above words compare with _mention_ as to explicitness? 3. How do _hint_ and _insinuate_ differ? EXAMPLES. Late in the eighteenth century Cowper did not venture to do more than ---- to the great allegorist [Bunyan], saying: "I name thee not, lest so despised a name Should move a sneer at thy deserved fame." * * * * * ALLURE (page 37). QUESTIONS. 1. What is it to _allure_? 2. How does _allure_ differ from _attract_? from _lure_? 3. What does _coax_ express? 4. What is it to _cajole_? to _decoy_? to _inveigle_? 5. How does _seduce_ differ from _tempt_? 6. Is _win_ used in the favorable or unfavorable sense? EXAMPLES. The ruddy square of comfortable light ---- him, as the beacon blaze ---- The bird of passage. But Satan now is wiser than of yore, And ---- by making rich, not making poor. He had a strange gift of ---- friends, and of ---- the love of women. * * * * * ALSO (page 37). QUESTIONS. 1. Into what two groups are the synonyms for _also_ naturally divided? 2. Which words simply add a fact or thought? 3. Which distinctly imply that what is added is like that to which it is added? EXAMPLES. Thine to work ---- to pray, Clearing thorny wrongs away; Plucking up the weeds of sin, Letting heaven's warm sunshine in. * * * * * ALTERNATIVE (page 38). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the difference between _choice_ and _alternative_ in the strict use of language? 2. Is _alternative_ always so severely restricted by leading writers? 3. What do _choice_, _pick_, _election_, and _preference_ imply regarding one's wishes? _alternative_? _resources_? EXAMPLES. Homer delights to call Ulysses "the man of many ----." * * * * * AMASS (page 38). QUESTIONS. 1. What is it to _amass_? 2. How is _amass_ distinguished from _accumulate_? 3. Is interest _amassed_ or _accumulated_? 4. How does _hoard_ differ from _store_? EXAMPLES. By daring and successful speculation, he ---- a prodigious fortune. The sum was the ---- savings of an industrious and frugal life. O, to what purpose dost thou ---- thy words, That thou return'st no greeting to thy friends? * * * * * AMATEUR (page 39). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the difference between _amateur_ and _connoisseur_? between _connoisseur_ and _critic_? 2. Which word carries a natural implication of superficialness? 3. How do _novice_ and _tyro_ differ from _amateur_? EXAMPLES. He was in Logic a great ---- Profoundly skill'd in Analytic; He could distinguish, and divide A hair 'twixt south and south-west side. The greatest works in poetry, painting, and sculpture have not been done by ----. The mere ---- who produces nothing, and whose business is only to judge and enjoy. * * * * * AMAZEMENT (page 39). QUESTIONS. 1. What do _amazement_ and _astonishment_ agree in expressing? 2. How do the two words differ? 3. What is the meaning of _awe_? of _admiration_? 4. How does _surprise_ differ from _astonishment_ and _amazement_? 5. What are the characteristics of _wonder_? EXAMPLES. 'Twas while he toiled him to be freed, And with the rein to raise the steed, That, from ----'s iron trance, All Wycklif's soldiers waked at once. Can such things be, And overcome us like a summer's cloud, Without our special ----? The fool of nature stood with stupid eyes And gaping mouth that testified ----. * * * * * AMBITION (page 40). QUESTIONS. 1. What two senses has _ambition_? 2. How does _ambition_ differ from _aspiration_? Which is the higher word? 3. What is the distinctive sense of _emulation_? 4. Has _emulation_ a good side? How does it compare with _aspiration_? EXAMPLES. Cromwell, I charge thee, fling away ---- By that sin, fell the angels. Envy, to which th' ignoble mind's a slave, Is ---- in the learn'd or brave. I have no spur To prick the sides of my intent, but only Vaulting ----. * * * * * AMEND (page 41). QUESTIONS. 1. What is it to _amend_? 2. How do _advance_, _better_, and _improve_ differ from _amend_? 3. Are these words applied to matters decidedly bad, foul, or evil? 4. What is the difference between _amend_ and _emend_? EXAMPLES. Return ye now every man from his evil way, and ---- your doings. The construction here is difficult, and the text at this point has been variously ----. Human characters and conditions never reach such perfection that they can not be ----. * * * * * AMIABLE (page 42). QUESTIONS. 1. To what does _lovely_ often apply? 2. To what does _amiable_ always apply? 3. How do _agreeable_, _attractive_, and _charming_ differ from _amiable_? Give examples. 4. Is a _good-natured_ person necessarily _agreeable_? an _amiable_ person? EXAMPLES. His life was ----; and the elements So mixed in him, that Nature might stand up And say to all the world, This was a man! The east is blossoming! Yea a rose, Vast as the heavens, soft as a kiss, ---- as the presence of woman is. * * * * * ANALOGY (page 43). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the specific meaning of _analogy_? 2. What is _affinity_? _coincidence_? 3. Does _coincidence_ necessarily involve _resemblance_ or _likeness_? 4. What is _parity_ of _reasoning_? 5. What is a _similitude_? 6. How do _resemblance_ and _similarity_ differ from _analogy_? EXAMPLES. The two boys bore a close ---- to each other. It is not difficult to trace the ---- of the home to the state. * * * * * ANGER (page 44). QUESTIONS. 1. What are the especial characteristics of _anger_? How does it differ from _indignation_? _exasperation_? _rage_? _wrath_? _ire_? EXAMPLES. My enemy has long borne me a feeling of ----. Christ was filled with ---- at the hypocrisy of the Jews. I was overcome by a sudden feeling of ----. * * * * * ANIMAL (page 45). QUESTIONS. 1. What is an _animal_? a _brute_? a _beast_? 2. Is man an _animal_? 3. What is implied if we speak of any particular man as an _animal_? a _brute_? a _beast_? 4. What forms of existence does the word _creature_ include? 5. What are the animals of a country or region collectively called? EXAMPLES. It is only within the last half century that societies have been organized for the prevention of cruelty to ----. O that men should put an enemy in their mouths to steal away their brains! that we should with joy, pleasance, revel, and applause, transform ourselves into ----! Take a ---- out of his instinct, and you find him wholly deprived of understanding. Spurning manhood and its joys to loot, To be a lawless, lazy, sensual ----. * * * * * ANNOUNCE (page 46). QUESTIONS. 1. What is it to _announce_? 2. Does it apply chiefly to the past or the future? 3. To what is _advertise_ chiefly applied? _propound_? _promulgate_? _publish_? EXAMPLES. The Sphinx ---- its riddles with life and death depending on the answer. Through the rare felicity of the times you are permitted to think what you please and to ---- what you please. The songs of birds and the wild flowers in the woodlands ---- the coming of spring. * * * * * ANSWER (page 46). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a verbal _answer_? 2. In what wider sense is _answer_ used? 3. What is a _reply_? a _rejoinder_? 4. How does an _answer_ to a charge, an argument, or the like, differ from a _reply_ or _rejoinder_? 5. What is the special quality of a _response_? 6. What is a _retort_? How does it differ from _repartee_? EXAMPLES. I can no other ---- make, but thanks. Theirs not to make ---- Theirs not to reason why, Theirs but to do and die. Upon thy princely warrant I descend, To give thee ---- of thy just demand. He could not be content without finding a ---- in Nature to every mood of his mind; and he does find it. A man renowned for ---- Will seldom scruple to make free With friendship's honest feeling. Nothing is so easy and inviting as the ---- of abuse and sarcasm; but it is a paltry and unprofitable contest. * * * * * ANTICIPATE, ANTICIPATION (page 47). QUESTIONS. 1. What are the two contrasted senses of _anticipate_? 2. Which is now the more common? 3. How does _anticipate_ differ from _expect_? from _hope_? from _apprehend_? 4. How does _anticipation_ differ from _presentiment_? from _apprehension_? from _foreboding_? 5. What special element is involved in _foretaste_? How do _foresight_ and _forethought_ go beyond the meaning of _anticipation_? EXAMPLES. Then some leaped overboard with fearful yell, As eager to ---- their grave. England ---- every man to do his duty. These are portents; but yet I ----, I hope, They do not point on me. If I know your sect, I ---- your argument. The happy ---- of a renewed existence in company with the spirits of the just. * * * * * ANTIPATHY (page 48). QUESTIONS. 1. How is _antipathy_ to be distinguished from _dislike_? from _antagonism_? from _aversion_? 2. What is _uncongeniality_? How does it differ from _antipathy_? Which is positive? and which negative? EXAMPLES. Christianity is the solvent of all race ----. From my soul I loathe All affectation; 'tis my perfect scorn, object of my implacable ----. * * * * * ANTIQUE (page 48). QUESTIONS. 1. To what does _antique_ refer? _antiquated_? 2. Is the difference between them a matter of time? Give examples. 3. Can a modern building be _antiquated_? Can it be _antique_? 4. What is the significance of _quaint_? EXAMPLES. My copper lamps, at any rate, For being true ----, I bought. I do love these ---- ruins, We never tread upon them but we set Our foot upon some reverend history. * * * * * ANXIETY (page 49). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _anxiety_ in the primary sense? Is it mental or physical? 2. How does _anxiety_ differ from _anguish_? 3. What kind of possibility does _anxiety_ always suggest? 4. How does it differ from _apprehension_, _fear_, _dread_, etc., in this regard? 5. What is _worry_? _fretfulness_? 6. Does _perplexity_ involve anxiety? EXAMPLES. Yield not to ---- the future, weep not for the past. Superstition invested the slightest incidents of life with needless ----. ---- is harder than work, and far less profitable. * * * * * APATHY (page 50). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _apathy_? 2. How does it differ from the Saxon word _unfeelingness_? from _indifference_? from _insensibility_? from _unconcern_? 3. How does _stoicism_ differ from _apathy_? EXAMPLES. In lazy ---- let stoics boast Their virtue fixed: 'tis fixed as in a frost. At length the morn and cold ---- came. He sank into a ---- from which it was impossible to arouse him. * * * * * APOLOGY (page 51). QUESTIONS. 1. What change of meaning has _apology_ undergone? 2. What does an _apology_ now always imply? 3. How does an _apology_ differ from an _excuse_? 4. Which of these words may refer to the future? 5. How does _confession_ differ from _apology_? EXAMPLES. ---- only account for that which they do not alter. Beauty is its own ---- for being. There is no refuge from ---- but suicide; and suicide is ----. * * * * * APPARENT (page 52). QUESTIONS. 1. What two contrasted senses arise from the root meaning of _apparent_? 2. What is implied when we speak of _apparent_ kindness or _apparent_ neglect? 3. How do _presumable_ and _probable_ differ? 4. What implication is conveyed in _seeming_? What do we suggest when we speak of "_seeming_ innocence"? EXAMPLES. It is not ---- that the students will attempt to break the rules again. It is not yet ---- what his motive could have been in committing such an offense. It is ---- that something has been omitted which was essential to complete the construction. * * * * * APPETITE (page 54). QUESTIONS. 1. Of what kind of demands or impulses is _appetite_ ordinarily used? 2. What demands or tendencies are included in _passion_? 3. What is implied by _passions_ and _appetites_ when used as contrasted terms? EXAMPLES. Govern well thy ----, lest sin Surprise thee, and her black attendant Death. Take heed lest ---- sway Thy judgment to do aught which else free will Would not admit. * * * * * APPORTION (page 54). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the special significance of _apportion_ by which it is distinguished from _allot_, _assign_, _distribute_, or _divide_? 2. What is the significance of _dispense_ in the transitive use? 3. What is it to _appropriate_? EXAMPLES. Representatives are ---- among the several states according to the population. The treasure was ---- and their shares duly ---- among the captors. * * * * * APPROXIMATION (page 55). QUESTIONS. 1. What is an _approximation_ in the mathematical sense? 2. How close an approach to exactness and certainty does _approximation_ imply? 3. How does _approximation_ differ from _resemblance_ and _similarity_? from _approach_? 4. How does _approximation_, as regards the class of objects to which it is applied, differ from _nearness_, _neighborhood_, or _propinquity_? EXAMPLES. We have to be content with ---- to a solution. Without faith, there is no real ---- to God. Wit consists in knowing the ---- of things which differ, and the difference of things which are alike. * * * * * ARMS (page 55). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the difference between _arms_ and _armor_? 2. In what connection is _armor_ used in modern warfare? EXAMPLES. ---- on ---- clashing brayed Horrible discord. There is constant rivalry between irresistible projectiles and impenetrable ----. * * * * * ARMY (page 56). QUESTIONS. 1. What are the essentials of an _army_? 2. Is an _army_ large or small? 3. What term would be applied to a _multitude_ of armed men without order or organization? 4. In what sense is _host_ used? _legion_? EXAMPLES. For the ---- is a school in which the miser becomes generous, and the generous, prodigal; miserly soldiers are like monsters, but very rarely seen. The still-discordant wavering ----. * * * * * ARRAIGN (page 56). QUESTIONS. 1. To what kind of proceedings do _indict_ and _arraign_ apply? 2. How is one _indicted_? How _arraigned_? 3. How do these words differ from _charge_? _accuse_? _censure_? EXAMPLES. The criminal was ---- for trial for his offenses. Religion does not ---- or exclude unnumbered pleasures, harmlessly pursued. * * * * * ARTIFICE (page 58). QUESTIONS. 1. What is an _artifice_? a _device_? _finesse_? 2. In what sense are _cheat_, _maneuver_, and _imposture_ always used? 3. In what sense is _trick_ commonly used? 4. What is a _fraud_? 5. Is _wile_ used in a good or a bad sense? 6. Does the good or the bad sense commonly attach to the words _artifice_, _contrivance_, _ruse_, _blind_, _device_, and _finesse_? EXAMPLES. Those who can not gain their ends by force naturally resort to ----. The enemy were decoyed from their defenses by a skilful ----. Quips and cranks and wanton ----, Nods and becks and wreathed smiles. Whoever has even once become notorious by base ----, even if he speaks the truth, gains no belief. * * * * * ARTIST (page 58). QUESTIONS. 1. What is an _artist_? an _artisan_? 2. What is an _artificer_? How related to _artist_ and _artisan_? EXAMPLES. The power depends on the depth of the ----'s insight of that object he contemplates. Infuse into the purpose with which you follow the various employments and professions of life the sense of beauty, and you are transformed at once from an ---- into an ----. If too many ---- turn shopkeepers, the whole natural quantity of that business divided among them all may afford too small a share for each. * * * * * ASK (page 59). QUESTIONS. 1. For what class of objects does one _ask_? For what does he _beg_? 2. How do _entreat_ and _beseech_ compare with _ask_? 3. What is the special sense of _implore_? of _supplicate_? 4. How are _crave_ and _request_ distinguished? _pray_ and _petition_? 5. What kind of _asking_ is implied in _demand_? in _require_? How do these two words differ from one another? EXAMPLES. We, ignorant of ourselves, ---- often our own harms, which the wise powers Deny us for our good: so we find profit, By losing of our prayers. The harvest truly is great, but the labourers are few: ---- ye therefore the Lord of the harvest that he would send forth labourers into his harvest. Speak with me, pity me, open the door, A beggar ---- that never begg'd before. Be not afraid to ----; to ---- is right. ----, if thou canst, with hope; but ever ----. Though hope be weak or sick with long delay; ---- in the darkness, if there be no light. * * * * * ASSOCIATE (page 60). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _associate_ imply, as used officially? What when used in popular language? 2. Do we speak of associates in crime or wrong? What words are preferred in such connection? (See synonyms for ACCESSORY.) 3. Is _companion_ used in a good or bad sense? 4. How does it differ in use from _associate_? 5. What is the significance of _peer_? _comrade_? _consort_? EXAMPLES. His best ----, innocence and health, And his best riches, ignorance of wealth. The ---- accepted Napoleon's abdication. The leader in the plot was betrayed by his ----. * * * * * ASSUME (page 61). QUESTIONS. 1. Does _assume_ apply to that which is rightfully or wrongfully taken? 2. In what use does _assume_ correspond with _arrogate_ and _usurp_? 3. How do _arrogate_ and _usurp_ differ from each other? How does _assume_ differ from _postulate_ as regards debate or reasoning of any kind? EXAMPLES. Wherefore do I ---- These royalties, and not refuse to reign. ---- a virtue if you have it not. For well we know no hand of blood and bone Can gripe the sacred handle of our scepter, Unless he do profane, steal, or ----. * * * * * ASSURANCE (page 61). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _assurance_ in the good sense? 2. What is _assurance_ in the bad sense? 3. How does _assurance_ compare with _impudence_? with _effrontery_? EXAMPLES. Let us draw near with a true heart in full ---- of faith. Some wicked wits have libel'd all the fair. With matchless ---- they style a wife The dear-bought curse, and lawful plague of life. With brazen ---- he denied the most indisputable facts. * * * * * ASTUTE (page 62). QUESTIONS. 1. From what language is _acute_ derived? What is its distinctive sense? 2. From what language is _keen_ derived? What does it distinctively denote? 3. From what language is _astute_ derived, and what was its original meaning? 4. In present use what does _astute_ add to the meaning of _acute_ or _keen_? 5. What does _astute_ imply regarding the ulterior purpose or object of the person who is credited with it? EXAMPLES. You statesmen are so ---- in forming schemes! He taketh the wise in their own ----ness. The most ---- reasoner may be deluded, when he practises sophistry upon himself. * * * * * ATTACHMENT (page 63). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _attachment_? How does it differ from _adherence_ or _adhesion_? from _affection_? from _inclination_? from _regard_? EXAMPLES. Talk not of wasted ----, ---- never was wasted. You do not weaken your ---- for your family by cultivating ----s beyond its pale, but deepen and intensify it. * * * * * ATTACK, _v. & n._ (pages 63, 64). QUESTIONS. 1. What special element is involved in the meaning of _attack_? 2. How do _assail_ and _assault_ differ? 3. What is it to _encounter_? how does this word compare with _attack_? How does _attack_ differ from _aggression_? EXAMPLES. We see time's furrows on another's brow, And death intrench'd, preparing his ----; How few themselves in that just mirror see! Who ever knew Truth put to the worse in a free and open ----? Roger Williams ---- the spirit of intolerance, the doctrine of persecution, and never his persecutors. * * * * * ATTAIN (page 64). QUESTIONS. 1. What kind of a word is _attain_, and to what does it point? 2. How does _attain_ differ from _obtain_? from _achieve_? 3. How does _obtain_ differ from _procure_? EXAMPLES. The heights by great men ---- and kept Were not ---- by sudden flight, But they, while their companions slept, Were toiling upward in the night. Our doubts are traitors, And make us lose the good we oft might ---- By fearing to attempt. * * * * * ATTITUDE (page 65). QUESTIONS. 1. How does _position_ as regards the human body differ from _attitude_, _posture_, or _pose_? 2. Do the three latter words apply to the living or the dead? 3. What is the distinctive sense of _attitude_? Is it conscious or unconscious? 4. How does _posture_ differ from _attitude_? 5. What is the distinctive sense of _pose_? How does it differ from, and how does it agree with _attitude_ and _posture_? EXAMPLES. The ---- assumed indicated great indignation because of the insult implied. The ---- was graceful and pleasing. * * * * * ATTRIBUTE, _v._ (page 65). QUESTIONS. 1. What suggestion is often involved in _attribute_? 2. How does _attribute_ differ from _refer_ and _ascribe_? 3. Is _charge_ (in this connection) used in the favorable or unfavorable sense? EXAMPLES. ---- ye greatness unto our God. He ---- unworthy motives which proved a groundless charge. * * * * * ATTRIBUTE, _n._ (page 66). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the derivation and the inherent meaning of _quality_? 2. What is an _attribute_? 3. Which of the above words expresses what necessarily belongs to the subject of which it is said to be an _attribute_ or _quality_? 4. What is the derivation and distinctive sense of _property_? 5. How does _property_ ordinarily differ from _quality_? 6. In what usage do _property_ and _quality_ become exact synonyms, and how are _properties_ then distinguished? EXAMPLES. His scepter shows the force of temporal power, The ---- to awe and majesty, Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings. Nothing endures but personal ----s. * * * * * AVARICIOUS (page 68). QUESTIONS. 1. How do _avaricious_ and _covetous_ differ from _miserly_, _niggardly_, _parsimonious_, and _penurious_? 2. Of what matters are _greedy_ and _stingy_ used? How do they differ from each other? EXAMPLES. I am not ---- for gold; Nor care I who doth feed upon my cost; It yearns me not if men my garments wear. It is better to be content with such things as ye have than to become ---- and ---- in accumulating. * * * * * AVENGE (page 69). QUESTIONS. 1. What is it to _avenge_? 2. How does _avenge_ differ from _revenge_? 3. Which word would be used of an act of God? 4. Is _retaliate_ used in the sense of _avenge_ or of _revenge_? EXAMPLES. O, that the vain remorse, which must chastise Crimes done, had but as loud a voice to warn As its keen sting is mortal to ----. I lost mine eye laying the prize aboard, And therefore to ---- it, shalt thou die. * * * * * AVOW (page 69). QUESTIONS. 1. Which words of this group refer exclusively to one's own knowledge or action? 2. What is the distinctive sense of _aver_? of _avouch_? of _avow_? 3. How do _avouch_ and _avow_ differ from _aver_ in construction? 4. Is _avow_ used in a good or a bad sense? What does it imply of others' probable feeling or action? 5. How does _avow_ compare with _confess_? EXAMPLES. And, but herself, ---- no parallel. The child ---- his fault and was pardoned by his parent. * * * * * AWFUL (page 70). QUESTIONS. 1. To what matters should _awful_ properly be restricted? 2. Is _awful_ always interchangeable with _alarming_ or _terrible_? with _disagreeable_ or _annoying_? EXAMPLES. Then must it be an ---- thing to die. The silent falling of the snow is to me one of the most ---- things in nature. * * * * * AWKWARD (page 70). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the derivation and original meaning of _awkward_? of _clumsy_? 2. To what, therefore, does _awkward_ primarily refer? and to what _clumsy_? 3. Is a draft-horse distinctively _awkward_ or _clumsy_? 4. Give some metaphorical uses of _awkward_. EXAMPLES. Though he was ----, he was kindly. The apprentice was not only ----, but ----, and had to be taught over and over again the same methods. The young girl stood in a ---- way, looking in at the showy shop-windows. * * * * * AXIOM (page 71). QUESTIONS. 1. In what do _axiom_ and _truism_ agree? 2. In what do they differ? 3. How do they compare in interest and utility? EXAMPLES. It is almost an ---- that those who do most for the heathen abroad are most liberal for the heathen at home. Trifling ----s clothed in great, swelling words of vanity. * * * * * BABBLE (page 71). QUESTIONS. 1. To what class do most of the words in this group belong? Why are they so called? 2. What is the special significance of _blab_ and _blurt_? How do they differ from each other in use? 3. What is _chat_? 4. How does _prattling_ differ from _chatting_? 5. In what sense is _jabber_ used? How does it compare with _chatter_? EXAMPLES. "The crane," I said, "may ---- of the crane, The dove may ---- of the dove." Two women sat contentedly ----ing, one of them amusing a ----ing babe. * * * * * BANISH (page 72). QUESTIONS. 1. From what land may one be _banished_? From what _expatriated_ or _exiled_? 2. By whom may one be said to be _banished_? by whom _expatriated_ or _exiled_? 3. Which of these words is of widest import? Give examples of its metaphorical use. * * * * * BANK (page 72). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a _beach_? a _coast_? 2. How does each of the above words differ from _bank_? 3. What is the distinctive sense of _strand_? In what style of writing is it most commonly used? 4. What are the distinctive senses of _edge_ and _brink_? * * * * * BANTER (page 73). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _banter_? 2. How is _badinage_ distinguished from _banter_? _raillery_ from both? 3. What is the distinctive sense of _irony_? 4. Is _irony_ kindly or the reverse? _badinage_? _banter_? 5. What words of this group are distinctly hostile? 6. Is _ridicule_ or _derision_ the stronger word? What is the distinction between the two? between _satire_ and _sarcasm_? between _chaff_, _jeering_, and _mockery_? * * * * * BARBAROUS (page 73). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the meaning of _barbarian_? 2. What is the added significance of _barbaric_? 3. How does _barbarous_ in general use differ from both the above words? 4. What special element is commonly implied in _savage_? 5. In what less opprobrious sense may _barbarous_ and _savage_ be used? Give instances. EXAMPLES. A multitude like which the populous North Poured never from her frozen loins, to pass Rhene or the Danaw, when her ---- sons Came like a deluge on the south. Or when the gorgeous East, with richest hand, Showers on her kings ---- pearl and gold. It is most true, that a natural and secret hatred and aversation toward society, in any man, hath somewhat of the ---- beast. Thou art bought and sold among those of any wit like a ---- slave. * * * * * BARRIER (page 74). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a _bar_? and what is its purpose? 2. What is a _barrier_? 3. Which word is ordinarily applied to objects of great extent? 4. Would a mountain range be termed a _bar_ or a _barrier_? 5. What distinctive name is given to a mass of sand across the mouth of a river or harbor? * * * * * BATTLE (page 74). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the general meaning of _conflict_? 2. What is a _battle_? 3. How long may a _battle_ last? 4. On how many fields may one _battle_ be fought? 5. How does _engagement_ differ from _battle_? How does _combat_ differ? _action_? _skirmish_? _fight_? * * * * * BEAUTIFUL (page 76). QUESTIONS. 1. What is necessary to constitute an object or a person _beautiful_? 2. Can _beautiful_ be said of that which is harsh and ragged, however grand? 3. How is _beautiful_ related to our powers of appreciation? 4. How does _pretty_ compare with _beautiful_? _handsome_? 5. What does _fair_ denote? _comely_? _picturesque_? EXAMPLES. I pray thee, O God, that I may be ---- within. A happy youth, and their old age is ---- and free. 'Twas sung, how they were ---- in their lives And in their death had not divided been. How ---- has the day been, how bright was the sun. How lovely and joyful the course that he run. Though he rose in a mist when his race he began And there followed some droppings of rain! * * * * * BECOMING (page 77). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the meaning of _becoming_? of _decent_? of _suitable_? 2. Can that which is worthy or beautiful in itself ever be otherwise than _becoming_ or _suitable_? Give instances. 3. What is the meaning of _fit_? How does it differ from _fitting_ or _befitting_? EXAMPLES. A merrier man, Within the limit of ---- mirth, I never spent an hour's talk withal. Still govern thou my song, Urania, and ---- audience find, tho few. Indeed, left nothing ---- for your purpose Untouch'd, slightly handled, in discourse. In such a time as this, it is not ---- That every nice offense should bear his comment. How could money be better spent than in erecting a ---- building for the greatest library in the country? * * * * * BEGINNING (page 78). QUESTIONS. 1. From what language is _beginning_ derived? _commencement_? How do the two words differ in application and use? Give instances. 2. What is an _origin_? a _source_? a _rise_? 3. How are _fount_, _fountain_, and _spring_ used in the figurative sense? EXAMPLES. For learning is the ---- pure, Out from which all glory springs. Truth is the ---- of every good to gods and men. Courage, the mighty attribute of powers above, By which those great in war are great in love; The ---- of all brave acts is seated here. It can not be that Desdemona should long continue her love to the Moor, nor he his to her: it was a violent ----, and thou shalt see an answerable sequestration. In the ---- God created the heaven and the earth. * * * * * BEHAVIOR (page 79). QUESTIONS. 1. How do _behavior_ and _conduct_ differ? 2. What is the special sense of _carriage_? of _bearing_? _demeanor_? 3. What is _manner_? _manners_? EXAMPLES. Our thoughts and our ---- are our own. Good ---- are made up of petty sacrifices. * * * * * BENEVOLENCE (page 80). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the original distinction between _benevolence_ and _beneficence_? 2. In what sense is _benevolence_ now most commonly used? 3. What words are commonly used for _benevolence_ in the original sense? 4. What was the original sense of _charity_? the present popular sense? 5. What of _humanity_? _generosity_? _liberality_? _philanthropy_? EXAMPLES. ---- is a virtue of the heart, and not of the hands. The secrets of life are not shown except to ---- and likeness. * * * * * BIND (page 81). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the distinctive sense of _bind_? 2. What is the special meaning of _tie_? 3. In how general a sense is _fasten_ used? 4. Which of the above three words is used in a figurative sense? EXAMPLES. Shut, shut the door, good John! fatigu'd, I said; ---- up the knocker, say I'm sick, I'm dead. Adjust our lives to loss, make friends with pain, ---- all our shattered hopes and bid them bloom again. * * * * * BITTER (page 81). QUESTIONS. 1. How may _acid_, _bitter_, and _acrid_ be distinguished? _pungent_? _caustic_? 2. In metaphorical use, how are _harsh_ and _bitter_ distinguished? 3. What is the special significance of _caustic_? 4. Give examples of these words in their various uses. * * * * * BLEACH (page 82). QUESTIONS. 1. How do _bleach_ and _blanch_ differ from _whiten_? from each other? EXAMPLES. You can behold such sights, And keep the natural ruby of your cheeks, When mine is ---- with fear. We let the years go: wash them clean with tears, Leave them to ---- out in the open day. * * * * * BLEMISH (page 82). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a _blemish_? 2. How does it differ from a _flaw_ or _taint_? 3. What is a _defect_? a _fault_? 4. Which words of this group are naturally applied to reputation, and which to character? EXAMPLES. Every page enclosing in the midst A square of text that looks a little ----. The noble Brutus Hath told you Cæsar was ambitious: If it were so, it was a grievous ----. * * * * * BLUFF (page 83). QUESTIONS. 1. In what sense are _bluff_, _frank_, and _open_ used? 2. In what sense are _blunt_, _brusk_, _rough_, and _rude_ employed? EXAMPLES. There are to whom my satire seems too ----. Stout once a month they march, a ---- band And ever but in times of need, at hand. * * * * * BOUNDARY (page 84). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the original sense of _boundary_? 2. How does it differ in usage from _bound_ or _bounds_? 3. In what style and sense is _bourn_ used? 4. What is the distinctive meaning of _edge_? EXAMPLES. So these lives ... Parted by ----s strong, but drawing nearer and nearer, Rushed together at last, and one was lost in the other. In worst extremes, and on the perilous ---- Of battle. * * * * * BRAVE (page 85). QUESTIONS. 1. How does _brave_ differ from _courageous_? 2. What is the special sense of _adventurous_? of _bold_? of _chivalrous_? 3. How do these words differ from _venturesome_? 4. What is especially denoted by _fearless_ and _intrepid_? 5. What does _valiant_ tell of results? 6. What ideas are combined in _heroic_? EXAMPLES. A ---- man is also full of faith. Fir'd at first sight with what the Muse imparts, In ---- youth we tempt the heights of Arts. Thy danger chiefly lies in acting well; No crime's so great as ---- to excel. * * * * * BUSINESS (page 88). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the distinctive meaning of _barter_? 2. What does _business_ add to the meaning of _barter_? 3. What is _occupation_? Is it broader than _business_? 4. What is a _vocation_? 5. What (in the strict sense) is an _avocation_? 6. What is implied in _profession_? _pursuit_? 7. What is a _transaction_? 8. How does _trade_ differ from _commerce_? 9. What is _work_? 10. What is an _art_ in the industrial sense? a _craft_? EXAMPLES. A man must serve his time to every ----. We turn to dust, and all our mightiest ----s die too. * * * * * CALCULATE (page 90). QUESTIONS. 1. How do you distinguish between _count_ and _calculate_? _compute_, _reckon_ and _estimate_? 2. Which is used mostly with regard to future probabilities? 3. Do we use _compute_ or _estimate_ of numbers exactly known? 4. Of _compute_, _calculate_, and _estimate_, which is used with especial reference to the future? EXAMPLES. There were 4046 men in the district, by actual ----. The time of the eclipse was ---- to a second. We ask them to ---- approximately the cost of the building. * * * * * CALL (page 91). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the distinctive meaning of _call_? 2. Do we ever apply _bellow_ and _roar_ to human sounds? 3. Can you give more than one sense of _cry_? 4. Are _shout_ and _scream_ more or less expressive than _call_? 5. Which of the words in this group are necessarily and which ordinarily applied to articulate utterance? Which rarely, if ever, so used? EXAMPLES. ---- for the robin redbreast and the wren. The pioneers could hear the savages ---- outside. I ---- my servant and he came. The captain ---- in a voice of thunder to the helmsman, "Put your helm hard aport!" * * * * * CALM (page 91). QUESTIONS. 1. To what classes of objects or states of mind do we apply _calm_? _collected_? _quiet_? _placid_? _serene_? _still_? _tranquil_? 2. Do the antonyms _boisterous_, _excited_, _ruffled_, _turbulent_, and _wild_, also apply to the same? 3. Can you contrast _calm_ and _quiet_? 4. How many of the preceding adjectives can be applied to water? 5. How does _composed_ differ from _calm_? EXAMPLES. The possession of a ---- conscience is an estimable blessing. The water is said to be always ---- in the ocean depths. ---- on the listening ear of night Fall heaven's melodious strains. * * * * * CANCEL (page 92). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the difference in method involved in the verbs _cancel_, _efface_, _erase_, _expunge_, and _obliterate_? 2. Which suggest the most complete removal of all trace of a writing? 3. How do the figurative uses of these words compare with the literal? 4. Is it possible to _obliterate_ or _efface_ that which has been previously _canceled_ or _erased_? EXAMPLES. It is practically impossible to clean a postage-stamp that has been properly ---- so that it can be used again. With the aid of a sharp penknife the blot was quickly ----. By lapse of time and elemental action, the inscription had become completely ----. * * * * * CANDID (page 93). QUESTIONS. 1. To what class of things do we apply _aboveboard_? _candid_? _fair_? _frank_? _honest_? _sincere_? _transparent_? 2. Can you state the similarity between _artless_, _guileless_, _naive_, _simple_, and _unsophisticated_? How do they differ as a class from the words above referred to? 3. How does it happen that "To be frank," or "To be candid" often precedes the utterance of something disagreeable? EXAMPLES. The sophistry was so ---- as to disgust the assembly. A. T. Stewart relied on ---- dealing as the secret of mercantile success. An ---- man will not steal or defraud. ---- she seems with artful care Affecting to be unaffected. * * * * * CARE (page 94). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the special difference between _care_ and _anxiety_? 2. Wherein does _care_ differ from _caution_? _solicitude_ from _anxiety_? _watchfulness_ from _wariness_? 3. Can you give some of the senses of _care_? 4. Is _concern_ as strong a term as _anxiety_? 5. What is _circumspection_? _precaution_? _heed_? EXAMPLES. Take her up tenderly, lift her with ----. A military commander should have as much ---- as bravery. The invaders fancied themselves so secure against attack that they had not taken the ---- to station sentinels. * * * * * CARICATURE (page 95). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the distinctive meaning of _caricature_? 2. What is the special difference between _parody_ and _travesty_? between both and _burlesque_? 3. To what is _caricature_ mostly confined? 4. How do _mimicry_ and _imitation_ differ? 5. Is an _extravaganza_ an _exaggeration_? EXAMPLES. The eagle nose of the general was magnified in every artist's ----. His laughable reproduction of the great actor's vagaries was a clever bit of ----. If it be not lying to say that a fox's tail is four feet long, it is certainly a huge ----. * * * * * CARRY (page 96). QUESTIONS. 1. To what sort of objects do we apply _bear_? _carry_? _move_? _take_? 2. What kinds of force or power do we indicate by _convey_, _lift_, _transmit_, and _transport_? 3. What is the distinction between _bring_ and _carry_? between _carry_ and _bear_? 4. What does _lift_ mean? 5. Can you give some figurative uses of _carry_? EXAMPLES. The strong man can ---- 1,000 pounds with apparent ease. Napoleon always endeavored to ---- the war into the enemy's territory. It was found necessary to ---- the coal overland for a distance of 500 miles. My punishment is greater than I can ----. * * * * * CATASTROPHE (page 97). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a _catastrophe_ or _cataclysm_? 2. Is a _catastrophe_ also necessarily a _calamity_ or a _disaster_? 3. Which word has the broader meaning, _disaster_ or _calamity_? 4. Does _misfortune_ suggest as serious a condition as any of the foregoing? 5. How does a _mishap_ compare with a _catastrophe_, a _calamity_, or a _disaster_? 6. Give some chief antonyms of the above. EXAMPLES. War and pestilence are properly ----, while the loss of a battle may be a ----, but not a ----. Fortune is not satisfied with inflicting one ----. Well had the boding tremblers learned to trace The day's ---- in his morning face. The failure of the crops of two successive years proved an irreparable ---- to the emigrants. * * * * * CAUSE (page 98). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the central distinction between _antecedent_ and _cause_? 2. How are the words _cause_, _condition_, and _occasion_ illustrated by the fall of an avalanche? 3. And the antonyms _consequence_? _effect_? _outgrowth_? _result_? 4. What are _causality_ and _causation_? 5. How are _origin_ and _source_ related to _cause_? EXAMPLES. Where there is an effect there must be also a ----. It is necessary to know something of the ---- of a man before we can safely trust him. The ---- of the river was found to be a small lake among the hills. What was given as the ---- of the quarrel was really but the ----. * * * * * CHAGRIN (page 100). QUESTIONS. 1. What feelings are combined in _chagrin_? 2. How do you distinguish between _chagrin_, _disappointment_, _humiliation_, _mortification_, and _shame_? 3. Which involves a sense of having done wrong? EXAMPLES. The king's ---- at the limitations imposed upon him was painfully manifest. He is not wholly lost who yet can blush from ----. Hope tells a flattering tale, Delusive, vain, and hollow. Ah! let not hope prevail, Lest ---- follow. * * * * * CHANGE (page 100). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the distinction between _change_ and _exchange_? Are they ever used as equivalent, and how? 2. Can you distinguish between _modify_ and _qualify_? EXAMPLES. The tailor offered to ---- the armholes of the coat. We requested the pianist to ---- his music by introducing a few popular tunes. We often fail to recognize the actor who ---- his costume between the acts. * * * * * CHARACTER (page 102). QUESTIONS. 1. How do you distinguish between _character_ and _reputation_? _constitution_ and _disposition_? 2. Is _nature_ a broader word than any of the preceding? 3. If so, why? EXAMPLES. The philanthropist's ---- for charity is often a great source of annoyance to him. Let dogs delight to bark and bite, for 'tis their ---- to. Misfortune may cause the loss of friends and reputation, yet if the man has not yielded to wrong, his ---- is superior to loss or change. * * * * * CHOOSE (page 104). QUESTIONS. 1. What are the shades of difference between _choose_, _cull_, _elect_, _pick_, _prefer_, and _select_? 2. Also between the antonyms _cast away_, _decline_, _dismiss_, _refuse_, _repudiate_? 3. Does _select_ imply more care or judgment than _choose_? EXAMPLES. The prettiest flowers had all been ----. Jacob was ---- to Esau, tho he was the younger. When a man deliberately ---- to do wrong, there is little hope for him. * * * * * CIRCUMSTANCE (page 105). QUESTIONS. 1. To what classes of things do we apply _accompaniment_? _concomitant_? _circumstance_? _event_? _fact_? _incident_? _occurrence_? _situation_? 2. Can you give some instances of the use of _circumstance_? 3. Is it a word of broader meaning than _incident_? EXAMPLES. The ---- that there had been a fire was proved by the smoke-blackened walls. Extreme provocation may be a mitigating ---- in a case of homicide. * * * * * CLASS (page 106). QUESTIONS. 1. How does a _class_ differ from a _caste_? 2. In what connection is _rank_ used? _order_? 3. What is a _coterie_? How does it differ from a _clique_? EXAMPLES. An ---- was formed for the relief of the poor and needy of the city. A select ---- met at the residence of one of the leading men of the city. There is a struggle of the masses against the ----. * * * * * CLEAR (page 107). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _clear_ originally signify? 2. How does _clear_ differ from _transparent_ as regards a substance that may be a medium of vision? 3. With what meaning is _clear_ used of an object apprehended by the senses, as an object of sight or hearing? 4. What does _distinct_ signify? 5. What is _plain_? 6. What special sense does this word always retain? How does _transparent_ differ from _translucent_? 7. What do _lucid_ and _pellucid_ signify? 8. What is the special force of _limpid_? * * * * * CLEVER (page 109). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the meaning of _clever_ as used in England? 2. What was the early New England usage? 3. What is to be said of the use of _smart_ and _sharp_? 4. What other words of this group are preferable to _clever_ in many of its uses? EXAMPLES. His brief experience in the department had made him very ---- in the work now assigned him. She was especially ---- in song. Be good, sweet maid, and let who will be ----; Do noble things, not dream them, all day long; And so make life, death, and the vast forever One grand, sweet song. * * * * * COMPANY (page 110). QUESTIONS. 1. From what is _company_ derived? What is its primary meaning? 2. For what are those associated who constitute a _company_? Is their association temporary or permanent? 3. What is the difference between _assemblage_ and _assembly_? 4. What is a _conclave_? a _convocation_? a _convention_? 5. What are the characteristics of a _group_? 6. To what use is _congregation_ restricted? How does _meeting_ agree with and differ from it? EXAMPLES. Far from the madding ----'s ignoble strife, Their sober wishes never learned to stray. The room contained a large ---- of miscellaneous objects. A fellow that makes no figure in ----. A great ---- had met, but without organization or officers. If ye inquire anything concerning other matters, it shall be determined in a lawful ----. * * * * * COMPEL (page 111). QUESTIONS. 1. What is it to _compel_? 2. What does _force_ imply? 3. What is the especial significance of _coerce_? 4. What does _constrain_ imply? In what favorable sense is it used? EXAMPLES. Even if we were not willing, they possessed the power of ---- us to do justice. Employers may ---- their employees into voting as they demand, but for the secret ballot. These considerations ---- us to aid them to the utmost of our power. * * * * * COMPLAIN (page 112). QUESTIONS. 1. By what is _complaining_ prompted? _murmuring_? _repining_? 2. Which finds outward expression, and which is limited to the mental act? 3. To whom does one _complain_, in the formal sense of the word? 4. With whom does one _remonstrate_? EXAMPLES. It is not pleasant to live with one who is constantly ----ing. The dog gave a low ---- which frightened the tramp away. * * * * * COMPLEX (page 112). QUESTIONS. 1. How does _complex_ differ from _compound_? from _composite_? 2. What is _heterogeneous_? _conglomerate_? 3. How does _complicated_ differ from _intricate_? from _involved_? * * * * * CONSCIOUS (page 116). QUESTIONS. 1. Of what things is one _aware_? of what is he _conscious_? 2. How does _sensible_ compare with the above-mentioned words? 3. What does _sensible_ indicate regarding the emotions, that would not be expressed by _conscious_? EXAMPLES. To be ---- that you are ignorant is a great step to knowledge. They are now ---- it would have been better to resist the first temptation. He was ---- of a stealthy step and a bulk dimly visible through the darkness. * * * * * CONSEQUENCE (page 116). QUESTIONS. 1. How does _consequence_ differ from _effect_? both from _result_? 2. How do _result_ and _issue_ compare? 3. In what sense is _consequent_ used? * * * * * CONTAGION (page 117). QUESTIONS. 1. To what is _contagion_ now limited by the best medical usage? 2. To what is the term _infection_ applied? EXAMPLES. During the plague in London persons walked in the middle of the streets for fear of the ---- from the houses. The mob thinks by ---- for the most part, catching an opinion like a cold. No pestilence is so much to be dreaded as the ---- of bad example. * * * * * CONTINUAL (page 117). QUESTIONS. 1. How does _continuous_ differ from _continual_? _incessant_ from _ceaseless_? Give examples. * * * * * CONTRAST (page 118). QUESTIONS. 1. How is _contrast_ related to _compare_? 2. What are the special senses of _differentiate_, _discriminate_ and _distinguish_? * * * * * CONVERSATION (page 118). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the essential meaning of _conversation_? 2. How does _conversation_ differ from _talk_? 3. How is _discourse_ related to _conversation_? 4. What are the special senses of _dialogue_ and _colloquy_? EXAMPLES. There can be no ---- with a great genius, who does all the ----ing. Nor wanted sweet ----, the banquet of the mind. * * * * * CONVEY (page 119). QUESTIONS. 1. In what do _convey_, _transmit_, and _transport_ agree? What is the distinctive sense of _convey_? 2. To what class of objects does _transport_ refer? 3. To what class of objects do _transfer_, _transmit_, and _convey_ apply? 4. Which is the predominant sense of the latter words? * * * * * CRIMINAL (page 120). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the distinctive meaning of _criminal_? How does it differ from _illegal_ or _unlawful_? 2. What is _felonious_? _flagitious_? 3. What is the primary meaning of _iniquitous_? 4. Is an _iniquitous_ act necessarily _criminal_? * * * * * DANGER (page 121). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the distinctive meaning of _danger_? 2. Does _danger_ or _peril_ suggest the more immediate evil? 3. How are _jeopardy_ and _risk_ distinguished from _danger_ and _peril_? EXAMPLES. Delay always breeds ----. The careful rider avoids running ----. Stir, at your ----! * * * * * DECAY (page 122). QUESTIONS. 1. What sort of things _decay_? _putrefy_? _rot_? 2. What is the essential difference between _decay_ and _decompose_? EXAMPLES. The flowers wither, the tree's trunk ----. The water was ---- by the electric current. * * * * * DECEPTION (page 123). QUESTIONS. 1. How is _deceit_ distinguished from _deception_? from _guile_? _fraud_? _lying_? _hypocrisy_? 2. Do all of these apply to conduct as well as to speech? 3. Is _deception_ ever innocent? 4. Have _craft_ and _cunning_ always a moral element? 5. How is _dissimulation_ distinguished from _duplicity_? EXAMPLES. The ---- of his conduct was patent to all. It was a matter of self-----. The judge decided it to be a case of ----. * * * * * DEFINITION (page 124). QUESTIONS. 1. Which is the more exact, a _definition_ or a _description_? 2. What must a _definition_ include, and what must it exclude? 3. What must a _description_ include? 4. In what respect has _interpretation_ a wider meaning than _translation_? 5. How does an _explanation_ compare with an _exposition_? EXAMPLES. A prompt ---- of the difficulty prevented a quarrel. The ---- of scenery was admirable. The seer gave an ---- of the dream. Many a controversy may be instantly ended by a clear ---- of terms. * * * * * DELIBERATE (page 125). QUESTIONS. 1. What are the chief distinctions between _deliberate_? _consult_? _consider_? _meditate_? _reflect_? 2. Do large gatherings of people _consult_, or _meditate_, or _deliberate_? 3. Do we _reflect_ on things past or things to come? 4. How many persons are necessarily implied in _consult_, _confer_, and _debate_ as commonly used? in _deliberate_, _consider_, _ponder_, _reflect_? in _meditate_? 5. What idea of time is implied in _deliberate_? EXAMPLES. The matter was carefully ---- in all its bearings. The legislature ---- for several days. * * * * * DELUSION (page 127). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the essential difference between _illusion_ and _delusion_? How does _hallucination_ differ from both? 2. Which word is used especially of objects of sight? EXAMPLES. The ---- of the sick are sometimes pitiful. In the soft light the ---- was complete. * * * * * DEMONSTRATION (page 127). QUESTIONS. 1. To what kind of reasoning does _demonstration_ in the strict sense apply? 2. What is _evidence_? _proof_? 3. Which is the stronger term? 4. Which is the more comprehensive? EXAMPLES. The ---- of the witness was so complete that no further ---- was required. A mathematical ---- must be final and conclusive. * * * * * DESIGN (page 128). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the distinctive meaning of _design_? 2. What element is prominent in _intention_? _purpose_? _plan_? 3. Does _purpose_ suggest more power to execute than _design_? 4. How does _intent_ specifically differ from _purpose_? Which term do we use with reference to the Divine Being? EXAMPLES. The architect's ---- involved much detail. Hell is paved with good ----. It is the ---- of the voter that decides how his ballot shall be counted. The ---- of the Almighty can not be thwarted. The adaption of means to ends in nature clearly indicates a ----, and so proves a ----er. * * * * * DESPAIR (page 129). QUESTIONS. 1. In what order might _despair_, _desperation_, _discouragement_, and _hopelessness_ follow, each as the result of the previous condition? 2. How does _despondency_ especially differ from _despair_? EXAMPLES. The utter ---- of their condition was apparent. In weak ---- he abandoned all endeavor. * * * * * DEXTERITY (page 129). QUESTIONS. 1. From what is _adroitness_ derived? From what _dexterity_? How might each be rendered? 2. How does _adroitness_ differ in use from _dexterity_? 3. From what is _aptitude_ derived, and what does it signify? 4. How does _skill_ differ from _dexterity_? Which can and which can not be communicated? EXAMPLES. He had a natural ---- for scientific investigation, and by long practise gained an inimitable ---- of manipulation. His ---- in debate enabled him to evade or parry arguments or attacks which he could not answer. The ---- of the best trained workman can not equal the precision of a machine. * * * * * DICTION (page 130). QUESTIONS. 1. Which is the more comprehensive word, _diction_, _language_, or _phraseology_? 2. What is the true meaning of _verbiage_? Should it ever be used as the equivalent of _language_ or _diction_? 3. What is _style_? How does it compare with _diction_ or _language_? EXAMPLES. The ---- of the discourse was plain and emphatic. The ---- of a written contract should be such as to prevent misunderstandings. The poetic ---- of Milton is so exquisitely perfect that another word can scarcely ever be substituted for the one he has chosen without marring the line. * * * * * DIFFERENCE (page 131). QUESTIONS. 1. Which pertain mostly to realities, and which are matters of judgment--_difference_, _disparity_, _distinction_, or _inconsistency_? 2. What do we mean by "a _distinction_ without a _difference_"? EXAMPLES. The proper ---- should be carefully observed in the use of "shall" and "will." The ---- between black and white is self-evident. The ---- of our representatives' conduct with their promises is unpardonable. * * * * * DISCERN (page 133). QUESTIONS. 1. To what sort of objects do we apply _behold_, _discern_, _distinguish_, _observe_, and _see_? 2. What do _behold_ and _distinguish_ suggest in addition to _seeing_? EXAMPLES. With the aid of a great telescope we may ---- what stars are double. ---- the upright man. Let us minutely ---- the color of the goods. * * * * * DISCOVER (page 133). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the distinctive meaning of _detect_? _discover_? _invent_? 2. How do _discover_ and _invent_ differ? 3. Is _detect_ often used in a favorable sense? EXAMPLES. An experienced policeman acquires wonderful skill in ----ing criminals. Newton ---- the law of gravitation. To ---- a machine, one must first understand the laws of mechanics. * * * * * DISEASE (page 134). QUESTIONS. 1. What was the early and general meaning of _sick_ and _sickness_ in English? 2. How long did that usage prevail? 3. What is the present restriction upon the use of these words in England? What words are there commonly substituted? 4. What is the prevalent usage in the United States? EXAMPLES. ---- spread in the camp and proved deadlier than the sword. The ---- was found to be contagious. He is just recovering from a slight ----. It is not good manners to talk of one's ----s. * * * * * DO (page 135). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the most comprehensive word of this group? 2. In what sense are _finish_ and _complete_ used, and how are they discriminated from each other? 3. How do we discriminate between _fulfil_, _realize_, _effect_, and _execute_? _perform_ and _accomplish_? _accomplish_ and _complete_? EXAMPLES. A duty has been ----, a work of gratitude and affection has been ----. It is wonderful how much can be ---- by steady, plodding industry without brilliant talents. The work is not only grand in design but it is ---- with the most exquisite delicacy in every detail. It is the duty of the legislators to make laws, of the magistrates to ---- them. Every one should labor to ---- his duties faithfully, and ---- the just expectations of those who have committed to him any trust. * * * * * DOCTRINE (page 136). QUESTIONS. 1. To what matters do we apply the word _creed_? _doctrine_? _dogma_? _principle_? 2. Which is the more inclusive word? 3. Is _dogma_ used favorably or unfavorably? EXAMPLES. The ---- rests either upon the authority of the Scriptures, or upon a decision of the Church. A man may have upright ----s even while he disregards commonly received ----s. * * * * * DOUBT, _v._ (page 137). QUESTIONS. 1. Do we apply _doubt_, _distrust_, _surmise_, and _suspect_ mostly to persons and things, or to motives and intentions? 2. Is _mistrust_ used of persons or of things? 3. Is it used, in a favorable or an unfavorable sense? EXAMPLES. We do not ---- that the earth moves around the sun. Nearly every law of nature was by man first ----, then proved to be true. I ---- my own heart. I ---- that man from the outset. * * * * * DOUBT, _n._ (page 138). QUESTIONS. 1. To what class of objects do we apply _disbelief_? _doubt_? _hesitation_? _misgiving_? 2. Which of these words most commonly implies an unfavorable meaning? 3. What meaning has _skepticism_ as applied to religious matters? EXAMPLES. We feel no ---- in giving our approval. The jury had ----s of his guilt. We did all we could to further the enterprise, but still had our ----s as to the outcome. * * * * * DUPLICATE (page 141). QUESTIONS. 1. Can you give the distinction between a _copy_ and a _duplicate_? a _facsimile_, and an _imitation_? 2. What sort of a _copy_ is a _transcript_? EXAMPLES. The ---- of an organ by the violinist was perfect. This key is a ----, and will open the lock. The signature was merely a printed ----. * * * * * DUTY (page 142). QUESTIONS. 1. Do we use _duty_ and _right_ of civil things? or _business_ and _obligation_ of moral things? 2. Does _responsibility_ imply connection with any other person or thing? EXAMPLES. I go because it is my ----. We recognize a ---- for the good conduct of our own children, but do we not also rest under some ---- to society to exercise a good influence over the children of others? * * * * * EAGER (page 142). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the distinction between _eager_ and _earnest_ in the nature of the feeling implied? in the objects toward which it is directed? 2. How does _anxious_ in this acceptation differ from both _eager_ and _earnest_? EXAMPLES. Hark! the shrill trumpet sounds to horse! away! My soul's in arms, and ---- for the fray. I am in ----. I will not equivocate; I will not excuse; I will not retreat a single inch; and I will be heard! I am ---- to hear of your welfare, and of the prospects of the enterprise. * * * * * EASE (page 143). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _ease_ denote, in the sense here considered? Does it apply to action or condition? 2. Is _facility_ active or passive? _readiness_? 3. What does _ease_ imply, and to what may it be limited? 4. What does _facility_ imply? _readiness_? 5. To what is _expertness_ limited? EXAMPLES. He plays the violin with great ----, and delights an audience. Whatever he did was done with so much ----, In him alone 'twas natural to please. It is often said with equal truth that we ought to take advantage of the ---- which children possess of learning. * * * * * EDUCATION (page 143). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the distinctive meaning of _education_? _instruction_? _teaching_? 2. How is _instruction_ or _teaching_ related to _education_? 3. How does _training_ differ from _teaching_? 4. What is _discipline_? _tuition_? 5. What are _breeding_ and _nurture_, and how do they differ from each other? 6. How are _knowledge_ and _learning_ related to _education_? EXAMPLES. The true purpose of ---- is to cherish and unfold the seed of immortality already sown within us. By ----, we do learn ourselves to know And what to man, and what to God we owe. ---- maketh a full man, conference a ready man, and writing an exact man. For natural abilities are like natural plants that need pruning by ----; and ----s themselves do give forth directions too much at large, except they be bounded in by experience. A branch of ---- is often put to an improper use, for fear of its being idle. * * * * * EFFRONTERY (page 144). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _audacity_? _hardihood_? 2. What special element does _effrontery_ add to the meaning of _audacity_ and _hardihood_? 3. What is _impudence_? _shamelessness_? 4. How does _effrontery_ compare with these words? 5. What is _boldness_? Is it used in a favorable or an unfavorable sense? EXAMPLES. When they saw the ---- of Peter and John, and perceived that they were unlearned and ignorant men they marvelled. I ne'er heard yet That any of these bolder vices wanted Less ---- to gainsay what they did, Than to perform it first. I am not a little surprised at the easy ---- with which political gentlemen in and out of Congress take it upon them to say that there are not a thousand men in the North who sympathize with John Brown. * * * * * EGOTISM (page 145). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _egoism_ and how does it differ from _egotism_? 2. What is _self-assertion_? _self-conceit_? 3. Does _conceit_ differ from _self-conceit_, and how? 4. What is _self-confidence_? Is it worthy or unworthy? 5. Is _self-assertion_ ever a duty? _self-conceit_? 6. What is _vanity_? How does it differ from _self-confidence_? from _pride_? 7. What is _self-esteem_? How does it differ from _self-conceit_? from _self-confidence_? EXAMPLES. ---- may puff a man up, but never prop him up. ---- is as ill at ease under indifference, as tenderness is under the love which it can not return. * * * * * EMBLEM (page 146). QUESTIONS. 1. From what language is _emblem_ derived? What did it originally signify? 2. What is the derivation and primary meaning of _symbol_? 3. How do the two words compare as now used? 4. How does a _sign_ suggest something other than itself? 5. Can the same thing be both an _emblem_ and a _symbol_? a _sign_ and a _symbol_? 6. What is a _token_? a _figure_? an _image_? a _type_? EXAMPLES. Rose of the desert, thou art to me An ---- of stainless purity, ---- Of those who, keeping their garments white, Walk on through life with steps aright. All things are ----s: the external shows Of nature have their ---- in the mind As flowers and fruits and falling of the leaves. Moses, as Israel's deliverer, was a ---- of Christ. * * * * * EMIGRATE (page 147). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the distinctive meaning of _migrate_? What is its application? 2. What do _emigrate_ and _immigrate_ signify? To what do they apply? Can the two words be used of the same person and the same act? How? EXAMPLES. The ship was crowded with ---- mostly from Germany. ---- are pouring into the United States often at the rate of half a million a year. * * * * * EMPLOY (page 147). QUESTIONS. 1. What are the distinctive senses of _employ_ and _use_? Give instances. 2. What does _use_ often imply as to materials _used_? 3. How does _hire_ compare with _employ_? EXAMPLES. The young man had been ---- by the firm for several months and had proved faithful in every respect. The church was then ready to ---- a pastor. What one has, one ought to ----: and whatever he does he should do with all his might. * * * * * END, _v._ (page 148). QUESTIONS. 1. What is it to _end_, and what reference does _end_ have to intention or expectation? 2. What do _close_, _complete_, _conclude_, and _finish_ signify as to expectation or appropriateness? Give instances. 3. What specially distinctive sense has _finish_? 4. Does _terminate_ refer to reaching an arbitrary or an appropriate end? 5. What does _stop_ signify? EXAMPLES. The life was suddenly ----. The train ---- long enough for the passengers to get off, then whirled on. * * * * * END, _n._ (page 148). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the _end_? 2. What is the distinctive meaning of _extremity_? 3. How does _extremity_ compare with _end_? 4. What reference is implied in _extremity_? 5. What is the meaning of _tip_? _point_? How does _extremity_ differ in use from the two latter words? 6. What is a _terminus_? What specific meaning has the word in modern travel? 7. What is the meaning of _termination_, and of what is it chiefly used? _expiration_? _limit_? EXAMPLES. Seeing that death, a necessary ---- will come when it will come. All rejoice at the successful ---- of the vast undertaking. He that endureth to the ---- shall be saved. Do not turn back when you are just at the ----. * * * * * ENDEAVOR, _v._ (page 149). QUESTIONS. 1. What is it to _attempt_? to _endeavor_? To what sort of exertion does _endeavor_ especially apply? 2. How does _essay_ differ from _attempt_ and _endeavor_ in its view of the results of the action? 3. What is implied in _undertake_? Give an instance. 4. What does _strive_ suggest? 5. How does _try_ compare with the other words of the group? EXAMPLES. ---- first thyself, and after call on God, For to the worker God himself lends aid. ---- the end, and never stand to doubt; Nothing's so hard but search will find it out. ---- to enter in at the strait gate. * * * * * ENDEAVOR, _n._ (page 150). QUESTIONS. 1. What is an _effort_? an _exertion_? Which includes the other? 2. How does _attempt_ differ from _effort_? 3. What is a _struggle_? 4. What is an _essay_, and for what purpose is it made? 5. What is an _endeavor_, and how is it distinguished from _effort_? from _attempt_? EXAMPLES. Youth is a blunder; manhood a ----; old age a regret. So vast an ---- required more capital than he could command at that time. Others combining with him enabled him to succeed with it. After a few spasmodic ----, he abandoned all ---- at improvement. * * * * * ENDURE (page 150). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the meaning of _bear_ as applied to care, pain, grief, and the like? 2. What does _endure_ add to the meaning of _bear_? 3. How do _allow_ and _permit_ compare with the words just mentioned? 4. How do _put up with_ and _tolerate_ compare with _allow_ and _permit_? 5. What is the special sense of _afford_? How does it come into connection with the words of this group? 6. What is the sense of _brook_? 7. Of what words does _abide_ combine the meanings? EXAMPLES. Charity ---- long and is kind; charity ---- all things. I follow thee, safe guide, the path Thou lead'st me, and to the hand of heav'n ----. For there was never yet philosopher That could ---- the toothache patiently. * * * * * ENEMY (page 151). QUESTIONS. 1. What is an _enemy_? an _adversary_? 2. What distinction is there between the two words as to the purpose implied? 3. What is an _antagonist_? an _opponent_? a _competitor_? a _rival_? 4. How does _foe_ compare with _enemy_? EXAMPLES. He makes no friend who never made a ----. This friendship that possesses the whole soul, ... can admit of no ----. Mountains interposed Make ---- of nations who had else, Like kindred drops been molded into one. He that wrestles with us strengthens our nerves and sharpens our skill. Our ---- is our helper. * * * * * ENMITY (page 152). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _enmity_? 2. How does _animosity_ differ from _enmity_? 3. What is _hostility_? What is meant by _hostilities_ between nations? 4. What is _bitterness_? _acrimony_? 5. How does _antagonism_ compare with the words above mentioned? EXAMPLES. Let all ----, and wrath, and anger, and clamor, and evil speaking, be put away from you, with all malice. But their ----, tho smothered for a while, burnt with redoubled violence. The carnal mind is ---- against God, for it is not subject to the law of God, neither indeed can be. * * * * * ENTERTAIN (page 152). QUESTIONS. 1. What is it to _entertain_ mentally? to _amuse_? 2. What is the distinctive sense of _divert_? 3. Can one be _amused_ or _entertained_ who is not _diverted_? 4. What is it to _recreate_? to _beguile_? EXAMPLES. Books can not always ----, however good; Minds are not ever craving for their food. Who God doth late and early pray More of his grace than gifts to lend; And ---- the harmless day With a religious book or friend. * * * * * ENTERTAINMENT (page 153). QUESTIONS. 1. What do _entertainment_ and _recreation_ imply? How, accordingly, do they rank among the lighter matters of life? 2. How do _amusement_ and _pastime_ differ? 3. On what plane are _sports_? How do they compare with _entertainment_ and _recreation_? 4. How do _amusement_ and _enjoyment_ compare? EXAMPLES. At Christmas play, and make good ----, For Christmas comes but once a year. It is as ---- to fools to do mischief. No true heart can find ---- in another's pain or grief. The Puritans hated bear-baiting, not because it gave pain to the bear, but because it gave ---- to the spectators. As Tammie glowered, amazed and curious, The mirth and ---- grew fast and furious. And so, if I might be judge, God never did make a more calm, quiet, innocent ---- than angling. * * * * * ENTHUSIASM (page 153). QUESTIONS. 1. In what sense was _enthusiasm_ formerly used? 2. What is now its prevalent and controlling meaning? 3. How does _zeal_ differ from _enthusiasm_? EXAMPLES. An ardent ---- leads to great results in exposing certain evils. His ---- was contagious and they rushed into battle. The precept had its use; it could make men feel it right to be humane, and desire to be so, but it could never inspire them with an ---- of humanity. * * * * * ENTRANCE (page 154). QUESTIONS. 1. To what does _entrance_ refer? 2. What do _admittance_ and _admission_ add to the meaning of _entrance_? 3. To what does _admittance_ refer? To what additional matters does _admission_ refer? Illustrate. 4. What is the figurative use of _entrance_? EXAMPLES. ---- was obtained by a side-door, and a good position secured to the crowded hall. No ---- except on business. He was never so engrossed with cares of state that the needy could not have ---- to him. However carefully church-membership may be guarded, unworthy members will sometimes gain ----. * * * * * ENVIOUS (page 155). QUESTIONS. 1. What do we mean when we say that a person is _envious_? 2. What is the difference between _envious_ and _jealous_? 3. Is an _envious_ spirit ever good? 4. Is _jealous_ capable of being used in a good sense? 5. In what sense is _suspicious_ used? EXAMPLES. Neither be thou ---- against the workers of iniquity. ---- in honor, sudden and quick in quarrel. * * * * * EQUIVOCAL (page 155). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the derivation and the original signification of _equivocal_? of _ambiguous_? How do the two words compare in present use? 2. What is the meaning of _enigmatical_? 3. How do _doubtful_ and _dubious_ compare? 4. In what sense is _questionable_ used? _suspicious_? EXAMPLES. These sentences, to sugar or to gall, Being strong on both sides, are ----. An ---- statement may result from the thoughtless use of a single word that is capable of more than one meaning. * * * * * ESTEEM, _n._ (page 157). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the difference between _esteem_ and _estimate_? 2. Is _esteem_ now used of concrete valuation? 3. What is its chief present use? 4. What is its meaning in popular use as said of persons? EXAMPLES. They please, are pleas'd; they give to get ----, Till seeming blest, they grow to what they seem. The loss of conscience or honor is one that can not be ----. * * * * * ETERNAL (page 157). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the meaning of _eternal_ in the fullest sense? 2. To what being, in that sense, may it be applied? 3. In what does _everlasting_ fall short of the meaning of _eternal_? 4. How does _endless_ agree with and differ from _everlasting_? 5. In what inferior senses are _everlasting_ and _interminable_ used? 6. Is _eternal_, in good speech or writing, ever brought down to such inferior use? EXAMPLES. Truth crushed to earth shall rise again, The ---- years of God are hers. Whatever may befall thee, it was preordained for thee from ----. It were better to be eaten to death with a rust than to be scoured to nothing with ---- motion. Here comes the lady! Oh, so light a foot Will ne'er wear out the ---- flint. * * * * * EVENT (page 158). QUESTIONS. 1. How do _event_ and _incident_ differ etymologically? 2. Which is the greater and more important? Give examples. 3. How does _circumstance_ compare with _incident_? 4. What is the primary meaning of _occurrence_? 5. What is an _episode_? 6. How does _event_ differ from _end_? 7. What meaning does _event_ often have when applied to the future? EXAMPLES. Fate shall yield To fickle ----, and Chaos judge the strife. Men are the sport of ---- when The ---- seem the sport of men. Coming ---- cast their shadows before. Where an equal poise of hope and fear Does arbitrate the ----, my nature is That I incline to hope rather than fear, And gladly banish squint suspicion. * * * * * EVERY (page 158). QUESTIONS. 1. In what are _all_ and _both_ alike? _any_, _each_, and _every_? 2. How does _any_ differ from _each_ and _every_? 3. How do _each_ and _every_ differ from _all_? 4. How does _each_ compare with _every_? with _both_? 5. What does _either_ properly denote? In what other sense is it often used? What is the objection to the latter use? EXAMPLES. ---- person in the room arose to his feet. A free pardon was offered to ---- who should instantly lay down their arms. As the garrison marched out, the victorious troops stood in arms on ---- side of the way. In order to keep his secret inviolate, he revealed it privately to ---- of his most intimate friends. ---- person giving such information shall be duly rewarded. * * * * * EVIDENT (page 159). QUESTIONS. 1. How do _apparent_ and _evident_ compare? 2. What is the special sense of _manifest_? How does it compare in strength with _evident_? 3. What is the sense of _obvious_? 4. How wide is the range of _visible_? 5. How does _discernible_ compare with _visible_? What does it imply as to the observer's action? 6. What is the sense of _palpable_ and _tangible_? _conspicuous_? EXAMPLES. A paradox is a real truth in the guise of an ---- absurdity or contradiction. The prime minister was ---- by his absence. The statement is a ---- absurdity. On a comparison of the two works the plagiarism was ----. Yet from those flames No light; but only darkness ----. These lies are like the father that begets them; gross as a mountain, open, ----. * * * * * EXAMPLE (page 160). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the etymological meaning of _example_? 2. What two contradictory meanings does _example_ derive from this primary sense? 3. How does _example_ differ from _sample_? 4. How does it compare with _model_? with _pattern_? 5. How does _exemplar_ agree with, and differ from _example_? 6. What is an _exemplification_? an _ensample_? EXAMPLES. I bid him look into the lives of men as tho himself a mirror, and from others to take an ---- for himself. We sleep, but the loom of life never stops and the ---- which was weaving when the sun went down is weaving when it comes up to-morrow. History is an ---- of philosophy. The commander was resolved to make an ---- to deter others from the like offense. * * * * * EXCESS (page 160). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _excess_? Is it used in the favorable or unfavorable sense? 2. What is _extravagance_? 3. What is _exorbitance_? 4. What kind of _excess_ do _overplus_ and _superabundance_ denote? _lavishness_ and _profusion_? 5. Is _surplus_ used in the favorable or unfavorable sense? 6. To what do _redundance_ and _redundancy_ chiefly refer? 7. What words are used as synonyms of _excess_ in the moral sense? EXAMPLES. Saving requires self-denial, and ---- is the death of self-denial. Where there is great ---- there usually follows corresponding ----. ---- of wealth is cause of covetousness. Haste brings ----, and ---- brings want. The ---- of the demand caused unfeigned surprise. More of the present woes of the world are due to ---- than to any other single cause. ---- of language often weakens the impression of what would be impressive in sober statement. * * * * * EXECUTE (page 161). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the meaning of _execute_? of _administer_? of _enforce_? 2. How are the words applied in special cases? Give instances. 3. What secondary meaning has _administer_? EXAMPLES. It is the place of the civil magistrate to ---- the laws. The pasha gave a signal and three attendants seized the culprit, and promptly ---- the bastinado. I can not illustrate a moral duty without at the same time ----ing a precept of our religion. * * * * * EXERCISE (page 162). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the meaning of _exercise_ apart from all qualifying words? 2. How does _exercise_ in that sense differ from _exertion_? 3. How may _exercise_ be brought up to the full meaning of _exertion_? 4. What is _practise_? How does it differ from _exercise_? 5. How is _practise_ discriminated from such theory or profession? 6. What is _drill_? EXAMPLES. Regular ---- tends to keep body and mind in the best working order. ---- in time becomes second nature. By constant ---- the most difficult feats may be done with no apparent ----. * * * * * EXPENSE (page 162). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _cost_? _expense_? 2. How are these words now commonly differentiated? 3. What is the meaning of _outlay_? of _outgo_? EXAMPLES. Which of you, intending to build a tower, sitteth not down first, and counteth the ----, whether he have sufficient to finish it. The entire receipts have not equaled the ----. When the ---- is more than the income, if the income can not be increased, it becomes an absolute necessity to reduce the ----. * * * * * EXPLICIT (page 162). QUESTIONS. 1. To what are _explicit_ and _express_ alike opposed? 2. How do the two words differ from each other? EXAMPLES. I came here at this critical juncture by the ---- order of Sir John St. Clare. The language of the proposition was too ---- to admit of doubt. Now the Spirit speaketh ----ly that in the latter times some shall depart from the faith. * * * * * EXTEMPORANEOUS (page 163). QUESTIONS. 1. What did _extemporaneous_ originally mean? 2. What has it now come to signify in common use? 3. What is the original meaning of _impromptu_? The present meaning? 4. How does the _impromptu_ remark often differ from the _extemporaneous_? 5. How does _unpremeditated_ compare with the words above mentioned? EXAMPLES. In ---- prayer, what men most admire, God least regardeth. As a speaker, he excelled in ---- address, while his opponent was at a loss to answer him because not gifted in the same way. No more on prancing palfrey borne, He carolled light as lark at morn, And poured to lord and lady gay The ---- lay. * * * * * EXTERMINATE (page 163). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the derivation, and what is the original meaning of _exterminate_? _eradicate_? _extirpate_? 2. To what are these words severally applied? EXAMPLES. Since the building of the Pacific railroads in the United States, the buffalo has been quite ----. The evil of intemperance is one exceedingly difficult to ----. No inveterate improver should ever tempt me to ---- the dandelions from the green carpet of my lawn. * * * * * FAINT (page 164). QUESTIONS. 1. What are the chief meanings of _faint_? 2. How is _faint_ a synonym of _feeble_ or _purposeless_? of _irresolute_ or _timid_? of _dim_, _faded_, or _indistinct_? EXAMPLES. Great is the strength of ---- arms combined, And we can combat even with the brave. In his right hand a tipped staffe he held, With which his ---- steps he stayed still; For he was ---- with cold, and weak with eld; That scarce his loosed limbs he hable was to weld. * * * * * FAITH (page 164). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _belief_? 2. How does _credence_ compare with _belief_? 3. What is _conviction_? _assurance_? 4. What is an _opinion_? 5. How does a _persuasion_ compare with an _opinion_? 6. What is a _doctrine_? a _creed_? 7. What are _confidence_ and _reliance_? 8. What is _trust_? 9. What elements are combined in _faith_? 10. How is _belief_ often used in popular language as a precise equivalent of _faith_? 11. How is _belief_ discriminated from _faith_ in the strict religious sense? EXAMPLES. ---- is the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen. Put not your ---- in princes, nor in the son of man, in whom there is no help. ---- is largely involuntary; a mathematical demonstration can not be doubted by a sane mind capable of understanding the terms and following the steps. Every one of us, whatever our speculative ----, knows better than he practises, and recognizes a better law than he obeys. There are few greater dangers for an army in the face of an enemy than undue ----. * * * * * FAITHFUL (page 165). QUESTIONS. 1. In what sense may a person be called _faithful_? 2. In what sense may one be called _trusty_? 3. Is _faithful_ commonly said of things as well as persons? is _trusty_? 4. What is the special difference of meaning between the two words? Give examples. EXAMPLES. Be thou ---- unto death, and I will give thee a crown of life. Thy purpose ---- is equal to the deed: Who does the best his circumstance allows Does well, acts nobly; angels could no more. * * * * * FAME (page 166). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _fame_? Is it commonly used in the favorable or unfavorable sense? 2. What are _reputation_ and _repute_, and in which sense commonly used? 3. What is _notoriety_? 4. From what do _eminence_ and _distinction_ result? 5. How does _celebrity_ compare with _fame_? 6. How does _renown_ compare with _fame_? 7. What is the import of _honor_? of _glory_? EXAMPLES. Saying, Amen: Blessing and ----, and wisdom, and thanksgiving, and ----, and power and might, be unto our God for ever and ever. A good ---- is more valuable than money. Great Homer's birthplace seven rival cities claim, Too mighty such monopoly of ----. Do good by stealth, and blush to find it ----. Seeking the bubble ---- Even in the cannon's mouth. * * * * * FANATICISM (page 166). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _fanaticism_? _bigotry_? 2. What do _fanaticism_ and _bigotry_ commonly include? 3. What is _intolerance_? 4. What is the distinctive meaning of _superstition_? 5. What is _credulity_? Is it distinctively religious? EXAMPLES. ---- is a senseless fear of God. The fierce ---- of the Moslems was the mainspring of their early conquests. The ---- that will believe nothing contrary to a creed is often joined with a blind ---- that will believe anything in favor of it. * * * * * FANCIFUL (page 167). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the meaning of _fanciful_? 2. What does _fantastic_ add to the meaning of _fanciful_? 3. How does _grotesque_ especially differ from the _fanciful_ or _fantastic_? 4. How does _visionary_ differ from _fanciful_? EXAMPLES. Come see the north wind's masonry, ... his wild work; So ----, so savage, naught cares he For number or proportion. What ---- tints the year puts on, When falling leaves falter through motionless air Or numbly cling and shiver to be gone! Plays such ---- tricks before high heaven As make the angels weep. * * * * * FANCY (page 167). QUESTIONS. 1. What is an intellectual _fancy_? 2. How does a _conceit_ differ from a _fancy_? a _conception_ from both? 3. What is an emotional or personal _fancy_? 4. What is _fancy_ as a faculty of the mind? EXAMPLES. Tell me where is ---- bred; Or in the heart or in the head? Elizabeth united the occasional ---- of her sex with that sense and sound policy in which neither man nor woman ever excelled her. That fellow seems to me to possess but one ----, and that is a wrong one. If she were to take a ---- to anybody in the house, she would soon settle, but not till then. * * * * * FAREWELL (page 168). QUESTIONS. 1. To what language do _farewell_ and _good-by_ belong etymologically? How do they differ? 2. From what language have _adieu_ and _congé_ been adopted into English? 3. What is the special significance of _congé_? 4. What are _valediction_ and _valedictory_? EXAMPLES. ---- my paper's out so nearly I've only room for yours sincerely. The train from out the castle drew, But Marmion stopped to bid ----. ----! a word that must be, and hath been-- A sound which makes us linger;--yet------. * * * * * FEAR (page 168). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the generic term of this group? 2. What is _fear_? Is it sudden or lingering? In view of what class of dangers? 3. What is the etymological meaning of _horror_? What does the word signify in accepted usage? 4. What are the characteristics of _affright_, _fright_, and _terror_? 5. How is _fear_ contrasted with _fright_ and _terror_ in actual or possible effects? 6. What is _panic_? What of the numbers affected by it? 7. What is _dismay_? How does it compare with _fright_ and _terror_? EXAMPLES. Even the bravest men may be swept along in a sudden ----. With much more ---- I view the fight than thou that mak'st the fray. Look in, and see Christ's chosen saint In triumph wear his Christ-like chain; No ---- lest he should swerve or faint. The ghastly spectacle filled every beholder with ----. A lingering ---- crept upon him as he waited in the darkness. * * * * * FEMININE (page 169). QUESTIONS. 1. How are _female_ and _feminine_ discriminated? 2. What is the difference between a _female_ voice and a _feminine_ voice? 3. How are _womanly_ and _womanish_ discriminated in use? EXAMPLES. Notice, too, how precious are these ---- qualities in the sick room. The demand for closet-room is no mere ---- fancy, but the good sense of the sex. * * * * * FETTER (page 169). QUESTIONS. 1. What are _fetters_ in the primary sense? 2. What are _manacles_ and _handcuffs_ designed to fasten or hold? _gyves_? 3. What are _shackles_ and what are they intended to fasten or hold? 4. Of what material are all these restraining devices commonly composed? By what general name are they popularly known? 5. What are _bonds_ and of what material composed? 6. Which of these words are used in the metaphorical sense? EXAMPLES. But first set my poor heart free, Bound in those icy ---- by thee. Slaves can not breathe in England . . . They touch our country, and their ---- fall. * * * * * FEUD (page 170). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a _feud_? Of what is it used? 2. Is a _quarrel_ in word or act? _contention_? _strife_? _contest_? 3. How does _quarrel_ compare in importance with the other words cited? 4. What does an _affray_ always involve? To what may a _brawl_ or _broil_ be confined? 5. How do these words compare in dignity with _contention_, _contest_, _controversy_, and _dissension_? EXAMPLES. Could we forbear ---- and practise love We should agree as angels do above. "Between my house and yours," he answered, "There is a ---- of five hundred years." Beware of entrance to a ----. * * * * * FICTION (page 170). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a _fiction_ in the most common modern meaning of the word? 2. How does a _fiction_ differ from a _novel_? from a _fable_? from a _myth_? 3. How does a _myth_ differ from a _legend_? 4. How do _falsehood_ and _fabrication_ differ from the words above mentioned? 5. Is _fabrication_ or _falsehood_ the more odious term? Which term is really the stronger? 6. What is a _story_? Is it good or bad, true or false? With what words of the group does it agree? EXAMPLES. O scenes surpassing ----, and yet true, Scenes of accomplished bliss. A ---- strange is told of thee. I believe the whole account from beginning to end to be a pure ----. A thing sustained by such substantial evidence could not be a mere ---- of the imagination. * * * * * FIERCE (page 171). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _fierce_ signify? 2. To what does _ferocious_ refer? How do the two words differ? 3. What does _savage_ signify? EXAMPLES. ---- was the day; the wintry sea Moaned sadly on New England's strand, When first the thoughtful and the free, Our fathers, trod the desert land. Contentions ----, Ardent, and dire, spring from no petty cause. The ---- savages massacred the survivors to the last man. * * * * * FINANCIAL (page 172). QUESTIONS. 1. To what does _monetary_ directly refer? 2. How does _pecuniary_ agree with and differ from _monetary_? 3. To what does _financial_ especially apply? 4. In what connection is _fiscal_ most commonly used? EXAMPLES. The ---- year closes with the society out of debt. He was rejoiced to receive the ---- aid at a time when it was most needed. In a ---- panic, many a sound business house goes down for want of power to realize instantly on valuable securities. * * * * * FINE (page 172). QUESTIONS. 1. From what is _fine_ derived, and what is its original meaning? 2. How, from this primary meaning does _fine_ become a synonym of _excellent_ and _beautiful_? 3. How does it come into connection with _clarified_, _clear_, _pure_, _refined_? 4. How is it connected with _dainty_, _delicate_, and _exquisite_? 5. How does _fine_ come to be a synonym for _minute_, _comminuted_? How for _filmy_, _tenuous_? for _keen_, _sharp_? Give instances of the use of _fine_ in its various senses. EXAMPLES. Some people are more ---- than wise. ---- feathers do not always make ---- birds. The ----est balances must be kept under glass, because so ----ly adjusted as to be ---- to a film of dust or a breath of air. * * * * * FIRE (page 173). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the essential fact underlying the visible phenomena which we call _fire_? 2. What is _combustion_? 3. How wide is its range of meaning? 4. What is a _conflagration_? EXAMPLES. He's gone, and who knows how he may report Thy words by adding fuel to the ----? Lo! as he comes, in Heaven's array, And scattering wide the ---- of day. * * * * * FLOCK (page 173). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the most general word of this group? 2. What is a _group_, and of what class of objects may it be composed? 3. To what class of animals does _brood_ apply? to what class does _litter_ apply? 4. Of what is _bevy_ used? _flock_? 5. To what is _herd_ limited? 6. Of what is _pack_ used? 7. What is a _drove_? EXAMPLES. What is not good for the ---- is not good for the bee. He heard the bleating of the ----s and the twitter of birds among the trees. The lowing ---- winds slowly o'er the lea. Excited ----s gathered at the corners discussing the affair. A ---- of brightly clad women and children were enjoying a picnic under the trees. * * * * * FLUCTUATE (page 173). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the meaning of _fluctuate_? 2. In what one characteristic do _swerve_ and _veer_ differ from _oscillate_, _fluctuate_, _undulate_, and _waver_? 3. What is the difference in mental action between _hesitate_ and _waver_? between _vacillate_ and _waver_? 4. Which of the above-mentioned words apply to persons? which to feelings? EXAMPLES. Thou almost mak'st me ---- in my faith. The surface of the prairies rolls and ---- to the eye. It is almost universally true that the human mind ---- at the moment of committing a crime. The vessel suddenly ---- from her course. * * * * * FLUID (page 174). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a _fluid_? 2. Into what two sections are _fluids_ divided? 3. What is a _liquid_? a _gas_? 4. Are all _liquids_ _fluids_? 5. Are _gases_ _fluids_? 6. Are _gases_ ever _liquids_? 7. What substance is at once a _liquid_ and a _fluid_ at the ordinary temperature and pressure? EXAMPLES. Now nature paints her colors, how the bee Sits on the bloom, extracting ---- sweet. This earth was once a ---- haze of light. * * * * * FOLLOW (page 174). QUESTIONS. 1. What is it to _follow_? 2. How does _follow_ compare with _chase_ and _pursue_? 3. As regards succession in time, what is the difference between _follow_ and _ensue_? _result_? EXAMPLES. Say, shall my little bark attendant sail, ---- the triumph and partake the gale? When Youth and Pleasure meet To ---- the glowing Hours with flying feet. "Then ---- me, the Prince," I answered; "each be hero in his turn! Seven and yet one, like shadows in a dream." * * * * * FORMIDABLE (page 176). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the meaning of _formidable_? 2. How does _formidable_ differ from _dangerous_? _terrible_? _tremendous_? Give examples. EXAMPLES. All delays are ---- in war. ---- as an army with banners. The great fleet moved slowly toward the forts, a ---- array. * * * * * FORTIFICATION (page 176). QUESTIONS. 1. How does a _fortress_ specifically differ from a _fortification_? 2. What is the distinctive meaning of _citadel_? 3. What is a _fort_? 4. What is a _fastness_ or _stronghold_? EXAMPLES. For a man's house is his ----. A mighty ---- is our God, A bulwark never failing; Our helper He amid the flood Of mortal ills prevailing. Alva built a ---- in the heart of Antwerp to overawe the city. * * * * * FORTITUDE (page 176). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _fortitude_? 2. How does it compare with _courage_? 3. How do _resolution_ and _endurance_ compare? EXAMPLES. Unbounded ---- and compassion join'd, Tempering each other in the victor's mind. Tell thy story; If thine, consider'd, prove the thousandth part Of my ----, thou art a man, and I Have suffer'd like a girl. Thou didst smile, Infused with a ---- from heaven, When I had decked the sea with drops full salt. * * * * * FORTUNATE (page 177). QUESTIONS. 1. How does _fortunate_ compare with _successful_? 2. How are _lucky_ and _fortunate_ discriminated? 3. In what special sense, and with what reference are _favored_ and _prospered_ used? EXAMPLES. It is not a ---- word this same "impossible;" no good comes of those that have it so often in their mouth. Ah, ---- years! once more who would not be a boy? I have a mind presages me such thrift That I should questionless be ----. * * * * * FRAUD (page 177). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a _fraud_? How does it differ from _deceit_ or _deception_? 2. What is the design of an _imposture_? 3. What is _dishonesty_? a _cheat_? a _swindle_? How do all these fall short of the meaning of _fraud_? 4. Of what relations is _treachery_ used? _treason_? EXAMPLES. ---- doth never prosper: what's the reason? Why, if it prosper none dare call it ----. Whoever has once become notorious by base ----, even if he speaks truth gains no belief. The first and the worst of all ---- is to cheat oneself. * * * * * FRIENDLY (page 178). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _friendly_ signify as applied to persons, or as applied to acts? 2. How does the adjective _friendly_ compare in strength with the noun _friend_? 3. What is the special meaning of _accessible_? of _companionable_ and _sociable_? of _cordial_ and _genial_? EXAMPLES. He that hath friends must show himself ----. A fellow feeling makes one wondrous ----. * * * * * FRIENDSHIP (page 179). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _friendship_? 2. In what one quality does it differ from _affection_, _attachment_, _devotion_, and _friendliness_? 3. What is the meaning of _comity_ and _amity_? 4. How does _friendship_ differ from _love_? EXAMPLES. Talk not of wasted ----, ---- never was wasted; If it enrich not the heart of another, its waters returning Back to their springs, like the rain, shall fill them full of refreshment. ----, peculiar boon of heaven, The noble mind's delight and pride, To men and angels only given, To all the lower world denied. * * * * * FRIGHTEN (page 180). QUESTIONS. 1. By what is one _frightened_? by what _intimidated_? 2. What is it to _browbeat_ or _cow_? 3. What is it to _scare_ or _terrify_? EXAMPLES. The child was ---- by the stories the nurse told. The loud, loud winds, that o'er the billows sweep-- Shake the firm nerve, ---- the bravest soul! * * * * * FRUGALITY (page 180). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _economy_? 2. What is _frugality_? 3. What is _parsimony_? How does it compare with _frugality_? What is the motive of _parsimony_? 4. What is _miserliness_? 5. What is the special characteristic of _prudence_ and _providence_? of _thrift_? 6. What is the motive of _economy_? EXAMPLES. There are but two ways of paying debt: increase of industry in raising, increase of ---- in laying out. By close ---- the little home was at last paid for and there was a great thanksgiving time. * * * * * GARRULOUS (page 181). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _garrulous_ signify? _chattering_? 2. How do _talkative_ and _loquacious_ differ from _garrulous_, and from each other? 3. What is the special application of _verbose_? EXAMPLES. To tame a shrew, and charm her ---- tongue. Guard against a feeble fluency, a ---- prosiness, a facility of saying nothing. * * * * * GENDER (page 181). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _sex_? 2. To what beings only does _sex_ apply? 3. What is _gender_? To what does it apply? Do the distinctions of _gender_ correspond to the distinctions of _sex_? Give examples of languages containing three _genders_, and of the classification in languages containing but two. EXAMPLES. The maternal relation naturally and necessarily divides the work of the ----s giving to woman the indoor life, and to man, the work of the outer world. While in French every word is either of the masculine or feminine ----, the language sometimes fails for that very reason to indicate the ---- of some person referred to. * * * * * GENERAL (page 181). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _general_ signify? 2. How does _general_ compare with _universal_? with _common_? 3. What illustrations of the differences are given in the text? EXAMPLES. ---- friendships will admit of division, one may love the beauty of this, the good humor of that person, ... and so on. A ---- feeling of unrest prevailed. Death comes to all by ---- law. * * * * * GENEROUS (page 182). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the primary meaning of _generous_? the common meaning? 2. How does _generous_ differ from _liberal_? 3. What is the distinctive sense of _munificent_? 4. What does _munificent_ tell of the motive or spirit of the giver? What does _generous_ tell? 5. How does _disinterested_ compare with _generous_? 6. What is the distinctive meaning of _magnanimous_? How does it differ from _generous_ as regards dealing with insults or injuries? EXAMPLES. To cunning men I will be very kind; and ---- To mine own children, in good bringing up. A ---- friendship no cold medium knows, Burns with one love, with one resentment glows. The conqueror proved as ---- in victory as he was terrible in battle. * * * * * GENIUS (page 183). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _genius_? 2. What is _talent_? 3. Which is the higher quality? 4. Which is the more dependent upon training? EXAMPLES. The eternal Master found His single ---- well employ'd. No great ---- was ever without some mixture of madness. * * * * * GET (page 183). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a person said to _get_? 2. How is _get_ related to expectation or desire? How is _gain_ related to those words? 3. By what processes does one _acquire_? Is the thing _acquired_ sought or desired, or not? 4. What does one _earn_? 5. Does a person always _get_ what he _earns_ or always _earn_ what he _gets_? 6. What does _obtain_ imply? Is the thing one _obtains_ an object of _desire_? How does _obtain_ differ from _get_? 7. What does _win_ imply? How is one said to _win_ a suit at law? What is the correct term in legal phrase? Why? 8. By what special element does _procure_ differ from _obtain_? 9. What is especially implied in _secure_? EXAMPLES. He ---- a living as umbrella mender but a poor living it is. ---- wisdom and with all thy getting, ---- understanding. In the strange city he found that all his learning would not ---- him a dinner. * * * * * GIFT (page 184). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a _gift_? Is _gift_ used in the good or the bad sense? Does the legal agree with the popular sense? 2. What synonymous word is always used in the evil sense? 3. What is a _benefaction_? a _donation_? What difference of usage is recognized between the two words? 4. What is a _gratuity_, and to whom given? 5. What is the sense and use of _largess_? 6. What is a _present_, and to whom given? 7. What is the special sense of _boon_? 8. What is a _grant_, and by whom made? EXAMPLES. He gave us only over beast, fish, fowl, Dominion absolute; that right we hold By his ----. True love's the ---- which God has given To man alone beneath the heaven. "----, ----, noble knights," cried the heralds. The courts of justice had fallen so low that it was practically impossible to win a cause without a ----. * * * * * GIVE (page 185). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the primary meaning of _give_? the secondary meaning? 2. Can we _give_ what is undesired? 3. Can we _give_ what we are paid for? 4. How is _give_ always understood when there is no limitation in the context? 5. Is it correct to say "He _gave_ it to me for nothing"? 6. What is to _grant_? 7. What is implied when we speak of _granting_ a favor? 8. What is to _confer_? 9. What is especially implied in _impart_? in _bestow_? EXAMPLES. My God shall ---- all your need according to his riches in glory by Christ Jesus. ---- to every man that asketh of thee, and from him that would borrow of thee, turn not thou away. The court promptly ---- the injunction. The king ---- upon him the honor of knighthood. One of the pleasantest things in life is to ---- instruction to those who really desire to learn. * * * * * GOVERN (page 185). QUESTIONS. 1. What does the word _govern_ imply? How does it differ from _control_? 2. How do _command_ and _control_ differ? 3. How do _rule_ and _govern_ differ? 4. What is the special significance of _sway_? of _mold_? 5. What is it to _manage_? 6. What is the present meaning of _reign_? How does it compare with _rule_? EXAMPLES. He that ---- his spirit is greater than he that taketh a city. For some must follow, and some ---- Tho all are made of clay. Daniel Webster well described the character of "Old Hickory" in the sentence, "I do not say that General Jackson did not mean to ---- his country well, but I do say that General Jackson meant to ---- his country." * * * * * GRACEFUL (page 186). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _graceful_ denote? How is it especially distinguished from _beautiful_? EXAMPLES. How ---- upon the mountains are the feet of him that bringeth good tidings that publisheth peace. A ---- myrtle rear'd its head. * * * * * GRIEF (page 187). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _grief_? 2. How does _grief_ compare with _sorrow_? with _sadness_? with _melancholy_? 3. What two chief senses has _affliction_? 4. What is implied in _mourning_, in its most common acceptation? EXAMPLES. We glory in ---- also. For our light ---- which is but for a moment, worketh for us a far more exceeding and eternal weight of glory. What private ---- they have, alas! I know not, that made them do it. * * * * * HABIT (page 187). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _custom_? _routine_? Which is the more mechanical? 2. What element does _habit_ add to _custom_ and _routine_? 3. Should we preferably use _custom_ or _habit_ of a society? of an individual? 4. What is _fashion_? _rule_? _system_? 5. What are _use_ and _usage_, and how do they differ from each other? 6. What is _practise_? 7. What is the distinctive meaning of _wont_? EXAMPLES. Every ---- is preserved and increased by correspondent actions, as the ---- of walking by walking, of running by running. Montaigne is wrong in declaring that ---- ought to be followed simply because it is ----, and not because it is reasonable or just. Lord Brougham says "The longer I live the more careful I am to entrust everything that I really care to do to the beneficent power of ----." ---- makes perfect. Without ---- little that is valuable is ever learned or done. * * * * * HAPPEN (page 188). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _happen_ signify? 2. How does it differ from _chance_? 3. What is the distinctive meaning of _betide_? 4. How do both _befall_ and _betide_ differ from _happen_ in grammatical construction? 5. What is the meaning of _supervene_? 6. Is _transpire_ correctly used in the sense of _happen_? When may an event be properly said to _transpire_? EXAMPLES. Whatever ---- at all ---- as it should. Thou sowest not that body that shall be, but bear grain, it may ---- of wheat, or of some other grain. Ill ---- the graceless renegade! It ---- that a secret treaty had been previously concluded between the powers. If mischief ---- him, thou shalt bring down my gray hairs with sorrow to the grave. * * * * * HAPPINESS (page 189). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _gratification_? _satisfaction_? 2. What is _happiness_? 3. How does _happiness_ differ from _comfort_? 4. How does _comfort_ differ from _enjoyment_? 5. How does _pleasure_ compare with _comfort_ and _enjoyment_? with _happiness_? 6. What do _gratification_ and _satisfaction_ express? How do they compare with each other? 7. How does _happiness_ compare with _gratification_, _satisfaction_, _comfort_, and _pleasure_? with _delight_ and _joy_? 8. What is _delight_? _ecstasy_? _rapture_? 9. What is _triumph_? _blessedness_? _bliss_? EXAMPLES. Sweet is ---- after pain. Virtue alone is ---- below. Hope elevates and ---- brightens his crest. The storm raged without, but within the house all was brightness and ----. There is no ---- so sweet and abiding as that of doing good. This is the very ---- of love. * * * * * HAPPY (page 190). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the original meaning of _happy_? With what words is it allied in this sense? 2. In what way is _happy_ a synonym of _blessed_? 3. What is the meaning of _happy_ in its most frequent present use? EXAMPLES. ---- are they that mourn for they shall be comforted. To what ---- accident is it that we owe so unexpected a visit. A ---- heart maketh a ---- countenance. I would not spend another such a night, Tho 'twere to buy a world of ---- days. * * * * * HARMONY (page 191). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _harmony_? 2. How does _harmony_ compare with _agreement_? 3. How do _concord_ and _accord_ compare with _harmony_ and with each other? 4. What is _conformity_? _congruity_? 5. What is _consistency_? 6. What is _unanimity_? 7. How do _consent_ and _concurrence_ compare? EXAMPLES. We have made a covenant with death and with hell are we at ----. Tyrants have made desperate efforts to secure outward ---- in religious observances without ---- of religious belief. That action and counteraction which, in the natural and in the political world, from the reciprocal struggle of discordant powers draws out the ---- of the universe. The speaker was, by general ----, allowed to proceed. * * * * * HARVEST (page 192). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the original meaning of _harvest_? its later meaning? 2. How does _harvest_ compare with _crop_? 3. What is _produce_? How does it differ from _product_? 4. What is the meaning of _proceeds_? _yield_? _return_? 5. Is _harvest_ capable of figurative use, and in what sense? 6. What is the special meaning of _harvest-home_? _harvest-tide_? _harvest-time_? EXAMPLES. Just tickle the earth with a hoe, and she laughs with an abundant ----. And the ripe ---- of the new-mown hay gives it a sweet and wholesome odor. It soweth here with toil and care But the ---- of love is there. Of no distemper, of no blast he died, But fell like autumn ---- that mellowed long. * * * * * HATRED (page 193). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _repugnance_? _aversion_? 2. How does _hatred_ compare with _aversion_ as applied to persons? as applied to things? 3. What is _malice_? _malignity_? 4. What is _spite_? 5. What are _grudge_, _resentment_, and _revenge_, and how do they compare with one another? EXAMPLES. Heaven has no ---- like love to ---- turned. The slight put upon him filled him with deep ----. He ne'er bore ---- for stalwart blow Ta'en in fair fight from gallant foe. In all cases of wilful injury to person or property, the law presumes ----. I felt from our first meeting an instinctive ---- for the man, which on acquaintance deepened into a settled ----. * * * * * HAVE (page 194). QUESTIONS. 1. To what is _have_ applied? How widely inclusive a word is it? 2. What does _possess_ signify? 3. What is to _hold_? to _occupy_? 4. How does _be in possession_ compare with _possess_? 5. How does _own_ compare with _possess_ or with _be in possession_? 6. What is the difference between the statement that a man _has_ reason, and the statement that he _is in possession_ of his reason? EXAMPLES. Son, thou art ever with me, and all that I ---- is thine. I earnestly entreat you, for your own sakes, to ---- yourselves of solid reasons. He occupies the house, but does not ---- it. * * * * * HAZARD (page 194). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the meaning of _hazard_? 2. How does _hazard_ compare with _danger_? 3. How do _risk_ and _venture_ compare with _chance_ and _hazard_, and with each other? 4. How do _accident_ and _casualty_ differ? 5. What is a _contingency_? EXAMPLES. We must take the current when it serves or lose our ----. I have set my life upon a cast, and I will stand the ---- of the die. There is no ---- in doing known duty. Do you think it necessary to provide for every ---- before taking the first step? * * * * * HEALTHY (page 195). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the meaning of _healthy_? of _healthful_? Are the words properly interchangeable? 2. What are the chief synonyms of _healthy_? of _healthful_? 3. In what sense is _salubrious_ used, and to what is it applied? 4. To what realm does _salutary_ belong? EXAMPLES. In books, or work, or ---- play let my first years be passed. Blessed is the ---- nature; it is the coherent, sweetly cooperative, not the self-distracting one. * * * * * HELP (page 195). QUESTIONS. 1. Is _help_ or _aid_ the stronger term? 2. Which is used in excitement or emergency? 3. Does _help_ include _aid_ or does _aid_ include _help_? 4. Which implies the seconding of another's exertions? Do we _aid_ or _help_ the helpless? 5. How do _cooperate_ and _assist_ differ? 6. To what do _encourage_ and _uphold_ refer? _succor_ and _support_? EXAMPLES. He does not prevent a crime when he can ---- it. Know then whatever cheerful and serene ---- the mind ---- the body too. * * * * * HERETIC (page 196). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a _heretic_? a _schismatic_? 2. In what does a _heretic_ differ from his church or religious body? a _schismatic_? 3. How do a _heretic_ and a _schismatic_ often differ in action? 4. How are the terms _dissenter_ and _non-conformist_ usually applied? EXAMPLES. A man that is an ----, after the first and second admonition, reject. Churchmen and ---- alike resisted the tyranny of James II. * * * * * HETEROGENEOUS (page 196). QUESTIONS. 1. When are substances _heterogeneous_ as regards each other? 2. When is a mixture, as cement, said to be _heterogeneous_? when _homogeneous_? 3. What is the special significance of _non-homogeneous_? 4. How does _miscellaneous_ differ from _heterogeneous_? EXAMPLES. My second son received a sort of ---- education at home. Courtier and patriot can not mix Their ---- politics Without an effervescence. * * * * * HIDE (page 197). QUESTIONS. 1. Which is the most general term of this group, and what does it signify? 2. Is an object _hidden_ by intention, or in what other way or ways, if any? 3. Does _conceal_ evince intention? 4. How does _secrete_ compare with _conceal_? How is it chiefly used? 5. What is it to _cover_? to _screen_? EXAMPLES. Men use thought only as authority for their injustice, and employ speech only to ---- their thoughts. Ye little stars! ---- your diminished rays. * * * * * HIGH (page 198). QUESTIONS. 1. What kind of a term is _high_? What does it signify? Give instances of the relative use of the word. 2. How does _high_ compare with _deep_? To what objects may these words be severally applied? 3. What is the special significance of _tall_? 4. What element does _lofty_ add to the meaning of _high_ or _tall_? 5. How do _elevated_ and _eminent_ compare in the literal sense? in the figurative? 6. How do the words above mentioned compare with _exalted_? 7. What contrasted uses has _high_ in the figurative sense? 8. What is _towering_ in the literal, and in the figurative sense? EXAMPLES. A pillar'd shade, ---- overarched, and echoing walks between. A daughter of the gods, divinely ---- and most divinely fair. What is that which the breeze on the ---- steep, As it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses? He knew Himself to sing, and build the ---- rime. * * * * * HINDER (page 199). QUESTIONS. 1. What is it to _hinder_? 2. How does _hinder_ differ from _delay_? 3. How does _hinder_ compare with _prevent_? 4. What is the meaning of _retard_? 5. What is it to _obstruct_? to _resist_? How do these two words compare with each other? EXAMPLES. ---- the Devil, and he will flee from you. My tears must stop, for every drop ---- my needle and thread. It is the study of mankind to ---- that advance of age or death which can not be ----. * * * * * HISTORY (page 200). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _history_? How does it relate events? To what class of events does it apply? 2. How does _history_ differ from _annals_ or _chronicles_? EXAMPLES. Happy the people whose ---- are dulled. ---- is little else than a picture of human crimes and misfortunes. ---- is philosophy teaching by example. * * * * * HOLY (page 200). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the meaning of _sacred_? 2. How does it compare with _holy_? 3. Which term do we apply directly to God? 4. In what sense is _divine_ loosely used? What is its more appropriate sense? EXAMPLES. The ---- time is quiet as a nun breathless with adoration. A ---- burden is this life ye bear. All sects and churches of Christendom hold to some form of the doctrine of the ---- inspiration of the Christian Scriptures. * * * * * HOME (page 201). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the general sense of _abode_, _dwelling_, and _habitation_? What difference is there in the use of these words? 2. From what language is _home_ derived? What is its distinctive meaning? EXAMPLES. An ---- giddy and unsure Hath he that buildeth on the vulgar heart. The attempt to abolish the ideal woman and keep the ideal ---- is a predestinated failure. A house without love may be a castle or a palace, but it is not a ----. Love is the life of a true ----. * * * * * HONEST (page 202). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the meaning of _honest_ in ordinary use? 2. What is the meaning of _honorable_? 3. How will the merely _honest_ and the truly _honorable_ man differ in action? 4. What is _honest_ in the highest and fullest sense? How, in this sense, does it differ from _honorable_? EXAMPLES. ---- labor bears a lovely face. An ---- man's the noblest work of God. No form of pure, undisguised murder will be any longer allowed to confound itself with the necessities of ---- warfare. * * * * * HORIZONTAL (page 202). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _horizontal_ signify? How does it compare with _level_? 2. From what language is _flat_ derived? 3. What is its original meaning? its most common present sense? In what derived sense is it often used? 4. What are the senses of _plain_ and _plane_? EXAMPLES. Sun and moon were in the ---- sea sunk. Ample spaces o'er the smooth and ---- pavement. The prominent lines in Greek architecture were ----, and not vertical. * * * * * HUNT (page 203). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a _hunt_? 2. For what is a _chase_ or _pursuit_ conducted? a _search_? 3. What does _hunt_ ordinarily include? 4. Is it correct to use _hunt_ when _search_ only is contemplated? 5. How are these words used in the figurative senses? EXAMPLES. Among the inalienable rights of man are life, liberty, and the ---- of happiness. All things have an end, and so did our ---- for lodgings. The ---- formed the principal amusement of our Norman kings, who for that purpose retained in their possession forests in every part of the kingdom. The ---- is up, but they shall know The stag at bay's a dangerous foe. * * * * * HYPOCRISY (page 204). QUESTIONS. 1. From what language is _pretense_ derived, and what does it signify? 2. What is _hypocrisy_? 3. What is _cant_? _sanctimoniousness_? 4. What is _pietism_? _formalism_? _sham_? 5. How does _affectation_ compare with _hypocrisy_? EXAMPLES. Let not the Trojans, with a feigned ---- of proffered peace, delude the Latian prince. ---- is a fawning and flexible art, which accommodates itself to human feelings, and flatters the weakness of men in order that it may gain its own ends. * * * * * HYPOCRITE (page 204). QUESTIONS. 1. From what language is _hypocrite_ derived? What is its primary meaning? 2. What common term includes the other words of the group? 3. How are _hypocrite_ and _dissembler_ contrasted with each other? 4. What element is common to the _cheat_ and the _impostor_? How do the two compare with each other? EXAMPLES. It is the weakest sort of politicians that are the greatest ----. I dare swear he is no ---- but prays from his heart. In the reign of Henry VII., an ----, named Perkin Warbeck, laid claim to the English crown. * * * * * HYPOTHESIS (page 205). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a _hypothesis_? What is its use in scientific investigation and study? 2. What is a _guess_? a _conjecture_? a _supposition_? a _surmise_? 3. What implication does _surmise_ ordinarily convey? What is a _theory_? a _scheme_? a _speculation_? How do they differ? EXAMPLES. ----, fancies, built on nothing firm. There are no other limits to ---- than those of the human mind. The development ----, tho widely accepted by men of science fails of proof at many important points. * * * * * IDEA (page 206). QUESTIONS. 1. From what language is _idea_ derived, and what did it originally mean? 2. What did _idea_ signify in early philosophical use? 3. What is its present popular use, and with what words is it now synonymous? EXAMPLES. All rests with those who read. A work or ---- Is what each makes it to himself. He who comes up to his own ---- of greatness must always have had a very low standard of it in his mind. * * * * * IDEAL (page 206). QUESTIONS. 1. What is an _ideal_? 2. What is an _archetype_? a _prototype_? 3. Can a _prototype_ be equivalent to an _archetype_? 4. Is an _ideal_ primal, or the result of development? 5. What is an _original_? 6. What is the _standard_? How does it compare with the _ideal_? 7. How are _idea_ and _ideal_ contrasted? EXAMPLES. Be a ---- to others and then all will go well. The mind's the ---- of the man. Every man has at times in his mind the ---- of what he should be, but is not. * * * * * IDIOCY (page 207). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _idiocy_? 2. What is _imbecility_? How does it compare with _idiocy_? 3. How does _insanity_ differ from _idiocy_ or _imbecility_? 4. How do _folly_ and _foolishness_ compare with _idiocy_? 5. What is _fatuity_? _stupidity_? EXAMPLES. Where ignorance is bliss, 'tis ---- to be wise. To expect an effect without a cause, or attainment without application, is little less than ----. * * * * * IDLE (page 208). QUESTIONS. 1. From what language is _idle_ derived, and what is its original meaning? 2. What does _idle_ in present use properly denote? Does it necessarily denote the absence of all action? 3. What does _lazy_ signify? How does it differ from _idle_? 4. What does _inert_ signify? _sluggish_? 5. In what realm does _slothful_ belong, and what does it denote? 6. How does _indolent_ compare with _slothful_? EXAMPLES. The ---- stream was covered with a green scum. Never ---- a moment, but thrifty and thoughtful of others. As the door turneth upon his hinges, so doth the ---- turn upon his bed. * * * * * IGNORANT (page 208). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _ignorant_ signify? How wide is its range? 2. What is the meaning of _illiterate_? 3. How does _unlettered_ compare with _illiterate_? EXAMPLES. So foolish was I and ----; I was as a beast before thee. A boy is better unborn than ----. * * * * * IMAGINATION (page 209). QUESTIONS. 1. Into what two parts was _imagination_ divided in the old psychology? 2. What name is now preferably given to the so-called _Reproductive Imagination_ by President Porter and others? 3. What is _fantasy_ or _phantasy_? In what mental actions is it manifested? 4. What is _fantasy_ in ordinary usage? 5. How is _imagination_ defined? _fancy_? 6. To what faculty of the mind do both of these activities or powers belong? 7. In what other respects do _imagination_ and _fancy_ agree? What is the one great distinction between them? How do they respectively treat the material objects or images with which they deal? Which power finds use in philosophy, science, and mechanical invention, and how? EXAMPLES. While ----, like the finger of a clock, Runs the great circuit, and is still at home. And as ---- bodies forth The forms of things unknown, the poet's pen Turns them to shapes, and gives to airy nothing A local habitation and a name. * * * * * IMMEDIATELY (page 211). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the primary meaning of _immediately_? Its meaning as an adverb of time? 2. What did _by and by_ formerly signify? What is its present meaning? 3. What did _directly_ formerly signify, and what does it now commonly mean? 4. What change has _presently_ undergone? 5. Is _immediately_ losing anything of its force? What words now seem more emphatic? EXAMPLES. Nothing is there to come, and nothing past, But an eternal ---- does always last. Let us go up ----, and possess it; for we are well able to overcome it. Obey me ----! * * * * * IMMERSE (page 212). QUESTIONS. 1. From what language is _dip_ derived? from what _immerse_? 2. How do the two words differ in dignity? How as to the completeness of the action? How as to the continuance of the object in or under the liquid? 3. Which word is preferably used as to the rite of baptism? 4. What does _submerge_ imply? 5. What are _douse_ and _duck_? 6. What special sense has _dip_ which the other words do not share? EXAMPLES. Trust no Future, howe'er pleasant! Let the dead Past ---- its dead. The ships of war, Congress and Cumberland, were ---- by the Merrimac. When food can not be swallowed, life may be prolonged by ---- the body in nutritive fluids. * * * * * IMMINENT (page 212). QUESTIONS. 1. From what language is _imminent_ derived and with what primary sense? _impending_? 2. How do _imminent_ and _impending_ differ in present use? 3. How does _threatening_ differ from the two words above given? EXAMPLES. And nodding Ilium waits the ---- fall. And these she does apply for warnings, portents, And evils ----. * * * * * IMPEDIMENT (page 213). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _impediment_ primarily signify? _obstacle_? _obstruction_? 2. How does _obstacle_ differ from _obstruction_? 3. What is a _hindrance_? 4. Is an _impediment_ what one finds or what he carries? Is it momentary or constant? What did the Latin _impedimenta_ signify? 5. What is an _encumbrance_? How does it differ from an _obstacle_ or _obstruction_? 6. Is a _difficulty_ within one or without? EXAMPLES. Something between a ---- and a help. Thus far into the bowels of the land Have we march'd without ----. Demosthenes became the foremost orator of the world in spite of an ---- in his speech. ----s overcome are the stepping-stones by which great men rise. * * * * * IMPUDENCE (page 213). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _impertinence_ primarily denote? What is its common acceptation? 2. What is _impudence_? _insolence_? 3. What is _officiousness_? 4. What does _rudeness_ suggest? EXAMPLES. With matchless ---- they style a wife The dear-bought curse, and lawful plague of life. It is better not to turn friendship into a system of lawful and unpunishable ----. A certain class of ill-natured people mistake ---- for frankness. * * * * * INCONGRUOUS (page 214). QUESTIONS. 1. When are things said to be _incongruous_? 2. To what is _discordant_ applied? _inharmonious_? 3. What does _incompatible_ signify? When are things said to be _incompatible_? 4. To what does _inconsistent_ apply? 5. What illustrations of the uses of these words are given in the text? 6. What is the meaning of _incommensurable_? EXAMPLES. No solitude is so solitary as that of ---- companionship. I hear a strain ---- as a merry dirge, or sacramental bacchanal might be. * * * * * INDUCTION (page 215). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _deduction_? _induction_? 2. What is the proof of an _induction_? 3. What process is ordinarily followed in what is known as scientific _induction_? 4. How do _deduction_ and _induction_ compare as to the certainty of the conclusion? 5. How does an _induction_ compare with an _inference_? EXAMPLES. The longer one studies a vast subject the more cautious in ---- he becomes. Perhaps the widest and best known ---- of Biology, is that organisms grow. * * * * * INDUSTRIOUS (page 215). QUESTIONS. 1. How does _busy_ differ from _industrious_? 2. What is the implication if we say one is _industrious_ just now? 3. What does _diligent_ add to the meaning of _industrious_? EXAMPLES. Look cheerfully upon me, Here, love; thou see'st how ---- I am. The ---- have no time for tears. * * * * * INDUSTRY (page 216). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _industry_? 2. What does _assiduity_ signify as indicated by its etymology? _diligence_? 3. How does _application_ compare with _assiduity_? 4. What is _constancy_? _patience_? _perseverance_? 5. What is _persistence_? What implication does it frequently convey? 6. How does _industry_ compare with _diligence_? 7. To what do _labor_ and _pains_ especially refer? EXAMPLES. Honors come by ----; riches spring from economy. 'Tis ---- supports us all. There is no success in study without close, continuous, and intense ----. His ---- in wickedness would have won him enduring honor if it had taken the form of ---- in a better cause. * * * * * INFINITE (page 216). QUESTIONS. 1. From what language is _infinite_ derived, and with what meaning? To what may it be applied? 2. How do _countless_, _innumerable_, and _numberless_ compare with _infinite_? 3. What is the use of _boundless_, _illimitable_, _limitless_, _measureless_, and _unlimited_? 4. What are the dimensions of _infinite_ space? What is the duration of _infinite_ time? EXAMPLES. My bounty is as ---- as the sea, my love as deep, the more I give to thee, the more I have, for both are ----. Man's inhumanity to man makes ---- thousands mourn. * * * * * INFLUENCE (page 217). QUESTIONS. 1. What is it to _influence_? is one _influenced_ by external or internal force? 2. To what kind of power does _actuate_ refer? Does one person _actuate_ or _influence_ another? 3. What do _prompt_ and _stir_ imply? 4. What is it to _excite_? 5. What do _incite_ and _instigate_ signify? How do these two words differ? 6. What do _urge_ and _impel_ imply? How do they differ in the source of the power exerted? 7. What do _drive_ and _compel_ imply, and how do these two words compare with each other? EXAMPLES. He was ---- by his own violent passions to desperate crime. And well she can ----. Fine thoughts are wealth, for the right use of which Men are and ought to be accountable, If not to Thee, to those they ----. * * * * * INHERENT (page 218). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _inherent_ signify? 2. To what realm of thought does _immanent_ belong? What does it signify? How does it differ from _inherent_? Which is applied to the Divine Being? 3. To what do _congenital_, _innate_, and _inborn_ apply as distinguished from _inherent_ and _intrinsic_? 4. With what special reference does _congenital_ occur in medical and legal use? 5. What is the difference in use between _innate_ and _inborn_? 6. What does _inbred_ add to the sense of _innate_ or _inborn_? 7. What is _ingrained_? EXAMPLES. An ---- power in the life of the world. All men have an ---- right to life, liberty, and protection. He evinced an ---- stupidity that seemed almost tantamount to ---- idiocy. Many philosophers hold that God is ---- in nature. Any stable currency must be founded at last upon something, as gold or silver, that has ---- value. The wrongs and abuses which are ---- in the very structure and constitution of society as it now exists throughout Christendom. * * * * * INJURY (page 219). QUESTIONS. 1. From what language is _injury_ derived? What is its primary meaning? Its derived meaning? 2. How inclusive a word is _injury_? 3. From what is _damage_ derived, and with what original sense? _detriment_? How do these words compare in actual use? 4. How does _damage_ compare with _loss_? How can a _loss_ be said to be partial? 5. What is _evil_, and with what frequent suggestion? 6. What is _harm_? _hurt_? How do these words compare with _injury_? 7. What is _mischief_? How caused, and with what intent? EXAMPLES. Nothing can work me ----, except myself; the ---- that I sustain I carry about with me, and never am a real sufferer but by my own fault. Hippolyta, I woo'd thee with my sword, And won thy love, doing thee ----. * * * * * INJUSTICE (page 220). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _injustice_? 2. How does _wrong_ differ from _injustice_ in legal use? How in popular use? 3. What is _iniquity_ in the legal sense? in the common sense? EXAMPLES. War in men's eyes shall be a monster of ----. No man can mortgage his ---- as a pawn for his fidelity. Such an act is an ---- upon humanity. * * * * * INNOCENT (page 220). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _innocent_ in the full sense signify? 2. Is _innocent_ positive or negative? How does it compare with _righteous_, _upright_, or _virtuous_? 3. In what two applications may _immaculate_, _pure_, and _sinless_ be used? 4. With what limited sense is _innocent_ used of moral beings? 5. In what sense is _innocent_ applied to inanimate substances? EXAMPLES. They are as ---- as grace itself. For blessings ever wait on ---- deeds, And tho a late, a sure reward succeeds. The wicked flee where no man pursueth, but the ---- are bold as a lion. A daughter, and a goodly babe; ... the queen receives Much comfort in't: says, _My poor prisoner, I am ---- as you_. * * * * * INQUISITIVE (page 221). QUESTIONS. 1. What are the characteristics of an _inquisitive_ person? 2. Is _inquisitive_ ever used in a good sense? What, in that sense, is ordinarily preferred? 3. What does _curious_ signify, and how does it differ from _inquisitive_? EXAMPLES. His was an anxiously ---- mind, a scrupulously conscientious heart. Adrian was the most ---- man that ever lived, and the most universal inquirer. I am ---- to know the cause of this sudden change of purpose. * * * * * INSANITY (page 221). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _insanity_ in the widest sense? in its restricted use? Which use is the more frequent? 2. From what is _lunacy_ derived? What did it originally imply? In what sense is it now used? 3. What is _madness_? 4. What is _derangement_? _delirium_? 5. What is the specific meaning of _dementia_? 6. What is _aberration_? 7. What is the distinctive meaning of _hallucination_? 8. What is _monomania_? 9. What are _frenzy_ and _mania_? EXAMPLES. Go--you may call it ----, folly--you shall not chase my gloom away. All power of fancy over reason is a degree of ----. * * * * * INTERPOSE (page 222). QUESTIONS. 1. What is it to _interpose_? 2. How does _intercede_ differ from _interpose_? 3. What is it to _intermeddle_? How does it differ from _meddle_? from _interfere_? 4. What do _arbitrate_ and _mediate_ involve? EXAMPLES. Dion, his brother, ---- for him and his life was saved. Nature has ---- a natural barrier between England and the continent. * * * * * INVOLVE (page 223). QUESTIONS. 1. From what language is _involve_ derived, and with what primary meaning? 2. How does _involve_ compare with _implicate_? 3. Are these words used in the favorable or the unfavorable sense? 4. As regards results what is the difference between _include_, _imply_, and _involve_? EXAMPLES. Rocks may be squeezed into new forms, bent, contorted, and ----. An oyster-shell sometimes ---- a pearl. ---- in other men's affairs, he went down to their ruin. * * * * * JOURNEY (page 223). QUESTIONS. 1. From what language is _journey_ derived? What is its primary meaning? Its present meaning? 2. What is _travel_? How does it differ from _journey_? 3. What was the former meaning of _voyage_? its present meaning? 4. What is a _trip_? a _tour_? 5. What is the meaning and common use of _passage_? of _transit_? 6. What is the original meaning of _pilgrimage_? How is it now used? EXAMPLES. ---- makes all men countrymen. All the ---- of their life is bound in shallows and in miseries. It were a ---- like the path to heaven, To help you find them. * * * * * JUDGE (page 224). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a _judge_ in the legal sense? 2. What other senses has the word _judge_ in common use? 3. What is a _referee_, and how appointed? an _arbitrator_? 4. What is the popular sense of _umpire_? the legal sense? 5. What is the present use of _arbiter_? 6. What are the _judges_ of the United States Supreme Court officially called? EXAMPLES. The end crowns all, And that old common ----, Time, Will one day end it. A man who is no ---- of law may be a good ---- of poetry. The ---- is only the mouth of law, and the magistrate who punishes is only the hand. * * * * * JUSTICE (page 225). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _justice_ in governmental relations? in social and personal relations? in matters of reasoning or literary treatment? 2. To what do _integrity_, _rectitude_, _right_, _righteousness_, and _virtue_ apply? What do all these include? 3. What two contrasted senses has _lawfulness_? 4. To what does _justness_ refer, and in what sense is it used? EXAMPLES. ---- exalteth a nation. ---- of life is fame's best friend. He shall have merely ----, and his bond. * * * * * KEEP (page 226). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the general meaning of _keep_? 2. How does _keep_ compare with _preserve_? _fulfil_? _maintain_? 3. What does _keep_ imply when used as a synonym of _guard_ or _defend_? EXAMPLES. These make and ---- the balance of the mind. The good old rule Sufficeth them,--the simple plan, That they should take who have the power And they should ---- who can. ---- thy shop, and thy shop will ---- thee. * * * * * KILL (page 226). QUESTIONS. 1. What is it to _kill_? 2. To what are _assassinate_, _execute_, and _murder_ restricted? 3. What is the specific meaning of _murder_? _execute_? _assassinate_? To what class of persons is the latter word ordinarily applied? 4. What is it to _slay_? 5. To what is _massacre_ limited? With what special meaning is it used? 6. To what do _butcher_ and _slaughter_ primarily apply? What is the sense of each when so used? 7. What is it to _despatch_? EXAMPLES. To look into her eyes was to ---- doubt. Two presidents of the United States have been ----. Hamilton was ---- in a duel by Aaron Burr. The place was carried by storm, and the inhabitants ---- without distinction of age or sex. * * * * * KIN (page 227). QUESTIONS. 1. How does _kind_ compare with _kin_? 2. What do _kin_ and _kindred_ denote? 3. What is _affinity_? How does it differ from _consanguinity_? EXAMPLES. A little more than ----, and less than ----. He held his seat,--a friend to the human ----. The patient bride, a little sad, Leaving of home and ----. * * * * * KNOWLEDGE (page 227). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _knowledge_? How does it differ from _information_? 2. What is _perception_? _apprehension_? _cognizance_? 3. What is _intuition_? 4. What is _experience_, and how does it differ from _intuition_? 5. What is _learning_? _erudition_? EXAMPLES. ---- comes, but wisdom lingers. The child is continually seeking ----; hence his endless questions. 'Tis the sunset of life gives me mystical ----, And coming events cast their shadows before. ----s lie at the very foundation of all reasoning. * * * * * LANGUAGE (page 228). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the derivation of _language_? What was its original signification? How wide is its present meaning? 2. As regards the use of words, what does _language_ denote in the general and in the restricted sense? 3. What does _speech_ always involve? 4. Can we speak of the _speech_ of animals? of their _language_? 5. What is a _dialect_? a _barbarism_? an _idiom_? 6. What is a _patois_? How does it differ from a _dialect_? 7. What is a _vernacular_? EXAMPLES. We must be free or die, who speak the ---- That Shakespeare spake: the faith and morals hold Which Milton held. ---- is great; but silence is greater. An infant crying in the night, An infant crying for the light, And with no ---- but a cry. Thought leapt out to wed with Thought, Ere Thought could wed itself with ----. A Babylonish ---- Which learned pedants much affect. O! good, my lord, no Latin; I'm not such a truant since my coming As not to know the ---- I have lived in. * * * * * LARGE (page 229). QUESTIONS. 1. To how many dimensions does _large_ apply? How does it differ from _long_? 2. How does _large_ compare with _great_? with _big_? EXAMPLES. Courage, the mighty attribute of powers above, By which those ---- in war, are ---- in love. Everything is twice as ---- measured on a three-year-old's three-foot scale as on a thirty-year-old's six-foot scale. And his ---- manly voice, Turning again toward childish treble, Pipes and whistles in its sound. * * * * * LAW (page 229). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the definition of _law_ in its ideal? What does it signify in common use? 2. What are the characteristics of _command_ and _commandment_? of an _edict_? 3. What is a _mandate_? a _statute_? an _enactment_? 4. In what special connection is _formula_ commonly used? _ordinance_? _order_? 5. What is the meaning of _law_ in such an expression as "the _laws_ of nature?" What in more strictly scientific use? 6. What is a _code_? _jurisprudence_? _legislation_? What is an _economy_? Is _law_ ever a synonym for these words, and in what way? EXAMPLES. Order is Heaven's first ----; and this confest, Some are, and must be, greater than the rest. Those he commands move only in ----, Nothing in love. His fair large front and eye sublime declared Absolute ----. We have strict ----, and most biting ----. Napoleon gave France the best ---- of ---- she has ever possessed. ---- is physical, established sequence; intellectual, a condition of intellectual action in order that truth may be reached; and moral, an imperative which determines the right guidance of our higher life. * * * * * LIBERTY (page 230). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _freedom_? 2. What is _liberty_ in the primary sense? in the widest sense? 3. How do _freedom_ and _liberty_ compare? 4. How is _independence_ used in distinction from _freedom_ and _liberty_? 5. Is _freedom_ or _liberty_ more freely used in a figurative sense? 6. What is _license_? How does it compare with _liberty_ and _freedom_? EXAMPLES. In Rousseau's philosophy ---- is conceived of as lawlessness. When ---- from her mountain-height Unfurled her standard to the air, She tore the azure robe of night, And set the stars of glory there. The ---- to go higher than we are is given only when we have fulfilled amply the duty of our present sphere. ---- they mean when they cry ----! For who loves that must first be wise and good. * * * * * LIGHT (page 231). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _light_? 2. What are the characteristics of a _flame_? a _blaze_? 3. What is a _flare_? a _flash_? 4. What is the sense of _glare_ and _glow_? How do they differ, and to what are they applied? 5. To what do _shine_ and _sheen_ refer? 6. What do _glimmer_, _glitter_, and _shimmer_ denote? 7. What is _gleam_? a _glitter_? a _sparkle_? _glistening_? 8. What is _scintillation_? in what two senses used? 9. To what are _twinkle_ and _twinkling_ applied? 10. What is _illumination_? _incandescence_? EXAMPLES. From a little spark may burst a mighty ----. A ---- as of another life, my kindling soul received. It is ----, that enables us to see the differences between things; and it is Christ that gives us ----. White with the whiteness of the snow, Pink with faintest rosy ----, They blossom on their sprays. Ghastly in the ---- of day. ---- in golden coats like images. So ---- a good deed in a naughty world. There's but the ---- of a star Between a man of peace and war. * * * * * LISTEN (page 232). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _hear_ signify? What does _listen_ add to the meaning of _hear_? 2. What does _attend_ add to the meaning of _listen_? 3. What does _heed_ further imply? 4. What is the difference between _listen for_ and _listen to_? EXAMPLES. And ----! how blithe the throstle sings; He, too, is no mean preacher; Till I ---- and ---- If a step draweth near. Chill airs and wintry winds! my ear Has grown familiar with your song; I ---- it in the opening year, I ----, and it cheers me long. ----, every one That ---- may, unto a tale That's merrier than the nightingale. The men lay silent in the tall grass ---- for the signal gun that should bid them rise and charge. * * * * * LITERATURE (page 233). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _literature_ in the most general sense? in more limited sense? 2. What does _literature_, used absolutely, denote? 3. How may _literature_ include _science_? How is it ordinarily contrasted with _science_? EXAMPLES. Wherever ---- consoles sorrow or assuages pain; wherever it brings gladness to eyes which fail with wakefulness and tears--there is exhibited in its noblest form the immortal influence of Athens. ---- are lifelong friends. ---- are embalmed minds. In our own language we have a ---- nowhere surpassed, in whose lock no foreign key will ever rust. * * * * * LOAD (page 233). QUESTIONS. 1. From what language is _burden_ derived, and with what primary meaning? _load_? 2. What does _weight_ signify? How does it compare with _load_ and _burden_? 3. What are _cargo_, _freight_, and _lading_? 4. What is the distinctive sense of _pack_? EXAMPLES. Bear ye one another's ----. Wearing all that ---- Of learning lightly like a flower. The ass will carry his ----, but not a double ----. * * * * * LOOK (page 234). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the distinction between _look_ and _see_? between these words and _behold_? 2. What is it to _gaze_? to _glance_? to _stare_? 3. What do _scan_, _inspect_, and _survey_ respectively express, and how are they distinguished from one another? 4. What element or elements does _watch_ add to the meaning of _look_? EXAMPLES. It is always well to ---- at people when addressing them. Having eyes they ---- not, and having ears hear not. Then gently ---- your brother man, Still gentler sister woman; Tho' they may gang a kennin wrang, To step aside is human. My soul waiteth for the Lord more than they that ---- for the morning. How peacefully the broad and golden moon Comes up to ---- upon the reaper's toil! I am monarch of all I ----, My right there is none to dispute; From the center all round to the sea, I am lord of the fowl and the brute. But, ----, the morn in russet mantle clad, Walks o'er the dew of yon high eastern hill. * * * * * LOVE (page 235). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _affection_? 2. What may be given as a brief definition of _love_? 3. Does _affection_ apply to persons or things? To what does _love_ apply? 4. What term is preferable to _love_ as applying to articles of food and the like? 5. How does _love_ differ from _affection_? from _friendship_? EXAMPLES. Peace, commerce, and honest ---- with all nations help to form the bright constellation which has gone before us. And you must love him ere to you he will seem worthy of your ----. Yet pity for a horse o'erdriven And ---- in which my hound has part Can hang no weight upon my heart, In its assumptions up to heaven. Such ---- and unbroken faith As temper life's worst bitterness. * * * * * MAKE (page 236). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the essential idea of _make_? 2. How is _make_ allied with _create_? 3. How is _make_ allied with _compose_ or _constitute_? 4. What are some chief antonyms for _make_? 5. What are the prepositions chiefly used with _make_, and how employed? EXAMPLES. In the beginning God ---- the heaven and the earth. The mason ----, the architect ----. I assert confidently that it is in the power of one American mother to ---- as many gentlemen as she has sons. Newton discovered, but did not ---- the law of gravitation. The river flows over a bed of pebbles like those that ---- the beach and the surrounding plains. A hermit and a wolf or two My whole acquaintance ----. If we were not willing, they possessed the power of ---- us to do them justice. The lessons of adversity sometimes soften and ----, but as often they indurate and pervert. * * * * * MARRIAGE (page 236). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _matrimony_ specifically denote? 2. What two senses has _marriage_? 3. From what language is _wedlock_ derived? what is its distinctive use? 4. What is the meaning of _wedding_? _nuptials_? EXAMPLES. Let me not to the ---- of true minds admit impediments. The lover was killed in a duel on the night before the intended ----. I'll join my eldest daughter, and my joy, To him forthwith in holy ---- bonds. * * * * * MASCULINE (page 237). QUESTIONS. 1. To what is _male_ applied? To what _masculine_? 2. To what does _manly_ refer? _manful_? In what connection can _manly_ be used where _manful_ could not be substituted? 3. What is the sense of _mannish_? _virile_? EXAMPLES. Every virtue in the higher phases of ---- character begins in truth and pity or truth and reverence to all womanhood. One brave and ---- struggle And he gained the solid land And the cover of the mountains And the carbines of his band. So God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him; ---- and female created he them. * * * * * MASSACRE (page 237). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _massacre_? _butchery_? _havoc_? 2. To what does _carnage_ especially refer? _slaughter_? 3. Which of these words can be used of the destruction of life in open and honorable warfare? EXAMPLES. Mark! where his ---- and his conquests cease! He makes a solitude and calls it peace! Forbade to wade through ---- to a throne, And shut the gates of mercy on mankind. The capture of Port Arthur was followed by a terrible ----. * * * * * MEDDLESOME (page 238). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the conduct specially characteristic of a _meddlesome_ person? of an _intrusive_ person? of one who is _obtrusive_? _officious_? 2. To what is _obtrusive_ chiefly applied? _intrusive_? _officious_? _meddlesome_? EXAMPLES. Where sorrow's held ---- and turned out, There wisdom will not enter nor true power, Nor aught that dignifies humanity. A ---- monkey had been among the papers. * * * * * MELODY (page 238). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _harmony_? _melody_? In what special feature does the one differ from the other? 2. How many parts are required for _harmony_? how many for _melody_? 3. What is _unison_? 4. What does _music_ include? EXAMPLES. Sweetest ---- Are those that are by distance made more sweet. ----, when soft voices die, Vibrates in the memory. Ring out ye crystal spheres And with your ninefold ---- Make up full consort to the angelic ----. * * * * * MEMORY (page 239). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _memory_ in the special and in the general sense? 2. What is _remembrance_, and how distinguished from _memory_? 3. Is _remembrance_ voluntary or involuntary? 4. What is _recollection_, and what does it involve? 5. What is _reminiscence_? _retrospection_? How do these two words differ? EXAMPLES. ---- like a purse, if it be over-full that it can not shut, all will drop out of it; take heed of a gluttonous curiosity to feed on many things, lest the greediness of the appetite of thy ---- spoil the digestion thereof. ---- wakes with all her busy train, Swells at my breast, and turns the past to pain. It is a favorite device of eminent men to devote their old age to writing their ----s, thus quietly living over again a busy or tumultuous life. * * * * * MERCY (page 239). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _mercy_ in the strictest sense? 2. To what class is _grace_ shown? 3. To what class are _mercy_, _forgiveness_, and _pardon_ extended? 4. In what wider significations is _mercy_ used? 5. What is _clemency_? _leniency_ or _lenity_? How do these words compare with _mercy_? EXAMPLES. How would you be, If He, which is the top of judgment, should But judge you as you are? O, think on that; And ---- then will breathe within your lips, Like man new made. The only protection which the conquered could find was in the moderation, the ----, and the enlarged policy of the conquerors. To favor sin is to discourage virtue; undue ---- to the bad is unkindness to the good. * * * * * METER (page 240). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _euphony_? How does it differ from _meter_, _measure_, and _rhythm_? 2. How are _rhythm_ and _meter_ produced? 3. How does _meter_ differ from _rhythm_? 4. What is a _verse_ in the strict sense? In what wider sense is the word often used? EXAMPLES. ---- is a very vague and unscientific term. Each nation considers its own language, each tribe its own dialect, euphonic. ---- may be defined to be a succession of poetical feet arranged in regular order according to certain types recognized as standards, in verses of a determinate length. We have three principal domains in which ---- manifests its nature and power--dancing, music, poetry. * * * * * MIND (page 241). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _mind_? How does it differ from _intellect_? 2. What does _consciousness_ include? Is it attended with distinct thinking and willing? 3. What is the _soul_? 4. From what is _spirit_ used in special contradistinction? How does it differ from _soul_? 5. What is Paley's definition of _instinct_? 6. In what contrasted meanings is the word _sense_ employed? 7. What is _thought_? EXAMPLES. A great ---- will be strong to live, as well as to think. God is a ----: and they that worship him must worship him in ---- and in truth. * * * * * MINUTE (page 242). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the meaning of _minute_? 2. When is a thing said to be _comminuted_? 3. How does _fine_ differ from _comminuted_? 4. What terms are applied to an account extended to _minute_ particulars? to an examination similarly extended? EXAMPLES. No ---- room so warm and bright, Wherein to read, wherein to write. Life hangs on, held by a ---- thread. An organism so ---- as to be visible only under the microscope, yet possessed of life, motion, and seeming intelligence is a source of ceaseless wonder. * * * * * MISFORTUNE (page 242). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _misfortune_? Is the sufferer considered blameworthy for it? 2. What is _calamity_? _disaster_? 3. In what special sense are the words _affliction_, _chastening_, _trial_, and _tribulation_ used? How are these four words discriminated the one from another? EXAMPLES. He's not valiant that dares die, But he that boldly bears ----. I never knew a man in life who could not bear another's ---- perfectly like a Christian. * * * * * MODEL (page 243). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a _model_? a _pattern_? How are they distinguished from one another? 2. Which admits of freedom or idealization? EXAMPLES. Things done without ----, in their issue Are to be fear'd. Be a ---- to others, and then all will go well. Washington and his compeers had no ---- of a federal republic with constitutional bonds and limitations. Moses was admonished, See that thou make all things according to the ---- shewed to thee in the mount. * * * * * MODESTY (page 244). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _modesty_ in the general sense? In what specific sense is the word also used? 2. What is _bashfulness_? _diffidence_? _coyness_? _reserve_? EXAMPLES. For silence and chaste ---- is woman's genuine praise, and to remain quiet within the house. If a young lady has that discretion and ----, without which all knowledge is little worth, she will never make an ostentatious parade of it. His shrinking ---- was often mistaken for a proud ----. * * * * * MONEY (page 244). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _money_? _specie_? _cash_? 2. How does _property_ differ from _money_? 3. What is _bullion_? _capital_? EXAMPLES. I am not covetous for ----; Nor care I who doth feed upon my cost. For the love of ---- is the root of all evil. He converted all his ---- into ready ----. One who undertakes to do business without ---- is likely to be speedily straitened for ----. ---- in reversion may be of far less value than ---- in hand. * * * * * MOROSE (page 245). QUESTIONS. 1. By what characteristics are the _morose_ distinguished? the _sullen_ and _sulky_? 2. How does _sullen_ differ from _sulky_? 3. What is the meaning of _surly_? 4. Which of these words denote transient moods and which denote enduring states or disposition? EXAMPLES. My master is of ---- disposition, And little recks to find the way to heaven By doing deeds of hospitality. A poet who fails in writing, becomes often a ---- critic. He answered with a ---- growl. Achilles remained in his tent in ---- inaction. * * * * * MOTION (page 246). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _motion_? 2. How does _motion_ differ from _movement_? Give examples. 3. In what sense is _move_ employed? 4. What is the special sense of _motion_ in a deliberative assembly? 5. Is _action_ or _motion_ the more comprehensive word? Which is commonly used in reference to the mind? EXAMPLES. That ---- is best which procures the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers. There is no death! What seems so is ----; This life of mortal breath Is but a suburb of the life elysian, Whose portal we call Death. The Copernican theory first clearly explained the ---- of the planets. * * * * * MUTUAL (page 246). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the meaning of _common_? _mutual_? _reciprocal_? 2. Is it correct to speak of a _mutual_ friend? EXAMPLES. ---- friendships will admit of division, one may love the beauty of this, the good humor of that person. In all true family life there is a ---- dependence which binds hearts together. ---- action is the rule in the human body, where every part is alternately means and end, and every action both cause and effect. * * * * * NAME (page 247). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a _name_ in the most general sense? 2. In the more limited sense, how does a _name_ differ from an _appellation_? a _title_? Give instances of the use of these three words. 3. From what language is _epithet_ derived? What is its primary meaning? 4. What does _epithet_ signify in literary use? 5. What part of speech is an _epithet_? Is it favorable or unfavorable in signification? 6. What is a _cognomen_? How does it differ from a _surname_? 7. What is _style_ considered as a synonym of _name_? EXAMPLES. Those he commands, move only in command Nothing in love: now does he feel the ---- Hang loose about him, like a giant's robe Upon a dwarfish thief. O magnify the Lord with me, and let us exalt his ---- together. * * * * * NATIVE (page 248). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _native_ denote? _natal_? _natural_? 2. What examples are given in the text of the correct use of these words? EXAMPLES. I would advise no child's being taught music who has not a ---- aptitude for it. It was the 4th of July, the ---- day of American freedom. * * * * * NAUTICAL (page 248). QUESTIONS. 1. From what is _marine_ derived? _maritime_? What do these two words respectively signify? 2. From what is _naval_ derived? _nautical_? How do these words differ in meaning? 3. How does _ocean_, used adjectively, differ from _oceanic_? EXAMPLES. That sea-beast, Leviathan, which God of all his works Created hugest that swim the ---- stream. * * * * * NEAT (page 249). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _clean_ signify? 2. Does _orderly_ apply to persons or things, and in what sense? 3. What does _tidy_ denote? 4. What is the meaning of _neat_? 5. How does _nice_ compare with _neat_? 6. What is the significance of _spruce_? _trim_? _dapper_? EXAMPLES. If he (Jefferson) condescended to turn ---- sentences for delicate ears--still, he was essentially an earnest man. Still to be ----, still to be drest, As you were going to a feast, Still to be powder'd, still perfum'd. * * * * * NECESSARY (page 250). QUESTIONS. 1. When is a thing properly said to be _necessary_? 2. What is the meaning of _essential_? How does it differ from _indispensable_? 3. With reference to what is a thing said to be _requisite_? How does _requisite_ compare with _essential_ and _indispensable_? 4. How do _inevitable_ and _unavoidable_ compare? To what kind of things are both these words applied? 5. How do _needed_ and _needful_ compare with _necessary_? EXAMPLES. As you grow ready for it, somewhere or other you will find what is ---- for you in a book. The ideas of space and time are called in philosophy ---- ideas. * * * * * NECESSITY (page 250). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _necessity_? 2. What do _need_ and _want_ imply? How does _need_ compare with _want_? 3. How does _necessity_ compare with _need_? 4. What is an _essential_? EXAMPLES. Courage is, on all hands, considered as an ---- of high character. No living man can send me to the shades Before my time; no man of woman born, Coward or brave, can shun his ----. * * * * * NEGLECT, _n._ (page 251). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _neglect_? _negligence_? How do the two words compare? 2. What senses has _negligence_ that _neglect_ has not? 3. Which of the two words may be used in a passive sense? 4. What is the legal phrase for a punishable _omission_ of duty? EXAMPLES. Ah, why Should we, in the world's riper years, ---- God's ancient sanctuaries, and adore Only among the crowd. But, alas, to make A fixed figure, for the hand of ---- To point his slow unmoving finger at. * * * * * NEW (page 252). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the meaning of _new_? of _modern_? of _recent_? 2. How does _recent_ compare with _new_? 3. What is the meaning of _novel_? of _fresh_? 4. To what do _young_ and _youthful_ distinctively apply? * * * * * NIMBLE (page 253). QUESTIONS. 1. To what does _nimble_ properly refer? 2. To what does _swift_ apply? 3. How does _alert_ compare with _nimble_? For what is _alert_ more properly a synonym? EXAMPLES. Win her with gifts, if she respect not words; Dumb jewels often, in their silent kind, More ---- than words, do move a woman's mind. Profound thinkers are often helpless in society, while shallow men have ---- and ready minds. * * * * * NORMAL (page 253). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _natural_ signify? _normal_? Give instances of the distinctive use of the two words. 2. What does _typical_ signify? _regular_? _common_? EXAMPLES. He does it with a better grace, but I do it more ----. The ---- round of work may grow monotonous, but it is evidently necessary. * * * * * NOTWITHSTANDING (page 254). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the signification of _however_ as a conjunction? of _nevertheless_? 2. Which is the most emphatic word of the group and what does it signify? 3. How do _yet_ and _still_ compare with _notwithstanding_? with _but_? 4. What is the force of _tho_ and _altho_? 5. How does _notwithstanding_ as a preposition differ from _despite_ or _in spite of_? EXAMPLES. ---- do thy worst, old Time; despite thy wrong, My love shall in my verse ever live young. ---- till all graces be in one woman, one woman shall not come in my grace. There was an immense crowd ---- the inclement weather. * * * * * OATH (page 254). QUESTIONS. 1. What is an _oath_? an _affidavit_? How does the _affidavit_ differ from the _oath_? 2. What is an _adjuration_? 3. What is a _vow_? How does it differ from an _oath_? 4. Of what words is _oath_ a popular synonym? 5. In what do _anathema_, _curse_, _execration_, and _imprecation_ agree? 6. What is an _anathema_? 7. Is a _curse_ just or unjust? 8. What does _execration_ express? _imprecation_? EXAMPLES. Better is it that thou shouldest not ----, than that thou shouldest ---- and not pay. Then how can any man be said To break an ---- he never made? * * * * * OBSCURE (page 255). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _obscure_? 2. How does _obscure_ compare with _complicated_? with _complex_? with _abstruse_? with _profound_? * * * * * OBSOLETE (page 256). QUESTIONS. 1. When is a word _obsolete_? When is a word _archaic_? 2. Is an _old_ or _ancient_ word necessarily _obsolete_? 3. What is meant by saying that a word is _rare_? 4. Is a _rare_ word necessarily _obsolete_ or an _obsolete_ word necessarily _rare_? EXAMPLES. When the labors of modern philologists began, Sanscrit was the most ---- of all the Aryan languages known to them. Atlas, we read in ---- song, Was so exceeding tall and strong, He bore the skies upon his back, Just as the pedler does his pack. It is wonderful that so few ---- words are found in Shakespeare after the lapse of three centuries. * * * * * OBSTINATE (page 256). QUESTIONS. 1. How does _headstrong_ differ from _obstinate_ and _stubborn_? 2. How do _obstinate_ and _stubborn_ differ from each other? Which is commonly applied to the inferior animals and to inanimate things? 3. What is the meaning of _refractory_? How does it differ from _stubborn_? Which word is applied to metals, and in what sense? 4. What is the meaning of _obdurate_? _contumacious_? _pertinacious_? 5. What words do we apply to the _unyielding_ character or conduct that we approve? EXAMPLES. Is it in heav'n a crime to love too well? To bear too tender, or too ---- a heart, To act a Lover's or a Roman's part? "I shall talk of what I like," she said wilfully, clasping her hands round her knees with the gesture of an ---- child. * * * * * OBSTRUCT (page 257). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the literal meaning of _obstruct_? How does it compare with _hinder_? 2. How does _obstruct_ compare with _impede_? 3. What does _arrest_ signify in the sense here considered? EXAMPLES. There is a certain wisdom of humanity which is common to the greatest men with the lowest, and which our ordinary education often labors to silence and ----. No, no ----ing the vast wheel of time, That round and round still turns with onward might. * * * * * OLD (page 257). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _old_ signify? 2. How do _old_ and _ancient_ compare? 3. What contrasted senses has _old_? 4. What is the special force of _olden_? 5. In what sense are _gray_, _hoary_, and _olden_ used of material objects? 6. To what is _aged_ chiefly applied? 7. To what do _decrepit_, _gray_, and _hoary_ apply, as said of human beings? 8. To what does _senile_ apply? 9. In what sense is _elderly_ used? 10. What are the primary and derived meanings of _remote_? 11. What does _venerable_ express? EXAMPLES. The hills, Rock-ribbed and ---- as the sun,--the vales Stretching in pensive quietness between; The ---- woods, ... ... and, poured round all, ---- ocean's gray and melancholy waste,-- Are but the solemn decorations all Of the great tomb of man. Through the sequestered vale of rural life, The ---- patriarch guileless held The tenor of his way. O good ---- head which all men knew! Shall we, shall ---- men, like ---- trees, Strike deeper their vile root, and closer cling, Still more enamored of their wretched soil? * * * * * OPERATION (page 258). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _operation_ denote? and by what kind of agent is it effected? 2. What do _performance_ and _execution_ denote? and by what kind of agents are they effected? 3. How does _performance_ differ from _execution_? EXAMPLES. It requires a surgical ---- to get a joke well into a Scotch understanding. His promises were, as he then was, mighty; But his ----, as he is now, nothing. * * * * * ORDER (page 258). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _instruction_ imply? _direction_? 2. How does _order_ compare with _direction_? 3. To what classes of persons are _orders_ especially given? How does an _order_ in the commercial sense become authoritative? 4. How does _command_ compare with _order_? 5. In what sense is _requirement_ used? By what authority is a _requirement_ made? 6. In what sense is _prohibition_ used? _injunction_? EXAMPLES. General Sherman writes in his Memoirs, "I have never in my life questioned or disobeyed an ----." "Ye shall become like God"--transcendent fate! That God's ---- forgot, she plucked and ate. * * * * * OSTENTATION (page 259). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _ostentation_? How does it compare with _boasting_? _display_? _show_? 2. What is _pomp_? _pageant_ or _pageantry_? What do the two latter words suggest, and how do they compare with _pomp_? 3. From what is _parade_ derived? What is its primary meaning? With what implication is it always used in the metaphorical sense? How does _parade_ compare with _ostentation_? EXAMPLES. The boast of heraldry, the ---- of power, And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave. Await alike the inevitable hour; The paths of glory lead but to the grave. The President's salary does not permit ----, nor, indeed, is ---- expected of him. With all his wealth, talent, and learning, he was singularly free from ----. * * * * * OVERSIGHT (page 260). QUESTIONS. 1. In what two contrasted senses is _oversight_ used? 2. How does _superintendence_ compare with _oversight_? 3. With what special reference is _control_ used? 4. What kind of a term is _surveillance_, and what does it imply? EXAMPLES. Those able to conduct great enterprises must be allowed wages of ----. O Friendship, equal poised ----! Feed the flock of God which is among you, taking the ---- thereof not by constraint, but willingly. * * * * * OUGHT (page 260). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _ought_ properly signify? 2. How does _ought_ compare with _should_? 3. In what secondary sense is _ought_ sometimes used? EXAMPLES. He has not a right to do what he likes, but only what he ---- with his own, which after all is his own only in a qualified sense. Age ---- have reverence, and ---- be worthy to have it. * * * * * PAIN (page 261). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _pain_? _suffering_? 2. How does _distress_ rank as compared with _pain_ and _suffering_? 3. What is an _ache_? a _throe_? a _paroxysm_? 4. What is _agony_? _anguish_? EXAMPLES. To each his ----s; all are men, Condemned alike to groan; The tender for another's ----, The unfeeling for his own. The weariest and most loathed worldly life That age, ----, penury, and imprisonment Can lay on nature. * * * * * PALLIATE (page 261). QUESTIONS. 1. How do _cloak_ and _palliate_ agree in original meaning? How do they differ in the derived senses? 2. What is it to _extenuate_, and how does that word compare with _palliate_? EXAMPLES. Speak of me as I am; nothing ---- Nor aught set down in malice. We would not dissemble nor ---- [our transgressions] before the face of Almighty God, our heavenly Father. I shall never attempt to ---- my own foibles by exposing the error of another. * * * * * PARDON, _v._ (page 262). QUESTIONS. 1. What is it to _pardon_? 2. To what does _forgive_ refer? 3. How do _pardon_ and _forgive_ differ in use in accordance with the difference in meaning? 4. What is it to _remit_? to _condone_? to _excuse_? EXAMPLES. How many will say ----, And find a kind of license in the sound To hate a little longer! I ---- him, as heaven shall ---- me. To err is human, to ----, divine. * * * * * PARDON, _n._ (page 262). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _acquittal_? How does it differ from _pardon_ as regards the person acquitted or pardoned? 2. Is an innocent person ever pardoned? 3. What is _oblivion_? _amnesty_? _absolution_? EXAMPLES. For 'tis sweet to stammer one letter Of the Eternal's language;--on earth it is called ----. ----, not wrath, is God's best attribute. ---- to the injured does belong, But they ne'er ---- who have done the wrong. * * * * * PART, _n._ (page 264). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a _part_? 2. What is a _fragment_? a _piece_? 3. What do _division_ and _fraction_ signify? 4. What is a _portion_? 5. What is a _share_? an _instalment_? a _particle_? 6. What do _component_, _constituent_, _ingredient_, and _element_ signify? How do they differ from one another? 7. What is a _subdivision_? EXAMPLES. The best ---- of a good man's life, His little, nameless, unremembered acts Of kindness and of love. Spirits that live throughout, Vital in every ---- ... Can not but by annihilating die. Many cheap houses were built to be sold by ----s. * * * * * PARTICLE (page 264). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a _particle_? 2. What does _atom_ etymologically signify? What is its meaning in present scientific use? 3. What is a _molecule_, and of what is it regarded as composed? 4. What is an _element_ in chemistry? EXAMPLES. Lucretius held that the universe originated from a fortuitous concourse of ----s. But thou shalt flourish in immortal youth, Unhurt amidst the war of ----s, The wreck of matter and the crush of worlds. Many aquatic animals, whose food consists of small ---- diffused through the water, have an apparatus for creating currents so as to bring such ---- within their reach. * * * * * PATIENCE (page 265). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _patience_? 2. What is _endurance_? 3. How does _patience_ compare with _submission_ and _endurance_? 4. To what are _submission_ and _resignation_ ordinarily applied? 5. What is _forbearance_? How does it compare with _patience_? EXAMPLES. With ---- bear the lot to thee assigned, Nor think it chance, nor murmur at the load, For know what man calls Fortune is from God. There is, however, a limit at which ---- ceases to be a virtue. * * * * * PAY (page 266). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _pay_? _compensation_? _remuneration_? _recompense_? 2. What is an _allowance_? 3. What are _wages_? _earnings_? 4. What is _hire_? what does it imply? 5. For what is _salary_ paid? How does it differ from _wages_? 6. What is a _fee_, and for what given? EXAMPLES. I am not aware that ----, or even favors, however gracious, bind any man's soul. Our praises are our ----. Carey, in early life, was a country minister with a small ----. Laborers are remunerated by ----, and officials by ----. * * * * * PEOPLE (page 266). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a _community_? a _commonwealth_? 2. What is a _people_? a _race_? 3. What is a _state_? a _nation_? 4. What does _population_ signify? _tribe_? EXAMPLES. A ---- may let a king fall, and still remain a ----, but if a king let his ---- slip from him, he is no longer a king. Questions of ---- have played a great part in the politics and wars of the latter half of the nineteenth century, the Germanic ----, the Slavonic ----, the Italian, and the Greek ----s struggling to assert their unity. * * * * * PERCEIVE (page 267). QUESTIONS. 1. What class of things do we _perceive_? 2. How does _apprehend_ differ in scope from _perceive_? 3. What does _conceive_ signify? 4. How does _comprehend_ compare with _apprehend_? with _conceive_? EXAMPLES. We may ---- the tokens of the divine agency without being able to ---- or ---- the divine Being. ... Admitted once to his embrace, Thou shalt ---- that thou wast blind before. O horror! horror! horror! Tongue nor heart Can not ---- nor name thee! * * * * * PERFECT (page 268). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _perfect_ in the fullest and highest sense? 2. What is _absolute_ in the fullest sense? 3. What is _perfect_ in the limited sense, and in popular language? EXAMPLES. We have the idea of a Being infinitely ----, and from this Descartes reasoned that such a being really exists. 'Shall remain'! Hear you this Triton of the minnows? mark you His ---- 'shall'? * * * * * PERMANENT (page 269). QUESTIONS. 1. From what is _durable_ derived? to what class of substances is it applied? 2. What is _permanent_, and in what connections used? 3. How does _enduring_ compare with _durable_? with _permanent_? EXAMPLES. My heart is wax, molded as she pleases, but ---- as marble to retain. A violet in the youth of primy nature, Forward, not ----, sweet, not ----, The perfume and suppliance of a minute. For her merchandise shall be for them that dwell before the Lord, to eat sufficiently, and for ---- clothing. * * * * * PERMISSION (page 269). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _authority_? 2. What is _permission_? 3. How does _permission_ compare with _allowance_? 4. What is a _permit_? 5. What is _license_? How does it compare with _authority_? with _permission_? 6. What does _consent_ involve? EXAMPLES. God is more there than thou; for thou art there Only by his ----. Thieves for their robbery have ----, When judges steal themselves. Very few of the Egyptians avail themselves of the ---- which their religion allows them, of having four wives. * * * * * PERNICIOUS (page 270). QUESTIONS. 1. From what is _pernicious_ derived, and what does it signify? 2. How does _pernicious_ compare with _injurious_? 3. What does _noisome_ denote? 4. What is the distinctive sense of _noxious_? 5. How does _noxious_ compare with _noisome_? EXAMPLES. Inflaming wine, ---- to mankind. So bees with smoke, and doves with ---- stench, Are from their hives, and houses, driven away. The strong smell of sulfur, and a choking sensation of the lungs indicated the presence of ---- gases. * * * * * PERPLEXITY (page 270). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _perplexity_? _confusion_? How do the two words compare? 2. How do _bewilderment_ and _confusion_ compare? 3. From what does _amazement_ result? EXAMPLES. CAIUS.--Vere is mine host _de Jarterre_? HOST.--Here, master doctor, in ---- and doubtful dilemma. There is such ---- in my powers As, after some oration fairly spoke By a beloved prince, there doth appear Among the buzzing, pleased multitude. * * * * * PERSUADE (page 271). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _convince_ denote? How does it differ from the other words of the group? 2. What is it to _persuade_? 3. How is _convincing_ related to _persuasion_? 4. How does _coax_ compare with _persuade_? EXAMPLES. A long train of these practises has at length unwillingly ---- me that there is something hid behind the throne greater than the king himself. He had a head to contrive, a tongue to ----, and a hand to execute any mischief. * * * * * PERVERSE (page 272). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the etymological meaning of _perverse_? What does it signify in common use? 2. What does _petulant_ signify? _wayward_? EXAMPLES. And you, my lords--methinks you do not well, To bear with their ---- objections. Whining, purblind, ---- boy! Good Lord! what madness rules in brainsick men When, for so slight and frivolous a cause, Such ---- emulations shall arise. * * * * * PHYSICAL (page 272). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _material_ signify? 2. What idea does _physical_ add to that contained in _material_? 3. To what do _bodily_, _corporal_, and _corporeal_ apply? 4. How do _bodily_ and _corporal_ differ from _corporeal_? 5. To what is _corporal_ now for the most part limited? EXAMPLES. ---- punishment is practically abandoned in the greater number of American schools. Man has two parts, the one ---- and earthly, the other immaterial and spiritual. These races are all clearly differentiated by other ---- traits than the color of the skin. We can not think of substance save in terms that imply ---- properties. * * * * * PITIFUL (page 273). QUESTIONS. 1. What was the original meaning of _pitiful_? What does it now signify? 2. How does _pitiful_ differ in use from _pitiable_? 3. What was the early and what is the present sense of _piteous_? EXAMPLES. There is something pleading and ---- in the simplicity of perfect ignorance. The most ---- sight one ever sees is a young man doing nothing; the Furies early drag him to his doom. O, the most ---- cry of the poor souls! * * * * * PITY (page 273). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _pity_? _sympathy_? 2. How does _sympathy_ in its exercise differ from _pity_? 3. How does _pity_ differ from _mercy_? 4. How does _compassion_ compare with _mercy_ and _pity_? 5. How does _commiseration_ differ from _compassion_? EXAMPLES. Nothing but the Infinite ---- is sufficient for the infinite pathos of human life. He hallows every heart he once has swayed, And when his presence we no longer share, Still leaves ---- as a relic there. * * * * * PLEAD (page 274). QUESTIONS. 1. What is it to _plead_ in the ordinary sense? in the legal sense? 2. How do _argue_ and _advocate_ differ? 3. What do _beseech_, _entreat_, and _implore_ imply? 4. How does _solicit_ compare with the above words? EXAMPLES. Speak to me low, my Savior, low and sweet, . . . Lest I should fear and fall, and miss thee so, Who art not missed by any that ----. Speaking of the honor paid to good men, is it not time to ---- for a reform in the writing of biographies? * * * * * PLEASANT (page 275). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _pleasant_ add to the sense of _pleasing_? 2. How does _pleasant_ compare with _kind_? 3. What does _good-natured_ signify? How does it compare with _pleasant_? EXAMPLES. Like one that wraps the drapery of his couch About him, and lies down to ---- dreams. When fiction rises ---- to the eye, Men will believe because they love the lie. ... If we must part forever, Give me but one ---- word to think upon. * * * * * PLENTIFUL (page 276). QUESTIONS. 1. What kind of a term is _enough_, and what does it mean? 2. How does _sufficient_ compare with _enough_? 3. What is _ample_? 4. To what do _abundant_, _ample_, _liberal_, and _plentiful_ apply? 5. How is _copious_ used? _affluent_? _plentiful_? 6. What does _complete_ express? 7. In what sense are _lavish_ and _profuse_ employed? 8. To what is _luxuriant_ applied? EXAMPLES. My ---- joys, Wanton in fulness, seek to hide themselves In drops of sorrow. Can anybody remember when the right sort of men and the right sort of women were ----? Share the advice betwixt you; if both gain all, The gift doth stretch itself as 'tis received, And is ---- for both. He hasted, and opposed the rocky orb Of tenfold adamant, his ---- shield. * * * * * POETRY (page 277). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _poetry_? 2. Does _poetry_ involve _rime_? Does it require _meter_? 3. What is imperatively required beyond _verse_, _rime_, or _meter_ to constitute _poetry_? EXAMPLES. ---- is rhythmical, imaginative language, expressing the invention, taste, thought, passion, and insight of a human soul. He knew Himself to sing, and build the lofty ----. And ever against eating cares, Lap me in soft Lydian airs, Married to immortal ----. * * * * * POLITE (page 277). QUESTIONS. 1. What are the characteristics of a _civil_ person? What more is found in one who is _polite_? 2. How does _courteous_ compare with _civil_? 3. What does _courtly_ signify? _genteel_? _urbane_? 4. In what sense is _polished_ used? _complaisant_? EXAMPLES. She is not ---- for the sake of seeming ----, but ---- for the sake of being kind. He was so generally ---- that nobody thanked him for it. Her air, her manners, all who saw admired; ---- tho coy, and gentle tho retired. * * * * * POVERTY (page 279). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _poverty_ strictly denote? What does it signify in ordinary use? 2. What does _privation_ signify? How does it compare with _distress_? 3. What is _indigence_? _destitution_? _penury_? 4. What does _pauperism_ properly signify? How does it differ from _beggary_ and _mendicancy_? * * * * * POWER (page 279). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _power_? 2. Is _power_ limited to intelligent agents, or how widely applied? 3. How does _ability_ compare with _power_? 4. What is _capacity_, and how related to _power_ and to _ability_? 5. What is _competency_? _faculty_? _talent_? 6. What are _dexterity_ and _skill_? How are they related to _talent_? 7. What is _efficacy_? _efficiency_? EXAMPLES. Bismarck was the one great figure of all Europe, with more ---- for good or evil than any other human being possessed at that time. The soul, in its highest sense, is a vast ---- for God. I reckon it is an oversight in a great body of metaphysicians that they have been afraid to ascribe our apprehensions of ---- to intuition. In consequence of this neglect, some never get the idea of ----, but merely of succession, within the bare limits of experience. * * * * * PRAISE (page 280). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _praise_? By how many is it given, and how is it expressed? 2. What is _applause_? by how many given? and how expressed? 3. What is _acclamation_? How does it differ from _applause_? 4. How does _approbation_ differ from _praise_? 5. What does _approval_ add to the meaning of _praise_? 6. How does _compliment_ compare with _praise_? 7. What is _flattery_? EXAMPLES. The ---- of listening senates to command, The threats of pain and ruin to despise, To scatter plenty o'er a smiling land, And read their history in a nation's eyes. ---- no man e'er deserved who sought no more. Gladly then he mixed Among those friendly powers, who him received With joy and ----s loud. * * * * * PRAY (page 281). QUESTIONS. 1. What is it to _pray_ in the religious sense? 2. In what lighter and more familiar sense may _pray_ be used? Is this latter use now common? EXAMPLES. Hesiod exhorted the husbandman to ---- for a harvest, but to do so with his hand upon the plow. I kneel, and then ---- her blessing. * * * * * PRECARIOUS (page 282). QUESTIONS. 1. To what is the term _uncertain_ applied? 2. What did _precarious_ originally signify? How is it now used, and how does it differ from _uncertain_? EXAMPLES. ... Thou know'st, great son, The end of war's ----. Life seems to be ---- in proportion to its value. * * * * * PRECEDENT (page 282). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a _precedent_? 2. How does _case_ fall short of the meaning of _precedent_? 3. What is an _obiter dictum_? How does it differ from a _precedent_? EXAMPLES. Where freedom broadens slowly down From ---- to ----. Let us consider the reason of the ----, for nothing is law that is not reason. * * * * * PREDESTINATION (page 282). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _predestination_? 2. How does _fate_ differ from _predestination_? 3. What does _necessity_ signify in the philosophical sense? 4. What is _foreknowledge_? Does it involve _foreordination_ or _predestination_? EXAMPLES. For ---- has wove the thread of life with pain. All high truth is the union of two contradictories. Thus ---- and free-will are opposites; and the truth does not lie between these two, but in a higher reconciling truth which leaves both true. * * * * * PREJUDICE (page 283). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a _presumption_? On what is it founded? 2. On what are _prejudice_ and _prepossession_ based? How do these two words differ from each other? EXAMPLES. When the judgment's weak, the ---- is strong. The ---- is always in favor of what exists. His fine features, manly form, and perfect manners awakened an instant ---- in his favor. * * * * * PRETENSE (page 283). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a _pretense_? How does it differ from a _pretext_? 2. What is a _ruse_? EXAMPLES. The claim of a stronger nation to protect a weaker has commonly been but a ---- for conquest. It is not poverty so much as ---- that harasses a ruined man--the struggle between a proud mind and an empty purse. The independent English nobility conspired to make an insurrection, and to support the prince's ----s. * * * * * PREVENT (page 284). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the original meaning of _prevent_? 2. What word is now commonly used in that sense? 3. What is the meaning of _obviate_? _preclude_? 4. How is _prevent_ at present used? EXAMPLES. The contrary supposition is obviously ----. When the Siberian Pacific Railway is finished, what is there to ---- Russia from annexing nearly the whole of China? There appears to be no way to ---- the difficulty. * * * * * PREVIOUS (page 285). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _antecedent_ denote? 2. How does _preceding_ differ from _antecedent_ and _previous_? 3. How is _anterior_ commonly used? _prior_? 4. Of what is _former_ used? What does _former_ always imply? EXAMPLES. These matters have been fully explained in ---- chapters of this work. The reader will be helped to an understanding of this process by a careful study of the diagram on the ---- page. In ---- times many things were attributed to witchcraft that now have a scientific explanation. * * * * * PRICE (page 285). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the _cost_ of an article? the _price_? 2. How do _cost_ and _price_ ordinarily differ? 3. In what exceptional case may _cost_ and _price_ agree? 4. What does _price_ always imply? 5. What is the meaning of _value_? How does market _value_ differ from intrinsic _value_? 6. How does _value_ differ from _worth_? 7. To what are _charge_ and _expense_ ordinarily applied? EXAMPLES. ---- is the life-giving power of anything; ----, the quantity of labor required to produce it; ----, the quantity of labor which its possessor will take in exchange for it. No man can permanently do business by making the ---- of his goods the same as their ---- to him, however such a method may help him momentarily in an emergency. * * * * * PRIDE (page 286). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _pride_? _haughtiness_? _arrogance_? _disdain_? How do these qualities compare with _pride_? 2. What does _superciliousness_ imply according to its etymology? 3. How do _pride_ and _vanity_ differ? 4. What difference is noted between _self-conceit_ and _conceit_? 5. How do _self-respect_ and _self-esteem_ compare with each other and with the other words of the group? EXAMPLES. ---- may puff a man up, but never prop him up. There is nothing ---- can so little bear with as ---- itself. ---- is as ill at ease under indifference, as tenderness is under the love which it can not return. * * * * * PRIMEVAL (page 287). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the derivation and signification of _aboriginal_? _autochthonic_? _primeval_? 2. What do _prime_ and _primary_ denote? What special sense has _primary_ as in reference to a school? 3. How is _primordial_ used? 4. What does _primitive_ suggest, as in the expressions, the _primitive_ church, _primitive_ simplicity? 5. What is _pristine_? 6. How do _native_ and _indigenous_ compare? EXAMPLES. Thou from ---- nothingness didst call First chaos, then existence, Lord. The ---- inhabitants of America are long since extinct, for even the races whom the white men conquered had themselves supplanted an earlier race. All the later ages have wondered at and admired the whole-souled consecration of the ---- church. * * * * * PROFIT (page 288). QUESTIONS. 1. What are _returns_ or _receipts_? 2. What is _profit_ in the commercial sense? What in the intellectual and moral sense? 3. What is _utility_? 4. What does _advantage_ originally signify? Does it now necessarily imply having or gaining superiority to another person, or securing anything at another's expense? 5. What is _gain_? _benefit_? _emolument_? 6. To what does _expediency_ especially refer? EXAMPLES. Silence has many ----s. No man can read with ---- that which he can not learn to read with pleasure. Godliness with contentment is great ----. * * * * * PROGRESS (page 289). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _progress_? 2. What do _attainment_, _proficiency_, and _development_ imply? 3. What is _advance_? How does it differ from _progress_? EXAMPLES. What is thy ---- compared with an Alexander's, a Mahomet's, a Napoleon's? And dreams in their ---- have breath, And tears, and tortures, and the touch of joy. Human ---- consists in a continual increase in the number of those who, ceasing to live by the animal life alone and to feel the pleasures of sense only, come to participate in the intellectual life also. * * * * * PROHIBIT (page 290). QUESTIONS. 1. What is it to _prohibit_? 2. How does _forbid_ compare with _prohibit_? 3. How does _prohibit_ compare with _prevent_? EXAMPLES. Tho much I want which most would have, Yet still my mind ---- to crave. The laws of England, from the early Plantagenets, sternly ---- the conversion of malt into alcohol, excepting a small portion for medicinal purposes. Human law must ---- many things that human administration of law can not absolutely ----; is not this true also of the divine government? * * * * * PROMOTE (page 291). QUESTIONS. 1. What is it to _promote_? 2. To what does _promote_ apply? To persons or things, and in what way? EXAMPLES. The outlawed pirate of one year was ---- the next to be a governor and his country's representative. The imperial ensign, which full high ----ed, Shone like a meteor streaming in the wind. * * * * * PROPITIATION (page 291). QUESTIONS. 1. What did _atonement_ originally denote? What is its present theological and popular sense? 2. What does _expiation_ signify? _propitiation_? _satisfaction_? EXAMPLES. ---- has respect to the bearing which satisfaction has upon sin or the sinner. ---- has respect to the effect of satisfaction in removing the judicial displeasure of God. When a man has been guilty of any sin or folly, I think the best ---- he can make is to warn others not to fall into the like. Redemption implies the complete deliverance from the penalty, power, and all the consequences of sin; ---- is used in the sense of the sacrificial work, whereby the redemption from the condemning power of the law was insured. * * * * * PROPOSAL (page 291). QUESTIONS. 1. What does an _offer_ or _proposal_ do? 2. What does a _proposition_ set forth? 3. For what is the _proposition_ designed? the _proposal_? 4. In what way does _proposition_ come to have nearly the sense of _proposal_ in certain uses? 5. What is a _bid_? 6. What does an _overture_ accomplish? In what special application is the word commonly used? EXAMPLES. Garrison emphatically declared, "I can not listen to any ---- for a gradual abolition of wickedness." The theme in confirmation must always admit of being expressed in a logical ----, with subject, predicate, and copula. * * * * * PROPOSE (page 292). QUESTIONS. 1. How does _propose_ in its most frequent use differ from _purpose_? 2. How is _propose_ used so as to be nearly equivalent to _purpose_? What important difference appears in this latter use? EXAMPLES. I know, indeed, the evil of that I ----, but my inclination gets the better of my judgment. Man ----s, but God disposes. * * * * * PROTRACT (page 293). QUESTIONS. 1. What is it to _protract_? 2. What is the significance of _defer_ and _delay_, and how do these words differ in usage from _protract_? 3. How does _elongate_ differ from _protract_? 4. Is _protract_ ordinarily favorable or unfavorable in sense? 5. Is _continue_ favorable or unfavorable? EXAMPLES. Unseen hands ---- The coming of what oft seems close in ken. Burton, a hypochondriac, wrote the "Anatomy of Melancholy," that marvel of learning, and ---- his life to the age of sixty-four. * * * * * PROVERB (page 293). QUESTIONS. 1. In what do the _proverb_ and the _adage_ agree? In what respects do they differ? 2. What is an _apothegm_? an _aphorism_? How do these two words differ? 3. What is a _dictum_? a _saying_? 4. What is a _precept_? How does it differ from a _motto_ or _maxim_? 5. How do _motto_ and _maxim_ differ from each other? EXAMPLES. The ---- must be verified, That beggars mounted, run their horse to death. Books, like ----s, receive their chief value from the stamp and esteem of ages through which they have passed. * * * * * PRUDENCE (page 294). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the definition of _prudence_? 2. How does _providence_ differ from _prudence_? 3. How does _care_ compare with _prudence_ and _providence_? 4. How is _frugality_ related to _prudence_? 5. How do _foresight_ and _forethought_ compare with each other, and both with _providence_? EXAMPLES. When desp'rate ills demand a speedy cure, Distrust is cowardice, and ---- folly. With a ---- unknown in other parts of Scotland, the peasantry have in most places planted orchards around their cottages. * * * * * PURCHASE (page 295). QUESTIONS. 1. From what language is _purchase_ derived? 2. From what is _buy_ derived? 3. How do _buy_ and _purchase_ agree in meaning? What single definition would answer for either? 4. How do _buy_ and _purchase_ differ in use? Give instances. EXAMPLES. I'll give thee England's treasure, Enough to ---- such another island, So thou wilt make me live. 'Tis gold which ----s admittance. ---- the truth, and sell it not. * * * * * PURE (page 296). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _pure_ signify? 2. In what sense are material substances said to be _pure_? 3. What does _pure_ denote in moral and religious use? 4. How does _pure_ compare with _innocent_? with _virtuous_? EXAMPLES. Water from melted snow is ----r than rain-water, as it descends through the air in a solid form, incapable of absorbing atmospheric gases. Stone walls do not a prison make, Nor iron bars a cage; Minds ---- and quiet take That for a hermitage. In every place incense shall be offered unto my name and a ---- offering, saith the Lord of hosts. * * * * * QUEER (page 297). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the meaning of _odd_? _singular_? Are _odd_ and _singular_ precise equivalents? 2. When is a thing called _strange_? 3. What is the primary meaning of _peculiar_? With what implication is it now commonly used? 4. What is the meaning of _eccentric_? How does it differ in use from _odd_ or _queer_? 5. How does _erratic_ compare with _eccentric_? 6. What is the primary meaning of _queer_? its common meaning? 7. What is the significance of _quaint_? _grotesque_? EXAMPLES. A ----, shy man was this pastor--a sort of living mummy, dried up and bleached by Icelandic snows. In setting a hen, says Grose, the good women hold it an indispensable rule to put an ---- number of eggs. Only a man of undoubted genius can afford to be ----. The ---- architecture of these medieval towns has a strange fascination. * * * * * QUICKEN (page 297). QUESTIONS. 1. What is it to _accelerate_? to _despatch_? 2. What does the verb _speed_ signify? _hasten_? _hurry_? What does _hurry_ suggest in addition to the meaning of _hasten_? EXAMPLES. The motion of a falling body is continually ----ed. The muster-place is Lanrick mead! ---- forth the signal! Norman, ----! The pulsations of the heart are ----ed by exertion. * * * * * QUOTE (page 298). QUESTIONS. 1. How does _cite_ differ from _quote_? 2. What is it to _paraphrase_? to _plagiarize_? EXAMPLES. A great man ---- bravely, and will not draw on his invention when his memory serves him with a word as good. The Devil can ---- Scripture for his purpose. To appropriate others' thoughts or words mechanically and without credit is to ----. * * * * * RACY (page 299). QUESTIONS. 1. To what does _racy_ in the first instance refer? _pungent_? 2. How does _piquant_ differ from _pungent_? 3. How are these words and the word _spicy_ used in reference to literary products? EXAMPLES. Pure mother English, ---- and fresh with idiomatic graces. The atmosphere was strangely impregnated with the ---- odor of burning peat. The spruce, the cedar, and the juniper, with their balsamic breath, filled the air with a ---- fragrance. * * * * * RADICAL (page 299). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the primary meaning of _radical_? 2. What contrasted senses are derived from this primary meaning? EXAMPLES. Timidity is a ---- defect in a reformer. Social and political leaders look to vested interests, and hence are inclined to regard all ---- measures as ----. * * * * * RARE (page 300). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the meaning of _unique_? Can any one of a number of things of the same kind be _unique_? 2. What is the primary meaning of _rare_? What added sense is often blended with this primary meaning? 3. Is _extraordinary_ favorable or unfavorable in meaning? EXAMPLES. Nothing is so ---- as time. That which gives to the Jews their ---- position among the nations is what we are accustomed to regard as their sacred history. And what is so ---- as a day in June? Then, if ever, come perfect days. * * * * * REACH (page 300). QUESTIONS. 1. What is it to _reach_ in the sense here considered? 2. What is it to _arrive_? 3. What does _attain_ add to the meaning of _arrive_? What does _gain_ add? EXAMPLES. And grasping down the boughs I ----ed the shore. He gathered the ripe nuts in the fall, And berries that grew by fence and wall So high she could not ---- them at all. The heights by great men ----ed and kept Were not ----ed by sudden flight, But they, while their companions slept, Were toiling upward in the night. It is only in this way that we can hope to ---- at truth. * * * * * REAL (page 301). QUESTIONS. 1. From what is _real_ derived? What does it mean? 2. From what is the _real_ distinguished? 3. To what is _actual_ opposed? 4. What shades of difference may be pointed out between the four words _actual_, _real_, _developed_, and _positive_? EXAMPLES. In ---- life we do not die when all that makes life bright dies to us. If there was any trouble, ---- or impending, affecting those she had served, her place was with them. This was regarded as proof ---- of conspiracy. * * * * * REASON, _v._ (page 302). QUESTIONS. 1. What is it to _reason_ about a matter? 2. From what is _argue_ derived, and what does it mean? 3. What is it to _demonstrate_? to _prove_? How do these two words agree and differ? EXAMPLES. There are two ways of reaching truth: by ----ing it out and by feeling it out. In ----ing, too, the person owned his skill, For e'en tho vanquished, he could ---- still. A matter of fact may be ----ed by adequate evidence; only a mathematical proposition can be ----ed. * * * * * REASON, _n._ (page 302). QUESTIONS. 1. How does _cause_ differ from _reason_ in the strict sense of each of the two words? 2. How is _reason_ often used so as to be a partial equivalent of _cause_? EXAMPLES. No one is at liberty to speak ill of another without a justifiable ----, even tho he knows he is speaking truth. I am not only witty myself, but the ---- that wit is in other men. Necessity is the ---- of tyrants; it is the creed of slaves. Alas! how light a ---- may move Dissension between hearts that love! * * * * * REASONING (page 303). QUESTIONS. 1. What do _argumentation_ and _debate_ ordinarily imply? 2. How does _reasoning_ differ from both the above words in this respect? 3. To what kind of _reasoning_ were _argument_ and _argumentation_ formerly restricted? How widely are the words now applied? 4. How do _argument_ and _argumentation_ compare with _reasoning_ as regards logical form? EXAMPLES. All ----, Inductive or Deductive, is a reaching of the unknown through the known; and where nothing unknown is reached there is no ----. Early at Bus'ness, and at Hazard late, Mad at a fox-chase, wise at a ----. If thou continuest to take delight in idle ----, thou mayest be qualified to combat with the sophists, but never know how to live with men. * * * * * REFINEMENT (page 305). QUESTIONS. 1. To what does _civilization_ apply, and what does it denote? 2. What is _refinement_? 3. What is the primary meaning of _cultivation_? the derived meaning? 4. By what word is _cultivation_ now largely superseded? 5. What does _culture_ denote? EXAMPLES. What is ----? It is the humanization of man in society, the satisfaction for him in society of the true law of human nature. Giving up wrong pleasure is not self-sacrifice, but self-----. This refined taste is the consequence of education and habit; we are born only with a capacity of entertaining this ----. * * * * * RELIABLE (page 306). QUESTIONS. 1. What is to be said of the controversy regarding the formation and use of the word _reliable_? 2. What do _trusty_ and _trustworthy_ denote? 3. How does _reliable_ compare with these words? 4. What meaning may _reliable_ convey that _trusty_ and _trustworthy_ would not? EXAMPLES. Good lack! quoth he, yet bring it me My leathern belt likewise, In which I bear my ---- sword, When I do exercise. The first voyage to America, of which we have any perfectly ---- account, was performed by the Norsemen. * * * * * RELIGION (page 307). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the original sense of _piety_? the derived sense? 2. What is _religion_? What does it include? 3. What is _worship_? _devotion_? 4. What is _morality_? _godliness_? _holiness_? 5. How is _theology_ related to _religion_? EXAMPLES. ---- is man's belief in a being or beings, mightier than himself and inaccessible to his senses, but not indifferent to his sentiments and actions, with the feelings and practises which flow from such belief. ----, whose soul sincere Fears God, and knows no other fear. To deny the freedom of the will is to make ---- impossible. Systematic ---- may be defined as the substance of the Christian faith in a scientific form. * * * * * REND (page 309). QUESTIONS. 1. To what are _rend_ and _tear_ usually applied? Which is the stronger word? 2. In what connection is _rive_ used, and in what sense? 3. What does _lacerate_ signify? 4. How does _mangle_ compare with _lacerate_? 5. What do _burst_ and _rupture_ signify? Which is the stronger word? When is a steam-boiler said to be _ruptured_? 6. What does _rip_ signify? EXAMPLES. Storms do not ---- the sail that is furled. Oh, it offends me to the soul to hear a robustious, periwig-pated fellow ---- a passion to tatters, to very rags, to split the ears of the groundlings. And now a bubble ----s, and now a world. The first blood shed in the revolutionary struggle; a mere drop in amount, but a deluge in its effects, ----ing the colonies forever from the mother country. * * * * * RENOUNCE (page 309). QUESTIONS. 1. From what is _renounce_ derived, and in what sense used? _recant_? _retract_? 2. What is it to _discard_? 3. How does _revoke_ compare with _recall_ in original meaning and in present use? 4. What is the derivation and the distinctive meaning of _abjure_? 5. In what sense is _repudiate_ used? EXAMPLES. On his knees, with his hand on the Bible, Galileo was compelled to ---- and curse the doctrine of the movement of the earth. He adds his soul to every other loss, and by the act of suicide, ---- earth to forfeit heaven. He had no spiritual adviser, no human comforter, and was entirely in the hands of those who were determined that he should ---- or die. * * * * * REPENTANCE (page 310). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _regret_? 2. What does _penitence_ add to _regret_? 3. How does _repentance_ surpass the meaning of _penitence_, _regret_, _sorrow_, etc.? 4. What is _compunction_? _contrition_? 5. What is _remorse_, and how does it compare with _repentance_? EXAMPLES. What then? what rests? Try what ---- can: what can it not? Forgive me, Valentine, if hearty ---- Be a sufficient ransom for offense, I tender't here. So writhes the mind ---- has riven, Unmeet for earth, undoomed to heaven, Darkness above, despair beneath, Around it flame, within it death. * * * * * REPROOF (page 311). QUESTIONS. 1. Are _blame_, _censure_, and _disapproval_ spoken or silent? 2. Are _comment_, _criticism_, _rebuke_, _reflection_, _reprehension_, and _reproof_ expressed or not? 3. How of _admonition_ and _animadversion_? 4. Are _comment_ and _criticism_ favorable or unfavorable? Do they imply superiority on the part of commentator or critic? 5. Do _reflection_ and _reprehension_ imply such superiority? How are these two words discriminated? 6. What does _rebuke_ literally signify? To what kind of person is a _rebuke_ administered? 7. To what kind of person is _reproof_ administered? 8. What do _rebuke_ and _reproof_ imply on the part of him who administers them? 9. What is _animadversion_? _admonition_? EXAMPLES. A ---- is intolerable when it is administered out of pride or hatred. The best preservative to keep the mind in health is the faithful ---- of a friend. Open ---- is better than secret love. * * * * * REPROVE (page 312). QUESTIONS. 1. What is it to _censure_? to _reprove_? to _reprimand_ 2. How does _admonish_ compare with the other words in the group? Is its reference to the past or to the future? 3. What is it to _reproach_? Does this word imply authority or superiority? 4. What is the force of _expostulate_ and _remonstrate_? EXAMPLES. He that oppresseth the poor ----eth his Maker. Her answer ----ed me; for she said, "I never ask their crimes, for we have all come short." Moses was ----ed of God when he was about to make the tabernacle: for, see, saith he, that thou make all things according to the pattern shewed to thee in the mount. This witness is true. Therefore ---- them sharply, that they may be sound in the faith. * * * * * REST (page 313). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _ease_? _quiet_? _rest_? 2. What is _recreation_, and how is it related to _rest_? 3. What is _repose_ in the primary, and what in the derived, sense? 4. How does _repose_ compare with _rest_? 5. What is a _pause_? 6. How does _sleep_ compare with _repose_ and _rest_? EXAMPLES. Seek out, less often sought than found, A soldier's grave--for thee the best; Then look around, and choose thy ground, And take thy ----. Her manners had not that ---- That stamps the cast of Vere de Vere. Shall I not take mine ---- in mine inn? * * * * * RESTRAIN (page 315). QUESTIONS. 1. What is it to _restrain_? 2. How does _constrain_ differ from _restrain_? 3. How does _restrain_ differ from _restrict_? 4. How does _repress_ compare with _restrain_? _suppress_? EXAMPLES. The English Puritans, ----ed at home, fled for freedom to America. In no political system is it so necessary to ---- the powers of the government as in a democratic state. * * * * * REVENGE (page 316). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _revenge_? 2. How does _retaliation_ compare with _revenge_? 3. What did _vengeance_ formerly mean, and what does it now imply? 4. What is a _requital_? 5. How do _avenging_ and _retribution_ differ from _retaliation_, _revenge_, and _vengeance_? 6. What difference may be noted between _avenging_ and _retribution_? EXAMPLES. According to the wish of Sulla himself, ... his monument was erected in the Campus Martius, bearing an inscription composed by himself: "No friend ever did me a kindness, no enemy a wrong, without receiving full ----." By the spirit of ----, as we sometimes express it, we generally understand a disposition, not merely to return suffering for suffering, but to inflict a degree of pain on the person who is supposed to have injured us, beyond what strict justice requires. In all great religions we find one God, and in all, personal immortality with ----. * * * * * REVOLUTION (page 317). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the essential idea of _revolution_? 2. Does a _revolution_ necessarily involve war? 3. What is _anarchy_? _insubordination_? _sedition_? _revolt_? _rebellion_? 4. How does _rebellion_ differ from _revolution_? 5. By what class of persons is _insurrection_ made? _mutiny_? EXAMPLES. ----s are not made; they come. ---- to tyrants is obedience to God. Since government is of God, ---- must be contrary to his will. * * * * * REVOLVE (page 318). QUESTIONS. 1. When is a body said to _roll_? to _rotate_? to _revolve_? 2. In what sense may the earth be said to _revolve_? and in what sense to _rotate_? 3. What are some of the extended uses of _roll_? 4. What kind of a word is _turn_, and what is its meaning? EXAMPLES. Any bright star close by the pole is seen to ---- in a very small circle whose center is the pole itself. The sun ----s on an axis in the same direction in which the planets ---- in their orbits. Human nature can never rest; once in motion it ----s like the stone of Sisyphus every instant when the resisting force is suspended. * * * * * RIGHT (page 319). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a _right_? Is it general or special? 2. What is a _privilege_? an _exemption_? an _immunity_? 3. What is a _franchise_? a _prerogative_? EXAMPLES. Friendship gives no ---- to make ourselves disagreeable. All men are created equal, and endowed with certain inalienable ----s. * * * * * RUSTIC (page 321). QUESTIONS. 1. From what are _rural_ and _rustic_ alike derived? How do the two words agree in general signification? How are they discriminated in use? 2. What is the meaning of _pastoral_? of _bucolic_? EXAMPLES. How still the morning of the hallowed day! Mute is the voice of ---- labor, hush'd The plowboy's whistle and the milkmaid's song. The ---- arbor which the summit crowned Was woven of shining smilax, trumpet-vine, Clematis, and the wild white eglantine. When hunting tribes begin to domesticate animals, they enter usually upon the ---- stage. * * * * * SACRAMENT (page 321). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a religious _service_ in the extended sense? 2. What is a _sacrament_? 3. What is an _observance_? an _ordinance_? 4. How do _sacrament_ and _ordinance_ differ? 5. What is a _rite_? EXAMPLES. Religion will glide by degrees out of the mind unless it be invigorated and reimpressed by external ----s. Nothing tends more to unite men's hearts than joining together in the same prayers and ----s. * * * * * SALE (page 323). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _change_ or _exchange_? 2. What is _barter_? _sale_? 3. What is a _bargain_ in the strict sense? 4. What is _trade_ in the broad and in the limited sense? EXAMPLES. Honor sits smiling at the ---- of truth. I'll give thrice as much land to any well-deserving friend, But in the way of ----, mark ye me, I'll cavil on the ninth part of a hair. Stamps God's own name upon a lie just made To coin a penny in the way of ----. * * * * * SAMPLE (page 323). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a _sample_? a _specimen_? 2. How do _sample_ and _specimen_ compare as indications of the quality of that which they respectively represent? EXAMPLES. There is, therefore, in this country, an implied warranty that the goods correspond to the ----. Curzola is a perfect ---- of a Venetian town. * * * * * SCHOLAR (page 324). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the primary sense of _scholar_? the derived sense? 2. What does _pupil_ signify? How is it technically used in educational work? 3. In what sense is _student_ employed? EXAMPLES. The accent or turn of expression of a single sentence will at once mark a ----. The State of New York supplies all needed text-books free of charge to the ----s in the public schools. The ----s in American colleges have taken up athletics with intense enthusiasm. * * * * * SCIENCE (page 325). QUESTIONS. 1. How does _science_ compare with _knowledge_? 2. How does _art_ compare with _science_? 3. What two senses of _art_ must be discriminated from each other? 4. In which sense is _art_ a system of rules? 5. In which sense does _art_ transcend rule? EXAMPLES. Beethoven took his ---- as seriously as a saint and martyr takes his religion. Modern ---- may be regarded as one vast miracle, whether we view it in relation to the Almighty Being, by whom its objects and its laws were formed, or to the feeble intellect of man, by which its depths have been sounded, and its mysteries explored. Printing has been aptly termed the ---- preservative of all other ----s. * * * * * SECURITY (page 326). QUESTIONS. 1. Of what kind of value or property must an _earnest_ consist? 2. How do _pledge_ and _security_ differ from _earnest_? 3. How does _security_ differ from _pledge_? 4. What is _bail_? _gage_? EXAMPLES. The ---- for a national or state debt is the honesty of its people. The surest ---- of a deathless name Is the silent homage of thoughts unspoken. And for an ---- of a greater honor, He bade me, from him, call thee Thane of Cawdor. * * * * * SENSATION (page 328). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a _sensation_? a _perception_? 2. How does an _emotion_ differ from a _sensation_? 3. How does the popular term _feeling_ compare with _sensation_ and _emotion_? 4. What is a _sense_? EXAMPLES. But ----, in the technical and limited sense of the term, is appropriated to the knowledge of material objects, and of the external world. This knowledge is gained or acquired by means of the ----s, and hence, to be more exact, we call it sensible ----, or, more briefly, sense ----. ----s sweet, Felt in the blood, and felt along the heart. * * * * * SENSIBILITY (page 328). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _sensibility_ in the philosophical sense? in popular use? 2. What does _sensitiveness_ denote? 3. What is _susceptibility_? How does it compare with _sensitiveness_? 4. How are _susceptibility_ and _sensitiveness_ discriminated in physics? EXAMPLES. The ---- of the external surface of the body is a special endowment adapted to the elements around and calculated to protect the interior parts from injury. ---- to pleasure is of necessity also ---- to pain. Every mind is in a peculiar state of ---- to certain impressions. * * * * * SEVERE (page 329). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _severe_? _rigid_? _strict_? 2. How does _rigorous_ compare with _rigid_? 3. What does _austere_ signify? What element is always found in an _austere_ character? EXAMPLES. In mathematics we arrive at certitude by ---- demonstration. He who the sword of heaven will bear Should be as holy as ----. ---- law is often ---- injustice. By ---- adherence to truth in official dealing with the natives, the English have come to be always believed in India. * * * * * SHELTER, _v._ (page 331). QUESTIONS. 1. When is anything said to be _covered_? 2. How does _shelter_ compare with _cover_? 3. What does _defend_ signify? 4. What does _guard_ imply? 5. How does _protect_ surpass _guard_ and _defend_? 6. What does _shield_ signify? How does it compare with _guard_ or _defend_? 7. In what sense is the verb _harbor_ commonly used? EXAMPLES. He that ----eth his sins shall not prosper, but he that forsaketh them shall find mercy. Thou who trod'st the billowy sea, ---- us in our jeopardy! In youth it ----ed me, And I'll protect it now. * * * * * SIN (page 332). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _sin_? 2. How is _transgression_ discriminated from _sin_ in the general sense? 3. What is _crime_? _guilt_? _depravity_? EXAMPLES. Commit The oldest ----s the newest kind of ways. ---- is not punished as an offense against God, but as prejudicial to society. How ---- once harbored in the conscious breast, Intimidates the brave, degrades the great. * * * * * SKETCH (page 334). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a _sketch_? How does it compare with _outline_? 2. In what special connection are _draft_ and _plan_ used? 3. How does a mechanical _drawing_ differ from a _draft_? 4. What is a _design_? How does it exceed the meaning of _drawing_? 5. What is an _outline_ in written composition? How does a _sketch_ in this sense compare with an _outline_? 6. What is an _outline_ of a sermon technically called? 7. What is a lawyer's _brief_? How does it compare with an _outline_ or _sketch_? EXAMPLES. A ---- that is without vigor, and in which the anatomy has not been defined, is a bad foundation for a good picture. A little model the master wrought, Which should be to the larger ---- What the child is to the man. * * * * * SKILFUL (page 335). QUESTIONS. 1. What does _skilful_ signify? 2. How does _dexterous_ compare with _skilful_? 3. How does a _skilled_ compare with a _skilful_ workman? EXAMPLES. So ---- seamen ken the land from far, Which shows like mists to the dull passenger. Thousands of ---- workmen are thrown into enforced idleness by the strikes and lockouts of every year. Much that has been received as the work of disembodied spirits has been but the ---- sleight of hand of spirits embodied. * * * * * SLANDER (page 336). QUESTIONS. 1. What is it to _slander_? to _defame_? to _libel_? 2. When is _defame_ equivalent to _slander_? When is it equivalent to _libel_? 3. What is it to _asperse_? to _malign_? to _traduce_? to _disparage_? 4. How do _slander_ and _libel_ differ in legal signification from the other words? 5. Which words of the group apply to open attack in one's presence, and which to attack in his absence? EXAMPLES. ----ed to death by villains That dare as well answer a man, indeed, As I dare take a serpent by the tongue. If the Scriptures seem to ---- knowledge, it is the knowledge that despises virtue. Challenging each recreant doubter Who ----ed her spotless name. * * * * * SLANG (page 336). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a _colloquialism_? 2. What is _slang_ in the primary and ordinary sense? in special senses? 3. What is a _vulgarism_? 4. What is _cant_ in the sense here considered? EXAMPLES. There is a ---- bred of vileness that is never redeemed; there is also a ---- that is the vigorous utterance of uncultured wit, that fills a gap in the language and mounts ultimately to the highest places. A ---- is worse than ----, because it bears the ineffaceable stamp of ignorance. * * * * * SOCIALISM (page 338). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _socialism_? What term do many of its advocates prefer? 2. What is _communism_? _anarchism_? EXAMPLES. ---- in its full sense means the abolition of inheritance, the abolition of the family, the abolition of nationalities, the abolition of religion, the abolition of property. ----, in some modified form, is steadily making its way among thinking men under the guise of cooperation. ---- is the offspring of sore hearts and shallow brains. It is the wisdom of the man who burned down his house because his chimney smoked. * * * * * SPONTANEOUS (page 340). QUESTIONS. 1. When is anything properly said to be _spontaneous_? _voluntary_? _involuntary_? 2. How do _voluntary_ and _involuntary_ compare with each other? both with _spontaneous_? EXAMPLES. ---- is opposed to reflective. Those operations of mind which are continually going on without any effort or intention on our part are _spontaneous_. No action that is not ---- has any merit. * * * * * SPY (page 340). QUESTIONS. 1. In what are the _spy_ and the _scout_ alike? 2. In what do they differ? 3. What are their respective rights in case of capture? 4. What is an _emissary_? EXAMPLES. A daring ---- of General Stuart made his way to my quarters, and informed me that General Imboden had planned an attack upon the town. I had grown uneasy in regard to the disjointed situation of our army and, to inform myself of what was going on, determined to send a ---- into the enemy's lines. * * * * * STATE, _v._ (page 341). QUESTIONS. 1. From what is _state_ derived? What does it mean? 2. What is the significance of _assert_? What element is prominent in this word? 3. What is the relative force of _affirm_ and _assert_? _asseverate_? _aver_? _assure_? 4. What does _affirm_ signify in legal use, and how does it differ from _swear_? 5. What is it to _certify_? 6. What does _vindicate_ signify? EXAMPLES. The first condition of intelligent debate is that the question be clearly ----ed. We ---- that the sciences dispose themselves round two great axes of thought, parallel and not unrelated, yet distinct--the natural sciences held together by the one, the moral by the other. It is impossible for the mind to ---- anything of that of which it knows nothing. * * * * * STORM (page 343). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the essential meaning of _storm_? 2. What is a _tempest_? EXAMPLES. The ---- is hard at hand will sweep away Thrones, churches, ranks, traditions, customs, marriage. Were any considerable mass of air to be suddenly transferred from beyond the tropics to the equator, the difference of the rotatory velocity proper to the two situations would be so great as to produce not merely a wind, but a ---- of the most destructive violence. * * * * * STORY (page 343). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a _story_? Is it true or false? 2. What is an _anecdote_? a _narrative_ or _narration_? EXAMPLES. There are ----, common to the different branches of the Aryan stock.... They are ancient Aryan ----, ... older than the Odyssey, older than the dispersion of the Aryan race. ----s are relations of detached, interesting particulars. Fairy ----s have for children an inexhaustible charm. * * * * * SUBJECTIVE (page 345). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the meaning of _subjective_? of _objective_? 2. How are these words illustrated in the case of a mountain? 3. What matters are purely _subjective_? 4. What matters are purely _objective_? 5. What is meant by saying that an author has a _subjective_ or an _objective_ style? EXAMPLES. Subject therefore, denotes the mind itself; and ----, that which belongs to, or proceeds from, the thinking subject. Object is a term for that about which the knowing subject is conversant, ... while ---- means that which belongs to, or proceeds from, the object known, and not from the subject knowing; and thus denotes what is real, in opposition to what is ideal,--what exists in nature, in contrast to what exists merely in the thought of the individual. * * * * * SUGGESTION (page 347). QUESTIONS. 1. In what way does a _suggestion_ bring a matter before the mind? 2. What is an _intimation_? a _hint_? 3. What are the special characteristics of _insinuation_ and _innuendo_? EXAMPLES. Behold in the bloom of apples, And the violets in the sward, A ---- of the old, lost beauty Of the garden of the Lord! Time is truly the comforter, at once lessening the tendency to ---- of images of sorrow, and softening that very sorrow when the images arise. An ---- is cowardly because it can seldom be directly answered, and the one who makes it can always retreat behind an assumed misconstruction of his words; but the ---- is the stab in the back, sneaking as it is malicious. * * * * * SUPERNATURAL (page 347). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the original meaning of _supernatural_? of _preternatural_? 2. What is commonly implied in the use of _preternatural_? 3. In what sense do some hold a miracle to be _supernatural_? What descriptive term would others prefer? 4. What is the meaning of _superhuman_? In what secondary sense is it often used? EXAMPLES. It was something altogether ----, as when God said, 'Let there be light,' and there was light. With an imagination of intense vividness and ---- activity, Choate was as practical as the most sordid capitalist that ever became an "incarnation of fat dividends." * * * * * SUPPORT (page 348). QUESTIONS. 1. What do _support_ and _sustain_ alike signify? 2. How does _sustain_ surpass _support_ in meaning and force? 3. What is the force and use of _bear_ in this connection? 4. What is it to _maintain_? 5. How does _maintain_ compare with _support_ as to fulness and as to dignity? 6. What is it to _prop_? What is the limit upon the meaning of this word? EXAMPLES. And Cain said, My punishment is great than I can ----. You take my house when you do take the prop That doth ---- my house. Can a soul like mine, Unus'd to power, and form'd for humbler scenes, ---- the splendid miseries of greatness? While less expert, tho stronger far, The Gael ----ed unequal war. * * * * * SUPPOSE (page 348). QUESTIONS. 1. What is it to _suppose_? 2. How does _conjecture_ differ from _suppose_? 3. What does _think_ signify in the sense here considered? How does it compare with _conjecture_ or _suppose_? EXAMPLES. Newton ----ed that if the earth were to be so compressed as to be absolutely without pores, its dimensions might not exceed a cubic inch. Let it not be ----ed that principles and opinions always go together. * * * * * SYNONYMOUS (page 349). QUESTIONS. 1. Are there any _synonymous_ words in the strict sense of the term? 2. What is meant by _synonymous_ words? 3. What are the two common faults with reference to _synonymous_ words or _synonyms_? EXAMPLES. The great source of a loose style is the injudicious use of those words termed ----. To raise, with fitting observances, over the ruins of the historic fortress [Sumter] the ---- flag which had waved over it during its first bombardment. * * * * * SYSTEM (page 350). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _order_, in the sense here considered? 2. What does _method_ denote? 3. What is a _system_? 4. To what does _manner_ refer? 5. To what does _regularity_ apply? 6. Can there be _order_ without _regularity_ or _regularity_ without _order_, and how? EXAMPLES. If this be madness, there is ---- in it. A ---- is ... an organized body of truth, or truths arranged under one and the same idea, which idea is as the life or soul which assimilates all those truths. * * * * * TEACH (page 353). QUESTIONS. 1. What is it to _teach_? 2. How does _instruct_ surpass _teach_ in signification? 3. What secondary sense has _instruct_? 4. What is the full meaning of _educate_? 5. What is it to _train_? 6. To what is _train_ commonly applied where _educate_ could not well be used? 7. What is it to _discipline_? 8. What does _nurture_ signify, and how does it compare with _educate_? EXAMPLES. Plato returned to Athens and began to ----; like his master, he ---- without money and without price. For the most effective mechanical work both mind and hand must be ----ed in childhood. The Highlanders flocking to him from all quarters, though ill-armed, and worse ----ed, made him undervalue any enemy who, he thought, was yet to encounter him. * * * * * TERM (page 354). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the literal meaning of _term_? 2. Is this meaning retained in the figurative uses of the word? 3. What are the _articles_ of a contract? the _terms_ of a contract? 4. What is a _condition_? 5. What is a _term_ in the logical sense? 6. How does _term_ in ordinary use compare with _word_, _expression_, or _phrase_? EXAMPLES. For beauty's acme hath a ---- as brief As the wave's poise before it break in pearl. But what are these moral sermons [of Seneca]? ----s, nothing but ----s. The very ---- miser is a confession of the misery which attends avarice. * * * * * TERSE (page 354). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the meaning of _short_ or _brief_? 2. What is the derivation and meaning of _concise_? of _condensed_? of _compendious_? 3. What is the derivation and meaning of _succinct_? of _terse_? 4. What is the force of _summary_? 5. What is a _sententious_ style? a _pithy_ utterance? EXAMPLES. With all his lucidity of statement, Hamilton was not always ----. In most cases it will be found that the Victorian idiom is clearer, but less ---- than the corresponding Elizabethan idiom which it has supplanted. * * * * * TESTIMONY (page 355). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _testimony_? 2. How does it compare with _evidence_? 3. How does a _deposition_ differ from an _affidavit_? EXAMPLES. The word ----, in legal acceptation, includes all the means by which any alleged matter of fact, the truth of which is submitted to us for investigation, is established or disproved. As to the fruits of Sodom, fair without, full of ashes within, I saw nothing of them, tho from the ---- we have, something of this kind has been produced. * * * * * TIME (page 356). QUESTIONS. 1. To what do _sequence_ and _succession_ apply? 2. What does _time_ denote? How is it conceived of with reference to events? 3. How do _duration_ and _succession_ compare with _time_? EXAMPLES. Every event remembered is remembered as having happened in ---- past. This gives us the idea in the concrete.... We can now, by a process of abstraction, separate the ---- from the event, and we have the abstract idea of _time_. The ---- of each earthquake is measured generally only by seconds, or even parts of a second. It has been conjectured that our idea of ---- is founded upon the conscious ---- of sensations and ideas in our own minds. * * * * * TOOL (page 358). QUESTIONS. 1. What is a _tool_? 2. How does _instrument_ compare in meaning with _tool_? 3. What special _tools_ are ordinarily called _instruments_? 4. What is an _implement_? 5. What is a _utensil_? In what special relations is the word used? 6. What is an _appliance_? How does _appliance_ compare with _tool_? 7. What is a _mechanism_? 8. What is a _machine_ in the most general sense? in the technical and common use? 9. What is an _apparatus_? 10. Which of these words have figurative use? 11. How are _instrument_ and _tool_ contrasted in figurative use? EXAMPLES. The time is coming when the ----s of husbandry shall supplant the weapons of war. Mix salt and sand, and it shall puzzle the wisest of men, with his mere natural ----s, to separate all the grains of sand from all the grains of salt. The pick, stone-saw, wedge, chisel, and other ----s were already in use when the pyramids were built. * * * * * TOPIC (page 359). QUESTIONS. 1. From what is _topic_ derived, and with what meaning? 2. How is _question_ used in a similar sense, and why? 3. Is the general _subject_ or _theme_ properly known as the _topic_? To what is that name more appropriately given? EXAMPLES. My father ... always took care to start some ingenious or useful ---- of discourse, which might tend to improve the minds of his children. One of the most important rules in a deliberative assembly is, that every speaker shall speak to the ----. The ---- of the Iliad is not the war of Troy, but the wrath of Achilles exhibited during and in connection with the war of Troy. * * * * * TRANSACT, TRANSACTION (page 360). QUESTIONS. 1. How does _transact_ differ from _do_? 2. How does _transact_ differ from _treat_ and _negotiate_? 3. How does _negotiate_ compare with _treat_? 4. How do _transactions_ differ from _proceedings_? EXAMPLES. In the first Parliament of James the House of Commons refused for the first time to ---- business on a Sunday. The treaty of peace that closed the war of 1812 had been already ---- before the battle of New Orleans was fought. Any direction of Christ or any direction or act of his apostles respecting the ---- of business in the church, is binding upon us, unless such direction or act was grounded upon peculiar circumstances then existing. * * * * * TRANSIENT (page 361). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the derivation of _transient_ and _transitory_? 2. How does _transient_ differ in signification from _transitory_? 3. What is the distinctive meaning of _temporary_? 4. From what is _ephemeral_ derived, and with what sense? 5. How does _ephemeral_ differ from _transient_ or _transitory_? 6. What does _ephemeral_ suggest besides brevity of time? 7. What is the derivation and meaning of _fugitive_? 8. What is the distinctive meaning of _evanescent_? EXAMPLES. Mirth is short and ----, cheerfulness fixed and permanent. Neither gratitude nor revenge had any share in determining his [Charles II.'s] course; for never was there a mind on which both services and injuries left such faint and ---- impressions. A ---- chairman is commonly appointed at the opening of a meeting to conduct proceedings till a permanent presiding officer shall be elected. * * * * * UNION (page 362). QUESTIONS. 1. What is _unity_? 2. What is _union_? 3. How are _unity_ and _union_ contrasted? 4. When may _unity_ be predicated of that which is made up of parts? EXAMPLES. Behold how good and how pleasant it is for brethren to dwell together in ----. Out of the ---- of Roman and Teutonic elements arose the modern world of Europe. * * * * * UTILITY (page 363). QUESTIONS. 1. From what is _utility_ derived, and what is its primary meaning? 2. How is _utility_ discriminated from _use_ and _usefulness_? 3. What is the derivation and primary meaning of _expediency_? 4. How are _expediency_ and _utility_ used as regards moral action? Which is the inferior word in such use? 5. How does _policy_ in such use compare with _expediency_ and _utility_? EXAMPLES. Principle is ever my motto, not ----. Two words form the key of the Baconian doctrine, ---- and progress. The ancient philosophy disdained to be useful, and was content to be stationary. Justice itself is the great standing ---- of civil society, and any departure from it, under any circumstances, rests under the suspicion of being no ---- at all. The fundamental objection to the doctrine of ----, in all its modifications is that taken by Dr. Reid, viz., "that agreeableness and ---- are not moral conceptions, nor have they any connection with morality. What a man does merely because it is agreeable is not virtue." * * * * * VACANT (page 363). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the meaning of _empty_? of _vacant_? 2. To what does _vacant_ especially refer? 3. What is the difference between an _empty_ house and a _vacant_ house? 4. What is the difference in dignity between the two words? 5. What is the significance of _void_ and _devoid_? 6. What does _waste_ imply? 7. In what sense is _vacuous_ used? EXAMPLES. ---- heads console with ---- sound. The watch-dog's voice that bay'd the whispering wind And the loud laugh that spoke the ---- mind. * * * * * VENAL (page 365). QUESTIONS. 1. From what is _venal_ derived, and with what meaning? _mercenary_? _hireling_? 2. How are _mercenary_ and _venal_ discriminated from _hireling_? EXAMPLES. The closing quarter of the nineteenth century may be termed the ---- era of American politics. Never before has legislation been so universally, so unscrupulously, and unblushingly for sale. The body of Greeks, immortalized under the name of the Ten Thousand, ... though embarking on a foreign ---- service, were by no means outcasts, or even men of extreme poverty. It is not the hire, but the working only for the hire that makes the ----. * * * * * VENERATION (page 366). QUESTIONS. 1. By what qualities is _awe_ inspired? 2. What elements are present and what lacking in _awe_? 3. What is _dread_ and by what aroused? 4. How do _reverence_ and _veneration_ differ from _awe_ or _dread_? 5. How does _adoration_ compare with _veneration_? EXAMPLES. Man craves an object of ----; and if not supplied with that which God has appointed, will take what offers. The Italian climate robs age of its ----, and makes it look newer than it is. * * * * * VENIAL (page 367). QUESTIONS. 1. From what is _venial_ derived, and what does it signify? 2. How does _venial_ compare with _pardonable_? 3. How does _excusable_ differ from the above words? 4. What very different word is sometimes confounded with _venial_? EXAMPLES. Theft on the part of a starving man is one of the most ---- of offenses. Under all the circumstances, the error was ----. * * * * * VERACITY (page 367). QUESTIONS. 1. Do _truth_ and _verity_ apply to thought and speech or to persons? 2. To what does _veracity_ apply? _truthfulness_? 3. Into what two classes may the words in this group of synonyms be divided, and what words will be found in each class? EXAMPLES. On a certain confidence in the ---- of mankind is founded so much of the knowledge on which we constantly depend, that, without it, the whole system of human things would go into confusion. If all the world and love were young, And ---- in every shepherd's tongue, These pretty pleasures might me move To live with thee and be thy love. * * * * * VIRTUE (page 370). QUESTIONS. 1. What is the prominent idea in _virtue_? 2. How does _goodness_ differ from _virtue_? 3. Of what relations are _honesty_ and _probity_ used? 4. How is _honesty_ used in a sense higher than the commercial? 5. What, in the full sense, is _integrity_? 6. What is _honor_? 7. What is _purity_? _duty_? 8. What do _rectitude_ and _righteousness_ denote? 9. To what does _uprightness_ especially refer? 10. What is _virtuousness_? EXAMPLES. ---- is the fruit of exertion; it supposes conquest of temptation. In seeing that a thing is right, we see at the same time that it is our ---- to do it. It is true that ---- is the best policy; but if this be the motive of honest dealing, there is no real ----. Where is that chastity of ---- that felt a stain like a wound? INDEX. _abandon_, 1 " _renounce_, 309 " _surrender_, 349 abandoned, _addicted_, 19 _abase_, 2 _abash_, 3 _abate_, 3 " _abolish_, 6 " _alleviate_, 33 _abbreviation_, 4 " _abridgment_, 7 abdicate, _abandon_, 1 aberration, _insanity_, 221 _abet_, 4 " _help_, 195 abetter, _accessory_, 13 abettor, _accessory_, 13 _abhor_, 5 abhorrence, _abomination_, 7 " _antipathy_, 48 " _hatred_, 193 _abide_, 5 " _endure_, 150 abiding, _permanent_, 269 ability, _power_, 279 abject, _pitiful_, 273 abjure, _abandon_, 1 " _renounce_, 309 able, _adequate_, 21 " _clever_, 109 " _sagacious_, 322 abode, _home_, 201 _abolish_, 6 " _cancel_, 92 abominable, _criminal_, 120 abominate, _abhor_, 5 _abomination_, 7 aboriginal, _primeval_, 287 abortive, _vain_, 364 abounding, _plentiful_, 276 aboveboard, _candid_, 93 abridge, _restrain_, 315 _abridgment_, 7 " _abbreviation_, 4 abrogate, _abolish_, 6 " _cancel_, 92 abrupt, _bluff_, 83 " _steep_, 342 absent, _abstracted_, 11 absent-minded, _abstracted_, 11 _absolute_, 8 " _infinite_, 216 " _perfect_, 268 " _pure_, 296 absolution, _pardon_, 262 _absolve_, 9 " _pardon_, 262 _absorb_, 9 absorbed, _abstracted_, 11 abstain, _cease_, 98 abstemiousness, _abstinence_, 10 _abstinence_, 10 _abstract_, _v._, 10 abstract, _n._, _abridgment_, 7 _abstracted_, 11 abstruse, _complex_, 112 " _mysterious_, 247 " _obscure_, 255 _absurd_, 11 " _incongruous_, 214 abundant, _large_, 229 " _plentiful_, 276 _abuse_, 12 " _abomination_, 7 abutting, _adjacent_, 22 accede, _agree_, 25 accelerate, _quicken_, 297 accept, _agree_, 25 " _assume_, 61 " _confess_, 114 acceptable, _delightful_, 126 accepted, _authentic_, 67 access, _entrance_, 154 accessible, _friendly_, 178 accession, _entrance_, 154 accessory, _a._, _auxiliary_, 67 _accessory_, _n._, 13 " _appendage_, 53 _accident_, 14 " _hazard_, 194 acclaim, _praise_, 280 acclamation, _praise_, 280 accompaniment, _appendage_, 53 " _circumstance_, 105 accompany, _follow_, 174 accomplice, _accessory_, 13 " _associate_, 60 accomplish, _attain_, 64 " _do_, 135 " _transact_, 360 accomplished, _polite_, 277 " _skilful_, 335 accomplishment, _act_, 16 " _end_, _n._, 148 accord, _v._, _agree_, 25 accord, _n._, _harmony_, 191 accordance, _harmony_, 191 accordingly, _therefore_, 355 accost, _address_, _v._, 19 account, _v._, _calculate_, 90 account, _n._, _history_, 200 " _reason_, _n._, 302 " _record_, 304 " _report_, 311 " _story_, 343 accountability, _duty_, 142 accouterments, _arms_, 55 " _caparison_, 93 accredited, _authentic_, 67 accumulate, _amass_, 38 accurate, _perfect_, 268 accuse, _arraign_, 56 accustomed, _addicted_, 19 " _usual_, 362 acerb, _bitter_, 81 acerbity, _acrimony_, 15 acetous, _bitter_, 81 ache, _pain_, 261 achieve, _attain_, 64 " _do_, 135 " _get_, 183 " _succeed_, 346 achievement, _act_, 16 " _career_, 95 " _end_, _n._, 148 " _victory_, 369 " _work_, 374 acid, _bitter_, 81 acidulated, _bitter_, 81 acidulous, _bitter_, 81 acknowledge, _avow_, 69 " _confess_, 114 acknowledgment, _apology_, 51 _acquaintance_, 15 " _knowledge_, 227 acquiesce, _agree_, 25 acquire, _attain_, 64 " _get_, 183 " _purchase_, 295 acquit, _absolve_, 9 " _pardon_, 262 acquittal, _pardon_, 262 acrid, _bitter_, 81 acrimonious, _bitter_, 81 " _morose_, 245 _acrimony_, 15 " _enmity_, 152 act, _v._, _transact_, 360 _act_, _n._, 16 " _exercise_, 162 " _motion_, 245 " _transaction_, 360 action, _act_, 16 " _battle_, 74 " _behavior_, 79 " _exercise_, 162 " _motion_, 245 " _operation_, 258 " _transaction_, 360 " _work_, 374 _active_, 17 " _alert_, 28 " _alive_, 30 " _industrious_, 215 " _nimble_, 253 activity, _exercise_, 162 actor, _agent_, 24 " _cause_, 98 actual, _real_, 301 actualize, _do_, 135 actuate, _influence_, 217 _acumen_, 18 acute, _astute_, 62 " _sagacious_, 322 acuteness, _acumen_, 18 adage, _proverb_, 293 adapted, _adequate_, 21 _add_, 18 addendum, _appendage_, 53 _addicted_, 19 addition, _appendage_, 53 _address_, _v._, 19 _address_, _n._, 20 " _speech_, 339 adduce, _allege_, 31 adept, _skilful_, 335 _adequate_, 21 " _plentiful_, 276 adherence, _attachment_, 63 _adherent_, 21 adhesion, _attachment_, 63 _adhesive_, 22 adieu, _farewell_, 168 adit, _entrance_, 154 _adjacent_, 22 adjoin, _add_, 18 adjoining, _adjacent_, 22 adjunct, _appendage_, 53 adjuration, _oath_, 254 administer, _execute_, 161 admiration, _amazement_, 39 _admire_, 23 admission, _entrance_, 154 admit, _agree_, 25 " _allow_, 35 " _avow_, 69 " _confess_, 114 admittance, _entrance_, 154 admixture, _alloy_, 36 admonish, _reprove_, 312 admonition, _reproof_, 311 adolescent, _youthful_, 375 adoration, _veneration_, 366 adore, _admire_, 23 " _venerate_, 366 _adorn_, 23 adroit, _clever_, 109 " _skilful_, 335 adroitness, _address_, _n._, 20 " _dexterity_, 129 adulation, _praise_, 280 adulteration, _alloy_, 36 advance, _v._, _allege_, 31 " _amend_, 41 " _promote_, 291 " _quicken_, 297 advance, _n._, _progress_, 289 advancement, _progress_, 289 advantage, _profit_, 288 " _utility_, 363 " _victory_, 369 adventure, _accident_, 14 adventurous, _brave_, 85 adversary, _enemy_, 151 adversity, _misfortune_, 242 advert, _allude_, 36 advertise, _announce_, 46 advised, _conscious_, 116 advocate, _abet_, 4 " _plead_, 274 aerial, _airy_, 27 affable, _friendly_, 178 affair, _battle_, 74 " _business_, 88 " _transaction_, 360 affect, _assume_, 61 affectation, _hypocrisy_, 204 " _pretense_, 283 affection, _attachment_, 63 " _disease_, 134 " _friendship_, 179 " _love_, 235 affectionate, _friendly_, 178 affidavit, _oath_, 254 " _testimony_, 355 affinity, _analogy_, 43 " _kin_, 227 affirm, _allege_, 31 " _state_, 341 affirmation, _testimony_, 355 afflict, _chasten_, 103 affliction, _grief_, 187 " _misfortune_, 242 affix, _add_, 18 affluent, _plentiful_, 276 afford, _endure_, 150 affray, _feud_, 170 affright, _n._, _alarm_, 28 " _fear_, 168 affright, _v._, _frighten_, 180 _affront_, 24 age, _time_, 356 aged, _old_, 257 agency, _operation_, 258 _agent_, 24 " _cause_, 98 aggravate, _affront_, 24 aggregate, _amass_, 38 aggression, _attack_, _n._, 64 aggrieve, _abuse_, 12 agile, _active_, 17 " _nimble_, 253 agitate, _shake_, 330 agitation, _storm_, 343 agnomen, _name_, 247 agnostic, _skeptic_, 334 agony, _pain_, 261 _agree_, 25 agreeable, _amiable_, 42 " _comfortable_, 110 " _delightful_, 126 " _pleasant_, 275 agreement, _contract_, 118 " _harmony_, 191 agricultural, _rustic_, 321 _agriculture_, 25 aid, _v._, _abet_, 4 " _promote_, 291 aid, _n._, _adherent_, 21 " _auxiliary_, 67 " _help_, 195 " _subsidy_, 345 aider, _adherent_, 21 ailment, _disease_, 134 _aim_, 26 " _design_, 128 " _direction_, 132 " _reason_, _n._, 302 _air_, 27 " _pretense_, 283 _airy_, 27 akin, _alike_, 30 _alarm_, 28 " _frighten_, 180 alarming, _awful_, 70 _alert_, 28 " _active_, 17 " _alive_, 30 " _nimble_, 253 " _vigilant_, 369 _alien_, _a._ & _n._, 29 alienate, _surrender_, 349 alienation, _insanity_, 221 _alike_, 30 " _synonymous_, 349 aliment, _food_, 175 _alive_, 30 all, _every_, 158 _allay_, 31 _allege_, 31 " _state_, 341 _allegiance_, 32 _allegory_, 33 " _fiction_, 170 _alleviate_, 33 " _allay_, 31 alley, _way_, 372 _alliance_, 34 " _association_, 60 " _kin_, 227 _allot_, 34 " _apportion_, 54 _allow_, 35 " _confess_, 114 " _endure_, 150 allowance, _pay_, 266 " _permission_, 269 " _subsidy_, 345 _alloy_, 36 _allude_, 36 _allure_, 37 " _draw_, 138 " _persuade_, 271 ally, _n._, _accessory_, 13 " _adherent_, 21 " _associate_, 60 " _auxiliary_, 67 almsgiving, _benevolence_, 80 _also_, 37 alter, _change_, _v._, 100 alteration, _change_, _n._, 101 _alternative_, 38 altho, _notwithstanding_, _conj._, 254 _amass_, 38 _amateur_, 39 _amazement_, 39 " _perplexity_, 270 ambiguous, _equivocal_, 155 " _obscure_, 255 _ambition_, 40 ameliorate, _amend_, 41 amenable, _docile_, 136 _amend_, 41 _amiable_, 42 amicable, _friendly_, 178 _amid_, 42 amidst, _amid_, 42 amity, _friendship_, 179 " _harmony_, 191 amnesty, _pardon_, 262 among, _amid_, 42 amongst, _amid_, 42 ample, _large_, 229 " _plentiful_, 276 _amplify_, 43 " _add_, 18 amuse, _entertain_, 152 amusement, _entertainment_, 153 analogous, _alike_, 30 _analogy_, 43 analysis, _abridgment_, 7 anarchism, _socialism_, 338 anarchy, _revolution_, 317 anathema, _oath_, 254 ancient, _antique_, 48 " _obsolete_, 256 " _old_, 257 " _primeval_, 287 and, _but_, 89 anecdote, _story_, 343 _anger_, 44 " _hatred_, 193 anguish, _anxiety_, 49 " _pain_, 261 animadversion, _reproof_, 311 animal, _a._, _brutish_, 87 _animal_, _n._, 45 animate, _alive_, 30 animated, _airy_, 27 " _alive_, 30 " _eager_, 142 animosity, _anger_, 44 " _enmity_, 152 " _feud_, 170 " _hatred_, 193 annals, _history_, 200 annex, _add_, 18 annihilate, _abolish_, 6 " _exterminate_, 163 annotation, _remark_, 308 _announce_, 46 " _speak_, 339 annoy, _affront_, 24 annoyance, _abomination_, 7 annul, _abolish_, 6 " _cancel_, 92 anomalous, _absurd_, 11 " _queer_, 297 _answer_, 46 antagonism, _antipathy_, 48 " _enmity_, 152 antagonist, _enemy_, 151 antecedent, _a._, _previous_, 285 antecedent, _n._, _cause_, 98 " _precedent_, 282 antepast, _anticipation_, 48 anterior, _previous_, 285 _anticipate_, 47 " _abide_, 5 " _prevent_, 284 _anticipation_, 48 _antipathy_, 48 " _hatred_, 193 antiquated, _antique_, 48 " _obsolete_, 256 " _old_, 257 _antique_, 48 " _old_, 257 _anxiety_, 49 " _care_, 94 anxious, _eager_, 142 any, _every_, 158 _apathy_, 50 " _stupidity_, 344 " _stupor_, 344 aphorism, _proverb_, 293 _apiece_, 51 apocalypse, _revelation_, 316 apologize for, _palliate_, 261 apologue, _fiction_, 170 _apology_, 51 " _defense_, 123 apothegm, _proverb_, 293 appal, _frighten_, 180 appalling, _awful_, 70 apparatus, _tool_, 358 apparel, _dress_, 140 _apparent_, 52 " _clear_, 107 " _evident_, 159 appeal, _address_, _v._, 19 _appear_, 52 appearance _or_ semblance of, have, _appear_, 52 appearance, _air_, 27 appease, _allay_, 31 appellation, _name_, 247 append, _add_, 18 _appendage_, 53 appendix, _appendage_, 53 appetency, _appetite_, 54 " _desire_, 128 _appetite_, 54 " _desire_, 128 applaud, _admire_, 23 applause, _praise_, 280 appliance, _tool_, 358 application, _exercise_, 162 " _industry_, 216 appoint, _allot_, 34 " _apportion_, 54 _apportion_, 54 " _allot_, 34 appreciate, _esteem_, _v._, 156 apprehend, _anticipate_, 47 " _arrest_, 57 " _catch_, 97 " _perceive_, 267 apprehension, _alarm_, 28 " _anticipation_, 48 " _anxiety_, 49 " _fear_, 168 " _idea_, 206 " _knowledge_, 227 apprised, _conscious_, 116 approach, _address_, _v._, 19 approach, _n._, _approximation_, 55 " _entrance_, 154 approbation, _praise_, 280 appropriate, _abstract_, 10 " _apportion_, 54 " _assume_, 61 approval, _praise_, 280 approve, _admire_, 25 " _agree_, 25 _approximation_, 55 appurtenance, _appendage_, 53 apostrophize, _address_, _v._, 19 a priori, _transcendental_, 361 apt, _clever_, 109 " _likely_, 232 " _sagacious_, 322 " _skilful_, 335 aptitude, _dexterity_, 129 " _power_, 279 arbiter, _judge_, 224 arbitrary, _absolute_, 8 arbitrate, _interpose_, 222 arbitrator, _judge_, 224 archaic, _obsolete_, 256 archetype, _example_, 160 " _idea_, 206 " _ideal_, 206 " _model_, 243 archive, _record_, 304 archives, _history_, 200 ardent, _eager_, 142 ardor, _enthusiasm_, 153 arduous, _difficult_, 132 argue, _plead_, 274 " _reason_, _v._, 302 argument, _reason_, _n._, 302 " _reasoning_, 303 argumentation, _reasoning_, 303 arise, _rise_, 319 arising, _beginning_, 78 armament, _army_, 56 armor, _arms_, 55 _arms_, 55 _army_, 56 " _array_, 57 _arraign_, 56 arrangement, _array_, 57 " _contract_, 118 _array_, 57 " _army_, 56 " _dress_, 140 _arrest_, 57 " _obstruct_, 257 arrive, _attain_, 64 " _reach_, 300 arrogance, _assurance_, 61 " _pride_, 286 arrogant, _absolute_, 8 " _dogmatic_, 137 arrogate, _assume_, 61 art, _artifice_, 58 " _business_, 88 " _science_, 325 article, _term_, 354 article of belief, _doctrine_, 136 " of faith, _doctrine_, 136 articulate, _speak_, 339 _artifice_, 58 " _fraud_, 177 artificer, _artist_, 58 artisan, _artist_, 58 _artist_, 58 artistic, _tasteful_, 352 artless, _candid_, 93 " _rustic_, 321 as, _because_, 77 ascend, _rise_, 319 ascertain, _discover_, 133 ascribe, _attribute_, _v._, 65 ashes, _body_, 84 _ask_, 59 " _plead_, 274 " _pray_, 281 asperity, _acrimony_, 15 asperse, _slander_, 336 asphyxia, _stupor_, 344 aspiration, _aim_, 26 " _ambition_, 40 " _desire_, 128 assail, _attack_, _v._, 63 assassinate, _kill_, 226 assault, _v._, _attack_, _v._, 63 assault, _n._, _attack_, _n._, 64 assemblage, _company_, 110 assemble, _convoke_, 120 assembly, _company_, 110 assent, _v._, _agree_, 25 assent, _n._, _faith_, 164 assert, _allege_, 31 " _state_, 341 assertion, _assurance_, 61 asseverate, _allege_, 31 " _state_, 341 assiduity, _industry_, 216 assiduous, _industrious_, 215 assign, _allege_, 31 " _allot_, 34 " _apportion_, 54 " _attribute_, _v._, 65 " _commit_, 110 assist, _abet_, 4 " _help_, 195 " _promote_, 291 assistant, _accessory_, 13 " _auxiliary_, 67 _associate_, 60 " _accessory_, 13 " _attribute_, _v._, 65 _association_, 60 " _acquaintance_, 15 " _class_, 106 assuage, _alleviate_, 33 _assume_, 61 assumption, _assurance_, 61 " _pretense_, 283 " _pride_, 286 _assurance_, 61 " _effrontery_, 144 " _faith_, 164 " _impudence_, 213 assure, _confirm_, 114 " _state_, 341 assured, _conscious_, 116 astonishment, _amazement_, 39 " _perplexity_, 270 _astute_, 62 as well, _also_, 37 as well as, _also_, 37 at ease, _comfortable_, 110 atheist, _skeptic_, 334 atom, _part_, 264 " _particle_, 264 at once, _immediately_, 211 atonement, _propitiation_, 291 at rest, _comfortable_, 110 atrocious, _barbarous_, 73 attach, _add_, 18 attached, _addicted_, 19 " _adjacent_, 22 _attachment_, 63 " _appendage_, 53 " _friendship_, 179 " _love_, 235 _attack_, _v._, 63 _attack_, _n._, 64 _attain_, 64 " _get_, 183 " _reach_, 300 " _succeed_, 346 attainment, _progress_, 289 " _wisdom_, 372 attempt, _v._, _endeavor_, _v._, 149 attempt, _n._, _endeavor_, _n._, 150 attend, _follow_, 174 " _listen_, 232 attendant, _accessory_, 13 attention, _care_, 94 " _industry_, 216 attestation, _testimony_, 355 attire, _dress_, 140 _attitude_, 65 attract, _allure_, 37 " _draw_, 138 attraction, _love_, 235 attractive, _amiable_, 42 " _beautiful_, 76 " _pleasant_, 275 _attribute_, _v._, 65 _attribute_, _n._, 66 " _characteristic_, 103 " _emblem_, 146 audacity, _effrontery_, 144 " _temerity_, 353 augment, _add_, 18 " _amplify_, 43 _augur_, 66 august, _awful_, 70 " _royal_, 320 auspicious, _propitious_, 291 austere, _severe_, 329 _authentic_, 67 " _real_, 301 author, _cause_, 98 authoritative, _absolute_, 8 " _authentic_, 67 " _dogmatic_, 137 authority, _permission_, 269 " _precedent_, 282 authorization, _permission_, 269 authorized, _authentic_, 67 autobiography, _history_, 200 autochthonic, _primeval_, 287 autocratic, _absolute_, 8 automatic, _spontaneous_, 340 _auxiliary_, 67 " _appendage_, 53 avail, _profit_, 288 " _utility_, 363 _avaricious_, 68 _avenge_, 69 " _requite_, 313 avenging, _revenge_, 316 avenue, _way_, 372 aver, _allege_, 31 " _avow_, 69 " _state_, 341 averse, _reluctant_, 308 aversion, _abomination_, 7 " _antipathy_, 48 " _hatred_, 193 avocation, _business_, 88 avouch, _avow_, 69 " _state_, 341 _avow_, 69 " _confess_, 114 " _state_, 341 await, _abide_, 5 awake, _vigilant_, 369 award, _allot_, 34 aware, _conscious_, 116 awe, _amazement_, 39 " _fear_, 168 " _veneration_, 366 _awful_, 70 _awkward_, 70 " _rustic_, 321 _axiom_, 71 " _proverb_, 293 _babble_, 71 backbite, _slander_, 336 backer, _adherent_, 21 backward, _reluctant_, 308 backwardness, _modesty_, 244 bad, _pernicious_, 270 badinage, _banter_, 73 baffle, _hinder_, 199 bail, _security_, 326 balk, _hinder_, 199 balky, _restive_, 314 ban, _v._, _banish_, 72 ban, _n._, _oath_, 254 bandit, _robber_, 320 baneful, _pernicious_, 270 _banish_, 72 " _exterminate_, 163 _bank_, 72 bankrupt, _break_, 86 _banter_, 73 " _wit_, 373 bar, _barrier_, 74 " _hinder_, 199 " _impediment_, 213 " _lock_, 234 " _obstruct_, 257 barbarian, _barbarous_, 73 barbaric, _barbarous_, 73 barbarism, _language_, 228 _barbarous_, 73 barely, _but_, 89 bargain, _contract_, 118 " _sale_, 323 bargain for, _purchase_, 294 barricade, _v._, _obstruct_, 257 barricade, _n._, _barrier_, 74 _barrier_, 74 " _boundary_, 84 " _impediment_, 213 barter, _business_, 88 " _sale_, 323 barter for, _purchase_, 295 base, _brutish_, 87 " _pitiful_, 273 baseless, _vain_, 364 bashfulness, _modesty_, 244 bastinado, _beat_, 75 batter, _beat_, 75 _battle_, 74 battle array, _array_, 57 bawl, _call_, 91 beach, _bank_, 72 bear, _abide_, 5 " _carry_, 96 " _endure_, 150 " _support_, 348 bearing, _air_, 27 " _behavior_, 79 " _direction_, 132 bear up under, _endure_, 150 bear with, _endure_, 150 beast, _animal_, 45 beastly, _brutish_, 87 _beat_, 75 " _conquer_, 115 beauteous, _beautiful_, 76 _beautiful_, 76 " _fine_, 172 " _graceful_, 186 beautify, _adorn_, 23 _because_, 77 " _therefore_, 355 bechance, _happen_, 188 become, _make_, 236 _becoming_, 77 bedeck, _adorn_, 23 befall, _happen_, 188 befitting, _becoming_, 77 befoul, _defile_, 124 befriend, _help_, 195 beg, _ask_, 59 " _plead_, 274 " _pray_, 281 beggary, _poverty_, 279 _beginning_, 78 beguile, _entertain_, 152 _behavior_, 79 " _air_, 27 behold, _discern_, 133 " _look_, 234 belabor, _beat_, 75 beleaguer, _attack_, _v._, 63 belief, _doctrine_, 136 " _faith_, 164 " _fancy_, 167 " _idea_, 206 belittle, _disparage_, 134 belles-lettres, _literature_, 233 bellow, _call_, 91 bemoan, _mourn_, 246 _bend_, 79 benefaction, _gift_, 184 beneficence, _benevolence_, 80 benefit, _profit_, 288 " _utility_, 363 _benevolence_, 80 " _mercy_, 239 benevolent, _humane_, 203 benign, _propitious_, 291 benignant, _amiable_, 42 " _humane_, 203 benignity, _benevolence_, 80 " _mercy_, 239 bequest, _gift_, 184 bereavement, _misfortune_, 242 beseech, _ask_, 59 " _plead_, 274 " _pray_, 281 beseeming, _becoming_, 77 beset, _attack_, _v._, 63 beside, _adjacent_, 22 besides, _also_, 37 " _but_, 89 " _yet_, 374 besiege, _attack_, _v._, 63 bestial, _brutish_, 87 bestow, _give_, 185 betide, _happen_, 188 betoken, _augur_, 66 better, _amend_, 41 between, _amid_, 42 betwixt, _amid_, 42 bevy, _flock_, 173 bewail, _mourn_, 246 bewilder, _abash_, 3 bewilderment, _amazement_, 39 " _perplexity_, 270 bewitching, _beautiful_, 76 " _charming_, 103 bias, _bend_, 79 " _prejudice_, 283 bid, _pray_, 281 " _proposal_, 292 bide, _abide_, 5 big, _large_, 229 bigotry, _fanaticism_, 166 bills, _money_, 244 _bind_, 81 biography, _history_, 200 birth, _kin_, 227 biting, _bitter_, 81 _bitter_, 81 bitterness, _acrimony_, 15 " _enmity_, 152 " _feud_, 170 bizarre, _queer_, 297 blab, _babble_, 71 black, _dark_, 122 blame, _v._, _condemn_, 113 " _reprove_, 312 blame, _n._, _reproof_, 311 blameless, _innocent_, 220 " _perfect_, 268 blanch, _bleach_, 82 blank, _vacant_, 363 blaspheming, _oath_, 254 blasphemy, _oath_, 254 blaze, _v._, _burn_, 87 blaze, _n._, _fire_, 173 " _light_, 231 _bleach_, 82 _blemish_, 82 " _injury_, 219 blessed, _happy_, 190 " _holy_, 200 blessedness, _happiness_, 189 blessing, _mercy_, 239 blind, _artifice_, 58 bliss, _happiness_, 189 blissful, _happy_, 190 blithe, _happy_, 190 blithesome, _happy_, 190 block, _hinder_, 199 blood, _kin_, 227 blot, _blemish_, 82 " _stain_, 341 blot out, _cancel_, 92 _blow_, 83 " _misfortune_, 242 _bluff_, 83 blunt, _bluff_, 83 blur, _blemish_, 82 blurt, _babble_, 71 blustering, _bluff_, 83 boast, _ostentation_, 259 boasting, _ostentation_, 259 bode, _augur_, 66 bodily, _physical_, 272 _body_, 84 bold, _bluff_, 83 " _brave_, 85 boldness, _assurance_, 61 " _effrontery_, 144 " _impudence_, 213 " _pertness_, 271 bolt, _lock_, 234 bondage, _fetter_, 169 bonds, _fetter_, 169 bonny, _beautiful_, 76 bonus, _subsidy_, 345 books, _literature_, 233 boon, _gift_, 184 boorish, _awkward_, 70 " _rustic_, 321 bootless, _vain_, 364 border, _bank_, 72 " _boundary_, 84 bordering, _adjacent_, 22 _both_, 84 " _every_, 158 bound, _bank_, 72 " _boundary_, 84 " _end_, _n._, 148 _boundary_, 84 " _end_, _n._, 148 boundless, _infinite_, 216 bounteous, _plentiful_, 276 bountiful, _generous_, 182 " _plentiful_, 276 bounty, _benevolence_, 80 " _gift_, 184 " _subsidy_, 345 bourn, _boundary_, 84 bourne, _boundary_, 84 bout, _battle_, 74 bow, _bend_, 79 box, _blow_, 83 boyish, _youthful_, 375 brain, _mind_, 241 brand, _v._, _burn_, 87 brand, _n._, _blemish_, 82 brandish, _shake_, 330 brass, _effrontery_, 144 _brave_, 85 bravery, _prowess_, 294 brawl, _feud_, 170 _break_, 86 " _rend_, 309 break off, _end_, _v._, 148 breastwork, _barrier_, 74 breathing, _alive_, 30 breeding, _behavior_, 79 " _education_, 143 bribe, _gift_, 184 bridle, _restrain_, 315 bridle-path, _way_, 372 brief, _a._, _terse_, 354 " _transient_, 361 brief, _n._, _sketch_, 334 brigand, _robber_, 320 bright, _clever_, 109 " _happy_, 190 brim, _bank_, 72 bring, _carry_, 96 bring about, _do_, 135 " _make_, 236 bring into being, _make_, 236 bring low, _abase_, 2 bring over, _persuade_, 271 bring to an end, _cease_, 98 bring to pass, _do_, 135 " _make_, 236 brink, _bank_, 72 brisk, _active_, 17 " _alert_, 28 " _alive_, 30 " _nimble_, 253 briskness, _pertness_, 271 broad, _large_, 229 broil, _feud_, 170 brood, _flock_, 173 brook, _endure_, 150 brotherly, _friendly_, 178 browbeat, _frighten_, 180 bruise, _beat_, 75 brush, _cleanse_, 107 brusk, _bluff_, 83 brutal, _barbarous_, 73 " _brutish_, 87 brute, _a._, _brutish_, 87 brute, _n._, _animal_, 45 _brutish_, 87 buccaneer, _robber_, 320 bucolic, _rustic_, 321 buffet, _blow_, 83 bulky, _large_, 229 bullion, _money_, 244 bulwark, _barrier_, 74 " _defense_, 123 bungling, _awkward_, 70 buoyant, _happy_, 190 burden, _load_, 233 burglar, _robber_, 320 burlesque, _caricature_, 95 " _wit_, 373 _burn_, 87 burning, _eager_, 142 " _fire_, 173 burst, _break_, 86 " _rend_, 309 bury, _hide_, 197 " _immerse_, 212 _business_, 88 " _duty_, 142 " _transaction_, 360 " _work_, 374 bustling, _active_, 17 " _alert_, 28 " _nimble_, 253 busy, _active_, 17 " _industrious_, 215 _but_, 89 " _notwithstanding_, _conj._, 254 butcher, _kill_, 226 butchery, _massacre_, 237 buy, _purchase_, 295 _by_, 89 by dint of, _by_, 89 by means of, _by_, 89 byword, _proverb_, 293 _cabal_, 90 cabalistic, _mysterious_, 247 cackle, _babble_, 71 cajole, _allure_, 37 calamity, _accident_, 14 " _blow_, 83 " _catastrophe_, 97 " _misfortune_, 242 _calculate_, 90 " _esteem_, _v._, 156 _call_, 91 " _convoke_, 120 calling, _business_, 88 callow, _youthful_, 375 call together, _convoke_, 120 call upon, _pray_, 281 calm, _v._, _allay_, 31 _calm_, _a._, 91 calm, _n._, _rest_, 313 calmness, _apathy_, 50 " _patience_, 265 " _rest_, 313 calumniate, _slander_, 336 canaille, _mob_, 243 _cancel_, 92 _candid_, 93 " _honest_, 202 candor, _veracity_, 367 canon, _law_, 229 cant, _v._, _tip_, 357 cant, _hypocrisy_, 204 " _slang_, 336 capability, _power_, 279 capable, _adequate_, 21 " _clever_, 109 capacious, _large_, 229 capacity, _power_, 279 _caparison_, 93 _capital_, 94 " _money_, 244 capitulate, _surrender_, 349 caprice, _fancy_, 167 captivate, _allure_, 37 captivating, _charming_, 103 capture, _arrest_, 57 " _catch_, 97 carcass, _body_, 84 _care_, 94 " _anxiety_, 49 " _oversight_, 260 " _prudence_, 294 careen, _tip_, 357 _career_, 95 careful, _vigilant_, 369 carefulness, _prudence_, 294 carelessness, _neglect_, 251 _caress_, 95 cargo, _load_, 233 _caricature_, 95 carnage, _massacre_, 237 carnal, _brutish_, 87 carol, _sing_, 333 carp at, _disparage_, 134 carriage, _air_, 27 " _behavior_, 79 _carry_, 96 " _convey_, 119 " _keep_, 226 " _support_, 348 carry on, _keep_, 226 " _transact_, 360 carry out, _do_, 135 " _execute_, 161 carry through, _do_, 135 cartel, _contract_, 118 case, _event_, 158 " _precedent_, 282 " _sample_, 323 cash, _money_, 244 cashier, _break_, 86 cast, _calculate_, 90 " _send_, 327 cast down, _abase_, 2 caste, _class_, 106 castigate, _beat_, 75 " _chasten_, 103 castle, _fortification_, 176 cast off, _abandon_, 1 cast up, _add_, 18 casualty, _accident_, 14 " _hazard_, 194 cataclysm, _catastrophe_, 97 catalog(ue, _record_, 304 _catastrophe_, 97 _catch_, _v._, 97 " _arrest_, 57 catch, _n._, _lock_, 234 causality, _cause_, 98 causation, _cause_, 98 cause, _v._, _make_, 236 _cause_, _n._, 98 " _design_, 128 " _reason_, _n._, 302 caustic, _bitter_, 81 causticity, _acrimony_, 15 cauterize, _burn_, 87 caution, _care_, 94 " _prudence_, 294 cautious, _vigilant_, 369 _cease_, 98 " _abandon_, 1 " _die_, 130 " _end_, _v._, 148 ceaseless, _continual_, 117 cede, _abandon_, 1 " _give_, 185 " _surrender_, 349 _celebrate_, 99 " _keep_, 226 celebrity, _fame_, 166 censure, _v._, _arraign_, 56 " _condemn_, 113 " _reprove_, 312 censure, _n._, _reproof_, 311 _center_, 99 ceremony, _sacrament_, 321 certain, _authentic_, 67 " _conscious_, 116 " _real_, 301 certainty, _demonstration_, 127 certification, _testimony_, 355 certified, _conscious_, 116 certify, _confess_, 114 " _state_, 341 cessation, _end_, _n._, 148 " _rest_, 313 chaff, _banter_, 73 chagrin, _v._, _abash_, 3 _chagrin_, _n._, 100 chains, _fetter_, 169 chance, _v._, _happen_, 188 chance, _accident_, 14 " _event_, 158 " _hazard_, 194 _change_, _v._, 100 " _convey_, 119 _change_, _n._, 101 " _motion_, 245 " _sale_, 323 changeless, _permanent_, 269 channel, _way_, 372 chant, _sing_, 333 char, _burn_, 87 _character_, 102 " _characteristic_, 103 _characteristic_, 103 charge, _v._, _arraign_, 56 " _attack_, _v._, 63 " _attribute_, _v._, 65 charge, _n._, _care_, 94 " _career_, 95 " _load_, 233 " _oversight_, 260 " _price_, 285 charitable, _humane_, 203 charity, _benevolence_, 80 " _love_, 235 _charming_, 103 " _amiable_, 42 " _beautiful_, 76 chase, _follow_, 174 " _hunt_, 203 chaste, _pure_, 296 " _tasteful_, 353 _chasten_, 103 chasten, _reprove_, 312 chastening, _misfortune_, 242 chastise, _beat_, 75 " _chasten_, 103 chastisement, _misfortune_, 242 chastity, _virtue_, 370 chat, _babble_, 71 " _conversation_, 118 " _speak_, 339 chatter, _babble_, 71 " _speak_, 339 chattering, _garrulous_, 181 cheat, _artifice_, 58 " _fraud_, 177 " _hypocrite_, 204 cheating, _fraud_, 177 check, _v._, _hinder_, 199 " _obstruct_, 257 " _reprove_, 312 " _restrain_, 315 check, _n._, _reproof_, 311 checkmate, _conquer_, 115 cheer, _v._, _cherish_, 104 " _entertain_, 152 cheer, _n._, _entertainment_, 153 " _happiness_, 189 cheerful, _comfortable_, 110 " _happy_, 190 cheering, _a._, _happy_, 190 cheering, _n._, _praise_, 280 cheers, _praise_, 280 cheery, _comfortable_, 110 " _happy_, 190 _cherish_, 104 " _support_, 348 chide, _reprove_, 312 chiding, _reproof_, 311 chief city, _capital_, 94 childish, _youthful_, 375 childlike, _youthful_, 375 chimerical, _absurd_, 11 " _fanciful_, 167 chirp, _sing_, 333 chirrup, _sing_, 333 chivalric, _brave_, 85 chivalrous, _brave_, 85 " _generous_, 182 choice, _alternative_, 38 choke, _obstruct_, 257 choler, _anger_, 44 _choose_, 104 chronicle, _history_, 200 " _record_, 304 chum, _associate_, 60 churlish, _morose_, 245 circle, _class_, 106 circulate, _announce_, 46 _circumlocution_, 105 circumscribe, _restrain_, 315 circumspect, _vigilant_, 369 circumspection, _care_, 94 " _prudence_, 294 _circumstance_, 105 " _event_, 158 circumstantial, _minute_, 242 citadel, _fortification_, 176 cite, _allege_, 31 " _arraign_, 56 " _quote_, 298 city, _capital_, 94 civil, _polite_, 277 civilization, _refinement_, 305 claim, _allege_, 31 " _assume_, 61 " _right_, 319 " _state_, 341 clamor, _call_, 91 clan, _class_, 106 clarified, _fine_, 172 clash, _collision_, 109 clashing, _collision_, 109 clasp, _catch_, 97 " _lock_, 234 _class_, 106 classes, lower, _mob_, 243 classic, _pure_, 296 classical, _pure_, 296 clay, _body_, 84 clean, _cleanse_, 107 " _innocent_, 220 " _neat_, 249 " _pure_, 296 cleanly, _neat_, 249 _cleanse_, 107 " _amend_, 41 clear, _v._, _absolve_, 9 _clear_, _a._, 107 " _evident_, 159 " _fine_, 172 " _innocent_, 220 " _pure_, 296 clear-sighted, _astute_, 62 " _sagacious_, 322 cleave, _rend_, 309 clemency, _mercy_, 239 clement, _humane_, 203 " _propitious_, 291 _clever_, 109 " _skilful_, 335 cleverness, _acumen_, 18 " _dexterity_, 129 " _power_, 279 cling to, _cherish_, 104 clique, _class_, 106 cloak, _v._, _hide_, 197 " _palliate_, 261 cloak, _n._, _pretense_, 283 clog, _v._, _hinder_, 199 " _obstruct_, 257 clog, _n._, _impediment_, 213 " _load_, 233 close, _v._, _end_, _v._, 148 close, _a._, _adjacent_, 22 " _avaricious_, 68 " _taciturn_, 351 close, _n._, _end_, _n._, 148 clothes, _dress_, 140 clothing, _dress_, 140 cloudy, _obscure_, 255 clownish, _awkward_, 70 " _rustic_, 321 cloy, _satisfy_, 324 club, _association_, 60 " _class_, 106 clumsy, _awkward_, 70 clutch, _catch_, 97 coadjutor, _accessory_, 13 " _associate_, 60 " _auxiliary_, 67 coalition, _alliance_, 34 " _union_, 362 coarse, _bluff_, 83 " _brutish_, 87 " _large_, 229 " _rustic_, 321 coast, _bank_, 72 coax, _allure_, 37 " _persuade_, 271 coddle, _caress_, 95 code, _law_, 229 coerce, _compel_, 111 coercive, _absolute_, 8 cogency, _power_, 279 cognition, _knowledge_, 227 cognizance, _knowledge_, 227 cognizant, _conscious_, 116 cognomen, _name_, 247 cohesive, _adhesive_, 22 coin, _money_, 244 coincide, _agree_, 25 coincidence, _analogy_, 43 coldness, _modesty_, 244 colleague, _accessory_, 13 " _associate_, 60 collect, _amass_, 38 " _convoke_, 120 collected, _calm_, 91 collection, _array_, 57 " _company_, 110 collectivism, _socialism_, 338 _collision_, 109 colloquialism, _slang_, 336 colloquy, _conversation_, 118 color, _pretense_, 283 " _stain_, 341 colossal, _large_, 229 coma, _stupor_, 344 combat, _v._, _attack_, _v._, 63 combat, _n._, _battle_, 74 combination, _cabal_, 90 " _union_, 362 combine, _agree_, 25 combustion, _fire_, 173 come, _reach_, 300 come after, _follow_, 174 comely, _beautiful_, 76 " _becoming_, 77 come to an end, _cease_, 98 come to pass, _happen_, 188 comfort, _cherish_, 104 " _console_, 117 " _happiness_, 189 _comfortable_, 110 comical, _queer_, 297 comity, _friendship_, 179 command, _v._, _govern_, 185 command, _n._, _law_, 229 " _order_, 258 " _oversight_, 260 commanding, _absolute_, 8 commandment, _law_, 229 commemorate, _celebrate_, 99 commencement, _beginning_, 78 commensurate, _adequate_, 21 comment, _definition_, 124 " _remark_, 308 " _reproof_, 311 commentary, _definition_, 124 commerce, _business_, 88 comminuted, _fine_, 172 " _minute_, 242 commiseration, _pity_, 273 _commit_, 110 " _do_, 135 commodious, _comfortable_, 110 " _large_, 229 common, _general_, 181 " _mutual_, 246 " _normal_, 253 " _usual_, 362 commonplace, _general_, 181 commonwealth, _people_, 266 communicate, _announce_, 46 " _give_, 185 communication, _conversation_, 118 communion, _conversation_, 118 " _sacrament_, 321 communism, _socialism_, 338 community, _association_, 60 " _people_, 266 commute, _change_, 100 compact, _a._, _terse_, 354 compact, _n._, _alliance_, 34 " _contract_, 118 companion, _accessory_, 13 " _associate_, 60 companionable, _friendly_, 178 companionship, _acquaintance_, 15 " _association_, 60 _company_, 110 " _association_, 60 " _class_, 106 compare, _contrast_, 118 comparison, _analogy_, 43 compass, _attain_, 64 compassion, _mercy_, 239 " _pity_, 273 compassionate, _humane_, 203 _compel_, 111 " _bind_, 81 " _drive_, 140 " _influence_, 217 " _make_, 236 compend, _abridgment_, 7 compendious, _terse_, 354 compendium, _abridgment_, 7 compensate, _requite_, 313 compensation, _pay_, 266 competency, _power_, 279 competent, _adequate_, 21 competition, _ambition_, 40 competitor, _enemy_, 151 _complain_, 112 complaint, _disease_, 134 complaisant, _friendly_, 178 " _polite_, 277 complete, _v._, _do_, 135 " _end_, _v._, 148 complete, _a._, _perfect_, 268 " _plentiful_, 276 " _radical_, 299 completed, _perfect_, 268 completion, _end_, _n._, 148 _complex_, 112 " _obscure_, 255 compliant, _docile_, 136 complicate, _involve_, 223 complicated, _complex_, 112 " _obscure_, 255 compliment, _praise_, 280 comply, _agree_, 25 component, _part_, 264 compose, _allay_, 31 " _make_, 236 composed, _calm_, 91 composite, _complex_, 112 composition, metrical, _poetry_, 277 composure, _apathy_, 50 " _patience_, 265 compound, _complex_, 112 comprehend, _catch_, 97 " _perceive_, 267 comprehension, _knowledge_, 227 compulsion, _necessity_, 250 compulsive, _absolute_, 8 compulsory, _absolute_, 8 compunction, _repentance_, 310 compute, _calculate_, 90 comrade, _associate_, 60 conceal, _hide_, 197 " _palliate_, 261 concede, _allow_, 35 " _confess_, 114 conceit, _egotism_, 145 " _fancy_, 167 " _idea_, 206 " _pride_, 286 conceivable, _likely_, 232 conceive, _perceive_, 267 concept, _idea_, 206 conception, _fancy_, 167 " _idea_, 206 concern, _anxiety_, 49 " _business_, 88 " _care_, 94 concise, _terse_, 354 conclave, _cabal_, 90 " _company_, 110 conclude, _cease_, 98 " _end_, _v._, 148 conclusion, _end_, _n._, 148 " _demonstration_, 127 concomitant, _appendage_, 53 " _circumstance_, 105 concord, _harmony_, 191 concourse, _company_, 110 " _throng_, 356 concupiscence, _desire_, 128 concur, _agree_, 25 concurrence, _harmony_, 191 concussion, _blow_, 83 " _collision_, 109 _condemn_, 113 " _reprove_, 312 condemnation, _reproof_, 311 condensed, _terse_, 354 condition, _cause_, 98 " _term_, 354 condolence, _pity_, 273 condole with, _console_, 117 condone, _pardon_, 262 conduct, _v._, _keep_, 226 " _transact_, 360 conduct, _n._, _behavior_, 79 confabulation, _conversation_, 118 confederacy, _alliance_, 34 " _association_, 60 " _cabal_, 90 confederate, _accessory_, 13 " _associate_, 60 " _auxiliary_, 67 confederation, _alliance_, 34 " _association_, 60 confer, _deliberate_, 125 " _give_, 185 conference, _company_, 110 " _conversation_, 118 _confess_, 114 " _avow_, 69 confession, _apology_, 51 confide, _commit_, 110 confidence, _assurance_, 61 " _faith_, 164 confine, _restrain_, 315 confines, _boundary_, 84 _confirm_, 114 conflagration, _fire_, 173 conflict, _battle_, 74 " _collision_, 109 conflicting, _alien_, _a._, 29 " _incongruous_, 214 conformity, _harmony_, 191 confound, _abash_, 3 " _refute_, 306 confront, _abide_, 5 confuse, _abash_, 3 " _displace_, 135 confused, _complex_, 112 " _heterogeneous_, 196 confusion, _amazement_, 39 " _chagrin_, 100 " _perplexity_, 270 " _revolution_, 317 confute, _refute_, 306 congé, _farewell_, 168 congenial, _delightful_, 126 congenital, _inherent_, 218 conglomerate, _complex_, 112 " _heterogeneous_, 196 _congratulate_, 115 congregation, _company_, 110 congruity, _harmony_, 191 congruous, _becoming_, 67 conjectural, _likely_, 232 conjecture, _v._, _suppose_, 348 conjecture, _n._, _hypothesis_, 204 conjugal union, _marriage_, 236 conjunction, _association_, 60 " _union_, 362 conjure, _pray_, 281 connect, _attribute_, _v._, 65 connection, _association_, 60 connoisseur, _amateur_, 39 _conquer_, 115 " _beat_, 75 conquest, _victory_, 369 consanguinity, _kin_, 227 _conscious_, 116 consciousness, _mind_, 241 consecrated, _holy_, 200 consent, _v._, _agree_, 25 consent, _n._, _harmony_, 191 " _permission_, 269 consent to, _allow_, 35 _consequence_, 116 " _demonstration_, 127 " _end_, _n._, 148 " _event_, 158 consequent, _consequence_, 116 consider, _calculate_, 90 " _deliberate_, 125 " _esteem_, 156 considerable, _large_, 229 consideration, _friendship_, 179 " _prudence_, 294 " _reason_, _n._, 302 consign, _commit_, 110 consistency, _harmony_, 191 _console_, 117 consonance, _harmony_, 191 consort, _associate_, 60 conspicuous, _evident_, 159 conspiracy, _cabal_, 90 constancy, _industry_, 216 constant, _continual_, 117 " _permanent_, 269 consternation, _alarm_, 28 " _fear_, 168 constituent, _part_, 264 constitute, _make_, 236 constitution, _character_, 102 constitutional, _radical_, 299 constrain, _compel_, 111 " _make_, 236 " _restrain_, 315 constraint, _modesty_, 244 construct, _make_, 236 consult, _deliberate_, 125 consume, _absorb_, 9 " _burn_, 87 consummate, _v._, _do_, 135 consummate, _a._, _perfect_, 268 consummation, _act_, 16 " _end_, _n._, 148 contact, _collision_, 109 _contagion_, 117 contaminate, _defile_, 124 contemplate, _look_, 234 contemptible, _pitiful_, 273 contend, _reason_, _v._, 302 content, _satisfy_, 324 contented, _comfortable_, 110 contention, _feud_, 170 contentment, _happiness_, 189 conterminous, _adjacent_, 22 contest, _battle_, 74 " _feud_, 170 contiguity, _approximation_, 55 contiguous, _adjacent_, 22 continence, _abstinence_, 10 continent, _pure_, 296 contingency, _accident_, 14 " _event_, 158 " _hazard_, 194 _continual_, 117 continue, _abide_, 5 " _protract_, 293 continuous, _continual_, 117 _contract_, 118 contraction, _abbreviation_, 4 contradictory, _alien_, _a._, 29 " _incongruous_, 214 contrariety, _difference_, 131 contrary, _alien_, _a._, 29 " _incongruous_, 214 " _perverse_, 272 _contrast_, _v._, 118 contrast, _n._, _difference_, 131 contrasted, _alien_, _a._, 29 contriteness, _repentance_, 310 contrition, _repentance_, 310 contrivance, _artifice_, 58 control, _v._, _govern_, 185 control, _n._, _oversight_, 260 controlling, _absolute_, 8 controversy, _feud_, 170 controvert, _reason_, _v._, 302 contumacious, _obstinate_, 256 " _rebellious_, 304 conundrum, _riddle_, 318 convene, _convoke_, 120 convenient, _comfortable_, 110 convention, _company_, 110 _conversation_, 118 converse, _conversation_, 118 " _speak_, 339 conversion, _change_, _n._, 101 convert, _v._, _change_, 100 _convert_, _n._, 119 _convey_, 119 " _carry_, 96 convict, _condemn_, 113 conviction, _faith_, 164 convince, _persuade_, 271 convocation, _company_, 110 _convoke_, 120 cool, _calm_, 91 cooperate, _help_, 195 copious, _plentiful_, 276 copy, _v._, _follow_, 174 copy, _n._, _duplicate_, 141 " _model_, 243 cordial, _friendly_, 178 corporal, _physical_, 272 corporation, _association_, 60 corporeal, _physical_, 272 corpse, _body_, 84 corpuscle, _particle_, 264 correct, _v._, _amend_, 41 " _chasten_, 103 correct, _a._, _perfect_, 268 correlative, _mutual_, 246 correspondent, _synonymous_, 349 corresponding, _synonymous_, 349 corroborate, _confirm_, 114 corrupt, _decay_, 122 " _defile_, 124 cost, _expense_, 162 " _price_, 285 costume, _dress_, 140 coterie, _class_, 106 coterminous, _adjacent_, 22 count, _calculate_, 90 countenance, _abet_, 4 counteract, _hinder_, 199 counterpart, _duplicate_, 141 countless, _infinite_, 216 countrified, _rustic_, 321 country, _rustic_, 321 courage, _fortitude_, 176 " _prowess_, 294 courageous, _brave_, 85 course, _career_, 95 " _direction_, 132 " _way_, 372 court, _address_, _v._, 19 " _caress_, 95 courteous, _polite_, 277 courtesy, _address_, _n._, 20 courtly, _polite_, 277 covenant, _contract_, 118 cover, _hide_, 197 " _palliate_, 261 " _shelter_, 331 coveting, _desire_, 128 covetous, _avaricious_, 68 covey, _flock_, 173 cow, _frighten_, 180 coyness, _modesty_, 244 crabbed, _morose_, 245 crack, _v._, _break_, 86 crack, _n._, _blemish_, 82 craft, _artifice_, 58 " _business_, 88 " _deception_, 123 crafty, _astute_, 62 crave, _ask_, 59 craving, _appetite_, 54 " _desire_, 128 craziness, _insanity_, 221 create, _make_, 236 creator, _cause_, 98 creature, _animal_, 45 credence, _faith_, 164 credible, _likely_, 232 credit, _faith_, 164 " _fame_, 166 credulity, _fanaticism_, 166 creed, _faith_, 164 cremate, _burn_, 87 crew, _cabal_, 90 crime, _abomination_, 7 " _sin_, 332 _criminal_, 120 criminality, _sin_, 332 critic, _amateur_, 39 critical, _minute_, 242 criticism, _reproof_, 311 croak, _complain_, 112 crook, _bend_, 79 crop, _harvest_, 192 cross off, or out, _cancel_, 92 crotchety, _queer_, 297 crowd, _company_, 110 " _mob_, 243 " _throng_, 356 crowd out, _displace_, 135 cruel, _barbarous_, 73 crush, _break_, 86 " _conquer_, 115 crusty, _morose_, 245 cry, _call_, 91 cudgel, _beat_, 75 cuff, _blow_, 83 cull, _choose_, 104 culpable, _criminal_, 120 cultivated, _polite_, 277 cultivation, _agriculture_, 25 " _education_, 143 " _refinement_, 305 culture, _agriculture_, 25 " _education_, 143 " _refinement_, 305 cultured, _polite_, 277 cunning, _a._, _astute_, 62 cunning, _n._, _artifice_, 58 " _deception_, 123 curb, _govern_, 185 " _restrain_, 315 cure, _recover_, 305 cured, be, _recover_, 305 curious, _inquisitive_, 221 " _queer_, 297 " _rare_, 300 currency, _money_, 244 current, _authentic_, 67 curse, _abomination_, 7 " _oath_, 254 cursing, _oath_, 254 curve, _bend_, 79 custody, _fetter_, 169 custom, _habit_, 187 customary, _general_, 181 " _usual_, 362 cut, _blow_, 83 cutting, _bitter_, 81 _daily_, 121 dainty, _delicious_, 126 " _fine_, 172 " _tasteful_, 352 damage, _abuse_, 12 " _injury_, 219 _danger_, 121 " _hazard_, 194 dangerous, _formidable_, 176 dapper, _neat_, 249 daring, _brave_, 85 _dark_, 122 " _mysterious_, 247 " _obscure_, 255 darksome, _obscure_, 255 dart, _send_, 327 date, _time_, 356 daub, _blemish_, 82 daunt, _abash_, 3 " _frighten_, 180 dauntless, _brave_, 85 dawdling, _slow_, 337 day-dream, _dream_, 139 deadly, _pernicious_, 270 deal, _apportion_, 54 " _sale_, 323 deathless, _eternal_, 157 debar, _prohibit_, 290 debase, _abase_, 2 debasement, _alloy_, 36 debate, _v._, _deliberate_, 125 " _reason_, _v._, 302 debate, _n._, _reasoning_, 303 _decay_, 122 decease, _die_, 130 deceit, _deception_, 123 " _fraud_, 177 deceitful, _vain_, 364 deceitfulness, _deception_, 123 deceiver, _hypocrite_, 204 decent, _becoming_, 77 _deception_, 123 " _fraud_, 177 deck, _adorn_, 23 declaim, _speak_, 339 declare, _allege_, 31 " _announce_, 46 " _avow_, 69 " _speak_, 339 " _state_, 341 decline, _abate_, 3 " _die_, 130 decompose, _decay_, 122 decorate, _adorn_, 23 decorous, _becoming_, 77 decoy, _allure_, 37 decrease, _abate_, 3 decree, _law_, 229 decrepit, _old_, 257 decry, _disparage_, 134 " _slander_, 336 deduction, _demonstration_, 127 " _induction_, 215 deed, _act_, 16 " _work_, 374 " _transaction_, 360 deem, _calculate_, 90 " _esteem_, _v._, 156 " _suppose_, 348 deep, _obscure_, 255 defacement, _blemish_, 82 defame, _abuse_, 12 " _slander_, 336 default, _neglect_, 251 defeat, _beat_, 75 " _conquer_, 115 defect, _blemish_, 82 defend, _keep_, 226 " _shelter_, 331 _defense_, 123 " _apology_, 51 defer, _protract_, 293 _defile_, 124 " _abuse_, 12 _definition_, 124 deflect, _bend_, 79 deformity, _blemish_, 82 deft, _skilful_, 335 degrade, _abase_, 2 deist, _skeptic_, 334 delay, _hinder_, 199 " _protract_, 293 delaying, _slow_, 337 delegate, _v._, _send_, 327 _delegate_, _n._, 125 deleterious, _pernicious_, 270 _deliberate_, _v._, 125 deliberate, _a._, _slow_, 337 delicate, _fine_, 172 " _tasteful_, 352 _delicious_, 126 " _delightful_, 126 " _tasteful_, 352 delight, _v._, _entertain_, 152 delight, _n._, _entertainment_, 153 " _happiness_, 189 delighted, _happy_, 190 _delightful_, 126 " _beautiful_, 76 " _charming_, 103 " _delicious_, 126 " _happy_, 190 delight in, _admire_, 23 delinquency, _sin_, 332 delirium, _insanity_, 221 deliver, _give_, 185 " _speak_, 339 _delusion_, 127 " _deception_, 123 delusive, _vain_, 364 demand, _ask_, 59 demeanor, _air_, 27 " _behavior_, 79 dementia, _insanity_, 221 _demolish_, 127 " _break_, 86 demonstrable, _real_, 301 demonstrate, _reason_, _v._, 302 _demonstration_, 127 denomination, _name_, 247 " _term_, 354 denouement, _catastrophe_, 97 denounce, _condemn_, 113 dense, _obscure_, 255 dent, _blemish_, 82 denunciation, _oath_, 254 " _reproof_, 311 deny, _renounce_, 309 depart, _die_, 130 depart from, _abandon_, 1 deplore, _mourn_, 246 deportment, _behavior_, 79 depose, _state_, 341 deposit, _put_, 296 deposition, _testimony_, 355 depravity, _sin_, 332 depreciate, _disparage_, 134 " _slander_, 336 depredator, _robber_, 320 depress, _abase_, 2 depth, _wisdom_, 372 depute, _send_, 327 deputy, _delegate_, 125 derange, _displace_, 135 derangement, _insanity_, 221 derision, _banter_, 73 derogate from, _disparage_, 134 descent, _kin_, 227 description, _definition_, 124 " _report_, 311 descry, _discern_, 133 " _discover_, 133 " _look_, 234 desert, _abandon_, 1 _design_, 128 " _aim_, 26 " _end_, _n._, 148 " _idea_, 206 " _model_, 243 " _reason_, _n._, 302 " _sketch_, 334 designation, _name_, 247 designer, _cause_, 98 _desire_, 128 " _appetite_, 54 " _fancy_, 167 desirous, _eager_, 142 desist, _cease_, 98 " _end_, _v._, 148 _despair_, 129 despatch, _kill_, 226 " _quicken_, 297 " _send_, 327 desperation, _despair_, 129 despicable, _pitiful_, 273 despise, _abhor_, 5 despite, _notwithstanding_, _prep._, 254 despoiler, _robber_, 320 despondency, _despair_, 129 despotic, _absolute_, 8 destine, _allot_, 34 destiny, _necessity_, 250 destitution, _poverty_, 279 destroy, _abolish_, 6 " _break_, 86 " _demolish_, 127 " _exterminate_, 163 " _subvert_, 346 destructive, _pernicious_, 270 detach, _abstract_, 10 detail, _circumstance_, 105 detailed, _minute_, 242 detain, _arrest_, 57 " _keep_, 226 detect, _discover_, 133 deterioration, _alloy_, 36 determination, _aim_, 26 determined, _obstinate_, 256 detest, _abhor_, 5 detestation, _abomination_, 7 " _antipathy_, 48 " _hatred_, 193 detract from, _disparage_, 134 detriment, _injury_, 219 detrimental, _pernicious_, 270 develop, _amplify_, 43 developed, _real_, 301 development, _education_, 143 " _progress_, 289 deviate, _bend_, 79 " _wander_, 371 device, _artifice_, 58 " _design_, 128 devoted, _addicted_, 19 " _faithful_, 165 " _holy_, 200 devotion, _allegiance_, 32 " _attachment_, 63 " _enthusiasm_, 153 " _friendship_, 179 " _love_, 235 " _religion_, 307 _dexterity_, 129 " _address_, _n._, 20 " _power_, 279 dexterous, _clever_, 109 " _happy_, 190 " _skilful_, 335 dialect, _language_, 228 dialog(ue, _conversation_, 118 diaphanous, _clear_, 107 dictatorial, _absolute_, 8 " _dogmatic_, 137 _diction_, 130 " _language_, 228 dictum, _proverb_, 293 _die_, 130 diet, _food_, 175 _difference_, 131 differentiate, _contrast_, 118 _difficult_, 132 " _obscure_, 255 difficulty, _impediment_, 213 diffidence, _modesty_, 244 diffuseness, _circumlocution_, 105 digest, _abridgment_, 7 digress, _wander_, 371 dilate, _amplify_, 43 dilatory, _slow_, 337 dilettante, _amateur_, 39 diligence, _industry_, 216 diligent, _active_, 17 " _industrious_, 215 dim, _dark_, 122 " _faint_, 164 " _obscure_, 255 diminish, _abate_, 3 diminutive, _minute_, 242 dip, _immerse_, 212 " _tip_, 357 dire, _awful_, 70 direct, _govern_, 185 _direction_, 132 " _care_, 94 " _order_, 258 " _oversight_, 260 directly, _immediately_, 211 direful, _awful_, 70 disadvantage, _injury_, 219 disagreement, _difference_, 131 disallow, _prohibit_, 290 disappointment, _chagrin_, 100 " _misfortune_, 242 disapproval, _reproof_, 311 disarrange, _displace_, 135 disaster, _accident_, 14 " _blow_, 83 " _catastrophe_, 97 " _misfortune_, 242 disavow, _renounce_, 309 disbelief, _doubt_, _n._, 138 disbeliever, _skeptic_, 334 discard, _renounce_, 309 _discern_, 133 " _discover_, 133 " _look_, 234 discernible, _evident_, 159 discerning, _astute_, 62 " _sagacious_, 322 discernment, _acumen_, 18 " _wisdom_, 372 discharge, _absolve_, 9 " _banish_, 72 " _cancel_, 92 " _do_, 135 " _send_, 327 disciple, _adherent_, 21 " _convert_, 119 " _scholar_, 324 discipline, _v._, _chasten_, 103 " _teach_, 353 discipline, _n._, _education_, 143 disclaim, _renounce_, 309 disclose, _confess_, 114 " _discover_, 133 disclosure, _revelation_, 316 discolor, _stain_, 341 discomfit, _conquer_, 115 discompose, _abash_, 3 discomposure, _chagrin_, 100 disconcert, _abash_, 3 discontinue, _abandon_, 1 " _cease_, 98 discordant, _heterogeneous_, 196 " _incongruous_, 214 discouragement, _despair_, 129 discourse, _conversation_, 118 " _speak_, 339 " _speech_, 339 discourteous, _bluff_, 83 _discover_, 133 " _catch_, 97 discredit, _abase_, 2 " _disparage_, 134 discrepancy, _difference_, 131 discrepant, _incongruous_, 214 discretion, _address_, _n._, 20 " _prudence_, 294 " _wisdom_, 372 discriminate, _abstract_, 10 " _contrast_, 118 " _discern_, 133 discriminating, _astute_, 62 discrimination, _difference_, 131 discuss, _reason_, _v._, 302 disdain, _pride_, 286 _disease_, 134 disfigurement, _blemish_, 82 disgrace, _v._, _abase_, 2 " _stain_, 341 disgrace, _n._, _blemish_, 82 disguise, _v._, _hide_, 197 disguise, _n._, _pretense_, 283 disgust, _abomination_, 7 " _antipathy_, 48 dishearten, _abash_, 3 dishonesty, _fraud_, 177 dishonor, _v._, _abase_, 2 " _disparage_, 134 " _stain_, 341 dishonor, _n._, _blemish_, 82 disinclined, _reluctant_, 308 disinfect, _cleanse_, 107 disintegration, _revolution_, 317 disinterested, _generous_, 182 dislike, _v._, _abhor_, 5 dislike, _n._, _antipathy_, 48 " _hatred_, 193 dislodge, _banish_, 72 dismal, _dark_, 122 dismay, _v._, _frighten_, 180 dismay, _n._, _alarm_, 28 " _chagrin_, 100 " _fear_, 168 dismiss, _banish_, 72 " _send_, 327 disobedient, _rebellious_, 304 disorder, _disease_, 134 " _revolution_, 317 disown, _renounce_, 309 _disparage_, 134 " _abuse_, 12 " _slander_, 336 disparity, _difference_, 131 dispassionate, _calm_, 91 dispense, _apportion_, 54 _displace_, 135 display, _ostentation_, 259 displease, _affront_, 24 displeasure, _anger_, 44 " _pique_, 272 disport, _entertain_, 152 dispose, _influence_, 217 " _persuade_, 271 disposed, _addicted_, 19 disposition, _appetite_, 54 " _array_, 57 " _character_, 102 " _mind_, 241 disprove, _refute_, 306 dispute, _v._, _reason_, _v._, 302 dispute, _n._, _feud_, 170 disquiet, _anxiety_, 49 disquietude, _alarm_, 28 " _fear_, 168 disquisition, _speech_, 339 disregard, _neglect_, 251 disrespect, _neglect_, 251 dissemble, _hide_, 197 dissembler, _hypocrite_, 204 dissension, _feud_, 170 dissenter, _heretic_, 196 dissertation, _speech_, 339 dissimilar, _heterogeneous_, 196 dissimilarity, _difference_, 131 dissimilitude, _difference_, 131 dissimulation, _deception_, 123 " _hypocrisy_, 204 " _pretense_, 283 dissipation, _excess_, 160 distant, _alien_, _a._, 29 distaste, _antipathy_, 48 distemper, _disease_, 134 distinct, _clear_, 107 " _evident_, 159 distinction, _characteristic_, 103 " _difference_, 131 " _fame_, 166 distinguish, _abstract_, 10 " _discern_, 133 distract, _abstract_, 10 distraction, _perplexity_, 270 distress, _grief_, 187 " _misfortune_, 242 " _pain_, 261 " _poverty_, 279 distribute, _allot_, 34 " _apportion_, 54 distributively, _apiece_, 51 distrust, _v._, _doubt_, _v._, 137 distrust, _n._, _doubt_, _n._, 138 disturb, _displace_, 135 disturbance, _anxiety_, 49 " _perplexity_, 270 " _storm_, 343 disused, _obsolete_, 256 diurnal, _daily_, 121 diverge, _bend_, 79 " _wander_, 371 divergence, _difference_, 131 diversify, _change_, _v._, 100 diversion, _entertainment_, 153 diversity, _change_, _n._, 101 " _difference_, 131 divert, _abstract_, 10 " _entertain_, 152 divide, _allot_, 34 " _apportion_, 54 divine, _v._, _augur_, 66 divine, _n._, _holy_, 200 division, _part_, 264 " _topic_, 359 _do_, 135 " _execute_, 161 " _make_, 236 " _transact_, 360 _docile_, 136 doctrinal, _dogmatic_, 137 _doctrine_, 136 " _faith_, 164 document, _record_, 304 dodge, _artifice_, 58 doer, _agent_, 24 dogged, _morose_, 245 " _obstinate_, 256 dogma, _doctrine_, 136 _dogmatic_, 137 " _absolute_, 8 doing, _act_, 16 " _transaction_, 360 " _work_, 374 domicil, _home_, 201 domineering, _absolute_, 8 " _dogmatic_, 137 donation, _gift_, 184 doom, _condemn_, 131 door, _entrance_, 154 doorway, _entrance_, 154 double-dealing, _deception_, 123 _doubt_, _v._, 137 _doubt_, _n._, 138 " _perplexity_, 270 doubter, _skeptic_, 334 doubtful, _equivocal_, 155 " _obscure_, 255 " _precarious_, 282 doughty, _brave_, 85 douse, _immerse_, 212 down, _conquer_, 115 draft, _sketch_, 334 drag, _draw_, 138 _draw_, 138 " _allure_, 37 " _influence_, 217 drawing, _sketch_, 334 draw out, _protract_, 293 dread, _a._, _awful_, 70 dread, _n._, _alarm_, 28 " _anxiety_, 49 " _fear_, 168 " _veneration_, 366 dreadful, _awful_, 70 _dream_, 139 dregs of the people, _mob_, 243 _dress_, 140 drill, _exercise_, 162 " _teach_, 353 drink in, drink up, _absorb_, 9 _drive_, 140 " _banish_, 72 " _compel_, 111 " _influence_, 217 " quicken, 297 " _send_, 327 drive on, _quicken_, 297 drive out, _banish_, 172 driveway, _way_, 372 droll, _queer_, 297 drollery, _wit_, 373 drove, _flock_, 173 drowsy, _slow_, 337 drudgery, _work_, 374 dubious, _equivocal_, 155 " _precarious_, 282 duck, _immerse_, 212 dull, _dark_, 122 " _slow_, 337 dulness, _stupidity_, 344 dumb, _taciturn_, 351 _duplicate_, 141 duplicity, _deception_, 123 " _fraud_, 177 durable, _permanent_, 269 durance, _fetter_, 169 duration, _time_, 356 duress, _fetter_, 169 dusky, _dark_, 122 " _obscure_, 255 dust, _v._, _cleanse_, 107 dust, _n._, _body_, 84 _duty_, 142 " _business_, 88 " _virtue_, 370 dwell, _abide_, 5 dwelling, _home_, 201 dye, _stain_, 341 each, _apiece_, 51 " _every_, 158 _eager_, 142 eagerness, _enthusiasm_, 153 earlier, _previous_, 285 earn, _attain_, 64 " _get_, 183 earnest, _eager_, 142 " _security_, 366 earnestness, _enthusiasm_, 153 earnings, _pay_, 266 _ease_, 143 " _rest_, 313 easiness, _ease_, 143 ebb, _abate_, 3 eccentric, _queer_, 297 economy, _frugality_, 180 " _law_, 229 ecstasy, _enthusiasm_, 153 " _happiness_, 189 edge, _bank_, 72 " _boundary_, 84 edict, _law_, 229 educate, _teach_, 353 _education_, 143 efface, _cancel_, 92 effect, _v._, _do_, 135 " _make_, 236 effect, _n._, _act_, 16 " _consequence_, 116 " _end_, _n._, 148 " _operation_, 258 effeminate, _feminine_, 169 efficacy, _power_, 279 efficiency, _power_, 279 effort, _endeavor_, _n._, 150 " _industry_, 216 _effrontery_, 144 " _assurance_, 61 " _impudence_, 213 egoism, _egotism_, 145 _egotism_, 145 either, _every_, 158 ejaculate, _call_, 91 eject, _banish_, 72 elderly, _old_, 257 elect, _choose_, 104 election, _alternative_, 38 elegance, _refinement_, 305 elegant, _beautiful_, 76 " _fine_, 172 " _polite_, 277 " _tasteful_, 352 element, _part_, 264 " _particle_, 264 elevate, _promote_, 291 elevated, _high_, 198 eliminate, _abstract_, 10 elongate, _protract_, 293 emanate, _rise_, 319 emancipation, _liberty_, 230 embarrass, _abash_, 3 " _hinder_, 199 " _involve_, 223 " _obstruct_, 257 embarrassment, _perplexity_, 270 embellish, _adorn_, 23 _emblem_, 146 " _sign_, 332 embolden, _abet_, 4 embrace, _caress_, 95 embroil, _involve_, 223 emend, _amend_, 41 emergency, _necessity_, 250 _emigrate_, 147 eminence, _fame_, 166 eminent, _high_, 198 emissary, _spy_, 340 emit, _send_, 327 emolument, _profit_, 288 emotion, _sensation_, 328 _employ_, 147 employed, _industrious_, 215 employment, _business_, 88 " _exercise_, 162 " _work_, 374 empty, _vain_, 364 " _vacant_, 363 emulation, _ambition_, 40 enactment, _law_, 229 enchanting, _charming_, 103 enclosure, _boundary_, 84 encomium, _praise_, 280 encounter, _v._, _attack_, _v._, 63 encounter, _n._, _battle_, 74 " _collision_, 109 encourage, _abet_, 4 " _cherish_, 104 " _console_, 117 " _help_, 195 " _promote_, 291 encroachment, _attack_, _n._, 64 encumber, _hinder_, 199 encumbrance, _impediment_, 213 " _load_, 233 _end_, _v._, 148 " _abolish_, 6 " _cease_, 98 _end_, _n._, 148 " _aim_, 26 " _consequence_, 116 " _design_, 128 " _event_, 158 " _reason_, _n._, 302 _endeavor_, _v._, 149 _endeavor_, _n._, 150 " _aim_, 26 endless, _eternal_, 157 endorse, _confess_, 114 endurance, _fortitude_, 176 " _patience_, 265 _endure_, 150 " _abide_, 5 enduring, _permanent_, 269 _enemy_, 151 energetic, _active_, 17 energy, _power_, 279 enforce, _execute_, 161 engage, _bind_, 81 engaged, _industrious_, 215 engagement, _battle_, 74 " _contract_, 118 engaging, _amiable_, 42 engross, _absorb_, 9 " _employ_, 147 enigma, _riddle_, 318 enigmatic, _equivocal_, 155 enigmatical, _equivocal_, 155 " _mysterious_, 247 " _obscure_, 255 enjoy, _admire_, 23 enjoyment, _entertainment_, 153 " _happiness_, 189 enlarge, _add_, 18 " _amplify_, 43 enlighten, _teach_, 353 enlightenment, _wisdom_, 372 enliven, _entertain_, 152 _enmity_, 152 " _feud_, 170 " _hatred_, 193 enormous, _large_, 229 enough, _plentiful_, 276 enrapturing, _charming_, 103 enrolment, _record_, 304 ensample, _example_, 160 ensnare, _catch_, 97 ensue, _follow_, 174 entangle, _involve_, 223 entangled, _complex_, 112 enter, _reach_, 300 _entertain_, 152 " _cherish_, 104 _entertainment_, 153 _enthusiasm_, 153 enthusiastic, _eager_, 142 entice, _allure_, 37 " _draw_, 138 " _persuade_, 271 entire, _radical_, 299 " _perfect_, 268 entomb, _hide_, 197 _entrance_, 154 entrancing, _charming_, 103 entrap, _catch_, 97 entreat, _ask_, 59 " _plead_, 274 " _pray_, 281 entrée, _entrance_, 154 entrust, _commit_, 110 entry, _entrance_, 154 " _record_, 304 enumerate, _calculate_, 90 enumeration, _record_, 304 enunciate, _announce_, 46 " _speak_, 339 _envious_, 155 eon, _time_, 356 eonian, _eternal_, 157 ephemeral, _transient_, 361 episode, _event_, 158 epithet, _name_, 247 epitome, _abridgment_, 7 epoch, _time_, 356 equal, _adequate_, 21 " _alike_, 30 equitable, _honest_, 202 equity, _justice_, 225 equivalent, _alike_, 30 " _synonymous_, 349 _equivocal_, 155 " _precarious_, 282 era, _time_, 356 eradicate, _abolish_, 6 " _exterminate_, 163 erase, _cancel_, 92 err, _wander_, 371 erratic, _queer_, 297 erroneous, _absurd_, 11 error, _delusion_, 127 erudition, _knowledge_, 227 " _wisdom_, 372 espousal, _marriage_, 236 essay, _v._, _endeavor_, _v._, 149 essay, _n._, _endeavor_, _n._, 150 essential, _inherent_, 218 " _necessary_, 250 " _necessity_, 250 " _radical_, 299 " _real_, 301 establish, _confirm_, 114 " _make_, 236 " _reason_, _v._, 302 _esteem_, _v._, 156 " _admire_, 23 _esteem_, _n._, 157 " _attachment_, 63 " _friendship_, 179 esthetic, _tasteful_, 352 esthetical, _tasteful_, 352 estimate, _v._, _calculate_, 90 " _esteem_, _v._, 156 estimate, _n._, _esteem_, _n._, 157 estimation, _attachment_, 63 " _esteem_, _n._, 157 _eternal_, 157 " _infinite_, 216 ethereal, _airy_, 27 eucharist, _sacrament_, 321 eulogy, _praise_, 280 euphony, _meter_, 240 evanescent, _transient_, 361 even, _horizontal_, 202 _event_, 158 " _circumstance_, 105 " _consequence_, 116 everlasting, _eternal_, 157 ever-living, _eternal_, 157 _every_, 158 everyday, _general_, 181 " _usual_, 362 evict, _banish_, 72 evidence, _demonstration_, 127 " _testimony_, 355 _evident_, 159 " _clear_, 107 evil, _a._, _pernicious_, 270 evil, _n._, _abomination_, 7 " _injury_, 219 " _sin_, 332 exact, _minute_, 242 exacting, _absolute_, 8 exaggeration, _caricature_, 95 exalt, _promote_, 291 exalted, _high_, 198 _example_, 160 " _model_, 243 " _precedent_, 282 " _sample_, 323 exasperate, _affront_, 24 exasperation, _anger_, 44 excellence, _virtue_, 370 excellent, _fine_, 172 except, _but_, 89 excerpt, _quote_, 298 _excess_, 160 exchange, _v._, _change_, _v._, 100 exchange, _n._, _sale_, 323 excite, _influence_, 217 " _promote_, 291 excitement, _enthusiasm_, 153 exclaim, _call_, 91 exculpate, _absolve_, 9 exculpation, _apology_, 51 excursion, _journey_, 223 excusable, _venial_, 367 excuse, _apology_, 51 " _pardon_, 262 " _pretense_, 283 execration, _abomination_, 7 " _oath_, 254 _execute_, 161 " _do_, 135 " _kill_, 226 " _make_, 236 execution, _act_, 16 " _operation_, 258 exemplar, _example_, 160 exemplification, _example_, 160 " _sample_, 323 exempt, _absolve_, 9 exemption, _right_, 319 _exercise_, 162 " _act_, 16 exertion, _act_, 16 " _endeavor_, _n._, 150 " _exercise_, 162 " _industry_, 216 " _work_, 374 exhaust, _absorb_, 9 " _tire_, 357 exhausted, _faint_, 164 exhausting, _difficult_, 132 exhibition, _array_, 57 exigency, _necessity_, 250 exile, _banish_, 72 existent, _alive_, 30 existing, _alive_, 30 exonerate, _absolve_, 9 exorbitance, _excess_, 160 expand, _amplify_, 43 expatiate, _amplify_, 43 expatriate, _banish_, 72 expect, _abide_, 5 " _anticipate_, 47 expectancy, _anticipation_, 48 expectation, _anticipation_, 48 expediency, _profit_, 288 " _utility_, 363 expedite, _quicken_, 297 expedition, _journey_, 223 expeditious, _active_, 17 expel, _banish_, 72 " _exterminate_, 163 expenditure, _expense_, 162 " _price_, 285 _expense_, 162 " _price_, 285 experience, _acquaintance_, 15 " _knowledge_, 227 expert, _clever_, 109 " _skilful_, 335 expertness, _dexterity_, 129 " _ease_, 143 " _power_, 279 expiate, _amplify_, 43 expiation, _propitiation_, 291 expiration, _end_, _n._, 148 expire, _die_, 130 " _end_, _v._, 148 explanation, _definition_, 124 _explicit_, 162 " _clear_, 107 exploit, _act_, 16 expose, _discover_, 133 exposition, _definition_, 124 expostulate with, _reprove_, 312 express, _v._, _speak_, 339 " _state_, 341 express, _a._, _explicit_, 162 expression, _air_, 27 " _diction_, 130 " _language_, 228 " _term_, 354 expunge, _cancel_, 92 exquisite, _beautiful_, 76 " _delicious_, 126 " _fine_, 172 " _tasteful_, 352 _extemporaneous_, 163 extemporary, _extemporaneous_, 163 extempore, _extemporaneous_, 163 extend, _add_, 18 " _amplify_, 43 " _protract_, 293 extension, _appendage_, 53 extensive, _large_, 229 extent, _end_, _n._, 148 extenuate, _palliate_, 261 _exterminate_, 163 " _abolish_, 6 extinguish, _subvert_, 346 extirpate, _abolish_, 6 " _exterminate_, 163 extol, _admire_, 23 extract, _quote_, 298 extraordinary, _queer_, 297 " _rare_, 300 extravagance, _enthusiasm_, 153 " _excess_, 160 extravaganza, _caricature_, 95 extreme, _radical_, 299 extremity, _end_, _n._, 148 " _necessity_, 250 exuberant, _plentiful_, 276 fabianism, _socialism_, 338 fable, _allegory_, 33 " _fiction_, 170 fabricate, _make_, 236 fabrication, _deception_, 123 " _fiction_, 170 facetiousness, _wit_, 373 facilitate, _quicken_, 297 facility, _ease_, 143 facsimile, _duplicate_, 141 " _model_, 243 fact, _circumstance_, 105 " _event_, 158 faction, _cabal_, 90 factious, _perverse_, 272 factor, _agent_, 24 faculty, _power_, 279 fade, _die_, 130 faded, _faint_, 164 fadeless, _eternal_, 157 fag, _tire_, 357 failure, _misfortune_, 242 " _neglect_, 251 _faint_, 164 faint-hearted, _faint_, 164 fainting, _stupor_, 344 fair, _beautiful_, 76 " _candid_, 93 " _honest_, 202 fairness, _justice_, 225 fair play, _justice_, 225 fairylike, _airy_, 27 _faith_, 164 " _religion_, 307 " article of, _doctrine_, 136 _faithful_, 165 " _honest_, 202 faithfulness, _allegiance_, 32 " _justice_, 225 " _virtue_, 370 fall, _happen_, 188 fallacy, _delusion_, 127 fall out, _happen_, 188 fall upon, _attack_, _v._, 63 false, _absurd_, 11 falsehood, _deception_, 123 " _fiction_, 170 faltering, _faint_, 164 _fame_, 166 familiar, _general_, 181 " _usual_, 362 familiarity, _acquaintance_, 15 " _association_, 60 family, _kin_, 227 _fanaticism_, 166 " _enthusiasm_, 153 _fanciful_, 167 _fancy_, 167 " _dream_, 139 " _idea_, 206 " _imagination_, 209 fantastic, _fanciful_, 167 " _queer_, 297 fantasy, _dream_, 139 " _idea_, 206 " _imagination_, 209 fare, _food_, 175 _farewell_, 168 farming, _agriculture_, 25 fascinating, _charming_, 103 fashion, _v._, _make_, 236 fashion, _n._, _air_, 27 " _habit_, 187 fasten, _bind_, 81 fastening, _lock_, 234 fastidious, _tasteful_, 352 fasting, _abstinence_, 10 fastness, _fortification_, 176 fatality, _necessity_, 250 fate, _necessity_, 250 " _predestination_, 282 fatigue, _tire_, 357 fatigued, _faint_, 164 fatuity, _idiocy_, 207 fault, _blemish_, 82 " _sin_, 332 faultless, _innocent_, 220 " _perfect_, 268 fauna, _animal_, 45 favor, _n._, _esteem_, _n._, 157 " _friendship_, 179 " _mercy_, 239 favorable, _friendly_, 178 " _propitious_, 291 favored, _fortunate_, 177 fealty, _allegiance_, 32 _fear_, 168 " _alarm_, 28 " _anxiety_, 49 fearful, _awful_, 70 fearless, _brave_, 85 feat, _act_, 16 feature, _characteristic_, 103 " _circumstance_, 105 federation, _alliance_, 34 " _association_, 60 fee, _pay_, 266 feeble, _faint_, 164 feed, _food_, 175 feeling, _sensation_, 328 " _sensibility_, 328 feign, _assume_, 61 felicitate, _congratulate_, 115 felicitous, _happy_, 190 felicity, _happiness_, 189 fellow, _associate_, 60 fellowship, _acquaintance_, 15 " _association_, 60 felonious, _criminal_, 120 female, _feminine_, 169 _feminine_, 169 ferocious, _fierce_, 171 ferret out, _discover_, 133 fervency, _enthusiasm_, 153 fervent, _eager_, 142 fervor, _enthusiasm_, 153 fetter, _v._, _bind_, 81 _fetter_, _n._, 169 _feud_, 170 _fiction_, 170 " _allegory_, 33 fidgety, _restive_, 314 _fierce_, 171 fiery, _fierce_, 171 fight, _battle_, 74 figment, _fiction_, 170 figure, _emblem_, 146 fill, _satisfy_, 324 final cause, _design_, 128 finale, _end_, _n._, 148 _financial_, 172 find, _discover_, 133 find fault, _complain_, 112 find fault with, _reprove_, 312 find out, _discover_, 133 _fine_, 172 " _beautiful_, 76 " _minute_, 242 " _tasteful_, 352 finesse, _artifice_, 58 " _deception_, 123 finis, _end_, _n._, 148 finish, _v._, _cease_, 98 " _do_, 135 " _end_, _v._, 148 finish, _n._, _end_, _n._, 148 finished, _perfect_, 268 _fire_, 173 fireside, _home_, 201 firm, _faithful_, 165 " _obstinate_, 256 fiscal, _financial_, 172 fit, _adequate_, 21 " _becoming_, 77 fitted, _adequate_, 21 fitting, _adequate_, 21 " _becoming_, 77 fix, _bind_, 81 " _confirm_, 114 fixed, _obstinate_, 256 " _permanent_, 269 flagitious, _criminal_, 120 flame, _burn_, 87 " _fire_, 173 " _light_, 231 flap, _shake_, 330 flare, _light_, 231 flash, _burn_, 87 " _light_, 231 flat, _horizontal_, 202 flatter, _caress_, 95 flattery, _praise_, 280 flavorous, _racy_, 299 flaw, _blemish_, 82 fleeting, _transient_, 361 flicker, _light_, 231 flight, _career_, 95 fling, _send_, 327 " _sneer_, 337 flippancy, _pertness_, 271 flitting, _transient_, 361 _flock_, 173 flog, _beat_, 75 floriculture, _agriculture_, 25 flourish, _v._, _succeed_, 346 flourish, _n._, _ostentation_, 269 flow, _rise_, 319 _fluctuate_, 173 " _shake_, 330 _fluid_, 174 flutter, _shake_, 330 flying, _transient_, 361 fodder, _food_, 175 foe, _enemy_, 157 foil, _hinder_, 199 _follow_, 174 follower, _accessory_, 13 " _adherent_, 21 folly, _idiocy_, 207 foment, _promote_, 291 fond, _friendly_, 178 fondle, _caress_, 95 fondness, _love_, 235 _food_, 175 foolhardiness, _temerity_, 353 foolish, _absurd_, 11 foolishness, _idiocy_, 207 footmark, _trace_, 359 footpad, _robber_, 320 footprint, _trace_, 359 footstep, _trace_, 359 for, _because_, 77 forage, _food_, 175 forager, _robber_, 320 forbearance, _mercy_, 239 " _pardon_, 262 " _patience_, 265 forbid, _prohibit_, 290 force, _v._, _compel_, 111 " _make_, 236 force, _n._, _army_, 56 " _operation_, 258 " _power_, 279 forces, _army_, 56 forcible, _racy_, 299 forebode, _augur_, 66 foreboding, _anticipation_, 48 " _anxiety_, 49 forecast, _v._, _anticipate_, 47 forecast, _n._, _anticipation_, 48 " _prudence_, 294 forego, _abandon_, 1 foregoing, _previous_, 285 foreign, _alien_, _a._, 29 foreigner, _alien_, _n._, 29 foreknowledge, _predestination_, 282 foreordination, _predestination_, 282 foresight, _anticipation_, 48 " _prudence_, 294 " _wisdom_, 372 forestall, _prevent_, 284 foretaste, _v._, _anticipate_, 47 foretaste, _n._, _anticipation_, 48 foretell, _augur_, 66 forethought, _anticipation_, 48 " _care_, 94 " _prudence_, 294 forgive, _absolve_, 9 " _pardon_, 262 forgiveness, _mercy_, 239 " _pardon_, 262 forgiving, _humane_, 203 form, _body_, 84 formalism, _hypocrisy_, 204 former, _previous_, 285 _formidable_, 176 form or system of government, _polity_, 278 formula, _law_, 229 forsake, _abandon_, 1 forswear, _abandon_, 1 " _renounce_, 309 fort, _fortification_, 176 forthwith, _immediately_, 211 _fortification_, 176 _fortitude_, 176 " _patience_, 265 fortress, _defense_, 123 " _fortification_, 176 fortuity, _accident_, 14 " _hazard_, 194 _fortunate_, 177 " _happy_, 190 fortune, _event_, 158 forward, _v._, _promote_, 291 " _send_, 327 forward, _a._, _previous_, 285 forwardness, _impudence_, 213 " _pertness_, 271 foster, _cherish_, 104 " _help_, 195 " _promote_, 291 foul, _pernicious_, 270 fount, _beginning_, 78 fountain, _beginning_, 78 " _cause_, 98 fraction, _part_, 264 fractious, _perverse_, 272 " _restive_, 314 fracture, _break_, 86 fragment, _part_, 264 frame, _body_, 84 " _make_, 236 franchise, _right_, 319 frank, _bluff_, 83 " _candid_, 93 " _honest_, 202 frankness, _veracity_, 367 fraternity, _association_, 60 _fraud_, 177 " _artifice_, 58 " _deception_, 123 fray, _feud_, 170 free, _absolve_, 9 " _generous_, 182 " _spontaneous_, 340 freebooter, _robber_, 320 freedom, _liberty_, 230 free-handed, _generous_, 182 free-hearted, _generous_, 182 freethinker, _skeptic_, 334 freight, _load_, 233 frenzy, _enthusiasm_, 153 " _insanity_, 221 frequent, _general_, 181 " _usual_, 362 fresh, _new_, 252 fretful, _restive_, 314 fretfulness, _anger_, 44 " _anxiety_, 49 fretting, _anxiety_, 49 friend, _associate_, 60 friendliness, _friendship_, 179 _friendly_, 178 " _propitious_, 291 _friendship_, 179 " _acquaintance_, 15 " _association_, 60 " _attachment_, 63 " _love_, 235 fright, _alarm_, 28 " _fear_, 168 _frighten_, 180 frightful, _awful_, 70 frisky, _restive_, 314 frolic, _entertainment_, 153 frolicsome, _airy_, 27 frontier, _boundary_, 84 front, _previous_, 285 froward, _perverse_, 272 _frugality_, 180 " _abstinence_, 10 " _prudence_, 294 fruit, _harvest_, 192 fruitless, _vain_, 364 frustrate, _hinder_, 199 fugitive, _transient_, 361 fulfil, _do_, 135 " _keep_, 226 fulfilment, _end_, _n._, 148 full, _plentiful_, 276 fun, _entertainment_, 153 " _wit_, 373 function, _duty_, 142 fundamental, _radical_, 299 funds, _money_, 244 funny, _queer_, 297 furious, _fierce_, 171 furnish, _give_, 185 further, _v._, _promote_, 291 " _quicken_, 297 further, _adv._, _but_, 89 " _yet_, 374 fury, _anger_, 44 fusion, _alliance_, 34 futile, _vain_, 364 gabble, _babble_, 71 gage, _security_, 326 gaiety, _happiness_, 189 " _harmony_, 191 gain, _attain_, 64 " _get_, 183 " _profit_, 288 " _reach_, 300 gallant, _brave_, 85 gallantry, _prowess_, 294 gang, _cabal_, 90 garb, _dress_, 140 gardening, _agriculture_, 25 garments, _dress_, 140 garnish, _adorn_, 23 _garrulous_, 181 gas, _fluid_, 174 gate, _entrance_, 154 gateway, _entrance_, 154 gather, _amass_, 38 " _convoke_, 120 gathering, _company_, 110 gauzy, _fine_, 172 gawky, _awkward_, 70 gay, _airy_, 27 " _happy_, 190 gaze, _look_, 234 _gender_, 181 _general_, 181 " _usual_, 362 generosity, _benevolence_, 80 _generous_, 182 " _plentiful_, 276 genial, _comfortable_, 110 " _friendly_, 178 _genius_, 183 " _character_, 102 genteel, _polite_, 277 gentle, _amiable_, 42 " _docile_, 136 " _humane_, 203 gentleness, _mercy_, 239 genuine, _authentic_, 67 " _honest_, 202 " _pure_, 296 " _real_, 301 _get_, 183 " _attain_, 64 " _make_, 236 " _purchase_, 295 get to, _reach_, 300 gibe, _sneer_, 337 _gift_, 184 " _subsidy_, 345 gifted, _clever_, 109 gigantic, _large_, 229 gild, _adorn_, 23 girlish, _youthful_, 375 _give_, 185 " _allot_, 34 " _convey_, 119 " _surrender_, 349 give instruction, _teach_, 353 give lessons, _teach_, 353 given, _addicted_, 19 given over _or_ up, _addicted_, 19 give notice of, _announce_, 46 give oneself up, _surrender_, 349 give out, _announce_, 46 give over, _cease_, 98 " _surrender_, 349 give up, _abandon_, 1 " _surrender_, 349 glad, _happy_, 190 gladness, _happiness_, 189 glance, _look_, 234 glare, _light_, 231 glaring, _evident_, 159 gleam, _light_, 231 gleaming, _light_, 231 glimmer, _light_, 231 glistening, _light_, 231 glistering, _light_, 231 glitter, _light_, 231 gloomy, _dark_, 122 " _morose_, 245 glory, _fame_, 166 gloss over, _palliate_, 261 glow, _light_, 231 glowing, _eager_, 142 glut, _satisfy_, 324 glutinous, _adhesive_, 22 goal, _aim_, 26 " _end_, _n._, 148 go after, _follow_, 174 go astray, _wander_, 371 godliness, _religion_, 307 gold, _money_, 244 good, _honest_, 202 " _profit_, 288 good-by, _farewell_, 168 good-natured, _amiable_, 42 " _pleasant_, 275 goodness, _virtue_, 370 good will, _benevolence_, 80 " _friendship_, 179 gossip, _babble_, 71 _govern_, 185 government, form or system of, _polity_, 278 government, seat of, _capital_, 94 grace, _mercy_, 239 _graceful_, 186 " _beautiful_, 76 " _becoming_, 77 gracious, _humane_, 203 " _polite_, 277 " _propitious_, 291 grade, _class_, 106 gradual, _slow_, 337 grain, _particle_, 264 grand, _awful_, 70 " _large_, 229 grant, _allot_, 34 " _allow_, 35 " _apportion_, 54 " _confess_, 114 " _gift_, 184 " _give_, 185 " _subsidy_, 345 grasp, _attain_, 64 " _catch_, 97 grateful, _delightful_, 126 gratification, _happiness_, 189 gratify, _entertain_, 152 gratifying, _delightful_, 126 gratuity, _gift_, 184 gray, _old_, 257 great, _large_, 229 greedy, _avaricious_, 68 greet, _address_, _v._, 19 _grief_, 187 grievance, _injustice_, 220 grieve, _mourn_, 246 grip, _catch_, 97 gripe, _catch_, 97 grotesque, _fanciful_, 167 " _queer_, 297 ground, _reason_, _n._, 302 group, _company_, 110 " _flock_, 173 growl, _complain_, 112 growth, _harvest_, 192 " _progress_, 289 grudge, _hatred_, 193 " _pique_, 272 gruff, _morose_, 245 grumble, _complain_, 112 grunt, _complain_, 112 guard, _v._, _keep_, 226 guard, _n._, _defense_, 123 " _shelter_, 331 guess, _hypothesis_, 205 " _suppose_, 348 guile, _artifice_, 58 " _deception_, 123 guileless, _candid_, 93 " _innocent_, 220 " _pure_, 296 guilt, _sin_, 332 guiltless, _innocent_, 220 " _pure_, 296 guilty, _criminal_, 120 gummy, _adhesive_, 22 gyves, _fetter_, 169 habiliments, _dress_, 140 _habit_, 187 " _dress_, 140 habitation, _home_, 201 habitual, _general_, 181 " _usual_, 362 habituated, _addicted_, 19 habitude, _habit_, 187 hail, _address_, _v._, 19 hale, _healthy_, 195 half-hearted, _faint_, 164 hallowed, _holy_, 200 hallucination, _delusion_, 127 " _dream_, 139 " _insanity_, 221 hamper, _hinder_, 199 handcuffs, _fetter_, 169 handicraft, _business_, 88 handsome, _beautiful_, 76 " _fine_, 172 handy, _skilful_, 335 hankering, _desire_, 128 hap, _accident_, 14 _happen_, 188 happening, _accident_, 14 _happiness_, 189 _happy_, 190 " _clever_, 109 " _fortunate_, 177 " _skilful_, 335 harangue, _speech_, 339 harass, _tire_, 357 harbor, _cherish_, 104 " _shelter_, 331 hard, _difficult_, 132 " _severe_, 329 hardihood, _temerity_, 353 " _effrontery_, 144 hardship, _misfortune_, 242 hark, _listen_, 232 harken, _listen_, 232 harm, _v._, _abuse_, 12 harm, _n._, _injury_, 219 " _misfortune_, 242 harmful, _pernicious_, 270 harmonize, _agree_, 25 _harmony_, 191 " _melody_, 238 harness, _arms_, 55 " _caparison_, 93 harsh, _bitter_, 81 " _severe_, 329 harshness, _acrimony_, 15 _harvest_, 192 harvest-feast, _harvest_, 192 harvest-festival, _harvest_, 192 harvest-home, _harvest_, 192 harvesting, _harvest_, 192 harvest-tide, _harvest_, 192 harvest-time, _harvest_, 192 hasp, _lock_, 234 hasten, _quicken_, 297 hastiness, _temerity_, 353 hatch, _flock_, 173 hate, _abhor_, 5 " _hatred_, 193 _hatred_, 193 " _abomination_, 7 " _antipathy_, 48 " _enmity_, 152 haughtiness, _pride_, 286 haughty, _absolute_, 8 haul, _draw_, 138 _have_, 194 havoc, _massacre_, 237 _hazard_, 194 " _accident_, 14 " _danger_, 121 hazardous, _precarious_, 282 head, _topic_, 359 headstrong, _obstinate_, 256 heady, _obstinate_, 256 heal, _recover_, 305 healthful, _healthy_, 195 _healthy_, 195 heap up, _amass_, 38 hear, _listen_, 232 hearth, _home_, 201 hearthstone, _home_, 201 hearty, _friendly_, 178 " _healthy_, 195 heed, _v._, _follow_, 174 " _listen_, 232 heed, _n._, _care_, 94 heedless, _abstracted_, 11 heedlessness, _neglect_, 251 " _temerity_, 353 heel over, _tip_, 357 _help_, 195 " _promote_, 291 helper, _accessory_, 13 " _auxiliary_, 67 helpmate, _associate_, 60 hence, _therefore_, 355 henchman, _accessory_, 13 herald, _announce_, 46 herd, _flock_, 173 heresiarch, _heretic_, 196 _heretic_, 196 heroic, _brave_, 85 heroism, _fortitude_, 176 " _prowess_, 294 hesitancy, _doubt_, _n._, 138 hesitate, _fluctuate_, 173 hesitation, _doubt_, _n._, 138 _heterogeneous_, 196 " _complex_, 112 hidden, _mysterious_, 247 " _obscure_, 255 _hide_, 197 " _palliate_, 261 _high_, 198 " _steep_, 342 highroad, _way_, 372 highway, _way_, 372 highwayman, _robber_, 320 _hinder_, 199 " _obstruct_, 257 " _prohibit_, 290 " _restrain_, 315 hindrance, _barrier_, 74 " _impediment_, 213 hint, _allude_, 36 " _suggestion_, 347 hire, _v._, _employ_, 147 hire, _n._, _pay_, 266 hireling, _venal_, 365 _history_, 200 " _record_, 304 hitherto, _yet_, 374 hoard, _amass_, 38 hoary, _old_, 257 hoidenish, _rustic_, 321 hold, _arrest_, 57 " _esteem_, _v._, 156 " _have_, 194 " _keep_, 226 " _restrain_, 315 hold back, _restrain_, 315 hold dear, _cherish_, 104 hold in, _restrain_, 315 hold up, _support_, 348 holiness, _religion_, 307 _holy_, 200 " _perfect_, 268 " _pure_, 296 homage, _allegiance_, 32 _home_, 201 homogeneous, _alike_, 30 _honest_, 202 " _candid_, 93 honesty, _veracity_, 367 " _virtue_, 370 honor, _v._, _admire_, 23 " _venerate_, 366 honor, _n._, _fame_, 166 " _justice_, 225 " _virtue_, 370 honorable, _honest_, 202 honorarium, _pay_, 266 hook, _lock_, 234 hope, _v._, _anticipate_, 47 hope, _n._, _anticipation_, 48 hopelessness, _despair_, 129 _horizontal_, 202 horrible, _awful_, 70 horrific, _awful_, 70 horror, _abomination_, 7 " _fear_, 168 horticulture, _agriculture_, 25 host, _army_, 56 " _company_, 110 " _throng_, 356 hostile, _alien_, _a._, 29 hostility, _antipathy_, 48 " _enmity_, 152 " _feud_, 170 " _hatred_, 193 hot, _eager_, 142 house, _home_, 201 housings, _caparison_, 93 howbeit, _notwithstanding_, _conj._, 254 however, _but_, 89 " _notwithstanding_, _conj._, 254 huge, _large_, 229 hum, _sing_, 333 human, _humane_, 203 _humane_, 203 humanity, _benevolence_, 80 humble, _abase_, 2 " _abash_, 3 " _chasten_, 103 " _conquer_, 115 humiliate, _abase_, 2 " _abash_, 3 humiliation, _chagrin_, 100 humor, _fancy_, 167 " _wit_, 373 _hunt_, 203 hunting, _hunt_, 203 hurl, _send_, 327 hurry, _quicken_, 297 hurt, _injury_, 219 hurtful, _pernicious_, 270 husbandry, _agriculture_, 25 hygienic, _healthy_, 195 _hypocrisy_, 204 " _deception_, 123 _hypocrite_, 204 _hypothesis_, 205 _idea_, 206 " _fancy_, 167 " _ideal_, 206 _ideal_, 206 " _example_, 160 " _idea_, 206 " _perfect_, 268 identical, _alike_, 30 " _synonymous_, 349 _idiocy_, 207 idiom, _language_, 228 _idle_, 208 " _vain_, 364 ignite, _burn_, 87 _ignorant_, 208 " _brutish_, 87 ill, _misfortune_, 242 ill-advised, _absurd_, 11 ill-considered, _absurd_, 11 ill-defined, _faint_, 164 ill-doing, _sin_, 332 illegal, _criminal_, 120 ill-fortune, _misfortune_, 242 ill-humored, _morose_, 245 illimitable, _infinite_, 216 ill-informed, _ignorant_, 208 illiterate, _ignorant_, 208 ill-judged, _absurd_, 11 ill luck, _misfortune_, 242 ill-matched, _incongruous_, 214 ill-natured, _morose_, 245 illness, _disease_, 134 ill-treat, _abuse_, 12 illumination, _light_, 231 ill-use, _abuse_, 12 illusion, _delusion_, 127 illustrate, _adorn_, 23 illustration, _allegory_, 33 " _sample_, 323 ill-will, _enmity_, 152 " _hatred_, 193 image, _emblem_, 146 " _fancy_, 167 " _idea_, 206 " _model_, 243 _imagination_, 209 " _idea_, 206 " _fancy_, 167 imaginative, _fanciful_, 167 imagine, _suppose_, 348 imbecility, _idiocy_, 207 imbibe, _absorb_, 9 imbruted, _brutish_, 87 imitate, _follow_, 174 imitation, _caricature_, 95 " _duplicate_, 141 " _model_, 243 immaculate, _innocent_, 220 " _perfect_, 268 " _pure_, 296 immanent, _inherent_, 218 immature, _youthful_, 375 immeasurable, _infinite_, 216 _immediately_, 211 immemorial, _old_, 257 " _primeval_, 287 immense, _large_, 229 immerge, _immerse_, 212 _immerse_, 212 immigrate, _emigrate_, 147 _imminent_, 212 immobility, _apathy_, 50 immoral, _criminal_, 120 immorality, _sin_, 332 immortal, _eternal_, 157 immovable, _obstinate_, 256 immunity, _right_, 319 immutable, _permanent_, 269 impact, _collision_, 109 impairment, _injury_, 219 impart, _give_, 185 impartial, _candid_, 93 impartiality, _justice_, 225 impassibility, _apathy_, 50 impatience, _anger_, 44 impatient, _eager_, 142 " _restive_, 314 impeach, _arraign_, 56 impede, _hinder_, 199 " _obstruct_, 257 _impediment_, 213 impel, _drive_, 140 " _influence_, 217 " _persuade_, 271 " _send_, 327 impending, _imminent_, 212 imperative, _absolute_, 8 imperfection, _blemish_, 82 imperious, _absolute_, 8 " _dogmatic_, 137 imperishable, _eternal_, 157 impertinence, _impudence_, 213 " _pertness_, 271 impertinent, _alien_, _a._, 29 " _meddlesome_, 238 imperturbable, _calm_, 91 impetuous, _eager_, 142 " _fierce_, 171 implement, _tool_, 358 implicate, _involve_, 223 implication, _suggestion_, 347 implore, _ask_, 59 " _plead_, 274 " _pray_, 281 imply, _allude_, 36 " _involve_, 223 impolite, _bluff_, 83 importunate, _eager_, 142 importune, _pray_, 281 impose on, _abuse_, 12 imposing, _awful_, 70 imposition, _deception_, 123 " _fraud_, 177 impostor, _hypocrite_, 204 imposture, _artifice_, 58 " _fraud_, 177 imprecation, _oath_, 254 impressibility, _sensibility_, 328 impression, _idea_, 206 " _trace_, 359 imprisonment, _fetter_, 169 impromptu, _extemporaneous_, 163 improve, _amend_, 41 improvement, _profit_, 288 " _progress_, 289 improvised, _extemporaneous_, 163 _impudence_, 213 " _assurance_, 61 " _effrontery_, 144 " _pertness_, 271 impulse, _appetite_, 54 impulsive, _spontaneous_, 340 impute, _attribute_, _v._, 65 inactive, _idle_, 208 " _slow_, 337 in addition, _also_, 37 inadvertence, _neglect_, 251 inapposite, _incongruous_, 214 inappropriate, _alien_, _a._, 29 " _incongruous_, 214 inasmuch as, _because_, 77 inattention, _neglect_, 251 inattentive, _abstracted_, 11 inauguration, _beginning_, 78 inborn, _inherent_, 218 inbred, _inherent_, 218 incandescence, _light_, 231 incapacity, _idiocy_, 207 inception, _beginning_, 78 incessant, _continual_, 117 incident, _accident_, 14 " _circumstance_, 105 " _event_, 158 " _story_, 343 incinerate, _burn_, 87 " _influence_, 217 incipience, _beginning_, 78 incite, _abet_, 4 " _persuade_, 271 incivility, _impudence_, 213 inclination, _aim_, 26 " _appetite_, 54 " _attachment_, 63 " _desire_, 128 " _direction_, 132 " _fancy_, 167 incline, _bend_, 79 " _draw_, 138 " _influence_, 217 " _persuade_, 271 " _tip_, 357 inclined, _addicted_, 19 include, _involve_, 223 incommensurable, _incongruous_, 214 incomparable, _rare_, 300 incompatible, _incongruous_, 214 incomprehensible, _mysterious_, 247 " _obscure_, 255 inconclusive, _absurd_, 11 _incongruous_, 214 inconsiderate, _bluff_, 83 inconsistency, _difference_, 131 inconsistent, _incongruous_, 214 inconstant, _vain_, 364 incorrect, _absurd_, 11 incorrupt, _pure_, 296 incorruptible, _faithful_, 165 increase, _add_, 18 " _amplify_, 43 " _harvest_, 192 " _progress_, 289 incredulity, _doubt_, _n._, 138 incubus, _load_, 233 inculcate, _teach_, 353 incursion, _attack_, _n._, 64 indecision, _doubt_, _n._, 138 indefinite, _equivocal_, 155 indemnity, _subsidy_, 345 independence, _liberty_, 230 indeterminate, _equivocal_, 155 indicate, _allude_, 36 indication, _characteristic_, 103 " _sign_, 332 indict, _arraign_, 56 indifference, _apathy_, 50 " _neglect_, 251 indifferent, _abstracted_, 11 indigence, _poverty_, 279 indigenous, _native_, 248 " _primeval_, 287 indignation, _anger_, 44 indispensable, _inherent_, 218 indispensability, _necessity_, 250 indispensable, _necessary_, 250 indispensableness, _necessity_, 250 indisposed, _reluctant_, 308 indisposition, _disease_, 134 indistinct, _equivocal_, 155 " _faint_, 164 " _obscure_, 255 individually, _apiece_, 51 indoctrinate, _teach_, 353 indolent, _idle_, 208 indomitable, _obstinate_, 256 indubitable, _evident_, 159 induce, _draw_, 138 " _influence_, 217 " _persuade_, 271 _induction_, 215 " _demonstration_, 127 _industrious_, 215 " _active_, 17 _industry_, 216 indwelling, _inherent_, 218 ineffectual, _vain_, 364 inelegant, _rustic_, 321 inequality, _difference_, 131 inert, _idle_, 208 " _slow_, 337 inevitable, _necessary_, 250 inexorable, _severe_, 329 inexplicable, _mysterious_, 247 infallible, _necessary_, 250 infatuated, _absurd_, 11 infect, _defile_, 124 infection, _contagion_, 117 inference, _demonstration_, 127 " _induction_, 215 infidel, _skeptic_, 334 infirmity, _disease_, 134 _infinite_, 216 infixed, _inherent_, 218 inflexible, _severe_, 329 " _obstinate_, 256 _influence_, 217 " _bend_, 79 " _govern_, 185 " _operation_, 258 " _persuade_, 271 inform, _state_, 341 " _teach_, 353 information, _education_, 143 " _knowledge_, 227 " _wisdom_, 372 informed, _conscious_, 116 infrequent, _rare_, 300 infringement, _attack_, _n._, 64 ingathering, _harvest_, 192 ingenious, _clever_, 109 " _skilful_, 335 ingenuity, _address_, _n._, 20 ingenuous, _candid_, 93 " _honest_, 202 ingenuousness, _veracity_, 367 ingleside, _home_, 201 ingrained, _inherent_, 218 " _radical_, 299 ingredient, _part_, 264 ingress, _entrance_, 154 inhabit, _abide_, 5 inharmonious, _incongruous_, 214 _inherent_, 218 inhering, _inherent_, 218 inhibit, _prohibit_, 290 inhuman, _barbarous_, 73 iniquitous, _criminal_, 120 iniquity, _abomination_, 7 " _injustice_, 220 " _sin_, 332 initiate, _teach_, 353 initiation, beginning, 78 injunction, _order_, 258 injure, _abuse_, 12 injurious, _pernicious_, 270 _injury_, 219 " _blemish_, 82 " _injustice_, 220 _injustice_, 220 " _injury_, 219 inlet, _entrance_, 154 in like manner, _also_, 37 innate, _inherent_, 218 " _native_, 248 " _radical_, 299 _innocent_, 220 " _candid_, 93 " _pure_, 296 innocuous, _innocent_, 220 innovation, _change_, _n._, 101 innoxious, _innocent_, 220 innuendo, _suggestion_, 347 innumerable, _infinite_, 216 inoffensive, _innocent_, 220 inquiring, _inquisitive_, 221 inquisition, _hunt_, 203 _inquisitive_, 221 insalubrious, _pernicious_, 270 _insanity_, 221 inscription, _record_, 304 inscrutable, _mysterious_, 247 insecure, _precarious_, 282 insecurity, _danger_, 121 insensibility, _apathy_, 50 " _stupidity_, 344 " _stupor_, 344 insensible, _brutish_, 87 inseparable, _inherent_, 218 insight, _acumen_, 18 " _wisdom_, 372 insinuate, _allude_, 36 insinuation, _suggestion_, 347 insolence, _effrontery_, 144 " _impudence_, 213 " _pride_, 286 inspect, _look_, 234 inspection, _oversight_, 260 inspiration, _enthusiasm_, 153 in spite of, _notwithstanding_, _prep._, 254 instalment, _part_, 264 instance, _precedent_, 282 " _sample_, 323 instanter, _immediately_, 211 instantly, _immediately_, 211 instigate, _abet_, 4 " _influence_, 217 instill, _teach_, 353 instinct, _mind_, 241 instinctive, _spontaneous_, 340 instruct, _teach_, 353 instruction, _education_, 143 " _order_, 258 instrument, _agent_, 24 " _record_, 304 " _tool_, 358 insubordinate, _rebellious_, 304 insubordination, _revolution_, 317 insult, _affront_, 24 insurrection, _revolution_, 317 integrity, _justice_, 225 " _virtue_, 370 intellect, _mind_, 241 intellectual, _clever_, 109 intelligence, _knowledge_, 227 " _mind_, 241 intelligent, _clever_, 109 " _sagacious_, 322 intelligible, _clear_, 107 intemperance, _excess_, 160 intense, _eager_, 142 intensity, _enthusiasm_, 153 intent, _a._, _eager_, 142 intent, _n._, _aim_, 26 " _design_, 128 " _end_, _n._, 148 intention, _aim_, 26 " _design_, 128 intentness, _industry_, 216 inter, _hide_, 197 intercede, _interpose_, 222 intercept, _interpose_, 222 interchangeable, _mutual_, 246 " _synonymous_, 349 intercourse, _conversation_, 118 interdict, _prohibit_, 290 interest, _entertain_, 152 interfere, _interpose_, 222 intermeddle, _interpose_, 222 interminable, _eternal_, 157 " _infinite_, 216 intermission, _rest_, 313 intermit, _cease_, 98 internal, _inherent_, 218 _interpose_, 222 interpretation, _definition_, 124 interrupt, _hinder_, 199 " _interpose_, 222 " _obstruct_, 257 in the midst of, _amid_, 42 intimacy, _acquaintance_, 15 intimate, _allude_, 36 intimation, _suggestion_, 347 intimidate, _frighten_, 180 intolerance, _fanaticism_, 166 intractable, _obstinate_, 256 " _perverse_, 272 " _rebellious_, 304 " _restive_, 314 intrepid, _brave_, 85 intrepidity, _prowess_, 294 intricate, _complex_, 112 " _obscure_, 255 intrinsic, _inherent_, 218 introduce, _allege_, 31 introduction, _entrance_, 154 introductory, _previous_, 285 intrusion, _attack_, _n._, 64 intrusive, _inquisitive_, 221 " _meddlesome_, 238 intrusiveness, _impudence_, 213 intuition, _knowledge_, 227 intuitive, _transcendental_, 361 invade, _attack_, _v._, 63 invariable, _continual_, 117 " _permanent_, 269 invasion, _attack_, _n._, 64 inveigle, _allure_, 37 invent, _discover_, 133 invention, _artifice_, 58 " _fiction_, 170 inventory, _record_, 304 invoke, _pray_, 281 involuntary, _spontaneous_, 340 _involve_, 223 involved, _complex_, 112 " _obscure_, 255 inwrought, _inherent_, 218 iota, _particle_, 264 irate, _bitter_, 81 ire, _anger_, 44 irons, _fetter_, 169 irony, _banter_, 73 irrational, _absurd_, 11 irreconcilable, _incongruous_, 214 irresolute, _faint_, 164 irresolution, _doubt_, _n._, 138 irresponsible, _absolute_, 8 irrelevant, _alien_, _a._, 29 irritate, _affront_, 24 irritation, _anger_, 44 " _pique_, 272 issue, _v._, _rise_, 318 issue, _n._, _consequence_, 116 " _end_, _n._, 148 " _event_, 158 " _topic_, 359 item, _circumstance_, 105 jabber, _babble_, 71 jade, _tire_, 357 jam, _throng_, 356 jar, _shake_, 330 jealous, _envious_, 155 jeer, _sneer_, 337 jeering, _banter_, 73 jeopardy, _danger_, 121 " _hazard_, 194 jest, _wit_, 373 job, _business_, 88 jocularity, _wit_, 373 jocund, _happy_, 190 joggle, _shake_, 330 join on, _add_, 18 joint, _mutual_, 246 joke, _wit_, 373 jolly, _happy_, 190 jolt, _shake_, 330 jot, _particle_, 264 jounce, _shake_, 330 _journey_, 223 joy, _happiness_, 189 joyful, _happy_, 190 joyous, _airy_, 27 " _happy_, 190 _judge_, 224 judgment, _idea_, 206 " _prudence_, 294 " _wisdom_, 372 judicious, _sagacious_, 322 judiciousness, _prudence_, 294 " _wisdom_, 372 jumble, _displace_, 135 junction, _union_, 362 juncture, _union_, 362 junto, _cabal_, 90 jurisprudence, _law_, 229 just, _a._, _honest_, 202 just, _adv._, _but_, 89 _justice_, 225 " _judge_, 224 " _virtue_, 370 justification, _apology_, 51 " _defense_, 123 justness, _justice_, 225 juvenile, _new_, 252 " _youthful_, 375 keen, _astute_, 62 " _clever_, 109 " _eager_, 142 " _fine_, 172 " _sagacious_, 322 keenness, _acumen_, 18 keen-sighted, _sagacious_, 322 keen-witted, _sagacious_, 322 _keep_, 226 " _celebrate_, 99 " _restrain_, 315 " _support_, 348 keep back, _restrain_, 315 keep down, _restrain_, 315 keep in, _restrain_, 315 keep under, _restrain_, 315 keep up, _support_, 348 _kill_, 226 _kin_, 227 kind, _amiable_, 42 " _friendly_, 178 " _humane_, 203 " _kin_, 227 " _pleasant_, 275 " _propitious_, 291 kind-hearted, _humane_, 203 kind-heartedness, _benevolence_, 80 kindle, _burn_, 87 kindliness, _benevolence_, 80 kindly, _friendly_, 178 " _pleasant_, 275 " _propitious_, 291 kindness, _benevolence_, 80 " _mercy_, 239 kindred, _a._, _alike_, 30 kindred, _n._, _kin_, 227 kinglike, _royal_, 320 kingly, _royal_, 320 kiss, _caress_, 95 kitchen-gardening, _agriculture_, 25 knack, _ease_, 143 knock, _blow_, 83 knowing, _astute_, 62 " _clever_, 109 _knowledge_, 227 " _acquaintance_, 15 " _education_, 143 " _science_, 325 " _wisdom_, 372 labor, _industry_, 216 " _work_, 374 laborious, _difficult_, 132 lacerate, _rend_, 309 laconic, _terse_, 354 lading, _load_, 233 lament, _mourn_, 246 lamentable, _pitiful_, 273 lance, _send_, 327 land, _reach_, 300 landmark, _boundary_, 84 lane, _way_, 372 _language_, 228 " _diction_, 130 " _speech_, 339 languid, _faint_, 164 _large_, 229 " _plentiful_, 276 largess, _gift_, 184 lascivious, _brutish_, 87 lash, _blow_, 83 lasting, _permanent_, 269 latch, _lock_, 234 late, _new_, 252 laudation, _praise_, 280 laughable, _queer_, 297 launch, _send_, 327 laurels, _fame_, 166 lave, _cleanse_, 107 lavish, _plentiful_, 276 lavishness, _excess_, 160 _law_, 229 " _justice_, 225 lawfulness, _justice_, 225 lawlessness, _revolution_, 317 lay, _put_, 296 lay hold of, _catch_, 97 lazy, _idle_, 208 lead, _draw_, 138 " _influence_, 217 " _persuade_, 271 league, _alliance_, 34 lean, _tip_, 357 learner, _scholar_, 324 learning, _education_, 143 " _knowledge_, 227 " _wisdom_, 372 leave, _abandon_, 1 " _permission_, 269 leave-off, _cease_, 98 leave-taking, _farewell_, 168 legality, _justice_, 225 legate, _delegate_, 125 legend, _fiction_, 170 " _story_, 343 legions, _army_, 56 legislation, _law_, 229 legitimate, _authentic_, 67 leisure, _vacant_, 363 lengthen, _protract_, 293 lenience, _mercy_, 239 leniency, _mercy_, 239 " _patience_, 265 lenity, _mercy_, 239 lessen, _abate_, 3 " _alleviate_, 33 let, _allow_, 35 let go, _surrender_, 349 lethargy, _apathy_, 50 " _stupor_, 344 level, _horizontal_, 202 liable, _likely_, 232 libel, _slander_, 336 liberal, _generous_, 182 " _plentiful_, 276 liberality, _benevolence_, 80 liberate, _absolve_, 9 _liberty_, 230 " _permission_, 269 " _right_, 319 license, _liberty_, 230 " _permission_, 269 " _right_, 319 lie, _deception_, 123 life, _behavior_, 79 life, public, _career_, 95 lift, _carry_, 96 light, _a._, _airy_, 27 _light_, _n._, 231 " _knowledge_, 227 lighten, _alleviate_, 33 like, _alike_, 30 " _likely_, 232 " _synonymous_, 349 _likely_, 232 " _apparent_, 52 likeness, _analogy_, 43 " _approximation_, 55 " _duplicate_, 141 likewise, _also_, 37 liking, _appetite_, 54 " _fancy_, 167 " _love_, 235 limit, _boundary_, 84 " _end_, _n._, 148 limitless, _infinite_, 216 limpid, _clear_, 107 line, _boundary_, 84 line of achievement, _career_, 95 line of battle, _array_, 57 lingering, _slow_, 337 liquid, _fluid_, 174 list, _listen_, 232 " _tip_, 357 _listen_, 232 listless, _abstracted_, 11 " _faint_, 164 literal, _verbal_, 368 literary productions, _literature_, 233 literary works, _literature_, 233 _literature_, 233 litter, _flock_, 173 little, _minute_, 242 live, _v._, _abide_, 5 live, _a._, _alive_, 30 liveliness, _pertness_, 271 lively, _active_, 17 " _airy_, 27 " _alert_, 28 " _alive_, 30 " _nimble_, 253 " _racy_, 299 living, _alive_, 30 living creature, _animal_, 45 living organism, _animal_, 45 _load_, 233 loath, _reluctant_, 308 loathe, _abhor_, 5 _lock_, 234 lodge, _abide_, 5 " _association_, 60 lofty, _high_, 198 loneliness, _retirement_, 315 long, _large_, 229 longing, _appetite_, 54 " _desire_, 128 " _eager_, 142 long-suffering, _patience_, 265 _look_, _v._, 234 " _appear_, 52 look, _n._, _air_, 27 look forward to, _anticipate_, 47 loquacious, _garrulous_, 181 lordly, _absolute_, 8 Lord's Supper, _sacrament_, 331 lore, _knowledge_, 227 loss, _injury_, 219 lot, _flock_, 173 " _portion_, 279 lovable, _amiable_, 42 _love_, _v._, 235 " _admire_, 23 love, _n._, _attachment_, 63 " _friendship_, 179 lovely, _amiable_, 42 " _beautiful_, 76 loving, _amiable_, 42 " _friendly_, 178 lower, _abase_, 2 " _abate_, 3 " _disparage_, 134 lower classes, _mob_, 243 loyal, _faithful_, 165 loyalty, _allegiance_, 32 lucid, _clear_, 107 lucky, _fortunate_, 177 " _happy_, 190 ludicrous, _absurd_, 11 " _queer_, 297 lunacy, _insanity_, 221 lure, _allure_, 37 " _draw_, 138 luscious, _delicious_, 126 lust, _appetite_, 54 luster, _light_, 231 luxuriant, _plentiful_, 276 lying, _deception_, 123 machination, _artifice_, 58 machine, _tool_, 358 madness, _insanity_, 221 magisterial, _dogmatic_, 137 magnanimous, _generous_, 182 magnificent, _royal_, 320 mail, _arms_, 55 maintain, _allege_, 31 " _keep_, 226 " _state_, 341 " _support_, 348 majestic, _awful_, 70 " _royal_, 320 _make_, 236 " _compel_, 111 make better, _amend_, 41 make haste, _quicken_, 297 make known, _announce_, 46 make out, _make_, 236 make prisoner, _arrest_, 57 make up, _add_, 18 " _make_, 236 make use of, _employ_, 147 make void, _cancel_, 92 make white, _bleach_, 82 maladroit, _awkward_, 70 malady, _disease_, 134 male, _masculine_, 237 malediction, _oath_, 254 malevolence, _enmity_, 152 " _hatred_, 193 malice, _enmity_, 152 " _hatred_, 193 malign, _abuse_, 12 " _slander_, 336 malignity, _acrimony_, 15 " _enmity_, 152 " _hatred_, 193 maltreat, _abuse_, 12 manacles, _fetter_, 169 manage, _govern_, 185 manageable, _docile_, 136 management, _care_, 94 " _oversight_, 260 mandate, _law_, 229 " _order_, 258 maneuver, _artifice_, 58 manful, _masculine_, 237 mangle, _rend_, 309 mania, _insanity_, 221 manifest, _clear_, 107 " _evident_, 159 manifestation, _revelation_, 316 " _sign_, 332 manifold, _complex_, 112 manlike, _masculine_, 237 manly, _masculine_, 237 manner, _air_, 27 " _behavior_, 79 " _system_, 350 manners, _address_, _n._, 20 " _behavior_, 79 mannish, _masculine_, 237 manufacture, _make_, 236 marauder, _robber_, 320 marches, _boundary_, 84 marge, _bank_, 72 " _boundary_, 84 margin, _bank_, 72 " _boundary_, 84 marine, _nautical_, 248 maritime, _nautical_, 248 mark, _aim_, 26 " _characteristic_, 103 " _sign_, 332 " _trace_, 359 market-gardening, _agriculture_, 25 _marriage_, 236 _masculine_, 237 mask, _v._, _hide_, 197 mask, _n._, _pretense_, 283 mass, _throng_, 356 _massacre_, 237 " _kill_, 226 masses, _mob_, 243 massive, _large_, 229 master, _attain_, 64 " _conquer_, 115 mastery, _victory_, 369 mate, _associate_, 60 material, _physical_, 272 matrimony, _marriage_, 236 matter, _topic_, 359 maxim, _proverb_, 293 means, _agent_, 24 measure, _meter_, 240 measureless, _infinite_, 216 mechanic, _artist_, 58 mechanism, _tool_, 358 meddle, _interpose_, 222 _meddlesome_, 238 " _inquisitive_, 221 meddling, _inquisitive_, 221 " _meddlesome_, 238 mediate, _interpose_, 222 meditate, _deliberate_, 135 meet, _becoming_, 77 meeting, _collision_, 109 " _company_, 110 melancholy, _grief_, 187 meliorate, _amend_, 41 _melody_, 238 member, _part_, 264 " _term_, 354 memoir, _history_, 200 memorandum, _record_, 304 memorial, _record_, 304 " _trace_, 359 memorials, _history_, 200 _memory_, 239 mend, _amend_, 41 mendicancy, _poverty_, 279 mention, _allude_, 36 mercenary, _auxiliary_, 67 " _venal_, 365 merciful, _humane_, 203 " _propitious_, 291 merciless, _barbarous_, 73 _mercy_, 239 " _pardon_, 262 " _pity_, 273 mere, _pure_, 296 merely, _but_, 89 merriment, _entertainment_, 153 " _happiness_, 189 merry, _happy_, 190 metamorphose, _change_, _v._, 100 metaphor, _allegory_, 33 mete out, _allot_, 34 _meter_, 240 " _poetry_, 277 method, _system_, 350 metrical composition, _poetry_, 277 metropolis, _capital_, 94 middle, _center_, 99 midst, _center_, 99 " (in the midst of), _amid_, 42 mien, _air_, 27 might, _power_, 279 migrate, _emigrate_, 147 mildness, _mercy_, 239 military, _army_, 56 mimicry, _caricature_, 95 _mind_, 241 mingled, _heterogeneous_, 196 " _complex_, 112 mingled with, _amid_, 42 _minute_, 242 " _fine_, 172 miraculous, _supernatural_, 347 mirth, _happiness_, 189 mirthful, _happy_, 190 misadventure, _accident_, 14 " _misfortune_, 242 miscellaneous, _heterogeneous_, 196 mischance, _catastrophe_, 97 " _misfortune_, 242 mischief, _injury_, 219 mischievous, _pernicious_, 270 misdeed, _sin_, 332 misemploy, _abuse_, 12 miserable, _pitiful_, 273 miserly, _avaricious_, 68 miserliness, _frugality_, 180 misery, _misfortune_, 242 _misfortune_, 242 " _accident_, 14 " _blow_, 83 " _catastrophe_, 97 misgiving, _alarm_, 28 " _anxiety_, 49 " _doubt_, _n._, 138 " _fear_, 168 mishap, _accident_, 14 " _catastrophe_, 97 " _misfortune_, 242 mislay, _displace_, 135 mismatched, _incongruous_, 214 mismated, _incongruous_, 214 misplace, _displace_, 135 mistaken, _absurd_, 11 mistrust, _doubt_, _v._, 137 misuse, _abuse_, 12 mite, _particle_, 264 mitigate, _abate_, 3 " _alleviate_, 33 " _amend_, 41 " _palliate_, 261 mixed, _complex_, 112 " _heterogeneous_, 196 _mob_, 243 mobile, _active_, 17 mock, _sneer_, 337 mockery, _banter_, 73 mode, _system_, 350 _model_, 243 " _example_, 160 " _idea_, 206 " _ideal_, 206 moderate, _v._, _abate_, 3 " _alleviate_, 33 moderate, _a._, _slow_, 337 moderation, _abstinence_, 10 modern, _new_, 252 _modesty_, 244 modify, _change_, _v._, 100 mold, _bend_, 79 " _govern_, 185 mold, _model_, 243 molder, _decay_, 122 molecule, _particle_, 264 molest, _abuse_, 12 mollify, _allay_, 31 momentary, _transient_, 361 monetary, _financial_, 172 _money_, 244 monomania, _insanity_, 221 monstrous, _absurd_, 11 mood, _fancy_, 167 mop, _cleanse_, 107 morality, _religion_, 307 " _virtue_, 370 moreover, _but_, 89 _morose_, 245 " _severe_, 329 moroseness, _acrimony_, 15 mortification, _chagrin_, 100 mortify, _abash_, 3 mother tongue, _language_, 228 _motion_, 245 " _act_, 16 " _topic_, 359 motive, _cause_, 98 " _reason_, _n._, 302 motto, _proverb_, 293 _mourn_, 246 mournful, _pitiful_, 273 mourning, _grief_, 187 move, _v._, _carry_, 96 " _convey_, 119 " _influence_, 217 " _persuade_, 271 move, _n._, _motion_, 245 movement, _act_, 16 " _motion_, 245 mover, _agent_, 24 moving, _pitiful_, 273 muddy, _obscure_, 255 mulish, _restive_, 314 " _obstinate_, 256 multiform, _complex_, 112 multitude, _army_, 56 " _company_, 110 " _throng_, 356 munificence, _benevolence_, 80 munificent, _generous_, 182 " _royal_, 320 muniment, _record_, 304 muniments, _history_, 200 murder, _kill_, 226 murky, _dark_, 122 murmur, _babble_, 71 " _complain_, 112 music, _melody_, 238 muster, _convoke_, 120 mutation, _change_, _n._, 101 mute, _taciturn_, 351 mutinous, _rebellious_, 304 " _restive_, 314 mutiny, _revolution_, 317 _mutual_, 246 _mysterious_, 247 " _dark_, 122 " _obscure_, 255 mystic, _mysterious_, 247 mystical, _mysterious_, 247 myth, _fiction_, 170 " _story_, 343 naive, _candid_, 93 _name_, 247 " _term_, 354 narration, _history_, 200 " _report_, 311 " _story_, 343 narrative, _history_, 200 " _report_, 311 " _story_, 343 natal, _native_, 248 nation, _people_, 266 _native_, 248 " _inherent_, 218 " _radical_, 299 natty, _neat_, 249 natural, _inherent_, 218 " _native_, 248 " _normal_, 253 " _physical_, 272 " _radical_, 299 nature, _character_, 102 nauseate, _abhor_, 5 _nautical_, 248 naval, _nautical_, 248 near, _adjacent_, 22 nearness, _approximation_, 55 _neat_, 249 " _becoming_, 77 " _terse_, 354 _necessary_, 150 necessitate, _compel_, 111 _necessity_, 250 " _predestination_, 282 need, _necessity_, 250 " _poverty_, 279 needed, _necessary_, 250 needful, _necessary_, 250 nefarious, _criminal_, 120 _neglect_, 251 neglectfulness, _neglect_, 251 negligence, _neglect_, 251 negligent, _abstracted_, 11 negotiate, _transact_, 360 neighborhood, _approximation_, 55 neighboring, _adjacent_, 22 neighborly, _friendly_, 178 neophyte, _convert_, 119 never-ending, _eternal_, 157 never-failing, _eternal_, 157 nevertheless, _but_, 89 " _notwithstanding_, _conj._, 254 _new_, 252 new-fangled, _new_, 252 new-fashioned, _new_, 252 new-made, _new_, 252 next, _adjacent_, 22 nice, _fine_, 172 " _neat_, 249 " _tasteful_, 352 niggardly, _avaricious_, 68 nigh, _adjacent_, 22 _nimble_, 253 " _active_, 17 " _alert_, 28 noble, _awful_, 70 " _generous_, 182 " _high_, 198 noise, _sound_, 338 noisome, _pernicious_, 279 non-conformist, _heretic_, 196 non-homogeneous, _heterogeneous_, 196 nonsensical, _absurd_, 11 _normal_, 253 " _general_, 181 " _usual_, 368 note, _remark_, 308 " _sign_, 332 " _sound_, 338 notes, _money_, 244 notify, _announce_, 46 notion, _idea_, 206 notoriety, _fame_, 166 _notwithstanding_, _prep._, 254 _notwithstanding_, _conj._, 254 " _but_, 89 nourish, _cherish_, 104 nourishment, _food_, 175 novel, _a._, _new_, 252 novel, _n._, _fiction_, 170 " _story_, 343 novelty, _change_, _n._, 101 novice, _amateur_, 39 now, _immediately_, 211 " _yet_, 374 noxious, _pernicious_, 270 nugatory, _vain_, 364 nuisance, _abomination_, 7 null, _vain_, 364 nullify, _abolish_, 6 " _cancel_, 92 number, _calculate_, 90 numberless, _infinite_, 216 numbers, _poetry_, 277 nuptials, _marriage_, 236 nurse, _cherish_, 104 nurture, _cherish_, 104 " _education_, 143 " _teach_, 353 nutriment, _food_, 175 nutrition, _food_, 175 _oath_, 254 obdurate, _obstinate_, 256 obedience, _allegiance_, 32 obedient, _docile_, 136 obey, _follow_, 174 " _keep_, 226 obiter dictum, _precedent_, 282 object, _aim_, 26 " _design_, 128 " _reason_, _n._, 302 objective, _subjective_, 345 objurgation, _reproof_, 311 obligation, _contract_, 118 " _duty_, 142 oblige, _bind_, 81 " _compel_, 111 obliging, _pleasant_, 275 " _polite_, 277 obliterate, _abolish_, 6 " _cancel_, 92 oblivion, _pardon_, _n._, 262 oblivious, _abstracted_, 11 _obscure_, 255 " _complex_, 112 " _dark_, 122 " _equivocal_, 155 " _mysterious_, 247 observance, _sacrament_, 321 observation, _remark_, 308 observe, _celebrate_, 99 " _discern_, 133 " _follow_, 174 " _keep_, 226 obsolescent, _obsolete_, 256 _obsolete_, 256 obstacle, _barrier_, 74 " _impediment_, 213 _obstinate_, 256 " _restive_, 314 " _perverse_, 272 _obstruct_, 257 " _hinder_, 199 obstruction, _barrier_, 74 " _impediment_, 313 obtain, _attain_, 64 " _get_, 183 " _purchase_, 295 obtrusive, _meddlesome_, 238 obtuseness, _stupidity_, 344 obviate, _prevent_, 284 obvious, _clear_, 107 " _evident_, 159 occasion, _cause_, 98 " _make_, 236 occult, _mysterious_, 247 occupation, _business_, 88 " _exercise_, 162 " _work_, 374 occupied, _industrious_, 215 occupy, _entertain_, 152 " _have_, 194 occur, _happen_, 188 occurrence, _circumstance_, 105 " _event_, 158 ocean, _a._, _nautical_, 248 oceanic, _nautical_, 248 odd, _queer_, 297 " _rare_, 300 offend, _affront_, 24 offense, _abomination_, 7 " _anger_, 44 " _pique_, 272 " _sin_, 332 offer, _v._, _allege_, 31 offer, _n._, _proposal_, 292 offhand, _extemporaneous_, 163 office, _duty_, 142 officious, _active_, 17 " _meddlesome_, 238 officiousness, _impudence_, 213 _old_, 257 " _obsolete_, 256 " _primeval_, 287 olden, _old_, 257 old-fashioned, _antique_, 48 omen, _sign_, 332 omission, _neglect_, 251 oneness, _union_, 362 onerous, _difficult_, 132 only, _but_, 89 onset, _attack_, _n._, 64 onslaught, _attack_, _n._, 64 on the alert, _vigilant_, 369 on the lookout, _vigilant_, 369 on the watch, _alert_, 28 opaque, _dark_, 122 open, _bluff_, 83 " _candid_, 93 " _evident_, 159 open-handed, _generous_, 182 open-hearted, _generous_, 182 opening, _beginning_, 78 " _entrance_, 154 _operation_, 258 " _act_, 16 " _exercise_, 162 operative, _artist_, 58 operator, _agent_, 24 opinion, _faith_, 164 " _idea_, 206 opinionated, _dogmatic_, 137 " _obstinate_, 256 opponent, _enemy_, 151 oppose, _contrast_, 118 " _hinder_, 199 " _obstruct_, 257 opposed, _alien_, _a._, 29 " _reluctant_, 308 opposition, _ambition_, 40 " _antipathy_, 48 " _collision_, 109 oppress, _abuse_, 12 option, _alternative_, 38 oral, _verbal_, 368 oration, _speech_, 339 oratory, _speech_, 339 _order_, 258 " _array_, 57 " _class_, 106 " _law_, 229 " _system_, 350 orderly, _neat_, 249 order of battle, _array_, 57 ordinance, _law_, 229 " _sacrament_, 321 ordinary, _general_, 181 " _normal_, 253 " _usual_, 362 organic, _radical_, 299 origin, _beginning_, 78 " _cause_, 98 original, _a._, _authentic_, 67 " _native_, 248 original, _n._, _ideal_, 206 " _model_, 243 " _primeval_, 287 " _radical_, 299 " _transcendental_, 361 originator, _cause_, 98 ornament, _adorn_, 23 oscillate, _fluctuate_, 173 " _shake_, 330 _ostentation_, 259 " _pride_, 286 ostracize, _banish_, 72 _ought_, 260 oust, _banish_, 72 outcome, _consequence_, 116 " _end_, _n._, 148 " _event_, 158 outgo, _expense_, 162 outgrowth, _consequence_, 116 outlandish, _rustic_, 321 outlay, _expense_, 162 " _price_, 285 outline, _abridgment_, 7 " _sketch_, 334 out of date, _obsolete_, 256 outrage, _injury_, 219 outset, _beginning_, 78 overawe, _abash_, 3 overbearing, _absolute_, 8 " _dogmatic_, 137 overcome, _beat_, 75 " _conquer_, 115 over-confidence, _temerity_, 353 overflowing, _plentiful_, 276 overlook, _pardon_, _v._, 262 overmaster, _conquer_, 115 overmatch, _conquer_, 115 overplus, _excess_, 160 overpower, _conquer_, 115 _oversight_, 260 " _care_, 94 " _neglect_, 251 overt, _evident_, 159 overtake, _catch_, 97 overthrow, _abolish_, 6 " _conquer_, 115 " _demolish_, 127 " _exterminate_, 163 " _refute_, 306 " _subvert_, 346 overture, _proposal_, 292 overturn, _demolish_, 127 " _subvert_, 346 overwhelm, _hide_, 197 " _involve_, 223 own, _avow_, 69 " _confess_, 114 " _have_, 194 pabulum, _food_, 175 pacify, _allay_, 31 pack, _load_, 233 " _flock_, 173 pact, _contract_, 118 pageant, _ostentation_, 259 pageantry, _ostentation_, 259 _pain_, 261 pains, _industry_, 216 palaver, _babble_, 71 _palliate_, 261 " _alleviate_, 33 palpable, _evident_, 159 paltry, _pitiful_, 273 pamper, _caress_, 95 panegyric, _praise_, 280 pang, _pain_, 261 panic, _alarm_, 28 " _fear_, 168 parable, _allegory_, 33 parade, _array_, 57 " _ostentation_, 259 paradox, _riddle_, 318 paradoxical, _absurd_, 11 parapet, _barrier_, 74 paraphrase, _quote_, 298 parcel, _portion_, 279 _pardon_, _v._, 262 " _absolve_, 9 _pardon_, _n._, 262 " _mercy_, 239 pardonable, _venial_, 367 parity, _analogy_, 43 parley, _conversation_, 118 parody, _caricature_, 95 paroxysm, _pain_, 261 parsimonious, _avaricious_, 68 parsimoniousness, _frugality_, 180 parsimony, _frugality_, 180 _part_, _n._, 264 " _particle_, 264 " _portion_, 279 partiality, _prejudice_, 264 _particle_, 264 particular, _circumstance_, 105 " _minute_, 242 participation, _association_, 60 participator, _accessory_, 13 parting salutation, _farewell_, 168 partisan, _adherent_, 21 partner, _accessory_, 13 " _associate_, 60 partnership, _alliance_, 34 " _association_, 60 pass, _way_, 372 passage, _career_, 95 " _motion_, 245 " _way_, 372 passage of arms, _battle_, 74 passageway, _way_, 372 pass by, _pardon_, 262 passing, _transient_, 361 passion, _anger_, 44 " _appetite_, 54 " _enthusiasm_, 153 pass over, _pardon_, 262 pastime, _entertainment_, 153 pastoral, _rustic_, 321 patent, _evident_, 159 path, _way_, 372 pathetic, _pitiful_, 273 pathway, _way_, 372 _patience_, 265 " _industry_, 216 patois, _language_, 228 patriarchal, _old_, 257 " _primeval_, 287 pattern, _example_, 160 " _idea_, 206 " _ideal_, 206 " _model_, 243 " _precedent_, 282 pauperism, _poverty_, 279 pause, _cease_, 98 " _rest_, 313 _pay_, 266 " _requite_, 313 payment, _pay_, 266 pay off, _requite_, 313 peace, _rest_, 313 peaceful, _calm_, 91 peacefulness, _rest_, 313 peculiar, _queer_, 297 " _rare_, 300 peculiarity, _characteristic_, 103 pecuniary, _financial_, 172 peeping, _inquisitive_, 221 peer, _associate_, 60 peevishness, _anger_, 44 pellucid, _clear_, 107 penetrating, _astute_, 62 penetration, _acumen_, 18 " _entrance_, 154 penetrative, _astute_, 62 penitence, _repentance_, 310 pension, _subsidy_, 345 penurious, _avaricious_, 68 penury, _poverty_, 279 _people_, 266 people, dregs of the, _mob_, 243 _perceive_, 267 " _discern_, 133 perceptible, _evident_, 159 perception, _knowledge_, 227 " _sensation_, 328 peremptory, _absolute_, 8 perennial, _eternal_, 157 _perfect_, 268 " _pure_, 296 " _radical_, 299 perform, _do_, 135 " _execute_, 161 " _make_, 236 " _transact_, 360 performance, _act_, 16 " _exercise_, 162 " _operation_, 258 " _work_, 374 performer, _agent_, 24 peril, _danger_, 121 " _hazard_, 194 perilous, _precarious_, 282 period, _end_, _n._, 148 " _time_, 356 periphrasis, _circumlocution_, 105 perish, _die_, 130 _permanent_, 269 _permission_, 269 permit, _a._, _allow_, 35 " _endure_, 150 permit, _n._, _permission_, 269 _pernicious_, 270 perpetrate, _do_, 135 perpetual, _continual_, 117 " _eternal_, 157 " _permanent_, 269 perplexing, _equivocal_, 155 _perplexity_, 270 " _amazement_, 39 " _anxiety_, 49 " _care_, 94 " _doubt_, _n._, 138 persecute, _abuse_, 12 perseverance, _industry_, 216 persistence, _industry_, 216 persistent, _permanent_, 269 " _obstinate_, 256 personality, _character_, 102 perspicacious, _astute_, 62 " _sagacious_, 322 perspicacity, _acumen_, 18 perspicuous, _clear_, 107 _persuade_, 271 " _bend_, 79 " _influence_, 217 pertinacious, _obstinate_, 256 _pertness_, 271 " _impudence_, 213 _perverse_, 272 pervert, _abuse_, 12 perverting, _pernicious_, 270 pestiferous, _pernicious_, 270 pestilential, _pernicious_, 270 pet, _caress_, 95 petition, _ask_, 59 " _pray_, 281 pettishness, _anger_, 44 petulance, _anger_, 44 petulant, _perverse_, 272 phalanx, _army_, 56 phantasm, _delusion_, 127 phantasy, _imagination_, 209 pharisaism, _hypocrisy_, 204 philanthropy, _benevolence_, 80 phlegm, _apathy_, 50 phrase, _diction_, 130 " _term_, 354 phraseology, _diction_, 130 _physical_, 272 pick, _alternative_, 38 " _choose_, 104 pick out, _choose_, 104 picture, _sketch_, 334 picturesque, _beautiful_, 76 piece, _part_, 264 pietism, _hypocrisy_, 204 " _religion_, 307 piety, _religion_, 307 pile up, _amass_, 38 pilgrimage, _journey_, 223 pillager, _robber_, 320 piquant, _racy_, 299 _pique_, 272 pirate, _robber_, 320 piteous, _pitiful_, 273 pithy, _terse_, 354 pitiable, _pitiful_, 273 _pitiful_, 273 _pity_, 273 " _mercy_, 239 pitying, _humane_, 203 place, _put_, 296 placid, _calm_, 91 plagiarize, _quote_, 298 plague, _abomination_, 7 plain, _clear_, 107 " _evident_, 159 " _rustic_, 321 plain-spoken, _bluff_, 83 plan, _design_, 128 " _idea_, 206 " _sketch_, 334 plane, _horizontal_, 202 _plant_, 274 plaudit, _praise_, 280 playfulness, _wit_, 373 plea, _apology_, 51 _plead_, 274 " _allege_, 31 " _pray_, 281 _pleasant_, 275 " _amiable_, 42 " _comfortable_, 110 " _delightful_, 126 pleasantry, _wit_, 373 please, _entertain_, 152 pleased, _happy_, 190 pleasing, _amiable_, 42 " _delightful_, 126 " _pleasant_, 275 pleasurable, _delightful_, 126 " _pleasant_, 275 pleasure, _entertainment_, 153 " _happiness_, 189 pledge, _contract_, 118 " _security_, 326 plenteous, _plentiful_, 276 _plentiful_, 276 pleonasm, _circumlocution_, 105 pliable, _docile_, 136 pliant, _docile_, 136 plunderer, _robber_, 320 plunge, _immerse_, 212 poem, _poetry_, 277 poesy, _poetry_, 277 _poetry_, 277 point, _v._, _allude_, 36 point, _n._, _circumstance_, 105 " _end_, _n._, 148 " _topic_, 359 poisonous, _pernicious_, 270 policy, _polity_, 278 polished, _fine_, 172 " _polite_, 277 _polite_, 277 politeness, _address_, _n._, 20 " _refinement_, 305 _polity_, 278 " _law_, 229 pollute, _defile_, 124 pommel, _beat_, 75 pomp, _ostentation_, 259 pomposity, _ostentation_, 259 pompousness, _ostentation_, 259 ponder, _deliberate_, 125 populace, _mob_, 243 popular, _general_, 181 population, _people_, 266 port, _air_, 27 portal, _entrance_, 154 portend, _augur_, 66 portentous, _awful_, 70 _portion_, 279 " _part_, 264 portion out, _allot_, 34 pose, _attitude_, 65 position, _attitude_, 65 " _circumstance_, 105 positive, _absolute_, 8 " _dogmatic_, 137 " _radical_, 299 " _real_, 301 possess, _have_, 194 possession, be in, _have_, 194 possibility, _accident_, 14 " _event_, 158 postulate, _assume_, 61 posture, _attitude_, 65 pound, _beat_, 75 _poverty_, 279 _power_, 279 " _cause_, 98 practise, _v._, _follow_, 174 practise, _n._, _exercise_, 162 " _habit_, 187 practised, _skilful_, 335 _praise_, 280 prate, _babble_, 71 prattle, _babble_, 71 _pray_, 281 " _ask_, 59 _precarious_, 282 precaution, _care_, 94 precedent, _a._, _previous_, 285 _precedent_, _n._, 282 " _cause_, 98 " _example_, 160 preceding, _previous_, 285 precept, _doctrine_, 136 " _proverb_, 293 precious, _rare_, 300 precipitancy, _temerity_, 353 precipitation, _temerity_, 353 precipitous, _steep_, 342 precise, _minute_, 242 preclude, _prevent_, 284 " _prohibit_, 290 preconception, _prejudice_, 283 _predestination_, 282 predicate, _state_, 341 predict, _augur_, 66 predilection, _fancy_, 167 prefer, _choose_, 104 " _promote_, 291 preference, _alternative_, 38 _prejudice_, 283 " _injury_, 219 preliminary, _previous_, 285 premium, _subsidy_, 345 prenomen, _name_, 247 preoccupied, _abstracted_, 11 prepared, _alert_, 28 prepossession, _prejudice_, 283 preposterous, _absurd_, 11 " _queer_, 297 prerogative, _right_, 319 presage, _augur_, 66 " _sign_, 332 prescience, _wisdom_, 372 present, _gift_, 184 presentiment, _anticipation_, 48 presently, _immediately_, 211 preserve, _keep_, 226 press, _v._, _plead_, 274 press, _n._, _throng_, 356 press forward, _quicken_, 297 prestige, _sign_, 332 presumable, _apparent_, 52 " _likely_, 232 presume, _assume_, 61 presumption, _assurance_, 61 " _impudence_, 213 " _prejudice_, 283 " _pride_, 286 " _temerity_, 353 pretend, _assume_, 61 pretender, _hypocrite_, 204 _pretense_, 283 " _hypocrisy_, 204 pretension, _pretense_, 283 preternatural, _supernatural_, 347 pretext, _pretense_, 283 pretty, _beautiful_, 76 prevail, _succeed_, 346 prevailing, _usual_, 362 prevail over, _conquer_, 115 prevail upon, _persuade_, 271 prevalent, _general_, 181 " _usual_, 362 prevarication, _deception_, 123 _prevent_, 284 " _hinder_, 199 " _prohibit_, 290 _previous_, 285 prevision, _anticipation_, 48 _price_, 285 _pride_, 286 prim, _neat_, 249 primal, _primeval_, 287 primary, _primeval_, 287 prime, _primeval_, 287 _primeval_, 287 primitive, _primeval_, 287 " _radical_, 299 primordial, _primeval_, 287 " _transcendental_, 361 princely, _royal_, 320 principle, _doctrine_, 136 " _law_, 229 " _reason_, _n._, 302 prior, _previous_, 285 pristine, _primeval_, 287 privacy, _retirement_, 315 privation, _poverty_, 279 privilege, _right_, 319 prize, _esteem_, _v._, 156 probable, _apparent_, 52 " _likely_, 232 probity, _virtue_, 370 problem, _riddle_, 318 procedure, _operation_, 258 proceed, _rise_, 319 proceeding, _act_, 16 " _transaction_, 360 proceeds, _harvest_, 192 " _profit_, 288 process, _motion_, 245 proclaim, _announce_, 46 " _avow_, 69 proclivity, _appetite_, 54 " _desire_, 128 procrastinate, _protract_, 293 procrastinating, _slow_, 337 procure, _attain_, 64 " _get_, 183 " _purchase_, 295 prodigality, _excess_, 160 produce, _v._, _allege_, 31 produce, _n._, _harvest_, 192 product, _harvest_, 192 " _work_, 374 production, _work_, 374 profane swearing, _oath_, 254 profanity, _oath_, 254 profess, _avow_, 69 profession, _business_, 88 proficiency, _progress_, 289 proficient, _skilful_, 335 _profit_, 288 " _utility_, 363 profitless, _vain_, 364 profound, _obscure_, 255 profundity, _wisdom_, 372 profuse, _plentiful_, 276 profusion, _excess_, 160 prognostic, _sign_, 332 prognosticate, _augur_, 66 _progress_, 289 progression, _progress_, 289 _prohibit_, 290 " _abolish_, 6 prohibition, _barrier_, 74 " _order_, 258 project, _v._, _send_, 327 project, _n._, _design_, 128 prolixity, _circumlocution_, 105 prolong, _protract_, 293 promise, _contract_, 118 _promote_, 291 " _abet_, 4 " _quicken_, 297 promoter, _agent_, 24 " _auxiliary_, 67 prompt, _v._, _influence_, 217 prompt, _a._, _active_, 17 " _alert_, 28 " _nimble_, 253 promulgate, _announce_, 46 prone, _addicted_, 19 proneness, _appetite_, 54 pronounce, _speak_, 339 " _state_, 341 proof, _demonstration_, 127 " _testimony_, 355 prop, _support_, 348 propel, _drive_, 140 " _send_, 327 propensity, _appetite_, 54 " _desire_, 128 proper, _becoming_, 77 property, _attribute_, _n._, 66 " _characteristic_, 103 " _money_, 244 prophesy, _augur_, 66 propinquity, _approximation_, 55 _propitiation_, 291 _propitious_, 291 proportion, _analogy_, 43 " _portion_, 279 _proposal_, 292 " _design_, 128 _propose_, 292 proposition, _proposal_, 292 " _topic_, 359 propound, _announce_, 46 " _state_, 341 prosecute, _arraign_, 56 proselyte, _convert_, 119 prosper, _succeed_, 346 prospered, _fortunate_, 177 prosperous, _fortunate_, 177 " _happy_, 190 prostitute, _abuse_, 12 protect, _cherish_, 104 " _keep_, 226 " _shelter_, 331 protection, _defense_, 123 protest, _avow_, 69 " _state_, 341 prototype, _example_, 160 " _ideal_, 206 " _model_, 243 _protract_, 293 proud, _high_, 198 prove, _confirm_, 114 " _reason_, _v._, 302 provender, _food_, 175 _proverb_, 293 provided, _but_, 89 providence, _frugality_, 180 " _prudence_, 294 provoke, _affront_, 24 _prowess_, 294 proxy, _delegate_, 125 _prudence_, 294 " _care_, 94 " _frugality_, 180 " _wisdom_, 372 prying, _inquisitive_, 221 public, _general_, 181 " _usual_, 362 publications, _literature_, 233 public life, _career_, 95 publish, _announce_, 46 puerile, _youthful_, 375 pull, _draw_, 138 pungent, _bitter_, 81 " _racy_, 299 punish, _avenge_, 69 " _chasten_, 103 " _requite_, 313 pupil, _scholar_, 324 purchasable, _venal_, 365 _purchase_, 295 _pure_, 296 " _fine_, 172 " _innocent_, 220 purify, _amend_, 41 " _chasten_, 103 " _cleanse_, 107 purity, _virtue_, 370 purloin, _abstract_, 10 purpose, _v._, _propose_, 292 purpose, _n._, _aim_, 26 " _design_, 128 " _end_, _n._, 148 " _idea_, 206 " _reason_, _n._, 302 purposeless, _faint_, 164 pursue, _follow_, 174 pursuit, _hunt_, 203 push, _drive_, 140 " _promote_, 291 _put_, 296 put down, _conquer_, 115 put on, _assume_, 61 putrefy, _decay_, 122 put to death, _kill_, 226 put up with, _endure_, 150 puzzle, _riddle_, 318 quaint, _antique_, 48 " _queer_, 297 quake, _shake_, 330 qualification, _power_, 279 qualified, _adequate_, 21 qualify, _change_, _n._, 100 quality, _attribute_, _n._, 66 " _characteristic_, 103 quarrel, _feud_, 170 quash, _cancel_, 92 quaver, _shake_, 330 _queer_, 297 question, _v._, _reason_, _v._, 302 question, _n._, _doubt_, _n._, 138 " _topic_, 359 questionable, _equivocal_, 155 quick, _active_, 17 " _alive_, 30 " _clever_, 109 " _nimble_, 253 _quicken_, 297 quick of scent, _sagacious_, 322 quick-scented, _sagacious_, 322 quick-witted, _clever_, 109 quiescence, _rest_, 313 quiet, _allay_, 31 " _calm_, 91 " _rest_, 313 quietness, _apathy_, 50 " _rest_, 313 quietude, _rest_, 313 quit, _abandon_, 1 " _cease_, 98 " _end_, _v._, 148 " _requite_, 313 quiver, _shake_, 330 _quote_, 298 rabble, _mob_, 243 race, _career_, 95 " _kin_, 227 " _people_, 266 _racy_, 299 _radical_, 299 rage, _anger_, 44 raging, _fierce_, 171 raider, _robber_, 320 rail at, _abuse_, 12 raillery, _banter_, 73 " _wit_, 373 raiment, _dress_, 140 raise, _promote_, 291 ramble, _wander_, 371 rampart, _barrier_, 74 " _defense_, 123 rancor, _enmity_, 152 " _hatred_, 193 range, _wander_, 371 rank, _class_, 106 rap, _blow_, 83 rapacious, _avaricious_, 68 rapture, _enthusiasm_, 153 " _happiness_, 189 rapturous, _happy_, 190 _rare_, 300 " _obsolete_, 256 rashness, _temerity_, 353 rate, _calculate_, 90 ratify, _confirm_, 114 ratiocination, _reasoning_, 303 rational, _sagacious_, 322 ravish, _abuse_, 12 raze, _demolish_, 127 _reach_, 300 " _attain_, 64 " _make_, 236 readiness, _address_, _n._, 20 " _dexterity_, 129 " _ease_, 143 " _power_, 279 reading, _education_, 143 ready, _active_, 17 " _alert_, 28 _real_, 301 " _authentic_, 67 " _pure_, 296 reality, _veracity_, 367 realize, _do_, 135 reanimate, _recover_, 305 reaping, _harvest_, 192 _reason_, _v._, 302 _reason_, _n._, 302 " _cause_, 98 " _mind_, 241 " _wisdom_, 372 reasonableness, _wisdom_, 372 _reasoning_, 303 rebellion, _revolution_, 317 _rebellious_, 304 " _restive_, 314 rebuke, _v._, _reprove_, 312 rebuke, _n._, _reproof_, 311 recalcitrant, _restive_, 314 recall, _renounce_, 309 recant, _abandon_, 1 " _renounce_, 309 receipts, _profit_, 288 receive, _get_, 183 received, _authentic_, 67 recent, _new_, 252 reciprocal, _mutual_, 246 reciprocate, _requite_, 313 recital, _history_, 200 " _report_, 311 " _story_, 343 recite, _quote_, 298 recklessness, _temerity_, 353 reckon, _calculate_, 90 recognition, _knowledge_, 227 recognize, _confess_, 114 " _discern_, 133 recollection, _memory_, 239 recompense, _pay_, 266 " _requite_, 313 reconciliation, _propitiation_, 291 recondite, _mysterious_, 247 _record_, 304 " _character_, 102 " _history_, 200 " _report_, 311 " _story_, 343 _recover_, 305 recreate, _entertain_, 152 recreation, _entertainment_, 153 " _rest_, 313 recruit, _recover_, 305 rectify, _amend_, 41 rectitude, _justice_, 225 " _virtue_, 370 recuperate, _recover_, 305 redoubted, _formidable_, 176 reduce, _abase_, 2 " _abate_, 3 " _alleviate_, 33 " _conquer_, 115 redundance, _circumlocution_, 105 " _excess_, 160 redundancy, _circumlocution_, 105 " _excess_, 160 reel, _shake_, 330 refer, _allude_, 36 " _attribute_, _v._, 65 referee, _judge_, 224 refine, _chasten_, 103 refined, _fine_, 172 _refinement_, 305 reflect, _deliberate_, 125 reflection, _reproof_, 311 reform, _amend_, 41 refractory, _obstinate_, 256 " _rebellious_, 304 " _restive_, 314 refrain, _cease_, 98 " _keep_, 226 refreshing, _delightful_, 126 refuse, _renounce_, 309 _refute_, 306 regain, _recover_, 305 regal, _royal_, 320 regard, _v._, _esteem_, _v._, 156 " _look_, 234 " _love_, 235 regard, _n._, _attachment_, 63 " _esteem_, _n._, 157 " _friendship_, 179 regeneration, _change_, _n._, 101 regimen, _food_, 175 register, _history_, 200 " _record_, 304 regret, _v._, _mourn_, 246 regret, _n._, _grief_, 187 " _repentance_, 310 regular, _continual_, 117 " _normal_, 253 " _usual_, 362 regularity, _system_, 350 regulation, _law_, 229 rehearsal, _report_, 311 reign over, _govern_, 185 reject, _renounce_, 309 rejoiced, _happy_, 190 rejoicing, _a._, _happy_, 190 rejoicing, _n._, _happiness_, 189 rejoinder, _answer_, 46 relation, _analogy_, 43 " _report_, 311 " _story_, 343 relationship, _kin_, 227 release, _absolve_, 9 relegate, _commit_, 110 relentless, _severe_, 329 _reliable_, 306 " _authentic_, 67 reliance, _faith_, 164 relieve, _alleviate_, 33 _religion_, 307 relinquish, _abandon_, 1 " _surrender_, 349 relish, _appetite_, 54 _reluctant_, 308 remain, _abide_, 5 remains, _body_, 84 " _trace_, 359 _remark_, 308 remarkable, _rare_, 300 remembrance, _memory_, 239 reminiscence, _memory_, 239 remission, _pardon_, 262 remissness, _neglect_, 251 remit, _pardon_, 262 remnant, _trace_, 359 remonstrate, _complain_, 112 " _reprove_, 312 remorse, _repentance_, 310 remote, _alien_, _a._, 29 " _old_, 257 remove, _abolish_, 6 " _abstract_, 10 " _alleviate_, 33 " _cancel_, 92 " _carry_, 96 " _convey_, 119 " _displace_, 135 " _exterminate_, 163 remunerate, _requite_, 313 remuneration, _pay_, 266 _rend_, 309 " _break_, 86 render, _make_, 236 rendering, _definition_, 124 renewal, _change_, _n._, 101 renewing, _change_, _n._, 101 _renounce_, 309 " _abandon_, 1 renown, _fame_, 166 repair, _amend_, 41 repartee, _answer_, 46 repay, _requite_, 313 repeal, _abolish_, 6 " _cancel_, 92 repeat, _quote_, 298 repel, _drive_, 140 " _refute_, 306 _repentance_, 310 repine, _complain_, 112 replete, _plentiful_, 276 replica, _duplicate_, 141 reply, _answer_, 46 report, _v._, _announce_, 46 _report_, _n._, 311 repose, _rest_, 313 repossess, _recover_, 305 reprehend, _reprove_, 312 reprehension, _reproof_, 311 representation, _model_, 243 representative, _delegate_, 125 repress, _restrain_, 315 reprimand, _v._, _reprove_, 312 reprimand, _n._, _reproof_, 311 reproach, _v._, _abuse_, 12 " _reprove_, 312 reproach, _n._, _blemish_, 82 " _reproof_, 311 reprobate, _v._, _condemn_, 113 reprobation, _oath_, 254 reproduction, _duplicate_, 141 _reproof_, 311 reproval, _reproof_, 311 _reprove_, 312 " _condemn_, 113 repudiate, _abandon_, 1 " _renounce_, 309 repugnance, _antipathy_, 48 " _hatred_, 193 repugnant, _incongruous_, 214 repulse, _drive_, 140 repulsion, _antipathy_, 48 reputation, _character_, 102 " _fame_, 166 repute, _fame_, 166 request, _v._, _ask_, 59 " _pray_, 281 require, _ask_, 59 " _make_, 236 required, _necessary_, 250 requirement, _necessity_, 250 requisite, _a._, _necessary_, 250 " _order_, 258 requisite, _n._, _necessity_, 250 requital, _pay_, 266 " _revenge_, 316 _requite_, 313 rescind, _cancel_, 92 resemblance, _analogy_, 43 " _approximation_, 55 resembling, _alike_, 30 resentful, _restive_, 314 resentment, _anger_, 44 " _hatred_, 193 " _pique_, 272 reserve, _modesty_, 244 " _pride_, 286 reserved, _taciturn_, 351 reside, _abide_, 5 residence, _home_, 201 resign, _abandon_, 1 resignation, _patience_, 265 resist, _drive_, 140 " _hinder_, 199 resistance, _defense_, 123 resolute, _obstinate_, 256 resolution, _fortitude_, 176 resolved, _obstinate_, 256 resource, _alternative_, 38 respect, _v._, _admire_, 23 " _venerate_, 366 respect, _n._, _esteem_, _n._, 157 response, _answer_, 46 responsibility, _duty_, 142 rest, _v._, _abide_, 5 _rest_, _n._, 313 restiff, _restive_, 314 _restive_, 314 restless, _active_, 17 " _restive_, 314 restore, _recover_, 305 _restrain_, 315 " _arrest_, 57 " _bind_, 81 " _govern_, 185 " _keep_, 226 restraint, _barrier_, 74 restrict, _bind_, 81 " _restrain_, 315 restriction, _barrier_, 74 result, _v._, _follow_, 174 result, _n._, _consequence_, 116 " _end_, _n._, 148 " _event_, 158 " _harvest_, 192 " _operation_, 258 resume, _recover_, 305 retain, _keep_, 226 retainer, _accessory_, 13 retaliate, _avenge_, 69 " _requite_, 313 retaliation, _revenge_, 316 retard, _hinder_, 199 " _obstruct_, 257 reticent, _taciturn_, 351 retire, _abandon_, 1 _retirement_, 315 retort, _answer_, 46 retract, _abandon_, 1 retribution, _revenge_, 316 retrieve, _recover_, 305 retrospect, _memory_, 239 retrospection, _memory_, 239 return, _v._, _requite_, 313 return, _n._, _harvest_, 192 " _profit_, 288 returns, _profit_, 288 reveal, _announce_, 46 _revelation_, 316 revenge, _v._, _avenge_, 69 " _requite_, 313 _revenge_, _n._, 316 " _hatred_, 193 revere, _admire_, 23 " _venerate_, 366 reverence, _v._, _venerate_, 366 reverence, _n._, _veneration_, 366 reverie, _dream_, 139 reverse, _v._, _abolish_, 6 reverse, _n._, _misfortune_, 242 revile, _abuse_, 12 " _slander_, 336 revoke, _abolish_, 6 " _cancel_, 92 " _renounce_, 309 revolt, _n._, _revolution_, 317 _revolution_, 317 " _change_, 101 _revolve_, 318 reward, _v._, _requite_, 313 reward, _n._, _subsidy_, 345 rhythm, _meter_, 240 rich, _plentiful_, 276 " _racy_, 299 ride, _drive_, 140 _riddle_, 318 ridicule, _banter_, 73 ridiculous, _absurd_, 11 " _queer_, 297 right, _a._, _innocent_, 220 _right_, _n._, 319 " _duty_, 142 " _justice_, 225 right away, right off, _immediately_, 211 righteous, _innocent_, 220 righteousness, _duty_, 142 " _justice_, 225 " _religion_, 307 " _virtue_, 370 rightfulness, _justice_, 225 rightness, _virtue_, 370 rigid, _severe_, 329 rigorous, _severe_, 329 rim, _bank_, 72 rime (rhyme), _poetry_, 277 rinse, _cleanse_, 107 riot, _revolution_, 317 rip, _rend_, 309 _rise_, _v._, 319 rise, _n._, _beginning_, 78 risk, _n._, _danger_, 121 " _hazard_, 194 risky, _precarious_, 282 rite, _sacrament_, 321 rival, _n._, _enemy_, 151 rivalry, _ambition_, 40 rive, _break_, 86 " _rend_, 309 road, _way_, 372 roadway, _way_, 372 roam, _wander_, 371 roar, _call_, 91 _robber_, 320 robes, _dress_, 140 rock, _shake_, 330 roll, _v._, _revolve_, 318 roll, _n._, _record_, _n._, 304 romance, _dream_, 139 " _fiction_, 170 root out, _exterminate_, 163 rot, _decay_, 122 rotate, _revolve_, 318 rough, _awkward_, 70 " _bluff_, 83 rout, _conquer_, 115 route, _way_, 372 routine, _habit_, 187 rove, _wander_, 371 _royal_, 320 rub off or out, _cancel_, 92 rude, _barbarous_, 73 " _bluff_, 83 " _rustic_, 321 rudeness, _impudence_, 213 rue, _mourn_, 246 ruin, _v._, _abuse_, 12 " _demolish_, 127 " _subvert_, 346 ruin, _n._, _misfortune_, 242 ruinous, _pernicious_, 270 rule, _v._, _govern_, 185 rule, _n._, _habit_, 187 " _law_, 229 " _system_, 350 rumor, _report_, 311 rupture, _break_, 86 " _rend_, 309 rural, _rustic_, 321 ruse, _artifice_, 58 " _pretense_, 283 rush, _career_, 95 _rustic_, 321 sable, _dark_, 122 _sacrament_, 321 sacred, _holy_, 200 sacrifice, _surrender_, 349 sadness, _grief_, 187 safeguard, _defense_, 123 _sagacious_, 322 " _astute_, 62 sagacity, _acumen_, 18 " _wisdom_, 372 sage, _sagacious_, 322 saintly, _holy_, 200 salable, _venal_, 365 salary, _pay_, 266 _sale_, 323 salubrious, _healthy_, 195 salutary, _healthy_, 195 salutation, parting, _farewell_, 168 salute, _address_, _v._, 19 same, _alike_, 30 " _synonymous_, 349 _sample_, 323 " _example_, 160 sanctimoniousness, _hypocrisy_, 204 sanctimony, _hypocrisy_, 204 sanction, _v._, _abet_, 4 " _allow_, 35 " _confirm_, 114 sanitary, _healthy_, 195 sarcasm, _banter_, 73 sate, _satisfy_, 324 satiate, _satisfy_, 324 satire, _banter_, 73 satisfaction, _happiness_, 189 " _propitiation_, 291 satisfactory, _adequate_, 21 " _comfortable_, 110 satisfied, _comfortable_, 110 _satisfy_, 324 " _requite_, 313 satisfying, _delightful_, 126 sauciness, _impudence_, 213 " _pertness_, 271 savage, _barbarous_, 73 " _bitter_, 81 " _fierce_, 171 savant, _scholar_, 324 save, _but_, 89 saving, _frugality_, 180 savory, _delicious_, 126 saw, _n._, _proverb_, 293 say, _allege_, 31 " _announce_, 46 " _speak_, 339 " _state_, 341 saying, _proverb_, 293 scan, _look_, 234 scarce, _rare_, 300 scare, _frighten_, 180 schedule, _record_, 304 scheme, _design_, 128 " _hypothesis_, 205 schismatic, _heretic_, 196 _scholar_, 324 scholarship, _knowledge_, 227 school, _v._, _teach_, 353 schooling, _education_, 143 _science_, 325 " _knowledge_, 227 scintilla, _particle_, 264 scintillation, _light_, 231 scoff, _sneer_, 337 scorch, _burn_, 87 scorn, _v._, _abhor_, 5 scorn, _n._, _neglect_, 251 scour, _cleanse_, 107 scourge, _beat_, 75 scout, _spy_, 340 scrap, _particle_, 264 scratch out, _cancel_, 92 scream, _call_, 91 screen, _hide_, 197 " _palliate_, 261 " _shelter_, 331 scrimping, _frugality_, 180 scroll, _record_, 304 scrub, _cleanse_, 107 scruple, _doubt_, _n._, 138 scrutinizing, _inquisitive_, 221 search, _hunt_, 203 searching, _inquisitive_, 221 season, _time_, 356 seat of government, _capital_, 94 seclusion, _retirement_, 315 second, _help_, 195 secret, _mysterious_, 247 secrete, _hide_, 197 section, _part_, 264 secure, _arrest_, 57 " _attain_, 64 " _bind_, 81 " _catch_, 97 " _get_, 183 " _purchase_, 295 _security_, 326 sedate, _calm_, 91 sedition, _revolution_, 317 seditious, _rebellious_, 304 seduce, _allure_, 37 sedulous, _industrious_, 215 sedulousness, _industry_, 216 see, _discern_, 133 " _look_, 234 seed, _plant_, 274 seed down, _plant_, 274 seem, _appear_, 52 seeming, _a._, _apparent_, 52 seeming, _n._, _pretense_, 283 seemly, _becoming_, 77 segment, _part_, 264 seize, _arrest_, 57 " _catch_, 97 select, _allot_, 34 " _choose_, 104 _self-abnegation_, 329 self-assertion, _assurance_, 61 " _egotism_, 145 self-complacency, _pride_, 286 self-conceit, _egotism_, 145 " _pride_, 286 self-condemnation, _repentance_, 310 self-confidence, _assurance_, 61 " _egotism_, 145 self-consciousness, _egotism_, 145 self-control, _abstinence_, 10 " _self-abnegation_, 326 self-denial, _abstinence_, 10 " _self-abnegation_, 326 self-devotion, _self-abnegation_, 326 self-esteem, _egotism_, 145 " _pride_, 286 self-exaltation, _pride_, 286 self-immolation, _self-abnegation_, 326 self-opinionated, _dogmatic_, 137 self-possessed, _calm_, 91 self-reliance, _assurance_, 61 self-renunciation, _self-abnegation_, 326 self-respect, _pride_, 286 self-restraint, _abstinence_, 10 self-sacrifice, _self-abnegation_, 326 sell, _convey_, 119 semblance, _analogy_, 43 " _pretense_, 283 _send_, 327 senile, _old_, 257 _sensation_, 328 sense, _mind_, 241 " _sensation_, 328 " _wisdom_, 372 senseless, _absurd_, 11 senselessness, _idiocy_, 207 _sensibility_, 328 sensible, _conscious_, 116 " _physical_, 272 " _sagacious_, 322 sensitive, _fine_, 172 sensitiveness, _sensibility_, 328 sensual, _brutish_, 87 sentence, _v._, _condemn_, 113 sententious, _terse_, 354 sentient being, _animal_, 45 sentiment, _idea_, 206 separate, _abstract_, 10 separately, _apiece_, 51 sequel, _catastrophe_, 97 " _consequence_, 116 " _event_, 158 sequence, _time_, 356 serene, _calm_, 91 sermon, _speech_, 339 service, _profit_, 288 " _sacrament_, 321 " _utility_, 363 serviceableness, _utility_, 363 set, _v._, _plant_, 274 " _put_, 296 set, _n._, _class_, 106 " _flock_, 173 set apart, _allow_, 34 " _holy_, 200 set aside, _abolish_, 6 set fire to, _burn_, 87 set forth, _state_, 341 set free, _absolve_, 9 set on fire, _burn_, 87 set out, _plant_, 274 settle, _confirm_, 114 settle with, _requite_, 133 set upon, _attack_, _v._, 63 sever, _break_, 86 " _rend_, 309 severally, _apiece_, 51 _severe_, 329 " _difficult_, 132 " _morose_, 245 severity, _acrimony_, 15 sex, _gender_, 181 shackle, _v._, _bind_, 81 shackle, _n._, _fetter_, 169 shadowy, _dark_, 122 " _vain_, 364 shady, _dark_, 122 _shake_, 330 sham, _hypocrisy_, 204 shame, _v._, _abash_, 3 shame, _n._, _abomination_, 7 " _chagrin_, 100 shamelessness, _effrontery_, 144 shape, _make_, 236 share, _v._, _apportion_, 54 share, _n._, _part_, 264 " _portion_, 279 sharp, _astute_, 62 " _bitter_, 81 " _clever_, 109 " _fine_, 172 " _sagacious_, 322 " _steep_, 342 sharpness, _acrimony_, 15 " _acumen_, 18 sharp-witted, _sagacious_, 322 shatter, _break_, 86 sheen, _light_, 231 sheer, _pure_, 296 " _steep_, 342 _shelter_, _v._, 331 " _cherish_, 104 shelter, _n._, _defense_, 123 shield, _v._, _shelter_, 331 shield, _n._, _defense_, 123 shift, _v._, _change_, _v._, 100 " _convey_, 119 shimmer, _light_, 231 shine, _light_, 231 shining, _light_, 231 shiver, _break_, 86 " _shake_, 330 shock, _blow_, 83 " _collision_, 109 shocking, _awful_, 70 shore, _bank_, 72 short, _terse_, 354 " _transient_, 361 should, _ought_, 260 shout, _call_, 91 show, _array_, 57 " _ostentation_, 259 " _pretense_, 283 shred, _particle_, 264 shrewd, _astute_, 62 " _sagacious_, 322 shrewdness, _acumen_, 18 shriek, _call_, 91 shudder, _shake_, 330 shun, _abhor_, 5 shyness, _modesty_, 244 sickness, _disease_, 134 sight, _array_, 57 _sign_, 332 " _characteristic_, 103 " _emblem_, 146 " _trace_, 359 signal, _sign_, 332 signify, _allude_, 36 silent, _taciturn_, 351 silver, _money_, 244 similar, _alike_, 30 " _synonymous_, 349 similarity, _analogy_, 43 " _approximation_, 55 similarly, _also_, 37 simile, _allegory_, 33 " _analogy_, 43 similitude, _analogy_, 43 simple, _candid_, 93 " _pure_, 296 simulation, _pretense_, 283 _sin_, 332 since, _because_, 77 " _therefore_, 355 sincere, _candid_, 93 " _honest_, 202 sine qua non, _necessity_, 250 sinful, _criminal_, 120 _sing_, 333 singe, _burn_, 87 singular, _queer_, 297 " _rare_, 300 singularity, _characteristic_, 103 sink, _abase_, 2 " _immerse_, 212 sinless, _innocent_, 220 " _perfect_, 268 situation, _circumstance_, 105 skeleton, _sketch_, 334 _skeptic_, 334 skepticism, _doubt_, _n._, 138 _sketch_, 334 _skilful_, 335 " _clever_, 109 skill, _dexterity_, 129 " _power_, 279 " _wisdom_, 372 skilled, _skilful_, 335 skirmish, _battle_, 74 skittish, _restive_, 314 slack, _slow_, 337 slackness, _neglect_, 251 _slander_, 336 " _abuse_, 12 _slang_, 336 slant, _v._, _tip_, 357 slaughter, _kill_, 226 " _massacre_, 237 slay, _kill_, 226 sleep, _rest_, 313 sleepless, _vigilant_, 369 slender, _fine_, 172 " _minute_, 242 slight, _a._, _fine_, 172 " _venial_, 367 slight, _n._, _neglect_, 251 sling, _send_, 327 slit, _rend_, 309 slope, _v._, _tip_, 357 slothful, _idle_, 208 _slow_, 337 " _reluctant_, 308 slowness, _stupidity_, 344 sluggish, _idle_, 208 " _slow_, 337 sluggishness, _apathy_, 50 " _stupidity_, 344 slumber, _rest_, 313 small, _fine_, 172 " _minute_, 242 smart, _clever_, 109 smartness, _pertness_, 271 smash, _break_, 86 smiling, _happy_, 190 smirch, _blemish_, 82 smite, _beat_, 75 smooth, _calm_, 91 " _fine_, 172 snappish, _morose_, 245 snatch, _catch_, 97 _sneer_, 337 snug, _comfortable_, 110 sobriety, _abstinence_, 10 sociable, _friendly_, 178 social, _friendly_, 178 _socialism_, 338 society, _association_, 60 soften, _alleviate_, 33 " _chasten_, 103 soil, _v._, _defile_, 124 " _stain_, 341 soil, _n._, _blemish_, 82 sojourn, _abide_, 5 soldiers, _army_, 56 soldiery, _army_, 56 solemn, _awful_, 70 solemnity, _sacrament_, 321 solemnize, _celebrate_, 99 solicit, _ask_, 59 " _plead_, 274 solicitude, _alarm_, 28 " _anxiety_, 49 " _care_, 94 solitude, _retirement_, 315 somber, _dark_, 122 song, _poetry_, 277 soothe, _allay_, 31 sordid, _avaricious_, 68 sorrow, _v._, _mourn_, 246 sorrow, _n._, _grief_, 187 " _misfortune_, 242 " _repentance_, 310 sorrowful, _pitiful_, 273 sort, _air_, 27 sottish, _brutish_, 87 soul, _mind_, 241 sound, _a._, _healthy_, 195 _sound_, _n._, 338 sour, _bitter_, 81 " _morose_, 245 source, _beginning_, 78 " _cause_, 98 sourness, _acrimony_, 15 sow, _plant_, 274 spacious, _large_, 229 spank, _beat_, 75 sparing, _frugality_, 180 sparkle, _light_, 231 _speak_, 339 speaking, _speech_, 339 speak to, _address_, _v._, 19 specie, _money_, 244 specify, _state_, 341 specimen, _example_, 160 " _sample_, 323 speck, _blemish_, 82 speculation, _hypothesis_, 205 _speech_, 339 " _language_, 228 speechless, _taciturn_, 351 speed, _v._, _quicken_, 297 speedy, _nimble_, 253 spicy, _racy_, 299 spirit, _character_, 102 " _mind_, 241 spirited, _racy_, 299 spite, _enmity_, 152 " _hatred_, 193 splendid, _fine_, 172 splenetic, _morose_, 245 split, _break_, 86 spoil, _decay_, 122 " _defile_, 124 sponge, _cleanse_, 107 _spontaneous_, 340 sport, _entertainment_, 153 spot, _v._, _stain_, 341 spot, _n._, _blemish_, 82 spotless, _innocent_, 220 " _perfect_, 268 " _pure_, 296 spousal, _marriage_, 236 spread abroad, _announce_, 46 sprightliness, _pertness_, 271 sprightly, _active_, 17 " _airy_, 27 " _happy_, 190 " _nimble_, 253 spring, _v._, _rise_, 319 spring, _n._, _beginning_, 78 " _cause_, 98 spruce, _neat_, 249 spry, _active_, 17 " _nimble_, 253 _spy_, 340 stable, _permanent_, 269 _stain_, _v._, 341 " _defile_, 124 stain, _n._, _blemish_, 82 stainless, _innocent_, 220 " _perfect_, 268 " _pure_, 296 stamp out, _abolish_, 6 stanch, _faithful_, 165 standard, _example_, 160 " _ideal_, 206 " _model_, 243 stand by, _help_, 195 stare, _look_, 234 start, _beginning_, 78 _state_, _v._, 341 " _allege_, 31 " _announce_, 46 state, _n._, _people_, 266 stately, _awful_, 70 statement, _report_, 311 statute, _law_, 229 stay, _abide_, 5 " _hinder_, 199 " _obstruct_, 257 " _rest_, 313 steadfast, _permanent_, 269 steal, _abstract_, 10 _steep_, 342 " _high_, 198 stern, _severe_, 329 sticking, _adhesive_, 22 sticky, _adhesive_, 22 stiff, _severe_, 329 stigma, _blemish_, 82 still, _v._, _allay_, 31 still, _a._, _calm_, 91 still, _conj._, _but_, 89 " _notwithstanding_, 254 " _yet_, 374 stillness, _apathy_, 50 " _rest_, 313 stinging, _bitter_, 81 stingy, _avaricious_, 68 stipend, _pay_, 266 stipulation, _contract_, 118 stir, _influence_, 217 stoicism, _apathy_, 50 stolid, _brutish_, 87 stoop, _bend_, 79 stop, _v._, _abide_, 5 " _arrest_, 57 " _cease_, 98 " _end_, _v._, 148 " _hinder_, 199 " _obstruct_, 257 stop, _n._, _rest_, 313 store up, _amass_, 38 storm, _v._, _attack_, _v._, 63 _storm_, _n._, 343 _story_, 343 " _fiction_, 170 " _history_, 200 " _report_, 311 straightforward, _candid_, 93 " _clear_, 107 " _honest_, 202 straightway, _immediately_, 211 strand, _bank_, 72 strange, _alien_, _a._, 29 " _queer_, 297 " _rare_, 300 stranger, _alien_, _n._, 29 stratagem, _artifice_, 58 stray, _wander_, 371 street, _way_, 372 strength, _power_, 279 strengthen, _confirm_, 114 strict, _severe_, 329 strife, _battle_, 74 " _feud_, 170 strike, _beat_, 75 stripe, _blow_, 83 strive, _endeavor_, _v._, 149 stroke, _blow_, 83 " _misfortune_, 242 strong, _healthy_, 195 stronghold, _fortification_, 176 struggle, _endeavor_, _n._, 150 stubborn, _obstinate_, 256 " _perverse_, 272 " _restive_, 314 student, _scholar_, 324 study, _education_, 143 stupefaction, _stupidity_, 344 " _stupor_, 344 stupid, _absurd_, 11 " _brutish_, 87 _stupidity_, 344 " _idiocy_, 207 _stupor_, 344 " _stupidity_, 344 style, _air_, 27 " _diction_, 130 " _name_, 247 subdivision, _part_, 264 subdue, _chasten_, 103 " _conquer_, 115 subject, _v._, _conquer_, 115 subject, _n._, _topic_, 359 subjection, _allegiance_, 32 _subjective_, 345 " _inherent_, 218 subjoin, _add_, 18 subjugate, _conquer_, 115 submerge, _immerse_, 212 submission, _patience_, 265 submissive, _docile_, 136 submit, _bend_, 79 submit to, _endure_, 150 subordinate, _auxiliary_, 67 subside, _abate_, 3 _subsidy_, 345 subsisting, _alive_, 30 substantial, _real_, 301 substantiate, _confirm_, 114 substitute, _v._, _change_, _v._, 100 substitute, _n._, _delegate_, 125 subterfuge, _artifice_, 58 " _pretense_, 283 subtile, _astute_, 62 " _fine_, 172 subtle, _astute_, 62 " _fine_, 172 subvention, _subsidy_, 345 _subvert_, 346 " _abolish_, 6 _succeed_, 346 " _follow_, 174 success, _victory_, 369 successful, _fortunate_, 177 " _happy_, 190 succession, _time_, 356 succinct, _terse_, 354 succor, _help_, 195 suck up, _absorb_, 9 suffer, _allow_, 35 " _endure_, 150 sufferance, _patience_, 265 suffering, _pain_, 261 suffice, _satisfy_, 324 sufficient, _adequate_, 21 " _plentiful_, 276 suggest, _allude_, 36 _suggestion_, 347 suitable, _adequate_, 21 " _becoming_, 77 sulky, _morose_, 245 sullen, _morose_, 245 sully, _defile_, 124 " _stain_, 341 summary, _abridgment_, 7 summon, _arraign_, 56 " _convoke_, 120 sum up, _add_, 18 " _calculate_, 90 sunder, _break_, 86 " _rend_, 309 sunny, _happy_, 190 superabundance, _excess_, 160 superannuated, _antique_, 48 superciliousness, _pride_, 286 superfluity, _excess_, 160 superhuman, _supernatural_, 347 superintendence, _oversight_, 260 _supernatural_, 347 supersede, _subvert_, 346 superstition, _fanaticism_, 166 supervene, _happen_, 188 supervision, _oversight_, 260 supplant, _abolish_, 6 " _subvert_, 346 supple, _active_, 17 supplement, _appendage_, 53 supplicate, _ask_, 59 " _pray_, 281 supply, _give_, 185 _support_, _v._, 348 " _abet_, 4 " _endure_, 150 " _keep_, 226 support, _n._, _help_, 195 " _subsidy_, 345 supporter, _adherent_, 21 _suppose_, 348 supposition, _fancy_, 167 " _hypothesis_, 205 " _idea_, 206 suppress, _abolish_, 6 " _hide_, 197 " _restrain_, 315 " _subvert_, 346 supremacy, _victory_, 369 supreme, _absolute_, 8 sure, _authentic_, 67 " _conscious_, 116 " _faithful_, 165 surety, _security_, 326 surfeit, _satisfy_, 324 surly, _morose_, 245 surmise, _v._, _doubt_, _v._, 137 " _suppose_, 348 surmise, _n._, _hypothesis_, 205 surmount, _conquer_, 115 surname, _name_, 247 surpass, _beat_, 75 surplus, _excess_, 160 surplusage, _circumlocution_, 105 surprise, _amazement_, 39 _surrender_, 349 " _abandon_, 1 surrounded by, _amid_, 42 surveillance, _oversight_, 260 survey, _look_, 234 susceptibility, _power_, 279 " _sensibility_, 328 suspect, _doubt_, _v._, 137 suspense, _doubt_, _n._, 138 suspicion, _doubt_, _n._, 138 suspicious, _envious_, 155 " _equivocal_, 155 sustain, _carry_, 96 " _confirm_, 114 " _endure_, 150 " _help_, 195 " _keep_, 226 " _support_, 348 sustenance, _food_, 175 swallow, _absorb_, 9 swallow up, _absorb_, 9 swarm, _flock_, 173 swart, _dark_, 122 swarthy, _dark_, 122 sway, _govern_, 185 " _influence_, 217 " _shake_, 330 swear, _state_, 341 swearing, _oath_, 254 sweep, _cleanse_, 107 sweet, _amiable_, 42 swerve, _fluctuate_, 173 " _wander_, 371 swift, _nimble_, 253 swindle, _n._, _fraud_, 177 swindling, _fraud_, 177 swing, _shake_, 330 swinish, _brutish_, 87 switch, _beat_, 75 swoon, _stupor_, 344 swooning, _stupor_, 344 sworn statement, _oath_, 254 sycophancy, _praise_, 280 sylvan, _rustic_, 321 symbol, _emblem_, 146 " _sign_, 332 symmetry, _harmony_, 191 sympathetic, _humane_, 203 sympathize with, _console_, 117 sympathy, _benevolence_, 80 " _pity_, 273 symphony, _melody_, 238 symptom, _sign_, 332 syncope, _stupor_, 344 synonymic, _synonymous_, 349 _synonymous_, 349 synopsis, _abridgment_, 7 _system_, 350 " _body_, 84 " _habit_, 187 " _hypothesis_, 205 systematic, _dogmatic_, 137 system of government, _polity_, 278 _taciturn_, 351 tact, _address_, _n._, 20 taint, _v._, _defile_, 124 taint, _n._, _blemish_, 82 take, _assume_, 61 " _carry_, 96 " _catch_, 97 take away, _abstract_, 10 take hold of, _catch_, 97 take in, take up, _absorb_, 9 take into custody, _arrest_, 57 take-off, _caricature_, 95 take place, _happen_, 188 take prisoner, _arrest_, 57 take to task, _reprove_, 312 tale, _report_, 311 " _story_, 343 talent, _genius_, 183 " _power_, 279 talented, _clever_, 109 talents, _genius_, 183 talk, _speak_, 339 talk, _n._, _conversation_, 118 " _speech_, 339 talkative, _garrulous_, 181 tall, _high_, 198 tame, _docile_, 136 tangible, _evident_, 159 " _physical_, 272 tangled, _complex_, 112 tardy, _slow_, 337 tarnish, _blemish_, 82 " _defile_, 124 " _stain_, 341 tarry, _abide_, 5 tart, _bitter_, 81 tartness, _acrimony_, 15 _tasteful_, 352 tasty, _tasteful_, 352 tattle, _babble_, 71 taunt, _sneer_, 337 tautology, _circumlocution_, 105 _teach_, 353 teachable, _docile_, 136 teaching, _doctrine_, 136 " _education_, 143 tear, _rend_, 309 tease, _affront_, 24 tediousness, _circumlocution_, 105 teeming, _plentiful_, 276 tell, _announce_, 46 " _speak_, 339 " _state_, 341 _temerity_, 353 temper, _anger_, 44 " _character_, 102 temperament, _character_, 102 temperance, _abstinence_, 10 tempest, _storm_, 343 temporary, _transient_, 361 tempt, _allure_, 37 tendency, _aim_, 26 " _direction_, 132 tender, _friendly_, 178 " _humane_, 203 tender-hearted, _humane_, 203 tenderness, _attachment_, 63 " _love_, 235 " _mercy_, 239 " _pity_, 273 tenet, _doctrine_, 136 tenuous, _fine_, 172 _term_, 354 " _boundary_, 84 " _time_, 356 terminate, _abolish_, 6 " _cease_, 98 " _end_, _v._, 148 termination, _boundary_, 84 " _end_, _n._, 148 terminus, _end_, _n._, 148 terrible, _awful_, 70 " _formidable_, 176 terrific, _awful_, 70 terrify, _frighten_, 180 terror, _alarm_, 28 " _fear_, 168 _terse_, 354 testify, _avow_, 69 " _state_, 341 _testimony_, 355 that, _but_, 89 theme, _topic_, 359 then, _therefore_, 355 thence, _therefore_, 355 theology, _religion_, 307 theory, _hypothesis_, 205 " _idea_, 206 _therefore_, 355 thief, _robber_, 320 thin, _fine_, 172 think, _esteem_, _v._, 156 " _suppose_, 348 thirst, _appetite_, 54 tho, _but_, 89 " _notwithstanding_, _conj._, 254 thorough, _radical_, 299 thoroughfare, _way_, 372 thoroughgoing, _radical_, 299 thought, _idea_, 206 " _mind_, 241 thoughtless, _abstracted_, 11 thoughtlessness, _neglect_, 251 thrash, _beat_, 75 threatening, _imminent_, 212 thrift, _frugality_, 180 thrill, _shake_, 330 thrive, _succeed_, 346 throe, _pain_, 261 _throng_, 356 " _company_, 110 through, _by_, 89 " _notwithstanding_, _conj._, 254 throw, _send_, 327 thrust, _drive_, 140 thump, _blow_, 83 thus far, _yet_, 374 thwart, _hinder_, 199 tidy, _neat_, 249 tie, _bind_, 81 tillage, _agriculture_, 25 tilt, _tip_, 357 _time_, 356 time-honored, _old_, 257 timeless, _eternal_, 157 time-worn, _old_, 257 timid, _faint_, 164 timidity, _alarm_, 28 " _fear_, 168 " _modesty_, 244 tinge, _stain_, 341 tint, _stain_, 341 tiny, _minute_, 242 _tip_, _v._, 357 tip, _n._, _end_, _n._, 148 _tire_, _v._, 357 title, _name_, 247 tittle, _particle_, 264 toil, _work_, 374 toilsome, _difficult_, 132 token, _emblem_, 146 " _sign_, 332 " _trace_, 359 tolerate, _abide_, 5 " _allow_, 35 " _endure_, 150 tone, _sound_, 338 tongue, _language_, 228 too, _also_, 37 _tool_, 358 _topic_, 359 torment, _pain_, 261 torpor, _stupor_, 344 torture, _pain_, 261 total, _radical_, 299 totter, _shake_, 330 touching, _pitiful_, 273 tour, _journey_, 223 tow, _draw_, 138 towering, _high_, 198 _trace_, 359 " _characteristic_, 103 track, _trace_, 359 " _way_, 372 tractable, _docile_, 136 trade, _business_, 88 " _sale_, 323 trading, _business_, 88 traduce, _slander_, 336 traffic, _business_, 88 trail, _trace_, 359 train, _teach_, 353 trained, _skilful_, 335 training, _education_, 143 trait, _characteristic_, 103 trance, _dream_, 139 tranquil, _calm_, 91 tranquilize, _allay_, 31 tranquillity, _apathy_, 50 " _rest_, 313 _transact_, 360 " _do_, 135 _transaction_, 360 " _act_, 16 " _business_, 88 transcendent, _transcendental_, 361 _transcendental_, 361 " _mysterious_, 247 transcript, _duplicate_, 141 transfer, _convey_, 119 transfigure, _change_, _v._, 100 transform, _change_, _v._, 100 transformation, _change_, _n._, 101 transgress, _break_, 86 transgression, _sin_, 332 _transient_, 361 transit, _journey_, 223 " _motion_, 245 transition, _change_, 101 " _motion_, 245 transitory, _transient_, 361 translation, _definition_, 124 translucent, _clear_, 107 transmit, _carry_, 96 " _convey_, 119 " _send_, 327 transmutation, _change_, _n._, 101 transmute, _change_, _v._, 100 transparent, _candid_, 93 " _clear_, 107 " _evident_, 159 transport, _carry_, 96 " _convey_, 119 " _enthusiasm_, 153 trappings, _caparison_, 93 travel, _journey_, 223 travesty, _caricature_, 95 treachery, _fraud_, 177 treason, _fraud_, 177 treasure, _cherish_, 104 treat, _transact_, 360 tremble, _shake_, 330 trembling, _fear_, 168 tremendous, _formidable_, 176 tremor, _fear_, 168 trepidation, _fear_, 168 trespass, _attack_, _n._, 64 trial, _endeavor_, _n._, 150 " _misfortune_, 242 tribe, _people_, 266 tribulation, _grief_, 187 " _misfortune_, 242 tribute, _subsidy_, 345 trick, _artifice_, 58 " _fraud_, 177 " _pretense_, 283 trickery, _deception_, 123 trifling, _idle_, 208 " _vain_, 364 trim, _neat_, 249 trip, _journey_, 223 triumph, _happiness_, 189 " _victory_, 369 trivial, _vain_, 364 " _venial_, 367 troops, _army_, 56 trouble, _anxiety_, 49 " _care_, 94 " _grief_, 187 " _misfortune_, 242 true, _authentic_, 67 " _faithful_, 165 " _honest_, 202 " _pure_, 296 " _real_, 301 truism, _axiom_, 71 " _proverb_, 293 trunk, _body_, 84 trust, _v._, _commit_, 110 trust, _n._, _assurance_, 61 " _faith_, 164 trustworthy, _authentic_, 67 " _faithful_, 165 " _honest_, 202 " _reliable_, 306 trusty, _faithful_, 165 " _honest_, 202 " _reliable_, 306 truth, _justice_, 225 " _veracity_, 367 " _virtue_, 370 truthful, _candid_, 93 truthfulness, _veracity_, 367 try, _chasten_, 103 " _endeavor_, _v._, 149 trying, _difficult_, 132 tug, _draw_, 138 tuition, _education_, 143 tumult, _revolution_, 317 turbid, _obscure_, 255 turn, _bend_, 79 " _change_, _v._, 100 " _revolve_, 318 tutor, _teach_, 353 twaddle, _babble_, 71 twain, _both_, 84 twine, _bend_, 79 twinge, _pain_, 261 twinkle, _light_, 231 twinkling, _light_, 231 twist, _bend_, 79 two, _both_, 84 type, _emblem_, 146 " _example_, 160 " _model_, 243 " _sign_, 332 typical, _normal_, 253 tyrannical, _absolute_, 8 tyro, _amateur_, 39 umbrage, _pique_, 272 umpire, _judge_, 224 unadorned, _clear_, 107 unadulterated, _pure_, 296 unambiguous, _clear_, 107 unanimity, _harmony_, 191 unassured, _precarious_, 282 unavailing, _vain_, 364 unavoidable, _necessary_, 250 unavoidableness, _necessity_, 250 unbelief, _doubt_, _n._, 138 unbeliever, _skeptic_, 334 unbiased, _candid_, 93 unbidden, _spontaneous_, 340 unblemished, _perfect_, 268 " _pure_, 296 unbounded, _infinite_, 216 unbroken, _continual_, 117 unceasing, _continual_, 117 " _eternal_, 157 uncertain, _equivocal_, 155 " _precarious_, 282 uncertainty, _doubt_, _n._, 138 unchangeable, _permanent_, 269 unchanging, _permanent_, 269 uncivil, _bluff_, 83 uncivilized, _barbarous_, 73 uncommon, _queer_, 297 " _rare_, 300 uncommunicative, _taciturn_, 351 uncompromising, _severe_, 329 unconcern, _apathy_, 50 unconditional, _absolute_, 8 unconditioned, _infinite_, 216 uncongeniality, _antipathy_, 48 unconnected, _alien_, _a._, 29 unconquerable, _obstinate_, 256 unconsciousness, _stupor_, 344 uncontrollable, _rebellious_, 304 uncorrupted, _pure_, 296 uncouth, _awkward_, 70 " _barbarous_, 73 " _rustic_, 321 uncreated, _primeval_, 287 uncultivated, _fierce_, 171 undaunted, _brave_, 85 undefiled, _perfect_, 268 " _pure_, 296 undeniable, _necessary_, 250 underestimate, _disparage_, 134 undergo, _endure_, 150 underrate, _disparage_, 134 understand, _perceive_, 267 understanding, _mind_, 241 " _wisdom_, 372 undertake, _endeavor_, _v._, 149 undervalue, _disparage_, 134 undismayed, _brave_, 85 undisturbed, _calm_, 91 undulate, _fluctuate_, 173 undying, _eternal_, 157 uneducated, _ignorant_, 208 unemployed, _idle_, 208 " _vacant_, 363 unending, _eternal_, 157 unenlightened, _ignorant_, 208 unequivocal, _absolute_, 8 " _clear_, 107 unfading, _eternal_, 157 unfailing, _eternal_, 157 unfairness, _injustice_, 220 " _prejudice_, 283 unfathomable, _infinite_, 216 " _mysterious_, 247 unfathomed, _mysterious_, 247 unfeelingness, _apathy_, 50 unfilled, _vacant_, 363 unflinching, _obstinate_, 256 unfold, _amplify_, 43 ungainly, _awkward_, 70 ungodliness, _sin_, 332 ungovernable, _perverse_, 272 " _rebellious_, 304 unhandy, _awkward_, 70 unhealthful, _pernicious_, 270 unhealthiness, _disease_, 134 unhomogeneous, _heterogeneous_, 196 unification, _union_, 362 uniform, _a._, _alike_, 30 uniform, _n._, _dress_, 140 uniformity, _harmony_, 191 unimportant, _vain_, 364 uninformed, _ignorant_, 208 uninstructed, _ignorant_, 208 unintellectual, _brutish_, 87 unintelligible, _obscure_, 255 uninterrupted, _continual_, 117 _union_, 362 " _alliance_, 34 " _association_, 60 " _attachment_, 63 " _harmony_, 191 " _marriage_, 236 unique, _queer_, 297 " _rare_, 300 unison, _harmony_, 191 " _melody_, 238 unity, _harmony_, 191 " _union_, 362 universal, _general_, 181 unkindness, _acrimony_, 15 unknown, _mysterious_, 247 unlawful, _criminal_, 120 unlearned, _ignorant_, 208 unless, _but_, 89 unlettered, _ignorant_, 208 unlike, _alien_, _a._, 29 " _heterogeneous_, 196 unlikeness, _difference_, 131 unlimited, _infinite_, 216 unmanageable, _rebellious_, 304 unmannerly, _bluff_, 83 unmatched, _queer_, 297 unmeasured, _infinite_, 216 unmingled, _pure_, 296 unmistakable, _evident_, 159 " _clear_, 107 unmitigated, _severe_, 329 unmixed, _pure_, 296 unobtrusiveness, _modesty_, 244 unoccupied, _idle_, 208 " _vacant_, 363 unparalleled, _rare_, 300 unpolished, _rustic_, 321 unpolluted, _pure_, 296 unprecedented, _rare_, 300 unprejudiced, _candid_, 93 unpremeditated, _extemporaneous_, 163 unprofitable, _vain_, 364 unquestionable, _real_, 301 unreal, _vain_, 364 unreasonable, _absurd_, 11 unrelenting, _severe_, 329 unremitting, _continual_, 117 unreserved, _candid_, 93 unrighteousness, _injustice_, 220 " _sin_, 332 unruffled, _calm_, 91 unruly, _restive_, 314 unsatisfying, _vain_, 364 unselfishness, _benevolence_, 80 unserviceable, _vain_, 364 unsettle, _displace_, 135 unsettled, _precarious_, 282 unskilful, _awkward_, 70 unskilled, _ignorant_, 208 unsophisticated, _candid_, 93 " _rustic_, 321 unsoundness, _disease_, 134 unspiritual, _brutish_, 87 unspotted, _pure_, 296 unstable, _precarious_, 282 unstained, _pure_, 296 unsteady, _precarious_, 282 unsubstantial, _vain_, 364 unsuitable, _incongruous_, 214 unsullied, _pure_, 296 untainted, _pure_, 296 untamed, _barbarous_, 73 untarnished, _pure_, 296 untaught, _ignorant_, 208 " _rustic_, 321 untenanted, _vacant_, 363 untoward, _perverse_, 272 untrained, _fierce_, 171 untruth, _deception_, 123 untutored, _ignorant_, 208 unusual, _queer_, 287 " _rare_, 300 unvarying, _continual_, 117 unwavering, _faithful_, 165 unwholesome, _pernicious_, 270 unwilling, _reluctant_, 308 unyielding, _severe_, 329 " _obstinate_, 256 upbraid, _reprove_, 312 upbraiding, _reproof_, 311 uphold, _abet_, 4 " _confirm_, 114 " _help_, 195 " _support_, 348 uplifted, _high_, 198 upright, _honest_, 202 " _innocent_, 220 " _pure_, 296 uprightness, _justice_, 225 " _virtue_, 370 uproot, _exterminate_, 163 upshot, _consequence_, 116 upstart, _new_, 252 urbane, _polite_, 277 urge, _influence_, 217 " _persuade_, 271 " _plead_, 274 " _quicken_, 297 urge forward, _promote_, 291 urgency, _necessity_, 250 urge on, _drive_, 140 " _promote_, 291 " _quicken_, 297 usage, _habit_, 187 use, _employ_, 147 " _exercise_, 162 " _habit_, 187 " _utility_, 363 usefulness, _profit_, 288 " _utility_, 363 useless, _vain_, 364 use up, _employ_, 147 _usual_, 362 " _general_, 181 " _normal_, 253 usurp, _assume_, 61 utensil, _tool_, 358 _utility_, 363 " _profit_, 288 utmost, _end_, _n._, 148 utter, _speak_, 339 utterance, _remark_, 308 " _speech_, 339 uttermost, _end_, _n._, 148 _vacant_, 363 " _idle_, 208 vacate, _abandon_, 1 " _cancel_, 92 vacillate, _fluctuate_, 173 vacuous, _vacant_, 363 vagary, _fancy_, 167 _vain_, 364 vainglory, _pride_, 286 valediction, _farewell_, 168 valedictory, _farewell_, 168 valiant, _brave_, 85 valor, _prowess_, 294 value, _cherish_, 104 " _esteem_, _v._, 156 " _price_, 285 " _profit_, 288 vanity, _egotism_, 145 " _pride_, 286 vanquish, _beat_, 75 " _conquer_, 115 vapid, _vain_, 364 variant, _heterogeneous_, 196 variation, _change_, 101 " _difference_, 131 variety, _change_, 101 " _difference_, 131 various, _heterogeneous_, 196 vary, _change_, 100 " _fluctuate_, 173 vast, _large_, 229 vaunt, _ostentation_, 259 vaunting, _ostentation_, 259 veer, _change_, 100 " _fluctuate_, 173 " _wander_, 371 vehemence, _enthusiasm_, 153 vehement, _eager_, 142 veil, _hide_, 197 " _palliate_, 261 _venal_, 365 venerable, _old_, 257 _venerate_, 366 " _admire_, 23 _veneration_, 366 vengeance, _revenge_, 316 _venial_, 367 venture, _hazard_, 194 venturesome, _brave_, 85 venturesomeness, _temerity_, 353 _veracity_, 367 _verbal_, 368 verbiage, _circumlocution_, 105 " _diction_, 130 verbose, _garrulous_, 181 verbosity, _circumlocution_, 105 verdant, _rustic_, 321 verge, _boundary_, 84 veritable, _authentic_, 67 " _real_, 301 verity, _veracity_, 367 vernacular, _language_, 228 verse, _meter_, 240 " _poetry_, 277 vestige, _trace_, 359 vestments, _dress_, 140 vesture, _dress_, 140 vex, _affront_, 24 vexation, _anger_, 44 " _chagrin_, 100 viands, _food_, 175 vibrate, _shake_, 330 vice, _sin_, 332 vicious, _criminal_, 120 " _restive_, 314 viciousness, _sin_, 332 vicissitude, _change_, _n._, 101 victimize, _abuse_, 12 _victory_, 369 victuals, _food_, 175 view, _look_, 234 vigilance, _care_, 94 _vigilant_, 369 " _alert_, 28 vigorous, _active_, 17 " _healthy_, 195 vile, _brutish_, 87 " _criminal_, 120 vilify, _abuse_, 12 " _slander_, 336 villainy, _abomination_, 7 vindicate, _avenge_, 69 vindication, _apology_, 51 " _defense_, 123 vinegarish, _bitter_, 81 violate, _abuse_, 12 violent, _fierce_, 171 virile, _masculine_, 237 _virtue_, 370 " _justice_, 225 virtuous, _innocent_, 220 " _pure_, 296 virtuousness, _virtue_, 370 virulence, _acrimony_, 15 virulent, _bitter_, 81 viscid, _adhesive_, 22 viscous, _adhesive_, 22 visible, _evident_, 159 " _physical_, 272 vision, _dream_, 139 visionary, _fanciful_, 167 " _vain_, 364 visit, _avenge_, 69 visitation, _misfortune_, 242 vitiate, _defile_, 124 vituperate, _abuse_, 12 vivacious, _alive_, 30 vocabulary, _diction_, 130 " _language_, 228 vocal, _verbal_, 368 vocation, _business_, 88 vociferate, _call_, 91 void, _vacant_, 363 voluntary, _spontaneous_, 340 vow, _oath_, 254 voyage, _journey_, 223 vulgar, the, _mob_, 243 vulgarism, _slang_, 336 vulgarity, _slang_, 336 wages, _pay_, 266 waggery, _wit_, 373 waggishness, _wit_, 373 wait, _abide_, 5 wakeful, _vigilant_, 369 _wander_, 371 want, _necessity_, 250 " _poverty_, 279 warble, _sing_, 333 ward, _shelter_, 331 wariness, _care_, 94 warmth, _enthusiasm_, 153 warn, _reprove_, 312 warning, _example_, 160 warp, _bend_, 79 warrant, _precedent_, 282 wary, _vigilant_, 369 wash, _cleanse_, 107 waste, _excess_, 160 " _vacant_, 363 wastefulness, _excess_, 160 watch, _look_, 234 watch for, _abide_, 5 watchful, _alert_, 28 " _vigilant_, 369 watchfulness, _care_, 94 watch, on the, _alert_, 28 wave, _shake_, 330 waver, _fluctuate_, 173 " _shake_, 330 _way_, 372 " _air_, 27 " _direction_, 132 wayward, _perverse_, 272 weak, _faint_, 164 weapon, _tool_, 358 weapons, _arms_, 55 wearied, _faint_, 164 wear out, _tire_, 357 weary, _tire_, 357 wedded, _addicted_, 19 wedding, _marriage_, 236 wedlock, _marriage_, 236 weigh, _deliberate_, 125 weight, _load_, 233 welcome, _delightful_, 126 well, _healthy_, 195 well-behaved, _polite_, 277 well-bred, _polite_, 277 well-disposed, _friendly_, 178 well-mannered, _polite_, 277 well off, _comfortable_, 110 well-provided, _comfortable_, 110 well to do, _comfortable_, 110 whence, _therefore_, 355 wherefore, _therefore_, 355 while, _time_, 356 whim, _fancy_, 167 whimsical, _queer_, 297 whip, _beat_, 75 whit, _particle_, 264 whiten, _bleach_, 82 whitewash, _bleach_, 82 wholesome, _healthy_, 195 wicked, _criminal_, 120 wickedness, _abomination_, 7 " _sin_, 332 wide, _large_, 229 wide-awake, _active_, 17 " _alert_, 28 " _vigilant_, 369 widen, _amplify_, 43 wild, _absurd_, 11 " _fierce_, 171 wile, _artifice_, 58 " _pretense_, 283 wilful, _perverse_, 272 willing, _spontaneous_, 340 win, _allure_, 37 " _attain_, 64 " _conquer_, 115 " _get_, 183 " _succeed_, 346 wind up, _end_, _v._, 148 winning, _amiable_, 42 " _charming_, 103 win over, _persuade_, 271 winsome, _amiable_, 42 wipe, _cleanse_, 107 wipe out, _exterminate_, 163 _wisdom_, 372 " _knowledge_, 227 " _prudence_, 294 wise, _sagacious_, 322 wish, _desire_, 128 _wit_, 373 with, _by_, 89 withal, _also_, 37 withdraw, _abstract_, 10 withdraw from, _abandon_, 1 wither, _die_, 130 withhold, _keep_, 226 " _restrain_, 315 without delay, _immediately_, 211 without end, _eternal_, 157 witness, _avow_, 69 " _testimony_, 355 witticism, _wit_, 373 wo, _grief_, 187 " _pain_, 261 woful, _pitiful_, 273 womanish, _feminine_, 169 womanly, _feminine_, 169 wonder, _admire_, 23 " _amazement_, 39 wont, _habit_, 187 wonted, _usual_, 362 woo, _address_, _v._, 19 word, _term_, 354 wordiness, _circumlocution_, 105 wording, _diction_, 130 _work_, 374 " _act_, 16 " _business_, 88 workman, _artist_, 58 work out, _do_, 135 worn, _faint_, 164 worn down, _faint_, 164 worn out, _faint_, 164 worry, _anxiety_, 49 " _care_, 94 worship, _religion_, 307 worst, _beat_, 75 " _conquer_, 115 worth, _price_, 285 " _virtue_, 370 worthiness, _virtue_, 370 worthless, _vain_, 364 worthy, _becoming_, 77 wound, _affront_, 24 wrangle, _reason_, _v._, 302 wrath, _anger_, 44 wretched, _pitiful_, 273 writing, metrical, _poetry_, 277 writings, _literature_, 233 wrong, _v._, _abuse_, 12 wrong, _a._, _criminal_, 120 wrong, _n._, _injury_, 219 " _injustice_, 220 " _sin_, 332 wrong-doing, _sin_, 332 yearning, _eager_, 142 yell, _call_, 91 _yet_, 374 " _but_, 89 " _notwithstanding_, _conj._, 254 yield, _allow_, 35 " _bend_, 79 " _harvest_, 192 " _surrender_, 349 yielding, _docile_, 136 young, _new_, 252 " _youthful_, 375 _youthful_, 375 " _new_, 252 zeal, _enthusiasm_, 153 zealous, _eager_, 142 zest, _appetite_, 54 Transcriber's Endnotes: Significant amendments, invalid links and further notes have been listed below. p. 45, ANIMAL, synonyms re-ordered (_fauna_ originally last); p. 45, ANIMAL, 'individal' amended to _individual_; p. 70, AWFUL, 'mein' amended to _mien_; p. 75, BEAT, invalid reference: 'SHATTER', see INDEX; p. 78, BEGINNING, '1 John 1' amended to _John i, 1_; p. 82, BITTER, 'quinin, or strychnin' amended to _quinine, or strychnine_; p. 98, CAUSE, 'conseqeunce' amended to _consequence_; p. 128, DESIRE, 'concupisence' amended to _concupiscence_; p. 148, END, _v._, 'synonymns' amended to _synonyms_; p. 148, END, _v._, invalid reference: 'BEGIN', see INDEX; p. 149, END, _n._, 'CONSEQENCE' amended to _CONSEQUENCE_; p. 153, ENTHUSIASM, 'ecstacy' amended to _ecstasy_; p. 167, FANCIFUL, 'arangement' amended to _arrangement_; p. 190, HAPPINESS, invalid reference: 'COMFORT', see INDEX; p. 196, HETEROGENEOUS, 'heterogenious' amended to _heterogeneous_ (twice); p. 202, HONEST, 'fradulent' amended to _fraudulent_; p. 212, IMMERSE, invalid reference: 'BURY', see INDEX; p. 214, IMPUDENCE, invalid reference: 'ARROGANCE', see INDEX; p. 227, KNOWLEDGE, 'or' amended to _of_--'... perception of external objects ...'; p. 276, PLENTIFUL, '(Compare synonyms especial reference to giving or expending.', amended, using a later edition, to _(Compare synonyms for ADEQUATE.)_; p. 278, POLITE, 'devolopment' amended to _development_; p. 297, QUEER, 'an' amended to _as_--'... and so uneven, as an _odd_ number ...'; p. 305, RECORD, 'deposito' amended to _depository_; p. 316, REVELATION, 'mistery' amended to _mystery_; p. 334, SKETCH and p. 335, SKEPTIC, out-of-sequence entries re-ordered; estimated new placement of p. 335 marker; index amendments include: p. 511, agnostic; p. 513, atheist; p. 523, deist; p. 525, disbeliever; p. 526, doubter; p. 532, freethinker; p. 537, infidel; p. 555, skeptic; p. 560, unbeliever; p. 400, ASSUME, 'and' amended to _or_--'Unless he do profane, steal, or ----.'; p. 418, DEXTERITY, 'imimitable' amended to _inimitable_; p. 431, EXTERMINATE, added _is_--'... what is the original meaning ...'; p. 433, FEAR, 'right' amended to _fright_--'How does it compare with _fright_ ...'; p. 434, FEUD, 'contentention' amended to _contention_; p. 443, HAPPINESS, 'ecstacy' amended to _ecstasy_; p. 487, PROVERB, 'apothem' amended to _apothegm_; p. 515, INDEX, because: 'therefor' amended to _therefore_; p. 516, INDEX, bodily: page number added to _physical_; p. 530, INDEX, fancy: sub-listing ordered alphabetically; p. 535, INDEX, imagination: page number corrected for _idea_; p. 535, INDEX, 'immeasureable': amended to _immeasurable_; p. 539, INDEX, kind: sub-listing ordered alphabetically; p. 540, INDEX, loving: 'friendy' amended to _friendly_; p. 543, INDEX, nutrition: _oath_ removed from sub-listing and listed separately; p. 546, INDEX, plan: _horizontal_ removed from sub-listing. 
38235	----	THE GENTLEMAN'S MODEL LETTER-WRITER A Complete Guide to _CORRESPONDENCE ON ALL SUBJECTS_ WITH COMMERCIAL FORMS LONDON AND NEW YORK: FREDERICK WARNE & CO. PREFACE. Though the number of existing "Letter Writers" is many, the publishers feel that there is yet a want which this little Manual, it is hoped, will supply. It has been compiled with great care from several sources, and contains much original matter, for which experience assures them there is a necessity. CONTENTS. A Book-keeper and Accountant applying for Employment Acknowledging a Letter of Congratulation on the Birth of a Child A Father applying to the Principal of a School to ascertain Terms, &c. A Gentleman applying for a Loan on the Insurance of his Life A Gentleman applying to an Agent at a Watering-place for Lodgings Reply A Gentleman having visited a Property, making an Offer for it Reply A Gentleman in the Corn Trade to another A Gentleman regretting he cannot Accept an Invitation A Gentleman to a Friend relative to a Bill A Gentleman ordering a Set of Harness from a Saddler Saddler in reply Gentleman in reply, objecting to Price Saddler in reply A Gentleman's Servant applying for a Situation A Gentleman to a Friend, speaking of Kindness received at another Friend's House Reply A Letter from a Father to a Son at School, on the necessity of Attention to his Studies A Letter from a Marine Engineer, seeking an eligible Partnership A Letter of Condolence A Letter to a Gentleman who has been making Enquiries about a Lady's Horse An Application for a Donation to a Charitable Institution in the Country, such as Coal and Blanket Clubs, and Soup Kitchen Reply, enclosing Donation Reply, unfavourable An Application for an Appointment on a Railway An Estate Agent, relative to a House of which his Client is anxious to dispose Answer from a Landlord in reply to a Tenant, relative to Non-payment of Rent An Application for a Situation in the Police A Parent to his Daughter at Service A Person desirous of entering into Partnership in a Lucrative Profession Application for a Debt some time owing Application for a House, Furnished, desiring Lowest Terms Application for an outstanding Account Application for Employment in an Auctioneer's and Estate Agent's Office Application to Borrow Money Reply granting the Loan Applying for a Clerkship Applying for an Account, and furnishing Particulars Applying for a Situation as a Gardener Applying to a Friend for a Recommendation, by a Young Man desirous of obtaining an Appointment Appointing an Interview relative to a Loan A Reply to an Advertisement for an Appointment as Secretary to an Institution A Sailor to his Sweetheart A Sugar Refiner applying for a Situation A Tenant to a Landlord, requesting time to Pay Rent Commercial Forms Form of Cheque to "Bearer" Form of Cheque to "Order" Form of Ordinary Bill of Exchange Form of Promissory Note Form of Foreign Bill of Exchange Form of Ordinary Receipt Form of Receipt for Rent Form of Agreement for Taking a House Form of Notice to Quit, from Landlord to Tenant Form of Notice to Quit, from Tenant to Landlord Form of Will Form of Bill of Sale Directions for Addressing Persons of Rank, &c. 85 The Royal Family The Nobility Official Members of the State Ambassadors and Governors under Her Majesty Judges The Parliament The Clergy From a Child acknowledging the Receipt of the Present of a Book From a Coachman, requiring a Place Reply Coachman's reply From a Father to a Son, relative to his Expenditure From a Father to his Son beginning the World From a Father to his Son, who has been complaining of the Severity of his Master From a Father who has lately lost his Wife, to his Daughter at School From a Friend at Bradford, to his Friend in London, on Business (Wool) From a Gentleman accepting an Invitation, though suffering from Illness (temporary) From a Gentleman applying for Sittings, or a Pew in a Parish Church, in the Country From a Gentleman, enclosing a Certificate of Illness from a Medical Man, excusing himself from attending at his office Medical Attendant's Certificate From a Gentleman in India to a Relation in England From a Gentleman in Town to another in the Country, enclosing a Wedding Gift From a Gentleman to a Lady with whom he is in Love From a Gentleman to a Young Lady From a House and Estate Agent, acknowledging Receipt of a Communication relative to Sale or Letting of Property From a Husband, Absent on Business, to his Wife From a Husband to his Wife, on Sailing from England From a Man with a small Capital intending to go into Business, asking for Advice Reply From a Merchant abroad to his Brother forwarding Goods for Sale, and requesting others Brother, answering his Brother or Friend, relative to receipt of Goods From an Agent who has been engaged in endeavouring to arrange a Matter of Importance, applying for Remuneration From a Person desirous of Employment as a Manager of a Wholesale or Retail Business From a Soldier abroad to his affianced Bride From a Shopkeeper in the Country to a Wholesale Dealer Answer From a Son who has misconducted himself towards his Employer, to his Father The Father's Answer From a Young Man who has taken his late Employer's Business, to an old Customer Reply From a Young Tradesman asking Advice in Difficulties Reply From one Brother to another, on having unexpectedly amassed a Fortune From one Gentleman to another, relative to a Dog Reply From one Gentleman to another, explaining the Cause of not replying to a Letter from a Gentleman abroad From the Secretary of a Convalescent Hospital applying for Expenses of Patient Gentleman's reply to a Lady, imagining he was indifferent to her Giving Information about Trains In reply to a Gentleman asking the Loan of a Book relative to German Spa Waters In reply to a Gentleman inquiring for a Solicitor who may be moderate in his charges Invitation to a Gentleman to Row in a Boat Accepting Invitation to a Bachelor Party Accepting Invitation to a Croquet Party Accepting Declining Invitation to a Dinner (Bachelor's) Accepting Invitation to a Family Dinner Accepting Invitation to a Family Dinner Invitation to a Gentleman to a Friendly Dinner Invitation to "Best Man" at a Wedding Same Accepting Invitation to Join a Party to the Derby Same Accepting Refusing Letter from a Traveller at Manchester, to his Employers in London Letter urging Payment of a Debt Love Letter from a Gentleman to a Lady Postponing a Visit Same Regretting being unable to give an Appointment to a Situation Relative to an Advertisement requesting a Copy Reply from Landlord to a Tenant, relative to Non-payment of Rent Reply to a Gentleman Recommending a Young Man for Employment as a Porter Reply to a Gentleman requiring a Situation as Clerk and Foreign Correspondent Reply to a Gentleman who wishes to claim an Estate in Chancery Reply to a Letter from a Young Man informing his Uncle he had Contracted Debts Reply to an Advertisement for the Appointment of Medical Officer to an Union Division Reply to an Application relating to an Advertisement Reply to Question as to Rent of, and permission to View, a House Requesting the Renewal of a Bill To a Child who has been Guilty of telling a Falsehood To a Gentleman in reply as to an Agency for a Bordeaux Firm To a Gentleman whose Brother is dangerously Ill, offering him Consolation and Comfort To a Relieving Officer, by a Neighbour of a Poor Woman taken Ill To a Theatrical Manager To a Young Man, relative to his late Employer's Business which he proposes to carry on Urging a Son to relinquish the Naval Profession Reply THE GENTLEMAN'S MODEL LETTER-WRITER. _Invitation to Dinner_ (_Bachelor's_). The Albany, June 10th. DEAR BROWNE, Will you dine with me at eight o'clock to-morrow? Some of our fellows are coming, and we mean to have a quiet game of whist in the course of the evening. Come if possible. Yours truly, ---- _Accepting._ Gower Street, June 18th. DEAR ----, I will come without fail, and win your money if I can. Yours truly, ---- _Invitation to Family Dinner._ Camden Town, March 4th. DEAR SMITH, Will you dine with us to-morrow? It is the old lady's birthday, and I can offer her no greater pleasure, I am sure, than your pleasant company. Do come if you can, there's a good fellow. Yours ever, ---- _Accepting._ Russell Square, March 4th. DEAR ----, I shall be delighted to accept your kind invitation for to-morrow, and offer my good wishes to your charming wife on her birthday. Yours ever, ---- _Invitation to Family Dinner._ Medway Villas, June 8th. DEAR CAPTAIN MAURICE, Will you favour Mrs. Trevor and myself with your company at dinner on Monday next at 6 o'clock? We expect General Hill and his wife, and think you may like to make their acquaintance. With our united regards, Believe me, Yours truly, ---- _Invitation to a Croquet Party._ Havant, May 17th. DEAR HOWARD, The girls talk of having a croquet party on Thursday next. Will you join it? We shall be delighted to see you if you can come. Little Totty desires me to add, that you must play on her side, because then she will be sure to be one of the winners. Ever yours most truly, ---- _Accepting._ Havant, May 18th. DEAR ----, I shall be delighted to join your croquet party. Pray offer my best respects to Miss Totty, and tell her I will do all I can to prove myself her obedient servant. Believe me, ever yours truly, HOWARD. ---- _Declining._ Havant, May 18th. DEAR ----, I regret extremely that I cannot accept your invitation, and put myself at Miss Totty's disposal for a game of croquet; but, unluckily, I am obliged to go to town to-morrow, and shall not return till Monday week. Yours ever, ---- _From a Gentleman, accepting an Invitation, though suffering from illness_ (_temporary_). Hampstead, May 4th. DEAR MRS. THURGOOD, I have been laid up with neuralgia for some days, and have not yet recovered from it. I will, however, accept your kind invitation for Saturday next, and hope to be able to come. With kind regards to yourself and sister, I remain, Yours very truly, WALTER BOSSORA. ---- _A Gentleman regretting he cannot accept an Invitation._ The Albany, February 1st, 187-- MY DEAR MADAM, Thank you very much for thinking of me on Saturday. I should have liked to have joined your party immensely, but I go to Ventnor that afternoon, and am therefore unable to have the pleasure of accepting your very kind invitation. My mother and sisters have gone to Beaumaris; they left on Wednesday, and on the same day our friends the Boscawens returned to Ventnor. I hope to reach that truly lovely place on Saturday. Although a month has elapsed since the last year left us, I must send you and your sister all good old-fashioned New Year's wishes, hearty and sincere; will you both accept them? And with many thanks, repeated, for your kind note, Believe, me, Dear Mrs. B----, Your sincere friend, HENRY ROSS. ---- _Invitation to a Gentleman to Row in a Boat._ Chester, June 18th, 187-- DEAR GEORGE, Will you join three friends and myself on Saturday next for a row up the river? You are a capital stroke, and we wish to get into the way of pulling a longer stroke than we have at present: little Jerry will steer us. Do not say No. We will finish the evening at the ----, where I have ordered supper. Yours sincerely, BEDFORD PRICE. ---- _Accepting._ Rock Terry, June 19th, 187-- DEAR BEDFORD, I fancy you have formed too good an idea of my performance as a stroke oar; however, if you think I can be of any use to your crew, I will readily do my best. I shall sleep in Chester, so we need not hurry in returning from our practice. Yours sincerely, GEORGE SHEEPSHANKS. ---- _Invitation to a Bachelor Party._ Kidderminster, February, 187-- DEAR FELLOWS, Yesterday I met Donovan and our four other old friends, who are here for a few days; they are coming to dine with me to-morrow at seven. I know it is some years since you met them; I hope you will make one of our party. Believe me, Yours sincerely, F. CUNNINGHAM. ---- _Accepting the same._ Hill House, Kidderminster, Feb. 187-- DEAR CUNNINGHAM, It will afford me the very greatest pleasure to dine with you to-morrow at seven. It is many years since I met those you mention, but I have a vivid recollection of passing many pleasant hours in their society and companionship. Believe me, Yours sincerely, HARRY FELLOWS. ---- _Invitation to a Gentleman to a Friendly Dinner._ Dunland Place, Oct. 1st, 187-- DEAR HINDMARSH, I heard by the merest accident, yesterday evening, that you were in town. Will you come and dine with us to-morrow? You know our time, but I may as well remind you that it is seven o'clock. I met J. F----, and our intimate friend from the north, yesterday. They will be here, and we shall have a little music in the evening, when I hope your tenor voice will be in its usual power and sweetness. All join in best regards. Yours very sincerely, ---- _Postponing a Visit._ Greenfield, October 10th. MY DEAR GEORGE, I regret extremely that we are obliged to ask you to postpone your visit till next month. We can not get the house at Brighton for which we were in treaty, till that time, and our present abode is so small that we are unable to offer a bedroom to a friend. I trust this delay will not inconvenience you. It is a great disappointment to us, as we longed equally for the sea and your company. My wife unites with me in kind remembrances. I am ever, Yours very truly, ---- _Same._ The Beeches, Sydenham, November 6th. MY DEAR TOM, I am sure you will be truly grieved to hear that the sudden and dangerous illness of my mother will oblige me to postpone our dinner party fixed for the 17th. I hope to give you better news shortly, and renew my invitation. Truly yours, ---- _Invitation to be "Best Man" at a Wedding._ Reading, May 6th. DEAR TOM, I intend to be "turned off" next Tuesday week! Will you attend on the mournful occasion as "best man?" _Seriously_, I am to be married to my charming little Ada on the ----, and I look for your presence at our bridal as the completion of my happiness, for then the man and woman I love best will unite in confirming my happiness. Always yours, ---- _Same._ Liphook, May 6th. DEAR JOHN, Julia has consented to our marriage on the 15th inst., and I scribble a line to remind you of your promise to be "best man" on the occasion. Marriage is supposed sometimes to separate bachelor friendships, but such will not be the case in my instance, my dear fellow. Julia has a great regard for you, and is too sensible and good to interfere between us with petty jealousies. I am awfully happy, Jack! Wish me joy, and Believe me Ever your true friend, ---- _Accepting._ The Albany, May 7th. DEAR ----, I shall be delighted to assist at the important event fixed for the ----, and beg to offer my best congratulations to Miss ---- and yourself on your approaching happiness. I intend to offer as my wedding gift a drawing-room clock. My object in naming this intention to you is that, if you are likely to receive a similar gift from any other friend, you will tell me so, and I will exchange it for something else, as duplicate gifts are a great bore. Ever, dear Hal, Your true old friend, JOHN. ---- _Invitation to join a Party to the Derby_. Knightsbridge, May 22. DEAR NORRIS, Three of our fellows have agreed to go to the Derby together in a drag, and we shall be very glad if you will make a fourth. Jervis drives. Don't refuse, old fellow; we shall have a jolly day, and I shall enjoy it doubly if you go with us. Yours truly, ---- _Same._ Green Bank, May 23rd. DEAR REID, Will you accompany a party of us to-morrow to the Derby? Let me have an answer by bearer, and take care that it is in the affirmative. Yours ever, ---- _Accepting_. London, May 23rd. DEAR GEORGE, I shall have much pleasure in accompanying you to the Derby. Let me know, please, the hour at which you start. I am, ever, Yours truly, J. REID. ---- _Refusing_. London, May 23rd. DEAR BOB, It is awfully unlucky, but I am obliged to go to Chester on the Derby day, and _can't_ do as I desire. I wish you a pleasant trip. I am ever, yours truly, ---- _Love-letter from a Gentleman to a Lady._ The Temple, June 4th. DEAREST, Days have passed by now since we have had the pleasure of a few moments' conversation even; how these hours have dragged their slow pace along you and I alone can tell. It is only when we are left to the peaceful enjoyment of our own society that time flies. It may be that to-morrow at Mrs. E.'s we shall have a little time alone. We all dine there; she told me she should have a dance also, and that your mamma had promised her your sister and yourself should be of the party. May I ask for the first waltz? I send a few flowers, but I imagine you will only wear one, the rose in your hair; your sister is always pleased with a bouquet, so I shall not be very angry if you let her have them, only wear my rose. Your own EDWARD. ---- _A Sailor to his Sweetheart._ H.M.S. Centaur, June 14th, 187- MY DEAR FANNY, You are never out of my mind. If you only think of me half as much, I shall be satisfied. Sleeping or waking it is all the same, Fanny, you are my only thought. What have you done with your piece of the half-sovereign we cut in halves? I have bored a hole in mine, and wear it round my neck on a bit of blue ribbon, to show that your William is true blue. Do you wear yours the same, my dearest Fanny? When I come home we will splice the halves, and Fanny and her William will be one--will we not, darling girl? Our cruise will now soon be over; I only hope, Fanny, you have been as true to me as I have been to you; never have I ceased thinking of you. Bear in mind your faithful William, who loves you as fondly as ever. Your devoted lover, WILLIAM. ---- _Gentleman's reply to the Lady, imagining he was indifferent to her._ Gillingham, April 16th, 187- DEAREST LOVE, Such I must and will, with your permission, always call you. Your letter really caused me much uneasiness. But, Dr. B., who came in just as it arrived, strictly forbade me to excite myself in any way, and would not allow me to reply to it immediately, as he feared an immediate return of my old heart complaint. Who can have been so mischievous, so ungenerous, so determined to make two hearts miserable, as to invent this wicked story of my flirtation with Miss G.? You name Mrs. G. On inquiring of her this morning I find she heard it somewhere spoken of, she says, but cannot recall to her mind the person who mentioned it. Let me at once and for ever disabuse you of such a suspicion. My affection for you is unchanged and unchangeable; often and often I have by letter and verbally too, pledged myself that you alone, Katie dearest, were my only thought, my only joy. Banish all vain suspicions from your mind. Trust in me; I will never deceive you; my love is inviolably yours; for you I breathe, for you I live, without you I should die. Believe me, dearest, night and day you are uppermost in my thoughts, and a sad, sad day it would be for me if for one moment you withdrew that confidence in me that I have so long happily possessed. Believe no aspersions against one who loves you madly. The time, I trust, will soon arrive when I can call you mine alone, and no breath of suspicion shall ever fall upon my fidelity. Love me then, my dearest, as your own heart dictates; have no cares in future as to any attention even in the least degree being shown by me to any one, further than due civility, or what is required from the usages of society, exacts. To-morrow I will do myself the pleasure of calling, and trust then to succeed (if not successful now) in fully explaining away any doubts or fears you may entertain. Believe me, Dearest Katie, Your ever affectionate, ---- _From a Gentleman to a Lady with whom he is in love._ Braintree, Essex. DEAR MISS ----, As no opportunity has presented itself of speaking to you lately alone, I venture to address you by letter, and I assure you my happiness greatly depends on the reply with which you may deign to favour me. I love you, dear Miss ----, very sincerely, and if you can return my affection and become my wife, I shall consider myself the most fortunate of men. The income which I can place at your disposal is not large, but in my family you will find the most tender and affectionate connexions. My mother (to whom alone I have confided my secret) is rejoiced at the hope of having you for a daughter. Do not, best beloved Miss Johnstone, disappoint her and myself! Should you not reject me--if I am ever so happy as to call you my wife--the tenderest and most affectionate devotion shall be yours, and the principal and only study of my future days shall be to render your life as happy as you deservedly merit it should be. Your reply is most impatiently awaited by one whose life is wrapped up in yours. My aunt has just called, and it appears that some years since she was very intimately acquainted with your father, to whom I have written, enclosing this note for you, and stating to him the purport of its contents. I remain, Dear Miss Johnstone, Yours very truly, HARRY CLINTON. ---- _From a Soldier ordered Abroad, to his affianced Bride._ Portsmouth, April 15th, 187- DEAREST JULIA, I can scarcely compose myself to write, for this very morning, at mid-day parade, a telegram was received by our commanding officer directing the regiment to hold itself under orders for immediate foreign service; so that of course I shall be prevented seeing you before our departure, as all leave is stopped for officers as well as for the non-commissioned officers and men. Where our future destination may be no one can at present conjecture, but we think it may be Canada. How blighted now are our hopes! where all seemed bright and joyous, nothing is left but separation and blank despair. Julia, you love me; you are mine, are you not, dear Julia? Although separated for a time, we shall love each other faithfully; no doubts must arise, no feelings of suspicion or fear between us; but firm in the knowledge that we are devotedly attached to each other, and that nothing can change the ardent feelings we entertain, we must wait and hope. I trust in a few short years, my darling Julia, to call you mine. Your Ronald will be true to his promise and his love, and in faith that his Julia will bear up bravely, as a soldier's destined wife should do, he obeys his country's call in anguish but not in despair. Accept the little present I send you (forwarded by registered letter by this evening's post), and with most affectionate and enduring love, Believe me, My dearest Julia, Your ever devoted, RONALD DUGAN. ---- _From a Gentleman to a Young Lady._ Snow Hill, January 1st, 187- DEAR ROSY, On returning from skating yesterday afternoon, and reflecting alone on the pleasant morning we had passed, I was more than ever impressed with my wretched solitary existence. Will you break for me this monotonous routine of life by saying, "It need not be, Charlie." I have loved you fondly and long; your parents and mine are intimate friends; they know my private character. Will you accept me as your husband, dearest Rosy? Believe me, Your ever fondly attached, CHARLIE BYERS. ---- _From a Husband to his Wife, on sailing from England._ H.M.S. Psyche, June 8th. MY DEAREST WIFE, I take the opportunity of the pilot's return to send you a hurried and last farewell. Oh, my dearest, what but duty could reconcile me to leaving you? What but the certainty that we are both protected by our Heavenly Father could support me through the weary days and nights which I am destined to spend far from you? Ah! the waves that are now washing the sides of our vessel will soon cease to beat upon that shore where my wife, where my friends are all thinking of me. Farewell my dearest wife; be assured I am in good health and tolerable spirits. Comfort yourself, my dearest! we shall all meet soon and happily again. I have not time to write to my mother, but pray tell her she is always in my thoughts. God bless you, dearest!--my heart is full of you. Ever your devoted husband, H. P. ---- _From a Husband absent on Business to his Wife._ The Fens, Lincolnshire, June 1st, 187- DEAREST ISABELLA, This is the first time, my darling, we have ever experienced the bitterness and misery of separation, and the few days I have already been absent from you appear like years. What my state of mind will be at the expiration of another two or three weeks I will let your little affectionate heart conjecture. But I must not be selfish, my dearest Isa. You share my trial, but do not be down-hearted, the time will soon pass away. You must go out and visit the nice friends near you. Your dear kind mother also is within an easy walk, I am glad to think. Roger Hughes is going to stay with his family for some little while; I do not care much about him (you remember we met him at ----). He is certain to call upon you, but it will be just as well not to be at home to him always. Hoping to return in a fortnight, I remain, with very best love to your mother and yourself, Your ever affectionate husband, JOSIAH WEBB. ---- _From a Father to his Son beginning the World._ Hampstead, May 6th, 187- MY DEAREST SON, Separated as you will shortly be from your childhood's home--for many years, perhaps--and not having your poor old father to consult and obtain advice from, when any difficulties may arise, you will naturally be inclined to appeal to those among your acquaintances whom you may consider from intimate association as entitled to the name of friends. Now this is a matter in which you must observe the very greatest caution and discrimination; a mistake made in selecting a friend and acting up to his advice, is a fatal one, and no one can for a moment form an idea of the consequences which may arise from it. In the first place, do not seek the friendship of the "fast young man" whose sole thought is to gratify himself in the enjoyment of this world's pleasures, without any regard to the misery or disgrace his conduct may be entailing on a happy, innocent family. Make friends of those who, by their actions, have raised themselves in the estimation of their superiors, and are regarded with eyes of jealous admiration by their equals. Remember the old proverb, "Tell who are your friends, and I will tell you what you are." I hope, dear boy, your own good sense will lead you to avoid bad companions. Should you ever (which I trust may never be the case) be tempted to do anything contrary to the laws of honour or of duty, question yourself thus: "Should I do this in my father's house? should I act thus in my mother's presence?" The answer will be the best talisman to keep you from falling in your combat with the world. We have great hopes in you, my dear son. Never omit to write to your dear mother and myself, when you possibly can; and with our best and fondest love, Believe me, Ever your affectionate father, ---- _From a Son who has misconducted himself towards his Employer, to his Father._ Eastcheap, November 18th, 187- DEAR FATHER, I am in such distress I scarcely know how to commence my letter. Without the least reason, without the least provocation, I left my master at the most busy season, just for a temporary, trifling amusement. He--the best of masters--for the moment was forgotten by me: self predominated. I ran away from my service, and here I find myself disgraced and miserable, and grieve to think how indescribably shocked you will be when Mr. Evans communicates with you relative to my absence. However, dear father, there is one consolation: I cannot be accused of dishonesty; so I hope my character is not irretrievably ruined. Will you see my master, and tell him how deeply I regret my fault, and entreat him to forgive me? It shall hereafter be my constant study to perform my duty in the most upright manner, and with the most assiduous attention. Let me hear also, dear father, in sending me Mr. Evans's reply, that you also forgive Your erring, but heartbroken son, H. H. H. ---- _The Father's Answer._ Bedhampton, November 21st, 187- MY DEAR SON, Words cannot express my grief at the receipt of your letter. How can you so soon have forgotten all the home lessons of duty you have learned? What society can you have mingled in to have caused you to be guilty of such folly? I have seen your master, and read him your letter; and he agrees with myself that from the manner you have acted in immediately informing me of your position, it is probable you may, in an untoward moment, have been induced to commit an act which you will never cease to regret. It is your first offence, and he bids me say he rejoices that you are sensible of your grievous error, and he will allow you to return, and never mention what has occurred to you. Never, dear son, forget yourself again, be grateful to your master, who is charity itself, and Believe me, Your affectionate father, ---- _A Father applying to a Principal of a School to ascertain Terms, &c._ Hopwood House, June 16th, 187- SIR, Being desirous of sending my son, aged thirteen, to school, my friends have strongly recommended me to apply to you on the subject. I should be glad to learn your terms, and to be informed as to your plan of tuition. Will you favour me with a prospectus of your School, and also inform me whether you have a vacancy? I remain, Yours faithfully, ---- _To a Child who has being guilty of telling a Falsehood._ Brecon, May 14th, 187- MY DEAR SAMUEL, I was much grieved to find after you had left us in the early part of the week, that the replies you gave me relative to your acquaintance with the L----s were utterly at variance with the truth. Little did I think you would ever deceive us, when such confidence has been always placed in you. Why did you try to deceive me by a falsehood? Let me entreat of you never again to deviate from the truth; should you do so you will soon obtain a character as an untrustworthy person, and no one will believe you, even when you speak the truth. Every one will shun you, as they will always suspect that you are trying to deceive them; even when you are acting rightly they will look upon you with suspicion. Have you forgotten that Truth is the point of honour in a gentleman, and that no one can tell a falsehood and retain the character of one? I cannot tell you the shame I felt when I discovered your untruth; I felt degraded by it. Strive to retrieve your character in the future, by perfect truthfulness and a high sense of what honour requires from you. Till I believe that you feel the enormity of your fault I cannot sign myself other than Your afflicted father, ---- _Urging a Son to relinquish the Naval Profession._ Upton, June 12th, 187- DEAR FREDERICK, Your letter of the 1st, informing me that you had determined to remain in your present profession, caused me great distress. If you wish to add some little portion of comfort to the last years of a father's life, which your headstrong passions have already greatly embittered, you will immediately relinquish it. Remember you are the only representative of our family. Why then persist in remaining in a profession wherein you are exposed to constant and imminent danger? I wish you to marry, and hope to see you settle down and discharge the duties of your position in society as a country gentleman; you have ample means at your disposal now, as the whole of your late uncle's property is yours. Concede a little to your father, whose only desire is to see his name honourably upheld, his family perpetuated, in the county in which we are now so much respected. Age is creeping on me, Frederick, I am widowed and alone. I trust this appeal will not be made in vain. You know my deep and lasting affection for you; do not wound it by a refusal. Awaiting with great anxiety your determination, Believe me, Your affectionate father, ---- _Reply._ H.M.S. Psyche, June 19th. MY DEAR FATHER, Dearly as I love my noble profession, I am unable to resist your last earnest appeal, and agree therefore to give up my commission, and return to a life on land. The pang this resolution costs me is softened by the remembrance that I may thus hope to ensure the happiness of so good a father. I shall shortly return to you, and will endeavour in all things to prove Your most dutiful and affectionate son, ---- _A Letter from a Father to a Son at School, on the necessity of attention to his Studies._ Mudiford, January 28th, 187- MY DEAR BOY, Now you have returned to school it is my duty to point out to you how absolutely necessary it is for your future success that you should persevere in your studies, more especially if you wish to leave college (for which you are destined) with honour. Do not be carried away with the natural love of ease and pleasure, but accustom yourself at once to really hard work. If you cannot reconcile yourself to do so in your youth you will be unable to do so as you grow older, and you will become incapable of achieving anything great. Application may be difficult at first, but when once you have accustomed yourself to it you will find study pleasant, easy, and agreeable, and in years to come you will be well repaid for the toil and trouble you now undergo. What can be pleasanter than to find yourself at the head of your school, leaving all competitors behind? what more gratifying than to give pleasure to your father and mother, and to obtain the admiration and approval of your teachers? That, dear boy, will be your reward if you study constantly and patiently; but if you neglect the opportunities offered to you now, your future life will be nothing but disquietude, and you will grow up ignorant, and be despised. Pay attention to my advice, and work in the morning of your days. With your mother's best love and mine, Believe me, Your ever affectionate father, R. R. ---- _Reply to a Letter from a young Man informing his Uncle he had contracted Debts._ Soltney, March 4th, 187- MY DEAR NEPHEW, I was indeed deeply grieved on the receipt of your letter to find you had forgotten, or at least not acted up to the advice I gave you--to pay for everything you purchased at once, and not to go into debt on any account. I must put things before you now in a plain unvarnished manner, and give you my opinion, formed after many years' experience. The man who contracts debts which he is unable to pay, more especially for articles of useless luxury, is much more culpable than the poor creature who, distracted by all the miseries of his starving family at home, rushes into the first shop he sees and steals something to relieve their necessities. When men find themselves encumbered with debts which they are unable to pay, mean subterfuges are resorted to; applications for delay of payment are made--and granted, without any good result; the final crash comes at last: the patience and temper of the tradesmen become exhausted, they have recourse to their legal remedy, and wretchedness and beggary are the result. It may be that you have been endeavouring to keep pace with some young man of greater fortune than your own. Be not led away by such absurd vanity. The largest income will be and has been squandered, unknown as it were to its possessor, solely from the crime (and a great one too it is) of running into debt. I regret that I cannot assist you at present with the loan you request, and remain Your affectionate uncle, T. H. P. ---- _Acknowledging a Letter of Congratulation on the Birth of a Child._ Duke Street, St. James's, Dec. 24th, 187- DEAR ----, Thanks for your kind letter and good wishes. I am happy to say that my wife and the baby are going on well. I have told Mrs. Compton about Mr. Denville; she is glad to hear so good an account of him. Wishing you all a merry Christmas and a happy New Year, Believe me, Yours sincerely, D. W. ---- _From a Child, acknowledging the receipt of the Present of a Book._ Ramsden Hall, January 18th, 187- MY DEAR MRS. ----, Thank you very much for the beautiful book you have sent me. It is very pretty and nice, and I like it very much. I long to see you again. I have been out driving this morning in the pony carriage. There is a hard frost. With best love to Dr. G. and yourself I remain, Your most affectionate little friend, R. D. A. ---- _From a Father to a Son, relative to his Expenditure._ Hackney, March 5th, 187- MY DEAR SON, Your last letter gave us pleasure not unmixed with pain: pleasure to learn that you were well, and held in esteem by your superiors, and on friendly terms with those of your own standing; and pain from the request which it contained. Your mother, like myself, feels grieved that you should ask for an additional allowance. You should consider that you have brothers and sisters for whom I have also to make a provision, and that if the allowance I now give you (which is considered large) be increased, it must deprive us all of some of our necessary comforts. You must reflect on this, dear boy, and then I am well assured that you will not urge your request. I will, however (for this once alone, understand me), make you a present of Thirty Pounds. Your own good sense, I am certain, will show you the necessity of retrenchment, so I shall not allude to the matter further. The presents you sent us each by last mail are much appreciated and treasured by us. We are going to move from this neighbourhood, as we find it too expensive; when next you write, therefore, address to Durnford Street. Your brother Fred is going to be married, but will live near us. His future wife is a daughter of Mr. Passmore, and at his death she will have about 2000_l_.; at present he will make her an allowance of 80_l_. per annum. All your pets are well, and we guard them jealously for your sake. Trusting you will remain some time at Shopoo, as it agrees with you so well, and that we may constantly hear from you, Believe me, with our united kindest love, Your affectionate father, H. V. ROSSITER. ---- _From one Brother to another, on having unexpectedly amassed a Fortune._ Natal, S. Africa, February 1st, 187-- DEAR WILLIAM, You are well aware that when I sailed from England a few years ago, after paying my passage out I had but a very few pounds left; but I soon got good employment, and saved out of my wages all that I possibly could. I never was very fond of company, and have no expensive habits; so at the end of two years I found myself with 30_l._ to my credit in the bank. When the report came here of diamonds being found up the country, I started off, bag and baggage, and on my arrival got an allotment, and went to work with a hearty good will. For many a weary day I toiled, giving myself little time for rest. At last I was rewarded: among the washings I found a diamond, a small one, yet what a treasure I thought it! On and on I toiled--some weeks with success, and others with none; however, my labours have been successful: I have been fortunate enough to find diamonds, which, when valued, have realized the handsome sum of £----. Tell my dearest mother that now she will never want. I am coming home, and shall invest for her sole use during her lifetime £----. Will you, dear William, look out for a good school for my little sister? She must be nine years of age now. Ask the clergyman's wife to recommend you one. I wish her to be educated as a lady, and she shall have the £---- at my mother's death. How I wish our poor father had lived to derive some comfort from my fortune! You shall have 100_l._ paid to your credit to provide the things Jane will require on going to school, and to pay for the first half-year's expenses there. I hope to be home in six months, when I will take a suitable house for our dear mother. If you will accept it from me, I make you a present of £----; with the remainder of my earnings I shall purchase a nice property, so that I may be certain my money will be secure, for were I to speculate I might lose all. With best love, and hoping shortly to see you happy and well, Believe me, Your affectionate brother, ANGUS M'DONALD. ---- _From a Gentleman in India to a Relation in England._ Camp, Booltan, Feb. 1st, 187-- MY DEAR ----, Many thanks for your last letter, which arrived some three weeks ago. We never received the letter to which you allude, containing the photographs; and I am very sorry it went astray, for we should have liked so much to have them. I hope, if you have other copies, that you will kindly send them to us when you next write. We both desire to thank you for your kind and cordial reception of dear Richard. He wrote and told us how warmly you received him, and how pleased and gratified he was to see you. I trust he will come to see you again on his return from Devon, where he was when we last heard from him. We miss him terribly, and look forward anxiously to meeting him out here again next year, if, please God, we are all spared. James, his wife, and children are living down at Cheltenham. I wonder if there is any chance of your meeting? Sarah Maria is in Cornwall, but they took a house for a term of years near Watford, and will be back there, certainly before Christmas; she had no idea you were in London, and I must tell her of it when I next write to her. We are now in camp, marching about the district; of course I do my office as usual in tents every day--a happy, gipsy kind of life--and dearest Sophie and the little ones always enjoy it. Give my kindest love to Emma and Blanche. I have been intending to write to Emma, and I will really write soon; but in the hot weather one feels terribly indisposed for letter-writing, and I have quite quill-work enough to do every day. Our kindest love to yourself and Horace, and to Jane and Sophia; and many kisses from our little darling. Always your very affectionate cousin, HAROLD SOTHERN. ---- _A Father, who has lately lost his Wife, to his Daughter at School._ Woburn, July 20th. MY DARLING CHILD, I was very pleased and comforted by your last affectionate letter. Bitterly indeed do I miss you! Had I given way to my own selfish wishes, I think I should not have allowed you to return to school. Your dear aunt, however, who is now looking carefully after my domestic affairs, showed me so plainly that by keeping you at home I should be depriving you of the advantages of education, that I sacrificed my feelings for your sake. On reflection, also, I hoped that you would find some little consolation and comfort from association with young ladies of your own age, for here all is cheerless and dreary. The void caused by your dear mother's death can never be refilled; my home is truly desolate. It would have been wrong to keep you at home to share my grief, and thus uselessly add bitterness to your younger years. Do not grieve too long and bitterly, my child, for your dearly loved mother; imitate her in every action of her life; and when Time has slightly moderated your poor father's sorrow, and you are in charge of his home and your own, things may be brighter and more cheerful again. Pray write to me soon, and Believe me, Your ever affectionate father, ---- _A Parent to his Daughter at Service._ Farndon, March 1st, 187-- MY DEAR DAUGHTER, When you left home for service, you were so young and inexperienced that we were most anxious as to your welfare. We are truly thankful to find from your letter, received a few days ago, that you are in a place that is likely to prove comfortable. I need not give you much advice as to obedience, for you have always been, both to your mother and myself, a most obedient and dutiful child. Your mistress is very kind in showing you how to perform your duties. Be attentive, and grateful to her for such kindness. Do not make acquaintances too hurriedly; never stay out later than the hour appointed for you to be at home; and on no account whatever admit any one into the house, without first obtaining leave from your mistress. Never miss an opportunity of attending Divine worship. Write to us as often as you can; and with the love of your mother and myself, Believe me, your affectionate father, JOSEPH HODGES. ---- _From a Father to his Son, who has been complaining of the severity of his Master._ Putney, March, 187-- MY DEAR FREDERICK, I was very sorry indeed to find from your last that you were not satisfied with your place, and that your master was always finding fault with you. You must not imagine that in doing so he is at all cruel or severe; but, having a great interest in your future welfare, he wishes, whilst there is yet time, to correct the faults he sees you commit. It is not with you that he is angry; it is with the faults and errors he sees you fall into. It is for your good, believe me, my dear Fred, that he speaks; and in after years you will look with gratitude and respect on Mr. C----, who now appears to you to be harsh and unkind. With our fondest love, hoping you are well, and that you will become more contented soon, Believe me, Your ever affectionate father, ---- _A Letter of Condolence._ Hampton Road, April 4th, 187-- MY DEAR J----N, I sincerely commiserate you in this your fearful and awful visitation. Sad indeed it is to lose your wife and your expected child in one short moment! Your dear wife, we are well aware (as far as human beings can form a judgment of the lives of their fellow creatures) was in every act, deed, and word a true Christian. Your account of her death is deeply touching; but how grateful you must have felt to have seen her so resigned and happy in the thought that, although her loss would cast a shadow on your life on earth, you would meet her hereafter in that better world, where no trouble or sorrow is to be found. She was good in every acceptation of the term: her charities (so unostentatiously dispensed), her cheerful willingness to relieve any real distress, her talents and charms, endeared her to all. Naturally you must deeply grieve for the loss of one so dear and excellent. You have again another source of grief in the loss of your child; dear J----, and at present all consolation must seem to you impossible; but God has ordained that Time shall bring comfort and soothing for all earthly sorrows, and to its healing influence we must leave you. As soon as you feel equal to the journey, come to us, and stay as long as you feel inclined. We will walk and ride together. There is great healing in Nature, and open-air exercise--I speak from experience--does as much as reason and philosophy in soothing a great grief. My wife unites with me in best regards and truest sympathy. I am ever, Dear J----, Yours most truly, ---- _To a Gentleman whose Brother is dangerously Ill, offering him Consolation and Comfort._ MY DEAR ----, Every morning we listen for the post with the greatest anxiety, trusting that it will bring us better news of your dear brother. The accounts yesterday gave us a very lively idea of your situation, while you are expecting so critical and dangerous an hour as that which you have in view. We deeply feel for you, yet we know you are and will be supported. We pray for you and your brother, and we know and believe that He on whom we call is rich in mercy and mighty to save. We see many around us who have been restored from the very gates of the grave when every human effort has proved ineffectual. This gives us hopes that our supplications may terminate in praises for your dear brother's restoration to health. Yours most truly, ---- _Giving Information about Trains._ Chatham, June 3rd. MY DEAR ----, We were all very glad to find on Martha's return yesterday that you would come on Saturday, and we trust we may induce you to stay until Monday. I enclose you a list of the departure and arrival of the trains. The launch takes place at three o'clock, but (if you can manage it) you had better come early, that you may have a rest after your journey. Let us know at what time you propose leaving London, and we will meet you at the station. It appears to me the one leaving at 10.30, and arriving at 11.30, is the best, as you will only be an hour on the road. However, let us know. We unite in kindest love to all, and best regards to A---- Your affectionate brother, Leave Victoria. Arrive at Chatham. 9.15 11.20 10.30 11.30 11.35 1.15 12.30 1.36 ---- _From a Gentleman applying for Sittings or a Pew in a Parish Church, in the Country._ Wales, October 18th, 187- DEAR SIR, I should feel much obliged if you would use your influence with the churchwardens to procure me a pew or sittings for myself and family in the Parish Church. I need not point out to you the inconvenience arising from not having one allotted to me. I purposed making a formal application to the churchwardens, but being a stranger to them all, I believe a word from you would procure them for me. For some weeks I have been confined to the house from indisposition, or I would have done myself the pleasure of making my request in person. I remain, Dear Sir, Very truly yours, The Rev. ---- ---- _A Gentleman applying to an Agent at a Watering-place for Lodgings._ Thickset Lodge, Howbury, May 1st, 187-- SIR, Wishing to leave my house in the country for some months in the summer, I should feel obliged if you would inform me whether there would be much difficulty in obtaining furnished apartments at ----. I am well aware that at some of the towns on the South Coast (especially at this time, when a demonstration of our naval forces is to be made) it may be difficult to find them. You know the place well, and also about the terms I generally give. If you have received my rent from Dr. ----, please forward it at your convenience, and let me know if any repairs are required at the house. Yours faithfully, ---- _Reply._ Marchsea, May 4th, 187-- SIR, In reply to your letter, I beg to inform you that all the best lodgings here are occupied, and I fear that I cannot find any which would suit you. I enclose a cheque for your rent, and am happy to inform you that no repairs are required at present at Bellevue. I remain, Sir, Your obedient servant, ---- _An Application for a Donation to a Charitable Institution in the Country, such as Coal and Blanket Club and Soup Kitchen._ Hampton, December 1st, 187-- SIR, Having taken great interest in forming a club for providing coals and blankets, and also in establishing a soup kitchen for the poor in this town, I venture to request your charitable co-operation. I enclose you a prospectus, which will enable you at one glance to see to what extent any donation you may send will entitle you to recommend families who by misfortune or sickness are unfortunately compelled to solicit relief. I remain, Yours obediently, ---- _Letter in reply, enclosing a Donation._ Hampton, December 4th, 187-- SIR, I am much pleased to find the interest you take in the suffering poor at this inclement season is so great. Your prospectus is very satisfactory; but as I am well assured that all cases of a really deserving nature must be fully known to you, I must request you to distribute as you please the number of tickets to which I am entitled for the cheque for 10_l._ which I enclose. I remain, Sir, Yours obediently, ---- _Reply, unfavourable, to an application for a Donation._ Belfield, January 1st, 187-- DEAR SIR, In acknowledging the receipt of your letter of the 22nd, soliciting a subscription to assist you in your charitable efforts for relieving the many distressed poor in your neighbourhood, I regret extremely to have to reply that it is out of my power to help you. Prior to the receipt of your application I had made arrangements to supply some poor families with soup three days in each week for the next six weeks. I cannot afford to devote more money to this object. I remain, Dear Sir, Yours faithfully, JOHN ELLIS. ---- _A Gentleman to a Friend, speaking of kindness received in another friend's house._ Stalybridge, May 1st, 187-- DEAR GEORGE, You will, I am certain, be very sorry to hear that for the last six weeks I have been confined to the house with a severe attack of rheumatic gout. You, who so well know my active habits, can thoroughly enter into my feelings at being a prisoner for so long a time. The agony I have suffered has been excruciating; I was unable to move without assistance, and was as feeble as an infant, being unable to do the most trifling thing for myself. But you will be glad to hear that I received the greatest kindness and attention from our friends. I was unable to hold a book or a newspaper, but every morning one or the other of this kind family with whom I am staying tried to relieve the monotony of my life by reading to me; in the afternoon some of them would come and tell me the news; and in the evening, whilst I sat propped up on a sofa, the charming daughters would sing and play. I feel grieved to remember the inconvenience and annoyance I must have been to them all, and shall be happy indeed when I can be moved; as, although they are so extremely kind, I feel what a tremendous amount of additional labour I must cause to all the household. Never can I forget the attention and kindness shown me. I shall be very glad to see you when you come home. Have you had much civility shown you at P----? It used to be a very nice place when I lived there. Believe me, Yours very sincerely, JAMES TURNER. ---- _Gentleman in reply._ Preston, May 6th, 187-- DEAR JAMES, I am sorry to hear you have had such a severe attack. Nothing is so trying to a man of active habits, like yourself, as confinement to the house. It was fortunate for you that you were not laid up during the best part of the hunting season, as I am afraid your patient spirit would have utterly rebelled against your privation from one of the only things you really enjoy. We are very snug indeed here, and are made a great deal of. We need never be at home unless we choose. Your friends the Ducrows have a very nice house near, and they have introduced me to some very pleasant people. One of their daughters is a very charming girl. We sing duets together; and as we have to practise for some musical parties, I see a great deal of her. You would like her, I think. I hope we may remain here some time longer, as it is not often one meets with such real friendship as the people here have shown us. I send you a few papers which may amuse you. I hope to hear soon that you are better. When you are able to travel I shall be glad to see you here; I can put you up very comfortably. Believe me, Yours very sincerely, GEORGE MILNER. ---- _From a Gentleman to another, explaining the cause of not replying to a Letter from a Gentleman Abroad._ Poonah House, December 14th, 187-- MY DEAR JOHN, You must not measure the real pleasure and gratification it afforded me to receive your letter by the time I have taken to answer it. I have meant many times to sit down and write to you, but one thing or the other has prevented me. The chief cause of my silence, I grieve to say, has been the fresh sorrows we have lately had, in the loss of our dear little pet, a boy of nearly one year old, during teething, and then the break-up of our little comfortable home in consequence of this--for my dear wife was quite broken by it, in health and spirits; and requiring change of air, I sent her and our eldest girl to Dawlish, where they are now comfortably established with my brother's family, and I sincerely hope the change will prove beneficial to them both. There are many of our old Durham friends residing there, which will be pleasant for her. I shall be so completely tied by business here for some weeks, or it may be longer, that I can scarcely fix the time I shall join them. I shall be dull enough alone, you may well imagine. Forgive my apparent neglect, and if you should be passing near be good enough to give me a call. We are a party of about seven in this boarding-house. The terms are very moderate, and if you know any friend requiring accommodation in one, I can vouch for their being comfortable here. Best regards to your wife and daughters. Yours very sincerely, H. D. ---- _From a Gentleman in Town to another in the Country, enclosing a Wedding Gift._ United Hotel, Waterloo Place, January 18th, 187-- MY DEAR JONES, I am sorry I have not been able to run over to see you lately, but some friends of ours from the country have been in Town, and I have had to go about with them constantly. I am just off for a fortnight into Warwickshire, but shall call as soon as I return. I hope you are now free from bronchitis, and I trust that Mrs. J----s and the young ladies are well. I had a very quiet Christmas with my dear old mother. I suppose you are busy in preparations for the wedding. I enclose a small present; it may be more useful than any ornament I can at present think of, and your daughter can purchase with it whatever she may consider best. I wish her every happiness. Are any of you going to see the opening of Parliament? If so I can secure you a very advantageous seat. With kind regards and good wishes, I remain, yours sincerely, H. W. B. ---- _A Letter to a Gentleman who has been making inquiries about a Lady's Horse._ Hithrun, March 26th, 187-- DEAR MARDEN, Mr. Somes, of B----, has requested me to tell you that he will sell his mare for thirty-five guineas. She is aged about eight or nine; has been as you know regularly hunted for the last two or more seasons, and is a safe and beautiful hack, and goes well in harness. I need not say more than to observe that he is perfectly indifferent about selling her, though much obliged to you for recommending her. I think she is well worth fifty pounds. Yours very truly, J. L----T. ---- _Regretting being unable to give an Appointment to a Situation._ Oakham, December 1st, 187-- DEAR MR. ---- I am exceedingly sorry at having to return your enclosures without being able to offer you the appointment in question. Regretting the trouble you have had, and with my best wishes, Believe me, Yours very truly, H. H. V. ---- _From one Gentleman to another, relative to a Dog._ Rochester, March 6th, 187-- DEAR FELLOWES, As you are well up in everything relating to diseases in dogs, I wish for your advice about my puppy. Some people tell me that by vaccinating him I shall ward off the distemper. Do you think it would prove efficacious? I should be sorry to lose him. Perhaps you will drop me a line when you have time. You are generally so occupied that it is scarcely fair to trouble you, but I think you will in this case excuse your old friend. Have you seen anything of Doxman lately? He was here last week. Believe me, Yours very sincerely, H. M. E. ---- _Reply to Letter relative to a Dog._ Tipnor, 10th March, 187-- DEAR PURCHASE, I have always leisure to give a friend a hint if I think it possible to be useful, so I lose no time in replying to you about your pup and the distemper. I have tried vaccination and found it a perfect fallacy, and many of my friends, real judges of dogs, and one of whom is frequently appealed to on matters of dispute with regard to their treatment, decidedly says he has no faith in it, and that the effects are nothing. One of my friends had some dogs which all escaped distemper, but that was attributed to his never giving them any animal food. I rarely have a case (among my dogs) of distemper, and if I do it is generally very mild, and I account for it from my mode of feeding them. Until they reach the age of twelve months I keep them entirely, or nearly so, on bread and milk, potatoes, cabbage, meal, and milk, with the very slightest quantity imaginable of flesh food. Do not keep your dog too closely confined; feed him as I advise, and he may escape distemper altogether. Should he not, it will not be so severe as if you had fed him entirely on meat. I shall be coming into your neighbourhood shortly, and will pay you a visit. Believe me, Yours sincerely, H. M. FOX. ---- _In reply to a Gentleman inquiring for a Solicitor who may be moderate in his charges._ Sheffield, December 29th, 187-- MY DEAR SIR, When I retired from business I relinquished my connexion in favour of my former partner, Mr. ----, and I have much pleasure in giving you his name and address:--4, Boland Street, close to the newly erected Sessions Hall. He will, I am sure, be glad to attend to your friend's business, and make only fair charges. I am much obliged for your kind inquiries, and am happy to say my wife and children are all well, and unite with me in kind remembrances. When you write to your sister-in-law, will you be so good as to present our kind regards to her? If you find time and opportunity to come so far north as this, we shall be extremely glad to see you. Thank you very much for your kind offer of a welcome, and believe me to be, Yours truly, H. F. ---- _Application for a House, Furnished, desiring Lowest Terms._ The Limes, Hampstead, May 1st, 187-- SIR, Being in want of a furnished residence, the enclosed order to view yours has been sent to me. Please let me know, before I go to view it, what will be the lowest rent. Please return the order. Yours faithfully, H. D. T. ---- _To a Relieving Officer, by a Neighbour of a Poor Woman taken Ill._ Tapton, March 17th, 187-- SIR, Mrs. Waterson, a neighbour of mine, whom I have known for more than fifteen years as an industrious woman, is now ill and unable to work. She has no relations who can assist her in any way. Would you, next Thursday, on your way to the board of guardians' meeting, call and see her? Her house is at the corner of Sedgwood Lane. I will see that her wants are attended to until then. I am, Sir, Your obedient servant, GEORGE NEWNS. ---- _Reply to a Gentleman recommending a young Man for Employment as a Porter._ Hitchin, June 12th, 18-- SIR, I have received your communication relative to John ----. From the accounts you give of his general good conduct, his honesty, and the respectability of his family, I think he will be just the person I require to take the place of the porter I have lately lost by death. If the young man will call to-morrow, he can commence his duties. I remain, Sir, Yours obediently, J. D. S----. ---- _Application to Borrow Money._ Ashmead, January 11th, 187-- DEAR ROGERS, Having been rather unfortunate in some speculations of late, I find I am unable to meet the demands of a tradesman, who positively says he cannot remain longer without a settlement of his account. He threatens proceedings, which just at present would prove very disagreeable. Could you, without inconvenience, oblige me with the loan of 20_l._ for a month? Yours ever, SETH JONES. ---- _Reply, granting the Loan._ 18, Stanhope Gardens, January 11th, 187-- DEAR JONES, There is nothing so annoying as to be threatened with proceedings. Perhaps you have not replied civilly to your tradesman's demand for payment; generally speaking, if you do so, they are not pressing. I enclose you a cheque for 20_l._, and shall be glad if you will dine with me this evening. Bring your I. O. U. Yours ever, SAML. ROGERS. ---- _Reply to a Gentleman who wishes to claim an Estate in Chancery._ Strand, June 14th, 187-- DEAR SIR, In reply to your letter of the 11th inst. relative to the Pulwood estate, in Chancery, I think that your first step is to ascertain in whose Court the suit is pending. You can discover this by searching at the Record and Writ Clerks' Courts, in Chancery Lane. You must then ascertain by search in Chambers of the Judge to whose Court the suit is attached, to what stage the proceedings have advanced, and, if no certificate has issued finding the heir or heirs, you must make out your pedigree, by searching parish and other registers, old family Bibles, &c., and obtain also all the evidence you possibly can in support of it; but you had better employ a solicitor. I trust you will be successful. Believe me, Yours truly, JOSIAH WEBB. ---- _In reply to a Gentleman asking the Loan of a Book relative to German Spa Waters._ Harrow, May 4th, 187-- DEAR FRANCIS, I was heartily glad to hear from you again, as I was beginning to fancy you had forgotten me. So you are thinking of going abroad to try the German waters? I have a very useful book, called "The Baths of Europe," and also a small pamphlet on the "German Waters." I will lend them both to you. There are some others written by English physicians, but I forget their titles at this moment. Any bookseller, however, would supply you with the information; but let me advise you, if you intend trying a course of water-drinking or bathing at the foreign spas, not to select any particular place or bath merely from a description given in a book, however good or reliable it may be, so much depends on individual cases and constitutions. Consult first some physician who has made the foreign baths his particular study. Trusting you will derive benefit from the change, Believe me, yours ever, ---- _A Gentleman applying for a Loan on the Insurance of his Life._ Chelsea, S.W., May 14th, 187-- SIR, Having seen an advertisement in the _Evening Standard_, stating that advances are made by you on life policies at the rate of 5 per cent. per annum, I should feel obliged if you would inform me what amount would be advanced on my life policy. I have insured in the G---- office for nearly eighteen years. The policy is No. 18,723. The annual premium is 50_l._ A reply at your earliest convenience will oblige, Yours faithfully, S. H. BOLT. To J. H., Esq., E. I. Office, Trade Street. ---- _Appointing an Interview relative to a Loan_. Trade Street, May 16th, 187-- SIR, In reply to your note of the 14th, I have to request you will be good enough to favour me with a call to-morrow at about 11 A.M. Will you kindly bring your policy with you, and the last receipt? Yours faithfully, GEORGE SIMMS, _Secretary_. S. H. Bolt, Esq. ---- _A Letter from a Marine Engineer, seeking an eligible Partnership._ Ipswich, March 14, 187-- SIR, From an intimate friend of your family with whom I have spent a few days, I am led to suppose you have some desire to join in a desirable partnership. I beg to inform you that for some years I have been engaged in iron ship-building, and I am prepared to take a partner, active or otherwise. The business in which I am at present engaged is connected with an extensive graving dock, now in formation; attached to which will be marine engine and boiler works, so that we may be able to attend, not only to the lengthening and requisite repairs of the hulls, but be able to uphold and renovate their engines, boilers, &c. &c., a combination which is now specially demanded by the greatly increased employment of steam vessels. If you will favour me with a call, I will enter more fully into particulars. I remain, Sir, Yours faithfully, H. B. C. ---- _A Gentleman having visited a Property making an Offer for it._ The Elms, Whitchurch, Feb. 15th, 187-- DEAR SIR, I am this moment returned from Nantwich, having travelled part of the way last night from B----. The house there did not quite satisfy me, but if the trustees of the late owner will do what is required, the place may be made suitable. I looked over the house, grounds, and furniture, and my chief objection is to the want of finish about the grounds. With the house itself I am quite satisfied, and the furnishing of the ground floor requires no special remark; but the bedrooms appear rather defective. Some rooms I could not see, on account of the indisposition of the present tenant. On the whole my notion of the value is about £-- per annum, which, if entertained, I should be disposed to give, supposing the trustees will do all I require. I should prefer renting the house for a twelvemonth's occupancy, with option to make it five years. I shall be in London next week, and will fix a day for calling on you if you think it likely we may come to terms. I of course assume that the house would be fully furnished in every respect, excepting plate and linen. I should wish some inexpensive matters done to the grounds which I will explain if we meet. Should you wish any further references I shall be happy to furnish you with them. Yours truly, A. B. H. ---- _Reply to a Gentleman who has been treating for a House._ Westwood, February 16th, 187-- DEAR SIR, I am glad to find by your letter of yesterday's date that you like the house. I only wish you could have seen it when I occupied it myself--there would have been no cause of complaint as to the out-door appearance then. I shall be very glad indeed to see you in London on Monday, Tuesday, or Wednesday next (on Thursday I go Axminster), but should those days be inconvenient, pray name your own. I think it likely we may come to terms. Strange to say, I had an application from Mrs. Eglamon's solicitor yesterday, asking permission for her to remain a few months longer. I shall not reply until I have seen you. Yours truly, H. ----. ---- _From a Young Man who has taken his late Employer's Business, to an old Customer._ Romsey, July 4th, 187-- SIR, I doubt not that you have heard of the death of my late employer. I have managed his business during the whole of his illness, and as his widow declines to carry it on, I have taken the shop and stock-in-trade, and shall be glad to keep up the connexion with you. I have sent the enclosed bills, which are due, and you may depend on punctuality and attention if you honour me with your orders. I remain, Yours respectfully, ---- _To a Young Man, relative to his late Employer's Business, which he proposes to carry on._ Portsmouth, July 7th, 187- SIR, I received yours of the 4th inst., and am extremely sorry to hear of the death of my old friend, your late employer, but at the same time very much pleased to find that his business has fallen into such good hands as yours. You have double advantages over a stranger, as you are well acquainted with your late employer's trade and customers, which, by his transactions with me, appear to be very extensive. I have sent your order in ten bales marked D.P., by the 8.40 train, and you will find them as good as your best customers can desire. I am very glad you wish to keep up the old connexion. Wishing you every success, I remain, Yours faithfully, JOHN BACON. ---- _From a Young Tradesman, asking Advice in Difficulties._ Commercial Road, June 12th, 187-- DEAR SIR, I am encouraged by my knowledge of your kindness to ask your advice with regard to the difficulties which at present surround me. On commencing business, about four years since, everything looked bright and prosperous, but the pressure put upon me now, in consequence of the many bankruptcies that have lately taken place, has brought me to the very brink of misery and ruin. I see no prospect before me but to compound with my creditors, and _that_ I would by any possibility avoid. Knowing the interest you have always taken in me, and being well aware that your advice and assistance are most valuable, I now venture to apply to you. I have dreaded to do so, as it appeared to me that I was, as it were, imposing upon your too compassionate heart. However, now, dear sir, you know the whole of my circumstances, and exactly the position in which I find myself, through no fault of my own. I shall anxiously await your reply. With many thanks for past undeserved kindness, I remain, Dear Sir, Yours most respectfully, H. S. F. ---- _Reply to Young Tradesman's Letter, relative to Difficulties._ St. Mary Axe, London, June 19th, 187-- DEAR SIR, Having admired you for your upright dealings ever since you commenced business, I am sorry to hear of your present difficulties. There are but two courses open to you--bankruptcy or composition. Compound with your creditors, as the best and only means of showing your honesty of purpose, and also because it will save them the expenses caused by bankruptcy. I will do all in my power to arrange matters for you. My own claim I will not at present press, and very possibly when everything is settled you may find yourself in a much less distressing position than you at present imagine. Let me see you as soon as you can. Keep nothing back from me. Yours truly, H. T. G. ---- _From a Man with a small Capital intending to go into Business, asking for Advice._ Penge, April 5th, 187-- DEAR MR. MATTHEWS, Having within the last few weeks received a very handsome legacy, I am thinking of endeavouring to increase it by going into business. For some years, you are aware, I was with Messrs. Piper and Co., and I imagine I might derive benefit from their connexion. I am well convinced, from your practical knowledge, you will give me such information as will prevent my getting into difficulties. I presume I must be cautious, in starting in business, not to sink too much of my funds in a large stock at first, as there may be a doubt that the return would not be sufficiently speedy to cover my outlay, and consequently I should be obliged to draw upon my capital for household expenses. There is another point on which I wish your advice, and that is as to the locality in which I should take a business. Do you recommend a new neighbourhood, or not? Will you also give me some hints as to the sort of connexion I should endeavour to obtain? and doubtless you will oblige me in giving me a few general directions as to the best mode of succeeding in my undertaking. I remain, Dear Sir, Yours respectfully, D. T----. ---- _Reply to Young Man intending to go into Business._ Tarnham, May 4th, 187-- DEAR MR. THOMAS, I was glad to receive your letter, and glad to find you have confided in your father's old friend for advice, under the circumstance of your starting in business. You do not tell me the amount of your capital; but whether large or small, the same rule should be adopted;--you must be very careful in the matter of investing your money, for without great precaution and judgment you may be a considerable loser. Do not lay in too large a stock. Should trade prove slack, the rent and taxes of your premises must be paid; the stock lies idle and deteriorates in value; and when once you dip into your capital there will be little prospect of your recovering yourself again. With regard to a locality, you must be guided very much by the number of the inhabitants, the nature of the neighbourhood, the requirements and the customs of the resident population; and if possible you should ascertain whether there is any one in the same business who may already have obtained the best connexion. Many small capitalists, in going into a new neighbourhood, have been bitterly disappointed in their expectations of making a good connexion. It is really a fact, that the first shops established in a new place generally fail. Should your neighbourhood be a poor one, guard against laying in a supply of luxuries. Necessaries will be certain to sell. Being agent to one of the large wine firms that supply grocers is a great advantage, as many a customer coming for wine is induced to purchase another article. There is one thing necessary to success in business, and that is civility, an amount of which in stock will cost nothing. And by treating all your customers, rich and poor, with due deference but not servility, you will find your custom very much increase. Let your customers see that it is a pleasure for you to oblige, and that it is not done with a view only of selfish greed or gain. Should you require advice at any future time, I shall be very glad indeed to give you any information you may require. I will close my letter with one more word of counsel, which is this--do not get into debt. Wishing you every success, Believe me, Your sincere friend, ---- _From a Merchant abroad to his Brother, forwarding Goods for Sale, and requesting others._ Leghorn, May 4th, 187-- DEAR FRED, According to promise by last mail, I send you by first steamer twelve bales of raw silk, marked R. N. I need not tell you to dispose of them to the best advantage; they are in first-rate condition, warranted good; I examined each bale myself before shipping. I enclose an order for several different articles of British manufacture, to be sent at an early date; let them be as good and as _cheap_ as you can possibly procure. That class of goods is in great demand at present. Your affectionate brother, J. T. ---- _Brother answering his Brother or Friend, relative to receipt of Goods._ London, May 16th, 187-- DEAR JOHN, Yours of the 4th was duly received, and the goods therein mentioned have since been delivered at the Custom-house. I immediately advertised them for sale in twelve different lots, but they were all bought up by one of the principal manufacturers in Spitalfields for a good sum, which I have lodged in the bank to your credit. I forwarded last week, by the _Orion_, the different articles you ordered. There are twenty bales, marked "A. X." I am told, by judges in the trade, that they are the best and cheapest that can be had. I shall be glad to hear they have realized your expectations. Your affectionate brother, FRED. ---- _A Gentleman in the Corn Trade to another._ Petersfield, January 31st, 187-- DEAR ----, We had a tolerable supply of wheat at market to-day; there was rather a limited attendance, however, and business on the whole proceeded slowly. Most of the samples exhibited were in poor condition; and this, coupled with the sluggish demand, caused prices to give way from one to two shillings per quarter. Foreign wheat had but a dull inquiry. In the flour market there was a moderate consumptive business done, at about late terms; best descriptions of malting and grinding barleys were held for rather higher terms, with a quiet demand. I shall be in your neighbourhood on Sunday, and will give you a call. Yours very truly, J----N D----R. ---- _From a Friend at Bradford to his Friend in London, on Business (Wool)._ Bradford, January 17th, 187-- DEAR ----, We are looking up, as there is a very good tone prevailing in the wool market, and a very fair amount of business has been done during the past week. The late advancing rates, consequent upon the high prices of country dealers, tend to check operations, which are quite of a consumptive character. Very good wethers continue in demand. Hogs are rather more in favour. Skin wool is also in fair request; pieces are very stiff. Hughes' sale the other day fully sustained the tendency of the market, both as respects demands and quotations. I will not lose an opportunity, believe me. I remain, Yours sincerely, JAMES BOLTON. ---- _From a Shopkeeper in the Country, to a Wholesale Dealer._ Cefnmawr, October 1st, 187-- SIR, I was very sorry, on the last receipt of a parcel forwarded by you, to be obliged to find fault with some of the goods, which were not at all up to sample that was sent about two months since. You assured me, at the same time, that in future there should be no cause for complaint. Since then I have received my last order, and there is, if possible, a greater inferiority in some of the articles than on the previous occasion. I do not, believe me, complain without cause; my customers are disposed, I fear, to leave me, not being satisfied with the quality of the articles I sell. If you will make some reduction in price, I will retain those I have now; otherwise, however unwilling I may be to do so, I must return them. Awaiting an early reply, I remain, Sir, Yours truly, H. N----. ---- _Wholesale Dealer, to Tradesman in the Country._ London, October 4th, 187-- DEAR SIR, We were sorry to find, on receipt of yours of the -- inst., that you had occasion again to find fault with the goods lately furnished. Some parcels forwarded to you were done so by inadvertence. We should be sorry to lose your custom, and also grieved to hear you had suffered any pecuniary loss. We are perfectly willing to agree to such a reduction in price as you, in your integrity, think fairly just. We remain, Sir, Yours obediently, A. O----. ---- _To a Theatrical Manager._ Shoreham, September, 187-- SIR, Having seen in the _Era_ of last week that your theatre opens in a fortnight, and that a "General Utility Man" and "First Walking Lady" are wanted, I beg to offer the services of Mrs. A. and myself. We have filled the same places in many theatres (our last engagement was in the North). We have also been very frequently employed in arranging and conducting amateur performances. I trust to hear in a few days, as I leave this next week. I remain, Sir, Your obedient servant, H. ADAIR. ---- _From a House and Estate Agent, acknowledging receipt of a Communication relative to Sale or Letting of a Property._ 84, Crane Street, London, Nov. 14th, 187-- MADAM, I am obliged by your favour of yesterday's date, notifying that Treverne House will be vacant next month. I am sorry to say, things remain very bad here, and I find few purchasers at high prices. See my last letter respecting the offer made by Mr. Townsend. I gave you information about selling prices, and I do not see much improvement in the ideas of buyers at present. By the way, there is a small account of 4_l._ outstanding against you on my books, which doubtless you have overlooked. Will you kindly remit it? and please say if I am to take any step beyond placing Treverne House on my list, to sell or let. I remain, Madam, Yours faithfully, THOMAS OLIVER. Mrs. A. Morgan, 18, St. George's Road, Hanover Square. ---- _A Gentleman to a Friend, relative to a Bill._ Tangel Lane, May 25th, 187-- DEAR ROBSON, I had a note from Mr. B---- this morning relative to our bill for 50_l._ I am very anxious about the matter. Will you call to-morrow, and bring as much money as you can collect? I am afraid he is inclined to be very disagreeable. I will do all I can. Yours ever, J. F. T. ---- _Reply to Question as to Rent of, and permission to View, a House._ Wandsworth, May 5th, 187-- SIR, As we are about to go abroad, we wish to let our house quickly, and for this purpose have consented to reduce our terms from ---- guineas to ---- guineas, furnished. We are quite convinced this is a very cheap rental for the style and accommodation of the place, which we think you will be pleased with, if you will favour it with a visit. The scenery is beautiful; the parish church is close at hand, as also the station; the neighbourhood is excellent. There is a good market town within easy reach. Trusting to hear from you shortly, I remain, Yours faithfully, H---- H----. ---- _From the Secretary of a Convalescent Hospital, applying for Expenses of Patients._ Denbigh, July 20th, 187-- SIR, I am directed by the committee of management to request you will remit the sum due for the maintenance of the sick people introduced by you during the last quarter. The amount due, I believe, was furnished you by the house surgeon a week or two since. I remain, Sir, Your obedient servant, H---- H---- I----. ---- _From a Gentleman, enclosing a Certificate of Illness from a Medical Man, excusing himself from attending at his Office._ Brompton, May 28th, 187-- DEAR SIR, I enclose, as you wish, a certificate from Dr. R. P----, who has been attending me for the last few weeks. I hope most sincerely I shall be able to resume my duties about the middle of the week, particularly if I go on improving as I have done the last few days. I trust you will tender my best thanks to all for their forbearance and assistance during my illness. Believe me, Yours very truly, H. B. H. ---- _Medical Attendant's Certificate._ Brompton, May 28th, 187-- I beg to certify that Mr. J. W---- is unable to attend to his duties. For some weeks past he has suffered greatly, but I think in a week or ten days he will be in a position to resume his post. B---- O----, M.D. ---- _Reply to an Advertisement for the Appointment of Medical Officer to an Union Division._ Bromley, May 14th, 187-- GENTLEMEN, Herewith I enclose my testimonials, with an application for the appointment of Medical Officer to the Upton Division of your parish. I am duly qualified, as a reference to the "Medical Register" will show. Should you be pleased to elect me to the vacant post, I can assure you that no pains on my part shall be wanting to alleviate the sufferings of the poor, with due regard to the interests of the ratepayers. I remain, Gentlemen, Your obedient Servant, P---- A----. ---- _To a Gentleman in reply as to an Agency for a Bordeaux Firm._ Strand, London, March 6th, 187-- SIR, I have received your letter of the 4th inst. If you feel confident that you are in a position to do a good and safe private trade for my firm I shall be pleased to hear from you with regard to references, &c. The commission we allow to our agents is 15 per cent., the cheapest qualities excepted, on which we allow only 10 per cent. commission. Letters for me to be addressed "Care of Messrs. F----t and F----k, Strand, London." I shall be returning to Bordeaux shortly, and await your early reply Yours truly, JAMES MORTINE. _One of the Firm of Mortine & Co._ ---- _Letter urging Payment of a Debt._ Doncaster, April 10th, 187-- SIR, I have made several applications to you for the settlement of your account, now a long time over due. Our clerk has frequently called for it, but has not been fortunate enough to have an interview with you. I have a very large amount to make up by the end of this month, and must beg of you to give attention to it before that time. You must be aware that the account has already run far beyond my usual term of credit. Awaiting an early settlement, I am, Sir, Your obedient Servant, H. H. C. ---- _A Tenant to a Landlord, requesting Time to Pay Rent._ 14, Steel Street, January 21st, 187-- DEAR SIR, From most unexpected and distressing circumstances, of which perhaps you may, by report, have become acquainted before this, I regret that I have been unable to pay my rent for the past half-year. But as up to this time the payment has always been punctually made, I hope I may request your kind forbearance a short time longer. Trusting that you will accede to my request, I am, dear Sir, Yours respectfully, ADAM JONES. C. Douglas, Esq. ---- _Answer from a Landlord in reply to a Tenant, relative to Non-payment of Rent._ Lansdowne Place, April 14th, 187-- SIR, As you assume, I have heard reports of your distressing disappointments. I think you have known me long enough to be sure I would not willingly distress any one, more especially a tenant who up to this time has been so punctual in his payments. When you can conveniently pay the last half-year's rent, do so; I shall not--rest assured--make any demand upon you for it. Trusting that your difficulties will soon be satisfactorily arranged, I remain, Yours faithfully, JOHN SAVAGE. ---- _Reply from Landlord to a Tenant, relative to Non-payment of Rent._ Hood's Place, Waverton, January 21st, 187-- SIR, I regret to hear of the difficulties and disappointments which you tell me in your letter of the 19th inst. you are at present experiencing. Were it in my power to grant you time to pay the rent now overdue, I would most willingly do so; but I have heavy and serious calls upon me at this moment, and must therefore request you to forward me the amount by return of post. I remain, Sir, Yours obediently, JAMES GOODCHILD. ---- _A Sugar Refiner applying for a Situation._ Shoreditch, July 19th, 187-- GENTLEMEN, Being out of employment at present, and hearing you required a sober, steady, active, and pushing man to superintend your business upstairs, I write to inform you that for years I was head upstairs man at Messrs. ---- and Co. You will see by the enclosed copy of a testimonial from them that the duties of filling out the goods up to the stoving, were carried out in such a manner as to convince them I thoroughly understood the business. A reply at your convenience will much oblige, Yours respectfully, O. ---- Messrs. Sweet and Sharp. ---- _An Application for an Appointment on a Railway._ Chatham, January 1st, 187-- SIR, Having received my discharge from the army after completing ten years' service, and being desirous of obtaining employment as a porter on a railway, I take the liberty of enclosing a copy of my discharge to you, understanding you have great influence in the appointment of the Company's servants. I have never filled such an appointment before, but I lived as footman for some years with a gentleman whose testimony as to character I also enclose. I trust you will favourably consider my case. Should my application prove successful I will always endeavour, by diligent discharge of my duty, to show my sense of your kindness. I remain, Sir, Your most obedient Servant, JAMES MAURICE. Samuel Stevens, Esq., Secretary Tavistock Railway. ---- _Reply to a Gentleman requiring a Situation as a Clerk and Foreign Correspondent._ Austin Friars, July 14th, 187-- DEAR SIR, I am glad to be able to offer you the position you sought. Your testimonials are excellent. Although you had many competitors, your knowledge of languages (more especially German) had great weight, and we have decided to appoint you. The gentleman who has held the appointment up to this time is, I find, residing in your neighbourhood. He may be known to you; if so, he would I dare say tell you we are extremely particular as to punctuality. You can commence your duties on Monday next. I remain, Dear Sir, Yours obediently, J. JONES. ---- _Applying for a Clerkship._ GENTLEMEN, Being desirous of obtaining a clerkship, and seeing by advertisement that your firm is in want of a confidential clerk, I beg to offer myself as a candidate for the situation. I held a similar appointment for some years with Messrs. Turine and Medei of San Paulo. I can write, speak fluently, interpret, and translate French, Spanish, and German. I enclose copies of my testimonials. Should you be pleased to appoint me, no exertion on my part shall be wanting to give you satisfaction. I remain, Gentlemen, Your obedient servant, ---- _A Reply to an Advertisement for an Appointment as Secretary to an Institution._ London, May 31st, 187-- "_Wanted immediately, a Secretary._" SIR, With reference to the above advertisement I beg to enclose copies of testimonials, received within the last few months, by which you will see my capability for management. My friends, you will observe, are gentlemen of position and influence, with whom I am and have been for years on terms of the greatest intimacy. I need not say that, should I obtain the appointment in question, my interest with them and many other very influential friends should be exerted to the utmost of my power to promote in every way the interests of the Institution. I remain, Sir, Yours faithfully, H. V. Y. ---- _Applying to a Friend for a Recommendation by a Young Man desirous of obtaining an Appointment._ Chelsea, May 14th, 187-- DEAR SIR, As you have known me for very many years, and as I am at present endeavouring to obtain an appointment with Messrs. L----g and L----g, may I take the liberty of asking you to give me a recommendation to them? You know that I have always borne an upright and unblemished character, and that while under your superintendence I was always attentive to my duties, and I believe that I obtained your confidence. Trusting you will comply with my request, I remain, Dear Sir, Yours respectfully, H. P. K. ---- _An Application for a Situation in the Police._ Sevenoaks, February 12th, 187-- SIR, Having served with you for seven years in the --th Foot, during which time I was employed in situations of trust, and hearing now that you have great influence with the Commissioners of the Police Force of the City of London, may I take the liberty of asking you to assist me in obtaining an appointment in the Force? I am twenty-eight years of age, five feet ten inches in height, strong and healthy, and carried away many prizes at our regimental games. I remain, Sir, Yours most respectfully, H. J. I., Late Sergeant 199th Foot. Colonel ----, Belgrave Square. ---- _From a Person desirous of Employment as a Manager of a Wholesale or Retail Business._ Shepherd's Bush, April 5th, 187-- GENTLEMEN, I beg to forward a strong recommendation from Messrs. C---- and G---- for the post of manager of your [retail or wholesale] business. For some years previous to the late war I was employed by Messrs. ---- and ----, and was selected by their French correspondents to manage a branch establishment at B----, which is now progressing most satisfactorily. I am a good correspondent in French and Italian and German, and understand the business well in all its branches. Trusting that you will favourably consider my friend's recommendation, I remain, Gentlemen, Yours faithfully, ---- _Reply to an Application relating to an Advertisement._ 420, Princes Street, London. SIR, In reply to yours respecting the advertisement in yesterday's _Times_, the appointment referred to was to fill up a vacancy in the Board of an established Brewery Company, "limited," and one which has the prospect of more than ordinary success. All the parties connected with it are of the highest respectability. ---- pounds are required to be invested in paid-up shares, and the remuneration of a director would probably be £---- per annum. There is one appointment also connected with this, worth £---- per annum; but the individual who takes this is expected to introduce £---- on share or loan capital. Should this be likely to suit you, please make an appointment for an early interview. Yours faithfully, ---- _A Book-keeper and Accountant applying for Employment._ Hampton, February 1st, 187-- SIR, My late employer, Mr. ----, having relinquished business, and hearing that you required a book-keeper, I venture to apply for the situation. For many years I have had great business experience, having been entrusted with matters of great responsibility. I am a good accountant, and can speak and write German, French, and Italian fluently. Soliciting the favour of a reply, I remain, Sir, Yours faithfully, ---- _Application for Employment in an Auctioneer's and Estate Agent's Office._ Swansea, July 1st, 187-- GENTLEMEN, Having lately been engaged in the office of S---- and Co., auctioneers and surveyors in B----, and wishing to remove to London, where I have some very influential friends, I write to ascertain if you have a vacancy in your office. The whole control of the business here was left in my hands. I am an experienced surveyor, and can prepare particulars of sale, plans, reports, catalogues, advertisements, &c.; and am able to conduct the routine of business, both in and out of doors. I can refer you to persons in the City should you favour me with a reply. I remain, Sir, Yours respectfully, ---- _A Person desirous of entering into Partnership in a Lucrative Profession._ Ladbroke Terrace, May 1st, 187-- SIR, Having seen that Mr. B---- has retired from your firm, I beg to introduce to your notice a friend of mine, who wishes to invest about 2000_l._ in a lucrative business. I have pointed out to him what a well established house yours is, and how the business could be readily increased by the assistance of an energetic partner. He is a man of education, has a great turn for business, and has travelled abroad. He is about thirty years of age, and can give you the most unexceptionable references. If you can call on me I will introduce him to you. Yours truly, ---- _An Estate Agent, relative to a House of which his Client is anxious to Dispose._ Salisbury, February 14th, 187-- _Re Woodside._ DEAR SIR, We have been expecting to hear from you _re_ the above, giving us instructions as to whether we shall put it up in the Mart this spring or not. If it is still your intention to do so, may we ask that you will kindly let us know at once, as we will then immediately get our bills out, and have them posted about, as this is generally requisite a month or two before the sale, so as to have it well advertised. If you would kindly favour us with a call, we shall be glad to confer with you upon the subject. We may mention we are expecting to have several other estates for sale by auction in the spring. An early call or reply would greatly oblige, Your most obedient servant, H. & Co. ---- _From an Agent who has been engaged in endeavouring to arrange a matter of importance, applying for Remuneration._ 189, Trafalgar Square, September 14th, 187-- DEAR MADAM, You will of course have observed, by the announcement in the newspapers of this day's date, that the business we have been so anxious about is settled. I do not wish to enlarge on my own humble services in the cause; but I am sure you will admit that if a professional gentleman had been employed, the advice and services I have rendered during the last few years would have been made into a very lengthy bill, far exceeding the amount you promised me, whatever the issue of the negotiations might be. I am well assured that I am in good hands, however, and had I been called upon to render ten times the required services and advice, you would have found me as ready and willing as I have been. Your kind favour of the --ult., enclosing cheque, was duly received. I need not say how glad I shall be to hear again from you at your earliest convenience. I remain, Dear Madam, Yours very faithfully, ERASMUS JACKSON. ---- _Letter from a Traveller at Manchester, to his Employers in London._ Manchester, January 18th, 187-- DEAR SIRS, During the week very little change has taken place in prices quoted in my last. Cotton was a shade better on Monday, which caused sellers of yarn and cloth in this market to ask rather more in some instances; but the improvement was quite evanescent. The market, however, has continued steady. Some buyers have made attempts to operate at rather lower prices, and offers have been freely made at 1/8_d._ to 1/4_d._ per lb. for yarns, but the offers have only been made in exceptional cases. For goods of all descriptions, notwithstanding some discouraging accounts from abroad, very considerable contracts for distant delivery in point of time could have been secured by making a very slight concession. Madapollams, jaconets, and mulls are not in active request, but maintain last week's values. Printers T cloths and domestics meet with a fair consumptive demand, and orders can only be placed at the prices of Tuesday. Large importations of cotton, and lower prices, are causing buyers to operate cautiously, both in yarn and cloth. I leave this to-morrow for MacClesfield. I remain, Gentlemen, Yours obediently, ---- _Relative to an Advertisement, requesting a copy._ Wareham, June 15th, 187- DEAR SIR, I have the pleasure of forwarding you, on the fly-leaf, a copy of the order for the advertisement. We trust it was in conformity with your wishes. Yours respectfully, H. M. B----. ---- _Application for a Debt some time owing_. Windsor Buildings, May 14th, 187- MADAM, Mr. W. C. Durnford has placed his book debts in my hands to collect, and I shall be obliged by the payment of 1_l._ 18_s._ 6_d._, for which I find you are his debtor. I am, Madam, Your obedient servant, J. I----. ---- _Application for an outstanding Account._ London, May 4th, 187-- Mrs. ----, MADAM, We beg to inform you that we are instructed by Messrs. B----n and C----n, of Duncan Street, who are desirous of clearing off several outstanding accounts which are considerably overdue, to make application to you for payment of an amount of £-- 18_s._ 4_d._ for articles supplied in July, 1868, and January, 1869; and to facilitate the next balancing of books, we ask you to kindly make it convenient to favour us with a cheque for the amount before the 30th inst. We are, Madam, Yours faithfully, H. F. & Co. ---- _Applying for an Account, and furnishing particulars._ Streatham, June 13th, 187-- DEAR SIR, On the other side I hand you particulars of Mrs. Soames' account, for which please send me cheque. Yours truly, W. W. _pro_ P. F. C. ---- _A Gentleman's Servant, applying for a Situation._ Praetland Terrace, March 1st, 187-- "_Valet Wanted._" SIR, In reply to an advertisement in yesterday's _Daily Telegraph_, headed as above, I beg to offer myself for the situation. For six years and a half I lived with the late General Aslett in that capacity; on his death the establishment was reduced, and I received my dismissal. I enclose a copy of my character from my previous masters, and also one from the proprietor of the Great Northern Hotel, who has known me for many years. I am unmarried, 5ft. 10in. in height, and twenty-eight years of age. I remain, Sir, Your most obedient humble servant, JAMES FIELD. ---- _From a Coachman, requiring a place._ Croydon, October 2nd. SIR, Having heard that you are in want of a coachman, I respectfully beg to offer myself for the situation. I have lived in my last place with J. G----, Esq., who will, I am sure give me a good character. I remain, Sir, Your obedient servant, JOHN JAMES. ---- _Reply._ Beech Park, October 4th. JOHN JAMES, I have received your application for my coachman's place, and should be glad to know of how many horses you had the care at Mr. ----'s; whether you had a groom under you; and if you can drive in London as well as in the country. Let me know also if you are a married man, and, if so, whether you have a family. ROBERT BRUCE. ---- _Coachman's Reply._ Croydon, October 6th. SIR, I had the care of three horses at Mr. ----, and he allowed me assistance in the stable. I am a married man and have five children. I have been used to drive in London during the season. If you should be pleased to engage me, I shall endeavour to do my best to serve you. I am, Sir, Your obedient servant, JOHN JAMES. ---- _Applying for a Situation as a Gardener._ Snowdrop Cottage, June 1st, 187-- SIR, Understanding that there will be a vacancy shortly in your establishment for a gardener, I respectfully beg to offer myself for the place. From boyhood I have been under the best of gardeners. I served my apprenticeship with, and have been from time to time improving myself under the direction of one of the most experienced landscape gardeners employed in the Crystal Palace Gardens. I enclose you a copy of the opinion formed of my capabilities by those under whom I placed myself, and assure you my whole time and study shall be devoted to your service. I remain, Yours obediently, E. GARDNER. ---- _A Gentleman ordering a Set of Harness from a Saddler._ Edisbury Place, February 4th, 187-- SIR, I send my coachman to consult with you as to the style and quality of a new set of double harness, which I shall shortly require. My own idea is that harness cannot be too light looking. I have also a great objection to a large amount of plating. My coachman will tell you the size of the horses; and please let me know by him the very lowest price. Yours obediently, JAMES HEATON. ---- _Saddler, in reply._ 3, Tanning Road, February 1st, 187-- SIR, Many thanks for your esteemed communication. From the description given by your coachman of the double harness required, I think I can supply you to your satisfaction for the sum of 24_l._, and everything will be of the best quality. Trusting that you will be satisfied with the quality and character of the goods, I remain, Sir, Your humble obedient servant, JOSEPH TANNER. ---- _Gentleman in reply, objecting to Price._ Edisbury Place, February, 187-- SIR, On my return I was much surprised to find that your prices were so very much above the sum I proposed to expend for a set of double harness: however, I will consider the matter. A friend of mine who lately ordered a set of harness much the same as that which my coachman described to you, assures me that the charge for it was between 5_l._ and 6_l._ less. I will see you on the subject on my return from Rome. Yours obediently, JAMES HEATON. Mr. ---- ---- _Saddler, in reply._ 3, Tanning Road, February 1st, 187-- SIR, As I am sorry at any time to lose custom, I take the liberty of requesting you to defer your decision until your return, and if you will then favour me with a call I think I can show you sets of harness at a price that you will find moderate. I enclose you a letter which I have received from a coachman, from which you will be able to judge for yourself of the pressure put upon us by servants. I remain, Sir, Yours respectfully, JOSEPH TANNER. James Heaton, Esq. ---- _Requesting the Renewal of a Bill._ Tipnor, February 4th, 187-- DEAR SIRS, Having had great difficulty in collecting my accounts during the last half year (although I have strict assurances that they will all, or nearly all, be settled by the end of this month), I find I am unable to meet in full my acceptance to you for 150_l._ 14_s._ 2_d._ Would you oblige me by holding it to the end of this month? I shall then be prepared to meet the same. An early reply will oblige, Yours truly, Messrs. Farren, Johnson, and Styles. COMMERCIAL FORMS. _Form of Cheque to "Bearer."_ London, Dec. 8th, 18-- To the London Joint-Stock Bank, Chancery Lane Branch. Pay to ---- or bearer, One Hundred pounds. £100. T. ROBINSON. ---- _Form of Cheque to "Order."_ London, Dec. 8th, 18-- To the London Joint-Stock Bank, Chancery Lane Branch. Pay to ---- or order, One Hundred pounds. £100. T. ROBINSON. This form will require, previous to payment, the endorsement of the party to whom it is made payable. ---- _Form of an Ordinary Bill of Exchange._ London, May 1st, 18-- £100. Three Months after date, pay to me or my order One Hundred pounds. Value received. T. ROBINSON. To Mr. Henry Jones, Liverpool. To make this a negotiable document, it has to be accepted by being signed across the face by the party on whom it is drawn, and endorsed on the back by the drawer. This admits of the following change, according to circumstances: instead of "three months after date," it may be "at sight," or at such a time "after sight," or at such a specified time, or "on demand;" and the instruction to pay may be "to A. B. or order." ---- _Form of a Promissory Note._ £100. London, July 1st, 18-- Three Months after date, I promise to pay to Mr. Henry Jones, or order, One Hundred pounds, for value received. T. ROBINSON. Payable at The London Joint-Stock Bank, Chancery Lane Branch. To make this a negotiable document, it has to be endorsed by being signed across the back by the party to whom it is made payable. ---- _Form of a Foreign Bill of Exchange._ £100. Paris, June 1st, 18-- Sixty days after sight of this First of Exchange (Second and Third unpaid) pay to the order of Messrs. Jones and Robinson, One Hundred pounds sterling, value received; and charge to account, with or without advice of WILLIAM SMITH. To Mr. Thomas Kelley, Manchester. Payable in London. The naming of the payee admits of the same variations as are exhibited in an ordinary Bill of Exchange. The time of payment may be, in like manner, variously expressed. The term "usance" is sometimes employed to express the period of running in foreign bills. It means a certain time fixed by custom as between any two places, and the period covered by a usance will therefore depend on the places of drawing and payment. ---- _Form of Ordinary Receipt._ London, May 2nd, 18-- Received of Mr. John Frost, Twenty-nine pounds twelve shillings and sixpence. £29 12_s._ 6_d._ C. CUTHBERT. N.B.--All receipts for sums of Two pounds and upwards require to have a receipt stamp affixed to them, which stamp should be cancelled by being written across. The penalty for evading this law is 50_l._ ---- _Form of Receipt for Rent._ London, August 18th, 18-- Received of A. Wigram, Esq., Fifteen pounds, being one quarter's rent due on Midsummer Day last, for the premises occupied by him at No. 14, South Rupert Street, W.C. £15 0_s._ 0_d._ T. PHILLIPS. ---- _Form of Agreement for Taking a House._ Memorandum of an undertaking entered into this ---- day of ----, 18--, between A. B. of ----, and C. D. of ----, as follows:-- The said A. B. doth hereby let unto the said C. D. a dwelling-house, situate in the parish of ----, for the term of one year certain, and so on from year to year, and so on until half a year's notice to quit be given by or to either party, at the yearly rent of £----, payable quarterly; the tenancy to commence at ---- day next. And the said A. B. doth undertake to pay the land-tax, the property-tax, and the sewer-rate, and to keep the said house in all necessary repairs, so long as the said C. D. shall continue therein. And the said C. D. doth undertake to take the said house of A. B. for and at the before-mentioned term and rent, and pay all taxes except those on land or property and the sewer-rate, and to abide by the other conditions aforesaid. Witness our hands the day and year aforesaid. A. B. Witness E. F. C. D. [N.B.--Premises are sometimes let for a term of years, or upon other conditions different from those specified above; in such cases the agreement must, of course, be worded conformably.] ---- _Form of Notice to Quit, from a Tenant to Landlord._ SIR, I hereby give you notice that on or before the ---- day of ----next, I shall quit and deliver up possession of the house and premises I now hold of you, situate at ----, in the parish of ----, in the county of ----. Dated this ---- day of ----, 18--. Witness, K. I. G. H. To Mr. L. M. ---- _Form of Notice to Quit, from Landlord to Tenant._ SIR, I hereby give you notice to quit the house and appurtenances, situate at No. ----, which you now hold of me, on or before ---- next. Dated ----, 18--. Signed N. O. (Landlord). To Mr. P. Q. ---- _Form of Will._ THIS is the last Will and Testament of A. B., of No. ---- Street, ----. I hereby give and devise to my wife, Jane B., her heirs, executors, and administrators, for her and their own use and benefit, absolutely and for ever, all my estate and effects, both real and personal, whatsoever and wheresoever, and of what nature and quality soever, and I hereby appoint her, the said Jane B., sole executrix of this my Will. In witness whereof I have hereunto set my hand this ----day of ----, one thousand eight hundred and ----. A. B. Signed by the said A. B., in the presence of us, present at the same time, who in his presence and in the presence of each other, attest and subscribe our names as witnesses hereto. [N.B.--The above is a simple form of Will. They can, of course, be made in various ways, but in every case care should be taken that the persons mentioned in the Will should be fully and properly designated, and that the testator's intentions be stated in language as clear and precise as possible.] ---- _Form of Bill of Sale._ KNOW all men by these presents, that I, A. B., of ----, for and in consideration of the sum of ----, in hand, paid, at and before the sealing and delivery hereof, by C. D., of ----, the receipt whereof I do hereby acknowledge, have bargained and sold, and by these presents do bargain and sell unto the said C. D., all the goods, household stuff, and implements of household, and all other goods whatsoever mentioned in the schedule hereunto annexed, now remaining and being in ----. To have and to hold all and singular the goods, household stuff, and implements of household, and every of them by these presents, bargained and sold unto the said C. D., his executors, administrators, and assigns for ever, and I, the said A. B., for myself, my executors, and administrators, all and singular, of the said goods, unto the said C. D., his executors and administrators and assigns, and against all and every other person and persons whatsoever, shall and will warrant and for ever defend by these presents, of which goods I, the said A. B., have put the said C. D., in possession, by delivering him one silver candelabrum, &c., on the sealing hereof; in witness whereof I have hereunto put my hand and seal this ---- day of ----, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and ---- A. B. Signed, sealed, and delivered, } C. D. in the presence of us, } E. F. DIRECTIONS FOR ADDRESSING PERSONS OF RANK, &c. _1. In Letters or Conversation._ _2. The Directions of Letters._ THE ROYAL FAMILY. The QUEEN-- 1. Madam; Most Gracious Sovereign; May it please your Majesty. 2. To the Queen's Most Excellent Majesty. The Sons and Daughters, Brothers and Sisters of Sovereigns-- 1. Sir, or Madam, May it please your Royal Highness. 2. To His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales. To Her Royal Highness the Duchess of Cambridge. OTHER BRANCHES OF THE ROYAL FAMILY. 1. Sir, or Madam, May it please your Highness. 2. To His Royal Highness the Duke of Cambridge; or, To Her Royal Highness the Princess Mary of Teck. THE NOBILITY. A Duke, or Duchess-- 1. My Lord Duke, or Madam, May it please your Grace. 2. To His Grace the Duke of Bedford; or, To Her Grace the Duchess of Bedford. A Marquis, or Marchioness-- 1. My Lord, or Madam, May it please your Lordship, or, May it please your Ladyship. 2. To the Most Noble the Marquis, or Marchioness, of Westminster. An Earl or Countess--the same. To the Right Honourable the Earl, or Countess, of Shrewsbury. A Viscount or Viscountess-- 1. My Lord, or Madam, May it please your Lordship, or, May it please your Ladyship. 2. To the Right Honourable Viscount, or Viscountess, Lifford. A Baron or Baroness--the same. To the Right Honourable, the Lord Wensleydale, or The Lady St. John. The widow of a Nobleman is addressed in the same style, with the introduction of the word Dowager in the Superscription of her letters. To the Right Hon. the Dowager Countess of Chesterfield. The Sons of Dukes and Marquises, and the eldest Sons of Earls, have, by courtesy, the titles of Lord and Right Honourable; and all the Daughters have those of a Lady and Right Honourable. The younger Sons of Earls, and the Sons and Daughters of Viscounts and Barons, are styled Honourable. OFFICIAL MEMBERS OF THE STATE. A Member of Her Majesty's Most Hon. Privy Council-- 1. Sir, or My Lord, Right Honourable Sir, or My Lord, as the case may require. 2. To the Right Honourable ----,[1] Her Majesty's Principal Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. [1] Here write the name, and specify the title or rank of the person addressed, as "The Right Honourable the Earl of Winchelsea." AMBASSADORS AND GOVERNORS UNDER HER MAJESTY. 1. Sir, or My Lord, as the case may be; May it please your Excellency. 2. To his Excellency the French (or other) Ambassador. 3. To his Excellency ----,[2] Lieutenant General, and General Governor of that part of the United Kingdom called Ireland. [2] Here write the name, and specify the title or rank of the person addressed, as "The Right Honourable the Earl of Winchelsea." JUDGES. 1. My Lord, May it please your Lordship. 2. To the Right Honourable ----, Lord Chief Justice of England. The Lord Mayor of London, York, or Dublin, and the Lord Provost of Edinburgh, during office--the same. 1. My Lord, May it please your Lordship. 2. To the Right Honourable ----, Lord Mayor of London. To the Right Honourable ----, Lord Provost of Edinburgh. The Lord Provost of every other town in Scotland is styled Honourable. The Mayors of all Corporations (excepting the preceding Lord Mayors), and the Sheriffs, Aldermen, and the Recorder of London, are addressed Right Worshipful; and the Aldermen and Recorders of other Corporations, and the Justices of the Peace, Worshipful. THE PARLIAMENT. House of Peers-- 1. My Lords, May it please your Lordships. 2. To the Right Honourable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, in Parliament assembled. House of Commons-- 1. May it please your Honourable House. 2. To the Honourable the Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The Speaker of the House of Commons-- 1. Sir, or Mr. Speaker. 2. To the Right Honourable ----, the Speaker of the House of Commons. A Member of the House of Commons not ennobled-- 1. Sir. 2. To Thomas Hughes, Esq., M.P. THE CLERGY. An Archbishop-- 1. My Lord, May it please your Grace. 2. To his Grace the Archbishop of Canterbury; or, To the Most Reverend Father in God, ----,[3] Lord Archbishop of Canterbury. [3] Here write the Christian but not the surname. A Bishop-- 1. My Lord, May it please your Lordship. 2. The Right Reverend the Bishop of London. 3. To the Right Reverend Father in God, ----,[4] Lord Bishop of Peterboro'. [4] Here write the Christian but not the surname. A Dean-- 1. Reverend Sir. 2. To the Very Reverend Dr. ----, Dean of Westminster. An Archdeacon-- The Venerable the Archdeacon of ----. Chancellors are addressed in the same manner. The rest of the Clergy-- 1. Sir,--Reverend Sir. 2. To the Rev. Dr Campbell. To the Rev. J. Jones; or, to the Rev. Mr. Wilson, &c. 
6409	----	HOW TO SPEAK AND WRITE CORRECTLY By JOSEPH DEVLIN, M.A. Edited by THEODORE WATERS THE CHRISTIAN HERALD BIBLE HOUSE NEW YORK Copyright, 1910, by THE CHRISTIAN HERALD NEW YORK CONTENTS CHAPTER I REQUIREMENTS OF SPEECH Vocabulary. Parts of speech. Requisites. CHAPTER II ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR Divisions of grammar. Definitions. Etymology. CHAPTER III THE SENTENCE Different kinds. Arrangement of words. Paragraph. CHAPTER IV FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE Figures of speech. Definitions and examples. Use of figures. CHAPTER V PUNCTUATION Principal points. Illustrations. Capital letters. CHAPTER VI LETTER WRITING Principles of letter writing. Forms. Notes. CHAPTER VII ERRORS Mistakes. Slips of authors. Examples and corrections. Errors of redundancy. CHAPTER VIII PITFALLS TO AVOID Common stumbling blocks. Peculiar constructions. Misused forms. CHAPTER IX STYLE Diction. Purity. Propriety. Precision. CHAPTER X SUGGESTIONS How to write. What to write. Correct speaking and speakers. CHAPTER XI SLANG Origin. American slang. Foreign slang. CHAPTER XII WRITING FOR NEWSPAPERS Qualification. Appropriate subjects. Directions. CHAPTER XIII CHOICE OF WORDS Small words. Their importance. The Anglo-Saxon element. CHAPTER XIV ENGLISH LANGUAGE Beginning. Different Sources. The present. CHAPTER XV MASTERS AND MASTERPIECES OF LITERATURE Great authors. Classification. The world's best books. INTRODUCTION In the preparation of this little work the writer has kept one end in view, viz.: To make it serviceable for those for whom it is intended, that is, for those who have neither the time nor the opportunity, the learning nor the inclination, to peruse elaborate and abstruse treatises on Rhetoric, Grammar, and Composition. To them such works are as gold enclosed in chests of steel and locked beyond power of opening. This book has no pretension about it whatever,--it is neither a Manual of Rhetoric, expatiating on the dogmas of style, nor a Grammar full of arbitrary rules and exceptions. It is merely an effort to help ordinary, everyday people to express themselves in ordinary, everyday language, in a proper manner. Some broad rules are laid down, the observance of which will enable the reader to keep within the pale of propriety in oral and written language. Many idiomatic words and expressions, peculiar to the language, have been given, besides which a number of the common mistakes and pitfalls have been placed before the reader so that he may know and avoid them. The writer has to acknowledge his indebtedness to no one in _particular_, but to all in _general_ who have ever written on the subject. The little book goes forth--a finger-post on the road of language pointing in the right direction. It is hoped that they who go according to its index will arrive at the goal of correct speaking and writing. CHAPTER I REQUIREMENTS OF SPEECH Vocabulary--Parts of Speech--Requisites It is very easy to learn how to speak and write correctly, as for all purposes of ordinary conversation and communication, only about 2,000 different words are required. The mastery of just twenty hundred words, the knowing where to place them, will make us not masters of the English language, but masters of correct speaking and writing. Small number, you will say, compared with what is in the dictionary! But nobody ever uses all the words in the dictionary or could use them did he live to be the age of Methuselah, and there is no necessity for using them. There are upwards of 200,000 words in the recent editions of the large dictionaries, but the one-hundredth part of this number will suffice for all your wants. Of course you may think not, and you may not be content to call things by their common names; you may be ambitious to show superiority over others and display your learning or, rather, your pedantry and lack of learning. For instance, you may not want to call a spade a spade. You may prefer to call it a spatulous device for abrading the surface of the soil. Better, however, to stick to the old familiar, simple name that your grandfather called it. It has stood the test of time, and old friends are always good friends. To use a big word or a foreign word when a small one and a familiar one will answer the same purpose, is a sign of ignorance. Great scholars and writers and polite speakers use simple words. To go back to the number necessary for all purposes of conversation correspondence and writing, 2,000, we find that a great many people who pass in society as being polished, refined and educated use less, for they know less. The greatest scholar alive hasn't more than four thousand different words at his command, and he never has occasion to use half the number. In the works of Shakespeare, the most wonderful genius the world has ever known, there is the enormous number of 15,000 different words, but almost 10,000 of them are obsolete or meaningless today. Every person of intelligence should be able to use his mother tongue correctly. It only requires a little pains, a little care, a little study to enable one to do so, and the recompense is great. Consider the contrast between the well-bred, polite man who knows how to choose and use his words correctly and the underbred, vulgar boor, whose language grates upon the ear and jars the sensitiveness of the finer feelings. The blunders of the latter, his infringement of all the canons of grammar, his absurdities and monstrosities of language, make his very presence a pain, and one is glad to escape from his company. The proper grammatical formation of the English language, so that one may acquit himself as a correct conversationalist in the best society or be able to write and express his thoughts and ideas upon paper in the right manner, may be acquired in a few lessons. It is the purpose of this book, as briefly and concisely as possible, to direct the reader along a straight course, pointing out the mistakes he must avoid and giving him such assistance as will enable him to reach the goal of a correct knowledge of the English language. It is not a Grammar in any sense, but a guide, a silent signal-post pointing the way in the right direction. THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN A NUTSHELL All the words in the English language are divided into nine great classes. These classes are called the Parts of Speech. They are Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction and Interjection. Of these, the Noun is the most important, as all the others are more or less dependent upon it. A Noun signifies the name of any person, place or thing, in fact, anything of which we can have either thought or idea. There are two kinds of Nouns, Proper and Common. Common Nouns are names which belong in common to a race or class, as _man_, _city_. Proper Nouns distinguish individual members of a race or class as _John_, _Philadelphia_. In the former case _man_ is a name which belongs in common to the whole race of mankind, and _city_ is also a name which is common to all large centres of population, but _John_ signifies a particular individual of the race, while _Philadelphia_ denotes a particular one from among the cities of the world. Nouns are varied by Person, Number, Gender, and Case. Person is that relation existing between the speaker, those addressed and the subject under consideration, whether by discourse or correspondence. The Persons are _First_, _Second_ and _Third_ and they represent respectively the speaker, the person addressed and the person or thing mentioned or under consideration. _Number_ is the distinction of one from more than one. There are two numbers, singular and plural; the singular denotes one, the plural two or more. The plural is generally formed from the singular by the addition of _s_ or _es_. _Gender_ has the same relation to nouns that sex has to individuals, but while there are only two sexes, there are four genders, viz., masculine, feminine, neuter and common. The masculine gender denotes all those of the male kind, the feminine gender all those of the female kind, the neuter gender denotes inanimate things or whatever is without life, and common gender is applied to animate beings, the sex of which for the time being is indeterminable, such as fish, mouse, bird, etc. Sometimes things which are without life as we conceive it and which, properly speaking, belong to the neuter gender, are, by a figure of speech called Personification, changed into either the masculine or feminine gender, as, for instance, we say of the sun, _He_ is rising; of the moon, _She_ is setting. _Case_ is the relation one noun bears to another or to a verb or to a preposition. There are three cases, the _Nominative_, the _Possessive_ and the _Objective_. The nominative is the subject of which we are speaking or the agent which directs the action of the verb; the possessive case denotes possession, while the objective indicates the person or thing which is affected by the action of the verb. An _Article_ is a word placed before a noun to show whether the latter is used in a particular or general sense. There are but two articles, _a_ or _an_ and _the_. An _Adjective_ is a word which qualifies a noun, that is, which shows some distinguishing mark or characteristic belonging to the noun. DEFINITIONS A _Pronoun_ is a word used for or instead of a noun to keep us from repeating the same noun too often. Pronouns, like nouns, have case, number, gender and person. There are three kinds of pronouns, _personal_, _relative_ and _adjective_. A _verb_ is a word which signifies action or the doing of something. A verb is inflected by tense and mood and by number and person, though the latter two belong strictly to the subject of the verb. An _adverb_ is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective and sometimes another adverb. A _preposition_ serves to connect words and to show the relation between the objects which the words express. A _conjunction_ is a word which joins words, phrases, clauses and sentences together. An _interjection_ is a word which expresses surprise or some sudden emotion of the mind. THREE ESSENTIALS The three essentials of the English language are: _Purity_, _Perspicuity_ and _Precision_. By _Purity_ is signified the use of good English. It precludes the use of all slang words, vulgar phrases, obsolete terms, foreign idioms, ambiguous expressions or any ungrammatical language whatsoever. Neither does it sanction the use of any newly coined word until such word is adopted by the best writers and speakers. _Perspicuity_ demands the clearest expression of thought conveyed in unequivocal language, so that there may be no misunderstanding whatever of the thought or idea the speaker or writer wishes to convey. All ambiguous words, words of double meaning and words that might possibly be construed in a sense different from that intended, are strictly forbidden. Perspicuity requires a style at once clear and comprehensive and entirely free from pomp and pedantry and affectation or any straining after effect. _Precision_ requires concise and exact expression, free from redundancy and tautology, a style terse and clear and simple enough to enable the hearer or reader to comprehend immediately the meaning of the speaker or writer. It forbids, on the one hand, all long and involved sentences, and, on the other, those that are too short and abrupt. Its object is to strike the golden mean in such a way as to rivet the attention of the hearer or reader on the words uttered or written. CHAPTER II ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR Divisions of Grammar--Definitions--Etymology. In order to speak and write the English language correctly, it is imperative that the fundamental principles of the Grammar be mastered, for no matter how much we may read of the best authors, no matter how much we may associate with and imitate the best speakers, if we do not know the underlying principles of the correct formation of sentences and the relation of words to one another, we will be to a great extent like the parrot, that merely repeats what it hears without understanding the import of what is said. Of course the parrot, being a creature without reason, cannot comprehend; it can simply repeat what is said to it, and as it utters phrases and sentences of profanity with as much facility as those of virtue, so by like analogy, when we do not understand the grammar of the language, we may be making egregious blunders while thinking we are speaking with the utmost accuracy. DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR There are four great divisions of Grammar, viz.: _Orthography_, _Etymology_, _Syntax_, and _Prosody_. _Orthography_ treats of letters and the mode of combining them into words. _Etymology_ treats of the various classes of words and the changes they undergo. _Syntax_ treats of the connection and arrangement of words in sentences. _Prosody_ treats of the manner of speaking and reading and the different kinds of verse. The three first mentioned concern us most. LETTERS A _letter_ is a mark or character used to represent an articulate sound. Letters are divided into _vowels_ and _consonants_. A vowel is a letter which makes a distinct sound by itself. Consonants cannot be sounded without the aid of vowels. The vowels are _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_, _u_, and sometimes _w_ and _y_ when they do not begin a word or syllable. SYLLABLES AND WORDS A syllable is a distinct sound produced by a single effort of [Transcriber's note: 1-2 words illegible] shall, pig, dog. In every syllable there must be at least one vowel. A word consists of one syllable or a combination of syllables. Many rules are given for the dividing of words into syllables, but the best is to follow as closely as possible the divisions made by the organs of speech in properly pronouncing them. THE PARTS OF SPEECH ARTICLE An _Article_ is a word placed before a noun to show whether the noun is used in a particular or general sense. There are two articles, _a_ or _an_ and _the_. _A_ or _an_ is called the indefinite article because it does not point put any particular person or thing but indicates the noun in its widest sense; thus, _a_ man means any man whatsoever of the species or race. _The_ is called the definite article because it points out some particular person or thing; thus, _the_ man means some particular individual. NOUN A _noun_ is the name of any person, place or thing as _John_, _London_, _book_. Nouns are proper and common. _Proper_ nouns are names applied to _particular_ persons or places. _Common_ nouns are names applied to a whole kind or species. Nouns are inflected by _number_, _gender_ and _case_. _Number_ is that inflection of the noun by which we indicate whether it represents one or more than one. _Gender_ is that inflection by which we signify whether the noun is the name of a male, a female, of an inanimate object or something which has no distinction of sex. _Case_ is that inflection of the noun which denotes the state of the person, place or thing represented, as the subject of an affirmation or question, the owner or possessor of something mentioned, or the object of an action or of a relation. Thus in the example, "John tore the leaves of Sarah's book," the distinction between _book_ which represents only one object and _leaves_ which represent two or more objects of the same kind is called _Number_; the distinction of sex between _John_, a male, and _Sarah_, a female, and _book_ and _leaves_, things which are inanimate and neither male nor female, is called _Gender_; and the distinction of state between _John_, the person who tore the book, and the subject of the affirmation, _Mary_, the owner of the book, _leaves_ the objects torn, and _book_ the object related to leaves, as the whole of which they were a part, is called _Case_. ADJECTIVE An _adjective_ is a word which qualifies a noun, that is, shows or points out some distinguishing mark or feature of the noun; as, A _black_ dog. Adjectives have three forms called degrees of comparison, the _positive_, the _comparative_ and the _superlative_. The _positive_ is the simple form of the adjective without expressing increase or diminution of the original quality: _nice_. The _comparative_ is that form of the adjective which expresses increase or diminution of the quality: _nicer_. The _superlative_ is that form which expresses the greatest increase or diminution of the quality: _nicest_. _or_ An adjective is in the positive form when it does not express comparison; as, "A _rich_ man." An adjective is in the comparative form when it expresses comparison between two or between one and a number taken collectively, as, "John is _richer_ than James"; "he is _richer_ than all the men in Boston." An adjective is in the superlative form when it expresses a comparison between one and a number of individuals taken separately; as, "John is the _richest_ man in Boston." Adjectives expressive of properties or circumstances which cannot be increased have only the positive form; as, A _circular_ road; the _chief_ end; an _extreme_ measure. Adjectives are compared in two ways, either by adding _er_ to the positive to form the comparative and _est_ to the positive to form the superlative, or by prefixing _more_ to the positive for the comparative and _most_ to the positive for the superlative; as, _handsome_, _handsomer_, _handsomest_ or _handsome_, _more handsome_, _most handsome_. Adjectives of two or more syllables are generally compared by prefixing more and most. Many adjectives are irregular in comparison; as, Bad, worse, worst; Good, better, best. PRONOUN A _pronoun_ is a word used in place of a noun; as, "John gave his pen to James and _he_ lent it to Jane to write _her_ copy with _it_." Without the pronouns we would have to write this sentence,--"John gave John's pen to James and James lent the pen to Jane to write Jane's copy with the pen." There are three kinds of pronouns--Personal, Relative and Adjective Pronouns. _Personal_ Pronouns are so called because they are used instead of the names of persons, places and things. The Personal Pronouns are _I_, _Thou_, _He_, _She_, and _It_, with their plurals, _We_, _Ye_ or _You_ and _They_. _I_ is the pronoun of the first person because it represents the person speaking. _Thou_ is the pronoun of the second person because it represents the person spoken to. _He_, _She_, _It_ are the pronouns of the third person because they represent the persons or things of whom we are speaking. Like nouns, the Personal Pronouns have number, gender and case. The gender of the first and second person is obvious, as they represent the person or persons speaking and those who are addressed. The personal pronouns are thus declined: First Person. M. or F. Sing. Plural. N. I We P. Mine Ours O. Me Us Second Person. M. or F. Sing. Plural. N. Thou You P. Thine Yours O. Thee You Third Person. M. Sing. Plural. N. He They P. His Theirs O. Him Them Third Person. F. Sing. Plural. N. She They P. Hers Theirs O. Her Them Third Person. Neuter. Sing. Plural. N. It They P. Its Theirs O. It Them N. B.--In colloquial language and ordinary writing Thou, Thine and Thee are seldom used, except by the Society of Friends. The Plural form You is used for both the nominative and objective singular in the second person and Yours is generally used in the possessive in place of Thine. The _Relative_ Pronouns are so called because they relate to some word or phrase going before; as, "The boy _who_ told the truth;" "He has done well, _which_ gives me great pleasure." Here _who_ and _which_ are not only used in place of other words, but _who_ refers immediately to boy, and _which_ to the circumstance of his having done well. The word or clause to which a relative pronoun refers is called the _Antecedent_. The Relative Pronouns are _who_, _which_, _that_ and _what_. _Who_ is applied to persons only; as, "The man _who_ was here." _Which_ is applied to the lower animals and things without life; as, "The horse _which_ I sold." "The hat _which_ I bought." _That_ is applied to both persons and things; as, "The friend _that_ helps." "The bird _that_ sings." "The knife _that_ cuts." _What_ is a compound relative, including both the antecedent and the relative and is equivalent to _that which_; as, "I did what he desired," i. e. "I did _that which_ he desired." Relative pronouns have the singular and plural alike. _Who_ is either masculine or feminine; _which_ and _that_ are masculine, feminine or neuter; _what_ as a relative pronoun is always neuter. _That_ and _what_ are not inflected. _Who_ and _which_ are thus declined: Sing. and Plural Sing. and Plural N. Who N. Which P. Whose P. Whose O. Whom O. Which _Who_, _which_ and _what_ when used to ask questions are called _Interrogative Pronouns_. _Adjective_ Pronouns partake of the nature of adjectives and pronouns and are subdivided as follows: _Demonstrative Adjective Pronouns_ which directly point out the person or object. They are _this_, _that_ with their plurals _these_, _those_, and _yon_, _same_ and _selfsame_. _Distributive Adjective Pronouns_ used distributively. They are _each_, _every_, _either_, _neither_. _Indefinite Adjective Pronouns_ used more or less indefinitely. They are _any_, _all_, _few_, _some_, _several_, _one_, _other_, _another_, _none_. _Possessive Adjective Pronouns_ denoting possession. They are _my_, _thy_, _his_, _her_, _its_, _our_, _your_, _their_. N. B.--(The possessive adjective pronouns differ from the possessive case of the personal pronouns in that the latter can stand _alone_ while the former _cannot_. "Who owns that book?" "It is _mine_." You cannot say "it is _my_,"--the word book must be repeated.) THE VERB A _verb_ is a word which implies action or the doing of something, or it may be defined as a word which affirms, commands or asks a question. Thus, the words _John the table_, contain no assertion, but when the word _strikes_ is introduced, something is affirmed, hence the word _strikes_ is a verb and gives completeness and meaning to the group. The simple form of the verb without inflection is called the _root_ of the verb; _e. g. love_ is the root of the verb,--"To Love." Verbs are _regular_ or _irregular_, _transitive_ or _intransitive_. A verb is said to be _regular_ when it forms the past tense by adding _ed_ to the present or _d_ if the verb ends in _e_. When its past tense does not end in _ed_ it is said to be _irregular_. A _transitive_ verb is one the action of which passes over to or affects some object; as "I struck the table." Here the action of striking affected the object table, hence struck is a transitive verb. An _intransitive_ verb is one in which the action remains with the subject; as _"I walk,"_ _"I sit,"_ _"I run."_ Many intransitive verbs, however, can be used transitively; thus, "I _walk_ the horse;" _walk_ is here transitive. Verbs are inflected by _number_, _person_, _tense_ and _mood_. _Number_ and _person_ as applied to the verb really belong to the subject; they are used with the verb to denote whether the assertion is made regarding one or more than one and whether it is made in reference to the person speaking, the person spoken to or the person or thing spoken about. TENSE In their tenses verbs follow the divisions of time. They have _present tense_, _past tense_ and _future tense_ with their variations to express the exact time of action as to an event happening, having happened or yet to happen. MOOD There are four simple moods,--the _Infinitive_, the _Indicative_, the _Imperative_ and the _Subjunctive_. The Mood of a verb denotes the mode or manner in which it is used. Thus if it is used in its widest sense without reference to person or number, time or place, it is in the _Infinitive_ Mood; as "To run." Here we are not told who does the running, when it is done, where it is done or anything about it. When a verb is used to indicate or declare or ask a simple question or make any direct statement, it is in the _Indicative_ Mood. "The boy loves his book." Here a direct statement is made concerning the boy. "Have you a pin?" Here a simple question is asked which calls for an answer. When the verb is used to express a command or entreaty it is in the _Imperative_ Mood as, "Go away." "Give me a penny." When the verb is used to express doubt, supposition or uncertainty or when some future action depends upon a contingency, it is in the subjunctive mood; as, "If I come, he shall remain." Many grammarians include a fifth mood called the _potential_ to express _power_, _possibility_, _liberty_, _necessity_, _will_ or _duty_. It is formed by means of the auxiliaries _may_, _can_, _ought_ and _must_, but in all cases it can be resolved into the indicative or subjunctive. Thus, in "I may write if I choose," "may write" is by some classified as in the potential mood, but in reality the phrase _I may write_ is an indicative one while the second clause, _if I choose_, is the expression of a condition upon which, not my liberty to write, depends, but my actual writing. Verbs have two participles, the present or imperfect, sometimes called the _active_ ending in _ing_ and the past or perfect, often called the _passive_, ending in _ed_ or _d_. The _infinitive_ expresses the sense of the verb in a substantive form, the participles in an adjective form; as "To rise early is healthful." "An early rising man." "The newly risen sun." The participle in _ing_ is frequently used as a substantive and consequently is equivalent to an infinitive; thus, "To rise early is healthful" and "Rising early is healthful" are the same. The principal parts of a verb are the Present Indicative, Past Indicative and Past Participle; as: Love Loved Loved Sometimes one or more of these parts are wanting, and then the verb is said to be defective. Present Past Passive Participle Can Could (Wanting) May Might " Shall Should " Will Would " Ought Ought " Verbs may also be divided into _principal_ and _auxiliary_. A _principal_ verb is that without which a sentence or clause can contain no assertion or affirmation. An _auxiliary_ is a verb joined to the root or participles of a principal verb to express time and manner with greater precision than can be done by the tenses and moods in their simple form. Thus, the sentence, "I am writing an exercise; when I shall have finished it I shall read it to the class." has no meaning without the principal verbs _writing_, _finished read_; but the meaning is rendered more definite, especially with regard to time, by the auxiliary verbs _am_, _have_, _shall_. There are nine auxiliary or helping verbs, viz., _Be_, _have_, _do_, _shall_, _will_, _may_, _can_, _ought_, and _must_. They are called helping verbs, because it is by their aid the compound tenses are formed. TO BE The verb _To Be_ is the most important of the auxiliary verbs. It has eleven parts, viz., _am, art, is, are, was, wast, were, wert; be, being_ and _been_. VOICE The _active voice_ is that form of the verb which shows the Subject not being acted upon but acting; as, "The cat _catches_ mice." "Charity _covers_ a multitude of sins." The _passive voice_: When the action signified by a transitive verb is thrown back upon the agent, that is to say, when the subject of the verb denotes the recipient of the action, the verb is said to be in the passive voice. "John was loved by his neighbors." Here John the subject is also the object affected by the loving, the action of the verb is thrown back on him, hence the compound verb _was loved_ is said to be in the _passive voice_. The passive voice is formed by putting the perfect participle of any _transitive_ verb with any of the eleven parts of the verb _To Be_. CONJUGATION The _conjugation_ of a verb is its orderly arrangement in voices, moods, tenses, persons and numbers. Here is the complete conjugation of the verb "Love"--_Active Voice_. PRINCIPAL PARTS Present Past Past Participle Love Loved Loved Infinitive Mood To Love Indicative Mood PRESENT TENSE Sing. Plural 1st person I love We love 2nd person You love You love 3rd person He loves They love PAST TENSE Sing. Plural 1st person I loved We loved 2nd person You loved You loved 3rd person He loved They loved FUTURE TENSE Sing. Plural 1st person I shall love They will love 2nd person You will love You will love 3rd person He will love We shall love [Transcriber's note: 1st person plural and 3rd person plural reversed in original] PRESENT PERFECT TENSE Sing. Plural 1st person I have loved We have loved 2nd person You have loved You have loved 3rd person He has loved They have loved PAST PERFECT TENSE Sing. Plural 1st person I had loved We had loved 2nd person You had loved You had loved 3rd person He had loved They had loved FUTURE PERFECT TENSE Sing. Plural 1st person I shall have loved We shall have loved 2nd person You will have loved You will have loved 3rd person He will have loved They will have loved Imperative Mood (PRESENT TENSE ONLY) Sing. Plural 2nd person Love (you) Love (you) Subjunctive Mood PRESENT TENSE Sing. Plural 1st person If I love If we love 2nd person If you love If you love 3rd person If he love If they love PAST TENSE Sing. Plural 1st person If I loved If we loved 2nd person If you loved If you loved 3rd person If he loved If they loved PRESENT PERFECT TENSE Sing. Plural 1st person If I have loved If we have loved 2nd person If you have loved If you have loved 3rd person If he has loved If they have loved PAST PERFECT TENSE Sing. Plural 1st person If I had loved If we had loved 2nd person If you had loved If you had loved 3rd person If he had loved If they had loved INFINITIVES Present Perfect To love To have loved PARTICIPLES Present Past Perfect Loving Loved Having loved CONJUGATION OF "To Love" Passive Voice Indicative Mood PRESENT TENSE Sing. Plural 1st person I am loved We are loved 2nd person You are loved You are loved 3rd person He is loved They are loved PAST TENSE Sing. Plural 1st person I was loved We were loved 2nd person You were loved You were loved 3rd person He was loved They were loved FUTURE TENSE Sing. Plural 1st person I shall be loved We shall be loved 2nd person You will be loved You will be loved 3rd person He will be loved They will be loved PRESENT PERFECT TENSE Sing. Plural 1st person I have been loved We have been loved 2nd person You have been loved You have been loved 3rd person He has been loved They have been loved PAST PERFECT TENSE Sing. Plural 1st person I had been loved We had been loved 2nd person You had been loved You had been loved 3rd person He had been loved They had been loved FUTURE PERFECT TENSE Sing. Plural 1st person I shall have been loved We shall have been loved 2nd person You will have been loved You will have been loved 3rd person He will have been loved They will have been loved Imperative Mood (PRESENT TENSE ONLY) Sing. Plural 2nd person Be (you) loved Be (you) loved Subjunctive Mood PRESENT TENSE Sing. Plural 1st person If I be loved If we be loved 2nd person If you be loved If you be loved 3rd person If he be loved If they be loved PAST TENSE Sing. Plural 1st person If I were loved If they were loved 2nd person If you were loved If you were loved 3rd person If he were loved If we were loved PRESENT PERFECT TENSE Sing. Plural 1st person If I have been loved If we have been loved 2nd person If you have been loved If you have been loved 3rd person If he has been loved If they have been loved PAST PERFECT TENSE Sing. Plural 1st person If I had been loved If we had been loved 2nd person If you had been loved If you had been loved 3rd person If he had been loved If they had been loved INFINITIVES Present Perfect To be loved To have been loved PARTICIPLES Present Past Perfect Being loved Been loved Having been loved (N. B.--Note that the plural form of the personal pronoun, _you_, is used in the second person singular throughout. The old form _thou_, except in the conjugation of the verb "To Be," may be said to be obsolete. In the third person singular he is representative of the three personal pronouns of the third person, _He_, _She_ and _It_.) ADVERB An _adverb_ is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb. Thus, in the example--"He writes _well_," the adverb shows the manner in which the writing is performed; in the examples--"He is remarkably diligent" and "He works very faithfully," the adverbs modify the adjective _diligent_ and the other adverb _faithfully_ by expressing the degree of diligence and faithfulness. Adverbs are chiefly used to express in one word what would otherwise require two or more words; thus, _There_ signifies in that place; _whence_, from what place; _usefully_, in a useful manner. Adverbs, like adjectives, are sometimes varied in their terminations to express comparison and different degrees of quality. Some adverbs form the comparative and superlative by adding _er_ and _est_; as, _soon_, _sooner_, _soonest_. Adverbs which end in _ly_ are compared by prefixing _more_ and _most_; as, _nobly_, _more nobly_, _most nobly_. A few adverbs are irregular in the formation of the comparative and superlative; as, _well_, _better_, _best_. PREPOSITION A _preposition_ connects words, clauses, and sentences together and shows the relation between them. "My hand is on the table" shows relation between hand and table. Prepositions are so called because they are generally placed _before_ the words whose connection or relation with other words they point out. CONJUNCTION A _conjunction_ joins words, clauses and sentences; as "John _and_ James." "My father and mother have come, _but_ I have not seen them." The conjunctions in most general use are _and, also; either, or; neither, nor; though, yet; but, however; for, that; because, since; therefore, wherefore, then; if, unless, lest_. INTERJECTION An _interjection_ is a word used to express some sudden emotion of the mind. Thus in the examples,--"Ah! there he comes; alas! what shall I do?" _ah_, expresses surprise, and _alas_, distress. Nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs become interjections when they are uttered as exclamations, as, _nonsense! strange! hail! away!_ etc. We have now enumerated the parts of speech and as briefly as possible stated the functions of each. As they all belong to the same family they are related to one another but some are in closer affinity than others. To point out the exact relationship and the dependency of one word on another is called _parsing_ and in order that every etymological connection may be distinctly understood a brief resume of the foregoing essentials is here given: The signification of the noun is _limited_ to _one_, but to any _one_ of the kind, by the _indefinite_ article, and to some _particular_ one, or some particular _number_, by the _definite_ article. _Nouns_, in one form, represent _one_ of a kind, and in another, _any number_ more than one; they are the _names of males_, or _females_, or of objects which are neither male nor female; and they represent the _subject_ of an affirmation, a command or a question,--the _owner_ or _possessor_ of a thing,--or the _object_ of an action, or of a relation expressed by a preposition. _Adjectives_ express the _qualities_ which distinguish one person or thing from another; in one form they express quality _without comparison_; in another, they express comparison _between two_, or between _one_ and a number taken collectively,--and in a third they express comparison between _one_ and a _number_ of others taken separately. _Pronouns_ are used in place of nouns; one class of them is used merely as the _substitutes_ of _names_; the pronouns of another class have a peculiar _reference_ to some _preceding words_ in the _sentence_, of which they are the substitutes,--and those of a third class refer adjectively to the persons or things they represent. Some pronouns are used for both the _name_ and the _substitute_; and several are frequently employed in _asking questions_. _Affirmations_ and _commands_ are expressed by the verb; and different inflections of the verb express _number_, _person_, _time_ and _manner_. With regard to _time_, an affirmation may be _present_ or _past_ or _future_; with regard to manner, an affirmation may be _positive_ or _conditional_, it being doubtful whether the condition is fulfilled or not, or it being implied that it is not fulfilled;--the verb may express _command_ or _entreaty_; or the sense of the verb may be expressed _without affirming_ or _commanding_. The verb also expresses that an action or state _is_ or _was_ going on, by a form which is also used sometimes as a noun, and sometimes to qualify nouns. _Affirmations_ are _modified_ by _adverbs_, some of which can be inflected to express different degrees of modification. Words are joined together by _conjunctions_; and the various _relations_ which one thing bears to another are expressed by _'prepositions. Sudden emotions_ of the mind, and _exclamations_ are expressed by _interjections_. Some words according to meaning belong sometimes to one part of speech, sometimes to another. Thus, in "After a storm comes a _calm_," _calm_ is a noun; in "It is a _calm_ evening," _calm_ is an adjective; and in "_Calm_ your fears," _calm_ is a verb. The following sentence containing all the parts of speech is parsed etymologically: _"I now see the old man coming, but, alas, he has walked with much difficulty."_ _I_, a personal pronoun, first person singular, masculine or feminine gender, nominative case, subject of the verb _see_. _now_, an adverb of time modifying the verb _see_. _see_, an irregular, transitive verb, indicative mood, present tense, first person singular to agree with its nominative or subject I. _the_, the definite article particularizing the noun man. _old_, an adjective, positive degree, qualifying the noun man. _man_, a common noun, 3rd person singular, masculine gender, objective case governed by the transitive verb _see_. _coming_, the present or imperfect participle of the verb "to come" referring to the noun man. _but_, a conjunction. _alas_, an interjection, expressing pity or sorrow. _he_, a personal pronoun, 3rd person singular, masculine gender, nominative case, subject of verb has walked. _has walked_, a regular, intransitive verb, indicative mood, perfect tense, 3rd person singular to agree with its nominative or subject _he_. _with_, a preposition, governing the noun difficulty. _much_, an adjective, positive degree, qualifying the noun difficulty. _difficulty_, a common noun, 3rd person singular, neuter gender, objective case governed by the preposition _with_. N.B.--_Much_ is generally an adverb. As an adjective it is thus compared: Positive Comparative Superlative much more most CHAPTER III THE SENTENCE Different Kinds--Arrangement of Words--Paragraph A sentence is an assemblage of words so arranged as to convey a determinate sense or meaning, in other words, to express a complete thought or idea. No matter how short, it must contain one finite verb and a subject or agent to direct the action of the verb. "Birds fly;" "Fish swim;" "Men walk;"--are sentences. A sentence always contains two parts, something spoken about and something said about it. The word or words indicating what is spoken about form what is called the _subject_ and the word or words indicating what is said about it form what is called the _predicate_. In the sentences given, _birds_, _fish_ and _men_ are the subjects, while _fly_, _swim_ and _walk_ are the predicates. There are three kinds of sentences, _simple_, _compound_ and _complex_. The _simple sentence_ expresses a single thought and consists of one subject and one predicate, as, "Man is mortal." A _compound sentence_ consists of two or more simple sentences of equal importance the parts of which are either expressed or understood, as, "The men work in the fields and the women work in the household," or "The men work in the fields and the women in the household" or "The men and women work in the fields and in the household." A _complex sentence_ consists of two or more simple sentences so combined that one depends on the other to complete its meaning; as; "When he returns, I shall go on my vacation." Here the words, "when he returns" are dependent on the rest of the sentence for their meaning. A _clause_ is a separate part of a complex sentence, as "when he returns" in the last example. A _phrase_ consists of two or more words without a finite verb. Without a finite verb we cannot affirm anything or convey an idea, therefore we can have no sentence. Infinitives and participles which are the infinite parts of the verb cannot be predicates. "I looking up the street" is not a sentence, for it is not a complete action expressed. When we hear such an expression as "A dog running along the street," we wait for something more to be added, something more affirmed about the dog, whether he bit or barked or fell dead or was run over. Thus in every sentence there must be a finite verb to limit the subject. When the verb is transitive, that is, when the action cannot happen without affecting something, the thing affected is called the _object_. Thus in "Cain killed Abel" the action of the killing affected Abel. In "The cat has caught a mouse," mouse is the object of the catching. ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE Of course in simple sentences the natural order of arrangement is subject--verb--object. In many cases no other form is possible. Thus in the sentence "The cat has caught a mouse," we cannot reverse it and say "The mouse has caught a cat" without destroying the meaning, and in any other form of arrangement, such as "A mouse, the cat has caught," we feel that while it is intelligible, it is a poor way of expressing the fact and one which jars upon us more or less. In longer sentences, however, when there are more words than what are barely necessary for subject, verb and object, we have greater freedom of arrangement and can so place the words as to give the best effect. The proper placing of words depends upon perspicuity and precision. These two combined give _style_ to the structure. Most people are familiar with Gray's line in the immortal _Elegy_--"The ploughman homeward plods his weary way." This line can be paraphrased to read 18 different ways. Here are a few variations: Homeward the ploughman plods his weary way. The ploughman plods his weary way homeward. Plods homeward the ploughman his weary way. His weary way the ploughman homeward plods. Homeward his weary way plods the ploughman. Plods the ploughman his weary way homeward. His weary way the ploughman plods homeward. His weary way homeward the ploughman plods. The ploughman plods homeward his weary way. The ploughman his weary way plods homeward. and so on. It is doubtful if any of the other forms are superior to the one used by the poet. Of course his arrangement was made to comply with the rhythm and rhyme of the verse. Most of the variations depend upon the emphasis we wish to place upon the different words. In arranging the words in an ordinary sentence we should not lose sight of the fact that the beginning and end are the important places for catching the attention of the reader. Words in these places have greater emphasis than elsewhere. In Gray's line the general meaning conveyed is that a weary ploughman is plodding his way homeward, but according to the arrangement a very slight difference is effected in the idea. Some of the variations make us think more of the ploughman, others more of the plodding, and still others more of the weariness. As the beginning and end of a sentence are the most important places, it naturally follows that small or insignificant words should be kept from these positions. Of the two places the end one is the more important, therefore, it really calls for the most important word in the sentence. Never commence a sentence with _And_, _But_, _Since_, _Because_, and other similar weak words and never end it with prepositions, small, weak adverbs or pronouns. The parts of a sentence which are most closely connected with one another in meaning should be closely connected in order also. By ignoring this principle many sentences are made, if not nonsensical, really ridiculous and ludicrous. For instance: "Ten dollars reward is offered for information of any person injuring this property by order of the owner." "This monument was erected to the memory of John Jones, who was shot by his affectionate brother." In the construction of all sentences the grammatical rules must be inviolably observed. The laws of concord, that is, the agreement of certain words, must be obeyed. (1) The verb agrees with its subject in person and number. "I have," "Thou hast," (the pronoun _thou_ is here used to illustrate the verb form, though it is almost obsolete), "He has," show the variation of the verb to agree with the subject. A singular subject calls for a singular verb, a plural subject demands a verb in the plural; as, "The boy writes," "The boys write." The agreement of a verb and its subject is often destroyed by confusing (1) collective and common nouns; (2) foreign and English nouns; (3) compound and simple subjects; (4) real and apparent subjects. (1) A collective noun is a number of individuals or things regarded as a whole; as, _class regiment_. When the individuals or things are prominently brought forward, use a plural verb; as The class _were_ distinguished for ability. When the idea of the whole as a unit is under consideration employ a singular verb; as The regiment _was_ in camp. (2) It is sometimes hard for the ordinary individual to distinguish the plural from the singular in foreign nouns, therefore, he should be careful in the selection of the verb. He should look up the word and be guided accordingly. "He was an _alumnus_ of Harvard." "They were _alumni_ of Harvard." (3) When a sentence with one verb has two or more subjects denoting different things, connected by _and_, the verb should be plural; as, "Snow and rain _are_ disagreeable." When the subjects denote the same thing and are connected by _or_ the verb should be singular; as, "The man or the woman is to blame." (4) When the same verb has more than one subject of different persons or numbers, it agrees with the most prominent in thought; as, "He, and not you, _is_ wrong." "Whether he or I _am_ to be blamed." (2) Never use the past participle for the past tense nor _vice versa_. This mistake is a very common one. At every turn we hear "He done it" for "He did it." "The jar was broke" instead of broken. "He would have went" for "He would have gone," etc. (3) The use of the verbs _shall_ and _will_ is a rock upon which even the best speakers come to wreck. They are interchanged recklessly. Their significance changes according as they are used with the first, second or third person. With the first person _shall_ is used in direct statement to express a simple future action; as, "I shall go to the city to-morrow." With the second and third persons _shall_ is used to express a determination; as, "You _shall_ go to the city to-morrow," "He _shall_ go to the city to-morrow." With the first person _will_ is used in direct statement to express determination, as, "I will go to the city to-morrow." With the second and third persons _will_ is used to express simple future action; as, "You _will_ go to the city to-morrow," "He _will_ go to the city to-morrow." A very old rule regarding the uses of _shall_ and _will_ is thus expressed in rhyme: In the first person simply _shall_ foretells, In _will_ a threat or else a promise dwells. _Shall_ in the second and third does threat, _Will_ simply then foretells the future feat. (4) Take special care to distinguish between the nominative and objective case. The pronouns are the only words which retain the ancient distinctive case ending for the objective. Remember that the objective case follows transitive verbs and prepositions. Don't say "The boy who I sent to see you," but "The boy whom I sent to see you." _Whom_ is here the object of the transitive verb sent. Don't say "She bowed to him and I" but "She bowed to him and me" since me is the objective case following the preposition _to_ understood. "Between you and I" is a very common expression. It should be "Between you and me" since _between_ is a preposition calling for the objective case. (5) Be careful in the use of the relative pronouns _who_, _which_ and _that_. Who refers only to persons; which only to things; as, "The boy who was drowned," "The umbrella which I lost." The relative _that_ may refer to both persons and things; as, "The man _that_ I saw." "The hat _that_ I bought." (6) Don't use the superlative degree of the adjective for the comparative; as "He is the richest of the two" for "He is the richer of the two." Other mistakes often made in this connection are (1) Using the double comparative and superlative; as, "These apples are much _more_ preferable." "The most universal motive to business is gain." (2) Comparing objects which belong to dissimilar classes; as "There is no nicer _life_ than a _teacher_." (3) Including objects in class to which they do not belong; as, "The fairest of her daughters, Eve." (4) Excluding an object from a class to which it does belong; as, "Caesar was braver than any ancient warrior." (7) Don't use an adjective for an adverb or an adverb for an adjective. Don't say, "He acted nice towards me" but "He acted nicely toward me," and instead of saying "She looked _beautifully_" say "She looked _beautiful_." (8) Place the adverb as near as possible to the word it modifies. Instead of saying, "He walked to the door quickly," say "He walked quickly to the door." (9) Not alone be careful to distinguish between the nominative and objective cases of the pronouns, but try to avoid ambiguity in their use. The amusing effect of disregarding the reference of pronouns is well illustrated by Burton in the following story of Billy Williams, a comic actor who thus narrates his experience in riding a horse owned by Hamblin, the manager: "So down I goes to the stable with Tom Flynn, and told the man to put the saddle on him." "On Tom Flynn?" "No, on the horse. So after talking with Tom Flynn awhile I mounted him." "What! mounted Tom Flynn?" "No, the horse; and then I shook hands with him and rode off." "Shook hands with the horse, Billy?" "No, with Tom Flynn; and then I rode off up the Bowery, and who should I meet but Tom Hamblin; so I got off and told the boy to hold him by the head." "What! hold Hamblin by the head?" "No, the horse; and then we went and had a drink together." "What! you and the horse?" "No, _me_ and Hamblin; and after that I mounted him again and went out of town." "What! mounted Hamblin again?" "No, the horse; and when I got to Burnham, who should be there but Tom Flynn,--he'd taken another horse and rode out ahead of me; so I told the hostler to tie him up." "Tie Tom Flynn up?" "No, the horse; and we had a drink there." "What! you and the horse?" "No, me and Tom Flynn." Finding his auditors by this time in a _horse_ laugh, Billy wound up with: "Now, look here,--every time I say horse, you say Hamblin, and every time I say Hamblin you say horse: I'll be hanged if I tell you any more about it." SENTENCE CLASSIFICATION There are two great classes of sentences according to the general principles upon which they are founded. These are termed the _loose_ and the _periodic_. In the _loose_ sentence the main idea is put first, and then follow several facts in connection with it. Defoe is an author particularly noted for this kind of sentence. He starts out with a leading declaration to which he adds several attendant connections. For instance in the opening of the story of _Robinson Crusoe_ we read: "I was born in the year 1632 in the city of York, of a good family, though not of that country, my father being a foreigner of Bremen, who settled first at Hull; he got a good estate by merchandise, and leaving off his trade lived afterward at York, from whence he had married my mother, whose relations were named Robinson, a very good family in the country and from I was called Robinson Kreutznaer; but by the usual corruption of words in England, we are now called, nay, we call ourselves, and write our name Crusoe, and so my companions always called me." In the periodic sentence the main idea comes last and is preceded by a series of relative introductions. This kind of sentence is often introduced by such words as _that_, _if_, _since_, _because_. The following is an example: "That through his own folly and lack of circumspection he should have been reduced to such circumstances as to be forced to become a beggar on the streets, soliciting alms from those who had formerly been the recipients of his bounty, was a sore humiliation." On account of its name many are liable to think the _loose_ sentence an undesirable form in good composition, but this should not be taken for granted. In many cases it is preferable to the periodic form. As a general rule in speaking, as opposed to writing, the _loose_ form is to be preferred, inasmuch as when the periodic is employed in discourse the listeners are apt to forget the introductory clauses before the final issue is reached. Both kinds are freely used in composition, but in speaking, the _loose_, which makes the direct statement at the beginning, should predominate. As to the length of sentences much depends on the nature of the composition. However the general rule may be laid down that short sentences are preferable to long ones. The tendency of the best writers of the present day is towards short, snappy, pithy sentences which rivet the attention of the reader. They adopt as their motto _multum in parvo_ (much in little) and endeavor to pack a great deal in small space. Of course the extreme of brevity is to be avoided. Sentences can be too short, too jerky, too brittle to withstand the test of criticism. The long sentence has its place and a very important one. It is indispensable in argument and often is very necessary to description and also in introducing general principles which require elaboration. In employing the long sentence the inexperienced writer should not strain after the heavy, ponderous type. Johnson and Carlyle used such a type, but remember, an ordinary mortal cannot wield the sledge hammer of a giant. Johnson and Carlyle were intellectual giants and few can hope to stand on the same literary pedestal. The tyro in composition should never seek after the heavy style. The best of all authors in the English language for style is Addison. Macaulay says: "If you wish a style learned, but not pedantic, elegant but not ostentatious, simple yet refined, you must give your days and nights to the volumes of Joseph Addison." The simplicity, apart from the beauty of Addison's writings causes us to reiterate the literary command--"Never use a big word when a little one will convey the same or a similar meaning." Macaulay himself is an elegant stylist to imitate. He is like a clear brook kissed by the noon-day sun in the shining bed of which you can see and count the beautiful white pebbles. Goldsmith is another writer whose simplicity of style charms. The beginner should study these writers, make their works his _vade mecum_, they have stood the test of time and there has been no improvement upon them yet, nor is there likely to be, for their writing is as perfect as it is possible to be in the English language. Apart from their grammatical construction there can be no fixed rules for the formation of sentences. The best plan is to follow the best authors and these masters of language will guide you safely along the way. THE PARAGRAPH The paragraph may be defined as a group of sentences that are closely related in thought and which serve one common purpose. Not only do they preserve the sequence of the different parts into which a composition is divided, but they give a certain spice to the matter like raisins in a plum pudding. A solid page of printed matter is distasteful to the reader; it taxes the eye and tends towards the weariness of monotony, but when it is broken up into sections it loses much of its heaviness and the consequent lightness gives it charm, as it were, to capture the reader. Paragraphs are like stepping-stones on the bed of a shallow river, which enable the foot passenger to skip with ease from one to the other until he gets across; but if the stones are placed too far apart in attempting to span the distance one is liable to miss the mark and fall in the water and flounder about until he is again able to get a foothold. 'Tis the same with written language, the reader by means of paragraphs can easily pass from one portion of connected thought to another and keep up his interest in the subject until he gets to the end. Throughout the paragraph there must be some connection in regard to the matter under consideration,--a sentence dependency. For instance, in the same paragraph we must not speak of a house on fire and a runaway horse unless there is some connection between the two. We must not write consecutively: "The fire raged with fierce intensity, consuming the greater part of the large building in a short time." "The horse took fright and wildly dashed down the street scattering pedestrians in all directions." These two sentences have no connection and therefore should occupy separate and distinct places. But when we say--"The fire raged with fierce intensity consuming the greater part of the large building in a short time and the horse taking fright at the flames dashed wildly down the street scattering pedestrians in all directions,"--there is a natural sequence, viz., the horse taking fright as a consequence of the flames and hence the two expressions are combined in one paragraph. As in the case of words in sentences, the most important places in a paragraph are the beginning and the end. Accordingly the first sentence and the last should by virtue of their structure and nervous force, compel the reader's attention. It is usually advisable to make the first sentence short; the last sentence may be long or short, but in either case should be forcible. The object of the first sentence is to state a point _clearly_; the last sentence should _enforce_ it. It is a custom of good writers to make the conclusion of the paragraph a restatement or counterpart or application of the opening. In most cases a paragraph may be regarded as the elaboration of the principal sentence. The leading thought or idea can be taken as a nucleus and around it constructed the different parts of the paragraph. Anyone can make a context for every simple sentence by asking himself questions in reference to the sentence. Thus--"The foreman gave the order"-- suggests at once several questions; "What was the order?" "to whom did he give it?" "why did he give it?" "what was the result?" etc. These questions when answered will depend upon the leading one and be an elaboration of it into a complete paragraph. If we examine any good paragraph we shall find it made up of a number of items, each of which helps to illustrate, confirm or enforce the general thought or purpose of the paragraph. Also the transition from each item to the next is easy, natural and obvious; the items seem to come of themselves. If, on the other hand, we detect in a paragraph one or more items which have no direct bearing, or if we are unable to proceed readily from item to item, especially if we are obliged to rearrange the items before we can perceive their full significance, then we are justified in pronouncing the paragraph construction faulty. No specific rules can be given as to the construction of paragraphs. The best advice is,--Study closely the paragraph structure of the best writers, for it is only through imitation, conscious or unconscious of the best models, that one can master the art. The best paragraphist in the English language for the essay is Macaulay, the best model to follow for the oratorical style is Edmund Burke and for description and narration probably the greatest master of paragraph is the American Goldsmith, Washington Irving. A paragraph is indicated in print by what is known as the indentation of the line, that is, by commencing it a space from the left margin. CHAPTER IV FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE Figures of Speech--Definitions and Examples--Use of Figures In _Figurative Language_ we employ words in such a way that they differ somewhat from their ordinary signification in commonplace speech and convey our meaning in a more vivid and impressive manner than when we use them in their every-day sense. Figures make speech more effective, they beautify and emphasize it and give to it a relish and piquancy as salt does to food; besides they add energy and force to expression so that it irresistibly compels attention and interest. There are four kinds of figures, viz.: (1) Figures of Orthography which change the spelling of a word; (2) Figures of Etymology which change the form of words; (3) Figures of Syntax which change the construction of sentences; (4) Figures of Rhetoric or the art of speaking and writing effectively which change the mode of thought. We shall only consider the last mentioned here as they are the most important, really giving to language the construction and style which make it a fitting medium for the intercommunication of ideas. Figures of Rhetoric have been variously classified, some authorities extending the list to a useless length. The fact is that any form of expression which conveys thought may be classified as a Figure. The principal figures as well as the most important and those oftenest used are, _Simile, Metaphor, Personification, Allegory, Synechdoche, Metonymy, Exclamation, Hyperbole, Apostrophe, Vision, Antithesis, Climax, Epigram, Interrogation_ and _Irony_. The first four are founded on _resemblance_, the second six on _contiguity_ and the third five, on _contrast_. A _Simile_ (from the Latin _similis_, like), is the likening of one thing to another, a statement of the resemblance of objects, acts, or relations; as "In his awful anger he was _like_ the storm-driven waves dashing against the rock." A simile makes the principal object plainer and impresses it more forcibly on the mind. "His memory is like wax to receive impressions and like marble to retain them." This brings out the leading idea as to the man's memory in a very forceful manner. Contrast it with the simple statement--"His memory is good." Sometimes _Simile_ is prostituted to a low and degrading use; as "His face was like a danger signal in a fog storm." "Her hair was like a furze-bush in bloom." "He was to his lady love as a poodle to its mistress." Such burlesque is never permissible. Mere _likeness_, it should be remembered, does not constitute a simile. For instance there is no simile when one city is compared to another. In order that there may be a rhetorical simile, the objects compared must be of different classes. Avoid the old _trite_ similes such as comparing a hero to a lion. Such were played out long ago. And don't hunt for farfetched similes. Don't say--"Her head was glowing as the glorious god of day when he sets in a flambeau of splendor behind the purple-tinted hills of the West." It is much better to do without such a simile and simply say--"She had fiery red hair." A _Metaphor_ (from the Greek _metapherein_, to carry over or transfer), is a word used to _imply_ a resemblance but instead of likening one object to another as in the _simile_ we directly substitute the action or operation of one for another. If, of a religious man we say,--"He is as a great pillar upholding the church," the expression is a _simile_, but if we say--"He is a great pillar upholding the church" it is a metaphor. The metaphor is a bolder and more lively figure than the simile. It is more like a picture and hence, the graphic use of metaphor is called "word-painting." It enables us to give to the most abstract ideas form, color and life. Our language is full of metaphors, and we very often use them quite unconsciously. For instance, when we speak of the _bed_ of a river, the _shoulder_ of a hill, the _foot_ of a mountain, the _hands_ of a clock, the _key_ of a situation, we are using metaphors. Don't use mixed metaphors, that is, different metaphors in relation to the same subject: "Since it was launched our project has met with much opposition, but while its flight has not reached the heights ambitioned, we are yet sanguine we shall drive it to success." Here our project begins as a _ship_, then becomes a _bird_ and finally winds up as a _horse_. _Personification_ (from the Latin _persona_, person, and _facere_, to make) is the treating of an inanimate object as if it were animate and is probably the most beautiful and effective of all the figures. "The mountains _sing_ together, the hills _rejoice_ and _clap_ their hands." "Earth _felt_ the wound; and Nature from her seat, _Sighing_, through all her works, gave signs of woe." Personification depends much on a vivid imagination and is adapted especially to poetical composition. It has two distinguishable forms: (1) when personality is ascribed to the inanimate as in the foregoing examples, and (2) when some quality of life is attributed to the inanimate; as, a _raging_ storm; an _angry_ sea; a _whistling_ wind, etc. An _Allegory_ (from the Greek _allos_, other, and _agoreuein_, to speak), is a form of expression in which the words are symbolical of something. It is very closely allied to the metaphor, in fact is a continued metaphor. _Allegory_, _metaphor_ and _simile_ have three points in common,--they are all founded on resemblance. "Ireland is like a thorn in the side of England;" this is simile. "Ireland _is_ a thorn in the side of England;" this is metaphor. "Once a great giant sprang up out of the sea and lived on an island all by himself. On looking around he discovered a little girl on another small island near by. He thought the little girl could be useful to him in many ways so he determined to make her subservient to his will. He commanded her, but she refused to obey, then he resorted to very harsh measures with the little girl, but she still remained obstinate and obdurate. He continued to oppress her until finally she rebelled and became as a thorn in his side to prick him for his evil attitude towards her;" this is an allegory in which the giant plainly represents England and the little girl, Ireland; the implication is manifest though no mention is made of either country. Strange to say the most perfect allegory in the English language was written by an almost illiterate and ignorant man, and written too, in a dungeon cell. In the "Pilgrim's Progress," Bunyan, the itinerant tinker, has given us by far the best allegory ever penned. Another good one is "The Faerie Queen" by Edmund Spenser. _Synecdoche_ (from the Greek, _sun_ with, and _ekdexesthai_, to receive), is a figure of speech which expresses either more or less than it literally denotes. By it we give to an object a name which literally expresses something more or something less than we intend. Thus: we speak of the world when we mean only a very limited number of the people who compose the world: as, "The world treated him badly." Here we use the whole for a part. But the most common form of this figure is that in which a part is used for the whole; as, "I have twenty head of cattle," "One of his _hands_ was assassinated," meaning one of his men. "Twenty _sail_ came into the harbor," meaning twenty ships. "This is a fine marble," meaning a marble statue. _Metonymy_ (from the Greek _meta_, change, and _onyma_, a name) is the designation of an object by one of its accompaniments, in other words, it is a figure by which the name of one object is put for another when the two are so related that the mention of one readily suggests the other. Thus when we say of a drunkard--"He loves the bottle" we do not mean that he loves the glass receptacle, but the liquor that it is supposed to contain. Metonymy, generally speaking, has, three subdivisions: (1) when an effect is put for cause or _vice versa_: as "_Gray hairs_ should be respected," meaning old age. "He writes a fine hand," that is, handwriting. (2) when the _sign_ is put for the _thing signified_; as, "The pen is mightier than the sword," meaning literary power is superior to military force. (3) When the _container_ is put for the thing contained; as "The _House_ was called to order," meaning the members in the House. _Exclamation_ (from the Latin _ex_, out, and _clamare_, to cry), is a figure by which the speaker instead of stating a fact, simply utters an expression of surprise or emotion. For instance when he hears some harrowing tale of woe or misfortune instead of saying,--"It is a sad story" he exclaims "What a sad story!" Exclamation may be defined as the vocal expression of feeling, though it is also applied to written forms which are intended to express emotion. Thus in describing a towering mountain we can write "Heavens, what a piece of Nature's handiwork! how majestic! how sublime! how awe-inspiring in its colossal impressiveness!" This figure rather belongs to poetry and animated oratory than to the cold prose of every-day conversation and writing. _Hyperbole_ (from the Greek _hyper_, beyond, and _ballein_, to throw), is an exaggerated form of statement and simply consists in representing things to be either greater or less, better or worse than they really are. Its object is to make the thought more effective by overstating it. Here are some examples:--"He was so tall his head touched the clouds." "He was as thin as a poker." "He was so light that a breath might have blown him away." Most people are liable to overwork this figure. We are all more or less given to exaggeration and some of us do not stop there, but proceed onward to falsehood and downright lying. There should be a limit to hyperbole, and in ordinary speech and writing it should be well qualified and kept within reasonable bounds. An _Apostrophe_ (from the Greek _apo_, from, and _strephein_, to turn), is a direct address to the absent as present, to the inanimate as living, or to the abstract as personal. Thus: "O, illustrious Washington! Father of our Country! Could you visit us now!" "My Country tis of thee-- Sweet land of liberty, Of thee I sing." "O! Grave, where is thy Victory, O! Death where is thy sting!" This figure is very closely allied to Personification. _Vision_ (from the Latin _videre_, to see) consists in treating the past, the future, or the remote as if present in time or place. It is appropriate to animated description, as it produces the effect of an ideal presence. "The old warrior looks down from the canvas and tells us to be men worthy of our sires." This figure is much exemplified in the Bible. The book of Revelation is a vision of the future. The author who uses the figure most is Carlyle. An _Antithesis_ (from the Greek _anti_, against, and _tithenai_, to set) is founded on contrast; it consists in putting two unlike things in such a position that each will appear more striking by the contrast. "Ring out the old, ring in the new, Ring out the false, ring in the true." "Let us be _friends_ in peace, but _enemies_ in war." Here is a fine antithesis in the description of a steam engine--"It can engrave a seal and crush masses of obdurate metal before it; draw out, without breaking, a thread as fine as a gossamer; and lift up a ship of war like a bauble in the air; it can embroider muslin and forge anchors; cut steel into ribands, and impel loaded vessels against the fury of winds and waves." _Climax_ (from the Greek, _klimax_, a ladder), is an arrangement of thoughts and ideas in a series, each part of which gets stronger and more impressive until the last one, which emphasizes the force of all the preceding ones. "He risked truth, he risked honor, he risked fame, he risked all that men hold dear,--yea, he risked life itself, and for what?--for a creature who was not worthy to tie his shoe-latchets when he was his better self." _Epigram_ (from the Greek _epi_, upon, and _graphein_, to write), originally meant an inscription on a monument, hence it came to signify any pointed expression. It now means a statement or any brief saying in prose or poetry in which there is an apparent contradiction; as, "Conspicuous for his absence." "Beauty when unadorned is most adorned." "He was too foolish to commit folly." "He was so wealthy that he could not spare the money." _Interrogation_ (from the Latin _interrogatio_, a question), is a figure of speech in which an assertion is made by asking a question; as, "Does God not show justice to all?" "Is he not doing right in his course?" "What can a man do under the circumstances?" _Irony_ (from the Greek _eironcia_, dissimulation) is a form of expression in which the opposite is substituted for what is intended, with the end in view, that the falsity or absurdity may be apparent; as, "Benedict Arnold was an _honorable_ man." "A Judas Iscariot never _betrays_ a friend." "You can always _depend_ upon the word of a liar." Irony is cousin germain to _ridicule_, _derision_, _mockery_, _satire_ and _sarcasm_. _Ridicule_ implies laughter mingled with contempt; _derision_ is ridicule from a personal feeling of hostility; _mockery_ is insulting derision; _satire_ is witty mockery; _sarcasm_ is bitter satire and _irony_ is disguised satire. There are many other figures of speech which give piquancy to language and play upon words in such a way as to convey a meaning different from their ordinary signification in common every-day speech and writing. The golden rule for all is to _keep them in harmony with the character and purpose of speech and composition_. CHAPTER V PUNCTUATION Principal Points--Illustrations--Capital Letters. Lindley Murray and Goold Brown laid down cast-iron rules for punctuation, but most of them have been broken long since and thrown into the junk-heap of disuse. They were too rigid, too strict, went so much into _minutiae_, that they were more or less impractical to apply to ordinary composition. The manner of language, of style and of expression has considerably changed since then, the old abstruse complex sentence with its hidden meanings has been relegated to the shade, there is little of prolixity or long-drawn-out phrases, ambiguity of expression is avoided and the aim is toward terseness, brevity and clearness. Therefore, punctuation has been greatly simplified, to such an extent indeed, that it is now as much a matter of good taste and judgment as adherence to any fixed set of rules. Nevertheless there are laws governing it which cannot be abrogated, their principles must be rigidly and inviolably observed. The chief end of punctuation is to mark the grammatical connection and the dependence of the parts of a composition, but not the actual pauses made in speaking. Very often the points used to denote the delivery of a passage differ from those used when the passage is written. Nevertheless, several of the punctuation marks serve to bring out the rhetorical force of expression. The principal marks of punctuation are: 1. The Comma [,] 2. The Semicolon [;] 3. The Colon [:] 4. The Period [.] 5. The Interrogation [?] 6. The Exclamation [!] 7. The Dash [--] 8. The Parenthesis [()] 9. The Quotation [" "] There are several other points or marks to indicate various relations, but properly speaking such come under the heading of Printer's Marks, some of which are treated elsewhere. Of the above, the first four may be styled the grammatical points, and the remaining five, the rhetorical points. The _Comma_: The office of the Comma is to show the slightest separation which calls for punctuation at all. It should be omitted whenever possible. It is used to mark the least divisions of a sentence. (1) A series of words or phrases has its parts separated by commas:-- "Lying, trickery, chicanery, perjury, were natural to him." "The brave, daring, faithful soldier died facing the foe." If the series is in pairs, commas separate the pairs: "Rich and poor, learned and unlearned, black and white, Christian and Jew, Mohammedan and Buddhist must pass through the same gate." (2) A comma is used before a short quotation: "It was Patrick Henry who said, 'Give me liberty or give me death.'" (3) When the subject of the sentence is a clause or a long phrase, a comma is used after such subject: "That he has no reverence for the God I love, proves his insincerity." "Simulated piety, with a black coat and a sanctimonious look, does not proclaim a Christian." (4) An expression used parenthetically should be inclosed by commas: "The old man, as a general rule, takes a morning walk." (5) Words in apposition are set off by commas: "McKinley, the President, was assassinated." (6) Relative clauses, if not restrictive, require commas: "The book, which is the simplest, is often the most profound." (7) In continued sentences each should be followed by a comma: "Electricity lights our dwellings and streets, pulls cars, trains, drives the engines of our mills and factories." (8) When a verb is omitted a comma takes its place: "Lincoln was a great statesman; Grant, a great soldier." (9) The subject of address is followed by a comma: "John, you are a good man." (10) In numeration, commas are used to express periods of three figures: "Mountains 25,000 feet high; 1,000,000 dollars." The _Semicolon_ marks a slighter connection than the comma. It is generally confined to separating the parts of compound sentences. It is much used in contrasts: (1) "Gladstone was great as a statesman; he was sublime as a man." (2) The Semicolon is used between the parts of all compound sentences in which the grammatical subject of the second part is different from that of the first: "The power of England relies upon the wisdom of her statesmen; the power of America upon the strength of her army and navy." (4) The Semicolon is used before words and abbreviations which introduce particulars or specifications following after, such as, _namely, as, e.g., vid., i.e., etc._: "He had three defects; namely, carelessness, lack of concentration and obstinacy in his ideas." "An island is a portion of land entirely surrounded by water; as Cuba." "The names of cities should always commence with a capital letter; _e.g._, New York, Paris." "The boy was proficient in one branch; viz., Mathematics." "No man is perfect; i.e., free from all blemish." The _Colon_ except in conventional uses is practically obsolete. (1) It is generally put at the end of a sentence introducing a long quotation: "The cheers having subsided, Mr. Bryan spoke as follows:" (2) It is placed before an explanation or illustration of the subject under consideration: "This is the meaning of the term:" (3) A direct quotation formally introduced is generally preceded by a colon: "The great orator made this funny remark:" (4) The colon is often used in the title of books when the secondary or subtitle is in apposition to the leading one and when the conjunction _or_ is omitted: "Acoustics: the Science of Sound." (5) It is used after the salutation in the beginning of letters: "Sir: My dear Sir: Gentlemen: Dear Mr. Jones:" etc. In this connection a dash very often follows the colon. (6) It is sometimes used to introduce details of a group of things already referred to in the mass: "The boy's excuses for being late were: firstly, he did not know the time, secondly, he was sent on an errand, thirdly, he tripped on a rock and fell by the wayside." The _Period_ is the simplest punctuation mark. It is simply used to mark the end of a complete sentence that is neither interrogative nor exclamatory. (1) After every sentence conveying a complete meaning: "Birds fly." "Plants grow." "Man is mortal." (2) In abbreviations: after every abbreviated word: Rt. Rev. T. C. Alexander, D.D., L.L.D. (3) A period is used on the title pages of books after the name of the book, after the author's name, after the publisher's imprint: _American Trails_. By Theodore Roosevelt. New York. Scribner Company. The _Mark of Interrogation_ is used to ask or suggest a question. (1) Every question admitting of an answer, even when it is not expected, should be followed by the mark of interrogation: "Who has not heard of Napoleon?" (2) When several questions have a common dependence they should be followed by one mark of interrogation at the end of the series: "Where now are the playthings and friends of my boyhood; the laughing boys; the winsome girls; the fond neighbors whom I loved?" (3) The mark is often used parenthetically to suggest doubt: "In 1893 (?) Gladstone became converted to Home Rule for Ireland." The _Exclamation_ point should be sparingly used, particularly in prose. Its chief use is to denote emotion of some kind. (1) It is generally employed with interjections or clauses used as interjections: "Alas! I am forsaken." "What a lovely landscape!" (2) Expressions of strong emotion call for the exclamation: "Charge, Chester, charge! On, Stanley, on!" (3) When the emotion is very strong double exclamation points may be used: "Assist him!! I would rather assist Satan!!" The _Dash_ is generally confined to cases where there is a sudden break from the general run of the passage. Of all the punctuation marks it is the most misused. (1) It is employed to denote sudden change in the construction or sentiment: "The Heroes of the Civil War,--how we cherish them." "He was a fine fellow--in his own opinion." (2) When a word or expression is repeated for oratorical effect, a dash is used to introduce the repetition: "Shakespeare was the greatest of all poets--Shakespeare, the intellectual ocean whose waves washed the continents of all thought." (3) The Dash is used to indicate a conclusion without expressing it: "He is an excellent man but--" (4) It is used to indicate what is not expected or what is not the natural outcome of what has gone before: "He delved deep into the bowels of the earth and found instead of the hidden treasure--a button." (5) It is used to denote the omission of letters or figures: "J--n J--s" for John Jones; 1908-9 for 1908 and 1909; Matthew VII:5-8 for Matthew VII:5, 6, 7, and 8. (6) When an ellipsis of the words, _namely, that is, to wit_, etc., takes place, the dash is used to supply them: "He excelled in three branches-- arithmetic, algebra, and geometry." (7) A dash is used to denote the omission of part of a word when it is undesirable to write the full word: He is somewhat of a r----l (rascal). This is especially the case in profane words. (8) Between a citation and the authority for it there is generally a dash: "All the world's a stage."--_Shakespeare_. (9) When questions and answers are put in the same paragraph they should be separated by dashes: "Are you a good boy? Yes, Sir.--Do you love study? I do." _Marks of Parenthesis_ are used to separate expressions inserted in the body of a sentence, which are illustrative of the meaning, but have no essential connection with the sentence, and could be done without. They should be used as little as possible for they show that something is being brought into a sentence that does not belong to it. (1) When the unity of a sentence is broken the words causing the break should be enclosed in parenthesis: "We cannot believe a liar (and Jones is one), even when he speaks the truth." (2) In reports of speeches marks of parenthesis are used to denote interpolations of approval or disapproval by the audience: "The masses must not submit to the tyranny of the classes (hear, hear), we must show the trust magnates (groans), that they cannot ride rough-shod over our dearest rights (cheers);" "If the gentleman from Ohio (Mr. Brown), will not be our spokesman, we must select another. (A voice,--Get Robinson)." When a parenthesis is inserted in the sentence where no comma is required, no point should be used before either parenthesis. When inserted at a place requiring a comma, if the parenthetical matter relates to the whole sentence, a comma should be used before each parenthesis; if it relates to a single word, or short clause, no stop should come before it, but a comma should be put after the closing parenthesis. The _Quotation marks_ are used to show that the words enclosed by them are borrowed. (1) A direct quotation should be enclosed within the quotation marks: Abraham Lincoln said,--"I shall make this land too hot for the feet of slaves." (2) When a quotation is embraced within another, the contained quotation has only single marks: Franklin said, "Most men come to believe 'honesty is the best policy.'" (3) When a quotation consists of several paragraphs the quotation marks should precede each paragraph. (4) Titles of books, pictures and newspapers when formally given are quoted. (5) Often the names of ships are quoted though there is no occasion for it. The _Apostrophe_ should come under the comma rather than under the quotation marks or double comma. The word is Greek and signifies a turning away from. The letter elided or turned away is generally an _e_. In poetry and familiar dialogue the apostrophe marks the elision of a syllable, as "I've for I have"; "Thou'rt for thou art"; "you'll for you will," etc. Sometimes it is necessary to abbreviate a word by leaving out several letters. In such case the apostrophe takes the place of the omitted letters as "cont'd for continued." The apostrophe is used to denote the elision of the century in dates, where the century is understood or to save the repetition of a series of figures, as "The Spirit of '76"; "I served in the army during the years 1895, '96, '97, '98 and '99." The principal use of the apostrophe is to denote the possessive case. All nouns in the singular number whether proper names or not, and all nouns in the plural ending with any other letter than _s_, form the possessive by the addition of the apostrophe and the letter _s_. The only exceptions to this rule are, that, by poetical license the additional _s_ may be elided in poetry for sake of the metre, and in the scriptural phrases "For goodness' sake." "For conscience' sake," "For Jesus' sake," etc. Custom has done away with the _s_ and these phrases are now idioms of the language. All plural nouns ending in _s_ form the possessive by the addition of the apostrophe only as boys', horses'. The possessive case of the personal pronouns never take the apostrophe, as ours, yours, hers, theirs. CAPITAL LETTERS _Capital letters_ are used to give emphasis to or call attention to certain words to distinguish them from the context. In manuscripts they may be written small or large and are indicated by lines drawn underneath, two lines for SMALL CAPITALS and three lines for CAPITALS. Some authors, notably Carlyle, make such use of Capitals that it degenerates into an abuse. They should only be used in their proper places as given in the table below. (1) The first word of every sentence, in fact the first word in writing of any kind should begin with a capital; as, "Time flies." "My dear friend." (2) Every direct quotation should begin with a capital; "Dewey said,-- 'Fire, when you're ready, Gridley!'" (3) Every direct question commences with a capital; "Let me ask you; 'How old are you?'" (4) Every line of poetry begins with a capital; "Breathes there a man with soul so dead?" (5) Every numbered clause calls for a capital: "The witness asserts: (1) That he saw the man attacked; (2) That he saw him fall; (3) That he saw his assailant flee." (6) The headings of essays and chapters should be wholly in capitals; as, CHAPTER VIII--RULES FOR USE OF CAPITALS. (7) In the titles of books, nouns, pronouns, adjectives and adverbs should begin with a capital; as, "Johnson's Lives of the Poets." (8) In the Roman notation numbers are denoted by capitals; as, I II III V X L C D M--1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500, 1000. (9) Proper names begin with a capital; as, "Jones, Johnson, Caesar, Mark Antony, England, Pacific, Christmas." Such words as river, sea, mountain, etc., when used generally are common, not proper nouns, and require no capital. But when such are used with an adjective or adjunct to specify a particular object they become proper names, and therefore require a capital; as, "Mississippi River, North Sea, Alleghany Mountains," etc. In like manner the cardinal points north, south, east and west, when they are used to distinguish regions of a country are capitals; as, "The North fought against the South." When a proper name is compounded with another word, the part which is not a proper name begins with a capital if it precedes, but with a small letter if it follows, the hyphen; as "Post-homeric," "Sunday-school." (10) Words derived from proper names require a Capital; as, "American, Irish, Christian, Americanize, Christianize." In this connection the names of political parties, religious sects and schools of thought begin with capitals; as, "Republican, Democrat, Whig, Catholic, Presbyterian, Rationalists, Free Thinkers." (11) The titles of honorable, state and political offices begin with a capital; as, "President, Chairman, Governor, Alderman." (12) The abbreviations of learned titles and college degrees call for capitals; as, "LL.D., M.A., B.S.," etc. Also the seats of learning conferring such degrees as, "Harvard University, Manhattan College," etc. (13) When such relative words as father, mother, brother, sister, uncle, aunt, etc., precede a proper name, they are written and printed with capitals; as, Father Abraham, Mother Eddy, Brother John, Sister Jane, Uncle Jacob, Aunt Eliza. Father, when used to denote the early Christian writer, is begun with a capital; "Augustine was one of the learned Fathers of the Church." (14) The names applied to the Supreme Being begin with capitals: "God, Lord, Creator, Providence, Almighty, The Deity, Heavenly Father, Holy One." In this respect the names applied to the Saviour also require capitals: "Jesus Christ, Son of God, Man of Galilee, The Crucified, The Anointed One." Also the designations of Biblical characters as "Lily of Israel, Rose of Sharon, Comfortress of the Afflicted, Help of Christians, Prince of the Apostles, Star of the Sea," etc. Pronouns referring to God and Christ take capitals; as, "His work, The work of Him, etc." (15) Expressions used to designate the Bible or any particular division of it begin with a capital; as, "Holy Writ, The Sacred Book, Holy Book, God's Word, Old Testament, New Testament, Gospel of St. Matthew, Seven Penitential Psalms." (16) Expressions based upon the Bible or in reference to Biblical characters begin with a capital: "Water of Life, Hope of Men, Help of Christians, Scourge of Nations." (17) The names applied to the Evil One require capitals: "Beelzebub, Prince of Darkness, Satan, King of Hell, Devil, Incarnate Fiend, Tempter of Men, Father of Lies, Hater of Good." (18) Words of very special importance, especially those which stand out as the names of leading events in history, have capitals; as, "The Revolution, The Civil War, The Middle Ages, The Age of Iron," etc. (19) Terms which refer to great events in the history of the race require capitals; "The Flood, Magna Charta, Declaration of Independence." (20) The names of the days of the week and the months of the year and the seasons are commenced with capitals: "Monday, March, Autumn." (21) The Pronoun _I_ and the interjection _O_ always require the use of capitals. In fact all the interjections when uttered as exclamations commence with capitals: "Alas! he is gone." "Ah! I pitied him." (22) All _noms-de-guerre_, assumed names, as well as names given for distinction, call for capitals, as, "The Wizard of the North," "Paul Pry," "The Northern Gael," "Sandy Sanderson," "Poor Robin," etc. (23) In personification, that is, when inanimate things are represented as endowed with life and action, the noun or object personified begins with a capital; as, "The starry Night shook the dews from her wings." "Mild-eyed Day appeared," "The Oak said to the Beech--'I am stronger than you.'" CHAPTER VI LETTER WRITING Principles of Letter-Writing--Forms--Notes Many people seem to regard letter-writing as a very simple and easily acquired branch, but on the contrary it is one of the most difficult forms of composition and requires much patience and labor to master its details. In fact there are very few perfect letter-writers in the language. It constitutes the direct form of speech and may be called conversation at a distance. Its forms are so varied by every conceivable topic written at all times by all kinds of persons in all kinds of moods and tempers and addressed to all kinds of persons of varying degrees in society and of different pursuits in life, that no fixed rules can be laid down to regulate its length, style or subject matter. Only general suggestions can be made in regard to scope and purpose, and the forms of indicting set forth which custom and precedent have sanctioned. The principles of letter-writing should be understood by everybody who has any knowledge of written language, for almost everybody at some time or other has necessity to address some friend or acquaintance at a distance, whereas comparatively few are called upon to direct their efforts towards any other kind of composition. Formerly the illiterate countryman, when he had occasion to communicate with friends or relations, called in the peripatetic schoolmaster as his amanuensis, but this had one draw-back,--secrets had to be poured into an ear other than that for which they were intended, and often the confidence was betrayed. Now, that education is abroad in the land, there is seldom any occasion for any person to call upon the service of another to compose and write a personal letter. Very few now-a-days are so grossly illiterate as not to be able to read and write. No matter how crude his effort may be it is better for any one to write his own letters than trust to another. Even if he should commence,--"deer fren, i lift up my pen to let ye no that i hove been sik for the past 3 weeks, hopping this will findye the same," his spelling and construction can be excused in view of the fact that his intention is good, and that he is doing his best to serve his own turn without depending upon others. The nature, substance and tone of any letter depend upon the occasion that calls it forth, upon the person writing it and upon the person for whom it is intended. Whether it should be easy or formal in style, plain or ornate, light or serious, gay or grave, sentimental or matter-of-fact depend upon these three circumstances. In letter writing the first and most important requisites are to be natural and simple; there should be no straining after effect, but simply a spontaneous out-pouring of thoughts and ideas as they naturally occur to the writer. We are repelled by a person who is stiff and labored in his conversation and in the same way the stiff and labored letter bores the reader. Whereas if it is light and in a conversational vein it immediately engages his attention. The letter which is written with the greatest facility is the best kind of letter because it naturally expresses what is in the writer, he has not to search for his words, they flow in a perfect unison with the ideas he desires to communicate. When you write to your friend John Browne to tell him how you spent Sunday you have not to look around for the words, or study set phrases with a view to please or impress Browne, you just tell him the same as if he were present before you, how you spent the day, where you were, with whom you associated and the chief incidents that occurred during the time. Thus, you write natural and it is such writing that is adapted to epistolary correspondence. There are different kinds of letters, each calling for a different style of address and composition, nevertheless the natural key should be maintained in all, that is to say, the writer should never attempt to convey an impression that he is other than what he is. It would be silly as well as vain for the common street laborer of a limited education to try to put on literary airs and emulate a college professor; he may have as good a brain, but it is not as well developed by education, and he lacks the polish which society confers. When writing a letter the street laborer should bear in mind that only the letter of a street-laborer is expected from him, no matter to whom his communication may be addressed and that neither the grammar nor the diction of a Chesterfield or Gladstone is looked for in his language. Still the writer should keep in mind the person to whom he is writing. If it is to an Archbishop or some other great dignitary of Church or state it certainly should be couched in terms different from those he uses to John Browne, his intimate friend. Just as he cannot say "Dear John" to an Archbishop, no more can he address him in the familiar words he uses to his friend of everyday acquaintance and companionship. Yet there is no great learning required to write to an Archbishop, no more than to an ordinary individual. All the laborer needs to know is the form of address and how to properly utilize his limited vocabulary to the best advantage. Here is the form for such a letter: 17 Second Avenue, New York City. January 1st, 1910. Most Rev. P. A. Jordan, Archbishop of New York. Most Rev. and dear Sir:-- While sweeping the crossing at Fifth Avenue and 50th street on last Wednesday morning, I found the enclosed Fifty Dollar Bill, which I am sending to you in the hope that it may be restored to the rightful owner. I beg you will acknowledge receipt and should the owner be found I trust you will notify me, so that I may claim some reward for my honesty. I am, Most Rev. and dear Sir, Very respectfully yours, Thomas Jones. Observe the brevity of the letter. Jones makes no suggestions to the Archbishop how to find the owner, for he knows the course the Archbishop will adopt, of having the finding of the bill announced from the Church pulpits. Could Jones himself find the owner there would be no occasion to apply to the Archbishop. This letter, it is true, is different from that which he would send to Browne. Nevertheless it is simple without being familiar, is just a plain statement, and is as much to the point for its purpose as if it were garnished with rhetoric and "words of learned length and thundering sound." Letters may be divided into those of friendship, acquaintanceship, those of business relations, those written in an official capacity by public servants, those designed to teach, and those which give accounts of the daily happenings on the stage of life, in other words, news letters. _Letters of friendship_ are the most common and their style and form depend upon the degree of relationship and intimacy existing between the writers and those addressed. Between relatives and intimate friends the beginning and end may be in the most familiar form of conversation, either affectionate or playful. They should, however, never overstep the boundaries of decency and propriety, for it is well to remember that, unlike conversation, which only is heard by the ears for which it is intended, written words may come under eyes other than those for whom they were designed. Therefore, it is well never to write anything which the world may not read without detriment to your character or your instincts. You can be joyful, playful, jocose, give vent to your feelings, but never stoop to low language and, above all, to language savoring in the slightest degree of moral impropriety. _Business letters_ are of the utmost importance on account of the interests involved. The business character of a man or of a firm is often judged by the correspondence. On many occasions letters instead of developing trade and business interests and gaining clientele, predispose people unfavorably towards those whom they are designed to benefit. Ambiguous, slip-shod language is a detriment to success. Business letters should be clear, concise, to the point and, above all, honest, giving no wrong impressions or holding out any inducements that cannot be fulfilled. In business letters, just as in business conduct, honesty is always the best policy. _Official letters_ are mostly always formal. They should possess clearness, brevity and dignity of tone to impress the receivers with the proper respect for the national laws and institutions. Letters designed to teach or _didactic letters_ are in a class all by themselves. They are simply literature in the form of letters and are employed by some of the best writers to give their thoughts and ideas a greater emphasis. The most conspicuous example of this kind of composition is the book on Etiquette by Lord Chesterfield, which took the form of a series of letters to his son. _News letters_ are accounts of world happenings and descriptions of ceremonies and events sent into the newspapers. Some of the best authors of our time are newspaper men who write in an easy flowing style which is most readable, full of humor and fancy and which carries one along with breathless interest from beginning to end. The principal parts of a letter are (1) the _heading_ or introduction; (2) the _body_ or substance of the letter; (3) the _subscription_ or closing expression and signature; (4) the _address_ or direction on the envelope. For the _body_ of a letter no forms or rules can be laid down as it altogether depends on the nature of the letter and the relationship between the writer and the person addressed. There are certain rules which govern the other three features and which custom has sanctioned. Every one should be acquainted with these rules. THE HEADING The _Heading_ has three parts, viz., the name of the place, the date of writing and the designation of the person or persons addressed; thus: 73 New Street, Newark, N. J., February 1st, 1910. Messr. Ginn and Co., New York Gentlemen: The name of the place should never be omitted; in cities, street and number should always be given, and except when the city is large and very conspicuous, so that there can be no question as to its identity with another of the same or similar name, the abbreviation of the State should be appended, as in the above, Newark, N. J. There is another Newark in the State of Ohio. Owing to failure to comply with this rule many letters go astray. The _date_ should be on every letter, especially business letters. The date should never be put at the bottom in a business letter, but in friendly letters this may be done. The _designation_ of the person or persons addressed differs according to the relations of the correspondents. Letters of friendship may begin in many ways according to the degrees of friendship or intimacy. Thus: My dear Wife: My dear Husband: My dear Friend: My darling Mother: My dearest Love: Dear Aunt: Dear Uncle: Dear George: etc. To mark a lesser degree of intimacy such formal designations as the following may be employed: Dear Sir: My dear Sir: Dear Mr. Smith: Dear Madam: etc. For clergymen who have the degree of Doctor of Divinity, the designation is as follows: Rev. Alban Johnson, D. D. My dear Sir: or Rev. and dear Sir: or more familiarly Dear Dr. Johnson: Bishops of the Roman and Anglican Communions are addressed as _Right Reverend_. The Rt. Rev., the Bishop of Long Island. or The Rt. Rev. Frederick Burgess, Bishop of Long Island. Rt. Rev. and dear Sir: Archbishops of the Roman Church are addressed as _Most Reverend_ and Cardinals as _Eminence_. Thus: The Most Rev. Archbishop Katzer. Most Rev. and dear Sir: His Eminence, James Cardinal Gibbons, Archbishop of Baltimore. May it please your Eminence: The title of the Governor of a State or territory and of the President of the United States is _Excellency_. However, _Honorable_ is more commonly applied to Governors:-- His Excellency, William Howard Taft, President of the United States. Sir:-- His Excellency, Charles Evans Hughes, Governor of the State of New York. Sir:-- Honorable Franklin Fort, Governor of New Jersey. Sir:-- The general salutation for Officers of the Army and Navy is _Sir_. The rank and station should be indicated in full at the head of the letter, thus: General Joseph Thompson, Commanding the Seventh Infantry. Sir: Rear Admiral Robert Atkinson, Commanding the Atlantic Squadron. Sir: The title of officers of the Civil Government is Honorable and they are addressed as _Sir_. Hon. Nelson Duncan, Senator from Ohio. Sir: Hon. Norman Wingfield, Secretary of the Treasury. Sir: Hon. Rupert Gresham, Mayor of New York. Sir: Presidents and Professors of Colleges and Universities are generally addressed as _Sir_ or _Dear Sir_. Professor Ferguson Jenks, President of .......... University. Sir: or Dear Sir: Presidents of Societies and Associations are treated as business men and addressed as _Sir_ or _Dear Sir_. Mr. Joseph Banks, President of the Night Owls. Dear Sir: or Sir: Doctors of Medicine are addressed as _Sir: My dear Sir: Dear Sir:_ and more familiarly My dear Dr: or Dear Dr: as Ryerson Pitkin, M. D. Sir: Dear Sir: My dear Dr: Ordinary people with no degrees or titles are addressed as Mr. and Mrs. and are designed Dear Sir: Dear Madam: and an unmarried woman of any age is addressed on the envelope as Miss So-and-so, but always designed in the letter as Dear Madam: The plural of Mr. as in addressing a firm is _Messrs_, and the corresponding salutation is _Dear Sirs: or Gentlemen:_ In England _Esq._ is used for _Mr._ as a mark of slight superiority and in this country it is sometimes used, but it is practically obsolete. Custom is against it and American sentiment as well. If it is used it should be only applied to lawyers and justices of the peace. SUBSCRIPTION The _Subscription_ or ending of a letter consists of the term of respect or affection and the signature. The term depends upon the relation of the person addressed. Letters of friendship can close with such expressions as: Yours lovingly, Yours affectionately, Devotedly yours, Ever yours, etc. as between husbands and wives or between lovers. Such gushing terminations as Your Own Darling, Your own Dovey and other pet and silly endings should be avoided, as they denote shallowness. Love can be strongly expressed without dipping into the nonsensical and the farcical. Formal expressions of Subscription are: Yours Sincerely, Yours truly, Respectfully yours, and the like, and these may be varied to denote the exact bearing or attitude the writer wishes to assume to the person addressed: as, Very sincerely yours, Very respectfully yours, With deep respect yours, Yours very truly, etc. Such elaborate endings as "In the meantime with the highest respect, I am yours to command," "I have the honor to be, Sir, Your humble Servant," "With great expression of esteem, I am Sincerely yours," "Believe me, my dear Sir, Ever faithfully yours," are condemned as savoring too much of affectation. It is better to finish formal letters without any such qualifying remarks. If you are writing to Mr. Ryan to tell him that you have a house for sale, after describing the house and stating the terms simply sign yourself Your obedient Servant Yours very truly, Yours with respect, James Wilson. Don't say you have the honor to be anything or ask him to believe anything, all you want to tell him is that you have a house for sale and that you are sincere, or hold him in respect as a prospective customer. Don't abbreviate the signature as: _Y'rs Resp'fly_ and always make your sex obvious. Write plainly Yours truly, _John Field_ and not _J. Field_, so that the person to whom you send it may not take you for _Jane Field_. It is always best to write the first name in full. Married women should prefix _Mrs._ to their names, as Very sincerely yours, _Mrs._ Theodore Watson. If you are sending a letter acknowledging a compliment or some kindness done you may say, _Yours gratefully,_ or _Yours very gratefully,_ in proportion to the act of kindness received. It is not customary to sign letters of degrees or titles after your name, except you are a lord, earl or duke and only known by the title, but as we have no such titles in America it is unnecessary to bring this matter into consideration. Don't sign yourself, Sincerely yours, Obadiah Jackson, M.A. or L.L. D. If you're an M. A. or an L.L. D. people generally know it without your sounding your own trumpet. Many people, and especially clergymen, are fond of flaunting after their names degrees they have received _honoris causa_, that is, degrees as a mark of honor, without examination. Such degrees should be kept in the background. Many a deadhead has these degrees which he could never have earned by brain work. Married women whose husbands are alive may sign the husband's name with the prefix _Mrs:_ thus, Yours sincerely, _Mrs._ William Southey. but when the husband is dead the signature should be-- Yours sincerely, _Mrs._ Sarah Southey. So when we receive a letter from a woman we are enabled to tell whether she has a husband living or is a widow. A woman separated from her husband but not a _divorcee_ should _not_ sign his name. ADDRESS The _address_ of a letter consists of the name, the title and the residence. Mr. Hugh Black, 112 Southgate Street, Altoona, Pa. Intimate friends have often familiar names for each other, such as pet names, nicknames, etc., which they use in the freedom of conversation, but such names should never, under any circumstances, appear on the envelope. The subscription on the envelope should be always written with propriety and correctness and as if penned by an entire stranger. The only difficulty in the envelope inscription is the title. Every man is entitled to _Mr._ and every lady to _Mrs._ and every unmarried lady to _Miss_. Even a boy is entitled to _Master_. When more than one is addressed the title is _Messrs._ _Mesdames_ is sometimes written of women. If the person addressed has a title it is courteous to use it, but titles never must be duplicated. Thus, we can write Robert Stitt, M. D., but never Dr. Robert Stitt, M. D, or Mr. Robert Stitt, M. D. In writing to a medical doctor it is well to indicate his profession by the letters M. D. so as to differentiate him from a D. D. It is better to write Robert Stitt, M. D., than Dr. Robert Stitt. In the case of clergymen the prefix Rev. is retained even when they have other titles; as Rev. Tracy Tooke, LL. D. When a person has more titles than one it is customary to only give him the leading one. Thus instead of writing Rev. Samuel MacComb, B. A., M. A., B. Sc., Ph. D., LL. D., D. D. the form employed is Rev. Samuel MacComb, LL. D. LL. D. is appended in preference to D. D. because in most cases the "Rev." implies a "D. D." while comparatively few with the prefix "Rev." are entitled to "LL. D." In the case of _Honorables_ such as Governors, Judges, Members of Congress, and others of the Civil Government the prefix "Hon." does away with _Mr._ and _Esq._ Thus we write Hon. Josiah Snifkins, not Hon. Mr. Josiah Snifkins or Hon. Josiah Snifkins, Esq. Though this prefix _Hon._ is also often applied to Governors they should be addressed as Excellency. For instance: His Excellency, Charles E. Hughes, Albany, N. Y. In writing to the President the superscription on the envelope should be To the President, Executive Mansion, Washington, D. C. Professional men such as doctors and lawyers as well as those having legitimately earned College Degrees may be addressed on the envelopes by their titles, as Jonathan Janeway, M. D. Hubert Houston, B. L. Matthew Marks, M. A., etc. The residence of the person addressed should be plainly written out in full. The street and numbers should be given and the city or town written very legibly. If the abbreviation of the State is liable to be confounded or confused with that of another then the full name of the State should be written. In writing the residence on the envelope, instead of putting it all in one line as is done at the head of a letter, each item of the residence forms a separate line. Thus, Liberty, Sullivan County, New York. 215 Minna St., San Francisco, California. There should be left a space for the postage stamp in the upper right hand corner. The name and title should occupy a line that is about central between the top of the envelope and the bottom. The name should neither be too much to right or left but located in the centre, the beginning and end at equal distances from either end. In writing to large business concerns which are well known or to public or city officials it is sometimes customary to leave out number and street. Thus, Messrs. Seigel, Cooper Co., New York City, Hon. William J. Gaynor, New York City. NOTES _Notes_ may be regarded as letters in miniature confined chiefly to invitations, acceptances, regrets and introductions, and modern etiquette tends towards informality in their composition. Card etiquette, in fact, has taken the place of ceremonious correspondence and informal notes are now the rule. Invitations to dinner and receptions are now mostly written on cards. "Regrets" are sent back on visiting cards with just the one word _"Regrets"_ plainly written thereon. Often on cards and notes of invitation we find the letters R. S. V. P. at the bottom. These letters stand for the French _repondez s'il vous plait_, which means "Reply, if you please," but there is no necessity to put this on an invitation card as every well-bred person knows that a reply is expected. In writing notes to young ladies of the same family it should be noted that the eldest daughter of the house is entitled to the designation _Miss_ without any Christian name, only the surname appended. Thus if there are three daughters in the Thompson family Martha, the eldest, Susan and Jemina, Martha is addressed as _Miss_ Thompson and the other two as _Miss_ Susan Thompson and _Miss_ Jemina Thompson respectively. Don't write the word _addressed_ on the envelope of a note. Don't _seal_ a note delivered by a friend. Don't write a note on a postal card. Here are a few common forms:-- FORMAL INVITATIONS Mr. and Mrs. Henry Wagstaff request the honor of Mr. McAdoo's presence on Friday evening, June 15th, at 8 o'clock to meet the Governor of the Fort. 19 Woodbine Terrace June 8th, 1910. This is an invitation to a formal reception calling for evening dress. Here is Mr. McAdoo's reply in the third person:-- Mr. McAdoo presents his compliments to Mr. and Mrs. Henry Wagstaff and accepts with great pleasure their invitation to meet the Governor of the Fort on the evening of June fifteenth. 215 Beacon Street, June 10th, 1910. Here is how Mr. McAdoo might decline the invitation:-- Mr. McAdoo regrets that owing to a prior engagement he must forego the honor of paying his respects to Mr. and Mrs. Wagstaff and the Governor of the Fort on the evening of June fifteenth. 215 Beacon St., June 10th, 1910. Here is a note addressed, say to Mr. Jeremiah Reynolds. Mr. and Mrs. Oldham at home on Wednesday evening October ninth from seven to eleven. 21 Ashland Avenue, October 5th. Mr. Reynolds makes reply:-- Mr. Reynolds accepts with high appreciation the honor of Mr. and Mrs. Oldham's invitation for Wednesday evening October ninth. Windsor Hotel October 7th or Mr. Reynolds regrets that his duties render it impossible for him to accept Mr. and Mrs. Oldham's kind invitation for the evening of October ninth. Windsor Hotel, October 7th, Sometimes less informal invitations are sent on small specially designed note paper in which the first person takes the place of the third. Thus 360 Pine St., Dec. 11th, 1910. Dear Mr. Saintsbury: Mr. Johnson and I should be much pleased to have you dine with us and a few friends next Thursday, the fifteenth, at half past seven. Yours sincerely, Emma Burnside. Mr. Saintsbury's reply: 57 Carlyle Strand Dec. 13th, 1910. Dear Mrs. Burnside: Let me accept very appreciatively your invitation to dine with Mr. Burnside and you on next Thursday, the fifteenth, at half past seven. Yours sincerely, Henry Saintsbury. Mrs. Alexander Burnside. NOTES OF INTRODUCTION Notes of introduction should be very circumspect as the writers are in reality vouching for those whom they introduce. Here is a specimen of such a note. 603 Lexington Ave., New York City, June 15th, 1910. Rev. Cyrus C. Wiley, D. D., Newark, N. J. My dear Dr. Wiley: I take the liberty of presenting to you my friend, Stacy Redfern, M. D., a young practitioner, who is anxious to locate in Newark. I have known him many years and can vouch for his integrity and professional standing. Any courtesy and kindness which you may show him will be very much appreciated by me. Very sincerely yours, Franklin Jewett. CHAPTER VII ERRORS Mistakes--Slips of Authors--Examples and Corrections--Errors of Redundancy. In the following examples the word or words in parentheses are uncalled for and should be omitted: 1. Fill the glass (full). 2. They appeared to be talking (together) on private affairs. 3. I saw the boy and his sister (both) in the garden. 4. He went into the country last week and returned (back) yesterday. 5. The subject (matter) of his discourse was excellent. 6. You need not wonder that the (subject) matter of his discourse was excellent; it was taken from the Bible. 7. They followed (after) him, but could not overtake him. 8. The same sentiments may be found throughout (the whole of) the book. 9. I was very ill every day (of my life) last week. 10. That was the (sum and) substance of his discourse. 11. He took wine and water and mixed them (both) together. 12. He descended (down) the steps to the cellar. 13. He fell (down) from the top of the house. 14. I hope you will return (again) soon. 15. The things he took away he restored (again). 16. The thief who stole my watch was compelled to restore it (back again). 17. It is equally (the same) to me whether I have it today or tomorrow. 18. She said, (says she) the report is false; and he replied, (says he) if it be not correct I have been misinformed. 19. I took my place in the cars (for) to go to New York. 20. They need not (to) call upon him. 21. Nothing (else) but that would satisfy him. 22. Whenever I ride in the cars I (always) find it prejudicial to my health. 23. He was the first (of all) at the meeting. 24. He was the tallest of (all) the brothers. 25. You are the tallest of (all) your family. 26. Whenever I pass the house he is (always) at the door. 27. The rain has penetrated (through) the roof. 28. Besides my uncle and aunt there was (also) my grandfather at the church. 29. It should (ever) be your constant endeavor to please your family. 30. If it is true as you have heard (then) his situation is indeed pitiful. 31. Either this (here) man or that (there) woman has (got) it. 32. Where is the fire (at)? 33. Did you sleep in church? Not that I know (of). 34. I never before (in my life) met (with) such a stupid man. 35. (For) why did he postpone it? 36. Because (why) he could not attend. 37. What age is he? (Why) I don't know. 38. He called on me (for) to ask my opinion. 39. I don't know where I am (at). 40. I looked in (at) the window. 41. I passed (by) the house. 42. He (always) came every Sunday. 43. Moreover, (also) we wish to say he was in error. 44. It is not long (ago) since he was here. 45. Two men went into the wood (in order) to cut (down) trees. Further examples of redundancy might be multiplied. It is very common in newspaper writing where not alone single words but entire phrases are sometimes brought in, which are unnecessary to the sense or explanation of what is written. GRAMMATICAL ERRORS OF STANDARD AUTHORS Even the best speakers and writers are sometimes caught napping. Many of our standard authors to whom we have been accustomed to look up as infallible have sinned more or less against the fundamental principles of grammar by breaking the rules regarding one or more of the nine parts of speech. In fact some of them have recklessly trespassed against all nine, and still they sit on their pedestals of fame for the admiration of the crowd. Macaulay mistreated the article. He wrote,--"That _a_ historian should not record trifles is perfectly true." He should have used _an_. Dickens also used the article incorrectly. He refers to "Robinson Crusoe" as "_an_ universally popular book," instead of _a_ universally popular book. The relation between nouns and pronouns has always been a stumbling block to speakers and writers. Hallam in his _Literature of Europe_ writes, "No one as yet had exhibited the structure of the human kidneys, Vesalius having only examined them in dogs." This means that Vesalius examined human kidneys in dogs. The sentence should have been, "No one had as yet exhibited the kidneys in human beings, Vesalius having examined such organs in dogs only." Sir Arthur Helps in writing of Dickens, states--"I knew a brother author of his who received such criticisms from him (Dickens) very lately and profited by _it_." Instead of _it_ the word should be _them_ to agree with criticisms. Here are a few other pronominal errors from leading authors: "Sir Thomas Moore in general so writes it, although not many others so late as _him_." Should be _he_.--Trench's _English Past and Present_. "What should we gain by it but that we should speedily become as poor as _them_." Should be _they_.--Alison's _Essay on Macaulay_. "If the king gives us leave you or I may as lawfully preach, as _them_ that do." Should be _they_ or _those_, the latter having persons understood.--Hobbes's _History of Civil Wars_. "The drift of all his sermons was, to prepare the Jews for the reception of a prophet, mightier than _him_, and whose shoes he was not worthy to bear." Should be than _he_.--Atterbury's _Sermons_. "Phalaris, who was so much older than _her_." Should be _she_.--Bentley's _Dissertation on Phalaris_. "King Charles, and more than _him_, the duke and the Popish faction were at liberty to form new schemes." Should be than _he_.--Bolingbroke's _Dissertations on Parties_. "We contributed a third more than the Dutch, who were obliged to the same proportion more than _us_." Should be than _we_.--Swift's _Conduct of the Allies_. In all the above examples the objective cases of the pronouns have been used while the construction calls for nominative cases. "Let _thou_ and _I_ the battle try"--_Anon_. Here _let_ is the governing verb and requires an objective case after it; therefore instead of _thou_ and _I_, the words should be _you_ (_sing_.) and _me_. "Forever in this humble cell, Let thee and I, my fair one, dwell" --_Prior_. Here _thee_ and _I_ should be the objectives _you_ and _me_. The use of the relative pronoun trips the greatest number of authors. Even in the Bible we find the relative wrongly translated: Whom do men say that I am?--_St. Matthew_. Whom think ye that I am?--_Acts of the Apostles_. _Who_ should be written in both cases because the word is not in the objective governed by say or think, but in the nominative dependent on the verb _am_. "_Who_ should I meet at the coffee house t'other night, but my old friend?"--_Steele_. "It is another pattern of this answerer's fair dealing, to give us hints that the author is dead, and yet lay the suspicion upon somebody, I know not _who_, in the country."--Swift's _Tale of a Tub_. "My son is going to be married to I don't know _who_."--Goldsmith's _Good-natured Man_. The nominative _who_ in the above examples should be the objective _whom_. The plural nominative _ye_ of the pronoun _thou_ is very often used for the objective _you_, as in the following: "His wrath which will one day destroy _ye both_."--_Milton_. "The more shame for _ye_; holy men I thought _ye_."--_Shakespeare_. "I feel the gales that from _ye_ blow."--_Gray_. "Tyrants dread _ye_, lest your just decree Transfer the power and set the people free."--_Prior_. Many of the great writers have played havoc with the adjective in the indiscriminate use of the degrees of comparison. "Of two forms of the same word, use the fittest."--_Morell_. The author here in _trying_ to give good advice sets a bad example. He should have used the comparative degree, "Fitter." Adjectives which have a comparative or superlative signification do not admit the addition of the words _more_, _most_, or the terminations, _er_, _est_, hence the following examples break this rule: "Money is the _most universal_ incitement of human misery."--Gibbon's _Decline and Fall_. "The _chiefest_ of which was known by the name of Archon among the Grecians."--Dryden's _Life of Plutarch_. "The _chiefest_ and largest are removed to certain magazines they call libraries."--Swift's _Battle of the Books_. The two _chiefest_ properties of air, its gravity and elastic force, have been discovered by mechanical experiments.--_Arbuthno_. "From these various causes, which in greater or _lesser_ degree, affected every individual in the colony, the indignation of the people became general."--Robertson's _History of America_. "The _extremest_ parts of the earth were meditating a submission." --Atterbury's _Sermons_. "The last are indeed _more preferable_ because they are founded on some new knowledge or improvement in the mind of man."--Addison, _Spectator_. "This was in reality the _easiest_ manner of the two."--Shaftesbury's _Advice to an Author_. "In every well formed mind this second desire seems to be the _strongest_ of the two."--Smith's _Theory of Moral Sentiments_. In these examples the superlative is wrongly used for the comparative. When only two objects are compared the comparative form must be used. Of impossibility there are no degrees of comparison, yet we find the following: "As it was impossible they should know the words, thoughts and secret actions of all men, so it was _more impossible_ they should pass judgment on them according to these things."--Whitby's _Necessity of the Christian Religion_. A great number of authors employ adjectives for adverbs. Thus we find: "I shall endeavor to live hereafter _suitable_ to a man in my station." --_Addison_. "I can never think so very _mean_ of him."--Bentley's _Dissertation on Phalaris_. "His expectations run high and the fund to supply them is _extreme_ scanty."--_Lancaster's Essay on Delicacy_. The commonest error in the use of the verb is the disregard of the concord between the verb and its subject. This occurs most frequently when the subject and the verb are widely separated, especially if some other noun of a different number immediately precedes the verb. False concords occur very often after _either_, _or_, _neither_, _nor_, and _much_, _more_, _many_, _everyone_, _each_. Here are a few authors' slips:-- "The terms in which the sale of a patent _were_ communicated to the public."--Junius's _Letters_. "The richness of her arms and apparel _were_ conspicuous."--Gibbon's _Decline and Fall_. "Everyone of this grotesque family _were_ the creatures of national genius."--D'Israeli. "He knows not what spleen, languor or listlessness _are_."--Blair's _Sermons_. "Each of these words _imply_, some pursuit or object relinquished." --_Ibid_. "Magnus, with four thousand of his supposed accomplices _were_ put to death."--_Gibbon_. "No nation gives greater encouragements to learning than we do; yet at the same time _none are_ so injudicious in the application." --_Goldsmith_. "_There's two_ or _three_ of us have seen strange sights."--_Shakespeare_. The past participle should not be used for the past tense, yet the learned Byron overlooked this fact. He thus writes in the _Lament of Tasso_:-- "And with my years my soul _begun to pant_ With feelings of strange tumult and soft pain." Here is another example from Savage's _Wanderer_ in which there is double sinning: "From liberty each nobler science _sprung_, A Bacon brighten'd and a Spenser _sung_." Other breaches in regard to the participles occur in the following:-- "Every book ought to be read with the same spirit and in the same manner as it is _writ_"--Fielding's _Tom Jones_. "The Court of Augustus had not _wore_ off the manners of the republic" --Hume's _Essays_. "Moses tells us that the fountains of the earth were _broke_ open or clove asunder."--Burnet. "A free constitution when it has been _shook_ by the iniquity of former administrations."--_Bolingbroke_. "In this respect the seeds of future divisions were _sowed_ abundantly." --_Ibid_. In the following example the present participle is used for the infinitive mood: "It is easy _distinguishing_ the rude fragment of a rock from the splinter of a statue."--Gilfillan's _Literary Portraits_. _Distinguishing_ here should be replaced by _to distinguish_. The rules regarding _shall_ and _will_ are violated in the following: "If we look within the rough and awkward outside, we _will_ be richly rewarded by its perusal."--Gilfillan's _Literary Portraits_. "If I _should_ declare them and speak of them, they should be more than I am able to express."--_Prayer Book Revision of Psalms XI_. "If I _would_ declare them and speak of them, they are more than can be numbered."--_Ibid_. "Without having attended to this, we _will_ be at a loss, in understanding several passages in the classics."--Blair's _Lectures_. "We know to what cause our past reverses have been owing and _we_ will have ourselves to blame, if they are again incurred."--Alison's _History of Europe_. Adverbial mistakes often occur in the best writers. The adverb _rather_ is a word very frequently misplaced. Archbishop Trench in his "English Past and Present" writes, "It _rather_ modified the structure of our sentences than the elements of our vocabulary." This should have been written,--"It modified the structure of our sentences _rather than_ the elements of our vocabulary." "So far as his mode of teaching goes he is _rather_ a disciple of Socrates than of St. Paul or Wesley." Thus writes Leslie Stephens of Dr. Johnson. He should have written,--" So far as his mode of teaching goes he is a disciple of Socrates _rather_ than of St. Paul or Wesley." The preposition is a part of speech which is often wrongly used by some of the best writers. Certain nouns, adjectives and verbs require particular prepositions after them, for instance, the word _different_ always takes the preposition _from_ after it; _prevail_ takes _upon_; _averse_ takes _to_; _accord_ takes _with_, and so on. In the following examples the prepositions in parentheses are the ones that should have been used: "He found the greatest difficulty _of_ (in) writing."--Hume's _History of England_. "If policy can prevail _upon_ (over) force."--_Addison_. "He made the discovery and communicated _to_ (with) his friends." --Swift's _Tale of a Tub_. "Every office of command should be intrusted to persons _on_ (in) whom the parliament shall confide."--_Macaulay_. Several of the most celebrated writers infringe the canons of style by placing prepositions at the end of sentences. For instance Carlyle, in referring to the Study of Burns, writes:--"Our own contributions to it, we are aware, can be but scanty and feeble; but we offer them with good will, and trust they may meet with acceptance from those they are intended _for_." --"for whom they are intended," he should have written. "Most writers have some one vein which they peculiarly and obviously excel _in_."--_William Minto_. This sentence should read,--Most writers have some one vein in which they peculiarly and obviously excel. Many authors use redundant words which repeat the same thought and idea. This is called tautology. "Notwithstanding which (however) poor Polly embraced them all around." --_Dickens_. "I judged that they would (mutually) find each other."--_Crockett_. "....as having created a (joint) partnership between the two Powers in the Morocco question."--_The Times_. "The only sensible position (there seems to be) is to frankly acknowledge our ignorance of what lies beyond."--_Daily Telegraph_. "Lord Rosebery has not budged from his position--splendid, no doubt,--of (lonely) isolation."--_The Times_. "Miss Fox was (often) in the habit of assuring Mrs. Chick."--_Dickens_. "The deck (it) was their field of fame."--_Campbell_. "He had come up one morning, as was now (frequently) his wont," --_Trollope_. The counsellors of the Sultan (continue to) remain sceptical --_The Times_. Seriously, (and apart from jesting), this is no light matter.--_Bagehot_. To go back to your own country with (the consciousness that you go back with) the sense of duty well done.--_Lord Halsbury_. The _Peresviet_ lost both her fighting-tops and (in appearance) looked the most damaged of all the ships--_The Times_. Counsel admitted that, that was a fair suggestion to make, but he submitted that it was borne out by the (surrounding) circumstances. --_Ibid_. Another unnecessary use of words and phrases is that which is termed circumlocution, a going around the bush when there is no occasion for it,--save to fill space. It may be likened to a person walking the distance of two sides of a triangle to reach the objective point. For instance in the quotation: "Pope professed to have learned his poetry from Dryden, whom, whenever an opportunity was presented, he praised through the whole period of his existence with unvaried liberality; and perhaps his character may receive some illustration, of a comparison he instituted between him and the man whose pupil he was" much of the verbiage may be eliminated and the sentence thus condensed: "Pope professed himself the pupil of Dryden, whom he lost no opportunity of praising; and his character may be illustrated by a comparison with his master." "His life was brought to a close in 1910 at an age not far from the one fixed by the sacred writer as the term of human existence." This in brevity can be put, "His life was brought to a close at the age of seventy;" or, better yet, "He died at the age of seventy." "The day was intensely cold, so cold in fact that the thermometer crept down to the zero mark," can be expressed: "The day was so cold the thermometer registered zero." Many authors resort to circumlocution for the purpose of "padding," that is, filling space, or when they strike a snag in writing upon subjects of which they know little or nothing. The young writer should steer clear of it and learn to express his thoughts and ideas as briefly as possible commensurate with lucidity of expression. Volumes of errors in fact, in grammar, diction and general style, could be selected from the works of the great writers, a fact which eloquently testifies that no one is infallible and that the very best is liable to err at times. However, most of the erring in the case of these writers arises from carelessness or hurry, not from a lack of knowledge. As a general rule it is in writing that the scholar is liable to slip; in oral speech he seldom makes a blunder. In fact, there are many people who are perfect masters of speech,--who never make a blunder in conversation, yet who are ignorant of the very principles of grammar and would not know how to write a sentence correctly on paper. Such persons have been accustomed from infancy to hear the language spoken correctly and so the use of the proper words and forms becomes a second nature to them. A child can learn what is right as easy as what is wrong and whatever impressions are made on the mind when it is plastic will remain there. Even a parrot can be taught the proper use of language. Repeat to a parrot.--"Two and two _make_ four" and it never will say "two and two _makes_ four." In writing, however, it is different. Without a knowledge of the fundamentals of grammar we may be able to speak correctly from association with good speakers, but without such a knowledge we cannot hope to write the language correctly. To write even a common letter we must know the principles of construction, the relationship of one word to another. Therefore, it is necessary for everybody to understand at least the essentials of the grammar of his own language. CHAPTER VIII PITFALLS TO AVOID Common Stumbling Blocks--Peculiar Constructions--Misused Forms. ATTRACTION Very often the verb is separated from its real nominative or subject by several intervening words and in such cases one is liable to make the verb agree with the subject nearest to it. Here are a few examples showing that the leading writers now and then take a tumble into this pitfall: (1) "The partition which the two ministers made of the powers of government _were_ singularly happy."--_Macaulay_. (Should be _was_ to agree with its subject, _partition_.) (2) "One at least of the qualities which fit it for training ordinary men _unfit_ it for _training_ an extraordinary man."--_Bagehot_. (Should be _unfits_ to agree with subject _one_.) (3) "The Tibetans have engaged to exclude from their country those dangerous influences whose appearance _were_ the chief cause of our action."--_The Times_. (Should be _was_ to agree with _appearance_.) (4) "An immense amount of confusion and indifference _prevail_ in these days."--_Telegraph_. (Should be _prevails_ to agree with amount.) ELLIPSIS Errors in ellipsis occur chiefly with prepositions. His objection and condoning of the boy's course, seemed to say the least, paradoxical. (The preposition _to_ should come after objection.) Many men of brilliant parts are crushed by force of circumstances and their genius forever lost to the world. (Some maintain that the missing verb after genius is _are_, but such is ungrammatical. In such cases the right verb should be always expressed: as--their genius _is_ forever lost to the world.) THE SPLIT INFINITIVE Even the best speakers and writers are in the habit of placing a modifying word or words between the _to_ and the remaining part of the infinitive. It is possible that such will come to be looked upon in time as the proper form but at present the splitting of the infinitive is decidedly wrong. "He was scarcely able _to_ even _talk_" "She commenced _to_ rapidly _walk_ around the room." "_To have_ really _loved_ is better than not _to have_ at all _loved_." In these constructions it is much better not to split the infinitive. In every-day speech the best speakers sin against this observance. In New York City there is a certain magistrate, a member of "the 400," who prides himself on his diction in language. He tells this story: A prisoner, a faded, battered specimen of mankind, on whose haggard face, deeply lined with the marks of dissipation, there still lingered faint reminders of better days long past, stood dejected before the judge. "Where are you from?" asked the magistrate. "From Boston," answered the accused. "Indeed," said the judge, "indeed, yours is a sad case, and yet you don't seem _to_ thoroughly _realise_ how low you have sunk." The man stared as if struck. "Your honor does me an injustice," he said bitterly. "The disgrace of arrest for drunkenness, the mortification of being thrust into a noisome dungeon, the publicity and humiliation of trial in a crowded and dingy courtroom I can bear, but to be sentenced by a Police Magistrate who _splits his infinitives_--that is indeed the last blow." ONE The indefinite adjective pronoun _one_ when put in place of a personal substantive is liable to raise confusion. When a sentence or expression is begun with the impersonal _one_ the word must be used throughout in all references to the subject. Thus, "One must mind one's own business if one wishes to succeed" may seem prolix and awkward, nevertheless it is the proper form. You must not say--"One must mind his business if he wishes to succeed," for the subject is impersonal and therefore cannot exclusively take the masculine pronoun. With _any one_ it is different. You may say--"If any one sins he should acknowledge it; let him not try to hide it by another sin." ONLY This is a word that is a pitfall to the most of us whether learned or unlearned. Probably it is the most indiscriminately used word in the language. From the different positions it is made to occupy in a sentence it can relatively change the meaning. For instance in the sentence--"I _only_ struck him that time," the meaning to be inferred is, that the only thing I did to him was to _strike_ him, not kick or otherwise abuse him. But if the _only_ is shifted, so as to make the sentence read-"I struck him _only_ that time" the meaning conveyed is, that only on that occasion and at no other time did I strike him. If another shift is made to-"I struck _only_ him that time," the meaning is again altered so that it signifies he was the only person I struck. In speaking we can by emphasis impress our meaning on our hearers, but in writing we have nothing to depend upon but the position of the word in the sentence. The best rule in regard to _only_ is to place it _immediately before_ the word or phrase it modifies or limits. ALONE is another word which creates ambiguity and alters meaning. If we substitute it for only in the preceding example the meaning of the sentence will depend upon the arrangement. Thus "I _alone_ struck him at that time" signifies that I and no other struck him. When the sentence reads "I struck him _alone_ at that time" it must be interpreted that he was the only person that received a blow. Again if it is made to read "I struck him at that time _alone_" the sense conveyed is that that was the only occasion on which I struck him. The rule which governs the correct use of _only_ is also applicable to _alone_. OTHER AND ANOTHER These are words which often give to expressions a meaning far from that intended. Thus, "I have _nothing_ to do with that _other_ rascal across the street," certainly means that I am a rascal myself. "I sent the despatch to my friend, but another villain intercepted it," clearly signifies that my friend is a villain. A good plan is to omit these words when they can be readily done without, as in the above examples, but when it is necessary to use them make your meaning clear. You can do this by making each sentence or phrase in which they occur independent of contextual aid. AND WITH THE RELATIVE Never use _and_ with the _relative_ in this manner: "That is the dog I meant _and which_ I know is of pure breed." This is an error quite common. The use of _and_ is permissible when there is a parallel relative in the preceding sentence or clause. Thus: "There is the dog which I meant and which I know is of pure breed" is quite correct. LOOSE PARTICIPLES A participle or participial phrase is naturally referred to the nearest nominative. If only one nominative is expressed it claims all the participles that are not by the construction of the sentence otherwise fixed. "John, working in the field all day and getting thirsty, drank from the running stream." Here the participles _working_ and _getting_ clearly refer to John. But in the sentence,--"Swept along by the mob I could not save him," the participle as it were is lying around loose and may be taken to refer to either the person speaking or to the person spoken about. It may mean that I was swept along by the mob or the individual whom I tried to save was swept along. "Going into the store the roof fell" can be taken that it was the roof which was going into the store when it fell. Of course the meaning intended is that some person or persons were going into the store just as the roof fell. In all sentence construction with participles there should be such clearness as to preclude all possibility of ambiguity. The participle should be so placed that there can be no doubt as to the noun to which it refers. Often it is advisable to supply such words as will make the meaning obvious. BROKEN CONSTRUCTION Sometimes the beginning of a sentence presents quite a different grammatical construction from its end. This arises from the fact probably, that the beginning is lost sight of before the end is reached. This occurs frequently in long sentences. Thus: "Honesty, integrity and square-dealing will bring anybody much better through life than the absence of either." Here the construction is broken at _than_. The use of _either_, only used in referring to one of two, shows that the fact is forgotten that three qualities and not two are under consideration. Any one of the three meanings might be intended in the sentence, viz., absence of any one quality, absence of any two of the qualities or absence of the whole three qualities. Either denotes one or the other of two and should never be applied to any one of more than two. When we fall into the error of constructing such sentences as above, we should take them apart and reconstruct them in a different grammatical form. Thus,--"Honesty, integrity and square-dealing will bring a man much better through life than a lack of these qualities which are almost essential to success." DOUBLE NEGATIVE It must be remembered that two negatives in the English language destroy each other and are equivalent to an affirmative. Thus "I _don't_ know _nothing_ about it" is intended to convey, that I am ignorant of the matter under consideration, but it defeats its own purpose, inasmuch as the use of nothing implies that I know something about it. The sentence should read--"I don't know anything about it." Often we hear such expressions as "He was _not_ asked to give _no_ opinion," expressing the very opposite of what is intended. This sentence implies that he was asked to give his opinion. The double negative, therefore, should be carefully avoided, for it is insidious and is liable to slip in and the writer remain unconscious of its presence until the eye of the critic detects it. FIRST PERSONAL PRONOUN The use of the first personal pronoun should be avoided as much as possible in composition. Don't introduce it by way of apology and never use such expressions as "In my opinion," "As far as I can see," "It appears to me," "I believe," etc. In what you write, the whole composition is expressive of your views, since you are the author, therefore, there is no necessity for you to accentuate or emphasize yourself at certain portions of it. Moreover, the big _I's_ savor of egotism! Steer clear of them as far as you can. The only place where the first person is permissible is in passages where you are stating a view that is not generally held and which is likely to meet with opposition. SEQUENCE OF TENSES When two verbs depend on each other their tenses must have a definite relation to each other. "I shall have much pleasure in accepting your kind invitation" is wrong, unless you really mean that just now you decline though by-and-by you intend to accept; or unless you mean that you do accept now, though you have no pleasure in doing so, but look forward to be more pleased by-and-by. In fact the sequence of the compound tenses puzzle experienced writers. The best plan is to go back in thought to the time in question and use the tense you would _then_ naturally use. Now in the sentence "I should have liked to have gone to see the circus" the way to find out the proper sequence is to ask yourself the question--what is it I "should have liked" to do? and the plain answer is "to go to see the circus." I cannot answer--"To have gone to see the circus" for that would imply that at a certain moment I would have liked to be in the position of having gone to the circus. But I do not mean this; I mean that at the moment at which I am speaking I wish I had gone to see the circus. The verbal phrase _I should have liked_ carries me back to the time when there was a chance of seeing the circus and once back at the time, the going to the circus is a thing of the present. This whole explanation resolves itself into the simple question,--what should I have liked _at that time_, and the answer is "to go to see the circus," therefore this is the proper sequence, and the expression should be "I should have liked to go to see the circus." If we wish to speak of something relating to a time _prior_ to that indicated in the past tense we must use the perfect tense of the infinitive; as, "He appeared to have seen better days." We should say "I expected to _meet him_," not "I expected _to have met him_." "We intended _to visit you_," not "_to have visited_ you." "I hoped they _would_ arrive," not "I hoped they _would have_ arrived." "I thought I should _catch_ the bird," not "I thought I should _have caught_ the bird." "I had intended _to go_ to the meeting," not "I had intended to _have gone_ to the meeting." BETWEEN--AMONG These prepositions are often carelessly interchanged. _Between_ has reference to two objects only, _among_ to more than two. "The money was equally divided between them" is right when there are only two, but if there are more than two it should be "the money was equally divided among them." LESS--FEWER _Less_ refers is quantity, _fewer_ to number. "No man has _less_ virtues" should be "No man has _fewer_ virtues." "The farmer had some oats and a _fewer_ quantity of wheat" should be "the farmer had some oats and a _less_ quantity of wheat." FURTHER--FARTHER _Further_ is commonly used to denote quantity, _farther_ to denote distance. "I have walked _farther_ than you," "I need no _further_ supply" are correct. EACH OTHER--ONE ANOTHER _Each other_ refers to two, _one another_ to more than two. "Jones and Smith quarreled; they struck each other" is correct. "Jones, Smith and Brown quarreled; they struck one another" is also correct. Don't say, "The two boys teach one another" nor "The three girls love each other." EACH, EVERY, EITHER, NEITHER These words are continually misapplied. _Each_ can be applied to two or any higher number of objects to signify _every one_ of the number _independently_. Every requires _more than two_ to be spoken of and denotes all the _persons_ or _things_ taken _separately_. _Either_ denotes _one or the other of two_, and should not be used to include both. _Neither_ is the negative of either, denoting not the other, and not the one, and relating to _two persons_ or _things_ considered separately. The following examples illustrate the correct usage of these words: _Each_ man of the crew received a reward. _Every_ man in the regiment displayed bravery. We can walk on _either_ side of the street. _Neither_ of the two is to blame. NEITHER-NOR When two singular subjects are connected by _neither_, _nor_ use a singular verb; as, "_Neither_ John _nor_ James _was there_," not _were_ there. NONE Custom Has sanctioned the use of this word both with a singular and plural; as--"None _is_ so blind as he who will not see" and "None _are_ so blind as they who will not see." However, as it is a contraction of _no one_ it is better to use the singular verb. RISE-RAISE These verbs are very often confounded. _Rise_ is to move or pass upward in any manner; as to "rise from bed;" to increase in value, to improve in position or rank, as "stocks rise;" "politicians rise;" "they have risen to honor." _Raise_ is to lift up, to exalt, to enhance, as "I raise the table;" "He raised his servant;" "The baker raised the price of _bread_." LAY-LIE The transitive verb _lay_, and _lay_, the past tense of the neuter verb _lie_, are often confounded, though quite different in meaning. The neuter verb _to lie_, meaning to lie down or rest, cannot take the objective after it except with a preposition. We can say "He _lies_ on the ground," but we cannot say "He _lies_ the ground," since the verb is neuter and intransitive and, as such, cannot have a direct object. With _lay_ it is different. _Lay_ is a transitive verb, therefore it takes a direct object after it; as "I _lay_ a wager," "I _laid_ the carpet," etc. Of a carpet or any inanimate subject we should say, "It lies on the floor," "A knife _lies_ on the table," not _lays_. But of a person we say--"He _lays_ the knife on the table," not "He _lies_----." _Lay_ being the past tense of the neuter to lie (down) we should say, "He _lay_ on the bed," and _lain_ being its past participle we must also say "He has _lain_ on the bed." We can say "I lay myself down." "He laid himself down" and such expressions. It is imperative to remember in using these verbs that to _lay_ means _to do_ something, and to lie means _to be in a state of rest_. SAYS I--I SAID _"Says I"_ is a vulgarism; don't use it. "I said" is correct form. IN--INTO Be careful to distinguish the meaning of these two little prepositions and don't interchange them. Don't say "He went _in_ the room" nor "My brother is _into_ the navy." _In_ denotes the place where a person or thing, whether at rest or in motion, is present; and _into_ denotes _entrance_. "He went _into_ the room;" "My brother is _in_ the navy" are correct. EAT--ATE Don't confound the two. _Eat_ is present, _ate_ is past. "I _eat_ the bread" means that I am continuing the eating; "I _ate_ the bread" means that the act of eating is past. _Eaten_ is the perfect participle, but often _eat_ is used instead, and as it has the same pronunciation (et) of _ate_, care should be taken to distinguish the past tense, I _ate_ from the perfect _I have eaten_ (_eat_). SEQUENCE OF PERSON Remember that the _first_ person takes precedence of the _second_ and the _second_ takes precedence of the _third_. When Cardinal Wolsey said _Ego et Rex_ (I and the King), he showed he was a good grammarian, but a bad courtier. AM COME--HAVE COME "_I am come_" points to my being here, while "I have come" intimates that I have just arrived. When the subject is not a person, the verb _to be_ should be used in preference to the verb _to have_; as, "The box is come" instead of "The box has come." PAST TENSE--PAST PARTICIPLE The interchange of these two parts of the irregular or so-called _strong_ verbs is, perhaps, the breach oftenest committed by careless speakers and writers. To avoid mistakes it is requisite to know the principal parts of these verbs, and this knowledge is very easy of acquirement, as there are not more than a couple of hundred of such verbs, and of this number but a small part is in daily use. Here are some of the most common blunders: "I seen" for "I saw;" "I done it" for "I did it;" "I drunk" for "I drank;" "I begun" for "I began;" "I rung" for "I rang;" "I run" for "I ran;" "I sung" for "I sang;" "I have chose" for "I have chosen;" "I have drove" for "I have driven;" "I have wore" for "I have worn;" "I have trod" for "I have trodden;" "I have shook" for "I have shaken;" "I have fell" for "I have fallen;" "I have drank" for "I have drunk;" "I have began" for "I have begun;" "I have rang" for "I have rung;" "I have rose" for "I have risen;" "I have spoke" for "I have spoken;" "I have broke" for "I have broken." "It has froze" for "It has frozen." "It has blowed" for "It has blown." "It has flowed" (of a bird) for "It has flown." N. B.--The past tense and past participle of _To Hang_ is _hanged_ or _hung_. When you are talking about a man meeting death on the gallows, say "He was hanged"; when you are talking about the carcass of an animal say, "It was hung," as "The beef was hung dry." Also say your coat "_was_ hung on a hook." PREPOSITIONS AND THE OBJECTIVE CASE Don't forget that prepositions always take the objective case. Don't say "Between you and _I_"; say "Between you and _me_" _Two_ prepositions should not govern _one objective_ unless there is an immediate connection between them. "He was refused admission to and forcibly ejected from the school" should be "He was refused admission to the school and forcibly ejected from it." SUMMON--SUMMONS Don't say "I shall summons him," but "I shall summon him." _Summon_ is a verb, _summons_, a noun. It is correct to say "I shall get a _summons_ for him," not a _summon_. UNDENIABLE--UNEXCEPTIONABLE "My brother has an undeniable character" is wrong if I wish to convey the idea that he has a good character. The expression should be in that case "My brother has an unexceptionable character." An _undeniable_ character is a character that cannot be denied, whether bad or good. An unexceptionable character is one to which no one can take exception. THE PRONOUNS Very many mistakes occur in the use of the pronouns. "Let you and I go" should be "Let you and _me_ go." "Let them and we go" should be "Let them and us go." The verb let is transitive and therefore takes the objective case. "Give me _them_ flowers" should be "Give me _those_ flowers"; "I mean _them_ three" should be "I mean those three." Them is the objective case of the personal pronoun and cannot be used adjectively like the demonstrative adjective pronoun. "I am as strong as _him_" should be "I am as strong as _he_"; "I am younger than _her_" should be "I am younger than _she_;" "He can write better than _me_" should be "He can write better than I," for in these examples the objective cases _him_, _her_ and _me_ are used wrongfully for the nominatives. After each of the misapplied pronouns a verb is understood of which each pronoun is the subject. Thus, "I am as strong as he (is)." "I am younger than she (is)." "He can write better than I (can)." Don't say "_It is me_;" say "_It is I_" The verb _To Be_ of which is is a part takes the same case after it that it has before it. This holds good in all situations as well as with pronouns. The verb _To Be_ also requires the pronouns joined to it to be in the same case as a pronoun asking a question; The nominative _I_ requires the nominative _who_ and the objectives _me_, _him_, _her_, _its_, _you_, _them_, require the objective _whom_. "_Whom_ do you think I am?" should be "_Who_ do you think I am?" and "_Who_ do they suppose me to be?" should be "_Whom_ do they suppose me to be?" The objective form of the Relative should be always used, in connection with a preposition. "Who do you take me for?" should be "_Whom_ do, etc." "Who did you give the apple to?" should be "Whom did you give the apple to," but as pointed out elsewhere the preposition should never end a sentence, therefore, it is better to say, "To whom did you give the apple?" After transitive verbs always use the objective cases of the pronouns. For "_He_ and _they_ we have seen," say "_Him_ and _them_ we have seen." THAT FOR SO "The hurt it was that painful it made him cry," say "so painful." THESE--THOSE Don't say, _These kind; those sort_. _Kind_ and _sort_ are each singular and require the singular pronouns _this_ and _that_. In connection with these demonstrative adjective pronouns remember that _this_ and _these_ refer to what is near at hand, _that_ and _those_ to what is more distant; as, _this book_ (near me), _that book_ (over there), _these_ boys (near), _those_ boys (at a distance). THIS MUCH--THUS MUCH "_This_ much is certain" should be "_Thus_ much or _so_ much is certain." FLEE--FLY These are two separate verbs and must not be interchanged. The principal parts of _flee_ are _flee_, _fled_, _fled_; those of _fly_ are _fly_, _flew_, _flown_. _To flee_ is generally used in the meaning of getting out of danger. _To fly_ means to soar as a bird. To say of a man "He _has flown_ from the place" is wrong; it should be "He _has fled_ from the place." We can say with propriety that "A bird has _flown_ from the place." THROUGH--THROUGHOUT Don't say "He is well known through the land," but "He is well known throughout the land." VOCATION AND AVOCATION Don't mistake these two words so nearly alike. Vocation is the employment, business or profession one follows for a living; avocation is some pursuit or occupation which diverts the person from such employment, business or profession. Thus "His vocation was the law, his avocation, farming." WAS--WERE In the subjunctive mood the plural form _were_ should be used with a singular subject; as, "If I _were_," not _was_. Remember the plural form of the personal pronoun _you_ always takes _were_, though it may denote but one. Thus, "_You were_," never "_you was_." "_If I was him_" is a very common expression. Note the two mistakes in it,--that of the verb implying a condition, and that of the objective case of the pronoun. It should read _If I were he_. This is another illustration of the rule regarding the verb _To Be_, taking the same case after it as before it; _were_ is part of the verb _To Be_, therefore as the nominative (I) goes before it, the nominative (he) should come after it. A OR AN _A_ becomes an before a vowel or before _h_ mute for the sake of euphony or agreeable sound to the ear. _An apple_, _an orange_, _an heir_, _an honor_, etc. CHAPTER IX STYLE Diction--Purity--Propriety--Precision. It is the object of every writer to put his thoughts into as effective form as possible so as to make a good impression on the reader. A person may have noble thoughts and ideas but be unable to express them in such a way as to appeal to others, consequently he cannot exert the full force of his intellectuality nor leave the imprint of his character upon his time, whereas many a man but indifferently gifted may wield such a facile pen as to attract attention and win for himself an envious place among his contemporaries. In everyday life one sees illustrations of men of excellent mentality being cast aside and ones of mediocre or in some cases, little, if any, ability chosen to fill important places. The former are unable to impress their personality; they have great thoughts, great ideas, but these thoughts and ideas are locked up in their brains and are like prisoners behind the bars struggling to get free. The key of language which would open the door is wanting, hence they have to remain locked up. Many a man has to pass through the world unheard of and of little benefit to it or himself, simply because he cannot bring out what is in him and make it subservient to his will. It is the duty of every one to develop his best, not only for the benefit of himself but for the good of his fellow men. It is not at all necessary to have great learning or acquirements, the laborer is as useful in his own place as the philosopher in his; nor is it necessary to have many talents. One talent rightly used is much better than ten wrongly used. Often a man can do more with one than his contemporary can do with ten, often a man can make one dollar go farther than twenty in the hands of his neighbor, often the poor man lives more comfortably than the millionaire. All depends upon the individual himself. If he make right use of what the Creator has given him and live according to the laws of God and nature he is fulfilling his allotted place in the universal scheme of creation, in other words, when he does his best, he is living up to the standard of a useful manhood. Now in order to do his best a man of ordinary intelligence and education should be able to express himself correctly both in speaking and writing, that is, he should be able to convey his thoughts in an intelligent manner which the simplest can understand. The manner in which a speaker or writer conveys his thoughts is known as his Style. In other words _Style_ may be defined as the peculiar manner in which a man expresses his conceptions through the medium of language. It depends upon the choice of words and their arrangement to convey a meaning. Scarcely any two writers have exactly the same style, that is to say, express their ideas after the same peculiar form, just as no two mortals are fashioned by nature in the same mould, so that one is an exact counterpart of the other. Just as men differ in the accent and tones of their voices, so do they differ in the construction of their language. Two reporters sent out on the same mission, say to report a fire, will verbally differ in their accounts though materially both descriptions will be the same as far as the leading facts are concerned. One will express himself in a style _different_ from the other. If you are asked to describe the dancing of a red-haired lady at the last charity ball you can either say--"The ruby Circe, with the Titian locks glowing like the oriflamme which surrounds the golden god of day as he sinks to rest amid the crimson glory of the burnished West, gave a divine exhibition of the Terpsichorean art which thrilled the souls of the multitude" or, you can simply say--"The red-haired lady danced very well and pleased the audience." The former is a specimen of the ultra florid or bombastic style which may be said to depend upon the pomposity of verbosity for its effect, the latter is a specimen of simple _natural_ Style. Needless to say it is to be preferred. The other should be avoided. It stamps the writer as a person of shallowness, ignorance and inexperience. It has been eliminated from the newspapers. Even the most flatulent of yellow sheets no longer tolerate it in their columns. Affectation and pedantry in style are now universally condemned. It is the duty of every speaker and writer to labor after a pleasing style. It gains him an entrance where he would otherwise be debarred. Often the interest of a subject depends as much on the way it is presented as on the subject itself. One writer will make it attractive, another repulsive. For instance take a passage in history. Treated by one historian it is like a desiccated mummy, dry, dull, disgusting, while under the spell of another it is, as it were, galvanized into a virile living thing which not only pleases but captivates the reader. DICTION The first requisite of style is _choice_ of _words_, and this comes under the head of _Diction_, the property of style which has reference to the words and phrases used in speaking and writing. The secret of literary skill from any standpoint consists in putting the right word in the right place. In order to do this it is imperative to know the meaning of the words we use, their exact literal meaning. Many synonymous words are seemingly interchangeable and appear as if the same meaning were applicable to three or four of them at the same time, but when all such words are reduced to a final analysis it is clearly seen that there is a marked difference in their meaning. For instance _grief_ and _sorrow_ seem to be identical, but they are not. _Grief_ is active, _sorrow_ is more or less passive; _grief_ is caused by troubles and misfortunes which come to us from the outside, while _sorrow_ is often the consequence of our own acts. _Grief_ is frequently loud and violent, _sorrow_ is always quiet and retiring. _Grief_ shouts, _Sorrow_ remains calm. If you are not sure of the exact meaning of a word look it up immediately in the dictionary. Sometimes some of our great scholars are puzzled over simple words in regard to meaning, spelling or pronunciation. Whenever you meet a strange word note it down until you discover its meaning and use. Read the best books you can get, books written by men and women who are acknowledged masters of language, and study how they use their words, where they place them in the sentences, and the meanings they convey to the readers. Mix in good society. Listen attentively to good talkers and try to imitate their manner of expression. If a word is used you do not understand, don't be ashamed to ask its meaning. True, a small vocabulary will carry you through, but it is an advantage to have a large one. When you live alone a little pot serves just as well as a large one to cook your victuals and it is handy and convenient, but when your friends or neighbors come to dine with you, you will need a much larger pot and it is better to have it in store, so that you will not be put to shame for your scantiness of furnishings. Get as many words as you possibly can--if you don't need them now, pack them away in the garrets of your brain so that you can call upon them if you require them. Keep a note book, jot down the words you don't understand or clearly understand and consult the dictionary when you get time. PURITY _Purity_ of style consists in using words which are reputable, national and present, which means that the words are in current use by the best authorities, that they are used throughout the nation and not confined to one particular part, and that they are words in constant use at the present time. There are two guiding principles in the choice of words,--_good use_ and _good taste_. _Good use_ tells us whether a word is right or wrong; _good taste_, whether it is adapted to our purpose or not. A word that is obsolete or too new to have gained a place in the language, or that is a provincialism, should not be used. Here are the Ten Commandments of English style: (1) Do not use foreign words. (2) Do not use a long word when a short one will serve your purpose. _Fire_ is much better than _conflagration_. (3) Do not use technical words, or those understood only by specialists in their respective lines, except when you are writing especially for such people. (4) Do not use slang. (5) Do not use provincialisms, as "I guess" for "I think"; "I reckon" for "I know," etc. (6) Do not in writing prose, use poetical or antiquated words: as "lore, e'er, morn, yea, nay, verily, peradventure." (7) Do not use trite and hackneyed words and expressions; as, "on the job," "up and in"; "down and out." (8) Do not use newspaper words which have not established a place in the language as "to bugle"; "to suicide," etc. (9) Do not use ungrammatical words and forms; as, "I ain't;" "he don't." (10) Do not use ambiguous words or phrases; as--"He showed me all about the house." Trite words, similes and metaphors which have become hackneyed and worn out should be allowed to rest in the oblivion of past usage. Such expressions and phrases as "Sweet sixteen" "the Almighty dollar," "Uncle Sam," "On the fence," "The Glorious Fourth," "Young America," "The lords of creation," "The rising generation," "The weaker sex," "The weaker vessel," "Sweetness long drawn out" and "chief cook and bottle washer," should be put on the shelf as they are utterly worn out from too much usage. Some of the old similes which have outlived their usefulness and should be pensioned off, are "Sweet as sugar," "Bold as a lion," "Strong as an ox," "Quick as a flash," "Cold as ice," "Stiff as a poker," "White as snow," "Busy as a bee," "Pale as a ghost," "Rich as Croesus," "Cross as a bear" and a great many more far too numerous to mention. Be as original as possible in the use of expression. Don't follow in the old rut but try and strike out for yourself. This does not mean that you should try to set the style, or do anything outlandish or out of the way, or be an innovator on the prevailing custom. In order to be original there is no necessity for you to introduce something novel or establish a precedent. The probability is you are not fit to do either, by education or talent. While following the style of those who are acknowledged leaders you can be original in your language. Try and clothe an idea different from what it has been clothed and better. If you are speaking or writing of dancing don't talk or write about "tripping the light fantastic toe." It is over two hundred years since Milton expressed it that way in "_L'Allegro_." You're not a Milton and besides over a million have stolen it from Milton until it is now no longer worth stealing. Don't resurrect obsolete words such as _whilom_, _yclept_, _wis_, etc., and be careful in regard to obsolescent words, that is, words that are at the present time gradually passing from use such as _quoth, trow, betwixt, amongst, froward_, etc. And beware of new words. Be original in the construction and arrangement of your language, but don't try to originate words. Leave that to the Masters of language, and don't be the first to try such words, wait until the chemists of speech have tested them and passed upon their merits. Quintilian said--"Prefer the oldest of the new and the newest of the old." Pope put this in rhyme and it still holds good: In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold, Alike fantastic, if too new or old: Be not the first by whom the new are tried, Nor yet the last to lay the old aside. PROPRIETY _Propriety_ of style consists in using words in their proper sense and as in the case of purity, good usage is the principal test. Many words have acquired in actual use a meaning very different from what they once possessed. "Prevent" formerly meant to go before, and that meaning is implied in its Latin derivation. Now it means to put a stop to, to hinder. To attain propriety of style it is necessary to avoid confounding words derived from the same root; as _respectfully_ and _respectively_; it is necessary to use words in their accepted sense or the sense which everyday use sanctions. SIMPLICITY _Simplicity_ of style has reference to the choice of simple words and their unaffected presentation. Simple words should always be used in preference to compound, and complicated ones when they express the same or almost the same meaning. The Anglo-Saxon element in our language comprises the simple words which express the relations of everyday life, strong, terse, vigorous, the language of the fireside, street, market and farm. It is this style which characterizes the Bible and many of the great English classics such as the "Pilgrim's Progress," "Robinson Crusoe," and "Gulliver's Travels." CLEARNESS _Clearness_ of style should be one of the leading considerations with the beginner in composition. He must avoid all obscurity and ambiguous phrases. If he write a sentence or phrase and see that a meaning might be inferred from it otherwise than intended, he should re-write it in such a way that there can be no possible doubt. Words, phrases or clauses that are closely related should be placed as near to each other as possible that their mutual relation may clearly appear, and no word should be omitted that is necessary to the complete expression of thought. UNITY _Unity_ is that property of style which keeps all parts of a sentence in connection with the principal thought and logically subordinate to it. A sentence may be constructed as to suggest the idea of oneness to the mind, or it may be so loosely put together as to produce a confused and indefinite impression. Ideas that have but little connection should be expressed in separate sentences, and not crowded into one. Keep long parentheses out of the middle of your sentences and when you have apparently brought your sentences to a close don't try to continue the thought or idea by adding supplementary clauses. STRENGTH _Strength_ is that property of style which gives animation, energy and vivacity to language and sustains the interest of the reader. It is as necessary to language as good food is to the body. Without it the words are weak and feeble and create little or no impression on the mind. In order to have strength the language must be concise, that is, much expressed in little compass, you must hit the nail fairly on the head and drive it in straight. Go critically over what you write and strike out every word, phrase and clause the omission of which impairs neither the clearness nor force of the sentence and so avoid redundancy, tautology and circumlocution. Give the most important words the most prominent places, which, as has been pointed out elsewhere, are the beginning and end of the sentence. HARMONY _Harmony_ is that property of style which gives a smoothness to the sentence, so that when the words are sounded their connection becomes pleasing to the ear. It adapts sound to sense. Most people construct their sentences without giving thought to the way they will sound and as a consequence we have many jarring and discordant combinations such as "Thou strengthenedst thy position and actedst arbitrarily and derogatorily to my interests." Harsh, disagreeable verbs are liable to occur with the Quaker form _Thou_ of the personal pronoun. This form is now nearly obsolete, the plural _you_ being almost universally used. To obtain harmony in the sentence long words that are hard to pronounce and combinations of letters of one kind should be avoided. EXPRESSIVE OF WRITER Style is expressive of the writer, as to who he is and what he is. As a matter of structure in composition it is the indication of what a man can do; as a matter of quality it is an indication of what he is. KINDS OF STYLE Style has been classified in different ways, but it admits of so many designations that it is very hard to enumerate a table. In fact there are as many styles as there are writers, for no two authors write _exactly_ after the same form. However, we may classify the styles of the various authors in broad divisions as (1) dry, (2) plain, (3) neat, (4) elegant, (5) florid, (6) bombastic. The _dry_ style excludes all ornament and makes no effort to appeal to any sense of beauty. Its object is simply to express the thoughts in a correct manner. This style is exemplified by Berkeley. The _plain_ style does not seek ornamentation either, but aims to make clear and concise statements without any elaboration or embellishment. Locke and Whately illustrate the plain style. The _neat_ style only aspires after ornament sparingly. Its object is to have correct figures, pure diction and clear and harmonious sentences. Goldsmith and Gray are the acknowledged leaders in this kind of style. The _elegant_ style uses every ornament that can beautify and avoids every excess which would degrade. Macaulay and Addison have been enthroned as the kings of this style. To them all writers bend the knee in homage. The _florid_ style goes to excess in superfluous and superficial ornamentation and strains after a highly colored imagery. The poems of Ossian typify this style. The _bombastic_ is characterized by such an excess of words, figures and ornaments as to be ridiculous and disgusting. It is like a circus clown dressed up in gold tinsel Dickens gives a fine example of it in Sergeant Buzfuz' speech in the "Pickwick Papers." Among other varieties of style may be mentioned the colloquial, the laconic, the concise, the diffuse, the abrupt the flowing, the quaint, the epigrammatic, the flowery, the feeble, the nervous, the vehement, and the affected. The manner of these is sufficiently indicated by the adjective used to describe them. In fact style is as various as character and expresses the individuality of the writer, or in other words, as the French writer Buffon very aptly remarks, "the style is the man himself." CHAPTER X SUGGESTIONS How to Write--What to Write--Correct Speaking and Speakers Rules of grammar and rhetoric are good in their own place; their laws must be observed in order to express thoughts and ideas in the right way so that they shall convey a determinate sense and meaning in a pleasing and acceptable manner. Hard and fast rules, however, can never make a writer or author. That is the business of old Mother Nature and nothing can take her place. If nature has not endowed a man with faculties to put his ideas into proper composition he cannot do so. He may have no ideas worthy the recording. If a person has not a thought to express, it cannot be expressed. Something cannot be manufactured out of nothing. The author must have thoughts and ideas before he can express them on paper. These come to him by nature and environment and are developed and strengthened by study. There is an old Latin quotation in regard to the poet which says "Poeta nascitur non fit" the translation of which is--the poet is born, not made. To a great degree the same applies to the author. Some men are great scholars as far as book learning is concerned, yet they cannot express themselves in passable composition. Their knowledge is like gold locked up in a chest where it is of no value to themselves or the rest of the world. The best way to learn to write is to sit down and write, just as the best way how to learn to ride a bicycle is to mount the wheel and pedal away. Write first about common things, subjects that are familiar to you. Try for instance an essay on a cat. Say something original about her. Don't say "she is very playful when young but becomes grave as she grows old." That has been said more than fifty thousand times before. Tell what you have seen the family cat doing, how she caught a mouse in the garret and what she did after catching it. Familiar themes are always the best for the beginner. Don't attempt to describe a scene in Australia if you have never been there and know nothing of the country. Never hunt for subjects, there are thousands around you. Describe what you saw yesterday-- a fire, a runaway horse, a dog-fight on the street and be original in your description. Imitate the best writers in their _style_, but not in their exact words. Get out of the beaten path, make a pathway of your own. Know what you write about, write about what you know; this is a golden rule to which you must adhere. To know you must study. The world is an open book in which all who run may read. Nature is one great volume the pages of which are open to the peasant as well as to the peer. Study Nature's moods and tenses, for they are vastly more important than those of the grammar. Book learning is most desirable, but, after all, it is only theory and not practice. The grandest allegory in the English, in fact, in any language, was written by an ignorant, so-called ignorant, tinker named John Bunyan. Shakespeare was not a scholar in the sense we regard the term to-day, yet no man ever lived or probably ever will live that equalled or will equal him in the expression of thought. He simply read the book of nature and interpreted it from the standpoint of his own magnificent genius. Don't imagine that a college education is necessary to success as a writer. Far from it. Some of our college men are dead-heads, drones, parasites on the body social, not alone useless to the world but to themselves. A person may be so ornamental that he is valueless from any other standpoint. As a general rule ornamental things serve but little purpose. A man may know so much of everything that he knows little of anything. This may sound paradoxical, but, nevertheless, experience proves its truth. If you are poor that is not a detriment but an advantage. Poverty is an incentive to endeavor, not a drawback. Better to be born with a good, working brain in your head than with a gold spoon in your mouth. If the world had been depending on the so-called pets of fortune it would have deteriorated long ago. From the pits of poverty, from the arenas of suffering, from the hovels of neglect, from the backwood cabins of obscurity, from the lanes and by-ways of oppression, from the dingy garrets and basements of unending toil and drudgery have come men and women who have made history, made the world brighter, better, higher, holier for their existence in it, made of it a place good to live in and worthy to die in,--men and women who have hallowed it by their footsteps and sanctified it with their presence and in many cases consecrated it with their blood. Poverty is a blessing, not an evil, a benison from the Father's hand if accepted in the right spirit. Instead of retarding, it has elevated literature in all ages. Homer was a blind beggarman singing his snatches of song for the dole of charity; grand old Socrates, oracle of wisdom, many a day went without his dinner because he had not the wherewithal to get it, while teaching the youth of Athens. The divine Dante was nothing better than a beggar, houseless, homeless, friendless, wandering through Italy while he composed his immortal cantos. Milton, who in his blindness "looked where angels fear to tread," was steeped in poverty while writing his sublime conception, "Paradise Lost." Shakespeare was glad to hold and water the horses of patrons outside the White Horse Theatre for a few pennies in order to buy bread. Burns burst forth in never-dying song while guiding the ploughshare. Poor Heinrich Heine, neglected and in poverty, from his "mattress grave" of suffering in Paris added literary laurels to the wreath of his German Fatherland. In America Elihu Burritt, while attending the anvil, made himself a master of a score of languages and became the literary lion of his age and country. In other fields of endeavor poverty has been the spur to action. Napoleon was born in obscurity, the son of a hand-to-mouth scrivener in the backward island of Corsica. Abraham Lincoln, the boast and pride of America, the man who made this land too hot for the feet of slaves, came from a log cabin in the Ohio backwoods. So did James A. Garfield. Ulysses Grant came from a tanyard to become the world's greatest general. Thomas A. Edison commenced as a newsboy on a railway train. The examples of these men are incentives to action. Poverty thrust them forward instead of keeping them back. Therefore, if you are poor make your circumstances a means to an end. Have ambition, keep a goal in sight and bend every energy to reach that goal. A story is told of Thomas Carlyle the day he attained the highest honor the literary world could confer upon him when he was elected Lord Rector of Edinburgh University. After his installation speech, in going through the halls, he met a student seemingly deep in study. In his own peculiar, abrupt, crusty way the Sage of Chelsea interrogated the young man: "For what profession are you studying?" "I don't know," returned the youth. "You don't know," thundered Carlyle, "young man, you are a fool." Then he went on to qualify his vehement remark, "My boy when I was your age, I was stooped in grinding, gripping poverty in the little village of Ecclefechan, in the wilds of [Transcriber's note: Part of word illegible]-frieshire, where in all the place only the minister and myself could read the Bible, yet poor and obscure as I was, in my mind's eye I saw a chair awaiting for me in the Temple of Fame and day and night and night and day I studied until I sat in that chair to-day as Lord Rector of Edinburgh University." Another Scotchman, Robert Buchanan, the famous novelist, set out for London from Glasgow with but half-a-crown in his pocket. "Here goes," said he, "for a grave in Westminster Abbey." He was not much of a scholar, but his ambition carried him on and he became one of the great literary lions of the world's metropolis. Henry M. Stanley was a poorhouse waif whose real name was John Rowlands. He was brought up in a Welsh workhouse, but he had ambition, so he rose to be a great explorer, a great writer, became a member of Parliament and was knighted by the British Sovereign. Have ambition to succeed and you will succeed. Cut the word "failure" out of your lexicon. Don't acknowledge it. Remember "In life's earnest battle they only prevail Who daily march onward and never say fail." Let every obstacle you encounter be but a stepping stone in the path of onward progress to the goal of success. If untoward circumstances surround you, resolve to overcome them. Bunyan wrote the "Pilgrim's Progress" in Bedford jail on scraps of wrapping paper while he was half starved on a diet of bread and water. That unfortunate American genius, Edgar Allan Poe, wrote "The Raven," the most wonderful conception as well as the most highly artistic poem in all English literature, in a little cottage in the Fordham section of New York while he was in the direst straits of want. Throughout all his short and wonderfully brilliant career, poor Poe never had a dollar he could call his own. Such, however, was both his fault and his misfortune and he is a bad exemplar. Don't think that the knowledge of a library of books is essential to success as a writer. Often a multiplicity of books is confusing. Master a few good books and master them well and you will have all that is necessary. A great authority has said: "Beware of the man of one book," which means that a man of one book is a master of the craft. It is claimed that a thorough knowledge of the Bible alone will make any person a master of literature. Certain it is that the Bible and Shakespeare constitute an epitome of the essentials of knowledge. Shakespeare gathered the fruitage of all who went before him, he has sown the seeds for all who shall ever come after him. He was the great intellectual ocean whose waves touch the continents of all thought. Books are cheap now-a-days, the greatest works, thanks to the printing press, are within the reach of all, and the more you read, the better, provided they are worth reading. Sometimes a man takes poison into his system unconscious of the fact that it is poison, as in the case of certain foods, and it is very hard to throw off its effects. Therefore, be careful in your choice of reading matter. If you cannot afford a full library, and as has been said, such is not necessary, select a few of the great works of the master minds, assimilate and digest them, so that they will be of advantage to your literary system. Elsewhere in this volume is given a list of some of the world's masterpieces from which you can make a selection. Your brain is a storehouse, don't put useless furniture into it to crowd it to the exclusion of what is useful. Lay up only the valuable and serviceable kind which you can call into requisition at any moment. As it is necessary to study the best authors in order to be a writer, so it is necessary to study the best speakers in order to talk with correctness and in good style. To talk rightly you must imitate the masters of oral speech. Listen to the best conversationalists and how they express themselves. Go to hear the leading lectures, speeches and sermons. No need to imitate the gestures of elocution, it is nature, not art, that makes the elocutionist and the orator. It is not _how_ a speaker expresses himself but the language which he uses and the manner of its use which should interest you. Have you heard the present day masters of speech? There have been past time masters but their tongues are stilled in the dust of the grave, and you can only read their eloquence now. You can, however, listen to the charm of the living. To many of us voices still speak from the grave, voices to which we have listened when fired with the divine essence of speech. Perhaps you have hung with rapture on the words of Beecher and Talmage. Both thrilled the souls of men and won countless thousands over to a living gospel. Both were masters of words, they scattered the flowers of rhetoric on the shrine of eloquence and hurled veritable bouquets at their audiences which were eagerly seized by the latter and treasured in the storehouse of memory. Both were scholars and philosophers, yet they were far surpassed by Spurgeon, a plain man of the people with little or no claim to education in the modern sense of the word. Spurgeon by his speech attracted thousands to his Tabernacle. The Protestant and Catholic, Turk, Jew and Mohammedan rushed to hear him and listened, entranced, to his language. Such another was Dwight L. Moody, the greatest Evangelist the world has ever known. Moody was not a man of learning; he commenced life as a shoe salesman in Chicago, yet no man ever lived who drew such audiences and so fascinated them with the spell of his speech. "Oh, that was personal magnetism," you will say, but it was nothing of the kind. It was the burning words that fell from the lips of these men, and the way, the manner, the force with which they used those words that counted and attracted the crowds to listen unto them. Personal magnetism or personal appearance entered not as factors into their success. Indeed as far as physique were concerned, some of them were handicapped. Spurgeon was a short, podgy, fat little man, Moody was like a country farmer, Talmage in his big cloak was one of the most slovenly of men and only Beecher was passable in the way of refinement and gentlemanly bearing. Physical appearance, as so many think, is not the sesame to the interest of an audience. Daniel O'Connell, the Irish tribune, was a homely, ugly, awkward, ungainly man, yet his words attracted millions to his side and gained for him the hostile ear of the British Parliament, he was a master of verbiage and knew just what to say to captivate his audiences. It is words and their placing that count on almost all occasions. No matter how refined in other respects the person may be, if he use words wrongly and express himself in language not in accordance with a proper construction, he will repel you, whereas the man who places his words correctly and employs language in harmony with the laws of good speech, let him be ever so humble, will attract and have an influence over you. The good speaker, the correct speaker, is always able to command attention and doors are thrown open to him which remain closed to others not equipped with a like facility of expression. The man who can talk well and to the point need never fear to go idle. He is required in nearly every walk of life and field of human endeavor, the world wants him at every turn. Employers are constantly on the lookout for good talkers, those who are able to attract the public and convince others by the force of their language. A man may be able, educated, refined, of unblemished character, nevertheless if he lack the power to express himself, put forth his views in good and appropriate speech he has to take a back seat, while some one with much less ability gets the opportunity to come to the front because he can clothe his ideas in ready words and talk effectively. You may again say that nature, not art, makes a man a fluent speaker; to a great degree this is true, but it is _art_ that makes him a _correct_ speaker, and correctness leads to fluency. It is possible for everyone to become a correct speaker if he will but persevere and take a little pains and care. At the risk of repetition good advice may be here emphasized: Listen to the best speakers and note carefully the words which impress you most. Keep a notebook and jot down words, phrases, sentences that are in any way striking or out of the ordinary run. If you do not understand the exact meaning of a word you have heard, look it up in the dictionary. There are many words, called synonyms, which have almost a like signification, nevertheless, when examined they express different shades of meaning and in some cases, instead of being close related, are widely divergent. Beware of such words, find their exact meaning and learn to use them in their right places. Be open to criticism, don't resent it but rather invite it and look upon those as friends who point out your defects in order that you may remedy them. CHAPTER XI SLANG Origin--American Slang--Foreign Slang Slang is more or less common in nearly all ranks of society and in every walk of life at the present day. Slang words and expressions have crept into our everyday language, and so insiduously, that they have not been detected by the great majority of speakers, and so have become part and parcel of their vocabulary on an equal footing with the legitimate words of speech. They are called upon to do similar service as the ordinary words used in everyday conversation--to express thoughts and desires and convey meaning from one to another. In fact, in some cases, slang has become so useful that it has far outstripped classic speech and made for itself such a position in the vernacular that it would be very hard in some cases to get along without it. Slang words have usurped the place of regular words of language in very many instances and reign supreme in their own strength and influence. Cant and slang are often confused in the popular mind, yet they are not synonymous, though very closely allied, and proceeding from a common Gypsy origin. Cant is the language of a certain class--the peculiar phraseology or dialect of a certain craft, trade or profession, and is not readily understood save by the initiated of such craft, trade or profession. It may be correct, according to the rules of grammar, but it is not universal; it is confined to certain parts and localities and is only intelligible to those for whom it is intended. In short, it is an esoteric language which only the initiated can understand. The jargon, or patter, of thieves is cant and it is only understood by thieves who have been let into its significance; the initiated language of professional gamblers is cant, and is only intelligible to gamblers. On the other hand, slang, as it is nowadays, belongs to no particular class but is scattered all over and gets _entre_ into every kind of society and is understood by all where it passes current in everyday expression. Of course, the nature of the slang, to a great extent, depends upon the locality, as it chiefly is concerned with colloquialisms or words and phrases common to a particular section. For instance, the slang of London is slightly different from that of New York, and some words in the one city may be unintelligible in the other, though well understood in that in which they are current. Nevertheless, slang may be said to be universally understood. "To kick the bucket," "to cross the Jordan," "to hop the twig" are just as expressive of the departing from life in the backwoods of America or the wilds of Australia as they are in London or Dublin. Slang simply consists of words and phrases which pass current but are not refined, nor elegant enough, to be admitted into polite speech or literature whenever they are recognized as such. But, as has been said, a great many use slang without their knowing it as slang and incorporate it into their everyday speech and conversation. Some authors purposely use slang to give emphasis and spice in familiar and humorous writing, but they should not be imitated by the tyro. A master, such as Dickens, is forgivable, but in the novice it is unpardonable. There are several kinds of slang attached to different professions and classes of society. For instance, there is college slang, political slang, sporting slang, etc. It is the nature of slang to circulate freely among all classes, yet there are several kinds of this current form of language corresponding to the several classes of society. The two great divisions of slang are the vulgar of the uneducated and coarse-minded, and the high-toned slang of the so-called upper classes--the educated and the wealthy. The hoyden of the gutter does not use the same slang as my lady in her boudoir, but both use it, and so expressive is it that the one might readily understand the other if brought in contact. Therefore, there are what may be styled an ignorant slang and an educated slang--the one common to the purlieus and the alleys, the other to the parlor and the drawing-room. In all cases the object of slang is to express an idea in a more vigorous, piquant and terse manner than standard usage ordinarily admits. A school girl, when she wants to praise a baby, exclaims: "Oh, isn't he awfully cute!" To say that he is very nice would be too weak a way to express her admiration. When a handsome girl appears on the street an enthusiastic masculine admirer, to express his appreciation of her beauty, tells you: "She is a peach, a bird, a cuckoo," any of which accentuates his estimation of the young lady and is much more emphatic than saying: "She is a beautiful girl," "a handsome maiden," or "lovely young woman." When a politician defeats his rival he will tell you "it was a cinch," he had a "walk-over," to impress you how easy it was to gain the victory. Some slang expressions are of the nature of metaphors and are highly figurative. Such are "to pass in your checks," "to hold up," "to pull the wool over your eyes," "to talk through your hat," "to fire out," "to go back on," "to make yourself solid with," "to have a jag on," "to be loaded," "to freeze on to," "to bark up the wrong tree," "don't monkey with the buzz-saw," and "in the soup." Most slang had a bad origin. The greater part originated in the cant of thieves' Latin, but it broke away from this cant of malefactors in time and gradually evolved itself from its unsavory past until it developed into a current form of expressive speech. Some slang, however, can trace its origin back to very respectable sources. "Stolen fruits are sweet" may be traced to the Bible in sentiment. Proverbs, ix:17 has it: "Stolen waters are sweet." "What are you giving me," supposed to be a thorough Americanism, is based upon Genesis, xxxviii:16. The common slang, "a bad man," in referring to Western desperadoes, in almost the identical sense now used, is found in Spenser's _Faerie Queen_, Massinger's play _"A New Way to Pay Old Debts,_" and in Shakespeare's _"King Henry VIII_." The expression "to blow on," meaning to inform, is in Shakespeare's _"As You Like it_." "It's all Greek to me" is traceable to the play of _"Julius Caesar_." "All cry and no wool" is in Butler's _"Hudibras_." "Pious frauds," meaning hypocrites, is from the same source. "Too thin," referring to an excuse, is from Smollett's "_Peregrine Pickle_." Shakespeare also used it. America has had a large share in contributing to modern slang. "The heathen Chinee," and "Ways that are dark, and tricks that are vain," are from Bret Harte's _Truthful James_. "Not for Joe," arose during the Civil War when one soldier refused to give a drink to another. "Not if I know myself" had its origin in Chicago. "What's the matter with----? He's all right," had its beginning in Chicago also and first was "What's the matter with Hannah." referring to a lazy domestic servant. "There's millions in it," and "By a large majority" come from Mark Twain's _Gilded Age_. "Pull down your vest," "jim-jams," "got 'em bad," "that's what's the matter," "go hire a hall," "take in your sign," "dry up," "hump yourself," "it's the man around the corner," "putting up a job," "put a head on him," "no back talk," "bottom dollar," "went off on his ear," "chalk it down," "staving him off," "making it warm," "dropping him gently," "dead gone," "busted," "counter jumper," "put up or shut up," "bang up," "smart Aleck," "too much jaw," "chin-music," "top heavy," "barefooted on the top of the head," "a little too fresh," "champion liar," "chief cook and bottle washer," "bag and baggage," "as fine as silk," "name your poison," "died with his boots on," "old hoss," "hunkey dorey," "hold your horses," "galoot" and many others in use at present are all Americanisms in slang. California especially has been most fecund in this class of figurative language. To this State we owe "go off and die," "don't you forget it," "rough deal," "square deal," "flush times," "pool your issues," "go bury yourself," "go drown yourself," "give your tongue a vacation," "a bad egg," "go climb a tree," "plug hats," "Dolly Vardens," "well fixed," "down to bed rock," "hard pan," "pay dirt," "petered out," "it won't wash," "slug of whiskey," "it pans out well," and "I should smile." "Small potatoes, and few in the hill," "soft snap," "all fired," "gol durn it," "an up-hill job," "slick," "short cut," "guess not," "correct thing" are Bostonisms. The terms "innocent," "acknowledge the corn," "bark up the wrong tree," "great snakes," "I reckon," "playing 'possum," "dead shot," had their origin in the Southern States. "Doggone it," "that beats the Dutch," "you bet," "you bet your boots," sprang from New York. "Step down and out" originated in the Beecher trial, just as "brain-storm" originated in the Thaw trial. Among the slang phrases that have come directly to us from England may be mentioned "throw up the sponge," "draw it mild," "give us a rest," "dead beat," "on the shelf," "up the spout," "stunning," "gift of the gab," etc. The newspapers are responsible for a large part of the slang. Reporters, staff writers, and even editors, put words and phrases into the mouths of individuals which they never utter. New York is supposed to be the headquarters of slang, particularly that portion of it known as the Bowery. All transgressions and corruptions of language are supposed to originate in that unclassic section, while the truth is that the laws of polite English are as much violated on Fifth Avenue. Of course, the foreign element mincing their "pidgin" English have given the Bowery an unenviable reputation, but there are just as good speakers of the vernacular on the Bowery as elsewhere in the greater city. Yet every inexperienced newspaper reporter thinks that it is incumbent on him to hold the Bowery up to ridicule and laughter, so he sits down, and out of his circumscribed brain, mutilates the English tongue (he can rarely coin a word), and blames the mutilation on the Bowery. 'Tis the same with newspapers and authors, too, detracting the Irish race. Men and women who have never seen the green hills of Ireland, paint Irish characters as boors and blunderers and make them say ludicrous things and use such language as is never heard within the four walls of Ireland. 'Tis very well known that Ireland is the most learned country on the face of the earth--is, and has been. The schoolmaster has been abroad there for hundreds, almost thousands, of years, and nowhere else in the world to-day is the king's English spoken so purely as in the cities and towns of the little Western Isle. Current events, happenings of everyday life, often give rise to slang words, and these, after a time, come into such general use that they take their places in everyday speech like ordinary words and, as has been said, their users forget that they once were slang. For instance, the days of the Land League in Ireland originated the word _boycott_, which was the name of a very unpopular landlord, Captain Boycott. The people refused to work for him, and his crops rotted on the ground. From this time any one who came into disfavor and whom his neighbors refused to assist in any way was said to be boycotted. Therefore to boycott means to punish by abandoning or depriving a person of the assistance of others. At first it was a notoriously slang word, but now it is standard in the English dictionaries. Politics add to our slang words and phrases. From this source we get "dark horse," "the gray mare is the better horse," "barrel of money," "buncombe," "gerrymander," "scalawag," "henchman," "logrolling," "pulling the wires," "taking the stump," "machine," "slate," etc. The money market furnishes us with "corner," "bull," "bear," "lamb," "slump," and several others. The custom of the times and the requirements of current expression require the best of us to use slang words and phrases on occasions. Often we do not know they are slang, just as a child often uses profane words without consciousness of their being so. We should avoid the use of slang as much as possible, even when it serves to convey our ideas in a forceful manner. And when it has not gained a firm foothold in current speech it should be used not at all. Remember that most all slang is of vulgar origin and bears upon its face the bend sinister of vulgarity. Of the slang that is of good birth, pass it by if you can, for it is like a broken-down gentleman, of little good to any one. Imitate the great masters as much as you will in classical literature, but when it comes to their slang, draw the line. Dean Swift, the great Irish satirist, coined the word "phiz" for face. Don't imitate him. If you are speaking or writing of the beauty of a lady's face don't call it her "phiz." The Dean, as an intellectual giant, had a license to do so--you haven't. Shakespeare used the word "flush" to indicate plenty of money. Well, just remember there was only one Shakespeare, and he was the only one that had a right to use that word in that sense. You'll never be a Shakespeare, there will never be such another--Nature exhausted herself in producing him. Bulwer used the word "stretch" for hang, as to stretch his neck. Don't follow his example in such use of the word. Above all, avoid the low, coarse, vulgar slang, which is made to pass for wit among the riff-raff of the street. If you are speaking or writing of a person having died last night don't say or write: "He hopped the twig," or "he kicked the bucket." If you are compelled to listen to a person discoursing on a subject of which he knows little or nothing, don't say "He is talking through his hat." If you are telling of having shaken hands with Mr. Roosevelt don't say "He tipped me his flipper." If you are speaking of a wealthy man don't say "He has plenty of spondulix," or "the long green." All such slang is low, coarse and vulgar and is to be frowned upon on any and every occasion. If you use slang use the refined kind and use it like a gentleman, that it will not hurt or give offense to any one. Cardinal Newman defined a gentleman as he who never inflicts pain. Be a gentleman in your slang-- never inflict pain. CHAPTER XII WRITING FOR NEWSPAPERS Qualification--Appropriate Subjects--Directions The newspaper nowadays goes into every home in the land; what was formerly regarded as a luxury is now looked upon as a necessity. No matter how poor the individual, he is not too poor to afford a penny to learn, not alone what is taking place around him in his own immediate vicinity, but also what is happening in every quarter of the globe. The laborer on the street can be as well posted on the news of the day as the banker in his office. Through the newspaper he can feel the pulse of the country and find whether its vitality is increasing or diminishing; he can read the signs of the times and scan the political horizon for what concerns his own interests. The doings of foreign countries are spread before him and he can see at a glance the occurrences in the remotest corners of earth. If a fire occurred in London last night he can read about it at his breakfast table in New York this morning, and probably get a better account than the Londoners themselves. If a duel takes place in Paris he can read all about it even before the contestants have left the field. There are upwards of 3,000 daily newspapers in the United States, more than 2,000 of which are published in towns containing less than 100,000 inhabitants. In fact, many places of less than 10,000 population can boast the publishing of a daily newspaper. There are more than 15,000 weeklies published. Some of the so-called country papers wield quite an influence in their localities, and even outside, and are money-making agencies for their owners and those connected with them, both by way of circulation and advertisements. It is surprising the number of people in this country who make a living in the newspaper field. Apart from the regular toilers there are thousands of men and women who make newspaper work a side issue, who add tidy sums of "pin money" to their incomes by occasional contributions to the daily, weekly and monthly press. Most of these people are only persons of ordinary, everyday ability, having just enough education to express themselves intelligently in writing. It is a mistake to imagine, as so many do, that an extended education is necessary for newspaper work. Not at all! On the contrary, in some cases, a high-class education is a hindrance, not a help in this direction. The general newspaper does not want learned disquisitions nor philosophical theses; as its name implies, it wants news, current news, interesting news, something to appeal to its readers, to arouse them and rivet their attention. In this respect very often a boy can write a better article than a college professor. The professor would be apt to use words beyond the capacity of most of the readers, while the boy, not knowing such words, would probably simply tell what he saw, how great the damage was, who were killed or injured, etc., and use language which all would understand. Of course, there are some brilliant scholars, deeply-read men and women in the newspaper realm, but, on the whole, those who have made the greatest names commenced ignorant enough and most of them graduated by way of the country paper. Some of the leading writers of England and America at the present time started their literary careers by contributing to the rural press. They perfected and polished themselves as they went along until they were able to make names for themselves in universal literature. If you want to contribute to newspapers or enter the newspaper field as a means of livelihood, don't let lack of a college or university education stand in your way. As has been said elsewhere in this book, some of the greatest masters of English literature were men who had but little advantage in the way of book learning. Shakespeare, Bunyan, Burns, and scores of others, who have left their names indelibly inscribed on the tablets of fame, had little to boast of in the way of book education, but they had what is popularly known as "horse" sense and a good working knowledge of the world; in other words, they understood human nature, and were natural themselves. Shakespeare understood mankind because he was himself a man; hence he has portrayed the feelings, the emotions, the passions with a master's touch, delineating the king in his palace as true to nature as he has done the peasant in his hut. The monitor within his own breast gave him warning as to what was right and what was wrong, just as the daemon ever by the side of old Socrates whispered in his ear the course to pursue under any and all circumstances. Burns guiding the plough conceived thoughts and clothed them in a language which has never, nor probably never will be, surpassed by all the learning which art can confer. These men were natural, and it was the perfection of this naturality that wreathed their brows with the never-fading laurels of undying fame. If you would essay to write for the newspaper you must be natural and express yourself in your accustomed way without putting on airs or frills; you must not ape ornaments and indulge in bombast or rhodomontade which stamp a writer as not only superficial but silly. There is no room for such in the everyday newspaper. It wants facts stated in plain, unvarnished, unadorned language. True, you should read the best authors and, as far as possible, imitate their style, but don't try to literally copy them. Be yourself on every occasion--no one else. Not like Homer would I write, Not like Dante if I might, Not like Shakespeare at his best, Not like Goethe or the rest, Like myself, however small, Like myself, or not at all. Put yourself in place of the reader and write what will interest yourself and in such a way that your language will appeal to your own ideas of the fitness of things. You belong to the _great_ commonplace majority, therefore don't forget that in writing for the newspapers you are writing for that majority and not for the learned and aesthetic minority. Remember you are writing for the man on the street and in the street car, you want to interest him, to compel him to read what you have to say. He does not want a display of learning; he wants news about something which concerns himself, and you must tell it to him in a plain, simple manner just as you would do if you were face to face with him. What can you write about? Why about anything that will constitute current news, some leading event of the day, anything that will appeal to the readers of the paper to which you wish to submit it. No matter in what locality you may live, however backward it may be, you can always find something of genuine human interest to others. If there is no news happening, write of something that appeals to yourself. We are all constituted alike, and the chances are that what will interest you will interest others. Descriptions of adventure are generally acceptable. Tell of a fox hunt, or a badger hunt, or a bear chase. If there is any important manufacturing plant in your neighborhood describe it and, if possible, get photographs, for photography plays a very important part in the news items of to-day. If a "great" man lives near you, one whose name is on the tip of every tongue, go and get an interview with him, obtain his views on the public questions of the day, describe his home life and his surroundings and how he spends his time. Try and strike something germane to the moment, something that stands out prominently in the limelight of the passing show. If a noted personage, some famous man or woman, is visiting the country, it is a good time to write up the place from which he or she comes and the record he or she has made there. For instance, it was opportune to write of Sulu and the little Pacific archipelago during the Sultan's trip through the country. If an attempt is made to blow up an American battleship, say, in the harbor of Appia, in Samoa, it affords a chance to write about Samoa and Robert Louis Stephenson. When Manuel was hurled from the throne of Portugal it was a ripe time to write of Portugal and Portuguese affairs. If any great occurrence is taking place in a foreign country such as the crowning of a king or the dethronement of a monarch, it is a good time to write up the history of the country and describe the events leading up to the main issue. When a particularly savage outbreak occurs amongst wild tribes in the dependencies, such as a rising of the Manobos in the Philippines, it is opportune to write of such tribes and their surroundings, and the causes leading up to the revolt. Be constantly on the lookout for something that will suit the passing hour, read the daily papers and probably in some obscure corner you may find something that will serve you as a foundation for a good article-- something, at least, that will give you a clue. Be circumspect in your selection of a paper to which to submit your copy. Know the tone and general import of the paper, its social leanings and political affiliations, also its religious sentiments, and, in fact, all the particulars you can regarding it. It would be injudicious for you to send an article on a prize fight to a religious paper or, _vice versa_, an account of a church meeting to the editor of a sporting sheet. If you get your copy back don't be disappointed nor yet disheartened. Perseverance counts more in the newspaper field than anywhere else, and only perseverance wins in the long run. You must become resilient; if you are pressed down, spring up again. No matter how many rebuffs you may receive, be not discouraged but call fresh energy to your assistance and make another stand. If the right stuff is in you it is sure to be discovered; your light will not remain long hidden under a bushel in the newspaper domain. If you can deliver the goods editors will soon be begging you instead of your begging them. Those men are constantly on the lookout for persons who can make good. Once you get into print the battle is won, for it will be an incentive to you to persevere and improve yourself at every turn. Go over everything you write, cut and slash and prune until you get it into as perfect form as possible. Eliminate every superfluous word and be careful to strike out all ambiguous expressions and references. If you are writing for a weekly paper remember it differs from a daily one. Weeklies want what will not alone interest the man on the street, but the woman at the fireside; they want out-of-the-way facts, curious scraps of lore, personal notes of famous or eccentric people, reminiscences of exciting experiences, interesting gleanings in life's numberless by-ways, in short, anything that will entertain, amuse, instruct the home circle. There is always something occurring in your immediate surroundings, some curious event or thrilling episode that will furnish you with data for an article. You must know the nature of the weekly to which you submit your copy the same as you must know the daily. For instance, the _Christian Herald_, while avowedly a religious weekly, treats such secular matter as makes the paper appeal to all. On its religious side it is _non-sectarian_, covering the broad field of Christianity throughout the world; on its secular side it deals with human events in such an impartial way that every one, no matter to what class they may belong or to what creed they may subscribe, can take a living, personal interest. The monthlies offer another attractive field for the literary aspirant. Here, again, don't think you must be an university professor to write for a monthly magazine. Many, indeed most, of the foremost magazine contributors are men and women who have never passed through a college except by going in at the front door and emerging from the back one. However, for the most part, they are individuals of wide experience who know the practical side of life as distinguished from the theoretical. The ordinary monthly magazine treats of the leading questions and issues which are engaging the attention of the world for the moment, great inventions, great discoveries, whatever is engrossing the popular mind for the time being, such as flying machines, battleships, sky-scrapers, the opening of mines, the development of new lands, the political issues, views of party leaders, character sketches of distinguished personages, etc. However, before trying your skill for a monthly magazine it would be well for you to have a good apprenticeship in writing for the daily press. Above all things, remember that perseverance is the key that opens the door of success. Persevere! If you are turned down don't get disheartened; on the contrary, let the rebuff act as a stimulant to further effort. Many of the most successful writers of our time have been turned down again and again. For days and months, and even years, some of them have hawked their wares from one literary door to another until they found a purchaser. You may be a great writer in embryo, but you will never develop into a fetus, not to speak of full maturity, unless you bring out what is in you. Give yourself a chance to grow and seize upon everything that will enlarge the scope of your horizon. Keep your eyes wide open and there is not a moment of the day in which you will not see something to interest you and in which you may be able to interest others. Learn, too, how to read Nature's book. There's a lesson in everything--in the stones, the grass, the trees, the babbling brooks and the singing birds. Interpret the lesson for yourself, then teach it to others. Always be in earnest in your writing; go about it in a determined kind of way, don't be faint-hearted or backward, be brave, be brave, and evermore be brave. On the wide, tented field in the battle of life, With an army of millions before you; Like a hero of old gird your soul for the strife And let not the foeman tramp o'er you; Act, act like a soldier and proudly rush on The most valiant in Bravery's van, With keen, flashing sword cut your way to the front And show to the world you're a _Man_. If you are of the masculine gender be a man in all things in the highest and best acceptation of the word. That is the noblest title you can boast, higher far than that of earl or duke, emperor or king. In the same way womanhood is the grandest crown the feminine head can wear. When the world frowns on you and everything seems to go wrong, possess your soul in patience and hope for the dawn of a brighter day. It will come. The sun is always shining behind the darkest clouds. When you get your manuscripts back again and again, don't despair, nor think the editor cruel and unkind. He, too, has troubles of his own. Keep up your spirits until you have made the final test and put your talents to a last analysis, then if you find you cannot get into print be sure that newspaper writing or literary work is not your _forte_, and turn to something else. If nothing better presents itself, try shoemaking or digging ditches. Remember honest labor, no matter how humble, is ever dignified. If you are a woman throw aside the pen, sit down and darn your brother's, your father's, or your husband's socks, or put on a calico apron, take soap and water and scrub the floor. No matter who you are do something useful. That old sophistry about the world owing you a living has been exploded long ago. The world does not owe you a living, but you owe it servitude, and if you do not pay the debt you are not serving the purpose of an all-wise Providence and filling the place for which you were created. It is for you to serve the world, to make it better, brighter, higher, holier, grander, nobler, richer, for your having lived in it. This you can do in no matter what position fortune has cast you, whether it be that of street laborer or president. Fight the good fight and gain the victory. "Above all, to thine own self be true, And 'twill follow as the night the day, Thou canst not then be false to any man." CHAPTER XIII CHOICE OF WORDS Small Words--Their Importance--The Anglo-Saxon Element In another place in this book advice has been given to never use a long word when a short one will serve the same purpose. This advice is to be emphasized. Words of "learned length and thundering sound" should be avoided on all possible occasions. They proclaim shallowness of intellect and vanity of mind. The great purists, the masters of diction, the exemplars of style, used short, simple words that all could understand; words about which there could be no ambiguity as to meaning. It must be remembered that by our words we teach others; therefore, a very great responsibility rests upon us in regard to the use of a right language. We must take care that we think and speak in a way so clear that there may be no misapprehension or danger of conveying wrong impressions by vague and misty ideas enunciated in terms which are liable to be misunderstood by those whom we address. Words give a body or form to our ideas, without which they are apt to be so foggy that we do not see where they are weak or false. We must make the endeavor to employ such words as will put the idea we have in our own mind into the mind of another. This is the greatest art in the world--to clothe our ideas in words clear and comprehensive to the intelligence of others. It is the art which the teacher, the minister, the lawyer, the orator, the business man, must master if they would command success in their various fields of endeavor. It is very hard to convey an idea to, and impress it on, another when he has but a faint conception of the language in which the idea is expressed; but it is impossible to convey it at all when the words in which it is clothed are unintelligible to the listener. If we address an audience of ordinary men and women in the English language, but use such words as they cannot comprehend, we might as well speak to them in Coptic or Chinese, for they will derive no benefit from our address, inasmuch as the ideas we wish to convey are expressed in words which communicate no intelligent meaning to their minds. Long words, learned words, words directly derived from other languages are only understood by those who have had the advantages of an extended education. All have not had such advantages. The great majority in this grand and glorious country of ours have to hustle for a living from an early age. Though education is free, and compulsory also, very many never get further than the "Three R's." These are the men with whom we have to deal most in the arena of life, the men with the horny palms and the iron muscles, the men who build our houses, construct our railroads, drive our street cars and trains, till our fields, harvest our crops--in a word, the men who form the foundation of all society, the men on whom the world depends to make its wheels go round. The language of the colleges and universities is not for them and they can get along very well without it; they have no need for it at all in their respective callings. The plain, simple words of everyday life, to which the common people have been used around their own firesides from childhood, are the words we must use in our dealings with them. Such words are understood by them and understood by the learned as well; why then not use them universally and all the time? Why make a one-sided affair of language by using words which only one class of the people, the so-called learned class, can understand? Would it not be better to use, on all occasions, language which the both classes can understand? If we take the trouble to investigate we shall find that the men who exerted the greatest sway over the masses and the multitude as orators, lawyers, preachers and in other public capacities, were men who used very simple language. Daniel Webster was among the greatest orators this country has produced. He touched the hearts of senates and assemblages, of men and women with the burning eloquence of his words. He never used a long word when he could convey the same, or nearly the same, meaning with a short one. When he made a speech he always told those who put it in form for the press to strike out every long word. Study his speeches, go over all he ever said or wrote, and you will find that his language was always made up of short, clear, strong terms, although at times, for the sake of sound and oratorical effect, he was compelled to use a rather long word, but it was always against his inclination to do so, and where was the man who could paint, with words, as Webster painted! He could picture things in a way so clear that those who heard him felt that they had seen that of which he spoke. Abraham Lincoln was another who stirred the souls of men, yet he was not an orator, not a scholar; he did not write M.A. or Ph.D. after his name, or any other college degree, for he had none. He graduated from the University of Hard Knocks, and he never forgot this severe _Alma Mater_ when he became President of the United States. He was just as plain, I just as humble, as in the days when he split rails or plied a boat on the Sangamon. He did not use big words, but he used the words of the people, and in such a way as to make them beautiful. His Gettysburg address is an English classic, one of the great masterpieces of the language. From the mere fact that a word is short it does not follow that it is always clear, but it is true that nearly all clear words are short, and that most of the long words, especially those which we get from other languages, are misunderstood to a great extent by the ordinary rank and file of the people. Indeed, it is to be doubted if some of the "scholars" using them, fully understand their import on occasions. A great many such words admit of several interpretations. A word has to be in use a great deal before people get thoroughly familiar with its meaning. Long words, not alone obscure thought and make the ideas hazy, but at times they tend to mix up things in such a way that positively harmful results follow from their use. For instance, crime can be so covered with the folds of long words as to give it a different appearance. Even the hideousness of sin can be cloaked with such words until its outlines look like a thing of beauty. When a bank cashier makes off with a hundred thousand dollars we politely term his crime _defalcation_ instead of plain _theft_, and instead of calling himself a _thief_ we grandiosely allude to him as a _defaulter_. When we see a wealthy man staggering along a fashionable thoroughfare under the influence of alcohol, waving his arms in the air and shouting boisterously, we smile and say, poor gentleman, he is somewhat _exhilarated_; or at worst we say, he is slightly _inebriated_; but when we see a poor man who has fallen from grace by putting an "enemy into his mouth to steal away his brain" we express our indignation in the simple language of the words: "Look at the wretch; he is dead drunk." When we find a person in downright lying we cover the falsehood with the finely-spun cloak of the word _prevarication_. Shakespeare says, "a rose by any other name would smell as sweet," and by a similar sequence, a lie, no matter by what name you may call it, is always a lie and should be condemned; then why not simply call it a lie? Mean what you say and say what you mean; call a spade a spade, it is the best term you can apply to the implement. When you try to use short words and shun long ones in a little while you will find that you can do so with ease. A farmer was showing a horse to a city-bred gentleman. The animal was led into a paddock in which an old sow-pig was rooting. "What a fine quadruped!" exclaimed the city man. "Which of the two do you mean, the pig or the horse?" queried the farmer, "for, in my opinion, both of them are fine quadrupeds." Of course the visitor meant the horse, so it would have been much better had he called the animal by its simple; ordinary name--, there would have been no room for ambiguity in his remark. He profited, however, by the incident, and never called a horse a quadruped again. Most of the small words, the simple words, the beautiful words which express so much within small bounds belong to the pure Anglo-Saxon element of our language. This element has given names to the heavenly bodies, the sun, moon and stars; to three out of the four elements, earth, fire and water; three out of the four seasons, spring, summer and winter. Its simple words are applied to all the natural divisions of time, except one, as day, night, morning, evening, twilight, noon, mid-day, midnight, sunrise and sunset. The names of light, heat, cold, frost, rain, snow, hail, sleet, thunder, lightning, as well as almost all those objects which form the component parts of the beautiful, as expressed in external scenery, such as sea and land, hill and dale, wood and stream, etc., are Anglo-Saxon. To this same language we are indebted for those words which express the earliest and dearest connections, and the strongest and most powerful feelings of Nature, and which, as a consequence, are interwoven with the fondest and most hallowed associations. Of such words are father, mother, husband, wife, brother, sister, son, daughter, child, home, kindred, friend, hearth, roof and fireside. The chief emotions of which we are susceptible are expressed in the same language--love, hope, fear, sorrow, shame, and also the outward signs by which these emotions are indicated, as tear, smile, laugh, blush, weep, sigh, groan. Nearly all our national proverbs are Anglo-Saxon. Almost all the terms and phrases by which we most energetically express anger, contempt and indignation are of the same origin. What are known as the Smart Set and so-called polite society, are relegating a great many of our old Anglo-Saxon words into the shade, faithful friends who served their ancestors well. These self-appointed arbiters of diction regard some of the Anglo-Saxon words as too coarse, too plebeian for their aesthetic tastes and refined ears, so they are eliminating them from their vocabulary and replacing them with mongrels of foreign birth and hybrids of unknown origin. For the ordinary people, however, the man in the street or in the field, the woman in the kitchen or in the factory, they are still tried and true and, like old friends, should be cherished and preferred to all strangers, no matter from what source the latter may spring. CHAPTER XIV ENGLISH LANGUAGE Beginning--Different Sources--The Present The English language is the tongue now current in England and her colonies throughout the world and also throughout the greater part of the United States of America. It sprang from the German tongue spoken by the Teutons, who came over to Britain after the conquest of that country by the Romans. These Teutons comprised Angles, Saxons, Jutes and several other tribes from the northern part of Germany. They spoke different dialects, but these became blended in the new country, and the composite tongue came to be known as the Anglo-Saxon which has been the main basis for the language as at present constituted and is still the prevailing element. Therefore those who are trying to do away with some of the purely Anglo-Saxon words, on the ground that they are not refined enough to express their aesthetic ideas, are undermining main props which are necessary for the support of some important parts in the edifice of the language. The Anglo-Saxon element supplies the essential parts of speech, the article, pronoun of all kinds, the preposition, the auxiliary verbs, the conjunctions, and the little particles which bind words into sentences and form the joints, sinews and ligaments of the language. It furnishes the most indispensable words of the vocabulary. (See Chap. XIII.) Nowhere is the beauty of Anglo-Saxon better illustrated than in the Lord's Prayer. Fifty-four words are pure Saxon and the remaining ones could easily be replaced by Saxon words. The gospel of St. John is another illustration of the almost exclusive use of Anglo-Saxon words. Shakespeare, at his best, is Anglo-Saxon. Here is a quotation from the _Merchant of Venice_, and of the fifty-five words fifty-two are Anglo-Saxon, the remaining three French: All that glitters is not gold-- Often have you heard that told; Many a man his life hath sold, But my outside to behold. Guilded _tombs_ do worms infold. Had you been as wise as bold, Young in limbs, in _judgment_ old, Your answer had not been inscrolled-- Fare you well, your _suit_ is cold. The lines put into the mouth of Hamlet's father in fierce intenseness, second only to Dante's inscription on the gate of hell, have one hundred and eight Anglo-Saxon and but fifteen Latin words. The second constituent element of present English is Latin which comprises those words derived directly from the old Roman and those which came indirectly through the French. The former were introduced by the Roman Christians, who came to England at the close of the sixth century under Augustine, and relate chiefly to ecclesiastical affairs, such as saint from _sanctus_, religion from _religio_, chalice from _calix_, mass from _missa_, etc. Some of them had origin in Greek, as priest from _presbyter_, which in turn was a direct derivative from the Greek _presbuteros_, also deacon from the Greek _diakonos_. The largest class of Latin words are those which came through the Norman-French, or Romance. The Normans had adopted, with the Christian religion, the language, laws and arts of the Romanized Gauls and Romanized Franks, and after a residence of more than a century in France they successfully invaded England in 1066 under William the Conqueror and a new era began. The French Latinisms can be distinguished by the spelling. Thus Saviour comes from the Latin _Salvator_ through the French _Sauveur_; judgment from the Latin _judiclum_ through the French _jugement_; people, from the Latin _populus_, through the French _peuple_, etc. For a long time the Saxon and Norman tongues refused to coalesce and were like two distinct currents flowing in different directions. Norman was spoken by the lords and barons in their feudal castles, in parliament and in the courts of justice. Saxon by the people in their rural homes, fields and workshops. For more than three hundred years the streams flowed apart, but finally they blended, taking in the Celtic and Danish elements, and as a result came the present English language with its simple system of grammatical inflection and its rich vocabulary. The father of English prose is generally regarded as Wycliffe, who translated the Bible in 1380, while the paternal laurels in the secular poetical field are twined around the brows of Chaucer. Besides the Germanic and Romanic, which constitute the greater part of the English language, many other tongues have furnished their quota. Of these the Celtic is perhaps the oldest. The Britons at Caesar's invasion, were a part of the Celtic family. The Celtic idiom is still spoken in two dialects, the Welsh in Wales, and the Gaelic in Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland. The Celtic words in English, are comparatively few; cart, dock, wire, rail, rug, cradle, babe, grown, griddle, lad, lass, are some in most common use. The Danish element dates from the piratical invasions of the ninth and tenth centuries. It includes anger, awe, baffle, bang, bark, bawl, blunder, boulder, box, club, crash, dairy, dazzle, fellow, gable, gain, ill, jam, kidnap, kill, kidney, kneel, limber, litter, log, lull, lump, mast, mistake, nag, nasty, niggard, horse, plough, rug, rump, sale, scald, shriek, skin, skull, sledge, sleigh, tackle, tangle, tipple, trust, viking, window, wing, etc. From the Hebrew we have a large number of proper names from Adam and Eve down to John and Mary and such words as Messiah, rabbi, hallelujah, cherub, seraph, hosanna, manna, satan, Sabbath, etc. Many technical terms and names of branches of learning come from the Greek. In fact, nearly all the terms of learning and art, from the alphabet to the highest peaks of metaphysics and theology, come directly from the Greek-- philosophy, logic, anthropology, psychology, aesthetics, grammar, rhetoric, history, philology, mathematics, arithmetic, astronomy, anatomy, geography, stenography, physiology, architecture, and hundreds more in similar domains; the subdivisions and ramifications of theology as exegesis, hermeneutics, apologetics, polemics, dogmatics, ethics, homiletics, etc., are all Greek. The Dutch have given us some modern sea terms, as sloop, schooner, yacht and also a number of others as boom, bush, boor, brandy, duck, reef, skate, wagon. The Dutch of Manhattan island gave us boss, the name for employer or overseer, also cold slaa (cut cabbage and vinegar), and a number of geographical terms. Many of our most pleasing euphonic words, especially in the realm of music, have been given to us directly from the Italian. Of these are piano, violin, orchestra, canto, allegro, piazza, gazette, umbrella, gondola, bandit, etc. Spanish has furnished us with alligator, alpaca, bigot, cannibal, cargo, filibuster, freebooter, guano, hurricane, mosquito, negro, stampede, potato, tobacco, tomato, tariff, etc. From Arabic we have several mathematical, astronomical, medical and chemical terms as alcohol, alcove, alembic, algebra, alkali, almanac, assassin, azure, cipher, elixir, harem, hegira, sofa, talisman, zenith and zero. Bazaar, dervish, lilac, pagoda, caravan, scarlet, shawl, tartar, tiara and peach have come to us from the Persian. Turban, tulip, divan and firman are Turkish. Drosky, knout, rouble, steppe, ukase are Russian. The Indians have helped us considerably and the words they have given us are extremely euphonic as exemplified in the names of many of our rivers and States, as Mississippi, Missouri, Minnehaha, Susquehanna, Monongahela, Niagara, Ohio, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Iowa, Nebraska, Dakota, etc. In addition to these proper names we have from the Indians wigwam, squaw, hammock, tomahawk, canoe, mocassin, hominy, etc. There are many hybrid words in English, that is, words, springing from two or more different languages. In fact, English has drawn from all sources, and it is daily adding to its already large family, and not alone is it adding to itself, but it is spreading all over the world and promises to take in the entire human family beneath its folds ere long. It is the opinion of many that English, in a short time, will become the universal language. It is now being taught as a branch of the higher education in the best colleges and universities of Europe and in all commercial cities in every land throughout the world. In Asia it follows the British sway and the highways of commerce through the vast empire of East India with its two hundred and fifty millions of heathen and Mohammedan inhabitants. It is largely used in the seaports of Japan and China, and the number of natives of these countries who are learning it is increasing every day. It is firmly established in South Africa, Liberia, Sierra Leone, and in many of the islands of the Indian and South Seas. It is the language of Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, and Christian missionaries are introducing it into all the islands of Polynesia. It may be said to be the living commercial language of the North American continent, from Baffin's Bay to the Gulf of Mexico, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and it is spoken largely in many of the republics of South America. It is not limited by parallels of latitude, or meridians of longitude. The two great English-speaking countries, England and the United States, are disseminating it north, south, east and west over the entire world. CHAPTER XI MASTERS AND MASTERPIECES OF LITERATURE Great Authors--Classification--The World's Best Books. The Bible is the world's greatest book. Apart from its character as a work of divine revelation, it is the most perfect literature extant. Leaving out the Bible the three greatest works are those of Homer, Dante and Shakespeare. These are closely followed by the works of Virgil and Milton. INDISPENSABLE BOOKS Homer, Dante, Cervantes, Shakespeare and Goethe. (The best translation of _Homer_ for the ordinary reader is by Chapman. Norton's translation of _Dante_ and Taylor's translation of Goethe's _Faust_ are recommended.) A GOOD LIBRARY Besides the works mentioned everyone should endeavor to have the following: _Plutarch's Lives_, _Meditations of Marcus Aurelius_, _Chaucer_, _Imitation of Christ_ (Thomas a Kempis), _Holy Living and Holy Dying_ (Jeremy Taylor), _Pilgrim's Progress, Macaulay's Essays, Bacon's Essays, Addison's Essays, Essays of Elia_ (Charles Lamb), _Les Miserables_ (Hugo), _Heroes and Hero Worship_ (Carlyle), _Palgrave's Golden Treasury_, _Wordsworth_, _Vicar of Wakefield_, _Adam Bede_ (George Eliot), _Vanity Fair_ (Thackeray), _Ivanhoe_ (Scott), _On the Heights_ (Auerbach), _Eugenie Grandet_ (Balzac), _Scarlet Letter_ (Hawthorne), _Emerson's Essays_, _Boswell's Life of Johnson_, _History of the English People_ (Green), _Outlines of Universal History, Origin of Species, Montaigne's Essays, Longfellow, Tennyson, Browning, Whittier, Ruskin, Herbert Spencer_. A good encyclopoedia is very desirable and a reliable dictionary indispensable. MASTERPIECES OF AMERICAN LITERATURE _Scarlet Letter, Parkman's Histories, Motley's Dutch Republic, Grant's Memoirs, Franklin's Autobiography, Webster's Speeches, Lowell's Bigelow Papers_, also his _Critical Essays_, _Thoreau's Walden_, _Leaves of Grass_ (Whitman), _Leather-stocking Tales_ (Cooper), _Autocrat of the Breakfast Table_, _Ben Hur_ and _Uncle Tom's Cabin_. TEN GREATEST AMERICAN POETS Bryant, Poe, Whittier, Longfellow, Lowell, Emerson, Whitman, Lanier, Aldrich and Stoddard. TEN GREATEST ENGLISH POETS Chaucer, Spenser, Shakespeare, Milton, Burns, Wordsworth, Keats, Shelley, Tennyson, Browning. TEN GREATEST ENGLISH ESSAYISTS Bacon, Addison, Steele, Macaulay, Lamb, Jeffrey, De Quincey, Carlyle, Thackeray and Matthew Arnold. BEST PLAYS OF SHAKESPEARE In order of merit are: _Hamlet_, _King Lear_, _Othello_, _Antony and Cleopatra_, _Macbeth_, _Merchant of Venice_, _Henry IV_, _As You Like It_, _Winter's Tale_, _Romeo and Juliet_, _Midsummer Night's Dream_, _Twelfth Night_, _Tempest_. ONLY THE GOOD If you are not able to procure a library of the great masterpieces, get at least a few. Read them carefully, intelligently and with a view to enlarging your own literary horizon. Remember a good book cannot be read too often, one of a deteriorating influence should not be read at all. In literature, as in all things else, the good alone should prevail. 
14642	----	[Transcriber's Notes: Welcome to the schoolroom of 1900. The moral tone is plain. "She is kind to the old blind man." The exercises are still suitable, and perhaps more helpful than some contemporary alternatives. Much is left to the teacher. Explanations given in the text are enough to get started teaching a child to read and write. Counting in Roman numerals is included as a bonus in the form of lesson numbers. Don Kostuch ] ECLECTIC EDUCATIONAL SERIES. McGUFFEY'S[Registered] ECLECTIC PRIMER. REVISED EDITION. [Illustration: Two children in hammock.] McGuffey Editions and Colophon are Trademarks of JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. NEW YORK - CHICHESTER - WEINHEIM - BRISBANE - SINGAPORE - TORONTO Copyright, 1881, By Van Antwerp, Brag & Co. Copyright, 1896, By American Book Company. Copyright, 1909, By Henry H. Vail. EP 179 Preface The flattering success of McGuffey's Revised Readers, and the inquiry for more primary reading matter to be used in the first year of school work, have induced the Publishers to prepare a REVISED PRIMER, which may be used to precede the First Reader of any well arranged series. The method pursued is the same as that in McGuffey's Revised Readers, and the greatest possible care has been taken to insure a gradation suited to the youngest children. Only about six new words are to be mastered in each lesson. These new words and the new elementary sounds are always to be found in the vocabulary of the lesson in which they are first used. The plan of the book enables the teacher to pursue the Phonic Method, the Word Method, the Alphabet Method, or any combination of these methods. Illustrations of the best character have been freely supplied, and the skilled teacher will be able to use them to great advantage. The script exercises throughout the book and the slate exercises at the close, have been specially written and carefully engraved for this Primer; they may be used to teach the reading of script, and as exercises in learning to write. In the full confidence that the public will appreciate a cheap and attractive Primer of this character, the Publishers have spared no expense to make this book equal, in type, paper, and illustrations, to any that have been issued from their Press. (iii) THE ALPHABET. A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z THE ALPHABET. a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z [Illustration: Cat watching moth.] McGuffey's Eclectic Primer Lesson 1 a and cat rat a e d n r t [Illustration: Rat] a rat a cat A cat A rat A cat and a rat. A rat and a cat. LESSON II. at the ran has Ann h th s [Illustration: Cat] The cat the rat The cat has a rat. The rat ran at Ann. Ann has a cat. The cat ran at the rat. LESSON III. Nat hat fan can f [Illustration: Children playing at the seashore.] a fan a hat Ann and Nat. Ann has a fan. Nat has a hat. Ann can fan Nat. LESSON IV. man cap lad sat l m p s [Illustration: Boy running and old man, with gout, sitting.] a cap the lad A man and a lad. The man sat; the lad ran. The man has a hat. The lad has a cap. LESSON V.--REVIEW. The cat and the rat ran. Ann sat, and Nat ran. A rat ran at Nat. Can Ann fan the lad? The man and the lad. The man has a cap. The lad has a fan. Has Ann a hat? Ann has a hat and a fan. [Illustration: Script Exercise: a at rat sat can cap lad and The cat ran. Ann ran. The man has a hat. ] LESSON VI. dog Rab fat Nat's o b g [Illustration: Boy and dog watching cat on post.] Nat's cap a fat dog Has the lad a dog? The lad has a fat dog. The dog has Nat's cap. Nat and Rab ran. Rab ran at a cat. LESSON VII. see sees frog on log e [Illustration: Boy sitting on fence, watching frog sitting on log.] a log the frog See the frog on a log. Rab sees the frog. Can the frog see Rab? The frog can see the dog. Rab ran at the frog. LESSON VIII. it stand Ann's is lamp mat i [Illustration: Mother with girl holding cat, by lamplight.] a mat the stand See the lamp! It is on a mat. The mat is on the stand. The lamp is Nat's, and the mat is Ann's. LESSON IX. Tom nag not him catch he his ch [Illustration: Boy and dog chasing horse.] See the nag! It is Tom's nag. Can Tom catch his nag? He can not catch him. The dog ran at the nag, and the nag ran. LESSON X.--REVIEW. Tom's nag is fat; his dog is not fat. Nat is on Tom's nag. Nat's dog, Rab, can not catch the rat. See the frog on the log. A lad sees the frog. The lad can not catch it. A cat is on the mat; the cat sees a rat. Ann's fan is on the stand. The man has a lamp. A dog ran at the man. Ann sat on a log. [Illustration: Script exercise: Tom sees Nat's dog. A fat frog is on the log. Can not Rab catch it? ] LESSON XI nest this eggs she in get box hen e x sh [Illustration: Cat watching hen, watching eggs in nest.] the box a nest This is a fat hen. The hen has a nest in the box. She has eggs in the nest. A cat sees the nest, and can get the eggs. LESSON XII. old run fox o u [Illustration: Dog chasing fox away from a hen.] Can this old fox catch the hen? The fox can catch the hen, and get the eggs in the nest. Run, Rab, and catch the fox. [Illustration: Script Exercise: This nest has eggs in it. ] LESSON XIII. pond ducks them feed Nell I by will i y ch w [Illustration: Girl watching ducks on pond.] Nell is by the pond. I see ducks on the pond. Nell sees the ducks, and will feed them. She can not get the ducks LESSON XIV. holds to blind Mary hand kind a o k y [Illustration: Girl lead old, blind man.] This old man can not see. He is blind. Mary holds him by the hand. She is kind to the old blind man. LESSON XV.--REVIEW. I see ducks on the pond; Tom will feed them. Tom is blind; he holds a box in his hand. Nell is kind to him. This old hen has a nest. Mary will run and get the eggs. LESSON XVI. Sue doll dress new her let e u ew [Illustration: Two girls sitting by tree, playing with dolls.] Sue has a doll. It has a new dress. She will let Ann hold the doll in her hands, and Ann will fan it. Sue is kind to Ann. LESSON XVII. there five bird tree rob do e i v [Illustration: Cat watching bird and eggs in nest on tree top.] A bird is in the tree. It has a nest there. The nest has five eggs in it. Do not rob the nest. Will the bird let the cat get her five eggs? LESSON XVIII. cage pet sing lives so loves o g ng [Illustration: Bird perched on girl's hand.] This is a pet bird. It lives in a new cage. It will stand on Sue's hand, and sing. Sue loves her pet bird. So do I love it. LESSON XIX. are you yes fast too like boys of (ov) play a a y oy [Illustration: Boys playing in snow by a canal. Town in background.] Do you see the boys at play? Yes, I see them; there are five of them. Tom is too fat to run fast. Nat can catch him. I like to see boys play. LESSON XX.--REVIEW. Sue has a doll and a pet bird. Her doll has a new dress and a cap. Sue loves Mary, and will let her hold the doll. The pet bird lives in a cage. Sue and Mary will stand by the cage, and the bird will sing. There are birds in the tree by the pond. Can you see them? Yes; there are five of them in a nest. Tom will not rob a bird's nest. He is too kind to do so. [Illustration: Script Exercise: Nell will feed the ducks. Sue has a new dress. ] LESSON XXI. what night owl day an but well big eyes best a ow wh [Illustration: Owl perched on tree branch.] What bird is this? It is an owl. What big eyes it has! Yes, but it can not see well by day. The owl can see best at night. Nat Pond has a pet owl. LESSON XXII. grass they come off barn shade hot cows out e ou [Illustration: Cows standing under a tree.] The day is hot. The cows are in the shade of the big tree. They feed on the new grass. Our cows do not run off. At night they come to the barn. LESSON XXIII. soon sun neck set way bell one (wun) their oo [Illustration: Cows leaving pasture at subset.] The sun will soon set. The cows are on their way to the barn. One old cow has a bell on her neck. She sees our dog, but she will not run. Our dog is kind to the cows LESSON XXIV. brave if ship boat drown men rock save [Illustration: Men rowing through storm to shipwreck.] The ship has run on a rock. Five men are on the ship. If the boat can not get to them, they will drown. The boat has brave men in it. They will save the five men. LESSON XXV.--REVIEW. Come, boys, and feed the cows. The sun has set, and they are at the barn. Sue has a bell on the neck of her pet cat. One hot day Ann and Nell sat on the grass in the shade of a big tree. They like to rock their dolls, and sing to them. The brave men in our boat are on their way to the ship. They will save the men in the ship, if they can. They will not let them drown. What bird has big eyes? The owl. Can an owl see at night? Yes, an owl can see best at night. LESSON XXVI. fall ice skates cry with had stone did a c sk [Illustration: Children skating on pond in winter.] The boys are on the ice with their skates. There is a stone on the ice. One boy did not see it, and has had a fall. But he is a brave boy, and will not cry. [Illustration: Sawmill near river; town and hillside in background. two children playing near river in foreground.] LESSON XXVII. look go John here all wheel mill have round oo j Look! there are John and Sue by the mill pond. They like to see the big wheel go round. They have come to play on the logs and in the boat. John and Sue will play here all day. [Illustration: Script Exercise: The cows like grass. They stand in the shade. ] LESSON XXVIII. or Jane girls floor roll some which black o Here are some girls with skates; but they are not on the ice. Their skates roll on the floor. Which way do you like to skate,--on the ice, or on the floor? The girl with the new black dress is Jane Bell. [Illustration: Four girls roller-skating.] LESSON XXIX. for out as how try horse should hurt ears be o no u [Illustration: Train approaching railroad crossing; two boys and a horse and wagon waiting to cross tracks.] Look out for the cars! How fast they come! No horse can go as fast as the cars. I will not try to catch them, for I should fall and be hurt. See the horse look at the cars. Will he not run? LESSON XXX.--REVIEW. There is ice on the pond, and the mill wheel can not go round. The boys are all out on the ice with their skates. I will let you and Tom try to skate; but do not fall, for you will be hurt. Look! here come the cars. John and Nat try to skate as fast as the cars go, but they can not. John has had a fall. The girls are not on the pond; but some of them have skates which roll on the floor. [Illustration: Script Exercise: How fast the cars go! Can you see them? ] LESSON XXXI. work ax pile Ned think wood saw hard cut o th n [Illustration: Two boys, one sawing, the other chopping logs.] Ned and John are hard at work. John has a saw, and Ned has an ax. They will try to cut all of the wood which you see in the pile. Do you think they can do this in one day LESSON XXXII. noise air hear gone May walk cool two a oi [Illustration: Two girls walking near a lake. Men working and boys playing in background.] Two girls have gone out for a walk. It is May, and the air is cool. They hear the birds sing in the trees, and they hear the noise of the frogs in the pond. They see men at work and boys at play. LESSON XXXIII. pull cart goats Bess up ride hill u [Illustration: Girl riding in small cart pulled by two goats.] Bess has a cart and two goats. She likes to ride in her cart. See how the goats pull! Bess is so big, I think she should walk up the hill. The goats love Bess, for she feeds them, and is kind to them. LESSON XXXIV. blaze put yet house fire roof call ring we z [Illustration: Boys running in front of burning house.] This house is on fire. Look! the roof is in a blaze. Run, boys, and ring the bell. Call some men to put out the fire. We may yet save the house, if we work hard LESSON XXXV.--REVIEW. Bess, do you hear a noise? Yes, Tom; what is it? It is the mill by our house; logs are cut there. How do they cut the logs, Tom,--with an ax? Not with an ax, Bess; it is too hard work; they cut them with a saw. May we not go and see the mill at work, Tom? Yes, I think so. The air is cool, and we can walk in the shade. We should go soon, Bess, or the pile of wood will be gone. Our two goats and the cart are here, Tom; we can ride to the mill. It is not up hill, and the goats can pull us fast. LESSON XXXVI. Miss wants would tells rule keep good that each u [Illustration: Six children surrounding young woman.] The girls and boys all love Miss May; she is so kind to them. Miss May tells them there is a rule that she wants them to keep. It is, "Do to each one as you would like each one to do to you." This is a good rule, and all boys and girls should keep it. LESSON XXXVII. school child church when books skates [Illustration: Several people standing in front of school that appears similar to a small church.] What kind of house is this? Do you think it is a schoolhouse, or a church? It looks like a church, but I think it is a schoolhouse. I see the boys and girls with their books and slates. When the bell rings, they will go in. A good child likes to go to school. LESSON XXXVIII. quail quick seen kill me oh eat first know Henry qu [Illustration: Quail in brush.] "John! come here. Be quick, and tell me what kind of bird this is." "Do you not know, Henry?" "Oh, no! what is it?" "It is a quail." "It is the first quail I have seen. Is it good to eat?" "Yes; but I should not like to kill it." LESSON XXXIX. Kate dear name blue baby near shut crib sit [Illustration: Baby sleeping in crib.] Is not this a dear baby in the crib? Her name is Kate, and she has big, blue eyes. You can not see her eyes, for they are shut. Kate is a good baby; but she will cry if she is hurt, or if she is not well. Bess likes to sit near the baby, and to rock her in the crib. LESSON XL.--REVIEW. Henry Black and Ned Bell live near our house. They go to school, and I see them go by each day with their books and slates. Miss May tells the girls and boys that they should be at the schoolhouse when the bell rings. So Henry walks fast, and is first at school. He is a good boy, and wants to keep the rule of the school. Ned is not a good boy. I do not think he likes to go to school or to church. I saw him try to kill a quail with a stone. The quail is too quick a bird for that, and Ned did not hurt it; but I know that a good child would not try to kill a bird. [Illustration: Script Exercise: There is a baby at Ned's house. Her name is Kate. Ned is not a good boy, but he loves Kate, and I do not think he would hurt her. ] LESSON XLI. light far its high where sea tall were The tall house which you see on that high rock is a lighthouse. At night its light is seen far out at sea, and the men on ships can tell where to go. If it were not for this, they would run on the rocks. How would you like to live in a lighthouse? [Illustration: Lighthouse on cliff above pounding surf.] LESSON XLII. wrong wolf us my took sheep more watch lambs [Illustration: Sheep grazing under a tree. Two boys watching from fence in the background.] Let us watch the sheep as they feed on the hills. They like to eat the new grass. Do you see my two lambs? I had two more; but an old wolf took them one night. I love my pet lambs. It would be wrong to hurt them LESSON XLIII. laugh snow head fun mouth made pipe gh (as f) [Illustration: Three boys making a snowman; two children in foreground carrying water buckets.] The boys have made a big snow man. They have put a tall hat on his head, and an old pipe in his mouth. Hear them laugh as they play! It is good fun for the boys. They would like to have it snow all day and all night. LESSON XLIV. sweets mean please bee buzz vine could said (sed) once (wuns) [Illustration: Bee flying near vine.] "Buzz! buzz!" a bee said to Mary. "What do you mean?" said Mary. "Please tell me once more." "Buzz! buzz! buzz!" but Mary could not tell its wants. I think it said, "Please let me get some sweets in this vine. LESSON XLV.--REVIEW. One day Nat and I sat on the high hill by the sea, where the tall lighthouse stands. We could look far out, and could see the ships at sea. As we sat there, we saw a man near by, with some sheep and lambs. The man had a pipe in his mouth. He sat with us, and let the sheep eat the grass. What fun it is to see lambs play! It made us laugh to see them. The man said that once, when the sheep and lambs were out in the snow, an old wolf took one of the lambs, and ran off with it. I think that men should watch their sheep, so that a wolf can not catch them. LESSON XLVI. while might time things done right your halves [Illustration: Script Exercise: Work while you work, Play while you play, One thing each time, That is the way. All that you do, Do with your might, Things done by halves, Are not done right. ] LESSON XLVII. went fish fell safe arms sprang was thank got [Illustration: Boy fishing from log.] One day John went to the pond to fish. His dog, Watch, went with him. John sat on a log for a time, but did not catch a fish. As he got up to go, he fell off the log. Watch sprang in to save him. John put his arms round the dog's neck, and was soon safe on the log once more. "Thank you, my brave old dog," said John to Watch. LESSON XLVIII. James asks warm town then drives been(bin) show [Illustration: Girl talking to boy leading horse and wagon.] James has been to the mill. The day is warm, and he lets his horse stand in the shade. A girl asks him to show her the way to the town. He tells her the way, and then drives on. LESSON XLIX. I'll she'll don't puss pur pat fur harm deeds [Illustration: Kitten.] I love my dear puss, Her fur is so warm; And, if I don't hurt her, She'll do me no harm. I'll pat my dear puss, And then she will pur, And show me her thanks For my kind deeds to her. LESSON L. now wreaths who queen woods shall crown [Illustration: Children playing in wood. Two boys in foreground playing a fife and drum.] It is the first of May. The boys and girls have gone to the woods to have a good time. See them at their play. The girls have wreaths in their hands. Now they will crown some one Queen of the May. Who shall it be? It should be the best girl, and that is Kate. LESSON LI. God small from world moon shine nut long ago [Illustration: Small girl watching a tree. Two acorns shown in inset.] Do you see that tall tree? Long ago it sprang up from a small nut. Do you know who made it do so? It was God, my child. God made the world and all things in it. He made the sun to light the day, and the moon to shine at night. God shows that he loves us by all that he has done for us. Should we not then love him? LESSON LII. Lord smile joys tears nigh morn griefs woes stars say [Illustration: Sunset; lake in foreground; moon and stars.] When the stars, at set of sun, Watch you from on high; When the light of morn has come, Think the Lord is nigh All you do, and all you say, He can see and hear; When you work and when you play, Think the Lord is near. All your joys and griefs he knows, Sees each smile and tear; When to him you tell your woes, Know the Lord will hear SLATE EXERCISES [Illustration: Script Exercise: n u n nun u r n urn s u n sun c o w cow s a w saw r i m rim c a t cat l a d lad b o x box h e n hen k i d kid q u o quo p e n pen j a r jar e y e eye g u n gun v i z viz i v y ivy f a n fan ] SCRIPT ALPHABET [Illustration: Script Exercise: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S Y U V W X Y Z a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z SCRIPT FIGURES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 ] 
31766	----	"NEVER TOO LATE TO LEARN!" FIVE HUNDRED MISTAKES OF DAILY OCCURRENCE IN SPEAKING, PRONOUNCING, AND WRITING THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, CORRECTED. "Which--if you but open-- You will be unwilling, For many a shilling, To part with the profit Which you shall have of it." [_The Key to Unknown Knowledge._--LONDON, 1569. "It is highly important, that whatever we learn or know, we should know CORRECTLY; for unless our knowledge be correct, we lose half its value and usefulness."--_Conversations on Botany._ NEW-YORK: DANIEL BURGESS & CO., 60 JOHN STREET. 1856. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1855, by WALTON BURGESS, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York. PREFACE. This book is offered to the public, not to be classed with elaborate or learned works, nor expected, like some of its more pretending companions among the offspring of the press, to run the gauntlet of literary criticism. It was prepared to meet the wants of persons--numbered by _multitudes_ in even the most intelligent and refined communities--who from deficiency of education, or from carelessness of manner, are in the habit of misusing many of the most common words of the English language, distorting its grammatical forms, destroying its beauty, and corrupting its purity. The most thorough mode that could be adopted to correct such errors, would doubtless be to impart to the ignorant a practical knowledge of the principles of language, as embodied in treatises on grammar; but such a good work, however desirable its results, has, in time past, been too difficult for the promoters of education to complete, and is still too great to give promise of speedy accomplishment. A better expedient, bearing immediate fruits, has been adopted in the present volume, which, while it does not aim to produce a radical reform, cannot fail to render great service to those who need to improve their usual modes of expression, and to be more discriminating in their choice of words. The more frequent and less excusable mistakes that may be noticed in ordinary conversation or correspondence, are here taken up, one by one--exposed, explained, and corrected. They consist variously of abuses of grammar, misapplications of words and phrases, improprieties of metaphor and comparison, misstatements of meaning, and faults of pronunciation. They are grouped miscellaneously, _without classification_, not so much because of the difficulty of devising an arrangement that would be systematic and intelligible, as from the evident fact that a division of subjects would render no assistance to those for whom the book is specially designed; for an appropriate classification would necessarily derive its features from the forms of grammar, and with these the readers of this book are supposed to be to a great extent unfamiliar. The volume is put forth with no flourish of trumpets, and makes no extravagant pretensions; yet the publishers believe it will be regarded as a timely and useful work. If the race of _critics_ should not like it--and while books have their "faults," critics have their "failings"--they are reminded that he who corrects an old error, may render no less service to his brethren, than he who discovers a new truth. If the work shall be the means of saving one sensitive man from a confusion of blushes, in the presence of a company before which he desired to preserve his equanimity, it will not have gone forth without a mission of benefit, which will merit at least one acknowledgment. INTRODUCTION. The aim of this book, by correcting a multitude of common errors in the use of language, is mainly to offer assistance to such persons as need greater facilities for accurate expression _in ordinary conversation_. It is not designed to suggest topics of talk, nor to give rules or examples pointing out the proper modes of arranging them; but simply to insure persons who often have a good thing to say, from the confusion and mortification of improperly saying it. This chapter of introduction will not, therefore, be expected to present an essay on the general subject of conversation. It may be remarked, however, by way of admonitory hint to some, that the most prominent error in the conversation of those who commit the most blunders, does not consist in saying too little that amounts to much, but too much that amounts to little; talkativeness is a characteristic more commonly of the ignorant, than of the wise. Shenstone says, "The common fluency of speech in many men, and most women, is owing to a scarcity of matter and a scarcity of words; for whoever is master of a language, and moreover has a mind full of ideas, will be apt, in speaking, to hesitate upon the choice of both; but common speakers have only one set of ideas and one set of words to clothe them in,--and these are always ready at the mouth. Just so, _people can come faster out of a church when it is almost empty, than when a crowd is at the door_!" But although, according to the old proverb, "a still tongue denotes a wise head," the faculty of speech should not be neglected, merely because it may be misused. Conversation is not a gift bestowed only upon those whom genius favors; on the contrary, many men eminent for their fluency of style in writing, have been noted for habitual taciturnity in their intercourse with society. Hazlitt remarked, that "authors should be read, not heard!" Charles II. of England, not only the wittiest of monarchs, but one of the liveliest of men, is said to have been so charmed in reading the humor of Butler's "Hudibras," that he disguised himself as a private gentleman, and was introduced to the author, whom, to his astonishment, he found to be one of the _dullest_ of companions. On the other hand, some of the humblest men with whom one falls into company, possessed of but little variety, and less extent of information, are highly entertaining talkers. The particular topic of remark does not form so essential a part of an interesting conversation, as the words and manner of those who engage in it. Robert Burns, sitting down on one occasion to write a poem, said: "Which way the subject theme may gang, Let time or chance determine; Perhaps it may turn out a sang,-- Or probably a sermon." In the same manner, the subject of a conversation need not be made a matter of study, or special preparation. Men may talk of things momentous or trivial, and in either strain be alike attractive and agreeable. But quitting the consideration of the thought, to refer to the mode of its expression, it must be remarked and insisted, that to "murder the king's English" is hardly less a crime, than to design against one of the king's subjects. If committed from ignorance, the fault is at least deplorable; but if from carelessness, it is inexcusable. The greatest of sciences is that of language; the greatest of human arts is that of using words. No "cunning hand" of the artificer can contrive a work of mechanism that is to be compared, for a moment, with those wonderful masterpieces of ingenuity, which may be wrought by him who can skilfully mould a beautiful thought into a form that shall preserve, yet radiate its beauty. A mosaic of words may be made more fair, than of inlaid precious stones. The scholar who comes forth from his study, a master of the English language, is a workman who has at his command hardly less than a hundred thousand finely-tempered instruments, with which he may fashion the most cunning device. This is a trade which all should learn, for it is one that every individual is called to practise. The greatest support of virtue in a community is intelligence; intelligence is the outgrowth of knowledge; and the almoner of all knowledge is language. The possession, therefore, of the resources, and a command over the appliances of language, is of the utmost importance to every individual. Words are current coins of the realm, and they who do not have them in their treasury, suffer a more pitiable poverty than others who have not a penny of baser specie in their pocket; and the multitude of those who have an unfailing supply, but which is of the wrong stamp, are possessed only of counterfeit cash, that will not pass in circles of respectability. The present work therefore is, in some respects, not unlike the "Detector" issued for the merchants, to indicate the great amount of worthless money that is in general circulation with the good. It is not to be supposed that all the mistakes of daily occurrence in the use of language, are to be numbered by "five hundred"--possibly not by five thousand; but it is evident that he who is instructed against five hundred of his habitual blunders, and enabled to steer clear of every one of them, has in no slight degree improved his conversation, and thereby increased his importance. As a prefix, or accompaniment, to this catalogue of corrected mistakes, the presentation of a few rules or principles of language, which, strictly observed, might guard against numerous general classes of errors, would not be thought misplaced, or undesirable. Some suggestions on points most prominent are accordingly given among these introductory remarks--not in formal statements of grammatical rules, but in examples in which the spirit of such rules is revealed. Not the least glaring among the many misuses of words and forms of expression in conversation, occur by incorrectly employing the pronouns--_who_, _which_, _what_, and _that_. It may be remarked, that _who_ should be applied exclusively to persons. _Which_ usually refers to animals and inanimate objects, except in such an expression as, "Tell me _which_ of the two men was chosen?" _What_, means _that which_: thus, "This is the book _what_ I wanted," should read, "This is the book _that_ (or _which_) I wanted." Among interrogatives, _who?_ inquires for the name; _which?_ for the individual; _what?_ for the character, or occupation. Thus, "_Who_ built the bridge?" "Mr. Blake." "_Which_ of the Blakes?" "_Charles_ Blake." "_What_ was he?" "A distinguished civil engineer." The title of a small book for young people, recently published, was--"The Way _that_ Little Children enter Heaven:" the word _that_ is here incorrectly used as a substitute for _in which_, or _by which_. When _this_ and _that_, and their plurals, are used in the sense of _latter_ and _former_, _this_ and _these_ signify the _latter_, and _that_ and _those_ the _former_. Thus, in the following couplet from Burns: "Farewell my friends, farewell my foes, My peace with _these_, my love with _those_." _these_ refers to "foes," and _those_ to "friends." In the possessive case of nouns, some instances occur in which a wise choice may be made, but in respect to which usage is divided. Thus, we may say, "They called at _Walton's the bookseller's_," or, with equal propriety, as far as custom is concerned, "at _Walton the bookseller's_." The first form, however, is preferable. The use of the hyphen [-] is frequently disregarded in epistolary correspondence, occasioning not only a blemish but a blunder. Its importance may be seen by comparing the meaning of "_glass house_" with "_glass-house_;" the former may mean the Crystal Palace, while the latter is a manufactory of glass-ware. Adjectives are often improperly used for adverbs: as, "_extreme_ bad weather," for "_extremely_ bad weather." It is sometimes difficult to choose between such phrases as "the _first three_," and "the _three first_." To say _first three_ when there is no _second three_ is inelegant, because superfluous; and _three first_ is absurd, because impossible. The most successful pupil in each of two classes at school would not improperly be called "the _two first boys_;" while propriety would require that the first and second boys of the same class should be called "the _first two boys_." As a general rule, and easy to be recollected, let _"first" be first_. The use of _some_ for _about_ is by many writers thought to be awkward: as, "_Some_ fifty years ago," instead of "_About_ Fifty years." An ambiguity occasionally arises in employing the adjective _no_. Thus, "No money is better than gold," may mean either that gold is the best kind of money, or that gold is not so good as _no money at all_! After numerals, the words _couple_, _pair_, _dozen_, _score_, _hundred_, _thousand_, and a few others, need not take the plural form: thus, custom first, and finally grammar, have sanctioned such uses as, "three _pair_ of shoes," "nine _dozen_ bushels," "four _couple_ of students;" also, "_forty sail_ of vessels," "seventy _head_ of cattle." The article (_a_ or _an_) renders an important service in such expressions as, "_A few_ followed their leader throughout the long struggle." To say, "_Few_ followed him," would imply, unlike the former phrase, that he was almost deserted. "A black and a white horse," suggests the idea of two horses; while "a black and white horse," refers to but one--as if written "a _black-and-white_ horse." "The red and white dahlias were most admired," properly means the dahlias in which both these colors were blended. "The red and _the_ white dahlias," implies two species. The grammatical number of a verb should agree with that of its subject, and not of its predicate. Thus, the sentences, "Death _is_ the wages of sin," and "The wages of sin _are_ death," are properly written. In changing from a past tense to the present, when the same nominative remains, the form of the verb should continue unaltered. Thus, instead of saying "He _was traveling_ and _travels_," say "He _was traveling_ and _is traveling_." When a verb has both a singular and a plural nominative, separated by _or_, its number agrees with that of the _nearer_: as, "the cup or his _billiards were_ his ruin;" or, "his billiards or the _cup was_ his ruin." Custom--which, when _crystallized_, becomes grammar--allows expressions like "The linen _tears_," and "The meadow _plows_ well," although they should not be frequently employed, and should be more seldom coined. A fruitful source of mistakes in language, is in the linking together of two or more inappropriate tenses, or in the misuse of one. Many among the learned and refined commit blunders of these kinds. A few corrected examples of such are here given: "His text was, that God _was_ love;" the sentence should be written, "His text was, that God _is_ love." "The Lord _hath given_, and the Lord hath taken away;" say, "The Lord _gave_, and the Lord hath taken away." "They _arrived_ before we left the city:" say, "they _had arrived_." "All the brothers _have been_ greatly indebted to their father:" say, "_are indebted_." "This painting _was preserved and exhibited_ for the last century:" say, "_has been_ preserved and exhibited." "It was the last act he intended _to have performed_." say, "_to perform_." "He _drinks_ wine at dinner," means that such is his habit; "he _is drinking_ wine at dinner," refers to one particular time and occasion. Adverbs are often inelegantly used instead of adjectives; as, "the _then_ ministry," for "the ministry of that time." Of the phrases "_never_ so good," or, "_ever_ so good," as to whether one is preferable to the other, authority is divided. Modern usage inclines to the latter, while ancient preferred the former, as in the Scriptural expression, "charm he _never_ so wisely." _Yea_ and _nay_ are not equivalent to _yes_ and _no_; the latter are directly affirmative and negative, while the former are variously employed. Of prepositions, it has been frequently said, that no words in the language are so liable to be incorrectly used. For example, "The love _of_ God," may mean either "His love to us," or, "our love to Him." Many more of these particles are inelegantly, if not ambiguously used. Instead of "the natives were a different race _to_ what they are now," say, "different _from_." "He was made much _on_ in the country:" say, "made much _of_." "In compliance _of_ your request:" say, "in compliance _with_." "He doubts _if_ his friend will come," is not so elegant and accurate as, "He doubts _whether_ his friend will come." More instances might be given, setting forth other frequent errors of speaking and writing, at the risk, however, of destroying the due proportion which should exist between the size of a work and the _length of the Introduction_. But a good heed to what has been said in the few preceding paragraphs, will enable a person who carefully reads this work to mend his modes of expression, to no inconsiderable degree. It is well known that there is no "royal road to learning," but if there were, it could hardly be expected that such a little book as this would afford a passport to the end of the course. About two hundred years ago, a small volume was put forth by one "John Peters, learned scholar and author," which had the following long-winded title: "A New Way to make Latin Verses, whereby any one of ordinary capacity, that only _knows the A, B, C_ and can _count nine_, though he understands not _one word of Latin_, or what a verse means, may be plainly taught to make thousands of Hexameter and Pentameter Verses, which shall be true Latin, true Verse, and Good Sense!" The present volume must not be expected to accomplish so great a result as this--not having so comprehensive an aim, nor possessing so great a secret of success. But it is hoped that it may incite some who are unfortunately deficient in education, to seek so much additional knowledge as shall enable them at least to converse in a dialect which is within the compass of the language of their country, and free them from the imputation of belonging to another tribe of men, speaking another tongue. A Welshman, residing near Caermarthon, who was seldom seen at the only church in the parish of his residence, was one day accosted by the worthy clergyman with the question, "My friend--to what church do you belong?" He responded, "To the Church of England." "Ah," replied the pastor, "I was sure that it must be some church _out of Wales_!" There are not a few persons who speak the English language about as truly as the Caermarthon Welshman attended the English Church! FIVE HUNDRED MISTAKES CORRECTED. 1. "The business would suit any one who _enjoys bad health_." [From an advertisement in a daily newspaper of New-York.] Few persons who have bad health can be said to _enjoy it_. Use some other form of expression: as, one _in delicate health_, or, one _whose health is bad_. 2. "We have no _corporeal_ punishment here," said a schoolmaster. _Corporeal_ is opposed to _spiritual_. Say, _corporal_ punishment. _Corporeal_ means having a body. 3. "She is a _notable_ woman," as was said of the wife of the Shepherd of Salisbury Plain,--meaning _careful_, and pronounced as though divided _not-able_. This word is no longer current, with this pronunciation or signification, except to a slight extent in England. It has become obsolete, and its use now is in bad taste. 4. "Insert the _advertisement_ in the Weekly." Emphasize _vert_, and not _ise_. 5. "He _rose up_, and left the room:" leave out _up_, as it is absurd to say _rise down_. The Irishman who was _hoisted down_ the coal pit, did not observe this rule. 6. "_Set down_ and rest yourself:" say _sit down_; _setting_ is said of the sun in the west, but cannot be properly applied to a person taking a seat. "Sit _down_" is not improper, though "rise _up_" (as in No. 5) should never be used. _Sitting down_ expresses the act of appropriating a chair, while _sitting up_ means _sitting erect_. _Sitting up_ also refers to watching during the night with the sick. 7. "You have _sown_ it very neatly," said a seamstress to her apprentice: say _sewed_, and pronounce so as to rhyme with _road_. The pronunciation of _sew_, meaning "to use the needle," violates its spelling; it is the same as that of _sow_, meaning "to scatter seed." 8. "This is a secret between _you and I_:" say, _you and me_. The construction requires the objective case in place of _I_, which is in the nominative. It is in still better taste to say, "This is a secret _with_ you and me." 9. "Let _you and I_ take a walk:" say, Let _you and me_, or, _Let us_. Who would think of saying, _Let I go_? The expression "Let _I and you_" is frequently heard, which contains the additional impropriety of putting the first person before the second. 10. "He is going to _learn his brother_ Alfred how to knit nets:" say, _teach_. The act of _communicating_ instruction is expressed by "teaching," the act of _receiving_ it by "learning." The distinction between these words was made as early as the time of Shakespeare, and cannot be violated without incurring censure. 11. "John and Henry both read well, but John is the _best_ reader:" say, the _better_ reader, as _best_ can be properly used only when _three or more persons_, or objects, are compared. 12. "Thompson was there _among the rest_." This mode of expression, which is very common, literally declares an impossibility. The signification of "the rest" is, those _in addition_ to Thompson, and of which Thompson formed _no part_; he could not therefore be _among_ them. A more correct form would be, "Thompson was there _with_ the rest." 13. "The _two first_ cows are the fattest," said a farmer at an agricultural fair. He should have said, "the _first two_;" there can be only _one_ that is _first_--the other must necessarily be _second_. 14. "It is an error; _you are mistaken_:" say, you _mistake_. _Mistaken_ means _misapprehended_; "you _mistake_," means "you _misapprehend_." 15. "Have you _lit_ the fire, Bridget?" say, _lighted_; _lit_ is now obsolete. 16. "To be is an _auxiliary_ verb:" pronounce _auxiliary_ as though spelled _awg-zil-ya-re_, and not in five syllables. 17. _February_: this word is often incorrectly spelled by omitting the _r_. 18. The "_Miscellany_" was an interesting publication: pronounce _miscellany_ with the accent on _mis_, and not on _cel_. 19. "_Celery_ is a pleasant vegetable:" pronounce _celery_ as it is written, and not _salary_. 20. "Are you at _leisure_?" pronounce _lei_ in _leisure_ the same as _lee_. The word should not rhyme with _measure_. 21. "John is my _oldest_ brother:" say, _eldest_. _Elder and eldest_ are applied to _persons_--_older and oldest_ to _things_. Usage, however, does not make these distinctions imperative. 22. "The cloth was _wove_ in a very short time:" say, _woven_. 23. "I prefer the _yolk_ of an egg to the white:" the more common word is _yelk_, with the _l_ sounded; but if _yolk_ be used, it should be pronounced like _yoke_. 24. _Sparrowgrass_: it is only the grossest ignorance which confounds this word with _asparagus_. The same is the case with _ing-uns_ for _onions_. A man in an obscure section of New Jersey, inquiring at a country store for _onions_, was told that there were none in the place. On his going out, the storekeeper turned to half a dozen idlers sitting round the stove, and said, "I wonder if that 'tarnal fool meant _ing-uns_!" 25. "You are very _mischievous_:" pronounce _mischievous_ with the accent on _mis_, and not on _chie_, and do not say _mischievious_ (_mis-cheev-yus_). 26. The following words were posted, as a sign, in a reading-room--"No Talking Allowed;" which was designed to prohibit all conversation. A wag altered the inscription so as to read, "No Talking Aloud," which (he declared) did not prevent _whispering_, and chatting in _low tones_. What shall be said of the following--"_No Smoking Aloud_?" 27. "_No extras or vacations_:" [from the prospectus of a schoolmistress:] say, NOR _vacations_. 28. "He was never known to be _covetous_:" pronounce _covetous_ as if written _covet us_, and _not covetyus_. 29. _The Three R.'s._--An ignorant and vain pedagogue, on being asked what he could teach, replied, "The three R.'s--_'ritin'_, _'rethmetic_, and _readin'_." Any persons among the readers of this little book, who may chance to be schoolmasters, are warned against giving such a course of instruction. 30. "Dearly _beloved_ brethren:" when _beloved_ is placed _before_ the noun, as in this instance, pronounce it in three syllables; when placed _after_, in two syllables, as, "She was much _be-loved_ by us all." When used as a noun by itself, it is pronounced in three syllables; as, "_Be-lov-ed_, let us love one another." 31. "Not _as I know_:" say, _that I know_. 32. "He came on purpose _for to do_ it:" omit _for_. 33. "He would never believe _but what_ I did it:" say, _but that_ I did it. 34. "He is quite _as good as me_:" say, _as good as I_. Also, instead of _as good as him_, say, _as good as he_. In both these instances _am_ or _is_ must be mentally supplied at the end of the phrase, to suggest the meaning; and the pronouns should, therefore, be in the nominative case. 35. "_Many an one_ has done the same:" say, _many a one_. _A_, and _not an_, is also used before the _long sound of u_, that is, when _u_ forms _a distinct syllable of itself_: as, _a unit_, _a union_, _a university_: it is also used before _eu_: as, a _euphony_, and likewise before the word _ewe_: as, _a ewe_: we should also say, _a youth_, not _an youth_. 36. "How do you like _these kind_ of pears?" say, _these kinds_; a noun in the singular number will not allow its adjective to be in the plural. 37. "You should have _went_ home:" say, _gone_. 38. "John went with _James and I_:" say, _James and me_. 39. "I _see him_ last Monday:" say, _saw him_. 40. "He was _averse from_ such a proceeding:" say, _averse to_. 41. "Have you _shook_ the table-cloth?" say, _shaken_. 42. "I have _rang_ several times:" say, _rung_. 43. "I _know'd_ him at once:" say, _knew_. 44. "You have _drank_ too much of it:" say, _drunk_. 45. "He has _chose_ a very poor pattern:" say, _chosen_. 46. "They have _broke_ a window:" say, _broken_. 47. "I have just _began_ my letter:" say, _begun_. 48. "Give me _them books_:" say, _those books_. 49. "Whose are _these here books_?" say, _these books_. _Here_ is superfluous and inelegant. 50. "_Who_ do you mean?" say, _whom_. 51. "The men _which_ we saw:" say, _whom_. 52. "The flowers _what_ you have:" say, _which_, or _that_. 53. "The boy _as is_ reading:" _who_ is reading. 54. "It was _them_ who did it:" say, _they_. 55. "_It is me_ who am in fault:" say, _It is I_. 56. "Was it _her_ who called me?" say, _she_. 57. "If I were _her_, I would accept his offer:" say, If I were _she_. 58. "He _has got_ my slate:" omit _got_; _has_ is sufficient for the sense. The addition of _got_, though not ungrammatical, but gradually becoming obsolete, does not in any degree strengthen the meaning. 59. "The pond is _froze_:" say, _frozen_. 60. "I know _I am him_ whom he meant:" say, _I am he_. 61. "You cannot _catch_ him:" pronounce _catch_ so as to rhyme with _match_, and not _ketch_--as the fishermen are in the habit of saying. 62. "_Who done it?_" say, _Who did it?_ 63. "The club gives an _impetus_ to the ball:" pronounce _impetus_ with the stress on _im_, and not on _pe_. 64. "Spain and Portugal form a _peninsula_:" pronounce _pen-in-su-la_, with the accent on _in_, and not on _su_. 65. _Sar-da-na-pa-lus_: pronounce it with the accent on _pa_, and not on _ap_. The latter pronunciation cannot be changed for the former, without incurring a gross error. 66. "He must by this time be almost as far as the _antipodes_:" pronounce _antipodes_ with the accent on _tip_, and let _des_ rhyme with _ease_; it is a word of _four_ syllables, and _not of three_. 67. _Vouchsafe_: a word seldom used, but when used, the first syllable should rhyme with _pouch_; _never say vousafe_. 68. "The land in those parts is very _fertile_:" pronounce _fertile_ so as to rhyme with _myrtle_. _Ile_ in such words must be sounded as _ill_, with the exception of _exile_, _senile_, _gentile_, _reconcile_, and _camomile_, in which _ile_ rhymes with _mile_. 69. _Benefited_: often spelt _benefitted_, but _incorrectly_. 70. "_Gather_ a few ears of corn for dinner:" pronounce _gather_ so as to rhyme with _lather_, and _not gether_. 71. _Purpose and propose_: these two words, which are often confounded, are entirely distinct in meaning. To _purpose_ means _to intend_; _to propose_ means _to offer a proposition_. 72. _Directing and addressing letters_: _Directing_ designates the persons to whom, and the place to which the letter, as a parcel, is to be sent; _addressing_ refers to the individual to whom, as a communication, it is written. A letter _addressed_ to the President, may be _directed_ to his secretary. 73. "_Who_ do you think I saw yesterday?" say, _Whom_. 74. A popular proverb is expressed in the following language: "Of _two_ evils choose the _least_;" say, _the less_. Of no less than _three_ evils can a person choose the _least_. 75. _Exaggerate_: pronounce _exad-gerate_, and _do not sound agger_ as in _dagger_. 76. _Ladies School_: the _usual_ form, but _not correct_; write, _Ladies' School_. The apostrophe (') is thus used after nouns in the plural, and indicates _possession_. In the singular, it is placed _before the s_, as, _The lady's school_. 77. The following equivocal notice is said to swing out on a sign-board somewhere in the Western country: "SMITH & HUGGS--SELECT SCHOOL.--_Smith teaches the boys, and Huggs the girls._" _Huggs needs correction!_ 78. "He keeps a _chaise_:" pronounce it _shaze_, and not _shay_; it has a regular plural, _chaises_. 79. "The _drought_ lasted a long time:" pronounce _drought_ so as to rhyme with _sprout_, and not _drowth_. 80. "The two friends _conversed together_ for an hour:" omit _together_, as the full meaning of this word is implied in _con_, which means _with_, or _together_, or _in company_. 81. "The affair was _compromised_:" pronounce _compromised_ in three syllables, and place the accent on _com_, sounding _mised_ like _prized_. 82. "A _steam-engine_:" pronounce _engine_ with _en_ as in _pen_, and _not like in_; also, pronounce _gine_ like _gin_. 83. "Several of the trappers were massacred by the Indians:" pronounce _massacred_ with the accent on _mas_, and _red_ like _erd_, as if _massaker'd_; never say _massacreed_, which is abominable. 84. "The King of Israel and the King of Judah sat _either of them_ on his throne:" say, _each of them_. _Either_ signifies the _one_ or the _other_, but _not both_. _Each_ relates to _two or more objects_, and signifies _both of the two_, or _every one of any number taken singly_. We can say, "_either_ of the three," for "_one_ of the three." 85. "A _respite_ was granted the convict:" pronounce _respite_ with the accent on _res_, and sound _pite_ as _pit_. 86. "He soon _returned back_:" leave out _back_, which is implied by _re_ in _returned_. 87. "The ship looked like a speck on the edge of the _horizon_:" pronounce _horizon_ with the accent on _ri_, and not on _hor_, which is often the case. 88. "They were early at the _sepulchre_:" pronounce _sepulchre_ with the accent on _sep_, and not on the second syllable. 89. "I have often _swam_ across the Hudson:" say, _swum_. 90. "I found my friend better than I expected _to have found him_:" say, _to find him_. 91. "I intended _to have written_ a letter yesterday:" say, _to write_; as however long it now is since I thought of writing, "_to write_" was then present to me, and must still be considered as present, when I recall that time and the thoughts of it. 92. _Superfluous R's_: Many persons pronounce words which have no letter _r_ in them, exactly as though they had; as _drawring_ for _drawing_; "I _sawr_ Thomas," for "I _saw_," &c. Some who do not insert a full-toned _r_, do worse by appending an _ah_ to almost every word they utter. They would do well to recall the reproof which the excellent Rev. John Gruber administered to a brother in the ministry, who was guilty of this habit. That eccentric clergyman addressed a note to his friend, as follows: "Dear-ah Sir-ah--When-ah you-ah speak-ah in-ah public-ah, take-ah my-ah ad-ah-vice-ah and-ah never-ah say-ah _ah-ah_!--JOHN-AH GRUBER-AH." 93. _Shall_ and _will_ are often confounded, or misused. The following suggestion will be of service to the reader: mere _futurity_ is expressed by _shall_ in the _first_ person, and by _will_ in the _second_ and _third_; the _determination_ of the speaker by _will_, in the _first_, and _shall_, in the _second_ and _third_. For example: "_I shall go by the way of Halifax_," simply expresses an event about to take place--as also _you will_, and _they will_: _I will_ expresses determination--as also _you shall_ and _they shall_. Brightland has the following illustrative stanza: "In the first person simply _shall_ foretells; In _will_ a threat, or else a promise, dwells. _Shall_, in the second and the third, does threat;-- _Will_, simply, then, foretells the future feat." 94. "_Without_ the grammatical form of a word can be recognized at a glance, little progress can be made in reading the language:" [from a work on the study of the Latin language:] say, _Unless_ the grammatical, &c. The use of _without_ for _unless_ is a very common mistake. 95. "He claimed admission to the _chiefest_ offices:" say, _chief_. _Chief_, _right_, _supreme_, _correct_, _true_, _universal_, _perfect_, _consummate_, _extreme_, _&c._, _imply_ the superlative degree without adding _est_, or prefixing _most_. In language sublime or impassioned, however, the word _perfect_ requires the superlative form, to give it its fullest effect. 96. "I _had rather do_ it now:" say, I _would rather do_. The incorrectness of the first form of expression is very clearly seen by cutting out _rather_, leaving "_I had do_," which is ungrammatical and meaningless. 97. An obituary notice contained the following ludicrous statement: "He left a large circle of mourners, _embracing his amiable wife and children_!" _Comprising_ should have been used, instead of _embracing_. 98. "His _court-of-arms_ is very splendid:" say, _coat-of-arms_. 99. "They ride about in small carriages, which are called _flies_:" write the last word _flys_; _flies_ is the plural of _fly_, the insect. 100. "Victoria is Queen of the _United Kingdom_:" say, _United Kingdoms_. Who ever speaks of the _United State of America_? 101. "I have not traveled _this twenty years_:" say, _these twenty years_. 102. "Soldier arms!" Say, "_Shoulder arms!_" The latter is frequently corrupted into "_Sojer arms!_" 103. "He is _very much the gentleman_:" say, He is _a very gentlemanly man_, or, _He is very gentlemanly_. 104. "The _yellow_ part of an egg is very nourishing:" never pronounce _yellow_ so as to rhyme with _tallow_, as we so often hear. 105. "We are going to the _Zoological_ Gardens:" pronounce _Zoological_ in _five_ syllables, and place the accent on _log_ in _logical_; sound _log_ like _lodge_, and _the first two o's in distinct syllables_; _never_ make _Zool one_ syllable. 106. "He _strived_ to obtain an appointment:" say, _strove_. 107. "He always preaches _extempore_:" pronounce _extempore in four syllables_, with the accent on _tem_, and _never in three_, making _pore_ to rhyme with _sore_--but with _story_. 108. "Allow me to _suggest_:" pronounce _sug_ as to rhyme with _mug_, and _gest_ like _jest_; never say _sudjest_. 109. "That building is an _episcopal_ chapel:" pronounce _episcopal_ with the accent on the second syllable, and _not_ on _co_. 110. "The Emperor of Russia is a _formidable_ sovereign:" pronounce _formidable_ with the accent on _for_, and _not on mid_. 111. Before the words _heir_, _herb_, _honest_, _honor_, and _hour_, and their compounds, instead of the article _a_, we make use of _an_, as the _h_ is not sounded; likewise before words beginning with _h_, that are not accented on the first syllable: such as _heroic_, _historical_, _hypothesis_, &c., as, "_an heroic action_;" "_an historical work_;" "_an hypothesis_ that can scarcely be allowed." The letter _h_ is seldom mute at the beginning of a word; but from the negligence of tutors, and the inattention of pupils, many persons have become almost incapable of acquiring its just and full pronunciation. It is, therefore, incumbent on teachers to be particularly careful to inculcate a clear and distinct utterance of this sound. 112. "He was _such an extravagant young man_, that he soon spent his whole patrimony." This construction, which is much used, is not so elegant as, "He was _so extravagant a young man_," &c. 113. "The girl speaks _distinct_:" say, _distinctly_. _Never use Adjectives as Adverbs._ 114. "The accident of which he was _reading_, occurred not far from _Reading_:" pronounced the first italicized word to rhyme with _feeding_, and the other, with _wedding_. 115. The combination of letters _ough_ is pronounced in eight different ways, as follows: 1. Th_ough_, in which it is pronounced _o_; 2. Thr_ough_, pronounced _oo_; 3. Pl_ough_, _ow_; 4. S_ought_, _awe_; 5. C_ough_, _off_; 6. R_ough_, _uff_; 7. Bor_ough_, _ugh_; 8. L_ough_, _ok_. The following sentence, which is of doubtful authorship, affords an example of each of these eight modes of pronunciation: "I put (1) _dough_ (6) _enough_ in the (5) _trough_ near the (3) _slough_ by the (8) _lough_, to last the ducks that I (4) _bought_ at the (7) _borough_ (2) _through_ the day." 116. "I saw his _august_ majesty, the Emperor of Hayti, last _August_:" pronounce the former word with the accent on _gust_; the latter, on _Au_. 117. "She is _quite the lady_:" say, She is _very lady-like in her demeanor_. 118. "He is _seldom or ever_ out of town:" say, _seldom or never_, or, _seldom if ever_. 119. "We _laid down_ to sleep:" say, we _lay down_, &c. We can say, however, "we laid _him_ down to sleep." 120. It is somewhat singular, that while _tie_ and _untie_ convey meanings directly opposite, _loose_ and _unloose_ signify precisely the same thing. _Loose_ is the original word, and _unloose_ is a corruption; both words, however, are now sanctioned by good usage, and may be indiscriminately employed, without offence against propriety. 121. "It is dangerous to walk _of a_ slippery morning:" say, _on a_ slippery morning. But the expression, "_walking on a slippery morning_," and all others like it, of which a strictly literal interpretation will not give the designed signification, are to be avoided. They often excite a smile when seriousness is intended. 122. "He who makes himself famous by his eloquence, makes illustrious his origin, let it be _never so mean_:" say, _ever so mean_. The practice of using _never_ in such phrases was anciently in vogue, but is now becoming obsolete. (See Introduction.) 123. "His reputation is acknowledged _through_ Europe:" say, _throughout_ Europe. 124. "The bank of the river is frequently _overflown_:" say, _overflowed_. _Flown_ is the perfect participle of _fly, flying_; _flowed_, of _flow, flowing_. 125. "I doubt _if this_ will ever reach you:" say, _whether this_, &c. 126. "It is not improbable _but I may_ be able to procure you a copy:" say, _that I may_, &c. 127. "He was _exceeding kind_ to me:" say, _exceedingly kind_. 128. "I doubt not _but I shall_ be able:" say, _that I shall_. 129. "I lost _near_ twenty pounds:" say, _nearly_, or _almost_. 130. "There were not _over_ twenty persons present:" say, _more than_. Such a use of this word is not frequent among writers of reputation. It may, however, be less improperly employed, where the sense invests it with more of a semblance to its literal signification: as, "This pair of chickens will weigh _over_ seven pounds." Even in this case, it is better to say _more than_. 131. "_Bills are requested to be paid quarterly_:" _the bills are not requested_, but _the persons who owe them_. Say instead, _It is requested that bills be paid quarterly_. 132. "There can be no doubt _but that_ he will succeed:" omit _but_. 133. "It was _no use asking_ him any more questions:" say, _of no use to ask him_, or _there was no use in asking_, &c. 134. "The Americans said they _had no right_ to pay taxes." [From a Fourth of July Oration.] They certainly _had a right_ to pay them, if they wished. What the speaker meant was, _they were under no obligation to pay_, or, _they were not bound to pay_. 135. "He intends to _stop_ at home for a few days:" it is more elegant to say _stay_. If the time, however, should be very brief, _stop_ would better express the idea; as, "We _stopped_ at Elmira about twenty minutes." 136. "At this time, I _grew_ my own corn:" say, I _raised_. Farmers have made this innovation against good taste; but for what reason, it is not apparent; there seems to be no sufficient occasion for so awkward a substitute for _raised_. 137. "Having incautiously _laid down_ on the damp grass, he caught a severe cold:" say, _lain down_. 138. "We suffered no other inconvenience _but_ that arising from the rain:" say, _than_ that, &c. _But_, to be properly used in this sentence, would require the omission of _other_. 139. "Brutus and Aruns killed _one another_:" say, _each other_, which is more proper. But many similar instances which occur in the New Testament, as, "_Beloved, love one another_," and others no less beautiful and cherished, have rendered this form of expression common, and almost unexceptionable. 140. In a recently issued work on Arithmetic, the following is given: "If for 72 cents I can buy 9 lbs. of raisins, _how much_ can I purchase for $14 49?" say, "_what quantity_ can I," &c. Who would think of saying, "_how much raisins?_" 141. WORDS TO BE CAREFULLY DISTINGUISHED.--Be very careful to distinguish between _indite_ and _indict_ (the former meaning _to write_, and the latter _to accuse_); _key_ and _quay_; _principle_ and _principal_; _marshal_ and _martial_; _counsel_ and _council_; _counsellor_ and _councillor_; _fort_ and _forte_; _draft_ and _draught_; _place_ and _plaice_ (the latter being the name of a _fish_); _stake_ and _steak_; _satire_ and _satyr_; _stationery_ and _stationary_; _ton_ and _tun_; _levy_ and _levee_; _foment_ and _ferment_; _fomentation_ and _fermentation_; _petition_ and _partition_; _Francis_ and _Frances_; _dose_ and _doze_; _diverse_ and _divers_; _device_ and _devise_; _wary_ and _weary_; _salary_ and _celery_; _radish_ and _reddish_; _treble_ and _triple_; _broach_ and _brooch_; _ingenious_ and _ingenuous_; _prophesy_ and _prophecy_ (some clergymen sounding the final syllable of the latter word _long_, like the former); _fondling_ and _foundling_; _lightning_ and _lightening_; _genus_ and _genius_; _desert_ and _dessert_; _currier_ and _courier_; _pillow_ and _pillar_; _executer_ and _executor_ (the former being the regular noun from the verb "to _execute_," and the latter a strictly _legal_ term); _ridicule_ and _reticule_; _lineament_ and _liniment_; _track_ and _tract_, _lickerish_ and _licorice_ (_lickerish_ signifying _dainty_, and _licorice_ being a plant, or preparation from it); _statute_ and _statue_; _ordinance_ and _ordnance_; _lease_ and _leash_; _recourse_ and _resource_; _straight_ and _strait_ (_straight_ meaning _direct_, and _strait_, _narrow_); _immerge_ and _emerge_; _style_ and _stile_; _compliment_ and _complement_; _bass_ and _base_; _contagious_ and _contiguous_; _eminent_ and _imminent_; _eruption_ and _irruption_; _precedent_ and _president_; _relic_ and _relict_. 142. "The number of _emigrants_ arriving in this country is increasing and alarming:" say, _immigrants_. _Emigrants_ are those _going out_ from a country; _immigrants_, those _coming into_ it. 143. "I prefer _radishes_ to _cucumbers_:" pronounce _radishes_ exactly as spelt, and not _redishes_; also, the first syllable of _cucumber_ like _fu_ in _fuel_, and not as if the word were spelled _cowcumber_. 144. "The _two last_ letters were dated from Calcutta:" say, the _last two_, &c. 145. "The soil in those islands is so very thin, that little is produced in them _beside_ cocoa-nut trees:" "_beside_ cocoa-nut trees" means strictly _alongside_, or _by the side_, of them. _Besides_, or _except_, should be used. _Besides_ also signifies _in addition to_: as, "I sat _beside_ the President, and conversed with him _besides_." 146. "He could neither _read nor write_:" say, more properly, _write nor read_. All persons who can _write_ can _read_, but not all who _read_ can _write_. This sentence, as corrected, is much stronger than in the other form. 147. "He was _bred and born_ among the hills of the Hudson:" say, _born and bred_, which is the natural order. 148. "THIS HOUSE TO LET:" more properly, _to be let_. 149. _Here_, _there_, _where_, with verbs of motion, are generally better than _hither_, _thither_, _whither_; as, "_Come here_; _Go there_." _Hither_, _thither_, and _whither_, which were used formerly, are now considered stiff and inelegant. 150. "_As far as I_ am able to judge, the book is well written:" say, _So far as_, &c. 151. "It is doubtful whether he will act _fairly or no_:" say, _fairly or not_. 152. "The _camelopard_ is the tallest of known animals:" pronounce _camelopard_ with the accent on _mel_; never say _camel leopard_. Few words, by being mispronounced, occasion greater blunders than this term. 153. "He ran _again_ me;" or, "I stood _again_ the hydrant:" say, _against_. This word is frequently and inelegantly abbreviated, in pronunciation, into _agin_. 154. "_No one_ should incur censure for being careful of _their_ good character:" say, of _his_ (or _her_). 155. "The yacht capsized in rounding the stake-boat, and the helmsman was _drownded_:" say, _drowned_. 156. "_Jalap_ will be of service to you:" pronounce the word as it is spelled, never saying _jollop_. 157. The word _curiosity_, though a very common term, and one that should be correctly pronounced by everybody, is frequently called _curosity_. 158. "He has just set out to _take a tour_:" pronounce _tour_ so as to rhyme with _poor_. Be careful to avoid saying, _take a tower_; such a pronunciation might suggest the Mamelon, instead of a trip of travel. 159. "The storm _is_ ceased, and the sky is clear:" say, _has_ ceased. 160. "Do you know _who_ this dog-headed cane belongs to?" say, _whom_. In expressing in _writing_ the idea conveyed in this question, a better form of sentence would be, "Do you know _to whom_ this belongs?" In familiar conversation, however, the latter mode might be thought too formal and precise. 161. "_Who_ did you wish to see?" say, _whom_. 162. "_Whom_ say ye that I am?" This is the English translation, given in Luke ix. 20, of the question of Christ to Peter. The word _whom_ should be _who_. Other instances of grammatical inaccuracies occur in the Bible; for example, in the Sermon on the Mount, the Saviour says: "Lay not up for yourselves treasures on earth, where _moth and rust doth corrupt_," &c. "_Moth and rust_" make a plural nominative to "_doth_ corrupt," a singular verb. The following, however, is correct: "But lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where _neither moth nor rust doth corrupt_." 163. The word _chimney_ is sometimes called incorrectly _chimley_ and _chimbley_. 164. "I was walking _towards_ home:" pronounce _towards_ so as to rhyme with _boards_; _never_ say, _to-wards_. 165. "A _courier_ is expected from Washington:" pronounce _cou_ in _courier_ so as to rhyme with _too_, never like _currier_; the two words have entirely distinct significations. 166. "Let each of us mind _their_ own business:" say, _his_ own business. 167. "Who made that noise? Not _me_:" say, Not _I_. 168. "Is this or that the _best_ road?" say, the _better_ road. 169. "_Rinse_ your mouth:" pronounce _rinse_ as it is written, and never _rense_. "_Rench your mouth_," said a fashionable dentist one day to a patient. "You have already _wrenched it for me_," was the reply. 170. "He was tired of the dust of the town, and _flew_ to the pure air of the country:" say, _fled_. _Flew_ is part of the verb _to fly_; _fled_, of _to flee_. 171. "The first edition was not _as_ well printed as the present:" say, _so_ well, &c. 172. "The Unabridged Dictionary was his greatest work, it being the labor of a life-time:" pronounce _Dictionary_ as if written _Dik-shun-a-ry_; not, as is too commonly the practice, _Dixonary_. 173. "I should feel sorry to be _beholding_ to him:" say, _beholden_. 174. "He is a _despicable_ fellow, and such an epitaph is strictly _applicable_ to him:" _never_ place the accent in _despicable_ and _applicable_ on the _second_ syllable, but _always_ on the _first_. 175. "Some disaster has certainly _befell_ him:" say, _befallen_. 176. Carefully distinguish between _sergeant_ and _serjeant_: both are pronounced _sarjant_, but the _former_ is used in a military sense, and the _latter_ applied to a lawyer. These distinctions are, however, observed chiefly in England. 177. "She is a pretty _creature_:" never pronounce _creature_ like _creetur_. 178. The following expression would be of special significance on coming from a surgeon or anatomist: "Desiring to know your friend better, _I took him apart_ to converse with him." It has been said that two persons who _take each other apart_, frequently do so for the express purpose of _putting their heads together_. 179. "I am very wet, and must go and _change myself_:" say, _change my clothes_. 180. "He is taller _than me_:" say, _than I_. 181. "He is much better _than me_:" say, _than I_. 182. "You are stronger _than him_:" say, _than he_. 183. "That is the _moot_ point:" say, _disputed_ point. The other word is inelegant, and nearly obsolete. 184. "They are at _loggerheads_": this is an extremely unpoetical figure to express the mutual relations of two individuals who have an "honest difference;" say, at _variance_, or use some other form of expression. It might just as well be said, "They are at _tadpoles_!" 185. "He paid a _florin_ to the _florist_:" divide the syllables so as to pronounce like _flor-in_ and _flo-rist_. 186. "His character is _undeniable_:" a very common expression: say, _unexceptionable_. 187. "Bring me the _lantern_:" never spell _lantern_--_lanthorn_. 188. "The room is twelve _foot_ long, and nine _foot_ broad:" say, twelve _feet_, nine _feet_. 189. "He is a _Highlander_:" never say, _Heelander_. 190. "He is _singular_, though _regular_ in his habits, and also very _particular_:" beware of leaving out the _u_ in _singular_, _regular_, and _particular_, which is a very common practice. 191. "They are detained _at_ France:" say, _in_ France. 192. "He lives _at_ New-York:" say, _in_ New-York. 193. "He is very _dry_" (meaning _thirsty_), is a very common and very improper word to use: say, _thirsty_. 194. "No _less_ than fifty persons were there:" say, _fewer_, &c. _Less_ refers to _quantity_; _fewer_ to _number_. 195. "_Such another_ victory, and we shall be ruined:" say, _Another such_ victory, &c. 196. "It is _some distance_, from our house:" say, _at some distance_, &c. 197. "I shall call _upon_ him:" say, _on_ him. 198. "Remove those _trestles_:" pronounce _trestles_ exactly as written, only leaving out the _t_; never say _trussles_. 199. "He is much addicted to _raillery_:" in pronouncing _raillery_, leave out the _i_; never say, _rail-le-ry_. 200. "He is a Doctor of _Medicine_:" pronounce _medicine_ in _three_ syllables, NEVER in _two_. 201. "They told me to enter _in_:" leave out _in_, as it is implied in _enter_. 202. "His _strength_ is failing:" never say, _strenth_. 203. "Give me both _of_ those books:" leave out _of_. 204. "_Whenever_ I try to write well, I _always_ find I can do it:" leave out _always_, which is unnecessary and improper. 205. "He plunged _down_ into the stream:" leave out _down_. 206. "I never saw his _nephew_:" say, _nef-ew_; never _nev-u_, or _nevvey_. 207. "She is the _matron_:" say, _may-tron_, and not _mat-ron_. 208. "Give me _leave_ to tell you:" never say _lief_ for _leave_. 209. "The _height_ is considerable:" pronounce _height_ so as to rhyme with _tight_; never _hate_ nor _heighth_. An instance occurs in "Paradise Lost" in which this word is spelled and pronounced _highth_. 210. "Who has my _scissors_?" never call _scissors_, _sithers_. 211. "He has obtained a good _situation_:" pronounce _situation_ as if written _sit-you-a-tion_, and do not say, _sitch-u-a-tion_. 212. "I had as _lief_ do it as not:" _lief_ means _willingly_, _gladly_, and is not to be confounded with _leave_, as in example No. 208. 213. "First _of all_ I shall give you a lesson in French, and last _of all_ in music:" omit _of all_ in both instances, as unnecessary. 214. "I shall have finished by the _latter_ end of the week:" leave out _latter_, which is superfluous. 215. "They sought him _throughout_ the _whole_ country:" leave out _whole_, which is implied in _throughout_. 216. "Iron sinks _down_ in water:" leave out _down_. 217. "A warrant was _issued out_ for his apprehension:" leave out the word _out_, which is implied in _issued_. 218. "If you inquire _for why_ I did so, I can give a very good reason:" leave out _for_. 219. "I own that I did not come soon enough; but _because why_? I was detained:" leave out _because_. 220. "I _cannot by no means_ allow it:" say, _I can by no means_, &c.; or, _I cannot by any means_, &c. 221. "He _covered it over_:" leave out _over_. 222. "I bought _a new pair of shoes_:" say, _a pair of new shoes_. 223. "He _combined together_ these facts:" leave out _together_. 224. "My brother called on me, and we _both_ took a walk:" leave out _both_, which is unnecessary. 225. "Evil spirits are not occupied about the _dead corpses_ of bad men:" leave out _dead_, which is altogether unnecessary, as it is _implied_ in the word _corpses_, "_corpse_" and "_dead body_" being strictly synonymous. 226. "He has gone to the _Lyceum_:" pronounce _Lyceum_ with the accent on the second syllable, and not on the first. 227. "This is a picture of _Westminster Abbey_:" never say _Westminister_, as if there were two words, _West-minister_. 228. "We are going to take a _holiday_:" this word was originally spelled and pronounced _holyday_, being compounded of the two words _holy_ (meaning "_set apart_") and _day_. Custom, however, has changed the orthography from _y_ to _i_, and made the first syllable rhyme with _Poll_. 229. "It was referred to the _Committee_ on Ways and Means:" emphasize the second, not the first syllable. 230. "He is now settled in _Worcester_:" pronounce as if written _Wooster_. _Gloucester_ and _Leicester_ are pronounced _Gloster_ and _Lester_. The termination _cester_ or _chester_, occurring in the names of many English towns, is derived and corrupted from the Latin _Castra_, camps; and every town so named is supposed to have been the site of a camp of soldiers, during the possession of Britain by the Romans. 231. "_Relatives_ and _Relations_:" both these words designate kinsfolk, and are in most instances used indiscriminately. _Relatives_, however, is by some deemed the more proper and elegant. 232. "What a long _lirry_ he has to say!" This word should be pronounced and spelt _lurry_; its more general meaning is a "heap," a "throng," a "crowd," but is often applied to a long dull speech. 233. "_Diamonds_ are charcoals:" pronounce _diamonds_ in three syllables. 234. "Honor to the _patriot_ and the sage:" divide the syllables like _pa-tri-ot_, not _pat-ri-ot_. Irish rowdyism has been called "_Pat-riot-ism_." 235. "Do you _believe_ that he will _receive_ my letter?" observe that in the former word the diphthong is _ie_, and in the latter _ei_. A convenient rule for the spelling of such words is the following: _c_ takes _ei_ after it; all other consonants are followed by _ie_:--as, dec_ei_ve, repr_ie_ve. 236. "He is now confirmed in _idiotcy_:" say, _idiocy_; the _t_ in _idiot_ is dropped in forming the word. 237. "He raised the _national_ standard:" pronounce the first two syllables like the word _nation_, never as if written _nash-ion-al_. 238. _Principal_ and _Principle_: be careful to observe the distinction between these words. _Principal_ signifies _chief_; _principle_, _motive_. 239. "He favors the _Anti-Slavery_ reform:" pronounce _Anti_ with a distinct sounding of the _i_; else the word becomes _ante_, which means not "against," but "before,"--as "ante-deluvian," signifying "before the Deluge." 240. _Cincinnati_ is often misspelled _Cincinnatti_. The name is derived from _Cincinnatus_, a celebrated Roman. 241. "Her dress was made of _moiré antique_:" _moiré antique_ is an article of _watered silk_, very well known to the "shopping" sisterhood, but very frequently called "_Murray Antique_." 242. "It was mentioned in a _Californian newspaper_:" say, _California_ newspaper. No one says _Philadelphian_, or _Chicagonian_ journal. 243. "The lecture was _characterized_ as a brilliant performance:" accent the first, and not the second syllable. 244. "This is one of the traditions of St. _Helena_:" accent _le_, and not _Hel_. 245. "The boy was found by a _washwoman_:" say, _washerwoman_. 246. "St. John's is about two days nearer England than Halifax." [From an account, in a New-York newspaper, of the Submarine Telegraph Expedition, September, 1855.] Does it mean that St. John's is nearer to England than Halifax is, or nearer to England than to Halifax? 247. "He wears a blue-spotted _neck-handkerchief_:" say, _neckerchief_, or, still better, _neck-cloth_, or _cravat_. The original word is _kerchief_, and not _handkerchief_, which is a _kerchief_ for the _hand_. 248. "The city was _illumined_ in honor of the victory:" better say, _illuminated_. Distinguish between the pronunciation of _illumined_ and _ill-omened_. 249. "She has brought the _cloze pins_ in a bag:" say, _clothes' pins_. 250. "He met with _luck_:" say either "_bad luck_," or "_good luck_;" _luck_ primarily refers to simple "chance," although its derivatives, _lucky_ and _luckily_, imply only _good fortune_. 251. "The _in-va-lid_ signed a deed, that was _in-val-id_:" pronounce the former "_invalid_" with the accent on the _first_ syllable; the _latter_, with the accent on the _second_. 252. "The _duke_ discharged his _duty_." Be careful to give the slender, clear sound of _u_. Avoid saying _dook_ and _dooty_, or _doo_ for _dew_ or _due_. Say _flute_, not _floot_; _suit_, not _soot_; _mute_, not _moot_. As well might you say _bute_ for _boot_, or _shute_ for shoot. 253. "_Genealogy_, _geography_, and _geometry_ are words of Greek derivation:" beware of saying _geneology_, _jography_, and _jometry_, a very common practice. 254. "He made out the _inventory_:" place the accent in _inventory_ on the syllable _in_, and NEVER on _ven_. 255. "He deserves _chastisement_:" say, _chas-tiz-ment_, with the accent on _chas_, and NEVER on _tise_. 256. "He threw the _rind_ away:" never call _rind_, _rine_. 257. "His _knowledge_ is very great:" always pronounce _knowledge_ so as to rhyme with _college_, and NEVER say _know-ledge_. 258. "They contributed to his _maintenance_:" pronounce _maintenance_ with the accent on _main_, and never say _maintainance_. 259. "She wears a silk _gown_:" never say _gownd_. 260. "Maine is a _maritime_ State:" pronounce the last syllable of _maritime_ so as to rhyme with _rim_. 261. "They _desisted_ from their _design_:" pronounce the _former s_ in _desisted_ with a soft sound, and _always_ pronounce _design_ as if written _de-zine_. 262. "They committed a _heinous_ crime:" pronounce _heinous_ as if spelled _hay-nus_; NEVER call the word _hee-nus_ or _hain-yus_. 263. "He _hovered_ about the enemy:" pronounce _hovered_ so as to rhyme with _covered_. 264. "He is a powerful _ally_:" _never_ place the accent on _al_ in _ally_, as many do. 265. "_We have never been called, almost, to the consideration_ of the Apocalypse, without finding fresh reasons for our opinion." [Such are the words of a very eminent reviewer.] He should have said, "We have _scarcely ever_ been called," or, "we have _almost never_." 266. "He is very _bigoted_:" never spell the last word with _double t_, a very common mistake. 267. "The _Weekly Tribune_ has a large circulation:" pronounce Tribune as if divided _Trib-une_, and not _Try-bune_. 268. "He said _as how_ you _was_ to do it:" say, he said _that you were to do it_. 269. Never say, "_I acquiesce with you_," but, "_I acquiesce in your proposal_, _in your opinion_," &c. 270. "He is a distinguished _antiquarian_:" say, _antiquary_. _Antiquarian_ is an adjective; _antiquary_, a noun. 271. An injudicious disposition of a clause in a sentence frequently creates great merriment in the reading. In Goldsmith's "History of England," a book remarkable for its carelessness of style, we find the following extraordinary sentence, in one of the chapters of the reign of Queen Elizabeth: "This" [a communication to Mary Queen of Scots] "they effected by conveying their letters to her by means of a brewer that _supplied the family with ale through a chink in the wall of her apartment_." A queer brewer that--to supply ale through a chink in the wall! How easy the alteration to make the passage clear! "This they effected by conveying their letters to her _through a chink in the wall of her apartment, by means of a brewer that supplied the family with ale_." 272. "Lavater wrote on _Physiognomy_:" in the last word sound the _g_ distinctly, as _g_ is always pronounced before _n_, when it is not in the same syllable; as, _indignity_, &c. 273. "She is a very amiable _girl_:" pronounce _girl_ as if written _gurl_; _gal_ is a vulgarism; _gehl_ or _gul_ is an affectation of which many polite persons are guilty. 274. "He built a large _granary_:" _do not_ pronounce _granary_ so as to rhyme with _tannery_. Call the word _grainary_. Both pronunciations, however, are given by scholars. 275. Beware of using _Oh!_ and _O_ indiscriminately: _Oh!_ is used to express the emotion of _pain_, _sorrow_, or _surprise_; as, "_Oh!_ the exceeding grace of God." _O_ is used to express _wishing_, _exclamation_, or a direct _address_ to a person; as, "O mother, will the God above Forgive my faults like thee?" 276. Be careful to sound distinctly the _r_ in such words as _farther_, _martyr_, _charter_, _murder_, &c. Never say, _fah-ther_, _mah-tyr_, _chah-ter_ and _muh-der_. On the other hand, avoid _trilling_ the _r_, as _mur-er-der_, _r'r'robber_. It is altogether too tragical for common life. 277. "The Duke of Wellington was an _Irishman_, but knew nothing of the _Irish_ language:" beware of saying _Ierishman_ for _Irishman_, or _Ierish_ for _Irish_; a very common mistake, which the "Know-Nothings" are quick to detect. 278. "He did it _unbeknown_ to us:" say, _unknown_, &c. 279. "He lives in _affluence_, as he is in _affluent_ circumstances:" beware of placing the accent in _affluence_ and _affluent_ on the syllable _flu_ instead of on _af_, a very common error. 280. "If I say, 'They retreated _back_,' I use a word that is _superfluous_, as _back_ is implied in the syllable _re_ in _retreated_:" never place the accent on _flu_ in _superfluous_, but always on _per_. 281. "In reading Paley's 'Evidences of Christianity,' I unexpectedly _lit on_ the passage I wanted:" say, _met with_ the passage, &c. 282. A gentleman having selected a book from the library shelves of the Mechanics' Institute, went to the librarian to have the volume registered under his name, and said, "_I have taken the life of Julius Cæsar_." "I shall then," responded the librarian, "charge the work to Mr. Brutus!" Be careful how you "take the lives" of distinguished men. 283. "He has a _bayonet_ to his gun:" never say _baggonet_. This error is a peculiarity of the Wiltshire dialect, in England. In an old Wiltshire song the following stanza occurs: "A hornet zet in a holler tree, A proper spiteful twoad was he; And merrily zung while he did zet,-- His sting as sharp as a _baggonet_." 284. "Aunt Deborah is down with the _rheumatiz_:" say, _rheumatism_; this is one among the _isms_, though a very unpopular one. 285. "It is _obligatory_ upon every honest man to go to the polls to-day:" accent _lig_, and not _ga_. 286. "On the _contrary_:" accent _con_, not _tra_. The old song takes up with a bad pronunciation, for the sake of a good rhyme: "Mistress Mary, Quite _contrary_, How does your garden grow?" 287. "That is altogether _above my bend_:" say, _out of my power_. 288. "He has _absquatulated_, and taken the specie with him:" _absconded_ is a more classical word. 289. "It's _eenamost_ time we had started:" say, _almost_. 290. "_I haven't ary one_:" say, _I have neither_, or, _I haven't either_. 291. "That man is in a _bad box_:" say, _bad predicament_, or bad _situation_. 292. It may be doubted whether to say of a man "that _he barked up the wrong tree_," is a complimentary or elegant metaphor. 293. "I will retain two-thirds, and give you the _balance_:" say, _remainder_. 294. "I _calculate_ to go by steam:" say, "I _expect_." 295. Avoid using the phrase "_I cave in_," for "_I give up_." It savors of slang. 296. Do not say, "_chicken fixings_," for "_trifles_," or "_extras_," connected with dress. 297. "He is a _cute_ man:" this is an inelegant abbreviation of _acute_, and employed to mean _smart_. It may, however, be properly applied to Yankees! 298. "He _dickered_ with him an hour:" say, "he _bargained_." This is a word somewhat peculiar to New-York. 299. "_Do don't_" is a vulgar usage of the Southern States, especially Georgia, for "_do not_." 300. "He is _done gone_:" say, _ruined_. 301. "We had a _dreadful_ fine time:" say, _very_, or _exceedingly_. 302. "It rains, and I want an umbrella _the worst kind_:" say, "_I am greatly in want_," &c. An umbrella _of the worst kind_ would not be likely to answer the best of purposes on a rainy day! 303. "The whole concern _fizzled out_:" say, _proved a failure_. 304. "As soon as I mentioned it to him, he _flared up_:" say, he _became excited_, or _grew violent_. 305. "The choir sang _Old Hundred_:" pronounce _Hundred_ as written, and not _Hunderd_. 306. "The message was sent by his _aid-de-camp_:" pronounce as if written _ade-de-kawng_, avoiding, however, as much as possible a twang on the last syllable. 307. "My _beard_ is long:" don't say _baird_. 308. "The blacksmith blows the _bellows_:" pronounce as written, and not _bellus_. 309. "Let me help you to some _catsup_:" avoid saying _ketchup_. 310. "It is new _China ware_:" do not say, _chaney ware_; this latter article exists only in the traditions of old women. 311. "The _combatants_ parted in good humor:" accent the first syllable--never the second. 312. "We poled the raft up the _creek_:" pronounce as if written _krik_. 313. "Then spake the _warrior_ bold:" pronounce in two syllables, as _war-yur_, not _war-ri-or_. 314. In using the word _venison_, sound the _i_: _venzun_ is a common, though not elegant pronunciation. 315. _Tapestry_ is divided _tap-es-try_ and not _ta-pes-try_. 316. "He is only a _subaltern_:" accent the first syllable of _subaltern_. 317. "The barge is at the _quay_:" pronounce _quay_, _kay_. 318. "The path over the meadow was _queachy_:" this word, meaning _soft_ or _boggy_, is now obsolete, and cannot be used with propriety. 319. "He talks _pulpitically_:" this word, which some who copy Chesterfield persist in using, has never by any good authority been admitted into the language. 320. To _peff_, meaning to _cough faintly_ (like a sheep), is hardly a useable word. 321. Be careful to distinguish between _pencil_, an instrument for writing, and _pensile_, meaning _hanging down_. 322. _To yank_ is a vulgarism, meaning _to twitch powerfully_. 323. Avoid the slang phrase, "_I used to could_." Say, "_I could formerly_." 324. "She _takes on_ about it greatly:" say, _grieves_. 325. "He _staved off_ the case two days longer:" say, he _put off_, or _delayed_. 326. "He made a great _splurge_:" say, he made a _blustering effort_. 327. "I _reckon_ it is going to rain:" say, I _think_, or _expect_. _Reckon_ applies to _calculation_. 328. "The basket is _pretty large_:" avoid, if possible, the use of the word _pretty_ out of its legitimate signification; the language abounds with substitutes more elegant. 329. "She weighs a _plaguy sight_:" say, _a great deal_. 330. "He _made tracks_ at sundown:" say, _he left_, or _escaped_. 331. "He was compelled to _fork over the cash_:" say, _to pay over_. 332. "_To flunk out_" is a vulgar expression for _to retire through fear_; the most that can be tolerated is, _to sneak out_. 333. "When last observed, he was _going at full chisel_:" say, _at the top of his speed_. 334. "That bill is a _counterfeit_:" the last syllable is pronounced as if written _fit_, and not _feet_. 335. "I am very much _obliged_ to you:" do not say _obleeged_. 336. The following sentence affords an example of three words of similar pronunciation, but different signification: "It is not easy to _pare_ a _pear_ with a _pair_ of scissors." 337. "The _robber_ entered the dwelling, and secretly carried off the silver:" say, _thief_; a _robber_ attacks violently, and commits his depredations by main force; a _thief_ is one who uses secrecy and deception. 338. "Go and _fetch_ me my riding-whip:" say, _bring_. _Fetch_ means to _go and bring_; _go and fetch_ is repetition. 339. _To leave_ and _to quit_ are often used as synonymous terms, though improperly; _to leave_ implies a design of returning soon--_to quit_, an absence of a long time, or forever; as, in Shakespeare:-- "----the very rats Instinctively had _quit_ it."--_Tempest_, i. 2. "I shall _leave_ my house for a month before next Autumn; but I shall not be obliged to _quit_ it until after Christmas." 340. _Mute_ and _dumb_. A _dumb_ man has not the power to speak; a _mute_ man either does not choose, or is not allowed to speak. It is, therefore, more proper to say of a person who can neither hear nor speak, that he is "deaf and _dumb_," than that he is a "deaf _mute_." 341. _Strong_ and _robust_. These words are frequently misused: a _strong_ man is able to bear a heavy burden, but not necessarily for a long time; a _robust_ man bears _continual_ fatigue with ease; a _strong_ man may be active and nimble; while an excess of muscular development, together with a clumsiness of action, exclude these qualities from the _robust_ man:-- "_Strong_ as a tower in hope, I cry Amen!" SHAKESPEARE, _Richard II._ i. 3. "For one who, though of drooping mien, had yet From nature's kindliness received a frame _Robust_ as ever rural labor bred." WORDSWORTH, _Excursion_, VI. 342. "Isaac Newton _invented_ the law of gravitation:" say, _discovered_. "Galileo _discovered_ the telescope:" say, _invented_. 343. To _hear_ and to _listen_ have each distinct degrees of meaning. To _hear_ implies no effort or particular attention. To _listen_ implies some eagerness to hear. An old proverb says, "They that _listen_ seldom _hear_ any good of themselves." 344. _Ought_ and _should_ both express obligation, but the latter is not so binding as the former. "Children _ought to_ love their parents, and _should_ be neat in their appearance." 345. _Alone_ and _only_ are often misapplied. "He _only_ could do it," means that no other but himself could do it; "he _alone_ could do it," should mean that he, without the assistance of others, could do it. 346. "Please the pigs."--(_Old Proverb._) This is a corruption from "Please the _pyx_." The _pyx_ is the receptacle which contains the consecrated wafer on Romish altars; and the exclamation is equal to "Please God." This corruption is as curious a one as that of "tawdry" from "'t Audrey," or "at St. Audrey's Fair," famous for the sale of frippery--showy, cheap, and worthless. 347. "The _partridge_ is a delightful bird:" do not say _patridge_. Also, do not say _pasley_ for _parsley_. 348. "After this, let him hide his _diminished head_:" this common phrase is a poetical quotation from Milton, and is therefore proper to be used even when it does not _literally_ express the idea:-- "At whose sight all the stars Hide their _diminished heads_." 349. "That bourne from whence no traveler returns." How often are precisely these words spoken? They are improperly quoted from Shakespeare, in Hamlet, and correctly read as follows:-- "That undiscovered country, from whose bourne No traveler returns." 350. "Bring me my _waistcoat_:" pronounce as if written _waste-coat_, and not _weskut_. It should rhyme, as it did in an old ballad, with "_laced coat_." 351. "Your _bonnet_ to its right use."--(_Shakespeare:_) never say _bunnet_. 352. "It is not cold enough to wear my _gloves_:" pronounce as if written _gluvs_, and to rhyme with _loves_. In "Fair Rosamond" the following illustrative stanza occurs:-- "He said he had his _gloves_ from France: The Queen said, 'That can't be: If you go there for _glove-making_, It is without the _g_.'" 353. "_Egad!_ what great good luck!" This word is now inelegantly used, except in certain species of poetry, where it is introduced with much effect, as in the following distich:-- "All tragedies, _egad!_ to me sound oddly; I can no more be serious, than you godly." 354. "The frigate is now in the Yellow Sea, or _thereabouts_:" say, _thereabout_. This term is a transposed combination of _about there_; there is no such word as _thereabouts_. The same may be said of _hereabouts_, and _whereabouts_. 355. "Whether he will or _no_:" say, _not_. The reason of this correction is clearly seen by supplying what is needed to complete the sense: Whether he will or _will not_. 356. "He looked at it first _lengthways_, then _sideways_:" say, _lengthwise_ and _sidewise_. Also, say _otherwise_ instead of _otherways_. A nobleman said to his fool, "I am _wise_, and you are _otherwise_." "Yes," replied his jester, "you are _wise_, and I am _another wise_." 357. If you are a landlord, beware of incorrectly using such an expression as in the following: A landed proprietor went to a tenant with a view of increasing his rent, and said to him, "Neighbor, I am going to _raise your rent_." "Thank you, sir," was the reply, "for I am utterly unable to _raise it myself_." 358. "Will you _accept_ of this slight testimonial?" Omit _of_, which is superfluous, and weakens the sentence. 359. "He convinced his opponent by _dint_ of good reasoning:" _dint_, meaning _force_ or strength, is an obsolete word, and should not now be employed. 360. "The Danube _empties_ into the Black Sea:" say, _flows_; to _empty_ means _to make vacant_; no river can properly be called _empty_, until it is entirely dried up. 361. Such words as _bamboozle_, _topsyturvy_, _helterskelter_, _hurlyburly_, and _pellmell_ are generally to be avoided. They answer, however, for familiar conversation. 362. Never say _seraphims_, for the plural of _seraph_, but _seraphim_; the same rule holds with _cherubims_. _Cherubs_ and _seraphs_ are proper plurals, suiting a familiar style of speaking or writing, while _cherubim_ and _seraphim_ are to be used only in more dignified and solemn discourse. 363. "_There's_ the books you wanted:" say, _there are_: avoid all abbreviations when they lead to a grammatical error, as in the present instance. 364. "This prisoner has, of all the gang, committed _fewer_ misdemeanors:" say, _fewest_. We may say _fewer than_ all, but we must say _fewest of_ all. 365. "I esteem you more than _the others_:" this sentence is equivocal. Does it mean, "I esteem you more than _I esteem the others_," or, "I esteem you more than _the others esteem you_?" 366. "The most eminent scholars will, on some points, differ _among one another_:" say, _among themselves_. 367. "He, from that moment, doubled his _kindness and caresses of me_:" say, "kindness _for_ and caresses of me;" by omitting _caresses_ we have, "He doubled his _kindness of_ me," which is not good English. 368. _To differ from_ and _to differ with_: to _differ from_ a man means to have an opinion different from his; to _differ with_ a person signifies a _quarrel_ or _rupture_. 369. "He barely escaped having _one or two broken heads_:" a man has but _one_ head, let it be broken or whole. Say, "He _once or twice barely escaped_ having a broken head." 370. "Whenever _I fall into that man's conversation_ I am entertained and profited:" say, _fall into conversation with that man_. 371. "The lecturer _spoke to several points_:" say, "spoke _on_ several points." He spoke _to_ his audience. 372. "I shall regard your _strictures_ only so far as _concerns_ my own errors:" say, _concern_; the phrase when filled out should read, "only so far as _they concern_ my own errors." 373. "I found him better than I expected _to have found him_:" say, _to find him_. 374. "I perceived that he was totally blind _with half an eye_:" say, "I perceived, with half an eye, that he was totally blind." Otherwise, to a man _totally blind_ you allot _half an eye_! 375. The word _only_ is often wrongly placed in the sentence, and made to express an idea which is not designed to be conveyed. "Not _only_ Chinese are superstitious," implies that others besides the Chinese are superstitious. "Chinese are not _only_ superstitious," implies that in addition to being superstitious, they have some other characteristics. "Chinese not _only_ are superstitious," leaves room for something still further to be implied of the Chinese than superstition, and which is not necessarily the predicate of _are_; as, "Chinese not only are superstitious, but they persecute those who do not put faith in Confucius." 376. _Not the least_ and _nothing less than_, sometimes literally convey just the opposite of what is intended. "He has _not the least_ excuse for going," may mean that he has _a great excuse_, or _none at all_. "He seeks _nothing less than_ worldly honor," may signify that nothing inferior to worldly honor will satisfy his desire; or, on the other hand, it may mean that nothing is less sought by him than worldly honor. Such expressions, therefore, are to be used with caution, else they will mislead. 377. Care should be taken in the use of epithets. For instance, in the sentence, "_A wise and good man_ should be respected," the words _wise_ and _good_ may properly be applied to the same man; but if the sentence should be altered to read, "An _old and young man_," it is obvious that both epithets could not relate to the same person. 378. Never say _turkle soup_, for _turtle soup_. 379. The word _long_ should not now be employed to signify _many_. An example of this early usage is found in the Fifth Commandment, "that thy days may be _long_ upon the land." The following lines furnish an instance of the verb _to lengthen_, meaning to _make many_:-- "The best of all ways To _lengthen_ our days, Is to take a few hours from the night, my lad." 380. "They returned _back again_ to the _same_ city _from_ whence they came _forth_:" omit the italicized words, which are redundant and inelegant. 381. "Have you any leisure _upon your hands_?" omit _upon your hands_,--not so much because anything after "leisure" is superfluous, in such a sentence, as because the idea of _having leisure upon your hands_ is absurd. 382. "Seven lads were present, and he gave them _all_ a book:" say, _gave them each_ a book. _All_ refers to a number of persons or things taken _collectively_, as _one body_; _each_ refers to _every individual_, separately considered. 383. "Lend me your _umberell_:" say, _umbrella_. The former pronunciation, however, is allowed by _poetic license_, as in the following, adapted from Thomas Moore:-- "Oh, ever thus from childhood's hour, Has chilling fate upon me fell! There always comes a soakin' shower When I hain't got an _umbrell_." 384. We lately met a grammarian, who had just made a tour through the mines, conjugating, or, rather, cogitating thus: "Positive, _mine_; comparative _miner_; superlative, _minus_!" 385. "Put not thy secret into the mouth of the _Bosphorus_, for it will betray it to the ears of the Black Sea."--(_Oriental Proverb._) Pronounce _Bosphorus_ as if written _Bosforus_, and not _Bos-porous_. 386. Be careful to use the hyphen (-) correctly: it joins compound words, and words broken by the ending of a line. The use of the hyphen will appear more clearly from the following example: "_many colored_ wings" means _many_ wings which are _colored_; but "_many-colored_ wings" means "wings of _many colors_." 387. "I am _afraid_ it will rain:" say, _I fear_. _Afraid_ expresses terror; _fear_ may mean only _anxiety_. 388. Never say _o-fences_ for _offences_; _pison_ for _poison_; _co-lection_ for _collection_; _voiolent_ for _violent_; _kivver_ for _cover_; _afeard_ for _afraid_; _debbuty_ for _deputy_. The last three examples are very common. 389. "It is a mere _cipher_:" never spell _cipher_ with a _y_. 390. "I was _necessitated_ to do it:" a poor expression, and often made worse by _necessiated_ being used: say, I was _obliged_, or _compelled_, to do it. 391. "Gibbon wrote the _Rise_ and Fall of the Roman Empire:" pronounce _Rise_, the noun, so as to rhyme with _price_; _Rise_, the verb, rhymes with _prize_. 392. "He joined his _regiment_ last week:" never say, _ridgiment_ for _regiment_. 393. "He bought a _gimlet_:" never spell the last word _gimblet_, as many do. 394. "He is a supporter of the _Government_:" beware of omitting the _n_ in the second syllable of _Government_--a very common practice. 395. "Received this day _of_ Mr. Brown ten dollars:" say, "Received this day _from_," &c. 396. "Of whatever you _get_, endeavor to save something; and with all your _getting, get_ wisdom:" carefully avoid saying _git_ for _get_, and _gitting_ for _getting_. 397. "So intent was he on the song he was _singing_, while he stood by the fire, that he did not perceive that his clothes were _singeing_." Verbs ending with a _single e_, omit the _e_ when the termination _ing_ is added, as, _give_, _giving_; in _singeing_, however, the _e_ must be retained, to prevent its being confounded with _singing_. The _e_ must also be retained in _dyeing_, to distinguish it from _dying_. 398. The following sentences may be studied: "The _dyer dyes_ daily, yet he _dies_ not." "The _miner minds_ the _minor mines_." "It is not _meet_ to _mete_ out such _meat_." "He performed a great _feat_ with his _feet_ at the _fête_." (_Fête_ is pronounced _fate_.) 399. "_Lower_ the sails, as the sky begins to _lower_:" pronounce _low_ in the _former_ so as to rhyme with _mow_, and _low_ in the _latter_ so as to rhyme with _cow_. 400. "There was a great _row_ on Monday, in Tryon _Row_:" pronounce the former _row_ so as to rhyme with _cow_--the latter _row_, so as to rhyme with _mo_. 401. "His _surname_ is Clifford:" never spell the _sur_ in "surname" _sir_, which shows an ignorance of its true derivation, which is from the Latin. 402. "The buildings are so old that they pay _almost no rent_ now:" _scarcely any rent_, is better. 403. "His _mamma_ sent him to a preparatory school:" _mamma_ is often written with one _m_ only, which is not, as may at first be supposed, in imitation of the French _maman_, but in sheer ignorance. 404. Active verbs often take a neuter sense; as, "_The house is building_:" here, _is building_ is used in a neuter signification, because it has no object after it. By this rule are explained such sentences as, "_Application is wanting_;" "_The Grammar is printing_," &c. 405. "He _attackted_ me without the slightest provocation:" say, _attacked_. 406. "I called on him every day in the week _successfully_:" very common, but incorrect; say, _successively_. 407. "I fear I shall _discommode_ you:" it is better to say, _incommode_. 408. "I can do it _equally as well as_ he:" leave out _equally_, which is superfluous. 409. "We could not forbear _from_ doing it:" leave out _from_, which is unnecessary; or say, _refrain from_. 410. "He was totally dependent _of_ his father:" say, dependent _on_ his father. 411. "They accused him _for_ neglecting his duty:" say, _of_ neglecting, &c. 412. "They have a great resemblance _with_ each other:" say, _to_ each other. 413. "I entirely dissent _with_ him:" say, _from_ him. 414. "He was made much _on_ at the Springs:" say, made much _of_, &c. 415. "He is a man _on_ whom you can confide:" say, _in_ whom, &c. 416. "He was obliged to _fly_ the country:" say, _flee_ the country. A very common mistake. 417. "The snuffers _wants_ mending:" say, _want_ mending. No one would say, "My _pantaloons is_ ripped." 418. "His conduct admits _of_ no apology:" omit _of_, which is quite unnecessary. 419. "A _gent_ has been here inquiring for you:" a detestable, but very common expression; say, a _gentleman_ has been, &c. Oliver Wendell Holmes hits off this liberty with language, in the following happy couplet:-- "The things called _pants_, in certain documents, Were never made for _gentlemen_, but _gents_." 420. "That was _all along of_ you:" say, "That was _all your fault_." 421. "You have no _call_ to be angry with me:" say, no _occasion_, &c. 422. "Too free an _indulgence_ in luxuries _enervate_ and _injure_ the system:" say, _enervates_ and _injures_, &c. The plural, _luxuries_, standing directly before the verb, (which should be _enervates_, in the singular,) deceives the ear. Errors of this kind are very common, though a moment's thought would correct them. The verb must agree with its subject in person and in number; if the _noun_ is in the singular, the _verb_ that belongs to it must also be in the singular. 423. "A father divided a portion of his property _among_ his two children, and the remainder he distributed _between_ the poor:" say, _between_ his two children, and _among_ the poor. _Between_ is applicable to two only, _among_ to three or more. 424. "_Every_ child should obey _their_ parents:" say, _his_ parents. The pronoun must agree with the noun in number, &c. 425. "He is a person _who_ I respect greatly:" say, _whom_. "Be careful _who_ you trust:" _whom_ you trust. 426. "Let me consider _of_ this matter." "The culprit dreaded to enter _in_ the prison." "The laborers were not allowed to want _for_ anything." Leave out the _italicized_ words--the sense being complete without them. 427. _Cupola_ is often pronounced _cupalo_; _foliage_, _foilage_; _future_, _futur_; _nature_, _natur_: all of which errors should be carefully avoided. 428. "'Ow 'appens it that _H_englishmen so _h_often misplace their _h_aitches?" It is a cockneyism; and if you have fallen into the habit, it will require perhaps more perseverance than you imagine, to correct it. 429. Do you say _w_agabond or _v_agabond, _w_inegar or _v_inegar, _w_ery or _v_ery, _v_alking or _w_alking, _v_atchman or _w_atchman? It is a local custom, but if you have any taint of it, don't sing "_V_illikins and his Dinah." 430. Provid_ence_, confid_ence_, and similar words, are often pronounced Provid_unce_, confid_unce_, &c., substituting _unce_ for _ence_. So also, words ending in _ance_, as mainte_nance_, suste_nance_, SURVEIL_lance_, are pronounced falsely mainten_unce_, susten_unce_, &c. 431. _Coming_, _going_, _according_, &c., are often pronounced without the final _g_: speak them distinctly, and pronounce difficult words with de-lib-er-a-tion. 432. If you are a Yankee, you should (though, as a general thing, you _will not_) take special pains with your vowel sounds, that they be not formed through the nasal cavities. Don't say _heow_, _ceow_, _confeound_, for _how_, _cow_, &c. 433. If you are a Western man, you are liable to give your vowel sounds too great breadth. You should not say _bar_ for _bear_, _hum_ for _home_, _dawlar_ for _dollar_; and it is better to avoid using such expressions as _I reckon_, _I guess_, _I calculate_, too frequently. 434. "I am going _a fishing_:" be bold enough to be one among the foremost to break away from the bad habit of saying _a fishing_, _a talking_, _a courting_, &c. This custom, however, should be retained in quoting proverbs and wise sayings; these are better in proportion as they are older; for example: "_Who goes a-borrowing, goes a-sorrowing._" The quaintness would be destroyed by saying simply _borrowing_ and _sorrowing_. 435. Some people add a superfluous preposition at the end of a sentence--"More than you think _for_." This is awkward. 436. "Then think _on_ the friend who once welcomed it too," &c. &c.: say, _of_. 437. _Thou_ and _thee_ are no longer used in spelling or writing, except by some of The Friends; but proverbial citations, originally expressed in that form, lose much of their beauty and force by alteration; as, "If thou seest thy house in flames, approach and warm thyself by it." How greatly would a change of person tame the spirit of this fine proverb! 438. "By the street of '_By-and-By_,' one arrives at the house of 'Never.'" Do not say, _By'mby_. 439. Be careful to observe the _two plurals_ of the following nouns: Singular. First Plural. Second Plural. _Brother,_ _Brothers_ (of the same _Brethren_ (of the same parents), society). _Die,_ _Dies_ (for coining), _Dice_ (for gaming). _Index,_ _Indexes_ (tables of contents), _Indices_ (signs in algebra). _Pea,_ _Peas_ (referring to a _Pease_ (referring to the limited number), whole species). _Penny,_ _Pennies_ (coins), _Pence_ (the value). _Cow,_ _Cows_ (a herd of cattle), _Kine_ (the species). _Sow,_ _Sows_ (a litter), _Swine_ (the species). _Genius,_ _Geniuses_ (men of genius), _Genii_ (imaginary spirits). 440. Different shades of meaning may be expressed by slight variations in the position of the important words in a sentence. For example, "_The Paradise Lost of Milton_," is not exactly the same in import as, "_Milton's Paradise Lost_;" in the former, attention is called to the author--in the latter, to the poem. 441. In uniting the plural of _one_, _two_, _three,_ do not use the apostrophe ['] as _one's_, _two's_, _three's._ Good writers never conform to the latter mode. Wordsworth, who was remarkably particular, not only in the choice of his words but in their orthography, wrote: "The sun has long been set, The stars are out by _twos and threes_; The little birds are piping yet Among the bushes and the trees." 442. "_How's yourself_, this morning?" an exceedingly common, but very objectionable expression: say, "_How are you_;" &c. 443. "Wanted, two apprentices, who will be treated as _one_ of the family:" great practical difficulty would be found in realizing such treatment! Say, "as _members_ of the family." 444. The following lines afford an instance of the ingenious uses to which the English language may be put: "You _sigh for_ a _cipher_, but _I sigh for you;_ Oh, _sigh for no cipher_, but oh, _sigh for me;_ Oh, let not my _sigh for_ a _cipher_ go, But give _sigh for sigh, for I sigh_ for you so!" The above is more briefly expressed in the following manner: "U O a O, but I O u, Oh, O no O, but oh, O me; Oh, let not my O a O go, But give O O I O u so!" 445. Sometimes _but_ is incorrectly substituted for _that_: as, "I have no doubt _but_ he will be here to-night." Sometimes for the conjunction _if_, as, "I shouldn't wonder _but_ that was the case." And sometimes _two_ conjunctions are used instead of one, as, "_If that_ I have offended him," "_After that_ he had seen the parties," &c. All this is very awkward and should be avoided. 446. "My hands are _chopped_:" say, _chapped_. 447. "This will serve as a _preventative_:" say, _preventive_. 448. "A _nishe_ young man," "What _makesh_ you laugh?" "If he _offendsh_ you, don't speak to him," "_Ash_ you please," "Not _jush_ yet," "We always _passh_ your house in going to call on _Missh Yatesh_." This is decided, unmitigated _cockneyism_, having its parallel in nothing except the broken English of the sons of Abraham, and to adopt it in conversation is certainly "not speaking like a Christian." 449. Never say, "Cut it in _half_," for this you cannot do unless you could _annihilate one_ half. You may "cut it in two," or "cut it in halves," or "cut it through," or "divide it," but no human ability will enable you _to cut it in half_. 451. _To lay and to lie._--_To lay_ is an active or transitive verb, and must always have an object, expressed or understood. _To lie_ (not meaning _to tell a falsehood_) is a neuter or intransitive, and therefore does not admit of an object. The only real difficulty arises from the fact, that the past tense of "lie," when used without an auxiliary, is the same as the present of "lay." But a little attention will obviate this. Nothing can be more erroneous than to say, "I shall go and lay down." The question which naturally arises in the mind of the discriminating hearer is, "_What_ are you going to lay down--money, carpets, plans, or what?" for, as a transitive verb is used, an object is wanted to complete the sense. The speaker means, that he himself is going to _lie down_. "My brother _lays_ ill of a fever," should be, "My brother _lies_," &c. VERB ACTIVE. VERB NEUTER. _To lay._ _To lie._ Present Tense. Present Tense. I lay } I lie } Thou layest } money, Thou liest } down, He lays } carpets, He lies } too long, We lay } plans, We lie } on a sofa, You lay } --any _thing_. You lie } --any _where_. They lay } They lie } Imperfect Tense. Imperfect Tense. I laid } I lay } Thou laidest } money, Thou layest } down, He laid } carpets, He lays } too long, We laid } plans, We lay } on a sofa, You laid } --any _thing_. You lay } --any _where_. They laid } They lay } Present Participle, Laying. Present Participle, Lying. Perfect Participle, Laid. Perfect Participle, Lain. 452. Many people have an odd way of saying, "I expect," when they mean only "I think," or "I conclude;" as, "I expect my brother went to Richmond to-day," "I expect those books were sent to Paris last year." _Expect_ can relate only to _future_ time, and must be followed by a future tense, or a verb in the infinitive mood; as, "I expect my brother _will go_ to Richmond to-day," "I expect _to find_ those books were sent to Paris last year." 453. "A _summer's_ morning," should be, A _summer_ morning. 454. The vulgar speaker uses adjectives instead of adverbs, and says, "This letter is written _shocking_;" the genteel speaker uses adverbs instead of adjectives, and says, "This writing looks _shockingly_." 455. "_Nobody else_ but him," should be, _Nobody_ but him. 456. "That _ain't_ just," should be, That _is not_ just. 457. "He was killed _by_ a cannon-ball," should be, He was killed _with_ a cannon-ball. He was killed _by_ the cannoneer. 458. "A _new pair_ of gloves," should be, A _pair of new_ gloves. 459. "_Before_ I do that, I must _first_ be paid," should be, Before I do that, I must be paid. 460. A grammatical play upon the word THAT: "Now _that_ is a word which may often be joined, For _that that_ may be doubled is clear to the mind; And _that that that_ is right, is as plain to the view, As _that that that that_ we use is rightly used too; And _that that that that that_ line has in it, is right-- In accordance with grammar, is plain in our sight." 461. "He will go _from thence_ to-morrow." The preposition "from" is included in these adverbs, therefore it becomes tautology in sense when prefixed to them. 462. "Equally as well," is a very common expression, and a very incorrect one; the adverb of comparison, "as," has no right in the sentence. "Equally well," "Equally high," "Equally dear," should be the construction; and if a complement be necessary in the phrase, it should be preceded by the preposition "with," as, "The wall was equally high with the former one," "The goods at Smith's are equally dear with those sold at the shop next door," &c. "Equally the same" is tautology. 463. Some persons talk of "_continuing on_:" in what other direction would it be possible to _continue_? 464. "The satin measured twelve yards before I cut this piece _off of_ it." "The fruit was gathered _off of_ that tree." Omit _of_; or, omitting _off of,_ insert _from_. 465. "He left his horse, and got _on to_ a stage-coach," "He jumped _on to_ the floor," "She laid it _on to_ a dish," "I threw it _on to_ the fire." Why use two prepositions where one would be quite as explicit, and far more elegant? Nobody would think of saying, "He came to New-York, _for_ to go to the exhibition." 466. "No other resource _but_ this was allowed him:" say, "No other resource _than_ this," &c. 467. "I don't know but _what_ I shall go to White Plains to-morrow:" say, "I don't know but _that_," &c. 468. "One of those houses _were_ sold last week," "Each of the daughters _are_ to have a separate share," "Every tree in those plantations _have_ been injured by the storm," "Either of the children _are_ at liberty to claim it." Here it will be perceived that the pronouns "one," "each," "every," "either," are the true nominatives to the verbs; but the intervening noun in the plural number, in each sentence, deludes the ear; and the speaker, without reflection, renders the verb in the plural instead of the singular number. 469. "Many still die annually _from_ the plague:" say, _of_ the plague. 470. "He spoke _contemptibly_ of him," should be, He spoke _contemptuously_ of him. 471. "_Was_ you?" should be, _Were_ you? 472. "This is the more _perfect_ of the two:" say, More _complete_. _Perfect_ rarely admits comparison. 473. Avoid all slang and vulgar words and phrases, as, _Anyhow_, _Bating_, _Bran new_, _To blow up_, _Bother_, _Cut_, _Currying favor_, _Fork out_, _Half an eye_, _I am up to you_, _Kick up_, _Scrape_, _The Scratch_, _Walk into_. 474. "Go _over_ the bridge," should be, Go _across_ the bridge. 475. "_I was some distance from home_," should be, I was _at_ some distance from home. 476. "Is Mr. Smith _in_?" should be, Is Mr. Smith _within_? 477. "It is _above_ a month since," should be, It is _more_ than a month since. 478. "Vegetables were _plenty_," should be, Vegetables were _plentiful_. 479. "We both were _very disappointed_." This is an incomplete expression: say, _very much_, or _very greatly_. No one would think of saying, "We both were _very pleased_." 480. "It is I who _is_ to receive the appointment:" say, who _am_ to receive; _who_ is in the first person, and the verb of which it is the subject must be in the same. 481. Never say _biscake_, for _biscuit_. 482. "Passengers are _not requested_ to let down the chains, before the boat is fastened to the bridge." [From a printed regulation on one of the New-York and Brooklyn ferry-boats.] The reading should be, "Passengers _are requested not to let down_ the chains." 483. "How will you _swap_ jack-knives?" _swap,_ although it is a word familiarly used in connection with "jack-knives," is a term that cannot lay the least claim to elegance. Use some other of the many mercantile expressions to which trade has given rise. 484. "He's put his nose to the _grin-stone_ at an early age." [A remark usually made by old ladies, suggested by the first marriage among their grandsons.] Say, _grind-stone_. A _grin-stone_ implies a stone that "grins," whereas, especially in this instance, the "nose" fulfills that office. 485. The importance of punctuating a written sentence is often neglected. Space does not permit the giving of rules on this subject, in this book. Business correspondence is generally blemished by many omissions of this character; for example, "Messrs G Longman & Co have recd a note from the Cor Sec Nat Shipwreck Soc informing them of the loss of one of their vessels off the N E Coast of S A at 8 P M on the 20 of Jan." A clergyman, standing in his pulpit, was once handed a slip of paper, to be read in the hearing of the congregation, which was intended to convey the following notice: "A man going to sea, his wife desires the prayers of the church." But the sentence was improperly punctuated, and he read, "A man going to see his wife, desires the prayers of the church!" 486. "The knave thereupon commenced rifling his _friend's_ (as he called him) _pocket_:" say, "The knave commenced rifling the _pocket of his friend_, as he facetiously called him." The possessive case, and the word that governs it, must not be separated by an intervening clause. 487. "I owe _thee_ a heavy debt of gratitude, and _you_ will not permit me to repay it:" say, either "I owe _you_," &c., preserving "and _you_ will" in the second clause; or, "I owe _thee_," and altering "and _you_ will" into "and _thou wilt_." 488. "Every lancer and every rifleman _were at their post_:" say, _was at his_ post. 489. "I can lift as many pounds _as he has_:" add _lifted_. 490. Do not use _to_, the sign of the infinitive mood, for the infinitive itself. "I have not written to him, and I am not likely _to_," should read, "I am not likely _to write to him_." 491. The word _agree_ is sometimes followed by the wrong preposition. We should say, agree _with_ a person--_to_ a proposition--_upon_ a thing among ourselves. 492. We should say _compare with_, in respect of quality--_compare to_, for the sake of illustration. 493. We should say copy _after_ a person--_copy from_ a thing. 494. _Between_ is properly applied only to two objects; _among_, to three or more. "A father divided a portion of his property _between_ his two sons; the rest he distributed _among_ the poor." 495. _In_ should not be used for _into_, after verbs denoting entrance. "Come _in_ my parlor," should read, "Come _into_ my parlor." 496. "We confide _in_, and have respect _for_, the good." Such a form of expression is strained and awkward. It is better to say, "We confide _in_ the good, and have respect for _them_," or, "We _trust_ and _respect_ the good." 497. "This veil of flesh parts the visible and the invisible world:" say, "parts the visible _from_ the invisible." It certainly is not meant that the veil of flesh _parts_ (or _divides_) each of these worlds. 498. "Every leaf, every twig, every blade, every drop of water, _teem_ with life:" say, _teems_. 499. "Dr. Prideaux used to relate that when he brought the manuscript of his Connection of the Old and the New Testaments to the publisher, _he told him_ it was a dry subject, and that the printing could not be safely ventured upon unless he could enliven the work with a little humor." The sense alone, and not the _sentence_, indicates to whom _he_ and _him_ respectively refer; such a form of expression is faulty, because it may lead to a violation of _perspicuity_, which is one of the most essential qualities of a good style. 500. The last direction which this little book will give, on the subject with which it has been occupied, is one that long ago was given in the greatest of books--"Let your conversation be as it becometh the Gospel of Christ." If obedience to this injunction may not guard him who heeds it against the commission of such mistakes as are numbered in this catalogue, it will not fail to lead him out of the way of errors more grievous and solemn. THE SPELLER AND DEFINER'S MANUAL. BY WILLIAM W. SMITH, Principal of Grammar School No. 1, New-York; Author of The Speller's Manual. This work contains about fourteen thousand of the most useful words in the English language, correctly spelled, pronounced, defined, and arranged in classes, together with rules for spelling, prefixes and suffixes, with their significations, rules for use of capitals, punctuation and other marks used in writing and printing, quotations from other languages used in English composition, abbreviations, &c., to which is added a +Vocabulary+ for reference. Words which resemble each other in pronunciation, but have different meanings, are arranged together, and occupy about one eighth of the entire work, containing nearly three hundred pages. The sentences for examples for pupils (each embracing two or more of these words) will be found very instructive and interesting. While +The Speller and Definer's Manual+ supplies all that can be desired in an ordinary dictionary or speller, it furnishes much important information that cannot be found in these, and presents a study, usually dry and uninteresting, in a natural and attractive manner. It is adapted to the capacities of children, and will essentially aid the teacher in the work of instruction by suggesting _questions_ and _ideas_ that are very often overlooked amid the anxieties of the school-room. It will be found to be one of the most useful works for schools or +SELF-INSTRUCTION+ ever issued as a text-book, and its examination will abundantly repay any friend of education. The Manual has been adopted by the Board of Education for use in the Public Schools of New-York City. We invite attention to the following extracts of notices of this work from city papers: NOTICES OF THE PRESS. 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7453	----	"Goo little Reed! Aforn tha vawk, an vor me plead: Thy wild nawtes, mâ-be, thâ ool hire Zooner than zâter vrom a lâre. Zâ that thy Maester's pleas'd ta blaw 'em, An haups in time thâ'll come ta knaw 'em An nif za be thâ'll please ta hear, A'll gee zum moor another year."--_The Farewell._ THE Dialect of the West of England PARTICULARLY SOMERSETSHIRE; WITH A GLOSSARY OF WORDS NOW IN USE THERE; ALSO WITH POEMS AND OTHER PIECES EXEMPLIFYING THE DIALECT. BY JAMES JENNINGS, HONORARY SECRETARY OF THE METROPOLITAN LITERARY INSTITUTION, LONDON. BASED ON THE _SECOND EDITION,_ THE WHOLE REVISED, CORRECTED, AND ENLARGED, WITH TWO DISSERTATIONS ON THE ANGLO-SAXON PRONOUNS, AND OTHER PIECES, BY JAMES KNIGHT JENNINGS, M.A., Late Scholar and Librarian, Queens' College, Cambridge; Vicar of Hagbourn, Berkshire; and Minister of Calcott Donative, Somersetshire. TO THA DWELLERS O' THA WEST, Tha Fruit o' longvul labour, years, In theäze veo leaves at last appears. Ta you, tha dwellers o' tha West, I'm pleas'd that thâ shood be addresst: Vor thaw I now in Lunnan dwell, I mine ye still--I love ye well; And niver, niver sholl vorget I vust drâw'd breath in _Zummerzet_; Amangst ye liv'd, and left ye zorry, As you'll knaw when you hire my storry. Theäze little book than take o' me; 'Tis âll I hâ just now ta gee An when you rade o' _Tommy Gool_, Or _Tommy Came_, or _Pal_ at school, Or _Mr. Guy_, or _Fanny Fear_,-- I thenk you'll shod vor her a tear) _Tha Rookery_, or _Mary's Crutch_, Tha cap o' which I love ta touch, You'll vine that I do not vorget My naatal swile--dear Zummerzet. JAS. JENNINGS. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. In preparing this second edition of my relative's work, I have incorporated the results of observations made by me during several years' residence in Somersetshire, in the centre of the district. I have also availed myself by kind permission, of hints and suggestions in two papers, entitled "Somersetshire Dialect," read by T. S. Baynes in 1856, and reprinted from the Taunton Courier, in London, in 1861. During the forty years which have elapsed since the first edition, very much light has been thrown on the subject of Provincial Dialects, and after all much remains to be discovered. I consider with Mr. Baynes that there is more of the pure Anglo-Saxon in the west of England dialect, as this district was the seat of classical Anglo-Saxon, which first rose here to a national tongue, and lasted longer in a great measure owing to its distance from the Metropolis, from which cause also it was less subject to modern modification. I shall be happy to receive any suggestions from Philological scholars, which may increase the light thrown on the subject, and by which a third edition may be improved. _Hagbourn Vicarage, August,_ 1869. PREFACE. The usefulness of works like the present is too generally admitted to need any apology for their publication. There is, notwithstanding, in their very nature a dryness, which requires relief: the author trusts, therefore, that, in blending something imaginative with the details of philological precision, his work will afford amusement to the reader. The Glossary contains the fruit of years of unwearied attention to the subject; and it is hoped that the book will be of some use in elucidating our old writers, in affording occasional help to the etymology of the Anglo-Saxon portion of our language, and in exhibiting a view of the present state of an important dialect of the western provinces of England. A late excursion through the West has, however, induced the Author to believe that some valuable information may yet remain to be gathered from our Anglo-Saxon dialect--more especially from that part of it still used by the common people and the yeomanry. He therefore respectfully solicits communications from those who feel an interest in this department of our literature; by which a second edition may be materially improved. To a _native_ of the west of England this volume will be found a vade-mecum of reference, and assist the reminiscence of well-known, and too often unnoted peculiarities and words, which are fast receding from, the polish of elegance, and the refinement of literature. In regard to the _Poetical Pieces_, it may be mentioned that most of them are founded on _West Country Stories_, the incidents in which actually occurred. If some of the subjects should be thought trifling, it must not be forgotten that the primary object has been, to exemplify the Dialect, and that common subjects offered the best means of effectuating such an object. Of such Poems as _Good Bwye ta thee Cot_; _the Rookery_; and _Mary Ramsey's Crutch_, it may be observed, that had the Author _felt_ less he might, perhaps, have written better. _Metropolitan Literary Institution, London, March 25, 1825._ CONTENTS - Dedication - Preface to the Second Edition - Preface to the First Edition - OBSERVATIONS on some of the Dialects of the West of England, particularly Somersetshire - A GLOSSARY of Words commonly used in Somersetshire - POEMS and OTHER PIECES, exemplifying the Dialect of the County of Somerset - Good Bwye ta Thee Cot - Fanny Fear - Jerry Nutty - Legend of Glastonbury - Mr. Guy - The Rookery - Tom Gool - Teddy Band--a Zong--Hunting for Sport - The Churchwarden - The Fisherman and the Players - Mary Ramsey's Crutch - Hannah Verrior - Remembrance - Doctor Cox - The Farewell - Farmer Bennet an Jan Lide, a Dialogue - Thomas Came an Young Maester Jimmy, a Dialogue - Mary Ramsay, a Monologue - Soliloquy of Ben Bond - Two Dissertations on Anglo-Saxon Pronouns - Miss Ham on the Somerset Dialect - Concluding Observations OBSERVATIONS, &c. The following Glossary includes the whole of Somerset, _East_ of the River Parret, as well as adjoining parts of Wiltshire and Gloucestershire. West of the Parret many of the words are pronounced very differently indeed, so as to mark strongly the people who use them. [This may be seen more fully developed in two papers, by T. Spencer Baynes, read before the Somersetshire Archaeological Society, entitled the Somersetshire Dialect, printed 1861, 18mo, to whom I here acknowledge my obligations for several hints and suggestions, of which I avail myself in this edition of my late relative's work]. The chief peculiarity West of the Parret, is the ending of the third person singular, present tense of verbs, in _th_ or _eth_: as, he _lov'th_, _zee'th_, &c., for he loves, sees, &c. In the pronouns, they have _Ise_ for _I_, and _er_ for _he_. In fact the peculiarities and contractions of the Western District are puzzling to a stranger. Thus, _her_ is frequently used for _she_. "_Har'th a doo'd it_," is, "_she has done it_," (I shall occasionally in the Glossary note such words as distinguishingly characterise that district). Two of the most remarkable peculiarities of the dialect of the West of England, and particularly of Somersetshire, are the sounds given to the vowels A and E. A, is almost always sounded open, as in _fäther_, _räther_, or somewhat like the usual sound of _a_ in _balloon_, _calico_, lengthened; it is so pronounced in bäll, cäll. I shall use for this sound the _circumflex over the a_, thus â_ or ä_. E, has commonly the same sound as the French gave it, which is, in fact, the slender of A, as heard in _pane fane_, _cane_, &c. The hard sound given in our polished dialect to the letters _th_, in the majority of words containing those letters [as in _through_, _three_, _thing_, think_], expressed by the Anglo-Saxon _ð_, is frequently changed in the Western districts into the sound given in England to the letter _d_: as for _three_, we have _dree_ for _thread_, _dread_, or _dird_, _through_, _droo_, _throng_, _drong_, or rather _drang_; _thrush_, _dirsh_, &c. The consonant and vowel following _d_, changing places. The slender or soft sound given to _th_ in our polished dialect, is in the West, most commonly converted into the thick or obtuse sound of the same letters as heard in the words _this_, these &c., and this too, whether the letters be at the beginning or end of words. I am much disposed to believe that our Anglo-Saxon ancestors, used indiscriminately the letters Ð and ð for D only, and sounded them as such, as we find now frequently in the West; although our lexicographers usually have given the _two_ sounds of _th_ to Ð and ð respectively. The vowel O is used for _a_, as _hond, dorke, lorke, hort,_ in hand, dark, lark, heart, &c., and other syllables are lengthened, as _voote, bade, dade,_ for foot, bed, dead. The letter O in _no, gold,_ &c., is sounded like _aw_ in _awful_; I have therefore spelt it with this diphthong instead of _a_. Such word as _jay_ for _joy_, and a few others, I have not noted. Another remarkable fact is the disposition to invert the order of some consonants in some words; as the _r_ in _thrush, brush, rush, run,_ &c., pronouncing them dirsh, birsh, hirsh, hirn; also transposition of _p_ and _s_ in such words as clasp, hasp, asp, &c., sounded claps, haps, aps, &c. I have not inserted all these words in the Glossary, as these general remarks will enable the student to detect the words which are so inverted. It is by no means improbable that the order in which such sounds are now repeated in the West, is the original order in which they existed in our language, and that our more polished mode of expressing them is a new and perhaps a corrupt enunciation. Another peculiarity is that of joining the letter _y_ at the end of some verbs in the infinitive mood, as well as to parts of different conjugations, thus, "I can't _sewy, nursy, reapy_, to _sawy_, to _sewy_, to _nursy_, &c. A further peculiarity is the _love of vowel_ sound, and opening out monosyllables of our polished dialect into two or more syllables, thus: ay-er, for air; boo-äth, for both; fay-er, for fair; vi-ër for fire; stay-ers for stairs; show-er for sure; vröo-rst for post; boo-ath for both; bre-ash for brush; chee-ase for cheese; kee-ard for card; gee-ate for gate; mee-ade for mead; mee-olk for milk; &c. Chaucer gives many of them as dissyllables. The verb _to be_ retains much of its primitive form: thus _I be, thou,_ or _thee, beest,_ or _bist, we be, you be, they be, thä be_, are continually heard for _I am_, &c., _he be_ is rarely used: but _he is_. In the past tense, _war_ is used for _was_, and _were_: _I war, thou_ or _thee wart_, he _war_, &c., we have besides, _we'm, you'm, they'm_, for _we, you, they, are_, there is a constant tendency to pleonasm in some cases, as well as to contraction, and elision in others. Thus we have _a lost, agone, abought_, &c., for _lost, gone, bought_, &c., Chaucer has many of these prefixes; but he often uses _y_ instead of _a_, as _ylost_. The frequent use of Z and V, the softened musical sounds for S and F, together with the frequent increase and multiplication of vowel sounds, give the dialect a by no means inharmonious expression, certainly it would not be difficult to select many words which may for their modulation compete with others of French extraction, and, perhaps be superior to many others which we have borrowed from other languages, much less analogous to the polished dialect of our own. I have added, in pursuance of these ideas, some poetical and prose pieces in the dialect of Somersetshire, in which the idiom is tolerably well preserved, and the pronunciation is conveyed in letters, the nearest to the sound of the words, as there are in truth many sounds for which we have neither letters, nor combinations of letters to express them. [I might at some future period, if thought advisable, go into a comparison between the sound of all the letters of the alphabet pronounced in Somersetshire, and in our polished dialect, but I doubt if the subject is entitled to this degree of criticism]. The reader will bear in mind that these poems are composed in the dialect of Somerset, north east of the Parret, which is by far the most general. In the Guardian, published about a century ago, is a paper No. 40, concerning pastoral poetry, supposed to have been written by _Pope_, to extol his own pastorals and degrade those of Ambrose Phillips. In this essay there is a quotation from a pretended _Somersetshire_ poem. But it is evident Pope knew little or nothing about the Somersetshire dialect. Here are a few lines from "this old West country bard of ours," as Pope calls him: "_Cicely._ Ah Rager, Rager, cher was zore avraid, When in yond vield you kiss'd the parson's maid: Is this the love that once to me you zed, When from tha wake thou broughtst me gingerbread?" Now first, this is a strange admixture of dialects, but neither east, west, north, nor south. _Chez_ is nowhere used; but in the southern part _utche_ or _iche_, is sometimes spoken contractedly _che_. [See _utchy_ in the Glossary]. _Vield_ for _field_, should be _veel_. _Wake_ is not used in Somersetshire; but _revel_ is the word. _Parson_, in Somersetshire, dealer, is _pâson_. In another line he calls the cows, _kee_, which is not Somersetian; nor is, _be go_ for begone: it should, _be gwon_; nor is _I've a be_; but _I've a bin_, Somersetian. The idiomatic expressions in this dialect are numerous, many will be found in the Glossary; the following may be mentioned. _I'd 'sley do it_, for _I would as lief do it_. I have occasionally in the Glossary suggested the etymology of some words; by far the greater part have an Anglo-Saxon, some perhaps a Danish origin; [and when we recollect that _Alfred the Great_, a good Anglo-Saxon scholar, was born at Wantage in Berks, on the border of Wilts, had a palace at Chippenham, and was for some time resident in Athelney, we may presume that traditional remains of him may have influenced the language or dialect of Somersetshire, and I am inclined to think that the present language and pronunciation of Somersetshire were some centuries past, general in the south portion of our island.] In compiling this Glossary, I give the fruits of twenty-five years' assiduity, and have defined words, not from books, but from actual usage; I have however carefully consulted _Junius_, _Skinner_, _Minshew_, and some other old lexicographers, and find many of their definitions correspond with my own; but I avoid _conjectural_ etymology. Few dictionaries of our language are to be obtained, published from the invention of printing to the end of the 16th century, a period of about 150 years. They throw much light on our provincial words, yet after all, our _old writers_ are our chief resource, [and doubtless many MSS. in various depositories, written at different periods, and recently brought to light, from the Record and State Paper Office, and historical societies, will throw much light on the subject]; and an abundant harvest offers in examining them, by which to make an amusing book, illustrative of our provincial words and ancient manners. I think we cannot avoid arriving at the conclusion, that the Anglo-Saxon dialect, of which I conceive the Western dialect to be a striking portion, has been gradually giving way to our polished idiom; and is considered a barbarism, and yet many of the _sounds_ of that dialect are found in Holland and Germany, as a part of the living language of these countries. I am contented with having thus far elucidated the language of my native county. I have omitted several words, which I supposed provincial, and which are frequent to the west, as they are found in the modern dictionaries, still I have allowed a few, which are in Richardson's Johnson. _Thee_ is used for the nominative _thou_; which latter word is seldom used, diphthong sounds used in this dialect are: uai, uoa, uoi, uoy, as guain, (gwain), quoat, buoil, buoy; such is the disposition to pleonasm in the use of the demonstrative pronouns, that they are very often used with the adverb _there_. _Theäze here, thick there_, [_thicky there_, west of the Parret] _theäsam_ here, _theazamy here, them there, themmy there_. The substitution of V for F, and Z (_Izzard_, _Shard_, for S, is one of the strongest words of numerous dialects.) In words ending with _p_ followed by _s_, the letters change places as: hasp--haps; clasp--claps, wasp--waps; In a paper by General Vallancey in the second volume of the _Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy_, read Dec. 27, 1788, it appears that a colony of English soldiers settled in the _Baronies_ of _Forth Bargie_, in the county of Wexford, in Ireland, in 1167, 1168, and 1169; and that colony preserved their customs, manners, and language to 1788. There is added in that paper a _vocabulary_ of their language, and a _song_, handed down by tradition from the arrival of the colony more than 600 years since. I think there can be no question that these Irish colonists were from the West of England, from the apparent admixture of dialects in the _vocabulary_ and _song_, although the language is much altered from the Anglo- Saxon of Somersetshire. [Footnote: This subject has been more fully treated in the following work: A Glossary, with some pieces of verse of the old dialect of the English colony in the Baronies of Forth and Bargy, Co. Wexford, Ireland. Formerly collected by Jacob Poole, of Growton, now edited with Notes and Introduction by the Rev. W. Barnes, author of the Dorset Poems and Glossary, fcap. 8vo, 1867.] The words _nouth_, knoweth; _zin_, sin, _vrast_, frost; _die_, day; _Zathardie_, Saturday; _Zindii_, Sunday; and a few others, indicate an origin west of the Parret. There are many words which with a trifling alteration in spelling, would suit at the present time the north eastern portion of the county: as _blauther_, bladder: _crwest_, crust; _smill_, smell; _skir_, to rise in the air [see _skeer_]; _vier_, fire; _vier_, a weasel; _zar_, to serve; _zatch_, such, &c. From such words as _ch'am_, and _ch'uh_, the southern part of the county is clearly indicated. I think the disposition to elision and contraction is as evident here as it is at present in Somersetshire. In the song, there are marks of its having undergone change since its first introduction. _Lowthee_ is evidently derived from _lewth_ [see Glossary] _lewthy_, will be, _abounding in lewth_, i. e. sheltered. The line "_As by mizluck wus I pit t' drive in._" would in the present Somerset dialect stand thus: "_That by misluck war a put ta dreav in." That by mis-luck was placed to drive in. In the line "_Chote well ar aim wai t' yie ouz n'eer a blowe_." the word _chete_ is, I suspect, compounded of _'ch'_ [_iche_] and _knew_, implying _I knew_, or rather _I knew'd_, or _knewt_. [Footnote: The following is from, an amatory poem, written, in or about the reign of Henry II., during which the colony of the English was established in the county of Wexford. "Ichot from heune it is me sent." In Johnson's _History of the English Language_, page liii. it is thus translated-- "I wot (believe) it is sent me from heaven." To an admirer of our Anglo-Saxon all the lines, twelve in number, quoted by M. Todd with the above, will be found a rich treat: want of space only prevents my giving them here.] The modern English of the line will then be, _I knew well their aim was to give us ne'r a blow_. I suspect _zitckel_ is compounded of _zitch_, such, and the auxiliary verb _will_. _I view ame_, is _a veo o'm_; that is, _a few of them_. _Emethee_, is _emmtey_, that is, abounding with ants. _Meulten away_, is melting away. _Th'ast ee pait it, thee'st a paid it_; thou hast paid it. In the _English translation_ which accompanies the original _song_ in _General Vallancey's_ paper, some of the words are, I think, beyond controversy misinterpreted, but I have not room to go critically through it. All I desire should be inferred from these remarks is, that, although this _Anglo-Saxon_ curiosity is well worthy the attention of those who take an interest in our early literature, we must be careful not to assume that it is a pure specimen of the language of the period to which, and of the people to whom, it is said to relate. A GLOSSARY OF WORDS COMMONLY USED IN THE County of Somerset, BUT WHICH ARE NOT ACCCEPTED AS LEGITIMATE WORDS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE; OR WORDS WHICH, ALTHOUGH ONCE USED GENERALLY, ARE NOW BECOME PROVINCIAL. A. A. _adv._ Yes; or _pron._ He: as _a zed a'd do it_; he said he'd do it. Aa'th. _s._ earth. Ab'bey. _s._ The great white poplar: one of the varieties of the _populus alba_. Ab'bey-lubber. _s._ A lazy, idle fellow. Abought. _part._ Bought. _See_ VAUGHT. Abrood'. _adv._ When a hen is sitting on her eggs she is said to be _abrood_. Ad'dle. _s._ A swelling with matter in it. Ad'dled. _a._ Having pus or corruption; hence Ad'dled-egg. _s._ An egg in a state of putrefaction. Affeard'. _a._ Afraid. Afo're, Afo'rn. _prep_. and _adv._ Before; _afore, Chaucer_. Again. _prep_. Against. Agon', Agoo'. _adv._ [these words literally mean _gone_.] Ago; _agoo, Chaucer_; from the verb to _goo_, _i.e._ to go; _he is up and agoo_; he is up and gone. Alas-a-dây. _interj._ A-lack-a-day. Ale. _s._ A liquor, brewed with a proportion of malt from about four to six bushels to the hogshead of 63 gallons; if it contain more malt it is called _beer_; if less, it is usually called _small beer_. Al'ler. _s._ The alder tree. Allès. _adv._ Always. All'once. _pron._ [all ones] or rather (all o'n's) All of us; _Let's go allonce_; let us go all of us. All o's. _pron._ All of us. Alost'. _part._ Lost: _ylost, Chaucer_. Amang. _prep._ Among. Amawst', Amoo'äst _adv_. Almost. Amper. _s_. A small red pimple. Anby'. _adv_. Some time hence; in the evening. Anear', Ane'ast, Aneoust'. _prep._ Nigh to; _aneast en_, near him. Aneen. On end, upright. An'passy. _s._ The sign &, corrupted from _and per se_. Anty. _adj._ Empty. Apast'. _part._ and _prep._ Past; _apast. Chaucer._ A'pricock. _s._ An apricot. Aps. _s._ The asp tree; _populus tremula_. Aps'en. _a_. Made of the wood of the asp; belonging to the asp. To Arg. _v. n._ To argue. To Ar'gufy. _v. n._ To hold an argument; to argue. Ascri'de. _adv._ Across; astride. Aslen'. _adv._ Aslope. Assu'e. _adj._ When a cow is _let up_ in order that she may calve, she is said to be _assue_--having no milk. Ater. _prep._ After. _Goo ater'n_: go after him. Athin. _adv._ Within. Athout. _prep._ Without. Auverdro. _v. a._ Overthrow. Avaur', Avaur'en, Avaurn._prep._ Before. Avoordin. _part._ Affording. Avraur'. _adj._ Frozen; stiff with frost. Awakid. _adj._ Awake; _awakid, Chaucer_. To Ax. _v. a._ To ask; _ax, Chaucer_. Ax'en. _s. pl._ Ashes. Axing. _s._ and _part._ Asking; _axing, Chaucer_. Ay'ir. _s._ Air. B. Back'sid. _s._ A barton. Back'y. _s._ Tobacco. Bad. _adv._ Badly. Bade. _s._ Bed. Ba'ginet. _s._ Bayonet. Bai'ly. _s._ A bailiff; a superintendent of an estate. Ball. _adj._ Bald. Bal'let. _s._ Ballad. Ball'rib. _s._ A sparerib. To Bal'lirag. _v. a._ To abuse with foul words; to scold. To Ban. _v. a._ To shut out; to stop. To Bane. _v. a._ To afflict with a mortal disease; applied to sheep. _See_ to COATHE. To Barenhond', To Banehond'. _v. n._ (used chiefly in the third person singular) to signify intention; to intimate. These words are in very common use in the West of England. It is curious to note their gradation from Chaucer, whose expression is _Beren hem on hond_, or _bare him on hand_; implying always, it appears to me, the same meaning as I have given to the words above. There is, I think, no doubt, that these expressions of Chaucer, which he has used several times in his works, are figurative; when Chaucer tells us he _beren hem, in hond,_ the literal meaning is, he carried it in, or on, his hand so that it might be readily seen. "_To bear on hand_, to affirm, to relate."--JAMIESON'S Etymological Scots Dictionary. But, whatever be the meaning of these words in Chaucer, and at the present time in Scotland, the above is the meaning of them in the west of England. Banes. _s. pl._ The banns of matrimony. Ban'nin. _s._ That which is used for shutting out or stopping. Ban'nut. _s._ A walnut. [Only used in northern parts of county.] Barrow-pig. _s._ A gelt pig. Baw'ker, Baw'ker-stone. _s._ A stone used for whetting scythes; a kind of sand-stone. To Becall'. _v. a._ To censure; to reprove; to chide. Bee'äs, Bease. _s. pl. [Beasts]_ Cattle. Applied only to _Oxen_ not Sheep. Bee-but, Bee-lippen. _s._ A bee-hive Bee'dy. _s._ A chick. Beedy's-eyes. _s.pl._ Pansy, love-in-idleness. Beer. _s. See_ ALE. Befor'n. _prep._ Before. To Begird'ge, To Begrud'ge. _v. a._ To grudge; to envy. LORD BYRON has used the verb _begrudge_ in his notes to the 2nd canto of Childe Harold. Begor'z, Begum'mers. _interj._ These words are, most probably, oaths of asseveration. The last appears to be a corruption of _by godmothers_. Both are thrown into discourse very frequently: _Begummers, I ont tell; I cant do it begorz._ Begrumpled. _part._ Soured; offended. To Belg. _v. n._ To cry aloud; to bellow. Bell-flower. _s._ A daffodil. To Belsh. _v. a._ To cut off dung, &c., from the tails of sheep. Beneäpt. _part._ Left aground by the recess of the spring tides. To Benge. _v. n._ To remain long in drinking; to drink to excess. Ben'net. _v._ Long coarse grass. Ben'nety. _adj._ Abounding in bennets. Ber'rin. _s._ [burying] A funeral procession. To Beskum'mer. _v. a._ To foul with a dirty liquid; to besmear. To Bethink' _v. a._ To grudge. Bettermost. _adj._ The best of the better; not quite amounting to the best. Betwat'tled. _part._ In a distressing and confused state of mind. To Betwit'. _v. a._ To upbraid; to repeat a past circumstance aggravatingly. To Bib'ble. _v. n._ To drink often; to tope. Bib'bler. _s._ One who drinks often; a toper. Bil'lid. _adj._ Distracted; mad. Billy. _s._ A bundle of wheat straw. Bi'meby. _adv._ By-and-by; some time hence. Bin. _conj._ Because; probably corrupted from, being. Bin'nick. _s._ A small fish; minnow; _Cyprinus phloxinus._ Bird-battin. _s._ The catching of birds with a net and lights by night. FIELDING uses the expression. Bird-battin-net. _s._ The net used in bird-battin. Birch'en. _adj._ Made of birch; relating to birch. Bis'gee. _s._ (g hard), A rooting axe. Bisky. _s._ Biscuit. The pronunciation of this word approximates nearer to the sound of the French _cuit_ ["twice baked"] the t being omitted in this dialect. To Bi'ver. _v. n._ To quiver; to shake. Black-pot, _s._ Black-pudding. Black'ymoor. _s._ A negro. Blackymoor's-beauty. _s._ Sweet scabious; the musk-flower. Blanker. _s._ A spark of fire. Blans'cue. _s._ Misfortune; unexpected accident. Blather. _s._ Bladder. To blather, _v. n._ To talk fast, and nonsensically [_to talk so fast that bladders form at the mouth_] Bleâchy. _adj._ Brackish; saltish: applied to water. Blind-buck-and-Davy. _s._ Blind-man's buff. _Blindbuck and have ye_, is no doubt the origin of this appellation for a well-known amusement. Blis'som. _ad._ Blithesome. Blood-sucker. _s._ A leech. Bloody-warrior. _s._ The wall-flower. Boar. _s._ The peculiar head or first flowing of water from one to two feet high at spring tides, in the river Parret a few miles below and at Bridgewater, and in some other rivers. [In Johnson's Dictionary this is spelt _bore_; I prefer the above spelling. I believe the word is derived from the animal _Boar_, from the noise, rushing, and impetuosity of the water, Todd gives it "a tide swelling above another tide." Writers vary in their opinions on the causes of this phenomenon. St. Pierre. Ouvres, tom vi., p. 234, Ed. Hamburgh, 1797, describes it not exactly the same in the Seine as in the Parret:--"Cette montagne d'eau est produite par les marèes qui entrent, de la mer dans la Seine, et la font refluer contre son cours. On l'appelle la _Barre_, parce-qu'elle _barre_ le cours de la Seine. Cette barre est suivée d'une seconde barre plus elevèe, qui la suit a cent toises de distance. Elles courent beaucoup plus vîte qu'un cheval au galop." He says it is called _Bar_, because it _bars_ the current. In the Encyclop. Metropol., art. _Bore_, the editor did not seem more fortunate in his derivation.] Bobbish. _adj._ In health, and spirits. [_Pirty bobbish_, pretty well.] Bonk. _s._ Bank. Booät. _s._ Boat. Booäth. _pron._ Both. "_Boo'äth o' ye_; both of you. Bor'rid. _adj._ A sow is said to be borrid when she wants the male. Bote. _part._ Bought. Bow. _s._ A small arched bridge. Boy's-love. _s._ Southernwood; a species of mugwort; _artemisia abrotonum_. Brave. _adj._ Well; recovering. Bran. _s._ A brand; a stump of a tree, or other irregular and large piece of wood, fit only for burning. Bran-viër. _s._ A fire made with brands. Bran'dis. _s._ A semicircular implement of iron, made to be suspended over the fire, on which various things may be prepared; it is much used for warming milk. Brash. _s._ Any sudden development; a crash. Brick'le, Brick'ly. _adj._ Brittle; easily broken. Brim'mle. _s._ A bramble. To Bring gwain. _v. a._ [_To bring going._] To spend; to accompany some distance on a journey. To Brit. _v. a._ To indent; to make an impression: applied to solid bodies. Brock. _s._ An irregular piece of peat dried for fuel; a piece of turf. _See_ TURF. Bruck'le, Bruck'ly. _adj._ Not coherent; easily separable: applied to solid bodies. "My things are but in a bruckle state." Waverley, v. 2, p. 328, edit. 1821. _See_ BRICKLE. Bruck'leness. _s._ The state of being bruckle. To Buck. _v. n._ To swell out. To Bud'dle. _v._ To suffocate in mud. To Bulge. _v. a._ To indent; to make an irregular impression on a solid body; to bruise. It is also used in a neuter sense. Bulge. _s._ An indentation; an irregular impression made on some solid body; a swelling outwards or depression inwards. Bul'len. _adj._ Wanting the bull. Bul'lins. _s. pl._ Large black sloes; a variety of the wild plum. Bun'gee. _s._ (g hard), Any thing thick and squat. Bunt, Bunting, _s._ Bolting cloth. Bunt. _s._ A bolting-mill. To Bunt. _v. a._ To separate flour from the bran. Bur'cot. _s._ A load. Buss. _s._ A half grown calf. But. _s._ A conical and peculiar kind of basket or trap used in large numbers for catching salmon in the river Parret. The term _but_, would seem to be a generic one, the actual meaning of which I do not know; it implies, however, some containing vessel or utensil. _See_ BEE-BUT. _But_, applied to beef, always means _buttock._ Butter-and-eggs. _s._ A variety of the daffodil. Bwile. _v._ Boil. Bwye. _interj._ Bye! adieu. This, as well as _good-bye_ and _good-bwye_, is evidently corrupted from _God be with you_; God-be-wi' ye, equivalent to the French _à Dieu_, to God. Bwye, and good-bwye, are, therefore, how vulgar soever they may seem, more analogous than _bye_ and _good-bye_. C. Callyvan'. _s._ A pyramidal trap for catching birds. Car'riter. _s._ Character. Câs. Because. Cass'n, Cass'n't. Canst not: as, _Thee cass'n do it_, thou canst not do it. Catch corner. A game commonly called elsewhere puss in the corner. Cat'terpillar. _s._ The cockchafer; _Scarabeus melolontha_. _West_ of the Parret this insect is called _wock-web_, oak-web, because it infests the _oak_, and spins its web on it in great numbers. Chaíty. _adj_. Careful; nice; delicate. To Cham. _v. a._ To chew. Chámer. _s._ A chamber. Change, _s._ A shift; the garment worn by females next the skin. Chay'er. _s._ A chair; chayer--_Chaucer_. Chick-a-beedy. _s._ A chick. 'Chill. I will. Chim'ley. _s._ A chimney. Chine. _s._ The prominence of the staves beyond the head of a cask. This word is well known to coopers throughout England, and ought to be in our dictionaries. To Chis'som. _v. n._ To bud; to shoot out. Chis'som. _s._ a small shoot; a budding out. Chit'terlins. _s. pl._ The frills around the bosom of shirt. Choor. _s._ A job; any dirty household work; a troublesome job. Choor'er, Choor'-woman. _s._ A woman who goes out to do any kind of odd and dirty work; hence the term _char-woman_ in our polished dialect; but it ought to be _choor-woman_. To Choóry. _v._ To do any kind of dirty household work. Chub'by. _adj._ Full, swelling; as _chubby-faced_. Claps, _s._ A clasp. To claps, _v. a._ To clasp. Clávy and Clávy-piece. _s._ A mantel-piecce. [_Clavy_ was probably given to that piece of wood or other material laid over the front of the fireplace, because in many houses the keys are often hung on nails or pins driven into it; hence from _clavis_ (Latin) _a key_, comes _clavy_, the place where the keys are hung.] Clavy-tack. _s._ The shelf over [tacked on to] the mantel- piece. Clear-and-sheer. _adv._ Completely; totally. Cleve-pink. _s._ A species of Carnation which grows wild in the crannies of Cheddar-cliffs: a variety of the _Dianthus deltoides_; it has an elegant smell. To Clim, to Climmer. _v. a._ To climb; to clamber. Clin'kers. _s.pl._ Bricks or other earthy matter run into irregular shapes by action of heat. Clinker-bell. _s._ An icicle. Clint. _v.a._ To clench; to finish; to fasten firmly. Cliver-and-Shiver. _adv._ Completely; totally. Clit. _v. n._ To be imperfectly fermented: applied to bread. Clit'ty. _adj._ Imperfectly fermented. Clize. _s._ A place or drain for the discharge of water regulated by a valve or door, which permits a free outlet, but no inlet for return of water. Coäse. _adj._ Coarse. Coathe. _v. a._ To bane: applied to sheep. Cob-wall, _s._ Mud-wall; a wall made of clay mixed with straw. Cockygee. _s._ Cockagee; a rough sour apple. Cocklawt. _s._ A garret; cock-loft. Originally, most probably, a place where the fowls roosted. Cock-squailing. _s._ A barbarous game, consisting in tying a cock to a stake, and throwing a stick at him from a distance till he is killed. Cock-and-Mwile. _s._ A jail. Col'ley, _s._ A blackbird. To Collogue, _v. n._ To associate in order to carry out some improper purpose, as thieves. [Two such rascals _collogue_ together for mischief. Rob Roy, p. 319, ed. 1821.] Collo'gin. _s._ (g _hard_). An association for some improper purpose. [Johnson defines it _flattery; wheedling_; which does not convey the correct meaning.] Colt-ale, _s._ (Sometimes called _footing_ or foot-ale) literally ale given, or money paid for ale, by a person entering on a new employment, to those already in it. Comforts (comfits.) _s. pl._ Sugared corianders, cinnamon, &c. Com'ical. _adj._ Odd; singular. Contraption. _s._ Contrivance; management. Coop. _interj._ Come up! a word of call to fowls to be fed. To Cork. _v. a._ Cawk; calk; to set on a horse's shoes sharp points of iron to prevent slipping on ice. To Count, _v. n._ To think; to esteem. Cow-baby, _s._ A coward; a timid person. To Crap, to Crappy. _v. n._ to snap; to break with a sudden sound; to crack. Crap. _s._ A smart sudden sound. Craup. _preterite_ of creep. Cre'aped. Crept. Creem. _s._ Sudden shivering. Creémy. _adj._ Affected with sudden shivering. Creeplin. _part._ Creeping. Crips. _adj._ Crisp. Criss-cross-lain. _s._ The alphabet; so called in consequence of its being formerly preceded in the _horn-book_ by a cross to remind us of the cross of Christ; hence the term. _Christ-Cross- line_ came at last to mean nothing more than the alphabet. Crock, _s._ A bellied pot, of iron or other metal, for boiling food. Croom. _s._ A crumb; a small bit. Crowd-string, _s._ A fiddle-string. Crowdy-kit. _s._ A small fiddle. Crow'ner. _s._ A coroner. To be Crowned. _v. pass._ To have an inquest held over a dead body by the coroner. Crowst. _s._ Crust. Crow'sty. _adj._ Crusty, snappish, surly. Crub, Crubbin. _s._ Food: particularly bread and cheese. Cubby-hole. _s_. A snug, confined place. Cuckold _s._ The plant burdock. To Cull. _v. n._ To take hold round the neck with the arms. Cute. _adj._ [Acute] sharp; clever. Cutty. _adj._ Small; diminutive. Cutty, Cutty-wren._s._ A wren. D. DA`. _s._ Day. Dàyze. Days. Dade. Dead. Dad'dick. _s._ Rotten wood. Dad'dicky. _adj._ Rotten, like daddick. Dame. _s._ This word is originally French, and means in that language, _lady_; but in this dialect it means a mistress; an old woman; and never a lady; nor is it applied to persons in the upper ranks of society, nor to the very lowest; when we say _dame_ Hurman, or _dame_ Bennet, we mean the wife of some farmer; a school-mistress is also sometimes called dame (dame-schools). Dang. _interj._ Generally followed by pronoun, as _dang it_; _dang êm_; _od dang it_: [an imprecation, a corruption of _God dang it_ (_God hang it_) or more likely corruption of _damn_.] Dap, _v. n._ To hop; to rebound. Dap. _s._ A hop; a turn. _To know the daps of a person_ is, to know his disposition, his habits, his peculiarities. Dap'ster. _s._ A proficient. To Daver. _v. n._ To fade; to fall down; to droop. Dav'ison. _s._ A species of wild plum, superior to the bullin. Daw'zin. _s._ The passing over land with a bent hazel rod, held in a certain direction, to discover whether veins of metal or springs are below, is called _Dawzin_, which is still practised in the mining districts of Somersetshire. There is an impression among the vulgar, that certain persons only have the gift of the _divining rod_, as it has been sometimes called; by the French, _Baguette Devinatoire_. _Ray_, in his _Catalogus Plantarum Angliæ, &c._, Art. _Corylus_, speaks of the divining rod: " Vulgus metallicorum ad virgulam divinum, ut vocant, quâ venas metallorum inquírit præ cæteris furcam eligit colurnam." More may be seen in John Bauhin. Des'perd. _adj._ [Corrupted from desperate.] Very, extremely; used in a good as well as a bad sense: _desperd good_; _desperd bad_. Dewberry, _s._ A species of blackberry. Dibs. _s. pl._ Money. Did'dlecome. _adj._ Half-mad; sorely vexed. Dig'ence. _s._ [g hard, _diggunce_, Dickens] a vulgar word for the _Devil_. Dird. _s._ Thread. Dirsh, _s._ A thrush. Dirten. _adj._ Made of dirt. Dock. _s._ A crupper. Doe. _part._ Done. To Doff. _v. a._ To put off. To Don. _v. a._ To put on. Donnins. _s. pl._ Dress; clothes. Dough-fig. _s._ A fig; so called, most probably, from its feeling like _dough_. JUNIUS has _dotefig_: I know not where he found it. _See_ FIG. To Dout. _v. a._ To extinguish; to put out. To Downarg. _v. a._ [To _argue_ one _down_]; to contradict; to contend with. Dowst. _s._ Dust; money; _Down wi' tha dowst!_ Put down the money! Dowsty. _adj._ Dusty. [_Dr_ used for _thr_ in many words:] as _droo_ for _through_. Draffit. _s._ [I suppose from draught-vat.] A vessel to hold pot-liquor and other refuse from the kitchen for pigs. Drang. _s._ A narrow path. To Drash. _v. a._ To thresh. Dras'hel. _s._ The threshold; a flail. Dras'her. _s._ A thresher. Drauve. _s._ A drove, or road to fields. Drawt. _s._ Throat. To Drean. _v. n._ To drawl in reading or speaking. Drean. _s._ A drawling in reading or speaking. Dreaten. _v._ Threaten. Dree. _a._ Three. To Dring. _v. n._ To throng; to press, as in a crowd; to thrust. Dring'et. _s._ A crowd; a throng. To Droa. _v. a._ To throw. Droa. Throw. Drooäte. Throat. Drob. _v._ Rob. Drode (_throw'd_). _part._ Threw, thrown. Droo. _prep._ Through. To drool. _v. n._ To drivel. To Drow. _v. n., v. a._ To dry. _The hay do'nt drowy at all._ See the observations which precede this vocabulary. Drowth. _s._ Dryness; thirst. Drow'thy. _adj._ Dry; thirsty. Drove. _s._ A road leading to fields, and sometimes from one village to another. Derived from its being a way along which cattle are driven. RAY uses the word in his _Catalogus Plantorum Angliæ, &c._, Art. _Chondrilla_. To Drub. _v. n., v. a._ To throb; to beat. Drubbin. _s._ A beating. To Druck. _v. a._ To thrust down; to cram; to press. Dub, Dub'bed, Dub'by. _adj._ Blunt; not pointed; squat. Dub'bin. _s._ Suet. Duck-an-Mallard. _s._ (Duck and Drake) a play of throwing slates or flat stones horizontally along the water so as to skim the surface and rise several times before they sink. _"Hen pen, Duck-an-Mallard, Amen."_ To Dud'der. _v. a._ To deafen with noise; to render the head confused. Duds. _s. pl._ Dirty cloaths. Dum'bledore. _s._ A humble-bee; a stupid fellow. Dunch, (Dunce?). _adj._ Deaf. As a deaf person is very often, apparently at least, stupid; a stupid, intractable person is, therefore, called a DUNCE: one who is deaf and intractable. What now becomes of _Duns Scotus_, and all the rest of the recondite observations bestowed upon DUNCE?--_See_ GROSE. I have no doubt that _Dunch_ is Anglo-Saxon, although I cannot find it in any of our old dictionaries, except Bailey's. But it ought not to be forgotten, that many words are floating about which are being arrested by our etymologists in the present advancing age of investigation. Durns. _s. pl._ A door-frame. Dwon't, Dwon. _v._ (Don't) do not. E. Eake. _adv._ Also. Ear-wrig. _s._ Earwig. This word ought to be spelled _Earwrig_, as it is derived, doubtless, from wriggle. See WRIGGLE. Eese. _adv._ Yes. Eet. _adv._ Yet. El'men. _adj._ Of or belonging to elm; made of elm. El'ver. _s._ A young eel. Em'mers. _s. pl._ Embers. Emmet-batch, _s._ An ant-hill. To Empt. _v.a._ To empty. En. _pron._Him; _a zid en_; he saw him. Er. _pron._ He. [Used West of the Parret.] Eth. _s._ Earth. To Eve. _v.n._ To become damp; to absorb moisture from the air. Evet. _s._ A lizard. Ex. _s._ An axle. F. Fags! _interj._ Truly; indeed. Fayer. _s._ and _adj._ Fair. To Fell. _v.a._ To sew in a particular manner; to inseam. This word is well known to the ladies, I believe, all over the kingdom; it ought to be in our dictionaries. Fes'ter. _s._ An inflammatory tumour. Few, Veo. _adj._ More commonly pronounced _veo_. Little; as a _few broth_. Fig. _s._ A raisin. Figged-pudding. _s._ a pudding with raisins in it; plum- pudding. Fildèfare. _s._ A Fieldfare. "Farewell fieldèfare." _Chaucer_. Meaning that, as fieldfares disappear at a particular season, _the season is over_, _the bird is flown_. Fil'try. _s._ Filth; nastiness; rubbish. Firnd. _v._ To find. Firnd. _s._ Friend. Fitch, Fitchet. _s._ A pole-cat. _As cross as a fitchet._ Fit'ten, Vit'ten. _s._ A feint; a pretence. Flap-jack. _s._ A fried cake made of batter, apples, &c.; a fritter. To Flick. _v.a._ To pull out suddenly with some pointed instrument. Flick-tooth-comb. _s._ A comb with coarse teeth for combing the hair. Flick. _s._ The membrane loaded with fat, in the bellies of animals: a term used by butchers. Flook. _s._ An animal found in the liver of sheep, similar in shape to a flook or flounder. Flush. _adj._ Fledged; able to fly: (applied to young birds.) Fooäse. _s._ Force. See Vooäse. To Fooäse. _v.a._ To force. Foo'ter. _s._ [Fr. _foutre_] A scurvy fellow; a term of contempt. Foo'ty. _adj._ Insignificant; paltry; of no account. For'rel. _s._ the cover of a book. Forweend'. _adj._ Humoursome; difficult to please: (applied to children). Fout. _preterite._ of to fight. French-nut. _s._ A walnut. To Frump. _v.a._ To trump up. To Frunt. _v.a._ To affront. To Fur. _v.a._ To throw. Fur'cum. _s._ The bottom: the whole. Fur'nis. _s._ A large vessel or boiler, used for brewing, and other purposes; fixed with bricks and mortar, and surrounded with flues, for the circulation of heat, and exit of smoke. G. Gaern. _s._ A garden. Gale. _s._ An old bull castrated. Gal'libagger. _s._ [From _gally_ and _beggar_] A bug-bear. Gal'lise. _s._ The gallows. Gallid. _adj._ Frightened. To Gal'ly. _v. a._ To frighten. Gallant'ing, Galligant'ing. _part._ Wandering about in gaiety and enjoyment: applied chiefly to associations of the sexes. Gam'bril. _s._ A crooked piece of wood used by butchers to spread, and by which to suspend the carcase. Gan'ny-cock. _s._ A turkey-cock. Ganny-cock's Snob. _s._ The long membranous appendage at the beak, by which the cock-turkey is distinguished. Gare. _s._ The iron work for wheels, waggons, &c., is called ire-gare; accoutrements. Gate-shord. _s._ A gate-way; a place for a gate. Gat'fer. _s._ An old man. Gaw'cum. _s._ A simpleton; a gawkey. Gawl-cup. _s._ Gold cup. To Gee. _v.n._ [g soft] To agree; to go on well together. To Gee. _v.n._ [g hard; part, and past tense, _gid_.] To give. _Gee_ often includes the pronoun, thus, "I'll gee" means I'll give you; the _gee_, and _ye_ for _you_, combining into _gee_. To G'auf. _v.n._ To go off. To G'auver. _v.n._ To go over. To G'in. _v.n._ To go in. To G'on. _v.n._ To go on. To G'out. _v.n._ To go out. To G'under. _v.n._ To go under, To G'up. _v.n._ To go up. Gib'bol. _s._ [g soft] The sprout of an onion of the second year. Gid. _pret. v._ Gave. Gifts. _s.pl._ The white spots frequently seen on the finger nails. Gig'letin. _adj._ Wanton; trifling; applied to the female sex. Gil'awfer. _s._ A term applied to all the kinds of flowers termed _stocks_; and also to a few others: as a _Whitsuntide gilawfer_, a species of _Lychnidea_. Gim'mace. _s._ A hinge. Gim'maces. _s. pl._ When a criminal is gibbeted, or hung in irons or chains, he is said to be hung in _Gimmaces_, most probably because the apparatus swings about as if on hinges. Ginnin. _s._ Beginning. Girnin. _part._ Grinning. Girt. _adj._ Great. Gird'l. Contracted from _great deal_; as, gird'l o' work; great deal of work. To Glare. _v. a._ To glaze earthenware. Glare. _s._ The glaze of earthenware. G'lore. _adv._ In plenty. This word, without the apostrophe, _Glore_, is to be found in Todd's Johnson, and there defined _fat_. The true meaning is, I doubt not, as above; _fat g'lore_, is _fat in plenty_. Gold. _s._ The shrub called sweet-willow or wild myrtle; _Myrica gale_. This plant grows only in peat soils; it is abundant in the boggy moors of Somersetshire; it has a powerful and fragrant smell. Gold-cup. _s._ A species of crow-foot, or ranunculus, growing plentifully in pastures; _ranunculus pratensis._ To Goo. _v. n._ [_Gwain_, going; _gwon_, gone.] To go. Gookoo. _s._ Cookoo. Goo'ner. _interj._ Goodnow! Good'-Hussey. _s._ A thread-case. Goose-cap. _s._ A silly person. Graint'ed. _adj._ Fixed in the grain; difficult to be removed; dirty. Gram'fer. _s._ Grandfather. Gram'mer. _s._ Grandmother. To Gree. _v. n._ To agree. Gribble. _s._ A young apple-tree raised from seed. To Gripe, _v. a._ To cut into gripes. See GRIPE. Gripe. _s._ [from Dutch, _groep_.] A small drain, or ditch, about a foot deep, and six or eight inches wide. In English Dictionaries spelled _grip_. Griping-line. _s._ A line to direct the spade in cutting gripes. Groan'in. _s._ Parturition; the time at which a woman is in labour. Ground, _s._ A field. Gro'zens. _s. pl._ The green minute round-leaved plants growing upon the surface of water in ditches; duck's-meat; the _Lens palustris_ of Ray. Gruff. _s._ A mine. Gruf'fer. Gruf'fier. _s._ A miner. To Gud'dle. _v. n._ To drink much and greedily. Gud'dler. _s._ A greedy drinker; one who is fond of liquor. To Gulch, _v. n._ To swallow greedily. Gulch. _s._ A sudden swallowing. Gump'tion. _s._ Contrivance; common sense. Gum'py. _adj._ Abounding in protuberances. Gurds. _s. pl._ Eructations. [By _Fits and gurds._] Guss. _s._ A girth. To Guss. _v. a._ To girth. Gwain. _part._ Going. Gwon. _part._ Gone. H. Hack. _s._ The place whereon bricks newly made are arranged to dry. To Hain. _v. a._ To exclude cattle from a field in order that the grass may grow, so that it may be mowed. Hal'lantide. _s._ All Saints' day. Ham. _s._ A pasture generally rich, and also unsheltered, applied only to level land. Hame. _sing._, Hames. _pl._ _s._ Two moveable pieces of wood or iron fastened upon the collar, with suitable appendages for attaching a horse to the shafts. Called sometimes _a pair of hames_. Han'dy. _adv._ Near, adjoining. Hang-gallise. _adj._ Deserving the gallows, felonious, vile; as, _a hang-gallise fellow_. Hange. _s._ The heart, liver, lungs, &c., of a pig, calf, or sheep. Hang'kicher. _s._ Handkerchief. Hangles. _s. pl._ A _pair of hangles_ is the iron crook, &c., composed of teeth, and hung over the fire, to be moved up and down at pleasure for the purpose of cookery, &c. To Happer. _v. n._ To crackle; to make repeated smart noises. To Haps. _v. a._ To Hasp. Haps. _s._ A hasp. Hard. _adj._ Full grown. _Hard people_, adults. Harm. _s._ Any contagious or epidemic disease not distinguished by a specific name. Har'ras. _s._ Harvest. Hart. _s._ A haft; a handle. Applied to such instruments as knives, awls, etc. Hathe. _s. To be in a hathe_, is to be set thick and close like the pustules of the small-pox or other eruptive disease; to be matted closely together. To Have. _v. n._ To behave. Haw. See _ho_. Hay-maidens. _s. pl._ Ground ivy. Hay'ty-tay'ty, Highty-tity. _interj._ What's here! _s._ [height and tite, weight]. A board or pole, balanced in the middle on some prop, so that two persons, one sitting at each end, may move up and down in turn by striking the ground with the feet. Sometimes called _Tayty_ [See-saw]. In Hay'digees. [g soft] _adv._ To be in high spirits; to be frolicsome. Heät _s._ Pronounced He-at, dissyllable, heat. Hea'ram-skearam. _adj._ Wild; romantic. To Heel, _v. a._ To hide; to cover. Chaucer, "_hele_." Hence, no doubt, the origin of _to heal_, to cure, as applied to wounds; _to cover over_. Heeler, _s._ One who hides or covers. Hence the very common expression, _The healer is as bad as the stealer_; that is, the receiver is as bad as the thief. Heft. _s._ Weight. To Hell. _v. a._ To pour. Hel'lier. _s._ A person who lays on the tiles of a roof; a tiler. A Devonshire word. Helm. _s._ Wheat straw prepared for thatching. To Hen. _v. a._ To throw. To Hent. _v. n._ To wither; to become slightly dry. Herd _s._ A keeper of cattle. Hereawa, Hereaway. _adv._ Hereabout. Herence. _adv._ From this place; hence. Hereright. _adv._ Directly; in this place. Het. _pron._ It. _Het o'nt_, it will not. To Het. _v. a._ To hit, to strike; _part._ _het_ and _hut_. To Hick. _v.n._ To hop on one leg. Hick. _s._ A hop on one leg. _Hick-step and jump._ Hop-step and jump. A well known exercise. To Hike of. _v. n._ To go away; to go off. Used generally in a bad sense. Hine. _adj._ (Hind) Posterior; relating to the back part. Used only in composition, as, a _hine_ quarter. To Hire tell. _v. n._ To hear tell; to learn by report; to be told. Hip'pety-hoppety. _adv._ In a limping and hobbling manner. Hirches. _s._ riches. Hir'd. _v._ [i long] heard. To Him. _v. n._ [_hirnd_, pret, and part.] To run. To Hitch, _v. n._ To become entangled or hooked together; to hitch up, to hang up or be suspended. _See the next word._ To Hitch up. _v. a._ To suspend or attach slightly or temporarily. The following will exemplify the active meaning of this verb: Sir Strut, for so the witling throng Oft called him when at school, And _hitch'd_ him _up_ in many a song To sport and ridicule. Hiz'en. Used for _his_ when not followed by a substantive, as, whose house is that? _Hiz'en._ [His own]. Hi'zy Pi'zy. A corruption of _Nisi Prius_, a well known law assize. To Ho for, To Haw vor. _v. a._ To provide for; to take care of; to desire; to wish for. Hob'blers. _s. pl._ Men employed in towing vessels by a rope on the land. Hod. _s._ A sheath or covering; perhaps from _hood_. Hog. _s._ A sheep one year old. To Hoke. _v. a._ To wound with horns; to gore. Hod'medod. _adj._ Short; squat. Hollar. _adj._ Hollow. To Hollar. _v. a._ To halloo. Hollar. _s._ A halloo. Hol'lardy. _s._ A holiday. Hollardy-day. _s._ Holy-rood day; the third of May. Hollabeloo'. _s._ A noise; confusion; riot. Hol'men. _adj._ Made of holm. Holt. _interj._ Hold; stop. _Holt-a-blow_, give over fighting. Ho'mescreech. _s._ A bird which builds chiefly in apple- trees; I believe it is the _Turdus viscivorus,_ or missel. Hon. _s._ hand. Honey-suck, Honey-suckle. _s._ The wodbine. Honey-suckle. _s._ Red Clover. Hoo'say. _See_ WHOSAY. Hoop. _s._ A bullfinch. Hor'nen. _adj._ Made of horn. Hornen-book. _s._ Hornbook. Horse-stinger. _s_ The dragon-fly. Hoss. _s._ horse. Hoss-plâs _s. pl._ Horse-plays; rough sports. Houzen. _s. pl._ Houses. Howsomiver. _adv._ However; howsoever. Huck'muck. _s._ A strainer placed before the faucet in the mashing-tub. Hud. _s._ A hull, or husk. Huf. _s_ A hoof. Huf-cap _s._ A plant, or rather weed, found in fields, and with difficulty eradicated. I regret that I cannot identify this plant with any known botanical name. Graced with _huff-cap_ terms and thundering threats, That his poor hearers' hair quite upright sets. _Bp. Hall, Book_ I, _Sat._ iii. Some editor of Hall has endeavoured to explain the term huff-cap by _blustering, swaggering._ I think it simply means _difficult_. Hug. _s._ The itch. _See_ SHAB (applied to brutes. ) Hug-water. _s._ Water to cure the hug. _See_ SHAB. To Hul'der. _v. a._ To hide; conceal. Hul'ly. _s._ A peculiarly shaped long wicker trap used for catching eels. To Hulve. _v. a._ To turn over; to turn upside down. Hum'drum. _s._ A small low three-wheeled cart, drawn usually by one horse: used occasionally in agriculture. From the peculiarity of its construction, it makes a kind of humming noise when it is drawn along; hence, the origin of the adjective _humdrum_. Hunt-the-slipper. _s._ A well-known play. I. I. _ad._ Yes; _I, I_, yes, yes; most probably a corrupt pronunciation of _ay._ Inin. _s._ Onion. Ire. _s._ Iron. Ire-gare. _s. See_ GARE. Ise. _pron._ I. _See_ UTCHY, [West of the Parret]. Ist. [i long]. _s._ East. Istard. [i long]. _adv._ Eastward. It. _adv._ Yet, [pronouced both _it_ and _eet>]. see N'eet. J. Jack-in-the-Lanthorn, Joan-in-the-Wad. _s._ The meteor usually called a _Will with the Wisp_. Ignis Fatuus.--Arising from ignition of phosphorus from rotten leaves and decayed vegetable matters. Jaunders. _s._ The jaundice. To Jee. _v. n._ To go on well together; _see_ To GEE. Jif'fey. _s._ A short time: an instant. Jist. _adv._ Just. Jitch, Jitchy. _adj._ Such. Jod. _s._ The letter J. Jorum. _s._ A large jug, bowl, &c., full of something to be eaten or drank. To Jot. _v. a._ To disturb in writing; to strike the elbow. K. The sound K is often displaced by substituting _qu_, as for coat, corn, corner, cost; _quoat_ or (_quût_) _quoin, quiner, quost._ Keck'er. _s._ The windpipe; the trachea. Keep. _s._ A basket, applied only to large baskets. To Keeve. _v. a._ To put the wort in a keeve for some time to ferment. Keeve. _s._ A large tub or vessel used in brewing. A mashing- tub is sometimes called a _keeve_. Kef'fel. _s._ A bad and worn out horse. To Kern. _v. n._ To turn from blossom to fruit: the process of turning from blossom to fruit is called _kerning_. Kex, Kexy. _s._ The dry stalks of some plants, such as Cows- parsley and Hemlock, are called Kexies. _As dry as a kexy_ is a common simile. Kill. _s._ A Kiln. Kil'ter. _s._ Money. King'bow, or rather, a-kingbow. _adv._ Kimbo. Chaucer has this word _kenebow,_ which is, perhaps, the true one--a _kenebow,_ implying a bow with a keen or sharp angle. "He set his arms in _kenebow_." CHAUCER, _Second Merchant's Tale._ Or place the arms _a-Kingbow_, may be to place them in a consequential manner of commanding, like a king. Kir'cher. _s._ The midriff; the diaphragm. Kirsmas. _s._ Christmas. Kirsen. _v. a._ To Christen. [These two words are instances of the change of place of certain letters, particularly _r._] Kit. _s._ A tribe; a collection; a gang. Kit'tle, Kittle-smock. _s._ A smock frock. Knack-kneed. _adj._ In-kneed; having the knees so grown that they strike [_knock_] against each other. Knot'tlins. _s. pl._ The intestines of a pig or calf prepared for food by being tied in knots and afterwards boiled. L. Lade-Pail. _s._ A small pail, with a long handle, used for the purpose of filling other vessels. Ládeshrides. _s. pl._ The sides of the waggon which project over the wheels. _See_ SHRIDE. Ladies-smock. _s._ A species of bindweed; _Convolvulus sepium. See_ WITHY-WINE. Lady Buddick. _s._ A rich and early ripe apple. Lady-cow. _s._ A lady-bird; the insect _Coccinella Septempunctata_. Lady's-hole. _s._ A game at cards. Lai'ter. _s._ The thing laid; the whole quantity of eggs which a hen lays successively. _She has laid out her laiter._ Lamager. _adj._ Lame; crippled; laid up. Larks-leers. _s. pl._ Arable land not in use; such is much frequented by larks; any land which is poor and bare of grass. Lart, Lawt. _s._ The floor: never applied to a stone floor, but only to _wooden_ floors; and those up stairs. Las-charg'eable! _interj._ Be quiet! _The last chargeable_: that is, he who last strikes or speaks in contention is most blamable. Lât. _s._ A lath. Lat'itat. _s._ A noise; a scolding. Lat'tin. _s._ Iron, plates covered with tin. Lattin. _adj._ Made of lattin; as a lattin saucepan, a lattin teakettle, &c. Laugh-and-lie-down. _s._ A common game at cards. To Lave. _v. a._ To throw water from one place to another. To Le'ät. _v. n_. To leak. Le'ät. _s_. A leak; a place where water is occasionally let out. Leath'er. _v. a_. To beat. Leathern-mouse, _s_. A bat. Leer. _adj_. Empty. Leer. _s_. The flank. Leers. _s. pl_. Leas; rarely used: but I think it always means stubble land, or land similar to stubble land. Lent. _s_. Loan; the use of any thing borrowed. Lew. _adj_. Sheltered; defended from storms, or wind Lew, Lewth. _s_. Shelter; defence from storm or wind. Lib'et. _s_. A piece; a tatter. Lid'den. _s_. A story; a song. Lie-lip. _s_. A square wooden vessel having holes in its bottom, to contain wood-ashes for making lie. Lights. _s. pl_. The lungs. Lighting-stock. _s_. A horse-block; steps of wood or stone, made to ascend and descend from a horse. Lim'bers, Lim'mers. _s. pl_. The shafts of a waggon, cart, &c. Linch. _s_. A ledge; a rectangular projection; whence the term _linch-pin_ (a pin with a linch), which JOHNSON has, but not linch. The derivations of this word, _linch-pin_ by our etymologists, it will be seen, are now inadmissable. To Line. _v. n._ To lean; to incline towards or against something. Lin'ny. _s._ An open shed, attached to barns, outhouses, &c. Lip, Lip'pen. _s._ A generic term for several containing vessels, as _bee-lippen_, _lie-lip_, _seed-lip_, _&c_. which see. Lip'ary. _adj._ Wet, rainy. Applied to the seasons: _a lipary time_. To Lir'rop. _v. a._ To beat. This is said to be a corruption of the sea term, _lee-rope_. Lis'som. _adj._ Lithe; pliant. Contracted from _light- some_, or _lithe-some_. List, Lis'tin. _s._ The strip or border on woollen cloth. Lis'tin. _adj._ Made of list. To Lob. _v. n._ To hang down; to droop. Lock. _s._ A small quantity; as a _lock_ of hay, a _lock_ of straw. Lock-a-Daisy. _interj._ of surprise or of pleasure. Lockyzee. _interj._ Look, behold! _Look you, see!_ To Long. _v. n._ To belong. Long'ful. _adj._ Long in regard to time. Lose-Leather. To be galled by riding. Lowance. _s._ Allowance: portion. Lug. _s._ A heavy pole; a pole; a long rod. I incline to think this is the original of log. Lug-lain. _s._ Full measure; the measure by the lug or pole. Lump'er. _v. n._ To lumber; to move heavily; to stumble. M. Mace. _s. pl._ Acorns. Madam. _s._ Applied to the most respectable classes of society: as, Madam Greenwood, Madam Saunders, &c. Mallard. _s._ A male duck. To Manche, to Munche. _v. a._ To chew. Probably from _manger_, French. Man'der. _s._ A corruption of the word, _manner_, used only in the sense of _sort_ or _kind_: as, _âll mander o' things_; all sorts of things. To Mang. _v. a._ To mix. Mang-hangle. _adj._ Mixed in a wild and confused manner. To maw. _v. a._ To mow. Maw'kin. _s._ A cloth, usually wetted and attached to a pole, to sweep clean a baker's oven. _See_ SLOMAKING. May. _s._ The blossom of the white thorn. May-be, Mâ-be. _adv._ Perhaps; it may be. May-fool. _s._ Same as _April fool_. May-game, Mâ-game. _s._ A frolic; a whim. To Meech. _v. n._ To play truant; to absent from school without leave. Meech'er. _s._ A truant. To Mell. _v. a._ To meddle; to touch. _I'll neither mell nor make_: that is, I will have nothing to do with it. _I ont mell o't_, I will not touch it. "Of eche mattir thei wollin mell." CHAUCER'S _Plowman's Tale._ Mesh. _s._ Moss; a species of lichen which grows plentifully on apple trees. To Mess, To Messy. _v. a._ to serve cattle with hay. Messin. _s._ The act of serving cattle with hay. Mid. _v. aux._ Might, may. To Miff. _v. a._ To give a slight offence; to displease. Miff. _s._ A slight offence; displeasure. Mig. _s. As sweet as mig_ is a common simile; I suspect that _mig_ means _mead_, the liquor made from honey. Milt. _s._ The spleen. Mi'lemas. Michaelmas. Min. A low word, implying contempt, addressed to the person to whom we speak, instead of Sir. I'll do it, _min_. Mine. _v._ Mind; remember. Mix'en. _s._ A dunghill. Miz'maze. _s._ Confusion. Mom'macks. _s. pl._ Pieces; fragments. Mom'met, Mom'mick. _s._ A scarecrow; something dressed up in clothes to personate a human being. Moor-coot. _s._ A moor hen. To Moot. _v. a._ To root up. Moot. _s._ A stump, or root of a tree. To More. _v. n._ To root; to become fixed by rooting. More. _s._ A root. Mought. _v. aux._ Might. Mouse-snap, _s._ A mouse trap. Mug'gets. _s. pl._ The intestines of a calf or sheep. Derived, most probably, from maw and guts. To Mult. _v._ To melt. Mus' goo. must go. 'Mus'd. Amused. N. Many words beginning with a vowel, following the article _an,_ take the _n_ from an; as, _an inch,_ pronounced _a ninch._ Na'atal. _adj._ natural. Na'atally. _adv._ naturally. Naìse. _s._ noise. Nan. _interjec._ Used in reply, in conversation or address, the same as _Sir_, when you do not understand. Nânt. _s._ Aunt. Nap. _s._ A small rising; a hillock. Nâtion. _adv._ Very, extremely: as _nation_ good; _nation_ bad. Nawl. _s_. An awl. Nawl. _s._ The navel. Nawl-cut. _s._ A piece cut out at the navel: a term used by butchers. N'eet, N'it. _adv._ Not yet. Nestle Tripe. _s._ The weakest and poorest bird in the nest; applied, also, to the last-born, and usually the weakest child of a family; any young, weak, and puny child, or bird New-qut-and-jerkin. _s._ A game at cards in a more refined dialect _new-coat and jerkin_. Nif. _conj._ If. Nill. _s._ A needle. Nist, Nuost. _prep._ Nigh, near. Niver-tha-near. _adv._ (Never-the-near), To no purpose, uselessly. Nona'tion. _adj._ Difficult to be understood; not intelligent; incoherent, wild. Nor'ad. _adv._ Northward. Nora'tion. _s._ Rumour; clamour. Nor'ra un, Nor'ry un. Never a one. Norn. _pron._ Neither. _Norn o'm_, neither of them. Nor'thering. _adj._ Wild, incoherent, foolish. Nort. _s_. Nothing. West of the Parret. Not-sheep. _s_. A sheep without horns. Not. _s_. The place where flowers are planted is usually called the _flower not_, or rather, perhaps, knot; a flower bed. Not'tamy. _s_. Corrupted from _anatomy_: it means very often, the state of body, _mere skin and bone_. Nottlins. _s. pl. See_ KNOTTLINS. Num'met. _s_. A. short meal between breakfast and dinner; nunchion, luncheon. Nuncle. _s_. An uncle. To Nuncle. _v. a_. To cheat. Nuth'er. _adv_. Neither. O. O'. _prep_. for of. Obstrop'ilous. _adj_. Obstinate, resisting [obstreperous.] Odments. _s. pl_. Odd things, offals. Office. _s_. The eaves of a house. Old-qut-and-jerkin. _s_. A game at cards; in a more refined dialect, _old-coat-and-jerkin_; called also _five cards_. To Onlight. _v. n_. To alight; to get off a horse. O'änt (for w'on't). Will not. This expression is used in almost all the persons, as _I önt, he önt, we önt, they,_ or _thâ önt_; I will not, he will not, etc. Ont, O't. Of it. I a done ont; I a done o't: I have done of it. Ool. _v. aux._ Will. Ope. _s._ An opening--the distance between bodies arranged in order. Or'chit. _s._ An orchard. Ornd. _pret._ Ordained, fated. Orn. _pron._ Either. _Orn o'm_, either of them. Or'ra one, Or'ryone. Any one; ever a one. Ort. _s._ Anything. [West of the Parret.] Ort. _s._ Art. Oten. _adv._ Often. Ourn. _pron._ Ours. To Overget. _v. a._ To overtake. To Overlook, _v. a._ To bewitch. Overlookt. _part._ Bewitched. Over-right, Auver-right. _adv._ Opposite; fronting. Overs. _s. p._ The perpendicular edge, usually covered with grass, on the sides of salt-water rivers is called _overs_. P. Pack-an-Penny-Day. _s._ The last day of a fair when bargains are usually sold. [_Pack, and sell for pennies._] Parfit. _adj._ Perfect. Parfitly. _adv._ Perfectly. To Par'get. _v. a._ To plaster the inside of a chimney with mortar of cowdung and lime. Par'rick. _s._ A paddock. To Payze. _v. a._ To force, or raise up, with a lever. To Peach. _v. a._ To inform against; to impeach. Peel. _s._ A pillow, or bolster. To Peer. _v. n._ To appear. Pen'nin. _s._ The enclosed place where oxen and other animals are fed and watered; any temporary place erected to contain cattle. Pick. _s._ A pitch-fork: a two pronged fork for making hay. Pigs-Hales. _s. pl._ Haws; the seed of the white thorn. Pigs-looze. _s._ A pigsty. Pilch, Pilcher. _s._ A baby's woollen clout. Pill-coal. _v._ A kind of peat, dug most commonly out of rivers: peat obtained at a great depth, beneath a stratum of clay. Pil'ler. _s._ a pillow. Pilm. _s._ Dust; or rather fine dust, which readily floats in air. Pink. _s._ A chaffinch. Pip. _s._ A seed; applied to those seeds which have the shape of apple, cucumber seed, &c.; never to round, or minute seeds. To Pitch. _v. a. To lay unhewn and unshaped stones together, so as to make a road or way. _To Pitch_, in the West of England, is not synonymous with _to pave_. _To pave_, means to lay flat, square, and hewn stones or bricks down, for a floor or other pavement or footway. A _paved_ way is always smooth and even; a _pitched_ way always rough and irregular. Hence the distinguishing terms of _Pitching_ and _Paving_. Pit'is. _adj._ Piteous; exciting compassion. Pit'hole. _s._ The grave. To Pix, To Pixy. _v. a._ To pick up apples after the main crop is taken in; to glean, applied to an orchard only. Pix'y. _s._ A sort of fairy; an imaginary being. Pix'y-led. _part._ Led astray by pixies. Plâd. _v._ Played. Pla'zen. _s. pl._ Places. To Plim. _v. n._ To swell; to increase in bulk. Plough. _s._ The cattle or horses used for ploughing; also a waggon and horses or oxen. Pock'fredden. _adj._ Marked in the face with small pox. To Pog. _v. n._ and _v. a._ To thrust with the fist; to push. Pog. _s._ A thrust with the fist; a push; an obtuse blow. Pollyantice. _s._ Polyanthus. To Pom'ster. _v. n._ To tamper with, particularly in curing diseases; to quack. Pont'ed. _part._ Bruised with indentation. Any person wkose skin or body is puffed up by disease, and subject to occasional pitting by pressure, is said to be _ponted_; but the primary meaning is applied to fruit, as, a _ponted_ apple; in both meanings incipient decay is implied. Pook. _s._ The belly; the stomach; a vell. Popple. _s._ A pebble: that is, a stone worn smooth, and more or less round, by the action of the waves of the sea. Pottle-bellied. _adj._ Potbellied. To Pooät, To Pote. _v. a._ To push through any confined opening, or hole. Pooät-hole, Pote-hole. _s._ A small hole through which anything is pushed with a stick; a confined place. Pooäty. _adj._ Confined, close, crammed. Port'mantle. _s._ A portmanteau. Poti'cary. _s._ An apothecary. To Poun. _v._ To pound [to put into the pound, to "lock up"]. A Power of rain. A great deal of rain. Pruv'd. _v._ Proved. To pray. _v. a._ To drive all the cattle into one herd in a moor; _to pray the moor_, to search for lost cattle. Prankin. _s._ Pranks. Pud. _s._ The hand; the fist. Pulk, Pulker. _s_ A small shallow-place, containing water. Pull-reed. _s._ [Pool reed.] A long reed growing in ditches and pools, used for ceiling instead of laths. Pultry. . Poultry. Pum'ple. _adj._ Applied only, as far as I know, in the compound word _pumple-voot_, a club-foot. Put. _s._ A two-wheeled cart used in husbandry, and so constructed as to be turned up at the axle to discharge the load. Pux'ie. _s._ A place on which you cannot tread without danger of sinking into it; applied most commonly to places in roads or fields where springs break out. Pwint. _s._ Point. Pwine-end \ } The sharp-pointed end of a house, where the wall rises perpendicularly from the foundation. Pwinin-end./ Py'e. _s._ A wooden guide, or rail to hold by, in passing over a narrow wooden bridge. Q. Qu is in many words used instead of K. Quare. _adj._ Queer; odd. Quar'rel. _s._ [_Quarré_, French.] A square of window glass. To Quar. _v. a._ To raise stones from a quarry. Quar-man. _s._ A man who works in a quarry [_quar_]. Quine. _s._ Coin, money. A corner. To Quine. _v. a._ To coin. Quoin. Coin. Quoit. Coit. Qût (Quut). _s._ Coat. R. R in many words is wholly omitted, as, _Arth. Coäse, Guth, He'äth, Pason, Vooath, Wuss_, &c., for Earth, Coarse, Girth, Hearth, Parson, Forth, Worse. To Rake Up. _v. a._ To cover; to bury. To rake the vier. To cover up the fire with ashes, that it may remain burning all night. Rames. _s. pl._ The dead stalks of potatoes, cucumbers, and such plants; a skeleton. Rams-claws. _s. pl._ The plant called gold cups; _ranunculus pratensis_. Ram'shackle. _adj._ Loose; disjointed. Ram'pin. _part._ Distracted, obstreperous: _rampin mad_, outrageously mad. Ran'dy, Ran'din. _s._ A merry-making; riotous living. Range. _s._ A sieve. To Rangle. _v. n._ To twine, or move in an irregular or sinuous manner. _Rangling plants_ are plants which entwine round other plants, as the woodbine, hops, etc. Ran'gle. _s._ A sinuous winding. Ras'ty. _adj._ Rancid: gross; obscene. Rathe-ripe. _adj._ Ripening early. _Rath. English Dictionary:_ "The rathe-ripe wits prevent their own perfection." BP. HALL. Raught. _part._ Reached. Rawd. _part._ Rode. To Rawn. _v. a._ To devour greedily. Raw'ny. _adj._ Having little flesh: a thin person, whose bones are conspicuous, is said to be rawny. To Ray. _v. a._ To dress. To Read. _v. a._ To strip the fat from the intestines; _to read the inward_. Read'ship. _s._ Confidence, trust, truth. To Ream. _v. a._ To widen; to open. Reamer. _s._ An instrument used to make a hole larger. Re'balling. _s._ The catching of eels with earthworms attached to a ball of lead, hung by a string from a pole. Reed. _s._ Wheat straw prepared for thatching. Reen, Rhine. _s._ A water-course: an open drain. To Reeve. _v. a._ To rivel; to draw into wrinkles. Rem'let. _s._ A remnant. Rev'el. _s._ A wake. To Rig. _v. n._ To climb about; to get up and down a thing in wantonness or sport. Hence the substantive _rig_, as used in _John Gilpin_, by COWPER. "He little dreamt of running such a _rig_." To Rig. _v. a._ To dress. Hence, I suspect, the origin of the _rigging_ of a vessel. Righting-lawn. Adjusting the ridges after the wheat is sown. Rip. _s._ A vulgar, old, unchaste woman. Hence, most probably, the origin of _Demirip_. Robin-Riddick. _s._ A redbreast. [Also _Rabbin Hirddick_; the r and i transposed.] Rode. _s._ _To go to rode_, means, late at night or early in the morning, to go out to shoot wild fowl which pass over head on the wing. To Rose. _v. n._ To drop out from the pod, or other seed vessel, when the seeds are over-ripe. To Rough. _v. a._ To roughen; to make rough. Round-dock. _s._ The common mallow; _malva sylvestris_. Called round-dock from the _roundness_ of its leaves. CHAUCER has the following expression which has a good deal puzzled the glossarists: "But canst thou playin raket to and fro, _Nettle in, Docke out_, now this, now that, Pandare?" _Troilus and Cressida_, Book IV. The round-dock leaves are used at this day as a supposed remedy or charm for the sting of a nettle, by being rubbed on the stung part, with the following words:-- _In dock, out nettle, Nettle have a sting'd me_. That is, _Go in dock, go out nettle_. Now, to play _Nettle in Docke out_, is to make use of such expedients as shall drive away or remove some previous evil, similar to that of driving out the venom of the nettle by the juice or charm of the dock. Roz'im. _s._ A quaint saying; a low proverb. _s._ Rosin. Rud'derish. _adj._ Hasty, rude, without care. Ruf. _s._ A roof. Rum. _s._ Room; space. Rum'pus. _s_ A great noise. This word ought to be in our English Dictionaries. Rungs. _s. pl._ The round steps of a ladder. S. The sound of S is very often converted into the sound of Z. Thus many of the following words, _Sand-tot, Sar, Seed-lip, Silker, Sim, &c._, are often pronounced _Zand-tot, Zar, Zeeäd-lip, Zilker, Zim, &c._ Sâ'cer-eyes. Very large and prominent eyes. [Saucer eyes. Sand-tot. _s_. A sandhill. To Sar. _v. a._ To serve--Toearn; as, _I can sar but zixpence_ a day. Sar'ment. _s._ A sermon. Sar'rant. _s._ A servant. Sar'tin. _adj._ Certain. Sar'tinly. _adv._ Certainly. Scad. _s._ A short shower. Schol'ard. _s._ A scholar. Scissis-sheer. _s._ A scissors-sheath. Scollop. _s_. An indentation; notch; collop. To Scollop. _v. a._ To indent; to notch. Scoose wi'. Discourse or talk with you. To Scot'tle. _v. a._ To cut into pieces in a wasteful manner. Scrawf. _s_. Refuse. Scrawv'lin. _adj_. Poor and mean, like scrawf. Screed. _s_. A shred. To Scrunch. _v. a._ and _v. n._ The act of crushing and bringing closer together is implied, accompanied with some kind of noise. A person may be said to scrunch an apple or a biscuit, if in eating it he made a noise; so a pig in eating acorns. Mr. SOUTHEY has used the word in _Thalaba_ without the s. "No sound but the wild, wild wind, "And the snow _crunching_ under his feet." And, again, in the _Anthology_, vol 2, p. 240. "Grunting as they _crunch'd_ the mast." Scud. _s_. A scab. Sea-Bottle. _s_. Many of the species of the sea-wrack, or _fucus_, are called sea-bottles, in consequence of the stalks having round or oval vesicles or pods in them; the pod itself. Sea-crow. _s_. A cormorant. Seed-lip. _s_. A vessel of a particular construction, in which the sower carries the seed. Sel'times. _adv_. Not often; seldom. Shab. _s_. The itch; the hug. Applied to brutes only. Shab-water. _s._ A. water prepared with tobacco, and some mercurial, to cure the shab. Shabby. _adv._ Affected with the shab. Hence the origin of the common word _shabby_, mean, paltry. Shackle. _s._ A twisted band. Shal'der. _s._ A kind of broad flat rush, growing in ditches. Sharp. _s._ A shaft of a waggon, &c. Shatt'n. Shalt not. Sheer. _s._ A sheath. Shil'lith. _s._ A shilling's worth. Shine. _s._ Every _shine o'm_, is, every one of them. To Shod. _v. a._ To shed: to spill. Sholl. _v._ Shall. Shord. _s._ A sherd; a gap in a hedge. A _stop-shord_, a stop-gap. Shower. _adj._ Sure. Showl. _s._ A shovel. To Showl. _v. a._ To shovel. To Shride, To Shroud. _v. a._ To cut off wood from the sides of trees; or from trees generally. Shride, Shroud. _s._ Wood cut off from growing trees. It sometimes means a pole so cut; _ladeshrides_--shrides placed for holding the load. _See_ LADESHRIDES. To Shug. _v. a._ To shrug; to scratch; to rub against. Shut'tle. _adj._ Slippery, sliding: applied only to solid bodies. From this word is derived the __shuttle__ (_s._) of the weaver. Sig. _s._ Urine. Sil'ker. _s._ A court-card. To Sim. _v. n._ To seem, to appear. This verb is used personally, as, _I sim_, _you sim_, for _it seems to me_, etc. Sim-like-it. _interj._ (Seems like it.) Ironically, for _very improbable_. Sine. _conj._ [Probably from __seeing__ or __seen__.] Since, because. Single-guss. _s._ The plant orchis. Single-stick. _s._ A game; sometimes called __backsword__. Sizes. _s. pl._ The assizes. To Skag. To give an accidental blow, so as to tear the clothes or the flesh; to wound slightly. Skag. _s._ An accidental blow, as of the heel of the shoe, so as to tear the clothes or the flesh; any slight wound or rent. To Skeer. _v. a._ To mow lightly over: applied to pastures which have been summer-eaten, never to meadows. In a neuter sense, to move along quickly, and slightly touching. Hence, from its mode of flight, Skeer-devil. _s._ The black martin, or Swift. Skeer'ings. _s._ pl. Hay made from pasture land. Skent'in. _adj_. When cattle, although well-fed, do not become fat, they are called skentin. Skenter. _s._ An animal which will not fatten. To Skew, \ To Ski'ver. / _v. a._ To skewer. Skiff-handed. _adj._ Left-handed, awkward. Skills, \ Skittles. / _s. pl._ The play called nine-pins. Skim'merton. _s._ To ride Skimmerton, is an exhibition of riding by two persons on a horse, back to back; or of several persons in a cart, having _skimmers_ and _ladles_, with which they carry on a sort of warfare or gambols, designed to ridicule some one who, unfortunately, possesses an unfaithful wife. This _may-game_ is played upon some other occasion besides the one here mentioned: it occurs, however, very rarely, and will soon, I apprehend, be quite obsolete. _See_ SKIMMINGTON, in _Johnson_. Skiv'er. _s._ A skewer. To Skram. _v. a._ To benumb with cold. Skram. _adj._ Awkward: stiff, as if benumbed. "With hondis al _forskramyd_." CHAUCER, _Second Merchant's Tale_. Skram-handed. _adj._ Having the fingers or joints of the hand in such a state that it can with difficulty be used; an imperfect hand. To Skrent. _v. a._ [An irregular verb.] To burn, to scorch. Part. _Skrent_. Scorched. Skum'mer. _s._ A foulness made with a dirty liquid, or with soft dirt. To Skum'mer. _v.a._ To foul with a dirty liquid, or to daub with soft dirt. Slait. _s._ An accustomed run for sheep; hence the place to which a person is accustomed, is called slait. To Slait. _v. a._ To accustom. To Slait. _v. a._ To make quick-lime in a fit state for use, by throwing water on it; to slack. To Slat. _v. a._ To split; to crack; to cleave. To Sleeze. _v. n._ To separate; to come apart; applied to cloth, when the warp and woof readily separate from each other. Sleezy. _adj._ Disposed to sleeze; badly woven. Slen. _adj._ Slope. 'Slike. It is like. Slipper-slopper. _adj._ Having shoes or slippers down at the heel; loose. To Slitter. _v.n._ To slide. To Slock. _v. a._ To obtain clandestinely. To Slock'ster. _v. a._ To waste. Slom'aking. _adj._ Untidy; slatternly (applied to females.) This word is, probably, derived from _slow_ and _mawkin_. Slop'per. _adj._ Loose; not fixed: applied only to solid bodies. To Slot'ter. _v. n._ To dirty; to spill. Slot'tering. _adj._ Filthy, wasteful. Slot'ter. _s._ Any liquid thrown about, or accidentally spilled on a table, or the ground. Slug'gardy-guise. _s._ The habit of a sluggard. _Sluggardy-guise; Loth to go to bed, And loth to rise._ WYAT says--"Arise, for shame; do away your _sluggardy._" Sluck'-a-bed, \ Sluck'-a-trice, } _s._ A slug-a-bed; a sluggard. Slock'-a-trice. / Smash. _s._ A blow or fall, by which any thing is broken. _All to smash_, all to pieces. Smeech. _s._ Fine dust raised in the air. To Smoor. _v. a._ To smooth; to pat. Snags. _s._ Small sloes: _prunus spinosa_. Snag, \ Snagn. / _s._ A tooth. Snaggle'tooth. _s._ A tooth growing irregularly. Snarl. _s._ A tangle; a quarrel. There is also the verb _to snarl_, to entangle. Sneäd. _s._ The crooked handle of a mowing scythe. Snip'py. _adj._ Mean, parsimonious. Snock. _s._ A knock; a smart blow. Snowl. _s._ The head. Soce. _s. pl._ Vocative case. Friends! Companions! Most probably derived from the Latin _socius_. To Soss. _v. a._ To throw a liquid from one vessel to another. Sour-dock. _s._ Sorrel: _rumex aceiosa_. Souse. _s. pl. Sousen._ The ears. _Pigs sousen_, pig's ears. Spar. _s._ The pointed sticks, doubled and twisted in the middle, and used for fixing the thatch of a roof, are called _spars:_ they are commonly made of split willow rods. Spar'kid. _adj._ Speckled. Spar'ticles. _s. pl._ Spectacles: glasses to assist the sight. Spawl. _s._ A chip from a stone. Spill. _s._ A stalk; particularly that which is long and straight. _To run to spill_, is to run to seed; it sometimes also means to be unproductive. Spill. _s. See_ WORRA. To Spit. _v. a._ To dig with a spade; to cut up with a spitter. _See_ the next word. Spitter. _s._ A small tool with a long handle, used for cutting up weeds, thistles, &c. To Spit'tle. _v. a._ To move the earth lightly with a spade or spitter. Spit'tle. _adj._ Spiteful; disposed to spit in anger. To Spring. _v. a._ To moisten; to sprinkle. To Spry. _v. n._ To become chapped by cold. Spry. _adj._ Nimble; active. To Squall. _v. a._ To fling a stick at a cock, or other bird. _See_ COCK-SQUAILLING. To Squitter. _v. n._ To Squirt. To Squot. _v. n._ To bruise; to compress. _v. n._ To squat. Squot. _s._ A. bruise, by some blow or compression; a squeeze. Stad'dle. _s._ The wooden frame, or logs, &c., with stone or other support on which ricks of corn are usually placed. Stake-Hang. _s._ Sometimes called only a _hang_. A kind of circular hedge, made of stakes, forced into the sea-shore, and standing about 6 feet above it, for the purpose of catching salmon, and other fish. Stang. _s._ A long pole. Stay'ers. _s. pl._ Stairs. Steän. _s._ A large jar made of stone ware. Steänin. _s._ A ford made with stones at the bottom of a river. Steeple. _s._ Invariably means a spire. Steert. _s._ A point. Stem. _s._ A long round shaft, used as a handle for various tools. Stick'le. _adj. Steep_, applied to hills; _rapid_, applied to water: a _stickle_ path, is a steep path; a _stickle_ stream, a rapid stream. Stick'ler. _s._ A person who presides at backsword or singlestick, to regulate the game; an umpire: a person who settles disputes. Stitch. _s._ Ten sheaves of corn set up on end in the field after it is cut; a shock of corn. To Stive. _v. a._ To close and warm. To Stiv'er. _v. n._ To stand up in a wild manner like hair; to tremble. Stodge. _s._ Any very thick liquid mixture. Stonen, Stwonen. _adj._ Made of stone; consisting of stone. Stom'achy. _adj._ Obstinate, proud; haughty. Stook. _s._ A sort of stile beneath which water is discharged. To Stoor. _v. a._ and _v. n._ To stir. Stout. _s._ A gnat. Strad. _s._ A piece of leather tied round the leg to defend it from thorns, &c. A _pair_ of strads, is two such pieces of leather. Stritch. A strickle: a piece of wood used for striking off the surplus from a corn measure. To Strout. _v. n._ To strut. Strouter. _s._ Any thing which projects; a strutter. To Stud. _v. n._ To study. Su'ent. _adj._ Even, smooth, plain. Su'ently. _adj._ Evenly, smoothly, plainly. To Sulsh. _v. a._ To soil; to dirty. Sulsh. _s._ A spot; a stain. Sum. _s._ A question in arithmetic. Sum'min. _s._ (Summing) Arithmetic. To Sum'my. _v. n._ To work by arithmetical rule_s._ Summer-voy. _s._ The yellow freckles in the face. To Suffy, To Zuffy. _v. n._ To inspire deeply and quickly. Such an action occurs more particularly upon immersing the body in cold water. Suth'ard. _adv._ Southward. To Swan'kum. _v. n._ To walk to and fro in an idle and careless manner. To Swell, To Zwell. _v. a._ To swallow. To Sweetort. _v. a._ To court; to woo. Sweetortin. _s._ Courtship. T. Tack. _s._ A shelf. Tac'ker. _s._ The waxed thread used by shoemaker_s._ Ta'ëty. _s._ A potato. Taf'fety. _adj._ Dainty, nice: used chiefly in regard to food. Tal'let. _s._ The upper room next the roof; used chiefly of out-houses, as a hay-_tallet_. Tan. _adv._ Then, _now an Tan_; now and then. To Tang. _v. a._ To tie. Tap and Cannel. _s._ A spigot and faucet. Tay'ty. _s._ _See_ A hayty-tayty. Tees'ty-totsy. _s._ The blossoms of cowslips, tied into a ball and tossed to and fro for an amusement called _teesty- tosty_. It is sometimes called simply a _tosty_. Tee'ry. _adj._ Faint weak. [proofer's note: missing comma?] Tem'tious. _adj._ Tempting; inviting. [Used also in Wiltshire]. Thâ. _pron._ They. Than. _adv._ Then. Thauf. _conj._ Though, although. Theäze. _pron._ This. Theeäzam,Theeäzamy. _pron._ These. Them, Them'my. _pron._ Those. The'rence. _adv._ From that place. Thereawâ, Thereaway. _adv._ Thereabout. Therevor-i-sayt! _interj._ Therefore I say it! Thic. _pron._ That. (Thilk, _Chaucer_.) [West of the Parret, _thecky_.] Tho. _adv._ Then. Thornen. _adj._ Made of thorn; having the quality or nature of thorn. Thorough. _prep._ Through. Thread the Needle, Dird the Needle. _s._ A play. "Throwing batches," cutting up and destroying ant-hills. Tiff. _s._ A small draught of liquor. To tile. _v. a._ To set a thing in such a situation that it may easily fall. Til'ty. _adj._ Testy, soon offended. Tim'mer. _s._ Timber; wood. Tim'mern. _adj._ Wooden; as a timmern bowl; a wooden bowl. Tim'mersom. _adj._ Fearful; needlessly uneasy. To Tine. _v. a._ To shut, to close; as, _tine the door_; shut the door. To inclose; to _tine in the moor_, is to divide it into several allotments. To light, to kindle; as, to _tine the candle_, is to light the candle. QUARLES uses this verb: "What is my soul the better to be _tin'd_ With holy fire?" _Emblem_ XII. To Tip. _v. a._ To turn or raise on one side. Tip. _s._ A draught of liquor. Hence the word _tipple_, because the cup must be _tipped_ when you drink. To Tite. _v. a._ To weigh. Tite. _s._ Weight. _The tite of a pin_, the weight of a pin. Todo'. _s._ A bustle; a confusion. To Toll. _v. a._ To entice; to allure. Toor. _s._ The toe. Tosty. _s._ See TEESTY-TOSTY. Tote. _s._ The whole. This word is commonly used for intensity, as the _whol tote_, from _totus_, Latin. To Tot'tle. _v. n._ To walk in a tottering manner, like a child. Touse. _s._ A blow on some part of the head. Towards. _prep._, is, in Somersetshire, invariably pronounced as a dissyllable, with the accent on the last: _to-ward's_. Our polite pronunciation, _tordz_, is clearly a corruption. Tramp. _s._ A walk; a journey. _To Tramp. v. n._ and _Tramper. s._ will be found in _Johnson_, where also this word ought to be. To Trapes, _v. n._ To go to and fro in the dirt. Trapes, _s._ A slattern. Trim. _v. a._ To beat. Trub'agully. _s._ A short dirty, ragged fellow, accustomed to perform the most menial offices. To Truckle, _v. a._ and _v. n._ To roll. Truckle. _s._ A globular or circular piece of wood or iron, placed under another body, in order to move it readily from place. A _Truckle-bed_, is a small bed placed upon truckles, so that it may be readily moved about. These are the primary and the common meanings in the West, of To _truckle, v. Truckle, s._ and _Truckle-bed._ Tun. _s._ A chimney. Tun'negar. _s._ A Funnel. Turf. _s. pl._ Turves. Peat cut into pieces and dried for fuel. Tur'mit. _s._ A turnip. Tur'ney. _s._ An attorney. Turn-string, _s._ A string made of twisted gut, much used in spinning. _See_ WORRA. To Tus'sle. _v. n._ To straggle with; to contend. Tut. _s._ A hassock. Tut-work. _s._ Work done by the piece or contract; not work by the clay. Tuth'er. _pron._ The other. Tuth'eram. \ } _pron._ The others Tuth ermy. / Tut'ty. _s._ A flower; a nosegay. 'Tword'n. It was not. To Twick. _v. a._ To twist or jerk suddenly. Twick. _s._ A sudden twist or jerk. Twi'ly. _adj._ Restless; wearisome. Twi'ripe. _adj._ Imperfectly ripe. U. Unk'et. _adj._ Dreary, dismal, lonely. To Unray'. _v. a._ To undress. To Untang', _v. a._ To untie. To Up. _v. a._ To arise. Up'pin stock. _g._ A horse-block. _See_ LIGHTING-STOCK. Upsi'des. _adv._ On an equal or superior footing. _To be upsides_ with a person, is to do something which shall be equivalent to, or of greater importance or value than what has been done by such person to us. Utch'y. _pron._ I. This word is not used in the Western or Eastern, but only in the Southern parts of the County of Somerset. It is, manifestly, a corrupt pronunciation of _Ich_, or _Ichè_, pronounced as two syllables, the Anglo-Saxon word for I. _What shall utchy do?_ What shall I do. I think Chaucer sometimes uses _iche_ as a dissyllable; _vide_ his Poems _passim_. _Ch'am_, is I am, that is, _ich am_; _ch'ill_, is I will, _ich will_. See Shakespeare's King Lear, Act IV., Scene IV. What is very remarkable, and which confirms me greatly in the opinion which I here state, upon examining the first folio edition of Shakespeare, at the London Institution, I find that _ch_ is printed, in one instance, with a mark of elision before it thus, _'ch_, a proof that the _i_ in _iche_ was sometimes dropped in a common and rapid pronunciation. In short, this mark of elision ought always so to have been printed, which would, most probably, have prevented the conjectures which have been hazarded upon the origin of the mean- of such words _chudd_, _chill_, and _cham_. It is singular enough that Shakespeare has the _ch_ for _iche_ I, and _Ise_ for I, within the distance of a few lines in the passage above alluded to, in King Lear. But, perhaps, not more singular than that in Somersetshire may, at the present time, be heard for the pronoun I, _Utchy_, or _iché_, and _Ise_. In the Western parts of Somersetshire, as well as in Devonshire, _Ise_ is now used very generally for I. The Germans of the present day pronounce, I understand, their _ich_ sometimes as it is pronounced in the West, _Ise_, which is the sound we give to frozen water, _ice_. See Miss Ham's letter, towards the conclusion of this work. V. [The V is often substituted for f, as _vor_, for, _veo_, few, &c.] Vage, Vaze. _s_. A voyage; but more commonly applied to the distance employed to increase the intensity of motion or action from a given point. To Vang. _v. a._ To receive; to earn. Varden. _s._ Farthing. Vare. _s._ A species of weasel. To Vare. _v. n._ To bring forth young: applied to pigs and some other animals. Var'miut. _s._ A vermin. Vaught. _part._ Fetched. _Vur vaught, And dear a-bought._ (i.e.) Far-fetched, and dear bought. Vawth. _s._ A bank of dung or earth prepared for manure. To Vay. _v. n._ To succeed; to turn out well; to go. This word is, most probably, derived from _vais_, part of the French verb _aller_, to go. _It don't_ vay; it does not go on well. To Vaze. _v. n._ To move about a room, or a house, so as to agitate the air. Veel'vare. _s._ A fieldfare. Veel. _s._ A field; corn land unenclosed. To Veel. _v._ To feel. Yeel'd. _part._ Felt. Vell. _s._ The salted stomach of a calf used for making cheese; a membrane. Veö. _adj._ Few, little. Ver'di, Ver'dit. _s._ Opinion. To Ves'sy. _v. n._ When two or more persons read verses alternately, they are said to _vessy_. Ves'ter. _s._ A pin or wire to point out the letters to children to read; a fescue. Viër. _s._ Fire. Some of our old writers make this word of two syllables: "_Fy-er_." Vin'e. _v._ Find. Vine. _adj._ Fine. Vin'ned. _adj._ Mouldy; humoursome; affected. Vist, Vice. _s._ [_i_ long.] The Fist. Vitious. _adj._ Spiteful; revengeful. Vitten. _s._ See Fitten. Vit'ty. _adv._ Properly, aptly. Vlare. _v. n._ To burn wildly; to flare. Vleër. _s._ A flea. Vlan'nin. _s._ Flannel. Vleng'd. _part._ Flung. Vloth'er. _s._ Incoherent talk; nonsense. Voc'ating. _part._ Going about from place to place in an idle manner. From _voco_, Latin. The verb to _voc'ate_, to go about from place to place in an idle manner, is also occasionally used. Voke. _s._ Folk. To Vol'ly. _v. a._ To follow. Vol'lier. _s._ Something which follows; a follower. Vooäth. _adv._ Forth; out. _To goo vooäth_, is to go out. To Vooäse. _v. a._ To force. Vorad. _adv. adj._ Forward. Vor'n. _pron._ For him. Voreright. _adj._ Blunt; candidly rude. Voun. Found. Vouse. _adj._ Strong, nervous, forward. Vroäst. _s._ Frost. To Vug. _v. a._ To strike with the elbow. Vug. _s._ A thrust or blow with the elbow. Vur. _adv._ Far. Vur'der. _adv._ Farther. Vurdest. _adv._ Farthest. Vur'vooäth. _adv._ Far-forth. Vust. _adj._ First. W. To Wal'lup. _v. a._ To beat. Walnut. _s._ The _double_ large walnut. The ordinary walnuts are called French nuts_. To Wam'mel, To Wamble. _v. n._ To move to and fro in an irregular and awkward manner; to move out of a regular course or motion. Applied chiefly to mechanical operations. War. _interj._ Beware! take care! _War-whing_! Take care of yourself. War. _v._ This is used for the preterite of the verb _to be_, in almost all the persons, as _I war, he war, we war,_ &c. To Ward. _v. n._ To wade. To Warnt. To Warnd. _a._ To warrant. Wash-dish, _s._ The bird called wagtail. To Way-zalt. _v. n._ [To weigh salt.] To play at the game of wayzaltin. _See the next article._ Way-zaltin. _s._ A game, or exercise, in which two persons stand back to back, with their arms interlaced, and lift each other up alternately. Weepy. _adj._ Abounding with springs; moist. Well-apaid. _adj._ Appeased; satisfied. Well-at-ease, Well-at-eased. _adj._ Hearty. healthy. Wetshod. _adj._ Wet in the feet. Wev'et. _s._ A spider'_s._web. To Whack. _v. a._ To beat with violence. Whack. _s._ A loud blow. Whatsomiver. _pron_. Whatsoever. Whaur. _adv_. Where. To Whec'ker. _v. n_. To laugh in a low vulgar manner; to neigh. Where. _adv_. Whether. Wherewi'. _s_. Property, estate; money. Whim. _s_. Home. Whing. _s_. Wing. Whipper-snapper. _adj_. Active, nimble, sharp. Whipswhile. _s._ A short time; the time between the strokes of a whip. Whir'ra. _See_ WORRA. Whister-twister. _s_. A smart blow on the side of the head. To Whiv'er. _v. n_. To hover. Whiz'bird. _s_. A term of reproach. To Whop. _v.a._ To strike with heavy blows. Whop. _s._ A heavy blow. Who'say, or Hoosay. _s_. A wandering report; an observation of no weight. Whot. _adj_. Hot. Whun. _adv_. When. Wi'. With ye. Wid'ver. _s_. A widower. Willy. _s_. A term applied to baskets of various sizes, but generally to those holding about a bushel. So called from their being made commonly of _willow_: sometimes called also _willy-basket_. To Wim. _v. a._ To winnow. Wim-sheet, Wimmin-sheet. _s_. A sheet upon which corn is winnowed. Wimmin-dust. _s_. Chaff. Win'dor. _s_. A window. Wine. _s_. Wind. With'er. _pron_. Other. With'erguess. _adj_. Different. With'y-wine. _s_. The plant bindweed: _convolvulus_. Witt. _adj_. Fit. With'erwise. _adj_. Otherwise. Wock. _s_. Oak. Wocks. _s_. _pl_. The cards called _clubs_; most probably from having the shape of an oak leaf: _oaks_. Wont. _s_. A Mole. Wont-heave, _s_. A mole-hill. Wont-snap, _s_. A mole-trap. Wont-wriggle, _s_. The sinuous path made by moles under ground. Wood-quist. _s_. A wood-pigeon. Wordle. _s_. World. [Transposition of _l_ and _d_.] Wor'ra. _s_. A small round moveable nut or pinion, with grooves in it, and having a hole in its centre, through which the end of a round stick or _spill_ may be thrust. The _spill and worra_ are attached to the common spinning-wheel, which, with those and the _turn-string_, form the apparatus for spinning wool, &c. Most probably this word, as well as whir'on, is used for _whir_, to turn round rapidly with a noise. Wrassly. Wrestle. To Wride. _v. n._ To spread abroad; to expand. Wriggle. _s._ Any narrow, sinuous hole. Wrine. _s._ A mark occasioned by wringing cloth, or by folding it in an irregular manner. Wring, _s._ A. Press. A _cyder-wring_, a cyder-press. To Wrumple. _v. a._ To discompose: to rumple. Wrumple. _s._ A rumple. Wust. _adj._ Worst. Y. Yack'er. _s._ An acre. Yal. _s._ Ale. Yaller. _adj._ Yellow. Yal'house. _s._ An ale-house. Yap'ern. _s._ An apron. Yarly. _adj._ Early. Yarm. _s._ Arm. Yarth. _s._ Earth. Yel. _s._ An eel. Yel-spear. _s._ An instrument for catching eels. Yes. _s._ An earthworm. Yezy. _adj._ Easy. Yokes. _s. pl._ Hiccups. Yourn. _pron._ Yours. Z. See the observations which precede the letter S, relative to the change of that letter to Z. Za. _adv._ So. Zâ. _v._ Say. Zât. _adj._ Soft. Za'tenfare. _adj._ Softish: applied to the intellect_s._ To Zam. _v. a._ To heat for some time over the fire, but not to boil. Zam'zod, Zam'zodden. _adj._ Any thing heated for a long time time in a low heat so as to be in part spoiled, is said to be zamzodden. Conjecture, in etymology, may be always busy. It is not improbable that this word is a compound of _semi_, Latin, half; and to _seethe_, to boil: so that Zamzodden will then mean, literally, _half-boiled_. Zand. _s._ Sand. Zandy. _adj._ Sandy. Zand-tot. _s._ A sand-hill. To Zee. _v. a. pret._ and _part. Zid, Zeed._ To see. Zeeäd. _s._ Seed. Zeeäd-lip. _See_ SEED-LIP. Zel. _pron._ Self. Zen'vy. _s._ Wild mustard. The true etymology will be seen at once in _sénevé_, French, from _sinapi_, Latin, contracted and corrupted into _Zenvy_, Somersetian. Zil'ker. _See_ SILKER. Zim, Zim'd. _v._ Seem, seemed. Zitch. _adj._ Such. Zooäp. _s._ Soap. Zog. _s._ Soft, boggy land; moist land. Zog'gy. _adj._ Boggy; wet. Zoon'er. _adv._ Rather. To Zound, To Zoun'dy. _v. n._ To swoon. To Zuf'fy. _v. n._ See TO SUFFY. Zug'gers! _'_ This is a word, like others of the same class, the precise meaning of which it is not easy to define. I dare say it is a composition of two, or more words, greatly corrupted in pronunciation. Zull. _s._ The instrument used for ploughing land; a plough. Zum. _pron._ Some. Zum'met. _pron._ Somewhat; something. Zunz. _adv._ Since. To Zwail. _v. n._ To move about with the arms extended, and up and down. To Zwang. _v. n._ and _v. n._ To swing; to move to and fro. Zwang. _s._ A swing. To Zwell. _v. a._ To swell; to swallow. See TO SWELL. Zwird. _s._ Sword. Zwod'der. _s._ A drowsy and stupid state of body or mind. Derived, most probably, from _sudor_, Latin, a sweat. POEMS AND OTHER PIECES EXEMPLIFYING THE DIALECT OF THE County of Somersetshire. Notwithstanding the Author has endeavoured, in the Observations on the Dialects of the West, and in The Glossary, to obviate the difficulties under which strangers to the dialect of Somersetshire may, very possibly, labour in the perusal of the following Poems, it may be, perhaps, useful here to remind the reader, that many mere inversions of sound, and differences in pronunciation, are not noted in the Glossary. That it did not appear necessary to explain such words as_ wine, _wind;_ zâ, _say;_ qut, _coat;_ bwile, _boil_; hoss, _horse;_ hirches, _riches; and many others, which it is presumed the_ context, _the_ Observations, _or the_ Glossary, _will sufficiently explain. The Author, therefore, trusts, that by a careful attention to these, the reader will soon become_ au fait _at the interpretation of these West-country_ LIDDENS. GOOD BWYE TA THEE COT! Good bwye ta thee Cot! whaur tha dâs o' my childhood Glaw'd bright as tha zun in a mornin o' mâ; When tha dumbledores hummin, craup out o' tha cobwâll, An' shakin ther whings, thâ vleed vooäth an' awâ. [Footnote: The humble-bee, _bombilius major_, or _dumbledore_, makes holes very commonly in mud walls, in which it deposits a kind of farina: in this bee will be found, on dissection, a considerable portion of honey, although it never deposits any.] Good bwye ta the Cot!--on thy drashel, a-mâ-be, I niver naw moor sholl my voot again zet; Tha jessamy awver thy porch zweetly bloomin, Whauriver I goo, I sholl niver vorget. Tha rawzes, tha lillies, that blaw in tha borders-- The gilawfers, too, that I us'd ta behawld-- Tha trees, wi' tha honeyzucks ranglin âll awver, I âlways sholl think o' nif I shood be awld. Tha tutties that oten I pick'd on a zunday, And stickt in my qut--thâ war thawted za fine: Aw how sholl I tell o'm--vor âll pirty maidens When I pass'd 'em look'd back--ther smill rawze on tha wine. Good bwye ta thee Ash! which my Father beforne me, A planted, wi' pleasure, tha dâ I was born; Zâ, oolt thou drap a tear when I cease to behawld thee, An wander awâ droo tha wordle vorlorn. Good bwye ta thee Tree! an thy cawld shade in zummer; Thy apples, aw who ool be lotted ta shake? When tha wine, mangst thy boughs sifes at Milemas in sorrow, Zâ oolt thou sife for me, or one wild wish awake? Good bwye ye dun Elves! who, on whings made o'leather, Still roun my poorch whiver an' whiver at night; Aw mâ naw hord-horted, unveelin disturber, Destrây your snug nests, an your plâ by moonlight. Good bwye ta thee Bower!--ta thy moss an thy ivy-- To tha flowers that aroun thee all blossomin graw; When I'm gwon, oolt thou grieve?--bit 'tis foolish to ax it; What is ther that's shower in this wordle belaw? Good bwye ta thee Cot! whaur my mother za thoughtvul, As zumtimes she war droo er care vor us âll, Er lessins wi' kindness, wi' tenderness gid us; An ax'd, war she dead, what ood us bevâll. Good bwye ta thee Cot! whaur tha nightingale's music, In tha midnight o' Mâ-time, rawze loud on the ear; Whaur tha colley awâk'd, wi' tha zun, an a zingin A went, wi' tha dirsh, in a voice vull and clear. Good bwye ta thee Cot! I must goo ta tha city. Whaur, I'm tawld, that the smawk makes it dork at noon dâ; Bit nif it is true, I'm afeard that I âlways And iver sholl thenk on tha cot thatch'd wi' strâ. Good bwye ta thee Cot! there is One that râins awver, An wâtches tha wordle, wi' wisdom divine; Than why shood I mang, wi' tha many, my ma-bes; Bin there's readship in Him, an to him I resign. Good bwye ta thee Cot! shood I niver behauld thee Again; still I thank thee vor âll that is past! Thy friendly ruf shelter'd--while mother wâtch'd awver. An haw'd vor my comfort vrom vust unto last. Good bwye ta thee Cot; vor the time mâ be longful Beforn I on thy drashall again zet my eye; Thy tutties ool blossom, an daver an blossom Again and again--zaw good bwye, an good bwye! FANNY FEAR The melancholy incident related in the following story, actually occurred a few years ago at Shapwick. Good Gennel-vawk! an if you please To lissen to my storry, A mâ-be 'tis a jitch a one, Ool make ye zummet zorry. 'Tis not a hoozay tale of grief, A put wi' ort together, That where you cry, or where you laugh, Da matter not a veather; Bit 'tis a tale vor sartin true, Wi' readship be it spawken; I knaw it all, begummers! well, By tale, eese, an by tawken. The maid's right name war FANNY FEAR, A tidy body lookin; An she cood brew, and she cood bake, An dumplins bwile, and skimmer cake; An all the like o' cookin. Upon a Zunday âternoon, Beforne the door a stanin, To zee er chubby cheaks za hird, An whitist lilies roun 'em spird, A damas rawze her han in, Ood do your hort good; an er eyes, Dork, vull, an bright, an sporklin; Tha country lads could not goo by, Bit look thâ must--she iver shy, Ood blish--tha timid lorklin! Her dame war to her desperd kind; She knaw'd er well dezarvin: She gid her good advice an claws, At which she niver toss'd her naws, As zum ool, thawf pon starvin. She oten yarly upp'd to goo A milkin o' tha dairy; The meads ring'd loudly wi' er zong; Aw how she birshed the grass along, As lissom as a vairy! She war as happy as a prince; Naw princess moor o' pleasure When well-at-eased cood iver veel; She ly'd her head upon her peel, An vound athin a treasure. There war a dessent comly youth, Who took'd to her a likin; An when a don'd in zunday claws, You'd thenk en zummet I suppaws, A look'd so desperd strikin. His vace war like a zummer dâ, When âll the birds be zingin; Smiles an good nature dimplin stood, An moor besides, an âll za good, Much pleasant promise bringin. Now Jan war sawber, and afeard Nif he in haste shood morry, That he mid long repent thereof; An zo a thwart 'twar best not, thawf To stâ mid make en zorry. Jan oten pâss'd the happy door, There Fanny stood a scrubbin; An Fanny hired hiz pleasant voice, An thawt--"An if she had er choice!" An veel'd athin a drubbin. Bit Jan did'n hulder long iz thawts; Vor thorough iv'ry cranny, Hirn'd of iz Lort tha warm hird tide; An a cood na moor iz veelins bide, Bit tell 'em must to Fanny. To Fanny, than, one Whitsun eve, A tawld er how a lov'd er; Naw dove, a zed to er cood be Moor faithvul than to her ood he; His hort had long appruv'd er. Wi' timourous blishin, Fanny zed, "A maid mist not believe ye; Vor men ool tell ther lovin tale, And awver seely maids prevail-- Bit I dwont like ta grieve ye: Vor nif za be you now zâ true-- That you've for I a fancy: (Aw Jan! I dwont veel desperd well, An what's tha câze, I cannot tell), You'll zâ na moor to Nancy." Twar zaw begin'd their zweetortin; Booäth still liv'd in their places; Zometimes thâ met bezides tha stile; Wi' pleasant look an tender smile Gaz'd in each wither's faces. In spreng-time oten on tha nap Ood Jan and Fanny linger; An when war vooäs'd to zâ "good bwye," Ood meet again, wi' draps in eye, While haup ood pwint er vinger. Zo pass'd tha dâs--tha moons awâ, An haup still whiver'd nigh; Nif Fanny's dreams high pleasures vill, Of her Jan's thawts the lidden still, An oten too the zigh. Bit still Jan had not got wherewi' To venter eet to morry; Alas-a-dâ! when poor vawk love, How much restraint how many pruv; How zick zum an how zorry. Aw you who live in houzen grate, An wherewi' much possessin, You knaw not, mâ-be, care not you, What pangs jitch tender horts pursue, How grate nor how distressin. Jan sar'd a varmer vour long years, An now iz haups da brighten: A gennelman of high degree Choos'd en iz hunsman vor to be; His Fanny's hort da lighten! "Now, Fan," zed he, "nif I da live, Nex zummer thee bist mine; Sir John ool gee me wauges good, Amâ-be too zum viër ood!" His Fan's dork eyes did shine. "To haw vor thee, my Fan," a cried, "I iver sholl delight; Thawf I be poor, 'tool be my pride To ha my Fan vor a buxom bride-- My lidden dâ an night." A took er gently in iz orms An kiss'd er za zweetly too; His Fan, vor jay, not a word cood speak, Bit a big roun tear rawl'd down er cheak, It zimm'd as thawf er hort ood break-- She cood hordly thenk it true. To zee our hunsman goo abroad, His houns behind en volly; His tossel'd cap--his whip's smort smack, His hoss a prancin wi' tha crack, His whissle, horn, an holler, back! Ood cure âll malancholy. It happ'd on a dork an wintry night, Tha stormy wine a blawin; Tha houns made a naise an a dismal yell; Jitch as zum vawk zâ da death vaurtell, The cattle loud war lawin. Tha hunsman wâkid an down a went; A thawt ta keep 'em quiet; A niver stopped izzel ta dress, Bit a went in iz shirt vor readiness A voun a dirdful riot. Bit âll thic night a did not come back; All night tha dogs did raur; In tha mornin thâ look'd on tha kannel stwons An zeed 'em cover'd wi' gaur an bwons, The vlesh âll vrom 'em a taur. His head war left--the head o' Jan Who lov'd hiz Fanny za well; An a bizzy gossip, as gossips be Who've work o' ther awn bit vrom it vlee, To Fanny went ta tell. She hirn'd, she vleed ta meet tha man Who corr'd er dear Jan's head: An when she zeed en âll blood an gaur, She drapp'd down speechless jist avaur, As thauf she had bin dead. Poor Fanny com'd ta erzel again, Bit her senses left her vor iver! An all she zed, ba dâ or night-- Vor sleep it left her eye-lids quite-- War, "why did he goo in the cawld ta shiver?-- Niver, O Jan! sholl I zee the, niver!" [Footnote: See a letter by Edward Band, on this subject, in the prose pieces.] JERRRY NUTTY; OR THE MAN OF MORK. Awa wi' âll yer tales o' grief, An dismal storry writin; A mâ-be zumthin I mâ zing Ool be as much delightin. Zumtime agoo, bevaur tha moors War tin'd in, lived at Mork One JERRY NUTTY--spry a war; A upp'd avaur the lork. Iz vather in a little cot Liv'd, auver-right tha moor, An thaw a kipt a vlock o' geese, A war a thoughted poor. A niver teach'd tha cris-cross-lain Ta any of his bways, An Jerry, mangst the rest o'm, did Not much appruv his ways. Vor Jerry zumtimes went ta church Ta hire tha Pâson preach, An thawt what pity that ta read Izzel a cood'n teach. Vor than, a zunday âternoon, Tha Bible, or good book Would be companion vit vor'm âll Who choos'd therein ta look. Bit Jerry than tha naise o' geese Bit little moor could hire; An dâly goose-aggs ta pick up Droo-out tha moor did tire. A ôten look'd upon tha hills An stickle mountains roun, An wished izzel upon their taps: What zights a ood be bóun! Bit what did mooäst iz fancy strick War Glassenberry Torr: A âlways zeed it when tha zun Gleam'd wi' tha mornin stor. O' Well's grate church a ôten hired, Iz fancy war awake; An zaw a thawt that zoon a ood A journey ta it make. An Glassenberry's Torr, an Thorn The hawly blowth of which A hired from one and tother too; Tha like war never jitch! Bit moor o' this I need not zâ, Vor off went Jerry Nutty, In hiz right hon a wâkin stick, An in hiz qut a tutty. Now, lock-y-zee! in whimly dress Trudg'd chearful Jerry on; Bit on tha moor not vur a went-- A made a zudden ston. Which wâ ta goo a cood not thenk, Vor there war many a wâ; A put upright iz walking stick; A vâll'd ta tha zon o' dâ. Ta tha suthard than iz wâ a took Athert tha turfy moors, An zoon o' blissom Cuzziton, [Footnote: Cossington.] A pass'd tha cottage doors. Tha maidens o' tha cottages, Not us'd strange vawk to zee, Com'd vooäth and stood avaur tha door; Jer wonder'd what cood be. Zum smil'd, zum whecker'd, zum o'm blish'd. "Od dang it!" Jerry zed, "What do tha think that I be like?" An nodded to 'm iz head. "Which is tha wâ to Glassenberry? I've hired tha hawly thorn War zet there by zum hawly hons Zoon âter Christ war born; An I've a mine ta zee it too, An o' tha blowth ta take." "An how can you, a seely man, Jitch seely journey make? "What! dwont ye knaw that now about It is the midst o' June? Tha hawly thorn at Kirsmas blaws-- You be zix months too zoon. Goo whim again, yea gâwky! goo!" Zaw zed a damsel vair As dewy mornin late in Mâ; An Jerry wide did stare. "Lord Miss!" zed he, "I niver thawt, O' Kirsmas!--while I've shoes, To goo back now I be zet out, Is what I sholl not choose. I'll zee the Torr an hawly thorn, An Glassenberry too; An, nif you'll put me in tha wâ, I'll gee grate thanks ta you." Goo droo thic veel an up thic lane, An take tha lift hon path, Than droo Miss Crossman's backzid strait, Ool bring ye up ta Wrath. Now mine, whaur you do turn again At varmer Veal's long yacker, Clooäse whaur Jan Lide, tha cobler, lives Who makes tha best o' tacker; You mist turn short behine tha house An goo right droo tha shord, An than you'll pass a zummer lodge, A builded by tha lord. Tha turnpick than is jist belaw, An Cock-hill strait avaur ye." Za Jerry doff'd his hat an bow'd, An thank'd er vor er storry. Bit moor o' this I need not zâ, Vor off went Jerry Nutty; In his right hand a wâkin stick, An in hiz qut a tutty. Bit I vorgot to zâ that Jer A zatchel wi' en took To hauld zum bird an cheese ta ate;-- Iz drink war o' tha brook. Za when a got upon Cock-hill Upon a linch a zawt; The zun had climmer'd up tha sky; A voun it very hot. An, as iz stomick war za good, A made a horty meal; An werry war wi' wâkin, zaw A sleepid zoon did veel. That blessed power o' bâmy sleep, Which auver ivery sense Da wi' wild whiverin whings extend A happy influence; Now auver Jerry Nutty drow'd Er lissom mantle wide; An down a drapp'd in zweetest zleep, Iz zatchel by iz zide. Not all tha nasty stouts could wâke En vrom iz happy zleep, Nor emmets thick, nor vlies that buz, An on iz hons da creep. Naw dreams a had; or nif a had Mooäst pleasant dreams war thâ: O' geese an goose-aggs, ducks and jitch; Or Mally, vur awâ, Zum gennelmen war dreavin by In a gilded cawch za gâ; Thâ zeed en lyin down asleep; Thâ bid the cawchman stâ. Thâ bâll'd thâ hoop'd--a niver wâk'd; Naw houzen there war handy; Zed one o'm, "Nif you like, my bways, "We'll ha a little randy!" "Jist put en zâtly in tha cawch An dreav en ta Bejwâter; An as we âll can't g'in wi'n here, I'll come mysel zoon âter." Twar done at once: vor norn o'm car'd A strâ vor wine or weather; Than gently rawl'd the cawch along, As zât as any veather. Bit Jerry snaur'd za loud, tha naise Tha gennelmen did gally; Thâ'd hâf a mind ta turn en out; A war dreamin o' his Mally! It war the morkit dâ as rawl'd Tha cawch athin Bejwâter; Thâ drauv tip ta the Crown-Inn door, Ther Mâ-game man com'd âter. "Here Maester Wâter! Lock-y-zee! A-mâ-be you mid thenk Thic mon a snauren in tha cawch Is auvercome wi' drenk. Bit 'tis not not jitchy theng we knaw; A is a cunjerin mon, Vor on Cock-hill we vound en ly'd Iz stick stif in his hon. Iz vace war cover'd thick wi' vlies An bloody stouts a plenty; Nif he'd o pumple voot bezide, An a brumstick vor'n to zit ascride, O' wizards a mid be thawt tha pride, Amangst a kit o' twenty." "Lord zur! an why d'ye bring en here To gally âll tha people? Why zuggers! nif we frunt en than, He'll auver-dro tha steeple. I bag ye, zur, to take en vooäth; There! how iz teeth da chatter; Lawk zur! vor Christ--look there again! A'll witchify Bejwâter!" Tha gennelman stood by an smiled To zee tha bussle risin: Yor zoon, droo-out tha morkit wide Tha news wor gwon saprisin. An round about tha cawch thâ dring'd-- Tha countryman and townsman; An young an awld, an man an maid-- Wi' now an tan, an here an there, Amang tha crowd to gape an stare, A doctor and a gownsman. Jitch naise an bother wâkid zoon Poor hormless Jerry Nutty, A look'd astunn'd;--a cood'n speak! An daver'd war iz tutty. A niver in his life avaur 'ad been athin Bejwâter; A thawt, an if a war alive, That zummet war tha matter. Tha houzen cling'd together zaw! Tha gennelmen an ladies! Tha blacksmith's, brazier's hammers too! An smauk whauriver trade is. Bit how a com'd athin a cawch A war amaz'd at thenkin; A thawt, vor sartin, a must be A auvercome wi' drenkin. Thâ ax'd en nif a'd please to g'out An ta tha yalhouse g'in; Bit thâ zo clooäse about en dring'd A cood'n goo athin. Ta g'under 'em or g'auver 'em A try'd booâth grate and smâll; Bit g'under, g'auver, g'in, or g'out, A cood'n than at âll. "Lord bless ye! gennel-vawk!" zed he, I'm come to Glassenberry To zee tha Torr an Hawly Thorn; What makes ye look za merry?" "Why mister wizard? dwont ye knaw, Theäse town is câll'd Bejwâter!" Cried out a whipper-snapper man: Thâ all bust out in lâughter. "I be'nt a wizard, zur!" a zed; "Bit I'm a little titch'd; [Footnote: Touched.] "Or, witherwise, you mid well thenk I'm, zure anow, bewitch'd!" Thaw Jerry war, vor âll tha wordle, Like very zel o' quiet, A veel'd iz blood ta bwile athin At jitchy zort o' riot; Za out a jump'd amangst 'em âll! A made a desperd bussle; Zum hirn'd awâ--zum made a ston; Wi' zum a had a tussle. Iz stick now sar'd 'em justice good; It war a tough groun ash; Upon ther heads a plâ'd awâ, An round about did drash. Thâ belg'd, thâ raur'd, thâ scamper'd âll. A zoon voun rum ta stoory; A thawt a'd be reveng'd at once, Athout a judge or jury. An, thaw a brawk navy-body's bwons, A gid zum bloody nawzes; Tha pirty maids war fainty too; Hirn'd vrom ther cheaks tha rawzes. Thinks he, me gennelmen! when nex I goo to Glassenbery, Yea shant ha jitch a rig wi' I, Nor at my cost be merry. Zaw, havin clear'd izzel a wâ. Right whim went Jerry Nutty; A flourished roun iz wâkin stick; An vleng'd awâ iz tutty. A LEGEND OF GLASTONBURY. [First Printed in "Graphic Illustrator, p. 124.] I cannot do better than introduce here "_A Legend of Glastonbury_," made up, not from books, but from oral tradition once very prevalent in and near Glastonbury, which had formerly one of the richest Abbeys in England; the ruins are still attractive. Who hath not hir'd o' _Avalon?_ [Footnote: "The Isle of ancient Avelon."--Drayton.] 'Twar talked o' much an long agon,-- Tha wonders o' tha _Holy Thorn_, Tha "wich, zoon âter Christ war born, Here a planted war by _Arimathé_, Thic Joseph that com'd auver sea, An planted Kirstianity. Thâ zâ that whun a landed vust, (Zich plazen war in God's own trust) A stuck iz staff into tha groun An auver iz shoulder lookin roun, Whatever mid iz lot bevâll, A cried aloud "_Now, weary all_!" Tha staff het budded an het grew, An at Kirsmas bloom'd tha whol dâ droo. An still het blooms at Kirsmas bright, But best thâ zâ at dork midnight, A pruf o' this nif pruf you will. Iz voun in tha name o' _Weary-all-hill!_ Let tell _Pumparles_ or lazy _Brue_. That what iz tauld iz vor sartin true! ["The story of the Holy Thorn was a long time credited by the vulgar and credulous. There is a species of White Thorn which blossoms about Christmas; it is well known to naturalists so as to excite no surprise."] MR. GUY. The incident on which this story is founded, occurred in the early part of the last century; hence the allusion to making a _will_ before making a journey to the metropolis. Mr. Guywar a gennelman O' Huntspill, well knawn As a grazier, a hirch one, Wi' lons o' hiz awn. A ôten went ta Lunnun Hiz cattle vor ta zill; All tha horses that a rawd Niver minded hadge or hill. A war afeard o' naw one; A niver made hiz will, Like wither vawk, avaur a went His cattle vor ta zill. One time a'd bin ta Lunnun An zawld iz cattle well; A brought awâ a power o' gawld, As I've a hired tell. As late at night a rawd along All droo a unket ood, A ooman rawze vrom off tha groun An right avaur en stood: She look'd za pitis Mr. Guy At once hiz hoss's pace Stapt short, a wonderin how, at night, She com'd in jitch a place. A little trunk war in her hon; She zim'd vur gwon wi' chile. She ax'd en nif a'd take her up And cor her a veo mile. Mr. Guy, a man o' veelin For a ooman in distress, Than took er up behind en: A cood'n do na less. A corr'd er trunk avaur en, An by hiz belt o' leather A bid er hawld vast; on thâ rawd, Athout much tâk, together. Not vur thâ went avaur she gid A whissle loud an long; Which Mr. Guy, thawt very strange; Er voice too zim'd za strong! She'd lost er dog, she zed; an than Another whissle blaw'd, That stortled Mr. Guy;--a stapt Hiz hoss upon tha rawd. Goo on, zed she; bit Mr. Guy Zum rig beginn'd ta fear: Vor voices rawze upon tha wine, An zim'd a comin near. Again thâ rawd along; again She whissled. Mr. Guy Whipt out hiz knife an cut tha belt, Then push'd er off!--Vor why? Tha ooman he took up behine, Begummers, war a _man!_ Tha rubbers zaw ad lâd ther plots Our grazier to trepan. I shall not stap ta tell what zed Tha man in ooman's clawze; Bit he, and all o'm jist behine, War what you mid suppawze. Thâ cust, thâ swaur, thâ dreaten'd too, An ater Mr. Guy Thâ gallop'd all; 'twar niver-tha-near: Hiz hoss along did vly. Auver downs, droo dales, awâ a went, 'Twar dâ-light now amawst, Till at an inn a stapt, at last, Ta thenk what he'd a lost. A lost?--why, nothin--but hiz belt!-- A zummet moor ad gain'd: Thic little trunk a corr'd awâ-- It gawld g'lore contain'd! Nif Mr. Guy war hirch avaur, A now war hircher still: Tha plunder o' tha highwâmen Hiz coffers went ta vill. In sâfety Mr. Guy rawd whim; A ôten tawld tha storry. Ta meet wi' jitch a rig myzel I shood'n, soce, be zorry. THE ROOKERY. The rook, _corvus frugilegus_, is a bird of considerable intelligence, and is, besides, extremely useful in destroying large quantities of worms and larvæ of destructive insects. It will, it is true, if not watched, pick out, after they are dibbled, both pease and beans from the holes with a precision truly astonishing: a very moderate degree of care is, however, sufficient to prevent this evil, which is greatly overbalanced by the positive good which it effects in the destruction of insects. It is a remarkable fact, and not, perhaps, generally known, that this bird rarely roosts at the rookery, except for a few months during the period of incubation, and rearing its young. In the winter season it more commonly takes flights of no ordinary length, to roost on the trees of some remote and sequestered wood. The _Elm_ is its favorite, on which it usually builds; but such is its attachment to locality that since the incident alluded to in the following Poem took place the Rooks have, many of them, built in _fir_ trees at a little distance from their former habitation. The habits of the Rook are well worthy the attention of all who delight in the study of Natural History. My zong is o' tha ROOKERY, Not jitch as I a zeed On stunted trees wi' leaves a veo, A very veo indeed, In thic girt place thâ _Lunnun_ câll;-- Tha Tower an tha Pork Hâ booäth a got a Rookery, Althaw thâ han't a Lork. I zeng not o' jitch Rookeries, Jitch plazen, pump or banners; Bit town-berd Rooks, vor âll that, hâ, I warnt ye, curious _manners_. My zong is o' a Rookery My Father's cot bezide, Avaur, years âter, I war born 'Twar long tha porish pride. Tha elms look'd up like giants tâll Ther branchy yarms aspread; An green plumes wavin wi' tha wine, Made gâ each lofty head. Ta drâ tha pectur out--ther war At distance, zid between Tha trees, a thatch'd Form-house, an geese A cacklin on tha green. A river, too, clooäse by tha trees, Its stickle coose on slid, Whaur yells an trout an wither fish Mid ôtentimes be zid. Tha rooks voun this a pleasant place-- A whim ther young ta rear; An I a ôten pleas'd a bin Ta wâtch 'em droo tha year. 'Tis on tha dâ o' Valentine Or there or thereabout, Tha rooks da vast begin ta build, An cawin, make a rout. Bit aw! when May's a come, ta zee Ther young tha gunner's shut Vor SPOORT, an bin, as zum da zâ, (Naw readship in't I put) _That nif thâ did'n shut tha, rooks Thâ'd zoon desert tha trees!_ Wise vawk! Thic reason vor ther SPOORT Gee thâ mid nif thâ please! Still zeng I o' tha Rookery, Vor years it war tha pride Of all thâ place, bit 'twor ta I A zumthin moor bezide. A hired tha Rooks avaur I upp'd; I hired 'em droo tha dâ; I hired ther young while gittin flush An ginnin jist ta câ. I hired 'em when my mother gid Er lessins kind ta I, In jitch a wâ when I war young, That I war fit ta cry. I hired 'em at tha cottage door, When mornin, in tha spreng, Wâk'd vooäth in youth an beauty too, An birds beginn'd ta zeng. I hired 'em in tha winter-time When, roustin vur awâ, Thâ visited tha Rookery A whiverin by dâ. My childhood, youth, and manood too, My Father's cot recâll Thic Rookery. Bit I mist now Tell what it did bevâll. 'Twar Mâ-time--heavy vi' tha nests War laden âll tha trees; An to an fraw, wi' creekin loud, Thâ sway'd ta iv'ry breeze. One night tha wine--a thundrin wine, Jitch as war hired o' nivor, Blaw'd two o' thic girt giant trees Flat down into tha river. Nests, aggs, an young uns, âll awâ War zweept into tha wâter An zaw war spwiled tha Rookery Vor iver and iver âter. I visited my Father's cot: Tha Rooks war âll a gwon; Whaur stood tha trees in lofty pride I zid there norra one. My Father's cot war desolate; An âll look'd wild, vorlorn; Tha Ash war stunted that war zet Tha dâ that I war born. My Father, Mother, Rooks, âll gwon! My Charlotte an my Lizzy!-- Tha gorden wi' tha tutties too!-- Jitch thawts why be za bizzy!-- Behawld tha wâ o' human thengs! Rooks, lofty trees, an Friends-- A kill'd, taur up, like leaves drap off!-- Zaw feaver'd bein ends. TOM GOOL, AND LUCK IN THA BAG. "Luck, Luck in tha Bag! Good Luck! Put in an try yer fortin; Come, try yer luck in tha Lucky Bag! You'll git a prize vor sartin." Mooäst plazen hâ their customs Ther manners an ther men; We too a got our customs, Our manners and our men. He who a bin ta Huntspill Fâyer Or Highbridge--Pawlet Revel-- Or Burtle Sassions, whaur thâ plâ Zumtimes tha very devil, Mist mine once a man well That war a câll'd TOM GOOL; Zum thawt en mazed, while withers thawt En moor a knave than fool. At all tha fâyers an revels too TOM GOOL war shower ta be, A tâkin vlother vast awâ,-- A hoopin who bit he. Vor' âll that a had a zoort o' wit That zet tha vawk a laughin; An mooäst o' that, when ho tha yal Ad at tha fâyer bin quaffin. A corr'd a kit o' pedlar's waur, Like awld _Joannah Martin_; [Footnote: This Lady, who was for many years known in Somersetshire as an itinerant dealer in earthenware, rags, &c., and occasionally a _fortune-teller_, died a few years since at Huntspill, where she had resided for the greater part of a century. She was extremely illiterate, so much so, as not to be able to write, and, I think, could scarcely read. She lived for some years in a house belonging to my father, and while a boy, I was very often her gratuitous amanuensis, in writing letters for her to her children. She possessed, however, considerable shrewdness, energy, and perseverance, and amassed property to the amount of several hundred pounds. She had three husbands; the name of the first was, I believe, _Gool_ or _Gould_, a relation of _Thomas Gool_, the subject of the above Poem; the name of the second was _Martin_, of the third _Pain_; but as the last lived a short time only after having married her, she always continued to be called Joannah Martin. _Joannah_ was first brought into public notice by the Rev. Mr. WARNER, in his _Walks through the Western Counties_, published in 1800, in which work will be found a lively and interesting description of her; but she often said that she should wish me to write her life, as I was, of course, more intimately acquainted with it than any casual inquirer could possibly be. An additional notice of Joannah was inserted by me in the _Monthly Magazine_, for Nov. 1816, page 310. I had among my papers, the _original song composed_ by her, which I copied from her dictation many years ago,--the only, copy in existence; I regret that I cannot lay my hand upon it; as it contains much of the Somersetshire idiom. I have more than once heard her sing this song, which was satirical, and related to the conduct of a female, one of her neighbours, who had become a thief. Such was JOANNAH MARTIN, a woman whose name (had she moved in a sphere where her original talents could have been improved by education,) might have been added to the list of distinguished female worthies of our country. [The MS. song was never, that I am aware of, discovered after my relative's death.--Editor, J. K. J.]] An nif yon hân't a hired o' her, You zumtime sholl vor sartin. "Luck, Luck in tha Bag!" TOM, cried "Put in and try yer fortin; Come try yer luck in tha lucky bag; You'll git a prize vor sartin. All prizes, norra blank, Norra blank, âll prizes! A waiter--knife--or scissis sheer-- A splat o' pins--put in my dear!-- Whitechapel nills âll sizes. Luck, Luck in tha Bag!--only a penny vor a venter--you mid get, a- ma-be, a girt prize--a _Rawman waiter!_--I can avoord it as cheep as thic that stawl it--I a bote it ta trust, an niver intend to pâ vor't. Luck, Luck in tha bag! âll prizes; norra blank! Luck, Luck in tha Bag! Good Luck! Put in an try yer fortin; Come, try yer luck in tha lucky bag! You'll git a prize vor sartin. Come, niver mine tha single-sticks, Tha whoppin or tha stickler, You dwon't want now a brawken head, "Nor jitchy zoort o' tickler! Now Lady! yer prize is--'A SNUFF-BOX,' A treble-japann'd Pontypool! You'll shower come again ta my luck in tha bag, Or niver trust me--TOMMY GOOL. Luck, Luck in tha bag! Good Luck! Put in an try yer fortin; Come, try yer luck in tha lucky bag! You'll git a prize for sartin! TEDDY BAND. "The short and simple annals of the poor." GRAY. _Miss Hanson to Miss Mortimer. Ashcot, July_ 21st. My Dear Jane. Will you do me the favour to amuse yourself and your friends with the enclosed epistle? it is certainly an original--written in the dialect of the County. You will easily understand it, and, I do not doubt, the "moril" too. Edward Band, or as he is more commonly called here, Teddy Band, is a poor, but honest and industrious cottager, but I am, nevertheless, disposed to think that "if ignorance is bliss, 'tis folly to be wise." My dear Jane, affectionately yours, MARIA HANSON. _Teddy Band to Miss Hanson._ Mâm, I da thenk you'll smile at theeäzam here veo lains that I write ta you, bin I be naw scholard; vor vather coud'n avoord ta put I ta school. Bit nif you'll vorgee me vor my bauldniss, a-mâ-be, I mid not be afeard ta zâ zummet ta you that you, mâm yourzell mid like ta hire. Bit how be I ta knaw that? I knaw that you be a goodhorted Lady, an da like ta zee poor vawk well-at-eased an happy. You axt I tother dâ ta zing a zong: now I dwont much like zum o' thâ zongs that I hired thic night at squire Reevs's when we made an end o' Hâ-corrin: vor, zim ta I, there war naw moril to 'em. I like zongs wi' a moril to 'em. Tha nawtes, ta be shower, war zât anow, bit, vor âll that, I war looking vor tha moril, mâm. Zo, when I cum'd whim, I tawld our Pall, that you axt I ta zing: an I war zorry âterward that I did'n, bin you be âlways zo desperd good ta poor vowk. Bit I thawt, a-mâ-be, you mid be angry wi' my country lidden. Why Teddy, zed Pall, dwontye zend Miss Hanson thic zong which ye made yerzel; I thenk ther is a moril in thic. An zo, mâm, nif you please, I a zent tha zong. I haup you'll vorgee me. Mâm, your humble sarvant, TEDDY BAND. ZONG. I have a cot o' Cob-wâll Roun which tha ivy clims; My Pally at tha night-vâll Er crappin viër trims. A comin vrom tha plow-veel I zee tha blankers rise, Wi' blue smauk cloudy curlin, An whivering up tha skies. When tha winter wines be crousty, An snaws dreav vast along, I hurry whim--tha door tine, An cheer er wi' a zong. When spreng, adresst in tutties, Câlls âll tha birds abroad; An wrans an robin-riddicks, Tell âll the cares o' God, I zit bezides my cot-door After my work is done, While Pally, bizzy knittin, Looks at tha zottin zun. When zummertime is passin, An narras dâs be vine, I drenk tha sporklin cider, An wish naw wither wine. How zweet tha smill o' clawver, How zweet tha smill o' hâ; How zweet is haulsom labour, ^ Bit zweeter Pall than thâ. An who d'ye thenk I envy?-- Tha nawbles o' tha land? Thâ can't be moor than happy, An that is Teddy Band. Mister Ginnins; I a red thic ballet o' yourn called Fanny Fear, an, zim ta I, there's naw moril to it. Nif zaw be you da thenk zo well o't, I'll gee one. I dwont want to frunt any ov the gennelmen o' tha country, bit I âlways a thawt it desperd odd, that dogs should be keept in a kannel, and keept a hungered too, zaw that thâ mid be moor eager to hunt thic poor little theng câlled a hare. I dwon' naw, bit I da thenk, nif I war a gennelman, that I'd vine better spoort than huntin; bezides, zim ta I 'tis desperd wicked to hunt animals vor one's spoort. Now, jitch a horrid blanscue as what happened at Shapick, niver could a bin but vor tha hungry houns. I haup that gennelmen ool thenk o't oten; an when thâ da hire tha yell o' tha houns thâ'll not vorgit Fanny Fear; a-mâ-be thâ mid be zummet tha wiser an better vor't; I'm shower jitch a storry desarves ta be remimbered. This is the moril. I am, sur, your sarvant, TEDDY BAND. THE CHURCHWARDEN. Upon a time, naw matter whaur, Jitch plazen there be many a scaur In Zummerzet's girt gorden; (Ive hir'd 'twar handy ta tha zea, Not vur vrom whaur tha zantots be) There liv'd a young churchwarden. A zim'd delighted when put in. An zaw a thawt a ood begin Ta do hiz office duly: Bit zum o'm, girt vawk in ther wâ-- Tha _Porish_ o'ten câlled,--a girt bell sheep Or two that lead the rest an quiet keep-- Put vooäth ther hons iz coose to stâ, Which made en quite unruly. A went, of coose, ta Visitâtion Ta be sworn in;--an than 'twar nâtion Hord that a man his power should doubt,-- An moor--ta try ta turn en out! "Naw, Naw!" exclaim'd our young churchwarden, I dwon't care vor ye âll a copper varden!" Tha church war durty.--Wevets here Hang'd danglin vrom tha ruf; an there Tha plaisterin shaw'd a crazy wâll; Tha âltar-piece war dim and dowsty too, That Peter's maricle thâ scase cood view. Tha Ten Commandments nawbody cood rade; [Footnote: Read] Tha Lord's Prayer ad nuthin in't bit "Brade;" [Footnote: Bread] Nor had tha Creed A lain or letter parfit, grate or smâll. 'Twar time vor zum one ta renew 'em âll. I've tawld o' wevets--zum o'm odd enow; Thâ look'd tha colour of a dork dun cow, An like a skin war stratched across tha corners; Tha knitters o' tha porish tâk'd o knittin Stocking wi' 'em!--Bit aw, how unbevittin All tâk like this!--aw fie, tha wicked scorners! Ta work went tha Churchwarden; wevets tummel'd Down by tha bushel, an tha pride o' dowst war hummel'd. Tha wâlls once moor look'd bright. Tha Painter, fags, a war a Plummer An Glazier too, Put vooäth his powers, (His workin made naw little scummer!) In zentences, in flourishes, and flowers. Tha chancel, church and âll look'd new, An war well suited to avoord delight. Tha Ten Commandments glitter'd wi' tha vornish; Compleat now, tha Lord's Prayer, what cood tornish. As vor tha Creed 'twar made bran new Vrom top ta bottom; I tell ye true! Tha âltar piece wi' Peter war now naw libel Upon tha church, Which booäth athin an, tower an all, athout Look'd like a well-dressed maid in pride about; Tha walls rejâic'd wi' texts took vrom tha Bible. Bit vor all that, thâ left en in tha lurch; I bag your pardon. I mean, of âll tha expense thâ ood'n pâ a varden. Jitch zweepin, birshin, paintin, scrubbin; Tha tuts ad niver jitch a drubbin; Jitch white-washin and jitch brought gwâin A power of money--Tha Painter's bill Made of itzel a pirty pill, Ta zwell which âll o'm tried in vain! Ther stomicks turn'd, ther drawts were norry; [Footnote: Narrow] Jitch gillded pills thâ cood'n corry. An when our young churchwarden ax'd em why, Thâ laugh'd at en, an zed, ther drawts war dry. Tha keeper o' tha church war wrong; (Churchwarden still the burden o' my zong) A should at vust A câll'd a Vestry: vor 'tis hord ta trust To Porish generasity; an zaw A voun it: I dwon' knaw Whaur or who war his advisers; Zum zed a Lâyer gid en bad advice; A-mâ-be saw; jitch vawk ben't always nice. Lâyers o' advice be seltimes misers Nif there's wherewi' ta pâ; Or, witherwise, good bwye ta Lâyers an tha Lâ. A Vestry than at last war cried-- A Vestry's power let noäne deride-- When tha church war auver tha clork bal'd out, _Aw eese! aw eese! aw eese!_ All wonder'd what cood be about, An stratch'd ther necks like a vlock o' geese; Why--_ta make a Rate Vor tha church's late Repairâtion_. A grate norâtion, A nâtion naise tha nawtice made, About tha cost ta be defray'd Vor tha church's _repairâtion_. Tha Vestry met, âll naise an bother; One ood'n wait ta hire tha tuther. When thâ war tir'd o' jitch a gabble, Ta bâl na moor not one war yable, A man, a little zâtenfare, Got up hiz verdi ta delcare. Now Soce, zed he, why we be gwâin Ta meet in Vestry here in vâin. Let's come to some determination, An not tâk âll in jitch a fashion. Let's zee tha 'counts. A snatch'd tha book Vrom tha Churchwarden in't ta look. _Tha, book war chain'd clooäse to his wrist;_ A gid en slily jitch a twist! That the young Churchwarden loud raur'd out, "You'll break my yarm!--what be about?" Tha man a little zâtenfare, An âll tha Vestry wide did stare! Bit Soce, zed he again, I niver zeed Money brought gwâin zaw bad. What need War ther tha âltar-piece ta titch? What good war paintin, vornishin, an jitch? What good war't vor'n ta mend Tha Ten Commandments?--Why did he Mell o' tha Lord's Prayer? Lockyzee! Ther war naw need To mell or make wi' thic awld Creed. I'm zorry vor'n; eesse zorry as a friend; Bit can't conzent our wherewi' zaw ta spend, Thâ âll, wi one accord, At tha little zâtenfare's word, Agreed, that, not one varden, By Rate, Should be collected vor tha late Repairâtion Of tha church by tha young Churchwarden. THE FISHERMAN AND THE PLAYERS. Now who is ther that han't a hir'd O' one young TOM CAME? A Fisherman of Huntspill, An a well-knawn name. A knaw'd much moor o' fishin Than many vawk bezides; An a knaw'd much moor than mooäst about Tha zea an âll tha tides. A knaw'd well how ta make buts, An hullies too an jitch, An up an down tha river whaur Tha best place vor ta pitch. A knaw'd âll about tha stake-hangs Tha zâlmon vor ta catch;-- Tha pitchin an tha dippin net,-- Tha Slime an tha Mud-Batch. [Footnote: Two islands well known in the River Parret, near its mouth. Several words will be found in this Poem which I have not placed in the _Glossary_, because they seem too local and technical to deserve a place there: they shall be here explained, _To Pitch, v.n._ To fish with a boat and a pitchin-net in a proper position across the current so that the fish may be caught. _Pitchin-net. s._ A large triangular net attached to two poles, and used with a boat for the purpose, chiefly, of catching salmon.--The fishing boats in the Parret, are _flat- bottomed_, in length about seventeen feet, about four feet and a half wide, and pointed at both ends: they are easily managed by _one_ person, and rarely, if ever, known to overturn. _Dippen-net. s._ A small net somewhat semicircular, and attached to two round sticks for sides, and a long pole for a handle. It is used for the purpose of _dipping salmon_ and some other fish, as the _shad_, out of water. _Gad. s._ A long pole, having an iron point to it, so that it may be easily thrust into the ground. Two gads are used for each boats. Their uses are to keep the boat steady across the current in order that the net may be in a proper position.] A handled too iz gads well His paddle and iz oor; [Footnote: Oar.] A war âlways bawld an fearless-- A, when upon tha Goor. [Footnote: The Gore. Dangerous sands so called, at the mouth of the River Parret, in the Bristol Channel.] O' heerins, sprats, an porpuses-- O' âll fish a cood tell; Who bit he amangst tha Fishermen-- A âlways bear'd tha bell. Tommy Came ad hired o' Plâyers, Bit niver zeed 'em plâ; Thâ war actin at Bejwâter; There a went wi' Sally Dâ. When tha curtain first drâw'd up, than Sapriz'd war Tommy Came; A'd hâf a mine ta him awâ, Bit stapp'd vor very shame. Tha vust act bein auver Tha zecond jist begun, Tommy Came still wonder'd grately, Ta him it war naw fun. Zaw âter lookin on zumtime, Ta understand did strive; _There now_, zed he, _I'll gee my woth_ [Footnote: Oath.] _That thâ be all alive!_ MARY RAMSEY'S CRUTCH. I zeng o' _Mary Ramsey's Crutch!_ "Thic little theng!"--Why 'tis'n much It's true, but still I like ta touch Tha cap o' _Mary Ramsey's Crutch!_ She zed, wheniver she shood die, Er little crutch she'd gee ta I. Did Mary love me? eese a b'leeve. She died--a veo vor her did grieve,-- An _but_ a veo--vor Mary awld, Outliv'd er friends, or voun 'em cawld. Thic crutch I had--I ha it still, An port wi't wont--nor niver will. O' her I lorn'd tha cris-cross-lâin; I haup that't word'n quite in vâin! 'Twar her who teach'd me vust ta read Jitch little words as _beef_ an _bread_; An I da thenk 'twar her that, âter, Lorn'd I ta read tha single zâter. Poor Mary ôten used ta tell O' das a past that pleas'd er well; An mangst tha rest war zum o' jay When I look'd up a little bway. She zed I war a good one too, An lorn'd my book athout tha _rue_. [Footnote: This Lady, when her scholars neglected their duty, or behaved ill, rubbed their fingers with the leaves of _rue!_] Poor Mary's gwon!--a longful time Zunz now!--er little scholard's prime A-mâ-be's past.--It must be zaw;-- There's nothin stable here belaw! O' Mary--âll left is--er _crutch!_ An thaw a gift, an 'tword'n much 'Tis true, still I da like ta touch Tha cap o' _Mary Ramsey's Crutch!_ That I lov'd Mary, this ool tell. I'll zâ na moor--zaw, fore well! [Footnote: Fare ye well.] HANNAH VERRIOR. Tha zâ I'm maz'd,--my Husband's dead, My chile, (hush! hush! Lord love er face!) Tha pit-hawl had at Milemas, when Thâ put me in theäze pooät-hawl place. Thâ zâ I'm maz'd.--I veel--I thenk--- I tâk--I ate, an oten drenk.-- Tha _thenk_, a-mâ-be, zumtimes, _peel_-- An gee me stra vor bed an peel! Thâ zâ I'm maz'd.--Hush! Babby, dear! Thâ shan't come to er!--niver fear! Thâ zâ thy Father's dead!--Naw, naw! A'll niver die while I'm belaw. Thâ zâ I'm maz'd.--Why dwont you speak? Fie James!--or else my hort ool break!-- James _is_ not dead! nor Babby!--naw! Thâ'll niver die while I'm belaw! REMEMBRANCE. An shall I drap tha Reed--an shall I, Athout one nawte about my SALLY? Althaw we Pawets âll be zingers, We like, wi' enk, ta dye our vingers; Bit mooäst we like in vess ta pruv That we remimber those we love. Sim-like-it than, that I should iver Vorgit my SALLY.--Niver, niver! Vor, while I've wander'd in tha West-- At mornin tide--at evenin rest-- On Quantock's hills--in Mendip's vales-- On Parret's banks--in zight o' Wales-- In thic awld mansion whaur tha bâll Once vrighten'd Lady Drake an âll;-- When wi' tha Ladies o' thic dell Whaur witches spird ther 'ticin spell-- [Footnote: COMBE SYDENHAM, the residence of my Friend, GEORGE NOTLEY, Esq. The history of the _Magic Ball_, as it has been called, is now pretty generally known, and therefore need not be here repeated.] Amangst tha rocks on Watchet shaur When did tha wine an wâters raur-- In Banwell's cave--on Loxton hill-- At Clifton gâ--at Rickford rill-- In Compton ood--in Hartree coom-- At Crispin's cot wi' little room;-- At Upton--Lansdown's lofty brow-- At Bath, whaur pleasure flânts enow; At Trowbridge, whaur by Friendship's heed, I blaw'd again my silent Reed, An there enjay'd, wi' quiet, rest, Jitch recollections o' tha West; Whauriver stapp'd my voot along I thawt o' HER.--Here ends my zong. DOCTOR COX; A BLANSCUE. _(First printed in the Graphic Illustrator.)_ The catastrophe described in the following sketch, occurred near _Highbridge_, in Somersetshire, about the year 1779.--Mr. or _Doctor Cox_, as surgeons are usually called in the west, was the only medical resident at Huntspill, and in actual practice for many miles around that village. The conduct of Mr. Robert Evans, the friend and associate of Cox, can only be accounted for by one of those unfortunate infatuations to which the minds of some are sometimes liable. Had an immediate alarm been given when we children first discovered that Cox was missing, he might, probably, have been saved. The real cause of his death was, a too great abstraction of heat from the body; as the water was fresh and still, and of considerable depth, and, under the surface, much beneath the usual temperature of the human body. This fact ought to be a lesson to those who bathe in still and deep fresh water; and to warn them to continue only a short time in such a cold medium. [Footnote: Various efforts to restore the suspended animation of _Cox,_ such as shaking him, rolling him on a cask, attempts to get out the water which it was then presumed had got into the stomach or the lungs, or both, in the drowning; strewing salt over the body, and many other equally ineffectual and improper methods to restore the circulation were, I believe, pursued. Instead of which, had the body been laid in a natural position, and the lost heat gradually administered, by the application of warm frictions, a warm bed, &c., how easily in all probability, would animation have been restored!] The BRUE war bright, and deep and clear; [Footnote: The reader must not suppose that the _river Brue,_ is generally a clear stream, or always rapid. I have elsewhere called it "lazy Brue." It is sometimes, at and above the floodgates at _Highbridge,_ when they are not closed by the tide, a rapid stream; but through the moors, generally, its course is slow. In the summertime, and at the period to which allusion is made, the floodgates were closed.] And Lammas dâ and harras near: The zun upon the waters drode Girt sheets of light as on a rode; From zultry heät the cattle hirn'd To shade or water as to firnd: Men, too, in yarly âternoon Doft'd quick ther cloaths and dash'd in zoon To thic deep river, whaur the trout, In all ther prankin, plâd about; And yels wi' zilver skins war zid, While gudgeons droo the wâter slid, Wi' carp sumtimes and wither fish Avoordon many a dainty dish. Whaur elvers too in spring time plâd, [Footnote: Young eels are called _elvers_ in Somersetshire. _Walton_, in his Angler, says, "Young eels, in the Severn, are called _yelvers_." In what part of the country through which the Severn passes they are called yelvers we are not told in Walton's book; as eels are called, in Somersetshere, yels, analogy seems to require _yelvers_ for their young; but I never heard them so called. The elvers used to be obtained from the salt-water side of the bridge.] And pailvuls mid o' them be had. The wâter cold--the zunshine bright, To zwiminers than what high delight! 'Tis long agwon whun youth and I Wish'd creepin Time would rise and vly-- A, half a hundred years an moor Zunz I a trod theäze earthly vloor! I zed, the face o' Brue war bright; Time smil'd too in thic zummer light. Wi' Hope bezide en promising A wordle o' fancies wild ö' whing. I mine too than one lowering cloud That zim'd to wrop us like a shroud; The death het war o' Doctor Cox-- To thenk o't now the storry shocks! Vor âll the country vur and near Shod than vor'n many a horty tear. The _Doctor_ like a duck could zwim; No fear o' drownin daver'd him! The pectur now I zim I zee! I wish I could liet's likeness gee! His _Son_, my brother _John, myzel_, Or _Evans_, mid the storry tell; But thâ be gwon and I, o' âll O'm left to zâ what did bevâll. Zo, nif zo be you like, why I To tell the storry now ool try. Thic _Evans_had a coward core And fear'd to venter vrom the shore; While to an vro, an vur an near, And now an tan did _Cox_ appear In dalliance with the wâters bland, Or zwimmin wi' a maëster hand. We youngsters dree, the youngest I, To zee the zwimmers âll stood by Upon the green bonk o' the Brue Jist whaur a stook let water droo: A quiet time of joyousness Zim'd vor a space thic dâ to bless! A dog' too, faithful to his maëster War there, and mang'd wi' the disaster-- _Vigo_, ah well I mine his name! A Newvoun-lond and very tame! But Evans only war to blame: He âllès paddled near the shore Wi' timid hon and coward core; While _Doctor Cox_ div'd, zwim'd at ease Like fishes in the zummer seas; Or as the skaiters on the ice In winin circles wild and nice Yet in a moment he war gwon, The wonderment of ivry one: That is, we _dree_ and Evans, âll That zeed what Blanscue did bevâll.-- Athout one sign, or naise, or cry, Or shriek, or splash, or groan, or sigh! Could zitch a zwimmer ever die In wâter?--Yet we gaz'd in vain Upon thic bright and wâter plain: All smooth and calm--no ripple gave One token of the zwimmer's grave! We hir'd en not, we zeed en not!-- The glassy wâter zim'd a blot? While Evans, he of coward core, Still paddled as he did bevore! At length our fears our silence broke,-- Young as we war, and children âll, We wish'd to goo an zum one câll; But Evans carelissly thus spoke-- "Oh, _Cox_ is up the river gone, Vor sartain ool be back anon;-- He tâlk'd o' cyder, zed he'd g'up To Stole's an drenk a horty cup!" [Footnote: Mr. Stole resided near _Newbridge_, about a mile from the spot where the accident occurred; he was somewhat famous for his cyder.] Conjecture anty as the wine! And zoon did he het's faleshood vine. _John Cox_ took up his father's cloaths-- Poor fellow! he beginn'd to cry! Than, Evans vrom the wâter rose; "A hunderd vawk'll come bimeby," A zed; whun, short way vrom the shore. We zeed, what zeed we not avore, The _head_ of Doctor Cox appear-- Het floated in the wâter clear! Bolt upright war he, and his hair, That pruv'd he sartainly war there, Zwimm'd on the wâter!--Evans than, The stupid'st of a stupid man, Call'd _Vigo_--pointed to that head-- In _Vigo_ dash'd--_Cox was not dead_! But seiz'd the dog's lag--helt en vast! One struggle, an het war the last! Ah! well do I remember it-- That struggle I sholl ne'er forgit! Vigo was frightened and withdrew; The body zink'd at once vrom view. Did _Evans_, gallid _Evans_ then, Câll out, at once, vor father's men? (Thâ war at work vor'n very near A mendin the old Highbridge pier,) A did'n câll, but 'mus'd our fear-- "A hundred vawk ool zoon be here!" A zed.--We gid the hue and cry! And zoon a booät wi' men did vly! But twar âll auver! _Cox_ war voun Not at the bottom lyin down, But up aneen, as jist avore We zeed en floatin nigh the shore. But death 'ad done his wust--not âll Thâ did could life's last spork recall. Zo Doctor Cox went out o' life A vine, a, and as honsom mon, As zun hath iver shin'd upon; A left a family--a _wife_, Two _sons_--one_dater_, As beautiful as lovely Mâ, Of whom a-mâ-bi I mid za Zumthin hereâter: What thâ veel'd now I sholl not tell-- My hort athin me 'gins to zwell! Reflection here mid try in vain, Wither particulars to gain, _Evans_ zim'd all like one possest; Imagination! tell the rest! L'ENVOY. To âll that sholl theeäze storry read, The _Truth_ must vor it chiefly plead; I gee not here a tale o' ort, Nor snip-snap wit, nor lidden smort. But ôten, ôten by thie river, Have I a pass'd; yet niver, niver, Athout a thought o' _Doctor Cox_-- His dog--his death--his floatin locks! The mooäst whun Brue war deep and clear, And Lammas dâ an harras near;-- Whun zummer vleng'd his light abroad,-- The zun in all his glory rawd; How beautiful mid be the dâ A zumthin âllès zim'd to zâ, _"Whar whing! the wâter's deep an' clear, But death mid be a lurkin near!"_ A DEDICATION. Thenk not, bin I ood be tha fashion, That I, ZIR, write theäze Dedicâtion; I write, I haup I dwon't offend. Bin I be proud ta câll You FRIEND. I here ston vooäth, alooän unbidden To 'muse you wi' my country lidden;-- Wi' remlet's o' tha Saxon tongue That to our Gramfers did belong. Vor áll it is a little thing, Receave it--Friendship's offering-- Ta pruv, if pruf I need renew, That I esteem not lightly YOU. THE FAREWELL. A longful time zunz I this vust begun! One little tootin moor and I a done. "One little tootin moor!--Enough, Vor once, we've had o' jitchy stuff; Thy lidden to a done 'tis time! Jitch words war niver zeed in rhyme!" Vorgee me vor'm.--Goo little Reed! Aforn tha vawk an vor me plead: Thy wild nawtes, mâ-be, thâ ool hire Zooner than zâter vrom a _lyre_. Zâ that, _thy mäester's pleas'd ta blaw 'em, An haups in time thâ'll come ta knaw 'em; An nif zaw be thâ'll please ta hear A'll gee zum moor another year._ Ive nothin else jist now ta tell: Goo, little Reed, an than forwel! FARMER BENNET AN JAN LIDE, _A DIALOGUE._ _Farmer Bennet.--_ Jan! why dwon't ye right my shoes? _Jan Lide.--_ Bin, maëster 'tis zaw cawld, I can't work wi' tha tacker at âll; I've a brawk it ten times I'm shower ta dâ-- da vreaze za hord. Why Hester hanged out a kittle-smock ta drowy, an in dree minits a war a vraur as stiff as a pawker; an I can't avoord ta keep a good vier--I wish I cood--I'd zoon right your shoes and withers too--I'd zoon yarn [Footnote: Earn.] zum money, I warnt ye. Can't ye vine zum work vor me, maester, theäze hord times--I'll do any theng ta sar a penny.--I can drash--I can cleave brans--I can make spars--I can thatchy--I can shear ditch, an I can gripy too, bit da vreaze za hord. I can wimmy--I can messy or milky nif ther be need o't. I ood'n mine dreavin plough or any theng. _Farmer Bennet.--_ I've a got nothing vor ye ta do, Jan; bit Mister Boord banchond ta I jist now that thâ war gwain ta wimmy, ond that thâ wanted zumbody ta help 'em. _Jan Lide._--Aw, I'm glad o't, I'll him auver an zee where I can't help 'em; bit I han't a bin athin tha drashel o' Maester Boord's door vor a longful time, bin I thawt that missis did'n use Hester well; but I dwon't bear malice, an zaw I'll goo. _Farmer Bennet._--What did Missis Boord zâ or do ta Hester, than? _Jan Lide._--Why, Hester, a mâ-be, war zummet ta blame too: vor she war one o'm, d'ye zee, that rawd Skimmerton--thic mâ game that frunted zum o' tha gennel-vawk. Thâ zed 'twar time to a done wi'jitch litter, or jitch stuff, or I dwon knaw what thâ call'd it; bit thâ war a frunted wi' Hester about it: an I zed nif thâ war a frunted wi' Hester, thâ mid be frunted wi' I. This zet missis's back up, an Hester han't a bin a choorin there zunz. Bit 'tis niver-the-near ta bear malice; and zaw I'll goo auver an zee which wâ tha wine da blaw. THOMAS CAME AN YOUNG MAESTER JIMMY. _Thomas Came._--Aw, Maester Jimmy! zaw you be a come whim vrom school. I thawt we shood niver zeenamoor. We've a mist ye iver zunz thic time, when we war at zea-wall, an cut aup tha girt porpus wi' za many zalmon in hiz belly--zum o'm look'd vit ta eat as thaw tha wor a bwiled, did'n thâ?-- _Jimmy._--Aw eese, Thomas; I da mine tha porpus; an I da mine tha udder, an tha milk o'n, too. I be a come whim, Thomas, an I dwon't thenk I shall goo ta school again theäze zumrner. I shall be out amangst ye. I'll goo wi' ta mawy, an ta hâ-makin, an ta reapy--I'll come âter, an zet up tha stitches vor ye, Thomas. An if I da stâ till Milemas, I'll goo ta Matthews fayer wi'. Thomas, âve ye had any zenvy theäze year?--I zeed a gir'd'l o't amangst tha wheat as I rawd along. Ave you bin down in ham, Thomas, o' late--is thic groun, tha ten yacres, haind vor mawin? _Thomas Came._--Aw, Maester Jimmy! I da love ta hire you tâk- -da zeem za naatal. We a had zum zenvy--an tha ten yacres be a haind--a'll be maw'd in veo dâs--you'll come an hâ-maky, o'nt ye?- -eese, I knaw you ool--an I da knaw whool goo a hâ-makin wi', too --ah, she's a zweet maid--I dwon't wonder at ye at âll, Maester Jimmy--Lord bless ye, an love ye booäth. _Jimmy._--Thomas, you a liv'd a long time wi' Father, an' I dwont like ta chide ye, bit nif you da tâk o' Miss Cox in thic fashion, I knaw she on't like it, naw moor sholl I. Miss Cox, Thomas, Miss Cox ool, a-mâ-be, goo a hâ-makin wi' I, as she a done avaur now; bit Sally, Miss Cox, Thomas, I wish you'd zâ naw moor about er.--There now, Thomas, dwon't ye zee--why shee's by tha gate-shord! I haup she han't a hird what we a bin a tâkin about.-- Be tha thissles skeer'd in tha twenty yacres, Thomas?--aw, thâ be. Well, I sholl be glad when tha ten yacres be a mawed--an when we da make an end o' hâ-corrin, I'll dance wi' Sally Cox. _Thomas Came_.--There, Maester Jimmy! 'tword'n I that tâk'd o' Sally Cox! MARY RAMSEY, _A MONOLOGUE, To er Scholards_. Commether [Footnote: Come hither.] _Billy Chubb_, an breng tha hornen book. Gee me tha vester in tha windor, you _Pal Came_!--what! be a sleepid--I'll wâke ye. Now, _Billy_ there's a good bway! Ston still there, an mine what I da zâ to ye, an whaur I da pwint.--Now;--cris-cross, [Footnote: The _cris_, in this compound, and in _cris-cross-lain_, is very often, indeed most commonly, pronounced _Kirs_.] girt â little â--b--c--d.--That's right _Billy_; you'll zoon lorn tha cris-cross-lain--you'll zoon auvergit Bobby Jiffry--you'll zoon be _a scholard_.--A's a pirty chubby bway--Lord love'n! Now, _Pal Came_! you come an vessy wi' yer zister. --There! tha forrels o' tha book be a brawk; why dwon't ye take moor care o'm?--Now, read;--_Het_ _Came!_ why d'ye drean zaw?--_hum, hum, hum_;--you da make a naise like a spinnin turn, or a dumbledore--âll in one lidden--_hum, hum, hum,_--You'll niver lorn ta read well thic fashion.--Here, _Pal,_ read theäze vesses vor yer zister. There now, _Het,_ you mine how yerzister da read, not _hum, hum, hum._--Eese you ool, ool ye?--I tell ye, you must, or I'll rub zum rue auver yer hons:--what d'ye thenk o't!--There, be gwon you _Het,_ an dwon't ye come anuost yer zister ta vessy wi' er till you a got yer lessin moor parfit, or I'll gee zummet you on't ax me vor. _Pally,_ you tell yer Gramfer Palmer that I da zâ _Hetty Came_ shood lorn ta knitty; an a shood buy zum knittin nills and wusterd vor er; an a shood git er zum nills and dird, vor er to lorn to zawy too. Now _Miss Whitin_, tha dunces be a gwon, let I hire how pirty you can read.--I âlways zed that Pâson Tuttle's grandâter ood lorn er book well.--Now, _Miss_, what ha ye a got there? _Valentine an Orson._--A pirty storry, bit I be afeard there's naw moril to it.--What be âll tha tuthermy books you a got by yer goodhussey there in tha basket? Gee's-zee-'em,[Footnote: _Let me see them_. This is a singular expression, and is thus to be analysed; _Give us to see them_.] nif you please, _Miss Polly_.--Tha _Zeven Champions_--_Goody Two Shoes_--_Pawems vor Infant minds_.--Theäzamy here be by vur tha best.--There is a moril ta mooäst o'm; an thâ be pirty bezides.--Now, _Miss_, please ta read thic-- _Tha Notorious Glutton_.--_Pal Came!_ turn tha glass! dwon't ye zee tha zond is âll hirnd out;--you'll stâ in school tha longer for't nif you dwon't mine it.--Now, âll o' ye be quiet ta hire _Miss Whitin_ read.--There now! what d'ye zâ ta jitch radin as that?--There, d'ye hire, _Het Came_! she dwon't drean--_hum, hum, hum_.--I shood like ta hire er vessy wi' zum o' ye; bit your bad radin ood spwile her good. OUT O' BOOKS! _All the childern goo voäth_. SOLILOQUY OF BEN BOND, THE IDLETON. (_First printed in the Graphic Illustrator_.) Ben Bond was one of those sons of Idleness whom ignorance and want of occupation in a secluded country village too often produce. He was a comely lad, aged sixteen, employed by Farmer Tidball, a querulous and suspicious old man, tto look after a large flock o sheep.--The scene of his Soliloquy may be thus described. A green sunny bank, on which the body may agreeably repose, called the _Sea Wall_; on the sea side was an extensive common called the _Wath_, and adjoining to it was another called the Island, both were occasionally overflowed by the tide. On the other side of the bank were rich enclosed pastures, suitable for fattening the finest cattle. Into these inclosures many of Ben Bond's charge were frequently disposed to stray. The season was June, the time mid-day, and the western breezes came over the sea, a short distance from which our scene lay, at once cool, grateful, refreshing, and playful. The rushing Parret, with its ever shifting sands, was also heard in the distance. It should be stated, too, that Larence is the name usually given in Somersetshire to that imaginary being which presides over the IDLE. Perhaps it may also be useful to state here that the word Idlelon is more than a provincialism, and should be in our dictionaries. During the latter part of the Soliloquy Farmer Tidball arrives behind the bank, and hearing poor Ben's discourse with himself, interrupts his musings in the manner described hereafter. It is the history of an occurrence in real life, and at the place mentioned. The writer knew Farmer Tidball personally, and has often heard the story from his wife. SOLILOQUY "Larence! why doos'n let I up? Oot let I up?" Naw, I be sleapid, I can't let thee up eet.--"Now, Lareuce! do let I up. There! bimeby maester'll come, an a'll beät I athin a ninch o' me life; do let I up!"--Naw I wunt. "Larence! I bag o'ee, do ee let I, up! D'ye zee! Tha shee-ape be âll a breakin droo tha hadge inta tha vivean-twenty yacres; an Former Haggit'll goo ta Lâ wi'n, an I sholl be kill'd. _--Naw I wun't-- 'tis zaw whot: bezides I hant a had my nap out._ "Larence! I da zâ, thee bist a bad un! Oot thee hire what I da zâ? Come now an let I scooce wi'. Lord a massy upon me! Larence, whys'n thee let I up?" _Câz I wunt. What! muss'n I hâ an hour like wither vawk ta ate my bird an cheese? I do zâ I wunt; and zaw 'tis niver-tha-near to keep on._ "Maester tawl'd I, nif I wer a good bway, a'd gee I iz awld wasket; an I'm shower, nif a da come an vine I here, an tha shee-ape a brawk inta tha vive-an-twenty yacres, a'll vleng't awâ vust! Larence, do ee, do ee let I up! Ool ee, do ee!"--_Naw, I tell ee I wunt._ "There's one o' tha sheep 'pon iz back in tha gripe, an a can't turn auver! I mis g'in ta tha groun an g'out to'n, an git'n out. There's another in tha ditch! a'll be a buddled! There's a gird'l o' trouble wi' shee-ape! Larence; cass'n thee let I goo. I'll gee thee a _hâ peny_ nif oot let me."--_Naw I can't let thee goo eet._ "Maester'll be shower to come an catch me! Larence! doose thee hire? I da zâ, oot let me up. I zeed Farmer Haggit zoon âter I upt, an a zed, nif a voun one o' my shee-ape in tha vive-an-twenty yacres, a'd drash I za long as a cood ston auver me, an wi' a groun ash' too! There! Zum o'm be a gwon droo tha vive-an-twenty yacres inta tha drauve: thâ'll zoon hirn vur anow. Thâ'll be poun'd. Larence! I'll gee thee a _penny_ nif oot let I up." _Naw I wunt._ "Thic not sheep ha got tha shab! Dame tawl'd I whun I upt ta-da ta mine tha shab-wâter; I sholl pick it in whun I da goo whim. I vorgot it! Maester war desperd cross, an I war glad ta git out o' tha langth o' iz tongue. I da hate zitch cross vawk! Larence! what, oot niver let I up? There! zum o' tha shee-ape be gwon into _Leek- beds_; an zum o'm be in _Hounlake_; dree or vour o'm be gwon zâ vur as _Slow-wâ_; the ditches be, menny o'm zâ dry 'tis all now rangel common! There! I'll gee thee _dree hâ pence_ ta let I goo." _Why, thee hass'n bin here an hour, an vor what shood I let thee goo? I da zâ, lie still!_ "Larence! why doos'n let I up? There! zim ta I, I da hire thic pirty maid, _Fanny o' Primmer Hill_, a chidin bin I be a lyin here while tha shee-ape be gwain droo thic shord an tuther shord; zum o'm, a-mâ-be, be a drown'd! Larence; doose thee thenk I can bear tha betwitten o' thic pirty maid? She, tha Primrawse o' Primmer-hill; tha Lily o' tha level; tha gawl-cup o' tha mead; tha zweetist honeyzuckle in tha garden; tha yarly vilet; tha rawse o' rawses; tha pirty pollyantice! Whun I seed er last, she zed, "Ben, do ee mind tha sheeape, an tha yeos an lams, an than zumbody ool mine _you_." Wi'that she gid me a beautiful spreg o' jessamy, jist a pickt vrom tha poorch,--tha smill war za zweet. "Larence! I mus goo! I ool goo. You mus let I up. I ont stâ here na longer! Maester'll be shower ta come an drash me. There, Larence! I'll gee _tuther penny_, an that's ivry vard'n I a got. Oot let I goo?" _Naw, I mis ha a penny moor._ "Larence! do let I up! Creeplin Philip'll be shower ta catch me! Thic cockygee! I dwont like en. at âll; a's za rough, an za zoür. An _Will Popham_ too, ta betwite me about tha maid: a câll'd er a ratheripe _Lady-buddick_. I dwont mislike tha name at âll, thawf I dwont care vor'n a stra, nor a read mooäte; nor thatite o' a pin! What da thâ câll _he_? Why, tha _upright man_, câs a da ston upright; let'n; an let'n wrassly too: I dwont like zitch _hoss-plâs_, nor _singel-stick_ nuther; nor _cock- squailin'; nor menny wither mâ-games that Will Popham da volly. I'd rather zitin tha poorch, wi' tha jessamy ranglin roun it, and hire Fanny zeng. Oot let I up, Larence?"--_Naw, I tell ee I ont athout a penny moor._ _"Rawzey Pink_, too, an _Nanny Dubby_ axed I about Fanny. What bisniss ad thâ ta up wi't? I dwont like norn'om? _Girnin Jan_ too shawed iz teeth an put in his verdi.--I--wish theeäze vawk ood mine ther awn consarns an let I an Fanny alooäne. "Larence! doose thee meän to let I goo?"--_Eese, nif thee't gee me tuther penny_.--"Why I han't a got a vard'n moor; oot let I up!"- -_Not athout tha penny.--"Now Larence! doo ee, bin I liant naw moor money. I a bin here moor than an hoür; whaur tha yeos an lams an âll tha tuthermy sheep be now I dwon' know.--_Creeplin Philip_[Footnote: Even remote districts in the country have their satirists, and would-be-wits; and Huntspill, the place alluded to in the Soliloquy, was, about half a century ago, much pestered with them. Scarcely a person of any note escaped a pariah libel, and even servants were not excepted. For instance:--_Creeplin Philip_, (that is "creeplin," because he walked lamely,) was Farmer Tidball himself; and his servant, William Popham, was the _upright man_. _Girnin Jan_ is Grinning John.] ool gee me a lirropin shower anow! There!--I da thenk I hired zummet or zumbody auver tha wâll."-- "_Here, d--n thee!_ I'll gee tha _tuther penny, an zummet besides!_" exclaimed _Farmer Tidball_, leaping down the bank, with a stout sliver of a crab-tree in his hand.--The sequel may be easily imagined. Nanny Dubby, Sally Clink, Long Josias an Raway Pink, --Girnin Jan, Creeplin Philip and the upright man. TWO DISSERTATIONS ON SOME OF THE ANGLO-SAXON PRONOUNS. BY JAMES JENKINGS. (_From the Graphic Illustrator._) No. 1.--I, IC, ICH, ICHE, UTCHY, ISE, C', CH', CHE, CH'AM, CH'UD, CH'LL. Until recently few writers on the English Language, have devoted much attention to the origin of our first personal pronoun I, concluding perhaps that it would be sufficient to state that it is derived from the Anglo-Saxon _ic_. No pains seem to have been taken to explain the connexion which _ic, ich,_ and _iche_ have with _Ise, c', ch', che',_ and their combinations in such words as _ch'am, ch'ud, ch'ill, &c_. Hence we have been led to believe that such contractions are the vulgar corruptions of an ignorant and, consequently, unlettered people. That the great portion of the early Anglo-Saxons were an unlettered people, and that the _rural_ population were particularly unlettered, and hence for the most part ignorant, we may readily admit; and even at the present time, many districts in the west will be found pretty amply besprinkled with that unlettered ignorance for which many of our forefathers were distinguished. But an enquiry into the origin and use of our provincial words will prove, that even our unlettered population have been guided by certain rules in their use of an energetic language. Hence it will be seen on inquiry that many of the words supposed to be _vulgarisms_, and _vulgar_ and _capricious_ contractions are no more so than many of our own words in daily use; as to the Anglo-Saxon contractions of _ch'am, ch'ud,_ and _ch'ill_, they will be found equally consistent with our own common contractions of _can't, won't, he'll, you'll, &c., &c._ in our present polished dialect. Whether, however, our western dialects will be more dignified by an Anglo-Saxon pedigree I do not know; those who delight in tracing descents through a long line of ancestors up to one primitive original ought to be pleased with the literary genealogist, who demonstrates that many of our provincial words and contractions have an origin more remote, and in their estimation of course, must be more legitimate than a mere slip from the parent stock, as our personal pronoun, I, unquestionably is. As to the term "barbarous," Mr. Horace Smith, the author of "_Walter Colyton_," assures me that many of his friends call what he has introduced of the Somerset Dialect in Walter Colyton, "barbarous."--Now, I should like to learn in what its barbarity consists. The plain truth after all is, that those who are unwilling to take the trouble to understand any language, or any dialect of any language, with which they are previously unacquainted, generally consider such new language or such dialect barbarous; and to them it doubtless appears so. What induces our metropolitan _literati_, those at least who are, or affect to be the _arbitri elegantiarum_ among them, to consider the _Scotch_ dialect in another light? Simply because such able writers, as _Allan Ramsay, Robert Burns, Sir Walter Scott,_ and others, have chosen to employ it for the expression of their thoughts. Let similar able writers employ our _Western Dialect_ in a similar way, and I doubt not the result. And why should not our Western dialects be so employed? If _novelty_ and _amusement_, to say the least for such writings, be advantageous to our literature, surely novelty and amusement might be conveyed in the dialect of the _West_ as well as of the _North_. Besides these advantages, it cannot be improper to observe that occasional visits to the _well-heads_ of our language, (and many of these will be found in the West of England) will add to the perfection of our polished idiom itself. _The West may be considered the last strong hold of the Anglo-Saxon in this country._ I observed, in very early life, that some of my father's servants, who were natives of the _Southern_ parts of the county of Somerset, almost invariably employed the word _utchy_ for I. Subsequent reflection convinced me that this word, _utchy_, was the Anglo-Saxon _iche_, used as a dissyllable _ichè_, as the Westphalians, (descendants of the Anglo- Saxons,) down to this day in their Low German (Westphalian) dialect say, "_Ikke_" for "_ich_." How or when this change in the pronunciation of the word, from one to two syllables, took place in in this country it is difficult to determine; but on reference to the works of _Chaucer_, there is, I think, reason to conclude that _iche_ is used sometimes in that poet's works as a dissyllable. Having discovered that _utchy_ was the Anglo-Saxon _iche_, there was no difficulty in appropriating _'che, 'c',_ and _ch'_ to the same root; hence, as far as concerned _iche_ in its literal sounds, a good deal seemed unravelled; but how could we account for _ise_, and _ees_, used so commonly for I in the western parts of _Somersetshire_, as well as in _Devonshire?_ In the first folio edition of tlie works of Shakspeare the _ch_ is printed, in one instance, with a mark of elision before it thus, _'ch_, a proof that the _I_ in _iche_ was sometimes dropped in a common and rapid pronunciation; and a proof too, that, we, the descendants of the Anglo-Saxons, have chosen the initial letter only of that pronoun, which initial letter the Anglo-Saxons had in very many instances discarded! It is singular enough that Shakspeare has the _'ch_ for _iche, I,_ and _ise_, for I, within the distance of a few lines, in _King Lear_, Act IV. scene 6. But perhaps not more singular than that, in Somersetshire at the present time, may be heard for the pronoun I, _utchy_ or _ichè, 'ch,_ and _ise_. To the absence originally of general literary information, and to the very recent rise of the study of grammatical analysis, are these anomalies and irregularities to be attributed. We see, therefore, that _'ch'ud, ch'am,_ and _'ch'ill_, are simply the Anglo-Saxon _ich_, contracted and combined with the respective verbs _would, am,_ and _will_; that the _'c'_ and _'ch'_, as quoted in the lines given by Miss Ham, are contracts for the Anglo-Saxon _iche_ or _I_, and nothing else. It may be also observed, that in more than one modern work containing specimens of the dialect of Scotland and the North of England, and in, I believe, some of Sir Walter Scott's novels, the word _ise_ is employed, so that the auxiliary verb _will_ or _shall_ is designed to be included in that word; and the printing or it thus, _I'se_, indicates that it is so designed to be employed. Now, if this be a _copy_ of the _living_ dialect of Scotland (which I beg leave respectfully to doubt), it is a "barbarism" which the Somerset dialect does not possess. The _ise_ in the west is simply a pronoun and nothing else; it is, however, often accompanied by a contracted verb, as _ise'll_ for I will. In concluding these observations on the first personal pronoun it may be added, that the object of the writer has been to state facts, without the accompaniment of that _learning_ which is by some persons deemed so essential in inquiries of this kind. The best learning is that which conveys to us a knowledge of facts. Should any one be disposed to convince himself of the correctness of the _data_ here laid before him, by researches among our old authors, as well as from living in the west, there is no doubt as to the result to which lie must come. Perhaps, however, it may be useful to quote one or two specimens of our more early Anglo- Saxon, to prove their analogy to the present dialect in Somersetshire. The first specimen is from _Robert of Gloucester_, who lived in the time of Henry II., that is, towards the latter end of the twelfth century; it is quoted by _Drayton_, in the notes to his _Pulyolbion_, song xvii. "The meste wo that here _vel_ bi King Henry's days, In this lond, _icholle_ beginne to tell _yuf ich_ may." _Vel_, for fell, the preterite of to fall, is precisely the sound given to the same word at the present time in Somersetshire. We see that _icholle_, for _I shall_, follows the same rule as the contracts _'ch'ud, 'ch'am_, and _'ch'ill_. It is very remarkable that _sholl_, for shall, is almost invariably employed in Somersetshire, at the present time. _Yuf_ I am disposed to consider a corruption or mistake for _gyf_ (give), that is, _if_, the meaning and origin of which have been long ago settled by Horne Tooke in his Purley. The next specimen is assuredly of a much more modern date; though quoted by _Mr Dibdin_, in his _Metrical History of England_, as from an _old ballad_. "_Ch'ill_ tell thee what, good fellow, Before the vriars went hence, A bushel of the best wheate Was zold for vourteen pence, And vorty egges a penny, That were both good and new, And this _che_ say myself have seene, And yet I am no Jew." With a very few alterations, indeed, these lines would become the _South_ Somerset of the present day. No. II.--ER, EN, A--IT HET--THEEAZE, THEEAZAM, THIZZAM--THIC, THILK--TWORDM--WORDN--ZINO. There are in _Somersetshire_ (besides that particular, portion in the _southern_ parts of the country in which the Anglo-Saxon _iche_ or _utchy_ and its contracts prevail) _two_ distinct and very different dialects, the boundaries of which are strongly marked by the River _Parret_. To the east and north of that river, and of the town of Bridgewater, a dialect is used which is essentially, (even now) the dialect of all the peasantry of not only that part of Somersetshire, but of Dorsetshire, Wiltshire, Gloucestershire, Hampshire, Surrey, Sussex, and Kent; and even in the suburban village of _Lewisham_, will be found many striking remains of it. There can be no doubt that this dialect was some centuries ago the language of the inhabitants of all the south and of much of the west portion of our island; but it is in its greatest _purity_[Footnote: Among other innumerable proofs that Somersetshire is one of the strongholds of our old Anglo-Saxon, are the sounds which are there generally given to the vowels A and E. A has, for the most part, the same sound as we give to that letter in the word _father_ in our polished dialect: in the words tâll, câll, bâll, and vâll (fall), &c., it is thus pronounced. The E has the sound which we give in our polished dialect to the a in pane, cane, &c., both which sounds, it may be observed, are even _now_ given to these letters on the Continent, in very many places, particularly in Holland and in Germany. The name of Dr. Gall, the founder of the science of phrenology, is pronounced Gâll, as we of the west pronounce tâll, bâll, &c.] and most abundant in the county of Somerset. No sooner, however, do we cross the _Parret_ and proceed from Combwich [Footnote: Pronounced _Cummidge_. We here see the disposition in our language to convert _wich_ into _idge_; as _Dulwich_ and _Greenwich_ often pronounced by the vulgar _Dullidge, Greenidge_.] to _Cannington_ (three miles from Bridgewater) than another dialect becomes strikingly apparent. Here we have no more of the _zees_, the _hires_, the _veels_, and the _walks_, and a numerous et cætera, which we find in the eastern portion of the county, in the third person singular of the verbs, but instead we have _he zeeth_, he sees, _he veel'th_, he feels, _he walk'th_, he walks, and so on through the whole range of the similar part of every verb. This is of itself a strong and distinguishing characteristic; but this dialect has many more; one is the very different sounds given to almost every word which is employed, and which thus strongly characterize the persons who use them. [Footnote: I cannot pretend to account for this very singular and marked distinction in our western dialects; the fact, however, is so; and it may be added, too, that there can be no doubt both these dialects are the children of our Anglo-Saxon parent.] Another is that _er_ for he in the nominative case is most commonly employed; thus for, _he said he would not_, is used _Er zad er ood'n--Er ont goor_, for, _he will not go_, &c. Again _ise_ or _ees_, for I is also common. Many other peculiarities and contractions in this dialect are to a stranger not a little puzzling; and if we proceed so far westward as the confines of Exmoor, they are, to a plain Englishman, very often unintelligible. _Her_ or rather _hare_ is most always used instead of the nominative _she_. _Har'th a dood it_, she has done it; _Hare zad har'd do't._ She said she would do it. This dialect pervades, not only the western portion of Somersetshire, but the whole of Devonshire. As my observations in these papers apply chiefly to the dialect east of the Parret, it is not necessary to proceed further in our present course; yet as _er_ is also occasionally used instead of _he_ in that dialect it becomes useful to point out its different application in the two portions of the county. In the eastern part it is used very rarely if ever in the beginning of sentences; but frequently thus: _A did, did er?_ He did, did he? _Wordn er gwain?_ Was he not going? _Ool er goo?_ will he go? We may here advert to the common corruption, I suppose I must call it, of _a_ for _he_ used so generally in the west. As _a zed a'd do it_ for, lie said he would do it. Shakespeare has given this form of the pronoun in the speeches of many of his low characters which, of course, strikingly demonstrates its then very general use among the vulgar; but it is in his works usually printed with a comma thus 'a, to show, probably that it is a corrupt enunciation of he. This comma is, however, very likely an addition by some editor. Another form of the third personal pronoun employed only in the objective case is found in the west, namely _en_ for him, as _a zid en_ or, rather more commonly, _a zid'n_, he saw him. Many cases however, occur in which _en_ is fully heard; as _gee't to en_, give it to him. It is remarkable that Congreve, in his comedy of "_Love for Love_" has given to _Ben the Sailor_ in that piece many expressions found in the west. "Thof he be my father I an't bound prentice to en." It should be noted here that _he be_ is rarely if ever heard in the west, but _he's_ or _he is_. _We be, you be_, and _thâ be_ are nevertheless very common. _Er_, employed as above, is beyond question aboriginal Saxon; _en_ has been probably adopted as being more euphonious than _him_. [Footnote: I have not met with _en_ for him in any of our more early writers; and I am therefore disposed to consider it as of comparatively modern introduction, and one among the very few changes in language introduced by the _yeomanry_, a class of persons less disposed to changes of any kind than any other in society, arising, doubtless, from their isolated position. It must be admitted, nevertheless, that this change if occasionally adopted in our polished dialect would afford an agreeable variety by no means unmusical. In conversation with a very learned Grecian on this subject, he seemed to consider because the _learned_ are constantly, and sometimes very capriciously, introducing _new_ words into our language, that such words as _en_ might be introduced for similar reasons, namely, mere fancy or caprice; on this subject I greatly differ from him: our aboriginal Saxon population has never corrupted our language nor destroyed its energetic character half so much as the mere classical scholar. Hence the necessity, in order to a complete knowledge of our mother tongue, that we should study the Anglo-Saxon still found in the provinces. _Het_ for _it_ is still also common amongst the peasantry. In early Saxon writers, it was usually written _hit_, sometimes _hyt_. "Als _hit_ in heaven y-doe, Evar in yearth beene it also." _Metrical Lord's Prayer of_ 1160. Of _theeäze_, used as a demonstrative pronoun, both in the singular and plural, for _this_ and _these_, it maybe observed, as well as of the pronunciation of many other words in the west, that we have no letters or combination of letters which, express exactly the sounds there given to such words. Theeäze is here marked as a dissyllable, but although it is sometimes decidedly two syllables, its sounds are not always thus apparent in Somerset enunciation. What is more remarkable in this world, is its equal application to the singular and the plural. Thus we say _theeäze man_ and _theäze men_. But in the plural are also employed other forms of the same pronoun, namely _theeäzam, theeäzamy_ and _thizzum_. This last word is, of course, decidedly the Anglo-Saxon ðissum. In the west we say therefore _theeäzam here, theeäzamy here_, and _thizzam here_ for these, or these here; and sometimes without the pleonastic and unnecessary _here_. For the demonstrative _those_ of our polished dialect _them_, or _themmy_, and often _them there_ or _themmy there_ are the usual synonyms; as, _gee I themmy there shoes_; that is, give me those shoes. The objective pronoun _me_, is very sparingly employed indeed--I, in general supplying its place as in the preceding sentence: to this barbarism in the name of my native dialect, I must plead guilty!-- if barbarism our metropolitan critics shall be pleased to term it. [Footnote: By the way I must just retort upon our polished dialect, that it has gone over to the other extreme in avoidance of the I, using me in many sentences where I ought most decidedly to be employed. It was me [Footnote: I am aware that some of our lexicographers have attempted a defence of this solecism by deriving it from the French c'est moi; but, I think it is from their affected dislike of direct egotism; and that, whenever they can, they avoid the I in order that they might not be thought at once vulgar and egotistic!] is constantly dinned in our ears for it was I: as well as indeed one word more, although not a pronoun, this is, the almost constant use in London of the verb to lay for the verb to lie, and ketch for catch. If we at head-quarters commit such blunders can we wonder at our provincial detachments falling into similar errors? none certainly more gross than this!] Thic is in the Somersetshire dialect (namely that to which I have particularly directed my attention and which prevails on the east side of the Parret) invariably employed for that. Thic house, that house; thic man, that man: in the west of the county it is thiky, or thecky. Sometimes thic has the force and meaning of a personal pronoun, as: Catch and scrabble Thic that's yable:-- Catch and scramble He who's able. Again, thic that dont like it mid leave it,--he who does not like it may leave it. It should be noted that th in all the pronouns above mentioned has the obtuse sound as heard in then and this and not the thin sound as heard in both, thin, and many other words of our polished dialect. Chaucer employed the pronoun thic very often, but he spells it thilk; he does not appear, however, to have always restricted it to the meaning implied in our that and to the present Somerset thic. Spenser has also employed thilk in his Shepherd's Calendar several times. "Seest not thilk same hawthorn stud How bragly it begins to bud And utter his tender head?" "Our blonket leveries been all too sad For thilk same season, when all is yclad With pleasance." I cannot conclude without a few observations on three very remarkable Somersetshire words, namely twordn, wordn, and zino. They are living evidences of the contractions with which that dialect very much abounds. Twordn means it was not; and is composed of three words, namely it, wor, and not; wor is the past tense, or, as it is sometimes called, the preterite of the verb to be, in the third person singular; [Footnote: It should be observed here that was is rather uncommon among the Somersetshire peasantry--wor, or war, being there the synonyms; thus Spenser in his 'Shepherd's Calendar.'" "The kid,-- Asked the cause of his great distress, And also who and whence that he wer You say he was there, and I say that _a wordn_; You say that 'twas he, and I tell you that _twordn_; You ask, will he go? I reply, not as I know; You say _that_ he _will_, and _I_must _say, no, Zino_!] and such is the indistinctness with which the sound of the vowel in were is commonly expressed in Somersetshire, that wor, wer, or war, will nearly alike convey it, the sound of the e being rarely if ever long; twordn is therefore composed, as stated, of three words; but it will be asked what business has the _d_ in it? To this it may be replied that _d_ and _t_ are, as is well known, often converted in our language the one into the other; but by far the most frequently _d_ is converted into _t_. Here, however, the _t_ is not only converted into _d_, but instead of being placed after _n_, as analogy requires thus, _twornt_, it is placed before it for _euphony_ I dare say. Such is the analysis of this singular and, if not euphonious, most certainly expressive word. _Wordn_ admits of a similar explanation; but this word is composed of two words only, _war_ and _not_; instead of _wornt_, which analogy requires, a _d_ is placed before _n_ for a similar reason that the _d_ is placed before _n_ in _twordn_, namely for euphony; _wordn_ is decidedly another of the forcible words. _Wordn fir gwain_?--was he not going, may compete with any language for its energetic brevity. _Zino_, has the force and application of an interjection, and has sufficient of the _ore rotundo_ to appear a classical dissyllable; its origin is, however, simply the contract of, _as I know_, and it is usually preceeded in Somersetshire by _no_. Thus, _ool er do it_? _no, zino_! _I thawt a oodn_. Will he do it? no, as I know! I thought he would not. These words, _Twordn_, _Wordn_, and _Zino_, may be thus exemplified: CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS. I cannot, perhaps, better close this work, than by presenting to the reader the observations of Miss HAM, (a Somersetshire lady of no mean talents), in a letter to me on these dialects. The lines, of which I desired a copy, contain an exemplification of the use of _utchy_ or _ichè_, used contractedly [see UTCHY in the _Glossary_] by the inhabitants of the _South_ of Somersetshire, one of the strongholds, as I conceive, of the Anglo-Saxon dialect. In our polished dialect, the lines quoted by Miss HAM, may be thus rendered-- Bread and cheese I have had, What I had I have eaten, More I would [have eaten if] I had [had] it. If the contradictions be supplied they will stand thus:-- Bread and cheese _ichè_ have a had That _ichè_ had _ichè_ have a eat More _ichè_ would _ichè_ had it. CLIFTON, _Jan._ 30, 1825 Sir: I have certainly great pleasure in complying with your request, although I fear that any communication it is in my power to make, will be of little use to you in your curious work on the West Country dialect. The lines you desire are these: Bread and cheese 'e' have a had, That 'e' had 'e' have a eat, More 'ch wou'd 'e' had it. Sounds which, from association no doubt, carry with them to my ear the idea of great vulgarity: but which might have a very different effect on that of an unprejudiced hearer, when dignified by an Anglo-Saxon pedigree. The Scotch dialect, now become _quite classical_ with us, might, perhaps, labour under the same disadvantage amongst those who hear it spoken by the vulgar only. Although I am a native of Somersetshire, I have resided very little in that county since my childhood, and, in my occasional visits since, have had little intercourse with the _aborigines_. I recollect, however, two or three words, which you might not, perhaps, have met with. One of them of which I have traditionary knowledge, being, I believe, now quite obsolete. _Pitisanquint_ was used in reply to an inquiry after the health of a person, and was, I understand, equivalent to _pretty well_, or _so so_. The word _Lamiger_, which signifies an invalid, I have no doubt you have met with. When any one forbodes bad weather, or any disaster, it is very common to say _Don't ye housenee_. Here you have the verbal termination, which you remarked was so common in the West, and which I cannot help thinking might have been originally vised as a sort of diminutive, and that _to milkee_, signified to milk _a little_. As my knowledge of these few words is merely oral, I cannot answer for the orthography; I have endeavoured to go as near the sound as possible, and I only wish it were in my power to make some communication more worth your attention. As it is, I have only my best wishes to offer for the success of your truly original work. I am, Sir, your most obedient, Elizabeth Ham. I have only one or two remarks to add to those of Miss Ham in the preceding letter. It will be seen, by reference to the exemplifications of the dialect, that occasional _pleonasm_ will be found in it, as well as, very often, extraordinary _contraction_. _I have adone_, _I have a had_, are examples of the first; and _'tword'n_, _gup_, _g'under_, _banehond_, &c. [see Banehond in the _Glossary_] are examples of the last. _Pitisanquint_ appears to me to be simply a contracted and corrupted mode of expressing _Piteous_ and _quaint_, [See Pitis in the _Glossary_.] _Don't ye houseenee_ is _Do not stay in your houses_. But the implied meaning is, _be active_; do your best to provide for the bad weather which portends. In Somersetshire, most of the colloquial and idiomatic expressions have more or less relation to agriculture, agricultural occupations, or to the most common concerns of life, hence such expressions have, in process of time, become _figurative._ Thus, _don't ye housenee,_ would be readily applied to rouse a person to activity, in order that he may prevent or obviate any approaching or portending evil. I am still of opinion; indeed I may say, I am quite sure, that the verbal terminations, _sewy, Tcnitty, &c.,_ have no relation to _diminution_ in the district East of the Parret. Upon the whole, it is evident that considerable care and circumspection are necessary in committing to paper the signs of the sounds of a language, of which we have no accredited examples, nor established criterion. In making collections of this work, I have not failed to bear this constantly in mind. 
12524	----	Proofreading Team. _S.P.E._ _TRACT No. V_ THE ENGLISHING OF FRENCH WORDS By Brander Matthews THE DIALECTAL WORDS IN BLUNDEN'S POEMS etc. by Robert Bridges _At the Clarendon Press_ MDCCCCXXI FRENCH WORDS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE I The English language is an Inn of Strange Meetings where all sorts and conditions of words are assembled. Some are of the bluest blood and of authentic royal descent; and some are children of the gutter not wise enough to know their own fathers. Some are natives whose ancestors were rooted in the soil since a day whereof the memory of man runneth not to the contrary; and some are strangers of outlandish origin, coming to us from all the shores of all the Seven Seas either to tarry awhile and then to depart for ever, unwelcome sojourners only, or to settle down at last and found a family soon asserting equality with the oldest inhabitants of the vocabulary. Seafaring terms came to us from Scandinavia and from the Low Countries. Words of warfare on land crossed the channel, in exchange for words of warfare at sea which migrated from England to France. Dead tongues, Greek and Latin, have been revived to replenish our verbal population with the terms needed for the sciences; and Italy has sent us a host of words by the fine arts. The stream of immigrants from the French language has been for almost a thousand years larger than that from any other tongue; and even to-day it shows little sign of lessening. Of all the strangers within our gates none are more warmly received than those which come to us from across the Straits of Dover. None are more swiftly able to make themselves at home in our dictionaries and to pass themselves off as English. At least, this was the case until comparatively recently, when the process of adoption and assimilation became a little slower and more than a little less satisfactory. Of late French words, even those long domiciled in our lexicons, have been treated almost as if they were still aliens, as if they were here on sufferance, so to speak, as if they had not become members of the commonwealth. They were allowed to work, no doubt, and sometimes even to be overworked; but they laboured as foreigners, perhaps even more eagerly employed by the snobbish because they were foreigners and yet held in disrepute by the more fastidious because they were not truly English. That is to say, French words are still as hospitably greeted as ever before, but they are now often ranked as guests only and not as members of the household. Perhaps this may seem to some a too fanciful presentation of the case. Perhaps it would be simpler to say that until comparatively recently a foreign word taken over into English was made over into an English word, whereas in the past two or three centuries there has been an evident tendency to keep it French and to use it freely while retaining its French pronunciation, its French accents, its French spelling, and its French plural. This tendency is contrary to the former habits of our language. It is dangerous to the purity of English. It forces itself on our attention and it demands serious consideration. II In his brief critical biography of Rutebeuf, M. Clédat pointed out that for long years the only important literature in Europe was the French, and that the French language had on three several occasions almost established itself as the language of European civilization--once in the thirteenth century, again in the seventeenth, and finally when Napoleon had made himself temporarily master of the Continent. The earlier universities of Europe were modelled on that of Paris, where Dante had gone to study. Frederick the Great despised his native tongue, spoke it imperfectly, and wrote his unnecessary verses in French. Even now French is only at last losing its status as the accredited tongue of diplomacy. The French made their language in their own image; and it is therefore logical, orderly, and clear. Sainte-Beuve declared that a 'philosophical thought has probably not attained all its sharpness and all its illumination until it is expressed in French'. As the French are noted rather for their intelligence than for their imagination, they are the acknowledged masters of prose; and their achievement in poetry is more disputable. As they are governed by the social instinct, their language exhibits the varied refinements of a cultivated society where conversation is held in honour as one of the arts. The English speech, like the English-speaking peoples, is bolder, more energetic, more suggestive, and perhaps less precise. From no language could English borrow with more profit to itself than from French; and from no language has it borrowed more abundantly and more persistently. Many of the English words which we can trace to Latin and through Latin to Greek, came to us, not direct from Rome and Athens, but indirectly from Paris. And native French words attain international acceptance almost as easily as do scientific compounds from Greek and Latin. _Phonograph_ and _telephone_ were not more swiftly taken up than _chassis_ and _garage_. But _chassis_ and _garage_ still retain their French pronunciation, or perhaps it would be better to say they still receive a pronunciation which is as close an approximation to that of the French as our unpractised tongues can compass. And in thus taking over these French words while striving to preserve their Frenchiness, we are neglectful of our duty, we are imperilling the purity of our own language, and we are deserting the wholesome tradition of English--the tradition which empowered us to take at our convenience but to refashion what we had taken to suit our own linguistic habits. 'Speaking in general terms,' Mr. Pearsall Smith writes, in his outline history of the English language, 'we may say that down to about 1650 the French words that were borrowed were thoroughly naturalized in English, and were made sooner or later to conform to the rules of English pronunciation and accent; while in the later borrowings (unless they have become very popular) an attempt is made to pronounce them in the French fashion.' From Mr. Smith's pages it would be easy to select examples of the complete assimilation which was attained centuries ago. _Caitiff, canker_, and _carrion_ came to us from the Norman dialect of French; and from their present appearance no one but a linguistic expert would suspect their exotic ancestry, _Jury, larceny, lease, embezzle, distress,_ and _improve_ have descended from the jargon of the lawyers who went on thinking in French after they were supposed to be speaking and writing in English. Of equal historical significance are the two series of words which English acquired from the military vocabulary of the French,--the first containing _company, regiment, battalion, brigade, division_, and _army_; and the second consisting of _marshal, general, colonel, major, captain, lieutenant, sergeant_, and _corporal_. (Here I claim the privilege of a parenthesis to remark that in Great Britain _lieutenant_ is generally pronounced _leftenant_, than which no anglicization could be more complete, whereas in the United States this officer is called the _lootenant_, which the privates of the American Expeditionary Force in France habitually shortened to '_loot_'--except, of course, when they were actually addressing this superior. It may be useful to note, moreover, that while 'colonel' has chosen the spelling of one French form, it has acquired the pronunciation of another.) Dr. Henry Bradley in the _Making of English_ provides further evidence of the aforetime primacy of the French in the military art. '_War_ itself is a Norman-French word, and among the other French words belonging to the same department which became English before the end of the thirteenth century' are _armour, assault, banner, battle, fortress, lance, siege, standard_, and _tower_--all of them made citizens of our vocabulary, after having renounced their allegiance to their native land. Another quotation from Dr. Bradley imposes itself. He tells us that the English writers of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries felt themselves at liberty to introduce a French word whenever they pleased. 'The innumerable words brought into the language in this way are naturally of the most varied character with regard to meaning. Many of them, which supplied no permanent need of the language, have long been obsolete.' This second sentence may well give us heart of hope considering the horde of French terms which invaded our tongue in the long years of the Great War. If _camion_ and _avion, vrille_ and _escadrille_ supply no permanent need of the language they may soon become obsolete, just as _mitrailleuse_ and _franc-tireur_ slipped out of sight soon after the end of the Franco-Prussian war of fifty years ago. A French modification of the American 'gatling' was by them called a _mitrailleuse_; and nowadays we have settled down to the use of _machine-gun_. A _franc-tireur_ was an irregular volunteer often incompletely uniformed; and when he was captured the Prussians shot him as a guerrilla. It will be a welcome relief if _camouflage_, as popular five years ago as _fin-de-siècle_ twenty-five years ago, shall follow that now unfashionable vocable into what an American president once described as 'innocuous desuetude'. Perhaps we may liken _mitrailleuse_ and _franc-tireur, vrille_ and _escadrille, brisance_ and _rafale_, to the foreign labourers who cross the frontier to aid in the harvest and who return to their own country when the demand for their service is over. III The principle which ought to govern can be stated simply. English should be at liberty to help itself freely to every foreign word which seems to fill a want in our own language. It ought to take these words on probation, so to speak, keeping those which prove themselves useful, and casting out those which are idle or rebellious. And then those which are retained ought to become completely English, in pronunciation, in accent, in spelling, and in the formation of their plurals. No doubt this is to-day a counsel of perfection; but it indicates the goal which should be strived for. It is what English was capable of accomplishing prior to the middle of the seventeenth century. It is what English may be able to accomplish in the middle of the twentieth century, if we once awaken to the danger of contaminating our speech with unassimilated words, and to the disgrace, which our stupidity or laziness must bring upon us, of addressing the world in a pudding-stone and piebald language. Dr. Bradley has warned us that 'the pedantry that would bid us reject the word fittest for our purpose because it is not of native origin ought to be strenuously resisted'; and I am sure that he would advocate an equally strenuous resistance to the pedantry which would impose upon us words of alien tongue still clad in foreign uniform. Mark Twain once remarked that 'everybody talks about the weather and nobody does anything about it'. And many people think that we might as well hope to direct the course of the winds as to order the evolution of our speech. Some words have proved intractable. In the course of the past two centuries and a half, scores and even hundreds of French words have domiciled themselves in English without relinquishing their French characteristics. Consider the sad case of _élite_ (which Byron used a hundred years ago), of _encore_ (which Steele used two hundred years ago) of _parvenu_ (which Gifford used in 1802), of _ennui_ (which Evelyn used in 1667), and of _nuance_ (which Walpole used in 1781). No one hesitates to accept these words and to employ them frequently. _Ennui_ and _nuance_ are two words which cannot well be spared, but which we are unable to reproduce in our native vocalization. Their French pronunciation is out of the question. What can be done? Can anything be done? We may at least look the facts in the face and govern our own individual conduct by the results of this scrutiny. There is no reason why we should not accept what is a fact; and it is a fact that _ennui_ has been adopted. So long ago as 1805 Sidney Smith used it as a verb and said that he had been _ennuied_. Why not therefore frankly and boldly pronounce it as English--_ennwee_? Why not forswear French again and pronounce _nuance_ without trying vainly to preserve the Gallic nasality of the second n--_newance_? And as for a third necessary word, _timbre_. I can only register here my complete concurrence with the opinion expressed in Tract No. 3 of the Society for Pure English--that the 'English form of the French sound of the word would be approximately _tamber_; and this would be not only a good English-sounding word, like _amber_ and _chamber_, but would be like our _tambour_, which is _tympanum_, which again is _timbre_'. Why should not _séance_ (which was used by Charles Lamb in 1803) drop its French accent and take an English pronunciation--_see-ance_? Why should not _garage_ and _barrage_ rhyme easily with _marriage_? _Marriage_ itself came to us from the French; and it sets a good example to these two latest importations. Logic would suggest this, of course; but then logic does not always guide our linguistic practices. And here, again, I am glad to accept another suggestion which I find in Tract No. 3, that _naivety_ be recognized and pronounced as an English word, and that 'a useful word like _malaise_ could with advantage reassume the old form "malease" which it once possessed'. I have asked why these thoroughly acclimated French words should not be made to wear our English livery; and to this question Dr. Bradley supplied an answer when he declared that 'culture is one of the influences which retard the process of simplification'. A man of culture is likely to be familiar with one or more foreign languages; and perhaps he may be a little vain of his intimacy with them. He prefers to give the proper French pronunciation to the words which he recognizes as French; and moreover as the possession of culture, or even of education, does not imply any knowledge of the history of English or of the principles which govern its growth, the men of culture are often inclined to pride themselves on this pedantic procedure. It is, perhaps, because the men of culture in the United States are fewer in proportion to the population that American usage is a little more encouraging than the British. Just as we Americans have kept alive not a few old words which have been allowed to drop out of the later vocabulary of the United Kingdom, so we have kept alive--at least to a certain extent--the power of complete assimilation. _Restaurant_, for example, is generally pronounced as though its second syllable rhymed with 'law', and its third with 'pant'. _Trait_ is pronounced in accordance with its English spelling, and therefore very few Americans have ever discovered the pun in the title of Dr. Doran's book, 'Table Traits, and something on them'. I think that most Americans rhyme _distrait_ to 'straight' and not to 'stray'. _Annexe_ has become _annex_; _programme_ has become _program_--although the longer form is still occasionally seen; and sometimes _coterie_ and _reverie_ are 'cotery' and 'revery'--in accord with the principle which long ago simplified _phantasie_ to _fantasy_. _Charade_ like _marmalade_ rhymes with _made_. _Brusk_ seems to be supplanting _brusque_ as _risky_ is supplanting _risqué_. _Elite_ is spelt without the accent; and it is frequently pronounced _ell-leet_. _Clôture_ is rarely to be discovered in American newspapers; _closure_ is not uncommon; but the term commonly employed is the purely English 'previous question'. In the final quarter of the nineteenth century an American adaptation of a French comic opera, 'La Mascotte', was for two or three seasons very popular. The heroine of its story was believed to have the gift of bringing luck. So it is that Americans now call any animal which has been adopted by a racing crew or by an athletic team (or even by a regiment) a _mascot_; and probably not one in ten thousand of those who use the word have any knowledge of its French origin, or any suspicion that it was transformed from the title of a musical play. I regret, however, to be forced to confess that I have lately been shocked by a piece of petty pedantry which seems to show that we Americans are falling from grace--at least so far as one word is concerned. Probably because many of our architects and decorators have studied in Paris there is a pernicious tendency to call a 'grill' a _grille_. And I have seen with my own eyes, painted on a door in an hotel _grille_-room; surely the ultimate abomination of verbal desolation! I may, however, record to our credit one righteous act--the perfect and satisfactory anglicizing of a Spanish word, whereby we have made 'canyon' out of _cañon_. And I cannot forbear to adduce another word for a fish soup, _chowder_, which the early settlers derived from the French name of the pot in which it was cooked, _chaudière_.[1] [Footnote 1: No doubt all these variations of American from British usage will be duly discussed in Professor George Philip Krapp's forthcoming _History of the English Language in America_.] IV As the military vocabulary of English is testimony to the former leadership of the French in the art of war, so the vocabulary of fashion and of gastronomy is evidence of the cosmopolitan primacy of French millinery and French cookery. But most of the military terms were absorbed before the middle of the seventeenth century and were therefore assimilated, whereas the terms of the French dressmaker and of the French cook, chef, or _cordon bleu_, are being for ever multiplied in France and are very rarely being naturalized in English-speaking lands. So far as these two sets of words are concerned the case is probably hopeless, because, if for no other reason, they are more or less in the domain of the gentler sex and we all know that 'A woman, convinced against her will, Is of the same opinion still.' The terms of the motor-car, however, and those of the airplane, are in the control of men; and there may be still a chance of bringing about a better state of affairs than now exists. While the war correspondents were actually in France, and while they were often forced to write at topmost speed, there was excuse for _avion_ and _camion, vrille_ and _escadrille_, and all the other French words which bespattered the columns of British and American, Canadian and Australian newspapers. I doubt if there was ever any necessity for _hangar_, the shed which sheltered the airplane or the airship. _Hangar_ is simply the French word for 'shed', no more and no less; it does not indicate specifically a shed for a flying-machine; and as we already had 'shed' we need not take over _hangar_. When we turn from the gas-engine on wings to the gas-engine on wheels, we find a heterogeny of words in use which bear witness to the fact that the French were the first to develop the motor-car, and also to the earlier fact that they had long been renowned for their taste and their skill as coach-builders. As the terminology of the railway in England is derived in part from that of the earlier stage-coach--in the United States, I may interject, it was derived in part from that of the earlier river-steamboat--so the terminology of the motor-car in France was derived in part from that of the pleasure-carriage. So we have the _landaulet_ and _limousine_ to designate different types of body. I think _landaulet_ had already acquired an English pronunciation; at least I infer this because I cannot now recall that I ever heard it fall from the lips of an English-speaking person with its original French pronunciation of the nasal _n_. And _limousine_, being without accent and without nasal _n_ can be trusted to take care of itself. There are other technical terms of the motor-car industry which present more difficult problems. _Tonneau_ is not troublesome, even if its spelling is awkward. There is _chauffeur_ first of all; and I wish that it might generally acquire the local pronunciation it is said to have in Norfolk--_shover_. Then there is _chassis_. Is this the exact equivalent of 'running gear'? Is there any available substitute for the French word? And if _chassis_ is to impose itself from sheer necessity what is to be done with it? Our forefathers boldly cut down _chaise_ to 'shay'--at least my forefathers did it in New England, long before Oliver Wendell Holmes commemorated their victory over the alien in the 'Deacon's Masterpiece', more popularly known as the 'One Horse Shay'. And the men of old were even bolder when they curtailed _cabriolet_ to 'cab', just as their children have more recently and with equal courage shortened 'taximeter vehicle' to 'taxi', and 'automobile' itself to 'auto'. Unfortunately it is not possible to cut the tail off _chassis_, or even to cut the head off, as the men of old did with 'wig', originally 'periwig', which was itself only a daring and summary anglicization of _peruke_. Due to the fact that the drama has been more continuously alive in the literature of France than in that of any other country, and due also, it may be, to the associated fact that the French have been more loyally devoted to the theatre than any other people, the vocabulary of the English-speaking stage has probably more unassimilated French words than we can discover in the vocabulary of any of our other activities. We are none of us surprised when we find in our newspaper criticisms _artiste, ballet, conservatoire, comédienne, costumier, danseuse, début, dénoûment, diseuse, encore, ingénue, mise-en-scène, perruquier, pianiste, première, répertoire, revue, rôle, tragédienne_--the catalogue stretches out to the crack of doom. Long as the list is, the words on it demand discussion. As to _rôle_ I need say nothing since it has been considered carefully in Tract No. 3; I may merely mention that it appeared in English at least as early as 1606, so that it has had three centuries to make itself at home in our tongue. _Conservatoire_ and _répertoire_ have seemingly driven out the English words, which were long ago made out of them, 'conservatory' and 'repertory'. What is the accepted pronunciation of _ballet_? Is it _bal-lett_ or _ballay_ or _bally_? (If it is _bally_, it has a recently invented cockney homophone.) For _costumier_ and _perruquier_ I can see no excuse whatever; although I have observed them frequently on London play-bills, I am delighted to be able to say that they do not disgrace the New York programmes, which mention the 'costumer' and the 'wigmaker'. 'Encore' was used by Steele in 1712; it was early made into an English verb; and yet I have heard the verb pronounced with the nasal _n_ of the original French. Here is another instance of English taking over a French word and giving it a meaning not acceptable in Paris, where the playgoers do not _encore_, they _bis_. Why should we call a nondescript medley of dialogue and dance and song a _revue_, when _revue_ in French is the exact equivalent of 'review' in English? Why should we call an actress of comic characters a _comédienne_ and an actress of tragic characters a _tragédienne_, when we do not call a comic actor a _comédien_ or a tragic actor a _tragédien_? Possibly it is because 'comedian' and 'tragedian' seem to be too exclusively masculine--so that a want is felt for words to indicate a female tragedian and a female comedian. Probably it is for the same reason that a male dancer is not termed a _danseur_ while a female dancer is termed a _danseuse_. Then there is _diseuse_, apparently reserved for the lady who recites verse, no name being needed apparently for the gentleman who recites verse--at least, I am reasonably certain that I have never seen _diseur_ applied to any male reciter. _Mise-en-scène_ is another of the French terms which has suffered a Channel-change. In Paris it means the arrangement of the stage-business, whereas in London and in New York it is employed rather to indicate the elaboration of the scenery and of the spectacular accessories. An even more extraordinary misadventure has befallen _pianiste_, in that it is sometimes used as if it was to be applied only to a female performer. And this blunder is of long standing; but I remember as lately as forty years ago seeing an American advertisement of Teresa Carreño which proclaimed her to be 'the greatest living _lady_ pianiste'. I have also detected evidences of a startling belief of the illiterate that _artiste_ is the feminine of 'artist'. Nevertheless I found recently in a volume caricaturing the chief performers of the London music-halls a foot-note which explained that these celebrities were therein entitled _artistes_--because 'an artist creates, an _artiste_ performs'. Still to be analysed are _première_ for 'first performance' or 'opening night' and _debut_ for 'first appearance'; and I fear that it is beyond expectation that these alien words will speedily drop their alien accents and their alien pronunciations. The same must be said also of _dénoûment_ and of _ingénue_--French words which really fill a gap in our vocabulary and which are none the less abhorrent to our speech habits. The most that is likely to happen is that they may shed their accents and more or less approximate an English pronunciation, _dee-noo-meant_, perhaps, and _inn-je-new_, an approximation which will be sternly resisted by the literate. I well remember one occasion when I overheard scorn poured upon a charming American actress who had happened to mention the date of her own _deb-you_ in New York. V _Encore_ and _mise-en-scène_ are only two of a dozen or a score of French words not infrequently used in English and misused by being charged with meanings not strictly in accord with French usage. 'Levee' is one; the French say _lever_. _Nom de plume_ is another; the French say _nom de guerre_. _Musicale_ also is rarely, if ever, to be found in French, at least I believe it to be the custom in Paris to call an 'evening with music' a _soirée musicale_. If _musicale_ is too serviceable to demand banishment, why should it not drop the _e_ and become _musical_? When Theodore Roosevelt, always as exact as he was vigorous in his use of language, was President of the United States, the cards of invitation which went out from the White House bore 'musical' in one of their lower corners; so that the word, if not the King's English, is the President's English. To offset this I must record with regret that the late Clyde Fitch once wrote a one-act play about a manicurist, and as this operator on the finger-nails was a woman he entitled his playlet, the _Manicuriste_; and he did this in spite of the fact that, as a writer fairly familiar with French, he ought to have known the proper term--_manucure_. Then there is _double-entendre_, implying a secondary meaning of doubtful delicacy. Dryden used it in 1673, when it was apparently good French, although it has latterly been superseded in France by _double-entente_--which has not, however, the somewhat sinister suggestion we attach to _double-entendre_. I noted it in Trench's 'Calderon' (in the 1880 reprint); and also in Thackeray; and both Calderon and Thackeray were competent French scholars. Perhaps this is as good a place as any to consider _née_, put after the name of a married woman and before the family name of her father. The Germans have a corresponding usage, Frau Schmidt, _geboren_ Braun. There is no doubt that _née_ is convenient, and there is little doubt that it would be difficult to persuade the men of culture to surrender it or even to translate it. To the literate 'Mrs. Smith, born Brown', might seem discourteously abrupt. But the French word is awkward, nevertheless, since the illiterate often take it as meaning only 'formerly', writing 'Mrs. Smith, _née_ Mary Brown', which implies that this lady had been christened before she was born. And there is a tale of a profiteer's wife who wrote herself down as 'Mrs. John Smith, New York, _née_ Chicago'. Yet the French themselves are not always scrupulous to follow _née_ with only the family name of the lady. No less a scholar than Gaston Paris dedicated his _Poètes et Penseurs_ to 'Madame James Darmesteter, _née_ Mary Robinson'. Perhaps this is an instance of the modification of the strict meaning of a word by convention because of its enlarged usefulness when so modified. Gaston Paris must be allowed all the rights and privileges of a master of language; but his is a dangerous example for the unscholarly, who are congenitally careless and who are responsible for _soubriquet_ instead of _sobriquet_, for _à l'outrance_ instead of _à outrance_, and for _en déshabille_ instead of _en déshabillé_. The late Mrs. Oliphant in her little book on Sheridan credited him with _gaieté du coeur_. It was long an American habit to term a railway station a _dépot_ (totally anglicized in its pronunciation--_deep-oh)_; but _dépôt_ is in French the name for a storehouse, and it is not--or not customarily--the name of a railway station. It was also a custom in American theatres to give the name of _parquette_-seats to the chairs which are known in England as 'stalls'; and in village theatres _parquette_ was generally pronounced 'par-kay'. There are probably as many in Great Britain as in the United States who speak the French which is not spoken by the French themselves. Affectation and pretentiousness and the desire to show off are abundant in all countries. They manifest themselves even in Paris, where I once discovered on a bill of fare at the Grand Hotel _Irisch-stew à la française_. This may be companioned by a bill of fare on a Cunard steamer plying between Liverpool and New York, whereon I found myself authorized to order _tartletes_ and _cutletes_. When I called the attention of a neighbour to these outlandish vocables, the affable steward bent forward to enlighten my ignorance. 'It's the French, sir,' he explained; '_tartlete_ and _cutlete_ is French.' That way danger lies; and when we are speaking or writing to those who have English as their mother-tongue there are obvious advantages in speaking and writing English, with no vain effort to capture Gallic graces. Readers of Mark Twain's _Tramp Abroad_ will recall the scathing rebuke which the author administered to his agent, Harris, because a report which Harris had submitted was peppered, not only with French and German words, but also with savage plunder from Choctaw and Feejee and Eskimo. Harris explained that he intruded these hostile verbs and nouns to adorn his page, and justified himself by saying that 'they all do it. Everybody that writes elegantly'. Whereupon Mark Twain, whose own English was as pure as it was rich and flexible, promptly read Harris a needed lesson: 'A man who writes a book for the general public to read is not justified in disfiguring his pages with untranslated foreign expressions. It is an insolence toward the majority of the purchasers, for it is a very frank and impudent way of saying, "Get the translations made yourselves if you want it--this book is not written for the ignorant classes".... The writer would say that he uses the foreign language where the delicacy of his point cannot be conveyed in English. Very well, then, he writes his best things for the tenth man, and he ought to warn the other nine not to buy his book.' The result of these straight-forward and out-spoken remarks is set forth by Mark Twain himself: 'When the musing spider steps upon the red-hot shovel, he first exhibits a wild surprise, then he shrivels up. Similar was the effect of these blistering words upon the tranquil and unsuspecting agent. I can be dreadfully rough on a person when the mood takes me.' VI This sermon might have been made even broader in its application. It is not always only the ignorant who are discommoded by a misguided reliance on foreign words as bestowers of elegance; it is often the man of culture, aware of the meaning of the alien vocable but none the less jarred by its obtrusion on an English page. The man of culture may have his attention disturbed even by a foreign word which has long been acclimatized in English, if it still retains its unfriendly appearance. I suppose that _savan_ has established its citizenship in our vocabulary; it is, at least, domiciled in our dictionaries[2]; but when I found it repeated by Frederic Myers, in _Science and a Future Life_, to avoid the use of 'scientist', the French word forced itself on me, and I found myself reviving a boyish memory of a passage in Abbott's _Life of Napoleon_ dealing with Bonaparte's expedition to Egypt and narrating the attacks of the Mamelukes, when the order was given to form squares with '_savans_ and asses in the center'. An otherwise fine passage of Ruskin's has always been spoilt for me by the wilful incursion of two French words, which seem to me to break the continuity of the sentence: 'A well-educated gentleman may not know many languages; may not be able to speak any but his own; may have read very few books. But whatever language he knows, he knows precisely; whatever word he pronounces, he pronounces rightly; above all, he is learned in the peerage of words; knows the words of true descent and ancient blood at a glance from words of modern _canaille_; remembers all their ancestry, their intermarriages, distantest relationships, and the extent to which they were admitted, and offices they hold, among the national _noblesse_ of words, at any time and in any country.' Are not _canaille_ and _noblesse_ distracting? Do they not interrupt the flow? Do they not violate what Herbert Spencer aptly called the Principle of Economy of Attention, which he found to be the basis of all the rules of rhetoric? Since I have made one quotation from Ruskin, I am emboldened to make two from Spencer, well known as his essay on 'Style' ought to be:--'A reader or listener has at each moment but a limited amount of mental power available. To recognize and interpret the symbols presented to him, requires part of his power; to arrange and combine the images suggested requires a further part; and only that part which remains can be used for realizing the thought conveyed. Hence, the more time and attention it takes to receive and understand each sentence, the less time and attention can be given to the contained idea; and the less vividly will that idea be conceived.'--'Carrying out the metaphor that language is the vehicle of thought, there seems reason to think that in all cases the friction and inertia of the vehicle deduct from its efficiency; and that in composition, the chief, if not the sole thing to be done, is to reduce this friction and inertia to the smallest possible amount.' _Savan_ and _canaille_ and _noblesse_ may be English words; but they have not that appearance. They have not rooted themselves in English earth as _war_ has, for instance, and _cab_ and _wig_. To me, for one, they increase the friction and the inertia; and yet, of course, the words themselves are not strange to me; they seem to me merely out of place and in the way. I can easily understand why Myers and Ruskin wanted them, even needed them. It was because they carried a meaning not easily borne by more obvious and more hackneyed nouns. 'The words of our mother tongue', said Lowell in his presidential address to the Modern Language Association of America, 'have been worn smooth by so often rubbing against our lips and our minds, while the alien word has all the subtle emphasis and beauty of some new-minted coin of ancient Syracuse. In our critical estimates we should be on our guard against its charm.' Since I have summoned myself as a witness I take the stand once more to confess that Alan Seeger's lofty lyric, 'I have a rendezvous with Death' has a diminished appeal because of the foreign connotations of 'rendezvous'. The French noun was adopted into English more than three centuries ago; and it was used as a verb nearly three centuries ago; it does not interfere with the current of sympathy when I find it in the prose of Scott and of Mark Twain. Nevertheless, it appears to me unfortunate in Seeger's noble poem, where it forces me to taste its foreign flavour. Another French word, _bouquet_, is indisputably English; and yet when I find it in Walt Whitman's heartfelt lament for Lincoln, 'O Captain, my Captain', I cannot but feel it to be a blemish:-- 'For you _bouquets_ and ribbon'd wreaths--for you the shore's a-crowding, For you they call, the swaying mass, their eager faces turning.' It may be hypercriticism on my part, but _bouquet_ strikes me as sadly infelicitous; and a large part of its infelicity is due to its having kept its French spelling and its French pronunciation. It is not in keeping; it diverts the flow of feeling; it is almost indecorous--much as a quotation from Voltaire in the original might be indecorous in a funeral address delivered by an Anglican bishop in a cathedral. [Footnote 2: _Savan_ is quite obsolete in British use, and is not in the _Century Dictionary_ or in Webster, 1911. _Savant_ is common, and often written without italics, but the pronunciation is never anglicized.--H.B.] VII There are several questions which writers and speakers who give thought to their expressions will do well to ask themselves when they are tempted to employ a French word or indeed a word from any alien tongue. The first is the simplest: Is the foreign word really needed? For example, there is no benefit in borrowing _impasse_ when there exists already in English its exact equivalent, 'blind-alley', which carries the meaning more effectively even to the small percentage of readers or listeners who are familiar with French. Nor is there any gain in _résumé_ when 'summary' and 'synopsis' and 'abstract' are all available. The second question is perhaps not quite so simple: Is the French word one which English has already accepted and made its own? We do not really need _questionnaire_, since we have 'interrogatory', but if we want it we can make shift with 'questionary'; and for _concessionnaire_ we can put 'concessionary'. To balance 'employer' there is 'employee', better by far than _employé_, which insists on a French pronunciation. Matthew Arnold and Lowell, always apt and exact in their use of their own tongue, were careful to prefer the English 'technic' to the French _technique_, which is not in harmony with the adjectives 'technical' and _polytechnic_. So 'clinic' seems at last to have vanquished its French father _clinique_, as 'fillet' has superseded _filet_; and now that 'valet' has become a verb it has taken on an English pronunciation. Then there is _littérateur_. If a synonym for 'man of letters' is demanded why not find it in 'literator', which Lockhart did not hesitate to employ in the _Life of Scott_. It is pleasant to believe that _communard_, which was prevalent fifty years ago after the burning of the Tuileries, has been succeeded by 'communist' and that its twin-brother _dynamitard_ is now rarely seen and even more rarely heard. Perhaps some of the credit may be due to Stevenson, who entitled his tale the _Dynamiter_ and appended a foot-note declaring that 'any writard who writes _dynamitard_ shall find in me a never-resting fightard'. The third question may call for a little more consideration: Has the foreign word been employed so often that it has ceased to be foreign even though it has not been satisfactorily anglicized in spelling and pronunciation? In the _Jungle Book_ Mr. Kipling introduces an official who is in charge of the 'reboisement' of India; and in view of the author's scrupulosity in dealing with professional vocabularies we may assume that this word is a recognized technical term, equivalent to the older word 'afforestation'. What is at once noteworthy and praiseworthy is that in Mr. Kipling's page it does not appear in italics. And in Mr. Pearsall Smith's book on the English language one admiring reader was pleased to find 'débris' also without italics, although with the retention of the French accent. Perhaps the time is not far distant when the best writers will cease to stigmatize a captured word with the italics which are a badge of servitude and which proclaim that it has not yet been enfranchised into our language. The fourth question is the most perplexing: If the formerly foreign word has been taken over and if it can therefore be utilized without hesitancy, can it be made to form its plural in accord with the customs of English. Here those who seek to make the English language truly English and to keep it truly pure, will meet with sturdy resistance. It will not be easy to persuade the literate, the men of culture, to renounce the _x_ at the end of _beaux_ and _bureaux_ and to spell these plurals 'beaus' and 'bureaus'. And yet no one doubts that 'beau' and 'bureau' have both won the right to be regarded as having attained an honourable standing in our language. VIII 'De Quincey once said that authors are a dangerous class for any language'--so Professor Krapp has reminded us in his book on _Modern English_, and he has explained that De Quincey meant 'that the literary habit of mind is likely to prove dangerous for a language ... because it so often leads a speaker or writer to distrust natural and unconscious habit, even when it is right, and to put in its stead some conscious theory of literary propriety. Such a tendency, however, is directly opposed to the true feeling for idiomatic English. It destroys the sense of security, the assurance of perfect congruity between thought and expression, which the unliterary and unacademic speaker and writer often has, and which, with both literary and unliterary, is the basis for all expressive use of language'. And since I have borrowed the quotation from Professor Krapp I shall bring this rambling paper to an end by borrowing another, from the _Toxophilus_ of Roger Ascham (1545). 'He that will wryte well in any tongue must folowe this council of Aristotle, to speake as the common people do, to think as wise men do. Many English writers have not done so, but using straunge wordes as latin, french, and Italian, do make all things darke and harde. Once I communed with a man whiche reasoned the englyshe tongue to be enryched and encreased thereby, sayinge--Who wyll not prayse that feaste where a man shall drinke at a diner bothe wyne, ale and beere? Truly, quod I they all be good, every one taken by hym selfe alone, but if you put Malmesye and sacke, read wine and whyte, ale and beere, and al in one pot, you shall make a drynke neyther easie to be knowen nor yet holsom for the body.' BRANDER MATTHEWS. NOTES The word #laches#, which is not noticed in the above paper, is one of a list of words sent to us by a correspondent who suggests that it is the business of our society to direct the public as to their pronunciation. Like other examples given by Mr. Matthews, _laches_ seems to be at present in an uncertain condition; and as it is used only by lawyers they will be able to decide its future. What seems clear about it is that the two contending pronunciations are homophones, one with _latches_ the other with _lashes_. The A having been Englished its closing T seems natural; and _latches_ (from _lachesse_) is thus an exact parallel with _riches_ (from _richesse_). But there seems no propriety in the SS being changed to Z. The pronunciation _látchess_ would save it from its awkward and absurd homophone _latches_, and would be in order with _prowess, largess, noblesse_, &c. Moreover, since _laches_ is used only as the name of a quality (= negligence) and never (like _riches_), as a plural, to connote special acts of negligence, the pronunciation _latchess_ would be correct as well as convenient; and the word would be better spelt with double S: _lachess_. Of the word #levee# the _O.E.D._ says, 'All our verse quotations place the stress on the first syllable. In England this is the court pronunciation, and prevails in educated use. The pronunciation' with the accent on the second syllable 'which is given by Walker, is occasionally heard in Great Britain, and appears to be generally preferred in the U.S.', but the dictionary does not quote Burns 'Guid-mornin' to your Majesty! May Heav'n augment your blisses, On ev'ry new birthday ye see, A humble poet wishes! My bardship here, at your levee, On sic a day as this is, Is sure an uncouth sight to see, Amang thae birthday dresses Sae fine this day.' So that it would seem that the Scotch and American pronunciation of this word is more thoroughly Englished than our own: and the prejudice which opposes straightforward common-sense solutions, however desirable they may be, is brought home to us by the fact that almost all Englishmen would be equally shocked by the notion either of spelling this word as they pronounce it, _levay_, or of pronouncing it, like Burns, as they spell it, _levee_. ENGLISH WORDS IN FRENCH It would be instructive if we could give a parallel account of what the French do when they adopt an English word into their language. _Le Dictionnaire des Anglicismes_, lately published by Delagrave, has two hundred pages, and is much praised by a reviewer in the _Mercure de France_, Feb. 15, p. 246: but it does not give the current French pronunciations of the English words. The reviewer writes: 'Ce qui me gène bien davantage, c'est que M. Bonnaffé supprime, partout, avec rigueur, la façon française de prononcer le mot anglais. Était-il superflu de dire comment nous articulons _shampooing_? Nous n'avons, je crois, qu'une forme orale pour _boy_, petit domestique, parce qu'il est dû à l'oreille; mais nous sommes partagés quant à _boy-scout_, qui est arrivé par tracts et par journaux. L'anglais donne un mot _high-life_, le français en fait cinq: _haylayf, aïlaïf, ichlif, ijlif, iglif_.' p. 247. It would seem from _high-life_ that English words in French sometimes look as strange as French words do when represented in make-shift English phonetics. On p. 228 of the same _Mercure_ there is notice of 'un petit manuel de conversation' in which 'Toutes les nuances de la "phonetic pronunciation" sont notées, à l'usage des Américains désireux de se faire comprendre en français. Cette notation (says the reviewer) m'a tellement amusé que je ne puis résister au plaisir d'en citer quelques exemples: Av-nü' day Shawn Zay-lee-zay', Plass de la Kown-kord' to Plass der lay-twal. Fown-ten day Zeen-noh-sawn,--Oh-pay-râ Kum-meek,--Foh-lee Bair-zhair,--Bool-vâr day Kâ-pu-seen,--Beeb-lee-oh-tech Sant Zhun-vee-ayv',--Lay Zan-vâ-leed,--May-zown' der Veck-tor' U-goh',--Hub-bay-leesk',--Rü San Tawn-twan, &c., &c....' There would seem to be errors in this 'citation'. Vecktor should be Veektor? and H looks like a misprint for L in Hub-bay-leesk. -tech was probably -teck. Bonnaffé's book is noticed in _The Modern Language Review_ of last January. ON THE DIALECTAL WORDS IN EDMUND BLUNDEN'S POEMS[3] [Footnote 3: _The Waggoner and other Poems_, by Edmund Blunden, pp. 70. Sidgwick and Jackson. London, 1920.] In the original prospectus of the S.P.E., reprinted in Tract I, and again in III, p. 9, one of the objects of the Society is stated to be the 'enrichment and what is called regeneration of the language from the picturesque vocabularies of local vernaculars'. Since a young poet, Mr. Edmund Blunden, has lately published a volume in which this particular element of dialectal and obsolescent words is very prominent, it will be suitable to our general purpose to consider it as a practical experiment and examine the results. The poetic diction and high standard of his best work give sufficient importance to this procedure; and though he may seem to be somewhat extravagant in his predilection for unusual terms, yet his poetry cannot be imagined without them, and the strength and beauty of the effects must be estimated in his successes and not in his failures. In the following remarks no appreciation of the poetry will be attempted: our undertaking is merely to tabulate the 'new' words, and examine their fitness for their employment. The bracketed numbers following the quotations give the page of the book where they occur. The initials _O.E.D._ and _E.D.D._ stand for the _Oxford English Dictionary_ and the _English Dialect Dictionary_ (Wright). 1. 'And churning owls and goistering daws'. (1) Here _churning_ is a mistake; we are sorry to begin with an animadversion, but the word should be _churring_. #Churr# is an echo-word, and though there may be examples of echo-words which have been bettered by losing all trace of their simple spontaneous origin, this is not one. It is like _burr, purr,_ and _whirr_; and these words are best spelt with double R and the R should be trilled. The absurdity of not trilling this final R is seen very plainly in _burr_, because that word's definition is 'a rough sounding of the letter R.' This is not represented by the pronunciation b[schwa]:. What that 'southern English' pronunciation does indicate is the vulgarity and inconvenience of its degradations. _Burr_ occurs in these poems: 'There the live dimness burrs with droning glees'. (23) #Burr# is, moreover, a bad homophone and cannot neglect possible distinctions: the Oxford Dictionary has eight entries of substantives under _burr._ Our author also uses _whirr_: 'And the bleak garrets' crevices Like whirring distaffs utter dread', (26) and again of the noise of wind in ivy, on p. 54, and 'The damp gust makes the ivy whir', (48) _whir_ rhyming here with _executioner_. Since _churring_ (in the first quotation) would automatically preserve its essential trill, the intruder _churning_ is the more obnoxious; and unless the R can be trilled it would seem better for poets to use only the inflected forms of these words, and prefer _churreth_ to _churrs_. If _churn_ is anywhere dialectal for _churr_, it must have come from the common mistake of substituting a familiar for an unknown word: and this is the worst way of making homophones. 2. 'goistering daws'. #Goister# or #gauster# is a common dialect verb; the latter form seems the more common and is recognized in the Oxford Dictionary, where it is defined 'to behave in a noisy boisterous fashion ... in some localities to laugh noisily'. If jackdaws are to appropriate a word to describe their behaviour, no word could be better than _goistering_, and we prefer _goister_ to _gauster_. Its likeness to _boisterous_ will assist it, and we guess that it will be accepted. In the little glossary at the end of the book _goistering_ is explained as _guffawing_. That word is not so descriptive of the jackdaw, since it suggests 'coarse bursts of laughter', and the coarseness is absent from the fussy vulgarity and mere needless jabber of the daw. 3. 'A dor flew by with crackling cry'. (7) This to the ear is 'A daw flew by with crackling cry'; and though our poet's glossary tells us that dor = dor-hawk or nightjar, it really is not so. A dor is a beetle so called from its making a _dorring_ noise, and the name, like _churr_ and _burr_, is better with its double R and trill. _Dor-hawk_ may be a name for the _nightjar_, but properly _dorr_ is not; and if it were, it would be forbidden by _daw_ so long as it neglected its trill. Note also the misfortune that four lines below we read 'The pigeons flaunted round his door', where the full correct pronunciation of _door_ (d[open o][schwa]) will not quite protect it. The whole line quoted from p. 7 is obscure, because a nightjar would never be recognized by the description of a bird that utters a crackling cry when flying. That it then makes a sound different from its distinctive whirring note is recorded. T.A. Coward writes 'when on the wing it has a soft call co-ic, and a sharper and repeated alarm quik, quik, quik.' It is doubtful whether _crackling_ can be accepted. 4. 'The grumping miller picked his way'. (8) #Grumping# is a good word, which appears from the dictionaries to be a common-speech term that is picking its way into literature. 5. 'The golden nobs and pippens swell'. (12) #nob# is _knob_. Golden-nob is 'a variety of apple'; see _E.D.D._: and as a special name, which the passage implies, it should be hyphened. 6. 'where the pollards frown, Notched, dumb, surly images of pain'. (13) #Notched.# This word well describes the appearance of old pollard willows after they have been cropped; but its full propriety may escape notice. A very early use of the verb _to notch_ was to cut or crop the hair roughly, and _notched_ was so used. The Oxford Dictionary quotes Lamb, 'a notched and cropt scrivener'. Then _pollard_ itself is from _poll_, and means an animal that has lost its horns as well as a tree that has been 'pollarded'. 7. 'In elver-peopled crevices'. (19) We are grateful for #elver#. This form has carefully differentiated itself from _eel-fare_, which means the passage of the young eels up the rivers, and has come to mean the _eel-fry_ themselves. 8. 'For Sussex cries from primrose lags and breaks'. (22) _E.D.D._, among many meanings of #lag#, explains this as a Sussex and Somerset term for 'a long marshy meadow usually by the side of a stream'. Since the word seems as if it might be used for anything somewhere, we cannot question its title to these meadows, but we doubt its power to retain possession, except in some favoured locality. 9. 'And chancing lights on willowy waterbreaks'. (22) We have to guess what a _waterbreak_ is, having found no other example of the word. 10. 'Of hobby-horses with their starting eyes'. (23) #Hobby-horse# as a local or rustic name for dragon-fly can have no right to general acceptance. 11. 'Stolchy ploughlands hid in grief.' (24) #Stolchy# is so good a word that it does not need a dictionary. Wright gives only the verb _stolch_ 'to tread down, trample, to walk in the dirt'. The adjective is therefore primarily applicable to wet land that has become sodden and miry by being _poached_ by cattle, and then to any ground in a similar condition. Since _poach_ is a somewhat confused homophone, its adjective _poachy_ has no chance against _stolchy_. 12. 'I whirry through the dark'. (24) #Whirry# is another word that explains itself, and perhaps the more readily for its confusion (in this sense) with _worry_, see _E.D.D._ where it is given as adjective and verb, the latter used by Scott in 'Midlothian'. 'Her and the gude-man will be whirrying through the blue lift on a broom-shank.' In the _Century Dictionary_, with its pronunciation hwér'i, it is described as dialectal form of _whirr_ or of _hurry_, to fly rapidly with noise, also transitive to hurry. 13. 'No hedger brished nor scythesman swung'. (25) and 'The morning hedger with his brishing-hook'. (62) These two lines explain the word #brish#. _O.E.D._ gives _brish_ as dialectal of _brush_, and so _E.D.D._ has the verb _to brush_ as dialect for trimming a tree or hedge. Brush is a difficult homophone, and it would be useful to have one of its derivative meanings separated off as _brish_. 14. 'A hizzing dragonfly that daps Above his mudded pond'. (28) #Hizzing# is an old word now neglected. Shakespeare has 'To have a thousand with red burning spits Come hizzing in upon 'em'.--_Lear_, III. vi. 17. and there are other quotations in _O.E.D._ 15. #Dap# is used again, 'the dapping moth'. (45.) This word is well known to fishermen and fowlers, meaning 'to dip lightly and suddenly into water' but is uncommon in literature. 16. 'The glinzy ice grows thicker through'. (28) Author's glossary explains #glinzy# as slippery. _E.D.D._ gives this word as _glincey_ and derives from French _glincer_ as _glisser_, to slide or glide. _Glinzy_ and _glincey_ carry unavoidable suggestion of _glint_. Compare the words in No. 19. _Glissery_ would be convincing. 17. 'The green east hagged with prowling storm'. (30) In _O.E.D._ #hagged# is given as monopolized by the sense of 'bewitched', or of 'lean and gaunt', related to haggard. This does not suit. The intention is probably an independent use of the p.p. of the transitive verb 'to hag'; defined as 'to torment or terrify as a hag, to trouble as the nightmare'. 18. 'where with the browsing thaive'. (31) #Thaive# is a two-year-old ewe. Wright gives _theave_ or _theeve_ as the commoner forms, and in the Paston letters it is _theyve_, which perhaps confirms _thaive_, rhymed here with 'rave'. Certainly it is most advisable to avoid _thieves_, the plural of thief, although _O.E.D._ allows this pronunciation and indeed puts it first of the alternatives. 19. 'On the pathway side ... the glintering flint'. (32) _O.E.D_. gives #glinter# as a 'rare' word. We have _glinting, glistening, glittering_, and _glistering_, and Scotch _glisting_. 20. 'The wind tangs through the shattered pane'. (34) Echo-words, like ting-tang, ding-dong, &c., must have their liberty; but of #tang# it should be noted that, though the verb may raise no inconvenience, yet the substantive has a very old and well-established use in the sense of a projecting point or barb (especially of metal), or sting, and that this demands respect and recognition. It is something less than prong, and is the proper word for the metal point that fixes the strap of a buckle. The homophonic ambiguity is notorious in Shakespeare's 'She had a tongue with a tang', where, as the _O.E.D._ suggests, the double sense of sting and ring were perhaps intended. 21. 'The grutching pixies hedge me round'. (37) _Grudge_ and #grutch# are the same word. The use of the obsolete form would therefore be fanciful if there were no difference in the sense; but there is a useful distinction: because grudge has entirely lost its original sense of murmuring, making complaint, and is confined to the consciousness and feeling of discontent, whereas _grutch_ is recognized as carrying the old meaning of grumble. Thus Stevenson as quoted in _O.E.D._, 'The rest is grunting and grutching'. It is a very useful word to restore, but it may, perhaps, at this particular time find _grouse_ rather strongly entrenched. 22. 'Where the channering insect channels'. (46) This is, of course, our old friend The cock doth craw, the day doth daw, The channerin' worm doth chide', and it looks like an attempt to define what is there meant, viz. that the worm made a #channering# noise in burrowing through the wood. The notion is perhaps admissible, though we cannot believe the sound to be audible. 23. 'The lispering aspens'. (53) #Lispering.# We should be grateful for this word. _O.E.D._ quotes it from Clare's poems. 24. 'Of shallows with the shealings chalky white'. (64) #Sheal# is a homophone, 1. a shepherd's hut or shanty; 2. a peascod or seed-shell. Of the first, _shiel_ and _shieling_ are common forms; the second is dialectal; _E.D.D._ gives #shealing# as the husk of seeds. If this be the meaning in our quotation, the appearance described is unrecognized by the present annotator. 25. 'Dull streams Flow flagging in the undescribed deep fourms Of creatures born the first of all, long dead'. (67) #Fourm#, explained as a 'hare's lurking place', commonly called _form_, widely used and understood because the lair has the shape or form of the animal that lay in it. But perhaps it was originally only the animal's seat or form, as we use the word in schools. _Form_ has so many derivative senses that it would be an advantage to have this one thus differentiated both in spelling and sound. 26. 'Toadstools twired and hued fantastically'. (68) Though the word #twired# is not explained in Mr. Blunden's glossary and the meaning is not evident from the context, we guess that he is using it here of shape, in the sense of 'contorted', which would range with the quotation from Burton (given in some dictionaries) 'No sooner doth a young man see his sweetheart coming, but he ... slickes his haire, twires his beard [&c.]'. Here _twires_, as latest edition of _O.E.D._ suggests, may be a misprint for _twirls_. Older dictionaries give wrong and misleading definitions of this word; and a spurious _twire_, to sing, was inferred from a misreading 'twierethe' for 'twitereth' in Chaucer's _Boethius_, III m. 2. Modern authorities only allow _twire_, to peep, as in Shakespeare's 28th Sonnet, 'When sparkling stars twire not, thou gildst the even' (whence some had foolishly supposed that _twire_ meant twinkle) and in Ben Jonson, _Sad Shepherd_, II. 1, 'Which maids will twire at, 'tween their fingers'. The verb is still in dialectal use: _E.D.D._ explains it 'to gaze wistfully or beseechingly'. 27. 'The tiny frogs Go yerking'. (69) #Yerk.# The intrans. verb is to kick as a horse. The trans. verb is quoted from Massinger, Herrick, and Burns, who has 'My fancy yerkit up sublime': i.e. roused, lashed. 28. 'There seems no heart in wood or wide'. (8) #Wide# as a subst. is hardly recognized. Tennyson is quoted, 'The waste wide of that abyss', but as _waste_ is a recognized substantive the authority is uncertain. In the above examples we have taken such words as best answered our purpose, neglecting many which have almost equal claims. The richness of the vocabulary in unusual words and in words carrying unusual meanings forbids complete examination; as will be seen by a rough classification of some of those which we have passed over. To begin with the words which our author uses well, we will quote as an example all the passages in which #writhe# occurs. The transitive verb which is perhaps in danger of neglect is very valuable, and it is well employed. These passages will also fully exhibit the general quality of Mr. Blunden's diction. 'But no one loves the aguish mist That writhes its way at eventide Along the copse's waterside'. (3) 'But now the sower's hand is writhed In livid death '. (25) 'To-morrow's brindled shouting storms with flood The purblind hollows with a leaden rain And flat the gleaning-fields to choking mud And writhe the groaning woods with bursts of pain'. (42) 'The lispering aspens and the scarfed brook-grasses With wakened melancholy writhe the air'. (53) #Dimpling# is well and poetically used in 'While the woodlark's dimpling rings In the dim air climb'. (21) and also _quag_ (verb) (2), _seething_ (3), _channelled_ (9), _bunch_ (11), _jungled_ (11), _rout_ (verb) (12), _fluster_ (13), _byre_ (13), _plash_ (shallow water) (19), _tantalise_ (neut. v.) (36), _hutched_ (43), _flounce_ (44), _rootle_ (45), _shore_ (verb) (59). _Lair_ (verb) (43) does not seem a useful word. Next, words somewhat obscurely or fancifully used are _starving_ (1), _stark_ (10), _honeycomb_ (15), _cobbled_ (of pattens) (16), _lanterned_ (24), _well_ (49), _bergomask_ (for village country dances?) (25), _belvedere_ (of the spider's watch tower) (26). While the following seem to us incorrectly used: _mumbling_ (23) used of wings; the word is confined to the mouth whether as a manner of eating or of speaking: _crunch_ (28) where the frosts crunch the grass: whereas they only make it crunchable. _maligns_ (54) used as a neuter verb without precedent, _chinked_ (58) of light passing through a chink: and note the homophone chink, used of sound. And then the line 'The blackthorns clung with heapen sloes' (55) contains two reprehensible liberties, because _clung_ in its original proper sense means congealed or shrivelled; to _cling_ was an intransitive verb meaning to adhere together: its modern use is to stick fast [to something]--and secondly, _heapen_ is not a grammatical form; the p.p. is _heaped_. Again, in the line 'He well may come with baits and trolls', (11) we do not know whether _trolls_ has something to do with pike-fishing, or merely means the reel on the rod. In that sense it lacks authority(?), moreover it is a homophone, used by our poet in 'And trolls and pixies unbeknown'. (18) Finally, there are a good many English country names for common plants, for example, Esau's-hands, Rabbits'-meat, Bee's balsams, Pepper-gourds, Brandy-flowers, Flannel-weed, and Shepherd's rose; and some of these are excellent, and we very much wish that more of our good English plant-names could be distinctively attached. We will not open the discussion here, except to say that the casual employment of local names is of no service because so many of these names are common to so many different plants. Our author's #Rabbits'-meat#, for instance, is applied to _Anthriscus sylvestris_, _Heracleum Spondylium_, _Oxalis Acetosella_ and _Lamium purpureum_; all of which may be suitable rabbits' food. But each one of these plants has also a very wide choice of other names: thus _Anthriscus sylvestris_, besides being _Rabbits-meat_ may be familiarly introduced as Dill, Keck, Ha-ho, or Bun, and by some score of other names showing it to be disputed for by the ass, cow, dog, pig and even by the devil himself to make his oatmeal. _Heracleum Spondylium_, alias Old Rot or Lumper-scrump, provides provender for cow, pig, swine, and hog, and also material for Bear's breeches. _Oxalis Acetosella_ is even richer in pet-names. After Rabbits'-meat, sheep-sorrel, cuckoo-spice, we find Hallelujah! Lady's cakes, and God Almighty's bread-and-cheese. These are selected from fifty names. _Lamium purpureum_ is not so polyonymous. With Tormentil, Archangel, and various forms of Dead-nettle, we find only Badman's Posies and Rabbits'-meat. The worst perplexity is that well-known names, which one would think were securely appropriated, are often common property. Our authority for the above details--the _Dictionary of English Plant-names_, by James Britten and Robert Holland--tells us that _Orchis mascula_, the 'male orchis', is also called Cowslip, Crowsfoot, Ragwort, and Cuckoo-flower. This plant, however, seems to have suggested to the rustic mind the most varied fancies, similitudes of all kinds from 'Aaron's beard' to 'kettle-pad'. * * * * * The Committee of the S.P.E. invite the membership of all those who are genuinely interested in the objects of the Society and willing to assist in its work. The Secretary will be glad to receive donations of any amount, great or small, which will be duly acknowledged and credited in the Society's banking account. Members who wish to have the tracts of the Society forwarded to them as they are issued, should ensure this by sending a subscription of 10_s_. to the Secretary, who will then supply them for the current year of their subscription. The four tracts published in the last year were thus sent to a number of subscribers; and it would greatly assist the Society if all these would renew their subscriptions, and if others would subscribe for our forthcoming publications in the same manner. All donations and subscriptions should be sent to the Hon. Secretary, L. PEARSALL SMITH, 11 ST. LEONARD'S TERRACE, S.W. 3. The prospectus of the Society will be found in Tract I, and further details in Tracts III and IV. 
20938	----	Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this file which includes the original illustrations. See 20938-h.htm or 20938-h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/2/0/9/3/20938/20938-h/20938-h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/2/0/9/3/20938/20938-h.zip) Transcriber's note: Superscripted letters are indicated by the carat character followed by the letter(s) within curly brackets. Example: ^{a} "STOPS" Or, How to Punctuate A Practical Handbook for Writers and Students by PAUL ALLARDYCE "For a reader that pointeth ill, A good sentence oft may spill." --CHAUCER--_Romaunt of the Rose_ London T. Fisher Unwin Ltd. Adelphi Terrace Eighteenth Impression 1895 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION THE FULL STOP THE COMMA THE SEMICOLON THE COLON THE POINT OF INTERROGATION THE MARK OF EXCLAMATION THE DASH BRACKETS (OR THE PARENTHESIS) INVERTED COMMAS ITALICS THE HYPHEN THE APOSTROPHE ELLIPSIS REFERENCES TO NOTES CORRECTION OF PROOFS INTRODUCTION _The Use of Punctuation._--Punctuation is a device for marking out the arrangement of a writer's ideas. Reading is thereby made easier than it otherwise would be. A writer's ideas are expressed by a number of words arranged in groups, the words in one group being more closely connected with one another than they are with those in the next group. An example will show this grouping in its simplest form: He never convinces the reason, or fills the imagination, ----------------------------- --------------------- or touches the heart. ----------------- To understand what is written, the reader must group the words together in the way intended by the writer; and in doing this he can receive assistance in various ways. Partly by the inflection of the words; partly by their arrangement; partly also by punctuation. As to inflection, we see in Latin an adjective and a substantive standing together, yet differing in gender, in number, or in case; and we know that the adjective does not qualify the substantive. But English has not the numerous inflections of Latin. More scrupulous care therefore is needed in the arrangement of words in order to bring together in position such as are connected in meaning. Yet this is not always enough. Except in the very simplest sentences there are generally several arrangements which are grammatically possible; and, though all save one may be absurd in meaning, the reader may waver for a moment before the absurdity strikes him. Some artificial aid is thus needed to prevent him from thinking of any arrangement but the right one. There is no fault, for instance, to be found with the arrangement of the following words, yet, printed without points, they form a mere puzzle: He had arrived already prepossessed with a strong feeling of the neglect which he had experienced from the Whigs his old friends however all of them appeared ravished to see him offered apologies for the mode in which they had treated him and caught at him as at a twig when they were drowning the influence of his talents they understood and were willing to see it thrown into the opposite scale. Of course, with a little effort the meaning can be discovered; but if such a little effort had to be put forth in every page of a whole book, reading would become a serious task. By means of points, or "stops," we are spared much of this. The groups are presented ready-made to the eye; and the mind, bent on understanding the thought, is not distracted by having first to discover the connection of the words. The reader's task is more difficult where two or more ways of grouping the words not only are grammatically possible, but lead each to a more or less intelligible meaning. As a rule he can find out from the context which way the writer meant him to take. One politician writes to another: "I ask you as the recognized leader of our party what you think of this measure;" and nobody accuses the writer of presumption. We might even pass over the following startling sentence without observing the reflection which it casts on a respectable body of men: Hence he considered marriage with a modern political economist as dangerous. But when we read that "the State may impose restrictions on the mothers of young children employed in factories," we may well have some doubt whether it is the mothers or the children who are employed in factories. And it would not be easy to give an answer, if we were asked to state the precise meaning of Gray's line: And all the air a solemn stillness holds. In longer and more involved sentences the risk of ambiguity is obviously much greater. Now by the judicious use of points ambiguous language can occasionally be made clear. "The mothers-of-young-children employed in factories" is no doubt a bold form, but it leaves us in no doubt as to the meaning. So the ambiguous word "too" does not embarrass us when we read: "This problem, too, easy as it may seem, remains unsolved." (See other examples under Rules XIV. and XV.) Only occasionally, however, can clearness be secured by punctuation. No pointing can help us much in Gray's line, or could have given to Pyrrhus the true reading of "Credo te Æacida Romanos vincere posse." And, even where it would make the meaning clear, it is a lazy device, the over-use of which is the sure sign of careless or unskilful composition. The true remedy for ambiguity is not punctuation, but re-writing. Punctuation, it is sometimes said, serves to mark the pauses that would be made in speaking. This is so far true; for by the pause we arrange our spoken words into proper groups, thereby enabling our hearers readily to seize the meaning. But between the punctuation of the pen and that of the voice there is a great difference in degree. By the voice we can express the most delicate shades of thought, while only in the roughest way can the comma, the semicolon, and the other points, imitate its effects. As to how far the attempt at imitation should be carried, every writer will have to use his own discretion; but, whether we point freely or sparingly, we must for the reader's sake point consistently. It should at the same time be borne in mind that the lavish use of points often leads to confusion. _General Rules._--Keeping in view the use of punctuation, we can now form two general rules to guide us when we are in doubt which point we should insert, or whether we should insert a point at all. (1) _The point that will keep the passage most free from ambiguity, or make it easiest to read, is the right point to use._ (2) _If the passage be perfectly free from ambiguity and be not less easy to understand without any point, let no point be used._ _The Relativity of Points._--In order to decide in any given case what point ought to be used, we begin by considering the nature of the pause in itself. But we must do more. We must consider how we have pointed the rest of the passage. The pause that should be marked by a comma in one case, may require a semicolon in another case; the colon may take the place that the semicolon would generally fill. This will be best understood by means of the examples that will afterwards be given. (See Rules XXIII., XXV.) _Usage._--Except within somewhat narrow limits, usage does not help us much. Different writers have different methods, and few are consistent. To some extent there is a fair degree of uniformity; for instance, in the placing of colons before quotations, and in the use of inverted commas. But in many cases there can hardly be said to be any fixed usage, and in these we can freely apply the general rules already laid down. Much might be said for a complete disregard of usage, for a thorough recasting of our system of punctuation. Sooner or later something must be done to relieve the overburdened comma of part of the work which it is expected to perform. Not only is the comma a less effective point than it might be, but the habit of using it for so many purposes is exercising a really mischievous effect on English style. In the meantime, and as a step towards a better system, there is an evident advantage in giving to the existing vague usage a more or less precise form. Nothing more than this has been aimed at in the present work. In giving rules of punctuation we cannot hope to deal with all, or with nearly all, the cases that may arise in writing. Punctuation is intimately connected with style. As forms of thought are infinite in number, so are the modes of expression; and punctuation, adapting itself to these, is an instrument capable of manipulation in a thousand ways. We can therefore set forth only some typical cases, forming a body of examples to which a little reflection will suggest a variety both of applications and of exceptions. It will be noticed that we do not take the points exactly in their order of strength. It seemed better to deal with the full stop before passing to the punctuation of the parts of a sentence. Again, it may be said that, strictly speaking, italics do not form part of the subject. But they are at any rate so intimately connected with it that to have passed them over would have been merely pedantic. Even the sections on references to notes and on the correction of proofs may not be considered altogether out of place. As few grammatical terms as possible have been made use of. Some have been found necessary in order to secure the brevity of statement proper to a little work on a little subject. THE FULL STOP I. A full stop is placed at the end of every sentence that is neither exclamatory nor interrogative. A penal statute is virtually annulled if the penalties which it imposes are regularly remitted as often as they are incurred. The sovereign was undoubtedly competent to remit penalties without limit. He was, therefore, competent to annul virtually a penal statute. It might seem that there could be no serious objection to his doing formally what he might do virtually. How much should be put into a sentence is rather a matter of style than of punctuation. The tendency of modern literature is in favour of the short sentence. In the prose of Milton and of Jeremy Taylor, the full stop does not come to release the thought till all the circumstances have been grouped around it, and the necessary qualifications made. In Macaulay the circumstances and the qualifications are set out sentence by sentence. So the steps of reasoning in the example which we have given are stated with that distinct pause between each of them which the reader would make if he thought them out for himself. They might be welded together thus: Seeing that a penal statute is virtually annulled if the penalties which it imposes are regularly remitted as often as they are incurred, and seeing that the sovereign was undoubtedly competent to remit penalties without limit, it follows that he was competent to annul virtually a penal statute; and it might seem that there could be no serious objection to his doing formally what he might do virtually. Both forms are correct in point of punctuation. Which is the better form is a question of style. Take another example: The sides of the mountain were covered with trees; the banks of the brooks were diversified with flowers; every blast shook spices from the rocks; and every mouth dropped fruits upon the ground. There is here an advantage in putting these four statements together, instead of making four separate sentences. We can more easily combine the details, and so form a single picture--a picture of fertility. II. As a rule the full stop is not to be inserted till the sentence be grammatically complete. But some parts of the sentence necessary to make it grammatically complete may be left for the reader to supply. It is well said, in every sense, that a man's religion is the chief fact with regard to him. A man's or a nation of men's. By religion I do not mean here the church-creed which he professes, the articles of faith which he will sign and, in words or otherwise, assert. Not this wholly, in many cases not this at all. III. When a sentence is purposely left unfinished, the dash takes the place of the full stop. (See Rule XL.) "Excuse me," said I, "but I am a sort of collector." "Not Income-tax?" cried His Majesty, hastily removing his pipe from his lips. IV. A full stop is placed after most abbreviations, after initial letters, and after ordinal numbers in Roman characters. Gen. i. 20; two lbs.; A.D. 1883; 3 p.m.; &c., and etc.; M.D., J. S. Mill; William III., King of England; MS., LL.D. (not M.S. and L.L.D.). Note that the use of the full stop in these cases does not prevent another point from being used immediately after it. But if they occur at the end of a sentence, another full stop is not added; or, more correctly, it may be said that Rule IV. does not apply at the end of a sentence. "Mr," "Messrs," "Dr"--abbreviations which retain the last letter of the whole word--are written without a point. THE COMMA V. The comma indicates a short pause in a sentence. It is used when we wish to separate words that stand together, and at the same time to stop as little as possible the flow of the sentence. When the earl reached his own province, he found that preparations had been made to repel him. Though it is difficult, or almost impossible, to reclaim a savage, bred from his youth to war and the chase, to the restraints and the duties of civilized life, nothing is more easy or common than to find men who have been educated in all the habits and comforts of improved society, willing to exchange them for the wild labours of the hunter and the fisher. VI. Where there is no danger of obscurity, the subject must not be separated from the predicate by any point. The eminence of your station gave you a commanding prospect of your duty. VII. When the subject is long, a comma may be placed after it. To say that he endured without a murmur the misfortune that now came upon him, is to say only what his previous life would have led us to expect. In every sentence the subject, whether expressed in one word or in several words, must be grasped as a whole; and, when the subject is long, one is often assisted in doing this by having a point to mark its termination. The eye at once observes the separating line. Note the corresponding pause in the reading of such sentences. VIII. When the subject consists of several parts, _e.g._, of several nouns, a comma is placed after the last part. A few daring jests, a brawl, and a fatal stab, make up the life of Marlowe. Time, money, and friends, were needed to carry on the work. This rule will appear reasonable if we consider an apparent exception to it. When the last noun sums up all the others, or marks the highest point of a climax, no comma is placed after it. Freedom, honour, religion was at stake. If "religion" be regarded as marking the highest point of a climax, the predicate is read with "religion," and with it alone. When so great a thing as religion is said to be at stake, everything else is dropped out of sight, or is held to be included. But write the three names as if they were of equal importance; the comma should then be inserted: Freedom, honour, and religion, were at stake. But it is not necessary to use a point in such a sentence as this: "Time and tide wait for no man." For we see without the aid of a point that the predicate is to be read with the two nouns equally. The principle might be applied also in cases like the following, though few writers carry it so far: It was the act of a high-spirited, generous, just nation. It was the act of a high-spirited, generous, and just, nation. IX. Dependent clauses are generally separated from the rest of the sentence in which they occur. The usual point is the comma. Be his motives what they may, he must soon disperse his followers. This relation of your army to the crown will, if I am not greatly mistaken, become a serious dilemma in your politics. Of course, this rule must be qualified by the rules for the stronger points, especially by those for the semicolon and the colon. It is often necessary to separate the clause from the rest of the sentence by a strong point. EXCEPTIONS.--(I) No point is needed if either the dependent clause or the principal clause be short. He would be shocked if he were to know the truth. But if the dependent clause be inserted parenthetically, it is marked off by commas or the other marks of parenthesis, however short it may be. (See Rule X.) If the sentence last quoted were inverted, a comma would be placed after the dependent clause. If he were to know the truth, he would be shocked. In the first form of this example, "he would be shocked" is a definite, finished statement, the necessary qualification to which should follow with as little pause as possible. But in the inverted form, the first part of the sentence--"if he were to know the truth"--is not a finished statement, and the mind may pause for a moment before going on to the consequence, knowing that the consequence must follow. (2) No point is needed if there be a very close grammatical connection between the dependent clause and some word or words preceding it. They had so long brooded over their own distresses that they knew nothing of how the world was changing around them. Note that by the word "so" the clause "that they knew nothing" is joined very closely to the previous part of the sentence; and that the two clauses "that they knew nothing" and "how the world was changing around them," are even more closely joined to one another by the preposition "of." For the same reason, where the object is a clause, there is no point before it. He confessed to us that he had not thought over the matter. A useful distinction will afterwards be drawn between the different kinds of relative clauses. (Rule XIV.) X. Words thrown in so as to interrupt slightly the flow of a sentence are marked off by commas. He resolved, therefore, to visit the prisoner early in the morning. This, I think, is the right view of the case. The first ideas of beauty formed by the mind are, in all probability, derived from colours. The following are some of the words and phrases that come under this rule: _therefore_, _too_, _indeed_, _however_, _moreover_, _then_, _accordingly_, _consequently_; _in short_, _in fine_, _in truth_, _in fact_, _to a certain extent_, _all things considered_. This rule of high pointing should be applied very sparingly, and might really be restricted to cases like the "I think" of the second example. Nowadays the tendency is against the pointing of such words as "therefore" and "indeed." Where the words thrown in make a very distinct break in the sentence, they should be pointed off by means of the dash or of brackets. XI. Where two parts of a sentence have some words in common, which are not expressed for each of them, but are given only when the words in which they differ have been separately stated, the second part is marked off by commas. His classification is different from, and more comprehensive than, any other which we have met. This foundation is a nursing-mother of lay, as distinguished from religious, oratorios. These examples come within the principle of Rule X. XII. When words are common to two or more parts of a sentence, and are expressed only in one part, a comma is often used to show that they are omitted in the other parts. London is the capital of England; Paris, of France; Berlin, of Germany. In the worst volume of elder date, the historian may find something to assist or direct his enquiries; the antiquarian, something to elucidate what requires illustration; the philologist, something to insert in the margin of his dictionary. Though many writers constantly punctuate contracted sentences in this way, it is well not to insert the comma when the meaning is equally clear without it. It is unnecessary in the following sentence: Saul hath slain his thousands, and David his ten thousands. XIII. Words placed out of their natural position in the sentence are often followed by a comma. (1) The object is usually placed after the verb; when placed at the beginning of the sentence, it should be separated from the subject by a comma, unless the meaning would otherwise be perfectly clear and be readily seized. The proportions of belief and of unbelief in the human mind in such cases, no human judgment can determine. There is the same reason for inserting the comma in such cases as there is for inserting it after a long subject. Moreover, there is often need of some device to remove the ambiguities that are caused by inversion. In English, the meaning of words is so greatly determined by their position that, in altering the usual arrangement of a sentence, there is risk of being misunderstood. The danger of inserting the point in this case is that the object may be read with the words going before, and not with its own verb. If there is a possibility of this, the point should not be used. Of course no point should be placed after the object in such a sentence as the following:--"One I love, and the other I hate." (2) An adverbial phrase, that is a phrase used as an adverb, is usually placed after the verb; when it begins the sentence, a comma follows it unless it is very short. From the ridge a little way to the east, one can easily trace the windings of the river. In order to gain his point, he did not hesitate to use deception. In ordinary circumstances I should have acted differently. No point would be used in the above sentences, if the adverbial phrases occurred in their usual position. He did not hesitate to use deception in order to gain his point. Nor is any point used when, as often happens in such sentences, the verb precedes the subject. Not very far from the foot of the mountain lies the village we hope to reach. (3) An adjective phrase, that is a phrase used as an adjective, is usually placed immediately after the word which it qualifies; when it appears in any other place, a comma is often usefully placed before it. A question was next put to the assembly, of supreme importance at such a moment. The phrase "of supreme importance at such a moment" is to be taken along with "question"; the comma shows that it is not to be taken along with "assembly." There is here a further reason for the point, inasmuch as the phrase acquires from its position almost the importance of an independent statement. But, where the connexion between the adjective phrase and the substantive is very close, and where there is no risk of ambiguity, no point is to be used. "The morning was come of a mighty day"--such a sentence needs no point. Observe also that co-ordinate adjective phrases take a comma before them, wherever they are placed. (See next rule.) XIV. Adjective clauses and contracted adjective clauses are marked off by commas, if they are used parenthetically or co-ordinately; no point is used if they are used restrictively.[1] The "Religio Laici," which borrows its title from the "Religio Medici" of Browne, is almost the only work of Dryden which can be considered as a voluntary effusion. That sentiment of homely benevolence was worth all the splendid sayings that are recorded of kings. The advocates for this revolution, not satisfied with exaggerating the vices of their ancient government, strike at the fame of their country itself. The ships bound on these voyages were not advertised. Chapter VII., where we stopped reading, is full of interest. The chapter where we stopped reading is full of interest. We must explain this distinction at some length; for, on the one hand, it is hardly ever observed, and, on the other hand, almost every sentence that we write furnishes an example of it. [Footnote 1: To distinguish the different kinds of adjective clauses, different names have been used: "co-ordinating" and "restrictive" (Bain); "continuative" and "definitive," or "restrictive" (Mason).] Examine the first sentence which we have quoted. It contains both a co-ordinate clause, "Which borrows its title," &c., and a restrictive clause, "Which can be considered as a voluntary effusion." In distinguishing them we may begin by applying tests of almost a mechanical nature. (_a_) The first clause may be thrown into the form of an independent statement; the second cannot. Thus: "The 'Religio Laici' borrows its title from the 'Religio Medici' of Browne. It is almost the only work," &c.; or, "The 'Religio Laici' (it borrows its title from the 'Religio Medici' of Browne) is almost the only work," &c. We cannot in the same way destroy the close connexion of the second clause with "the only work of Dryden." (_b_) The first clause may be omitted and still leave a complete and intelligent sentence; if we were to omit the second clause, the sentence would cease to have any meaning. These tests may be practically useful; but they are rough and by no means infallible. Let us see the reason for the distinction. The name "Religio Laici" of itself tells us what thing is spoken about. It is the name of one thing, and only of one thing. The clause that follows informs us, indeed, of a fact concerning the poem; but the information is given purely as information, not in order to keep us from confounding this "Religio Laici" with some other "Religio Laici" that did not borrow its title. "Work of Dryden," however, is the name of a class, for Dryden wrote many works. Now the whole class is not here in question; it must be limited, narrowed, or restricted, to one part of it, namely Dryden's voluntary effusions; and it is thus limited, narrowed, or restricted, by the relative clause "which can be considered as a voluntary effusion." Take another example, where the name in both cases is that of a class, and note the difference of meaning which results from different pointing:--"The houses in London which are badly built, ought to be pulled down." "The houses in London" expresses a class of objects; the relative clause limits the name to a smaller class, the badly built houses; and the meaning is, that houses of this smaller class ought to be pulled down. Now insert the comma:--"The houses in London, which are badly built, ought to be pulled down." The class is not narrowed; and the meaning is, that all houses in London, seeing they are badly built, ought to be pulled down. The difference between the two kinds of relative clauses being understood, there will be no difficulty in applying the rule where an adjective clause is contracted. Compare the fourth example given under the rule with the following sentence:--"People not satisfied with their present condition, should strive to alter it." In this sentence "not satisfied" limits the general name "people"; the advice is given only to one section of the people: the dissatisfied as distinguished from the satisfied people. So a single adjective may be used co-ordinately: "What!" replied the Emperor, "you do not see it? It is my star, brilliant." This is a case where a dash would be more expressive. Note that the rule applies only where the adjunct immediately follows the substantive. If the adjunct is placed elsewhere, different considerations apply. See Rule XIII. (3). Neither can any man marvel at the play of puppets, that goeth behind the curtain and adviseth well of the motion. XV. Words in apposition are generally marked off by commas. James Watt, the great improver of the steam-engine, died on the 25th of August, 1819. But where the words in apposition are used in a limiting or distinguishing sense, the principle of Rule XIV. applies, and no point is used. Thus we should write "Burns, the poet," "Dickens, the novelist"; but, if we wished to distinguish them from another Burns and another Dickens, we should omit the comma. It is of Pliny the naturalist, not of Pliny the letter-writer, that we are now speaking. Again, where the general name precedes, we should in most cases use no point, for the special name will be restrictive: "the poet Burns," "the novelist Dickens." There is, perhaps, not much authority for the consistent carrying out of this distinction; but it seems useful and logical. Some cases, such as "Paul the Apostle," "William the Conqueror," "Thomas the Rhymer," "Peter the Hermit," present no difficulty. The name and the descriptive title are blended together, and form as distinctly one name as does "Roderick Random." XVI. A conjunction marks a transition to something new--enforcing, qualifying, or explaining, what has gone before, and is therefore generally preceded by some point. The proper point before a conjunction is determined by many circumstances: among others, by the more or less close connexion of the things joined, by the number of words, and by the use of points for other purposes in the same sentence. To deal with the different conjunctions one by one, would involve a repetition of much that is said in other rules. For instance, _if_, _unless_, _though_, _for_, _because_, _since_, and the like, will be pointed in accordance with Rule IX. It will be well, however, to lay down separate rules for the pointing of the common conjunctions, _and_ and _or_. 1. _AND._--(a) Where "and" joins two single words, as a rule no point is used. No work has been so much studied and discussed. Compare this with the following sentence, where groups of words are joined. The work has been much studied, and has been much discussed. In the following sentence the insertion of a comma would change the meaning. On this shelf you will put books and pamphlets published in the present year. As the sentence stands, "published in the present year" applies both to books and to pamphlets: books published in the present year, and pamphlets published in the present year. If there were a comma before "and," the meaning would be: "On this shelf you will put books of any date, and pamphlets of the present year." (b) When "and" joins the separate words of a series of three or more words, a comma is placed before it. Trees, and bridges, and houses, were swept down by the flooded stream. (c) But where the different words are intended to be combined quickly, so as to present to the mind only one picture, they would be spoken without any pause, and in writing must not be separated by any point. Whirling and boiling and roaring like thunder, the stream came down upon them. (d) Two of the words of the series may be more closely connected with one another than with the other words of the series, and are, therefore, not to be separated by any point. In the following sentence, "all" qualifies both "tracts" and "pamphlets," and thus joins them closely. My unbound books, and all my tracts and pamphlets, are to be tied up with pink tape. (e) When "and" occurs only between the two last words of the series, the comma is usually inserted before it. Trumpets, drums, and kettle-drums, contended in noise with the shouts of a numerous rabble. Many writers omit this comma. But it seems useful in order to make the previous rule (_d_) effective. 2. When "and" joins two phrases, a comma generally precedes it. The ceremony was performed in the accustomed manner, and with due solemnity. If, as in the following sentence, a preposition is common to two phrases, and is not repeated in the second, no comma is used. With proper care and good instruments, the work may be successfully carried out. 3. When "and" joins two clauses, the preceding point may be the comma, the semicolon, or even the full stop. Which point is right in any particular case, will depend upon considerations set out in other rules. The following example illustrates different cases: Within that charmed rock, so Torridge boatmen tell, sleeps now the old Norse Viking in his leaden coffin, with all his fairy treasure and his crown of gold; and, as the boy looks at the spot, he fancies, and almost hopes, that the day may come when he shall have to do his duty against the invader as boldly as the men of Devon did then. And past him, far below, upon the soft south-eastern breeze, the stately ships go sliding out to sea. _OR._--The rules for the conjunction "and" apply with little change to the conjunction "or"; but there are one or two special points to note. (a) When "or" is preceded at no great distance by "either" or "whether," the two words should be separated by no point. They must either yield this point or resign. It does not matter whether we go or stay. But a point is inserted if the words stand farther apart, or if each is followed by a complete clause. Either this road leads to the town, or we have misunderstood the directions. (b) "Or," joining two alternatives, takes no point before it; but when it joins two words that are used, not as real alternatives, but as synonyms, a comma is inserted. England or France might be asked to join the alliance. Here "or" is used as a real alternative conjecture, and therefore without any point. In the following examples, the "or" joins equivalent expressions: England, or the nation of shopkeepers, would never be asked to join such an alliance. We perceive, or are conscious of, nothing but changes, or events. As a reason for the insertion of the comma in these two examples, it may be said that the repetition of an idea already expressed does for a moment stop the flow of the sentence. A real alternative, on the other hand, forms an essential part of it, and is within its current. XVII. In cases where no point would be used before a conjunction, a comma is inserted if the conjunction be omitted. I pay this tribute to the memory of that noble, reverend, learned, excellent person. In the following examples no point occurs; for it cannot be said that a conjunction is omitted. To insert the conjunction would be to express a slightly different shade of meaning: A grand old man. Three tall young soldiers. "Old man" is virtually a single word and in fact many languages use only a single word to express the idea. XVIII. Where a comma would be used if the conjunction were expressed, some stronger point may be used if it be omitted. Let us get an American revenue as we have got an American Empire. English privileges have made it all that it is; English privileges alone will make it all that it can be. XIX. A comma is placed after a noun or a pronoun in the vocative case, if a mark of exclamation be not used, or be reserved till the first distinct pause in the sentence. Yet I own, my lord, that yours is not an uncommon character. I am, Sir, yours truly, John Smith. O Italy, gather thy blood into thy heart! O Thou, who in the heavens dost dwell! Whether a comma or a mark of exclamation ought to be used after the vocative case, depends entirely on the degree of emphasis with which the words would be spoken. If, in speaking, a slight pause would be made, the comma, not the mark of exclamation, is the proper point. XX. If a word be repeated in order to give it intensive force, a comma follows it each time that it occurs; but, in the case of an adjective repeated before a noun, not after the last expression of it. It was work, work, work, from morning till night. He travelled a long, long way. Dean Alford, in "The Queen's English," says that this mode of pointing such expressions as "the wide wide world," "the deep deep sea," makes them absolute nonsense. The suggestion of a pause seems to us to bring out more effectively the intensive force of the repetition. And we doubt whether Dean Alford himself would have omitted the comma in our first example. THE SEMICOLON XXI. The semicolon is the point usually employed to separate parts of a sentence between which there is a very distinct break, but which are too intimately connected to be made separate sentences. The patient dates his pleasure from the day when he feels that his cure has begun; and, perhaps, the day of his perfect re-establishment does not yield him pleasure so great. The author himself is the best judge of his own performance; no one has so deeply meditated on the subject; no one is so sincerely interested in the event. Not one word is said, nor one suggestion made, of a general right to choose our own governors; to cashier them for misconduct; and to form a government for ourselves. The semicolon is used in enumerations, as in the last example, in order to keep the parts more distinctly separate. XXII. When a sentence consists of two or more independent clauses not joined by conjunctions, the clauses are separated by semicolons. To command a crime is to commit one; he who commands an assassination, is by every one regarded as an assassin. His knowledge was too multifarious to be always exact; his pursuits were too eager to be always cautious. If the conjunction "and" were inserted in the last sentence, the comma would be used instead of the semicolon. A conjunction forms a bridge over the gap between two statements, and, where they are neither long nor complicated, we pass from one to the other without noticing any distinct break. But there is such a break when the conjunction is omitted, and therefore we use a stronger point. The two parts of an antithesis are generally separated in this way. XXIII. A pause generally indicated by a comma may be indicated by a semicolon when commas are used in the sentence for other purposes. (See _Introduction: Relativity of Points_.) I got several things of less value, but not all less useful to me, which I omitted setting down before: as, in particular, pens, ink, and paper; several parcels in the captain's, mate's, gunner's, and carpenter's keeping; three or four compasses, some mathematical instruments, dials, perspectives, charts, and books of navigation. In this I was certainly in the wrong too, the honest, grateful creature having no thought but what consisted of the best principles, both as a religious Christian and as a grateful friend; as appeared afterward to my full satisfaction. In the first sentence the semicolon enables us to group the objects enumerated. Had commas been used throughout, the reader would have been left to find out the arrangement for himself. THE COLON XXIV. The colon is used to indicate pauses more abrupt than those indicated by the semicolon. God has willed it: submit in thankfulness. The wind raged, and the rain beat against the window: it was a miserable day. Nevertheless, you will say that there must be a difference between true poetry and true speech not poetical: what is the difference? The first example contains two clauses that are connected in such a way as to justify us in putting them into one sentence; that it is God's will, is a reason for submitting. The proper point therefore should be something less than the full stop. But there is a striking difference between the clauses; for we pass from an affirmation to a command. Therefore something more than the semicolon is needed. Had the clauses been similar in construction, the pause would have been sufficiently indicated by the semicolon: "God has willed it; man has resisted." In the second example there is not the same change of grammatical construction, but the change in thought is equally great; we pass from a statement of details to a statement of the general result. The colon is frequently used in sentences of this kind, where the phrase "in short" is implied but is not expressed. Many writers indicate such abrupt changes by means of the dash. XXV. A pause generally indicated by a semicolon may be indicated by a colon, when the semicolon is used in the sentence for pauses of a different nature. The "Essay" plainly appears the fabric of a poet: what Bolingbroke supplied could be only the first principles; the order, illustration, and embellishments, must all be Pope's. Not that we are to think that Homer wanted judgment, because Virgil had it in a more eminent degree; or that Virgil wanted invention, because Homer possessed a larger share of it: each of these great authors had more of both than, perhaps, any man besides, and are only said to have less in comparison with one another. Homer hurries and transports us with a commanding impetuosity; Virgil leads us with an attractive majesty: Homer scatters with a generous profusion; Virgil bestows with a careful magnificence. Compare these examples with those given to show how the semicolon replaces the comma. (Rule XXIII.) Note also how the last sentence is divided in the middle into two parts, and that each of these two parts is itself divided into two parts. By Rule XXII. the second division is indicated by the semicolon; and we bring out the grouping of the sentence by using a colon for the first division. XXVI. The colon is used before enumerations, especially where "namely," or "viz.," is implied but is not expressed; and when so used it is sometimes followed by the dash. Three nations adopted this law: England, France, and Germany. One thing thou lackest: go thy way, sell whatsoever thou hast, and give to the poor. Dr Johnson's chief works are the following:--"Rasselas," The Dictionary, "The Lives of the Poets," and "The Vanity of Human Wishes." When, as in the last example, a list of things is given in a formal way, the dash is generally added. The combination of the two points is partly an attempt to find a point stronger than the colon and not so strong as the full stop, partly, perhaps, an imitation of a finger-post. XXVII. The colon is generally placed before a quotation, when notice of the quotation is given by some introductory words. In this case also the dash is sometimes used. In this passage exception may fairly be taken to one short sentence, that in which he says: "The law ought to forbid it, because conscience does not permit it." On the last morning of his life he wrote these words:--"I have named none to their disadvantage. I thank God He hath supported me wonderfully." The colon and the dash are used together where the quotation is introduced by formal words such as the following:--"He spoke these words," "he spoke as follows," "he made this speech." But, in the first sentence quoted above, the introductory words are grammatically incomplete without the quotation, which forms the object of the verb "says"; the colon accordingly is the strongest point that can be used. Sometimes the connexion between the introductory words and the quotation may be so close, or the quotation itself may be so short, as to make the comma sufficient. He kept repeating to us, "The world has sadly changed." Short phrases quoted in the course of the sentence need not have any point before them. It was a usual saying of his own, that he had "no genius for friendship." XXVIII. The colon may be placed after such words and phrases as the following, when used in marking a new stage in an argument:--Again, further, to proceed, to sum up, to resume. To sum up: If you will conform to the conditions I have mentioned, I will sign the agreement. But to bring this sermon to its proper conclusion: If Astrea, or Justice, never finally took her leave of the world till the day that, &c. After these words, we have a choice of the comma, the colon, and the full stop. The comma will generally be used if the argument be contained in a single sentence; the full stop, if the argument be of very considerable length. THE POINT OF INTERROGATION XXIX. The point of interrogation is placed after a direct question. Where are you going, my pretty maid? Whether of them twain did the will of his father? The question may end in the middle of a sentence: Is he happy? you ask. We have sometimes the choice of putting the point of interrogation in the middle or at the end of the sentence. You would not consent to that, by whomsoever proposed. You would not consent to that?--by whomsoever proposed. There is a slight shade of difference in meaning; in the second form, "by whomsoever proposed" is added as an afterthought. XXX. Indirect questions are not strictly questions at all, and therefore should not be followed by a point of interrogation. He asked me whether I had seen his friend; whether I had spoken to him; and how I liked him. If we restore these questions to the direct form, the point of interrogation is inserted. He asked me: "Have you seen my friend? Have you spoken to him? How do you like him?" XXXI. When a sentence contains more than one question, sometimes the point of interrogation is placed after each of them, sometimes it is placed only at the end of the sentence. It is placed after each, if each is in reality a distinct question; it is placed only at the end, if the separate questions so unite as to need but a single answer. In many cases it will be a matter of individual taste to say whether they do so unite. Is it better that estates should be held by those who have no duty than by those who have one? by those whose character and destination point to virtues than by those who have no rule and direction in the expenditure of their estates but their own will and appetite? Do you imagine that it is the Land Tax Act which raises your revenue, that it is the annual vote in the Committee of Supply which gives you your army, or that it is the Mutiny Bill which inspires it with bravery and discipline? No! surely no! Oh! why should Hymen ever blight The roses Cupid wore? Or why should it be ever night Where it was day before? Or why should women have a tongue, Or why should it be cursed, In being, like my Second, long, And louder than my First? XXXII. Exclamations in an interrogative form take a mark of exclamation after them, not a point of interrogation. (See Rule XXXV.) XXXIII. A point of interrogation enclosed within brackets is sometimes used to indicate that there is a doubt whether the statement preceding it is true, or whether the expression preceding it is well applied, or that some statement or expression is made or used ironically. While you are revelling in the delights (?) of the London season, I am leading a hermit life, with no companions save my books. THE MARK OF EXCLAMATION XXXIV. The mark of exclamation is placed after interjections and words used interjectionally; that is to say, after expressions of an exclamatory nature. The exclamation may be one of surprise or of fear, or the utterance of a wish, a command, or a prayer. Quick! Begone! Out of my sight! Heaven preserve us! Would that better feelings moved them! O Lord, be merciful unto me, a sinner! Interjections are not always followed immediately, and are sometimes not allowed at all, by a mark of exclamation. No rule can be given more precise than this: (1) That we should not insert a mark of exclamation immediately after an interjection, unless we should make a distinct pause after it in speaking; and (2) that no mark of exclamation is to be used at all, unless the exclamatory nature of the sentence is more or less strongly marked. It is useful to notice the difference between "O" and "Oh." The former is used only before the vocative case, and never has a mark of exclamation, or indeed any point, placed immediately after it. Alas! all our hopes are blasted. Lo, he cometh! O Dido, Dido, most unhappy Dido! Unhappy wife, still more unhappy widow! Oh, do not reckon that old debt to my account to-day! XXXV. The mark of exclamation is placed after sentences which, though interrogatory in form, are really exclamatory. How could he have been so foolish! And shall he never see an end to this state of things! Shall he never have the due reward of labour! Shall unsparing taxation never cease to make him a miserable dejected being, a creature famishing in the midst of abundance, fainting, expiring with hunger's feeble moan, surrounded by a carolling creation! This rule might be put in another way by saying that a mark of exclamation, and not a point of interrogation, is placed after what are called rhetorical questions, or statements made more striking by being put in the form of questions. They are not asked for the sake of receiving a direct answer, and are in reality exclamations. Still all rhetorical questions are not thus punctuated; the point of interrogation is sometimes more effective. The sentences quoted under Rule XXXI. would lose much of their force if marks of exclamation were used. In each case we must decide whether the sentence strikes us most as a question or as the expression of emotion. XXXVI. The mark of exclamation is sometimes placed after an ironical statement. They did not fight, tens against thousands; they did not fight for wives and children, but for lands and plunder: therefore they are heroes! The mark of exclamation keeps up the semblance of seriousness which is of the essence of irony. XXXVII. The mark of exclamation is placed after the statement of some absurdity. He has been labouring to prove that Shakespeare's plays were written by Bacon! To him the parliamentary vote was a panacea for all human ills, and the ballot-box an object as sacred as the Holy Grail to a knight of the Round Table! The same reason applies to its use after such sentences as after ironical statements. XXXVIII. The mark of exclamation may be placed after any impressive or striking thought. The Angel of Death has been abroad throughout the land: you may almost hear the very beating of his wings! It may be doubted whether the mark of exclamation is in such cases of any great service; for the impressiveness of a sentence ought to appear in the sentence itself, or to be given to it by the context. There is a real danger, as the style of many people shows, in thinking that punctuation is intended to save the trouble of careful composition. In putting the mark after pure exclamations, usage is more or less uniform; with regard to impressive sentences, we are left entirely to our own discretion. XXXIX. When a sentence contains more than one exclamation, sometimes the mark of exclamation is placed only after the last, sometimes it is placed after each of them, the test being whether or not they are in reality, as well as in form, several exclamations. (Compare Rule XXXI.) Though all are thus satisfied with the dispensations of Nature, how few listen to her voice! how few follow her as a guide! What a mighty work he has thus brought to a successful end, with what perseverance, what energy, with what fruitfulness of resource! THE DASH XL. The chief purpose of the dash is to indicate that something is left unfinished. Accordingly, it marks a sudden, or abrupt, change in the grammatical structure of a sentence. When I remember how we have worked together, and together borne misfortune; when I remember--but what avails it to remember? And all this long story was about--what do you think? "We cannot hope to succeed, unless----" "But we must succeed." Note that it is the long dash that is used at the end of a sentence. The full stop is not added where the dash marks an unfinished sentence. But it is common to add the point of interrogation or the mark of exclamation. XLI. The dash is used to mark a faltering or hesitating speech. Well--I don't know--that is--no, I cannot accept it. XLII. An unexpected turn of the thought may be marked by the dash. He entereth smiling and--embarrassed. He holdeth out his hand to you to shake, and--draweth it back again. He casually looketh in about dinner-time--when the table is full. He offereth to go away, seeing you have company--but is induced to stay. French history tends naturally to memoirs and anecdotes, in which there is no improvement to desire but that they were--true. XLIII. When the subject of a sentence is of such length, or of such complexity, that its connexion with the verb might easily be lost sight of, it is sometimes left hanging in the sentence, and its place supplied by some short expression that sums it up. A dash follows the subject when thus abandoned. Physical Science, including Chemistry, Geology, Geography, Astronomy; Metaphysics, Philology, Theology; Economics, including Taxation and Finance; Politics and General Literature--all occupied by turn, and almost simultaneously, his incessantly active mind. The colon is sometimes used in such cases; but the dash seems preferable, as it is the point that marks a change in the structure of a sentence. XLIV. The dash is sometimes used instead of brackets before and after a parenthesis. This was amongst the strongest pledges for thy truth, that never once--no, not for a moment of weakness--didst thou revel in the vision of coronets and honour from man. XLV. The dash is sometimes used instead of the colon, where the word "namely" is implied, but is not expressed. The most extreme example of such theories is perhaps to be found in the attempt to distribute all law under the two great commandments--love to God, and love to one's neighbour. In this sentence, however, the colon is preferable. (See Rule XXVI.). The dash should be used for this purpose only when it is necessary to use the colon in the same sentence for other purposes. XLVI. The dash is used in rhetorical repetition; for instance, where one part of the sentence, such as the subject, is repeated at intervals throughout the sentence, and the rest of the sentence is kept suspended. Cannot you, in England--cannot you, at this time of day--cannot you, a House of Commons, trust to the principle which has raised so mighty a revenue? XLVII. A dash following a full stop occurs between the side-heading of a paragraph and the paragraph itself. _Extent and Boundaries._--England (including Wales) is bounded on the north by Scotland; on the west by the Irish Sea, St George's Channel, and the Atlantic Ocean; on the south by the English Channel; and on the east by the German Ocean. XLVIII. When we place after a quotation the name of the author from whom it is taken, the full stop and the dash are used in the same way. "One touch of nature makes the whole word kin."--_Shakespeare._ XLIX. The dash is sometimes used in place of, or in addition to, other points, in order to indicate a pause greater than usual. Now where is the revenue which is to do all these mighty things? Five-sixths repealed--abandoned-sunk--gone--lost for ever. The highest rank;--a splendid fortune;--and a name, glorious till it was yours,--were sufficient to have supported you with meaner abilities than I think you possess. There is seldom any reason for the use of double points. In the last example they cannot be said to be of any real service. But the dash may sometimes be rightly employed in addition to the full stop, in order to mark a division of discourse midway between the sentence and the paragraph. Even Cobbett, who abhors the dash, permits it to be used for this purpose. The report of a conversation is often printed in this way. BRACKETS (OR THE PARENTHESIS.[1]) L. When a clause not strictly belonging to a sentence is thrown in, so to speak, in passing, the clause is enclosed within brackets. [Footnote 1: It seems better to use the term "brackets" both for the curved and for the square brackets. "Parenthesis" can then be kept to its proper use, as the name for the words themselves which form the break in the sentence. We may note that in like manner the terms "comma," "colon," "semicolon," originally signified divisions of a sentence, not marks denoting the divisions. "Period" meant a complete sentence; and it still retains the meaning, somewhat specialized.] It is said, because the priests are paid by the people (the pay is four shillings per family yearly), therefore they object to their leaving. In full confidence of this unalterable truth, I now (_quod felix faustumque sit_) lay the first stone of the Temple of Peace. Over and above the enclosing brackets, a parenthesis causes no change in the punctuation of the sentence that contains it; in other words, if we were to omit the parenthesis, no change ought to be necessary in the punctuation of the rest of the sentence. The comma is inserted after the parenthesis in the first example, because the comma would be needed even if there were no parenthesis. In the second example, there would be no comma before "lay," if there were no parenthesis; accordingly the comma is not to be inserted merely because there is a parenthesis. A parenthesis is sufficiently marked off by brackets. Observe also that the comma in the first example is placed after, not before, the parenthesis. The reason for this is that the parenthesis belongs to the first part of the sentence, not to the second. LI. A complete sentence occurring parenthetically in a paragraph is sometimes placed within brackets. Godfrey knew all this, and felt it with the greater force because he had constantly suffered annoyance from witnessing his father's sudden fits of unrelentingness, for which his own habitual irresolution deprived him of all sympathy. (He was not critical on the faulty indulgence which preceded these fits; _that_ seemed to him natural enough.) Still there was just the chance, Godfrey thought, that his father's pride might see this marriage in a light that would induce him to hush it up, rather than turn his son out and make the family the talk of the country for ten miles round. Note that the full stop should be placed inside, not outside, the brackets. LII. Where, in quoting a passage, we throw in parenthetically something of our own, we may use square brackets. Compare the following account of Lord Palmerston: "I have heard him [Lord Palmerston] say that he occasionally found that they [foreign ministers] had been deceived by the open manner in which he told them the truth." "The _Leviathan_ of Hobbes, a work now-a-days but little known [and not better known now than in Bentham's time], and detested through prejudice, and at second-hand, as a defence of despotism, is an attempt to base all political society upon a pretended contract between the people and the sovereign."--_Principles of Legislation._ To use the square brackets in this way is often more convenient than to break the inverted commas and to begin them again. But in the case of the word _sic_--where it is inserted in a quotation to point out that the word preceding it is rightly quoted, and is not inserted by mistake--the ordinary brackets are used. "The number of inhabitants were (_sic_) not more than four millions." Another case may be mentioned in which the square brackets are used: where in the passage quoted some words have been lost, and are filled in by conjecture. Prof. Stubbs quotes from one of the Anglo-Saxon laws: "If ceorls have a common meadow, or other partible land to fence, and some have fenced their part, some have not, and [strange cattle come in and] eat up the common corn or grass, let those go who own the gap and compensate to the others." INVERTED COMMAS LIII. When we quote without any change the words of another person, they are enclosed within inverted commas. If they are quoted in the indirect form, or if we quote merely the substance, and neglect the exact words, inverted commas are not used. Thereupon the mob bursts in and inquires, "What are you doing for the people?" Thereupon the mob bursts in and inquires what you are doing for the people. He says: "There is no property of any description, if it be rightfully held, which had not its foundation in labour." He frequently calls them "absurd," and applies to them such epithets as "jargon," "fustian," and the like. The last sentence might be written without inverted commas. By using them we call special attention to the fact that these were the words actually employed, and are not simply words like them. So, in a passage quoted in the indirect form, if part be quoted exactly, it is placed within inverted commas. The Duke of Portland warmly approved of the work, but justly remarked that the king was not "so absolute a thing of straw" as he was represented in it. Words referred to simply as words are either placed within inverted commas or put in italics. The word "friendship," in the sense we commonly mean by it, is not so much as named in the New Testament. LIV. When a quotation is interrupted, as in the report of a conversation, each continuous part of the quotation is enclosed within inverted commas. "Pardon me, madam," answered Henry, "it was of one Silas Morton I spoke." LV. When a quotation occurs in another quotation, single inverted commas are used for the former. "What have you done?" said one of Balfour's brother officers. "My duty," said Balfour firmly. "Is it not written, 'Thou shalt be zealous even to slaying'?" Some writers use the single commas in ordinary cases. For the inner quotation they would then use the double commas. LVI. A word that is not classical English, or is used in a sense in which it is not classical English, is either enclosed within inverted commas or italicized. Those that have "located" (_located_) previous to this period are left in undisputed possession, provided they have improved the land. Before long, Beckey received not only "the best" foreigners (as the phrase is in our noble and admirable society slang), but some of "the best" English people too. Foreign words are always italicized. (Rule LXIV.) LVII. The titles of books, of essays, and of other compositions; the names of periodicals; and the names of ships, are either enclosed within inverted commas or italicized. In these "Miscellanies" was first published the "Art of Sinking in Poetry," which, by such a train of consequences as usually passes in literary quarrels, gave in a short time, according to Pope's account, occasion to the "Dunciad." The "Emily St Pierre" (or _Emily St Pierre_), a British ship, was captured on the 18th March, 1862. It appeared in the "London Gazette" (or _London Gazette_). The names of periodicals and of ships are more often written in italics than enclosed within inverted commas. LVIII. If a quotation contains a question, the point of interrogation stands within the inverted commas. In a voice which was fascination itself, the being addressed me, saying, "Wilt thou come with me? Wilt thou be mine?" LIX. If an interrogative sentence ends with a quotation, the point of interrogation stands outside the inverted commas. What does this honourable person mean by "a tempest that outrides the wind"? Observe how in the example given under Rule LV. the point of interrogation stands within the double inverted commas, but outside the single inverted commas. LX. If an interrogative sentence ends with a quotation which is itself interrogatory, the point of interrogation is placed outside the inverted commas. Hast thou never cried, "What must I do to be saved"? The reason is, that the question to be answered is not the quoted question, but "hast thou never cried?" No writer has been bold enough to insert two points of interrogation. LXI. The last three rules apply also to exclamatory sentences. (1) But I boldly cried out, "Woe unto this city!" (2) Alas, how few of them can say, "I have striven to the very utmost"! (3) How fearful was the cry: "Help, or we perish"! LXII. Where an interrogative sentence ends with a quotation of an exclamatory nature, or an exclamatory sentence ends with a quotation of an interrogative nature, it seems better to place at the end both the point of interrogation and the mark of exclamation, the one inside, the other outside, the inverted commas. Do you remember who it was that wrote "Whatever England's fields display, The fairest scenes are thine, Torbay!"? How much better to cease asking the question, "What would he have done in different circumstances?"! Where inverted commas are not used, it seems sufficient to have only one point, which must be the one required by the whole sentence, not by the quotation. Do you remember the passage where Burke alludes to the old warning of the Church--_Sursum corda_? ITALICS LXIII. Words to be specially emphasized may be put in italics. In writing, the substitute for italics is underlining. What, it may well be asked, can the interests of the community be those of--I do not say _an_ individual, but--_the_ individual? The voice can unmistakably indicate what are the emphatic words; but italics, only a feeble substitute, ought not to be used unless every other means of emphasizing fail. Many writers of authority have strongly, and very justly, condemned the too frequent use of them. Double underlining in letter-writing need not be here adverted to. If the person to whom one writes a letter is likely to read it without appreciation or care, one is entitled to adopt any means that will ensure attention. But if double underlining is allowable only on this ground, general rules are obviously of no use. LXIV. Words from a foreign language which have not become classical English words, are written in italics. The slightest _double entendre_ made him blush to the eyes. Knowledge of French is a _sine quâ non_. When foreign words become English, they are no longer italicized. Among such words are: rationale, aide-de-camp, quartette, naïve, libretto. It is often a matter of discretion to say whether a word is so far naturalized that it should be written in the ordinary way. LXV. Names of newspapers and magazines, and names of ships, are generally written in italics; as the _Times_, the _Fort-nightly Review_, the _Great Eastern_. THE HYPHEN LXVI. The hyphen is used between the component parts of some compound words. Paper-knife; book-keeping; coal-pit; water-carrier; printing-press; sea-water; man-of-war; now-a-days; high-art decoration; good-looking. There is no rule to distinguish the compound words that take a hyphen from those that do not. If one be in doubt about a particular word, the best thing to do is to refer to a dictionary. LXVII. When one syllable of a word ends with a vowel, and the next syllable begins with the same vowel, the hyphen is placed between the syllables to indicate that the two vowels do not form a diphthong, that is, that they should not be pronounced together. Co-operative; co-ordinate; pre-eminently; re-establish; re-echo. In the same way the hyphen sometimes ensures that two consonants shall be pronounced separately; as in "book-keeping," "shell-less," "cock-crow," "sword-dance." LXVIII. As a rule, a hyphen should not be placed after a simple prefix: "contravene," "preternatural," "hypercritical," "bilateral." To this there are some exceptions: (_a_) "Anti-religious," "ultra-liberal," "semi-lunar," "co-eval." In these words the pronunciation is more clearly marked by inserting the hyphen. Compare "antiseptic," "antinomian," "ultramontane," "semicircle." Perhaps among these exceptions should also be included such words as "pseudo-critic," "non-ego," "non-existent." Compare "pseudonym," where the prefix is contracted, and "nonentity." Words like "pre-eminent," divided for the same reason, have already been noted. (_b_) "Re-creation," "re-mark." The hyphen distinguishes the etymological meaning of these words as distinguished from their derived and ordinary meaning. (_c_) "Pre-Norman," "anti-Darwinian," "philo-Turk." If the capital-letter be retained where a prefix is put to a proper name, the hyphen is obviously necessary. LXIX. When a number is written in words and not in figures, the words making up the number, if there be more words than one, are in certain cases separated from each other by the hyphen. The numbers to which this rule applies are the cardinal and the ordinal numbers from twenty-one and twenty-first to ninety-nine and ninety-ninth inclusive. The hyphen is used also when the words are inverted; as "four-and-thirty," "six-and-fortieth." LXX. Fractional parts written in words are separated in the same way, a hyphen being placed between the numerator and denominator; as "two-thirds," "three-sixteenths." But if the word "part" or the word "share" follows, the hyphen is not used; as "two third parts." LXXI. Several words may be joined by hyphens, in order to indicate that they are to be read together. The I-believe-of-Eastern-derivation monosyllable "Bosh." Additional restrictions were advocated in the cases of mothers-of-young-children employed in factories. As this last sentence stands, the hyphen is really the only means of making it perfectly clear that those who are referred to as employed in factories are the mothers, not the children. Hyphens are sometimes used in cases like the following: "A never-to-be-forgotten event," "peace-at-any-rate principles." They are almost invariably used in "well-to-do," "alack-a-day." LXXII. The prefix "a" before the gerund is followed by a hyphen. They went a-hunting. I lay a-thinking. Note that "agoing" is not divided. LXXIII. When a word is divided at the end of a line, part of the word being in the next line, a hyphen is placed after the part at the end of the line. So far as rules can be given for the division of the word, it may be said: (_a_) The division must be at the end of a syllable. The syllable according to etymological derivation, and the syllable according to pronunciation, are not always the same. In case of conflict the pronunciation is to be the guide. (_b_) The part in the next line should, if possible, begin with a consonant. An examination of a number of words will show that this is only another way of saying that we should be guided by pronunciation. (_c_) Double letters are divided; as "at-tract," "profes-sion," "dif-ficulty." The following examples are given consecutively from a book taken at random. This seems the best way of illustrating the rule: Con-fidently; investi-gated; some-thing; institu-tion; diffi-culty; at-tractions; exclu-sively; kins-man; self-organized; en-tangled; col-lective; intermis-sion; ma-terials; chan-cellor; col-lege; indus-trious; sub-ject; his-tory; con-dition; Low-landers; or-ganization; re-cognized; in-famous. Some selected examples may be also given: Resem-blance; hum-ble; se-cond; trans-lator; justifi-able; east-ern; endea-vour. THE APOSTROPHE LXXIV. The apostrophe is used to indicate that some letter or letters of a word are left out. "E'er" for "ever," "can't" for "cannot," "don't" for "do not," "'gin" for "begin." The apostrophe is not used when the word, though contracted in the middle, retains its original pronunciation; as "Dr." or "Mr." But it is used where the contraction is at the end of the word: "tho'," "Peterboro'." LXXV. The apostrophe marks the possessive case of nouns. The following rules determine where it is to be placed: _Nouns in the singular number--_ (1) The letter "s" is added, and the apostrophe is placed before it. The king's abode. A patriot's reward. (2) If the nominative singular of the noun ends in "s," another "s" is not added if the repetition of hissing sounds would be displeasing to the ear. The apostrophe is then placed at the end of the word. Hercules' club. Augustus' dignity. Words of one syllable follow the first rule: "James's share." Some words of two syllables follow the first rule, some the second: "the princess's birthday"; "Francis' style." This distinction is sanctioned by usage. But it may judiciously be disregarded. In speaking we almost entirely ignore it. Why should we trouble ourselves with it in writing? _Nouns in the plural number--_ (1) The apostrophe is placed after the "s" of the plural. Boys' clothing. Our friends' troubles. (2) If the plural do not end in "s," an "s" is added, and the apostrophe is placed before it. Men's opinions. The children's pleasure. LXXVI. The apostrophe is used before the "s" of the plural when single letters are used as words. Mind your p's and q's. He does not dot his i's nor cross his t's. MARKS OF ELLIPSIS LXXVII. When, in the middle of a quotation, a part is omitted, several asterisks or several full stops are placed in a line to mark the omission. Clarendon makes the following remark about Lord Falkland: "Yet two things he could never bring himself to whilst he continued in that office, that was to his death; for which he was contented to be reproached as for omissions in a most necessary part of his place. The one, employing of spies, or giving any countenance or entertainment to them. * * * The other, the liberty of opening letters, upon a suspicion that they might contain matter of a dangerous consequence." (One sentence omitted.) "The French and Spanish nations," said Louis XIV., "are so united that they will henceforth be only one.... My grandson, at the head of the Spaniards, will defend the French. I, at the head of the French, will defend the Spaniards." "He who in former years," wrote Horace Walpole of his father, "was asleep as soon as his head touched the pillow ... now never sleeps above an hour without waking." If the passage omitted be of very considerable length, for instance if it be a complete paragraph, or if a line of poetry be omitted, the asterisks are placed in a line by themselves. There is a tendency to confine the asterisk to such cases, and to use the full stop for shorter ellipses. If a complete sentence be omitted, the number of additional full stops is generally four; if a passage be omitted in the middle of a sentence, the number is generally three. When some of the letters of a name are omitted, their place is supplied by a line or dash, whose length depends on the number of letters omitted. The scene of our story is laid in the town of B----. There was one H----, who, I learned in after days, was seen expiating some maturer offence in the hulks. Blakesmoor in H----shire. REFERENCES TO NOTES Notes are generally placed at the foot of a page; though sometimes they are collected at the end of a chapter, or even at the end of a book. Various devices are in use for indicating the passage in the text to which a note refers. (1) The six reference signs: the "asterisk" (*), the "dagger" ([dagger character]) (also called the "obelisk"), the "double dagger" ([double dagger character]), the "section" (§), the "parallels" (||), the "paragraph" (¶). They are suitable only where the notes are placed at the foot of a page, and are invariably used in the order in which we have mentioned them. If the number of notes in one page exceeds six, the signs are doubled. The seventh note is marked thus: **; the eighth, [dagger character][dagger character]; the ninth, [double dagger character][double dagger character]; and so on. But it is better, in cases where the notes are so numerous, to use other means of reference. (2) Figures: either within parentheses, as (1), (2), (3), &c.; or, more usually, printed in the raised or "superior" form, as ¹²³, &c. Sometimes the first note in each page is marked;¹ but it is now common, in books divided into chapters, to mark the first note in each chapter with ¹ and then go on with continuous numbers to the end of the chapter. "Superior" figures are now the most usual marks of reference in English books. (3) Letters; which also may either be placed within parentheses or be printed in "superior" form: (a), (b), (c), &c., or ^{a} ^{b} ^{c}, &c. Italic letters are sometimes used. As a rule the first note in each page is marked (a) or ^{a}. If in one page there are more notes than there are letters in the alphabet (which sometimes happens), we go to (aa), (bb), (cc), &c., ^{aa} ^{bb} ^{cc}. The letter "j" is often omitted. It is less common to make the letters continuous from page to page. The sign, whatever it may be, is placed at the beginning of the note, and also in the text immediately after the part to which the note refers. The note may refer to a whole sentence, to a part of a sentence, even to a single word; the sign is placed as the case may be, at the end of the sentence, at the end of the part referred to, or after the single word. HOW TO CORRECT A PRINTER'S PROOF [Illustration] EXPLANATION 1. Where a word is to be changed from small letters to capitals, draw three lines under it, and write _caps._ in the margin. 2. Where there is a wrong letter, draw the pen through it, and make the right letter opposite in the margin. 3. A letter turned upside down. 4. The substitution of a comma for another point, or for a letter put in by mistake. 5. The insertion of a hyphen. 6. To draw close together the letters of a word that stand apart. 7. To take away a superfluous letter or word, the pen is struck through it and a round top _d_ made opposite, being the contraction of _deleatur_='expunge.' 8. Where a word has to be changed to Italic, draw a line under it, and write _Ital._ in the margin; and where a word has to be changed from Italic to Roman, write _Rom._ opposite. 9. When words are to be transposed, three ways of marking them are shown; but they are not usually numbered unless more than three words have their order changed. 10. The transposition of letters in a word. 11. To change one word for another. 12. The substitution of a period or a colon for any other point. It is customary to encircle these two points with a line. 13. The substitution of a capital for a small letter. 14. The insertion of a word or of a letter. 15. When a paragraph commences where it is not intended, connect the matter by a line, and write in the margin opposite _run on_. 16. Where a space or a quadrat stands up and appears, draw a line under it, and make a strong perpendicular line in the margin. 17. When a letter of a different size from that used, or of a different face, appears in a word, draw a line either through it or under it, and write opposite _w.f._, for 'wrong fount.' 18. The marks for a paragraph, when its commencement has been omitted. 19. When a word or words have been struck out, and it is subsequently decided that they shall remain, make dots under them, and write the word _stet_ in the margin. 20. The mark for a space where it has been omitted between two words. 21. To change a word from small letters to small capitals, make two lines under the word, and write _sm. caps._ opposite. To change a word from small capitals to small letters, make one line under the word, and write in the margin _lo. ca._, for 'lower case.' 22. The mark for the apostrophe; and also the marks for inverted commas. 23. The manner of marking an omitted passage when it is too long to be written in the side margin. When this occurs, it may be written either at the top or the bottom of the page. 24. Marks when lines or words are not straight. When corrected, the passage given above would read as follows-- ANTIQUITY, like every other quality that attracts the notice of mankind, has undoubtedly votaries that _reverence_ it, not from reason, but from prejudice. Some seem to admire indiscriminately whatever has been long preserved, without considering that time has sometimes co-operated with chance: all perhaps are more willing to honour past than present excellence; and the mind contemplates genius through the shades of age, as the eye surveys the sun through artificial opacity. The great contention of criticism is to find the faults of the moderns and the beauties of the ancients. While an author is yet living, we estimate his powers by his worst performances; and when he is dead, we rate them by his best. To works, however, of which the excellence is not absolute and definite, but gradual and comparative; to works, not raised upon principles demonstrative and scientific, but appealing wholly to observation and experience, no other test can be applied than LENGTH of duration and continuance of esteem. 
30778	----	RHYMES AND METERS A PRACTICAL MANUAL FOR VERSIFIERS BY HORATIO WINSLOW THE EDITOR PUBLISHING COMPANY Deposit, N. Y. 1909 COPYRIGHT, 1906, BY THE EDITOR PUBLISHING COMPANY THE OUTING PRESS DEPOSIT, N. Y. PREFACE Throughout the following pages "verse" stands for any kind of metrical composition as distinguished from prose. It is not used as a synonym for "poetry." Though most poetry is in verse form, most verse is not poetry. The ability to write verse can be acquired; only a poet can write poetry. At the same time, even a poet must learn to handle his verse with some degree of skill or his work is apt to fall very flat, and the mere verse writer who cannot rhyme correctly and fit his lines together in meter had much better stick to prose. This book has been compiled with one end in view: to arrange in a convenient and inexpensive form the fundamentals of verse--enough for the student who takes up verse as a literary exercise or for the older verse writer who has fallen into a rut or who is a bit shaky on theory. It is even hoped that there may be a word of help for some embryo poet. In construction the plan has been to suggest rather than to explain in detail and as far as possible to help the reader to help himself. No verse has been quoted except where the illustration of a point made it necessary. With the increasing number of libraries it ought to be an easy matter for any one to refer to most of the lesser verse writers as well as all the standard poets. CONTENTS CHAPTER I VERSE MAKING IN GENERAL 9 CHAPTER II METER 17 CHAPTER III RHYME 25 CHAPTER IV STANZA FORMS 31 CHAPTER V SUBTLETIES OF VERSIFICATION 37 CHAPTER VI THE QUATRAIN AND SONNET 45 CHAPTER VII THE BALLADE AND OTHER FRENCH FORMS 53 CHAPTER VIII THE SONG 67 CHAPTER IX TYPES OF MODERN VERSE 75 CHAPTER X VERSE TRANSLATION 85 CHAPTER XI ABOUT READING 93 CHAPTER XII HINTS FOR BEGINNERS 101 APPENDIX (a) THE VERSE MARKET 111 (b) SUGGESTIONS FOR READING 114 I VERSE MAKING IN GENERAL CHAPTER I VERSE MAKING IN GENERAL It is scarcely necessary to write a defense of verse making. As a literary exercise it has been recommended and practiced by every well-known English writer and as a literary asset it has been of practical value at one time or another to most of the authors of to-day. Indirectly it helps one's prose and is an essential to the understanding of the greatest literature. The fact that courses in "Poetics" have been established at all the large universities shows the interest which verse making has aroused in America. In England the ability to write metrical verse has long been considered one of the component parts of the education of a university man. Looked at from the purely practical side, even though not a single line be sold, verse making has its value. It strengthens the vocabulary; teaches niceness in the choice of words; invigorates the imagination and disciplines the mind far more than a dozen times the amount of prose. But, though careful verse is much more difficult to write than careful prose, slipshod verse is not worth the ink that shapes it. In taking up verse writing the student must solemnly resolve on one thing: to consider no composition complete until it proves up--until the rhymes and meter are perfect. This "perfection" is not as unattainable as it sounds, for the laws of rhyme and meter are as fixed as the laws of the Medes and the Persians. Any one may not be able to write artistic verse, but any one can write true verse, and the only way to make a course in verse writing count is to live up to all the rules; to banish all ideas of "poetic license"; to write and rewrite till the composition is as near perfect as lies in one, and finally to lay aside and rewrite again. After the line scans and the rhymes are proved should come the effort to put the thought clearly. It is often hard to say what one means in prose. It is harder in verse. In fact, one of the greatest difficulties any verse maker can overcome is the tendency to be obscure in his meaning. With the surmounting of this obstacle comes simplicity of diction; to present the thought without superfluous words; to avoid the threadbare phrases and to put the idea in a new way and yet in plain speech. How far the verse maker will go in clearness and simplicity depends largely on his natural good taste and discrimination. The better he is able to appreciate the work of others the better his own will become, and this appreciation, though it cannot be created, can be cultivated as well as good manners. To-day more than ever before good reading is one of the prime essentials to good writing. Stevenson has recommended imitation as a road to originality and few have disagreed with him on this point. It is undoubtedly easier to write a sonnet if one is familiar with Wordsworth or to write a ballade if one has read Dobson. At the same time to be of value the imitation must be done broadly and systematically. The artist does not learn to draw by copying Gibson heads nor the verse maker to write by diluting Kipling. An imitation should always be made with the idea of reproducing some one quality which the imitator wishes to develop in himself; the verse maker should copy not one style but many, and aim at methods rather than mannerisms. For a first step in imitation it is well to select a subject akin to the original and follow the author's construction and trend of thought as closely as possible. For instance, there is a sonnet on Milton--write a companion sonnet on Shakespeare or Dante. Match stanzas to Washington with similar stanzas to Lincoln or Cromwell or any other character who can be treated in the same general manner. Gray's "Elegy in a Country Churchyard" suggests other elegies in other churchyards. One may even parody a poem--not broadly, line for line in the American fashion--but in the more delicate Calverley way, which applies the spirit and meter of the poem to a lighter subject. One must imitate before one can originate, but haphazard imitation leads nowhere. In conclusion it may be said that verse making is no mystic art hidden from the many. It is to be acquired by any one who is willing to work at it steadily and consistently. First, a start in the right direction, and then practice--practice--practice. Nothing "dashed off" or "turned out," but every composition saved from the wastebasket made-- Correct in construction, Clear in thought, Simple in diction. II METER CHAPTER II METER A metrical composition is divided into lines, each line containing a definite number of syllables. These syllables are grouped by twos and threes into "feet" which, by their makeup, determine the meter or movement of the line. Meter in English verse is built up through accent alone, but, though this principle differs entirely from that of the ancients, who depended on the length of the syllable, we still cling to the names with which they distinguished the different feet. It will be discovered that by combining accented and unaccented syllables into groups of two, three and four an immense variety of feet can be produced. In fact the Roman poets made use of about thirty. In English verse we disregard the four-syllabled foot altogether and make use only of the two and three syllabled. Those commonly accepted are: Iambus [u][-] Dactyl [-][u][u] Trochee [-][u] Anapest [u][u][-] Spondee [-][-] Amphimacer [-][u][-] Amphibrach [u][-][u] The dash stands for the accented syllable. An idea of the use of these meters in verse may be gained from the following examples: IAMBIC u -- | u ---- | u -- | u - | u | ----- "From low | to high | doth dis | solu | tion | climb u - | u ---- | u - | u - | u -- And sink | from high | to low | along | a scale." TROCHAIC ---- u | --- u | -- u | -- u "Tell us, | Master, | of thy | wisdom -- u | --- u | ---- u | ---- u Ere the | chains of | darkness | bind thee." DACTYLLIC ---- u u | -- u u "Take her up | tenderly -- u u | -- Lift her with | care." ANAPESTIC u u ---- | u u -- | u u ---- | u "If he talks | of his bak | ing or brew | ing u u ----- | u u --- | u u --- If he comes | to you rid | ing a cob." A line of spondees is rarely found in our English because a succession of accented syllables is almost impossible with us and the amphimacer and amphibrach are seldom more than secondary feet in a dactyllic or anapestic line. Where more than one combination of syllables is used the line takes its name from the foot predominating. As to number, the feet in a single line are practically unlimited though one rarely comes across a line containing more than eight. Lines of three and four are more common. Indeed, in some lyrical poems we have lines made up of a single syllable. The classic names for lines of varying length are perhaps necessary. The line of two feet is a dimeter; three--trimeter; four--tetrameter; five--pentameter; six--hexameter; seven--heptameter and eight--octameter. Thus Pope's Iliad is written in iambic pentameter, in lines made up of five iambics; and Longfellow's Hiawatha is trochaic tetrameter, each line containing four trochees. It will be noticed that many lines lack the syllable or two necessary to complete the last foot. For instance: -- u | -- u | -- u | -- u "Airly | Beacon | Airly | Beacon, - u | ---- u | -- u | --- O the | pleasant | sight to | _see_." and -- u u | --- u u | ---- "Ah but things | more than po | _lite_." This privilege of ending in the middle of a foot is in no way a poetic license but lends a flexibility to the use of all meters which would otherwise be wofully lacking. Again we find, especially in dactyllic and anapestic lines, a trochee or spondee thrown in to vary the movement. In this anapestic line the meter is varied by a spondee: u u -- | --- ---- | u u --- | u u --- "Not a drum | _was heard_ | not a fun | eral note." This insertion of a foot is always allowable if it helps the proper movement of the line and if it is put in voluntarily. With a beginner whose ear is none too well trained it is better to try only pure lines--lines made up of but one kind of foot. In this way the false extra syllable or foot is sooner found out and corrected. A first-class exercise is to write verse without rhyme or very much reason, whose only virtue shall be lines of exact length with meter regular to the verge of singsongness. As an exercise, too, it is helpful to take a dozen lines or more of good verse and break them up into feet. The greatest poets are not necessarily the best for this purpose, owing to the irregularity of much of their work. It is better for the beginner to steer clear of Browning and try the simpler and more regular constructions of Dobson and Praed. III RHYME CHAPTER III RHYME The rhyme most commonly used in verse is the single rhyme--the rhyme of one syllable. A single rhyme is perfect when the rhymed syllables are accented; when the vowel sounds and the following consonant sounds are identical and when the preceding consonant sounds are different. "Less" rhymes with "mess" and "caress" but not with "unless," because in this last case the preceding consonant sounds are the same. It will rhyme with "bless" because the "b" and "l" are so joined that the combined sound differs from the simple "l" of "less." "Less" does not rhyme with "best" because the "t" makes the concluding consonant sounds unlike. Nor does it rhyme with "abbess" because the accent in this word falls on the first syllable. A double or triple rhyme follows in construction the rules laid down for the single rhyme. The accents must be alike; the preceding consonants must differ and the vowels and the remaining syllables of the words be identical. "Double" goes perfectly with "trouble" and "bubble," while "charity," "clarity" and "rarity" all rhyme. The spelling of a word does not affect its rhyming use. It is rhymed as it is pronounced. "Move" and "prove" do not rhyme with "love"--all the poets in Christendom to the contrary. Neither does "come" rhyme with "home." The pronunciation is all in all and that must be decided not by local usage but by some standard authority. There are, however, certain words which have one pronunciation in prose and another in poetry. For instance, "said," "again" and "wind." It is permissible to take advantage of this special pronunciation and rhyme them with "raid," "lain" and "blind." To be strict is better than to be lax in pronunciation and it is absolutely necessary to rise above provincialism. "Maria" is not a rhyming companion for "fire" except in dialect verse, though this pairing sounds natural enough in some localities. In a piece of verse it is best not to have the same vowel sounds too close to one another in adjacent rhyming words. Lines ending "fain," "made," "pain," "laid" would, of course, be correct, but the similar vowel sounds cause a lack of variety. An arrangement such as "through," "made," "drew," "laid" would be better. Nothing disgusts the reader of verse more than an imperfect rhyme. If one is anxious to write well he should make it his business to see that every rhyme is absolutely right before a manuscript leaves his hands. Whatever sins may be original with a versifier at least he has no excuse for an unmetrical line or an untrue rhyme. To acquire facility in rhyming it is necessary to write much and to try all styles of endings from the single rhyme to the triple. As good practice as any will be found in the use of the French forms described in Chapter VII. But above all one must avoid the rhyming dictionary. When the verse maker once gets the habit of referring to its pages there is more hope for the amateur popular song writer than for him. Better to think half an hour and get the right word one's self than to tread the primrose path of the rhyming dictionary. It has one use, nevertheless, which is perhaps allowable. There are certain words, such as "chimney," "scarf," "crimson," "window," "widow," and others which have no rhyme. To ascertain whether a word belongs to this class or not the dictionary is useful, though still a trifle dangerous. Verse makers will rejoice to hear that "month," once a prominent figure in this non-rhyming company, has fallen from the ranks. A new variety of butterfly has been named the "monolunth." IV STANZA FORMS CHAPTER IV STANZA FORMS Roughly speaking, the stanza in verse corresponds to the paragraph in prose. It is a fixed division of the composition containing a certain number of lines arranged in a certain rhyming order. Very often each stanza contains a distinct and rounded thought, such as is found in a paragraph, though this plan of construction is not universally followed by any means. In sharp dramatic verse one must use a simple stanza form built so that each thought ends with the last word of the last line. But when the movement is languid the meter and stanza form may be more intricate and it is sometimes best to let the thought flow from one stanza to another without even the jerk of the period. The effect to be produced is everything and should determine not only the stanza to be used but the details of the treatment as well. The great poet can bend any meter or stanza form to his use, as witness Thomas Hood with his galloping stanzas in the "Bridge of Sighs," but an ordinary mortal must produce his effects more obviously. The greater skill one has the greater liberties one can take in his choice of materials, just as a clever after-dinner speaker may say many things which from a less tactful person would be deemed offensive. Thomas Hood can write his dirges in dactylics with triple rhymes, but we must model ours on Gray's "Elegy" or "In Memoriam." Still the variety of stanzas is so large that one should be able to fit almost any verse mood without the necessity of inventing a new form or turning an old one out of its beaten track. There are little dimeter couplets like Herrick's: "There thou shalt be High priest to me." And there is the three-line stanza in many forms, of which this from Landor is an example: "Children, keep up that harmless play, Your kindred angels plainly say By God's authority ye may." And the four-line stanza--its name is legion. The whole question resolves itself into the suitability of the form to the matter. The vehicle which carries the thought best is the one to be selected. The more appropriate the construction of the poem--the rhymes, the meter and the stanza--the better it will carry out the writer's intention. Instead of hampering his thought it will assist it. As a means of becoming acquainted with the wide resources which wait the verse maker, the student should copy and imitate every stanza form not familiar to him. In this way he will learn for himself why the Spenserian stanza used by Keats in his "Eve of St. Agnes" is good for one sort of narrative and why the ballad stanza used by Coleridge in his "Ancient Mariner" is good for another; why one sort of stanza sings merrily and why another is fitted for funeral hymns. Best of all, he will learn that he does not have to choose among "long meter," "short meter" and "Hallelujah meter," but that an almost indefinite field lies open for him. Also he will discover that it is not necessary to create a new stanza form in order to write a great poem. The sonnet, at which every poet has thrummed, still waits for a new master, and the "Recessional," perhaps the greatest poem of the last quarter century, was written in one of the simplest and oldest of stanzas. V SUBTLETIES OF VERSIFICATION CHAPTER V SUBTLETIES OF VERSIFICATION The more one writes the better he becomes acquainted with what might be called "the tricks of the trade." These "tricks," "helps," or "devices" can be explained only in a general way. Most of them each verse maker must learn for himself, but there are some broader strokes which can be more easily traced and pointed out and which are governed by fixed rules. Perhaps the most noticeable of these is alliteration. By alliteration is meant the succession of two or more words whose initial sounds are identical or very similar. "The _rich, ripe rose_ as with incense streams" is a good example. Through alliteration certain effects are produced which would otherwise be impossible. Instances will occur to every reader. To quote only one example: "When dandelions fleck the green And robins' songs _throb through_ the trees." In these two lines by William Allen White, the two "th"s, though out of place in most verse, here express the "throbbing" idea perfectly. Alliteration at the beginning of accented syllables is very useful in humorous verse, helping along the rhythm and binding the lines together. The use of onomatopoetic words, words whose sound signifies the sense, is so common that we seldom give it a thought. We have the "splash" of water; the "bang" of a gun; the "crackle" of branches and so on indefinitely. In verse this idea is carried a step farther. Lines are constructed not only with the purpose of conveying a given idea, as in prose, but with the additional end of strengthening this idea and impressing it on the mind of the reader through the choice and arrangement of the words. "Up a _high hill_ he _heaves_ a _huge_ round stone." In this the successive "h" sounds suggest the hard breathing and labor of the ascent. Browning imitates the sound of galloping in the meter of his ride from Ghent to Aix. "I sprang to the stirrup and Joris and he, I galloped, Dirck galloped, we galloped all three." Tennyson is full of such turns as this: "Where lay the bones of ancient men, Old knights, and over them the sea-wind sang, _Shrill, chill_, with flakes of foam." The two words certainly give a most wonderful impression of the shriek of the cold sea-wind. Instances of this sort might be added indefinitely but these are enough to give the general idea. As a rule the best use of any device of this purpose is served when it is not too apparent; when it produces the effect without calling attention to the means. In a certain sort of languishing verse of the mystical type an effect of quaintness and dreaminess is produced by emphasizing the last syllables of words whose accent by right falls on a previous syllable. This is done by pairing them with pronounced rhymes. For instance, "tears" rhymes with "barriers," "her" with "well-water" and so on. It must be understood that, as an attempt to rhyme, this sort of thing is not to be countenanced, but it is perfectly allowable when it is used to obtain a certain effect. Take this stanza from Whitman's "Song of the Broad-Axe," one of the few specimens we have of his attempts at rhyme and meter. It is a true barbaric chant whose full-mouthed syllables reproduce in little the blows of the axe. "Weapon shapely, naked, wan, Head from the mother's bowels drawn, Wooded flesh and metal bone, limb only one and lip only one, Gray blue leaf by red-heat grown, helve produced from a little seed sown, Resting the grass amid and upon, To be leaned and to lean on." Though our English verse largely disregards the quantity or length of a syllable, in some lines this must be considered as well as accent. A light meter and stanza may very easily be spoiled by the introduction of a too-strong word. For instance, "gnarled," "strength," "thrust," and so on are very much longer than "may," "well," "the," "for," and many other of the one-syllabled words. When a line scans correctly but "somehow sounds wrong," in nine cases out of ten the fault can be traced to a long syllable that should have been short or a short syllable that should have been long. VI THE QUATRAIN AND SONNET CHAPTER VI THE QUATRAIN AND SONNET _The Quatrain_ In the seventeenth century the quatrain was a favorite tool of the old English writers who wished to embody a stinging epigram or epitaph in verse. The works of Robert Herrick contain several, most of them, unfortunately, not fit for print. Nor was he the only unblushing exponent of the questionable quatrain. But times have changed and like everything else the quatrain has grown respectable. From the disuse and misuse into which it had fallen the modern magazine editor rescued it and by creating a market revived the art of quatrain making. To-day sometimes the four lines are descriptive; again they contain a kindly or clever epigram, or perhaps an unexpected twist at the end that makes for a joke. The average quatrain is in iambic pentameter with alternate lines rhyming. Sometimes the first and fourth lines rhyme and the second and third, and occasionally one sees a detached Omaric stanza. It all depends upon the thought and the way it is to be expressed. One thing is certain, that the quatrain because of its very brevity demands more care and polishing than a longer piece of verse. The thought must not only be concise and clearly expressed but the four lines must contain nothing else. The following example by Frank Dempster Sherman not only describes this form of verse but is an excellent quatrain in itself: "Hark at the lips of this pink whorl of shell And you shall hear the ocean's surge and roar: So in the quatrain's measure, written well A thousand lines shall all be sung in four." _The Sonnet_ It is the ambition of many a versifier to be known as a maker of sonnets. Doubtless this love for the form is prompted not only by its possibilities but even more by its traditions. Shakespeare, Milton, Wordsworth and Rossetti, to mention only a few of the celebrated names, were masters of the sonnet, though it must be said that the version used by the earlier English writers was not the one we know to-day. Shakespeare's seventy-third sonnet may serve as a fair example of the arrangement of the lines in the early Elizabethan period, though even in his day the present rhyming order was passing gradually into use. "That time of year thou may'st in me behold When yellow leaves or few or none do hang Upon the boughs which shake against the cold, Bare ruined choirs where late the sweet birds sang. In me thou see'st the twilight of such day As after sunset fadeth in the west, Which by and by black night doth take away, Death's second self that seals up all in rest. In me thou see'st the glowing of such fire That on the ashes of his youth doth lie, As the death bed whereon it must expire, Consumed with that which it was nourished by. This thou perceivest which makes thy love more strong, To love that well which thou must leave ere long." This fourteen lines, as an examination will discover, might be written in three four-line stanzas with an additional two lines as an epigrammatic envoy. In fact it can scarcely be called a sonnet at all, and the last two lines come out with such force as to offend the ear accustomed to the more modern form. The sonnet by Keats, "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer," is an excellent illustration of the change in the rhyming system and emphasis. "Much have I travelled in the realms of gold, And many goodly states and kingdoms seen; Round many western islands have I been Which bards in fealty to Apollo hold. Oft of one wide expanse had I been told That deep-browed Homer ruled as his demesne: Yet did I never breathe its pure serene Till I heard Chapman speak out loud and bold: Then felt I like some watcher of the skies When a new planet swims into his ken; Or like stout Cortez when with eagle eyes He stared at the Pacific--and all his men Looked at each other with a wild surmise-- Silent, upon a peak in Darien." The first eight lines rhyme: a, b, b, a, a, b, b, a; the last six: c, d, c, d, c, d. Thus the sonnet halts only at one place, the interval between the eighth and the sixth lines, where the rest is welcome, while the emphasis, instead of coming out so brazenly at the end, reaches its climax in the next to the last line, dying away gradually. The order of the eight lines in the modern sonnet is almost invariably unchanged, but the sestet is varied as the movement of the thought dictates. As to sonnet construction little can be said here or, if one wished to go into detail, so much could be said that it would fill this volume a dozen times. Keats, Wordsworth and Rossetti, to say nothing of a dozen or more modern sonneteers, are safe models to follow. One trifling suggestion seems in order. There are so many really good sonnets now that a second-rate production is a drug on the market. Except as an exercise it is altogether superfluous. A first-class sonnet must be grounded first on an idea and then rewritten and worked over until the idea has found a fit setting. Commonplaceness either in the idea or its expression is alike fatal. VII THE BALLADE AND OTHER FRENCH FORMS CHAPTER VII THE BALLADE AND OTHER FRENCH FORMS The Anglo Saxons were a hard-drinking race whose bards chanted interminable battle songs to tables of uncritical, mead-filled heroes. As a result the English language grew up without many of the finer points of verse and bare especially of all fixed forms. It was this latter lack which Austin Dobson sought to supply by imitating in English the ballade, triolet, villanelle and other verse arrangements at that time used only by the French and not very generally among them. _The Ballade_ Of these the ballade is the best known, and Dobson's "Ballade of the Pompadour's Fan" is subjoined as one of the most popular and most easily imitated. "Chicken skin, delicate, white, Painted by Carlo Van Loo, Loves in a riot of light, Roses and vaporous blue; Hark to the dainty frou-frou! Picture above if you can Eyes that would melt like the dew-- This was the Pompadour's fan! "See how they rise at the sight, Thronging the OEil de Boeuf through, Courtiers as butterflies bright, Beauties that Fragonard drew; Talon rouge, falbala, queue, Cardinal Duke,--to a man, Eager to sigh or to sue,-- This was the Pompadour's fan. "Ah, but things more than polite Hung on this toy, voyez vous! Matters of state and of might, Things that great ministers do. Things that maybe overthrew Those in whose brains they began; Here was the sign and the cue,-- This was the Pompadour's fan. ENVOY "Where are the secrets it knew? Weavings of plot and of plan? But where is the Pompadour, too? This was the Pompadour's fan." It will be noticed that there are but three rhyming sounds, also that the last line of the first stanza is repeated as the last line of the other two and the envoy. The lines rhyme together a, b, a, b, b, c, b, c, in each stanza and in the envoy b, c, b, c. The most frequent rhyme occurs fourteen times; the next six and the "c" rhyme five. With the exception of the refrain there is no repetition of rhymes in the proper ballade. Even Dobson's use of "cue" and "queue" is, in the strictest sense, an error. With its difficult rhymes the ballade is an excellent school in which to learn smooth-flowing verse. If one is able to write a simple and natural ballade the ordinary stanza forms will appear ridiculously easy. But the ballade has two bugbears: the first the refrain which refuses to come in naturally, and the second the envoy which insists on appearing as a disjointed after thought. The refrain in a good ballade makes its bow each time with a slight change in the significance and comes in not because it has been predestined for the end of the stanza, but because it is the only combination of words possible to round out the eight lines. The envoy contains the gist of the whole matter and at the same time must be written to be read not as an appendix but as a component part of the ballade. It must always come out with a ring that leaves the spirit of the verse stamped on the reader's mind. For overcoming these two bugbears--practice will conquer the most recalcitrant refrain and one may often circumvent an envoy by writing it first. When the sound chosen for the most frequent rhyme has but some sixteen or seventeen companion words an envoy written in the beginning will save much pondering later. It is easier to fit the unused rhymes into an eight-line stanza than into a four-line envoy, especially when the four lines are called on to sum up the thought of the whole production and give a clever turn to it as well. _The Rondeau_ "'In teacup times!' The style of dress Would suit your beauty, I confess. Belinda-like the patch you'd wear; I picture you with powdered hair,-- You'd made a splendid shepherdess! "And I, no doubt, could well express Sir Plume's complete conceitedness,-- Could poise a clouded cane with care 'In teacup times.' "The parts would fit precisely--yes: We should achieve a huge success! You should disdain and I despair With quite the true Augustan air; But ... could I love you more or less,-- 'In teacup times'?" The rondeau's difficulties lie in its two-rhyme limitation and the handling of the refrain. This refrain either rounds the stanzas beautifully or else plays dog in the manger with the sense. In the common form of the rondeau it is made up of the first four syllables of the first line and is repeated after the eighth and thirteenth lines. A simpler form of the rondeau devised or at least introduced by Austin Dobson is to be found in the "May Book." This gives an idea of the rondeau's possibilities as a medium for more serious verse. "IN ANGEL COURT "In Angel Court the sunless air Grows faint and sick; to left and right, The cowering houses shrink from sight, Huddling and hopeless, eyeless, bare. "Misnamed, you say, for surely rare Must be the Angel shapes that light In Angel Court. "Nay, the Eternities are there. Death by the doorway stands to smite; Life in its garrets leaps to light; And Love has climbed the crumbling stair In Angel Court." Villon has varied the rondeau so as to use for a refrain a single syllable. This form, though not so flexible as the others, has its use and is very apt for obtaining certain effects. _The Triolet_ In the matter of triolets Austin Dobson is again an authority, though his experiments in this form are scarcely as successful as his ballades and rondeaus. "TO ROSE" AUSTIN DOBSON "In the school of Coquettes Madam Rose is a scholar: O, they fish with all nets In the school of Coquettes! When her brooch she forgets 'Tis to show her new collar: In the school of Coquettes Madam Rose is a scholar." Here the first line is also the fourth and the seventh, while the second is duplicated in the last. This is another of the two-rhyme forms. The triolet seems simple enough, and, for that matter, a certain kind of triolet can be written by the ream. But to put the eight lines together in such a way that the refrain comes in freshly each time, is often a day's work. In a much lighter vein it is permissible to pun in the repeated lines so that the last repetition comes in with a different meaning. Though intended for the delicately humorous the triolet is sober-going enough to carry a thread of sentiment. Nothing could be daintier or more suggestively pathetic than these lines by H. C. Bunner: "A pitcher of mignonette, In a tenement's highest casement: Queer sort of a flower-pot--yet That pitcher of mignonette Is a garden in heaven set To the little sick child in the basement-- The pitcher of mignonette, In the tenement's highest casement." _The Rondel_ "READY FOR THE RIDE" H. C. BUNNER "Through the fresh fairness of the Spring to ride, As in the old days when he rode with her, With joy of Love that had fond Hope to bride One year ago had made her pulses stir. "Now shall no wish with any day recur (For Love and Death part year and year full wide), Through the fresh fairness of the Spring to ride, As in the old days when he rode with her. "No ghost there lingers of the smile that died On the sweet pale lip where his kisses were ... Yet still she turns her delicate head aside, If she may hear him come with jingling spur Through the fresh fairness of the Spring to ride, As in the old days when he rode with her." This variant of the rondeau contains fourteen lines of which the first two are twice repeated as refrains. But two rhymes are employed. _The Villanelle_ "A VILLANELLE AT VERONA" AUSTIN DOBSON, In the _Century Magazine_ "A voice in the scented night, A step where the rose trees blow,-- O Love and O Love's delight! "Cold star at the blue vault's height, What is it that shakes you so? A voice in the scented night. "She comes in her beauty bright, She comes in her young love's glow, O Love and O Love's delight! "She bends from her casement white, And she hears it hushed and low, A voice in the scented night. "And he climbs by that stairway slight Her passionate Romeo: O Love and O Love's delight! "And it stirs us still in spite Of its 'ever so long ago,' That voice in the scented night; O Love and O Love's delight!" The second lines of each stanza rhyme and the first and third lines of the first stanza are alternated as refrains. The sestina has six six-line stanzas and an envoy: in the stanzas the final words of each line remain the same throughout, though the order is changed. In the three-line envoy the six words must appear again and in an established order. The sestina is a trifle too long to quote, but one of the best and sanest examples is to be found in Kipling's Seven Seas--"The Sestina of the Tramp Royal." Swinburne's sestinas though "poetic" are very cloudy in meaning. The pantoum, another involved arrangement, is made up of four-line stanzas in which the second and fourth lines of the first verse are used as the first and third lines of the second verse, and so on _ad infinitum_ until the weary author ends by repeating the first and third lines of the whole production as the second from the last and the last of the concluding stanza. There is great good for the beginner in writing these French forms even if he takes up the work only as an exercise. Their construction is so certain and fixed that an error is glaring. Though it may be brow-wrinkling to build a ballade, it is a simple matter to see its faults. There is also value in these forms for the advanced student. They embody suggestions for new stanza forms and fresh verse in general. The use of the ballade variant may be found in Kipling. When varied the triolet may give exactly the right ring for some idea which refuses to fit itself into the conventional molds. When one has served his apprenticeship he may arrange and rearrange as he sees fit, bending the stanza to his purpose. Of the forms he is not the slave but the master. VIII THE SONG CHAPTER VIII THE SONG A variety of verse which has great vogue now and which has so developed as to be considered almost as individual as the rondeau or sonnet is the modern "song." Formerly the "song" was written to music or at least written that it might be set to music, but now it must sing itself. It may dress in sober iambics if it pleases, but there must be a lilt and go to the words to suggest music. Among the best examples of this form open to the reader are the songs of Robert Burns. Though written to fit old Scotch airs the words themselves suggest a melody to any one with the slightest ear for music. For instance: "My luve is like a red, red rose That's newly sprung in June: My luve is like the melodie That's sweetly played in tune. "As fair thou art, my bonnie lass, So deep in luve am I: And I will luve thee still, my dear, Till a' the seas gang dry. "Till a' the seas gang dry, my dear, And the rocks melt in the sun: I will luve thee still, my dear, While the sands o' life shall run. "And fare thee weel, my only luve! And fare thee weel awhile: And I will come again, my luve, Tho' it were ten thousand mile." Though not the author of much printed verse Robert Louis Stevenson has written more than one singing stanza: "Bright is the ring of words When the right man rings them, Fair is the fall of songs When the singer sings them. Still they are carolled and said-- On wings they are carried-- After the singer is dead And the maker buried." Going to the works of W. E. Henley we find much very singable verse. In the quoted example he has used in the chorus the suggestion of an old Scotch stanza: "Oh Falmouth is a fine town with ships in the bay, And I wish from my heart it's there I was to-day: I wish from my heart I was far away from here, Sitting in my parlor and talking to my dear. For it's home, dearie, home--it's home I want to be, Our topsails are hoisted and we'll away to sea. Oh, the oak and the ash and the bonnie birken tree, They're all growing green in the old countree." Austin Dobson in a longer poem makes use of the following stanza: "Across the grass I see her pass; She comes with tripping pace,-- A maid I know, the March winds blow Her hair across her face;-- With a hey, Dolly! ho Dolly! Dolly shall be mine, Before the spray is white with May Or blooms the eglantine." In all of Kipling the singing quality is dominant. He is to be marked especially because in his songs he has combined the old meters so as to give the effect of absolute novelty. The Scotch poets of Burns' time and before, offer many excellent chances for imitation and study. Shakespeare's occasional songs are always true. A seldom quoted poem of Lord Byron's is full of melody: "So we'll go no more a roving So late into the night, Though the heart be still as loving, And the moon be still as bright. "For the sword outwears its sheath, And the soul wears out the breast, And the heart must pause to breathe, And love itself have rest. "Though the night was made for loving And the day returns too soon, Yet we'll go no more a roving By the light of the moon." Just exactly where the singing quality of a song lies it is hard to tell. It is not altogether in the open vowels or the meter or the flow of thought, though dependent on all three. It is impossible to formulate any rule for the construction of the song except the general laws of good taste. The only plan is to try and try again until the result contains something of the singing quality. Very often it is helpful to fit the words to some air imaginary or otherwise which runs in the head. The song may be long or short, tell little or a great deal. In practice, as a rule, it is less than twenty-four lines in length and expresses a single thought or emotion. Its only two essentials are that it be graceful and that it sing. IX TYPES OF MODERN VERSE CHAPTER IX TYPES OF MODERN VERSE _Vers de Société_ Vers de société, "society verse," is a development of the last century; almost, one might say, of the last twenty-five years. In that time there has been composed a great volume of this sort of verse upon which a number of the minor poets have based their claims to remembrance. It is difficult to define _vers de société_; in fact, the only way it can be described is through examples. Its characteristics are a gracefulness of thought and style, a fluency in expression, a vein of delicate humor or sentiment and a subject which falls within the limits of "polite conversation." It sparkles or should sparkle with clever turns of thought and at times even descends to a sort of punning. No attempt is made to reach the sublime, but serious _vers de société_ is often written and is the more effective because of its contrasted setting. The ballade, rondeau and triolet are favorite expressions of this style of verse, for in general its writers seek difficult stanza forms with rhymes natural but never hackneyed. As an exercise its making is both profitable and difficult. On trial, it will be found no easy matter to write line after line of every-day English into balanced verse that is not commonplace, but once well done it is a much easier task to find a market. Calverley's "Fly Leaves" approach the classic of _vers de société_. Austin Dobson has worked in a more serious vein. Praed has written some delightfully easy specimens of the style, while in America John G. Saxe, Oliver Wendell Holmes and a number of contemporary writers are responsible for an extensive output ranking well up with England's. _The Dramatic Interlude_ The serious drama in verse nowadays is a drug on the market as far as selling power is concerned, unless we except the plays of Stephen Phillips. There is, however, a sort of dramatic interlude which is not only marketable but much more easily and pleasantly written; a composition on the general order of Dobson's "Proverbs in Porcelain." A study of the "Proverbs" will go further for an understanding of the subject than pages of explanation. They are written in iambic tetrameter which is kept from singsongness by the action of the dialogue. The characters seldom end their speeches at the end of the line but rather in the middle, and the line is filled out by the first words of the next speaker. These little play fragments, built in the form of a delicate comedy, are not long enough to exhaust either writer or reader and are even to be met with now and then in our modern magazines. Their value for the verse maker lies in the premium which they put upon ease and naturalness of expression, though in addition they present a novel exercise to the student who is tired of writing his narratives in conventional verse. The "Proverbs" are suggested not as models to copy absolutely but rather as the base of variations which the verse maker may devise to suit his theme. _Nonsense Verse_ Nonsense verse in its present development is a fairly modern growth. It began with the limerick which first reached the public under the kindly patronage of Mother Goose: "There was an old man of Bombay, Who pulled at a pipe made of clay, But a long-legged snipe Flew away with the pipe Which vexed that old man of Bombay." With this as a beginning the limerick has spread far and wide. It has secured a place in modern nonsense verse corresponding to that of the sonnet in more serious efforts. There are even limerick fiends who pride themselves on their writing of limericks and others whose collections of the form total up in the thousands. It is very seldom that one sees a limerick now with the first and last lines identical. As a rule the last line differs from the first and ends in a new rhyme. The following taken from _Life_ represents the apotheosis of the limerick: "A German from over the Rhine When asked at what hour he would dine, Replied, 'At Five, Seven, Eight, Ten and Eleven, Four, Six and a Quarter to Nine!'" Edward Lear, an English writer, began the popularization of the limerick in his nonsense books about 1850 and since his time it has been experimented with by many of the cleverest writers now before the public. But nonsense verse is not confined to this one form. Passing from the work of Lear we come to Lewis Carroll's verse in "Alice in Wonderland." Nothing of its kind better than "Jabberwocky" has ever been written, and it would be a bold verse maker who would try to improve on "The Walrus and the Carpenter," or any of the other "Alice poems." In a different way, though perhaps as amusing, is the Gelett Burgess style of nonsense verse typified in his noble quatrain to the Purple Cow: "I never saw a purple cow, I never hope to see one; But this I'll tell you anyhow I'd rather see than be one." Some years ago the college humorous publications originated a bloodthirsty conceit which touched the doings of Little Willie: "Little Willie yesterday When the baby went to play Filled him full of kerosene. Gee! but isn't Willie mean!" Since then the murderous adventures of "Little Willie" have been countless. They are all cannibalistic but rather catchy. The awful thing about nonsense verse is the very fine line that divides a masterpiece from utter drivel. Nonsense verse is very good or very bad. When it plays along the edges it is very pleasing but when it oversteps it becomes rot. _The Humorous Ballad_ A step higher in the ladder is the Humorous Ballad. The "Comic Ballad" we have had with us from the days of Robin Hood, but W. S. Gilbert in his "Bab Ballads" reached heights before his time unsuspected. By the use of catchy stanzas and unusual rhymes he made the type a thing of art. Most readers are familiar with the "Yarn of the Nancy Bell," in which the solitary sailor sings: "Oh, I am the cook and the captain bold And the mate of the Nancy brig; And the bos'n tight and the midshipmite And the crew of the captain's gig." Since the publication of the "Bab Ballads" a great deal of verse has been produced along the same general lines. Mr. Wallace Irwin's "Nautical Ballads of a Landsman" are the most notable additions of recent years. X VERSE TRANSLATION CHAPTER X VERSE TRANSLATION A working knowledge of some foreign language--say French or German--is often very profitable to the verse maker. With a dictionary and a couple of text books he can make very good translations of the poetry of the language--work which may not bring a money return but which as an exercise is both interesting and valuable. The process is not complicated, though a good verse translation may be made as hard a task as any falling to the lot of the literary worker. Take a poem that strikes the fancy; read it and reread till every word is clear and then shape the translation into a stanza and meter as near the original as possible. If there are four three-line stanzas in the original, build the translation into four three-line stanzas as closely line for line as the ease of the verse will permit. In translating from the German the original meter can be followed accent for accent, though this is impossible with the French, whose syllables are without emphasis, and would scarcely be advisable with any of the more complicated Latin meters. At first it is a good idea to make the English verse rigorously exact in its meaning--to study every word until the verse not only rhymes and runs with some degree of naturalness, but also is a correct rendering of the cold facts. This is not so hard as it seems if one sits down and thinks the right word out, and it gives opportunity for an excellent overhauling of the vocabulary. Any one who has had a high-school course in Latin can experiment with Virgil, turning it either into couplets like Pope's Iliad or into the more appropriate meter used by Longfellow in his Evangeline. With a dictionary and a literal translation it is easy enough to puzzle out Horace, who is more modern in his thought and who is, in a way, the ancestor of our present _vers-de-société_ writers. There is also this advantage in the translation of Horace: One finds a chance to compare his translation with the work of many others, for Horace has been more widely translated than any other poet unless we except the Biblical writers. The fame of Father Prout rests largely on his renderings of Horace. Austin Dobson has translated several of the odes into the French forms and many other poets have turned their hand to the task. Among the Germans, Heine is a favorite with English translators, though many of his songs from their shortness and delicacy are hard to express properly. Goethe and Schiller have also been much translated and any collection of German poetry will show a dozen poems with which one has become familiar through the English versions. Among the French it is difficult to specify any particular authors, as they have not been so widely translated as the Germans. Alfred de Musset, Théophile Gautier and Paul Verlaine are, perhaps, as well known as any other of the more modern writers. In making translations with a view to the artistic side the result is apt to differ from the exercise which aims only at accuracy. For practice one should render line for line as nearly as possible. When one can do this it is allowable to take more liberties and reproduce the poem, not line for line as it stands, but rather as the author might have written it had he composed in English; to preserve the meter and general arrangement but to sacrifice details when necessary to the spirit of the poem. When the two qualities can be combined and a poem is translated in such a way that the lines correspond and yet do not crowd out the poetry the result is a masterpiece. But such things very rarely happen and require not only hard work but a flash of inspiration and good luck as well. Very often a poem can be imitated from its mother tongue. A stanza or two may be expanded into a ballade in English containing an elaboration of the original thought. It is perfectly allowable to offer a composition of this sort for sale provided the source is acknowledged. XI ABOUT READING CHAPTER XI ABOUT READING To write good verse one must read good verse. The world has spun too long for a man to succeed who depends wholly on his own ideas; he must profit by the work of others. The more poetry and the more kinds of poetry the verse maker reads the broader his knowledge of the subject becomes. First it touches his vocabulary, then his rhymes and meters and lastly his methods. Though all good literature is helpful in this way, the book which gives the most enjoyment is very apt to bring the most profit. But it should not be forgotten that many authors are unpopular because of a hasty first impression. A rainy day and a disagreeable companion will spoil the effect of the prettiest scenery in the world, and a bad dinner and a headache may turn a masterpiece into a lasting abomination. Any poet whose work has lived must possess some quality which is worth appreciating if not acquiring. Given a fair trial without prejudice he will speak for himself. It is not in the compass of this chapter to list the "Poets Who Should Be Reverenced." It is better for the verse maker to experiment and select his patron saints for himself. Yet attention may be called to certain accepted masters with whose work even the beginner should be familiar. At the head of the list stands the Bible. The beauty and simplicity of its speech fully explain how this book has inspired generation after generation of poets. Job, Isaiah, the Psalms and the writings of Solomon are in themselves a treasury of phrase and suggestion. Shakespeare is to be read for the poetry of his lines and picturesque word-grouping if for nothing else. For that matter, the songs of all the Elizabethan dramatists are worthy of study and restudy. They have a lilt and a lightness which make them live even now when so many literary fashions have passed away. The old English ballads, to be found in Percy's Reliques, Allingham's Ballad Book and most collections of English Literature, are a help toward understanding the construction of a spirited narrative poem. Kipling's "Ballad of East and West" shows how effectively this sort of treatment can be applied to a modern theme. Robert Herrick is worth while for the grace and delicacy of his poems; with him might be classed the better efforts of Lovelace and Sir John Suckling. Milton's "Paradise Lost" is perhaps the best example we have of continuous blank verse. It should be read but not imitated, at least not imitated too much. It is hard to distinguish good blank verse from bad and it is so easy to write the bad. Dryden's "Alexander's Feast" deserves a perpetual bookmark for the remarkable success with which the trend of emotion is interpreted by the rhythm. "The Bells," by Edgar Allan Poe, is another example of this treatment and is held by some critics to be equally good. Pope's verse and that of his age generally is too cleverly artificial to be of much use to a modern, though his mastery of the epigrammatic couplet might be profitably noted. As an exemplification of finished workmanship Gray's "Elegy in a Country Churchyard" stands alone. Robert Burns, for the swing of his songs and the flavor of his words, should be read continually. Much of his Scotch vocabulary might be used, judiciously, in English verse. In the "Eve of St. Agnes," Keats has revealed possibilities in the Spenserian stanza of which Spenser himself was not aware, and the "Ode to a Nightingale" and the "Ode on a Grecian Urn" have a classic beauty which can be recognized though not successfully copied. Of the more modern poets Browning's strange, uncouth phrasing is full of power; Tennyson's mastery is shown in his exquisite choice of words, and Swinburne's meters and rhymes are worth close application. And so one might go on for a dozen pages and still have an incomplete list. It is not what one reads but how one reads. The books wait on the shelves and through reading and through reading only can one cultivate that most necessary though indefinable quality--Good Taste. XII HINTS FOR BEGINNERS CHAPTER XII HINTS FOR BEGINNERS For one whose verse runs easily and whose occasional sales are an encouragement, this last chapter is perhaps unnecessary. Yet there may come times in routine, monotonous production when even he loses in interest, and with this loss his work falls off in quality. It is only through interest and desire that anything has ever been accomplished, and if these are not sustained the work must stay at a low level. Even the seasoned writer must look forward to his work if he wishes to improve. For the beginner whose airy verse does not trip but rather lumbers, who is unable to write anything worthy of sale and whose ideas refuse to be crowded into the right number of feet, it might be an excellent thing occasionally to drop all thought of pentameters and amphibrachs and go back to the old-fashioned rhymed alphabet. "A is for Ant That lives in the ground, B is for Bear-- A terror when found----" and so on through the twenty-six harmless letters. It is an exercise in ingenuity if nothing else and if the writer has any skill at drawing it could be converted into a delightful gift for a five-year-old. Lear, the author of the Nonsense books, did not think it beneath his dignity to write six of these alphabets in varying stanza forms. A little harder, but still not too hard, is the limerick, examples of which are given in Chapter IX. As a gift, a series of illustrated limericks on people you know would have the merit of novelty at least. To see one's productions in print is always an incentive to better work. The type is cheering even when its legibility reveals several faults unnoticed in manuscript. Most small newspapers are glad to publish fairly good verse when the poet is willing to let it go for nothing. Be sure that rhyme and meter are correct and then send it in and let the General Public stand from under. If it is a lack of verse ideas that bothers you, try a drama. Write it in blank verse and crowd the action with incidental songs. This is not for publication, of course; not even to show your dearest friend, but just for practice. Put in a troubadour if you like, or anything else a romantic imagination may suggest, and let them sing themselves hoarse in every scene. In this prosaic century you might not be able to write a stirring love song, but if you become thoroughly identified with the characters, your troubadour or your fair lady would be bound to get off something creditable. The plot of the drama is a thing of no consequence; it may have as much or as little as you choose. Write the scenes as the mood strikes you and when you have lost interest think of it only as an exercise. Tennyson's "Maud" shows how a narrative poem may be treated in a series of lyrics and suggests imitation. The German poets, as well as some English writers, have song cycles, a series of poems all bearing on one central theme. A pedestrian trip; the life of a bird couple; the coming of winter, and innumerable other subjects lie close at hand suitable for such treatment. Henley's city types and hospital sketches lead the way for similar verses of things familiar to you. Very often a line from a piece of prose or verse sticks in the memory. Utilize the line by making it the refrain of a ballade or the ending of some similar verse form. Browning composed his "Childe Roland to the Dark Tower Came," around that single line taken from a song in "King Lear." It is possible to go even further and with a stanza--say from some Elizabethan song--construct about it the completed poem. Rossetti has done this with one of Ophelia's songs in "Hamlet." But keep up your interest and work for the love of working. There is drudgery in the learning of anything, but with verse one can at least make it interesting drudgery. Never give up; never be satisfied; and with all English literature to rove in, don't stick in a rut. Now a general summing up for the verse maker--a summing up that applies just as much to painting or modeling as it does to verse writing. Remember always that you are your own master and that your highest development must always come from yourself. On all matters of taste you are the court of last resort to decide for the hurt or betterment of your soul. So it is necessary in the beginning to be just with yourself. If your verses are not good, throw them away or rewrite them. If they are good not only when written but after they have been laid aside for a month; if the rhymes are true and the meter perfect; if the words run naturally and clearly and embody a real idea, then you may be sure that you have something worthy of editorial consideration at least. If the idea is old and put in the form that has endured, lo! these many generations--"love," "dove," "kiss," "bliss," very probably it will not be accepted. When it comes back from five magazines be fair enough to recognize that perhaps the fault lies with you and lay the masterpiece away for another two months. Then examine it fair-mindedly and try to see just where it falls short of perfection. But you must be you own worst or rather best critic. Admit it when you are wrong and when you are right hold your opinion against all comers. You must decide whether to write much verse or little. Sometimes improvement comes best with a great deal of carelessly constructed stuff. Again a smaller and more carefully regulated output is better. As a general thing, if your ear is correct and your verse comes easily, the better way is to write little and write carefully, spending your time on a few lines. If, however, your rhymes come hard and your expression is not fluent, try a larger output not so carefully revised. Analyze and imitate. Make the mechanical construction correct. Two rhyming words with you should be either good or bad; you should not recognize half-way rhymes. If they are not worthy to be classed with the best, throw them out utterly. Even in your exercises do not tolerate a false rhyme or a line lacking in syllables. Do not attempt too hard a thing at first. You will only be disappointed. Do not write a ballade until you can write a limerick. Work up gradually. And you must not become discouraged. If you write day in and day out, you are bound to improve, though the work of Wednesday be no better than that of Tuesday or even of Saturday. Progress goes in jumps. Nine times we fail and on the tenth trial we succeed. We cannot all be artists but we can all be good workmen. And the better we are able to handle our materials the better we shall be able, if it is in us, to produce something worth while. APPENDIX APPENDIX I MARKET FOR VERSE There is no market nowadays for the long poem except from writers of established reputation. As a rule the shorter the verse the better its chance of acceptance. Verse humorous is easier to dispose of than verse serious because there is a wider field. _Puck_, _Judge_, _Life_, _Smart Set_, _Ainslee's_, _Harper's_, _Century_, and an army of others are always willing to buy really amusing verse. Serious verse is sold in lesser quantities, but the price is better--when the production is bought by a high-class publication. The _Atlantic Monthly_ is always on the lookout for new writers and other magazines are prompt to recognize what pleases them even in the work of a newcomer. Perhaps the most standard popular forms of serious verse are the sonnet and the short love lyric. Many editors are glad to buy quatrains and even couplets to fill out a page when a longer form would be rejected. The well-written triolet is also sure of a hearing for this same reason. Newspapers pay little or nothing for verse except when a special writer is put on the staff to supply a column of verse a day. Occasionally some topical stanza which agrees with the editorial policy will be accepted from an outsider. It may be pointed out here that very often the humor or appropriateness of a production will overbalance faults in the rhyme and meter. In serious verse an exception of this sort will rarely be found and a thing must stand or fall on its real merits. There is no sure way to determine the market except by personal investigation. Read the magazines till you find out where the editor's preference lies and then try him with something of your own, written not in imitation but on the same general lines. Do not send out your verse in a hit-or-miss fashion. Separate the limericks and the love songs and send them each to their appointed editor. In spite of the protestations of interested publishers the reading public does not interest itself in the volume of "collected poems." A book of this sort is rarely looked at unless it runs very much out of the ordinary or comes as the product of some well-known author. II SUGGESTIONS FOR READING This is not intended in any way to be an exhaustive list. It merely suggests the field which each student is bound to explore for himself. TECHNIQUE OF VERSE. The Rhymester--Tom Hood. Concise; with rhyming dictionary appendix. Science of Verse--Sidney Lanier. Worth while for the advanced student. --The Poetic Principle, --Philosophy of Compensation, --Rationale of Verse. Essays by Edgar Allan Poe; to be found in his collected works. Very interesting as showing the methods and viewpoint of a great poet. COLLECTIONS OF POETRY. Ward's English Poets. Four volumes ranging from Chaucer to Tennyson. Oxford Book of English Verse. One large volume containing the work of many of the living writers as well as selections from all the standard poets. --Victorian Anthology. --American Anthology. Both compiled by Edmund Clarence Stedman. Valuable because they contain examples of the best work of to-day's verse makers. THE SONNET. Examples of the sonnet are to be found in almost any collection of verse. The older magazines, especially the _Atlantic Monthly_, use the form continually. The best known sonnet series are: Astrophel and Stella--Sir Philip Sidney. Sonnets of Shakespeare. House of Life--Rossetti. Sonnets from the Portuguese--Elizabeth Barrett Browning. FRENCH FORMS. Examples are to be found in the collected poems of Austin Dobson, Andrew Lang, W. E. Henley and H. C. Bunner, to mention only the more prominent. The Ballade Book, edited by Gleeson White, Ex Libris Series, contains examples of all the forms and is probably the most convenient collection to be had. THE SONG. In this connection see Burns, Moore, Tennyson, together with Scotch collections and the work of W. B. Yeats and other modern Irish writers. For rhythm and a different sort of "song" see Kipling. The Vagabondia Series by Bliss Carman and Richard Hovey are worth buying. Occasional poems, falling under this head, are to be found in almost any volume of the poets. VERS DE SOCI�T�. About the best single book is a volume in the Leisure Hour Series entitled "Vers de Société." It gives an excellent idea of the field covered. Among the strongest writers of this style of verse are Austin Dobson, C. S. Calverley, Andrew Lang, W. M. Praed and H. C. Bunner. Perhaps the best known English writer of to-day is Owen Seaman, whose work appears weekly in _Punch_. NONSENSE VERSE. Mother Goose. The Burgess Nonsense Book--Gelett Burgess. A Nonsense Anthology--Carolyn Wells. A Parody Anthology--Carolyn Wells. HUMOROUS BALLADS. Bab Ballads--W. S. Gilbert. Grimm Tales Made Gay--Guy Wetmore Carryl. Nautical Ballads of a Landsman--Wallace Irwin. TRANSLATIONS. It is difficult to quote any translator in particular who is worth while. Most translators are not poets and most poets have not been translators. The book of solid translation is generally very mediocre and tiresome. Translations of the greatest foreign poets are to be found in any fair-sized public library. Longfellow, Swinburne, Rossetti, Dobson, Lang and a few others have left occasional translations which are models of the best of this work. 
45023	----	provided by The Internet Archive THE PICTORIAL GRAMMAR By Alfred Crowquill. LONDON: WILLIAM TEGG & CO 1876. Alfred Henry Forrester, whose nom de plume was "Alfred Crowquill," was born in London, 1806. He practised as a Notary, which his family had followed for years. Early in life he began to furnish articles for the Magazines, and soon became the illustrator of his own works. He contributed to _Punch_ upon its first commencement, and to the _Illustrated London News_. Among his works may be named, "Comic English Grammar," "Comic Arithmetic," "The Wanderings of a Pen and Pencil," &c., &c. He died May 26, 1872. W. T. PICTORIAL GRAMMAR. [Illustration: 001] [Illustration: 002] [Illustration: 003] [Illustration: 004] [Illustration: 005] [Illustration: 006] [Illustration: 007] [Illustration: 008] [Illustration: 009] [Illustration: 010] [Illustration: 011] [Illustration: 012] [Illustration: 013] [Illustration: 014] [Illustration: 015] [Illustration: 016] [Illustration: 017] [Illustration: 018] [Illustration: 019] [Illustration: 020] [Illustration: 031] [Illustration: 032] [Illustration: 033] [Illustration: 034] [Illustration: 035] [Illustration: 036] [Illustration: 037] [Illustration: 038] [Illustration: 039] [Illustration: 040] [Illustration: 041] [Illustration: 042] [Illustration: 043] [Illustration: 044] [Illustration: 045] [Illustration: 046] [Illustration: 047] [Illustration: 048] [Illustration: 049] [Illustration: 040] [Illustration: 051] [Illustration: 052] [Illustration: 053] [Illustration: 054] [Illustration: 055] [Illustration: 056] [Illustration: 057] [Illustration: 058] [Illustration: 059] [Illustration: 060] [Illustration: 061] [Illustration: 062] [Illustration: 063] [Illustration: 064] [Illustration: 065] [Illustration: 066] [Illustration: 067] [Illustration: 068] [Illustration: 069] [Illustration: 070] [Illustration: 071] [Illustration: 072] [Illustration: 073] [Illustration: 074] [Illustration: 075] 
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12474	----	WRITE IT RIGHT _A LITTLE BLACKLIST OF LITERARY FAULTS_ BY AMBROSE BIERCE 1909 AIMS AND THE PLAN The author's main purpose in this book is to teach precision in writing; and of good writing (which, essentially, is clear thinking made visible) precision is the point of capital concern. It is attained by choice of the word that accurately and adequately expresses what the writer has in mind, and by exclusion of that which either denotes or connotes something else. As Quintilian puts it, the writer should so write that his reader not only may, but must, understand. Few words have more than one literal and serviceable meaning, however many metaphorical, derivative, related, or even unrelated, meanings lexicographers may think it worth while to gather from all sorts and conditions of men, with which to bloat their absurd and misleading dictionaries. This actual and serviceable meaning--not always determined by derivation, and seldom by popular usage--is the one affirmed, according to his light, by the author of this little manual of solecisms. Narrow etymons of the mere scholar and loose locutions of the ignorant are alike denied a standing. The plan of the book is more illustrative than expository, the aim being to use the terms of etymology and syntax as little as is compatible with clarity, familiar example being more easily apprehended than technical precept. When both are employed the precept is commonly given after the example has prepared the student to apply it, not only to the matter in mind, but to similar matters not mentioned. Everything in quotation marks is to be understood as disapproved. Not all locutions blacklisted herein are always to be reprobated as universal outlaws. Excepting in the case of capital offenders--expressions ancestrally vulgar or irreclaimably degenerate--absolute proscription is possible as to serious composition only; in other forms the writer must rely on his sense of values and the fitness of things. While it is true that some colloquialisms and, with less of license, even some slang, may be sparingly employed in light literature, for point, piquancy or any of the purposes of the skilled writer sensible to the necessity and charm of keeping at least one foot on the ground, to others the virtue of restraint may be commended as distinctly superior to the joy of indulgence. Precision is much, but not all; some words and phrases are disallowed on the ground of taste. As there are neither standards nor arbiters of taste, the book can do little more than reflect that of its author, who is far indeed from professing impeccability. In neither taste nor precision is any man's practice a court of last appeal, for writers all, both great and small, are habitual sinners against the light; and their accuser is cheerfully aware that his own work will supply (as in making this book it has supplied) many "awful examples"--his later work less abundantly, he hopes, than his earlier. He nevertheless believes that this does not disqualify him for showing by other instances than his own how not to write. The infallible teacher is still in the forest primeval, throwing seeds to the white blackbirds. A.B. THE BLACKLIST _A_ for _An_. "A hotel." "A heroic man." Before an unaccented aspirate use an. The contrary usage in this country comes of too strongly stressing our aspirates. _Action_ for _Act_. "In wrestling, a blow is a reprehensible action." A blow is not an action but an act. An action may consist of many acts. _Admission_ for _Admittance_. "The price of admission is one dollar." _Admit_ for _Confess_. To admit is to concede something affirmed. An unaccused offender cannot admit his guilt. _Adopt_. "He adopted a disguise." One may adopt a child, or an opinion, but a disguise is assumed. _Advisedly_ for _Advertently_, _Intentionally_. "It was done advisedly" should mean that it was done after advice. _Afford_. It is not well to say "the fact affords a reasonable presumption"; "the house afforded ample accommodation." The fact supplies a reasonable presumption. The house offered, or gave, ample accommodation. _Afraid_. Do not say, "I am afraid it will rain." Say, I fear that it will rain. _Afterwards_ for _Afterward_. _Aggravate_ for _Irritate_. "He aggravated me by his insolence." To aggravate is to augment the disagreeableness of something already disagreeable, or the badness of something bad. But a person cannot be aggravated, even if disagreeable or bad. Women are singularly prone to misuse of this word. _All of_. "He gave all of his property." The words are contradictory: an entire thing cannot be of itself. Omit the preposition. _Alleged_. "The alleged murderer." One can allege a murder, but not a murderer; a crime, but not a criminal. A man that is merely suspected of crime would not, in any case, be an alleged criminal, for an allegation is a definite and positive statement. In their tiresome addiction to this use of alleged, the newspapers, though having mainly in mind the danger of libel suits, can urge in further justification the lack of any other single word that exactly expresses their meaning; but the fact that a mud-puddle supplies the shortest route is not a compelling reason for walking through it. One can go around. _Allow_ for _Permit_. "I allow you to go." Precision is better attained by saying permit, for allow has other meanings. _Allude to_ for _Mention_. What is alluded to is not mentioned, but referred to indirectly. Originally, the word implied a playful, or sportive, reference. That meaning is gone out of it. _And so_. _And yet_. "And so they were married." "And yet a woman." Omit the conjunction. _And which_. _And who_. These forms are incorrect unless the relative pronoun has been used previously in the sentence. "The colt, spirited and strong, and which was unbroken, escaped from the pasture." "John Smith, one of our leading merchants, and who fell from a window yesterday, died this morning." Omit the conjunction. _Antecedents_ for _Personal History_. Antecedents are predecessors. _Anticipate_ for _Expect_. "I anticipate trouble." To anticipate is to act on an expectation in a way to promote or forestall the event expected. _Anxious_ for _Eager_. "I was anxious to go." Anxious should not be followed by an infinitive. Anxiety is contemplative; eagerness, alert for action. _Appreciate_ for _Highly Value_. In the sense of value, it means value justly, not highly. In another and preferable sense it means to increase in value. _Approach_. "The juror was approached"; that is, overtures were made to him with a view to bribing him. As there is no other single word for it, approach is made to serve, figuratively; and being graphic, it is not altogether objectionable. _Appropriated_ for _Took_. "He appropriated his neighbor's horse to his own use." To appropriate is to set apart, as a sum of money, for a special purpose. _Approve of_ for _Approve_. There is no sense in making approve an intransitive verb. _Apt_ for _Likely_. "One is apt to be mistaken." Apt means facile, felicitous, ready, and the like; but even the dictionary-makers cannot persuade a person of discriminating taste to accept it as synonymous with likely. _Around_ for _About_. "The débris of battle lay around them." "The huckster went around, crying his wares." Around carries the concept of circularity. _Article_. A good and useful word, but used without meaning by shopkeepers; as, "A good article of vinegar," for a good vinegar. _As_ for _That_, or _If_. "I do not know as he is living." This error is not very common among those who can write at all, but one sometimes sees it in high place. _As--as_ for _So--as_. "He is not as good as she." Say, not so good. In affirmative sentences the rule is different: He is as good as she. _As for_ for _As to_. "As for me, I am well." Say, as to me. _At Auction_ for _by Auction_. "The goods were sold at auction." _At_ for _By_. "She was shocked at his conduct." This very common solecism is without excuse. _Attain_ for _Accomplish_. "By diligence we attain our purpose." A purpose is accomplished; success is attained. _Authoress_. A needless word--as needless as "poetess." _Avocation_ for _Vocation_. A vocation is, literally, a calling; that is, a trade or profession. An avocation is something that calls one away from it. If I say that farming is some one's avocation I mean that he practises it, not regularly, but at odd times. _Avoid_ for _Avert_. "By displaying a light the skipper avoided a collision." To avoid is to shun; the skipper could have avoided a collision only by getting out of the way. _Avoirdupois_ for _Weight_. Mere slang. _Back of_ for _Behind_, _At the Back of_. "Back of law is force." _Backwards_ for _Backward_. _Badly_ for _Bad_. "I feel badly." "He looks badly." The former sentence implies defective nerves of sensation, the latter, imperfect vision. Use the adjective. _Balance_ for _Remainder_. "The balance of my time is given to recreation." In this sense balance is a commercial word, and relates to accounting. _Banquet_. A good enough word in its place, but its place is the dictionary. Say, dinner. _Bar_ for _Bend_. "Bar sinister." There is no such thing in heraldry as a bar sinister. _Because_ for _For_. "I knew it was night, because it was dark." "He will not go, because he is ill." _Bet_ for _Betted_. The verb to bet forms its preterite regularly, as do wet, wed, knit, quit and others that are commonly misconjugated. It seems that we clip our short words more than we do our long. _Body_ for _Trunk_. "The body lay here, the head there." The body is the entire physical person (as distinguished from the soul, or mind) and the head is a part of it. As distinguished from head, trunk may include the limbs, but anatomically it is the torso only. _Bogus_ for _Counterfeit_, or _False_. The word is slang; keep it out. _Both_. This word is frequently misplaced; as, "A large mob, both of men and women." Say, of both men and women. _Both alike_. "They are both alike." Say, they are alike. One of them could not be alike. _Brainy_. Pure slang, and singularly disagreeable. _Bug_ for _Beetle_, or for anything. Do not use it. _Business_ for _Right_. "He has no business to go there." _Build_ for _Make_. "Build a fire." "Build a canal." Even "build a tunnel" is not unknown, and probably if the wood-chuck is skilled in the American tongue he speaks of building a hole. _But_. By many writers this word (in the sense of except) is regarded as a preposition, to be followed by the objective case: "All went but him." It is not a preposition and may take either the nominative or objective case, to agree with the subject or the object of the verb. All went but he. The natives killed all but him. _But what_. "I did not know but what he was an enemy." Omit what. If condemnation of this dreadful locution seem needless bear the matter in mind in your reading and you will soon be of a different opinion. _By_ for _Of_. "A man by the name of Brown." Say, of the name. Better than either form is: a man named Brown. _Calculated_ for _Likely_. "The bad weather is calculated to produce sickness." Calculated implies calculation, design. _Can_ for _May_. "Can I go fishing?" "He can call on me if he wishes to." _Candidate_ for _Aspirant_. In American politics, one is not a candidate for an office until formally named (nominated) for it by a convention, or otherwise, as provided by law or custom. So when a man who is moving Heaven and Earth to procure the nomination protests that he is "not a candidate" he tells the truth in order to deceive. _Cannot_ for _Can_. "I cannot but go." Say, I can but go. _Capable_. "Men are capable of being flattered." Say, susceptible to flattery. "Capable of being refuted." Vulnerable to refutation. Unlike capacity, capability is not passive, but active. We are capable of doing, not of having something done to us. _Capacity_ for _Ability_. "A great capacity for work." Capacity is receptive; ability, potential. A sponge has capacity for water; the hand, ability to squeeze it out. _Casket_ for _Coffin_. A needless euphemism affected by undertakers. _Casualties_ for _Losses_ in Battle. The essence of casualty is accident, absence of design. Death and wounds in battle are produced otherwise, are expectable and expected, and, by the enemy, intentional. _Chance_ for _Opportunity_. "He had a good chance to succeed." _Chin Whiskers_. The whisker grows on the cheek, not the chin. _Chivalrous_. The word is popularly used in the Southern States only, and commonly has reference to men's manner toward women. Archaic, stilted and fantastic. _Citizen_ for _Civilian_. A soldier may be a citizen, but is not a civilian. _Claim_ for _Affirm_. "I claim that he is elected." To claim is to assert ownership. _Clever_ for _Obliging_. In this sense the word was once in general use in the United States, but is now seldom heard and life here is less insupportable. _Climb down_. In climbing one ascends. _Coat_ for _Coating_. "A coat of paint, or varnish." If we coat something we produce a coating, not a coat. _Collateral Descendant_. There can be none: a "collateral descendant" is not a descendant. _Colonel_, _Judge_, _Governor_, etc., for _Mister_. Give a man a title only if it belongs to him, and only while it belongs to him. _Combine_ for _Combination_. The word, in this sense, has something of the meaning of conspiracy, but there is no justification for it as a noun, in any sense. _Commence_ for _Begin_. This is not actually incorrect, but--well, it is a matter of taste. _Commencement_ for _Termination_. A contribution to our noble tongue by its scholastic conservators, "commencement day" being their name for the last day of the collegiate year. It is ingeniously defended on the ground that on that day those on whom degrees are bestowed commence to hold them. Lovely! _Commit Suicide_. Instead of "He committed suicide," say, He killed himself, or, He took his life. For married we do not say "committed matrimony." Unfortunately most of us do say, "got married," which is almost as bad. For lack of a suitable verb we just sometimes say committed this or that, as in the instance of bigamy, for the verb to bigam is a blessing that is still in store for us. _Compare with_ for _Compare to_. "He had the immodesty to compare himself with Shakespeare." Nothing necessarily immodest in that. Comparison with may be for observing a difference; comparison to affirms a similarity. _Complected_. Anticipatory past participle of the verb "to complect." Let us wait for that. _Conclude_ for _Decide_. "I concluded to go to town." Having concluded a course of reasoning (implied) I decided to go to town. A decision is supposed to be made at the conclusion of a course of reasoning, but is not the conclusion itself. Conversely, the conclusion of a syllogism is not a decision, but an inference. _Connection_. "In this connection I should like to say a word or two." In connection with this matter. _Conscious_ for _Aware_. "The King was conscious of the conspiracy." We are conscious of what we feel; aware of what we know. _Consent_ for _Assent_. "He consented to that opinion." To consent is to agree to a proposal; to assent is to agree with a proposition. _Conservative_ for _Moderate_. "A conservative estimate"; "a conservative forecast"; "a conservative statement," and so on. These and many other abuses of the word are of recent growth in the newspapers and "halls of legislation." Having been found to have several meanings, conservative seems to be thought to mean everything. _Continually_ and _Continuously_. It seems that these words should have the same meaning, but in their use by good writers there is a difference. What is done continually is not done all the time, but continuous action is without interruption. A loquacious fellow, who nevertheless finds time to eat and sleep, is continually talking; but a great river flows continuously. _Convoy_ for _Escort_. "A man-of-war acted as convoy to the flotilla." The flotilla is the convoy, the man-of-war the escort. _Couple_ for _Two_. For two things to be a couple they must be of one general kind, and their number unimportant to the statement made of them. It would be weak to say, "He gave me only one, although he took a couple for himself." Couple expresses indifference to the exact number, as does several. That is true, even in the phrase, a married couple, for the number is carried in the adjective and needs no emphasis. _Created_ for _First Performed_. Stage slang. "Burbage created the part of Hamlet." What was it that its author did to it? _Critically_ for _Seriously_. "He has long been critically ill." A patient is critically ill only at the crisis of his disease. _Criticise_ for _Condemn_, or _Disparage_. Criticism is not necessarily censorious; it may approve. _Cunning_ for _Amusing_. Usually said of a child, or pet. This is pure Americanese, as is its synonym, "cute." _Curious_ for _Odd_, or _Singular_. To be curious is to have an inquiring mind, or mood--curiosity. _Custom_ for _Habit_. Communities have customs; individuals, habits--commonly bad ones. _Decease_ for _Die_. _Decidedly_ for _Very_, or _Certainly_. "It is decidedly cold." _Declared_ for _Said_. To a newspaper reporter no one seems ever to say anything; all "declare." Like "alleged" (which see) the word is tiresome exceedingly. _Defalcation_ for _Default_. A defalcation is a cutting off, a subtraction; a default is a failure in duty. _Definitely_ for _Definitively_. "It was definitely decided." Definitely means precisely, with exactness; definitively means finally, conclusively. _Deliver_. "He delivered an oration," or "delivered a lecture." Say, He made an oration, or gave a lecture. _Demean_ for _Debase_ or _Degrade_. "He demeaned himself by accepting charity." The word relates, not to meanness, but to demeanor, conduct, behavior. One may demean oneself with dignity and credit. _Demise_ for _Death_. Usually said of a person of note. Demise means the lapse, as by death, of some authority, distinction or privilege, which passes to another than the one that held it; as the demise of the Crown. _Democracy_ for _Democratic Party_. One could as properly call the Christian Church "the Christianity." _Dépôt_ for _Station_. "Railroad dépôt." A dépôt is a place of deposit; as, a dépôt of supply for an army. _Deprivation_ for _Privation_. "The mendicant showed the effects of deprivation." Deprivation refers to the act of depriving, taking away from; privation is the state of destitution, of not having. _Dilapidated_ for _Ruined_. Said of a building, or other structure. But the word is from the Latin _lapis_, a stone, and cannot properly be used of any but a stone structure. _Directly_ for _Immediately_. "I will come directly" means that I will come by the most direct route. _Dirt_ for _Earth_, _Soil_, or _Gravel_. A most disagreeable Americanism, discredited by general (and Presidential) use. "Make the dirt fly." Dirt means filth. _Distinctly_ for _Distinctively_. "The custom is distinctly Oriental." Distinctly is plainly; distinctively, in a way to distinguish one thing from others. _Donate_ for _Give_. Good American, but not good English. _Doubtlessly_. A doubly adverbial form, like "illy." _Dress_ for _Gown_. Not so common as it was a few years ago. Dress means the entire costume. _Each Other_ for _One Another_. "The three looked at each other." That is, each looked at the other. But there were more than one other; so we should say they looked at one another, which means that each looked at another. Of two, say each other; of more than two, one another. _Edify_ for _Please_, or _Entertain_. Edify means to build; it has, therefore, the sense of uplift, improvement--usually moral, or spiritual. _Electrocution_. To one having even an elementary knowledge of Latin grammar this word is no less than disgusting, and the thing meant by it is felt to be altogether too good for the word's inventor. _Empty_ for _Vacant_. Say, an empty bottle; but, a vacant house. _Employé_. Good French, but bad English. Say, employee. _Endorse_ for _Approve_. To endorse is to write upon the back of, or to sign the promissory note of another. It is a commercial word, having insufficient dignity for literary use. You may endorse a check, but you approve a policy, or statement. _Endways_. A corruption of endwise. _Entitled_ for _Authorized_, _Privileged._ "The man is not entitled to draw rations." Say, entitled to rations. Entitled is not to be followed by an infinitive. _Episode_ for _Occurrence_, _Event_, etc. Properly, an episode is a narrative that is a subordinate part of another narrative. An occurrence considered by itself is not an episode. _Equally as_ for _Equally_. "This is equally as good." Omit as. "He was of the same age, and equally as tall." Say, equally tall. _Equivalent_ for _Equal_. "My salary is equivalent to yours." _Essential_ for _Necessary_. This solecism is common among the best writers of this country and England. "It is essential to go early"; "Irrigation is essential to cultivation of arid lands," and so forth. One thing is essential to another thing only if it is of the essence of it--an important and indispensable part of it, determining its nature; the soul of it. _Even_ for _Exact_. "An even dozen." _Every_ for _Entire_, _Full_. "The president had every confidence in him." _Every_ for _Ever_. "Every now and then." This is nonsense: there can be no such thing as a now and then, nor, of course, a number of now and thens. Now and then is itself bad enough, reversing as it does the sequence of things, but it is idiomatic and there is no quarreling with it. But "every" is here a corruption of ever, meaning repeatedly, continually. _Ex_. "Ex-President," "an ex-convict," and the like. Say, former. In England one may say, Mr. Roosevelt, sometime President; though the usage is a trifle archaic. _Example_ for _Problem_. A heritage from the text-books. "An example in arithmetic." An equally bad word for the same thing is "sum": "Do the sum," for Solve the problem. _Excessively_ for _Exceedingly_. "The disease is excessively painful." "The weather is excessively cold." Anything that is painful at all is excessively so. Even a slight degree or small amount of what is disagreeable or injurious is excessive--that is to say, redundant, superfluous, not required. _Executed_. "The condemned man was executed." He was hanged, or otherwise put to death; it is the sentence that is executed. _Executive_ for _Secret_. An executive session of a deliberative body is a session for executive business, as distinguished from legislative. It is commonly secret, but a secret session is not necessarily executive. _Expect_ for _Believe_, or _Suppose_. "I expect he will go." Say, I believe (suppose or think) he will go; or, I expect him to go. _Expectorate_ for _Spit_. The former word is frequently used, even in laws and ordinances, as a euphemism for the latter. It not only means something entirely different, but to one with a Latin ear is far more offensive. _Experience_ for _Suffer_, or _Undergo_. "The sinner experienced a change of heart." This will do if said lightly or mockingly. It does not indicate a serious frame of mind in the speaker. _Extend_ for _Proffer_. "He extended an invitation." One does not always hold out an invitation in one's hand; it may be spoken or sent. _Fail_. "He failed to note the hour." That implies that he tried to note it, but did not succeed. Failure carries always the sense of endeavor; when there has been no endeavor there is no failure. A falling stone cannot fail to strike you, for it does not try; but a marksman firing at you may fail to hit you; and I hope he always will. _Favor_ for _Resemble_. "The child favors its father." _Feel of_ for _Feel_. "The doctor felt of the patient's head." "Smell of" and "taste of" are incorrect too. _Feminine_ for _Female_. "A feminine member of the club." Feminine refers, not to sex proper, but to gender, which may be defined as the sex of words. The same is true of masculine. _Fetch_ for _Bring_. Fetching includes, not only bringing, but going to get--going for and returning with. You may bring what you did not go for. _Finances_ for _Wealth_, or _Pecuniary Resources_. _Financial_ for _Pecuniary_. "His financial reward"; "he is financially responsible," and so forth. _Firstly_. If this word could mean anything it would mean firstlike, whatever that might mean. The ordinal numbers should have no adverbial form: "firstly," "secondly," and the rest are words without meaning. _Fix_. This is, in America, a word-of-all-work, most frequently meaning repair, or prepare. Do not so use it. _Forebears_ for _Ancestors_. The word is sometimes spelled forbears, a worse spelling than the other, but not much. If used at all it should be spelled _forebeers_, for it means those who have _been_ before. A forebe-er is one who fore-was. Considered in any way, it is a senseless word. _Forecasted_. For this abominable word we are indebted to the weather bureau--at least it was not sent upon us until that affliction was with us. Let us hope that it may some day be losted from the language. _Former_ and _Latter_. Indicating the first and the second of things previously named, these words are unobjectionable if not too far removed from the names that they stand for. If they are they confuse, for the reader has to look back to the names. Use them sparingly. _Funeral Obsequies_. Tautological. Say, obsequies; the word is now used in none but a funereal sense. _Fully_ for _Definitively_, or _Finally_. "After many preliminary examinations he was fully committed for trial." The adverb is meaningless: a defendant is never partly committed for trial. This is a solecism to which lawyers are addicted. And sometimes they have been heard to say "fullied." _Funds_ for _Money_. "He was out of funds." Funds are not money in general, but sums of money or credit available for particular purposes. _Furnish_ for _Provide_, or _Supply_. "Taxation furnished the money." A pauper may furnish a house if some one will provide the furniture, or the money to buy it. "His flight furnishes a presumption of guilt." It supplies it. _Generally_ for _Usually_. "The winds are generally high." "A fool is generally vain." This misuse of the word appears to come of abbreviating: Generally speaking, the weather is bad. A fool, to speak generally, is vain. _Gent_ for _Gentleman_. Vulgar exceedingly. _Genteel_. This word, meaning polite, or well mannered, was once in better repute than it is now, and its noun, gentility, is still not infrequently found in the work of good writers. Genteel is most often used by those who write, as the Scotchman of the anecdote joked--wi' deeficulty. _Gentleman_. It is not possible to teach the correct use of this overworked word: one must be bred to it. Everybody knows that it is not synonymous with man, but among the "genteel" and those ambitious to be thought "genteel" it is commonly so used in discourse too formal for the word "gent." To use the word gentleman correctly, be one. _Genuine_ for _Authentic_, or _Veritable._ "A genuine document," "a genuine surprise," and the like. _Given_. "The soldier was given a rifle." What was given is the rifle, not the soldier. "The house was given a coat (coating) of paint." Nothing can be "given" anything. _Goatee_. In this country goatee is frequently used for a tuft of beard on the point of the chin--what is sometimes called "an imperial," apparently because the late Emperor Napoleon III wore his beard so. His Majesty the Goat is graciously pleased to wear his beneath the chin. _Got Married_ for _Married_. If this is correct we should say, also, "got dead" for died; one expression is as good as the other. _Gotten_ for _Got_. This has gone out of good use, though in such compounded words as begotten and misbegotten it persists respectably. _Graduated_ for _Was Graduated_. _Gratuitous_ for _Unwarranted_. "A gratuitous assertion." Gratuitous means without cost. _Grueling_. Used chiefly by newspaper reporters; as, "He was subjected to a grueling cross-examination." "It was grueling weather." Probably a corruption of grilling. _Gubernatorial_. Eschew it; it is not English, is needless and bombastic. Leave it to those who call a political office a "chair." "Gubernatorial chair" is good enough for them. So is hanging. _Had Better_ for _Would Better_. This is not defensible as an idiom, as those who always used it before their attention was directed to it take the trouble to point out. It comes of such contractions as he'd for he would, I'd for I would. These clipped words are erroneously restored as "he had," "I had." So we have such monstrosities as "He had better beware," "I had better go." _Hail_ for _Come_. "He hails from Chicago." This is sea speech, and comes from the custom of hailing passing ships. It will not do for serious discourse. _Have Got_ for _Have_. "I have got a good horse" directs attention rather to the act of getting than to the state of having, and represents the capture as recently completed. _Head over Heels_. A transposition of words hardly less surprising than (to the person most concerned) the mischance that it fails to describe. What is meant is heels over head. _Healthy_ for _Wholesome_. "A healthy climate." "A healthy occupation." Only a living thing can be healthy. _Helpmeet_ for _Helpmate_. In Genesis Adam's wife is called "an help meet for him," that is, fit for him. The ridiculous word appears to have had no other origin. _Hereafter_ for _Henceforth_. Hereafter means at some time in the future; henceforth, always in the future. The penitent who promises to be good hereafter commits himself to the performance of a single good act, not to a course of good conduct. _Honeymoon_. Moon here means month, so it is incorrect to say, "a week's honeymoon," or, "Their honeymoon lasted a year." _Horseflesh_ for _Horses_. A singularly senseless and disagreeable word which, when used, as it commonly is, with reference to hippophilism, savors rather more of the spit than of the spirit. _Humans_ as a Noun. We have no single word having the general yet limited meaning that this is sometimes used to express--a meaning corresponding to that of the word animals, as the word men would if it included women and children. But there is time enough to use two words. _Hung_ for _Hanged_. A bell, or a curtain, is hung, but a man is hanged. Hung is the junior form of the participle, and is now used for everything but man. Perhaps it is our reverence for the custom of hanging men that sacredly preserves the elder form--as some, even, of the most zealous American spelling reformers still respect the u in Saviour. _Hurry_ for _Haste_ and _Hasten_. To hurry is to hasten in a more or less disorderly manner. Hurry is misused, also, in another sense: "There is no hurry"--meaning, There is no reason for haste. _Hurt_ for _Harm_. "It does no hurt." To be hurt is to feel pain, but one may be harmed without knowing it. To spank a child, or flout a fool, hurts without harming. _Idea_ for _Thought_, _Purpose_, _Expectation_, etc. "I had no idea that it was so cold." "When he went abroad it was with no idea of remaining." _Identified with_. "He is closely identified with the temperance movement." Say, connected. _Ilk_ for _Kind_. "Men of that ilk." This Scotch word has a narrowly limited and specific meaning. It relates to an ancestral estate having the same name as the person spoken of. Macdonald of that ilk means, Macdonald of Macdonald. The phrase quoted above is without meaning. _Illy_ for _Ill_. There is no such word as illy, for ill itself is an adverb. _Imaginary Line_. The adjective is needless. Geometrically, every line is imaginary; its graphic representation is a mark. True the text-books say, draw a line, but in a mathematical sense the line already exists; the drawing only makes its course visible. _In_ for _Into_. "He was put in jail." "He went in the house." A man may be in jail, or be in a house, but when the act of entrance--the movement of something from the outside to the inside of another thing--is related the correct word is into if the latter thing is named. _Inaugurate_ for _Begin_, _Establish_, etc. Inauguration implies some degree of formality and ceremony. _Incumbent_ for _Obligatory_. "It was incumbent upon me to relieve him." Infelicitous and work-worn. Say, It was my duty, or, if enamored of that particular metaphor, It lay upon me. _Individual_. As a noun, this word means something that cannot be considered as divided, a unit. But it is incorrect to call a man, woman or child an individual, except with reference to mankind, to society or to a class of persons. It will not do to say, "An individual stood in the street," when no mention nor allusion has been made, nor is going to be made, to some aggregate of individuals considered as a whole. _Indorse_. See _Endorse_. _Insane Asylum_. Obviously an asylum cannot be unsound in mind. Say, asylum for the insane. _In Spite of_. In most instances it is better to say despite. _Inside of_. Omit the preposition. _Insignificant_ for _Trivial_, or _Small_. Insignificant means not signifying anything, and should be used only in contrast, expressed or implied, with something that is important for what it implies. The bear's tail may be insignificant to a naturalist tracing the animal's descent from an earlier species, but to the rest of us, not concerned with the matter, it is merely small. _Insoluble_ for _Unsolvable_. Use the former word for material substances, the latter for problems. _Inst._, _Prox._, _Ult._ These abbreviations of _instante mense_ (in the present month), _proximo mense_ (in the next month) and _ultimo mense_ (in the last month), are serviceable enough in commercial correspondence, but, like A.M., P.M. and many other contractions of Latin words, could profitably be spared from literature. _Integrity_ for _Honesty_. The word means entireness, wholeness. It may be rightly used to affirm possession of all the virtues, that is, unity of moral character. _Involve_ for _Entail_. "Proof of the charges will involve his dismissal." Not at all; it will entail it. To involve is, literally, to infold, not to bring about, nor cause to ensue. An unofficial investigation, for example, may involve character and reputation, but the ultimate consequence is entailed. A question, in the parliamentary sense, may involve a principle; its settlement one way or another may entail expense, or injury to interests. An act may involve one's honor and entail disgrace. _It_ for _So_. "Going into the lion's cage is dangerous; you should not do it." Do so is the better expression, as a rule, for the word it is a pronoun, meaning a thing, or object, and therefore incapable of being done. Colloquially we may say do it, or do this, or do that, but in serious written discourse greater precision is desirable, and is better obtained, in most cases, by use of the adverb. _Item_ for _Brief Article_. Commonly used of a narrative in a newspaper. Item connotes an aggregate of which it is a unit--one thing of many. Hence it suggests more than we may wish to direct attention to. _Jackies_ for _Sailors_. Vulgar, and especially offensive to seamen. _Jeopardize_ for _Imperil_, or _Endanger_. The correct word is jeopard, but in any case there is no need for anything so farfetched and stilted. _Juncture_. Juncture means a joining, a junction; its use to signify a time, however critical a time, is absurd. "At this juncture the woman screamed." In reading that account of it we scream too. _Just Exactly_. Nothing is gained in strength nor precision by this kind of pleonasm. Omit just. _Juvenile_ for _Child_. This needless use of the adjective for the noun is probably supposed to be humorous, like "canine" for dog, "optic" for eye, "anatomy" for body, and the like. Happily the offense is not very common. _Kind of a_ for _Kind of_. "He was that kind of a man." Say that kind of man. Man here is generic, and a genus comprises many kinds. But there cannot be more than one kind of one thing. _Kind of_ followed by an adjective, as, "kind of good," is almost too gross for censure. _Landed Estate_ for _Property in Land_. Dreadful! _Last_ and _Past_. "Last week." "The past week." Neither is accurate: a week cannot be the last if another is already begun; and all weeks except this one are past. Here two wrongs seem to make a right: we can say the week last past. But will we? I trow not. _Later on_. On is redundant; say, later. _Laundry_. Meaning a place where clothing is washed, this word cannot mean, also, clothing sent there to be washed. _Lay_ (to place) for _Lie_ (to recline). "The ship lays on her side." A more common error is made in the past tense, as, "He laid down on the grass." The confusion comes of the identity of a present tense of the transitive verb to lay and the past tense of the intransitive verb to lie. _Leading Question_. A leading question is not necessarily an important one; it is one that is so framed as to suggest, or lead to, the answer desired. Few others than lawyers use the term correctly. _Lease_. To say of a man that he leases certain premises leaves it doubtful whether he is lessor or lessee. Being ambiguous, the word should be used with caution. _Leave_ for _Go away_. "He left yesterday." Leave is a transitive verb; name the place of departure. _Leave_ for _Let_. "Leave it alone." By this many persons mean, not that it is to be left in solitude, but that it is to be untouched, or unmolested. _Lengthways_ for _Lengthwise_. _Lengthy_. Usually said in disparagement of some wearisome discourse. It is no better than breadthy, or thicknessy. _Leniency_ for _Lenity_. The words are synonymous, but the latter is the better. _Less_ for _Fewer_. "The regiment had less than five hundred men." Less relates to quantity, fewer, to number. _Limited_ for _Small_, _Inadequate_, etc. "The army's operations were confined to a limited area." "We had a limited supply of food." A large area and an adequate supply would also be limited. Everything that we know about is limited. _Liable_ for _Likely_. "Man is liable to err." Man is not liable to err, but to error. Liable should be followed, not by an infinitive, but by a preposition. _Like_ for _As_, or _As if_. "The matter is now like it was." "The house looked like it would fall." _Likely_ for _Probably_. "He will likely be elected." If likely is thought the better word (and in most cases it is) put it this way: "It is likely that he will be elected," or, "He is likely to be elected." _Line_ for _Kind_, or _Class_. "This line of goods." Leave the word to "salesladies" and "salesgentlemen." "That line of business." Say, that business. _Literally_ for _Figuratively_. "The stream was literally alive with fish." "His eloquence literally swept the audience from its feet." It is bad enough to exaggerate, but to affirm the truth of the exaggeration is intolerable. _Loan_ for _Lend_. "I loaned him ten dollars." We lend, but the act of lending, or, less literally, the thing lent, is a loan. _Locate_. "After many removals the family located at Smithville." Some dictionaries give locate as an intransitive verb having that meaning, but--well, dictionaries are funny. _Lots_, or _a Lot_, for _Much_, or _Many_. "Lots of things." "A lot of talk." _Love_ for _Like_. "I love to travel." "I love apples." Keep the stronger word for a stronger feeling. _Lunch_ for _Luncheon_. But do not use luncheon as a verb. _Mad_ for _Angry_. An Americanism of lessening prevalence. It is probable that anger is a kind of madness (insanity), but that is not what the misusers of the word mad mean to affirm. _Maintain_ for _Contend_. "The senator maintained that the tariff was iniquitous." He maintained it only if he proved it. _Majority_ for _Plurality_. Concerning votes cast in an election, a majority is more than half the total; a plurality is the excess of one candidate's votes over another's. Commonly the votes compared are those for the successful candidate and those for his most nearly successful competitor. _Make_ for _Earn_. "He makes fifty dollars a month by manual labor." _Mansion_ for _Dwelling_, or _House_. Usually mere hyperbole, a lamentable fault of our national literature. Even our presidents, before Roosevelt, called their dwelling the Executive Mansion. _Masculine_ for _Male_. See _Feminine_. _Mend_ for _Repair_. "They mended the road." To mend is to repair, but to repair is not always to mend. A stocking is mended, a road repaired. _Meet_ for _Meeting_. This belongs to the language of sport, which persons of sense do not write--nor read. _Militate_. "Negligence militates against success." If "militate" meant anything it would mean fight, but there is no such word. _Mind_ for _Obey_. This is a reasonless extension of one legitimate meaning of mind, namely, to heed, to give attention. _Minus_ for _Lacking_, or _Without_. "After the battle he was minus an ear." It is better in serious composition to avoid such alien words as have vernacular equivalents. _Mistaken_ for _Mistake_. "You are mistaken." For whom? Say, You mistake. _Monarch_ for _King, Emperor_, or _Sovereign_. Not only hyperbolical, but inaccurate. There is not a monarch in Christendom. _Moneyed_ for _Wealthy_. "The moneyed men of New York." One might as sensibly say, "The cattled men of Texas," or, "The lobstered men of the fish market." _Most_ for _Almost_. "The apples are most all gone." "The returning travelers were most home." _Moved_ for _Removed_. "The family has moved to another house." "The Joneses were moving." _Mutual_. By this word we express a reciprocal relation. It implies exchange, a giving and taking, not a mere possessing in common. There can be a mutual affection, or a mutual hatred, but not a mutual friend, nor a mutual horse. _Name_ for _Title and Name_. "His name was Mr. Smith." Surely no babe was ever christened Mister. _Necessaries_ for _Means_. "Bread and meat are necessaries of life." Not so; they are the mere means, for one can, and many do, live comfortably without them. Food and drink are necessaries of life, but particular kinds of food and drink are not. _Necessities_ for _Necessaries_. "Necessities of life are those things without which we cannot live." _Née_. Feminine of _né_, born. "Mrs. Jones, _née_ Lucy Smith." She could hardly have been christened before her birth. If you must use the French word say, _née_ Smith. _Negotiate_. From the Latin _negotium_. It means, as all know, to fix the terms for a transaction, to bargain. But when we say, "The driver negotiated a difficult turn of the road," or, "The chauffeur negotiated a hill," we speak nonsense. _Neither--or_ for _Neither--nor_. "Neither a cat or fish has wool." Always after neither use nor. _New Beginner_ for _Beginner_. _Nice_ for _Good_, or _Agreeable_. "A nice girl." Nice means fastidious, delicately discriminative, and the like. Pope uses the word admirably of a dandy who was skilled in the nice conduct [management] of a clouded cane. _Noise_ for _Sound_. "A noise like a flute"; "a noise of twittering birds," etc. A noise is a loud or disagreeable sound, or combination or succession of sounds. _None_. Usually, and in most cases, singular; as, None has come. But it is not singular because it always means not one, for frequently it does not, as, The bottle was full of milk, but none is left. When it refers to numbers, not quantity, popular usage stubbornly insists that it is plural, and at least one respectable authority says that as a singular it is offensive. One is sorry to be offensive to a good man. _No Use_. "He tried to smile, but it was no use." Say, of no use, or, less colloquially, in vain. _Novel_ for _Romance_. In a novel there is at least an apparent attention to considerations of probability; it is a narrative of what might occur. Romance flies with a free wing and owns no allegiance to likelihood. Both are fiction, both works of imagination, but should not be confounded. They are as distinct as beast and bird. _Numerous_ for _Many_. Rightly used, numerous relates to numbers, but does not imply a great number. A correct use is seen in the term numerous verse--verse consisting of poetic numbers; that is, rhythmical feet. _Obnoxious_ for _Offensive_. Obnoxious means exposed to evil. A soldier in battle is obnoxious to danger. _Occasion_ for _Induce_, or _Cause_. "His arrival occasioned a great tumult." As a verb, the word is needless and unpleasing. _Occasional Poems_. These are not, as so many authors and compilers seem to think, poems written at irregular and indefinite intervals, but poems written for _occasions_, such as anniversaries, festivals, celebrations and the like. _Of Any_ for _Of All_. "The greatest poet of any that we have had." _Offhanded_ and _Offhandedly_. Offhand is both adjective and adverb; these are bastard forms. _On the Street_. A street comprises the roadway and the buildings at each side. Say, in the street. He lives in Broadway. _One Another_ for _Each Other_. See _Each Other_. _Only_. "He only had one." Say, He had only one, or, better, one only. The other sentence might be taken to mean that only he had one; that, indeed, is what it distinctly says. The correct placing of only in a sentence requires attention and skill. _Opine_ for _Think_. The word is not very respectably connected. _Opposite_ for _Contrary_. "I hold the opposite opinion." "The opposite practice." _Or_ for _Nor_. Probably our most nearly universal solecism. "I cannot see the sun or the moon." This means that I am unable to see one of them, though I may see the other. By using nor, I affirm the invisibility of both, which is what I wanted to do. If a man is not white or black he may nevertheless be a Negro or a Caucasian; but if he is not white nor black he belongs to some other race. See _Neither_. _Ordinarily_ for _Usually_. Clumsy. _Ovation_. In ancient Rome an ovation was an inferior triumph accorded to victors in minor wars or unimportant battle. Its character and limitations, like those of the triumph, were strictly defined by law and custom. An enthusiastic demonstration in honor of an American civilian is nothing like that, and should not be called by its name. _Over_ for _About_, _In_, or _Concerning_. "Don't cry over spilt milk." "He rejoiced over his acquittal." _Over_ for _More than_. "A sum of over ten thousand dollars." "Upward of ten thousand dollars" is equally objectionable. _Over_ for _On_. "The policeman struck him over the head." If the blow was over the head it did not hit him. _Over with_. "Let us have it over with." Omit with. A better expression is, Let us get done with it. _Outside of_. Omit the preposition. _Pair_ for _Pairs_. If a word has a good plural use each form in its place. _Pants_ for _Trousers_. Abbreviated from pantaloons, which are no longer worn. Vulgar exceedingly. _Partially_ for _Partly_. A dictionary word, to swell the book. _Party_ for _Person_. "A party named Brown." The word, used in that sense, has the excuse that it is a word. Otherwise it is no better than "pants" and "gent." A person making an agreement, however, is a party to that agreement. _Patron_ for _Customer_. _Pay_ for _Give_, _Make_, etc. "He pays attention." "She paid a visit to Niagara." It is conceivable that one may owe attention or a visit to another person, but one cannot be indebted to a place. _Pay_. "Laziness does not pay." "It does not pay to be uncivil." This use of the word is grossly commercial. Say, Indolence is unprofitable. There is no advantage in incivility. _Peek_ for _Peep_. Seldom heard in England, though common here. "I peeked out through the curtain and saw him." That it is a variant of peep is seen in the child's word peek-a-boo, equivalent to bo-peep. Better use the senior word. _Peculiar_ for _Odd_, or _Unusual_. Also sometimes used to denote distinction, or particularity. Properly a thing is peculiar only to another thing, of which it is characteristic, nothing else having it; as knowledge of the use of fire is peculiar to Man. _People_ for _Persons_. "Three people were killed." "Many people are superstitious." People has retained its parity of meaning with the Latin _populus_, whence it comes, and the word is not properly used except to designate a population, or large fractions of it considered in the mass. To speak of any stated or small number of persons as people is incorrect. _Per_. "Five dollars _per_ day." "Three _per_ hundred." Say, three dollars a day; three in a hundred. If you must use the Latin preposition use the Latin noun too: _per diem; per centum_. _Perpetually_ for _Continually_. "The child is perpetually asking questions." What is done perpetually is done continually and forever. _Phenomenal_ for _Extraordinary_, or _Surprising_. Everything that occurs is phenomenal, for all that we know about is phenomena, appearances. Of realities, noumena, we are ignorant. _Plead_ (pronounced "pled") for _Pleaded_. "He plead guilty." _Plenty_ for _Plentiful_. "Fish and fowl were plenty." _Poetess_. A foolish word, like "authoress." _Poetry_ for _Verse_. Not all verse is poetry; not all poetry is verse. Few persons can know, or hope to know, the one from the other, but he who has the humility to doubt (if such a one there be) should say verse if the composition is metrical. _Point Blank_. "He fired at him point blank." This usually is intended to mean directly, or at short range. But point blank means the point at which the line of sight is crossed downward by the trajectory--the curve described by the missile. _Poisonous_ for _Venomous_. Hemlock is poisonous, but a rattlesnake is venomous. _Politics_. The word is not plural because it happens to end with s. _Possess_ for _Have_. "To possess knowledge is to possess power." Possess is lacking in naturalness and unduly emphasizes the concept of ownership. _Practically_ for _Virtually_. This error is very common. "It is practically conceded." "The decision was practically unanimous." "The panther and the cougar are practically the same animal." These and similar misapplications of the word are virtually without excuse. _Predicate_ for _Found_, or _Base_. "I predicate my argument on universal experience." What is predicated of something is affirmed as an attribute of it, as omnipotence is predicated of the Deity. _Prejudice_ for _Prepossession_. Literally, a prejudice is merely a prejudgment--a decision before evidence--and may be favorable or unfavorable, but it is so much more frequently used in the latter sense than in the former that clarity is better got by the other word for reasonless approval. _Preparedness_ for _Readiness_. An awkward and needless word much used in discussion of national armaments, as, "Our preparedness for war." _Preside_. "Professor Swackenhauer presided at the piano." "The deviled crab table was presided over by Mrs. Dooley." How would this sound? "The ginger pop stand was under the administration of President Woolwit, and Professor Sooffle presided at the flute." _Pretend_ for _Profess_. "I do not pretend to be infallible." Of course not; one does not care to confess oneself a pretender. To pretend is to try to deceive; one may profess quite honestly. _Preventative_ for _Preventive_. No such word as preventative. _Previous_ for _Previously_. "The man died previous to receipt of the letter." _Prior to_ for _Before_. Stilted. _Propose_ for _Purpose_, or _Intend_. "I propose to go to Europe." A mere intention is not a proposal. _Proposition_ for _Proposal_. "He made a proposition." In current slang almost anything is a proposition. A difficult enterprise is "a tough proposition," an agile wrestler, "a slippery proposition," and so forth. _Proportions_ for _Dimensions_. "A rock of vast proportions." Proportions relate to form; dimensions to magnitude. _Proven_ for _Proved_. Good Scotch, but bad English. _Proverbial_ for _Familiar_. "The proverbial dog in the manger." The animal is not "proverbial" for it is not mentioned in a proverb, but in a fable. _Quit_ for _Cease_, _Stop_. "Jones promises to quit drinking." In another sense, too, the word is commonly misused, as, "He has quit the town." Say, quitted. _Quite_. "She is quite charming." If it is meant that she is entirely charming this is right, but usually the meaning intended to be conveyed is less than that--that she is rather, or somewhat, charming. _Raise_ for _Bring up_, _Grow_, _Breed_, etc. In this country a word-of-all-work: "raise children," "raise wheat," "raise cattle." Children are brought up, grain, hay and vegetables are grown, animals and poultry are bred. _Real_ for _Really_, or _Very_. "It is real good of him." "The weather was real cold." _Realize_ for _Conceive_, or _Comprehend_. "I could not realize the situation." Writers caring for precision use this word in the sense of to make real, not to make seem real. A dream seems real, but is actually realized when made to come true. _Recollect_ for _Remember_. To remember is to have in memory; to recollect is to recall what has escaped from memory. We remember automatically; in recollecting we make a conscious effort. _Redeem_ for _Retrieve_. "He redeemed his good name." Redemption (Latin _redemptio_, from _re_ and _dimere_) is allied to ransom, and carries the sense of buying back; whereas to retrieve is merely to recover what was lost. _Redound_ for _Conduce_. "A man's honesty redounds to his advantage." We make a better use of the word if we say of one (for example) who has squandered a fortune, that its loss redounds to his advantage, for the word denotes a fluctuation, as from seeming evil to actual good; as villification may direct attention to one's excellent character. _Refused_. "He was refused a crown." It is the crown that was refused to him. See _Given_. _Regular_ for _Natural_, or _Customary_. "Flattery of the people is the demagogue's regular means to political preferment." Regular properly relates to a rule (_regula_) more definite than the law of antecedent and consequent. _Reliable_ for _Trusty_, or _Trustworthy_. A word not yet admitted to the vocabulary of the fastidious, but with a strong backing for the place. _Remit_ for _Send_. "On receiving your bill I will remit the money." Remit does not mean that; it means give back, yield up, relinquish, etc. It means, also, to cancel, as in the phrase, the remission of sins. _Rendition_ for _Interpretation_, or _Performance_. "The actor's rendition of the part was good." Rendition means a surrender, or a giving back. _Reportorial_. A vile word, improperly made. It assumes the Latinized spelling, "reporter." The Romans had not the word, for they were, fortunately for them, without the thing. _Repudiate_ for _Deny_. "He repudiated the accusation." _Reside_ for _Live_. "They reside in Hohokus." Stilted. _Residence_ for _Dwelling_, or _House._ See _Mansion_. _Respect_ for _Way_, or _Matter_. "They were alike in that respect." The misuse comes of abbreviating: the sentence properly written might be, They were alike in respect of that--i.e., with regard to that. The word in the bad sense has even been pluralized: "In many respects it is admirable." _Respective_. "They went to their respective homes." The adjective here (if an adjective is thought necessary) should be several. In the adverbial form the word is properly used in the sentence following: John and James are bright and dull, respectively. That is, John is bright and James dull. _Responsible_. "The bad weather is responsible for much sickness." "His intemperance was responsible for his crime." Responsibility is not an attribute of anything but human beings, and few of these can respond, in damages or otherwise. Responsible is nearly synonymous with accountable and answerable, which, also, are frequently misused. _Restive_ for _Restless_. These words have directly contrary meanings; the dictionaries' disallowance of their identity would be something to be thankful for, but that is a dream. _Retire_ for _Go to Bed_. English of the "genteel" sort. See _Genteel_. _Rev_. for _The Rev_. "Rev. Dr. Smith." _Reverence_ for _Revere_. _Ride_ for _Drive_. On horseback one does drive, and in a vehicle one does ride, but a distinction is needed here, as in England; so, here as there, we may profitably make it, riding in the saddle and driving in the carriage. _Roomer_ for _Lodger_. See _Bedder_ and _Mealer_--if you can find them. _Round_ for _About_. "They stood round." See _Around_. _Ruination_ for _Ruin_. Questionably derived and problematically needful. _Run_ for _Manage_, or _Conduct_. Vulgar--hardly better than slang. _Say_ for _Voice_. "He had no say in determining the matter." Vulgar. _Scholar_ for _Student_, or _Pupil_. A scholar is a person who is learned, not a person who is learning. _Score_ for _Win_, _Obtain_, etc. "He scored an advantage over his opponent." To score is not to win a point, but to record it. _Second-handed_ for _Second-hand_. There is no such word. _Secure_ for _Procure_. "He secured a position as book-keeper." "The dwarf secured a stick and guarded the jewels that he had found." Then it was the jewels that were secured. _Seldom ever_. A most absurd locution. _Self-confessed_. "A self-confessed assassin." Self is superfluous: one's sins cannot be confessed by another. _Sensation_ for _Emotion_. "The play caused a great sensation." "A sensational newspaper." A sensation is a physical feeling; an emotion, a mental. Doubtless the one usually accompanies the other, but the good writer will name the one that he has in mind, not the other. There are few errors more common than the one here noted. _Sense_ for _Smell_. "She sensed the fragrance of roses." Society English. _Set_ for _Sit_. "A setting hen." _Settee_ for _Settle_. This word belongs to the peasantry of speech. _Settle_ for _Pay_. "Settle the bill." "I shall take it now and settle for it later." _Shades_ for _Shade_. "Shades of Noah! how it rained!" "O shades of Caesar!" A shade is a departed soul, as conceived by the ancients; one to each mortal part is the proper allowance. _Show_ for _Chance_, or _Opportunity_. "He didn't stand a show." Say, He had no chance. _Sick_ for _Ill_. Good usage now limits this word to cases of nausea, but it is still legitimate in sickly, sickness, love-sick, and the like. _Side_ for _Agree_, or _Stand_. "I side with the Democrats." "He always sided with what he thought right." _Sideburns_ for _Burnsides_. A form of whiskers named from a noted general of the civil war, Ambrose E. Burnside. It seems to be thought that the word side has something to do with it, and that as an adjective it should come first, according to our idiom. _Side-hill_ for _Hillside_. A reasonless transposition for which it is impossible to assign a cause, unless it is abbreviated from side o' the hill. _Sideways_ for _Sidewise_. See _Endways_. _Since_ for _Ago_. "He came here not long since and died." _Smart_ for _Bright_, or _Able_. An Americanism that is dying out. But "smart" has recently come into use for fashionable, which is almost as bad. _Snap_ for _Period_ (of time) or _Spell_. "A cold snap." This is a word of incomprehensible origin in that sense; we can know only that its parents were not respectable. "Spell" is itself not very well-born. _So--as_. See _As--as_. _So_ for _True_. "If you see it in the Daily Livercomplaint it is so." "Is that so?" Colloquial and worse. _Solemnize_. This word rightly means to make solemn, not to perform, or celebrate, ceremoniously something already solemn, as a marriage, or a mass. We have no exact synonym, but this explains, rather than justifies, its use. _Some_ for _Somewhat_. "He was hurt some." _Soon_ for _Willingly_. "I would as soon go as stay." "That soldier would sooner eat than fight." Say, rather eat. _Space_ for _Period_. "A long space of time." Space is so different a thing from time that the two do not go well together. _Spend_ for _Pass_. "We shall spend the summer in Europe." Spend denotes a voluntary relinquishment, but time goes from us against our will. _Square_ for _Block_. "He lives three squares away." A city block is seldom square. _Squirt_ for _Spurt_. Absurd. _Stand_ and _Stand for_ for _Endure_. "The patient stands pain well." "He would not stand for misrepresentation." _Standpoint_ for _Point of View_, or _Viewpoint_. _State_ for _Say_. "He stated that he came from Chicago." "It is stated that the president is angry." We state a proposition, or a principle, but say that we are well. And we say our prayers--some of us. _Still Continue_. "The rain still continues." Omit still; it is contained in the other word. _Stock_. "I take no stock in it." Disagreeably commercial. Say, I have no faith in it. Many such metaphorical expressions were unobjectionable, even pleasing, in the mouth of him who first used them, but by constant repetition by others have become mere slang, with all the offensiveness of plagiarism. The prime objectionableness of slang is its hideous lack of originality. Until mouth-worn it is not slang. _Stop_ for _Stay_. "Prayer will not stop the ravages of cholera." Stop is frequently misused for stay in another sense of the latter word: "He is stopping at the hotel." Stopping is not a continuing act; one cannot be stopping who has already stopped. _Stunt_. A word recently introduced and now overworked, meaning a task, or performance in one's trade, or calling,--doubtless a variant of stint, without that word's suggestion of allotment and limitation. It is still in the reptilian stage of evolution. _Subsequent_ for _Later_, or _Succeeding_. Legitimate enough, but ugly and needless. "He was subsequently hanged." Say, afterward. _Substantiate_ for _Prove_. Why? _Success_. "The project was a success." Say, was successful. Success should not have the indefinite article. _Such Another_ for _Another Such_. There is illustrious authority for this--in poetry. Poets are a lawless folk, and may do as they please so long as they do please. _Such_ for _So_. "He had such weak legs that he could not stand." The absurdity of this is made obvious by changing the form of the statement: "His legs were such weak that he could not stand." If the word is an adverb in the one sentence it is in the other. "He is such a great bore that none can endure him." Say, so great a bore. _Suicide_. This is never a verb. "He suicided." Say, He killed himself, or He took his own life. See _Commit Suicide_. _Supererogation_. To supererogate is to overpay, or to do more than duty requires. But the excess must be in the line of duty; merely needless and irrelevant action is not supererogation. The word is not a natural one, at best. _Sure_ for _Surely_. "They will come, sure." Slang. _Survive_ for _Live_, or _Persist_. Survival is an outliving, or outlasting of something else. "The custom survives" is wrong, but a custom may survive its utility. Survive is a transitive verb. _Sustain_ for _Incur_. "He sustained an injury." "He sustained a broken neck." That means that although his neck was broken he did not yield to the mischance. _Talented_ for _Gifted_. These are both past participles, but there was once the verb to gift, whereas there was never the verb "to talent." If Nature did not talent a person the person is not talented. _Tantamount_ for _Equivalent_. "Apology is tantamount to confession." Let this ugly word alone; it is not only illegitimate, but ludicrously suggests catamount. _Tasty_ for _Tasteful_. Vulgar. _Tear Down_ for _Pull Down_. "The house was torn down." This is an indigenous solecism; they do not say so in England. _Than Whom_. See _Whom_. _The_. A little word that is terribly overworked. It is needlessly affixed to names of most diseases: "the cholera," "the smallpox," "the scarlet fever," and such. Some escape it: we do not say, "the sciatica," nor "the locomotor ataxia." It is too common in general propositions, as, "The payment of interest is the payment of debt." "The virtues that are automatic are the best." "The tendency to falsehood should be checked." "Kings are not under the control of the law." It is impossible to note here all forms of this misuse, but a page of almost any book will supply abundant instance. We do not suffer so abject slavery to the definite article as the French, but neither do we manifest their spirit of rebellion by sometimes cutting off the oppressor's tail. One envies the Romans, who had no article, definite or indefinite. _The Following_. "Washington wrote the following." The following what? Put in the noun. "The following animals are ruminants." It is not the animals that follow, but their names. _The Same_. "They cooked the flesh of the lion and ate the same." "An old man lived in a cave, and the same was a cripple." In humorous composition this may do, though it is not funny; but in serious work use the regular pronoun. _Then_ as an Adjective. "The then governor of the colony." Say, the governor of the colony at that time. _Those Kind_ for _That Kind_. "Those kind of things." Almost too absurd for condemnation, and happily not very common out of the class of analphabets. _Though_ for _If_. "She wept as though her heart was broken." Many good writers, even some devoid of the lexicographers' passion for inclusion and approval, have specifically defended this locution, backing their example by their precept. Perhaps it is a question of taste; let us attend their cry and pass on. _Thrifty_ for _Thriving_. "A thrifty village." To thrive is an end; thrift is a means to that end. _Through_ for _Done_. "The lecturer is through talking." "I am through with it." Say, I have done with it. _To_. As part of an infinitive it should not be separated from the other part by an adverb, as, "to hastily think," for hastily to think, or, to think hastily. Condemnation of the split infinitive is now pretty general, but it is only recently that any one seems to have thought of it. Our forefathers and we elder writers of this generation used it freely and without shame--perhaps because it had not a name, and our crime could not be pointed out without too much explanation. _To_ for _At_. "We have been to church," "I was to the theater." One can go to a place, but one cannot be to it. _Total_. "The figures totaled 10,000." Say, The total of the figures was 10,000. _Transaction_ for _Action_, or _Incident_. "The policeman struck the man with his club, but the transaction was not reported." "The picking of a pocket is a criminal transaction." In a transaction two or more persons must have an active or assenting part; as, a business transaction, Transactions of the Geographical Society, etc. The Society's action would be better called Proceedings. _Transpire_ for _Occur_, _Happen_, etc. "This event transpired in 1906." Transpire (_trans_, through, and _spirare_, to breathe) means leak out, that is, become known. What transpired in 1906 may have occurred long before. _Trifling_ for _Trivial_. "A trifling defect"; "a trifling error." _Trust_ for _Wealthy Corporation_. There are few trusts; capitalists have mostly abandoned the trust form of combination. _Try an Experiment_. An experiment is a trial; we cannot try a trial. Say, make. _Try and_ for _Try to_. "I will try and see him." This plainly says that my effort to see him will succeed--which I cannot know and do not wish to affirm. "Please try and come." This colloquial slovenliness of speech is almost universal in this country, but freedom of speech is one of our most precious possessions. _Ugly_ for _Ill-natured_, _Quarrelsome_. What is ugly is the temper, or disposition, not the person having it. _Under-handed_ and _Under-handedly_ for _Under-hand._ See _Off-handed._ _Unique_. "This is very unique." "The most unique house in the city." There are no degrees of uniqueness: a thing is unique if there is not another like it. The word has nothing to do with oddity, strangeness, nor picturesqueness. _United States_ as a Singular Noun. "The United States is for peace." The fact that we are in some ways one nation has nothing to do with it; it is enough to know that the word States is plural--if not, what is State? It would be pretty hard on a foreigner skilled in the English tongue if he could not venture to use our national name without having made a study of the history of our Constitution and political institutions. Grammar has not a speaking acquaintance with politics, and patriotic pride is not schoolmaster to syntax. _Unkempt_ for _Disordered_, _Untidy_, etc. Unkempt means uncombed, and can properly be said of nothing but the hair. _Use_ for _Treat_. "The inmates were badly used." "They use him harshly." _Utter_ for _Absolute_, _Entire_, etc. Utter has a damnatory signification and is to be used of evil things only. It is correct to say utter misery, but not "utter happiness;" utterly bad, but not "utterly good." _Various_ for _Several_. "Various kinds of men." Kinds are various of course, for they vary--that is what makes them kinds. Use various only when, in speaking of a number of things, you wish to direct attention to their variety--their difference, one from another. "The dividend was distributed among the various stockholders." The stockholders vary, as do all persons, but that is irrelevant and was not in mind. "Various persons have spoken to me of you." Their variation is unimportant; what is meant is that there was a small indefinite number of them; that is, several. _Ventilate_ for _Express, Disclose_, etc. "The statesman ventilated his views." A disagreeable and dog-eared figure of speech. _Verbal_ for _Oral_. All language is verbal, whether spoken or written, but audible speech is oral. "He did not write, but communicated his wishes verbally." It would have been a verbal communication, also, if written. _Vest_ for _Waistcoat_. This is American, but as all Americans are not in agreement about it it is better to use the English word. _Vicinity_ for _Vicinage_, or _Neighborhood_. "He lives in this vicinity." If neither of the other words is desired say, He lives in the vicinity of this place, or, better, He lives near by. _View of_. "He invested with the view of immediate profit." "He enlisted with the view of promotion." Say, with a view to. _Vulgar_ for _Immodest_, _Indecent_. It is from _vulgus_, the common people, the mob, and means both common and unrefined, but has no relation to indecency. _Way_ for _Away_. "Way out at sea." "Way down South." _Ways_ for _Way_. "A squirrel ran a little ways along the road." "The ship looked a long ways off." This surprising word calls loudly for depluralization. _Wed_ for _Wedded_. "They were wed at noon." "He wed her in Boston." The word wed in all its forms as a substitute for marry, is pretty hard to bear. _Well_. As a mere meaningless prelude to a sentence this word is overtasked. "Well, I don't know about that." "Well, you may try." "Well, have your own way." _Wet_ for _Wetted_. See _Bet_. _Where_ for _When_. "Where there is reason to expect criticism write discreetly." _Which_ for _That_. "The boat which I engaged had a hole in it." But a parenthetical clause may rightly be introduced by which; as, The boat, which had a hole in it, I nevertheless engaged. Which and that are seldom interchangeable; when they are, use that. It sounds better. _Whip_ for _Chastise_, or _Defeat_. To whip is to beat with a whip. It means nothing else. _Whiskers_ for _Beard_. The whisker is that part of the beard that grows on the cheek. See _Chin Whiskers_. _Who_ for _Whom_. "Who do you take me for?" _Whom_ for _Who_. "The man whom they thought was dead is living." Here the needless introduction of was entails the alteration of whom to who. "Remember whom it is that you speak of." "George Washington, than whom there was no greater man, loved a jest." The misuse of whom after than is almost universal. Who and whom trip up many a good writer, although, unlike which and who, they require nothing but knowledge of grammar. _Widow Woman_. Omit woman. _Will_ and _Shall_. Proficiency in the use of these apparently troublesome words must be sought in text-books on grammar and rhetoric, where the subject will be found treated with a more particular attention, and at greater length, than is possible in a book of the character of this. Briefly and generally, in the first person, a mere intention is indicated by shall, as, I shall go; whereas will denotes some degree of compliance or determination, as, I will go--as if my going had been requested or forbidden. In the second and the third person, will merely forecasts, as, You (or he) will go; but shall implies something of promise, permission or compulsion by the speaker, as, You (or he) shall go. Another and less obvious compulsion--that of circumstance--speaks in shall, as sometimes used with good effect: In Germany you shall not turn over a chip without uncovering a philosopher. The sentence is barely more than indicative, shall being almost, but not quite, equivalent to can. _Win out_. Like its antithesis, "lose out," this reasonless phrase is of sport, "sporty." _Win_ for _Won_. "I went to the race and win ten dollars." This atrocious solecism seems to be unknown outside the world of sport, where may it ever remain. _Without_ for _Unless_. "I cannot go without I recover." Peasantese. _Witness_ for _See_. To witness is more than merely to see, or observe; it is to observe, and to tell afterward. _Would-be_. "The would-be assassin was arrested." The word doubtless supplies a want, but we can better endure the want than the word. In the instance of the assassin, it is needless, for he who attempts to murder is an assassin, whether he succeeds or not. 
38412	----	[Illustration: THE YOUNG AND FIELD LITERARY READERS _Book Two_ BY ELLA FLAGG YOUNG _Superintendent of the Chicago Public Schools_ AND WALTER TAYLOR FIELD _Author of "Fingerposts to Children's Reading," "Rome," Etc_ _Illustrated by Maginel Wright Enright_ GINN AND COMPANY BOSTON · NEW YORK · CHICAGO · LONDON] COPYRIGHT, 1916, BY ELLA FLAGG YOUNG AND WALTER TAYLOR FIELD ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 116.3 The Athenæum Press GINN AND COMPANY · PROPRIETORS · BOSTON · U.S.A. TO THE BOYS AND GIRLS Dear Boys and Girls: Do you like fairy stories? You do not need to tell us. We know you like them. So we are going to give you some to read. You may have heard some of these stories before, but not many of them. Some have come from far across the sea, and some have come from our own country. Mothers have told them to their children again and again, and children have never been tired of them. We think you will like them, too. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The poems of Mr. Frank Dempster Sherman and Miss Abbie Farwell Brown are used by special arrangement with the Houghton Mifflin Company, publishers. Acknowledgments are also due to the following publishers and authors for permission to use copyrighted material: to Charles Scribner's Sons for poems from Robert Louis Stevenson's "A Child's Garden of Verses" and Mrs. Mary Mapes Dodge's "Rhymes and Jingles"; to the Macmillan Company for poems from Christina Rossetti's "Sing Song"; to Little, Brown, and Company for poems from Mrs. Laura E. Richards's "In My Nursery"; to G. P. Putnam's Sons for the use of Sir George Webbe Dasent's version of the story "East of the Sun and West of the Moon," from "Popular Tales from the Norse," as the basis for our story of the same name; to the A. Flanagan Company and Miss Flora J. Cooke for the use of "The Rainbow Bridge," from Miss Cooke's "Nature Myths," in a similar way; to Miss Marion Florence Lansing for permission to adapt her dramatized Hindu Tale, "The Man's Boot," from "Quaint Old Stories," in our story "The Shoe"; to Mr. William Hawley Smith for permission to use his poem "A Child's Prayer." CONTENTS ENGLISH FAIRY TALES CHILDE ROWLAND TOM TIT TOT POEMS BY CHRISTINA ROSSETTI LAMBKINS FERRY ME ACROSS THE WATER CORAL THE SWALLOW WRENS AND ROBINS BOATS SAIL ON THE RIVERS FABLES FROM ÆSOP THE LION AND THE MOUSE THE HONEST WOODCUTTER THE WOLF AND THE CRANE THE TOWN MOUSE AND THE COUNTRY MOUSE THE WIND AND THE SUN THE ANT AND THE DOVE THE LARK AND HER NEST THE DOG AND HIS SHADOW THE FOX AND THE GRAPES POEMS BY MARY MAPES DODGE FOUR LITTLE BIRDS IN THE BASKET COUSIN JEREMY LITTLE MISS LIMBERKIN SNOWFLAKES HOLLYHOCK GERMAN FAIRY TALES THE LITTLE PINE TREE THE FAITHFUL BEASTS POEMS BY ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON WHERE GO THE BOATS? AT THE SEASIDE RAIN AUTUMN FIRES THE WIND HINDU FABLES THE TIMID HARES THE SHOE THE CAMEL AND THE JACKAL POEMS BY LAURA E. RICHARDS THE BUMBLEBEE LITTLE BROWN BOBBY JIPPY AND JIMMY THE SONG OF THE CORN POPPER A FRENCH FAIRY TALE THE FAIRY A NORSE FOLK TALE EAST OF THE SUN AND WEST OF THE MOON POEMS BY ABBIE FARWELL BROWN THE SAILOR A MUSIC BOX AMERICAN INDIAN LEGENDS LITTLE SCAR-FACE THE HUNTER WHO FORGOT THE WATER LILY RUSSIAN FABLES FORTUNE AND THE BEGGAR THE SPIDER AND THE BEE THE STONE AND THE WORM THE FOX IN THE ICE POEMS BY FRANK DEMPSTER SHERMAN CLOUDS GHOST FAIRIES DAISIES OLD GREEK STORIES THE SUN, THE MOON, AND THE STAR GIANT THE WIND AND THE CLOUDS THE RAINBOW BRIDGE POEMS OLD AND NEW THANK YOU, PRETTY COW _Jane Taylor_ PLAYGROUNDS _Laurence Alma-Tadema_ SLEEP, BABY, SLEEP _German Cradle Song_ A CHILD'S PRAYER _William Hawley Smith_ LISTS OF WORDS FOR PHONETIC DRILL LIST OF NEW WORDS ARRANGED BY LESSONS THE YOUNG AND FIELD LITERARY READERS BOOK TWO ENGLISH FAIRY TALES CHILDE ROWLAND Once upon a time there was a little princess. Her name was Ellen. She lived with her mother the queen in a great house by the sea. She had three brothers. One day, as they were playing ball, one of her brothers threw the ball over the house. Ellen ran to get it, but she did not come back. The three brothers looked for her. They looked and looked, but they could not find her. Day after day went by. At last the oldest brother went to a wise man and asked what to do. "The princess is with the elves. She is in the Dark Tower," said the wise man. "Where is the Dark Tower?" asked the oldest brother. "It is far away," said the wise man. "You cannot find it." "I can and I will find it. Tell me where it is," said the oldest brother. The wise man told him, and the oldest brother set off at once. The other brothers waited. They waited long, but the oldest brother did not come back. Then the next brother went to the wise man. The wise man told him as he had told the oldest brother. Then the next brother set out to find the Dark Tower. The youngest brother waited. He waited long, but no one came. Now the youngest brother was called Childe Rowland. At last Childe Rowland went to his mother the queen and said: "Mother, let me go and find the Dark Tower and bring home Ellen and my brothers." "I cannot let you go. You are all that I have, now," said the queen. But Childe Rowland asked again and again, till at last the queen said, "Go, my boy." Then she gave him his father's sword, and he set out. He went to the wise man and asked the way. The wise man told him and said: "I will tell you two things. One thing is for you to do, and one thing is for you not to do. "The thing to do is this: When you get to the country of the elves, take hold of your father's sword, pull it out quickly, and cut off the head of any one who speaks to you, till you find the princess Ellen. "The thing not to do is this: Bite no bit and drink no drop till you come back. Go hungry and thirsty while you are in the country of the elves." Childe Rowland said the two things over and over, so that he should not forget. Then he went on his way. He went on and on and on, till he came to some horses with eyes of fire. Then he knew he was in the country of the elves. A man was with the horses. "Where is the Dark Tower?" asked Childe Rowland. "I do not know," said the man. "Ask the man that keeps the cows." Childe Rowland thought of what the wise man had told him. He pulled out his father's sword, and off went the man's head. Then Childe Rowland went on and on, till he came to some cows with eyes of fire. The man who kept the cows looked at Childe Rowland. "Where is the Dark Tower?" asked Childe Rowland. "I cannot tell. Ask the woman that keeps the hens," said the man. Childe Rowland took the sword, and off went the man's head. Then Childe Rowland went on and on, till he came to some hens with eyes of fire. An old woman was with them. "Where is the Dark Tower?" asked Childe Rowland. "Go on and look for a hill," said the old woman. "Go around the hill three times. Each time you go around say: 'Open, door! open, door! Let me come in.' When you have gone three times around, a door will open. Go in." Childe Rowland did not like to cut off the head of the old woman, but he thought of what the wise man had told him. So he took hold of the sword, and off went her head. After this he went on and on and on, till he came to a hill. He went three times around it, and each time he said: "Open, door! open, door! Let me come in." When he had gone three times around, a door opened. In he went. The door shut after him, and he was in the dark. Soon he began to see a dim light. It seemed to come from the walls. He went down a long way, and at last he came to another door. All at once it flew open, and he found himself in a great hall. The walls were of gold and silver, and were hung with diamonds. How the diamonds shone! And there sat the princess Ellen in a great chair of gold, with diamonds all about her head. When she saw Childe Rowland, she came to him and said: "Brother, why are you here? If the king of the elves comes, it will be a sad day for you." But this did not frighten Childe Rowland. He sat down and told her all that he had done. She told him that the two brothers were in the tower. The king of the elves had turned them into stone. Soon Childe Rowland began to be very hungry, and asked for something to eat. Ellen went out and soon came back with bread and milk in a golden bowl. Childe Rowland took it and was about to eat. All at once he thought of what the wise man had said. So he threw the bowl down upon the floor, and said: "Not a bit will I bite, Not a drop will I drink, Till Ellen is free." Then they heard a great noise outside, and some one cried out: "Fee-fi-fo-fum! I smell the blood Of an Englishman!" The door of the hall flew open and the king of the elves came in. Childe Rowland took his sword. They fought and they fought. At last Childe Rowland beat the king of the elves down to the ground. "Stop!" cried the king of the elves. "I have had enough." "I will stop when you set free the princess Ellen and my brothers," said Childe Rowland. "I will set them free," said the king. He went at once to a cupboard and took out a blood-red bottle. Out of this bottle he let a drop or two fall upon the eyes of the two brothers, and up they jumped. Childe Rowland took the hand of his sister and went out of the door, and up the long way. The two brothers went after them and left the king of the elves alone. Then they came out from the hill and found their way back to their own country. How glad the queen was! TOM TIT TOT Once a woman made five pies. When she had made them, she found that they were too hard. So the woman said to her daughter: "Put those pies into the cupboard and leave them there a little while and they'll come again." She meant that they would get soft. But the girl said to herself, "Well, if they'll come again, I think I will eat them." So she ate them all up. At supper time the woman said, "Daughter, get one of those pies. I think they must have come again." The girl went to the cupboard and looked, but no pies were there. Then she came back to her mother and said, "No, they have not come again." "Well, bring one," said the mother. "I want one for my supper." "But I can't. They have not come." "Yes, you can. Bring me one." "But I ate them all up." "What!" said the mother, "You bad, bad girl!" The woman could not stop thinking about those five pies. As she sat at the door spinning, she kept mumbling to herself: "My daughter ate five pies to-day, My daughter ate five pies to-day." The king was going by, and he heard the woman mumbling. "What are you saying, woman?" asked the king. The woman did not like to tell him about the pies, so she said: "My daughter spun five skeins to-day, My daughter spun five skeins to-day." "Well, well, well!" said the king, "I didn't know that any one could spin so much as that!" "My daughter knows how to spin," said the woman. The king thought a little while. Then he said: "I want a wife. If your daughter can spin as much as that, I will make her my wife. She shall have fine clothes, and for eleven months in every year she may do anything she wishes. But the last month of the year she must spin five skeins each day. If she doesn't, she must have her head cut off." "Very well," said the woman. She thought how fine it would be if her daughter should be the queen. The girl could have a good time for eleven months, anyway, and there would surely be some way to get the skeins spun. So the king took the girl away and made her queen. For eleven months she had everything she could think of. She had gold and silver and diamonds and fine clothes and good things to eat. But when the last month of the year came, she began to think what she should do about those five skeins. She did not have long to think, for the king took her into a room, all by herself, and said: "Here is a spinning wheel, and here is a chair, and here is some flax. "Now, my dear, sit down and spin five skeins before night, or off goes your head." Then he turned and went out. How frightened she was! She could not spin. She could only sit down and cry. All at once there was a rap at the door. She jumped up and opened it, and what should she see but a little black thing with a long tail! "What are you crying about?" asked the little black thing. "It would do no good to tell you," said the queen. "How do you know that?" asked the little black thing, and he twirled his tail. "Well, I will tell you," she said. And she told him all that the king had said to her. "Then," said the little black thing, "I will come here to your window every morning and take some flax, and bring it back at night all spun. "If you can guess my name, you shall pay nothing for my work. "You may try three times each night, when I bring back the skeins. But if you can't guess my name before the last day of the month, I will carry you off with me." The queen thought that she could surely guess, so she said: "Very well. Take the flax." "Yes," said the little black thing, and my! how he twirled his tail! That night he came back with five skeins of spun flax, but she could not guess his name. So it went on day after day. Every night the little black thing brought five skeins, but she could not guess his name. On the last day of the month the king came in to see her. "You are doing well, my dear," said he. "I think I shall not have to cut off your head, after all." So he had a fine supper brought in, and they ate it together. As they were eating, the king said: "I was hunting to-day in the woods, and I heard a queer song. It came from a hole in the ground. I looked in, and there sat a little black thing with a long tail. He was spinning. He twirled his tail as he spun, and sang: 'Nimmy, nimmy, not! I'm Tom Tit Tot.'" The queen at once jumped up and danced all around the table, but she said nothing. The king thought she was glad because her spinning was done. That night the little black thing brought the last five skeins of flax. "Well," he said, "what is my name? You may guess three times more." How he twirled his tail! "Is it Jack?" she asked. "No, it is not Jack," he said. "Is it Tom?" she asked. "No, it is not Tom." You should have seen him laugh! "One more guess; then I take you," said the little black thing, and he twirled his tail again. This time the queen laughed. She looked at him a long time and then said: "Nimmy, nimmy, not! You're Tom Tit Tot." At that the little black thing gave a great cry, and away he flew, out into the dark. The queen never saw him again. POEMS BY CHRISTINA ROSSETTI LAMBKINS On the grassy banks Lambkins at their pranks; Woolly sisters, woolly brothers, Jumping off their feet, While their woolly mothers Watch by them and bleat. FERRY ME ACROSS THE WATER "Ferry me across the water, Do, boatman, do." "If you've a penny in your purse, I'll ferry you." "I have a penny in my purse, And my eyes are blue; So ferry me across the water, Do, boatman, do." "Step into my ferry-boat, Be they black or blue, And for the penny in your purse I'll ferry you." CORAL "O sailor, come ashore. What have you brought for me?" "Red coral, white coral, Coral from the sea. "I did not dig it from the ground Nor pluck it from a tree; Feeble insects made it In the stormy sea." THE SWALLOW Fly away, fly away over the sea, Sun-loving swallow, for summer is done; Come again, come again, come back to me, Bringing the summer and bringing the sun. WRENS AND ROBINS Wrens and robins in the hedge, Wrens and robins here and there; Building, perching, pecking, fluttering, Everywhere! BOATS SAIL ON THE RIVERS Boats sail on the rivers, And ships sail on the seas; But clouds that sail across the sky Are prettier far than these. There are bridges on the rivers, As pretty as you please; But the bow that bridges heaven, And overtops the trees, And builds a road from earth to sky, Is prettier far than these. FABLES FROM ÆSOP THE LION AND THE MOUSE A lion was asleep in the woods. A little mouse ran over his paw. The lion woke up and caught him. "You are a very little mouse, but I think I will eat you," he said. "Do not eat me," said the mouse, "I am so little! Let me go. Some time I may be of help to you." The lion laughed. "What can you do?" he said. But he let the mouse go. Not very long after this the lion was caught by some men and made fast with a rope. The men left him and went to get more rope, to bind him. "Now is my time!" said the mouse. He ran to the lion and began to gnaw the rope. He gnawed and he gnawed. At last he gnawed through the rope and set the lion free. "You laughed at me," said the mouse, "but have I not helped you?" "You have saved my life," said the lion. THE HONEST WOODCUTTER One day a woodcutter lost his ax in a pond. He sat down by the water and said to himself, "What shall I do? I have lost my ax." All at once a man stood beside him. "What have you lost?" asked the man. "I have lost my ax," said the woodcutter. The man said nothing, but jumped into the pond and soon came out with a golden ax. "Is this your ax?" he asked. "No," said the honest woodcutter, "my ax was not a golden ax." The man jumped in again, and soon came out with a silver ax. "Is this your ax?" asked the man. "No," said the woodcutter, "my ax was not a silver ax." Again the man jumped in. This time he came out with the ax that the woodcutter had lost. "Is this your ax?" he asked. "Yes," said the woodcutter, "thank you! How glad I am! But who are you, kind sir? You must be more than a man." "I am Mercury," said the other, "and you are an honest woodcutter. I will give you the golden ax and the silver ax." The woodcutter thanked him and went home. Soon he met another woodcutter and told what Mercury had done. This other woodcutter thought he should like a golden ax, too. So he went to the pond and threw his ax into the water. Then he sat down and began to cry, "O, I have lost my ax! What shall I do? What shall I do?" Mercury came again and jumped into the water. Soon he came out with a golden ax. "Is this your ax?" he asked. "O, yes, yes! that is my ax," said the man. "No, it is not," said Mercury. "You are not an honest woodcutter, and you shall have no golden ax." "Then get my own ax for me," said the woodcutter. "Get it yourself," said Mercury. With that he went away and was seen no more. THE WOLF AND THE CRANE (Once a wolf was eating his supper. He was hungry and he ate very fast. He ate so fast that he swallowed a bone. A crane was going by. The wolf called to the crane.) WOLF. My dear crane, come, help me. I have a bone in my throat. CRANE. What do you want me to do? WOLF. Put your bill down my throat and pull out the bone. CRANE. You will bite off my head. WOLF. O, no, I will not. I will pay you well. (The crane came and put his head into the wolf's mouth. Then he ran his long bill down the wolf's throat and so pulled out the bone.) CRANE. There, Brother Wolf, there is the bone. Now give me my pay. WOLF. You have had your pay. CRANE. No, I have not. WOLF. You have had your head in the mouth of a wolf, you have pulled it out, and your life is saved. What more can you ask? CRANE. After this, I will keep away from a wolf. THE TOWN MOUSE AND THE COUNTRY MOUSE Once a country mouse asked her cousin, the town mouse, to come and visit her. The town mouse came, and the country mouse gave her the best she had to eat. It was only a little wheat and corn. The town mouse ate some of it. Then she said: "Cousin, how can you live on this poor corn and wheat? Come to town with me, and I will give you something good." So the two mice set off and soon came to town. The town mouse lived well and had everything she wished for. She had cake and pie and cheese and everything good to eat. O, it was so good! The country mouse was hungry, and she ate and ate and ate. "How rich my cousin is," she said, "and how poor I am!" As she said this, there was a great barking at the door. Then two dogs ran into the room. They chased the mice about, barking all the time. At last the mice ran into a hole. "Good-by, cousin, I am going home," said the country mouse. "What! Are you going so soon?" asked the other. "Yes, I do not like that kind of music with my supper. It is better to have corn and wheat and be safe than to have cake and cheese and be always in fear," said the country mouse. THE WIND AND THE SUN Once the wind and the sun had a quarrel. The sun said, "I am stronger than you." The wind said, "No, I am stronger than you." "Let us see," said the sun. "Here comes a man with a big cloak. Can you make him take it off?" "Surely I can," said the wind. "Try," said the sun. The sun went behind the clouds. The wind began to blow. How he did blow! But the man pulled his cloak close about him. He did not care for the wind. At last the wind gave it up. "Now you try," he said to the sun. The sun came out from the clouds. He shone down upon the man. "How warm it is!" said the man. "I must take off my cloak." So he took off his cloak. "You have beaten," said the wind. "You are stronger than I." THE ANT AND THE DOVE A little ant once fell into a pond. A dove was perching in a tree over the water. The dove saw the ant fall. She pulled off a leaf with her bill and let it drop into the water. "There, little ant! get on that leaf, and you will be safe," she said. The ant jumped upon the leaf, and the wind blew it to the shore of the pond. Not long after this, a man laid a net to catch the dove. He pulled it in and found the dove caught fast in it. The ant saw the man with the net, and ran up his leg and bit him. "O!" said the man, "what is that?" He let the net drop to the ground, and the dove flew away. Next time the dove saw the ant, she said: "Good ant, you saved my life." "You saved my life once, and I only tried to pay you back," said the ant. THE LARK AND HER NEST A lark had made her nest in a field of wheat. The wheat was almost ripe. One day the old lark said to her young ones: "The men will soon come to cut this wheat. You must watch for them and tell me all you see or hear while I am away." Then she left them and went to get something for them to eat. When she came home, she asked, "Did you see or hear anything?" "Yes, mother," said the young ones. "The owner of the field came and looked at the wheat. He said, 'This wheat is ripe. It must be cut at once. I will ask my neighbors to come and help me cut it.'" "That is good," said the old lark. "Must we not leave the nest?" asked the young ones. "No," said the mother. "If the man waits for his neighbors to come and help him, he will wait a long time." Next day the owner came again. "This wheat must be cut," said he. "I cannot wait for my neighbors. I must ask my uncles and cousins." When the old lark came home, the young ones said: "O, mother! we must leave the nest now. "The man said that he should ask his uncles and cousins to help him cut the wheat." "We will not go yet," said the mother. "If he waits for his uncles and cousins, he will wait a long time." The next day the man came again. His boy was with him. "We can't wait any longer," he said. "We must cut the wheat ourselves." Soon the mother lark came home. The young ones told her what the man had said. "Now we must be off," she cried. "When a man sets out to do his work himself, it will be done." So the lark and her young ones left the nest and found another home. THE DOG AND HIS SHADOW A dog once had a piece of meat. He was going home with it. On the way he had to go across a bridge over some water. He looked into the water, and there he thought he saw another dog. The dog looked like himself and had a piece of meat in his mouth, too. It was his shadow in the water. "That meat looks good. I want it," said the dog. "My piece is not big enough. I will take the meat away from that other dog." So he barked at the other dog. As he opened his mouth to bark, his piece of meat fell into the water. "Splash!" it went, and that was the last he ever saw of it. "If I had let that dog keep his piece of meat, I should not have lost my own," he said. THE FOX AND THE GRAPES A hungry fox once saw some sweet grapes hanging over a wall. "I want those grapes," he said to himself. So he jumped for them. He did not get them. He jumped again. Still he did not get them. He jumped again and again. They were too high. At last he gave it up and went away. "I don't want those grapes," he said. "They are sour grapes. I know they are sour. They are not fit to eat." POEMS BY MARY MAPES DODGE FOUR LITTLE BIRDS Four little birds all flew from their nest-- Flew north, flew south, flew east and west; They thought they would like a wider view, So they spread their wings and away they flew. IN THE BASKET Hark! do you hear my basket Go "kippy! kippy! peek"? Maybe my funny basket Is learning how to speak. If you want to know the secret, Go ask the speckled hen, And tell her when I've warmed them I'll bring them back again. COUSIN JEREMY He came behind me and covered my eyes; "Who is this?" growled he, so sly. "Why, Cousin Jeremy, how can I tell, When my eyes are shut?" said I. LITTLE MISS LIMBERKIN Little Miss Limberkin, Dreadful to say, Found a mouse in the cupboard Sleeping away. Little Miss Limberkin Gave such a scream, She frightened the little mouse Out of its dream. SNOWFLAKES Little white feathers, Filling the air; Little white feathers, How came you there? "We came from the cloud birds Sailing so high; They're shaking their white wings Up in the sky." Little white feathers, How swift you go! Little white snowflakes, I love you so! "We are swift because We have work to do; But hold up your face, And we'll kiss you true." HOLLYHOCK Hollyhock, hollyhock, bend for me; I need a cheese for my dolly's tea. I'll put it soon on an acorn plate, And dolly and I shall feast in state. GERMAN FAIRY TALES THE LITTLE PINE TREE Once a little pine tree grew in a valley. It was covered with needles that were always beautiful and green. But it did not like the needles. The little tree said: "All the other trees in the woods have beautiful leaves, but I have only needles. I do not like needles. I wish I could have leaves. But I should like to be more beautiful than the other trees. I should not like green leaves. I should like gold leaves." The little tree went to sleep. A fairy happened to be passing and said to herself: "This little pine tree would like gold leaves. It shall have them." Next morning the tree woke up and found that it was covered with leaves of shining gold. "How beautiful!" said the tree. "No other tree has gold leaves!" Soon a man came by with a bag. He saw the gold leaves. He ran to the little pine tree and began to pull them off and to put them into his bag. He pulled them all off and carried them away. The little pine tree was bare. "O," cried the little tree, "I don't want gold leaves any more, for men will take them away. I want something beautiful that they will not take away. I think I should like glass leaves." The little tree went to sleep. The fairy came by again and said: "This little tree wants glass leaves. It shall have them." Next morning the tree woke up and found that it was covered with leaves of shining glass. How they shone in the sun! "These leaves are much better than gold leaves," said the little tree. "They are very beautiful." But a wind came down the valley. It blew and it blew. It blew the glass leaves together and broke them all to pieces. The little pine tree was bare again. "I don't want glass leaves," said the little tree. "I want leaves that will not break. Perhaps green leaves are best, after all, but I want leaves. I don't want needles." The little tree went to sleep. The fairy came by again and said: "This little tree wants green leaves. It shall have them." Next morning when the tree woke up it was covered with green leaves. "This is fine!" said the tree. "Now I am like the other trees, but more beautiful." Soon a goat came down the valley. "These leaves look good," said the goat. So he ate them all up. The little pine tree was bare again. "I think I don't want leaves after all," said the little pine tree. "Gold leaves are beautiful, but men carry them away. Glass leaves are beautiful, but the wind breaks them. Green leaves are beautiful, but goats eat them. My old green needles were best. I wish I could have them back." The little pine tree went to sleep. The fairy came by again, and said: "This little tree has found out that needles were best for it after all. It shall have them back." Next morning the tree woke up and had the old green needles again. Then it was happy. THE FAITHFUL BEASTS Once upon a time a man went out to seek his fortune. As he walked along, he came to a town and saw some boys teasing a mouse. "Let the poor mouse go. I will pay you if you will let it go," said the man. He gave the boys a penny. They let the mouse go, and it ran away. After this the man went on till he came to another town. There he saw some boys playing with a monkey. They had hurt the poor beast so that he cried out with pain. "Let the monkey go," said the man. "I will pay you to let him go." So he gave the boys some money. They let the monkey go, and the monkey ran away. The man went on, and by and by he came to another town. There he saw some boys trying to make a bear dance. They had tied the bear with a rope and were beating him. "Let the poor bear go," said the man. "I will pay you to let him go." He gave the boys some money, and they let the poor beast go. The bear, was glad to be free and walked off as fast as he could. The man had spent all his money. He had not a penny left. He was hungry too, and could get nothing to eat. Then the king's men took him and put him into a great box. They shut and fastened the lid, and threw the box into the water. The man floated about in the water many days and thought he should never see the light again. At last he heard something gnaw and scratch at the lid. Then the lid flew open. The box was on the shore, and there stood the bear, the monkey, and the mouse beside it. They had helped him because he had helped them. As they stood there, a round white stone rolled down to the water. "This has come just in time," said the bear. "It is a magic stone and will take its owner wherever he wishes to go." The man picked up the stone and wished he were in a castle with gardens around it. All at once the castle and the gardens were there, and he was in the castle. It was very beautiful. Soon some merchants came by. "See this fine castle," said one to another. "There was never a castle here till now." The merchants went in and asked the man how he had built the castle so quickly. "I did not do it," said the man. "My magic stone built it." "Let us see the stone," said the merchants. The man showed them the stone. Then the merchants showed him gold and silver and diamonds and other beautiful things, and said: "We will give you all these if you will give us the stone." The things looked very beautiful to the man, so he took them and gave the stone to the merchants. All at once he found himself again in the dark box on the water. As soon as the bear, the monkey, and the mouse saw what had happened, they tried to help him. But the lid was fastened more strongly than before. They could not open it. "We must have that stone again," said the bear. So the three faithful beasts went back to the castle and found the merchants there. The mouse looked under the door and said: "The stone is fastened with a red ribbon under the looking-glass, and beside it are two great cats with eyes of fire." The bear and the monkey said: "Wait till the men go to sleep. Then run quickly under the door, jump quickly up on the bed, scratch the nose of one of the men, and bite off one of his whiskers." The mouse did as he was told. The merchant woke up and rubbed his nose. Then he said: "Those cats are good for nothing. They let the mice in, and the mice eat up my very whiskers." So he drove the cats away. The next night the mouse went in again. The merchants were asleep. The mouse gnawed at the ribbon till it gave way, and the stone fell. Then he rolled the stone out under the door. The monkey took it and carried it down to the water. "How shall we get out to the box?" asked the monkey. "I will tell you," said the bear. "Sit on my back and hold fast. Carry the stone in your mouth. The mouse will sit in my right ear, and I will swim out to the box." They did as the bear said, and were soon out in the water. No one said anything, and it was very still. The bear wanted to talk. "How are you, Monkey?" he asked. The monkey said nothing. "Why don't you talk to me?" asked the bear. "Silly!" said the monkey. "How do you think I can talk when I have a stone in my mouth?" As he said this, the stone rolled out into the water. "Never mind," said the bear. "The frogs will get it for us." So he asked the frogs to get it, and one of them brought it to him. "Thank you," said the bear. "That is what we need." Then the three faithful beasts broke open the great box. They gave the stone to the man. He took it and wished himself in the castle again, and wished the three faithful beasts with him. At once they were in the castle. The merchants were gone. So the man and his three faithful beasts lived there ever after. POEMS BY ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON WHERE GO THE BOATS? Dark brown is the river, Golden is the sand; It flows along for ever, With trees on either hand. Green leaves a-floating, Castles of the foam, Boats of mine a-boating-- Where will all come home? On goes the river And out past the mill, Away down the valley, Away down the hill. Away down the river, A hundred miles or more, Other little children Shall bring my boats ashore. AT THE SEASIDE When I was down beside the sea A wooden spade they gave to me To dig the sandy shore. My holes were empty like a cup; In every hole the sea came up, Till it could come no more. RAIN The rain is raining all around; It falls on field and tree, It rains on the umbrellas here And on the ships at sea. AUTUMN FIRES In the other gardens And all up the vale, From the autumn bonfires See the smoke trail! Pleasant summer over And all the summer flowers; The red fire blazes, The gray smoke towers. Sing a song of seasons! Something bright in all! Flowers in the summer, Fires in the fall! THE WIND I saw you toss the kites on high And blow the birds about the sky, And all around I heard you pass Like ladies' skirts across the grass-- O wind, a-blowing all day long O wind, that sings so loud a song! I saw the different things you did, But always you yourself you hid; I felt you push, I heard you call, I could not see yourself at all-- O wind, a-blowing all day long, O wind, that sings so loud a song! O you that are so strong and cold, O blower, are you young or old? Are you a beast of field and tree, Or just a stronger child than me? O wind, a-blowing all day long, O wind, that sings so loud a song! HINDU FABLES THE TIMID HARES Once there was a timid little hare who was always afraid something dreadful was going to happen. She was always saying, "What if the earth should fall in? What would happen to me then?" One day, after she had been saying this to herself many times, a great coconut fell from a tree. "What was that!" said the hare. She jumped as if she had been shot. "The earth must be falling in!" she cried. So she ran and she ran as fast as she could run. Soon she met another hare. "O Brother Hare," she said, "run for your life! The earth is falling in!" "What is that you say!" cried the other hare. "Then I will run, too." This hare told another hare, and the other hare told other hares, and soon all the hares were running as fast as they could run, and crying: "The earth is falling in! O, the earth is falling in!" The big beasts heard them, and they too began to run and to cry: "O, the earth is falling in! Run for your life!" A wise old lion saw them running and heard them crying. "I cannot see that the earth is falling in," he said. Then he cried out to the poor frightened beasts to stop. "What are you saying?" he asked. "We said the earth is falling in," answered the elephants. "What makes you think so?" asked the lion. "The tigers told us," said the elephants. "What makes the tigers think so?" "The bears told us," said the tigers. "What makes the bears think so?" "The buffaloes told us," said the bears. "Why do the buffaloes think so?" "The deer told us," said the buffaloes. "Why do the deer think so?" "The monkeys told us so," said the deer. "And how did the monkeys know?" "The jackals said so," said the monkeys. "And how did the jackals know?" "The hares said it was so," said the jackals. "And how did the hares know?" One of the hares then said that another hare told him, and the other hare said that another told him, and so it went on until at last they came to the first little hare. "Little hare," said the lion, "why did you say that the earth was falling in?" "I saw it," said the little hare. "Where?" asked the lion. "I saw it there, under that big coconut tree," said the little hare. "Come and show me," said the lion. "O, no, no!" said the little hare. "I am so frightened. I couldn't go." "Jump on my back," said the lion. The little hare at last jumped up on the lion's back, and the lion took her back to the big tree. Just then another coconut fell with a great noise among the leaves. "O, run, run!" cried the timid hare. "There is that dreadful thing again!" "Stop and look," said the lion. As the hare could not get down from the lion's back, she had to stop and look. "Now what do you think it is?" asked the lion. "I think it must be a coconut," said the little hare. "Then I think you had better go and tell the other beasts," said the lion. So the little hare told the other beasts that the earth was not falling in, after all. It was a coconut that was falling. THE SHOE (A man once left his shoe in the woods. The beasts found it. They had never seen anything like it before, so they came together and began to talk about it.) BEAR. It must be the husk or the outside of some fruit. ALL THE BIRDS. O, just hear him! ALL THE BEASTS. O, just hear him! WOLF. No, that is not it. It is some kind of nest. See! Here is the hole at the top, for the bird to go into, and here is the place for the eggs and the young birds. BIRDS. O, just hear him! BEAR. Just hear him talk! GOAT. No, you are both wrong. It is the root of some plant. (He showed them the shoe string hanging at the side.) See this long, fine root. Surely it is a root! BIRDS. O, just hear him talk! BEASTS. Just hear him! BEAR. I tell you it is the husk of a fruit. WOLF. And I tell you it is a nest. GOAT. And I tell you it is a root. Surely it is a root! OWL. Let me speak. I have lived among men, and I have seen many such things as this. It is a man's shoe. BEAR. What is a man? GOAT. What is a shoe? OWL. A man is a thing with two legs. He can stand up like a monkey, he can walk like a bird, but he cannot fly. He can eat and talk, and he can do many things that we cannot do. BEASTS. O, no! BIRDS. No, no! BEAR. How can that be? How can anything with two legs do more than we, who have four? BIRDS. And this thing you call a man cannot be good for much if he cannot fly. GOAT. But what does the man do with this root? OWL. It is not a root. I tell you it is a shoe. WOLF. And what is a shoe? OWL. It is what the man puts on his feet. He puts one of these shoes on each of his feet. BIRDS. Hear the owl talk! BEASTS. Who ever heard of such a thing as a shoe? GOAT. Hear that! The man puts them on his feet! WOLF. It is not true! BEAR. No, it is not true! The owl doesn't know. WOLF. You know nothing, Owl. Get out of our woods. You are not fit to live with us. BEAR. Yes, Owl, go away! BEASTS. Leave us! Go away! BIRDS. Leave us! Leave us, Owl! You surely don't know what you are talking about! (The beasts chase the owl out of the woods.) OWL. (Going off) But it is a shoe, anyway. THE CAMEL AND THE JACKAL Once upon a time a camel and a jackal lived together by the side of a river. One fine morning the jackal said: "There is a big field of sugar cane over on the other side of the river. Take me on your back, Brother Camel, and I will show you where it is. You may eat all the sugar cane, and I will find some crabs or fish on the shore." This pleased the camel very much. So he waded through the river and carried the jackal on his back. The jackal could not swim. The camel found the sugar cane, and the jackal found some crabs. The jackal ate much faster than the camel and soon had enough. "Now, Brother Camel," he said, "take me back. I have had enough." "But I haven't," said the camel. So the camel went on eating. The jackal tried to think how he could make the camel go home. At last he thought of a way. He began to bark and to cry and to make such a noise that all the men from the village ran out to see what was going on. There they found the camel eating the sugar cane, and at once they beat the poor beast with sticks and so drove him out of the field. "Brother Camel, hadn't you better go home now?" asked the jackal. "Yes, jackal, jump on my back," said the camel. The jackal jumped on his back, and the camel waded through the river with him. As he went, he said to the jackal: "Brother Jackal, I think you have not been very good to me to-day. Why did you make such a noise?" "O, I don't know," said the jackal. "It's a way I sometimes have. I like to sing a little, after dinner." The camel waded on. When they got out where the water was deep, the camel stopped and said, "Jackal, I feel as if I must roll a little in the water. "O, no, no!" said the jackal. "Why do you want to do that?" "O, I don't know," said the camel. "It's a way I sometimes have. I like to roll a little, after dinner." With that, he rolled over, and the jackal fell into the water. POEMS BY LAURA E. RICHARDS[1] THE BUMBLEBEE The bumblebee, the bumblebee, He flew to the top of the tulip tree. He flew to the top, But he could not stop, For he had to get home to his early tea. The bumblebee, the bumblebee, He flew away from the tulip tree; But he made a mistake, And flew into the lake, And he never got home to his early tea. [1] Copyright, 1890, by Little, Brown, and Company. LITTLE BROWN BOBBY Little Brown Bobby sat on the barn floor, Little Brown Bossy looked in at the door. Little Brown Bobby said, "Lackaday! Who'll drive me this little Brown Bossy away?" Little Brown Bobby said, "Shoo! shoo! shoo!" Little Brown Bossy said, "Moo! moo! moo!" This frightened them so that both of them cried, And wished they were back at their mammy's side. JIPPY AND JIMMY Jippy and Jimmy were two little dogs. They went to sail on some floating logs; The logs rolled over, the dogs rolled in, And they got very wet, for their clothes were thin. Jippy and Jimmy crept out again. They said, "The river is full of rain!" They said, "The water is far from dry! Ki-hi! ki-hi! ki-_hi_-yi! ki-hi!" Jippy and Jimmy went shivering home. They said, "On the river no more we will roam; And we won't go to sail until we learn how, Bow-wow! bow-wow! bow-_wow_-wow! bow-wow!" THE SONG OF THE CORN POPPER Pip! pop! flippety flop! Here am I, all ready to pop. Girls and boys, the fire burns clear; Gather about the chimney here, Big ones, little ones, all in a row. Hop away! pop away! here we go! Pip! pop! flippety flop! Into the bowl the kernels drop; Sharp and hard and yellow and small, Must say they don't look good at all; But wait till they burst into warm white snow! Hop away! pop away! here we go! Pip! pop! flippety flop! Shake me steadily; do not stop! Backward and forward, not up and down; Don't let me drop, or you'll burn it brown. Never too high and never too low; Hop away! pop away! here we go! A FRENCH FAIRY TALE THE FAIRY Once on a time there was a woman who had two daughters. The older was very much like her mother, and was very ugly. The younger was not like her, but was very good and beautiful. The woman liked the older girl because she was like herself. She did not like the younger; so she made her do all the hard work. One day the younger daughter had gone to the spring to get water. It was a long way from home. As she was standing by the spring, a poor old woman came by and asked her for a drink. "Indeed, you shall have a drink," said the girl. She filled her pitcher and gave the old woman some water. The woman drank, and then said, "You are so kind and good, my dear, that I will give you a gift." Now this old woman was a fairy, but the girl did not know it. "I will give you a gift," she said, "and this shall be the gift: With every word that you speak, either a flower or a jewel shall fall from your mouth." When the younger girl came home, her mother scolded her because she had been so long at the spring. "I am very sorry indeed, mother," said the girl. At once two roses, two pearls, and two diamonds fell from her mouth. "What is this!" cried the mother. "I think I see pearls and diamonds falling out of your mouth! How does this happen, my child?" This was the first time the woman had ever called her "my child." The girl told her all that had happened, and while she spoke, many more diamonds fell from her mouth. "Well, well, well!" said the woman, "I must surely send my dear Fanny to the spring, so that she too may have this gift." Then she called her older daughter. "Fanny, my dear, come here! See what has happened to your sister. Should you not like to have such diamonds whenever you wish them? "All you need to do is to go out to the spring to get some water. An old woman will ask for a drink and you will give it to her." "I think I see myself going out there to the spring to get water!" said the older daughter. "Go at once!" said the mother. So the older daughter went. She took with her the best silver pitcher in the house, and grumbled all the way. When she had come to the spring, she saw a lady in beautiful clothes standing under a tree. The lady came to her and asked for a drink. It was really the fairy, but now she looked like a princess. The older daughter did not know that it was the fairy, so she said: "Do you think that I came to the spring to get water just for you, or that I brought this fine silver pitcher so that you could drink from it? Drink from the spring if you wish." "You are not very polite, I think," said the fairy, "but I will give you a gift, and this shall be the gift: With every word that you speak, either a snake or a toad shall fall from your mouth." When the older daughter went back to the house, her mother called out, "Well, daughter?" "Well, mother," said the girl, and as she spoke, a snake and a toad fell out of her mouth. "What!" cried the mother. "Your sister has done all this, but she shall pay for it!" With that, the mother took a stick and ran after the younger daughter. The poor child ran away from her and hid in the woods. The prince of that country had been hunting and happened to pass through those woods on his way home. He saw the young girl and asked her why she was standing there and crying, all alone in the woods. "O sir, my mother has turned me out of the house," she said. The prince was greatly surprised to see five or six pearls and as many diamonds fall from her mouth as she spoke. "Tell me how all this happened," said the prince. So she told him all about it. The prince took her with him, and they went to the king's house, and there they were married, and were very happy. But the older sister grew more and more ugly in her heart, until even her mother could not live with her. So her mother turned her out, and no one ever heard of her again. A NORSE FOLK TALE EAST OF THE SUN AND WEST OF THE MOON Once there was a poor woodcutter who had so many children that it was hard to get enough for them to eat. They were all pretty children, but the youngest daughter was the prettiest of them all. One cold, dark night in the fall they were sitting around the fire, when all at once something went rap! rap! rap! on the window. The father went out to see what it was, and there stood a big white bear. "Good evening," said the bear. "The same to you," said the man. "Give me your youngest daughter, and you shall be rich," said the bear. "You can't have her," said the man. "Think it over," said the bear, "I will come again next week." Then the bear went away. They talked it over and at last the youngest daughter said that she would go away with the bear when he came back. Next Thursday night they heard the rap! rap! rap! on the window, and there was the white bear again. The girl went out and climbed up on his back and off they went. When they had gone a little way, the bear turned around and asked, "Are you afraid?" No, she was not afraid. "Well, hold fast to me, and there will be nothing to be afraid of," said the bear. They went a long, long way, until they came to a great hill. The bear knocked on the ground, and a door opened. They went in. It was a castle, with many lights, and it shone with silver and gold. The white bear gave to the girl a silver bell, and said to her, "Ring this bell when you want anything." Then he went away. Every night, when all the lights had been put out, the bear came and talked with her. He slept in a bed in the great hall. But it was so dark that she could never see him, or know how he looked, and when she took his paw, it was not like a paw. It was like a hand. She wanted so much to see him! but he told her she must not. At last she felt that she could not wait any longer. So one night, when he was asleep, she lighted a candle and bent over and looked at him. What do you think she saw? It was not a bear, but a prince, and the most beautiful prince that was ever seen! She was so surprised that her hand began to shake, and three drops from the candle fell upon the coat of the prince. This woke him up. "What have you done?" he cried. "You have brought trouble upon us. An ugly witch turned me into a bear, but every night I am myself again, and if you had waited only a year, and had not tried to find me out, I should have been free. "Now I must go back to my other castle and marry an ugly princess with a nose three yards long." The girl cried and cried and cried, but it did no good. She asked if she could go with him, but he said that she could not. "Tell me the way there," she said, "and I will find you." "It is East of the Sun and West of the Moon, but there is no way to it," he said. Next morning when the girl awoke, she found herself all alone in the deep woods. She set out and walked and walked till she came to a very old woman sitting under a hill. The old woman had a golden apple in her hand. The girl asked the woman to tell her the way to the castle of the prince who lived East of the Sun and West of the Moon. The old woman didn't know, but she gave the girl the golden apple, and lent her a horse, and said to her: "Ask my next neighbor. Maybe she will know. And when you find her, switch my horse under the left ear and tell him to be off home." So the girl got on the horse and rode until she came to an old woman with a golden comb. This old woman answered her as the first had done, and lent her another horse and gave her the golden comb. The girl got on the horse and rode till she came to another old woman spinning on a golden spinning wheel. This old woman did as the others had done, and lent her another horse and gave her the golden spinning wheel. "You might ask the East Wind. Maybe he will know," she said. So the girl rode on until she came to the house of the East Wind. "I have heard of the prince and his castle, but I never went so far as that," said the East Wind. "Get on my back, and I will carry you to my brother, the West Wind. Maybe he will know." She got on his back, and away they went. O how fast they went! At last they found the West Wind, but he had never been so far as the castle of the prince. "Get on my back," said West Wind, "and I will take you to our brother, the South Wind. He will know, for he has been everywhere." So she got on the West Wind, and away they went to the South Wind. "It is a long way to that castle," said the South Wind, with a sigh. "I have never been so far as that, but our brother, the North Wind, is stronger than any of us. If he has not been there, you will never find the way, and you might as well give it up. So get on my back, and I will take you to him." The girl got on the back of the South Wind, and soon they came to where the North Wind lived. "Boo-oo-oo! What do you want?" roared the North Wind. "Here is a girl who is looking for the prince that lives East of the Sun and West of the Moon. Do you know where that is?" asked the South Wind. "Yes, once I blew a leaf as far as that, and I was so tired after it that I couldn't blow for a long time. But if you are sure you want to go and are not afraid, I'll take you." Yes, she was sure she wanted to go. North Wind blew himself out so big that he was dreadful to look at. But she jumped on his back, and away they went. How they did go! The North Wind grew so tired that he almost had to stop. His feet began to trail in the sea. "Are you afraid?" he asked. No, she was not afraid. So they kept going on and on, till at last they came to the castle, and the North Wind put her down and went away and left her. The next morning, as she sat there, Princess Long-Nose looked out of the window. "What will you take for your big golden apple?" asked Long-Nose. "It is not for sale," said the girl. "I will give you anything you ask," said Long-Nose. "Let me speak to the prince, and you may have it," said the girl. "Very well," said Long-Nose. She made the girl wait till night, and then let her in, but the prince was fast asleep. He would not wake up. Long-Nose had given him a kind of drink to make him sleep soundly. So the girl went sadly out. Next morning Long-Nose looked out of the window and said to her, "What will you take for the comb?" "It is not for sale," said the girl. Long-Nose said that the girl might see the prince again if she would give her the comb. So she saw the prince again, but he was asleep as before. Next morning Long-Nose looked out and saw the spinning wheel. She wanted that too. So she said she would let the girl come in and see the prince once more if she would give her the spinning wheel. Some one told the prince about it, and that night he did not take the drink which Long-Nose gave to him. He threw it out of the window. When the girl came, he was awake, and she told him her story. "You are just in time," said the prince, "for to-morrow I was to be married to Long-Nose. "Now I will have no one but you. I will tell Long-Nose that I will marry no one who cannot wash three drops of candle grease out of my coat. She cannot do it, but I know that you can." So the next morning the prince said that he must have three drops of grease washed out of his coat, and that he would marry no one who couldn't wash them out. Long-Nose began to wash the coat, but she couldn't get the grease out. It turned black. Then the old witch tried, but she had no better luck. Then the younger witches tried. "You cannot wash," said the prince. "I believe the poor girl out under the window can wash better than you. Let her try." So the girl came in and tried, and as soon as she put the coat into the water it was white as snow. "You are the girl for me!" said the prince. At this the old witch flew into such a rage that she fell to pieces, and Princess Long-Nose fell to pieces, and the younger witches all fell to pieces. And no one could ever put them together again. The prince married the poor girl, and they flew away as far as they could from the castle that lay East of the Sun and West of the Moon. POEMS BY ABBIE FARWELL BROWN THE SAILOR Little girl, O little girl, Where did you sail to-day? The greeny grass is all about; I cannot see the bay. "The greeny grass is water, sir; I'm sailing on the sea, I'm tacking to the Island there Beneath the apple tree. "You ought to come aboard my boat, Or you will soon be drowned! You're standing in the ocean, sir, That billows all around!" Little girl, O little girl, And must I pay a fare? "A penny to the apple tree, A penny back from there. "A penny for a passenger, But sailors voyage free; O, will you be a sailor, sir, And hold the sheet for me?" A MUSIC BOX I am a little music box, Wound up and made to go, And play my little living tune The best way that I know. If I am naughty, cross, or rude, The music will go wrong, My little works be tangled up And spoil the pretty song. I must be very sweet and good And happy all the day, And then the little music box In tune will always play. AMERICAN INDIAN LEGENDS LITTLE SCAR-FACE Among the pine trees, by a quiet lake, stood the wigwam of a great Indian whose name was Big Moose. His sister kept the wigwam for him, and took care of all that was his. Her name was White Maiden. No one but White Maiden had ever seen Big Moose. The Indians could see the marks of his feet in the snow, and they could hear his sled as it ran over the ice, but they could not see him. It was said that this was because they were not kind and good. White Maiden was kind and good, and she could always see him. One day White Maiden called all the Indian maidens and said: "My brother, Big Moose, wishes to marry, but he will not marry any one who cannot see him, and only those who are good can see him." All the Indian maidens were glad when they heard that Big Moose wished to marry. They had all heard how brave and strong he was, and what a great hunter he was, and how kind and good and wonderful he was, in every way. Each wished that he would choose her for his wife, and each was very sure that she could see him. For a long time after that the Indian maidens would go down to the wigwam of Big Moose, by the lake, and try to see him. Every evening some of them would go at sunset and sit and watch for him. When he came they would hear him, and the door of the wigwam would be opened, and he would go in, but they could not see him. At the other end of the village lived an old Indian with his three daughters. The two older daughters were not kind to the youngest one. They made her do all the work and gave her little to eat. The oldest sister had a very hard heart. Once, when she was angry, she threw a pail of hot ashes at the youngest sister. The child's face was burned, and she was called Little Scar-Face. One day in early winter, when the first white snow lay on the ground, the oldest sister said: "Come, Scar-Face, bring me my shell beads and help me to dress. I am going to marry Big Moose." Little Scar-Face brought the beads and put them on the oldest sister and helped her to dress. At sunset the oldest sister went down to the wigwam by the lake. White Maiden asked her to come in. By and by they heard Big Moose. They could hear his sled running through the snow. White Maiden took the sister to the door of the wigwam and said, "Can you see my brother?" "Yes, I can see him very well," answered the other. "Then look and tell me what the string of his sled is made of," said White Maiden. "It is made of moose skin," said the sister of Little Scar-Face. "No, it is not made of moose skin. You have not seen my brother. You must go away," said White Maiden. So she drove out the oldest sister. Next day the next to the oldest sister said to Little Scar-Face: "Come, Scar-Face, bring me my shell beads and help me to dress. I am going to marry Big Moose." Little Scar-Face brought the beads and helped her sister to dress. In the evening, just at sunset, the sister went down through the pine trees to the lake. "Come in," said White Maiden. Soon they heard Big Moose coming. "Can you see my brother?" asked White Maiden. "Yes, I can see him very well," said the other. "Then what is his sled string made of?" asked White Maiden. "It is made of deerskin," said the other. "No, it is not made of deerskin," said White Maiden. "You have not seen my brother. You must go away." And she drove her out. The next morning Little Scar-Face worked very hard. She built the fire and carried out all the ashes and brought in the wood and did everything that she could. Then she said to her two sisters, "Sisters, let me take your beads. I too should like to find out if I can see Big Moose." Her sisters laughed loud and long. They would not let her take their beads. No, indeed! At last one of the sisters said she had an old broken string of beads that Scar-Face might take. So Little Scar-Face took the old broken string of beads and tied it together and put it on. Then she made a queer little dress out of birch bark, and she washed herself all fresh and clean, and brushed her hair, and put on the dress and the old string of beads. So she went down through the village and the dark pine woods to the wigwam of Big Moose. She was not a pretty child, for her face and hair were burned, and her clothes were very queer. But White Maiden asked her to come in and spoke kindly to her. So she went in and sat down. Soon she heard Big Moose coming. White Maiden took her to the door of the wigwam and said: "Little Scar-Face, can you see my brother?" "Yes, indeed, and I am afraid, for his face is very wonderful and very beautiful." "What is his sled string made of?" asked White Maiden. "How wonderful! how wonderful!" cried Little Scar-Face. "His sled string is the rainbow!" Big Moose heard her and said, "Sister, wash the eyes and hair of Little Scar-Face in the magic water." White Maiden did so, and every scar faded away, and the hair of Little Scar-Face grew long and black, and her eyes were like two stars. White Maiden put a wonderful dress of deerskin and a string of golden beads on Little Scar-Face, and she was more beautiful than any of the other maidens. And Big Moose made her his wife. THE HUNTER WHO FORGOT Once there was a great hunter who was very rich. He had many strings of shell money around his neck. The Indians call these shells wampum. In the woods near his home lived a big white elk that used to come and talk to him. The elk told him what was right and what was wrong. The Great Spirit sent the elk to him. When he obeyed the elk, he was happy and everything went well, but when he did not obey, he was not happy, and everything went wrong. One day the elk said to him: "You are too hungry for wampum. Look! your neck and shoulders are covered with long strings of wampum. Some of it belongs to your wife. You took it from her. You took some of it from other Indians and gave them deer meat that was not fit to eat. You are not honest." The hunter was much ashamed, but he would not give back the wampum. He thought too much of it to give it back. "I will give you enough wampum to fill your heart," said the elk, "but you must do just as I tell you. Will you do it?" "I will do it," said the hunter. "Go to the top of the great white mountain. There you will find a black lake. Across the lake are three black rocks. One of them is like the head of a moose. "Dig in the earth before this rock. There you will find a cave full of wampum. It is on strings of elk skin. Take all you want. "While you dig, twelve otters will come out of the black lake. Put a string of wampum around the neck of each of the otters and upon each of the three black rocks." The hunter went back to the village. There he got an elk-horn pick and set out. No one knew where he went. He made his camp that night at the foot of the great white mountain. As soon as it was light, he began to climb up the mountain side. At last he stood on the top, and there before him was a great hollow. It was so great that he could not shoot an arrow across it. The hollow was white with snow, but in the middle was a black lake, and on the other side of the lake stood the three black rocks. The hunter walked around the lake over the snow. Then he took the elk-horn pick and struck one blow before the black rock which looked like the head of a moose. Four great otters came up out of the black lake and sat beside him. He struck another blow. Four more otters came and sat behind him. He struck again. Four more otters came and sat on the other side. At last the pick struck a rock. The hunter dug it out, and beneath it was a cave full of wampum. The hunter put both of his hands into the wampum and played with it. It felt good. He took out great strings of it and put them around his neck and over his shoulders. He worked fast, for the sun was now going down, and he must go home. He put so many strings of wampum around his neck and shoulders that he could hardly walk. But he did not put any around the necks of the twelve otters, nor on the three black rocks. He did not give them one string--not one shell. He forgot what the white elk had told him. He did not obey. Soon it grew dark. He crept along by the shore of the big black lake. The otters jumped into it and swam and beat the water into white foam. A black mist came over the mountain. Then the storm winds came, and the Great Spirit was in the storm. It seemed as if the storm said, "You did not obey! You did not obey!" Then the thunder roared at him, "You did not obey!" The hunter was greatly frightened. He broke a great string of wampum and threw it to the storm winds, but the storm winds only laughed. He broke another string and threw it to the thunder voices, but the thunder roared louder than before. He threw away one string after another until all of them were gone. Then he fell upon the ground and went to sleep. He slept long. When he woke up he was an old man with white hair. He did not know what had happened, but he sat there and looked at the great mountain, and his heart was full of peace. "I have no wampum. I have given it all away. I am not hungry for it any more. I will go home," he said. He could hardly find his way, for the trees had grown across the trail. When at last he got home, no one but his wife knew him. She was now very old and had white hair like himself. She showed him a tall man near by, and said it was their baby. The hunter looked at them. "I have slept many moons," he said. He lived among the Indians long after that and taught them much. He taught them to keep their word, and to obey the Great Spirit. THE WATER LILY One summer evening, many years ago, some Indians were sitting out under the stars, telling stories. All at once they saw a star fall. It fell halfway down the sky. That night one of the Indians had a dream about the star. It seemed to come and stand beside him, and it was like a young girl, dressed all in white. She said, "I have left my home in the sky because I love the Indians and want to live among them. Call your wise men together and ask them what shape I shall take." The Indian woke up and called all the wise men together. Then he told them his dream. The wise men said, "Let her choose what shape she will take. She may live in the top of a tree, or she may live in a flower, or she may live where she will." Every night the star came down a little lower in the sky, and stood over the valley where the Indians lived, and made it very bright. Then one night it fell down upon the side of the mountain and became a white rose. But it was lonely on the mountain. The rose could see the Indians, but it could not hear them talk. So one day it left the mountain and came down into the plain and became a great white prairie flower. Here it lived for a time. But the buffaloes and the other wild beasts of the prairie ran all around it and over it, and it was afraid. One night the Indians saw a star go up from the prairie. They knew that it was the prairie flower and they thought that it was going back into the sky. But it floated toward them until it came over the lake that lay just beside them. It looked down into the lake, and there it saw its shadow and the shadows of the other stars that live in the sky. It came down lower and lower, and at last floated on the top of the water. The next morning the lake was covered with water lilies. "See! the stars have blossomed!" said all the children. But the wise men answered: "It is the white star and her sisters. They will stay with us." RUSSIAN FABLES FORTUNE AND THE BEGGAR A poor beggar, with a ragged old bag, crept along the road one day, begging his bread. As he went he grumbled to himself because there were so many rich men in the world. "The rich never think that they have enough," he said to himself. "They always want more than they have. Now if I had a very little money, I should be happy. I should not want too much." A fairy named Fortune, who brought good gifts to men, heard the poor beggar grumbling to himself and came to him. "Friend," said Fortune, "I have wanted to help you. Open your bag. I will give you all the gold that it will hold. But if any falls out upon the ground, it will turn to dust. Your bag is old. Don't try to have it too full, for if you do, it will break, and you will lose all." The beggar was so happy that he began to dance up and down. He opened his bag and let the gold run into it in a big, yellow stream. Soon the bag was almost full. "Is that enough?" asked Fortune. "No," said the beggar, "not yet." "The bag is old. It is going to break," said Fortune. "Never fear!" said the beggar. "But you are now a rich man. Isn't that enough?" asked Fortune. "A little more," said the beggar. "Now," said Fortune, "the bag is full, but take care, or you will lose it." "Just a little more," said the beggar. Fortune put in just a little more. The bag broke. All the gold fell through upon the ground and turned to dust. The beggar had nothing left but his old broken bag. He was as poor as he had been before. THE SPIDER AND THE BEE A merchant brought some linen to a fair and opened a shop. It was good linen, and many came to buy of him. A spider saw what was going on, and said to herself: "I can spin. Why shouldn't I open a shop, too?" So the spider opened a little shop in the corner of a window, and spun all night, and made a beautiful web. She hung it out where everybody could see it. "That is fine!" said the spider. "Surely, when the morning comes, all will want to buy it." At last the morning came. A man saw the web in the corner and swept it away, spider and all. "That is a pretty thing to do!" cried the spider. "I should like to ask whose work is the finer, mine or that merchant's?" A bee happened to fly past. "Yours is the finer," said the bee. "We all know that. But what is it good for? It will neither warm nor cover any one." THE STONE AND THE WORM (A stone lay in a field. A farmer and his son were talking near by.) FARMER. That was a fine rain we had this morning. SON. Yes, indeed! A rain like that makes everybody glad. FARMER. I have been wishing a long time for such a rain as that. SON. It was better than gold. (As they walked away, a worm crept out from under the stone. The stone called to the worm.) STONE. Friend Worm, did you hear what those men were saying? WORM. Yes, they were saying how good the rain was. STONE. What has the rain done, I should like to know? It rained two hours and made me all wet. WORM. That didn't hurt you. STONE. Yes, it did. But it hurts me more to hear everybody saying how fine the rain was. Why don't they talk about me? I have been here for hundreds of years. I hurt nobody. I wet nobody. I stay quietly where I am put. Yet nobody ever has a kind word for me. WORM. Stop your talk. This rain has helped the wheat and made it grow. And the wheat will help the farmer. It will give him bread. What have you ever given to anybody? THE FOX IN THE ICE Very early one winter morning a fox was drinking at a hole in the ice. While he was drinking, the end of his tail got into the water, and there it froze fast. He could have pulled it out and left some of the hairs behind, but he would not do this. "How can I spoil such a beautiful tail!" said the fox to himself. "No, I will wait a little. The men are asleep and will not catch me. Perhaps when the sun comes up the ice will melt." So he waited, and the water froze harder and harder. At last the sun came up. The fox could see men coming down to the pond. He pulled and pulled, but now his tail was frozen so fast that he could not pull it out. Just then a wolf came by. "Help me, friend," cried the fox, "or I shall be lost." The wolf helped him, and set him free very quickly. He bit off the tail of the fox. So the fox lost all of his fine great tail because he would not give up a little hair from it. POEMS BY FRANK D. SHERMAN CLOUDS The sky is full of clouds to-day, And idly, to and fro, Like sheep across the pasture, they Across the heavens go. I hear the wind with merry noise Around the housetops sweep, And dream it is the shepherd boys-- They're driving home their sheep. The clouds move faster now, and see! The west is red and gold; Each sheep seems hastening to be The first within the fold. I watch them hurry on until The blue is clear and deep, And dream that far beyond the hill The shepherds fold their sheep. Then in the sky the trembling stars Like little flowers shine out, While Night puts up the shadow bars, And darkness falls about. I hear the shepherd wind's good night, "Good night, and happy sleep!" And dream that in the east, all white, Slumber the clouds, the sheep. GHOST FAIRIES When the open fire is lit, In the evening after tea, Then I like to come and sit Where the fire can talk to me. Fairy stories it can tell, Tales of a forgotten race-- Of the fairy ghosts that dwell In the ancient chimney place. They are quite the strangest folk Anybody ever knew, Shapes of shadow and of smoke Living in the chimney flue. "Once," the fire said, "long ago, With the wind they used to rove, Gypsy fairies, to and fro, Camping in the field and grove. "Hither with the trees they came Hidden in the logs; and here, Hovering above the flame, Often some of them appear." So I watch, and sure enough, I can see the fairies! Then Suddenly there comes a puff-- Whish!--and they are gone again! DAISIES At evening when I go to bed I see the stars shine overhead; They are the little daisies white That dot the meadow of the night. And often while I'm dreaming so, Across the sky the moon will go; It is a lady, sweet and fair, Who comes to gather daisies there. For when at morning I arise, There's not a star left in the skies; She's picked them all and dropped them down Into the meadows of the town. OLD GREEK STORIES THE SUN, THE MOON, AND THE STAR GIANT A great many years ago the Greeks told beautiful stories about what they saw in the earth and in the sky and in the sea. They said the Sun drove each day across the sky in a car of fire, and gave light and heat to men. He always had a bow and arrows with him, and his arrows were the sunbeams. When he shot them very hard and struck men with them, the men were said to be sun-struck, but when he let the arrows fall gently on the earth, they did only good. The Sun was called Apollo. He was said to be a beautiful young man with golden hair, and he made wonderful music on a kind of harp called a lyre. Men loved him, but they were a little afraid of him, too; he was so bright and strong. His sister was the Moon. Her name was Artemis, or Diana. She rode through the sky at night in a silver car, and she, too, had a bow and arrows. Her bow was a silver bow, and her arrows were the moonbeams. She loved hunting, and often at night she would come down to earth and roam through the woods with her bow in her hand and her arrows at her side or on her back. In pictures she is always seen with a little new moon in her hair. Artemis was so beautiful that men were afraid to look at her. It was said that if any man should look full at her he would lose his mind. So when she came to those whom she did not wish to hurt, she covered herself with clouds. For a time the good giant Orion helped Artemis in her hunting, for he too was a great hunter. Artemis loved him as well as she loved any one, but she was very cold and did not care much for anybody. After a time Orion left her. He wanted to marry the daughter of a king in one of the islands of the sea. The king said that he might if he would drive all the wild beasts out of the island. Orion did this, but the king did not keep his word. Instead of that, he put out the eyes of Orion, but Orion went to Apollo, and was made to see again. Then Orion went back to help Artemis with her hunting, but Apollo did not like that and wished to get rid of him. He did not wish, himself, to hurt Orion, so he made Artemis do it. "Sister," he said to her one day, "some men say that you can shoot as well as I can, but we all know that is not so." "I should like to know why it is not so!" said Artemis. "Well, let us try," said Apollo. "Do you see that little black speck away out there in the sea?" "Yes, I see it," said Artemis. "Can you hit it?" asked Apollo. "Indeed I can," said Artemis; and with that she let an arrow fly from her bow. It went straight through the black speck. The black speck was the head of Orion. He was swimming back to Artemis from the country of the bad king. The speck at once went under the water and was seen no more. When Artemis found what she had done, she was very sad indeed. She could not bring Orion back to earth, but she took him up into the sky and put him among the stars, and there he is standing to this day. If you will look up into the sky on any clear winter night, you can see him. Just before him is his dog. We call it the Dog Star. THE WIND AND THE CLOUDS The Sun and the Moon had a brother, the Summer Wind. His name was Hermes, but sometimes he was called Mercury. He had shoes with wings on them, which always took him very quickly wherever he wished to go, and he had a magic cap which kept him from being seen. He ran on errands for his father and his older brothers. He went everywhere, and he often picked up things that lay in his way, and that didn't belong to him. One day, when he was a small child, he crept down to the seaside and there found the shell of a tortoise. He stretched some strings tightly across it, and blew upon the strings, and made wonderful music. He called this thing a lyre. On the same day, toward evening, he looked across the meadows and saw some beautiful white cows. His brother Apollo was looking after them. "What fun it would be to drive those cows away!" he said. So he crept up behind the cows while Apollo was not looking, and he drove them away. He drove them far, and at last shut them up in a cave, where he thought Apollo could not find them. Apollo saw that the cows were gone, and went to look for them, but he had a hard time. He thought that Hermes might have had something to do with them. So he went to Hermes. Hermes was playing upon the lyre which he had made, and was singing gently to himself. The music was so beautiful that Apollo forgot all about his cows. "Where did you find that wonderful thing?" asked Apollo. "O, I made it," said Hermes. "Let me see it!" cried Apollo. "Show me how to play upon it." Hermes showed him, and Apollo sat down and played until it grew dark. "O, give me this thing! I must have it," said Apollo. So Hermes gave it to him, and Apollo played upon it, gently at first, and then louder. He made such wild, sweet music as had never before been heard. To pay for the lyre, Apollo gave Hermes a magic stick which would bring sleep to men and would stop all quarreling. One day Hermes saw two snakes fighting. He touched them with the magic stick, and they stopped at once and wound themselves around it, and stayed there ever after. In the pictures of Hermes you will see this magic stick with the snakes around it. You will see, too, the cap and the shoes, with the wings upon them. When Hermes and Apollo had made these gifts to each other, Apollo said: "Hermes, my dear boy, you like my white cows so well that I am going to let you take care of them. I shall not have much time to take care of cows now, for you know I am learning to play upon the lyre." Hermes took care of the white cows after that, and on summer days he used to drive them across the blue meadows of the sky. When the Greeks saw the white clouds running before the wind, they would say: "It is Hermes driving his cows to pasture." THE RAINBOW BRIDGE Hermes was so useful that Juno, the queen of the heavens, thought she must have a messenger, too. So she took Iris, a little sky fairy. Iris lived up among the clouds, and played with the stars, and romped with the little winds. At night she used to sleep in the silver cradle of the Moon. Sometimes Apollo, the Sun, took her in his golden car. Sometimes she slipped down to earth with the rain. Sometimes she went to visit her grandfather, the gray old Sea. Her grandfather was always glad to see her, and when she came down, he would hitch up his white sea horses and drive her over the tops of the waves. What fun that was! Old grandfather Sea loved Iris very much, and Apollo loved her, and Juno loved her. No one who saw her could help loving her; she was so bright and beautiful and good. When Juno sent her down to the earth on errands, the old Sea always wanted her to stay. But Apollo, the Sun, wanted her, too, and Juno wanted her. At last the Sun and the Sea and the Air and the Rain all said they would make a bridge for Iris, so that she might go back and forth more quickly between the earth and the sky, on the errands of Juno. The Earth brought the colors of all her beautiful flowers--rose, and blue, and violet, and yellow, and orange, and the green of the grass. The Sea gave silver mist. The Clouds gave gray and gold. The Sun himself spun the bridge out of all these colors. Then he fastened one end of it to the sky and hung a pot of gold on the other end, to keep it from blowing away; and it is said that the pot of gold is still there in the earth at the end of the rainbow bridge. But no one has ever found it. POEMS OLD AND NEW THANK YOU, PRETTY COW Thank you, pretty cow, that made Pleasant milk to soak my bread, Every day and every night, Warm, and fresh, and sweet, and white. Do not chew the hemlock rank, Growing on the weedy bank; But the yellow cowslip eat, That will make it very sweet. Where the purple violet grows, Where the bubbling water flows, Where the grass is fresh and fine, Pretty cow, go there and dine. JANE TAYLOR PLAYGROUNDS In summer I am very glad We children are so small, For we can see a thousand things That men can't see at all. They don't know much about the moss And all the stones they pass; They never lie and play among The forests in the grass; But when the snow is on the ground, And all the puddles freeze, I wish that I were very tall, High up above the trees. LAURENCE ALMA-TADEMA SLEEP, BABY, SLEEP Sleep, baby, sleep! Thy father watches his sheep; Thy mother is shaking the dreamland tree, And down comes a little dream on thee. Sleep, baby, sleep! Sleep, baby, sleep! The great stars are the sheep; The little stars are the lambs, I guess, And the gentle moon is the shepherdess. Sleep, baby, sleep! FROM THE GERMAN A CHILD'S PRAYER When it gets dark, the birds and flowers Shut up their eyes and say good night; And God, who loves them, counts the hours And keeps them safe till it gets light. Dear Father! Count the hours to-night, When I'm asleep and cannot see; And in the morning may the light Shine for the birds and flowers and me! WILLIAM HAWLEY SMITH PHONETIC TABLES NOTE TO THE TEACHER. The vocabulary of this book is here rearranged for class drill. This should be given daily until the pupils are able to pronounce at least thirty words per minute either by following the columns or the lines. In this grade children may be expected to give the reasons for the several vowel sounds herein taught, but should not be required to commit and apply phonetic rules. As the words in a column are generally in the same phonetic group, column drills tend to fix the principle there presented. But in the line drills and in the review tables children must rely upon their own knowledge of the phonetic elements. Table I consists of monosyllabic words of not more than four letters in which a single consonant precedes a short vowel or in which a short vowel begins the word. There is a column for each vowel. Table II contains words with two consonants final or initial or both. Table III introduces vowels made long by final silent _e_. Table IV is a mixed review with some additional words. Table V contains long vowel digraphs and _y_ equivalent to long _i_, and has a review column of forms ending in _s_. Tables VI, VII, and VIII contain lists of words illustrating the remaining vowel sounds in frequent use throughout the book. Table IX presents groups of words taught by analogy. It also illustrates _c_, _g_, and _dg_, followed by silent _e_. Table X is a review of monosyllables with some additional words. Table XI teaches words of two syllables with the endings _ing_, short _y_, and _er_; also the elision of _e_. Column five is largely a review. Table XII presents three columns of words of two syllables illustrating the phonetic principles previously set forth. Column four illustrates the long vowel ending an accented syllable; column five gives final _ed_ pronounced as _d_ or _t_. Table XIII, column one, gives _a_ and _be_ as prefixes and _ful_ as a suffix; column two, silent letters; column three, contractions and possessives; column four and column five, unclassified phonetic words. Table XIV contains unphonetic words or words but partly phonetic. TABLE I sad met dim box sun ax yet dig fox cup bag wet bill top dug cap bell fit pop puff hand web kiss hop fun man nest lid dot husk sand bend hid not dust camp felt lit got but rap send rid pot must bad bent hit on run TABLE II rich drop still switch things ring spun dress struck banks neck flax flop swept ships witch than fresh whish pranks rank swim shell pluck wings hitch shot swift drink frogs bank thin crept spent rocks such sled stand string logs fish shop speck spring crabs TABLE III safe these fine shone tune crane here white those spoke plate cave life stone rode state shape pine hole rope spade flame side woke froze vale sale dine shore rove shake lake shine drove grove brave name drive smoke more TABLE IV when spade grove thin yes husk shine pranks these dwell ring smoke mist same drive must spent lent banks drove skin whish end tune puff shell logs snake shore here witch white things flame man drink gift melt frogs went drops elk stand pip spring thank still step such crabs dress wave mine dust struck TABLE V bee tea sail boat grapes sweep each pain goat boats three year rain road goats freeze bleat trail throat snakes thee leaf plain cloak shapes queer meat wait foam kites free scream pay toad miles wheel dream play roam flows feet wheat gray coat holes sweet feast bay soak seas need leaves sky goes years green beasts sly bow grows seek clear dry row tales deer grease try show rains deep beads thy low stones feel clean pies snow times week near lie grow seems peek stream tied grown waves sheet heat tried new skies cheese speaks cried knew Greeks TABLE VI far sharp sir nor burn car hard first for hurt dark scar birds corn turn lark stars birch north burst barn marks skirts storm purse hark yards perch horse purr TABLE VII ball glass moo true foot hall past shoo flue stood small grass room blew full tall ant root chew put paw fast moose rude pull walk last choose rule push TABLE VIII soft air word cows sour toss hair words town south moss fair worm brown round cross chair work owl loud strong care works tower wound long fare world flowers hours TABLE IX high kind old ice rage light mind gold mice orange bright find fold face hedge right grind hold place bridges night child told peace head fright wild cold prince spread TABLE X bars trail shore peace grass town grease shape child talk rage dance swift tight blew drink room watch freeze stood struck fair clear flows birch smoke snake soak worm sharp spade noise gray clouds bread south spoil world beasts hold strong counts small hitch shine grown harp wound white skirts queen quite storm bear true throat waves leaves care perch cried brown hedge cross burst TABLE XI spinning grassy never feeble Bossy mumbling woolly summer uncles every hunting ferry rivers needles gipsy pecking stormy owner castle Bobby barking funny sister bottle kippy hanging happy whiskers little Jippy filling sandy blower purple Jimmy shaking empty dinner puddles Fanny passing ugly gather gentle valley shining sorry pitcher beaten lilies trembling marry silver golden fairies sitting greeny hunter gardens teasing tacking thirsty otters wooden evening living angry thunder maiden perching begging lily farmer given camel driving lonely winter frozen jewel camping merry slumber hidden kernels swimming hurry hither frighten ragged growing gently either happen scolded bubbling weedy neither broken floated TABLE XII until errands snowflakes secret saved arrows cowslip boatman faded seemed billows seaside sunbeams waded turned swallow jackals moonbeams table tired yellow carried thousand blazes twirled shadow forests rainbow tigers growled hollow princess wampum tulip happened maybe hundred housetops roses rubbed basket hemlock ourselves lady grumbled magic insects shepherd music surprised flowers forgot wigwam quiet drowned timid within merchants giant tangled visit himself bonfires baby roared sunset window darkness finer used spirit appear strangest wider showed ashes indeed playgrounds cradle brushed voices forget dreamland stories dropped daisies outside sun-struck going stretched linen herself perhaps open romped coral mistake married Iris slipped TABLE XIII ago knew I've God fluttering arise comb I'll Ellen passenger around climb I'm Juno woodcutter ashamed lambs it's Hermes hollyhock across lambkins we'll Orion umbrellas ashore wrens you'll Diana bumblebee along wrong you've Childe lackaday afraid answered you're Jeremy shivering aboard sword they'll Mercury everything among honest they're Indian everywhere Apollo autumn didn't suddenly shepherdess belongs fastened don't overtops elephants before fighting who'll different buffaloes beyond tightly haven't coconut everybody because ought doesn't violet messenger beneath fought won't shouldn't Rowland beside brought ladies' mammy's Limberkin became taught she's myself Tom Tit Tot useful naughty there's polite Artemis faithful daughter dolly's speckled Thursday TABLE XIV son elves prayer building wonderful fro eyes colors together hovering sure to-day touched quarrel to-morrow blood floor instead eleven shoulders meant rolled months dreadful everywhere heard skeins obeyed feathers blossomed guess fruit twelve to-night neighbors warm built toward island hastening love ribbon beggar monkey steadily dove above fortune youngest pictures field pearls voyage seasons overhead piece forth country diamonds grandfather view ready coming chimney wherever buy acorn enough pasture pleasant folk friend anyway backward sugar cane both idly ancient forward learning does ghosts halfway prairie covered earth often loving trouble beautiful lyre sailor pretty anybody prettier lose ocean heaven nobody Englishman WORD LIST This list does not include words used in Book One. The numeral before each group refers to the page on which the words first appear. 11. Childe Rowland princess name Ellen ball 12. elves dark tower far 13. youngest 14. sword things 15. country head speaks 16. drop thirsty forget eyes knew 18. around each 20. dim light seemed himself hall gold silver diamonds shone sad 21. turned stone golden 22. floor free noise outside fee-fi-fo-fum blood Englishman fought 23. enough bottle 24. hand sister left 25. Tom Tit Tot hard daughter those meant soft 26. herself 27. spinning mumbling to-day heard spun skeins 28. fine eleven months every year 29. anyway everything 30. room wheel flax before goes 31. twirled window guess pay work 32. try 33. brought 34. together hunting queer hole nimmy I'm 35. table because 36. never 37. lambkins grassy banks pranks woolly feet watch bleat 38. ferry across boatman you've purse I'll step boat 39. coral sailor ashore white dig nor pluck feeble insects stormy 40. swallow sun-loving summer 41. wrens hedge building perching pecking fluttering everywhere 42. sail rivers ships clouds sky prettier than these bridges pretty bow heaven overtops road earth 43. paw woke 44. saved life 45. honest ax woodcutter stood 46. kind sir 47. Mercury met 49. crane throat bill 51. town visit mice 52. rich barking music 53. safe 54. quarrel cloak care 55. warm 56. ant dove leaf blew shore 58. lark nest field owner 59. neighbors uncles 60. yet ourselves 61. shadow piece meat 63. grapes sweet hanging still high don't sour fit 64. birds north south wider view spread wings 65. bark basket kippy peek maybe funny learning secret speckled 66. Jeremy covered growled sly Limberkin dreadful scream dream 67. snowflakes feathers filling air they're shaking swift love we'll kiss true 68. hollyhock bend need dolly's tea acorn plate feast state 69. pine valley beautiful needles green 70. leaves happened passing shining 71. carried glass 72. perhaps 74. happy 75. faithful beasts seek fortune along teasing monkey hurt pain 76. tied 77. spent box fastened lid 78. floated round rolled magic wherever 79. castle gardens merchants built 80. showed 81. ribbon 82. whiskers rubbed drove 83. swim 84. mind frogs 85. brown sand flows either 86. foam mine past hundred miles 87. seaside wooden spade sandy empty cup rain umbrellas 88. autumn vale bonfires smoke trail pleasant flowers blazes gray seasons bright 89. toss kites ladies' skirts grass loud 90. different hid felt push strong cold blower child 91. timid afraid coconut shot 92. running 93. answered elephants tigers 94. buffaloes deer jackals 95. first show 97. husk fruit 98. top place both wrong root string side 99. owl among stand 100. does 102. camel sugar cane crabs waded 103. haven't 104. dinner 105. deep feel 106. bumblebee tulip mistake lake 107. Bobby barn Bossy lackaday who'll shoo drive moo mammy's 108. Jippy Jimmy logs wet thin crept dry ki-hi 109. shivering roam won't until pip pop flippety flop ready clear gather chimney row hop 110. kernels sharp yellow small burst shake steadily backward forward you'll low 111. ugly spring 112. indeed pitcher gift jewel scolded sorry 113. roses pearls 114. send Fanny myself 115. grumbled lady 116. polite snake toad spoke 117. prince 118. surprised married 119. sitting evening same 120. week Thursday 121. bell ring 122. bent 123. coat trouble witch 123. marry yards 124. lent horse 125. switch 126. rode comb 128. boo-oo-oo roared tired 130. sale 132. to-morrow grease 134. rage 135. greeny bay tacking island beneath ought aboard drowned ocean billows 136. fare passenger voyage sheet 137. wound living tune naughty cross rude tangled spoil 138. scar quiet wigwam Indian moose maiden marks snow sled ice 139. brave hunter wonderful choose 140. sunset end angry ashes 141. shell beads dress 142. skin 145. broken birch fresh clean brushed 146. hair 147. rainbow faded stars 148. forgot neck elk wampum used spirit shoulders obeyed 149. belongs ashamed 150. rocks cave twelve otters camp foot 151. climb hollow middle struck 152. dug 153. mist storm thunder voices 155. peace given grown tall near baby taught 156. lily ago stories halfway shape 157. became lonely plain prairie 158. wild toward 159. blossomed lilies 160. beggar ragged begging 161. friend dust lose stream 163. bee linen fair shop buy shouldn't 164. web everybody swept finer neither 165. worm farmer son 166. hours nobody grow 167. winter froze 168. melt frozen coming 169. idly fro pasture merry housetops sweep shepherd driving hastening within fold hurry beyond 170. shine trembling bars darkness slumber 171. ghost fairies lit tales dwell forgotten ancient 172. quite strangest folk anybody flue rove gypsy camping grove hither hidden flame hovering appear sure suddenly puff whish 173. daisies overhead dot often arise there's skies she's dropped 174. giant Greeks car heat arrows sunbeams sun-struck gently 175. Apollo harp lyre Artemis Diana 176. pictures moonbeams new Orion 177. word instead rid 178. hit speck swimming 180. Hermes cap errands 181. stretched tightly fun 184. quarreling fighting touched themselves 186. useful messenger Juno Iris romped cradle slipped grandfather 187. hitch waves 188. forth colors violet orange 189. soak chew hemlock rank growing weedy cowslip purple bubbling dine 190. playgrounds thousand moss lie forests puddles freeze above 191. thy dreamland thee lambs gentle shepherdess 192. prayer God counts to-night 
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22600	----	[Transcriber's Note: Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as possible, including obsolete and variant spellings and other inconsistencies. Text that has been changed to correct an obvious error is noted at the end of this ebook. Text set in bold print is indicated by asterisks, i.e., *Bold*.] HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY. _RULES AND EXERCISES_ ON ENGLISH COMPOSITION. BY THE REV. EDWIN A. ABBOTT, M.A., HEAD MASTER OF THE CITY OF LONDON SCHOOL. [Illustration: QUI LEGIT REGIT] THE AUTHOR'S COPYRIGHT EDITION. BOSTON: ROBERTS BROTHERS. 1883. UNIVERSITY PRESS: JOHN WILSON & SON. CAMBRIDGE. PREFACE. Almost every English boy can be taught to write clearly, so far at least as clearness depends upon the arrangement of words. Force, elegance, and variety of style are more difficult to teach, and far more difficult to learn; but clear writing can be reduced to rules. To teach the art of writing clearly is the main object of these Rules and Exercises. Ambiguity may arise, not only from bad arrangement, but also from other causes--from the misuse of single words, and from confused thought. These causes are not removable by definite rules, and therefore, though not neglected, are not prominently considered in this book. My object rather is to point out some few continually recurring causes of ambiguity, and to suggest definite remedies in each case. Speeches in Parliament, newspaper narratives and articles, and, above all, resolutions at public meetings, furnish abundant instances of obscurity arising from the monotonous neglect of some dozen simple rules. The art of writing forcibly is, of course, a valuable acquisition--almost as valuable as the art of writing clearly. But forcible expression is not, like clear expression, a mere question of mechanism and of the manipulation of words; it is a much higher power, and implies much more. Writing clearly does not imply thinking clearly. A man may think and reason as obscurely as Dogberry himself, but he may (though it is not probable that he will) be able to write clearly for all that. Writing clearly--so far as arrangement of words is concerned--is a mere matter of adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, and auxiliary verbs, placed and repeated according to definite rules.[1] Even obscure or illogical thought can be clearly expressed; indeed, the transparent medium of clear writing is not least beneficial when it reveals the illogical nature of the meaning beneath it. On the other hand, if a man is to write forcibly, he must (to use a well-known illustration) describe Jerusalem as "sown with salt," not as "captured," and the Jews not as being "subdued" but as "almost exterminated" by Titus. But what does this imply? It implies knowledge, and very often a great deal of knowledge, and it implies also a vivid imagination. The writer must have eyes to see the vivid side of everything, as well as words to describe what he sees. Hence forcible writing, and of course tasteful writing also, is far less a matter of rules than is clear writing; and hence, though forcible writing is exemplified in the exercises, clear writing occupies most of the space devoted to the rules. Boys who are studying Latin and Greek stand in especial need of help to enable them to write a long English sentence clearly. The periods of Thucydides and Cicero are not easily rendered into our idiom without some knowledge of the links that connect an English sentence. There is scarcely any better training, rhetorical as well as logical, than the task of construing Thucydides into genuine English; but the flat, vague, long-winded Greek-English and Latin-English imposture that is often tolerated in our examinations and is allowed to pass current for genuine English, diminishes instead of increasing the power that our pupils should possess over their native language. By getting marks at school and college for construing good Greek and Latin into bad English, our pupils systematically unlearn what they may have been allowed to pick up from Milton and from Shakespeare. I must acknowledge very large obligations to Professor Bain's treatise on "English Composition and Rhetoric," and also to his English Grammar. I have not always been able to agree with Professor Bain as to matters of taste; but I find it difficult to express my admiration for the systematic thoroughness and suggestiveness of his book on Composition. In particular, Professor Bain's rule on the use of "that" and "which" (see Rule 8) deserves to be better known.[2] The ambiguity produced by the confusion between these two forms of the Relative is not a mere fiction of pedants; it is practically serious. Take, for instance, the following sentence, which appeared lately in one of our ablest weekly periodicals: "There are a good many Radical members in the House _who_ cannot forgive the Prime Minister for being a Christian." Twenty years hence, who is to say whether the meaning is "_and they_, i.e. _all the Radical_ members in the House," or "there are a good many Radical members of the House _that_ cannot &c."? Professor Bain, apparently admitting no exceptions to his useful rule, amends many sentences in a manner that seems to me intolerably harsh. Therefore, while laying due stress on the utility of the rule, I have endeavoured to point out and explain the exceptions. The rules are stated as briefly as possible, and are intended not so much for use by themselves as for reference while the pupil is working at the exercises. Consequently, there is no attempt to prove the rules by accumulations of examples. The few examples that are given, are given not to prove, but to illustrate the rules. The exercises are intended to be written out and revised, as exercises usually are; but they may also be used for _vivâ voce_ instruction. The books being shut, the pupils, with their written exercises before them, may be questioned as to the reasons for the several alterations they have made. Experienced teachers will not require any explanation of the arrangement or rather non-arrangement of the exercises. They have been purposely mixed together unclassified to prevent the pupil from relying upon anything but his own common sense and industry, to show him what is the fault in each case, and how it is to be amended. Besides references to the rules, notes are attached to each sentence, so that the exercises ought not to present any difficulty to a painstaking boy of twelve or thirteen, provided he has first been fairly trained in English grammar. The "Continuous Extracts" present rather more difficulty, and are intended for boys somewhat older than those for whom the Exercises are intended. The attempt to modernize, and clarify, so to speak, the style of Burnet, Clarendon, and Bishop Butler,[3] may appear ambitious, and perhaps requires some explanation. My object has, of course, not been to _improve upon_ the style of these authors, but to show how their meaning might be expressed more clearly in modern English. The charm of the style is necessarily lost, but if the loss is recognized both by teacher and pupil, there is nothing, in my opinion, to counterbalance the obvious utility of such exercises. Professor Bain speaks to the same effect:[4] "For an English exercise, the matter should in some way or other be supplied, and the pupil disciplined in giving it expression. I know of no better method than to prescribe passages containing good matter, but in some respects imperfectly worded, to be amended according to the laws and the proprieties of style. Our older writers might be extensively, though not exclusively, drawn upon for this purpose." To some of the friends whose help has been already acknowledged in "English Lessons for English People," I am indebted for further help in revising these pages. I desire to express especial obligations to the Rev. J. H. Lupton, late Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge, and Second Master of St. Paul's School, for copious and valuable suggestions; also to several of my colleagues at the City of London School, among whom I must mention in particular the Rev. A. R. Vardy, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. * * * * * Before electrotyping the Fourth and Revised Edition, I wish to say one word as to the manner in which this book has been used by my highest class, as a collection of Rules for reference in their construing lessons. In construing, from Thucydides especially, I have found Rules 5, 30, 34, 36, 37, and 40_a_, of great use. The rules about Metaphor and Climax have also been useful in correcting faults of taste in their Latin and Greek compositions. I have hopes that, used in this way, this little book may be of service to the highest as well as to the middle classes of our schools. FOOTNOTES: [1] Punctuation is fully discussed in most English Grammars, and is therefore referred to in this book only so far as is necessary to point out the slovenly fault of trusting too much to punctuation, and too little to arrangement. [2] Before meeting with Professor Bain's rule, I had shown that the difference between the Relatives is generally observed by Shakespeare. See "Shakespearian Grammar," paragraph 259. [3] Sir Archibald Alison stands on a very different footing. The extracts from this author are intended to exhibit the dangers of verbosity and exaggeration. [4] "English Composition and Rhetoric," p. vii. CONTENTS. PAGE INDEX OF RULES 11-13 RULES 14-40 SHORT EXERCISES 41-63 CONTINUOUS EXERCISES--CLARENDON 64-70 " " BURNET 70-73 " " BUTLER 74-75 " " SIR ARCHIBALD ALISON 76-78 INDEX OF RULES. I. CLEARNESS AND FORCE. WORDS. 1. Use words in their proper sense. 2. Avoid exaggerations. 3. Avoid useless circumlocution and "fine writing." 4. Be careful in the use of "not ... and," "any," "but," "only," "not ... or," "that." 4 _a_. Be careful in the use of ambiguous words, _e.g._ "certain." 5. Be careful in the use of "he," "it," "they," "these," &c. 6. Report a speech in the First Person, where necessary to avoid ambiguity. 6 _a_. Use the Third Person where the exact words of the speaker are not intended to be given. 6 _b_. Omission of "that" in a speech in the Third Person. 7. When you use a Participle implying "when," "while," "though," or "that," show clearly by the context what is implied. 8. When using the Relative Pronoun, use "who" or "which," if the meaning is "and he" or "and it," "for he" or "for it." In other cases use "that," if euphony allows. Exceptions. 9. Do not use "and which" for "which." 10. Equivalents for the Relative: (_a_) Participle or Adjective; (_b_) Infinitive; (_c_) "Whereby," "whereto," &c.; (_d_) "If a man;" (_e_) "And he," "and this," &c.; (_f_) "what;" (_g_) omission of Relative. 10 _a'_. Repeat the Antecedent before the Relative, where the non-repetition causes any ambiguity. See 38. 11. Use particular for general terms. Avoid abstract Nouns. 11 _a_. Avoid Verbal Nouns where Verbs can be used. 12. Use particular persons instead of a class. 13. Use metaphor instead of literal statement. 14. Do not confuse metaphor. 14 _a_. Do not mix metaphor with literal statement. 14 _b_. Do not use poetic metaphor to illustrate a prosaic subject. ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE. 15. Emphatic words must stand in emphatic positions; _i.e._, for the most part, at the beginning or the end of the sentence. 15 _a_. Unemphatic words must, as a rule, be kept from the end. Exceptions. 15 _b_. An interrogation sometimes gives emphasis. 16. The Subject, if unusually emphatic, should often be transferred from the beginning of the sentence. 17. The Object is sometimes placed before the Verb for emphasis. 18. Where several words are emphatic, make it clear which is the most emphatic. Emphasis can sometimes be given by adding an epithet, or an intensifying word. 19. Words should be as near as possible to the words with which they are grammatically connected. 20. Adverbs should be placed next to the words they are intended to qualify. 21. "Only"; the strict rule is that "only" should be placed before the word it affects. 22. When "not only" precedes "but also," see that each is followed by the same part of speech. 23. "At least," "always," and other adverbial adjuncts, sometimes produce ambiguity. 24. Nouns should be placed near the Nouns that they define. 25. Pronouns should follow the Nouns to which they refer, without the intervention of any other Noun. 26. Clauses that are grammatically connected should be kept as close together as possible. Avoid parentheses. But see 55. 27. In conditional sentences, the antecedent or "if-clauses" must be kept distinct from the consequent clauses. 28. Dependent clauses preceded by "that" should be kept distinct from those that are independent. 29. Where there are several infinitives, those that are dependent on the same word must be kept distinct from those that are not. 30. The principle of Suspense. 30 _a_. It is a violation of the principle of suspense to introduce unexpectedly at the end of a long sentence, some short and unemphatic clause beginning with (_a_) "not," (_b_) "which." 31. Suspense must not be excessive. 32. In a sentence with "if," "when," "though," &c., put the "if-clause," antecedent, or protasis, first. 33. Suspense is gained by placing a Participle or Adjective, that qualifies the Subject, before the Subject. 34. Suspensive Conjunctions, _e.g._ "either," "not only," "on the one hand," &c., add clearness. 35. Repeat the Subject, where its omission would cause obscurity or ambiguity. 36. Repeat a Preposition after an intervening Conjunction, especially if a Verb and an Object also intervene. 37. Repeat Conjunctions, Auxiliary Verbs, and Pronominal Adjectives. 37 _a_. Repeat Verbs after the Conjunctions "than," "as," &c. 38. Repeat the Subject, or some other emphatic word, or a summary of what has been said, if the sentence is so long that it is difficult to keep the thread of meaning unbroken. 39. Clearness is increased, when the beginning of the sentence prepares the way for the middle, and the middle for the end, the whole forming a kind of ascent. This ascent is called "climax." 40. When the thought is expected to ascend, but descends, feebleness, and sometimes confusion, is the result. The descent is called "bathos." 40 _a_. A new construction should not be introduced unexpectedly. 41. Antithesis adds force and often clearness. 42. Epigram. 43. Let each sentence have one, and only one, principal subject of thought. Avoid heterogeneous sentences. 44. The connection between different sentences must be kept up by Adverbs used as Conjunctions, or by means of some other connecting words at the beginning of the sentence. 45. The connection between two long sentences or paragraphs sometimes requires a short intervening sentence showing the transition of thought. II. BREVITY. 46. Metaphor is briefer than literal statement. 47. General terms are briefer, though less forcible, than particular terms. 47 _a_. A phrase may sometimes be expressed by a word. 48. Participles may often be used as brief (though sometimes ambiguous) equivalents of phrases containing Conjunctions and Verbs. 49. Participles, Adjectives, Participial Adjectives, and Nouns may be used as equivalents for phrases containing the Relative. 50. A statement may sometimes be briefly implied instead of being expressed at length. 51. Conjunctions may be omitted. Adverbs, _e.g._ "very," "so." Exaggerated epithets, _e.g._ "incalculable," "unprecedented." 51 _a_. The imperative may be used for "if &c." 52. Apposition may be used, so as to convert two sentences into one. 53. Condensation may be effected by not repeating (1) the common Subject of several Verbs; (2) the common Object of several Verbs or Prepositions. 54. Tautology. Repeating what may be implied. 55. Parenthesis maybe used with advantage to brevity. See 26. 56. Brevity often clashes with clearness. Let clearness be the first consideration. CLEARNESS AND FORCE. _Numbers in brackets refer to the Rules._ WORDS. *1. Use words in their proper sense.* Write, not "His _apparent_ guilt justified his friends in disowning him," but "his _evident_ guilt." "Conscious" and "aware," "unnatural" and "supernatural," "transpire" and "occur," "circumstance" and "event," "reverse" and "converse," "eliminate" and "elicit," are often confused together. This rule forbids the use of the same word in different senses. "It is in my _power_ to refuse your request, and since I have _power_ to do this, I may lawfully do it." Here the second "power" is used for "authority." This rule also forbids the slovenly use of "nice," "awfully," "delicious," "glorious," &c. See (2). *2. Avoid exaggerations.* "The _boundless_ plains in the heart of the empire furnished _inexhaustible_ supplies of corn, that would have almost sufficed for twice the population." Here "inexhaustible" is inconsistent with what follows. The words "unprecedented," "incalculable," "very," and "stupendous" are often used in the same loose way. *3. Avoid useless circumlocution and "fine writing."* "Her Majesty here _partook of lunch_." Write "_lunched_." "Partook of" implies sharing, and is incorrect as well as lengthy. So, do not use "apex" for "top," "species" for "kind," "individual" for "man," "assist" for "help," &c. *4. Be careful how you use the following words: "not ... and," "any," "only," "not ... or," "that."*[5] *And.* See below, "Or." *Any.*--"I am not bound to receive _any_ messenger that you send." Does this mean _every_, or _a single_? Use "every" or "a single." *Not.*--(1) "I do _not_ intend to help you, because you are my enemy &c." ought to mean (2), "I intend not to help you, and my reason for not helping you is, because you are my enemy." But it is often wrongly used to mean (3), "I intend to help you, not because you are my enemy (but because you are poor, blind, &c.)." In the latter case, _not_ ought to be separated from _intend_. By distinctly marking the limits to which the influence of _not_ extends, the ambiguity may be removed. *Only* is often used ambiguously for _alone_. "The rest help me to revenge myself; you _only_ advise me to wait." This ought to mean, "you only _advise_, instead of _helping_;" but in similar sentences "you only" is often used for "you alone." But see 21. *Or.*--When "or" is preceded by a negative, as "I do not want butter _or_ honey," "or" ought not, strictly speaking, to be used like "and," nor like "nor." The strict use of "not ... or" would be as follows:-- "You say you don't want both butter _and_ honey--you want butter _or_ honey; I, on the contrary, _do not want butter or honey_--I want them both." Practically, however, this meaning is so rare, that "I don't want butter _or_ honey" is regularly used for "I want neither butter nor honey." But where there is the slightest danger of ambiguity, it is desirable to use _nor_. The same ambiguity attends "not ... and." "I do not see Thomas _and_ John" is commonly used for "I see neither Thomas nor John;" but it might mean, "I do not see them both--I see only one of them." *That.*--The different uses of "that" produce much ambiguity, _e.g._ "I am so much surprised by this statement _that_ I am desirous of resigning, _that_ I scarcely know what reply to make." Here it is impossible to tell, till one has read past "resigning," whether the first "that" depends upon "so" or "statement." Write: "The statement that I am desirous of resigning surprises me so much that I scarcely know &c." *4 a. Be careful in the use of ambiguous words, e.g. "certain."* "Certain" is often used for "some," as in "Independently of his earnings, he has a _certain_ property," where the meaning might be "unfailing." Under this head may be mentioned the double use of words, such as "left" in the same form and sound, but different in meaning. Even where there is no obscurity, the juxtaposition of the same word twice used in two senses is inelegant, _e.g._ (Bain), "He turned to the _left_ and _left_ the room." I have known the following slovenly sentence misunderstood: "Our object is that, with the aid of practice, we may sometime arrive at the point where we think eloquence in its most praiseworthy form _to lie_." "To lie" has been supposed to mean "to deceive." *5. Be careful how you use "he," "it," "they," "these," &c.* (For "which" see 8.) The ambiguity arising from the use of _he_ applying to different persons is well known. "He told his friend that if _he_ did not feel better in half an hour he thought _he_ had better return." See (6) for remedy. Much ambiguity is also caused by excessive use of such phrases as _in this way_, _of this sort_, &c. "God, foreseeing the disorders of human nature, has given us certain passions and affections which arise from, or whose objects are, these disorders. _Of this sort_ are fear, resentment, compassion." Repeat the noun: "Among these passions and affections are fear &c." Two distinct uses of _it_ may be noted. _It_, when referring to something that precedes, may be called "retrospective;" but when to something that follows, "prospective." In "Avoid indiscriminate charity: _it_ is a crime," "it" is retrospective.[6] In "_It_ is a crime to give indiscriminately," "it" is prospective. The prospective "it," if productive of ambiguity, can often be omitted by using the infinitive as a subject: "To give indiscriminately is a crime." *6. Report a speech in the First, not the Third Person, where necessary to avoid ambiguity.* Speeches in the third person afford a particular, though very common case, of the general ambiguity mentioned in (5). Instead of "He told his friend that if _he_ did not feel better &c.," write "He said to his friend, 'If, _I_ (or _you_) don't feel better &c.'" *6 a. Sometimes, where the writer cannot know the exact words, or where the exact words are unimportant, or lengthy and uninteresting, the Third Person is preferable.* Thus, where Essex is asking Sir Robert Cecil that Francis Bacon may be appointed Attorney-General, the dialogue is (as it almost always is in Lord Macaulay's writings) in the First Person, _except where it becomes tedious and uninteresting so as to require condensation_, and then it drops into the Third Person: "Sir Robert _had nothing to say but_ that he thought his own abilities equal to the place which he hoped to obtain, and that his father's long services deserved such a mark of gratitude from the Queen." *6 b. Omission of "that" in a speech reported in the Third Person.*--Even when a speech is reported in the third person, "that" need not always be inserted before the dependent verb. Thus, instead of "He said that he took it ill that his promises were not believed," we may write, "'He took it ill,' he said, 'that &c.'" This gives a little more life, and sometimes more clearness also. *7. When you use a Participle, as "walking," implying "when," "while," "though," "that," make it clear by the context what is implied.* "Republics, in the first instance, are never desired for their own sakes. I do not think they will finally be desired at all, _unaccompanied_ by courtly graces and good breeding." Here there is a little doubt whether the meaning is "_since_ they are, or, _if_ they are, unaccompanied." *That or when.*--"Men _walking_ (_that_ walk, or _when_ they walk) on ice sometimes fall." It is better to use "men walking" to mean "men _when_ they walk." If the relative is meant, use "men that walk," instead of the participle. (1) "_While_ he was } _Walking_ on { (1) the road, } he fell." (2) "_Because_ he was } { (2) the ice, } When the participle precedes the subject, it generally implies a cause: "_Seeing_ this, he retired." Otherwise it generally has its proper participial meaning, _e.g._ "He retired, _keeping_ his face towards us." If there is any ambiguity, write "_on_ seeing,"--"_at the same time_, or _while_, keeping." (1) "_Though_ he was} {(1) he nevertheless stood } { his ground." (2) "_Since_ he was } _Struck_ with terror, {(2) he rapidly retreated." (3) "_If_ he is } {(3) he will soon retreat." *8. When using the Relative Pronoun, use "who" and "which" where the meaning is "and he, it, &c.," "for he, it, &c." In other cases use "that," if euphony allows.* "I heard this from the inspector, _who_ (and he) heard it from the guard _that_ travelled with the train." "Fetch me (all) the books _that_ lie on the table, and also the pamphlets, _which_ (and these) you will find on the floor." An adherence to this rule would remove much ambiguity. Thus: "There was a public-house next door, _which_ was a great nuisance," means "_and this_ (_i.e._ the fact of its being next door) was a great nuisance;" whereas _that_ would have meant "Next door was a public-house _that_ (_i.e._ the public-house) was a great nuisance." *"Who," "which," &c. introduce a new fact about the antecedent, whereas "that" introduces something without which the antecedent is incomplete or undefined.* Thus, in the first example above, "inspector" is complete in itself, and "who" introduces a new _fact_ about him; "guard" is incomplete, and requires "_that_ travelled with the train" to complete the meaning. It is not, and cannot be, maintained that this rule, though observed in Elizabethan English, is observed by our best modern authors. (Probably a general impression that "that" cannot be used to refer to persons has assisted "who" in supplanting "that" as a relative.) But the convenience of the rule is so great that beginners in composition may with advantage adhere to the rule. The following are some of the cases where _who_ and _which_ are mostly used, contrary to the rule, instead of _that_. *Exceptions:*-- (_a_) When the antecedent is defined, _e.g._ by a possessive case, modern English uses _who_ instead of _that_. It is rare, though it would be useful,[7] to say "His English friends _that_ had not seen him" for "the English friends, or those of his English friends, that had not seen him." (_b_) _That_ sounds ill when separated from its verb and from its antecedents, and emphasized by isolation: "There are many persons _that_, though unscrupulous, are commonly good-tempered, and _that_, if not strongly incited by self-interest, are ready for the most part to think of the interest of their neighbours." Shakespeare frequently uses _who_ after _that_ when the relative is repeated. See "Shakespearian Grammar," par. 260. (_c_) If the antecedent is qualified by _that_, the relative must not be _that_. Besides other considerations, the repetition is disagreeable. Addison ridicules such language as "_That_ remark _that_ I made yesterday is not _that_ _that_ I said _that_ I regretted _that_ I had made." (_d_) _That_ cannot be preceded by a preposition, and hence throws the preposition to the end. "This is the rule _that_ I adhere _to_." This is perfectly good English, though sometimes unnecessarily avoided. But, with some prepositions, the construction is harsh and objectionable, _e.g._ "This is the mark _that_ I jumped _beyond_," "Such were the prejudices _that_ he rose _above_." The reason is that some of these disyllabic prepositions are used as adverbs, and, when separated from their nouns, give one the impression that they are used as adverbs. (_e_) After pronominal adjectives used for personal pronouns, modern English prefers _who_. "There are many, others, several, those, _who_ can testify &c." (_f_) After _that_ used as a conjunction there is sometimes a dislike to use _that_ as a relative. See (_c_). *9. Do not use redundant "and" before "which."[8]* "I gave him a very interesting book for a present, _and which_ cost me five shillings." In short sentences the absurdity is evident, but in long sentences it is less evident, and very common. "A petition was presented for rescinding that portion of the bye-laws which permits application of public money to support sectarian schools over which ratepayers have no control, this being a violation of the principle of civil and religious liberty, _and which_ the memorialists believe would provoke a determined and conscientious resistance." Here _which_ ought grammatically to refer to "portion" or "schools." But it seems intended to refer to "violation." Omit "and," or repeat "a violation" before "which," or turn the sentence otherwise. *10. Equivalents for Relative.* *(_a_) Participle.*--"Men _thirsting_ (for 'men _that thirst_') for revenge are not indifferent to plunder." The objection to the participle is that here, as often, it creates a little ambiguity. The above sentence may mean, "men, _when_ they thirst," or "_though_ they thirst," as well as "men _that_ thirst." Often however there is no ambiguity: "I have documents _proving_ this conclusively." *(_b_) Infinitive.*--Instead of "He was the first _that_ entered" you can write "_to_ enter;" for "He is not a man _who_ will act dishonestly," "_to_ act." This equivalent cannot often be used. *(_c_) Whereby, wherein, &c.,* can sometimes be used for "by _which_," "in _which_," so as to avoid a harsh repetition of "_which_." "The means _whereby_ this may be effected." But this use is somewhat antiquated. *(_d_) If.*--"The man _that_ does not care for music is to be pitied" can be written (though not so forcibly), "_If_ a man does not care for music, he is to be pitied." It is in long sentences that this equivalent will be found most useful. *(_e_) And this.*--"He did his best, _which_ was all that could be expected," can be written, "_and this_ was all that, &c." *(_f_) What.*--"Let me repeat _that which_[9] you ought to know, that _that which_ is worth doing is worth doing well." "Let me repeat, _what_ you ought to know, that _what_ is worth doing is worth doing well." *(_g_) Omission of Relative.*--It is sometimes thought ungrammatical to omit the relative, as in "The man (that) you speak of." On the contrary, _that_ when an object (not when a subject) may be omitted, wherever the antecedent and the subject of the relative sentence are brought into juxtaposition by the omission. *10 a'. Repeat the Antecedent in some new form, where there is any ambiguity.* This is particularly useful after a negative: "He said that he would not even hear me, _which_ I confess I had expected." Here the meaning may be, "I had expected that he would," or "that he would not, hear me." Write, "_a refusal_, or, _a favour_, that I confess I had expected." See (38). *11. Use particular for general terms.*--This is a most important rule. Instead of "I have neither the necessaries of life nor the means of procuring them," write (if you can _with truth_), "I have not a crust of bread, nor a penny to buy one." CAUTION.--There is a danger in this use. The meaning is vividly expressed but sometimes may be exaggerated or imperfect. _Crust of bread_ may be an exaggeration; on the other hand, if the speaker is destitute not only of bread, but also of shelter and clothing, then _crust of bread_ is an imperfect expression of the meaning. In philosophy and science, where the language ought very often to be inclusive and brief, general and not particular terms must be used. *11 a. Avoid Verbal Nouns where Verbs can be used instead.* The disadvantage of the use of Verbal Nouns is this, that, unless they are immediately preceded by prepositions, they are sometimes liable to be confounded with participles. The following is an instance of an excessive use of Verbal Nouns: "The pretended confession of the secretary was only collusion to lay the jealousies of the king's _favouring_ popery, which still hung upon him, notwithstanding his _writing_ on the Revelation, and _affecting_ to enter on all occasions into controversy, _asserting_ in particular that the Pope was Antichrist." Write "notwithstanding that he wrote and affected &c." *12. Use a particular Person instead of a class.* "What is the splendour of _the greatest monarch_ compared with the beauty of _a flower_?" "What is the splendour of Solomon compared with the beauty of a daisy?" Under this head may come the forcible use of Noun for Adjective: "This fortress is _weakness_ itself." An excess of this use is lengthy and pedantically bombastic, _e.g._, the following paraphrase for "in every British colony:"--"under Indian palm-groves, amid Australian gum-trees, in the shadow of African mimosas, and beneath Canadian pines." *13. Use Metaphor instead of literal statement.* "The ship _ploughs_ the sea" is clearer than "the ship _cleaves_ the sea," and shorter than "the ship _cleaves_ the sea _as a plough cleaves the land_." Of course there are some subjects for which Metaphor should not be used. See (14 _a_) and (14 _b_). *14. Do not confuse Metaphor.* "In a moment the thunderbolt was upon them, _deluging_ their country with invaders." The following is attributed to Sir Boyle Roche: "Mr. Speaker, I smell a rat, I see him brewing in the air; but, mark me, I shall yet nip him in the bud." Some words, once metaphorical, have ceased to be so regarded. Hence many good writers say "_under_ these _circumstances_" instead of "_in_ these circumstances." An excessive regard for disused metaphor savours of pedantry: disregard is inelegant. Write, not, "_unparalleled_ complications," but "_unprecedented_ complications;" and "_he threw light on_ obscurities," instead of "_he unravelled_ obscurities." *14 a. Do not introduce literal statement immediately after Metaphor.* "He was the father of Chemistry, and brother to the Earl of Cork." "He was a very thunderbolt of war, And was lieutenant to the Earl of Mar." *14 b. Do not use poetic metaphor to illustrate a prosaic subject.* Thus, we may say "a poet _soars_," or even, though rarely, "a nation _soars_ to greatness," but you could not say "Consols _soared to_ 94-1/2." Even commonplace subjects may be illustrated by metaphor: for it is a metaphor, and quite unobjectionable, to say "Consols _mounted_, or _jumped_ to 94-1/2." But commonplace subjects must be illustrated by metaphor that is commonplace. ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE. *15. Emphatic words must stand in emphatic positions; i.e. for the most part, at the beginning or at the end of the sentence.* This rule occasionally supersedes the common rules about position. Thus, the place for an adverb, as a rule, should be between the subject and verb: "He _quickly_ left the room;" but if _quickly_ is to be emphatic, it must come at the beginning or end, as in "I told him to leave the room slowly, but he left _quickly_." Adjectives, in clauses beginning with "if" and "though," often come at the beginning for emphasis: "_Insolent_ though he was, he was silenced at last." *15 a. Unemphatic words must, as a rule, be kept from the end of the sentence.* It is a common fault to break this rule by placing a short and unemphatic predicate at the end of a long sentence. "To know some Latin, even if it be nothing but a few Latin roots, _is useful_." Write, "It is useful, &c." So "the evidence proves how kind to his inferiors _he is_." Often, where an adjective or auxiliary verb comes at the end, the addition of an emphatic adverb justifies the position, _e.g._ above, "is _very_ useful," "he has _invariably_ been." A short "chippy" ending, even though emphatic, is to be avoided. It is abrupt and unrhythmical, _e.g._ "The soldier, transfixed with the spear, _writhed_." We want a _longer_ ending, "fell writhing to the ground," or, "writhed in the agonies of death." A "chippy" ending is common in bad construing from Virgil. *Exceptions.*--Prepositions and pronouns attached to emphatic words need not be moved from the end; _e.g._ "He does no harm that I hear _of_." "Bear witness how I loved _him_." *N.B. In all styles, especially in letter-writing, a final emphasis must not be so frequent as to become obtrusive and monotonous.* *15 b. An interrogation sometimes gives emphasis.* "No one can doubt that the prisoner, had he been really guilty, would have shown some signs of remorse," is not so emphatic as "Who can doubt, Is it possible to doubt, &c.?" Contrast "No one ever names Wentworth without thinking of &c." with "But Wentworth,--who ever names him without thinking of those harsh dark features, ennobled by their expression into more than the majesty of an antique Jupiter?" *16. The subject, if unusually emphatic, should often be removed from the beginning of the sentence.* The beginning of the sentence is an emphatic position, though mostly not so emphatic as the end. Therefore the principal subject of a sentence, being emphatic, and being wanted early in the sentence to tell us what the sentence is about, comes as a rule, at or near the beginning: "_Thomas_ built this house." Hence, since the beginning is the _usual_ place for the subject, if we want to emphasize "Thomas" _unusually_, we must remove "Thomas" from the beginning: "This house was built by _Thomas_," or "It was _Thomas_ that built this house." Thus, the emphasis on "conqueror" is not quite so strong in "_A mere conqueror_ ought not to obtain from us the reverence that is due to the great benefactors of mankind," as in "We ought not to bestow the reverence that is due to the great benefactors of mankind, _upon a mere conqueror_." Considerable, but less emphasis and greater smoothness (19) will be obtained by writing the sentence thus: "We ought not to bestow upon a mere conqueror &c." Where the same subject stands first in several consecutive sentences, it rises in emphasis, and need not be removed from the beginning, even though unusual emphasis be required: "The captain was the life and soul of the expedition. _He_ first pointed out the possibility of advancing; _he_ warned them of the approaching scarcity of provisions; _he_ showed how they might replenish their exhausted stock &c." *17. The object is sometimes placed before the verb for emphasis.* This is most common in antithesis. "_Jesus_ I know, and _Paul_ I know; but who are ye?" "_Some_ he imprisoned, _others_ he put to death." Even where there is no antithesis the inversion is not uncommon: "Military _courage_, the boast of the sottish German, of the frivolous and prating Frenchman, of the romantic and arrogant Spaniard, he neither possesses nor values." This inversion sometimes creates ambiguity in poetry, _e.g._ "The son the father slew," and must be sparingly used in prose. Sometimes the position of a word may be considered appropriate by some, and inappropriate by others, according to different interpretations of the sentence. Take as an example, "Early in the morning the nobles and gentlemen who attended on the king assembled in the great hall of the castle; and here they began to talk of what a dreadful storm it had been the night before. But Macbeth could scarcely understand what they said, for he was thinking of something worse." The last sentence has been amended by Professor Bain into "_What they said_, Macbeth could scarcely understand." But there appears to be an antithesis between the guiltless nobles who can think about the weather, and the guilty Macbeth who cannot. Hence, "what they said" ought not, and "Macbeth" ought, to be emphasized: and therefore "Macbeth" ought to be retained at the beginning of the sentence. The same author alters, "The praise of judgment Virgil has justly contested with him, but his invention remains yet unrivalled," into "Virgil has justly contested with him the praise of judgment, but no one has yet rivalled his invention"--an alteration which does not seem to emphasize sufficiently the antithesis between what had been 'contested,' on the one hand, and what remained as yet 'unrivalled' on the other. More judiciously Professor Bain alters, "He that tells a lie is not sensible how great a task he undertakes; for he must be forced to invent twenty more to maintain one," into "for, to maintain one, he must invent twenty more," putting the emphatic words in their emphatic place, at the end. *18. Where several words are emphatic, make it clear which is the most emphatic.* Thus, in "The state was made, under the pretence of serving it, in reality the prize of their contention to each of these opposite parties," it is unpleasantly doubtful whether the writer means (1) _state_ or (2) _parties_ to be emphatic. If (1), "As for the _state_, these two parties, under the pretence of serving it, converted it into a prize for their contention." If (2), write, "Though served in profession, the state was in reality converted into a prize for their contention by these two _parties_." In (1) _parties_ is subordinated, in (2) _state_. Sometimes the addition of some intensifying word serves to emphasize. Thus, instead of "To effect this they used all devices," we can write "To effect this they used _every conceivable device_." So, if we want to emphasize fidelity in "The business will task your skill and fidelity," we can write "Not only your skill _but also_ your fidelity." This, however, sometimes leads to exaggerations. See (2). Sometimes antithesis gives emphasis, as in "You _do_ not know this, but you _shall_ know it." Where antithesis cannot be used, the emphasis must be expressed by turning the sentence, as "I _will make you_ know it," or by some addition, as "You shall _hereafter_ know it." *19. Words should be as near as possible to the words with which they are grammatically connected.* See Paragraphs 20 to 29. For exceptions see 30. *20. Adverbs should be placed next to the words they are intended to affect.* When unemphatic, adverbs come between the subject and the verb, or, if the tense is compound, between the parts of the compound tense: "He _quickly_ left the room;" "He has _quickly_ left the room;" but, when emphatic, after the verb: "He left, or has left, the room _quickly_."[10] When such a sentence as the latter is followed by a present participle, there arises ambiguity. "I told him to go slowly, but he left the room _quickly_, dropping the purse on the floor." Does _quickly_ here modify _left_ or _dropping_? The remedy[11] is, to give the adverb its unemphatic place, "He _quickly_ left the room, dropping &c.," or else to avoid the participle, thus: "He _quickly_ dropped the purse and left the room," or "He dropped the purse and _quickly_ left the room." *21. "Only" requires careful use. The strict[12] rule is, that "only" should be placed before the word affected by it.* The following is ambiguous: "The heavens are not open to the faithful _only_ at intervals." The best rule is to avoid placing "only" between two emphatic words, and to avoid using "only" where "alone" can be used instead. In strictness perhaps the three following sentences: (1) He _only_ beat three, (2) He beat _only_ three, (3) He beat three _only_, ought to be explained, severally, thus: (1) He did no more than beat, did not kill, three. (2) He beat no more than three. (3) He beat three, and that was all he did. (Here _only_ modifies the whole of the sentence and depreciates the action.) But the best authors sometimes transpose the word. "He _only_ lived" ought to mean "he did not die or make any great sacrifice;" but "He _only_ lived but till he was a man" (_Macbeth_, v. 8. 40) means "He lived _only_ till he was a man." Compare also, "Who _only_ hath immortality." _Only_ at the beginning of a statement = _but_. "I don't like to importune you, _only_ I know you'll forgive me." Before an imperative it diminishes the favour asked: "_Only_ listen to me." This use of _only_ is mostly confined to letters. Very often, _only_ at the beginning of a sentence is used for _alone_: "_Only_ ten came," "_Only_ Cæsar approved." _Alone_ is less ambiguous. The ambiguity of _only_ is illustrated by such a sentence as, "Don't hesitate to bring a few friends of yours to shoot on my estate at any time. _Only_ five (fifteen) came yesterday," which might mean, "I don't mind a _few_; _only_ don't bring so many as _fifteen_;" or else "Don't hesitate to bring a few _more_; no more than _five_ came yesterday." In conversation, ambiguity is prevented by emphasis; but in a letter, _only_ thus used might cause unfortunate mistakes. Write "Yesterday _only_ five came," if you mean "no more than five." *22. When "not only" precedes "but also," see that each is followed by the same part of speech.* "He _not only_ gave me advice _but also_ help" is wrong. Write "He gave me, _not only_ advice, _but also_ help." On the other hand, "He _not only_ gave me a grammar, _but also_ lent me a dictionary," is right. Take an instance. "He spoke _not only_ forcibly _but also_ tastefully (adverbs), and this too, _not only_ before a small audience, _but also_ in (prepositions) a large public meeting, and his speeches were _not only_ successful, _but also_ (adjective) worthy of success." *23. "At least," "always," and other adverbial adjuncts, sometimes produce ambiguity.* "I think you will find my Latin exercise, _at all events_, as good as my cousin's." Does this mean (1) "my Latin exercise, though not perhaps my other exercises;" or (2), "Though not very good, yet, at all events, as good as my cousin's"? Write for (1), "My Latin exercise, at all events, you will find &c." and for (2), "I think you will find my Latin exercise as good as my cousin's, at all events." The remedy is to avoid placing "at all events" between two emphatic words. As an example of the misplacing of an adverbial adjunct, take "From abroad he received most favourable reports, but in the City he heard that a panic had broken out on the Exchange, and that the funds were fast falling." This ought to mean that the "hearing," and not (as is intended) that the "breaking out of the panic," took place in the City. In practice, an adverb is often used to qualify a remote word, where the latter is _more emphatic than any nearer word_. This is very common when the Adverbial Adjunct is placed in an emphatic position at the beginning of the sentence: "_On this very spot_ our guide declared that Claverhouse had fallen." *24. Nouns should be placed near the nouns that they define.* In the very common sentence "The death is announced of Mr. John Smith, an author whose works &c.," the transposition is probably made from a feeling that, if we write "The death of Mr. John Smith is announced," we shall be obliged to begin a new sentence, "He was an author whose works &c." But the difficulty can be removed by writing "We regret to announce, or, we are informed of, the death of Mr. John Smith, an author, &c." *25. Pronouns should follow the nouns to which they refer without the intervention of another noun.* Avoid, "John Smith, the son of Thomas Smith, _who_ gave me this book," unless _Thomas Smith_ is the antecedent of _who_. Avoid also "John supplied Thomas with money: _he_ (John) was very well off." When, however, one of two preceding nouns is decidedly superior to the other in emphasis, the more emphatic may be presumed to be the noun referred to by the pronoun, even though the noun of inferior emphasis intervenes. Thus: "At this moment the colonel came up, and took the place of the wounded general. _He_ gave orders to halt." Here _he_ would naturally refer to _colonel_, though _general_ intervenes. A _conjunction_ will often show that a pronoun refers to the subject of the preceding sentence, and not to another intervening noun. "The sentinel at once took aim at the approaching soldier, and fired. He _then_ retreated to give the alarm." It is better to adhere, in most cases, to Rule 25, which may be called (Bain) the Rule of Proximity. The Rule of Emphasis, of which an instance was given in the last paragraph, is sometimes misleading. A distinction might be drawn by punctuating thus: "David the father of Solomon, who slew Goliath." "David, the father of Solomon who built the Temple." But the propriety of omitting a comma in each case is questionable, and it is better to write so as not to be at the mercy of commas. *26. Clauses that are grammatically connected should be kept as close together as possible.* (But see 55.) The introduction of parentheses violating this rule often produced serious ambiguity. Thus, in the following: "The result of these observations appears to be in opposition to the view now generally received in this country, that in muscular effort the substance of the muscle itself undergoes disintegration." Here it is difficult to tell whether the theory of "disintegration" is (1) "the result," or, as the absence of a comma after "be" would indicate, (2) "in opposition to the result of these observations." If (1) is intended, add "and to prove" after "country;" if (2), insert "which is" after "country." There is an excessive complication in the following:--"It cannot, at all events, if the consideration demanded by a subject of such importance from any one professing to be a philosopher, be given, be denied that &c." Where a speaker feels that his hearers have forgotten the connection of the beginning of the sentence, he should repeat what he has said; _e.g._ after the long parenthesis in the last sentence he should recommence, "it cannot, I say, be denied." In writing, however, this licence must be sparingly used. A short parenthesis, or modifying clause, will not interfere with clearness, especially if antithesis he used, so as to show the connection between the different parts of the sentence, _e.g._ "A modern newspaper statement, _though probably true_, would be laughed at if quoted in a book as testimony; but the letter of a court gossip is thought good historical evidence if written some centuries ago." Here, to place "though probably true" at the beginning of the sentence would not add clearness, and would impair the emphasis of the contrast between "a modern newspaper statement" and "the letter of a court gossip." *27. In conditional sentences, the antecedent clauses must be kept distinct from the consequent clauses.*--There is ambiguity in "The lesson intended to be taught by these manoeuvres will be lost, if the plan of operations is laid down too definitely beforehand, and the affair degenerates into a mere review." Begin, in any case, with the antecedent, "If the plan," &c. Next write, according to the meaning: (1) "If the plan is laid down, and the affair degenerates &c., then the lesson will be lost;" or (2) " ... then the lesson ... will be lost, and the affair degenerates into a mere review." *28. Dependent clauses preceded by "that" should be kept distinct from those that are independent.* Take as an example: (1) "He replied that he wished to help them, and intended to make preparations accordingly." This ought not to be used (though it sometimes is, for shortness) to mean: (2) "He replied ..., and he intended." In (1), "intended," having no subject, must be supposed to be connected with the nearest preceding verb, in the same mood and tense, that has a subject, _i.e._ "wished." It follows that (1) is a condensation of: (3) "He replied that he wished ..., and that he intended." (2), though theoretically free from ambiguity, is practically ambiguous, owing to a loose habit of repeating the subject unnecessarily. It would be better to insert a conjunctional word or a full stop between the two statements. Thus: (4) "He replied that he wished to help them, and _indeed_ he intended," &c., or "He replied, &c. He intended, &c." Where there is any danger of ambiguity, use (3) or (4) in preference to (1) or (2). *29. When there are several infinitives, those that are dependent on the same word must be kept distinct from those that are not.* "He said that he wished _to_ take his friend with him _to_ visit the capital and _to_ study medicine." Here it is doubtful whether the meaning is-- "He said that he wished to take his friend with him, (1) _and also_ to visit the capital and study medicine," or (2) "that his friend might visit the capital _and might also_ study medicine," or (3) "on a visit to the capital, _and that he also_ wished to study medicine." From the three different versions it will be perceived that this ambiguity must be met (_a_) by using "that" for "to," which allows us to repeat an auxiliary verb [_e.g._ "might" in (2)], and (_b_) by inserting conjunctions. As to insertions of conjunctions, see (37). "In order to," and "for the purpose of," can be used to distinguish (wherever there is any ambiguity) between an infinitive that _expresses a purpose_, and an infinitive that does not, _e.g._ "He told his servant to call upon his friend, _to_ (in order to) give him information about the trains, and not to leave him till he started." *30. The principle of suspense.* Write your sentence in such a way that, until he has come to the full stop, the reader may feel the sentence to be incomplete. In other words, keep your reader in _suspense_. _Suspense_ is caused (1) by placing the "if-clause" first, and not last, in a conditional sentence; (2) by placing participles before the words they qualify; (3) by using suspensive conjunctions, _e.g._ _not only_, _either_, _partly_, _on the one hand_, _in the first place_, &c. The following is an example of an _unsuspended_ sentence. The sense _draggles_, and it is difficult to keep up one's attention. "Mr. Pym was looked upon as the man of greatest experience in parliaments, | where he had served very long, | and was always a man of business, | being an officer in the Exchequer, | and of a good reputation generally, | though known to be inclined to the Puritan party; yet not of those furious resolutions (_Mod. Eng._ so furiously resolved) against the Church as the other leading men were, | and wholly devoted to the Earl of Bedford,--who had nothing of that spirit." The foregoing sentence might have ended at any one of the eight points marked above. When suspended it becomes:-- "Mr. Pym, owing to his long service in Parliament in the Exchequer, was esteemed above all others for his Parliamentary experience and for his knowledge of business. He had also a good reputation generally; for, though openly favouring the Puritan party, he was closely devoted to the Earl of Bedford, and, like the Earl, had none of the fanatical spirit manifested against the Church by the other leading men." *30 a. It is a violation of the principle of Suspense to introduce unexpectedly, at the end of a long sentence, some short and unemphatic clause beginning with (a) " ... not" or (b) " ... which."* (_a_) "This reform has already been highly beneficial to all classes of our countrymen, and will, I am persuaded, encourage among us industry, self-dependence, and frugality, _and not, as some say, wastefulness_." Write "not, as some say, wastefulness, but industry, self-dependence, and frugality." (_b_) "After a long and tedious journey, the last part of which was a little dangerous owing to the state of the roads, we arrived safely at York, _which is a fine old town_." *Exception.*--When the short final clause is intended to be unexpectedly unemphatic, it comes in appropriately, with something of the sting of an epigram. See (42). Thus: "The old miser said that he should have been delighted to give the poor fellow a shilling, but most unfortunately he had left his purse at home--_a habit of his_." Suspense naturally throws increased emphasis on the words for which we are waiting, _i.e._ on the end of the sentence. It has been pointed out above that *a monotony of final emphasis is objectionable, especially in letter writing and conversation*. *31. Suspense must not be excessive.* _Excess of suspense_ is a common fault in boys translating from Latin. "Themistocles, having secured the safety of Greece, the Persian fleet being now destroyed, when he had unsuccessfully attempted to persuade the Greeks to break down the bridge across the Hellespont, hearing that Xerxes was in full flight, and thinking that it might be profitable to secure the friendship of the king, wrote as follows to him." The more English idiom is: "When Themistocles had secured the safety of Greece by the destruction of the Persian fleet, he made an unsuccessful attempt to persuade the Greeks to break down the bridge across the Hellespont. Soon afterwards, hearing &c." A long suspense that would be intolerable in prose is tolerable in the introduction to a poem. See the long interval at the beginning of _Paradise Lost_ between "Of man's first disobedience" and "Sing, heavenly Muse." Compare also the beginning of _Paradise Lost_, Book II.: "_High on a throne of royal state, which far Outshone the wealth of Ormuz and of Ind, Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold-- Satan exalted sat._" with the opening of Keats' _Hyperion_: "_Deep in the shady sadness of a vale, Far sunken from the healthy breath of morn, Far from the fiery noon and eve's one star-- Sat grey-haired Saturn, quiet as a stone._" *32. In a long conditional sentence put the "if-clause," antecedent, or protasis, first.* Everyone will see the flatness of "Revenge thy father's most unnatural murder, if thou didst ever love him," as compared with the suspense that forces an expression of agony from Hamlet in-- "_Ghost._ If thou didst ever thy dear father love-- _Hamlet._ O, God! _Ghost._ Revenge his foul and most unnatural murder." The effect is sometimes almost ludicrous when the consequent is long and complicated, and when it precedes the antecedent or "if-clause." "I should be delighted to introduce you to my friends, and to show you the objects of interest in our city, and the beautiful scenery in the neighbourhood, if you were here." Where the "if-clause" comes last, it ought to be very emphatic: "if you were _only_ here." The introduction of a clause with "if" or "though" in the middle of a sentence may often cause ambiguity, especially when a great part of the sentence depends on "that:" "His enemies answered that, for the sake of preserving the public peace, they would keep quiet for the present, though he declared that cowardice was the motive of the delay, and that for this reason they would put off the trial to a more convenient season." See (27). *33. Suspense[13] is gained by placing a Participle or Adjective that qualifies the Subject, before the Subject.* "_Deserted_ by his friends, he was forced to have recourse to those that had been his enemies." Here, if we write, "He, deserted by his friends, was forced &c.," _he_ is unduly emphasized; and if we write, "He was forced to have recourse to his enemies, having been deserted by his friends," the effect is very flat. Of course we might sometimes write "He was deserted and forced &c." But this cannot be done where the "desertion" is to be not stated but implied. Often, when a participle qualifying the subject is introduced late in the sentence, it causes positive ambiguity: "With this small force the general determined to attack the foe, _flushed_ with recent victory and _rendered_ negligent by success." An excessive use of the _suspensive participle_ is French and objectionable: _e.g._ "_Careless_ by nature, and too much _engaged_ with business to think of the morrow, _spoiled_ by a long-established liberty and a fabulous prosperity, _having_ for many generations forgotten the scourge of war, we allow ourselves to drift on without taking heed of the signs of the times." The remedy is to convert the participle into a verb depending on a conjunction: "Because we are by nature careless, &c.;" or to convert the participle into a verb co-ordinate with the principal verb, _e.g._ "_We are_ by nature careless, &c., and therefore we _allow_ ourselves, &c." *34. Suspensive Conjunctions, e.g. "either," "not only," "on the one hand," add clearness.*--Take the following sentence:--"You must take this extremely perilous course, in which success is uncertain, and failure disgraceful, as well as ruinous, or else the liberty of your country is endangered." Here, the meaning is liable to be misunderstood, till the reader has gone half through the sentence. Write "_Either_ you must," &c., and the reader is, from the first, prepared for an alternative. Other suspensive conjunctions or phrases are _partly_, _for our part_; _in the first place_; _it is true_; _doubtless_; _of course_; _though_; _on the one hand_. *35. Repeat the Subject when the omission would cause ambiguity or obscurity.*--The omission is particularly likely to cause obscurity after a Relative standing as Subject:-- "He professes to be helping the nation, which in reality is suffering from his flattery, and (he? or it?) will not permit anyone else to give it advice." The Relative should be repeated when it is the Subject of several Verbs. "All the pleasing illusions _which_ made power gentle and obedience liberal, _which_ harmonized the different shades of life, and _which_, by a bland assimilation, incorporated into politics the sentiments that beautify and soften private society, are to be dissolved by this new conquering empire of light and reason." *36. Repeat a Preposition after an intervening Conjunction, especially if a Verb and an Object also intervene.* "He forgets the gratitude that he owes to those that helped all his companions when he was poor and uninfluential, and (_to_) John Smith in particular." Here, omit _to_, and the meaning may be "that helped all his companions, and John Smith in particular." The intervention of the verb and object, "helped" and "companions," causes this ambiguity. *37. When there are several Verbs at some distance from a Conjunction on which they depend, repeat the Conjunction.*[14] "When we look back upon the havoc that two hundred years have made in the ranks of our national authors--and, above all, (_when_) we refer their rapid disappearance to the quick succession of new competitors--we cannot help being dismayed at the prospect that lies before the writers of the present day." Here omit "when," and we at once substitute a parenthetical statement for what is really a subordinate clause. In reporting a speech or opinion, "that" must be continually repeated, to avoid the danger of confusing what the writer says with what others say. "We might say that the Cæsars did not persecute the Christians; (_that_) they only punished men who were charged, rightly or wrongly, with burning Rome, and committing the foulest abominations in secret assemblies; and (_that_) the refusal to throw frankincense on the altar of Jupiter was not the crime, but only evidence of the crime." But see (6 _b_). *37 a. Repeat Verbs after the conjunctions "than," "as," &c.* "I think he likes me better _than_ you;" _i.e._ either "than you like me," or "he likes you." "Cardinal Richelieu hated Buckingham as sincerely as _did_ the Spaniard Olivares." Omit "did," and you cause ambiguity. *38. If the sentence is so long that it is difficult to keep the thread of meaning unbroken, repeat the subject, or some other emphatic word, or a summary of what has been said.* "Gold and cotton, banks and railways, crowded ports, and populous cities--_these_ are not the elements that constitute a great nation." This repetition (though useful and, when used in moderation, not unpleasant) is more common with speakers than with writers, and with slovenly speakers than with good speakers. "The country is in such a condition, that if we delay longer some fair measure of reform, sufficient at least to satisfy the more moderate, and much more, if we refuse all reform whatsoever--I say, if _we adopt so unwise a policy, the country is in such a condition_ that we may precipitate a revolution." Where the relative is either implied (in a participle) or repeated, the antecedent must often be repeated also. In the following sentence we have the Subject repeated not only in the final summary, but also as the antecedent:-- "But if there were, in any part of the world, a national church regarded as heretical by four-fifths of the nation committed to its care; a _church_ established and maintained by the sword; a _church_ producing twice as many riots as conversions; a _church_ which, though possessing great wealth and power, and though long backed by persecuting laws, had, in the course of many generations, been found unable to propagate its doctrines, and barely able to maintain its ground; a _church_ so odious that fraud and violence, when used against its clear rights of property, were generally regarded as fair play; a _church_ whose ministers were preaching to desolate walls, and with difficulty obtaining their lawful subsistence by the help of bayonets,--_such a church_, on our principles, could not, we must own, be defended." *39. It is a help to clearness, when the first part of the sentence prepares the way for the middle and the middle for the end, in a kind of ascent. This ascent is called "climax."* In the following there are two climaxes, each of which has three terms:-- "To gossip(a) is a fault(b); to _libel_(a'), a _crime_(b'); to slander(a''), a _sin_(b'')." In the following, there are several climaxes, and note how they contribute to the clearness of a long sentence:-- "Man, working, has _contrived_(a) the Atlantic Cable, but I declare that it _astonishes_(b) me far more to think _that for his mere amusement_(c), that to _entertain a mere idle hour_(c'), he has _created_(a') 'Othello' and 'Lear,' and I am more than astonished, I am _awe-struck_(b'), at that inexplicable elasticity of his nature which enables him, instead of _turning away_(d) from _calamity and grief_(e), or instead of merely _defying_(d') them, actually to _make them the material of his amusement_(d''), and to draw from the _wildest agonies of the human spirit_(e') a pleasure which is not only _not cruel_(f), but is in the highest degree _pure and ennobling_(f')." The neglect of climax produces an abruptness that interferes with the even flow of thought. Thus, if Pope, in his ironical address to mankind, had written-- "Go, wondrous creature, mount where science guides; Go, measure earth, weigh air, and state the tides; Go, teach Eternal Wisdom how to rule"-- the ascent would have been too rapid. The transition from earth to heaven, and from investigating to governing, is prepared by the intervening climax-- "Instruct the planets in what orbs to run; Correct old Time, and regulate the Sun; Go, soar with Plato to th' empyreal sphere, To the first good, first perfect, and first fair." *40. When the thought is expected to ascend and yet descends, feebleness and sometimes confusion is the result. The descent is called "bathos."* "What pen can describe the tears, the lamentations, the agonies, the _animated remonstrances_ of the unfortunate prisoners?" "She was a woman of many accomplishments and virtues, graceful in her movements, winning in her address, a kind friend, a faithful and loving wife, a most affectionate mother, and she _played beautifully on the pianoforte_." INTENTIONAL BATHOS has a humorous incongruity and abruptness that is sometimes forcible. For example, after the climax ending with the line-- "Go, teach Eternal Wisdom how to rule," Pope adds-- "Then drop into thyself, and be a _fool_." *40 a. A new construction should not be introduced without cause.*--A sudden and apparently unnecessary change of construction causes awkwardness and roughness at least, and sometimes breaks the flow of the sentence so seriously as to cause perplexity. Thus, write "virtuous and accomplished," or "of many virtues and accomplishments," not "of many virtues and accomplished;" "riding or walking" or "on foot or horseback," not "on foot or riding." In the same way, do not put adjectives and participles, active and passive forms of verbs, in too close juxtaposition. Avoid such sentences as the following:-- "He had good reason _to believe_ that the delay was not _an accident_ (accidental) but _premeditated_, and _for supposing_ (to suppose, or else, for believing, above) that the fort, though strong both _by art_ and _naturally_ (nature), would be forced by the _treachery of the_ governor and the _indolent_ (indolence of the) general to capitulate within a week." "They accused him of being _bribed_ (receiving bribes from) by the king and _unwilling_ (neglecting) to take the city." *41. Antithesis adds force, and often clearness.*--The meaning of _liberal_ in the following sentence is ascertained by the antithesis:-- "All the pleasing illusions which made _power_(a) _gentle_(b) and _obedience_(a') _liberal_(b') ... are now to be destroyed." There is a kind of proportion. As _gentleness_ is to _power_, so _liberality_ (in the sense here used) is to _obedience_. Now _gentleness_ is the check on the excess of power; therefore _liberal_ here applies to that which checks the excess of obedience, _i.e._ checks servility. Hence _liberal_ here means "free." The contrast also adds force. "They aimed at the _rule_(a), not at the _destruction_(a'), of their country. They were men of great _civil_(b) and great _military_(b') talents, and, if the _terror_(c), the _ornament_(c') of their age." Excessive antithesis is unnatural and wearisome:-- "Who can persuade where _treason_(a) is above _reason_(a'), and _might_(b) ruleth _right_(b'), and it is had for _lawful_(c) whatsoever is _lustful_(c'), and _commotioners_(d) are better than _commissioners_(d'), and _common woe_(e) is named common _wealth_(e')?" *42. Epigram.*--It has been seen that the neglect of climax results in lameness. Sometimes the suddenness of the descent produces amusement: and when the descent is intentional and very sudden, the effect is striking as well as amusing. Thus:-- (1) "You are not only not vicious, you are virtuous," is a _climax_. (2) "You are not vicious, you are vice," is not _climax_, nor is it _bathos_: it is _epigram_.[15] Epigram may be defined as a "short sentence expressing truth under an amusing appearance of incongruity." It is often antithetical. "The Russian grandees came to { and diamonds," _climax_. court dropping pearls { and vermin," _epigram_. "These two nations were divided { and the bitter remembrance by mutual fear { of recent losses," _climax_. { and mountains," _epigram_. There is a sort of implied antithesis in:-- "He is full of information--(but flat also) like yesterday's _Times_." "Verbosity is cured (not by a small, but) by a large vocabulary." The name of epigram may sometimes be given to a mere antithesis; _e.g._ "An educated man should know something of everything, and everything of something." *43. Let each sentence have one, and only one, principal subject of thought.* "This great and good man died on the 17th of September, 1683, leaving behind him the memory of many noble actions, and a numerous family, of whom three were sons; one of them, George, the eldest, heir to his father's virtues, as well as to his principal estates in Cumberland, where most of his father's property was situate, and shortly afterwards elected member for the county, which had for several generations returned this family to serve in Parliament." Here we have (1) the "great and good man," (2) "George," (3) "the county," disputing which is to be considered the principal subject. Two, if not three sentences should have been made, instead of one. Carefully avoid a long sentence like this, treating of many different subjects on one level. It is called _heterogeneous_. *44. The connection between different sentences must be kept up by Adverbs used as Conjunctions, or by means of some other connecting words at the beginning of each sentence.*--Leave out the conjunctions and other connecting words, and it will be seen that the following sentences lose much of their meaning:-- "Pitt was in the army for a few months in time of peace. His biographer (_accordingly_) insists on our confessing, that, if the young cornet had remained in the service, he would have been one of the ablest commanders that ever lived. (_But_) this is not all. Pitt (, _it seems_,) was not merely a great poet _in esse_ and a great general _in posse_, but a finished example of moral excellence.... (_The truth is, that_) there scarcely ever lived a person who had so little claim to this sort of praise as Pitt. He was (_undoubtedly_) a great man. (_But_) his was not a complete and well-proportioned greatness. The public life of Hampden or of Somers resembles a regular drama which can be criticised as a whole, and every scene of which is to be viewed in connection with the main action. The public life of Pitt (, _on the other hand_,) is," &c. The following are some of the most common connecting adverbs, or connecting phrases: (1) expressing consequence, similarity, repetition, or resumption of a subject--_accordingly_, _therefore_, _then_, _naturally_, _so that_, _thus_, _in this way_, _again_, _once more_, _to resume_, _to continue_, _to sum up_, _in fact_, _upon this_; (2) expressing opposition--_nevertheless_, _in spite of this_, _yet_, _still_, _however_, _but_, _on the contrary_, _on the other hand_; (3) expressing suspension--_undoubtedly ... but_; _indeed ... yet_; _on the one hand ... on the other_; _partly ... partly_; _some ... others_. Avoid a style like that of Bishop Burnet, which strings together a number of sentences with "and" or "so," or with no conjunction at all: "Blake with the fleet happened to be at Malaga, before he made war upon Spain; _and_ some of his seamen went ashore, _and_ met the Host carried about; _and_ not only paid no respect to it, but laughed at those who did." Write "_When_ Blake &c." *45. The connection between two long sentences sometimes requires a short intervening sentence, showing the transition of thought.* "Without force or opposition, it (chivalry) subdued the fierceness of pride and power; it obliged sovereigns to submit to the soft collar[16] of social esteem, compelled stern authority to submit to elegance, and gave a dominating vanquisher of laws to be subdued by manners. But now (_all is to be changed_:) all the pleasing illusions which made power gentle and obedience liberal, which harmonized the different shades of life, and which, by a bland assimilation, incorporated into politics the sentiments that beautify and soften private society, are to be dissolved by this new conquering empire of light and reason." If the words italicized were omitted, the transition would be too abrupt: the conjunction _but_ alone would be insufficient. FOOTNOTES: [5] _For_, at the beginning of a sentence, sometimes causes temporary doubt, while the reader is finding out whether it is used as a conjunction or preposition. [6] _It_ should refer (1) either to the Noun immediately preceding, or (2) to some Noun superior to all intervening Nouns in emphasis. See (25). [7] So useful that, on mature consideration, I am disposed to adopt "that" here and in several of the following exceptional cases. [8] Of course "and which" may be used where "which" precedes. [9] "That which," where _that_ is an _object_, _e.g._ "then (set forth) _that which_ is worse," _St. John_ ii. 10, is rare in modern English. [10] Sometimes the emphatic Adverb comes at the beginning, and causes the transposition of an Auxiliary Verb, "_Gladly_ do I consent." [11] Of course punctuation will remove the ambiguity; but it is better to express oneself clearly, as far as possible, independently of punctuation. [12] Professor Bain. [13] See (30). [14] The repetition of Auxiliary Verbs and Pronominal Adjectives is also conducive to clearness. [15] Professor Bain says: "In the epigram the mind is roused by a conflict or contradiction between the form of the language and the meaning really conveyed." [16] This metaphor is not recommended for imitation. * * * * * BREVITY. *46. Metaphor is briefer than literal statement.* See (13). "The cares and responsibilities of a sovereign often disturb his sleep," is not so brief as "Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown," where the effect of care on the mind is assimilated to the effect of a heavy crown pressing on the head. *47. General terms are briefer, though less forcible, than particular terms.* Thus: "He devours _literature_, no matter of what kind," is shorter than, "Novels or sermons, poems or histories, no matter what, he devours them all." *47 a. A phrase may be expressed by a word.* "These impressions _can never be forgotten_, i.e. are _indelible_." "The style of this book is _of such a nature that it cannot be understood_, i.e. _unintelligible_." The words "of such a nature that" are often unnecessarily inserted. See the extract from Sir Archibald Alison. *48. Participles can often be used as brief (though sometimes ambiguous) equivalents of phrases containing Conjunctions and Verbs.* "Hearing (when he heard) this, he advanced." See (7) for more instances. So "phrases _containing_ conjunctions" means "phrases _that contain_ conjunctions." "_This done_, (for, _when this was done_) he retired." Sometimes the participle "being" is omitted. "France at our doors, he sees no danger nigh," for "France being" or "though France is." *49. Participles and participial adjectives may be used like Adjectives, as equivalents for phrases containing the Relative.* "The never-_ceasing_ wind," "the _clamouring_ ocean," "the _drenching_ rain," are instances. The licence of inventing participial adjectives by adding _-ing_ to a noun, is almost restricted to poetry. You could not write "the _crannying_ wind" in prose. *50. A statement may sometimes be briefly implied instead of being expressed at length.* Thus, instead of "The spirit of Christianity was humanizing, and therefore &c.," or "Christianity, since it was (or being) of a humanizing spirit, discouraged &c.," we can write more briefly and effectively, "Gladiatorial shows were first discouraged, and finally put down, by the _humanizing spirit of Christianity_." So instead of "The nature of youth is thoughtless and sanguine, and therefore &c.," we can write, "The danger of the voyage was depreciated and the beauty of the island exaggerated by _the thoughtless nature of youth_." Sometimes a mere name or epithet implies a statement. "It was in vain that he offered the Swiss terms: war was deliberately preferred by the _hardy mountaineers_," _i.e._ "by the Swiss, _because they were mountaineers and hardy_." "The deed was applauded by all honest men, but the Government affected to treat it as murder, and set a price upon the head of (him whom they called) the _assassin." "The conqueror of Austerlitz_ might be expected to hold different language from _the prisoner of St. Helena_," _i.e._ "Napoleon when elated by the victory of Austerlitz," and "Napoleon when depressed by his imprisonment at St. Helena." CAUTION.--Different names must not be used for the same person unless each of them derives an appropriateness from its context. Thus, if we are writing about Charles II., it would be in very bad taste to avoid repeating "he" by using such periphrases as the following: "The third of the Stewarts hated business," "the Merry Monarch died in the fifty-fourth year of his age," &c. *51. Conjunctions may be omitted.* The omission gives a certain forcible abruptness, _e.g._ "You say this: I (on the other hand) deny it." When sentences are short, as in Macaulay's writings, conjunctions may be advantageously omitted. Where a contrast is intended, the conjunction _but_ usually prepares the way for the second of the two contrasted terms: "He is good _but_ dull." Where _and_ is used instead of _but_, the incongruity savours of epigram: "He always talks truthfully _and_ prosily." "He is always amusing _and_ false." *51 a. The Imperative Mood may be used for "if."* "_Strip_ (for, _if you strip_) Virtue of the awful authority she derives from the general reverence of mankind, and you rob her of half her majesty." *52. Apposition may be used so as to convert two sentences into one.* "We called at the house of a person to whom we had letters of introduction, _a musician_, and, what is more, a _good friend_ to all young students of music." This is as clear as, and briefer than, "He was a musician, &c." *53. Condensation may be effected by not repeating (1) the common subject of several verbs, (2) the common object of several verbs or prepositions.* (1) "He resided here for many years, and, after he had won the esteem of all the citizens, (_he_) died," &c. So, (2) "He came to, and was induced to reside in, this city," is shorter than "He came to this city, and was induced to reside in it." Such condensation often causes obscurity, and, even where there is no obscurity, there is a certain harshness in pausing on light, unemphatic words, such as _to_, _in_, &c., as in the first example. *54. Tautology.*--The fault of repeating the same word several times unnecessarily is called _tautology_, e.g.: "This is a painful _circumstance_; it is a _circumstance_ that I much _regret_, and he also will much _regret_ the _circumstance_." But the fault is not to be avoided by using different words to mean the same thing, as, "This is a painful _event_; it is a _circumstance_ that I _much regret_, and he also will _greatly lament_ the _occurrence_." The true remedy is to arrange the words in such a manner that there may be no unnecessary repetition, thus: "This is a painful circumstance, a circumstance that causes me, and will cause him, deep regret." The repetition of the same meaning in slightly different words is a worse fault than the repetition of the same word. See, for examples, the extract from Sir Archibald Alison, at the end of the book. Thus "_A burning thirst_ for conquests is a characteristic of this nation. It is an _ardent passion_ that &c." Other instances are--"The _universal_ opinion of _all_ men;" "His judgment is so _infallible_ that it is _never deceived_," &c. *55. Parenthesis may be used with advantage to brevity.* "We are all (and who would not be?) offended at the treatment we have received," is shorter and more forcible than the sentence would have been if the parenthesis had been appended in a separate sentence: "Who, indeed, would not be offended?" Extreme care must, however, be taken that a parenthesis may not obscure the meaning of a long sentence. *56. Caution: let clearness be the first consideration.* It is best, at all events for beginners, not to aim so much at being brief, or forcible, as at being perfectly clear. Horace says, "While I take pains to be brief, I fall into obscurity," and it may easily be seen that several of the rules for brevity interfere with the rules for clearness. Forcible style springs from (1) vividness and (2) exactness of thought, and from a corresponding (1) vividness and (2) exactness in the use of words. (1) When you are describing anything, endeavour to _see_ it and describe it as you see it. If you are writing about a man who was killed, _see_ the man before you, and ask, was he _executed_, _cut down_, _run through the body_, _butchered_, _shot_, or _hanged_? If you are writing about the capture of a city, was the city _stormed_, _surprised_, _surrendered_, _starved out_, or _demolished before surrender_? Was an army _repelled_, _defeated_, _routed_, _crushed_, or _annihilated_? (2) Exactness in the use of words requires an exact knowledge of their meanings and differences. This is a study by itself, and cannot be discussed here.[17] FOOTNOTES: [17] See _English Lessons for English People_, pp. 1-53. EXERCISES _For an explanation of the manner in which these Exercises are intended to be used, see the Preface._ _A number in brackets by itself, or followed by a letter,_ e.g. _(43), (40 a), refers to the Rules._ _Letters_ by themselves _in brackets_, e.g. _(b), refer to the explanations or hints appended to each sentence._ _N.B..--(10 a) refers to the first section of Rule (10); (10 a') to the Rule following Rule (10)._ 1. "Pleasure and excitement had more attractions for him _than_ (_a_) (36) (37 _a_) _his friend_, and the two companions became estranged (15 _a_) _gradually_." (_a_) Write (1) "than for his friend," or (2) "than had his friend," "had more attractions than his friend." 2. "(_a_) He soon grew tired of solitude even in that beautiful scenery, (36) the pleasures of the retirement (8) _which_ he had once pined for, and (36) leisure which he could use to no good purpose, (_a_) (30) _being_ (15) _restless by nature_." (_a_) This sentence naturally stops at "purpose." Also "being restless" seems (wrongly) to give the reason why "leisure" could not be employed. Begin "Restless by nature...." 3. "The opponents of the Government are naturally, and not (_a_) (40 _a_) _without justification_, elated at the failure of the bold attempt to return two supporters of the Government at the recent election, (_b_) (10 _a'_) _which_ is certainly to be regretted." (_a_) "unjustifiably." (_b_) Write, for "which," either (1) "an attempt that &c.," or (2) "a failure that &c." 4. "Carelessness in the Admiralty departments has co-operated with Nature to weaken the moral power of a Government that particularly needs to be thought efficient in (_a_) (5) _this_ _respect_, (_b_) (29) _to_ counterbalance a general distrust of its excessive _desire_ (_c_) (47 _a_) _to please everybody_ in Foreign Affairs." (_a_) Write "the Navy." (_b_) Instead of "to" write "in order to," so as to distinguish the different infinitives, (_c_) "obsequiousness." 5. "(_a_) He was sometimes supported by Austria, who, oddly enough, appears under Count Beust to have been more friendly to Italy _than_ (37 _a_) _France_, (30) _in this line of action_." (_a_) Begin with "In this line of action." Why? (_b_) Write "than was France" or "than France was." 6. "There was something so startling in (_a_) (5) _this_ assertion, (_a_) (4) _that_ the discoveries of previous investigators were to be (_b_) (47 _a_) _treated as though they had never been made_, and (4) _that one who had not yet_ (47 _a_) _attained the age of manhood_ had superseded the grey-headed philosophers (8) _who_ had for centuries patiently sought after the truth, (4) _that_ (_a_) (5) _it_ naturally provoked derision." (_a_) "This," "that," and "it," cause a little perplexity. Write "The startling assertion that the discoveries...." (_b_) "ignored." (_c_) "a mere youth," "a mere stripling." 7. "One of the recommendations (_on which very_ (_a_) (26) (47, _a_) _much depended_) of the Commission was that a council in each province should establish smaller councils, each to have the oversight of a small district, and (_b_) (37) report to a central council on the state of Education in (_c_) (5) it." (_a_) Write "cardinal recommendations." Derive "cardinal." (_b_) Write, either (1) "and should report," or (2) "and to report." (_c_) Write "in its province," or "district." 8. "At this (_a_) (1) _period_ an (_b_) (11) _event_ (_c_) (1) _transpired_ that destroyed the last hopes of peace. The king fell from his horse and died two hours after the fall (_d_) (30), _which was occasioned by his horse's stumbling on a mole-hill, while he was on his return from reviewing his soldiers_." (_a_) What is a "period"? (_b_) Express the particular kind of event ("accident"). (_c_) What is the meaning of "transpired"? (_d_) Transpose thus: "While the king was on his return ... his horse ...; the king fell and &c." The cause should precede the effect. 9. "He determined (_c_) on selling all his estates, and, as soon as this was done (40 _a_), _to_ (_c_) _quit_ the country, (_a_) (33) believing that his honour demanded this sacrifice and (40) (40 _a_) _in_ (_b_) _the_ hope of satisfying his creditors." (_a_) Begin with "Believing that &c." (_b_) "hoping thereby to satisfy &c." (_c_) "to sell" or "on quitting.". 10. "He read patiently on, Leading Articles, Foreign Correspondence, Money Article and all; (_a_) (43) during which his father fell asleep, and he (_b_) went in search of his sister." Point out the absurdity of "during which" applied to the last part of the sentence. (_a_) "Meanwhile." (_b_) Insert "then." 11. "The general was quite (_a_) (1) _conscious_ (40 _a_) _how_ treacherous were the intentions of _those who were_ (_b_) (49) _entertaining_ him, and (40 _a_) _of the_ dangers from which he had _escaped_ (15) _lately_." (_a_) Distinguish between "conscious" and "aware." _(b_) "entertainers." 12. "If _certain_ (_a_) (11) _books_ had been published a hundred years ago, there can be no doubt that _certain recent_ (_b_) (11) _historians_ would have made great use of them. But it _would_ (_c_) (15 _b_) _not_, on that account, be judicious in a writer of our own times to publish an edition of the works of _one of these_ (_b_) (11) _historians_, in which large extracts from these books should be incorporated with the original text." (_a_) "Mrs. Hutchinson's Memoirs." (_b_) "Mr. Hume." (_c_) Add at the end of the sentence, "Surely not." 13. "He made no attempt to get up a petition, (32) though he did not like the new representative quite so well _as_ (_a_) (37 _a_) _his colleagues_." (_a_) "as did his colleagues" or "as he liked his colleagues." 14. "Though he was (_a_) (15) _obstinate_ and (15) _unprincipled_, yet he could not face an angered father (15 _a_) _in spite of his effrontery_." (_a_) Begin with "Obstinate." 15. "He was known to his country neighbours (_a_) (15) _during more than forty years_ as a gentleman of cultivated mind, (40 _a_) _whose principles were high_, (40 _a_) _with polished address_, happy in his family, and (_b_) (40 _a_) _actively_ discharging local duties; and (40 _a_) _among_ political men, as an honest, industrious, and sensible member of Parliament, (40 a) _without_ (_c_) _eagerness_ to display his talents, (40 _a_) _who_ (10 _g_) _was_ stanch to his party, and attentive to the interests of _those whose_ (_d_) (47 _a_) _representative he was_." (_a_) "During more &c.," is emphatic, and affects the latter as well as the former half of the sentence: hence it should stand first. (_b_) "in the discharge of." (_c_) "not eager." (_d_) Condense into one word. 16. "The poor think themselves no more disgraced by taking bribes at elections _than_ (_a_) (37 _a_) _the rich_ by offering them." (_a_) Write (1) "Than the rich think themselves disgraced," or (2) "Than they think the rich disgraced." 17. "We are told that the Sultan Mahmoud, by his perpetual wars, (_a_) (41) and his tyranny, (_a_) (41) had filled his dominions with (_b_) (1) _misfortune and_ (_c_) (11) _calamity_, and _greatly_ (_d_) (11) _diminished_ the population of the Persian Empire. _This great Sultan had_ (_e_) (50) _a Vizier_. _We are not_ (_f_) (55) (15) _informed_ whether he was a humorist or an enthusiast, (_g_) _but he_ pretended (_h_) that he had learned from (_i_) (11) _some one_ how to understand the language of birds, so that _he_ (_j_) (5) knew what was said by any bird that opened its mouth. (_k_) (44) One evening he was with the Sultan, returning from hunting. They saw a couple of owls _which_ (10 _g_) _were_ sitting upon a tree (_l_) (8) _which_ grew near an old wall out of a heap of rubbish. The Sultan said (6) he should like to know what the two owls were saying to one another, _and asked the_ (_m_) _Vizier to_ listen to their discourse and give him an account of it. The Vizier, (_n_) (31) pretending to be very attentive to the owls, approached the tree. He (_o_) returned to the Sultan and said that (6) he had heard part of their conversation, but did not wish to tell him what it was. (_p_) (5) _He_, not (_q_) (31) being satisfied with this answer, forced him to repeat everything the owls had said (20) _exactly_. (_r_) (44) (5) (6) _He_ told (5) _him_ that the owls were arranging a treaty of marriage between their children, and that one of them, after agreeing to settle five hundred villages upon the female owl, had prayed (6) that God would grant a long life to Sultan Mahmoud, because as long as he reigned over them they would never want ruined villages. The story says (_s_) _that_ (_t_) (5) _he_ was touched with the fable, (30) and (_s_) _that_ he (_a_) (39) from that time forward _consulted_ (15) _the good of his people_, and that he rebuilt the towns and villages (_v_) _which_ had been destroyed." (_a_) "abroad ... at home." (_b_) "ruin." (_c_) "desolation." (_d_) "half unpeopled." (_e_) "The Vizier of &c." (_f_) "We are not informed" is emphatic, and therefore should be inverted, "whether he was, &c., we are not informed." (_g_) "but he" will be omitted when "the Vizier" is made the subject of "pretended." (_h_) "Pretended" once meant "claimed," "professed." Write "professed." (_i_) "a certain dervish." (_j_) Introduce a new subject that you may substitute "Vizier" for "he," thus: "so that not a bird could open its mouth, but the Vizier knew &c." (_k_) "As he was, one evening, &c." (_l_) Note that the tree is represented as growing out of _ruins_. This is in accordance with the story of the mischief Mahmoud had done. (_m_) Omit this. (_n_) "Suspense" is out of place in a simple narrative like this; the sentence therefore ends with "owls." (_o_) "Upon his return." (_p_) "The Sultan" (_q_) "would not be satisfied." (_r_) "You must know then, &c." (_s_) Omit. (_t_) "so touched ... that." (_u_) end with "people." (_v_) Addison here uses "_which_" probably because of the preceding "that." We have to choose between sound and clearness. "Which" implies that _all_ the villages in the country had been destroyed, whereas the country had been only (see above) "_half_ unpeopled." 18. "Though this great king never permitted any pastime to interfere with the duties of state, which he considered to be _superior to_ (54) _all other claims and of paramount importance_, and (_a_) (37) kept himself so far under control that he allowed no one pursuit or amusement to run to any excess, yet he _took_ (54) _great pleasure in_ the chase, _of which he was_ (_b_) (2) _excessively_ (54) _fond_, and for the purposes of which he created several _large_ parks _of considerable_ (54) _magnitude_." (_a_) Either repeat "though," or else strikeout the first "though" and begin a new sentence after "excess." (_b_) Point out the contradiction between "excessively" and what precedes. 19. "To inundate (_a_) (11) their land, to man their ships, to leave their country, with all its miracles of art and industry, its cities, its villas, and its (_b_) (11) pastures buried under the waves (_c_) (11); to bear to a distant climate their (_d_) (11) faith and their old (_e_) (11) liberties; to establish, with auspices _that_(10 _a) might perhaps be happier_, the new (_f_) (11) _constitution of their commonwealth_, in a (_g_) (11) foreign and strange (_h_) (11) land, in the Spice Islands of the Eastern Seas, (38) were the plans which they had the spirit to form." (_a_) Introduce "dykes." (_b_) Introduce something _peculiar_ to the Dutch, _e.g._ "canals," "tulip gardens." (_c_) "of the German Ocean." (_d_) The Dutch were Calvinists. (_e_) The country was in old times "Batavia," so that "Batavian" would be a fit epithet to denote what the Dutch had inherited from their forefathers. (_f_) "Stadthaus," the German for "town-hall." (_g_) "other stars." (_h_) "strange vegetation." 20. "During twenty years of unexampled prosperity, _during_ (_a_) _which_ the wealth of the nation had shot (14 _a_) _up and extended its branches_ on every side, and the funds _had_ (14 _a_) _soared_ to a higher point than had been ever attained before, (_b_) (15) speculation had become general." (_a_) Omit. (_b_) Begin a new sentence: "This, _or_ Prosperity, had increased the taste for speculation." 21. "At that time (_a_) (16) a mere narrow-minded pedant (for he deserves no better name) had been set up by the literary world as a great author, and as the supreme (_b_) critic, alone qualified to deliver decisions _which could never be_ (_b_) _reversed_ upon (15 _a_) _the literary productions of the day_." (_a_) End with " ... one who was--for he deserves no better name--a mere narrow-minded pedant." (_b_) "Which could never be reversed" can be expressed in one word; or else "the supreme ... reversed" may be condensed into a personification: "a very Minos of contemporary criticism." 22. "With the intention of fulfilling his promise, and (40 _a_) _intending also_ to clear himself from the suspicion that attached to him, he determined to ascertain _how_ (40 _a_) _far this testimony_ was corroborated, and (_a_) (40 _a_) the motives of the prosecutor, (_b_) (43) who had begun the suit last Christmas." (_a_) "what were." (_b_) Begin a new sentence, "The latter &c.," or "The suit had been begun &c." 23. "The Jewish nation, relying on the teaching of their prophets, looked forward to a time when its descendants should be as numerous as _the heavenly_ (11) _bodies_, and when the _products_ (_a_) (11) _of the earth_ should be _so increased as to create an abundant_ (54) _plenty_, when each man should rest beneath the shade of his own (_a_) (11) _trees_, and when the _instruments_ (11) _of war_ should be _converted to the_ (11) _uses of peace_." (_a_) Mention some "products," "trees" of Palestine. 24. "He replied (32), when he was asked the reason for his sudden unpopularity, that he owed it to his refusal to annul the commercial treaty, (_a_) (8) _which_(10 _a'_) gave great displeasure to the poorer classes." (_a_) Point out the ambiguity, and remove it by (8) or (10 _a'_). 25. "I saw my old schoolfellow again by mere accident when I was in London at the time of the first Exhibition, (19) _walking_ down Regent Street and looking in at the shops." Point out and remove the ambiguity. 26. "He remained in the House while his speech was taken into consideration; _which_ (52) _was_ a common practice with him, because the debates amused his sated mind, and indeed _he used to say_ (_a_) (6 _b_) _that they_ were sometimes as good as a comedy. His Majesty had certainly never seen _a more_ (17) _sudden turn_ in any comedy of intrigue, either at his own play-house or the Duke's, than that which this memorable debate produced." (_a_) "and were sometimes, he used to say, as good &c." 27. "The Commons would not approve the war (20) _expressly_; neither did they as yet condemn it (20) _expressly_; and (_a_) (18) the king might even have obtained a supply for continuing hostilities (19) from them, on condition _of_ (_b_) _redressing_ grievances _connected with the_ (_c_) _administration of affairs at home_, among which the Declaration of Indulgence was a very _important_ (_d_) (15_a_) one." (_a_) Write "they were even ready to grant the king &c." (_b_) Use the verb with a subject, (_c_) Condense all this into one adjective, meaning "that which takes place at home." (_d_) End with a noun, "importance," or "foremost place." 28. "Next to thinking clearly, (_a_) (5) _it is_ useful to speak clearly, and whatever your position in life may hereafter be _it_ cannot be such (54) as not to be improved by _this_, (_b_) so that _it_ is worth while making almost any effort to acquire (_c_) _it_, if _it_ is not a natural gift: (_d_) _it_ being an undoubted (_d_) fact that the effort to acquire _it_ must be successful, to some extent at least, if (_d_) _it_ be moderately persevered in." (_a_) "Next in utility ... comes speaking clearly--a power that must be of assistance to you &c." (_b_)" If, therefore, you cannot speak clearly by nature, you &c." (_c_) "this power." (_d_) Omit "fact;" "for undoubtedly, with moderate perseverance &c." 29. "_It_ (_a_) (38) _appears to me_ (15) _a greater victory than Agincourt, a grander triumph of wisdom and faith and courage than even the English constitution or_ (_b_) _liturgy_, to have beaten back, or even fought against and stemmed in ever so small a degree, those _basenesses that_ (_c_) (10_a_) _beset_ human nature, which are now held so invincible that the influences of them are assumed as the fundamental axioms of economic science." (_a_) Begin with "To have beaten &c.," and end with "liturgy." (_b_) Repeat for clearness and emphasis, "the English." (_c_) "The besetting basenesses of &c." 30. "The (_a_) (2) _unprecedented_ impudence of our youthful representative reminds us forcibly of the _unblushing and_ (54) (40) _remarkable_ effrontery (_c_) (which (26) he almost succeeds in equalling) of the Member for St. Alban's, whom our (_b_) (1) _neophyte_ (_b_) (1) _alluded to_, in the last speech with which he favoured _those whom_ (47_a_) _he represents_, (19) as his pattern and example." (_a_) Show that "unprecedented" is inconsistent with what follows. (_b_) What is the meaning of "neophyte," "alluded to"? (_c_) Begin a new sentence, "Our young adventurer &c.," and end with "and he almost succeeds in equalling his master." 31. "The (_a_) (1) _veracity_ of this story is questionable, and there is the more reason for doubting the (_a_) (1) _truth_ of the narrator, because in his remarks on the (1) _observation_ of the Sabbath he distinctly (_a_) (1) _alludes to_ a custom that can be shown never to have existed." (_a_) Distinguish between "veracity" and "truth," "observation" and "observance." Show the inconsistency between "allude" and "distinctly." 32. "It (_a_) (5) is a most just distribution, (10 _a_) _which_ the late Mr. Tucker has dwelt upon _so_ (_b_) largely in his works, between pleasures in which we are passive, and pleasures in which we are active. And I believe every attentive observer of human life will _assent to_ (_c_) _this position_, that however (_d_) _grateful_ the sensations may occasionally be in which we are passive, it is not these, but the latter class of our pleasures, (8) _which_ constitutes satisfaction, (_e_) (38) _which_ supply that regular stream of moderate and miscellaneous enjoyments in (10 _c_) _which_ happiness, as distinguished from voluptuousness, consists." (_a_) "There is great justice in &c." (b) Omit "so." (_c_) "admit." (_d_) Not often now used in this sense. (_e_) Repeat the antecedent, "I mean those (pleasures) &c." 33. "The prince seemed to have before him a _limitless_ (54) _prospect of unbounded_ prosperity, carefully (33) _trained_ for the (_a_) _tasks_ of the throne, and stimulated by the (_a_) _pattern_ of his father, (_b_) who (43) _breathed his_ (3) _last_ suddenly at the age of sixty-two, just after the conclusion of the war." (_a_) Find more appropriate words. (_b_) Begin a new sentence. 34. "On his way, he visited a son of an old friend (_a_) (25) _who_ had asked _him_ to call upon _him_ on his journey northward. _He_ (_b_) (5) was overjoyed to see _him_, and (_c_) _he_ sent for one of _his_ most intelligent workmen and told (_d_) _him_ to consider _himself_ at (_e_) _his_ service, (30) as _he himself_ could not take (_f_) _him_ as _he_ (_g_) wished about the city." (_a_) If you mean that the "son" had "asked him," write "An old friend's son who;" if you mean that the "friend" had "asked him," write "He had been asked by an old friend to call, on his journey northward, upon his son. Accordingly he visited him on his way." (_b_) Use, instead of _he_, some name meaning "one who entertains others." (_c_) Use participle, (_d_) "The man." (_e_) "the stranger's." (_f_) "his guest." (_g_) Write "could have wished" to make it clear that "he" means "the host." 35. "Tillotson died in this year. He was exceedingly beloved both by King William and by Queen Mary (43), who nominated Dr. Tennison, Bishop of Lincoln, to succeed him." 36. "(_a_) The entertainment was arranged with a magnificence that was (_b_) perfectly _stupendous_ and (_c_) _most unprecedented_, and which quite kept up his Lordship's _unrivalled_ reputation for _unparalleled_ hospitality, and, thanks to the _unequalled_ energy of Mr. Smith, who is _rapidly becoming one of the most effective_ toast-masters in the kingdom, the toasts were given with a spirit _quite unexampled_ on occasions of this nature; and indeed we were forcibly reminded in this respect of the _inimitable_ entertainment of three years ago (2)." (_a_) Omit most of the epithets, or soften them down. Point out the contradictions in the sentence as it stands. (_b_) Write "a remarkable magnificence that quite &c.," thus dispensing with the following "and." (_c_) Show that "most" is superfluous. 37. "If we compare Shakespeare with the other dramatic authors of the Elizabethan era, _his wonderful superiority to them in the_ (15) _knowledge of human nature_ is _what_ (15 _a_) _principally strikes us_." 38. "The prince found himself at once in sore perplexity how to provide himself with the commonest comforts or even necessaries of life, when he landed on this desolate coast, being (33) accustomed to luxury." 39. "This make-shift policy recommended itself to the succeeding _ministers_ (_a_) (50), _both because they were timid and because they were prejudiced_, and they were delighted to _excuse_ (_b_) (13) _themselves by quoting_ the example of one who (_c_) (34) had controlled the Liberals and humoured the Conservatives, (37) commended himself to the country at large by his unfailing good-humour, and (_d_) (44) (37) done nothing worthy of the name of statesman." (_a_) "to the timidity and prejudices of &c." (_b_) "shelter themselves behind." (_c_) "while he had at once." (_d_) "had yet done." 40. "William Shakespeare was the sun among the lesser lights of English poetry, and a native of Stratford-on-Avon (14 _a_)." 41. "(15 _b_) I think, gentlemen, you must confess that any one of you would have done the same (32), if you had been tempted as I was then, placed starving and ragged among wasteful luxury and comfort, deliberately instigated to acts of dishonesty by those whom I had been taught from infancy to love, (_a_) praised when I stole, mocked or punished when I failed to (15 _a_) _do_ (_b_) _so_." (_a_) Insert another infinitive beside "love." "Love" produces "obedience." (b) Repeat the verb instead of "do so." 42. "So far from being the first (54) _aggressor_, he _not_ (22) _only_ refused to prosecute his old friend when a favourable opportunity presented itself for revenging himself thus upon him, _but also_ his friend's adviser, John Smith. Smith (_a_) _at all_ (23) _events_ suspected, if he did not know of the coming danger, and had given no information of it." (_a_) If "at all events" qualifies "Smith," the sentence must be altered. "Yet, however innocent his friend may have been, at all events Smith suspected...." If the words qualify "suspected," place them after "suspected." 43. "It is quite true that he paid 5_s._ per day to English navvies, _and even 6s._, (19) in preference to 2_s._ 6_d._ to French navvies." 44. "Having climbed to the _apex_ of the Righi to enjoy the spectacle of the sun-rise, I found myself so _incommoded_ by a number of _illiterate individuals_ who had _emerged_ from the hotel for a (_a_) (1) _similar_ purpose, that I determined to quit them _at the earliest practicable period_; and therefore, without stopping to _partake of breakfast_, I _wended my way_ back _with all possible celerity_." (3) (_a_) "the same." 45. "You admit that miracles are _not natural_. Now whatever _is unnatural_ is wrong, and since, by your own admission, miracles are _unnatural_, it follows that miracles are wrong." (1) 46. "Who is the man that has dared to call into _civilized_ alliance the (_a_) (41) inhabitant of the woods, to delegate to the (_a_) Indian the defence of our disputed rights? (_a_) Insert some antithetical or other epithets. 47. "A (_a_) _very_ (11) _small proportion_ indeed of those who have attempted to solve this problem (_b_) (19) have succeeded in obtaining even a plausible solution." (_a_) State what proportion succeeded, or, if you like, what failed: "not one in a hundred." (_b_) Begin, "Of all those that &c." 48. "_To be suddenly_ (_a_) (47 _a_) _brought into contact_ with a system (8) _which_ forces one to submit to wholesale imposture, and _to being_ (40 _a_) _barbarously ill-treated_, naturally repels (_a_) (15 _a_) _one_." (_a_) Write, either (1) "Collision ... causes a natural repulsion," or (2) "When brought into contact ... one is naturally repelled," or (if "ill-treatment" is emphatic), (3) "One is naturally repelled by collision with &c." 49. "We annex a letter recently addressed by Mr. ----'s direction to the Editor of the ----, in contradiction of statements, equally untrue, which appeared in that periodical, _and_ (_a_) (9) _which_ the editor has undertaken to insert in the next number.... I am sure that all must regret that statements _so_ (_b_) (51) _utterly_ erroneous should have (_c_) (23) _first_ appeared in a publication of such high character." (_a_) What the writer intended to express was that the editor had undertaken to insert, not the "statements," but the "contradiction." (_b_) Omit either "so" or "utterly." (_c_) "appeared first," or, "for the first time." 50. "This is a book _which_ (10 _a_) _is_ short and amusing, _which_ (10 _a_) _can be easily_ (_a_) _understood, which_ (10 _a_) is admirably adapted for _the purpose for which it_ (_b_) _was_ (54) _written_; and (10 _e_) _which_ ought to be more popular than the last work _which_ (10 _a_) _was_ published by the same author." (_a_) Express "which can be understood" in one adjective. (_b_) "Its purpose." 51. "When thousands are _left_ (19) without (40) _pity_ and without (40) _attention_ (19) _on_ a field of battle, amid (40) the insults of an enraged foe and (40) the trampling of horses, while the blood from their wounds, freezing as it flows, binds them to the earth, and (40) they are exposed to the piercing air, _it_ (15 _a_) _must be indeed a painful scene_." The whole sentence must be remedied by (40). 52. "(_a_) The youth was naturally thoughtful, and disposed (19) besides by his early training--(31) which had been conducted with great care, the object of his parents being to _pave_ (14) _his way_ as far as possible over the _stormy_ (14) _sea of temptation_ and to _lead_ him into the _harbour_ of virtue--to a sincere (_b_) (1) _remorse_ (19) for the (_b_) (1) _crimes_ that he had committed in the sight of heaven, and also for his recent (_b_) (1) _sin_ in breaking the laws of his country." (_a_) First state the reasons for his being "disposed." "The youth was naturally thoughtful; moreover, his early training had been conducted with great care by his parents, whose &c. .... He was therefore disposed &c." (_b_) What is the difference between "remorse" and "repentance," between "sin" and "crime"? 53. "(_a_) _One day_ (54) _early in the morning_, the general was approached by a messenger, (30) in the midst of the _entanglements and perplexities_ which had _unexpectedly surprised_ him, when the _perilous hour of_ (54) _danger_ was at hand, and (37), in spite of their promises, even the tribes that were _well disposed_ (54) _and friendly_, were threatening to _desert him, and_ (54) _leave him to face the enemy_ (_b_) (23) _alone_." Condense the sentence by omitting some of the italicized words, _e.g._ (_a_) "Early one morning." (_b_) Though there is no real ambiguity (unless a wrong emphasis is placed on "enemy"), yet, in strictness, "alone" ought to qualify "enemy." Write therefore, "alone in the face of the enemy." 54. "_A man_ (_a_) (10 _d_) _who_ neglected the ordinary duties *of* life, and, immersed in study, devoted himself to grand plans for the benefit of mankind, (_b_) (44) _and_ refused to provide for the wants of those dependent on him, and suffered his aged relatives to become paupers because he would not help them, (_c_) would, in my opinion, (34) be a bad man, and not altogether (_d_) (40 _a_) without hypocrisy." (_a_) "If a man." (_b_) "if he refused," or "while he refused." (_c_) "such a man" or "he." (_d_) "to some extent a hypocrite." 55. "I cannot believe in the guilt of (_a_) _one_ (_b_) (10 _e_) _who_, whatever may have been said to the contrary, can be shown, and has been shown by competent testimony proceeding from those who are said to have carefully examined the facts, _in spite_ (23) _of many obstacles_, to have resisted all attempts to (29) induce him to leave his situation, (_c_) (29) to consult his own interests and to (29) establish a business of his own." (_a_) "his guilt;" (_b_) (1) "for, whatever &c.... it can be shown by &c.... that, in spite of &c., he resisted." Or (2) insert "in spite ... obstacles" between "have" and "carefully." (_c_) (1) "for the purpose of consulting ... and establishing." Or (2) write "and to consult his own interests by establishing &c." 56. "We must seek for the origin of our freedom, (_a_) (37) prosperity, and (_a_) (37) glory, in _that and only_ (_b_) _that_[18] portion of our annals, (30) though _it_ (_c_) _is_ sterile and obscure. The great English people was (_d_) _then_ formed; the notional (_e_) _disposition_ began (_d_) _then_ to exhibit those peculiarities which it has ever since (_e_) _possessed_; and our fathers (_d_) _then_ became emphatically islanders, (_f_) in their politics, (_a_) feelings, and (_a_) manners, _and_ (30 _a_) _not merely in their geographical position_." (_a_) Repeat the Pronominal Adjective, (_b_) Express the emphatic "only that" by beginning the sentence thus: "It is in that portion of our annals &c." (_c_) Omit. (_d_) "It was then that &c." (_e_) Use words implying something more _marked_ than "disposition," and more _forcible_ than "possessed;" in the latter case, "retained." (_f_) Repeat "islanders." 57. "(_a_) He was _the universal_ (54) _favourite of_ (54) _all_ (8) _who knew him_, and cemented many friendships at this period, (_a_) (33) (moving in the highest circle of society, and, _as he_ (_b_) (50) _had a_ (4 _a_) _certain property, being independent_ of the profits of literature), and soon completely extinguished the breath of slander which at the outset of his career had threatened to sap the foundations of his reputation." (_a_) Begin "Moving in &c." (_b_) "rendered independent of ... by &c." Show that Rule (14) is violated by the metaphors. 58. "The outward and material form of that city which, during the brief period _which_ (10 _a_) _is_ comprised in our present book, reached the highest pitch of military, artistic, and literary glory, _was of this_ (_a_) (15) _nature_. The progress of _the_ (_b_) (5) _first_ has been already traced." (_a_) Begin the sentence with "Such was." (_b_) By "the first" is meant "military glory." 59. "The detachment not only failed to take the fort, (30) spite of their numbers and the weakness of the garrison, but also to capture the small force that was encamped outside the town, and was, after some sharp fighting, driven back with inconsiderable loss." Point out the ambiguity. Remedy it by inserting either "which," or "the assailants." 60. "(_a_) (_b_) _Believing_ that these reforms can _only_ (_c_) (21) be effected as public opinion is prepared for them, and that (5) _this_ will be more or less advanced in different localities, the Bill of the Association, (_a_) (31) which has been for _a_ (3) _considerable period_ in draft, and will be introduced in the next Session of Parliament, provides for _placing_ (_d_) (3) _the control in regard to the points above-mentioned in the_ (3) _hands_ of the ratepayers of each locality; the power to be exercised through representative Licensing Boards to be periodically elected by them." (_a_) Place the parenthesis first, as an independent sentence: "The Bill of the Association has been ... Parliament." (_b_) What noun is qualified by "believing?" Write "In the belief." (_c_) "effected only so far as they are in accordance with public opinion, which &c." (_d_) "it, or, the Bill provides that the ratepayers ... shall receive control ... and shall exercise this control." 61. "I think they are very (1) _nice_ persons, for they kept me amused for a _long_ (_a_) (11) _time together_ yesterday by their (1) _nice_ stories all about _what they_ (_b_) _have experienced_ in Japan, where they had been for (_a_) _ever so long_, and (_c_) (43) where they said that the natives ripped up _their_ (_d_) (5) stomachs." (_a_) Mention some time. (_b_) "experiences" or "adventures." (_c_) "among other things, they told us &c." (_d_) "their own." 62. "To contend for advantageous monopolies, which are regarded with a dislike and a suspicion (_a_) _which daily_ (10 _a_) _increases_, (30) _however natural it may be to be annoyed at the loss of that which one has once possessed_, (15 _a_) is _useless_." (_a_) A compound adjective can be used, including "daily." 63. "Upon entering the rustic place of entertainment to partake of some refreshment, my nerves were horrified by lighting on a number of boisterous individuals who were singing some species of harvest song, and simultaneously imbibing that cup which, if it cheers, also inebriates; and when, banished from their society by the fumes of the fragrant weed, I wended my way to the apartment which adjoined the one in which I had hoped to rest my weary limbs, I found an interesting assortment of the fairer sex, who were holding a separate confabulation apart from the revels of their rougher spouses." Write "village inn," "next room," &c., for these absurd circumlocutions. See (3). 64. "When Burgoyne was born, in 1782, Napoleon and Wellington _were both boys_ (11)." Napoleon studied at Brienne, Wellington at Eton. Mention this, and, in order to imply the _boyhood_, call Wellington "Arthur Wellesley." 65. "An honourable friend of mine, who is now, I believe, near me--(38) to whom I never can on any occasion refer without feelings of respect, and, on this subject, (36) feelings of the most grateful homage; (38) whose abilities upon this occasion, as upon some former ones, are not entrusted merely to the perishable eloquence of the (_a_) day, but will live to be the admiration of that (_a_) hour when all of us are mute and most of us forgotten: (_b_) (38) has told you that prudence _is_ (52) the first of virtues, _and_ (52) can never be used in the cause of vice." (_a_) Though "of the day" is a recognized expression for "ephemeral" or "transitory," yet to use "day" for a short time, and "hour" for a longer, is objectionable. Write _moment_ for _day_. Else write _future_ for _hour_. (_b_) "--this gentleman has told &c." 66. "To see the British artisan and his wife on the Sabbath, neat and clean and cheerful, with their children by their sides, (_a_) (19) _disporting_ themselves under the open canopy of heaven, _is_ (15) _pleasant_." (_a_) There is no reasonable ground for mistaking the sense here, as the context makes it clear; but since Lord Shaftesbury was questioned whether he meant _disporting_ to qualify "artisan and his wife" or "children," write "and, by their sides, their children disporting &c." 67. "Even if (_a_) _it were_ attended with extenuating circumstances, such conduct would deserve severe reprobation, (_b_) _and it_ is the more called for because _it_ would seem that (_c_) _it_ was the intention of _the author of the crime_, in perpetrating (_e_) _it_, to inflict all the misery that was possible, upon his victim." See (5). (_a_) Omit "it were." (_b_) "which." (_c_) "to have been." (_d_) Express "author of the crime" in one word. (_e_) Use the noun. 68. "The (_a_) (1) _observance_ of the heavenly bodies must have been attended with great difficulties, (_b_) (30) before the telescope was (_a_) (1) _discovered_, and it is not to be wondered at if the investigations of astronomers were often unsatisfactory, and failed to produce complete (_a_) (1) _persuasion_, (30) (15, _a_) under these disadvantages." (_a_) What is the difference between "observance" and "observation," "discover" and "invent," "persuasion" and "conviction"? (_b_) Begin "Before &c." 69. "He plunged into the sea once more, (30) not content with his previous exertions. After a long and dangerous struggle, he succeeded in reaching a poor woman that was crying piteously for help, and (_a_) (35) was at last hauled safely to shore." (_a_) Point put and remedy the ambiguity by inserting "he" or by writing "who," according to the meaning. 70. "Sir John Burgoyne himself, face to face with Todleben, became (_a_) (1) _conscious_ of the difference between the fortifications of San Sebastian and of Sebastopol, (_b_) _which_ (10 _e_) was (_c_) (12) _very weak_ compared with Metz or Paris." (_a_) What is the exact meaning of _conscious_? (_b_) Avoid the relative, by repeating the name, with a conjunction, (_c_) "weakness itself." 71. "Upon Richard's leaving the (_c_) stage, the Commonwealth was again set up; and the Parliament which Cromwell had (_a_) _broken_ was brought together; but the army and they fell into new disputes: so they were again (_a_) _broken_ by the army: and upon that the nation was like to fall into (_b_) (11) _great_ convulsions." (_a_) Modern Eng., "broken up." (_b_) "violently convulsed." (_c_) It is a question whether this metaphor is in good taste. The meaning is that Richard "retired from public life." It might be asserted that Richard, the Commonwealth, the Parliament are regarded as so many puppets on a "stage." But this is extremely doubtful. Make _Parliament_ the principal subject: "When Richard retired ... and when the Commonwealth &c.... the Parliament was ... but, falling into a dispute with &c., it was...." See (18) and (43). 72. "What a revolution in the military profession! He began with (_a_) (11) _unnecessary formality_, and (_b_) (11) _inefficient weapons_, and ended with (_c_) (_b_) (11) _greatly improved fire-arms_." (_a_) "pig-tail and pipe-clay." (_b_) "Six-pounders and flint-locks" are now inefficient compared with "twenty-four-pounders and breech-loaders." (_c_) Something is wanted antithetical to (_a_), perhaps "loose drill" or "open order." 73. "Children fear to go in the dark. Men fear death in the same way. The fear of children is increased by tales. So is the fear of death. The contemplation of death, as the 'wages of sin,' and passage to another world, is holy and religious. The fear of it, as a tribute due unto nature, is weak. In religious meditations on death there is sometimes mixture of vanity and of superstition." Insert connecting adverbs or conjunctions. See (44). 74. "I have often heard him _reiterate_ (54) _repeatedly_ that he would never again, if a _safe_ (54) _and secure path_ was open to him, prefer the _perilous_ (54) _road of danger_, however _alluring_ (54) _and attractive_ the latter might be." 75. "I thought in my dream that when my friend asked me whether I did not observe anything curious in the conduct of the pigeons, I (_a_) (4 _a_) _remarked_ that if any one of the birds was so bold as to take an atom from a heap of grain in the midst of them, (31) (which (_b_) a detachment guarded, and which, being continually increased and never eaten, seemed useless), all the rest turned against him and pecked him to death for the (_c_) (50) _action_." (_a_) Point out the ambiguity. (_b_) This should come earlier in the sentence, and not as a parenthesis. "I noticed a heap of grain in the midst of them, guarded by ... Being continually ..., to all appearance, useless: yet." (_c_) "theft." 76. "If this low view of the royal office becomes generally adopted, then sovereigns _who_ (8) have always hitherto commanded the respect of Englishmen will by degrees fall into disrespect." Point out the ambiguity. Show how it might be removed (_a_) by punctuation, (_b_) by altering "who." 77. "I struck the man in self-defence. I explained this to the magistrate. He would not believe me. Witnesses were called to support my statements. He committed me to prison. He had the right to do this. It is a right that is rarely exercised in such circumstances. I remonstrated." See (44). Insert conjunctions or connecting adverbs. 78. "He attained a very distinguished position by mere (15) perseverance and common sense, which (52) (10 _a_) qualities are perhaps mostly underrated, (30) though he was deficient in tact and not remarkable for general ability." 79. "_Vindictiveness, which_ (_a_) (50) _is a fault_, (_b_) _and_ which may be defined as _anger_ (10 _a_) _which is caused_ not by sin nor by crime but by personal injury, ought to be carefully distinguished from _resentment, which_ (_a_) (50) _is a virtue_, (_b_) _and_ which is _anger_ (49) _which is natural and_ (_c_) _right_ caused by an act (_d_) which is unjust, because it is unjust, (30 _a_) not because it is inconvenient." (_a_) "The fault of vindictiveness;" "the virtue of resentment." (_b_) Omit _(c_) "Right" cannot be used as an adjective, but "righteous" can. (_d_) "an act of injustice." 80. "(_a_) He told his friend that (_a_) _his_ brother was surprised that (_a_) _he_ had given so small a contribution, for (_a_) _he_ was (_b_) (12) _a very rich man_, in spite of (_a_) _his_ recent losses and the bad state of trade, (19) (30) compared with himself." (_a_) Use (6). (_b_) What Asian king was proverbial for wealth? 81. "(_a_) (15 _b_) It must be indeed wrong to (_a_) _crucify_ a Roman citizen if to (_b_) (32) _slay_ one is almost parricide, to (_b_) _scourge_ him is a monstrous crime, and to (_b_) _bind_ him is an outrage." (_a_) "What must it be...?" (_b_) See (40). 82. "The _universal_ (54) _opinion of all the_ citizens was that the citadel _had been_ (15) _betrayed_, (30) having been captured in broad daylight by a very small number of the enemy, and those unprovided with scaling ladders, and admitted by a postern gate, (15 _a_) and much wearied by a long march." In any case "betrayed" must come at the end of a sentence. The sentence may be converted into two sentences: "The citadel had been captured.... Naturally therefore ...;" or, "The opinion ... for it had been captured...." Else, if one sentence be used, write "As the citadel had been captured &c." 83. "This author surpassed all _those who were living_ (_a_) _at the same time with him_ in the _forcible_ (_b_) _manner in_ which he could _address_ (_c_) _an_ appeal to the popular sympathy, and in the ease with which he could _draw towards_ (_a_) _himself_ the hearts of his readers." (_a_) Express in one word. (_b_) "force with." (_c_) Omit. 84. "This great statesman was indeed a pillar of commerce, and a star in the financial world. He guided or impelled the people from the quicksands of Protection and false political economy to the safe harbour of Free Trade; and (_a_) (14 _a_) saved the country several millions." (_a_) It would be well to literalize the preceding metaphors. Else the literal statement must be changed into a metaphor. 85. "The ministers were most unwilling to meet the Houses, (_a_) (43) (51) _because_ even the boldest of them (though their counsels were _lawless_ (15) _and desperate_) had too much value for his (_b_) (11) _personal safety_ to think of resorting to the (_c_) (12) unlawful modes of extortion that had been familiar to the preceding age." (_a_) Begin a new sentence with "Lawless and desperate though their counsels had been &c." (_b_) "neck." (_c_) Insert some of these unlawful modes, "benevolences, ship-money, and the other &c." 86. "_We will not_ (_a_) (15) _pretend to guess what_ our grandchildren may think of the character of Lord Byron, as exhibited _in_ (15 _a_) _his poetry_." No writer ever had the whole eloquence of scorn, misanthropy, _and_ (_a_) (15) _despair_ (15 _a_) _so completely at his command_. That _fountain_ (_b_) (12) _of bitterness_ was never dry." (_a_) "We will not pretend to guess" and "despair" are intended by the author to be emphatic. (_b_) "Marah." 87. "The captain asked to be allowed fifty men, a supply of food, and one hundred and fifty breech-loaders. (44) The general replied coldly that he could not let his subordinate have (_a_) (4) _anything_ that he wanted. (44) The captain was forced to set out (34) with an insufficient force, spite of the superabundance of soldiers doing nothing in the camp (34), and with every obstacle put in his way by a general who from the first had resolved not even to give him ordinary assistance, (_b_) (10 _a'_) _which_ the captain had for some time anticipated." (_a_) Point out and remove the ambiguity. (_b_) Write, according to the meaning, " ... assistance that" or " ... a resolution that." 88. "I am a practical man, and disbelieve in everything (8) _which_ is not practical; theories (_a_) _which_ amuse philosophers and pedants have no attractions for me, (30) _for this reason_." (_a_) What difference in the meaning would be caused by the use of "that" for the second "which"? 89. "Yet, when that discovery drew no other severity but the (11 _a_) _turning_ (_a_) _him out of office_, and _the_ (11 _a_) _passing a sentence_ (_b_) _condemning him to die for it_ (31) (which was presently pardoned, and he was after a short confinement restored to his liberty), all men _believed_ that the king knew of the letter, (_c_) (43) and that (6 _b_) the pretended confession of the secretary was only collusion to lay the jealousies of the king's (_d_) (11 _a_) _favouring_ popery, (_e_) (43) which still hung upon him, (30) notwithstanding his (_e_) _writing_ on the Revelation, and his (_e_) _affecting_ to enter on all occasions into controversy, (_e_) asserting in particular that the Pope was Antichrist." (_a_) "expulsion from." (_b_) "a pretended sentence to death--a pretence that was soon manifested by his pardon and liberation." (_c_) Begin a new sentence: "'The secretary's pretended confession,' it was said, 'was &c.'" (_d_) "the suspicion that the king favoured Popery." (_e_) The juxtaposition of the two verbal nouns, "writing" and "affecting," with the participle "asserting," is harsh. Write, "For, notwithstanding that he affected controversy, and attacked the Pope as Antichrist in his treatise on the Book of Revelation, the king was still suspected." 90. "The opinion that the sun is fixed was once too (_a_) (1) _universal_ to be easily shaken, and a similar prejudice has often (_b_) _rendered_ the progress of new inventions (15 _a_) _very slow_, (19) arising from the numbers of the believers, and not (36) the reasonableness of the belief." (_a_) Write "general." Show the absurdity of appending "too" to "universal." (_b_) What single word can be substituted for "rendered slow"? 91. "The rest of the generals were willing to surrender unconditionally, (30) _depressed by this unforeseen calamity_; (4) _only_ the young colonel, who retained his presence of mind, represented to them that they were increasing the difficulties of a position in itself very difficult (19) (15, _a_) _by their conduct_." 92. "To (_a_) (31) _an author who_ is, in his expression of any sentiment, wavering between _the_ (_b_) _demands of_ perspicuity and energy (of which _the_ (_c_) (40 _a_) _former of course_ requires the first care, lest (40 _a_) he should fail of both), and (37) doubting whether the (_d_) phrase _which_ (8) _has_ (_e_) _the_ most force and brevity will be (_f_) readily _taken_ (_g_) _in, it may_ (_h_) (3) _be recommended to use_ both (_d_) expressions; first, (_h_) _to expound_ the sense sufficiently to be clearly understood, and then (_i_) _to_ contract it into the most compendious and striking form." (_a_) Write "When an author &c." (_b_) Can be omitted. (_c_) Assimilate the constructions: "Of which the former must, of course, be aimed at first, lest both be missed." (_d_) Use "expression" or else "phrase" in _both_ places. (_e_) Assimilate the construction to what follows; write "that is most forcible and brief." (_f_) Insert "also." (_g_) "understood." (_h_) "let him use ...; first let him expound." (_i_) Omit. 93. "When I say 'a great man,' I _not_ (22) _only_ mean a man intellectually great but also morally, (38) _who_ (8) has no preference for diplomacy (_a_) (23) _at all events which_ (10 _a_) _is_ mean, petty, and underhanded to secure ends _which_ (8) can be secured by an honest policy _equally_ (20) _well_, (38) _who_ (8) does not resemble Polonius, (_b_) who prefers to get at truth by untruthful tricks, and (_b_) who considers truth a carp _which_ (10 _g_) _is_ to be caught by the bait falsehood. We cannot call a petty intriguer great (_c_), (30) though we may be forced to call an unscrupulous _man by that_ (15 _a_) _name_." (_a_) "at all events no preference." (_b_) Why is _who_ right here? If you like, you can write, "does not, like Polonius, prefer ... and consider." (_c_) End with "we cannot give the name to a petty intriguer." 94. "I regret that I have some (_a_) (3) _intelligence which_ (10 _a_) _is of a most_ (3) _painful nature_, and which I must tell you at once, though (_b_) _I should like to defer it_ on (_c_) (40 _a_) account of your ill-health, and _because_ (_c_) (40 _a_) _you have already had_ many troubles, and (40 _a_) _owing to_ the natural dislike _which_ (8) a friend must always feel to say _that_ (10 _f_) _which_ is unpleasant. Many old friends in this district have turned against you: I scarcely like to write the words: _only_ (21) I remain faithful to you, and I am sure you will believe that I am doing _that_ (10 _f_) _which_ is best for your interests." (_a_) "news." (_b_) In a letter these words should remain is they are; but if a _period_ is desired, they must (30) come last, after "unpleasant." (_c_) Write "because of your ill-health ... and the troubles ... and because of...." 95. "The general at once sent back word that the enemy had suddenly appeared on the other side of the river, and [(35) or (37)] then (_a_) retreated. (_b_) _It_ was thought that (_b_) _it_ would have shown more (_c_) (1) _fortitude_ on his (3) _part_ if he had attacked the fortifications, (_d_) _which_ were not tenable for more than a week at all events. Such was the (54) _universal_ opinion, _at_ (23) _least, of_ (54) _all_ the soldiers." (_a_) Point out the ambiguity. (_b_) "It was thought he would have shown &c." (_c_) Distinguish between "fortitude" and "bravery." (_d_) What would be the meaning if "that" were substituted for "which"? It will be perhaps better to substitute for "which," "since they." 96. "A notion has sprung up that the Premier, though he can legislate, cannot govern, and has attained an influence which renders it imperative, if this Ministry is to go on, that (_a_) _it_ should be dispersed." (_a_) Who or what "has attained"? Write "and this notion has become so powerful that, unless it is dispersed...." 97. "Those who are _habitually silent_ (_a_) (3) _by disposition_ and morose are less liable to the fault of exaggerating than those who are _habitually_ (_a_) (3) _fond of talking_, and (40 _a_) _of_ (_a_) (3) _a pleasant disposition_." (a) Each of these periphrases must be condensed into a single adjective. 98. "This author, (_a_) (31) though he is not (_b_) _altogether_ (_c_) _guiltless of_ (_b_) _occasional_ (_c_) _faults_ of exaggeration, which are to be found as plentifully in his latest works as in _those which he_ (_d_) _published when he was beginning his career as an author_, yet, _notwithstanding these_ (_e_) _defects_, surpassed all _those who were living_ _at the_ (_f_) _same time with him_ in the _clear_ (_g_) _manner in_ which he could, as it were, see into the feelings of the people at large, and in the power--_a power that indeed could not be_ (_f_) _resisted_--with which he _drew_ (_f_) _toward himself_ the sympathy of _those who_ (_f_) _perused his works_." See (54). (_a_) Convert the parenthesis into a separate sentence. (_b_) One of these words is unnecessary. (_c_) One of these is unnecessary. (_d_) Condense: "his earliest." (_e_) Omit these words as unnecessary. (_f_) Express all this in one word. (_g_) "clearness with." 99. "_Among the North_ (_a_) (23) _American Indians_ I had indeed heard of the perpetration of similar atrocities; but it seemed intolerable that such things should occur in a civilized land: and I rushed from the room at once, leaving the wretch where he stood, with his tale half told, (30) _horror-stricken at his crime_." (_a_) Make it evident whether the speaker once _lived_ among the North American Indians, or not, and show who is "horror-stricken." 100. "His (1) _bravery_ under this painful operation and the (1) _fortitude_ he had shown in heading the last charge in the recent action, (30) _though he was_ wounded at the time and had been unable to use his right arm, and was the only officer left in his regiment, out of twenty who were alive the day before, (19) inspired every one with admiration." Begin, "Out of twenty officers &c.... Though wounded &c.... he had headed." "The bravery he had then shown and...." 101. "_Moral_ as well as (41) _other_ considerations must have weight when we are selecting an officer (_a_) _that_ (10 _b_) _will be placed in_ a position that will task his intelligence (_b_) (18) _and his fidelity_." (_a_) The repetition of "that" is objectionable. Use "to fill." (_b_) "and" can be replaced by some other conjunction to suit what precedes. 102. "It happened that at this time there were a few Radicals in the House _who_ (8) could not forgive the Prime Minister for being a Christian." Point out the difference of meaning, according as we read "who" or "that." 103. "_It cannot be doubted_ (15 _b_) _that_ the minds of a vast number of men would be left poor shrunken things, full of melancholy and indisposition, and unpleasing to themselves, if (32) there were taken out of men's minds vain opinions, false valuations, imaginations as one (_a_) would, and _the_ (15 _a_) _like_." (_a_) The meaning (which cannot easily be more tersely expressed than in the original) is "castles in the air," "pleasant fancies." 104. "God never wrought a miracle to refute atheism, because His ordinary works refute it. (_a_) A little philosophy inclines man's mind to atheism: depth in philosophy brings men's minds back to religion. (44) While the mind of man looks upon second causes scattered, it may sometimes rest in them; (44) when it beholds the chain of them confederate and linked together, it must needs acknowledge a Providence. (44) That school which is most accused of atheism most clearly demonstrates the truth of religion." (_a_) Insert a suspensive conjunction. See (34). 105. "The spirit of Liberty and the spirit of Nationality were once for all dead; (_a_) (5) _it_ might be for a time a pious duty, but it could not continue always _expedient or_ (_c_) (15) (18) _profitable to_ (_b_) (13) _mourn_ (_c_) (15 _a_) _for their loss_. Yet this is the (_b_) (13) _feeling_ of the age of Trajan." (_a_) Omit. (_b_) "To sit weeping by their grave;" "attitude." (_c_) Notice that "expedient or profitable" are emphatic, as is shown by "yet" in the next sentence. Make it evident therefore, by their position, that these words are more emphatic than "to mourn &c." 106. "(_a_) _If we ask_ (15 _b_) what was the nature of the force by which this change was effected, (_a_) _we find it to have been_ (_b_) the force that had seemed almost dead for many generations--(38) of theology." (_a_) Omit these words. (_b_) Begin a new sentence: "It was a force &c." 107. "I remember Longinus highly recommends a description of a storm by Homer, because (_a_) (5) (_c_) _he_ has not amused himself with little fancies upon the occasion, as authors of an inferior genius, whom he mentions, (_b_) (15 _a_) have done, (30) _but_ (_c_) _because_ he has gathered together those (_d_) (1) _events_ which are the most apt to terrify the imagination, and (35) really happen in the raging of a tempest." (_a_) "The poet." (_b_) Omit "have done" and write "like some authors." (_c_) Suspend the sentence by writing "the poet ... instead of ... has." (_d_) What is the word for "that which happens _around_ one, or in connection with some central object?" 108. "To have passed (_a_) (3) _in a self-satisfied manner_ through twenty years of office, letting things take their own course; to have (_b_) _sailed_ with consummate sagacity, never against the tide of popular (_c_) _judgement_; to have left on record as the sole title to distinction among English ministers a peculiar art of (_d_) _sporting with_ the heavy, the awful responsibility of a nation's destiny with the jaunty grace of a juggler (11) (_e_) _playing with_ his golden ball; to have joked and intrigued, and bribed and (_f_) _deceived_, with the result of having done nothing (_g_), (_h_) _either_ for the poor, (_h_) _or_ for religion (for (_i_) which indeed he did worse than nothing), (_h_) _or_ for art and science, (_h_) _or_ for the honour or concord or even the financial prosperity of the nation, (38) is surely a miserable basis on which the reputation of a great (15) statesman _can be_ (_k_) (15 _a_) _founded_." (_a_) "complacently." (_b_) "Sail" implies will and effort: use a word peculiar to a helpless ship, so as to contrast paradoxically with "sagacity." (_c_) Use a word implying less thought and deliberation. (_d_) _With_ is too often repeated; write "bearing" so as to introduce the illustration abruptly. (_e_) "tossing." (_f_) Use a word implying a particular kind of "deceit," not "lying," but the next thing to "lying." (_g_) Insert the word with a preceding and intensifying adverb, "absolutely nothing." (_h_) Instead of "either," "or," repeat "nothing." (_i_) The parenthesis breaks the rhythm. Write "nothing, or worse than nothing." (_k_) "to found." 109. "A glance at the clock will make you (1) _conscious_ that it is nearly three in the morning, and I therefore ask you, gentlemen, instead of wasting more time, to put this question to yourselves, 'Are we, or are we not, here, for the purpose of (1) _eliminating_ the truth?'" 110. "The speech of the Right Honourable member, so far from _unravelling_ (14) _the obscurities of this knotty question_, is eminently calculated to mislead his supporters (_a_) (8 _a_) _who_ have not made a special study of it. It may be (_b_) (23) _almost_ asserted of every statement (8) _which_ he has made that the very (1) _converse_ is the fact." (_a_) The meaning appears to be, not "_all_ his supporters," but "_those of_ his supporters who:" the convenience of writing "his supporters _that_" is so great that I should be disposed to use "that." (_b_) "Every," not "asserted," requires the juxtaposition of "almost." 111. "The provisions of the treaty _which_ (8) require the consent of the Parliament of Canada await its assembling." Point out the meaning conveyed by _which_, and by _that_. 112. "Mrs. Smith demonstrated (26), in opposition to the general dictum of the press, that (_a_) _there had been_ a reaction against woman's suffrage, that there had really been a gain of one vote in the House of Commons." (_a_) Substitute "instead of," and erase the second "that." 113. "The practice of smoking hangs like a gigantic (14 _a_) cloud of evil over the country." FOOTNOTES: [18] That which treats of the thirteenth century. CONTINUOUS EXERCISES. CLEARNESS. The following exercises consist of extracts from Burnet, Butler, and Clarendon, modernized and altered with a view to remove obscurity and ambiguity. The modernized version will necessarily be inferior to the original in unity of style, and in some other respects. The charm of the author's individuality, and the pleasant ring of the old-fashioned English, are lost. It is highly necessary that the student should recognize this, and should bear in mind that the sole object is to show how the meaning in each case might have been more _clearly_ expressed. Occasionally expressions have been altered, not as being in themselves obscure or objectionable, but as indicating a habit of which beginners should beware. For example, in the extract from Burnet, _he_ is often altered, not because, in the particular context, the pronoun presents any obscurity, but because Burnet's habit of repeating _he_ is faulty. These exercises can be used in two ways. The pupil may either have his book open and be questioned on the reasons for each alteration, or, after studying the two versions, he may have the original version dictated to him, and then he may reproduce the parallel version, or something like it, on paper. LORD CLARENDON. The principal faults in this style are, long heterogeneous sentences (43), use of phrases for words (47 _a_), ambiguous use of pronouns (5), excessive separation of words grammatically connected together (19). ORIGINAL VERSION. PARALLEL VERSION. (44) It will not be impertinent And now, in order to explain, as nor _unnatural to this_ (50) far as possible, how so prodigious _present discourse_, to set down an alteration could take place in in this place the present temper so short a time, and how the[19] and constitution of both Houses royal power could fall so low as of Parliament, and (34) of the to be unable to support itself, court itself, (30) that (5) _it_ its dignity, or its faithful may be the less wondered at, that servants, it will be of use to set so prodigious an alteration should down here, where it comes most be made in so short a time, and naturally, some account of the[20] (37) the crown fallen so low, that present temper and composition, it could neither support itself not only of both Houses of nor its own majesty, nor _those Parliament, but also of the court who would_ (47 _a_) _appear itself. faithful to it_. * * * * * * * * * * (Here follows a description of the House of Lords.) In the House of Commons were many In the House of Commons persons of wisdom and gravity, who there were many men of wisdom (7) _being possessed_ of great and and judgment whose high plentiful fortunes, though they position and great wealth disposed were undevoted enough to the them, in spite of their indifference court, (19) had all imaginable to the court, to feel duty for the king, and affection a most loyal respect for the to the government _established_(47 king, and a great affection for _a_) _by law_ or ancient custom; the ancient constitutional (43) and without doubt, the _major government of the country. Indeed, part of that_ (54) _body_ it cannot be doubted that consisted of men who had no mind the majority had no intention to to break the peace of the kingdom, break the peace of the kingdom or to make any considerable or to make any considerable alteration in the government of alteration in Church or State. Church or State: (43) and Consequently, from the very therefore (18) _all_ inventions outset, it was necessary to resort were set on _foot from the_ (15) to every conceivable device _beginning_ to work upon (5) for the purpose of perverting _them_, and (11) corrupt (5) this honest majority into rebellion. _them_, (43) (45) by suggestions "of the dangers (8) _which_ With some, the appeal was threatened all that was precious addressed to their patriotism. to the subject (19) in their They were warned "of the liberty and their property, by dangers that threatened [all _overthrowing_ (47 _a_) _or that was precious in] the liberty overmastering_ the law, _and_ (47 and property of the subject, _a_) _subjecting_ it to _an if the laws were to be made arbitrary_ (47_a_) _power_, and by subservient to despotism, and countenancing Popery to the if Popery was to be encouraged subversion of the Protestant to the subversion of the Protestant religion," and then, by religion." infusing terrible apprehensions into some, and so working upon The fears of others were appealed their fears, (6 _b_) "of (11 _a_) to. "There was danger," so[21] it being called in question for was said, "that they might be somewhat they had done," by which called to account for something (5) _they_ would stand in need of they had done, and they would then (5) _their_ protection; and (43) stand in need of the help of those (45) raising the hopes of others, who were now giving them this "that, by _concurring_ (47 _a_) timely warning." In others, hopes _with_ (5) _them_ (5) _they_ were excited, and offices, should be sure to obtain offices honours, and preferments were held and honours and any kind of out as the reward of adhesion. preferment." Though there were too Too many were led away by one or many corrupted and misled by these other of these temptations, and several temptations, and (19) indeed some needed no other others (40 _a_) who needed no temptation than their innate other temptations than from the fierceness and barbarity and the fierceness and barbarity _of malice they had contracted against their_ (47 _a_) _own natures_, and the Church and the court. But the the malice they had contracted leaders of the conspiracy were not against the Church and against the many. The flock was large and court; (43) yet the number was not submissive, but the shepherds were great _of those in whom the very few. government of the rest_ (47 _a_) _was vested_, nor were there many who had the absolute authority (13) to lead, though there were a multitude (13) that was disposed to follow. (44) (30) Mr. Pym was looked upon Of these, Mr. Pym was thought as the man of greatest experience superior to all the rest in in parliaments, _where he had_ parliamentary experience. To this (50) _served very long_, and _was advantage he added habits of always_ (50) _a man of business_, business acquired from his (7) being an officer in the continuous service in the Exchequer, (43) and of a good Exchequer. He had also a good reputation generally, (30) though reputation generally; for, though known to be inclined to the known to be inclined to the Puritan party; yet not of those Puritan party, yet he was not so furious resolutions against the fanatically set against the Church Church as the other leading men as the other leaders. In this were, and (44) wholly devoted to respect he resembled the Earl of the Earl of Bedford, who had Bedford, to whom he was nothing of that spirit. thoroughly devoted. (Here follow descriptions of Hampden and Saint John.) It was generally believed that These three persons, with the these three persons, with the three peers mentioned before, were other three lords mentioned united in the closest confidence, before, were of the most intimate and formed the mainspring of the and entire trust with each other, party. Such at least was the and made _the engine which_ (47 general belief. But it was clear _a_) _moved_ all the rest; (30) that they also admitted to their yet it was visible, that (15) unreserved confidence two others, _Nathaniel Fiennes, the second son (45) whom I will now of the Lord Say, and Sir Harry describe,--Nathaniel Fiennes, Vane, eldest son to the Secretary, second son of Lord Say, and Sir and Treasurer of the House_, were Harry Vane, eldest son of the received by them with full Secretary, and Treasurer of the confidence and without reserve. House. The former, being a man of good Nathaniel Fiennes, a man of good parts of learning, and after some parts, was educated at New years spent in New College in College, Oxford, where[22] his Oxford, (43) of which his father family claimed and enjoyed some had been formerly fellow, (43) privileges in virtue of their that family pretending[23] and kindred to the founder, and enjoying many privileges there, as where[22] his father had formerly of kin to the founder, (43) (19) been a fellow. He afterwards spent had spent his time abroad in some time in Geneva and in the Geneva and amongst the cantons of cantons of Switzerland, where[22] Switzerland, (30) where he he increased that natural improved his disinclination to the antipathy to the Church which he Church, with which milk he had had imbibed almost with his been nursed. From his travels he mother's milk.[24] By a singular returned through Scotland (52) coincidence, he came home through (which[24] few travellers took in Scotland (not a very common route their way home) at the time when for returning travellers) just (5) _that_ rebellion was in bud: when the Scotch rebellion was in (30) (43) (44) and was very little bud. For some time he was scarcely known, except amongst (5) _that_ known beyond the narrow and people, _which conversed_ (47 _a_) exclusive circle of his sect, _wholly amongst themselves,_ until until at last he appeared in he was now (15) _found in Parliament. Then, indeed, it was Parliament_, (30) (43) (44) when quickly discovered that he was it was quickly discovered that, likely to fulfil even the fond as he was the darling of his hopes of his father and the high father, so (5) _he_ was like to promise of many years. make good whatsoever _he_ had for many years promised. (5) _The other_, Sir H. Vane, was Fiennes' coadjutor, Sir H. Vane, a man of great natural parts[25] was a man of great natural (45) and of very profound ability.[25] Quick in understanding dissimulation, of a quick and impenetrable in dissembling, conception, and of very ready, he could also speak with sharp, and weighty expression. He promptness, point, and weight. His had an (50) unusual aspect, which, singular appearance, though it though it might naturally proceed might naturally proceed from his from his father and mother, parents, who were not noted for neither of which were beautiful their beauty, yet impressed men persons, yet (19) made men think with the belief that he had in him there was somewhat in him of something extraordinary, an extraordinary: and (52) his whole impression that was confirmed by life made good that imagination. the whole of his life. His Within a very short time after he behaviour at Oxford, where he returned from his studies in studied at Magdalen College, was Magdalen College in Oxford, where, not characterized, in spite of the (43) though he was under the care supervision of a very worthy of a very worthy tutor, he lived tutor, by a severe morality. Soon not with great exactness, (43) he after leaving Oxford he spent some spent some little time in France, little time in France, and more in and more in Geneva, and, (43) Geneva. After returning to after his return into England, England, he conceived an intense (38) contracted a full prejudice hatred not only against the and bitterness against the Church, government of the Church, which both against the form of the was disliked by many, but also government and the Liturgy, (43) against the Liturgy, which was which was generally in great held in great and general reverence, (15 _a_) _even with reverence. many of those who were not friends_ to (5) _the other_. In Incurring or seeming to incur, by his giddiness, which then much his giddiness, the displeasure of displeased, or seemed to his father, who at that time, displease, (30) (43) his father, beside strictly conforming to the who still appeared highly Church himself, was very bitter conformable, and exceedingly sharp against Nonconformists, the young against those who were not, Vane left his home for New (5) _he_ transported himself into England. New England, (43) a colony within few years before planted by a This colony had been planted a few mixture of all religions,[26] which years before by men of all sorts of disposed the professors to dislike religions, and their the government of the Church; who differences[26] disposed them to (30) (43) (44) were qualified by dislike the government of the the king's charter to choose their Church. Now, it happened that their own government and governors, privilege (accorded by the king's under the obligation, "that every charter) of choosing their own man should take the oaths of government and governors was allegiance and supremacy;" (30) subject to this obligation, "that (43) (5) _which_ all the first every man should take the oaths of planters did, when they received allegiance and supremacy." These their charter, before they oaths had been taken, not only by transported themselves from hence, all the original planters, on nor was there in many years after receiving their charter, before the least scruple amongst them of leaving England, but also for many complying with those obligations: years afterwards, without exciting so far men were, _in the infancy_ the slightest scruple. Indeed, (15) _of their schism_, from scruples against lawful oaths were refusing to take lawful oaths. unknown[27] in the infancy of the (45) He was no sooner landed English schism. But with the there, but his parts made him arrival of Vane all this was quickly taken notice of, (26) and changed. No sooner had he landed very probably his quality, being than his ability, and perhaps to the eldest son of a some extent his position, as eldest Privy-councillor, might give him son of a Privy-councillor, some advantage; _insomuch_ (51) recommended him to notice: and at _that_, when the next season came the next election he was chosen for the election of their Governor. magistrates, he was chosen their governor: (30) (45) (43) in which In his new post, his restless and place he had so ill fortune (26) unquiet imagination found (his working and unquiet fancy opportunity for creating and raising and infusing a thousand diffusing a thousand conscientious scruples of conscience, which (5) scruples that had not been brought _they_ had not brought over with over, or ever even heard of, by the them, nor heard of before) (19) colonists. His government proved a that he unsatisfied with failure: and, mutually them and they with him, dissatisfied, (45) governed and he retransported himself governor parted. Vane returned into England; (30) (43) (44) to England, but not till he had having sowed such seed of accomplished his mischievous task, dissension there, as grew up too not till he had sown the seeds of prosperously, and miserably those miserable dissensions which divided the poor colony into afterwards grew only too several factions, and divisions prosperously, till they split the and persecutions of each (15 _a_) wretched colony into distinct, _other_, (30) (43) which still hostile, and mutually persecuting continue _to the great_ (54) factions. His handiwork still _prejudice of that plantation_: remains, and it is owing to (15) insomuch as some of (5) _them_, _him_ that some of the colonists, upon the ground of their first on the pretext of liberty of expedition, liberty of conscience, conscience, the original cause of have withdrawn themselves from (5) their emigration, have withdrawn _their_ jurisdiction, and obtained themselves from the old colonial other charters from the king, by jurisdiction and have obtained which, (30) (43) in other forms of fresh charters from the king. government, they have enlarged These men have established new their plantations, within new forms of government, unduly limits adjacent to (5) (15 _a_) enlarged their boundaries, and set _the other_.their plantations, up rival settlements on the within new limits adjacent to (5) borders of the original colony. (15 _a_) _the other_. FOOTNOTES: [19] The original metaphor uses the crown as a prop, which seems a confusion. Though the metaphor is so common as scarcely to be regarded as a metaphor, it is better to avoid the appearance of confusion. [20] We sometimes say, briefly but not perhaps idiomatically, "the _then_ sovereign," "the _then_ temper," &c. [21] The personality of the tempters and organizers of the conspiracy is purposely kept in the background. [22] The relative is retained in the first two cases, because it conveys the _reason why_ Fiennes was educated at New College; and in the third case, because the increased "antipathy" is regarded as the natural _consequence_ of the residence in Calvinistic Geneva. [23] Claiming. [24] An insinuation of sedition seems intended. [25] This sentence is a preliminary summary of what follows. [26] If "which" is used here according to Rule (8), the meaning is, (_a_) "and their differences;" if it is used for "that," the meaning will be, (_b_) "all religions that were of a nature to dispose &c." I believe (_a_) is the meaning; but I have found difference of opinion on the question. [27] The following words appear to be emphatic, bringing out the difference between the _infancy_ and the development of schism. BURNET. The principal faults in Burnet's style are (_a_) the use of heterogeneous sentences (see 43); (_b_) the want of suspense (see 30); (_c_) the ambiguous use of pronouns (see 5); (_d_) the omission of connecting adverbs and conjunctions, and an excessive use of _and_ (see 44); and (_e_) an abruptness in passing from one topic to another (see 45). The correction of these faults necessarily lengthens the altered version. ORIGINAL VERSION. PARALLEL VERSION. And his maintaining the honour of He also gratified the English the nation in all foreign feeling of self-respect by countries gratified the (1) maintaining the honour of the _vanity which is very natural_ nation in all foreign countries. (50) _to Englishmen_; (30) (43) of So jealous was he on this point which he was _so_ (15) (17 _a_) that, though he was not a crowned _careful_ that, though he was not head, he yet secured for his a crowned head, yet his (40 _a_) ambassadors all the respect that ambassadors had all the respects had been paid to the ambassadors paid them which our (15) _kings'_ of our kings. The king, he said, ambassadors ever had: he said (6 received respect simply as the _b_) the dignity of the crown nation's representative head, was upon the account of the and, since the nation was the nation, _of which the king was_ same, the same respect should (50) _only the representative be paid to the[28] nation's head_; so, the nation being the ministers. same, he would have the same regards paid to (41) his ministers. Another[29] instance of (5) _this_ The following instance of jealousy pleased _him_ much. Blake with the for the national honour pleased fleet _happened_ (50) _to be_ at him much. When Blake was at Malaga Malaga before he made war upon with his fleet, before his war Spain: (44) _and_ some of his with Spain, it happened that some seamen went ashore, _and_ met the of his sailors going ashore and Host carried about; (44) _and_ not meeting the procession of the only paid no respect to it, but Host, not only paid no respect to laughed at those who did; (43) it, but even laughed at those who (30) (51) so one of the priests did. Incited by one of the priests put the people upon resenting this to resent the indignity, the indignity; _and_ they fell upon people fell on the scoffers and (5) _them and_ beat them severely. beat them severely. On their When they returned to their ship return to the ship the seamen (5) _they_ complained of (5) complained of this ill-usage, _this_ usage; and upon that Blake whereupon Blake sent a messenger sent a trumpet to the viceroy to to the viceroy to demand the demand the priest who was the priest who was the instigator of chief (1) _instrument_ in that the outrage. The viceroy answered ill-usage. The viceroy answered that he could not touch him, as he _he_ had no authority over the had no authority over the priests. (15) _priests_, and so could not To this Blake replied, that he did dispose of him. Blake upon that not intend to inquire to whom the sent him word that _he_ would not authority belonged, but, if the inquire who had the (1) power to priest were not sent within three send the priest to him, but if hours, he would burn the town. The _he_ were not sent within three townspeople being in no condition hours, _he_ would burn their town; to resist, the priest was at once (43) and (5) _they_, being in no sent. On his arrival, he defended condition to resist _him_, sent himself, alleging the insolence of the priest to _him_, (43) (44) who the sailors. But the English (50) justified himself upon the Admiral replied that a complaint petulant behaviour of the seamen. should have been forwarded to him, and then he would have punished (44) Blake answered that, if (5) them severely, for none of his _he_ had sent a complaint to (5) sailors should be allowed to _him of_(5) _it_, (5) _he_ would affront the established religion have punished them severely, since of any place where they touched. (5) _he_ would not suffer _his_ "But," he added, "I take it ill men to affront the established that you should set on your religion of any place at which (5) countrymen to do my work; for I _he_ touched; but (5) (6) _he_ will have all the world know that took it ill, that _he_ set on the an Englishman is only to be Spaniards to do (5) _it_; for _he_ punished, by an Englishman." Then, would have all the world to know satisfied with having had the (50) that an Englishman was only to be offender at his mercy, Blake punished by an Englishman; (43) entertained him civilly and sent (44) and so he treated the priest him back. civilly, and sent him back (30), being satisfied that he had him at his mercy. Cromwell was much delighted with Cromwell was much delighted with (5) _this_, (43) and read the Blake's conduct. Reading the letters in council with great letters in council with great satisfaction; _and_ said he (6) satisfaction, he said, "I hope I hoped he should make the name of shall make the name of an an Englishman as great as ever Englishman as much respected as that of a Roman (15 _a_) _had ever was the name of Roman." been_. (44) The States of Holland Among other countries the States were in such dread of (5) him that of Holland were in such dread of they took care to give him no sort Cromwell that they took care to of umbrage; (43) (44) _and_ when give him no sort of umbrage. at any time the king or his Accordingly, whenever the king or brothers came to see their sister his brothers came to see the the Princess Royal, (23) within a Princess Royal their sister, they day or two after, (5) _they_ used were always warned in a day or two to send a deputation to let _them_ by a deputation that Cromwell had know that Cromwell had required of required of the States to give the States that (5) _they_ should them no harbourage. give _them_ no harbour. * * * * * * * * * * Cromwell's favourite alliance was The free kingdom of Sweden was Sweden.[30] (44) Carolus Gustavus Cromwell's favourite ally; not and he lived in great conjunction only under Charles Gustavus, with of counsels. (44) Even Algernon whom he was on most confidential Sydney, (10 _a_) _who_ was not terms, but also under Christina. inclined to think or speak well of Both these sovereigns had just kings, commended _him_ (5) to me; notions of public liberty; at and said _he_ (5) had just least, Algernon Sydney, a man notions of public liberty; (44) certainly not prejudiced in favour (43) _and_ added, that Queen of royalty, assured me this was Christina seemed to have _them_ true of Gustavus. He also held the likewise. But (44) she was same opinion of Queen Christina; much changed from that, when but, if so, she was much changed I waited on her at Rome; for when I waited on her at Rome; for she complained of us as a factious she then complained of the factious nation, _that did not readily and unruly spirit of our nation. comply with the commands_ (47 _a_) _of our princes_. (44) All Italy All Italy, no less than trembled at the name of Cromwell, Holland,[31] trembled at the name and seemed under a (1) _panic_ as of Cromwell, and dreaded him till long as he lived; (43) his fleet he died. Nor durst the Turks scoured the Mediterranean; and the offend the great (50) Protector Turks durst not offend him; but whose fleet scoured the delivered up Hyde, who kept up the Mediterranean; and they even gave character of an ambassador from up Hyde, who, for keeping up in the king there (23) (43), and was Turkey the character of ambassador brought over and executed for (5) from the king, was brought to _it_. England and executed. (44) (11 _a_) The _putting_ the In another instance of severity brother of the king of Portugal's towards foreigners--the execution ambassador to death for murder, of the brother of the Portuguese was (11 _a_) _carrying_ justice ambassador for murder--Cromwell very far; (43) since, though in carried justice very far. For, the strictness of the law of though in strictness the law of nations, it is only the nations exempts from foreign ambassador's own person that is jurisdiction the ambassador alone, exempted from (4) _any authority_ yet in practice the exemption has (47 _a_) _but his master's that extended to the whole of the sends him_, yet the practice has ambassador's suite. gone in favour of _all that the ambassador owned_ (47 _a_) _to Successful abroad, Cromwell was no belong to him_. (41) (44) Cromwell less successful at home in showed his good (11) selecting able and worthy men for _understanding_ in nothing more public duties, especially for the than in seeking[32] out capable courts of law. In nothing did he and worthy men for all employments, show more clearly his great but most particularly for the natural insight, and nothing courts of law, (43) (30 _a_) contributed more to his popularity. (10 _a_) which gave a general satisfaction. FOOTNOTES: [28] The meaning is "_his_, and therefore _the nation's_, ministers." There is a kind of antithesis between "the nation" and "the nation's ministers." [29] No instance has yet been mentioned. [30] The thought that is implied, and should be expressed, by the words, is this: "Cromwell's favourite ally was a free country." [31] The remarks about Christina are a digression, and Burnet is now returning to the respect in which Cromwell was held by foreign nations. [32] He not only sought, but sought successfully. That "find" is not necessarily implied by "seek out" seems proved by the use of the word in the Authorized Version, 2 Tim. ii. 17: "He _sought_ me _out_ very diligently, and _found_ me." BISHOP BUTLER. The principal faults in this style are (_a_) a vague use of pronouns (5), and sometimes (_b_) the use of a phrase, where a word would be enough (47 _a_). ORIGINAL VERSION. PARALLEL VERSION. Some persons, (15) _upon Some persons avowedly reject all pretence[33] of the sufficiency of revelation as[34]essentially the light of Nature_, avowedly incredible and necessarily reject all revelation as, _in its_ fictitious, on the ground that the (47 _a_) _very notion_, light of Nature is in itself incredible, _and what_ (47 _a_) sufficient. And assuredly, had the _must be fictitious_. And indeed light of Nature been sufficient in (32) it is certain that no such a sense as to render revelation would have been given, revelation needless or useless, no (32) had the light of Nature been revelation would ever have been sufficient in such a sense as to given. But let any man consider render (5) _one_ not[35] wanting, the spiritual darkness that once or useless. But no (15 _b_) man in (41) prevailed in the heathen seriousness and simplicity can world before revelation, and that possibly think _it_ (5) _so_, who (41) still prevails in those considers the state of religion in regions that have not yet received the heathen world before the light of revealed truth; above revelation, and _its_ (5) present all, let him mark not merely the state in those (11) _places_ (8) natural inattention and ignorance _which_ have borrowed no light of the masses, but also the from (5) it; particularly (19) the doubtful language held even by a doubtfulness of some of the (12) Socrates on even so vital a greatest men concerning _things of subject as[36] the immortality of the utmost_ (11) _importance_, as the soul; and then can he in well as the (15 _a_) _natural seriousness and sincerity maintain inattention and ignorance of that the light of Nature is mankind in general_. It is (34) sufficient? impossible to say (12) who would have been able to have reasoned It is of course impossible to deny out that whole system which we that some second[36] Aristotle call natural religion, (30) in its might have reasoned out, in its genuine simplicity, clear of genuine simplicity and without superstition; but there is a touch of superstition, the certainly no ground to affirm whole of that system which we that the generality could. call natural religion. But there (44) If they could, there is is certainly no ground for no sort of probability that affirming that this complicated they would. (44) Admitting there process would have been possible were, they would highly want a for ordinary men. Even if they had standing admonition to remind them had the power, there is no of (5) _it_, and inculcate it upon probability that they would have them. And further still, were (5) had the inclination; and, even if _they_ as much _disposed_ (47 _a_) we admit the probable inclination, _to attend to_ religion as the they would still need some better sort of men (15 _a_) _are_; standing admonition, whereby yet, even upon this supposition, natural religion might be there would be various occasions suggested and inculcated. Still for supernatural instruction and further, even if we suppose these assistance, _and the greatest ordinary men to be as attentive to advantages_ (50) _might be religion as men of a better sort, afforded_ (15 _a_) _by_ (5) yet even then there would be _them_. So that, to say revelation various occasions when is a thing superfluous, _what supernatural instruction and there_ (47 _a_) _was no need of_, assistance might be most and _what can be of_ (47 _a_) _no beneficially bestowed. service_, is, I think, to talk wildly and at random. Nor would it Therefore, to call revelation be more extravagant to affirm that superfluous, needless, and (40 _a_) _mankind_ is so entirely useless, is, in my opinion, to (40 _a_) _at ease_ in the present talk wildly and at random. A man state, and (40 _a_) _life so_ might as reasonably assert that we completely (40 _a_) _happy_, that are so entirely at ease and so (5) _it_ is a contradiction to completely happy in this present suppose (40 _a_) our condition life that our condition cannot capable of _being in any respect_ without contradiction be supposed (47 _a_) _better_.--(_Analogy of capable of being in any way Religion_, part ii. chap. 1.) improved. FOOTNOTES: [33] "To pretend" once meant "to put forward," "maintain." [34] It has been suggested, however, that by "in its very notion incredible," is meant "inconceivable." [35] "Wanting" is used for modern "wanted." [36] This use of the particular for the general would be out of place in Butler's style, but it adds clearness. BREVITY. SIR ARCHIBALD ALISON. The following extract exhibits examples of tautology and lengthiness. The "implied statement" (50) can often be used as a remedy, but, more often, the best remedy is omission. ORIGINAL VERSION. PARALLEL VERSION. The Russian empire is (50) _a Russia, with her vast strength and state of_ (54) _such_ vast boundless resources, is obviously strength and boundless destined to exercise on the course resources, _that_ it is of history a great and lasting obviously destined to make a influence. The slowness of her great and lasting impression on progress only renders her human affairs. Its (50) progress durability more probable. The has been slow, but (5) _it_[37] is Russian Empire has not, like the only on that account the more empires of Alexander the Great and likely to be durable. (5) _It_ has Napoleon, been raised to sudden not suddenly risen to greatness, greatness by the genius of like the empire of Alexander in individuals or the accidents of ancient (19) (31), or that of fortune, but has been slowly Napoleon in modern, times, from enlarged and firmly consolidated the force of individual genius, or by well-guided ambition and the accidents of (54) casual persevering energy,[38] during a fortune, but has slowly advanced, long succession of ages. and (40 _a_) been firmly consolidated (15) _during a succession of ages_, from the combined influence of ambition skilfully directed and energy (15 _a_) _perseveringly applied_. * * * * * * * * * * The extent and fertility of the The extent and fertility of her Russian territory are _such_ (54) territory furnish unparalleled _as to_ furnish facilities of facilities for the increase of her increase and elements of strength population and power. European _which no nation_ (47 _a_) _in the Russia, that is, Russia to the world enjoys_. European west of the Ural Mountains, Russia--that is, Russia to the contains one million two hundred westward of the Ural thousand square geographical Mountains--contains a hundred and miles, or ten times the surface of fifty thousand four hundred square Great Britain and Ireland. marine leagues, or about one million two hundred thousand square geographical miles, being ten times the surface of the British Islands, which contain, including Ireland, one hundred and twenty-two thousand. Great part, This vast territory is intersected no doubt, of this _immense_ (54, by no mountain ranges, no arid see below) _territory is covered_ deserts; and though much of it is with forests, or (40 _a_) _lies_ rendered almost unproductive of so far to the north as to be food either by the denseness of almost unproductive of food; but forests, or by the severity of the no ranges of mountains or arid northern winter, yet almost all, deserts intersect the _vast_ (54, except that part which touches see above) _extent_, and almost the Arctic snows, is capable of the whole, excepting that which yielding something for the use touches the Arctic snows, is of man. capable of yielding something for the use of man. The (3) (54) The steppes of the south present _boundless_ steppes of the south an inexhaustible pasturage to present (54) _inexhaustible_ those nomad tribes whose numerous fields of pasturage, and give and incomparable horsemen form the birth to those nomad tribes, in chief defence of the empire. whose numerous and incomparable horsemen the chief defence of the empire,[39] as of all Oriental states, (15 _a_) _is to be found_. The rich arable lands in the heart The rich arable lands in the _of the_ (54) _empire_ produce an interior produce grain enough to (2) _incalculable_ quantity of support four times the present grain, capable not only of population of the empire, and yet maintaining four times (5) _its_ leave a vast surplus to be present inhabitants, but affording transported by the Dnieper, the a vast surplus for exportation by Volga, and their tributaries, into the Dnieper, the Volga, and their the Euxine or other seas. tributary streams, (30) which _form so many_ (54) _natural outlets_ into the Euxine or other seas; (44) while the cold and Lastly, the cold bleak plains shivering plains which stretch stretching towards Archangel and towards Archangel and the shores towards the shores of the White of the White Sea are (48) covered Sea, and covered with immense with immense forests of fir and forests of oak and fir, furnish oak, furnishing at once (54)[40] materials for shipbuilding and _inexhaustible_ materials for supplies of fuel that will for shipbuilding and supplies of fuel. many generations supersede the (54) _These ample stores_ for many necessity of searching for coal. generations will supersede the necessity of searching in the (14 _a_) _bowels_ of the earth for _the purposes of_ (54) _warmth or manufacture_. Formidable as the power of Russia Much as we may dread Russia for is from the vast extent of its the vastness of her territory and territory, and the great and of her rapidly increasing numbers, rapidly increasing number _of there is greater cause for fear its_ (54) _subjects_, (5) _it_ is in the military spirit and the still more (5) _so_ from the docility of her people. military spirit and docile disposition _by which they are_ (54)[41] _distinguished_. The prevailing (54) _passion_ of the A burning thirst for conquest is nation is the (54) _love of as prevalent a passion in Russia conquest_, and this (54) _ardent_ as democratic ambition in the free (54) _desire_, which (54) _burns states of Western Europe. This as_ (54) _fiercely_ in them as passion is the unseen spring[2] democratic ambition does in the which, while it retains the free states of Western Europe, is Russians in the strictest the unseen spring[42] which both discipline, unceasingly impels retains them _submissive_ (54) their united forces against all _under the standard of their adjoining states. chief_ and impels their accumulated forces in ceaseless The national energy, which is as violence over all the adjoining great as the national territory, states. The energies of the rarely wastes itself in disputes people, great as[43] the territory about domestic grievances. For all they inhabit, are rarely wasted in internal evils, how great soever, internal disputes. Domestic the Russians hope to find a grievances, how great soever, are compensation, and more than a (54) overlooked in the thirst for compensation, in the conquest of foreign aggrandizement. (15) In the world. the conquest of the world the people hope to find a compensation, and more than a compensation, (15 _a_) _for all the evils of their interior administration_. FOOTNOTES: [37] Apparently "it" means, not "progress," but the "Russian empire." [38] Not "energy," but "a long succession of ages," needs to be emphasized. [39] There is nothing in the context that requires the words, "as of all Oriental states." [40] If they were really "inexhaustible," the "necessity of searching in the bowels of the earth" would be "superseded," not for "many," but for all generations. [41] The words can be implied, and besides they are expressed in the following sentence. [42] The metaphor is questionable; for a "spring," _qua_ "spring," does not retain at all; and besides, "a passion" ought not to "burn" in one line, and be a "spring" in the next. [43] The meaning appears _not_ to be, "great as" (is), _i.e._ "though the territory is great." THE END. * * * * * ENGLISH LESSONS FOR ENGLISH PEOPLE. BY THE REV. EDWIN A. ABBOTT, M.A., HEAD MASTER OF THE CITY OF LONDON SCHOOL; AND J. R. SEELEY, M.A., PROFESSOR OF MODERN HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE. "It is not so much a merit to know English as it is a shame not to know it; and I look upon this knowledge as essential for an Englishman, and not merely for a fine speaker."--ADAPTED FROM CICERO. BOSTON: ROBERTS BROTHERS. 1883. [Illustration: QUI LEGIT REGIT] UNIVERSITY PRESS: JOHN WILSON & SON, CAMBRIDGE. TO THE REV. G. F. W. MORTIMER, D.D., _Prebendary of St. Paul's Cathedral, late Head Master of the City of London School_. DEAR DOCTOR MORTIMER, We have other motives, beside the respect and gratitude which must be felt for you by all those of your old pupils who are capable of appreciating the work you did at the City of London School, for asking you to let us dedicate to you a little book which we have entitled "English Lessons for English People." Looking back upon our school life, we both feel that among the many educational advantages which we enjoyed under your care, there was none more important than the study of the works of Shakspeare, to which we and our school-fellows were stimulated by the special prizes of the Beaufoy Endowment. We owe you a debt of gratitude not always owed by pupils to their teachers. Many who have passed into a life of engrossing activity without having been taught at school to use rightly, or to appreciate the right use of, their native tongue, feeling themselves foreigners amid the language of their country, may turn with some point against their teachers the reproach of banished Bolingbroke:-- My tongue's use is to me no more Than an unstringed viol or a harp, Or like a cunning instrument cased up, Or, being open, put into his hands That knows no touch to tune the harmony; Within my mouth you have engaoled my tongue, Doubly portcullis'd with my teeth and lips, And dull, unfeeling, barren ignorance Is made my gaoler to attend on me. I am too old to fawn upon a nurse, Too far in years to be a pupil now. It is our pleasant duty, on the contrary, to thank you for encouraging us to study the "cunning instrument" of our native tongue. Our sense of the benefits which we derived from this study, and our recollection that the study was at that time optional, and did not affect more than a small number of the pupils, lead us to anticipate that when once the English language and literature become recognized, not as an optional but as a regular part of our educational course, the advantages will be so great as to constitute nothing short of a national benefit. The present seems to be a critical moment for English instruction. The subject has excited much attention of late years; many schools have already taken it up; others are on the point of doing so; it forms an important part of most Government and other examinations. But there is a complaint from many teachers that they cannot teach English for want of text-books and manuals; and, as the study of English becomes year by year more general, this complaint makes itself more and more distinctly heard. To meet this want we have written the following pages. If we had had more time, we might perhaps have been tempted to aim at producing a more learned and exhaustive book on the subject; but, setting aside want of leisure, we feel that a practical text-book, and not a learned or exhaustive treatise, is what is wanted at the present crisis. We feel sure that you will give a kindly welcome to our little book, as an attempt, however imperfect, to hand on the torch which you have handed to us; we beg you also to accept it as a token of our sincere gratitude for more than ordinary kindnesses, and to believe us Your affectionate pupils, J. R. SEELEY. EDWIN A. ABBOTT. * * * * * _Messrs. Roberts Brothers' Publications._ ENGLISH LESSONS FOR ENGLISH PEOPLE. By Rev. E. A. ABBOTT, M.A., and Prof. J. R. SEELEY, M.A. Part I.--Vocabulary. Part II--Diction. Part III.--Metre. Part IV.--Hints on Selection and Arrangement. Appendix. 16mo. Price $1.50. _From the London Athenæum._ The object of this book is evidently a practical one. It is intended for ordinary use by a large circle of readers; and though designed principally for boys, may be read with advantage by many of more advanced years. One of the lessons which it professes to teach, "to use the right word in the right place," is one which no one should despise. The accomplishment is a rare one, and many of the hints here given are truly admirable. _From the Southern Review._ The study of Language can never be exhausted. Every time it is looked at by a man of real ability and culture, some new phase starts into view. The origin of Language; its relations to the mind; its history; its laws; its development; its struggles; its triumphs; its devices; its puzzles; its ethics,--every thing about it is full of interest. Here is a delightful book, by two men of recognized authority,--the head Master of London School, and the Professor of Modern History in the University of Cambridge, the notable author of "Ecce Homo." The book is so comprehensive in its scope that it seems almost miscellaneous. It treats of the vocabulary of the English Language; Diction as appropriate to this or that sort of composition; selection and arguments of topics; Metre, and an Appendix on Logic. All this in less than three hundred pages. Within this space so many subjects cannot be treated exhaustively; and no one is, unless we may except Metre, to which about eighty pages are devoted, and about which all seems to be said that is worth saying,--possibly more. But on each topic some of the best things are said in a very stimulating way. The student will desire to study more thoroughly the subject into which such pleasant openings are here given; and the best prepared teacher will be thankful for the number of striking illustrations gathered up to his hand. The abundance and freshness of the quotations makes the volume very attractive reading, without reference to its didactic value. _Sold by all booksellers. Mailed, postpaid, by the Publishers_, ROBERTS BROTHERS, BOSTON. PREFACE. This book is not intended to supply the place of an English Grammar. It presupposes a knowledge of Grammar and of English idiom in its readers, and does not address itself to foreigners, but to those who, having already a familiar knowledge of English, need help to write it with taste and exactness. Some degree of knowledge is presumed in the reader; nevertheless we do not presume that he possesses so much as to render him incapable of profiting from _lessons_. Our object is, if possible, not merely to interest, but to _teach_; to write lessons, not essays,--lessons that may perhaps prove interesting to some who have passed beyond the routine of school life, but still lessons, in the strictest sense, adapted for school classes. Aiming at practical utility, the book deals only with those difficulties which, in the course of teaching, we have found to be most common and most serious. For there are many difficulties, even when grammatical accuracy has been attained, in the way of English persons attempting to write and speak correctly. First, there is the cramping restriction of an insufficient vocabulary; not merely a loose and inexact apprehension of many words that are commonly used, and a consequent difficulty in using them accurately, but also a total ignorance of many other words, and an inability to use them at all; and these last are, as a rule, the very words which are absolutely necessary for the comprehension and expression of any thought that deals with something more than the most ordinary concrete notions. There is also a very common inability to appreciate the differences between words that are at all similar. Lastly, where the pupil has studied Latin, and trusts too much for his knowledge of English words to his knowledge of their Latin roots, there is the possibility of misderiving and misunderstanding a word, owing to ignorance of the changes of letters introduced in the process of derivation; and, on the other hand, there is the danger of misunderstanding and pedantically misusing words correctly derived, from an ignorance of the changes of meaning which a word almost always experiences in passing from one language to another. The result of all this non-understanding or slovenly half-understanding of words is a habit of slovenly reading and slovenly writing, which when once acquired is very hard to shake off. Then, following on the difficulties attending the use of words, there are others attending the choice and arrangement of words. There is the danger of falling into "poetic prose," of thinking it necessary to write "steed" or "charger" instead of "horse," "ire" instead of "anger," and the like; and every teacher, who has had much experience in looking over examination papers, will admit that this is a danger to which beginners are very liable. Again, there is the temptation to shrink with a senseless fear from using a plain word twice in the same page, and often from using a plain word at all. This unmanly dread of simplicity, and of what is called "tautology," gives rise to a patchwork made up of scraps of poetic quotations, unmeaning periphrases, and would-be humorous circumlocutions,--a style of all styles perhaps the most objectionable and offensive, which may be known and avoided by the name of _Fine Writing_. Lastly, there is the danger of _obscurity_, a fault which cannot be avoided without extreme care, owing to the uninflected nature of our language. All these difficulties and dangers are quite as real, and require as much attention, and are fit subjects for practical teaching in our schools, quite as much as many points which, at present, receive perhaps an excessive attention in some of our text-books. To use the right word in the right place is an accomplishment not less valuable than the knowledge of the truth (carefully recorded in most English Grammars, and often inflicted as a task upon younger pupils) that the plural of _cherub_ is _cherubim_, and the feminine of _bull_ is _cow_. To smooth the reader's way through these difficulties is the object of the first three Parts of this book. Difficulties connected with Vocabulary are considered first. The student is introduced, almost at once, to _Synonyms_. He is taught how to _define_ a word, with and without the aid of its synonyms. He is shown how to _eliminate_ from a word whatever is not essential to its meaning. The processes of _Definition_ and _Elimination_ are carefully explained: a system or scheme is laid down which he can exactly follow; and examples are subjoined, worked out to illustrate the method which he is to pursue. A system is also given by which the reader may enlarge his vocabulary, and furnish himself easily and naturally with those general or abstract terms which are often misunderstood and misused, and still more often not understood and not used at all. Some information is also given to help the reader to connect words with their roots, and at the same time to caution him against supposing that, because he knows the roots of a word, he necessarily knows the meaning of the word itself. Exercises are interspersed throughout this Part which can be worked out with, or without, an English Etymological Dictionary,[44] as the nature of the case may require. The exercises have not been selected at random; many of them have been subjected to the practical test of experience, and have been used in class teaching. The Second Part deals with Diction. It attempts to illustrate with some detail the distinction--often ignored by those who are beginning to write English, and sometimes by others also--between the Diction of Prose, and that of Poetry. It endeavors to dissipate that excessive and vulgar dread of tautology which, together with a fondness for misplaced pleasantry, gives rise to the vicious style described above. It gives some practical rules for writing a long sentence clearly and impressively; and it also examines the difference between slang, conversation, and written prose. Both for translating from foreign languages into English, and for writing original English composition, these rules have been used in teaching, and, we venture to think, with encouraging results. A Chapter on Simile and Metaphor concludes the subject of Diction. We have found, in the course of teaching, that a great deal of confusion in speaking and writing, and still more in reading and attempting to understand the works of our classical English authors, arises from the inability to express the literal meaning conveyed in a Metaphor. The application of the principle of Proportion to the explanation of Metaphor has been found to dissipate much of this confusion. The youngest pupils readily learn how to "expand a Metaphor into its Simile;" and it is really astonishing to see how many difficulties that perplex young heads, and sometimes old ones too, vanish at once when the key of "expansion" is applied. More important still, perhaps, is the exactness of thought introduced by this method. The pupil knows that, if he cannot expand a metaphor, he does not understand it. All teachers will admit that to force a pupil to see that he does not understand any thing is a great stride of progress. It is difficult to exaggerate the value of a process which makes it impossible for a pupil to delude himself into the belief that he understands when he does not understand. Metre is the subject of the Third Part. The object of this Part (as also, in a great measure, of the Chapter just mentioned belonging to the Second Part) is to enable the pupil to read English Poetry with intelligence, interest, and appreciation. To teach any one how to read a verse so as to mark the metre on the one hand, without on the other hand converting the metrical line into a monotonous doggerel, is not so easy a task as might be supposed. Many of the rules stated in this Part have been found of practical utility in teaching pupils to hit the mean. Rules and illustrations have therefore been given, and the different kinds of metre and varieties of the same metre have been explained at considerable length. This Chapter may seem to some to enter rather too much into detail. We desire, however, to urge as an explanation, that in all probability the study of English metre will rapidly assume more importance in English schools. At present, very little is generally taught, and perhaps known, about this subject. In a recent elaborate edition of the works of Pope, the skill of that consummate master of the art of epigrammatic versification is impugned because in one of his lines he suffers _the_ to receive the metrical accent. When one of the commonest customs (for it is in no sense a license) of English poets--a custom sanctioned by Shakspeare, Dryden, Milton, Wordsworth, Byron, Shelley, and Tennyson--can be censured as a fault, and this in a leading edition of a leading poet of our literature, it must be evident that much still remains to be done in teaching English Metre. At present this Part may seem too detailed. Probably, some few years hence, when a knowledge of English Metre has become more widely diffused, it will seem not detailed enough. The Fourth Part (like the Chapter on Metaphor) is concerned not more with English than with other languages. It treats of the different Styles of Composition, the appropriate subjects for each, and the arrangement of the subject-matter. We hope that this may be of some interest to the general reader, as well as of practical utility in the higher classes of schools. It seems desirable that before pupils begin to write essays, imaginary dialogues, speeches, and poems, they should receive some instruction as to the difference of arrangement in a poem, a speech, a conversation, and an essay. An Appendix adds a few hints on some Errors in Reasoning. This addition may interfere with the symmetry of the book; but if it is found of use, the utility will be ample compensation. In reading literature, pupils are continually meeting instances of false reasoning, which, if passed over without comment, do harm, and, if commented upon, require some little basis of knowledge in the pupil to enable him to understand the explanation. Without entering into the details of formal Logic, we have found it possible to give pupils some few hints which have appeared to help them. The hints are so elementary, and so few, that they cannot possibly delude the youngest reader into imagining that they are any thing more than hints. They may induce him hereafter to study the subject thoroughly in a complete treatise, when he has leisure and opportunity; but, in any case, a boy will leave school all the better prepared for the work of life, whatever that work may be, if he knows the meaning of _induction_, and has been cautioned against the error, _post hoc, ergo propter hoc_. No lesson, so far as our experience in teaching goes, interests and stimulates pupils more than this; and our experience of debating societies, in the higher forms of schools, forces upon us the conviction that such lessons are not more interesting than necessary. Questions on the different paragraphs have been added at the end of the book, for the purpose of enabling the student to test his knowledge of the contents, and also to serve as home lessons to be prepared by pupils in classes.[45] A desire, expressed by some teachers of experience, that these lessons should be published as soon as possible, has rather accelerated the publication. Some misprints and other inaccuracies may possibly be found in the following pages, in consequence of the short time Which has been allowed us for correcting them. Our thanks are due to several friends who have kindly assisted us in this task, and who have also aided us with many valuable and practical suggestions. Among these we desire to mention Mr. Joseph Payne, whose labors on Norman French are well known; Mr. T.G. Philpotts, late Fellow of New College, Oxford, and one of the Assistant Masters of Rugby School; Mr. Edwin Abbott, Head Master of the Philological School; Mr. Howard Candler, Mathematical Master of Uppingham School; and the Rev. R. H. Quick, one of the Assistant Masters of Harrow School. In conclusion, we repeat that we do not wish our book to be regarded as an exhaustive treatise, or as adapted for the use of foreigners. It is intended primarily for boys, but, in the present unsatisfactory state of English education, we entertain a hope that it may possibly be found not unfit for some who have passed the age of boyhood; and in this hope we have ventured to give it the title of _English Lessons for English People_. FOOTNOTES: [44] An Etymological Dictionary is necessary for pupils studying the First Part. Chambers's or Ogilvie's will answer the purpose. [45] Some of the passages quoted to illustrate style are intended to be committed to memory and used as repetition-lessons.--See pp. 180, 181, 212, 237, 238, etc. * * * * * ON THE RIGHT USE OF BOOKS. A LECTURE. By WILLIAM P. ATKINSON, Professor of English and History in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 16mo. Cloth. Price 50 cents. "Full of good sense, sound taste, and quiet humor.... It is the easiest thing in the world to waste time over books, which are merely tools of knowledge like any other tools.... It is the function of a good book not only to fructify, but to inspire, not only to fill the memory with evanescent treasures, but to enrich the imagination with forms of beauty and goodness which leave a lasting impression on the character."--_N. Y. Tribune._ "Contains so many wise suggestions concerning methods in study and so excellent a summary of the nature and principles of a really liberal education that it well deserves publication for the benefit of the reading public. Though it makes only a slight volume, its quality in thought and style is so admirable that all who are interested in the subject of good education will give to it a prominent and honorable position among the many books upon education which have recently been published. For it takes only a brief reading to perceive that in this single lecture the results of wide experience in teaching and of long study of the true principles of education are generalized and presented in a few pages, each one of which contains so much that it might be easily expanded into an excellent chapter."--_The Library Table._ * * * * * READING AS A FINE ART. By ERNEST LEGOUVÉ, of the Académie Française. Translated from the Ninth Edition by ABBY LANGDON ALGER. 16mo. Cloth. 50 cents. (_Dedication._) TO THE SCHOLARS OF THE HIGH AND NORMAL SCHOOL. For you this sketch was written: permit me to dedicate it to you, in fact, to intrust it to your care. Pupils to-day, to-morrow you will be teachers; to-morrow, generation after generation of youth will pass through your guardian hands. An idea received by you must of necessity reach thousands of minds. Help me, then, to spread abroad the work in which you have some share, and allow me to add to the great pleasure of having numbered you among my hearers the still greater happiness of calling you my assistants. E. LEGOUVÉ. We commend this valuable little book to the attention of teachers and others interested in the instruction of the pupils of our public schools. It treats of the "First Steps in Reading," "Learning to Read," "Should we read as we talk," "The Use and Management of the Voice," "The Art of Breathing," "Pronunciation," "Stuttering," "Punctuation," "Readers and Speakers," "Reading as a Means of Criticism," "On Reading Poetry," &c., and makes a strong claim as to the value of reading aloud, as being the most wholesome of gymnastics, for to strengthen the voice is to strengthen the whole system and develop vocal power. * * * * * HOW TO PARSE. AN ATTEMPT TO APPLY THE PRINCIPLES OF SCHOLARSHIP TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. With Appendixes in Analysis, Spelling, and Punctuation. By EDWIN A. ABBOTT, M.A., Head Master of the City of London School. 16mo. Cloth. Price $1.00. "We recommend this little book to the careful attention of teachers and others interested in instruction. In the hands of an able teacher, the book should help to relieve parsing from the reproach of being the bane of the school-room. The Etymological Glossary of Grammatical Terms will also supply a long-felt want." _N.Y. Nation._ "'How to Parse' is likely to prove to teachers a valuable, and to scholars an agreeable, substitute for most of the grammars in common use."--_Boston Daily Advertiser._ "The Rev. E.A. Abbott, whose books, 'English Lessons for English People,' and 'How to Write Clearly,' have been accepted as standard text-books on both sides of the ocean, has added another work to his list of sensible treatises on the use of English. It is called 'How to Parse,' and is best described by the further title, 'An Attempt to apply the Principles of Scholarship to English Grammar, with Appendices on Analysis, Spelling, and Punctuation.' The little book is so sensible and so simple that the greater number of its readers will perhaps forget to observe that it is profoundly philosophical also, but it is so in the best sense of the term."--_N. Y. Evening Post._ "Of all subjects of study, it may be safely admitted that grammar possesses as a rule the fewest attractions for the youthful mind. To prepare a work capable of imparting a thorough knowledge of this important part of education in an attractive and entertaining form, to many may appear extremely difficult, if not impossible; nevertheless, the task has been accomplished in a highly successful manner by Edwin A. Abbott, Head Master of the City of London School, in a neat little volume entitled 'How to Parse.' The author has succeeded admirably in combining with the exercises a vast amount of useful information, which impacts to the principles and rules of the main subject a degree of interest that renders the study as attractive as history or fiction. The value of the book is greatly increased by an excellent glossary of grammatical forms and a nicely arranged index. The work deserves the attention and consideration of teachers and pupils, and will doubtless prove a highly popular addition to the list of school-books."--_N.Y. Graphic._ * * * * * _Messrs. Roberts Brothers' Publications._ GOETHE'S HERMANN AND DOROTHEA. TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN BY ELLEN FROTHINGHAM. WITH ILLUSTRATIONS. _Thin 8vo, cloth, gilt, bevelled boards. Price $2.00._ _A cheaper edition, 16mo, cloth. Price $1.00._ "Miss Frothingham's translation is something to be glad of: it lends itself kindly to perusal, and it presents Goethe's charming poem in the metre of the original.... It is not a poem which could be profitably used in an argument for the enlargement of the sphere of woman: it teaches her subjection, indeed, from the lips of a beautiful girl, which are always so fatally convincing; but it has its charm, nevertheless, and will serve at least for an agreeable picture of an age when the ideal woman was a creature around which grew the beauty and comfort and security of home."--_Atlantic Monthly._ "The poem itself is bewitching. Of the same metre as Longfellow's 'Evangeline,' its sweet and measured cadences carry the reader onward with a real pleasure as he becomes more and more absorbed in this descriptive wooing song. It is a sweet volume to read aloud in a select circle of intelligent friends."--_Providence Press._ "Miss Frothingham has done a good service, and done it well, in translating this famous idyl, which has been justly called 'one of the most faultless poems of modern times.' Nothing can surpass the simplicity, tenderness, and grace of the original, and these have been well preserved in Miss Frothingham's version. Her success is worthy of the highest praise, and the mere English reader can scarcely fail to read the poem with the same delight with which it has always been read by those familiar with the German. Its charming pictures of domestic life, the strength and delicacy of its characterization, the purity of tone and ardent love of country which breathe through it, must always make it one of the most admired of Goethe's works."--_Boston Christian Register._ _Sold everywhere. Mailed, postpaid, by the Publishers_, ROBERTS BROTHERS, BOSTON * * * * * DR. ABBOTT'S WORKS. HOW TO PARSE. An Attempt to Apply the Principles of Scholarship to English Grammar. With Appendixes on Analysis, Spelling, and Punctuation. 16mo. Cloth. Price, $1.00. HOW TO TELL THE PARTS OF SPEECH. An Introduction to English Grammar. American edition, revised and enlarged by Prof. JOHN G. R. McELROY, of the University of Pennsylvania. 16mo. Cloth. Price, 75 cents. HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY. Rules and Exercises in English Composition. 16mo. Cloth. Price, 60 cents. ENGLISH LESSONS FOR ENGLISH PEOPLE. Jointly by Dr. ABBOTT and Prof. J. R. SEELEY, M.A., of Cambridge University, Eng. 16mo. Cloth. Price, $1.50. ROBERTS BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, _Boston_. * * * * * [Transcriber's Notes: Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as possible, including obsolete and variant spellings and other inconsistencies. The transcriber made the following changes to the text to correct obvious errors: 1. p. 90, "inpugned" --> "impugned" 2. p. 51, to qualify "enemy. --> to qualify "enemy." Text set in bold print is indicated by asterisks, i.e., *Bold*. It is common to have footnotes referenced multiple times in the text. Advertisements for Dr. Abbott's other works published by Roberts Brothers have been moved from the front of the book to the end. End of Transcriber's Notes] 
33826	----	LIPPINCOTT'S HORN-ASHBAUGH SPELLER FOR GRADES ONE TO EIGHT BY ERNEST HORN, PH.D. PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION AND DIRECTOR OF THE UNIVERSITY ELEMENTARY SCHOOL THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF IOWA AND ERNEST J. ASHBAUGH, PH.D. ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION AND CHIEF OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATIONAL TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF IOWA PHILADELPHIA, LONDON, CHICAGO J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY PRINTED BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY AT THE WASHINGTON SQUARE PRESS PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A. PREFACE It is the intention of the authors to include sufficient discussion and directions to teachers so that this book may be taught with the highest possible degree of efficiency. Under general directions to teachers will be found a discussion of those points which concern all teachers regardless of grade. In addition, preceding the word list for each grade will be found supplementary directions to aid the teachers in facing the problems peculiar to that grade. Special attention is called to the elaborate provision for making the pupil intelligent and responsible in his attack on his own spelling problems. This result is achieved by the testing plan which discovers to the pupil his deficiencies; by the standard scores which enable him to compare his accomplishment with that of other children; by the efficient method of study which is provided; and by the unusually rigorous follow-up work given in the review lessons. The authors therefore present this book to the pupils and teachers of the United States as a contribution to the solution of the problem of developing a nation of good spellers. THE AUTHORS. DECEMBER, 1920. CONTENTS PAGE PREFACE iii GENERAL DIRECTIONS TO TEACHERS vii-xiv DIRECTIONS TO PUPILS xiv-xvi DIRECTIONS TO TEACHERS OF GRADE I 2 WORD LIST, GRADE I 3-5 DIRECTIONS TO TEACHERS OF GRADE II 8 WORD LIST, GRADE II 9-14 DIRECTIONS TO TEACHERS OF GRADE III 16-17 WORD LIST, GRADE III 19-27 DIRECTIONS TO TEACHERS OF GRADE IV 30 WORD LIST, GRADE IV 31-40 DIRECTIONS TO TEACHERS OF GRADE V 42 WORD LIST, GRADE V 43-52 DIRECTIONS TO TEACHERS OF GRADE VI 54 WORD LIST, GRADE VI 55-64 DIRECTIONS TO TEACHERS OF GRADE VII 66 WORD LIST, GRADE VII 67-78 DIRECTIONS TO TEACHERS OF GRADE VIII 80 WORD LIST, GRADE VIII 81-95 DICTATION EXERCISES 97-105 LIPPINCOTT'S HORN-ASHBAUGH SPELLER GENERAL DIRECTIONS TO TEACHERS. =How the Teaching of Spelling May be Improved.=--The teaching of spelling may be improved in three ways: first, by selecting a better list of words for the pupil to study; second, by placing before the pupils of each grade the words that are most appropriate for them; and third, by introducing economical procedures in learning. The first is the problem of the course of study; the second, the problem of grading; and the third, the problem of method. =The Vocabulary.=--To solve the first problem one must insure that the pupils will study all words they are likely to use in life outside the school. One must also insure that the pupils' time will not be wasted through their being required to learn words which they will never use. This problem has been solved for you by the authors of the text. The vocabulary of the lessons is taken from a compilation which Doctor Horn has made of ten scientific investigations of the words used in writing letters. These investigations, taken together, represent the careful analysis of over three-quarters of a million running words of correspondence. If you will analyze one letter, you will see what a very great amount of work these investigations have required. It seems very unlikely that any word commonly and frequently used should have been overlooked in all of these investigations. These ten studies contain all of the information which is available at the present time concerning what words are likely to be used in writing letters. Accordingly, there is no word in this speller which has not been reported in one or more of these investigations. In addition, this vocabulary has been carefully compared with all of the other types of reading and writing vocabularies. Among these are the studies of children's themes, such as those by Jones, by the teachers of New Orleans, Kansas City, and Richmond, Virginia; the various studies of adult reading vocabularies, such as those by Eldridge and Knowles, aggregating over 140,000 running words; the studies of the vocabulary of school readers, such as those by Packer, Housh, and Miller, aggregating over one-half million running words. No word has been taken from these studies which did not occur in the investigations of the vocabulary of personal and business letters. On the other hand, these studies showed quite clearly that the words found as the result of the analysis of three-quarters of a million running words of correspondence are really basic in any writing vocabulary. If you will examine the book, you will see that most of the lessons are numbered with arabic numerals. These lessons contain a minimum list of 3998 words found to be used most frequently. You will notice, also, that beginning with grade three there are in each grade supplementary lessons, marked S-1, S-2, etc. These lessons include 580 additional words which are somewhat less frequently used. The supplementary lessons are distributed by grades, so that pupils who finish the minimum work for any grade will have additional lessons to study for the remainder of the year. However, before undertaking these supplementary lessons, the teacher should make sure that her pupils have learned thoroughly the minimum list which contains the important words. =Plan of Review.=--The provision for the complete elimination of spelling errors is particularly efficient and thoroughgoing. Not only are those words which most commonly give difficulty arranged for, but the method of testing insures that each pupil will eliminate his own peculiar errors. No pains have been spared to obtain this thoroughness without wasting the pupils' time in mere routine review. During the week in which each lesson is taught for the first time, each pupil is tested three times on every word in the lesson. He spends his time in concentrated attack on the words which have given him difficulty. One month later this lesson is given as a test, and the words missed by each pupil re-learned by him. At the end of the week this lesson is again given as a test. In addition, at the beginning of each grade above the first, the words which have been previously taught, but which according to Doctor Ashbaugh's investigation still give difficulty, are thoroughly reviewed. Finally, in the seventh grade, the words which are most frequently missed by grammar grade pupils are given additional review. It must be kept in mind that these reviews are not haphazard, nor are they a matter of guesswork. Each review list is made up on the basis of the most careful scientific study of persistent errors. =Grading.=--The lessons in each grade are those which the pupils in that grade may most profitably study. The words have been graded in the following manner: On the basis of Doctor Horn's compilation of correspondence vocabularies, all of the 4578 words were ranked according to the frequency with which they are used in correspondence. On the basis of Doctor Ashbaugh's study of the difficulty of these words in the various grades, the words were arranged in order of ease of spelling. With these two sources of data, the lessons are arranged so that in general the easiest words and those most commonly and frequently used are placed in the lower grades. In addition, on the basis of scientific analysis of the vocabulary of first, second, and third readers, the authors determined which words occurred most often in these readers. The words included in the lessons for the first three grades are not only easy and fairly common, but are found also in popular readers of the grades in which they are placed. For example, the word "and" was found 23,773 times in the letters analyzed in the various investigations upon which the book is based; and it is misspelled by but four second grade children out of a hundred. It also occurs in every one of ten commonly used first readers. Since it is one of the very commonest words, is easy to spell, and is found in all first readers, it is placed in the first list in the book. In a similar way every lesson in the first three grades has been a matter of computation. The lessons in grades above the third have been made in the same careful fashion, except that occurrences in readers were not taken into consideration. It is clear that the lessons increase gradually in difficulty in each successive grade, and that a pupil who is forced to leave school at the end of grade six or seven will have learned the words which he is most likely to need in writing. =Standard Scores.=--By means of standard errors at the close of each lesson, the pupils and teachers may compare results with those of other grades and with those obtained in the country at large. These standards were taken from the Ashbaugh Scale and from a supplementary study conducted by Doctor Ashbaugh and Doctor Horn to determine the standards for words not included in the original scale. It must be kept in mind that these standard errors are high, being the result of the present unfavorable conditions of the teaching of spelling in the country at large. They are used merely for the purpose of comparison. The ideal to keep before your class is that they should learn their lessons so that they will not misspell a single word, but this ideal is intensified by the use of the standard errors. =How to Teach the Lesson.=--Four points must be kept in mind as more important than any others: 1. The teacher must test her pupils on each lesson before they begin to study. 2. Each pupil should study only the words which he misspelled on the test. 3. He must be taught an economical method of study. 4. He must see clearly what progress he is making. Detailed suggestions for teaching the lessons are given in the paragraphs which follow. These suggestions are based upon the investigations reviewed by Doctor Horn in the Eighteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. The method has been tried out thoroughly in public school classrooms, and has proved uniformly successful. Teachers are urged to follow it as closely as possible. If, however, the teacher prefers another method of study, she may use it. The book may be used with any method. =Getting Started Right.=--The first few lessons may well be spent in systematizing class procedure and teaching pupils how to study a spelling lesson. Begin by pointing out the importance of spelling. Give cases, if possible, where people have been discredited because of spelling errors in letters. Discuss with the class how the words in this book were selected, how the standard errors at the close of each lesson were secured, and how the method of study was determined. The pupils may now be introduced to the procedure which will be used in conducting the spelling class, and to the method of study. =Teaching Pupils How to Work.=--Many teachers have found the following procedure very satisfactory. Have the pupils open their books at the first lesson for their grade. Explain to them that a great many men have spent much time and money in finding out the best way to learn to spell, and that the method which is to be used is based on what these men have recommended. Have the class read the directions to pupils given on pages xiv-xvi. After the directions have been read, have several pupils summarize them. When you have made sure that the class has the main points clearly in mind, the actual work of habituating the method may be begun. The first few lessons in each term should consist of practice in the method of study. This practice should be continued until you are satisfied that the pupils understand thoroughly how to go about their work. Remember that even though teachers in the preceding grades are using the method, there may be pupils in your grade who are new to the system, as well as some who have forgotten how to study. From the nature of the method, it is easy to detect any child who is not using it. Insist that the correct method be used from the outset. As soon as the pupils have learned the method of study, the regular work of learning the lessons may begin. =How the Lessons Should be Taught.=--The lessons are planned to be completed in a week. A week's work, therefore, consists of twenty new words and twenty review words except in grade one, where the week's work consists of ten new words and ten review words. The following schedule is recommended. =Monday.=--The first step in teaching a lesson is an exercise in pronunciation. Have the pupils open their books at the advanced lesson. Pronounce each word, enunciating the syllables very distinctly. Each word which in your judgment is not understood by the class should be used in a sentence. All homonyms should be so used. Have the pupils pronounce each word after you in concert, enunciating the syllables very distinctly. Insist on careful pronunciation on the part of every pupil. This exercise precedes the spelling test because of the importance of pronunciation in the method of study, and because of the probability that this initial attention to the correct form of the word is desirable. Since the pupils undoubtedly learn something as a result of this exercise, they may be expected to make somewhat better scores than those given in the book. These scores are the results of tests given without such a preliminary exercise in pronunciation. After all the words have been pronounced, have the pupils close their texts and prepare papers for a written test. This test will include the new lesson. It may be written on any sort of paper, the words being written in columns of twenty to correspond to the arrangement of the words in the book. Pronounce each word once only. Pupils should write the words without hesitation. No alterations in the first attempt at spelling the word should be allowed. After the words have all been dictated, have the pupils exchange papers for the purpose of correcting. Be sure that each pupil understands that he is marking his neighbor's paper, so that errors which have been made may be corrected. Instruct the class to mark a word wrong if it is misspelled, if it cannot be read, or if any change in the first attempt at spelling has been made. Be sure that each pupil understands that, until he is able to write a word correctly the first time, he has not sufficiently learned it. The words may be corrected on the basis of the teacher's oral spelling or by the book. Each word found to be misspelled should be marked wrong by placing after it an =X=. When the papers have been returned to the owners, each pupil should write the correct form of the words which he has misspelled. The words missed on the test will constitute his task for the week. =Tuesday.=--On Tuesday the pupils study, each working on his own errors and using the method recommended under directions to pupils. Pupils who made no errors on the test may be excused from this study period, but not from the succeeding test. It frequently happens that a pupil will spell a word correctly on one test and misspell it on a following test. The teacher should closely supervise the pupils' study in order to insure that proper methods of learning are used. She may also help to direct the work of those who, having made no errors on the preceding test, have been allowed to undertake some other task. The class should not be tested on this day. =Wednesday.=--Test on the new and on the review lesson. This review lesson should consist of a lesson taught one month before. Since the first four lessons in each grade are made up of words taught in the preceding grade, these may well be used for the first month as review lessons. The words may be corrected and the errors recorded as on Monday. Compare the number of errors made on this test with those made on the preceding test. This comparison will show the pupil what progress he has made. The remainder of the period may be spent in studying the words missed on this test. =Thursday.=--Study as on Tuesday. =Friday.=--Test on the new and on the review lesson, correct the papers as on Monday, and spend the rest of the period studying the errors made on this final test. Compare the number of errors made on this test with the number made on the first and second tests. The comparison gives the child a measure of accomplishment for the week. The teacher should check this day's papers in order to have an accurate record of the status of the pupils at the close of the week's work. Many teachers have found it helpful to keep a chart of progress on the blackboard. =Individual Instruction.=--It is clear from the preceding directions that the method of learning and the class administration are intended to insure that each pupil will learn those words which give him difficulty, and that he will, at the same time, progress at his own rate. With the possible exception of the fact that only the commonly used words are taught, this is the most important provision in the book. =The Spelling Notebook.=--It has been found to be very helpful to have each pupil keep a notebook in which to record words missed in the various spelling tests or in papers written in connection with other subjects. This notebook tends to make the pupil more conscientious with regard to his spelling. It also gives him a record of his errors so that when he has time for review work he can utilize it properly. =The Problem of Interest.=--Teachers who have used the method which is here recommended have been unanimous in reporting not only that the pupils learned more rapidly, but also that they worked with greater enthusiasm. This increased interest is secured without any use of soft pedagogy. It comes from several sources. First, the pupils know that the words in the book are those most commonly needed in writing. Second, the pupils quickly see the advantage of centering their efforts on words which they have actually missed. Third, by means of standard scores they are enabled to compare their spelling ability with that of children in other parts of the country. Fourth, they can see what they are accomplishing. Fifth, these provisions make possible the joy which comes from doing vigorously and thoroughly a clean-cut task that needs to be done. These are the interests which appeal to sensible men and women in life outside the school, and they have proved sufficient for children. Many attempts have been made to substitute devices for these wholesome and fundamental interests. Such attempts not only fail in their purpose, but actually distract the child's mind from the work he has to do. Sugar-coating inevitably destroys the child's appetite for healthy vigorous work. DIRECTIONS TO PUPILS =Why These Words Should be Studied.=--One of the ways by which people judge the writer of a letter is by the presence or absence of spelling errors. Often a young man or young woman has failed to obtain a desirable position because of spelling errors in a letter of application. Even in the ordinary friendly letter, spelling errors make a bad impression. The words which you are to learn from this spelling book are the words which people most frequently use in writing letters. Thousands of letters were read, and each word found was recorded. This book, therefore, contains the words most commonly used in writing, and does not contain any word which has not been found in letters. =How to Learn the Words.=--The first step in the study of each lesson will be an exercise in pronunciation. Your teacher will pronounce each word for you. Look at your book closely, noticing each syllable as she pronounces it. When the teacher asks you to pronounce the word after her, look at each syllable closely as _you_ pronounce it. The second step in learning the lesson is the test. Write each word as plainly as you can and without hesitation. The purpose of this test is to see whether or not there are any words in the lesson which you cannot spell. The words which you cannot spell will be your work in spelling for the week. If your teacher asks you to exchange papers for the purpose of correcting them, be sure to do your work very carefully. If you fail to mark a word wrong that has been misspelled, the pupil whose paper you marked will not be able to know that the word should be studied, and so will suffer an injury. On the other hand, it will be very confusing if you mark a word wrong which is really correct. Mark any word wrong that you cannot easily read; also any word if a letter has been written over or a change made. Remember that the purpose of the test is to find out which words need to be studied. The grades of the pupil whose papers you correct are not affected in any way by your marking. =The Meaning of "The Standard Number of Errors."=--The words in this book have been given to a great many children in each grade in a number of cities. In that way it was possible to find out the number of errors which children of each grade ordinarily make. If you will compare the number of errors which you make on the test with the number of errors at the bottom of your lesson, you will be able to see how your spelling compares with that of pupils in other parts of the country. =How to Learn to Spell a Word.=--A great many men have spent much time and money in finding out for you the best way to learn to spell. The directions which follow are based on what these men have discovered. 1. The first thing to do in learning to spell a word is to pronounce it correctly. Pronounce the word, saying each syllable very distinctly, and looking closely at each syllable as you say it. 2. With closed eyes try to see the word in your book, syllable by syllable, as you pronounce it in a whisper. In pronouncing the words, be sure to say each syllable distinctly. After saying the word, keep trying to recall how the word looked in your book, and at the same time say the letters. Spell by syllables. 3. Open your eyes, and look at the word to see whether or not you had it right. 4. Look at the word again, saying the syllables very distinctly. If you did not have the word right on your first trial, say the letters this time as you look sharply at the syllables. 5. Try again with closed eyes to see the word as you spell the syllables in a whisper. 6. Look again at your book to see if you had the word right. Keep trying until you can spell each syllable correctly with closed eyes. 7. When you feel sure that you have learned the word, write it without looking at your book, and then compare your attempt with the book to see whether or not you wrote it correctly. 8. Now write the word three times, covering each trial with your hand before you write the word the next time, so that you cannot copy. If all of these trials are right, you may say that you have learned the word for the present. If you make a single mistake, begin with the first direction and go through each step again. 9. Study each word by this method. Take special pains to attend closely to each step in the method. Hard and careful work is what counts. =Take Pains with Your Spelling in all Writing.=--Take pride in having your compositions and letters free from spelling errors. When you are in the slightest doubt as to how to spell a word, look it up in the dictionary before you write it. When you have found the word in the dictionary, learn it by the method by which you study your regular spelling lessons. In a similar way, if you do make a mistake in spelling in your compositions, learn the word which you misspelled by this same method. =Reviews.=--Whenever you have a few minutes after having prepared some lesson, turn back to the errors which you have made on previous spelling tests and spend some time going over the words which you missed on those tests. Occasionally when you are at home, you will find it interesting to have your mother or father or some friend test you over all the words you have missed during the year. You should not be satisfied until you can spell every word correctly. =Notebook.=--Keep a spelling notebook. Whether your teacher requires it or not, you will find it very much worth while to keep a spelling notebook. In this you should record all words missed on any test or in compositions which you write. If you find that you are frequently missing a word, write it in a special list and review it frequently. FIRST GRADE DIRECTIONS TO FIRST GRADE TEACHERS The words in the lessons for first grade children are few in number and relatively easy. You will notice that most of them are phonetic. Each word has been found to be used in correspondence and in a majority of first grade readers. This list is therefore particularly appropriate for first grade children and may be easily learned by them. The authors recommend that this work be begun in the second half year. =Directions for Teaching.=--Read again the general directions on pages vii to xvi, inclusive. In general the method used in grade one is the same as that used in later grades. There are, however, certain important differences. You will notice, for example, that first grade lessons contain ten instead of twenty words. You will need also to give more attention for the first two or three weeks to initiating correct habits of study. Remember that teachers above grade one will build upon habits which you initiate. The words in the first grade list are very simple, so that there should be no difficulty in learning to spell them. Neither should the children have any difficulty in understanding any of the one hundred fifty words. =Directions for Schools in Which the Pupils do Not Write in Grade One.=--The pupils in such schools should be taught to study according to the first six directions given under How to Learn to Spell a Word, page xv. The tests in these cases will have to be oral tests. Otherwise, the methods recommended in the general directions may be used. 1 2 3 4 is be but that and can dear to-day are dog did up day good do was he my go an in see his as it she little big me you look come all book not for at boy out get Standard Number of Errors I. ( ) I. ( ) I. ( ) I. ( ) II. 1 II. 1 II. 2 II. 2 III. 0 III. 1 III. 1 III. 1 5 6 7 8 hand old way gold have on will hat if one your her into over away home land run by how last say cannot ice let tell doing looking like the down love man this eat of may tree give play Standard Number of Errors I. ( ) I. ( ) I. ( ) I. ( ) II. 2 II. 2 II. 3 II. 3 III. 1 III. 1 III. 1 III. 1 9 10 11 12 so us bee far ten when call fat thank wind cane five them with cat from then after coat gave thing am cold girl think apple corn going three baby cow green time bed each had Standard Number of Errors I. ( ) I. ( ) I. ( ) I. ( ) II. 3 II. 3 II. 4 II. 4 III. 1 III. 2 III. 2 III. 2 13 14 15 16 hard must school all has night send be hen no six see just or snow not live pig sun may made playing they for make put top in milk red what do mother ring wood so much sat ran no Standard Number of Errors I. ( ) I. ( ) I. ( ) I. ( ) II. 4 II. 4 II. 4 II. 1 III. 2 III. 2 III. 2 III. 1 SECOND GRADE DIRECTIONS TO SECOND GRADE TEACHERS The second grade list of words contains 340 new words in addition to the review lessons, which include 80 of the most difficult first grade words, and 60 of the homonyms which give the most trouble. The new words are all words frequently used, are words which second grade children can learn easily and, for the most part, are frequently found in the second readers most commonly used. You will find that the method outlined below will enable you to teach these words so that your classes will make very nearly a perfect score on them. =Directions for Teaching.=--Read again the directions for teaching as given on pages vii to xvi. You will find it advisable to take some time at the beginning of the term to teach pupils how to study. You will still find it necessary to correct the papers yourself. You may follow the same schedule as that outlined in the general directions. Watch particularly for improper methods of study. Second grade pupils should write their tests without hesitation and with fair speed. Explain to the pupils with great care that letters which are not made plainly will be counted wrong. Remember that the lessons are arranged by weeks rather than by days. The work for each week consists of one advance column and one review column. The review column in each case is the fourth column preceding the advance work. That is, it is made up of a week's work one month old. For example, column 5 contains 20 new words to be learned in one week. During the same week, column 1 should be reviewed. The lesson for the first week consists of column 1, which is the advance lesson, and of column R 1, which is the review. R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 dear sat top make fat bee playing milk cow baby came her get has pig apple some home give with we looking had when way love from down run red far six gold like call send cat going ice school cold corn thank live or box put gave them am fast snow girl then by what this eat made mother three thing night after ring much one just cannot time bed hard wind over sun wood hat they must five Standard Number of Errors I. ( ) I. ( ) I. ( ) I. ( ) II. 5 II. 6 II. 7 II. 8 III. 3 III. 3 III. 3 III. 4 1 2 3 4 ask forget ear year back fun days ago best grass sing door bill happy doll got black hay hope May blow hill grow bad bring him boys ball butter hot fly bank cake inside hands bell cap its pink end child joy dry foot cup keep times free cut kind string king ever kiss bread letter face late needs most farm lay rise same feet left skin ship fill light cry till fish low story yet food meat tall about Standard Number of Errors I. ( ) I. ( ) I. ( ) I. ( ) II. 8 II. 8 II. 7 II. 6 III. 4 III. 4 III. 3 III. 3 5 6 7 8 more said very beside morning sand wall better Mr. sent want bird name side war blue never sister week brother nine small well calling now stand west mild off standing where care once state why city papa stay win cook part sweet wish cover pen take work cream place telling yes dark poor there afternoon deep rain to any dinner read told around drive rest took barn drop rich town bear dust ride two became east room under become even Standard Number of Errors I. ( ) I. ( ) I. ( ) I. ( ) II. 8 II. 8 II. 9 II. 10 III. 4 III. 4 III. 5 III. 5 9 10 11 12 eye large pick sold fall life pine son fell lived plan song felt lives river soon find long road spring fine longer rock step flat looked rose stop found mine sad store four Miss saw such gate mud saying summer glad myself seed supper gone near seen table gray now sell thin head nice set thinking hear noon sheep to-night help oh shop too here older show trust hold open sleep upon house our slow walk hunt outside soft water Standard Number of Errors I. ( ) I. ( ) I. ( ) I. ( ) II. 10 II. 10 II. 10 II. 10 III. 5 III. 5 III. 5 III. 5 13 14 15 16 went bright fellow market were bringing fire master while buy first meal who children flower meet wide clear frost met wife clock gather might window close given mind winter coming glass move without cool ground nap air could hang neck alive dance held next also die horse north asleep done June nothing ate pale know other been dress lady pass behind every leave goats bid fair leg right bit farmer lift round boat father loved rush both feed many seven Standard Number of Errors I. ( ) I. ( ) I. ( ) I. ( ) II. 12 II. 12 II. 12 II. 12 III. 6 III. 7 III. 7 III. 7 17 18 19 20 shall to seen oh short way him wood shut we hay blue sick dear rain hear sit some can't fair something ring here might sound ball there new south bee son buy start May too know stick bad bear meet still red two right stood one low road street by sell die taken made ate done taking sun very flower teach feet read air then Miss our be these do four bread true sent gray needs try week meat not Standard Number of Errors I. ( ) I. ( ) I. ( ) I. ( ) II. 12 II. 6 II. 9 II. 12 III. 7 III. 3 III. 5 III. 7 THIRD GRADE DIRECTIONS TO THIRD GRADE TEACHERS The advance lessons, numbered 1 to 28 inclusive, contain a minimum list of 528 new words. The supplementary list contains 80 words, which although easy to spell are not so frequently used in writing letters as are the words of the minimum list. This supplementary list is meant for those schools which because of the long school term or for other reasons, finish the minimum list before the end of the term or year. The lessons marked R-1, R-2, R-3, R-4, are made up of the eighty words taught in preceding grades, but which still give considerable difficulty to third grade children. They should be thoroughly mastered. =Directions for Teacher.=--For the first few lessons direct your attention to systematizing class procedure and to teaching pupils how to study effectively. Read carefully again the suggestions on pages vii to xvi. Pupils in the third grade should be able to make their own corrections so that time may now be saved by having the pupils exchange papers during the first two tests. The teacher should continue to correct the papers written on the final test. The following suggestions will be helpful in getting the coöperation of pupils. After the papers have been exchanged say, "In writing, it is important not only that you know how to spell, but also that you make your letters so that the person who reads your paper can tell easily what you have written. This is the reason that I have asked you to exchange papers. Many people write so that certain letters cannot be told from other letters. This is true of z, g, and y; o and a; t and l; n and u; h and k. When you correct papers and cannot tell which of two letters the writer intended, mark the word wrong. Also mark it wrong if a letter has been written over or a change made. Words should be learned so that they will be written correctly without hesitation the first time. Any word which has not been learned so that it may be written correctly the first time should be studied again. "Remember that the purpose of this test is to find out which words need further study. It does not affect your grades. You will do the pupil whose paper you have a favor by marking his errors so that he may correct them. Mark each error by placing after it a cross--so (x)." Pupils should keep a special list of words which they have missed in their compositions. These words should be studied by the same method used in studying the regular spelling lesson. Such words will not be taken up, however, in the regular lessons. Remember that the lessons are arranged by weeks rather than by days. The work for each week consists of one advance column and one review column. The review column in each case is the fourth column preceding the advance work. That is, it is made up of a week's work one month old. For example, column 5 contains 20 new words to be learned in one week. During the same week, column 1 should be reviewed. The lesson for the first week consists of column 1, which is the advance lesson, and of column R 1, which is the review. R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 dark meal also five fair market held shed feed leave nap leg June gather sound might sit air these frost nothing alive lift shall nor street hope white saying stick buy looked step something neck taken drop took next loved dress master short than road glass such hang ground both right pass given been move asleep other behind mind fellow bit bright met small beside lady done farmer became walk seven know gray try fire bringing water thinking rush taking Standard Number of Errors II. 6 II. 7 II. 7 II. 8 III. 3 III. 3 III. 3 III. 4 IV. 1 IV. 1 IV. 1 IV. 2 1 2 3 4 tone banks toy bay blush yours age cent cramp tan being grade goods bag lot Monday tub line pay pie blot dine seeing pin cards guns along stove cars map aside trip cave bind band bat chase girls belong blank darn save game car hook kinds hall card keg bath lake date lip lap lost hog yell lock mad kid pave weeks March landing peck fool nut mail plants salt oil mark sole near-by silk net split plans singing park Standard Number of Errors II. 4 II. 8 II. 8 II. 9 III. 2 III. 4 III. 4 III. 5 IV. 1 IV. 2 IV. 1 IV. 2 5 6 7 8 horn sport page rent looks Sunday paper spell dig tent plate post gives working price thanking pant able spent train mouse arm walking add shore art willing bean tall bake within bet bless born yard bunch fond faster added cane showing finding asking cash mat forgot below cattle pipe form blame clay books grand camp colder tender helping cast cooking steam hit Christmas cord roar ill class farming star kill clean list tool mill cost lunch bone note danger paying Standard Number of Errors II. 9 II. 10 II. 11 II. 11 III. 5 III. 5 III. 6 III. 6 IV. 2 IV. 2 IV. 3 IV. 3 9 10 11 12 ink drum lump rice inch egg mate rug print feeding mouth slip brand finger number smart tenth fit order spelling tip forgive ours stamp plow Friday pole test wake fur porch washing whenever glee race wishing wild goat rate belt fort grant reading grape peach heat real eve sin holding report glove wool hour saved job sum however seat lace rail hunting shot law sack July sink mend rank kindly sort ranch brick larger spot roll write luck stone self Standard Number of Errors II. 11 II. 12 II. 12 II. 12 III. 7 III. 7 III. 7 III. 8 IV. 3 IV. 3 IV. 3 IV. 4 13 14 15 16 wash rather teacher birthday wet full tie bite slide strong whatever block stock hug across body swell strange again dig trade draw ahead boxes wheel lines alone broke word candy always brought drew sail another called shows drink apart case blood goes April catch lots comes asked chair grapes pile aunt check forms dare badly church mix means basket cloth rub shake beat clothing sake swing because club maid hide beg coal sweep desk begin contest fry wants bench corner Standard Number of Errors II. 13 II. 13 II. 13 II. 13 III. 8 III. 8 III. 8 III. 8 IV. 4 IV. 4 IV. 4 IV. 4 17 18 19 20 count garden killed own cross gift later pack darling grandma least pain dead great less party deal soda lie passing dearly hair lovely past December half making picking deed happen matter please died harder mean plum early hardly miss pocket eighth having money point enter hearing nearly pound evening apples shame pure fear herself need queen fight high nobody rabbit file himself none reach floor hole nor riding flour hundred nose rolling forest indeed oats roof forth jump only row Standard Number of Errors II. 13 II. 13 II. 13 II. 13 III. 8 III. 8 III. 8 III. 8 IV. 4 IV. 4 IV. 4 IV. 4 21 22 23 24 safe alike those hour seem white thought mail sending pork thus write shade yellow tiny flour shape yourself twenty eight shoe shoot warm weak sight spite washed sole silver swim weak ours sir things which past sorry gay wonder their space grave erect beat spend golden worked pain spending sharp world flower spoke smell woven hall storm smile yesterday maid sunshine stir above sum talk boy act real talking drawn almost ate teeth blanket anything cent their feather before need Standard Number of Errors II. 13 II. 13 II. 14 II. 13 III. 8 III. 9 III. 9 III. 8 IV. 4 IV. 4 IV. 4 IV. 4 25 26 27 28 feast fix quilt sent men figs rag fur moon kept rid real mile lamp sauce sail plant pan speech roll bags soul spoon sour beans spoil steak stain dish truth straw boy lead wed vines died hogs roots worms forth crutch bare ants great prune fought bark mid smoke blight bend bus spray led bills dirt tea comb breath hair thanks farms fields choose sea eggs bud lie laugh lawn lend seem knee miles hills taste pears pail key skip Standard Number of Errors II. 12 II. 15 II. 15 II. 15 III. 7 III. 10 III. 10 III. 10 IV. 3 IV. 5 IV. 5 IV. 5 S-1 S-2 S-3 S-4 cab pet asks trick cape heal bald mumps bug heel pails takes dull hens blind bedtime fold grin crack pants poem pour bush hilly gun pray bull flight kick hose cords houses scratch pond cuff postman mop twin dusty hoarse nail make dwell hopes pint rode drag knife ties loaf drown greet push loop desk lamps rope root plush makes split scar sadly gloves mob tuck scalp gentle nod moth roses glance pad oars glue manly rob weed grab shelf Standard Number of Errors II. 15 II. 15 II. 15 II. 15 III. 10 III. 10 III. 10 III. 10 IV. 5 IV. 5 IV. 5 IV. 5 FOURTH GRADE DIRECTIONS TO FOURTH GRADE TEACHERS The advanced lessons numbered 1 to 32 inclusive contain 620 new words. The supplementary list containing 80 new words is meant for schools which because of the long term or for other reasons, finish the minimum list of words before the end of the year. The lessons marked R-1, R-2, R-3, R-4, are made up of the 80 words in the third grade list which are most commonly misspelled by fourth grade children. These 80 words should be thoroughly mastered. There are also reviewed 20 homonyms which commonly are confused by children of this grade. =Directions for Teaching.=--Read the preface and study with particular care the suggestions given on pages vii to xvi. It would be well also to read the suggestions to first, second and third grade teachers. You will need to supervise the correction of papers by pupils very closely. Remember that the lessons are arranged by weeks rather than by days. The work for each week consists of one advance column and one review column. The review column in each case is the fourth column preceding the advance work. That is, it is made up of a week's work one month old. For example, column 5 contains 20 new words to be learned in one week. During the same week, column 1 should be reviewed. The lesson for the first week consists of column 1, which is the advance lesson, and of column R 1, which is the review. R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 ranch herself check pound movement rabbit file roof badly shame garden sending before those himself shade lie lovely lace silver nor need miss spoke past rolling only stock beg seem tiny trade corner beg which begin cast bench across darling least bite act deed slide drew beat feeding fear flour belt fit gift forth called goat indeed happen cloth soda roll killed club jump almost none hundred mend anything their list pack enter woven matter queen spend brick nearly rank Standard Number of Errors III. 12 III. 10 III. 10 III. 6 IV. 6 IV. 5 IV. 5 IV. 3 V. 2 V. 2 V. 2 V. 1 1 2 3 4 Jan. October brush kitten Nov. oven burn leader banker printed carpet lover delay soil cleaning liver Feb. remove counting lumber goldfish snowed dandy mailed overcoat snowing depend enroll Sat. stage dollar nation worker tank dresser office officers teaching fence outfit overlook Tuesday fifty paint backing yearly football banking covering dislike friend stated Dec. scratch garment proper fishing agree handed sixty grove Aug. heating rained handy belonging homesick recall longest board inches recover maker boss January remark Oct. bother kinder renter Standard Number of Errors III. 6 III. 7 III. 8 III. 8 IV. 3 IV. 4 IV. 4 IV. 4 V. 1 V. 1 V. 2 V. 2 5 6 7 8 reader sample fork know adding sickness ham speak size railroad rule blew rust post card Mrs. wheat likely some one pair third skate speaker use easy soap starting quick earth press staying wear twice tire unable sure music ten wanting trunk moved wire leaving turn wagon zone driver news visit neat marking fail wanted witch display grain thick best straight few watch cedar anyone lead sugar term rushed march does draft largely used worth per understanding wise would inclosed alley crop young Standard Number of Errors III. 8 III. 8 III. 10 III. 10 IV. 4 IV. 4 IV. 5 IV. 5 V. 2 V. 2 V. 2 V. 2 9 10 11 12 simple heard granted should carry patch seventh sirs learned chop raining export Sept. heap raised suffer shortly stunt rubber paid invited front sofa ends cared velvet dressed hoops lone dearest goose tear drill render death rates drug thread protest grandpa fruit brain cleaner tooth tile ocean trace clip dream rented chart beach leaves ford dozen giving pride lame packing charge renew tend month opens grown sixth wedding steamer partly temple cheer event pencil handle damp soup eighty folder removed couch Standard Number of Errors III. 10 III. 10 III. 10 III. 10 IV. 5 IV. 5 IV. 5 IV. 5 V. 2 V. 2 V. 2 V. 2 13 14 15 16 started battle gladly classes bought island team filling branch sooner content match thankful lesson pillow closed change mamma travel seventy country mighty booklet track printing moment center behalf feeling strongest newspaper calf harvest oldest prevent cotton somewhere unless treat grew finish trying former inspect welcome o'clock mostly postage ready opening range pump township walked awhile coast everyone people growing holder bathroom person keeping western weather picture bottle army together getting provide leather everything good-night bushel merry understand September quart noise Standard Number of Errors III. 10 III. 10 III. 10 III. 11 IV. 5 IV. 5 IV. 5 IV. 5 V. 2 V. 2 V. 2 V. 2 17 18 19 20 station member company income brown wrote return bankers funny agent answer bookcase twelve sometime pleased reports coffee between remain teapot filled follow enough undress noted uncle amount waken plain build doctor pancake mailing county meeting papers otherwise payment fact plaster somewhat whole chance defeat itself building learn inclose pull study November mess kindness vote present pulse bleed heavy pretty rake hate trusting since slice labor Thursday through toast reached chicken busy frozen largest selling guess bloom scout ticket waited climb Standard Number of Errors III. 11 III. 11 III. 11 III. 11 IV. 5 IV. 5 IV. 6 IV. 6 V. 2 V. 2 V. 3 V. 3 21 22 23 24 expert fade saving gallon poorly knock thousand stair tax whip value excuse turkey causes request iron understood storage afraid exchange zero sudden suit demand absent noisy hotel hurry moving enclosed idea sale named ugly program figure rack windy among inform retail impress fully returned sock orders August wonderful chapter prison cause nicely dread replied vacation auto household charges serve valued leaf cracker thirty wished cloudy cupboard intend kitchen dispose dishes anyway sheet farther distant everybody duty packed eleven hurt plenty Standard Number of Errors III. 11 III. 12 III. 12 III. 12 IV. 7 IV. 7 IV. 7 IV. 7 V. 3 V. 3 V. 3 V. 3 25 26 27 28 rip cheek respect fancy steel delight voter located chill awake single talked joined repair anywhere dealing kisses living fresh lower knowing power higher bonnet reported smaller officer spread retain nature raw running treated changed title branches French contain improve broken jar monthly deliver greater learning gain liberty provided seal court proud afterward lamb kindest failed anyhow snap offering chain elect strongly meantime cleaned gown froze wrong dated greeting junk grind produce honest ordering share bugs lung circus extent locate remind Standard Number of Errors III. 12 III. 12 III. 12 III. 12 IV. 7 IV. 7 IV. 7 IV. 7 V. 3 V. 3 V. 3 V. 3 29 30 31 32 owe male gem plain worm most tail per earn melt task board yoke mode tape size pearl mood lack haul offer rural thrown tax years pear through wrote heart peas toe build often mouse legal whole shirt pests tore cast hoped sales trim stair firms scold mental sale bail seek urged beet marry shell vest pair rainy sneeze booster wear silly path wipe knew fudge jelly yield blew broad staid manual would shine stoves boost lone equal stuck walnut grown Standard Number of Errors III. 12 III. 13 III. 15 III. 11 IV. 7 IV. 8 IV. 9 IV. 5 V. 3 V. 4 V. 5 V. 2 S-1 S-2 S-3 S-4 shirts tempt ages jolly muddy boy's alarm layer skim charm amuse breast sky faith bitter mince slap yards blanks legging slick bead brine dean stack grate cabin oyster stands socks pages pantry steep dates Co. parade sting yarn drift player stool wring dies wave stoop limp empty polish strip states escape puzzle stump stretch floss rules tack bruise strap saucer tag wreck frank scream tease peep haul screen tune peak heaven stag ways sketch lard steal words tact lean eighth Standard Number of Errors III. 10 III. 13 III. 15 III. 15 IV. 5 IV. 8 IV. 9 IV. 10 V. 2 V. 4 V. 5 V. 5 FIFTH GRADE DIRECTIONS TO FIFTH GRADE TEACHERS The minimum lessons for this grade are numbered from 1 to 32, and contain 620 new words of the minimum list. The lessons marked R-1, R-2, R-3, R-4, are made up of words from the fourth grade lessons which are most frequently misspelled by fifth grade children. In addition to these eighty review words, there is one review lesson containing homonyms. There are also two supplementary lessons made up of words which are new but which are not so commonly used as those in the minimum list. As in preceding grades, these supplementary lessons are introduced in order to afford additional work for classes which finish the regular lessons before the end of the year. There are also two lessons containing names of the months, days of the week, and certain abbreviations. =Directions for Teaching.=--Read carefully the suggestions on pages vii to xvi. Read also the suggestions to teachers of the first four grades. See to it that your pupils attack their lessons in an aggressive manner. The pupils in grade five do considerable work in written composition, so it will be well to watch very closely the errors made in such work. Have the pupils learn all words misspelled in their written work, using the same method as in their regular spelling lessons. Remember that the lessons are arranged by weeks rather than by days. The work for each week consists of one advance column and one review column. The review column in each case is the fourth column preceding the advance work. That is, it is made up of a week's work one month old. For example, column 5 contains 20 new words to be learned in one week. During the same week, column 1 should be reviewed. The lesson for the first week consists of column 1, which is the advance lesson, and of column R 1, which is the review. R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 running joined wrong broad legal tax anyway cleaned mental chapter greater eighty process dread hurt everybody booster farther junk froze rural fully o'clock fruit manual idea ordering granted straight inspect anyhow kindest enroll jar blew lamb mamma kitchen chain leaf rainy knowing enclosed liberty owe dealing circus living French expert gallon Mrs. largely frozen greeting neat cedar guess opening ocean together moment noisy officer term reached retail pencil busy remind worm pretty gain serve afterward program intend valued among provided Standard Number of Errors IV. 13 IV. 8 IV. 8 IV. 7 V. 8 V. 4 V. 4 V. 3 VI. 5 VI. 2 VI. 2 VI. 2 1 2 3 4 acting charming copy shed Bible chum wait birth closer clever edge speed crib colt won odd depending drilling brace mass glasses earning beef youth grandfather flesh enjoy fuel maple formed joke worse overlooked globe favor hare painted hardware until loud pending joyful peace jaw planted lighting reply main posted likewise frame wage printer loaded rough tread renting lucky family score stranger painter slipper scale tested reaching wishes cure trained respond united rye whereby red nerve graze candle sash caused creep Standard Number of Errors IV. 5 IV. 7 IV. 7 IV. 8 V. 2 V. 3 V. 3 V. 4 VI. 1 VI. 2 VI. 2 VI. 2 5 6 7 8 scare sore diner sewing fifth gas burst steady hers says listen dirty ease whom powder ivory scrap union pitcher turned dose women voice eager throw stuff linen bridge tried crazy built freeze checks tired fixed narrow hasten force penny refuse chore habit liked strike notes piano taught insist scrub cough rapid seemed seems nurse finest caught Ave. raise dairy valley finds ought loyal comply bulbs extra devil weary grit appear organ reduce dodge fourth await showed weekly button blessed angry Standard Number of Errors IV. 8 IV. 8 IV. 8 IV. 8 V. 4 V. 4 V. 4 V. 4 VI. 2 VI. 2 VI. 2 VI. 2 9 10 11 12 admire needed placing eighteen bundle bottom reaches northern runner figured somebody thirteen sentence comfort movement amounting shadow throat informed withdraw insure stating handsome including friendly surface inviting industry papered foolish contained breaking circle carried English post-office gaining message helpful homestead cooler central improved workmanship Easter helped changing housekeeping boiler active checking handled elbow shoulder intended inclosing enlarge closing visited returning formal opened dealings settlement regain played stamped nevertheless bracelet covered watching language amounts damage anybody hereafter charged quickly pavement production Standard Number of Errors IV. 8 IV. 8 IV. 8 IV. 8 V. 4 V. 4 V. 4 V. 4 VI. 2 VI. 2 VI. 2 VI. 2 13 14 15 16 picnic directed detail perfect taxes fitting action capital raising flavor ladies misplaced repeat products latter writing cheaper disposed manage subject decline recovered parlor furnish lowest discovered degree instead cutting checked useful advance stopped needle reason handling proven cheerful season daughter latest eleventh writer chairman setting deeply second requested conduct feeder record mountain dancing German notice potatoes devoted prevented direct answered studies suffering cousin contract hence crowded enjoyed treatment skating coasting explain delightful drafts divide married delivered clearly shower highest answering Standard Number of Errors IV. 8 IV. 8 IV. 8 IV. 8 V. 4 V. 4 V. 4 V. 4 VI. 2 VI. 2 VI. 2 VI. 2 17 18 19 20 sew ordered though import deer factory during changes join middle enclose builder daily lonesome address mistake prize placed perhaps baseball began breakfast providing suitable public postal ashamed relations color beaten cottage appoint field extend already department cheap awaiting express nearer prove package Saturday months chest history greatest expect waist obtain delighted preach kept square shipment proved known finished painting cheese judge fifteen pleasure sleepy settle waiting trouble frankly woman invite several prices dealer orange training poultry health require slippery writer's Standard Number of Errors IV. 8 IV. 8 IV. 8 IV. 10 V. 4 V. 4 V. 4 V. 5 VI. 2 VI. 2 VI. 2 VI. 3 21 22 23 24 buyer begun length ribbon proof buggy normal adjust spare sleet barrel notion apply topic begged quoted bluff chose submit unpaid waste admit borrow employ coach slept barley winner honor upper weight famous claim credit bigger gained ample attend collar recess lodge supply gotten served blaze result object namely level secure sleeve sorrow aware couple debate misses filing advice animal voting shock dainty cities agreed owned profit beauty offers actor regret lonely artist worst permit beyond factor acted buying loving recite Standard Number of Errors IV. 10 IV. 10 IV. 10 IV. 10 V. 5 V. 5 V. 5 V. 5 VI. 3 VI. 3 VI. 3 VI. 3 25 26 27 28 points truly bond lbs. roast account sign bulk soak feel fee Tues. thumb quite quit germ warn regard view solo bathe suppose aid local blouse advise loss skirt cloud to-morrow diet worry friends desire fund pupil gorge further text quiet plait enclosing aim break stew question base owner strain acre grip fever stroll balance duet owing wealth else film shown guard hoping gravy crowd juice except limb model kegs statement lazy touch lease minute bowl weigh stitch oblige knot clerk Standard Number of Errors IV. 9 IV. 10 IV. 10 IV. 10 V. 5 V. 5 V. 5 V. 5 VI. 3 VI. 3 VI. 3 VI. 3 29 30 31 32 saddle husband deserve Sunday fitted parties illness Monday insert putting neglect Tuesday backed invoice reduced Wednesday baking obliged sitting Thursday struck evident stories Friday forward product excited Saturday against matters letting January written climate breathe February machine primary needing March careful delayed offices April student fashion captain May greatly rapidly percent June quarter noticed blossom July correct plainly fullest August lecture elected renewed September holiday butcher serving October include example silence November pattern reserve uniform December measure soldier although Christmas Standard Number of Errors IV. 10 IV. 10 IV. 10 IV. 5 V. 5 V. 5 V. 5 V. 2 VI. 3 VI. 3 VI. 3 VI. 1 33 34 S-1 S-2 Sun. feet fireman acres Mon. needed solve argue Tues. main stable border Wed. weigh starve mason Thurs. weight stiff acid Fri. freeze stingy China Sat. grip switch civil Jan. birth tablet harm Feb. won undo false Aug. sewing unpack acute Sept. base verse deny Oct. break grocer shove Nov. prize whisper envy Dec. peace clothes feat Co. waste drawing tool Dr. shown happens attic Mr. waist pretend voted Mrs. fourth groom muddy St. capital olive shave Ave. wait launch veal Standard Number of Errors IV. 5 IV. 9 IV. 9 IV. 9 V. 2 V. 6 V. 6 V. 6 VI. 1 VI. 3 VI. 3 VI. 3 SIXTH GRADE DIRECTIONS TO SIXTH GRADE TEACHERS The advance lessons numbered 1 to 32 inclusive contain 640 new words. The supplementary list containing 80 new words is meant for schools which, because of the long term or for other reasons, finish the minimum list of words before the end of the year. The lessons marked R-l, R-2, R-3, R-4, are made up of 80 words in the fifth grade list which are most commonly misspelled by sixth grade children. =Directions for Teaching.=--Read the preface and study with particular care the suggestions given on pages vii to xvi. It would be well also to read the suggestions given to teachers of the first five grades. Give particular attention to the correction of all written work. Remember that the lessons are arranged by weeks rather than by days. The work for each week consists of one advance column and one review column. The review column in each case is the fourth column preceding the advance work. That is, it is made up of a week's work one month old. For example, column 5 contains 20 new words to be learned in one week. During the same week, column 1 should be reviewed. The lesson for the first week consists of column 1, which is the advance lesson, and of column R 1, which is the review. R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 fund pattern buying advise habit caught fee collar owing writing invoice fever parties buyer oblige quarter proof couple opened to-morrow pupil forward rough its quiet gotten scrap hoping sigh voting aid measure until minute crazy owing barrel needed enclosing level clerk question greatly obliged color sew grip putting dealer throw loss regard handling although ought touch husband ample picnic truly model quite profit weigh parlor breakfast shown loving placing delayed break crowd though feel explain further account fourth shock waste Standard Number of Errors V. 5 V. 6 V. 7 V. 8 VI. 3 VI. 4 VI. 4 VI. 5 VII. 1 VII. 2 VII. 2 VII. 3 1 2 3 4 delivery entering improving accept election dreadful performed herewith continue dwelling crippled attack property boarding requesting barrels prospect following increasing cactus shipping gentleman investment destroy standard perfectly throughout pepper enjoying Wednesday explained errand properly directory addresses flowers visiting intention regulation grower relation happened containing nicer promised reduction furnishing fabric headache attending forwarding lemon required countries friendship olives gasoline obtained yourselves peaches nineteen enjoyment deportment places southern expressed Thanksgiving Day mitten frighten presented headquarter regards fourteen extending relationship sandy outlined traveling collections cooky Standard Number of Errors V. 5 V. 5 V. 5 V. 5 VI. 3 VI. 3 VI. 3 VI. 3 VII. 1 VII. 1 VII. 1 VII. 2 5 6 7 8 polite million problem wired foggy total included exact samples duties private humor secured payable expected issue sections cigar advising moral severe final furnished bury melons polls foundation royal twelfth carrier geography sunny escort worthy companion curly buttons pastor location appeal cabbage modern directly common canon watched progress assist consent feature refreshment entire insects collect extended notify jealous jury conversation period laundry refused promotion burner listed ideal adventure caller pickle burden expecting concert publish fortune protected carbon hinges female concluded memory Standard Number of Errors V. 5 V. 5 V. 5 V. 6 VI. 3 VI. 3 VI. 3 VI. 4 VII. 2 VII. 2 VII. 2 VII. 2 9 10 11 12 chilly personal encourage loam presume reliable factories dirt regular absolute inspector berth special approved neglected due advised attended ourselves piece arrived commerce president loan certain consider reception firm connect honestly situation lose justify increase instruction ache liberal interest collection whose musical moderate composition fault natural prepared connecting passed quality suffered connection taste baggage charging consideration loose bidding resulting construction lime educate appointed correction wrap happily corrected difference terms seasons correctly instructed ditch credits dangerous particular loans instruct direction departments pity Standard Number of Errors V. 6 V. 6 V. 6 V. 7 VI. 4 VI. 4 VI. 4 VI. 4 VII. 2 VII. 2 VII. 2 VII. 2 13 14 15 16 queer important debating entirely growth prepare gentlemen automobile tight inquire believe effort fare item attention section chief lately information maybe forced beautiful service arrange group according future prompt booth depot remember addressed ninth forty condition recently smooth hospital replying promptly guide offered interested carefully calm hello either allow scarce channel advantage district debts favorable different promise strict February general instant crew curtain therefore surprise fern mentioned regarding mention bass using arrive education billed stayed success complete braid fairly forenoon neighbor Standard Number of Errors V. 7 V. 7 V. 7 V. 7 VI. 4 VI. 4 VI. 4 VI. 4 VII. 2 VII. 2 VII. 2 VII. 2 17 18 19 20 alter chapel desired tanning reset closet domestic weighed gross seldom prepaid hurried trial parent furnace minister knows refund dentist supplied limit cement entitle division idle custom popular conclude towel poetry average preacher human apiece settled visitors amply hereby bedroom complain berry seller entered constant ankle utmost failure current ruin approve healthy rendered abroad boarder sixteen director manner brokers expects shopping retire harmony sweater produced tickle sleeper leading creamery govern justice ironing exciting potato observe wearing blooming garage outlook receive cherries Standard Number of Errors V. 7 V. 7 V. 7 V. 7 VI. 4 VI. 4 VI. 4 VI. 4 VII. 2 VII. 2 VII. 2 VII. 2 21 22 23 24 remained vacant cases assure mountains elope aloud easily neighbors insult simply recent wondering deem cellar effect publisher width method volume agreeable facts tongue system machinery hymn sleigh social oversight ideas height spirit directors remit select avenue preparing avoid toward author addressing rifle violin prayer durable drama camera excess convention adopt wander liquid pertaining bacon occurs search considering satin fasten hungry reputation motor enable others permission avail secret league blackberries arise relief surely explaining apron parcel highly remembering sweat likely compare Standard Number of Errors V. 7 V. 8 V. 8 V. 8 VI. 4 VI. 5 VI. 5 VI. 5 VII. 2 VII. 2 VII. 2 VII. 2 25 26 27 28 engine propose citizen adjusted safely efforts capable soreness poison thunder applied umbrella desert useless courage landlady decent possible grammar freshman corset cashier prevail position gloomy manager expired national tomato decided affairs circular relating absence portion purchase theater support squeeze relative earnest proceed reunion graduate biggest concern journey supplies consist neither disturb telegram closely limited fearful discounts grocery ability gallery commence adopted assured instance indicate colored attempt addition attached tickled favored advanced maintain shipper federal attain arranged cabinet funeral confined hesitate Standard Number of Errors V. 8 V. 8 V. 8 V. 8 VI. 5 VI. 5 VI. 5 VI. 5 VII. 2 VII. 2 VII. 2 VII. 2 29 30 31 32 calves attacked invest New York choice backward lettuce Chicago clothe commands shipments Philadelphia stalk carriage mileage Cleveland debt catarrh questions Detroit doubt combine muslin St. Louis ghost composed nearest Boston guest compared chickens Baltimore laid condemned occurred Pittsburg missed consult onions Los Angeles priced culture oppose Buffalo tract details eastern Milwaukee route dismiss pamphlets Minneapolis shipped materials partner Newark signed fiction persons New Orleans slight goodness persuade San Francisco style forever procure Seattle canned careless purple Washington course granite quarrel Cincinnati ere sprinkle scarcely Portland Standard Number of Errors V. 8 V. 9 V. 9 V. ( ) VI. 5 VI. 6 VI. 6 VI. ( ) VII. 2 VII. 3 VII. 3 VII. ( ) S-1 S-2 S-3 S-4 accent quinine kodak affect members railway angel ashore counter remains burial lemonade affords sailor ceiling attempts bearing session offend basement Europe solely paragraph behave confine subjects proceeds blister garnet suburb quartet bloomers griddle tackle reasons camping hammer tartar diameter caved humble wherein sandwich copied induce homely suite driving judging combined surround dropped ignore relate suspect dizzy mixture ditches tour dollars outcome forage traveler darkness packers grapevines housekeeper daytime precious lying wholly fallen pronounce major vinegar farmers proposed injury carload finely Standard Number of Errors V. 9 V. 11 V. 11 V. 8 VI. 6 VI. 8 VI. 8 VI. 5 VII. 3 VII. 5 VII. 5 VII. 2 SEVENTH GRADE DIRECTIONS TO SEVENTH GRADE TEACHERS The minimum lessons for this grade are numbered from 1 to 30 inclusive and contain 600 new words. The supplementary lessons contain 60 new words which are not so commonly used as those in the minimum lessons. As in preceding grades, these supplementary lessons are introduced in order to afford additional work for classes which finish the regular lessons before the end of the year. The lessons marked R-l, R-2, R-3, R-4, are made up of words from the sixth grade lessons which are most frequently misspelled by seventh grade children. =Directions for Teaching.=--Read carefully the suggestions on pages vii to xvi. Read also the suggestions to teachers in the first six grades. As in grades four, five and six, the spelling errors found in pupils' compositions should be rigorously corrected. Remember that the lessons are arranged by weeks rather than by days. The work for each week consists of one advance column and one review column. The review column in each case is the fourth column preceding the advance work. That is, it is made up of a week's work one month old. For example, column 5 contains 20 new words to be learned in one week. During the same week, column 1 should be reviewed. The lesson for the first week consists of column 1, which is the advance lesson, and of column R 1, which is the review. R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 decided easily interested lose either instant likely clothe extended neither delivery missed favored mention doubt Dr. hospital remit fern shipped relative replying item strict piece perfectly loose choice queer purchase mentioned maintain system surprise passed February telegram absence spirit maybe Wednesday circular supplies using ache graduate support ability believe instance toward nineteen consist manager accept choose favorable receive addressed moral growth particular attempt regarding indicate supplied assured stayed lately tight biggest course limited cashier cellar forenoon minister fabric concern hello Standard Number of Errors VI. 5 VI. 5 VI. 7 VI. 8 VII. 3 VII. 3 VII. 4 VII. 5 VIII. 2 VIII. 2 VIII. 2 VIII. 3 1 2 3 slightly forgotten extensive appeared represent quotation assembly complaint seventeen selected youngster effective struggle nightgown interests supposed certainly patent enrolled satisfied comfortable procured increased instructive followed selection improvement restless accomplish considered internal doubtless importance accounts entertain reasonable contents advertise interesting distance forwarded republican describe justified themselves overalls published represented presents treasurer circulation gathered connected subscriber availing difficult appointment gratitude described expression Standard Number of Errors VI. 5 VI. 5 VI. 5 VII. 3 VII. 3 VII. 3 VIII. 2 VIII. 2 VIII. 2 4 5 6 attraction bride whether adjustment awful anxious federation usual realize introduction Prof. patient remembered refer banquet introduced gland exactly graduation decide nervous manufacture error suggest connections madam expense educational salary society frightened broker article quotations copies library approached policy thereto entertainment really junior stockholders actual opinion considerable design inasmuch publication college arrival satisfaction affair deposit transportation pardon salesman international purpose securing Standard Number of Errors VI. 5 VI. 7 VI. 7 VII. 3 VII. 4 VII. 4 VIII. 2 VIII. 2 VIII. 2 7 8 9 favors exercise balances pudding material contemplate uneasy medicine handkerchief accuse knowledge neighborhood discuss splendid installed occur valuable surprised entry establish dependent cartoon purchased distribute studied argument apartment figuring lovingly services motion carrying depositors Bro. accident establishing therein bicycle conditions attach customer observation writers received passenger awaken situated requirements stylish arriving destroyed matron earliest possibly drawer happiness underwear porter continued conclusion Standard Number of Errors VI. 7 VI. 7 VI. 7 VII. 4 VII. 4 VII. 4 VIII. 2 VIII. 2 VIII. 2 10 11 12 fierce territory orchard freight character suggesting haste prefer acquaint hauled description approach heir operation biscuit niece commercial canoe strength democrat bungalow quote finally consumption source available cultivate brief accordance interview choir confidence review coarse develop ruffle meant etc. trolley mere fortunate engage sense satisfy ferry herein receiving thereafter type entitled prospects based generally Pres. urge expensive transactions grippe previous altitude Standard Number of Errors VI. 8 VI. 8 VI. 8 VII. 5 VII. 5 VII. 5 VIII. 3 VIII. 3 VIII. 3 13 14 15 evidently qualities signature instructor substitute ordinary literary compelled relieve applicant formerly influence impose honorable government thereof instrument investigation enrollment politics series genuine choosing afford believing electrical favorably constitution transit attorney disposal authorized journal extreme contemplated institute lining estimated candidate personality identify merchandise prosperous letters distribution tatting mercantile similar blizzard worrying exhibit cushion disgusted considerably equally realizing renewal gradually admission succeed Standard Number of Errors VI. 8 VI. 8 VI. 9 VII. 5 VII. 5 VII. 6 VIII. 3 VIII. 3 VIII. 4 16 17 18 strictly barely assistant studying engineering industrial elsewhere orchestra sirup lading crocheting arrangements impression illustrated inquiry announce succeeded auction development exclusively appreciated explanation supervisor principal sincere civics usually stationary criticize circumstances confer attitude variety jobber congratulate presence transact electricity practical decision existing assistance moisture prosperity equipment administration talent registration employee appearance duplicate excitement inquiries particularly acceptance planned absolutely organize athletics basis Standard Number of Errors VI. 9 VI. 10 VI. 10 VII. 6 VII. 7 VII. 7 VIII. 4 VIII. 4 VIII. 4 19 20 21 business practice safety pleasant beginning unusual appreciate experience surplus necessary acknowledge typhoid probably benefit coupon receipt subscription disagreeable sincerely awfully heretofore opportunity secretary welfare inst. successful assurance proposition premium auditor foreign magazine exceptional institution association assignment examination certificate confirm university commission possession imagine excellent attendance additional literature demonstration alfalfa annual assume terrible organization correspond separate remittance goodbye envelope arrangement consequently Standard Number of Errors VI. 10 VI. 10 VI. 10 VII. 7 VII. 7 VII. 7 VIII. 4 VIII. 4 VIII. 5 22 23 24 privilege readily recommend guarantee vicinity definite rheumatism corporation correspondence guaranteed crochet courtesy schedule assigned judgment data ninety courteous Latin sympathy thoroughly majority disease Chautauqua suggested planning efficiency control advisable approval established original senior Christian merely furniture operating practically regularly patron science contemplating religious advertisement difficulty altogether semester issued bargain quantity profession engineer response allowed responsible capacity examine situated catalogue glorious Standard Number of Errors VI. 11 VI. 11 VI. 12 VII. 8 VII. 8 VII. 9 VIII. 5 VIII. 5 VIII. 6 25 26 27 certified associated custard dismissal timothy double develops accomplished resign estimate tendency panel heavily confirming pamphlet horrible congratulation familiar obligate illustrating sermon traffic meter hustle trifle reliability janitor exceed resource occupy finance examiner warehouse overdo demonstrated envelop residence carnival preside camphor conservatory scholar discussion consultation museum galvanized enormous methods interrupt legislation patience intimate maturity fundamental luncheon nickel accredited mattress manufacturing continuous Standard Number of Errors VI. 11 VI. 11 VI. 12 VII. 8 VII. 8 VII. 8 VIII. 5 VIII. 5 VIII. 5 28 29 30 adapted buried rhubarb almonds marked initials analyze foliage confidential capitol heading irrigate faculty locally mutually formula luxury engaged mutual medium Vice Pres. nursery quietly circulars quoting rabbits exercised salad razor childhood scenery refers vegetable tobacco reverse packages towards shining terribly opera solid desirable urgent survey determine via turkeys shortage visitor visits rainfall widow vomit wherever accompany wasted fertilizers apricot confess adequate Standard Number of Errors VI. 10 VI. 9 VI. 10 VII. 7 VII. 6 VII. 7 VIII. 4 VIII. 3 VIII. 4 S-1 S-2 S-3 items willow muscle honey gospel guilty stormy wisdom soldiers stupid naughty handles negro slowly hearty tailor expand helper sire arises somehow rally sewed raisin toilet murder jewels tower miner napkin unload holy dessert upset vigor lessons utter lawyer marble vice crown scatter vessel vague millers wages votes minded warmly yacht roomer repay cable earlier mercy create remarks whistle ladder kindle Standard Number of Errors VI. 7 VI. 7 VI. 7 VII. 4 VII. 4 VII. 4 VIII. 2 VIII. 2 VIII. 2 EIGHTH GRADE DIRECTIONS TO EIGHTH GRADE TEACHERS The minimum lessons for this grade are numbered from 1 to 25 inclusive, and contain 500 new words. There are in addition 240 supplementary words which are new, but which are not so frequently used as those in the minimum list. The four lessons marked R-1, R-2, R-3, R-4, are made up of those words in the preceding grades which are most frequently missed by eighth grade students. The lesson marked "Special Review," contains the hardest words, of the two thousand most frequently used in correspondence. In addition, there are four letters which should be given as dictation exercises. These letters contain a large number of words which are very likely to be misspelled, as shown by their frequency of use in correspondence and the percentage of error of eighth grade pupils who attempt to spell them. Remember that the lessons are arranged by weeks rather than by days. The work for each week consists of one advance column and one review column. The review column in each case is the fourth column preceding the advance work. That is, it is made up of a week's work one month old. For example, column 5 contains 20 new words to be learned in one week. During the same week, column 1 should be reviewed. The lesson for the first week consists of column 1, which is the advance lesson, and of column R 1, which is the review. R-1 R-2 R-3 Chautauqua planning separate schedule remittance advisable guaranteed probably awfully rheumatism sincerely disease privilege arrangement sense efficiency considerably familiar inst. capacity merely judgment corporation presence recommend usually receiving thoroughly choir similar correspondence inquiry variety courteous renewal crochet semester alfalfa imagine practically basis organization opportunity benefit successful literature catalogue sympathy absolutely excellent appreciated receipt necessary assigned definite quantity assistant guarantee response pleasant Standard Number of Errors VI. 15 VI. 13 VI. 12 VII. 12 VII. 9 VII. 8 VIII. 9 VIII. 6 VIII. 5 R-4 1 2 relieve convince reference surprised transfer companies appreciate independent discourage assistance investigate insurance candidate wholesale inclined certificate democratic organized distribution employer ambition magazine exception attractive principal confident credited readily advertised notified registration constantly operated commission manufacturer worried equipment sanitary automatic exhibit submitted accord nervous liable frequently practical evidence management regularly concerning generous succeed assuring involved uneasy positive misunderstanding duplicate superior representation Standard Number of Errors VI. 10 VI. 7 VI. 7 VII. 7 VII. 4 VII. 4 VIII. 4 VIII. 2 VIII. 2 3 4 5 invitation contrary abstract celebrate entertaining employed discontinued examined register respectfully profitable resident obligation registered vision occupied reservation favorite application universal nephew accordingly requirement regardless collecting deliveries satisfactory convinced desiring serious destination conference Hallowe'en agriculture strawberries pneumonia fashionable advancement appendicitis combination decrease ingredients resigned deserved phosphorus membership triumph telephone supervision graduating temperature clause hustling possibilities activity numerous temptation impossible raiser constructed Standard Number of Errors VI. 7 VI. 7 VI. 10 VII. 4 VII. 4 VII. 7 VIII. 2 VIII. 2 VIII. 4 6 7 8 Pullman librarian superintendent cistern agricultural occasion customers announcement representative sight-seeing completely possibility warrant ballot all right acknowledged coöperative especially electric cordial committee borrowers inferior immediately circumstance preliminary analysis opposite disappointed bulletin edition physical mortgage excursion exceptionally referred patronage annually referring professor exhausted convenience restaurant responsibility allotment commencement algebra installment chaperon executive advertising thesis permanent administrator possess soliciting straightened physician alumni epidemic Standard Number of Errors VI. 12 VI. 12 VI. 13 VII. 8 VII. 9 VII. 10 VIII. 5 VIII. 6 VIII. 7 9 10 11 vary specially ambitions duly extremely appreciation leisure calendar communication acquire originally commissioner agency official exhibition immense candidacy mechanical hastily extension specification various naturally consequence unlock cordially disappoint solicit customary remembrance medical campaign authority license financial appreciating client associate interfere Sabbath acquainted sufficient injure personally coöperating stomach immediate relieved notary esteemed coöperation surgery executed anticipate losing postscript preparation council convenient satisfactorily Standard Number of Errors VI. 15 VI. 13 VI. 13 VII. 10 VII. 10 VII. 10 VIII. 6 VIII. 7 VIII. 7 12 13 14 individual bonus patronize actually unusually probably merit disappointment reverend fertilize X-ray manufactured necessity canvass typewriter community enthusiasm enclosure bureau accompanying illustrate grateful tuberculosis preserve correspondent politician opportune quantities anticipating appetite thorough characteristic bronchitis compliment anniversary discussed geometry zephyr privileged regretting peculiarities courtesies equipped assortment desirous prior illustration promenade efficient inducement strenuous affectionately label kimono lieutenant practicing ultimo fraternally amendment aggravate Standard Number of Errors VI. 14 VI. 14 VI. 15 VII. 10 VII. 11 VII. 12 VIII. 7 VIII. 8 VIII. 8 15 16 17 principle articles decomposed professional bachelor developing circuit benefits embroidery acquaintance infected employment scientific minimum enjoyable inconvenience miserable immensely enthusiastic objection experiment recd. opinions facilities assessment sidewalk gardening materially stopping inventory recommendation tomatoes irrigation supplement treasure mentioning confirmation vineyard memorandum occasionally advantages measuring apparatus asparagus officials essential carpenter operations unnecessary casseroles previously accommodate catalogues proportion affidavit comfortably specimens definitely temporary spineless Standard Number of Errors VI. 15 VI. 12 VI. 12 VII. 13 VII. 8 VII. 8 VIII. 9 VIII. 5 VIII. 5 18 19 20 cafeteria accommodation nowadays squirrels accommodations steadily straighten acknowledging butter-fat substantial acknowledgment contented suggestion advantageous conveyance twenty-five anticipation scholarship undertake communications coöperate communicate financially cucumbers complement incidentally everywhere continually kindergarten impatient conveniently manufacturers inquiring unpleasant preliminaries missionary unfortunate solicitation organizing institutions undoubtedly positively progressive beautifully sometimes prospective presentation separately publications remittances sediments gymnasium unfortunately rosebushes memorandums unexpected rheumatic uncomfortable vice president correspondents Standard Number of Errors VI. 12 VI. 13 VI. 12 VII. 8 VII. 10 VII. 9 VIII. 5 VIII. 7 VIII. 6 21 22 Ala. (Alabama) Md. (Maryland) Alaska Mass. (Massachusetts) Ariz. (Arizona) Mich. (Michigan) Ark. (Arkansas) Minn. (Minnesota) Cal. (California) Miss. (Mississippi) Colo. (Colorado) Mo. (Missouri) Conn. (Connecticut) Mont. (Montana) Del. (Delaware) Nebr. (Nebraska) D. C. (District of Nev. (Nevada) Columbia) N. H. (New Hampshire) Fla. (Florida) N. J. (New Jersey) Ga. (Georgia) N. Mex. (New Mexico) Hawaii N. Y. (New York) Idaho N. C. (North Carolina) Ill. (Illinois) N. Dak. (North Dakota) Ind. (Indiana) Ohio Iowa Okla. (Oklahoma) Kans. (Kansas) Oregon Ky. (Kentucky) Pa. (Pennsylvania) La. (Louisiana) R. I. (Rhode Island) Me. (Maine) Standard Number of Errors VI. ( ) VI. ( ) VII. ( ) VII. ( ) VIII. ( ) VIII. ( ) 23 24 S. C. (South Carolina) A. M. (Forenoon) S. Dak. (South Dakota) Agt. (Agent) Tenn. (Tennessee) Assn. (association) Tex. (Texas) A1. (First class) Utah Vt. (Vermont) bbl. (barrel) Va. (Virginia) bbls. (barrels) Wash. (Washington) bldg. (building) W. Va. (West Virginia) bu. (bushel) Wis. (Wisconsin) Capt. (Captain) Wyo. (Wyoming) C.O.D. (Collect on Cuba Delivery) Philippine Islands ¢; ct. (cent) Porto Rico cr. (credit) Co. (Company or cwt. (hundredweight) County) doz. (dozen) Messrs. (Gentlemen) gal. (gallon) R.F.D. (Rural Free ft. (foot or feet) Delivery) F.O.B. (Free on Board) Hon. (Honorable) acct. (account) i.e. (that is) Dr. (Doctor or debtor) N. B. (take notice) Treas. (Treasurer) Standard Number of Errors VI. ( ) VI. ( ) VII. ( ) VII. ( ) VIII. ( ) VIII. ( ) 25 Special Review Jour. (Journal) Chautauqua in. (inch or inches) fraternally mdse. (merchandise) schedule ass't (assistant) guaranteed Jr. (Junior) privilege Mdlle. (Mademoiselle) affectionately mfg. (manufacturing) guarantee oz. (ounces) rheumatism sec'y (secretary) judgment pkg. (package) efficiency pr. (pair) recommend pd. (paid) referred P. M. (afternoon) disappoint mgr. (manager) immediately P. S. (postscript) referring pub. (publisher) equipped qt. (quart) grateful St. (Saint or street) bulletin Supt. (superintendent) all right viz. (namely) mortgage Standard Number of Errors VI. ( ) VI. (16) VII. ( ) VII. (13) VIII. ( ) VIII. (10) S-1 S-2 S-3 descend postpone resources necktie political respectable swallow elaborate sentiment nonsense exporting seriously oatmeal kidney suddenly wireless locations tablespoon afloat memorial telegraph tiresome muscular preparatory horseback negotiate commencing housework peculiar warranted wealthy unlikely occupant scarlet purposes performance whiskers readiness physiology scissors recognize bacteria scramble remaining beginner scribble resemble beneficial sweetness military proportions heaviest blossoms intentions slippers coloring accustomed accepted chemical opposition Standard Number of Errors VI. 9 VI. 9 VI. 12 VII. 6 VII. 6 VII. 8 VIII. 3 VIII. 3 VIII. 5 S-4 S-5 S-6 attempting expressing machines economize expressions honored carelessness suggestions endorsed stenographer likelihood occasional decoration manufactures epistle particulars maintained misspell grandmother maintaining innocent extravagance occasions inferred firecracker notwithstanding matured exposition remitting proffer partially sentiments invested pleasantly specialty logic congenial unsettled audited carnation beforehand academy gophers misunderstand formally whatsoever alteration importing demonstrate apologies masonic disposition appreciates mutilate embroider contribution shelving prescription developments socialist Standard Number of Errors VI. 12 VI. 12 VI. 12 VII. 8 VII. 8 VII. 8 VIII. 5 VIII. 5 VIII. 5 S-7 S-8 S-9 tenement accorded comment thereabouts activities descriptive transacted adjustable declamation indigestion affectionate deducted interruption undershirt economical facilitate appropriate encouragement facility approximately endeavor fraternity cemetery endeavoring inaugurate commodities expectation mathematics comparatively faculties reciprocate critical feasible tabernacle introduce financing thermometer dreadfully hysterics vivisection dividend ignoramus affiliated purchases inability appreciative directories industrious indefinitely disaster pocketbook probability dictionary representatives informal depositing instructions dressmaker depository sufficiently Standard Number of Errors VI. 13 VI. 12 VI. 12 VII. 10 VII. 8 VII. 9 VIII. 7 VIII. 5 VIII. 6 S-10 S-11 S-12 detain alcohol exceedingly deprive charity insignificant exhaust comedy wonderfully whoever imitate measurement expire invalid sacrifice faithful lovable sarcastic frequent operate satisfying happiest opium selecting disgust remodel temperance apology taxicab thoughtfulness homelike allowing marriage hopeful borrowing unanswered intrude chocolate undertaking lantern promises willingly liquor conductor population output congress advisability outrage decorate agreement physic deposits celebration becoming developed comparison discount discover emergency Standard Number of Errors VI. 9 VI. 10 VI. 12 VII. 6 VII. 7 VII. 9 VIII. 3 VIII. 4 VIII. 6 USE OF THE CONTRACTION One of the first things to learn in writing letters is that the form and style of the letter must be suited to the message which the letter contains, and to the relationship which exists between the person who sends the letter and the one who is to receive it. The style of business letters must be clear, direct, and dignified. With certain exceptions, as in sales letters, such letters are usually made very impersonal. On the other hand, personal letters are quite properly regarded by many as a sort of conversation in writing. In writing to friends or to relatives one usually desires to be informal. One of the ways of achieving this informality is through the use of colloquial English and contractions. In the past, many teachers of English have cautioned students against the use of contractions in letters; but an examination of the correspondence of writers whose letters are regarded as models shows that most of these authors use contractions very freely. If you will read the letters of Henry Adams, Stevenson, Gray, Henry James, Lamb, Carroll, Walpole, Keats, Emily Dickinson, Thackeray, Dickens, and others, you will see that in writing to friends and members of their families they wrote much as they would have chatted with those to whom the letters were addressed. In general, then, contractions are to be used only in informal or friendly correspondence. In letters to strangers and in most business correspondence they should be avoided. Perhaps the best guide to the proper use of contractions is to be found in the models of writers who are famous for their personal letters. can't "You can't be too careful." (Lamb) don't "... for, O, I don't know how long." (Stevenson) doesn't "He doesn't agree with them all ..." (Stevenson) won't "This sort of thing won't do." (H. James) it's "... It's a glorious afternoon ..." (E. Dickinson) I'm "I'm three parts through Burns; ..." (Stevenson) I'll "I'll try to improve it ..." (Stevenson) haven't "... I haven't yet had time to give ..." (H. James) you'll "You'll never guess; ..." (Carroll) isn't "It isn't like gold ..." (E. Dickinson) I've "So I've been idle." (Stevenson) we'll "We'll finish an education sometime ..." (E. Dickinson) wouldn't "... but Stephen wouldn't allow it ..." (Stevenson) didn't "... I didn't see him." (Fitzgerald) I'd "Another shot and I'd have gone to kingdom come." (Stevenson) you'd "... and I beg you'd believe me ..." (Gray) hadn't "... if you hadn't seen her ..." (H. James) hasn't "This ought to have made me gay, but it hasn't." (Stevenson) couldn't "If it were easy to write a play, I couldn't ... think of it." (H. James) wasn't "Wasn't it curious?" (Carroll) DICTATION EXERCISES The following letters contain a large number of words which occur with relatively high frequency in correspondence, and are quite likely to be misspelled by persons of eighth grade education. They should be dictated in short phrases of three to five words without repetition, pausing after each dictated phrase for the children to write. The rate should be such, however, that the dictation and writing will be completed in the time designated in the note preceding each letter. On the average this will be about one and one-half lines per minute. A little practice will enable the teacher to dictate at this rate without difficulty. Pupils should be able to write these letters at the given speed without hesitation or error of spelling before they have completed the work of this grade. LETTER NO. 1 This letter should be dictated in three sections. The first exercise extends to the end of the first paragraph, including the heading and salutation, and should be written in 8 minutes. The second exercise includes the second and third paragraphs and should be written in 9 minutes. The third exercise completes the letter and should be written in 6-1/2 minutes. Des Moines, Iowa, June 2, 1920. DEAR MAMMA, I suppose you feel that I have been very slow about writing, but I haven't had a minute for either letter writing or pleasure the past few days. I took my last test this forenoon--the terrible and much dreaded literature examination. It lasted from ten o'clock until noon, and though it was different from what I had expected I think I got along all right. I probably won't get an excellent grade, for I just had to make a guess at one answer I didn't know, but you can't imagine how happy I am to be all through. Tomorrow will be the last day of school and our superintendent is going to let us celebrate with a class party. Aunt Lucy wants me to stay with her another month, but I am coming home Saturday, for I know I'll be eager to get back to the farm just as soon as we have good weather again. Last Sunday I accepted Edith's invitation to spend the day with her. She lives about thirty miles from Des Moines, and I enjoyed the drive over the country roads. I'm sure I'll never lose my love for the farm. I must tell you, too, about Edith's brother, a lieutenant, who got his commission at the same time John did. He is personally acquainted with John's captain and knew several other men in that company. I was very much interested in his account of his army experiences. I appreciated the check you enclosed in your last letter, for I needed some money for my new dress. I never realized before this year how much it costs to clothe a girl. I wish you were here to advise me what kind of material to get. I miss your judgment when I try to go shopping alone. Aunt Lucy's voile dress has given her a great deal of service, and so I think I'll decide on that material for my best summer dress. Remember me to the boys when you write, and give my love to Grandmother. I do hope her rheumatism is better. Affectionately, HELEN. LETTER NO. 2 This letter should be dictated in two sections. The first exercise extends to the end of the first paragraph, including the heading and salutation, and should be written in 12 minutes. The second exercise completes the letter and should be written in 7 minutes. October 18, 1920. Iowa Land and Loan Company, 706-712 Commerce Building, Des Moines, Iowa. GENTLEMEN, We take this occasion to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 17th inst., and sincerely appreciate the interest which you have shown in our association. We must find a permanent location for our Chautauqua, and believe that we have found lots which will be satisfactory, especially since they are in a really pleasant locality, convenient to the college. Since it will be necessary to investigate this business opportunity immediately, we are referring the matter to a committee and we feel the analysis of the situation will be complete. The committee to which this matter is referred will probably recommend giving a mortgage but quite certainly will receive advice on this point from representative citizens. The money to carry on the investigation is in the First National Bank, the certificate of deposit being in the hands of the treasurer of the association. If possible the members of the association would like to issue the bulletin which contains the course by the beginning of the season, whether the matter of permanent grounds is thoroughly investigated, or not. Experience has taught us, too, that the bulletins are received with more enthusiasm at an early date. The truly awful accident of last year in which two people were killed when the tent fell will have its influence on our present campaign for a permanent building. Kindly give this matter your attention at your earliest convenience. Respectfully yours, HENRY JONES. LETTER NO. 3 This letter should be dictated in two sections. The first exercise extends to the end of the second paragraph and should be written in 7 minutes. The second exercise completes the letter and should be written in 9 minutes. Minneapolis, Minnesota, March 26, 1920. DEAR FATHER, You can see from the article which I enclose that we did not disappoint our principal, even though it has been impossible to practice during the past week. Under the circumstances it doesn't seem possible that we could have won, but maybe our success was due to having no practice before the game. Some of the teams seemed rather over-trained. The coach changed me to right forward, although, as you know, I usually play at guard. I suppose there was a doubt in his mind as to whether I could guard the tall forwards on some of the teams. Our team never played together better. We didn't have so great a variety of plays as some of the other teams, but relied almost entirely upon our short passing game. What I liked especially was that there wasn't a single poor official. One of the officials was the man who spoke last fall on our community health program. I suppose the team will reach home Saturday night. I am sure that we ought not to stay here later than Saturday noon. The teams were entertained at the various fraternity houses and the men have been very much crowded to make room for us. We certainly appreciate the good treatment we have received from these men and from everyone. Affectionately, your son, HARRY. LETTER NO. 4 This letter should be dictated in three sections. The first exercise extends to the end of the second paragraph, including the heading and the salutation, and should be written in 9 minutes. The second exercise includes the rest of the letter and should be written in 12 minutes. Not more than one exercise should be given in one day. Newark, New Jersey, December 3, 1920. Mr. Frank A. Hardy, Managing Editor, National Insurance Journal, Boston, Massachusetts. MY DEAR MR. HARDY, I am glad to make an immediate reply to your inquiry of December 1, regarding Miss Henry's qualifications. It is now eight years since Miss Henry first took a position with us. She began as mail clerk, working up rapidly through the ranks, until she became private secretary to Mr. Baldwin, President of the Central Insurance Company, in which capacity she has served for four years, becoming an important part of the institution. We have found her always courteous, thoroughly efficient in her work, and absolutely reliable. She is well equipped for a position on an insurance publication because of her magazine writing, which she has been doing in connection with a course in journalism at the university this year. She has been most successful in this work and hopes to find time to do more of it during the summer term if her schedule will permit. It was only because of her great desire to continue her education that we were willing to accept her resignation, and we knew that this year's work at the university would mean a broader field for her in the future. I am enclosing a record of Miss Henry's work, on the usual form kept for each employee, showing the approximate progress she made during her eight years with us and her increased value to the company, and I am also sending under separate cover Miss Henry's photograph, as you suggested. Hoping I may hear from you further if there is any additional information you require, I am Very sincerely yours, JOHN SMITH. SUPPLEMENT WHICH CONTAINS CERTAIN RULES AND DEFINITIONS OFTEN TAUGHT AS A PART OF THE COURSE OF STUDY IN SPELLING As a part of the course of study in spelling, there is occasionally found a provision for word study and for teaching certain rules and definitions. The following supplement is added as a guide in schools which make such a requirement. Ordinarily such topics as derivation of words, root prefixes, suffixes, homonyms, antonyms, synonyms, and hyphens are taught, either as a part of composition or as a part of dictionary exercises. The value of teaching spelling rules is still somewhat a matter of controversy, although the weight of experimental evidence seems to indicate that children do not profit from a study of the rules in spelling, as much as they profit from the same amount of time spent in the direct study of the important words covered by these rules. However, since some city and state courses of study require the teaching of the rules, it seems advisable to put the more important rules in this supplement. An effort has been made to state these rules in the simplest manner possible, within the limits of accuracy. Great care has been taken, also, to tabulate, for each rule, the words frequently used in correspondence, which are exceptions. The teacher should understand clearly that it is not the intention of the authors to have these rules take the place of the direct teaching of any word. Rather they are to be regarded as supplementary exercises. It is doubtful whether much attention should be given to rules before grade seven. DERIVATION OF WORDS Often one word is built up from several words or syllables. The most important part of such a built-up word is called the root, or base. This root or base had an original meaning which is usually clear, especially in purely English words, as in-side, happi-ness, etc. Many built-up or derivative words are from other languages. A few examples may help to illustrate: 1. international--Latin inter (between) plus nation (nation) plus al (pertaining to)--between nations, pertaining to intercourse between nations. The root is "nation." 2. extraordinary--Latin extra (on the outside, out of) plus ordinarius (ordinary)--out of the ordinary, unusual. The root is "ordinar." 3. provide--Latin pro (before) plus vid (to look or see)--to look before or ahead, to look out for in advance. The root is "vid." 4. convention--Latin con (together) plus ven (to come) plus tion (act of)--act of coming together--meeting. The root is "ven." Many roots or bases are taken directly from the English: 1. out-come--act of coming out--that which comes out of something else--result. 2. in-side--inner side or surface. 3. cheer-ful--full of cheer. 4. happi-ness--state of being happy. In studying these words, you may have noticed that something besides the root or base is needed to make the meaning clear. The other two parts which help to make up words are called prefixes and suffixes. These will be taken up separately. PREFIXES A prefix is a word or syllable placed before another word, and so completely joined to it that it changes the meaning of the basic word. NOTE TO TEACHER:--Have the pupils select in the lessons of your grade, words which have similar prefixes. As you can see in the list below, the final consonant of a prefix has often been changed to make the pronunciation easier, but does not disappear when added to the stem. Thus, ad-cord became ac-cord, ad-fect became af-fect, etc. =Prefix= | =Definition= | =Illustration= | | ab (abs, a) |from, away |abandon | | ad (ac, af, ag, al, an, ap, | | ar, as, at) |to |accommodate | | ante |before |antecedent | | circum |about, around |circumstance | | com (co, col, con, cor) |with, together |compare, concert | | de |from, down, away |desert, debate | | dis (dif, de) |apart, not |disobey | | ex (e, ef) |out, out of, away from, | | off, beyond |expect | | extra |out of |extraordinary | | in (ill, im, ir) |in, into, not, without |inside | | inter |among, between, mutually|interurban | | non |not |nonsense | | per |through, by, for |perhaps | | post |behind, after |postpone | | pre |before |prevent | | pro |forward, before, instead|provide | | re |back, again, against |return | | se |aside, apart, without |separate | | sub (suc, suf, sug, sup, | | sur) |under, below, near |subject, succeed | | super |over, above, beyond |superintendent | | trans (tran, tra) |across, over, beyond, | | through |transfer, travel SUFFIXES A suffix is a syllable or word which is added to the end of another word to change the meaning of the basic word. NOTE TO TEACHER:--As the suffix is often closely connected with the root of the word, not much stress will be laid on learning suffixes by themselves. A few of the more common ones will be noted. =Suffix=| =Definition= | =Illustration= | | ful |with or full of |cheerful | | less |without |careless, doubtless | | ness |state of being |happiness | | ly |like or like in manner |happily | | ment |act, state, a thing that|development | | some |act of being |lonesome HOMONYMS A homonym is a word pronounced exactly like another, but differing from it in meaning. A few homonyms are spelled in the same way, as "weed," a garment, and "weed," a plant. Only a small group of the more common type will be given here. NOTE TO TEACHER:--It has been deemed advisable to omit giving an extensive list of homonyms here. You may refer the pupils to the lists of homonyms which occur in the regular spelling lessons of the first five grades. For example, the following lists are among those which contain homonyms:--16 in grade I; 18, 19, 20, in grade II; 12 words in 28 of grade III; 32 in grade IV; etc. =Word= | =Definition= | =Sentence= | | 1. flour |a fine meal of ground wheat | | or other grain |Mother uses flour in baking | | bread. | | flower|a blossom |The rose is a beautiful | | flower. | | 2. no |not, not any |I have no work to do. | | know |to understand |Do you know your lesson? | | 3. son |a male child; the male offspring| | of a parent, father or mother |John is my son. | | sun |the heavenly body which produces|The sun rises in the east. | the light of day | SYNONYMS Synonyms are words that have almost the same meaning. If you were to look up the simple words "cut" and "ask" you would find the following synonyms: For "cut"--carve, lance, bite, dissect, snip, saw, slice, slit, slash, etc. For "ask"--beg, crave, entreat, beseech, implore, move, plead, solicit, etc. No two of these synonyms mean exactly the same thing, but they express different shades of the same meaning. Practice Exercises: Find as many synonyms as you can for the following words: best decide effort deceive imagine dark time form pleasure public Any lesson in the book may be used for an exercise in discovering synonyms. ANTONYMS Words of opposite meaning are called antonyms. For example, black--white; big--little; and open--closed, are so named. Practice Exercises: Try to think of antonyms for the following words: cold come dull inside fat front good high in large up long new poor slow spring sweet tall wet winter THE HYPHEN Authorities differ in regard to the use of the hyphen. However, there are two rules which always hold good: (1). The hyphen is used to separate compound adjectives; (2). The hyphen is used to show, at the end of a line, that a word has been divided. (Such a word must be divided between syllables.) In other cases, when you cannot decide whether or not to use a hyphen, consult the dictionary used in your school. It is much less frequently used than formerly. RULES FOR SPELLING =I. Formation of Possessives= 1. The following list is made up of words in the singular number. To form the possessive, add an apostrophe and "s." horse's head man's coat girl's dress boy's shoes soldier's uniform child's laugh sheep's wool sister's hat 2. The following list is made up of plural nouns that do not end in "s." To form the possessive, add an apostrophe and "s." children's clothes men's shirts women's praise gentlemen's plans 3. The following list is made up of plural nouns ending in "s." To form the possessive, add only an apostrophe. miles' walk girls' clothing years' word pupils' attention =II. Treatment of the final consonant before a suffix= 1. The following list contains words of one syllable. Notice that each word ends in a consonant, and that in every word there is a single short vowel preceding it. In all such words, the final consonant is doubled before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel. big--bigg (er) (est) drop--dropp(ed) (ing) stop--stopp(ed) (ing) plan--plann(ed) (ing) begin--beginn(er) (ing) 2. The following list contains verbs of more than one syllable. Each verb is accented on the last syllable, and ends in a single consonant preceded by a single short vowel. In such verbs, the final consonant is doubled before a suffix beginning with a vowel. beginn(ing) referr(ed) (ing) occurr(ed) forgott(en) remitt(ance) =III. Adding suffixes to words ending in "e"= 1. A word ending in silent "e" drops the "e" before a vowel, as: come--coming hope--hoping serve--serving appreciate--appreciating vote--voting 2. When a suffix beginning with a consonant is added to a word ending in "e," the "e" is kept. announce--announce-ment hope--hope-ful late--late-ly care--care-less lone--lone-some 3. "E" is retained to keep the soft sound of "c" and "g" before "a" and "o" as in notice--notice-able, and advantage--advantage-ous. =Exceptions:= Of the words commonly used in writing letters the following exceptions are to be made: a. When a suffix beginning with a consonant is added to a word ending in "e": (1) Only three words drop "e" before adding "ment": judgment, acknowledgment, argument. (2) Only one word drops "e" before adding "ful": awful. (3) Only three words drop "e" before adding "ly": true--truly due--duly whole--wholly b. When the last syllable of a word ends in "le," "ly" does not make a new syllable, as: probable---probably, possible--possibly, simple--simply. (When "ly" is added to words ending in "l," both "l's" are retained, as: practical--practically, careful--carefully.) =IV. Treatment of the final "y"= 1. To form the plural of a noun ending in "y" preceded by a consonant, change the "y" to "i" and add "es." lady--ladies quantity--quantities quality--qualities 2. When a verb ends in "y" preceded by a consonant, change the "y" to "i" and add "es" to form the third person singular of the verb. To form the past tense of the verb, change the "y" to "i" and add "ed." fry--fries cry--cries bury--buried carry--carried 3. When a word ends in "y" preceded by a vowel, form the plural by adding "s." turkey--turkeys chimney--chimneys valley--valleys 4. When "y" is preceded by a consonant, change it to "i" before a suffix which does not begin with "i," as in business, readily, happiness, etc. Retain "y" in such words as: hurrying, crying, flying, etc. =V. Treatment and use of the apostrophe= 1. Put the apostrophe in the place of the absent letter or letters: aren't, don't, didn't, can't, I'll, etc. 2. Possessives of personal pronouns have no apostrophe, as: its, hers, ours, yours, etc. =VI. Irregular Plurals= Some words ending in "f" or "fe" form their plurals by changing the "f" or "fe" to "v" and adding "es." half--halves knife--knives life--lives leaf--leaves calf--calves wife--wives =VII. Confusion of "ei" and "ie"= NOTE TO TEACHER:--Experimental evidence does not seem to show that this rule is very effective, but if it is taught, the following presentation is recommended. Whenever "i" and "e" occur together in one syllable, and are pronounced as "[=e]" or "[)e]," it is always "i" before "e" except after "c" (see). When sounded like "[=a]" it is always "e" before "i." Some have used the following jingle to help fix the rule: "i" before "e" Except after "c" Or when sounded like "a" As in neighbor or weigh. Four of the words most commonly used in writing letters are exceptions to these rules: neither, leisure, foreign, height. Transcriber's Note: * Text enclosed between equal signs was in bold face in the original (=bold=). * Punctuation errors have been corrected. * All misprinted reference pages throughout the book have been corrected (vii-xvi). * Pg 17 Added missing "opening quotation" before "Remember" in "Remember that the purpose of this test ..." * Pg 97 Removed ")" after "I didn't see him.")" and added "(" before "Fitzgerald". * Pg 97 Corrected spelling of "kindom" to "kingdom" in "... gone to kindom come" * Pg 103 Corrected spelling of "expecially" to "especially" in "... expecially since they are in ..." * Pg 109 Corrected spelling of "occassionally" to "occasionally" in "... there is occassionally found ..." 
7010	----	** Transcriber's Notes ** Underscores mark italics; words enclosed in +pluses+ represent boldface; words enclosed in /slashes/ represent underlined words. Words enclosed in ~tildes~ represent a wavy underline. To represent the sentence diagrams in ASCII, the following conventions are used: - The heavy horizontal line (for the main clause) is formed with equals signs (==). - Other solid vertical lines are formed with minus signs (--). - Diagonal lines are formed with backslashes (\). - Words printed on a diagonal line are preceded by a backslash, with no horizontal line under them. - Dotted horizontal lines are formed with periods (..) - Dotted vertical lines are formed with straight apostrophes (') - Dotted diagonal lines are formed with slanted apostrophes (`) - Words printed over a horizontally broken line are shown like this: ----, helping '--------- - Words printed bending around a diagonal-horizontal line are broken like this: \wai \ ting --------- ** End Transcriber's Notes ** GRADED LESSONS IN ENGLISH. AN ELEMENTARY ENGLISH GRAMMAR, CONSISTING OF ONE HUNDRED PRACTICAL LESSONS, CAREFULLY GRADED AND ADAPTED TO THE CLASS-ROOM, BY ALONZO REED, A.M., FORMERLY INSTRUCTOR OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN THE POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN AND BRAINERD KELLOGG, LL.D., PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN THE POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN REVISED EDITION, 1896. A COMPLETE COURSE IN ENGLISH. BY ALONZO REED, A.M., AND BRAINERD KELLOGG, LL.D. REED'S WORD LESSONS, A COMPLETE SPELLER. Designed to teach the correct spelling, pronunciation, and use of such words only as are most common in current literature, and as are most likely to be misspelled, mispronounced, or misused, and to awaken new interest in the study of synonyms and of word-analysis. 188 pages, 12mo. REED'S INTRODUCTORY LANGUAGE WORK. A simple, varied, and pleasing, but methodical series of exercises in English to precede the study of technical grammar. 253 pages, 16mo, linen. REED & KELLOGG'S GRADED LESSONS IN ENGLISH. An elementary English grammar, consisting of one hundred practical lessons, carefully graded and adapted, to the class-room. 215 pages, 16mo, linen. REED & KELLOGG'S HIGHER LESSONS IN ENGLISH. A work on English grammar and composition, in which the science of the language is made tributary to the art of expression. A course of practical lessons carefully graded, and adapted to every-day use in the school-room. 386 pages, 16mo, cloth. REED & KELLOGG'S ONE-BOOK COURSE IN ENGLISH. A carefully graded and complete series of lessons in English grammar and composition based on the natural development of the sentence. For schools that have not time to complete more than one book on grammar. 328 pages, 16mo, cloth. KELLOGG & REED'S WORD-BUILDING. Fifty lessons, combining Latin, Greek, and Anglo-Saxon roots, prefixes, and suffixes, into about fifty-five hundred common derivative words in English; with a brief history of the English language. 122 pages, 16mo, cloth. KELLOGG & REED'S THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. A brief history of the grammatical changes of the language and its vocabulary, with exercises on synonyms, prefixes, suffixes, word-analysis, and word-building. A text-book for high schools and colleges. 226 pages, 16mo, cloth. KELLOGG'S TEXT-BOOK ON RHETORIC. Revised and enlarged edition. Supplementing the development of the science with exhaustive practice in composition. A course of practical lessons adapted for use in high schools, academies, and lower classes of colleges. 345 pages, 12mo, cloth. KELLOGG'S TEXT-BOOK ON ENGLISH LITERATURE. with copious extracts from the leading authors, English and American, and full instructions as to the method in which these books are to be studied. 485 pages, 12mo, cloth. PREFACE. The plan of "Graded and Higher Lessons in English" will perhaps be better understood if we first speak of two classes of text-books with which this course is brought into competition. +Method of One Class of Text-books+.--In one class are those that aim chiefly to present a course of technical grammar in the order of Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. These books give large space to grammatical Etymology, and demand much memorizing of definitions, rules, declensions, and conjugations, and much formal word parsing,--work of which a considerable portion is merely the invention of grammarians, and has little value in determining the pupil's use of language or in developing his reasoning faculties. This is a revival of the long-endured, unfruitful, old-time method. +Method of Another Class of Text-books+.--In another class are those that present a miscellaneous collection of lessons in Composition, Spelling, Pronunciation, Sentence-analysis, Technical Grammar, and General Information, without unity or continuity. The pupil who completes these books will have gained something by practice and will have picked up some scraps of knowledge; but his information will be vague and disconnected, and he will have missed that mental training which it is the aim of a good text-book to afford. A text-book is of value just so far as it presents a clear, logical development of its subject. It must present its science or its art as a natural growth, otherwise there is no apology for its being. +The Study of the Sentence for the Proper Use of Words+.--It is the plan of this course to trace with easy steps the natural development of the sentence, to consider the leading facts first and then to descend to the details. To begin with the parts of speech is to begin with details and to disregard the higher unities, without which the details are scarcely intelligible. The part of speech to which a word belongs is determined only by its function in the sentence, and inflections simply mark the offices and relations of words. Unless the pupil has been systematically trained to discover the functions and relations of words as elements of an organic whole, his knowledge of the parts of speech is of little value. It is not because he cannot conjugate the verb or decline the pronoun that he falls into such errors as "How many sounds _have_ each of the vowels?" "Five years' interest _are_ due." "She is older than _me_." He probably would not say "each _have_," "interest _are_," "_me_ am." One thoroughly familiar with the structure of the sentence will find little trouble in using correctly the few inflectional forms in English. +The Study of the Sentence for the Laws of Discourse+.--Through the study of the sentence we not only arrive at an intelligent knowledge of the parts of speech and a correct use of grammatical forms, but we discover the laws of discourse in general. In the sentence the student should find the law of unity, of continuity, of proportion, of order. All good writing consists of good sentences properly joined. Since the sentence is the foundation or unit of discourse, it is all-important that the pupil should know the sentence. He should be able to put the principal and the subordinate parts in their proper relation; he should know the exact function of every element, its relation to other elements and its relation to the whole. He should know the sentence as the skillful engineer knows his engine, that, when there is a disorganization of parts, he may at once find the difficulty and the remedy for it. +The Study of the Sentence for the Sake of Translation+.--The laws of thought being the same for all nations, the logical analysis of the sentence is the same for all languages. When a student who has acquired a knowledge of the English sentence comes to the translation of a foreign language, he finds his work greatly simplified. If in a sentence of his own language he sees only a mass of unorganized words, how much greater must be his confusion when this mass of words is in a foreign tongue! A study of the parts of speech is a far less important preparation for translation, since the declensions and conjugations in English do not conform to those of other languages. Teachers of the classics and of modern languages are beginning to appreciate these facts. +The Study of the Sentence for Discipline+.--As a means of discipline nothing can compare with a training in the logical analysis of the sentence. To study thought through its outward form, the sentence, and to discover the fitness of the different parts of the expression to the parts of the thought, is to learn to think. It has been noticed that pupils thoroughly trained in the analysis and the construction of sentences come to their other studies with a decided advantage in mental power. These results can be obtained only by systematic and persistent work. Experienced teachers understand that a few weak lessons on the sentence at the beginning of a course and a few at the end can afford little discipline and little knowledge that will endure, nor can a knowledge of the sentence be gained by memorizing complicated rules and labored forms of analysis. To compel a pupil to wade through a page or two of such bewildering terms as "complex adverbial element of the second class" and "compound prepositional adjective phrase," in order to comprehend a few simple functions, is grossly unjust; it is a substitution of form for content, of words for ideas. +Subdivisions and Modifications after the Sentence+.--Teachers familiar with text books that group all grammatical instruction around the eight parts of speech, making eight independent units, will not, in the following lessons, find everything in its accustomed place. But, when it is remembered that the thread of connection unifying this work is the sentence, it will be seen that the lessons fall into their natural order of sequence. When, through the development of the sentence, all the offices of the different parts of speech are mastered, the most natural thing is to continue the work of classification and subdivide the parts of speech. The inflection of words, being distinct from their classification, makes a separate division of the work. If the chief end of grammar were to enable one to parse, we should not here depart from long-established precedent. +Sentences in Groups--Paragraphs+.--In tracing the growth of the sentence from the simplest to the most complex form, each element, as it is introduced, is illustrated by a large number of detached sentences, chosen with the utmost care as to thought and expression. These compel the pupil to confine his attention to one thing till he gets it well in hand. Paragraphs from literature are then selected to be used at intervals, with questions and suggestions to enforce principles already presented, and to prepare the way informally for the regular lessons that follow. The lessons on these selections are, however, made to take a much wider scope. They lead the pupil to discover how and why sentences are grouped into paragraphs, and how paragraphs are related to each other; they also lead him on to discover whatever is most worthy of imitation in the style of the several models presented. +The Use of the Diagram+.--In written analysis, the simple map, or diagram, found in the following lessons, will enable the pupil to present directly and vividly to the eye the exact function of every clause in the sentence, of every phrase in the clause, and of every word in the phrase--to picture the complete analysis of the sentence, with principal and subordinate parts in their proper relations. It is only by the aid of such a map, or picture, that the pupil can, at a single view, see the sentence as an organic whole made up of many parts performing various functions and standing in various relations. Without such map he must labor under the disadvantage of seeing all these things by piecemeal or in succession. But, if for any reason the teacher prefers not to use these diagrams, they may be omitted without causing the slightest break in the work. The plan of this book is in no way dependent on the use of the diagrams. +The Objections to the Diagram+.--The fact that the pictorial diagram groups the parts of a sentence according to their offices and relations, and not in the order of speech, has been spoken of as a fault. It is on the contrary, a merit, for it teaches the pupil to look through the literary order and discover the logical order. He thus learns what the literary order really is, and sees that this may be varied indefinitely, so long as the logical relations are kept clear. The assertion that correct diagrams can be made mechanically is not borne out by the facts. It is easier to avoid precision in oral analysis than in written. The diagram drives the pupil to a most searching examination of the sentence, brings him face to face with every difficulty, and compels a decision on every point. +The Abuse of the Diagram+.--Analysis by diagram often becomes so interesting and so helpful that, like other good things, it is liable to be overdone. There is danger of requiring too much written analysis. When the ordinary constructions have been made clear, diagrams should be used only for the more difficult sentences, or, if the sentences are long, only for the more difficult parts of them. In both oral and written analysis there is danger of repeating what needs no repetition. When the diagram has served its purpose, it should be dropped. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITION EXERCISES The exercises in composition found in the numbered Lessons of this book are generally confined to the illustration and the practical application of the principles of the science as these principles are developed step by step. To break up the continuity of the text by thrusting unrelated composition work between lessons closely related and mutually dependent is exceedingly unwise. The Composition Exercises suggested in this revision of "Graded Lessons" are designed to review the regular Lessons and to prepare in a broad, informal way for text work that follows. But since these Exercises go much farther, and teach the pupil how to construct paragraphs and how to observe and imitate what is good in different authors, they are placed in a supplement, and not between consecutive Lessons of the text. To let such general composition work take the place of the regular grammar lesson, say once a week, will be profitable. We suggest that the sentence work on the selections in the Supplement be made to follow Lessons 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 77; but each teacher must determine for himself when these and the other outlined lessons can best be used. We advise that other selections from literature be made and these exercises continued with the treatment of the parts of speech. For composition work to precede Lesson 30 we suggest that the teacher break up a short story of one or two paragraphs into simple sentences, making some of these transposed, some interrogative, and some exclamatory. The pupils may be required to copy these, to underline the subject and the predicate, and to tell, in answer to suggestive questions, what some of the other words and groups of words do (the questions on the selections in the Supplement may aid the teacher). The pupils may then write out the story in full form. To vary the exercise, the teacher might read the story and let the pupils write out the short sentences. A TALK ON LANGUAGE. The teacher is recommended, before assigning any lesson, to occupy the time of at least two or three recitations, in talking with his pupils about language, always remembering that, in order to secure the interest of his class, he must allow his pupils to take an active part in the exercise. The teacher should guide the thought of his class; but, if he attempt to do _all the talking_, he will find, when he concludes, that he has been left to do _all the thinking_. We give below a few hints in conducting this talk on language, but the teacher is not expected to confine himself to them. He will, of course, be compelled, in some instances, to resort to various devices in order to obtain from the pupils answers equivalent to those here suggested. LESSON 1. +Teacher+.--I will pronounce these three sounds very slowly and distinctly, thus: _b-u-d_. Notice, it is the _power_, or _sound_, of the letter, and not its name, that I give. What did you hear? +Pupil+.--I heard three sounds. +T.--+Give them. I will write on the board, so that you can see them, three letters--_b-u-d_. Are these letters, taken separately, signs to you of anything? +P.--+Yes, they are signs to me of the three sounds that I have just heard. +T.--+What then do these letters, taken separately, picture to your eye? +P.--+They picture the sounds that came to my ear. +T+.--Letters then are the signs of what? +P.--Letters are the signs of sounds+. +T+.--I will pronounce the same three sounds more rapidly, uniting them more closely--_bud_. These sounds, so united, form a spoken word. Of what do you think when you hear the word _bud_? +P+.--I think of a little round thing that grows to be a leafy branch or a flower. +T+.--Did you see the thing when you were thinking of it? +P+.--No. +T+.--Then you must have had a picture of it in your mind. We call this +mental picture+ an +idea+. What called up this idea? +P+.--It was called up by the word _bud_, which I heard. +T+.--A _spoken word_ then is the sign of what? +P.--A spoken word is the sign of an idea+. +T+.--I will call up the same idea in another way. I will _write_ three _letters_ and unite them thus: _bud_. What do you see? +P+.--I see the word _bud_. +T+.--If we call the other word _bud_ a _spoken_ word, what shall we call this? +P+.--This is a _written_ word. +T+.--If they stand for the same idea, how do they differ? +P+.--I _see_ this, and I _heard_ that. +T+.--You will observe that we have called attention to _four_ different things; viz., the +real bud+; your _mental picture_ of the bud, which we have called an +idea+; and the +two words+, which we have called signs of this idea, the one addressed to the ear, and the other to the eye. If the pupil be brought to see these distinctions, it may aid him to observe more closely and express himself more clearly. LESSON 2. +Teacher+.--What did you learn in the previous Lesson? +Pupil+.--I learned that a spoken word is composed of certain sounds, and that letters are signs of sounds, and that spoken and written words are the signs of ideas. This question should be passed from one pupil to another till all of these answers are elicited. All the written words in all the English books ever made, are formed of twenty-six letters, representing about forty sounds. These letters and these sounds make up what is called artificial language. Of these twenty-six letters, +a, e, i, o, u+, and sometimes +w+ and +y+, are called +vowels+, and the remainder are called +consonants+. In order that you may understand what kind of sounds the vowels stand for, and what kinds the consonants represent, I will tell you something about the _human voice_. The air breathed out from your lungs beats against two flat muscles, stretched like strings across the top of the windpipe, and causes them to vibrate. This vibrating makes sound. Take a thread, put one end between your teeth, hold the other in your fingers, draw it tight and strike it, and you will understand how voice is made. If the voice thus produced comes out through the mouth held well open, a class of sounds is formed which we call _vowel_ sounds. But, if the voice is held back by your palate, tongue, teeth, or lips, _one_ kind of _consonant_ sounds is made. If the _breath_ is driven out _without voice_, and is held back by these same parts of the mouth, the _other_ kind of _consonant_ sounds is formed. Ex. of both: _b, d, g; p, t, k_. The teacher and pupils should practice on these sounds till the three kinds can easily be distinguished. You are now prepared to understand what I mean when I say that the +vowels+ are the +letters+ which stand for the +open sounds of the voice+, and that the +consonants+ are the +letters+ which stand for the sounds made by the +obstructed voice+ and the +obstructed breath+. The teacher can here profitably spend a few minutes in showing how ideas may be communicated by _Natural Language_, the language of _sighs, groans, gestures_ of the hands, _attitudes_ of the body, _expressions_ of the face, _tones_ of the voice, etc. He can show that, in conversation, we sometimes couple this _Natural Language_ of _tone_ and _gesture_ with our language of words, in order to make a stronger impression. Let the pupil be told that, if the passage contain feeling, he should do the same in _Reading_ and _Declaiming_. Let the following definitions be learned, and given at the next recitation. +DEFINITION.--Artificial Language, or _Language Proper_, consists of the spoken and written words used to communicate ideas and thoughts+. +DEFINITION.--_English Grammar_ is the science which teaches the forms, uses, and relations of the words of the English Language+. LESSON 3 Let the pupils be required to tell what they learned in the previous lessons. +Teacher+.--When I pronounce the two words _star_ and _bud_ thus: _star bud_, how many ideas, or mental pictures, do I call up to you? +Pupil+.--Two. +T+.--Do you see any connection between these ideas? +P+.--No. +T+.--When I utter the two words _bud_ and _swelling_, thus: _bud swelling_, do you see any connection in the ideas they stand for? +P+.--Yes, I imagine that I see a bud expanding, or growing larger. +T+.--I will connect two words more closely, so as to express a thought: _Buds swell_. A thought has been formed in my mind when I say, _Buds swell_; and these two words, in which something is said of something else, express that thought, and make what we call a _sentence_. In the former expression, _bud swelling_ it is assumed, or taken for granted, that buds perform the act; in the latter, the swelling is asserted as a fact. _Leaves falling_. Do these two words express two ideas merely associated, or do they express a thought? +P+.--They express ideas merely associated. +T+.--_Leaves fall_. Same question. +P+.--A thought. +T+.--Why? +P+.--Because, in these words, there is something _said_ or _asserted_ of leaves. +T+.--When I say, _Falling leaves rustle_, does _falling_ tell what is thought of leaves? +P+.--No. +T+.--What does _falling_ do? +P+.--It tells the _kind_ of leaves you are thinking and speaking of. +T+.--What word _does_ tell what is thought of leaves? +P+.--_Rustle_. +T+.--You see then that in the thought there are two parts; something of which we think, and that which we think about it. Let the pupils give other examples. LESSON 4. Commit to memory all definitions. +DEFINITION.--A _Sentence_ is the expression of a thought in words+. Which of the following expressions contain words that have _no connection_, which contain words _merely associated_, and which are _sentences_? 1. Flowers bloom. 2. Ice melts. 3. Bloom ice. 4. Grass grows. 5. Brooks babble. 6. Babbling brooks. 7. Grass soar. 8. Doors open. 9. Open doors. 10. Cows graze. 11. Curling smoke. 12. Sugar graze. 13. Dew sparkles. 14. Hissing serpents. 15. Smoke curls. 16. Serpents hiss. 17. Smoke curling. 18. Serpents sparkles. 19. Melting babble. 20. Eagles soar. 21. Birds chirping. 22. Birds are chirping. 23. Birds chirp. 24. Gentle cows. 25. Eagles are soaring. 26. Bees ice. 27. Working bees. 28. Bees work. 29. Crawling serpents. 30. Landscape piano. 31. Serpents crawl. 32. Eagles clock. 33. Serpents crawling. LESSON 5. REVIEW QUESTIONS. Illustrate, by the use of _a_, _b_, and _p_, the difference between the _sounds_ of letters and their _names_. Letters are the signs of what? What is an idea? A _spoken_ word is the sign of what? A _written_ word is the sign of what? How do they differ? To what four different things did we call attention in Lesson 1? How are _vowel_ sounds made? How are the two kinds of _consonant_ sounds made? What are vowels? Name them. What are consonants? What is artificial language, or language proper? What do you understand by natural language? What is English grammar? What three kinds of expressions are spoken of in Lessons 3 and 4? Give examples of each. What is a sentence? LESSON 6. ANALYSIS. On the following sentences, let the pupils be exercised according to the model. +Model+.--_Intemperance degrades_. Why is this a _sentence?_ Ans.--Because it expresses a thought. Of what is something thought? Ans.--Intemperance. Which word tells what is thought? Ans.--_Degrades_. 1. Magnets attract. 2. Horses neigh. 3. Frogs leap. 4. Cold contracts. 5. Sunbeams dance. 6. Heat expands. 7. Sunlight gleams. 8. Banners wave. 9. Grass withers. 10. Sailors climb. 11. Rabbits burrow. 12. Spring advances. You see that in these sentences there are two parts. The parts are the _+Subject+_ and the _+Predicate+_. +DEFINITION.--The _Subject of a sentence_ names that of which something is thought+. +DEFINITION.--The _Predicate of a sentence_ tells what is thought+. +DEFINITION.--The _Analysis of a sentence_ is the separation of it into its parts+. Analyze, according to the model, the following sentences. +Model+.--_Stars twinkle_. This is a _sentence_, because it expresses a thought. _Stars_ is the _subject_, because it names that of which something is thought; _twinkle_ is the _predicate_, because it tells what is thought. +To the Teacher+.--After the pupils become familiar with the definitions, the "Models" may be varied, and some of the reasons maybe made specific; as, "_Plants_ names the things we tell about; _droop_ tells what plants do," etc. Guard against needless repetition. 1. Plants droop. 2. Books help. 3. Clouds float. 4. Exercise strengthens. 5. Rain falls. 6. Time flies. 7. Rowdies fight. 8. Bread nourishes. 9. Boats capsize. 10. Water flows. 11. Students learn. 12. Horses gallop. LESSON 7. ANALYSIS AND THE DIAGRAM. +Hints for Oral Instruction+.--I will draw on the board a heavy, or shaded, line, and divide it into two parts, thus: | ===========|============ | We will consider the first part as the sign of the _subject_ of a sentence, and the second part as the sign of the _predicate_ of a sentence. Now, if I write a word over the first line, thus--(doing it)--you will understand that that word is the subject of a sentence. If I write a word over the second line, thus--you will understand that that word is the predicate of a sentence. Planets | revolve ============|=========== | The class can see by this picture that _Planets revolve_ is a sentence, that _planets_ is the subject, and that _revolve_ is the predicate. These signs, or illustrations, made up of straight lines, we call +Diagrams+. +DEFINITION.--A _Diagram_ is a picture of the offices and relations of the different parts of a sentence+. _Analyze_ and _diagram_ the following sentences. 1. Waves dash. 2. Kings reign. 3. Fruit ripens. 4. Stars shine. 5. Steel tarnishes. 6. Insects buzz. 7. Paul preached. 8. Poets sing. 9. Nero fiddled. 10. Larks sing. 11. Water ripples. 12. Lambs frisk. 13. Lions roar. 14. Tigers growl. 15. Breezes sigh. 16. Carthage fell. 17. Morning dawns. 18. Showers descended. 19. Diamonds sparkle. 20. Alexander conquered. 21. Jupiter thunders. 22. Columbus sailed, 23. Grammarians differ. 24. Cornwallis surrendered. * * * * * LESSON 8. SENTENCE-BUILDING. You have now learned to analyze sentences, that is, to separate them into their parts. You must next learn to put these parts together, that is, to _build sentences_. We will find one part, and you must find the other and do the building. +To the Teacher+.--Let some of the pupils write their sentences on the board, while others are reading theirs. Then let the work on the board be corrected. Correct any expression that does not make _good sense_, or that asserts something not strictly true; for the pupil should early be taught to _think accurately_, as well as to write and speak grammatically. Correct all mistakes in _spelling_, and in the use of _capital letters_ and the _period_. Call attention to the agreement in form of the predicate with the subject. See Notes, p. 163. Insist on neatness. Collect the papers before the recitation closes. +CAPITAL LETTER-RULE.--The first word of every sentence must begin with a _capital letter_+. +PERIOD--RULE.--A _period_ must be placed after every sentence that simply affirms, denies, or expresses a command+. Construct sentences by supplying a _subject_ to each of the following _predicates_. Ask yourself the question, What swim, sink, hunt, etc.? 1. ---- swim. 2. ---- sinks. 3. ---- hunt. 4. ---- skate. 5. ---- jingle. 6. ---- decay. 7. ---- climb. 8. ---- creep. 9. ---- run. 10. ---- walk. 11. ---- snort. 12. ---- kick. 13. ---- flashes. 14. ---- flutters. 15. ---- paddle. 16. ---- toil. 17. ---- terrifies. 18. ---- rages. 19. ---- expand. 20. ---- jump. 21. ---- hop. 22. ---- bellow. 23. ---- burns. 24. ---- evaporates. This exercise may profitably be extended by requiring the pupils to supply _several_ subjects to each predicate. LESSON 9. SENTENCE-BUILDING--Continued. Construct sentences by supplying a _predicate_ to each of the following _subjects_. Ask yourself the question, Artists do what? 1. Artists ----. 2. Sailors ----. 3. Tides ----. 4. Whales ----. 5. Gentlemen ----. 6. Swine ----. 7. Clouds ----. 8. Girls ----. 9. Fruit ----. 10. Powder ----. 11. Hail ----. 12. Foxes ----. 13. Water ----. 14. Frost ----. 15. Man ----. 16. Blood ----. 17. Kings ----. 18. Lilies ----. 19. Roses ----. 20. Wheels ----. 21. Waves ----. 22. Dew ----. 23. Boys ----. 24. Volcanoes ----. 25. Storms ----. 26. Politicians ----. 27. Serpents ----. 28. Chimneys ----. 29. Owls ----. 30. Rivers ----. 31. Nations ----. 32. Indians ----. 33. Grain ----. 34. Rogues ----. 34. Volcanoes ----. 35. Rome ----. 36. Briars ----. This exercise may be extended by requiring the pupils to supply several predicates to each subject. LESSON 10. REVIEW QUESTIONS. Of what two parts does a sentence consist? What is the subject of a sentence? What is the predicate of a sentence? What is the analysis of a sentence? What is a diagram? What rule for the use of capital letters have you learned? What rule for the period? Impromptu Exercise. Let the pupils "choose sides," as in a spelling match. Let the teacher select _predicates_ from Lesson 8, and give them alternately to the pupils thus arranged. The first pupil prefixes to his word whatever suitable subjects he can think of, the teacher judging of their fitness and keeping the count. This pupil now rises and remains standing until some one else, on his side or the other, shall have prefixed to his word a greater number of apt subjects. The strife is to see who shall be standing at the close of the match, and which side shall have furnished the greater number of subjects. The exercise may be continued with the _subjects_ of Lesson 9. Each pupil is to be limited to the same time--one or two minutes. LESSON 11. ANALYSIS. The +_predicate_+ sometimes contains +_more than one word_+. _Analyze_ and _diagram_ according to the model. +Model+.--_Socrates was poisoned_. Socrates | was poisoned ============|================ | This is a sentence, because it expresses a thought. _Socrates_ is the subject, because ----; _was poisoned_ is the predicate, because ----. [Footnote: The word _because_--suggesting a reason--should be dropped from these "+Models+" whenever it may lead to mere mechanical repetition.] 1. Napoleon was banished. 2. Andre was captured. 3. Money is circulated. 4. Columbus was imprisoned. 5. Acorns are sprouting. 6. Bells are tolled. 7. Summer has come. 8. Sentences may be analyzed. 9. Clouds are reddening. 10. Air may be weighed. 11. Jehovah shall reign. 12. Corn is planted. 13. Grammarians will differ. 14. Snow is falling. 15. Leaves are rustling. 16. Children will prattle. 17. Crickets are chirping. 18. Eclipses have been foretold. 19. Storms may abate. 20. Deception may have been practiced. 21. Esau was hated. 22. Treason should have been punished. 23. Bees are humming. 24. Sodom might have been spared. LESSON 12. SENTENCE-BUILDING. +To the Teacher+.--Continue oral and written exercises in agreement. See Notes, pp. 163,164. Prefix the little helping words in the _second column_ to such of the more important words in the _third column_ as with them will make complete predicates, and join these predicates to all subjects in the _first column_ with which they will unite to make good sense. 1 | 2 | 3 -------------|-----------------|------------ Burgoyne | are | woven. Henry Hudson | was | defeated. Sparrows | can be | condensed. Comets | is | inhaled. Time | have been | worn. Turbans | may be | slacked. Lime | has been | wasted. Steam | could have been | seen. Air | must have been | deceived. Carpets | were | quarreling. LESSON 13. Point out the _subject_ and the predicate of each sentence in Lessons 28, 31, 34. Look first for the word that asserts, and then, by putting _who_ or _what_ before this _predicate_, the _subject_ may easily be found. +To the Teacher+.--Most violations of the rules of concord come from a failure to recognize the relation of subject and predicate when these parts are transposed or are separated by other words. Such constructions should therefore receive special attention. See Notes, pp. 164, 165. Introduce the class to the Parts of Speech before the close of this recitation. See "Hints for Oral Instruction." See "Suggestions for COMPOSITION EXERCISES," p. 8, last paragraph. LESSON 14. CLASSES OF WORDS. +Hints for Oral Instruction+.--By the assistance of the few hints here given, the ingenious teacher may render this usually dry subject interesting and highly attractive. By questioning the pupil as to what he has seen and heard, his interest may be excited and his curiosity awakened. Suppose that we make an imaginary excursion to some pleasant field or grove, where we may study the habits, the plumage, and the songs of the little birds. If we attempt to make the acquaintance of every little feathered singer we meet, we shall never get to the end of our pleasant task: but we find that some resemble one another in size, shape, color, habits, and song. These we associate together and call them sparrows. We find others differing essentially from the sparrows, but resembling one another. These we call robins. We thus find that, although we were unable to become acquainted with each _individual_ bird, they all belong to a few _classes_, with which we may soon become familiar. It is so with the words of our language. There are many thousand words, all of which belong to eight classes. These classes of words are called +Parts of Speech+. We classify birds according to their form, color, etc., but we group words into _classes_, called +Parts of Speech+, with respect to their use in the _sentence_. We find that many words are names. These we put in one class and call them +Nouns+. Each pupil may give the name of something in the room; the name of a distinguished person; a name that may be applied to a class of persons; the name of an animal; the name of a place: the name of a river; the name of a mountain; the name of something which we cannot see or touch, but of which we can think; as, _beauty_, _mind_. Remind the pupils frequently that these _names_ are all _nouns_. NOUNS. +DEFINITION.--A _Noun_ is the name of anything+. Write in columns, headed _nouns_, the names of domestic animals, of garden vegetables, of flowers, of trees, of articles sold in a dry goods store, and of things that cannot be seen or touched; as, _virtue_, _time_, _life_. Write and arrange, according to the following model, the names of things that can _float_, _fly_, _walk_, _work_, _sit_, or _sing_. _Nouns_. Cork | Clouds | +Model+.--Wood + floats or float. Ships | Boys | Such expressions as _Cork floats_ are _sentences_, and the nouns _cork_, _ship_, etc., are the subjects. You will find that _+every subject+ is a +noun+ or some word or words used for a noun_. Be prepared to analyze and parse the sentences which you have made. _Naming the class to which a word belongs is the first step in parsing_. +Model for Analysis+.--This is a sentence, because -----; _cork_ is the subject, because -----; _floats_ is the predicate, because -----. +Parsing+.--_Cork_ is a _noun_, because it is the name of a thing--the bark of a tree. LESSON 15. Select and write all the nouns in the sentences given in Lessons 28, 31, 34. Tell why they are nouns. In writing the nouns, observe the following rule. +CAPITAL LETTER--RULE.--Every proper or individual name must begin with a capital letter+. +To the Teacher+.--See Notes, pp. 167-169. REVIEW QUESTIONS. With respect to what, do we classify words (Lesson 14)? What are such classes called? Can you illustrate this classification? What are all names? What is a noun? What is the first step in parsing? What is the rule for writing individual names? LESSON 16. VERBS. +Hints for Oral Instruction+.--We propose to introduce you now to another class of words. (The teacher may here refer to the talk about birds.) You have learned that one very large class of words consists of _names of things_. There is another very important class of words used to tell what these things _do_, or used to _express_ their _existence_. When I say, _Plants grow_, is _grow_ the name of anything? +P+.--No. +T+.--What does it do? +P+.--It tells what plants _do_. It _expresses action_. +T+.--When I say, _God is_, what does _is_ express? +P+.--It expresses _existence_, or _being_. +T+.--When I say, _George sleeps_, _sleeps_ expresses _being_ and something more; it tells the condition, or _state_ in which George is, or exists, that is, it expresses _state of being_. All the words that assert _action, being_, or _state of being_, we call +Verbs+. Let the teacher write nouns on the board, and require the pupils to give all the words of which they can think, telling what the things named can do. They may be arranged thus:-- _Noun_. _Verbs_. | grow, | droop, Plants + decay, | flourish, | revive. Each pupil may give a verb that expresses an action of the body; as _weep, sing_; an action of the mind; as, _study, love_; one that expresses being or state of being. +DEFINITION.--A _Verb_ is a word that asserts action, being, or state of being+. The office of the verb in all its forms, except two (the participle and the infinitive, see Lessons 48 and 49), is to +_assert_+. This it does whether the sentence affirms, denies, or asks a question. +To the Teacher+.--In the exercises of this and the next two Lessons, let the pupils note the agreement of the verb with its subject. See Notes, pp. 163-165. Supply, to each of the following _nouns_, as many appropriate _verbs_ as you can think of. Let some express _being_ or _state of being_. Water ----. Wind ----. Pens ----. Parrots ----. Vines ----. Farmers ----. Trees ----. Ministers ----. One verb may consist of _two, three_, or _four_ words; as, _is singing, will be sung, might have been sung_. Form _verbs_ by combining the words in columns 2 and 3, and add these verbs to all the _nouns_ in column 1 with which they appropriately combine. 1 | 2 | 3 -------|------------------|------------ Laws | has been | published. Clouds | have been | paid. Food | will be | restored. Health | should have been | preserved. Taxes | may be | collected. Books | are | obeyed. The examples you have written are sentences; the _nouns_ are _subjects_, and the _verbs_ are _predicates_. As verbs are the only words that assert, _+every predicate+ must be a +verb+, or must contain a verb_. Be prepared to _analyze and parse five of the sentences_ that you have written. +Model+.--_Laws are obeyed_. Diagram and analyze as in Lesson 11. +Parsing+.--_Laws_ is a noun, because----; _are obeyed_ is a _verb_, because it asserts action. LESSON 17. Select and write all the verbs in the sentences given in Lessons 28, 31, 34, and tell why they are verbs. LESSON 18. SENTENCE-BUILDING. From the following nouns and verbs, build as many sentences as possible, taking care that every one makes good sense. Poems, was conquered, lambs, rebellion, stars, forests, shone, were seen, were written, treason, patriots, meteors, fought, were discovered, frisk, Cain, have fallen, fled, stream, have crumbled, day, ages, deer, are flickering, are bounding, gleamed, voices, lamps, rays, were heard, are gathering, time, death, friends, is coming, will come. +To the Teacher+.--Before this recitation closes, let the teacher open up the subject of Lesson 19. See "Hints for Oral Instruction." LESSON 19. PRONOUNS. +Hints for Oral Instruction+.--We propose to introduce you now to the _third part of speech_. +T.--+If I should ask who whispered, and some boy should promptly confess, what would he say? +P.--+_I_ whispered. +T.--+Would he mention his own name? +P.--+No. +T.--+What word would he use instead? +P.--+_I_. +T.--+Suppose that I had _spoken to_ that boy and had accused him of whispering, how should I have addressed him without mentioning his name? +P.--+_You_ whispered. +T.--+What word would be used instead of the name of the boy _to_ whom I spoke? +P.--+_You_. +T.--+Suppose that, without using his name, I had told you what he did, what should I have said? +P.--+_He_ whispered. +T.--+What word would have been used instead of the name of the boy _of_ whom I spoke? +P.--+_He_. (Repeat these questions and suppose the pupil to be a girl.) +T.--+If I should tell that boy to close his book, when his book was already closed, what would he say without mentioning the word book? +P.--+_It_ is closed. +T.--+If I should accuse several of you of whispering, and one should speak for himself and for the others whispering with him, what would he say? _We_ whispered. +T--+Suppose that a boy should inform me that all of the boys on that seat had whispered, what would he say? +P.--+_They_ whispered. _I, you, he, she, it, we_, and _they_ are not names, but they are used instead of names. We call such words +Pronouns+. +DEFINITION.--A _Pronoun_ is a word used for a noun+. +CAPITAL LETTERS--RULE.--The words _I_ and _O_ should be written in capital letters+. Analysis and Parsing. +Model.--+_You will be rewarded_. +Oral Analysis--+This is a sentence, because----; _you_ is the subject, because----; _will be rewarded_ is the predicate, because----. +Parsing.--+_You_ is a _pronoun_, because it stands for the name of the person spoken to; _will be rewarded_ is a verb, because----. 1. We think. 2. She prattles. 3. We have recited. 4. I study. 5. You have been seen. 6. It has been decided. 7. He was punished. 8. They are conquered. 9. Thou art adored. Compose nine similar sentences, using a pronoun for the subject of each, and diagram them. +To the Teacher.--+Call special attention to the agreement of the verb with _I_ and _you_. See Notes, p. 164. Before this recitation closes, explain "Modified Subject." See "Hints for Oral Instruction." LESSON 20. MODIFIED SUBJECT. +Hints for Oral Instruction.--+The _Subject_ and the _Predicate_ may be considered as the foundation on which every sentence is built. No sentence can be constructed without them. You have already learned that these parts _alone_, sometimes make a complete structure; but we are about to show you that they are often used as the foundation of a structure, which is completed by adding _other_ parts. I hold in my hand several pieces of metal, with letters and other characters stamped on them. What do you say I have in my hand? +P+.--Money. +T.--+Yes. What other word can you use? +P.--+_Coin_. +T.--+Yes. I will write on the board this sentence: _Coin is stamped_. The subject _coin_ is a general name for all such pieces of metal. I will write the word _the_ before this sentence. _The coin is stamped_. I have now made an assertion about one particular coin, so the meaning of the subject is limited by joining the word _the_. I can again limit the meaning of the subject by putting the word _a_ before it. The assertion is now about one coin, but no particular one. I point to the piece near me and say, _This coin is stamped_. I point to the one farther from me and say, _That coin is stamped_. When words are joined to the subject to limit its meaning, we say that the subject is _modified_. The words _the, a, this_, and _that_ modify the subject by limiting the word to one coin, or to one particular coin. We can modify the subject by joining some word which will tell what _kind_ of coin is meant. Here is a coin dated 18--. We can say, _The new coin is stamped_. Here the word _new_ tells what kind of coin is meant. What other words can I use to modify _coin_? +P.--+_Beautiful, bright, new, round, silver_. +T.--+These words _beautiful, bright, new, round_, and _silver_ modify the subject by telling the qualities of the coin. We call the words _the, beautiful_, etc., +Modifiers+. +DEFINITION.--A _Modifier_ is a word or group of words joined to some part of the sentence to qualify or limit the meaning+. The +_Subject_+ with its +_Modifiers_+ is called the +_Modified Subject_+. ANALYSIS. Analyze and diagram the following sentences. +Model.--+_The genial summer days have come_. days | have come =====================|============= \The \genial \summer | +Explanation of the Diagram.--+The lighter lines, joined to the subject line, stand for the _modifiers_, the less important parts. +Oral Analysis.--+This is a sentence, because----; _days_ is the subject, because----; _have come_ is the predicate, because----; _The, genial_, and _summer_ are _modifiers_ of the subject, because they are words joined to the subject to modify its meaning. _The genial summer days_ is the _modified subject_. +To the Teacher.--+To excite thought and guard against mere routine, pupils may, so far as they are able, make the reasons specific. For example, "_The_ points out some particular clouds, _dark_ tells their color," etc. Here and elsewhere the teacher must determine how far it is profitable to follow "Models." There is great danger of wasting time in repeating forms that require no mental effort. 1. The angry wind is howling. 2. The dead leaves fall. 3. The dark clouds lower. 4. The tall elm bends. 5. All men must die. 6. The lusty bellows roared. 7. A boding silence reigned. 8. Little Arthur was murdered. 9. The mighty oak was uprooted. 10. The fragile violet was crushed. 11. The beautiful marble statue was carved. 12. The turbid torrent roared. 13. The affrighted shepherds fled. 14. The vivid lightning flashes. 15. Those elegant Etruscan vases are broken. REVIEW QUESTIONS. What is a verb? Give examples of verbs of action. Of being. Of state of being. May a verb consist of more than one word? Illustrate. Verbs are the only words that do what? What must every predicate contain? What parts of speech are explained in the preceding Lessons? What is a pronoun? Give the rule for writing the words _I_ and _0_. What is the foundation on which every sentence is built? May the subject be modified? What is a modifier? What is the modified subject? LESSON 21. SENTENCE-BUILDING. We have here prepared the foundations of sentences which you are to complete by writing two or more suitable modifiers to each subject. Be careful to choose and arrange your material so as to make a neat and appropriate structure. +Model+.---------- eminence was reached. _That lofty_ eminence was reached. 1. ---- speaker was applauded. 2. ---- difficulties were overcome. 3. ---- leaf trembles. 4. ---- accident happened. 5. ---- books should be read. 6. ---- houses are built. 7. ---- soldiers perished. 8. ---- opinions prevailed. 9. ---- leader fell. 10. ---- task is completed. For other subjects and predicates, the teacher is referred to Lessons 7 and 11. Build sentences by prefixing _modified subjects_ to the following predicates. 1. ---- frolic. 2. ---- crawl. 3. ---- are dashing. 4. ---- was caught. 5. ---- escaped. 6. ---- chatter. 7. ---- flourished. 8. ---- whistles. Build, on each of the following subjects, three sentences similar to those in the model. +Model+ ------------- sun --------------- _The bright_ sun _is shining_. _The glorious_ sun _has risen_. _The unclouded_ sun _is sinking_. 1. ---- snow ----. 2. ---- dew ----. 3. ---- wind ----. 4. ---- landscape ----. +To the Teacher+.--Please take notice that the next Lesson begins with "Hints for Oral Instruction." LESSON 22. ADJECTIVES. +Hints for Oral Instruction+.--You are now prepared to consider the _fourth part of speech_. Those words that are added to the subject to modify its meaning are called +Adjectives+. Some grammarians have formed a separate class of the little words _the_, and _an_ or _a_, calling them _articles_. I will write the word _boys_ on the board, and you may name adjectives that will appropriately modify it. As you give them, _I_ will write these adjectives in a column. _Adjectives_. small | large | white | black | straight + boys. crooked | five | some | all | What words here modify _boys_ by adding the idea of size? What by adding the idea of color? What by adding the idea of form? What by adding the idea of number? What are such words called? Why? Let the teacher name familiar objects and require the pupils to join appropriate adjectives to the names till their stock is exhausted. +DEFINITION.--An _Adjective_ is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun+. Analysis and Parsing. +Model+.--_A fearful storm was raging_. Diagram and analyze as in Lesson 20. +Written Parsing+. _Nouns_. | _Pronouns_. | _Adjectives_. | _Verbs_. storm | ---- | A fearful | was raging. +Oral Parsing+.--_A_ is an _adjective_, because it is joined to the noun _storm_, to modify its meaning; _fearful_ is an _adjective_, because ------; _storm_ is a noun, because ------; _was raging_ is a verb, because -----. 1. The rosy morn advances. 2. The humble boon was obtained. 3. An unyielding firmness was displayed. 4. The whole earth smiles. 5. Several subsequent voyages were made. 6. That burly mastiff must be secured. 7. The slender greyhound was released. 8. The cold November rain is falling. 9. That valuable English watch has been sold. 10. I alone have escaped. 11. Both positions can be defended. 12. All such discussions should have been avoided. 13. That dilapidated old wooden building has fallen. +To the Teacher+.--See Notes, pp. 169, 170. LESSON 23. SENTENCE-BUILDING. Prefix five adjectives to each of the following nouns. Shrubs, wilderness, beggar, cattle, cloud. Write ten sentences with modified subjects, using in each two or more of the following adjectives. A, an, the, heroic, one, all, many, every, either, first, tenth, frugal, great, good, wise, honest, immense, square, circular, oblong, oval, mild, virtuous, universal, sweet, careless, fragrant. Write five sentences with modified subjects, each of which shall contain one of the following words as a subject. Chimney, hay, coach, robber, horizon. _An_ and _a_ are forms of the same word, once spelled _an_, and meaning _one_. After losing something of this force, _an_ was still used before vowels and consonants alike; as, _an eagle, an ball, an hair, an use_. Still later, and for the sake of ease in speaking, the word came to have the two forms mentioned above; and an was retained before letters having vowel sounds, but it dropped its _n_ and became _a_ before letters having consonant sounds. This is the present usage. CORRECT THESE ERRORS. A apple; a obedient child; an brickbat; an busy boy. CORRECT THESE ERRORS. A heir; a hour; a honor. Notice, the first letter of these words is _silent_. CORRECT THESE ERRORS. An unit; an utensil; an university; an ewe; an ewer; an union; an use; an history; an one. _Unit_ begins with the sound of the consonant _y_; and _one_, with that of _w_. +To the Teacher+.--See "Suggestions for COMPOSITION EXERCISES," p. 8, last paragraph. LESSON 24. MODIFIED PREDICATES. +Hints for Oral Instruction+.--I will now show you how the _predicate_ of a sentence may be modified. _The ship sails gracefully_. What word is here joined to _sails_ to tell the _manner_ of sailing? +P+.--_Gracefully_. +T+.--_The ship sails immediately_. What word is here joined to _sails_ to tell the _time_ of sailing? +P+.--_Immediately_. +T+.--_The, ship sails homeward_. What word is here joined to _sails_ to tell the _direction_ of sailing? +P+.--_Homeward_. +T+.--These words _gracefully, immediately_, and _homeward_ are modifiers of the predicate. In the first sentence, _sails gracefully_ is the +_Modified Predicate_+. Let the following modifiers be written on the board as the pupil suggests them. | instantly. | soon. | daily. | hither. The ship sails + hence. | there. | rapidly. | smoothly. | well. Which words indicate the time of sailing? Which, the place? Which, the manner? The teacher may suggest predicates, and require the pupils to find as many appropriate modifiers as they can. The Predicate with its modifiers is called the +_Modified Predicate_+. Analysis and Parsing. Analyze and diagram the following sentences, and parse the nouns, pronouns, verbs, and adjectives. +Model+.--_The letters were rudely carved_. letters | were carved =========|=============== \The | \rudely +Written Parsing+.--See _Model_, Lesson 22. +Oral Analysis+.--This is a sentence, because----; _letters_ is the subject, because----; _were carved_ is the predicate, because----; _The_ is a modifier of the subject, because----; _rudely_ is a modifier of the predicate, because----; _The letters_ is the modified subject, _were rudely carved_ is the _modified predicate_. 1. He spoke eloquently. 2. She chattered incessantly. 3. They searched everywhere. 4. I shall know presently. 5. The bobolink sings joyously. 6. The crowd cheered heartily. 7. A great victory was finally won. 8. Threatening clouds are moving slowly. 9. The deafening waves dash angrily. 10. These questions may be settled peaceably. 11. The wounded soldier fought bravely. 12. The ranks were quickly broken. 13. The south wind blows softly. 14. Times will surely change. 15. An hour stole on. LESSON 25. ANALYSIS AND PARSING. ONE MODIFIER JOINED TO ANOTHER. Analyze and diagram the following sentences, and parse the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs. +Model+.--_The frightened animal fled still more rapidly_. animal | fled ===================|===================== \The \frightened | \rapidly \more \still +Explanation of the Diagram+.--Notice that the three lines forming this group all slant the same way to show that each stands for a modifying word. The line standing for the principal word of the group is joined to the predicate line. The end of each of the other two lines is broken, and turned to touch its principal at an angle. +Oral Analysis+.--This is a sentence, because----; _animal_ is the subject, because----; _fled_ is the predicate, because----; _The_ and _frightened_ are modifiers of the subject, because----; _still more rapidly_ is a modifier of the predicate, because it is a group of words joined to it to limit its meaning; _rapidly_ is the principal word of the group; _more_ modifies _rapidly_, and _still_ modifies _more_, _The frightened animal_ is the modified subject; _fled still more rapidly_ is the modified predicate. 1. The crocus flowers very early. 2. A violet bed is budding near. 3. The Quakers were most shamefully persecuted. 4. Perhaps he will return. 5. We laughed very heartily. 6. The yellow poplar leaves floated down. 7. The wind sighs so mournfully. 8. Few men have ever fought so stubbornly. 9. The debt will probably be paid. 10. The visitor will soon be here. 11. That humane project was quite generously sustained. 12. A perfectly innocent man was very cruelly persecuted. REVIEW QUESTIONS. What is an adjective? What are the words _an_ or _a_, and _the_ called by some grammarians? When is _a_ used, and when _an?_ Give examples of their misuse. What is the modified predicate? Give an example. Give an example of one modifier joined to another. LESSON 26. Select your subjects from Lesson 9, and construct twenty sentences having modified subjects and modified predicates. Impromptu Exercise. Select sentences from Lessons 6, 7, and 11, and conduct the exercise as directed in Lesson 10. Let the strife be to see who can supply the greatest number of modifiers to the subject and to the predicate. The teacher can vary this exercise. LESSON 27. ADVERBS. +Hints for Oral Instruction+.--You have learned, in the preceding Lessons, that the meaning of the predicate may be limited by modifiers, and that one modifier may be joined to another. Words used to modify the predicate of a sentence and those used to modify modifiers belong to one class, or one _part of speech_, and are called +Adverbs+. +T+.--_She decided too hastily_. What word tells how she decided? +P+.---_Hastily_. +T+.--What word tells how hastily? +P+.--_Too_. +T+.--What then are the words _too_ and _hastily?_ +P+.--Adverbs. +T+.--_Too much time has been wasted_. What word modifies _much_ by telling how much? +P+.--_Too_. +T+.--What _part of speech_ is _much?_ +P+.--An adjective. +T+.--What then is _too?_ +P+.--An adverb. +T+.--Why is _too_ in the first sentence an adverb? Why is _too_ in the second sentence an adverb? Why is _hastily_ an adverb? Let the teacher use the following and similar examples, and continue the questions. _He thinks so. So much time has been wasted_. Let the teacher give verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, and require the pupils to modify them by appropriate adverbs. +DEFINITION.--_An Adverb_ is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb+. Analysis and Parsing. Analyze, diagram, and parse the following sentences. +Model+.--_We have been very agreeably disappointed_. +Diagram+ as in. Lesson 25. For +Written Parsing+, use _Model_, Lesson 22, adding a column for adverbs. +Oral Parsing+.--_We_ is a pronoun, because----; _have been disappointed_ is a verb, because----; _very_ is an _adverb_, because it is joined to the adverb _agreeably_ to tell how agreeably; _agreeably_ is an _adverb_, because it is joined to the verb _have been disappointed_ to indicate manner. 1. The plough-boy plods homeward. 2. The water gushed forth. 3. Too much time was wasted. 4. She decided too hastily. 5. You should listen more attentively. 6. More difficult sentences must be built. 7. An intensely painful operation was performed. 8. The patient suffered intensely. 9. That story was peculiarly told. 10. A peculiarly interesting story was told. 11. An extravagantly high price was paid. 12. That lady dresses extravagantly. The pupil will notice that, in some of the examples above, the same adverb modifies an adjective in one sentence and an adverb in another, and that, in other examples, an adjective and a verb are modified by the same word. You may learn from this why such modifiers are grouped into one class. LESSON 28. ANALYSIS AND PARSING. MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES FOR REVIEW. 1. You must diagram neatly. 2. The sheaves are nearly gathered. 3. The wheat is duly garnered. 4. The fairies were called together. 5. The birds chirp merrily. 6. This reckless adventurer has returned. 7. The wild woods rang. 8. White fleecy clouds are floating above. 9. Those severe laws have been repealed. 10. A republican government was established. 11. An unusually large crop had just been harvested. 12. She had been waiting quite patiently. 13. A season so extremely warm had never before been known. 14. So brave a deed [Footnote: _Can be commended_ is the verb, and _not_ is an adverb.] cannot be too warmly commended. LESSON 29. SENTENCE-BUILDING. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES FOR REVIEW. Build sentences containing the following adverbs. Hurriedly, solemnly, lightly, well, how, somewhere, abroad, forever, seldom, exceedingly. Using the following subjects and predicates as foundations, build six sentences having modified subjects and modified predicates, two of which shall contain adverbs modifying adjectives; two, adverbs modifying adverbs; and two, adverbs modifying verbs. 1. ------- boat glides -----. 2. ------- cloud is rising -----. 3. ------- breezes are blowing -----. 4. ------- elephant was captured -----. 5. ------- streams flow -----. 6. ------- spring has opened -----. We here give you, in classes, the material out of which you are to build five sentences with modified subjects and modified predicates. Select the subject and the predicate first. _Nouns and Pronouns. Verbs. Adjectives. Adverbs_. branch | was running | large, that | lustily coach | were played | both, the | downward they | cried | all, an | very we | is growing | several, a | rapidly games | cheered | amusing | not, loudly, then LESSON 30. ERRORS FOR CORRECTION. +To the Teacher+.--We here suggest additional work in composition, with particular reference to the choice and position of adjectives. See Notes, pp. 171,172. +_Caution_+.--When two or more adjectives are used with a noun, care must be taken in their arrangement. If there is any difference in their relative importance, place nearest the noun the one that is most intimately connected with it. +To the Teacher+.--We have in mind here those numerous cases where one adjective modifies the noun, and the second modifies the noun as limited by the first. _All ripe apples are picked_. Here _ripe_ modifies _apples_, but _all_ modifies _apples_ limited by _ripe_. Not _all apples_ are _picked_, but only _all_ that are _ripe_. CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS OF POSITION. A wooden pretty bowl stood on the table. The blue beautiful sky is cloudless. A young industrious man was hired. The new marble large house was sold. +_Caution_+.--When the adjectives are of the _same_ rank, place them where they will sound the best. This will usually be in the order of their length--the longest last. CORRECT THESE ERRORS. An entertaining and fluent speaker followed. An enthusiastic, noisy, large crowd was addressed. +_Caution_+.--Do not use the pronoun +_them_+ for the adjective +_those_+. CORRECT THESE ERRORS. Them books are nicely bound. Them two sentences should be corrected. CORRECT THE FOLLOWING MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS. arouse, o romans hear, o israel it is i i may be Mistaken you Have frequently been warned some Very savage beasts have been Tamed REVIEW QUESTIONS. What is an adverb? Give an example of an adverb modifying an adjective; one modifying a verb; one modifying an adverb. Why are such expressions as _a wooden pretty bowl_ faulty? Why is _an enthusiastic, noisy, large crowd_ faulty? Why is _them books_ wrong? Why is _i may be Mistaken_ wrong? Why is _hear, o israel_, wrong? Study the Review Questions given in previous Lessons. +To the Teacher+.--See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement--Selection from Darwin. LESSON 31. PHRASES INTRODUCED BY PREPOSITIONS. +Hints for Oral Instruction+.--In the preceding Lessons, you have learned that several words may be grouped together and used as one modifier. In the examples given, the principal word is joined directly to the subject or to the predicate, and this word is modified by another word. In this Lesson also groups of words are used as modifiers, but these words are not united with one another, or with the word which the group modifies, just as they are in the preceding Lessons. I will write on the board this sentence: _De Soto marched into Florida_. +T+.--What tells where De Soto marched? +P+.--_Into Florida_. +T+.--What is the principal word of the group? +P+.--_Florida_. +T+.--Is _Florida_ joined directly to the predicate, as rapidly was in Lesson 25? +P+.--No. +T+.--What little word comes in to unite the modifier to _marched?_ +P+.--_Into_. +T+.--Does _Florida_ alone, tell where he marched? +P+.--No. +T+.--Does _into_ alone, tell where he marched? +P+.--No. +T+.--These groups of related words are called +Phrases+. Let the teacher draw on the board the diagram of the sentence above. Phrases of the form illustrated in this diagram are the most common, and they perform a very important function in our language. Let the teacher frequently call attention to the fact that all the words of a phrase are _taken together_ to perform _one distinct office_. A phrase modifying the subject is equivalent to an adjective, and, frequently, may be changed into one. _The dew of the morning has passed away_. What word may be used for the phrase _of the morning?_ +P+.--_Morning_. +T+.--Yes. The _morning_ dew has passed away. A phrase modifying the predicate is equivalent to an adverb, and, frequently, may be changed into one. _We shall go to that place_. What word may be used for the phrase, _to that place?_ +P+.--_There_. +T+.--Yes. We shall go _there_. Change the phrases in these sentences:--- _A citizen of America was insulted. We walked toward home_. Let the teacher write on the board the following words, and require the pupils to add to each, one or more words to complete a phrase, and then to construct a sentence in which the phrase may be properly employed: _To, from, by, at, on, with, in, into, over_. +DEFINITION.--A _Phrase_ is a group of words denoting related ideas but not expressing a thought+. Analysis and Parsing. Analyze the following sentences, and parse the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs. Model.--_The finest trout in the lake are generally caught in the deepest water_. trout | are caught ================|================ \The \finest \in \generally \in \ \ \ lake \ water ------ ---------- \the \the \deepest +Explanation of the Diagram+.--You will notice that the diagram of the _phrase_ is made up of a slanting line, standing for the introductory and connecting word, and a horizontal line, representing the principal word. Under the latter, are placed the little slanting lines standing for the modifiers of the principal word. Here and elsewhere all modifiers are joined to their principal words by slanting lines. +Oral Analysis+.--This is a sentence, because ------; _trout_ is the subject, because -----; _are caught_ is the predicate, because ------; the words _The_ and _finest_, and the phrase, _in the lake_, are modifiers of the subject, because -----; the word _generally_ and the phrase, _in the deepest water_, are modifiers of the predicate, because ------; _in_ introduces the first phrase, and _lake_ is the principal word; _in_ introduces the second phrase, and _water_ is the principal word; _the_ and _deepest_ are modifiers of _water_; _The finest trout in the lake_ is the modified subject, and _are generally caught in the deepest water_ is the modified predicate. 1. The gorilla lives in Africa. 2. It seldom rains in Egypt. 3. The Pilgrims landed at Plymouth. 4. The wet grass sparkled in the light. 5. The little brook ran swiftly under the bridge. 6. Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga. 7. The steeples of the village pierced through the dense fog. 8. The gloom of winter settled down on everything. 9. A gentle breeze blows from the south. 10. The temple of Solomon was destroyed. 11. The top of the mountain is covered with snow. 12. The second Continental Congress convened at Philadelphia. LESSON 32. SENTENCE-BUILDING. Build sentences, employing the following phrases as modifiers. To Europe, of oak, from Albany, at the station, through the fields, for vacation, among the Indians, of the United States. Supply to the following predicates subjects modified by phrases. ---- is situated on the Thames. ---- has arrived. ---- was destroyed by an earthquake. ---- was received. ---- has just been completed. ---- may be enjoyed. Supply to the following subjects predicates modified by phrases. Iron ----. The trees ----. Squirrels ----. The Bible ----. Sugar ----. Cheese ----. Paul ----. Strawberries ----. The mountain ----. Write five sentences, each of which shall contain one or more phrases used as modifiers. LESSON 33. SENTENCE-BUILDING. Re-write the following sentences, changing the italicized words into equivalent phrases. +Model+.--A _golden_ image was made. An image _of gold_ was made. You will notice that the adjective _golden_ was placed before the subject, but, when changed to a phrase, it followed the subject. 1. The book was _carefully_ read. 2. The old soldiers fought _courageously_. 3. A group of children were strolling _homeward_. 4. No season of life should be spent _idly_. 5. The _English_ ambassador has just arrived. 6. That _generous_ act was liberally rewarded. Change the following adjectives and adverbs into equivalent phrases, and employ the phrases in sentences of your own building. Wooden, penniless, eastward, somewhere, here, evening, everywhere, yonder, joyfully, wintry. Make a sentence out of the words in each line below. Boat, waves, glides, the, the, over. He, Sunday, church, goes, the, on, to. Year, night, is dying, the, the, in. Qualities, Charlemagne, vices, were alloyed, the, great, of, with. Indians, America, intemperance, are thinned, the, out, of, by. LESSON 34. PREPOSITIONS. +Hints for Oral Instruction+.--In the preceding Lessons, the little words that were placed before nouns, thus forming phrases, belong to a, class of words called +Prepositions+. You noticed that these words, which you have now learned to call prepositions, served to introduce phrases. The preposition shows the relation of the _idea_ expressed by the principal word of the phrase to that of the word which the phrase modifies. It serves also to connect these words. In the sentence, _The squirrel ran up a tree_, what word shows the relation of the act of running, to the tree? Ans. _Up_. Other words may be used to express different relations. Repeat, nine times, the sentence above given, supplying, in the place of _up_, each of the following prepositions: _Around, behind, down, into, over, through, to, under, from_. Let this exercise be continued, using such sentences as, _The man went into the house; The ship sailed toward the bay_. +DEFINITION.--A _Preposition_ is a word that introduces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the word modified+. +Analysis and Parsing+. +Model+.--_Flowers preach to us_. For +Analysis+ and +Diagram+, see Lesson 31. For +Written Parsing+, see Lesson 22. Add the needed columns. +Oral Parsing+.--_Flowers_ is a noun, because----; _preach_ is a verb, because----; _to_ is a _preposition_, because it shows the relation, in sense, between _us_ and _preach;_ _us_ is a pronoun, because it is used instead of the name of the speaker and the names of those for whom he speaks. 1. The golden lines of sunset glow. 2. A smiling landscape lay before us. 3. Columbus was born at Genoa. 4. The forces of Hannibal were routed by Scipio. 5. The capital of New York is on the Hudson. 6. The ships sail over the boisterous sea. 7. All names of the Deity should begin with capital letters. 8. Air is composed chiefly of two invisible gases. 9. The greater portion of South America lies between the tropics. 10. The laurels of the warrior must at all times be dyed in blood. 11. The first word of every entire sentence should begin with a capital letter. 12. The subject of a sentence is generally placed before the predicate. Impromptu Exercise. (The teacher may find it profitable to make a separate lesson of this exercise.) Let the teacher write on the board a subject and a predicate that will admit of many modifiers. The pupils are to expand the sentence into as many separate sentences as possible, each containing one apt phrase modifier. The competition is to see who can build the most and the best sentences in a given time. The teacher gathers up the slates and reads the work aloud, or has the pupils exchange slates and read it themselves. LESSON 35. COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND PREDICATE. When two or more subjects united by a connecting word have the same predicate, they form a +_Compound Subject;_+ and, when two or more predicates connected in like manner have the same subject, they form a +_Compound Predicate_+. In the sentence, _Birds and bees can fly_, the two words _birds_ and _bees_, connected by _and_, have the same predicate; the same action is asserted of both birds and bees. In the sentence, _Leaves fade and fall_, two assertions are made of the same things. In the first sentence, _birds_ and _bees_ form the _compound subject_; and, in the second, _fade_ and _fall_ form the _compound predicate_. Analyze and parse the following sentences. +Models+.--_Napoleon rose, reigned, and fell_. _Frogs, antelopes, and kangaroos can jump_. rose Frogs ,=,===== ======.=. / ' ' \ Napoleon| / X ' reigned antelopes ' X \ | can jump ========|==| '======== ==========' |==|========= | \and' 'and/ | \ ' fell kangaroos ' / `-'====== =========='=' +Explanation of the Diagram+.--The short line following the subject line represents the entire predicate, and is supposed to be continued in the three horizontal lines that follow, each of which represents one of the parts of the _compound predicate_. These three lines are united by dotted lines, which stand for the connecting words. The +X+ denotes that an _and_ is understood. Study this explanation carefully, and you will understand the other diagram. +Oral Analysis+ of the first sentence. This is a sentence, because ----; _Napoleon_ is the subject, because ----; _rose_, _reigned_, and _fell_ form the _compound predicate_, because they belong in common to the same subject, and say something about Napoleon. _And_ connects _reigned_ and _fell_. 1. The Rhine and the Rhone rise in Switzerland. 2. Time and tide wait for no man. 3. Washington and Lafayette fought for American Independence. 4. Wild birds shrieked, and fluttered on the ground. 5. The mob raged and roared. 6. The seasons came and went. 7. Pride, poverty, and fashion cannot live in the same house. 8. The tables of stone were cast to the ground and broken. 9. Silver or gold will be received in payment. 10. Days, months, years, and ages will circle away. REVIEW QUESTIONS. What is a phrase? A phrase modifying a subject is equivalent to what? Illustrate. A phrase modifying a predicate is equivalent to what? Illustrate. What are prepositions? What do you understand by a compound subject? Illustrate. What do you understand by a compound predicate? Illustrate. LESSON 36. CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS. The words _and_ and _or_, used in the preceding Lesson to connect the nouns and the verbs, belong to a class of words called +_Conjunctions_+. Conjunctions may also connect _words_ used as _modifiers;_ as, A daring _but_ foolish feat was performed. They may connect phrases; as, We shall go to Saratoga _and_ to Niagara. They may connect _clauses_, that is, expressions that, standing alone, would be sentences; as, He must increase, _but_ I must decrease. +DEFINITION.--A _Conjunction_, is a word used to connect words, phrases, or clauses+. The +_Interjection_+ is the eighth and last _part of speech_. Interjections are mere exclamations, and are without grammatical relation to any other word in the sentence. +DEFINITION.--An _Interjection_ is a word used to express strong or sudden feeling+. Examples:-- Bravo! hurrah! pish! hush! ha, ha! alas! hail! lo! pshaw! Analyze and parse the following sentences. +Model+.--_Hurrah! that cool and fearless fireman has rushed into the house and up the burning stairs_. Hurrah ------ fireman | has rushed ===================|======================= \That\ and \ | \ and \ \.....\ \........\ \ \ \ \up \cool \fearless \into \stairs \ ---------- \house \the \burning ------ \the +Explanation of the Diagram+.--The line representing the interjection is not connected with the diagram. Notice the dotted lines, one standing for the _and_ which connects the two _word_ modifiers; the other, for the _and_ connecting the two _phrase_ modifiers. +Written Parsing+. N. Pro. Adj. Vb. Adv. Prep. Conj. Int. | | | | | | | fireman | | the | has rushed | | into | and | hurrah house | | that | | | up | and | stairs | | cool | | | | | | | fearless | | | | | | | burning | | | | | +Oral Parsing+ of the _conjunction_ and the _interjection_. The two _ands_ are conjunctions, because they _connect_. The first connects two word modifiers; the second, two phrase modifiers. _Hurrah_ is an _interjection_, because it expresses a burst of sudden feeling. 1. The small but courageous band was finally overpowered. 2. Lightning and electricity were identified by Franklin. 3. A complete success or an entire failure was anticipated. 4. Good men and bad men are found in all communities. 5. Vapors rise from the ocean and fall upon the land. 6. The Revolutionary war began at Lexington and ended at Yorktown. 7. Alas! all hope has fled. 8. Ah! I am surprised at the news. 9. Oh! we shall certainly drown. 10. Pshaw! you are dreaming. 11. Hurrah! the field is won. LESSON 37. PUNCTUATION AND CAPITAL LETTERS. +COMMA--RULE.--Phrases that are placed out of their natural order [Footnote: A phrase in its natural order follows the word it modifies.] and made emphatic, or that are loosely connected with the rest of the sentence, should be set off by the comma+. PUNCTUATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES. +Model+.--The cable, _after many failures_, was successfully laid. Upon the platform 'twixt eleven and twelve I'll visit you. To me this place is endeared by many associations. Your answers with few exceptions have been correctly given. In English much depends on the placing of phrases. +COMMA--RULE.--Words or phrases connected by conjunctions are separated from each other by the comma unless all the conjunctions are expressed+. PUNCTUATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES. +Model+.--Caesar _came, saw, and conquered_. Caesar _came and saw and conquered_. He travelled in _England, in Scotland, and in Ireland_. (The comma is used in the first sentence, because a conjunction is omitted; but not in the second, as all the conjunctions are expressed.) A brave prudent and honorable man was chosen. Augustus Tiberius Nero and Vespasian were Roman emperors. Through rainy weather across a wild country over muddy roads after a long ride we came to the end of our journey. +PERIOD and CAPITAL LETTER--RULE.--_Abbreviations_ generally begin with capital letters and are always followed by the period+. CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. +Model.--+_Mr., Esq., N. Y., P. M_. gen, a m, mrs, no, u s a, n e, eng, p o, rev, prof, dr, gram, capt, coi, co, va, conn. +EXCLAMATION POINT--RULE.--All _exclamatory expressions_ must be followed by the exclamation point+. PUNCTUATE THE FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS. +Model.--+_Ah! Oh! Zounds! Stop pinching!_ Pshaw, whew, alas, ho Tom, halloo Sir, good-bye, welcome. LESSON 38. SENTENCE-BUILDING. +To the Teacher.--+Call attention to the agreement of verbs with compound subjects. Require the pupils to justify the verb-forms in Lesson 36 and elsewhere. See Notes, pp. 165-167. Write _predicates_ for the following _compound subjects_. Snow and hail; leaves and branches; a soldier or a sailor; London and Paris. Write _compound predicates_ for the following _subjects_. The sun; water; fish; steamboats; soap; farmers; fences; clothes. Write _subjects_ for the following _compound predicates_. Live, feel, and grow; judges and rewards; owes and pays; inhale and exhale; expand and contract; flutters and alights; fly, buzz, and sting; restrain or punish. Write _compound subjects_ before the following _predicates_. May be seen; roar; will be appointed; have flown; has been recommended. _Write compound predicates_ after the following _compound subjects_. Boys, frogs, and horses; wood, coal, and peat; Maine and New Hampshire; Concord, Lexington, and Bunker Hill; pins, tacks, and needles. Write _compound subjects_ before the following _compound predicates_. Throb and ache; were tried, condemned, and hanged; eat, sleep, and dress. Choose your own material and write five sentences, each having a _compound subject_ and a _compound predicate_. LESSON 39. COMPLEMENTS. +Hints for Oral Instruction+.--When we say, _The sun gives_, we express no complete thought. The subject _sun_ is complete, but the predicate _gives_ does not make a complete assertion. When we say, _The sun gives light_, we do utter a complete thought. The predicate _gives_ is completed by the word _light_. Whatever fills out, or _completes_, we call a +Complement+. We will therefore call _light_ the complement of the predicate. As _light_ completes the predicate by naming the thing acted upon, we call it the +Object Complement+. Expressions like the following may be written on the board, and by a series of questions the pupils may be made to dwell upon these facts till they are thoroughly understood. The officer arrested -----; the boy found -----; Charles saw -----; coopers make -----. Besides these verbs requiring object complements, there are others that do not make complete sense without the aid of a complement of _another_ kind. A complete predicate does the asserting and expresses what is asserted. In the sentence, _Armies march_, _march_ is a complete predicate, for it does the asserting and expresses what is asserted; viz., _marching_. In the phrase, _armies marching_, _marching_ expresses the same act as that denoted by _march_, but it _asserts_ nothing. In the sentence, _Chalk is white_, _is_ does the asserting, but it does not express what is asserted. We do not wish to assert merely that chalk _is_ or _exists_. What we wish to assert of chalk, is the quality expressed by the adjective _white_. As _white_ expresses a quality or attribute, we may call it an +Attribute Complement+. Using expressions like the following, let the facts given above be drawn from the class by means of questions. Grass growing; grass grows; green grass; grass is green. +DEFINITION.--The _Object Complement of a sentence_ completes the predicate, and names that which receives the act+. +DEFINITION.--The _Attribute Complement_ of a sentence completes the predicate and belongs to the subject+. The complement with all its modifiers is called the +_Modified Complement_+. Analysis and Parsing. +Model+.--_Fulton invented the first steamboat_. Fulton | invented | steamboat ========|====================== | \ \ \the \first +Explanation of the Diagram+.--You will see that the line standing for the _object complement_ is a continuation of the predicate line, and that the little vertical line only touches this without cutting it. +Oral Analysis.--+_Fulton_ and _invented_, as before. _Steamboat_ is the _object complement_, because it completes the predicate, and names that which receives the act. _The_ and _first_, as before. _The first steamboat_ is the _modified complement_. 1. Caesar crossed the Rubicon. 2. Morse invented the telegraph. 3. Ericsson built the Monitor. 4. Hume wrote a history. 5. Morn purples the east, 6. Antony beheaded Cicero. +Model+.--_Gold is malleable_. Gold | is \ malleable =====|=============== | In this diagram, the line standing for the _attribute complement_, like the _object line_, is a continuation of the predicate line; but notice the difference in the little mark separating the _incomplete_[Footnote: Hereafter we shall call the _verb_ the _predicate_, but, when followed by a complement, it must be regarded as an _incomplete_ predicate.] predicate from the complement. +Oral Analysis+.---_Gold_ and _is_, as before. _Malleable_ is the _attribute complement_, because it completes the predicate, and expresses a quality belonging to gold. 7. Pure water is tasteless. 8. The hare is timid. 9. Fawns are graceful. 10. This peach is delicious. 11. He was extremely prodigal. 12. The valley of the Mississippi is very fertile. +To the Teacher+--See Notes, pp. 183,184. * * * * * LESSON 40. ERRORS IN THE USE OF MODIFIERS. +Caution+.--Place _adverbs_ where there can be no doubt as to the words they modify. ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED. I only bring forward a few things. Hath the Lord only [Footnote: Adverbs sometimes modify phrases.]spoken by Moses? We merely speak of numbers. The Chinese chiefly live upon rice. +Caution+.--In placing the adverb, regard must be had to the _sound_ of the sentence. ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED. We always should do our duty. The times have changed surely. The work will be never finished. He must have certainly been sick. +Caution+.--_Adverbs_ must not be used _for adjectives_. ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED. I feel badly. Marble feels coldly. She looks nicely. It was sold cheaply. It appears still more plainly. That sounds harshly. I arrived at home safely. +Caution+.--_Adjectives_ must not be used _for adverbs_. ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED. The bells ring merry. The curtain hangs graceful. That is a decided weak point. Speak no coarser than usual. These are the words nearest connected. Talk slow and distinct. She is a remarkable pretty girl. +To the Teacher+.--For additional exercises in distinguishing adjectives from adverbs, see Notes, p. 181. REVIEW QUESTIONS. What is a conjunction? What is an interjection? Give two rules for the use of the comma (Lesson 37). What is the rule for writing abbreviations? What is the rule for the exclamation point? What is an object complement? What is an attribute complement? Illustrate both. What are the cautions for the position of the adverb? What are the cautions for the use of the adverb and the adjective? +To the Teacher+.--See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement-Selection from Habberton. * * * * * LESSON 41. ERRORS IN THE POSITION AND USE OF MODIFIERS. +Caution+.--Phrase modifiers should be placed as near as may be to the words they modify. +To the Teacher+.--For composition exercises with particular reference to arrangement, see Notes, pp. 172-176. ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED. A fellow was arrested with short hair. I saw a man digging a well with a Roman nose. He died and went to his rest in New York. Wanted--A room by two gentlemen thirty feet long and twenty feet wide. Some garments were made for the family of thick material. The vessel was beautifully painted with a tall mast. I perceived that it had been scoured with half an eye. A house was built by a mason of brown stone. A pearl was found by a sailor in a shell. Punctuate these sentences when corrected. +Caution+.--Care must be taken to select the right preposition. +To the Teacher+.--For the preposition to be used, consult the Unabridged Dictionaries. ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED. They halted with the river on their backs. The cat jumped on the chair. He fell onto the floor. He went in the house. He divides his property between his four sons. He died for thirst. This is different to that. Two thieves divided the booty among themselves. I am angry at him. +Caution+.--Do not use two negative, or denying, words so that one shall contradict the other, unless you wish to affirm. ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED. I haven't no umbrella. Correct by dropping either the adjective _no_ or the adverb _not_; as, I have _no_ umbrella, or I have _not_ an umbrella. I didn't say nothing. I can't do this in no way. No other emperor was so wise nor powerful. Nothing can never be annihilated. LESSON 42. ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 1. Brutus stabbed Caesar. 2. Man is an animal. 3. Washington captured Cornwallis. 4. Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. 5. Balboa discovered the Pacific ocean. 6. Vulcan was a blacksmith. 7. The summer has been very rainy. 8. Columbus made four voyages to the New World. 9. The moon reflects the light of the sun. 10. The first vice-president of the United States was John Adams. 11. Roger Williams was the founder of Rhode Island. 12. Harvey discovered the circulation of blood. 13. Diamonds are combustible. 14. Napoleon died a prisoner, at St.. Helena. 15. In 1619 the first ship-load of slaves was landed at Jamestown. The pupil will notice that _animal_, in sentence No. 2, is an _attribute complement_, though it is not an adjective expressing a quality belonging to man, but a noun denoting his class. +_Nouns_+ then may be +_attribute compliments_+. The pupil will notice also that some of the _object_ and _attribute complements_ above have phrase modifiers. LESSON 43. SENTENCE-BUILDING. Using the following predicates, build sentences having subjects, predicates, and object complements with or without modifiers. ---- climb ----; ---- hunt ----; ---- command ----; ---- attacked ----; ---- pursued ----; ---- shall receive ----; ---- have seen ----; ---- love ----. Change the following expressions into sentences by _asserting_ the qualities here _assumed_. Use these verbs for predicates: Is, were, appears, may be, became, was, have been, should have been, is becoming, are. +Model+.--_Heavy_ gold. Gold _is heavy_. Green fields; sweet oranges; interesting story; brilliant sunrise; severe punishment; playful kittens; warm weather; pitiful sight; sour grapes; amusing anecdote. Prefix to the following nouns several adjectives expressing qualities, and then make complete sentences by _asserting_ the same qualities. white | Chalk _is white_. +Model+.--brittle + chalk. Chalk _is brittle_. soft | Chalk _is soft_. Gold, pears, pens, lead, water, moon, vase, rock, lakes, summer, ocean, valley. Find your own material, and build two sentences having object complements, and two having attribute complements. LESSON 44. ANALYSIS AND PARSING. MISCELLANEOUS. +Models+.-- expands /=========== Learning | / ' \ | mind =========|=and' \======= | \ ' elevates / \the \============ ran ========= / ' \forward He | / ' =======|=== and' | \ ' \ ' kissed | him \================ In the second diagram, one of the predicate lines is followed by a complement line; but the two predicate lines are not united, for the two verbs have not a common object. 1. Learning expands and elevates the mind. 2. He ran forward and kissed him. 3. The earth and the moon are planets. 4. The Swiss scenery is picturesque. 5. Jefferson was chosen the third president of the United States. 6. Nathan Hale died a martyr to liberty. 7. The man stood speechless. 8. Labor disgraces no man. 9. Aristotle and Plato were the most distinguished philosophers of antiquity. 10. Josephus wrote a history of the Jews. 11. This man seems the leader of the whole party. 12. The attribute complement completes the predicate and belongs to the subject. 13. Lord Cornwallis became governor of Bengal after his disastrous defeat. 14. The multitude ran before him and strewed branches in the way. 15. Peter Minuits traded with the Indians, and bought the whole island of Manhattan for twenty-four dollars. LESSON 45. ANALYSIS AND PARSING. MISCELLANEOUS. +Model+.-- wise /========== / ' \in / X' \ council / ' \--------- Henry IV. | was \ / ' simple ===========|============== '========== \of | \very \ and' \in \ House \ ' \ manners \-------- \ ' \--------- \the \of \ ' chivalric \ Burbon \============ \------- \in \ field \------- \the The line standing for the word-modifier is joined to that part of the complement line which represents the _entire_ attribute complement. 1. Henry IV., of the House of Bourbon, was very wise in council, simple in manners, and chivalric in the field. 2. Caesar defeated Pompey at Pharsalia. 3. The diamond is the most valuable gem. 4. The Greeks took Troy by stratagem. 5. The submarine cable unites the continent of America and the Old World. 6. The Gauls joined the army of Hannibal. 7. Columbus crossed the Atlantic with ninety men, and landed at San Salvador. 8. Vulcan made arms for Achilles. 9. Cromwell gained at Naseby a most decisive victory over the Royalists. 10. Columbus was a native of Genoa. 11. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb. 12. The morning hour has gold in its mouth. 13. The mill of the gods grinds late, but grinds to powder. 14. A young farmer recently bought a yoke of oxen, six cows, and a horse. 15. America has furnished to the world tobacco, the potato, and Indian corn. LESSON 46. ANALYSIS AND PARSING. MISCELLANEOUS. Cotton | is raised ===========|=============== | \ Egypt \ /'------- \in / ' \ / X' \ / ' India \--/ '-------- \ ' \and' \ ' \ ' United States \--------------- \the +Explanation of the Diagram+.--In this diagram the line representing the principal part of the phrase separates into three lines. This shows that the principal part of the phrase is compound. _Egypt_, _India_, and _United States_ are all introduced by the same preposition _in_, and have the same relation to _is raised_. 1. Cotton is raised in Egypt, India, and the United States. 2. The navy of Hiram brought gold from Ophir. 3. The career of Cromwell was short. 4. Most mountain ranges run parallel with the coast. 5. Now swiftly glides the bonny boat. 6. An able but dishonest judge presided. 7. The queen bee lays eggs in cells of three different sizes. 8. Umbrellas were introduced into England from China. 9. The first permanent English settlement in America was made at Jamestown, in 1607. 10. The spirit of true religion is social, kind, and cheerful. 11. The summits of the Alps are covered with perpetual snow. 12. The months of July and August were named after Julius Caesar and Augustus Caesar. 13. All the kings of Egypt are called, in Scripture, Pharaoh. 14. The bamboo furnishes to the natives of China, shade, food, houses, weapons, and clothing. LESSON 47. SENTENCE-BUILDING. Supply _attribute complements_ to the following expressions. (See Caution, Lesson 40.) The marble feels ----. Mary looks ----. The weather continues ----. The apple tastes ----. That lady appears ----. The sky grows ----. The leaves of roses are ----. The undertaking was pronounced ----. Write a subject and a predicate to each of the following nouns taken as _attribute complements_. +Model+.--_Soldier_.--That old man has been a _soldier_. Plant, insect, mineral, vegetable, liquid, gas, solid, historian, poet, artist, traveler, emperor. Using the following nouns as subjects, build sentences each having a simple predicate and two or more _object complements_. Congress, storm, education, king, tiger, hunter, Arnold, shoemakers, lawyers, merchant. Build three sentences on each of the following subjects, two of which shall contain _object complements_, and the third, an _attribute complement_. +Model+.--_Sun_.-- The _sun_ gives _light_. The _sun_ warms the _earth_. The _sun_ is a luminous _body_. Moon, oak, fire, whiskey. LESSON 48. SUBJECT OR COMPLEMENT MODIFIED BY A PARTICIPLE. +Hints for Oral Instruction+.--You have learned, in the preceding Lessons, that a _quality_ may be _assumed_ as belonging to a thing; as, _white chalk_, or that it may be _asserted_ of it; as, _Chalk is white_. An _action_, also, may be _assumed_ as belonging to something; as, _Peter turning_, or it may be _asserted;_ as, Peter _turned_. In the expression, _Peter, turning, said_, what word expresses an action as _assumed_, and which _asserts_ an action? Each pupil may give an example of an action asserted and of an action assumed; as, Corn _grows_, corn _growing_; geese _gabble_; geese _gabbling_. This form of the verb, which merely _assumes_ the act, being, or state, is called the +Participle+. When the words _growing_ and _gabbling_ are placed before the nouns, thus: _growing corn, gabbling geese_, they tell simply the kind of corn and the kind of geese, and are therefore _adjectives_. When _the_ or some other adjective is placed before these words, and a preposition after them, thus: _The growing of the corn, the gabbling of the geese_, they are simply the _names_ of actions, and are therefore _nouns_. Let each pupil give an example of a verb asserting an action, and change it to express:-- 1st, An _assumed_ action; 2d, A permanent _quality;_ 3d, The _name_ of an action. _Participles_ may be completed by _objects_ and _attributes_. +Analysis and Parsing+. +Model+.--_Truth, crushed to earth, will rise again_. Truth | will rise ==========|============= \cru | \again \ shed -------- \to \ earth \------- +Explanation of the Diagram+.--In this diagram, the line standing for the principal word of the participial phrase is broken; one part slants, and the other is horizontal. This shows that the participle _crushed_ is used like an adjective to modify _Truth_, and yet retains the nature of a verb, expressing an action received by truth. +Oral Analysis+.--This is a sentence, because ----; _Truth_ is the subject, because ----; _will rise_ is the predicate, because ----; the phrase, _crushed to earth_, is a modifier of the Subj., because ----; _crushed_ introduces the phrase and is the principal word in it; the phrase _to earth_ is a modifier of _crushed_; _to_ introduces it, and _earth_ is the principal word in it; _again_ is a modifier of the Pred., because ----. _Truth crushed to earth_ is the modified subject, _will rise again_ is the modified predicate. +Parsing+--_Crushed_ is the form of the verb called _participle_. The action expressed by it is merely _assumed_. 1. The mirth of Addison is genial, imparting a mild glow of thought. 2. The general, riding to the front, led the attack. 3. The balloon, shooting swiftly into the clouds, was soon lost to sight. 4. Wealth acquired dishonestly will prove a curse. 5. The sun, rising, dispelled the mists. 6. The thief, being detected, surrendered to the officer. 7. They boarded the vessel lying in the harbor. 8. The territory claimed by the Dutch was called New Netherlands. 9. Washington, having crossed the Delaware, attacked the Hessians stationed at Trenton. 10. Burgoyne, having been surrounded at Saratoga, surrendered to Gen. Gates. 11. Pocahontas was married to a young Englishman named John Rolfe. 12. A shrug of the shoulders, translated into words, loses much force. 13. The armies of England, mustered for the battles of Europe, do not awaken sincere admiration. (Note that the participle, like the predicate verb, may consist of two or more words.) (Note, too, that the participle, like the adjective, may belong to a _noun complement_.) LESSON 49. THE INFINITIVE PHRASE. +Hints for Oral Instruction+.--There is another form of the verb which, like the participle, cannot be the predicate of a sentence, for it cannot _assert_; as, She went out _to see_ a friend; _To lie_ is a disgrace. As this form of the verb expresses the action, being, or state in a general manner, without limiting it directly to a subject, it is called an +Infinitive+, which means _without limit_. The infinitive generally follows _to_; as, _to walk, to sleep_. Let each pupil give an infinitive. The infinitive and the preposition _to_ constitute a phrase, which may be employed in several ways. +T+.--_I have a duty to perform_. The infinitive phrase modifies what? +P+.--The noun _duty_. +T+.--It then performs the office of what? +P+.--Of an adjective modifier. +T+.--_I come to hear_. The infinitive phrase modifies what? +P+.--The verb _come_. +T+.--What office then does it perform? +P+.--Of an adverb modifier. +T+.--_To lie is base_. _What_ is base? +P+.--To lie. +T+.--_He attempted to speak_. _What_ did he attempt? +P+.--To speak. +T+.--_To lie_ is a subject, and _to speak_ is an _object_. What part of speech is used as subject and object? +P+.--The noun. +T+.--The +Infinitive+ phrase is used as an +adjective+, an +adverb+, and a +noun+. _Infinitives_ may be completed by _objects_ and _attributes_. +Analysis and Parsing+. +Model+.--_David hasted to meet Goliath_. David | hasted ==========|=========== | \to \ meet | Goliath \---------------- +Analysis of the Infinitive Phrase+.--_To_ introduces the phrase; _meet_, completed by the object _Goliath_, is the principal part. +Parsing of the Phrase+.--_To_ is a preposition, because ----; _meet_ is a verb, because ----; _Goliath_ is a noun, because ----. 1. I come not here to talk. 2. I rejoice to hear it. 3. A desire to excel leads to eminence. 4. Dr. Franklin was sent to France to solicit aid for the colonies. 5. To retreat was impossible. (_To_ is here used merely to introduce the infinitive phrase.) \to \ retreat \--------- | | / \ | was \ impossible ==========|====================== | +Explanation of the Diagram+.--As this _phrase subject_ cannot, in its proper form, be written on the subject line, it is placed above, and, by means of a support, the phrase diagram is made to rest on the subject line. The _phrase complement_ may be diagramed in a similar way, and made to rest on the complement line. 6. The hands refuse to labor. 7. To live is not all of life. 8. The Puritans desired to obtain religious freedom. 9. The Romans, having conquered the world, were unable to conquer themselves. 10. Narvaez sailed from Cuba to conquer Florida. 11. Some savages of America and Africa love to wear rings in the nose. 12. Andrew Jackson, elected to succeed J. Q. Adams, was inaugurated in 1829. LESSON 50. POSITION AND PUNCTUATION OF THE PARTICIPIAL PHRASE. ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED. (See Caution 1, Lesson 41.) Punctuate as you correct. (See Lesson 37.) A house was built for a clergyman having seven gables. The old man struck the saucy boy raising a gold-headed cane. We saw a marble bust of Sir W. Scott entering the vestibule. Here is news from a neighbor boiled down. I found a cent walking over the bridge. Balboa discovered the Pacific ocean climbing to the top of a mountain. Punctuate the following exercises. Cradled in the camp Napoleon was the darling of the army. Having approved of the plan the king put it into execution. Satan incensed with indignation stood unterrified. My friend seeing me in need offered his services. James being weary with his journey sat down on the wall. The owl hid in the tree hooted through the night. REVIEW QUESTIONS. Give the caution relating to the position of the phrase modifier; that relating to the choice of prepositions; that relating to the double negative (Lesson 41). Give examples of errors. Can a noun be an attribute complement? Illustrate. What do you understand by a participle? Into what may some participles be changed? Illustrate. What offices does the infinitive phrase perform? Illustrate them. +To the Teacher+.--See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement--Selection from George Eliot. LESSON 51. REVIEW. MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS FOR CORRECTION. (See Cautions in Lessons 30, 40, and 41.) There never was such another man. He was an old venerable patriarch. John has a cadaverous, hungry, and lean look. He was a well-proportioned, fine fellow. Pass me them potatoes. Put your trust not in money. We have often occasion for thanksgiving, Now this is to be done how? Nothing can justify ever profanity. To continually study is impossible. (An adverb is seldom placed between the preposition _to_ and the infinitive.) Mary likes to tastefully dress. Learn to carefully choose your words. She looks queerly. Give me a soon and direct answer. The post stood firmly. The eagle flies highly. The orange tastes sweetly. I feel tolerable well. The branch breaks easy. Thistles grow rapid. The eagle flies swift. This is a miserable poor pen. A wealthy gentleman will adopt a little boy with a small family. A gentleman called from Africa to pay his compliments. Water consists in oxygen and hydrogen. He went out attended with a servant. I have a dislike to such tricksters. We have no prejudice to foreigners. She don't know nothing about it. Father wouldn't give me none. He hasn't been sick neither. I won't have no more nohow. +To the Teacher+.--Let the reason be given for every correction. LESSON 52. SENTENCE-BUILDING. Build sentences in which the following participles shall be used as modifiers. Being fatigued; laughing; being amused; having been elected; running; having been running. Expand each of the following sentences into three sentences, using the _participial form_ of the verb as a _participle_, in the first; the same form as an _adjective_, in the second; and as a _noun_, in the third. +Model+.--The stream _flows_. The stream, _flowing_ gently, crept through the meadow. The _flowing_ stream slipped away to the sea. The _flowing_ of the stream caused a low murmur. The stream flows. The sun rises. Insects hum. The birds sing. The wind whistles. The bells are ringing. The tide ebbs. Form _infinitive phrases_ from the following verbs, and use these phrases as _adjectives, adverbs_, and _nouns_, in sentences of your own building. Smoke, dance, burn, eat, lie, try. +To the Teacher+.--For exercises to distinguish the participle from the predicate verb, see Notes, pp. 181, 182. LESSON 53. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS AS MODIFIERS. +Hints for Oral Instruction+.--In the sentence, _The robin's eggs are blue_, the noun _robin's_ does what? +P+.--It tells what or whose eggs are blue. +T+.--What word names the things owned or possessed? +P+.--_Eggs_. +T+.--What word names the owner or possessor? +P+.--_Robin's_. +T+.--The noun _robin's_ is here used as a _modifier_. You see that this word, which I have written on the board, is the word _robin_ with a little mark (') called an apostrophe, and the letter _s_ added. These are added to denote possession. In the sentence, _Webster, the statesman, was born in New Hampshire_, the noun _statesman_ modifies the subject _Webster_ by explaining what or which Webster is meant. Both words name the same person. Let the pupils give examples of each of these two kinds of +Noun Modifiers+--the +Possessive+ and the +Explanatory+. Analysis and Parsing. +Model+.--_Julia's sister Mary has lost her diamond ring_. sister (Mary) | has lost | ring ===============|============'============= \Julia's | \her \diamond +Explanation of the Diagram+.--_Mary_ is written on the subject line, because _Mary_ and _sister_ both name the same person, but the word _Mary_ is inclosed within marks of parenthesis to show that _sister_ is the proper grammatical subject. In _oral analysis_, call _Julia's_ and _Mary_ modifiers of the subject, _sister_, because _Julia's_ tells whose sister, and _Mary_ explains sister by adding another name of the same person. _Her_ is a modifier of the object, because it tells whose ring is meant. _Julia's sister Mary_ is the _modified subject_, the predicate is unmodified, and _her diamond ring_ is the _modified object complement_. 1. The planet Jupiter has four moons. 2. The Emperor Nero was a cruel tyrant. 3. Peter's wife's mother lay sick of a fever. mother ======== \wife's \Peter's 4. An ostrich outruns an Arab's horse. 5. His pretty little nephew Arthur had the best claim to the throne. 6. Milton, the great English poet, became blind. 7. Caesar gave his daughter Julia in marriage to Pompey. 8. London, the capital of England, is the largest and richest city in the world. 9. Joseph, Jacob's favorite son, was sold by his brethren to the Ishmaelites. 10. Alexander the Great [Footnote: _Alexander the Great_ may be taken as one name, or _Great_ may be called an explanatory modifier of _Alexander_.] was educated under the celebrated philosopher Aristotle. 11. Friends tie their purses with a spider's thread. 12. Caesar married Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna. 13. His fate, alas! was deplorable. 14. Love rules his kingdom without a sword. LESSON 54. SENTENCE-BUILDING. Nouns and pronouns denoting possession may generally be changed to equivalent phrases; as, _Arnold's treason_ = _the treason of Arnold_. Here the preposition _of_ indicates _possession_, the same relation expressed by the apostrophe (') and _s_. Change the following possessive nouns to equivalent phrases, and the phrases indicating possession to possessive nouns, and then expand the expressions into complete sentences. +Model+.--The _earth's_ surface. The surface _of the earth_ is made up of land and water. The earth's surface: Solomon's temple; England's Queen; Washington's Farewell Address; Dr. Kane's Explorations; Peter's wife's mother; George's friend's father; Shakespeare's plays; Noah's dove; the diameter of the earth; the daughter of Jephthah; the invasion of Burgoyne; the voyage of Cabot; the Armada of Philip; the attraction of the earth; the light of the moon. Find for the things mentioned below, _other_ names which shall describe or explain them. Add such names to these nouns, and then expand the expressions into complete sentences. +Model+.--_Ink_.--_Ink, a dark fluid_, is used in writing. Observe the following rule. +COMMA-RULE.--An _Explanatory Modifier_, when it does not restrict the modified term or combine closely with it, is set off by the comma+. +To the Teacher+.--See Notes, pp. 176, 177. New York, rain, paper, the monkey, the robin, tea, Abraham Lincoln, Alexander Hamilton, world, peninsula, Cuba, Shakespeare. Write three sentences, each of which shall contain a noun or pronoun denoting possession, and a noun or pronoun used to explain. +To the Teacher+.--For additional exercises in the use of possessive modifiers, see Notes, pp. 182, 183. LESSON 55. ANALYSIS AND PARSING. MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES IN REVIEW. 1. The toad spends the winter in a dormant state. 2. Pride in dress or in beauty betrays a weak mind. 3. The city of London is situated on the river Thames. 4. Napoleon Bonaparte was born in 1769, on an island in the Mediterranean. 5. Men's opinions vary with their interests. 6. Ammonia is found in the sap of trees, and in the juices of all vegetables. 7. Earth sends up her perpetual hymn of praise to the Creator. 8. Having once been deceived by him, I never trusted him again. 9. Aesop, the author of Aesop's Fables, was a slave. 10. Hope comes with smiles to cheer the hour of pain. 11. Clouds are collections of vapors in the air. 12. To relieve the wretched was his pride. 13. Greece, the most noted country of antiquity, scarcely exceeded in size the half of the state of New York. LESSON 56. ANALYSIS AND PARSING. MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES IN REVIEW--CONTINUED. 1. We are never too old to learn. 2. Civility is the result of good nature and good sense. 3. The right of the people to instruct their representatives is generally admitted. 4. The immense quantity of matter in the Universe presents a most striking display of Almighty power. 5. Virtue, diligence, and industry, joined with good temper and prudence, must ever be the surest means of prosperity. 6. The people called Quakers were a source of much trouble to the Puritans. 7. The Mayflower brought to America [Footnote: One hundred and one may be taken as one adjective.] one hundred and one men, women, and children. 8. Edward Wingfield, an avaricious and unprincipled man, was the first president of the Jamestown colony. 9. John Cabot and his son Sebastian, sailing under a commission from Henry VII. of England, discovered the continent of America. 10. True worth is modest and retiring. 11. Jonah, the prophet, preached to the inhabitants of Nineveh. LESSON 57. COMPLEX SENTENCES. THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE. +Hints for Oral Instruction+.--A word-modifier may sometimes be expanded into a phrase or into an expression that asserts. +T+.--_A wise man will be honored_. Expand _wise_ into a phrase, and give me the sentence. +P+.--A man _of wisdom_ will be honored. +T+.--Expand _wise_ into an expression that asserts, join this to _man_, as a modifier, and then give me the entire sentence. +P+.--A man _who is wise_ will be honored. +T+.--You see that the same quality may be expressed in three ways--A _wise_ man, A man _of wisdom_, A man _who is wise_. Let the pupils give similar examples. +T+.--In the sentence, _A man who is wise will be honored_, the word _who_ stands for what? +P+.--For the noun _man_. +T+.--Then what part of speech is it? +P+.--A pronoun. +T+.--Put the noun _man_ in the place of the pronoun _who_, and then give me the sentence. +P+.--_A man, man is wise, will be honored_. +T+.--I will repeat your sentence, changing the order of the words--_A man will be honored. Man is wise_. Is the last sentence now joined to the first as a modifier, or are they two separate sentences? +P+.--They are two separate sentences. +T+.--Then you see that the pronoun _who_ not only stands for the noun _man_, but it connects the modifying expression, _who is wise_, to _man_, the subject of the sentence, _A man will be honored_, and thus there is formed what we call a +Complex Sentence+. These two parts we call +Clauses+. _A man will be honored_ is the +Independent Clause;+ _who is wise_ is the +Dependent Clause+. Clauses that modify nouns or pronouns are called +Adjective Clauses+. +DEFINITION.--A _Clause_ is a part of a sentence containing a subject and its predicate+. +DEFINITION.--A _Dependent Clause_ is one used as an adjective, an adverb, or a noun+. +DEFINITION.--An _Independent Clause_ is one not dependent on another clause+. +DEFINITION.--A _Simple Sentence_ is one that contains but one subject and one predicate, either or both of which may be compound+. +DEFINITION.--A _Complex Sentence_ is one composed of an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses+. Analysis and Parsing. +Model+.-- man | will be honored =========|================== \A ` | ` ` who ` | is \ wise -------|------------ | +Explanation of the Diagram+.--You will notice that the lines standing for the subject and predicate of the _independent clause_ are heavier than those of the _dependent clause_. This pictures to you the relative importance of the two clauses. You will see that the pronoun _who_ is written on the subject line of the dependent clause. But this word performs the office of a conjunction also, and this office is expressed in the diagram by a dotted line. As all modifiers are joined by _slanting_ lines, to the words they modify, you learn from this diagram that _who is wise_ is a modifier of _man_. +Oral Analysis+.--This is a _complex sentence_, because it consists of an _independent clause_ and a _dependent clause_. _A man will be honored_ is _the independent clause_; _who is wise_ is the _dependent clause_. _Man_ is the subject of the independent clause; _will be honored_ is the predicate. The word _A_ and the clause, _who is wise_, are modifiers of the subject. _A_ points out _man_, and _who is wise_ tells the _kind_ of man. _A man who is wise_ is the modified subject; the predicate is unmodified. _Who_ is the subject of the dependent clause, _is_ is the predicate, and _wise_ is the attribute complement. _Who_ connects the two clauses. 1. He that runs may read. 2. Man is the only animal that laughs and weeps. 3. Henry Hudson discovered the river which bears his name. 4. He necessarily remains weak who never tries exertion. 5. The meridians are those lines that extend from pole to pole. 6. He who will not be ruled by the rudder must be ruled by the rock. 7. Animals that have a backbone are called vertebrates. 8. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. 9. The thick mists which prevail in the neighborhood of Newfoundland are caused by the warm waters of the Gulf Stream. 10. The power which brings a pin to the ground holds the earth in its orbit. 11. Death is the black camel which kneels at every man's gate. 12. Our best friends are they who tell us of our faults, and help us to mend them. The pupil will notice that, in some of these sentences, the dependent clause modifies the subject, and that, in others, it modifies the noun complement. +COMMA--RULE.--The _adjective_ or the _adverb clause_, when it does not closely follow and restrict the word modified, is generally set off by the comma+. LESSON 58. SENTENCE-BUILDING. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. Expand each of the following adjectives into 1. A phrase; 2. A clause; and then use these three modifiers in three separate sentences of your own construction. | _who has energy_, +Model+.--_Energetic; of energy_; + or | _who is energetic_. An _energetic_ man will succeed. A man _of energy_ will succeed. A man who has _energy_ (or _who is energetic_) will succeed. Honest, long-eared, beautiful, wealthy. Expand each of the following _possessive nouns_ into 1. A phrase; 2. A clause; and then use these three modifiers in three separate sentences. +Model+.--_Saturn's rings_; the rings _of Saturn_; the rings _which surround Saturn_. _Saturn's_ rings can be seen with a telescope. The _rings of Saturn_ can be seen with a telescope. The rings _which surround Saturn_ can be seen, with a telescope. Absalom's hair; the hen's eggs; the elephant's tusks. Change the following simple sentences into complex sentences by expanding the participial phrases into clauses. The vessels carrying the blood from the heart are called arteries. The book prized above all other books is the Bible. Rivers rising west of the Rocky Mts. flow into the Pacific ocean. The guns fired at Concord were heard around the world. +To the Teacher+.--For additional composition exercises with particular reference to adjective clauses, see Notes, p. 177. LESSON 59. COMPLEX SENTENCES. THE ADVERB CLAUSE. +Hints for Oral Instruction+.--You learned in Lesson 83 that an adverb can be expanded into an equivalent phrase; as, The book was _carefully_ read = The book was read _with care_. We shall now learn that a phrase used as an adverb may be expanded into an +Adverb clause+. In the sentence, _We started at sunrise_, what phrase is used like an adverb? +P+.--_At sunrise_. +T+.--Expand this phrase into an equivalent clause, and give me the entire sentence. +P+.--We started _when the sun rose_. +T+.--You see that the phrase, _at sunrise_, and the clause, _when the sun rose_, both modify _started_, telling the time of starting, and are therefore equivalent to adverbs. We will then call such clauses +Adverb Clauses+. Analysis and Parsing. +Model.--+ We | started =========|============= \ ` when sun \ rose =======|========= \the +Explanation of the Diagram+.--The line which connects the two predicate lines pictures three things. It is made up of three parts. The upper part shows that _when_ modifies _started_; the lower part, that it modifies _rose_; and the dotted part shows that it _connects_. +Oral Analysis+.--This is a complex sentence, because ----; _We started_ is the independent clause, and _when the sun rose_ is the dependent clause. _We_ is the subject of the independent clause, and _started_ is the predicate. The clause, _when the sun rose_, is a modifier of the predicate, because it tells when we started. _Started when the sun rose_ is the modified predicate. _Sun_ is the subject of the dependent clause, and _rose_ is the predicate, and the is a modifier of _sun_; _the sun_ is the modified subject. _When_ modifies _rose_ and _started_, and connects the clause-modifier to the predicate _started_. +Parsing+ of _when_.--_When_ is an adverb modifying the two verbs _started_ and _rose_, thus connecting the two clauses. It modifies these verbs by showing that the two actions took place at the same time. 1. The dew glitters when the sun shines. 2. Printing was unknown when Homer wrote the Iliad. 3. Where the bee sucks honey, the spider sucks poison. 4. Ah! few shall part where many meet. 5. Where the devil cannot come, he will send. 6. While the bridegroom tarried, they all slumbered and slept. 7. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. 8. When the tale of bricks is doubled, Moses comes. 9. When I look upon the tombs of the great, every emotion of envy dies within me. 10. The upright man speaks as he thinks. 11. He died as the fool dieth. 12. The scepter shall not depart from Judah until Shiloh come. LESSON 60. SENTENCE-BUILDING. ADVERB CLAUSES. Expand each of the following phrases into an adverb clause, and fit this clause into a sentence of your own building. +Model+.--_At sunset; when the sun set_. We returned _when the sun set_. At the hour; on the playground; by moonlight; in youth; among icebergs; after school; at the forks of the road; during the day; before church; with my friend. To each of the following independent clauses, join an adverb clause, and so make complex sentences. ---- Peter began to sink. The man dies ----. Grass grows ----. Iron ---- can easily be shaped. The rattlesnake shakes his rattle ----. ---- a nation mourns. Pittsburg stands ----. He dared to lead ----. +To the Teacher+.--For additional composition exercises with particular reference to adverb clauses, see Notes, p. 177. See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement--Selection from the Brothers Grimm. REVIEW QUESTIONS. In what two ways may nouns be used as modifiers? Illustrate. Nouns and pronouns denoting possession may sometimes be changed into what? Illustrate. Give the rule for the punctuation of explanatory modifiers. Into what may an adjective be expanded? Into what may a participial phrase be expanded? Give illustrations. Give an example of a complex sentence. Of a clause. Of an independent clause. Of a dependent clause. Into what may a phrase used as an adverb be expanded? Illustrate. LESSON 61. THE NOUN CLAUSE. +Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_That stars are suns is taught by astronomers_. What is taught by astronomers? +P+.--That stars are suns. +T+.--What then is the subject of _is taught_? +P+.--The clause, _That stars are suns_. +T+.--This clause then performs the office of what part of speech? +P+.--Of a noun. +T+.--_Astronomers teach that stars are suns_. What do astronomers teach? +P+.--That stars are suns. +T+.--What is the object complement of _teach_? +P+.--The clause, _that stars are suns_. +T+.--What office then does this clause perform? +P+.--That of a noun. +T+.--_The teaching of astronomers is, that stars are suns_. What does _is_ assert of teaching? +P+.--That stars are suns. +T+.--What then is the attribute complement? +P+.--_That stars are suns_. +T+.--Does this complement express the quality of the subject, or does it name the same thing that the subject names? +P+.--It names the same thing that the subject names. +T+.--It is equivalent then to what part of speech? +P+.--To a noun. +T+.--You see then that a clause, like a noun, may be used as the subject or the complement of a sentence. Analysis and Parsing. +Model+.-- That ------ ' stars | are '\suns =======|============ | | | / \ | is taught ================|============ | \by \ astronomers -------------- You will understand this diagram from the explanation of the second diagram in Lesson 49. +Oral Analysis+.--This is a complex sentence, in which the whole sentence takes the place of the independent clause. _That stars are suns_ is the dependent clause. _That stars are suns_ is the subject of the whole sentence, etc. ----. _That_ simply introduces the dependent clause. In _parsing_, call _that_ a conjunction. 1. That the Scotch are an intelligent people is generally acknowledged. 2. That the moon is made of green cheese is believed by some boys and girls. 3. That Julius Caesar invaded Britain is a historic fact. 4. That children should obey their parents is a divine precept. 5. I know that my Redeemer liveth. 6. Plato taught that the soul is immortal. 7. Peter denied that he knew his Lord. 8. Mahomet found that the mountain would not move. 9. The principle maintained by the colonies was, that taxation without representation is unjust. 10. Our intention is, that this work shall be well done. 11. Our hearts' desire and prayer is, that you may be saved. 12. The belief of the Sadducees was, that there is no resurrection of the dead. * * * * * LESSON 62. COMPOUND SENTENCES. ANALYSIS AND PARSING. +DEFINITION.--A _Compound Sentence_ is one composed of two or more independent clauses+. +Model+.--_War has ceased, and peace has come_. War | has ceased =======|============= | ' ' and '..... ' peace | has ' come =========|=============== | +Explanation of the Diagram+.--These two clause diagrams are shaded alike to show that the two clauses are of the same rank. The connecting line is not slanting, for one clause is not a modifier of the other. As one entire clause is connected with the other, the connecting line is drawn between the predicates simply for convenience. +Oral Analysis+.--This is a _compound sentence_, because it is made up of two independent clauses. The first clause, etc. ----. 1. Morning dawns, and the clouds disperse. 2. Prayer leads the heart to God, and he always listens. 3. A soft answer turneth away wrath, but grievous words stir up anger. 4. Power works easily, but fretting is a perpetual confession of weakness. 5. Many meet the gods, but few salute them. 6. We eat to live, but we do not live to eat. 7. The satellites revolve in orbits around the planets, and the planets move in orbits around the sun. 8. A wise son maketh a glad father, but a foolish son is the heaviness of his mother. 9. Every man desires to live long, but no man would be old. 10. [Footnote: A verb is to be supplied in each of the last three sentences.] Pride goeth before destruction, and a haughty spirit before a fall. 11. Towers are measured by their shadows, and great men, by their calumniators. 12. Worth makes the man, and want of it, the fellow. LESSON 63. SENTENCES CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO THEIR MEANING. +Hints for Oral Instruction+.--You have already become acquainted with three kinds of sentences. Can you name them? +P+.--The Simple sentence, the Complex, and the Compound. +T+.--These classes have been made with regard to the _form_ of the sentence. We will now arrange sentences in classes with regard to their _meaning_. _Mary sings. Does Mary sing? Sing, Mary. How Mary sings!_ Here are four simple sentences. Do they all _mean_ the same thing? +P+.--They do not. +T+.--Well, you see they differ. Let me tell you wherein. The first one tells a fact, the second asks a question, the third expresses a command, and the fourth expresses sudden thought or strong feeling. We call the first a +Declarative sentence+, the second an +Interrogative sentence+, the third an +Imperative sentence+, and the fourth an +Exclamatory sentence+. +DEFINITION.--A _Declarative Sentence_ is one that is used to affirm or to deny+. +DEFINITION.--An _Interrogative Sentence_ is one that expresses a question+. +DEFINITION.--An _Imperative Sentence_ is one that expresses a command or an entreaty+. +DEFINITION.--An _Exclamatory Sentence_ is one that expresses sudden thought or strong feeling+. +INTERROGATION POINT--RULE.--Every direct interrogative sentence should be followed by an interrogation point+. [Footnote: To The Teacher.--See Notes, pp. 178, 179.] SENTENCE-BUILDING. Change each of the following declarative sentences into three interrogative sentences, and tell how the change was made. +Model+.--_Girls can skate. Can girls skate? How can girls skate? What girls can skate?_ You are happy. Parrots can talk. Low houses were built. Change each of the following into an imperative sentence. Notice that independent words are set off by the comma. +Model+.--_Carlo eats his dinner. Eat your dinner, Carlo_. George plays the flute. Birdie stands on one leg. Change each of the following into exclamatory sentences. +Model+.--_You are happy. How happy you are! What a happy child you are! You are so happy!_ Time flies swiftly. I am glad to see you. A refreshing shower fell. Lapland is a cold country. It is hot between the tropics. Write a declarative, an interrogative, an imperative, and an exclamatory sentence on each of the following topics. Weather, lightning, a stage coach. LESSON 64. ANALYSIS AND PARSING. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW. In the analysis, classify these sentences first with reference to their _form_, and then with reference to their _meaning_. 1. Wickedness is often made a substitute for wit. 2. Alfred was a brave, pious, and patriotic prince. 3. The throne of Philip trembles while Demosthenes speaks. 4. That the whole is equal to the sum of its parts is an axiom. 5. The lion belongs to the cat tribe, but he cannot climb a tree. 6. Pride is a flower that grows in the devil's garden. 7. Of all forms of habitation, the simplest is the burrow. 8. When the righteous are in authority, the people rejoice. 9. When the wicked beareth rule, the people mourn. 10. Cassius, be not deceived. [Footnote: _Cassius_ is independent, and may be diagramed like an interjection. The subject of _be deceived_ is _thou_, or _you_, understood.] 11. How poor, how rich, how abject, how august, how wonderful is man! 12. Which is the largest city in the world? LESSON 65. ANALYSIS AND PARSING. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW--CONTINUED, 1. Politeness is the oil which lubricates the wheels of society. 2. 0 liberty! liberty! how many crimes are committed in thy name! 3. The mind is a goodly field, and to sow it with trifles is the worst husbandry in the world. 4. Every day in thy life is a leaf in thy history. 5. Make hay while the sun shines. 6. Columbus did not know that he had discovered a new continent. 7. The subject of inquiry was, Who invented printing? 8. The cat's tongue is covered with thousands of little sharp cones, pointing towards the throat. 9. The fly sat upon the axle of a chariot-wheel and said, "What a dust do I raise!" 10. Sir Humphrey Gilbert, attempting to recross the Atlantic in his little vessel, the Squirrel, went down in mid-ocean. 11. Charity begins at home, but it should not stay there. 12. The morn, in russet mantle clad, walks o'er the dew of yon high eastern hill. LESSON 66. MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS IN REVIEW. I haven't near so much. I only want one. Draw the string tightly. He writes good. I will prosecute him who sticks bills upon this church or any other nuisance. Noah for his godliness and his family were saved from the flood. We were at Europe this summer. You may rely in that. She lives to home. I can't do no work. He will never be no better. They seemed to be nearly dressed alike. I won't never do so no more. A ivory ball. An hundred head of cattle. george washington, gen dix of n y. o sarah i Saw A pretty Bonnet. are You going home? A young man wrote these verses who has long lain in his grave for his own amusement. This house will be kept by the widow of Mr. B. who died recently on an improved plan. _In correcting the position of the adjective clauses in the two examples above, observe the caution for the phrase modifiers, Lesson_ 41. He was an independent small farmer. The mind knows feels and thinks. The urchin was ragged barefooted dirty homeless and friendless. I am some tired. This here road is rough. That there man is homely. pshaw i am so Disgusted. Whoa can't you stand still. James the gardener gave me a white lily. Irving the genial writer lived on the hudson. LESSON 67. SENTENCE-BUILDING. Build one sentence out of each group of the sentences which follow. +Model+.--An _able_ man was chosen. A _prudent_ man was chosen. An _honorable_ man was chosen. An _able, prudent_, and _honorable_ man was chosen. Pure water is destitute of color. Pure water is destitute of taste. Pure water is destitute of smell. Cicero was the greatest orator of his age. Demosthenes was the greatest orator of his age. Daisies peeped up here. Daisies peeped up there. Daisies peeped up everywhere. Expand each of the following sentences into three. The English language is spoken in England, Canada, and the United States. The Missouri, Ohio, and Arkansas rivers are branches of the Mississippi. Out of the four following sentences, build one sentence having three explanatory modifiers. +Model+.--Elizabeth was _the daughter of Henry VIII_. Elizabeth was _sister of Queen Mary_. Elizabeth was _the patron of literature_. Elizabeth defeated the Armada. Elizabeth, _the daughter of Henry VIII., sister of Queen Mary, and the patron of literature_, defeated the Armada. Boston is the capital of Massachusetts. Boston is the Athens of America. Boston is the "Hub of the Universe." Boston has crooked streets. Expand the following sentence into four sentences. Daniel Webster, the great jurist, the expounder of the Constitution, and the chief of the "American Triumvirate," died with the words, "I still live," on his lips. LESSON 68. SENTENCE-BUILDING. +To the Teacher+.--For additional exercises in composition, see Notes, pp. 176-180. Change the following simple sentences into complex sentences by expanding the phrases into adjective clauses. +Model+.--People _living in glass houses_ shouldn't throw stones. People _who live in glass houses_ shouldn't throw stones. Those living in the Arctic regions need much oily food. A house built upon the rock will stand. The boy of studious habits will always have his lesson. Wellington was a man of iron will. Change the following complex sentences into simple sentences by contracting the adjective clauses into phrases. Much of the cotton which is raised in the Gulf States is exported. The house which was built upon the sand fell. A thing which is beautiful is a joy forever. Aaron Burr was a man who had fascinating manners. Change the following simple sentences into complex sentences by expanding the phrases into adverb clauses. +Model+.--Birds return _in the spring_. _When spring comes_, the birds return. The dog came at call. In old age our senses fail. Change the following complex sentences into simple sentences by contracting the adverb clauses into phrases. The ship started when the tide was at flood. When he reached the middle of his speech, he stopped. By supplying noun clauses, make complete sentences out of the following expressions. ---- is a well-known fact. The fact was ----. Ben. Franklin said ----. LESSON 69. GENERAL REVIEW. What is a letter? Give the name and the sound of each of the letters in the three following words: _letters, name, sound_. Into what classes are letters divided? Define each class. Name the vowels. What is a word? What is artificial language? What is English Grammar? What is a sentence? What is the difference between the two expressions, _ripe apples_ and _apples are ripe_? What two parts must every sentence have? Define each. What is the analysis of a sentence? What is a diagram? What are parts of speech? How many parts of speech are there? Give an example of each. What is a noun? What is a verb? What must every predicate contain? What is a pronoun? What is a modifier? What is an adjective? What adjectives are sometimes called articles? When is _a_ used? When is _an_ used? Illustrate. Give an example of one modifier joined to another. What is an adverb? What is a phrase? What is a preposition? What is a conjunction? What is an interjection? Give four rules for the use of capital letters (Lessons 8, 15, 19, 87). Give two rules for the use of the period, one for the exclamation point, and one for the interrogation point (Lessons 8, 37, 63). LESSON 70. GENERAL REVIEW. What is an object complement? What is an attribute complement? How does a participle differ from a predicate verb? Illustrate. What offices does an infinitive phrase perform? Illustrate. How are sentences classified with respect to form? Give an example of each class. What is a simple sentence? What is a clause? What is a dependent clause? What is an independent clause? What is a complex sentence? What is a compound sentence? How are sentences classified with respect to meaning? Give an example of each class. What is a declarative sentence? What is an interrogative sentence? What is an imperative sentence? What is an exclamatory sentence? What different offices may a noun perform? Ans.--_A noun may be used as a subject, as an object complement, as an attribute complement, as a possessive modifier, as an explanatory modifier, as the principal word in a prepositional phrase, and it may be used independently_. Illustrate each use. What are sometimes substituted for nouns? _Ans.--Pronouns, phrases, and clauses_. Illustrate. What is the principal office of a verb? What offices may be performed by a phrase? What, by a clause? What, different offices may an adjective perform? What parts of speech may connect clauses? _Ans.--Conjunctions, adverbs, and pronouns_. (See Lessons 62, 59, and 57.) Give rules for the use of the comma (Lessons 37, 54, 57). Give and illustrate the directions for using adjectives and adverbs, for placing phrases, for using prepositions, and for using negatives (Lessons 40, 41). +To the Teacher+.--For additional review, see "Scheme," p. 185. If the early presentation of an outline of technical grammar is not compelled by a prescribed course of study, we should here introduce a series of lessons in the construction of sentences, paragraphs, letters, and general compositions. The pages following Lesson 100 will furnish matter. See especially COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement--Selection from Beecher. PARTS OF SPEECH SUBDIVIDED. LESSON 71. CLASSES OF NOUNS. +Hints for Oral Instruction+.--Hereafter, in the "Hints," we shall drop the dialogue form, but we expect the teacher to continue it. A poor teacher does all the talking, a good teacher makes the pupils talk. The teacher may here refer to his talk about the classification of birds, and show that, after birds have been arranged in great classes, such as robins, sparrows, etc., these classes will need to be subdivided, if the pupil is to be made thoroughly acquainted with this department of the animal kingdom. So, after grouping _words_ into the eight great classes, called Parts of Speech, these classes may be divided into other classes. For instance, take the two nouns _city_ and _Brooklyn_. The word _city_ is the _common_ name of all places of a certain class, but the word _Brooklyn_ is the _proper_ or particular name of an _individual_ of this class. We have here, then, two kinds of nouns which we call +Common+ and +Proper+. Let the teacher write a number of nouns on the board, and require the pupil to classify them and give the reasons for the classification. To prepare the pupil thoroughly for this work, the teacher will find it necessary to explain why such words as _music, mathematics, knowledge_, etc., are common nouns. _Music, e. g._, is not a proper noun, for it is not a name given to an individual thing to distinguish it from other things of the same class. There are no other things of the same class--it forms a class by itself. So we call the noun _music_ a _common_ noun. CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. The speaker seldom refers to himself by name, but uses the pronoun _I_ instead. In speaking _to_ a person, we often use the pronoun _you_ instead of his name. In speaking _of_ a person or thing that has been mentioned before, we say _he_ or _she_ or _it_. These words that by their _form_ indicate the speaker, the hearer, or the person or thing spoken of, are called +Personal Pronouns+. See Lesson 19, "Hints." Give sentences containing nouns repeated, and require the pupils to improve these sentences by substituting pronouns. When we wish to refer to an object that has been mentioned in _another_ clause, and at the same time to _connect the clauses_, we use a class of pronouns called +Relative Pronouns+. Let the teacher illustrate by using the pronouns _who, which_, and _that_. See Lesson 57, "Hints for Oral Instruction." When we wish to ask about anything whose _name is unknown_, we use a class of pronouns called +Interrogative Pronouns+. The interrogative pronoun stands for the unknown name, and asks for it; as, _Who_ comes here? _What_ is this? _Both men were wrong_. Let us omit _men_ and say, _Both were wrong_. You see the meaning is not changed--_both_ is here equivalent to _both men_, that is, it performs the office of an adjective and that of a noun. It is therefore an +Adjective Pronoun+. Let the teacher further illustrate the office of the adjective pronoun by using the words _each, all, many, some, such_, etc. DEFINITIONS. CLASSES OF NOUNS. +A _Common Noun_ is a name which belongs to all things of a class+. +A _Proper Noun_ is the particular name of an individual+. CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. +A _Personal Pronoun_ is a pronoun that by its form denotes the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of+. +A _Relative Pronoun_ is one that relates to some preceding word or words, and connects clauses+. +An _Interrogative Pronoun_ is one with which a question is asked+. +An _Adjective Pronoun_ is one that performs the offices of both an adjective and a noun+. LESSON 72. SENTENCE-BUILDING. Build each of the following groups of nouns into a sentence. See Rule, Lesson 15. webster cares office washington repose home marshfleld. george washington commander army revolution president united states westmoreland state virginia month february. san francisco city port pacific trade united states lines steamships sandwich islands japan china australia. Write five simple sentences, each containing one of the five personal pronouns: _I, thou_ or _you, he, she_, and _it_. Write four complex sentences, each containing one of the four relative pronouns: _who, which, that_, and _what_. _What_ is used as a relative pronoun when the antecedent is omitted. The word for which a pronoun stands is called its antecedent. When we express the antecedent, we use _which_ or _that_. I shall do _what_ is required; I shall do the _thing which_ is required, or _that_ is required. Build three interrogative sentences, each containing one of the three interrogative pronouns: _who, which_, and _what_. Build eight sentences, each containing one of the following adjective pronouns: _few, many, much, some, this, these, that, those_. LESSON 73. CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. +Hints for Oral Instruction+.--When I say _large, round, sweet, yellow oranges_, the words _large, round, sweet_, and _yellow_ modify the word _oranges_ by telling the _kind_, and limit the application of the word to oranges of that kind. When I say _this orange, yonder orange, one orange_, the words _this, yonder_, and _one_ do not tell the kind, but simply point out or number the orange, and limit the application of the word to the orange pointed out or numbered. Adjectives of the first class describe by giving a quality, and so are called +Descriptive adjectives+. Adjectives of the second class define by pointing out or numbering, and so are called +Definitive adjectives+. Let the teacher write nouns on the board, and require the pupils to modify them by appropriate descriptive and definitive adjectives. DEFINITIONS. +A _Descriptive Adjective_ is one that modifies by expressing quality+. +A _Definitive Adjective_ is one that modifies by pointing out, numbering, or denoting quantity+. SENTENCE-BUILDING. Place the following adjectives in two columns, one headed _descriptive_, and the other _definitive_, then build simple sentences in which they shall be employed as _modifiers_. Find out the meaning of each word before you use it. Round, frolicsome, first, industrious, jolly, idle, skillful, each, the, faithful, an, kind, one, tall, ancient, modern, dancing, mischievous, stationary, nimble, several, slanting, parallel, oval, every. Build simple sentences in which the following _descriptive_ adjectives shall be employed as _attribute complements_. Let some of these attributes be _compound_. Restless, impulsive, dense, rare, gritty, sluggish, dingy, selfish, clear, cold, sparkling, slender, graceful, hungry, friendless. Build simple sentences in which the following _descriptive_ adjectives shall be employed. Some of these adjectives have the _form_ of _participles_, and some are _derived_ from _proper nouns_. +CAPITAL LETTER--RULE.--An Adjective derived from a proper noun must begin with a capital letter+. Shining, moving, swaying, bubbling, American, German, French, Swiss, Irish, Chinese. LESSON 74. CLASSES OF VERBS. +Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_The man caught_ makes no complete assertion, and is not a sentence. If I add the object complement _fish_, I complete the assertion and form a sentence--_The man caught fish_. The action expressed by _caught_ passes over from the man to the fish. _Transitive_ means _passing over_, and so all those verbs that express an action that passes over from a doer to something which receives, are called +Transitive verbs+. _Fish swim_. The verb _swim_ does not require an object to complete the sentence. No action passes from a doer to a receiver. These verbs which express action that does not pass over to a receiver, and all those which do not express action at all, but simply _being_ or _state of being_, are called +Intransitive verbs+. Let the teacher write transitive and intransitive verbs on the board, and require the pupils to distinguish them. When I say, I _crush_ the worm, I express an action that is going on now, or in present time. I _crushed_ the worm, expresses an action that took place in past time. As _tense_ means _time_, we call the form _crush_ the _present tense_ of the verb, and _crushed_ the _past tense_. In the sentence, The worm _crushed_ under my foot died, _crushed_, expressing the action as assumed, is, as you have already learned, a participle; and, as the action is completed, we call it a _past participle_. Now notice that _ed_ was added to _crush_, the verb in the present tense, to form the verb in the past tense, and to form the past participle. Most verbs form their past tense and their past participle by adding _ed_, and so we call such +Regular verbs+. I _see_ the man; I _saw_ the man; The man _seen_ by me ran away. I _catch_ fish in the brook; I _caught_ fish in the brook; The fish _caught_ in the brook tasted good. Here the verbs _see_ and _catch_ do not form their past tense and past participle by adding _ed_ to the present, and so we call them _Irregular verbs_. Let the teacher write on the board verbs of both classes, and require the pupils to distinguish them. DEFINITIONS. CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO MEANING. +A _Transitive Verb_ is one that requires an object+. [Footnote: The _object_ of a transitive verb, that is, the name of the receiver of the action, may be the _object complement_, or it may be the subject; as, Brutus stabbed _Caesar_, _Caesar_ was stabbed by Brutus.] +An _Intransitive Verb_ is one that does not require an object+. CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO FORM. +A _Regular Verb_ is one that forms its past tense and past participle by adding _ed_ to the present+. [Footnote: If the present ends in _e_, the _e_ is dropped when _ed_ is added; as, lov_e_, lov_ed_; believ_e_, believ_ed_.] +An _Irregular Verb_ is one that does not form its past tense and past participle by adding _ed_ to the present+. SENTENCE-BUILDING. Place the following verbs in two columns, one headed _transitive_ and the other, _intransitive_. Place the same verbs in two other columns, one headed _regular_ and the other, _irregular_. Build these verbs into sentences by supplying a subject to each intransitive verb, and a subject and an object to each transitive verb. Vanish, gallop, bite, promote, contain, produce, provide, veto, secure, scramble, rattle, draw. Arrange the following verbs as before, and then build them into sentences by supplying a subject and a noun attribute to each intransitive verb, and a subject and an object to each transitive verb. Degrade, gather, know, was, became, is. A verb may be transitive in one sentence and intransitive in another. Use the following verbs both ways. +Model+.--The wren _sings_ sweetly. The wren _sings_ a pretty little song. Bend, ring, break, dash, move. LESSON 75. CLASSES OF ADVERBS. +Hints for Oral Instruction+.--When I say, He will come _soon_, or _presently_, or _often_, or _early_, I am using, to modify _will come_, words which express the _time_ of coming. These and all such adverbs we call +Adverbs of Time+. He will come _up_, or _hither_, or _here_, or _back_. Here I use, to modify _will come_, words which express _place_. These and all such adverbs we call +Adverbs of Place+. When I say, The weather is _so_ cold, or _very_ cold, or _intensely_ cold, the words _so, very_, and _intensely_ modify the adjective _cold_ by expressing the _degree_ of coldness. These and all such adverbs we call +Adverbs of Degree+. When I say, He spoke _freely, wisely_, and _well_, the words _freely, wisely_, and _well_ tell how or _in what manner_ he spoke. All such adverbs we call +Adverbs of Manner+. Let the teacher place adverbs on the board, and require the pupil to classify them. DEFINITIONS. +_Adverbs of Time_ are those that generally answer the question+, _When?_ _+Adverbs of Place are those that generally answer the question+, Where? +Adverbs of Degree are those that generally answer the question+, To what extent? +Adverbs of Manner are those that generally answer the question+, In what way?_ SENTENCE-BUILDING. Place the following adverbs in the four classes we have made--if the classification be perfect, there will be five words in each column--then build each adverb into a simple sentence. Partly, only, too, wisely, now, here, when, very, well, where, nobly, already, seldom, more, ably, away, always, not, there, out. Some adverbs, as you have already learned, modify two verbs, and thus connect the two clauses in which these verbs occur. Such adverbs are called _+Conjunctive Adverbs+_. The following _dependent_ clauses are introduced by _conjunctive adverbs_. Build them into complex sentences by supplying _independent clauses_. ------ _when_ the ice is smooth; ------ _while_ we sleep; ------ _before_ winter comes; ------ _where_ the reindeer lives; ------ _wherever_ you go. LESSON 76. CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. [Footnote: For classified lists, see pp. 190,191.] +Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_Frogs, antelopes, and kangaroos can jump_. Here the three nouns are of the same rank in the sentence. All are subjects of _can jump. War has ceased, and peace has come_. In this compound sentence, there are two clauses of the same rank. The word _and_ connects the subjects of _can jump_, in the first sentence: and the two clauses, in the second. All words that connect words, phrases, or clauses of the _same rank_ are called +Co-ordinate Conjunctions+. _If you have tears, prepare to shed them now. I will go, because you need me_. Here _if_ joins the clause, _you have tears_, as a modifier, expressing condition, to the independent clause, _prepare to shed them now;_ and _because_ connects _you need me_, as a modifier, expressing reason or cause, to the independent clause, _I will go_. These and all such conjunctions as connect dependent clauses to clauses of a _higher rank_ are called +Subordinate Conjunctions+. Let the teacher illustrate the meaning and use of the words _subordinate_ and _co-ordinate_. DEFINITIONS. +_Co-ordinate Conjunctions_ are such as connect words, phrases, or clauses of the same rank+. +_Subordinate Conjunctions_ are such as connect clauses of different rank+. SENTENCE-BUILDING. Build four short sentences for each of the three _co-ordinate conjunctions_ that follow. In the first, let the conjunction be used to connect principal parts of a sentence; in the second, to connect word modifiers; in the third, to connect phrase modifiers; and in the fourth, to connect independent clauses. And, or, but. Write four short complex sentences containing the four _subordinate conjunctions_ that follow. Let the first be used to introduce a noun clause, and the other three to connect adverb clauses to independent clauses. That, for, if, because. LESSON 77. REVIEW QUESTIONS. What new subject begins with page 95? Name and define the different classes of nouns. Illustrate by examples the difference between common nouns and proper nouns. Name and define the different classes of pronouns. Can the pronoun _I_ be used to stand for the one spoken to?--the one spoken of? Does the relative pronoun distinguish by its _form_ the speaker, the one spoken to, and the one spoken of? Illustrate. Can any other class of pronouns be used to connect clauses? For what do interrogative pronouns stand? Illustrate. Where may the antecedent of an interrogative pronoun generally be found? _Ans.--The antecedent of an interrogative pronoun may generally lie found in the answer to the question_. Name and define the different classes of adjectives. Give an example of each class. Name and define the different classes of verbs, made with respect to their meaning. Give an example of each class. Name and define the different classes of verbs, made with respect to their form. Give an example of each class. Name and define the different classes of adverbs. Give examples of each kind. Name and define the different classes of conjunctions. Illustrate by examples. Are prepositions and interjections subdivided? (See "Schemes" for the conjunction, the preposition, and the interjection, p. 188.) +To the Teacher+.--See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement-- Selection from Dr. John Brown. We suggest that other selections from literature be made and these exercises continued. MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. LESSON 78. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. You have learned that two words may express a thought, and that the thought may be varied by adding modifying words. You are now to learn that the meaning or use of a word may sometimes be changed by simply changing its _form_. The English language has lost many of its inflections, or forms, so that frequently changes in the meaning and use of words are not marked by changes in form. These _changes_ in the _form, meaning_, and _use_ of the parts of speech, we call their +Modifications+. _The boy shouts. The boys shout_. I have changed the form of the subject _boy_ by adding an _s_ to it. The meaning has changed. _Boy_ denotes _one_ lad; _boys_, _two or more_ lads. This change in the form and meaning of nouns is called +Number+. The word _boy_, denoting one thing, is in the +Singular Number;+ and _boys_, denoting more than one thing, is in the +Plural Number+. Let the teacher write other nouns on the board, and require the pupils to form the plural of them. DEFINITIONS. +_Modifications of the Parts of Speech_ are changes in their form, meaning, and use+. NUMBER. +_Number_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes one thing or more than one+. +The _Singular Number_ denotes one thing+. +The _Plural Number_ denotes more than one thing+. +RULE.--The _plural_ of nouns is regularly formed by adding _s_ to the singular+. Write the plural of the following nouns. Tree, bird, insect, cricket, grasshopper, wing, stick, stone, flower, meadow, pasture, grove, worm, bug, cow, eagle, hawk, wren, plough, shovel. When a singular noun ends in the sound of _s, x, z, sh_, or _ch_, it is not easy to add the sound of _s_, so _es_ is added to make another syllable. Write the plural of the following nouns. Guess, box, topaz, lash, birch, compass, fox, waltz, sash, bench, gas, tax, adz, brush, arch. Many nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a consonant form the plural by adding _es_ without increasing the number of syllables. Write the plural of the following nouns. Hero, cargo, negro, potato, echo, volcano, mosquito, motto. Common nouns ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant form the plural by changing _y_ into _i_ and adding _es_ without increasing the number of syllables. Write the plural of the following nouns. Lady, balcony, family, city, country, daisy, fairy, cherry, study, sky. Some nouns ending in _f_ and _fe_ form the plural by changing _f_ or _fe_ into _ves_ without increasing the number of syllables. Write the plural of the following nouns. Sheaf, loaf, beef, thief, calf, half, elf, shelf, self, wolf, life, knife, wife. LESSON 79. NUMBER. From the following list of nouns, select, and write in separate columns: 1st. Those that have no plural; 2d. Those that have no singular; 3d. Those that are alike in both numbers. Pride, wages, trousers, cider, suds, victuals, milk, riches, flax, courage, sheep, deer, flour, idleness, tidings, thanks, ashes, scissors, swine, heathen. The following nouns have very irregular plurals. Learn to spell the plurals. _Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural_. Man, men. Foot, feet. Woman, women. Ox, oxen. Child, children. Tooth, teeth. Mouse, mice. Goose, geese. Learn the following plurals and compare them with the groups in the preceding Lesson. Moneys, flies, chimneys, valleys, stories, berries, lilies, turkeys, monkeys, cuckoos, pianos, vetoes, solos, folios, gulfs, chiefs, leaves, roofs, scarfs, inches. LESSON 80. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.--GENDER. +Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_The lion was caged. The lioness was caged_. In the first sentence, something was said about a _male_ lion; and in the second, something was said about a _female_ lion. Modifications of the noun to denote the sex of the object, we call +Gender+. Knowing the sex of the object, you know the gender of its name. The word _lion_, denoting a male animal, is in the +Masculine Gender;+ and _lioness_, denoting a female lion, is in the +Feminine Gender+. The names of things _without_ sex are in the +Neuter Gender+. Such words as _cousin, child, friend, neighbor_, may be _either masculine or feminine_. +DEFINITIONS. _Gender_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes sex. The _Masculine Gender_ denotes the male sex. The _Feminine Gender_ denotes the female sex. The _Neuter Gender_ denotes want of sex+. The masculine is distinguished from the feminine in three ways:-- 1st. By a difference in the ending of the nouns. 2d. By different words in the compound names. 3d. By words wholly or radically different. Arrange the following pairs in separate columns with reference to these ways. Abbot, abbess; actor, actress; Francis, Frances; Jesse, Jessie; bachelor, maid; beau, belle; monk, nun; gander, goose; administrator, administratrix; baron, baroness; count, countess; czar, czarina; don, donna; boy, girl; drake, duck; lord, lady; nephew, niece; landlord, landlady; gentleman, gentlewoman; peacock, peahen; duke, duchess; hero, heroine; host, hostess; Jew, Jewess; man-servant, maid-servant; sir, madam; wizard, witch; marquis, marchioness; widow, widower; heir, heiress; Paul, Pauline; Augustus, Augusta. REVIEW QUESTIONS. What new way of varying the meaning of words is introduced in Lesson 78? Illustrate. What are modifications of the parts of speech? What is number? How many numbers are there? Name and define each. Give the rule for forming the plural of nouns. Illustrate the variations of this rule. What is gender? How many genders are there? Name and define each. In how many ways are the genders distinguished? Illustrate. LESSON 81. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.--PERSON AND CASE. +Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_Number_ and _gender_, as you have already learned, are modifications affecting the _meaning_ of nouns and pronouns. Number is almost always indicated by the ending; gender, sometimes. There are two other modifications which refer not to changes in the _meaning_ of nouns and pronouns, but to their different _uses_ and _relations_. In the English language, these changes are not often indicated by a change of _form_. _I Paul_ have written. _Paul, thou_ art beside thyself. _He_ brought _Paul_ before Agrippa. In these three sentences the word _Paul_ has _three different uses_. In the first, it is used as the name of the _speaker_; in the second, as the name of _one spoken to_; in the third, as the name of _one spoken of_. You will notice that the _form_ of the noun was not changed. This change in the use of nouns and pronouns is called +Person+. The word _I_ in the first sentence, the word _thou_ in the second, and the word _he_ in the third have each a different use. _I_, _thou_, and _he_ are personal pronouns, and, as you have learned, distinguish _person_ by their _form_. _I_, denoting the speaker, is in the +First Person+; _thou_, denoting the one spoken to, is in the +Second Person+; and _he_, denoting the one spoken of, is in the +Third Person+. _Personal pronouns_ and _verbs_ are the only words that distinguish person by their form. _The bear killed the man_. _The man killed the bear_. _The bear's grease was made into hair oil_. In the first sentence, the bear is represented as _performing_ an action; in the second, as _receiving_ an action; in the third, as _possessing_ something. So the word _bear_ in these sentences has three different uses. These uses of nouns are called +Cases+. The use of a noun as subject is called the +Nominative Case+; its use as object is called the +Objective Case+; and its use to denote possession is called the +Possessive Case+. The _possessive_ is the only case of nouns that is indicated by a change in _form_. A noun or pronoun used as an _attribute_ complement is in the _nominative case_. A noun or pronoun following a preposition as the principal word of a phrase is in the _objective case_. _I_ and _he_ are _nominative_ forms. _Me_ and _him_ are _objective_ forms. The following sentences are therefore incorrect: It is _me_; It is _him_; _Me_ gave the pen to _he_. +DEFINITIONS. _Person_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of. The _First Person_ denotes the one speaking. The _Second Person_ denotes the one spoken to. The _Third Person_ denotes the one spoken of. _Case_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes its office in the sentence. The _Nominative Case of a noun or pronoun_ denotes its office as subject or as attribute complement. The _Possessive Case of a noun or pronoun_ denotes its office as possessive modifier. The _Objective Case of a noun or pronoun_ denotes its office as object complement, or as principal word in a prepositional phrase+. LESSON 82. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.--PERSON AND CASE. Tell the _person_ and _case_ of each of the following nouns and pronouns. +_Remember_+ that a noun or pronoun used as an _explanatory modifier_ is in the same case as the word which it explains, and that a noun or pronoun used _independently_ is in the _nominative case_. We Americans do things in a hurry. You Englishmen take more time to think. The Germans do their work with the most patience and deliberation. We boys desire a holiday. Come on, my men; I will lead you. I, your teacher, desire your success. You, my pupils, are attentive. I called on Tom, the tinker. Friends, countrymen, and lovers, hear me for my cause. Write simple sentences in which each of the following nouns shall be used in the _three persons_ and in the _three cases_. Andrew Jackson, Alexander, Yankees. Write a sentence containing a noun in the _nominative_ case, used as an _attribute;_ one in the _nominative_, used as an _explanatory modifier_; one in the _nominative_, used independently. Write a sentence containing a noun in the _objective case_, used to _complete two predicate verbs_; one used to _complete_ a _participle_; one used to _complete_ an _infinitive_; one used _with a preposition_ to make a phrase; one used as an _explanatory modifier_. +To the Teacher+.--See pp. 183, 184. LESSON 83. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.--DECLENSION. +DEFINITION.--_Declension_ is the arrangement of the cases of nouns and pronouns in the two numbers+. Declension of Nouns. LADY. _Singular_. _Plural_. _Nom_. lady, ladies, _Pos_. lady's, ladies', _Obj_. lady; ladies. CHILD. _Singular_. _Plural_. _Nom._ child, children, _Pos._ child's, children's, _Obj._ child; children. Declension of Pronouns. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. FIRST PERSON. _Singular_. _Plural_. _Nom._ I, we, _Pos._ my _or_ mine, our _or_ ours, _Obj._ me; us. SECOND PERSON--_common form_. _Singular_. _Plural_. _Nom._ you, you, _Pos._ your _or_ yours, your _or_ yours, _Obj._ you; you. SECOND PERSON--_old form_. _Singular_. _Plural_. _Nom._ thou, ye or you, _Pos._ thy _or_ thine, your _or_ yours, _Obj._ thee; you. THIRD PERSON--_masculine_. _Singular_. _Plural_. _Nom._ he, they, _Pos._ his, their _or_ theirs, _Obj._ him; them. THIRD PERSON--_feminine_. _Singular_. _Plural_. _Nom._ she, they, _Pos._ her _or_ hers, their _or_ theirs, _Obj._ her; them. THIRD PERSON----_neuter_. _Singular_. _Plural_. _Nom._ it, they, _Pos._ its, their _or_ theirs, _Obj._ it; them. _Mine, ours, yours, thine, hers_, and _theirs_ are used when the name of the thing possessed is omitted; as, This rose is _yours_ = This rose is _your rose_. COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. By joining the word _self_ to the possessive forms _my, thy, your_, and to the objective forms _him, her, it_, the +_Compound Personal Pronouns_+ are formed. They have no possessive case, and are alike in the nominative and the objective. Their plurals are _ourselves_, _yourselves_, and _themselves_. Form the _compound personal pronouns_, and write their declension. RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. _Sing. and Plu._ _Nom._ who, _Pos._ whose, _Obj._ whom. _Sing. and Plu._ _Nom._ which, _Pos._ whose, _Obj._ which. _Of which_ is often used instead of the possessive form of the latter pronoun. _Sing. and Plu._ _Nom._ that, _Pos._ ----, _Obj._ that. _Sing. and Plu._ _Nom._ what, _Pos._ ----, _Obj._ what. _Ever_ and _soever_ are added to _who, which_, and _what_ to form the +_Compound Relative Pronouns_+. They are used when the antecedent is omitted. For declension, see above. LESSON 84. POSSESSIVE FORMS. +RULE.--The _possessive case_ of nouns is formed in the singular by adding to the nominative the apostrophe and the letter _s_ ('s); in the plural, by adding (') only. If the plural does not end in _s_, the apostrophe and the _s_ are both added+. Write the _possessive singular_ and the _possessive plural_ of the following nouns, and place an appropriate noun after each. Robin, friend, fly, hero, woman, bee, mouse, cuckoo, fox, ox, man, thief, fairy, mosquito, wolf, shepherd, farmer, child, neighbor, cow. Possession may be expressed also by the preposition _of_ and the _objective_; as, the _mosquito's_ bill = the bill _of_ the _mosquito_. The possessive sign ('s) is confined _chiefly_ to the names of persons and animals. We do not say the _chair's_ legs, but the legs _of_ the _chair_. Regard must be had also to the _sound_. IMPROVE THE FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS, and expand each into a simple sentence. The sky's color; the cloud's brilliancy; the rose's leaves; my uncle's partner's house; George's father's friend's farm; the mane of the horse of my brother; my brother's horse's mane. When there are several possessive nouns, all belonging to one word, the possessive sign is added to the last only. If they modify different words, the sign is added to each. CORRECT THE FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS, and expand each into a simple sentence. +Model+.--_Webster and Worcester's dictionary may be bought at Ticknor's and Field's book-store_. The possessive sign should be added to _Webster_, for the word _dictionary_ is understood immediately after. Webster and Worcester do not together possess the same dictionary. The sign should not be added to _Ticknor_, for the two men, Tieknor and Field, possess the same store. Adam's and Eve's garden; Jacob's and Esau's father; Shakespeare and Milton's works; Maud, Kate, and Clara's gloves; Maud's, Kate's, and Clara's teacher was ----. When one possessive noun is explanatory of another, the possessive sign is added to the last only. CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. I called at Tom's the tinker's. They listened to Peter's the Hermit's eloquence. This was the Apostle's Paul's advice. CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. Our's, your's, hi's, their's, her's, it's, hisn, yourn, hern. LESSON 85. FORMS OF THE PRONOUN. +_Remember_+ that _I, we, thou, ye, he, she, they_, and _who_ are +_nominative_+ forms, and must not be used in the objective case. +_Remember_+ that _me, us, thee, him, her, them_, and _whom_ are +_objective_+ forms, and must not be used in the nominative case. +To the Teacher+.--The _eight_ nominative forms and the _seven_ objective forms given above are the only distinctive nominative and objective forms in the English language. Let the pupils become familiar with them. CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. Him and me are good friends. The two persons were her and me. Us girls had a jolly time. It is them, surely. Who will catch this? Me. Them that despise me shall be lightly esteemed. Who is there? Me. It was not us, it was him. Who did you see? Who did you ask for? +_Remember_+ that pronouns must agree with their antecedents in number, gender, and person. CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. Every boy must read their own sentences. I gave the horse oats, but he would not eat it. Every one must read it for themselves. I took up the little boy, and set it on my knee. +_Remember_+ that the relative _who_ represents persons; _which_, animals and things; _that_, persons, animals, and things; and _what_, things. CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. I have a dog who runs to meet me. The boy which I met was quite lame. Those which live in glass houses must not throw stones. REVIEW QUESTIONS. +To the Teacher+.--For "Schemes," see p. 186. How many modifications have nouns and pronouns? Name and define each. How many persons are there? Define each. How many cases are there? Define each. How do you determine the case of an explanatory noun or pronoun? What is declension? How are the forms _mine, yours_, etc., now used? What is the rule for forming the possessive case? What words are used only in the nominative case? What words are used only in the objective case? [Footnote: _Her_ is used in the possessive case also.] How do you determine the number, gender, and person of pronouns? LESSON 86. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS--PARSING. +To the Teacher+.--For general "Scheme" for parsing, see p. 189. Select and parse all the nouns and pronouns in Lesson 53. +Model for Written Parsing+.--_Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh, was beheaded by James I._ Elizabeth's CLASSIFICATION. _Nouns_. _Kind_. Prop. MODIFICATIONS. _Person_. 3d _Number_. Sing. _Gender_. Fem. _Case_. Pos. SYNTAX. Pos. Mod. of _favorite_. favorite CLASSIFICATION. _Nouns_. _Kind_. Com. MODIFICATIONS. _Person_. 3d _Number_. Sing. _Gender_. Mas. _Case_. Nom. SYNTAX. Sub. of _was beheaded_. Raleigh CLASSIFICATION. _Nouns_. _Kind_. Prop. MODIFICATIONS. _Person_. 3d _Number_. Sing. _Gender_. Mas. _Case_. Nom. SYNTAX. Exp. Mod. of _favorite_. James I. CLASSIFICATION. _Nouns_. _Kind_. Prop. MODIFICATIONS. _Person_. 3d _Number_. Sing. _Gender_. Mas. _Case_. Obj. SYNTAX. Prin. word after _by_. +To the Teacher+.--Select other exercises, and continue this work as long as it may be profitable. See Lessons 56, 57, 61, 64, and 65. LESSON 87. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. +Adjectives have one modification;+ viz., _Comparison_. DEFINITIONS. +_Comparison_ is a modification of the adjective to express the relative degree of the quality in the things compared+. +The _Positive degree_ expresses the simple quality+. +The _Comparative degree_ expresses a greater or a less degree of the quality+. +The _Superlative degree_ expresses the greatest or the least degree of the quality+. +RULE.--Adjectives are regularly compared by adding _er_ to the positive to form the comparative, and _est_ to the positive to form the superlative+. Adjectives of one syllable are _generally_ compared regularly; adjectives of two or more syllables are often compared by prefixing _more_ and _most_. When there are two correct forms, choose the one that can be more easily pronounced. Compare the following adjectives. For the spelling, consult your dictionaries. Model.--_Positive. Comparative. Superlative_. Lovely, lovelier, loveliest; _or_ lovely, more lovely, most lovely. Tame, warm, beautiful, brilliant, amiable, high, mad, greedy, pretty, hot. Some adjectives are compared _irregularly_. Learn the following forms. _Positive. Comparative. Superlative_. Good, better, best. Bad, | Evil, + worse, worst. Ill, | Little, less, least. Much, | Many, | more, most. LESSON 88. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. +_Remember_+ that, when two things or groups of things are compared, the _comparative_ degree is commonly used; when more than two, the _superlative_ is employed. +_Caution_+.--Adjectives should not be _doubly_ compared. CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. Of all the boys, George is the more industrious. Peter was older than the twelve apostles. Which is the longer of the rivers of America? This was the most unkindest cut of all. He chose a more humbler part. My hat is more handsomer than yours. The younger of those three boys is the smarter. Which is the more northerly, Maine, Oregon, or Minnesota? +_Caution_+.--Do not use adjectives and adverbs extravagantly. CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. The weather is horrid. That dress is perfectly awful. Your coat sits frightfully. We had an awfully good time. This is a tremendously hard lesson. Harry is a mighty nice boy. +_Remember_+ that adjectives whose meaning does not admit of different degrees cannot be compared; as, _every_, _universal_. Use in the three different degrees such of the following adjectives as admit of comparison. All, serene, excellent, immortal, first, two, total, infinite, three-legged, bright. +_Adverbs_+ are compared in the same manner as adjectives. The following are compared regularly. Compare them. Fast, often, soon, late, early. In the preceding and in the following list, find words that may be used as adjectives. The following are compared irregularly. Learn them. _Pos. Comp. Sup. _ ----------- ---------- -------- Badly, Ill, worse, worst. Well, better, best. Little, less, least. Much, more, most. Far, farther, farthest. Adverbs ending in _ly_ are generally compared by prefixing _more_ and _most_. Compare the following. Firmly, gracefully, actively, easily. +To the Teacher+.--Let the pupils select and parse all the adjectives and adverbs in Lesson 27. For forms, see p. 189. Select other exercises, and continue the work as long as it is profitable. See "Schemes" for review, p. 188. REVIEW QUESTIONS. How is a noun parsed? What modification have adjectives? What is comparison? How many degrees of comparison are there? Define each. How are adjectives regularly compared? Distinguish the uses of the comparative and the superlative degree. Give the directions for using adjectives and adverbs (Lesson 88). Illustrate. What adjectives cannot be compared? How are adverbs compared? LESSON 89. MODIFICATION OF VERBS. VOICE. +Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_I picked the rose_. I will tell the same thing in another way. _The rose was picked by me_. The first verb _picked_ shows that the subject _I_ represents the actor, and the second form of the verb, _was picked_, shows that the subject names the thing acted upon. This change in the form of the verb is called +Voice+. The first form is called the +Active Voice+; and the second, the +Passive Voice+. The _passive_ form is very convenient when we wish to assert an action without naming any actor. _Money is coined_ is better than _somebody coins money_. DEFINITIONS. +_Voice_ is that modification of the transitive verb which shows whether the subject names the _actor_ or the _thing acted upon_+. +The _Active Voice_ shows that the subject names the actor+. +The _Passive Voice_ shows that the subject names the thing acted upon+. In each of the following sentences, change the _voice_ of the verb without changing the meaning of the sentence. Note the other changes that occur in the sentence. The industrious bees gather honey from the flowers. The storm drove the vessel against the rock. Our words should be carefully chosen. Death separates the dearest friends. His vices have weakened his mind and destroyed his health. True valor protects the feeble and humbles the oppressor. The Duke of Wellington, who commanded the English armies in the Peninsula, never lost a battle. Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt. Dr. Livingstone explored a large part of Africa. The English were conquered by the Normans. Name all the transitive verbs in Lessons 20 and 22, and give, their _voice_. LESSON 90. MODE, TENSE, NUMBER, AND PERSON. +Hints for Oral Instruction+.--When I say, _James walks_, I assert the walking as a _fact_. When I say, _James may walk_, I do not assert the action as a fact, but as a _possible_ action. When I say, _If James walk out, he will improve_, I assert the action, not as an actual fact, but as a _condition_ of James's, improving. When I say to James, _Walk out_, I do not assert that James actually does the act, I assert the action as a _command_. The action expressed by the verb _walk_ has been asserted in _four_ different _ways_, or +modes+. The first way is called the +Indicative Mode+; the second, the +Potential Mode+; the third, the +Subjunctive Mode+; the fourth, the +Imperative Mode+. Let the teacher give other examples and require the pupils to repeat this instruction. For the two forms of the verb called the +Infinitive+ and the +Participle+, see "Hints," Lessons 48 and 49. _I walk. I walked. I shall walk_. In each of these three sentences, the manner of asserting the action is the same. _I walk_ expresses the action as _present_. _I walked_ expresses the action as _past_, and _I shall walk_ expresses the action as _future_. As +Tense+ means _time_, the first form is called the +Present Tense+; the second, the +Past Tense+; and the third, the +Future Tense+. We have three other forms of the verb, expressing the action as _completed_ in the _present_, the _past_, or the _future_. _I have walked out to-day. I had walked out when he called. I shall have walked out by to-morrow_. The form, _have walked_, expressing the action as _completed_ in the present, is called the +Present Perfect Tense+. The form, _had walked_, expressing the action as _completed_ in the past, is called the +Past Perfect Tense+. The form, _shall have walked_, expressing an action to be _completed_ in the future, is called the +Future Perfect Tense+. Let the teacher give other verbs, and require the pupils to name and explain the different tenses. _I walk. Thou walkest. He walks. They walk_. In the second sentence, the verb _walk_ was changed by adding _est_; and in the third, it was changed by adding _s_. These changes are for the sake of agreement with the person of the subject. The verb ending in _est_ agrees with the subject _thou_ in the second person, and the verb ending in _s_ agrees with _he_ in the third person. In the fourth sentence, the subject is in the third person; but it is plural, and so the verb drops the _s_ to agree with they in the plural. Verbs are said to agree in +Person+ and +Number+ with their subjects. The person and number _forms_ will be found in Lessons 93, 94. +DEFINITIONS+. +_Mode_ is that modification of the verb which denotes the manner of asserting the action or being+. +The _Indicative Mode_ asserts the action or being as a fact+. +The _Potential Mode_ asserts the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity of acting or being+. +The _Subjunctive Mode_ asserts the action or being as a mere condition, supposition, or wish+. +The _Imperative Mode_ asserts the action or being as a command or an entreaty+. +The _Infinitive_ is a form of the verb which names the action or being in a general way, without asserting it of anything+. +The _Participle_ is a form of the verb partaking of the nature of an adjective or of a noun, and expressing the action or being as assumed+. +The _Present Participle_ denotes action or being as continuing at the time indicated by the predicate+. +The _Past Participle_ denotes action or being as past or completed at the time indicated by the predicate+. +The _Past Perfect Participle_ denotes action or being as completed at a time previous to that indicated by the predicate+. +_Tense_ is that modification of the verb which expresses the time of the action or being+. +The _Present Tense_ expresses action or being as present+. +The _Past Tense_ expresses action or being as past+. +The _Future Tense_ expresses action or being as yet to come+. +The _Present Perfect Tense_ expresses action or being as completed at the present time+. +The _Past Perfect Tense_ expresses action or being as completed at some past time+. +The _Future Perfect Tense_ expresses action or being to be completed at some future time+. +_Number_ and _Person_ of a verb are those modifications that show its agreement with the number and person of its subject+. LESSON 91. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. +DEFINITIONS+. +_Conjugation_ is the regular arrangement of all the forms of the verb+. +_Synopsis_ is the regular arrangement of the forms of one number and person in all the modes and tenses+. +_Auxiliary Verbs_ are those that help in the conjugation of other verbs+. The auxiliaries are _do_, _be_, _have_, _shall_, _will_, _may_, _can_, and _must_. +The _Principal Parts_ of a verb are the present indicative or the present infinitive, the past indicative, and the past participle+. These are called _principal parts_, because all the other forms of the verb are derived from them. We give, below, the _principal parts_ of some of the most important _irregular verbs_. Learn them. _Present_. _Past_. _Past. Par._ Be _or_ am, was, been. Begin, began, begun. Blow, blew, blown. Break, broke, broken. Choose, chose, chosen. Come, came, come. Do, did, done. Draw, drew, drawn. Drink, drank, drunk. Drive, drove, driven. Eat, ate, eaten. Fall, fell, fallen. Fly, flew, flown. Freeze, froze, frozen. Go, went, gone. Get, got, got _or_ gotten. Give, gave, given. Grow, grew, grown. Have, had, had. Know, knew, known. Lay, laid, laid. Lie, (to rest) lay, lain. Ride, rode, ridden. Ring, rang _or_ rung, rung. Rise, rose, risen. Run, ran, run. See, saw, seen. Set, set, set. Sit, sat, sat. Shake, shook, shaken. Sing, sang _or_ sung, sung. Slay, slew, slain. Speak, spoke, spoken. Steal, stole, stolen. Swim, swam _or_ swum, swum. Take, took, taken. Tear, tore, torn. Throw, threw, thrown. Wear, wore, worn. Write, wrote, written. The following irregular verbs are called +_Defective_,+ because some of their parts are wanting. _Present_. _Past_. | _Present_. _Past_. --------------------|--------------------- Can, could. | Will, would. May, might. | Must, ---- Shall, should. | Ought, ---- LESSON 92. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB +SEE+ IN THE SIMPLE FORM. +PRINCIPAL PARTS+. _Pres_. _Past_. _Past Par._ See, saw, seen. INDICATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I see, 1. We see, 2. You see, _or_ 2. You see, Thou seest, 3. He sees; 3. They see. PAST TENSE. 1. I saw, 1. We saw, 2. You saw, _or_ 2. You saw, Thou sawest, 3. He saw; 3. They saw. FUTURE TENSE. 1. I shall see, 1. We shall see, 2. You will see, _or_ 2. You will see, Thou wilt see, 3. He will see; 3. They will see. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 1. I have seen, 1. We have seen, 2. You have seen, _or_ 2. You have seen, Thou hast seen 3. He has seen; 3. They have seen. PAST PERFECT TENSE. 1. I had seen, 1. We had seen, 2. You had seen, _or_ 2. You had seen, Thou hadst seen, 3. He had seen; 3. They had seen. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 1. I shall have seen, 1. We shall have seen, 2. You will have seen, _or_ 2. You will have seen, Thou wilt have seen, 3. He will have seen; 3. They will have seen. POTENTIAL MODE. PRESENT TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I may see, 1. We may see, 2. You may see, _or_ 2. You may see, Thou mayst see, 3. He may see; 3. They may see. PAST TENSE. 1. I might see, 1. We might see, 2. You might see, _or_ Thou mightst see, 2. You might see, 3. He might see; 3. They might see. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 1. I may have seen, 1. We may have seen, 2. You may have seen, _or_ 2. You may have seen Thou mayst have seen, 3. He may have seen; 3. They may have seen. PAST PERFECT TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I might have seen, 1. We might have seen, 2. You might have seen, _or_ 2. You might have seen, Thou mightst have seen, 3. He might have seen; 3. They might have seen. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. If I see, 1. If we see, 2. If you see, _or_ 2. If you see, If thou see, 3. If he see; 3. If they see. IMPERATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. 2. See (you _or_ thou); 2. See (you). INFINITIVES. PRESENT TENSE. To see. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. To have seen. PARTICIPLES. PRESENT. PAST. PAST PERFECT. Seeing, Seen, Having seen. +To the Teacher+.--Let the pupils prefix _do_ and _did_ to the simple present _see_, and thus make the _emphatic form_ of the present and the past tense. Let _can_ and _must_ be used in place of _may_; and _could_, _would_, and _should_, in place of _might_. Require the pupils to tell how each tense is formed, and to note all changes for agreement in number and person. A majority of modern writers use the _indicative_ forms instead of the _subjunctive_, in all of the tenses, unless it may be the _present_. The _subjunctive_ forms of the verb _to be_ are retained in the present and the past tense. Let the pupils understand that the mode and tense forms do not always correspond with the actual meaning. _The ship sails next week. I may go to-morrow_. The verbs _sails_ and _may go_ are _present_ in form but _future_ in meaning. _If it rains by noon, he may not come_. The verb _rains_ is _indicative_ in form but _subjunctive_ in meaning. The plural forms, _You saw, You were_, etc., are used in the _singular_ also. LESSON 93. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB--SIMPLE FORM. Fill out the following forms, using the principal parts of the verb _walk. Pres., walk; Past, walked; Past Par., walked_. INDICATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I / _Pres_ /, 1. We / _Pres_ /, 2. You / _Pres_ /, 2. You / _Pres_ /, Thou / _Pres_ /est, 3. He / _Pres_ /s; 3. They / _Pres_ /. PAST TENSE 1. I / _Past_ /, 1. We / _Past_ /, 2. You / _Past_ /, 2. You / _Past_ /, Thou / _Past_ /st, 3. He / _Past_ /; 3. They / _Past_ /. FUTURE TENSE. 1. I _shall_ / _Pres_ /, 1. We _will_ / _Pres_ /, 2. You _will_ / _Pres_ /, 2. You _will_ / _Pres_ /, Thou _wil-t_ / _Pres_ /, 3. He _will_ / _Pres_ /; 3. They _will_ / _Pres_ /. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 1. I _have_ /_Past Par._/, 1. We _have_ /_Past Par._/, 2. You _have_ /_Past Par._/, 2. You _have_ /_Past Par._/, Thou _ha-st_ /_Past Par._/, 3. He _ha-s_ /_Past Par._/; 3. They _have_ /_Past Par._/. PAST PERFECT TENSE. 1. I _had_ /_Past Par._/, 1. We _had_ /_Past Par._/, 2. You _had_ /_Past Par._/, 2. You _had_ /_Past Par._/, Thou _had-st_ /_Past Par._/, 3. He _had_ /_Past Par._/; 3. They _had_ /_Past Par._/. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 1. I _shall have_ /_Past Par._/, 1. We _will have_ _Past Par._, 2. You _will have_ /_Past Par._/, 2. You _will have_ _Past Par._, Thou _wil-t have_ /_Past Par._/, 3. He _will have_ /_Past Par._/; 3. They _will have_ _Past Par._. POTENTIAL MODE. PRESENT TENSE. 1. I _may_ / _Pres._ /, 1. We _may_ / _Pres._ /, 2. You _may_ / _Pres._ /, 2. You _may_ / _Pres._ /, Thou _may-st_ / _Pres._ /, 3. He _may_ / _Pres._ /; 3. They _may_ / _Pres._ /. PAST TENSE. 1. I _might_ / _Pres._ /, 1. We _might_ / _Pres._ /, 2. You _might_ / _Pres._ /, 2. You _might_ / _Pres._ /, Thou _might-st_ / _Pres._ /, 3. He _might_ / _Pres._ /; 3. They _might_ / _Pres._ /. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 1. I _may have_ /_Past Par._/, 1. We _may have_ /_Past Par._/, 2. You _may have_ /_Past Par._/, 2. You _may have_ /_Past Par._/, Thou _may-st have_ /_Past Par._/, 3. He _may have_ /_Past Par._/; 3. They _may have_ /_Past Par._/. PAST PERFECT TENSE. 1. I _might have_ /_Past Par._/, 1. We _might have_ /_Past Par._/, 2. You _might have_ /_Past Par._/, 2. You _might have_ /_Past Par._/, Thou _might-st have_ /_Past Par._/, 3. He _might have_ /_Past Par._/; 3. They _might have_ /_Past Par._/. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. If I / _Pres._ /, 1. If we / _Pres._ /, 2. If you / _Pres._ /, 2. If you / _Pres._ /, If thou / _Pres._ /, 3. If he / _Pres._ /; 3. If they / _Pres._ /. IMPERATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. 2. / _Pres._ / (you _or_ thou); 2. / _Pres._ / (you). INFINITIVES. PRESENT TENSE. To / _Pres._ /. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. To _have_ /_Past Par._/. PARTICIPLES. PRESENT. PAST. PAST PERFECT. /_Pres./ing_. /_Past Par._/ _Having /Past Par./_ +To the Teacher+.--Let the pupils fill out these forms with other verbs. In the indicative, present, third, singular, _es_ is sometimes added instead of _s_; and in the second person, old style, _st_ is sometimes added instead of _est_. LESSON 94. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE. In studying this Lesson, pay no attention to the line at the right of each verb. INDICATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I am ----, 1. We are ----, 2. You are ---- _or_ 2. You are ----, Thou art ----, 3. He is ----; 3. They are ----. PAST TENSE. 1. I was ----, 1. We were ----, 2. You were ----, _or_ 2. You were ----, Thou wast ----, 3. He was ----; 3. They were ----. FUTURE TENSE. 1. I shall be ----, 1. We shall be ----, 2. You will be ----, _or_ 2. You will be ----, Thou wilt be ----, 3. He will be ----; 3. They will be ----. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 1. I have been ----, 1. We have been ----, 2. You have been ---- _or_ 2. You have been ----, Thou hast been ----, 3. He has been ----; 3. They have been ----. PAST PERFECT TENSE. 1. I had been ----, 1. We had been ----, 2. You had been ---- _or_ 2. You had been ----, Thou hadst been ----, 3. He had been ----; 3. They had been ----. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 1. I shall have been ----, 1. We shall have been ----, 2. You will have been ---- _or_ 2. You will have been ----, Thou wilt have been ----, 3. He will has been ----; 3. They will have been ----. POTENTIAL MODE. PRESENT TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I may be ----, 1. We may be ----, 2. You may be ---- _or_ 2. You may be ----, Thou mayst be ----, 3. He may be ----; 3. They may be ----. PAST TENSE. 1. I might be ----, 1. We might be ----, 2. You might be ---- _or_ 2. You might be ----, Thou mightst be ----, 3. He might be ----; 3. They might be ----. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 1. I may have been ----, 1. We may have been ----, 2. You may have been ---- _or_ 2. You may have been ----, Thou mayst have been ----, 3. He may have been ----; 3. They may have been ----. PAST PERFECT TENSE. 1. I might have been ----, 1. We might have been ----, 2. You might have been ---- _or_ 2. You might have been ----, Thou mightst have been ----, 3. He might have been ----; 3. They might have been ----. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. If I be ----, 1. If we be ----, 2. If you be ---- _or _ 2. If you be ----, If thou be ----, 3. If he be ----; 3. If they be ----. PAST TENSE. 1. If I were ----, 1. If we were ----, 2. If you were ---- _or_ 2. If you were ----, If thou wert ----, 3. If he were ----; 3. If they were ----. IMPERATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. 2. Be (you _or_ them) ----; 2. Be (you)------. INFINITIVES. PRESENT TENSE. To be ----. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. To have been ----. PARTICIPLES. PRESENT. PAST. PAST PERFECT. Being ----. Been. Having been ----. +To the Teacher+.--After the pupils have become thoroughly familiar with the verb _be_ as a principal verb, teach them to use it as an auxiliary in making the +Progressive Form+ and the +Passive Form+. The _progressive form_ may be made by filling all the blanks with the _present participle_ of some verb. The _passive form_ may be made by filling all the blanks with the _past participle_ of a _transitive_ verb. Notice that, after the past participle, no blank is left. In the progressive form, this participle is wanting; and, in the passive form, it is the same as in the simple. LESSON 95. AGREEMENT OF THE VERB. +To the Teacher+.--For additional matter, see pp. 163-167. +_Remember_+ that the verb must agree with its subject in number and person. Give the person and number of each of the following verbs, and write sentences in which each form shall be used correctly. _Common forms_.--Does, has=ha(ve)s, is, am, are, was, were. _Old forms_.--Seest, sawest, hast=ha(ve)st, wilt, mayst, mightst, art, wast. When a verb has two or more subjects connected by _and_, it must agree with them in the plural. _A similar rule applies to the agreement of the pronoun_. CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. +Model+.--Poverty and obscurity _oppresses_ him who thinks that _it is oppressive_. Wrong: the verb _oppresses_ should be changed to _oppress_ to agree with its two subjects, connected by _and_. The pronoun _it_ should be changed to _they_ to agree with its two antecedents, and the verb _is_ should be changed to _are_ to agree with _they_. Industry, energy, and good sense is essential to success. Time and tide waits for no man. The tall sunflower and the little violet is turning its face to the sun. The mule and the horse was harnessed together. Every green leaf and every blade of grass seem grateful. +Model+.--The preceding sentence is wrong. The verb _seem_ is plural, and it should be singular; for, when several singular subjects are preceded by _each_, every_, or _no_, they are taken separately. Each day and each hour bring their portion of duty. Every book and every paper were found in their place. When a verb has two or more singular subjects connected by _or_ or _nor_, it must agree with them in the singular. _A similar rule applies to the agreement of the pronoun_. CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. One or the other have made a mistake in their statement. Neither the aster nor the dahlia are cultivated for their fragrance. Either the president or his secretary were responsible. Neither Ann, Jane, nor Sarah are at home. To foretell, or to express future time simply, the auxiliary _shall_ is used in the first person, and _will_ in the second and third; but when a speaker determines or promises, he uses _will_ in the first person and _shall_ in the second and third. CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. I will freeze, if I do not move about. You shall feel better soon, I think. She shall be fifteen years old to-morrow. I shall find it for you, if you shall bring the book to me. You will have it, if I can get it for you. He will have it, if he shall take the trouble to ask for it. He will not do it, if I can prevent him. I will drown, nobody shall help me. I will be obliged to you, if you shall attend to it. We will have gone by to-morrow morning. You shall disappoint your father, if you do not return. I do not think I will like the change. Next Tuesday shall be your birthday. You shall be late, if you do not hurry. LESSON 96. ERRORS IN THE FORM OF THE VERB. CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. +Model+.--Those things _have_ not _came to-day_. Wrong, because the past _came_ is here used for the past participle _come_. The present perfect tense is formed by prefixing _have_ to the _past participle_. I done all my work before breakfast. I come in a little late yesterday. He has went to my desk without permission. That stupid fellow set down on my new hat. _Set_ is generally transitive, and _sit_ is intransitive. _Lay_ is transitive, and _lie_ is intransitive. He sat the chair in the corner. Sit that plate on the table, and let it set. I have set in this position a long time. That child will not lay still or set still a minute. I laid down under the tree, and enjoyed the scenery. Lie that stick on the table, and let it lay. Those boys were drove out of the fort three times. I have rode through the park. I done what I could. He has not spoke to-day. The leaves have fell from the trees. This sentence is wrote badly. He throwed his pen down, and said that the point was broke. He teached me grammar. I seen him when he done it. My hat was took off my head, and throwed out of the window. The bird has flew into that tall tree. I was chose leader. I have began to do better. I begun this morning. My breakfast was ate in a hurry. Your dress sets well. That foolish old hen is setting on a wooden egg. He has tore it up and throwed it away. William has took my knife, and I am afraid he has stole it. This should be well shook. I begun to sing, before I knowed what I was doing. We drunk from a pure spring. I thought you had forsook us. His pencil is nearly wore up. He come, and tell me all he knowed about it. LESSON 97. REVIEW QUESTIONS. +To the Teacher+.--See "Scheme," p. 187. How many modifications have verbs? Ans.--_Five; viz., voice, mode, tense, number, and person_. Define voice. How many voices are there? Define each. Illustrate. What is mode? How many modes are there? Define each. What is an infinitive? What is a participle? How many different kinds of participles are there? Define each. Illustrate. What is tense? How many tenses are there? Define each. Illustrate. What are the number and the person of a verb? Illustrate. What is conjugation? What is synopsis? What are auxiliaries? Name the auxiliaries. What are the principal parts of a verb? Why are they so called? How does a verb agree with its subject? When a verb has two or more subjects, how does it agree? Illustrate the uses of _shall_ and _will_. +To the Teacher+.--Select some of the preceding exercises, and require the pupils to write the parsing of all the verbs. See Lessons 34, 35, 48, 49, and 56. +Model for Written Parsing--Verbs+.--_The Yankee, selling his farm, wanders away to seek new lands_. CLASSIFICATION. MODIFICATIONS. SYNTAX. _Verbs_. _Kind_. _Voice_. _Mode_. _Tense_. _Num_. _Per_. *selling Pr. Par., Ir., Tr. Ac. --- --- --- --- Mod. of _Yankee_. wanders Reg., Int. --- Ind. Pres. Sing. 3d. Pred. of " *seek Inf, Ir., Tt, Ac. --- " --- --- Prin. word in phrase Mod. of _wanders_. [Footnote *: Participles and Infinitives have no _person_ or _number_.] LESSON 98. SENTENCE-BUILDING. Participles sometimes partake of the nature of the noun, while they retain the nature of the verb. Build each of the following phrases into a sentence, and explain the nature of the participle. +Model+.-- ----_in building a snow fort_. They were engaged _in building a snow fort_. The participle _building_, like a noun, follows the preposition _in_, as the principal word in the phrase; and, like a verb, it takes the object complement _fort_. ---- by foretelling storms. ---- by helping others. ---- on approaching the house. ----- in catching fish. Use the following phrases as subjects. Walking in the garden ----. His writing that letter ----. Breaking a promise ----. Use each of the following phrases in a complex sentence. Let some of the dependent clauses be used as adjectives, and some, as adverbs. ---- in sledges. ---- up the Hudson. ---- down the Rhine. ---- through the Alps. ---- with snow and ice. ---- into New York Bay. ---- on the prairie. ---- at Saratoga. Build a short sentence containing all the parts of speech. Expand the following simple sentence into twelve sentences. Astronomy teaches the size, form, nature, and motions of the sun, moon, and stars. Contract the following awkward compound sentence into a neat simple sentence, Hannibal passed through Gaul, and then he crossed the Alps, and then came down into Italy, and then he defeated several Roman generals. Change the following complex sentences to compound sentences. When he asked me the question, I answered him courteously. Morse, the man who invented the telegraph, was a public benefactor. When spring comes, the birds will return. Contract the following complex sentences into simple sentences by changing the verb in the dependent clause to a participle. Notice all the other changes. A ship which was gliding along the horizon attracted our attention. I saw a man who was plowing a field. When the shower had passed, we went on our way. I heard that he wrote that article. That he was a foreigner was well known. I am not sure that he did it. Every pupil who has an interest in this work will prepare for it. Change the following compound sentences to complex sentences. +Model+.--Morning dawns, and the clouds disperse. When morning dawns, the clouds disperse. Avoid swearing; it is a wicked habit. Pearls are valuable, and they are found in oyster shells. Dickens wrote David Copperfield, and he died in 1870. Some animals are vertebrates, and they have a backbone. Expand each of the following sentences as much as you can. Indians dance. The clock struck. The world moves. LESSON 99. MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS. CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. I have got that book at home. +Model+.--Wrong, because _have_, alone, asserts possession. _Got_, used in the sense of _obtained_, is correct; as, _I have just got the book_. Have you got time to help me? There is many mistakes in my composition. +Model+.--Wrong, because _is_ should agree with its plural subject _mistakes_. The adverb _there_ is often used to introduce a sentence, that the subject may follow the predicate. This often makes the sentence sound smooth, and gives variety. There goes my mother and sister. Here comes the soldiers. There was many friends to greet him. It ain't there. +Model+.--_Ain't_ is a vulgar contraction. Correction--It _is not_ there. I have made up my mind that it ain't no use. 'Tain't so bad as you think. Two years' interest were due. Every one of his acts were criticised. I, Henry, and you have been chosen. +Model+.--Wrong, for politeness requires that you should mention the one spoken to, first; the one spoken of, next; and yourself, last. He invited you and I and Mary. Me and Jane are going to the fair. I only want a little piece. He is a handsome, tall man. Did you sleep good? How much trouble one has, don't they? He inquired for some tinted ladies' note-paper. You needn't ask me nothing about it, for I haven't got no time to answer. Him that is diligent will succeed. He found the place sooner than me. Who was that? It was me and him. If I was her, I would say less. Bring me them tongs. Us boys have a base-ball club. Whom did you say that it was? Who did you speak to just now? Who did you mean, when you said that? Where was you when I called? There's twenty of us going. Circumstances alters cases. Tell them to set still. He laid down by the fire. She has lain her book aside. It takes him everlastingly. That was an elegant old rock. LESSON 100. ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 1. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain. 2. Strike! till the last armed foe expires! 3. You wrong me, Brutus. 4. Shall we gather strength by irresolution and inaction? 5. Why stand we here idle? 6. Give me liberty, or give me death! 7. Thy mercy, O Lord, is in the heavens, and thy faithfulness reacheth unto the clouds. 8. The clouds poured out water, the skies sent out a sound, the voice of thy thunder was in the heaven. 9. The heavens declare his righteousness, and all the people see his glory. 10. The verdant lawn, the shady grove, the variegated landscape, the boundless ocean, and the starry firmament are beautiful and magnificent objects. 11. When you grind your corn, give not the flour to the devil and the bran to God. 12. That which the fool does in the end, the wise man does at the beginning. 13. Xerxes commanded the largest army that was ever brought into the field. 14. Without oxygen, fires would cease to burn, and all animals would immediately die. 15. Liquids, when acted upon by gravity, press downward, upward, and sideways. 16. Matter exists in three states--the solid state, the liquid state, and the gaseous state. 17. The blending of the seven prismatic colors produces white light. 18. Soap-bubbles, when they are exposed to light, exhibit colored rings. 19. He who yields to temptation debases himself with a debasement from which he can never arise. 20. Young eyes that last year smiled in ours Now point the rifle's barrel; And hands then stained with fruits and flowers Bear redder stains of quarrel. CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION. +Capital Letters+.--The first word of (1) a sentence, (2) a line of poetry, (3) a direct quotation making complete sense or a direct question introduced into a sentence, and (4) phrases or clauses separately numbered or paragraphed should begin with a capital letter. Begin with a capital letter (5) proper names and words derived from them, (6) names of things personified, and (7) most abbreviations. Write in capital letters (8) the words _I_ and _O_, and (9) numbers in the Roman notation. [Footnote: Small letters are preferred where numerous references to chapters, etc., are made.] +Examples+.--1. The judicious are always a minority. 2. Honor and shame from no condition rise; Act well your part, there all the honor lies. 3. The question is, "Can law make people honest?" 4. Paintings are useful for these reasons: 1. They please; 2. They instruct. 5. The heroic Nelson destroyed the French fleet in Aboukir Bay. 6. Next, Anger rushed, his eyes on fire. 7. The Atlantic ocean beat Mrs. Partington. 8. The use of _O_ and _oh_ I am now to explain. 9. Napoleon II. never came to the throne. +Period+.--Place a period after (1) a declarative or an imperative sentence, (2) an abbreviation, and (3) a number written in the Roman notation. For examples see 1, 7, and 9 in the sentences above. +Interrogation Point+.--Every direct interrogative sentence or clause should be followed by an interrogation point. +Example+.--King Agrippa, believest thou the prophets? +Exclamation Point+.--All exclamatory expressions must be followed by the exclamation point. +Example+.--Oh! bloodiest picture in the book of time! +_Comma_+.--Set off by the comma (1) a phrase out of its natural order or not closely connected with the word it modifies; (2) an explanatory modifier that does not restrict the modified term or combine closely with it; (3) a participle used as an adjective modifier, with the words belonging to it, unless restrictive; (4) the adjective clause, when not restrictive; (5) the adverb clause, unless it closely follows and restricts the word it modifies; (6) a word or phrase independent or nearly so; (7) a direct quotation introduced into a sentence, unless _formally_ introduced; (8) a noun clause used as an attribute complement; and (9) a term connected to another by or and having the same meaning. Separate by the comma (10) connected words and phrases, unless all the conjunctions are expressed; (11) independent clauses, when short and closely connected; and (12) the parts of a compound predicate and of other phrases, when long or differently modified. +_Examples_+.--l. In the distance, icebergs look like masses of burnished metal. 2. Alexandria, the capital of Lower Egypt, is an ill-looking city. 3. Labor, diving deep into the earth, brings up long-hidden stores of coal. 4. The sun, which is the center of our system, is millions of miles from us. 5. When beggars die, there are no comets seen. 6. Gentlemen, this, then, is your verdict. 7. God said, "Let there be light." 8. Nelson's signal was, "England expects every man to do his duty." 9. Rubbers, or overshoes, are worn to keep the feet dry. 10. The sable, the seal, and the otter furnish us rich furs. 11. His dark eye flashed, his proud breast heaved, his cheek's hue came and went. 12. Flights of birds darken the air, and tempt the traveler with the promise of abundant provisions. +_Semicolon_+.--Independent clauses (1) when slightly connected, or (2) when themselves divided by the comma, must be separated by the semicolon. Use the semicolon (3) between serial phrases or clauses having a common dependence on something that precedes or follows; and (4) before _as, viz., to wit., namely, i. e._, and _that is_, when they introduce examples or illustrations. +_Examples_+.--1. The furnace blazes; the anvil rings; the busy wheels whirl round. 2. As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I rejoice at it; as he was valiant, I honor him; but, as he was ambitious, I slew him. 3. He drew a picture of the sufferings of our Saviour; his trial before Pilate; his ascent of Calvary; his crucifixion and death. 4. Gibbon writes, "I have been sorely afflicted with gout in the hand; to wit, laziness." +_Colon_+.--Use the colon (1) between the parts of a sentence when these parts are themselves divided by the semicolon; and (2) before a quotation or an enumeration of particulars when formally introduced. +_Examples_+.--l. Canning's features were handsome; his eye, though deeply ensconced under his eyebrows, was full of sparkle and gayety: the features of Brougham were harsh in the extreme. 2. To Lentullus and Gellius bear this message: "Their graves are measured." +_Dash_+.--Use the dash where there is an omission (1) of letters or figures, and (2) of such words as _as_, _namely_, or _that is_, introducing illustrations or equivalent expressions. Use the dash (3) where the sentence breaks off abruptly, and the same thought is resumed after a slight suspension, or another takes its place; and (4) before a word or phrase repeated at intervals for emphasis. The dash may be used (5) instead of marks of parenthesis, and may (6) follow other marks, adding to their force. +_Examples_+.--1. In M------w, v. 3-11, you may find the "beatitudes." 2. There are two things certain in this world--taxes and death. 3. I said--I know not what. 4. I never would lay down my arms--_never_-- NEVER--+NEVER+. 5. Fulton started a steamboat----he called it the Clermont--on the Hudson in 1807. 6. My dear Sir,--I write this letter for information. +_Marks of Parenthesis_+.--Marks of parenthesis may be used to enclose what has no essential connection with the rest of the sentence. +Example+.--The noun (Lat. _nomen_, a name) is the first part of speech. +_Apostrophe_+.--Use the apostrophe (1) to mark the omission of letters, (2) in the pluralizing of letters, figures, and characters, and (3) to distinguish the possessive from other cases. +_Examples_+.--1. Bo't of John Jones 10 lbs. of butter. 2. What word is there one-half of which is _p's_? 3. He washed the disciples' feet. +_Hyphen_+.--Use the hyphen (-) (1) between the parts of compound words that have not become consolidated, and (2) between syllables when a word is divided. +_Examples_+.--1. Work-baskets are convenient. 2. Divide _basket_ thus: _bas-ket_. +_Quotation Marks_+--Use quotation marks to enclose a copied word or passage. If the quotation contains a quotation, the latter is enclosed within single marks. +_Example_+---The sermon closed with this sentence: "God said, 'Let there be light.'" +_Brackets_+.--Use brackets [ ] to enclose what, in quoting another's words, you insert by way of explanation or correction. +_Example_+.--The Psalmist says, "I prevented [anticipated] the dawning of the morning." SENTENCES AND PARAGRAPHS. +_To the Teacher_+.--It is very profitable to exercise pupils in combining simple statements into complex and compound sentences, and in resolving complex and compound sentences into simple statements. In combining statements, it is an excellent practice for the pupil to contract, expand, transpose, and to substitute different words. They thus learn to express the same thought in a variety of ways. Any reading-book or history will furnish good material for such practice. A few examples are given below. +_Direction_+.--Combine in as many ways as possible each of the following groups of sentences:-- +_Example_+.--This man is to be pitied. He has no friends. 1. This man has no friends, and he is to be pitied. 2. This man is to be pitied, because he has no friends. 3. Because this man has no friends, he is to be pitied. 4. This man, who has no friends, is to be pitied. 5. This man, having no friends, is to be pitied. 6. This man, without friends, is to be pitied. 7. This friendless man deserves our pity. 1. The ostrich is unable to fly. It has not wings in proportion to its body. 2. Egypt is a fertile country. It is annually inundated by the Nile. 3. The nerves are little threads, or fibers. They extend, from the brain. They spread over the whole body. 4. John Gutenberg published a book. It was the first book known to have been printed on a printing-press. He was aided by the patronage of John Paust. He published it in 1455. He published it in the city of Mentz. 5. The human body is a machine. A watch is delicately constructed. This machine is more delicately constructed. A steam-engine is complicated. This machine is more complicated. A steam-engine is wonderful. This machine is more wonderful. You see that short statements closely related in meaning may be improved by being combined. But young writers frequently use too many _ands_ and other connectives, and make their sentences too long. Long sentences should be broken up into short ones when the relations of the parts are not clear. As clauses may be joined to form sentences, so sentences may be united to make _paragraphs_. A +_paragraph_+ is a sentence or a group of related sentences developing one point or one division of a general subject. The first word of a paragraph should begin a new line, and should be written a little farther to the right than the first words of other lines. +_Direction_+.--Combine the following statements into sentences and paragraphs, and make of them a complete composition:-- Water is a liquid. It is composed of oxygen and hydrogen. It covers about three-fourths of the surface of the earth. It takes the form of ice. It takes the form of snow. It takes the form of vapor. The air is constantly taking up water from rivers, lakes, oceans, and from damp ground. Cool air contains moisture. Heated air contains more moisture. Heated air becomes lighter. It rises. It becomes cool. The moisture is condensed into fine particles. Clouds are formed. They float across the sky. The little particles unite and form rain-drops. They sprinkle the dry fields. At night the grass and flowers become cool. The air is not so cool. The warm air touches the grass and flowers. It is chilled. It loses a part of its moisture. Drops of dew are formed. Water has many uses. Men and animals drink it. Trees and plants drink it. They drink it by means of their leaves and roots. Water is a great purifier. It cleanses our bodies. It washes our clothes. It washes the dust from the leaves and the flowers. Water is a great worker. It floats vessels. It turns the wheels of mills. It is converted into steam. It is harnessed to mighty engines. It does the work of thousands of men and horses. +_To the Teacher_+.--Condensed statements of facts, taken from some book not in the hands of your pupils, may be read to them, and they may be required to expand and combine these and group them into paragraphs. LETTER-WRITING. In writing a letter there are six things to consider--the _Heading_, the _Introduction_, the _Body of the Letter_, the _Conclusion_, the _Folding_, and the _Superscription_. THE HEADING. +_Parts_+.--The Heading consists of the name of the +_Place_+ at which the letter is written, and the +_Date_+. If you write from a city, give the door-number, the name of the street, the name of the city, and the name of the state. If you are at a hotel or a school, or any other well-known institution, its name may take the place of the door-number and the name of the street. If you write from a village or other country place, give your post-office address, the name of the county, and that of the state. The Date consists of the month, the day of the month, and the year. +_How Written_+.--Begin the Heading about an inch and a half from the top of the page--on the first ruled line of commercial note--and a little to the left of the middle of the page. If the Heading is very short, it may stand on one line. If it occupies more than one line, the second line should begin farther to the right than the first, and the third farther to the right than the second. The Date stands upon a line by itself if the Heading occupies two or more lines. The door-number, the day of month, and the year are written in figures, the rest in words. Each important word begins with a capital letter, each item is set off by the comma, and the whole closes with a period. _Direction_.--Study what has been said, and write the following headings according to these models:--- 1. Hull, Mass., Nov. 1, 1860. 2. 1466 Colorado Ave., Rochester, N. Y., Apr. 3, 1870. 3. Newburyport, Mass., June 30, 1826. 4. Starkville, Herkimer Co., N. Y., Dec. 19, 1871. 1. n y rondout 11 1849 oct. 2. staten island port richmond 1877 25 january. 3. brooklyn march 1871 mansion house 29. 4. executive chamber vt february montpelier 1869 27. 5. washington franklin como nov 16 1874. 6. fifth ave may new york 460 9 1863. 7. washington d c march 1847 520 pennsylvania ave 16. THE INTRODUCTION. _+Parts+_.--The Introduction consists of the _+Address+_--the Name, the Title, and the Place of Business or the Residence of the one addressed--and the _+Salutation+_. Titles of respect and courtesy should appear in the Address. Prefix _Mr._ (plural, _Messrs_.) to a man's name; _Master_ to a boy's name; _Miss_ to the name of a girl or an unmarried lady; _Mrs._ to the name of a married lady. Prefix _Dr_. to the name of a physician, or write _M.D._ after his name. Prefix _Rev_. (or _The Rev_.) to the name of a clergyman; if he is a Doctor of Divinity, prefix _Rev. Dr_., or write _Rev_. before his name and _D.D._ after it; if you do not know his Christian name, prefix _Rev. Mr._ or _Rev. Dr._ to his surname, but never _Rev_. alone. _Esq._ is added to the name of a lawyer, and to the names of other prominent men. Avoid such combinations as the following: _Mr. John Smith, Esq., Dr. John Smith, M.D., Mr. John Smith, M.D._, etc. Salutations vary with the station of the one addressed, or the writer's degree of intimacy with him. Strangers may be addressed as _Sir, Rev. Sir, General, Madam, Miss Brown_, etc.; acquaintances as _Dear Sir, Dear Madam_, etc.; friends as _My dear Sir, My dear Madam, My dear Mr. Brown_, etc.; and near relatives and other dear friends as _My dear Wife, My dear Boy, Dearest Ellen_, etc. _+How Written+_.--The Address may follow the Heading, beginning on the next line, or the next but one, and standing on the left side of the page; or it may stand in corresponding position after the Body of the Letter and the Conclusion. If the letter is written to a very intimate friend, the Address may appropriately be placed at the bottom of the letter; but in other letters, especially those on ordinary business, it should be placed at the top and as directed above. There should always be a narrow margin on the left-hand side of the page, and the Address should always begin on the marginal line. If the Address occupies more than one line, the initial words of these lines should slope to the right, as in the Heading. Begin the Salutation on the marginal line or a little to the right of it, when the Address occupies three lines; on the marginal line or farther to the right than the second line of the Address begins, when this occupies two lines; a little to the right of the marginal lime, when the Address occupies one line; on the marginal line, when the Address stands below. Every important word in the Address should begin with a capital letter. All the items of it should be set off by the comma, and, as it is an abbreviated sentence, it should close with a period. Every important word in the Salutation should begin with a capital letter, and the whole should be followed by a comma. _+Direction+_.--Study what has been said, and write the following introductions according to these models:-- 1. Dear Father, I write, etc. 2. The Rev. M. H. Buckham, D.D., President of U. V. M., Burlington, Vt. My dear Sir, 3. Messrs. Clark & Brown, Quogue, N. Y. Gentlemen, 4. Messrs. Tiffany & Co., 2 Milk St., Boston. Dear Sirs, 1. david h cochran lld president of polytechnic institute brooklyn my dear sir. 2. dr John h hobart burge 64 livingston st brooklyn n y sir. 3. prof geo n boardman Chicago ill dear teacher. 4. to the president executive mansion Washington d c mr president. 5. rev t k beecher elmira n y sir. 6. messrs gilbert & sons gentlemen mass boston. 7. mr george r curtis minn rochester my friend dear. 8. to the honorable wm m evarts secretary of state Washington d c sir. THE BODY OF THE LETTER. +_The Beginning_+.--Begin the Body of the Letter at the end of the Salutation, and on the _same_ line, if the Introduction consists of four lines--in which case the comma after the Salutation should be followed by a dash;--otherwise, on the line _below_. +_Style_+.--Be perspicuous. Paragraph and punctuate as in other kinds of writing. Spell correctly; write legibly, neatly, and with care. _Letters of friendship_ should be colloquial, natural, and familiar. Whatever is interesting to you will be interesting to your friends. _Business letters_ should be brief, and the sentences should be short, concise, and to the point. In _formal notes_ the third person is generally used instead of the first and the second; there is no Introduction, no Conclusion, no Signature, only the name of the Place and the Date at the bottom, on the left side of the page. THE CONCLUSION. _+Parts+_.--The Conclusion consists of the _+Complimentary Close+_ and the _+Signature+_. The forms of the Complimentary Close are many, and are determined by the relations of the writer to the one addressed. In letters of _friendship_ you may use _Your sincere friend; Yours affectionately ; Your loving son or daughter_, etc. In business letters, you may use _Yours; Yours truly; Truly yours; Yours respectfully; Very respectfully yours_, etc. In official letters use _I have the honor to be, Sir, your obedient servant; Very respectfully, your most obedient servant_. The Signature consists of your Christian name and your surname. In addressing a stranger write your Christian name in full. A lady addressing a stranger should prefix her title--_Miss_ or _Mrs._--to her own name, enclosing it within marks of parenthesis, if she prefers. _+How Written+_.--The Conclusion should begin near the middle of the first line below the Body of the Letter, and should slope to the right like the Heading and the Address. Begin each line of it with a capital letter, and punctuate as in other writing, following the whole with a period. The Signature should be very plain. THE FOLDING. The Folding is a simple matter when, as now, the envelope used is adapted in length to the width of the sheet. Take the letter as it lies before you, with its first page uppermost, turn up the bottom of it about one-third the length of the sheet, bring the top down over this, taking care that the sides are even, and press the parts together. Taking the envelope with its back toward you, insert the letter, putting in first the edge last folded. The form of the envelope may require the letter to be folded in the middle. Other conditions may require other ways of folding. THE SUPERSCRIPTION. _+Parts+_.--The Superscription is what is written on the outside of the envelope. It is the same as the Address, consisting of the Name, the Title, and the full Directions of the one addressed. _+How Written+_.--The Superscription should begin near the middle of the envelope and near the left edge-- the envelope lying with its closed side toward you--and should occupy three or four lines. These lines should slope to the right as in the Heading and the Address, the spaces between the lines should be the same, and the last line should end near the lower right-hand corner. On the first line the Name and the Title should stand. If the one addressed is in a city, the door-number and name of the street should be on the second line, the name of the city on the third, and the name of the state on the fourth. If he is in the country, the name of the post-office should be on the second line, the name of the county on the third--(or by itself near the lower left-hand corner), and the name of the state on the fourth. The titles following the name should be separated from it and from each other by the comma, and every line should end with a comma, except the last, which should be followed by a period. The lines should be straight, and every part of the Superscription should be legible. Place the stamp at the upper right-hand corner. LETTER, ORDERING MERCHANDISE. [Cursive: Newburgh, N. Y. Jan. 7. 1888 Messrs. Hyde & Co., 250 Broadway. N. Y. Gentlemen, Please send me by Adams Express the articles mentioned in the enclosed list. Be careful in the selection of the goods, as I desire them for a special class of customers. When they are forwarded, please inform me by letter and enclose the invoice. Yours truly, Thomas Dodds.] ANSWER, ENCLOSING INVOICE. [Cursive: 250 Broadway, N. Y. Jan 9, 1888. Mr. Thomas Dodds, Newburgh, N. Y. Dear Sir, We have to-day sent you by Adams Express the goods ordered in your letter of the 7th inst. Enclosed you will find the invoice. We hope that everything will reach you in good condition and will prove satisfactory in quality and in price. Very truly yours, Peter Hyde & Co.] INVOICE. Thomas Dodds, Bought of Peter Hyde & Co. 3 boxes Sperm Candles. 140 lbs., @33c. $46.20 7 do. Adamantine Extra Candles, 182 lbs., "26c. 47.32 120 lbs. Crushed Sugar, "12-1/2c. 15.00 60 do. Coffee do., "11-1/4c. 6.75 ----- $115.27 LETTER OF APPLICATION. [Cursive: 176 Clinton St. Brooklyn, N. Y. Dec. 12, 1887 Messrs. Fisk & Hatch, 5 Nassau St., N. Y. Gentlemen, Learning by advertisement that a clerkship in your house is vacant, I beg leave to offer myself as a candidate for the place. I am sixteen years old, and am strong and in excellent health. I have just graduated with honor from the seventh grade of the Polytechnic Institute, Brooklyn, and I enclose testimonials of my character and standing from the President of that Institution. If you desire a personal interview, I shall be glad to present myself at such time and place as you may name. Very respectfully yours, Charles Hastings.] NOTES OF INVITATION AND ACCEPTANCE (in the third person). _Mr. and Mrs. Brooks request the pleasure of Mr. Churchill's company at a social gathering, next Tuesday evening, at_ 8 _o'clock_. 32 _W_. 31_st Street, Oct_. 5. _Mr. Churchill has much pleasure in accepting Mr. and Mrs. Brooks's kind invitation to a social gathering next Tuesday evening_. 160 _Fifth Ave., Oct_. 5. LETTER OF INTRODUCTION. [Cursive: Concord, N. H. Jan. 10, 1888. George Chapman, Esq., Portland, Conn. My dear Friend, It gives me great pleasure to introduce to you my friend, Mr. Alpheus Crane. Any attention you may be able to show him I shall esteem as a personal favor. Sincerely yours, Peter Cooper.] A LETTER OF FRIENDSHIP. [Cursive: 21 Dean St., Toledo, Ohio. Dec. 16, 1887. My dear Mother, I cannot tell you how I long to be at home again and in my old place. In my dreams and in my waking hours, I am often back at the old homestead; my thoughts play truant while I pore over my books, and even while I listen to my teacher in the class-room. I would give so much to know what you are all doing--so much to feel that now and then I am in your thoughts, and that you do indeed miss me at home. Everything here is as pleasant as it need be or can be, I suppose. I am sure I shall enjoy it all by and by, when I get over this fit of homesickness. My studies are not too hard, and my teachers are kind and faithful. Do write me a long letter as soon as you get this and tell me everything. Much love to each of the dear ones at home. Your affectionate son, Henry James. [Footnote: In familiar (and official) letters, the Address may stand, you will remember, at the bottom.] Mrs. Alexander James, Tallmadge, Ohio.] [Illustration of Envelope: Mrs. Alexander James, Tallmadge, Summit Co. Ohio.] +_To the Teacher_+.--Have your pupils write complete letters and notes of all kinds. You can name the persons to whom these are to be addressed. Attend minutely to al1 the points. Letters of introduction should have the word _Introducing_ (followed by the name of the one introduced) at the lower left-hand corner of the envelope. This letter should not be sealed. The receiver may seal it before handing it to the one addressed. Continue this work of letter-writing until the pupils have mastered all the details, and are able easily and quickly to write any ordinary letter. A SUMMARY OF THE RULES OF SYNTAX. I. A noun or pronoun used as subject or as attribute complement of a predicate verb, or used independently, is in the nominative case. II. The attribute complement of a participle or an infinitive is in the same case (Nom. or Obj.) as the word to which it relates. III. A noun or pronoun used as possessive modifier is in the possessive case. IV. A noun or pronoun used as object or objective complement, or as the principal word of a prepositional phrase, is in the objective case. V. A noun or pronoun used as explanatory modifier is in the same case as the word explained. VI. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, number, and gender. With two or more antecedents connected by _and_, the pronoun is plural. With two or more singular antecedents connected by _or_ or _nor_, the pronoun is singular. VII. A verb agrees with its subject in person and number. With two or more subjects connected by _and_, the verb is plural. With two or more singular subjects connected by _or_ or _nor_, the verb is singular. VIII. A participle assumes the action or being, and is used like an adjective or a noun. IX. An infinitive is generally introduced by _to_, and with it forms a phrase used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. X. Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns. XI. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. XII. A preposition introduces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the word modified. XIII. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses. XIV. Interjections are used independently. +PROOF-MARKS+. +Remark+.--The following are some of the marks used in correcting proof-sheets for the printer:-- [Symbol: dele] De-le = Strike out. [^] Ca-ret = Something to be inserted. [/] This calls attention to points or letters placed in the margin as corrections. [Symbol: dotted circle] This calls attention to the period. [tr.] Transpose. [Symbol: para] Begin a new paragraph with the word preceded by [. [No Symbol: para] No new paragraph. [Symbol: v' ] This calls attention to the apostrophe. +To the Teacher+.--We suggest that the pupils learn to use these marks in correcting compositions. The following exercises are given as illustrations:-- [Illustration: Corrected letter] NOTES FOR TEACHERS. AGREEMENT. Before Lesson 8 is assigned, the pupils may be required to note, in Lessons 6 and 7, the subjects that add _s_ to denote more than one, and then to mark the changes that occur in the predicates when the _s_ is dropped from these subjects. In Lesson 8, the predicates may be changed by adding or dropping _s_, and other subjects may be found to correspond. In Lesson 9, _s_ may be dropped from the plural subjects, and other predicates may be found to agree. At this stage of the work we should give no formal rules, and should avoid such technical terms as _number, person, tense_, etc. The pupils may be led to discover rules for themselves, and to state them informally. Exercises and questions may be so directed that the pupils may draw some such conclusion as the following:-- When a simple form of the verb is used to tell what one thing does, _s_ or _es_ is added (unless the subject is _I_ or _you_). Let the pupils see that the _s_-form of the verb is used only in telling what one thing _does_, not what it _did_; as, "The boy _runs_," "The boy _ran_"; and that its subject always stands for the one spoken of; as, "_He runs_," "_I run_." Before Lesson 12 is assigned, attention may be called to the use of _is, was_, and _has_, in Lesson 11 and elsewhere. For the predicates introduced by these words let the pupils find subjects which name more than one, that they may note the change of _is_ to _are_, _was_ to _were_, and _has_ to _have_. The forms _does_ and _do_ may also be introduced, and these exercises continued till the pupils are led to discover some such rule as the following:-- _Is, was, has_, and _does_ are used with subjects denoting but one. _Are, were, have_, and _do_ are used with subjects denoting more than one. We suggest that the form of a question and the use of the question mark be introduced after Lesson 12, and that the pupils be allowed to change the sentences in Lessons 11 and 12 by placing the subject after the first auxiliary. A straight line may be drawn under each subject, and a waving line under each predicate, thus:-- ~Was~ /Napoleon/ ~banished?~ The sentences given for analysis will furnish material for making interrogative sentences, and for justifying the agreement of verbs. In connection with Lesson 19 attention may be called to the agreement of verbs with _I_ and _you_. Exercises may be given from which the pupils will draw the following conclusions:-- _I_ can be used with _am, was, have_, and _do_. _You_ may mean one or more than one, but the verb always agrees as if _you_ meant more than one. Exercises may be given requiring the pupils to use such expressions as "You _were_," "They _were_," "We _were_," "He _doesn't_," etc., and to repeat them aloud till the ear is accustomed to the right form. When predicate verbs immediately follow their subjects, there is little danger of errors in agreement, except that _was_ is often used incorrectly for _were_, and _don't_ for _doesn't_. The chief object of introducing these exercises here is to train the pupils' observation so that they will readily and naturally note the agreement of the subject and predicate when these terms are transposed, or are separated by other words. To determine the correct form of the verb in such cases, let the pupils see how it sounds when placed immediately after its subject. We suggest exercises like the following:-- 1 is are 2 was were 3 has have 4 does do 5 comes come 6 goes go 7 thinks think 8 writes write 1. With what kind of letter ~(4)~ _each_ of these names ~begin~? 2. Under this rule ~(1) found~ important _exceptions_. 3. The _farm_, with all the cattle and horses, ~(2) sold~. 4. With what mark ~(4)~ imperative _sentences_ ~end~? 5. Every _effort_ of the friends of these measures (3) failed. 6. There (5) trying _times_ in every man's life. 7. _One_ of them (6) to Vassar College. 8. Not _one_ in ten (7) about this. 9. _Neither_ of you (8) correctly. 10. After this (5) the calisthenic _exercises_. 11. A _cargo_ of Delaware peaches (3) arrived. 12. There (6) the cars. 13. There (6) a _train_ of cars. After these blanks have been filled with the verbs above, as indicated by the numbers, the sentences may be repeated aloud till the correct form is familiar. Let the pupils see that in (2), Lesson 36, _were identified_ is asserted of two things, and that in (3) _was anticipated_ is asserted of one of two things, but not of both. Let them give other examples of connected subjects with verbs singular in form, and with verbs plural in form. The meaning of _singular_ and _plural_ may be explained, and the pupils may form some such rule as the following:-- With two or more subjects connected by _and_ the verb agrees in the plural. With two or more singular subjects connected by _or_ or _nor_ the verb agrees in the singular. The pupils may examine such sentences as-- 1. Each word and gesture _was_ suited to the thought; 2. Every bud, leaf, and blade of grass _rejoices_ after the warm rain; 3. No dew, no rain, no cloud _comes_ to the relief of the parched earth;-- and note that _each_, _every_, and _no_ show that the things named in the different subjects are taken separately, and that the verbs are therefore singular. Such sentences as-- "In the death of Franklin, a philosopher and statesman _was_ lost to the world"-- may be given to show that subjects connected by _and_ may name the same thing, and so take a verb in the singular. Such examples as the following may be given and justified:-- 1. Beauty and utility _are_ combined in nature. 2. Either beauty or utility _appears_ in every natural object. 3. Here _is_ neither beauty nor utility. 4. Time and tide _wait_ for no man. 5. Wisdom and prudence _dwell_ with the lowly man. 6. _Does_ either landlord or tenant profit by this bill? 7. Neither landlords nor tenants _profit_ by this bill. 8. Every fly, bee, beetle, and butterfly _is_ provided with six feet. 9. That desperate robber and murderer _was_ finally secured. 10. That desperate robber and that murderer _were_ finally secured. 11. The builder and owner of the yacht _has_ sailed from Liverpool. 12. The builder and the owner of the yacht _have_ sailed from Liverpool. 13. A lame and blind man _was_ provided with food and lodging. 14. A lame and a blind man _were_ provided with food and lodging. Particular attention may be called to examples 9-14, that the pupils may note the effect of repeating _that_, _the_, and _a_. Pupils should early learn that rules in grammar should not be followed rigidly and blindly, as they generally have variations and exceptions. Caution, however, should be used in presenting exceptions, lest the pupils become confused. They may be presented in reviews after the rules and general principles are well understood. They need not be formally stated, but may be introduced in the way of observation lessons that appeal to the judgment rather than to the memory. In this way such constructions as the following may be introduced:-- 1. Neither he nor _I am _going. (Better--He is not going, nor am I.) 2. Neither John nor his _sisters were_ there. 3. _Action_, and not words, _is_ needed. 4. _Bread and milk is_ good food. 5. The _committee are_ unable to agree on _their_ report. 6. The _committee has_ made _its_ report. Other examples may be given till the pupils are led to discover that in examples like (1) and (2) the verb agrees with its nearest subject, and that the plural subject is usually placed next to the verb; that in (3) the verb agrees with the affirmative subject, another verb being understood with the negative subject; that in (4) "bread and milk" represents one article of food; and that in (5) the individuals of the committee are thought of, while in (6) the committee as a whole is thought of. In (5) and (6) the agreement of the pronoun may also be noted. Pronouns may be introduced into many of the preceding exercises and the pupils led to apply to the agreement of the pronoun with its antecedent what has been learned of the agreement of the verb with its subject. Let the pupils determine why the following connected subjects are arranged in the proper order:-- 1. You and I are invited. 2. Mary and I are invited. 3. You and Mary are invited. 4. You and Mary and I are invited. WRITING NAMES--CAPITALS AND ABBREVIATIONS. [Footnote: For list of abbreviations see p. 191.] Pupils may copy the following list of names, and note all peculiarities in form:-- Texas, state, river, Red River, city, Albany, New Orleans, Kansas City, statesman, Thomas Jefferson, Thos. Jefferson, author, Charles Dickens, Chas. Dickens, writer, George William Curtis, Geo. Wm. Curtis, Geo. W. Curtis, poet, John Greenleaf Whittier, John G. Whittier, J. G. Whittier, gulf, sea, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, lake, Lake Erie, general, General Robert Edmund Lee, Gen. Robt. E. Lee, doctor, Doctor Valentine Mott, Dr. V. Mott, professor, Prof. Goldwin Smith. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote "The Song of Hiawatha." John Bunyan wrote "The Pilgrim's Progress." The subject for composition was "A Day in the Woods." We give the following questions to illustrate our method of conducting an +Observation Lesson+.--Are _city_ and _Albany_ both names? What difference can you discover in meaning? What in form? Which of the names just written are _class_ names? Which are _individual_ names? Mention an individual name made up of two names; one of three names; one of four. How many capitals do you find in each of the names just mentioned? Mention seven words that are written without capitals as class names, and again with capitals as parts of individual names. Mention a word that is shortened, or _abbreviated_, by omitting all but the first, or _initial_, letter. Mention an _abbreviation_ containing two letters; one containing three; one containing four. What new use of the period have you discovered in this exercise? What three words in this exercise are used together as the title of a book? What four as the title of a poem? What five as the subject of a school composition? Each of these groups may be regarded as a kind of individual name. Besides the first word, what words begin with capitals in each of these three groups? Notice that these are the principal words. For another exercise the pupils may copy the following sentences, noting carefully capitals and punctuation marks:-- 1. The city of Chicago is on Lake Michigan. 2. The steamer _City of Chicago_ sails from Jersey City. 3. The island of Cuba is under Spanish rule. 4. The Isle of Man is in the Irish Sea. 5. The Hon. Wm. E. Gladstone is an English statesman. 6. The subject for composition was "The View from my Window." 7. In the evening Aunt Mary entertained my cousin and me with stories of Uncle Remus. 8. Miss Evans--afterward Mrs. Lewes--was the author of "The Mill on the Floss." 9. We may call the Supreme Being our Heavenly Father. 10. The Old Testament points to the coming of a Messiah. 11. George I., George II., George III., George IV., and William IV. preceded Victoria. The teacher may find the following questions suggestive:-- +Observation Lesson+.--Is _Chicago_, or _city of Chicago_ the individual name of the place mentioned in (1)? Is _Chicago_, or _City of Chicago_ the name of the steamer mentioned in (2)? Is the town mentioned in (2) named _Jersey_, or _Jersey City_? Is the body of water mentioned in (1) known as _Michigan_, or _Lake Michigan_? What is the name of the island mentioned in (3)?--in (4)? Is _Irish_, or _Irish Sea_ the name of the body of water mentioned in (4)? Notice that _Spanish_, in (3), and _English_, in (5), are not names, or nouns. They begin with capitals, because they are derived from the individual names _Spain_ and _England_. What names in (7) usually denote relationship? Notice that such words as _uncle, captain, professor_, etc., do not necessarily begin with capitals unless prefixed to individual names. What group of words in (6) is treated as an individual name? What in (8)? Which words of these groups are regarded as the most important? In (8) do you find a period after _Miss_?--after _Mrs._? _Miss_ is not written as an abbreviation. What words in (9) and (10) are used as names of the Deity? What is _Old Testament_ the particular name of? What do you discover in the names found in (11)? For other exercises, pupils may be required to bring in lists of geographical and biographical names, titles of books, etc. We earnestly recommend the introduction here of letter-writing to illustrate the use of capitals, abbreviations, and punctuation. (See pp. 146-161.) The writing of _headings, introductions, conclusions_, and _superscriptions_ will give most excellent practice in capitals, etc. The _body_ of the letter may be directed to the same end. For instance, an invitation to a friend may be accompanied by a description of the route to be taken and of the places or objects of interest to be seen on the way. Or the writer may mention some of the books he has read, with the names of the characters and of the places mentioned. ADJECTIVES--CHOICE AND ARRANGEMENT. Words denoting quality form a very large and important group. Our knowledge of things about us is a knowledge of their qualities. A writer's style is, to a large extent, determined by his use of adjectives. We therefore recommend special drill in the choice and the use of adjectives. The exercises given below may serve as suggestions to the teacher. Groups of adjectives like the following may be presented, the pupils being required to join them to appropriate nouns:-- _Some Qualities learned directly through the Senses_. +Seeing+, scarlet crimson florid sallow opaque dingy vivid gorgeous gaudy variegated verdant transparent +Hearing+, audible stunning thundering deafening purling husky monotonous discordant melodious +Smelling+, fragrant balmy odorous rancid fetid aromatic +Tasting+, acid acrid pungent delicious insipid brackish palatable savory luscious +Feeling+. rough gritty hard keen tepid sultry Pupils will find little difficulty in largely increasing the lists above. Many other groupings may be made; as, of qualities learned by comparison, measurement, or experiment; qualities of the mind; qualities pertaining to right and wrong, etc. Groups of nouns like the following may be made, and the pupils may be required to mention as many qualities as possible belonging to each of the things named:-- chalk ice brooks clouds water snow ocean music Pupils may mention animals properly described by the following adjectives:-- timid fleet cunning ferocious gentle graceful sagacious venomous Careless persons and those that have a meager list of adjectives at command overwork and abuse such words as-- _nice, awful, horrid, splendid, elegant, lovely_. We hear of _nice mountains_, _awful pens_, _horrid ink_, _splendid pie_, _elegant beef_, _lovely cheese_, etc. Pupils may study the meaning of the six adjectives last mentioned, and use them to fill the following blanks:-- | distinction ----------+ workmanship | calculation | stillness ----------+ chasm | rumbling | child ----------+ features | character | palace ----------+ victory | illumination | manners ----------+ taste | furniture | deeds ----------+ dreams | butchery This work may very profitable be extended. A word picture is often spoiled by using too many adjectives; as, "A _great_, _large_, _roomy_, spacious hall"; "_Superb_, delicious, _magnificent_ pumpkin-pie"; "A _stingy_, miserly, _close-fisted_ fellow." The italicized words may be omitted. Pupils should be taught to watch for such errors, and to correct them. Pupils may be required to copy choice selections from literature, and to note carefully capitals, punctuation, and the use of adjectives. We offer the following exercise as a specimen:-- We piled with care our nightly stack Of wood against the chimney-back,-- The oaken log, green, huge, and thick, And on its top the stout back-stick; The knotty fore-stick laid apart, And filled between with curious art The ragged brush; then, hovering near, We watched the first red blaze appear, Heard the sharp crackle, caught the gleam On whitewashed wall and sagging beam, Until the old, rude-furnished room Burst, flower-like, into rosy bloom. _Whittier.--Snow-Bound_. +Observation Lesson+.--Of what are the lines above a picture? Where, and in what kind of house, do you think this picture was seen? What object is pictured by the help of five adjectives? Are the adjectives that precede the name of this object of the same rank? Are those that follow of the same rank? What noun is modified by three adjectives of different rank? What noun by three adjectives two of which are of the same rank? What difference is found in the punctuation of these several groups? Notice how the noun _crackle_ crackles as you pronounce it, and how the adjective _sharp_ makes it penetrate. Notice how strong a picture is made in the two lines immediately before the last. The adjectives here used bring out the most prominent qualities of the room, and these qualities bring along with them into the imagination all the other qualities. This is what we must try to make our adjectives do. Point out all the adjectives in the selection above, and explain the office of each. What peculiar use of capitals do you discover in these lines of poetry? Much that has been suggested above concerning the use of adjectives will apply to adverbs also. ARRANGEMENT. The following exercises are given to show how pupils may discover for themselves the _natural order_ of words and phrases:-- (_a_) Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. (_b_) William's sister Mary is an excellent musician. (_c_) Everything suddenly appeared so strangely bright. (_d_) We saw it distinctly. (_e_) We had often been there. (_f_) Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo. +Observation Lesson+.--The words and the phrases in the sentences above stand in their _Natural Order_. From (_a_) and (_b_) determine the natural order of the subject, predicate, and complement. From (_b_) determine the natural order of a possessive modifier, of an explanatory modifier, and of an adjective. From (_c_), (_d_), and (_e_) determine the several positions of an adverb joined to a verb. Determine from (_c_) the position of an adverb modifying an adjective or another adverb. Determine from (_a_) and (_f_) the natural order of a phrase. Pupils may copy the following, and note the arrangement and the punctuation of the phrases:-- (_g_) This place is endeared to me by many associations. (_h_) To me, this place is endeared by many associations. (_i_) Your answers, with few exceptions, have been correctly given. (_j_) He applied for the position, without a recommendation. +Observation Lesson+.--Phrases in their natural order follow the words they modify. When two or more phrases belong to the same word, the one most closely modifying it stands nearest to it. In the first sentence above, _to me_ tells to whom the place is endeared; _by many associations_ tells how it is endeared to me, and is therefore placed after to me. Try the effect of placing _to me_ last. Phrases, like adjectives, may be of different rank. Phrases are often transposed, or placed out of their natural order. Notice that _to me_, in (_h_) above, is transposed, and thus made emphatic, and that it is set off by the comma. In (_i_), the phrase is loosely thrown in as if it were not essential, thus making a break in the sentence. To make this apparent to the eye we set the phrase off by the comma. Place the phrase of (_i_) in three other positions, and set it off. When the phrase is at the beginning or at the end of the sentence, how many commas do you need to set it off? How many, when it is in the middle? Do you find any choice in the four positions of this phrase? After having been told that your answers were correct, would it be a disappointment to be told that they were not all correct? Is the interest in a story best kept up by first telling the important points and then the unimportant particulars? What then do you think of placing this phrase at the end? What does the last phrase of (_j_) modify? Take out the comma, and then see whether there can be any doubt as to what the phrase modifies. In the placing of adverbs and phrases great freedom is often allowable, and the determining of their best possible position affords an almost unlimited opportunity for the exercise of taste and judgment. Such questions as those on (_i_) above may suggest a mode of easy approach to what is usually relegated to the province of rhetoric. Let the pupils see that phrases may be transposed for various reasons--for emphasis, as in (_h_) above; for the purpose of exciting the reader's curiosity and holding his attention till the complete statement is made, as in (_i_) above, or in, "In the dead of night, with a chosen band, under the cover of a truce, he approached"; for the sake of balancing the sentence by letting some of the modifying terms precede, and some follow, the principal parts, as, "In 1837, on the death of William IV., Victoria succeeded to the throne"; and for other reasons. Other selections maybe made and these exercises continued, the pupils discussing fully the effects of all possible changes. Pupils may note the transposed words and phrases in the following sentences, explaining their office and the effect of the transposition:-- 1. Victories, indeed, they were. 2. Down came the masts. 3. Here stands the man. 4. Doubtful seemed the battle. 5. Wide open stood the doors. 6. A mighty man is he. 7. That gale I well remember. 8. Behind her rode Lalla Rookh. 9. Blood-red became the sun. 10. Louder waxed the applause. 11. Him the Almighty Power hurled headlong. 12. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 13. Into the valley of death rode the six hundred. 14. So died the great Columbus of the skies. 15. Aeneas did, from the flames of Troy, upon his shoulders, the old Anchises bear. 16. Such a heart in the breast of my people beats. 17. The great fire up the deep and wide chimney roared. 18. Ease and grace in writing are, of all the acquisitions made in school, the most difficult and valuable. Pupils may read or write the following sentences in the transposed order, and explain the effect of the change:-- 19. He could not avoid it. 20. He would not escape. 21. I must go. 22. He ended his tale here. 23. It stands written so. 24. She seemed young and sad. 25. I will make one more effort to save you. 26. My regrets were bitter and unavailing. 27. I came into the world helpless. 28. A sincere word was never utterly lost. 29. Catiline shall no longer plot her ruin. ORDER OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 30. Who wrote the Declaration of Independence? 31. What states border on the Gulf of Mexico? 32. Whom did you see? 33. What is poetry? 34. Which course will you choose? 35. Why are the days shorter in winter? 36. When was America discovered? 37. Were you there? 38. Has the North Pole been reached? +Observation Lesson+.--When the interrogative word is subject or a modifier of it, is the order natural, or transposed? See (30) and (31) above. When the interrogative word is object or attribute complement, or a modifier of either, what is the order? See (32), (33), and (34). When the interrogative word is an adverb, what is the order? See (35) and (36). When there is no interrogative word, what is the order? See (37) and (38). The sentences above will furnish profitable review lessons in _analysis_. REVIEW--COMPOSITION. We suggest that, from two or more paragraphs of some interesting and instructive article, leading sentences be selected, and that the pupils be required to explain the office and the punctuation of the easier adjective and adverb phrases, to vary the arrangement in every possible way, and to discuss the effects of these changes. Then, after finding the general subject and the heading for each paragraph, the pupils may arrange these sentences and work them into a composition, making such additions as may be suggested. RESTRICTIVE MODIFIERS--PUNCTUATION. The chief difficulty in the punctuation of the different kinds of modifiers is in determining whether or not they are restrictive. The following examples may serve as the basis of an observation lesson:-- (_a_) The words _golden_ and _oriole_ are pleasant to the ear. (_b_) Words, the signs of ideas, are spoken and written. (_c_) Use words that are current. (_d_) Words, which are the signs of ideas, are spoken and written. (_e_) The country anciently called Gaul is now called France. (_f_) France, anciently called Gaul, derived its name from the Franks. (_g_) Glass bends easily when it is hot. (_h_) I met him in Paris, when I was last abroad. The following explanations may be drawn from the pupils:-- In (_a_) the application of _words_ is limited, or restricted, to the two words mentioned; in (_c_) _words_ is restricted to a certain kind. In (_b_) and (_d_) the modifiers do not restrict. They apply to all words and simply add information. In (_e_) the participial phrase restricts the application of _country_ to one particular country; but in (_f_) the phrase describes without limiting. The omission of the comma in (_g_) shows that _Glass bends easily_ is not offered as a general statement, but that the action is restricted to a certain time or condition. _When it is hot_ is essential to the intended meaning. The punctuation of (_h_) shows that the speaker does not wish to make the time of meeting a prominent or essential part of what he has to say. The adverb clause simply gives additional information. If (_h_) were an answer to the question, When did you meet him? the comma would be omitted. The sense may be varied by the use or the omission of the comma. Let the pupils see how incomplete the statements are when the restrictive modifiers are omitted, and that the other modifiers are not so necessary to the sense. In such expressions as _I myself, we boys_, the explanatory words are not restrictive, but they combine closely with the modified term. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. Adjective clauses allow little change in position. They usually follow closely the word modified. Often they may be contracted into adjectives or into adjective phrases. Selections from standard writers may be made with special reference to the study of adjective clauses. The position, punctuation, and choice of relatives may be noticed, and, as far as possible, the clauses may be changed into equivalent adjectives or into phrases. ADVERB CLAUSES. An adverb clause may stand before the independent clause, between its parts, or after it; as, "When it is hot, glass bends easily;" "Glass, when it is hot, bends easily;" "Glass bends easily when it is hot." Notice the punctuation of these examples. Adverb clauses may be contracted in various ways. Clauses introduced by the comparatives _as_ and _than_ are usually found in an abbreviated form; as, "You are as old _as_ he (_is old_);" "You are older _than_ I (_am old_)." Attention may be called to the danger of mistaking here the nominative for the objective. We suggest making selections for the study of adverb clauses. NOUN CLAUSES. Noun clauses may be contracted; as, "_That we should obey_ is necessary" = "_Obedience_ is necessary," or, "_To obey_ is necessary;" "I can hardly realize _that my friend is gone_" = "I can hardly realize _my friend's being gone_." By substituting _it_ for the subject clause, this clause maybe placed last and made explanatory; as, "_It_ is necessary _that we should obey_." The object clause is sometimes transposed; as, "_That my friend is gone_, I can hardly realize." The noun clause may be made prominent by introducing the independent clause parenthetically; as,"_His story_, we believe, _is exaggerated_." Notice the punctuation of the clauses above. The noun clause used as attribute complement is generally set off by the comma. Noun clauses that are quotations need special treatment. NOUN CLAUSES--QUOTATIONS. We suggest the following observation lesson:-- 1. Goldsmith says, "Learn the luxury of doing good." 2. Goldsmith says that we should learn the luxury of doing good. 3. "The owlet Atheism, hooting at the glorious sun in heaven, cries out, 'Where is it?'" 4. Coleridge compares atheism to an owlet hooting at the sun, and asking where it is. 5. "To read without reflecting," says Burke, "is like eating without digesting." 6. May we not find "sermons in stones and good in everything"? 7. There is much meaning in the following quotation: "Books are embalmed minds." 8. We must ask, What are we living for? 9. We must ask what we are living for. +Observation Lesson+.--Notice that the writer of (1) has copied into his sentence (quoted) the exact language of Goldsmith. The two marks like inverted commas and the two marks like apostrophes, which inclose this copied passage (quotation), are called _Quotation Marks_. Name all the differences between (1) and (2). Is the same thought expressed in both? Which quotation would you call _direct?_ Which, _indirect?_ Notice that the whole of (3) is a quotation, and that this quotation contains another quotation inclosed within _single marks_. Notice the order of the marks at the end of (3). Point out the differences between (3) and (4). In which is a question quoted just as it would be asked? In which is a question merely referred to? Which question would you call _direct?_ Which, _indirect_? Name every difference in the form of these. In which of the above sentences is a quotation interrupted by a parenthetical clause? How are the parts marked? Point out a quotation that cannot make complete sense by itself. How does it differ from the others as to punctuation and the first letter? In (7) a _Colon_ precedes the quotation to show that it is _formally introduced_. In (8) a question is introduced without quotation marks. Questions that, like this, are introduced without being referred to any particular person or persons, are often written without quotation marks. State the differences between (8) and (9). In quoting a question, the interrogation point must stand within the quotation marks; but, when a question contains a quotation, this order is reversed. Point out illustrations above. Sum up what you have learned. (See rules for capitals, comma, colon, and quotation marks, pp. 140-143.) Selections written in the colloquial style and containing frequent quotations and questions may be taken from reading-books, for examination, discussion, and copying. Noun phrases may be expanded, and noun clauses contracted, transposed, etc. INDEPENDENT CLAUSES. Frequently independent clauses are contracted by using repeated parts but once and uniting the other parts into a compound term, as in Lesson 67. They are also contracted by omitting such words as may be readily understood; as, "Is it true, or _not;_" "He is a philosopher, _not a poet_." For punctuation, see rules for the comma and the semicolon, p. 141. REVIEW--COMPOSITION. We recommend that the teacher select some short article containing valuable information and break up each paragraph into short, disconnected expressions. One paragraph at a time may be put on the board for the pupils to copy. The general subject may be given, and the pupils may be required to find a proper heading for the paragraph. The different ways of connecting the expressions may be discussed in the class. By contracting, expanding, transposing, and by substituting entirely different words, a great variety of forms may be had. (The forms found in the "Example," p. 144, and the list of connectives, p. 190, may be helpful.) The pupils may then combine the different paragraphs into a composition. For the explanation of _paragraph_, see p. 145, and Exercises for Composition in the Supplement. We give below material for one composition:-- Frog's spawn found in a pond. At first like a mass of jelly. Eggs can be distinguished. In a few days curious little fish are hatched. These "tadpoles" are lively. Swim by means of long tails. Head very large--out of proportion. Appearance of all head and tail. This creature is a true fish. It breathes water-air by means of gills. It has a two-chambered heart. Watch it day by day. Two little gills seen. These soon disappear. Hind legs begin to grow. Tail gets smaller. Two small arms, or forelegs, are seen. Remarkable change going on inside. True lungs for breathing air have been forming. Another chamber added to the heart. As the gills grow smaller, it finds difficulty in breathing water-air. One fine day it pokes its nose out of the water. Astonished (possibly) to find that it can breathe in the air. A new life has come upon it. No particular reason for spending all its time in water; crawls out upon land; sits down upon its haunches; surveys the world. It is no longer a fish; has entered upon a higher stage of existence; has become a frog. This work of analyzing a composition to find the leading thoughts under which the other thoughts may be grouped is in many ways a most valuable discipline. It teaches the pupil to compare, to discriminate, to weigh, to systematize, to read intelligently and profitably. The reading-book will afford excellent practice in finding heads for paragraphs. Such work is an essential preparation for the reading-class. This composition work should serve as a constant review of all that has been passed over in the text-book. ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS AND ADVERBS. It is often difficult to distinguish an adjective complement from an adverb modifier. We offer the following explanation:-- "Mary arrived _safe_." As we here wish to tell the condition of Mary on her arrival, and _not_ the _manner_ of her arriving, we use _safe_, not _safely_. "My head feels _bad_" (is in a bad condition, as perceived by the sense of feeling). "The sun shines _bright_" (is bright--quality,--as perceived by its shining). You must determine whether you wish to tell the _quality_ of the thing named or the _manner_ of the action. When the idea of being is prominent in the verb, as in the examples above, you see that the adjective, and not the adverb, follows. Let the pupils show that the following adjectives and adverbs are used correctly:-- 1. I feel sad. 2. I feel deeply. 3. I feel miserable. 4. He appeared prompt and willing. 5. He appeared promptly and willingly. 6. She looks beautiful. 7. She sings beautifully. PAST PARTICIPLES AND PREDICATE VERBS DISTINGUISHED. When the past tense and the past participle differ in form, they are often confounded in use; as, I _done_ it; I _seen_ it. Pupils may be required to construct short sentences, oral or written, using the _Past_ forms found in Lesson 91 as predicates, and the _Past Participle_ forms either as modifiers or as completing words in compound verbs. They may be led to some such conclusion as the following:-- The _Past_ is always an asserting, or predicate, word; the _Past Participle_ never asserts, but is used as an adjective modifier or as the completing word of a compound verb; the _Present_ may be used as a predicate or as an infinitive. Exercises like the following may be copied, and repeated aloud:-- 1. _Lay_ down your pen. 2. _Lie_ down, Rover. 3. I _laid_ down my pen. 4. The dog then _lay_ down. 5. I have _laid_ down my pen. 6. The dog has _lain_ down. 7. _Set_ the pail down. 8. _Sit_ down and rest. 9. I then _set_ it down. 10. I _sat_ down and rested. 11. I have _set_ it down. 12. I have _sat_ down. 13. My work was _laid_ aside. 14. I was _lying_ down. 15. The trap was _set_ by the river. 16. I was _sitting_ by the river. 17. The garment _sits_ well. 18. The hen _sits_ on her eggs. 19. He came in and _lay_ down. 20. The Mediterranean _lies_ between Europe and Africa. Notice that we may speak of _laying_ something or _setting_ something, or may say that something is _laid_ or is _set_; but we cannot speak of _lying_ or _sitting_ something, or of something being _lain_ or _sat_. _Set_, in some of its meanings, is used without an object; as, "The sun _set_;" "He _set_ out on a journey." _Lay_, the present of the first verb, and _lay_, the past of _lie_, may easily be distinguished by the difference in meaning and in the time expressed. POSSESSIVE FORMS. Pupils may be required to copy such forms as the following:-- The sailor's story; the farmer's son; the pony's mane; the monkey's tail; a day's work; James's book; a cent's worth; a man's wages; the child's toys; the woman's hat; the sailors' stories; the farmers' sons; the ponies' manes; the monkeys' tails; three days' work; five cents' worth; two men's wages; those children's toys; women's hats. This may be continued till the pupils are able to form some such statement as the following:-- (_'s_) and (_'_) are the possessive signs, (_'_) being used when _s_ has been added to denote more than one, (_'s_) in other cases. Such expressions as the following may be copied:-- Dombey and Son's business; J. J. Little & Co.'s printing-house; William the Conqueror's reign; Houghton, Mifflin, and Company's publications. This may be continued till the pupils learn that, when a group of words may be treated as a compound name, the possessive sign is added to the last word only. THE OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT. The treatment of the objective complement may be introduced in a review course, when the class is sufficiently mature. The following explanation may aid some teachers:-- In "It made him _sad_," _made_ does not fully express the action performed upon him--not "_made_ him," but "_made sad_ (saddened) him." _Sad_ helps _made_ to express the action, and also denotes a quality which as the result of the action belongs to the person represented by the object _him_. Whatever completes the predicate and belongs to the object we call an _Objective Complement_. Nouns, infinitives, and participles may also be used in the same way; as, "They made Victoria _queen_," "It made him _weep_;" "It kept him _laughing_." They | made / queen | Victoria ======|========================= | +Explanation+.--The line that separates _made_ from _queen_ slants toward the object complement to show that _queen_ belongs to the object. A noun or pronoun used as objective complement is in the objective case. The teacher may here explain such constructions as, "I proved it to be _him_," in which _it_ is object complement and _to be him_ is objective complement. _Him_, the attribute complement of _be_, is in the objective case because _it_, the assumed subject of _be_, is objective. Let the pupils compare "I proved it to be _him_" with "I proved that it was _he;_" "_Whom_ did you suppose it to be?" with "_Who_ did you suppose it was?" etc. NOUNS AS ADVERB MODIFIERS. The following uses of nouns and pronouns, not found in the preceding Lessons, may be introduced in a review course. 1. He gave _John_ a book. 2. He bought _me_ a book. _John_ and _me_, as here used, are generally called _Indirect Objects_. The "indirect object" names the one _to_ or _for_ whom something is done. We treat these words as phrase modifiers without the preposition. If we change the order, the preposition must be supplied; as, "He gave a book _to John;_" "He bought a book _for me_." Nouns denoting _measure, quantity, weight, time, value, distance_, or _direction_ may be used adverbially, being equivalent to phrase modifiers without the preposition; as, 1. We walked four _miles_ an _hour_. 2. It weighs one _pound_. 3. It is worth a _dollar_. 4. The wall is ten _feet_, six _inches_ high. 5. I went _home_ that way. The following diagram will illustrate both the "indirect object" and the "noun of measure:"-- They offered Caesar the crown three times. They | offered | crown =======|==================== | \ \ \the \ \ times \ \------ \ \three \ Caesar \------ +Explanation+.--_Caesar_ (the "indirect object") and _times_ (denoting measure) stand in the diagram on lines representing the principal words of prepositional phrases. SCHEMES FOR REVIEW. These schemes will be found very helpful in a general review. The pupils should be able to reproduce them, omitting the Lesson numbers. Scheme for the Sentence. (_The numbers refer to Lessons_.) PARTS. +Subject+. Noun or Pronoun (6, 14, 19). Phrase (49). Clause (61). +Predicate+. Verb (6,16). +Complements+. Object. Noun or Pronoun (39). Phrase (49). Clause (61). Attribute. Adjective (39). Noun or Pronoun (42). Phrase. Clause (61). +Modifiers+. Adjectives (20, 22). Adverbs (24, 27). Participles (48). Nouns and Pronouns (53). Phrases (31, 48, 49). Clauses (57, 59). +Connectives+. Conjunctions (35, 36, 62). Pronouns (57). Adverbs (59). +Independent Parts (36, 64)+. +Classes+--+Meaning+.--Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, Exclamatory (63). +Classes+--+Form+.--Simple, Complex, Compound (57, 62). Scheme for the Noun. (_The numbers refer to Lessons_.) NOUN (14). +Uses+. Subject (6). Object Complement (39). Attribute Complement (42). Adjective Modifier (53). Prin. word in Prep. Phrase (34). Independent (64). +Classes+. Common (71). Proper (71). +Modifications+. Number Singular (78, 79). Plural (78, 79). +Gender+. Masculine (80). Feminine (80). Neuter (80). +Person+. First (81-83). Second (81-83). Third (81-83). +Case+. Nominative (81-85). Possessive (81-85). Objective (81-85). Scheme for the Pronoun. PRONOUNS. +Uses+.--Same as those of the Noun. +Classes+. Personal (71, 72). Relative (71, 72). Interrogative (71, 72). Adjective (71, 72). +Modifications+.--Same as those of the Noun (78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 95). Scheme for the Verb. (_The numbers refer to Lessons_.) VERB. +Uses+ To _assert_ action, being, or state.--Predicate (6, 16). To _assume_ action, being, or state. Participles (48). Infinitives (49). +Classes+. Form. Regular (74). Irregular (74, 91). Meaning. Transitive (74), Intransitive (74). +Modifications+. Voice. Active (89). Passive (89). Mode. Indicative (90-94). Potential (90-94). Subjunctive (90-94). Imperative (90-94). Tense. Present (90-94). Past (90-94). Future (90-94). Present Perfect (90-94). Past Perfect (90-94). Future Perfect (90-94). Number. Singular (90, 92-95). Plural (90, 92-95). Person. First (90, 92-95). Second (90, 92-95). Third (90, 92-95). +Participles+.-- Classes. Present (90-94, 96, 98). Past (90-94, 96, 98). Past Perfect (90-94, 96, 98). +Infinitives+.-- Tenses. Present (90, 92-94). Present Perfect (90, 92-94). Scheme for the Adjective. (_The numbers refer to Lessons.)_ ADJECTIVE. +Uses+. Modifier (20, 23). Attribute Complement (39). +Classes+. Descriptive (73). Definitive (73). +Modification+.--Comparison. Pos. Deg. (87, 88). Comp. Deg. (87, 88). Sup. Deg. (87, 88). Scheme for the Adverb. ADVERB. +Classes+. Time (75). Place (75). Degree (75). Manner (75). +Modification+--Comparison. Pos. Deg. (87, 88). Comp. Deg. (87, 88). Sup. Deg. (87, 88). +Schemes for the Conj., Prep., and Int+. THE CONJUNCTION.-- +Classes+. Co-ordinate (36, 76). No Modifications. Subordinate (36, 76). No Modifications. THE PREPOSITION (34, 41).--No Classes. No Modifications. THE INTERJECTION (36).--No Classes. No Modifications. +Model for Written Parsing adapted to all Parts of Speech+.--_Oh! it has a voice for those who on their sick beds lie and waste away_. CLASSIFICATION. MODIFICATIONS. SYNTAX. _Sentence_. Oh! Class: Int. Voice: Independent. Sub-C.: Mode: Tense: Per.: Num.: Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.: it Class: Pro. Voice: Sub. of _has_. Sub-C.: Per. Mode: Tense: Per.: 3d. Num.: Sing. Gen.: Neut. Case: Nom. Deg. of Comp.: Pred. of _it_. has Class: Vb. Voice: Act. Sub-C.: Ir., Tr. Mode: Ind. Tense: Pres. Per.: 3d. Num.: Sing. Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.: a Class: Adj. Voice: Mod. of _voice_. Sub-C.: Def. Mode: Tense: Per.: Num.: Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.: ---- voice Class: N. Voice: Obj. Com. of _has_. Sub-C.: Com. Mode: Tense: Per.: 3d. Num.: Sing. Gen.: Neut. Case: Obj. Deg. of Comp.: for Class: Prep. Voice: Shows Rel. of Sub-C.: Mode: _has_ to Tense: _those_. Per.: Num.: Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.: those Class: Pro. Voice: Prin. word after Sub-C.: Adj. Mode: _for_. Tense: Per.: 3d. Num.: Plu. Gen.: M.or F. Case: Obj. Deg. of Comp.: who Class: Pro. Voice: Sub. of _lie_ and Sub-C.: Rel. Mode: _waste_. Tense: Per.: 3d. Num.: Plu. Gen.: M.or F. Case: Nom. Deg. of Comp.: on Class: Prep. Voice: Shows Rel. of _lie_ Sub-C.: Mode: to _beds_. Tense: Per.: Num.: Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.: their Class: Pro. Voice: Pos. Mod. of Sub-C.: Per. Mode: _beds_. Tense: Per.: 3d. Num.: Plu. Gen.: M.or F. Case: Pos. Deg. of Comp.: sick Class: Adj. Voice: Mod. of _beds_. Sub-C.: Des. Mode: Tense: Per.: Num.: Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.: Pos. beds Class: N. Voice: Prin. word after Sub-C.: Com. Mode: _on_. Tense: Per.: 3d. Num.: Plu. Gen.: Neut. Case: Obj. Deg. of Comp.: lie Class: Vb. Voice: ---- Pred. of _who_. Sub-C.: Ir., Int. Mode: Ind. Tense: Pres. Per.: 3d. Num.: Plu. Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.: and Class: Conj. Voice: Con. _lie_ and Sub-C.: Co-or. Mode: _waste_. Tense: Per.: Num.: Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.: waste Class: Vb. Voice: ---- Pred. of _who_. Sub-C.: Reg., Int.Mode: Ind. Tense: Pres. Per.: 3d. Num.: Plu. Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.: away. Class: Adv. Voice: Mod. of _waste_. Sub-C.: Place Mode: Tense: Per.: Num.: Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.: ---- For exercises in general parsing, select from the preceding Lessons on Analysis. LIST OF CONNECTIVES. +Remark+.--Some of the connectives below are conjunctions proper; some are relative pronouns; and some are adverbs or adverb phrases, which, in addition to their office as modifiers, may, in the absence of the conjunction, take its office upon themselves, and connect the clauses. CO-ORDINATE CONNECTIVES. +_Copulative_+.--_And, both...and, as well as_, [Footnote: The _as well as_ in "He, _as well as_ I, went"; and not that in "He is _as well as_ I am."] are conjunctions proper. Accordingly, _also, besides, consequently, furthermore, hence, likewise, moreover, now, so, then_, and _therefore_ are conjunctive adverbs. +_Adversative_+.--_But_ and _whereas_ are conjunctions proper. However, _nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, still_, and _yet_ are conjunctive adverbs. +_Alternative_+.--_Neither, nor, or, either... or_, and _neither...nor_ are conjunctions proper. _Else_ and _otherwise_ are conjunctive adverbs. SUBORDINATE CONNECTIVES. Connectives of Adjective Clauses. _That, what, whatever, which, whichever, who_, and whoever are relative pronouns. _When, where, whereby, wherein_, and _why_ are conjunctive adverbs. Connectives of Adverb Clauses. _Time_.--_After, as, before, ere, since, till, until, when, whenever, while_, and _whilst_ are conjunctive adverbs. _Place_.--_Whence, where_, and _wherever_ are conjunctive adverbs. _Degree_.--_As, than, that_, and _the_ are conjunctive adverbs, correlative, with adjectives or adverbs. _Manner_.--_As_ is a conjunctive adverb, correlative often with an adjective or an adverb. _Real Cause_.--_As, because, for, since_, and _whereas_ are conjunctions proper. _Reason_.--_Because, for_, and _since_ are conjunctions proper. Purpose.--_In order that, lest_ (=_that not_) _that_, and _so that_ are conjunctions proper. _Condition_.--_Except, if, in case that, on condition that, provided, provided that_, and _unless_ are conjunctions proper. _Concession_.--_Although, if_ (=_even if_), _notwithstanding, though_, and _whether_ are conjunctions proper. _However_ is a conjunctive adverb. _Whatever, whichever_, and _whoever_ are relative pronouns used indefinitely. +Connectives of Noun Clauses+. _If, lest, that_, and _whether_ are conjunctions proper. _What, which_, and _who_ are pronouns introducing questions; _how, when, whence, where_, and _why_ are conjunctive adverbs. ABBREVIATIONS. +Remarks+.--Few abbreviations are allowable in ordinary composition. They are very convenient in writing lists of articles, in scientific works, and wherever certain terms frequently occur. Titles prefixed to proper names are generally abbreviated, except in addressing an officer of high rank. Titles that immediately follow names are almost always abbreviated. Names of women are not generally abbreviated except by using an initial for one of two Christian names. Abbreviations that shorten only by one letter are unnecessary; as, _Jul._ for "July," _Jno._ for "John," _da._ for "day," etc. 1_st_, 2_d_, 3_d_, 4_th_, etc., are not followed by the period. They are not treated as abbreviations. @, At. +A. B.+ or +B. A.+ (_Artium Baccalaureus_), Bachelor of Arts. +Acct., acct.+, or +a/c+, Account. +A. D.+ (_Anno Domini_), In the year of our Lord. +Adjt.+, Adjutant. +Aet.+ or +aet.+ (aetatis), Of age, aged. +Ala.+, Alabama. +Alex.+, Alexander. +A. M.+ or +M. A.+ (_Artium Magister_), Master of Arts. +A. M.+ (_ante meridiem_), Before noon. +Amt.+, Amount. +And.+, Andrew. +Anon.+, Anonymous. +Ans.+, Answer. +Anth.+, Anthony. +Apr.+, April. +Arch.+, Archibald. +Ark.+, Arkansas. +Arizona+ or +Ariz.+, Arizona Territory. +Atty.+, Attorney. +Atty.-Gen.+, Attorney-General. +Aug.+, August; Augustus. +Av.+ or +Ave.+, Avenue. +Avoir.+, Avoirdupois. +Bart.+, Baronet. +bbl.+, Barrels. +B. C.+, Before Christ. +Benj.+, Benjamin. +Brig.-Gen.+, Brigadier-General. +B. S.+, Bachelor of Science. +bu.+, Bushels. +c+ or +ct.+, Cents. +Cal.+, California. +Cap.+, Capital. +Caps.+, Capitals. +Capt.+, Captain. +C. E.+, Civil Engineer. +cf.+ (_confer_), Compare. +Chas.+, Charles. +Chron.+, Chronicles. +Co.+, Company; County. +c/o+, In care of. +C. O. D.+, Collect on delivery. +Col.+, Colonel; Colossians. +Coll.+, College; Collector. +Conn.+, Connecticut. +Colo+, or +Col.+, Colorado. +Cr.+, Credit; Creditor. +cub. ft.+, Cubic feet. +cub. in.+, Cubic inches. +cwt.+, Hundred-weight. +d.+, Days; Pence. +Danl.+ or +Dan.+, Daniel. +D. C.+, District of Columbia. +D. C. L.+, Doctor of Civil Law. +D. D.+ (_Divinitatis Doctor_), Doctor of Divinity. +D. D. S.+, Doctor of Dental Surgery. +Dec.+, December. +Del.+, Delaware. +Deut.+, Deuteronomy. +D. G.+ (_Dei gratia_), By the grace of God. +Dist.-Atty.+, District-Attorney. +D. M.+, Doctor of Music. +do.+ (_ditto_), The same. +doz.+, Dozen. +Dr.+, Doctor; Debtor. +D. V.+ (_Deo volente_), God willing. +E.+, East. +Eben.+, Ebenezer. +Eccl.+, Ecclesiastes. +Ed.+, Edition; Editor. +Edm.+, Edmund. +Edw.+, Edward. +e. g.+ (_exempli gratia_), For example. +E. N. E.+, East-northeast. +Eng.+, English; England. +Eph.+, Ephesians; Ephraim. +E. S. E.+, East-southeast. +Esq.+, Esquire. +et al.+ (_et alibi_), And elsewhere. +et al.+ (_et alii_), And others. +et seq.+ (_et sequeniia_), And following. +etc.+ or +&c.+ (et caetera), And others; And so forth. +Ex.+, Example; Exodus. +Ez.+, Ezra. +Ezek.+, Ezekiel. +Fahr.+ or +F.+, Fahrenheit (thermometer). +Feb.+, February. +Fla.+, Florida. +Fr.+, French; France. +Fran.+, Francis. +Fred.+, Frederic. +Fri.+, Friday. +ft.+, Feet. +Ft.+, Fort. +fur.+, Furlong. +Ga.+, Georgia. +Gal.+, Galatians. +gal.+, Gallons. +Gen.+, General; Genesis. +Geo.+, George. +Gov.+, Governor. +gr.+, Grains. +h.+, Hours. +Hab.+, Habakkuk. +Hag.+, Haggai. +H. B. M.+, His (or Her) Britannic Majesty. +hdkf.+, Handkerchief. +Heb.+, Hebrews. +H. H.+, His Holiness (the Pope). +hhd.+, Hogsheads. +H. M.+, His (or Her) Majesty. +Hon.+, Honorable. +Hos.+, Hosea. +H. R. H.+, His (or Her) Royal Highness. +ib.+ or +ibid+, (_ibidem_), In the same place. +id.+ (_idem_), The same. +Idaho+, Idaho. +i.e.+ (_id est_), That is. +I. H. S.+ (_Jesus hominum Salvator_), Jesus, the Savior of Men. +Ill.+, Illinois. +in.+, Inches. +incog.+ (i_ncognito_), Unknown. +Ind.+, Indiana. +Ind. T.+, Indian Territory. +inst.+, Instant, the present month. +Iowa+ or +Io.+, Iowa. +I. O. O. F.+, Independent Order of Odd Fellows. +Isa.+, Isaiah. +Jac.+, Jacob. +Jan.+, January. +Jas.+, James. +Jer.+, Jeremiah. +Jona.+, Jonathan. +Jos.+, Joseph. +Josh.+, Joshua. +Jr.+ or +Jun.+, Junior. +Judg.+, Judges. +Kans.+ or +Kan.+, Kansas. +Ky.+, Kentucky. +l.+, Line; ll., Lines. +l.+ or +lb.+, Pounds sterling. +La.+, Louisiana. +Lam.+, Lamentations. +L.+, Latin. +lb.+ or lb-. (_libra_ or _librae_), Pound or pounds in weight. +l.c.+, Lower case (small letter). +Lev.+, Leviticus. +L. I.+, Long Island. +Lieut.+, Lieutenant. +LL. B.+(_Legum Baccalaureus_), Bachelor of Laws. +LL. D.+ (_Legum Doctor_), Doctor of Laws. +M.+ or +Mons.+, Monsieur. +M.+ (_meridies_), Noon. +m.+, Miles; Minutes. +Mad.+, Madam. +Mme.+, Madame. +Maj.+, Major. +Mal.+, Malachi. +Mar.+, March. +Mass.+, Massachusetts. +Matt.+, Matthew. +M. C.+, Member of Congress. +M. D.+ (_Medicinae Doctor_), Doctor of Medicine. +Md.+, Maryland. +mdse.+, Merchandise. +Me.+, Maine. +Mem.+, Memorandum; Memoranda. +Messrs.+, Messieurs. +Mic.+, Micah. +Mgr.+, Monseigneur. +Mich.+, Michigan; Michael. +Minn.+, Minnesota. +Miss.+, Mississippi. +Mlle.+, Mademoiselle. +Mmes.+, Mesdames. +Mo.+, Missouri. +mo.+, Months. +Mon.+, Monday. +M. P.+, Member of Parliament. +Mont.+, Montana. +Mr.+, Mister. +Mrs.+, Mistress (pronounced Missis). +MS.+, Manuscript. +MSS.+, Manuscripts. +Mt.+, Mountain. +N.+, North. +N. A.+, North America. +Nath.+, Nathaniel. +N. B.+ (_nota bene_), Mark well. +N. C.+, North Carolina. +N. Dak.+, North Dakota. +N. E.+, New England. +N. E.+, Northeast. +Nebr.+ or +Neb.+, Nebraska. +Neh.+, Nehemiah. +Nev.+, Nevada. +N. H.+, New Hampshire. +N. J.+, New Jersey. +N. Mex.+ or +N. M.+, New Mexico. +N. N. E.+, North-northeast. +N. N. W.+, North-northwest. +N. O.+, New Orleans. +No.+ (_numero_), Number, +Nov.+, November. +N. W.+, Northwest +N. Y.+, New York. +Obad.+, Obadiah. +Oct.+, October. +Ohio+ or +O.+, Ohio. +Oreg.+ or +Or.+, Oregon. +Oxon.+ (_Oxonia_), Oxford, +oz.+, Ounces. +p.+, Page, +pp.+, Pages. +Pa.+ or +Penn.+, Pennsylvania. +Payt.+ or +payt.+, Payment. +per cent+, or +per ct.+ (_per centum_) or %, By the hundred. +Ph. D.+ (_Philosophiae Doctor_), Doctor of Philosophy. +Phil.+, Philip; Philippians. +Phila.+, Philadelphia. +pk.+, Pecks. +P. M.+, Postmaster. +P. M.+ or +p. m.+ (_post meridiem_), Afternoon. +P. O.+, Post-Office. +Pres.+, President. +Prof.+, Professor. +Pro tem.+ (_pro tempore_), For the time being. +Prov.+, Proverbs. +prox.+ (_proximo_), The next month. +P. S.+, Postscript. +Ps.+, Psalms. +pt.+, Pints. +pwt.+, Pennyweights. +qt.+, Quarts. +q. v.+ (_quod vide_), Which see. +Qy.+, Query. +rd.+, Rods. +Recd.+, Received. +Rev.+, Reverend; Revelation. +R. I.+, Rhode Island. +Robt.+, Robert. +Rom.+, Romans (Book of); Roman letters. +R. R.+, Railroad. +R. S. V. P.+ (_Repondez s'il vous plait_), Answer, if you please. +Rt. Hon.+, Right Honorable. +Rt. Rev.+, Right Reverend. +S.+, South. +s.+, Shillings. +S. A.+, South America. +Saml.+ or +Sam.+, Samuel. +Sat.+, Saturday. +S. C.+, South Carolina. +S. Dak.+, South Dakota. +S. E.+, Southeast. +Sec.+, Secretary. +sec.+, Seconds. +Sep.+ or +Sept.+, September. +Sol.+, Solomon. +sq. ft.+, Square feet. +sq. in.+, Square inches. +sq. m.+, Square miles. +S. S. E.+, South-southeast. +S. S. W.+, South-southwest. +St.+, Street; Saint. +S. T. D.+ (_Sacrae Theologiae Doctor_), Doctor of Divinity. +Sun.+, Sunday. +Supt.+, Superintendent. +S. W.+, Southwest. +T.+, Tons; Tuns. +Tenn.+, Tennessee. +Tex.+, Texas. +Theo.+, Theodore. +Theoph.+, Theophilus. +Thess.+, Thessalonians, +Thos.+, Thomas. +Thurs.+, Thursday. +Tim.+, Timothy. +tr.+, Transpose. +Treas.+, Treasurer. +Tues.+, Tuesday. +ult.+ (_ultimo_), Last--last month. +U. S.+ or +U. S. A.+, United States of America; United States Army. +U. S. M.+, United States Mail. +U. S. N.+, United States Navy. +Utah+ or +U. Ter.+, Utah Territory. +Va.+, Virginia. +Vice-Pres.+, Vice-President. +viz.+ (_videlicet_), To wit, namely. +vol.+, Volume. +vs.+ (_versus_), Against. +Vt.+, Vermont. +W.+, West. +Wash.+, Washington. +Wed.+, Wednesday. +Wis.+, Wisconsin. +wk.+, Weeks. +Wm.+, William. +W. N. W.+, West-northwest. +W. S. W.+, West-southwest. +W. Va.+, West Virginia. +Wyo.+, Wyoming. +Xmas.+, Christmas. +yd.+, Yards. +y.+ or +yr.+, Years. +Zech.+, Zechariah. +& Co.+, And Company. SUPPLEMENT. +Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph+. SELECTION FROM DARWIN. Morren says that angleworms often lie for hours almost motionless close beneath the mouths of their burrows. I have occasionally noticed the same fact with worms kept in pots in the house; so that by looking down into their burrows their heads could just be seen. If the ejected earth or rubbish over the burrows be suddenly removed, the end of the worm's body may very often be seen rapidly retreating. This habit of lying near the surface leads to their destruction to an immense extent. Every morning, during certain seasons of the year, the thrushes and blackbirds on all the lawns throughout the country draw out of their holes an astonishing number of worms; and this they could not do unless they lay close to the surface. It is not probable that worms behave in this manner for the sake of breathing fresh air, for they can live for a long time under water. I believe that they lie near the surface for the sake of warmth, especially in the morning; and we shall hereafter find that they often coat the mouths of their burrows with leaves, apparently to prevent their bodies from coming into close contact with the cold, damp earth. +The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--We will break up Mr. Darwin's first group of sentences into single sentences or single statements, each having but one predicate verb. 1. Angleworms often lie for hours almost motionless close beneath the mouths of their burrows. 2. Morren says this. 3. I have occasionally noticed the same fact with worms kept in pots in the house. 4. By looking down into their burrows their heads could just be seen. 5. The ejected earth or rubbish over the burrows may suddenly be removed. 6. The end of the worm's body may then very often be seen rapidly retreating. Find the two chief words (subject and predicate) in 1. What does _often_ do? What does the group of words _for hours_ do? The group _almost motionless_ describes what things? The group _close beneath the mouths of their burrows_, used like a single adverb, tells what? Find the two chief words in 2. _This_ helps out the meaning of _says_, but it is not an adverb. _This_ is here a pronoun standing for the thing said. What whole sentence does _this_ take the place of? Find the subject and the predicate verb in 3. What noun follows this verb to tell what Mr. Darwin noticed? What does _occasionally_ do? What does _same_ go with? What group of eight words tells in what way Mr. Darwin noticed this fact? Find the unmodified subject and predicate in 4. What does the second _their_ go with? What does _by looking down into their burrows_ tell? What does _just_ do? In 5, put _what_ before _may be removed_, and find two words either of which may be used as subject. What is the office of _the_, _ejected_, and the group _over the burrows_? What does _suddenly_ do? Find the subject and the predicate verb in 6. _Retreating_ helps out the meaning of the predicate and at the same time modifies the subject. Notice that _the end rapidly retreating_ is not a sentence, nor is _worms kept in pots_, in 3. _Retreating_ and _kept_ here express action, but they are not predicates; they do not assert. You learned in Lesson 16 that certain forms of the verb do not assert. _Of the worm's body_ modifies what? _Then_ and _very often_ do what? If you will compare these numbered sentences with Mr. Darwin's, you will see how two or more sentences are put together to make one longer sentence. You see Mr. Darwin puts our sentence 1 after _says_ to tell what Morren says. What word here helps to bring two sentences together? Change this sentence about so as to make _says Morren_ come last. See how many other changes you can make in the arrangement of the words and groups of words in this sentence. What two words are used to join 3 and 4 together? Notice that these sentences are not joined so closely as 1 and 2, as is shown by the semi-colon. Notice that _if_ has much to do in joining 5 and 6. These are more closely joined than 3 and 4, but not so closely as 1 and 2. How is this shown by the punctuation? Put 5 and 6 together and change their order. Find, if you can, still another arrangement. +To the Teacher+.--It is very important that pupils should learn to see words in groups and to note their offices. If difficulties and technicalities be avoided, such exercises as we suggest above may be begun very early. They will lead to an intelligent observation of language and will prepare the way for the more formal lessons of the text-book. If time can be had, such exercises may profitably be continued through the second and third paragraphs of the selection above. We have said elsewhere that the sentence exercises on this selection from Darwin may follow Lesson 30, but the teacher must determine. +The Paragraph+.--If we write about only one thing, or one point, our sentences will be closely related to each other. If we write on two or more points, there will be two or more sets of sentences--the sentences of each set closely related to one another, but the sets themselves not so closely related. A group of sentences expressing what we have to say on a single point, or division, of our subject is called a +paragraph+. How many paragraphs do you find in the selection above? How are they separated on the page? Let us examine this selection more carefully to find whether the sentences of each group are all on a single point and closely related, and whether the groups themselves are related. Do the sentences of the first paragraph all help to tell of a certain habit of angleworms? Do the sentences of the second paragraph tell what results from this habit? Do the sentences of the third paragraph tell what is thought to be the cause of this habit? If you can say yes to these questions, the sentences in each paragraph must be closely related. Are a habit, a result of it, and a cause of it related in thought, or meaning? If so, the paragraphs are related. You must now see that paragraphing helps both the reader and the writer, and that we should master it. +The Style+.--We shall not here say much about what we may call the style of the author--his way of putting his thought, or manner of expressing it. But this you will notice: his words are few, plain, and simple; the arrangement of them is easy; and so what is said is said clearly. You are nowhere in doubt about his meaning unless it be in the second paragraph. It may puzzle you to see what _their_, _they_, and _they_ in the second sentence of this paragraph stand for. Let _an astonishing number of worms_ and _out of their holes_ change places, and substitute _birds_ and _worms_ for _they_ and _they_, and see whether the meaning would be clearer. Clearness is worth all it costs. You cannot take too much pains to be understood. +First-hand Knowledge+.--As you know, we get our knowledge in two ways. We get it by seeing and by thinking about what we see; and we get it by listening to other people and reading what they have written. What we get by seeing, by observation, is first-hand knowledge; what we get from others is second-hand knowledge. Both kinds are useful; we cannot have too much of either. But the kind that it does us most good to get and is worth most to us when got is first-hand knowledge. This especially is the kind which you should make your compositions of. In the first two paragraphs of the selection above, Darwin is telling what he saw, and in the third he is explaining what he saw. That is why what he says is so fresh and interesting. And just one thing more. If such a man as Charles Darwin thought it worth his while to spend much time in studying and experimenting upon angleworms and then to write a large book about them, surely you need not think anything in nature beneath your notice. ORIGINAL COMPOSITION. Tell in two or three short paragraphs what you have observed of some worm, insect, or other creature, and what you think about it. +To the Teacher+.--We suggest that what is said above be read by the pupils and discussed in the class, and that the substance of it be reproduced in the pupils' own language. Such reproduction will serve as a lesson in oral composition. It may be profitable for the pupils to reproduce the selection from Darwin. +Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph+. SELECTION FROM HABBERTON--"HELEN'S BABIES." The whistles completed, I was marched with music to the place where the "Jacks" grew. It was just such a place as boys delight in--low, damp, and boggy, with a brook hidden away under overhanging ferns and grasses. 1. The children knew by sight the plant that bore the "Jacks," and every discovery was announced by a piercing shriek of delight. 2. At first I looked hurriedly toward the brook as each yell clove the air; but, as I became accustomed to it, my attention was diverted by some exquisite ferns. 3. Suddenly, however, a succession of shrieks announced that something was wrong, and across a large fern I saw a small face in a great deal of agony. 4. Budge was hurrying to the relief of his brother, and was soon as deeply imbedded as Toddie was in the rich, black mud at the bottom of the brook. 5. I dashed to the rescue, stood astride the brook, and offered a hand to each boy, when a treacherous tuft of grass gave way, and, with a glorious splash, I went in myself. This accident turned Toddie's sorrow to laughter, but I can't say I made light of my misfortune on that account. To fall into _clear_ water is not pleasant, even when one is trout-fishing; but to be clad in white trousers and suddenly drop nearly knee-deep into the lap of mother earth is quite a different thing. I hastily picked up the children and threw them upon the bank, and then strode out, and tried to shake myself, as I have seen a Newfoundland dog do. The shake was not a success--it caused my trouser's legs to flap dismally about my ankles, and sent the streams of treacherous ooze trickling down into my shoes. My hat, of drab felt, had fallen off by the brookside, and been plentifully spattered as I got out. +The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--We will put the first paragraph above into single sentences. 1. The whistles completed, we were marched with music to the place. 2. The "Jacks" grew in this place. 3. It was a place low, damp, and boggy, with a brook hidden away under overhanging ferns and grasses. 4. Boys delight in such a place. Find the subject noun (or pronoun) and the predicate verb in each of the four sentences above. Does _the whistles completed_ make complete sense? You learned in Lesson 16 that some forms of the verb do not assert--cannot be predicates. Does _brook hidden_, in 3, contain a predicate? What can you say of _hidden?_ Find a noun in 3 used to complete the predicate and make the meaning of the subject plainer. What group of adjectives modifies _place_? Tell why these three adjectives are separated by commas. What long phrase describes _place_? Find the first verb in the second paragraph of the selection. What is the object complement of this verb? _That bore the "Jacks"_ does what? The pronoun _that_ stands for _plant_. _The plant bore the "Jacks,"_ standing by itself, is a complete sentence; but by using _that_ for _plant_ the whole expression is made to do the work of an adjective. What conjunction joins on another expression that by itself would make a complete sentence? What are the subject and the predicate of this added sentence? _By a piercing shriek of delight_ does what? Of what use are the phrases _at first_ and _toward the brook_ in sentence 2? What group of words is joined to _looked_ to tell on what occasion or how often? Find in this group a subject, a predicate, and an object complement. What connects this group to _looked_? What two sentences does _but_ here bring together? Does the semicolon show that this connection is close? Point out what you think to be the leading subject and the leading verb after _but_. _By some exquisite ferns_ is joined to what? What group of words goes with _was diverted_ to tell when? Find in this group a subject, a predicate, and an attribute complement. Point out in the first part of 3 the leading subject and its verb. What does _suddenly_ go with? What does _of shrieks_ modify? _However_ is loosely thrown in to carry the attention back to what goes before. Notice the commas. Answer the question made by putting _what_ after _announced_. In this group of words used as object complement can you find a subject, a predicate, and a complement? What two sentences does _and_ here bring together? Point out the subject, the predicate, and the complement in the second of these. _Across a large fern_ is joined like an adverb to what? _In a great deal of agony_ modifies what? Find a compound predicate in 4. What phrase is joined to _was imbedded_ to tell where? The group of words _as deeply as Toddie was (imbedded)_ is joined to what? Find in 5 a compound predicate made up of three verbs, one of which has an object complement. +To the Teacher+.--See suggestions with the preceding selection. If our exercises on the second paragraph above are found too hard, the compound and complex sentences may be broken up into single statements. We have indicated elsewhere that this sentence work may follow Lesson 40. +The Narrative+.--This selection from "Helen's Babies" is a story and therefore a narrative. But there are some descriptive touches in it. All stories must have such touches. Perhaps it is not always essential to distinguish between narration and description, but it is worth your while to do it occasionally. Try to point out the descriptive parts in these paragraphs. You certainly can find a descriptive sentence in the first paragraph, and descriptive words, phrases, and clauses throughout the selection. What help to the narrative do these descriptive touches give? +The Paragraphs+.--What have you learned about the sentences that make up one paragraph? Are the paragraphs more, or less, closely related than the sentences of each paragraph? Why? Examine these paragraphs and see whether any sentences can be changed from one paragraph to another. If you think they can, give your reason. Is the order of these paragraphs the right one? Can the order anywhere be changed without throwing the story out of joint? Why? +The General Topic and the Sub-topics+.--We shall find that every composition has its general subject and that each paragraph in the composition bus its own particular subject. Let us call the subject of the whole composition the _general topic_. _Sub_ means _under_, and so let us call the point which each paragraph develops a _sub-topic_. In the story above we may find some such outline as the following:-- AN EXCURSION IN SEARCH OF "JACKS." 1. The Place where Jacks Grow. 2. The Mishap to the Excursionists. 3. The Uncle Takes his Seriously. 4. His Attempt at Repairs. Do you think that such a _framework_ helps a writer to tell his story? Do you not think that each sub-topic must suggest some thoughts that the general topic alone would not suggest? If you keep clearly before you the sub-topic of your paragraph, what effect do you think it will have on the thoughts and the sentences of that paragraph? With a good framework clearly before you, must not your story move along in an orderly way from a beginning to an end? Have you ever heard stories badly told? If so, what were the faults? ORIGINAL COMPOSITION. Have you not had some experience that you can work up into a good story? If you have, tell the story upon paper, making use of the instruction we have given you in our talk above. +To the Teacher+.--Perhaps a reproduction of the story above may be profitable. EXERCISES ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE SENTENCE AND THE PARAGRAPH. SELECTION FROM GEORGE ELIOT. And this is Dovecote Mill. I must stand a minute or two here on the bridge and look at it, though the clouds are threatening and it is far on in the afternoon. Even in this leafless time of departing February, it is pleasant to look at it. Perhaps the chill, damp season adds a charm to the trimly-kept building, as old as the elms and chestnuts that shelter it from the northern blast. The stream is brimful now, and half drowns the grassy fringe in front of the house. As I look at the stream, the vivid grass, the delicate, bright green softening the outline of the great trunks and branches that gleam from under the bare purple boughs, I am in love with moistness, and envy the white ducks that are dipping their heads far into the water, unmindful of the awkward appearance in the drier world above. 1. And now there is the huge covered wagon, coming home with sacks of grain. 2. That honest wagoner is thinking of his dinner, which is getting sadly dry in the oven at this late hour; but he will not touch it till he has fed his horses--the strong, submissive beasts, who, I fancy, are looking mild reproach at him from between their blinkers, that he should crack his whip at them in that awful manner, as if they needed such a hint! 3. See how they stretch their shoulders up the slope toward the bridge, with all the more energy because they are so near home. 4. Look at their grand, shaggy feet, that seem to grasp the firm earth, at the patient strength of their necks bowed under the heavy collar, at the mighty muscles of their struggling haunches. 5. I should like to see them, with their moist necks freed from the harness, dipping their eager nostrils into the pond. +The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--Notice that in sentence 1, third paragraph, the subject is placed after the predicate. Tell what _now_ and _there_ do. _Coming home with sacks of grain_ does what? Does _coming_ express action? Does it assert action? What is it? What does _home_ do? Put _its_ before _home_ and then read the whole phrase. What other change do you find necessary? A noun is sometimes used alone to do the work of an adverb phrase, the preposition being omitted. What is the office of _minute_ in the second sentence of the first paragraph? What preposition could be put in? In 2, third paragraph, the pronoun _which_ stands for _dinner_. Read the sentence, using the noun instead of the pronoun. Have you now two sentences, or one? You see that _which_ not only stands for _dinner_, but it joins on a sentence so as to make it describe the dinner. What does _till he has fed his horses_ do? Omitting _till_, would this group of words be a sentence? What, then, joins this group, and makes it do the work of an adverb? Notice the dash after _horses_. The writer here breaks off rather suddenly and begins again, using _beasts_ instead of _horses_. To _beasts_ are added many descriptive words. You will learn that this noun _beasts_ added to the noun _horses_ is called an explanatory modifier. Notice that _I fancy_ is thrown in loosely or independently and is set off by commas. All the other words beginning with _who_ and ending with _hint_ are joined by _who_ to _beasts_. Notice that the writer makes these beasts think like persons, and so uses _who_ instead of _which_ or _that_. Do we ordinarily speak of looking anything? In _who are looking reproach_, what is the object complement of _are looking_? What long group of words made up of two sentences tells why the beasts are looking reproach? Read separately the main divisions of 2. What conjunction connects these? Is one of these divisions itself divided into parts by commas? Should, then, some mark of wider separation be put between the main divisions of 2? To build so long a sentence as 2 is venturesome. We advise young writers not to make such attempts. It is hard to write very long sentences and keep the meaning clear. In 3 the subject of _see_ is _you_, which is generally omitted in a command. You are here told to see what? Break this long object complement up into two sentences. What do the horses stretch? Where do they stretch their shoulders? How do they stretch? Why do they stretch with more energy? What is the subject of _look_ in 4? The phrase beginning with _at_ and ending with _earth_ does what? Find two other long phrases introduced by _at_ and tell what they do. _That seem to grasp the firm earth_ goes with what? Put the noun _feet_ in place of the pronoun _that_ and make a separate sentence of this group. What word, then, makes an adjective modifier of this sentence and joins it to _feet_? Does _to grasp_ assert action? What do you call it? It is here used as attribute complement. _Bowed under the heavy collar_ describes what? Does _bowed_ assert action? What do you call it? +To the Teacher+.--If time permits, we believe that such exercises as the above may profitably be continued. This sentence work may perhaps best follow Lesson 50. See suggestions with preceding exercises. +Descriptive Writing+.--This extract from the novelist who called herself "George Eliot" we have slightly changed for our purpose. It is purely +descriptive+. It is a painting in words--a vivid picture of a very pretty scene. How grateful we are to those who can, as it were, turn a page of a book into canvas, and paint on it a rich verbal picture that delights us every time we read it or recall it! How many such pictures there are in our libraries! And how little they cost us when compared with those that we buy and hang upon our walls! +Some Features of a Good Description+.--Does this author mention many features of the mill, of the stream, and of the horses pulling their load over the bridge? Do those that she does mention suggest to you everything else? Name some of the things suggested to you but not mentioned in this description. Does not some of the charm of a description lie in the reader's having something left him to supply? If the author had given you every little detail of the mill, the stream, and the laboring horses, would not the description have been dull and tiresome? What things that the author imagined but did not really see are mentioned in the third paragraph? Do these touches of fancy or imagination help the picture? Do they show that the author was in love with her work? and do they therefore stimulate your fancy or imagination? +The Framework+.--In making a framework for this description would you take for the general topic "The Scene from the Bridge" or "Things Seen from a Bridge"? or would you prefer some other wording of it? Now write out a framework, placing the sub-topics under the general topic as you have been taught. ORIGINAL COMPOSITION. Describe some scene that you greatly enjoy, or draw your picture from imagination. Make a framework and try to profit by all that we have said. EXERCISES ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE SENTENCE AND THE PARAGRAPH. SELECTION FROM THE BROTHERS GRIMM. Once upon a time there was a very old man, whose eyes were dim, whose ears were dull, and whose knees trembled. When he sat at table, he could scarcely hold his spoon; and often he spilled his food over the tablecloth and sometimes down his clothes. His son and daughter-in-law were much vexed about this, and at last they made the old man sit behind the oven in a corner, and gave him his food in an earthen dish, and not enough of it either; so that the poor man grew sad, and his eyes were wet with tears. Once his hand trembled so much that he could not hold the dish, and it fell upon the ground and broke all in pieces, so that the young wife scolded him; but he made no reply and only sighed. Then they brought him a wooden dish, and out of that he had to feed. One day, as he was sitting in his usual place, he saw his little grandson, four years old, fitting together some pieces of wood. "What are you making?" asked the old man. "I am making a wooden trough," replied the child, "for father and mother to feed out of when I grow big." At these words the father looked at his wife for a moment, and presently they began to cry. Henceforth they let the old grandfather sit at the table with them, and they did not even say anything if he spilled a little food upon the cloth. +The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--What is the order of subject and predicate in the first sentence of this selection? The word _there_ does not tell where; it is put before _was_ to let the subject follow. _There_ is frequently so used and is then called an independent adverb. Find in the first sentence three adjective clauses. What connects each to _man_? What other office has this connective? How are these adjective clauses connected with one another? What is the office of the dependent clause in the next sentence? If this clause were placed after its principal clause, would the comma be needed? Are the clauses separated by the semicolon as closely connected as those divided by the comma? After _made_ and some other words the _to_ before the infinitive is omitted. Find such an instance in the first sentence of the second paragraph. In this same sentence change _gave him his food_, making _him_ come last. You have learned that a noun or a pronoun may be used without a preposition to do the work of an adverb phrase. What does _one day_ do in the third paragraph? Is a preposition needed before _day?_ In the same sentence _years_ is used adverbially to modify the adjective _old_. It would be hard to find a preposition to put before _years_. We might say "old to the extent of four years," but _four years_ answers for the whole phrase. In this same paragraph what words are quoted exactly as the old man uttered them? Describe the quotation marks. Notice that the next quotation is broken by the words _replied the child_, and so each part of the quotation is separately inclosed within quotation marks. +To the Teacher+.--We have here touched a few features of the sentences above. The exercises given with the preceding selections will suggest a fuller examination of the phrases and clauses. +Suggestions from this Narrative+.--We see that this beautiful story has a purpose. Its purpose is to teach us kindness to our parents. It is well planned. Every sentence and every paragraph is adapted to the end in view. No useless item or circumstance is admitted. The story stops when the end is reached. Anything added to the fifth paragraph would spoil the story. We certainly can learn much from such a model. +Paragraphs+.--Does every sentence in the first paragraph aid in picturing the helplessness of the old grandfather? Is the picture complete? Does the second paragraph strongly impress us with the unkindness of the son and daughter-in-law, who ought to have been moved to pity by the old man's condition? Does it contain an unnecessary sentence? In telling how the grandchild unconsciously taught a lesson, a dialogue is introduced, and so what really belongs to one sub-topic is put in the form of two paragraphs. It is customary to make a separate paragraph of each single speech in a dialogue. Read the last paragraph carefully and see whether one could wish to know anything more about the effect of the lesson taught by the child. Make a framework for this story. ORIGINAL COMPOSITION. Make up a short story from your own experience, or from your imagination, and try to profit by the suggestions above. Prepare a framework at the beginning. +Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph+. SELECTION FROM BEECHER. Overwork almost always ends in weakening the digestive organs. There are those who overtax their minds through months and years, forgetful that there is a close connection between overwork and dyspepsia. Everyone should remember that there is a point beyond which he cannot urge his brain without harm to his stomach; and that, when he loses his stomach, he loses the very citadel of health. The whole body is renewed from the blood, and the blood is made from the food taken into the stomach. The power of the blood to renew bone and brain and muscle depends upon a good digestion. Too little sleep is fatal to health. Perhaps you have to work hard all day; but that is no reason why you should resolve, "If I cannot have pleasure by day, I will have it at night." You are taking the very substance of your body when you burn the lamp of pleasure till one or two o'clock in the morning. God has made sleep to be a sponge with which to rub out fatigue. A man's roots are planted in night, as a tree's are planted in soil, and out of it he should come, at waking, with fresh growth and bloom. As a rule, you should take eight hours of the twenty-four, for sleep. +The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--In the exercises under the selection from the Brothers Grimm what did you learn about _there_ as used twice in the second sentence above? What does _those_ mean? What long adjective clause is joined to _those_ by _who_? Does this clause read so closely as not to need a comma before _who_? Does _forgetful_ describe the persons represented by _who_? Why is a comma used before _forgetful_? You learned in a preceding exercise that a noun may do the work of an adverb phrase without the help of a preposition. A noun clause may do the same. The adjective _forgetful_ is modified by the noun clause _that ... dyspepsia_. If we say _forgetful of the fact_, we see that the noun clause means the same as _fact_ and has the same office. What two long noun clauses aroused to complete _should remember_? What conjunction introduces each of these clauses? What conjunction joins them together? What mark of punctuation between? If one of these noun clauses were not itself divided into clauses by the comma, would the semicolon be needed? The clause _beyond ... stomach_ goes with what word? _When ... stomach_ modifies what verb? Classify the sentences of this paragraph as simple, complex, or compound. +To the Teacher+.--We have here treated informally some difficult points. Perhaps these may be better understood when the book is reviewed. +The Various Objects Writers Have+.--From your study of the preceding selections you learn that a writer may have any one of several objects in writing. He may wish simply to instruct the reader, as does Darwin in what he says of earthworms. He may wish merely to amuse the reader, as does Mr. Habberton in our extract from "Helen's Babies." He may wish only to put before them a picture which, like that of George Eliot's, shall afford delight. Or he may wish to get hold of what we call our wills and lead us to do something, perform some duty. This is what the story from the Brothers Grimm aims at. And you saw how it does this--by working on our feelings. There are at least these four objects that a writer may propose to himself. Which of these four objects has Mr. Beecher in the paragraphs we quote? Does he instruct? Does he try to get us to do something? Would it help you to have clearly before you from the beginning the object you are seeking to accomplish? +Figurative Expressions+.--In these paragraphs Mr. Beecher calls a man's stomach the citadel of health, and sleep a sponge to rub out fatigue with, and says a man's roots are planted in night. He does not use these words _citadel_, _sponge_, and _roots_ in their first or common meaning. He uses them in what we call a +figurative+ sense. He means to say that a man's stomach is to him what a fortress is to soldiers, a source of strength; that in sleep fatigue disappears as do figures on a slate or blackboard when a wet sponge is drawn across them; and that a man gets out of night what a tree's roots draw out of the soil, nourishment and vigor. Such figurative uses of words give strength and beauty to style. ORIGINAL COMPOSITION. In the paragraphs quoted above you were told of the effects on health of overwork and of insufficient sleep. Perhaps you can write of exercise, of proper food, of clothes, or of some other things on which health may depend. +Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph+. ADAPTED FROM DR. JOHN BROWN--"RAB AND HIS FRIENDS." Rab belonged to a lost tribe--there are no such dogs now. He was old and gray and brindled; and his hair short, hard, and close, like a lion's. He was as big as a Highland bull, and his body was thickset. He must have weighed ninety pounds at least. His large, blunt head was scarred with the record of old wounds, a series of battlefields all over it. His muzzle was as black as night, his mouth blacker than any night, and a tooth or two, all he had, gleamed out of his jaws of darkness. One eye was out, one ear cropped close. The remaining eye had the power of two; and above it, and in constant communication with it, was a tattered rag of an ear that was for ever unfurling itself, like an old flag. And then that bud of a tail, about an inch long, if it could in any sense be said to be long, being as broad as it was long! The mobility of it, its expressive twinklings and winkings, and the intercommunications between the eye, the ear, and it, were of the oddest and swiftest. Rab had the dignity and simplicity of great size. Having fought his way all along the road to absolute supremacy, he was as mighty in his own line as Julius Caesar or the Duke of Wellington in his, and he had the gravity of all great fighters. +To the Teacher+.--We suggest exercises on the uses of words similar to those preceding. Before attempting this it may be well to let the pupils go over these condensed expressions and supply the words necessary to the analysis. For instance, in the first paragraph _hair_ may be followed by _was_ and _Highland bull_ by _is big_. In the next paragraph _wounds_ may be followed by _marking_, _as night_ by _is black_, etc. In the third paragraph _and then_ may be followed by _there was_, etc. The pupils will determine whether supplying these words makes the description stronger or weaker. Pupils may note especially the offices of nouns, verbs, and adjectives. This selection abounds in descriptive nouns and verbs that are particularly well chosen. Let the pupils point out such. +The Description+.--How does the description above impress you? Are only characteristic parts and features selected? Are these few features enough to give you a distinct and vivid picture of Rab? What comparisons do you find? How do they help? Pick out some words or phrases that seem to you very expressive. Find some words that are used, not in their first or common sense, but in a figurative sense. How do they help? +Paragraphs+.--Which paragraph puts before you the dog as a whole? Where must this paragraph naturally stand? Why? Which paragraph describes Rab's character? What does each of the other paragraphs describe? If you think the arrangement of paragraphs above is the best, tell why. Make a framework for this description. ORIGINAL COMPOSITION. Write a description of some animal which you have closely observed and in which you are interested. Be careful to pick out leading or characteristic features that will bring others into the reader's imagination. First prepare a framework. 
26513	----	+------------------------------------------------+ |Transcriber's Note: The letter 'a' with a macron| |accent is indicated as +a+. | +------------------------------------------------+ A SPELLING-BOOK FOR ADVANCED CLASSES. BY WILLIAM T. ADAMS, MASTER OF BOWDITCH SCHOOL, BOSTON. BOSTON: BREWER AND TILESTON. 1873. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1868, by WILLIAM T. ADAMS, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts STEREOTYPED BY W. F. BROWN & CO., No. 15 Cornhill, Boston PREFACE. This work, as its title indicates, is intended for the use of Advanced Classes,--for scholars who are, to some extent, familiar with the principles of pronunciation and syllabication. It is not intended to supersede the ordinary Spelling-Book, but rather to follow it, as a practical application of the pupil's knowledge, not only in spelling, but in dividing and pronouncing the more difficult words in common use. It is believed that, for Advanced Classes, the plan adopted in this book, of presenting the words without indicating the pronunciation or syllabication, will be found to possess some decided advantages; for the pupil, as in the study of Arithmetic and the Languages, is thereby thrown upon his own resources. This method will certainly test his knowledge, while the dictionary will always be available to supply deficiencies. The words have been arranged in lessons of thirty each, and numbered for convenience of reference. All classification has been carefully avoided, so that the initial letter, the terminational syllable, or the silent letters shall not be indicated by the preceding word. It is suggested that, in written lessons, the words be arranged in lines, instead of columns, in order to afford the scholar an occasional exercise in practical syllabication. BOWDITCH SCHOOL, Boston, Jan. 9, 1868 A SPELLING-BOOK FOR ADVANCED CLASSES. LESSON 1. 1. flageolet 2. dactyl 3. irony 4. hoopoe 5. blasphemous 6. abatable 7. nausea 8. secede 9. _élite_ 10. psalmody 11. subtile 12. cabalistic 13. secession 14. topsy-turvy 15. flagrancy 16. mushroom 17. superficies 18. caustic 19. passable 20. rappee 21. hysterics 22. irradiate 23. abbey 24. asphyxia 25. ellipse 26. italicize 27. daffodil 28. monetary 29. fogy 30. hungrily 2. 1. elixir 2. mustache 3. acknowledgment 4. seniority 5. boa-constrictor 6. quinine 7. sensibility 8. sensational 9. caboose 10. foible 11. iterate 12. daguerrotype 13. penetrable 14. cauterize 15. nauseous 16. banana 17. ellipsis 18. ignominy 19. acoustics 20. dahlia 21. flamingo 22. casuistry 23. horde 24. abbreviate 25. elliptical 26. irrational 27. moneyed 28. casualty 29. secrecy 30. psalter 3. 1. abdominal 2. beau 3. itinerant 4. boatswain 5. _succedaneum_ 6. cabriolet 7. elongation 8. volatile 9. iambic 10. pseudonyme 11. dairy 12. mongrel 13. juvenile 14. sententious 15. atomic 16. hurricane 17. elocution 18. foliaceous 19. cavalcade 20. acquiescence 21. itinerary 22. Jezebel 23. secretion 24. cavalier 25. pyre 26. zigzag 27. dalliance 28. movable 29. movement 30. bivouac 4. 1. _caçhe_ 2. acquirement 3. bobolink 4. whinnying 5. ignore 6. musketeer 7. Kremlin 8. pyrometer 9. bandanna 10. elopement 11. flagitious 12. horizon 13. aberration 14. catacombs 15. whippoorwill 16. musician 17. peroration 18. quinsy 19. secrete 20. elucidate 21. superfluity 22. sectarian 23. transmitted 24. transmuted 25. cacao 26. succinct 27. iambus 28. catalepsy 29. quintal 30. Bedouins 5. 1. flatulence 2. damageable 3. juxtaposition 4. abeyance 5. elves 6. acquittal 7. fomentation 8. hurtle 9. cavilling 10. bodice 11. jib 12. nautical 13. eludible 14. phantasmagoria 15. zinc 16. labelled 17. rappel 18. sentient 19. cacique 20. rarefy 21. rarity 22. tornadoes 23. ceiling 24. iguana 25. navigable 26. forage 27. sentinel 28. ventricle 29. blackguard 30. _elysium_ 6. 1. abhorrence 2. jacconet 3. monochromatic 4. passover 5. Boeotian 6. pshaw 7. secular 8. flaxy 9. cactus 10. emancipate 11. ibex 12. dandelion 13. justification 14. monopolize 15. catarrh 16. aborigines 17. whirligig 18. superintendent 19. torpedoes 20. pastel 21. atonement 22. foraging 23. celebrity 24. husky 25. emanation 26. adipocere 27. jockey 28. dandruff 29. mucilage 30. penguin 7. 1. bohea 2. pyrotechnic 3. separable 4. daub 5. emasculate 6. cadaverous 7. succory 8. Iliad 9. labial 10. celerity 11. mucus, _n._ 12. mucous, _a._ 13. penitential 14. banditti 15. adjacent 16. forbearance 17. forcible 18. hornblende 19. abridgment 20. catastrophe 21. gabion 22. jackal 23. muskmelon 24. perpendicular 25. securely 26. debasement 27. supernumerary 28. embalm 29. sepoy 30. forebode 8. 1. _ibidem_ 2. _caduceus_ 3. abscission 4. embellish 5. katydid 6. debauchee 7. quintessence 8. perplexity 9. mussel 10. g+a+elic 11. befitting 12. hyacinth 13. embarrass 14. adjournment 15. jocose 16. celestial 17. garrison 18. frivolity 19. navy 20. navvy 21. boisterous 22. phantom 23. separately 24. succotash 25. freckle 26. debilitate 27. adjutant 28. embarkation 29. laborer 30. illegible 9. 1. vicarious 2. cæsura 3. blamable 4. Nazarene 5. pharisee 6. garrulous 7. embezzle 8. horoscope 9. catchup 10. absence 11. debonair 12. jacketed 13. boll 14. monosyllable 15. pathetic 16. foregoing 17. psychology 18. sedative 19. _café_ 20. emblematical 21. pathology 22. Mussulman 23. catechise 24. gaff 25. zodiacal 26. _débris_ 27. atrocity 28. kaleidoscope 29. abstemious 30. foreigner 10. 1. _début_ 2. hybrid 3. admiralty 4. celestine 5. joggle 6. pennant 7. emblazon 8. mucilaginous 9. supersede 10. _friseur_ 11. python 12. transparency 13. _caique_ 14. Septuagint 15. embodiment 16. pennyroyal 17. Celtic 18. neap-tide 19. gasconade 20. succulent 21. illiberal 22. banian 23. decade 24. laboratory 25. sediment 26. adolescence 27. frolicsome 28. horrible 29. emboguing 30. abstrusely 11. 1. musquash 2. catechism 3. plausible 4. quittance 5. bolster 6. forensic 7. decalogue 8. sedentary 9. caisson 10. perseverance 11. monotheism 12. Icarian 13. supersedure 14. sepulchral 15. behavior 16. gainsaid 17. whetstone 18. keelhaul 19. academician 20. embracement 21. adscititious 22. hydra 23. embowelling 24. gaseous 25. deceased 26. diseased 27. joinery 28. monomania 29. cement 30. pharisaic 12. 1. frontier 2. raspberry 3. sepulchre 4. bomb 5. pharmaceutic 6. decennial 7. embrasure 8. caitiff 9. illicit 10. gasometer 11. muddied 12. deceptibility 13. labyrinth 14. _blanc-mange_ 15. adulation 16. embrocation 17. forerunner 18. _hors de combat_ 19. accelerate 20. jaguar 21. categorical 22. mutineer 23. _patois_ 24. garish 25. ratable 26. sequester 27. emersion 28. sudorific 29. transportable 30. ratafia 13. 1. forestall 2. monotony 3. bombardment 4. iceberg 5. patriarch 6. cajolery 7. keelson 8. atrophy 9. gala-day 10. accentuation 11. deciduous 12. advancement 13. frontlet 14. embryo 15. hydraulics 16. cenotaph 17. jointure 18. Neapolitan 19. gastric 20. pentateuch 21. decimate 22. recommend 23. shallop 24. superstitious 25. recompense 26. emetic 27. zoölogy 28. _muezzin_ 29. illimitable 30. lacerate 14. 1. Pentecost 2. calabash 3. banqueting 4. advertise 5. gastritis 6. _émeute_ 7. declamation 8. foretelling 9. hortatory 10. catering 11. acceptable 12. jalap 13. regatta 14. persimmon 15. Galatians 16. myriad 17. sequestration 18. suet 19. bombastic 20. declension 21. regicide 22. calaboose 23. emissary 24. forfeiture 25. personify 26. kennelling 27. caterwaul 28. behoove 29. Icelandic 30. accessary 15. 1. eminence 2. hydrocephalus 3. fructification 4. censer 5. censor 6. adze 7. joist 8. declination 9. neat's-foot 10. gastronomy 11. shamming 12. pharmacy 13. bombazine 14. renovate 15. pharynx 16. caterpillar 17. frugality 18. lachrymose 19. calcareous 20. whiskey 21. ægis 22. emission 23. gauge 24. illision 25. declivity 26. emmet 27. formality 28. cathedral 29. horticulture 30. accessible 16. 1. decrement 2. jam 3. galiot 4. moralist 5. patrician 6. renunciation 7. boneset 8. seraglio 9. formidable 10. supervise 11. attenuate 12. empanel 13. calcine 14. ichneumon 15. morass 16. ratios 17. galleon 18. phoenix 19. kernel 20. acclamation 21. emollient 22. emolument 23. census 24. fruition 25. aërial 26. hydrogen 27. decrepit 28. jonquil 29. gauntlet 30. mulatto 17. 1. peppery 2. rattan 3. bonfire 4. shampooing 5. dedicatory 6. frustration 7. pickerel 8. calendar 9. baptistery 10. illiterate 11. mulch 12. lackey 13. emphasize 14. +a+erolite 15. gavel 16. empiric 17. formulary 18. illness 19. catholicism 20. acclimation 21. gallery 22. jamb 23. belladonna 24. myrmidon 25. deducible 26. perspicacity 27. reconciliation 28. fortuitous 29. seraph 30. viceroy 18. 1. suffice 2. bonito 3. recondite 4. pittance 5. calender 6. myrrh 7. kerosene 8. empyrean 9. accommodate 10. impression 11. fugacious 12. +a+eronaut 13. journalize 14. centaur 15. whizzing 16. gazette 17. defalcation 18. pheasant 19. empiricist 20. shampooes 21. _belles-lettres_ 22. _nebula_ 23. plenipotentiary 24. _nebulæ_ 25. defamation 26. impassable 27. impassible 28. license 29. affiliation 30. laconic 19. 1. calipers 2. fugue 3. gallinaceous 4. emulation 5. catholicity 6. defendable 7. emulgent 8. caudal 9. fulcrum 10. incestuous 11. accompaniment 12. journeying 13. _bon-mot_ 14. moresque 15. gallinipper 16. phenomenon 17. ratiocination 18. defensible 19. supinely 20. truncated 21. fulfil 22. ventriloquist 23. caliph 24. morocco 25. philanthropy 26. attrition 27. galloon 28. lacquer 29. impressment 30. accomplice 20. 1. fossil 2. centipede 3. emulsive 4. caudle 5. deference 6. illogical 7. affirmative 8. janitor 9. bonneted 10. gazetteer 11. mulct 12. picnic 13. _reconnoissance_ 14. deficiency 15. sufficient 16. picturesque 17. calisthenics 18. Janizary 19. fossilized 20. muleteer 21. baptizable 22. gearing 23. agglomerate 24. enamour 25. inchoate 26. encircling 27. foundery 28. centralize 29. illuminate 30. accordion 21. 1. myrtle 2. galloping 3. pitying 4. book-keeper 5. deflection 6. rational 7. caul 8. fragile 9. supplant 10. calker 11. mysterious 12. transposition 13. _encore_ 14. pitied 15. _imprimis_ 16. khan 17. cauliflower 18. aureola 19. gallows 20. accoutre 21. degeneracy 22. fulminate 23. encomium 24. impeachment 25. centrifugal 26. aggrandize 27. joust 28. gee (to the right) 29. necessarily 30. plenteous 22. 1. deglutition 2. reconnoitre 3. pleonasm 4. boomerang 5. fulness 6. necessity 7. lacteal 8. calla-lily 9. deify 10. encouragement 11. barbecue 12. centripetal 13. incidence 14. gelatine 15. _aide-de-camp_ 16. calliope 17. encyclopædia 18. fragilely 19. delectable 20. illusion 21. galoche 22. accretion 23. japanning 24. boreal 25. frangibility 26. morphine 27. philippic 28. rattling 29. galvanize 30. philology 23. 1. auricular 2. delegate 3. endemic 4. casual 5. causal 6. frankincense 7. improbable 8. acerbity 9. kidnap 10. gamboge 11. fumigate 12. delicious 13. impede 14. endue 15. alabaster 16. Gemini 17. zoöphyte 18. borough 19. mulish 20. fundamental 21. piebald 22. rectangular 23. callous 24. _gendarme_ 25. sheathe 26. energetic 27. piecemeal 28. cephalic 29. lager-beer 30. barilla 24. 1. _fungi_ 2. alchemist 3. delineate 4. _impromptu_ 5. genealogy 6. fraternize 7. delinquent 8. incipient 9. gambol 10. energize 11. achromatic 12. jargonelle 13. mysticism 14. pivot 15. botanist 16. fraudulence 17. ravelling 18. suffocate 19. calumet 20. seraphim 21. truncheon 22. veracious 23. deliquesce 24. suffragan 25. causality 26. placable 27. kidnapper 28. belvedere 29. gambrel 30. engorge 25. 1. enfilade 2. funnel 3. illustrious 4. delirium 5. generic 6. alcoholic 7. jubilant 8. necrology 9. plethora 10. botanize 11. furlough 12. rectifying 13. chameleon 14. engineer 15. supplement 16. deleterious 17. transubstantiation 18. incision 19. supplementary 20. pleurisy 21. cerate 22. lamely 23. Benedict 24. generalize 25. engrossment 26. frenzy 27. cereal 28. enigma 29. _en masse_ 30. imageable 26. 1. camelopard 2. impel 3. genet 4. amphitheatre 5. jubilee 6. neighed 7. bowlder 8. pigeon 9. rectilineal 10. shechinah 11. demeanor 12. furze 13. neophyte 14. chargeable 15. sycophancy 16. pilaster 17. enrolment 18. lamprey 19. incitement 20. geniality 21. _en route_ 22. friar 23. cerement 24. imagery 25. antarctic 26. demigod 27. goal 28. gaol 29. jasper 30. obnoxious 27. 1. campaign 2. bourgeois 3. fricassee 4. oboe 5. _ensemble_ 6. placard 7. realization 8. demise 9. serenade 10. ceremonial 11. supposititious 12. placid 13. gape 14. kilderkin 15. improvident 16. fascine 17. ensconce 18. impenetrability 19. _chargé d'affaires_ 20. applicability 21. judgment 22. demijohn 23. genii 24. obloquy 25. pliers 26. recuperate 27. syllabication 28. bourn 29. sheik 30. furtively 28. 1. obscenity 2. trapezium 3. campanologist 4. plugging 5. democracy 6. landau 7. charioteer 8. genteelly 9. inclemency 10. entablature 11. entailment 12. frieze 13. certificate 14. imaginary 15. _demoiselle_ 16. gardener 17. _bourse_ 18. _alibi_ 19. jaundice 20. enterprise 21. nectarine 22. frigate 23. philter 24. camphor 25. really 26. realize 27. suppurate 28. demoniacal 29. garget 30. impugn 29. 1. trapezoid 2. cerulean 3. nefarious 4. phlebotomize 5. kiln 6. fusee 7. impenitent 8. charlatan 9. judicature 10. demolition 11. gentian 12. bovine 13. nephew 14. anagram 15. pillaging 16. Canaanite 17. fusibility 18. severity 19. enthronement 20. recusant 21. syllogism 22. demoralize 23. try-sail 24. gentility 25. trysting 26. shekel 27. wholesale 28. _charlotte-russe_ 29. nepotism 30. inclinable 30. 1. cervical 2. enticement 3. demulcent 4. frigidity 5. imbecile 6. bowling 7. antecedent 8. geographical 9. javelin 10. obscurity 11. cancelling 12. plagiarism 13. frippery 14. redeemable 15. plumbago 16. serge 17. entomology 18. supremacy 19. chastisable 20. travelled 21. pillory 22. denunciation 23. obsequies 24. impulsion 25. Gordian 26. imperative 27. _chasseur_ 28. entombment 29. demy 30. fustian 31. 1. garlic 2. Brahmin 3. candescence 4. apposite 5. girandole 6. judiciary 7. futile 8. obsequious 9. dentifrice 10. plumb 11. sherbet 12. _entrée_ 13. sylvan 14. plaguing 15. languid 16. obsolete 17. cessation 18. gravy 19. garlicky 20. _incognito_ 21. enumerate 22. cession 23. session 24. geology 25. imbecility 26. deodorize 27. alignement 28. jealousy 29. zouave 30. brazier 32. 1. phlegm 2. Candlemas 3. reasonably 4. envelop, _v._ 5. envelope, _n._ 6. gorge 7. impunity 8. check-rein 9. negligence 10. dependence 11. rebuffed 12. shillalah 13. phlegmatic 14. kirtle 15. auscultation 16. gist 17. imperceptible 18. chateau 19. enunciate 20. anachronism 21. depletion 22. juggler 23. plaguy 24. breathe 25. Nereids 26. plumber 27. redolent 28. cannibalism 29. sergeant 30. surfeited 33. 1. deponent 2. enveloping 3. nether 4. incoherent 5. cesspool 6. reënact 7. greasiness 8. pimento 9. barytone 10. languor 11. _dépôt_ 12. chagrin 13. _imbroglio_ 14. antediluvial 15. environ 16. jejune 17. geomancy 18. occident 19. brevet 20. rebellion 21. cannonade 22. tubercle 23. sheriff 24. symbol 25. tubercular 26. depositary 27. recapitulate 28. occult 29. chalcedony 30. authenticity 34. 1. epaulet 2. plaice 3. kitchen 4. impurity 5. gorgeous 6. imperial 7. depreciate 8. æolian 9. chemical 10. appraisement 11. jugular 12. occiput 13. _glacier_ 14. reducible 15. surgeon 16. breviary 17. treasonable 18. oceanic 19. sermonize 20. canonical 21. ephemeral 22. reëngage 23. depredate 24. vicinage 25. plummet 26. Laodicean 27. cherubim 28. greenness 29. barometer 30. incommode 35. 1. ephod 2. brevier 3. imitable 4. deprivation 5. alimony 6. chalice 7. jelly 8. ochre 9. phlox 10. recede 11. geometry 12. symbolic 13. imputable 14. serous 15. treacle 16. canonize 17. epicene 18. symmetry 19. deputize 20. receivable 21. chalybeate 22. neutrality 23. phonography 24. knack 25. gorget 26. epic 27. derangement 28. imperious 29. brigantine 30. analogy 36. 1. juice 2. octagonal 3. chestnut 4. reëchoes 5. serrated 6. glacis 7. pimpernel 8. incomparable 9. shiny 10. cantata 11. Epicurean 12. surmise 13. dereliction 14. refinement 15. surname 16. chevron 17. Nicene 18. gregarious 19. pinafore 20. lapidary 21. geometrician 22. derisive 23. immaculate 24. brilliancy 25. anterior 26. jeopardy 27. negotiate 28. challengeable 29. plaid 30. epidemic 37. 1. receipt 2. shoddy 3. cantos 4. symbolize 5. tubular 6. derogate 7. receptacle 8. sympathy 9. gormand 10. inability 11. octillion 12. chamberlain 13. plainness 14. jeopardize 15. epiglottis 16. epidermis 17. impertinence 18. derivative 19. gladiator 20. briny 21. appreciable 22. juicy 23. neuralgia 24. cheveril 25. plurality 26. reference 27. surmountable 28. literally 29. surplice 30. refitting 38. 1. epigastric 2. canvas 3. canvass 4. plutonic 5. dervis 6. ocular 7. Gregorian 8. juncture 9. chibouque 10. incompatible 11. derrick 12. epigram 13. chamfer 14. immanence 15. geoponics 16. aliquot 17. caoutchouc 18. knapsack 19. nicety 20. phosphate 21. Rechabite 22. sympathize 23. grenade 24. serviceable 25. britannia 26. treatise 27. inaccurate 28. nickel 29. descant 30. knavery 39. 1. epilepsy 2. champagne 3. champaign 4. gormandize 5. _benedicite_ 6. gladiolus 7. chicanery 8. imperturbable 9. analysis 10. larboard 11. descendible 12. niche 13. pincers 14. reflex 15. capacitate 16. symphony 17. _verbatim_ 18. brochure 19. shoeing 20. tuition 21. vituperation 22. nictitate 23. symptomatic 24. incompetence 25. benefice 26. trepanned 27. vicissitude 28. surrogate 29. epilogue 30. larceny 40. 1. episcopacy 2. chamois 3. immaterial 4. gerfalcon 5. anthracite 6. describable 7. jerkin 8. oculist 9. plaintiff 10. plaintive 11. bronze 12. recipe 13. servile 14. _cap-a-pie_ 15. surreptitious 16. tumefy 17. reciprocal 18. Odyssey 19. chimpanzee 20. kneading 21. autopsy 22. gossamer 23. inadequate 24. desecration 25. epitaph 26. episode 27. glandulous 28. apprentice 29. chimera 30. impervious 41. 1. junior 2. descension 3. odoriferous 4. bruit 5. pneumatics 6. refractorily 7. caparison 8. shote 9. synagogue 10. epistolary 11. surtout 12. descry 13. oesophagus 14. refragable 15. china-aster 16. largess 17. bronchial 18. barony 19. incompletely 20. grenadier 21. desiccation 22. epithalamium 23. immeasurable 24. bryonia 25. germane 26. alkaline 27. chancel 28. Jesuit 29. nightingale 30. reciprocity 42. 1. servilely 2. capillary 3. synchronism 4. epitome 5. nitre 6. inamorata 7. phosphorus, _n._ 8. phosphorous, _a._ 9. chanticleer 10. recognition 11. trepidation 12. gossiping 13. knick-knack 14. auxiliary 15. designation 16. impetus 17. _desideratum_ 18. glebe 19. analytical 20. buccaneer 21. epithet 22. chintz 23. juniper 24. nitrate 25. pinnace 26. refrangible 27. incomprehensibility 28. shotting 29. _surveillance_ 30. nitrogen 43. 1. epitomize 2. capitulation 3. barouche 4. despatch 5. refugee 6. tunnelling 7. chiropodist 8. verbena 9. _larghetto_ 10. gray 11. epoch 12. immemorial 13. changeable 14. germ 15. antechamber 16. desperado 17. _jet-d'eau_ 18. buckram 19. offering 20. pneumonia 21. recitative 22. syncope 23. capricious 24. officially 25. plait 26. suspicion 27. Gothamite 28. desuetude 29. recognize 30. equable 44. 1. poesy 2. chaos 3. benefiting 4. inanimate 5. glimpse 6. desquamation 7. implacable 8. approximate 9. chirography 10. epsom-salts 11. junketing 12. officered 13. refrigerator 14. bucolic 15. pinnacle 16. settee 17. capsize 18. susceptible 19. officiate 20. larva 21. syndic 22. trestle 23. desultory 24. refulgency 25. shovelful 26. equalling 27. benzole 28. chirrup 29. incongruous 30. wholly 45. 1. immerse 2. _chapeau_ 3. germinate 4. detergent 5. allegation 6. captious 7. jettison 8. equality 9. nocturnal 10. photography 11. avalanche 12. recognizance 13. equanimity 14. shovelling 15. inanition 16. synecdoche 17. Buddhist 18. nomadic 19. gesticulate 20. _régime_ 21. tupelo 22. characterize 23. phraseology 24. detestable 25. knotty 26. deterioration 27. gloaming 28. implement 29. chirurgeon 30. antimony 46. 1. equalize 2. juntos 3. capuchin 4. noisy 5. pinnated 6. regalia 7. anarchy 8. seven-night 9. suspicious 10. detonating 11. barrenness 12. inconsolable 13. noiseless 14. buffalo 15. reparation 16. triennial 17. pioneer 18. chisel 19. larvæ 20. globule 21. equanimity 22. immersion 23. gothic 24. chivalry 25. anticipation 26. _jeu d'esprit_ 27. _détour_ 28. longe 29. officious 30. recollect 47. 1. caravansary 2. planning 3. shrapnel 4. regiment 5. inanity 6. whooping-cough 7. offsetting 8. bulletin 9. gouging 10. planetary 11. equestrian 12. knowledge 13. characteristic 14. avaricious 15. detrimental 16. grievance 17. equatorial 18. aquafortis 19. cinnamon 20. jurisprudence 21. implicate 22. _mademoiselle_ 23. offset 24. detraction 25. poignancy 26. regally 27. synod 28. repartee 29. poisonous 30. equalization 48. 1. equerry 2. inconstancy 3. _Madonna_ 4. bullion 5. oleaginous 6. griffin 7. deuce 8. basalt 9. laryngeal 10. chiselling 11. gesture 12. chloride 13. immigrant 14. bunion 15. allegory 16. devastation 17. jeweller 18. lurid 19. carbonaceous 20. nomenclature 21. phrenology 22. regurgitate 23. severely 24. equidistant 25. sustenance 26. inaudible 27. luscious 28. chloroform 29. phthisic 30. device 49. 1. equilateral 2. _nonchalance_ 3. knurly 4. gourd 5. bequeath 6. implicitly 7. anathema 8. _cinque_ 9. glorification 10. bureau 11. juryman 12. madrigal 13. develop 14. equinoctial 15. oleander 16. pippin 17. carbuncle 18. repelling 19. shrievalty 20. synonyme 21. incontinence 22. bergamot 23. magazine 24. cipher 25. pique 26. reimburse 27. grimalkin 28. nondescript 29. _devoir_ 30. equipage 50. 1. chocolate 2. equilibrium 3. gewgaw 4. imminence 5. burgher 6. antipodes 7. jewelry 8. devolvement 9. lustreless 10. olfactory 11. carcass 12. planisphere 13. rehearsal 14. turbaned 15. diabolical 16. inaugurate 17. luxuriance 18. average 19. cholera 20. oligarchy 21. reindeer 22. gouty 23. plantain 24. equivalent 25. kraken 26. glossary 27. Circean 28. implied 29. aqueduct 30. dexterity 51. 1. justiciary 2. triglyph 3. burlesque 4. equinox 5. _magi_ 6. _polacca_ 7. cardiac 8. repetition 9. suzerain 10. equipoise 11. repletion 12. diachylon 13. lyceum 14. basement 15. polarity 16. circuitous 17. olio 18. lascivious 19. incontrovertible 20. grindstone 21. diadem 22. ghastliness 23. chord 24. equivocate 25. immobility 26. careen 27. allopathic 28. lassitude 29. eradicate 30. magician 52. 1. nonillion 2. ghostly 3. phylactery 4. reiterate 5. dialectic 6. avoirdupois 7. _Inca_ 8. synonymous 9. Christendom 10. erasable 11. lying 12. notable 13. trigonometry 14. physician 15. liege 16. glottis 17. importable 18. circumambient 19. anatomical 20. legitimate 21. diagonal 22. erase 23. lye 24. nonpareil 25. caricature 26. magistracy 27. piquet 28. turbine 29. reportorial 30. swathe 53. 1. piratical 2. erectile 3. glue 4. inconvenient 5. circumference 6. noticing 7. basilicon 8. _magna charta_ 9. dialogue 10. loadstone 11. immolation 12. graciously 13. chorister 14. antiquarian 15. lasso 16. diametrical 17. Olympian 18. relative 19. sewer 20. carnivorous 21. synopsis 22. erelong 23. plantigrade 24. turbot 25. relaxation 26. diaphragm 27. plateau 28. lymphatic 29. chromatic 30. omnific 54. 1. erroneous 2. lien 3. gradually 4. beryl 5. incandescence 6. ermine 7. grizzly 8. circumcise 9. aquiline 10. importunity 11. leguminous 12. diapason 13. magnanimity 14. omelet 15. polarization 16. carolling 17. reprehend 18. shrimp 19. _errata_ 20. Swedenborgian 21. Trinitarian 22. diarrhoea 23. magnate 24. polemic 25. circumstantial 26. omnipotent 27. requisition 28. incorporate 29. loath 30. besotted 55. 1. erudition 2. chrome 3. ghoul 4. diatribe 5. immortalize 6. allspice 7. carotid 8. wilful 9. noticeable 10. giaour 11. physiognomy 12. lathe 13. reliable 14. eruption 15. novelist 16. chronicle 17. sexagesimal 18. synoptical 19. awning 20. turbulency 21. relievable 22. dictatorial 23. physiology 24. lieutenant 25. incantation 26. dicky 27. gluten 28. circumvallation 29. ancestry 30. eructation 56. 1. impossible 2. carouse 3. leisure 4. magnesia 5. notoriety 6. _pirouette_ 7. rescind 8. dictionary 9. erysipelas 10. windlass 11. shrivelled 12. circus 13. swivel 14. basilisk 15. residuary 16. glutinous 17. gluttonous 18. piscatory 19. incorrect 20. loathe 21. escalade 22. immovable 23. chronology 24. antique 25. grammarian 26. didactic 27. lath 28. magnetic 29. carrageen 30. omnipresence 57. 1. platina 2. bestiality 3. lyrical 4. relic 5. chrysalis 6. omnivorous 7. sextant 8. escheat 9. reluctancy 10. grampus 11. platitude 12. diæresis 13. _macaroni_ 14. lieu 15. incapacitate 16. impostor 17. groin 18. cirrus 19. escarpment 20. arabesque 21. diary 22. leisurely 23. magnificence 24. carrion 25. omniscient 26. policy 27. reservoir 28. syntactical 29. eschew 30. macadamize 58. 1. dietary 2. _on-dit_ 3. resin 4. cisalpine 5. politely 6. incorrigible 7. macaroon 8. escorting 9. loathsome 10. grommet 11. _escritoire_ 12. immunity 13. churl 14. alluvial 15. gibberish 16. carronade 17. latitudinarian 18. maguey 19. novitiate 20. pianist 21. differential 22. resonant 23. sibilant 24. _groschen_ 25. swop 26. chyle 27. now-a-days 28. esculent 29. macaw 30. incarcerate 59. 1. gibbet 2. tripartite 3. pibroch 4. diffusible 5. ligament 6. Escurial 7. impotent 8. citadel 9. anchorite 10. grandee 11. lemma 12. _carte-blanche_ 13. mahogany 14. noxious 15. pistachio 16. diffidence 17. remediable 18. sextillion 19. synthesis 20. tureen 21. escutcheon 22. nucleus 23. citation 24. Mahometan 25. sibyl 26. victimize 27. incredible 28. digestible 29. pistareen 30. lobelia 60. 1. digital 2. grandeur 3. impalpably 4. espalier 5. antithesis 6. lattice 7. cartel 8. maccoboy 9. onslaught 10. platonic 11. incendiary 12. sycamine 13. Macedonian 14. respiration 15. triphthong 16. chyme 17. oolong 18. _verd-antique_ 19. esplanade 20. gibbeted 21. sycamore 22. dilapidation 23. sibylline 24. plausible 25. ligneous 26. impracticable 27. especially 28. arbiter 29. digression 30. grotesque 61. 1. lemonade 2. mailable 3. onyx 4. cartilaginous 5. politician 6. sextuple 7. remediless 8. espionage 9. synthetic 10. incredulity 11. macerate 12. citrate 13. oozy 14. turkeys 15. espousal 16. respite 17. gnash 18. pollack 19. locate 20. dilemma 21. diligence 22. essayist 23. cicatrice 24. grandiloquence 25. impanel 26. almond 27. cartoon 28. laudable 29. maintenance 30. nuisance 62. 1. maize 2. pica 3. reminiscence 4. _shah_ 5. syringa 6. cicatrize 7. numismatic 8. trisyllable 9. essential 10. victualler 11. gibbous 12. picaroon 13. dimension 14. _lignum-vitæ_ 15. incense 16. grottos 17. imprecation 18. civilian 19. anaconda 20. essence 21. dilution 22. lengthily 23. cartouch 24. Machiavelian 25. nullification 26. pistole 27. sycophant 28. machination 29. responsible 30. Sicilian 63. 1. æsthetics 2. nuncio 3. tumeric 4. civilization 5. verdigris 6. pistil 7. loch 8. diminish 9. increment 10. gneiss 11. granite 12. impanelling 13. cigar 14. etherization 15. aörta 16. diocesan 17. laundry 18. machinery 19. cartridge 20. opaque 21. plebeian 22. remissible 23. shalloon 24. incentive 25. syringe 26. trituration 27. mackintosh 28. _cicerone_ 29. operate 30. ethnography 64. 1. gibe 2. victuals 3. diploma 4. pleasurable 5. lily 6. diorama 7. impregn 8. arborescent 9. clandestine 10. groundsel 11. lenient 12. ethics 13. mackerel 14. opacity 15. casern 16. polyanthus 17. turmoil 18. incubation 19. restitution 20. sickle 21. diphthong 22. malapert 23. etiquette 24. operating 25. remittance 26. remittent 27. clairvoyant 28. vying 29. poltroon 30. locomotion 65. 1. diphtheria 2. ciliary 3. granivorous 4. Etruscan 5. aloes 6. impartial 7. laureate 8. casque 9. _mesdames_ 10. incur 11. nuptial 12. withhold 13. picayune 14. _résumé_ 15. cymbal 16. _reveille_ 17. nutritious 18. sidereal 19. systematic 20. etymology 21. triumvir 22. pickaninny 23. inflection 24. limited 25. incessant 26. group 27. impregnable 28. clangor 29. anacreontic 30. disaster 66. 1. eucharist 2. lens 3. cassava 4. Madeira 5. individuality 6. nunnery 7. pitapat 8. incubus 9. oaths 10. resurrection 11. sirocco 12. clarinet 13. malediction 14. tapioca 15. turquoise 16. piteous 17. eulogium 18. lodgement 19. innuendoes 20. disbursement 21. apathy 22. incurable 23. cimeter 24. laurel 25. euphony 26. manna 27. gigantic 28. ophthalmia 29. discernible 30. Pleiades 67. 1. cassia 2. mania 3. opium 4. abasement 5. removable 6. siege 7. systematize 8. trivial 9. Cimmerian 10. resuscitate 11. plenary 12. granulate 13. limn 14. inflexible 15. _eureka_ 16. indoctrinate 17. gnomon 18. wiry 19. archæology 20. eulogize 21. leonine 22. malefactor 23. discharging 24. opiate 25. acidity 26. polygamy 27. sirup 28. cassimere 29. opodeldoc 30. remunerate 68. 1. malefeasance 2. _tapis_ 3. retaliatory 4. clavicle 5. euroclydon 6. polyglot 7. logarithm 8. disciple 9. inoculate 10. grouse 11. European 12. alpaca 13. cinchona 14. incursion 15. lavender 16. disciplinarian 17. maleformation 18. obduracy 19. cassowary 20. polypus 21. sierra 22. gillyflower 23. manoeuvring 24. rencounter 25. tabernacle 26. disclaimer 27. malice 28. evacuation 29. rendition 30. polysyllable 69. 1. obelisk 2. cincture 3. witticism 4. graphic 5. influential 6. anecdote 7. disclosure 8. Euterpean 9. clayey 10. leopard 11. indorse 12. manoeuvre 13. obeisance 14. caste 15. Portuguese 16. gnostics 17. sizable 18. euthanasy 19. retch 20. tarantula 21. turreted 22. discomfiture 23. manor 24. possession 25. troche 26. reticence 27. obesity 28. logical 29. _clepsydra_ 30. inodorous 70. 1. gimbals 2. clergyman 3. aperture 4. evanescent 5. indebted 6. laxity 7. malicious 8. castellan 9. opossum 10. precursor 11. _siesta_ 12. disconnect 13. rendezvous 14. tablature 15. _attaché_ 16. malign 17. tutelary 18. evangelical 19. predatory 20. renegade 21. opportune 22. climacteric 23. lineament 24. graphite 25. influenza 26. archetype 27. gnu 28. indorsable 29. codicil 30. leper 71. 1. discommode 2. mansuetude 3. opponent 4. primitive 5. skeleton 6. woad 7. retention 8. tariff 9. evangelize 10. reticule 11. disconcert 12. mantel 13. primogeniture 14. compelling 15. opposite 16. loiter 17. inquiry 18. collateral 19. guana 20. guano 21. eviction 22. amalgamate 23. compendium 24. indecent 25. layman 26. climatology 27. mall 28. gimlet 29. obligatory 30. Penrhyn 72. 1. polytechnic 2. renewable 3. competency 4. sieve 5. tableau 6. eviscerate 7. malmsey 8. clique 9. maltese 10. obliquity 11. grasshopper 12. polytheism 13. lingual 14. information 15. discus, _n._ 16. discous, _a._ 17. evincible 18. competitor 19. anemometer 20. indubitable 21. leprosy 22. colleague 23. malleable 24. goblin 25. gobelin 26. oblique 27. posterity 28. discriminate 29. retiracy 30. skewer 73. 1. manumitting 2. complacency 3. tartar 4. ewe 5. oblivion 6. trombone 7. collegian 8. posthumous 9. longevity 10. inquisition 11. clyster 12. exacerbate 13. aphorism 14. indecisive 15. complaisance 16. lazaretto 17. ginning 18. _maraschino_ 19. discrepancy 20. optician 21. predecessor 22. rennet 23. coadjutor 24. sigil 25. _table d'hôte_ 26. guarantee 27. retrievable 28. exaggerate 29. marauder 30. predicament 74. 1. optimist 2. complement 3. mameluke 4. _Linnæan_ 5. infringement 6. gratefully 7. archipelago 8. collision 9. inducement 10. exaction 11. lethargy 12. discursive 13. complementary 14. complimentary 15. maltreat 16. opprobrious 17. prismatic 18. retribution 19. discretionary 20. skilful 21. tasselled 22. colloquy 23. twelfth 24. retrocession 25. volcanoes 26. privilege 27. optional 28. marchioness 29. exaltation 30. loquacious 75. 1. discussion 2. amaranthine 3. complexion 4. indeclinable 5. exemplary 6. _lazzaroni_ 7. mamma 8. coagulation 9. oracle 10. gingham 11. pomatum 12. retrograde 13. excavator 14. signature 15. mammalia 16. disembogue 17. tabooing 18. _troubadour_ 19. compliance 20. orally 21. pomegranate 22. linseed 23. coalesce 24. infusion 25. gratuitous 26. Anglican 27. exasperate 28. Lethean 29. disease 30. induction 76. 1. complicity 2. marigold 3. oracular 4. collusion 5. gondola 6. postilion 7. compliment 8. ribbon 9. marital 10. skirmish 11. tattoo 12. twinge 13. disembowel 14. orang-outang 15. postponement 16. colocynth 17. insatiable 18. guardian 19. losable 20. exceeding 21. apocalypse 22. coalition 23. indecorous 24. excel 25. league 26. mammoth 27. disfranchise 28. pacha 29. gingle 30. prediction 77. 1. revealing 2. compositor 3. manacle 4. pacification 5. significant 6. _tabouret_ 7. coax 8. trousers 9. revelling 10. excerpt 11. preferable 12. linsey-woolsey 13. disgraceful 14. infusible 15. gravelly 16. indurate 17. cologne 18. lettuce 19. gong 20. architecture 21. disgorge 22. maritime 23. panacea 24. excellence 25. probability 26. skiver 27. concatenation 28. marjoram 29. _ricochet_ 30. tautog 78. 1. pancreas 2. twinging 3. concealing 4. guava 5. probity 6. woful 7. excessively 8. colonelcy 9. lottery 10. inscription 11. giraffe 12. amateur 13. conceit 14. indefatigable 15. cobalt 16. leaguing 17. manageable 18. exchangeable 19. oratorical 20. pommel 21. revenue 22. disguise 23. silesia 24. taxable 25. _trousseau_ 26. excise 27. pommelling 28. manikin 29. cochineal 30. gravitate 79. 1. orchestra 2. conceive 3. _infusoria_ 4. liquefy 5. liquidate 6. colonnade 7. industrial 8. gooseberry 9. animalcule 10. dishevel 11. levee 12. exchequer 13. marketing 14. oratorio 15. concentric 16. postscript 17. sclerotic 18. tacit 19. _louis d'or_ 20. tympanum 21. vigil 22. colored 23. marline 24. posy 25. ricochetting 26. upholsterer 27. excision 28. orchis 29. gubernatorial 30. inscrutable 80. 1. disenthrall 2. apogee 3. conception 4. gudgeon 5. indefeasible 6. cockatrice 7. leanness 8. _mandamus_ 9. excitable 10. pacifier 11. prejudice 12. concession 13. ridicule 14. silica 15. _hauteur_ 16. taciturnity 17. typhoon 18. cocoanut 19. prejudicial 20. pæan 21. exclusion 22. mandarin 23. lovable 24. disk 25. ingenious 26. _habeas corpus_ 27. archives 28. colosseum 29. inebriate 30. disjunctive 81. 1. levelling 2. marmalade 3. conch 4. pandemonium 5. proboscis 6. exclamation 7. reverberate 8. skull 9. scull 10. taxidermist 11. herbarium 12. procedure 13. proceeding 14. dislodgement 15. panegyric 16. mandolin 17. columbine 18. righteous 19. insectile 20. excommunicate 21. excoriate 22. cocoon 23. ambassador 24. guerdon 25. indefensible 26. dismally 27. leash 28. comeliness 29. ordeal 30. pomology 82. 1. reverential 2. conciliate 3. manes 4. silicious 5. conchology 6. excrescence 7. tactician 8. reversion 9. coerce 10. organize 11. pomposity 12. havoc 13. litany 14. disparity 15. ingenuous 16. habiliment 17. ineffable 18. coma 19. leviathan 20. excrement 21. anker 22. dismission 23. _marquee_ 24. _marque_ 25. potash 26. concisely 27. ordinance 28. ordnance 29. rigid 30. disparagement 83. 1. mangel-wurzel 2. paganize 3. concoction 4. rimmed 5. potato 6. combustible 7. lozenges 8. Herculean 9. insensible 10. excruciating 11. indefinite 12. coefficient 13. apologetical 14. excursion 15. haversack 16. leaven 17. dispelling 18. manhaden 19. peony 20. prelacy 21. concomitance 22. reversible 23. sillabub 24. _guerilla_ 25. maniacal 26. teachable 27. coercion 28. reverie 29. preliminary 30. pannier 84. 1. execrable 2. manifestoes 3. literally 4. displaceable 5. woollen 6. herbivorous 7. arenaceous 8. combatant 9. inefficient 10. excusable 11. concrete 12. Levitical 13. marquis 14. panelling 15. rigmarole 16. dispensary 17. slaty 18. taffrail 19. _hacienda_ 20. marriageable 21. executor 22. teapoy 23. rioting 24. concupiscence 25. typhus 26. process 27. dispersion 28. inseparable 29. maroon 30. marroon 85. 1. guidable 2. cogitation 3. exegesis 4. ambitious 5. disposable 6. indelible 7. ledger 8. concurrent 9. manipulate 10. orgeat 11. pongee 12. revetement 13. similarity 14. condenser 15. manitou 16. exemption 17. talcose 18. disputation 19. revivify 20. oriel 21. cognomen 22. pontiff 23. _literati_ 24. ingredient 25. hawser 26. potency 27. exemplify 28. comestible 29. annalist 30. hackmatack 86. 1. deposition 2. inertia 3. levying 4. marrowfat 5. orgies 6. risible 7. condescension 8. sleazy 9. tease 10. _exequatur_ 11. marshalling 12. riveted 13. condiment 14. potentially 15. disquisition 16. orient 17. comfiture 18. lucidity 19. hereditament 20. insertion 21. exegetical 22. apologue 23. cognizance 24. indemnify 25. guildhall 26. leeward 27. martello 28. dissection 29. paging 30. premier 87. 1. exercise 2. revivalist 3. simile 4. condolence 5. meretricious 6. revocation 7. talented 8. condonation 9. pageant 10. premonitory 11. lithe 12. disseminate 13. inhabitants 14. hazard 15. cohesible 16. Areopagus 17. inestimable 18. cometary 19. lexicographer 20. meanness 21. disseize 22. panorama 23. procession 24. teasel 25. exfoliation 26. ritual 27. sleighing 28. hackneyed 29. worshipper 30. militia 88. 1. hereditary 2. robin 3. conducible 4. pansy 5. proclamation 6. dissenter 7. lucifer 8. commemoration 9. insidious 10. exhalation 11. guillotine 12. coif 13. ambrosial 14. indenture 15. exhaustible 16. legacy 17. marten 18. martin 19. conductible 20. orifice 21. pontifical 22. rhapsody 23. simplicity 24. dissension 25. talismans 26. hazel-nut 27. martial 28. exhilaration 29. rhetorician 30. pontoon 89. 1. dissertation 2. originally 3. conduit 4. lithograph 5. inhalation 6. halberd 7. anneal 8. confectionery 9. inevitable 10. lexicon 11. dissenting 12. measles 13. oriflamme 14. commensurate 15. _pot-pourri_ 16. technical 17. exhibition 18. rodomontade 19. sleight 20. typify 21. confederacy 22. mechanical 23. technology 24. heresy 25. exhortation 26. oriole 27. pottery 28. roguery 29. lucrative 30. insignia 90. 1. guinea 2. coincidence 3. apoplexy 4. independent 5. dissipation 6. legation 7. meridian 8. conference 9. pagoda 10. preparatory 11. exhumation 12. rhetoric 13. simplify 14. talkative 15. confesser 16. confessor 17. meriting 18. hearken 19. exile 20. pailfuls 21. prerogative 22. colation 23. collation 24. inherent 25. dissuade 26. argillaceous 27. dissolution 28. inexorable 29. commentary 30. halberdier 91. 1. exigency 2. libeller 3. millennium 4. confidant 5. confidante 6. pantomime 7. proclivity 8. roebuck 9. sluice 10. dissonant 11. rheum 12. millinery 13. confidential 14. prodigal 15. Exodus 16. papacy 17. insignificant 18. commiserate 19. lucubration 20. heretical 21. dissyllable 22. guitar 23. ambrotype 24. indestructible 25. confinable 26. confinement 27. legendary 28. ornamenting 29. popinjay 30. exonerate 92. 1. roguish 2. simulate 3. talmud 4. confiscation 5. martingale 6. urbanity 7. distain 8. yacht 9. sniveller 10. inheritance 11. ornithology 12. colic 13. typography 14. poplar 15. liturgy 16. halcyon 17. inextricable 18. distaff 19. liberality 20. medal 21. exorbitant 22. annexation 23. ornate 24. conflagration 25. snath 26. rheumatism 27. rhubarb 28. poudrette 29. sincerely 30. Teutonic 93. 1. medallion 2. battalion 3. hermaphrodite 4. poultice 5. distasteful 6. orotund 7. ludicrous 8. exordium 9. insipid 10. commotion 11. gullibility 12. apostasy 13. collapse 14. indices 15. legerdemain 16. distention 17. merriment 18. painim 19. conformity 20. Presbyterian 21. simultaneous 22. romancer 23. tamarind 24. Ursuline 25. sobriety 26. mesmerism 27. prescience 28. paladin 29. distil 30. dissimilar 94. 1. inhibition 2. confusable 3. livelihood 4. ycleped 5. expansion 6. distich 7. halibut 8. congealable 9. argonaut 10. infallible 11. exotic 12. librarian 13. milliner 14. papillary 15. teetotaler 16. congener 17. prodigious 18. tyrannic 19. rhino 20. expansible 21. sinecure 22. _millionnaire_ 23. distillation 24. usquebaugh 25. lugubrious 26. producible 27. compatible 28. pappoose 29. hermetical 30. insinuate 95. 1. distillery 2. gum-arabic 3. ameliorate 4. congeries 5. indexical 6. legging 7. expatiate 8. martyred 9. celery 10. orphaned 11. populace 12. _rondeau_ 13. _sobriquet_ 14. tambour 15. conglomerate 16. tyrannize 17. extinction 18. usually 19. distraction 20. orthoëpy 21. porcelain 22. inhumation 23. marvellous 24. hebdomadal 25. liverwort 26. halyards 27. anniversary 28. distinction 29. infanticide 30. expatriate 96. 1. license 2. congressional 3. mediæval 4. orrery 5. practicable 6. rhinoceros 7. sinewy 8. cellarage 9. ogee 10. tegument 11. insoluble 12. rhomboid 13. congreve 14. orthography 15. practising 16. expectancy 17. medicament 18. heroic 19. lullaby 20. distraint 21. diurnal 22. gunnery 23. apostrophe 24. crease 25. indicative 26. legible 27. mesne 28. extirpate 29. palanquin 30. prescription 97. 1. sociable 2. congruity 3. rhododendron 4. tandem 5. _soi-disant_ 6. presidential 7. conic 8. palatial 9. expedite 10. hebraism 11. divergence 12. _messieurs_ 13. credential 14. _livre_ 15. inimical 16. expectorant 17. hallelujah 18. divan 19. arguable 20. crystallization 21. infantile 22. licentiate 23. yeast 24. parabola 25. extol 26. proffering 27. ropy 28. singing 29. diverse 30. divers 98. 1. proficiency 2. conjecture 3. parachute 4. rosary 5. minaret 6. extortion 7. lumbago 8. heroism 9. insolvency 10. conjugal 11. indictment 12. diversion 13. amenable 14. expedient 15. legibility 16. credible 17. maskinonge 18. oscillate 19. gunny 20. porcine 21. roseate 22. sinister 23. conjunction 24. porphyry 25. tangential 26. siphon 27. divestible 28. osnaburg 29. ribald 30. masquerade 99. 1. lizard 2. conjure 3. inimitable 4. expedition 5. hecatomb 6. annihilate 7. extractible 8. infatuate 9. crystallotype 10. licorice 11. medicine 12. divertisement 13. osier 14. halloo 15. connascent 16. pragmatical 17. rhymic 18. _soirée_ 19. heron 20. prairie 21. telescope 22. rosemary 23. solace 24. cuckoo 25. medicinal 26. osprey 27. extradition 28. inspiration 29. roster 30. divination 100. 1. gunwale 2. creosote 3. apothecary 4. indictable 5. divisible 6. legislature 7. metallic 8. connection 9. palatinate 10. prestige 11. expel 12. rhythm 13. sinuous 14. hectic 15. pretence 16. tangible 17. connivance 18. palette 19. siren 20. tyranny 21. divorce 22. metalline 23. llama 24. iniquitous 25. expense 26. divinize 27. arid 28. cucumber 29. hallucination 30. extraordinary 101. 1. infectious 2. lief 3. conquerable 4. mineralogy 5. paradigm 6. profited 7. sojourner 8. rosette 9. tellurian 10. profligacy 11. consanguinity 12. usurious 13. solder 14. docility 15. paradisiacal 16. install 17. miniature 18. extravagance 19. lunacy 20. hesitancy 21. cretaceous 22. amerce 23. expiate 24. indigence 25. massacre 26. documentary 27. osseous 28. porpoise 29. gusset 30. rosy 102. 1. sirloin 2. conscience 3. tannin 4. tyro 5. usurpation 6. solemnize 7. extricate 8. mastic 9. ostensible 10. consecrate 11. porringer 12. rouge 13. dogma 14. initial 15. hegira 16. annotation 17. cudgel 18. infer 19. doggerel 20. mediocre 21. conservatism 22. ossification 23. extravasation 24. prebend 25. halo 26. sacrilege 27. _crevasse_ 28. solecism 29. temerity 30. expiatory 103. 1. _soubrette_ 2. consequential 3. mediocrity 4. ostentatious 5. installation 6. precarious 7. ubiquity 8. dogmatist 9. Sadducee 10. heterodox 11. dolorous 12. gustatory 13. apothegm 14. consignee 15. indigenous 16. explanatory 17. metallurgy 18. palette-knife 19. cuirass 20. pretension 21. pretentious 22. _roué_ 23. solely 24. tansy 25. consistory 26. solicit 27. usury 28. tantalize 29. expletive 30. initiate 104. 1. dominie 2. metamorphose 3. palfrey 4. heifer 5. _rouge-et-noir_ 6. hames 7. inference 8. crevice 9. aristocracy 10. domicile 11. extrinsic 12. minie-ball 13. cuirassier 14. paradox 15. progenitor 16. sacristy 17. _sortie_ 18. conscientious 19. tenable 20. _ukase_ 21. souchong 22. domineer 23. programme 24. tenacious 25. consols 26. saffron 27 instalment 28. minion 29. exuberance 30. paraffine 105. 1. explicate 2. amethyst 3. conspicuous 4. gusto 5. dominical 6. indigestible 7. masticate 8. crewel 9. ostracism 10. portable 11. _rouleau_ 12. solidity 13. tantamount 14. conspiracy 15. utilitarian 16. explicit 17. soliloquize 18. donjon 19. dungeon 20. portcullis 21. _roulette_ 22. culinary 23. mastiff 24. injudicious 25. height 26. infidelity 27. crinoline 28. medley 29. dominos 30. handicraft 106. 1. annual 2. constable 3. ostracize 4. exudation 5. preceding 6. sagacious 7. sour-crout 8. pre-ce'dent 9. pre'ce-dent 10. tenacity 11. constituency 12. spacious 13. ulceration 14. eyelid 15. otter 16. instantaneous 17. donkey 18. sagacity 19. meerschaum 20. hexagon 21. gutta-percha 22. colander 23. exploding 24. apotheosis 25. _donna_ 26. donor 27. indirect 28. metaphor 29. crisis 30. paling 107. 1. preterite 2. roundelay 3. soliloquy 4. tendril 5. constabulary 6. pretor 7. inky 8. palisade 9. exploring 10. solstice 11. routine 12. dormitory 13. metaphysical 14. criterion 15. heinous 16. arithmetician 17. Doric 18. handsomely 19. construe 20. infinite 21. eyry 22. ministerial 23. cultivator 24. prohibitory 25. sagamore 26. dormer 27. sovereignty 28. consul 29. tetrarch 30. luminary 108. 1. projectile 2. instigation 3. spaniel 4. consummate 5. parallel 6. salable 7. fabricate 8. hexameter 9. cumin 10. minnow 11. guttural 12. doublet 13. amicable 14. indispensable 15. consumption 16. mastodon 17. ottar 18. exportable 19. _porte-monnaie_ 20. solstitial 21. criticise 22. tenement 23. Utopian 24. volition 25. doubtful 26. solvable 27. tenets 28. contagious 29. aught 30. ought 109. 1. matadore 2. _exposé_ 3. heirloom 4. critique 5. inly 6. harangue 7. _façade_ 8. infinitesimal 9. contemporary 10. annunciation 11. melancholy 12. doubloon 13. ottoman 14. spasmodical 15. cupidity 16. theatrical 17. _ultimatum_ 18. prevaricate 19. vigilance 20. uvula 21. contemptible 22. specialty 23. theodolite 24. weevilly 25. _douche_ 26. ousted 27. mellifluous 28. institution 29. cupola 30. hiatus 110. 1. douse 2. gybe 3. apparatus 4. contentious 5. indisputable 6. expressible 7. mete 8. palladium 9. _crochet_ 10. solubility 11. tennis 12. prolific 13. ultramarine 14. voltigeur 15. contestable 16. vivacity 17. heliotrope 18. _sombrero_ 19. exscind 20. pallet 21. tensile 22. crocodile 23. meteorology 24. dowager 25. innate 26. aromatic 27. Curacoa 28. haranguing 29. infirmity 30. dovetail 111. 1. facial 2. contiguity 3. minstrelsy 4. paralleled 5. spatula 6. theologian 7. vaccinate 8. _vignette_ 9. weird 10. ultramontane 11. contingency 12. specification 13. theoretical 14. factitious 15. paralysis 16. minute 17. curfew 18. hibernation 19. instrumental 20. dowlas 21. gymnasium 22. doziness 23. ammonia 24. continuity 25. indissolubly 26. expulsion 27. methodically 28. palliating 29. crosier 30. portentous 112. 1. route 2. contraband 3. outrageous 4. somerset 5. helix 6. expunge 7. somnolency 8. tentacle 9. vaccine 10. cross-jack 11. mathematics 12. rowelling 13. dragoman 14. portfolio 15. innocency 16. drachm 17. drachma 18. harass 19. anointment 20. contractile 21. inflammable 22. facile 23. miracle 24. curmudgeon 25. outlying 26. precession 27. salad 28. contra-dance 29. specimen 30. therapeutics 113. 1. outstripped 2. contralto 3. _hibiscus_ 4. facility 5. salary 6. draughtsman 7. melodious 8. currency 9. insulate 10. precinct 11. dreadnaught 12. gymnast 13. crosswise 14. indistinct 15. expurgate 16. material 17. contrariety 18. paralytic 19. apparel 20. preventable 21. rowel 22. somnambulist 23. contravention 24. tepid 25. sphericity 26. exquisitely 27. pallid 28. umbrageous 29. driveller 30. rubicund 114. 1. preventive 2. crotchet 3. metonymy 4. hellebore 5. innovation 6. _fac-simile_ 7. melodeon 8. _curriculum_ 9. harbinger 10. salamander 11. dredging 12. inflammation 13. contrition 14. vacillate 15. arquebuse 16. prolixity 17. spermaceti 18. thermometer 19. volubility 20. controversial 21. paramount 22. factious 23. _sonata_ 24. umbrella 25. drollery 26. saleratus 27. insuperable 28. prologue 29. currier 30. mirage 115. 1. dromedary 2. exsiccation 3. ammunition 4. contusion 5. insurance 6. gymnote 7. matin 8. croup 9. ovarious 10. porticos 11. rubric 12. conundrum 13. spheroid 14. tergiversation 15. extant 16. vacuity 17. drosky 18. mattress 19. insurgent 20. crucible 21. overrun 22. spicy 23. ruminant 24. portmanteau 25. helmeted 26. faculty 27. anomaly 28. cursory 29. intestate 30. dropsy 116. 1. hardihood 2. melodrama 3. convalescence 4. overrate 5. precipitate 6. salient 7. coquetted 8. sonnet 9. _thesaurus_ 10. unbiassed 11. drowsy 12. soot 13. intestine 14. fagot 15. melon 16. curtailing 17. salmagundi 18. hickory 19. overseer 20. precision 21. gypsum 22. crucifixion 23. extemporaneous 24. apparition 25. druidical 26. insurrection 27. metre 28. cruse 29. palmetto 30. primacy 117. 1. metrical 2. rudimentary 3. coquetry 4. sphinx 5. termagant 6. extemporise 7. spigot 8. ruta-baga 9. convenient 10. primer 11. hemisphere 12. palmistry 13. dualism 14. duellist 15. integer 16. arrack 17. drier 18. fakir 19. harlequin 20. curvilinear 21. misanthrope 22. promenade 23. inthrall 24. parapet 25. sonorous 26. thibet-cloth 27. cushion 28. saliva 29. _vacuum_ 30. soothe 118. 1. miscellaneous 2. conventicle 3. satisfy 4. Promethean 5. falcon 6. paraphernalia 7. _hidalgo_ 8. dubious 9. inthralment 10. coral 11. convention 12. gypsy 13. amphibious 14. ducat 15. integral 16. mat'-rice 17. crustaceous 18. overture 19. portraiture 20. extensible 21. retina 22. spikenard 23. terminus 24. convergence 25. unctuous 26. spiritualize 27. sabbatarian 28. promiscuous 29. dudgeon 30. owing 119. 1. fallacious 2. crypt 3. gyration 4. matricide 5. integrity 6. coralliform 7. intimacy 8. ductile 9. harmonica 10. custodian 11. membraneous 12. oviparous 13. extenuate 14. precocious 15. anonymous 16. saltatory 17. sophism 18. harmonize 19. thieving 20. vagabond 21. underpinning 22. salutary 23. duenna 24. sophomore 25. oxalic 26. fallacy 27. ptarmigan 28. intimidate 29. cutaneous 30. mementos 120. 1. hemlock 2. crystal 3. integument 4. dugong 5. appendage 6. metronome 7. coralline 8. palpable 9. falchion 10. primeval 11. repertory 12. spinach 13. terrace 14. conversant 15. metropolitan 16. fallible 17. vagary 18. dulcimer 19. _sabre-taçhe_ 20. spleeny 21. crystalline 22. palsy 23. quadrangular 24. intellectual 25. hemorrhage 26. felicity 27. prominence 28. cuticle 29. hideous 30. dulcamara 121. 1. intonate 2. arraignment 3. miscellany 4. cordelier 5. parasite 6. salubrity 7. sophistry 8. thinning 9. feline 10. mischievous 11. conversely 12. soporific 13. undiluted 14. dulse 15. salutatory 16. intractable 17. quoin 18. cycle 19. parasol 20. hierarchy 21. cyclopædia 22. gyratory 23. felon 24. arterial 25. intelligence 26. saline 27. matriculate 28. ox-eyed 29. promissory 30. sac 122. 1. splenetic 2. cordiality 3. mattock 4. _terra-cotta_ 5. falsify 6. spontaneity 7. valedictory 8. conversion 9. promontory 10. _valenciennes_ 11. sacerdotal 12. hemstitch 13. oxygen 14. duodecimal 15. intelligible 16. axiom 17. cygnet 18. _falsetto_ 19. hartbeest 20. dutiable 21. memoir 22. oxide 23. publicity 24. _in transitu_ 25. yeomanry 26. sopsavine 27. thole-pin 28. undulatory 29. vilified 30. sorghum 123. 1. felucca 2. cordon 3. menacing 4. puerile 5. duodenum 6. samphire 7. intrepidity 8. oxygenated 9. convertible 10. hieroglyphic 11. faltering 12. gyroscope 13. intendant 14. mezzotint 15. cylinder 16. paltry 17. basin 18. quadrate 19. saccharine 20. duplicate 21. sponginess 22. terrapin 23. unequalled 24. valerian 25. corduroy 26. spontaneous 27. sachem 28. familiarity 29. mica 30. quadrennial 124. 1. pamphlet 2. convexity 3. henbane 4. duress 5. intensively 6. harslet 7. intricacy 8. feminine 9. miscreant 10. parcel 11. cordwainer 12. quoit 13. bevy 14. Samaritan 15. sorcery 16. duplicity 17. valentia 18. Thompsonian 19. unicorn 20. sorrel 21. conveyancer 22. misdemeanor 23. sanctimonious 24. femoral 25. intrigue 26. parcelled 27. cynic 28. quondam 29. hilarity 30. duteous 125. 1. fanatical 2. gyve 3. coriander 4. artesian 5. intercalation 6. maudlin 7. dying 8. dyeing 9. paregoric 10. pronunciation 11. sacrament 12. sporadic 13. conviction 14. propagate 15. terraqueous 16. uniformity 17. fennel 18. maugre 19. heptarchy 20. volunteered 21. dynamics 22. parsley 23. sacrificial 24. cynosure 25. intercede 26. intriguing 27. dynasty 28. patrimony 29. hassock 30. fencible 126. 1. menagerie 2. bassoon 3. pugilist 4. Corinthian 5. sandwich 6. springe 7. fanatic 8. thorax 9. valet 10. convivial 11. pugnacious 12. stinginess 13. mendacious 14. voracious 15. Hindostanee 16. vizier 17. dysentery 18. patrolling 19. _sang-froid_ 20. intrinsic 21. intercessor 22. cypress 23. perambulate 24. fandango 25. grazier 26. Michaelmas 27. dyspepsy 28. quadrilateral 29. axletree 30. sacrifice 127. 1. spurious 2. terrestrial 3. carnelian 4. squalid 5. sanguinary 6. quadrille 7. _fantasia_ 8. coolly 9. cooly 10. microscope 11. perceivable 12. earache 13. heraldry 14. interdict 15. cyst 16. introversion 17. hauberk 18. hosiery 19. perspiration 20. ferocity 21. cornice 22. misnomer 23. quorum 24. sangaree 25. bewray 26. stipendiary 27. thoracic 28. unique 29. corolla 30. stipulate 128. 1. villany 2. ferret 3. quota 4. _savant_ 5. coöperate 6. misogamist 7. hippodrome 8. persuasion 9. ear-ring 10. intrusion 11. ferruginous 12. geyser 13. artificiality 14. interfere 15. corollary 16. mausoleum 17. parleyed 18. propeller 19. earthy 20. sanguine 21. squirrel 22. coot 23. terrier 24. fertilization 25. _valet de chambre_ 26. easement 27. maxillary 28. sanhedrim 29. czar 30. herbaceous 129. 1. parleying 2. propensity 3. farcical 4. stalactite 5. interlocutory 6. bateau 7. _fantoccini_ 8. mendicity 9. hautboy 10. patronize 11. coronal 12. intuition 13. puissant 14. easel 15. Saviour 16. stirrup 17. thorough-bass 18. _vinaigrette_ 19. copal 20. univalve 21. Wesleyan 22. mensuration 23. valetudinarian 24. easiness 25. stomacher 26. scalloped 27. pulleys 28. hippopotamus 29. inundation 30. pavilion 130. 1. farina 2. ebony 3. hirsute 4. azure 5. interminable 6. coronet 7. mignonette 8. perceptible 9. quadrillion 10. sanguineous 11. stadtholder 12. thoroughwort 13. copeck 14. Universalist 15. _vedette_ 16. migratory 17. farinaceous 18. sanitary 19. stanza 20. czarina 21. quadroon 22. intermission 23. eccaleobion 24. percolate 25. hydrometer 26. scabbard 27. _eau de cologne_ 28. hosanna 29. inure 30. fervency 131. 1. bibliography 2. misprision 3. persuasible 4. corporal 5. corporeal 6. quotidian 7. stoic 8. terrific 9. valiantly 10. ebullition 11. missal 12. _violoncello_ 13. copious 14. scalpel 15. stomachic 16. inutility 17. quotient 18. ichnology 19. pertinacity 20. _fête_ 21. farrago 22. intermittent 23. eccentric 24. mazarine 25. ascendency 26. parliament 27. sapient 28. historiography 29. prophecy, _n._ 30. prophesy, _v._ 132. 1. mazard 2. starboard 3. _corps_ 4. territorial 5. yew-tree 6. pulverize 7. wainscoting 8. copperas 9. vandalism 10. interpolate 11. sapphire 12. tersely 13. fetichism 14. parochial 15. hydropathy 16. peaceable 17. _in vacuo_ 18. fetich 19. mercenary 20. bacchanalian 21. hose 22. hoes 23. pulmonary 24. scaly 25. farrier 26. Stonehenge 27. merchandise 28. thraldom 29. verification 30. icicle 133. 1. quadruple 2. _corps diplomatique_ 3. stationary 4. stationery 5. invalid 6. scarcity 7. copy 8. threshold 9. peasantry 10. ichthyology 11. _fasces_ 12. interposition 13. mileage 14. corpulency 15. pedestal 16. indelibly 17. saponaceous 18. histrionic 19. quadruped 20. starveling 21. eccentricity 22. veritable 23. whey 24. viragoes 25. fascination 26. militant 27. stony 28. echo 29. rabbinical 30. tertian 134. 1. copyright 2. Saracen 3. peregrination 4. hoax 5. _interregnum_ 6. hydrophobia 7. biennial 8. invalidate 9. corpuscle 10. missionary 11. fetid 12. ecclesiastic 13. perturbation 14. rabbet 15. scandalize 16. coquet, _v._ 17. coquette, _n._ 18. stone-marten 19. vanilla 20. walrus 21. feud 22. mistletoe 23. stencil 24. hydrostatics 25. vermicelli 26. invariable 27. throstle 28. _éclaircissement_ 29. scarlatina 30. peruke 135. 1. eclat 2. hobgoblin 3. fastidious 4. interrogatory 5. coquettish 6. meagre 7. Asiaticism 8. parole 9. prophylactic 10. corral 11. sarcenet 12. statistics 13. tertiary 14. fatalism 15. mitre 16. varicose 17. eclipse 18. paroxysm 19. propitiate 20. sardine 21. testaceous 22. virulency 23. statuary 24. hyena 25. interrupt 26. hospitality 27. eclectic 28. mercurial 29. feudal 30. bachelor 136. 1. invasion 2. peccadillo 3. correlative 4. puma 5. scathed 6. stenography 7. thyme 8. baubee 9. vermifuge 10. mullein 11. correspondent 12. pectoral 13. pumice 14. feverfew 15. scenic 16. tic-douloureux 17. ecliptic 18. invective 19. strategy 20. iconography 21. eclogue 22. hoiden 23. intersect 24. fatigue 25. military 26. peremptory 27. coquetry 28. quahaug 29. sarcophagus 30. statistician 137. 1. bifurcation 2. tessellated 3. corrigible 4. variegate 5. hygiene 6. morsel 7. fatiguing 8. perennial 9. qualified 10. sardonic 11. varioloid 12. economize 13. testamentary 14. statuette 15. intersperse 16. corroborate 17. inveigh 18. hospitaller 19. mitigate 20. fiat 21. perversion 22. raccoon 23. economy 24. scenery 25. stratagem 26. tiara 27. vermilion 28. iconoclast 29. strategist 30. waltzing 138. 1. myth 2. counterpoise 3. pestiferous 4. icy 5. raciness 6. fibrous 7. sceptre 8. economist 9. inveigle 10. ticketed 11. holiday 12. edacity 13. askew 14. interstice 15. corrodible 16. inverse 17. mnemonics 18. faucet 19. parquet 20. proprietary 21. satanic 22. ecstasy 23. statute 24. testimonial 25. steelyard 26. mobilization 27. eddying 28. satiate 29. fealty 30. hymeneal 139. 1. propugn 2. counterpane 3. parricide 4. invertible 5. intervene 6. _hospodar_ 7. eddy 8. badinage 9. irreconcilable 10. invention 11. corrugate 12. mortgage 13. pecuniary 14. fictitious 15. puncheon 16. schedule 17. strata 18. countervail 19. tiffany 20. vermin 21. mortise 22. strychnine 23. _virus_ 24. edible 25. schismatic 26. inventory 27. punctilious 28. ideality 29. fidget 30. pedagogue 140. 1. feasible 2. bawble 3. corruptible 4. investigate 5. multifarious 6. holily 7. perfectible 8. qualmish 9. satellite 10. edifice 11. stearine 12. countrified 13. satire 14. satyr 15. tetanus 16. vassal 17. febrifuge 18. mobocracy 19. stellar 20. _tête-à-tête_ 21. hyperbole 22. quandary 23. perigee 24. educator 25. inveterate 26. irredeemable 27. pestilential 28. fiduciary 29. mythology 30. bight 141. 1. hostilely 2. corsair 3. radius 4. schemer 5. edification 6. schist 7. _coup de main_ 8. stringent 9. tilbury 10. irrefragable 11. vernacular 12. waived 13. fief 14. mosaic 15. stucco 16. tillage 17. identical 18. radiuses 19. eel 20. pestle 21. effeminate 22. invidious 23. February 24. nadir 25. _cortege_ 26. asparagus 27. parsimonious 28. hollyhock 29. propulsion 30. satirize 142. 1. moidore 2. stentorian 3. _coup de soleil_ 4. timidity 5. vegetable 6. _visé_ 7. efficacious 8. prorogue 9. tortoise 10. feign 11. saturate 12. stereotype 13. parley 14. hymnology 15. invigorate 16. irrefutable 17. mohair 18. effervesce 19. pedantry 20. fiend 21. purchasable 22. hostler 23. cortes 24. bagatelle 25. schistous 26. stultify 27. mosque 28. torpidity 29. versatility 30. irregularly 143. 1. tortuous 2. _coup d'état_ 3. purlieu 4. wantonness 5. fiery 6. scholastic 7. stupefying 8. idealize 9. efficiency 10. pedestrian 11. holocaust 12. feint 13. invincible 14. perihelion 15. coruscation 16. quarantine 17. satrap 18. stereoscope 19. bayonet 20. multiplicity 21. tingeing 22. effigy 23. vegetarian 24. tiny 25. tinny 26. _coupé_ 27. visage 28. sterility 29. effluence 30. figurant 144. 1. quarrelling 2. inviolable 3. _naïve_ 4. periodical 5. hyperborean 6. hostelry 7. naiad 8. efflorescent 9. figment 10. irrelevant 11. corvette 12. petal 13. bigoted 14. Saturnalia 15. _ragoût_ 16. flea 17. stupefaction 18. Torricellian 19. irremediable 20. versification 21. _coupon_ 22. tippet 23. warily 24. toucan 25. stupidity 26. schooner 27. _schnapps_ 28. raid 29. idiocy 30. petard 145. 1. figurative 2. holster 3. assassination 4. coryza 5. moiety 6. invisible 7. effrontery 8. parsnip 9. prosaic 10. saturnine 11. stethoscope 12. tirade 13. vehemency 14. courageous 15. viscid 16. _moire-antique_ 17. stigmatize 18. titular 19. filaceous 20. sausage 21. invitation 22. _protégé_ 23. hypercritical 24. parterre 25. effulgence 26. pedigree 27. flexible 28. bagnio 29. mosquito 30. _hôtel-dieu_ 146. 1. irreparable 2. cosey 3. purport 4. sciatica 5. efflux 6. sturgeon 7. tourbillion 8. vertebra 9. warrantable 10. _courant_ 11. styptic 12. mosquitoes 13. _tourniquet_ 14. vocalization 15. flexile 16. scintillation 17. pursuivant 18. irresistible 19. pedler 20. idiom 21. homageable 22. ægis 23. bayou 24. municipal 25. invocation 26. peripatetic 27. filament 28. quarried 29. saucily 30. stickleback 147. 1. titillate 2. cosily 3. vehicle 4. egregious 5. viscount 6. munificent 7. _courier_ 8. savanna 9. stiletto 10. toadyism 11. hyphen 12. quartette 13. filial 14. periphery 15. invoice 16. _houdah_ 17. egotism 18. irrevocable 19. _naïveté_ 20. biliary 21. _petit_ 22. flimsy 23. raillery 24. scientific 25. styling 26. towelling 27. effusion 28. tournament 29. vertebræ 30. wassail 148. 1. nankeen 2. cosine 3. sciolist 4. suavity 5. irrigation 6. raiment 7. petition 8. idiosyncrasy 9. flirtation 10. courteous 11. assimilate 12. egress 13. involuntary 14. filibuster 15. molar 16. partial 17. homeliness 18. prototype 19. cosmetic 20. scion 21. subaltern 22. tobacconist 23. velocipede 24. wheyey 25. Egyptian 26. motley 27. toilet 28. sublimate 29. filigree 30. scissors 149. 1. proverbial 2. courtesy 3. involution 4. partiality 5. hypochondriac 6. peevish 7. flippant 8. bailiff 9. muriate 10. irritability 11. hough 12. purveyor 13. seditious 14. cosmography 15. suffusion 16. traceable 17. eightieth 18. vertical 19. wasteful 20. visibility 21. murrain 22. covenant 23. suicide 24. tractable 25. irritate 26. seigneurial 27. wharfinger 28. floe 29. pusillanimity 30. idiotic 150. 1. fillet 2. homicide 3. bazaar 4. cosmopolite 5. involvement 6. naphtha 7. perishable 8. either 9. ether 10. quassia 11. scirrhus 12. subjugate 13. tocsin 14. filly 15. venality 16. covetous 17. sublunary 18. tomahawk 19. vendible 20. sconce 21. hypocrite 22. quay 23. invulnerable 24. peristaltic 25. ejaculate 26. petrel 27. houri 28. irruption 29. florescence 30. billiards 151. 1. seethe 2. _cosmos_ 3. suggestion 4. trachea 5. rallying 6. vertigo 7. wherry 8. _visite_ 9. narcissus 10. vesicle 11. traducible 12. cowardice 13. suitable 14. seignior 15. floriculture 16. isinglass 17. _rancho_ 18. putrefaction 19. petrifaction 20. idolatrous 21. homily 22. eke 23. filtrate 24. inwreathe 25. Cossack 26. molecule 27. participate 28. assuage 29. providentially 30. scorbutic 152. 1. mollify 2. submissive 3. cow-herd 4. tomalley 5. veneering 6. _finale_ 7. hypocrisy 8. tompion 9. elasticity 10. scourge 11. subordinate 12. iodine 13. provincial 14. partisan 15. flotilla 16. Islamism 17. housewife 18. elaborate 19. mottoes 20. pelisse 21. cosset 22. pustule 23. balk 24. seigniory 25. florin 26. sulphate 27. moult 28. trafficking 29. vestibule 30. wavy 153. 1. islander 2. cowlick 3. tragedy 4. elation 5. seize 6. sulphuric 7. financial 8. ejection 9. pellucid 10. idolize 11. hominy 12. elbow 13. bdellium 14. iolite 15. costumer 16. muscadine 17. peristyle 18. financier 19. querulous 20. scorpion 21. eider 22. muscatel 23. submitted 24. tomatoes 25. Venetian 26. tonic 27. _subpoena_ 28. coxcomb 29. electrician 30. scrivener 154. 1. questionable 2. hypothecate 3. perjury 4. finesse 5. Ionian 6. petroleum 7. eking 8. bismuth 9. housing 10. cotillon 11. islet 12. fluctuate 13. narcotic 14. rancid 15. florid 16. narrative 17. seizable 18. sulphur 19. cozen 20. cousin 21. sumach 22. tragacanth 23. veterinary 24. tragedian 25. electricity 26. selvage 27. isolated 28. idyl 29. rancorous 30. pettifogger 155. 1. electrotype 2. asthma 3. finical 4. ipecacuanha 5. couchant 6. mollusk 7. partition 8. homoeopathy 9. proximate 10. scrofula 11. cradling 12. subpoenaed 13. tonnage 14. venison 15. tonsorial 16. finite 17. moulten 18. visor 19. eleemosynary 20. sculpin 21. subsidize 22. isothermal 23. prudential 24. partridge 25. hypothenuse 26. isosceles 27. fluency 28. balsam 29. pemmican 30. huckleberry 156. 1. mountaineer 2. putrescence 3. cougar 4. semiannual 5. electuary 6. sumptuary 7. trammelled 8. vetoes 9. cranberry 10. weapon 11. vociferate 12. fluidity 13. mountebank 14. transcendental 15. seminary 16. igneous 17. superb 18. puzzling 19. Eleusinian 20. penance 21. beach 22. elegancy 23. homogeneous 24. irascible 25. fiscal 26. muscle 27. permanency 28. quiescent 29. elegiac 30. scullion 157. 1. colter 2. subsidiary 3. hypothesis 4. tonsil 5. venom 6. vitiate 7. craniology 8. muscovado 9. tontine 10. substantial 11. scurrility 12. fissure 13. quieting 14. permeate 15. iridescent 16. Huguenot 17. issue 18. flurry 19. narwhal 20. bissextile 21. elegy 22. pettitoes 23. semibreve 24. rapacious 25. superannuated 26. vexatious 27. _ignis-fatuus_ 28. tranquillity 29. weasel 30. transferred 158. 1. councillor 2. counsellor 3. nasal 4. supercilious 5. Isthmian 6. senatorial 7. rapacity 8. flustrated 9. pewter 10. elephantine 11. potato 12. elevator 13. homologous 14. asylum 15. cranium 16. iridium 17. monarchical 18. prunello 19. scurrilous 20. fistula 21. subterfuge 22. topaz 23. hyson 24. permitting 25. venous 26. elide 27. vitreous 28. topography 29. whimsey 30. monastery 159. 1. zephyr 2. subtle 3. subtile 4. permissible 5. iris 6. _penchant_ 7. elicit 8. humidity 9. isthmus 10. crazy 11. baluster 12. mousing 13. fluxion 14. pyramidal 15. seneschal 16. castile-soap 17. supererogation 18. vicarage 19. phalanx 20. transient 21. viaduct 22. flaccid 23. weevil 24. eligible 25. _mousseline-de-laine_ 26. translucent 27. Italian 28. senility 29. superficial 30. ignitible 160. 1. Zendavesta 2. eliminate 3. beatific 4. ironical 5. causeway 6. muscovy 7. paschal 8. flagellate 9. quietus 10. scythe 11. humorous 12. subterranean 13. topical 14. caster 15. castor 16. rapine 17. transition 18. hyssop 19. museum 20. ventilator 21. elision 22. Wednesday 23. vitriol 24. pencilling 25. ignition 26. italic 27. naturalize 28. senile 29. superfice 30. bituminous 161. 1. adherent 2. emaciate 3. catalogue 4. flaunt 5. horizontal 6. Jacobin 7. gayety 8. galaxy 9. enamelling 10. impediment 11. camelia 12. algebraical 13. jasmine 14. deluge 15. gamut 16. necromancy 17. philopena 18. boudoir 19. ravine 20. seraphine 21. frequency 22. trunnion 23. cerebellum 24. impropriety 25. _ennui_ 26. nectar 27. suppliant 28. demesne 29. philosopher 30. gangrene 162. 1. kidneys 2. ennoble 3. furniture 4. charade 5. demarcation 6. debarkation 7. enthusiasm 8. larynx 9. groats 10. glycerine 11. gnome 12. grovelling 13. inquisitorial 14. disintegrate 15. lubricate 16. _ex parte_ 17. heterogeneous 18. facetious 19. hiccough 20. ferule 21. ferrule 22. effluvia 23. pelican 24. flue 25. phaeton 26. irrecoverable 27. irascibility 28. abatement 29. labelling 30. onerous 163. 1. labyrinthine 2. iridescence 3. _abbé_ 4. magpie 5. irrepealable 6. nascent 7. abdicate 8. Jah 9. risibility 10. kangaroo 11. abstinence 12. nasturtium 13. Javanese 14. management 15. abetted 16. piano-forte 17. kill-deer 18. mandrake 19. ability 20. nautilus 21. Jesuitical 22. abyss 23. neuralgia 24. lactometer 25. Abyssinian 26. _volante_ 27. kedge 28. triplicate 29. piazza 30. abolition 
13311	----	Proofreaders Team _SOCIETY FOR PURE ENGLISH_ _TRACT No. XI_ THREE ARTICLES ON METAPHOR By E.B., H.W. Fowler & A. Clutton-Brock MISCELLANEOUS NOTES & CORRESPONDENCE _At the Clarendon Press_ 1922 THREE ARTICLES ON METAPHOR I. NOTES ON THE FUNCTION OF METAPHOR The business of the writer is to arouse in the mind of his reader the fullest possible consciousness of the ideas or emotion that he is expressing. To this end he suggests a comparison between it and something else which is similar to it in respect of those qualities to which he desires to draw attention. The reader's mind at once gets to work unconsciously on this comparison, rejecting the unlike qualities and recognizing with an enhanced and satisfied consciousness the like ones. The functions of simile and metaphor are the same in this respect. Both simile and metaphor are best when not too close to the idea they express, that is, when they have not many qualities in common with it which are not cogent to the aspect under consideration. The test of a well-used metaphor is that it should completely fulfil this function: there should be no by-products of imagery which distract from the poet's aim, and vitiate and weaken the desired consciousness. A simile, in general, need not be so close as a metaphor, because the point of resemblance is indicated, whereas in a metaphor this is left to the reader to discover. When a simile or metaphor is from the material to the immaterial, or vice versa, the analogy should be more complete than when it is between two things on the same plane: when they are on different planes there is less dullness (that is, less failure to produce consciousness), and the greater mental effort required of the reader warrants some assistance. The degree of effort required in applying any given metaphor should be in relation to the degree of emotion proper to the passage in which it is used. Only those metaphors which require little or no mental exertion should be used in very emotional passages, or the emotional effect will be much weakened: a far-fetched, abstruse metaphor or simile implies that the writer is at leisure from his emotion, and suggests this attitude in the reader.--[E.B.] II. SOME NOTES ON METAPHOR IN JOURNALISM Live and dead metaphor; some pitfalls; self-consciousness and mixed metaphor. 1. Live and Dead Metaphor. In all discussion of metaphor it must be borne in mind that some metaphors are living, i.e. are offered and accepted with a consciousness of their nature as substitutes for their literal equivalents, while others are dead, i.e. have been so often used that speaker and hearer have ceased to be aware that the words are not literal: but the line of distinction between the live and the dead is a shifting one, the dead being sometimes liable, under the stimulus of an affinity or a repulsion, to galvanic stirrings indistinguishable from life. Thus, in _The men were sifting meal_ we have a literal use of _sift_; in _Satan hath desired to have you, that he may sift you as wheat_, 'sift' is a live metaphor; in _the sifting of evidence_, the metaphor is so familiar that it is about equal chances whether _sifting_ or _examination_ will be used, and a sieve is not present to the thought--unless, indeed, some one conjures it up by saying _All the evidence must first be sifted with acid tests_, or _with the microscope_; under such a stimulus our metaphor turns out to have been not dead, but dormant. The other word, _examine_, will do well enough as an example of the real stone-dead metaphor; the Latin _examino_, being from _examen_ the tongue of a balance, meant originally to weigh; but, though weighing is not done with acid tests or microscopes any more than sifting, _examine_ gives no convulsive twitchings, like _sift_, at finding itself in their company; _examine_, then, is dead metaphor, and _sift_ only half dead, or three-quarters. 2. Some pitfalls. A, Unsustained Metaphor; B, Overdone Metaphor; C, Spoilt Metaphor; D, Battles of the Dead; E, Mixed Metaphor. A. Unsustained Metaphor _He was still in the middle of those twenty years of neglect which only began to lift in 1868_. The plunge into metaphor at _lift_, which presupposes a mist, is too sudden after the literal _twenty years of neglect_; years, even gloomy years, do not lift. _The means of education at the disposal of the Protestants and Presbyterians of the North were stunted and sterilized._ 'The means at disposal' names something too little vegetable or animal to consort with the metaphorical verbs. Education (personified) may be stunted, but means may not. _The measure of Mr. Asquith's shame does not consist in the mere fact that he has announced his intention to ..._ Metaphorical measuring, like literal, requires a more accommodating instrument than a stubborn fact. B. Overdone Metaphor The days are perhaps past when a figure was deliberately chosen that could be worked out with line upon line of relentless detail, and the following well-known specimen is from Richardson:-- _Tost to and fro by the high winds of passionate control, I behold the desired port, the single state, into which I would fain steer; but am kept off by the foaming billows of a brother's and sister's envy, and by the raging winds of a supposed invaded authority; while I see in Lovelace, the rocks on one hand, and in Solmes, the sands on the other; and tremble, lest I should split upon the former or strike upon the latter_. The present fashion is rather to develop a metaphor only by way of burlesque. All that need be asked of those who tend to this form of satire is to remember that, while some metaphors do seem to deserve such treatment, the number of times that the same joke can safely be made, even with variations, is limited; the limit has surely been exceeded, for instance, with 'the long arm of coincidence'; what proportion may this triplet of quotations bear to the number of times the thing has been done?--_The long arm of coincidence throws the Slifers into Mercedes's Cornish garden a little too heavily. The author does not strain the muscles of coincidence's arm to bring them into relation. Then the long arm of coincidence rolled up its sleeves and set to work with a rapidity and vigour which defy description_. Modern overdoing, apart from burlesque, is chiefly accidental, and results not from too much care, but from too little. _The most irreconcilable of Irish landlords are beginning to recognize that we are on the eve of the dawn of a new day in Ireland_. 'On the eve of' is a dead metaphor for 'about to experience', and to complete it with 'the dawn of a day' is as bad as to say, _It cost one pound sterling, ten_ instead of _one pound ten_. C. Spoilt Metaphor The essential merit of real or live metaphor being to add vividness to what is being conveyed, it need hardly be said that accuracy of detail is even more necessary in metaphorical than in literal expressions; the habit of metaphor, however, and the habit of accuracy do not always go together. _Yet Taurès was the Samson who upheld the pillars of the Bloc._ _Yet what more distinguished names does the Anglican Church of the last reign boast than those of F.D. Maurice, Kingsley, Stanley, Robertson of Brighton, and even, if we will draw our net a little wider, the great Arnold?_ _He was the very essence of cunning, the incarnation of a book-thief._ Samson's way with pillars was not to uphold them; we draw nets closer, but cast them wider; and what is the incarnation of a thief? too, too solid flesh indeed! D. Battles of Dead Metaphors In _The Covenanters took up arms_ there is no metaphor; in _The Covenanters flew to arms_ there is one only--_flew to_ for _quickly took up_; in _She flew to arms in defence of her darling_ there are two, the arms being now metaphorical as well as the flying; moreover, the two metaphors are separate ones; but, being dead, and also not inconsistent with each other, they lie together quietly enough. But dead metaphors will not lie quietly together if there was repugnance between them in life; e'en in their ashes live their wonted fires, and they get up and fight. _It is impossible to crush the Government's aim to restore the means of living and working freely_. 'Crush' for baffle, 'aim' for purpose, are both dead metaphors so long as they are kept apart, but the juxtaposition forces on us the thought that you cannot crush an aim. _National military training is the bedrock on which alone we can hope to carry through the great struggles which the future may have in store for us_. 'Bedrock' and 'carry through' are both moribund or dormant, but not stone-dead. _The vogue of the motor-car seems destined to help forward the provision of good road-communication, a feature which is sadly in arrear_. Good road-communication may be a feature, and it may be in arrear, and yet a feature cannot be in arrear; things that are equal to the same thing may be equal to each other in geometry, but language is not geometry. They are cyphers living under the _shadow_ of a great man. He stood, his feet _glued_ to the spot, his eyes _riveted_ on the heavens. The Geddes report is to be _emasculated_ a little in the Cabinet, and then _thrown_ at the heads of the Electorate. Viscount Grey's suggestion may, in spite of everything, prove the _nucleus_ of _solution_. The superior stamina of the Oxonian told in no _half-hearted measure_. [Even careful writers are sometimes unaware of the comical effect of some chance juxtaposition of words and ideas, whereby a dormant metaphor is set on its legs. Thus Leslie Stephen in his life of Swift wrote: _Sir William Temple, though he seems to have been vigorous and in spite of gout a brisk walker, was approaching his grave_. And again when he was triumphantly recording the progress of agnosticism he has: _Even the high-churchmen have thrown the Flood overboard_. [ED.]] E. Mixed Metaphors For the examples given in D, tasteless word-selection is a fitter description than mixed metaphor, since each of the words that conflict with others is not intended, as a metaphor at all. 'Mixed metaphor' is more appropriate when one or both of the terms can only be consciously metaphorical. Little warning is needed against it; it is so conspicuous as seldom to get into speech or print undetected. _This is not the time to throw up the sponge, when the enemy, already weakened and divided, are on the run to a new defensive position_. A mixture of prize-ring and battlefield. In the following extract from a speech it is difficult to be sure how many times metaphors are mixed; readers versed in the mysteries of oscillation may be able to decide: _No society, no community, can place its house in_ _such a condition that it is always on a rock, oscillating between solvency and insolvency. What I have to do is to see that our house is built upon a solid foundation, never allowing the possibility of the Society's life-blood being sapped. Just in proportion as you are careful in looking after the condition of your income, just in proportion as you deal with them carefully, will the solidarity of the Society's financial condition remain intact. Immediately you begin to play fast and loose with your income the first blow at your financial stability will have been struck._ A real poet losing himself in the _meshes_ of a foolish _obsession_. Johnson tore the _hearts_ out of books ruthlessly in order to extract the _honey_ out of them expeditiously. Are we to let the _pendulum_ swing back to the old _rut_? Those little houses at the top of the street, _dwarfed_ by the _grandiloquence_ on the opposite side, are too small, too. 3. Self-consciousness and Mixed Metaphor. The gentlemen of the Press regularly devote a small percentage of their time to accusing each other of mixing metaphors or announcing that they are themselves about to do so (What a mixture of metaphors! If we may mix our metaphors. To change the metaphor), the offence apparently being not to mix them, but to be unaware that you have done it. The odd thing is that, whether he is on the offensive or the defensive, the writer who ventures to talk of mixing metaphors often shows that he does not know what mixed metaphor is. Two typical examples of the offensive follow: _The _Scotsman_ says: 'The crowded benches of the Ministerialists contain the germs of disintegration. A more ill-assorted majority could hardly be conceived, and presently the Opposition must realize of what small account is the manoeuvring of the Free-Fooders or of any other section of the party. If the sling be only properly handled, the new Parliamentary Goliath will be overthrown easily enough. The stone for the sling must, however, be found on the Ministerial side of the House, and not on the Opposition side.' Apparently the stone for the sling will be a germ. But doubtless mixed feelings lead to mixed metaphors._ In this passage, we are well rid of the germs before we hear of the sling, and the mixture of metaphors is quite imaginary. Since literal benches often contain literal germs, but 'crowded benches' and 'germs of disintegration' are here separate metaphors for a numerous party and tendencies to disunion, our critic had ready to his hand in the first sentence, if he had but known it, something much more like a mixture of metaphors than what he mistakes for one. _'When the Chairman of Committees--a politician of their own hue--allowed Mr. Maddison to move his amendment in favour of secular education, a decision which was not quite in accordance with precedent, the floodgates of sectarian controversy were opened, and the apple of discord--the endowment of the gospel of Cowper-Temple--was thrown into the midst of the House of Commons.' What a mixture of metaphor! One pictures this gospel-apple battling with the stream released by the opened floodgates._ In point of fact, the floodgates and the apple are successive metaphors, unmixed; the mixing of them is done by the critic himself, not by the criticized; and as to _gospel-apple,_ by which it is hinted that the mixture is triple, the original writer had merely mentioned in the _gospel_ phrase the thing compared by the side of what it is compared to, as when one explains _the Athens of the North_ by adding _Edinburgh._ Writers who are on the defensive apologize for _change_ and _mixture_ of metaphors as though one was as bad as the other; the two sins are in fact entirely different; a man may change his metaphors as often as he likes; it is for him to judge whether the result will or will not be unpleasantly florid; but he should not ask our leave to do it; if the result is bad, his apology will not mend matters, and if it is not bad no apology was called for. On the other hand, to mix metaphors, if the mixture is real, is an offence that should have been not apologized for, but avoided. Whichever the phrase, the motive is the same--mortal fear of being accused of mixed metaphor. _...showed that Free Trade could provide the jam without recourse being had to Protective food-taxes: next came a period in which (to mix our metaphors) the jam was a nice slice of tariff pie for everybody, but then came the Edinburgh Compromise, by which the jam for the towns was that there were to be..._ When _jam_ is used in three successive sentences in its hackneyed sense of consolation, it need hardly be considered in the middle one of them a live metaphor at all; however, the as-good-as-dead metaphor of jam _is_ capable of being stimulated into life if any one is so foolish as to bring into contact with it another half-dead metaphor of its own (i.e. of the foodstuff) kind, and it _was_, after all, mixing metaphors to say the jam was a slice of pie; but then the way of escape was to withdraw either the jam or the pie, instead of forcing them together down our throats with a ramrod of apology. _Time sifts the richest granary, and posterity is a dainty feeder. But Lyall's words, at any rate--to mix the metaphor--will escape the blue pencil even of such drastic editors as they_. Since all three metaphors are live ones, and _they_ are the sifter and the feeder, the working of these into grammatical connexion with the blue pencil does undoubtedly mix metaphors. But then our author gives us to understand that he knows he is doing it, and surely that is enough. Even so some liars reckon that a lie is no disgrace provided that they wink at a bystander as they tell it, even so those who are addicted to the phrase 'to use a vulgarism' expect to achieve the feat of being at once vulgar and superior to vulgarity. _Certainly we cannot detect the suggested lack of warmth in the speech as it is printed, for in his speech, as in the Prime Minister's, it seems to us that (if we may change the metaphor) exactly the right note was struck_. _We may, on the one hand, receive into our gill its precise content of the complex mixture that fills the puncheon of the whole world's literature, on the other--to change the metaphor--our few small strings may thrill in sympathetic harmony to some lyrical zephyrs and remain practically unresponsive to the deep-sea gale of Aeschylus or Dante_. Why, yes, gentlemen, you may change your metaphors, if it seems good to you, but you may also be pretty sure that, if you feel the necessity of proclaiming the change, you had better have abstained from it. _Two of the trump cards played against the Bill are (1) that 'it makes every woman who pays a tax-collector in her own house', and (2) that 'it will destroy happy domestic relations in hundreds of thousands of homes'; if we may at once change our metaphor, these are the notes which are most consistently struck in the stream of letters, now printed day by day for our edification in the_ Mail. This writer need not have asked our leave to change from cards to music; he is within his rights, anyhow, and the odds are, indeed, that if he had not reminded us of the cards we should have forgotten them in the intervening lines, but how did a person so sensitive to change of metaphor fail to reflect that it is ill playing the piano in the water? 'A stream of letters', it is true, is only a picturesque way of saying 'many letters', and ordinarily a dead metaphor; but once put your seemingly dead yet picturesque metaphor close to a piano that is being played, and its notes wake the dead--at any rate for readers who have just had the word _metaphor_ called to their memory.--H.W. FOWLER. III. DEAD METAPHORS Metaphor becomes a habit with writers who wish to express more emotion than they feel, and who employ it as an ornament to statements that should be made plainly or not at all. Used thus, it is a false emphasis, like architectural ornaments in the wrong place. It demands of the reader an imaginative effort where there has been no such effort in the writer, an answering emotion where there is none to be answered. And the reader gets the habit of refusing such effort and such emotion; he ceases even to be aware of metaphors that are used habitually. He may not consciously resent them; but unconsciously his mind is wearied by them as the eye by advertisements often repeated. By their sameness they destroy expectation so that, even if the writer says anything in particular, it seems to be all generalities. Here is an instance of habitual metaphor, not manufactured for this tract, but taken from an article by a well-known writer. He is speaking of the career of Mr. Lloyd George: There was nothing like it in the histories of the ancient European monarchies, hide-bound by caste and now lying on the scrap-heaps of Switzerland and Holland. In the more forward nations, the new republics, men have indeed risen from humble beginnings to high station, but not generally by constitutional means and usually only (as now in Russia) by wading to their places through blood. The dizzy height to which Lloyd George has attained, not as a British statesman only but also as a world celebrity, seems to leave the foreign nations breathless. It is a spectacle that has of itself some of the thrill and fascination of romance. Here are metaphors that might be used, or have been used, so as to surprise the reader; but in this case they are stock-ornaments to a passage that needs no ornament. If the metaphors in the first sentence were alive to us they would be mixed; at least the transition from monarchies hide-bound by caste to monarchies lying on scrap-heaps would be too sudden; but we hardly notice it because we hardly notice the metaphors. And there is an inconsistency in the notion of rising by wading which, again, we do not notice only because we are so used to rising and wading as metaphors that both have lost their power as images. Mr. Lloyd George has waded to such a dizzy height that he seems to leave foreign nations breathless; and we should be breathless at the thought of such an impossibility if the metaphors were not dead. It is indeed the mark of a dead metaphor that it escapes absurdity only by being dead. The term has been used for metaphors that have lost all metaphorical significance; but these, perhaps, are better called buried metaphors. I prefer to use the word _dead_ of metaphors not yet buried but demanding burial. 'Risen from humble beginnings' is perhaps a buried metaphor; 'wading to their places through blood' is a dead one. It has been used so often that it jades instead of horrifying us; it is a corpse that fails to make us think of corpses. But in the next sentence the writer returns to the metaphor of rising and elaborates it so that it is no longer buried, though certainly dead. We are vaguely aware of the sense of this passage, but the metaphors are a hindrance, not a help, to our understanding of it. Writers fall into habitual metaphor when they fear that their thought will seem too commonplace without ornament; and, because the motive is unconscious, they choose metaphors familiar to themselves and their readers. The article from which I have quoted contains many such metaphors. Mr. Lloyd George is 'like other men only cast in bigger mould'. He is 'clearly no plaster saint'. 'You cannot think of him in relation to the knock-out blow except as the man who gives, not receives, it.' 'He has never lost his head on the dizzy height to which he has so suddenly attained. He is clearly in no danger of the intoxicating impulse of the people who find themselves for the first time on great eminences, to leap over. In a word, he is not spoiled.' Here the writer, as he would put it, gives himself away. All that metaphor means only that Mr. George is not spoiled, and the fact that he is not spoiled would be established better by instances than by metaphors. Then we are told that some of Mr. George's feats 'seem to partake of the nature of legerdemain'. 'He sways a popular assembly by waves of almost Hebraic emotion.' 'No man has ever had his ear closer to the ground and listened more attentively to the tramp of the oncoming multitudes.' He 'held Great Britain's end up' at the International conference. A 'magnificent tribute was paid to him by Earl Balfour' but it 'did not put him alone on a pinnacle'. And then we read of the whirligig of time, of 'clouds of misunderstanding which point to the coming of a storm'; of how 'foreign nations suddenly became aware that a new star had swum into the world's ken'; of how 'the situation of this country is perilous with so much Bolshevik gunpowder moving about', and how 'it has required a strong heart and a clear head to keep the nation from falling either into the sloughs of despond or the fires of revolution'. Some of these are metaphors that were excellent in their first use and original context; but they lose their excellence if repeated in any context where they have not been discovered by the emotion of the writer but are used by him to make a commonplace appear passionate. Then they seem an unfortunate legacy from poetry to prose; and it is a fact, I think, that our prose now suffers from the richness of our past poetry. Even the prose writers of the Romantic movement regarded prose as the poor relation of poetry; they did not see that prose has its own reasons for existing, its own state of being and its own beauties. They had the habit of writing about Shakespeare in Shakespeare's own manner, which, in later plays such as _Antony and Cleopatra_, is often a fading of one metaphor into another so fast that the reader's or listener's mind cannot keep pace with it: O sovereign mistress of true melancholy, The poisonous damp of night disponge upon me, That life, a very rebel to my will, May hang no longer on me: throw my heart Against the flint and hardness of my fault; Which, being dried with grief, will break to powder. And finish all foul thoughts. The metaphors here, though instinctive rather than habitual, are excessive even for the dying speech of Enobarbus. The style is the worst model for prose, yet it has persisted as a mere habit in the prose of writers who fear to be prosaic and who are prevented by that habit from saying even what they have to say. The principles of composition, whether verse or prose, are based on the fact that the unit of language is not the word, or even the phrase, but the sentence. From this it follows that every word and every phrase gets its meaning from the sentence in which it occurs; and so that words and phrases should be used freshly on each occasion and, as it were, recharged with meaning by the aptness of their use. Every sentence should, like a piece of music, establish its own relation between the words that compose it; and in the best sentences, whether of prose or verse, the words seem new-born; like notes in music, they seem to be, not mere labels, but facts, because of the manner in which the writer's thought or emotion has related them to each other. But habitual metaphor prevents this process of relation; it is the intrusion of ready-made matter, with its own stale associations, into matter that should be new-made for its own particular purpose of expression. Phrases like--The lap of luxury, Part and parcel, A sea of troubles, Passing through the furnace, Beyond the pale, The battle of life, The death-warrant of, Parrot cries, The sex-war, Tottering thrones, A trail of glory, Bull-dog tenacity, Hats off to, The narrow way, A load of sorrow, A charnel-house, The proud prerogative, Smiling through your tears, A straight fight, A profit and loss account, The fires of martyrdom, The school of life--are all ready-made matter; and, if a writer yields to the temptation of using them, he impedes his own process of expression, saying something which is not exactly what he has to say. He may, of course, attain to a familiar metaphor in his own process of expression; but if he does, if it is exactly what he has to say, then it will not seem stale to the reader. Context may give life to a metaphor that has long seemed dead, as it gives life to the commonest words. If an image forces itself upon a writer because it and it alone will express his meaning, then it is his image, no matter how often it has been used before; and in that case it will arrest the attention of the reader. But the effect of habitual and dead metaphor is to dull attention. When a phrase like 'the lap of luxury' catches the eye, the mind relaxes but is not rested; for we are wearied, without exercise, by commonplace. Further, the use of dead metaphor weakens a writer's sense of the connexion between mood and manner. All the metaphors which I have quoted are fit for the expression of some kind of emotion rather than for plain statement of fact or for lucid argument; yet they are used commonly in statements of fact and in what passes for argument. Indeed one of their evils is that they make a writer and his readers believe that he is exercising his reason when he is only moving from trite image to image. If eloquence is reason fused with emotion, writing, or speaking, full of dead metaphors is unreason fused with sham emotion. I add in illustration a further list of dead metaphors lately noticed: 'Branches of the same deadly Upas Tree. Turning a deaf ear to. The flower of our manhood. Taking off the gloves. Written in letters of fire. Stemming the tide. Big with possibilities. The end is in sight. A place in the sun. A spark of manhood. To dry up the founts of pity. Hunger stalking through the land. A death grip. Round pegs (or men) in square holes. The lamp of sacrifice. The silver lining. Troubling the waters, and poisoning the wells. The promised land. Flowing with milk and honey. Winning all along the line. Casting in her lot with. The fruits of victory. Backs to the wall. Bubbling over with confidence. Bled white. The writing on the wall. The sickle of death. A ring fence round. The crucible of. Answering the call. Grinding the faces of the poor. The scroll of fame.'--A. CLUTTON-BROCK. IRRELEVANT ALLUSION We all know the people--for they are the majority, and probably include our particular selves--who cannot carry on the ordinary business of everyday talk without the use of phrases containing a part that is appropriate, and another that is pointless or worse; the two parts have associated themselves together in their minds as making up what somebody has said, and what others as well as they will find familiar, and they have the sort of pleasure in producing the combination that a child has in airing a newly acquired word. There is, indeed, a certain charm in the grown man's boyish ebullience, not to be restrained by thoughts of relevance from letting the exuberant phrase jet forth. And for that charm we put up with it when a speaker draws our attention to the methodical by telling us there is a method in the madness, though method and not madness is all there is to see, when another's every winter is the winter of his discontent, when a third cannot complain of the light without calling it religious as well as dim, when for a fourth nothing can be rotten outside the State of Denmark, or when a fifth, asked whether he does not owe you 1s. 6d. for that cab fare, owns the soft impeachment. A slightly fuller examination of a single example may be useful. The phrase to _leave severely alone_ has two reasonable uses--one in the original sense of to leave alone as a method of severe treatment, i.e. to send to Coventry or show contempt for, and the other in contexts where _severely_ is to be interpreted by contraries--to leave alone by way not of punishing the object, but of avoiding consequences for the subject. The straightforward meaning, and the ironical, are both good; anything between them, in which the real meaning is merely to leave alone, and _severely_ is no more than an echo, is pointless and vapid and in print intolerable. Examples follow: (1, straightforward) _You must show him, by leaving him severely alone, by putting him into a moral Coventry, your detestation of the crime_; (2, ironical) _Fish of prey do not appear to relish the sharp spines of the stickleback, and usually seem to leave them severely alone_; (3, pointless) _Austria forbids children to_ _smoke in public places; and in German schools and military colleges there are laws upon the subject; France, Spain, Greece, and Portugal leave the matter severely alone_. It is obvious at once how horrible the faded jocularity of No. 3 is in print; and, though things like it come crowding upon one another in most conversation, they are not very easy to find in newspapers and books of any merit; a small gleaning of them follows: _The moral_, as Alice would say, _appeared to be that, despite its difference in degree, an obvious essential in the right kind of education had been equally lacking to both these girls_ (as Alice, or indeed as you or I, might say). _Resignation_ became a virtue of necessity _for Sweden_ (If you do what you must with a good grace, you make a virtue of necessity; without _make_, a virtue of necessity loses its meaning). _I strongly advise the single working-man who would become a successful backyard poultry-keeper_ to ignore the advice of Punch, _and to secure a useful helpmate_. _The beloved lustige Wien_ [merry Vienna] _of his youth had_ suffered a sea-change. _The green glacis ... was blocked by ranges of grand new buildings_ (Ariel must chuckle at the odd places in which his sea-change turns up). _Many of the celebrities who in that most frivolous of watering-places_ do congregate. _When about to quote Sir Oliver Lodge's tribute to the late leader, Mr. Law_ drew, not a dial, _but what was obviously a penny memorandum book_ from his pocket (You want to mention that Mr. Bonar Law took a notebook out of his pocket. But pockets are humdrum things. How give a literary touch? Call it a poke? No, we can better that; who was it drew what from his poke? Why, Touchstone, a dial, to be sure! and there you are).--H.W.F. CORRESPONDENCE We have a constant flow of correspondence, and we are afraid the writers must think us unpractical, incompetent, or neglectful, because we give their inquiries no place in our tracts; they may naturally think that it is our business to pass judgement on any linguistic question that troubles them; but most of these queries would be satisfactorily answered by reference to the _O. E. D._, which we do not undertake to reprint; in other cases, where we are urged to protest against the common abuse of some word or phrase, we do not think (as we have before explained) that it is worth while to treat any such detail without full illustration, and this our correspondents do not supply. We propose now to demonstrate the situation by dealing with a small selection of these abused words, which may serve as examples. * * * * * IMPLICIT The human mind likes a good clear black-and-white contrast; when two words so definitely promise one of these contrasts as _explicit_ and _implicit_, and then dash our hopes by figuring in phrases where contrast ceases to be visible--say in 'explicit support' and 'implicit obedience', with _absolute_ or _complete_ or _full_ as a substitute that might replace either or both--, we ask with some indignation whether after all black is white, and perhaps decide that _implicit_ is a shifty word with which we will have no further dealings. It is noteworthy in more than one respect. First, it means for the most part the same as _implied_, and, as it is certainly not so instantly intelligible to the average man, it might have been expected to be so good as to die. That it has nevertheless survived by the side of _implied_ is perhaps due to two causes: one is that _explicit_ and _implicit_ make a neater antithesis than even _expressed_ and _implied_ (we should write _all the conditions, whether explicit or implicit_; but _all the implied conditions; implied_ being much commoner than _implicit_ when the antithesis is not given in full); and the other is that the adverb, whether of _implicit_ or of _implied_, is more often wanted than the adjective, and that _impliedly_ is felt to be a bad form; _implicitly_, preferred to _impliedly_, helps to keep _implicit_ alive. Secondly, there is the historical accident by which _implicit_, with _faith, obedience, confidence_, and such words, has come to mean absolute or full, whereas it originally meant undeveloped or potential or in the germ. The starting-point of this usage is the ecclesiastical phrase _implicit faith_, i.e. a person's acceptance of any article of belief not on its own merits, but as a part of, as 'wrapped up in', his general acceptance of the Church's authority; the steps from this sense to unquestioning, and thence to complete or absolute or exact, are easy; but not every one who says that implicit obedience is the first duty of the soldier realizes that the obedience he is describing is not properly an exact one, but one that is involved in acceptance of the soldier's status.--[H.W.F.] It seems to us (by virtue of this 'historical accident') that in such a phrase as the _implied_ or _implicit conditions_ of a contract, there is a recognized difference of meaning in the two words. _Implied_ conditions, though unexpressed, need not be hidden, they are rather such as any one who agreed to the main stipulation would recognize as involved; and the word _implied_ might even carry the plea that they were unspecified because openly apparent. On the other hand _implicit_ conditions are rather such as are unsuspected and in a manner hidden.--[ED.] PRACTICALLY A correspondent complains that the adverb 'almost' is being supplanted by 'practically'. 'The true meaning of "practically" (he writes) is "in practice" as opposed to "in theory" or "in thought"; for instance, _Questions which are theoretically interesting to thoughtful people and practically to every one_, or again, _He loves himself contemplatively by knowing as he is known and practically by loving as he is loved._' And he finds fault with the _O.E.D._, whence he takes his quotations, for not condemning such phrases as these, _The application was supported by practically all the creditors_, and, _He has been very ill but is now practically well again_. The word is no doubt abused and intrudes everywhere. _The Times_ writes of a recent gale, _Considerable damage was done by the gale in practically every parish in Jersey_, and again of a bridge on the Seine that _The structure has practically been swept away_; but it seems that in the sense of 'for practical purposes' it can be defended as a useful word. For instance, a friend, leaving your house at night to walk home, says, _It is full moon, isn't it?_ and you reply _Practically_, meaning that it is full enough for his purpose. You might say _nearabouts_ or _thereabouts_ or _sufficiently_, but you cannot say _almost_ or _nearly_ without implying that you know the full moon to be nearly due and not past. In such cases it might be argued that 'practically' is truly opposed to 'theoretically', but 'actually' is rather its opposite. 'Practically' implies an undefined margin of error which does not affect the situation. LITERALLY A correspondent quotes: _For the last three years I literally coined money_, and, _My hair literally stood on end_. The common misuse of this word is so absurd that it would not be worth while to protest against it, if its daily appearance in every newspaper did not show that it was tolerated by educated people. Mr. Fowler writes: 'We have come to such a pass with this emphasizer that where the truth would require us to acknowledge our exaggeration with, "not literally, of course, but in a manner of speaking", we do not hesitate to insert the very word that we ought to be at pains to repudiate; such false coin makes honest traffic in words impossible. _If the Home Rule Bill is passed, the 300,000 Unionists of the South and West of Ireland will be_ literally thrown to the wolves. _The strong "tête-de-pont" fortifications were rushed by our troops, and a battalion crossed the bridge_ literally on the enemy's shoulders. In both, _practically_ or _virtually_, opposites of _literally_, would have stood.' INFINITELY This word, like _infiniment_ in French, is commonly used for 'extremely', and it is pedantic to object to it by insisting always on its full logical meaning; but it should be avoided where measurable quantities are spoken of; for instance, one may say _to indoctrinate the mob with philosophical notions does infinite harm_, but to say that _England is infinitely more populous than Australia_ is absurd. That one can rightly call atoms infinitely small means that they are to our senses immeasurable, and the word, as it here carries wonder, may, like other conversational expletives, have an emotional force, and can therefore be sometimes well used even where its exaggeration is apparent. As when a man heightens some assertion with a 'damnable,' he intends by the colour of his speech to warn you that his conviction is profound, and that he is in no mood to listen to reason, so the exaggeration of 'infinite' may have special value by giving emotional colour to a sentence. On the above principles there will be doubtful cases. For instance, was Mr. Lloyd George justified the other day in saying, _If you cut down expenditure to the lowest possible limit, the war debt would still be so enormous that ... the expenditure for this country is bound to be infinitely greater than before the war?--The Times_, Oct. 23. THE AMERICAN INVITATION The English reply to the American Invitation was despatched last October. The text of it is as follows: 'To Professor Fred Newton Scott. DEAR SIR, We thank you heartily for the letter addressed to us by Professors James Wilson Bright, Albert Stanburrough Cook, Charles Hall Grandgent, Robert Underwood Johnson, John Livingston Lowes, John Matthews Manly, Charles Grosvenor Osgood, and yourself. We regret that so long a time should have passed before our joint reply could be despatched: but our intentions have in the meanwhile been privately made known to you. We now write to give you formal assurance of the interest and sympathy with which your proposal has been received, and to thank you for your generous suggestion that we in the mother country of our language should take the lead in furthering the project. Since then we, both Americans and British, are in complete agreement as to our aims, we have only to decide on the best means and devise the best machinery that we can to attain them. We feel that this practical question needs very careful consideration and consultation: and we have therefore appointed a small committee of five persons on our side to confer and draw up a table of suggestions which can be submitted to you. We would invite you on your side to take a similar step: we could then compare our respective proposals and agree upon a basis on which to work. There are two dangers which we feel it especially desirable to avoid: one is the establishment of an authoritative academy, tending inevitably to divorce the literary from the spoken language; the other is the creation of a body so large as to be unmanageable. We have also to cope with the difficulty of co-ordinating the activities of members representing many branches in widely scattered territories. Our committee for consultation on these matters consists of Henry Bradley, Robert Bridges, A.T.Q. Couch, Henry Newbolt, and J. Dover Wilson: and we shall be glad if you can tell us that you approve of our preliminary step and will be willing to consider our suggestions when they are ready. (Signed) BALFOUR. ROBERT BRIDGES. HENRY NEWBOLT.' A first meeting of the consulting committee mentioned in the above reply was held in Corpus Christi College, Oxford, on Nov. 1st ult. Present: Henry Bradley, Robert Bridges, Sir Henry Newbolt, and J. Dover Wilson. Discussion was confined to practical questions of organization, and Sir Henry Newbolt undertook to draft a letter in which the sense of 
5402	----	1811 DICTIONARY OF THE VULGAR TONGUE. A DICTIONARY OF BUCKISH SLANG, UNIVERSITY WIT, AND PICKPOCKET ELOQUENCE. UNABRIDGED FROM THE ORIGINAL 1811 EDITION WITH A FOREWORD BY ROBERT CROMIE COMPILED ORIGINALLY BY CAPTAIN GROSE. AND NOW CONSIDERABLY ALTERED AND ENLARGED, WITH THE MODERN CHANGES AND IMPROVEMENTS, BY A MEMBER OF THE WHIP CLUB. ASSISTED BY HELL-FIRE DICK, AND JAMES GORDON, ESQRS. OF CAMBRIDGE; AND WILLIAM SOAMES, ESQ. OF THE HON. SOCIETY OF NEWMAN'S HOTEL. PREFACE. The merit of Captain Grose's Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue has been long and universally acknowledged. But its circulation was confined almost exclusively to the lower orders of society: he was not aware, at the time of its compilation, that our young men of fashion would at no very distant period be as distinguished for the vulgarity of their jargon as the inhabitants of Newgate; and he therefore conceived it superfluous to incorporate with his work the few examples of fashionable slang that might occur to his observation. But our Jehus of rank have a phraseology not less peculiar to themselves, than the disciples of Barrington: for the uninitiated to understand their modes of expression, is as impossible as for a Buxton to construe the Greek Testament. To sport an Upper Benjamin, and to swear with a good grace, are qualifications easily attainable by their cockney imitators; but without the aid of our additional definitions, neither the cits of Fish-street, nor the boors of Brentford would be able to attain the language of whippism. We trust, therefore, that the whole tribe of second-rate Bang Ups, will feel grateful for our endeavour to render this part of the work as complete as possible. By an occasional reference to our pages, they may be initiated into all the peculiarities of language by which the man of spirit is distinguished from the man of worth. They may now talk bawdy before their papas, without the fear of detection, and abuse their less spirited companions, who prefer a good dinner at home to a glorious UP-SHOT in the highway, without the hazard of a cudgelling. But we claim not merely the praise of gratifying curiosity, or affording assistance to the ambitious; we are very sure that the moral influence of the Lexicon Balatronicum will be more certain and extensive than that of any methodist sermon that has ever been delivered within the bills of mortality. We need not descant on the dangerous impressions that are made on the female mind, by the remarks that fall incidentally from the lips of the brothers or servants of a family; and we have before observed, that improper topics can with our assistance be discussed, even before the ladies, without raising a blush on the cheek of modesty. It is impossible that a female should understand the meaning of TWIDDLE DIDDLES, or rise from table at the mention of BUCKINGER'S BOOT. Besides, Pope assures us, that "VICE TO BE HATED NEEDS BUT TO BE SEEN;" in this volume it cannot be denied, that she is seen very plainly; and a love of virtue is, therefore, the necessary result of perusing it. The propriety of introducing the UNIVERSITY SLANG will be readily admitted; it is not less curious than that of the College in the Old Bailey, and is less generally understood. When the number and accuracy of our additions are compared with the price of the volume, we have no doubt that its editors will meet with the encouragement that is due to learning, modesty, and virtue. DICTIONARY OF THE VULGAR TONGUE. ABBESS, or LADY ABBESS, A bawd, the mistress of a brothel. ABEL-WACKETS. Blows given on the palm of the hand with a twisted handkerchief, instead of a ferula; a jocular punishment among seamen, who sometimes play at cards for wackets, the loser suffering as many strokes as he has lost games. ABIGAIL. A lady's waiting-maid. ABRAM. Naked. CANT. ABRAM COVE. A cant word among thieves, signifying a naked or poor man; also a lusty, strong rogue. ABRAM MEN. Pretended mad men. TO SHAM ABRAM. To pretend sickness. ACADEMY, or PUSHING SCHOOL. A brothel. The Floating Academy; the lighters on board of which those persons are confined, who by a late regulation are condemned to hard labour, instead of transportation.--Campbell's Academy; the same, from a gentleman of that name, who had the contract for victualling the hulks or lighters. ACE OF SPADES. A widow. ACCOUNTS. To cast up one's accounts; to vomit. ACORN. You will ride a horse foaled by an acorn, i.e. the gallows, called also the Wooden and Three-legged Mare. You will be hanged.--See THREE-LEGGED MARE. ACT OF PARLIAMENT. A military term for small beer, five pints of which, by an act of parliament, a landlord was formerly obliged to give to each soldier gratis. ACTEON. A cuckold, from the horns planted on the head of Acteon by Diana. ACTIVE CITIZEN. A louse. ADAM'S ALE. Water. ADAM TILER. A pickpocket's associate, who receives the stolen goods, and runs off with them. CANT. ADDLE PATE. An inconsiderate foolish fellow. ADDLE PLOT. A spoil-sport, a mar-all. ADMIRAL OF THE BLUE, who carries his flag on the main-mast. A landlord or publican wearing a blue apron, as was formerly the custom among gentlemen of that vocation. ADMIRAL OF THE NARROW SEAS. One who from drunkenness vomits into the lap of the person sitting opposite to him. SEA PHRASE. ADRIFT. Loose, turned adrift, discharged. SEA PHRASE. AEGROTAT, (CAMBRIDGE), A certificate from the apothecary that you are INDISPOSED, (i. e.) to go to chapel. He sports an Aegrotat, he is sick, and unable to attend Chapel. or Hall. It does not follow, however, but that he can STRUM A PIECE, or sport a pair of oars. AFFIDAVIT MEN. Knights of the post, or false witnesses, said to attend Westminster Hall, and other courts of justice, ready to swear any thing for hire. AFTER-CLAP. A demand after the first given in has been discharged; a charge for pretended omissions; in short, any thing disagreeable happening after all consequences of the cause have been thought at an end. AGAINST THE GRAIN. Unwilling. It went much against the grain with him, i.e. it was much against his inclination, or against his pluck. AGOG, ALL-A-GOG. Anxious, eager, impatient: from the Italian AGOGARE, to desire eagerly. AGROUND. Stuck fast, stopped, at a loss, ruined; like a boat or vessel aground. AIR AND EXERCISE. He has had air and exercise, i.e. he has been whipped at the cart's tail; or, as it is generally, though more vulgarly, expressed, at the cart's a-se. ALDERMAN. A roasted turkey garnished with sausages; the latter are supposed to represent the gold chain worn by those magistrates. ALDGATE. A draught on the pump at Aldgate; a bad bill of exchange, drawn on persons who have no effects of the drawer. ALE DRAPER. An alehouse keeper. ALE POST. A may-pole. ALL-A-MORT. Struck dumb, confounded. What, sweet one, all-a-mort? SHAKESPEARE. ALL HOLIDAY. It is all holiday at Peckham, or it is all holiday with him; a saying signifying that it is all over with the business or person spoken of or alluded to. ALL HOLLOW. He was beat all hollow, i.e. he had no chance of conquering: it was all hollow, or a hollow thing, it was a decided thing from the beginning. See HOLLOW. ALL NATIONS. A composition of all the different spirits sold in a dram-shop, collected in a vessel into which the drainings of the bottles and quartern pots are emptied. ALLS. The five alls is a country sign, representing five human figures, each having a motto under him. The first is a king in his regalia; his motto, I govern all: the second, a bishop in pontificals; motto, I pray for all: third, a lawyer in his gown; motto, I plead for all: fourth: a soldier in his regimentals, fully accoutred; motto, I fight for all: fifth, a poor countryman with his scythe and rake; motto, I pay for all. ALTAMEL. A verbal or lump account, without particulars, such as is commonly produced at bawdy-houses, spunging-houses, &c. Vide DUTCH RECKONING. ALTITUDES. The man is in his altitudes, i.e. he is drunk. AMBASSADOR. A trick to duck some ignorant fellow or landsman, frequently played on board ships in the warm latitudes. It is thus managed: A large tub is filled with water, and two stools placed on each side of it. Over the whole is thrown a tarpaulin, or old sail: this is kept tight by two persons, who are to represent the king and queen of a foreign country, and are seated on the stools. The person intended to be ducked plays the Ambassador, and after repeating a ridiculous speech dictated to him, is led in great form up to the throne, and seated between the king and queen, who rising suddenly as soon as he is seated, he falls backwards into the tub of water. AMBASSADOR OF MOROCCO. A Shoemaker. (See Mrs. Clarke's Examination.) AMBIDEXTER. A lawyer who takes fees from both plaintiff and defendant, or that goes snacks with both parties in gaming. AMEN CURLER. A parish clerk. AMEN. He said Yes and Amen to every thing; he agreed to every thing. AMINADAB. A jeering name for a Quaker. AMES ACE. Within ames ace; nearly, very near. TO AMUSE. To fling dust or snuff in the eyes of the person intended to be robbed; also to invent some plausible tale, to delude shop-keepers and others, thereby to put them off their guard. CANT. AMUSERS. Rogues who carried snuff or dust in their pockets, which they threw into the eyes of any person they intended to rob; and running away, their accomplices (pretending to assist and pity the half-blinded person) took that opportunity of plundering him. ANABAPTIST. A pickpocket caught in the fact, and punished with the discipline of the pump or horse-pond. ANCHOR. Bring your a-se to an anchor, i.e. sit down. To let go an anchor to the windward of the law; to keep within the letter of the law. SEA WIT. ANGLERS. Pilferers, or petty thieves, who, with a stick having a hook at the end, steal goods out of shop-windows, grates, &c.; also those who draw in or entice unwary persons to prick at the belt, or such like devices. ANGLING FOR FARTHINGS. Begging out of a prison window with a cap, or box, let down at the end of a long string. ANKLE. A girl who is got with child, is said to have sprained her ankle. ANODYNE NECKLACE. A halter. ANTHONY or TANTONY PIG. The favourite or smallest pig in the litter.--To follow like a tantony pig, i.e. St. Anthony's pig; to follow close at one's heels. St. Anthony the hermit was a swineherd, and is always represented with a swine's bell and a pig. Some derive this saying from a privilege enjoyed by the friars of certain convents in England and France (sons of St. Anthony), whose swine were permitted to feed in the streets. These swine would follow any one having greens or other provisions, till they obtained some of them; and it was in those days considered an act of charity and religion to feed them. TO KNOCK ANTHONY. Said of an in-kneed person, or one whose knees knock together; to cuff Jonas. See JONAS. APE LEADER. An old maid; their punishment after death, for neglecting increase and multiply, will be, it is said, leading apes in hell. APOSTLES. To manoeuvre the apostles, i.e. rob Peter to pay Paul; that is, to borrow money of one man to pay another. APOSTLES. (CAMBRIDGE.) Men who are plucked, refused their degree. APOTHECARY. To talk like an apothecary; to use hard or gallipot words: from the assumed gravity and affectation of knowledge generally put on by the gentlemen of this profession, who are commonly as superficial in their learning as they are pedantic in their language. APOTHECARY'S BILL. A long bill. APOTHECARY'S, or LAW LATIN. Barbarous Latin, vulgarly called Dog Latin, in Ireland Bog Latin. APPLE CART. Down with his apple-cart; knock or throw him down. APPLE DUMPLIN SHOP. A woman's bosom. APPLE-PYE BED. A bed made apple-pye fashion, like what is called a turnover apple-pye, where the sheets are so doubled as to prevent any one from getting at his length between them: a common trick played by frolicsome country lasses on their sweethearts, male relations, or visitors. APRIL FOOL. Any one imposed on, or sent on a bootless errand, on the first of April; which day it is the custom among the lower people, children, and servants, by dropping empty papers carefully doubled up, sending persons on absurd messages, and such like contrivances, to impose on every one they can, and then to salute them with the title of April Fool. This is also practised in Scotland under the title of Hunting the Gowke. APRON STRING HOLD. An estate held by a man during his wife's life. AQUA PUMPAGINIS. Pump water. APOTHECARIES LATIN. ARBOR VITAE. A man's penis. ARCH DUKE. A comical or eccentric fellow. ARCH ROGUE, DIMBER DAMBER UPRIGHT MAN. The chief of a gang of thieves or gypsies. ARCH DELL, or ARCH DOXY, signifies the same in rank among the female canters or gypsies. ARD. Hot. CANT. ARMOUR. In his armour, pot valiant: to fight in armour; to make use of Mrs. Philips's ware. See C--D--M. ARK. A boat or wherry. Let us take an ark and winns, let us take a sculler. CANT. ARK RUFFIANS. Rogues who, in conjunction with watermen, robbed, and sometimes murdered, on the water, by picking a quarrel with the passengers in a boat, boarding it, plundering, stripping, and throwing them overboard, &c. A species of badger. CANT. ARRAH NOW. An unmeaning expletive, frequently used by the vulgar Irish. ARS MUSICA. A bum fiddle. ARSE. To hang an arse; to hang back, to be afraid to advance. He would lend his a-e and sh-te through his ribs; a saying of any one who lends his money inconsiderately. He would lose his a-e if it was loose; said of a careless person. A-e about; turn round. ARSY YARSEY. To fall arsy varsey, i.e. head over heels. ARTHUR, KING ARTHUR, A game used at sea, when near the line, or in a hot latitude. It is performed thus: A man who is to represent king Arthur, ridiculously dressed, having a large wig made out of oakum, or some old swabs, is seated on the side, or over a large vessel of water. Every person in his turn is to be ceremoniously introduced to him, and to pour a bucket of water over him, crying, hail, king Arthur! if during this ceremony the person introduced laughs or smiles (to which his majesty endeavours to excite him, by all sorts of ridiculous gesticulations), he changes place with, and then becomes, king Arthur, till relieved by some brother tar, who has as little command over his muscles as himself. ARTICLES. Breeches; coat, waistcoat, and articles. ARTICLE. A wench. A prime article. A handsome girl. She's a prime article (WHIP SLANG), she's a devilish good piece, a hell of a GOER. ASK, or AX MY A-E. A common reply to any question; still deemed wit at sea, and formerly at court, under the denomination of selling bargains. See BARGAIN. ASSIG. An assignation. ATHANASIAN WENCH, or QUICUNQUE VULT. A forward girl, ready to oblige every man that shall ask her. AUNT. Mine aunt; a bawd or procuress: a title of eminence for the senior dells, who serve for instructresses, midwives, &c. for the dells. CANT. See DELLS. AVOIR DU POIS LAY. Stealing brass weights off the counters of shops. CANT. AUTEM. A church. AUTEM BAWLER. A parson. CANT. AUTEM CACKLERS, AUTEM PRICKEARS. Dissenters of every denomination. CANT. AUTEM CACKLETUB. A conventicle or meeting-house for dissenters. CANT. AUTEM DIPPERS. Anabaptists. CANT. AUTEM DIVERS. Pickpockets who practice in churches; also churchwardens and overseers of the poor. CANT. AUTEM GOGLERS. Pretended French prophets. CANT. AUTEM MORT. A married woman; also a female beggar with several children hired or borrowed to excite charity. CANT. AUTEM QUAVERS. Quakers. AUTEM QUAVER TUB. A Quakers' meeting-house. CANT. AWAKE. Acquainted with, knowing the business. Stow the books, the culls are awake; hide the cards, the fellows know what we intended to do. BABES IN THE WOOD. Criminals in the stocks, or pillory. BABBLE. Confused, unintelligible talk, such as was used at the building the tower of Babel. BACK BITER. One who slanders another behind his back, i.e. in his absence. His bosom friends are become his back biters, said of a lousy man. BACKED. Dead. He wishes to have the senior, or old square-toes, backed; he longs to have his father on six men's shoulders; that is, carrying to the grave. BACK UP. His back is up, i.e. he is offended or angry; an expression or idea taken from a cat; that animal, when angry, always raising its back. An allusion also sometimes used to jeer a crooked man; as, So, Sir, I see somebody has offended you, for your back is up. BACON. He has saved his bacon; he has escaped. He has a good voice to beg bacon; a saying in ridicule of a bad voice. BACON-FACED. Full-faced. BACON FED. Fat, greasy. BACK GAMMON PLAYER. A sodomite. BACK DOOR (USHER, or GENTLEMAN OF THE). The same. BAD BARGAIN. One of his majesty's bad bargains; a worthless soldier, a malingeror. See MALINGEROR. BADGE. A term used for one burned in the hand. He has got his badge, and piked; he was burned in the hand, and is at liberty. Cant. BADGE-COVES. Parish Pensioners. Cant. BADGERS. A crew of desperate villains who robbed near rivers, into which they threw the bodies of those they murdered. Cant. BAG. He gave them the bag, i.e. left them. BAG OF NAILS. He squints like a bag of nails; i. e. his eyes are directed as many ways as the points of a bag of nails. The old BAG OF NAILS at Pimlico; originally the BACCHANALS. BAGGAGE. Heavy baggage; women and children. Also a familiar epithet for a woman; as, cunning baggage, wanton baggage, &c. BAKERS DOZEN. Fourteen; that number of rolls being allowed to the purchasers of a dozen. BAKER-KNEE'D. One whose knees knock together in walking, as if kneading dough. BALDERDASH. Adulterated wine. BALLOCKS. The testicles of a man or beast; also a vulgar nick name for a parson. His brains are in his ballocks, a cant saying to designate a fool. BALUM RANCUM. A hop or dance, where the women are all prostitutes. N. B. The company dance in their birthday suits. BALSAM. Money. BAM. A jocular imposition, the same as a humbug. See HUMBUG. TO BAM. To impose on any one by a falsity; also to jeer or make fun of any one. TO BAMBOOZLE. To make a fool of any one, to humbug or impose on him. BANAGHAN. He beats Banaghan; an Irish saying of one who tells wonderful stories. Perhaps Banaghan was a minstrel famous for dealing in the marvellous. BANDBOX. Mine a-se on a bandbox; an answer to the offer of any thing inadequate to the purpose for which it is proffered, like offering a bandbox for a seat. BANBURY STORY OF A COCK AND A BULL. A roundabout, nonsensical story. BANDOG. A bailiff or his follower; also a very fierce mastiff: likewise, a bandbox. CANT. BANG UP. (WHIP.) Quite the thing, hellish fine. Well done. Compleat. Dashing. In a handsome stile. A bang up cove; a dashing fellow who spends his money freely. To bang up prime: to bring your horses up in a dashing or fine style: as the swell's rattler and prads are bang up prime; the gentleman sports an elegant carriage and fine horses. TO BANG. To beat. BANGING. Great; a fine banging boy. BANG STRAW. A nick name for a thresher, but applied to all the servants of a farmer. BANKRUPT CART. A one-horse chaise, said to be so called by a Lord Chief Justice, from their being so frequently used on Sunday jaunts by extravagant shop-keepers and tradesmen. BANKS'S HORSE. A horse famous for playing tricks, the property of one Banks. It is mentioned in Sir Walter Raleigh's Hist. of the World, p. 178; also by Sir Kenelm Digby and Ben Jonson. BANTLING. A young child. BANYAN DAY. A sea term for those days on which no meat is allowed to the sailors: the term is borrowed from the Banyans in the East Indies, a cast that eat nothing that had life. BAPTIZED, OR CHRISTENED. Rum, brandy, or any other spirits, that have been lowered with water. BARBER'S CHAIR. She is as common as a barber's chair, in which a whole parish sit to be trimmed; said of a prostitute. BARBER'S SIGN. A standing pole and two wash balls. BARGAIN. To sell a bargain; a species of wit, much in vogue about the latter end of the reign of Queen Anne, and frequently alluded to by Dean Swift, who says the maids of honour often amused themselves with it. It consisted in the seller naming his or her hinder parts, in answer to the question, What? which the buyer was artfully led to ask. As a specimen, take the following instance: A lady would come into a room full of company, apparently in a fright, crying out, It is white, and follows me! On any of the company asking, What? she sold him the bargain, by saying, Mine a-e. BARGEES. (CAMBRIDGE.) Barge-men on the river. BARKER. The shopman of a bow-wow shop, or dealer in second hand clothes, particularly about Monmouth-Street, who walks before his master's door, and deafens every passenger with his cries of--Clothes, coats, or gowns--what d'ye want, gemmen?--what d'ye buy? See BOW-WOW SHOP. BARKSHIRE. A member or candidate for Barkshire, said of one troubled with a cough, vulgarly styled barking. BARKING IRONS. Pistols, from their explosion resembling the bow-wow or barking of a dog. IRISH. BARN. A parson's barn; never so full but there is still room, for more. Bit by a barn mouse, tipsey, probably from an allusion to barley. BARNABY. An old dance to a quick movement. See Cotton, in his Virgil Travesti; where, speaking of Eolus he has these lines, Bounce cry the port-holes, out they fly, And make the world dance Barnaby. BARNACLE. A good job, or snack easily got: also shellfish growing at the bottoms of ships; a bird of the goose kind; an instrument like a pair of pincers, to fix on the noses of vicious horses whilst shoeing; a nick name for spectacles, and also for the gratuity given to grooms by the buyers and sellers of horses. BARREL FEVER. He died of the barrel fever; he killed himself by drinking. BARROW MAN. A man under sentence of transportation; alluding to the convicts at Woolwich, who are principally employed in wheeling barrows full of brick or dirt. BARTHOLOMEW BABY. A person dressed up in a tawdry manner, like the dolls or babies sold at Bartholomew fair. BASKET. An exclamation frequently made use of in cock-pits, at cock-fightings, where persons refusing or unable to pay their losings, are adjudged by that respectable assembly to be put into a basket suspended over the pit, there to remain during that day's diversion: on the least demur to pay a bet, Basket is vociferated in terrorem. He grins like a basket of chips: a saying of one who is on the broad grin. BASKET-MAKING. The good old trade of basket-making; copulation, or making feet for children's stockings. BASTARD. The child of an unmarried woman. BASTARDLY GULLION. A bastard's bastard. TO BASTE. To beat. I'll give him his bastings, I'll beat him heartily. BASTING. A beating. BASTONADING. Beating any one with a stick; from baton, a stick, formerly spelt baston. BAT. A low whore: so called from moving out like bats in the dusk of the evening. BATCH. We had a pretty batch of it last night; we had a hearty dose of liquor. Batch originally means the whole quantity of bread baked at one time in an oven. BATTNER. An ox: beef being apt to batten or fatten those that eat it. The cove has hushed the battner; i.e. has killed the ox. BATCHELOR'S FARE. Bread and cheese and kisses. BATCHELOR'S SON. A bastard. BATTLE-ROYAL. A battle or bout at cudgels or fisty-cuffs, wherein more than two persons are engaged: perhaps from its resemblance, in that particular, to more serious engagements fought to settle royal disputes. BAWBEE. A halfpenny. Scotch. BAWBELS, or BAWBLES. Trinkets; a man's testicles. BAWD. A female procuress. BAWDY BASKET. The twenty-third rank of canters, who carry pins, tape, ballads, and obscene books to sell, but live mostly by stealing. Cant. BAWDY-HOUSE BOTTLE. A very small bottle; short measure being among the many means used by the keepers of those houses, to gain what they call an honest livelihood: indeed this is one of the least reprehensible; the less they give a man of their infernal beverages for his money, the kinder they behave to him. BAY FEVER. A term of ridicule applied to convicts, who sham illness, to avoid being sent to Botany Bay. BAYARD OF TEN TOES. To ride bayard of ten toes, is to walk on foot. Bayard was a horse famous in old romances, BEAK. A justice of-peace, or magistrate. Also a judge or chairman who presides in court. I clapp'd my peepers full of tears, and so the old beak set me free; I began to weep, and the judge set me free. BEAN. A guinea. Half bean; half a guinea. BEAR. One who contracts to deliver a certain quantity of sum of stock in the public funds, on a future day, and at stated price; or, in other words, sells what he has not got, like the huntsman in the fable, who sold the bear's skin before the bear was killed. As the bear sells the stock he is not possessed of, so the bull purchases what he has not money to pay for; but in case of any alteration in the price agreed on, either party pays or receives the difference. Exchange Alley. BEAR-GARDEN JAW or DISCOURSE. Rude, vulgar language, such as was used at the bear-gardens. BEAR LEADER. A travelling tutor. BEARD SPLITTER. A man much given to wenching. BEARINGS. I'll bring him to his bearings; I'll bring him to reason. Sea term. BEAST. To drink like a beast, i.e. only when thirsty. BEAST WITH TWO BACKS. A man and woman in the act of copulation. Shakespeare in Othello. BEATER CASES. Boots. Cant. BEAU-NASTY. A slovenly fop; one finely dressed, but dirty. BEAU TRAP. A loose stone in a pavement, under which water lodges, and on being trod upon, squirts it up, to the great damage of white stockings; also a sharper neatly dressed, lying in wait for raw country squires, or ignorant fops. BECALMED. A piece of sea wit, sported in hot weather. I am becalmed, the sail sticks to the mast; that is, my shirt sticks to my back. His prad is becalmed; his horse knocked up. BECK. A beadle. See HERMANBECK. BED. Put to bed with a mattock, and tucked up with a spade; said of one that is dead and buried. You will go up a ladder to bed, i.e. you will be hanged. In many country places, persons hanged are made to mount up a ladder, which is afterwards turned round or taken away, whence the term, "Turned off." BEDFORDSHIRE. I am for Bedfordshire, i.e. for going to bed. BEDIZENED. Dressed out, over-dressed, or awkwardly ornamented. BED-MAKER. Women employed at Cambridge to attend on the Students, sweep his room, &c. They will put their hands to any thing, and are generally blest with a pretty family of daughters: who unmake the beds, as fast as they are made by their mothers. BEEF. To cry beef; to give the alarm. They have cried beef on us. Cant.--To be in a man's beef; to wound him with a sword. To be in a woman's beef; to have carnal knowledge of her. Say you bought your beef of me, a jocular request from a butcher to a fat man, implying that he credits the butcher who serves him. BEEF EATER. A yeoman of the guards, instituted by Henry VII. Their office was to stand near the bouffet, or cupboard, thence called Bouffetiers, since corrupted to Beef Eaters. Others suppose they obtained this name from the size of their persons, and the easiness of their duty, as having scarce more to do than to eat the king's beef. BEETLE-BROWED. One having thick projecting eyebrows. BEETLE-HEADED. Dull, stupid. BEGGAR MAKER. A publican, or ale-house keeper. BEGGAR'S BULLETS. Stones. The beggar's bullets began to fly, i.e. they began to throw stones. BEILBY'S BALL. He will dance at Beilby's ball, where the sheriff pays the music; he will be hanged. Who Mr. Beilby was, or why that ceremony was so called, remains with the quadrature of the circle, the discovery of the philosopher's stone, and divers other desiderata yet undiscovered. BELCH. All sorts of beer; that liquor being apt to cause eructation. BELCHER. A red silk handkerchief, intermixed with yellow and a little black. The kiddey flashes his belcher; the young fellow wears a silk handkerchief round his neck. BELL, BOOK, AND CANDLE. They cursed him with bell, book, and candle; an allusion to the popish form of excommunicating and anathematizing persons who had offended the church. TO BEAR THE BELL. To excel or surpass all competitors, to be the principal in a body or society; an allusion to the fore horse or leader of a team, whose harness is commonly ornamented with a bell or bells. Some suppose it a term borrowed from an ancient tournament, where the victorious knights bore away the BELLE or FAIR LADY. Others derive it from a horse-race, or other rural contentions, where bells were frequently given as prizes. BELLOWS. The lungs. BELLOWER. The town crier. BELLOWSER. Transportation for life: i.e. as long. BELLY. His eye was bigger than his belly; a saying of a person at a table, who takes more on his plate than he can eat. BELLYFULL. A hearty beating, sufficient to make a man yield or give out. A woman with child is also said to have got her belly full. BELLY CHEAT. An apron. BELLY PLEA. The plea of pregnancy, generally adduced by female felons capitally convicted, which they take care to provide for, previous to their trials; every gaol having, as the Beggar's Opera informs us, one or more child getters, who qualify the ladies for that expedient to procure a respite. BELLY TIMBER. Food of all sorts. BELL SWAGGER. A noisy bullying fellow. BELLWETHER. The chief or leader of a mob; an idea taken from a flock of sheep, where the wether has a bell about his neck. BENE. Good--BENAR. Better. Cant. BENE BOWSE. Good beer, or other strong liquor. Cant. BENE COVE. A good fellow. Cant. BENE DARKMANS. Goodnight. Cant. BENE FEARERS. Counterfeiters of bills. Cant. BENE FEAKERS OF GYBES. Counterfeiters of passes. Cant. BENESHIPLY. Worshipfully. Cant. BEN. A fool. Cant. BENISH. Foolish. BENISON. The beggar's benison: May your ***** and purse never fail you. BERMUDAS. A cant name for certain places in London, privileged against arrests, like the Mint in Southwark, Ben. Jonson. These privileges are abolished. BESS, or BETTY. A small instrument used by house-breakers to force open doors. Bring bess and glym; bring the instrument to force the door, and the dark lantern. Small flasks, like those for Florence wine, are also called betties. BESS. See BROWN BESS. BEST. To the best in Christendom: i.e. the best **** in Christendom; a health formerly much in vogue. BET. A wager.--TO BET. To lay a wager. BETTY MARTIN. That's my eye, Betty Martin; an answer to any one that attempts to impose or humbug. BETWATTLED. Surprised, confounded, out of one's senses; also bewrayed. BEVER. An afternoon's luncheon; also a fine hat; beaver's fur making the best hats, BEVERAGE. Garnish money, or money for drink, demanded of any one having a new suit of clothes. BIBLE. A boatswain's great axe. Sea term. BIBLE OATH. Supposed by the vulgar to be more binding than an oath taken on the Testament only, as being the bigger book, and generally containing both the Old and New Testament. BIDDY, or CHICK-A-BIDDY. A chicken, and figuratively a young wench. BIDET, commonly pronounced BIDDY. A kind of tub, contrived for ladies to wash themselves, for which purpose they bestride it like a French poney, or post-horse, called in French bidets. BIENLY. Excellently. She wheedled so bienly; she coaxed or flattered so cleverly. French. BILL AT SIGHT. To pay a bill at sight; to be ready at all times for the venereal act. BILBOA. A sword. Bilboa in Spain was once famous for well-tempered blades: these are quoted by Falstaff, where he describes the manner in which he lay in the buck-basket. Bilboes, the stock; prison. Cant. TO BILK. To cheat. Let us bilk the rattling cove; let us cheat the hackney coachman of his fare. Cant. Bilking a coachman, a box-keeper, and a poor whore, were formerly, among men of the town, thought gallant actions. BILL OF SALE. A widow's weeds. See HOUSE TO LET. BILLINGSGATE LANGUAGE. Foul language, or abuse. Billingsgate is the market where the fishwomen assemble to purchase fish; and where, in their dealings and disputes, they are somewhat apt to leave decency and good manners a little on the left hand. BING. To go. Cant. Bing avast; get you gone. Binged avast in a darkmans; stole away in the night. Bing we to Rumeville: shall we go to London? BINGO. Brandy or other spirituous liquor. Cant. BINGO BOY. A dram drinker. Cant. BINGO MORT. A female dram drinker. Cant. BINNACLE WORD. A fine or affected word, which sailors jeeringly offer to chalk up on the binnacle. BIRD AND BABY. The sign of the eagle and child. BIRD-WITTED. Inconsiderate, thoughtless, easily imposed on. BIRDS OF A FEATHER. Rogues of the same gang. BIRTH-DAY SUIT. He was in his birth-day suit, that is, stark naked. BISHOP. A mixture of wine and water, into which is put a roasted orange. Also one of the largest of Mrs. Philips's purses, used to contain the others. BISHOPED, or TO BISHOP. A term used among horse-dealers, for burning the mark into a horse's tooth, after he has lost it by age; by bishoping, a horse is made to appear younger than he is. It is a common saying of milk that is burnt too, that the bishop has set his foot in it. Formerly, when a bishop passed through a village, all the inhabitants ran out of their houses to solicit his blessing, even leaving their milk, &c. on the fire, to take its chance: which, went burnt to, was said to be bishoped. TO BISHOP the balls, a term used among printers, to water them. BIT. Money. He grappled the cull's bit; he seized the man's money. A bit is also the smallest coin in Jamaica, equal to about sixpence sterling. BITCH. A she dog, or doggess; the most offensive appellation that can be given to an English woman, even more provoking than that of whore, as may he gathered from the regular Billinsgate or St. Giles's answer--"I may be a whore, but can't be a bitch." TO BITCH. To yield, or give up an attempt through fear. To stand bitch; to make tea, or do the honours of the tea-table, performing a female part: bitch there standing for woman, species for genius. BITCH BOOBY. A country wench. Military term. BITE. A cheat; also a woman's privities. The cull wapt the mort's bite; the fellow enjoyed the wench heartily. Cant. TO BITE. To over-reach, or impose; also to steal.--Cant.--Biting was once esteemed a kind of wit, similar to the humbug. An instance of it is given in the Spectator: A man under sentence of death having sold his body to a surgeon rather below the market price, on receiving the money, cried, A bite! I am to be hanged in chains.--To bite the roger; to steal a portmanteau. To bite the wiper, to steal a handkerchief. To bite on the bridle; to be pinched or reduced to difficulties. Hark ye, friend, whether do they bite in the collar or the cod-piece? Water wit to anglers. BITER. A wench whose **** is ready to bite her a-se; a lascivious, rampant wench. BLAB. A tell-tale, or one incapable of keeping a secret BLACK AND WHITE. In writing. I have it in black and white; I have written evidence. BLACK ART. The art of picking a lock. Cant. BLACK A-SE. A copper or kettle. The pot calls the kettle black a-se. Cant. BLACK BOOK. He is down in the black book, i.e. has a stain in his character. A black book is keep in most regiments, wherein the names of all persons sentenced to punishment are recorded. BLACK BOX. A lawyer. Cant. BLACK EYE. We gave the bottle a black eye, i.e. drank it almost up. He cannot say black is the white of my eye; he cannot point out a blot in my character. BLACK FLY. The greatest drawback on the farmer is the black fly, i.e. the parson who takes tithe of the harvest. BLACK GUARD. A shabby, mean fellow; a term said to be derived from a number of dirty, tattered roguish boys, who attended at the Horse Guards, and Parade in St. James's Park, to black the boots and shoes of the soldiers, or to do any other dirty offices. These, from their constant attendance about the time of guard mounting, were nick-named the black-guards. BLACK JACK. A nick name given to the Recorder by the Thieves. BLACK JACK. A jug to drink out of, made of jacked leather. BLACK JOKE. A popular tune to a song, having for the burden, "Her black joke and belly so white:" figuratively the black joke signifies the monosyllable. See MONOSYLLABLE. BLACK INDIES. Newcastle upon Tyne, whose rich coal mines prove an Indies to the proprietors. BLACKLEGS. A gambler or sharper on the turf or in the cockpit: so called, perhaps, from their appearing generally in boots; or else from game-cocks whose legs are always black. BLACK MONDAY. The first Monday after the school-boys holidays, or breaking up, when they are to go to school, and produce or repeat the tasks set them. BLACK PSALM. To sing the black psalm; to cry: a saying used to children. BLACK SPICE RACKET. To rob chimney sweepers of their soot, bag and soot. BLACK SPY. The Devil. BLACK STRAP. Bene Carlo wine; also port. A task of labour imposed on soldiers at Gibraltar, as a punishment for small offences. BLANK. To look blank; to appear disappointed or confounded. BLANKET HORNPIPE. The amorous congress. BLARNEY. He has licked the blarney stone; he deals in the wonderful, or tips us the traveller. The blarney stone is a triangular stone on the very top of an ancient castle of that name in the county of Cork in Ireland, extremely difficult of access; so that to have ascended to it, was considered as a proof of perseverance, courage, and agility, whereof many are supposed to claim the honour, who never atchieved the adventure: and to tip the blarney, is figuratively used telling a marvellous story, or falsity; and also sometimes to express flattery. Irish. A BLASTED FELLOW or BRIMSTONE. An abandoned rogue or prostitute. Cant. To BLAST. To curse. BLATER. A calf. Cant. BLEACHED MORT. A fair-complexioned wench. BLEATERS. Those cheated by Jack in a box. CANT.--See JACK IN A BOX. BLEATING CHEAT. A sheep. Cant. BLEATING RIG. Sheep stealing. Cant. BLEEDERS. Spurs. He clapped his bleeders to his prad; be put spurs to his horse. BLEEDING CULLY. One who parts easily with his money, or bleeds freely. BLEEDING NEW. A metaphor borrowed from fish, which will not bleed when stale. BLESSING. A small quantity over and above the measure, usually given by hucksters dealing in peas, beans, and other vegetables. BLIND. A feint, pretence, or shift. BLIND CHEEKS. The breech. Buss blind cheeks; kiss mine a-se. BLIND EXCUSE. A poor or insufficient excuse. A blind ale-house, lane, or alley; an obscure, or little known or frequented ale-house, lane, or alley. BLIND HARPERS. Beggars counterfeiting blindness, playing on fiddles, &c. BLINDMAN'S BUFF. A play used by children, where one being blinded by a handkerchief bound over his eyes, attempts to seize any one of the company, who all endeavour to avoid him; the person caught, must be blinded in his stead. BLIND CUPID. The backside. BLINDMAN'S HOLIDAY. Night, darkness. BLOCK HOUSES. Prisons, houses of correction, &c. BLOCKED AT BOTH ENDS. Finished. The game is blocked at both ends; the game is ended. BLOOD. A riotous disorderly fellow. BLOOD FOR BLOOD. A term used by tradesmen for bartering the different commodities in which they deal. Thus a hatter furnishing a hosier with a hat, and taking payment in stockings, is said to deal blood for blood. BLOOD MONEY. The reward given by the legislature on the conviction of highwaymen, burglars, &c. BLOODY BACK. A jeering appellation for a soldier, alluding to his scarlet coat. BLOODY. A favourite word used by the thieves in swearing, as bloody eyes, bloody rascal. BLOSS or BLOWEN. The pretended wife of a bully, or shoplifter. Cant. TO BLOT THE SKRIP AND JAR IT. To stand engaged or bound for any one. Cant. BLOW. He has bit the blow, i.e. he has stolen the goods. Cant. BLOWEN. A mistress or whore of a gentleman of the scamp. The blowen kidded the swell into a snoozing ken, and shook him of his dummee and thimble; the girl inveigled the gentleman into a brothel and robbed him of his pocket book and watch. BLOWER. A pipe. How the swell funks his blower and lushes red tape; what a smoke the gentleman makes with his pipe, and drinks brandy. TO BLOW THE GROUNSILS. To lie with a woman on the floor. Cant. TO BLOW THE GAB. To confess, or impeach a confederate. Cant. BLOW-UP. A discovery, or the confusion occasioned by one. A BLOWSE, or BLOWSABELLA. A woman whose hair is dishevelled, and hanging about her face; a slattern. BLUBBER. The mouth.--I have stopped the cull's blubber; I have stopped the fellow's mouth, meant either by gagging or murdering him. TO BLUBBER. To cry. TO SPORT BLUBBER. Said of a large coarse woman, who exposes her bosom. BLUBBER CHEEKS. Large flaccid cheeks, hanging like the fat or blubber of a whale. BLUE, To look blue; to be confounded, terrified, or disappointed. Blue as a razor; perhaps, blue as azure. BLUE BOAR. A venereal bubo. BLUE DEVILS. Low spirits. BLUE FLAG. He has hoisted the blue flag; he has commenced publican, or taken a public house, an allusion to the blue aprons worn by publicans. See ADMIRAL OF THE BLUE. BLUE PIGEONS. Thieves who steal lead off houses and churches. Cant. To fly a blue pigeon; to steal lead off houses or churches. BLUE PLUMB. A bullet.--Surfeited with a blue plumb; wounded with a bullet. A sortment of George R--'s blue plumbs; a volley of ball, shot from soldiers' firelocks. BLUE SKIN. A person begotten on a black woman by a white man. One of the blue squadron; any one having a cross of the black breed, or, as it is termed, a lick of the tar brush. BLUE TAPE, or SKY BLUE. Gin. BLUE RUIN. Gin. Blue ribband; gin. BLUFF. Fierce, surly. He looked as bluff as bull beef. BLUFFER. An inn-keeper. Cant. BLUNDERBUSS. A short gun, with a wide bore, for carrying slugs; also a stupid, blundering fellow. BLUNT. Money. Cant. TO BLUSTER. To talk big, to hector or bully. BOARDING SCHOOL. Bridewell, Newgate, or any other prison, or house of correction. BOB. A shoplifter's assistant, or one that receives and carries off stolen goods. All is bob; all is safe. Cant. BOB. A shilling. BOBBED. Cheated, tricked, disappointed. BOBBISH. Smart, clever, spruce. BOB STAY. A rope which holds the bowsprit to the stem or cutwater. Figuratively, the frenum of a man's yard. BOB TAIL. A lewd woman, or one that plays with her tail; also an impotent man, or an eunuch. Tag, rag, and bobtail; a mob of all sorts of low people. To shift one's bob; to move off, or go away. To bear a bob; to join in chorus with any singers. Also a term used by the sellers of game, for a partridge. BODY SNATCHERS. Bum bailiffs. BODY OF DIVINITY BOUND IN BLACK CALF. A parson. BOG LANDER. An Irishman; Ireland being famous for its large bogs, which furnish the chief fuel in many parts of that kingdom. BOG TROTTER. The same. BOG HOUSE. The necessary house. To go to bog; to go to stool. BOG LATIN. Barbarous Latin. Irish.--See DOG LATIN, and APOTHECARIES LATIN. BOGY. Ask bogy, i.e. ask mine a-se. Sea wit. BOH. Said to be the name of a Danish general, who so terrified his opponent Foh, that he caused him to bewray himself. Whence, when we smell a stink, it is custom to exclaim, Foh! i.e. I smell general Foh. He cannot say Boh to a goose; i.e. he is a cowardly or sheepish fellow. There is a story related of the celebrated Ben Jonson, who always dressed very plain; that being introduced to the presence of a nobleman, the peer, struck by his homely appearance and awkward manner, exclaimed, as if in doubt, "you Ben Johnson! why you look as if you could not say Boh to a goose!" "Boh!" replied the wit. BOLD. Bold as a miller's shirt, which every day takes a rogue by the collar. BOLT. A blunt arrow. BOLT UPRIGHT. As erect, or straight up, as an arrow set on its end. TO BOLT. To run suddenly out of one's house, or hiding place, through fear; a term borrowed from a rabbit-warren, where the rabbits are made to bolt, by sending ferrets into their burrows: we set the house on fire, and made him bolt. To bolt, also means to swallow meat without chewing: the farmer's servants in Kent are famous for bolting large quantities of pickled pork. BONES. Dice. BONE BOX. The mouth. Shut your bone box; shut your mouth. BONE PICKER. A footman. BONED. Seized, apprehended, taken up by a constable. CANT. BOLUS. A nick name for an apothecary. BONESETTER. A hard-trotting horse. BOOBY, or DOG BOOBY. An awkward lout, clodhopper, or country fellow. See CLODHOPPER and LOUT. A bitch booby; a country wench. BOOBY HUTCH. A one-horse chaise, noddy, buggy, or leathern bottle. BOOKS. Cards to play with. To plant the books; to place the cards in the pack in an unfair manner. BOOK-KEEPER. One who never returns borrowed books. Out of one's books; out of one's fevor. Out of his books; out of debt. BOOT CATCHER. The servant at an inn whose business it is to clean the boots of the guest. BOOTS. The youngest officer in a regimental mess, whose duty it is to skink, that is, to stir the fire, snuff the candles, and ring the bell. See SKINK.--To ride in any one's old boots; to marry or keep his cast-off mistress. BOOTY. To play booty; cheating play, where the player purposely avoids winning. BO-PEEP. One who sometimes hides himself, and sometimes appears publicly abroad, is said to-play at bo-peep. Also one who lies perdue, or on the watch. BORACHIO. A skin for holding wine, commonly a goat's; also a nick name for a drunkard. BORDE. A shilling. A half borde; a sixpence. BORDELLO. A bawdy house. BORE. A tedious, troublesome man or woman, one who bores the ears of his hearers with an uninteresting tale; a term much in fashion about the years 1780 and 1781. BORN UNDER A THREEPENNY HALFPENNY PLANET, NEVER TO BE WORTH A GROAT. Said of any person remarkably unsuccessful in his attempts or profession. BOTCH. A nick name for a taylor. BOTHERED or BOTH-EARED. Talked to at both ears by different persons at the same time, confounded, confused. IRISH PHRASE. BOTHERAMS. A convivial society. BOTTLE-HEADED. Void of wit. BOTTOM. A polite term for the posteriors. Also, in the sporting sense, strength and spirits to support fatigue; as a bottomed horse. Among bruisers it is used to express a hardy fellow, who will bear a good beating. BOTTOMLESS PIT. The monosyllable. BOUGHS. Wide in the boughs; with large hips and posteriors. BOUGHS. He is up in the boughs; he is in a passion. TO BOUNCE. To brag or hector; also to tell an improbable story. To bully a man out of any thing. The kiddey bounced the swell of the blowen; the lad bullied the gentleman out of the girl. BOUNCER. A large man or woman; also a great lie. BOUNCING CHEAT. A bottle; from the explosion in drawing the cork. CANT. BOUNG. A purse. CANT. BOUNG NIPPER. A cut purse. CANT.--Formerly purses were worn at the girdle, from whence they were cut. BOOSE, or BOUSE. Drink. BOOSEY. Drunk. BOWSING KEN. An ale-house or gin-shop. BOWSPRIT. The nose, from its being the most projecting part of the human face, as the bowsprit is of a ship. BOW-WOW. The childish name for a dog; also a jeering appellation for a man born at Boston in America. BOW-WOW MUTTON. Dog's flesh. BOW-WOW SHOP. A salesman's shop in Monmouth-street; so called because the servant barks, and the master bites. See BARKER. BOWYER. One that draws a long bow, a dealer in the marvellous, a teller of improbable stories, a liar: perhaps from the wonderful shots frequently boasted of by archers. TO BOX THE COMPASS. To say or repeat the mariner's compass, not only backwards or forwards, but also to be able to answer any and all questions respecting its divisions. SEA TERM. TO BOX THE JESUIT, AND GET COCK ROACHES. A sea term for masturbation; a crime, it is said, much practised by the reverend fathers of that society. BRACE. The Brace tavern; a room in the S.E. corner of the King's Bench, where, for the convenience of prisoners residing thereabouts, beer purchased at the tap-house was retailed at a halfpenny per pot advance. It was kept by two brothers of the name of Partridge, and thence called the Brace. BRACKET-FACED. Ugly, hard-featured. BRAGGET. Mead and ale sweetened with honey. BRAGGADOCIA. vain-glorious fellow, a boaster. BRAINS. If you had as much brains as guts, what a clever fellow you would be! a saying to a stupid fat fellow. To have some guts in his brains; to know something. BRAN-FACED. Freckled. He was christened by a baker, he carries the bran in his face. BRANDY-FACED. Red-faced, as if from drinking brandy. BRANDY. Brandy is Latin for a goose; a memento to prevent the animal from rising in the stomach by a glass of the good creature. BRAT. A child or infant. BRAY. A vicar of Bray; one who frequently changes his principles, always siding with the strongest party: an allusion to a vicar of Bray, in Berkshire, commemorated in a well-known ballad for the pliability of his conscience. BRAZEN-FACED. Bold-faced, shameless, impudent. BREAD AND BUTTER FASHION. One slice upon the other. John and his maid were caught lying bread and butter fashion.--To quarrel with one's bread and butter; to act contrary to one's interest. To know on which side one's bread is buttered; to know one's interest, or what is best for one. It is no bread and butter of mine; I have no business with it; or rather, I won't intermeddle, because I shall get nothing by it. BREAK-TEETH WORDS. Hard words, difficult to pronounce. BREAKING SHINS. Borrowing money; perhaps from the figurative operation being, like the real one, extremely disagreeable to the patient. BREAD. Employment. Out of bread; out of employment. In bad bread; in a disagreeable scrape, or situation. BREAD BASKET. The stomach; a term used by boxers. I took him a punch in his bread basket; i.e. I gave him a blow in the stomach. BREAST FLEET. He or she belongs to the breast fleet; i.e. is a Roman catholic; an appellation derived from their custom of beating their breasts in the confession of their sins. BREECHED. Money in the pocket: the swell is well breeched, let's draw him; the gentleman has plenty of money in his pocket, let us rob him. BREECHES. To wear the breeches; a woman who governs her husband is said to wear the breeches. BREECHES BIBLE. An edition of the Bible printed in 1598, wherein it is said that Adam and Eve sewed figleaves together, and made themselves breeches. BREEZE. To raise a breeze; to kick up a dust or breed a disturbance. BRIDGE. To make a bridge of any one's nose; to push the bottle past him, so as to deprive him of his turn of filling his glass; to pass one over. Also to play booty, or purposely to avoid winning. BRIM. (Abbreviation of Brimstone.) An abandoned woman; perhaps originally only a passionate or irascible woman, compared to brimstone for its inflammability. BRISKET BEATER. A Roman catholic. SEE BREAST FLEET, and CRAW THUMPER. BRISTOL MILK. A Spanish wine called sherry, much drunk at that place, particularly in the morning. BRISTOL MAN. The son of an Irish thief and a Welch whore. BRITISH CHAMPAIGNE. Porter. BROGANIER. One who has a strong Irish pronunciation or accent. BROGUE. A particular kind of shoe without a heel, worn in Ireland, and figuratively used to signify the Irish accent. BROTHER OF THE BLADE. A soldier BUSKIN. A player. BUNG. A brewer QUILL. An author. STRING. A fiddler. WHIP. A coachman. BROTHER STARLING. One who lies with the same woman, that is, builds in the same nest. BROUGHTONIAN. A boxer: a disciple of Broughton, who was a beef-eater, and once the best boxer of his day. BROWN BESS. A soldier's firelock. To hug brown Bess; to carry a firelock, or serve as a private soldier. BROWN GEORGE. An ammunition loaf, A wig without powder; similar to the undress wig worn by his majesty. BROWN MADAM, or MISS BROWN. The monosyllable. BROWN STUDY. Said of one absent, in a reverie, or thoughtful. BRUISER. A boxer; one skilled in the art of boxing also an inferior workman among chasers. BREWES, or BROWES. The fat scum from the pot in which salted beef is boiled. TO BRUSH. To run away. Let us buy a brush and lope; let us go away or off. To have a brush with a woman; to lie with her. To have a brush with a man; to fight with him. The cove cracked the peter and bought a brush; the fellow broke open the trunk, and then ran away. BRUSHER. A bumper, a full glass. See BUMPER. BUB. Strong beer. BUBBER. A drinking bowl; also a great drinker; a thief that steals plate from public houses. CANT. THE BUBBLE. The party cheated, perhaps from his being like an air bubble, filled with words, which are only wind, instead of real property. TO BUBBLE. To cheat. TO BAR THE BUBBLE. To except against the general rule, that he who lays the odds must always be adjudged the loser: this is restricted to betts laid for liquor. BUBBLY JOCK. A turkey cock. SCOTCH. BUBBLE AND SQUEAK. Beef and cabbage fried together. It is so called from its bubbling up and squeaking whilst over the fire. BUBE. The venereal disease. BUCK. A blind horse; also a gay debauchee. TO RUN A BUCK. To poll a bad vote at an election.--IRISH TERM. BUCK BAIL. Bail given by a sharper for one of the gang. A BUCK OF THE FIRST HEAD. One who in debauchery surpasses the rest of his companions, a blood or choice spirit. There are in London divers lodges or societies of Bucks, formed in imitation of the Free Masons: one was held at the Rose, in Monkwell-street, about the year 1705. The president is styled the Grand Buck. A buck sometimes signifies a cuckold. BUCK'S FACE. A cuckold. BUCK FITCH. A lecherous old fellow. BUCKEEN. A bully. IRISH. BUCKET. To kick the bucket; to die. BUCKINGER'S BOOT. The monosyllable. Matthew Buckinger was born without hands and legs; notwithstanding which he drew coats of arms very neatly, and could write the Lord's Prayer within the compass of a shilling; he was married to a tall handsome woman, and traversed the country, shewing himself for money. BUCKLES. Fetters. BUDGE, or SNEAKING BUDGE. One that slips into houses in the dark, to steal cloaks or other clothes. Also lambs' fur formerly used for doctors' robes, whence they were called budge doctors. Standing budge; a thief's scout or spy. TO BUDGE. To move, or quit one's station. Don't budge from hence; i.e. don't move from hence, stay here. BUDGET. A wallet. To open the budget; a term used to signify the notification of the taxes required by the minister for the expences of the ensuing year; as To-morrow the minister will go to the house, and open the budget. BUFE. A dog. Bufe's nob; a dog's head. CANT. BUFE NABBER. A dog stealer. CANT. BUFF. All in buff; stript to the skin, stark naked. BUFF. To stand buff; to stand the brunt. To swear as a witness. He buffed it home; and I was served; he swore hard against me, and I was found guilty. BUFFER. One that steals and kills horses and dogs for their skins; also an inn-keeper: in Ireland it signifies a boxer. BUFFER. A man who takes an oath: generally applied to Jew bail. BUFFLE-HEADED. Confused, stupid. BUG. A nick name given by the Irish to Englishmen; bugs having, as it is said, been introduced into Ireland by the English. TO BUG. A cant word among journeymen hatters, signifying the exchanging some of the dearest materials of which a hat is made for others of less value. Hats are composed of the furs and wool of divers animals among which is a small portion of beavers' fur. Bugging, is stealing the beaver, and substituting in lieu thereof an equal weight of some cheaper ingredient.--Bailiffs who take money to postpone or refrain the serving of a writ, are said to bug the writ. BUG-HUNTER. An upholsterer. BUGABOE. A scare-babe, or bully-beggar. BUGAROCH. Comely, handsome. IRISH. BUGGY. A one-horse chaise. BUGGER. A blackguard, a rascal, a term of reproach. Mill the bloody bugger; beat the damned rascal. BULK AND FILE. Two pickpockets; the bulk jostles the party to be robbed, and the file does the business. BULKER. One who lodges all night on a bulk or projection before old-fashioned shop windows. BULL. An Exchange Alley term for one who buys stock on speculation for time, i.e. agrees with the seller, called a Bear, to take a certain sum of stock at a future day, at a stated price: if at that day stock fetches more than the price agreed on, he receives the difference; if it falls or is cheaper, he either pays it, or becomes a lame duck, and waddles out of the Alley. See LAME DUCK and BEAR. BULL. A blunder; from one Obadiah Bull, a blundering lawyer of London, who lived in the reign of Henery VII. by a bull is now always meant a blunder made by an Irishman. A bull was also the name of false hair formerly much worn by women. To look like bull beef, or as bluff as bull beef; to look fierce or surly. Town bull, a great whore-master. BULL. A crown piece. A half bull; half a crown. BULL BEGGAR, or BULLY BEGGAR. An imaginary being with which children are threatened by servants and nurses, like raw head and bloody bones. BULL CALF. A great hulkey or clumsy fellow. See HULKEY. BULL CHIN. A fat chubby child. BULL DOGS. Pistols. BULL HANKERS. Persons who over-drive bulls, or frequent bull baits. BULL'S EYE. A crown-piece. BULL'S FEATHER. A horn: he wears the bull's feather; he is a cuckold. TO BULLOCK. To hector, bounce, or bully. BULLY. A cowardly fellow, who gives himself airs of great bravery. A bully huff cap; a hector. See HECTOR. BULLY BACK. A bully to a bawdy-house; one who is kept in pay, to oblige the frequenters of the house to submit to the impositions of the mother abbess, or bawd; and who also sometimes pretends to be the husband of one of the ladies, and under that pretence extorts money from greenhorns, or ignorant young men, whom he finds with her. See GREENHORN. BULLY COCK. One who foments quarrels in order to rob the persons quarrelling. BULLY RUFFIANS. Highwaymen who attack passengers with paths and imprecations. BULLY TRAP. A brave man with a mild or effeminate appearance, by whom bullies are frequently taken in. BUM. the breech, or backside. TO BUM. To arrest a debtor. The gill bummed the swell for a thimble; the tradesman arrested the gentleman for a watch. BUM TRAP. A sheriff's officer who arrests debtors. Ware hawke! the bum traps are fly to our panney; keep a good look out, the bailiffs know where our house is situated. BUM BAILIFF. A sheriff's officer, who arrests debtors; so called perhaps from following his prey, and being at their bums, or, as the vulgar phrase is, hard at their a-ses. Blackstone says, it is a corruption of bound bailiff, from their being obliged to give bond for their good behaviour. BUM BRUSHER. A schoolmaster. BUM BOAT. A boat attending ships to retail greens, drams, &c. commonly rowed by a woman; a kind of floating chandler's shop, BUM FODDER. Soft paper for the necessary house or torchecul. BUMFIDDLE. The backside, the breech. See ARS MUSICA. BUMBO. Brandy, water, and sugar; also the negro name for the private parts of a woman. BUMKIN. A raw country fellow. BUMMED. Arrested. BUMPER. A full glass; in all likelihood from its convexity or bump at the top: some derive it from a full glass formerly drunk to the health of the pope--AU BON PERE. BUMPING. A ceremony performed on boys perambulating the bounds of the parish on Whit-monday, when they have their posteriors bumped against the stones marking the boundaries, in order to fix them in their memory. BUN. A common name for a rabbit, also for the monosyllable. To touch bun for luck; a practice observed among sailors going on a cruize. BUNDLING. A man and woman sleeping in the same bed, he with his small clothes, and she with her petticoats on; an expedient practised in America on a scarcity of beds, where, on such an occasion, husbands and parents frequently permitted travellers to bundle with their wives and daughters. This custom is now abolished. See Duke of Rochefoucalt's Travels in America, BUNG UPWARDS. Said of a person lying on his face. BUNG YOUR EYE. Drink a dram; strictly speaking, to drink till one's eye is bunged up or closed. BUNT. An apron. BUNTER. A low dirty prostitute, half whore and half beggar. BUNTLINGS. Petticoats. CANT. BURN CRUST. A jocular name for a baker. BURN THE KEN. Strollers living in an alehouse without paying their quarters, are said to burn the ken. CANT. BURNING SHAME. A lighted candle stuck into the parts of a woman, certainly not intended by nature for a candlestick. BURNER. A clap. The blowen tipped the swell a burner; the girl gave the gentleman a clap. BURNER. He is no burner of navigable rivers; i.e. he is no conjuror, or man of extraordinary abilities; or rather, he is, but a simple fellow. See THAMES. BURNT. Poxed or clapped. He was sent out a sacrifice, and came home a burnt offering; a saying of seamen who have caught the venereal disease abroad. He has burnt his fingers; he has suffered by meddling. BURR. A hanger on, or dependant; an allusion to the field burrs, which are not easily got rid of. Also the Northumbrian pronunciation: the people of that country, but chiefly about Newcastle and Morpeth, are said to have a burr in their throats, particularly called the Newcastle burr. BUSHEL BUBBY. A full breasted woman. BUSK. A piece of whalebone or ivory, formerly worn by women, to stiffen the forepart of their stays: hence the toast--Both ends of the busk. BUSS BEGGAR. An old superannuated fumbler, whom none but beggars will suffer to kiss them. BUS-NAPPER. A constable. CANT. BUS-NAPPER'S KENCHIN. A watchman. CANT. BUSY. As busy is the devil in a high wind; as busy as a hen with one chick. BUTCHER'S DOG. To be like a butcher's dog, i.e. lie by the beef without touching it; a simile often applicable to married men. BUTCHER'S HORSE. That must have been a butcher's horse, by his carrying a calf so well; a vulgar joke on an awkward rider. BUTT. A dependant, poor relation, or simpleton, on whom all kinds of practical jokes are played off; and who serves as a butt for all the shafts of wit and ridicule. BUTTER BOX. A Dutchman, from the great quantity of butter eaten by the people of that country. BUTTERED BUN. One lying with a woman that has just lain with another man, is said to have a buttered bun. BUTTER AND EGGS TROT. A kind of short jogg trot, such as is used by women going to market, with butter and eggs.--he looks as if butter would not melt in her mouth, yet I warrant you cheese would not choak her; a saying of a demure looking woman, of suspected character. Don't make butter dear; a gird at the patient angler. BUTTOCK. A whore. CANT. BUTTOCK BROKER. A bawd, or match-maker. CANT. BUTTOCK BALL. The amorous congress. CANT. BUTTOCK AND FILE. A common whore and a pick-pocket. Cant. BUTTOCK AND TWANG, or DOWN BUTTOCK AND SHAM FILE. A common whore, but no pickpocket. BUTTOCK AND TONGUE. A scolding wife. BUTTOCKING SHOP. A brothel. BUTTON. A bad shilling, among coiners. His a-se makes buttons; he is ready to bewray himself through fear. CANT. BUZMAN. A pickpocket. CANT. BUZZARD. A simple fellow. A blind buzzard: a pur-blind man or woman. BYE BLOW. A bastard. CABBAGE. Cloth, stuff, or silk purloined by laylors from their employers, which they deposit in a place called HELL, or their EYE: from the first, when taxed, with their knavery, they equivocally swear, that if they have taken any, they wish they may find it in HELL; or, alluding to the second, protest, that what they have over and above is not more than they could put in their EYE.--When the scrotum is relaxed or whiffled, it is said they will not cabbage. CAB. A brothel. Mother: how many tails have you in your cab? how many girls have you in your bawdy house? CACAFEOGO. A sh-te-fire, a furious braggadocio or bully huff. CACKLE. To blab, or discover secrets. The cull is leaky, and cackles; the rogue tells all. CANT. See LEAKY. CACKLER. A hen. CACKLER'S KEN. A hen roost. CANT. CACKLING CHEATS. Fowls. CANT. CACKLING FARTS. Eggs. CANT. CADDEE. A helper. An under-strapper. CADGE. To beg. Cadge the swells; beg of the gentlemen. CAFFAN. Cheese. CANT. CAGG. To cagg; a military term used by the private soldiers, signifying a solemn vow or resolution not to get drunk for a certain time; or, as the term is, till their cagg is out: which vow is commonly observed with the strictest exactness. Ex. I have cagg'd myself for six months. Excuse me this time, and I will cagg myself for a year. This term is also used in the same sense among the common people of Scotland, where it is performed with divers ceremonies. CAG. To be cagged. To be sulky or out of humour. The cove carries the cag; the man is vexed or sullen. CAG MAGG. Bits and scraps of provisions. Bad meat. CAGG MAGGS. Old Lincolnshire geese, which having been plucked ten or twelve years, are sent up to London to feast the cockneys. CAKE, or CAKEY. A foolish fellow. CALF-SKIN FIDDLE. A drum. To smack calf's skin; to kiss the book in taking an oath. It is held by the St. Giles's casuists, that by kissing one's thumb instead of smacking calf's skin, the guilt of taking a false oath is avoided. CALVES. His calves are gone to grass; a saying of a man with slender legs without calves. Veal will be cheap, calves fall; said of a man whose calves fall away. CALVES HEAD CLUB. A club instituted by the Independents and Presbyterians, to commemorate the decapitation of King Charles I. Their chief fare was calves heads; and they drank their wine and ale out of calves skulls. CALIBOGUS. Rum and spruce beer, American beverage. CALLE. A cloak or gown. CANT. CAMBRIDGE FORTUNE. A wind-mill and a water-mill, used to signify a woman without any but personal endowments. CAMBRIDGE OAK. A willow. CAMBRADE. A chamber fellow; a Spanish military term. Soldiers were in that country divided into chambers, five men making a chamber, whence it was generally used to signify companion. CAMESA. A shirt or shift. CANT. SPANISH. CAMP CANDLESTICK. A bottle, or soldier's bayonet. CAMPBELL'S ACADEMY. The hulks or lighters, on board of which felons are condemned to hard labour. Mr. Campbell was the first director of them. See ACADEMY and FLOATING ACADEMY. CANARY BIRD. A jail bird, a person used to be kept in a cage; also, in the canting sense, guineas. CANDLESTICKS. Bad, small, or untunable bells. Hark! how the candlesticks rattle. CANDY. Drunk. IRISH. CANE. To lay Cane upon Abel; to beat any one with a cane or stick. CANK. Dumb. CANNISTER. The head. To mill his cannister; to break his head. CANNIKIN. A small can: also, in the canting sense, the plague. CANT. An hypocrite, a double-tongue palavering fellow. See PALAVER. CANT. To cant; to toss or throw: as, Cant a slug into your bread room; drink a dram. SEA WIT. CANTICLE. A parish clerk. CANTING. Preaching with a whining, affected tone, perhaps a corruption of chaunting; some derive it from Andrew Cant, a famous Scotch preacher, who used that whining manner of expression. Also a kind of gibberish used by thieves and gypsies, called likewise pedlar's French, the slang, &c. &c. CANTERS, or THE CANTING CREW. Thieves, beggars, and gypsies, or any others using the canting lingo. See LINGO. CANTERBURY STORY. A long roundabout tale. TO CAP. To take one's oath. I will cap downright; I will swear home. CANT. TO CAP. To take off one's hat or cap. To cap the quadrangle; a lesson of humility, or rather servility, taught undergraduates at the university, where they are obliged to cross the area of the college cap in hand, in reverence to the fellows who sometimes walk there. The same ceremony is observed on coming on the quarter deck of ships of war, although no officer should be on it. TO CAP. To support another's assertion or tale. To assist a man in cheating. The file kidded the joskin with sham books, and his pall capped; the deep one cheated the countryman with false cards, and his confederate assisted in the fraud. CAP ACQUAINTANCE. Persons slightly acquainted, or only so far as mutually to salute with the hat on meeting. A woman who endeavours to attract the notice of any particular man, is said to set her cap at him. CAPER MERCHANT. A dancing master, or hop merchant; marchand des capriolles. FRENCH TERM.--To cut papers; to leap or jump in dancing. See HOP MERCHANT. CAPPING VERSES. Repeating Latin Verses in turn, beginning with the letter with which the last speaker left off. CAPON. A castrated cock, also an eunuch. CAPRICORNIFIED. Cuckolded, hornified. CAPSIZE. To overturn or reverse. He took his broth till he capsized; he drank till he fell out of his chair. SEA TERM. CAPTAIN. Led captain; an humble dependant in a great family, who for a precarious subsistence, and distant hopes of preferment, suffers every kind of indignity, and is the butt of every species of joke or ill-humour. The small provision made for officers of the army and navy in time of peace, obliges many in both services to occupy this wretched station. The idea of the appellation is taken from a led horse, many of which for magnificence appear in the retinues of great personages on solemn occasions, such as processions, &c. CAPTAIN COPPERTHORNE'S CREW. All officers; a saying of a company where everyone strives to rule. CAPTAIN LIEUTENANT. Meat between veal and beef, the flesh of an old calf; a military simile, drawn from the officer of that denomination, who has only the pay of a lieutenant, with the rank of captain; and so is not entirely one or the other, but between both. CAPTAIN PODD. A celebrated master of a puppet-shew, in Ben Johnson's time, whose name became a common one to signify any of that fraternity. CAPTAIN QUEERNABS. A shabby ill-dressed fellow. CAPTAIN SHARP. A cheating bully, or one in a set of gamblers, whose office is to bully any pigeon, who, suspecting roguery, refuses to pay what he has lost. CANT. CAPTAIN TOM. The leader of a mob; also the mob itself. CARAVAN. A large sum of money; also, a person cheated of such sum. CANT. CARBUNCLE FACE. A red face, full of pimples. CARDINAL. A cloak in fashion about the year 1760. To CAROUSE. To drink freely or deep: from the German word expressing ALL OUT. CARRIERS. A set of rogues who are employed to look out and watch upon the roads, at inns, &c. in order to carry information to their respective gangs, of a booty in prospect. CARRIERS. Pigeons which carry expresses. CARRION HUNTER. An undertaker; called also a cold cook, and death hunter. See COLD COOK and DEATH HUNTER. CARROTS. Red hair. CARROTTY-PATED. Ginger-hackled, red-haired. See GINGER-HACKLED. CARRY WITCHET. A sort of conundrum, puzzlewit, or riddle. CART. To put the cart before the horse; to mention the last part of a story first. To be flogged at the cart's a-se or tail; persons guilty of petty larceny are frequently sentenced to be tied to the tail of a cart, and whipped by the common executioner, for a certain distance: the degree of severity in the execution is left to the discretion of the executioner, who, it is said, has cats of nine tails of all prices. CARTING. The punishment formerly inflicted on bawds, who were placed in a tumbrel or cart, and led through a town, that their persons might be known. CARVEL'S RING. The private parts of a woman. Ham Carvel, a jealous old doctor, being in bed with his wife, dreamed that the Devil gave him a ring, which, so long as he had it on his finger, would prevent his being made a cuckold: waking he found he had got his finger the Lord knows where. See Rabelais, and Prior's versification of the story. TO CASCADE. To vomit. CASE. A house; perhaps from the Italian CASA. In the canting lingo it meant store or ware house, as well as a dwelling house. Tout that case; mark or observe that house. It is all bob, now let's dub the gig of the case; now the coast is clear, let us break open the door of the house. CASE VROW. A prostitute attached to a particular bawdy house. CASH, or CAFFAN. Cheese; CANT. See CAFFAN. CASTER. A cloak. CANT. CASTOR. A hat. To prig a castor; to steal a hat. CASTING UP ONE'S ACCOUNTS. Vomiting. CAT. A common prostitute. An old cat; a cross old woman. CAT-HEADS. A Woman's breasts. SEA PHRASE. TO CAT, or SHOOT THE CAT. To vomit from drunkenness. CAT AND BAGPIPEAN SOCIETY. A society which met at their office in the great western road: in their summons, published in the daily papers, it was added, that the kittens might come with the old cats without being scratched. CAT CALL. A kind of whistle, chiefly used at theatres, to interrupt the actors, and damn a new piece. It derives its name from one of its sounds, which greatly resembles the modulation of an intriguing boar cat. CAT HARPING FASHION. Drinking cross-ways, and not, as usual, over the left thumb. SEA TERM. CAT IN PAN. To turn cat in pan, to change sides or parties; supposed originally to have been to turn CATE or CAKE in pan. CAT'S FOOT. To live under the cat's foot; to be under the dominion of a wife hen-pecked. To live like dog and cat; spoken of married persons who live unhappily together. As many lives as a cat; cats, according to vulgar naturalists, have nine lives, that is one less than a woman. No more chance than a cat in hell without claws; said of one who enters into a dispute or quarrel with one greatly above his match. CAT LAP. Tea, called also scandal broth. See SCANDAL BROTH. CAT MATCH. When a rook or cully is engaged amongst bad bowlers. CAT OF NINE TAILS. A scourge composed of nine strings of whip-cord, each string having nine knots. CAT'S PAW. To be made a cat's paw of; to be made a tool or instrument to accomplish the purpose of another: an allusion to the story of a monkey, who made use of a cat's paw to scratch a roasted chesnut out of the fire. CAT'S SLEEP. Counterfeit sleep: cats often counterfeiting sleep, to decoy their prey near them, and then suddenly spring on them. CAT STICKS. Thin legs, compared to sticks with which boys play at cat. See TRAPSTICKS. CAT WHIPPING, or WHIPPING THE CAT. A trick often practised on ignorant country fellows, vain of their strength, by laying a wager with them that they may be pulled through a pond by a cat. The bet being made, a rope is fixed round the waist of the party to be catted, and the end thrown across the pond, to which the cat is also fastened by a packthread, and three or four sturdy fellows are appointed to lead and whip the cat; these on a signal given, seize the end of the cord, and pretending to whip the cat, haul the astonished booby through the water.--To whip the cat, is also a term among tailors for working jobs at private houses, as practised in the country. CATAMARAN. An old scraggy woman; from a kind of float made of spars and yards lashed together, for saving ship-wrecked persons. CATCH CLUB. A member of the patch club; a bum bailiff. CATCH FART. A footboy; so called from such servants commonly following close behind their master or mistress. CATCH PENNY. Any temporary contrivance to raise a contribution on the public. CATCH POLE. A bum bailiff, or sheriff's officer. CATCHING HARVEST. A dangerous time for a robbery, when many persons are on the road, on account of a horse-race, fair, or some other public meeting. CATER COUSINS. Good friends. He and I are not cater cousins, i.e. we are not even cousins in the fourth degree, or four times removed; that is, we have not the least friendly connexion. CATERPILLAR. A nick name for a soldier. In the year 1745, a soldier quartered at a house near Derby, was desired by his landlord to call upon him, whenever he came that way; for, added he, soldiers are the pillars of the nation. The rebellion being finished, it happened the same regiment was quartered in Derbyshire, when the soldier resolved to accept of his landlord's invitation, and accordingly obtained leave to go to him: but, on his arrival, he was greatly surprised to find a very cold reception; whereupon expostulating with his landlord, he reminded him of his invitation, and the circumstance of his having said, soldiers were the pillars of the nation. If I did, answered the host, I meant CATERpiliars. CATERWAULING. Going out in the night in search of intrigues, like a cat in the gutters. CATHEDRAL. Old-fashioned. An old cathedral-bedstead, chair, &c. CATTLE. Sad cattle: whores or gypsies. Black cattle, bugs. CANT. CAVAULTING SCHOOL. A Bawdy-house. CAUDGE-PAWED. Left-handed. CAULIFLOWER. A large white wig, such as is commonly worn by the dignified clergy, and was formerly by physicians. Also the private parts of a woman; the reason for which appellation is given in the following story: A woman, who was giving evidence in a cause wherein it was necessary to express those parts, made use of the term cauliflower; for which the judge on the bench, a peevish old fellow, reproved her, saying she might as well call it artichoke. Not so, my lord, replied she; for an artichoke has a bottom, but a **** and a cauliflower have none. CAUTIONS. The four cautions: I. Beware of a woman before.--II. Beware of a horse behind.--III. Beware of a cart side-ways.--IV. Beware of a priest every way. CAW-HANDED, or CAW-PAWED. Awkward, not dextrous, ready, or nimble. CAXON. An old weather-beaten wig. CENT PER CENT. An usurer. CHAFED. Well beaten; from CHAUFFE, warmed. CHALKERS. Men of wit, in Ireland, who in the night amuse themselves with cutting inoffensive passengers across the face with a knife. They are somewhat like those facetious gentlemen some time ago known in England by the title of Sweaters and Mohocks. CHALKING. The amusement above described. CHAP. A fellow; An odd chap; A strange fellow. CHAPERON. The cicisbeo, or gentleman usher to a lady; from the French. CHAPT. Dry or thirsty. CHARACTERED, or LETTERED. Burnt in the hand. They have palmed the character upon him; they have burned him in the hand, CANT.--See LETTERED. CHARM. A picklock. CANT. CHARREN. The smoke of Charren.--His eyes water from the smoke of Charren; a man of that place coming out of his house weeping, because his wife had beat him, told his neighbours the smoke had made his eyes water. CHATTER BOX. One whose tongue runs twelve score to the dozen, a chattering man or woman. CHATTER BROTH. Tea. See CAT LAP and SCANDAL BROTH. CHATTS. Lice: perhaps an abbreviation of chattels, lice being the chief live stock of chattels of beggars, gypsies, and the rest of the canting crew. CANT.--Also, according to the canting academy, the gallows. CHATES. The gallows. CANT. CHAUNTER CULLS. Grub-street writers, who compose songs, carrols, &c. for ballad-singers. CANT. CHAUNT. A song. TO CHAUNT. To sing. To publish an account in the newspapers. The kiddey was chaunted for a toby; his examination concerning a highway robbery was published in the papers. CHAW BACON. A countryman. A stupid fellow. CHEAPSIDE. He came at it by way of Cheapside; he gave little or nothing for it, he bought it cheap. CHEATS. Sham sleeves to put over a dirty shift or shirt. See SHAMS. CHEEK BY JOWL. Side by side, hand to fist. CHEEKS. Ask cheeks near cunnyborough; the repartee of a St. Gilse's fair one, who bids you ask her backside, anglice her a-se. A like answer is current in France: any one asking the road or distance to Macon, a city near Lyons, would be answered by a French lady of easy virtue, 'Mettez votre nez dans mon cul, & vous serrez dans les Fauxbourgs.' CHEESE-TOASTER. A sword. CHEESE IT; Be silent, be quiet, don't do it. Cheese it, the coves are fly; be silent, the people understand our discourse. CHEESER. A strong smelling fart. CHELSEA. A village near London, famous for the military hospital. To get Chelsea; to obtain the benefit of that hospital. Dead Chelsea, by G-d! an exclamation uttered by a grenadier at Fontenoy, on having his leg carried away by a cannon-ball. CHEST OF TOOLS. A shoe-black's brush and wig, &c. Irish. CHERRY-COLOURED CAT. A black cat, there being black cherries as well as red. CHERUBIMS. Peevish children, because cherubims and seraphims continually do cry. CHESHIRE CAT. He grins like a Cheshire cat; said of anyone who shews his teeth and gums in laughing. CHICK-A-BIDDY. A chicken, so called to and by little children. CHICKEN-BREASTED. Said of a woman with scarce any breasts. CHICKEN BUTCHER. A poulterer. CHICKEN-HAMMED. Persons whose legs and thighs are bent or archward outwards. CHICKEN-HEARTED. Fearful, cowardly. CHICKEN NABOB. One returned from the East Indies with but a moderate fortune of fifty or sixty thousand pounds, a diminutive nabob: a term borrowed from the chicken turtle. CHILD. To eat a child; to partake of a treat given to the parish officers, in part of commutation for a bastard child the common price was formerly ten pounds and a greasy chin. See GREASY CHIN. CHIMNEY CHOPS. An abusive appellation for a negro. CHINK. Money. CHIP. A child. A chip of the old block; a child who either in person or sentiments resembles its father or mother. CHIP. A brother chip; a person of the same trade or calling. CHIPS, A nick name for a carpenter. CHIRPING MERRY. Exhilarated with liquor. Chirping glass, a cheerful glass, that makes the company chirp like birds in spring. CHIT. An infant or baby. CHITTERLINS. The bowels. There is a rumpus among my bowels, i.e. I have the colic. The frill of a shirt. CHITTY-FACED. Baby-faced; said of one who has a childish look. CHIVE, or CHIFF. A knife, file: or saw. To chive the darbies; to file off the irons or fetters. To chive the bouhgs of the frows; to cut off women's pockets. CHIVEY. I gave him a good chivey; I gave him, a hearty Scolding. CHIVING LAY. Cutting the braces of coaches behind, on which the coachman quitting the box, an accomplice robs the boot; also, formerly, cutting the back of the coach to steal the fine large wigs then worn. CHOAK. Choak away, the churchyard's near; a jocular saying to a person taken with a violent fit of coughing, or who has swallowed any thing, as it is called the wrong way; Choak, chicken, more are hatching: a like consolation. CHOAK PEAR. Figuratively, an unanswerable objection: also a machine formerly used in Holland by robbers; it was of iron, shaped like a pear; this they forced into the mouths of persons from whom they intended to extort money; and on turning a key, certain interior springs thrust forth a number of points, in all directions, which so enlarged it, that it could not be taken out of the mouth: and the iron, being case-hardened, could not be filed: the only methods of getting rid of it, were either by cutting the mouth, or advertizing a reward for the key, These pears were also called pears of agony. CHOAKING PYE, or COLD PYE, A punishment inflicted on any person sleeping in company: it consists in wrapping up cotton in a case or tube of paper, setting it on fire, and directing the smoke up the nostrils of the sleeper. See HOWELL'S COTGRAVE. CHOCOLATE. To give chocolate without sugar; to reprove. MILITARY TERM. CHOICE SPIRIT. A thoughtless, laughing, singing, drunken fellow. CHOP. A blow. Boxing term. TO CHOP AND CHANGE. To exchange backwards and forwards. To chop, in the canting sense, means making dispatch, or hurrying over any business: ex. The AUTEM BAWLER will soon quit the HUMS, for he CHOPS UP the WHINERS; the parson will soon quit the pulpit, for he hurries over the prayers. See AUTEM BAWLER, HUMS, and WHINERS, CHOP CHURCHES. Simoniacal dealers in livings, or other ecclesiastical preferments. CHOPPING, LUSTY. A chopping boy or girl; a lusty child. CHOPS. The mouth. I gave him a wherrit, or a souse, across the chops; I gave him a blow over the mouth, See WHERRIT. CHOP-STICK. A fork. CHOUDER. A sea-dish, composed of fresh fish, salt pork, herbs, and sea-biscuits, laid in different layers, and stewed together. TO CHOUSE. To cheat or trick: he choused me out of it. Chouse is also the term for a game like chuck-farthing. CHRIST-CROSS ROW. The alphabet in a horn-book: called Christ-cross Row, from having, as an Irishman observed, Christ's cross PREFIXED before and AFTER the twenty-four letters. CHRISTENING. Erasing the name of the true maker from a stolen watch, and engraving a fictitious one in its place. CHRISTIAN PONEY. A chairman. CHRISTIAN. A tradesman who has faith, i.e. will give credit. CHRISTMAS COMPLIMENTS. A cough, kibed heels, and a snotty nose. CHUB. He is a young chub, or a mere chub; i.e. a foolish fellow, easily imposed on: an illusion to a fish of that name, easily taken. CHUBBY. Round-faced, plump. CHUCK. My chuck; a term of endearment. CHUCK FARTHING. A parish clerk. CHUCKLE-HEADED. Stupid, thick-headed. CHUFFY. Round-faced, chubby. CHUM. A chamber-fellow, particularly at the universities and in prison. CHUMMAGE. Money paid by the richer sort of prisoners in the Fleet and King's Bench, to the poorer, for their share of a room. When prisons are very full, which is too often the case, particularly on the eve of an insolvent act, two or three persons are obliged to sleep in a room. A prisoner who can pay for being alone, chuses two poor chums, who for a stipulated price, called chummage, give up their share of the room, and sleep on the stairs, or, as the term is, ruff it. CHUNK. Among printers, a journeyman who refuses to work for legal wages; the same as the flint among taylors. See FLINT. CHURCH WARDEN. A Sussex name for a shag, or cormorant, probably from its voracity. CHURCH WORK. Said of any work that advances slowly. CHURCHYARD COUGH. A cough that is likely to terminate in death. CHURK. The udder. CHURL. Originally, a labourer or husbandman: figuratively a rude, surly, boorish fellow. To put a churl upon a gentleman; to drink malt liquor immediately after having drunk wine. CINDER GARBLER. A servant maid, from her business of sifting the ashes from the cinders. CUSTOM-HOUSE WIT. CIRCUMBENDIBUS. A roundabout way, or story. He took such a circumbendibus; he took such a circuit. CIT. A citizen of London. CITY COLLEGE. Newgate. CIVILITY MONEY. A reward claimed by bailiffs for executing their office with civility. CIVIL RECEPTION. A house of civil reception; a bawdy-house, or nanny-house. See NANNY-HOUSE. CLACK. A tongue, chiefly applied to women; a simile drawn from the clack of a water-mill. CLACK-LOFT. A pulpit, so called by orator Henley. CLAMMED. Starved. CLAN. A family's tribe or brotherhood; a word much used in Scotland. The head of the clan; the chief: an allusion to a story of a Scotchman, who, when a very large louse crept down his arm, put him back again, saying he was the head of the clan, and that, if injured, all the rest would resent it. CLANK. A silver tankard. CANT. CLANK NAPPER. A silver tankard stealer. See RUM BUBBER. CLANKER. A great lie. CLAP. A venereal taint. He went out by Had'em, and came round by Clapham home; i.e. he went out a wenching, and got a clap. CLAP ON THE SHOULDER. An arrest for debt; whence a bum bailiff is called a shoulder-clapper. CLAPPER. The tongue of a bell, and figuratively of a man or woman. CLAPPER CLAW. To scold, to abuse, or claw off with the tongue. CLAPPERDOGEON. A beggar born. CANT. CLARET. French red wine; figuratively, blood. I tapped his claret; I broke his head, and made the blood run. Claret-faced; red-faced. CLAWED OFF. Severely beaten or whipped; also smartly poxed or clapped. CLEAR. Very drunk. The cull is clear, let's bite him; the fellow is very drunk, let's cheat him. CANT. CLEAVER. One that will cleave; used of a forward or wanton woman. CLEAN. Expert; clever. Amongst the knuckling coves he is reckoned very clean; he is considered very expert as a pickpocket. CLERKED. Soothed, funned, imposed on. The cull will not be clerked; i.e. the fellow will not be imposed on by fair words. CLEYMES. Artificial sores, made by beggars to excite charity. CLICK. A blow. A click in the muns; a blow or knock in the face. CANT. TO CLICK. To snatch. To click a nab; to snatch a hat. CANT. CLICKER. A salesman's servant; also, one who proportions out the different shares of the booty among thieves. CLICKET. Copulation of foxes; and thence used, in a canting sense, for that of men and women: as, The cull and the mort are at clicket in the dyke; the man and woman are copulating in the ditch. CLIMB. To climb the three trees with a ladder; to ascend the gallows. CLINCH. A pun or quibble. To clinch, or to clinch the nail; to confirm an improbable story by another: as, A man swore he drove a tenpenny nail through the moon; a bystander said it was true, for he was on the other side and clinched it. CLINK. A place in the Borough of Southwark, formerly privileged from arrests; and inhabited by lawless vagabonds of every denomination, called, from the place of their residence, clinkers. Also a gaol, from the clinking of the prisoners' chains or fetters: he is gone to clink. CLINKERS. A kind of small Dutch bricks; also irons worn by prisoners; a crafty fellow. TO CLIP. To hug or embrace: to clip and cling. To clip the coin; to diminish the current coin. To clip the king's English; to be unable to speak plain through drunkenness. CLOAK TWITCHERS. Rogues who lurk about the entrances into dark alleys, and bye-lanes, to snatch cloaks from the shoulders of passengers. CLOD HOPPER. A country farmer, or ploughman. CLOD PATE. A dull, heavy booby. CLOD POLE. The same. CLOSE. As close as God's curse to a whore's a-se: close as shirt and shitten a-se. CLOSE-FISTED. Covetous or stingy. CLOSH. A general name given by the mobility to Dutch seamen, being a corruption of CLAUS, the abbreviation of Nicholas, a name very common among the men of that nation. CLOTH MARKET. He is just come from the cloth market, i.e. from between the sheets, he is just risen from bed. CLOUD. Tobacco. Under a cloud; in adversity. CLOVEN, CLEAVE, or CLEFT. A term used for a woman who passes for a maid, but is not one. CLOVEN FOOT. To spy the cloven foot in any business; to discover some roguery or something bad in it: a saying that alludes to a piece of vulgar superstition, which is, that, let the Devil transform himself into what shape he will, he cannot hide his cloven foot TO CHUCK. To shew a propensity for a man. The mors chucks; the wench wants to be doing. CLOUT. A blow. I'll give you a clout on your jolly nob; I'll give you a blow on your head. It also means a handkerchief. CANT. Any pocket handkerchief except a silk one. CLOUTED SHOON. Shoes tipped with iron. CLOUTING LAY. Picking pockets of handkerchiefs. CLOVER. To be, or live, in clover; to live luxuriously. Clover is the most desirable food for cattle. CLOWES. Rogues. CLOY. To steal. To cloy the clout; to steal the handkerchief. To cloy the lour; to steal money. CANT. CLOVES. Thieves, robbers, &c. CLUB. A meeting or association, where each man is to spend an equal and stated sum, called his club. CLUB LAW. Argumentum bacculinum, in which an oaken stick is a better plea than an act of parliament. CLUMP. A lump. Clumpish; lumpish, stupid. CLUNCH. An awkward clownish fellow. TO CLUTCH THE FIST. To clench or shut the hand. Clutch fisted; covetous, stingy. See CLOSE-FISTED. CLUTCHES. Hands, gripe, power. CLUTTER. A stir, noise, or racket: what a confounded clutter here is! CLY. Money; also a pocket. He has filed the cly; he has picked a pocket. CANT. CLY THE JERK: To be whipped. CANT. CLYSTER PIPE. A nick name for an apothecary. COACH WHEEL. A half crown piece is a fore coach wheel, and a crown piece a hind coach wheel; the fore wheels of a coach being less than the hind ones. TO COAX. To fondle, or wheedle. To coax a pair of stockings; to pull down the part soiled into the shoes, so as to give a dirty pair of stockings the appearance of clean ones. Coaxing is also used, instead of darning, to hide the holes about the ancles. COB. A Spanish dollar. COB, or COBBING. A punishment used by the seamen for petty offences, or irregularities, among themselves: it consists in bastonadoing the offender on the posteriors with a cobbing stick, or pipe staff; the number usually inflicted is a dozen. At the first stroke the executioner repeats the word WATCH, on which all persons present are to take off their hats, on pain of like punishment: the last stroke is always given as hard as possible, and is called THE PURSE. Ashore, among soldiers, where this punishment is sometimes adopted, WATCH and THE PURSE are not included in the number, but given over and above, or, in the vulgar phrase, free gratis for nothing. This piece of discipline is also inflicted in Ireland, by the school-boys, on persons coming into the school without taking off their hats; it is there called school butter. COBBLE. A kind of boat. TO COBBLE. To mend, or patch; likewise to do a thing in a bungling manner. COBBLE COLTER. A turkey. COBBLER. A mender of shoes, an improver of the understandings of his customers; a translator. COBBLERS PUNCH. Treacle, vinegar, gin, and water. COCK, or CHIEF COCK OF THE WALK. The leading man in any society or body; the best boxer in a village or district. COCK ALE. A provocative drink. COCK ALLEY or COCK LANE. The private parts of a woman. COCK AND A BULL STORY. A roundabout story, without head or tail, i.e. beginning or ending. COCK OF THE COMPANY. A weak man, who from the desire of being the head of the company associates with low people, and pays all the reckoning. COCK-A-WHOOP. Elevated, in high-spirits, transported with joy. COCK BAWD. A male keeper of a bawdy-house. COCK HOIST. A cross buttock. COCKISH. Wanton, forward. A cockish wench; a forward coming girl. COCKLES. To cry cockles; to be hanged: perhaps from the noise made whilst strangling. CANT.--This will rejoice the cockles of one's heart; a saying in praise of wine, ale, or spirituous liquors. COCK PIMP. The supposed husband of a bawd. COCK ROBIN. A soft, easy fellow. COCK-SURE. Certain: a metaphor borrowed front the cock of a firelock, as being much more certain to fire than the match. COCK YOUR EYE. Shut one eye: thus translated into apothecaries Latin.--Gallus tuus ego. COCKER. One fond of the diversion of cock-fighting. COCKNEY: A nick name given to the citizens of London, or persons born within the sound of Bow bell, derived from the following story: A citizen of London, being in the country, and hearing a horse neigh, exclaimed, Lord! how that horse laughs! A by-stander telling him that noise was called NEIGHING, the next morning, when the cock crowed, the citizen to shew he had not forgot what was told him, cried out, Do you hear how the COCK NEIGHS? The king of the cockneys is mentioned among the regulations for the sports and shows formerly held in the Middle Temple on Childermas Day, where he had his officers, a marshal, constable, butler, &c. See DUGDALE'S ORIGINES JURIDICIALES, p. 247.--Ray says, the interpretation of the word Cockney, is, a young person coaxed or conquered, made wanton; or a nestle cock, delicately bred and brought up, so as, when arrived a man's estate, to be unable to bear the least hardship. Whatever may be the origin of this appellation, we learn from the following verses, attributed to Hugh Bigot, Earl of Norfolk, that it was in use, in the time of king Henry II. Was I in my castle at Bungay, Fast by the river Waveney, I would not care for the king of Cockney; i.e. the king of London. COCKSHUT TIME. The evening, when fowls go to roost. COD. A cod of money: a good sum of money. CODDERS. Persons employed by the gardeners to gather peas. CODGER. An old codger: an old fellow. COD PIECE. The fore flap of a man's breeches. Do they bite, master? where, in the cod piece or collar?--a jocular attack on a patient angler by watermen, &c. CODS. The scrotum. Also a nick name for a curate: a rude fellow meeting a curate, mistook him for the rector, and accosted him with the vulgar appellation of Bol--ks the rector, No, Sir, answered he; only Cods the curate, at your service. COD'S HEAD. A stupid fellow. COFFEE HOUSE. A necessary house. To make a coffee-house of a woman's ****; to go in and out and spend nothing. COG. The money, or whatsoever the sweeteners drop to draw in a bubble. COG. A tooth. A queer cog; a rotten tooth. How the cull flashes his queer cogs; how the fool shews his rotten teeth. TO COG. To cheat with dice; also to coax or wheedle, To cog a die; to conceal or secure a die. To cog a dinner; to wheedle one out of a dinner. COGUE. A dram of any spirituous liquor. COKER. A lie. COKES. The fool in the play of Bartholomew Fair: perhaps a contraction of the word COXCOMB. COLCANNON. Potatoes and cabbage pounded together in a mortar, and then stewed with butter: an Irish dish. COLD. You will catch cold at that; a vulgar threat or advice to desist from an attempt. He caught cold by lying in bed barefoot; a saying of any one extremely tender or careful of himself. COLD BURNING. A punishment inflicted by private soldiers on their comrades for trifling offences, or breach of their mess laws; it is administered in the following manner: The prisoner is set against the wall, with the arm which is to be burned tied as high above his head as possible. The executioner then ascends a stool, and having a bottle of cold water, pours it slowly down the sleeve of the delinquent, patting him, and leading the water gently down his body, till it runs out at his breeches knees: this is repeated to the other arm, if he is sentenced to be burned in both. COLD COOK. An undertaker of funerals, or carrion hunter. See CARRION HUNTER. COLD IRON. A sword, or any other weapon for cutting or stabbing. I gave him two inches of cold iron into his beef. COLD MEAT. A dead wife is the beat cold meat in a man's house. COLD PIG. To give cold pig is a punishment inflicted on sluggards who lie too long in bed: it consists in pulling off all the bed clothes from them, and throwing cold water upon them. COLD PUDDING. This is said to settle one's love. COLE. Money. Post the cole: pay down the money. COLIANDER, or CORIANDER SEEDS. Money. COLLAR DAY. Execution day. COLLEGE. Newgate or any other prison. New College: the Royal Exchange. King's College: the King's Bench prison. He has been educated at the steel, and took his last degree at college; he has received his education at the house of correction, and was hanged at Newgate. COLLEGE COVE. The College cove has numbered him, and if he is knocked down he'll be twisted; the turnkey of Newgate has told the judge how many times the prisoner has been tried before and therefore if he is found guilty, he certainly will be hanged. It is said to be the custom of the Old Bailey for one of the turnkeys of Newgate to give information to the judge how many times an old offender has been tried, by holding up as many fingers as the number of times the prisoner has been before arraigned at that bar. COLLEGIATES. Prisoners of the one, and shopkeepers of the other of those places. COLLECTOR. A highwayman. TO COLLOGUE. To wheedle or coax. COOK RUFFIAN, who roasted the devil in his feathers. A bad cook. COOL CRAPE. A shroud. COOLER. A woman. COOLER. The backside. Kiss my cooler. Kiss my a-se. It is principally used to signify a woman's posteriors. COOL LADY. A female follower of the camp, who sells brandy. COOL NANTS. Brandy. COOL TANKARD. Wine and water, with lemon, sugar, and burrage. COLQUARRON. A man's neck. His colquarron is just about to be twisted; he is just going to be hanged. CANT. COLT. One who lets horses to highwaymen; also a boy newly initiated into roguery; a grand or petty juryman on his first assize. CANT. COLTAGE. A fine or beverage paid by colts on their first entering into their offices. COLT BOWL. Laid short of the jack by a colt bowler, i.e. a person raw or unexperienced in the art of bowling. COLT'S TOOTH. An old fellow who marries or keeps a young girl, is said to have a colt's tooth in his head. COLT VEAL. Coarse red veal, more like the flesh of a colt than that of a calf. COMB. To comb one's head; to clapperclaw, or scold any one: a woman who lectures her husband, is said to comb his head. She combed his head with a joint stool; she threw a stool at him. COME. To come; to lend. Has he come it; has he lent it? To come over any one; to cheat or over reach him. Coming wench; a forward wench, also a breeding woman. COMING! SO IS CHRISTMAS. Said of a person who has long been called, and at length answers, Coming! COMFORTABLE IMPORTANCE. A wife. COMMISSION. A shirt. CANT. COMMODE. A woman's head dress. COMMODITY. A woman's commodity; the private parts of a modest woman, and the public parts of a prostitute. COMMONS. The house of commons; the necessary house. COMPANY. To see company; to enter into a course of prostitution. COMPLIMENT. See CHRISTMAS. COMUS'S COURT. A social meeting formerly held at the Half Moon tavern Cheapside. CONFECT. Counterfeited. CONGER. To conger; the agreement of a set or knot of booksellers of London, that whosoever of them shall buy a good copy, the rest shall take off such a particular number, in quires, at a stated price; also booksellers joining to buy either a considerable or dangerous copy. CONGO. Will you lap your congo with me? will you drink tea with me? CONNY WABBLE. Eggs and brandy beat up together. IRISH. CONSCIENCE KEEPER. A superior, who by his influence makes his dependants act as he pleases. CONTENT. The cull's content; the man is past complaining: a saying of a person murdered for resisting the robbers. CANT. CONTENT. A thick liquor, in imitation of chocolate, made of milk and gingerbread. CONTRA DANCE. A dance where the dancers of the different sexes stand opposite each other, instead of side by side, as in the minuet, rigadoon, louvre, &c. and now corruptly called a country dance. CONUNDRUMS. Enigmatical conceits. CONVENIENT. A mistress. CANT. CONVENIENCY. A necessary. A leathern conveniency, a coach. COOPED UP. Imprisoned, confined like a fowl in a coop. COQUET. A jilt. CORINTH. A bawdy-house. CANT. CORINTHIANS: Frequenters of brothels. Also an impudent, brazen-faced fellow, perhaps from the Corinthian brass. CORK-BRAINED. Light-headed, foolish. CORNED. Drunk. CORNISH HUG. A particular lock in wrestling, peculiar to the people of that county. CORNY-FACED. A very red pimpled face. CORPORAL. To mount a corporal and four; to be guilty of onanism: the thumb is the corporal, the four fingers the privates. CORPORATION. A large belly. He has a glorious corporation; he has a very prominent belly. CORPORATION. The magistrates, &c. of a corporate town. Corpus sine ratione. Freemen of a corporation's work; neither strong nor handsome. COSSET. A foundling. Cosset colt or lamb; a colt or lamb brought up by hand. COSTARD. The head. I'll smite your costard; I'll give you a knock on the head. COSTARD MONGER. A dealer in fruit, particularly apples. COT, or QUOT. A man who meddles with women's household business, particularly in the kitchen. The punishment commonly inflicted on a quot, is pinning a greasy dishclout to the skirts of his coat. COVE. A man, a fellow, a rogue. The cove was bit; the rogue was outwitted. The cove has bit the cole; the rogue has got the money. CANT. COVENT, or CONVENT GARDEN, vulgarly called COMMON GARDEN. Anciently, the garden belonging to a dissolved monastery; now famous for being the chief market in London for fruit, flowers, and herbs. The theatres are situated near it. In its environs are many brothels, and not long ago, the lodgings of the second order of ladies of easy virtue were either there, or in the purlieus of Drury Lane. COVENT GARDEN ABBESS. A bawd. COVENT GARDEN AGUE. The venereal disease. He broke his shins against Covent Garden rails; he caught the venereal disorder. COVENT GARDEN NUN. A prostitute. COVENTRY. To send one to Coventry; a punishment inflicted by officers of the army on such of their brethren as are testy, or have been guilty of improper behaviour, not worthy the cognizance of a court martial. The person sent to Coventry is considered as absent; no one must speak to or answer any question he asks, except relative to duty, under penalty of being also sent to the same place. On a proper submission, the penitent is recalled, and welcomed by the mess, as just returned from a journey to Coventry. COVEY. A collection of whores. What a fine covey here is, if the Devil would but throw his net! TO COUCH A HOGSHEAD. To lie down to sleep. CANT. COUNTERFEIT CRANK. A general cheat, assuming all sorts of characters; one counterfeiting the falling sickness. COUNTRY HARRY. A waggoner. CANT. COUNTRY PUT. An ignorant country fellow. COUNTY WORK. Said of any work that advances slowly. COURT CARD. A gay fluttering coxcomb. COURT HOLY WATER, COURT PROMISES. Fair speeches and promises, without performance. COURT OF ASSISTANTS. A court often applied to by young women who marry old men. COW. To sleep like a cow, with a **** at one's a-se; said of a married man; married men being supposed to sleep with their backs towards their wives, according to the following proclamation: All you that in your beds do lie, Turn to your wives, and occupy: And when that you have done your best, Turn a-se to a-se, and take your rest. COW JUICE. Milk. COW'S BABY. A calf. COW'S COURANT. Gallop and sh---e. COW-HANDED. Awkward. COW-HEARTED. Fearful. COW ITCH. The product of a sort of bean, which excites an insufferable itching, used chiefly for playing tricks. COW'S SPOUSE. A bull. COW'S THUMB. Done to a cow's thumb; done exactly. COXCOMB. Anciently, a fool. Fools, in great families, wore a cap with bells, on the top of which was a piece of red cloth, in the shape of a cock's comb. At present, coxcomb signifies a fop, or vain self-conceited fellow. CRAB. To catch a crab; to fall backwards by missing one's stroke in rowing. CRAB LANTHORN. A peevish fellow. CRAB LOUSE. A species of louse peculiar to the human body; the male is denominated a cock, the female a hen. CRAB SHELLS. Shoes. IRISH. CRABS. A losing throw to the main at hazard. CRABBED. Sour, ill-tempered, difficult. CRACK. A whore. TO CRACK. To boast or brag; also to break. I cracked his napper; I broke his head. THE CRACK, or ALL THE CRACK. The fashionable theme, the go. The Crack Lay, of late is used, in the cant language, to signify the art and mystery of house-breaking. CRACKER. Crust, sea biscuit, or ammunition loaf; also the backside. Farting crackers; breeches. CRACKISH. Whorish. CRACKING TOOLS. Implements of house-breaking, such as a crow, a center bit, false keys, &c. CRACKMANS. Hedges. The cull thought to have loped by breaking through the crackmans, but we fetched him back by a nope on the costard, which stopped his jaw; the man thought to have escaped by breaking through the hedge, but we brought him back by a great blow on the head, which laid him speechless. CRACKSMAN. A house-breaker. The kiddy is a clever cracksman; the young fellow is a very expert house-breaker. CRAG. The neck. CRAMP RINGS. Bolts, shackles, or fetters. CANT. CRAMP WORDS. Sentence of death passed on a criminal by a judge. He has just undergone the cramp word; sentence has just been passed on him. CANT. CRANK. Gin and water; also, brisk, pert. CRANK. The falling sickness. CANT. TO CRASH. To kill. Crash that cull; kill that fellow. CANT. CRASHING CHEATS. Teeth. CRAW THUMPERS. Roman catholics, so called from their beating their breasts in the confession of their sins. See BRISKET BEATER, and BREAST FLEET. CREAM-POT LOVE. Such as young fellows pretend to dairymaids, to get cream and other good things from them. TO CREEME. To slip or slide any thing into the hands of another. CANT. CREEPERS. Gentlemen's companions, lice. CREW. A knot or gang; also a boat or ship's company. The canting crew are thus divided into twenty-three orders, which see under the different words: MEN. 1 Rufflers 2 Upright Men 3 Hookers or Anglers 4 Rogues 5 Wild Rogues 6 Priggers of Prancers 7 Palliardes 8 Fraters 9 Jarkmen, or Patricoes 10 Fresh Water Mariners, or Whip Jackets 11 Drummerers 12 Drunken Tinkers 13 Swadders, or Pedlars 14 Abrams. WOMEN. 1 Demanders for Glimmer or Fire 2 Bawdy Baskets 3 Morts 4 Autem Morts 5 Walking Morts 6 Doxies 7 Delles 8 Kinching Morts 9 Kinching Coes CRIB. A house. To crack a crib: to break open a house. TO CRIB. To purloin, or appropriate to one's own use, part of any thing intrusted to one's care. TO FIGHT A CRIB. To make a sham fight. BEAR GARDEN TERM. CRIBBAGE-FACED. Marked with the small pox, the pits bearing a kind of resemblance to the holes in a cribbage-board. CRIBBEYS, or CRIBBY ISLANDS. Blind alleys, courts, or bye-ways; perhaps from the houses built there being cribbed out of the common way or passage; and islands, from the similarity of sound to the Caribbee Islands. CRIM. CON. MONEY. Damages directed by a jury to be paid by a convicted adulterer to the injured husband, for criminal conversation with his wife. CRIMP. A broker or factor, as a coal crimp, who disposes of the cargoes of the Newcastle coal ships; also persons employed to trapan or kidnap recruits for the East Indian and African companies. To crimp, or play crimp; to play foul or booty: also a cruel manner of cutting up fish alive, practised by the London fishmongers, in order to make it eat firm; cod, and other crimped fish, being a favourite dish among voluptuaries and epicures. CRINKUM CRANKUM. A woman's commodity. See SPECTATOR. CRINKUMS. The foul or venereal disease. CRIPPLE. Sixpence; that piece being commonly much bent and distorted. CRISPIN. A shoemaker: from a romance, wherein a prince of that name is said to have exercised the art and mystery of a shoemaker, thence called the gentle craft: or rather from the saints Crispinus and Crispianus, who according to the legend, were brethren born at Rome, from whence they travelled to Soissons in France, about the year 303, to propagate the Christian religion; but, because they would not be chargeable to others for their maintenance, they exercised the trade of shoemakers: the governor of the town discovering them to be Christians, ordered them to be beheaded, about the year 303; from which time they have been the tutelar saints of the shoemakers. CRISPIN'S HOLIDAY. Every Monday throughout the year, but most particularly the 25th of October, being the anniversary of Crispinus and Crispianus. CRISPIN'S LANCE. An awl. CROAKER. One who is always foretelling some accident or misfortune: an allusion to the croaking of a raven, supposed ominous. CROAKUMSHIRE. Northumberland, from the particular croaking the pronunciation of the people of that county, especially about Newcastle and Morpeth, where they are said to be born with a burr in their throats, which prevents their pronouncing the letter r. CROAKERS. Forestallers, called also Kidders and Tranters. CROCODILE'S TEARS. The tears of a hypocrite. Crocodiles are fabulously reported to shed tears over their prey before they devour it. CROCUS, or CROCUS METALLORUM. A nick name for a surgeon of the army and navy. CROKER. A groat, or four pence. CRONE. An old ewe whose teeth are worn out; figuratively, a toothless old beldam. CRONY. An intimate companion, a comrade; also a confederate in a robbery. CROOK. Sixpence. CROOK BACK. Sixpence; for the reason of this name, see CRIPPLE. CROOK YOUR ELBOW. To crook one's elbow, and wish it may never come straight, if the fact then affirmed is not true--according to the casuists of Bow-street and St. Giles's, adds great weight and efficacy to an oath. CROOK SHANKS. A nickname for a man with bandy legs. He buys his boots in Crooked Lane, and his stockings in Bandy-legged Walk; his legs grew in the night, therefore could not see to grow straight; jeering sayings of men with crooked legs. CROP. A nick name for a presbyterian: from their cropping their hair, which they trimmed close to a bowl-dish, placed as a guide on their heads; whence they were likewise called roundheads. See ROUNDHEADS. CROP. To be knocked down for a crop; to be condemned to be hanged. Cropped, hanged. CROPPING DRUMS. Drummers of the foot guards, or Chelsea hospital, who find out weddings, and beat a point of war to serenade the new married couple, and thereby obtain money. CROPPEN. The tail. The croppen of the rotan; the tail of the cart. Croppen ken: the necessary-house. CANT. CROPSICK. Sickness in the stomach, arising from drunkenness. CROSS. To come home by weeping cross; to repent at the conclusion. CROSS DISHONEST. A cross cove; any person who lives by stealing or in a dishonest manner. CROSS BITE. One who combines with a sharper to draw in a friend; also, to counteract or disappoint. CANT.--This is peculiarly used to signify entrapping a man so as to obtain CRIM. COM. money, in which the wife, real or supposed, conspires with the husband. CROSS BUTTOCK. A particular lock or fall in the Broughtonian art, which, as Mr. Fielding observes, conveyed more pleasant sensations to the spectators than the patient. CROSS PATCH. A peevish boy or girl, or rather an unsocial ill-tempered man or woman. TO CROW. To brag, boast, or triumph. To crow over any one; to keep him in subjection: an image drawn from a cock, who crows over a vanquished enemy. To pluck a crow; to reprove any one for a fault committed, to settle a dispute. To strut like a crow in a gutter; to walk proudly, or with an air of consequence. CROWD. A fiddle: probably from CROOTH, the Welch name for that instrument. CROWDERO. A fiddler. CROWDY. Oatmeal and water, or milk; a mess much eaten in the north. CROW FAIR. A visitation of the clergy. See REVIEW OF THE BLACK CUIRASSIERS. CROWN OFFICE. The head. I fired into her keel upwards; my eyes and limbs Jack, the crown office was full; I s--k-d a woman with her a-e upwards, she was so drunk, that her head lay on the ground. CRUISERS. Beggars, or highway spies, who traverse the road, to give intelligence of a booty; also rogues ready to snap up any booty that may offer, like privateers or pirates on a cruise. CRUMMY. Fat, fleshy. A fine crummy dame; a fat woman. He has picked up his crumbs finely of late; he has grown very fat, or rich, of late. CRUMP. One who helps solicitors to affidavit men, or false witnesses.--'I wish you had, Mrs. Crump;' a Gloucestershire saying, in answer to a wish for any thing; implying, you must not expect any assistance from the speaker. It is said to have originated from the following incident: One Mrs. Crump, the wife of a substantial farmer, dining with the old Lady Coventry, who was extremely deaf, said to one of the footmen, waiting at table, 'I wish I had a draught of small beer,' her modesty not permitting her to desire so fine a gentleman to bring it: the fellow, conscious that his mistress could not hear either the request or answer, replied, without moving, 'I wish you had, Mrs. Crump.' These wishes being again repeated by both parties, Mrs. Crump got up from the table to fetch it herself; and being asked by my lady where she was going, related what had passed. The story being told abroad, the expression became proverbial. CRUMP-BACKED. Hump-backed. CRUSTY BEAU. One that uses paint and cosmetics, to obtain a fine complexion. CRUSTY FELLOW. A surly fellow. CUB. An unlicked cub; an unformed, ill-educated young man, a young nobleman or gentleman on his travels: an allusion to the story of the bear, said to bring its cub into form by licking. Also, a new gamester. CUCKOLD. The husband of an incontinent wife: cuckolds, however, are Christians, as we learn by the following story: An old woman hearing a man call his dog Cuckold, reproved him sharply, saying, 'Sirrah, are not you ashamed to call a dog by a Christian's name?' To cuckold the parson; to bed with one's wife before she has been churched. CUCUMBERS. Taylors, who are jocularly said to subsist, during the summer, chiefly on cucumbers. CUFF. An old cuff; an old man. To cuff Jonas; said of one who is knock-kneed, or who beats his sides to keep himself warm in frosty weather; called also Beating the booby. CUFFIN. A man. CULL. A man, honest or otherwise. A bob cull; a good-natured, quiet fellow. CANT. CULLABILITY. A disposition liable to be cheated, an unsuspecting nature, open to imposition. CULLY. A fog or fool: also, a dupe to women: from the Italian word coglione, a blockhead. CULP. A kick or blow: from the words mea culpa, being that part of the popish liturgy at which the people beat their breasts; or, as the vulgar term is, thump their craws. CUNDUM. The dried gut of a sheep, worn by men in the act of coition, to prevent venereal infection; said to have been invented by one colonel Cundum. These machines were long prepared and sold by a matron of the name of Philips, at the Green Canister, in Half-moon-street, in the Strand. That good lady having acquired a fortune, retired from business; but learning that the town was not well served by her successors, she, out of a patriotic zeal for the public welfare, returned to her occupation; of which she gave notice by divers hand-bills, in circulation in the year 1776. Also a false scabbard over a sword, and the oil-skin case for holding the colours of a regiment. CUNNINGHAM. A punning appellation for a simple fellow. CUNNING MAN. A cheat, who pretends by his skill in astrology to assist persons in recovering stolen goods: and also to tell them their fortunes, and when, how often, and to whom they shall be married; likewise answers all lawful questions, both by sea and land. This profession is frequently occupied by ladies. CUNNING SHAVER. A sharp fellow, one that trims close, i.e. cheats ingeniously. CUNNY-THUMBED. To double one's fist with the thumb inwards, like a woman. C**T. The chonnos of the Greek, and the cunnus of the Latin dictionaries; a nasty name for a nasty thing: un con Miege. CUP OF THE CREATURE. A cup of good liquor. CUP-SHOT. Drunk. CUPBOARD LOVE. Pretended love to the cook, or any other person, for the sake of a meal. My guts cry cupboard; i.e. I am hungry CUPID, BLIND CUPID. A jeering name for an ugly blind man: Cupid, the god of love, being frequently painted blind. See BLIND CUPID. CUR. A cut or curtailed dog. According to the forest laws, a man who had no right to the privilege of the chase, was obliged to cut or law his dog: among other modes of disabling him from disturbing the game, one was by depriving him of his tail: a dog so cut was called a cut or curtailed dog, and by contraction a cur. A cur is figuratively used to signify a surly fellow. CURBING LAW. The act of hooking goods out of windows: the curber is the thief, the curb the hook. CANT. CURE A-SE. A dyachilon plaister, applied to the parts galled by riding. CURLE. Clippings of money, which curls up in the operation. CANT. CURMUDGEON. A covetous old fellow, derived, according to some, from the French term coeur mechant. CURRY. To curry favour; to obtain the favour of a person be coaxing or servility. To curry any one's hide; to beat him. CURSE OF SCOTLAND. The nine of diamonds; diamonds, it is said, imply royalty, being ornaments to the imperial crown; and every ninth king of Scotland has been observed for many ages, to be a tyrant and a curse to that country. Others say it is from its similarity to the arms of Argyle; the Duke of Argyle having been very instrumental in bringing about the union, which, by some Scotch patriots, has been considered as detrimental to their country. CURSE OF GOD. A cockade. CURSITORS. Broken petty-fogging attornies, or Newgate solicitors. CANT. CURTAILS. Thieves who cut off pieces of stuff hanging out of shop windows, the tails of women's gowns, &c.; also, thieves wearing short jackets. CURTAIN LECTURE. A woman who scolds her husband when in bed, is said to read him a curtain lecture. CURTEZAN. A prostitute. CUSHION. He has deserved the cushion; a saying of one whose wife is brought to bed of a boy: implying, that having done his business effectually, he may now indulge or repose himself. CUSHION THUMPER, or DUSTER. A parson; many of whom in the fury of their eloquence, heartily belabour their cushions. CUSTARD CAP. The cap worn by the sword-bearer of the city of London, made hollow at the top like a custard. CUSTOM-HOUSE GOODS. The stock in trade of a prostitute, because fairly entered. CUT. Drunk. A little cut over the head; slightly intoxicated. To cut; to leave a person or company. To cut up well; to die rich. TO CUT. (Cambridge.) To renounce acquaintance with any one is to CUT him. There are several species of the CUT. Such as the cut direct, the cut indirect, the cut sublime, the cut infernal, &c. The cut direct, is to start across the street, at the approach of the obnoxious person in order to avoid him. The cut indirect, is to look another way, and pass without appearing to observe him. The cut sublime, is to admire the top of King's College Chapel, or the beauty of the passing clouds, till he is out of sight. The cut infernal, is to analyze the arrangement of your shoe-strings, for the same purpose. TO CUT BENE. To speak gently. To cut bene whiddes; to give good words. To cut queer whiddes; to give foul language. To cut a bosh, or a flash; to make a figure. CANT. TO CUTTY-EYE. To look out of the corners of one's eyes, to leer, to look askance. The cull cutty-eyed at us; the fellow looked suspicious at us. DAB. An adept; a dab at any feat or exercise. Dab, quoth Dawkins, when he hit his wife on the a-se with a pound of butter. DACE. Two pence. Tip me a dace; lend me two pence. CANT. DADDLES. Hands. Tip us your daddle; give me your hand. CANT. DADDY. Father. Old daddy; a familiar address to an old man. To beat daddy mammy; the first rudiments of drum beating, being the elements of the roll. DAGGERS. They are at daggers drawing; i.e. at enmity, ready to fight. DAIRY. A woman's breasts, particularly one that gives suck. She sported her dairy; she pulled out her breast. DAISY CUTTER. A jockey term for a horse that does not lift up his legs sufficiently, or goes too near the ground, and is therefore apt to stumble. DAISY KICKERS. Ostlers at great inns. DAM. A small Indian coin, mentioned in the Gentoo code of laws: hence etymologists may, if they please, derive the common expression, I do not care a dam, i.e. I do not care half a farthing for it. DAMBER. A rascal. See DIMBER. DAMME BOY. A roaring, mad, blustering fellow, a scourer of the streets, or kicker up of a breeze. DAMNED SOUL. A clerk in a counting house, whose sole business it is to clear or swear off merchandise at the custom-house; and who, it is said, guards against the crime of perjury, by taking a previous oath, never to swear truly on those occasions. DAMPER. A luncheon, or snap before dinner: so called from its damping, or allaying, the appetite; eating and drinking, being, as the proverb wisely observes, apt to take away the appetite. DANCE UPON NOTHING. To be hanged. DANCERS. Stairs. DANDY. That's the dandy; i.e. the ton, the clever thing; an expression of similar import to "That's the barber." See BARBER. DANDY GREY RUSSET. A dirty brown. His coat's dandy grey russet, the colour of the Devil's nutting bag. DANDY PRAT. An insignificant or trifling fellow. To DANGLE. To follow a woman without asking the question. Also, to be hanged: I shall see you dangle in the sheriff's picture frame; I shall see you hanging on the gallows. DANGLER. One who follows women in general, without any particular attachment DAPPER FELLOW. A smart, well-made, little man. DARBIES. Fetters. CANT. DARBY. Ready money. CANT. DARK CULLY. A married man that keeps a mistress, whom he visits only at night, for fear of discovery. DARKEE. A dark lanthorn used by housebreakers. Stow the darkee, and bolt, the cove of the crib is fly; hide the dark lanthorn, and run away, the master of the house knows that we are here. DARKMANS. The night. CANT. DARKMAN'S BUDGE. One that slides into a house in the dark of the evening, and hides himself, in order to let some of the gang in at night to rob it. DART. A straight-armed blow in boxing. DASH. A tavern drawer. To cut a dash: to make a figure. DAVID JONES. The devil, the spirit of the sea: called Necken in the north countries, such as Norway, Denmark, and Sweden. DAVID JONES'S LOCKER. The sea. DAVID'S SOW. As drunk as David's sow; a common saying, which took its rise from the following circumstance: One David Lloyd, a Welchman, who kept an alehouse at Hereford, had a living sow with six legs, which was greatly resorted to by the curious; he had also a wife much addicted to drunkenness, for which he used sometimes to give her due correction. One day David's wife having taken a cup too much, and being fearful of the consequences, turned out the sow, and lay down to sleep herself sober in the stye. A company coming in to see the sow, David ushered them into the stye, exclaiming, there is a sow for you! did any of you ever see such another? all the while supposing the sow had really been there; to which some of the company, seeing the state the woman was in, replied, it was the drunkenest sow they had ever beheld; whence the woman was ever after called David's sow. DAVY. I'll take my davy of it; vulgar abbreviation of affidavit. TO DAWB. To bribe. The cull was scragged because he could not dawb; the rogue was hanged because he could not bribe. All bedawbed with lace; all over lace. DAY LIGHTS. Eyes. To darken his day lights, or sow up his sees; to close up a man's eyes in boxing. DEAD CARGO. A term used by thieves, when they are disappointed in the value of their booty. DEAD HORSE. To work for the dead horse; to work for wages already paid. DEAD-LOUSE. Vulgar pronunciation of the Dedalus ship of war. DEAD MEN. A cant word among journeymen bakers, for loaves falsely charged to their masters' customers; also empty bottles. DEADLY NEVERGREEN, that bears fruit all the year round. The gallows, or three-legged mare. See THREE-LEGGED MARE. DEAR JOYS. Irishmen: from their frequently making use of that expression. DEATH HUNTER. An undertaker, one who furnishes the necessary articles for funerals. See CARRION HUNTER. DEATH'S HEAD UPON A MOP-STICK. A poor miserable, emaciated fellow; one quite an otomy. See OTOMY.--He looked as pleasant as the pains of death. DEEP-ONE. A thorough-paced rogue, a sly designing fellow: in opposition to a shallow or foolish one. DEFT FELLOW. A neat little man. DEGEN, or DAGEN. A sword. Nim the degen; steal the sword. Dagen is Dutch for a sword. CANT. DELLS. Young buxom wenches, ripe and prone to venery, but who have not lost their virginity, which the UPRIGHT MAN claims by virtue of his prerogative; after which they become free for any of the fraternity. Also a common strumpet. CANT. DEMURE. As demure as an old whore at a christening. DEMY-REP. An abbreviation of demy-reputation; a woman of doubtful character. DERBY. To come down with the derbies; to pay the money. DERRICK. The name of the finisher of the law, or hangman about the year 1608.--'For he rides his circuit with the Devil, and Derrick must be his host, and Tiburne the inne at which he will lighte.' Vide Bellman of London, in art. PRIGGIN LAW.--'At the gallows, where I leave them, as to the haven at which they must all cast anchor, if Derrick's cables do but hold.' Ibid. DEVIL. A printer's errand-boy. Also a small thread in the king's ropes and cables, whereby they may be distinguished from all others. The Devil himself; a small streak of blue thread in the king's sails. The Devil may dance in his pocket; i.e. he has no money: the cross on our ancient coins being jocularly supposed to prevent him from visiting that place, for fear, as it is said, of breaking his shins against it. To hold a candle to the Devil; to be civil to any one out of fear: in allusion to the story of the old woman, who set a wax taper before the image of St. Michael, and another before the Devil, whom that saint is commonly represented as trampling under his feet: being reproved for paying such honour to Satan, she answered, as it was uncertain which place she should go to, heaven or hell, she chose to secure a friend in both places. That will be when the Devil is blind, and he has not got sore eyes yet; said of any thing unlikely to happen. It rains whilst the sun shines, the Devil is beating his wife with a shoulder of mutton: this phenomenon is also said to denote that cuckolds are going to heaven; on being informed of this, a loving wife cried out with great vehemence, 'Run, husband, run!' The Devil was sick, the Devil a monk would be; The Devil was well, the Devil a monk was he. a proverb signifying that we are apt to forget promises made in time of distress. To pull the Devil by the tail, to be reduced to one's shifts. The Devil go with you and sixpence, and then you will have both money and company. DEVIL. The gizzard of a turkey or fowl, scored, peppered, salted and broiled: it derives its appellation from being hot in the mouth. DEVIL'S BOOKS. Cards. DEVIL CATCHER, or DEVIL DRIVER. A parson. See SNUB DEVIL. DEVIL'S DAUGHTER. It is said of one who has a termagant for his wife, that he has married the Devil's daughter, and lives with the old folks. DEVIL'S DAUGHTER'S PORTION: Deal, Dover, and Harwich, The Devil gave with his daughter in marriage; And, by a codicil to his will, He added Helvoet and the Brill; a saying occasioned by the shameful impositions practised by the inhabitants of those places, on sailors and travellers. DEVIL DRAWER. A miserable painter. DEVIL'S DUNG. Assafoetida. DEVIL'S GUTS. A surveyor's chain: so called by farmers, who do not like their land should be measured by their landlords. DEVILISH. Very: an epithet which in the English vulgar language is made to agree with every quality or thing; as, devilish bad, devilish good; devilish sick, devilish well; devilish sweet, devilish sour; devilish hot, devilish cold, &c. &c. DEUSEA VILLE. The country. Cant. DEUSEA VILLE STAMPERS. Country carriers. Cant. DEW BEATERS. Feet. Cant. DEWS WINS, or DEUX WINS. Two-pence. Cant. DEWITTED. Torn to pieces by a mob, as that great statesman John de Wit was in Holland, anno 1672. DIAL PLATE. The face. To alter his dial plate; to disfigure his face. DICE. The names of false dice: A bale of bard cinque deuces A bale of flat cinque deuces A bale of flat sice aces A bale of bard cater traes A bale of flat cater traes A bale of fulhams A bale of light graniers A bale of langrets contrary to the ventage A bale of gordes, with as many highmen as lowmen, for passage A bale of demies A bale of long dice for even and odd A bale of bristles A bale of direct contraries. DICK. That happened in the reign of queen Dick, i. e. never: said of any absurd old story. I am as queer as Dick's hatband; that is, out of spirits, or don't know what ails me. DICKY. A woman's under-petticoat. It's all Dicky with him; i.e. it's all over with him. DICKED IN THE NOB. Silly. Crazed. DICKEY. A sham shirt. DICKEY. An ass. Roll your dickey; drive your ass. Also a seat for servants to sit behind a carriage, when their master drives. TO DIDDLE. To cheat. To defraud. The cull diddled me out of my dearee; the fellow robbed me of my sweetheart. See Jeremy Diddler In Raising The Wind. DIDDEYS. A woman's breasts or bubbies. DIDDLE. Gin. DIGGERS. Spurs. Cant. DILBERRIES. Small pieces of excrement adhering to the hairs near the fundament. DILBERRY MAKER. The fundament. DILDO. [From the Italian DILETTO, q. d. a woman's delight; or from our word DALLY, q. d. a thing to play withal.] Penis-succedaneus, called in Lombardy Passo Tempo. Bailey. DILIGENT. Double diligent, like the Devil's apothecary; said of one affectedly diligent. DILLY. (An abbreviation of the word DILIGENCE.) A public voiture or stage, commonly a post chaise, carrying three persons; the name is taken from the public stage vehicles in France and Flanders. The dillies first began to run in England about the year 1779. DIMBER. Pretty. A dimber cove; a pretty fellow. Dimber mort; a pretty wench. CANT. DIMBER DAMBER. A top man, or prince, among the canting crew: also the chief rogue of the gang, or the completest cheat. CANT. DING. To knock down. To ding it in one's ears; to reproach or tell one something one is not desirous of hearing. Also to throw away or hide: thus a highwayman who throws away or hides any thing with which he robbed, to prevent being known or detected, is, in the canting lingo, styled a Dinger. DING BOY. A rogue, a hector, a bully, or sharper. CANT. DING DONG. Helter skelter, in a hasty disorderly manner. DINGEY CHRISTIAN. A mulatto; or any one who has, as the West-Indian term is, a lick of the tar-brush, that is, some negro blood in him. DINING ROOM POST. A mode of stealing in houses that let lodgings, by rogues pretending to be postmen, who send up sham letters to the lodgers, and, whilst waiting in the entry for the postage, go into the first room they see open, and rob it. DIP. To dip for a wig. Formerly, in Middle Row, Holborn, wigs of different sorts were, it is said, put into a close-stool box, into which, for three-pence, any one might dip, or thrust in his hand, and take out the first wig he laid hold of; if he was dissatisfied with his prize, he might, on paying three halfpence, return it and dip again. THE DIP. A cook's shop, under Furnival's Inn, where many attornies clerks, and other inferior limbs of the law, take out the wrinkles from their bellies. DIP is also a punning name for a tallow-chandler. DIPPERS. Anabaptists. DIPT. Pawned or mortgaged. DIRTY PUZZLE. A nasty slut. DISGUISED. Drunk. DISGRUNTLED. Offended, disobliged. DISHED UP. He is completely dished up; he is totally ruined. To throw a thing in one's dish; to reproach or twit one with any particular matter. DISHCLOUT. A dirty, greasy woman. He has made a napkin of his dishclout; a saying of one who has married his cook maid. To pin a dishclout to a man's tail; a punishment often threatened by the female servants in a kitchen, to a man who pries too minutely into the secrets of that place. DISMAL DITTY. The psalm sung by the felons at the gallows, just before they are turned off. DISPATCHES. A mittimus, or justice of the peace's warrant, for the commitment of a rogue. DITTO. A suit of ditto; coat, waistcoat, and breeches, all of one colour. DISPATCHERS. Loaded or false dice. DISTRACTED DIVISION. Husband and wife fighting. DIVE. To dive; to pick a pocket. To dive for a dinner; to go down into a cellar to dinner. A dive, is a thief who stands ready to receive goods thrown out to him by a little boy put in at a window. Cant. DIVER. A pickpocket; also one who lives in a cellar. DIVIDE. To divide the house with one's wife; to give her the outside, and to keep all the inside to one's self, i.e. to turn her into the street. DO. To do any one; to rob and cheat him. I have done him; I have robbed him. Also to overcome in a boxing match: witness those laconic lines written on the field of battle, by Humphreys to his patron.--'Sir, I have done the Jew.' TO DO OVER. Carries the same meaning, but is not so briefly expressed: the former having received the polish of the present times. DOASH. A cloak. Cant. DOBIN RIG. Stealing ribbands from haberdashers early in the morning or late at night; generally practised by women in the disguise of maid servants. TO DOCK. To lie with a woman. The cull docked the dell all the darkmans; the fellow laid with the wench all night. Docked smack smooth; one who has suffered an amputation of his penis from a venereal complaint. He must go into dock; a sea phrase, signifying that the person spoken of must undergo a salivation. Docking is also a punishment inflicted by sailors on the prostitutes who have infected them with the venereal disease; it consists in cutting off all their clothes, petticoats, shift and all, close to their stays, and then turning them into the street. DOCTOR. Milk and water, with a little rum, and some nutmeg; also the name of a composition used by distillers, to make spirits appear stronger than they really are, or, in their phrase, better proof. DOCTORS. Loaded dice, that will run but two or three chances. They put the doctors upon him; they cheated him with loaded dice. DODSEY. A woman: perhaps a corruption of Doxey. CANT. DOG BUFFERS. Dog stealers, who kill those dogs not advertised for, sell their skins, and feed the remaining dogs with their flesh. DOG IN A DOUBLET. A daring, resolute fellow. In Germany and Flanders the boldest dogs used to hunt the boar, having a kind of buff doublet buttoned on their bodies, Rubens has represented several so equipped, so has Sneyders. DOG. An old dog at it; expert or accustomed to any thing. Dog in a manger; one who would prevent another from enjoying what he himself does not want: an allusion to the well-known fable. The dogs have not dined; a common saying to any one whose shirt hangs out behind. To dog, or dodge; to follow at a distance. To blush like a blue dog, i.e. not at all. To walk the black dog on any one; a punishment inflicted in the night on a fresh prisoner, by his comrades, in case of his refusal to pay the usual footing or garnish. DOG LATIN. Barbarous Latin, such as was formerly used by the lawyers in their pleadings. DOG'S PORTION. A lick and a smell. He comes in for only a dog's portion; a saying of one who is a distant admirer or dangler after women. See DANGLER. DOG'S RIG. To copulate till you are tired, and then turn tail to it. DOG'S SOUP. Rain water. DOG VANE. A cockade. SEA TERM. DOGGED. Surly. DOGGESS, DOG'S WIFE or LADY, PUPPY'S MAMMA. Jocular ways of calling a woman a bitch. DOLL. Bartholomew doll; a tawdry, over-drest woman, like one of the children's dolls at Bartholomew fair. To mill doll; to beat hemp at Bridewell, or any other house of correction. DOLLY. A Yorkshire dolly; a contrivance for washing, by means of a kind of wheel fixed in a tub, which being turned about, agitates and cleanses the linen put into it, with soap and water. DOMINE DO LITTLE. An impotent old fellow. DOMINEER. To reprove or command in an insolent or haughty manner. Don't think as how you shall domineer here. DOMMERER. A beggar pretending that his tongue has been cutout by the Algerines, or cruel and blood-thirsty Turks, or else that he yas born deaf and dumb. Cant. DONE, or DONE OVER. Robbed: also, convicted or hanged. Cant.--See DO. DONE UP. Ruined by gaming and extravagances. Modern Term. DONKEY, DONKEY DICK. A he, or jack ass: called donkey, perhaps, from the Spanish or don-like gravity of that animal, intitled also the king of Spain's trumpeter. DOODLE. A silly fellow, or noodle: see NOODLE. Also a child's penis. Doodle doo, or Cock a doodle doo; a childish appellation for a cock, in imitation of its note when crowing. DOODLE SACK. A bagpipe. Dutch.--Also the private parts of a woman. DOPEY. A beggar's trull. DOT AND GO ONE. To waddle: generally applied to persons who have one leg shorter than the other, and who, as the sea phrase is, go upon an uneven keel. Also a jeering appellation for an inferior writing-master, or teacher of arithmetic. DOUBLE. To tip any one the double; to run away in his or her debt. DOUBLE JUGG. A man's backside. Cotton's Virgil. DOVE-TAIL. A species of regular answer, which fits into the subject, like the contrivance whence it takes its name: Ex. Who owns this? The dovetail is, Not you by your asking. DOUGLAS. Roby Douglas, with one eye and a stinking breath; the breech. Sea wit. DOWDY. A coarse, vulgar-looking woman. DOWN HILLS. Dice that run low. DOWN. Aware of a thing. Knowing it. There is NO DOWN. A cant phrase used by house-breakers to signify that the persons belonging to any house are not on their guard, or that they are fast asleep, and have not heard any noise to alarm them. TO DOWSE. To take down: as, Dowse the pendant. Dowse your dog vane; take the cockade out of your hat. Dowse the glim; put out the candle. DOWSE ON THE CHOPS. A blow in the face. DOWSER. Vulgar pronunciation of DOUCEUR. DOXIES. She beggars, wenches, whores. DRAB. A nasty, sluttish whore. DRAG. To go on the drag; to follow a cart or waggon, in order to rob it. CANT. DRAG LAY. Waiting in the streets to rob carts or waggons. DRAGGLETAIL or DAGGLETAIL. One whose garments are bespattered with dag or dew: generally applied to the female sex, to signify a slattern. DRAGOONING IT. A man who occupies two branches of one profession, is said to dragoon it; because, like the soldier of that denomination, he serves in a double capacity. Such is a physician who furnishes the medicines, and compounds his own prescriptions. DRAIN. Gin: so called from the diuretic qualities imputed to that liquor. DRAM. A glass or small measure of any spirituous liquors, which, being originally sold by apothecaries, were estimated by drams, ounces, &c. Dog's dram; to spit in his mouth, and clap his back. DRAM-A-TICK. A dram served upon credit. DRAPER. An ale draper; an alehouse keeper. DRAUGHT, or BILL, ON THE PUMP AT ALDGATE. A bad or false bill of exchange. See ALDGATE. DRAW LATCHES. Robbers of houses whose doors are only fastened with latches. CANT. TO DRAW. To take any thing from a pocket. To draw a swell of a clout. To pick a gentleman's pocket of a handkerchief. To draw the long bow; to tell lies. DRAWERS. Stockings. CANT. DRAWING THE KING'S PICTURE. Coining. CANT. TO DRESS. To beat. I'll dress his hide neatly; I'll beat him soundly. DRIBBLE. A method of pouring out, as it were, the dice from the box, gently, by which an old practitioner is enabled to cog one of them with his fore-finger. DRIPPER. A gleet. DROMEDARY. A heavy, bungling thief or rogue. A purple dromedary; a bungler in the art and mystery of thieving. CANT. DROMMERARS. See DOMMERER. DROP. The new drop; a contrivance for executing felons at Newgate, by means of a platform, which drops from under them: this is also called the last drop. See LEAF. See MORNING DROP. DROP A COG. To let fall, with design, a piece of gold or silver, in order to draw in and cheat the person who sees it picked up; the piece so dropped is called a dropt cog. DROP IN THE EYE. Almost drunk. DROPPING MEMBER. A man's yard with a gonorrhoea. DROP COVES. Persons who practice the fraud of dropping a ring or other article, and picking it up before the person intended to be defrauded, they pretend that the thing is very valuable to induce their gull to lend them money, or to purchase the article. See FAWNY RIG, and MONEY DROPPERS. TO DROP DOWN. To be dispirited. This expression is used by thieves to signify that their companion did not die game, as the kiddy dropped down when he went to be twisted; the young fellow was very low spirited when he walked out to be hanged. TO DRUB. To beat any one with a stick, or rope's end: perhaps a contraction of DRY RUB. It is also used to signify a good beating with any instrument. DRUMMER. A jockey term for a horse that throws about his fore legs irregularly: the idea is taken from a kettle drummer, who in beating makes many flourishes with his drumsticks. DRUNK. Drunk as a wheel-barrow. Drunk as David's sow. See DAVID'S SOW. DRURY LANE AGUE. The venereal disorder. DRURY LANE VESTAL. A woman of the town, or prostitute; Drury-lane and its environs were formerly the residence of many of those ladies. DRY BOB. A smart repartee: also copulation without emission; in law Latin, siccus robertulus. DRY BOOTS. A sly humorous fellow. DUB. A picklock, or master-key. CANT. DUB LAY. Robbing houses by picking the locks. DUB THE JIGGER. Open the door. CANT. DUB O' TH' HICK. A lick on the head. DUBBER. A picker of locks. CANT. DUCE. Two-pence. DUCK. A lame duck; an Exchange-alley phrase for a stock-jobber, who either cannot or will not pay his losses, or, differences, in which case he is said to WADDLE OUT OF THE ALLEY, as he cannot appear there again till his debts are settled and paid; should he attempt it, he would be hustled out by the fraternity. DUCKS AND DRAKES. To make ducks and drakes: a school-boy's amusement, practised with pieces of tile, oyster-shells, or flattish stones, which being skimmed along the surface of a pond, or still river, rebound many times. To make ducks and drakes of one's money; to throw it idly away. DUCK F-CK-R. The man who has the care of the poultry on board a ship of war. DUCK LEGS. Short legs. DUDDERS, or WHISPERING DUDDERS. Cheats who travel the country, pretending to sell smuggled goods: they accost their intended dupes in a whisper. The goods they have for sale are old shop-keepers, or damaged; purchased by them of large manufactories. See DUFFER. DUDDERING RAKE. A thundering rake, a buck of the first head, one extremely lewd. DUDGEON. Anger. DUDS. Clothes. DUFFERS. Cheats who ply in different parts of the town, particularly about Water-lane, opposite St. Clement's church, in the Strand, and pretend to deal in smuggled goods, stopping all country people, or such as they think they can impose on; which they frequently do, by selling them Spital-fields goods at double their current price. DUGS. A woman's breasts, DUKE, or RUM DUKE. A queer unaccountable fellow. DUKE OF LIMBS. A tall, awkward, ill-made fellow. DUKE HUMPHREY. To dine with Duke Humphrey; to fast. In old St. Paul's church was an aisle called Duke Humphrey's walk (from a tomb vulgarly called his, but in reality belonging to John of Gaunt), and persons who walked there, while others were at dinner, were said to dine with Duke Humphrey. DULL SWIFT. A stupid, sluggish fellow, one long going on an errand. DUMB ARM. A lame arm. DUMB-FOUNDED. Silenced, also soundly beaten. DUMB GLUTTON. A woman's privities. DUMB WATCH. A venereal bubo in the groin. DUMMEE. A pocket book. A dummee hunter. A pick-pocket, who lurks about to steal pocket books out of gentlemen's pockets. Frisk the dummee of the screens; take all the bank notes out of the pocket book, ding the dummee, and bolt, they sing out beef. Throw away the pocket book, and run off, as they call out "stop thief." DUMPLIN. A short thick man or woman. Norfolk dumplin; a jeering appellation of a Norfolk man, dumplins being a favourite kind of food in that county. DUMPS. Down in the dumps; low-spirited, melancholy: jocularly said to be derived from Dumpos, a king of Egypt, who died of melancholy. Dumps are also small pieces of lead, cast by schoolboys in the shape of money. DUN. An importunate creditor. Dunny, in the provincial dialect of several counties, signifies DEAF; to dun, then, perhaps may mean to deafen with importunate demands: some derive it from the word DONNEZ, which signifies GIVE. But the true original meaning of the word, owes its birth to one Joe Dun, a famous bailiff of the town of Lincoln, so extremely active, and so dexterous in his business, that it became a proverb, when a man refused to pay, Why do not you DUN him? that is, Why do not you set Dun to attest him? Hence it became a cant word, and is now as old as since the days of Henry VII. Dun was also the general name for the hangman, before that of Jack Ketch. And presently a halter got, Made of the best strong hempen teer, And ere a cat could lick her ear, Had tied it up with as much art, As DUN himself could do for's heart. Cotton's Virgil Trav. book iv. DUNAKER. A stealer of cows and calves. DUNEGAN. A privy. A water closet. DUNGHILL. A coward: a cockpit phrase, all but gamecocks being styled dunghills. To die dunghill; to repent, or shew any signs of contrition at the gallows. Moving dunghill; a dirty, filthy man or woman. Dung, an abbreviation of dunghill, also means a journeyman taylor who submits to the law for regulating journeymen taylors' wages, therefore deemed by the flints a coward. See FLINTS. DUNNOCK. A cow. CUNT. TO DUP. To open a door: a contraction of DO OPE or OPEN. See DUB. DURHAM MAN. Knocker kneed, he grinds mustard with his knees: Durham is famous for its mustard. DUST. Money. Down with your dust; deposit the money. To raise or kick up a dust; to make a disturbance or riot: see BREEZE. Dust it away; drink about. DUSTMAN. A dead man: your father is a dustman. DUTCH COMFORT. Thank God it is no worse. DUTCH CONCERT. Where every one plays or signs a different tune. DUTCH FEAST. Where the entertainer gets drunk before his guest. DUTCH RECKONING, or ALLE-MAL. A verbal or lump account, without particulars, as brought at spungiug or bawdy houses. DUTCHESS. A woman enjoyed with her pattens on, or by a man-in boots, is said to be made a dutchess. DIE HARD, or GAME. To die hard, is to shew no signs of fear or contrition at the gallows; not to whiddle or squeak. This advice is frequently given to felons going to suffer the law, by their old comrades, anxious for the honour of the gang. EARNEST. A deposit in part of payment, to bind a bargain. EARTH BATH. A Grave. EASY. Make the cull easy or quiet; gag or kill him. As easy as pissing the bed. EASY VIRTUE. A lady of easy virtue: an impure or prostitute. EAT. To eat like a beggar man, and wag his under jaw; a jocular reproach to a proud man. To eat one's words; to retract what one has said. TO EDGE. To excite, stimulate, or provoke; or as it is vulgarly called, to egg a man on. Fall back, fall edge; i.e. let what will happen. Some derive to egg on, from the Latin word, AGE, AGE. EIGHT EYES. I will knock out two of your eight eyes; a common Billingsgate threat from one fish nymph to another: every woman, according to the naturalists of that society, having eight eyes; viz. two seeing eyes, two bub-eyes, a bell-eye, two pope's eyes, and a ***-eye. He has fallen down and trod upon his eye; said of one who has a black eye. ELBOW GREASE. Labour. Elbow grease will make an oak table shine. ELBOW ROOM. Sufficient space to act in. Out at elbows; said of an estate that is mortgaged. ELBOW SHAKER. A gamester, one who rattles Saint Hugh's bones, i.e. the dice. ELLENBOROUGH LODGE. The King's Bench Prison. Lord Ellenborough's teeth; the chevaux de frize round the top of the wall of that prison. ELF. A fairy or hobgoblin, a little man or woman. EMPEROR. Drunk as an emperor, i.e. ten times as drunk as a lord. ENGLISH BURGUNDY. Porter. ENSIGN BEARER. A drunken man, who looks red in the face, or hoists his colours in his drink. EQUIPT. Rich; also, having new clothes. Well equipt; full of money, or well dressed. The cull equipped me with a brace of meggs; the gentleman furnished me with. a couple of guineas. ESSEX LION. A calf; Essex being famous for calves, and chiefly supplying the London markets. ESSEX STILE. A ditch; a great part of Essex is low marshy ground, in which there are more ditches than Stiles. ETERNITY Box. A coffin. EVES. Hen roosts. EVE'S CUSTOM-HOUSE, where Adam made his first entry. The monosyllable. EVES DROPPER. One that lurks about to rob hen-roosts; also a listener at doors and windows, to hear private conversation. EVIL. A halter. Cant, Also a wife. EWE. A white ewe; a beautiful woman. An old ewe, drest lamb fashion; an old woman, drest like a young girl. EXECUTION DAY. Washing day. EXPENDED. Killed: alluding to the gunner's accounts, wherein the articles consumed are charged under the title of expended. Sea phrase. EYE. It's all my eye and Betty Martin. It's all nonsense, all mere stuff. EYE-SORE. A disagreeable object. It will be an eye-sore as long as she lives, said by a limn whose wife was cut for a fistula in ano. FACE-MAKING. Begetting children. To face it out; to persist in a falsity. No face but his own: a saying of one who has no money in his pocket or no court cards in his hand. FACER. A bumper, a glass filled so full as to leave no room for the lip. Also a violent blow on the face. FADGE. It won't fadge; it won't do. A farthing. TO FAG. To beat. Fag the bloss; beat the wench; Cant. A fag also means a boy of an inferior form or class, who acts as a servant to one of a superior, who is said to fag him, he is my fag; whence, perhaps, fagged out, for jaded or tired. To stand a good fag; not to be soon tired. FAGGER. A little boy put in at a window to rob the house. FAGGOT. A man hired at a muster to appear as a soldier. To faggot in the canting sense, means to bind: an allusion to the faggots made up by the woodmen, which are all bound. Faggot the culls; bind the men. FAITHFUL. One of the faithful; a taylor who gives long credit. His faith has made him unwhole; i.e. trusting too much, broke him. FAIR. A set of subterraneous rooms in the Fleet Prison. FAKEMENT. A counterfeit signature. A forgery. Tell the macers to mind their fakements; desire the swindlers to be careful not to forge another person's signature. FALLALLS. Ornaments, chiefly women's, such as ribands, necklaces, &c. FALLEN AWAY FROM A HORSE LOAD TO A CART LOAD. A saying on one grown fat. FAMILY MAN. A thief or receiver of stolen goods. FAM LAY. Going into a goldsmith's shop, under pretence of buying a wedding ring, and palming one or two, by daubing the hand with some viscous matter. FAMS, or FAMBLES. Hands. Famble cheats; rings or gloves. CANT. TO FAMGRASP. To shake bands: figuratively, to agree or make up a difference. Famgrasp the cove; shake hands with the fellow. CANT. FAMILY OF LOVE. Lewd women; also, a religious sect. FANCY MAN. A man kept by a lady for secret services. TO FAN. To beat any one. I fanned him sweetly; I beat him heartily. FANTASTICALLY DRESSED, with more rags than ribands. FART. He has let a brewer's fart, grains and all; said of one who has bewrayed his breeches. Piss and fart. Sound at heart. Mingere cum bumbis, Res saluberrima est lumbis. I dare not trust my a-se with a fart: said by a person troubled with a looseness. FART CATCHER. A valet or footman from his walking behind his master or mistress. FARTING CRACKERS. Breeches. FARTLEBERRIES. Excrement hanging about the anus. FASTNER. A warrant. FASTNESSES. Bogs. FAT. The last landed, inned, or stowed, of any sort of merchandise: so called by the water-side porters, carmen, &c. All the fat is in the fire; that is, it is all over with us: a saying used in case of any miscarriage or disappointment in an undertaking; an allusion to overturning the frying pan into the fire. Fat, among printers, means void spaces. AS FAT AS A HEN IN THE FOREHEAD. A saying of a meagre person. FAT CULL. A rich fellow. FAT HEADED. Stupid. FAULKNER. A tumbler, juggler, or shewer of tricks; perhaps because they lure the people, as a faulconer does his hawks. CANT. FAYTORS, or FATORS. Fortune tellers. FAWNEY RIG. A common fraud, thus practised: A fellow drops a brass ring, double gilt, which he picks up before the party meant to be cheated, and to whom he disposes of it for less than its supposed, and ten times more than its real, value. See MONEY DROPPER. FAWNEY. A ring. FEAGUE. To feague a horse; to put ginger up a horse's fundament, and formerly, as it is said, a live eel, to make him lively and carry his tail well; it is said, a forfeit is incurred by any horse-dealer's servant, who shall shew a horse without first feaguing him. Feague is used, figuratively, for encouraging or spiriting one up. FEAK. The fundament. To FEATHER ONE'S NEST. To enrich one's self. FEATHER-BED LANE. A rough or stony lane. FEE, FAW, FUM. Nonsensical words, supposed in childish story-books to be spoken by giants. I am not to be frighted by fee, faw, fum; I am not to be scared by nonsense. FEEDER. A spoon. To nab the feeder; to steal a spoon. FEET. To make feet for children's stockings; to beget children. An officer of feet; a jocular title for an officer of infantry. FEINT. A sham attack on one part, when a real one is meant at another. FELLOW COMMONER. An empty bottle: so called at the university of Cambridge, where fellow commoners are not in general considered as over full of learning. At Oxford an empty bottle is called a gentleman commoner for the same reason. They pay at Cambridge 250 l. a year for the privilege of wearing a gold or silver tassel to their caps. The younger branches of the nobility have the privilege of wearing a hat, and from thence are denominated HAT FELLOW COMMONERS. FEN. A bawd, or common prostitute. CANT. TO FENCE. To pawn or sell to a receiver of stolen goods. The kiddey fenced his thimble for three quids; the young fellow pawned his watch for three guineas. To fence invariably means to pawn or sell goods to a receiver. FENCING KEN. The magazine, or warehouse, where stolen goods are secreted. FERME. A hole. CANT. FERMERDY BEGGARS. All those who have not the sham sores or clymes. FERRARA. Andrea Ferrara; the name of a famous sword-cutler: most of the Highland broad-swords are marked with his name; whence an Andrea Ferrara has become the common name for the glaymore or Highland broad-sword. See CLAYMORE. FERRET. A tradesman who sells goods to young unthrift heirs, at excessive rates, and then continually duns them for the debt. To ferret; to search out or expel any one from his hiding-place, as a ferret drives out rabbits; also to cheat. Ferret-eyed; red-eyed: ferrets have red eyes. FETCH. A trick, wheedle, or invention to deceive. FEUTERER. A dog-keeper: from the French vautrier, or vaultrier, one that leads a lime hound for the chase. TO FIB. To beat. Fib the cove's quarron in the rumpad for the lour in his bung; beat the fellow in the highway for the money in his purse. CANT.--A fib is also a tiny lie. FICE, or FOYSE. A small windy escape backwards, more obvious to the nose than ears; frequently by old ladies charged on their lap-dogs. See FIZZLE. FID OF TOBACCO. A quid, from the small pieces of tow with which the vent or touch hole of a cannon is stopped. SEA TERM. FIDDLE FADDLE. Trifling discourse, nonsense. A mere fiddle faddle fellow; a trifier. FIDDLESTICK'S END. Nothing; the end of the ancient fiddlesticks ending in a point; hence metaphorically used to express a thing terminating in nothing. FIDGETS. He has got the fidgets; said of one that cannot sit long in a place. FIDLAM BEN. General thieves; called also St. Peter's sons, having every finger a fish-hook. CANT. FIDDLERS MONEY. All sixpences: sixpence being the usual sum paid by each couple, for music at country wakes and hops. Fiddler's fare; meat, drink, and money. Fiddler's pay; thanks and wine. FIELD LANE DUCK. A baked sheep's head. FIERI FACIAS. A red-faced man is said to have been served with a writ of fieri facias. FIGDEAN. To kill. FIGGER. A little boy put in at a window to hand out goods to the diver. See DIVER. FIGGING LAW. The art of picking pockets. CANT. FIGURE DANCER. One who alters figures on bank notes, converting tens to hundreds. FILCH, or FILEL. A beggar's staff, with an iron hook at the end, to pluck clothes from an hedge, or any thing out of a casement. Filcher; the same as angler. Filching cove; a man thief. Filching mort; a woman thief. FILE, FILE CLOY, or BUNGNIPPER. A pick pocket. To file; to rob or cheat. The file, or bungnipper, goes generally in company with two assistants, the adam tiler, and another called the bulk or bulker, Whose business it is to jostle the person they intend to rob, and push him against the wall, while the file picks his pocket, and gives'the booty to the adam tiler, who scours off with it. CANT. FIN. An arm. A one finned fellow; a man who has lost an arm. SEA PHRASE. FINE. Fine as five pence. Fine as a cow-t--d stuck with primroses. FINE. A man imprisoned for any offence. A fine of eighty-four months; a transportation for seven years. FINGER IN EYE. To put finger in eye; to weep: commonly applied to women. The more you cry the less you'll p-ss; a consolatory speech used by sailors to their doxies. It is as great a pity to see a woman cry, as to see a goose walk barefoot; another of the same kind. FINGER POST. A parson: so called, because he points out a way to others which he never goes himself. Like the finger post, he points out a way he has never been, and probably will never go, i.e. the way to heaven. FINISH. The finish; a small coffee-house in Coven Garden, market, opposite Russel-street, open very early in the morning, and therefore resorted to by debauchees shut out of every other house: it is also called Carpenter's coffee-house. FIRING A GUN. Introducing a story by head and shoulders. A man wanting to tell a particular story, said to the company, Hark! did you not hear a gun?--but now we are talking of a gun, I will tell you the story of one. TO FIRE A SLUG. To drink a dram. FIRE PRIGGERS. Villains who rob at fires under pretence of assisting in removing the goods. FIRE SHIP. A wench who has the venereal disease. FIRE SHOVEL. He or she when young, was fed with a fire shovel; a saying of persons with wide mouths. FISH. A seaman. A scaly fish; a rough, blunt tar. To have other fish to fry; to have other matters to mind, something else to do. FIT. Suitable. It won't fit; It will not suit or do. FIVE SHILLINGS. The sign of five shillings, i.e. the crown. Fifteen shillings; the sign of the three crowns. FIZZLE. An escape backward, FLABAGASTED. Confounded. FLABBY. Relaxed, flaccid, not firm or solid. FLAG. A groat. CANT.--The flag of defiance, or bloody flag is out; signifying the man is drunk, and alluding to the redness of his face. SEA PHRASE. FLAM. A lie, or sham story: also a single stroke on a drum. To flam; to hum, to amuse, to deceive. Flim flams; idle stories. FLAP DRAGON. A clap, or pox. To FLARE. To blaze, shine or glare. FLASH. Knowing. Understanding another's meaning. The swell was flash, so I could not draw his fogle. The gentleman saw what I was about, and therefore I could not pick his pocket of his silk handkerchief. To patter flash, to speak the slang language. See PATTER. FLASH PANNEYS. Houses to which thieves and prostitutes resort. Next for his favourite MOT (Girl) the KIDDEY (Youth) looks about, And if she's in a FLASH PANNEY (Brothel) he swears he'll have her out; So he FENCES (Pawns) all his TOGS (Cloathes) to buy her DUDS, (Wearing Apparel) and then He FRISKS (Robs) his master's LOB (Till) to take her from the bawdy KEN (House). FLASH SONG. FLASH. A periwig. Rum flash; a fine long wig. Queer flash; a miserable weather-beaten caxon. To FLASH. To shew ostentatiously. To flash one's ivory; to laugh and shew one's teeth. Don't flash your ivory, but shut your potatoe trap, and keep your guts warm; the Devil loves hot tripes. To FLASH THE HASH. To vomit. CANT. FLASH KEN. A house that harbours thieves. FLASH LINGO. The canting or slang language. FLASH MAN. A bully to a bawdy house. A whore's bully. FLAT. A bubble, gull, or silly fellow. FLAT COCK. A female. FLAWD. Drunk. FLAYBOTTOMIST. A bum-brusher, or schoolmaster. To FLAY, or FLEA, THE FOX. To vomit. FLEA BITE. A trifling injury. To send any one away with a flea in his ear; to give any one a hearty scolding. To FLEECE. To rob, cheat, or plunder. FLEMISH ACCOUNT. A losing, or bad account. FLESH BROKER. A match-maker, a bawd. FLICKER. A drinking glass. CANT. FLICKERING. Grinning or laughing in a man's face. FLICKING. Cutting. Flick me some panam and caffan; cut me some bread and cheese. Flick the peter; cut off the cloak-bag, or portmanteau. To FLING. To trick or cheat. He flung me fairly out of it: he cheated me out of it. FLINTS. Journeymen taylors, who on a late occasion refused to work for the wages settled by law. Those who submitted, were by the mutineers styled dungs, i.e. dunghills. FLIP. Small beer, brandy, and sugar: this mixture, with the addition of a lemon, was by sailors, formerly called Sir Cloudsly, in memory of Sir Cloudsly Shovel, who used frequently to regale himself with it. FLOATING ACADEMY. See CAMPBELL'S ACADEMY. FLOATING HELL. The hulks. TO FLOG. To whip. FLOGGER. A horsewhip. CANT. FLOGGING CULLY. A debilitated lecher, commonly an old one. FLOGGING COVE. The beadle, or whipper, in Bridewell. FLOGGING STAKE. The whipping-post. TO FLOOR. To knock down. Floor the pig; knock down the officer. FLOURISH. To take a flourish; to enjoy a woman in a hasty manner, to take a flyer. See FLYER. TO FLOUT. To jeer, to ridicule. FLUMMERY. Oatmeal and water boiled to a jelly; also compliments, neither of which are over-nourishing. FLUSH IN THE POCKET. Full of money. The cull is flush in the fob. The fellow is full of money. FLUSTERED. Drunk. FLUTE. The recorder of a corporation; a recorder was an antient musical instrument. TO FLUX. To cheat, cozen, or over-reach; also to salivate. To flux a wig; to put it up in curl, and bake it. FLY. Knowing. Acquainted with another's meaning or proceeding. The rattling cove is fly; the coachman knows what we are about. FLY. A waggon. CANT. FLY-BY-NIGHT. You old fly-by-night; an ancient term of reproach to an old woman, signifying that she was a witch, and alluding to the nocturnal excursions attributed to witches, who were supposed to fly abroad to their meetings, mounted on brooms. FLY SLICERS. Life-guard men, from their sitting on horseback, under an arch, where they are frequently observed to drive away flies with their swords. FLYER. To take a flyer; to enjoy a woman with her clothes on, or without going to bed. FLYERS. Shoes. FLY-FLAPPED. Whipt in the stocks, or at the cart's tail. FLYING CAMPS. Beggars plying in a body at funerals. FLYING GIGGERS. Turnpike gates. FLYING HOUSE. A lock in wrestling, by which he who uses it throws his adversary over his head. FLYING PASTY. Sirreverence wrapped in paper and thrown over a neighbour's wall. FLYING PORTERS. Cheats who obtain money by pretending to persons who have been lately robbed, that they may come from a place or party where, and from whom, they may receive information respecting the goods stolen from them, and demand payment as porters. FLYING STATIONERS. Ballad-singers and hawkers of penny histories. FLYMSEY. A bank note. FOB. A cheat, trick, or contrivance, I will not be fobbed off so; I will not be thus deceived with false pretences. The fob is also a small breeches pocket for holding a watch. FOG. Smoke. CANT. FOGEY. Old Fogey. A nickname for an invalid soldier: derived from the French word fougeux, fierce or fiery. FOGLE. A silk handkerchief, FOGRAM. An old fogram; a fusty old fellow. FOGUS. Tobacco. Tip me a gage of fogus; give me a pipe of tobacco. CANT. FOOL. A fool at the end of a stick; a fool at one end, and a maggot at the other; gibes on an angler. FOOL FINDER. A bailiff. FOOLISH. An expression among impures, signifying the cully who pays, in opposition to a flash man. Is he foolish or flash? FOOT PADS, or LOW PADS. Rogues who rob on foot. FOOT WABBLER. A contemptuous appellation for a foot soldier, commonly used by the cavalry. FOOTMAN'S MAWND. An artificial sore made with unslaked lime, soap, and the rust of old iron, on the back of a beggar's hand, as if hurt by the bite or kick of a horse. FOOTY DESPICABLE. A footy fellow, a despicable fellow; from the French foutue. FOREFOOT, or PAW. Give us your fore foot; give us your hand. FOREMAN OF THE JURY. One who engrosses all the talk to himself, or speaks for the rest of the company. FORK. A pickpocket. Let us fork him; let us pick his pocket.--'The newest and most dexterous way, which is, to thrust the fingers strait, stiff, open, and very quick, into the pocket, and so closing them, hook what can be held between them.' N.B. This was taken from a book written many years ago: doubtless the art of picking pockets, like all others, must have been much improved since that time. FORLORN HOPE. A gamester's last stake. FORTUNE HUNTERS. Indigent men, seeking to enrich themselves by marrying a woman of fortune. FORTUNE TELLER, or CUNNING MAN. A judge, who tells every prisoner his fortune, lot or doom. To go before the fortune teller, lambskin men, or conjuror; to be tried at an assize. See LAMBSKIN MEN. FOUL. To foul a plate with a man, to take a dinner with him. FOUL-MOUTHED. Abusive. FOUNDLING. A child dropped in the streets, and found, and educated at the parish expence. FOUSIL. The name of a public house, where the Eccentrics assemble in May's Buildings, St. Martin's Lane. Fox. A sharp, cunning fellow. Also an old term for a sword, probably a rusty one, or else from its being dyed red with blood; some say this name alluded to certain swords of remarkable good temper, or metal, marked with the figure of a fox, probably the sign, or rebus, of the maker. FOX'S PAW. The vulgar pronunciation of the French words faux pas. He made a confounded fox's paw. FOXED. Intoxicated. FOXEY. Rank. Stinking. FOXING A BOOT. Mending the foot by capping it. FOYST. A pickpocket, cheat, or rogue. See WOTTON'S GANG. TO FOYST. To pick a pocket. FOYSTED IN. Words or passages surreptitiously interpolated or inserted into a book or writing. FRATERS. Vagabonds who beg with sham patents, or briefs, for hospitals, fires, inundations, &c. FREE. Free of fumblers hall; a saying of one who cannot get his wife with child. FREE AND EASY JOHNS. A society which meet at the Hole in the Wall, Fleet-street, to tipple porter, and sing bawdry. FREE BOOTERS. Lawless robbers and plunderers: originally soldiers who served without pay, for the privilege of plundering the enemy. FREEHOLDER. He whose wife accompanies him to the alehouse. FREEMAN'S QUAY. Free of expence. To lush at Freeman's Quay; to drink at another's cost. FREEZE. A thin, small, hard cider, much used by vintners and coopers in parting their wines, to lower the price of them, and to advance their gain. A freezing vintner; a vintner who balderdashes his wine. FRENCH CREAM. Brandy; so called by the old tabbies and dowagers when drank in their tea. FRENCH DISEASE. The venereal disease, said to have been imported from France. French gout; the same. He suffered by a blow over the snout with a French faggot-stick; i.e. he lost his nose by the pox. FRENCH LEAVE. To take French leave; to go off without taking leave of the company: a saying frequently applied to persons who have run away from their creditors. FRENCHIFIED. Infected with the venereal disease. The mort is Frenchified: the wench is infected. FRESH MILK. Cambridge new comers to the university. FRESHMAN. One just entered a member of the university. FRIBBLE. An effeminate fop; a name borrowed from a celebrated character of that kind, in the farce of Miss in her Teens, written by Mr. Garrick. FRIDAY-FACE. A dismal countenance. Before, and even long after the Reformation, Friday was a day of abstinence, or jour maigre. Immediately after the restoration of king Charles II. a proclamation was issued, prohibiting all publicans from dressing any suppers on a Friday. TO FRIG. Figuratively used for trifling. FRIG PIG. A trifling, fiddle-faddle fellow. FRIGATE. A well-rigged frigate; a well-dressed wench. FRISK. To dance the Paddington frisk; to be hanged. TO FRISK. Used by thieves to signify searching a person whom they have robbed. Blast his eyes! frisk him. FROE, or VROE, A woman, wife, or mistress. Brush to your froe, or bloss, and wheedle for crop; run to your mistress, and sooth and coax her out of some money. DUTCH. FROGLANDER. A Dutchman. FROSTY FACE. One pitted with the small pox. FROG'S WINE. Gin. FRUITFUL VINE. A woman's private parts, i.e. that has FLOWERS every month, and bears fruit in nine months. FRUMMAGEMMED. Choaked, strangled, suffocated, or hanged. CANT. FUBSEY. Plump. A fubsey wench; a plump, healthy wench. FUDDLE. Drunk. This is rum fuddle; this is excellent tipple, or drink. Fuddle; drunk. Fuddle cap; a drunkard. FUDGE. Nonsense. FULHAMS. Loaded dice are called high and lowmen, or high and low fulhams, by Ben Jonson and other writers of his time; either because they were made at Fulham, or from that place being the resort of sharpers. FULL OF EMPTINESS. Jocular term for empty. FULL MARCH. The Scotch greys are in full march by the crown office; the lice are crawling down his head. FUMBLER. An old or impotent man. To fumble, also means to go awkwardly about any work, or manual operation. FUN. A cheat, or trick. Do you think to fun me out of it? Do you think to cheat me?--Also the breech, perhaps from being the abbreviation of fundament. I'll kick your fun. CANT. TO FUNK. To use an unfair motion of the hand in plumping at taw. SCHOOLBOY'S TERM. FUNK. To smoke; figuratively, to smoke or stink through fear. I was in a cursed funk. To funk the cobler; a schoolboy's trick, performed with assafoettida and cotton, which are stuffed into a pipe: the cotton being lighted, and the bowl of the pipe covered with a coarse handkerchief, the smoke is blown out at the small end, through the crannies of a cobler's stall. FURMEN. Aldermen. FURMITY, or FROMENTY. Wheat boiled up to a jelly. To simper like a furmity kettle: to smile, or look merry about the gills. FUSS. A confusion, a hurry, an unnecessary to do about trifles. FUSSOCK. A lazy fat woman. An old fussock; a frowsy old woman. FUSTIAN. Bombast language. Red fustian; port wine. FUSTY LUGGS. A beastly, sluttish woman. TO FUZZ. To shuffle cards minutely: also, to change the pack. GAB, or GOB. The mouth. Gift of the gab; a facility of speech, nimble tongued eloquence. To blow the gab; to confess, or peach. GAB, or GOB, STRING. A bridle. GABBY. A foolish fellow. GAD-SO. An exclamation said to be derived from the Italian word cazzo. GAFF. A fair. The drop coves maced the joskins at the gaff; the ring-droppers cheated the countryman at the fair. TO GAFF. To game by tossing up halfpence. GAG. An instrument used chiefly by housebreakers and thieves, for propping open the mouth of a person robbed, thereby to prevent his calling out for assistance. GAGE. A quart pot, or a pint; also a pipe. CANT. GAGE, or FOGUS. A pipe of tobacco. GAGGERS. High and Low. Cheats, who by sham pretences, and wonderful stories of their sufferings, impose on the credulity of well meaning people. See RUM GAGGER. GALIMAUFREY. A hodgepodge made up of the remnants and scraps of the larder. GALL. His gall is not yet broken; a saying used in prisons of a man just brought in, who appears dejected. GALLEY. Building the galley; a game formerly used at sea, in order to put a trick upon a landsman, or fresh-water sailor. It being agreed to play at that game, one sailor personates the builder, and another the merchant or contractor: the builder first begins by laying the keel, which consists of a number of men laid all along on their backs, one after another, that is, head to foot; he next puts in the ribs or knees, by making a number of men sit feet to feet, at right angles to, and on each side of, the keel: he now fixing on the person intended to be the object of the joke, observes he is a fierce-looking fellow, and fit for the lion; he accordingly places him at the head, his arms being held or locked in by the two persons next to him, representing the ribs. After several other dispositions, the builder delivers over the galley to the contractor as complete: but he, among other faults and objections, observes the lion is not gilt, on which the builder or one of his assistants, runs to the head, and dipping a mop in the excrement, thrusts it into the face of the lion. GALLEY FOIST. A city barge, used formerly on the lord mayor's day, when he was sworn in at Westminster. GALLIED. Hurried, vexed, over-fatigued, perhaps like a galley slave. GALLIGASKINS. Breeches. GALLIPOT. A nick namefor an apothecary, GALLORE, or GOLORE. Plenty. GALLOPER. A blood horse. A hunter. The toby gill clapped his bleeders to his galloper and tipped the straps the double. The highwayman spurred his horse and got away from the officers. GALLOWS BIRD. A grief, or pickpocket; also one that associates with them. GAMES. Thin, ill-shapped legs: a corruption of the French word jambes. Fancy gambs; sore or swelled legs. GAMBADOES. Leathern cases of stiff leather, used in Devonshire instead of boots; they are fastened to the saddle, and admit the leg, shoe and all: the name was at first jocularly given. GAMBLER. A sharper, of tricking, gamester. GAME. Any mode of robbing. The toby is now a queer game; to rob on the highway is now a bad mode of acting. This observation is frequently made by thieves; the roads being now so well guarded by the horse patrole; and gentlemen travel with little cash in their pockets. GAME. Bubbles or pigeons drawn in to be cheated. Also, at bawdy-houses, lewd women. Mother have you any game; mother, have you any girls? To die game; to suffer at the gallows without shewing any signs of fear or repentance. Game pullet; a young whore, or forward girl in the way of becoming one. GAMON. To humbug. To deceive, To tell lies. What rum gamon the old file pitched to the flat; how finely the knowing old fellow humbugged the fool. GAMON AND PATTER. Common place talk of any profession; as the gamon and patter of a horse-dealer, sailor, &c. GAN. The mouth or lips. Cant. GANDER MONTH. That month in which a man's wife-lies in: wherefore, during that time, husbands plead a sort of indulgence in matters of gallantry. GANG. A company of men, a body of sailors, a knot of thieves, pickpockets, &c. A gang of sheep trotters; the four feet of a sheep. GAOLER'S COACH. A hurdle: traitors being usually conveyed from the gaol, to the place of execution, on a hurdle or sledge. GAP STOPPER. A whoremaster. GAPESEED. Sights; any thing to feed the eye. I am come abroad for a little gapeseed. GARNISH. An entrance fee demanded by the old prisoners of one just committed to gaol. GARRET, or UPPER STORY. The head. His garret, or upper story, is empty, or unfurnished; i.e. he has no brains, he is a fool. GARRET ELECTION. A ludicrous ceremony, practised every new parliament: it consists of a mock election of two members to represent the borough of Garret (a few straggling cottages near Wandsworth in Surry); the qualification of a voter is, having enjoyed a woman in the open air within that district: the candidates are commonly fellows of low humour, who dress themselves up in a ridiculous manner. As this brings a prodigious concourse of people to Wandsworth, the publicans of that place jointly contribute to the expence, which is sometimes considerable. GAWKEY. A tall, thin, awkward young man or woman. GAYING INSTRUMENT. The penis. GAZEBO. An elevated observatory or summer-house. GEE. It won't gee; it won't hit or do, it does not suit or fit. GELDING. An eunuch. GELT. Money, GERMAN.--Also, castrated. GENTLE CRAFT. The art of shoemaking. One of the gentle craft: a shoemaker: so called because once practised by St. Crispin. GENTLEMAN COMMONER. An empty bottle; an university joke, gentlemen commoners not being deemed over full of learning. GENTLEMAN'S COMPANION. A louse. GENTLEMAN'S MASTER. A highway robber, because he makes a gentleman obey his commands, i.e. stand and deliver. GENTLEMAN OF THREE INS. In debt, in gaol, and in danger of remaining there for life: or, in gaol, indicted, and in danger of being hanged in chains. GENTLEMAN OF THREE OUTS. That is, without money, without wit, and without manners: some add another out, i.e. without credit. GENTRY COVE. A gentleman. CANT. GENTRY COVE KEN. A gentleman's house. CANT. GENTRY MORT. A gentlewoman. GEORGE. Yellow George; a guinea. Brown George: an ammunition loaf. GERMAN DUCK. Haifa sheep's head boiled with onions. GET. One of his get; one of his offspring, or begetting. GIB CAT. A northern name for a he cat, there commonly called Gilbert. As melancholy as a gib cat; as melancholy as a he cat who has been caterwauling, whence they always return scratched, hungry, and out of spirits. Aristotle says, Omne animal post coitum est triste; to which an anonymous author has given the following exception, preter gallum gallinaceum, et sucerdotem gratis fornicantem. GIBBERISH. The cant language of thieves and gypsies, called Pedlars' French, and St. Giles's Greek: see ST. GILES'S GREEK. Also the mystic language of Geber, used by chymists. Gibberish likewise means a sort of disguised language, formed by inserting any consonant between each syllable of an English word; in which case it is called the gibberish of the letter inserted: if F, it is the F gibberish; if G, the G gibberish; as in the sentence How do you do? Howg dog youg dog. GIBBE. A horse that shrinks from the collar and will not draw. GIBLETS. To join giblets; said of a man and woman who cohabit as husband and wife, without being married; also to copulate. GIBSON, or SIR JOHN GIBBON, A two-legged stool, used to support the body of a coach whilst finishing. GIFTS. Small white specks under the finger nails, said to portend gifts or presents. A stingy man is said to be as full of gifts as a brazen horse of his farts. GIFT OF THE GAB. A facility of speech. GIGG. A nose. Snitchel his gigg; fillip his nose. Grunter's gigg; a hog's snout. Gigg is also a high one-horse chaise, and a woman's privities. To gigg a Smithfield hank; to hamstring an over-drove ox, vulgarly called a mad bullock. GIGGER. A latch, or door. Dub the gigger; open the door. Gigger dubber; the turnkey of a jaol. To GIGGLE. To suppress a laugh. Gigglers; wanton women. GILES'S or ST. GILES'S BREED. Fat, ragged, and saucy; Newton and Dyot streets, the grand head-quarters-of most of the thieves and pickpockets about London, are in St. Giles's Giles's parish. St. Giles's Greek; the cant language, called also Slang, Pedlars' French, and Flash. GILFLURT. A proud minks, a vain capricious woman, GILL. The abbreviation of Gillian, figuratively used for woman. Every jack has his gill; i.e. every jack has his gillian, or female mate. GILLS. The cheeks. To look rosy about the gills; to have a fresh complexion. To look merry about the gills: to appear cheerful. GILLY GAUPUS. A Scotch term for a tall awkward fellow. GILT, or RUM DUBBER. A thief who picks locks, so called from the gilt or picklock key: many of them are so expert, that, from the lock of a church door to that of the smallest cabinet, they will find means to open it; these go into reputable public houses, where, pretending business, they contrive to get into private rooms, up stairs, where they open any bureaus or trunks they happen to find there. GIMBLET-EYED. Squinting, either in man or woman. GIMCRACK, or JIMCRACK. A spruce wench; a gimcrack also means a person who has a turn for mechanical contrivances. GIN SPINNER. A distiller. GINGAMBOBS. Toys, bawbles; also a man's privities. See THINGAMBOBS. GINGER-PATED, or GINGER-HACKLED. Red haired: a term borrowed from the cockpit, where red cocks are called gingers, GINGERBREAD. A cake made of treacle, flour, and grated ginger; also money. He has the gingerbread; he is rich. GINGERBREAD WORK. Gilding and carving: these terms are particularly applied by seamen on board Newcastle colliers, to the decorations of the sterns and quarters of West-Indiamen, which they have the greatest joy in defacing. GINGERLY. Softly, gently, tenderly. To go gingerly to work: to attempt a thing gently, or cautiously. GINNY. An instrument to lift up a great, in order to steal what is in the window. CANT. GIP from gups a WOLF. A servant at college. GIRDS. Quips, taunts, severe or biting reflections. GIZZARD. To grumble in the gizzard; to be secretly displeased. GLASS EYES. A nick name for one wearing spectacles. GLAYMORE. A Highland broad-sword; from the Erse GLAY, or GLAIVE, a sword; and MORE, great. GLAZE. A window. GLAZIER. One who breaks windows and shew-glasses, to steal goods exposed for sale. Glaziers; eyes. CANT.--Is your father a glazier; a question asked of a lad or young man, who stands between the speaker and the candle, or fire. If it is answered in the negative, the rejoinder is--I wish he was, that he might make a window through your body, to enable us to see the fire or light. GLIB. Smooth, slippery. Glib tongued; talkative. GLIM. A candle, or dark lantern, used in housebreaking; also fire. To glim; to burn in the hand. CANT. GLIMFENDERS. Andirons. CANT. GLIMFLASHY. Angry, or in a passion. CANT. GLIM JACK. A link-boy. CANT. GLIMMER. Fire. CANT. GLIMMERERS. Persons begging with sham licences, pretending losses by fire. GLIMMS. Eyes. GLIMSTICK. A candlestick. CANT. GLOBE. Pewter. CANT. GLOVES. To give any one a pair of gloves; to make them a present or bribe. To win a pair of gloves; to kiss a man whilst he sleeps: for this a pair of gloves is due to any lady who will thus earn them. GLUEPOT. A parson: from joining men and women together in matrimony. GLUM. Sullen. GLUTTON. A term used by bruisers to signify a man who will bear a great deal of beating. GNARLER. A little dog that by his barking alarms the family when any person is breaking into the house. GO, THE. The dash. The mode. He is quite the go, he is quite varment, he is prime, he is bang up, are synonimous expressions. GLYBE. A writing. CANT. GO BETWEEN. A pimp or bawd. GO BY THE GROUND. A little short person, man or woman. GO SHOP. The Queen's Head in Duke's court, Bow street, Covent Garden; frequented by the under players: where gin and water was sold in three-halfpenny bowls, called Goes; the gin was called Arrack. The go, the fashion; as, large hats are all the go. GOADS. Those who wheedle in chapmen for horse-dealers. GOAT. A lascivious person. Goats jigg; making the beast with two backs, copulation. GOB. The mouth; also a bit or morsel: whence gobbets. Gift of the gob; wide-mouthed, or one who speaks fluently, or sings well. GOB STRING. A bridle. GOBBLER. A turkey cock. GODFATHER. He who pays the reckoning, or answers for the rest of the company: as, Will you stand godfather, and we will take care of the brat; i.e. repay you another time. Jurymen are also called godfathers, because they name the crime the prisoner before them has been guilty of, whether felony, petit larceny, &c. GOG. All-a-gog; impatient, anxious, or desirous of a thing. GOG AND MAGOG. Two giants, whose effigies stand on each side of the clock in Guildhall, London; of whom there is a tradition, that, when they hear the clock strike one, on the first of April, they will walk down from their places. GOGGLES. Eyes: see OGLES. Goggle eyes; large prominent eyes. To goggle; to stare. GOING UPON THE DUB. Going out to break open, or pick the locks of, houses. GOLD DROPPERS. Sharpers who drop a piece of gold, which they pick up in the presence of some unexperienced person, for whom the trap is laid, this they pretend to have found, and, as he saw them pick it up, they invite him to a public house to partake of it: when there, two or three of their comrades drop in, as if by accident, and propose cards, or some other game, when they seldom fail of stripping their prey. GOLD FINDER. One whose employment is to empty necessary houses; called also a tom-turd-man, and night-man: the latter, from that business being always performed in the night. GOLDFINCH. One who has commonly a purse full of gold. Goldfinches; guineas. GOLGOTHA OR THE PLACE OF SCULLS. Part of the Theatre at Oxford, where the heads of houses sit; those gentlemen being by the wits of the university called sculls. GOLLUMPUS. A large, clumsy fellow. GOLOSHES, i.e. Goliah's shoes. Large leathern clogs, worn by invalids over their ordinary shoes. GOOD MAN. A word of various imports, according to the place where it is spoken: in the city it means a rich man; at Hockley in the Hole, or St. Giles's, an expert boxer; at a bagnio in Covent Garden, a vigorous fornicator; at an alehouse or tavern, one who loves his pot or bottle; and sometimes, though but rarely, a virtuous man GOOD WOMAN. A nondescript, represented on a famous sign in St. Giles's, in the form of a common woman, but without a head. GOODYER'S PIG. Like Goodyer's pig; never well but when in mischief. GOOSE. A taylor's goose; a smoothing iron used to press down the seams, for which purpose it must be heated: hence it is a jocular saying, that a taylor, be he ever so poor, is always sure to have a goose at his fire. He cannot say boh to a goose; a saying of a bashful or sheepish fellow. GOOSE RIDING. A goose, whose neck is greased, being suspended by the legs to a cord tied to two trees or high posts, a number of men on horseback, riding full speed, attempt to pull off the head: which if they effect, the goose is their prize. This has been practised in Derbyshire within the memory of persons now living. GOOSEBERRY. He played up old gooseberry among them; said of a person who, by force or threats, suddenly puts an end to a riot or disturbance. GOOSEBERRY-EYED. One with dull grey eyes, like boiled gooseberries. GOOSEBERRY WIG. A large frizzled wig: perhaps from a supposed likeness to a gooseberry bush. GOOSECAP. A silly fellow or woman. GORGER. A gentleman. A well dressed man. Mung kiddey. Mung the gorger; beg child beg, of the gentleman. GOSPEL SHOP. A church. GOREE. Money, chiefly gold: perhaps from the traffic carried on at that place, which is chiefly for gold dust. CANT. GORMAGON. A monster with six eyes, three mouths, four arms, eight legs, live on one side and three on the other, three arses, two tarses, and a *** upon its back; a man on horseback, with a woman behind him. GOTCH-GUTTED. Pot bellied: a gotch in Norfolk signifying a pitcher, or large round jug. TO GOUGE. To squeeze out a man's eye with the thumb: a cruel practice used by the Bostonians in America. To GRABBLE. To seize. To grabble the bit; to seize any one's money. CANT. GRAFTED. Cuckolded, i.e. having horns grafted on his head. To GRAB. To seize a man. The pigs grabbed the kiddey for a crack: the officers, seized the youth for a burglary. GRANNAM. Corn. GRANNUM'S GOLD. Hoarded money: supposed to have belonged to the grandmother of the possessor. GRANNY. An abbreviation of grandmother; also the name of an idiot, famous for licking, her eye, who died Nov. 14, 1719. Go teach your granny to suck eggs; said to such as would instruct any one in a matter he knows better than themselves. GRAPPLE THE RAILS. A cant name used in Ireland for whiskey. GRAPPLING IRONS. Handcuffs. GRAVE DIGGER. Like a grave digger; up to the a-se in business, and don't know which way to turn. GRAVY-EYED. Blear-eyed, one whose eyes have a running humour. TO GREASE. To bribe. To grease a man in the fist; to bribe him. To grease a fat sow in the a-se; to give to a rich man. Greasy chin; a treat given to parish officers in part of commutation for a bastard: called also, Eating a child. GREAT INTIMATE. As great as shirt and shitten a-se. GREAT JOSEPH. A surtout. CANT. GREEDY GUTS. A covetous or voracious person. GREEK. St. Giles's Greek; the slang lingo, cant, or gibberish. GREEN. Doctor Green; i.e. grass: a physician, or rather medicine, found very successful in curing most disorders to which horses are liable. My horse is not well, I shall send him to Doctor Green. GREEN. Young, inexperienced, unacquainted; ignorant. How green the cull was not to stag how the old file planted the books. How ignorant the booby was not to perceive how the old sharper placed the cards in such a manner as to insure the game. GREEN BAG. An attorney: those gentlemen carry their clients' deeds in a green bag; and, it is said, when they have no deeds to carry, frequently fill them with an old pair of breeches, or any other trumpery, to give themselves the appearance of business. GREEN GOWN. To give a girl a green gown; to tumble her on the grass. GREEN SICKNESS. The disease of maids occasioned by celibacy. GREENHEAD. An inexperienced young man. GREENHORN. A novice on the town, an undebauched young fellow, just initiated into the society of bucks and bloods. GREENWICH BARBERS. Retailers of sand from the pits at and about Greenwich, in Kent: perhaps they are styled barbers, from their constant shaving the sandbanks. GREENWICH GOOSE. A pensioner of Greenwich Hospital. GREGORIAN TREE. The gallows: so named from Gregory Brandon, a famous finisher of the law; to whom Sir William Segar, garter king of arms (being imposed on by Brooke, a herald), granted a coat of arms. GREY BEARD. Earthen jugs formerly used in public house for drawing ale: they had the figure of a man with a large beard stamped on them; whence probably they took the name: see BEN JONSON'S PLAYS, BARTHOLOMEW FAIR, &c. &c. Dutch earthen jugs, used for smuggling gin on the coasts of Essex and Suffolk, are at this time called grey beards. GREY MARE. The grey mare is the better horse; said of a woman who governs her husband. GREY PARSON. A farmer who rents the tithes of the rector or vicar. GRIG. A farthing. A merry grig; a fellow as merry as a grig: an allusion to the apparent liveliness of a grig, or young eel. GRIM. Old Mr. Grim; death. GRIMALKIN. A cat: mawkin signifies a hare in Scotland. GRIN. To grin in a glass case; to be anatomized for murder: the skeletons of many criminals are preserved in glass cases, at Surgeons' hall. GRINAGOG, THE CAT'S UNCLE. A foolish grinning fellow, one who grins without reason. GRINDERS. Teeth. Gooseberry grinder; the breech. Ask bogey, the gooseberry grinder; ask mine a-se. TO GRIND. To have carnal knowledge of a woman. GROATS. To save his groats; to come off handsomely: at the universities, nine groats are deposited in the hands of an academic officer, by every person standing for a degree; which if the depositor obtains with honour, the groats are returned to him. GROG. Rum and water. Grog was first introduced into the navy about the year 1740, by Admiral Vernon, to prevent the sailors intoxicating themselves with their allowance of rum, or spirits. Groggy, or groggified; drunk. GROG-BLOSSOM. A carbuncle, or pimple in the face, caused by drinking. GROGGED. A grogged horse; a foundered horse. GROGHAM. A horse. CANT. GROPERS. Blind men; also midwives. GROUND SWEAT. A grave. GROUND SQUIRREL. A hog, or pig. SEA TERM. GRUB. Victuals. To grub; to dine. GRUB STREET. A street near Moorfields, formerly the supposed habitation of many persons who wrote for the booksellers: hence a Grub-street writer means a hackney author, who manufactures booss for the booksellers. GRUB STREET NEWS. Lying intelligence. TO GRUBSHITE. To make foul or dirty. GRUMBLE. To grumble in the gizzard; to murmur or repine. He grumbled like a bear with a sore head. GRUMBLETONIAN. A discontented person; one who is always railing at the times or ministry. GRUNTER. A hog; to grunt; to groan, or complain of sickness. GRUNTER'S GIG. A smoaked hog's face. GRUNTING PECK. Pork, bacon, or any kind of hog's flesh. GRUTS. Tea. GUDGEON. One easily imposed on. To gudgeon; to swallow the bait, or fall into a trap: from the fish of that name, which is easily taken. GULL. A simple credulous fellow, easily cheated. GULLED. Deceived, cheated, imposed on. GULLGROPERS. Usurers who lend money to the gamesters. GUM. Abusive language. Come, let us have no more of your gum. GUMMY. Clumsy: particularly applied to the ancles of men or women, and the legs of horses. GUMPTION, or RUM GUMPTION. Docility, comprehension, capacity. GUN. He is in the gun; he is drunk: perhaps from an allusion to a vessel called a gun, used for ale in the universities. GUNDIGUTS. A fat, pursy fellow. GUNNER'S DAUGHTER. To kiss the gunner's daughter; to be tied to a gun and flogged on the posteriors; a mode of punishing boys on board a ship of war. GUNPOWDER. An old Woman. CANT. GUTS. My great guts are ready to eat my little ones; my guts begin to think my throat's cut; my guts curse my teeth: all expressions signifying the party is extremely hungry. GUTS AND GARBAGE. A very fat man or woman. More guts than brains; a silly fellow. He has plenty of guts, but no bowels: said of a hard, merciless, unfeeling person. GUTFOUNDERED. Exceeding hungry. GUT SCRAPER, or TORMENTOR of CATGUT. A fiddler. GUTTER LANE. The throat, the swallow, the red lane. See RED LANE. GUTTING A QUART POT. Taking out the lining of it: i. e. drinking it off. Gutting an oyster; eating it. Gutting a house; clearing it of its furniture. See POULTERER. GUY. A dark lanthorn: an allusion to Guy Faux, the principal actor in the gunpowder plot. Stow the guy: conceal the lanthorn. GUZZLE. Liquor. To guzzle; to drink greedily. GUZZLE GUTS. One greedy of liquor. GYBE, or JYBE. Any writing or pass with a seal. GYBING. Jeering or ridiculing. GYLES, or GILES. Hopping Giles; a nick name for a lame person: St. Giles was the tutelar saint of cripples. GYP. A college runner or errand-boy at Cambridge, called at Oxford a scout. See SCOUT. GYPSIES. A set of vagrants, who, to the great disgrace of our police, are suffered to wander about the country. They pretend that they derive their origin from the ancient Egyptians, who were famous for their knowledge in astronomy and other sciences; and, under the pretence of fortune-telling, find means to rob or defraud the ignorant and superstitious. To colour their impostures, they artificially discolour their faces, and speak a kind of gibberish peculiar to themselves. They rove up and down the country in large companies, to the great terror of the farmers, from whose geese, turkeys, and fowls, they take very considerable contributions. When a fresh recruit is admitted into the fraternity, he is to take the following oath, administered by the principal maunder, after going through the annexed forms: First, a new name is given him by which he is ever after to be called; then standing up in the middle of the assembly, and directing his face to the dimber damber, or principal man of the gang, he repeats the following oath, which is dictated to him by some experienced member of the fraternity: I, Crank Cuffin, do swear to be a true brother, and that I will in all things obey the commands of the great tawney prince, and keep his counsel and not divulge the secrets of my brethren. I will never leave nor forsake the company, but observe and keep all the times of appointment, either by day or by night, in every place whatever. I will not teach any one to cant, nor will I disclose any of our mysteries to them. I will take my prince's part against all that shall oppose him, or any of us, according to the utmost of my ability; nor will I suffer him, or any one belongiug to us, to be abused by any strange abrams, rufflers, hookers, pailliards, swaddlers, Irish toyles, swigmen, whip jacks, jarkmen, bawdy baskets, dommerars, clapper dogeons, patricoes, or curtals; but will defend him, or them, as much as I can, against all other outliers whatever. I will not conceal aught I win out of libkins or from the ruffmans, but will preserve it for the use of the company. Lastly, I will cleave to my doxy wap stiffly, and will bring her duds, marjery praters, goblers, grunting cheats, or tibs of the buttery, or any thing else I can come at, as winnings for her weppings. The canters have, it seems, a tradition, that from the three first articles of this oath, the first founders of a certain boastful, worshipful fraternity (who pretend to derive their origin from the earliest times) borrowed both the hint and form of their establishment; and that their pretended derivation from the first Adam is a forgery, it being only from the first Adam Tiler: see ADAM TILER. At the admission of a new brother, a general stock is raised for booze, or drink, to make themselves merry on the occasion. As for peckage or eatables, they can procure without money; for while some are sent to break the ruffmans, or woods and bushes, for firing, others are detached to filch geese, chickens, hens, ducks (or mallards), and pigs. Their morts are their butchers, who presently make bloody work with what living things are brought them; and having made holes in the ground under some remote hedge in an obscure place, they make a fire and boil or broil their food; and when it is enough, fall to work tooth and nail: and having eaten more like beasts than men, they drink more like swine than human creatures, entertaining one another all the time with songs in the canting dialect. As they live, so they lie, together promiscuously, and know not how to claim a property either in their goods or children: and this general interest ties them more firmly together than if all their rags were twisted into ropes, to bind them indissolubly from a separation; which detestable union is farther consolidated by the above oath. They stroll up and down all summer-time in droves, and Dexterously pick pockets, while they are telling of fortunes; and the money, rings, silver thirribles, &c. which they get, are instantly conveyed from one hand to another, till the remotest person of the gang (who is not suspected because they come not near the person robbed) gets possession of it; so that, in the strictest search, it is impossible to recover it; while the wretches with imprecations, oaths, and protestations, disclaim the thievery. That by which they are said to get the most money, is, when young gentlewomen of good families and reputation have happened to be with child before marriage, a round sum is often bestowed among the gypsies, for some one mort to take the child; and as that is never heard of more by the true mother and family, so the disgrace is kept concealed from the world; and, if the child lives, it never knows its parents. HABERDASHER OF PRONOUNS. A schoolmaster, or usher. HACKNEY WRITER. One who writes for attornies or booksellers. HACKUM. Captain Hackum; a bravo, a slasher. HAD'EM. He has been at Had'em, and came home by Clapham; said of one who has caught the venereal disease. HAIR SPLITTER. A man's yard. HALBERT. A weapon carried by a serjeant of foot. To get a halbert; to be appointed a serjeant. To be brought to the halberts; to be flogged a la militaire: soldiers of the infantry, when flogged, being commonly tied to three halberts, set up in a triangle, with a fourth fastened across them. He carries the halbert in his face; a saying of one promoted from a serjeant to a commission officer. HALF A HOG. Sixpence. HALF SEAS OVER. Almost drunk. HAMLET. A high constable. Cant. HAMS, or HAMCASES Breeches. HAND. A sailor. We lost a hand; we lost a sailor. Bear a hand; make haste. Hand to fist; opposite: the same as tete-a-tete, or cheek by joul. HAND AND POCKET SHOP. An eating house, where ready money is paid for what is called for. HAND BASKET PORTION. A woman whose husband receives frequent presents from her father, or family, is said to have a hand-basket portion. HANDLE. To know how to handle one's fists; to be skilful in the art of boxing. The cove flashes a rare handle to his physog; the fellow has a large nose. HANDSOME. He is a handsome-bodied man in the face; a jeering commendation of an ugly fellow. Handsome is that handsome does: a proverb frequently cited by ugly women. HANDSOME REWARD. This, in advertisements, means a horse-whipping. To HANG AN ARSE. To hang back, to hesitate. HANG GALLOWS LOOK. A thievish, or villainous appearance. HANG IN CHAINS. A vile, desperate fellow. Persons guilty of murder, or other atrocious crimes, are frequently, after execution, hanged on a gibbet, to which they are fastened by iron bandages; the gibbet is commonly placed on or near the place where the crime was committed. HANG IT UP. Score it up: speaking of a reckoning. HANG OUT. The traps scavey where we hang out; the officers know where we live. HANGER ON. A dependant. HANGMAN'S WAGES. Thirteen pence halfpenny; which, according to the vulgar tradition, was thus allotted: one shilling for the executioner, and three halfpence for the rope,--N. B. This refers to former times; the hangmen of the present day having, like other artificers, raised their prices. The true state of this matter is, that a Scottish mark was the fee allowed for an execution, and the value of that piece was settled by a proclamation of James I. at thirteen pence halfpenny. HANK. He has a hank on him; i.e. an ascendancy over him, or a hold upon him. A Smithfield hank; an ox, rendered furious by overdriving and barbarous treatment. See BULL HANK. HANKER. To hanker after any thing; to have a longing after or for it. HANS IN KELDER. Jack in the cellar, i.e. the child in the womb: a health frequently drank to breeding women or their husbands. HARD. Stale beer, nearly sour, is said to be hard. Hard also means severe: as, hard fate, a hard master. HARD AT HIS A-SE. Close after him. HARE. He has swallowed a hare; he is drunk; more probably a HAIR, which requires washing down, HARK-YE-ING. Whispering on one side to borrow money. HARMAN. A constable. CANT. HARMAN BECK. A beadle. CANT. HARMANS. The stocks. CANT. HARP. To harp upon; to dwell upon a subject. Have among you, my blind harpers; an expression used in throwing or shooting at random among the crowd. Harp is also the Irish expression for woman, or tail, used in tossing up in Ireland: from Hibernia, being represented with a harp on the reverse of the copper coins of that country; for which it is, in hoisting the copper, i.e. tossing up, sometimes likewise called music. HARRIDAN. A hagged old woman; a miserable, scraggy, worn-out harlot, fit to take her bawd's degree: derived from the French word HARIDELLE, a worn-out jade of a horse or mare. HARRY. A country fellow. CANT.--Old Harry; the Devil. HARUM SCARUM. He was running harum scarum; said of any one running or walking hastily, and in a hurry, after they know not what. HASH. To flash the hash; to vomit. CANT. HASTY. Precipitate, passionate. He is none of the Hastings sort; a saying of a slow, loitering fellow: an allusion to the Hastings pea, which is the first in season. HASTY PUDDING. Oatmeal and milk boiled to a moderate thickness, and eaten with sugar and butter. Figuratively, a wet, muddy road: as, The way through Wandsworth is quite a hasty pudding. To eat hot hasty pudding for a laced hat, or some other prize, is a common feat at wakes and fairs. HAT. Old hat; a woman's privities: because frequently felt. HATCHES. Under the hatches; in trouble, distress, or debt. HATCHET FACE. A long thin face. HAVIL. A sheep. CANT. HAVY CAVY. Wavering, doubtful, shilly shally. HAWK. Ware hawk; the word to look sharp, a bye-word when a bailiff passes. Hawk also signifies a sharper, in opposition to pigeon. See PIGEON. See WARE HAWK. HAWKERS. Licensed itinerant retailers of different commodities, called also pedlars; likewise the sellers of news-papers. Hawking; an effort to spit up the thick phlegm, called OYSTERS: whence it is wit upon record, to ask the person so doing whether he has a licence; a punning allusion to the Act of hawkers and pedlars. To HAZEL GILD. To beat any one with a hazel stick. HEAD CULLY OF THE PASS, or PASSAGE BANK. The top tilter of that gang throughout the whole army, who demands and receives contribution from all the pass banks in the camp. HEAD RAILS. Teeth. SEA PHRASE. HEARING CHEATS. Ears. CANT. HEART'S EASE. Gin. HEARTY CHOAK. He will have a hearty choak and caper sauce for breakfast; i.e. he will be hanged. HEATHEN PHILOSOPHER. One whose breech may be seen through his pocket-hole: this saying arose from the old philosophers, many of whom depised the vanity of dress to such a point, as often to fall into the opposite extreme. TO HEAVE. To rob. To heave a case; to rob a house. To heave a bough; to rob a booth. CANT. HEAVER. The breast. CANT. HEAVERS. Thieves who make it their business to steal tradesmen's shop-books. CANT. HECTOR. bully, a swaggering coward. To hector; to bully, probably from such persons affecting the valour of Hector, the Trojan hero. HEDGE. To make a hedge; to secure a bet, or wager, laid on one side, by taking the odds on the other, so that, let what will happen, a certain gain is secured, or hedged in, by the person who takes this precaution; who is then said to be on velvet. HEDGE ALEHOUSE. A small obscure alehouse. HEDGE CREEPER. A robber of hedges. HEDGE PRIEST. An illiterate unbeneficed curate, a patrico. HEDGE WHORE. An itinerant harlot, who bilks the bagnios and bawdy-houses, by disposing of her favours on the wayside, under a hedge; a low beggarly prostitute. HEELS. To he laid by the heels; to be confined, or put in prison. Out at heels; worn, or diminished: his estate or affairs are out at heels. To turn up his heels; to turn up the knave of trumps at the game of all-fours. HEEL TAP. A peg in the heel of a shoe, taken out when it is finished. A person leaving any liquor in his glass, is frequently called upon by the toast-master to take off his heel-tap. HELL. A taylor's repository for his stolen goods, called cabbage: see CABBAGE. Little hell; a small dark covered passage, leading from London-wall to Bell-alley. HELL-BORN BABE. A lewd graceless youth, one naturally of a wicked disposition. HELL CAT. A termagant, a vixen, a furious scolding woman. See TERMAGANT and VIXEN. HELL HOUND. A wicked abandoned fellow. HELL FIRE DICK. The Cambridge driver of the Telegraph. The favorite companion of the University fashionables, and the only tutor to whose precepts they attend. HELTER SKELTER. To run helter skelter, hand over head, in defiance of order. HEMP. Young hemp; an appellation for a graceless boy. HEMPEN FEVER. A man who was hanged is said to have died of a hempen fever; and, in Dorsetshire, to have been stabbed with a Bridport dagger; Bridport being a place famous for manufacturing hemp into cords. HEMPEN WIDOW. One whose husband was hanged. HEN-HEARTED. Cowardly. HEN HOUSE. A house where the woman rules; called also a SHE HOUSE, and HEN FRIGATE: the latter a sea phrase, originally applied to a ship, the captain of which had his wife on board, supposed to command him. HENPECKED. A husband governed by his wife, is said to be henpecked. HEN. A woman. A cock and hen club; a club composed of men and women. HERE AND THEREIAN. One who has no settled place of residence. HERRING. The devil a barrel the better herring; all equally bad. HERRING GUTTED. Thin, as a shotten herring. HERRING POND. The sea. To cross the herring pond at the king's expence; to be transported. HERTFORDSHIRE KINDNESS. Drinking twice to the same person. HICK. A country hick; an ignorant clown. CANT. HICKENBOTHOM. Mr. Hickenbothom; a ludicrous name for an unknown person, similar to that of Mr. Thingambob. Hickenbothom, i.e. a corruption of the German word ickenbaum, i.e. oak tree. HICKEY. Tipsey; quasi, hickupping. HIDE AND SEEK. A childish game. He plays at hide and seek; a saying of one who is in fear of being arrested for debt, or apprehended for some crime, and therefore does not chuse to appear in public, but secretly skulks up and down. See SKULK. HIDEBOUND. Stingy, hard of delivery; a poet poor in invention, is said to have a hidebound muse. HIGGLEDY PIGGLEDY. Confusedly mixed. HIGH EATING. To eat skylarks in a garret. HIGH FLYERS. Tories, Jacobites. HIGH JINKS. A gambler at dice, who, having a strong head, drinks to intoxicate his adversary, or pigeon. HIGH LIVING. To lodge in a garret, or cockloft HIGH PAD. A highwayman. CANT. HIGH ROPES. To be on the high ropes; to be in a passion. HIGH SHOON, or CLOUTED SHOON. A country clown. HIGH WATER. It is high water, with him; he is full of money. HIGHGATE. Sworn at Highgate--a ridiculous custom formerly prevailed at the public-houses in Highgate, to administer a ludicrous oath to all travellers of the middling rank who stopped there. The party was sworn on a pair of horns, fastened on a stick: the substance of the oath was, never to kiss the maid when he could kiss the mistress, never to drink small beer when he could get strong, with many other injunctions of the like kind; to all which was added the saving cause of "unless you like it best." The person administering the oath was always to be called father by the juror; and he, in return, was to style him son, under the penalty of a bottle. HIKE. To hike off; to run away. CANT. HIND LEG. To kick out a hind leg; to make a rustic bow. HINNEY, MY HONEY. A north country hinney, particularly a Northumbrian: in that county, hinney is the general term of endearment. HISTORY OF THE FOUR KINGS, or CHILD'S BEST GUIDE TO THE GALLOWS. A pack of cards. He studies the history of the four kings assiduously; he plays much at cards. HOAXING. Bantering, ridiculing. Hoaxing a quiz; joking an odd fellow. UNIVERSITY WIT. HOB, or HOBBINOL, a clown. HOB OR NOB. Will you hob or nob with me? a question formerly in fashion at polite tables, signifying a request or challenge to drink a glass of wine with the proposer: if the party challenged answered Nob, they were to chuse whether white or red. This foolish custom is said to have originated in the days of good queen Bess, thus: when great chimnies were in fashion, there was at each corner of the hearth, or grate, a small elevated projection, called the hob; and behind it a seat. In winter time the beer was placed on the hob to warm: and the cold beer was set on a small table, said to have been called the nob; so that the question, Will you have hob or nob? seems only to have meant, Will you have warm or cold beer? i.e. beer from the hob, or beer from the nob. HOBBERDEHOY. Half a man and half a boy, a lad between both. HOBBLED. Impeded, interrupted, puzzled. To hobble; to walk lamely. HOBBLEDYGEE. A pace between a walk and a run, a dog-trot. HOBBY. Sir Posthumous's hobby; one nice or whimsical in his clothes. HOBBY HORSE. A man's favourite amusement, or study, is called his hobby horse. It also means a particular kind of small Irish horse: and also a wooden one, such as is given to children. HOBBY HORSICAL. A man who is a great keeper or rider of hobby horses; one that is apt to be strongly attached to his systems of amusement. HOBNAIL. A country clodhopper: from the shoes of country farmers and ploughmen being commonly stuck full of hob-nails, and even often clouted, or tipped with iron. The Devil ran over his face with hobnails in his shoes; said of one pitted With the small pox. HOBSON'S CHOICE. That or none; from old Hobson, a famous carrier of Cambridge, who used to let horses to the students; but never permitted them to chuse, always allotting each man the horse he thought properest for his manner of riding and treatment. HOCKS. vulgar appellation for the feet. You have left the marks of your dirty hocks on my clean stairs; a frequent complaint from a mop squeezer to a footman. HOCKEY. Drunk with strong stale beer, called old hock. See HICKEY. HOCKING, or HOUGHING. A piece of cruelty practised by the butchers of Dublin, on soldiers, by cutting the tendon of Achilles; this has been by law made felony. HOCUS POCUS. Nonsensical words used by jugglers, previous to their deceptions, as a kind of charm, or incantation. A celebrated writer supposes it to be a ludicrous corruption of the words hoc est corpus, used by the popish priests in consecrating the host. Also Hell Hocus is used to express drunkenness: as, he is quite hocus; he is quite drunk. HOD. Brother Hod; a familiar name for a bricklayer's labourer: from the hod which is used for carrying bricks and mortar. HODDY DODDY, ALL A-SE AND NO BODY. A short clumsy person, either male or female. HODGE. An abbreviation of Roger: a general name for a country booby. HODGE PODGE. An irregular mixture of numerous things. HODMANDODS. Snails in their shells. HOG. A shilling. To drive one's hogs; to snore: the noise made by some persons in snoring, being not much unlike the notes of that animal. He has brought his hogs to a fine market; a saying of any one who has been remarkably successful in his affairs, and is spoken ironically to signify the contrary. A hog in armour; an awkward or mean looking man or woman, finely dressed, is said to look like a hog in armour. To hog a horse's mane; to cut it short, so that the ends of the hair stick up like hog's bristles. Jonian hogs; an appellation given to the members of St. John's College, Cambridge. HOG GRUBBER. A mean stingy fellow. HOGGISH. Rude, unmannerly, filthy. HOGO. Corruption of haut goust, high taste, or flavour; commonly said of flesh somewhat tainted. It has a confounded hogo; it stinks confoundedly. HOIST. To go upon the hoist; to get into windows accidentally left open: this is done by the assistance of a confederate, called the hoist, who leans his head against the wall, making his back a kind of step or ascent. HOISTING. A ludicrous ceremony formerly performed on every soldier, the first time he appeared in the field after being married; it was thus managed: As soon as the regiment, or company, had grounded their arms to rest a while, three or four men of the same company to which the bridegroom belonged, seized upon him, and putting a couple of bayonets out of the two corners of his hat, to represent horns, it was placed on his head, the back part foremost. He was then hoisted on the shoulders of two strong fellows, and carried round the arms, a drum and fife beating and playing the pioneers call, named Round Heads and Cuckolds, but on this occasion styled the Cuckold's March; in passing the colours, he was to take off his hat: this, in some regiments, was practised by the officers on their brethren, Hoisting, among pickpockets, is, setting a man on his head, that his money, watch, &c. may fall out of his pockets; these they pick up, and hold to be no robbery. See REVERSED. HOITY-TOITY. A hoity-toity wench; a giddy, thoughtless, romping girl. HOLBORN HILL. To ride backwards up Holborn hill; to go to the gallows: the way to Tyburn, the place of execution for criminals condemned in London, was up that hill. Criminals going to suffer, always ride backwards, as some conceive to increase the ignominy, but more probably to prevent them being shocked with a distant view of the gallows; as, in amputations, surgeons conceal the instruments with which they are going to operate. The last execution at Tyburn, and consequently of this procession, was in the year 1784, since which the criminals have been executed near Newgate HOLIDAY. A holiday bowler; a bad bowler. Blind man's holiday; darkness, night. A holiday is any part of a ship's bottom, left uncovered in paying it. SEA TERM. It is all holiday; See ALL HOLIDAY. HOLY FATHER. A butcher's boy of St. Patrick's Market, Dublin, or other Irish blackguard; among whom the exclamation, or oath, by the Holy Father (meaning the Pope), is common. HOLY LAMB. A thorough-paced villain. IRISH. HOLY WATER. He loves him as the Devil loves holy water, i.e. hates him mortally. Holy water, according to the Roman Catholics, having the virtue to chase away the Devil and his imps. HOLLOW. It was quiet a hollow thing; i.e. a certainty, or decided business. HONEST MAN. A term frequently used by superiors to inferiors. As honest a man as any in the cards when all the kings are out; i.e. a knave. I dare not call thee rogue for fear of the law, said a quaker to an attorney; but I wil give thee five pounds, if thou canst find any creditable person who wilt say thou art an honest man. HONEST WOMAN. To marry a woman with whom one has cohabitated as a mistress, is termed, making an honest woman of her. HONEY MOON. The first month after marriage. A poor honey; a harmless, foolish, goodnatured fellow. It is all honey or a t--d with them; said of persons who are either in the extremity of friendship or enmity, either kissing or fighting. HOOD-WINKED. Blindfolded by a handkerchief, or other ligature, bound over the eyes. HOOF. To beat the hoof; to travel on foot. He hoofed it or beat the hoof, every step of the way from Chester to London. HOOK AND SNIVEY, WITH NIX THE BUFFER. This rig consists in feeding a man and a dog for nothing, and is carried on thus: Three men, one of who pretends to be sick and unable to eat, go to a public house: the two well men make a bargain with the landlord for their dinner, and when he is out of sight, feed their pretended sick companion and dog gratis. HOOKEE WALKER. An expression signifying that the story is not true, or that the thing will not occour. HOOKED. Over-reached, tricked, caught: a simile taken from fishing. **** hooks; fingers. HOOKERS. See ANGLERS. HOOP. To run the hoop; an ancient marine custom. Four or more boys having their left hands tied fast to an iron hoop, and each of them a rope, called a nettle, in their right, being naked to the waist, wait the signal to begin: this being made by a stroke with a cat of nine tails, given by the boatswain to one of the boys, he strikes the boy before him, and every one does the same: at first the blows are but gently administered; but each irritated by the strokes from the boy behind him, at length lays it on in earnest. This was anciently practised when a ship was wind-bound. TO HOOP. To beat. I'll well hoop his or her barrel, I'll beat him or her soundly. TO HOP THE TWIG. To run away. CANT. HOP MERCHANT. A dancing master. See CAPER MERCHANT. HOP-O-MY-THUMB. A diminutive person, man or woman. She was such a-hop-o-my thumb, that a pigeon, sitting on her shoulder, might pick a pea out of her a-se. HOPKINS. Mr. Hopkins; a ludicrous address to a lame or limping man, being a pun on the word hop. HOPPING GILES. A jeering appellation given to any person who limps, or is lame; St. Giles was the patron of cripples, lepers, &c. Churches dedicated to that saint commonly stand out of town, many of them having been chapels to hospitals. See GYLES. HOPPER-ARSED. Having large projecting buttocks: from their resemblance to a small basket, called a hopper or hoppet, worn by husbandmen for containing seed corn, when they sow the land. HORNS. To draw in one's horns; to retract an assertion through fear: metaphor borrowed from a snail, who on the apprehension of danger, draws in his horns, and retires to his shell. HORN COLIC. A temporary priapism. HORN FAIR. An annual fair held at Charlton, in Kent, on St. Luke's day, the 18th of October. It consists of a riotous mob, who after a printed summons dispersed through the adjacent towns, meet at Cuckold's Point, near Deptford, and march from thence in procession, through that town and Greenwich, to Charlton, with horns of different kinds upon their heads; and at the fair there are sold rams horns, and every sort of toy made of horn; even the gingerbread figures have horns, The vulgar tradition gives the following history of the origin of this fair; King John, or some other of our ancient kings, being at the palace of Eltham, in this neighbourhood, and having been out a hunting one day, rambled from his company to this place, then a mean hamlet; when entering a cottage to inquire his way, he was struck with the beauty of the mistress, whom he found alone; and having prevailed over her modesty, the husband returning suddenly, surprised them together; and threatening to kill them both, the king was obliged to discover himself, and to compound for his safety by a purse of gold, and a grant of the land from this place to Cuckold's Point, besides making the husband master of the hamlet. It is added that, in memory of this grant, and the occasion of it, this fair was established, for the sale of horns, and all sorts of goods made with that material. A sermon is preached at Charlton church on the fair day. HORN MAD. A person extremely jealous of his wife, is said to be horn mad. Also a cuckold, who does not cut or breed his horns easily. HORN WORK. Cuckold-making. HORNIFIED. Cuckolded. HORSE BUSS. A kiss with a loud smack; also a bite. HORSE COSER. A dealer in horses: vulgarly and corruptly pronounced HORSE COURSER. The verb TO COSE was used by the Scots, in the sense of bartering or exchanging. HORSE GODMOTHER. A large masculine woman, a gentlemanlike kind of a lady. HORSE LADDER. A piece of Wiltshire wit, which consists in sending some raw lad, or simpleton, to a neighbouring farm house, to borrow a horse ladder, in order to get up the horses, to finish a hay-mow. HORSE'S MEAL. A meal without drinking. HOSTELER, i.e. oat stealer. Hosteler was originally the name for an inn-keeper; inns being in old English styled hostels, from the French signifying the same. HOT POT. Ale and brandy made hot. HOT STOMACH. He has so hot a stomach, that he burns all the clothes off his back; said of one who pawns his clothes to purchase liquor. HOUSE, or TENEMENT, TO LET. A widow's weeds; also an atchievement marking the death of a husband, set up on the outside of a mansion: both supposed to indicate that the dolorous widow wants a male comforter. HOYDON. A romping girl. HUBBLE-BUBBLE. Confusion. A hubble-bubble fellow; a man of confused ideas, or one thick of speech, whose words sound like water bubbling out of a bottle. Also an instrument used for smoaking through water in the East Indies, called likewise a caloon, and hooker. HUBBLE DE SHUFF. Confusedly. To fire hubble de shuff, to fire quick and irregularly. OLD MILITARY TERM. HUBBUB. A noise, riot, or disturbance. HUCKLE MY BUFF. Beer, egg, and brandy, made hot. HUCKSTERS. Itinerant retailers of provisions. He is in hucksters hands; he is in a bad way. TO HUE. To lash. The cove was hued in the naskin; the rogue was soundly lashed in bridewell. CANT. TO HUFF. To reprove, or scold at any one; also to bluster, bounce, ding, or swagger. A captain huff; a noted bully. To stand the huff; to be answerable for the reckoning in a public house. HUG. To hug brown bess; to carry a firelock, or serve as a private soldier. He hugs it as the Devil hugs a witch: said of one who holds any thing as if he was afraid of losing it. HUGGER MUGGER. By stealth, privately, without making an appearance. They spent their money in a hugger mugger way. HUGOTONTHEONBIQUIFFINARIANS. A society existing in 1748. HULKY, or HULKING. A great hulky fellow; an over-grown clumsy lout, or fellow. HULVER-HEADED. Having a hard impenetrable head; hulver, in the Norfolk dialect, signifying holly, a hard and solid wood. TO HUM, or HUMBUG. To deceive, or impose on one by some story or device. A humbug; a jocular imposition, or deception. To hum and haw; to hesitate in speech, also to delay, or be with difficulty brought to consent to any matter or business, HUMS. Persons at church. There is a great number of hums in the autem; there is a great congregation in the church. HUM BOX. A pulpit. HUM CAP. Very old and strong beer, called also stingo. See STINGO. HUM DRUM. A hum drum fellow; a dull tedious narrator, a bore; also a set of gentlemen, who (Bailey says) used to meet near the Charter House, or at the King's Head in St. John's-street, who had more of pleasantry, and less of mystery, than the free masons. HUM DURGEON. An imaginary illness. He has got the humdurgeon, the thickest part of his thigh is nearest his a-se; i.e. nothing ails him except low spirits. HUMBUGS. The brethren of the venerable society of humbugs was held at brother Hallam's, in Goodman's Fields. HUMMER. A great lye, a rapper. See RAPPER. HUMMING LIQUOR. Double ale, stout pharaoh. See PHARAOH. HUMMUMS. A bagnio, or bathing house. HUM TRUM. A musical instrument made of a mopstick, a bladder, and some packthread, thence also called a bladder and string, and hurdy gurdy; it is played on like a violin, which is sometimes ludicrously called a humstrum; sometimes, instead of a bladder, a tin canister is used. HUMP. To hump; once a fashionable word for copulation. HUMPTY DUMPTY. A little humpty dumpty man or woman; a short clumsy person of either sex: also ale boiled with brandy. TO HUNCH. To jostle, or thrust. HUNCH-BACKED. Hump-backed. HUNG BEEF. A dried bull's pizzle. How the dubber served the cull with hung beef; how the turnkey beat the fellow with a bull's pizzle. HUNKS. A covetous miserable fellow, a miser; also the name of a famous bear mentioned by Ben Jonson. HUNT'S DOG. He is like Hunt's dog, will neither go to church nor stay at home. One Hunt, a labouring man at a small town in Shropshire, kept a mastiff, who on being shut up on Sundays, whilst his master went to church, howled so terribly as to disturb the whole village; wherefore his master resolved to take him to church with him: but when he came to the church door, the dog having perhaps formerly been whipped out by the sexton, refused to enter; whereupon Hunt exclaimed loudly against his dog's obstinacy, who would neither go to church nor stay at home. This shortly became a bye-word for discontented and whimsical persons. HUNTING. Drawing in unwary persons to play or game. CANT. HUNTING THE SQUIRREL. An amusement practised by postboys and stage-coachmen, which consists in following a one-horse chaise, and driving it before them, passing close to it, so as to brush the wheel, and by other means terrifying any woman or person that may be in it. A man whose turn comes for him to drink, before he has emptied his former glass, is said to be hunted. HUNTSUP. The reveillier of huntsmen, sounded on the French horn, or other instrument. HURDY GURDY. A kind of fiddle, originally made perhaps out of a gourd. See HUMSTRUM. HURLY BURLY. A rout, riot, bustle or confusion. HUSH. Hush the cull; murder the fellow. HUSH MONEY. Money given to hush up or conceal a robbery, theft, or any other offence, or to take off the evidence from appearing against a criminal. HUSKYLOUR. A guinea, or job. Cant. HUSSY. An abbreviation of housewife, but now always used as a term of reproach; as, How now, hussy? or She is a light hussy. HUZZA. Said to have been originally the cry of the huzzars or Hungarian light horse; but now the national shout of the English, both civil and military, in the sea phrase termed a cheer; to give three cheers being to huzza thrice. HYP, or HIP. A mode of calling to one passing by. Hip, Michael, your head's on fire; a piece of vulgar wit to a red haired man. HYP. The hypochondriac: low spirits. He is hypped; he has got the blue devils, &c. JABBER. To talk thick and fast, as great praters usually do, to chatter like a magpye; also to speak a foreign language. He jabbered to me in his damned outlandish parlez vous, but I could not understand him; he chattered to me in French, or some other foreign language, but I could not understand him. JACK. A farthing, a small bowl serving as the mark for bowlers. An instrument for pulling off boots. JACK ADAMS. A fool. Jack Adams's parish; Clerkenwell. JACK AT A PINCH, A poor hackney parson. JACK IN A BOX, A sharper, or cheat. A child in the mother's womb. JACK IN AN OFFICE, An insolent fellow in authority. JACK KETCH. The hangman; vide DERRICK and KETCH. JACK NASTY FACE. A sea term, signifying a common sailor. JACK OF LEGS. A tall long-legged man; also a giant, said to be buried in Weston church, near Baldock, in Hertfordshire, where there are two stones fourteen feet distant, said to be the head and feet stones of his grave. This giant, says Salmon, as fame goes, lived in a wood here, and was a great robber, but a generous one; for he plundered the rich to feed the poor: he frequently took bread for this purpose from the Baldock bakers, who catching him at an advantage, put out his eyes, and afterwards hanged him upon a knoll in Baldock field. At his death he made one request, which was, that he might have his bow and arrow put into his hand, and on shooting it off, where the arrow fell, they would bury him; which being granted, the arrow fell in Weston churchyard. Above seventy years ago, a very large thigh bone was taken out of the church chest, where it had lain many years for a show, and was sold by the clerk to Sir John Tradescant, who, it is said, put it among the rarities of Oxford. JACK PUDDING. The merry andrew, zany, or jester to a mountebank. JACK ROBINSON. Before one could say Jack Robinson; a saying to express a very short time, originating from a very volatile gentleman of that appellation, who would call on his neighbours, and be gone before his name could be announced. JACK SPRAT. A dwarf, or diminutive fellow. JACK TAR. A sailor. JACK WEIGHT. A fat man. JACK WHORE. A large masculine overgrown wench. JACKANAPES. An ape; a pert, ugly, little fellow. JACKED. Spavined. A jacked horse. JACKMEN. See JARKMEN. JACKEY. Gin. JACOB. A soft fellow. A fool. JACOB. A ladder: perhaps from Jacob's dream. CANT. Also the common name for a jay, jays being usually taught to say, Poor Jacob! a cup of sack for Jacob. JACOBITES. Sham or collar shirts. Also partizans for the Stuart family: from the name of the abdicated king, i.e. James or Jacobus. It is said by the whigs, that God changed Jacob's name to Israel, lest the descendants of that patriarch should be called Jacobites. JADE. A term of reproach to women. JAGUE. A ditch: perhaps from jakes. JAIL BIRDS. Prisoners. JAKES. A house of office, a cacatorium. JAMMED. Hanged. CANT. JANIZARIES. The mob, sometimes so called; also bailiffs, their setters, and followers. JAPANNED. Ordained. To be japanned; to enter into holy orders, to become a clergyman, to put on the black cloth: from the colour of the japan ware, which is black. JARK. A seal. JARKMEN. Those, who fabricate counterfeit passes, licences, and certificates for beggars. JARVIS. A hackney coachman. JASON'S FLEECE. A citizen cheated of his gold. JAW. Speech, discourse. Give us none of your jaw; let us have none of your discourse. A jaw-me-dead; a talkative fellow. Jaw work; a cry used in fairs by the sellers of nuts. JAZEY. A bob wig. IDEA POT. The knowledge box, the head. See KNOWLEDGE BOX. JEFFY. It will be done in a jeffy; it will be done in a short space of time, in an instant. JEHU. To drive jehu-like; to drive furiously: from a king of Israel of that name, who was a famous charioteer, and mentioned as such in the Bible. JEM. A gold ring. CANT. JEMMY FELLOW. A smart spruce fellow. JEMMY. A crow. This instrument is much used by housebreakers. Sometimes called Jemmy Rook. JENNY. An instrument for lifting up the grate or top of a show-glass, in order to rob it. CANT. JERRYCUMMUMBLE. To shake, towzle, or tumble about. JERRY SNEAK. A henpecked husband: from a celebrated character in one of Mr. Foote's plays, representing a man governed by his wife. JESSAMY. A smart jemmy fellow, a fopling. JESIUT. See TO BOX THE JESUIT. JESUITICAL. Sly, evasive, equivocal. A jesuitical answer; an equivocal answer. JET. A lawyer. Autem jet; a parson. JEW. An over-reaching dealer, or hard, sharp fellow; an extortioner: the brokers formerly behind St. Clement's church in the Strand were called Jews by their brethren the taylors. JEW. A tradesman who has no faith, i.e. will not give credit. JEW BAIL. Insufficient bail: commonly Jews, who for a sum of money will bail any action whatsoever, and justify, that is, swear to their sufficiency; but, when called on, are not to be found. JEW'S EYE. That's worth a Jew's eye; a pleasant or agreeable sight: a saying taken from Shakespeare. JIBBER THE KIBBER. A method of deceiving seamen, by fixing a candle and lanthorn round the neck of a horse, one of whose fore feet is tied up; this at night has the appearance of a ship's light. Ships bearing towards it, run on shore, and being wrecked, are plundered by the inhabitants. This diabolical device is, it is said, practised by the inhabitants of our western coasts. JIG. A trick. A pleasant jig; a witty arch trick. Also a lock or door. The feather-bed jig; copulation. JIGGER. A whipping-post. CANT. JILT. A tricking woman, who encourages the addresses of a man whom she means to deceive and abandon. JILTED. Rejected by a woman who has encouraged one's advances. JINGLE BOXES. Leathern jacks tipped with silver, and hung with bells, formerly in use among fuddle caps. CANT. JINGLE BRAINS. A wild, thoughtless, rattling fellow. JINGLERS. Horse cosers, frequenting country fairs. IMPOST TAKERS. Usurers who attend the gaming-tables, and lend money at great premiums. IMPUDENT STEALING. Cutting out the backs of coaches, and robbing the seats. IMPURE. A modern term for a lady of easy virtue. INCHING. Encroaching. INDIES. Black Indies; Newcastle. INDIA WIPE. A silk handkerchief. INDORSER. A sodomite. To indorse with a cudgel; to drub or beat a man over the back with a stick, to lay CANE upon Abel. INEXPRESSIBLES. Breeches. INKLE WEAVERS. Supposed to be a very brotherly set of people; 'as great as two inkle weavers' being a proverbial saying. INLAID. Well inlaid; in easy circumstances, rich or well to pass. INNOCENTS. One of the innocents; a weak or simple person, man or woman. INSIDE AND OUTSIDE. The inside of a **** and the outside of a gaol. JOB. A guinea. JOB'S COMFORT. Reproof instead of consolation. JOB'S COMFORTER. One who brings news of some additional misfortune. JOB'S DOCK. He is laid up in Job's dock; i.e. in a salivation. The apartments for the foul or venereal patients in St. Bartholomew's hospital, are called Job's ward. JOBATION. A reproof. JOBBERNOLE. The head. TO JOB. To reprove or reprehend. CAMBRIDGE TERM. JOB. Any robbery. To do a job; to commit some kind of robbery. JOCK, or CROWDY-HEADED JOCK. A jeering appellation for a north country seaman, particularly a collier; Jock being a common name, and crowdy the chief food, of the lower order of the people in Northumberland. TO JOCK, or JOCKUM CLOY. To enjoy a woman. JOCKUM GAGE. A chamber-pot, jordan, looking-glass, or member-mug. CANT. JOGG-TROT. To keep on a jogg-trot; to get on with a slow but regular pace. JOHNNY BUM. A he or jack ass: so called by a lady that affected to be extremely polite and modest, who would not say Jack because it was vulgar, nor ass because it was indecent. JOINT. To hit a joint in carving, the operator must think of a cuckold. To put one's nose out of joint; to rival one in the favour of a patron or mistress. JOLLY, or JOLLY NOB. The head. I'll lump your jolly nob for you; I'll give you a knock on the head. JOLLY DOG. A merry facetious fellow; a BON VIVANT, who never flinches from his glass, nor cries to go home to bed. JOLTER HEAD. A large head; metaphorically a stupid fellow. JORDAIN. A great blow, or staff. I'll tip him a jordain if I transnear; i.e. I'll give him a blow with my staff, if I come near him. CANT. JORDAN. A chamber-pot. JORUM. A jugg, or large pitcher. JOSEPH. A woman's great coat. Also, a sheepish bashful young fellow: an allusion to Joseph who fled from Potiphar's wife. You are Josephus rex; you are jo-king, i. e. joking. JOSKIN. A countryman. The dropcove maced the Joskin of twenty quid; The ring dropper cheated the countryman of twenty guineas. JOWL. The cheek. Cheek by jowl; close together, or cheek to cheek. My eyes how the cull sucked the blowen's jowl; he kissed the wench handsomely. IRISH APRICOTS. Potatoes. It is a common joke against the Irish vessels, to say they are loaded with fruit and timber, that is, potatoes and broomsticks. IRISH ASSURANCE. A bold forward behaviour: as being dipt in the river Styx was formerly supposed to render persons invulnerable, so it is said that a dipping in the river Shannon totally annihilates bashfulness; whence arises the saying of an impudent Irishman, that he has been dipt in the Shannon. IRISH BEAUTY. A woman with two black eyes. IRISH EVIDENCE. A false witness. IRISH LEGS. Thick legs, jocularly styled the Irish arms. It is said of the Irish women, that they have a dispensation from the pope to wear the thick end of their legs downwards. IRISH TOYLES. Thieves who carry about pins, laces, and other pedlars wares, and under the pretence of offering their goods to sale, rob houses, or pilfer any thing they can lay hold of. IRON. Money in general. To polish the king's iron with one's eyebrows; to look out of grated or prison windows, or, as the Irishman expresses them, the iron glass windows. Iron doublet; a prison. See STONE DOUBLET. IRONMONGER'S SHOP. To keep an ironmonger's shop by the side of a common, where the sheriff sets one up; to be hanged in chains. Iron-bound; laced. An iron-bound hat; a silver-laced hat. ISLAND. He drank out of the bottle till he saw the island; the island is the rising bottom of a wine bottle, which appears like an island in the centre, before the bottle is quite empty. IVORIES. Teeth. How the swell flashed his ivories; how the gentleman shewed his teeth. ITCHLAND, or SCRATCHLAND. Scotland. JUG. See DOUBLE JUG. JUGGLER'S BOX. The engine for burning culprits in the hand. CANT. JUKRUM. A licence. JUMBLEGUT LANE. A rough road or lane. JUMP. The jump, or dining-room jump; a species of robbery effected by ascending a ladder placed by a sham lamp-lighter, against the house intended to be robbed. It is so called, because, should the lamp-lighter be put to flight, the thief who ascended the ladder has no means of escaping but that of jumping down. JUMPERS. Persons who rob houses by getting in at the windows. Also a set of Methodists established in South Wales. JUNIPER LECTURE. A round scolding bout. JURY LEG. A wooden leg: allusion to a jury mast, which is a temporary substitute for a mast carried away by a storm, or any other accident. SEA PHRASE. JURY MAST. A JOURNIERE mast; i.e. a mast for the day or occasion. JUST-ASS. A punning appellation for a justice. IVY BUSH. Like an owl in an ivy bush; a simile for a meagre or weasel-faced man, with a large wig, or very bushy hair. KATE. A picklock. 'Tis a rum kate; it is a clever picklock. CANT. KEEL BULLIES. Men employed to load and unload the coal vessels. KEELHAULING. A punishment in use among the Dutch seamen, in which, for certain offences, the delinquent is drawn once, or oftener, under the ship's keel: ludicrously defined, undergoing a great hard-ship. TO KEEP. To inhabit. Lord, where do you keep? i.e. where are your rooms? ACADEMICAL PHRASE. Mother, your tit won't keep; your daughter will not preserve her virginity. TO KEEP IT UP. To prolong a debauch. We kept it up finely last night; metaphor drawn from the game of shuttle-cock. KEEPING CULLY. One who keeps a mistress, as he supposes, for his own use, but really for that of the public. KEFFEL. A horse. WELSH. KELTER. Condition, order. Out of kelter; out of order. KELTER. Money. KEMP'S MORRIS. William Kemp, said to have been the original Dogberry in Much ado about Nothing, danced a morris from London to Norwich in nine days: of which he printed the account, A. D. 1600, intitled, Kemp's Nine Days Wonder, &c. KEMP'S SHOES. Would I had Kemp's shoes to throw after you. BEN JONSON. Perhaps Kemp was a man remarkable for his good luck or fortune; throwing an old shoe, or shoes, after any one going on an important business, being by the vulgar deemed lucky. KEN. A house. A bob ken, or a bowman ken; a well-furnished house, also a house that harbours thieves. Biting the ken; robbing the house. CANT. KEN MILLER, or KEN CRACKER. A housebreaker. CANT. KENT-STREET EJECTMENT. To take away the street door: a method practised by the landlords in Kent-street, Southwark, when their tenants are above a fortnight's rent in arrear. KERRY SECURITY. Bond, pledge, oath, and keep the money. KETCH. Jack Ketch; a general name for the finishers of the law, or hangmen, ever since the year 1682, when the office was filled by a famous practitioner of that name, of whom his wife said, that any bungler might put a man to death, but only her husband knew how to make a gentleman die sweetly. This officer is mentioned in Butler's Ghost, page 54, published about the year 1682, in the following lines: Till Ketch observing he was chous'd, And in his profits much abus'd. In open hall the tribute dunn'd, To do his office, or refund. Mr. Ketch had not long been elevated to his office, for the name of his predecessor Dun occurs in the former part of this poem, page 29: For you yourself to act squire Dun, Such ignominy ne'er saw the sun. The addition of 'squire,' with which Mr. Dun is here dignified, is a mark that he had beheaded some state criminal for high treason; an operation which, according to custom for time out of mind, has always entitled the operator to that distinction. The predecessor of Dun was Gregory Brandon, from whom the gallows was called the Gregorian tree, by which name it is mentioned in the prologue to Mercurius Pragmaticus, tragi-comedy acted at Paris, &c. 1641: This trembles under the black rod, and he Doth fear his fate from the Gregorian tree. Gregory Brandon succeeded Derrick. See DERRICK. KETTLEDRUMS. Cupid's kettle drums; a woman's breasts, called by sailors chest and bedding. KETTLE OF FISH. When a person has perplexed his affairs in general, or any particular business, he is said to have made a fine kettle of fish of it. KICKS. Breeches. A high kick; the top of the fashion. It is all the kick; it is the present mode. Tip us your kicks, we'll have them as well as your lour; pull off your breeches, for we must have them as well as your money. A kick; sixpence. Two and a kick; half-a-crown. A kick in the guts; a dram of gin, or any other spirituous liquor. A kick up; a disturbance, also a hop or dance. An odd kick in one's gallop; a strange whim or peculiarity. To KICK THE BUCKET. To die. He kicked the bucket one day: he died one day. To kick the clouds before the hotel door; i.e. to be hanged. KICKERAPOO. Dead. NEGRO WORD. KICKSEYS. Breeches. KICKSHAWS. French dishes: corruption of quelque chose. KID. A little dapper fellow. A child. The blowen has napped the kid. The girl is with child. TO KID. To coax or wheedle. To inveigle. To amuse a man or divert his attention while another robs him. The sneaksman kidded the cove of the ken, while his pall frisked the panney; the thief amused the master of the house, while his companion robbed the house. KID LAY. Rogues who make it their business to defraud young apprentices, or errand-boys, of goods committed to their charge, by prevailing on them to execute some trifling message, pretending to take care of their parcels till they come back; these are, in cant terms, said to be on the kid lay. KIDDER. A forestaller: see CROCKER. Kidders are also persons employed by the gardeners to gather peas. KIDDEYS. Young thieves. KIDDY NIPPERS. Taylors out of work, who cut off the waistcoat pockets of their brethren, when cross-legged on their board, thereby grabbling their bit. CANT. KIDNAPPER. Originally one who stole or decoyed children or apprentices from their parents or masters, to send them to the colonies; called also spiriting: but now used for all recruiting crimps for the king's troops, or those of the East India company, and agents for indenting servants for the plantations, &c. KIDNEY. Disposition, principles, humour. Of a strange kidney; of an odd or unaccountable humour. A man of a different kidney; a man of different principles. KILKENNY. An old frize coat. KILL CARE CLUB. The members of this club, styled also the Sons of Sound Sense and Satisfaction, met at their fortress, the Castle-tavern, in Paternoster-row. KILL DEVIL. New still-burnt rum. KILL PRIEST. Port wine. To KIMBAW. To trick, cheat or cozen; also to beat or to bully. Let's kimbaw the cull; let's bully the fellow. To set one's arms a-kimbaw, vulgarly pronounced a-kimbo, is to rest one's hands on the hips, keeping the elbows square, and sticking out from the body; an insolent bullying attitude. CANT. KINCHIN. A little child. Kinchin coes; orphan beggar boys, educated in thieving. Kinchin morts; young girls under the like circumstances and training. Kinchin morts, or coes in slates; beggars' children carried at their mother's backs in sheets. Kinchin cove; a little man. CANT. KING'S PLATE. Fetters. KING'S WOOD LION. An Ass. Kingswood is famous for the great number of asses kept by the colliers who inhabit that place. KING'S BAD BARGAIN. One of the king's bad bargains; a malingeror, or soldier who shirks his duty. KING'S HEAD INN, or CHEQUER INN, IN NEWGATE STREET. The prison of Newgate. KING JOHN'S MEN. He is one of king John's men, eight score to the hundred: a saying of a little undersized man. KING OF THE GYPSIES. The captain, chief, or ringleader of the gang of misrule: in the cant language called also the upright man. KING'S PICTURES. Coin, money. KINGDOM COME. He is gone to kingdom come, he is dead. KIP. The skin of a large calf, in the language of the Excise-office. KISS MINE A-SE. An offer, as Fielding observes, very frequently made, but never, as he could learn, literally accepted. A kiss mine a-se fellow; a sycophant. KISSING CRUST. That part where the loaves have touched the oven. KIT. A dancing-master, so called from his kit or cittern, a small fiddle, which dancing-masters always carry about with them, to play to their scholars. The kit is likewise the whole of a soldier's necessaries, the contents of his knapsack: and is used also to express the whole of different commodities: as, Here, take the whole kit; i.e. take all. KIT-CAT CLUB. A society of gentlemen, eminent for wit and learning, who in the reign of queen Anne and George I. met at a house kept by one Christopher Cat. The portraits of most of the members of this society were painted by Sir Godfrey Kneller, of one size; thence still called the kit-cat size. KITCHEN PHYSIC. Food, good meat roasted or boiled. A little kitchen physic will set him up; he has more need of a cook than a doctor. KITTLE PITCHERING. A jocular method of hobbling or bothering a troublesome teller of long stories: this is done by contradicting some very immaterial circumstance at the beginning of the narration, the objections to which being settled, others are immediately started to some new particular of like consequence; thus impeding, or rather not suffering him to enter into, the main story. Kittle pitchering is often practised in confederacy, one relieving the other, by which the design is rendered less obvious. KITTYS. Effects, furniture; stock in trade. To seize one's kittys; to take his sticks. KNACK SHOP. A toy-shop, a nick-nack-atory. KNAPPERS POLL. A sheep's head. CANT. KNAVE IN GRAIN. A knave of the first rate: a phrase borrowed from the dyehouse, where certain colours are said to be in grain, to denote their superiority, as being dyed with cochineal, called grain. Knave in grain is likewise a pun applied to a cornfactor or miller. KNIGHT OF THE BLADE. A bully. KNIGHT OF THE POST. A false evidence, one that is ready to swear any thing for hire. KNIGHT OF THE RAINBOW. A footman: from the variety of colours in the liveries and trimming of gentlemen of that cloth. KNIGHT OF THE ROAD. A highwayman. KNIGHT OF THE SHEERS. A taylor. KNIGHT OF THE THIMBLE, or NEEDLE. A taylor or stay-maker. KNIGHT OF THE WHIP. A coachman. KNIGHT OF THE TRENCHER. A great eater. KNIGHT AND BARROW PIG, more hog than gentleman. A saying of any low pretender to precedency. KNOB. The head. See NOB. KNOCK. To knock a woman; to have carnal knowledge of her. To knock off; to conclude: phrase borrowed from the blacksmith. To knock under; to submit. KNOCK ME DOWN. Strong ale or beer, stingo. KNOT. A crew, gang, or fraternity. He has tied a knot with his tongue, that he cannot untie with his teeth: i.e. he is married. KNOWING ONES. Sportsmen on the turf, who from experience and an acquaintance with the jockies, are supposed to be in the secret, that is, to know the true merits or powers of each horse; notwithstanding which it often happens that the knowing ones are taken in. KNOWLEDGE BOX. The head. KNUCKLES. Pickpockets who attend the avenues to public places to steal pocket-books, watches, &c. a superior kind of pickpockets. To knuckle to, to submit. TO KNUCKLE ONE'S WIPE. To steal his handkerchief. KNUCKLE-DABS, or KNUCKLE-CONFOUNDERS. Ruffles. KONOBLIN RIG. Stealing large pieces of coal from coalsheds. LACED MUTTON. A prostitute. LACING. Beating. I'll lace your jacket handsomely. LADDER. To go up the ladder to rest; to be hanged. LADY. A crooked or hump-backed woman. LADY OF EASY VIRTUE. A woman of the town, an impure, a prostitute. LADYBIRDS. Light or lewd women. LADY DACRE'S WINE. Gin. LAG. A man transported. The cove was lagged for a drag. The man was transported for stealing something out of a waggon. LAG FEVER. A term of ridicule applied to men who being under sentence of transportation, pretend illness, to avoid being sent from gaol to the hulks. TO LAG. To drop behind, to keep back. Lag last; the last of a company. LAGE. Water. CANT. LAGE OF DUDS. A buck of linen. LAID ON THE SHELF, or LAID UP IN LAVENDER. Pawned. To LAMB, or LAMBASTE. To beat. Lamb pye; a beating: from lambo. LAMB'S WOOL. Apples roasted and put into strong ale. LAMBSKIN MEN. The judges: from their robes lined and bordered with ermine. LAMP. An eye. The cove has a queer lamp. The man has a blind or squinting eye. LAND. How lies the land? How stands the reckoning? Who has any land in Appleby? a question asked the man at whose door the glass stands long, or who does not circulate it in due time. LAND LOPERS, or LAND LUBBERS. Vagabonds lurking about the country who subsist by pilfering. LAND PIRATES. Highwaymen. LANK SLEEVE. The empty sleeve of a one armed man. A fellow with a lank sleeve; a man who has lost an arm. LANSPRISADO. One who has only two-pence in his pocket. Also a lance, or deputy corporal; that is, one doing the duty without the pay of a corporal. Formerly a lancier, or horseman, who being dismounted by the death of his horse, served in the foot, by the title of lansprisado, or lancepesato, a broken lance. LANTHORN-JAWED. Thin-visaged: from their cheeks being almost transparent. Or else, lenten jawed; i.e. having the jaws of one emaciated by a too rigid observation of Lent. Dark lanthorn; a servant or agent at court, who receives a bribe for his principal or master. LAP. Butter-milk or whey. CANT. LARK. A boat. LARK. A piece of merriment. People playing together jocosely. LARRY DUGAN'S EYE WATER. Blacking: Larry Dugan was a famous shoe-black at Dublin. LATCH. Let in. LATHY. Thin, slender. A lathy wench; a girl almost as slender as a lath. LATITAT. A nick-name for an attorney; from the name of a writ. LAVENDER. Laid up in lavender; pawned. LAUGH. To laugh on the wrong side of the mouth; to cry. I'll make him laugh on the wrong (or t'other) side of his mouth. LAUNCH. The delivery, or labour, of a pregnant woman; a crying out or groaning. LAW. To give law to a hare; a sporting term, signifying to give the animal a chance of escaping, by not setting on the dogs till the hare is at some distance; it is also more figuratively used for giving any one a chance of succeeding in a scheme or project. LAWFUL BLANKET. A wife. LAY. Enterprize, pursuit, or attempt: to be sick of the lay. It also means a hazard or chance: he stands a queer lay; i.e. he is in danger. CANT. LAYSTALL. A dunghill about London, on which the soil brought from necessary houses is emptied; or, in more technical terms, where the old gold collected at weddings by the Tom t--d man, is stored. LAZY. As lazy as Ludman's dog, who leaned against the wall to bark. As lazy as the tinker, who laid down his budget to f--t. LAZY MAN'S LOAD. Lazy people frequently take up more than they can safely carry, to save the trouble of coming a second time. LAZYBONES. An instrument like a pair of tongs, for old or very fat people to take any thing from the ground without stooping. LEAF. To go off with the fall of the leaf; to be hanged: criminals in Dublin being turned off from the outside of the prison by the falling of a board, propped up, and moving on a hinge, like the leaf of a table. IRISH TERM. TO LEAK. To make water. LEAKY. Apt to blab; one who cannot keep a secret is said to be leaky. LEAPING OVER THE SWORD. An ancient ceremonial said to constitute a military marriage. A sword being laid down on the ground, the parties to be married joined hands, when the corporal or serjeant of the company repeated these words: Leap rogue, and jump whore, And then you are married for evermore. Whereupon the happy couple jumped hand in hand over the sword, the drum beating a ruffle; and the parties were ever after considered as man and wife. LEAST IN SIGHT. To play least in sight; to hide, keep out of the way, or make one's self scarce. LEATHER. To lose leather; to be galled with riding on horseback, or, as the Scotch express it, to be saddle sick. To leather also meant to beat, perhaps originally with a strap: I'll leather you to your heart's content. Leather-headed; stupid. Leathern conveniency; term used by quakers for a stage-coach. LEERY. On one's guard. See PEERY. LEFT-HANDED WIFE. A concubine; an allusion to an ancient German custom, according to which, when a man married his concubine, or a woman greatly his inferior, he gave her his left hand. LEG. To make a leg; to bow. To give leg-bail and land security; to run away. To fight at the leg; to take unfair advantages: it being held unfair by back-sword players to strike at the leg. To break a leg; a woman who has had a bastard, is said to have broken a leg. LEGGERS. Sham leggers; cheats who pretend to sell smuggled goods, but in reality only deal in old shop-keepers or damaged goods. LENTEN FARE. Spare diet. LETCH. A whim of the amorous kind, out of the common way. LEVITE. A priest or parson. TO LIB. To lie together. CANT. LIBBEGE. A bed. CANT. LIBBEN. A private dwelling-house. CANT. LIBKEN. A house to lie in. CANT. TO LICK. To beat; also to wash, or to paint slightly over. I'll give you a good lick o' the chops; I'll give you a good stroke or blow on the face. Jack tumbled into a cow t--d, and nastied his best clothes, for which his father stept up, and licked him neatly.--I'll lick you! the dovetail to which is, If you lick me all over, you won't miss--. LICKSPITTLE. A parasite, or talebearer. LIFT. To give one a lift; to assist. A good hand at a dead lift; a good hand upon an emergency. To lift one's hand to one's head; to drink to excess, or to drink drams. To lift or raise one's elbow; the same. LIFT. See SHOPLIFTER, &c. LIFTER. A crutch. LIG. A bed. See LIB. LIGHT BOB. A soldier of the light infantry company. LIGHT-FINGERED. Thievish, apt to pilfer. LIGHT-HEELED. Swift in running. A light-heeled wench; one who is apt, by the flying up of her heels, to fall flat on her back, a willing wench. LIGHT HOUSE. A man with a red fiery nose. LIGHT TROOPS. Lice; the light troops are in full march; the lice are crawling about. LIGHTMANS. The day. CANT. LIGHTNING. Gin. A flash of lightning; a glass of gin. LIKENESS. A phrase used by thieves when the officers or turnkeys are examining their countenance. As the traps are taking our likeness; the officers are attentively observing us. LILIPUTIAN. A diminutive man or woman: from Gulliver's Travels, written by Dean Swift, where an imaginary kingdom of dwarfs of that name is described. LILY WHITE. A chimney-sweeper. LILY SHALLOW. (WHIP SLANG) A white driving hat. LIMBS. Duke of limbs; a tall awkward fellow. LIMB OF THE LAW. An inferior or pettyfogging attorney. LIMBO. A prison, confinement. To LINE. A term for the act of coition between dog and bitch. LINE OF THE OLD AUTHOR. A dram of brandy. LINE. To get a man into a line, i.e. to divert his attention by a ridiculous or absurd story. To humbug. LINGO. Language. An outlandish lingo; a foreign tongue. The parlezvous lingo; the French language. LINEN ARMOURERS. Taylors. LION. To tip the lion; to squeeze the nose of the party tipped, flat to his face with the thumb. To shew the lions and tombs; to point out the particular curiosities of any place, to act the ciceroni: an allusion to Westminster Abbey, and the Tower, where the tombs and lions are shewn. A lion is also a name given by the gownsmen of Oxford to an inhabitant or visitor. It is a standing joke among the city wits to send boys and country folks, on the first of April, to the Tower-ditch, to see the lions washed. LIQUOR. To liquor one's boots; to drink before a journey: among Roman Catholics, to administer the extreme unction. LITTLE BARBARY. Wapping. LITTLE BREECHES. A familiar appellation used to a little boy. LITTLE CLERGYMAN. A young chimney-sweeper. LITTLE EASE. A small dark cell in Guildhall, London, where disorderly apprentices are confined by the city chamberlain: it is called Little Ease from its being so low that a lad cannot stand upright in it. LITTLE SNAKESMAN. A little boy who gets into a house through the sink-hole, and then opens the door for his accomplices: he is so called, from writhing and twisting like a snake, in order to work himself through the narrow passage. LIVE LUMBER. A term used by sailors, to signify all landsmen on board their ships. LIVE STOCK. Lice or fleas. LOAF. To be in bad loaf, to be in a disagreeable situation, or in trouble. LOB. A till in a tradesman's shop. To frisk a lob; to rob a till. See FLASH PANNEY. LOB. Going on the lob; going into a shop to get change for gold, and secreting some of the change. LOB'S POUND. A prison. Dr. Grey, in his notes on Hudibras, explains it to allude to one Doctor Lob, a dissenting preacher, who used to hold forth when conventicles were prohibited, and had made himself a retreat by means of a trap door at the bottom of his pulpit. Once being pursued by the officers of justice, they followed him through divers subterraneous passages, till they got into a dark cell, from whence they could not find their way out, but calling to some of their companions, swore they had got into Lob's Pound. LOBCOCK. A large relaxed penis: also a dull inanimate fellow. LOBKIN. A house to lie in: also a lodging. LOBLOLLEY BOY. A nick name for the surgeon's servant on board a man of war, sometimes for the surgeon himself: from the water gruel prescribed to the sick, which is called loblolley. LOBONIAN SOCIETY. A society which met at Lob Hall, at the King and Queen, Norton Falgate, by order of Lob the great. LOBSCOUSE. A dish much eaten at sea, composed of salt beef, biscuit and onions, well peppered, and stewed together. LOBSTER. A nick name for a soldier, from the colour of his clothes. To boil one's lobster, for a churchman to become a soldier: lobsters, which are of a bluish black, being made red by boiling. I will not make a lobster kettle of my ****, a reply frequently made by the nymphs of the Point at Portsmouth, when requested by a soldier to grant him a favour. LOCK. A scheme, a mode. I must fight that lock; I must try that scheme. LOCK. Character. He stood a queer lock; he bore but an indifferent character. A lock is also a buyer of stolen goods, as well as the receptacle for them. LOCK HOSPITAL. An hospital for venereal patients. LOCK UP HOUSE. A spunging house; a public house kept by sheriff's officers, to which they convey the persons they have arrested, where they practise every species of imposition and extortion with impunity. Also houses kept by agents or crimps, who enlist, or rather trepan, men to serve the East India or African company as soldiers. LOCKERAM-JAWED. Thin-faced, or lanthorn-jawed. See LANTHORN JAWED. LOCKSMITH'S DAUGHTER. A key. LOGGERHEAD. A blockhead, or stupid fellow. We three loggerheads be: a sentence frequently written under two heads, and the reader by repeating it makes himself the third. A loggerhead is also a double-headed, or bar shot of iron. To go to loggerheads; to fall to fighting. LOLL. Mother's loll; a favourite child, the mother's darling, LOLL TONGUE. He has been playing a game at loll tongue; he has been salivated. LOLLIPOPS. Sweet lozenges purchased by children. TO LOLLOP. To lean with one's elbows on a table. LOLLPOOP. A lazy, idle drone. LOMBARD FEVER. Sick of the lombard fever; i.e. of the idles. LONG ONE. A hare; a term used by poachers. LONG. Great. A long price; a great price. LONG GALLERY. Throwing, or rather trundling, the dice the whole length of the board. LONG MEG. A jeering name for a very tall woman: from one famous in story, called Long Meg of Westminster. LONG SHANKS. A long-legged person. LONG STOMACH. A voracious appetite. LONG TONGUED. Loquacious, not able to keep a secret. He is as long-tongued as Granny: Granny was an idiot who could lick her own eye. See GRANNY. LONG-WINDED. A long-winded parson; one who preached long, tedious sermons. A long-winded paymaster; one who takes long credit. LOO. For the good of the loo; for the benefit of the company or community. LOOBY. An awkward, ignorant fellow. LOOKING AS IF ONE COULD NOT HELP IT. Looking like a simpleton, or as if one could not say boh! to a goose. LOOKING-GLASS. A chamber pot, jordan, or member mug. LOON, or LOUT. A country bumkin, or clown. LOONSLATE. Thirteen pence halfpenny. LOOPHOLE. An opening, or means of escape. To find a loophole in an act of parliament; i.e. a method of evading it, LOP-SIDED. Uneven, having one side larger or heavier than the other: boys' paper kites are often said to be lop-sided. TO LOPE. To leap, to run away. He loped down the dancers; he ran down stairs. LORD. A crooked or hump-backed man. These unhappy people afford great scope for vulgar raillery; such as, 'Did you come straight from home? if so, you have got confoundedly bent by the way.' 'Don't abuse the gemman,' adds a by-stander, 'he has been grossly insulted already; don't you see his back's up?' Or someone asks him if the show is behind; 'because I see,' adds he, 'you have the drum at your back.' Another piece of vulgar wit is let loose on a deformed person: If met by a party of soldiers on their march, one of them observes that that gentleman is on his march too, for he has got his knapsack at his back. It is said in the British Apollo, that the title of lord was first given to deformed persons in the reign of Richard III. from several persons labouring under that misfortune being created peers by him; but it is more probably derived from the Greek word [GREEK: lordos], crooked. LOUSE. A gentleman's companion. He will never louse a grey head of his own; he will never live to be old. LOVE BEGOTTEN CHILD. A bastard. LOUNGE. A loitering place, or gossiping shop. LOUSE BAG. A black bag worn to the hair or wig. LOUSE HOUSE. The round house, cage, or any other place of confinement. LOUSE LADDER. A stitch fallen in a stocking. LOUSE LAND. Scotland. LOUSE TRAP. A small toothed comb. LOUT. A clumsy stupid fellow. LOWING RIG. Stealing oxen or cows. LOW PAD. A footpad. LOW TIDE, or LOW WATER. When there is no money in a man's pocket. LOWRE. Money. Cant. LUBBER. An awkward fellow: a name given by sailors to landsmen. LUCK, or GOOD LUCK. To tread in a surreverence, to be bewrayed: an allusion to the proverb, Sh-tt-n luck is good luck. LUD'S BULWARK. Ludgate prison. LUGS. Ears or wattles. See WATTLES. LULLABY CHEAT. An infant. Cant. LULLIES. Wet linen. Cant. LULLY TRIGGERS. Thieves who steal wet linen. Cant. LUMB. Too much. LUMBER. Live lumber; soldiers or passengers on board a ship are so called by the sailors. LUMBER TROOP. A club or society of citizens of London. LUMBER HOUSE. A house appropriated by thieves for the reception of their stolen property. To LUMP. To beat; also to include a number of articles under one head. To LUMP THE LIGHTER. To be transported. LUMPERS. Persons who contract to unload ships; also thieves who lurk about wharfs to pilfer goods from ships, lighters, &c. LUMPING. Great. A lumping penny worth; a great quantity for the money, a bargain. He has'got a lumping penny-worth; frequently said of a man who marries a fat woman. LUN. Harlequin. LURCH. To be left in the lurch; to be abandoned by one's confederates or party, to be left in a scrape. LURCHED. Those who lose a game of whist, without scoring five, are said to be lurched. LURCHER. A lurcher of the law; a bum bailiff, or his setter. LURRIES. Money, watches, rings, or other moveables. LUSH. Strong beer. TO LUSH. To drink. LUSHEY. Drunk. The rolling kiddeys hud a spree, and got bloody lushey; the dashing lads went on a party of pleasure, and got very drunk. LYE. Chamber lye; urine. MACCARONI. An Italian paste made of flour and eggs. Also a fop: which name arose from a club, called the Maccaroni Club, instituted by some of the most dressy travelled gentlemen about town, who led the fashions; whence a man foppishly dressed, was supposed a member of that club, and by contraction styled a Maccaroni. MACE COVE. A swindler, a sharper, a cheat. On the mace; to live by swindling. MACHINES. Mrs. Phillips's ware. See CUNDUM. MACKEREL. A bawd: from the French maquerel. Mackerel-backed; long-backed. MAD TOM, or TOM OF BEDLAM, otherwise an Abram Man. A rogue that counterfeits madness. CANT. MADAM. A kept madam; a kept mistress. MADAM RAN. A whore. CANT. MADE. Stolen. CANT. MADGE. The private parts of a woman. MADGE CULLS. Sodomites. CANT. MAGG. A halfpenny. MAGGOT BOILER. A tallow-chandler. MAGGOTTY. Whimsical, capricious. MAGNUM BONUM. A bottle containing two quarts of wine. See SCOTCH PINT. MAHOMETAN GRUEL. Coffee: because formerly used chiefly by the Turks. MAIDEN SESSIONS. A sessions where none of the prisoners are capitally convicted. MAKE. A halfpenny. CANT. MAKE WEIGHT. A small candle: a term applied to a little slender man. MALINGEROR. A military term for one who, under pretence of sickness, evades his duty. MALKIN, or MAULKIN. A general name for a cat; also a parcel of rags fastened to the end of a stick, to clean an oven; also a figure set up in a garden to scare the birds; likewise an awkward woman. The cove's so scaly, he'd spice a malkin of his jazey: the fellow is so mean, that he would rob a scare-crow of his old wig. MALKINTRASH. One in a dismal garb. MALMSEY NOSE. A red pimpled snout, rich in carbuncles and rubies. MAN OF THE TOWN. A rake, a debauchee. MAN OF THE TURF. A horse racer, or jockey. MANOEUVRING THE APOSTLES. Robbing Peter to pay Paul, i.e. borrowing of one man to pay another. MAN TRAP. A woman's commodity. MAN OF THE WORLD. A knowing man. MAN, (CAMBRIDGE.) Any undergraduate from fifteen to thirty. As a man of Emanuel--a young member of Emanuel. MANUFACTURE. Liquors prepared from materials of English growth. MARE'S NEST. He has found a mare's nest, and is laughing at the eggs; said of one who laughs without any apparent cause. MARGERY PRATER. A hen. CANT. MARINE OFFICER. An empty bottle: marine officers being held useless by the seamen. SEA WIT. MARPLOT. A spoil sport. MARRIAGE MUSIC. The squalling and crying of children. MARRIED. Persons chained or handcuffed together, in order to be conveyed to gaol, or on board the lighters for transportation, are in the cant language said to be married together. MARROWBONES. The knees. To bring any one down on his marrow bones; to make him beg pardon on his knees: some derive this from Mary's bones, i.e. the bones bent in honour of the Virgin Mary; but this seems rather far-fetched. Marrow bones and cleavers; principal instruments in the band of rough music: these are generally performed on by butchers, on marriages, elections, riding skimmington, and other public or joyous occasions. MARTINET. A military term for a strict disciplinarian: from the name of a French general, famous for restoring military discipline to the French army. He first disciplined the French infantry, and regulated their method of encampment: he was killed at the siege of Doesbourg in the year 1672. MASON'S MAUND. A sham sore above the elbow, to counterfeit a broken arm by a fall from a scaffold. MASTER OF THE MINT. A gardener. MASTER OF THE ROLLS. A baker. MASTER OF THE WARDROBE. One who pawns his clothes to purchase liquor. MATRIMONIAL PEACE-MAKER. The sugar-stick, or arbor vitae. MAUDLIN DRUNK. Crying drunk: perhaps from Mary Magdalene, called Maudlin, who is always painted in tears. MAULED. Extremely drunk, or soundly beaten. MAUNDERING BROTH. Scolding. MAUNDING. Asking or begging. CANT: MAWKES. A vulgar slattern. MAWLEY. A hand. Tip us your mawley; shake hands. with me. Fam the mawley; shake hands. MAW-WALLOP. A filthy composition, sufficient to provoke vomiting. MAX. Gin. MAY BEES. May bees don't fly all the year long; an answer to any one who prefaces a proposition with, It may be. MEALY-MOUTHED. Over-modest or backward in speech. MEDLAR. A fruit, vulgarly called an open a-se; of which it is more truly than delicately said, that it is never ripe till it is as rotten as a t--d, and then it is not worth a f--t. MELLOW. Almost drunk. MELTING MOMENTS. A fat man and woman in the amorous congress. TO MELT. To spend. Will you melt a borde? will you spend a shilling? The cull melted a couple of decusses upon us; the gentleman spent a couple of crowns upon us. CANT. MEMBER MUG. A chamber pot. MEN OF STRAW. Hired bail, so called from having straw stuck in their shoes to distinguish them. MEN OF KENT. Men born east of the river Medway, who are said to have met the Conqueror in a body, each carrying a green bough in his hand, the whole appearing like a moving wood; and thereby obtaining a confirmation of their ancient privileges. The inhabitants of Kent are divided into Kentish men and men of Kent. Also a society held at the Fountain Tavern, Bartholomew Lane, A.D. 1743. MERKIN. Counterfeit hair for women's privy parts. See BAILEY'S DICT. MERRY ANDREW, or MR. MERRYMAN. The jack pudding, jester, or zany of a mountebank, usually dressed in a party-coloured coat. MERRY A-SE CHRISTIAN. A whore. MERRY-BEGOTTEN. A bastard. MAN OF THE WORLD. A knowing man. MESS JOHN. A Scotch presbyterian teacher or parson. MESSMATE. One who eats at the same mess, companion or comrade. METTLE. The semen. To fetch mettle; the act of self pollution. Mettle is also figuratively used for courage. METTLESOME. Bold, courageous. MICHAEL. Hip, Michael, your head's on fire. See HYP. MIDSHIPMAN'S WATCH AND CHAIN. A sheep's heart and pluck. MILCH COW. One who is easily tricked out of his property; a term used by gaolers, for prisoners who have money and bleed freely. MILK AND WATER. Both ends of the busk. TO MILK THE PIGEON. To endeavour at impossibilities. MILLING COVE. A boxer. How the milling cove served the cull out; how the boxer beat the fellow. MILL. A chisel. To MILL. To rob; also to break, beat out, or kill. I'll mill your glaze; I'll beat out your eye. To mill a bleating cheat; to kill a sheep. To mill a ken; to rob a house. To mill doll; to beat hemp in bridewell. CANT. MILL LAY. To force open the doors of houses in order to rob them. MILLER. A murderer. MINE A-SE ON A BANDBOX. An answer to the offer of any thing inadequate to the purpose for which it is wanted, just as a bandbox would be if used for a seat. MINE UNCLE'S. A pawnbroker's shop; also a necessary house. Carried to my uncle's; pawned. New-married men are also said to go to their uncle's, when they leave their wives soon after the honey moon. MINIKIN. A little man or woman: also the smallest sort of pin. MINOR CLERGY. Young chimney sweepers. MINT. Gold. A mint of money; common phrase for a large sum. MISCHIEF. A man loaded with mischief, i.e. a man with his wife on his back. MISH. A shirt, smock, or sheet. CANT. MISH TOPPER. A coat, or petticoat. MISS. A miss or kept mistress; a harlot. MISS LAYCOCK. The monosyllable. MITE. A nick name for a cheesemonger: from the small insect of that name found in cheese. MIX METAL. A silversmith. MOABITES. Bailiffs, or Philistines. MOB; or MAB. A wench, or harlot. MOBILITY. The mob: a sort of opposite to nobility. MOHAIR. A man in the civil line, a townsman, or tradesman: a military term, from the mohair buttons worn by persons of those descriptions, or any others not in the army, the buttons of military men being always of metal: this is generally used as a term of contempt, meaning a bourgeois, tradesman, or mechanic. MOIETY. Half, but vulgarly used to signify a share or portion: as, He will come in for a small moiety. MOLL. A whore. MOLL PEATLY'S GIG. A rogering bout. MOLL THOMPSON'S MARK. M. T. i.e. empty: as, Take away this bottle, it has Moll Thompson's mark upon it. MOLLY. A Miss Molly; an effeminate fellow, a sodomite. MONDAY. Saint Monday. See SAINT. MONEY. A girl's private parts, commonly applied to little children: as, Take care, Miss, or you will shew your money. MONEY DROPPERS. Cheats who drop money, which they pretend to find just before some country lad; and by way of giving him a share of their good luck, entice him into a public house, where they and their confederates cheat or rob him of what money he has about him. MONGREL. A hanger on among cheats, a spunger; also a child whose father and mother are of different countries. MONKS AND FRIARS. Terms used by printers: monks are sheets where the letters are blotted, or printed too black; friars, those letters where the ink has failed touching the type, which are therefore white or faint. MONKEY. To suck the monkey; to suck or draw wine, or any other liquor, privately out of a cask, by means of a straw, or small tube. Monkey's allowance; more kicks than halfpence. Who put that monkey on horseback without tying his legs? vulgar wit on a bad horseman. MONOSYLLABLE. A woman's commodity. MOONCURSER. A link-boy: link-boys are said to curse the moon, because it renders their assistance unnecessary; these gentry frequently, under colour of lighting passengers over kennels, or through dark passages, assist in robbing them. Cant. MOON-EYED HEN. A squinting wench. MOON MEN. Gypsies. MOON RAKERS. Wiltshire men: because it is said that some men of that county, seeing the reflection of the moon in a pond, endeavoured to pull it out with a rake. MOONSHINE. A matter or mouthful of moonshine; a trifle, nothing. The white brandy smuggled on the coasts of Kent and Sussex, and the gin in the north of Yorkshire, are also called moonshine. MOP. A kind of annual fair in the west of England, where farmers usually hire their servants. To MOP UP. To drink up. To empty a glass or pot. MOPED. Stupid, melancholy for want of society. MOPSEY. A dowdy, or homely woman. MOPSQUEEZER. A maid servant, particularly a housemaid. MOPUSSES. Money. MORGLAG. A brown bill, or kind of halbert, formerly carried by watchmen; corruption of MORE, great or broad, and GLAVE, blade. MORNING DROP. The gallows. He napped the king's pardon and escaped the morning drop; he was pardoned, and was not hanged. MORRIS. Come, morris off; dance off, or get you gone. allusion to morris, i.e. MORISCO, or Moorish dancing. MORT. A woman or wench; also a yeoman's daughter. To be taken all-a mort; to be confounded, surprised, or motionless through fear. MOSES. To stand Moses: a man is said to stand Moses when he has another man's bastard child fathered upon him, and he is obliged by the parish to maintain it. MOSS. A cant term for lead, because both are found on the tops of buildings. MOSSY FACE. The mother of all saints. MOT. A girl, or wench. See MORT. MOTHER, or THE MOTHER. A bawd. Mother abbess: the same. Mother midnight; a midwife. Mother in law's bit; a small piece, mothers in law being supposed not apt to overload the stomachs of their husband's children. MOTHER OF ALL SAINTS. The Monosyllable. MOTHER OF ALL SOULS. The same. IRISH. MOTHER OF ST. PATRICK. The same. IRISH. MOTHER OF THE MAIDS. A bawd. MOUCHETS. Small patches worn by ladies: from the French word mouches. MOVEABLES. Rings, watches, or any toys of value. MOUSE. To speak like a mouse in a cheese; i.e. faintly or indistinctly. MOUSETRAP. The parson's mousetrap; the state of matrimony. MOUTH. A noisy fellow. Mouth half cocked; one gaping and staring at every thing he sees. To make any one laugh on the wrong, or t'other side of his mouth; to make him cry or grieve. MOUTH. A silly fellow. A dupe. To stand mouth; i.e. to be duped. To MOW. A Scotch word for the act of copulation. MOW HEATER. A drover: from their frequent sleeping on hay mows. CANT. MOWER. A cow. MUCK. Money; also dung. MUCKWORM. A miser. MUCKINDER. A child's handkerchief tied to the side. MUD. A fool, or thick-sculled fellow; also, among printers the same as dung among journeymen taylors. See DUNG. MUD LARK. A fellow who goes about by the water side picking up coals, nails, or other articles in the mud. Also a duck. MUFF. The private parts of a woman. To the well wearing of your muff, mort; to the happy consummation of your marriage, girl; a health. MUFFLING CHEAT. A napkin. MUGGLETONIANS. The sect or disciples of Lodowick Muggleton. MULLIGRUBS. Sick of the mulligrubs with eating chopped hay: low-spirited, having an imaginary sickness. MUM. An interjection directing silence. Mum for that; I shall be silent as to that. As mute as Mumchance, who was hanged for saying nothing; a friendly reproach to any one who seems low-spirited and silent. MUMCHANCE. An ancient game like hazard, played with dice: probably so named from the silence observed in playing at it. MUM GLASS. The monument erected on Fish-street Hill, London, in memory of the great fire in 1666. MUMBLE A SPARROW. A cruel sport practised at wakes and fairs, in the following manner: A cock sparrow whose wings are clipped, is put into the crown of a hat; a man having his arms tied behind him, attempts to bite off the sparrow's head, but is generally obliged to desist, by the many pecks and pinches he receives from the enraged bird. MUMMER. The mouth. MUMPERS. Originally beggars of the genteel kind, but since used for beggars in general. MUMPERS HALL. An alehouse where beggars are harboured. MUNDUNGUS. Bad or rank tobacco: from mondongo, a Spanish word signifying tripes, or the uncleaned entrails of a beast, full of filth. MUNG. To beg. MUNS. The face, or rather the mouth: from the German word MUND, the mouth. Toute his muns; look at his face. MUNSTER PLUMS. Potatoes. IRISH. MUNSTER HEIFER. An Irish woman. A woman with thick legs is said to be like a Munster heifer; i.e. beef to the heels. MURDER. He looked like God's revenge against murder; he looked angrily. MURPHIES. Potatoes. MUSHROOM. A person or family suddenly raised to riches and eminence: an allusion to that fungus, which starts up in a night. MUSIC. The watch-word among highwaymen, signifying the person is a friend, and must pass unmolested. Music is also an Irish term, in tossing up, to express the harp side, or reverse, of a farthing or halfpenny, opposed to the head. MUTE. An undertaker's servant, who stands at the door of a person lying in state: so named from being supposed mute with grief. MUTTON-HEADED. Stupid. MUTTON MONGER. A man addicted to wenching. MUTTON. In her mutton, i.e. having carnal knowledge of a woman. MUZZLE. A beard. MUZZLER. A violent blow on the mouth. The milling cove tipped the cull a muzzler; the boxer gave the fellow a blow on the mouth. MYNT. See MINT. MYRMIDONS. The constable's assistants, watchmen, &c. NAB, or NAB CHEAT. A hat. Penthouse nab; a large hat. To NAB. To seize, or catch unawares. To nab the teaze; to be privately whipped. To nab the stoop; to stand in the pillory. To nab the rust; a jockey term for a horse that becomes restive. To nab the snow: to steal linen left out to bleach or dry. CANT. To NAB GIRDER, or NOB GIRDER. A bridle. NACK. To have a nack; to be ready at any thing, to have a turn-for it. NACKY. Ingenious. NAILED. Secured, fixed. He offered me a decus, and I nailed him; he offered me a crown, and I struck or fixed him. NANNY HOUSE. A brothel. TO NAP. To cheat at dice by securing one chance. Also to catch the venereal disease. You've napt it; you are infected. NAPPING. To take any one napping; i.e. to come upon him unexpectedly, to find him asleep: as, He caught him napping, as Morse caught his mare. NAPPER. The head; also a cheat or thief. NAPPER OF NAPS. A sheep stealer. CANT. NAPPY ALE. Strong ale. NASK, or NASKIN. A prison or bridewell. The new nask; Clerkenwell bridewell. Tothil-fields nask; the bridewell at Tothil-fields. CANT. NATION. An abbreviation of damnation: a vulgar term used in Kent, Sussex, and the adjacent counties, for very. Nation good; very good. A nation long way; a very long way. NATTY LADS. Young thieves or pickpockets. CANT. NATURAL. A mistress, a child; also an idiot. A natural son or daughter; a love or merry-begotten child, a bastard. NAVY OFFICE. The Fleet prison. Commander of the Fleet; the warden of the Fleet prison. NAY WORD. A bye-word, proverb. NAZAKENE FORETOP. The foretop of a wig made in imitation of Christ's head of hair, as represented by the painters and sculptors. NAZY. Drunken. Nazy cove or mort; a drunken rogue or harlot. Nazy nabs; drunken coxcombs. NEB, or NIB. The bill of a bird, and the slit of a pen. Figuratively, the face and mouth of a woman; as, She holds up her neb: she holds up her mouth to be kissed. NECK STAMPER. The boy who collects the pots belonging to an alehouse, sent out with beer to private houses. NECK VERSE. Formerly the persons claiming the benefit of clergy were obliged to read a verse in a Latin manuscript psalter: this saving them from the gallows, was termed their neck verse: it was the first verse of the fiftyfirst psalm, Miserere mei,&c. NECK WEED. Hemp. NEEDLE POINT. A sharper. NEGLIGEE. A woman's undressed gown, Vulgarly termed a neggledigee. NEGROE. A black-a-moor: figuratively used for a slave. I'll be no man's negro; I will be no man's slave. NEGROE'S HEADS. Brown leaves delivered to the ships in ordinary. NESCIO. He sports a Nescio; he pretends not to understand any thing. After the senate house examination for degrees, the students proceed to the schools, to be questioned by the proctor. According to custom immemorial the answers MUST be Nescio. The following is a translated specimen: Ques. What is your name?--Ans. I do not know. Ques. What is the name of this university?--Ans. I do not know. Ques. Who was your father?-Ans. I do not know. This last is probably the only true answer of the three! NETTLED. Teized, provoked, out of temper. He or she has pissed on a nettle; said of one who is peevish or out of temper. NEW COLLEGE STUDENTS. Golden scholars, silver bachelors, and leaden masters. NEW DROP. The scaffold used at Newgate for hanging of criminals; which dropping down, leaves them suspended. By this improvement, the use of that vulgar vehicle, a cart, is entirely left off. NEW LIGHT. One of the new light; a methodist. NEWGATE BIRD. A thief or sharper, frequently caged in Newgate. NEWGATE SOLICITOR. A petty fogging and roguish attorney, who attends the gaols to assist villains in evading justice. NEWMAN'S LIFT. The gallows. NEWMAN'S TEA GARDENS. Newgate. NEWMAN'S HOTEL. Newgate. To NICK. To win at dice, to hit the mark just in the nick of time, or at the critical moment. NICK. Old nick; the Devil. NICKNAME. A name given in ridicule or contempt: from the French nom de niqne. Niqne is a movement of the head to mark a contempt for any person or thing. NICK NINNY. A simpleton. NICKIN, NIKEY or NIZEY. A soft simple fellow; also a diminutive of Isaac. NICKNACKS. Toys, baubles, or curiosities. NlCKNACKATORY. A toyshop. NICKUMPOOP, or NINCUMPOOP. A foolish fellow; also one who never saw his wife's ****. NIFFYNAFFY FELLOW. A trifler. NIG. The clippings of money. Nigging; clipping. Nigler, a clipper. Cant. NIGGLING. Cutting awkwardly, trifling; also accompanying with a woman. NIGHT MAGISTRATE. A constable. NIGHTINGALE. A soldier who, as the term is, sings out at the halberts. It is a point of honour in some regiments, among the grenadiers, never to cry out, become nightingales, whilst under the discipline of the cat of nine tails; to avoid which, they chew a bullet. NIGHTMAN. One whose business it is to empty necessary houses in London, which is always done in the night; the operation is called a wedding. See WEDDING. NIGMENOG. A very silly fellow. TO NIM. To steal or pilfer: from the German nemen, to take. Nim a togeman; steal a cloak. NIMGIMMER. A physician or surgeon, particularly those who cure the venereal disease. NINE LIVES. Cats are said to have nine lives, and women ten cats lives. NINNY, or NINNYHAMMER. A simpleton. NIP. A cheat. Bung nipper; a cutpurse. NIP CHEESE. A nick name for the purser of a ship: from those gentlemen being supposed sometimes to nip, or diminish, the allowance of the seamen, in that and every other article. It is also applied to stingy persons in general. NIPPERKIN. A small measure. NIPPS. The sheers used in clipping money. NIT SQUEEGER, i.e. SQUEEZER. A hair-dresser. NIX. Nothing. NO CATCHY NO HAVY. If I am not caught, I cannot be hurt. Negro saying. NOB. A king. A man of rank. NOB. The head. NOBTHATCHER. A peruke-maker. NOCK. The breech; from NOCK, a notch. NOCKY BOY. A dull simple fellow. NOD. He is gone to the land of nod; he is asleep. NODDLE. The head. NODDY. A simpleton or fool. Also a kind of low cart, with a seat before it for the driver, used in and about Dublin, in the manner of a hackney coach: the fare is just half that of a coach, for the same distance; so that for sixpence one may have a set down, as it is called, of a mile and half, and frequently a tumble down into the bargain: it is called a noddy from the nutation of its head. Knave noddy; the old-fashioned name for the knave of trumps. NOISY DOG RACKET. Stealing brass knockers from doors. NOKES. A ninny, or fool. John-a-Nokes and Tom-a-Stiles; two honest peaceable gentlemen, repeatedly set together by the ears by lawyers of different denominations: two fictitious names formerly used in law proceedings, but now very seldom, having for several years past been supplanted by two other honest peaceable gentlemen, namely, John Doe and Richard Roe. NOLL. Old Noll; Oliver Cromwell. NON-CON. A nonconformist, presbyterian, or any other dissenter. NONE-SUCH. One that is unequalled: frequently applied ironically. NONSENSE. Melting butter in a wig. NOOZED. Married, hanged. NOPE. A blow: as, I took him a nope on the costard. NORFOLK CAPON. A red herring. NORFOLK DUMPLING. A nick name, or term of jocular reproach to a Norfolk man; dumplings being a favourite food in that county. NORTH ALLERTONS. Spurs; that place, like Rippon, being famous for making them. NORTHUMBERLAND. Lord Northumberland's arms; a black eye: so called in the last century. NORWAY NECKCLOTH. The pillory, usually made of Norway fir. NOSE. As plain as the nose on your face; evidently to be seen. He is led by the nose; he is governed. To follow one's nose; to go strait forward. To put one's nose out of joint; to rival one in the favour of any person. To make a bridge of any one's nose; to pass by him in drinking. To nose a stink; to smell it. He cut off his nose to be revenged of his face; said of one who, to be revenged on his neighbour, has materially injured himself. NOSE. A man who informs or turns king's evidence. TO NOSE. To give evidence. To inform. His pall nosed and he was twisted for a crack; his confederate turned king's evidence, and he was hanged for burglary. TO NOSE. To bully. NOSE BAG. A bag fastened to the horse's head, in which the soldiers of the cavalry put the oats given to their horses: whence the saying, I see the hose bag in his face; i.e. he has been a private man, or rode private. NOSE GENT. A nun. NOSTRUM. A medicine prepared by particular persons only, a quack medicine. NOTCH. The private parts of a woman. NOTE. He changed his note; he told another sort of a story. NOUS-BOX. The head. NOZZLE. The nose of a man or woman. NUB. The neck; also coition. NUBBING. Hanging. Nubbing cheat: the gallows. Nubbing cove; the hangman. Nubbing ken; the sessions house. NUG. An endearing word: as, My dear nug; my dear love. NUGGING DRESS. An out-of-the-way old-fashioned dress, or rather a loose kind of dress, denoting a courtesan. NUGGING-HOUSE. A brothel. TO NULL. To beat: as, He nulled him heartily. NUMBERS. To consult the book of numbers: a term used in the House of Commons, when, instead of answering or confuting a pressing argument, the minister calls for a division, i.e. puts the matter to the vote. NUMBSCULL. A stupid fellow. NUMMS. A sham collar, to be worn over a dirty shirt. NUNNERY. A bawdy house. TO NURSE. To cheat: as, they nursed him out of it. An estate in the hands of trustees, for the payment of bdebts, is said to be at nurse. NUTS. It was nuts for them; i.e. it was very agreeable to them. NUTS. Fond; pleased. She's nuts upon her cull; she's pleased with her cully. The cove's nutting the blowen; the man is trying to please the girl. NUTCRACKERS. The pillory: as, The cull peeped through the nutcrackers. NUTMEGS. Testicles. NYP, or NIP. A half pint, a nip of ale: whence the nipperkin, a small vessel. NYP SHOP. The Peacock in Gray's Inn Lane, where Burton ale is sold in nyps. NYPPER. A cut-purse: so called by one Wotton, who in the year 1585 kept an academy for the education and perfection of pickpockets and cut-purses: his school was near Billingsgate, London. As in the dress of ancient times many people wore their purses at their girdles, cutting them was a branch of the light-fingered art, which is now lost, though the name remains. Maitland, from Stow, gives the following account of this Wotton: This man was a gentleman born, and sometime a merchant of good credit, but fallen by time into decay: he kept an alehouse near Smart's Key, near Billingsgate, afterwards for some misdemeanor put down. He reared up a new trade of life, and in the same house he procured all the cut-purses about the city, to repair to his house; there was a school-house set up to learn young boys to cut purses: two devices were hung up; one was a pocket, and another was a purse; the pocket had in it certain counters, and was hung about with hawks bells, and over the top did hang a little sacring bell. The purse had silver in it; and he that could take out a counter, without noise of any of the bells, was adjudged a judicial NYPPER: according to their terms of art, a FOYSTER was a pick-pocket; a NYPPER was a pick purse, or cut-purse. O BE JOYFUL. I'll make you sing O be joyful on the other side of your mouth; a threat, implying the party threatened will be made to cry. To sing O be easy; to appear contented when one has cause to complain, and dare not. OAF. A silly fellow. OAFISH. Simple. OAK. A rich maa, a man of good substance and credit. To sport oak; to shut the outward door of a student's room at college. An oaken towel; an oaken cudgel. To rub a man down with an oaken towel; to beat him. OATS. He has sowed his wild oats; he is staid, or sober, having left off his wild tricks. OATHS. The favourite oaths of the thieves of the present day are, "God strike me blind!" "I wish my bloody eyes may drop out if it is not true!" "So help me God!" "Bloody end to me!" OAR. To put in one's oar; to intermeddle, or give an opinion unasked: as, To be sure, you must put in your oar! OBSTROPULOUS. Vulgar misnomer of OBSTREPEROUS: as, I was going my rounds, and found this here gemman very obstropulous, whereof I comprehended him as an auspicious parson. OCCUPY. To occupy a woman; to have carnal knowledge of her. ODDFELLOWS. A convivial society; the introduction to the most noble grand, arrayed in royal robes, is well worth seeing at the price of becoming a member. ODDS PLUT AND HER NAILS. A Welch oath, frequently mentioned in a jocular manner by persons, it is hoped, ignorant of its meaning; which is, By God's blood, and the nails with which he was nailed to the cross. ODD-COME-SHORTLYS. I'll do it one of these odd-come-shortly's; I will do it some time or another. OFFICE. To give the office; to give information, or make signs to the officers to take a thief. OGLES. Eyes. Rum ogles; fine eyes. OIL OF BARLEY, or BARLEY BROTH. Strong beer. OIL OF GLADNESS. I will anoint you with the oil of gladness; ironically spoken for, I will beat you. OIL OF STIRRUP. A dose the cobler gives his wife whenever she is obstropulous. OI POAAOI (Proofreaders Note: Greek Letters). (CAMBRIDGE.) The many; the multitude; who take degrees without being entitled for an honor. All that is REQUIRED, are three books of Euclid, and as far as Quadratic Equation's in Algebra. See PLUCKED. OLD. Ugly. CANT. OLD DOG AT IT. Expert, accustomed. OLD HAND. Knowing or expert in any business. OLD HARRY. A composition used by vintners to adulterate their wines; also the nick-name for the devil. OLD DING. See OLD HAT. OLD MR. GORY. A piece of gold. OLD NICK. The Devil: from NEKEN, the evil spirit of the north. OLD ONE. The Devil. Likewise an expression of quizzical familiarity, as "how d'ye do, OLD ONE?" OLD PEGG. Poor Yorkshire cheese, made of skimmed milk. OLD POGER. The Devil. OLD STAGER. One accustomed to business, one who knows mankind. OLD TOAST. A brisk old fellow. CANT. OLD DOSS. Bridewell. OLIVER'S SCULL. A chamber pot. OLLI COMPOLLI. The name of one of the principal rogues of the canting crew. CANT. OMNIUM GATHERUM. The whole together: jocular imitation of law Latin. ONE IN TEN. A parson: an allusion to his tithes. ONE OF US, or ONE OF MY COUSINS. A woman of the town, a harlot. ONION. A seal. Onion hunters, a class of young thieves who are on the look out for gentlemen who wear their seals suspended on a ribbon, which they cut, and thus secure the seals or other trinkets suspended to the watch. OPEN ARSE. A medlar. See MEDLAR. OPTIME. The senior and junior optimes are the second and last classes of Cambridge honors conferred on taking a degree. That of wranglers is the first. The last junior optime is called the Wooden Spoon. ORGAN. A pipe. Will you cock your organ? will you smoke your pipe? ORTHODOXY AND HETERODOXY. Somebody explained these terms by saying, the first was a man who had a doxy of his own, the second a person who made use of the doxy of another man. OSCHIVES. Bone-handled knives. CANT. OSTLER. Oatstealer. OTTOMY. The vulgar word for a skeleton. OTTOMISED. To be ottomised; to be dissected. You'll be scragged, ottomised, and grin in a glass case: you'll be hanged, anatomised, and your skeleton kept in a glass case at Surgeons' Hall. OVEN. A great mouth; the old woman would never have looked for her daughter in the oven, had she not been there herself. OVERSEER. A man standing in the pillory, is, from his elevated situation, said to be made an overseer. OUT AT HEELS, OR OUT AT ELBOWS. In declining circumstances. OUTRUN THE CONSTABLE. A man who has lived above his means, or income, is said to have outrun the constable. OUTS. A gentleman of three outs. See GENTLEMAN. OWL. To catch the; a trick practised upon ignorant country boobies, who are decoyed into a barn under pretence of catching an owl, where, after divers preliminaries, the joke ends in their having a pail of water poured upon their heads. OWL IN AN IVY BUSH. He looks like an owl in an ivy bush; frequently said of a person with a large frizzled wig, or a woman whose hair is dressed a-la-blowze. OWLERS. Those who smuggle wool over to France. OX HOUSE. He must go through the ox house to bed; a saying of an old fellow who marries a young girl. OYES. Corruption of oyez, proclaimed by the crier of all courts of justice. OYSTER. A gob of thick phlegm, spit by a consumptive man; in law Latin, UNUM VIRIDUM GOBBUM P'S. To mind one's P's and Q's; to be attentive to the main chance. P.P.C. An inscription on the visiting cards of our modern fine gentleman, signifying that they have called POUR PRENDRE CONGE, i.e. 'to take leave,' This has of late been ridiculed by cards inscribed D.I.O. i.e. 'Damme, I'm off.' PACKET. A false report. PACKTHREAD. To talk packthread; to use indecent language well wrapt up. PAD. The highway, or a robber thereon; also a bed. Footpads; foot robbers. To go out upon the pad; to go out in order to commit a robbery. PAD BORROWERS. Horse stealers. TO PAD THE HOOF. See To BEAT THE HOOF. PADDINGTON FAIR DAY. An execution day, Tyburn being in the parish or neighbourhood of Paddington. To dance the Paddington frisk; to be hanged. PADDY. The general name for an Irishman: being the abbreviation of Patrick, the name of the tutelar saint of that island. PAINTER. I'll cut your painter for you; I'll send you off; the painter being the ropfe that holds the boat fast to the ship. SEA TERM. PAIR OF WINGS. Oars. CANT. TO PALAVER. To flatter: originally an African word for a treaty, talk, or conference. PALLIARDS. Those whose fathers were clapperdogens, or beggars born, and who themselves follow the same trade: the female sort beg with a number of children, borrowing them, if they have not a sufficient number of their own, and making them cry by pinching in order to excite charity; the males make artificial sores on different parts of their bodies, to move compassion. PALL. A companion. One who generally accompanies another, or who commit robberies together. PAM. The knave of clubs. PANNAM. Bread. PANNIER MAN. A servant belonging to the Temple and Gray's Inn, whose office is to announce the dinner. This in the Temple, is done by blowing a horn; and in Gray's Inn proclaiming the word Manger, Manger, Manger, in each of the three courts. PANNY. A house. To do a panny: to rob a house. See the Sessions Papers. Probably, panny originally meant the butler's pantry, where the knives and forks, spoons, &c. are usually kept The pigs frisked my panney, and nailed my screws; the officers searched my house, and seized my picklock keys. CANT. PANTER. A hart: that animal is, in the Psalms, said to pant after the fresh water-brooks. Also the human heart, which frequently pants in time of danger. CANT. PANTILE SHOP. A presbyterian, or other dissenting meeting house, frequently covered with pantiles: called also a cock-pit. PANTLER. A butler. PAP. Bread sauce; also the food of infants. His mouth is full of pap; he is still a baby. PAPER SCULL. A thin-scull'd foolish fellow. PAPLER. Milk pottage. PARELL. Whites of eggs, bay salt, milk, and pump water, beat together, and poured into a vessel of wine to prevent its fretting. PARENTHESIS. To put a man's nose into a parenthesis: to pull it, the fingers and thumb answering the hooks or crochets. A wooden parenthesis; the pillory. An iron parenthesis; a prison. PARINGS. The chippings of money. CANT. PARISH BULL. A parson. PARISH. His stockings are of two parishes; i.e. they are not fellows. PARISH SOLDIER. A jeering name for a militiaman: from substitutes being frequently hired by the parish from which one of its inhabitants is drawn. PARK PAILING. Teeth. PARSON. A guide post, hand or finger post by the road side for directing travellers: compared to a parson, because, like him, it sets people in the right way. See GUIDE POST. He that would have luck in horse-flesh, must kiss a parson's wife. PARSON'S JOURNEYMAN. A curate. PARSON PALMER. A jocular name, or term of reproach, to one who stops the circulation of the glass by preaching over his liquor; as it is said was done by a parson of that name whose cellar was under his pulpit. PARTIAL. Inclining more to one side than the other, crooked, all o' one hugh. PASS BANK. The place for playing at passage, cut into the ground almost like a cock-pit. Also the stock or fund. PASSAGE. A camp game with three dice: doublets, making up ten or more, to pass or win; any other chances lose. PAT. Apposite, or to the purpose. PATE. The head. Carroty-pated; red-haired. PATRICO, or PATER-COVE. The fifteenth rank of the canting tribe; strolling priests that marry people under a hedge, without gospel or common prayer book: the couple standing on each side of a dead beast, are bid to live together till death them does part; so shaking hands, the wedding is ended. Also any minister or parson. PATTERING. The maundering or pert replies of servants; also talk or palaver in order to amuse one intended to be cheated. Pattering of prayers; the confused sound of a number of persons praying together. TO PATTER. To talk. To patter flash; to speak flash, or the language used by thieves. How the blowen lushes jackey, and patters flash; how the wench drinks gin, and talks flash. PAVIOUR'S WORKSHOP. The street. TO PAUM. To conceal in the hand. To paum a die: to hide a die in the palm of the hand. He paums; he cheats. Don't pretend to paum that upon me. PAUNCH. The belly. Some think paunch was the original name of that facetious prince of puppets, now called Mr. Punch, as he is always represented with a very prominent belly: though the common opinion is, that both the name and character were taken from a celebrated Italian comedian, called Polichenello. PAW. A hand or foot; look at his dirty paws. Fore paw; the hand. Hind paw; the foot. To paw; to touch or handle clumsily. PAW PAW TRICKS. Naughty tricks: an expression used by nurses, &c. to children. TO PAY. To smear over. To pay the bottom of a ship or boat; to smear it over with pitch: The devil to pay, and no pitch hot or ready. SEA TERM.--Also to beat: as, I will pay you as Paul paid the Ephesians, over the face and eyes, and all your d---d jaws. To pay away; to fight manfully, also to eat voraciously. To pay through the nose: to pay an extravagant price. To PEACH. To impeach: called also to blow the gab, squeak, or turn stag. PEAK. Any kind of lace. PEAL. To ring a peal in a man's ears; to scold at him: his wife rang him such a peal! PEAR MAKING. Taking bounties from several regiments and immediately deserting. The cove was fined in the steel for pear making; the fellow was imprisoned in the house of correction for taking bounties from different regiments. PECCAVI. To cry peccavi; to acknowledge one's self in an error, to own a fault: from the Latin PECCAVI, I have sinned. PECK. Victuals. Peck and booze; victuals and drink. PECKISH. Hungry. PECULIAR. A mistress. PED. A basket. CANT. PEDLAR'S FRENCH. The cant language. Pedlar's pony; a walking-stick. To PEEL. To strip: allusion to the taking off the coat or rind of an orange or apple. PEEPER. A spying glass; also a looking-glass. Track up the dancers, and pike with the peeper; whip up stairs, and run off with the looking-glass. CANT. PEEPERS. Eyes. Single peeper, a one-eyed man. PEEPING TOM. A nick name for a curious prying fellow; derived from an old legendary tale, told of a taylor of Coventry, who, when Godiva countess of Chester rode at noon quite naked through that town, in order to procure certain immunities for the inhabitants, (notwithstanding the rest of the people shut up their houses) shly peeped out of his window, for which he was miraculously struck blind. His figure, peeping out of a window, is still kept up in remembrance of the transaction. PEEPY. Drowsy. To PEER. To look about, to be circumspect. PEERY. Inquisitive, suspicious. The cull's peery; that fellow suspects something. There's a peery, tis snitch we are observed, there's nothing to be done. PEG. Old Peg; poor hard Suffolk or Yorkshire cheese. A peg is also a blow with a straightarm: a term used by the professors of gymnastic arts. A peg in the day-light, the victualling office, or the haltering-place; a blow in the eye, stomach, or under the ear. PEG TRANTUM'S. Gone to Peg Trantum's; dead. PEGO. The penis of man or beast. PELL-MELL. Tumultuously, helter skelter, jumbled together. PELT. A heat, chafe, or passion; as, What a pelt he was in! Pelt is also the skin of several beasts. PENANCE BOARD. The pillory. PENNY-WISE AND POUND FOOLISH. Saving in small matters, and extravagant in great. PENNYWORTH. An equivalent. A good pennyworth; cheap bargain. PENTHOUSE NAB. A broad brimmed hat. PEPPERED. Infected with the venereal disease. PEPPERY. Warm, passionate. PERKIN. Water cyder. PERRIWINKLE. A wig. PERSUADERS. Spurs. The kiddey clapped his persuaders to his prad but the traps boned him; the highwayman spurred his horse hard, but the officers seized him. PET. In a pet; in a passion or miff. PETER. A portmanteau or cloke-bag. Biter of peters; one that makes it a trade to steal boxes and trunks from behind stage coaches or out of waggons. To rob Peter to pay Paul; to borrow of one man to pay another: styled also manoeuvring the apostles. PETER GUNNER, will kill all the birds that died last summer. A piece of wit commonly thrown out at a person walking through a street or village near London, with a gun in his hand. PETER LAY. The department of stealing portmanteaus, trunks, &c. PETER LUG. Who is Peter Lug? who lets the glass stand at his door, or before him. PETTICOAT HOLD. One who has an estate during his wife's life, called the apron-string hold. PETTICOAT PENSIONER. One kept by a woman for secret services. PETTISH. Passionate. PETTY FOGGER. A little dirty attorney, ready to undertake any litigious or bad cause: it is derived from the French words petit vogue, of small credit, or little reputation. PHARAOH. Strong malt liquor. PHILISTINES. Bailiffs, or officers of justice; also drunkards. PHOENIX-MEN. Firemen belonging to an insurance office, which gave a badge charged with a phoenix: these men were called likewise firedrakes. PHOS BOTTLE. A. bottle of phosphorus: used by housebreakers to light their lanthorns. Ding the phos; throw away the bottle of phosphorus. PHRASE OF PAPER. Half a quarter of a sheet. See VESSEL, PHYSOG. PHYSOG. The face. A vulgar abbreviation of physiognomy. PHYZ. The face. Rum phyz; an odd face or countenance. PICAROON. A pirate; also a sharper. PICKANINY. A young child, an infant. NEGRO TERM. PICKING. Pilfering, petty larceny. PICKLE. An arch waggish fellow. In pickle, or in the pickling tub; in a salivation. There are rods in brine, or pickle, for him; a punishment awaits him, or is prepared for him. Pickle herring; the zany or merry andrew of a mountebank. See JACK PUDDING. PICKT HATCH. To go to the manor of pickt hatch, a cant name for some part of the town noted for bawdy houses in Shakespeare's time, and used by him in that sense. PICKTHANK. A tale-bearer or mischief maker. PICTURE FRAME. The sheriff's picture frame; the gallows or pillory. To PIDDLE. To make water: a childish expression; as, Mammy, I want to piddle. Piddling also means trifling, or doing any thing in a small degree: perhaps from peddling. PIECE. A wench. A damned good or bad piece; a girl who is more or less active and skilful in the amorous congress. Hence the (CAMBRIDGE) toast, May we never have a PIECE (peace) that will injure the constitution. Piece likewise means at Cambridge a close or spot of ground adjacent to any of the colleges, as Clare-hall Piece, &c. The spot of ground before King's College formerly belonged to Clare-hall. While Clare Piece belonged to King's, the master of Clare-hall proposed a swop, which being refused by the provost of King's, he erected before their gates a temple of CLOACINA. It will be unnecessary to say that his arguments were soon acceded to. PIG. A police officer. A China street pig; a Bow-street officer. Floor the pig and bolt; knock down the officer and run away. PIG. Sixpence, a sow's baby. Pig-widgeon; a simpleton. To pig together; to lie or sleep together, two or more in a bed. Cold pig; a jocular punishment inflicted by the maid seryants, or other females of the house, on persons lying over long in bed: it consists in pulling off all the bed clothes, and leaving them to pig or lie in the cold. To buy a pig in a poke; to purchase any thing without seeing. Pig's eyes; small eyes. Pigsnyes; the same: a vulgar term of endearment to a woman. He can have boiled pig at home; a mark of being master of his own house: an allusion to a well known poem and story. Brandy is Latin for pig and goose; an apology for drinking a dram after either. PIG-HEADED. Obstinate. PIG RUNNING. A piece of game frequently practised at fairs, wakes, &c. A large pig, whose tail is cut short, and both soaped and greased, being turned out, is hunted by the young men and boys, and becomes the property of him who can catch and hold him by the tail, above the height of his head. PIGEON. A weak silly fellow easily imposed on. To pigeon; to cheat. To milk the pigeon; to attempt impossibilities, to be put to shifts for want of money. To fly a blue pigeon; to steal lead off a church. PIGEONS. Sharpers, who, during the drawing of the lottery, wait ready mounted near Guildhall, and, as soon as the first two or three numbers are drawn, which they receive from a confederate on a card, ride with them full speed to some distant insurance office, before fixed on, where there is another of the gang, commonly a decent looking woman, who takes care to be at the office before the hour of drawing: to her he secretly gives the number, which she insures for a considerable sum: thus biting the biter. PIGEON'S MILK. Boys and novices are frequently sent on the first of April to buy pigeons milk. To PIKE. To run away. Pike off; run away. PILGRIM'S SALVE. A sirreverence, human excrement. PILL, or PEELE GARLICK. Said originally to mean one whose skin or hair had fallen off from some disease, chiefly the venereal one; but now commonly used by persons speaking of themselves: as, there stood poor pill garlick: i.e. there stood I. PILLALOO. The Irish cry or howl at funerals. PIMP. A male procurer, or cock bawd; also a small faggot used about London for lighting fires, named from introducing the fire to the coals. PIMP WHISKIN. A top trader in pimping. PIMPLE. The head. PIN. In or to a merry pin; almost drunk: an allusion to a sort of tankard, formerly used in the north, having silver pegs or pins set at equal distances from the top to the bottom: by the rules of good fellowship, every person drinking out of one of these tankards, was to swallow the quantity contained between two pins; if he drank more or less, he was to continue drinking till he ended at a pin: by this means persons unaccustomed to measure their draughts were obliged to drink the whole tankard. Hence when a person was a little elevated with liquor, he was said to have drunk to a merry pin. PIN BASKET. The youngest child. PIN MONEY. An allowance settled on a married woman for her pocket expences. PINCH. At a pinch; on an exigency. PINCH. To go into a tradesman's shop under the pretence of purchasing rings or other light articles, and while examining them to shift some up the sleeve of the coat. Also to ask for change for a guinea, and when the silver is received, to change some of the good shillings for bad ones; then suddenly pretending to recollect that you had sufficient silver to pay the bill, ask for the guinea again, and return the change, by which means several bad shillings are passed. To PINCH ON THE PARSON'S SIDE. To defraud the parson of his tithe. PINCHERS. Rogues who, in changing money, by dexterity of hand frequently secrete two or three shillings out of the change of a guinea. This species of roguery is called the pinch, or pinching lay. To PINK. To stab or wound with a small sword: probably derived from the holes formerly cut in both men and women's clothes, called pinking. Pink of the fashion; the top of the mode. To pink and wink; frequently winking the eyes through a weakness in them. PINKING-DINDEE. A sweater or mohawk. IRISH. PINS. Legs. Queer pins; ill shapen legs. PIPER. A broken winded horse. PISCINARIANS. A club or brotherhood, A.D. 1743. PISS. He will piss when he can't whistle; he will be hanged. He shall not piss my money against the wall; he shall not have my money to spend in liquor. He who once a good name gets, May piss a bed, and say he sweats. PISS-BURNED. Discoloured: commonly applied to a discoloured grey wig. PISS MAKER. A great drinker, one much given to liquor. PISS POT HALL. A house at Clapton, near Hackney, built by a potter chiefly out of the profits of chamber pots, in the bottom of which the portrait of Dr. Sacheverel was depicted. PISS PROPHET. A physician who judges of the diseases of his patients solely by the inspection of their urine. PISS-PROUD. Having a false erection. That old fellow thought he had an erection, but his--was only piss-proud; said of any old fellow who marries a young wife. PISSING DOWN ANY ONE'S BACK. Flattering him. PISSING PINS AND NEEDLES. To have a gonorrhea. PIT. A watch fob. He drew a rare thimble from the swell's pit. He took a handsome watch from the gentleman's fob. PIT. To lay pit and boxes into one; an operation in midwifery or copulation, whereby the division between the anus and vagina is cut through, broken, and demolished: a simile borrowed from the playhouse, when, for the benefit of some favourite player, the pit and boxes are laid together. The pit is also the hole under the gallows, where poor rogues unable to pay the fees are buried. PITT'S PICTURE. A window stopt up on the inside, to save the tax imposed in that gentleman's administration. PARTY WIT PIT-A-PAT. The palpitation of the heart: as, my heart went pit-a-pat. Pintledy-pantledy; the same. PITCH-KETTLED. Stuck fast, confounded. PITCHER. The miraculous pitcher, that holds water with the mouth downwards: a woman's commodity. She has crack'd her pitcher or pipkin; she has lost her maidenhead. PIZZY CLUB. A society held, A. D, 1744, at the sign of the Tower, on Tower Hill: president, Don Pizzaro. PLAISTER OF WARM GUTS. One warm belly'dapped to another; a receipt frequently prescribed for different disorders. PLANT. The place in the house of the fence where stolen goods are secreted. Any place where stolen goods are concealed. To PLANT. To lay, place, or hide. Plant your wids and stow them; be careful what you say, or let slip. Also to bury, as, he was planted by the parson. PLATE. Money, silver, prize. He is in for the plate; he has won the KEAT, i.e. is infected with the venereal disorder: a simile drawn from horse-racing. When the plate fleet comes in; when money comes to hand. PLATTER-FACED. Broad-faced. PLAY. To play booty; to play with an intention to lose. To play the whole game; to cheat. To play least in sight; to hide, or keep out of the way. To play the devil; to be guilty of some great irregularity or mismanagement. PLUCK. Courage. He wants pluck: he is a coward. Against the pluck; against the inclination. Pluck the Ribbon; ring the bell. To pluck a crow with one; to settle a dispute, to reprove one for some past transgression. To pluck a rose; an expression said to be used by women for going to the necessary house, which in the country usually stands in the garden. To pluck also signifies to deny a degree to a candidate at one of the universities, on account of insufficiency. The three first books of Euclid, and as far as Quadratic Equations in Algebra, will save a man from being plucked. These unfortunate fellows are designated by many opprobrious appellations, such as the twelve apostles, the legion of honor, wise men of the East, &c. PLUG TAIL. A man's penis. PLUMB. An hundred thousand pounds. PLUMMY. It is all plummy; i.e. all is right, or as it ought to be. PLUMP. Fat, full, fleshy. Plump in the pocket; full in the pocket. To plump; to strike, or shoot. I'll give you a plump in the bread basket, or the victualling office: I'll give you a blow in the stomach. Plump his peepers, or day-lights; give him a blow in the eyes. He pulled out his pops and plumped him; he drew out his pistols and shot him. A plumper; a single vote at an election. Plump also means directly, or exactly; as, it fell plump upon him: it fell directly upon him. PLUMP CURRANT. I am not plump currant; I am out of sorts. PLUMPERS. Contrivances said to be formerly worn by old maids, for filling out a pair of shrivelled cheeks. PLYER. A crutch; also a trader. POGY. Drunk. POINT. To stretch a point; to exceed some usual limit, to take a great stride. Breeches were usually tied up with points, a kind of short laces, formerly given away by the churchwardens at Whitsuntide, under the denomination of tags: by taking a great stride these were stretched. POISONED. Big with child: that wench is poisoned, see how her belly is swelled. Poison-pated: red-haired. POKE. A blow with the fist: I'll lend you a poke. A poke likewise means a sack: whence, to buy a pig in a poke, i.e. to buy any thing without seeing or properly examining it. POKER. A sword. Fore pokers; aces and kings at cards. To burn your poker; to catch the venereal disease. POLE. He is like a rope-dancer's polo, lead at both ends; a saying of a stupid sluggish fellow. POLISH. To polish the king's iron with one's eyebrows; to be in gaol, and look through the iron grated windows. To polish a bone; to eat a meal. Come and polish a bone with me; come and eat a dinner or supper with me. POLL. The head, jolly nob, napper, or knowledge box; also a wig. POLT. A blow. Lend him a polt in the muns; give him a knock in the face. TO POMMEL. To beat: originally confined to beating with the hilt of a sword, the knob being, from its similarity to a small apple, called pomelle; in Spanish it is still called the apple of the sword. As the clenched fist likewise somewhat resembles an apple, perhaps that might occasion the term pommelling to be applied to fisty-cuffs. POMP. To save one's pomp at whist, is to score five before the adversaries are up, or win the game: originally derived from pimp, which is Welsh for five; and should be, I have saved my pimp. POMPAGINIS. Aqua pompaginis; pump water. See AQUA. POMPKIN. A man or woman of Boston in America: from, the number of pompkins raised and eaten by the people of that country. Pompkinshire; Boston and its dependencies. PONEY. Money. Post the poney; lay down the money. PONTIUS PILATE. A pawnbroker. Pontius Pilate's guards, the first regiment of foot, or Royal Scots: so intitled from their supposed great antiquity. Pontius Pilate's counsellor; one who like him can say, Non invenio causam, I can find no cause. Also (Cambridge) a Mr. Shepherd of Trinity College; who disputing with a brother parson on the comparative rapidity with which they read the liturgy, offered to give him as far as Pontius Pilate in the Belief. POPE. A figure burned annually every fifth of November, in memory of the gunpowder plot, which is said to have been carried on by the papists. POPE'S NOSE. The rump of a turkey. POPS. Pistols. Popshop: a pawnbroker's shop. To pop; to pawn: also to shoot. I popped my tatler; I pawned my watch. I popt the cull; I shot the man. His means are two pops and a galloper; that is, he is a highwayman. POPLERS. Pottage. CANT. PORK. To cry pork; to give intelligence to the undertaker of a funeral; metaphor borrowed from the raven, whose note sounds like the word pork. Ravens are said to smell carrion at a distance. PORKER. A hog: also a Jew. PORRIDGE. Keep your breath to cool your porridge; i. e. held your tongue. PORRIDGE ISLAND. An alley leading from St. Martin's church-yard to Round-court, chiefly inhabited by cooks, who cut off ready-dressed meat of all sorts, and also sell soup. POSEY, or POESY. A nosegay. I shall see you ride backwards up Holborn-hill, with a book in one hand, and a posey in t'other; i.e. I shall see you go to be hanged. Malefactors who piqued themselves on being properly equipped for that occasion, had always a nosegay to smell to, and a prayer book, although they could not read. POSSE MOBILITATIS. The mob. POST MASTER GENERAL. The prime minister, who has the patronage of all posts and places. POST NOINTER. A house painter, who occasionally paints or anoints posts. Knight of the post; a false evidence, one ready to swear any thing for hire. From post to pillar; backwards and forwards. POSTILION OF THE GOSPEL. A parson who hurries over the service. POT. The pot calls the kettle black a-se; one rogue exclaims against another. POT. On the pot; i.e. at stool. POT CONVERTS. Proselytes to the Romish church, made by the distribution of victuals and money. POT HUNTER. One who hunts more tor the sake of the prey than the sport. Pot valiant; courageous from drink. Potwallopers: persons entitled to vote in certain boroughs by having boiled a pot there. POTATOE TRAP. The mouth. Shut your potatoe trap and give your tongue a holiday; i.e. be silent. IRISH WIT. POTHOOKS AND HANGEKS. A scrawl, bad writing. POT-WABBLERS. Persons entitled to vote for members of parliament in certain boroughs, from having boiled their pots therein. These boroughs are called pot-wabbling boroughs. POULAIN. A bubo. FRENCH. POULTERER. A person that guts letters; i.e. opens them and secretes the money. The kiddey was topped for the poultry rig; the young fellow was hanged for secreting a letter and taking out the contents. POUND. To beat. How the milling cove pounded the cull for being nuts on his blowen; how the boxer beat the fellow for taking liberties with his mistress. POUND. A prison. See LOB'S POUND. Pounded; imprisoned. Shut up in the parson's pound; married. POWDER POWDER MONKEY. A boy on board a ship of war, whose business is to fetch powder from the magazine. POWDERING TUB. The same as pickling tub. See PICKLING TUB. PRAD LAY. Cutting bags from behind horses. CANT. PRAD. A horse. The swell flashes a rum prad: the e gentleman sports a fine horse. PRANCER. A horse. Prancer's nab.; a horse's head, used as a seal to a counterfeit pass. At the sign of the prancer's poll, i.e. the nag's head. PRATE ROAST. A talkative boy. PRATING CHEAT. The tongue. PRATTS. Buttocks; also a tinder box. CANT. PRATTLE BROTH. Tea. See CHATTER BROTH, SCANDAL BROTH, &c. PRATTLING BOX. The pulpit. PRAY. She prays with her knees upwards; said of a woman much given to gallantry and intrigue. At her last prayers; saying of an old maid. PREADAMITE QUACABITES. This great and laudable society (as they termed themselves) held their grand chapter at the Coal-hole. P---K. The virile member. PRICK-EARED. A prick-eared fellow; one whose ears are longer than his hair: an appellation frequently given to puritans, who considered long hair as the mark of the whore of Babylon. PRICKLOUSE. A taylor. PRIEST-CRAFT. The art of awing the laity, managing their consciences, and diving into their pockets. PRIEST-LINKED. Married. PRIEST-RIDDEN. Governed by a priest, or priests. PRIG. A thief, a cheat: also a conceited coxcomical fellow. PRIG NAPPER. A thief taker. PRIGGERS. Thieves in general. Priggers of prancers; horse stealers. Priggers of cacklers: robbers of hen-roosts. PRIGGING. Riding; also lying with a woman. PRIGSTAR. A rival in love. PRIME. Bang up. Quite the thing. Excellent. Well done. She's a prime piece; she is very skilful in the venereal act. Prime post. She's a prime article. PRIMINAKY. I had like to be brought into a priminary; i.e. into trouble; from PREMUNIRE. PRINCE PRIG. A king of the gypsies; also the head thief or receiver general. PRINCES. When the majesty of the people was a favourite terra in the House of Commons, a celebrated wit, seeing chimney sweepers dancing on a May-day, styled them the young princes. PRINCOD. A pincushion. SCOTCH--Also a round plump man or woman. PRINCOX. A pert, lively, forward fellow. PRINCUM PRANCUM. Mrs. Princum Prancum; a nice, precise, formal madam. PRINKING. Dressing over nicely: prinked up as if he came out of a bandbox, or fit to sit upon a cupboard's head. PRINT. All in print, quite neat or exact, set, screwed up. Quite in print; set in a formal manner. PRISCIAN. To break Priscian's head; to write or speak false grammar. Priscian was a famous grammarian, who flourished at Constantinople in the year 525; and who was so devoted to his favourite study, that to speak false Latin in his company, was as disagreeable to him as to break his head. PRITTLE PRATTLE. Insignificant talk: generally applied to women and children. PROG. Provision. Rum prog; choice provision. To prog; to be on the hunt for provision: called in the military term to forage. PROPS. Crutches. PROPERTY. To make a property of any one; to make him a conveniency, tool, or cat's paw; to use him as one's own. PROUD. Desirous of copulation. A proud bitch; a bitch at heat, or desirous of a dog. PROVENDER. He from whom any money is taken on the highway: perhaps provider, or provider. CANT. PROPHET. The prophet; the Cock at Temple Bar: so called, in 1788, by the bucks of the town of the inferior order. PRUNELLA. Mr. Prunella; a parson: parson's gowns being frequently made of prunella. To PRY. To examine minutely into a matter or business. A prying fellow; a man of impertinent curiosity, apt to peep and inquire into other men's secrets. PUBLIC MAN. A bankrupt. PUBLIC LEDGER. A prostitute: because, like that paper, she is open to all parties. PUCKER. All in a pucker; in a dishabille. Also in a fright; as, she was in a terrible pucker. PUCKER WATER. Water impregnated with alum, or other astringents, used by old experienced traders to counterfeit virginity. PUDDINGS. The guts: I'll let out your puddings. PUDDING-HEADED FELLOW. A stupid fellow, one whose brains are all in confusion. PUDDING SLEEVES. A parson. PUDDING TIME. In good time, or at the beginning of a meal: pudding formerly making the first dish. To give the crows a pudding; to die. You must eat some cold pudding, to settle your love. PUFF, or PUFFER. One who bids at auctions, not with an intent to buy, but only to raise the price of the lot; for which purpose many are hired by the proprietor of the goods on sale. PUFF GUTS. A fat man. PUFFING. Bidding at an auction, as above; also praising any thing above its merits, from interested motives. The art of puffing is at present greatly practised, and essentially necessary in all trades, professions, and callings. To puff and blow; to be out of breath. PUG. A Dutch pug; a kind of lap-dog, formerly much in vogue; also a general name for a monkey. PUG CARPENTETER. An inferior carpenter, one employed only in small jobs. PUG DRINK. Watered cyder. PUGNOSED, or PUGIFIED. A person with a snub or turned up nose. PULLY HAWLY. To have a game at pully hawly; to romp with women. PULL. To be pulled; to be arrested by a police officer. To have a pull is to have an advantage; generally where a person has some superiority at a game of chance or skill. PUMP. A thin shoe. To pump; to endeavour to draw a secret from any one without his perceiving it. Your pump is good, but your sucker is dry; said by one to a person who is attempting to pump him. Pumping was also a punishment for bailiffs who attempted to act in privileged places, such as the Mint, Temple, &c. It is also a piece of discipline administered to a pickpocket caught in the fact, when there is no pond at hand. To pump ship; to make water, and sometimes to vomit. SEA PHRASE. PUMP WATER. He was christened in pump water; commonly said of a person that has a red face. PUNCH. A liquor called by foreigners Contradiction, from its being composed of spirits to make it strong, water to make it weak, lemon juice to make it sour, and sugar to make it sweet. Punch is also the name of the prince of puppets, the chief wit and support of a puppet-show. To punch it, is a cant term for running away. Punchable; old passable money, anno 1695. A girl that is ripe for man is called a punchable wench. Cobler's Punch. Urine with a cinder in it. PUNK. A whore; also a soldier's trull. See TRULL. PUNY. Weak. A puny child; a weak little child. A puny stomach; a weak stomach. Puny, or puisne judge; the last made judge. PUPIL MONGERS. Persons at the universities who make it their business to instruct and superintend a number of pupils. PUPPY. An affected or conceited coxcomb. PURBLIND. Dim-sighted. PURL. Ale in which wormwood has been infused, or ale and bitters drunk warm. PURL ROYAL. Canary wine; with a dash of tincture of wormwood. PURSE PROUD. One that is vain of his riches. PURSENETS. Goods taken up at thrice their value, by young spendthrifts, upon trust. PURSER'S PUMP. A bassoon: from its likeness to a syphon, called a purser's pump. PURSY, or PURSIVE. Short-breathed, or foggy, from being over fat. PUSHING SCHOOL. A fencing school; also a brothel. PUT. A country put; an ignorant awkward clown. To put upon any one; to attempt to impose on him, or to make him the but of the company. PUZZLE-CAUSE. A lawyer who has a confused understanding. PUZZLE-TEXT. An ignorant blundering parson. QUACK. An ungraduated ignorant pretender to skill in physic, a vender of nostrums. QUACK-SALVER. A mountebank: a seller of salves. QUACKING CHEAT. A duck. QUAG. Abbreviation of quagmire; marshy moorish around. QUAIL-PIPE. A woman's tongue; also a device to take birds of that name by imitating their call. Quail pipe boots; boots resembling a quail pipe, from the number of plaits; they were much worn in the reign of Charles II. QUAKERS. A religious sect so called from their agitations in preaching. QUAKING CHEAT. A calf or sheep. QUANDARY. To be in a quandary: to be puzzled. Also one so over-gorged, as to be doubtful which he should do first, sh--e or spew. Some derive the term quandary from the French phrase qu'en dirai je? what shall I say of it? others from an Italian word signifying a conjuror's circle. QUARREL-PICKER. A glazier: from the small squares in casements, called CARREUX, vulgarly quarrels. QUARROMES, or QUARRON. A body. CANT. QUARTERED. Divided into four parts; to be hanged, drawn, and quartered, is the sentence on traitors and rebels. Persons receiving part of the salary of an office from the holder of it, by virtue of an agreement with the donor, are said to be quartered on him. Soldiers billetted on a publican are likewise said to be quartered on him. TO QUASH. To suppress, annul or overthrow; vulgarly pronounced squash: they squashed the indictment. QUEAN. A slut, or worthless woman, a strumpet. QUEEN DICK. To the tune of the life and death of Queen Dick. That happened in the reign of Queen Dick; i.e., never. QUEEN STREET. A mart governed by his wife, is said to live in Queen street, or at the sign of the Queen's Head. QUEER, or QUIRE. Base, roguish, bad, naught or worthless. How queerly the cull touts; how roguishly the fellow looks. It also means odd, uncommon. CANT. QUEER AS DICK'S HATBAND. Out of order, without knowing one's disease. TO QUEER. To puzzle or confound. I have queered the old full bottom; i.e. I have puzzled the judge. To queer one's ogles among bruisers; to darken one's day lights. QUEER WEDGES. Large buckles. QUEER BAIL. Insolvent sharpers, who make a profession of bailing persons arrested: they are generally styled Jew bail, from that branch of business being chiefly carried on by the sons of Judah. The lowest sort of these, who borrow or hire clothes to appear in, are called Mounters, from their mounting particular dresses suitable to the occasion. CANT. QUEER BIRDS. Rogues relieved from prison, and returned to their old trade. QUEER BIT-MAKERS. Coiners. CANT. QUEER BITCH. An odd, out-of-the-way fellow. QUEER BLUFFER. The master of a public-house the resort of rogues and sharpers, a cut-throat inn or alehouse keeper. QUEER BUNG. An empty purse. QUEER CHECKERS. Among strolling players, door-keepers who defraud the company, by falsely checking the number of people in the house. QUEER COLE FENCER. A putter off, or utterer, of bad money. QUEER COLE MAKER. A maker of bad money. QUEER COVE. A rogue. CANT. QUEER CUFFIN. A justice of the peace; also a churl. QUEER DEGEN. An ordinary sword, brass or iron hilted. QUEER KEN. A prison. CANT. QUEER KICKS. A bad pair of breeches. QUEER MORT. A diseased strumpet. CANT. QUEER NAB. A felt hat, or other bad hat. QUEER PLUNGERS. Cheats who throw themselves into the water, in order that they may be taken up by their accomplices, who carry them to one of the houses appointed by the Humane Society for the recovery of drowned persons, where they are rewarded by the society with a guinea each; and the supposed drowned persons, pretending he was driven to that extremity by great necessity, also frequently sent away with a contribution in his pocket. QUEER PRANCER. A bad, worn-out, foundered horse; also a cowardly or faint-hearted horse-stealer. QUEER ROOSTER. An informer that pretends to be sleeping, and thereby overhears the conversation of thieves in night cellars. QUEER STREET. Wrong. Improper. Contrary to one's wish. It is queer street, a cant phrase, to signify that it is wrong or different to our wish. QUITAM. A quitam horse; one that will both carry and draw. LAW WIT. TO QUIBBLE. To make subtle distinctions; also to play upon words. QUICK AND NIMBLE. More like a bear than a squirrel. Jeeringly said to any one moving sluggishly on a business or errand that requires dispatch. QUID. The quantity of tobacco put into the mouth at one time. To quid tobacco; to chew tobacco. Quid est hoc? hoc est quid; a guinea. Half a quid; half a guinea. The swell tipped me fifty quid for the prad; the gentleman gave fifty pounds for the horse. QUIDS. Cash, money. Can you tip me any quids? can you lend me some money? QUIFFING. Rogering. See TO ROGER. QUIDNUNC. A politician: from a character of that name in the farce of the Upholsterer. QUILL DRIVER. A clerk, scribe, or hackney writer. QUIM. The private parts of a woman: perhaps from the Spanish quemar, to burn. (CAMBRIDGE) A piece's furbelow. QUINSEY. Choked by a hempen quinsey; hanged. QUIPPS. Girds, taunts, jests. QUIRE, or CHOIR BIRD. A complete rogue, one that has sung in different choirs or cages, i.e. gaols. CANT. QUIRKS AND QUILLETS. Tricks and devices. Quirks in law; subtle distinctions and evasions. QUIZ. A strange-looking fellow, an odd dog. OXFORD. QUOD. Newgate, or any other prison. The dab's in quod; the poor rogue is in prison. QUOTA. Snack, share, part, proportion, or dividend. Tip me my quota; give me part of the winnings, booty, or plunder. CANT. RABBIT. A Welch rabbit; bread and cheese toasted, i.e. a Welch rare bit. Rabbits were also a sort of wooden canns to drink out of, now out of use. RABBIT CATCHER. A midwife. RABBIT SUCKERS. Young spendthrifts taking up goods on trust at great prices. RACK RENT. Rent strained to the utmost value. To lie at rack and manger; to be in great disorder. RACKABACK. A gormagon. See GORMAGON. RAFFS. An appellation given by the gownsmen of the university of Oxford to the inhabitants of that place. RAG. Bank notes. Money in general. The cove has no rag; the fellow has no money. RAG. A farthing. TO RAG. To abuse, and tear to rags the characters of the persons abused. She gave him a good ragging, or ragged him off heartily. RAG CARRIER. An ensign. RAG FAIR. An inspection of the linen and necessaries of a company of soldiers, commonly made by their officers on Mondays or Saturdays. RAG WATER. Gin, or any other common dram: these liquors seldom failing to reduce those that drink them to rags. RAGAMUFFIN. A ragged fellow, one all in tatters, a tatterdemallion. RAILS. See HEAD RAILS. A dish of rails; a lecture, jobation, or scolding from a married woman to her husband. RAINBOW. Knight of the rainbow; a footman: from being commonly clothed in garments of different colours. A meeting of gentlemen, styled of the most ancient order of the rainbow, was advertised to be held at the Foppington's Head, Moorfields. RAINY DAY. To lay up something for a rainy day; to provide against a time of necessity or distress. RAKE, RAKEHELL, or RAKESHAME. A lewd, debauched fellow. RALPH SPOONER. A fool. RAM CAT. A he cat. RAMMISH. Rank. Rammish woman; a sturdy virago. RAMMER. The arm. The busnapper's kenchin seized my rammer; i.e. the watchman laid hold of my arm. CANT. TO RAMP. To snatch, or tear any thing forcibly from the person. RAMSHACKLED. Out of repair. A ramshackled house; perhaps a corruption of RANSACKED, i.e. plundered. RANDLE. A set of nonsensical verses, repeated in Ireland by schoolboys, and young people, who have been guilty of breaking wind backwards before any of their companions; if they neglect this apology, they are liable to certain kicks, pinches, and fillips, which are accompanied with divers admonitory couplets. RANDY. Obstreperous, unruly, rampant. RANGLING. Intriguing with a variety of women. RANK. Stinking, rammish, ill-flavoured; also strong, great. A rank knave; a rank coward: perhaps the latter may allude to an ill savour caused by fear. RANK RIDER. A highwayman. RANTALLION. One whose scrotum is so relaxed as to be longer than his penis, i.e. whose shot pouch is longer that the barrel of his piece. RANTIPOLE. A rude romping boy or girl; also a gadabout dissipated woman. To ride rantipole; the same as riding St. George. See ST. GEORGE. RANTUM SCANTUM. Playing at rantum scantum; making the beast with two backs. To RAP To take a false oath; also to curse. He rapped out a volley; i.e. he swore a whole volley of oaths. To rap, means also to exchange or barter: a rap is likewise an Irish halfpenny. Rap on the knuckles; a reprimand. RAPPAREES. Irish robbers, or outlaws, who in the time of Oliver Cromwell were armed with short weapons, called in Irish RAPIERS, used for ripping persons up. RAPPER. A swinging great lie. RAREE SHEW MEN. Poor Savoyards, who subsist by shewing the magic lantern and marmots about London. RASCAL. A rogue or villain: a term borrowed from the chase; a rascal originally meaning a lean shabby deer, at the time of changing his horns, penis, &c. whence, in the vulgar acceptation, rascal is conceived to signify a man without genitals: the regular vulgar answer to this reproach, if uttered by a woman, is the offer of an ocular demonstration of the virility of the party so defamed. Some derive it from RASCAGLIONE, an Italian word signifying a man. without testicles, or an eunuch. RAT. A drunken man or woman taken up by the watch, and confined in the watch-house. CANT. To smell a rat; to suspect some intended trick, or unfair design. RATS. Of these there are the following kinds: a black rat and a grey rat, a py-rat and a cu-rat. RATTLE. A dice-box. To rattle; to talk without consideration, also to move off or go away. To rattle one off; to rate or scold him. RATTLE-PATE. A volatile, unsteady, or whimsical man or woman. RATTLE-TRAPS. A contemptuous name for any curious portable piece of machinery, or philosophical apparatus. RATTLER. A coach. Rattle and prad; a coach and horses. RATTLING COVE. A coachman. CANT. RATTLING MUMPERS. Beggars who ply coaches. CANT. RAWHEAD AND BLOODY BONES. A bull beggar, or scarechild, with which foolish nurses terrify crying brats. READER. A pocket-book. CANT. READER MERCHANTS. Pickpockets, chiefly young Jews, who ply about the Bank to steal the pocket-books of persons who have just received their dividends there. READY. The ready rhino; money. CANT. REBUS. A riddle or pun on a man's name, expressed in sculpture or painting, thus: a bolt or arrow, and a tun, for Bolton; death's head, and a ton, for Morton. RECEIVER GENERAL. A prostitute. RECKON. To reckon with one's host; to make an erroneous judgment in one's own favour. To cast-up one's reckoning or accounts; to vomit. TO RECRUIT. To get a fresh supply of money. RECRUITING SERVICE. Robbing on the highway. RED FUSTIAN. Port wine. RED LANE. The throat. Gone down the red lane; swallowed. RED RIBBIN. Brandy. RED LATTICE. A public house. RED LETTER DAY. A saint's day or holiday, marked in the calendars with red letters. Red letter men; Roman Catholics: from their observation of the saint days marked in red letters. RED RAG. The tongue. Shut your potatoe trap, and give your red rag a holiday; i.e. shut your mouth, and let your tongue rest. Too much of the red rag (too much tongue). RED SAIL-YARD DOCKERS. Buyers of stores stolen out of the royal yards and docks. RED SHANK. A Scotch Highlander. REGULARS. Share of the booty. The coves cracked the swell's crib, fenced the swag, and each cracksman napped his regular; some fellows broke open a gentleman's house, and after selling the property which they had stolen, they divided the money between them. RELIGIOUS HORSE. One much given to prayer, or apt to be down upon his knees. RELIGIOUS PAINTER. One who does not break the commandment which prohibits the making of the likeness of any thing in heaven or earth, or in the waters under the earth. THE RELISH. The sign of the Cheshire cheese. RELISH. Carnal connection with a woman. REMEDY CRITCH. A chamber pot, or member mug. REMEMBER PARSON MELHAM. Drink about: a Norfolk phrase. RENDEZVOUS. A place of meeting. The rendezvous of the beggars were, about the year 1638, according to the Bellman, St. Quinton's, the Three Crowns in the Vintry, St. Tybs, and at Knapsbury: there were four barns within a mile of London. In Middlesex were four other harbours, called Draw the Pudding out of the Fire, the Cross Keys in Craneford parish, St. Julian's in Isleworth parish, and the house of Pettie in Northall parish. In Kent, the King's Barn near Dartford, and Ketbrooke near Blackheath. REP. A woman of reputation. REPOSITORY. A lock-up or spunging-house, a gaol. Also livery stables where horses and carriages are sold by auction. RESCOUNTERS. The time of settlement between the bulls and bears of Exchange-alley, when the losers must pay their differences, or become lame ducks, and waddle out of the Alley. RESURRECTION MEN. Persons employed by the students in anatomy to steal dead bodies out of church-yards. REVERENCE. An ancient custom, which obliges any person easing himself near the highway or foot-path, on the word REVERENCE being given him by a passenger, to take off his hat with his teeth, and without moving from his station to throw it over his head, by which it frequently falls into the excrement; this was considered as a punishment for the breach of delicacy, A person refusing to obey this law, might be pushed backwards. Hence, perhaps, the term, SIR-REVERENCE. REVERSED. A man set by bullies on his head, that his money may fall out of his breeches, which they afterwards by accident pick up. See HOISTING. REVIEW OF THE BLACK CUIRASSIERS. A visitation of the clergy. See CROW FAIR. RHINO. Money. CANT. RIB. A wife: an allusion to our common mother Eve, made out of Adam's rib. A crooked rib: a cross-grained wife. RIBALDRY. Vulgar abusive language, such as was spoken by ribalds. Ribalds were originally mercenary soldiers who travelled about, serving any master far pay, but afterwards degenerated into a mere banditti. RIBBIN. Money. The ribbin runs thick; i.e. there is plenty of money. CANT. Blue ribbin. Gin. The cull lushes the blue ribbin; the silly fellow drinks common gin. To RIBROAST. To beat: I'll ribroast him to his heart's content. RICH FACE, or NOSE. A red pimpled, face. RICHAUD SNARY. A dictionary. A country lad, having been reproved for calling persons by their christian names, being sent by his master to borrow a dictionary, thought to shew his breeding by asking for a Richard Snary. RIDER. A person who receives part of the salary of a place or appointment from the ostensible occupier, by virtue of an agreement with the donor, or great man appointing. The rider is said to be quartered upon the possessor, who often has one or more persons thus riding behind him. See QUARTERED. RIDGE. A guinea. Ridge cully; a goldsmith. CANT. RIDING ST. GEORGE. The woman uppermost in the amorous congress, that is, the dragon upon St. George. This is said to be the way to get a bishop. RIDING SKIMMINGTON. A ludicrous cavalcade, in ridicule of a man beaten by his wife. It consists of a man riding behind a woman, with his face to the horse's tail, holding a distaff in his hand, at which he seems to work, the woman all the while beating him with a ladle; a smock displayed on a staff is carried before them as an emblematical standard, denoting female superiority: they are accompanied by what is called the ROUGH MUSIC, that is, frying-pans, bulls horns, marrow-bones and cleavers, &c. A procession of this kind is admirably described by Butler in his Hudibras. He rode private, i.e. was a private trooper. RIFF RAFF. Low vulgar persons, mob, tag-rag and bob-tail. RIG. Fun, game, diversion, or trick. To run one's rig upon any particular person; to make him a butt. I am up to your rig; I am a match for your tricks. RIGGING. Clothing. I'll unrig the bloss; I'll strip the wench. Rum Rigging; fine clothes. The cull has rum rigging, let's ding him and mill him, and pike; the fellow has good clothes, let's knock him down, rob him, and scour off, i.e. run away. RIGHT. All right! A favourite expression among thieves, to signify that all is as they wish, or proper for their purpose. All right, hand down the jemmy; every thing is in proper order, give me the crow. RIGMAROLE. Roundabout, nonsensical. He told a long rigmarole story. RING. Money procured by begging: beggars so called it from its ringing when thrown to them. Also a circle formed for boxers, wrestlers, and cudgel-players, by a man styled Vinegar; who, with his hat before his eyes, goes round the circle, striking at random with his whip to prevent the populace from crowding in. TO RING A PEAL. To scold; chiefly applied to women. His wife rung him a fine peal! RING THE CHANGES. When a person receives silver in change to shift some good shillings and put bad ones in their place. The person who gave the change is then requested to give good shillings for these bad ones. RIP. A miserable rip; a poor, lean, worn-out horse. A shabby mean fellow. RIPPONS. Spurs: Rippon is famous for a manufactory of spurs both for men and fighting cocks. ROARATORIOS AND UPROARS. Oratorios and operas. ROARING BOY. A noisy, riotous fellow. ROARER. A broken-winded horse. ROARING TRADE. A quick trade. TO ROAST. To arrest. I'll roast the dab; I'll arrest the rascal.--Also to jeer, ridicule, or banter. He stood the roast; he was the butt.--Roast meat clothes; Sunday or holiday-clothes. To cry roast meat; to boast of one's situation. To rule the roast; to be master or paramount. ROAST AND BOILED. A nick name for the Life Guards, who are mostly substantial house-keepers; and eat daily of roast and boiled. ROBERT'S MEN. The third old rank of the canting crew, mighty thieves, like Robin Hood. ROBY DOUGLASS, with one eye and a stinking breath. The breech. ROCHESTER PORTION. Two torn smocks, and what nature gave. ROCKED. He was rocked in a stone kitchen; a saying meant to convey the idea that the person spoken of is a fool, his brains having been disordered by the jumbling of his cradle. ROGER. A portmanteau; also a man's yard. Cant. ROGER, or TIB OF THE BUTTERY. A goose. Cant. Jolly Roger; a flag hoisted by pirates. TO ROGER. To bull, or lie with a woman; from the name of Roger being frequently given to a bull. ROGUES. The fourth order of canters. A rogue in grain; a great rogue, also a corn chandler. A rogue in spirit; a distiller or brandy merchant. ROGUM POGUM, or DRAGRUM POGRAM. Goat's beard, eaten for asparagus; so called by the ladies who gather cresses, &c. who also deal in this plant. ROMBOYLES. Watch and ward. Romboyled; sought after with a warrant. ROME MORT. A queen. ROMEVILLE. London. Cant. ROMP. A forward wanton girl, a tomrig. Grey, in his notes to Shakespeare, derives it from arompo, an animal found in South Guinea, that is a man eater. See HOYDEN. ROOK. A cheat: probably from the thievish disposition of the birds of that name. Also the cant name for a crow used in house-breaking. To rook; to cheat, particularly at play. ROOM. She lets out her fore room and lies backwards: saying of a woman suspected of prostitution. ROOST LAY. Stealing poultry. ROPES. Upon the high ropes; elated, in high spirits, cock-a-hoop. ROSE. Under the rose: privately or secretly. The rose was, it is said, sacred to Harpocrates, the God of silence, and therefore frequently placed in the ceilings of rooms destined for the receiving of guests; implying, that whatever was transacted there, should not be made public. ROSY GILLS. One with a sanguine or fresh-coloured countenance. ROTAN. A coach, cart, or other wheeled carriage. ROT GUT. Small beer; called beer-a-bumble--will burst one's guts before it will make one tumble. ROVERS. Pirates, vagabonds. ROUGH. To lie rough; to lie all night in one's clothes: called also roughing it. Likewise to sleep on the bare deck of a ship, when the person is commonly advised to chuse the softest plank. ROUGH MUSIC. Saucepans, frying-paps, poker and tongs, marrow-bones and cleavers, bulls horns, &c. beaten upon and sounded in ludicrous processions. ROULEAU. A number of guineas, from twenty to fifty or more, wrapped up in paper, for the more ready circulation at gaming-tables: sometimes they are inclosed in ivory boxes, made to hold exactly 20, 50, or 100 guineas. ROUND DEALING. Plain, honest dealing. ROUNDHEADS. A term of reproach to the puritans and partizans of Oliver Cromwell, and the Rump Parliament, who it is said made use of a bowl as a guide to trim their hair. ROUND ROBIN. A mode of signing remonstrances practised by sailors on board the king's ships, wherein their names are written in a circle, so that it cannot be discovered who first signed it, or was, in other words, the ringleader. ROUND SUM. A considerable sum. ROUND ABOUT. An instrument used in housebreaking. This instrument has not been long in use. It will cut a round piece about five inches in diameter out of a shutter or door. ROUND MOUTH. The fundament. Brother round mouth, speaks; he has let a fart. ROUT. A modern card meeting at a private house; also an order from the Secretary at War, directing the march and quartering of soldiers. ROW. A disturbance; a term used by the students at Cambridge. ROW. To row in the same boat; to be embarked in the same scheme. ROWLAND. To give a Rowland for an Oliver; to give an equivalent. Rowland and Oliver were two knights famous in romance: the wonderful achievements of the one could only be equalled by those of the other. ROYAL SCAMPS. Highwaymen who never rob any but rich persons, and that without ill treating them. See SCAMP. ROYAL STAG SOCIETY. Was held every Monday evening, at seven o'clock, at the Three tuns, near the Hospital Gate, Newgate-street. ROYSTER. A rude boisterous fellow; also a hound that opens on a false scent. TO RUB. To run away. Don't rub us to the whit; don't send us to Newgate. CANT.--To rub up; to refresh: to rub up one's memory. A rub: an impediment. A rubber; the best two out of three. To win a rubber: to win two games out of three. RUBY FACED. Red-faced. RUFF. An ornament formerly worn by men and women round their necks. Wooden ruff; the pillory. RUFFIAN. The devil. CANT.--May the ruffian nab the cuffin queer, and let the harmanbeck trine with his kinchins about his colquarren; may the Devil take the justice, and let the constable be hanged with his children about his neck. The ruffian cly thee; the Devil take thee. Ruffian cook ruffian, who scalded the Devil in his feathers; a saying of a bad cook. Ruffian sometimes also means, a justice. RUFFLES. Handcuffs. CANT. RUFFLERS. The first rank of canters; also notorious rogues pretending to be maimed soldiers or sailors. RUFFMANS. The woods, hedges, or bushes. CANT. RUG. It is all rug; it is all right and safe, the game is secure. CANT. RUG. Asleep. The whole gill is safe at rug; the people of the house are fast asleep. RUM. Fine, good, valuable. RUM BECK. A justice of the peace. CANT. RUM BITE. A clever cheat, a clean trick. RUM BLEATING CHEAT. A fat wether sheep. CANT. RUM BLOWEN. A handsome wench. CANT. RUM BLUFFER. A jolly host. CANT. RUM BOB. A young apprentice; also a sharp trick. RUM BOOZE. Wine, or any other good liquor. Rum boozing welts; bunches of grapes. CANT. RUM BUBBER. A dexterous fellow at stealing silver tankards from inns and taverns. RUM BUGHER. A valuable dog. CANT. RUM BUNG. A full purse. CANT. RUM CHUB. Among butchers, a customer easily imposed on, as to the quality and price of meat. CANT. RUM CHANT. A song. RUM CLOUT. A fine silk, cambric, or holland handkerchief. CANT. RUM COD. A good purse of gold. CANT. RUM COLE. New money, or medals. RUM COVE. A dexterous or clever rogue. RUM CULL. A rich fool, easily cheated, particularly by his mistress. RUM DEGEN. A handsome sword. CANT. RUM DELL. See RUM DOXY. RUM DIVER. A dextrous pickpocket. CANT. RUM DOXY. A fine wench. CANT. RUM DRAWERS. Silk, or other fine stockings. CANT. RUM DROPPER. A vintner. CANT. RUM DUBBER. An expert picklock. RUM DUKE. A jolly handsome fellow; also an odd eccentric fellow; likewise the boldest and stoutest fellows lately among the Alsatians, Minters, Savoyards, and other inhabitants of privileged districts, sent to remove and guard the goods of such bankrupts as intended to take sanctuary in those places. CANT. RUM FILE. See RUM DIVER. RUM FUN. A sharp trick. CANT. RUM GAGGERS. Cheats who tell wonderful stories of their sufferings at sea, or when taken by the Algerines, CANT. RUM GHELT. See RUM COLE. CANT. RUM GLYMMER. King or chief of the link-boys. CANT. RUM KICKS. Breeches of gold or silver brocade, or richly laced with gold or silver. CANT. RUM MAWND. One that counterfeits a fool. CANT RUM MORT. A queen, or great lady. CANT. RUM NAB. A good hat. RUM NANTZ. Good French brandy. CANT. RUM NED. A very rich silly fellow. CANT. RUM PAD. The highway. CANT. RUM PADDERS. Highwaymen well mounted and armed. CANT. RUM PEEPERS. Fine looking-glasses. CANT. RUM PRANCER. A fine horse. CANT. RUM QUIDS. A great booty. CANT. RUM RUFF PECK. Westphalia ham. CANT. RUM SNITCH. A smart fillip on the nose. RUM SQUEEZE. Much wine, or good liquor, given among fiddlers. CANT. RUM TILTER. See RUM DEGEN. RUM TOL. See RUM DEGEN. RUM TOPPING. A rich commode, or woman's head-dress. RUM VILLE. See ROMEVILLE. RUM WIPER. See RUM CLOUT. RUMBO. Rum, water, and sugar; also a prison. RUMBOYLE. A ward or watch. RUMBUMTIOUS. Obstreperous. RUMFORD. To ride to Rumford to have one's backside new bottomed: i.e. to have a pair of new leather breeches. Rumford was formerly a famous place for leather breeches. A like saying is current in Norfolk and Suffolk, of Bungay, and for the same reason.--Rumford lion; a calf. See ESSEX LION. RUMP. To rump any one; to turn the back to him: an evolution sometimes used at court. Rump and a dozen; a rump of beef and a dozen of claret; an Irish wager, called also buttock and trimmings. Rump and kidney men; fiddlers that play at feasts, fairs, weddings, &c. and live chiefly on the remnants. RUMPUS. A riot, quarrel, or confusion. RUN GOODS. A maidenhead, being a commodity never entered. RUNNING HORSE, or NAG. A clap, or gleet. RUNNING SMOBBLE. Snatching goods off a counter, and throwing them to an accomplice, who brushes off with them. RUNNING STATIONERS. Hawker of newspapers, trials, and dying speeches. RUNT. A short squat man or woman: from the small cattle called Welsh runts. RUSHERS. Thieves who knock at the doors of great houses in London, in summer time, when the families are gone out of town, and on the door being opened by a woman, rush in and rob the house; also housebreakers who enter lone houses by force. RUSSIAN COFFEE-HOUSE. The Brown Bear in Bow-street, Covent Garden, a house of call for thief-takers and runners of the Bow street justices. RUSTY. Out of use, To nab the rust; to be refractory; properly applied to a restive horse, and figuratively to the human species. To ride rusty; to be sullen; called also to ride grub. RUSTY GUTS. A blunt surly fellow: a jocular misnomer of RESTICUS. RUTTING. Copulating. Rutting time; the season, when deer go to rut. SACHEVEREL. The iron door, or blower, to the mouth of a stove: from a divine of that name, who made himself famous for blowing the coals of dissension in the latter end of the reign of queen Ann. SACK. A pocket. To buy the sack: to get drunk. To dive into the sack; to pick a pocket. To break a bottle in an empty sack; a bubble bet, a sack with a bottle in it not being an empty sack. SAD DOG. A wicked debauched fellow; one of the ancient family of the sad dogs. Swift translates it into Latin by the words TRISTIS CANIS. SADDLE. To saddle the spit; to give a dinner or supper. To saddle one's nose; to wear spectacles. To saddle a place or pension; to oblige the holder to pay a certain portion of his income to some one nominated by the donor. Saddle sick: galled with riding, having lost leather. SAINT. A piece of spoilt timber in a coach-maker's shop, like a saint, devoted to the flames. SAINT GEOFFREY'S DAY. Never, there being no saint of that name: tomorrow-come-never, when two Sundays come together. SAINT LUKE'S BIRD. An ox; that Evangelist being always represented with an ox. SAINT MONDAY. A holiday most religiously observed by journeymen shoemakers, and other inferior mechanics. A profanation of that day, by working, is punishable by a fine, particularly among the gentle craft. An Irishman observed, that this saint's anniversary happened every week. SAL. An abbreviation of SALIVATION. In a high sal; in the pickling tub, or under a salivation. SALESMAN'S DOG. A barker. Vide BARKER. SALMON-GUNDY. Apples, onions, veal or chicken, and pickled herrings, minced fine, and eaten with oil and vinegar; some derive the name of this mess from the French words SELON MON GOUST, because the proportions of the different ingredients are regulated by the palate of the maker; others say it bears the name of the inventor, who was a rich Dutch merchant; but the general and most probable opinion is, that it was invented by the countess of Salmagondi, one of the ladies of Mary de Medicis, wife of King Henry IV. of France, and by her brought into France. SALMON or SALAMON. The beggars'sacrament or oath. SALT. Lecherous. A salt bitch: a bitch at heat, or proud bitch. Salt eel; a rope's end, used to correct boys, &c. at sea: you shall have a salt eel for supper. SAMMY. Foolish. Silly. SANDWICH. Ham, dried tongue, or some other salted meat, cut thin and put between two slices of bread and butter: said to be a favourite morsel with the Earl of Sandwich. SANDY PATE. A red haired man or woman. SANGAREE. Rack punch was formerly so called in bagnios. SANK, SANKY, or CENTIPEE'S. A taylor employed by clothiers in making soldier's clothing. SAPSCULL. A simple fellow. Sappy; foolish. SATYR. A libidinous fellow: those imaginary things are by poets reported to be extremely salacious. SAUCE BOX. A term of familiar raillery, signifying a bold or forward person. SAVE-ALL. A kind of candlestick used by our frugal forefathers, to burn snuffs and ends of candles. Figuratively, boys running about gentlemen's houses in Ireland, who are fed on broken meats that would otherwise be wasted, also a miser. SAUNTERER. An idle, lounging fellow; by some derived from SANS TERRE; applied to persons, who, having no lands or home, lingered and loitered about. Some derive it from persons devoted to the Holy Land, SAINT TERRE, who loitered about, as waiting for company. SAW. An old saw; an ancient proverbial saying. SAWNY or SANDY. A general nick-name for a Scotchman, as Paddy is for an Irishman, or Taffy for a Welchman; Sawny or Sandy being the familiar abbreviation or diminution of Alexander, a very favourite name among the Scottish nation. SCAB. A worthless man or woman. SCALD MISERABLES. A set of mock masons, who, A.D. 1744, made a ludicrous procession in ridicule of the Free Masons. SCALDER. A clap. The cull has napped a scalder; the fellow has got a clap. SCALY. Mean. Sordid. How scaly the cove is; how mean the fellow is. SCALY FISH. An honest, rough, blunt sailor. SCAMP. A highwayman. Royal scamp: a highwayman who robs civilly. Royal foot scamp; a footpad who behaves in like manner. TO SCAMPER. To run away hastily. SCANDAL BROTH. Tea. SCANDAL PROOF. One who has eaten shame and drank after it, or would blush at being ashamed. SCAPEGALLOWS. One who deserves and has narrowly escaped the gallows, a slip-gibbet, one for whom the gallows is said to groan. SCAPEGRACE. A wild dissolute fellow. SCARCE. To make one's self scarce; to steal away. SCARLET HORSE. A high red, hired or hack horse: a pun on the word HIRED. SCAVEY. Sense, knowledge. "Massa, me no scavey;" master, I don't know (NEGRO LANGUAGE) perhaps from the French SCAVOIR. SCHEME. A party of pleasure. SCHISM MONGER. A dissenting teacher. SCHISM SHOP. A dissenting meeting house. A SCOLD'S CURE. A coffin. The blowen has napped the scold's cure; the bitch is in her coffin. SCHOOL OF VENUS. A bawdy-house. SCHOOL BUTTER. Cobbing, whipping. SCONCE. The head, probably as being the fort and citadel of a man: from SCONCE, an old name for a fort, derived from a Dutch word of the same signification; To build a sconce: a military term for bilking one's quarters. To sconce or skonce; to impose a fine. ACADEMICAL PHRASE. SCOT. A young bull. SCOTCH GREYS. Lice. The headquarters of the Scotch greys: the head of a man full of large lice. SCOTCH PINT. A bottle containing two quarts. SCOTCH BAIT. A halt and a resting on a stick, as practised by pedlars. SCOTCH CHOCOLATE. Brimstone and milk. SCOTCH FIDDLE. The itch. SCOTCH MIST. A sober soaking rain; a Scotch mist will wet an Englishman to the skin. SCOTCH WARMING PAN. A wench; also a fart. SCOUNDREL. A man void of every principle of honour. SCOUR. To scour or score off; to run away: perhaps from SCORE; i.e. full speed, or as fast as legs would carry one. Also to wear: chiefly applied to irons, fetters, or handcuffs, because wearing scours them. He will scour the darbies; he will be in fetters. To scour the cramp ring; to wear bolts or fetters, from which, as well as from coffin hinges, rings supposed to prevent the cramp are made. SCOURERS. Riotous bucks, who amuse themselves with breaking windows, beating the watch, and assaulting every person they meet: called scouring the streets. SCOUT. A college errand-boy at Oxford, called a gyp at Cambridge. Also a watchman or a watch. CANT. SCRAGGED. Hanged. SCRAGGY. Lean, bony. SCRAGG'EM FAIR. A public execution. SCRAP. A villainous scheme or plan. He whiddles the whole scrap; he discovers the whole plan or scheme. SCRAPE. To get into a scrape; to be involved in a disagreeable business. SCRAPER. A fiddler; also one who scrapes plates for mezzotinto prints. SCRAPING. A mode of expressing dislike to a person, or sermon, practised at Oxford by the students, in scraping their feet against the ground during the preachment; frequently done to testify their disapprobation of a proctor who has been, as they think, too rigorous. SCRATCH. Old Scratch; the Devil: probably from the long and sharp claws with which he is frequently delineated. SCRATCH LAND. Scotland. SCRATCH PLATTER, or TAYLOR'S RAGOUT. Bread sopt in the oil and vinegar in which cucumbers have been sliced. SCREEN. A bank note. Queer screens; forged bank notes. The cove was twisted for smashing queer screens; the fellow was hanged for uttering forged bank notes. SCREW. A skeleton key used by housebreakers to open a lock. To stand on the screw signifies that a door is not bolted, but merely locked. TO SCREW. To copulate. A female screw; a common prostitute. To screw one up; to exact upon one in a bargain or reckoning. SCREW JAWS. A wry-mouthed man or woman. SCRIP. A scrap or slip of paper. The cully freely blotted the scrip, and tipt me forty hogs; the man freely signed the bond, and gave me forty shillings.--Scrip is also a Change Alley phrase for the last loan or subscription. What does scrip go at for the next rescounters? what does scrip sell for delivered at the next day of settling? SCROBY. To be tipt the scroby; to be whipt before the justices. SCROPE. A farthing. CANT. SCRUB. A low mean fellow, employed in all sorts of dirty work. SCRUBBADO. The itch. SCULL. A head of a house, or master of a college, at the universities. SCULL, or SCULLER. A boat rowed by one man with a light kind of oar, called a scull; also a one-horse chaise or buggy. SCULL THATCHER. A peruke-maker. SCUM. The riff-raff, tag-rag, and bob-tail, or lowest order of people. SCUT. The tail of a hare or rabbit; also that of a woman. SCUTTLE. To scuttle off; to run away. To scuttle a ship; to make a hole in her bottom in order to sink her. SEA CRAB. A sailor. SEA LAWYER. A shark. SEALER, or SQUEEZE WAX. One ready to give bond and judgment for goods or money. SECRET. He has been let into the secret: he has been cheated at gaming or horse-racing. He or she is in the grand secret, i.e. dead. SEEDY. Poor, pennyless, stiver-cramped, exhausted. SEES. The eyes. See DAYLIGHTS. SERVED. Found guilty. Convicted. Ordered to be punished or transported. To serve a cull out; to beat a man soundly. SERAGLIO. A bawdy-house; the name of that part of the Great Turk's palace where the women are kept. SEND. To drive or break in. Hand down the Jemmy and send it in; apply the crow to the door, and drive it in. SET. A dead set: a concerted scheme to defraud a person by gaming. SETTER. A bailiff's follower, who, like a setting dog follows and points the game for his master. Also sometimes an exciseman. TO SETTLE. To knock down or stun any one. We settled the cull by a stroke on his nob; we stunned the fellow by a blow on the head. SEVEN-SIDED ANIMAL. A one-eyed man or woman, each having a right side and a left side, a fore side and a back side, an outside, an inside, and a blind side. SHABBAROON. An ill-dressed shabby fellow; also a mean-spirited person. SHAFTSBURY. A gallon pot full of wine, with a cock. To SHAG. To copulate. He is but bad shag; he is no able woman's man. SHAG-BAG, or SHAKE-BAG. A poor sneaking fellow; a man of no spirit: a term borrowed from the cock-pit. SHAKE. To shake one's elbow; to game with dice. To shake a cloth in the wind; to be hanged in chains. SHAKE. To draw any thing from the pocket. He shook the swell of his fogle; he robbed the gentleman of his silk handkerchief. SHALLOW PATE. A simple fellow. SHALLOW. A WHIP hat, so called from the want of depth in the crown. LILLY SHALLOW, a WHITE Whip hat. SHAM. A cheat, or trick. To cut a sham; to cheat or deceive. Shams; false sleeves to put on over a dirty shirt, or false sleeves with ruffles to put over a plain one. To sham Abram; to counterfeit sickness. TO SHAMBLE. To walk awkwardly. Shamble-legged: one that walks wide, and shuffles about his feet. SHANKER. A venereal wart. SHANKS. Legs, or gams. SHANKS NAGGY. To ride shanks naggy: to travel on foot. SCOTCH. SHANNON. A river in Ireland: persons dipped in that river are perfectly and for ever cured of bashfulness. SHAPES. To shew one's shapes; to be stript, or made peel, at the whipping-post. SHAPPO, or SHAP. A hat: corruption of CHAPEAU. CANT. SHARK. A sharper: perhaps from his preying upon any one he can lay hold of. Also a custom-house officer, or tide-waiter. Sharks; the first order of pickpockets. BOW-STREET TERM, A.D. 1785. SHARP. Subtle, acute, quick-witted; also a sharper or cheat, in opposition to a flat, dupe, or gull. Sharp's the word and quick's the motion with him; said of any one very attentive to his own interest, and apt to take all advantages. Sharp set; hungry. SHARPER. A cheat, one that lives by his wits. Sharpers tools; a fool and false dice. SHAVER. A cunning shaver; a subtle fellow, one who trims close, an acute cheat. A young shaver; a boy. SEA TERM. SHAVINGS. The clippings of money. SHE HOUSE. A house where the wife rules, or, as the term is, wears the breeches. SHE LION. A shilling. SHE NAPPER. A woman thief-catcher; also a bawd or pimp. SHEEP'S HEAD. Like a sheep's head, all jaw; saying of a talkative man or woman. SHEEPISH. Bashful. A sheepish fellow; a bashful or shamefaced fellow. To cast a sheep's eye at any thing; to look wishfully at it. SHEEPSKIN FIDDLER. A drummer. SHELF. On the shelf, i.e. pawned. SHERIFF'S JOURNEYMAN. The hangman. SHERIFF'S BALL. An execution. To dance at the sheriff's ball, and loll out one's tongue at the company; to be hanged, or go to rest in a horse's night-cap, i.e. a halter. SHERIFF'S BRACELETS. Handcuffs. SHERIFF'S HOTEL. A prison. SHERIFF'S PICTURE FRAME. The gallows. TO SHERK. To evade or disappoint: to sherk one's duty. TO SHERRY. To run away: sherry off. SHIFTING. Shuffling. Tricking. Shifting cove; i.e. a person who lives by tricking. SHIFTING BALLAST. A term used by sailors, to signify soldiers, passengers, or any landsmen on board. SHILLALEY. An oaken sapling, or cudgel: from a wood of that name famous for its oaks. IRISH. SHILLY-SHALLY. Irresolute. To stand shilly-shally; to hesitate, or stand in doubt. SHINDY. A dance. SEA PHRASE. SHINE. It shines like a shitten barn door. SHIP SHAPE. Proper, as it ought to be. SEA PHRASE, SH-T SACK. A dastardly fellow: also a non-conformist. This appellation is said to have originated from the following story:--After the restoration, the laws against the non-conformists were extremely severe. They sometimes met in very obscure places: and there is a tradition that one of their congregations were assembled in a barn, the rendezvous of beggars and other vagrants, where the preacher, for want of a ladder or tub, was suspended in a sack fixed to the beam. His discourse that day being on the last judgment, he particularly attempted to describe the terrors of the wicked at the sounding of the trumpet, on which a trumpeter to a puppet-show, who had taken refuge in that barn, and lay hid under the straw, sounded a charge. The congregation, struck with the utmost consternation, fled in an instant from the place, leaving their affrighted teacher to shift for himself. The effects of his terror are said to have appeared at the bottom of the sack, and to have occasioned that opprobrious appellation by which the non-conformists were vulgarly distinguished. SH-T-NG THROUGH THE TEETH. Vomiting. Hark ye, friend, have you got a padlock on your a-se, that you sh-te through your teeth? Vulgar address to one vomiting. SHOD ALL ROUND. A parson who attends a funeral is said to be shod all round, when he receives a hat-band, gloves, and scarf: many shoeings being only partial. SHOEMAKER'S STOCKS. New, or strait shoes. I was in the shoemaker's stocks; i.e. had on a new pair of shoes that were too small for me. TO SHOOLE. To go skulking about. TO SHOOT THE CAT. To vomit from excess of liquor; called also catting. SHOP. A prison. Shopped; confined, imprisoned. SHOPLIFTER. One that steals whilst pretending to purchase goods in a shop. SHORT-HEELED WENCH. A girl apt to fall on her back. SHOT. To pay one's shot; to pay one's share of a reckoning. Shot betwixt wind and water; poxed or clapped. SHOTTEN HERRING. A thin meagre fellow. To SHOVE THE TUMBLER. To be whipped at the cart's tail. SHOVE IN THE MOUTH. A dram. SHOVEL. To be put to bed with a shovel; to be buried. He or she was fed with a fire-shovel; a saying of a person with a large mouth. SHOULDER FEAST. A dinner given after a funeral, to those who have carried the corpse. SHOULDER CLAPPER. A bailiff, or member of the catch club. Shoulder-clapped; arrested. SHOULDER SHAM. A partner to a file. See FILE. SHRED. A taylor. SHRIMP. A little diminutive person. TO SHUFFLE. To make use of false pretences, or unfair shifts. A shuffling fellow; a slippery shifting fellow. SHY COCK. One who keeps within doors for fear of bailiffs. SICE. Sixpence. SICK AS A HORSE. Horses are said to be extremely sick at their stomachs, from being unable to relieve themselves by vomiting. Bracken, indeed, in his Farriery, gives an instance of that evacuation being procured, but by a means which he says would make the Devil vomit. Such as may have occasion to administer an emetic either to the animal or the fiend, may consult his book for the recipe. SIDE POCKET. He has as much need of a wife as a dog of a side pocket; said of a weak old debilitated man. He wants it as much as a dog does a side pocket; a simile used for one who desires any thing by no means necessary. SIDLEDYWRY. Crooked. SIGN OF A HOUSE TO LET. A widow's weeds. SIGN OF THE: FIVE SHILLINGS. The crown. TEN SHILLINGS. The two crowns. FIFTEEN SHILLINGS. The three crowns. SILENCE. To silence a man; to knock him down, or stun him. Silence in the court, the cat is pissing; a gird upon any one requiring silence unnecessarily. SILENT FLUTE. See PEGO, SUGAR STICK, &c. SILK SNATCHERS. Thieves who snatch hoods or bonnets from persons walking in the streets. SILVER LACED. Replete with lice. The cove's kickseys are silver laced: the fellow's breeches are covered with lice. SIMEONITES, (at Cambridge,) the followers of the Rev. Charles Simeon, fellow of King's College, author of Skeletons of Sermons, and preacher at Trinity church; they are in fact rank methodists. SIMKIN. A foolish fellow. SIMON. Sixpence. Simple Simon: a natural, a silly fellow; Simon Suck-egg, sold his wife for an addle duck-egg. TO SIMPER. To smile: to simper like a firmity kettle. SIMPLETON. Abbreviation of simple Tony or Anthony, a foolish fellow. SIMPLES. Physical herbs; also follies. He must go to Battersea, to be cut for the simples--Battersea is a place famous for its garden grounds, some of which were formerly appropriated to the growing of simples for apothecaries, who at a certain season used to go down to select their stock for the ensuing year, at which time the gardeners were said to cut their simples; whence it became a popular joke to advise young people to go to Battersea, at that time, to have their simples cut, or to be cut for the simples. TO SING. To call out; the coves sing out beef; they call out stop thief. TO SING SMALL. To be humbled, confounded, or abashed, to have little or nothing to say for one's-self. SINGLE PEEPER. A person having but one eye. SINGLETON. A very foolish fellow; also a particular kind of nails. SINGLETON. A corkscrew, made by a famous cutler of that name, who lived in a place called Hell, in Dublin; his screws are remarkable for their excellent temper. SIR JOHN. The old title for a country parson: as Sir John of Wrotham, mentioned by Shakespeare. SIR JOHN BARLEYCORN. Strong beer. SIR LOIN. The sur, or upper loin. SIR REVERENCE. Human excrement, a t--d. SIR TIMOTHY. One who, from a desire of being the head of the company, pays the reckoning, or, as the term is, stands squire. See SQUIRE. SITTING BREECHES. One who stays late in company, is said to have his sitting breeches on, or that he will sit longer than a hen. SIX AND EIGHT-PENCE. An attorney, whose fee on several occasions is fixed at that sum. SIX AND TIPS. Whisky and small beer. IRISH. SIXES AND SEVENS. Left at sixes and sevens: i.e. in confusion; commonly said of a room where the furniture, &c. is scattered about; or of a business left unsettled. SIZE OF ALE. Half a pint. Size of bread and cheese; a certain quantity. Sizings: Cambridge term for the college allowance from the buttery, called at Oxford battles. To SIZE. (CAMBRIDGE) To sup at one's own expence. If a MAN asks you to SUP, he treats you; if to SIZE, you pay for what you eat--liquors ONLY being provided by the inviter. SIZAR (Cambridge). Formerly students who came to the University for purposes of study and emolument. But at present they are just as gay and dissipated as their fellow collegians. About fifty years ago they were on a footing with the servitors at Oxford, but by the exertions of the present Bishop of Llandaff, who was himself a sizar, they were absolved from all marks of inferiority or of degradation. The chief difference at present between them and the pensioners, consists in the less amount of their college fees. The saving thus made induces many extravagant fellows to become sizars, that they may have more money to lavish on their dogs, pieces, &c. SKEW. A cup, or beggar's wooden dish. SKEWVOW, or ALL ASKEW. Crooked, inclining to one side. SKIN. In a bad skin; out of temper, in an ill humour. Thin-skinned: touchy, peevish. SKIN. A purse. Frisk the skin of the stephen; empty the money out of the purse. Queer skin; an empty purse. SKIN FLINT. An avaricious man or woman, SKINK. To skink, is to wait on the company, ring the bell, stir the fire, and snuff the candles; the duty of the youngest officer in the military mess. See BOOTS. SKINS. A tanner. SKIP JACKS. Youngsters that ride horses on sale, horse-dealers boys. Also a plaything made for children with the breast bone of a goose. SKIP KENNEL. A footman. SKIPPER. A barn. CANT.--Also the captain of a Dutch vessel. TO SKIT. To wheedle. CANT. SKIT. A joke. A satirical hint. SKRIP. See SCRIP. SKULKER. A soldier who by feigned sickness, or other pretences, evades his duty; a sailor who keeps below in time of danger; in the civil line, one who keeps out of the way, when any work is to be done. To skulk; to hide one's self, to avoid labour or duty. SKY BLUE. Gin. SKY FARMERS. Cheats who pretend they were farmers in the isle of Sky, or some other remote place, and were ruined by a flood, hurricane, or some such public calamity: or else called sky farmers from their farms being IN NUBIBUS, 'in the clouds.' SKY PARLOUR. The garret, or upper story. SLABBERING BIB. A parson or lawyer's band. SLAG. A slack-mettled fellow, one not ready to resent an affront. SLAM. A trick; also a game at whist lost without scoring one. To slam to a door; to shut it with violence. SLAMKIN. A female sloven, one whose clothes seem hung on with a pitch-fork, a careless trapes. SLANG. A fetter. Double slanged; double ironed. Now double slanged into the cells for a crop he is knocked down; he is double ironed in the condemned cells, and ordered to be hanged. SLANG. Cant language. SLAP-BANG SHOP. A petty cook's shop, where there is no credit given, but what is had must be paid DOWN WITH THE READY SLAP-BANG, i.e. immediately. This is a common appellation for a night cellar frequented by thieves, and sometimes for a stage coach or caravan. SLAPDASH. Immediately, instantly, suddenly. SLASHER. A bullying, riotous fellow. IRISH. SLAT. Half a crown. CANT. SLATE. A sheet. CANT. SLATER'S PAN. The gaol at Kingston in Jamaica: Slater is the deputy Provost-marshal. SLATTERN. A woman sluttishly negligent in her dress. SLEEPING PARTNER. A partner in a trade, or shop, who lends his name and money, for which he receives a share of the profit, without doing any part of the business. SLEEPY. Much worn: the cloth of your coat must be extremely sleepy, for it has not had a nap this long time. SLEEVELESS ERRAND. A fool's errand, in search of what it is impossible to find. SLICE. To take a slice; to intrigue, particularly with a married woman, because a slice off a cut loaf is not missed. SLIPGIBBET. See SCAPEGALLOWS. SLIPPERY CHAP. One on whom there can be no dependance, a shuffling fellow. SLIPSLOPS. Tea, water-gruel, or any innocent beverage taken medicinally. SLIPSLOPPING. Misnaming and misapplying any hard word; from the character of Mrs. Slipslop, in Fielding's Joseph Andrews. SLOP. Tea. How the blowens lush the slop. How the wenches drink tea! SLOPS. Wearing apparel and bedding used by seamen. SLOP SELLER. A dealer in those articles, who keeps a slop shop. SLOUCH. A stooping gait, a negligent slovenly fellow. To slouch; to hang down one's head. A slouched hat: a hat whose brims are let down. SLUBBER DE GULLION. A dirty nasty fellow. SLUG. A piece of lead of any shape, to be fired from a blunderbuss. To fire a slug; to drink a dram. SLUG-A-BED. A drone, one that cannot rise in the morning. SLUICE YOUR GOB. Take a hearty drink. SLUR. To slur, is a method of cheating at dice: also to cast a reflection on any one's character, to scandalize. SLUSH. Greasy dish-water, or the skimmings of a pot where fat meat has been boiled. SLUSH BUCKET. A foul feeder, one that eats much greasy food. SLY BOOTS. A cunning fellow, under the mask of simplicity. SMABBLED, or SNABBLED. Killed in battle. TO SMACK. To kiss. I had a smack at her muns: I kissed her mouth. To smack calves skin; to kiss the book, i.e. to take an oath. The queer cuffin bid me smack calves skin, but I only bussed my thumb; the justice bid me kiss the book, but I only kissed my thumb. SMACKSMOOTH. Level with the surface, every thing cut away. SMACKING COVE. A coachman. SMALL CLOTHES. Breeches: a gird at the affected delicacy of the present age; a suit being called coat, waistcoat, and articles, or small clothes. SMART. Spruce, fine: as smart as a carrot new scraped. SMART MONEY. Money allowed to soldiers or sailors for the loss of a limb, or other hurt received in the service. SMASHER. A person who lives by passing base coin. The cove was fined in the steel for smashing; the fellow was ordered to be imprisoned in the house of correction for uttering base coin. SMASH. Leg of mutton and smash: a leg of mutton and mashed turnips. SEA TERM. TO SMASH. To break; also to kick down stairs. CANT. To smash. To pass counterfeit money. SMEAR. A plasterer. SMEAR GELT. A bribe. GERMAN. SMELLER. A nose. Smellers: a cat's whiskers. SMELLING CHEAT. An orchard, or garden; also a nosegay. CANT. SMELTS. Half guineas. CANT. SMICKET. A smock, or woman's shift. SMIRK. A finical spruce fellow. To smirk; to smile, or look pleasantly. SMITER. An arm. To smite one's tutor; to get money from him. ACADEMIC TERM. SMITHFIELD BARGAIN. A bargain whereby the purchaser is taken in. This is likewise frequently used to express matches or marriages contracted solely on the score of interest, on one or both sides, where the fair sex are bought and sold like cattle in Smithfield. SMOCK-FACED. Fair faced. TO SMOKE. To observe, to suspect. SMOKER. A tobacconist. SMOKY. Curious, suspicious, inquisitive. SMOUCH. Dried leaves of the ash tree, used by the smugglers for adulterating the black or bohea teas. SMOUS. A German Jew. SMUG. A nick name for a blacksmith; also neat and spruce. SMUG LAY. Persons who pretend to be smugglers of lace and valuable articles; these men borrow money of publicans by depositing these goods in their hands; they shortly decamp, and the publican discovers too late that he has been duped; and on opening the pretended treasure, he finds trifling articles of no value. SMUGGLING KEN. A bawdy-house. TO SMUSH. To snatch, or seize suddenly. SMUT. Bawdy. Smutty story; an indecent story. SMUT. A copper. A grate. Old iron. The cove was lagged for a smut: the fellow was transported for stealing a copper. SNACK. A share. To go snacks; to be partners. TO SNABBLE. To rifle or plunder; also to kill. SNAFFLER. A highwayman. Snaffler of prances; a horse stealer. TO SNAFFLE. To steal. To snaffle any ones poll; to steal his wig. SNAGGS. Large teeth; also snails. SNAKESMAN. See LITTLE SNAKESMAN. SNAP DRAGON. A Christmas gambol: raisins and almonds being put into a bowl of brandy, and the candles extinguished, the spirit is set on fire, and the company scramble for the raisins. TO SNAP THE GLAZE. To break shop windows or show glasses. SNAPPERS. Pistols. SNAPT. Taken, caught. SNATCH CLY. A thief who snatches women's pockets. SNEAK. A pilferer. Morning sneak; one who pilfers early in the morning, before it is light. Evening sneak; an evening pilferer. Upright sneak: one who steals pewter pots from the alehouse boys employed to collect them. To go upon the sneak; to steal into houses whose doors are carelessly left open. CANT. SNEAKER. A small bowl. SNEAKING BUDGE. One that robs alone. SNEAKSBY. A mean-spirited fellow, a sneaking cur. SNEERING. Jeering, flickering, laughing in scorn. SNICKER. A glandered horse. TO SNICKER, or SNIGGER. To laugh privately, or in one's sleeve. TO SNILCH. To eye, or look at any thing attentively: the cull snilches. CANT. SNIP. A taylor. SNITCH. To turn snitch, or snitcher; to turn informer. TO SNITE. To wipe, or slap. Snite his snitch; wipe his nose, i.e. give him a good knock. TO SNIVEL. To cry, to throw the snot or snivel about. Snivelling; crying. A snivelling fellow; one that whines or complains. TO SNOACH. To speak through the nose, to snuffle. SNOB. A nick name for a shoemaker. TO SNOOZE, or SNOODGE. To sleep. To snooze with a mort; to sleep with a wench. CANT. SNOOZING KEN. A brothel. The swell was spiced in a snoozing ken of his screens; the gentleman was robbed of his bank notes in a brothel. SNOW. Linen hung out to dry or bleach. Spice the snow; to steal the linen. SNOUT. A hogshead. CANT. SNOWBALL. A jeering appellation for a negro. TO SNUB. To check, or rebuke. SNUB DEVIL. A parson. SNUB NOSE. A short nose turned up at the end. SNUDGE. A thief who hides himself under a bed, in Order to rob the house. SNUFF. To take snuff; to be offended. TO SNUFFLE. To speak through the nose. SNUFFLES. A cold in the head, attended with a running at the nose. SNUG. All's snug; all's quiet. TO SOAK. To drink. An old soaker; a drunkard, one that moistens his clay to make it stick together. SOCKET MONEY. A whore's fee, or hire: also money paid for a treat, by a married man caught in an intrigue. SOLDIER'S BOTTLE. A large one. SOLDIER'S MAWND. A pretended soldier, begging with a counterfeit wound, which he pretends to have received at some famous siege or battle. SOLDIER'S POMATUM. A piece of tallow candle. SOLDIER. A red herring. SOLFA. A parish clerk. SOLO PLAYER. A miserable performer on any instrument, who always plays alone, because no one will stay in the room to hear him. SOLOMON. The mass. CANT. SON OF PRATTLEMENT. A lawyer. SONG. He changed his song; he altered his account or evidence. It was bought for an old song, i.e. very cheap. His morning and his evening song do not agree; he tells a different story. SOOTERKIN. A joke upon the Dutch women, supposing that, by their constant use of stoves, which they place under their petticoats, they breed a kind of small animal in their bodies, called a sooterkin, of the size of a mouse, which when mature slips out. SOP. A bribe. A sop for Cerberus; a bribe for a porter, turnkey, or gaoler. SOPH. (Cambridge) An undergraduate in his second year. SORREL. A yellowish red. Sorrel pate; one having red hair. SORROW SHALL BE HIS SOPS. He shall repent this. Sorrow go by me; a common expletive used by presbyterians in Ireland. SORRY. Vile, mean, worthless. A sorry fellow, or hussy; a worthless man or woman. SOT WEED. Tobacco. SOUL CASE. The body. He made a hole in his soul case; he wounded him. SOUL DOCTOR, or DRIVER. A parson. SOUNDERS. A herd of swine. SOUSE. Not a souse; not a penny. FRENCH. SOW. A fat woman. He has got the wrong sow by the ear, he mistakes his man. Drunk as David's sow; see DAVID'S SOW. SOW'S BABY. A sucking pig. SOW CHILD. A female child. SPADO. A sword. SPANISH. SPANGLE. A seven shilling piece. SPANK. (WHIP) To run neatly along, beteen a trot and gallop. The tits spanked it to town; the horses went merrily along all the way to town. SPANISH. The spanish; ready money. SPANISH COIN. Fair words and compliments. SPANISH FAGGOT. The sun. SPANISH GOUT. The pox. SPANISH PADLOCK. A kind of girdle contrived by jealous husbands of that nation, to secure the chastity of their wives. SPANISH, or KING OF SPAIN'S TRUMPETER. An ass when braying. SPANISH WORM. A nail: so called by carpenters when they meet with one in a board they are sawing. SPANKS, or SPANKERS. Money; also blows with the open hand. SPANKING. Large. SPARK. A spruce, trim, or smart fellow. A man that is always thirsty, is said to have a spark in his throat. SPARKISH. Fine, gay. SPARKING BLOWS. Blows given by cocks before they close, or, as the term is, mouth it: used figuratively for words previous to a quarrel. SPARROW. Mumbling a sparrow; a cruel sport frequently practised at wakes and fairs: for a small premium, a booby having his hands tied behind him, has the wing of a cock sparrow put into his mouth: with this hold, without any other assistance than the motion of his lips, he is to get the sparrow's head into his mouth: on attempting to do it, the bird defends itself surprisingly, frequently pecking the mumbler till his lips are covered with blood, and he is obliged to desist: to prevent the bird from getting away, he is fastened by a string to a button of the booby's coat. SPARROW-MOUTHED. Wide-mouthed, like the mouth of a sparrow: it is said of such persons, that they do not hold their mouths by lease, but have it from year to year; i.e. from ear to ear. One whose mouth cannot be enlarged without removing their ears, and who when they yawn have their heads half off. SPATCH COCK. [Abbreviation of DISPATCH COCK.] A hen just killed from the roost, or yard, and immediately skinned, split, and broiled: an Irish dish upon any sudden occasion. TO SPEAK WITH. To rob. I spoke with the cull on the cherry-coloured prancer; I robbed the man on the black horse. CANT. SPEAK. Any thing stolen. He has made a good speak; he has stolen something considerable. SPECKED WHIPER. A coloured hankerchief. CANT. SPICE. To rob. Spice the swell; rob the gentleman. SPICE ISLANDS. A privy. Stink-hole bay or dilberry creek. The fundament. SPIDER-SHANKED. Thin-legged. TO SPIFLICATE. To confound, silence, or dumbfound. SPILT. A small reward or gift. SPILT. Thrown from a horse, or overturned in a carriage; pray, coachee, don't spill us. SPINDLE SHANKS. Slender legs. TO SPIRIT AWAY. To kidnap, or inveigle away. SPIRITUAL FLESH BROKER. A parson. SPIT. He is as like his father as if he was spit out of his mouth; said of a child much resembling his father. SPIT. A sword. SPIT FIRE. A violent, pettish, or passionate person. SPLICED. Married: an allusion to joining two ropes ends by splicing. SEA TERM. SPLIT CROW. The sign of the spread eagle, which being represented with two heads on one neck, gives it somewhat the appearance of being split. SPLIT CAUSE. A lawyer. SPLIT FIG. A grocer. SPLIT IRON. The nick-name for a smith. SPOONEY. (WHIP) Thin, haggard, like the shank of a spoon; also delicate, craving for something, longing for sweets. Avaricious. That tit is damned spooney. She's a spooney piece of goods. He's a spooney old fellow. SPOIL PUDDING. A parson who preaches long sermons, keeping his congregation in church till the puddings are overdone. TO SPORT. To exhibit: as, Jack Jehu sported a new gig yesterday: I shall sport a new suit next week. To sport or flash one's ivory; to shew one's teeth. To sport timber; to keep one's outside door shut; this term is used in the inns of court to signify denying one's self. N.B. The word SPORT was in great vogue ann. 1783 and 1784. SPUNGE. A thirsty fellow, a great drinker. To spunge; to eat and drink at another's cost. Spunging-house: a bailiff's lock-up-house, or repository, to which persons arrested are taken, till they find bail, or have spent all their money: a house where every species of fraud and extortion is practised under the protection of the law. SPUNK. Rotten touchwood, or a kind of fungus prepared for tinder; figuratively, spirit, courage. SPOON HAND. The right hand. TO SPOUT. To rehearse theatrically. SPOUTING CLUB. A meeting of apprentices and mechanics to rehearse different characters in plays: thus forming recruits for the strolling companies. SPOUTING. Theatrical declamation. SPOUTED. Pawned. SPREAD. Butter. SPREAD EAGLE. A soldier tied to the halberts in order to be whipped; his attitude bearing some likeness to that figure, as painted on signs. SPREE. A frolic. Fun. A drinking bout. A party of pleasure. SPRING-ANKLE WAREHOUSE. Newgate, or any other gaol: IRISH. SQUAB. A fat man or woman: from their likeness to a well-stuffed couch, called also a squab. A new-hatched chicken. SQUARE. Honest, not roguish. A square cove, i.e. a man who does not steal, or get his living by dishonest means. SQUARE TOES. An old man: square toed shoes were anciently worn in common, and long retained by old men. SQUEAK. A narrow escape, a chance: he had a squeak for his life. To squeak; to confess, peach, or turn stag. They squeak beef upon us; they cry out thieves after us. CANT. SQUEAKER. A bar-boy; also a bastard or any other child. To stifle the squeaker; to murder a bastard, or throw It into the necessary house.--Organ pipes are likewise called squeakers. The squeakers are meltable; the small pipes are silver. CANT. SQUEEZE CRAB. A sour-looking, shrivelled, diminutive fellow. SQUEEZE WAX. A good-natured foolish fellow, ready to become security for another, under hand and seal. SQUELCH. A fall. Formerly a bailiff caught in a barrack-yard in Ireland, was liable by custom to have three tosses in a blanket, and a squelch; the squelch was given by letting go the corners of the blanket, and suffering him to fall to the ground. Squelch-gutted; fat, having a prominent belly. SQUIB. A small satirical or political temporary jeu d'esprit, which, like the firework of that denomination, sparkles, bounces, stinks, and vanishes. SQUINT-A-PIPES. A squinting man or woman; said to be born in the middle of the week, and looking both ways for Sunday; or born in a hackney coach, and looking out of both windows; fit for a cook, one eye in the pot, and the other up the chimney; looking nine ways at once. SQUIRE OF ALSATIA. A weak profligate spendthrift, the squire of the company; one who pays the whole reckoning, or treats the company, called standing squire. SQUIRISH. Foolish. SQUIRREL. A prostitute: because she like that animal, covers her back with her tail. Meretrix corpore corpus alit. Menagiana, ii. 128. SQUIRREL HUNTING. See HUNTING. STAG. To turn stag; to impeach one's confederates: from a herd of deer, who are said to turn their horns against any of their number who is hunted. TO STAG. To find, discover, or observe. STAGGERING BOB, WITH HIS YELLOW PUMPS. A calf just dropped, and unable to stand, killed for veal in Scotland: the hoofs of a young calf are yellow. STALL WHIMPER. A bastard. CANT. STALLING. Making or ordaining. Stalling to the rogue; an ancient ceremony of instituting a candidate into the society of rogues, somewhat similar to the creation of a herald at arms. It is thus described by Harman: the upright man taking a gage of bowse, i.e. a pot of strong drink, pours it on the head of the rogue to be admitted; saying,--I, A.B. do stall thee B.C. to the rogue; and from henceforth it shall be lawful for thee to cant for thy living in all places. STALLING KEN. A broker's shop, or that of a receiver of stolen goods. STALLION. A man kept by an old lady for secret services. STAM FLESH. To cant. CANT. STAMMEL, or STRAMMEL. A coarse brawny wench. STAMP. A particular manner of throwing the dice out of the box, by striking it with violence against the table. STAMPS. Legs. STAMPERS. Shoes. STAND-STILL. He was run to a stand-still; i.e. till he could no longer move. STAR GAZER. A horse who throws up his head; also a hedge whore. TO STAR THE GLAZE. To break and rob a jeweller's show glass. CANT. STARCHED. Stiff, prim, formal, affected. STARING QUARTER. An ox cheek. START, or THE OLD START. Newgate: he is gone to the start, or the old start. CANT. STARTER. One who leaves a jolly company, a milksop; he is no starter, he will sit longer than a hen. STARVE'EM, ROB'EM, AND CHEAT'EM. Stroud, Rochester, and Chatham; so called by soldiers and sailors, and not without good reason. STAR LAG. Breaking shop-windows, and stealing some article thereout. STASH. To stop. To finish. To end. The cove tipped the prosecutor fifty quid to stash the business; he gave the prosecutor fifty guineas to stop the prosecution. STATE. To lie in state; to be in bed with three harlots. STAY. A cuckold. STAYTAPE. A taylor; from that article, and its coadjutor buckram, which make no small figure in the bills of those knights of the needle. STEAMER. A pipe. A swell steamer; a long pipe, such as is used by gentlemen to smoke. STEEL. The house of correction. STEEL BAR. A needle. A steel bar flinger; a taylor, stay-maker, or any other person using a needle. STEENKIRK. A muslin neckcloth carelessly put on, from the manner in which the French officers wore their cravats when they returned from the battle of Steenkirk. STEEPLE HOUSE. A name given to the church by Dissenters. STEPHEN. Money. Stephen's at home; i.e. has money. STEPNEY. A decoction of raisins of the sun and lemons in conduit water, sweetened with sugar, and bottled up. STEWED QUAKER. Burnt rum, with a piece of butter: an American remedy for a cold. STICKS. Household furniture. STICKS. Pops or pistols. Stow your sticks; hide your pistols. CANT. See POPS. STICK FLAMS. A pair of gloves. STIFF-RUMPED. Proud, stately. STINGRUM. A niggard. STINGO. Strong beer, or other liquor. STIRRUP CUP. A parting cup or glass, drank on horseback by the person taking leave. STITCH. A nick name for a taylor: also a term for lying with a woman. STITCHBACK. Strong ale. STIVER-CRAMPED. Needy, wanting money. A stiver is a Dutch coin, worth somewhat more than a penny sterling. STOCK. A good stock; i.e. of impudence. Stock and block; the whole: he has lost stock and block. STOCK DRAWERS. Stockings. STOCK JOBBERS. Persons who gamble in Exchange Alley, by pretending to buy and sell the public funds, but in reality only betting that they will be at a certain price, at a particular time; possessing neither the stock pretended to be sold, nor money sufficient to make good the payments for which they contract: these gentlemen are known under the different appellations of bulls, bears, and lame ducks. STOMACH WORM. The stomach worm gnaws; I am hungry. STONE. Two stone under weight, or wanting; an eunuch. Stone doublet; a prison. Stone dead; dead as a stone. STONE JUG. Newgate, or any other prison. STONE TAVERN. Ditto. STOOP-NAPPERS, or OVERSEERS OF THE NEW PAVEMENT. Persons set in the pillory. CANT. STOOP. The pillory. The cull was served for macing and napp'd the stoop; he was convicted of swindling, and put in the pillory. STOP HOLE ABBEY. The nick name of the chief rendzvous of the canting crew of beggars, gypsies, cheats, thieves, &c. &c. STOTER. A great blow. Tip him a stoter in the haltering place; give him a blow under the left ear. STOUP. A vessel to hold liquor: a vessel containing a size or half a pint, is so called at Cambridge. STOW. Stow you; be silent, or hold your peace. Stow your whidds and plant'em, for the cove of the ken can cant'em; you have said enough, the man of the house understands you. STRAIT-LACED. Precise, over nice, puritanical. STRAIT WAISTCOAT. A tight waistcoat, with long sleeves coming over the hand, having strings for binding them behind the back of the wearer: these waistcoats are used in madhouses for the management of lunatics when outrageous. STRAMMEL. See STAMMEL. STRANGER. A guinea. STRANGLE GOOSE. A poulterer. To STRAP. To work. The kiddy would not strap, so he went on the scamp: the lad would not work, and therefore robbed on the highway. STRAPPER. A large man or woman. STRAPPING. Lying with a woman. CANT. STRAW. A good woman in the straw; a lying-in woman. His eyes draw straw; his eyes are almost shut, or he is almost asleep: one eye draws straw, and t'other serves the thatcher. STRETCH. A yard. The cove was lagged for prigging a peter with several stretch of dobbin from a drag; the fellow was transported for stealing a trunk, containing several yards of ribband, from a waggon. STRETCHING. Hanging. He'll stretch for it; he will be hanged for it. Also telling a great lie: he stretched stoutly. STRIKE. Twenty shillings. CANT. STRIP ME NAKED. Gin. STROKE. To take a stroke: to take a bout with a woman. STROLLERS. Itinerants of different kinds. Strolling morts; beggars or pedlars pretending to be widows. STROMMEL. Straw. CANT. STRONG MAN. To play the part of the strong man, i.e. to push the cart and horses too; to be whipt at the cart's tail. STRUM. A perriwig. Rum strum: a fine large wig. (CAMBRIDGE) To do a piece. Foeminam subagitare. CANT. To STRUM. To have carnal knowledge of a woman; also to play badly on the harpsichord; or any other stringed instrument. A strummer of wire, a player on any instrument strung with wire. STRUMPET. A harlot. STUB-FACED. Pitted with the smallpox: the devil ran over his face with horse stabs (horse nails) in his shoes. STUBBLE IT. Hold your tongue. CANT. STULING KEN. See STALLING KEN. CANT. STUM. The flower of fermenting wine, used by vintners to adulterate their wines. STUMPS. Legs. To stir one's stumps; to walk fast. STURDY BEGGARS. The fifth and last of the most ancient order of canters, beggars that rather demand than ask CANT. SUCCESSFULLY. Used by the vulgar for SUCCESSIVELY: as three or four landlords of this house have been ruined successfully by the number of soldiers quartered on them. IRISH. SUCH A REASON PIST MY GOOSE, or MY GOOSE PIST. Said when any one offers an absurd reason. SUCK. Strong liquor of any sort. To suck the monkey; see MONKEY. Sucky; drunk. To SUCK. To pump. To draw from a man all be knows. The file sucked the noodle's brains: the deep one drew out of the fool all he knew. SUCKING CHICKEN. A young chicken. SUDS. In the suds; in trouble, in a disagreeable situation, or involved in some difficulty. SUGAR STICK. The virile member. SUGAR SOPS. Toasted bread soked in ale, sweetened with sugar, and grated nutmeg: it is eaten with cheese. SULKY. A one-horse chaise or carriage, capable of holding but one person: called by the French a DESOBLIGEANT. SUN. To have been in the sun; said of one that is drunk. SUNBURNT. Clapped; also haying many male children. SUNDAY MAN. One who goes abroad on that day only, for fear of arrests. SUNNY BANK. A good fire in winter. SUNSHINE. Prosperity. SUPERNACOLUM. Good liquor, of which there is not even a drop left sufficient to wet one's nail. SUPOUCH. A landlady of an inn, or hostess. SURVEYOR OF THE HIGHWAYS. One reeling drunk. SURVEYOR OF THE PAVEMENT. One standing in the pillory. SUS PER COLL. Hanged: persons who have been hanged are thus entered into the jailor's books. SUSPENCE. One in a deadly suspence; a man just turned off at the gallows. SUTRER. A camp publican: also one that pilfers gloves, tobacco boxes, and such small moveables. SWABBERS. The ace of hearts, knave of clubs, ace and duce of trumps, at whist: also the lubberly seamen, put to swab, and clean the ship. SWAD, or SWADKIN. A soldier. CANT. To SWADDLE. To beat with a stick. SWADDLERS. The tenth order of the canting tribe, who not only rob, but beat, and often murder passenges. CANT. Swaddlers is also the Irish name for methodist. SWAG. A shop. Any quantity of goods. As, plant the swag; conceal the goods. Rum swag; a shop full of rich goods. CANT. SWAGGER. To bully, brag, or boast, also to strut. SWANNERY. He keeps a swannery; i.e. all his geese are swans. SWEATING. A mode of diminishing the gold coin, practiced chiefly by the Jews, who corrode it with aqua regia. Sweating was also a diversion practised by the bloods of the last century, who styled themselves Mohocks: these gentlemen lay in wait to surprise some person late in the night, when surrounding him, they with their swords pricked him in the posteriors, which obliged him to be constantly turning round; this they continued till they thought him sufficiently sweated. SWEET. Easy to be imposed on, or taken in; also expert, dexterous clever. Sweet's your hand; said of one dexterous at stealing. SWEET HEART. A term applicable to either the masculine or feminine gender, signifying a girl's lover, or a man's mistress: derived from a sweet cake in the shape of a heart. SWEETNESS. Guinea droppers, cheats, sharpers. To sweeten to decoy, or draw in. To be sweet upon; to coax, wheedle, court, or allure. He seemed sweet upon that wench; he seemed to court that girl. SWELL. A gentleman. A well-dressed map. The flashman bounced the swell of all his blunt; the girl's bully frightened the gentleman out of all his money. SWELLED HEAD. A disorder to which horses are extremely liable, particularly those of the subalterns of the army. This disorder is generally occasioned by remaining too long in one livery-stable or inn, and often arises to that height that it prevents their coming out at the stable door. The most certain cure is the unguentum aureum--not applied to the horse, but to the palm of the master of the inn or stable. N. B. Neither this disorder, nor its remedy, is mentioned by either Bracken, Bartlet, or any of the modern writers on farriery. SWIG. A hearty draught of liquor. SWIGMEN. Thieves who travel the country under colour of buying old shoes, old clothes, &c. or selling brooms, mops, &c. CANT. TO SWILL. To drink greedily. SWILL TUB. A drunkard, a sot. SWIMMER. A counterfeit old coin. SWIMMER. A ship. I shall have a swimmer; a cant phrase used by thieves to signify that they will be sent on board the tender. TO SWING. To be hanged. He will swing for it; he will be hanged for it. SWING TAIL. A hog. TO SWINGE. To beat stoutly. SWINGING. A great swinging fellow; a great stout fellow. A swinging lie; a lusty lie. SWINDLER. One who obtains goods on credit by false pretences, and sells them for ready money at any price, in order to make up a purse. This name is derived from the German word SCHWINDLIN, to totter, to be ready to fall; these arts being generally practised by persons on the totter, or just ready to break. The term SWINDLER has since been used to signify cheats of every kind. SWIPES. Purser's swipes; small beer: so termed on board the king's ships, where it is furnished by the purser. SWISH TAIL. A pheasant; so called by the persons who sell game for the poachers. TO SWIVE. To copulate. SWIVEL-EYED. Squinting. SWIZZLE. Drink, or any brisk or windy liquor. In North America, a mixture of spruce beer, rum, and sugar, was so called. The 17th regiment had a society called the Swizzle Club, at Ticonderoga, A. D. 1760. SWORD RACKET. To enlist in different regiments, and on receiving the bounty to desert immediately. SWOP. An exchange. SYEBUCK. Sixpence. SYNTAX. A schoolmaster. TABBY. An old maid; either from Tabitha, a formal antiquated name; or else from a tabby cat, old maids being often compared to cats. To drive Tab; to go out on a party of pleasure with a wife and family. TACE. Silence, hold your tongue. TACE is Latin for a candle; a jocular admonition to be silent on any subject. TACKLE. A mistress; also good clothes. The cull has tipt his tackle rum gigging; the fellow has given his mistress good clothes. A man's tackle: the genitals. TAFFY, i.e. Davy. A general name for a Welchman, St. David being the tutelar saint of Wales. Taffy's day; the first of March, St. David's day. TAG-RAG AND BOBTAIL. An expression meaning an assemblage of low people, the mobility of all sorts. To tag after one like a tantony pig: to follow one wherever one goes, just as St. Anthony is followed by his pig. TAIL. A prostitute. Also, a sword. TAKEN IN. Imposed on, cheated. TALE TELLERS. Persons said to have been formerly hired to tell wonderful stories of giants and fairies, to lull their hearers to sleep. Talesman; the author of a story or report: I'll tell you my tale, and my talesman. Tale bearers; mischief makers, incendiaries in families. TALL BOY. A bottle, or two-quart pot. TALLY MEN. Brokers that let out clothes to the women of the town. See RABBIT SUCKERS. TALLYWAGS, or TARRYWAGS. A man's testicles. TAME. To run tame about a house; to live familiarly in a family with which one is upon a visit. Tame army; the city trained bands. TANDEM. A two-wheeled chaise, buggy, or noddy, drawn by two horses, one before the other: that is, AT LENGTH. TANGIER. A room in Newgate, where debtors were confined, hence called Tangerines. TANNER. A sixpence. The kiddey tipped the rattling cove a tanner for luck; the lad gave the coachman sixpence for drink. TANTADLIN TART. A sirreverence, human excrement. TANTRUMS. Pet, or passion: madam was in her tantrums. TANTWIVY. Away they went tantwivy; away they went full speed. Tantwivy was the sound of the hunting horn in full cry, or that of a post horn. TAP. A gentle blow. A tap on the shoulder;-an-arrest. To tap a girl; to be the first seducer: in allusion to a beer barrel. To tap a guinea; to get it changed. TAPPERS. Shoulder tappers: bailiffs. TAPE. Red tape; brandy. Blue or white tape; gin. TAPLASH. Thick and bad beer. TAR. Don't lose a sheep for a halfpennyworth of tar: tar is used to mark sheep. A jack tar; a sailor. TARADIDDLE. A fib, or falsity. TARPAWLIN. A coarse cloth tarred over: also, figuratively, a sailor. TARRING AND FEATHERING. A punishment lately inflicted by the good people of Boston on any person convicted, or suspected, of loyalty: such delinquents being "stripped naked", were daubed all over wilh tar, and afterwards put into a hogshead of feathers. TART. Sour, sharp, quick, pert. TARTAR. To catch a Tartar; to attack one of superior strength or abilities. This saying originated from a story of an Irish-soldier in the Imperial service, who, in a battle against the Turks, called out to his comrade that he had caught a Tartar. 'Bring him along then,' said he. 'He won't come,' answered Paddy. 'Then come along yourself,' replied his comrade. 'Arrah,' cried he, 'but he won't let me.'--A Tartar is also an adept at any feat, or game: he is quite a Tartar at cricket, or billiards. TAT. Tit for tat; an equivalent. TATS. False dice. TATLER. A watch. To flash a tatler: to wear a watch. TAT MONGER. One that uses false dice. TATTERDEMALION. A ragged fellow, whose clothes hang all in tatters. TATTOO. A beat of the drum, of signal for soldiers to go to their quarters, and a direction to the sutlers to close the tap, and draw no more liquor for them; it is generally beat at nine in summer and eight in winter. The devil's tattoo; beating with one's foot against the ground, as done by persons in low spirits. TAW. A schoolboy's game, played with small round balls made of stone dust, catted marbles. I'll be one upon your taw presently; a species of threat. TAWDRY. Garish, gawdy, with lace or staring and discordant colours: a term said to be derived from the shrine and altar of St. Audrey (an Isle of Ely saintess), which for finery exceeded all others thereabouts, so as to become proverbial; whence any fine dressed man or woman said to be all St Audrey, and by contraction, all tawdry. TAWED. Beaten, TAYLE. See TAIL. TAYLE DRAWERS. Thieves who snatch gentlemens swords from their sides. He drew the cull's tayle rumly; he snatched away the gentleman's sword cleverly. TAYLOR. Nine taylors make a man; an ancient and common saying, originating from the effeminacy of their employment; or, as some have it, from nine taylors having been robbed by one man; according to others, from the speech of a woollendraper, meaning that the custom of nine, taylors would make or enrich one man--A London taylor, rated to furnish half a man to the Trained Bands, asking how that could possibly be done? was answered, By sending four, journeymen and and apprentice.--Puta taylor, a weaver, and a miller into a sack, shake them well, And the first that, puts out his head is certainly a thief.--A taylor is frequently styled pricklouse, assaults on those vermin with their needles. TAYLORS GOOSE. An iron with which, when heated, press down the seams of clothes. TEA VOIDER. A chamber pot. TEA GUELAND. Ireland. Teaguelanders; Irishmen. TEARS OF THE TANKARD. The drippings of liquor on a man's waistcoat. TEDDY MY GODSON. An address to a supposed simple fellow, or nysey, TEIZE. To-nap the teize; to receive a whipping. CANT. TEMPLE PICKLING. Pumping a bailiff; a punishment formerly administered to any of that fraternity caught exercising their functions within the limits of Temple. TEN TOES. See BAYARD OF TEN TOES. TEN IN THE HUNDRED. An usurer; more than five in the hundred being deemed usurious interest. TENANT AT WILL, One whose wife usually fetches him from the alehouse. TENANT FOR LIFE. A married man; i.e. possessed of a woman for life. TENDER PARNELL. A tender creature, fearful of the least puff of wind or drop of rain. As tender as Parnell, who broke her finger in a posset drink. TERMAGANT. An outrageous scold from Termagantes, a cruel Pagan, formerly represented in diners shows and entertainments, where being dressed a la Turque, in long clothes, he was mistaken for a furious woman. TERRA FIRMA. An estate in land. TESTER. A sixpence: from TESTON, a coin with a head on it. TETBURY PORTION. A **** and a clap. THAMES. He will not find out a way to set the Thames on fire; he will not make any wonderful discoveries, he is no conjuror. THATCH-GALLOWS. A rogue, or man of bad character. THICK. Intimate. They are as thick as two inkle-weavers. THIEF. You are a thief and a murderer, you have killed a baboon and stole his face; vulgar abuse. THIEF IN A CANDLE. Part of the wick or snuff, which falling on the tallow, burns and melts it, and causing it to gutter, thus steals it away. THIEF TAKERS. Fellows who associate with all kinds of villains, in order to betray them, when they have committed any of those crimes which entitle the persons taking them to a handsome reward, called blood money. It is the business of these thief takers to furnish subjects for a handsome execution, at the end of every sessions. THIMBLE. A watch. The swell flashes a rum thimble; the gentleman sports a fine watch. THINGSTABLE. Mr. Thingstable; Mr. Constable: a ludicrous affectation of delicacy in avoiding the pronunciation of the first syllable in the title of that officer, which in sound has some similarity to an indecent monosyllable. THINGUMBOB. Mr. Thingumbob; a vulgar address or nomination to any person whose name is unknown, the same as Mr. What-d'ye-cal'em. Thingumbobs; testicles. THIRDING. A custom practised at the universities, where two thirds of the original price is allowed by the upholsterers to the students for household goods returned to them within the year. THIRTEENER. A shilling in Ireland, which there passes for thirteen pence. THOMOND. Like Lord Thomond's cocks, all on one side. Lord Thomond's cock-feeder, an Irishman, being entrusted with some cocks which were matched for a considerable sum, the night before the battle shut them all together in one room, concluding that as they were all on the same side, they would not disagree: the consequence was, they were most of them either killed or lamed before the morning. THOMAS. Man Thomas; a man's penis. THORNS. To be or sit upon thorns; to be uneasy, impatient, anxious for an event. THORNBACK. An old maid. THOROUGH CHURCHMAN. A person who goes in at one door of a church, and out at the other, without stopping. THOROUGH-GOOD-NATURED WENCH. One who being asked to sit down, will lie down. THOROUGH GO NIMBLE. A looseness, a violent purging. THOROUGH COUGH. Coughing and breaking wind backwards at the same time. THOROUGH STITCH. To go thorough stitch; to stick at nothing; over shoes, over boots. THOUGHT. What did thought do? lay'in bed and beshat himself, and thought he was up; reproof to any one who excuses himself for any breach of positive orders, by pleading that he thought to the contrary. THREE TO ONE. He is playing three to one, though sure to lose; said of one engaged in the amorous congress. THREE-PENNY UPRIGHT. A retailer of love, who, for the sum mentioned, dispenses her favours standing against a wall. THREE-LEGGED MARE, or STOOL. The gallows, formerly consisting of three posts, over which were laid three transverse beams. This clumsy machine has lately given place to an elegant contrivance, called the NEW DROP, by which the use of that vulgar vehicle a cart, or mechanical instrument a ladder, is also avoided; the patients being left suspended by the dropping down of that part of the floor on which they stand. This invention was first made use of for a peer. See DROP. THREE THREADS. Half common ale, mixed with stale and double beer. THREPS. Threepence. TO THROTTLE. To strangle. THROTTLE. The throat, or gullet. TO THRUM. To play on any instrument stringed with wire. A thrummer of wire; a player on the spinet, harpsichord, of guitar. THRUMS. Threepence. THUMB. By rule of thumb: to do any thing by dint of practice. To kiss one's thumb instead of the book; a vulgar expedient to avoid perjury in taking a false oath. THUMMIKINS. An instrument formerly used in Scotland, like a vice, to pinch the thumbs of persons accused of different crimes, in order to extort confession. THUMP. A blow. This is better than a thump on the back with a stone; said on giving any one a drink of good liquor on a cold morning. Thatch, thistle, thunder, and thump; words to the Irish, like the Shibboleth of the Hebrews. THUMPING. Great! a thumping boy. THWACK. A great blow with a stick across the shoulders. TIB. A young lass TIBBY. A cat. TIB OF THE BUTTERY. A goose. CANT. Saint Tibb's evening; the evening of the last day, or day of judgment: he will pay you on St. Tibb's eve. IRISH. TICK. To run o'tick; take up goods upon trust, to run in debt. Tick; a watch. SEE SESSIONS PAPERS. TICKLE TEXT. A parson. TICKLE PITCKEB. A thirsty fellow, a sot. TICKLE TAIL. A rod, or schoolmaster. A man's penis. TICKRUM. A licence. TIDY. Neat. TIFFING. Eating or drinking out of meal time, disputing or falling out; also lying with a wench, A tiff of punch, a small bowl of punch. TILBUKY. Sixpence; so called from its formerly being the fare for Crossing over from Gravesend to Tilbury Fort. TILT. To tilt; to fight with a sword. To run full tilt against one; allusion to the ancient tilling with the lance. TILTER. A sword. TIM WHISKY. A light one--horse chaise without a head. TIMBER TOE. A man with a wooden leg. TINY. Little. TO TIP. To give or lend. Tip me your daddle; give me your hand. Tip me a hog; give me a shilling. To tip the lion; to flatten a man's nose with the thumb, and, at the same time to extend his mouth, with the fingers, thereby giving him a sort of lion-like countenance. To tip the velvet; tonguing woman. To tip all nine; to knock down all the nine pins at once, at the game of bows or skittles: tipping, at these gaines, is slightly touching the tops of the pins with the bowl. Tip; a draught; don't spoil his tip. TIP-TOP. The best: perhaps from fruit, that growing at the top of the tree being generally the best, as partaking most of the sun. A tip-top workman; the best, or most excellent Workman. TIPPERARY FORTUNE. Two town lands, stream's town, and ballinocack; said of Irish women without fortune. TIPPLE. Liquor. TIPPLERS. Sots who are continually sipping. TIPSEY. Almost drunk. TIRING. Dressing: perhaps abbreviation of ATTIRING. Tiring women, or tire women: women that used to cut ladies hair, and dress them. TIT. A horse; a pretty little tit; a smart little girl. a *** or tid bit; a delicate morsel. Tommy tit; a smart lively little fellow. TIT FOR TAT. An equivalent. TO TITTER. To suppress a laugh. TITTER TATTER. One reeling, and ready to fall at the least touch; also the childish amusement of riding upon the two ends of a plank, poised upon the prop underneath its centre, called also see-saw. Perhaps tatter is a rustic pronunciation of totter. TITTLE-TATTLE. Idle discourse, scandal, women's talk, or small talk. TITTUP. A gentle hand gallop, or canter. TIZZY. Sixpence. TOAD EATER. A poor female relation, and humble companion, or reduced gentlewoman, in a great family, the standing butt, on whom all kinds of practical jokes are played off, and all ill humours vented. This appellation is derived from a mountebank's servant, on whom all experiments used to be made in public by the doctor, his master; among which was the eating of toads, formerly supposed poisonous. Swallowing toads is here figuratively meant for swallowing or putting up with insults, as disagreeable to a person of feeling as toads to the stomach. TOAD. Toad in a hole; meat baked or boiled in pye-crust. He or she sits like a toad on a chopping-block; a saying of any who sits ill on horseback. As much need of it as a toad of a side-pocket; said of a person who desires any thing for which he has no real occasion. As full of money as a toad is of feathers. TOAST. A health; also a beautiful woman whose health is often drank by men. The origin of this term (as it is said) was this: a beautiful lady bathing in a cold bath, one of her admirers out of gallantry drank some of the water: whereupon another of her lovers observed, he never drank in the morning, but he would kiss the toast, and immediately saluted the lady. TOASTING IRON, or CHEESE TOASTER. A sword. TOBY LAY. The highway. High toby man; a highway-man. Low toby man; a footpad. TOBACCO. A plant, once in great estimation as a medicine: Tobacco hic Will make you well if you be sick. Tobacco hic If you be well will make you sick. TODDY. Originally the juice of the cocoa tree, and afterwards rum, water, sugar, and nutmeg. TODDLE. To walk away. The cove was touting, but stagging the traps he toddled; be was looking out, and feeing the officers he walked away. TODGE. Beat all to a todge: said of anything beat to mash. TOGE. A coat. Cant. TOGEMANS. The same. CANT. TOGS. Clothes. The swell is rum-togged. The gentleman is handsomely dressed. TOKEN. The plague: also the venereal disease. She tipped him the token; she gave him a clap or pox. TOL, or TOLEDO. A sword: from Spanish swords made at Toledo, which place was famous for sword blades of an extraordinary temper. TOLLIBAN RIG. A species of cheat carried on by a woman, assuming the character of a dumb and deaf conjuror. TOM T--DMAN. A night man, one who empties necessary houses. TOMBOY. A romping girl, who prefers the amusement used by boys to those of her own sex. TOM OF BEDLAM. The same as Abram man. TOM CONY. A simple fellow. TOM LONG. A tiresome story teller. It is coming by Tom Long, the carrier; said of any thing that has been long expected. TOM THUMB. A dwarf, a little hop-o'my-thumb. TOMMY. Soft Tommy, or white Tommy; bread is so called by sailors, to distinguish it from biscuit. Brown Tommy: ammunition bread for soldiers; or brown bread given to convicts at the hulks. TO-MORROW COME NEVER. When two Sundays come together; never. TONGUE. Tongue enough for two sets of teeth: said of a talkative person. As old as my tongue, and a little older than my teeth; a dovetail in answer to the question, How old are you? Tongue pad; a scold, or nimble-tongued person. TONY. A silly fellow, or ninny. A mere tony: a simpleton. TOOLS. The private parts of a man. TOOL. The instrument of any person or faction, a cat's paw. See CATS PAW. TOOTH Music. Chewing. TOOTH-PICK. A large stick. An ironical expression. TOPPER. A violent blow on the head. TOP ROPES. To sway away on all top ropes; to live riotously or extravagantly. TO TOP. To cheat, or trick: also to insult: he thought to have topped upon me. Top; the signal among taylors for snuffing the candles: he who last pronounces that word word, is obliged to get up and perform the operation.--to be topped; to be hanged. The cove was topped for smashing queerscreens; he was hanged for uttering forged bank notes. TOP DIVER. A lover of women. An old top diver; one who has loved old hat in his time. TOP HEAVY. Drunk. TOP LIGHTS. The eyes. Blast your top lights. See CURSE. Top SAIL. He paid his debts at Portsmouth with the topsail; i.e. he went to sea and left them unpaid. SCT soldiers are said to pay off their scores with the drum; that is, by marching away. TOPER. One that loves his bottle, a soaker. SEE TO SOAK. TOPPING FELLOW. One at the top or head of his profession. TOPPING CHEAT. The gallows. CANT. TOPPING COVE. The hangman. CANT. TOPPING MAN. A rich man. TOFSY-TURVY. The top side the other way; i.e. the wrong side upwards; some explain it, the top side turf ways, turf being always laid the wrong side upwards. TORCHECUL. Bumfodder. TORMENTER OF SHEEP SKIN. A drummer. TORMENTER OF CATGUT. A fiddler. TORY. An advocate for absolute monarchy and church power; also an Irish vagabond, robber, Or rapparee. TOSS POT. A drunkard. TOSS OFF. Manual pollution. TOTTY-HEADED. Giddy, hare-brained. TOUCH. To touch; to get money from any one; also to arrest. Touched in the wind; broken winded. Touched in the head; insane, crazy. To touch up a woman; to have carnal knowledge of her. Touch bone and whistle; any one having broken wind backwards, according to the vulgar law, may be pinched by any of the company till he has touched bone (i.e. his teeth) and whistled. TOUCH BUN FOR LUCK. See BUN. TOVT. A look-out house, or eminence. TOUTING. (From TUERI, to look about) Publicans fore-stalling guests, or meeting them on the road, and begging their custom; also thieves or smugglers looking out to see that the coast is clear. Touting ken; the bar of a public house. TOW ROW. A grenadier. The tow row club; a club or society of the grenadier officers of the line. TOWEL. An oaken towel, a cudgel. To rub one down with an oaken towel; to beat or cudgel him. TOWER. Clipped money: they have been round the tower with it. CANT. TO TOWER. To overlook, to rise aloft as in a high tower. TOWER HILL PLAY. A slap on the face, and a kick on the breech. TOWN. A woman of the town; a prostitute. To be on the town: to live by prostitution. TOWN BULL. A common whoremaster. To roar like a town bull; to cry or bellow aloud. TO TRACK. To go. Track up the dancers; go up stairs. CANT. TRADING JUSTICES. Broken mechanics, discharged footmen, and other low fellows, smuggled into the commission of the peace, who subsist by fomenting disputes, granting warrants, and otherwise retailing justice; to the honour of the present times, these nuisances are by no means, so common as formerly. TRADESMEN. Thieves. Clever tradesmen; good thieves. TRANSLATORS. Sellers of old mended shoes and boots, between coblers and shoemakers. TO TRANSMOGRAPHY, or TRANSMIGRIFY. To patch up vamp, or alter. TO TRANSNEAR. To come up with any body. TRANTER. See CROCKER. TRAP. To understand trap; to know one's own interest. TRAP STICKS. Thin legs, gambs: from the sticks with which boys play at trap-ball. TRAPS. Constables and thief-takers. CANT. TO TRAPAN. To inveigle, or ensnare. TRAPES. A slatternly woman, a careless sluttish woman. TRAVELLER. To tip the traveller; to tell wonderful stories, to romance. TRAVELLING PIQUET. A mode of amusing themselves, practised by two persons riding in a carriage, each reckoning towards his game the persons or animals that pass by on the side next them, according to the following estimation: A parson riding a grey horse, without furniture; game. An old woman under a hedge; ditto. A cat looking out of a window; 60. A man, woman, and child, in a buggy; 40. A man with a woman behind him; 30. A flock of sheep; 20. A flock of geese; 10. A post chaise; 5. A horseman; 2. A man or woman walking; 1. TRAY TRIP. An ancient game like Scotch hop, played on a pavement marked out with chalk into different compartments. TRENCHER CAP. The square cap worn by the collegians. at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. TRENCHER MAN. A stout trencher man; one who has a good appetite, or, as the term is, plays a good knife and fork. TRESWINS. Threepence. TRIB. A prison: perhaps from tribulation. TRICKUM LEGIS. A quirk or quibble in the law. TRIG. The point at which schoolboys stand to shoot their marbles at taw; also the spot whence bowlers deliver the bowl. TO TRIG IT. To play truant. To lay a man trigging; to knock him down. TRIGRYMATE. An idle female companion. TRIM. State, dress. In a sad trim; dirty.--Also spruce or fine: a trim fellow. TRIM TRAM. Like master, like man. TRIMMING. Cheating, changing side, or beating. I'll trim his jacket; I'll thresh him. To be trimmed; to be shaved; I'll just step and get trimmed. TRINE. To hang; also Tyburn. TRINGUM TRANGUM. A whim, or maggot. TRINING. Hanging. TRINKETS. Toys, bawbles, or nicknacks. TRIP. A short voyage or journey, a false step or stumble, an error in the tongue, a bastard. She has made a trip; she has had a bastard. TRIPE. The belly, or guts. Mr. Double Tripe; a fat man. Tripes and trullibubs; the entrails: also a jeering appellation for a fat man. TO TROLL. To loiter or saunter about. TROLLY LOLLY. Coarse lace once much in fashion. TROLLOP. A lusty coarse sluttish woman. TROOPER. You will die the death of a trooper's horse, that is, with your shoes-on; a jocular method of telling any one he will be hanged. TROT. An old trot; a decrepit old woman. A dog trot; a gentle pace. TROTTERS. Feet. To shake one's trotters at Bilby's ball, where the sheriff pays the fiddlers; perhaps the Bilboes ball, i.e. the ball of fetters: fetters and stocks were anciently called the bilboes. To TROUNCE. To punish by course of law. TRUCK. To exchange, swop, or barter; also a wheel such as ship's guns are placed upon. TRULL. A soldier or a tinker's trull; a soldier or tinker's female companion.--Guteli, or trulli, are spirits like women, which shew great kindness to men, and hereof it is that we call light women trulls. RANDLE HOLM'S ACADEMY OF ARMORY. TRUMPERY. An old whore, or goods of no value; rubbish. TRUMPET. To sound one's own trumpet; to praise one's self. TRUMPETER. The king of Spain's trumpeter; a braying ass. His trumpeter is dead, he is therefore forced to sound his own trumpet. He would make an excellent trumpeter, for he has a strong breath; said of one having a foetid breath. TRUMPS. To be put to one's trumps: to be in difficulties, or put to one's shifts. Something may turn up trumps; something lucky may happen. All his cards are trumps: he is extremely fortunate. TRUNDLERS. Peas. TRUNK. A nose. How fares your old trunk? does your nose still stand fast? an allusion to the proboscis or trunk of an elephant. To shove a trunk: to introduce one's self unasked into any place or company. Trunk-maker like; more noise than work. TRUSTY TROJAN, or TRUSTY TROUT. A true friend. TRY ON. To endeavour. To live by thieving. Coves who try it on; professed thieves. TRYNING. See TRINING. TU QUOQUE. The mother of all saints. TUB THUMPER. A presbyterian parson. TUCKED UP. Hanged. A tucker up to an old bachelor or widower; a supposed mistress. TUFT HUNTER. A it anniversary parasite, one who courts the acquaintance of nobility, whose caps are adorned with a gold tuft. TUMBLER. A cart; also a sharper employed to draw in pigeons to game; likewise a posture-master, or rope-dancer. To shove the tumbler, or perhaps tumbril; to-be whipt at the cart's tail. TO TUNE. To beat: his father tuned him delightfully: perhaps from fetching a tune out of the person beaten, or from a comparison with the disagreeable sounds of instruments when tuning. TO TUP. To have carnal knowledge of a woman. TUP. A ram: figuratively, a cuckold. TUP RUNNING. A rural sport practised at wakes and fairs in Derbyshire; a ram, whose tail is well soaped and greased, is turned out to the multitude; any one that can take him by the tail, and hold him fast, is to have him for his own. T--D. There were four t--ds for dinner: stir t--d, hold t--d, tread t--d, and mus-t--d: to wit, a hog's face, feet and chitterlings, with mustard. He will never sh--e a seaman's t--d; i.e. he will never make a good seaman. TURF. On the turf; persons who keep running horses, or attend and bet at horse-races, are said to be on the turf. TURK. A cruel, hard-hearted man. Turkish treatment; barbarous usage. Turkish shore; Lambeth, Southwark, and Rotherhithe side of the Thames. TURKEY MERCHANT. A poulterer. TURNCOAT. One who has changed his party from interested motives. TURNED UP. Acquitted; discharged. TURNIP-PATED. White or fair-haired. TURNPIKE MAN. A parson; because the clergy collect their tolls at our entrance into and exit from the world. TUZZY-MUZZY. The monosyllable. TWADDLE. Perplexity, confusion, or any thing else: a fashionable term that for a while succeeded that of BORE. See BORE. TWANGEY, or STANGEY. A north country name for a taylor. TWEAGUE. In a great tweague: in a great passion. Tweaguey; peevish, passionate. TO TWEAK. To pull: to tweak any one's nose. TWELVER. A shilling. TWIDDLE-DIDDLES. Testicles. TWIDDLE POOP. An effeminate looking fellow. IN TWIG. Handsome; stilish. The cove is togged in twig; the fellow is dressed in the fashion. TO TWIG. To observe. Twig the cull, he is peery; observe the fellow, he is watching us. Also to disengage, snap asunder, or break off. To twig the darbies; to knock off the irons. TWISS. (IRISH) A Jordan, or pot de chambre. A Mr. Richard Twiss having in his "Travels" given a very unfavourable description of the Irish character, the inhabitants of Dublin, byway of revenge, thought proper to christen this utensil by his name--suffice it to say that the baptismal rites were not wanting at the ceremony. On a nephew of this gentleman the following epigram was made by a friend of ouis: Perish the country, yet my name Shall ne'er in STORY be forgot, But still the more increase in fame, The more the country GOES TO POT. TWIST. A mixture of half tea and half coffee; likewise brandy, beer, and eggs. A good twist; a good appetite. To twist it down apace; to eat heartily. TWISTED. Executed, hanged. TO TWIT. To reproach a person, or remind him of favours conferred. TWITTER. All in a twitter; in a fright. Twittering is also the note of some small birds, such as the robin, &c. TWITTOC. Two. CANT. TWO HANDED PUT. The amorous congress. TWO THIEVES BEATING A ROGUE. A man beating his hands against his sides to warm himself in cold weather; called also beating the booby, and cuffing Jonas. TWO TO ONE SHOP. A pawnbroker's: alluding to the three blue balls, the sign of that trade: or perhaps to its being two to one that the goods pledged are never redeemed. TWO-HANDED. Great. A two-handed fellow or wench; a great strapping man orwoman, TYE. A neckcloth. TYBURN BLOSSOM. A young thief or pickpocket, who in time will ripen into fruit borne by the deadly never-green. TYBURN TIPPET. A halter; see Latimer's sermon before. Edward VI. A. D. 1549. TYBURN TOP, or FORETOP. A wig with the foretop combed over the eyes in a knowing style; such being much worn by the gentlemen pads, scamps, divers, and other knowing hands. TYKE. A dog, also a clown; a Yorkshire tyke. TYNEY. See TINEY. VAGARIES. Frolics, wild rambles. VAIN-GLORIOUS, or OSTENTATIOUS MAN. One who boasts without reason, or, as the canters say, pisses more than he drinks. VALENTINE. The first woman seen by a man, or man seen by a woman, on St. Valentine's day, the 14th of February, when it is said every bird chuses his mate for the ensuing year. TO VAMP. To pawn any thing. I'll vamp it, and tip you the cole: I'll pawn it, and give you the money. Also to refit, new dress, or rub up old hats, shoes or other wearing apparel; likewise to put new feet to old boots. Applied more particularly to a quack bookseller. VAMPER. Stockings. VAN. Madam Van; see MADAM. VAN-NECK. Miss or Mrs. Van-Neck; a woman with large breasts; a bushel bubby. VARDY. To give one's vardy; i.e. verdict or opinion. VARLETS. Now rogues and rascals, formerly yeoman's servants. VARMENT. (Whip and Cambridge.) Natty, dashing. He is quite varment, he is quite the go. He sports a varment hat, coat, &c.; he is dressed like a gentleman Jehu. VAULTING SCHOOL. A bawdy-house; also an academy where vaulting and other manly exercises are taught. VELVET. To tip the velvet; to put one's tongue into a woman's mouth. To be upon velvet; to have the best of a bet or match. To the little gentleman in velvet, i. e. the mole that threw up the hill that caused Crop (King William's horse) to stumble; a toast frequently drank by the tories and catholics in Ireland. VENERABLE MONOSYLLABLE. Pudendum muliebre. VENUS'S CURSE. The venereal disease. VESSELS OF PAPER. Half a quarter of a sheet. VICAR OF BRAY. See BRAY. VICE ADMIRAL OF THE NARROW SEAS. A drunken man that pisses under the table into his companions' shoes. VICTUALLING OFFICE. The stomach. VINCENT'S LAW. The art of cheating at cards, composed of the following associates: bankers, those who play booty; the gripe, he that betteth; and the person cheated, who is styled the vincent; the gains acquired, termage. VINEGAR. A name given to the person who with a whip in his hand, and a hat held before his eye, keeps the ring clear, at boxing-matches and cudgel-playing; also, in cant terms, a cloak. VIXEN. A termagant; also a she fox, who, when she has cubs, is remarkably fierce. TO VOWEL. A gamester who does not immediately pay his losings, is said to vowel the winner, by repeating the vowels I. O. U. or perhaps from giving his note for the money according to the Irish form, where the acknowledgment of the debt is expressed by the letters I. O. U. which, the sum and name of the debtor being added, is deemed a sufficient security among gentlemen. UNCLE. Mine uncle's; a necessary house. He is gone to visit his uncle; saying of one who leaves his wife soon after marriage. It likewise means a pawnbroker's: goods pawned are frequently said to be at mine uncle's, or laid up in lavender. UNDERSTRAPPER. An inferior in any office, or department. UNDER DUBBER. A turnkey. UNFORTUNATE GENTLEMEN. The horse guards, who thus named themselves in Germany, where a general officer seeing them very awkward in bundling up their forage, asked what the devil they were; to which some of them answered, unfortunate gentlemen. UNFORTUNATE WOMEN. Prostitutes: so termed by the virtuous and compassionate of their own sex. UNGRATEFUL MAN. A parson, who at least once a week abuses his best benefactor, i.e. the devil. UNGUENTUM AUREUM. A bribe. UNICORN. A coach drawn by three horses. UNLICKED CUB. A rude uncouth young fellow. UNRIGGED. Undressed, or stripped. Unrig the drab; strip the wench. UNTRUSS. To untruss a point; to let down one's breeches in order to ease one's self. Breeches were formerly tied with points, which till lately were distributed to the boys every Whit Monday by the churchwardens of most of the parishes in London, under the denomination of tags: these tags were worsteds of different colours twisted up to a size somewhat thicker than packthread, and tagged at both ends with tin. Laces were at the same given to the girls. UNTWISTED. Undone, ruined, done up. UNWASHED BAWDRY. Rank bawdry. UP TO THEIR GOSSIP. To be a match for one who attempts to cheat or deceive; to be on a footing, or in the secret. I'll be up with him; I will repay him in kind. UPHILLS. False dice that run high. UPPER BENJAMIN. A great coat. CANT. UPPER STORY, or GARRET. Figuratively used to signify the head. His upper story or garrets are unfurnished; i.e. he is an empty or foolish fellow. UPPING BLOCK. [Called in some counties a leaping stock, in others a jossing block.] Steps for mounting a horse. He sits like a toad on a jossing block; said of one who sits ungracefully on horseback. UPPISH. Testy, apt to take offence. UPRIGHT. Go upright; a word used by shoemakers, taylors and their servants, when any money is given to make them drink, and signifies, Bring it all out in liquor, though the donor intended less, and expects change, or some of his money, to be returned. Three-penny upright. See THREEPENNY UPRIGHT, UPRIGHT MAN. An upright man signifies the chief or principal of a crew. The vilest, stoutest rogue in the pack is generally chosen to this post, and has the sole right to the first night's lodging with the dells, who afterwards are used in common among the whole fraternity. He carries a short truncheon in his hand, which he calls his filchman, and has a larger share than ordinary in whatsoever is gotten in the society. He often travels in company with thirty or forty males and females, abram men, and others, over whom he presides arbitrarily. Sometimes the women and children who are unable to travel, or fatigued, are by turns carried in panniers by an ass, or two, or by some poor jades procured for that purpose. UPSTARTS. Persons lately raised to honours and riches from mean stations. URCHIN. A child, a little fellow; also a hedgehog. URINAL OF THE PLANETS. Ireland: so called from the frequent rains in that island. USED UP. Killed: a military saying, originating from a message sent by the late General Guise, on the expedition at Carthagena, where he desired the commander in chief to order him some more grenadiers, for those he had were all used up. WABLER. Footwabler; a contemptuous term for a foot soldier, frequently used by those of the cavalry. TO WADDLE. To go like a duck. To waddle out of Change alley as a lame duck; a term for one who has not been able to pay his gaming debts, called his differences, on the Stock Exchange, and therefore absents himself from it. WAG. An arch-frolicsome fellow. WAGGISH. Arch, gamesome, frolicsome. WAGTAIL. A lewd woman. WAITS. Musicians of the lower order, who in most towns play under the windows of the chief inhabitants at midnight, a short time before Christmas, for which they collect a christmas-box from house to house. They are said to derive their name of waits from being always in waiting to celebrate weddings and other joyous events happening within their district. WAKE. A country feast, commonly on the anniversary of the tutelar saint of the village, that is, the saint to whom the parish church is dedicated. Also a custom of watching the dead, called Late Wake, in use both in Ireland and Wales, where the corpse being deposited under a table, with a plate of salt on its breast, the table is covered with liquor of all sorts; and the guests, particularly, the younger part of them, amuse themselves with all kinds of pastimes and recreations: the consequence is generally more than replacing the departed friend. WALKING CORNET. An ensign of foot. WALKING POULTERER. One who steals fowls, and hawks them from door to door. WALKING STATIONER. A hawker of pamphlets, &c. WALKING THE PLANK. A mode of destroying devoted persons or officers in a mutiny or ship-board, by blindfolding them, and obliging them to walk on a plank laid over the ship's side; by this means, as the mutineers suppose, avoiding the penalty of murder. WALKING UP AGAINST THE WALL. To run up a score, which in alehouses is commonly recorded with chalk on the walls of the bar. WALL. To walk or crawl up the wall; to be scored up at a public-nouse. Wall-eyed, having an eye with little or no sight, all white like a plaistered wall. TO WAP. To copulate, to beat. If she wont wap for a winne, let her trine for a make; if she won't lie with a man for a penny, let her hang for a halfpenny. Mort wap-apace; a woman of experience, or very expert at the sport. WAPPER-EYED. Sore-eyed. WARE. A woman's ware; her commodity. WARE HAWK. An exclamation used by thieves to inform their confederates that some police officers are at hand. WARM. Rich, in good circumstances. To warm, or give a man a warming; to beat him. See CHAFED. WARMING-PAN. A large old-fashioned watch. A Scotch warming-pan; a female bedfellow. WARREN. One that is security for goods taken up on credit by extravagant young gentlemen. Cunny warren; a girl's boarding-school, also a bawdy-house. WASH. Paint for the face, or cosmetic water. Hog-wash; thick and bad beer. WASP. An infected prostitute, who like a wasp carries a sting in her tail. WASPISH. Peevish, spiteful. WASTE. House of waste; a tavern or alehouse, where idle people waste both their time and money. WATCH, CHAIN, AND SEALS. A sheep's head And pluck. WATER-MILL. A woman's private parts. WATER SNEAKSMAN. A man who steals from ships or craft on the river. WATER. His chops watered at it; he longed earnestly for it. To watch his waters; to keep a strict watch on any one's actions. In hot water: in trouble, engaged in disputes. WATER BEWITCHED. Very weak punch or beer. WATERPAD. One that robs ships in the river Thames. WATERY-HEADED. Apt to shed tears. WATER SCRIGER, A doctor who prescribes from inspecting the water of his patients. See PISS PROPHET. WATTLES. Ears. CANT. WEAR A--E. A one-horse chaise. WEASEL-FACED. Thin, meagre-faced. Weasel-gutted; thin-bodied; a weasel is a thin long slender animal with a sharp face. WEDDING. The emptying of a necessary-house, particularly in London. You have been at an Irish wedding, where black eyes are given instead of favours; saying to one who has a black eye. WEDGE. Silver plate, because melted by the receivers of stolen goods into wedges. CANT. TO WEED. To take a part. The kiddey weeded the swell's screens; the youth took some of the gentleman's bank notes. WEEPING CROSS. To come home by weeping cross; to repent. WELCH COMB. The thumb and four fingers. WELCH FIDDLE. The itch. See SCOTCH FIDDLE. WELCH MILE. Like a Welch mile, long and narrow. His story is like a Welch mile, long and tedious. WELCH RABBIT, [i. e. a Welch rare-bit] Bread and cheese toasted. See RABBIT.--The Welch are said to be so remarkably fond of cheese, that in cases of difficulty their midwives apply a piece of toasted cheese to the janua vita to attract and entice the young Taffy, who on smelling it makes most vigorous efforts to come forth. WELCH EJECTMENT. To unroof the house, a method practised by landlords in Wales to eject a bad tenant. TO WELL. To divide unfairly. To conceal part. A cant phrase used by thieves, where one of the party conceals some of the booty, instead of dividing it fairly amongst his confederates. WELL-HUNG. The blowen was nutts upon the kiddey because he is well-hung; the girl is pleased with the youth because his genitals are large. WESTMINSTER WEDDING. A match between a whore and a rogue. WET PARSON. One who moistens his clay freely, in order to make it stick together. WET QUAKER. One of that sect who has no objection to the spirit derived from wine. WHACK. A share of a booty obtained by fraud. A paddy whack; a stout brawney Irishman. WHAPPER. A large man or woman. WHEEDLE. A sharper. To cut a wheedle; to decoy by fawning or insinuation. Cant. WHEELBAND IN THE NICK. Regular drinking over the left thumb. WHELP. An impudent whelp; a saucy boy. WHEREAS. To follow a whereas; to become a bankrupt, to figure among princes and potentates: the notice given in the Gazette that a commission of bankruptcy is issued out against any trader, always beginning with the word whereas. He will soon march in the rear of a whereas. WHET. A morning's draught, commonly white wine, supposed to whet or sharpen the appetite. WHETSTONE'S PARK. A lane between Holborn and Lincoln's-inn Fields, formerly famed for being the resort of women of the town. WHIDS. Words. Cant. TO WHIDDLE. To tell or discover. He whiddles; he peaches. He whiddles the whole scrap; he discovers all he knows. The cull whiddled because they would not tip him a snack: the fellow peached because they would not give him a share, They whiddle beef, and we must brush; they cry out thieves, and we must make off. Cant. WHIDDLER. An informer, or one that betrays the secrets of the gang. WHIFFLES. A relaxation of the scrotum. WHIFFLERS. Ancient name for fifers; also persons at the universities who examine candidates for degrees. A whiffling cur, a small yelping cur. WHIMPER, or WHINDLE. A low cry. TO WHINE. To complain. WHINYARD. A sword. TO WHIP THE COCK. A piece of sport practised at wakes, horse-races, and fairs in Leicestershire: a cock being tied or fastened into a hat or basket, half a dozen carters blindfolded, and armed with their cart whips, are placed round it, who, after being turned thrice about, begin to whip the cock, which if any one strikes so as to make it cry out, it becomes his property; the joke is, that instead of whipping the cock they flog each other heartily. WHIP JACKS. The tenth order of the canting crew, rogues who having learned a few sea terms, beg with counterfeit passes, pretending to be sailors shipwrecked on the neighbouring coast, and on their way to the port from whence they sailed. TO WHIP OFF. To run away, to drink off greedily, to snatch. He whipped away from home, went to the alehouse, where he whipped off a full tankard, and coming back whipped off a fellow's hat from his head. WHIP-BELLY VENGEANCE, or pinch-gut vengeance, of which he that gets the most has the worst share. Weak or sour beer. WHIPPER-SNAPPER. A diminutive fellow. WHIPSHIRE. Yorkshire. WHIPSTER. A sharp or subtle fellow. WHIPT SYLLABUB. A flimsy, frothy discourse or treatise, without solidity. WHIRLYGIGS. Testicles. WHISKER. A great lie. WHISKER SPLITTER. A man of intrigue. WHISKIN. A shallow brown drinking bowl. WHISKY. A malt spirit much drank in Ireland and Scotland; also a one-horse chaise. See TIM WHISKY. WHISTLE. The throat. To wet one's whistle; to drink. WHISTLING SHOP. Rooms in the King's Bench and Fleet prison where drams are privately sold. WHIT. [i. e. Whittington's.] Newgate. Cant.--Five rum-padders are rubbed in the darkmans out of the whit, and are piked into the deuseaville; five highwaymen broke out of Newgate in the night, and are gone into the country. WHITE RIBBIN. Gin. WHITE FEATHER. He has a white feather; he is a coward; an allusion to a game cock, where having a white feather is a proof he is not of the true game breed. WHITE-LIVERED. Cowardly, malicious. WHITE LIE. A harmless lie, one not told with a malicious intent, a lie told to reconcile people at variance. WHITE SERJEANT. A man fetched from the tavern or ale-house by his wife, is said to be arrested by the white serjeant. WHITE SWELLING. A woman big with child is said to have a white swelling. WHITE TAPE. Geneva. WHITE WOOL. Geneva. WHITECHAPEL. Whitechapel portion; two smocks, and what nature gave. Whitechapel breed; fat, ragged, and saucy: see ST. GILES'S BREED. Whitechapel beau; one who dresses with a needle and thread, and undresses with a knife. To play at whist Whitechapel fashion; i.e. aces and kings first. WHITEWASHED. One who has taken the benefit of an act of insolvency, to defraud his creditors, is said to have been whitewashed. WHITFIELITE. A follower of George Whitfield, a Methodist. WHITHER-GO-YE. A wife: wives being sometimes apt to question their husbands whither they are going. WHITTINGTON'S COLLEGE. Newgate; built or repaired by the famous lord mayor of that name. WHORE'S BIRD. A debauched fellow, the largest of all birds. He sings more like a whore's bird than a canary bird; said of one who has a strong manly voice. WHORE'S CURSE. A piece of gold coin, value five shillings and three pence, frequently given to women of the town by such as professed always to give gold, and who before the introduction of those pieces always gave half a guinea. WHOHE'S KITLING, or WHORE'S SON. A bastard. WHORE-MONGER. A man that keeps more than one mistress. A country gentleman, who kept a female friend, being reproved by the parson of the parish, and styled a whore-monger, asked the parson whether he had a cheese in his house; and being answered in the affirmative, 'Pray,' says he, 'does that one cheese make you a cheese-monger?' WHORE PIPE. The penis. WHOW BALL. A milk-maid: from their frequent use of the word whow, to make the cow stand still in milking. Ball is the supposed name of the cow. WIBBLE. Bad drink. WIBLING'S WITCH. The four of clubs: from one James Wibling, who in the reign of King James I. grew rich by private gaming, and was commonly observed to have that card, and never to lose a game but when he had it not. WICKET. A casement; also a little door. WIDOW'S WEEDS. Mourning clothes of a peculiar fashion, denoting her state. A grass widow; a discarded mistress. a widow bewitched; a woman whose husband is abroad, and said, but not certainly known, to be dead. WIFE. A fetter fixed to one leg. WIFE IN WATER COLOURS. A mistress, or concubine; water colours being, like their engagements, easily effaced, or dissolved. WIGANNOWNS. A man wearing a large wig. WIGSBY. Wigsby; a man wearing a wig. WILD ROGUES. Rogues trained up to stealing from their cradles. WILD SQUIRT. A looseness. WILD-GOOSE CHASE. A tedious uncertain pursuit, like the following a flock of wild geese, who are remarkably shy. WILLING TIT. A free horse, or a coming girl. WILLOW. Poor, and of no reputation. To wear the willow; to be abandoned by a lover or mistress. WIN. A penny, TO WIN. To steal. The cull has won a couple of rum glimsticks; the fellow has stolen a pair of fine candlesticks. WIND. To raise the wind; to procure mony. WINDER. Transportation for life. The blowen has napped a winder for a lift; the wench is transported for life for stealing in a shop. WIND-MILL. The fundament. She has no fortune but her mills; i.e. she has nothing but her **** and a*se. WINDFALL. A legacy, or any accidental accession of property. WINDMILLS IN THE HEAD. Foolish projects. WINDOW PEEPER. A collector of the window tax. WINDWARD PASSAGE. One who uses or navigates the windward passage; a sodomite. WINDY. Foolish. A windy fellow; a simple fellow. WINK. To tip one the wink; to give a signal by winking the eye. WINNINGS. Plunder, goods, or money acquired by theft. WINTER CRICKET. A taylor. WINTER'S DAY. He is like a winter's day, short and dirty. WIPE. A blow, or reproach. I'll give you a wipe on the chops. That story gave him a fine wipe. Also a handkerchief. WIPER. A handkerchief. CANT. WIPER DRAWER. A pickpocket, one who steals handkerchiefs. He drew a broad, narrow, cam, or specked wiper; he picked a pocket of a broad, narrow, cambrick, or coloured handkerchief. TO WIREDRAW. To lengthen out or extend any book, letter, or discourse. WISE. As wise as Waltham's calf, that ran nine miles to suck a bull. WISE MEN OF GOTHAM. Gotham is a village in Nottinghamshire; its magistrates are said to have attempted to hedge in a cuckow; a bush, called the cuckow's bush, is still shewn in support of the tradition. A thousand other ridiculous stories are told of the men of Gotham. WISEACRE. A foolish conceited fellow. WISEACRE'S HALL. Gresham college. WIT. He has as much wit as three folks, two fools and a madman. WITCHES. Silver. Witcher bubber; a silver bowl. Witcher tilter; a silver-hilted sword. Witcher cully; a silversmith. TO WOBBLE. To boil. Pot wobbler; one who boils a pot. WOLF IN THE BREAST. An extraordinary mode of imposition, sometimes practised in the country by strolling women, who have the knack of counterfeiting extreme pain, pretending to have a small animal called a wolf in their breasts, which is continually gnawing them. WOLF IN THE STOMACH. A monstrous or canine appetite. WOOD. In a wood; bewildered, in a maze, in a peck of troubles, puzzled, or at a loss what course to take in any business. To look over the wood; to ascend the pulpit, to preach: I shall look over the wood at St. James's on Sunday next. To look through the wood; to stand in the pillory. Up to the arms in wood; in the pillory. WOOD PECKER. A bystander, who bets whilst another plays. WOODCOCK. A taylor with a long bill. WOODEN HABEAS. A coffin. A man who dies in prison is said to go out with a wooden habeas. He went out with a wooden habeas; i.e. his coffin. WOODEN SPOON. (Cambridge.) The last junior optime. See WRANGLER, OPTIME. WOODEN HORSE. To ride the wooden horse was a military punishment formerly in use. This horse consisted of two or more planks about eight feet long, fixed together so as to form a sharp ridge or angle, which answered to the body of the horse. It was supported by four posts, about six feet long, for legs. A head, neck, and tail, rudely cut in wood, were added, which completed the appearance of a horse. On this sharp ridge delinquents were mounted, with their hands tied behind them; and to steady them (as it was said), and lest the horse should kick them off, one or more firelocks were tied to each leg. In this situation they were sometimes condemned to sit an hour or two; but at length it having been found to injure the soldiers materially, and sometimes to rupture them, it was left off about the time of the accession of King George I. A wooden horse was standing in the Parade at Portsmouth as late as the year 1750. WOODEN RUFF. The pillory. See NORWAY NECKCLOTH. WOODEN SURTOUT. A coilin. WOMAN OF THE TOWN, or WOMAN OF PLEASURE. A prostitute. WOMAN AND HER HUSBAND. A married couple, where the woman is bigger than her husband. WOMAN'S CONSCIENCE. Never satisfied. WOMAN OF ALL WORK. Sometimes applied to a female servant, who refuses none of her master's commands. WOOLBIRD. A sheep. CANT. WOOL GATHERING. Your wits are gone a woolgathering; saying to an absent man, one in a reverie, or absorbed in thought. WOOLLEY CROWN. A soft-headed fellow. WORD GRUBBERS. Verbal critics, and also persons who use hard words in common discourse. WORD PECKER. A punster, one who plays upon words. WORD OF MOUTH. To drink by word of mouth, i.e. out of the bowl or bottle instead, of a glass. WORLD. All the world and his wife; every body, a great company. WORM. To worm out; to obtain the knowledge of a secret by craft, also to undermine or supplant. He is gone to the diet of worms; he is dead and buried, or gone to Rothisbone. WRANGLERS. At CAMBRIDGE the first class (generally of twelve) at the annual examination for a degree. There are three classes of honours, wranglers, senior optimes, and junior optimes. Wranglers are said to be born with golden spoons in their mouths, the senior optimes with silver, and the junior with leaden ones. The last junior optime is called the wooden spoon. Those who are not qualified for honors are either in the GULF (that is, meritorious, but not deserving of being in the three first classes) or among the pollot [Proofreaders Note: Greek Letters] the many. See PLUCK, APOSTLES, &C. WRAP RASCAL. A red cloak, called also a roquelaire. WRAPT UP IN WARM FLANNEL. Drunk with spirituous liquors. He was wrapt up in the tail of his mother's smock; saying of any one remarkable for his success with the ladies. To be wrapt up in any one: to have a good opinion of him, or to be under his influence. WRINKLE. A wrinkle-bellied whore; one who has had a number of bastards: child-bearing leaves wrinkles in a woman's belly. To take the wrinkles out of any one's belly; to fill it out by a hearty meal. You have one wrinkle more in your a-se; i.e. you have one piece of knowledge more than you had, every fresh piece of knowledge being supposed by the vulgar naturalists to add a wrinkle to that part. WRY MOUTH AND A PISSEN PAIR OF BREECHES. Hanging. WRY NECK DAY. Hanging day. WYN. See WIN. XANTIPPE. The name of Socrates's wife: now used to signify a shrew or scolding wife. YAFFLING. Eating. CANT. TO YAM. To eat or stuff heartily. YANKEY, or YANKEY DOODLE. A booby, or country lout: a name given to the New England men in North America. A general appellation for an American. YARMOUTH CAPON. A red herring: Yarmouth is a famous place for curing herrings. YARMOUTH COACH. A kind of low two-wheeled cart drawn by one horse, not much unlike an Irish car. YARMOUTH PYE. A pye made of herrings highly spiced, which the city of Norwich is by charter bound to present annually to the king. YARUM. Milk. CANT. YEA AND NAY MAN. A quaker, a simple fellow, one who can only answer yes, or no. YELLOW. To look yellow; to be jealous. I happened to call on Mr. Green, who was out: on coming home, and finding me with his wife, he began to look confounded blue, and was, I thought, a little yellow. YELLOW BELLY. A native of the Fens of Lincolnshire; an allusion to the eels caught there. YELLOW BOYS. Guineas. TO YELP. To cry out. Yelper; a town cryer, also one apt to make great complaints on trifling occasions. YEST. A contraction of yesterday. YOKED. Married. A yoke; the quantum of labour performed at one spell by husbandmen, the day's work being divided in summer into three yokes. Kentish term. YORKSHIRE TYKE. A Yorkshire clown. To come Yorkshire over any one; to cheat him. YOUNG ONE. A familiar expression of contempt for another's ignorance, as "ah! I see you're a young one." How d'ye do, young one? TO YOWL. To cry aloud, or howl. ZAD. Crooked like the letter Z. He is a mere zad, or perhaps zed; a description of a very crooked or deformed person. ZANY. The jester, jack pudding, or merry andrew, to a mountebank. ZEDLAND. Great part of the west country, where the letter Z is substituted for S; as zee for see, zun for sun, 
6473	----	PRACTICAL ARGUMENTATION PRACTICAL ARGUMENTATION BY GEORGE K. PATTEE, A.M. Assistant Professor of English and Rhetoric in The Pennsylvania State College TO FRED LEWIS PATTEE Preface The author's aim has been to produce a book that is practical,-- practical from the student's standpoint, and practical from the teacher's standpoint. The study of Argumentation has often been criticized for being purely academic, or for being a mere stepping- stone to the study of law. It has even been said that courses in Argumentation and Debate have been introduced into American colleges and universities for no other purpose than to give the intellectual student the opportunity, so long monopolized by his athletic classmate, to take part in intercollegiate contests. The purpose of this book is to teach Argumentation, which is not a science by itself but one of the four branches of Rhetoric, in such a way as to remove these criticisms. Largely by his choice of illustrative material the author has endeavored to show that this subject is confined neither to the class room nor to any one profession. He has drawn his illustrations, for the most part, from contemporary and popular sources; he has had recourse to many current magazines, newspapers, books, and recent speeches, hoping to show thereby that Argumentation is a practical subject. On the other hand, he has carefully avoided taking a majority of his illustrations either from students' work or from legal practice, criminal cases especially being seldom used on the ground that although they afford the easiest examples a writer can give, they furnish the least help to the average student, who, unless he studies law, will rarely, perhaps never, have occasion to argue upon such subjects. This book cannot justly be called the effort of a single author. It is rather an outgrowth of the work that for many years has been carried on by the English department at The Pennsylvania State College. The book has, in fact, gradually developed in the class room. Every rule that is given has been tested time and again; every step has been carefully thought out and taught for several years. The author wishes to acknowledge especial indebtedness to Professor Fred Lewis Pattee, who both inspired the writing of the book and assisted in the work. To Professor A. Howry Espenshade are due many thanks for invaluable suggestions and advice, and for a careful reading of the greater part of the manuscript. Mr. William S. Dye is also to be thanked for valuable assistance. As a student the author studied Baker's _Principles of Argumentation_; as a teacher he has taught Laycock and Scales' _Argumentation and Debate_, Alden's _The Art of Debate_, and Foster's _Argumentation and Debating_. The debt he owes to these is beyond estimate. STATE COLLEGE, PA. March 17, 1909 Contents I. Preliminaries II. The Subject III. The Introduction--Persuasion IV. The Introduction--Conviction V. The Introduction--Brief-Drawing VI. The Discussion--Conviction and Persuasion VII. The Discussion--Brief-Drawing VIII. Methods of Refutation IX. Debate--Some Practical Suggestions X. The Conclusion APPENDIX. A. A Written Argument and its Brief B. A List of Propositions PRACTICAL ARGUMENTATION PRACTICAL ARGUMENTATION CHAPTER I PRELIMINARIES Argumentation is the art of presenting truth so that others will accept it and act in accordance with it. Debate is a special form of argumentation: it is oral argumentation carried on by opposing sides. A consideration of the service which argumentation performs shows that it is one of the noblest and most useful of arts. By argumentation men overthrow error and discover truth. Courts of law, deliberative assemblies, and all bodies of people that engage in discussion recognize this fact. Argumentation threshes out a problem until the chaff has blown away, when it is easy to see just what kernels of truth remain and what action ought to be taken. Men of affairs, before entering upon any great enterprise, call in advocates of different systems, and by becoming familiar with arguments from every point of view try to discover what is best. This method of procedure presupposes a difference of opinion and belief among men, and holds that when each one tries to establish his ideas, the truth will remain, and that which is false will be swept away. The field of argumentation includes every kind of discourse that attempts to change man's actions or opinions. Exposition is explanation when only one theory or one interpretation of the facts is possible; when views of truth or of policy conflict, and one course is expounded in opposition to another, the process becomes argumentation. This art is used not only by professional speakers, but by men of every occupation. The schoolboy pleading for a holiday, the workman seeking employment, the statesman advocating a principle of government are all engaged in some form of argumentation. Everywhere that men meet together, on the street or in the assembly hall, debate is certain to arise. Written argument is no less common. Hardly a periodical is published but contains argumentative writing. The fiery editorial that urges voters to the polls, the calm and polished essay that points out the dangers of organized labor, the scientific treatise that demonstrates the practicability of a sea-level canal on the Isthmus are attempts to change existing conditions and ideas, and thus come within the field of argumentation. The practical benefit to be derived from the study and application of the principles of argumentation can hardly be overestimated. The man who wishes to influence the opinions and actions of others, who wishes to become a leader of men in however great or however humble a sphere, must be familiar with this art. The editor, the lawyer, the merchant, the contractor, the laborer--men in every walk of life--depend for their success upon bringing others to believe, in certain instances, as they believe. Everywhere men who can point out what is right and best, and can bring others to see it and act upon it, win the day. Another benefit to be obtained from the study of argumentation is the ability to be convinced intelligently. The good arguer is not likely to be carried away by specious arguments or fallacious reasoning. He can weigh every bit of evidence; he can test the strength and weakness of every statement; he can separate the essential from the unessential; and he can distinguish between prejudice and reason. A master of the art of argumentation can both present his case convincingly to others, and discover the truth in a matter that is presented to him. Argumentation can hardly be considered as a distinct art standing by itself; it is rather a composite of several arts, deriving its fundamentals from them, and depending upon them for its existence. In the first place, since argumentation is spoken or written discourse, it belongs to rhetoric, and the rules which govern composition apply to it as strongly as to any other kind of expression. In fact, perhaps rhetorical principles should be observed in argumentation more rigidly than elsewhere, for in the case of narration, description, or exposition, the reader or hearer, in an endeavor to derive pleasure or profit, is seeking the author, while in argumentation it is the author who is trying to force his ideas upon the audience. Hence an argument must contain nothing crude or repulsive, but must be attractive in every detail. In the second place, any composition that attempts to alter beliefs must deal with reasons, and the science of reasoning is logic. There is no need for the student of argumentation to make an exhaustive study of this science, for the good arguer is not obliged to know all the different ways the mind may work; he must, however, know how it should work in order to produce trustworthy results, and to the extent of teaching correct reasoning, argumentation includes logic. In the third place, a study of the emotions belongs to argumentation. According to the definition, argumentation aims both at presenting truth and compelling action. As action depends to a great extent upon man's emotions, the way to arouse his feelings and passions is a fundamental principle of this art. Argumentation, then, which is commonly classified as the fourth division of rhetoric, consists of two fundamental elements. The part that is based upon logic and depends for its effectiveness upon pure reasoning is called _conviction_; the part that consists of an emotional appeal to the people addressed is called _persuasion_. If the only purpose of argumentation were to demonstrate the truth or falsity of a hypothesis, conviction alone would be sufficient. But its purpose is greater than this: it aims both (1) to convince men that certain ideas are true, and also (2) to persuade them to act in accordance with the truth presented. Neither conviction nor persuasion can with safety be omitted. An appeal to the intellect alone may demonstrate principles that cannot be refuted; it may prove beyond a doubt that certain theories are logical and right, and ought to be accepted. But this sort of argument is likely to leave the person addressed cold and unmoved and unwilling to give up his former ideas and practices. A purely intellectual discourse upon the evils resulting from a high tariff would scarcely cause a life-long protectionist to change his politics. If, however, some emotion such as duty, public spirit, or patriotism were aroused, the desired action might result. Again it frequently happens that before the arguer can make any appeal to the logical faculties of those he wishes to influence, he will first have to use persuasion in order to gain their attention and to arouse their interest either in himself or in his subject. On the other hand, persuasion alone is undoubtedly of even less value than conviction alone. A purely persuasive argument can never be trusted to produce lasting effects. As soon as the emotions have cooled, if no reasonable conviction remains to guide future thought and action, the plea that at first seemed so powerful is likely to be forgotten. The preacher whose sermons are all persuasion may, for a time, have many converts, but it will take something besides emotional ecstasy to keep them "in good and regular standing." The proportion of conviction and persuasion to be used in any argumentative effort depends entirely upon the attending circumstances. If the readers or hearers possess a high degree of intelligence and education, conviction should predominate; for it is a generally accepted fact that the higher man rises in the scale of civilization, the less he is moved by emotion. A lawyer's argument before a judge contains little except reasoning; before a jury persuasion plays an important part. In the next place, the arguer must consider the attitude of those whom he would move. If they are favorably disposed, he may devote most of his time to reasoning; if they are hostile, he must use more persuasion. Also the correct proportion varies to some extent according to the amount of action desired. In an intercollegiate debate where little or no action is expected to result, persuasion may almost be neglected; but the political speech or editorial that urges men to follow its instructions usually contains at least as much persuasion as conviction. The aspirant for distinction in argumentation should study and acquire certain characteristics common to all good arguers. First of all, he should strive to gain the ability to analyze. No satisfactory discussion can ever take place until the contestants have picked the question to pieces and discovered just exactly what it means. The man who does not analyze his subject is likely to seize upon ideas that are merely connected with it, and fail to find just what is involved by the question as a whole. The man skillful in argumentation, however, considers each word of the proposition in the light of its definition, and only after much thought and study decides that he has found the real meaning of the question. But the work of analysis does not end here; every bit of proof connected with the case must be analyzed that its value and its relation to the matter in hand may be determined. Many an argument is filled with what its author thought was proof, but what, upon close inspection, turns out to be mere assertion or fallacious reasoning. This error is surpassed only by the fault of bringing in as proof that which has no direct bearing at all upon the question at issue. Furthermore, the arguer must analyze not only his own side of the discussion but also the work of his opponent, so that with a full knowledge of what is strong and what is weak he may make his attack to the best advantage. Next to the ability to analyze, the most important qualification for an arguer to possess is the faculty of clearly presenting his case. New ideas, new truths are seldom readily accepted, and it is never safe to assume that the hearer or the reader of an argument will laboriously work his way through a mass of obscure reasoning. Absolute clearness of expression is essential. The method of arriving at a conclusion should be so plain that no one can avoid seeing what is proved and how it is proved. Lincoln's great success as a debater was due largely to his clearness of presentation. In the third place, the person who would control his fellow men must assume qualities of leadership. Remembering that men can be led, but seldom be driven, he must show his audience how he himself has reached certain conclusions, and then by leading them along the same paths of reasoning, bring them to the desired destination. If exhortation, counsel, and encouragement are required, they must be at his command. Moreover, a leader who wishes to attract followers must be earnest and enthusiastic. The least touch of insincerity or indifference will ruin all. To analyze ideas, to present them clearly, and as a leader to enforce them enthusiastically and sincerely are necessary qualities for every arguer. A debater should possess additional attainments. He ought to be a ready thinker. The disputant who depends entirely upon a set speech is greatly handicapped. Since it is impossible to tell beforehand just what arguments an opponent will use and what line of attack he will pursue, the man who cannot mass his forces to meet the requirements of the minute is at great disadvantage. Of course all facts and ideas must be mastered beforehand, but unless one is to be the first speaker, he can most effectually determine during the progress of the debate just what arguments are preferable and what their arrangement should be. A debater must also have some ability as a speaker. He need not be graceful or especially fluent, though these accomplishments are of service, but he must be forceful. Not only his words, but also his manner must reveal the earnestness and enthusiasm he feels. His argument, clear, irrefutable, and to the point, should go forth in simple, burning words that enter into the hearts and understanding of his hearers. CHAPTER II THE SUBJECT The subject of an argument must always be a complete statement. The reason for this requirement lies in the fact that an argument can occur only when men have conflicting opinions about a certain thought, and try to prove the truth or falsity of this definite idea. Since a _term_--a word, phrase, or other combination of words not a complete sentence--suggests many ideas, but never stands for one particular idea, it is absurd as a subject to be argued. A debatable subject is always a _proposition_, a statement in which something is affirmed or denied. It would be impossible to uphold or attack the mere term, "government railroad supervision," for this expression carries with it no specific thought. It may suggest that government railroad supervision has been inadequate in the past; or that government supervision is at present unnecessary; or that the government is about to assume stricter supervision. The term affords no common ground on which the contestants would have to meet. If, however, some exact idea were expressed in such a statement as, "Further government railroad supervision is necessary for the best interests of the United States," an argument might well follow. Although the subject of an argument must be a complete thought, it does not follow that this proposition is always explicitly stated or formulated in words. The same distinction between subject and title that exists in other kinds of writing is found also in argumentation; the subject is a statement of the matter about which the controversy centers; the title is the name by which the composition is known. Sometimes the subject serves as the title, and sometimes the subject is left to be discovered in the body of the work. The title of the speech delivered by Webster in the Senate, January 26, 1830, is "Webster's Reply to Hayne"; the subject, in the form of a resolution, is found close to the opening sentences:-- _Resolved_, That the Committee on Public Lands be instructed to inquire and report the quantity of public lands remaining unsold within each State and Territory, and whether it be expedient to limit for a certain period the sales of the public lands to such lands only as have heretofore been offered for sale, and are now subject to entry at the minimum price. And, also, whether the office of Surveyor- General, and some of the land offices, may not be abolished without detriment to the public interest; or whether it be expedient to adopt measures to hasten the sales and extend more rapidly the surveys of the public lands. The thirteen resolutions offered by Burke form the subject of the argument known by the title, "Burke's Speech on Conciliation with America." A recent issue of _The Outlook_ contained an article entitled "Russian Despotism"; careful reading disclosed that the subject was this, "The Present Government of Russia has no Right to Exist." In legislative proceedings the subject of argument is found in the form of a bill, or a motion, or a resolution; in law courts it is embodied in statements called "pleadings," which "set forth with certainty and with truth the matters of fact or of law, the truth or falsity of which must be decided to decide the case." [Footnote: Laycock and Scales' Argumentation and Debate, page 14.] In college debate it is customary to frame the subject in the form of a resolution, and to use this resolution as the title. The generally accepted form is as follows: _Resolved,_ That the United States army should be permanently enlarged. Notice the use of italics, of punctuation marks, and of capital letters. In all kinds of argumentation, whether the proposition to be discussed is clearly expressed or not, the arguer must keep his subject constantly in mind, that his efforts may all be directed toward a definite end in view--to convince and persuade his audience. In debate the speaker should plainly state the subject, and constantly hold it up to the attention of the audience. This procedure renders it impossible for an opponent to ignore the question and evade the real issue. Only those who are debating for practice experience any difficulty in obtaining a subject. In the business world men argue because they are confronted with some perplexing problem, because some issue arises that demands discussion; but the student, generally speaking, chooses his own topic. Therefore a few suggestions in regard to the choice of a subject and the wording of a proposition are likely to be of considerable service to him. The student should first select some general, popular topic of the day in which he is interested. He should, for several reasons, not the least of which is that he will thus gain considerable information that may be of value to him outside the class room, select a popular topic rather than one that has been worn out or that is comparatively unknown. He should, moreover, choose an interesting topic, for then his work will be more agreeable and consequently of a higher order. Of this general idea he must decide upon some specific phase which readily lends itself to discussion. Then he has to express this specific idea in the form of a proposition. As it is not always an easy matter to state a proposition with precision and fairness, he must take this last step very cautiously. One must always exercise great care in choosing words that denote the exact meaning he wishes to convey. Many writers and speakers have found themselves in false positions just because, upon examination, it was found that their subjects did not express the precise meaning that was intended. Moreover, in phrasing the proposition, the debater should so state the subject that the affirmative side, the side that opens the discussion, is the one to advocate a change in existing conditions or belief. This method obviously corresponds to the way in which business is conducted in practical affairs. No one has reason to defend an established condition until it is first attacked. The law presumes a man to be innocent until he is proved guilty, and therefore it is the prosecution, the side to affirm guilt, that opens the case. The question about government ownership of railroads should be so worded that the affirmative side will advocate the new system, and the negative will uphold the old. It should be stated thus: "_Resolved_, That all railroads in the United States should be owned and operated by the Federal government." This obligation of adducing evidence and reasoning to support one side of a proposition before an answer from the other side can be demanded, is called _burden of proof_. The "burden" always rests upon the side that advocates a change, and the proposition should be so worded that the affirmative will have to undertake this duty. One more principle must be observed: nothing in the wording of the subject should give one side any advantage over the other. Argument can exist only when reasonable men have a difference of opinion. If the wording of the proposition removes this difference, no discussion can ensue. For instance, the word "undesirable," if allowed to stand in the following proposition, precludes any debate: "_Resolved,_ That all colleges should abolish the undesirable game of football." From the preceding suggestions it is seen that the subject of an argument is a definite, restricted thought derived from some general idea. Whether expressed or not, the subject must be a proposition, not a term. In debate the proposition is usually framed in the form of a resolution. This resolution must always be so worded that the burden of proof will rest upon the affirmative side. Nothing in the wording of the proposition should give either side any advantage over the other. These principles have to do with the manner of expression; subjects will next be considered with respect to the ideas they contain. A common and convenient method of classification divides propositions into two groups: propositions of policy, and propositions of fact. The first class consists of those propositions that aim to prove the truth of a theory, that indicate a preference for a certain policy, for a certain method of action. The second class comprises those propositions that affirm or deny the occurrence of an event, or the existence of a fact. Propositions of policy usually, though not always, contain the word _should_ or _ought_; propositions of fact usually contain some form of the word _to be_. The following illustrations will make the distinction plainer:-- PROPOSITIONS OF POLICY. The United States should adopt a system of bounties and subsidies for the protection of the American merchant marine. State laws prohibiting secular employment on Sunday should be repealed. A city furnishes a more desirable location for a college than the country. The aggressions of England in Africa are justifiable. PROPOSITIONS OF FACT. Homer wrote the Iliad. Nero was guilty of burning Rome. Mary, Queen of Scots, murdered her husband. The most convenient method of studying propositions to see what subjects are desirable for student debates is to consider first those propositions that should be avoided. 1. PROPOSITIONS WITH ONLY ONE SIDE. As argumentation presupposes a difference of opinion about a certain subject, evidently it is impossible to argue upon a subject on which all are agreed. Sometimes such propositions as, "_Resolved_, That Napoleon was a great soldier," and "_Resolved_, That railroads should take every precaution to protect the lives of their passengers," are found on the programs of literary societies and debating clubs. In such cases mere comment, not debate, can follow. Only subjects on which reasonable men actually disagree are suitable for argument. 2. AMBIGUOUS PROPOSITIONS. If a proposition is capable of several interpretations, those who choose it as a subject for an argument are liable not to agree on what it means, and one side will debate in accordance with one interpretation, and the other side in accordance with a totally different interpretation. Thus the opponents will never meet in conflict except when they explain their subject. For example, in a certain debate on the question, "_Resolved_, That colleges should abolish all athletic sports," the affirmative held that only interclass and intercollegiate games were involved; while the negative maintained that the term "athletic sports" included all forms of athletic games participated in by college men. Manifestly the debate hinged largely on the definition of this term; but as there was no authority to settle just what was meant, the debate was a failure. It is usually desirable, and frequently necessary, to explain what the subject means, for unless it has some meaning which both sides are bound to accept, the argument becomes a mere controversy over the definition of words. Another ambiguous proposition would be, "Republican government in the United States is preferable to any other." The word "republican" is open to two legitimate definitions, and since the context does not explain which meaning is intended, a debater is at liberty to accept either definition that he wishes. A few alterations easily turn this proposition into a debatable subject, "Government by the Republican party in the United States is preferable to any other." 3. TOO GENERAL PROPOSITIONS. It is never wise for a writer or a speaker to choose a subject which is so general or so abstract that he cannot handle it with some degree of completeness and facility. Not only will such work be difficult and distasteful to him, but it will be equally distasteful and uninteresting to his audience. No student can write good themes on such subjects as, "War," "The Power of the Press," "Race Prejudice"; nor can he argue well on propositions like, "_Resolved_, That wars are justifiable"; "_Resolved_, That the pen is mightier than the sword"; or "_Resolved_, That race prejudice is justifiable." These are entirely beyond his scope. But he can handle restricted propositions that have to do with one phase of some concrete, tangible event or idea. "_Resolved_, That Japan was justified in waging war against Russia"; "_Resolved_, That Bacon wrote the plays commonly attributed to Shakespeare"; "_Resolved_, That the segregation of Japanese school children in San Francisco is for the best interests of all concerned," are subjects that can be argued with success. 4. COMBINED PROPOSITIONS. It sometimes happens that several heterogeneous ideas, each of which by itself would form an excellent subject for argument, are embodied in a single proposition. The difficulty of arguing on this kind of subject is apparent. It is none too easy to establish one idea satisfactorily; but when several ideas must be upheld and defended, the work is enormous and sometimes open to the charge of inconsistency. Moreover, the principle of Unity demands that a composition be about a single topic. The proposition, "_Resolved_, That Aaron Burr was guilty of murder and should have been put to death," involves two debatable subjects, each of which is of sufficient importance to stand in a proposition by itself: "Was Burr guilty of murder?" and "Should a murderer be punished by death?" The error of combining in a compound sentence several distinct subjects for debate is generally detected with ease; but when the error of combination exists in a simple sentence, it is not always so obvious. In the case of the subject, "_Resolved_, That foreign immigrants have been unjustly treated by the United States," there are, as the same privileges have not been granted all immigrants, several debatable questions. One who attempts to argue on this subject must take into consideration the treatment that has been accorded the Chinese, the English, the Germans, the Italians, the paupers, the well-to-do, and others. In one case the laws may be palpably unfair, and in another case, all that can be desired. When two ideas, however, are very closely related and are dependent upon each other for interpretation and support, they may and sometimes should be combined in the same proposition. For example, "Education should be compulsory to the age of sixteen," involves two main issues: "Education should be compulsory," and "The age of sixteen is the proper limit." But in this case the one who advocates compulsory education is under obligation to explain some definite system, and this explanation must include the establishing of some limit. To name this limit in the proposition renders the argument clearer to an audience and fairer to an opponent. For similar reasons, the proposition, "The Federal government should own and operate the railroads in the United States," cannot be condemned on the ground that it is a proposition with more than one main issue. Propositions, then, adapted to class room argument, are those which give rise to a conflict of opinion; which contain a definite and unmistakable thought; which are specific and sufficiently restricted to admit of thorough treatment; and which contain a single idea. Furthermore, the student will do well to select subjects that are as nearly as possible like the problems which statesmen, educators, professional and business men meet in practical life. He should try to remove his argument as far as he can from the realm of pure academic exercise, and endeavor to gain some insight into the issues that are now confronting the makers of modern civilization. The student who takes this work seriously is sure to gain information, form opinions, and acquire habits of thought that will be of great practical value to him when he takes his place as a man among men. EXERCISES A. Narrow each of the following terms into good, debatable propositions:-- Election of Senators; Chinese exclusion; woman suffrage; temperance; compulsory manual training; the honor system; compulsory education; vivisection; reciprocity; an enlarged army; the educational voting test; strikes; bounties and subsidies; capital punishment; Hamlet's insanity; municipal government; permanent copyright; athletics; civil service; military training; Panama canal; jury system; foreign acquisitions; Monroe Doctrine; forest reserves; protective tariff. B. Criticise the following propositions:-- 1. The existence and attributes of the Supreme Being can be proved without the aid of divine revelation. 2. More money is spent for luxuries than for necessities. 3. The growth of large fortunes should be checked by a graduated income tax and an inheritance tax. 4. The Monroe Doctrine should receive the support of every American. 5. Hard work is the secret of success. 6. Law is a better profession than medicine. 7. College football should be abolished and lacrosse adopted in its place. 8. Newspapers exert a powerful influence on modern politics. 9. The United States postal system should be under the control of the Federal government. 10. The shortest distance between two points is a straight line. 11. Immigration is detrimental to the United States. 12. President ----'s foreign policy should be upheld. 13. Canada should not be annexed to the United States. 14. The cruel banishment of the Acadians was unjust. 15. Beauty has practical uses. 16. The democratic policy of government would be for the best interests of the Philippines. 17. Dickens' novels, which are superior to Scott's, effected reforms. 18. An unconstitutional income tax should not be levied. 19. A majority vote of a jury should not convict or acquit. 20. Edison is a great inventor. CHAPTER III THE INTRODUCTION--PERSUASION Every complete argument consists of three parts: introduction, discussion, and conclusion. Each of these divisions has definite and specific duties to perform. The work of the introduction is threefold: (1) to conciliate the audience; (2) to explain the subject; and (3) to outline the discussion. As the conciliation of the audience is accomplished by an appeal to the emotions rather than to the reason, it is properly classified under persuasion. Explaining the proposition and outlining the discussion are of an expository nature and will be discussed under the head of conviction. As has been stated in a previous chapter, the amount of persuasion to be used in any piece of argumentative work depends entirely upon the attending circumstances. The subject, audience, author, occasion, and purpose of the effort must be taken into consideration. But whether the amount used be great or small, practically every argument should begin with conciliation. The conciliation of the _audience_--the word audience is used throughout this book to designate both hearers and readers--consists of gaining the good will of those to be convinced, of arousing their interest, and of rendering them open to conviction. No argument can be expected to attain any considerable degree of success so long as anything about its author, or anything in the subject itself, is peculiarly disagreeable to the people it is designed to affect. If the ill will remains too great, it is not likely that the argument will ever reach those for whom it is intended, much less produce the desired result. In addressing Southern sympathizers at Liverpool, during the Civil War, Beecher had to fight even for a hearing. The speech of an unpopular Senator frequently empties the Senate chamber. Men of one political belief often refuse to read the publications of the opposite party. Obviously, the first duty of the introduction is to gain the approval of the audience. In the next place, interest must be aroused. Active dislike is less frequently encountered than indifference. How many times sermons, lectures, books have failed in their object just because no one took any interest in them! There was no opposition, no hostility; every one wished the cause well; and yet the effort failed to meet with any attention or response. The argument did not arouse interest--and interest is a prime cause of attention and of action. In the third place, the conciliatory part of the introduction should induce the audience to assume an unbiased, judicial attitude, ready to decide the question according to the strength of the proof. This result is not always easy of attainment. Longstanding beliefs, prejudice, stubbornness must be overcome, and a desire for the truth substituted for everything else. All this is frequently difficult, but unless an arguer can gain the good will of the people addressed, arouse their interest, and render them willing to be convinced, no amount of reasoning is likely to produce much effect. Now the question arises, How is it possible to conciliate the audience? To this query there is no answer that will positively guarantee success. The arguer must always study his audience and suit his discourse to the occasion. What means success in one instance may bring failure in another. The secret of the whole matter is adaptability. Humor, gravity, pathos, even defiance may at times be used to advantage. It is not always possible, however, for the orator or writer to know beforehand just the kind of people he is to address. In this case it is usually best for him to follow out a few well established principles that most arguers have found to be of benefit. MODESTY. Modesty in word and action is indispensable to one who would gain the friendship of his audience. Anything that savors of egotism at once creates a feeling of enmity. No one can endure another's consciousness of superiority even though the superiority be real. An appearance of haughtiness, self-esteem, condescension, intolerance of inferiors, or a desire for personal glory will at once raise barriers of dislike. On the other hand, modesty should never be carried so far as to become affectation; that attitude is equally despicable. Personal unobtrusiveness should exist without being conspicuous. _The arguer should always take the attitude that the cause he is upholding is greater than its advocate_. In the following quotations, compare the overbearing arrogance of Burke's introduction with the simple modesty of Proctor's:-- Mr. Speaker, I rise under some embarrassment occasioned by a feeling of delicacy toward one-half of the house, and of sovereign contempt for the other half. [Footnote: Edmund Burke, House of Commons, March 22, 1775.] Mr. President, more importance seems to be attached by others to my recent visit to Cuba than I had given it, and it has been suggested that I make a public statement of what I saw and how the situation impressed me. This I do on account of the public interest in all that concerns Cuba, and to correct some inaccuracies that have, not unnaturally, appeared in reported interviews with me. [Footnote: Redfield Proctor, United States Senate, March 17, 1898.] FAIRNESS. Few things will assist an arguer more in securing a respectful hearing from those who do not agree with him, but whom he would convince, than the quality of fairness. The arguer should take the position of one seeking the truth regardless of what it may be. If he wishes others to look at the question from his standpoint, he will have to show that he is willing to consider the question from their point of view. Everything' in the shape of prejudice, everything which would tend to indicate that he had formed conclusions prior to his investigation, he must carefully avoid. In this connection consider the following:-- I very much regret that it should have been thought necessary to suggest to you that I am brought here to "hurry you against the law and beyond the evidence." I hope I have too much regard for justice, and too much respect for my own character, to attempt either; and were I to make such attempt, I am sure that in this court nothing can be carried against the law, and that gentlemen, intelligent and just as you are, are not, by any power, to be hurried beyond the evidence. Though I could well have wished to shun this occasion, I have not felt at liberty to withhold my professional assistance, when it is supposed that I may be in some degree useful in investigating and discovering the truth respecting this most extraordinary murder. It has seemed to be a duty incumbent on me, as on every other citizen, to do my best and my utmost to bring to light the perpetrators of this crime. Against the prisoner at the bar, as an individual, I cannot have the slightest prejudice. I would not do him the smallest injury or injustice. But I do not affect to be indifferent to the discovery and the punishment of this deep guilt. I cheerfully share in the opprobrium, how great so ever it may be, which is cast on those who feel and manifest an anxious concern that all who had a part in planning, or a hand in executing, this deed of midnight assassination, may be brought to answer for their enormous crime at the bar of public justice. [Footnote: Works of Daniel Webster, Vol. VI, p. 51. Little, Brown & Co., Boston, 1857.] SINCERITY. Another quality of paramount importance to the arguer is sincerity. This he must really possess if he is to be eminently successful. To feign it is almost impossible; some word or expression, some gesture or inflection of the voice, the very attitude of the insincere arguer will betray his real feelings. If he tries to arouse an emotion that he himself does not feel, his affectation will be apparent and his effort a failure. There are few things that an audience resents more than being tricked into an expression of feeling. If they even mistrust that a speaker is trying to deceive them, that he is arguing merely for personal gain or reputation and has no other interest in the case, no desire to establish the truth, they will not only withhold their confidence, but will also become prejudiced against him. It is usually inviting disaster to champion a cause in which one is not interested heart and soul. Of course in class room work the student cannot always avoid taking a false position, and the training he receives thereby is excellent, but he cannot make his persuasion of the highest type of effectiveness unless he honestly and sincerely believes what he says, and feels the emotions he would arouse. AN APPEAL TO SOME EMOTION. One of the strongest forms of conciliation is the direct appeal to a dominant emotion. If an arguer can find some common ground on which to meet his audience, some emotion by which they may be moved, he can usually obtain a personal hold that will overcome hostility and lack of interest. In deciding what emotion to arouse, he must make as careful and thorough a study of his audience as he can. In general, the use of conviction need vary but little to produce the same results on different men; processes of pure reasoning are essentially the same the world around. But with persuasion the case is different; emotions are varied, and in each separate instance the arguer must carefully consider the ruling passions and ideals of his audience. The hopes and aspirations of a gang of ignorant miners would differ widely from the desires of an assembly of college students, or of a coterie of metropolitan capitalists. Education, wealth, social standing, politics, religion, race, nationality, every motive that is likely to have weight with the audience should be taken into consideration. Remembering that he has to choose between such diverse emotions as ambition, fear, hatred, love, patriotism, sense of duty, honor, justice, self-interest, pleasure, and revenge, the arguer must make his selection with the greatest care, and then drive home the appeal with all the force and eloquence at his command. The higher and nobler the emotion he can arouse, the greater and more permanent will be the result. If the audience is such that he can successfully arouse no higher feeling than that of self-interest or revenge, he will, of necessity, have to appeal to these motives; but whenever he can, he should appeal to the noblest sentiments of mankind. A famous illustration of the effectiveness of this sort of conciliation is found in Wendell Phillips' oration entitled _The Murder of Lovejoy_. By appealing to their reverence for the past, he silenced the mob that had come to break up the meeting, and in the end he won over the house that had been packed against him. We have met for the freest discussion of these resolutions, and the events which gave rise to them. I hope I shall be permitted to express my surprise at the sentiments of the last speaker, surprise not only at such sentiments from such a man, but at the applause they have received within these walls. A comparison has been drawn between the events of the Revolution and the tragedy at Alton. We have heard it asserted here, in Faneuil Hall, that Great Britain had a right to tax the colonies, and we have heard the mob at Alton, the drunken murderers of Lovejoy, compared to those patriot fathers who threw the tea overboard! Fellow citizens, is this Faneuil Hall doctrine?.... Sir, when I heard the gentleman lay down principles which place the murderers of Alton side by side with Otis and Hancock, with Quincy and Adams, I thought those pictured lips (pointing to the portraits in the Hall) would have broken into voice to rebuke the recreant American-- the slanderer of the dead. The gentleman said that he should sink into insignificance if he dared to gainsay the principles of these resolutions. Sir, for the sentiments he has uttered, on soil consecrated by the prayers of Puritans and the blood of patriots, the earth should have yawned and swallowed him up. [Footnote: American Orations, Vol. II, page 102. G. P. Putnam's Sons.] Specific directions for arousing the emotions are hard to give. The appeal must suit both the audience and the occasion, and until these are known, suggestions are not particularly helpful. When no better plan for conciliating an audience seems practicable, speakers and writers try to arouse _interest_ in the discussion. There are several convenient methods for accomplishing this result. 1. IMPORTANCE OF THE SUBJECT. One of the commonest methods of arousing interest in an audience apathetic and indifferent is to impress upon them the importance and gravity of the question at issue. Matters thought to be trivial are apt to receive scant attention. This fact is so universally recognized that many writers and speakers attempt at the very outset to show that upon the correct solution of the problem at hand depend serious and far-reaching results. It is seldom enough merely to state that a subject is important; its seriousness should be made apparent. This method is very popular. Whenever one feels it necessary to open an argument with persuasion, but is at loss to know how to do so, he may well resort to this device. While it does not, perhaps, constitute the strongest possible appeal, yet it is eminently serviceable, since, if handled properly, it does arouse interest, and, moreover, it applies to many cases. Several examples will show how this method is commonly used:-- Mr. President, the question now about to be discussed by this body is in my judgment the most important that has attracted the attention of Congress or the country since the formation of the Constitution. It affects every interest, great and small, from the slightest concern of the individual to the largest and most comprehensive interest of the nation. [Footnote: J. P. Jones, United States Senate, May 12, 1890.] No city ever had such a problem in passenger transportation to solve, and no city of any pretensions has solved it much worse. London is not in the strict sense a town, but rather a "province of houses." The county of London, as everybody knows, is only a part of the Metropolis. The four millions and a half of residents enclosed by the legal ring-fence of the County are supplemented by two millions more who live in groups of suburbs included within the wide limits of "Greater London"; while even beyond that large tract of southeastern England, with its six millions and a half of inhabitants, are many towns and villages, populous and increasing, which are concerned with the question of Metropolitan locomotion. [Footnote: The Fortnightly Review, Jan. 1, 1902.] 2. TIMELINESS OF THE SUBJECT. To show that a subject is timely is another effective device for arousing interest. As most people wish to keep pace with the times and face the issues of the day, it is natural and forceful to introduce an argument by showing that the subject is being discussed elsewhere, or by showing how an event or sequence of events places the problem before the public. The arguer calls attention to the fact that the question does not belong to the past or to the distant future, but is of immediate interest and must be settled at once. As the day of the Cuban Convention for the framing and adoption of a constitution approaches, the question of Cuban independence assumes greater, and still greater, proportions, and the eyes of the American people are beginning to turn anxiously toward the Pearl of the Antilles. By the time this article appears in print, delegates to the convention will have been elected, and interest in the convention itself will have become widespread. The task I have set before me is briefly to review the situation, and to discuss the probable results to be expected from a number of causes, remote as well as proximate.[Footnote: Charles Warren Currier. The Forum, October, 1900.] The recent objection made in Germany that American prestige might suffer should there be diminution in our Berlin Embassy's social brilliancy has stirred Congress from apathy regarding American representatives abroad. Congressmen are coming to realize that brains, not money, ought to form the first passport to a candidate's favor, agreeable adjunct as the money may be. [Footnote: The Outlook, April 18, 1908, p. 844.] 3. APPEAL FOR ONE'S SELF. The safest method of stirring the emotions is to make an appeal in behalf of the subject, but occasionally a writer or speaker who is truly sincere, who is contending against unfortunate circumstances, and is not seeking personal aggrandizement, may arouse interest by making an appeal on his own behalf. He may present some personal reason why the audience should be interested and give him a respectful hearing; he calls attention not primarily to his subject, but to his connection with it, or to some circumstance in his own life. This method is hedged about with several pitfalls: it may expose one to the charge of egotism, of insincerity, or of false modesty; and it may draw the attention of the audience away from the matter in hand. To use this method successfully one should possess consummate tact and thorough knowledge of human nature. The following opening of a speech by Abraham Lincoln at Columbus, Ohio, shows how he used this device to gain the sympathy of the audience:-- Fellow-citizens of the State of Ohio: I cannot fail to remember that I appear for the first time before an audience in this now great State,-- an audience that is accustomed to hear such speakers as Corwin, and Chase, and Wade, and many other renowned men; and remembering this, I feel that it will be well for you, as for me, that you should not raise your expectations to that standard to which you would have been justified in raising them had one of these distinguished men appeared before you. You would perhaps be only preparing a disappointment for yourselves, and, as a consequence of your disappointment, mortification for me. I hope, therefore, that you will commence with very moderate expectations; and perhaps, if you will give me your attention, I shall be able to interest you in a moderate degree. [Footnote: Complete Works of Abraham Lincoln, Vol. I, p. 538. Nicolay & Hay. Century Company.] These, then, are the suggestions offered for conciliating an audience: Be modest; be fair; be sincere; and appeal to some strong emotion. To make this appeal successfully, study your audience. In case of inability to arouse any stronger feeling, appeal to the interest of the people by showing that the subject is important, or timely, or both; or show that you have some personal claim upon the audience. These directions are far from complete. Anything like an exhaustive treatment of this subject would in itself constitute a book. The advice offered here, however, should be of considerable value to one who has difficulty in getting a written argument or a debate successfully launched. The student should supplement this chapter with careful study of the work of proficient writers. If he will notice how they have gained success in this particular, and if he will imitate them, he is bound to improve his own compositions. The principal dangers to be avoided consist of going to extremes. The conciliatory part of the introduction should not be so meager that it will fail to accomplish its purpose, nor should it be so elaborate and artificial as to hamper the onward movement of the argument. The important thing is to gain the good will and the attention of the audience, and, other things being equal, the shorter the introduction the better. Further directions for the spoken argument may be found in the chapter entitled _Debate_. EXERCISES A. Criticise the following introductory passages for persuasiveness, pointing out specifically the methods of conciliation used, and any defects that may be found:-- 1. The building of the Panama Canal is a topic of interest and importance to every American. Not only do we wish to see our country build the canal successfully, but we also desire to see built the best canal that the world has ever known. There is no doubt that the canal is necessary; the great loss of time and money, the annual sacrifice of ships and lives involved in the passage around the "Horn," not to mention the expense and congestion of the railroad freight systems across the continent, plainly show the need of quicker ship communication between the two oceans. 2. I stand here to raise the last voice that ever can be heard this side the judgment seat of God in behalf of the personal honor and judicial integrity of this respondent. I fully realize the responsibilities of my position, and I shall endeavor to meet them as best I can. I also realize as deeply as any other man can how important it is not only to my client but to every American man, woman, and child that justice shall be done and true deliverance made. 3. The opening of the racing season in New York, at the Aqueduct track on Long Island, gives a fresh opportunity for observation of the conditions under which horse-racing, and more especially gambling on horse races, is carried on. The announcement of the racing managers that certain "reforms" had been inaugurated in the control of the gambling makes the opportunity of especial interest. 4. I approach the discussion of this bill and the kindred bills and amendments pending in the two Houses with unaffected diffidence. No problem is submitted to us of equal importance and difficulty. Our action will affect the value of all the property of all the people of the United States, and the wages of labor of every kind, and our trade and commerce with all the world. In the consideration of such a question we should not be controlled by previous opinions or bound by local interests, but with the light of experience and full knowledge of all the complicated facts involved, give to the subject the best judgment which imperfect human nature allows. 5. Each generation has the power to shape its own destinies; and had Washington and his fellow patriots been governed by warnings against a departure from traditions, our present form of government would never have been established, the Constitution would have been rejected by the States, and untold evils would have resulted. Madison, when arguing for the adoption of the Constitution, met arguments very like to those now being made in favor of political isolation. 6. As a race they have withered from the land. Their arrows are broken and their springs are dried up; their cabins are in the dust. Their council fire has long since gone out on the shore, and their war cry is fast dying out to the untrodden West. Slowly and sadly they climb the mountains and read their doom in the setting sun. They are shrinking before the mighty tide which is pressing them away; they must soon hear the roar of the last wave, which will settle over them forever. Ages hence the inquisitive white man, as he stands by some growing city, will ponder on the structure of their disturbed remains and wonder to what manner of person they belonged. They will live only in the songs and chronicles of their exterminators. Let these be faithful to their rude virtues as men, and pay due tribute to their unhappy fate as a people. 7. (During the Civil War England largely favored the South. To counteract this feeling Henry Ward Beecher spoke in many of the principal cities in behalf of Northern interests. In Liverpool he met an audience that was extremely hostile. The following is the introduction to his speech.) For more than twenty-five years I have been made perfectly familiar with popular assemblies in all parts of my country except the extreme South. There has not been for the whole of that time a single day of my life when it would have been safe for me to go south of Mason and Dixon's line in my own country, and all for one reason: my solemn, earnest, persistent testimony against that which I consider to be the most atrocious thing under the sun--the system of American slavery in a great free republic. (Cheers.) I have passed through that early period when right of free speech was denied me. Again and again I have attempted to address audiences that, for no other crime than that of free speech, visited me with all manner of contumelious epithets; and now since I have been in England, although I have met with greater kindness and courtesy on the part of most than I deserved, yet, on the other hand, I perceive that the Southern influence prevails to some extent in England. (Applause and uproar.) It is my old acquaintance; I understand it perfectly-(laughter)-and I have always held it to be an unfailing truth that where a man had a cause that would bear examination he was perfectly willing to have it spoken about. (Applause.) And when in Manchester I saw those huge placards, "Who is Henry Ward Beecher?" (laughter, cries of "Quite right," and applause), and when in Liverpool I was told that there were those blood-red placards, purporting to say what Henry Ward Beecher has said, and calling upon Englishmen to suppress free speech, I tell you what I thought. I thought simply this, "I am glad of it." (Laughter.) Why? Because if they had felt perfectly secure, that you are the minions of the South and the slaves of slavery, they would have been perfectly still. (Applause and uproar.) And, therefore, when I saw so much nervous apprehension that, if I were permitted to speak --(hisses and applause)--when I found they were afraid to have me speak--(hisses, laughter, and "No, no!")--when I found that they considered my speaking damaging to their cause--(applause)--when I found that they appealed from facts and reasonings to mob law-- (applause and uproar)--I said, no man need tell me what the heart and secret counsel of these men are. They tremble and are afraid. (Applause, laughter, hisses, "No, no!" and a voice, "New York mob.") Now, personally, it is of very little consequence to me whether I speak here to-night or not. (Laughter and cheers.) But one thing is very certain, if you do permit me to speak here tonight, you will hear very plain talking. (Applause and hisses.) You will not find a man-- (interruption)--you will not find me to be a man that dared to speak about Great Britain three thousand miles off, and then is afraid to speak to Great Britain when he stands on her shores. (Immense applause and hisses.) And if I do not mistake the tone and temper of Englishmen, they had rather have a man who opposes them in a manly way--(applause from all parts of the hall)--than a sneak that agrees with them in an unmanly way. (Applause and "Bravo!") Now, if I can carry you with me by sound convictions, I shall be immensely glad (applause); but if I cannot carry you with me by facts and sound arguments, I do not wish you to go with me at all; and all that I ask is simply FAIR PLAY. (Applause, and a voice, "You shall have it, too.") Those of you who are kind enough to wish to favor my speaking,--and you will observe that my voice is slightly husky from having spoken almost every night in succession for some time past,--those who wish to hear me will do me the kindness simply to sit still; and I and my friends the Secessionists will make all the noise. (Laughter.) B. On the affirmative side of the following propositions, write conciliatory introductions, of about two hundred words each, suited to the audiences indicated:-- AN AUDIENCE OF COLLEGE STUDENTS. 1. All colleges should abolish hazing. 2. Fraternities tend to destroy college spirit. 3. A classical education is not worth while. 4. All colleges should abolish secret class societies. 5. Intercollegiate athletic contests are harmful to a college. AN AUDIENCE OF WORKINGMEN. 6. Strikes are barren of profitable results. 7. Unions are detrimental to the laboring man. 8. The concentration of great wealth in the hands of a few men benefits industrial conditions. CHAPTER IV THE INTRODUCTION--CONVICTION As soon as the persuasive portion of an introduction has rendered the audience friendly, attentive, and open to conviction, the process of reasoning should begin. First of all, it is the duty of the arguer to see that the meaning of the proposition is perfectly clear both to himself and to all the people whom he wishes to reach. If the arguer does not thoroughly comprehend his subject, he is likely to produce only a jumble of facts and reasoning, or at best he may establish a totally different proposition from the one that confronts him; if the audience fails to understand just what is being proved, they remain uninfluenced. The amount of explanation required to show what the proposition means varies according to the intelligence of the people addressed and their familiarity with the subject. DEFINITION. To begin with, if there are any unfamiliar words in the proposition, any terms or expressions that are liable to be misunderstood or not comprehended instantly, they must be defined. At this point the arguer has to exercise considerable judgment both in determining what words to define and in choosing a definition that is accurate and clear. Synonyms are almost always untrustworthy or as incomprehensible as the original word, and other dictionary definitions are usually framed either in too technical language to be easily grasped or in too general language to apply inevitably to the case at hand. DEFINITION BY AUTHORITY. As a rule, the very best definitions that can be used are _quotations_ from the works of men distinguished for their knowledge in the special subject to which the word to be defined belongs. The eminent economist defines economic terms; the statesman, political terms; the jurist, legal terms; the scientist, scientific terms; the theologian, the meaning of religious phraseology. To present these definitions accurately, and to be sure of the author's meaning, one should take the quotations directly from the author's work itself. If, however, this source is not at hand, or if time for research is lacking, one may often find in legal and economic dictionaries and in encyclopaedias the very quotations that he wishes to use in defining a term. It is always well, in quoting a definition, to tell who the authority is, and in what book, in what volume, and on what page the passage occurs. Another convenient way of using definition by authority is not to quote the entire definition but to _summarize_ it. Frequently an authoritative definition is so exhaustive that it covers several pages or even chapters of a book. In such a case the arguer may well condense the definition into his own words, not omitting, however, to name the sources used. The following example is an excellent illustration of this method:-- The bearing of the Monroe Doctrine on all these contentions and counter contentions is not at once evident to the casual observer.... Of course with changing times its meaning has changed also, for no one attempts to declare it to be as immutable as the law of the Medes and Persians. It is applied in various ways to meet varying conditions. Nevertheless, I may say I believe, after a perusal of the more important works on the subject, that during the forescore years of its existence two principles have steadily underlain it: (1) that Europe shall acquire no more territory for permanent occupation upon this continent; (2) that Europe shall affect the destinies of, that is exert influence over, no American state.[Footnote: A. B. Hart, _Foundations of American Foreign Policy_, chap. VII; J. W. Foster, _A Century of American Diplomacy_, chap. XII; J. A. Kasson, _The Evolution of the Constitution of the United States of America_, pages 221 ff. [Footnote: Nutter, Hersey & Greenough, Specimens of Prose Composition, p. 218. ] ] DEFINITION BY ILLUSTRATION. Since the purpose of each step in the reasoning portion of the introduction is to convey information accurately, quickly, and, above all else, clearly, a particularly good method for defining terms is by illustration. In using this method, one holds up to view a concrete example of the special significance of the word that is being explained. He shows how the law, or custom, or principle, or whatever is being expounded works in actual practice. For example, if he is advocating the superiority of the large college over the small college, he should define each term by giving specific examples of large colleges and of small colleges. The advantage of this method lies in its simplicity and clearness, qualities which enable the audience to understand the discussion without much conscious effort on their part. Investigation reveals that the definitions of great writers and speakers are replete with illustration. Whenever the student of argumentation has something to define that is particularly intricate or hard to understand, he should illustrate it. If he fails to find already prepared an illustrative definition that exactly fits his needs, he will often do well to learn just what the term means, and then make his own illustration. Consider how this method has been used. The Hon. Charles Emory Smith defines reciprocity as follows:-- Its principle, rightly understood, is axiomatic. Brazil grows coffee and makes no machinery. We make machinery and grow no coffee. She needs the fabrics of our forges and factories, and we need the fruit of her tropical soil. We agree to concessions for her coffee and she agrees to concessions for our machinery. That is reciprocity. The following is a definition of free silver by The Hon. Edward O. Leech, former Director of the Mint:-- It is important to understand clearly and exactly what the free coinage of silver under present conditions means. It may be defined as the right of anyone to deposit silver of any kind at a mint of the United States, and have every 371.25 grains of pure silver (now worth in its uncoined state about 52 cents) stamped, free of charge, "One Dollar," which dollar shall be a full legal tender at its face value in the payment of debts and obligations of all kinds, public and private, in the United States. In upholding his opinion that a majority of the members of the House of Representatives have the right to make the rules governing parliamentary procedure in the House, The Hon. Thomas B. Reed carefully defines the term "rights":-- It is the fault of most discussions which are decided incorrectly that they are decided by the misuse of terms. Unfortunately, words have very little precision, and mean one thing to one man and a different thing to another. Words are also used with one meaning and quoted with another. When men speak of the rights of minorities and claim for them the sacredness of established law, they are correct or incorrect according as they interpret the word "rights." A man has a right to an estate in fee simple, a right to land, and there is no right more indisputable under our system. Nothing but the supreme law can take the estate away, and then only after compensation. The same man has a right of passage over land used as a highway, but his town or county can take that privilege away from him without his consent and without compensation. In both cases the man has rights, but the rights are entirely different, and the difference arises from the nature of things. It is good for the community, or at least it has been so thought, that a man should have unrestricted right over his land. On it he can build as high as heaven or dig as deep as a probable hereafter. This is not because it is pleasant for the man, but because it is best for the community. Therefore his right to build or dig is limited by the right of eminent domain--the right of the whole people to take his property at any time for the common benefit on paying its value. For the same reason the right of a man to walk over the land of a roadway is an inferior right which may more easily be taken from him; for if it be more convenient for the whole community that nobody should walk over that land, each man's right, which is a perfect right while it exists, is taken away from him, and he alone bears the loss. It is hardly necessary to multiply examples in order to lay a foundation for the assertion that the rights, so called, of any man or set of men, have their foundation only in the common good. EXPLANATION. Not only must the arguer define the unfamiliar words that occur in the proposition, but he must also explain the meaning of the proposition _taken as a whole_. Since an audience often has neither the inclination nor the opportunity to give a proposition careful thought and study, the disputant himself must make clear the matter in dispute, and show exactly where the difference in opinion between the affirmative and the negative lies. This process is of great importance; it removes the subject of dispute from the realm of mere words--words which arranged in a formal statement are to many often incomprehensible--and brings out clearly the _idea_ that is to be supported or condemned. To discover just what the proposition means, the arguer must weigh each word, carefully noting its meaning and its significance in the proposition. To neglect a single word is disastrous. An intercollegiate debate was once lost because the affirmative side did not take into consideration the words "present tendency" in the proposition, "_Resolved_, That the present tendency of labor unions is detrimental to the prosperity of the United States." The negative side admitted everything that the affirmative established, namely, that unions are detrimental; and won by showing that their _tendency_ is beneficial. In another college debate on the subject, "_Resolved_, That the United States should immediately dispose of the Philippines," one side failed to meet the real point at issue because it ignored the word "immediately." A thorough explanation of the proposition would have shown the limitations that this word imposed upon the discussion. In the next place, the arguer should usually present to the audience a brief history of the matter in dispute. Many debatable subjects are of such a nature that the arguer himself cannot, until he Has studied the history of the proposition, fully understand what constitutes the clash in opinion between the affirmative and the negative sides. To understand the debate, the audience must possess this same information. A history of the idea contained in the proposition would be absolutely necessary to render intelligible such subjects as: "The aggressions of England in the Transvaal are justifiable"; "The United States should re-establish reciprocity with Canada"; "Football reform is advisable." In the last place, the arguer must give his audience all essential information concerning the matter in dispute. For example, if the proposition is, "Naturalization laws in the United States should be more stringent," a mere definition of "naturalization laws" is not enough; the disputant must tell just what naturalization laws exist at the present time, and just how stringent they are to-day. Again, if the subject is, "The United States army should be enlarged," the arguer must tell exactly how large the army is now. If the proposition is, "The right of suffrage should be further limited by an educational test," the arguer must state what limits now exist, and he must also tell what is meant by "an educational test." In a debate the work of the affirmative and of the negative differ slightly at this point. Since the proposition reads _an educational test_, the advocate for the affirmative has the privilege of upholding any sort of educational test that he wishes to defend, provided only that it comes within the limits of "an educational test." He may say that the test should consist of a knowledge of the alphabet, or he may advocate an examination in higher mathematics; _but he is under obligation to outline carefully and thoroughly some specific system_. The negative, on the other hand, must be prepared to overthrow whatever system is brought forward. If the affirmative fails to outline any system, the negative has only to call attention to this fact to put the affirmative in a very embarrassing position. The following quotations are good illustrations of how a proposition may be explained:-- The supremely significant and instructive fact, in the dealings of society with crime in our day, and one which has not been fully grasped as yet by the legal profession, not even by those who practice in criminal courts, and who should be familiar with it, is this: We have now two classes of institutions fundamentally distinct in character and purpose, both of which are designed by society, erected and conducted at public expense, for the purpose of dealing with criminals. The most numerous class of these institutions consists of prisons, in which to confine men for terms specified by the trial courts as penalties for their offenses. The laws, under which offenders are sentenced to these prisons, aim at classifying crimes according to the degree of guilt they imply, and assigning to each of them the penalty which it deserves. Thus, to these prisons are sent men sentenced to confinement for two, five, ten, fourteen, or thirty years, or for life, according to the name which the law attaches to the crime proved upon them; and each man, when he has served the prescribed term, is turned loose upon society. The other class of institutions includes what are known as "reformatories." The fundamental principle here is that an offender is sent to them not for a term, but for a specified work. It is assumed that his character and habits unfit him for social life. For reasons to be found in his own nature, he cannot yet be trusted with freedom and the responsibilities of citizenship. But he may possess the capacity to become an honest, industrious, and useful citizen. To the reformatory, then, he is sent to be educated; to be trained to habits of industry; above all, to be disciplined in the habit of looking forward to the future with the consciousness that his welfare and happiness to-morrow depend on his conduct to-day, and that he is constantly shaping his own destiny. He is expected to remain until it satisfactorily appears that this training is effective, and he may then go forth with a prospect of leading an honest and respectable life. This, in brief, is the distinction between these two classes of institutions. For a generation past, these two kinds of prisons have been standing side by side in New York, Massachusetts, and other States. Each of them has received many thousands of criminals under sentence for grave offenses. Each of them has sent out thousands of inmates into the world of human society, with whatever impress the life, teachings, and associations of the institutions could make upon their natures, as a preparation for their after career. What is the result? [Footnote: Charlton T. Lewis, in North American Review, August, 1904.] Congress has at last decided that the long-talked-of canal shall be built, and shall be built at Panama. Those issues no longer confront us. The question now to be decided concerns the kind of canal that shall be constructed. Two plans have been suggested: the lock-canal plan and the sea-level plan. The advocates of the lock-canal plan aim to build a gigantic dam in the valley of the Chagres River; the enormous artificial lake thus formed being used as part of the passageway for the vessels. They say that this lake will be at an elevation of about eighty-five feet above mean sea-level; the passage to and from it will be made by means of canals at both ends, each canal containing three locks. Thus there will be, if this plan is adopted, six locks in the entire system. The canal will be of sufficient width and depth to accommodate vessels of such size as may be expected to be built when the canal is completed. If the canal is built at sea-level, it will be of the same depth and width as the lock-canal, but it will be at the level of the sea throughout its entire length. Owing to the fact that the Atlantic and the Pacific have a difference in extreme level of twenty feet, an automatic tide-lock will have to be installed. A small lake will also be built, merely to divert the Chagres and to furnish light and power. The question that now confronts us is, "Which plan should be adopted?" ISSUES. Following the discovery of the real meaning of the proposition, comes the finding of the issues. Whenever a man in business, professional, or political life, or in any circumstances whatsoever, must determine upon some policy or come to some decision regarding theoretical or practical matters, he formulates his belief and chooses his line of action in accordance with the answers that he makes to certain questions either consciously or unconsciously present in his mind. For instance, if he considers the purchase of a certain piece of real estate, he says to himself: "Is the price fair?" "Have I the money to invest?" "Can I sell or use the property to good advantage?" "How much pleasure shall I derive from it?" If he answers these questions in one way, the purchase is likely to be made; if in another, it is not. Again, a board of college trustees may be considering the abolishment of football. In arriving at a decision, they are confronted with these questions: "Is the game beneficial or detrimental to the player?" "How does it affect the college as a whole?" Those who favor the game will, of course, say that it is a benefit to the player and the whole college; while those who oppose it will maintain that it is a detriment to all concerned. But evidently the same questions must be met and answered by both sides. These questions are called _issues_. Issues are subdivisions of the subject under discussion, and are always essentially the same for any given idea. The first requirement for the issues of any proposition is that they be comprehensive; that is, the sum of their ideas must equal the main idea expressed in the proposition. To those who are carrying on the discussion and to the audience, if there be one, it must be perfectly evident that these questions cover the entire field of controversy; that if these questions are satisfactorily answered in one way or the other, the discussion is settled and nothing remains to be said. The second requirement is that the issues consider only disputed matter. A question that gives rise to no disagreement, that admittedly has but one answer, is never an issue. _Issues, therefore, may be defined as the questions that must be answered by both the affirmative and the negative sides of the proposition under discussion and that, if answered in one way, establish the proposition, and if answered in another way, overthrow it_. The issues of a proposition exist independently of the side that is being upheld. The affirmative will find the same issues as the negative, but it rarely happens that two men will divide a proposition in exactly the same manner and thus state the issues in precisely the same language. If, however, the work of both has been fair and complete, their issues will not vary in any important particular. For example, under the subject, "The Federal government should own and operate the railroads of the United States," one person might give as issues:-- 1. Has the government the right to take the roads without the consent of the present owners? 2. Is the government financially able to buy the roads? 3. Does the present system contain serious defects? 4. Will the proposed system remove these defects without bringing in new evils equally serious? Another might state as issues:-- 1. Is the proposed plan practicable? 2. Will it benefit the people? The issues in both instances, however, are essentially the same, as questions one and two of the first list are equivalent to one of the second; and three and four of the first, to two of the second. At this point it may be well to mention a common error that must be guarded against. It often happens that a question is stated as an issue which is not a subdivision of the proposition at all, but is the entire proposition itself, framed in slightly different language. Such would be the error if the question, "Would the change be desirable?" were used as an issue for the proposition, "All state colleges should abolish military drill" It sometimes happens that one is forced to defend or attack what has been called a "combined proposition," a proposition that contains two distinct subjects for argument. Such subjects are to be avoided as much as possible, but when they must be met, it is usually necessary to have two separate sets of issues. An example of such a proposition would be, "All American colleges and universities should adopt the honor system." The only practicable method of finding the issues of a proposition is to question it from all pertinent points of view, and then to eliminate all questions that have no vital bearing on the subject, or that are acknowledged to have but one answer. The questions that remain are the issues. In using this method of analysis, one must be careful to consider the proposition in all its phases and details, and from both the affirmative and the negative sides. Neglect to give the subject thorough consideration often results in one's being suddenly confronted with an issue that he has not previously discovered and consequently cannot meet. Failure to cast aside all questions that are not real issues may cause equal embarrassment: an arguer never wishes to waste time and effort in establishing proof that is not essential to the argument, or that is admitted by the other side. It is hardly possible even to suggest all the various kinds of questions that may be asked about debatable subjects. An arguer must depend largely upon his own judgment and common sense in analyzing each proposition that he meets. He may, however, find the issues of many propositions by carefully questioning them from certain important and comprehensive points of view. The list of standpoints indicated here is not exhaustive; only the more important and general standpoints are considered. The student should bear in mind that the following instructions are designed to teach him a practical method of analysis; they do not constitute a formula that can be applied in all instances. First, the analysis of propositions of policy will be taken up; secondly, the analysis of propositions of fact. PROPOSITIONS OF POLICY. 1. IS THE PLAN PRACTICABLE? Whenever a plan is proposed, first ask whether or not it is practicable. If those who oppose the idea can maintain that great obstacles exist which will prevent the undertaking of the project or hinder its execution, then the question of practicability constitutes an important issue. For instance, one who contemplates a thorough argument on the proposition, "The United States navy should be greatly enlarged," must prove that the plan is, or is not, practicable. Plainly, such hindrances as enormous expense, inadequate facilities for building and repairing battleships, and the increased demand for officers and sailors render questionable the expediency of such a measure. This issue, however, is not found in connection with all propositions; it does not concern propositions that merely approve or condemn existing conditions or assert the occurrence of an event. For example, practicability does not enter into such subjects as these: "Strikes are justifiable"; "The present powers of the Speaker of the House of Representatives are dangerously great"; "Athletics have been excessively developed in American colleges and universities." But all propositions that advocate a change, that propose some new system of operation, usually have this issue involved. Such subjects are: "American cities should own and operate public plants for the furnishing of light, heat, and power"; "Military drill should be taught in the public schools"; "Porto Rico should be given a territorial form of government." 2. WILL THE PROPOSED PLAN BE A MORAL BENEFIT OR DETRIMENT TO THOSE CONCERNED? Not all propositions, by any means, but many, are of such a character that they must be considered from the standpoint of morality. The arguer must ask whether the idea involved in the subject is morally right or wrong; whether it is morally beneficial or harmful. This point of view includes more than at first appears. It takes into consideration justice, duty, honesty, faithfulness, religion, everything that pertains to what is right or wrong. Under the proposition, "The treatment of the American Indians by the United States should be condemned," appears the moral issue, "What is our _duty_ toward the people of this race?" The proposition, "Public libraries, museums, and art galleries should be open on Sunday," presents this issue, "Is the method of recreation afforded by the opening of these buildings in accordance with the teachings of the Christian religion?" The proposition, "Football is an undesirable college game," must be settled in part by the answer to the question, "Is the game beneficial or harmful to the player's character?" 3. WILL THE PROPOSED PLAN BE A MATERIAL BENEFIT OR DETRIMENT? In the third place the proposition should be questioned from a material point of view, to determine whether the plan is, or is likely to be, a benefit or a detriment. In some form this issue will doubtless be found in connection with almost every proposition of policy. In all systems of government, of business, and even of education, material betterment is invariably one of the ultimate objects sought. The question of national expansion presents the issue, "Will such a course add to the glory, the prestige, or the wealth of the nation?" When a boy considers going to college, he desires to know whether a college education is a valuable asset in business, social, or professional life. An issue which puts to the touch the matter of personal gain is sure to involve a substantial portion of the controversy. The arguer who can decisively settle the question of dollars and cents always has a strong argument. Usually the issue involving the question of material benefit or detriment is plain and direct; sometimes, however, it is partially concealed. A man debating on the affirmative side of the proposition, "_Resolved_, That United States Senators should be elected by a direct popular vote of the people," may urge as a reason that such a method will result in purer politics. This particular line of argument he may carry no farther, taking it for granted that everyone will recognize the connection between honest office holders and material gain. 4. WILL THE PROPOSED PLAN BE AN INTELLECTUAL BENEFIT OR DETRIMENT? All propositions that deal with education or with other matters that pertain to man's progress and advancement should be viewed from an intellectual standpoint. No person in discussing a measure bearing upon the welfare of an individual, of a community, or of a nation, can afford to neglect questioning its influence for mental advancement or retrogression. Propositions relating to schools, colleges, and similar institutions, and propositions dealing with social and industrial conditions present this issue. Modern theories of government, both municipal and national, are frequently based to some extent upon the idea of teaching the people how to live and how to govern themselves. The policy of the United States in the Philippines and in the West Indies has been greatly influenced by the query, "How will it affect the intellectual welfare of the people concerned?" 5. WILL THE PROPOSED PLAN BE A PHYSICAL BENEFIT OR DETTRIMENT? All subjects that concern the life, health, strength, or in any way bear upon the physical well-being of man present this issue. An argument on government ownership of railroads would have to answer the question, "Under which system will fewer accidents occur?" All such propositions as, "Eight hours ought legally to constitute a working day"; "State boards of health should compel all persons afflicted with contagious diseases to be quarantined"; "Football is an undesirable college game," give rise to the issue of physical welfare. 6. WILL THE PROPOSED PLAN BE A POLITICAL BENEFIT OR DETRIMENT? If a plan is of such far-reaching significance that its adoption or rejection would affect a whole town, state, or nation, then its merits usually depend to some extent upon its political significance. The issue may take some such form as, "How will the system affect the country politically?" "Will the system encourage bribery and graft, or will it tend to do away with these evils?" "What will be its effect upon bossism?" 7. HOW HAS THE PLAN SUCCEEDED WHERE IT HAS BEEN TRIED? This question frequently occurs as an issue in connection with all sorts of propositions. Its importance and significance are so evident that no explanation is needed. The value of precedent is known to every one. 8. DOES THE PRESENT SYSTEM CONTAIN SERIOUS EVILS? The asking of this question is frequently one of the very best ways to get at the heart of a proposition of policy. To be sure, this question overlaps and embraces several other questions that have been suggested, but a comprehensive issue like this is sometimes preferable from the standpoint both of the arguer and of the audience. It removes from the arguer the necessity of classifying each evil under the head of _moral_, _financial_, _intellectual_, etc.; and in many cases it results in an argument more easily understood by the audience. In some form this issue applies to nearly all political, economic, and financial propositions. 9. IF THE PRESENT SYSTEM DOES CONTAIN SERIOUS EVILS, WILL THE PROPOSED SYSTEM REMOVE THEM? Equal in importance with the question as to whether the existing system is defective, is the question as to whether the proposed system will remove these defects, without, of course, introducing equally great disadvantages. These two issues almost invariably go together; they set the system advocated by the affirmative and the system advocated by the negative side by side, and compare and contrast each with the other. 10. IF THE PRESENT SYSTEM CONTAINS SERIOUS EVILS, IS THE PROPOSED SYSTEM THE ONLY REMEDY? This last question is very closely connected with the two preceding questions. The whole discussion may hinge not on whether evils exist, but on how they shall be remedied. If the argument takes this turn, the advocates of a certain system must show that their plan is the only one suitable for adoption, or, at least, is the best plan, while the negative must introduce and uphold a totally different scheme. For instance, under the proposition, "The United States army should be greatly enlarged," the first two issues would probably be these: "Is the present army adequate to protect the nation?" and "Is the enlargement of the army the _only_ means of rendering the nation safe from invasion?" PROPOSITIONS OF FACT. 1. DOES THE PROPOSITION STATE A POSSIBLE TRUTH? To find the issues of a proposition of fact, first ask whether the occurrence in question could have happened or the condition alleged in the proposition could possibly have existed. This question is so important that if it can conclusively be answered in the negative the discussion is ended. Legal proceedings invariably center around some form of a proposition of fact. In the criminal court a man to prove his innocence has only to establish an alibi or prove physical inability to commit the crime with which he is charged. Not always, of course, does the question of possibility constitute an issue, since frequently the possibility is admitted. Such would be the case if the following propositions came up for discussion: "Joan of Arc was burned at the stake"; "Nero was guilty of burning Rome." In these instances possibility gives way to probability. 2. DOES THE PROPOSITION STATE A PROBABLE TRUTH? If the question of possibility has been answered affirmatively or inconclusively, the issue of probability next arises. In connection with many propositions of fact this is the most important issue to be encountered. Unless a condition or an event--its possibility being admitted--can be affirmed or denied by reliable witnesses who testify from their own personal knowledge of the matter, the most that any arguer can do is to establish a balance of probability. Those who believe that Bacon wrote the plays attributed to Shakespeare try to show how improbable it is that a man like Shakespeare could have produced such works, and how very likely it is that Bacon was the real author. Many criminals are convicted or acquitted on evidence that establishes merely a strong probability of guilt or of innocence. 3. IS THERE ANY DIRECT EVIDENCE BEARING ON THE PROPOSITION? In the third place, a person who is trying to prove or disprove a proposition of fact must consider the direct evidence involved. Indirect evidence tends to establish the possibility or probability that a statement is true or false, while direct evidence asserts that it is true or false. Direct evidence on the question, "Country roads in New England are inferior to those of the Middle West," would not be a description of the topographical and geographical features of both regions, for this information could at its best establish only a strong probability; direct evidence on this subject would be the testimony of people who have investigated the roads, and could thus speak from direct personal knowledge. This issue of direct evidence has two phases. The arguer must ask, "Is any direct evidence available?" and "If there is any, what is its value?" It is easily seen that not all evidence is equally reliable. Both the man and what he says must be tested: the man for such qualities as truthfulness, intelligence, and experience; the statements for consistency and general credibility. The tests of evidence are given in detail in another chapter. TESTS FOR ISSUES. After an arguer has secured his list of issues, he should test his work by asking the four following questions:-- 1. Does each issue really bear upon the proposition? 2. Is each issue a subdivision of the proposition, or is it the proposition itself formulated in different language? 3. Does each issue comprise only disputed matter? 4. Do the issues, taken collectively, consider all phases of the proposition? Several illustrations will show more plainly just what issues are and how they are used in connection with other parts of an introduction. SHALL GREEK BE TAUGHT IN HIGH SCHOOLS? In taking up the discussion of Greek in the high schools, I shall consider these three questions: First, is Greek more valuable than other studies in training the mind? Second, does the study of Greek acquaint us with the best that has been known and said in the world, and, therefore, with the history of the human spirit? And third, where shall Greek be taught? [Footnote: W.F. Webster, The Forum, December, 1899, page 459.] DOES COLONIZATION PAY? The points to be considered in determining the somewhat mercenary question, "Does Colonization Pay?" as viewed with regard to the interests of the colonizing country, are: (1) the market that the colonies afford for the goods which the colonizing country has to sell; and whether control gives to the mother-country a larger share of their market than she would have without that control; (2) the supplies the colonies are able to furnish for use in the mother- country; and whether the purchase of these supplies from the colonies proves more advantageous to the mother-country than if they should be purchased from other parts of the world; (3) the advantages, if any, which accrue to the native population of the country controlled. [Footnote: O. P. Austin, The Forum, January, 1900, p. 623.] The following passage, taken from Daniel Webster's speech in which, as counsel for the city of Boston, he argues that a certain piece of land has not become a public highway, is a good illustration of an introduction on what was virtually a proposition of fact. Notice with what skill he cast aside all irrelevant matter and reduced the proposition to clearly stated and indisputable issues:-- If this street, or land, or whatever it may be, has become and now is a public highway, it must have become so in one of three ways, and to these points I particularly call your honors' attention. 1st. It must have either become a highway by having been regularly laid out according to usage and law; or 2nd. By _dedication_ as such by those having the power to dedicate it, and acceptance and adoption so far as they are required; or 3d. As a highway by long user, without the existence of proof of any original laying out, or dedication. It is not pretended by any one that the land in question is a highway, upon the last of these grounds. I shall therefore confine myself to the consideration of the other two questions: namely. Was there ever a formal and regular laying out of a street here? or was there ever a regular and sufficient dedication and acceptance? [Footnote: The Works of Daniel Webster, Vol. VI, p. 186. Little, Brown & Co., Boston, 1857.] PARTITION. In college debate, though not frequently elsewhere, the issues as a rule are immediately followed by a series of statements that show how each issue is to be answered. These statements constitute what is known as the _partition_. When a partition is made, each statement becomes a main point to be established by proof in the discussion. The following portion of a student's argument contains both the issues and the partition:-- In considering, then, whether colleges should adopt the system of exempting from final examinations all students who have attained an average daily grade of eighty-five per cent. or over, we have only to consider the effect such a rule would have upon the students, individually and collectively. Would the system raise or lower the standard of scholarship? Would it assist or retard the growth of other qualities which a college course should develop? The negative will oppose the adoption of this rule by establishing the three following points:-- 1. Such a system will lower the scholarship both of those who are exempted from examinations and of those who are not. 2. Such a system will foster dishonesty, jealousy, and conceit. 3. Such a system will deprive those who are exempted from examinations of valuable discipline in preparing for examinations and in taking the examinations. There are several forms in which the partition may be expressed: it may consist of a single sentence that indicates how the issues are to be answered; it may consist of the issues themselves turned into declarative sentences so that they read in favor of the side being upheld; or it may answer each issue by means of several statements. The following will illustrate the several methods:-- Proposition: _Resolved_, That football is an undesirable college game. Issues: 1. Does football benefit or injure the player? 2. Does football benefit or injure the college as a whole? Partition (negative): _First method._ 1. We will establish our side of the argument by proving that in each case football is a benefit. _Second method._ 1. Football benefits the player. 2. Football benefits the college as a whole. _Third method._ 1. Football benefits the player physically. 2. Football benefits the player mentally. 3. Football benefits the player morally. 4. Football benefits the students who do not participate in the game. 5. Intercollegiate football games advertise the college. The partition is usually found in college debate because in a contest of this sort absolute clearness is a prerequisite for success. As but little interest customarily centers around the subject itself, each debater knows that if he is to make any impression on the audience he must so arrange his argument that it will, with a minimum amount of effort on the part of the listener, be clear to every one. To one reading an argument, a partition, unless of the simplest kind, will probably seem superfluous; to one listening to a speech in which he is truly interested, the partition may seem labored. But when the whole interest centers in the method of presentation, and in the processes of reasoning rather than in the subject matter, the partition does increase the clearness of the argument, and should, therefore, be used. By way of summary, then, it may be said that the work of conviction in the introduction is to show the relation between the proposition and the proof. The arguer accomplishes this task, first, by defining all words the meaning of which is not generally comprehended; secondly, by explaining, in the light of these definitions, the meaning of the proposition taken as a whole; thirdly, by discovering the issues through a careful process of analysis; and fourthly, by making a partition when he is engaged in debate and has reason to think that the audience will not see the connection between the issues and the discussion. HOW TO INVESTIGATE A SUBJECT. A student will hardly have reached this point in the study of Argumentation before finding it necessary to search for information that will assist him in the construction of his argument. To one unfamiliar with a library, a search after facts bearing upon a given subject is likely to prove tedious. For this reason a few words of advice concerning the proper way in which to use a library may be of great help to a beginner. Nothing, however, can be given here that will even approximate the value of a few hours' instruction by the librarian of the college in which the student is enrolled. In the absence of such instruction, one can seldom do better at the outset than to become familiar with indexes to periodical and contemporary literature, encyclopaedias, government reports, and the library catalogue. The best indexes are the _Reader's Guide, Poole's Index, The Annual Library Index,_ and the _Current Events Index_. These give references to all articles published in the principal magazines and newspapers for many years. In these articles one will find almost limitless material on nearly every popular topic of the day-- political, economic, scientific, social, educational. The writers, too, are often of national and even of international reputation, and the opinions and ideas given here are frequently as weighty and progressive as can be found. In searching through an index for articles upon a certain subject, one should invariably look under several headings. For example, if one is seeking material in regard to the abolishment of baseball from the list of college sports, he ought not to consult just the one heading _baseball_; he should in addition look under _athletics_, _college sports_, and similar topics. Other valuable sources of information are encyclopaedias. They often give broad surveys and comprehensive digests that cannot readily be found elsewhere. Although they do not, as a rule, discuss subjects that are of mere local or present-day interest, yet the thorough searcher after evidence will usually do well to consult at least several. A fact worth bearing in mind is that in connection with these articles in encyclopaedias, references are often given to books and articles that treat the subject very thoroughly. In the next place, official publications frequently furnish invaluable help in regard to public problems. Both state governments and the national government constantly publish reports containing statistics, the opinions of experts, and suggestions for economic and political changes. Some of the most valuable of these documents for the purposes of the arguer are Census, Immigration, Education, and Interstate Commerce Commission reports, the messages of the Presidents, and the _Congressional Record_. There are indexes to all these, and one can easily find out how to use them. Furthermore, one should not fail to consult the library catalogue. To be sure, if the books are catalogued only according to titles and authors, one will probably get little assistance from this source unless he knows beforehand what particular books or authors to search for. If, on the other hand, the books are also catalogued according to the subjects of which they treat, one can see almost at a glance what books the library has that bear upon the matter under investigation. EXERCISES A. Define the following terms:--monopoly, free trade, railway pooling, income tax, honorary degree, tutorial system of instruction, industrial education, classical education, German university method of study, vivisection, temperance, Indian agency system, yellow peril, graft, sensational, mass play, monarch, civilization, autonomy. B. Criticise the issues that are given for the following propositions:-- 1. _Resolved,_ That in the United States naturalization laws should be more stringent. a. Are the present laws satisfactory? b. Have the results of the laws been satisfactory? c. Would a change be wise? 2. _Resolved,_ That in the United States the reformatory system of imprisonment should be substituted for the punitive. a. Is the reformatory system practicable? b. Does it reform the criminal? c. What has been its success thus far? d. Is it in accordance with modern civilization? 3. _Resolved_, That education in the United States should be compulsory to the age of sixteen. a. Is compulsory education practicable? b. Will compulsory education benefit the child? c. Will compulsory education benefit the public? 4. _Resolved_, That American universities should admit women on equal terms with men. a. Is woman's education as important as man's? b. Is coeducation a benefit to both sexes? c. Is coeducation a benefit to the college? d. Is the desirable system of separate education worth the extra money it costs? 5. _Resolved_, That in the United States there should be an educational test for voting. a. Is voting a privilege or a natural right? b. Ought illiterates to be excluded from the polls? c. Would the test be unfair to any class of citizens? d. Could such a test be easily incorporated into our laws? 6. _Resolved_, That vivisection should be prohibited. a. Is vivisection of great assistance to medicine? b. Is vivisection humane? c. Is it right for us as human beings to sanction the many forms of needless and excessive cruelty practised by vivisectors? C. Make a brief introduction to each of the following propositions, defining all words that require definition, explaining the meaning of the proposition, stating the issues, and making the partition:-- 1. All colleges should debar freshmen from participation in intercollegiate athletic contests. 2. Playing baseball with organizations not under the national agreement should not render athletes ineligible for college teams. 3. ---- College should adopt the honor system of holding examinations. 4. All colleges should abolish hazing. 5. The climate of our country is changing. 6. Macbeth's wife was the cause of his ruin. 7. The Rhodes scholarships for the United States will accomplish the objects of its founder. 8. National expositions are a benefit to the country. CHAPTER V THE INTRODUCTION--BRIEF-DRAWING Preceding chapters have dwelt on the essential characteristics of the introduction and have shown what it should be like when completed. No one but an expert writer, however, can hope that his argument, in either introduction, discussion, or conclusion, will attain any considerable completeness and excellence without first passing through a preliminary form known as the _brief_. A brief is a special kind of outline: _it is an outline that sets forth in specific language all the ideas to be used in that portion of the argument known as conviction, and that shows the exact relation these ideas bear to each other and to the proposition_. An outline in narrative, descriptive, or expository composition is invariably made up of general suggestions, which seldom indicate the same ideas to different persons; it is inexact and incomplete. A brief, on the contrary, fails in its purpose unless it conveys accurate information. The material composing it is always in the form of complete sentences; the ideas are expressed in as exact and specific language as the writer is capable of using. A good brief means as much to the one who reads it as to the one who draws it. It is, too, a complete work in itself. It does not deal with persuasion; with this exception, however, it contains in condensed form all the material to be used in the finished argument. There are many reasons why an arguer should first cast his material in the form of a brief. To begin with, this device enables him to grasp, almost at a glance, all the material used for the purpose of conviction; it keeps constantly before him the points that he must explain, and shows him instantly just how far he has progressed with the proof of each statement. Furthermore, a brief renders the arguer invaluable assistance in preserving the fundamental principles of composition, especially those of Unity, Coherence, Proportion, and Emphasis. It greatly simplifies his task of assorting material and assigning each part its proper place and function. It exhibits so clearly every particle of evidence and every process of reasoning employed that it affords great convenience for testing both the quality and the quantity of the proof. In fact, a good brief is so essential a part of a good argument that a student who neglects to draw the first is bound to meet failure in the second. The rules governing brief-drawing logically divide themselves into four classes: those which apply to the brief as a whole constitute the first class and are called General Rules; those rules which apply to each of the main divisions of a brief constitute the three remaining classes and are called Rules for the Introduction, Rules for the Discussion, and Rules for the Conclusion. GENERAL RULES. In drawing a brief, the student should first divide his material into three groups, corresponding to the three divisions of the complete argument: the Introduction, Discussion, and Conclusion. Moreover, since absolute clearness in every particular is the prime requisite for a good brief, he should label each of these parts with its proper name, so that there may never be the slightest doubt or confusion as to where one part ends and another begins. Hence the first rule for brief-drawing is:-- Rule I. _Divide the brief into three parts, and mark them respectively, Introduction, Discussion, and Conclusion_. A brief, as has been explained, is an outline that contains all the reasoning to be found in the finished argument. Reasoning processes are carried on, not with vague ideas and general suggestions, but with specific facts and exact thoughts. For this reason, only complete statements are of value in a brief. Mere terms must be avoided. A statement, it should be remembered, is a declarative sentence; a term is a word or any combination of words other than a sentence. The following examples of terms plainly show that no reasoning process can exist without the use of complete statements:-- Strikes during the past twenty-five years. Percentage of strikes conducted by labor organizations. Building trades and strikes. Since such expressions as these give no information, they are manifestly out of place in a brief. Each term may call to mind any one of several ideas. No one but the author knows whether the first term is intended to indicate that strikes have been of frequent or of infrequent occurrence, beneficial or detrimental. The second term does not indicate whether the percentage of strikes conducted by labor organizations has been great or small, increasing or decreasing. The third term is equally indefinite. Notice, however, that as soon as these terms are turned into complete sentences, they may well serve as explanation or as proof:-- During the twenty-five year period ending in 1905 there occurred in the United States 36,757 strikes. Labor organizations directed about two-thirds of these strikes. The building trades have had more strikes than has any other industry. This explanation gives rise to the following rule:-- Rule II. _Express each idea in the brief in the form of a complete statement_. Moreover, each sentence should contain only one idea. Every thought expressed has some specific work to do, and it can do it far more effectively if it stands by itself as a unit. The awkwardness and impracticability of proving the truth or falsity of a statement that makes several assertions has been treated under the head of Combined Propositions. Obviously, there are unwarrantable difficulties in grouping explanation or proof about such a statement as, "Municipal ownership has failed in Philadelphia, has succeeded in Edinburgh, and is likely to meet with indifferent success in New Orleans." Furthermore, a sentence that contains several distinct thoughts is very ineffective as proof for some other statement. Since one part of the sentence may be accepted as true and another part rejected, the resulting confusion is very great. To avoid all errors of this kind, the student should use, as far as possible, only _simple_ sentences. Rule III. _Make in each statement only a single assertion_. In the next place, one who draws a brief should take pains to frame all his statements in as concise a form as he can. If he is able to state an idea in six words, he should not use seven. This principle does not mean that small words like _a, an_, and _the_ should be left out, or that an obvious subject may be omitted; it does not mean that the "diary" style of writing is permissible. It means simply that one should always state his ideas as briefly as possible without violating any of the rules of Composition. Quotations should rarely appear in a brief, never unless they are very short. When an arguer wishes to make use of another writer's material, he should condense it into his own language, and state from what source he derived his information. In an expanded argument the full quotation may appear. The ability to express ideas both concisely and, at the same time, clearly, is attained only by considerable labor, yet a departure from the principle of brevity is a serious violation of good brief-drawing. Hence the rule:-- Rule IV. _Make each statement as concise as is consistent with clearness_. Every brief is primarily a process of explanation. From this fact it is evident that clearness must be sought above all other qualities. Not only must the idea expressed be understood, but the _relation between_ ideas, must be perfectly plain and evident. The reader should be able to see at a glance what material is of co-ordinate rank and what is of subordinate rank. This perspicuity is especially necessary in the discussion, where each statement is either being proved by subordinate statements or is serving as proof for some other statement. The device ordinarily adopted for exhibiting at a glance the relation between the ideas in a brief consists of two parts: first, all subordinate statements are indented farther than more important statements; and second, numbers and letters are used to indicate what statements are of co-ordinate importance and what are of secondary rank. The system of marking most generally adopted is as follows:-- I. A. 1. a. 1'. a'. B. 1. a. II. A. etc. Thus the fifth rule is:-- Rule V. _Indicate the relation between statements by indentation and by the use of symbols_. In indicating the relation between ideas, a writer should never put more than one symbol before a statement. It seems almost superfluous to mention an error so apparent as the double use of symbols, but the mistake is frequently made and much confusion results. The numeral I before a heading indicates that the statement is of primary importance; the letter A indicates that it is of secondary importance. If a statement is marked IA, apparently it is both primary and secondary, clearly an impossibility. Rule VI. _Mark each statement with only one symbol_. RULES FOR THE INTRODUCTION. It has been seen that a brief is a complete composition in itself, embodying all the material for conviction that will later be found in the expanded argument. The introduction, therefore, must contain sufficient information to make the proof of the proposition perfectly clear. This portion of the brief serves as a connecting link between the proposition and the discussion; it must explain the nature of the proposition and then show how the proof which is to follow applies to it. The exact work that the introduction to a brief must perform is stated in the following rule:-- Rule VII. _Put into the introduction sufficient explanation for a complete understanding of the discussion. This explanation usually involves:-- (a) a definition of terms, (b) an explanation of the meaning of the proposition, (c) a statement of the issues, and (d) the partition._ Neither an introduction to a brief nor an introduction to a complete argument should contain any statements not admitted by both sides. All ideas that savor of controversy or prejudice have no place in an introduction. The sole purpose of the introduction is to prepare the way for the discussion; if it contains anything in the nature of proof, anything which is not admittedly true, it is no longer pure introduction, but becomes in part discussion. If explanation and proof are thus thrown together indiscriminately, confusion will result. Accordingly the following rule is of great importance:-- Rule VIII. _Put into the introduction only statements admitted by both sides_. The following introductions to briefs may well serve as models for student's work:-- FIRST MODEL. _Resolved_, That England should permanently retain control of Egypt. NEGATIVE BRIEF. INTRODUCTION. I. Because of the recent rapid development of Egypt, the question of the retention of this country is becoming important. II. The following explanations will aid in the discussion of the problem:-- A. Egypt is that strip of country in the northeastern part of Africa, drained by the Nile and its tributaries. B. England has an army of occupation in Egypt, and governs it nominally through the Khedive. C. England has never suggested annexation. D. England has shut out the interference of France and other European nations. E. England has practically ruled Egypt as a dependency. III. The following facts are agreed upon:-- A. Some nation had to take charge of Egypt, for 1. The country was heavily in debt. 2. The people were starving. B. It is for the advantage of England to retain control of the country. IV. The conflicting arguments on the question are as follows:-- A. Those who favor the control of Egypt by England have certain beliefs:-- 1. They believe that the control of Egypt by England is the only practical solution of the problem. 2. They believe that the present status of affairs is beneficial to Egypt and to the whole world. B. Those opposed to the control of Egypt by England maintain the following:-- 1. They maintain that England rules in a selfish manner. 2. They maintain that Turkey and not England should have control of Egypt. V. From this conflict of opinion it appears that the points to be determined are:-- A. Is Egypt benefited by the control of England? B. Is the suzerainty of England over Egypt the only practical solution of the problem? C. Is the control of Egypt by England a benefit to the whole world? VI. The negative will attempt to prove that England should not permanently retain Egypt for the following reasons: A. English control is harmful to Egypt. B. English control is not the only solution to the Egyptian problem. C. English control is harmful to other nations. SECOND MODEL. _Resolved_, That the President of the United States should be elected by direct popular vote. AFFIRMATIVE BRIEF. INTRODUCTION. I. The present method of electing the President of the United States has been both praised and condemned ever since the adoption of the Constitution. A. Two methods of electing the President are under consideration: the present system whereby the President is elected by the electoral college, and the proposed system whereby the President would be elected by a direct popular vote. II. These two systems may be described as follows:-- A. The present system has the following characteristics:-- 1. Each state elects a number of electors equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives to which the state is entitled in Congress. 2. These electors are chosen as the Legislature of each state may direct. 3. The electors meet in their respective states and vote by ballot for the President. 4. Since the year 1800 the electors have always voted for the candidate nominated by the national party which elected them, though the Constitution does not make this requirement. 5. The ballots are sent in sealed packages to the President of the Senate, who counts them and declares the candidate receiving a majority vote elected. 6. If the electors fail to elect, the House of Representatives chooses a President from the three candidates that receive the greatest number of electoral votes. B. The proposed system has the following characteristics:-- 1. The people vote directly for the President, the candidate receiving a majority of the votes being elected. 2. If there be no majority, the President is elected as under the present system when the electors fail to elect. III. The real question to be answered is, Should the direct method be substituted for the present method? A. The comparative value of each method must be judged by the following standards:-- 1. Which would be the more practicable? 2. Which would give the voter fuller enjoyment of his right of suffrage? 3. Which method would have the better effect upon the general welfare of the nation? IV. The affirmative will uphold its side of the proposition by establishing the three following facts:-- A. The direct popular vote system would be more practicable. B. The direct popular vote system would be more democratic. C. The direct popular vote system would be better for the general welfare of the nation. EXERCISES. A. (1) Criticise the following Introduction to a brief, and (2) Write a suitable Introduction to a brief on this subject. City Location for College. Introduction. A. This question is important. I. The following explanation will aid-- (a) In the understanding, and (b) In the discussion of the question. 1. Primarily men come to college to study. 2. Men can study better in the country. 3. But is this really the case? B. A college is an institution of learning higher in rank than a high school or an academy. C. The issues of the question are the following: I. Which college location is more favorable to health and intellectual development? II. Is the student able to enter athletics? III. Does the student in the lonely country college form more lasting friendships? IV. Which is the cheaper? Which is the better location? B. Put into brief form the Introduction found above, Chapter 3, Exercise #7, dealing with Henry Ward Beecher. C. Put the following Introductions into brief form:-- (1) HOW TRUSTS AFFECT PRICES. Perhaps no subject in connection with the Industrial Combinations of the last few years has been more discussed than that of their influence upon prices. Opinions have differed widely, the opponents of the Combinations usually believing that they have increased prices materially, their defenders claiming with equal positiveness that they have reduced prices. Differences of opinion have probably originated largely from the fact that the subject has been approached from different points of view; and mistakes have also, in many cases, been made through lack of a careful interpretation of available facts. It by no means follows that the Trusts have lowered prices because prices have fallen within a few years after their formation; nor, on the other hand, that Trusts have raised prices because prices have been increased. Neither does it follow that, because the Industrial Combinations might through their economies lower prices, they have, as a matter of fact, actually done so; nor again that, with the possible ability to increase prices through the exercise of monopolistic power, they have not found it advisable under certain circumstances really to lower them. Any careful discussion of the subject will involve, first, what the influence of combination would enable the Trusts to do regarding prices; second, what the Combinations actually have done; and, third, what effects upon society may be anticipated from any changes in prices made by Industrial Combinations. [Footnote: Jeremiah W. Jenks, North American Review for June, 1901, p. 906.] (2) Mr. Chairman: This bill (H. R. 17019) which I shall ask this House to pass to-day is one of that general class usually called "private bills"; and while the usage of this House might catalogue it under that head, it is in reality a "public bill," because it has to do with the interests of many people--indeed, an entire city of 75,000 population. This bill provides that the legal title to a certain tract of land situated near the city of Tacoma, the title to which is now in the United States Government, shall be transferred to the city of Tacoma. However, I wish to assure this House that as a matter of fact the Government practically loses nothing by the passage of this bill. I realize that these two statements placed side by side seem to involve a contradiction. Therefore I will make a brief explanation of this matter. Since the year of 1866 the Government has owned a tract of land adjoining what is now the city of Tacoma; this tract of land contains 637.9 acres. In the year of 1888 the Government gave the city of Tacoma a right or license to use and occupy this land as a city park, but retained the legal title in the Government, because it was thought that at some future time the Government might need to use and occupy this land for military purposes. Therefore you will observe that the present condition of the title to this land is that the legal title is in the Government, with the right in the city to use and occupy the same. This bill, if it shall pass, will simply reverse and place the legal title to this land in the city of Tacoma, with the right remaining in the Government for all time to come to take possession or use and occupy any or all of this land that it might need for military, naval, or lighthouse purposes. I wish to explain briefly to this House why the passage of this bill and this change in the title is not only fair and just, but the failure to pass this bill would, in my judgment, be very unfair to the 75,000 people in the city of Tacoma. [Footnote: Speech of Hon. Francis W. Cushman of Washington, in the House of Representatives, Feb. 28, 1905.] (3) GOVERNMENT MANAGEMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ENTERPRISES. [Footnote: A. T. Hadley, _Economics_, pp. 390-393.] By far the most important part of consumers' co-operation is exemplified in government management of industrial enterprises. This differs in two important particulars from the co-operative agencies already described. In the first place the choice of managers of a government business enterprise is connected with the general political machinery of the country, and regulated by constitutional law instead of by statutes of incorporation. In the second place, these managers are likely to fall back on the taxing powers of the Government to make up any deficit which may arise in the operations of a public business enterprise; or in the converse case to devote any surplus above expenses to the relief of tax burdens elsewhere. A government enterprise is managed by the people who represent, or are supposed to represent, the consumers; but the good or bad economy of its management does not necessarily redound to the profit or loss of those who most use it. In the beginning of history, the government is the power that controls the army. When tribes were in a state of warfare with one another defense against foreign enemies was a matter of primary importance. No man could let his private convenience stand in the way of effective military operations. The discipline and subordination necessary to wage successful war were all-important; and all the powers necessary to maintain such discipline were entrusted to the leaders of the army. Somewhat later the military authorities undertook the work of maintaining discipline in time of peace as well as war, and of defining and enforcing the rights of members of the tribe against one another, no less than against foreign enemies. This function was not accorded to them without a struggle. The priests, under whose tutelage the religious sanction for tribal customs had grown up, tried to keep in their own hands the responsibility of upholding these customs and the physical power connected with it. In some races they succeeded, but among European peoples the military authorities took the work of enforcing and defining laws out of the hands of the priests, and made it a function of the state as distinct from the Church. As security from foreign enemies increased, this law-making power became more and more important. The Government was less exclusively identified with the army, and more occupied with the courts, the legislatures, and the internal police. Its judicial and legislative functions assumed a prominence at least as great as its military function. The growth of private property was also coincident with the development of these domestic functions of government. In fact, the two things reinforced one another. The production and accumulation of capital, to which private property gave so vigorous an impulse, placed the strong men of the community in a position where they had less to gain by war and more by peace. It put them on the side of internal tranquility. It thus made the government more powerful, and this in turn still further increased the accumulations of capital. But along with this mutual help, which strong domestic government and strong property right rendered one another, there was an element of mutual antagonism. The very fulfillment of those functions which made the accumulation of capital possible, rendered it impossible for the government to do its work except at the expense of the capitalists. It was no longer possible to support armies by booty, or courts by fines and forfeitures. The expense of maintaining order had to be paid by its friends instead of by its enemies. The growth of private property was followed by the development of a system of taxation, which, in theory at any rate, involved the power to destroy such property. The existence of such a system of taxation, with the machinery for collecting money in this way, allows the government more freedom of industrial action than any private individual can command. It can make up a deficit by compulsory payments; and this gives it a wider range of power in deciding what services it will undertake and what prices it will charge--a power which affords almost unlimited opportunity for good or bad use, according to the degree of skill and integrity with which it is exercised. Every extension of government activity into new fields restricts private enterprise in two ways: first by limiting the field for investment of private capital, and second, by possibly, if not probably, appropriating through taxation a part of the returns from private enterprise in all other fields. The question whether a government should manage an industry reduces itself to this: Are the deficiencies or evils connected with private management such that it is wise to give government officials the taxing power which constitutes the distinctive feature of public industrial management? D. Draw an Introduction to a brief on each of the propositions given on page 82. CHAPTER VI THE DISCUSSION--CONVICTION It has been seen that one who wishes to establish the truth or the falsity of a proposition must answer certain vital questions that are bound to arise in connection with it. Then, as different persons may answer these questions in different ways, it becomes necessary for him to convince his audience that his answers are correct. He must always beware of assertiveness. This defect occurs whenever a speaker or writer makes a statement but does not establish its truth. As simple denial is always sufficient answer to mere assertion, an unsupported statement is worthless. No one can hope to win in debate or change another's belief unless he can prove that what he says is true; he must substantiate with proof every statement that he makes, and show that no possibility for error or deceit can exist. _In argumentation every statement not commonly accented as true must be proved_. The following passage is a highly assertive bit of argument; its worthlessness is apparent. The decision of Congress to increase still further our already enormous navy is an injustice to every individual who contributes to the support of the national government. It is a crime to squander millions of money on a fleet that we do not need. Our navy to-day is more than the equal of any foreign armament that floats. Though second in number of ships, it ranks first in efficiency among all the navies of the world. No other country can boast of such marksmanship as our gunners display; no other country can boast of such armor plate as is to be found on our first-class battleships; not even England can successfully compete with us in seamanship and in general efficiency. Proof is "anything which serves either immediately or mediately to convince the mind of the truth or the falsehood of a fact or proposition." [Footnote: On Evidence, Best, p. 45.] Belief in a specific statement is induced by a presentation of pertinent facts, and usually by a process of reasoning whereby from the existence of these known facts, the conclusion, hitherto unaccepted, is reached. Those facts that have to do with the proposition under discussion are known as _evidence_. The process of combining facts and deriving an inference from them is known as _reasoning_. Evidence may be made up of the testimony of witnesses, the opinion of experts, knowledge derived from experience, the testimony of documents, or circumstances that are generally known to have existed. Reasoning is the process by which men form opinions, render judgments, explain events, or in any way seek new truths from established facts. In the following bit of proof, notice the facts that are stated, and see how, by a process of reasoning, they go to substantiate the idea that they are intended to prove:-- New York hires two policemen where Nashville hires one, and pays them double the salary; yet Nashville is as peaceable and orderly as New York. In Nashville any child of school age can have a seat in the public schools all through the year; in New York there has been a shortage of seats for many years. Nashville has a filtered water supply; New York is going to have one as soon as the $12,000,000 filtration plant can be built at Jerome Park. Street car fares are five cents in both cities; in Nashville one can always get a seat; in New York one has to scramble for standing room. The southern city maintains hospitals, parks, food inspectors, and all other things common to New York and other large cities. Apparently, Nashville is giving as much to its inhabitants for six dollars per capita as New York for thirty-one. These facts can point to but one conclusion--that Nashville has a superior system of government. Since the first step in the generation of proof is the discovery of facts, the arguer should at the very outset become sufficiently familiar with the various kinds of evidence to estimate the value and strength of each idea that has a bearing upon the subject. I. EVIDENCE. There are two kinds of evidence: (a) direct, and (b) indirect or circumstantial. If a man sees a gang of strikers set fire to the buildings of their former employer, his evidence is direct. If, however, he only sees them stealthily leaving the buildings just before the fire breaks out, his evidence is indirect. In the latter case the man's testimony is direct evidence that the men were in the vicinity of the fire when it started, but it is indirect evidence that they perpetrated the crime. If a student who has failed to do good work throughout the term, and who has had little or no opportunity for special preparation, passes in a perfect paper at the close of an examination, the presumption is that he has received aid. The evidence on which this supposition rests is entirely circumstantial. But if some one saw the student obtaining aid, that fact would be direct evidence against him. Direct evidence, as a rule, is considered more valuable than indirect, but each kind is frequently sufficient to induce belief. The best possible kind of evidence, the kind that is least liable to contain error or falsehood, is a combination of both direct and indirect. Either one by itself may be untrustworthy. The unreliability of evidence given by eyewitnesses is shown by the conflicting stories they frequently tell concerning the same incident even when they are honestly attempting to relate the facts as they occurred. Also, it is always possible that the inferences drawn from a combination of circumstances may be entirely wrong. When, however, both kinds of evidence are available, each confirming the other and leading up to the same conclusion, then the possibility of error is reduced to a minimum. The opportunity of the college student for obtaining evidence in his argumentative work is limited. A lawyer before entering upon an important case often spends weeks and months in investigation; scientists sometimes devote a whole lifetime in trying to establish a single hypothesis. But the college student in preparing an argument must obtain his evidence in a few days. There are several sources at his disposal. The first available source is his fund of general knowledge and experience. If a man can establish a statement by saying that he personally knows it to be true, he has valuable proof. Then the people with whom the student comes in contact constitute another source of evidence. Anyone who can give information on a subject that is being investigated is a valuable witness. Especially in discussions on questions which pertain to college life, the opinions and experiences of college men and of prominent educators are unsurpassed as evidence. But the greatest source of evidence for the student of argumentation is the library. Here he may consult the best thought of all time in every branch of activity. He may review the opinions of statesmen, economists, educators, and scientists, and introduce as evidence their experiences and the results of their investigations. Here he may familiarize himself with the current events of the world, and draw his own conclusions as to their significance. In fact, a well equipped library treats of all subjects, however broad or narrow they may be, and furnishes evidence for all sorts of debatable questions. As not all evidence is equally valuable, a large part of the work of argumentation consists in applying tests to the evidence at hand for the sake of determining what facts are irrefutable, what are doubtful, and what are worthless. Moreover, one engaged in argumentation must test not only his own evidence but also that of the other side. No better method of refuting an opponent's argument exists than to show that the facts on which it rests are untrustworthy. Tests of evidence may be divided into two classes: tests of the source from which it comes, and tests of the quality of the evidence itself. A. TESTS OF THE SOURCE OF EVIDENCE. Since in courts of law, in college debate, and in all kinds of argumentation, facts are established by the testimony of witnesses, the sources of evidence are the witnesses who give it. The debater and the argumentative writer have not the opportunity, as has the lawyer, of producing the witnesses and permitting them to tell their own stories to the audience. He must himself relate the evidence; and, in order that it may be believed, he must tell whence it comes. The sources of evidence may be common rumor, newspapers, magazines, official documents, private citizens, or public officials. The extent to which these witnesses are accepted as trustworthy by the people before whom they are quoted determines in a large measure whether or not the evidence will be believed. Tests for determining the trustworthiness of witnesses will next be given. The first test of the source of evidence should be:-- (1) _Is the witness competent to give a trustworthy account of the matter under consideration?_ To answer this question, first determine whether the facts to be established are such that any ordinary person can speak concerning them with reasonable accuracy, or whether they can be understood only by persons who have received special training. A landsman could well testify that a naval battle had occurred, but only a man with nautical training could accurately describe the maneuvers of the ships and tell just how the engagement progressed. A coal heaver's description of a surgical operation would establish nothing, except perhaps the identity of the people and a few other general matters; only a person with a medical education could accurately describe the procedure. The testimony of any one but a naturalist would not even tend to prove the existence of an hitherto unknown species of animal life. A witness without technical knowledge cannot give reliable evidence on matters of a technical nature. Then, if it is found that the witness does possess the necessary technical training, or that no previous training is necessary, still further test his ability to give reliable evidence by asking whether he has had ample opportunity for investigating the facts to the existence of which he testifies. For even a skilled player sitting in the first base bleachers at a baseball game to criticise an umpire's decisions on balls and strikes is absurd; the opinion of a transient visitor to Panama on the methods used in digging the canal is not valuable; a traveler who has spent a single month in Japan cannot draw reliable conclusions on the merits and defects of its political structure. In not one of these cases has the opportunity for investigation been sufficient to render the witness able to give reliable evidence. A current magazine in discussing the weakness of testimony that comes from incompetent witnesses says:-- Generalizations about the tastes and interests of the age are so easy that all except the most wary fall into them, and the world is full of off-hand opinions touching the condition of society and the state of the world, which are far more conspicuous for courage than for discretion. There are very few men or women in any particular period who know it intimately enough, and with sufficient insight and sympathy, to pass judgment upon it. One hears almost every day sweeping judgments about Americans, English, French, Germans, Chinese, and Japanese which are entirely valueless, unless they are based on a very broad and intimate knowledge of these various peoples, a knowledge which, in the nature of things, few people possess. The charming American girl who declared that, since gloves are cheaper in Paris, American civilization is a failure, may stand for a type of interesting and piquant oracles, to be heard with attention, but under no circumstances to be followed. Americans are so familiar with the European traveler who arrives and makes up his opinion over night in regard to men, morals, and manners in the Western world and have so often been the victim of this self-confident critic, that they ought not to repeat the same blunder in dealing with other peoples. [Footnote: The Outlook, July 20, 1907.] In the court room, where witnesses are present and can be carefully examined by the lawyers on both sides, it is customary to apply both mental and physical tests. The witness who testifies to knowledge of some event that occurred a long time before is given a memory test; the senses, also, through which occurrences are perceived are frequently examined. But as writers and debaters in general seldom have the opportunity to apply tests of this sort to their sources of information, and as these tests are seldom important outside of the law courts, they are not taken up in detail in this book. The second test of the source of evidence should be:-- (2) _Is the witness willing to give an accurate account of the matter?_ One important influence that may cause a witness to give false evidence is _self-interest_. Not only individuals, but social and industrial organizations, political parties, communities, and states are frequently swayed by this emotion to the extent of deliberately perverting the truth. The evidence found in newspapers and other publications is often false, or at least misleading, because it has been tampered with by those who put their selfish interests before all else. The owner of an industry protected by a high tariff would scarcely be considered a reliable witness in matters affecting tariff reform. The opinion of a railroad magnate on the subject of a compulsory two-cent rate law would not be considered as unbiased. No disinterested seeker after truth would accept the political conclusions of a newspaper owned by a politician or recognized as the organ of a certain party. In all such cases, self-interest may prompt the witness to make statements not in strict accordance with the truth. Perjury in the court room is not uncommon; falsehood elsewhere must be guarded against. The arguer should always carefully scrutinize the testimony of a witness that has any special interest in the matter for which evidence is being sought. Though the self-interest is strong, the witness may be willing to state the matter accurately; but, as long as human nature remains as it is, this willingness should not be taken for granted. The third test of the source of evidence should be:-- (3) _Is the witness prejudiced?_ Another emotion that frequently keeps a witness from telling the exact truth is _prejudice_. Every one is familiar with instances of how this passion warps men's morals and corrupts their judgment. If a man is prejudiced for or against a person or a system, he cannot be accepted as a trustworthy witness in matters where his prejudice comes into play. Should an economist known to favor socialism write a treatise advocating municipal ownership of public utilities, his evidence and his reasoning would not be convincing; it would be taken for granted that he looked at the subject through socialistic spectacles. A person who sets out with the expectation and intention of finding flaws in anything usually succeeds. Though he is willing to tell the exact truth, yet because of his prejudice he is sure to see only that which will coincide with his preconceived opinions. For this reason, political speeches and intensely partisan books and papers are invariably unreliable sources of evidence even though they are not intentionally dishonest. The fourth test of the source of evidence is:-- (4) _Does the witness have a good reputation for honesty and accuracy?_ The human conscience is so constituted that many people deviate from the truth for no apparent reason whatever. Some are given to exaggeration; some habitually pretend to know that of which they are entirely ignorant; others are so inaccurate that everything they say is open to grave suspicion. If a witness is known to have been repeatedly dishonest or inaccurate in the past, little reliance should be placed in his testimony. "Yellow journalism," which is largely the reflection of common rumor, affords constant examples of witnesses that give questionable evidence. Ability and willingness to give exact evidence, an unprejudiced attitude, and a good reputation for honesty and accuracy are the qualities that should characterize the sources of evidence. If a writer or speaker is securing testimony from friends or acquaintances, the application of these tests is not difficult. If, however, the sources are books and periodicals, his work is harder; but to be successful, he must not shirk it. When one procures evidence from books, he should investigate the character and standing of the author. When one obtains it from signed articles in papers and magazines, he must consider both the author and the character of the publication. In the case of newspaper "stories" and editorials, one should find out on what general policy and principles the paper is conducted. A cautious arguer will always avoid, as far as he can, the use of evidence that comes from a doubtful source. If one finds that an opponent has used the testimony of questionable witnesses, he can, by exposing the fact, easily refute the argument. NECESSITY OF STATING SOURCES. It sometimes happens that an arguer fails to state the source of his evidence. This omission is usually fatal to success. No one is likely to put much confidence in statements that are introduced by such flimsy preambles as, "A certain statesman has declared"; "I have read somewhere"; "An acquaintance told me." Not only must evidence come from sources that seem good to the writer, but those sources must be satisfactory to the audience. In the last analysis the audience is the judge of what is credible and what is not. Moreover, if the evidence is of great importance, or is liable to be disputed, the arguer should show in a few words why the witness is especially reliable. B. INTERNAL TESTS OF EVIDENCE (1) _Is the evidence consistent with (a) other evidence in the same argument; (b) known facts; (c) human experience?_ The requirement that every separate bit of evidence in an argument shall be consistent with every other bit of evidence in the same argument is too well understood to need explanation. One familiar with courts of law knows that a witness who contradicts himself is not believed. Furthermore, if the testimony of several witnesses for the same side is inconsistent, the case for that side is materially weakened. So it is in general debate: the arguer who wishes to succeed must not use evidence that is self-contradictory. His proof must "hang together"; his facts must all go to establish the same conclusion. A flagrant violation of this principle once occurred in a class-room debate. The speaker for the negative on the proposition, "_Resolved_, That freshmen should be ineligible for college teams," said that such a rule would deprive the freshmen of much- needed physical exercise. Later on, he said that just as many freshmen would receive injuries under this rule as without it, since they would take part in equally dangerous contests as members of freshmen teams. This contradiction ruined his argument. In the next place, evidence to be of any value whatever, must be consistent with what is known about the case. If an arguer is so careless as to make statements contradictory either to well- established facts or to facts easily proved, he cannot hope to attain the slightest measure of success. Only one guilty of gross neglect or absolute falsehood is likely to fall into such an error. At one time the story was circulated that, during his early life, Lincoln had been insane. In the following passage Ida M. Tarbell shows that the testimony on which this belief was founded is inconsistent with the known facts of the case, and is, therefore, palpably untrue:-- "Mr. Thornton went on to say that he knew beyond a doubt that the sensational account of Lincoln's insanity was untrue, and he quoted from the House journal to show how it was impossible that, as Lamon says, using Herndon's notes, 'Lincoln went crazy as a loon, and did not attend the legislature in 1841-1842, for this reason'; or, as Herndon says, that he had to be watched constantly. According to the record taken from the journals of the House by Mr. Thornton, which have been verified in Springfield, Mr. Lincoln was in his seat in the House on that 'fatal first of January' when he is asserted to have been groping in the shadow of madness, and he was also there on the following day." Lincoln himself was an expert at detecting inconsistency wherever it existed. He won many of his lawsuits by the straightforward method of showing that the one or two vital statements on which the whole case of the opposition rested were false, inasmuch as they were inconsistent with well-established and incontrovertible facts. An instance of this sort is here described:-- The most damaging evidence was that of one Allen, who swore that he had seen Armstrong strike Metzker about ten or eleven o'clock in the evening. When asked how he could see, he answered that the moon shone brightly. Under Lincoln's questioning he repeated the statement until it was impossible that the jury should forget it. With Allen's testimony unimpeached, conviction seemed certain. Lincoln's address to the jury was full of pathos. It was not as a hired attorney that he was there, he said, but to discharge a debt of friendship.... But Lincoln was not relying on sympathy alone to win his case. In closing he reviewed the evidence, showing that all depended on Allen's testimony, and this he said he could prove to be false. Allen never saw Armstrong strike Metzker by the light of the moon, for at the hour when he said he saw the fight, between ten and eleven o'clock, the moon was not in the heavens. Then procuring an almanac, he passed it to the judge and jury. The moon, which was on that night only in its first quarter, had set before midnight. [Footnote: The Life of Abraham Lincoln, Vol. I, p. 272. Ida M. Tarbell. The Doubleday & McClure Co.] An arguer should also be extremely careful to use evidence that on its face appears reasonable. Only an extremely credulous audience will accept ideas that run counter to human belief and experience. To attribute the occurrence of an event to supernatural causes would bring a smile of derision to any but a most ignorant and superstitious person. To attribute to men qualities and characteristics that human experience has shown they do not possess will bring equal discredit. No one is likely to accept evidence that contradicts his habits of thinking, that is contrary to what his life and experience have taught him is true. For this reason savage people are slow to believe the teachings of the Christian religion. For this reason it is difficult to make an audience believe that any one will deliberately and consistently work against his own interests, or follow any other unusual line of action. Evidence contrary to human experience may be true, but unless the exigencies of the argument demand its use, the arguer will do well to omit it entirely. If he is obliged to use it, he should make it appear as reasonable as he can, and also substantiate it with careful proof. Huxley appreciated the fact that evidence, to be believed, must be in accordance with man's experience when he wrote the following:-- If any one were to try to persuade you that an oyster shell (which is also chiefly composed of carbonate of lime) had crystallized out of sea-water, I suppose you would laugh at the absurdity. Your laughter would be justified by the fact that all experience tends to show that oyster-shells are formed by the agency of oysters, and in no other way. The ease with which an argument that does not satisfy this requirement may be overthrown is clearly shown in the following extract from a student's forensic:-- To say that the Cuban reconcentrados sunk the _Maine_ in an effort to embroil the United States in a conflict with Spain is the veriest foolishness. There is not one scrap of documentary evidence to show that such was the case. Moreover, such an act would be unparalleled in the annals of history. It is unreasonable, contrary to all experience, that those oppressed people should have brought disaster, involving the destruction of property and the loss of many lives, upon the very nation that they were looking to for assistance. (2) _Is the evidence first-hand or hearsay evidence?_ It is universally recognized that hearsay evidence is unreliable. A narrative is sure to become so garbled by passing from mouth to mouth that unless a witness can testify to a fact from his own personal knowledge the evidence he gives is worthy of little credence. There is sufficient chance for error when the person who witnessed the event relates the account himself; if the story is told by a second, and perhaps by a third person, it is likely to reflect but little of what really happened. Every one is familiar with the exaggerations of common rumor; it distorts facts so that they are unrecognizable. The works of Herodotus are untrustworthy because he frequently believed hearsay evidence. Since second-hand evidence both fails to establish anything worth while, if allowed to stand, and is easily overthrown even by a very little first-hand evidence, an arguer will do well to follow the custom of the law courts, and, as a rule, exclude it altogether. (3) _Can the evidence be considered as especially valuable?_ (a) _Hurtful admissions_ constitute an especially valuable kind of evidence. Since men are not wont to give evidence detrimental to their personal interest unless impelled to do so by conscientious scruples, any testimony damaging to the one who gives it is in all probability not only truthful, but also the result of careful investigation. When a practising physician admits that half the ailments of mankind are imaginary or so trivial as to need no medical attention, he is making a statement that is likely to injure his business; for this reason he is probably stating the result of his experience truthfully. If a railroad president says that in his opinion government supervision of railroads will benefit the public in the matter of rates and service, it may be taken for granted that he has given his honest belief, and that his natural reluctance to surrender any authority of his own has kept him from speaking carelessly. If a member of the United States Senate admits that that body is corrupt, and selfish, and untrustworthy, he is lowering his own rank; therefore it is reasonable to believe that he is speaking the truth according to his honest belief. The following is an example of this kind of evidence:-- It was stated during the Manchurian campaign that the Jewish soldiers, of whom Kuropatkin had about 35,000, not only failed to hold their ground under fire, but by their timidity threw their comrades into panic. But good evidence can be cited from the correspondents of the _Novoye Vremya_, an Anti-Semitic organ, to the effect that among the Jews were found many "intrepid and intelligent soldiers," and that a number of them were awarded the St. George's cross for gallantry. [Footnote: The Nation, June 11, 1908.] It is hardly necessary to add that one who places especial reliance on this kind of evidence must be sure that the admission is _really_ and not merely _apparently_ contrary to the interest of the one who gives it. (b) Another particularly valuable kind of evidence is _negative evidence_, or the _evidence of silence_. Whenever a witness fails to mention an event which, if it had occurred, would have been of such interest to him that he might reasonably have been expected to have mentioned it, his silence upon the matter becomes negative evidence that the event did not occur. For many years no one suggested that Bacon wrote the Shakespearean plays; this absence of testimony to the belief that Bacon wrote them is strong evidence that such belief did not exist until recently, a fact that tends to discredit the Baconian theory of authorship. The fact that in the writings of Dickens and Thackeray no mention is made of the bicycle is negative evidence that the bicycle had not then come into use. That Moses nowhere in his writings speaks of life after death is negative evidence that the Hebrews did not believe in the immortality of the soul. If admittedly capable and impartial officials do not inflict penalties for foul playing during a football game, there is strong presumption that little or no foul playing occurred. The following paragraph, taken from a current magazine, shows how this kind of evidence may be handled very effectively:-- A sharp controversy has been raging in the European press over the question whether Gambetta secretly visited Bismarck in 1878. Francis Laur, Gambetta's literary executor, has published an article asserting that he did, and giving details (rather vague, it must be admitted) of the conversation between the two statesmen. But he offers not a scrap of documentary proof. He is not even sure whether the interview took place at Friedrichsruh or at Varzin. This is rather disconcerting, especially in view of the fact that Bismarck never made the slightest reference in his reminiscences or letters to the visit of Gambetta, if it occurred, and that the minute Busch never mentioned it. [Footnote: The Nation, September 5, 1907] ARGUMENT FROM AUTHORITY. There is a particular kind of evidence frequently available for debaters and argumentative writers known as _argument from authority._ This evidence consists of the opinions and decisions of men who are recognized, to some extent at least, as authorities on the subjects of which they speak. An eminent scientist might explain with unquestioned certainty the operation of certain natural phenomena. A business man of wide experience and with well recognized insight into national conditions might speak authoritatively on the causes of business depressions. In religious matters the Bible is the highest authority for orthodox Christians; the Koran, for Mohammedans. In legal affairs the highest authorities are court decisions, opinions of eminent jurists, and the Constitution. If a certain college president is considered an authority in the matter of college discipline, then a quotation from him on the evils of hazing becomes valuable evidence for the affirmative of the proposition, "Hazing should be abolished in all colleges." If the arguer wishes to strengthen his evidence, he may do so by giving the president's reasons for condemning hazing; but he then departs from pure argument from authority. Pure argument from authority does not consist of a statement of the reasons involved; it asserts that something is true because some one who is acknowledged to be an authority on that subject says it is true. Argument from authority differs from other evidence in that it involves not merely investigation but also the exercise of a high degree of judgment. The statement that in 1902, in the United Kingdom, two hundred and ninety-five communities of from 8,000 to 25,000 inhabitants were without street-car lines is not argument from authority; the discovery of this truth involved merely investigation. On the other hand, if some reputable statesman or business man should say that street-car facilities in the United States excelled those of England, this evidence would be argument from authority; only through both investigation and judgment could such a statement be evolved. This kind of evidence is very strong when those addressed have confidence in the integrity, ability, and judgment of the person quoted. If, however, they do not know him, or if they do not consider him reliable, the evidence is of little value. Therefore, the test that an arguer should apply before using this kind of evidence is as follows:-- _Is the witness an acknowledged authority on the subject about which he speaks?_ Sometimes a short statement showing why the witness quoted is able to speak wisely and conclusively will render the evidence more valuable in the eyes of the audience. In the following example, notice how Judge James H. Blount used "authority" in proving that the Filipinos desired self-government:-- Senator Dubois, of Idaho, who was a member of the Congressional party that visited the Philippines, has since said in the New York "Independent": All the Filipinos, with the exception of those who were holding positions under and drawing salaries from our Government, favor a government of their own. There is scarcely an exception among them.... There is nobody in the islands, no organization of any kind or description, which favors the policy of our Government toward them. Senator Newlands, of Nevada, also a member of the Congressional party aforesaid, has declared, in the number of this Review for December, 1905, that practically the whole people desire independence. Congressman Parsons, also a member of the same party, has since said: "There is no question that all the Filipino parties are now in favor of independence." Captain J. A. Moss, of the Twenty-fourth Infantry, a member of General Corbin's staff, is quoted by Mr. Bryan, in the "Commoner" of April 27th, 1906, as saying in an article published in a Manila paper while Mr. Bryan was in the islands, with reference to the wishes of "the great majority" of Filipinos, that "to please them, we cannot get out of the islands too soon." [Footnote: North American Review, Vol. CLXXXIV, p. 136.] II. REASONING. As has been said, proof consists of evidence and reasoning. Evidence has been considered first because this order corresponds to the way in which proof is usually generated; obviously, the discovery of facts precedes the process of reasoning which shows their significance. In some instances, however, this order is reversed: a man may form a theory and then hunt for the facts on which to base it; but in general, facts precede inferences. Since all people when they reason do not reach the same conclusion, it is very essential for a student to investigate the various processes of reasoning. Given exactly the same evidence, some men will draw one conclusion, some another. A current periodical recognizes this fact when it says:-- How widely divergent may be conclusions drawn from the same source can be judged by contrasting these two statements: Messrs. Clark and Edgar declare that "where municipal ownership has been removed from the realm of philosophic discussion and put to the test of actual experience it has failed ingloriously"; Professor Parsons and Mr. Bemis on the contrary assert, to use Professor Parsons' words, "it is not public ownership, but private ownership, that is responsible for our periodic crisis and the ruin of our industries," and "it is not impossible that the elimination of the public service corporations through public ownership is one of the things that would do more to help along the process of making our cities fit." [Footnote: Outlook, July 27, 1907.] Because of the divergencies in the results produced by reasoning, a student should study with considerable care the various processes of arriving at a conclusion, so that he may be able to tell what methods are strong, what are weak, and what are fallacious. According to a common classification, there are two methods of reasoning: the inductive process, and the deductive process. 1. INDUCTIVE REASONING. When one carefully investigates his reasons for believing as he does, he often finds that he accepts a certain statement as true because he is familiar with many specific instances that tend to establish its truth. The belief that prussic acid is poisonous is based upon the large number of instances in which its deadly effect has been apparent. The fact that railroad men are exposed to injury is unquestioned because every one is familiar with the many accidents that occur each year. The statement that water freezes at thirty-two degrees Fahrenheit has been proved true by innumerable tests. This process of reasoning by which, from many specific instances, the truth of a general statement is established, is called _induction._ An example of inductive reasoning is found in the following passage:-- Does the closing of the saloons affect appreciably the amount of drunkenness in the community? A comparison of the same town or city in successive years--one year under one system, and the next year under the other--furnishes a basis for accurate judgment. Evidence of this sort is all one way, and it seems to be conclusive. The tables prepared by the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor, in 1905, under special instructions from the legislature, show that in Haverhill the average number of arrests per month under license was 81.63, under no-license, 26.50; in Lynn, under license, 315, under no-license, 117.63; in Medford, under license, 20.12, under no-license, 13.25; in Pittsfield, under license, 93.25, under no-license, 36.75; and in Salem, under license, 140.50, under no-license, 29.63. Such comparisons might be multiplied, but it is unnecessary. There is no escaping the conclusion that the closing of the saloons, under the Local Option system, does sensibly diminish the volume of drunkenness. [Footnote: Atlantic Monthly, Vol. XC, p. 437.] In using inductive reasoning, one must always be on his guard against drawing conclusions too hastily. It is never correct to conclude from a consideration of only a few instances that a general truth has been discovered. Further examination may show that the opinion first formed will not hold. Some people call all men dishonest because several acquaintances have not kept faith with them. Others are ready to believe that because they have made money in the stock market all can do likewise. Most superstitions arise through generalization from too few instances: those who have several times met misfortune on the thirteenth day of the month are apt to say that the thirteenth is always an unlucky day. Such reasoning as this shows the weakness of inductive argument: a conclusion is worthless if it is drawn from too few examples. Professor Fred Lewis Pattee, in writing on _Errors in Reasoning_, says:-- Children and even adults often generalize from a single experience. A little boy cautioned me at one time to keep away from a certain horse, for "white horses always kick." An old Pennsylvania farmer laid down the law that shingles laid during the increase of the moon always curl up. He had tried it once and found out. A friend will advise you to take Blank's Bitters: "I took a bottle one spring and felt much better; they always cure." Physicians base their knowledge of medicines upon the observations of thousands of trained observers through many years, and not upon a single experience. Most people are prone to judge their neighbors from too slight acquaintance. If a man is late at an appointment twice in succession, someone is sure to say: "Oh, he's always late." This is poor thinking because it is bad judgment. Judgments should be made with care and from fullness of experience. [Footnote: The Adult Bible Class and Teacher Training Monthly, May, 1908, page 295.] The following quotation illustrates how often hasty generalizations create prejudice and sway public judgment:-- There is an impression shared by many that the relation between the white and black races in this country is becoming less amicable and more and more surcharged with injustice. The basis for this impression is to be found in certain dramatic and sensational events, in particular the riots in Springfield, Illinois, and in Atlanta, Georgia. The memory of those events is becoming faint in many minds; but the impression they created remains. A dramatic event will have an effect upon public opinion which statistics, more significant but less picturesque, will altogether fail to produce. In the horror at the brief work of a mob the diminution in the annual number of lynchings is forgotten. The fundamental mistake in this is in the picking out of a startling episode or a reckless utterance and regarding it as typical. We do not arrive at the truth in that way. The Black Hand assassin does not furnish a true index to the Italian character. Aaron Burr is not an exhibit of the product of American Puritanism. So, if we wish to find out what American democracy has done with the negro, we do not search, if we are wise, into the chain-gang of Georgia or into the slums of New York. [Footnote: The Outlook, April 4, 1908.] The value of inductive reasoning depends upon the number of instances observed. Very seldom is it possible to investigate every case of the class under discussion. Of course this can sometimes be done. For instance, one may be able to state that all his brothers are college graduates, since he can speak authoritatively concerning each one of them. But usually an examination of every instance is out of the question, and whenever induction is based on less than all existing cases, it establishes only _probable_ truth. From the foregoing it is seen that the tests for induction are two:-- (1) _Have enough instances of the class under consideration been investigated to establish the existence of a general law?_ (2) _Have enough instances been investigated to establish the probable existence of a general law?_ 2. DEDUCTIVE REASONING. Deductive reasoning is the method of demonstrating the truth of a particular statement by showing that some general principle, which has previously been established or which is admitted to be true, applies to it. A stranger on coming to the United States might ask whether our postal system is a success. The answer would perhaps be, "Yes, certainly it is, for it is maintained by the government, and all our government enterprises are successful." When the metal thurium was discovered, a query doubtless arose as to whether it was fusible. It was then reasoned that since all metals hitherto known were fusible, and since thurium was a metal, undoubtedly it was fusible. Stated in clearer form, the reasoning in each case would be:-- A. All our government enterprises are successful. B. The United States postal system is a government enterprise. C. Therefore the United States postal system is successful. A. All metals are fusible. B. Thurium is a metal. C. Therefore thurium is fusible. Such a series of statements is called a syllogism. A syllogism always consists of a major premise (A), a minor premise (B), and a conclusion (C). The major premise always states a general law; the minor premise shows that the general law applies to the particular case under consideration; and the conclusion is, in the light of the two premises, an established truth. The strength of deductive argument depends on two things: the truth of the premises and the framing of the syllogism. The syllogism must always be so stated that a conclusion is derived from the application of a general law to some specific instance to which the law obviously applies. In the next place, the premises must be true. If they are only probably correct, the conclusion is a mere presumption; if either one is false, the conclusion is probably false. But if the syllogism is correctly framed, and if both premises are true, the conclusion is irrefutable. As premises are facts that have first been established by induction, the relation between inductive and deductive reasoning is very close. In fact, deduction depends on induction for its very existence. To overthrow a deductive argument all that is necessary is to show the error in the inductive process that built up either one or both of the premises. The tests for deduction are:-- (1) _Are both premises true?_ (2) _Is the fact stated in the minor premise an instance of the general law expressed in the major premise?_ In practical argumentation it is not always necessary or desirable to express a deductive argument in full syllogistic form. One premise is frequently omitted; the syllogism thus shortened is called an _enthymeme_. The reasoning then takes some such form as, "This man will fail in business because he is incompetent." The major premise, "All incompetent men fail in business," is understood, but is not expressed. The enthymeme constitutes as strong and forceful an argument as the syllogism, provided the suppressed premise is a well- established fact; but whenever this premise is not accepted as true, it must be stated and proved. The argument will then consist of the full syllogistic process. The following outline illustrates the chief difference between induction and deduction:-- The game of football benefits the players physically, because (Induction.) 1. Football is known to have benefited Henry Harvey. 2. Football is known to have benefited Frank Barrs. 3. Football is known to have benefited Penn Armstrong. (Deduction.) 1. The game affords the players regular exercise. 2. The game takes them out in the open air. 3. The game develops the lungs. The deductive reasoning expressed in full would be:-- (1) A. All games that afford the players regular exercise benefit them physically. B. Football affords the players regular exercise. C. Therefore football benefits the players physically. The reasoning given in (2) and (3) may be expressed in similar syllogisms. To test the inductive part of this argument, one should determine how well the three examples show the existence of a general law. To test the deductive part, he should ask whether the premises, both those stated and those suppressed, are admitted facts, or whether they need to be proved. If all reasoning were purely inductive or purely deductive, and if it always appeared in as simple a form as in the preceding illustration, one would have little difficulty in classifying and testing it. But frequently the two kinds appear in such obscure form and in such varied combinations that only an expert logician can separate and classify them. Because of this difficulty, it is worth while to know a second method of classification, one which is often of greater practical service than the method already discussed in assisting the arguer to determine what methods of reasoning are strong and what are weak. A knowledge of this classification is also very helpful to one who is searching for ways in which to generate proof. This method considers proof from the standpoint of its use in practical argument; it teaches not so much the different ways in which the mind may work, as the ways in which it must work to arrive at a sound conclusion. 1. ARGUMENT FROM ANTECEDENT PROBABILITY. _The process of reasoning from cause to effect is known as the argument from antecedent probability._ Whenever a thinking man is asked to believe a statement, he is much readier to accept it as true if some reasonable _cause_ is assigned for the existence of the fact that is being established. The argument from antecedent probability supplies this cause. The reasoning may be from the past toward the present, or from the present toward the future. If an inspector condemns a bridge as unsafe, the question arises, "What has made it so?" If some one prophesies a rise in the price of railroad bonds, he is not likely to be believed unless he can show an adequate cause for the increase. In itself, the establishment of a cause proves nothing. A bridge may have been subjected to great strain and still be unimpaired. Though at present there may be ample cause for a future rise in the securities market, some other condition may intervene and prevent its operation. The assignment of a cause can at best establish merely a _probability_, and yet the laws of cause and effect are so fundamental that man is usually loath to believe that a condition exists or will exist, until he knows what has brought it about or what will bring it about. A course of reasoning which argues that a proposition is true because the fact affirmed is the logical result of some adequate cause is called _argument from antecedent probability_. Simple examples of this kind of reasoning are found in the following sentences: "It will rain because an east wind is blowing"; "As most of our officers in the standing army have been West Point graduates, the United States military system has reached a high standard of efficiency." The following are more extended illustrations:-- It appears to have been fully established that, in certain industries, various economies in production--such as eliminating cross freights, concentrating the superintending force, running best plants to full capacity, etc.--can be made from production on a large scale, or, in other instances, through the combination of different establishments favorably located in different sections of the country. It is, of course, not to be expected that any one source of saving will be found applicable in all industries, nor that the importance of any will be the same in different industries; but in many industries enough sources of saving will be found to make combination profitable. This statement does not ignore the fact that there may be, in many instances, disadvantages enough to offset the benefits; but experience does seem to show that, in many cases, at least, the cost of manufacture, and distribution is materially lessened. Granting that these savings can be made, it is evident that the influence of Industrial Combinations might readily be to lower prices to consumers. [Footnote: Jeremiah W. Jenks, North American Review, June, 1901, page 907.] In attempting to prove that operas can be successfully produced in English, Francis Rogers says:-- We have a poetic literature of marvelous richness. Only the Germans can lay claim to a lyric wealth as great as ours. The language we inherit is an extraordinarily rich one. A German authority credits it with a vocabulary three times as large as that of France, the poorest, in number of words, of all the great languages. With such an enormous fund of words to choose from it seems as if we should be able to express our thoughts not only with unparalleled exactness and subtlety, but also with unequalled variety of sound. Further it is probable that English surpasses the other three great languages of song, German, Italian, and French, in number of distinguishable vowel sounds, but in questions of ear authorities usually differ, and it is hazardous to claim in this an indubitable supremacy. It seems certain, however, that English has rather more than twice as many vowel sounds as Italian (the poorest language in this respect), which has only seven or eight. [Footnote: Scribner's, January, 1909, p. 42.] Since reasoning from antecedent probability can at best establish only a strong presumption, and since it is often not of sufficient weight to accomplish even this, an arguer, to be successful, must know the tests that determine how strong and how weak an argument of this sort is. He may apply these tests both to his own reasoning and to the reasoning of others. The first test is:-- (1) _Is the assigned cause of sufficient strength to produce the alleged effect?_ The significance of this question is at once apparent. In the case of a criminal prosecution, it asks whether the accused had sufficient motive for performing the deed. In connection with political and economic propositions that advocate a change in existing conditions, this test asks whether the new method proposed is sufficiently virile and far-reaching actually to produce the excellent results anticipated. A few years ago the advocates of free silver were maintaining that "sixteen to one" would be a sure cure for all poverty and financial distress. A careful application of this test would have materially weakened such an argument. Believers in reformatory rather than punitive methods of imprisonment say it is antecedently probable that kind treatment, healthful surroundings, and instruction in various directions will reclaim most criminals to an honest life. Before accepting or rejecting this argument, one should decide in his own mind whether or not such treatment is adequate to make a released convict give up his former criminal practices. If the argument stands the first test, the next question to ask is:-- (2) _May some other cause intervene and prevent the action of the assigned cause?_ During the spring of 1908 it was generally known that the Erie Railroad had no money with which to pay the interest that was about due on its outstanding bonds. Wall Street prophesied that the road would go into a receiver's hands. This result was extremely probable. Mr. Harriman, however, president of the Union Pacific, stepped in and by arranging for the payment of the interest saved the road from bankruptcy. This was an example of how an intervening cause prevented the action of the assigned cause. When Congress passed the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution, many people said that this legislation would inevitably cause the social, political, and financial ruin of the whole South. Since they did not take into consideration the intervening action of another cause, namely, drastic measures for negro disfranchisement by the white inhabitants of the South, their reasoning from antecedent probability was entirely erroneous. 2. ARGUMENT FROM SIGN. ARGUMENT FROM EFFECT TO CAUSE. The process of reasoning from effect to cause is called argument from sign. Since every circumstance must be the result of some preceding circumstance, the arguer tries to find the cause of some fact that is known to exist, and thereby to establish the existence of a hitherto unknown fact. For instance, when one sees a pond frozen over, he is likely to reason back to the cause of this condition and decide that there has been a fall in temperature, a fact that he may not have known before. The sight of smoke indicates the presence of fire. Human footprints in the snow are undoubted proof that someone has been present. In the following quotation, the recent prohibition movement in the South is said to be a sign that the voters wish to keep liquor away from the negro:-- What is the cause of this drift toward prohibition in the South? The obvious cause, and the one most often given in explanation, is the presence of the negro. It is said that the vote for prohibition in the South represents exactly the same reasoning which excludes liquor from Indian reservations, shuts it out by international agreement from the islands of the Pacific, and excludes it from great areas in Africa under the British flag; and that, wherever there is an undeveloped race, the reasons for restrictions upon the liquor traffic become convincing. [Footnote: Atlantic Monthly, May, 1908, p. 632.] The strength of this kind of reasoning depends upon the closeness of the connection between the effect and the assigned cause. In testing argument from sign, one should ask:-- (1) _Is the cause assigned adequate to produce the observed effect?_ This test is precisely the same as the test of adequacy for antecedent probability. One could not maintain that the productiveness of a certain piece of ground was due entirely to the kind of fertilizer used on it, nor that a national financial upheaval was caused by the failure of a single unimportant bank. In each of these cases the cause suggested may have assisted in producing the result, but obviously it was not of itself adequate to be the sole cause. (2) _Could the observed effect have resulted from any other cause than the one assigned?_ If several possible causes exist, then it is necessary to consider them all, and show that all the causes except the assigned cause did not produce the observed effect. If an employer who has been robbed discovers that one of his clerks has suddenly come into possession of a large sum of money, he may surmise that his clerk is a thief. This argument is valueless, however, unless he can show that his employee did not receive his newly acquired wealth through inheritance, fortunate investment, or some other reasonable method. But if no other reason than burglary or embezzlement can explain the presence of this money, the argument is very strong. One might greatly weaken the argument (quoted earlier) which assigned the cause of the recent prohibition movement in the South to the presence of the negro by showing that this action was not the result of the assigned cause, but largely of another cause. He might prove that during the debate in the Georgia Legislature upon the pending prohibitory bill, the negro was not once mentioned as a reason for the enactment of prohibition; and that the chief arguments in favor of prohibition were based upon the fact that the saloon element had formed a political ring in the South and were controlling the election of sheriffs, mayors, aldermen, and legislators. ARGUMENT FROM EFFECT TO EFFECT. Argument from sign also includes the process of reasoning from effect to effect through a common cause. This method consists of combining the process just described with the argument from antecedent probability. A reduction of wages in one cotton mill is a sign that there may be a reduction in other cotton mills. Here the reasoning goes from effect to effect, passing, however, though perhaps the reasoner is not aware that the process is so complex, through a cause common to both effects. In full, the reasoning would be: a reduction in the first mill is the result of the cause "hard times"; it is then antecedently probable that this cause will produce a similar reduction of wages in other mills. This method may be represented by the following figure:-- Cause / \ / \ / \ / \ Effect Effect Only one effect is known; the other effect is inferred, first, by a process of reasoning from a known effect to an unknown cause, and secondly, by the process of reasoning from this assumed cause to an unknown effect. This method of reasoning is sound and legitimate when both effects have the same cause. Its weakness lies in the fact that it may be attacked on two sides: on the reasoning from effect to cause, and on the reasoning from cause to effect. If the connection can be broken in either process, the argument is overthrown. The tests to be used have already been given. 3. ARGUMENT FROM EXAMPLE. Argument from example is the name given to the process by which one reasons that what has been true under certain circumstances will again be true under the same or similar circumstances. In using this method of reasoning one argues that whenever several persons or things or conditions are alike in some respects, any given cause operating upon them will in each case produce the same effect; any line of action adopted by them will in each case have the same result. There are two divisions of argument from example. When the resemblance between the things compared is close, the process is called argument by generalization; when the resemblance is so slight that there can be no direct comparison, but only a comparison of functions, the process is called argument from analogy. ARGUMENT BY GENERALIZATION. If one finds that a certain mastiff becomes with training an excellent watch dog, he may reasonably take it for granted that training will produce the same result in another dog of the same breed. If a college student with certain pronounced physical and mental characteristics is known to be an exceptionally good football player, the athletic trainer is sure to reason by generalization that another student with these same characteristics would be a valuable addition to the team. Burke in his _Speech on Conciliation_ uses this kind of reasoning when he says that just as Turkey and Spain have found it necessary to govern their distant possessions with a loose rein, so, too, England will be obliged to govern the American Colonies leniently. Benjamin Harrison used this method of argument in the following quotation:-- That we give back to Porto Rico all the revenue derived from the customs we levy, does not seem to me to soften our dealings with her people. Our fathers were not mollified by the suggestion that the tea and stamp taxes would be expended wholly for the benefit of the colonies. It is to say: We do not need this money; it is only levied to show that your country is no part of the United States, and that you are not citizens of the United States, save at our pleasure. [Footnote: North American Review, January, 1901, p. 17.] Argument by generalization very rarely constitutes absolute proof. In dealing with things, it may do so in rare cases; in dealing with human actions, almost never. The reason why it can establish only a strong probability lies in a weakness in the process of reasoning. Notice that while this kind of argument apparently reasons directly from the example cited to the case in hand, there is in reality an intermediate step. This step is a general truth of which both the known fact and the fact to be proved must be instances. When it is argued that since one mastiff makes a good watch dog another mastiff will also make a good watch dog, the reasoning passes through the general statement, "All mastiffs make good watch dogs." Graphically the process might be represented thus:-- General Law /\ / \ / \ / \ Known Fact Fact to be Proved This method is very much like the method of reasoning from effect to effect, except that here the intermediate step does not _cause_, but merely accounts for the facts. In the illustration taken from Burke, the known fact is that neither Turkey nor Spain can govern their distant provinces despotically. The general law is that no country can govern a distant dependency harshly. The fact proved is that England cannot play the despot with the American Colonies. The weakness of this sort of reasoning is now easily seen. In the first place, there are few general laws governing human action that always hold true. In the second place, unless there is a very strong resemblance between the cases compared, unless they are alike in all essential particulars, they will not both be examples of the working of one general law. The following quotation points out an error that might be made from too hasty reasoning by example:-- On August 23d the Southern Railway, which since 1902 had been paying 5 per cent. annual dividends on its preferred stock, voted to reduce those dividends from a 5 per cent. annual rate to one of 3. Five days later, on August 28th, the Erie Railroad, which had been paying 4 per cent ... announced that it would pay no cash dividend this time, but would issue to the amount of the usual 4 per cent. dividend, what it called dividend warrants, which were practically notes at 4 per cent. redeemable in cash in 1907. It was natural that this action regarding dividends should have awakened much uneasiness.... To predict a similar cutting of dividends by other railway companies would, however, be unwarranted. The case of the Southern Railway and the Erie was peculiar. Each had been classed among the financially weak railways of the country. Both were reorganized from absolute railway wrecks, and in each the new scheme of capitalization was proposed to the markets at a time when recovery from the depression of 1893 had not made such progress as it had achieved when the greater companies, like the Union Pacific, were reorganized. The result was that, with both these railways, provisions of working capital and adjustment of liabilities to the possible needs of an active industrial future were inadequately made. [Footnote: Alexander D. Noyes, The Forum, October-December, 1907, p.198.] An excellent illustration of how to refute argument by generalization is found in the following quotation. It has been said that since England finds free trade beneficial, the United States should adopt the same policy. Mr. Reed, a leading advocate of protection, points out the weakness of this argument. According to the usual story that is told, England had been engaged with a long and vain struggle with the demon of protection, and had been year after year sinking farther into the depths, until at a moment when she was in her distress and saddest plight, her manufacturing system broke down, "protection, having destroyed home trade by reducing," as Mr. Atkinson says, "the entire population to beggary, destitution, and want." Mr. Cobden and his friends providentially appeared, and after a hard struggle established a principle for all time and for all the world, and straightway England enjoyed the sum of human happiness. Hence all good nations should do as England has done and be happy ever after. Suppose England, instead of being a little island in the sea, had been the half of a great continent full of raw material, capable of an internal commerce which would rival the commerce of all the rest of the world. Suppose every year new millions were flocking to her shores, and every one of those new millions in a few years, as soon as they tasted the delights of a broader life, would become as great a consumer as any one of her own people. Suppose that these millions, and the 70,000,000 already gathered under the folds of her flag, were every year demanding and receiving a higher wage and therefore broadening her market as fast as her machinery could furnish production. Suppose she had produced cheap food beyond all her wants, and that her laborers spent so much money that whether wheat was sixty cents a bushel or twice that sum hardly entered the thoughts of one of them except when some democratic tariff bill was paralyzing his business. Suppose that she was not only but a cannon shot from France, but that every country in Europe had been brought as near to her as Baltimore is to Washington--for that is what cheap ocean freights mean between us and European producers. Suppose all those countries had her machinery, her skilled workmen, her industrial system, and labor forty per cent. cheaper. Suppose under that state of facts, with all her manufactures proclaiming against it, frantic in their disapproval, England had been called upon by Cobden to make the plunge into free trade, would she have done it? Not if Cobden had been backed by the angelic host. History gives England credit for great sense. [Footnote: Thomas B. Reed, Speech in House of Representatives, Feb. 1, 1904.] ARGUMENT FROM ANALOGY. When two instances of objects which are _unlike in themselves_, but which _perform similar functions or have similar relations_, are compared for the sake of showing that what is true in one case is true in the other, the process is called _argument from analogy_. The following quotation is a good illustration of this kind of argument:-- "Mr. Pinchot compared our present consumption of wood to the case of a man in an open boat at sea, cut adrift from some shipwreck and with but a few days' supply of water on board. He drinks all the water the first day, simply because he is thirsty, though he knows that the water will not last long. The American people know that their wood supply will last but a few decades. Yet they shut their eyes to the facts." Water and wood are not alike in themselves; they cannot be directly compared, but they are alike in the relations they bear to other circumstances. When President Lincoln refused to change generals at a certain time during the Civil War, saying that it was not wise to "swap horses while crossing a stream," he reasoned from analogy. Since the horse in taking its master across the stream and the general in conducting a campaign are totally unlike in themselves but have similar relations, the argument is from analogy and not from generalization. It is easy to see that such reasoning never constitutes indubitable proof. If argument from generalization, where the objects compared differ from each other in only a few respects, is weak, plainly, argument from analogy is much weaker, since the objects are alike merely in the relations they bear. Though argument from analogy does not constitute proof, yet it is often valuable as a means of illustration. Truths frequently need illumination more than verification, and in such cases this sort of comparison may be very useful. Many proverbs are condensed arguments from analogy, their strength depending upon the similarity between the known case and the case in hand. It is not hard to find the analogy in these expressions: "Lightning never strikes twice in the same place"; "Don't count your chickens before they are hatched"; "A fool and his money are soon parted." The student who has carefully read this chapter up to this point should have a fairly clear idea of the nature of proof; he should know that proof consists of evidence and reasoning; he should know the tests for each of these; and he should be able to distinguish between strong and weak arguments. The next step for him to take will be to apply these instructions in generating proof for any statement that he wishes to establish. A common fault in argumentation is the failure to support important points with sufficient proof. One or two points well established will go farther toward inducing belief in a proposition than a dozen points that are but weakly substantiated. A statement should be proved not only by inductive reasoning, but, if possible, by deductive. If one uses argument from antecedent probability in establishing a statement, he should not rest content with this one method of proof, but he should try also to use argument from sign, and argument from example, and, whenever he can, he should quote authority. Notice that in the following outline three kinds of proof are used. The amount of proof here given is by no means sufficient to establish the truth of the proposition being upheld; the outline, however, does illustrate the proper method of building up the proof of a proposition. The present condition of the United States Senate is deplorable. ANTECEDENT PROBABILITY. I. The present method of electing Senators is ample cause for such a condition, since A. Senators are not responsible to any one, as 1. They are not responsible to the people, for a. The people do not elect them. 2. They are not responsible to the legislature, for a. The legislature changes inside of six years. SIGN. II. There is ample evidence to prove that the condition is deplorable. A. States are often unrepresented in the Senate. (Haynes' _Election of Senators_, page 158.) B. Many Senators have fallen into disrepute, for 1. One out of every ten members of the Fifty-eighth Congress had been before the courts on criminal charges. (Harper's Weekly, Vol. XLIV, page 113.) C. Many Senators have engaged in fist fights on the floor of the Senate Chamber. AUTHORITY. III. Prominent men testify to its deplorable condition. (A. M. Low, North American Review, Vol. CLXXIV, page 231; D. G. Phillips, Cosmopolitan, Vol. XL, page 487.) PERSUASION. Though it has been stated in a previous chapter that the persuasive portions of an argument should be found for the most part in the introduction and the conclusion, still persuasion in the discussion is extremely important. It is true that the real work of the discussion is to prove the proposition; but if conviction alone be used, there is great danger, in most cases, that the arguer will weary his audience, lose their attention, and thus fail to drive home the ideas that he wishes them to adopt. Since everything depends upon how the arguer has already treated his subject, and how it has been received by the audience, specific directions for persuasion in the discussion cannot possibly be given. Suggestions in regard to this matter must be even more abstract and general than were the directions for persuasion in the introduction. To begin with, persuasion in the discussion should usually be of a supplementary nature. Unless the arguer has won the attention and, to some extent at least, the good will of his audience before he commences upon his proof, he may as well confess failure and proceed no farther. If, however, the persuasiveness of his introduction has accomplished the purpose for which it exists, he may introduce his proof without hesitation, taking care all the time to interweave enough persuasion to maintain the favorable impression that he has already made. In general, the directions for doing this are the same as those for securing persuasion in the introduction. In both divisions _modesty_, _fairness_, and _sincerity_, are the characteristics that make for success. The same conditions that demand these qualities in one place require their use throughout the whole argument. Then, too, it is often effective to make occasionally an appeal to some strong emotion. As a rule, the attitude of the modern audience is essentially one of indifference, of so great indifference that special effort must be made first to gain, then to hold, their attention. The direct emotional appeal, when the subject, the occasion, and the audience are such that there is no danger of its being ludicrous, will usually accomplish this result. If such a method, however, is manifestly out of place, other means must be sought for producing a similar effect. One of the very commonest devices for gaining attention is to relate a short anecdote. Everybody enjoys a good story, and if it is chosen with proper regard for its illustrative value, the argument is sure to be strengthened. On the whole, humorous stories are best. They often relieve the tedium of an otherwise dry speech, and not only serve as persuasion, but drive home a point with greater emphasis than could the most elaborate course of reasoning. This method is so familiar to every one that detailed explanation is unnecessary. Owing to the limited amount of time at their command, student debaters can, as a rule, use only the very shortest stories, and these should be chosen for their illustrative rather than for their persuasive value; in written arguments greater latitude is possible. Another method that often finds favor in both written and spoken arguments is the introduction of a paragraph showing the importance of the topic under consideration. Oftentimes the arguer can show that this particular phase of the subject is of wider significance than at first appears. Perhaps he can draw a picture that will turn a seemingly uninteresting and commonplace subject into one that is teeming with romance and wonderment. For example, consider the following extract from Burke's speech on _Conciliation with the American Colonies_:-- This is the relative proportion of the importance of the colonies at these two periods: and all reasoning concerning our mode of treating them must have this proportion as its basis; or it is a reasoning weak, rotten and sophistical. Mr. Speaker, I cannot prevail on myself to hurry over this great consideration. It is good for us to be here. We stand where we have an immense view of what is, and what is passed. Clouds, indeed, and darkness rest upon the future. Let us, however, before we descend from this noble eminence, reflect that this growth of our national prosperity has happened within the short period of the life of man. It has happened within sixty-eight years. There are those alive whose memory might touch the two extremities. For instance, my Lord Bathurst might remember all the stages of the progress. He was in 1704 of an age at least to be made to comprehend such things. He was then old enough _acta parentum jam legere, et quae sit poterit cognoscere virtus_. Suppose, sir, that the angel of this auspicious youth, foreseeing the many virtues which made him one of the most amiable, as he is one of the most fortunate, men of his age, had opened to him in vision, that when in the fourth generation the third prince of the House of Brunswick had sat twelve years on the throne of that nation which (by the happy issue of moderate and healing counsels) was to be made Great Britain, he should see his son, Lord Chancellor of England, turn back the current of hereditary dignity to its fountain and raise him to an higher rank of peerage, whilst he enriched the family with a new one; --if, amidst these bright and happy scenes of domestic honor and prosperity, that angel should have drawn up the curtain and unfolded the rising glories of his country, and, whilst he was gazing with admiration on the then commercial grandeur of England, the genius should point out to him a little speck, scarcely visible in the mass of the national interests, a small seminal principle rather than a formed body, and should tell him,--"Young man, there is America, which at this day serves for little more than to amuse you with stories of savage men and uncouth manners; yet shall, before you taste of death, show itself equal to the whole of that commerce which now attracts the envy of the world. Whatever England has been growing to by a progressive increase of improvement, brought in by varieties of people, by succession of civilizing conquests and civilizing settlements in a series of seventeen hundred years, you shall see as much added to her by America in the course of a single life!" If this state of his country had been foretold to him, would it not require all the sanguine credulity of youth and all the fervid glow of enthusiasm to make him believe it? Fortunate man, he has lived to see it! Fortunate indeed, if he lives to see nothing that shall vary the prospect and cloud the setting of his day! Excuse me, sir, if, turning from such thoughts, I resume this comparative view once more. [Footnote: Speech in House of Commons, March 22, 1775.] These devices an arguer will often find helpful for bringing an element of persuasion into his proof, but he should aim at a type of persuasion much more effective, yet much harder to attain, than is the result of any mere device. Proof is the strongest when each separate bit of it appeals both to the reason and the emotions. If an arguer can connect his subject with the feelings of his audience and then introduce reasoning processes that will at the same time both convince them and play upon their feelings, he is certain to attain a large measure of success. Although not all subjects readily lend themselves to this method of treatment, yet if the debater will go to the very bottom of his subject and consider the real significance of the question he is arguing upon, he can usually succeed in making his conviction persuasive and his persuasion convincing. Undoubtedly the best way for a student to train himself in this respect is to study great arguments. The following quotation from Beecher's speech in Liverpool, delivered before an audience composed mostly of men engaged in manufacturing, is an excellent example of persuasive proof:-- The things required for prosperous labor, prosperous manufactures, and prosperous commerce are three: first, liberty; secondly, liberty; thirdly, liberty--but these are not merely the same liberty, as I shall show you. First, there must be liberty to follow those laws of business which experience has developed, without imposts or restrictions, or governmental intrusions. Business simply wants to be let alone. Then, secondly, there must be liberty to distribute and exchange products of industry in any market without burdensome tariffs, without imposts, and without vexatious regulations. There must be these two liberties--liberty to create wealth, as the makers of it think best according to the light and experience which business has given them; and then liberty to distribute what they have created without unnecessary vexatious burdens. The comprehensive law of the ideal industrial condition of the world is free manufacture and free trade. I have said there were three elements of liberty. The third is the necessity of an intelligent and free race of customers. There must be freedom among producers; there must be freedom among the distributors; there must be freedom among the customers. It may not have occurred to you that it makes any difference what one's customers are; but it does, in all regular and prolonged business. The condition of the customer determines how much he will buy, determines of what sort he will buy. Poor and ignorant people buy little and that of the poorest kind. The richest and the intelligent, having the more means to buy, buy the most, and always buy the best. Here, then, are the three liberties: liberty of the producer, liberty of the distributor, and liberty of the consumer. The first two need no discussion--they have been long, thoroughly, and brilliantly illustrated by the political economists of Great Britain, and by her eminent statesmen; but it seems to me that enough attention has not been directed to the third, and, with your patience, I will dwell on that for a moment, before proceeding to other topics. It is a necessity of every manufacturing and commercial people that their customers should be very wealthy and intelligent. Let us put the subject before you in the familiar light of your own local experience. To whom do the tradesmen of Liverpool sell the most goods at the highest profit? To the ignorant and poor, or to the educated and prosperous? The poor man buys simply for his body; he buys food, he buys clothing, he buys fuel, he buys lodging. His rule is to buy the least and the cheapest that he can. He goes to the store as seldom as he can,--he brings away as little as he can--and he buys for the least he can. Poverty is not a misfortune to the poor only who suffer it, but it is more or less a misfortune to all with whom they deal. On the other hand, a man well off--how is it with him? He buys in far greater quantity. He can afford to do it; he has the money to pay for it. He buys in far greater variety, because he seeks to gratify not merely physical wants, but also mental wants. He buys for the satisfaction of sentiment and taste, as well as of sense. He buys silk, wool, flax, cotton; he buys all metals--iron, silver, gold, platinum; in short, he buys for all necessities and of all substances. But that is not all. He buys a better quality of goods. He buys richer silks, finer cottons, higher grained wools. Now, a rich silk means so much skill and care of somebody's that has been expended upon it to make it finer and richer; and so of cotton, and so of wool. That is, the price of the finer goods runs back to the very beginning, and remunerates the workman as well as the merchant. Indeed, the whole laboring community is as much interested and profited as the mere merchant, in this buying and selling of the higher grades in the greater varieties and quantities. The law of price is the skill; and the amount of skill expended in the work is as much for the market as are the goods. A man comes to the market and says, "I have a pair of hands"; and he obtains the lowest wages. Another man comes and says, "I have something more than a pair of hands--I have truth and fidelity"; he gets a higher price. Another man comes and says, "I have something more; I have hands and strength, and fidelity, and skill." He gets more than either of the others. The next man comes and says, "I have got hands and strength, and skill, and fidelity; but my hands work more than that. They know how to create things for the fancy, for the affections, for the moral sentiments"; and he gets more than any of the others. The last man comes and says, "I have all these qualities, and have them so highly that it is a peculiar genius"; and genius carries the whole market and gets the highest price. So that both the workman and the merchant are profited by having purchasers that demand quality, variety, and quantity. Now, if this be so in the town or the city, it can only be so because it is a law. This is the specific development of a general or universal law, and therefore we should expect to find it as true of a nation as of a city like Liverpool. I know it is so, and you know that it is true of all the world; and it is just as important to have customers educated, intelligent, moral, and rich, out of Liverpool as it is in Liverpool. They are able to buy; they want variety; they want the very best; and those are the customers you want. That nation is the best customer that is freest, because freedom works prosperity, industry, and wealth. Great Britain, then, aside from moral considerations, has a direct commercial and pecuniary interest in the liberty, civilization, and wealth of every people and every nation on the globe. You have also an interest in this, because you are a moral and a religious people. You desire it from the highest motives, and godliness is profitable in all things, having the promise of the life that is, as well as of that which is to come; but if there were no hereafter, and if man had no progress in this life, and if there were no question of moral growth at all, it would be worth your while to protect civilization and liberty, merely as a commercial speculation. To evangelize has more than a moral and religious import--it comes back to temporal relations. Wherever a nation that is crushed, cramped, degraded under despotism, is struggling to be free, you, Leeds, Sheffield, Manchester, Paisley, all have an interest that that nation should be free. When depressed and backward people demand that they may have a chance to rise--Hungary, Italy, Poland--it is a duty for humanity's sake, it is a duty for the highest moral motives, to sympathize with them; but beside all these there is a material and an interested reason why you should sympathize with them. Pounds and pence join with conscience and with honor in this design. [Footnote: The World's Famous Orations, Vol. X, p. 12. Funk and Wagnalls Company.] EXERCISES A. In the following passage point out all assertions that are made, note whether the source of the evidence is definitely stated, and test the witnesses that give the evidence. Reciprocity is the only remedy for the commercial antagonism which is fast separating Canada and the United States. Canada has long waited in vain for the culmination of treaties whereby she can trade with us on equal terms. Now, angered by our long evasion of the question, she is, according to prominent Canadian statesmen, contemplating the passage of high protective tariff laws, which will effectually close the doors of Canadian trade to us. Canada is young, but she is growing fast. The value of her imports is steadily growing larger, and if we do not make some concession to her we shall lose this vast trade. She makes and sells many things of which we do not have a home supply. Why not then open our doors to her and admit her products? Would it not be of distinct advantage to us? The American Press is almost unanimous in declaring that the sum of the advantages attending this step would far offset any disadvantages. For instance, the supply of lumber in the United States is fast becoming exhausted; experts say that in fifteen years we shall have a lumber famine. If we turn to Canada, however, we see her mountain slopes green with trees and her wooded valleys covered with millions of feet of lumber. Why, then, not get our lumber from Canada and preserve what few forests we do have? Because of the exorbitant tariff on imported lumber. Lumber at its present high prices is even cheap compared with the price of imported lumber. Moreover, lumber is not the only article that is expensive here, though it is cheap just across the line in Canada. The World's Work, Vol. V, page 2979, says that reciprocity with Canada would cheapen many articles that are now costly. B. Point out the kind of reasoning found in each of the following arguments:-- 1. The wholesale destruction of the forests in many States portends the loss of our whole timber supply. 2. His faithful performance of every duty assures him an early promotion. 3. Since he succeeded well in his college work, it is an assured fact that he will make a brilliant reputation for himself in business. 4. Caesar had his Brutus, Charles I his Cromwell, and George III--may profit by their example. 5. The well-tilled fields, the carefully-trimmed hedges, and the sleek appearance of the stock bespoke a thrifty and industrious farmer. 6. You tried in Wales to raise a revenue which the people thought excessive and unjust: the attempt ended in oppression, resistance, rebellion, and loss to yourselves. You tried in the Duchy of Lancaster to raise a revenue which the people believed unjust: this effort ended in oppression, rebellion, vexation, and loss to yourselves. You are now trying to raise in America a revenue which the Colonists disapprove. What must be the result? 7. Then, sir, from these six capital sources: of descent; of form of government; of religion in the northern provinces; of manners in the southern; of education; of the remoteness of situation from the first mover of government--from all these causes a fierce spirit of liberty has grown up. 8. Collective bargaining is an advantage to working men; it tends to give them some share in the control of the industry to which they contribute. 9. That a free labor union is not the impractical dream of an idealist is to be found in the fact that some of the greatest and most successful of the labor organizations have always adhered to the principle of the open shop. In the Pennsylvania coal-mines union and non-union miners labored together in the same mine and reaped the same benefits from the collective bargaining carried on for them by John Mitchell. In the recent anarchy in Colorado, the one mine which went on with its work peacefully, prosperously, and without disturbance, until it was closed by military orders, was a mine which maintained the principle of the open shop, and in which union and non-union men worked peacefully together. 10. Suppose that all the property you were worth was in gold, and you had put it in the hands of Blondin, the famous rope-walker, to carry across the Niagara Falls on a tight rope. Would you shake the rope while he was passing over it, or keep shouting to him, "Blondin, stoop a little more! Go a little faster!" No, I am sure you would not. You would hold your breath as well as your tongue, and keep your hand off until he was safely over. Now the government is in the same situation. It is carrying an immense weight across a stormy ocean. Untold treasures are in its hands. It is doing the best it can. Don't badger it! Just keep still and it will get you safely over. C. Prove or disprove the following statements, using, wherever it is possible, argument from antecedent probability, sign, example, and authority. Give references for all evidence except generally admitted facts. 1. The negro is not prepared to receive the same kind of education that the white man receives. 2. Railway pooling lowers freight rates. 3. The election of Senators by State Legislatures is undemocratic. 4. The present commercial relations between Canada and the United States are detrimental to the industries of the United States. 5. The influence of labor unions has greatly diminished child labor in the United States. 6. Woman suffrage would purify politics. 7. Egypt is benefited by the control of England. 8. Strikes benefit the working man. 9. The municipal ownership of street railways is a financial failure. 10. Lumber companies threaten the extermination of the forests in the United States. CHAPTER VII THE DISCUSSION--BRIEF-DRAWING The second division of a brief, corresponding to the second division of a complete argument, is called the _discussion_. In this part of his brief the arguer logically arranges all the evidence and reasoning that he wishes to use in establishing or overthrowing his proposition. Illustrative material, rhetorical embellishment, and other forms of persuasion that may enter into the finished argument are omitted, but the real proof is complete in the brief. There are two possible systems of arranging proof. For the sake of convenience they may be called the "because" method and the "therefore" method. These methods derive their names from the connectives that are used. When the "because" method is used, the proof follows the statement being established, and is connected to this statement with some such word as: _as_, _because_, _for_, or _since_. To illustrate:-- I. Expenses at a country college are less than at a city college, _because_ A. At the country college room rent is cheaper. B. Table board costs less. C. Amusement places are less numerous. Under the "therefore" method, the proof precedes the statement being established; the connectives are _hence_ and _therefore_. The previous argument arranged in this form would read as follows:-- A. Since room rent is cheaper at the country college than at the city college, and B. Since table board costs less, and C. Since amusement places are less numerous, _therefore_. I. Expenses at a country college are less than at a city college. The student should always use the "because" method of arrangement. It is preferable to the "therefore" method since it affords a much easier apprehension of the argument advanced. If the reader of the brief has the conclusion in his mind at the very start, he can test the strength and adequacy of the proof very quickly, and can, perhaps, the first time he reads the argument form an opinion as to its worth. But he will almost always have difficulty in grasping the significance of evidence and reasoning before he knows what the proof is expected to prove. The "therefore" method usually obliges a careful reasoner, after finally reaching the conclusion, to go over the whole proof a second time. To assist the student in carrying out the proper arrangement of his proof, two rules have been formulated. One rule deals with main headings, the headings marked with the Roman numerals; the other deals with subordinate headings. Rule IX. _Phrase each principal statement in the discussion so that it will read as a reason for the truth or the falsity of the proposition_. Rule X. _Phrase each subordinate statement in the discussion so that it will read as a reason for the truth of the statement to which it is subordinate. The connectives to be used are: as, because, for, and since_. In connection with the first of these rules, notice that principal headings read as reasons for the truth or the falsity of the proposition. Obviously they read as reasons for the truth if the brief is on the affirmative side, and for the falsity if the brief is on the negative side. Headings and subheadings should always be supported, not demolished. The error of making unsupported statements in a complete argument has already been discussed. Assertion in a brief is equally faulty. To insure belief, all statements must rest ultimately either upon the testimony of witnesses or upon statements admitted to be true. Notice how unconvincing is the following portion of a brief:-- Proposition--American cities should own and operate all street-car lines within their limits. I. The present system of operating street-car lines is efficient, for A. The street-car service in the United States is the best in the world. B. Street-car fare in the United States is remarkably low. The insertion of testimony, however, to substantiate A and B turns this bit of brief into excellent proof. I. The present system of operating street-car lines is efficient, for A. The street-car service in the United States is the best in the world, because 1. It is best in respect to extent, since a. James W. Garner says that England has less than a quarter of the street-car facilities found in the United States. (Dial, Feb. 1908, p. 20.) b. In 1902, two hundred and ninety-five communities in the United Kingdom of from 8,000 to 25,000 inhabitants were without street cars; while in the United States there were only twenty-one such communities. (Municipal and Private Operation of Public Utilities, W. J. Clark, Vol. I, p. 445.) 2. It is best in regard to equipment and accommodation, since a. The cars are the best equipped in the world. (Ibid.) b. The cars are run with shorter intervals between them than anywhere else in the world. (Ibid.) B. The fare in the United States is remarkably low, because 1. Although the fare in Glasgow, a leading exponent of municipal ownership, is but twopence, yet it will carry one only eight miles; but five cents in New York will carry one fifty miles. Rule XI. _Make no unsupported statements unless they are generally admitted to be true_. It has already been shown that the arguer must reveal to his audience the sources from which he gathered his evidence. If he gained certain information from magazines, he should state definitely the name, the volume, and the page; if he gained his information elsewhere, he should be equally explicit. Since this knowledge of the source of the evidence is essential to the success of the proof, a statement of the sources is a part of the work of conviction. Accordingly, these sources must be stated in the brief as well as in the expanded argument. Thus the rule:-- Rule XII. _After all evidence state in parentheses the source from which it came_. In addition to establishing the side of the proposition which it advocates, a good brief almost invariably refutes the main arguments of the opposite side. The way in which this refutation is expressed is very important. A brief on the affirmative side of the proposition, "_Resolved_, That the Panama canal should be built at sea-level," would be weak and ludicrous, if, when answering the argument for the negative that the cost of a sea-level canal would be enormous, it should contain the following reasoning:-- The Panama Canal should be built at sea-level, (for) I. The cost would not be much greater than for a lock canal. One might think from this statement that the drawer of the brief considered the contention that the sea-level type would cost a little though not much more than the other type, a positive argument in favor of the sea-level canal. In reality it is nothing of the sort. The arguer is merely trying to destroy his opponent's argument to the effect that expense is an obstacle in the way of the sea-level type. This refutation should be expressed in such a manner as to show that it is refutation and not positive proof. It might well read something like this:-- The Panama Canal should be built at sea-level, (for) I. The contention of the negative that a sea-level canal would cost enormously more than a lock-canal is unsound, since, A. Etc. Notice that this form of refutation states clearly the argument to be answered. No doubt can arise from such a statement as to the direction the argument is taking; no confusion can occur between refutation and positive proof. Hence the rule:-- Rule XIII. _Phrase refutation so that the argument to be answered is clearly stated_. THE CONCLUSION. As there is but one rule for brief-drawing that applies to the conclusion, it may well be given at this point. The purpose and the value of this rule are so apparent that no explanation is necessary. Rule XIV. _Put into the conclusion a summary of the essential points established in the discussion_. RULES FOR BRIEF-DRAWING. GENERAL RULES. I. _Divide the brief into three parts, and mark them respectively, Introduction, Discussion, and Conclusion_. II. _Express each idea in the brief in the form of a complete statement_. III. _Make in each statement only a single assertion_. IV. _Make each statement as concise as is consistent with clearness_. V. _Indicate the relation between statements by indentation and by the use of symbols_. VI. _Mark each statement with only one symbol_. RULES FOR THE INTRODUCTION. VII. _Put into the introduction sufficient explanation for a complete understanding of the discussion. This explanation usually involves (a) a definition of terms, (b) an explanation of the meaning of the proposition, (c) a statement of the issues, and (d) the partition_. VIII. _Put into the introduction only statements admitted by both sides_. RULES FOR THE DISCUSSION. IX. _Phrase each principal statement in the discussion so that it will read as a reason for the truth or the falsity of the proposition_. X. _Phrase each subordinate statement in the discussion so that it will read as a reason for the truth of the statement to which it is subordinate. The connectives to be used are: as, because, for, and since_. XI. _Make no unsupported statements unless they are generally admitted to be true_. XII. _After all evidence state in parentheses the source from which it came_. XIII. _Phrase refutation so that the argument to be answered is clearly stated_. RULE FOR THE CONCLUSION. XIV. _Put into the conclusion a summary of the essential points established in the discussion_. MODEL BRIEF. _Resolved_, That immigration to the United States should be further restricted by an educational test. AFFIRMATIVE BRIEF. INTRODUCTION. I. The question of further restricting immigration to the United States by an educational test gains in importance from the alleged impairment of American institutions and standards by immigration. II. The following explanations will aid in the discussion of the question:-- A. Immigration to the United States means the migrating of people into the United States for the purpose of permanent residence. (Century Dictionary.) B. The restrictive measures now in force are as follows:-- 1. Idiots, insane persons, paupers, convicts, diseased persons, anarchists, polygamists, women for immoral purposes, assisted aliens, contract laborers, and the Chinese are excluded. (Statutes of the United States.) 2. A head tax of four dollars is imposed. (Ibid.) C. The proposed restrictive measure is as follows:-- 1. Every immigrant to the United States between the ages of fifteen and fifty must be able to read and write a few sentences of some language. (Congressional Record, Vol. XXVIII, page 5421.). III. The points to be determined seem to be:-- A. Is there a need for further restriction of immigration? B. If there is such a need, would the educational test accomplish this further restriction in a proper manner? DISCUSSION. I. There is great need for further restriction of immigration, because A. The character of the immigrants since 1880 has greatly changed for the worse, for 1. Before 1880 most of the immigrants were earnest, energetic people from northern and western Europe. (International Encyclopaedia, under Immigration.) 2. At the present time seventy and one-half per cent. of the total number of immigrants are from the unenergetic people of southern and eastern Europe. (Ibid.) 3. More immigrants have become paupers than was formerly the case, for a. Prior to 1880 there were comparatively few paupers among the immigrants. (Ibid.) b. At present the percentage of pauperism among the foreigners here is four times as great as among the natives. (Ibid.) 4. While the Germans, English, and other immigrants from northern Europe who came here before 1880 were moral and upright, the present immigrants from southern Europe have a low code of morals, for a. The moral degeneracy of the races of southern Europe is well known. (Henry Rood, Forum, Vol. XIV, page 116.) 5. Crime among foreigners in this country has increased immensely, for a. In 1905 twenty-eight per cent, of our criminals were of foreign birth. (Report of the Commissioner-General of Immigration for 1905.) 6. Illiteracy among immigrants has greatly increased, for a. In 1905 the percentage of illiterates of foreign birth was twenty-six. (Ibid.) b. Many of the present immigrants are illiterates from southern Italy. (S. E. Moffett, Review of Reviews, Vol. 28, page 55.) B. The condition of the cities and especially of their slum districts is alarming, for 1. The number of immigrants is increasing astonishingly, inasmuch as, a. 8,385 immigrants arrived in 1820. b. 788,992 immigrants arrived in 1882. c. 1,026,499 immigrants arrived in 1905. (Report of Commissioner-General of Immigration, 1905. page 42.) 2. Two-thirds of the total number of immigrants in 1902 settled in the cities. (Editorial in Outlook, Vol. LXXI, page 154.) 3. These congested districts foster unsanitary conditions, physical degeneration, and crime. (Deputy Clerk of Children's Court, New York City, North American Review, Vol. CLXXIX, page 731.) 4. Charitable organizations are unable to cope with the problems in congested districts, for a. The number of immigrants is increasing too rapidly. (Report of Commissioner-General of Immigration, 1905.) C. The present immigration is politically harmful, for 1. Immigrants of the kind that are now coming in do not make good citizens, because a. They are indifferent to civic manners, for 1'. They cannot appreciate the spirit of American government, as has previously been shown. b. They are easily influenced in all political affairs by pecuniary persuasion, for 1'. Their sole object in this country is to acquire wealth. (Prescott F. Hall, Secretary of the Immigration Restriction League, Annals of American Academy, Vol. XXIV, page 172.) D. The number of immigrants is too great to be assimilated properly, since 1. Most of the immigrants are extremely clannish, for a. "Little Italies," "Little Hungaries," and "Ghettos," exist in great numbers and size throughout the United States. (Henry Rood, Forum, Vol. XIV, page 114.) 2. Most of the immigrants never try to learn the English language, for a. They have no need for it, since 1'. They seldom come in contact with English-speaking people. (Ibid.) 3. Their tendency is not to become citizens, for a. Thirty-one per cent. of the immigrants return home after having been here a few years. (Report of the Commissioner-General of Immigration, 1905.) b. Those who remain cannot for the most part appreciate our government, for 1'. They have been continually trodden upon in their home countries. 2'. They have had no opportunity to interest themselves in government. (N. S. Shaler, Atlantic Monthly, Vol. LXXI, page 646.) 4. The argument that because we were able to assimilate the immigrants in the past we shall be able to do so in the future, is unsound, for a. The character of the present immigrants has changed, as shown previously. b. In the future we may expect a much larger immigration. (Prescott F. Hall, Annals of American Academy, Vol. XXIV, page 172.) E. Immigrants lower the standards of American labor, because 1. They create harmful competition, since a. More immigrants are coming now than we really need, for I'. In 1906 at least 200,000 aliens came here who were of no use whatever. (Commissioner of Immigration for New York, Popular Science Monthly, Vol. LXVI, page 175.) b. They work for lower wages than do Americans, for 1'. They are able to live more cheaply. (Henry Rood, Ibid.) 2'. They place a lower value on their labor. (T. V. Powderly, North American Review, Vol. CXLVII, page 165.) 2. They tend to destroy the independence of the American laborer, for a. They work under conditions that no American laborer will tolerate, for 1'. They create degrading forms of employment. (W. H. Wilkins, Nineteenth Century, Vol. XXX, page 588.) b. Their selfish desires keep them from organizing with American laborers for protection. II. The educational test would accomplish the further restriction of immigration in a proper manner, for A. It would change the character of the immigrants for the better, since 1. It would keep out the unenergetic races of southern and eastern Europe, because a. Ninety-three per cent, of illiterates come from southern and eastern Europe. (International Encyclopaedia, under Immigration.) 2. It would decrease the amount of pauperism, for a. The southern Italians, who are the most illiterate, produce the most pauperism. (Ibid.) 3. It would raise the standard of morality, since a. Ignorance is closely coupled with immorality, for 1'. The southern Italians have a very low standard of living in the United States. (Henry Rood, Forum, Vol. XIV, page 116.) b. The educational test would exclude such people. 4. It would decrease the amount of crime, for a. It would keep out most of the immigrants from southern Europe, for 1'. Ninety-three per cent, of the illiterates come from this source. b. The criminal tendencies of people from southern Europe are well known. (Henry Rood, Ibid.) B. The educational test would improve the condition of the cities, for 1. They would be more sanitary and less criminal, since a. These evils are due largely to congestion. b. Under this test the cities would be less congested, for 1'. Immigration would be reduced twenty-two and six tenths per cent. 2'. Educated immigrants are not likely to settle in the slums. c. If the cities were less congested, charitable societies could remove more evils from the slums, and in time even eliminate the slums. C. The educational test would aid the country politically, for 1. We should receive only those immigrants who are intellectually capable of becoming good citizens, for a. Education enables a man to become interested in the government in which he lives. 2. Bribery would cease, for a. Greed for small amounts of money is not so strong among the intelligent. (Prescott F. Hall, Ibid.) D. The educational test would aid the work of assimilation, for 1. It would bar to a great extent the clannish immigrants, as a. Clannishness is largely a result of superstition and ignorance. (Henry Rood, Ibid.) 2. It would practically force the immigrants to learn the English language, for a. Their clans broken up, they would naturally come in contact more and more with English-speaking people. 3. It would produce among the foreign-born element of the United States a wider interest in civic affairs, for a. Those who have some education can better appreciate our government than those who are illiterate. b. It would admit only those who, by reason of their education, small though it may be, have had the chance to study somewhat their home governments. (N. S. Shaler, Ibid.) E. The educational test would tend to raise the standards of American labor, for 1. It would cut down competition, since a. It would shut out many laborers, for 1'. Most of those affected by this test would be common laborers. b. It would tend to equalize the rate of wages, because 1'. Immigrants would not be willing to work for lower wages, for a'. The slums being gone, they would need more money for existence. 2. It would aid the independence of American labor, for a. Immigrants would no longer be so reluctant to cooperate with American laborers for protection, for 1'. It is well known that, as a rule, only the most ignorant classes refuse to join unions. b. The low industrial competition would be removed, as previously shown. F. The educational test would be practical, for 1. It is not a test depending upon the representations of immigrants or the decisions of inspectors. (Prescott F. Hall, Forum, Vol. XXX, page 564.) 2. The educational test has worked well in Australia. (Professor Frank Parsons, Annals of American Academy, Vol. XXIV, page 215.) G. It would lessen the burden of education for the government, for 1. It would force prospective immigrants to get their elementary education in Europe. 2. The immigrants would have some education as a foundation for more. CONCLUSION. The affirmative has proved the following:-- I. There is great need for further restriction of immigration. II. The educational test would accomplish the further restriction of immigration in a proper manner. Therefore, immigration to the United States should be further restricted by an educational test. EXERCISES State the propositions upheld in the following arguments, and put the material into brief form:-- 1. At all events, this is clear: that throughout those six months the government knew perfectly well the danger in which General Gordon was placed. It has been said that General Gordon did not ask for troops. Well, I am surprised at that defense. One of the characteristics of General Gordon was the extreme abnegation of his nature. It was not to be expected that he should send home a telegram to say, "I am in great danger, therefore send me troops." He would probably have cut off his right hand before he would have sent such a telegram. But he did send a telegram that the people of Khartum were in danger, and that the Mahdi must win unless military succor was sent forward, and distinctly telling the government--and this is the main point--that unless they would consent to his views the supremacy of the Mahdi was assured. My lords, is it conceivable that after that--two months after that--in May, the prime minister should have said that the government was waiting to have reasonable proof that Gordon was in danger? By that time Khartum was surrounded, and the governor of Berber had announced that his case was desperate, which was too surely proved by the massacre which took place in June. And yet in May Mr. Gladstone was waiting for reasonable proof that they were in danger. Apparently he did not get that proof till August. A general sent forward on a dangerous expedition does not like to go whining for assistance, unless he is pressed by absolute peril. All those great qualities which go to make men heroes are such as are absolutely incompatible with such a course, and lead them to shrink as from a great disgrace from any unnecessary appeal for exertion for their protection. It was the business of the government not to interpret General Gordon's telegrams as if they had been statutory declarations, but to judge for themselves of the circumstances of the case, and to see that those who were surrounded, who were the only three Englishmen among this vast body of Mohammedans, who were already cut off from all communication with the civilized world by the occupation of every important town upon the river, were in real danger. I do not know any other instance in which a man has been sent to maintain such a position without a certain number of British troops. If the British troops had been there treachery would have been impossible; but sending Gordon by himself to rely on the fidelity of Africans and Egyptians was an act of extreme rashness, and if the government succeed in proving, which I do not think they can, that treachery was inevitable, they only pile up an additional reason for their condemnation. I confess it is very difficult to separate this question from the personal matters involved. It is very difficult to argue it on purely abstract grounds without turning for a moment to the character of the man who was engaged and the terrible position in which he was placed. When we consider all that he underwent, all that he sacrificed in order to save the government in a moment of extreme exigency, there is something infinitely pathetic in reflecting on his feelings, as day after day, week after week, month after month passed by--as he spared no exertions, no personal sacrifice, to perform the duties that were placed upon him--as he lengthened out the siege by inconceivable prodigies of ingenuity, of activity, of resource--and as, in spite of it all, in spite of the deep devotion to his country, which had prompted him to this great risk and undertaking, the conviction gradually grew upon him that his country had abandoned him. It is terrible to think what he must have suffered when at last, as a desperate measure to save those he loved, he parted with the only two Englishmen with whom during those long months he had any converse, and sent Stewart and Power down the river to escape from the fate which had become inevitable to himself. It is very painful to think of the reproaches to his country and to his country's government that must have passed through the mind of that devoted man during those months of unmerited desertion. In Gordon's letter of the fourteenth of December he said: "All is up. I expect the catastrophe in ten days' time; it would not have been so if our people had kept me better informed as to their intentions." They had no intentions to inform him of. They were merely acting from hand to mouth to avert the parliamentary censure with which they were threatened. They had no plan, they had no intentions to carry out. If they could have known their intentions, a great hero would have been saved to the British army, a great disgrace would not have fallen on the English government. [Footnote: On the Desertion of Gordon in Egypt, Lord Salisbury, The World's Famous Orations. Funk & Wagnalls, Vol. V, p. 111.] 2. For any State to make sex a qualification that must ever result in the disfranchisement of one entire half of the people is to pass a bill of attainder, or an _ex post facto_ law, and is therefore a violation of the supreme law of the land. By it the blessings of liberty are forever withheld from women and their female posterity. To them this government has no just powers derived from the consent of the governed. To them this government is not a democracy. It is not a republic. It is an odious aristocracy; a hateful oligarchy of sex; the most hateful aristocracy ever established on the face of the globe; an oligarchy of wealth, where the rich govern the poor. An oligarchy of learning, where the educated govern the ignorant, or even an oligarchy of race where the Saxon rules the African, might be endured; but this oligarchy of sex, which makes father, brothers, husband, sons, the oligarchs over the mother and sisters, the wife and daughters of every household--which ordains all men sovereigns, all women subjects, carries dissension, discord and rebellion into every home of the nation. Webster, Worcester and Bouvier all define a citizen to be a person in the United States, entitled to vote and hold office. The only question left to be settled now is: Are women persons? And I hardly believe any of our opponents will have the hardihood to say they are not. Being persons, then, women are citizens; and no State has a right to make any law, or to enforce any old law, that shall abridge their privileges or immunities. Hence, every discrimination against women in the constitutions and laws of the several States is to-day null and void. [Footnote: On Woman's Right to the Suffrage, Susan B. Anthony. The World's Famous Orations. Funk & Wagnalls, Vol. X, p. 59.] 3. The "Legal Intelligencer" prints the full text of the recent decision of Judge Sulzberger in the case of Claus & Basher _vs_. the Rapid Transit Company, which deals with a phase of the question concerning the use of the streets in obstructing public travel. The Judge, in denying the plaintiffs a rule for a new trial, put the matter under review into his customary concise logic, as follows: The plaintiff contends that the direction for defendant was erroneous, because the jury should have been given the opportunity to pass upon the question whether he was or was not negligent in placing his wagon in such a position that it encroached three or four feet upon the transit company's track, without which encroachment the accident could not have happened. His reasons are as follows: 1. That a driver, for the purpose of watering his horses, has the right to encroach on the trolley track. 2. That even if he has not, it is negligence for a motor-man not to stop his car in time to prevent a collision in broad daylight with a conspicuous obstacle like a wagon in front of him. As to the first point: An obstruction of the highway which is temporary and partial may be justified in cases of plain, evident necessity, but not where that necessity is argumentative and supposititious: Com. _vs_. Passmore, 1 S. & R. 217; Rex v. Russell, 6 East. 427. There was no necessity on the plaintiff to water his horses in the way he did. Two other ways, both perfectly safe, were open to him. He chose the easiest and the riskiest. But if there had not been two safe ways open for him, he would still have been guilty of negligence in drawing his wagon across a trolley track, on a busy city street, on which cars were running every minute or two. The primary use of the car track is for public travel, not for watering horses. A permanent watering-trough on a sidewalk, so constructed as not to be usable without stopping the running of the cars, would be a nuisance. The supposed analogy to the right of an abutter to load and unload a necessary article fails entirely. A passing driver is not in the position of an abutter, the reasonableness of whose action is determined by the degree of momentary necessity, and the limit of whose right is that his obstruction must be temporary. Here, however, the watering-trough and not the driver is in the abutter's position. The watering-trough is a public utility, which every one may use. On a warm day, in a busy city street, hundreds of vehicles may stop there, and the quantity of obstruction is not the time occupied by each, but the sum of the times occupied by all. The effect must necessarily be a serious hindrance to public travel, which might sometimes result in complete stoppage. To use the thought of Mr. Justice Dean, in Com. _vs._ Forrest, 170 Pa. 47, the law would soon be invoked to decide whether the car track was for the cars or for vehicles stopped thereon for the purpose of watering horses; whether the driver of such vehicles was in the exercise of a lawful right or was a usurper of the rights of others. In the case of Attorney-General _vs._ the Sheffield Gas Consumers' Company, 19 Eng. Law & Eq. 639, Lord Chancellor Cranworth, considering a similar question, used this illustration: "No doubt that it would be a nuisance, and a very serious nuisance, if a person with a barrel organ, or the bagpipes, were to come and station himself under a person's window all day. But when he is going through a city, you know that he will stop ten minutes at one place and ten minutes at another, and you know he will so go on during the day." The watering- trough, however, is stationary. As to the second point: The general rule in Pennsylvania is that contributory negligence prevents recovery. This rule, it is true, does not apply where the defendant is guilty of "negligence so wanton and gross as to be evidence of voluntary injury"; Wynn _vs_. Allord, 5 W. & S. 525; McKnight _vs_. Ratcliff, 44 Pa. 156. There is, however, nothing in the testimony to indicate that the defendant's motorman did anything wanton. Coming down a steep hill, he failed for a moment to see an obstacle which he had a right to expect would not be on the track. No one says that he did not do his best to prevent the collision after he had seen the wagon. The question at bottom is one of public policy. Should the motorman anticipate that persons of mature age will station their wagons across the tracks? If the rights of the traveling public are to be preserved, the answer must be in the negative. 4. Aside from the money question, the most serious problem that confronts the people of America to-day is that of rescuing their cities, their States and the federal government, including the federal judiciary, from absolute control of corporate monopoly. How to restore the voice of the citizen in the government of his country; and how to put an end to those proceedings in some of the higher courts which are farce and mockery on one side, and a criminal usurpation and oppression on the other.... In as much as no government can endure in which corrupt greed not only makes the laws, but decides who shall construe them, many of our best citizens are beginning to despair of the republic. Others urge that we should remove the bribe-givers--that is, destroy this overwhelming temptation by having the government take all these monopolies itself and furnish the service which they now furnish, and thus not only save our institutions, but have the great profits which now go into the pockets of private corporations turned into the public treasury.... Let us see what civilized man is doing elsewhere. Take the cities of Great Britain first, for they have the same power of self-government that American cities have. In all that pertains to the comfort and enterprise of the individual we are far in the lead; but in the government of cities we are far behind. Glasgow has to-day nearly one million inhabitants and is one of the great manufacturing and commercial cities of the world. Thirty years ago there was scarcely a city that was in a worse condition. Private corporations furnished it a poor quality of water, taken from the Clyde River, and they charged high rates for it. The city drained into the Clyde, and it became horribly filthy. Private corporations furnished a poor quality of gas, at a high price; and private companies operated the street railroads. Private companies had the same grip on the people there that they have in most American cities. Owing to the development of great shipbuilding and other industries in the valley of the Clyde, the laboring population of Glasgow became very dense and the means of housing the people were miserable. Poorly lighted, poorly ventilated, filthy houses brought high rents. In many cases two families lived in one room. Cleanliness was impossible, the sanitary conditions were frightful and the death rate was high. As for educational facilities, there were none worth mentioning for these people. The condition of the laboring classes was one of degradation and misery; children were growing up mentally, morally and physically diseased; a generation was coming which threatened to be an expense and a menace to the country. It was a great slum city. But patriotic and public-spirited men came to the front and gave the city the benefit of their services free. In fact, none of the high city officials in Great Britain received any pay other than the well being of humanity and the good opinions of their country. The city rid itself of the private companies by buying them and then brought fresh water from the highlands, a distance of sixty miles. It doubled the quantity of water furnished the inhabitants, and reduced the cost to consumers by one-half. And yet the department now yields over two hundred thousand dollars a year net income over all fixed charges. The municipality, after much difficulty, bought the gas plants and gradually reduced the price of gas from $1.14 to 58 cents, and it now illuminates not only the streets and public places, but all passageways and stairways in flat buildings, experience having shown that a good lamp is almost as useful as a policeman. The total debt of the city for plants, extensions, etc., to illumine perfectly all the city had reached nearly five and a half millions of dollars. Notwithstanding the low price at which gas is sold, this sum has gradually been reduced to less than two and a half millions of dollars out of the earnings of the system, and it will soon be wiped out and the entire revenue go into the city treasury. The street railways were owned by the city, but, until 1894, they were leased out under an arrangement which paid the city full cost of construction, with interest, besides a yearly income of $750 per street mile. In 1894 the city began to operate the lines itself. The fares were reduced 33 per cent., besides special tickets to laborers, so that the average is under two cents, and over one-third of all fares are one cent each. The private company had worked its men twelve and fourteen hours a day and paid irregular and unsatisfactory wages. The city at once reduced the number of hours to ten, and fixed a satisfactory scale of wages. And, compared with what it formerly was, the service has been greatly improved. In spite of all these acts for the benefit of the public, the roads which had cost the city nothing, now net over all charges for improvements, etc., one-fourth of a million annually. In 1892 the city bought out a private electric light company, and now has the monopoly of furnishing electric light and power. This promises to be a source of enormous revenue for the city.... Manchester has within its narrow limits only a little over half a million people, but within a radius of twenty miles from her city hall there are over three million inhabitants. These have to be considered in discussing Manchester, which is essentially a manufacturing and commercial city. Its history is in many respects a parallel of that of Glasgow. It seemed to be a great city of slums, degradation and misery, and was in the grip of private monopolies. To-day the city furnishes all the service that is furnished here by private corporations, and does it at about one-half cost. It furnishes gas at fifty-six cents a thousand, and after deducting all that is used to illuminate perfectly the streets and after applying $200,000 a year on the original cost of plants, etc., it still turns $300,000 a year into the public treasury, altho the aim in nearly all English cities is not to make money, but to serve the public. The city constructed an aqueduct ninety miles to secure pure water and furnishes this for a little more than half what the private company had charged for a poor quality of water. It owns street railways, and besides giving greatly reduced rates and giving half-fare tickets to workingmen, the city derives a large revenue from this source. Like Glasgow and Birmingham, the city owns large cemeteries in which there are separate sections for the different religious denominations, and prices are so arranged that while those who desire to do so can get lots costing from ten to thirty dollars, yet "a decent burial with inscription on stone over a grave can be had at about four dollars for adults and three dollars for children. This charge includes all cemetery fees and expenses." The city owns the markets and slaughter houses. It has provided parks and swimming baths and, like Birmingham and Glasgow, it maintains large technical schools in which thousands of young men are instructed in the industrial arts and sciences, so as to be able to maintain Manchester's greatness. Birmingham has over half a million of people, and its experience resembles that of Glasgow and Manchester. Formerly private corporations controlled almost everything and charged very high rates for very poor service, and the sanitary conditions were frightful. But here again municipal statesmen came to the front, the most prominent among whom was The Honorable Joseph Chamberlain, who has since been in the British government. Not going further into detail, let me say there are at present in the United Kingdom 185 municipalities that supply their inhabitants with water, with gas and electric light, and one-third of the street railway mileage of Great Britain is owned by the municipalities. Leaving out London it amounts to two-thirds. And in most instances in which they do not own the street railways, they have compelled the companies to grant low fares and divide profits. Every business reason applicable to the municipalities and governments of Europe is applicable here. We want as pure water, as good drainage, as cheap service as they have, and we want the same privilege of supplying ourselves as they exercise; and when it is apparent that, by acting collectively, we can do business more successfully, can serve ourselves better in every way, and can secure for the public treasury these millions which now go into the pockets of grasping individuals, have we not a right to do it? If we find that, in this manner, we can give steadiness to labor, and can elevate its standards and improve the conditions of our people, dare we not do it? Every one of the reforms carried out in England and on the continent met with fierce opposition from the same classes that oppose them here, but the business sense and patriotic impulse of the people prevailed, and I believe, will prevail here. [Footnote: On Municipal and Government Ownership, Altgeld The World's Famous Orations. Funk & Wagnalls Co., Vol. X, p. 208.] 5. Draw a brief of Beecher's speech found on page 166. CHAPTER VIII METHODS OF REFUTATION A complete argument consists of two kinds of proof: constructive proof and refutation. Constructive proof is that part of an argument which sets forth direct reasons for belief in a certain proposition; refutation is that part which destroys the reasons for belief in the opposite side. In general, each of these divisions is of about equal importance, at times the value of one predominating and at times the value of the other. If one is addressing an audience unacquainted with his views or hostile towards them, he is not likely to make much progress in getting his own beliefs accepted until he has, at least in part, shattered the opinion already existing. If, however, the audience is predisposed or even willing to accept the doctrine advocated, very little but constructive proof may be necessary. In debate, the side that has the burden of proof will usually have more use for constructive argument, and the opposite side will have more use for refutation. This statement will not always hold true, however, for the rule will vary under different circumstances; a debater must, therefore, hold himself in readiness to meet whatever contingencies arise. Debate may be likened to the play of two boys building houses with blocks; each boy builds the best house he can, and at times attempts to overthrow the work of his playmate. The one that has the better structure when the game ends comes off victorious. Thus it is in debate; each debater must do his best both to build up his own argument and to destroy his opponent's. To handle refutation successfully, either in written argument or in debate, one must know what to refute and what to leave alone. The general rule governing this matter is: _Refute only those arguments which are essential to the proof of the other side_. All trivial ideas, even all misstatements which if refuted would not destroy any fundamental process of an opponent's proof, should pass unnoticed. To mention them means waste of time and effort. It is not uncommon for a debater to make trivial errors intentionally, in the hope that his opponent will consume valuable time in refuting them and thus allow his main argument to go unscathed. When this stratagem succeeds, the one who made the mistakes can acknowledge that he was wrong in those unimportant details, and yet show that his fundamental arguments have not been overthrown. While arguing on a political question, an intercollegiate debater once laid considerable stress on an opinion expressed by Woodrow Wilson, "President," as he stated, "of Harvard University." His opponent, of course, might have held this statement up to ridicule, but such an exposure would have been impolitic, in that it would have in no wise impaired the value of Mr. Wilson's opinion as evidence. Another debater, not so wise, once spent considerable time in correcting an opponent who had said that the Steel Trust was formed in 1891 instead of in 1901, as was the case. As these dates had no vital bearing on the question at issue, the error should have been allowed to pass. The temptation to point out the flaws that are most obvious is always great, but unless by so doing one can knock out the props on which an opponent's proof rests, such an attack accomplishes nothing. Another common error in refutation consists in "answering one's self." A person is guilty of this fault whenever he misstates an opponent's argument, either because he does not understand it or through design, and then refutes this misstatement. The folly of such procedure is made apparent by merely calling attention to the fact that the original argument has been garbled but in no wise refuted, An opponent can convict the one who has "answered himself" either of unpardonable ignorance about the subject or of downright dishonesty. To guard against these errors of refuting unimportant details and of "answering one's self," it is always well to reduce an opponent's argument to the form of a brief. If the argument is in print, this task is comparatively simple; if the argument is oral, the task will be harder but will still present no serious difficulties to one who is used to drawing briefs. When all the ideas have been arranged in the form of headings and subheadings, and the relation between the ideas has been indicated by means of numbers and letters, then the arguer can quickly decide what points he ought to refute and what ones he can refute. It goes without saying that the headings marked with the Roman numerals contain the most important ideas, and should, therefore, be overthrown as far as possible. There are three ways of disposing of them: one way is to state that the headings are false and then bring on new proof to show their falsity; the second way is to call attention to the subheadings with which the opponent has bolstered up the main headings, and then, by proving these subheads false, allow the main heads to fall to the ground; the third way is to admit that the subheads are true and then show that the inferences drawn from them are unwarranted. To illustrate: A part of an argument on the affirmative side of the proposition, "_Resolved_, That students in American colleges should be excused from final examinations in all subjects in which they have attained a daily grade of at least eighty-five per cent.," might be reduced to the following brief form:-- I. This rule would be of great intellectual benefit to college students, for A. They would master their work more thoroughly, because 1. They would study harder during the term. The first method of overthrowing the heading indicated by (I) would be to attack it directly. This attack might consist of opinions of prominent educators who, on theoretical grounds, do not believe an intellectual benefit would result from the adoption of such a rule; of the opinions of educators who have tried the rule and declare that it is an intellectual detriment; and of a course of reasoning which would show that this system would rob the students exempted of the great intellectual benefit that is derived from the preparation for an examination and from the taking of an examination. The second method would be to show that (1) is not true; therefore (A) would be false, and (I) would be left entirely unsupported. Under the third method the arguer would admit the truth of (1), but would deny that the truth of (A) is established by it; therefore (I) would be unsupported. Whenever a subheading is attacked, it is always very essential to show that the attack is made simply because this subheading serves as a foundation for the main heading. In this particular argument, refutation according to the second and third methods might read about as follows: "The contention of the affirmative that the eighty-five per cent. rule should be adopted because it would result in an intellectual improvement among college students, rests on the supposition that students would study harder during the term, and for that reason would more thoroughly master their subjects. This reasoning is erroneous because, in the first place, as I will show, but very few students, if any, would study harder during the term; and, in the second place, even if they did, those exempted would not have mastered their work so completely at the end of the year as they would have if they had taken an examination." From the preceding, it is apparent that refutation consists of discrediting evidence and attacking reasoning. The ways to overthrow evidence will be considered first. EVIDENCE. It is taken for granted that the evidence mustered by the opponent is sufficient, if not overthrown, to establish his side of the discussion. Of course, if enough evidence for this purpose is lacking, one has only to call attention to this fundamental weakness in order to overthrow the argument then and there. The rules, therefore, for testing evidence assume that the opponent has cited facts that, if not combated, will establish his case. These tests are the same as those given in Chapter VI; a hasty review of them, however, may be serviceable at this point. I. Tests of the sources of evidence. A. Is the witness competent to give a trustworthy account of the matter? B. Is the witness willing to give an accurate account? 1. Does he have any personal interest in the case? C. Is the witness prejudiced? D. Does the witness have a good reputation for honesty and accuracy? II. Internal tests of evidence. A. Is the evidence consistent (a) with itself, (b) with known facts, (c) with human experience? B. Is it first-hand evidence? C. Can the evidence be classed as especially valuable? 1. Does it consist of hurtful admissions? 2. Is it undesigned evidence? 3. Is it negative evidence? III. Test of argument from authority. A. Is the witness an acknowledged authority on the subject about which he testifies? To overthrow or weaken argument from authority, one may either discredit its source or bring to light some inconsistency in the statement itself. Usually the former method alone is possible. To accomplish this result, one may show that the witness spoke from insufficient knowledge of the matter, or was prejudiced, or had some personal interest in the case. Counter authority will also be of assistance. The following quotation taken from a college debate furnishes the student a good example of how to handle this sort of refutation. "The argument has been advanced that the South does not need the foreign laborer, and this argument has been supported by the words of Mr. Prescott F. Hall. We would call the attention of the audience and the judges to the fact that since Prescott F. Hall is Secretary of the Immigration Restriction League, it would be to his interest to make this assertion. Why do not our opponents refer to impartial and unprejudiced men, men like Dr. Allen McLaughlin, a United States immigration official, who makes just the opposite statement?" REASONING. I. Induction. A. Have enough instances of the class under consideration been investigated to establish the existence of a general law? B. Have enough instances been investigated to establish the probable existence of a general law? II. Deduction. A. Are both premises true? B. Is the fact stated in the minor premise an instance of the general law expressed in the major premise? III. Antecedent probability. A. Is the assigned cause of sufficient strength to produce the alleged effect? B. May some other cause intervene and prevent the action of the assigned cause? IV. Sign. A. Argument from effect to cause. 1. Is the assigned cause adequate to produce the observed effect? 2. Could the observed effect have resulted from any other cause than the one assigned? B. Argument from effect to effect. 1. Do the combined tests of argument from effect to cause and from cause to effect hold? V. Example. A. Is there any fundamental difference between the case in hand and the case cited as an example? FALLACIES. A fallacy is an error in reasoning. The preceding part of this chapter has already suggested tests that will expose many such faults, but there are a few errors which, because of their frequency or their inadaptability to other classification, demand separate treatment. This book follows the plan of most other texts on argumentation, and treats these errors under a separate head marked fallacies. To detect a fallacy in another's argument is to weaken, if not to destroy, his case; to avoid making a fallacy in one's own argument means escape from humiliation and defeat. Hence, a knowledge of fallacies is one of the most essential parts of a debater's equipment. The classification given here does not pretend to be exhaustive; it does, however, consider the most common and insidious breaches of reasoning that are likely to occur, and the following pages should be studied with great care. I. BEGGING THE QUESTION. (PETITIO PRINCIPII.) 1. MERE ASSUMPTION. Begging the question means assuming the truth of that which needs proof. This fallacy is found in its simplest form in epithets and appellations. The lawyer who speaks of "the criminal on trial for his life," begs the question in that he assumes the prisoner to be a criminal before the court has rendered a verdict. Those writers who have recently discussed "the brutal game of football" without having first adduced a particle of proof to show that the game is brutal, fall into the same error. An unpardonable instance of question-begging lies in the following introduction, once given by a debater who was attacking the proposition, "_Resolved_, That the federal government should own and operate the railroads in the United States":-- "We of the negative will show that the efficient and highly beneficial system of private ownership should be maintained, and that the impracticable system of government ownership can never succeed in the United States or in any similarly governed country." Private ownership and government ownership may possess these qualities attributed to them, but the debater has no right to make such an assumption; he must _prove_ that they have these qualities. 2. ASSUMPTION USED AS PROOF. Such barefaced assumptions as the preceding usually do little damage except to the one who makes them. They are not likely to lead astray an audience of average intelligence; on the other hand, they do stamp the arguer as prejudiced and illogical. But when assumptions are used as proof, hidden in the midst of quantities of other material, they may produce an unwarranted effect upon one who is not a clear thinker, or who is off his guard. If, without showing that football is brutal, one calls it an extremely brutal game, and then urges its abolishment on the ground of its brutality, he has used an assumption as proof, and has, therefore, begged the question. The debater who stated, without proving, that vast numbers of unskilled laborers were needed in the United States, and then urged this as a reason why no educational test should be applied to immigrants coming to this country, furnished an example of the same fallacy. 3. UNWARRANTED ASSUMPTION OF THE TRUTH OF A SUPPRESSED PREMISE. The student is already familiar with the enthymeme. The enthymeme constitutes a valid form of reasoning only when the suppressed premise is recognized as true. Therefore, whenever an arguer makes use of the enthymeme without attempting to establish a suppressed premise whose truth is not admitted, he has argued fallaciously. This is a third method of begging the question. To illustrate: In advocating the abolishment of football from the list of college athletic sports, one might reason, "Football should be abolished because it obviously exposes a player to possible injury." The suppressed premise in this case would be: All sports which expose a player to possible injury should be abolished. Failure to prove the truth of this unadmitted statement constitutes the fallacy. 4. ASSUMPTION EQUIVALENT TO THE PROPOSITION TO BE PROVED. It is not surprising that a man carried away with excitement or prejudice should make assumptions that he does not even try to substantiate, but that anyone should assume the truth of the very conclusion that he has set out to establish seems incredible. Such a form of begging the question, however, does frequently occur. Sometimes the fallacy is so hidden in a mass of illustration and rhetorical embellishment that at first it is not apparent; but stripped of its verbal finery, it stands out very plainly. The following passage written on the affirmative side of the proposition, "_Resolved_, That the college course should be shortened to three years," will serve as a particularly flagrant illustration:-- It is a well-known fact that in the world of to-day time is an essential factor in the race for success. No young man can afford to dawdle for four long years in acquiring a so-called "higher" education. Three-fourths of that time is, if anything, more than sufficient in which to attain all the graces and culture that the progressive man needs. It is evident that the "argument" in this case consists of nothing more than a repetition of the proposition. 5. ARGUING IN A CIRCLE. Another phase of begging the question consists of using an assumption as proof of a proposition and of then quoting the proposition as proof of the assumption. Two assertions are made, neither of which is substantiated by any real proof, but each of which is used to prove the other. This fallacy probably occurs most frequently in conversation. Consider the following :-- A. "The proposed system of taxation is an excellent one." B. "What makes you think so?" A. "Because it will be adopted by the legislature." B. "How do you know it will?" A. "Because it is a good system and our legislators are men of sense." This fallacy occurs when one proves the authority of the church from the testimony of the scriptures, and then establishes the authenticity of the scriptures by the testimony of the church. A similar fallacy has been pointed out in the works of Plato. In _Phaedo_, he demonstrates the immortality of the soul from its simplicity, and in the _Republic_, he demonstrates the simplicity of the soul from its immortality. The following fragment of a brief argues in a circle:-- I. This principle is in accordance with the principles of the Democratic party, since A. The leader of the Democratic party believes in it, for 1. As the leader of the party, he naturally believes in Democratic principles. II. AMBIGOUS TERMS. (EQUIVOCATION; CONFUSION OF TERMS.) The fallacy of ambiguous terms consists of using the same term in two distinct senses in the same argument. Thus if one were to argue that "no designing person ought to be trusted; engravers are by profession designers; therefore they ought not to be trusted," it is quite apparent that the term "design" means totally different things in the two premises. The same fallacy occurs in the argument, "Since the American people believe in a republican form of government, they should vote the Republican ticket." Again:-- "Interference with another man's business is illegal; "Underselling interferes with another man's business; "Therefore underselling is illegal." J. S. Mill in his _System of Logic_ discusses the fallacy of ambiguous terms with great care. In part he says:-- The mercantile public are frequently led into this fallacy by the phrase "scarcity of money." In the language of commerce, "money" has two meanings: _currency,_ or the circulating medium; and _capital seeking investment,_ especially investment on loan. In this last sense, the word is used when the "money market" is spoken of, and when the "value of money" is said to be high or low, the rate of interest being meant. The consequence of this ambiguity is, that as soon as scarcity of money in the latter of these senses begins to be felt,--as soon as there is difficulty of obtaining loans, and the rate of interest is high,--it is concluded that this must arise from causes acting upon the quantity of money in the other and more popular sense; that the circulating medium must have diminished in quantity, or ought to be increased. I am aware that, independently of the double meaning of the term, there are in the facts themselves some peculiarities, giving an apparent support to this error; but the ambiguity of the language stands on the very threshold of the subject, and intercepts all attempts to throw light upon it. As countless words and expressions have several meanings, there is almost no limit to the confusion which this fallacy can cause. Some of the most common terms that are used ambiguously are _right_, _liberty_, _law_, _representative_, _theory_, _church_, _state_, _student_. By carefully defining all terms that have more than one meaning and by insisting on a rigid adherence to the one meaning wherever the term is used, a debater can easily avoid fallacies of this sort in his own argument and expose those of his opponent. III. FALSE CAUSE. The fallacy of false cause occurs whenever that which could in no way bring about the effect that is being established is urged as its cause. This fallacy in its most obvious form is found only in the arguments of careless and illogical thinkers. Some college students occasionally draw briefs that contain such reasoning as the following:-- I. The Panama canal should be of the sea-level rather than of the lock type, because A. The Panama canal will do away with the long voyage around the Horn. I. Southerners are justified in keeping the franchise away from the negro, for A. Negroes should never have been brought to America. B. The Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution ought not to have been passed. The error of such plainly absurd reasoning as occurs in the preceding illustrations needs no explanation. There is one form of the fallacy of false cause, however, that is much more common and insidious and therefore deserves special treatment. POST HOC ERGO PROPTER HOC. (After this, therefore, on account of this.) This phase of the fallacy consists of the assumption that since cause precedes effect what has preceded an event has caused it. The most frequent occurrence of the error is to be found in superstitions. If some one meets with an accident while taking a journey that began on Friday, many people will argue that the accident is the effect of the unlucky day. Some farmers believe their crops will not prosper unless the planting is done when the moon is in a certain quarter; sailors often refuse to embark in a renamed vessel. Because in the past, one event has been known to follow another, it is argued that the first event was the cause of the second, and that the second event will invariably follow the first. But this fallacy does not find its only expression in superstitions. To _post hoc_ reasoning is due much of the popularity of patent medicines. Political beliefs, even, are often generated in the same way; prosperity follows the passing of a certain law, and people jump to the conclusion that this one law has caused the "good times." Some demagogues go so far as to say that education among the Indians is responsible for the increased death rate of many of the tribes. A slightly different phase of the _post hoc_ fallacy consists in attributing the existence of a certain condition to a single preceding event, when at the most this event could have been only a partial cause of what followed, and may not have been a cause at all. A medicine that could not have effected a cure may have been of some slight benefit. A law that could not possibly have been the sole cause of "good times" may have had a beneficial effect. To avoid this fallacy, one must be sure not only that the assigned cause is operative, but that it is also adequate. In the following passage, _Harpers Weekly_, for March 5, 1894, points out the error in the reasoning made by several college presidents who, after compiling statistics, stated that a college education increased a man's chance of success from one in ten thousand to one in forty:-- Not many persons doubt any longer that an American college education is an advantage to most youths who can get it, but in these attempts to estimate statistically what college education does for men there is a good deal of confusing of _post hoc_ and _propter hoc_. Define success as you will, a much larger proportion of American college men win it than of men who don't go to college, but how much college training does for those successful men is still debatable. Remember that they are a picked lot, the likeliest children of parents whose ability or desire to send their children to college is evidence of better fortune, or at least of higher aspirations than the average. And because their parents are, as a rule, more or less prosperous and well educated, they get and would get, whether they went to college or not, a better than average start in life.... If one boy out of a family of four goes to college, it is the clever one. The boys who might go to college and don't are commonly the lazy ones who won't study. The colleges get nowadays a large proportion of the best boys of the strongest families. The best boys of the strongest families would win far more than their proportionate share of success even if there were no colleges. An exposure of similarly fallacious reasoning is made by Edward M. Shepard in _The Atlantic Monthly_ for October, 1904. The Republican argument is that the whole edifice of our prosperity depends upon high protective or prohibitive duties, and that to them is due our industrial progress. Is it not, indeed, a disparagement of the self-depending faculties of the American people thus to affirm that, in spite of their marvelous advantages, they would have failed in industrial life unless by force of law they could have prevented the competition with them of other peoples? It is only by the sophistry to which I have referred that this disparagement is justified. It is that old argument of veritable folly that, because event Z follows event W, as it follows events A and B and many besides A, therefore W is the sole cause of Z. Theory or no theory, the Republican says that we have in fact grown rich by protection, because in our country prosperity and protective duties have existed together. They ignore every inconvenient fact. They would have us forget that each of the industrial depressions of 1873-78 and 1893-96 followed long operation of a high protective tariff. They ignore the contribution of soil and climate to our prosperity, the vast increase which modern inventions and improved carrying facilities have, the world over, brought to the productivity of labor, and here in the United States have brought more than anywhere else. They ignore the superior skill and alertness of the American workman and the wonderful extent to which he has been stimulated by the conditions and ideals of our democracy. They ignore the freedom of trade, which, since 1789, the Federal Constitution has made operative over our entire country,-- by far the most important area of free trade ever known,--and which everyone to-day knows to be a prime condition of the prosperity of our forty-five commonwealths. From what has been said it is obvious that it is never safe to account for an occurrence or a condition by merely referring to something that accompanies it or precedes it. There must be a connection between the alleged cause and the effect, and this connection must be causal; otherwise, both may be the result of the same cause. The cause must also be adequate; and it must, moreover, be evident that the result has not been produced, wholly or partially, by some other cause or causes. IV. COMPOSITION AND DIVISION. COMPOSITION. The fallacy of composition consists of attributing to a whole that which has been proved only of a part. To condemn or to approve of a fraternity because of the conduct of only a few of its members, to say that what is advantageous for certain states in the Union would therefore be beneficial for the United States as a whole, to reason from the existence of a few millionaires that the English nation is wealthy, would be to fall into this fallacy. Furthermore, it is fallacious to think that because something is true of each member of a class taken _distributively_, the same thing holds true of the class taken _collectively_. It is not logical to argue that because each member of a jury is very likely to judge erroneously, the jury as a whole is also very likely to judge erroneously. Because each witness to an event is liable to give false or incorrect evidence, it is unreasonable to think that no confidence can be placed in the concurrent testimony of a number of witnesses. DIVISION. The fallacy of division is the converse of the fallacy of composition. It consists of attributing to a part that which has been proved of the whole. For instance, Lancaster county is the most fertile county in Pennsylvania, but that fact by itself does not warrant the statement that any one particular farm is exceptionally fertile. Because the people of a country are suffering from famine, it does not follow that one particular person is thus afflicted. Again, it would be fallacious to say: It is admitted that the judges of the court of appeal cannot misinterpret the law; Richard Rowe is a judge of the court of appeal; therefore he cannot misinterpret the law. V. IGNORING THE QUESTION. (IGNORATIO ELENCHI.) An arguer is said to ignore the question, or to argue beside the point, whenever he attempts to prove or disprove anything except the proposition under discussion. This fallacy may arise through carelessness or trickery. An unskilled debater will often unconsciously wander away from his subject; and an unscrupulous debater, when unable to defend his position, will sometimes cunningly shift his ground and argue upon a totally new proposition, which is, however, so similar to the original one that in the heat of controversy the change is hardly noticeable. A discussion on the subject, "The boycott is a legitimate means of securing concessions from employers," which attempted to show the effectiveness of the boycott, would ignore the question. Likewise, in a discussion on the proposition, "The average college student could do in three years the work now done in four," any proof showing the desirability of such a crowding together of college work would be _beside the point_. In the following passage Macaulay holds up to scorn certain arguments which contain this fallacy:-- The advocates of Charles, like the advocates of other malefactors against whom overwhelming evidence is produced, generally decline all controversy about facts, and content themselves with calling testimony to character. We charge him with having broken his coronation oath; and we are told that he kept his marriage vow! We accuse him of having given up his people to the merciless inflictions of the most hot-headed and hard- hearted of prelates; and the defence is, that he took his little son on his knees and kissed him! We censure him for having violated the articles of the Petition of Rights, after having, for good and valuable consideration, promised to obey them; and we are informed that he was accustomed to hear prayers at six o'clock in the morning! Whenever an arguer avoids the question at issue and makes an attack upon the character, principles, or former beliefs or personal peculiarities of his opponent, he commits the special form of this fallacy known as _argumentum ad hominem_. It is obviously fallacious to reason that a principle is unsound because it is upheld by an untrustworthy advocate, or because it is inconsistent with the advocate's former beliefs and practices. Honesty is a worthy principle, even though advocated by a thief. The duty of industry is no less binding because it is advocated by an idler. Lawyers often commit this error by seeking to discredit the opposing attorney. Campaign speakers frequently attempt to overthrow the opposing party's platform by showing that it is inconsistent with the party's previous measures and declarations. To bring in such irrelevant matter is to ignore the question. Closely allied to _argumentum ad hominem_ is another phase of ignoring the question called _argumentum ad populum_. This fallacy consists of using before a certain audience statements which will strongly appeal to their prejudices and partisan views, but which are not generally accepted facts and which would undoubtedly meet with strong opposition elsewhere. A speaker who brings in this kind of argument makes use neither of reasoning nor of legitimate persuasion. He neglects his proposition and attempts to excite the feelings of his audience to such an extent as to render them incapable of forming a dispassionate judgment upon the matter in hand. In general, it is necessary only to point out a fallacy to weaken an argument. Sometimes, however, the error is so involved and so hidden that, though it is apparent to one who is arguing, yet it is not easily made apparent to the audience. In overcoming this difficulty, arguers often resort to certain peculiar devices of arranging and presenting the material for refutation. Long experience has shown that the two methods given here are of inestimable value. VI. REDUCTIO AD ABSURDUM. (REDUCING TO AN ABSURDITY.) The method of refuting an argument by _reductio ad absurdum_ consists of showing that the argument to be refuted, if true, proves not only the conclusion given, but also other conclusions which are manifestly absurd. For example, a debater once contended that colleges should not seek to root out professionalism in athletic sports, because, by coming in contact with college life, professional players receive considerable benefit. His opponent answered him by showing that the same argument carried out to its logical conclusion would prove that a college should encourage the attendance of criminals and degenerates on the ground that they will be benefited thereby. Thus he reduced the argument to a manifest absurdity. At one time the officers of a national bank permitted their institution to be wrecked by certifying, and thereby practically guaranteeing, the checks of a firm of stock-holders when the brokers did not have the money represented by the checks deposited in the bank. This was distinctly a criminal offense. The brokers failed, and, the bank having closed its doors in consequence, the president of the bank was brought to trial. _The Atlantic Monthly_ reduces to an absurdity the chief argument used for the defense. A jury having been empaneled to try him, he pleaded guilty, his counsel urging, as a reason for clemency, that the violation of this statute was a habit of the New York banks in the Wall Street district, and that if the wrecked bank had not followed this law-breaking custom of its competitors the stock brokers would have withdrawn their account. The plea was successful, and the officer escaped with a small fine. Imagine a burglar or a pickpocket urging a plea for clemency based on the general business habits and customs of his criminal confrères! [Footnote: The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 94, p. 173.] Mr. E. A. Freeman, the historian, once made the statement that English literature cannot be taught. His course of reasoning was to the effect that it is impossible to teach a subject in which one cannot be examined; and he maintained that it is impossible to hold satisfactory examinations in English literature, since this is a subject which is studied for the purpose of cultivating the taste, educating the sympathies, and enlarging the mind. If this reasoning proves anything, it has been pointed out, it proves too much. What Mr. Freeman says of English literature may equally well be said of Latin, Greek, and every other kind of literature. But as Latin and Greek literature have been successfully taught for hundreds of years, Mr. Freeman's argument is absurd. College students are continually urging as a defense of professionalism in their own athletic teams the argument that since other colleges employ professional players it is necessary for them to do likewise. By carrying this argument a step farther, one could show, with equal reason, that since drinking, stealing and cheating are prevalent in other colleges, these same practices should also be indulged in at the college in question. In the same way one may refute by _reductio ad absurdum_ all such arguments as, "Custom has rendered the spoils system desirable"; "The prevalency of the high license law shows its superiority to prohibition"; and "Since in the past all college students were required to study Latin and Greek, these subjects should be required at the present time." II. THE DILEMMA. Another device an arguer will often find useful in refuting an opponent's statement is the _dilemma_. In the dilemma the arguer shows that the statement he wishes to disprove can be true only through the truth of at least one of several possibilities. He then proves that these possibilities are untenable, and therefore the original statement is false. To represent the dilemma with letters: The truth of A rests upon the truth of either x or y; but as x and y are both false, A is false. Once when it was believed in certain quarters that Japan was about to undertake a war against the United States, many people maintained that if Japan desired to go to war she was amply able to finance such an undertaking. In reply to this contention, a certain newspaper, making use of the dilemma, said that since Japan had no money in the treasury she could meet the expenses of war in only three ways: either by contracting a large debt, or by increasing taxation, or by indemnifying herself at the expense of the enemy. The paper then went on to prove that Japan was not in a position to float a large loan, that taxes in Japan were already as heavy as the people could bear, and that she could not hope, at least for a long time, to secure any indemnity from the enemy. Therefore Japan was not in a financial position to enter upon a war with the United States. In attempting to show that municipalities do not have the moral right to own and operate public utilities, T. Carpenter Smith uses the dilemma. He says:-- "Any commercial business is carried on either at a profit, or at a loss, or in such a way that the expenses equal the income. If the city business of gas or electric lighting is to be carried on at a profit, then those citizens who use gas or electric light will be charged a high price for that light, in order to pay the profit, not only to themselves, but also to those who do not use it. If the works are to be carried on at a loss, then the citizens who do not use the gas or electric light will pay taxes to furnish a convenience or economy to those citizens who do use it. If the works are to be operated exactly at cost, then the city will carry on a business from which it will get nothing, but in which it will have to take the labor and risk incident to such a business in order to benefit only some of its citizens, furnishing a commodity not desired by all." In conversation and debate, the dilemma is frequently introduced by means of a question. The debater, wishing to trap his opponent, asks him a pertinent question which previous investigation has shown can possibly be answered in only two or three ways, and which the opponent cannot afford to answer at all. A good illustration of this device occurs in the New Testament. And it came to pass, on one of the days, as he was teaching the people in the temple, and preaching the gospel, there came upon him the chief priests and the scribes with the elders; and they spake, saying unto him, Tell us: By what authority doest thou these things? or who is he that gave thee this authority? And he answered and said unto them, I also will ask you a question; and tell me: The baptism of John, was it from heaven, or from men? And they reasoned with themselves, saying, If we shall say, From heaven; he will say, Why did ye not believe him? But if we shall say, From men; all the people will stone us: for they be persuaded that John was a prophet. And they answered, that they knew not whence _it was_. And Jesus said unto them, Neither tell I you by what authority I do these things. [Footnote: Luke xx, 1-8.] During the Lincoln-Douglas debates in 1858, when both men were seeking the United States senatorship from Illinois, Lincoln, wishing either to kill Douglas's senatorial prospects or to head him off from the presidency two years later, asked him a question which put him in a dilemma. Ida M. Tarbell describes the question as follows:-- "Can the people of a United States territory in any lawful way, against the wish of any citizen of the United States, exclude slavery from its limits prior to the formation of a State Constitution?" Lincoln had seen the irreconcilableness of Douglas's own measure of popular sovereignty, which declared that the people of a territory should be left to regulate their domestic concerns in their own way subject only to the Constitution, and the decision of the Supreme Court in the Dred Scott case that slaves, being property, could not under the Constitution be excluded from a territory. He knew that if Douglas said _no_ to this question, his Illinois constituents would never return him to the Senate. He believed that if he said _yes,_ the people of the South would never vote for him for President of the United States. In the last example, Lincoln, by forcing Douglas to answer this question, sought to destroy, and, as history shows, did destroy, the popular conception of Douglas's fitness for public office. Before one can safely use the dilemma he must carefully investigate every phase of the statement that he wishes to refute. If he is to use the dilemma directly, he must consider every possibility--commonly called the horns of the dilemma--upon which the truth of the statement may rest. If there is a single possibility which he is not ready to meet and overthrow, his whole effort is fruitless. For instance, a debater, in attempting to rebut the statement that college fraternities are harmful, said that his opponent must show that fraternities are either morally, socially, financially or intellectually detrimental to their members; he then proved as best he could that in these respects fraternities are beneficial rather than harmful, and sat down thinking that he had gone a long way toward winning the debate. His opponent then arose and admitting nearly everything that had been said, based his argument on the idea that fraternities were harmful _to the college as a whole_. The first speaker had not considered every alternative. If an arguer is to approach a dilemma through the medium of a question, he must be sure that he knows every reasonable answer that his opponent can make. When one has satisfied these conditions, he can use the dilemma with great effect. By way of summary it may be said that the successful arguer must both build up his own proof and destroy his opponent's. To accomplish the latter one has to know what to refute and what to leave alone; he must distinguish between the important and the unessential, and he must take care not to "refute himself." Since proof consists of evidence and reasoning, the first step for him to take in refuting an argument is to apply the tests for each, and if possible show where his opponent has erred. In the next place, he should see whether he can discover and point out any of the more important fallacies; the ones mentioned here are _begging the question_, _ambiguous terms_, _false cause_, _composition and division_, and _ignoring the question_. Should the arguer find any of these fundamental weaknesses, it is ordinarily sufficient merely to call attention to them; for the sake of emphasis, however, one may make use of two especially effective methods of refutation, _reductio ad absurdum_ and the _dilemma_. EXERCISES. A. Criticize the following arguments and point out the fallacies they contain:-- 1. Four thousand men have taken examinations at Princeton under the honor system, and only six of these were found guilty of "cribbing." This record shows conclusively that the honor system restrains dishonest work in examinations. 2. Athletics do not injure a man's scholarship; one of the best players on last year's football team attained such a high grade that he was awarded a fellowship. 3. During the decade from 1870 to 1880, illiteracy among the negroes decreased ten per cent., but the race grew more criminal by twenty- five per cent.; from 1880 to 1890, illiteracy decreased eighteen per cent., but criminality increased thirty-three and one-third per cent. Who can now say that education does not injure the negro? 4. Since the honor system failed at Franklin and Marshall, it will fail at ---- College. 5. Frequent athletic games benefit a college because they tend to take the students' attention away from their studies. 6. The fixed curriculum of studies is effective in making a specialist, because the specialist takes up only one kind of work. 7. Southerners are justified in keeping the franchise from the negro, because the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution ought never to have been passed. 8. Since the negro's devotion to the church is as great as that of most white people, he is of as high moral standing as the average unintelligent white. 9. Ireland is idle and therefore she starves; she starves and therefore she rebels. 10. Every one desires virtue, because every one desires happiness. 11. The present term of four years is so short a time that the President does not have opportunity to become acquainted with his duties, for just as he is becoming acquainted with them he has to step out of office. 12. This doctrine cannot be proved from the Gospels, nor from the Acts of the Apostles, nor from the Epistles, nor from the Revelation of St. John; therefore it cannot be proved from the New Testament. 13. Crime is a violation of the laws of our country; piracy is a crime; this man belongs to a band of lawless men, and this band has been taken in the very deed of piracy. Therefore he has violated the laws of our country. 14. Since all presuming men are contemptible, and since this man presumes to believe his opinions are correct, he is not worthy of our consideration. 15. To prove to you that our standing army should be permanently enlarged, I will show that every nation of any prominence whatsoever keeps a standing army. 16. The elective system of studies is preferable to the prescribed system, because A. The student can elect those studies which will do him the most good, for 1. He can elect what he pleases. 17. Strikes benefit the working man, because A. They benefit him financially, for 1. If they did not, he would not strike. 18. When thirteen sit at table together, one of them always dies within the year. 19. To decide whether or not strikes are justifiable it is necessary to see if they have for the most part been successful in the past. 20. All the trees in the park make a thick shade; this is one of them, therefore this tree makes a thick shade. 21. Italy is a Catholic country and abounds in beggars; France is also a Catholic country, and therefore abounds in beggars. 22. Pitt was not a great and useful minister; for though he would have been so had he carried out Adam Smith's doctrines of free trade, he did not carry out those doctrines. 23. All criminal actions ought to be punished by law. Prosecutions for theft are criminal actions, and therefore ought to be punished by law. 24. Books are a source both of instruction and of amusement; a table of logarithms is a book; therefore it is a source both of instruction and of amusement. B. On each of the following arguments from authority write a paragraph that will weaken its effect:-- 1. "The Senate for more than a century has demonstrated the wisdom of the mode of its constitution." Senator G. F. Hoar. 2. "Mine disasters are largely due to the intoxication of miners, or to carelessness caused by the after effects of a 'spree,'" says Dr. Jesse K. Johnson, superintendent of one of the largest mines in the Pittsburg district. 3. Both Mark Hanna and Grover Cleveland have stated that a six year Presidential term would be of great benefit to the United States. 4. Senator La Follet, who has made a thorough study of many of the principal monopolies in the country, states that the Standard Oil trust charges exorbitant rates. 5. Mr. Francis Walker, in the Political Science Quarterly, Volume twenty, page fourteen, says that legislation against trusts has improved conditions, and would therefore improve conditions in the United States. 6. President Hadley, of Yale University, has said that the subsidizing of ships on a large scale has been detrimental to France. 7. "The Indian who is not obliged to labor for his maintenance becomes a lazy vagabond." Lyman Abbott. C. Put the following article into the form of a brief and show exactly what methods of refutation are used:-- THE OLD FRIGATE "CONSTITUTION." The pretexts for removal of "Old Ironsides" from the waters in which that historic ship had her birth are now reduced to two. One of these is that the old boat takes up room at the Navy Yard which is needed for the work of that establishment. The other is that since the money expended in the restoration of the frigate--less than $200,000--came out of the Federal Treasury, the people of distant States ought to have the pleasure of seeing what their money paid for without coming to Boston in order to enjoy it. As for crowding the Navy Yard, that is an absurdity. His Excellency Curtis Guild, Jr., in his letter to the Navy Department protesting against the removal, quoted the officers in command at the Navy Yard as declaring that "the ship in no way interferes with the work of the yard, taking up no space that is needed for other purposes." The Governor would not make such a statement in an official communication without the clearest authority. "Indeed," he adds as his own opinion, "the strip of wharf occupied is but a trivial portion of the long water front controlled by the government." There is the other pretext, namely, that because the "Constitution" has been repaired at national cost, therefore any special claim that Massachusetts may have upon this relic of Massachusetts patriotism is removed. This idea has found crude and unmannerly expression in the words of one of the committee of Congress looking over our navy yards. "The agitation to keep the ship in Boston seems selfish," he is quoted as saying. "It was the money of the whole people of the United States that paid for its repair, and the people in other sections are as justly entitled to see the ship as in Boston." Coming from a representative of the State of Kansas, this is almost amusing. His proposition to tow the ship around from place to place, as it may be wanted for a show, suggests the practicability of a canal, say, to Topeka, or to Fort Hayes. The alternative proposition, namely, that Massachusetts shall repay to the general government the cost of the repairs of the "Constitution," would have some standing were it a commercial affair. Massachusetts has expended many times the cost of the repairs of "Old Ironsides" in preserving for the nation the revolutionary sites and monuments upon our soil. Payment for the repair and restoration of "Old Ironsides" would be a bagatelle if the people of the United States were to demand that this monument also shall be purchased by the people of Massachusetts under threat of its removal. But it is not a question of money; that is a contemptible suggestion. Nor is it a question of bureaucracy. It is a simple, reasonable, entirely practical demand of the historic sentiment of patriotism which still warms the hearts and inspires the souls of Massachusetts men. CHAPTER IX DEBATE--SOME PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS Debate has been defined as the oral presentation of argument under conditions that allow both sides to be heard. In both class room and intercollegiate debating each side usually makes two speeches, a main speech and a rebuttal speech. The main speech ordinarily extends over a period of from seven to twelve minutes, according to the rules governing the contest, and is largely constructive in nature. The rebuttal speech, commonly called _the rebuttal_, is usually a little less than half the length of the main speech, and is for the most part destructive. It is almost superfluous to add that both sides are allowed exactly the same amount of time in which to present their arguments; that the affirmative side speaks first, the order being, when there are several debaters, affirmative, negative, affirmative, negative, and so on; and that all the main speeches are given before either side makes a rebuttal speech. If there be only one debater on each side, it is undoubtedly best for the affirmative to offer the first rebuttal; if there be several debaters, the order is usually reversed. The debaters on either side may or may not speak in rebuttal in the same order as in the main argument. HOW TO PREPARE FOR DEBATE. In several ways the work of the debater differs from the work of one who is preparing a written argument or who is to speak without being confronted by an opponent. As far as the completion of the brief, the work in all cases is the same, but at this point the debater has to decide what special preparation he shall make for handling and presenting to the audience the material that he has collected. He is puzzled to know whether it will be worth while to expand his brief; and if he does expand it, he is in doubt as to just what he should do with the expanded argument. A debater has his choice of several possible methods of procedure. The simplest, though not the most effective method, is to write out the argument in full, and to memorize it word for word. The weakness of such a course lies in the immobility of its attack and defense. The first speaker for the affirmative may decide beforehand exactly what he will say and the order in which he will say it, but all those who are to follow should adapt their arguments, to some extent at least, to the exigencies of the debate. They will find it desirable to make a change in one place in order to join their arguments harmoniously to those of their colleagues; they will wish to make changes in another place for the sake of assailing an obviously weak spot or in order to ward off an unexpected attack. This versatility is practically impossible if one is delivering an argument that he has memorized word for word. Again, a memorized argument cannot carry with it the force and the conviction that may be found in an effort of a more spontaneous character. Furthermore, if a debater should be so unfortunate as to forget even a few words of a memorized selection, he would probably be forced to sit down with his speech only partially completed. Another method that some debaters follow is to memorize portions of their argument and to extemporize the rest. This is open to two great objections: first, it is difficult to join together gracefully the memorized passages and the extemporized; and the second, the very smoothness with which the memorized passages are delivered betrays the crudeness and awkwardness of the extemporized parts. A third method, and undoubtedly the best one for the student to adopt, is not to expand the brief before he debates, but to memorize the greater part of it _as a brief_. In this way a debater has his ideas well in hand, and, without being tied down to any particular manner of expression or obliged to follow any set order of procedure, he can use his material as opportunity requires. His language should be at least partially extemporaneous; he may have a fairly clear conception of how he is to frame his sentences, but he should have nothing learned word for word. Thus his speech may have an element of spontaneity that will give it a tone of sincerity and earnestness unattainable when one is repeating a memorized passage. Too much, however, must not be left to the inspiration of the moment; no student should ever try to debate without first attempting in his room to expand his brief orally. He is sure to meet with considerable difficulty the first time he tries to formulate his ideas in clear, forceful, and elegant language; but several attempts will produce a remarkable change. After a few endeavors he will discover ways of expressing himself that he will remember, even though the words vary greatly each time. The superiority of this method is marked. It enables the debater to become perfectly familiar with all his material, and it gives him a fairly good idea of what language he shall use. He is not, however, bound down to any set speech; he can alter his argument to suit the occasion. Should he unexpectedly find that his opponent has admitted a certain idea, he can merely call attention to this fact and not waste valuable time in giving superfluous proof. If he sees that his opponent has made such a strong argument that some refutation is necessary at the outset in order to gain the confidence of his audience, he can instantly change the order of his proof and begin with a point that he had, perhaps, intended to use in another part of his speech. In fact, this method enables one to _debate_ rather than to _declaim_. In most debating contests it is permissible for the contestants to make use of a few notes written on small cards that can be carried in a pocket or held unobtrusively in the hand. Such a practice, if not abused, is commended by some teachers of argumentation. On these cards the debater can put down the main headings of his brief, all statistics that are difficult to remember, and all quotations. _He had better not refer to these cards for the headings of his brief if he can possibly avoid doing so_. It will be a great stimulus, however, for him to know that he has this help to rely on in case of necessity. Statistics and quotations he may read without hesitation. One should speak his debate many times by himself, not only for the purpose of gaining facility in expression, but also for the sake of condensing his material to an argument that will approximately occupy the exact time allowed him for debating. It is a deplorable fact that many debaters try to say so much that when their allotment of time has expired they find themselves in the very midst of their argument. Such an ending leaves the audience confused and unimpressed. No debater should ever omit his conclusion. If there is only one contestant on each side, a conclusion is certainly necessary both for the sake of clearness and emphasis, and because an unfinished argument is not a unit. If there are several contestants on each side, the fact that the opposing speakers intervene and distract the attention of the audience makes it even more necessary that each debater end his argument with a formal conclusion, and by means of it bind his work to that of his colleagues. REFUTATION. As much time, if not more, should be spent in preparing the destructive as in preparing the constructive portion of an argument. One can determine beforehand almost exactly how he will establish his side of the proposition, but just what material he will need to overthrow his opponent's proof will depend upon how that proof is constructed. Ordinarily one can predict what lines of reasoning an opponent will take; in fact, no one should ever attempt to debate until he has studied the proposition so thoroughly that he can anticipate practically all the arguments that will be advanced. Yet until he sees on what points the emphasis is placed, what arguments are ignored, and what evidence is used, he cannot tell for sure what facts and what inferences will be most valuable as refutation. Therefore, a debater who wishes to offer good refutation must have a wealth of material at his command and be able to select instantly the ideas that will be of the greatest value. This necessity for an abundance of information precludes the idea, held by some, that good debaters depend for their refutation on the inspiration of the moment. Great speakers often spend incalculable time in preparing to answer the arguments of the opposition. Webster's _Reply to Hayne_, which is a recognized masterpiece of oratory, and which is almost entirely refutation, was at first thought to have been composed over night, but Webster declared that all the material he had used had lain in his desk for months. Refutation should come for the most part, though not entirely, in the rebuttal. Unless one has made a thorough study of both sides of the question, and is thus sure of his ground, anticipatory refutation is dangerous. It is sometimes an excellent plan to take the wind out of an opponent's sails by overthrowing an argument of his before he has a chance to present it, but in doing this the debater must use the greatest caution. To begin with, he must be sure that the argument he refutes is of such a fundamental nature that it is essential to the case of the other side, for if his opponent fails to use this point, the debater not only has exposed himself to ridicule, but has wasted valuable time. When one does refute in advance a point that must be upheld by the opposition, a skillful opponent often can, by calling attention to the fact that even those on the other side recognize the importance and strength of this argument, destroy much of the advantage that has been gained. To refute an argument before it is advanced, sometimes brings failure and sometimes brings success. A debater must exercise judgment. One must also exercise a high degree of judgment in deciding where he can most advantageously answer the arguments that have actually been given. Whenever a debater presents so thorough and so strong proof that the audience is likely to think that he has settled the question and won the debate, the succeeding speaker on the opposite side will have great difficulty in making any impression unless he can at the start at least partially discredit the preceding argument. The attitude of the audience will compel him to use refutation before beginning his constructive work. On the other hand, if the preceding argument has apparently produced but little effect, he may at once begin to build his own proof. He should, however, show good reason for postponing his refutation. To ignore the previous arguments entirely, or arbitrarily to postpone answering them, is likely to give the audience an unfavorable impression. COMMON ERRORS IN REFUTATION. A common error in refutation is the failure to attack an opponent's main arguments. Students especially are wont to neglect fundamental principles, and instead of overthrowing the points that count, occupy invaluable time with trivial matters. To rebut unimportant details, admitted matter, mere illustrations, and errors obviously due to haste in speaking, is a fault that every debater should carefully avoid. Such trivialities the audience immediately forgets, and to bring them up again and refute them serves no worthy purpose whatever. Another serious fault common to refutation in student debates is lack of coherence. The student falls into this error when he rebuts a miscellaneous lot of points without having first ascertained the function of each and differentiated the main ideas from the subordinate ones. Instead of looking at the argument as a whole and attacking it with the concerted strength of all his forces, he fires scattering shots, and does but little damage. In refutation a debater must first see clearly the relation between each point that he rebuts and the proposition, otherwise his work is wasted. Secondly, he must make this relation perfectly plain to the audience. Instead of overthrowing isolated statements, a debater should take up his opponent's case as _a whole_ and weaken it as much as he can. He should attack each main point. Coherent refutation adds much to the effectiveness of a debate. AVAILABILITY OF MATERIAL FOR REFUTATION. In offering refutation, every inexperienced debater has difficulty in laying his hands on just the material that he desires to use. Possibly he remembers that he has seen somewhere an article that proves the insincerity of a man who has just been quoted as an authority; but if he can neither produce this article nor state its substance, he might as well not know about it. Perhaps he remembers having seen a table of statistics showing that his opponent has erred in regard to the death rate in the Spanish- American War; but unless he can produce the table, his knowledge is of no avail. There is scarcely any time for searching through books or unorganized notes; material to be of use must be instantly available. Some definite system of arranging rebuttal material is absolutely indispensable. One method that has been tried with great success consists of putting down on cards of a uniform size all the material that can possibly be of use in refutation. These cards the debater then groups, in alphabetical order, under headings that correspond to the main divisions of the subject under discussion, and if it seems advisable in any particular instance, he may group them under subdivisions of the proposition. To be more explicit, if a debater thinks that the opposition may question the financial success of a plan that he is advocating, he should write out on as many cards as are necessary, usually putting only one idea on each card, all the material that goes to show why the plan should succeed and where it has succeeded. Furthermore, if the plan has failed anywhere, he should put down, providing he is able, explanations that will account for the failure without condemning the system. These cards, then, would naturally be arranged under some such heading as "Finance" or "Success." If the debater wishes, he may also arrange his cards under subheadings. For instance, those cards that go to show why the plan ought to succeed could be put under the subheading, "Antecedent Probability"; those that show where the plan has succeeded, under "Sign," and those that account for failure of the plan in certain places, under the heading "Failures." Any one at all familiar with a library card catalogue will at once see the various possibilities for arranging these cards. Cards for rebuttal should be made out about as follows:-- Proposition:--_Resolved,_ That profit-sharing and co-operative methods generally afford the most promising solution of the labor problem. (Affirmative.) PRACTICABILITY The Union Polishing Metal Plating Company has been successfully operated under this method since 1902. (C. H. Quinn, Outlook, Vol. LXXIII, page 452.) PRACTICABILITY The great iron works of Evansville, Wis., are operated under this method. (G. L. McNutt, Ind., Vol. LV, page 619.) The advantages of such a system are obvious. This method gives not only one debater, but the whole team, almost instant command of all the material that has been collected. One can find what he wants, and find it hastily; he is not obliged to spend much valuable time in hunting after needed evidence and thus neglect large portions of the speech that is being delivered. A debater should begin on the classification of rebuttal material almost as soon as he begins to read on his subject. In this way he will save all the material that he gathers, and his catalogued information will be of assistance to him in drawing his brief and in constructing his main argument as well as in making refutation at the time of the debate. WHAT EACH DEBATER MUST DO. THE FIRST SPEAKER FOR THE AFFIRMATIVE. Upon the first speaker for the affirmative falls the duty of interpreting the proposition. Since the subject of analysis has already been fully discussed, but few directions need be given here. It may be well, however, to emphasize the qualities of clearness and fairness. A debate, unlike a written argument, cannot be studied and re-read time and again. For this reason, unless the proposition is explained in the very simplest language and by means of the very clearest definitions and illustrations, many people in the audience will not understand what the debate is about. Long words and high-sounding phrases have no place here. The debater must aim to reach not merely those who are familiar with the subject, but also those to whom the question is absolutely new. If, when the first speaker has finished, any attentive listener of average intelligence fails to understand both the subject of the debate and the attitude of the affirmative side, the speech has been a failure. Then, too, the analysis of the proposition must be fair and just to both sides. A debater has no right to strain or twist the meaning of the proposition so as to gain any advantage for himself. In the first place, this practice is dishonest, and an honorable debater does not wish to win by trickery or fraud. Secondly, such an act almost always brings defeat. The fact that a debate is being held, presupposes a subject about which reasonable men may differ. If a debater interprets the proposition so that only one reasonable side exists, manifestly he must be in error, and upon the exposure of this error he is sure to lose the decision. In debate, therefore, clearness and fairness should especially characterize the four steps that are taken in analyzing the proposition: to define terms, to explain the proposition as a whole, to discover the issues, and to make the partition. Upon the completion of the introduction, the first debater for the affirmative proceeds to the discussion, and later, should he be the only contestant on the affirmative side, to the conclusion. But if, as is usually the case, there be several debaters on each side, he takes up only one or two main points of the proof. In handling this proof he must be sure so to correlate his work with the work of his colleagues that, in the minds of the audience, it will all hang together as a united whole. To accomplish this object, he may, as he finishes with his partition, state what points he will discuss himself, and what points will be handled by the affirmative speakers that are to succeed him; and he must, without fail, when he nears the end of his allotted time, hastily summarize the proof that he has given, and outline the proof that is to follow. In this way he may keep the intervening speeches of his opponents from entirely destroying the continuity that should exist between his speech and the speeches of his colleagues. THE FIRST SPEAKER FOR THE NEGATIVE. It rests with the first speaker for the negative to determine whether the introduction as presented by the affirmative is satisfactory, whether the analysis of the proposition is clear, adequate, and fair. If the affirmative has erred in any respect, it is the duty of the first negative debater to supply the deficiency or make the correction; otherwise he errs equally with the affirmative. If the affirmative has failed to explain the proposition so that it is generally understood, the negative is sure to win favor with the audience by spending a few moments in elucidating the subject of controversy. If the affirmative debater has analyzed the question inadequately or unfairly, the negative debater should not begin to establish proof until he has set these preliminaries straight. In correcting an unfair analysis, it is never enough that one merely make objections or even give an introduction of his own; he must, in brief form--and often a single sentence is sufficient--show to the satisfaction of the audience that his opponent has not interpreted the proposition correctly. On the other hand, if the first speaker for the negative considers the introduction given by the affirmative perfectly fair and satisfactory, he can pass by it without comment, and begin his own argument either with refutation or with a statement of the points that the negative side will establish in attacking the proposition. It is thus apparent that a debater who opens a negative argument must depend for the beginning of his speech rather on a thorough understanding of the subject in all its details and fundamental principles than on a speech that he has to deliver word for word. To repeat an introduction that has already been given is absurd; to fail to correct an introduction that, as a whole, is obscure or is unfair, is to merit defeat. It may be added, by way of caution, that when a debater supplies any deficiencies in the speech of his predecessor, he should do this without any appearance of "smartness" or personal antagonism. Even if the affirmative debater has been manifestly unfair, the negative speaker will do well to correct this unfairness in a friendly, though in a forceful manner. As soon as the introduction is out of the way, the negative speaker proceeds to the discussion. Two courses are open to him: he may at once refute his predecessor's arguments, or he may proceed to take up his constructive proof, giving reason for postponing the refutation. As this matter has already been discussed, it is only necessary to say that the course he should choose depends largely upon the strength of the preceding argument. The same directions that have been given to the affirmative debater for connecting his work to his colleagues' apply equally to the negative. Summaries and outlines aid greatly in binding the arguments of a debating team into one compact mass. THE OTHER SPEAKERS. About the only practical suggestion which can be made to the other speakers is that they adapt their constructive work to that of their colleagues, and deploy their refutation so as to hammer the principal positions of their opponents. Each debater may or may not begin his speech with refutation, but he should always begin his main argument with a terse, clear summary of what has been said on his side, and in closing he should not only summarize his own arguments, but he should also give again, in very brief form, the gist of what has been proved by his colleagues. In addition, any speaker except the last one on each side, may, if he thinks best, give an outline of the argument to follow. In making these summaries, a debater must always avoid stating them in so bald and crude a form as to make them monotonous and offensive. He ought rather to use all the ingenuity at his command in an attempt to make this repetition exceedingly forceful. It often happens that an inexperienced debater never reaches his conclusion. While he is still in the midst of his proof, his allotment of time expires, and he is forced to sit down, leaving his speech hanging in the air. Such an experience is both awkward and disastrous; a skillful debater never allows it to happen. The peroration is the most important part of an argument, and on it the debater should lavish his greatest care. To omit it is almost the same as to have made no speech at all. As soon as the debater perceives that he has but a short time left, he should at once bring this main speech to a close, and even though he may have to omit important ideas, begin at once on his conclusion. As is pointed out in Chapter X, the conclusion consists both of a summary and an emotional appeal. What emotion shall be aroused and how it shall apply to the summarized headings can largely be determined beforehand. Some debaters go so far as to commit this conclusion to memory. This practice is not recommended except in special cases, and yet a debater should be so familiar with his peroration that he will have no difficulty in putting it into vigorous and pleasing language. REBUTTAL SPEECHES. A rebuttal speech usually furnishes an excellent test of a debater's mastery of his subject. It shows whether or not he comprehends the fundamental principles that underly the argument. If he does not understand fundamentals, he cannot distinguish between what is worth answering and what is trivial. If he is not perfectly familiar with the arguments on both sides of the question, his refutation will be scattering; that is, he will rebut only a few of his opponent's headings, those for which, in his scanty preparation, he has discovered some answer. On the other hand, if he really understands the subject, he will deal largely with main ideas; and if his knowledge of the subject is as extensive as it should be, he will almost invariably be able to offer some opposition to every main heading used by the opposition. When a debate is held between only two contestants, each one has to refute the whole argument of his opponent. In this case there are no complications; but when two teams are debating, the members of each must decide among themselves as to how the rebuttal shall be handled. One way is for each member to refute all he can, working independently of his colleagues. Much better results are secured, however, when a team works systematically. In the first place, a team should always resolve the opposing arguments into a hasty brief. The main points of the opposition can then be assigned for rebuttal to the various members of the team, and each debater can give thorough treatment to his assignment. In this way every point is sure to be covered, and there will be little, if any, duplication of work. Such a course presupposes very careful preparation on the part of the debaters. It means that each member of the team must have sufficient knowledge and material at his command to oppose with credit any argument that may be advanced. In general, the assignment of headings for rebuttal may be such that each debater will refute those points of which he took an opposite view in his main speech, but as it is usually desirable to rebut arguments in the same order in which they were originally given, no member of the team can afford to shirk mastering each detail that in any way has a vital bearing upon the proposition. THE LAST REBUTTAL SPEAKER. The work of the last speaker on each side differs somewhat from the work of his colleagues. All the speakers try to overthrow the opposing arguments, and by means of summaries keep their case as a whole before the audience. The last speaker devotes far less time to pure refutation, gives a more detailed summary, and, in addition, compares and contrasts the arguments of his side with the arguments of the opposition. This last process is called "amplifying and diminishing." It is not always necessary to prove a main heading false in order to destroy its effectiveness. A debater may of necessity have to admit that the opposition has successfully established the points it set out to prove. In such a case, he cannot do better than to acknowledge the correctness of his opponent's proof, and then remembering that an audience awards a decision by a comparison of the relative weight of the proof of each side, amplify the importance of his own arguments, point by point, and diminish the importance of the arguments advanced by the other side. For instance, in a debate on the question as to whether immigration should be restricted, the affirmative might maintain that unrestricted immigration brings serious political evils, and the negative might show that the policy of nonrestriction greatly increases the wealth of the country. If neither of these contentions be successfully refuted, the favor of the audience will incline towards the affirmative or the negative, as far as those two points are concerned, according as they think that political purity or economic prosperity is the more important. Plainly, it would be for the interest of the affirmative to convince the audience that the preservation of political integrity is of greater moment than any mere material gain. In many respects the last rebuttal speeches on each side are the most conspicuous and decisive parts of a debate. If the last speech is hesitating and weak, it is liable to ruin all preceding efforts, even though they were of the highest order; if it is enthusiastic and strong, it will often cover up preceding defects, and turn defeat into victory. Because of its importance this portion of the work usually falls to the best debater on the team, and if he is wise he will give it his greatest thought and care. In this speech he should strive in every possible way to attain perfection. His delivery should be emphatic and pleasing; his ideas should be logically arranged; and his knowledge of what he has to say should be so complete that there will be no hesitation, no groping for words. Furthermore, he should introduce an element of persuasion; to reach both the minds and the hearts of his hearers is essential for the greatest success. All this has to be done in a short time, yet to be of a high rank even the shortest closing speeches must contain these characteristics. SPECIAL FEATURES OF DEBATE. An argument, like other kinds of composition, should possess the qualities of style known as Clearness, Force, and Elegance, and should in all respects observe the principles of Unity, Selection, Coherence, Proportion, Emphasis, and Variety. Since the student from his study of Rhetoric is already familiar with these matters, it would be superfluous to dwell upon them in this book. A good written argument, however, does not always make a good debate; limited time for speaking, lack of opportunity for the audience to grasp ideas and to reflect upon them, the presence of strong opposing arguments that must be met and overthrown with still stronger arguments,--these conditions render the heightening of certain characteristics indispensable in a debate. Above all else the successful debater is forceful. He uses every possible device for driving home his arguments. He bends every effort toward making his ideas so plain and so emphatic that the audience will understand them and _remember_ them. Realizing that the audience cannot, like the reader of a written article, peruse the argument a second time, he uses words and expressions that cause his thoughts to stick fast wherever they fall. STATISTICS. Statistics improperly used are dry and uninteresting; they often spoil an otherwise forceful and persuasive debate. The trouble often lies, strange to say, in the accuracy with which the figures are given. A brain that is already doing its utmost to accept almost instantaneously a multitude of facts and comprehend their significance, or a brain that is somewhat sluggish and lazy, refuses to be burdened with uninteresting and unimportant details. For this reason, when a debater speaks of 10,564,792 people, the brain becomes wearied with the numbers and in disgust is apt to turn away from the whole matter. On the other hand, the round sum 10,000,000 not only does not burden the brain, but also, under ordinary conditions, gives in a rather forceful manner the information it was intended to convey. "About five hundred" presents a much more vivid picture than "four hundred and eighty-six" or "five hundred and eighteen"; "fifteen per cent." is stronger than "fifteen and one-tenth per cent."; the expression "eighty years" seems to indicate a longer period of time than "eighty-two years, seven months, and twenty-nine days." If one is to quote statistics, he should always, unless the circumstances be very unusual, use round numbers. Figures themselves, however, are often less emphatic than other methods of expression. The ordinary mind can not grasp the significance of large numbers. That the state of Texas contains over a quarter of a million of square miles means little to the average person; he neither remembers the exact area of other states nor can he realize what an immense territory these figures stand for. The following quotation gives the area of Texas in much more vivid and forceful language:-- If you take Texas by the upper corner and swing it on that as a pivot, you will lop off the lower end of California, cut through Idaho, overlap South Dakota, touch Michigan, bisect Ohio, reach West Virginia, cut through North Carolina and South Carolina, lop off all the western side of Florida, and blanket the greater part of the Gulf of Mexico. To say that the American farmer produced in 1907 a crop worth, at the farm, seven and one-half billions of dollars, conveys little idea of the magnitude of the harvest. A current magazine has couched the same estimate in less exact but in far more emphatic language:-- Suppose that all of last year's corn had been shipped to Europe; it would have required over four thousand express steamers of 18,000 tons register to deliver it. Suppose that the year's wheat had all been sent to save the Far East from a great famine: the largest fleet in the world, with its four hundred vessels of all sizes, would have required fifteen round trips to move it. Take tobacco,--such a minor crop that most people never think of it in connection with farming:-- if last year's tobacco crop had been made into cigars, the supply would have lasted 153,000 men for fifty years, each man smoking ten cigars a day. The officials of the forestry service, in speaking of the great devastation caused by forest fires, make the startling assertion that a new navy of first-class battle-ships could be built for the sum lost during a few weeks in the fires that raged from the pines of Maine to the redwoods of California. Figures used in this way are most effective, and yet probably nothing in argumentation is more tedious than too many of these descriptions of statistics coming close together. If numbers absolutely have to be indicated a great many times, even figures are likely to be less tiresome. CONCRETENESS. General statements and abstract principles invariably weary an audience. Theories and generalities are usually too intangible to make much impression. Specific instances and concrete cases, however, are usually interesting. A vivid picture of real persons, things, and events is necessary to arouse the attention of an audience and cause them both to understand the argument and to give it their consideration. The slogan of a recent political campaign was not, "Improved economic conditions for the laboring man"; it was, "The full dinner pail." The political orator who is urging the necessity for a larger navy on the ground that war is imminent does not speak of possible antagonists in such general terms as _foreign powers_; he specifies Germany, Japan, and the other nations that he fears. The preacher who would really awaken the conscience of his church does not confine himself to such terms as _original sin_ and _weaknesses of the flesh_; he talks of _lying_, _stealing_, and _swearing_. Compare the effectiveness of the following examples:-- People of the same race are more loyal to each other than to foreigners. Blood is thicker than water. Western farmers are demanding political recognition. "No, I am not going to vote a straight ticket this year. If I do, my candidate must be in favor of some things I want." That was the dictum of Franklin Taylor, Farmer, on Rural Route No. 12, ten miles from a western town. He is a type of thousands of other farmers in the West. Business streets that were once commodious and impressive are now smoky and filthy. Business streets that ten years after the great fire promised to be almost grant in the width and perspective are now mere smoky tunnels under the filth-dripping gridirons of the elevated railways. The West is becoming more densely populated. The center of population, now in Indiana, is traveling straight toward the middle point of Illinois. The center of manufacturing has reached only eastern Ohio, but is marching in a bee-line for Chicago. In the following quotation Mr. Crisp, laying aside for the moment abstractions and generalities, and bringing his case down to a specific instance, gives a concrete illustration of how the protective tariff affects a single individual: Will you tell how this protective tariff benefits our agricultural producers? I can show you--I think I can demonstrate clearly--how the tariff hurts them; and I defy any of you to show wherein they are benefited by a protective tariff. Suppose a farmer in Minnesota has 5,000 bushels of wheat and a farmer in Georgia has 100 bales of cotton. That wheat at eighty cents a bushel is worth $4,000, and that cotton at eight cents a pound is worth $4,000. Let those producers ship their staples abroad. The Minnesota wheat-grower ships his wheat to Liverpool; whether he ships it there or not, that is where the price of his wheat is fixed. The Georgia cotton-raiser ships his cotton to Liverpool; whether he ships it there or not, that is where the price of his cotton is fixed. The wheat and the cotton are sold in that free trade market. The wheat is sold for $4,000; the cotton brings the same amount. The Minnesota farmer invests the $4,000 he has received for his wheat in clothing, crockery, iron, steel, dress goods, clothing,--whatever he may need for his family in Minnesota. The Georgia cotton-raiser invests the proceeds of his cotton in like kind of goods. Each of those men ships his goods to this country and they reach the port of New York. When either undertakes to unload them he is met by the collector of customs, who says, "Let me see your invoice." The invoice is exhibited, and it shows $4,000 worth of goods. Those goods represent in the one case 5,000 bushels of wheat, in the other case 100 bales of cotton. The collector at the port says to either of these gentlemen--the man who raises the wheat in Minnesota or him who raises the cotton in Georgia, "You cannot bring into this market those goods for which you have exchanged your products unless you pay to the United States a tariff by the McKinley law--a tax of $2,000." FIGURES OF SPEECH. The use of figurative language is also an aid to clearness and to force. Simile, metaphor, personification, antithesis, balance, climax, rhetorical question, and repetition are all effective aids in the presentation of argument. The speeches of great orators are replete with expressions of this sort. Burke, in his _Speech on Conciliation_, says, "Despotism itself is obliged to truck and huckster"; "The public," he said, "would not have patience to see us play the game out with our adversaries; we must produce our hand"; "Men may lose little in property by the act which takes away all their freedom. When a man is robbed of a trifle on the highway, it is not the twopence lost that constitutes the capital outrage." In speaking of certain provisions of the Constitution, Webster says that they are the "keystone of the arch." The following paragraph is taken from his _Reply to Hayne_:-- And, sir, where American liberty raised its first voice, and where its youth was nurtured and sustained, there it still lives in the strength of its manhood and full of its original spirit. If discord and disunion shall wound it; if party strife and blind ambition shall hawk at and tear it; if folly and madness, if uneasiness under salutary and necessary restraint, shall succeed to separate it from that Union by which alone its existence is made sure; it will stand, in the end, by the side of that cradle in which its infancy was rocked; it will stretch forth its arm with whatever of vigor it may still retain, over the friends who gather round it; and it will fall at last, if fall it must, amidst the proudest monuments of its own glory, and on the very spot of its origin. _The Outlook_, in a recent issue, first states a vital question in literal and then, to drive home the meaning of the problem, in figurative language:-- Is the Constitution of the United States a series of inflexible rules which can be changed only by the methods which those rules themselves prescribe, or is it the expression of certain political principles by which a living and growing Nation has resolved to guide itself in its life and growth? Is it an anchor which fastens the ship of state in one place, or a rudder to guide it on its voyage? Sometimes figures of speech are used to such excess or in such incongruous combinations that they detract from the effectiveness of the debate in which they occur rather than add to it. The distance from a forceful figure to an absurd figure is so short that a debater has to be on his guard against using expressions that will impress his audience as ridiculous or even funny. A mixture of highly figurative language with literal language and commonplace ideas, and a mixture of several figures are especially to be guarded against. As an example of the extent to which figures may be mixed the following will serve:-- "I'm up a tree," admitted the bolting Senator, "but my back is to the wall and I'll die in the last ditch, going down with flags flying, and from the mountain top of Democracy, hurling defiance at the foe, soar on the wings of triumph, regardless of the party lash that barks at my heels." DELIVERY. To be a successful debater one must understand how to talk and how to act in the presence of an audience. Uncouthness in appearance and awkwardness in speech have often brought defeat. Moreover, it is not enough that a debater refrain from offending his audience; his bearing and his voice should be of positive assistance to him both in pleasing them and in interpreting to them the ideas that he wishes to convey. First of all, a good delivery is one that assists in making the argument clear. Its next most important function is to make the argument forceful. A speaker should never rest content with being able to present his argument merely with clearness; he should strive to be interesting and impressive also. These qualities depend in no small measure upon the way a speech is delivered. The best story or the best argument will fall flat unless it is full of the fire of enthusiasm, unless the personality of the speaker vivifies it and makes it a living reality. Unfortunately, this intangible quality in a speaker, often called "personality" or "magnetism," cannot, to any great extent, be taught. In the main, one must seek this and develop it for himself. A text-book can point out what constitutes good form, what is pleasing and impressive to the eye and to the ear, and, in a word, what make up the externals of a good delivery; but beyond these mechanical directions it cannot go. A student should observe the following fundamental directions as his first step toward becoming a successful speaker. Afterwards, he should cultivate earnestness, enthusiasm, perception, a sense of humor, and all other such qualities as go to make up a really great speaker. POSITION. The best position for a debater to take on the stage is in the centre well toward the front. He should take the centre because in that position he can best see the entire audience, and the entire audience can best see him. He should stand near the front edge of the platform for several reasons: first, he can make himself more easily understood; his voice need not be so loud in order to be heard distinctly in every part of the hall. This is no small advantage for one who is not gifted with unusual powers of speech. In the next place, if a debater stands close to his audience, he can adopt a more conversational style of delivery. He can establish a direct personal connection between himself and his hearers and talk to them as man to man. If the hall is not too large, he need scarcely raise his voice from its accustomed tone; he can look his audience in the eye, receiving the stimulus of whatever interest they express; and at the same time he can let them see in his features the earnestness and sincerity that he feels. To stand near the back of the stage is undoubtedly easier for one who is diffident or inexperienced; perhaps he will then be able partially to forget where he is and to imagine that he is alone; but such an attitude both severs all personal connection between speaker and hearer, and shows that the debater does not trust himself, that he has no great belief in his subject, and that he fears his audience. An impression of this sort is a great handicap even to the strongest case. If one would inspire confidence, he must appear confident; if one would make friends, he must be friendly, avoiding even a suggestion of aloofness. To accomplish these purposes as far as is possible by _action,_ a debater should come close to his audience, having every appearance of being glad that he is to speak and confident in the strength of the side that he is to uphold. The next thing for a speaker to learn is how to stand. He should not take a natural posture, as some writers say, unless that posture is one of strength and, to some degree, of grace. A student without training will usually stand with his head protruding forward, his shoulders drooping, his body twisted, and his feet far apart, with all his weight on one leg. Such an attitude is enough to condemn one even before he begins to speak. A slipshod appearance suggests slipshod thinking and reasoning. A speaker should always stand erect, with his head back, chin in, shoulders rolled back and down; either the feet should be near together with the weight of the body on both, or one foot should be slightly in advance of the other with the weight of the body entirely on the rear foot. In the latter case, the leg on which the body rests must form a straight line with the body, there being no unsightly bulging at the hip; and the leg on which the body does not rest must be slightly bent at the knee. This posture is not difficult to attain if one will practise it frequently, endeavoring in his everyday life to walk and stand in a soldierly manner. On the other hand, erectness should not be carried to such an extreme as to become stiffness. A debater's object is to be forceful and pleasing. In striving for this end, he should always remember that he can very easily err in either of two directions. A debater should allow his hands, for the most part, to hang naturally at his sides. There may be a great temptation for him to put them in his pockets, but he should resist this for two reasons: such a procedure is not considered good form, and his hands are less available for instant use in the making of gestures. If one is delivering a lengthy argument, there is no particular harm in putting one hand behind the back for a short time, or even in front of the body along the waist line, provided this can be done in an easy, natural manner; but in the case of a short speech, one will do well to keep his hands at his sides. They must hang naturally in order not to attract attention, being neither closed tightly nor held rigidly open. If one will follow these directions, his hands and arms may feel awkward, but they will not appear so. Another important principle in the matter of position requires that a debater shall keep his eyes fixed on his audience. He must not look at the floor, at the ceiling, or at the walls. He must look at the people he would convince. Only in this way can he hope to hold their attention. Only in this way can he win their confidence and reach their feelings. To look into space means to debate into space. In the next place, a speaker must beware of falling into ludicrous and disgusting habits of deportment. Nervousness will often cause one in the presence of an audience to keep making an unsightly gesture, a peculiar twitch or step that will absolutely ruin his whole speech. Some speakers have been known to change their weight from one foot to the other as often as twenty or thirty times a minute. Other speakers have adopted a peculiar jerk of the head or a constant shrugging of the shoulders that is most disagreeable to see. Still others keep constantly opening and shutting their hands. For years one speaker of some small prominence spent the greater part of his time while on the platform in tugging at his coat, apparently in an effort to make it fit better around the collar. All such actions as these are to be carefully guarded against. A debater, however, is not expected to stand perfectly still: he should use considerable interpretative and emphatic action. To begin with, he ought not to stand all the time in exactly the same spot. Monotony of position is to be avoided as well as monotony of action or of voice. He will rest himself and his audience if he will occasionally move about, taking two or three steps at a time. In doing this he must never go backward; he must never retreat. If, for any reason, he began his speech while standing near the rear or the centre of the stage, he should move forward; if he cannot go forward, he may move back and forth near the edge of the platform. The best time for one to change his position is at the conclusion of a paragraph. A paragraph division, it will be remembered, indicates a change in thought. If a debater, therefore, makes a longer pause than usual at this point, and in addition alters his position slightly, he helps interpret his argument. He does for the hearer exactly what indentation does for the reader. GESTURES. So much has been said and written about gestures that a student is often puzzled to know whose advice to follow and what to do. Some writers say that no gestures at all are desirable; others deem them necessary, but declare that they should never be made unless they are spontaneous and natural. In the light of such conflicting advice, what will determine the proper course for a student to follow? The answer to this question lies in a consideration of the ultimate object of a course in debating. If it is to give students some facility in expressing their thoughts before an audience, if it is to train students for practical work in business and professional life, then those men who are recognized as the polished and powerful speakers of the day should be taken as models. Most of these, it will be found, use gestures. There is but one reasonable course, then, for the student to follow: he should make gestures. They may be crude and awkward at first, but only by practice can he ever hope to improve them. The best method of procedure, undoubtedly, is for the beginner to become familiar with two or three of the most common gestures, learning how to make them and just what they signify. He should then use them. They may seem mechanical and ungainly at first, but constant practice both in private and before a class will soon enable him to make them with considerable emphasis and ease. From this point on, the road is clear. The knowledge that he can use his hands to good advantage, even in a limited way, will soon cause him to make gestures spontaneously. Nor will he be limited to the few with which he started. In the midst of an explanation and in the heat of an impassioned plea, he will find himself using gestures that he had not thought of before. The awkward and premeditated gesture with which he began will have become forceful and spontaneous. The gestures that a student should first learn to use must be illustrated to him by his instructor. To see a gesture made several times gives one a better idea of how to make it and of what it means than could a dozen pages in a text-book. The choice of gestures, too, may rest with the instructor. It makes no particular difference with what ones a debater begins, provided that they are simple in execution and are such as he will wish to use in practically every debate into which he enters. Ordinarily, the best ones for a beginner to practice on are those indicating emphasis. If he wishes for a wider field, he might also try to use gestures indicating magnitude and contrast. When he has finished with these, he should hesitate before deliberately introducing many others. A debate is not a dramatic production, and it should in no wise savor of melodrama. VOICE. Correct position and forceful gestures are very important, but upon no one thing does the success of a debater, aside from his argument, depend so much as upon his voice. One may move his audience in spite of an awkward posture and in the absence of all intelligent gestures, but unless his voice meets certain requirements, his case is almost hopeless. Above all else a speaker's voice must be distinct. Distinctness depends upon several things. First, the voice must be loud enough to be heard without difficulty in every part of the room. To produce this result, one should speak especially to those in the rear, carefully watching to see whether he holds their attention; at the same time he must be careful not to shout in a manner unpleasant to those sitting nearer him. The stress laid by public speakers upon the matter of loudness is well illustrated by a story told of one of the foremost orators of the day. It is said that he invariably stations some one in the back of the audience to signal to him when his voice is either too low or unnecessarily loud. In the next place, distinctness depends upon enunciation. The debater who drops off final syllables, slurs consonants, runs words together, or talks without using his lips and without opening his mouth is hard to understand. It often requires considerable conscious effort to pronounce each syllable in a word distinctly, but the resulting clearness is worth a strenuous attempt. One great cause of poor enunciation is too rapid talking. A fairly slow delivery is preferable not only because the words can be more easily understood, but also because it gives a debater the appearance of being more careful and accurate in his reasoning. Great rapidity in speech may be due to nervousness or inexperience; whatever its cause, it is usually fatal to distinctness. A pleasing tone of voice is not of so great moment as distinctness of utterance, yet its cultivation is by no means to be neglected. Harsh, rasping sounds and nasal twangs are disagreeable to hear, and no speaker can afford to offend his audience in this way. An unpleasant voice may be the result of some physical defect; more often it is caused by sheer carelessness. In most cases a little practice will produce a wonderful change. A very common breach of elegance in speaking is the habit of drawling out an _er_ sound between words. The constant repetition of this is exceedingly annoying. It is usually caused by an attempt to fill in a gap while the speaker is groping about for the next word. The best way to correct this blunder is to be so familiar with what one is going to say that there will be no gap to fill in; but in case one does have to hunt for words, it is a thousand times preferable to leave the gap unfilled. Each word should stand out by itself, even though there is a pause of many seconds. To offend the ears of an audience with a crude tone of voice or with meaningless sounds is a bad violation of propriety. The first step to be taken in the cultivation of a distinct and pleasing voice is to acquire the habit of standing correctly. Under the subject of position it was stated that the body should be kept erect, the head thrown back, and the shoulders rolled back and down. This posture is the best not only because it is the most graceful but because it gives the speaker the greatest command of his vocal organs. Stooping shoulders and a bowed trunk contract the lungs and diminish the supply of breath, and a bent neck renders the cords of the neck less controllable. After taking the proper position, one should next endeavor to breathe as deeply as he can. The louder he has to speak, the deeper should be his breathing. Remembering that he does not wish to talk fast, he will do well to fill his lungs at the close of each sentence, always inhaling, in order not to make an unpleasant gasping noise, through the nose. While speaking, he should control his supply of breath not by contracting the chest but by elevating the diaphragm. This procedure will give his voice a richness and a resonance that it otherwise could not have. Breathing merely from the top of the lungs means squeakiness of tone and poor control. One who breathes incorrectly will find it necessary to shout to make himself heard at a distance; one who breathes correctly can usually be heard under the same conditions by merely talking. The superiority of the round, deep tone over the shout is too obvious to need comment. In the next place, a speaker must think about this voice. Thought and study are as essential in the training of a voice as in the mastery of any art. A natural voice is not usually pleasing; it becomes so only through cultivation. Much of this training can be done by the speaker unaided. Few people are so insensible to qualities of sound that they cannot detect harshness and impurities even in their own utterance, provided that they will give the matter their attention. It is not enough, however, for one to watch his voice only while he is debating or while he is repeating his arguments in preparation for a debate; he must carry constant watchfulness even into his daily conversation. The services of a good instructor are invaluable, but at best they can be only auxiliary. All improvement must come through the efforts of the speaker himself. ATTITUDE TOWARD OPPONENTS. If one will bear in mind that the fundamental purpose of argument--whether written or spoken--is to present truth in such a way as to influence belief, he will at once understand that a debater should always maintain toward his opponents the attitude of one who is trying to change another's belief, the attitude of friendship, fairness, and respect. Such a point of view precludes the use of satire, invective, or harsh epithets. These never carry conviction; in fact, they invariably destroy the effect that an otherwise good argument might produce. Ridicule and bluster may please those who already agree with the speaker, but with these people he should be little concerned; a debater worthy of the name seeks to change the opinions of those who disagree with him. For this reason he is diplomatic, courteous, and urbane. A debater should, moreover, keep to this same attitude even though his opponent introduce objectionable personalities. One will find it for his own best interest to do so. Good humor makes a far better impression than anger; it suggests strength and superiority, while anger, as everyone knows, is often the result of chagrin, and is used to cover up weaknesses. Besides, an audience always sympathizes with the man who is first attacked. All this does not mean that a debater should calmly submit to unfairness and vilification. On the contrary, he should defend himself spiritedly; but he should not meet abuse with abuse. To do so would be to throw away an invaluable opportunity. He should remain dignified, self-controlled, and good-humored; then by treating his opponent as one who has inadvertently fallen into error, and by pointing out the mistakes, the unfairness, and the way in which the real question has been ignored, he can gain an inestimable advantage. The following quotations show what attitude a debater should maintain toward his opponents:-- As I do not precisely agree in opinion with any gentleman who has spoken, I shall take the liberty of detaining the committee for a few moments while I offer to their attention some observations. I am highly gratified with the temper and ability with which the discussion has hitherto been conducted. It is honorable to the House, and, I trust, will continue to be manifested on many future occasions. (Henry Clay.) Mr. President, I had occasion a few days ago to expose the utter groundlessness of the personal charges made by the Senator from Illinois against myself and the other signers of the Independent Democratic Appeal. I now move to strike from this bill a statement which I will to-day demonstrate to be without any foundation in fact or history. I intend afterwards to move to strike out the whole clause annulling the Missouri prohibition. I enter into this debate, Mr. President, in no spirit of personal unkindness. The issue is too grave and too momentous for the indulgence of such feelings. I see the great question before me, and that question only. (Salmon P. Chase.) Compare the attitude of Mr. Naylor in the following quotation with the attitude of Mr. Lincoln in his debates with Senator Douglas. It is needless to point out which must have had the better effect upon the audience. The gentleman has misconceived the spirit and tendency of Northern institutions. He is ignorant of Northern character. He has forgotten the history of his country. Preach insurrection to the Northern laborers! Preach insurrection to _me_! Who are the Northern laborers? The history of your country is their history. (Charles Naylor.) My Fellow-Citizens: When a man hears himself somewhat misrepresented, it provokes him--at least, I find it so with myself; but when misrepresentation becomes very gross and palpable, it is more apt to amuse him. The first thing I see fit to notice is the fact that Judge Douglas alleges, after running through the history of the old Democratic and the old Whig parties, that Judge Trumbull and myself made an arrangement in 1854 by which I was to have the place of General Shields in the United States Senate, and Judge Trumbull was to have the place of Judge Douglas. Now all I have to say upon that subject is that I think no man--not even Judge Douglas--can prove it, because it is not true. I have no doubt he is "conscientious" in saying it. As to those resolutions that he took such a length of time to read, as being the platform of the Republican party in 1854, I say I never had anything to do with them, and I think Trumbull never had. (Abraham Lincoln in the Ottawa Joint Debate.) Judge Douglas has told me that he heard my speeches north and my speeches south--that he heard me at Ottawa and at Freeport in the north, and recently at Jonesboro in the south, and that there was a very different cast of sentiment in the speeches made at the different points. I will not charge upon Judge Douglas that he willfully misrepresents me, but I call upon every fair-minded man to take those speeches and read them, and I dare him to point out any difference between my speeches north and south. (Lincoln in the Charleston Joint Debate.) HOW TO JUDGE A DEBATE. Three judges usually award the decision in a debating contest. Their sole duty is to determine which side had the better of the argument. Sometimes the method that they shall follow in arriving at a decision is marked out for them; they are given printed slips indicating the relative importance of evidence, reasoning, delivery, and the other points that must be considered. Most commonly, however, each judge is instructed to decide for himself what constitutes excellence in debate. According to the rules governing any particular debate, the judges may cast their ballots with or without previous consultation with each other. The following outline gives in condensed form the main points that a judge should consider. It will be of service not only to the judges of a debate but to the contestants, as it gives a comprehensive view of just what is expected of a debater. I. Which side has the better analysis? II. Which side has the stronger proof? A. Consider the preponderance of the evidence. B. Consider the quality of the evidence. C. Consider the skill used in reasoning. III. Which side offers the better refutation? A. See which side has the more main points left standing after the refutation has been given. IV. Which side has the better delivery? A. Consider general bearing, voice, and language. CHAPTER X THE CONCLUSION Most arguments have a more or less formal ending. Both writers and speakers, when seeking to influence the beliefs and acts of others, have usually deemed it advisable, upon completing their proof, to add a few summarizing words and to make a final appeal to the emotions. This part of the argument that comes at the close and that contains no new proof is called the _conclusion_, or the _peroration_. In spoken argument, occasionally, the conclusion is wholly ignored. If at any time, regardless of the point he may have reached, an arguer clearly perceives that he has won his case, he is wise to stop immediately and avoid the danger of adding anything that might possibly detract from his success. Such an experience may frequently happen to a salesman, a preacher, a lawyer. Arguments, however, that are written or that are delivered before large audiences cannot be curtailed in this way. Under such conditions the arguer is unable to tell when he has won his case: he must use all his proof and make it emphatic in every way possible. Therefore the student who is arguing for the sake of practice will do well to disregard exceptions and to close all his arguments, both written and spoken, with a peroration. The same two elements--conviction and persuasion--that make up the introduction and the discussion are ordinarily found also in the conclusion. The general principles that govern the proportionate amount of each to be used in the first two divisions of an argument apply equally to the third division. In every case the relative amount of space to be devoted to conviction and to persuasion depends upon the nature of the subject and the attitude of the audience. In some instances a conclusion should consist wholly of conviction; in other instances persuasion should predominate; most commonly there should be a judicious combination of both. In concluding an argument before the United States Supreme Court on the question of whether or not a certain law passed in New York was repugnant to the Constitution or consistent with it, Webster spoke as follows:-- To recapitulate what has been said, we maintain, first, that the Constitution, by its grants to Congress and its prohibitions on the States, has sought to establish one uniform standard of value, or medium of payment. Second, that, by like means, it has endeavored to provide for one uniform mode of discharging debts when they are to be discharged without payment. Third, that these objects are connected, and that the first loses much of its importance, if the last, also, be not accomplished. Fourth, that, reading the grant to Congress, and the prohibition on the States together, the inference is strong that the Constitution intended to confer exclusive power to pass bankrupt laws on Congress. Fifth, that the prohibition in the tenth section reaches to all contracts, existing or future, in the same way that the other prohibition in the same section extends to all debts existing or future. Sixth, that, upon any other construction, one great political object of the Constitution will fail of its accomplishment. [Footnote: The Case of Ogden and Saunders. Webster's Great Speeches, page 188. Little, Brown & Co.] In this conclusion, it will be noticed, there is no persuasion. Apparently the subject was of such a nature that only clear and logical reasoning was required. An appeal to the emotions would undoubtedly have been out of place. In direct contrast to the preceding method of summarizing a speech a good example of a persuasive conclusion may be found in _The Dartmouth College Case_, which Webster argued before this same tribunal, and which also involved the constitutionality of a State law. In this peroration Webster's emotional appeal was so strong that, it is said, there was not a dry eye in the court room. In writing as well as in speaking one must allow common sense to decide what shall be the nature of his peroration. The following is a typical example of a conclusion into which persuasion cannot well enter. It is taken from the close of a chapter, selected at random, in Darwin's _Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs_. It has, I think, been shown in this chapter, that subsidence explains both the normal structure and the less regular forms of those two great classes of reefs which have justly excited the astonishment of all the naturalists who have sailed through the Pacific and Indian oceans. The necessity, also, that a foundation should have existed at the proper depth for the growth of the corals over certain large areas, almost compels us to accept this theory. But further to test its truth a crowd of questions may be asked.... These several questions will be considered in the following chapter. A type of conclusion far more common and usually far more effective is one that not only refers to the preceding arguments but also contains considerable persuasion. The peroration marks the final opportunity for the arguer to move his audience. Here he should make his greatest effort. Since belief and action ordinarily depend upon both the intellect and the will, the arguer who would attain success must appeal to both. Merely to call to mind the proof that he has advanced is seldom enough: he must arouse the emotions. The peroration of an argument is like the finish of a race or the last charge in a battle. In the conclusion the arguer should use his greatest skill, his strongest eloquence. Here are found the most inspiring passages in the masterpieces of oratory. Some of the various ways for reaching the emotions have been pointed out in the chapter dealing with persuasion in the introduction. These same suggestions apply equally well to persuasion in the conclusion. The best advice that can be given, however, is for one to use his common sense. He must consider his subject, his audience, his ability, and his own interest in the case--all the circumstances in connection with his argument--and then depend, not upon some set formula, but upon his judgment to tell him in what way he can best be persuasive. The following illustrations will give some idea of how successful writers and speakers have concluded their arguments with persuasion. Notice the patriotic appeal in the first quotation:-- Whether we have or have not degenerated compared with (say) fifty or a hundred years ago may be a question difficult to settle, but it is quite clear that we are pitifully, disastrously below the normal standard of manhood and womanhood which a great nation should set itself. Adequate nourishment for our children, immunity from exhausting and mechanical employments at the most critical period of adolescence, an extension of educational influences--can there be any objects of expenditures more likely than these to repay themselves a thousandfold in the improved vigor and intelligence which form the only sure basis of a nation's greatness? [Footnote: Frances E. Warwick, Fortnightly Review, Vol. LXXIX, p. 515.] In the following the speaker points out the awful responsibility resting upon the jury and exhorts them to render justice:-- Let me, therefore, remind you, that though the day may soon come when our ashes shall be scattered before the winds of heaven, the memory of what you do cannot die. It will carry down to your posterity your honor or your shame. In the presence, and in the name of that everliving God, I do therefore conjure you to reflect that you have your characters, your consciences, that you have also the character, perhaps the ultimate destiny, of your country in your hands. In that awful name I do conjure you to have mercy upon your country and upon yourselves, and so to judge now as you will hereafter be judged; and I do now submit the fate of my client, and of that country which we have yet in common to your disposal. [Footnote: John Philpot Curran, On the Liberty of the Press.] In the following extract from the conclusion of Webster's plea in _The Dartmouth College Case_ consider how he showed the magnitude of the question that was at issue:-- The case before the court is not of ordinary importance, nor of everyday occurrence. It affects not this college only, but every college, and all the literary institutions of the country. They have flourished hitherto, and have become in a high degree respectable and useful to the community. They have all a common principle of existence, the inviolability of their charters. It will be a dangerous, a most dangerous experiment, to hold these institutions subject to the rise and fall of popular parties, and the fluctuation of political opinions. If the franchise may at any time be taken away, or impaired, the property also may be taken away, or impaired, or its use perverted. Benefactors will have no certainty of effecting the object of their bounty; and learned men will be deterred from devoting themselves to the service of such institutions, from the precarious title of their offices. Colleges and halls will be deserted by all better spirits, and become a theatre for the contentions of politics. Party and faction will be cherished in the places consecrated to piety and learning. These consequences are neither remote nor possible only. They are certain and immediate. [Footnote: Webster's Great Speeches, p. 23.] As a rule, most of the criticisms that can be made of any conclusion pertain to matters of taste and judgment. A writer or speaker may have made too detailed or too brief a summary; he may have erred in choosing the best method of persuasion; he may have injured his argument in almost countless other ways. In these matters a text-book can give only general and rather vague instruction. Each argument must be suited to the particular case in hand. There are several common errors in students' work, however, that should always be avoided and that can definitely be pointed out. 1. _An argument should not have an abrupt and jerky ending_. It is not uncommon especially in class room debate, to hear a student at the close of his discussion say, "This is my proof; I leave the decision to the judges"; or "Thus you see I have established my proposition." Such an ending can in no way be called a conclusion or a peroration. 2. _A conclusion should contain no new proof_. Violations of this principle brand an arguer as careless, and greatly weaken his argument. Proof is most convincing when arranged in its proper place and in its logical order. Furthermore, the purpose of the conclusion is to review the points that have already been established. If the arguer forgets this fact and mixes proof with summary, the audience is liable to become badly confused and not know what has been established and what has not. 3. _A conclusion should not refer to a point that has not already been established_. A careless writer or debater will sometimes state that he has proved an argument which he has not previously touched upon. Such a procedure smacks of trickery or ignorance, and is sure to be disastrous. Not only will the audience throw out that particular point, but they will be highly prejudiced against both the arguer and his argument. It is permissible for one to maintain that he has proved a point even though the proof be somewhat inadequate, but for one to refer in his conclusion to a point that he then mentions for the first time is unpardonable. 4. _A conclusion must reaffirm the proposition exactly as stated at the beginning_. Sometimes a writer, discovering at the close of his argument that he has not stuck to his subject but has proved something different, or at best has proved only a part of his subject, states as his decision a totally different proposition from that with which he started. To illustrate, a student once attempted to argue on the affirmative side of the proposition, "The United States should discontinue its protective tariff policy"; but he gave as his concluding sentence, "These facts, then, prove to you that our present tariff duties are too high." This last sentence embodied the real proposition which he had discussed, and if he had taken as his subject, "Our present tariff duties are too high," his argument would have been successful. As it was, his failure to support the proposition with which he started rendered his whole effort worthless. A conclusion that is weaker than the proposition is commonly called a "qualifying conclusion." When one has fallen into this error there are two possible ways of removing it: one is to change the whole argument so that the conclusion will affirm the truth or falsity of the proposition; the other is to change the proposition. In a debate, of course, or whenever a subject is assigned, the latter method cannot be followed. As a final example of what a good peroration should be, consider the following conclusion of Webster's speech, delivered in the United States Senate, on _The Presidential Veto of the United States Bank Bill_. Notice the skillful interweaving of conviction and persuasion, and remember in connection with the principle of proportion that this is the conclusion of a speech containing about 14,000 words. "Mr. President, we have arrived at a new epoch. We are entering on experiments, with the government and the Constitution of the country, hitherto untried, and of fearful and appalling aspect. This message calls us to the contemplation of a future which little resembles the past. Its principles are at war with all that public opinion has sustained, and all which the experience of the government has sanctioned. It denies first principles; it contradicts truths, hitherto received as indisputable. It denies to the judiciary the interpretation of law, and claims to divide with Congress the power of originating statutes. It extends the grasp of executive pretension over every power of the government. But this is not all. It presents the chief magistrate of the Union in the attitude of arguing away the powers of that government over which he has been chosen to preside; and adopting for this purpose modes of reasoning which, even under the influence of all proper feeling towards high official station, it is difficult to regard as respectable. It appeals to every prejudice which may betray men into a mistaken view of their own interests, and to every passion which may lead them to disobey the impulses of their understanding. It urges all the specious topics of State rights and national encroachment against that which a great majority of the States have affirmed to be rightful, and in which all of them have acquiesced. It sows, in an unsparing manner, the seeds of jealousy and ill-will against that government of which its author is the official head. It raises a cry, that liberty is in danger, at the very moment when it puts forth claims to powers heretofore unknown and unheard of. It affects alarm for the public freedom, when nothing endangers that freedom so much as its own unparalleled pretences. This, even, is not all. It manifestly seeks to inflame the poor against the rich; it wantonly attacks whole classes of the people, for the purpose of turning against them the prejudices and the resentment of other classes. It is a state paper which finds no topic too exciting for its use, no passion to inflammable for its address and its solicitation. "Such is this message. It remains now for the people of the United States to choose between the principles here avowed and their government. These cannot subsist together. The one or the other must be rejected. If the sentiments of the message shall receive general approbation, the Constitution will have perished even earlier than the moment which its enemies originally allowed for the termination of its existence. It will not have survived to its fiftieth year." [Footnote: Webster's Great Speeches, page 338.] APPENDICES. APPENDIX A A WRITTEN ARGUMENT AND ITS BRIEF. SHOULD IMMIGRATION BE RESTRICTED? [Footnote: The North American Review, May, 1897, page 526.] SIMON GREENLEAF CROSWELL During recent years there has been a growing interest in plans for further checking or limiting the tide of immigration whose waves sweep in upon the United States almost daily in constantly increasing volume. Several restrictive measures are already in force: paupers, idiots, contract laborers, the Chinese, and several other classes of people are prohibited from entering our ports. The subject has been discussed in legislatures, in political meetings, from pulpits, in reform clubs, and among individuals on every hand. The reason for the interest which the subject now excites is easily found in the recent enormous increase of immigration. The problem divides itself at the outset into two distinct questions: First, is it for the advantage of the United States that immigration be further checked or limited? Second, if so, in what way should the check or limit be applied? It is evident that these questions cover two distinct fields of inquiry, the industrial and the political. Nor can the two fields be examined simultaneously, for the reasons, if there are any, from a political point of view, why immigration should be limited, would not apply to the questions viewed on its industrial side, and _vice versa_. Taking up first the industrial question, we may assume that the entrance of the swarms of immigrants into our country represents the introduction of just so much laboring power into the country, and we may also assume as a self-evident proposition that the introduction of laboring power into an undeveloped or partially developed country is advantageous until the point is reached at which all the laborers whom the country can support have been introduced. Adam Smith says that labor is the wealth of nations. If this is true, the laborer is the direct and only primary means of acquiring wealth. The facts of the history of our country bear out this view. Beginning with the clearing of the forests, the settlements of the villages, the cultivation of farms, proceeding to the establishment of the lumber industries, the cultivation of vast wheat and corn fields, the production of cotton, the working of the coal and oil fields of Pennsylvania, the development of the mining districts of the West, culminating in the varied and extensive manufactures of the Eastern and Central States, the laborer has been the Midas whose touch has turned all things to gold. There is, however, a limitation to the principle that the introduction of laborers into a partially developed country is advantageous. A point is finally reached which may be called the saturation point of the country; that is, it has as many inhabitants as it can supply with reasonably good food and clothing. This saturation point may be reached many times in the history of a country, for the ratio between the food and clothing products and the population is constantly varying. New modes of cultivation, and the use of machinery, as well as natural causes affecting the fertility of land, which are as yet obscure, render a country at one time capable of supporting a much larger number of inhabitants than at another time. Still, there is a broad and general truth that, time and place and kind of people being considered, some countries are over-populated, and some are under- populated. We are accustomed to say that some of the countries of Europe are over-populated, and there are among us some who are beginning to say that the United States has reached the same point. This is far from being the case, and a single glance at the comparative average density of population of the principal European nations and of the United States will be sufficient to drive this idea out of any fair-minded person's head. The most thickly settled country of modern Europe is the Netherlands, which had, in the year 1890, the very large average of three hundred and fifty-nine inhabitants per square mile of territory. Great Britain came next, with the almost equally large average of three hundred and eleven inhabitants per square mile of territory. Germany had two hundred and thirty-four and France one hundred and eighty-seven. Taking in for purposes of comparison, though not of much force in the argument, China, we find there an average population of two hundred and ninety-five inhabitants per square mile of territory. It is a question of some difficulty to decide in any specific case whether a country has reached the point of over-population. We may admit that Great Britain, with its average of three hundred and eleven inhabitants per mile, is over-populated, though the conditions of life do not seem to be wholly intolerable, even to the lowest classes there. If Great Britain is over-populated, _a fortiori_ are the Netherlands, and we may even go so far as to admit that Germany, with its average of two hundred and thirty-four inhabitants per square mile, is over-populated. But when we come to France, with its one hundred and eighty-seven inhabitants per square mile, we may pause and see what are the conditions of the French people. So far as it is possible to judge of a people in the lump, it would seem that the population of France is not excessive for the area. The land holdings are divided up into very small lots, but are held by a great number of people. Mackenzie, in his history of the nineteenth century, says that nearly two-thirds of the French householders are landowners, while only one British householder in every four is an owner of land. This condition results partly from the difference in the system of inheritance of land in the two countries, but would be impossible if the country were over-populated. Moreover, there are five millions of people in France whose possessions in land are under six acres each. Taking, then, the population of France, averaging 187 per square mile, as being at least not above the normal rate of population, what do we find in comparing it with the population of the United States? We find over here vast tracts of country, amounting to nearly one- third by actual measurement, of the whole area of the United States, and including all the States west of the Missouri and Mississippi valleys (except a portion of California), having a population of less than six individuals per square mile. It would seem as if the mere statement of this fact were alone sufficient to disprove any proposition which asserts that the saturation point of population has been reached in the United States. While that immense expanse of country averages only six individuals to the square mile, there can be no reason for saying that this country is over-populated. Coming now to the more thickly settled portions of the United States, we find a large area spread out over various parts of the States having a population between seven and forty-five individuals per square mile. In a very few States, New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Ohio, and Indiana, the population of the whole State averages over forty-five and under ninety individuals per square mile, and the same average holds in parts of Massachusetts, Connecticut, Illinois, Kentucky, and isolated spots in the South. In a small territory, made up of parts of Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey, the population averages over ninety per square mile. The contrast between these averages of population in various portions of the United States, the highest of which is about ninety individuals per mile (and that over very small portions of the area of the United States) and the average densities of the European countries, previously examined, shows how very far the United States is from complete population. This appears still more clearly when the average population of the United States taken as a whole, is considered, which is the extraordinary low figure of twenty individuals per square mile of territory What a striking contrast! Can the most ardent advocate of the Malthusian doctrine claim that the United States already has too many inhabitants, or is in danger of having too many in the immediate future? Do we not rather need to encourage immigration, to fling wide open the gates of our country and secure as large an addition to our working force as possible? When we come to the political aspect of the problem, however, a wholly different series of considerations present themselves. The question now is not how many citizens, but what sort of citizens. The theory of our government is not limited to any number of people. It provides for expansion in the number of representatives in Congress in proportion to the increase in population, and increases the number of Senators as new States are formed and added to the Union. Similarly each State government has elastic provisions which enable it to cover a population of 400,000 as well as a population of 40,000. But the one critical test in determining whether or not our immigration should be limited for political reasons is the character of the people whom we are admitting to the privilege of citizenship in the United States. In order to investigate successfully the political effect of the immigration, it is necessary, at the outset, to divide it into its constituent nationalities, so that taking up each nationality in turn, we may see what fitness it has from its previous political training in its native country for undertaking the duties of American citizenship. The disintegration of the tide of immigration into these constituent parts affords some interesting information which will be seen to have a bearing, in several directions, on the questions under consideration in this article. Taking the statistics of the year 1891 as a typical year of recent immigration, the tide of immigration amounted in round numbers to 500,000 individuals. The largest feeder of this enormous stream came from Germany, which sent, roughly speaking, 100,000. But a noticeable point about this nationality is the great decrease in the number of immigrants it has sent us in the last fifteen years. In the year 1882 the total German immigration into the United States amounted to no less than 250,000, but in 1883 and 1884 there was a great decrease, and since then the average has remained in the neighborhood of 100,000. We shall see later that on the other hand, the immigration from the Latin and Slav nations of Europe, particularly Italy, Poland, and Austria, shows an enormous rate of increase in the same period, although, of course, the absolute amounts are much less than those of the German immigration. The next largest feeder to our stream of immigration in the year 1891, the typical year of our examination, was Italy, which contributed 76,000 immigrants to our population. It is noteworthy to remark, in this connection, that Italy has more than doubled her annual rate of contributions to our people in the ten years under consideration, the immigration from her shores in 1882 being only 32,000. The next largest contributor is Austria, which in 1891 furnished 71,000 new members of our community. Austria, too, has doubled her rate of contribution, sending us in 1882 only 32,000. Next come, side by side, in their offerings to our population, England and Ireland, each of which countries sends us about 50,000 new inhabitants each year, and has continued to do so for the last fifteen years. Russia, exclusive of Poland, sent 47,000 in 1891, this being three times the number which she sent in 1882, a large increase. Sweden came next with 36,000 immigrants and that country shows a woeful falling-off of nearly one-half in the ten years under consideration, for in the year 1882 it sent 64,000. Poland in 1891 sent us 27,000 immigrants, showing an enormous increase of nearly sevenfold over its contribution of 4,000 in 1882. Scotland and Norway and Denmark all send about the same number, that is, about 12,000 each; Norway showing a diminution in the decade ending 1891, from 29,000 in 1882, but the other two remaining about stationary. Switzerland in 1891 sent 6,000, a diminution from 10,000 in 1882. The Netherlands sent 5,000 in 1891, a decrease from 9,000 in 1882. France sent 6,000 and Belgium 3,000, these figures being about the same during all the years covered by our investigation. I have left out of account the only other important factor in our immigration in the ten years considered, namely, China, because the door was shut in its face with considerable emphasis in 1883, and the immigration from China to the Western States, which in 1882 amounted to 40,000 fell in 1883 to 8,000, and in 1884 to 279 individuals, and may, therefore, be neglected at the present time. Now, an examination of the political institutions in the countries from which these immigrants come would show that in almost no case, that of Russia and Poland alone excepted, are the elements of representative government wholly unknown to the common people. In most of these countries, some form of popular government has, either wholly or partially, gained a footing, with the inevitable result of accustoming people more or less to representative institutions. Yet the short time that this has been the case in many of the countries which pour half or over of the total flood of immigration into the United States, and the long centuries of despotism which preceded this partial and recent enlightenment, make it painfully evident that there can be, in the large part of our immigrants, little knowledge of the republican form of government, and little inherited aptitude for such government. It would at first seem as if the results of such immigration must be disastrous to our country. And yet the situation is not so hopeless. There is nothing mysterious, or even very complicated, about republican institutions. A little time, a little study, a little experience with the practical workings of elections, is sufficient to convey to any person of ordinary intelligence as much familiarity with these matters as is necessary for the intelligent appreciation of their objects and purposes. Nor is the material out of which the prospective citizen is to be made wholly unfitted for its purpose. To be sure, the Latin races, the Slavs, Hungarians, Poles, and others have no inherited aptitude, nor if we may judge from the history of the races, any inherent capacity for self-government and free institutions, but, as I have before said, in almost every case they have had in their own country a partial training in the forms of representative government. All that is needed is to amalgamate this heterogeneous mass, to fuse its elements in the heat and glow of our national life, until, formed in the mould of everyday experience, each one shall possess the characteristic features of what we believe to be the highest type of human development which the world has seen, the American citizen. The process of acquiring American citizenship is regulated by acts of Congress. It is a simple process. Practically all that is required is a continuous residence of five years in the States, and one year in the special State in which citizenship is applied for, and the declaration of intention to become a citizen may be made immediately upon landing. This last point will be seen later to be very important. Citizenship in the United States, however, under the act of Congress, does not carry with it the right to vote. This right is entirely a matter of State regulation, and the Constitution or statutes of each State settle who shall have the right to vote in its elections. The underlying idea of the whole system is universal male suffrage, and the franchise is granted (after a certain residence, which will be discussed later) with only certain general limitations of obvious utility, such as that the voter must be twenty-one years of age, that he must not be an idiot or insane, and generally, that he must not have been convicted of any felony or infamous crime, although in many States a pardon, or the serving of a sentence, will restore a felon to his civil rights. In a few of the States paupers are also excluded from voting. With the question of woman suffrage we have nothing to do, as its settlement, one way or the other, does not affect the subject we are discussing. The important qualification, however, in relation to the subjects which we are discussing, is that which requires residence in the State previous to the exercise of the franchise. And on this point the States may be divided into two great classes. One class allows no one to vote who is not, under the laws of Congress, a citizen of the United States, either native or naturalized. As we have seen that five years' residence is a requisite to United States citizenship, these States, therefore, require five years' residence as a prerequisite to acquiring the right to vote. These States are California, Connecticut, Georgia, Illinois, Iowa, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Montana, Nevada, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, and Washington. This requirement is admirably calculated to secure that preliminary training in the practical working of our institutions which must be necessary to most of the immigrants before they can intelligently exercise the rights which are conferred upon them by American citizenship and we cannot but admire the sagacity and judiciousness of those who framed our naturalization laws in selecting this period of time for the pupilage of the intending citizen. The period is long enough even for one who is engrossed in the cares of earning a support for himself and his family, amid all the excitement and novelty of a changed residence, to acquire in the five succeeding annual elections a sufficient knowledge of republican government for all practical purpose. To delay him longer in the exercise of his political rights would be an injustice; to admit him to them sooner would be an imprudence. There are in a few States other qualifications required of a voter. The most important of these is the educational qualification, which exists only in Connecticut and Massachusetts. In neither of these is it very severe. In Connecticut the voter must be able to read any article in the State Constitution, and any section of the statutes. In Massachusetts he must be able to read the Constitution and to write his name. Too much praise can hardly be given to these requirements. The whole edifice of our national life is founded upon education, and to this potent factor must we look for many of the improvements necessary to the proper development of our national life. In quite a number of States a pecuniary qualification exists in the shape of the payment of some tax, generally a poll tax, within two years previous to the date of the election. This requirement does not seem to be so germane to the spirit of our institutions as the other. The great present danger of our country is the danger of becoming a plutocracy, and while there is no doubt that a widespread interest in property develops stability of institutions, yet there is also great danger of capital obtaining so firm and strong a hold upon political institutions as to crush out the life of free government and to convert the national government into a species of close corporation, in which the relative wealth of the parties alone controls. This qualification is found in Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, Nevada, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and Texas. We have now examined with some thoroughness the component parts of the tide of immigration as it arrives at our shores; we have seen what nationalities go to make up the grand total and what previous training they have had in the political institutions of their native countries to fit them for American citizenship, and what additional requirements are imposed upon them by our statutes before they can participate in voting and government in this country. What are the conclusions to which the view of these facts brings us? They seem to me to be these: first, that the growth of immigration is a desirable thing for this country from an industrial point of view; second, that the immigrants who arrive at our shores are for the most part good material out of which to make American citizens. Applying these conclusions to the questions which were stated at the outset of this article; first, is it for the advantage of the United States that immigration should be checked or limited? second, if so, in what way should the check or limit be applied? the answer would be that no further check or limit should be applied, but that a check should be placed upon the exercise of the franchise by immigrants in all States by requiring a residence of five years in this country before they can vote, and by also requiring some moderate educational test. With these safeguards established we might look without any serious apprehension upon the increase of our population. The founders of our state moulded the outlines of its form in large and noble lines. The skeleton has grown and clothed itself with flesh with almost incredible rapidity in the hundred years of its existence. But it is still young. We should avoid any measures which would stunt or deform its growth and should allow it to develop freely and generously till the full-grown American nation stands forth pre-eminent among the nations of the earth, in size, as well as in character and organization, and man's last experiment in government is clearly seen to be an unequivocal success. ARGUMENT AND BRIEF SHOULD IMMIGRATION BE RESTRICTED? NEGATIVE BRIEF. INTRODUCTION. I. The enormous increase in immigration gives rise to a growing interest in some plan for further limiting the number of immigrants coming to the United States. A. Paupers, idiots, contract laborers, the Chinese, and several other classes of people are already excluded. B. The subject has been discussed in legislatures, in political meetings, from pulpits, in reform clubs, and among individuals. II. The problem divides itself into two distinct questions:-- A. Is it for the advantage of the United States that immigration be further checked or limited? B. If so, in what way should the check or limit be applied? III. These questions must be considered, first, from the industrial point of view; and, secondly, from the political point of view. DISCUSSION. Immigration should not be further restricted, for I. From an industrial point of view, the United States needs immigrants, for A. Without question, immigrants represent laboring power. B. The United States needs more laboring power, for 1. Admittedly, the introduction of laboring power into an undeveloped or partially developed country is advantageous up to the saturation point. a. Adam Smith says that labor is the wealth of nations. b. The history of America has borne out this statement, for 1'. The laborer has turned the forests, fields, and mines into wealth. 2. The United States is still under-populated, for a. There is a smaller population to the square mile than in many European countries, for 1'. In 1890 the Netherlands had the average of three hundred and fifty-nine inhabitants to the square mile 2'. Great Britain had the average of three hundred and eleven. 3'. Germany had two hundred and thirty-four. 4'. France had one hundred and eighty-seven. 5'. In about one-third of the whole area of the United States, the average is less than six. 6'. In certain more thickly settled portions the average is from seven to forty-five. 7'. In New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Ohio, and Indiana, the average is from forty-five to ninety. 8'. In a small territory made up of parts of Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey, the average is over ninety. 9'. In the United States as a whole, the average is twenty. II. From a political point of view, the immigrants who are arriving at our shores make good citizens, for A. Their previous political training has been such as to render them capable of learning how to perform the duties of American citizenship, for 1. Of the 500,000 immigrants that arrived in 1891, Germany sent approximately 100,000. 2. Italy sent 76,000. 3. Austria sent 78,000. 4. England and Ireland sent 50,000 each. 5. Russia, exclusive of Poland, sent 47,000. 6. Sweden sent 36,000. 7. Poland sent 27,000. 8. Scotland, Norway, and Denmark sent 12,000 each. 9. Switzerland sent 6,000. 10. The Netherlands sent 5,000. 11. France sent 6,000. 12. Belgium sent 3,000. 13. Except in Russia and Poland, the elements of representative government are not wholly unknown to these people, for a. In most of these countries some form of popular government has either wholly or partially gained a footing. B. The duties of the American citizen are not hard to learn, for 1. Republican institutions are not very complicated. C. The political ignorance of the immigrant can be remedied, for 1. Before extending immigrants the franchise, States can insist on requirements that will secure some preliminary training in free political institutions, since a. The right to vote is entirely a matter of State regulation, for 1'. Citizenship, which is regulated by Congress, does not carry with it the franchise. b. Already twenty-two States allow no one to vote who has not been in the United States at least five years. c. Massachusetts and Connecticut have an educational test. d. Eight States insist on a pecuniary qualification. CONCLUSION. The following points have been proved:-- I. The growth of immigration is a desirable thing for this country from an industrial point of view. II. The immigrants who arrive at our shores are for the most part good material out of which to make American citizens. Therefore, no further check or limit should be applied to immigration. APPENDIX B A LIST OF PROPOSITIONS. 1. The United States army should be greatly enlarged. 2. Japan was justified in waging war against Russia. 3. A formal alliance between the United States and Great Britain for the protection and advancement of their common interests would be expedient. 4. Military tactics should be taught in the public schools. 5. The United States navy should be greatly enlarged. 6. The aggressions of England in South Africa are justifiable. 7. The nations of Europe should combine to bring about drastic reforms in the Congo Free State. 8. Ireland should be granted home rule. 9. Japanese control will promote the political and economic interests of Corea more than would Russian control. 10. Armed intervention on the part of any nation to collect private claims against any other nation is not justifiable. 11. The annexation of Canada by treaty with Great Britain would be economically advantageous to the United States. 12. The United States should establish commercial reciprocity with Canada. 13. The United States should maintain a system of subsidies for the protection of American merchant marine. 14. Congress should have decided in favor of a sea-level canal at Panama. 15. Woman suffrage should be adopted by an amendment to the Constitution. 16. The practice of relieving financial stringency by temporary deposits of United States Treasury funds in selected banks should be discontinued. 17. Labor unions are detrimental to the best interests of the workingman. 18. Free trade should be established between the United States and the Philippine Islands. 19. State boards of arbitration, with compulsory powers, should be appointed to settle disputes between employers and employees. 20. The United States should discontinue the protective tariff policy. 21. The Federal government should own and operate the interstate railroads within its borders. 22. Railroad pooling should be legalized. 23. The tax on the issues of state banks should be repealed. 24. The United States should adopt one-cent postage. 25. American municipalities should own and operate their street-car systems. 26. The President of the United States should be elected for a term of six years and be ineligible for re-election. 27. The President of the United States should be elected by popular vote. 28. Ex-Presidents of the United States should be Senators-at-large for life. 29. United States Senators should be elected by popular vote. 30. The powers of the Speaker of the House of Representatives should be restricted. 31. The United States should institute a system of responsible cabinet government. 32. Judges should be elected by direct vote of the people. 33. All cities in the State of ----, having at least ten thousand inhabitants should adopt the Des Moines plan of government. 34. The right of suffrage should be limited by an educational test. 35. The State of ---- should adopt the initiative and referendum system of government. 36. Congress should repeal the Fifteenth Amendment. 37. Members of State legislatures should be forbidden by law to accept free passes on any railroads. 38. Corporations engaged in interstate commerce should be required to take out a Federal license. 39. Women who pay taxes should be permitted to vote at municipal elections. 40. The annexation of Cuba to the United States would be for the best interests of Cuba. 41. The United States should grant full citizenship to the people of Porto Rico. 42. The United States should establish an old age-pension system similar to the one in operation in Germany. 43. Political union with Cuba would be for the advantage of the United States. 44. The United States should permanently retain the Philippines. 45. The House of Representatives should elect its standing committees. 46. The white citizens of the Southern States are justified in maintaining their political supremacy. 47. Congress should prohibit corporate contributions to political campaign funds. 48. The present powers of courts to grant injunctions should be curtailed. 49. In all criminal cases three-fourths of a jury should be competent to render a verdict. 50. The United States government is treating the Indians unjustly. 51. Capital punishment should be abolished. 52. Education should be compulsory to the age of sixteen. 53. The fully elective system of studies should be introduced into all colleges. 54. College students receiving an average daily grade of eighty-five per cent, in a subject should be excused from final examination in that subject. 55. Class rushes should be abolished at ---- College. 56. Hazing should be abolished at all colleges. 57. Freshmen should be debarred from intercollegiate athletic contests. 58. Athletics, as conducted at present, are detrimental to ---- College. 59. The Federal government should maintain a college for the education of men for the diplomatic and consular service. 60. A large city affords a better location for a college than does the country. 61. The "honor system" should prevail at ---- College. 62. American universities should admit women on equal terms with men. 63. American colleges should admit students only on examination. 64. American colleges should confer the degree of Bachelor of Arts in three years. 65. Public schools should not furnish free textbooks. 66. Secret societies should not exist in public high schools. 67. The education of the American negro should be industrial rather than liberal. 68. For the average student, the small college is preferable to the large college. 69. American colleges should adopt the recommendations of the Simplified Spelling Board. 70. For the United States, the type of the German university is preferable to the type of the American university. 71. Fraternities are undesirable in colleges. 72. The United States Army canteen should be restored. 73. There should be national laws governing marriage and divorce. 74. High License is preferable to Prohibition. 75. The Federal government should take action to prevent children under the age of fourteen from working in mines and factories. 76. The elimination of private profits offers the best solution of the liquor problem. 77. Employers are justified in refusing recognition to labor unions. 78. The United States should grant permanent copyright. 79. The Chinese should be excluded from the Philippines. 80. States should prohibit vivisection involving great pain. 81. The United States should establish a parcels post. 82. The United States should establish a postal savings bank. 83. The veto power of the House of Lords should be annulled. 84. Abdul Hamid was unjustly deposed. 85. The present laws relating to Chinese immigration should be amended to include the Japanese. 86. The United States should admit the Chinese on equal terms with other immigrants. 87. Further centralization in the power of the Federal government is contrary to the best interests of the United States. 88. The present tendency of government conservation of natural resources is contrary to the best interests of the United States. 89. Commercial reciprocity between the United States and Brazil would benefit the United States. 90. At present the United States should maintain no navy yard on the Gulf Coast. 91. The United States should admit all raw materials free of duty. 92. The United States should admit sugar free of duty. 93. The date of the Presidential inauguration should be changed. 94. Postmasters should be elected by popular vote. 95. All cities in the United States should establish and enforce a curfew law. 96. The three term system is preferable to the semester system at ---- College. 97. The products of prison labor should not be allowed to compete in the open market. 98. New York City should establish a dramatic censorship. 99. Convicts should not be farmed out to private contractors. 100. The State of ---- should establish a property qualification for voting. 
31456	----	[Transcriber's Note: Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as possible, including obsolete and variant spellings and other inconsistencies. Text that has been changed to correct an obvious error is noted at the end of this ebook.] THE UPWARD PATH A READER FOR COLORED CHILDREN WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY ROBERT R. MOTON PRINCIPAL OF TUSKEGEE INSTITUTE COMPILED BY MYRON T. PRITCHARD PRINCIPAL, EVERETT SCHOOL, BOSTON AND MARY WHITE OVINGTON CHAIRMAN OF THE BOARD OF THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF COLORED PEOPLE NEW YORK HARCOURT, BRACE AND HOWE COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY HARCOURT, BRACE AND HOWE, INC. [Illustration] [Illustration: The Boy and the Bayonet] FOREWORD To the present time, there has been no collection of stories and poems by Negro writers, which colored children could read with interest and pleasure and in which they could find a mirror of the traditions and aspirations of their race. Realizing this lack, Myron T. Pritchard, Principal of the Everett School, Boston, and Mary White Ovington, Chairman of the Board of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, have brought together poems, stories, sketches and addresses which bear eloquent testimony to the richness of the literary product of our Negro writers. It is the hope that this little book will find a large welcome in all sections of the country and will bring good cheer and encouragement to the young readers who have so largely the fortunes of their race in their own hands. The editors desire to express thanks to the authors who have generously granted the use of their work. Especial acknowledgement is due to Mrs. Booker T. Washington for the selection from _Up from Slavery_; to _The Crisis_ for "The Rondeau," by Jessie Fauset, "The Brave Son," by Alston W. Burleigh, "The Black Fairy," by Fenton Johnson, "The Children at Easter," by C. Emily Frazier, "His Motto," by Lottie B. Dixon, "Negro Soldiers," by Roscoe C. Jamison, "A Legend of the Blue Jay," by Ruth Anna Fisher; to the American Book Company for "The Dog and the Clever Rabbit," from _Animal Tales_, by A. O. Stafford; to Frederick A. Stokes and Company for "A Negro Explorer at the North Pole," by Matthew A. Henson; to A. C. McClurg and Company for the selection from _Souls of Black Folk_, by W. E. B. DuBois; to Henry Holt and Company for the selection from _The Negro_, by W. E. B. DuBois; to the Cornhill Company for the selections from The _Band of Gideon_, by Joseph F. Cotter, Jr., and _The Menace of the South_, by William J. Edwards; to Dodd, Mead and Company for "Ere Sleep Comes Down" and the "Boy and the Bayonet" (copyright 1907), by Paul Laurence Dunbar. CONTENTS PAGE THE BOY AND THE BAYONET _Paul Laurence Dunbar_ 1 BEGINNINGS OF A MISSISSIPPI SCHOOL _William H. Holtzclaw_ 13 UP FROM SLAVERY _Booker T. Washington_ 15 BOOKER T. WASHINGTON _William H. Holtzclaw_ 20 ANNA-MARGARET _Augusta Bird_ 22 CHARITY _H. Cordelia Ray_ 28 MY FIRST SCHOOL _W. E. B. DuBois_ 29 ERE SLEEP COMES DOWN _Paul Laurence Dunbar_ 38 THE LAND OF LAUGHTER _Angelina W. Grimke_ 40 THE WEB OF CIRCUMSTANCE _Charles W. Chesnutt_ 47 IS THE GAME WORTH THE CANDLE? _James E. Shepard_ 48 O BLACK AND UNKNOWN BARDS _James Weldon Johnson_ 54 THE GREATEST MENACE OF THE SOUTH _William J. Edwards_ 56 THE ENCHANTED SHELL _H. Cordelia Ray_ 63 BEHIND A GEORGIA MULE _James Weldon Johnson_ 66 HAYTI AND TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE _W. E. B. DuBois_ 72 HIS MOTTO _Lottie Burrell Dixon_ 77 THE MONTHS _H. Cordelia Ray_ 86 THE COLORED CADET AT WEST POINT _Lieut. Henry Ossian Flipper, U.S.A._ 90 AN HYMN TO THE EVENING _Phyllis Wheatley_ 95 GOING TO SCHOOL UNDER DIFFICULTIES _William H. Holtzclaw_ 96 THE BRAVE SON _Alston W. Burleigh_ 101 VICTORY _Walter F. White_ 102 THE DOG AND THE CLEVER RABBIT _A. O. Stafford_ 109 THE BOY AND THE IDEAL _Joseph S. Cotter_ 112 CHILDREN AT EASTER _C. Emily Frazier_ 114 ABRAHAM LINCOLN _William Pickens_ 117 RONDEAU _Jessie Fauset_ 120 HOW I ESCAPED _Frederick Douglass_ 121 FREDERICK DOUGLASS _W. H. Crogman_ 128 INCIDENT IN THE LIFE OF FREDERICK DOUGLASS 134 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE CONGO _William Henry Sheppard_ 135 COÖPERATION AND THE LATIN CLASS _Lillian B. Witten_ 143 THE BAND OF GIDEON _Joseph F. Cotter, Jr._ 148 THE HOME OF THE COLORED GIRL BEAUTIFUL _Azalia Hackley_ 150 THE KNIGHTING OF DONALD _Lillian B. Witten_ 153 A NEGRO EXPLORER AT THE NORTH POLE _Matthew A. Henson_ 159 BENJAMIN BANNEKER _William Wells Brown_ 166 THE NEGRO RACE _Charles W. Anderson_ 168 PAUL CUFFE _John W. Cromwell_ 169 THE BLACK FAIRY _Fenton Johnson_ 175 IT'S A LONG WAY _William Stanley Braithwaite_ 181 NEGRO MUSIC THAT STIRRED FRANCE _Emmett J. Scott_ 182 NOVEMBER 11, 1918 187 SEA LYRIC _William Stanley Braithwaite_ 189 A NEGRO WOMAN'S HOSPITALITY _Leila A. Pendleton_ 190 RECORD OF "THE OLD FIFTEENTH" IN FRANCE _Emmett J. Scott_ 192 NEGRO SOLDIERS _Roscoe C. Jamison_ 194 THE "DEVIL BUSH" AND THE "GREEGREE BUSH" _George W. Ellis_ 195 EVENING PRAYER _H. Cordelia Ray_ 199 THE STRENUOUS LIFE _Silas X. Floyd_ 200 O LITTLE DAVID, PLAY ON YOUR HARP _Joseph F. Cotter, Jr._ 202 A DAY AT KALK BAY, SOUTH AFRICA _L. J. Coppin_ 203 BISHOP ATTICUS G. HAYGOOD _W. H. Crogman_ 205 HOW TWO COLORED CAPTAINS FELL _Ralph W. Tyler_ 207 THE YOUNG WARRIOR _James Weldon Johnson_ 208 WHOLE REGIMENTS DECORATED _Emmett J. Scott_ 209 ON PLANTING ARTICHOKES _Daniel A. Rudd and Theodore Bond_ 210 A SONG OF THANKS _Edward Smyth Jones_ 214 OUR DUMB ANIMALS _Silas X. Floyd_ 216 A LEGEND OF THE BLUE JAY _Ruth Anna Fisher_ 218 DAVID LIVINGSTONE _Benjamin Brawley_ 220 IRA ALDRIDGE _William J. Simmons_ 224 FIFTY YEARS _James Weldon Johnson_ 228 A GREAT KINGDOM IN THE CONGO _William Henry Sheppard_ 233 PILLARS OF THE STATE _William C. Jason_ 249 OATH OF AFRO-AMERICAN YOUTH _Kelly Miller_ 250 NOTES 251 INTRODUCTION The Negro has been in America just about three hundred years and in that time he has become intertwined in all the history of the nation. He has fought in her wars; he has endured hardships with her pioneers; he has toiled in her fields and factories; and the record of some of the nation's greatest heroes is in large part the story of their service and sacrifice for this people. The Negro arrived in America as a slave in 1619, just one year before the Pilgrims arrived at Plymouth in search of freedom. Since then their lot has not always been a happy one, but nevertheless, in spite of difficulties and hardships, the race has learned many valuable lessons in its conflict with the American civilization. As a slave the lessons of labor, of constructive endeavor, of home-life and religion were learned, even if the opportunity was not always present to use these lessons to good advantage. After slavery other lessons were learned in their order. Devoted self-sacrificing souls--soldiers of human brotherhood--took up the task in the schoolroom which their brothers began on the battlefield. Here it was that the Negro learned the history of America, of the deeds of her great men, the stirring events which marked her development, the ideals that made America great. And so well have they been learned, that to-day there are no more loyal Americans than the twelve million Negroes that make up so large a part of the nation. But the race has other things yet to learn: The education of any race is incomplete unless the members of that race know the history and character of its own people as well as those of other peoples. The Negro has yet to learn of the part which his own race has played in making America great; has yet to learn of the noble and heroic souls among his own people, whose achievements are praiseworthy among any people. A number of books--poetry, history and fiction--have been written by Negro authors in which the life of their own people has been faithfully and attractively set forth; but until recently no effort has been made on a large scale to see that Negro boys and girls became acquainted with these books and the facts they contained concerning their people. In this volume the publishers have brought together a number of selections from the best literary works of Negro authors, through which these young people may learn more of the character and accomplishments of the worthy members of their race. Such matter is both informing and inspiring, and no Negro boy or girl can read it without feeling a deeper pride in his own race. The selections are each calculated to teach a valuable lesson, and all make a direct appeal to the best impulses of the human heart. For a number of years several educational institutions for Negro youths have conducted classes in Negro history with a similar object in view. The results of these classes have been most gratifying and the present volume is a commendable contribution to the literature of such a course. ROBERT R. MOTON TUSKEGEE INSTITUTE, ALA., June 30, 1920 To the man in the tower the world below him is likely to look very small. Men look like ants and all the bustle and stir of their hurrying lives seems pitifully confused and aimless. But the man in the street who is looking and striving upward is in a different situation. However poor his present plight, the thing he aims at and is striving toward stands out clear and distinct above him, inspiring him with hope and ambition in his struggle upward. For the man who is down there is always something to hope for, always something to be gained. The man who is down, looking up, may catch a glimpse now and then of heaven, but the man who is so situated that he can only look down is pretty likely to see another and quite different place. BOOKER T. WASHINGTON THE UPWARD PATH THE BOY AND THE BAYONET PAUL LAURENCE DUNBAR It was June, and nearing the closing time of school. The air was full of the sound of bustle and preparation for the final exercises, field day, and drills. Drills especially, for nothing so gladdens the heart of the Washington mother, be she black or white, as seeing her boy in the blue cadet's uniform, marching proudly to the huzzas of an admiring crowd. Then she forgets the many nights when he has come in tired out and dusty from his practice drill, and feels only the pride and elation of the result. Although Tom did all he could outside of study hours, there were many days of hard work for Hannah Davis, when her son went into the High School. But she took it upon herself gladly, since it gave Bud the chance to learn, that she wanted him to have. When, however, he entered the Cadet Corps it seemed to her as if the first steps toward the fulfilment of all her hopes had been made. It was a hard pull to her, getting the uniform, but Bud himself helped manfully, and when his mother saw him rigged out in all his regimentals, she felt that she had not toiled in vain. And in fact it was worth all the trouble and expense just to see the joy and pride of "little sister," who adored Bud. As the time for the competitive drill drew near there was an air of suppressed excitement about the little house on "D" Street, where the three lived. All day long "little sister," who was never very well and did not go to school, sat and looked out of the window on the uninteresting prospect of a dusty thoroughfare lined on either side with dull red brick houses, all of the same ugly pattern, interspersed with older, uglier, and viler frame shanties. In the evening Hannah hurried home to get supper against the time when Bud should return, hungry and tired from his drilling, and the chore work which followed hard upon its heels. Things were all cheerful, however, for as they applied themselves to the supper, the boy, with glowing face, would tell just how his company "A" was getting on, and what they were going to do to companies "B" and "C." It was not boasting so much as the expression of a confidence, founded upon the hard work he was doing, and Hannah and the "little sister" shared that with him. The child often, listening to her brother, would clap her hands or cry, "Oh, Bud, you're just splendid an' I know you'll beat 'em." "If hard work'll beat 'em, we've got 'em beat," Bud would reply, and Hannah, to add an admonitory check to her own confidence, would break in with, "Now, don't you be too sho'; dey ain't been no man so good dat dey wasn't somebody bettah." But all the while her face and manner were disputing what her words expressed. The great day came, and it was a wonderful crowd of people that packed the great baseball grounds to overflowing. It seemed that all of Washington's colored population was out, when there were really only about one-tenth of them there. It was an enthusiastic, banner-waving, shouting, hallooing crowd. Its component parts were strictly and frankly partisan, and so separated themselves into sections differentiated by the colors of the flags they carried and the ribbons they wore. Side yelled defiance at side, and party bantered party. Here the blue and white of company "A" flaunted audaciously on the breeze beside the very seats over which the crimson and gray of "B" were flying and they in their turn nodded defiance over the imaginary barrier between themselves and "C's" black and yellow. The band was thundering out Sousa's "High School Cadet's March," the school officials, the judges, and reporters, and some with less purpose were bustling about discussing and conferring. Altogether doing nothing much with beautiful unanimity. All was noise, hurry, gaiety, and turbulence. In the midst of it all, with blue and white rosettes pinned on their breasts, sat two spectators, tense and silent, while the breakers of movement and sound struck and broke around them. It seemed too much to Hannah and "little sister" for them to laugh and shout. Bud was with company "A," and so the whole program was more like a religious ceremonial to them. The blare of the brass to them might have been the trumpet call to battle in old Judea, and the far-thrown tones of the megaphone the voice of a prophet proclaiming from the hill-top. Hannah's face glowed with expectation, and "little sister" sat very still and held her mother's hand save when amid a burst of cheers company "A" swept into the parade ground at a quick step, then she sprang up, crying shrilly, "There's Bud! there's Bud! I see him!" and then settled back into her seat overcome with embarrassment. The mother's eyes danced as soon as the sister's had singled out their dear one from the midst of the blue-coated boys, and it was an effort for her to keep from following her little daughter's example even to echoing her words. Company "A" came swinging down the field toward the judges in a manner that called for more enthusiastic huzzas that carried even the Freshmen of other commands "off their feet." They were, indeed, a set of fine-looking young fellows, brisk, straight, and soldierly in bearing. Their captain was proud of them, and his very step showed it. He was like a skilled operator pressing the key of some great mechanism, and at his command they moved like clockwork. Seen from the side it was as if they were all bound together by inflexible iron bars, and as the end man moved all must move with him. The crowd was full of exclamations of praise and admiration, but a tense quiet enveloped them as company "A" came from columns of four into line for volley firing. This was a real test; it meant not only grace and precision of movement, singleness of attention and steadiness, but quickness tempered by self-control. At the command the volley rang forth like a single shot. This was again the signal for wild cheering and the blue and white streamers kissed the sunlight with swift impulsive kisses. Hannah and "little sister" drew closer together and pressed hands. The "A" adherents, however, were considerably cooled when the next volley came out, badly scattering, with one shot entirely apart and before the rest. Bud's mother did not entirely understand the sudden quieting of the adherents; they felt vaguely that all was not as it should be, and the chill of fear laid hold upon their hearts. What if Bud's company (it was always Bud's company to them), what if his company should lose. But, of course, that couldn't be. Bud himself had said that they would win. Suppose, though, they didn't; and with these thoughts they were miserable until the cheering again told them that the company had redeemed itself. Someone behind Hannah said, "They are doing splendidly, they'll win, they'll win yet in spite of the second volley." Company "A," in columns of four, had executed the right oblique in double time, and halted amid cheers; then formed left front into line without halting. The next movement was one looked forward to with much anxiety on account of its difficulty. The order was marching by fours to fix or unfix bayonets. They were going at a quick step, but the boys' hands were steady--hope was bright in their hearts. They were doing it rapidly and freely, when suddenly from the ranks there was the bright gleam of steel lower down than it should have been. A gasp broke from the breasts of company "A's" friends. The blue and white dropped disconsolately, while a few heartless ones who wore other colors attempted to hiss. Someone had dropped his bayonet. But with muscles unquivering, without a turned head, the company moved on as if nothing had happened, while one of the judges, an army officer, stepped into the wake of the boys and picked up the fallen steel. No two eyes had seen half so quickly as Hannah and "little sister's" who the blunderer was. In the whole drill there had been but one figure for them, and that was Bud,--Bud, and it was he who had dropped his bayonet. Anxious, nervous with the desire to please them, perhaps with a shade too much of thought of them looking on with their hearts in their eyes, he had fumbled, and lost all he was striving for. His head went round and round and all seemed black before him. He executed the movements in a dazed way. The applause, generous and sympathetic, as his company left the parade ground, came to him from afar off, and like a wounded animal he crept away from his comrades, not because their reproaches stung him, for he did not hear them, but because he wanted to think what his mother and "little sister" would say, but his misery was as nothing to that of the two who sat up there amid the ranks of the blue and white, holding each other's hands with a despairing grip. To Bud all of the rest of the contest was a horrid nightmare; he hardly knew when the three companies were marched back to receive the judges' decision. The applause that greeted company "B" when the blue ribbons were pinned on the members' coats meant nothing to his ears. He had disgraced himself and his company. What would his mother and his "little sister" say? To Hannah and "little sister," as to Bud, all of the remainder of the drill was a misery. The one interest they had had in it failed, and not even the dropping of his gun by one of company "E" when on the march, halting in line, could raise their spirits. The little girl tried to be brave, but when it was all over she was glad to hurry out before the crowd got started and to hasten away home. Once there and her tears flowed freely; she hid her face in her mother's dress, and sobbed as if her heart would break. "Don't cry, Baby! don't cry, Lammie, dis ain't da las' time da wah goin' to be a drill. Bud'll have a chance anotha time and den he'll show 'em somethin'; bless you, I spec' he'll be a captain." But this consolation of philosophy was nothing to "little sister." It was so terrible to her, this failure of Bud's. She couldn't blame him, she couldn't blame anyone else, and she had not yet learned to lay all such unfathomed catastrophes at the door of fate. What to her was the thought of another day; what did it matter to her whether he was a captain or a private? She didn't even know the meaning of the words, but "little sister," from the time she knew Bud was a private, thought that was much better than being a captain or any other of those things with a long name, so that settled it. Her mother finally set about getting the supper, while "little sister" drooped disconsolately in her own little splint-bottomed chair. She sat there weeping silently until she heard the sound of Bud's step, then sprang up and ran away to hide. She didn't dare to face him with tears in her eyes. Bud came in without a word and sat down in the dark front room. "Dat you, Bud?" asked his mother. "Yassum." "Bettah come now, supper's puty 'nigh ready." "I don't want no supper." "You bettah come on, Bud, I reckon you's mighty tired." He did not reply, but just then a pair of thin arms were put around his neck and a soft cheek was placed close to his own. "Come on, Buddie," whispered "little sister," "Mammy an' me know you didn't mean to do it, an' we don't keer." Bud threw his arms around his little sister and held her tightly. "It's only you an' ma I care about," he said, "though I am sorry I spoiled the company's drill; they say "B" would have won anyway on account of our bad firing, but I did want you and ma to be proud." "We is proud," she whispered, "we's mos' prouder dan if you'd won," and pretty soon she led him by the hand to supper. Hannah did all she could to cheer the boy and to encourage him to hope for next year, but he had little to say in reply, and went to bed early. In the morning, though it neared school time, Bud lingered around and seemed in no disposition to get ready to go. "Bettah git ready fer school," said Hannah cheerily. "I don't believe I want to go any more," Bud replied. "Not go any more? Why, ain't you 'shamed to talk that way! O' cose you goin' to school." "I'm ashamed to show my face to the boys." "What you say about de boys? De boys ain't a-goin' to give you an edgication when you need it." "Oh, I don't want to go, ma; you don't know how I feel." "I'm kinder sorry I let you go into dat company," said Hannah musingly, "'cause it was de teachin' I wanted you to git, not the prancin' and steppin'; but I did t'ink it would make mo' of a man of you, an' it ain't. Yo' pappy was a po' man, ha'd wo'kin', an' he wasn't high-toned neither, but from the time I first see him to the day of his death, I nevah seen him back down because he was afeared of anything," and Hannah turned to her work. "Little sister" went up and slipped her hand in his. "You ain't a-goin to back down, is you, Buddie?" she said. "No," said Bud stoutly, as he braced his shoulders, "I'm a-goin'." But no persuasion could make him wear his uniform. The boys were a little cold to him, and some were brutal. But most of them recognized the fact that what had happened to Tom Harris might have happened to any one of them. Besides, since the percentage had been shown, it was found that "B" had outpointed them in many ways, and so their loss was not due to the one grave error. Bud's heart sank when he dropped into his seat in the Assembly Hall to find seated on the platform one of the blue-coated officers who had acted as judge the day before. After the opening exercises were over he was called upon to address the school. He spoke readily and pleasantly, laying especial stress upon the value of discipline; toward the end of his address he said "I suppose company 'A' is heaping accusations upon the head of the young man who dropped his bayonet yesterday." Tom could have died. "It was most regrettable," the officer continued, "but to me the most significant thing at the drill was the conduct of that cadet afterward. I saw the whole proceeding; I saw that he did not pause for an instant, that he did not even turn his head, and it appeared to me as one of the finest bits of self-control I had ever seen in any youth; had he forgotten himself for a moment and stopped, however quickly, to secure the weapon, the next line would have been interfered with and your whole movement thrown into confusion." There were a half hundred eyes glancing furtively at Bud, and the light began to dawn in his face. "This boy has shown what discipline means, and I for one want to shake hands with him, if he is here." When he had concluded the Principal called Bud forward, and the boys, even his detractors, cheered as the officer took his hand. "Why are you not in uniform, sir?" he asked. "I was ashamed to wear it after yesterday," was the reply. "Don't be ashamed to wear your uniform," the officer said to him, and Bud could have fallen on his knees and thanked him. There were no more jeers from his comrades, and when he related it all at home that evening there were two more happy hearts in that South Washington cottage. "I told you we was more prouder dan if you'd won," said "little sister." "An' what did I tell you 'bout backin' out?" asked his mother. Bud was too happy and too busy to answer; he was brushing his uniform. THE BEGINNINGS OF A MISSISSIPPI SCHOOL WILLIAM H. HOLTZCLAW I had been unable to get permission to teach in the little church, so I started my school in the open air. We were out under the big trees amidst the shrubbery. This would have made a very good schoolhouse but for its size. In such a schoolhouse one could get along very well, if he could keep his pupils close enough to him, but the chances are, as I have found, that they will put bugs down one another's collars, and while you are hearing one class the other children will chase one another about. Their buoyant spirits will not permit them to keep quiet while they are in the open. It is pretty hard to hear a class reciting and at the same time to witness a boxing-match, but those who teach in the open air must be prepared for such performances. These annoyances were accentuated by the fact that some of my pupils were forty years old while others were six. After a while we moved into an abandoned house, which we used for a schoolhouse, but it was little better than teaching out of doors. When it rained the water not only came through the roof, but through the sides as well. During cold winter rains I had to teach while standing with my overcoat on and with arctic rubbers to protect myself against pneumonia. During those rainy days Miss Lee, my assistant, would get up on a bench and stand there all day to keep her feet out of the water and would have an umbrella stretched over her to keep from getting wet from above. The little fellows would be standing in the water below like little ducks. They stood these conditions exceedingly well. Many of them were not protected with overshoes or any shoes, but they came to school each day just as if they had been properly clad. It is impossible to describe the hardships that we suffered during that winter, which was severe for the South. As the winter came on and grew more and more severe a great many of the children were taken with pneumonia, la grippe, and similar ailments. I wished, in the interest of health, to abandon the school for a few weeks until better weather; but neither pupils, nor teachers, nor parents would listen to this, and so the school continued under these circumstances until the new schoolhouse was ready for use. It is needless to say that some of the pupils never survived those conditions; in fact, the strange thing is that any of us did. UP FROM SLAVERY THE STRUGGLE FOR AN EDUCATION Booker T. Washington One day, while at work in the coal-mine, I happened to overhear two miners talking about a great school for colored people somewhere in Virginia. This was the first time that I had ever heard anything about any kind of school or college that was more pretentious than the little colored school in our town. In the darkness of the mine I noiselessly crept as close as I could to the two men who were talking. I heard one tell the other that not only was the school established for the members of my race, but that opportunities were provided by which poor but worthy students could work out all or a part of the cost of board, and at the same time be taught some trade or industry. As they went on describing the school, it seemed to me that it must be the greatest place on earth, and not even Heaven presented more attractions for me at that time than did the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute in Virginia, about which these men were talking. I resolved at once to go to that school, although I had no idea where it was, or how many miles away, or how I was going to reach it; I remembered only that I was on fire constantly with one ambition, and that was to go to Hampton. This thought was with me day and night. After hearing of the Hampton Institute, I continued to work for a few months longer in the coal-mine. While at work there, I heard of a vacant position in the household of General Lewis Ruffner, the owner of the salt-furnace and coal-mine. Mrs. Viola Ruffner, the wife of General Ruffner, was a "Yankee" woman from Vermont. Mrs. Ruffner had a reputation all through the vicinity for being very strict with her servants, and especially with the boys who tried to serve her. Few of them had remained with her more than two or three weeks. They all left with the same excuse: she was too strict. I decided, however, that I would rather try Mrs. Ruffner's house than remain in the coal-mine, and so my mother applied to her for the vacant position. I was hired at a salary of $5 per month. I had heard so much about Mrs. Ruffner's severity that I was almost afraid to see her, and trembled when I went into her presence. I had not lived with her many weeks, however, before I began to understand her. I soon began to learn that, first of all, she wanted everything kept clean about her, that she wanted things done promptly and systematically, and that at the bottom of everything she wanted absolute honesty and frankness. Nothing must be sloven or slipshod; every door, every fence, must be kept in repair. I cannot now recall how long I lived with Mrs. Ruffner before going to Hampton, but I think it must have been a year and a half. At any rate, I here repeat what I have said more than once before, that the lessons that I learned in the home of Mrs. Ruffner were as valuable to me as any education I have ever gotten anywhere since. Even to this day I never see bits of paper scattered around a house or in the street that I do not want to pick them up at once. I never see a filthy yard that I do not want to clean it, a paling off of a fence that I do not want to put it on, an unpainted or unwhitewashed house that I do not want to paint or whitewash it, or a button off one's clothes, or a grease-spot on them or on a floor, that I do not want to call attention to it. From fearing Mrs. Ruffner I soon learned to look upon her as one of my best friends. When she found that she could trust me she did so implicitly. During the one or two winters that I was with her she gave me an opportunity to go to school for an hour in the day during a portion of the winter months, but most of my studying was done at night, sometimes alone, sometimes under some one whom I could hire to teach me. Mrs. Ruffner always encouraged and sympathized with me in all my efforts to get an education. It was while living with her that I began to get together my first library. I secured a dry-goods box, knocked out one side of it, put some shelves in it, and began putting into it every kind of book that I could get my hands upon, and called it "my library." Without any unusual occurrence I reached Hampton, with a surplus of exactly fifty cents with which to begin my education. To me it had been a long, eventful journey; but the first sight of the large, three-story, brick school building seemed to have rewarded me for all that I had undergone in order to reach the place. If the people who gave the money to provide that building could appreciate the influence the sight of it had upon me, as well as upon thousands of other youths, they would feel all the more encouraged to make such gifts. It seemed to me to be the largest and most beautiful building I had ever seen. The sight of it seemed to give me new life. I felt that a new kind of existence had now begun--that life would now have a new meaning. I felt that I had reached the promised land, and I resolved to let no obstacle prevent me from putting forth the highest effort to fit myself to accomplish the most good in the world. As soon as possible after reaching the grounds of the Hampton Institute, I presented myself before the head teacher for assignment to a class. Having been so long without proper food, a bath, and change of clothing, I did not, of course, make a very favorable impression upon her, and I could see at once that there were doubts in her mind about the wisdom of admitting me as a student. I felt that I could hardly blame her if she got the idea that I was a worthless loafer or tramp. For some time she did not refuse to admit me, neither did she decide in my favor, and I continued to linger about her, and to impress her in all the ways I could with my worthiness. In the meantime I saw her admitting other students, and that added greatly to my discomfort, for I felt, deep down in my heart, that I could do as well as they, if I could only get a chance to show what was in me. After some hours had passed, the head teacher said to me, "The adjoining recitation room needs sweeping. Take the broom and sweep it." It occurred to me at once that here was my chance. Never did I receive an order with more delight. I knew that I could sweep, for Mrs. Ruffner had thoroughly taught me how to do that when I lived with her. I swept the recitation-room three times. Then I got a dusting-cloth and I dusted it four times. All the woodwork around the walls, every bench, table, and desk, I went over four times with my dusting-cloth. Besides, every piece of furniture had been moved and every closet and corner in the room had been thoroughly cleaned. I had the feeling that in a large measure my future depended upon the impression I made upon the teacher in the cleaning of that room. When I was through, I reported to the head teacher. She was a "Yankee" woman who knew just where to look for dirt. She went into the room and inspected the floor and closets; then she took her handkerchief and rubbed it on the wood-work about the walls, and over the table and benches. When she was unable to find one bit of dirt on the floor, or a particle of dust on any of the furniture, she remarked quietly, "I guess you will do to enter this institution." BOOKER T. WASHINGTON A STUDENT'S MEMORY OF HIM WILLIAM H. HOLTZCLAW One thing about Mr. Washington that impressed me was his regularity. He was as regular as the clock. He appeared at his office in the morning exactly at eight o'clock, remained until twelve, very often took part in an Executive Council meeting until one, and then went to lunch. At two o'clock he would again be in his office and would invariably remain there until half-past four, when he would leave and tramp across the plantation; sometimes he would run for a mile or two, as fast as he could go, for exercise. When he returned he would go to his library and there would pass the time until six, when he would go to dinner. After dinner he played with the children for a while and then returned to his library until 8.40. He would then go to Chapel for evening prayers with the whole student body. This prayer service was one that Mr. Washington seldom ever missed and he always appeared on the rostrum exactly on the minute. Mr. Washington had a grasp of the details of the work of Tuskegee that seemed almost incredible. I remember one evening that I was startled to hear my name, together with that of one of my friends, called out by Mr. Washington from the chapel platform. He simply said, "William Holtzclaw and Charles Washington may rise." I was so weak in my knees that I could scarcely stand, but I knew nothing else to do but to rise at the command of that voice. After we stood up and the whole school was looking at us, Mr. Washington said: "These young men may pass out of the Chapel and go and pick up the tools they worked with to-day." We had been ditching and when the work-bell rang had left our tools where we were working, when they should have been carried to the toolhouse. If the water main, or water pipe, had a defect in it so that it was leaking anywhere on the grounds, Mr. Washington was almost sure to see that something was wrong and to call the matter to the attention of the Superintendent of Industries. If he came into the dining-room while the students were eating their meals, he would notice such small details as a student's pouring out more molasses on his plate than he could eat and would stop in the dining-room, send for the matron, have some bread brought to the student, and wait until that student had eaten all the molasses he had poured on his plate. If one walked about the campus at night, he would be sure to meet Mr. Washington almost anywhere on the grounds. For instance, he might be found in the kitchen at two o'clock in the morning examining the method of preparing the students' breakfast. He seldom seemed to me to take sufficient rest for an average man. ANNA-MARGARET AUGUSTA BIRD To Anna-Margaret's mind, being the baby of the family was simply awful. This fact seemed to grow with it each day. It began in the morning when she watched her sisters as they laughed and rollicked through their dressing. "Bet I'll beat, and you got on your stockings already," challenged Edith. "I'll bet you won't,--bet I'll be out to the pump, my face washed, and be at the breakfast table and you won't have your shoes laced up," boasted Ruth, the older of the two. "We'll see, we'll see," giggled Edith. "Oho, I guess you will. Mother gave you new shoe strings," said Ruth somewhat crestfallen. "I told you so, I told you so," and Edith bounded out of the door, closely pursued by Ruth who cried: "You didn't beat me but 'bout an inch." Anna-Margaret was left alone to sit and think for all the next hour how perfectly awful it was to be the baby, until Mother Dear was able to come and dress her. The next morning it was the same torture all over again. It seemed to Anna-Margaret that people never stopped to think or know what a baby was forced to go through. There were Edith and Ruth racing again. Anna-Margaret spied her shoes and stockings on a chair. Out of the side of her crib she climbed. "Look at Anna-Margaret!" screamed Edith. "You, Anna-Margaret, get right back in that crib!" commanded Ruth assuming her mother's tone. "I won't!" And right over to the chair where her shoes and stockings were, walked the baby. She seated herself on the floor and drew on her stocking as if she had been in the habit of doing it on preceding mornings. It was surprising to Anna-Margaret, herself, the ease with which it went on. "Look at that child," gasped Ruth. Edith looked and said a little grudgingly, "I'll bet she can't put on her shoes though." Edith remembered how long it was before she was able to put on her shoes, and this accomplishment, in her mind, seemed to give her a great superiority over her baby sister. "Come on, Edith," called Ruth, "I'll beat you down to the pump and I'll give you to the rose bush, too." Struggling, pulling and twisting sat Anna-Margaret all alone, but the shoe would not go on. She was just about to give up in utter despair and burst into tears when Mother Dear appeared in the doorway. "What is mother's angel doing? Well, well, look at Mother's smart child, she has got on her stocking already,--here, let mother help her." It was awful to think you were still such a baby that you couldn't do anything yourself, but it was very nice, so Anna-Margaret thought, to have such an adorable mother to come to your rescue. "There now, run out and tell Ruth to wash your face and then mother will give you your breakfast." "Wash my face, Ruth," requested Anna-Margaret at the pump. "Who laced up your shoes?" asked Edith suspiciously. "I did." Anna-Margaret said it so easily that it startled herself. "I don't believe it, I don't believe it. I am going to ask Mother." "Hold still, will you, and let me wash your face," commanded Ruth. As soon as she was free, away went Anna-Margaret back to the house. "Muvver, Muvver," cried Anna-Margaret almost breathless as she entered the big kitchen, "tell Edith I laced up my shoes, tell 'er, Muvver, will yo', Muvver?" Mother stopped her work at the breakfast table. "Anna-Margaret, I could not do that because you didn't." "But tell 'er I did, won't you, Muvver," she pleaded. "Anna-Margaret, I can't do that because I would be telling a lie. Don't I whip Ruth and Edith for telling lies?" "Tell a lie, Muvver, tell a lie, _I won't whip you_." Mother Dear was forced to smile. "Here, eat your breakfast, I can't promise my baby I will tell a lie, even if she won't whip me." Fortunately no one questioned Mother Dear and Anna-Margaret ate her breakfast in silence. Then kissing her mother in a matter of fact way, she went out to play with her sisters. "Ah, here comes Anna-Margaret to knock down our things," moaned Edith. "Let her come on," cried Ruth, "and we'll go down in the bottom and build sand forts; it rained yesterday and the sand is nice and damp." "Oh-oo, let's," echoed Edith, and off they scampered. Anna-Margaret saw them and started after them as fast as her little chubby brown legs could carry her, which wasn't very fast. The other children were far in front of her. Anna-Margaret stopped suddenly,--she heard a little biddie in distress. There was a mother hen darting through the grass after a fleeing grasshopper, and close behind her was the whole flock save one. Anna-Margaret watched them as the young chickens spread open their wings and hurried in pursuit of their mother. Far behind one little black, fuzzy biddie struggled and tripped over the tall grass stems. The baby looked at the little chick and then at the other ones and saw that they were different. She didn't know what the difference was. She could not understand that the other chickens were several days older and that this one had only been taken away from its own mother hen that morning in order that she would remain on her nest until all her chicks were hatched. All Anna-Margaret knew was that they were different. "Poor l'll biddie, dey don't want you to play wif them," she sympathized, "come, come to Anna-Margaret." With little difficulty she captured the young chick and started back to the house. "Dat's all 'ight, I know what I'm gonna do," she decided, "I'm gonna play Dod. Poor l'll biddie, just wait, Anna-Margaret'll fix yo', so you can run and fly and keep up with the biddies. Won't dat be nice, uh?" And she put her curly head down close to the little chick as if to catch its answer. Anna-Margaret went straight to the big sewing-basket and placing the biddie on the machine extracted a threaded needle. Cutting two small pieces of black cloth for wings, she took the chick and seated herself on the drop-step between the sewing-room and dining-room. She then attempted to sew one of the little black pieces of cloth to one of the tiny wings of the young chick. [Illustration] "There, there, yo'll be all 'ight in dest a minute," she said amid the distressful chirping of the chick. The biddie's cries brought Mother Dear to the scene. "Anna-Margaret, what on earth are you doing to the little chicken?" Anna-Margaret turned her big brown eyes upon her mother. "I'm playin' Dod and I'm puttin' some wings on des l'll biddie so it can run and fly like the oo-ver ones, and so they won't run off all the time and leave it." "But Anna-Margaret, don't you know you are hurting the little biddie?" "No-o, Muvver," she said slowly, "but I know what it is to be always runned off and lef'." Mother Dear understood what was in her baby's mind as she gathered her up in her arms. Anna-Margaret dropped the sewing, cuddled the little biddie close in one arm and clasped her mother's neck with the other. Mother Dear held her closely. "I love yo', Muvver Dear," whispered Anna-Margaret. "I love you, baby dear," was the whispered answer. Being the baby of the family to Anna-Margaret's mind, just now, was awfully nice. CHARITY H. CORDELIA RAY I saw a maiden, fairest of the fair, With every grace bedight beyond compare. Said I, "What doest thou, pray, tell to me!" "I see the good in others," answered she. MY FIRST SCHOOL W. E. B. DUBOIS Once upon a time I taught school in the hills of Tennessee, where the broad dark vale of the Mississippi begins to roll and crumple to greet the Alleghanies. I was a Fisk student then, and all Fisk men thought that Tennessee--beyond the Veil--was theirs alone, and in vacation time they sallied forth in lusty bands to meet the county school-commissioners. Young and happy, I too went, and I shall not soon forget that summer. First, there was a Teachers' Institute at the county-seat; and there distinguished guests of the superintendent taught the teachers fractions and spelling and other mysteries,--white teachers in the morning, Negroes at night. A picnic now and then, and a supper, and the rough world was softened by laughter and song. I remember how--but I wander. There came a day when all the teachers left the Institute and began the hunt for schools. I learn from hearsay (for my mother was mortally afraid of firearms) that the hunting of ducks and bears and men is wonderfully interesting, but I am sure that the man who has never hunted a country school has something to learn of the pleasures of the chase. I see now the white, hot roads lazily rise and fall and wind before me under the burning July sun; I feel the deep weariness of heart and limb as ten, eight, six miles stretch relentlessly ahead; I feel my heart sink heavily as I hear again and again, "Got a teacher? Yes." So I walked on--horses were too expensive--until I wandered beyond railways, beyond stage lines, to a land of "varmints" and rattlesnakes, where the coming of a stranger was an event, and men lived and died in the shadow of one blue hill. Sprinkled over hill and dale lay cabins and farmhouses, shut out from the world by the forests and the rolling hills toward the east. There I found at last a little school. Josie told me of it; she was a thin, homely girl of twenty, with a dark-brown face and thick, hard hair. I had crossed the stream at Watertown, and rested under the great willows; then I had gone to the little cabin in the lot where Josie was resting on her way to town. The gaunt farmer made me welcome, and Josie, hearing my errand, told me anxiously that they wanted a school over the hill; that but once since the war had a teacher been there; that she herself longed to learn,--and thus she ran on, talking fast and loud, with much earnestness and energy. Next morning I crossed the tall round hill, lingered to look at the blue and yellow mountains stretching toward the Carolinas, then plunged into the wood, and came out at Josie's home. It was a dull frame cottage with four rooms, perched just below the brow of the hill, amid peach trees. The father was a quiet, simple soul, calmly ignorant, with no touch of vulgarity. The mother was different,--strong, bustling, and energetic, with a quick, restless tongue, and an ambition to live "like folks." There was a crowd of children. Two boys had gone away. There remained two growing girls; a shy midget of eight; John, tall, awkward, and eighteen; Jim, younger, quicker, and better looking; and two babies of indefinite age. Then there was Josie herself. She seemed to be the center of the family: always busy at service, or at home, or berry-picking; a little nervous and inclined to scold, like her mother, yet faithful, too, like her father. She had about her a certain fineness, the shadow of an unconscious moral heroism that would willingly give all of life to make life broader, deeper, and fuller for her and hers. I saw much of this family afterwards, and grew to love them for their honest efforts to be decent and comfortable, and for their knowledge of their own ignorance. There was with them no affectation. The mother would scold the father for being so "easy"; Josie would roundly berate the boys for carelessness; and all know that it was a hard thing to dig a living out of a rocky side-hill. I secured the school. I remember the day I rode horseback out to the commissioner's house with a pleasant young white fellow who wanted the white school. The road ran down the bed of a stream; the sun laughed and the water jingled, and we rode on. "Come in," said the commissioner,--"come in. Have a seat. Yes, that certificate will do. Stay to dinner. What do you want a month?" "Oh," thought I, "this is lucky"; but even then fell the first awful shadow of the Veil, for they ate first, then I--alone. The schoolhouse was a log hut, where Colonel Wheeler used to shelter his corn. It sat in a lot behind a rail fence and thorn bushes, near the sweetest of springs. There was an entrance where a door once was, and within, a massive rickety fireplace; great chinks between the logs served as windows. Furniture was scarce. A pale blackboard crouched in the corner. My desk was made of three boards, reinforced at critical points, and my chair, borrowed from the landlady, had to be returned every night. Seats for the children--these puzzled me much. I was haunted by a New England vision of neat little desks and chairs, but, alas! the reality was rough plank benches without backs, and at times without legs. They had the one virtue of making naps dangerous,--possibly fatal, for the floor was not to be trusted. It was a hot morning late in July when the school opened. I trembled when I heard the patter of little feet down the dusty road, and saw the growing row of dark solemn faces and bright eager eyes facing me. First came Josie and her brothers and sisters. The longing to know, to be a student in the great school at Nashville, hovered like a star above this child-woman amid her work and worry, and she studied doggedly. There were the Dowells from their farm over toward Alexandria,--Fanny, with her smooth black face and wondering eyes; Martha, brown and dull; the pretty girl-wife of a brother, and the younger brood. There were the Burkes,--two brown and yellow lads, and a tiny haughty-eyed girl. Fat Reuben's little chubby girl came, with golden face and old-gold hair, faithful and solemn. 'Thenie was on hand early,--a jolly, ugly, good-hearted girl, who slyly dipped snuff and looked after her little bow-legged brother. When her mother could spare her, 'Tildy came,--a midnight beauty, with starry eyes and tapering limbs; and her brother, correspondingly homely. And then the big boys,--the hulking Lawrences; the lazy Neills, unfathered sons of mother and daughter; Hickman, with a stoop in his shoulders; and the rest. There they sat, nearly thirty of them, on the rough benches, their faces shading from a pale cream to a deep brown, the little feet bare and swinging, the eyes full of expectation, with here and there a twinkle of mischief, and the hands grasping Webster's blue-back spelling-book. I loved my school, and the fine faith the children had in the wisdom of their teacher was truly marvelous. We read and spelled together, wrote a little, picked flowers, sang, and listened to stories of the world beyond the hill. At times the school would dwindle away, and I would start out. I would visit Mun Eddings, who lived in two very dirty rooms, and ask why little Lugene, whose flaming face seemed ever ablaze with the dark-red hair uncombed, was absent all last week, or why I missed so often the inimitable rags of Mack and Ed. Then the father, who worked Colonel Wheeler's farm on shares, would tell me how the crops needed the boys; and the thin, slovenly mother, whose face was pretty when washed, assured me that Lugene must mind the baby. "But we'll start them again next week." When the Lawrences stopped, I knew that the doubts of the old folks about book-learning had conquered again, and so, toiling up the hill, and getting as far into the cabin as possible, I put Cicero "pro Archia Poeta" into the simplest English with local applications, and usually convinced them--for a week or so. On Friday nights I often went home with some of the children,--sometimes to Doc Burke's farm. He was a great, loud, thin Black, ever working, and trying to buy the seventy-five acres of hill and dale where he lived; but people said that he would surely fail, and the "white folks would get it all." His wife was a magnificent Amazon, with saffron face and shining hair, uncorseted and barefooted, and the children were strong and beautiful. They lived in a one-and-a-half-room cabin in the hollow of the farm, near the spring. The front room was full of great fat white beds, scrupulously neat; and there were bad chromos on the walls, and a tired center-table. In the tiny back kitchen I was often invited to "take out and help" myself to fried chicken and wheat biscuit, "meat" and corn pone, string-beans and berries. At first I used to be a little alarmed at the approach of bedtime in the lone bedroom, but embarrassment was very deftly avoided. First, all the children nodded and slept, and were stowed away in one great pile of goose feathers; next, the mother and the father discreetly slipped away to the kitchen while I went to bed; then, blowing out the dim light, they retired in the dark. In the morning all were up and away before I thought of awaking. Across the road, where fat Reuben lived, they all went out-doors while the teacher retired, because they did not boast the luxury of a kitchen. I liked to stay with the Dowells, for they had four rooms and plenty of good country fare. Uncle Bird had a small, rough farm, all woods and hills, miles from the big road; but he was full of tales,--he preached now and then,--and with his children, berries, horses, and wheat he was happy and prosperous. Often, to keep the peace, I must go where life was less lovely; for instance, 'Tildy's mother was incorrigibly dirty, Reuben's larder was limited seriously, and herds of untamed insects wandered over the Eddingses' beds. Best of all I loved to go to Josie's, and sit on the porch, eating peaches, while the mother bustled and talked: how Josie had bought the sewing-machine; how Josie worked at service in winter, but that four dollars a month was "mighty little" wages; how Josie longed to go away to school, but that it "looked like" they never could get far enough ahead to let her; how the crops failed and the well was yet unfinished; and, finally, how "mean" some of the white folks were. For two summers I lived in this little world; it was dull and humdrum. The girls looked at the hill in wistful longing, and the boys fretted and haunted Alexandria. Alexandria was "town,"--a straggling, lay village of houses, churches, and shops, and an aristocracy of Toms, Dicks, and Captains. Cuddled on the hill to the north was the village of the colored folks, who lived in three- or four-room unpainted cottages, some neat and homelike, and some dirty. The dwellings were scattered rather aimlessly, but they centered about the twin temples of the hamlet, the Methodist and the Hard-Shell Baptist churches. These, in turn, leaned gingerly on a sad-colored schoolhouse. Hither my little world wended its crooked way on Sunday to meet other worlds, and gossip, and wonder, and make the weekly sacrifice with frenzied priest at the altar of the "old-time religion." Then the soft melody and mighty cadences of Negro song fluttered and thundered. I have called my tiny community a world, and so its isolation made it; and yet there was among us but a half-awakened common consciousness, sprung from common joy and grief, at burial, birth, or wedding; from a common hardship in poverty, poor land, and low wages; and above all, from the sight of the Veil that hung between us and Opportunity. All this caused us to think some thoughts together; but these, when ripe for speech, were spoken in various languages. Those whose eyes twenty-five or more years before had seen "the glory of the coming of the Lord," saw in every present hindrance or help a dark fatalism bound to bring all things right in His own good time. The mass of those to whom slavery was a dim recollection of childhood found the world a puzzling thing: it asked little of them, and they answered with little, and yet it ridiculed their offering. Such a paradox they could not understand, and therefore sank into listless indifference, or shiftlessness, or reckless bravado. There were, however, some--such as Josie, Jim and Ben--to whom War, Hell, and Slavery were but childhood tales, whose young appetites had been whetted to an edge by school and story and half-awakened thought. Ill could they be content, born without and beyond the World. And their weak wings beat against their barriers,--barriers of caste, of youth, of life; at last, in dangerous moments, against everything that opposed even a whim. ERE SLEEP COMES DOWN TO SOOTHE THE WEARY EYES PAUL LAURENCE DUNBAR Ere sleep comes down to soothe the weary eyes, Which all the day with ceaseless care have sought The magic gold which from the seeker flies; Ere dreams put on the gown and cap of thought, And make the waking world a world of lies,-- Of lies most palpable, uncouth, forlorn, That say life's full of aches and tears and sighs,-- Oh, how with more than dreams the soul is torn, Ere sleep comes down to soothe the weary eyes. Ere sleep comes down to soothe the weary eyes, Now all the griefs and heartaches we have known Come up like pois'nous vapors that arise From some base witch's caldron, when the crone, To work some potent spell, her magic plies. The past which held its share of bitter pain, Whose ghost we prayed that Time might exorcise, Comes up, is lived and suffered o'er again, Ere sleep comes down to soothe the weary eyes. Ere sleep comes down to soothe the weary eyes, What phantoms fill the dimly lighted room; What ghostly shades in awe-creating guise Are bodied forth within the teeming gloom. What echoes great of sad and soul-sick cries, And pangs of vague inexplicable pain That pay the spirit's ceaseless enterprise, Come thronging through the chambers of the brain, Ere sleep comes down to soothe the weary eyes. Ere sleep comes down to soothe the weary eyes, Where ranges forth the spirit far and free? Through what strange realms and unfamiliar skies Tends her far course to lands of mystery? To lands unspeakable--beyond surmise, Where shapes unknowable to being spring, Till, faint of wing, the Fancy fails and dies Much wearied with the spirit's journeying, Ere sleep comes down to soothe the weary eyes. Ere sleep comes down to soothe the weary eyes, Now questioneth the soul that other soul-- The inner sense which neither cheats nor lies, But self exposes unto self, a scroll Full writ with all life's acts unwise or wise, In characters indelible and known; So, trembling with the shock of sad surprise, The soul doth view its awful self alone, Ere sleep comes down to soothe the weary eyes. When sleep comes down to seal the weary eyes, The last dear sleep whose soft embrace is balm, And whom sad sorrow teaches us to prize For kissing all our passions into calm, Ah, then, no more we heed the sad world's cries, Or seek to probe th' eternal mystery, Or fret our souls at long-withheld replies, At glooms through which our visions cannot see, When sleep comes down to seal the weary eyes. THE LAND OF LAUGHTER ANGELINA W. GRIMKE Once upon a time there were two dear little boys, and they were all alone in the world. They lived with a cruel old man and old woman, who made them work hard, very hard--all day, and beat them when they did not move fast enough, and always, every night, before they went to bed. They slept in an attic on a rickety, narrow bed, that went screech! screech! whenever they moved. And, in the summer, they nearly died with the heat up there; and in the winter with the cold. One wintry night, when they were both weeping very bitterly after a particularly hard beating, they suddenly heard a pleasant voice saying: "Why are you crying, little boys?" They looked up, and there in the moonlight, by their bed, was the dearest little old lady. She was dressed all in grey, from the peak of her little pointed hat to her little, buckled shoes. She held a black cane much taller than her little self. Her hair fell about her ears in tiny, grey corkscrew curls; and they bobbed about as she moved. Her eyes were black and bright--as bright as--well, as that lovely, white light in the fire. And her cheeks were as red as an apple. "Why are you crying, little boys?" she asked again, in a lovely, low, little voice. "Because we are tired and sore and hungry and cold; and we are all alone in the world; and we don't know how to laugh any more. We should so like to laugh again." "Why, that's easy," she said, "it's just like this," and she laughed a little, joyous, musical laugh. "Try!" she commanded. They tried, but their laughing boxes were very rusty and they made horrid sounds. "Well," she said, "I advise you to pack up, and go away, as soon as you can, to the Land of Laughter. You'll soon learn there, I can tell you." "Is there such a land?" they asked doubtfully. "To be sure there is," she answered, the least bit sharply. "We never heard of it," they said. "Well, I'm sure there must be plenty of things you never heard about," she said just the "leastest" bit more sharply. "In a moment you'll be telling me the flowers don't talk together, and the birds." "We never heard of such a thing," they said in surprise, their eyes like saucers. "There!" she said, bobbing her little curls. "What did I tell you. You have much to learn." "How do you get to the Land of Laughter?" they asked. "You go out of the eastern gate of the town, just as the sun is rising; and you take the highway there, and follow it; and if you go with it long enough, it will bring you to the gate of the Land of Laughter. It is a long, long way from here; and it will take you many days." The words had scarcely left her mouth when, lo! the little lady disappeared, and where she had stood was the white square of moonlight--nothing else. And without more ado these two little boys put their arms round each other, and fell fast asleep. And in the grey, just before daybreak, they awoke and dressed; and putting on their little ragged caps and mittens, for it was a wintry day, they stole out of the house, and made for the eastern gate. And just as they reached it and passed through, the whole east leapt into fire. [Illustration: The Land of Laughter] All day they walked, and many days thereafter; and kindly people, by the way, took them in and gave them food and drink and sometimes a bed at night. Often they slept by the roadside; but they didn't mind that for the climate was delightful--not too hot, and not too cold. They soon threw away their ragged little mittens. They walked for many days; and there was no Land of Laughter. Once they met an old man, richly dressed, with shining jewels on his fingers, and he stopped them and asked: "Where are you going so fast, little boys?" "We are going to the Land of Laughter," they said very gravely. "That," said the old man, "is a very foolish thing to do. Come with me and I will take you to the Land of Riches. I will cover you with beautiful garments, and give you jewels and a castle to live in with servants and horses and many things besides." And they said to him, "No, we wish to learn how to laugh again; we have forgotten how, and we are going to the Land of Laughter." "You will regret not going with me. See if you don't," he said, and he left them in quite a huff. And they walked again, many days, and again they met an old man. He was tall and imposing-looking and very dignified. And he said: "Where are you going so fast, little boys?" "We are going to the Land of Laughter," they said together very seriously. "What!" he said, "that is an extremely foolish thing to do. Come with me, and I will give you power. I will make you great men; generals, kings, emperors. Whatever you desire to accomplish will be permitted you." And they said politely: "Thank you, very much, but we have forgotten how to laugh; and we are going there to learn how." He looked upon them haughtily, without speaking, and disappeared. And they walked and walked more days; and they met another old man. And he was clad in rags; and his face was thin; and his eyes were unhappy. And he whispered to them: "Where are you going so fast, little boys?" "We are going to the Land of Laughter," they answered, without a smile. "Laughter! laughter! that is useless. Come with me and I will show you the beauty of life through sacrifice, suffering for others. That is the only life. I come from the Land of Sacrifice." And they thanked him kindly, but said: "We have suffered enough. We have forgotten how to laugh. We would learn again." And they went on; and he looked after them wistfully. They walked more days; and at last they came to the Land of Laughter. And how do you suppose they knew this? Because they could hear, over the wall, the sound of joyous laughter--the laughter of men, women and little children. And one sat guarding the gate, and they went to her. "We have come a long, long distance; and we would enter the Land of Laughter." "Let me see you smile, first," she said gently. "I sit at the gate and no one who does not know how to smile may enter into the Land of Laughter." And they tried to smile, but could not. "Go away and practise," she said kindly, "and come back tomorrow." And they went away, and practised all night how to smile; and, in the morning, they returned. And the gentle lady at the gate said: "Dear little boys, have you learned how to smile?" And they said: "We have tried. How is this?" "Better," she said, "much better. Practise some more, and come back tomorrow." And they went away obediently and practised. And they came the third day. And she said: "Now, try again." And tears of delight came into her lovely eyes. "Those were very beautiful smiles," she said. "Now you may enter." And she unlocked the gate and kissed them both, and they entered the beautiful Land of Laughter. Never had they seen such blue skies, such green trees and grass; never had they heard such bird song. And people, men, women and children, laughing softly, came to meet them, and took them in, and made them at home; and soon, very soon, they learned to laugh. All day they laughed, and even in their sleep. And they grew up here, and married, and had laughing, happy children. And sometimes they thought of the Land of Riches, and said, "Ah! well"; and sometimes of the Land of Power, and sighed a little; and sometimes of the Land of Sacrifice--and their eyes were wistful. But they soon forgot, and laughed again. And they grew old, laughing. And when they died--a laugh was on their lips. Thus are things in the beautiful Land of Laughter. THE WEB OF CIRCUMSTANCE CHARLES W. CHESNUTT Some time, we are told, when the cycle of years has rolled around, there is to be another golden age, when all men will dwell together in love and harmony, and when peace and righteousness shall prevail for a thousand years. God speed the day, and let not the shining thread of hope become so enmeshed in the web of circumstance that we lose sight of it; but give us here and there, and now and then, some little foretaste of this golden age, that we may the more patiently and hopefully await its coming! IS THE GAME WORTH THE CANDLE? JAMES E. SHEPARD A man's life depends upon his emotions, his aspirations, his determinations. A young man, somebody's son, starts out with the determination that the world is indebted to him for a good time. "Dollars were made to spend. I am young, and every man must sow his wild oats and then settle down. I want to be a 'hail fellow well met' with every one." With this determination uppermost in his life purpose he starts out to be a good-timer. Perhaps some mother expects to hear great things of her boy, some father's hopes are centered in him, but what does that matter? "I am a good-timer." From one gayety to another, from one glass to another, from one sin to another, and the good-timer at last is broken in health, deserted by friends, and left alone to die. Thus the "man about town" passes off the stage. When you ask some of his friends about him, the answer is, "Oh, John was all right, but he lived too fast. I like good times as well as anyone, but I could not keep up with John." Was the game worth the candle? Two pictures came before my mind: two cousins, both of them young men. One started out early in life with the determination of getting along "easy," shirking work, and looking for a soft snap. His motto was, "The world owes me a living, and I am going to get mine." He was employed first by one firm and then by another; if anything that he considered hard came along, he would pay another fellow to do the work and he "took things easy." It was not long before no one would hire him. He continued to hold the idea that the world was indebted to him and furthermore, he arrogated a belief that what another man had accumulated he could borrow without his knowledge. He forged another man's name, was detected, and sentenced to the penitentiary and is now wearing the badge of felony and shame--the convict's stripes. Is the game worth the candle? The other cousin started out with a determination altogether different. He believed with Lord Brougham, that if he were a bootblack he would strive to be the best bootblack in England. He began in a store as a window-cleaner, and washed windows so well that they sparkled like diamonds under the sun. As a clerk, no customer was too insignificant to be greeted with a smile or pleasant word; no task was too great for him to attempt. Thus step by step, he advanced, each day bringing new duties and difficulties but each day also bringing new strength and determination to master them, and today that cousin is a man of wealth and an honored citizen, blessed, too, with a happy home. Some young men start life with the idea that every dollar made requires that one dollar and a half shall be spent; in order to be noticed they must make a big show, give big dinners, carriage drives, and parties, invite friends to the theaters, and have a "swell" time; must do like Mr. "So-and-So." They forget in their desire to copy, that Mr. "So-and-So," their pattern, has already made his fortune; that he began to save before he began to spend. But no, his name appears often in the papers and they think also that theirs must. So they begin their careers. A few years pass. The young men marry; their debts begin to accumulate and to press them, their countenances are always woe-begone; where once were smiles, now are frowns, and the homes are pictures of gloom and shadows. The lesson is plain. Debt is the greatest burden that can be put upon man; it makes him afraid to look honest men in the face. No man can be a leader in the fullest sense who is burdened by a great debt. If there is any young man who is spending more than he is making, let him ask himself the question, Is the game worth the candle? I know another young man who believed he could be happy by spending one-third of what he made and saving the other portion. He said to me, "some day I want to marry and I want to treat my wife better, if possible, than she was treated at home. I want to respect my fellow man, I want to be a leader, and I know I can only do so by saving a part of what I make." It was my good pleasure, a few weeks ago, to visit the city where this young man is practising medicine. He carried me over that town in an automobile, he entertained me in his $5000 home, he showed me other property which he owned. Ah, his indeed was a happy home. Life to him was blessedly real. A young man starts out in life with the determination to fight his way by physical force to the front ranks. Bruised, disfigured, or killed, he is forced back even beyond the lines again. A religiously inclined youth asked his pastor, "Do you think it would be wrong for me to learn the noble art of self-defense?" "Certainly not," replied the pastor, "I learned it in youth myself, and I have found it of great value in my life." "Indeed, sir, did you learn the Old English system or the Sullivan system" "Neither; I learned Solomon's system!" replied the minister. "Yes, you will find it laid down in the first verse of the fifteenth chapter of Proverbs, 'A soft answer turneth away wrath'; it is the best system of self-defense I know." Another young man starts life with a wrong idea regarding city and country life. Born in the country he is free, his thoughts and ambitions can feed on a pure atmosphere, but he thinks his conditions and his surroundings are circumscribed; he longs for the city, with its bigness, its turmoil, and its conflicts. He leaves the old homestead, the quiet village, the country people, and hies himself to the city. He forgets to a large extent the good boy he used to be, in the desire to keep up with the fashions and to make the people forget that he was once a country boy. City life, as is often the case, breaks up his youth, destroys his morals, undermines his character, steals his reputation, and finally leaves the promising youth a wrecked man. Was the game worth the candle? Young men, never be ashamed of the old log-cabin in the country, or the old bonnet your mother used to wear, or the jean pants your father used to toil in. I had rather be a poor country boy with limited surroundings and a pure heart than to be a city man bedecked in the latest fashions and weighted down with money, having no morals, no character. I had rather have the religion and faith of my fathers than to have the highest offices. I had rather have glorious life, pure and lofty, than to have great riches. Sir Walter Scott was right when he said: "Sound, sound the clarion, fill the fife, To all the sensual world proclaim: One crowded hour of glorious life Is worth an age without a name." There are two old Dutch words which have resounded through the world, "_Neen nimmer_," "No, never." The fleets of Spain heard it, and understood it fully, when they saw the sinking Dutch ships with the flags nailed to the shattered mainmast, crying, "_Neen nimmer_," which indicated that they would never surrender. Will the young men who are to be the leaders, spend their hours in riotous living? No, never! Will they be false to duty? No, never! Will they shirk? No, never! Will they be disloyal to self, to home, to country, and to God? No, never! Croesus was a rich man, a king. One day Croesus said to Solon, the philosopher, "Do you not think I am a happy man?" Solon answered, "Alas, I do not know, Croesus; that life is happy that ends well." A few years later when Croesus had lost his wealth, his kingdom, and his health, and had been deserted by those who in his days of glory ran to do his slightest bidding, Croesus in anguish and misery exclaimed, "Solon, Solon, thou saidst truly that life is well and happy that ends well." O BLACK AND UNKNOWN BARDS JAMES WELDON JOHNSON O black and unknown bards of long ago, How came your lips to touch the sacred fire? How, in your darkness, did you come to know The power and beauty of the minstrel's lyre? Who first from midst his bonds lifted his eyes? Who first from out the still watch, lone and long, Feeling the ancient faith of prophets rise Within his dark-kept soul, burst into song? Heart of what slave poured out such melody As "Steal away to Jesus"? On its strains His spirit must have nightly floated free, Though still about his hands he felt his chains. Who heard great "Jordan roll"? Whose starward eye Saw chariot "swing low"? And who was he That breathed that comforting, melodic sigh, "Nobody knows de trouble I see?" What merely living clod, what captive thing, Could up toward God through all its darkness grope, And find within its deadened heart to sing These songs of sorrow, love, and faith, and hope? How did it catch that subtle undertone, That note in music heard not with the ears? How sound the elusive reed so seldom blown, Which stirs the soul or melts the heart to tears. Not that great German master in his dream Of harmonies that thundered 'mongst the stars At the creation, ever heard a theme Nobler than "Go down, Moses." Mark its bars, How like a mighty trumpet-call they stir The blood. Such are the notes that men have sung Going to valorous deeds; such tones there were That helped make history when Time was young. There is a wide, wide wonder in it all, That from degraded rest and servile toil The fiery spirit of the seer should call These simple children of the sun and soil. O black slave singers, gone, forgot, unfamed, You--you alone, of all the long, long line Of those who've sung untaught, unknown, unnamed, Have stretched out upward, seeking the divine. You sang not deeds of heroes or of kings; No chant of bloody war, no exulting pean Of arms-won triumphs; but your humble strings You touched in chord with music empyrean. You sang far better than you knew; the songs That for your listeners' hungry hearts sufficed Still live,--but more than this to you belongs: You sang a race from wood and stone to Christ. THE GREATEST MENACE OF THE SOUTH WILLIAM J. EDWARDS In every age there are great and pressing problems to be solved. Perhaps no section of this country has been confronted with more difficult problems than the South. I therefore wish to present what I consider to be the greatest menace of this section. The one thing to-day, in which we stand in greatest danger, is the loss of the fertility of the soil. If we should lose this, as we are gradually doing, then all is lost. If we should save it, then all other things will be added. Our great need is the conservation and preservation of the soil. The increased crops which we have in the South occasionally, are not due to improved methods of farming, but to increased acreage. Thousands of acres of new land are added each year and our increase in farm production is due to the strength of these fresh lands. There is not much more woodland to be taken in as new farm lands, for this source has been well nigh exhausted. We must then, within a few years, expect a gradual reduction in the farm production of the South. Already the old farm lands that have been in cultivation for the past fifty or fifty-five years are practically worn out. I have seen in my day where forty acres of land twenty or twenty-five years ago would produce from twenty to twenty-five bales of cotton each year, and from 800 to 1000 bushels of corn. Now, these forty acres will not produce more than eight or nine bales of cotton and hardly enough corn to feed two horses. In fact, one small family cannot obtain a decent support from the land which twenty years ago supported three families in abundance. This farm is not on the hillside, neither has it been worn away by erosion. It is situated in the lowlands, in the black prairie, and is considered the best farm on a large plantation. This condition obtains in all parts of the South today. This constant deterioration of land, this gradual reduction of crops year after year, if kept up for the next fifty years, will surely prove disastrous to the South. Practically all the land in the black belt of the South is cultivated by Negroes and the farm production has decreased so rapidly during the last ten or fifteen years that the average Negro farmer hardly makes sufficient to pay his rent and buy the few necessaries of life. Of course, here and there where a tenant has been lucky enough to get hold of some new land, he makes a good crop, but after three or four years of cultivation, his crop begins to decrease and this decrease is kept up as long as he keeps the land. Instead of improving, the tenant's condition becomes worse each year until he finds it impossible to support his family on the farm. Farm after farm is being abandoned or given up to the care of the old men and women. Already, most of these are too old and feeble to do effective work. Now, the chief cause of these farms becoming less productive is the failure on the part of the farmers to add something to the land after they have gathered their crops. They seem to think that the land contains an inexhaustible supply of plant food. Another cause is the failure of the farmer to rotate his crop. There are farms being cultivated in the South today where the same piece of land has been planted in cotton every year for forty or fifty years. Forty years ago, this same land would yield from one bale to one and a half per acre. And today it will take from four to six acres to produce one bale. Still another cause for the deterioration of the soil is erosion. There is no effort put forth on the tenant's part to prevent his farm from washing away. The hillside and other rolling lands are not terraced and after being in use four or five years, practically all of these lands are washed away and as farm lands they are abandoned. Not only are the hillside lands unprotected from the beating rains and flowing streams, but the bottom or lowlands are not properly drained, and the sand washed down from the hill, the chaff and raft from previous rains soon fill the ditches and creeks and almost any ordinary rain will cause an overflow of these streams. Under these conditions an average crop is impossible even in the best of years. At present the South does not produce one-half of the foodstuff that it consumes and if the present conditions of things continue for the next fifty years, this section of the country will be on the verge of starvation and famines will be a frequent occurrence. Of course, Negro starvation will come first, but white man starvation will surely follow. I believe, therefore, that I am justified in saying that there is even more danger in Negro starvation than there is in Negro domination. I have noticed in this country that the sins of the races are contagious. If the Negro in a community be lazy, indifferent, and careless about his farm, the white man in the community will soon fall into the same habit. On the other hand, if the white man is smart, industrious, energetic and persevering in his general makeup, the Negro will soon fall into line; so after all, whatever helps one race in the South will help the other and whatever degrades one race in the South, sooner or later will degrade the other. But you may reply to this assertion by saying that the Negro can go to the city and make an independent living for himself and family, but you forget that all real wealth must come from the soil and that the city cannot prosper unless the country is prosperous. When the country fails, the city feels the effect; when the country weeps, the city moans; when agriculture dies, all die. Such are the conditions which face us today. Now for the remedy. It is worth while to remember that there are ten essential elements of plant food. If the supply of any one of the elements fails, the crop will fail. These ten elements are carbon and oxygen taken into the leaves of the plant from the air as carbon dioxide; hydrogen, a constituent of water absorbed through the plant roots; nitrogen, taken from the soil by all plants also secured from the air by legumes. The other elements are phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, calcium, iron and sulphur, all of which are secured from the soil. The soil nitrogen is contained in the organic matter or humus, and to maintain the supply of nitrogen we should keep the soil well stored with organic matter, making liberal use of clover or other legumes which have power to secure nitrogen from the inexhaustible supply in the air. It is interesting to note that one of the ablest chemists in this country, Prof. E. W. Clark of the United States Geological Survey, has said that an acre of ground seven inches deep contains sufficient iron to produce one hundred bushels of corn every year for 200,000 years, sufficient calcium to produce one hundred bushels of corn or one bale of cotton each year for 55,000 years, enough magnesium to produce such a crop 7,000 years, enough sulphur for 10,000 years and potassium for 2,600 years, but only enough phosphorus for 130 years. The nitrogen resting upon the surface of an acre of ground is sufficient to produce one hundred bushels of corn or a bale of cotton for 700,000 years; but only enough in the plowed soil to produce fifty such crops. In other words, there are enough of eight of the elements of plant food in the ordinary soil to produce 100 bushels of corn per acre or a bale of cotton per acre for each year for 2,600 years; but only enough of the other two, phosphorus and nitrogen, to produce such crops for forty or fifty years. Let us grant that most of our farm lands in the South have been in cultivation for fifty or seventy-five years, and in many instances for one hundred years, it is readily seen that practically all of the phosphorus and nitrogen in the plowed soil have been exhausted. Is it any wonder then that we are having such poor crops? The wonder is that our crops have kept up so well. Unless a radical change is made in our mode of farming, we must expect less and less crops each year until we have no crops, or such little that we can hardly pay the rent. To improve and again make fertile our soils, we must restore to them the phosphorus and nitrogen which have been used up in the seventy-five or more crops that we have gathered from them. This is a herculean task but this is what confronts us and I for one believe we can accomplish it. By the proper rotation of crops, including oats, clover, cowpeas, as well as cotton and corn, and a liberal use of barnyard manure and cotton seed fertilizer, all of the necessary elements of plant food can be restored to our worn-out soil. But the proper use of these requires much painstaking study. If the Negro is to remain the farming class in the Black Belt of the South, then he must be taught at least the rudiments of the modern methods of improving farming. He must have agricultural schools and must be encouraged to attend them. The loss of the fertility of the soil is the greatest menace of the South. How can we regain this lost fertility is the greatest question of the hour. THE ENCHANTED SHELL H. CORDELIA RAY Fair, fragile Una, golden-haired, With melancholy, dark gray eyes, Sits on a rock by laughing waves, Gazing into the radiant skies; And holding to her ear a shell, A rosy shell of wondrous form; Quite plaintively to her it coos Marvelous lays of sea and storm. It whispers of a fairy home With coral halls and pearly floors, Where mermaids clad in glist'ning gold Guard smilingly the jeweled doors. She listens and her weird gray eyes Grow weirder in their pensive gaze. The sea birds toss her tangled curls, The skiff lights glimmer through the haze. Oh, strange sea-singer! what has lent Such fascination to thy spell? Is some celestial guardian Prisoned within thee, tiny shell? [Illustration: The Enchanted Shell] The maid sits rapt until the stars In myriad shining clusters gleam; "Enchanted Una," she is called By boatmen gliding down the stream. The tempest beats the restless seas, The wind blows loud, fierce from the skies; Sweet, sylph-like Una clasps the shell, Peace brooding in her quiet eyes. The wind blows wilder, darkness comes, The rock is bare, night birds soar far; Thick clouds scud o'er the gloomy heav'ns Unvisited by any star. Where is quaint Una? On some isle, Dreaming 'mid music, may she be? Or does she listen to the shell In coral halls within the sea? The boatmen say on stormy nights They see rare Una with the shell, Sitting in pensive attitude, Is it a vision? Who can tell? BEHIND A GEORGIA MULE JAMES WELDON JOHNSON Now if you wish to travel fast, I beg you not to fool With locomotion that's procured Behind a Georgia mule. When I was teaching school in the backwoods of Georgia I had, one day, to attend to some business in Mudville, an embryo city about eleven miles from my school. Now you must know that a country school teacher can do nothing without first consulting his Board of Trustees; so I notified that honorable body that there was some business of vast importance to be attended to, and asked them to meet me on Friday afternoon; they all promised to be on hand "two hours b'sun." Friday afternoon, after school was dismissed, they came in one by one until they had all gathered. As the chairman called the meeting to order, he said: "Brederen, de objick ob dis meeting is to consider de ways ob pervidin de means ob transposin de 'fessar to Mudville." Now, by the way, the chairman of the Board was undoubtedly intended by nature for a smart man. He had a very strong weakness for using big words in the wrong place, and thought it his special duty to impress the "'fessar" at all times with his knowledge of the dictionary. Well, after much debate it was finally decided that "Brudder" Whitesides would "furnish de mule" and "Brudder Jinks de buggy" and that I should start early the next morning. The next morning I was up quite early, because I wished to start as soon as possible in order to avoid the heat of the day. I ate breakfast and waited--six o'clock, seven o'clock, eight o'clock--and still that promised beast had not put in appearance. Knowing the proclivity of the mule to meander along as his own sweet will dictates, especially when the sun shines hot, I began to despair of reaching Mudville at all that day; but "Brudder" Jinks, with whom I boarded, seeing my melancholy state of mind, offered to hitch up Gypsy, an antiquated specimen of the mule, whose general appearance was that of the skeleton of some prehistoric animal one sees in a museum. I accepted this proposition with haste, and repented at leisure. I could see a weary, long-suffering look in that mule's eye, and I could imagine how his heart must have sought the vicinity of his tail, when they disturbed his dreams of green fields and pleasant pastures, and hitched him to an old buggy, to encounter the stern realities of a dusty road. "Verily, verily," I soliloquized, "the way of the mule is hard." But, putting aside all tender feelings, I jumped into the buggy and grasping a stick of quite ample proportions began to urge his muleship on his way. Nothing of much consequence hampered our onward journey except the breaking down of three wheels and the excessive heat of the sun, which great luminary seemed not more than ninety-five miles away. I arrived at Mudville sometime between 12 M. and 6 P. M. After having finished my business and having bountifully fed my mule on water and what grass he could nibble from around his hitching post, I bought a large watermelon and started for home. Before I was out of sight of the town, I began to have serious misgivings about reaching home before a very late hour. In the morning by various admonitions and applications of the hickory, I had been able to get my mule into a jog trot, but on the homeward journey he would not even get up a respectable walk. Well, we trudged on for two hours or more, when to my dismay he stopped,--stopped still. As the hour was getting late and it was growing dark, I began advising him--with the hickory--that it was best to proceed, but he seemed to have hardened his heart, and his back also, and paid me no heed. There I sat--all was as still as the grave, save for the dismal hoot of the screech-owl. There I was, five and a half miles from home with no prospect of getting there. I began to coax my mule with some words which perhaps are not in the Sabbath School books, and to emphasize them with the rising and falling inflection of the stick across his back; but still he moved not. Then all at once my conscience smote me. I thought perhaps the faithful beast might be sick. My mind reverted to Balaam, whose beast spoke to him when he had smitten him but three times and here I had smitten my beast about 3,333 times. I listened almost in expectation of hearing him say, "Johnson, Johnson, why smitest thou me 3,333 times?" I got out of the buggy and looked at the mule; he gazed at me with a sad far-away expression in his eye, which sent pangs of remorse to my heart. I thought of the cruel treatment I had given him, and on the impulse of the moment I went to the buggy, got out my large, luscious melon, burst it open and laid it on the ground before the poor animal; and I firmly resolved to be a friend of the mule ever after, and to join the Humane Society as soon as I reached Atlanta. As I watched that mule slowly munching away at my melon, I began to wonder if I had not acted a little too hastily in giving it to him, but I smothered that thought when I remembered the pledge I had just taken. When he had finished he looked around with a satisfied air which encouraged me; so I took hold of his bridle and after stroking him gently for a moment, attempted to lead him off. But he refused to be led. He looked at me from under his shabby eyebrows, but the sad, far-away expression had vanished and in its stead there was a mischievous gleam, born of malice afore-thought. I remonstrated with him, but it only seemed to confirm his convictions that it was right for him to stand there. I thought of my melon he had just devoured; then I grew wrathy, and right there and then renounced all my Humane Society resolutions, and began to shower down on that mule torrents of abuse and hickory also, but all to no effect. Instead of advancing he began to "revance." I pulled on the bridle until my hands and arms were sore, but he only continued to back and pull me along with him. When I stopped pulling he stopped backing, and so things went on for the space of about half an hour. I wondered what time it was. Just then the moon began to rise, from which I knew it was about 9 o'clock. My physical exertion began to tell on me and I hungered. Oh, how I hungered for a piece of that watermelon! And I hit the mule an extra blow as a result of those longings. I was now desperate. I sat down on the side of the road and groaned; that groan came from the depths of my soul, and I know that I presented a perfect picture of despair. However, I determined to gather all my remaining strength for one final effort; so I caressed him up and down the backbone two or three times as a sort of persuader, then grasping the bridle with both hands, I began to pull, pull as I had never pulled before and as I never hope to pull again. And he began to back. I continued to pull and he continued to back. How long this order of things might have gone on I do not know, but just then a brilliant idea struck me so forcibly as to come near knocking me down. I took the mule out, and by various tying, buckling and tangling, I hitched him up again, upside down, or wrong side out, or, well, I can't exactly explain, but anyhow when I got through his tail pointed in the direction I wanted him to go. Then I got back in the buggy and taking hold of the bridle began to pull, and he began to back; and I continued to pull, and he continued to back; and will you believe me, that mule backed all the way home! It is true we did not travel very fast but every time he would slow down, I would put a little extra force into my pull and he would put a little extra speed into his back. Ever and anon he would glance at me with that mischievous, malicious twinkle, which seemed to say "I've got you tonight," and I would smile back a quiet, self-satisfied smile and give an extra pull. But when we got home, that mischievous, malicious twinkle changed, and he looked at me in a dazed sort of way and I smiled back quite audibly. And do you know, that mule has been in a dark brown study ever since. He is trying to get through his slow brain how I managed to make him pull me home that night. As I jumped out of the buggy the clock struck twelve. And there at that solemn hour of the night, as the pale moon shed her silvery beams all around and as the bright stars peeped down upon me from the ethereal blue, and the gentle zephyrs wafted to me the odor of a hog-pen in the near distance, I vowed a vow, an awful vow, that so long as I breathed the vital air, never, no, never again, would I attempt to drive a Georgia mule. HAYTI AND TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE W. E. B. DUBOIS It was in the island of Hayti that French slavery centered. Pirates from many nations, but chiefly French, began to frequent the island, and in 1663 the French annexed the eastern part, thus dividing the island between France and Spain. By 1680 there were so many slaves and mulattoes that Louis XIV issued his celebrated Code Noir, which was notable in compelling bachelor masters, fathers of slave children, to marry their concubines. Children followed the condition of the mother as to slavery or freedom; they could have no property; harsh punishments were provided for, but families could not be separated by sale except in the case of grown children; emancipation with full civil rights was made possible for any slave twenty years of age or more. When Louisiana was settled and the Alabama coast, slaves were introduced there. Louisiana was transferred to Spain in 1762, against the resistance of both settlers and slaves, but Spain took possession in 1769 and introduced more Negroes. Later, in Hayti, a more liberal policy encouraged trade; war was over and capital and slaves poured in. Sugar, coffee, chocolate, indigo, dyes, and spices were raised. There were large numbers of mulattoes, many of whom were educated in France, and many masters married Negro women who had inherited large properties, just as in the United States to-day white men are marrying eagerly the landed Indian women in the West. When white immigration increased in 1749, however, prejudice arose against these mulattoes and severe laws were passed depriving them of civil rights, entrance into the professions, and the right to hold office; severe edicts were enforced as to clothing, names, and social intercourse. Finally, after 1777, mulattoes were forbidden to come to France. When the French Revolution broke out, the Haytians managed to send two delegates to Paris. Nevertheless the planters maintained the upper hand, and one of the colored delegates, Oge, on returning, started a small rebellion. He and his companions were killed with great brutality. This led the French government to grant full civil rights to free Negroes. Immediately planters and free Negroes flew to arms against each other and then, suddenly, August 22, 1791, the black slaves, of whom there were four hundred and fifty-two thousand, arose in revolt to help the free Negroes. For many years runaway slaves under their own chiefs had hidden in the mountains. One of the earliest of these chiefs was Polydor, in 1724, who was succeeded by Macandal. The great chief of these runaways or "Maroons" at the time of the slave revolt was Jean François, who was soon succeeded by Biassou. Pierre Dominic Toussaint, known as Toussaint L'Ouverture, joined these Maroon bands, where he was called "the doctor of the armies of the king," and soon became chief aid to Jean François and Biassou. Upon their deaths Toussaint rose to the chief command. He acquired complete control over the blacks, not only in military matters, but in politics and social organization; "the soldiers regarded him as a superior being, and the farmers prostrated themselves before him. All his generals trembled before him (Dessalines did not dare to look in his face), and all the world trembled before his generals." The revolt once started, blacks and mulattoes murdered whites without mercy and the whites retaliated. Commissioners were sent from France, who asked simply civil rights for freedmen, and not emancipation. Indeed that was all that Toussaint himself had as yet demanded. The planters intrigued with the British and this, together with the beheading of the king (an impious act in the eyes of Negroes), induced Toussaint to join the Spaniards. In 1793 British troops were landed and the French commissioners in desperation declared the slaves emancipated. This at once won back Toussaint from the Spaniards. He became supreme in the north, while Rigaud, leader of the mulattoes, held the south and the west. By 1798 the British, having lost most of their forces by yellow fever, surrendered Mole St. Nicholas to Toussaint and departed. Rigaud finally left for France, and Toussaint in 1800 was master of Hayti. He promulgated a constitution under which Hayti was to be a self-governing colony; all men were equal before the law, and trade was practically free. Toussaint was to be president for life, with the power to name his successor. Napoleon Bonaparte, master of France, had at this time dreams of a great American empire, and replied to Toussaint's new government by sending twenty-five thousand men under his brother-in-law to subdue the presumptuous Negroes, as a preliminary step to his occupation and development of the Mississippi valley. Fierce fighting and yellow fever decimated the French, but matters went hard with the Negroes too, and Toussaint finally offered to yield. He was courteously received with military honors and then, as soon as possible, treacherously seized, bound, and sent to France. He was imprisoned at Fort Joux and died, perhaps of poison, after studied humiliations, April 7, 1803. Thus perished the greatest of American Negroes and one of the great men of all time, at the age of fifty-six. A French planter said, "God in his terrestrial globe did not commune with a purer spirit." Wendell Phillips said, "Some doubt the courage of the Negro. Go to Hayti and stand on those fifty thousand graves of the best soldiers France ever had and ask them what they think of the Negro's sword. I would call him Napoleon, but Napoleon made his way to empire over broken oaths and through a sea of blood. This man never broke his word. I would call him Cromwell, but Cromwell was only a soldier, and the state he founded went down with him into his grave. I would call him Washington, but the great Virginian held slaves. This man risked his empire rather than permit the slave trade in the humblest village of his dominions. You think me a fanatic, for you read history, not with your eyes, but with your prejudices. But fifty years hence, when Truth gets a hearing, the Muse of history will put Phocion for the Greek, Brutus for the Roman, Hampden for the English, La Fayette for France, choose Washington as the bright consummate flower of our earlier civilization, then, dipping her pen in the sunlight, will write in the clear blue, above them all, the name of the soldier, the statesman, the martyr, Toussaint L'Ouverture." The treacherous killing of Toussaint did not conquer Hayti. In 1802 and 1803 some forty thousand French soldiers died of war and fever. A new colored leader, Dessalines, arose and all the eight thousand remaining French surrendered to the blockading British fleet. The effect of all this was far-reaching. Napoleon gave up his dream of American empire and sold Louisiana for a song. "Thus, all of Indian Territory, all of Kansas and Nebraska and Iowa and Wyoming and Montana and the Dakotas, and most of Colorado and Minnesota, and all of Washington and Oregon states, came to us as the indirect work of a despised Negro. Praise, if you will, the work of a Robert Livingstone or a Jefferson, but to-day let us not forget our debt to Toussaint L'Ouverture, who was indirectly the means of America's expansion by the Louisiana Purchase of 1803." HIS MOTTO LOTTIE BURRELL DIXON "But I can't leave my business affairs and go off on a fishing trip now." The friend and specialist who had tricked John Durmont into a confession of physical bankruptcy, and made him submit to an examination in spite of himself, now sat back with an "I wash my hands of you" gesture. "Very well, you can either go to Maine, now, at once, or you'll go to--well, as I'm only your spiritual adviser, my prognostications as to your ultimate destination would probably have very little weight with you." "Oh, well, if you are so sure, I suppose I can cut loose now, if it comes to a choice like that." The doctor smiled his satisfaction. "So you prefer to bear the ills of New York than to fly to others you know not of, eh?" "Oh, have a little mercy on Shakespeare, at least. I'll go." And thus it was that a week later found Durmont as deep in the Maine woods as he could get and still be within reach of a telegraph wire. And much to his surprise he found he liked it. As he lay stretched at full length on the soft turf, the breath of the pines filled his lungs, the lure of the lake made him eager to get to his fishing tackle, and he admitted to himself that a man needed just such a holiday as this in order to keep his mental and physical balance. Returning to the gaily painted frame building, called by courtesy the "Hotel," which nestled among the pines, he met the youthful operator from the near-by station looking for him with a message from his broker. A complicated situation had arisen in Amalgamated Copper, and an immediate answer was needed. Durmont had heavy investments in copper, though his business was the manufacture of electrical instruments. He walked back to the office with the operator while pondering the answer, then having written it, handed it to the operator saying, "Tell them to rush answer." The tall lank youth, whose every movement was a protest against being hurried, dragged himself over to the telegraph key. "'S open." "What's open?" "Wire." "Well, is that the only wire you have?" "Yep." "What in the world am I going to do about this message?" "Dunno, maybe it will close bime-by." And the young lightning slinger pulled towards him a lurid tale of the Wild West, and proceeded to enjoy himself. "And meanwhile, what do you suppose is going to happen to me?" thundered Durmont. "Haven't you ambition enough to look around your wire and see if you can find the trouble?" "Lineman's paid to look up trouble; I'm not," was the surly answer. Durmont was furious, but what he was about to say was cut off by a quiet voice at his elbow. "I noticed linemen repairing wires upon the main road, that's where this wire is open. If you have any message you are in a hurry to send, perhaps I can help you out." Durmont turned to see a colored boy of fifteen whose entrance he had not noticed. "What can you do about it?" he asked contemptuously, "take it into town in an ox team?" "I can send it by wireless, if that is sufficiently quick." Durmont turned to the operator at the table. "Is there a wireless near here?" "He owns one, you'll have to do business with him on that," said the youth with a grin at Durmont's unconcealed prejudice. It would be hard to estimate the exact amount of respect, mingled with surprise, with which the city man now looked at the boy whose information he had evidently doubted till confirmed by the white boy. "Suppose you've got some kind of tom-fool contraption that will take half a day to get a message into the next village. Here I stand to lose several thousands because this blame company runs only one wire down to this camp. Where is this apparatus of yours? Might as well look at it while I'm waiting for this one-wire office to get into commission again." "It's right up on top of the hill," answered the colored boy. "Here, George, I brought down this wireless book if you want to look it over, it's better worth reading than that stuff you have there," and tossing a book on the table he went out, followed by Durmont. A couple of minutes' walk brought them in sight of the sixty-foot aerial erected on the top of a small shack. "Not much to look at, but I made it all myself." [Illustration: His Motto] "How did you happen to construct this?" And Durmont really tried to keep the emphasis off the "you." "Well, I'm interested in all kinds of electrical experiments, and have kept up reading and studying ever since I left school, then when I came out here on my uncle's farm, he let me rig up this wireless, and I can talk to a chum of mine down in the city. And when I saw the wire at the station was gone up, I thought I might possibly get your message to New York through him." They had entered the one-room shack which contained a long table holding a wireless outfit, a couple of chairs and a shelf of books. On the walls were tacked pictures of aviators and drawings of aeroplanes. A three-foot model of a biplane hung in a corner. "Now if he is only in," said the boy, going over to the table and giving the call. "He's there," he said eagerly, holding out his hand for the message. Durmont handed it to him. His face still held the look of doubt and unbelief as he looked at the crude, home-made instruments. "Suppose I might as well have hired a horse and taken it into town." But the sputtering wire drowned his voice. "And get on your wheel and go like blazes. Tell 'em to rush answer. This guy here thinks a colored boy is only an animated shoe-blacking outfit; it's up to us to remedy that defect in his education, see!" Thus sang the wires as Durmont paced the floor. "I said," began the nervous man as the wires became quiet. "I--" again the wire sputtered, and he couldn't hear himself talk. When it was quiet, he tried again, but as soon as he began to grumble, the wire began to sputter. He glanced suspiciously at the boy, but the latter was earnestly watching his instruments. "Say," shouted Durmont, "does that thing have to keep up that confounded racket all the time?" "I had to give him some instructions, you know, and also keep in adjustment." "Well, I'll get out of adjustment myself if that keeps up." Durmont resigned himself to silence, and strangely enough, so did the wire. Walking around the room he noticed over the shelf of books a large white sheet on which was printed in gilt letters: "I WILL STUDY AND MAKE READY, AND MAYBE MY CHANCE WILL COME." --ABRAHAM LINCOLN. Durmont read this, and then looked at the boy as if seeing him for the first time. Again he looked at the words, and far beyond them he saw his own struggling boyhood, climbing daily Life's slippery path, trying to find some hold by which to pull himself up. And as he watched the brown-skinned boy bending over the instruments, instinct told him here was one who would find it still harder to fight his way up, because of caste. "Ah!" The exclamation startled him. The boy with phones adjusted was busily writing. "Well, has that partner of yours got that message down at his end yet?" "Yes, sir, and here is your answer from New York." "Why it's only been half an hour since I wrote it," said Durmont. "Yes, that horse wouldn't have got into town yet," grinned the boy. Durmont snatched the paper, read it, threw his cap in the air, exclaiming, "The day is saved. Boy, you're a winner. How much?" putting his hand in his pocket suggestively. "How much you owe to my help, I don't know," answered the lad sagely. "I offered to help you because you needed it, and I was glad of the chance to prove what I believed I could do. I'm satisfied because I succeeded." Durmont sat down heavily on the other chair; his nerves couldn't stand much more in one afternoon. To find himself threatened with a large financial loss; to have this averted by the help of the scientific knowledge of a colored boy, and that boy rating the fact of his success higher than any pecuniary compensation--he had to pull himself together a bit. His eyes fell on the motto on the wall. He read it thoughtfully, considered how hard the boy had worked because of that, his hopes of the future based on that; saw the human element in him as it had not appealed to him before, and then turning something over in his mind, muttered to himself, "It's nobody's business if I do." He got up, and walking over to the boy said: "What's your name?" "Robert Hilton." "Well, Robert, that motto you've got up there is a pretty good one to tie to. You certainly have studied; you have made yourself ready as far as your resources will permit, and I'll be hanged if I don't stand for the 'chance.' In the manufacturing of electrical instruments you could have great opportunity for inventive talent, and in my concern you shall have your chance, and go as far as your efficiency will carry you. What do you say, would you care for it?" "I'd care for it more than any other thing on earth, and am very grateful for the chance." "The chance wouldn't be standing here now if you had not had the inclination and the determination to live up to those words on the wall." THE MONTHS H. CORDELIA RAY JANUARY To herald in another year, With rhythmic note the snowflakes fall Silently from their crystal courts, To answer Winter's call. Wake, mortal! Time is winged anew! Call Love and Hope and Faith to fill The chambers of thy soul to-day; Life hath its blessings still! FEBRUARY The icicles upon the pane Are busy architects; they leave What temples and what chiseled forms Of leaf and flower! Then believe That though the woods be brown and bare, And sunbeams peep through cloudy veils, Though tempests howl through leaden skies, The springtime never fails! MARCH Robin! Robin! call the Springtime! March is halting on his way; Hear the gusts. What! snowflakes falling! Look not for the grass to-day. Ay, the wind will frisk and play, And we cannot say it nay. APRIL She trips across the meadows, The weird, capricious elf! The buds unfold their perfumed cups For love of her sweet self; And silver-throated birds begin to tune their lyres, While wind-harps lend their strains to Nature's magic choirs. MAY Sweet, winsome May, coy, pensive fay, Comes garlanded with lily-beds, And apple blooms shed incense through the bow'r, To be her dow'r; While through the deafy dells A wondrous concert swells To welcome May, the dainty fay. JUNE Roses, roses, roses, Creamy, fragrant, dewy! See the rainbow shower! Was there e'er so sweet a flower? I'm the rose-nymph, June they call me. Sunset's blush is not more fair Than the gift of bloom so rare, Mortal, that I bring to thee! JULY Sunshine and shadow play amid the trees In bosky groves, while from the vivid sky The sun's gold arrows fleck the fields at noon, Where weary cattle to their slumber hie. How sweet the music of the purling rill, Trickling adown the grassy hill! While dreamy fancies come to give repose When the first star of evening glows. AUGUST Haste to the mighty ocean, List to the lapsing waves; With what a strange commotion They seek their coral caves. From heat and turmoil let us oft return, The ocean's solemn majesty to learn. SEPTEMBER With what a gentle sound The autumn leaves drop to the ground; The many-colored dyes, They greet our watching eyes. Rosy and russet, how they fall! Throwing o'er earth a leafy pall. OCTOBER The mellow moon hangs golden in the sky, The vintage song is over, far and nigh A richer beauty Nature weareth now, And silently, in reverence we bow Before the forest altars, off'ring praise To Him who sweetness gives to all our days. NOVEMBER The leaves are sere, The woods are drear, The breeze that erst so merrily did play, Naught giveth save a melancholy lay; Yet life's great lessons do not fail E'en in November's gale. DECEMBER List! list! the sleigh bells peal across the snow; The frost's sharp arrows touch the earth and lo! How diamond-bright the stars do scintillate When Night hath lit her lamps to Heaven's gate. To the dim forest's cloistered arches go, And seek the holly and the mistletoe; For soon the bells of Christmas-tide will ring To hail the Heavenly King! THE COLORED CADET AT WEST POINT LIEUT. HENRY OSSIAN FLIPPER, U. S. A. May 20th, 1873! Auspicious day! From the deck of the little ferry-boat that steamed its way across from Garrison's on that eventful afternoon I viewed the hills about West Point, her stone structures perched thereon, thus rising still higher, as if providing access to the very pinnacle of fame, and shuddered. With my mind full of the horrors of the treatment of all former cadets of color, and the dread of inevitable ostracism, I approached tremblingly yet confidently. The little vessel having been moored, I stepped ashore and inquired of a soldier there where candidates should report. He very kindly gave me all information, wished me much success, for which I thanked him, and set out for the designated place. I soon reached it, and walked directly into the adjutant's office. He received me kindly, asked for my certificate of appointment, and receiving that--or assurance that I had it--I do not remember which--directed me to write in a book there for the purpose the name and occupation of my father, the State, Congressional district, county and city of his residence, my own full name, age, State, county, and place of my birth, and my occupation when at home. This done I was sent in charge of an orderly to cadet barracks, where my "plebe quarters" were assigned me. The impression made upon me by what I saw while going from the adjutant's office to barracks was certainly not very encouraging. The rear windows were crowded with cadets watching my unpretending passage of the area of barracks with apparently as much astonishment and interest as they would, perhaps, have watched Hannibal crossing the Alps. Their words and jeers were most insulting. Having reached another office, I was shown in by the orderly. I walked in, hat in hand--nay, rather started in--when three cadets, who were seated in the room, simultaneously sprang to their feet and welcomed me somewhat after this fashion: "Well, sir, what do you mean by coming into this office in that manner, sir? Get out of here, sir." I walked out, followed by one of them, who, in a similar strain, ordered me to button my coat, get my hands around--"fins" he said--heels together, and head up. "Now, sir," said he, leaving me, "when you are ready to come in, knock at that door," emphasizing the word "knock." The door was open. I knocked. He replied, "Come in." I went in. I took my position in front of and facing him, my heels together, head up, the palms of my hands to the front, and my little fingers on the seams of my pantaloons, in which position we habitually carried them. After correcting my position and making it sufficiently military to suit himself, one of them, in a much milder tone, asked what I desired of them. I told him I had been sent by the adjutant to report there. He arose, and directing me to follow him, conducted me to the bath-rooms. Having discharged the necessary duty there, I returned and was again put in charge of the orderly, who carried me to the hospital. There I was subjected to a rigid physical examination, which I "stood" with the greatest ease. I was given a certificate of ability by the surgeon, and by him sent again to the adjutant, who in turn sent me to the treasurer. From him I returned alone to barracks. The reception given to "plebes" upon reporting is often very much more severe than that given me. Even members of my own class can testify to this. This reception has, however, I think, been best described in an anonymous work, where it is thus set forth: "How dare you come into the presence of your superior officer in that grossly careless and unmilitary manner? I'll have you imprisoned. Stand, attention, sir!" (Even louder than before.) "Heels-together-and-on-the-same-line, toes-equally-turned-out, little-fingers-on-the-seams-of-your-pantaloons, button-your-coat, draw-in-your-chin, throw-out-your-chest, cast-your-eyes-fifteen-paces-to-the-front, don't-let-me-see-you-wearing-standing-collars-again. Stand-steady, sir. You've evidently mistaken your profession, sir. In any other service, or at the seat of war, sir, you would have been shot, sir, without trial, sir, for such conduct, sir." The effect of such words can be easily imagined. A "plebe" will at once recognize the necessity for absolute obedience, even if he does know all this is hazing, and that it is doubtless forbidden. Still "plebes" almost invariably tremble while it lasts, and when in their own quarters laugh over it, and even practise it upon each other for mutual amusement. On the way to barracks I met the squad of "beasts" marching to dinner. I was ordered to fall in, did so, marched to the mess hall, and ate my first dinner at West Point. After dinner we were again marched to barracks and dismissed. I hastened to my quarters, and a short while after was turned out to take possession of my baggage. I lugged it into my room, was shown the directions on the back of the door for arrangement of articles, and ordered to obey them within half an hour. At the end of the time specified every article was arranged and the cadet corporal returned to inspect. He walked deliberately to the clothes-press, and, informing me that everything was arranged wrong, threw every article upon the floor, repeated his order and withdrew. And thus three times in less than two hours did I arrange and he disarrange my effects. I was not troubled again by him till after supper, when he inspected again, merely opening the door, however, and looking in. He told me I could not go to sleep till "tattoo." Now tattoo, as he evidently used it, referred in some manner to time, and with such reference I had not the remotest idea of what it meant. I had no knowledge whatever of military terms or customs. However, as I was also told that I could do anything--writing, etc.--I might wish to do, I found sufficient to keep me awake until he again returned and told me it was then tattoo, that I could retire then or at any time within half an hour, and that at the end of that time the light _must_ be extinguished and I _must_ be in bed. I instantly extinguished it and retired. Thus passed my first half day at West Point, and thus began the military career of the fifth colored cadet. The other four were Smith of South Carolina, Napier of Tennessee, Howard of Mississippi, and Gibbs of Florida. AN HYMN TO THE EVENING PHYLLIS WHEATLEY Soon as the sun forsook the eastern main The pealing thunder shook the heav'nly plain; Majestic grandeur! From the zephyr's wing, Exhales the incense of the blooming spring. Soft purl the streams, the birds renew their notes, And through the air their mingled music floats, Through all the heav'ns what beauteous dyes are spread! But the west glories in the deepest red; So may our breasts with every virtue glow The living temples of our God below! Filled with the praise of him who gave the light, And draws the sable curtains of the night, Let placid slumbers soothe each weary mind, At morn to wake more heaven'ly, more refin'd. So shall the labors of the day begin More pure, more guarded from the snares of sin. Nights' leaden sceptor seal my drowsy eyes, When cease my song, till fair Aurora rise. GOING TO SCHOOL UNDER DIFFICULTIES WILLIAM H. HOLTZCLAW When I was four years old I was put to work on the farm,--that is, at such work as I could do, such as riding a deaf and blind mule while my brother held the plow. When I was six years old my four-year-old brother and I had to go two miles through a lonely forest every morning in order to carry my father's breakfast and dinner to a sawmill, where he was hauling logs for sixty cents a day. The white man, Frank Weathers, who employed a large number of hands, both Negroes and whites, was considered one of the best and most upright men in that section of the country. In those days there were no public schools in that part of the country for the Negroes. Indeed, public schools for whites were just beginning to be established. This man set aside a little house in the neighborhood of the sawmill, employed a teacher, and urged all the Negroes to send their children to this school. Not a great many of them, however, took advantage of his generosity, for this was at the time when everybody seemed to think that the Negro's only hope was in politics. But my father and mother had great faith in education, and they were determined that their children should have that blessing of which they themselves had been deprived. Soon, however, Mr. Weathers had cut all the timber that he could get in that section, and he therefore moved his mills to another district. This left us without a school. But my father was not to be outdone. He called a meeting of the men in that community, and they agreed to build a schoolhouse themselves. They went to the forest and cut pine poles about eight inches in diameter, split them in halves, and carried them on their shoulders to a nice shady spot, and there erected a little schoolhouse. The benches were made of the same material, and there was no floor nor chimney. Some of the other boys' trousers suffered when they sat on the new pine benches, which exuded rosin, but I had an advantage of them in this respect, for I wore only a shirt. In fact, I never wore trousers until I got to be so large that the white neighbors complained of my insufficient clothes. At the end of the first school year there was a trying time in our family. On this occasion the teacher ordered all the pupils to appear dressed in white. We had no white clothes, nor many of any other sort, for that matter. Father and mother discussed our predicament nearly all one night. Father said it was foolish to buy clothes which could be used for that occasion only. But my ever resourceful mother was still determined that her children should look as well on this important occasion as any of our neighbors. However, when we went to bed the night before the exhibition we still had no white clothes and no cloth from which to make them. Nevertheless, when we awoke the next morning, all three of us had beautiful white suits. It came about in this way. My mother had a beautiful white Sunday petticoat, which she had cut up and made into suits for us. As there is just so much cloth in a petticoat and no more, the stuff had to be cut close to cover all of us children, and as the petticoat had been worn several times and was, therefore, likely to tear, we had to be very careful how we stooped in moving about the stage, lest there should be a general splitting and tearing, with consequences that we were afraid to imagine. At the exhibitions the next night we said our little pieces, and I suppose we looked about as well as the others; at least we thought so, and that was sufficient. One thing I am sure of,--there was no mother there who was prouder of her children than ours. The thing that made her so pleased was the fact that my speech made such an impression that our white landlord lifted me off the stage when I had finished speaking and gave me a quarter of a dollar. If there happened to be a school in the winter time, I had sometimes to go bare-footed and always with scant clothing. Our landlady was very kind in such cases. She would give me clothes that had already been worn by her sons, and in turn I would bring broom straw from the sedges, with which she made her brooms. In this way I usually got enough clothes to keep me warm. [Illustration] So, with my mother's encouragement, I went to school in spite of my bare feet. Often the ground would be frozen, and often there would be snow. My feet would crack and bleed freely, but when I reached home Mother would have a tub full of hot water ready to plunge me into and thaw me out. Although this caused my feet and legs to swell, it usually got me into shape for school the next day. I remember once, when I had helped "lay by" the crops at home and was ready to enter the little one-month school, it was decided that I could not go, because I had no hat. My mother told me that if I could catch a 'coon and cure the skin, she would make me a cap out of that material. That night I went far into the forest with my hounds, and finally located a 'coon. The 'coon was a mighty fighter, and when he had driven off all my dogs I saw that the only chance for me to get a cap was to whip the 'coon myself, so together with the dogs I went at him, and finally we conquered him. The next week I went to school wearing my new 'coon-skin cap. Exertions of this kind, from time to time, strengthened my will and my body, and prepared me for more trying tests which were to come later. As I grew older it became more and more difficult for me to go to school. When cotton first began to open,--early in the fall,--it brought a higher price than at any other time of the year. At this time the landlord wanted us all to stop school and pick cotton. But Mother wanted me to remain in school, so, when the landlord came to the quarters early in the morning to stir up the cotton pickers, she used to outgeneral him by hiding me behind the skillets, ovens, and pots, throwing some old rags over me until he was gone. Then she would slip me off to school through the back way. I can see her now with her hands upon my shoulder, shoving me along through the woods and underbrush, in a roundabout way, keeping me all the time out of sight of the great plantation until we reached the point, a mile away from home, where we came to the public road. There my mother would bid me good-bye, whereupon she would return to the plantation and try to make up to the landlord for the work of us both in the field as cotton pickers. THE BRAVE SON ALSTON W. BURLEIGH A little boy, lost in his childish play, Mid the deep'ning shades of the fading day, Fancied the warrior he would be; He scattered his foes with his wooden sword And put to flight a mighty horde-- Ere he crept to his daddy's knee. A soldier crawled o'er the death-strewn plain, And he uttered the name of his love, in vain, As he stumbled over the crest; He fought with the fierceness of dark despair And drove the cowering foe to his lair-- Ere he crept to his Father's breast. VICTORY WALTER F. WHITE "Now, Ted, just forget they're after you and remember you've got ten men out there with you. Fight 'em and fight 'em hard, but hold that man-eating temper of yours. If you don't, we're lost." Dawson, varsity coach of Bliss University, affectionately known and revered by two thousand undergraduates as "Skipper Bill" sat in the locker room with his arm around Ted Robertson's shoulders, star halfback and punter of the varsity eleven. Around them moved the other varsity players, substitutes, second string men, trainers and rubbers. In the stands overhead every seat was taken, for these were the last few minutes before the big game of the year--the annual battle with Sloan College. On one side the sober blues and grays and blacks formed a background for huge yellow chrysanthemums and light blue ribbons, the Bliss colors, and the same background in the stands opposite set off the crimson of Sloan College. The rival college bands of the two most important colored universities of the United States blared almost unheeded in the din, while agile cheerleaders clad in white from head to foot performed gymnastics in leading rolling volumes of cheers. All were in that tense, nerve-gripping mood prior to that game in which victory or defeat meant success or failure of the season's efforts of the teams of young giants that represented the two schools. In the locker room, however, a different scene was being enacted. Every man was acting according to his own temperament and each in his own way attempted to hide the anxious thrill that every real football player feels before "the big game." Jimmy Murray, quarterback and thrower of forward passes _par excellence_, nervously tied and untied his shoe laces a dozen times; "Tiny" Marshall, left tackle, who weighed two hundred and ten pounds, tried to whistle nonchalantly and failed miserably, while "Bull" Bascom, fullback, the only calm man in the room, was carefully adjusting his shoulder pads. Around them hovered the odor of arnica and liniment mixed with the familiar tang of perspiration which has dried in woolen jerseys--perspiration that marked many a long and wearisome hour of training and perfection of the machine that to-day received its final "exam." Ted Robertson, the man around whom most of the team's offense was built, sat listening to Dawson's advice. Born with a fiery, almost unmanageable temper, his reckless, dauntless spirit had made him a terror to opposing teams. Strong was the line that could check his plunges, and fleet were the ends who could tackle him when once he got loose in an open field. Recognizing his phenomenal ability, both coach and players gave him the credit due him and consciously or unconsciously relied on him as the team's best player. But to-day Sloan had declared that they were going to put Robertson out of the game and threats had been freely uttered that before the game had been going very long he "would be in the hospital." This news added to the tenseness of feeling. If Robertson should be put out of the game, or if he should lose his temper the chances of a victory for Bliss were slim indeed, for rarely had two teams been so evenly matched in skill and brain and brawn. Thus the final pleading of Dawson to Robertson to "hold that temper." A roar of cheers greeted their ears as the red jerseyed Sloan team took the field. Led by Murray the Bliss players were likewise greeted by a storm of applause as they trotted out on the field and the varsity started through a brisk signal drill. In a few minutes the referee called the rival captains to the center of the field. Sloan won the toss and elected to defend the south goal, kicking off with the wind behind its back. A breathless hush--the shrill whistle of the referee--the thump of cleated shoe against the ball and the game was on. The teams, wonderfully even in strength and in knowledge of the game, surged back and forth, the ball repeatedly changing hands as one team would hold the other for downs. From the kick-off, the Sloan players began their attempts to injure or anger Robertson. Vicious remarks were aimed at him while the referee was not near enough to hear. When Robertson carried the ball and after he was downed under a mass of players, a fist would thud against his jaw or hard knuckles would be rubbed across his nose. Once when an opposing player had fallen across Robertson's right leg, another of his opponents seized his ankle and turned it. Though he fought against it, his temper was slowly but surely slipping away from him. For three hectic quarters, with the tide of victory or defeat now surging towards Bliss--now towards Sloan, the battle raged. As play after play of brilliance or superbrilliance flashed forth, the stands alternately groaned or cheered, according to the sympathies of each. Robertson, a veritable stonewall of defense, time and again checked the rushes of the Sloan backs or threw himself recklessly at fleet backs on end runs when his own ends had failed to "get their man." On the offensive he repeatedly was called on to carry the ball and seldom did he fail to make the distance required. A great weariness settled on Robertson and it was with difficulty that he was able to fight off a numbness and dizziness that almost overcame him. One thing sustained him. It was a bitter resentment against those who sought to hurt him. The fires within him had grown until they became a flaming, devastating thing that burned its way into his brain. It needed only a spark to make him forget the game, school, the coach and everything else. Yet even as he realized this he knew that if he did lose his temper, Bliss might as well concede the victory to Sloan. It was not conceit that caused him to know this and admit it but the clearness of vision that comes oft-times in a moment of greatest mental strain. Finally, with the score still tied, neither side having scored, the time keeper warned the rival teams that only three minutes remained for play. His warning served to cause a tightening of muscles and a grimness of countenance in a last final effort to put over a score and avert a tied score. The huge crowd prayed fervently for a score--a touchdown--a safety--a goal from field or placement--anything. It was Sloan's ball on Bliss's forty-five-yard line. Only a fumble or some fluke could cause a score. Every player was on his mettle burning with anxiety to get his hands on that ball and scamper down the field to a touchdown and everlasting fame in the annals of his school's football history. In a last desperate effort, the Bliss quarterback called a trick play. It started out like a quarterback run around left end. The Bliss left end ran straight down the field after delaying the man playing opposite him. When the Bliss quarter had made a wide run drawing in the Sloan secondary defense, he turned and like a flash shot a long forward pass over the heads of the incoming Sloan backfield to the end who had gone straight down the field and who was practically free of danger of being tackled by any of the Sloan backs. Too late the Sloan players saw the ruse. Only Robertson was between the swift running end and a score. With grim satisfaction, his face streaked with perspiration, drawn and weary with the long hard struggle and the yeoman part he had played in it, Robertson saw that the man with the ball was the one player on the opposing side who had done most of the unfair playing in trying to put Robertson out of the game. All of the bitterness--all of the anger in his heart swelled up and he determined to overtake the end, prevent the score and tackle the man so viciously that he would be certain to break an arm or a leg. Robertson dug his cleats in the spongy turf with a phenomenal burst of speed, rapidly overtook his man, driving him meanwhile towards the sidelines. At last the moment came. By making a flying tackle, which would be illegal but which he hoped the referee would not see, Robertson could get his man and get him in such fashion that he would have no chance of escaping injury. Robertson crouched for the spring. A fierce light came into his eyes. In a flash he saw the end whom he now hated with an intensity that wiped every thought from his mind except that of revenge, lying prone on the ground. But even as he gloated over his revenge, the words of Bill Dawson came to him, "Hold that man-eating temper of yours." In a lightning-like conflict, the impulse to injure fought a desperate battle with the instinct of clean playing. His decision was made in a moment. Instead of making the vicious flying tackle, he ran all the faster, but the end was too swift and had too great a lead. Amid the frantically jubilant shouts of the Bliss rooters and the painful silence of the Sloan supporters the end went across the line for a touchdown just as time was up. A gloom pervaded the dressing rooms of the Sloan team after the game. Robertson was in disgrace. Forgotten was the playing through most of the game. Forgotten were his desperate tackles that had saved the game more than once. Forgotten were the long runs and the hard line plunges that time and again had made first downs for his team. Only the fact that he had apparently failed in the last minute remained. Only Dawson and Robertson knew that it was not cowardice, that most detested of all things in athletics, in life itself, had caused Robertson to refuse to make that last dangerous, illegal flying tackle. But in the heart of Robertson there was a strange peace. Being human, he naturally resented the discernible thoughts in the minds of his comrades of many a hard-fought battle. But a calmness made him forgetful of all this for he knew that at last, in a moment of the supreme test, he had conquered that which had been his master throughout all of his life--his temper. All the slurs and coldness in the world could not rob him of the satisfaction of this. THE DOG AND THE CLEVER RABBIT A. O. STAFFORD There were many days when the animals did not think about the kingship. They thought of their games and their tricks, and would play them from the rising to the setting of the sun. Now, at that time, the little rabbit was known as a very clever fellow. His tricks, his schemes, and his funny little ways caused much mischief and at times much anger among his woodland cousins. At last the wolf made up his mind to catch him and give him a severe punishment for the many tricks he had played upon him. Knowing that the rabbit could run faster than he, the wolf called at the home of the dog to seek his aid. "Brother dog, frisky little rabbit must be caught and punished. For a nice bone will you help me?" asked the wolf. "Certainly, my good friend," answered the dog, thinking of the promised bone. "Be very careful, the rabbit is very clever," said the wolf as he left. A day or so later while passing through the woods the dog saw the rabbit frisking in the tall grass. Quick as a flash the dog started after him. The little fellow ran and, to save himself, jumped into the hollow of an oak tree. The opening was too small for the other to follow and as he looked in he heard only the merry laugh of the frisky rabbit, "Hee, hee! hello, Mr. Dog, you can't see me." "Never mind, boy, I will get you yet," barked the angry dog. A short distance from the tree a goose was seen moving around looking for her dinner. "Come, friend goose, watch the hollow of this tree while I go and get some moss and fire to smoke out this scamp of a rabbit," spoke the dog, remembering the advice of the wolf. "Of course I'll watch, for he has played many of his schemes upon me," returned the bird. When the dog left, the rabbit called out from his hiding place, "How can you watch, friend goose, when you can't see me?" "Well, I will see you then," she replied. With these words she pushed her long neck into the hollow of the tree. As the neck of the goose went into the opening the rabbit threw the dust of some dry wood into her eyes. "Oh, oh, you little scamp, you have made me blind," cried out the bird in pain. [Illustration] Then while the goose was trying to get the dust from her eyes the rabbit jumped out and scampered away. In a short while the dog returned with the moss and fire, filled the opening, and, as he watched the smoke arise, barked with glee, "Now I have you, my tricky friend, now I have you." But as no rabbit ran out the dog turned to the goose and saw from her red, streaming eyes that something was wrong. "Where is the rabbit, friend goose?" he quickly asked. "Why, he threw wood dust into my eyes when I peeped into the opening." At once the dog knew that the rabbit had escaped and became very angry. "You silly goose, you foolish bird with web feet, I will kill you now for such folly." With these words the dog sprang for the goose, but only a small feather was caught in his mouth as the frightened bird rose high in the air and flew away. THE BOY AND THE IDEAL JOSEPH S. COTTER Once upon a time a Mule, a Hog, a Snake, and a Boy met. Said the Mule: "I eat and labor that I may grow strong in the heels. It is fine to have heels so gifted. My heels make people cultivate distance." Said the Hog: "I eat and labor that I may grow strong in the snout. It is fine to have a fine snout. I keep people watching for my snout." "No exchanging heels for snouts," broke in the Mule. "No," answered the Hog; "snouts are naturally above heels." Said the Snake: "I eat to live, and live to cultivate my sting. The way people shun me shows my greatness. Beget stings, comrades, and stings will beget glory." Said the Boy: "There is a star in my life like unto a star in the sky. I eat and labor that I may think aright and feel aright. These rounds will conduct me to my star. Oh, inviting star!" "I am not so certain of that," said the Mule. "I have noticed your kind and ever see some of myself in them. Your star is in the distance." The Boy answered by smelling a flower and listening to the song of a bird. The Mule looked at him and said: "He is all tenderness and care. The true and the beautiful have robbed me of a kinsman. His star is near." Said the Boy: "I approach my star." "I am not so certain of that," interrupted the Hog. "I have noticed your kind and I ever see some of myself in them. Your star is a delusion." The Boy answered by painting the flower and setting the notes of the bird's song to music. The Hog looked at the boy and said: "His soul is attuned by nature. The meddler in him is slain." "I can all but touch my star," cried the Boy. "I am not so certain of that," remarked the Snake. "I have watched your kind and ever see some of myself in them. Stings are nearer than stars." The Boy answered by meditating upon the picture and music. The Snake departed, saying that stings and stars cannot keep company. The Boy journeyed on, ever led by the star. Some distance away the Mule was bemoaning the presence of his heels and trying to rid himself of them by kicking a tree. The Hog was dividing his time between looking into a brook and rubbing his snout on a rock to shorten it. The Snake lay dead of its own bite. The Boy journeyed on, led by an ever inviting star. CHILDREN AT EASTER C. EMILY FRAZIER That day in old Jerusalem when Christ our Lord was slain, I wonder if the children hid and wept in grief and pain; Dear little ones, on whose fair brows His tender touch had been, Whose infant forms had nestled close His loving arms within. I think that very soberly went mournful little feet When Christ our Lord was laid away in Joseph's garden sweet, [Illustration: Children At Easter] And wistful eyes grew very sad and dimpled cheeks grew white, When He who suffered babes to come was prisoned from the light. With beaming looks and eager words a glad surprise He gave To those who sought their buried Lord and found an empty grave; For truly Christ had conquered death, Himself the Prince of Life, And none of all His Followers shall fail in any strife. O little ones, around the cross your Easter garlands twine, And bring your precious Easter gifts to many a sacred shrine, And, better still, let offerings of pure young hearts be given On Easter Day to Him who reigns the King of earth and heaven. ABRAHAM LINCOLN WILLIAM PICKENS He was the first President of the Republic who was American through and through. There was not one foreign element in his bringing up; he was an unmixed child of the Western plains, born in the South, reared in the North. Most of the Presidents before him, being reared nearer the Atlantic, had imbibed more or less of Eastern culture and had European airs. This man Lincoln was so thoroughly democratic as to astonish both Old and New England. He never acted "the President," and was always a man among men, the honored servant of the people. From a five-dollar fee before a justice of the peace, he had risen to a five-thousand-dollar fee before the Supreme Court of Illinois. From a study of "Dilworth's Spelling Book" in his seventh year, he had risen to write, in his fifty-seventh year, his second Inaugural, which is the greatest utterance of man, and yet all of his days in school added together are less than one year. His pioneer life had given him a vein of humor which became his "Life-preserver" in times of stress; it had also given him a love for human liberty that was unaffected. He felt that the enslavement of some men was but the advance guard, the miner and sapper, of the enslavement of all men. From a poor captain of volunteers in the scandalous little Black Hawk War, where he jokingly said he "bled, died, and came away," although he never had a skirmish nor saw an Indian, he had risen to the chief command in a war that numbered three thousand battles and skirmishes and cost three billion dollars. Having no ancestry himself, being able to trace his line by rumor and tradition only as far back as his grandfather, he became, like George Washington, the Father of his Country. Born of a father who could not write his name, he himself had written the Proclamation of Emancipation, the fourth great state paper in the history of the Anglo-Saxon race,--the others being Magna Charta, the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. If we accept the statement of Cicero that the days on which we are saved should be as illustrious as the days on which we are born, then Lincoln the Savior must always remain coördinate with Washington, the Father of his country. Jackson was "Old Hickory," Taylor was "Old Rough," and there have been various names given to the other Presidents, but Washington and Lincoln were the only ones whom the American people styled "Father." Child of the American soil, cradled and nursed in the very bosom of nature, he loved his country with the passion with which most men love their human mothers. He could not bear the thought of one iota of detraction from her honor, her dignity or her welfare. Against her dismemberment he was willing to fight to the end of his second administration or till the end of time. He might tolerate anything else except disunion,--even the right of some of his fellowmen to enslave others. Of every concession which he made during his administration, to friend or foe, the _sine qua non_ was Union. A house divided against itself cannot stand. In this he left us a great heritage; it is a lesson for both sections, and all races of any section. White men of America, black men of America, by the eternal God of heaven, there can be no division of destiny on the same soil and in the bosom and in the lap of the same natural mother. Men may attempt and accomplish discrimination in a small way, but Almighty God and all-mothering nature are absolutely impartial. They have woven the fabric of life so that the thread of each man's existence is a part of the whole. He who sets fire to his neighbor's house, endangers the existence of his own; he who degrades his neighbor's children, undermines the future of his own. Together we rise and together we fall is the plan of God and the rule of nature. We must lean together in the common struggle of life: the syncline is stronger than the anticline. In a great nation with an increasing fame, the lesson of Lincoln's life must grow in importance. As long as the human heart loves freedom his name will be a word on the tongues of men. His name will be a watchword wherever liberty in her struggles with tyranny lifts her embattled banners. No man of the ancient or the modern world has a securer place in the hearts and memories of men than this man Lincoln, who was born in obscurity, who died in a halo, and who now rests in an aureole of historic glory. RONDEAU JESSIE FAUSET When April's here and meadows wide Once more with spring's sweet growths are pied, I close each book, drop each pursuit, And past the brook, no longer mute, I joyous roam the countryside. Look, here the violets shy abide And there the mating robins hide-- How keen my senses, how acute, When April's here! And list! down where the shimmering tide Hard by that farthest hill doth glide, Rise faint sweet strains from shepherd's flute, Pan's pipes and Berecynthian lute. Each sight, each sound fresh joys provide When April's here. HOW I ESCAPED FREDERICK DOUGLASS Although slavery was a delicate subject, and very cautiously talked about among grown-up people in Maryland, I frequently talked about it, and that very freely, with the white boys. I would sometimes say to them, while seated on a curbstone or a cellar door, "I wish I could be free, as you will be when you get to be men. You will be free, you know, as soon as you are twenty-one, and can go where you like, but I am a slave for life. Have I not as good a right to be free as you have?" Words like these, I observed, always troubled them; and I had no small satisfaction in drawing out from them, as I occasionally did, that fresh and bitter condemnation of slavery which ever springs from natures unseared and unperverted. Of all consciences, let me have those to deal with, which have not been seared and bewildered with the cares and perplexities of life. I do not remember ever to have met with a boy while I was in slavery, who defended the system, but I do remember many times, when I was consoled by them, and by them encouraged to hope that something would yet occur by which I would be made free. Over and over again, they have told me that "they believed I had as good a right to be free as they had," and that "they did not believe God ever made any one to be a slave." On Monday, the third day of September, 1838, in accordance with my resolution, I bade farewell to the city of Baltimore, and to slavery. My success was due to address rather than courage; to good luck rather than bravery. My means of escape were provided for me by the very men who were making laws to hold and bind me more securely in slavery. It was the custom in the State of Maryland to require of the free colored people to have what were called free papers. This instrument they were required to renew very often, and by charging a fee for this writing, considerable sums from time to time were collected by the State. In these papers the name, age, color, height, and form of the free man were described, together with any scars or other marks upon his person. Now more than one man could be found to answer the same general description. Hence many slaves could escape by impersonating the owner of one set of papers; and this was often done as follows: A slave nearly or sufficiently answering the description set forth in the papers, would borrow or hire them till he could by their means escape to a free state, and then, by mail or otherwise, return them to the owner. The operation was a hazardous one for the lender as well as the borrower. A failure on the part of the fugitive to send back the papers would imperil his benefactor, and the discovery of the papers in possession of the wrong man would imperil both the fugitive and his friend. It was therefore an act of supreme trust on the part of a freeman of color thus to put in jeopardy his own liberty that another might be free. It was, however, not infrequently bravely done, and was seldom discovered. I was not so fortunate as to sufficiently resemble any of my free acquaintances to answer the description of their papers. But I had one friend--a sailor--who owned a sailor's protection, which answered somewhat the purpose of free papers--describing his person, and certifying to the fact that he was a free American sailor. The instrument had at its head the American eagle, which gave it the appearance at once of an authorized document. This protection did not, when in my hands, describe its bearer very accurately. Indeed, it called for a man much darker than myself, and close examination of it would have caused my arrest at the start. In order to avoid this fatal scrutiny I had arranged with a hackman to bring my baggage to the train just on the moment of starting, and jumped upon the car myself when the train was already in motion. Had I gone into the station and offered to purchase a ticket, I should have been instantly and carefully examined, and undoubtedly arrested. In choosing this plan upon which to act, I considered the jostle of the train, and the natural haste of the conductor, in a train crowded with passengers, and relied upon my skill and address in playing the sailor as described in my protection, to do the rest. One element in my favor was the kind feeling which prevailed in Baltimore, and other seaports at the time, towards "those who go down to the sea in ships." "Free trade and sailors' rights" expressed the sentiment of the country just then. In my clothing I was rigged out in sailor style. I had on a red shirt and a tarpaulin hat and black cravat, tied in sailor fashion, carelessly and loosely about my neck. My knowledge of ships and sailor's talk came much to my assistance, for I knew a ship from stem to stern, and from keelson to cross-trees, and could talk sailor like an "old salt." On sped the train, and I was well on the way to Havre de Grace before the conductor came into the Negro car to collect tickets and examine the papers of his black passengers. This was a critical moment in the drama. My whole future depended upon the decision of this conductor. Agitated I was while this ceremony was proceeding, but still externally, at least, I was apparently calm and self-possessed. He went on with his duty--examining several colored passengers before reaching me. He was somewhat harsh in tone, and peremptory in manner until he reached me, when, strangely enough, and to my surprise and relief, his whole manner changed. Seeing that I did not readily produce my free papers, as the other colored persons in the car had done, he said to me in a friendly contrast with that observed towards the others: "I suppose you have your free papers?" To which I answered: "No, sir; I never carry my free papers to sea with me." "But you have something to show that you are a free man, have you not?" "Yes, sir," I answered; "I have a paper with the American eagle on it, that will carry me around the world." With this I drew from my deep sailor's pocket my seaman's protection, as before described. The merest glance at the paper satisfied him, and he took my fare and went on about his business. This moment of time was one of the most anxious I ever experienced. Had the conductor looked closely at the paper, he could not have failed to discover that it called for a very different looking person from myself, and in that case it would have been his duty to arrest me on the instant, and send me back to Baltimore from the first station. When he left me with the assurance that I was all right, though much relieved, I realized that I was still in great danger: I was still in Maryland, and subject to arrest at any moment. I saw on the train several persons who would have known me in any other clothes, and I feared they might recognize me, even in my sailor "rig," and report me to the conductor, who would then subject me to a closer examination, which I knew well would be fatal to me. Though I was not a murderer fleeing from justice, I felt, perhaps, quite miserable as such a criminal. The train was moving at a very high rate of speed for that time of railroad travel, but to my anxious mind, it was moving far too slowly. Minutes were hours, and hours were days during this part of my flight. After Maryland I was to pass through Delaware--another slave State. The border lines between slavery and freedom were the dangerous ones, for the fugitives. The heart of no fox or deer, with hungry hounds on his trail, in full chase, could have beaten more anxiously or noisily than did mine, from the time I left Baltimore till I reached Philadelphia. The passage of the Susquehanna river at Havre de Grace was made by ferry-boat at that time, on board of which I met a young colored man by the name of Nichols, who came very near betraying me. He was a "hand" on the boat, but instead of minding his business, he insisted upon knowing me, and asking me dangerous questions as to where I was going, and when I was coming back, etc. I got away from my old and inconvenient acquaintance as soon as I could decently do so, and went to another part of the boat. Once across the river I encountered a new danger. Only a few days before I had been at work on a revenue cutter, in Mr. Price's ship-yard, under the care of Captain McGowan. On the meeting at this point of the two trains, the one going south stopped on the track just opposite to the one going north, and it so happened that this Captain McGowan sat at a window where he could see me very distinctly, and would certainly have recognized me had he looked at me but for a second. Fortunately, in the hurry of the moment, he did not see me; and the trains soon passed each other on their respective ways. But this was not the only hair-breadth escape. A German blacksmith, whom I knew well, was on the train with me, and looked at me very intently, as if he thought he had seen me somewhere before in his travels. I really believe he knew me, but had no heart to betray me. At any rate he saw me escaping and held his peace. The last point of imminent danger, and the one I dreaded most, was Wilmington. Here we left the train and took the steamboat for Philadelphia. In making the change here I again apprehended arrest, but no one disturbed me, and I was soon on the broad and beautiful Delaware, speeding away to the Quaker City. On reaching Philadelphia in the afternoon I inquired of a colored man how I could get on to New York? He directed me to the Willow street depot, and thither I went, taking the train that night. I reached New York Tuesday morning, having completed the journey in less than twenty-four hours. Such is briefly the manner of my escape from slavery--and the end of my experience as a slave. FREDERICK DOUGLASS W. H. CROGMAN Frederick Douglass is dead! How strange that sounds to those of us who from earliest boyhood have been accustomed to hear him spoken of as the living exponent of all that is noblest and best in the race. The mind reluctantly accepts the unwelcome truth. And yet it is a truth--a serious, a solemn truth. Frederick Douglass is no more. The grand old hero of a thousand battles has at last fallen before the shaft of the common destroyer, and upon his well-battered shield loving hands have tenderly borne that stalwart form to its last, long resting place. Earth to earth, dust to dust, ashes to ashes! This country will never again see another Douglass; this world will never again see another Douglass, for in all probability there will never again exist that peculiar combination of circumstances to produce exactly such a type of manhood. Man is, in a measure, the product of environment. Yet it would be injustice to Frederick Douglass to say that he was great simply because of environment. He was great in spite of environment. Born a slave, subjected in his youth and early manhood to all the degrading, stultifying, demoralizing influences of slavery, he has left behind him, after a public life long and varied and stormy, a name as clean and spotless as driven snow. Take notice of this, young men, you who have ambitions, you who are aspiring to public place, position, and power. Take notice that a public life need not be separated from unsullied honor. I said Frederick Douglass was great in spite of environment. Had there been no slavery to fight, no freedom to win, he would still have been a great man. Greatness was inherent in his being, and circumstances simply evoked it. He was one of those choice spirits whom the Almighty sends into this world with the stamp of a great mission on their very form and features. Said Sam Johnson with reference to Edmund Burke: "Burke, sir, is such a man that if you met him for the first time in the street, where you were stopped by a drove of oxen, and you and he stepped aside to take shelter but for five minutes, he'd talk to you in such a manner that when you parted you would say, 'This is an extraordinary man.'" The same could doubtless have been said of Douglass; but it was not necessary to hear him talk, to discover his unusual ability and surpassing intelligence. There was in his very presence something that instantly indicated these. An eminent divine said some years ago that Douglass's escape from slavery was a very fortunate thing for the South, as in any uprising of slaves he must have proved a very formidable leader. "He had," said he, "the mind to plan, the heart to dare, and the hand to execute," and added, "If you were to see him sitting in Exeter Hall in the midst of a sea of faces, you would instantly recognize in him a man of extraordinary force of character." Such was the impression that Douglass commonly made on people, and such was the impression he made on me at my first sight of him. It was in Faneuil Hall, in the summer of 1872. The colored people of New England were assembled in political convention. Entering the hall in the midst of one of their morning sessions, the first object that met my eyes was the old hero himself on the rostrum. There he stood, over six feet in height, erect, broad-shouldered, deep-chested, with massive, well-formed head, covered with thick, bushy hair, about half gray. I judged him then to be midway in his fifties. His face, strongly leonine, was clean shaven, except moustache, while those eyes, that even in the seventies could flash fire, lighted up the whole countenance, and made the general effect such as not to be easily forgotten by a young man. There stood the orator and the man, and never since have I seen the two in such exquisite combination. The old Greek sculptor would have delighted to immortalize such a form in marble. Whispering to a tall white brother beside me (the audience was half white) I asked: "Who, sir, is that man speaking?" "That man? That man is Frederick Douglass." Then looking down upon me with an expression of mingled pity and surprise in his face, he said: "Why, don't you know Fred Douglass?" I need not say that that question brought to my mind feelings of pride not altogether unmixed with humiliation. As the old orator swept on, however, in his own inimitable style, sprinkling his remarks with genuine original wit I forgot everything else around me. His voice, a heavy barytone, or rendered a little heavier than usual by a slight hoarseness contracted in previous speaking, could be distinctly heard in that historic but most wretched of auditoriums. I was particularly struck with his perfect ease and naturalness, a seemingly childlike unconsciousness of his surroundings, while, like a master of his art, as he was, he swayed the feelings of that surging multitude. In the most impassioned portions of his speech, however, it was evident to the thoughtful observer that there was in the man immense reserved force which on momentous occasions might be used with startling effect. At first I had entered the hall to remain but a few minutes, and, consequently, had taken my stand just inside the door. How long I did remain I cannot tell, but it was until the speaker finished, at which time I found myself half way up towards the rostrum in the midst of that thickly standing audience. Such was my first sight and impression of one of the world's great orators, and beyond comparison the greatest man of the race yet produced on this continent. His splendid physique, so often admired, was well in keeping with the strength and grasp of his masterly mind. Without the privilege of a day's instruction in the schoolroom, he acquired a fund of useful knowledge that would put to shame the meager attainments of many a college graduate. His speeches and writing are models of a pure English style, and are characterized by simplicity, clearness, directness, force, and elegance. Many of the interesting facts and incidents in the life of this great man are already well known--his escape from slavery, his arrival in the North, his early marriage, his settling down to work at his trade in New Bedford, his first speech in an anti-slavery convention, that drew attention to his wonderful powers of oratory, and led to his employment by the Anti-slavery Bureau to lecture through the North on the most unpopular question that up to that time had been presented to the American people, his rise as an orator, his trip to England and its magical effects on the English people, his return to this country, and the purchase of his freedom, to relieve him of the apprehension of being seized and taken back into slavery, his editorship of the North Star, his services to the government during the war in the raising of troops, his securing of pay for the black soldiers equal to that of the whites, the editorship immediately after the war of the New National Era, his popularity as a lyceum lecturer, his mission to San Domingo under Grant, his marshalship of the District of Columbia under Hayes, his ministry to Santo Domingo. These are some of the experiences which came into that eventful life. If I were asked to sum up in a word what made Frederick Douglass great, I should say a noble purpose, fixed and unchangeable, a purpose to render to mankind the largest possible service. Verily he has served us well, faithfully, unselfishly, and now, full of years and full of honors, loaded with such distinctions as this poor world has to give, he dies, dies as he lived, a brave, strong, good man. No more shall we behold that manly form. No more shall we listen to those eloquent lips upon which for over fifty years so many thousands have hung with rapture, those eloquent lips that made his name famous in two hemispheres, and will surely keep it so long as freedom has a history. God grant that the mantle of this old hero may fall upon a worthy successor! God grant that our young men, contemplating his life and emulating his example, may be lifted up to a higher conception of life, of duty, of responsibility, of usefulness! INCIDENT IN THE LIFE OF FREDERICK DOUGLASS Long after the Civil War, Mr. Douglass once told the following story of his life to the pupils of a colored school in Talbot County, Maryland, the county in which he was born: "I once knew a little colored boy whose father and mother died when he was six years old. He was a slave and had no one to care for him. He slept on a dirt floor in a hovel and in cold weather would crawl into a meal bag, headforemost, and leave his feet in the ashes to keep them warm. Often he would roast an ear of corn and eat it to satisfy his hunger, and many times has he crawled under the barn or stable and secured eggs, which he would roast in the fire and eat. "This boy did not wear pants as you do, only a tow linen shirt. Schools were unknown to him, and he learned to spell from an old Webster's spelling book, and to read and write from posters on cellars and barn doors, while boys and men would help him. He would then preach and speak, and soon became well known. He finally held several high positions and accumulated some wealth. He wore broadcloth and did not have to divide crumbs with the dogs under the table. That boy was Frederick Douglass. "What was possible for me is possible for you. Do not think because you are colored you can not accomplish anything. Strive earnestly to add to your knowledge. So long as you remain in ignorance, so long will you fail to command the respect of your fellow men." ANIMAL LIFE IN THE CONGO WILLIAM HENRY SHEPPARD At daybreak Monday morning we had finished our breakfast by candle light and with staff in hand we marched northeast for Lukunga. In two days we sighted the Mission Compound. Word had reached the missionaries (A.B.M.U.) that foreigners were approaching, and they came out to meet and greet us. We were soon hurried into their cool and comfortable mud houses. Our faithful cook was dismissed, for we were to take our meals with the missionaries. Mr. Hoste, who is at the head of this station, came into our room and mentioned that the numerous spiders, half the size of your hand, on the walls were harmless. "But," said he, as he raised his hand and pointed to a hole over the door, "there is a nest of scorpions; you must be careful in moving in or out, for they will spring upon you." Well, you ought to have seen us dodging in and out that door. After supper, not discrediting the veracity of the gentleman, we set to work, and for an hour we spoiled the walls by smashing spiders with slippers. The next morning the mission station was excited over the loss of their only donkey. The donkey had been feeding in the field and a boa-constrictor had captured him, squeezed him into pulp, dragged him a hundred yards down to the river bank, and was preparing to swallow him. The missionaries, all with guns, took aim and fired, killing the twenty-five-foot boa-constrictor. The boa was turned over to the natives and they had a great feast. The missionaries told us many tales about how the boa-constrictor would come by night and steal away their goats, hogs, and dogs. The sand around Lukunga is a hot-bed for miniature fleas, or "jiggers." The second day of our stay at Lukunga our feet had swollen and itched terribly, and on examination we found that these "jiggers" had entered under our toe nails and had grown to the size of a pea. A native was called and with a small sharpened stick they were cut out. We saw natives with toes and fingers eaten entirely off by these pests. Mr. Hoste told us to keep our toes well greased with palm oil. We followed his instructions, but grease with sand and sun made our socks rather "heavy." The native church here is very strong spiritually. The church bell, a real big brass bell, begins to ring at 8 A. M. and continues for an hour. The natives in the neighborhood come teeming by every trail, take their seats quietly, and listen attentively to the preaching of God's word. No excitement, no shouting, but an intelligent interest shown by looking and listening from start to finish. In the evening you can hear from every quarter our hymns sung by the natives in their own language. They are having their family devotions before retiring. Our second day's march brought us to a large river. Our loads and men were ferried over in canoes. Mr. Lapsley and I decided to swim it, and so we jumped in and struck out for the opposite shore. On landing we were told by a native watchman that we had done a very daring thing. He explained with much excitement and many gestures that the river was filled with crocodiles, and that he did not expect to see us land alive on his side. We camped on the top of the hill overlooking N'Kissy and the wild rushing Congo Rapids. It was in one of these whirlpools that young Pocock, Stanley's last survivor, perished. In the "Pool" we saw many hippopotami, and longed to go out in a canoe and shoot one, but being warned of the danger from the hippopotami and also of the treacherous current of the Congo River, which might take us over the rapids and to death, we were afraid to venture. A native Bateke fisherman, just a few days before our arrival, had been crushed in his canoe by a bull-hippopotamus. Many stories of hippopotami horrors were told us. One day Chief N'Galiama with his attendant came to the mission and told Dr. Simms that the people in the village were very hungry and to see if it were possible for him to get some meat to eat. Dr. Simms called me and explained how the people were on the verge of a famine and if I could kill them a hippopotamus it would help greatly. He continued to explain that the meat and hide would be dried by the people and, using but a little at each meal, would last them a long time. Dr. Simms mentioned that he had never hunted, but he knew where the game was. He said, "I will give you a native guide, you go with him around the first cataract about two miles from here and you will find the hippopotami." I was delighted at the idea, and being anxious to use my "Martini Henry" rifle and to help the hungry people, I consented to go. In an hour and a half we had walked around the rapids, across the big boulders, and right before us were at least a dozen big hippopotami. Some were frightened, ducked their heads and made off; others showed signs of fight and defiance. At about fifty yards distant I raised my rifle and let fly at one of the exposed heads. My guide told me that the hippopotamus was shot and killed. In a few minutes another head appeared above the surface of the water and again taking aim I fired with the same result. The guide, who was a subject of the Chief N'Galiama, sprang upon a big boulder and cried to me to look at the big bubbles which were appearing on the water; then explained in detail that the hippopotami had drowned and would rise to the top of the water within an hour. The guide asked to go to a fishing camp nearby and call some men to secure the hippopotami when they rose, or else they would go out with the current and over the rapids. In a very short time about fifty men, bringing native rope with them, were on the scene and truly, as the guide had said, up came the first hippopotamus, his big back showing first. A number of the men were off swimming with the long rope which was tied to the hippopotamus' foot. A signal was given and every man did his best. No sooner had we secured the one near shore than there was a wild shout to untie and hasten for the other. These two were securely tied by their feet and big boulders were rolled on the rope to keep them from drifting out into the current. The short tails of both of them were cut off and we started home. We reported to Dr. Simms that we had about four or five tons of meat down on the river bank. The native town ran wild with delight. Many natives came to examine my gun which had sent the big bullets crashing through the brain of the hippopotami. Early the next morning N'Galiama sent his son Nzelie with a long caravan of men to complete the work. They leaped upon the backs of the hippopotami, wrestled with each other for a while, and then with knives and axes fell to work. The missionaries enjoyed a hippopotamus steak that day also. Before the chickens began to crow for dawn I was alarmed by a band of big, broad-headed, determined driver ants. They filled the cabin, the bed, the yard. There were millions. They were in my head, my eyes, my nose, and pulling at my toes. When I found it was not a dream, I didn't tarry long. Some of our native boys came with torches of fire to my rescue. They are the largest and the most ferocious ant we know anything about. In an incredibly short space of time they can kill any goat, chicken, duck, hog or dog on the place. In a few hours there is not a rat, mouse, snake, centipede, spider, or scorpion in your house, as they are chased, killed and carried away. We built a fire and slept inside of the circle until day. We scraped the acquaintance of these soldier ants by being severely bitten and stung. They are near the size of a wasp and use both ends with splendid effect. They live deep down in the ground and come out of a smoothly cut hole, following each other single file, and when they reach a damp spot in the forest and hear the white ants cutting away on the fallen leaves, the leader stops until all the soldiers have caught up. A circle is formed, a peculiar hissing is the order to raid, and down under the leaves they dart, and in a few minutes they come out with their pinchers filled with white ants. The line, without the least excitement, is again formed and they march back home stepping high with their prey. The small White Ants have a blue head and a white, soft body and are everywhere in the ground and on the surface. They live by eating dead wood and leaves. We got rid of the driver ants by keeping up a big fire in their cave for a week. We dug up the homes of the big black ants and they moved off. But there was no way possible to rid the place of the billions of white ants. They ate our dry goods boxes, our books, our trunks, our beds, shoes, hats and clothing. The natives make holes in the ground, entrapping the ants, and use them for food. The dogs look like ordinary curs, with but little hair on them, and they never bark or bite. I asked the people to explain why their dogs didn't bark. So they told me that once they did bark, but long ago the dogs and leopards had a big fight, the dogs whipped the leopards, and after that the leopards were very mad, so the mothers of the little dogs told them not to bark any more, and they hadn't barked since. The natives tie wooden bells around their dogs to know where they are. Every man knows the sound of his bell just as we would know the bark of our dog. There are many, many kinds of birds of the air, all known and called by name, and the food they eat, their mode of building nests, etc., were familiar to the people. They knew the customs and habits of the elephant, hippopotamus, buffalo, leopard, hyena, jackal, wildcat, monkey, mouse, and every animal which roams the great forest and plain,--from the thirty-foot boa-constrictor to a tiny tulu their names and nature were well known. The little children could tell you the native names of all insects, such as caterpillars, crickets, cockroaches, grasshoppers, locusts, mantis, honey bees, bumble bees, wasps, hornets, yellow jackets, goliath beetles, stage beetles, ants, etc. The many species of fish, eels and terrapins were on the end of their tongues, and these were all gathered and used for food. All the trees of the forest and plain, the flowers, fruits, nuts and berries were known and named. Roots which are good for all maladies were not only known to the medicine man, but the common people knew them also. CO-OPERATION AND THE LATIN CLASS LILLIAN B. WITTEN The few minutes that intervened between the devotionals and the beginning of the first period were always eagerly seized by the Senior class in the L---- high school for those last furious attempts at learning the date of the battle of Marathon, the duties of the President of the United States, and other pieces of information that the faculty set so much store by. Bored indifference was the sole notice they gave to the antics of the freshmen boys who were trying to get a Webster's unabridged dictionary on the floor of the aisle without attracting the attention of the guardian of the room. One little group of seniors was especially busy, cooperatively busy one might say. This was one of the overflow divisions of eight students which made up a class in Virgil. In all of the athletics of their three years in school they had been taught the value of team work and coöperation. One bright student had conceived the idea of bringing this same team work into the Virgil class. It worked beautifully. Sixty lines of Virgil was their customary assignment. Sixty lines divided among eight students, as everybody could see, was about eight lines per student. Each pupil had his number and studied correspondingly: number one translated the first seven lines with great care, number two the second seven, et cetera down the line. Then during the study period which preceded the Latin recitation each one translated his lines for the benefit of the other seven, while they attentively followed his translation with the Latin text. Busy over those vindictive lines in which Queen Dido, spurned by Aeneas, pronounces a curse upon his head and all his generation, the eight seniors on this particular morning translated one for the other, "Hate, with a never-ceasing hate." All of the savage beauty of the lines was lost on them, floundering in the maze of ablatives, subjunctives and the like. But they managed between them all to make out some sort of translation. The composition work lent itself to team work much more effectively. There were ten sentences given them each day to be translated from English into Latin. They were divided among the eight in the same manner as the Virgil, each one taking turns in doing the two extra sentences. Passed around from one to the other and carefully copied they made up a carefully done composition lesson. The beauty of it was that the Latin teacher called upon them to put these sentences upon the board, each one being given a different sentence. Thus the similarity of the work could not be a subject of unpleasant comment by the teacher who never presumed to collect the notebooks. The gong sounded for second period; noise and bustle commenced, the Virgil class made for the Latin recitation room with all the enthusiasm of prepared lessons. Time dragged today of all days, the day of the annual football game between the Juniors and the Seniors, so much more vivid than the wanderings of Aeneas. Red and orange, the colors of the Senior and Junior classes respectively, were everywhere conspicuous. But lessons had to be gotten through somehow so with open books, making the final attempt to gather up loose ends in the translation, they waited for the recitation to commence. Miss Rhodes, the young Latin teacher, had observed the class during the three weeks of the new term. She had noted the fact that none of the class excelled the others, that all of them sometimes made brilliant recitations, all sometimes stumbled through passages in a way to cause the long deceased Virgil to blush with shame. The students could have explained that if she would always call upon them for the particular seven lines which had been their portion they could always be brilliant. However, they maintained a wise and discreet silence. Scientific observation and analysis is never wasted, however. "Will the class please pass their Latin sentences to me?" Miss Rhodes requested at the beginning of the hour. Eight pairs of eyes were instantly fixed on her in amazed consternation. Eight pairs of unwilling hands fumbled among papers and slowly gave up the one paper, which was the exact duplicate of every other paper. "Hurry, please, class. You may now write your translations of today's lesson for twenty minutes." The clock ticked, eight industrious students concentrated and slaved over Dido's curse. Translations which sounded plausible enough when orally stumbled through did not look well when written. In the meantime Miss Rhodes looked through the sentences which they had given her. Her suspicions were confirmed. The class, unaware that they were harming only themselves, were daily copying their sentences from each other. Stolen glances at the young and pretty teacher informed the students that her mouth had tightened, her chin had suddenly become terrifyingly firm. After an eternity had passed the period came to an end. "Class is dismissed. Please reassemble in this room this afternoon at 2.30," Miss Rhodes succinctly stated. Did they hear aright? Why, this afternoon was the afternoon of the game. It was incredible. Eight seniors and one of them the crack halfback of the senior team, not to be at their own game. It was not to be dreamed of. In vain they protested. "If you expect to graduate, you will be here at 2.30. Cheaters deserve no consideration." Half past two found the eight sad and wiser seniors again in the Latin room. Again they applied themselves to translating Latin into English, English into Latin, while in the distance they could hear the shouts of the football fans. The hours ticked by. The game was over, the Juniors winners in one of the closest games of years over the Seniors, who lost because of the absence of their halfback who sat translating Latin, failing his class in their need. He would never live down the shame. Just before dismissing this extra session of the class, Miss Rhodes quietly said, "Let me tell you from experience that the ability to make a good bluff is a rare gift. Good bluffs are always founded on consistent hard work." Slowly and sadly the Virgil class passed out of the room; realizing that the days of coöperative Virgil were relegated to the dim, suffering past. THE BAND OF GIDEON JOSEPH S. COTTER The Band of Gideon roam the sky, The howling wind is their war-cry, The thunder's roll is their trump's peal, And the lightning's flash their vengeful steel. Each black cloud Is a fiery steed. And they cry aloud With each strong deed, "The sword of the Lord and Gideon." And men below rear temples high And mock their God with reasons why, And live, in arrogance, sin and shame, And rape their souls for the world's good name. Each black cloud Is a fiery steed. And they cry aloud With each strong deed, "The sword of the Lord and Gideon." The band of Gideon roam the sky And view the earth with baleful eye; In holy wrath they scourge the land With earthquake, storm and burning brand. Each black cloud Is a fiery steed. And they cry aloud With each strong deed, "The sword of the Lord and Gideon." The lightnings flash and the thunders roll, And "Lord have mercy on my soul," Cry men as they fall on the stricken sod, In agony searching for their God. Each black cloud Is a fiery steed. And they cry aloud With each strong deed, "The sword of the Lord and Gideon." And men repent and then forget That heavenly wrath they ever met, The band of Gideon yet will come And strike their tongues of blasphemy dumb. Each black cloud Is a fiery steed. And they cry aloud With each strong deed, "The sword of the Lord and Gideon." THE HOME OF THE COLORED GIRL BEAUTIFUL AZALIA HACKLEY The Home of the Colored Girl Beautiful will reflect her. She will help her parents to buy a home that it may give her family more standing in the civic community. Taste and simplicity will rule, for the home will harmonize with the girl. If her parents are not particular about the trifles in the way of curtains, fences, and yards, then it must be her special task to make the home represent the beautiful in her, the God, for all that is beautiful and good comes from God. Windows generally express the character of the occupants of a house. The day has passed when soiled or ragged lace curtains are tolerated. The cheaper simpler scrims and cheese cloths which are easily laundered are now used by the best people. The Colored Girl Beautiful will study the possibilities of her home and will attempt to secure the restful effects for the eye. Too much furniture is bad taste. The less one has, the cleaner houses may be kept. The ornate heavy furniture and the upholstered parlor sets are passing away because they are no longer considered good taste, besides they are too heavy for cleanliness and are harmful to the health of women who do their own work. Furniture of less expensive model, with simple lines and of less weight is being selected. This may be paid for in cash instead of "on time," as has been the custom of many people in smaller towns and in the country districts. The furniture sold by the payment houses always shows its source in its heaviness and shininess. The wall paper should be selected as one would select a color for clothes, to harmonize with the color of the skin in all lights, and for service. Color schemes in decoration are being followed and we have no more stuffy parlors, often closed for days. Instead we have living rooms, with cleanable furniture, strong but light, entirely suitable for winter, and cool in summer. No one has a parlor now-a-days. The best room is generally a living room for the whole family. No more do we see enlarged pictures which good taste demands should be placed in bedrooms and private sitting rooms. The ten-cent stores have done a great deal of good in educating the poor, white and black alike. These stores have everywhere sold small brown art prints of many of the great paintings, to take the place of the gaudy dust-laden chromos and family pictures. Pictures are hung low that they may be thoroughly dusted, as well as to give a near view of the subject. Expensive carpets are also things of the past. Painted and stained floors with light weight rugs are more generally used. These may be cleaned and handled without giving the backache to women. Many colored girls boast of having painted their own floors and woodwork. Much of this has been learned in the boarding school. A tawdry home expresses its mistress as do her clothes. Next to the kitchen a fully equipped bath room is now the most important room in the house. Health and sanitation are the topics of the hour and a colored girl should know how to put a washer on a faucet as well as her father or brother. A house without books is indeed an unfurnished home. Good books are the fad now. They are everywhere in evidence in the up-to-date colored home. They are exhibited almost as hand-painted china was. In every inventory or collection one finds a Bible, a dictionary, and an atlas. The times are changing and the colored people are changing with the times. Cleanliness and health are the watchwords, and "Order" is Heaven's first law. THE KNIGHTING OF DONALD LILLIAN B. WITTEN "With spear drawn Sir Cedric rode steadily through the forest, while ever nearer and nearer came the dragon. Swift and sudden was the onslaught and great was the struggle, until finally Sir Cedric dismounted from his black charger and stood victor over the huge monster who had committed so many depredations against the country side." Slowly and lingeringly Donald closed the book. The many-branched tree under which he lay changed into a grey stone castle with moat and drawbridge upon which through the day armored knights on prancing steeds rode from castle to village, always on missions of good to the towns and hamlets. Never did Donald tire of reading about Arthur, Galahad, Merlin and the others, but Launcelot, the Bold, was his favorite knight. As he read of their deeds his black eyes flashed, his nervous slim body quivered, the deep rich red flooded his brown cheeks. He was one of them, took part in their tournaments, rescued the lovely ladies and overcame wicked monsters for his king. Of all the stories a never-to-be-forgotten one was of a little boy like himself who lived in a small cottage near a castle which harbored many knights. This little boy idolized them even as Donald did. One day as the knights were returning from a strenuous day's work, one, weary and worn, stopped at the cottage and asked for a drink of water. Eagerly the boy ran, filled his cup at the brimming spring, and gave it to the knight. "Thank you, my little boy," smiled the man. "Already you are a knight for you have learned the lesson of service." How Donald envied the boy. To serve a knight, he dreamed, even to see one. Would he had lived in the olden times when knighthood was in flower. But having been born centuries too late he tried in every way to live as the knights had lived. Daily he exercised, practiced physical feats, restrained himself from over indulgence, following out the program of those who would be knights. With shining eyes he would often repeat his motto, the motto of Arthur's knights: "Live pure, speak the truth, right the wrong, follow the Christ." Thus dreaming Donald grew and everybody loved him. Dreamer though he was, he ever kept before him the ideal of service. Tense with interest in the exploits of the black knight, he was often tempted not to answer when his mother called him from his reading to go on errands. Only a second, however, would temptation last. Launcelot could never approve of a boy who acted dishonestly. Working, playing, and dreaming, Donald grew into a lovable boy, adept in all of the sports of boyhood and with the manners of a prince. He had reached the last year in grammar school, the graduating class. Already the obligations of maturity were forcing themselves upon the boys and girls. They, for the first time in their school career, were an organized group. They were going to elect officers, dignified officers. Nominations had been many and enthusiasm surged around the youthful candidates, but the choice for president had narrowed itself down between Donald and a laughing-eyed girl with crinkly black hair. As usual there were more girls in the class than boys, but while the boys stood solidly as one behind the masculine candidate, there were a few girls who put their trust in manly courage rather than feminine charm and were disposed to break loose from the suffragette camp. Public opinion thus gave the election to Donald. As the time for election drew near, the interest became more intense and the various camps campaigned vigorously, each striving to gain the majority vote. One day as the school was assembling in their usual room they were stopped by the sight of their principal questioning one of the members of the class. "But this is your knife, isn't it?" sternly inquired the principal. "Yes, sir," responded John, a trustworthy boy, the son of a widowed mother whom he helped by working after school hours. "Mr. Starks found this knife underneath his broken window last night. It had evidently been dropped by the boy who, in climbing out of his cherry tree, accidentally smashed the window. You know that I announced last week that the next boy who was caught trespassing upon Mr. Starks' property would be suspended from school for the rest of the year. I am disappointed in you, John. This does not sound like you. Did you drop this knife last night?" "No, sir," responded John. "No? Well, speak up. Who had the knife?" "I can't say, sir." "But you must. This is a serious matter. One of the rules of the school has been broken." Then looking nervously around the room of girls and boys, the principal commanded: "Will the boy who dropped this knife last night speak, or shall I be forced to find out the culprit for myself?" There was no answer. Every boy stood taut, his eyes steadfastly before him in the thick silence that followed. "Very well," snapped the principal. "John, who had the knife yesterday?" "I cannot say, sir," responded John unwillingly. "You may do one of two things, either you will tell the name of the boy to whom you lent the knife or you may be suspended from school for the rest of the year." The silence was more intense. One, two, three minutes passed. "You are dismissed," said the principal. Slowly John left the room. Three days passed. John's mother, much disturbed, bewailed the fact that he would lose this year out of his school life and, perhaps, would not have the opportunity of going again. John thought of the responsibility toward his mother and then of that toward the boy whose fault he was concealing. Was he doing right or was he doing the easiest thing in not telling? On the fourth day John sought the principal. "If it is necessary to tell the name of the boy who had my knife before I can return to school, I will tell," he anxiously said. "It certainly is necessary." And John told. There was great excitement in the graduating class. The traditions of centuries had been broken. One of their number had become a tattler. John resumed his school work, systematically and obviously shunned by the other boys. But Donald reflected over the incident. "After all," he thought, "John did the bravest thing. It would have been easier to appear heroic and to sacrifice his mother for the sake of a boy who needed to be punished." The next day Donald sought John, accompanied him to school, and showed the class that he regarded John as a hero instead of a tell-tale. The boys divided into two camps, some following Donald's example, and others loudly denouncing him. [Illustration] Donald's sponsorship of John cost him the presidential election just as he had foreseen, but he knew that he had lived up to the best within him and he was satisfied. As he climbed into bed at the end of the day upon which he had been defeated and yet had gained a great victory, his mother tucked the covers closely around him, kissed him good-night, and lowered the light. Then she bent over him again and kissed him once more and whispered, "My brave little knight." A NEGRO EXPLORER AT THE NORTH POLE MATTHEW A. HENSON "Matthew A. Henson, my Negro assistant, has been with me in one capacity or another since my second trip to Nicaragua in 1887. I have taken him on each and all of my expeditions, except the first, and also without exception on each of my farthest sledge trips. This position I have given him primarily because of his adaptability and fitness for the work and secondly on account of his loyalty. He is a better dog driver and can handle a sledge better than any man living, except some of the best Esquimo hunters themselves. "Robert E. Peary, Rear Admiral, U. S. N." Exactly 40° below zero when we pushed the sledges up to the curled-up dogs and started them off over rough ice covered with deep soft snow. It was like walking in loose granulated sugar. Indeed I might compare the snow of the Arctic to the granules of sugar, without their saccharine sweetness, but with freezing cold instead; you cannot make snowballs of it, for it is too thoroughly congealed, and when it is packed by the wind it is almost as solid as ice. It is from the packed snow that the blocks used to form the igloo-walls are cut. At the end of four hours, we came to the igloo where the Captain and his boys were sleeping the sleep of utter exhaustion. In order not to interrupt the Captain's rest, we built another igloo and unloaded his sledge, and distributed the greater part of the load among the sledges of the party. The Captain, on awakening, told us that the journey we had completed on that day had been made by him under the most trying conditions, and that it had taken him fourteen hours to do it. We were able to make better time because we had his trail to follow, and, therefore, the necessity of finding the easiest way was avoided. That was the object of the scout or pioneer party and Captain Bartlett had done practically all of it up to the time he turned back at 87° 48´ north. March 29, 1909: You have undoubtedly taken into consideration the pangs of hunger and of cold that you know assailed us, going Poleward; but have you ever considered that we were thirsty for water to drink or hungry for fat? To eat snow to quench our thirsts would have been the height of folly, and as well as being thirsty, we were continually assailed by the pangs of a hunger that called for the fat, good, rich, oily, juicy fat that our systems craved and demanded. Had we succumbed to the temptations of the thirst and eaten the snow, we would not be able to tell the tale of the conquest of the Pole; for the result of eating snow is death. True, the dogs licked up enough moisture to quench their thirsts, but we were not made of such stern stuff as they. Snow would have reduced our temperatures and we would quickly have fallen by the way. We had to wait until camp was made and the fire of alcohol started before we had a chance, and it was with hot tea that we quenched our thirsts. The hunger for fat was not appeased; a dog or two was killed, but his carcass went to the Esquimos and the entrails were fed to the rest of the pack. April 1, the Farthest North of Bartlett: I knew at this time that he was to go back, and that I was to continue, so I had no misgivings and neither had he. He was ready and anxious to take the back-trail. His five marches were up and he was glad of it, and he was told that in the morning he must turn back and knit the trail together, so that the main column could return over a beaten path. He swept his little party together and at three P. M., with a cheery "Good-by! Good Luck!" he was off. His Esquimo boys, attempting English, too, gave us their "Good-bys." The Captain had gone. Commander Peary and I were alone (save for the four Esquimos), the same we had been with so often in the past years, and as we looked at each other we realized our position and we knew without speaking that the time had come for us to demonstrate that we were the men who it had been ordained, should unlock the door which held the mystery of the Arctic. Without an instant's hesitation, the order to push on was given, and we started off in the trail made by the Captain to cover the Farthest North he had made and to push on over one hundred and thirty miles to our final destination. Day and night were the same. My thoughts were on the going and getting forward, and on nothing else. The wind was from the southeast, and seemed to push on, and the sun was at our backs, a ball of livid fire, rolling his way above the horizon in never-ending day. With my proven ability in gauging distances, Commander Peary was ready to take the reckoning as I made it and he did not resort to solar observations until we were within a hand's grasp of the Pole. The memory of those last five marches, from the Farthest North of Captain Bartlett to the arrival of our party at the Pole, is a memory of toil, fatigue, and exhaustion, but we were urged on and encouraged by our relentless commander, who was himself being scourged by the final lashings of the dominating influence that had controlled his life. From the land to 87° 48´ north, Commander Peary had had the best of the going, for he had brought up the rear and had utilized the trail made by the preceding parties, and thus he had kept himself in the best of condition for the time when he made the spurt that brought him to the end of the race. From 87° 48´ north, he kept in the lead and did his work in such a way as to convince me that he was still as good a man as he had ever been. We marched and marched, falling down in our tracks repeatedly, until it was impossible to go on. We were forced to camp, in spite of the impatience of the Commander, who found himself unable to rest, and who only waited long enough for us to relax into sound sleep, when he would wake us up and start us off again. I do not believe that he slept for one hour from April 2 until after he had loaded us up and ordered us to go back over our old trail, and I often think that from the instant when the order to return was given until the land was again sighted, he was in a continual daze. Onward we forced our weary way. Commander Peary took his sights from the time our chronometer-watches gave, and I, knowing that we had kept on going in practically a straight line, was sure that we had more than covered the necessary distance to insure our arrival at the top of the earth. It was during the march of the 3d of April that I endured an instant of hideous horror. We were crossing a lane of moving ice. Commander Peary was in the lead setting the pace, and a half hour later the four boys and myself followed in single file. They had all gone before, and I was standing and pushing at the upstanders of my sledge, when the block of ice I was using as a support slipped from underneath my feet, and before I knew it the sledge was out of my grasp, and I was floundering in the water of the lead. I did the best I could. I tore my hood from off my head and struggled frantically. My hands were gloved and I could not take hold of the ice, but before I could give the "Grand Hailing Sigh of Distress," faithful old Ootah had grabbed me by the nape of the neck, the same as he would have grabbed a dog, and with one hand he pulled me out of the water, and with the other hurried the team across. He had saved my life, but I did not tell him so, for such occurrences are taken as part of the day's work, and the sledge he safeguarded was of much more importance, for it held, as part of its load, the Commander's sextant, the mercury, and the coils of piano-wire that were the essential portion of the scientific part of the expedition. My kamiks (boots of sealskin) were stripped off, and the congealed water was beaten out of my bearskin trousers, and with a dry pair of kamiks, we hurried on to overtake the column. When we caught up, we found the boys gathered around the Commander, doing their best to relieve him of his discomfort, for he had fallen into the water, also, and while he was not complaining, I was sure that his bath had not been any more voluntary than mine had been. It was about ten or ten-thirty A. M., on the 7th of April, 1909, that the Commander gave the order to build a snow-shield to protect him from the flying drift of the surface-snow. I knew that he was about to take an observation, and while we worked I was nervously apprehensive, for I felt that the end of our journey had come. When we handed him the pan of mercury the hour was within a very few minutes of noon. Lying flat on his stomach, he took the elevation and made the notes on a piece of tissue-paper at his head. With sun-blinded eyes, he snapped shut the vernier (a graduated scale that subdivides the smallest divisions on the sector of the circular scale of the sextant) and with the resolute squaring of his jaws, I was sure that he was satisfied, and I was confident that the journey had ended. The Commander gave the word, "We will plant the Stars and Stripes--_at the North Pole_!" and it was done; on the peak of a huge paleocrystic floeberg the glorious banner was unfurled to the breeze, and as it snapped and crackled with the wind, I felt a savage joy and exultation. Another world's accomplishment was done and finished, and as in the past, from the beginning of history, wherever the world's work was done by a white man, he had been accompanied by a colored man. From the building of the pyramids and the journey to the Cross, to the discovery of the North Pole, the Negro had been the faithful and constant companion of the Caucasian, and I felt all that it was possible for me to feel, that it was I, a lowly member of my race, who had been chosen by fate to represent it, at this, almost the last of the world's great work. BENJAMIN BANNEKER WILLIAM WELLS BROWN Benjamin Banneker was born in the State of Maryland, in the year 1732, of pure African parentage; their blood never having been corrupted by the introduction of a drop of Anglo-Saxon. His father was a slave, and of course could do nothing towards the education of the child. The mother, however, being free, succeeded in purchasing the freedom of her husband, and they, with their son, settled on a few acres of land, where Benjamin remained during the lifetime of his parents. His entire schooling was gained from an obscure country school, established for the education of the children of free negroes; and these advantages were poor, for the boy appears to have finished studying before he arrived at his fifteenth year. Although out of school, Banneker was still a student, and read with great care and attention such books as he could get. Mr. George Ellicott, a gentlemen of fortune and considerable literary taste, and who resided near to Benjamin, became interested in him, and lent him books from his large library. Among these books were three on Astronomy. A few old and imperfect astronomical instruments also found their way into the boy's hands, all of which he used with great benefit to his own mind. Banneker took delight in the study of the languages, and soon mastered the Latin, Greek and German. He was also proficient in the French. The classics were not neglected by him, and the general literary knowledge which he possessed caused Mr. Ellicott to regard him as the most learned man in the town, and he never failed to introduce Banneker to his most distinguished guests. About this time Benjamin turned his attention particularly to astronomy, and determined on making calculations for an almanac, and completed a set for the whole year. Encouraged by this attempt, he entered upon calculations for subsequent years, which, as well as the former, he began and finished without the least assistance from any person or books than those already mentioned; so that whatever merit is attached to his performance is exclusively his own. He published an almanac in Philadelphia for the years 1792, '93, '94, and '95, which contained his calculations, exhibiting the different aspects of the planets, a table of the motions of the sun and moon, their risings and settings, and the courses of the bodies of the planetary system. By this time Banneker's acquirements had become generally known, and the best scholars in the country opened correspondence with him. Goddard & Angell, the well-known Baltimore publishers, engaged his pen for their establishment, and became the publishers of his almanacs. He knew every branch of history, both natural and civil; he had read all the original historians of England, France, and was a great antiquarian. With such a fund of knowledge his conversation was equally interesting, instructive, and entertaining. Banneker was so favorably appreciated by the first families in Virginia, that in 1803 he was invited by Mr. Jefferson, then President of the United States, to visit him at Monticello, where the statesman had gone for recreation. But he was too infirm to undertake the journey. He died the following year, aged seventy-two. Like the golden sun that has sunk beneath the western horizon, but still throws upon the world, which he sustained and enlightened in his career, the reflected beams of his departed genius, his name can only perish with his language. THE NEGRO RACE CHARLES W. ANDERSON As a race, we have done much, but we must not forget how much more there is still to do. To some extent we have been given opportunity, but we must not cease to remember that no race can be given relative rank--it must win equality of rating for itself. Hence, we must not only acquire education, but character as well. It is not only necessary that we should speak well, but it is more necessary that we should speak the truth. PAUL CUFFE JOHN W. CROMWELL Paul Cuffe was born in 1759 on the island of Cuttyhunk, near New Bedford, Massachusetts. There were four sons and six daughters of John Cuffe who had been stolen from Africa, and Ruth, a woman of Indian extraction. Paul, the youngest son, lacked the advantage of an early education, but he supplied the deficiency by his personal efforts and learned not only to read and write with facility, but made such proficiency in the art of navigation as to become a skillful seaman and the instructor of both whites and blacks in the same art. His father, who had obtained his freedom and bought a farm of one hundred acres, died when Paul was about fourteen. When he was sixteen, Paul began the life of a sailor. On his third voyage he was captured by a British brig and was for three months a prisoner of war. On his release he planned to go into business on his own account. With the aid of an elder brother, David Cuffe, an open boat was built in which they went to sea; but this brother on the first intimation of danger gave up the venture and Paul was forced to undertake the work single-handed and alone, which was a sore disappointment. On his second attempt he lost all he had. Before the close of the Revolutionary War, Paul refused to pay a personal tax, on the ground that free colored people did not enjoy the rights and privileges of citizenship. After considerable delay, and an appeal to the courts, he paid the tax under protest. He then petitioned to the legislature which finally agreed to his contention. His efforts are the first of which there is any record of a citizen of African descent making a successful appeal in behalf of his civil rights. On reaching the age of twenty-five he married a woman of the same tribe as his mother, and for a while gave up life on the ocean wave; but the growth of his family led him back to his fond pursuit on the briny deep. As he was unable to purchase a boat, with the aid of his brother he built one from keel to gunwale and launched into the enterprise. While on the way to a nearby island to consult his brother whom he had induced once more to venture forth with him, he was overtaken by pirates who robbed him of all he possessed. Again Paul returned home disappointed, though not discouraged. Once more he applied for assistance to his brother David and another boat was built. After securing a cargo, he met again with pirates, but he eluded them though he was compelled to return and repair his boat. These having been made, he began a successful career along the coast as far north as Newfoundland, to the south as far as Savannah and as distant as Gottenburg. In carrying on this business, starting in the small way indicated, he owned at different times besides smaller boats, "The Ranger," a schooner of sixty or seventy tons, a half interest in a brig of 162 tons, the brig "Traveller," of 109 tons, the ship "Alpha," of 268 tons and three-fourths interest in a larger vessel. A few noble incidents may illustrate his resourcefulness, difficulties and success over all obstacles. When engaged in the whaling business he was found with less than the customary outfit for effectually carrying on this work. The practice in such cases was for the other ships to loan the number of men needed. They denied this at first to Cuffe, but fair play prevailed and they gave him what was customary, with the result that of the seven whales captured, Paul's men secured five, and two of them fell by his own hand! In 1795 he took a cargo to Norfolk, Virginia, and learning that corn could be bought at a decided advantage, he made a trip to the Nanticoke River, on the eastern shore of Maryland. Here his appearance as a black man commanding his own boat and with a crew of seven men all of his own complexion, alarmed the whites, who seemed to dread his presence there as the signal for a revolt on the part of their slaves. They opposed his landing, but the examination of his papers removed all doubts as to the regularity of his business, while his quiet dignity secured the respect of the leading white citizens. He had no difficulty after this in taking a cargo of three thousand bushels of corn, from which he realized a profit of $1000. On a second voyage he was equally successful. Although without the privilege of attending a school when a boy, he endeavored to have his friends and neighbors open and maintain one for the colored and Indian children of the vicinity. Failing to secure their active coöperation, he built in 1797 a schoolhouse without their aid. Because of his independent means and his skill as a mariner, he visited with little or no difficulty most of the larger cities of the country, held frequent conferences with the representative men of his race, and recommended the formation of societies for their mutual relief and physical betterment. Such societies he formed in Philadelphia and New York, and then having made ample preparation he sailed in 1811 for Africa in his brig "The Traveller," reaching Sierra Leone on the West Coast after a voyage of about two months. Here he organized the Friendly Society of Sierra Leone and then went to Liverpool. Even here one of his characteristic traits manifested itself in taking with him to England for education a native of Sierra Leone. While in England, Cuffe visited London twice and consulted such friends of the Negro as Granville Sharp, Thomas Clarkson and William Wilberforce! These men were all interested in a proposition to promote the settlement on the West Coast of Africa of the free people of color in America, many of whom had come into the domains of Great Britain as an outcome of the Revolutionary War. This opinion was at this period the prevailing sentiment of England respecting what was best for the Negro. Sir J. J. Crooks, a former governor of Sierra Leone, in alluding to its origin, says: "There is no doubt that the influence of their opinion was felt in America and that it led to emigration thence to Africa before Liberia was settled. Paul Cuffe, a man of color ... who was much interested in the promotion of the civil and religious liberty of his colored brethren in their native land, had been familiar with the ideas of these philanthropists, as well as with the movement in the same direction in England."[1] [1] _History of Sierra Leone_, Dublin, 1903, p. 97 This explains Cuffe's visit to England and to Africa--a daring venture in those perilous days--and the formation of the Friendly Societies in Africa and in his own country, the United States. When his special mission to England was concluded, he took out a cargo from Liverpool for Sierra Leone, after which he returned to America. Before he made his next move, Cuffe consulted with the British Government in London and President Madison at Washington. But the strained relations between the two nations, as well as the financial condition of the United States at the time, made governmental coöperation impracticable if not impossible. In 1815 he carried out the ideas long in his mind. In this year he sailed from Boston for Sierra Leone with thirty-eight free Negroes as settlers on the Black Continent. Only eight of these could pay their own expenses, but Cuffe, nevertheless, took out the entire party, landed them safe on the soil of their forefathers after a journey of fifty-five days and paid the expense for the outfit, transportation and maintenance of the remaining thirty, amounting to no less than twenty-five thousand dollars ($25,000), out of his own pocket. The colonists were cordially welcomed by the people of Sierra Leone, and each family received from thirty to forty acres from the Crown Government. He remained with the settlers two months and then returned home with the purpose of taking out another colony. Before, however, he could do so, and while preparations were being made for the second colony, he was taken ill. After a protracted illness he died September 7, 1817, in the fifty-ninth year of his age. At the time of his death he had no less than two thousand names of intending emigrants on his list awaiting transportation to Africa. As to his personal characteristics: Paul Cuffe was "tall, well-formed and athletic, his deportment conciliating yet dignified and prepossessing. He was a member of the Society of Friends (Quakers) and became a minister among them.... He believed it to be his duty to sacrifice private interest, rather than engage in any enterprise, however lawful ... or however profitable, that had the slightest tendency to injure his fellow man. He would not deal in intoxicating liquors or in slaves." THE BLACK FAIRY FENTON JOHNSON Little Annabelle was lying on the lawn, a volume of Grimm before her. Annabelle was nine years of age, the daughter of a colored lawyer, and the prettiest dark child in the village. She had long played in the fairyland of knowledge, and was far advanced for one of her years. A vivid imagination was her chief endowment, and her story creatures often became real flesh-and-blood creatures. "I wonder," she said to herself that afternoon, "if there is any such thing as a colored fairy? Surely there must be, but in this book they're all white." Closing the book, her eyes rested upon the landscape that rolled itself out lazily before her. The stalks in the cornfield bent and swayed, their tassels bowing to the breeze, until Annabelle could have easily sworn that those were Indian fairies. And beyond lay the woods, dark and mossy and cool, and there many a something mysterious could have sprung into being, for in the recess was a silvery pool where the children played barefooted. A summer mist like a thin veil hung over the scene, and the breeze whispered tales of far-away lands. Hist! Something stirred in the hazel bush near her. Can I describe little Annabelle's amazement at finding in the bush a palace and a tall and dark-faced fairy before it? "I am Amunophis, the Lily of Ethiopia," said the strange creature. "And I come to the children of the Seventh Veil." She was black and regal, and her voice was soft and low and gentle like the Niger on a summer evening. Her dress was the wing of the sacred beetle, and whenever the wind stirred it played the dreamiest of music. Her feet were bound with golden sandals, and on her head was a crown of lotus leaves. "And you're a fairy?" gasped Annabelle. "Yes, I am a fairy, just as you wished me to be. I live in the tall grass many, many miles away, where a beautiful river called the Niger sleeps." And stretching herself beside Annabelle, on the lawn, the fairy began to whisper: [Illustration: The Black Fairy] "I have lived there for over five thousand years. In the long ago a city rested there, and from that spot black men and women ruled the world. Great ships laden with spice and oil and wheat would come to its port, and would leave with wines and weapons of war and fine linens. Proud and great were the black kings of this land, their palaces were built of gold, and I was the Guardian of the City. But one night when I was visiting an Indian grove the barbarians from the North came down and destroyed our shrines and palaces and took our people up to Egypt. Oh, it was desolate, and I shed many tears, for I missed the busy hum of the market and the merry voices of the children. "But come with me, little Annabelle, I will show you all this, the rich past of the Ethiopian." She bade the little girl take hold of her hand and close her eyes, and wish herself in the wood behind the cornfield. Annabelle obeyed, and ere they knew it they were sitting beside the clear water in the pond. "You should see the Niger," said the fairy. "It is still beautiful, but not as happy as in the old days. The white man's foot has been cooled by its water, and the white man's blossom is choking out the native flower." And she dropped a tear so beautiful the costliest pearl would seem worthless beside it. "Ah! I did not come to weep," she continued, "but to show you the past." So in a voice sweet and sad she sang an old African lullaby and dropped into the water a lotus leaf. A strange mist formed, and when it had disappeared she bade the little girl to look into the pool. Creeping up Annabelle peered into the glassy surface, and beheld a series of vividly colored pictures. First she saw dark blacksmiths hammering in the primeval forests and giving fire and iron to all the world. Then she saw the gold of old Ghana and the bronzes of Benin. Then the black Ethiopians poured down upon Egypt and the lands and cities bowed and flamed. Next she saw a great city with pyramids and stately temples. It was night, and a crimson moon was in the sky. Red wine was flowing freely, and beautiful dusky maidens were dancing in a grove of palms. Old and young were intoxicated with the joy of living, and a sense of superiority could be easily traced in their faces and attitude. Presently red flame hissed everywhere, and the magnificence of remote ages soon crumbled into ash and dust. Persian soldiers ran to and fro conquering the band of defenders and severing the woman and children. Then came the Mohammedans and kingdom on kingdom arose, and with the splendor came ever more slavery. The next picture was that of a group of fugitive slaves, forming the nucleus of three tribes, hurrying back to the wilderness of their fathers. In houses built as protection against the heat the blacks dwelt, communing with the beauty of water and sky and open air. It was just between twilight and evening and their minstrels were chanting impromptu hymns to their gods of nature. And as she listened closely, Annabelle thought she caught traces of the sorrow songs in the weird pathetic strains of the African music mongers. From the East the warriors of the tribe came, bringing prisoners, whom they sold to white strangers from the West. "It is the beginning," whispered the fairy, as a large Dutch vessel sailed westward. Twenty boys and girls bound with strong ropes were given to a miserable existence in the hatchway of the boat. Their captors were strange creatures, pale and yellow haired, who were destined to sell them as slaves in a country cold and wild, where the palm trees and the cocoanut never grew and men spoke a language without music. A light, airy creature, like an ancient goddess, flew before the craft guiding it in its course. "That is I," said the fairy. "In that picture I am bringing your ancestors to America. It was my hope that in the new civilization I could build a race that would be strong enough to redeem their brothers. They have gone through great tribulations and trials, and have mingled with the blood of the fairer race; yet though not entirely Ethiopian they have not lost their identity. Prejudice is a furnace through which molten gold is poured. Heaven be merciful unto all races! There is one more picture--the greatest of all, but--farewell, little one, I am going." "Going?" cried Annabelle. "Going? I want to see the last picture--and when will you return, fairy?" "When the race has been redeemed. When the brotherhood of man has come into the world; and there is no longer a white civilization or a black civilization, but the civilization of all men. I belong to the world council of the fairies, and we are all colors and kinds. Why should not men be as charitable unto one another? When that glorious time comes I shall walk among you and be one of you, performing my deeds of magic and playing with the children of every nation, race and tribe. Then, Annabelle, you shall see the last picture--and the best." Slowly she disappeared like a summer mist, leaving Annabelle amazed. IT'S A LONG WAY WILLIAM STANLEY BRAITHWAITE It's a long way the sea-winds blow Over the sea-plains blue,-- But longer far has my heart to go Before its dreams come true. It's work we must, and love we must, And do the best we may, And take the hope of dreams in trust To keep us day by day. It's a long way the sea-winds blow-- But somewhere lies a shore-- Thus down the tide of Time shall flow My dreams forevermore. NEGRO MUSIC THAT STIRRED FRANCE EMMETT J. SCOTT "You cannot defeat a singing nation," a keen-witted observer has said, in noting the victory spirit engendered by the martial music, the patriotic songs and the stirring melodies of hearth and home that have moved the souls of men to action on all the battlefields of history. "Send me more singing regiments," cabled General Pershing, and Admiral Mayo sent frequent requests that a song leader organize singing on every battleship of the Atlantic Fleet. Since "the morning stars sang together" in Scriptural narrative, music has exerted a profound influence upon mankind, be it in peace or in war, in gladness or in sorrow, or in the tender sentiment that makes for love of country, affection for kindred or the divine passion for "ye ladye fair." Music knows no land or clime, no season or circumstance, and no race, creed or clan. It speaks the language universal, and appeals to all peoples with a force irresistible and no training in ethics or science is necessary to reach the common ground that its philosophy instinctively creates in the human understanding. The War Department was conscious of this and gave practical application to its theory that music makes a soldier "fit to fight" when it instituted, through the Commission on Training Camp Activities, a systematic program of musical instruction throughout the American Army at the home cantonments and followed up the work overseas. It was the belief that every man became a better warrior for freedom when his mind could be diverted from the dull routine of camp life by arousing his higher nature by song, and that he fared forth to battle with a stouter heart when his steps were attuned to the march by bands that drove out all fear of bodily danger and robbed "grim-visaged war" of its terrors. Skilled song leaders were detailed to the various camps and cantonments here and abroad, and bands galore were brought into service for inspiration and cheer. The emotional nature of the Negro fitted him for this musical program. The colored American was a "close up" in every picture from the start to the finish and was a conspicuous figure in every scenario, playing with credit and distinction alike in melody or with the musket. No instrumentality was more potent than music in off-setting the propaganda of the wily German agents, who sought to break down the loyalty of the Negro. The music he knew was intensely American--in sentiment and rhythm. It saturated his being--and all the blandishments of the enemy were powerless to sway him from the flag he loved. His grievances were overshadowed by the realization that the welfare of the nation was menaced and that his help was needed. American music harmonized with the innate patriotism of the race, and the majestic sweep of "The Star-Spangled Banner" or the sympathetic appeal of "My Country, 'Tis of Thee," were sufficient to counteract the sinister efforts of the missionaries of the Hohenzollerns to move him from his moorings. No labor is ever so onerous that it can bar music from the soul of black folk. This race sings at work, at play and in every mood. Visitors to any army camp found the Negro doing musical "stunts" of some kind from reveille to taps--every hour, every minute of the day. All the time the trumpeters were not blowing out actual routine bugle calls, they were somewhere practicing them. Mouth-organs were going, concertinas were being drawn back and forth, and guitars, banjos, mandolins and whatnot were in use--playing all varieties of music, from the classic, like "Lucia," "Poet and Peasant," and "Il Trovatore" to the folksongs and the rollicking "Jazz." Music is indeed the chiefest outlet of the Negro's emotions, and the state of his soul can best be determined by the type of melody he pours forth. Some writer has said that a handful of pipers at the head of a Scotch regiment could lead that regiment down the mouth of a cannon. It is not doubted that a Negro regiment could be made to duplicate the "Charge of the Light Brigade" at Balaklava--"into the mouth of hell," as Tennyson puts it--if one of their regimental bands should play--as none but a colored band can play--the vivacious strains of "There'll Be a Hot Time in the Old Town Tonight." The Negro's love of home is an integral part of his nature, and is exemplified in the themes he plaintively crooned in camp on both sides of the ocean. Such melodies as "Carry Me Back to Old Virginia," "My Old Kentucky Home," "In the Evening by de Moonlight," and "Swanee River" recalled memories of the "old folks at home," and kept his patriotism alive, for he hoped to return to them some day and swell their hearts with pride by reason of the glorious record he made at the front. The Negro is essentially religious, and his deep spiritual temperament is vividly illustrated by the joy he finds in "harmonizing" such ballads of ancient days as "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot," "Steal Away to Jesus," "Standin' in the Need of Prayer," "Every Time I Feel the Spirit," "I Wan' to be Ready," and "Roll, Jordan, Roll." The Negro is also an optimist, whether he styles himself by that high-sounding title or not, and the sincerity of his "make the best of it" disposition is noted in the fervor he puts into those uplifting gems, "Pack Up Your Troubles in Your Old Kit Bag and Smile, Smile, Smile," "There's a Long, Long Trail," "Keep the Home Fires Burning," and "Good-bye Broadway, Hello France." Just as the Negro folk-songs--or songs of war, interpreted with the characteristic Negro flavor--stirred all France and gave poilu and populace a taste of the real American music, the marvelous "jazz bands" kept their feet patting and their shoulders "eagle-rocking" to its infectious motion. High officials are said to have been literally "carried away" with the "jazz" music furnished by the colored bands "over there" during the war. General Petain is said to have paid a visit, at the height of the hostilities, to a sector in which there were American troops and had "the time of his life" listening to a colored band playing the entrancing "jazz" music, with some Negro dance stunts in keeping with the spirit of the melodies. He warmly congratulated the colored leader upon the excellence of the work of his organization, and thanked him for the enjoyable entertainment that had been given him. The stolid Briton is scarcely less susceptible to the "jazz" than his volatile French brother, for when another colored band from "The States" went to London to head a parade of American and English soldiers, and halted at Buckingham Palace, it is said that King George V and Queen Mary heard the lively airs with undisguised enthusiasm and were loath to have the players depart for the park where they were scheduled for a concert, with a dance engagement, under British military control, to follow. The colored bands scored heavily with the three great Allied Powers of Europe by rendering with a brilliant touch and matchless finish their national anthems, "God Save the Queen," "La Marseillaise" and the "Marcia Reale." NOVEMBER 11, 1918 (This letter was written by a young first lieutenant (colored) in the 366th Infantry, Company L, 92nd Division, Cleveland, Ohio.) November 11th. My dearest Mother and Dad: Well, folks, it's all over but the flowers. Yesterday it was war, hard, gruelling, hideous. Today it is peace. This morning I formed my platoon in line in the woods behind the line. They didn't know why. They were just a bunch of tired, hard-bitten, mud-spattered, rough-and-tumble soldiers standing stoically at attention, equally ready to go over the top, rebuild a shell-torn road, or march to a rest billet. At 10:45 I gave the command: "Unload rifles!" They didn't know why and didn't particularly care. Then--"Unload pistols." And while they still stood rigid and motionless as graven images, I read the order declaring armistice and cessation of hostilities effective at 11 o'clock. The perfect discipline of these veteran soldiers held them still motionless, but I could see their eyes begin to shine and their muscles to quiver as the import of this miraculous message began to dawn on them. The tension was fast straining their nerves to the breaking-point, so I dismissed them. You should have seen them! They yelled till they were hoarse. Some sang. Others, war-hardened veterans, who had faced the death hail of a machine-gun with a laugh, men who had gone through the horrors of artillery bombardments and had seen their fellows mangled and torn without a flinch, broke down and cried like babies. Tonight something is wrong. The silence is almost uncanny. Not a shot--not even a single shell. Very faintly we can hear the mellow tones of the church bell in the little French town on the hill far to our rear. All day long it has been singing its song of joy and thanksgiving. It seems symbolical of the heart of France, which, today, is ringing. I don't know when I'm coming home, but when I do, I want a big roast turkey, golden brown, new spuds swimming in butter and cranberry sauce. Love, JESSE. SEA LYRIC WILLIAM STANLEY BRAITHWAITE Over the seas to-night, love, Over the darksome deeps, Over the seas to-night, love, Slowly my vessel creeps. Over the seas to-night, love, Waking the sleeping foam-- Sailing away from thee, love, Sailing from thee and home. Over the seas to-night, love, Dreaming beneath the spars-- Till in my dreams you shine, love, Bright as the listening stars. A NEGRO WOMAN'S HOSPITALITY LEILA A. PENDLETON Mungo Park, a native of Scotland, was one of the first of noble, brave men who devoted the best years of their lives to Africa. In 1795, when he was only twenty-four years old, he went to West Africa to find the source of the River Niger. One of the drawbacks of the west coast is its deadly climate, and shortly after arriving at Kano young Park fell ill of fever and remained an invalid for five months. While recovering, he learned the language of the Mandingoes, a native tribe, and this was a great help to him. He finally started with only six natives on his journey. Had he been older and wiser he would have taken a larger company. At one time they were captured by Moors and a wild boar was turned loose upon them, but instead of attacking Park the beast turned upon its owners, and this aroused their superstitious fears. The king then ordered him to be put into a hut where the boar was tied while he and his chief officers discussed whether Park should lose his right hand, his eyes or his life. But he escaped from them, and after nearly two years of wandering in search of the Niger's source, during which time he suffered many hardships and had many narrow escapes, he returned to Kano, the place where he had been ill. At one time during his journey Mr. Park arrived in the neighborhood of Sego, and as a white man had never been seen in that region before, the natives looked upon him with fear and astonishment. He asked to see the king, but no one would take him across the river, and the king sent word that he would by no means receive the strange traveler until he knew what the latter wanted. Park was tired, hungry, and discouraged and was preparing to spend the night in the branches of a tree when a native woman pitied him. She invited him into her hut, and with the hospitality for which the natives are noted, shared with him her food. By signs she made him understand that he might occupy the sleeping mat and as she and her daughter sat spinning they sang their native songs, among them the following, which was impromptu and composed in honor of the stranger: The wind roared and the rain fell. The poor white man, faint and weary, came and sat under our tree. He has no mother to bring him milk; no wife to grind his corn. CHORUS Let us pity the white man; No mother has he to bring him milk; No wife to grind his corn. Speaking of this incident, Park says: "Trifling as this recital may appear to the reader, to a person in my situation the circumstance was affecting in the highest degree. I was oppressed by such unexpected kindness and sleep fled from my eyes." And another writer says: "The name of the woman and the alabaster box of precious ointment, the nameless widow, who, giving only two mites, had given more than all the rich, and this nameless woman of Sego, form a trio of feminine beauty and grandeur of which the sex in all ages may be proud." RECORD OF "THE OLD FIFTEENTH" IN FRANCE EMMETT J. SCOTT Early in September, 1918, the men of the 369th Infantry were transferred from the 15th French Division, in which they had been serving, and made an integral part of the 161st French Division. And then, on the morning of September 26th, they joined with the Moroccans on the left and native French on the right in the offensive which won for the entire regiment the French _Croix de Guerre_ and the citation of 171 individual officers and enlisted men for the _Croix de Guerre_ and the Legion of Honor, for exceptional gallantry in action. The action began at Maisons-en-Champagne; it finished seven kilometers northward and eastward, and over the intervening territory the Germans had retreated before the ferocious attacks of the Fifteenth and its French comrades. A month later a new honor came to the regiment--the honor of being the first unit of all the Allied armies to reach the River Rhine. The regiment had left its trenches at Thann, Sunday, November 17, and, marching as the advance guard of the 161st Division, Second French Army, reached the left bank of the Rhine, Monday, November 18. The 369th is proud of this achievement. It believes also that it was under fire for a greater number of days than any other American regiment. Its historian will record: That the regiment never lost a man captured, a trench, or a foot of ground; that it was the only unit in the American Expeditionary Force which bore a State name and carried a State flag; that it was never in an American brigade or division; that it saw the first and the longest service of any American regiment as part of a foreign army; and that it had less training than any American unit before going into action. NEGRO SOLDIERS ROSCOE C. JAMISON These truly are the Brave These men who cast aside Old memories, to walk the blood-stained pave Of Sacrifice, joining the solemn tide That moves away, to suffer and to die For Freedom--when their own is yet denied! O Pride! O Prejudice! When they pass by, Hail them, the Brave, for you now crucified! These truly are the Free, These souls that grandly rise Above base dreams of vengeance for their wrongs, Who march to war with visions in their eyes Of Peace through Brotherhood, lifting glad songs Aforetime, while they front the firing-line. Stand and behold! They take the field today, Shedding their blood like Him now held divine, That those who mock might find a better way! THE "DEVIL BUSH" AND THE "GREEGREE BUSH" GEORGE W. ELLIS The "Devil Bush" is one of the most important social institutions of the Vais,--in fact, of most of the tribes in Liberia. It is a secret organization, and its operations are carried on in an unknown place. The penalty for divulging its secrets is said to be death. I know that it is very difficult to ascertain much information regarding it. The aim of this society is to train young boys for African life. The boys are taught the industrial trades, native warfare, religious duties, tribal laws and customs, and the social arts. [Illustration] The bow and arrow may be called the Vai alphabet. Every morning the small boys are taught first to use skilfully this weapon. In addition they are taught to throw the spear and to wield the sword. In the afternoon they are taken on a hunt for small game, and later are given practice in target shooting and throwing the spear. After supper the boys take up singing and dancing. At this period they are taught also their duties to the gods, to whom a certain portion of their meals is said to be offered. Each boy is taught the sacrificial ceremony; they all clap, dance, and sing their song of praise. When the boys have attained a certain advancement among other things they have sham battles, with 200 or 150 boys on a side. A district is given to one side to be captured by the other. Each side has a captain, and at this stage of their development emphasis is placed upon the display of bravery. And sometimes the contests assume aspects of reality. When one side repulses another six times it is said to be victorious. [Illustration] In addition to being taught the methods of warfare, the boys are taught the civil and military laws governing the Vai people. Every Vai man must know the law. And as the penalties for violating the laws covering military expeditions are so severe, the customs and laws relating thereto are of paramount importance to every Vai man. The members of the "Devil Bush" are not only taught everything pertaining to practical war, but they are taught hunting as well. They are first taught to capture small game and later the larger and dangerous animals like the leopard, elephant, and buffalo. What the Africans call a real hunt requires about a month's work in preparation. The boys dig a large pit and surround the ends and sides with the trunks of large trees. With the pit of the apex, in triangular form, two fences are built about a mile long, and with a mile between the two extremities. The surrounding country is encircled by the hunters and the animals are driven into the pit. The smaller animals are eaten and the larger ones are sent to the king. As the valuable skins are preserved, the boys are taught to skin animals neatly. The ivories belong to the king, and various small horns are kept for amulets, and so on. These hunts are usually accompanied with much singing and dancing, after the cooking and eating of the game. [Illustration] The "Greegree Bush" is a society for the training of girls for future life, just as the "Devil Bush" is for boys. It is death for a man to be found within the limits of the "Greegree Bush," no matter what his purpose may be. The sessions of the society are held near some town, yet few in that town know the exact place. No one is permitted to approach the scene. Usually girls are admitted at seven or eight years of age, although women may be admitted. The "Greegree Bush" has both an industrial and an educational purpose. The girls are taught to embroider with gold and silver thread the tunics and togas of kings and chiefs. Some of them become very artistic in working palm-trees, golden elephants, moons, half-moons, running vines, and other objects and scenes of nature in various articles of apparel. [Illustration] The girls are taught hair-dressing in order that they may plait, beside their own, the hair of the richer Vais, some of whom have their hair oiled and plaited two or three times a week. Instruction is given in cutting inscriptions on shields, breastplates, and the like, and in housekeeping, singing, dancing, farming, sewing, weaving cotton, dyeing, making nets and mats and many other articles of domestic utility, decoration, and dress. I have seen Vai women making some of the most beautiful fancy baskets of various kinds to be found along the coast. [Illustration] EVENING PRAYER H. CORDELIA RAY Father of Love! We leave our souls with Thee! Oh! may Thy Holy Spirit to us be A peaceful Dove! Now when day's strife And bitterness are o'er, Oh! in our hearts all bruisèd gently pour The dew of life. So as the rose-- Though fading on the stem-- Awakes to blush when morning's lustrous gem Upon it glows;-- May we awake, Soothed by Thy priceless balm, To chant with grateful hearts our morning psalm, And blessings take. Or let it be, That where the palm trees rise, And crystal streams flow, we uplift our eyes To Thee!--to Thee! THE STRENUOUS LIFE SILAS X. FLOYD They were having a rough-and-tumble time of it and Pansy was getting some pretty hard blows. She took them all good-naturedly, nevertheless, and tried to give as good as she received, much to the delight of her little boy friends. A lady who was standing near, afraid for the little girl, chided the boys and said: "You shouldn't handle Pansy so roughly--you might hurt her." And then Pansy looked up in sweet surprise and said with amusing seriousness: "No; they won't hurt me. I don't break easy." It was a thoroughly childlike expression, but it had more wisdom in it than Pansy knew. She spoke of a little girl's experience with dolls, some of which, as she had learned, broke very easily. Pansy knew how delightful it was to have a doll that didn't break so easily. Though she was not a homely girl by any means, yet she wanted it understood that she was not like a piece of china. That was why the other children liked her so much--because she knew how to rough it without crying or complaining at every turn. Pansy was not a cry-baby. There is all the time, my dear boys and girls, a great demand everywhere all through life for people who don't break easily--people who know how to take hard knocks without going all to pieces. The game of life is sometimes rough, even among those who mean to play fair. It is very trying when we have to deal with people who break easily, and are always getting hurt and spoiling the game with their tears and complaints. It is so much better when we have to deal with people who, like little Pansy, do not break easily. Some of them will laugh off the hardest words without wincing at all. You can jostle them as you will, but they don't fall down every time you shove them, and they don't cry every time they are pushed aside. You can't but like them, they take life so heartily and so sensibly. You don't have to hold yourself in with them all the time. You can let yourself out freely without being on pins as to the result. Young people of this class make good playmates or good work-fellows, as the case may be. So, boys and girls, you must learn to _rough_ it a little. Don't be a china doll, going to smash at every hard knock. If you get hard blows take them cheerily and as easily as you can. Even if some blow comes when you least expect it, and knocks you off your feet for a minute, don't let it _floor_ you long. Everybody likes the fellow who can get up when he is knocked down and blink the tears away and pitch in again. Learning to get yourself accustomed to a little hard treatment will be good for you. Hard words and hard fortune often make us--if we don't let them break us. Stand up to your work or play courageously, and when you hear words that hurt, when you are hit hard with the blunders or misdeeds of others, when life goes roughly with you, keep right on in a happy, companionable, courageous, helpful spirit, and let the world know that you don't break easily. O LITTLE DAVID, PLAY ON YOUR HARP JOSEPH S. COTTER, JR. O Little David, play on your harp, That ivory harp with the golden strings; And sing as you did in Jewry land, Of the Prince of Peace and the God of Love And the Coming Christ Immanuel. O Little David, play on your harp. O Little David, play on your harp, That ivory harp with the golden strings; And psalm anew your songs of Peace, Of the soothing calm of a Brotherly Love, And the saving grace of a Mighty God. O Little David, play on your harp. A DAY AT KALK BAY, SOUTH AFRICA L. J. COPPIN Summer in Cape Town begins with November and lasts until March. This may seem strange to those living in North America, but a moment's reflection will suffice to remind them that during these months the sun is south of the equator, hence this natural result. The strong southeast winds, which are prevalent during the summer months, often make it very unpleasant in Cape Town on account of the dust, and one finds it most desirable occasionally to run out to one of the suburbs where "Cape Doctor" does not make such frequent and violent visits. Of the chain of beautiful and pleasant suburban towns following the railway north, the most important as a summer resort, is Kalk Bay. One who has visited the beach at Newport, R. I., in the United States, will, upon visiting Kalk Bay, see a resemblance. Unlike the long sweep of ocean at Atlantic City, the beach is narrow, being rather a bay than an open ocean front. Instead of the cliffs as at Newport, we have the massive mountains standing almost perpendicularly on the east side, at the foot of which the town is situated. The principal vocation among the laboring men there is fishing. In this respect it is very much like Bermuda. They go to sea and return according to the tide. Some days they are out by two and three o'clock in the morning. When they go this early they may be expected to return by noon or even before noon. I was told that of the sixty-five fishing boats on the Bay fifty-six are owned by colored men. There are six men to a crew, five beside the captain, who is the owner of the boat. They sail out to sea, drop anchor, and fish with hook and line. Half of what is caught belongs to the captain, and the other half is equally divided among the other five men. They can scarcely supply the market, so great is the demand for fish at the Bay and in Cape Town. We were informed that a captain has been known to make as much as eight pounds in a single day; that is nearly forty dollars. Of course, there are days when they have poorer luck. Some days the wind blows such a gale that they are unable to go to sea at all. It is a beautiful sight to see the little fleet return. Hundreds of people will gather about the landing and await their coming. Farther up the bay, a drag net is used. On the day of our visit we were fortunate in being just in time to see a net land "full of great fishes." As the net is hauled near the shore, the fishermen all get around it, holding the lower portion of it down to keep the fish from escaping under it and holding the upper portion above the water to keep them from jumping over it. As the fish are drawn into shallow water they become very active, and notwithstanding the vigilance of the crew, some will make their escape. The captain would shout impulsively to the men; I could not understand him as he expressed himself in "Cape Dutch," but from the contortions of his face and the frightened look of the men, I guess he must have been using language that would not have been suitable in a church service. "A good haul," some one remarked when the net was finally landed. BISHOP ATTICUS G. HAYGOOD W. H. CROGMAN It is indeed the peculiar glory of the truly great man, that he cannot be restricted within the State lines or race lines. Wide as the sweep of his sympathies is the empire of hearts over which he rules. To those of us, therefore, whose good fortune it was to be personally acquainted with Bishop Haygood, it was never a surprise that his influence in both sections of country and among all classes of people was so large and so commanding. He was a man of large sympathy, that royal quality in the human breast which invariably distinguishes the generous person from the mean, that divine quality which, despite our prejudices and antipathies, "makes the whole world kin," and is at the bottom of all Christian and philanthropic endeavor. A thousand instances of kindness on the part of the good bishop to persons of all sorts and colors might, I suppose, be cited here in support of the statement made with reference to his sympathetic disposition. Many of these little acts of pure benevolence, never intended for the light, are fast coming to light under the shadow cast by his death. For as dark nights best reveal the stars, so the gloom that at times envelopes a human life discovers to us its hidden virtues. This much, however, the world knows in common of Bishop Haygood: He was not a man who passed through life inquiring, "Who is my neighbor?" His neighbor was the ignorant that needed to be instructed, the vicious that needed to be reclaimed, the despondent that needed to be encouraged. Wherever honest effort was being made for a noble purpose, there he found his neighbor, and his neighbor found a helper. Like "The Man of Galilee," he was abroad in the land, studying the needs of the people and striving to reach and influence individual lives. HOW TWO COLORED CAPTAINS FELL RALPH W. TYLER A colored unit was ordered to charge, and take, if possible, a very difficult objective held by the Germans. Captains Fairfax and Green, two colored officers, were in command of the detachments. They made the charge, running into several miles of barb-wire entanglements, and hampered by a murderous fire from nests of German machine guns which were camouflaged. Just before charging, one of the colored sergeants, running up to Captain Fairfax, said: "Do you know there is a nest of German machine guns ahead?" The Captain replied: "I only know we have been ordered to go forward, and we are going." Those were the last words he said, before giving the command to charge, "into the jaws of death." The colored troops followed their intrepid leader with all the enthusiasm and dash characteristic of patriots and courageous fighters. They went forward, they obeyed the order, and as a result sixty-two men and two officers were listed in the casualties reported. Captain Fairfax's last words, "I only know we have been ordered to go forward, and we are going," are words that will forever live in the memory of his race; they are words that match those of Sergeant Carney, the color sergeant of the 54th Massachusetts during the Civil War, who, although badly wounded, held the tattered, shot-pierced Stars and Stripes aloft and exclaimed, "The old flag never touched the ground!" Men who have served under Captains Fairfax and Green say two braver officers never fought and fell. THE YOUNG WARRIOR JAMES WELDON JOHNSON Mother, shed no mournful tears, But gird me on my sword; And give no utterance to thy fears, But bless me with thy word. The lines are drawn! The fight is on! A cause is to be won! Mother, look not so white and wan; Give Godspeed to thy son. Now let thine eyes my way pursue Where'er my footsteps fare; And when they lead beyond thy view, Send after me a prayer. But pray not to defend from harm, Nor danger to dispel; Pray, rather that with steadfast arm I fight the battle well. Pray, mother of mine, that I always keep My heart and purpose strong, My sword unsullied and ready to leap Unsheathed against the wrong. WHOLE REGIMENTS DECORATED EMMETT J. SCOTT Four Negro regiments won the signal honor of being awarded the _Croix de Guerre_ as a regiment. These were the 365th, the 369th, the 371st and the 372d. The 369th (old 15th New York National Guard) was especially honored for its record of 191 days on the firing line, exceeding by five days the term of service at the front of any other American regiment. ON PLANTING ARTICHOKES FROM THE LIFE OF SCOTT BOND DANIEL A. RUDD AND THEODORE BOND I was living at one time on a farm, which I had bought near Forrest City, known as the Neely farm. It was also known as a fine fruit farm. The land being upland was of a poor nature. I bought the farm mainly on account of the health of my wife and children. I paid old man Neely $900 for 120 acres. This farm was two and a half miles from my main bottom farm. After moving on the Neely place and getting straight, I looked over the farm and finding that the land was far from fertile, I decided to sow the whole farm in peas, knowing peas were a legume and hence fine to put life into the soil. I excepted several small spots that I planted in corn. I got a fine stand of peas, and looked as if I would make worlds of pea hay. When the peas were ripe I took my mower and rake to harvest my hay crop. This was the first time I had undertaken to cultivate this class of land. I prepared to house the hay and after the hay was cut and raked, I only got one-tenth of the amount of hay I counted on. I prepared the land that fall and sowed it down in clover. I got a fine stand. The clover grew and did well. The next year I took two four-horse wagons and hauled from the Allen farm large loads of defective cotton seed. I turned all this under and planted the land the next year in corn. I made and gathered a large corn crop that year. I was at that time taking a farm paper and I would usually sit at night and entertain my wife, while she was sewing. I read an article, where a party in Illinois had claimed that he had gathered 900 bushels of artichokes from one acre of land. That did not look reasonable to me at that time. I said to my wife: "Listen to what a mistake this fellow has made. He claims to have gathered 900 bushels of artichokes from one acre of land." This seemed impossible to me. In the next issue of this paper I read where another man claimed to have raised 1,100 bushels to the acre. This put me at a further wonder as to the artichoke crop. I decided to try a crop of artichokes. I had a very nice spot of land that I thought would suit me for this purpose. I prepared it as I would prepare land for Irish potatoes, knowing that artichokes were, like the Irish potato, a tuber. I took a four-horse wagon and hauled one and a half tons of rotten cotton seed, and of this I put a double handful every 18 inches apart in the drill; I then dropped the artichokes between the hills. I cultivated first as I would Irish potatoes. The plants grew luxuriantly and were all the way from 8 to 12 feet tall. About the 10th of August I noticed the plants were blooming and it occurred to me that there must be artichokes on the roots. I got my spade and began to dig. I could not find a single artichoke. I took my spade back home and decided within myself that both parties were mistaken when they claimed to have grown so many hundreds of bushels to the acre. After a few days I went to my lower farm and started picking cotton, and was as busy as busy could be all that fall gathering and housing my cotton crop as usual. Just before Christmas I promised my wife that I would be at home on Christmas Eve in order to accompany her to our church conference. I was on time according to my promise, helped her to get her household affairs straight and the children settled. I had bought my wife a beautiful cape. She took the cape, I took my overcoat and off we went. In order to take a near route we decided to climb the fence and go through the artichoke patch. As we had none of the children along I, helping her over the fence, recalled our old days when we were courting. I remarked to her: "Gee whiz, wife, you certainly look good under that cape!" She said, "Do you think so?" "Yes, I have always thought that you looked good." By this time we had gotten to the middle of the artichoke patch. I grabbed an artichoke stalk and tried to pull it up. I made one or two surges and it failed to come, but in bending it over I found a great number of artichokes attached to the tap root. I asked my wife to wait a few minutes. She asked me what I was going to do. I told her I would run back and get the grubbing hoe and see what is under these artichokes. She said, "Doesn't this beat the band? Stop on your way to church to go to digging artichokes." "All right, I will be back in a few minutes." I came with my grubbing hoe and went to work. I dug on all sides of the stalk, then raised it up. I believe I am safe in saying there was a half bushel of artichokes on the roots of this stalk. I then noticed that the dirt in the drills, the sides of the rows, and the middles were all puffed up. One could not stick the end of his finger in the ground without touching an artichoke. I found that the whole earth was matted with artichokes. I really believe that had I had a full acre in and could have gathered all the artichokes, I would have gotten at least 1,500 bushels. I told my wife that now I could see that those people had told the truth when they said they had gathered 900 bushels and 1,100 bushels to the acre. When I returned from church, I at once turned my hogs into the artichoke patch. I then climbed up on the fence and took a seat to watch the hogs root and crush artichokes. I looked around and saw my clover had made a success, the little artichoke patch had turned out wonderfully. I said to myself: "Just think of millions and millions of dollars deposited in all these lands, both rich and poor soils. And just to think how easy this money could be obtained if one would think right and hustle." A SONG OF THANKS EDWARD SMYTH JONES For the sun that shone at the dawn of spring, For the flowers which bloom and the birds that sing, For the verdant robe of the grey old earth, For her coffers filled with their countless worth, For the flocks which feed on a thousand hills, For the rippling streams which turn the mills, For the lowing herds in the lovely vale, For the songs of gladness on the gale,-- From the Gulf and the Lakes to the Oceans' banks,-- Lord God of Hosts, we give Thee thanks! For the farmer reaping his whitened fields, For the bounty which the rich soil yields, For the cooling dews and refreshing rains, For the sun which ripens the golden grains, For the bearded wheat and the fattened swine, For the stallèd ox and the fruitful vine, For the tubers large and cotton white, For the kid and the lambkin, frisk and blithe, For the swan which floats near the river-banks,-- Lord God of Hosts, we give Thee thanks! For the pumpkin sweet and the yellow yam, For the corn and beans and the sugared ham, For the plum and the peach and the apple red, For the clustering nut trees overhead. For the cock which crows at the breaking dawn, And the proud old "turk" of the farmer's barn, For the fish which swim in the babbling brooks, For the game which hides in the shady nooks,-- From the Gulf and the Lakes to the Oceans' banks,-- Lord God of Hosts, we give Thee thanks! For the sturdy oaks and the stately pines, For the lead and the coal from the deep, dark mines, For the silver ores of a thousand fold, For the diamond bright and the yellow gold, For the river boat and the flying train, For the fleecy sail of the rolling main, For the velvet sponge and the glossy pearl, For the flag of peace which we now unfurl,-- From the Gulf and the Lakes to the Oceans' Banks,-- Lord God of Hosts, we give Thee thanks! For the lowly cot and the mansion fair, For the peace and plenty together share, For the Hand which guides us from above, For Thy tender mercies, abiding love, For the blessed home with its children gay, For returnings of Thanksgiving Day, For the bearing toils and the sharing cares, We lift up our hearts in our songs and our prayers,-- From the Gulf and the Lakes to the Oceans' banks,-- Lord God of Hosts, we give Thee thanks! OUR DUMB ANIMALS SILAS X. FLOYD Domestic animals--like horses, cats and dogs--seem to be almost as dependent upon kind treatment and affection as human beings. Horses and dogs especially are the most keenly intelligent of our dumb friends, and are alike sensitive to cruelty in any form. They are influenced to an equal degree by kind and affectionate treatment. If there is any form of cruelty that is more blameworthy than another, it is abuse of a faithful horse who gives his life to the service of the owner. When a horse is pulling a heavy load with all his might, doing the best he can to move under it, to strike him, spur him, or swear at him is barbarous. To kick a dog around or strike him with sticks just for the fun of hearing him yelp or seeing him run, is equally barbarous. No high-minded man, no high-minded boy or girl, would do such a thing. We should never forget how helpless, in a large sense, dumb animals are--and how absolutely dependent upon the humanity and kindness of their owners. They are really the slaves of man, having no language by which to express their feelings or needs. The poet Cowper said: "I would not enter on my list of friends, Though graced with polished manners and fine sense, Yet wanting sensibility, the man Who needlessly sets foot upon a worm." Boys and girls should be willing to pledge themselves to be kind to all harmless living creatures, and every boy and girl should strive to protect such creatures from cruel usage on the part of others. It is noble, boys and girls, for us to speak for those that cannot speak for themselves, and it is noble, also, for us to protect those that cannot protect themselves. A LEGEND OF THE BLUE JAY RUTH ANNA FISHER It was a hot, sultry day in May and the children in the little school in Virginia were wearily waiting for the gong to free them from lessons for the day. Furtive glances were directed towards the clock. The call of the birds and fields was becoming more and more insistent. Would the hour never strike! "The Planting of the Apple-tree" had no interest for them. Little attention was given the boy as he read in a sing-song, spiritless manner: "What plant we in this apple-tree? Buds, which the breath of summer days Shall lengthen into leafy sprays; Boughs where the thrush, with crimson breast, Shall haunt and sing and hide her nest." The teacher, who had long since stopped trying to make the lesson interesting, found herself saying mechanically, "What other birds have their nests in the apple-tree?" The boy shifted lazily from one foot to the other as he began, "The sparrow, the robin, and wrens, and--the snow-birds and blue-jays--" "No, they don't, blue-jays don't have nests," came the excited outburst from some of the children, much to the surprise of the teacher. When order was restored some of these brown-skinned children, who came from the heart of the Virginian mountains, told this legend of the blue-jay. Long, long years ago, the devil came to buy the blue-jay's soul, for which he first offered a beautiful golden ear of corn. This the blue-jay liked and wanted badly, but said, "No, I cannot take it in exchange for my soul." Then the devil came again, this time with a bright red ear of corn which was even more lovely than the golden one. This, too, the blue-jay refused. At last the devil came to offer him a wonderful blue ear. This one the blue-jay liked best of all, but still was unwilling to part with his soul. Then the devil hung it up in the nest, and the blue-jay found that it exactly matched his own brilliant feathers, and knew at once that he must have it. The bargain was quickly made. And now in payment for that one blue ear of corn each Friday the blue-jay must carry one grain of sand to the devil, and sometimes he gets back on Sunday, but oftener not until Monday. Very seriously the children added, "And all the bad people are going to burn until the blue-jays have carried all the grains of sand in the ocean to the devil." The teacher must have smiled a little at the legend, for the children cried out again, "It is so. 'Deed it is, for doesn't the black spot on the blue-jay come because he gets his wings scorched, and he doesn't have a nest like other birds." Then, to dispel any further doubts the teacher might have, they asked triumphantly, "You never saw a blue-jay on Friday, did you?" There was no need to answer, for just then the gong sounded and the children trooped happily out to play. DAVID LIVINGSTONE BENJAMIN BRAWLEY When Livingstone began his work of exploration in 1849, practically all of Africa between the Sahara and the Dutch settlements in the extreme South was unknown territory. By the time of his death in 1873 he had brought this entire region within the view of civilization. On his first journey, or series of journeys (1849-1856,) starting from Cape Town, he made his way northward for a thousand miles to Lake Ngami; then pushing on to Linyanti, he undertook one of the most perilous excursions of his entire career, his objective for more than a thousand miles being Loanda on the West Coast, which point he reached after six months in the wilderness. Coming back to Linyanti, he turned his face eastward, discovered Victoria Falls on the Zambesi, and finally arrived at Cuilimane on the coast. On his second series of journeys (1858-1864) he explored the Zambesi, the Shire, and the Rovuma rivers in the East, and discovered Lake Nyasa. On his final expedition (1866-1873), in hunting for the upper courses of the Nile, he discovered Lakes Tanganyika, Mweru, and Bangweolo, and the Lualaba River. His achievement as an explorer was as distinct as it was unparalleled. His work as a missionary and his worth as a man it is not quite so easy to express concretely; but in these capacities he was no less distinguished and his accomplishment no less signal. There had been missionaries, and great ones, in Africa before Livingstone. The difference between Livingstone and consecrated men was not so much in devotion as in the conception of the task. He himself felt that a missionary in the Africa of his day was to be more than a mere preacher of the word--that he would have also to be a Christian statesman, and even a director of exploration and commerce if need be. This was his title to greatness; to him "the end of the geographical feat was only the beginning of the enterprise." Knowing, however, that many honest persons did not sympathize with him in this conception of his mission, after 1856 he declined longer to accept salary from the missionary society that originally sent him out, working afterwards under the patronage of the British Government and the Royal Geographical Society. His sympathy and his courtesy were unfailing, even when he himself was placed in the greatest danger. Said Henry Drummond of him: "Wherever David Livingstone's footsteps are crossed in Africa the fragrance of his memory seems to remain." On one occasion a hunter was impaled on the horn of a rhinoceros, and a messenger ran eight miles for the physician. Although he himself had been wounded for life by a lion and his friends insisted that he should not ride at night through a wood infested with wild beasts, Livingstone insisted on his Christian duty to go, only to find that the man had died and to have to retrace his footsteps. Again and again his party would have been destroyed by some savage chieftain if it had not been for his own unbounded tact and courage. To the devoted men who helped him he gave the assurance that he would die before he would permit them to be taken; and after his death at Chitambo's village Susi and Chuma journeyed for nine months and over eight hundred miles of dangerous country to take his body to the coast. Livingstone was a man of tremendous faith, in his mission, in his country, in humanity, in God. He wrote on one occasion: "This age presents one great fact in the Providence of God; missions are sent forth to all quarters of the world,--missions not of one section of the Church, but from all sections, and from nearly all Christian nations. It seems very unfair to judge of the success of these by the number of the conversions that have followed. These are rather proofs of the missions being of the right sort. The fact which ought to stimulate us above all others is, not that we have contributed to the conversion of a few souls, however valuable these may be, but that we are diffusing a knowledge of Christianity throughout the world. Future missionaries will see conversions follow every sermon. We prepare the way for them. We work for a glorious future which we are not destined to see--the golden age which has not been, but will yet be. We are only morning-stars shining in the dark, but the glorious morn will break, the good time coming yet. For this time we work; may God accept our imperfect service." Of such quality was David Livingstone--Missionary, Explorer, Philanthropist. "For thirty years his life was spent in an unwearied effort to evangelize the native races, to explore the undiscovered secrets, and abolish the desolating slave trade of Central Africa." To what extent after sixty years have we advanced toward his ideals? With what justice are we the inheritors of his renown? IRA ALDRIDGE WILLIAM J. SIMMONS The name of Aldridge has always been placed at the head of the list of Negro actors. He has indeed become the most noted of them, and his name is cited as standing first in his calling among all colored persons who have ever appeared on the stage. He was born at Belaire, near Baltimore, in 1804. In complexion he was dark brown, and with heavy whiskers; standing six feet in height, with heavy frame, African features, and yet with due proportions; he was graceful in his attitudes, highly polished in manners. In his early days he was apprenticed to a ship carpenter, and had his association with the Germans on the western shores of Maryland. Here he became familiar with the German language and spoke it not only with ease but with fluency. He was brought in contact with Edmund Kean, the great actor, in 1826, whom he accompanied in his trip through Europe. His ambition to become an actor was encouraged by Kean, and receiving his assistance in the preparation, he made his appearance first at the Royalty Theatre in London, in the character of Othello. Public applause greeted him of such an extraordinary nature, that he was billed to appear at the Covent Garden Theatre April 10, 1839, in the same character. After many years' successful appearances in many of the metropolitan cities, he appeared in the Provinces with still greater success. In Ireland he performed Othello, with Edmund Kean as Iago. In 1852 he appeared in Germany in Shakespearean characters. He was pronounced excellent, and though a stranger and a foreigner, he undertook the very difficult task of playing in English, while his whole support was rendered in the language of the country. It is said that until this time, such an experiment was not considered susceptible of a successful end, but nevertheless, with his impersonations he succeeded admirably. It is said that the King of Prussia was so deeply moved with his appearance in the character of Othello, at Berlin, that he spent him a congratulatory letter, and conferred upon him the title of chevalier, in recognition of his dramatic genius, and informed him that the lady who took the part of Desdemona was so much affected at the manner in which he played his part that she was made ill from fright on account of the reality with which he acted his part. Some idea of the character of his acting might be gained from the fact that the lady who played Desdemona in St. Petersburg, became very much alarmed at what appeared real passion on his part, in acting Othello; though he was never rough or indelicate in any of his acting with ladies, yet she was so frightened that she used to scream with real fear. It is said that on another occasion in St. Petersburg, that in the midst of his acting in scene two, act five, when he was quoting these words, "It is the cause, it is the cause, my soul; Let me not name it to you, you chaste stars! It is the cause. Yet I'll not shed her blood, Nor scar that whiter skin of hers than snow, And smooth as monumental alabaster. Yet she must die, else she'll betray more men. Put out the light, and then--put out the light! If I quench thee, thou flaming minister, I can again thy former light restore, Should I repent me: But once put out thy light, Thou cunning'st pattern of excelling nature; I know not where is that Promethean heat, That can thy light relume. When I have plucked thy rose, I cannot give it vital growth again; It needs must wither:--I'll smell it on the tree-- (_kissing her_) O balmy breath, that dost almost persuade Justice to break her sword:--One more, one more:-- Be thus when thou art dead, and I will kill thee, And love thee after:--One more--and this the last: So sweet was ne'er so fatal. I must weep. But they are cruel tears: This sorrow's heavenly: It strikes where it doth love." the house was so carried away with the manner in which he rendered it, that a young man stood up and exclaimed with the greatest earnestness: "She is innocent, Othello, she is innocent," and yet so interested was he in the acting himself that he never moved a muscle but continued as if nothing had been said to embarrass him. The next day he learned, while dining with a Russian prince, that a young man who had been present had been so affected by the play that he had been seized with a sudden illness and died the next day. Mr. Aldridge was a welcome guest in the ranks of the cultured and wealthy, and was often in the "salons" of the haughty aristocrats of St. Petersburg and Moscow. Titled ladies wove, knitted and stitched their pleasing emotions into various memorials of friendship. In his palatial residence at Sydenham, near London, were collected many presents of intrinsic value, rendered almost sacred by association. Prominent among these tokens of regard was an autographic letter from the King of Prussia, transmitting the first medal of art and sciences; the Cross of Leopold, from the Emperor of Russia, and a Maltese cross received at Berne. In all his triumphs he never lost interest in the condition of his race. He always took an interest in everything touching their welfare, and though exalted to the companionship of those who ranked high in every department of life, yet he never in any way forgot the humble race with which he was identified, and was always solicitous for their welfare and promotion. He was an associate of the most prominent men of Paris, among whom was Alexander Dumas. When the great tragedian and great writer met they always kissed each other, and Dumas always greeted Aldridge with the words Mon Confrère. He died at Lodes, in Poland, August 7, 1867. FIFTY YEARS 1863-1913 JAMES WELDON JOHNSON O brothers mine, to-day we stand Where half a century sweeps our ken, Since God, through Lincoln's ready hand, Struck off our bonds and made us men. Just fifty years--a winter's day-- As runs the history of a race; Yet, as we look back o'er the way, How distant seems our starting place! Look farther back! Three centuries! To where a naked, shivering score, Snatched from their haunts across the seas, Stood wild-eyed, on Virginia's shore. Far, far the way that we have trod, From heathen kraals and jungle dens, To freedmen, freemen, sons of God, Americans and Citizens. A part of His unknown design, We've lived within a mighty age; And we have helped to write a line On history's most wondrous page. A few black bondmen strewn along The borders of our eastern coast, Now grown a race, ten million strong, An upward, onward marching host. Then let us here erect a stone, To mark the place, to mark the time; A witness to God's mercies shown, A pledge to hold this day sublime. And let that stone an altar be, Whereon thanksgivings we may lay, Where we, in deep humility, For faith and strength renewed may pray. With open hearts ask from above New zeal, new courage and new pow'rs, That we may grow more worthy of This country and this land of ours. For never let the thought arise That we are here on sufferance bare; Outcasts, asylumed 'neath these skies And aliens without part or share. This land is ours by right of birth, This land is ours by right of toil; We helped to turn its virgin earth, Our sweat is in its fruitful soil. Where once the tangled forest stood,-- Where flourished once rank weed and thorn,-- Behold the path-traced, peaceful wood, The cotton white, the yellow corn. To gain these fruits that have been earned, To hold these fields that have been won, Our arms have strained, our backs have burned, Bent bare beneath a ruthless sun. That Banner which is now the type Of victory on field and flood-- Remember, its first crimson stripe Was dyed by Attucks' willing blood. And never yet has come the cry-- When that fair flag has been assailed-- For men to do, for men to die, That have we faltered or have failed. We've helped to bear it, rent and torn, Through many a hot-breath'd battle breeze; Held in our hands, it has been borne And planted far across the seas. And never yet--O haughty Land, Let us, at least, for this be praised-- Has one black, treason-guided hand Ever against that flag been raised. Then should we speak but servile words, Or shall we hang our heads in shame? Stand back of new-come foreign hordes, And fear our heritage to claim? No! stand erect and without fear, And for our foes let this suffice-- We've bought a rightful sonship here, And we have more than paid the price. And yet, my brothers, well I know The tethered feet, the pinioned wings, The spirit bowed beneath the blow, The heart grown faint from wounds and stings; The staggering force of brutish might, That strikes and leaves us stunned and dazed; The long, vain waiting through the night To hear some voice for justice raised. Full well I know the hour when hope Sinks dead, and 'round us everywhere Hangs stifling darkness, and we grope With hands uplifted in despair. Courage! Look out, beyond, and see The far horizon's beckoning span! Faith in your God-known destiny! We are a part of some great plan. Because the tongues of Garrison And Phillips now are cold in death, Think you their work can be undone? Or quenched the fires lit by their breath? Think you that John Brown's spirit stops? That Lovejoy was but idly slain? Or do you think those precious drops From Lincoln's heart were shed in vain? That for which millions prayed and sighed, That for which tens of thousands fought, For which so many freely died, God cannot let it come to naught. A GREAT KINGDOM IN THE CONGO WILLIAM HENRY SHEPPARD I had studied the new dialect of the Bakuba and had made every preparation for our expedition into the "Forbidden Land" of King Lukenga. I had met their people, a far interior tribe, and was interested in their apparent superiority in physique, manners, dress and dialect. I asked to be allowed to accompany them to their country and king, but they said it was impossible, their king would never allow a foreigner to come into the interior. Nevertheless I determined to seek them out and after some weeks had elapsed, I called our station natives together and laid plainly before them the perils of the journey. I told them, from the information which I had, that the trails which had been made by elephant, buffalo, antelope and Bakuba natives were many and they led over long, hot, sandy plains through deep dark forests, across streams without bridges, and through swamps infested with wild animals and poisonous serpents. And above all, the king had sent word throughout the land that we could not enter his country. Not a man's muscle moved, and there was not a dissenting voice. I had picked up the Bakuba dialect from some of the king's traders and tax collectors who journeyed our way. I received from them much information of the general direction leading north toward the capital, the names of large towns on the way, of the market towns, the approximate distances apart, the streams to be crossed, and their names; of the leopard, buffalo and elephant zones, and the names of some of the chiefs of the market towns, etc. Two days later, when all was in readiness, tents loaded, cooking utensils, a bag of money (cowrie shells), some salt, etc., we left Luebo, led by the Master's hand. The trail lay northeast by north with a gradual ascent. The country was well wooded and watered. No stones could be seen anywhere, and the soil was sandy. There were many extensive plains with magnificent palm trees, hundreds and thousands of them ranging from a foot high, which the elephants fed upon, to those fifty and sixty feet high. The forest everywhere was ever green. Trees blossomed and bloomed, sending out upon the gentle breeze their fragrance, so acceptable to the traveler. Festoons of moss and running vines made the forest look like a beautifully painted theatre or an enormous swinging garden. In the meantime word had come to the king of Lukenga of our presence and, as we neared his kingdom, we were met by a party of fighting men. My caravan had been resting in the village of a chief named Kueta, who had repeatedly urged me to turn back, and, as the righting men of King Lukenga appeared, the chief's men fled to the forest. I sat quietly, however, in my seat in front of my tent and my people began to gather around my chair, the youngest of the caravan nestling on his knees very close to me. The king's people drew near and the leading man, spear in hand, called to Chief Kueta in a voice that rang through the village: "Now hear the words of King Lukenga: Because you have entertained a foreigner in your village, we have come to take you to the capital for trial." I knew things were now serious, so rising from my seat I called to the head man to meet me half way. He paid no attention. I called a second time and walked up to him and began to plead for Chief Kueta. "I understand you are sent by your king to arrest these people." "It is the word of the king," said he. I continued, "The chief of this village is not guilty; he gave me warning and told me to go away, to return the way I had come, and I did not. It is my fault and not Kueta's." The leader, leaning on his spear, replied, "You speak our language?" "I do," was my quick answer. "That is strange," said he. The leader and his men moved off some distance and talked between themselves. In a little while he came back to me saying, "I will return to the capital and report these things to the king." I said to him, "Tell your king I am not a bad man; I do not steal or kill; I have a message for him. Wait a moment," said I. Taking from one of my boxes a very large cowrie shell, near the size of one's fist, and holding it up, I said, "This we call the father of cowries; present it to the king as a token of friendship." The men were soon off for the capital and we settled down, hoping and praying for the best. Kueta told me that the head man was King Lukenga's son and his name was N'Toinzide. N'Toinzide stood more than six feet, of bronze color, blind in one eye, determined set lips, and seemed a man fearless of any foe--man or beast. The villagers told me many things of the king's son, both good and bad. After some days the messengers reached the capital and reported to King Lukenga. "We saw the foreigner; he speaks our language, he knows all the trails of the country." The king was astonished and called a council and laid the matter before them. They deliberated over the affair and finally told the king that they knew who I was. "The foreigner who is at Bixibing," said they, "who has come these long trails and who speaks our language is a Makuba, one of the early settlers who died, and whose spirit went to a foreign country and now he has returned." The messengers hastened to return and accompany me to the capital. We had been longing and praying for days for the best. With the king's special envoy were many more men who had come through mere curiosity, as was their custom. N'Toinzide stood in the center of the town and called with his loud voice saying who I was and giving briefly my history. The villagers were indeed happy. They flocked around as the king's son drew near and extended their hands to me. I arose from my chair and made these remarks: "I have heard distinctly all that you have said, but I am not a Makuba; I have never been here before." N'Toinzide insisted that they were right, and said that his father, the king, wanted me to come on at once to the capital. The people were mighty happy, Kueta, our host, the townspeople, and my people, too. Their appetites came back, and so did mine. With a hasty good-bye, "Gala hola," to Kueta, we were off. On the last morning our trail grew larger, the country more open, and the ascent greater, until we stood upon an extensive plain and had a beautiful view in every direction of all the land as far as we could see. We could see in the distance thousands and thousands of banana and palm trees and our escort of Bakuba cried out, "Muxenge! muxenge!" (meaning capital! capital!). Just before entering the great town we were halted at a small guard post consisting of a few houses and some men who were the king's watchmen. They told me that on each of the four entrances to the capital these sentries were stationed. A man was dispatched to notify the king that we were near. In a short while the people came out of the town to meet and greet us, hundreds of them, and many little children, too. Some of my caravan were frightened and would run away, but I told them that the oncoming crowd meant no harm. N'Toinzide, the king's son, with spear in hand, took the lead and the interested and excited crowd after getting a peep at me fell in behind. We marched down a broad, clean street, lined on both sides by interested spectators jostling, gesticulating, talking aloud and laughing. The young boys and girls struck up a song which sounded to me like a band of sweet music and we all kept step to it. N'Toinzide called a halt at a house which I presume was 15 x 25 feet in size. You could enter the doors front and back almost without stooping. The house was made like all the others of bamboo and had two rooms. There were a number of clay pots of various sizes for cooking and six large gourds for water. My caravan was comfortably housed. I did not put up my tent, but took my seat in a reclining chair under a large palm tree in front of my door. The crowd was immense, but we had them sit down on the ground so we could get a breath of air. In the afternoon the king sent greetings, and fourteen goats, six sheep, a number of chickens, corn, pumpkins, large dried fish, bushels of peanuts, bunches of bananas and plantains and a calabash of palm oil and other food. The prime minister, N'Dola, who brought the greetings, mentioned that the king would see me next day; also that the king's servants would take out of the village all goats and chickens which I did not want for immediate use. For, said N'Dola, no sheep, goats, hogs, dogs, ducks or chickens are allowed in the king's town. In the evening we started our song service and I delivered to them our King's message. The crowd was great. The order was good. I went to rest with the burden of these people upon my heart, and thanking God that He had led, protected and brought us through close places safely to the "Forbidden Land." Early in the morning we heard the blast of ivory horns calling the attention of the people to put on their best robes and be in readiness for the big parade. I saw there was great activity in the town, men and women hurrying to and fro. Soon two stalwart Bakuba, with their red kilts on and feathers in their hats appeared before my house and announced their readiness to accompany me before King Lukenga. They noticed an old brass button tied by a string around the neck of one of my men. Very politely they removed it, saying, "Only the king can wear brass or copper." I was dressed in what had once been white linen. Coat, trousers, white canvas shoes and pith helmet. The officials on either side took me by the arm; we walked a block up the broad street, turned to the right and walked three blocks till we came to the big town square. Thousands of the villagers had already taken their position and were seated on the green grass. King Lukenga, his high officials and about 300 of his wives occupied the eastern section of the square. The players of stringed instruments and drummers were in the center, and as we appeared a great shout went up from the people. The king's servants ran and spread leopard skins along the ground leading to his majesty. I approached with some timidity. The king arose from his throne of ivory, stretched forth his hand and greeted me with these words, "Wyni" (You have come). I bowed low, clapped my hands in front of me, and answered, "Ndini, Nyimi" (I have come, king). As the drums beat and the harps played the king's sons entered the square and danced one after the other single handed, brandishing their big knives in the air. The king's great chair, or throne, was made of carved tusks of ivory, and his feet rested upon lion skins. I judged him to have been a little more than six feet high and with his crown, which was made of eagle feathers, he towered over all. The king's dress consisted of a red loin cloth, draped neatly about his waist in many folds. He wore a broad belt decorated with cowrie shells and beads. His armlets and anklets were made of polished cowrie shells reaching quite above the wrists and ankles. These decorations were beautifully white. His feet were painted with powdered canwood, resembling morocco boots. The king weighed about 200 pounds. He wore a pleasant smile. He looked to be eighty years old, but he was as active as a middle-aged man. * * * * * As the sun was setting in the west the king stood up, made a slight bow to his people and to me. His slaves were ready with his cowrie-studded hammock to take him to his place, for his feet must never touch the ground. His hammock was like the body of a buggy carried on two long poles upon the shoulders of many men. Through the shouts of the people I was accompanied back to my resting place. It was the most brilliant affair I had seen in Africa, but my! I was so glad when it was all over. The town was laid off east and west. The broad streets ran at right angles, and there were blocks just as in any town. Those in a block were always related in some way. Around each house is a court and a high fence made of heavy matting of palm leaves, and around each block there is also a high fence, so you enter these homes by the many gates. Each block has a chief called Mbambi, and he is responsible to King Lukenga for his block. When the king will deliver a message to the whole village or part of it, these chiefs are sent for and during the early evenings they ring their iron hand bells and call out in a loud voice the message in five minutes. The king desired of his own heart to give me peanuts for my people. I heard the messengers delivering the word and the next morning we had more peanuts than we could manage. There was not a visible light anywhere in the whole town. "A chunk or two" is always kept smouldering in the center of the house on the clay floor. The housewife is always careful to have a handful of split dry bamboo near, and when anyone is stung by a scorpion or snake (which often happens) they start up a blaze and hunt for the intruder and medicine. When there is neither moon nor stars it is truly a land of awful darkness, and is made more dismal by the yelping of the jackal on the plain. The moon shines more brightly and beautifully than on Lukenga's plain. And the beauty is enhanced by the thousands of majestic palms, and the singing of birds with voices like the mocking bird and the nightingale. I have sat in front of my house moonlight nights until 12 and 1 o'clock. Every morning the "courts" and streets were swept. Men who had committed some offense were compelled to pull weeds and sweep the streets clean. There is a rule in all Bakuba villages that every man every day sweep before his own door. The only littered places I observed were at the four public entrances of the town where markets were held daily at 6 A.M., 12 noon and 5 P.M.--sugar cane, pulp, banana and plantain peelings, and peanut shells. When the king's drum taps the signal about 9 P.M. at the conclusion of the sleep song there is not a sound again in the whole village. All the natives we have met in the Kasal are, on the whole, honest. Our private dwellings have never been locked day or night. Your pocketbook is a sack of cowries or salt tied at the mouth with a string. But now and then something happens. N'susa, one of the boys of my caravan, misappropriated some cowries. I called him (in the presence of two witnesses) in question about the matter. He acknowledged removing the shells and innocently remarked, "You are the same as my father, and what is his is mine." From the great Lukenga plateau as far as the eye can look you see villages dotted everywhere. You never find a family living alone isolated from the village. The people live together for mutual protection from enemies and animals. And usually everybody in a village is related in some near or distant way; but it does not keep them from fighting occasionally. The Bakuba are monogamists. A young man sees a girl whom he likes; he has met her in his own town or at some other, or perhaps at a market place or a dance. He sends her tokens of love, bananas, plantains, peanuts, dried fish or grasshoppers. She in turn sends him similar presents. They often meet, sit down on the green, laugh and talk together. I have seen the girls often blush and really put on airs. He asks her to have him, if she has no one else on her heart, and tells her that he wants no one to eat the crop that is in the field but her. The girl and the parents both agree. On a set day when the market is in full blast, with hundreds of people from everywhere, the young man and girl, with their young friends, all dressed in their best robes, meet and march Indian file through the open market and receive congratulations from everybody. The new bride and groom continue their march to the already prepared house of the young man. A feast of goat, sheep, monkey, chicken or fish, with plenty of palm wine is served and all is ended with a big dance. The women of the king's household select their own husbands, and no man dare decline; and no man would ever be so rude or presumptuous as to ask for the hand and heart of royalty. The husband knows that he must cut down the forest and assist in planting corn, millet, beans, pease, sweet potatoes and tobacco, hunt for game, bring the palm wine, palm nuts, make his wife's garments and repair the house. He is never to be out after 8 o'clock at night unless sitting up at a wake or taking part in a public town dance. The young man before marriage sends a certain number of well-woven mats and so many thousands of cowries to the parents of the girl as a dowry. If they cease to love and must part, even twenty rainy seasons from marriage, the dowry or its equivalent is returned to the man. The wife is expected to shave and anoint the husband's body with palm oil, keep his toenails and fingernails manicured, bring water and wood, help in the field, cook his food, and take care of the children. I have had many a man come and ask to buy love medicine. They think charms and medicine can do anything. I always told them, of course, that it was a matter of the girl's heart, and charms or medicine could not help out in their "love affairs." The Bakuba are morally a splendid people. I have asked a number of Bakuba what was their real ideal of life, and they invariably answered to have a big corn field, marry a good wife, and have many children. We were astounded when we saw the first new-born baby. It was so very light. But in a few weeks the youngster rallied to his colors and we were assured that he would never change again. No baby is born in the regularly occupied house. A small house is built in the back yard and is surrounded by a fence of palm fronds. No one is admitted into the enclosure but a few women. The new youngster receives a bath of palm oil, then the notice is given and all the friends of the family with jugs of cold water vie with each other in giving mother and baby a shower bath. The drums beat and the dance in water and mud continues for hours. Until you get accustomed to it you would be horrified to see the mothers stuff their young babies. The mother nurses the baby just as any mother, but she doesn't think that sufficient. So she has by her side a small pot of soft corn pone and a pot of water or palm oil. She makes a large pill from the pone, dips it in the water or oil, and while the baby is lying on his back in her lap these pills are dropped in its mouth. Then the mother uses the forefinger to force the collection of pills down its throat. As the baby resists and kicks, water is poured down its throat to facilitate the process. If the baby strangles, the mother will shake him up and down a few times. When the feeding is over, he certainly looks "stuffed." The Bakuba children have many games and but few toys. The girls have wooden dolls made by their fathers, and the boys make from bamboo bows and arrows. They shoot mice, lizards, grasshoppers, crickets, caterpillars, butterflies, lightning bugs, etc. They make mud pies and play market, and tie the legs of May and June bugs to see them fly around and buzz. They love to play housekeeping. They are also trained to do some work, as bringing wood, sweeping or looking after the younger ones. There are no knives, forks or dishes to wash. "Baby talk" is not used and the parents speak to the babies just as though they were speaking to grown-ups. I have seen the children in the streets drawing with a pointed stick or their finger on the smooth sand, men, leopards, monkeys, crocodiles, birds, snakes and other animals. The boys make a heap of clay and sod it, and with great speed run upon it and turn a somersault, lighting on their feet. A string of them together will play "leap frog," and hide-and-seek is great sport with them. In all these amusements they keep up a song. There is one thing you will certainly see them doing, both boys and girls, and that is beating their clenched fists into the hard clay just as hard as they can drive. A year later you will see them driving their knuckles against a log or a tree. In this way they become hardened and are used as a weapon in fights when they are grown. And, too, they can butt like a goat, so in their family fights they not only use their fists but their heads. I spent hours at King Lukenga's and other villages playing with the little folks and trying to find out what they were thinking about. They had a name for the sun and moon, names for very brilliant and prominent stars and ordinary ones. The sun was the father of the heavens, the moon was his wife, and the stars were their children. The sun after going down was paddled around in a very large canoe on the great water by men who were more than human and started in the skies again. They knew that a year was divided into two general seasons, the rainy (eight moons), the dry (four moons); though even in the rainy season it doesn't rain every day and very seldom all day at any time; and in the dry season there is an occasional refreshing shower. They knew the names of all the lakes, rivers and small streams. Roots that were good for medicine or to eat they knew. Flowers and ferns were called by name. The names of all the many varieties of trees, birds and animals they knew. I was surprised to know from Maxamalinge, the king's son, that every month the king had all the little children of the town before him and he in turn would talk to them, as a great and good father to his own children. The king would have his servants give to each boy and girl a handful of peanuts. When they were out of the king's quarters there was many a scrap over these peanuts. I grew very fond of Bakuba and it was reciprocated. They were the finest looking race I had seen in Africa, dignified, graceful, courageous, honest, with an open, smiling countenance and really hospitable. Their knowledge of weaving, embroidering, wood carving and smelting was the highest in equatorial Africa. PILLARS OF THE STATE WILLIAM C. JASON Young people are the life-blood of the nation, the pillars of the state. The future of the world is wrapped up in the lives of its youth. As these unfold, the pages of history will tell the story of deeds noble and base. Characters resplendent with jewels and ornaments of virtue will be held up for the admiration of the world and the emulation of generations not yet born. Others, thoughtlessly or wilfully ignoring the plain path of duty, dwarfed, blighted, rejected of God and man, will be the sign-posts marking the road to ruin. OATH OF AFRO-AMERICAN YOUTH KELLY MILLER I will never bring disgrace upon my race by any unworthy deed or dishonorable act. I will live a clean, decent, manly life; and will ever respect and defend the virtue and honor of womanhood; I will uphold and obey the just laws of my country and of the community in which I live, and will encourage others to do likewise; I will not allow prejudice, injustice, insult or outrage to cower my spirit or sour my soul; but will ever preserve the inner freedom of heart and conscience; I will not allow myself to be overcome of evil, but will strive to overcome evil with good; I will endeavor to develop and exert the best powers within me for my own personal improvement, and will strive unceasingly to quicken the sense of racial duty and responsibility; I will in all these ways aim to uplift my race so that, to everyone bound to it by ties of blood, it shall become a bond of ennoblement and not a byword of reproach. THE END NOTES BIRD, AUGUSTA--Born in Tennessee. On the clerical force of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. Contributor to the Brownies Book. BOND, SCOTT--Born in slavery in Mississippi. Now a wealthy farmer in Madison, Arkansas. BRAITHWAITE, WILLIAM BEAUMONT STANLEY (1878-)--Author and critic; born in Boston. Editor of "Anthology of Magazine Verse," published annually, "The Book of Georgian Verse," "The Book of Restoration Verse," contributor of literary criticisms to the Boston Transcript and magazines. BRAWLEY, BENJAMIN GRIFFITH (1882-)--Born at Columbia, S.C. A.B., Atlanta Baptist College, 1901; A.B., University of Chicago, 1906; A.M., Harvard, 1908. Member American Historical Association, American Geographical Society; author, "Negro in Literature and Art," "Short History of American Negro" and booklets of verse. Dean of Morehouse College, Atlanta, Ga. BROWN, WILLIAM WELLS (1816-?)--Born in slavery in Kentucky. Escaped in youth to the North. Prominent lecturer in America and England. Author of "The Black Man," "Clotelle," "The Negro in the Rebellion," "The Rising Sun," etc. BURLEIGH, ALSTON W., son of H. T. Burleigh, the well-known composer of music. CHESNUTT, CHARLES W. (1858-)--Born in Cleveland, Ohio. Admitted to the Ohio Bar, 1887. One of the foremost American novelists. Author of "The House behind the Cedars," "The Wife of his Youth," "The Marrow of Tradition," etc. Contributor to the Atlantic Monthly and Century Magazine. COPPIN, LEVI J. (1848-)--Born at Frederickstown, Md. Bishop of African Methodist Episcopal Church. In South Africa 1900-1904. Author of "Observations of Persons and Things in South Africa" and a number of religious books. D. D., Wilberforce University, 1889. Ordained to ministry, 1877. COTTER, JOSEPH S. (1861-).--Educator, author of "Negro Tales," etc. COTTER, JOSEPH S., JR. (1897-1920)--A youth of great promise who wrote on a sick bed. Author of "The Band of Gideon," "The White Folks' Nigger," "Out of the Shadows." CROGMAN, WILLIAM H. (1841-)--Born on St. Martin Island, West Indies, A.B., A.M., Atlanta University, 1876, 1879; Litt. D., LL.D., Clark University, 1901. For many years associated with Clark University, Atlanta, Ga., as president and professor. Member of the American Philosophical Association. CROMWELL, JAMES W. (1846-)--Born Portsmouth, Va. LL.B., Harvard 1874; hon. A.M. Wilberforce University, 1914. Admitted to Bar, District of Columbia, 1874. First colored lawyer to appear before Interstate Commerce Commission. Principal Crummell School, Washington, D.C.; Secretary, American Negro Academy. Author of "The Negro in American History," etc. DOUGLASS, FREDERICK (1817-1895)--Escaped from Maryland as a slave when a young man. Lectured on abolition in England and America. A noble orator, a clear thinker, and an untiring advocate of the rights of man. Published an autobiography in many editions. DU BOIS, W. E. BURGHARDT (1868-)--Born in Great Barrington, Mass. A.B., Fisk University; A.B. and Ph.D., Harvard. Scholar; editor of "The Crisis"; author of "The Suppression of the Slave Trade," "The Souls of Black Folk," "Darkwater," etc. DUNBAR, PAUL LAURENCE (1872-1906)--Born in Dayton, Ohio. Poet; author of "Oak and Ivy," "Majors and Minors," "Lyrics of Lowly Life," "The Uncalled," "The Sport of the Gods," etc. Dunbar stands in the forefront among American poets. EDWARDS, WILLIAM J.--A Tuskegee graduate who founded the Snow Hill School, one of most important industrial schools of the country. Author of "Twenty-Five Years in the Black Belt," etc. ELLIS, GEORGE W. (1875-1920)--Lawyer and author. While serving on the American Legation to Liberia, he studied the languages and customs of the tribes of West Africa, and wrote his books on this subject. FAUSET, JESSIE R.--A. B., Cornell, A.M., Pennsylvania. Associate editor of "The Crisis" and the "Brownies' Book." Author of short stories and verses. FISHER, RUTH ANNA--A. B., Oberlin College. Has engaged in teaching and social service work. FLIPPER, HENRY OSSIAN--Served as lieutenant in American Army. Student and translator of Spanish. FLOYD, SILAS X. (1869--)--A.B., A.M., Atlanta University, 1891, 1894; D.D. Morris Brown College, 1903. Principal of a school in Augusta, Ga. Author of "Floyd's Flowers," etc. Member, American Association Political and Social Science and American Historical Association. GRIMKE, ANGELINA--Teacher in the public schools of Washington, D.C.; author of "Rachel," etc. HACKLEY, AZALIA--Musician, pupil of Jean de Reszke. Very successful teacher and conductor of choruses. HENSON, MATTHEW A.--Began life as a cabin boy. Twenty-three years Peary's companion. He was with him at the North Pole. Thoroughly acquainted with life customs and languages of the Eskimos. HOLTZCLAW, WILLIAM H.--A Tuskegee graduate who founded the Utica Normal and Industrial Institute in Mississippi; author of "The Black Man's Burden," etc. JAMIESON, R. C. (1888-1918)--Born, Winchester, Tenn. Educated at Fisk University. Author, contributor to "The Crisis." JOHNSON, JAMES WELDON--Poet and diplomat. At one time American Consul at Puerto Cabello, Venezuela and Nicaragua. Author of "Fifty Years and Other Poems," "An Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man." Field Secretary of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. JONES, E. S.--Author of "The Sylvan Cabin and Other Poems." MILLER, KELLY (1863--)--Born at Winnsboro, S.C. A.M., LL.D., Howard University, 1901, 1903. Dean, College of Arts and Sciences, Howard University. Lecturer on race problem. Member Academy Political and Social Science, American Social Science Association, American Association for the Advancement of Science. Author "Race Adjustment," "Out of the House of Bondage"; wrote chapter on "Education of the Negro" in report of U.S. Bureau of Education, 1901. Contributor to magazines and newspapers. PENDELTON, LEILA A.--Teacher in Washington Public Schools for many years. Author of "A Narrative of the Negro," "An Alphabet for Negro Children," etc. PICKENS, WILLIAM (1881-)--Born in Anderson Co., S.C. A.B., Talledaga College, 1902; A.B., Yale, 1904; A.M., Fisk, 1908. Won the Ten Eyck prize for oratory, Yale, 1913. Educator and lecturer. Formerly Dean of Morgan College, Baltimore. Associate Field Secretary for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. Author of "The New Negro," "The Spirit of Freedom," etc. SCOTT, EMMETT J. (1873-)--Born at Houston, Texas. Wiley University, 1905. Secretary of Howard University. Appointed a member of American Commission to Liberia, 1919, by President Taft. Assistant to Secretary of War, 1914-18. Author, "The American Negro in the World War," etc. SHEPARD, JAMES E. (1875-)--Born, Lehigh, N.C. Author, lecturer, founder of Religious Training School at Durham, N.C. Has traveled in Europe, Africa and Asia. SHEPPARD, WILLIAM HENRY (1865-)--Born at Waynesboro, Va. Sent by Southern Presbyterian church as missionary to Africa, 1890. Exposed to the Congo atrocities. Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society. SIMMONS, WILLIAM J. (1849-?)--Born in Charleston, S.C. Boyhood of severe poverty. AB., Howard University, 1873. Educator, editor, minister, author "His Men of Mark" which contains biographies of 177 colored men. STAFFORD, O. O.--Principal of Lincoln Public School, Washington, D.C. Author of "Animal Fables." WASHINGTON, BOOKER T. (1858-1915)--Born in slavery. Graduated at Hampton Institute. Founded Tuskegee Institute. One of the foremost educators America has produced. Author of "Up from Slavery," "Working with the Hands," etc. WHEATLEY, PHYLLIS (1753-1784)--Brought to Boston as a slave in her childhood. Kindly treated and educated; became one of America's well known poets of the early period. WHITE, WALTER, F.--Graduate of Atlanta University. Assistant Secretary of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. WITTEN, LILLIAN B.--Graduate Smith College. Teacher in the St. Louis High School. * * * * * [Transcriber's Notes: The transcriber made these changes to the text to correct obvious errors: 1. p. 63 H CORDELIA RAY --> H. CORDELIA RAY 2. p. 76 Tousaint --> Toussaint 3. p. 143 correspondingly --> correspondingly: 4. p. 197 Greegee --> Greegree 5. p. 206 on all sorts --> of all sorts End of Transcriber's Notes] 
3298	----	Mr Honey's Banking Dictionary (German-English) (C)2001 by Winfried Honig This is a work in progress dictionary of phrases commonly used. This book contains English and equivalent German phrases. We are releasing two versions of this book, sorted for the English reader and sorted for the German reader. Dieses Buch wurde uns freundlicherweise von dem Verfasser zur Verfügung gestellt. This book was generously donated to us by the author. ------------------Acknowledgement: In the 1970s Winfried Honig, known as Mr Honey, started compiling and computerizing English/German dictionaries, partly to provide his colleagues and students with samples of the language of business, partly to collect convincing material for his State Department of Education to illustrate the need for special dictionaries covering the special language used in different branches of the industry. In 1997 Mr Honey began to feed his wordlists into the LEO Online Dictionary http://dict.leo.org of the Technische Universität München, and in 2000 into the DicData Online Dictionary http://www.dicdata.de While more than 500.000 daily visitors use the online versions, CD-ROM versions are available, see: http://www.leo.org/dict/cd_en.html http://www.dicdata.de http://mrhoney.purespace.de/latest.htm Mr. Honey would be pleased to answer questions sent to winfried.honig@online.de. Permission granted to use the word-lists, on condition that links to the sites of LEO, DICDATA and MR HONEY are maintained. Mr Honey's services are non-commercial to promote the language of business both in English and in German.------------------- History and Philosophy Die Anfänge dieses Wörterbuches gehen zurück in die Zeit als England der Europäischen Gemeinschaft beitreten wollte. In einer Gemeinschaftsarbeit von BBC, British Council, dem Dept. of Educ. und der OUP machte man sich Gedanken, wie man dem Führungsnachwuchs auf dem Kontinent die englische Wirtschaftssprache beibringen könnte. Als einer der wenigen Dozenten, die damals in London Wirtschaftsenglisch lehrten, kam ich in Kontakt mit dem Projekt. Da ich mich zu jener Zeit für eine Karriere in der Daten-verarbeitung oder als Hochschullehrer für Wirtschaftsenglisch entscheiden musste, wählte ich eine Kombination von beidem. Als Dozent der FH machte ich den Einsatz von Multimedia in der Vermittlung von brauchbarem Wirtschaftsenglisch zu meiner Aufgabe. Für die Anforderungen verschiedener Seminare, Schwerpunkte, Zielgruppen entstanden aus der praktischen Arbeit die Wortlisten und Wörterbücher. Aufgewachsen und geschult in der praktischen Denkweise von A.S. Hornby, einem Fellow des University College London, legte ich besonderen Wert auf die hohe Zahl möglichst dienlicher Anwendungsbeispiele. Die indizierten sequentiellen Wortlisten der Kompaktversionen, --anders und meines Erachtens noch viel besser--die großen sequentiellen Wortlisten der CD-ROM-Versionen mit der stufenweisen bis globalen Suche in den Wort- und Beispiellisten zunehmenden Umfangs, ermöglichen eine optimale sprachliche Orientierung in einem umfangreichen wirtschaftlichen Sprachsschatz. Dabei sehe ich neue Wege und Möglichkeiten des Erwerbs und des Umgangs mit der Fachsprache. Wahrscheinlich bietet sich hier weit mehr als sich im ersten Eindruck erahnen läßt. Spielerisch sollte es möglich sein, leichter, schneller und intensiver zu lernen. Durch die Vielzahl der Assoziationen dürfte sich schneller als bisher eine gehobene fachsprachliche Kompetenz entwickeln. Nummern 10 Prozent unter dem Betrag 10 per cent less than the amount 10 Prozent über dem Betrag 10 per cent more than the amount 1000 Liter kiloliter A ab Fabrik (INCOTERM) ex factory ab Lager (INCOTERM) ex warehouse ab Werk (INCOTERM) ex works Abandon abandonment Abandon, Überlassen abandonment abandonnieren abandon abandonnieren, überlassen, preisgeben abandon Abbuchungsverfahren direct debiting abdanken resign Abdankung resignation Abenteuer, wagen adventure Abenteurer, Spekulant adventurer abfahren depart Abfahrt departure Abfahrtshafen, Verladehafen port of departure Abfahrtsliste sailing list Abfahrtstag sailing date Abfahrtszeit time of departure Abfall waste Abfall waste material Abfallprodukt waste product Abfindung compensation for loss of office Abfindung golden handshake Abfindung lump-sum settlement Abfindungserklärung acceptance of lump-sum settlement Abfindungssumme sum of acquittance Abfindungswert amount payable on settlement Abfluss drain Abfluss von Gold drain of bullion abgabepflichtig dutiable abgelaufen expired abgelaufen out of date abgelaufener Scheck stale check abgeleitete Nachfrage, sekundäre Nachfrage derived demand abgeleitetes Einkommen, sekundäres Einkommen derived income abgezahlt, voll eingezahlt paid-up abhanden gekommenes Dokument lost document abheben, zurückziehen withdraw abhelfen remedy Abhilfe, Rechtsbehelf, Heilmittel remedy Abholfach, Verteilfach pigeon-hole abhängig dependent abhängig sein von depend on abhängig von contingent on abklären, gegeneinander aufrechnen clear Abkommen convention Abkühlungsperiode cooling-off period Abkürzung abbreviation Ablauf expiry Ablauf des Vertrages expiration of contract Ablauf, Ende expiration ablaufen run off ablaufen, enden expire ablegen, Akte file ablehnen decline ablehnen, entlassen dismiss Ablehnung rejection Ablösbarkeit redeemableness ablösen redeem Ablösungssumme redemption sum Abnahme decrease Abnahme der Liquidität decrease in liquidity Abnahme der Preise decrease of prices Abnahmebescheinigung certificate of inspection abnehmender Ertrag diminishing returns abnehmender Nutzen diminishing utility abnehmendes Risiko decreasing risk Abnutzung wear and tear Abnutzung, Verschleiß wear and tear abändern amend abändern modify Abänderung amendment Abänderung modification Abonnentenversicherung subscribers' insurance abonnieren subscribe abrechnen, Rechnung legen render account Abrechnung clearing Abrechnung der Konten settlement of accounts Abrechnung verschieben postpone settlement Abrechnungsposten clearing item Abrechnungsstelle clearing house Abrechnungstag account day Abrechnungstag settling day Abrechnungszeitraum accounting period Abrechnungszeitraum fiscal period Abruf call abrufbar callable abrunden round up Abrundung rounding Absatz paragraph Absatzförderung merchandising Absatzgebiet, Ansatzkanal outlet abschaffen abolish abschalten switch off Abschlagsdividende interim dividend Abschlagszahlung payment on account abschlägige Antwort negative answer Abschluss acquisition Abschluss von Deckungsgeschäften hedging Abschlusskosten acquisition costs Abschlussprovision acquisition commission Abschlussvermittlung acquisition agent Abschluß der Bücher closing of books Abschlußort place of signature Abschnitt counterfoil Abschnitt coupon Abschnitt, Bereich sector abschätzen, bewerten rate sth Abschätzung estimation Abschätzung des Schadens appraisal of damage abschreiben depreciate abschreiben write off abschreiben, abwerten depreciate Abschreibepolice declaration policy Abschreibepolice floating policy Abschreibung depreciation Abschreibung write-off Abschreibung, Abwertung depreciation Abschreibungsbetrag amount of depreciation Abschreibungskonto depreciation account Abschreibungsmethode method of depreciation Abschreibungssatz rate of depreciation Abschwächung easing Abschwächung weaker tendency Abschwächung der Geldsätze easing in money rates absenden, abfertigen, Abfertigung dispatch Absender consignor Absender sender absichern hedge absichern, sichern, gewährleisten ensure Absicht intent Absicht intention absichtlich intentional absoluter Höchststand all-time peak absoluter Vorteil absolute advantage absolutes Monopol absolute monopoly Absperrung durch Streikposten picketing Absplittern chipping Absprache gentlemen's agreement Abstimmung reconcilement Abteilung department Abteilung division Abteilung section Abteilungskosten departmental costs Abteilungsleiter head of department Abteilungsleiterin, Direktrice manageress abtrennbar detachable abtrennen detach abtrennen, trennen, lösen detach Abtretbarkeit einer Forderung transferability of a claim abtreten convey abtreten, zedieren cede Abtretender assignor Abtretung conveyance Abtretung einer Forderung assignment of a debt Abtretung einer Hypothek mortgage assignment Abtretung, Überlassung abandonment Abwanderung migration abweichen deviate abweichen von deviate from Abweichung deviation Abweichung discrepancy Abweichung von der Reiseroute deviation from the voyage Abweichung, Variation variation Abwerbung labor piracy abwerten devaluate abwerten devalue Abwertung devaluation abwesend absent Abwesender absentee Abwesenheit absence abwickeln wind up Abwicklung des Handels trade procedure Abwicklung, Liquidation winding-up Abwärtstrend downtrend abzahlen, tilgen, zurückzahlen pay off Abzahlung, Abstottern (Br.) never-never Abzahlungsgeschäft, Teilzahlungsgeschäft installment business Abzahlungskauf, Mietkauf hire-purchase Abzahlungskredit installment credit Abzahlungssystem tally system Abzahlungssystem, Teilzahlungssystem installment system Abzahlungsverkauf (Br.) sale on hire-purchase Abzeichen badge abziehen deduct abziehen subtract Abzug deduction Abzug der Spesen deduction of expenses abzugsfähig deductible abzugsfähiger Betrag deductible amount Abzugspflicht deduction at source abzüglich Aufwendungen less disbursements abzüglich Auslagen less expenses abzüglich Gebühren charges to be deducted abzüglich Gebühren less charges Achtstundentag eight-hour day Achtung, Hochschätzung esteem addieren, hinzufügen add Addiermaschine adding machine Adresse address Adressenliste mailing list Adressiermaschine addressing machine Advokat, Rechtsanwalt solicitor Änderung alteration Änderung modification Änderung der Anschrift change of address Änderung der Stimmung change in mood Änderung des Reiseziels change of voyage Änderung des Risikos change in the risk Änderung des Wechselkurses parity change Änderung vorbehalten subject to change Änderungen betreffend die Dokumente changes in documentation Änderungen der Verfahrensweise changes in procedures Änderungen vorbehalten subject to alterations Änderungsanzeige advice of amendment Änderungsbenachrichtigung notice of amendment Äquivalenzwert equivalent value Ärgernis nuisance ärztliche Ansicht medical opinion ärztliche Auslese medical selection ärztliche Behandlung medical treatment ärztliche Beobachtung medical observation ärztliche Betreuung medical care ärztliche Hilfe für alte Leute (US) medicaid ärztliche Hilfe, ärztliche Behandlung medical attendance ärztliche Untersuchung medical examination ärztliche Untersuchung medical inspection ärztliche Untersuchung physical examination ärztliches Attest medical certificate ärztliches Gutachten medical estimate ärztliches Honorar medical fee äußere Beschädigung external damage äußerliches Erscheinungsbild appearance äußerst gedrückter Markt demoralized market äußerste utmost AG public limited company Agentur agency Agentur, Geschäftsstelle agency Agentur, Vertretung agency Aggregattafel aggregate table aggressiv, angriffslustig aggressive aggressive Verkaufstechnik high-pressure selling Aggressivität aggressiveness Agitator agitator agitieren agitate Akkordarbeit job work Akkordsatz job rate Akkordzettel job sheet Akkreditiv letter of credit Akkreditiv-Bedingungen credit terms Akkreditive sind getrennte Geschäfte credits are separate transactions Aktentasche briefcase Aktenzeichen reference number Aktien besitzen hold shares Aktien der Elektronikindustrie electronics shares Aktien der Gummiindustrie rubber shares Aktien der Maschinenbauindustrie engineering shares Aktien der Nahrungsmittelindustrie foods shares Aktien der Schiffsbauindustrie shipbuilding shares Aktien für die Direktoren management shares Aktien mit garantierter Dividende debenture stock Aktien von Versicherungsgesellschaften insurance shares Aktien zeichnen subscribe for shares Aktien zuteilen allot shares Aktienbank joint stock bank Aktienbank joint-stock bank Aktienbesitz holding of shares Aktienbesitz shareholdings Aktienbesitz stockholding Aktiengesellschaft joint stock company Aktiengesellschaft joint-stock company Aktiengesellschaft public limited company Aktiengesellschaft (US) corporation Aktienindex index of stocks Aktienkapital capital stock Aktienkapital equity Aktienkapital joint-stock capital Aktienkapital share capital Aktienkurs price of shares Aktienmarkt shares market Aktienmehrheit majority of shares Aktiennotierung stock quotation Aktienpaket block of shares Aktienverkauf ohne Beschränkung open market Aktienzertifikat share certificate Aktienübertragung stock transfer Aktionär shareholder Aktionär stock holder Aktionär stockholder Aktiva und Passiva assets and liabilities Aktivbilanz favorable balance aktive Handelsbilanz favorable balance of trade aktiver Teilhaber active partner aktives Unternehmen operating company aktivieren activate Aktivität, Handlung activity Aktivposten asset Aktivposten der Bilanz assets Aktivseite der Bilanz, Aktiva assets Aktivzinsen interest receivable Aktuar actuary Akzept acceptance Akzept unter Vorbehalt qualified acceptance Akzept, angenommener Wechsel accepted bill Akzept-Bank (Br.) accepting house Akzept-Obligobuch acceptor's ledger Akzeptant acceptor akzeptieren accept akzeptierende Bank accepting bank akzeptierte Standardrichtlinien an accepted standard Akzeptierung acceptance Akzeptkredit acceptance credit Akzeptleistung soll erbracht werden acceptance is to be made Akzeptleistung vornehmen to effect acceptance Akzeptmeldung advice of acceptance Akzeptobligo accept liability Akzeptprovision commission for acceptance alkoholfreie Getränkeindustrie soft drink industry alkoholfreies Getränk soft drink alle anderen Bedingungen des Kredits all other stipulations of the credit alle Auslagen, die den Banken entstehen any expenses incurred by banks alle beteiligten Parteien all parties concerned alle Gebühren, die den Banken entstehen any charges incurred by banks alle gehören der Gewerkschaft an closed shop alle möglichen Risiken all risks whatsoever alle zum Inkasso übersandten Dokumente all documents sent for collection alle zum Verkauf gehörigen Kräfte, Personen sales force alle zwei Jahre biennial alle zwei Monate bimonthly alle zwei Wochen biweekly allein aufgrund der Dokumente on the basis of the documents alone Alleininhaber sole owner Alleinvertreter exclusive agent Alleinvertreter sole agent Alleinvertretung exclusive agency Alleinvertretung sole agency Alleinvertretungsrecht sole right of representation allen sei herzlich gedankt sincere thanks are given to them all allerniedrigster Preis rock-bottom price allgemein general allgemein verbindlich generally binding allgemeine Anerkennung global acceptance allgemeine Kosten general expenses allgemeine Regeln general provisions allgemeine Versicherungsbedingungen general conditions of insurance allgemeine Versicherungsbedingungen general policy conditions allgemeiner Verrechnungsvermerk general crossing allgemeinverbindlich generally binding als Hypothek geben, verpfänden give in mortgage als Inkassobank einsetzen to utilize as the collecting bank als Leihgabe as a loan als Nachrichtenübermittlungsträger as a means of transmitting information als Notadresse tätig werden to act as case-of-need als Pfand annehmen accept as pledge als Pfand annehmen take sth in pawn als Pfand halten hold in pledge als Sicherheit serve as security als Sicherheit hinterlegt pledged as security alteingesessen old-established Alternative alternative alternatives Bedarfsdeckungsgut alternate demand Alterruhegeld, Altersrente, Pension old-age pension Alterserhöhung addition to age Altersgrenze age limit Altersrente old-age pension Altersrente pension annuity Altersrente retirement annuity Altersruhegeld old age pension Altersruhegeld old-age benefits Alterung aging Alterversicherung old-age insurance am Gewinn beteiligte Obligationen participating bonds am oder um den on or about am oder vor dem Verfalldatum on or before the expiry date am Ort loco am Schalter over the counter am Verlust beteiligt sein participate in a loss am Zahlungsort in the place of payment amerikanische Buchführung columnar bookkeeping amerikanische Buchführung tabular bookkeeping Amortisationsbetrag equity of redemption Amortisationsschein bill of redemption amortisieren, abzahlen amortize Amortisierung amortization Amt, Büro, Geschäftsraum office amtlich beglaubigt legally attested amtlich notiert officially quoted amtliche Bekanntmachung bulletin amtliche Kursnotierung an der Börse official quotation amtliche Notierung official quotation amtlicher Börsenverkehr official trading amtlicher Kurs official quotation Amtsblatt gazette Amtsdauer term of office Amtszeichen dialing tone an Bord aboard an dem bestimmbaren Datum on the date determinable an demselben Tag on the same date an den Aussteller zurück refer to drawer an der Arbeit in the work an der Börse geführte Aktien listed stocks an der Börse zugelassener Angestellter authorized clerk an der Kasse over the counter an die Börse gehen go public an die Inkassobank to the collecting bank an die Order zahlen von pay to the order of an die Stelle treten von take the place of an einem Geschäft beteiligt engaged in a business an einen Dritten to a third party an einen Index gebundene Anleihe index loan an erster Stelle top priority an erster Stelle stehen rank first an Order zahlbar payable to order an sich gefährliches Gut goods dangerous in themselves an Wert verlieren lose in value Analyse analysis Analysen analyses analysieren analyze Analytiker analyst anbieten quote anbieten, Preisangabe machen quote Anbieter bidder Anbieter offerer andere ähnliche Dokumente other similar instruments andere UN-Gremien other UN bodies anderen Verfahren unterworfen subjected to other processes anderweitig ausdrücklich vereinbart otherwise expressly agreed andeuten, Hinweis, Tip hint anfallen accrue anfallend incidental anfallende Nebenkosten incidental expenses Anfang commencement Anfang April beginning of April anfangen commence anfangs, Anfangsbuchstabe initial Anfangsbuchstaben initials Anfangsgehalt starting salary Anfangsprämie initial premium Anfangsvermögen original assets anfechtbar defeasible anfechtbar voidable anfechten contest Anfechtung contestation Anfrage inquiry Anfrage letter of inquiry Anfrage, Erkundigung enquiry Anfrage, Nachforschung inquiry anfragen, nachforschen inquire Anführer leader Angabe von Referenzen quotation of references angeben, Staat, Zustand state angeben, zitieren quote Angebot offer Angebot offerings Angebot quotation Angebot mit Zwischenverkaufsvorbehalt offer subject to prior sale Angebot und Nachfrage supply and demand Angebot von Sicherheitsleistungen tender of securities Angebot, anbieten offer angefallene Kosten costs incurred angefallene Kosten expenses incurred angefügt, in der Anlage attached angegeben quoted angegebener Wert declared value angegliederte Gesellschaft associated company angehend prospective Angelegenheit affair Angelegenheit matter Angelegenheit von Bedeutung matter of consequences Angelegenheit von öffentlichem Interesse matter of public concern angelegtes Geld, gebundene Mittel tied-up money angelernt semi-skilled angemessen adequate angemessen appropriate angemessen apt angemessen versorgt adequately supplied angemessene Entschädigung adequate compensation angemessene Entschädigung fair compensation angemessene Entschädigung fair damages angemessene Entschädigung reasonable compensation angemessene Kündigungsfrist reasonable period of notice angemessene Sorgfalt adequate care angemessene Sorgfalt reasonable diligence Angemessenheit adequacy angenommen accepted angenommener Schaden constructive loss angenommener Totalschaden constructive total loss angenommener Wechsel bill of acceptance angepasst adapted angeschlossen associated angeschlossene Gesellschaften associated companies angesehen of good standing angesehene Wohnlage, angesehene Firma good address angespannt tight Angewandte Volkswirtschaftslehre applied economics Angliederung affiliation Angreifer aggressor angrenzend adjoining angrenzend bordering Angriff aggression Angstkäufe panic buying Angstverkäufe panic selling Anhang annex Anhang appendix Anhänger tag Anhäufung accumulation Anhäufung aggregation Anhäufung von Gewinnen durch Spekulation pyramiding Anhörung hearing Ankergebühr anchorage Anklage accusation anklagen accuse ankommen arrive Ankunft arrival Ankunftszeit time of arrival ankündigen announce Ankündigung announcement Anlage (z.B. eines Briefes) layout Anlageberater investment adviser Anlageberater investment consultant Anlageberater investment counsel Anlagefonds investment trust Anlageforschung investment research Anlagegeschäft investment business Anlagekapital invested capital Anlagekredit investment credit Anlageliste investment list Anlagenbewertung valuation of assets Anlagenkäufe investment buying Anlagepolitik investment policy Anlagerisiko investment risk Anlagevermögen fixed assets Anlagewert investment value Anlageziel investment objective Anlauf der Versicherungspolice expiry of the policy Anlaufkosten launching costs Anleihe der öffentlichen Hand civil loan Anleihe, Darlehen loan Anleihekapital loan capital Anleihenausgabe bond issue Anleihenschuld bond debt Anlieferung frei Haus home delivery Anlieferung, Lieferung delivery Anlieger adjacent owner Anmeldefrist term of application Anmeldung einer Forderung filing of a claim Anmeldung einer Forderung, eines Anspruchs filing of a claim Anmerkung, Kommentar, Erläuterung annotation Annahme acceptance Annahme assumption Annahme presumption Annahme unter Vorbehalt qualified acceptance Annahme, Vermutung assumption Annahmefrist term of acceptance Annahmepflicht obligation to accept Annahmeschein acceptance slip Annahmeverweigerung refusal of acceptance annehmbare Qualität acceptable quality level annehmen accept annehmen assume annehmen presume annehmen, akzeptieren accept annehmen, voraussetzen, vermuetn assume annehmen, übernehmen adopt Annehmer, Akzeptant acceptor Annehmlichkeiten amenities Annehmlichkeitswert amenity value annähern approach annähernd approximate annähernd approximative annähernd proximate annähernd, ungefähr approximately Annäherung approximation Annuität amount of annuity Annuität annuity Annuität, Rente annuity annullieren cancel annulliert cancelled Annullierung eines Auftrags cancellation of an order Annullierung, Stornierung cancellation Annullierungsbenachrichtigung, Kündigung notice of cancellation anomal abnormal anpassbare Versicherung, offene Versicherung adjustable insurance anpassen adapt Anpassung adaptation Anpassung der Preise, Anpassung der Kurse adjustment of prices Anpassung, Schadensregulierung adjustment Anrecht, Titel title Anruf telephone call Anschaffung, Erwerb acquisition Anschaffungskosten original costs Anschaffungswert acquisition value Anschaffungswert cost value Anschaffungswert original value Anschlagtafel billboard Anschlussflug interconnecting flight Anschreibekonto charge account Anschrift des Antragstellers address of applicant Ansehen standing ansehnlicher Beitrag substantial contribution Ansicht aspect Ansicht view Ansichtssache matter of opinion ansonsten otherwise Anspannung der Liquidität strain on liquidity Ansporn, Anreiz, Bonus incentive Anspruch claim Anspruch auf Schadensersatz claim for damages Anspruch erheben raise a claim Anspruch, Forderung, Klage claim Anspruchsbegründung proof of claim Anspruchsteller claimant Ansprüche befriedigen satisfy claims anstatt in lieu of ansteigend rising anständig fair Ansturm run Ansturm auf die Bank run on the bank Ansturm auf eine Bank run on a bank Ansturm, lebhafte Nachfrage rush Anteil am Gewinn haben receive a share in the profits Anteil des Arbeitsgebers, Arbeitgeberanteil employer's contribution Anteil des Arbeitsnehmers, Arbeitnehmeranteil employee's contribution Anteil, Aktie share Anteilschein investment trust security Anteilschein unit certificate Anti-Dumping-Abgabe anti-dumping duty Anti-Dumping-Politik anti-dumping policy Anti-Trust-Gesetzgebung anti-trust legislation Antrag auf Börsenzulassung (Br.) application for official quotation Antrag auf Erlass einer einstweiligen Verfüg.action for an injunction Antrag auf Zuteilung von Aktien application for shares Antragsformular form of application Antragsformular proposal form Antragsfrist term of application Antragsteller applicant for insurance Antragsteller, Bewerber, Zeichner applicant anvertrauen confide anvertrauen entrust anvertrautes Geld money in trust anwachsen accrue anwachsend, ansammelnd, auflaufend accruing anweisen instruct Anweisung direction Anweisung instruction Anweisungen befolgen carry out instructions Anweisungen befolgen follow instructions Anwender user Anwendergruppe user group Anwesenheit attendance anzahlen pay down Anzahlung down payment Anzahlung leisten pay a deposit Anzeichen indication Anzeige der Akkreditive notification of credits anzeigen indicate anzeigen, bezeichnen indicate Anzeigepflicht duty to give notice Anzeigepflicht obligation to disclose anziehen attract Anziehen upward movement Anziehungskraft force of attraction appellieren, Rechtsmittel einlegen appeal applicable soweit anwendbar to the extent to which they may be Arbeit labor Arbeit im Freien, Außenarbeit outdoor job arbeiten, Arbeit work Arbeiter laborer Arbeiter workpeople Arbeiterschaft labor force Arbeiterschaft working classes Arbeiterschaft, Belegschaft workforce Arbeitgeber employer Arbeitgeber-Arbeitnehmer-Beziehungen labor relations Arbeitgeberverband federation of employers Arbeitsablaufstudie time and motion study Arbeitsamt labor exchange Arbeitsbedingungen working conditions Arbeitsberatung, Ausbildungsberatung youth employment service Arbeitsbereich field of activity Arbeitseinsatz employment of labor Arbeitsfähigkeit, Erwerbsfähigkeit capacity to work Arbeitskapital, Betriebsvermögen working capital Arbeitskolonne gang arbeitslos, Arbeitsloser unemployed arbeitslos, nicht gebraucht, überzählig redundant Arbeitslosenanteil unemployment rate Arbeitslosenquote rate of unemployment Arbeitslosenunterstützung redundancy payment Arbeitslosenunterstützung unemployment benefit Arbeitslosenversicherung unemployment insurance Arbeitslosigkeit redundancy Arbeitslosigkeit unemployment Arbeitsmarkt labor market Arbeitsniederlegung walkout Arbeitspapiere working papers Arbeitsplan working plan Arbeitsplatzbeschreibung job description Arbeitsplatzbeschreibung job specification Arbeitsplatzbeurteilung, Arbeitsstudie job analysis Arbeitsplatzbewertungsmerkmal job factor arbeitssparend laborsaving Arbeitsstudie work study Arbeitsstunde man-hour Arbeitssuche job hunting Arbeitstag work day Arbeitsteilung division of labor Arbeitsumfang, Arbeitsanfall volume of work Arbeitsunfall accident at work Arbeitsunfall industrial accident Arbeitsunfähigkeit disablement Arbeitsunfähigkeit, Erwerbsunfähigkeit invalidity Arbeitsunfähigkeitsversicherung disability insurance Arbeitsverfahren method of operation Arbeitsvermittlung employment exchange Arbeitsverschwendung waste of effort Arbeitsvorbereitung preparatory work Arbeitszeit hours of work Arbeitszeit working hours Arbeitszeitverkürzung reduction of working hours Arbitrage arbitration Archiv archives arglistige Täuschung moral fraud arglistige Täuschung wilful deceit arglistige Täuschung wilful deception Argument argument argumentieren argue arithmetische Progression arithmetic progression arithmetisches Mittel arithmetic mean Armenunterstützung pauper relief Armer, arme Person pauper arrangieren arrange Art kind Art der Benachrichtigung method of advice Art der Lebensversicherung type of assurance Art der Vereinbarung type of agreement Art des Artikels type of product Art des Schadens type of loss Art des Unternehmens kind of business Art von Kommunalanleihe improvement bonds Artikel, Gegenstand article Arzneikosten cost of medicaments Arztgebühren medical fees Aspirant, Bewerber aspirant Assessor assessor Atomrisiko, Kernenergierisiko nuclear risk Atomrisikoversicherung nuclear risk insurance attestieren, Attest attest attraktiv, reizvoll attractive Attraktivität, Anziehungskraft attractiveness auch die Referenznummer including the reference number auf Abruf at call auf alle Fälle at all hazards auf anderem schnellem Wege by other expeditious means auf Anforderung on demand auf Arbeitssuche hunting for a job auf Baisse spekulieren operate for a fall auf Bestellung hergestellt made to order auf Container umsteigen containerize auf Deck verladen to load on deck auf dem neuesten Stand up-to-date auf dem neuesten Stand halten keep up to date auf dem Spiel stehen be at stake auf dem Transportwege, unterwegs in transit auf den Inhaber ausstellen make out to bearer auf den Markt werfen dump auf den neuesten Stand bringen update auf den Tisch legen, Tisch, Tabelle table auf denen sie beruhen on which they are based auf denen sie beruhen können on which they may be based auf der Bank hinterlegen deposit at the bank auf der Börsenliste listed auf die die Dokumente sich beziehen können to which the documents may relate auf eigene Rechnung for own account auf ein Konto einzahlen pay into an account auf einen Rechtsanspruch verzichten waive a claim auf Erfüllung klagen sue for performance auf Ersuchen eines Kunden acting at the request of a customer auf Flaschen füllen, Flasche bottle auf Gefahr des at the risk of auf Gefahr des letzteren at the risk of the latter auf Geld bezogen pecuniary auf Hausse spekulieren operate for a rise auf jemanden einen Wechsel ziehen draw a bill on sb. auf Kosten des Auftraggebers at the expense of the principal auf neuesten Stand bringen update auf Rechnung des Auftraggebers for the account of the principal auf Schadensersatz verzichten waive the compensation auf tägliche Kündigung at call auf Verlangen at call auf Verlangen by request auf Wunsch optional auf Zahlung drängen press for payment auf Zahlung klagen sue for recovery Aufbau buildup Aufbau, Organisation set-up Aufbewahrung safe-keeping aufblähen inflate aufdecken disclose auferlegen impose auferlegen to impose Auferlegung imposition Aufforderung demand note Aufforderung zur Zahlung demand of payment Aufgabe task Aufgabenbereich field of functions Aufgabenbereich scope of duties Aufgabenkreis scope of functions aufgeben abandon aufgeben und abtreten abandon and cede aufgeben, quitt quit aufgeben, verzichten abandon aufgebracht upset aufgegebenes Schiffswrack abandoned shipwreck aufgelaufen accrued aufgelaufen, angewachsen accrued aufgelaufene Gebühren accrued charges aufgelaufene Kosten accruals aufgelaufene Schulden backlog of debts aufgelaufene Verbindlichkeiten accrued liabilities aufgelaufene Zinsen accumulated interest aufgelaufener Zins accrued interest aufgelaufener Zins broken-period interest Aufgeld agio Aufgeld, Zuschlag agio aufgeschobene Rente deferred annuity aufgeschobene Rente, verzögerte Rente deferred annuity aufgezählt im Inkassoauftrag listed in the collection order aufgrund einer solchen Unstimmigkeit in respect od such discrepancy aufgrund erhaltener Weisung on instructions received aufheben override aufheben suspend Aufhebung abolishment Aufhebung suspension Aufhebung des Versicherungsschutzes suspension of cover Aufhebung einer Verordnung suspension of a regulation Aufhebung, Suspensierung suspension aufhören cease aufhören discontinue Aufkauf buying-up Aufkleber paste-on label Aufklärung educational advertising auflaufen, sich anhäufen accumulate auflösen dissolve Auflösung dissolution Aufmerksamkeit attention aufnahmebereiter Markt ready market Aufnahmefähigkeit des Marktes market capacity Aufopferung sacrifice Aufopferung von Gütern unter großer Havarie general averages sacrifice aufrechnen charge up against sth. aufrechterhalten maintain aufrichten, bauen erect aufrichtiger Dank sincere thanks Aufräumungskosten cost of clearance of debris Aufruhr civil commotion Aufruhr und Unruhen riot and civil commotion Aufruhrklausel riots clause aufs eigene Haus gezogener Wechsel house bill aufschieben defer aufschieben, verschieben defer Aufschub deferment Aufschub deferring Aufschwung upswing Aufschwung, Geschäftsbelebung boom Aufseher supervisor aufsetzen draw up Aufsichtsbehörde supervisory body Aufsichtsrat, Vorstand board of directors Aufsichtsratsposten directorship Aufsichtsratsvergütung directors' remuneration Aufstand insurrection aufsteigen, zunehmen, Aufstieg, Zunahme rise Aufstellung, Plan schedule auftauchen emerge Aufteilung split Auftrag order Auftrag nur für diesen Tag day order Auftrag, Ware auf Rechnung zu liefern purchase order Auftragsausführung execution of an order Auftragsbestand goods on order Auftragsbestätigung acknowledgement of order Auftragsformblatt order form Auftragskostensammelblatt job cost sheet Auftragswelle rush of orders Aufträge zu Änderungen instructions for any amendments Aufträge zur Akkreditiv-Eröffnung instructions for the issuance of credits Aufträge zur umgehenden Ausführung short-term orders Aufwand expenditure Aufwand, Auslagen outlay Aufwendung disbursement aufwerten revalue Aufwertung revaluation Aufwertung einer Währung revaluation Aufwärtstrend up-trend aufzeichnen record Aufzeichnung record Aufzeichnung recording Aufzeichnungen machen keep a record Aufzeichnungen, Akten records Aufzeichnungen, Unterlagen, Akten records aufzeigen, hinweisen point out Augenbelastung eye strain aus dem sich ergibt, dass indicating that aus dem Verkehr ziehen withdraw from circulation aus der Haftung entlassen discharge from liability aus einer Verpflichtung entlassen sein to be relieved from an obligation aus irgendeinem Grund for any reason aus Versehen, versehentlich by mistake aus zweiter Hand secondhand Ausarbeitung elaboration Ausbeutungsrechte exploitation rights Ausbilder trainer Ausbildungshilfe educational endowment Ausbildungszeit period of training ausbreiten spread ausdehnen, verlängern extend Ausdehnung expansion Ausdehnung, Verlängerung extension ausdrücken express ausdrücklich verbieten to prohibit specifically ausdrückliche Zustimmung explicit consent auseinandernehmen dismantle auseinandersetzen, Auseinandersetzung dispute Ausfallbürgschaft deficit guarantee Ausfallbürgschaft letter of indemnity Ausfallversicherung bad debts insurance ausfindig machen locate Ausfuhrkreditversicherung export credit insurance Ausfuhrland exporting country Ausfuhrprämie export bonus Ausfuhrzoll export duty ausführen execute ausführen, durchführen perform Ausführung execution Ausführung performance Ausführung eines Vertrages execution of a contract Ausführungsanzeige advice of deal ausfüllen, vollständig complete Ausgabe issue Ausgabe von Banknoten issue of notes Ausgabe, Aufwand expenditure Ausgabe, Auslage outlay Ausgaben expenses Ausgaben machen incur expenditures Ausgabenschätzung estimation of expenditure Ausgabenumfang volume of expenditure Ausgabeort place of issue Ausgabeposten element of expenditure Ausgabetag date of issue Ausgang exit Ausgangsdeklaration clearance outwards Ausgangsperiode base period Ausgangsposition starting position ausgearbeitet, durchdacht, ausarbeiten elaborate ausgeben dispense ausgeben hand out ausgeben spend ausgeben, aufwenden lay out ausgeben, emittieren issue ausgebildet trained ausgegebene Aktien issued capital ausgegebenes Kapital issued capital stock ausgeloste Wertpapiere called bonds ausgenommen except ausgenommen, erlassen exempt ausgeschlossen von barred from ausgeschlossenes Risiko hazard not covered ausgestellt an den Absender issued to the consignor ausgestellt in drei Originalen issued in three originals Ausgleich, Liquidation, Abrechnung settlement ausgleichen equalize ausgleichen, ersetzen make up for ausgleichen, saldieren balance ausgleichend compensatory Ausgleichsverfahren method of compensation Ausgleichung equalization Aushilfe, Aushilfstätigkeit temporary job Aushilfen, Saisonarbeiter temporary staff aushändigen hand over Aushändigung, Anlieferung delivery Auskunft disclosure Auskunftei credit agency Auskunftsabteilung, Informationsabteilung intelligence department Auskunftsbüro inquiry office Auskunftsgeber informant Auskunftspflicht, Anzeigepflicht duty of disclosure Auslagen machen incur expenses Auslandsabteilung foreign department Auslandsanlagen investments abroad Auslandsanleihe external loan Auslandsanleihe foreign loan Auslandsauftrag foreign order Auslandsauftrag über Exporthaus (Br.) indent Auslandsgeschäft business transacted overseas Auslandsgeschäft foreign business Auslandsgeschäft foreign transaction Auslandsguthaben foreign assets Auslandsinvestition foreign investment Auslandsinvestition investment abroad Auslandsinvestitionen investment in foreign countries Auslandsinvestitionen investments in foreign securities Auslandsreise journey abroad Auslandsschulden debts in foreign countries Auslandsschulden foreign debts Auslandsverbindlichkeiten external liabilities Auslandsverbindlichkeiten foreign liabilities Auslandsverschuldung foreign indebtedness Auslandswechsel external bill Auslandswechsel foreign bill auslassen omit Auslassung, Unterlassung omission auslegen disburse auslegen interpret Auslegung interpretation Auslegung von technischen Ausdrücken interpretation of technical terms Auslegungsfrage, Sache der Auslegung question of construction Auslegungsfrage, Sache der Auslegung question of interpretation Auslegungsschwierigkeiten interpretive problems ausliefern, anliefern deliver Auslieferung, Übergabe delivery Ausländer alien ausländisch foreign ausländisch, Auslands- external ausländische Sorten foreign coins and notes ausländische Wertpapiere foreign securities ausländische Währung foreign currency ausländische Währung, Devisen foreign currency ausländische Zahlungsmittel foreign funds ausländisches Kapital, ausländisches Geld foreign funds auslosbare Wertpapiere callable securities auslosen draw by lot Auslosung drawing auslöschen, ausradieren erase auslöschen, widerrufen rescind Ausmaß extent Ausmaß der Entschädigung measure of indemnity Ausmaß des Schadens degree of damage Ausmaß, Umfang extent Ausnahme exception Ausnahmebestimmung exemption clause Ausnahmegenehmigung certificate of exemption ausnahmsweise exceptional ausnutzen, verwerten, ausbeuten exploit Ausnutzung, Ausbeutung exploitation ausrechnen calculate ausrecht erhalten hold up ausreichend sufficient ausreichend Material sufficient material ausreichend, genügend, hinlänglich sufficient ausreichend, hinreichend adequate ausreichend, zufriedenstellend satisfactory ausreichende Mittel sufficient resources ausreichendes Guthaben sufficient funds Ausrüstung, maschinelle Ausstattung equipment Ausschaltung des Risikos elimination of the risk Ausschaltung von Risiken elimination of risks ausschließen eliminate ausschließen exclude ausschließen preclude ausschließlich exclusive ausschließliches Recht sole right Ausschließlichkeit exclusiveness Ausschließung exclusion Ausschließung preclusion Ausschluss exclusion Ausschreibung invitation to bid Ausschreibung, Angebot bidding Ausschußware rejections Aussichten prospects Aussichten prospects of the market Aussichten, Chancen chances Aussperrung lockout ausstatten equip Ausstattung, Ausrüstung outfit Ausstattung, Ausrüstung, Gerätschaft equipment Ausstattungsversicherung child endowment insurance ausstehende Beträge outstanding sums ausstehende Forderungen outstanding debts ausstehende Zinsen outstanding interest ausstellen exhibit ausstellen issue ausstellen, Schaufensterdekoration display Aussteller drawer Aussteller exhibiting company Aussteller exhibitor Aussteller issuer Aussteller eines Schecks maker of a check Aussteller eines Wechsels maker of a bill Ausstellerliste list of exhibitors Ausstellung exhibition Ausstellungsgüter exhibited articles Ausstellungstag des Wechsels date of bill Aussteuerversicherung child's deferred assurance Aussteuerversicherung dowry insurance Ausstoß, Leistung output Austausch von Zahlungsmitteln currency exchange Ausverkauf mit günstigen Gelegenheiten bargain-sale Auswahl choice Auswahl selection Auswahl von Risiken selection of risks Auswanderer emigrant auswandern emigrate Auswanderung emigration Auswirkung der Krise effect of the crisis Auswirkungen effects auswählen select auswählend, selektiv selective auszahlen, ausgeben pay out Auszahlung des Schadensersatzes loss payment Auszahlungen payments-out Auszahlungsanweisung cash note Auszahlungssperre stop payment order Auszubildender trainee Auszug extract authentisch, echt genuine authentisieren to authenticate Automat slot machine Automat, Warenautomat vending machine Automatenversicherung coin machine insurance automatisch automatic automatisch self-controlled automatisierte Systeme automated systems Automatisierung automation Automobilindustrie motor industry Autorität authority Autoschalter drive-in counter Außendienst field service Außendienstarbeit field work Außendienstorganisation field organization Außenhandel external trade Außenhandel foreign trade Außenseiter outsider Außenseiter, nicht zugelassener Makler outside broker Außenstände active debts Außenstände book debts Außenstände money due Außenstände outstanding accounts Außenstände outstandings Außenstände receivables Außenstände, Forderungen bills receivable Außenwerbung outdoor advertising außer Frage out of question außer in dem Umfang und in der Art except to the extent and in the manner außer Kraft setzen overrule außer Kraft setzen, umstoßen overrule außer Proportion unproportional außerberuflich outside außergerichtliche Vergleichsurkunde deed of arrangement außergewöhnlich extraordinary außergewöhnliche Abschreibung extraordinary depreciation außergewöhnliche Aufwendungen extraordinary expenditure außergewöhnliche Umstände extraordinary circumstances außerhalb der Arbeitszeit off the job außerhalb der Saison off season außerordentliche Erträge extraordinary income außerordentliche Hauptversammlung extraordinary general meeting außerordentliche Sorgfalt extraordinary diligence außerstande unable außerstande, unfähig unable Aval surety for payment Avis, Benachrichtigung advice Avis, Versandanzeige advice note avisieren to advise B Bahnhof railway station Baisse bear market Baisse slump Baisse, Wirtschaftskrise depression Baisse-Spekulant bear Baissemarkt bearish market Baissespekulation bearish speculation Baissetendenz bearish tendency Balkendiagramm bar chart Ballast ballast Ballen bale Band tape Bank bank bank die Dienste einer anderen Bank nutzen to utilise the services of another Bank für Internationalen Zahlungsausgleich Bank for International Settlement Bank spezialisiert in Wechselakzept (Br.) acceptance house Bank von England als Wechselkäufer lender of the last resort Bank von England, britische Zentralbank Bank of England Bank- und Finanzwesen banking and finance Bankakzept bank acceptance Bankakzept banker's acceptance Bankakzept eines Wechsels bank acceptance Bankakzept, Finanzwechsel bank bill Bankangestellter bank employee Bankanweisung banker's order Bankbeamter bank clerk Bankbeamter bank official Bankbote bank messenger Bankdarlehen bank credit Bankdarlehen bank loan Bankdirektor, Filialleiter bank manager Bankeinlage bank deposit Bankeinlagenversicherung bank deposit insurance Banken haben in keiner Hinsicht etwas zu tun banks are in no way concerned with Banken müssen alle Dokumente prüfen banks must examine all documents Banken sind durch solche Verträge gebunden banks are bound by such contracts Banken sind nur berechtigt zu verfahren banks are only permitted to act Banken, die mit einem Inkasso befasst sind banks concerned with a collection Banken, welche die Dienste in Anspruch nehmen banks utilizing the services Bankenkonsortium banking syndicate Bankenkonsortium group of banks Bankfachmann banker Bankfeiertag bank holiday Bankgarantie bank guarantee Bankgebühr bank charge Bankgeheimnis banker's discretion Bankgeheimnis banking secrecy Bankgeld bank money Bankgewerbe, Bankgeschäft banking business Bankguthaben bank balance Bankguthaben cash at bank Bankguthaben cash in bank Bankhaus bank company Bankier, Bankbeamter, Bankangestellter banker Bankier, Bankfachmann banker Bankier, Geldgeber financier Bankkapital bank capital Bankkapital bank stock Bankkapital funds of a bank Bankkonto bank account Bankkonto banking account Bankkredit bank credit Bankkredit bank loan Bankkreise banking circles Bankkunde bank customer Bankleitzahl code number Banklombardgeschäft deposit business Banknote bank note Banknote bill Banknoten treasury notes Bankplatz bank place Bankplatz, Standort mehrerer Banken banking center Bankpraxis banking practice Bankquittung bank receipt Bankreserven bank reserves Bankrevisor bank examiner bankrott bankrupt Bankrott bankruptcy Bankrott, Zahlungseinstellung bankruptcy Bankrotterklärung declaration of bankruptcy Bankschalter counter Bankscheck bank check Bankscheck, Banktratte cashier's check Bankschließfach safe deposit box Banksystem banking system Banktechnik, Bankmethoden banking technique Banktratte banker's draft Banktratte, von Bank gezogener Scheck banker's draft Bankvereinigung, Bankverein association of banks Bankverschuldung bank indebtedness Bankzusammenbruch bank failure Banküberweisung bank transfer bar abzüglich Skonto cash less discount bar anzahlen pay down bar, kassieren, Kasse cash Baratterie (Form des Betrugs) barratry Barauslage cash expenditure Bareinlage cash deposit Bareinzahlung cash deposit Bargeld ready cash Bargeld ready money Bargeld, Kassenbestand cash bargeldlos cashless bargeldloser Zahlungsverkehr payments without the use of cash Bargeschäft cash business Bargeschäft cash transaction Bargeschäft transaction for cash Barguthaben cash assets Barkauf cash purchase Barkredit cash credit Barometer barometer Baron, (Financier mit großem Einfluss) (Br.) baron Barpreis cash price Barpreis spot price Barren bar Barreserven cash reserves Barscheck cash check Barscheck open check Barscheck uncrossed check Barsendung remittance in cash Barverkauf cash sale Barvorschuss cash advance Barwert cash value Barzahlung cash disbursement Barzahlung cash payment Barzahlungen cash payments Barzahlungsskonto cash discount Barzahlunsrabatt, Skonto cash discount Basis base Basis, Ausgangsebene basis Basiszeitraum zum Vergleich base period Baubeschränkungen in einer Zone zoning restrictions Baudarlehen building loan Bauhaftpflichtversicherung builder's risk insurance Baulanderschließung site development Bausparkasse building association Bausparkasse building society Bazar bazaar beabsichtigen intend beachten, beobachten observe beachten, beobachten, einhalten observe beachten, berücksichtigen take into account Beachtung observance Beachtung, Beobachtung, Einhaltung observance Beachtung, Einhaltung, Beobachtung observance Beamter civil servant Beamter verantwortlich für das Register registrar beanspruchbar claimable beanstandete Ware rejected goods bearbeiten process Bearbeitung handling Bearbeitung des zuletzt hereingekommenen last in - first out Bearbeitung durch Banken handling by banks Bearbeitung von Dokumenten handling of documents Bearbeitung, Qualitätsarbeit, Verarbeitung workmanship Bearbeitungsgebühr handling charge beaufsichtigen supervise Beaufsichtigen supervision Bedarf requirements Bedarf an Zahlungsmitteln currency requirements bedarf des förmlichen Vertragsabschlusses subject to formal contract bedenken, überlegen consider Bedenkzeit time for consideration bedeutet means Bedeutung impact Bedeutung significance bedeutungsvoll, wichtig, wesentlich significant Bediener, Maschinenarbeiter operator bedingt conditional bedingte Annahme conditional acceptance Bedingung condition Bedingung qualification Bedingung, Frist term Bedingungen conditions Bedingungen terms Bedingungen der Versicherungspolice terms of the policy Bedingungen einer Vereinbarung terms of an agreement Bedingungen einhalten keep conditions Bedingungen einhalten keep the conditions Bedingungen für die Amortisation terms of amortization Bedingungen, Zahlungsbedingungen terms bedingungslos unconditional bedingungslos, absolut, unumschränkt absolute bedingunsloses Akzept clean acceptance Bedüftigkeitstest means test beeidigter Bücherrevisor chartered accountant beeinträchtigen affect beeinträchtigen impair Beeinträchtigung impairment beenden terminate beenden, abschließen finish beendigen terminate beendigen termination Beendigung der Beschäftigung termination of employment Beendigung des Vertrags termination of contract Beendigung eines Vertrags termination of a contract Beendigung, Kündigung termination Beerdigungskosten funeral expenses befaßt mit concerned with befestigt, festgelegt fixed befrachten affreight Befrachter shipper Befrachtung affreightment Befrachtung freighting Befrachtungsvertrag contract of affreightment befragen consult befragen, Frage question befreit, ausgenommen exempt Befreiung exemption befristet limited in time befristete Garantie limited guarantee Befugnis, sachliche Zuständigkeit competence Beförderungsart mode of transport begabt gifted begabt talented begebbare Handelspapiere negotiable instruments begebbare Wechsel negotiable bills begebbare Wertpapiere negotiable securities begebbares Papier negotiable document Begebbarkeit, Übertragungsfähigkeit negotiability begeben, übertragen negotiate Begebung eines Wechsels negotiation of a B/L Begebung, Übertragung negotiation Begebungsanzeige advice of negotiation Beginn inception Beginn des Risikos commencement of risk beginnen commence beglaubigen authenticate beglaubigter Scheck certified check beglaubigtes Dokument legalized document Beglaubigung eines Wechselprotests certificate of protest Beglaubigungsschreiben credentials Begleichung einer Rechnung settlement of an account Begleichung einer Schuld discharge of a debt begleitet von Handelspapieren accompanied by commercial documents begleitet von Zahlungspapieren accompanied by financial documents Begleitschreiben covering letter Begleitschreiben covering note begrenzt haftende Teilhaberschaft limited partnership begrenzte Haftung limited liability begrenzte Mittel limited means begrenzte Prämie., gekürzte Prämie limited premium Begrenzung limitation Begriffsbestimmungen definitions begründen found begründen, verursachen, veranlassen cause begründet eine feststehende Verpflichtung constitutes a definite understanding begründet keine Verpflichtung does not constitute any undertaking begünstigt, gewünscht, beliebt favoured Begünstigter beneficiary Begünstigter eines Kreditbriefes beneficiary of a letter of credit Begünstigter, Bezugsberechtigter beneficiary Begünstigungsklausel benefit clause behandeln, bearbeiten treat behaupten assert behindern hinder behindert handicapped Behinderung hindrance Behälter, Container container Behörde board bei der Erstellung dieser Neuausgabe in making this revision bei der Übermittlung von Fernschreiben in the transmission of telex bei der Übermittlung von Kabeln in the transmission of cables bei der Übermittlung von Nachrichten in transit of any messages bei der Übermittlung von Telegrammen in the transmission of telegrams bei einfachen Inkassi in respect of clean collections bei Erhalt der Dokumente upon receipt of the documents bei Fehlen solcher Angabe in the absence of such indication bei Fehlen solcher Weisungen in the absence of such instructions bei Fälligkeit at maturity bei höheren Gerichten zugel. Anwalt barrister bei monatlicher Kündigung subject to a month's notice bei Nichtakzeptierung in the event of non-acceptance bei Nichtzahlung in the event of non-payment bei Sicht zahlbare Dokumente documents payable at sight bei Verfall when due bei Wiederaufnahme unserer Geschäftstätigkeit upon resumption of our business beidseitig, zweiseitig bilateral beifügen attach Beileidsbekundung letter of sympathy beim Bezogenen die Vorlegung vornehmen making presentation to the drawee beipflichten assent Beispiel instance beispiellos unparalleled Beitrag contribution Beitrag zur Sozialversicherung social security contribution beitragen contribute Beitragsleistung, Beitragszahlung payment of contribution Beitragssatz rate of contribution Beitragszahler contributor bekannt als reputed Bekanntmachung, Kündigung notice bekräftigen, bestätigen affirm belasten, Belastung debit belasten, in Rechnung stellen charge belasten, Lastposten, Schuldposten debit belastet mit burdened with Belastung burden Belastung strain Belastung, Gebühr, Kosten, Anklage charge Belastungsanzeige debit advice Belastungsanzeige, Lastschrift debit note Belegschaft staff beleihbar lendable Beleihung hypothecation Beleihung mortgaging Beleihung einer Police policy loan Beleihungsgrenze lending limit Beleihungswert loan value Beleihungswert einer Versicherungspolice loan value belohnen, entlohnen remunerate Belohnung, Entlohnung remuneration Belohnung, Preis, Schiedsspruch award Belohnung, Preis, Entlohnung reward bemerkenswert striking bemühen, Bemühung endeavor benachrichtigen notify benachrichtigen to advise fate Benachrichtigung notification Benachrichtigung railway advice Benachrichtigung (Bezahltmeldung etc.) advice of fate benannte Bank nominated bank Benehmen conduct Benennung nomination Benennung durch die eröffnende Bank nomination by the issuing bank benutzbar zur Akzeptleistung available for acceptance benutzbar zur Negoziierung available for negotiation benutzbar zur Sichtzahlung available for sight payment Benzinpreis gasoline price benötigen require benötigt auch in Zukunft continues to require bequem, dienlich convenient Bequemlichkeit convenience beraten advise beratend advisory Berater consultant Beratung consultation Beratungsdienst counseling Beratungsfunktion advisory function Beraubung pilferage berechenbar calculable Berechenbarkeit calculability berechnen charge berechnen charge for Berechnung calculation Berechnung computation Berechnung der Kosten calculation of charges Berechnung der verfügbaren Mittel cash flow Berechnung der Wahrscheinlichkeit calculation of probability Berechnungsgrundlage calculation basis Berechnungsmethode method of calculation berechtigen entitle berechtigt entitled berechtigt sein zu be entitled to berechtigte Forderung justified claim berechtigtes Interesse legitimate interest Bereich range bereit halten keep ready Bereitschaft zu investieren readiness to invest Bereitstellung provision Bereitstellung von Mitteln allocation of funds Bergelohn salvage bergen, retten, sparen, ersparen save Bergung salvage Bergung aus Seenot maritime salvage Bergung, Rettung, Einsparung, Ersparnis saving Bergungskosten salvage charges Bergungskosten salvage costs Bergungsmannschaft, Rettungsmannschaft rescue party Bergungsschaden salvage loss Bergungswert salvage value Bergwerksaktie mining share berichten, Bericht report berichten, Rechenschaft ablegen account berichtend an reporting to berichtigen correct berichtigen rectify berichtigte Wahrscheinlichkeit corrected probability Berichtsjahr year under review Berichtsmonat month under report Beruf, akademischer Beruf profession beruflich, berufsbezogen occupational berufliche Qualifikation professional qualification Berufsausbildung professional training Berufsausbildung vocational training Berufsberater vocational advisor Berufsberatung vocational counseling Berufsberatung vocational guidance Berufshaftpflichtversicherung professional liability insurance Berufskrankheit occupational disease Berufskrankheit occupational illness Berufsleben working life Berufsrisiko occupational hazard Berufsunfall occupational accident Berufsunfallversicherung workmen's compensation insurance Berufswahl choice of occupation Berufszählung occupation census Berufung appointment Berufung einlegen lodge an appeal beruhend auf ausländischem Handelsbrauch imposed by foreign usages beruhend auf ausländischen Gesetzen imposed by foreign laws berücksichtigen consider berücksichtigen make allowance for berücksichtigen take into consideration Berücksichtigung consideration Besatzungsgeld occupation money bescheiden, dürftig moderate bescheidenes Einkommen, dürftiges Einkommen moderate income bescheinigen attest Bescheinigung attestation Bescheinigung certificate Bescheinigung des Bezugsrechts warrant Bescheinigung des Gewichts certification of weight Bescheinigung, Testat attestation Beschlagnahme confiscation Beschlagnahmeklausel free of capture and seizure clause Beschlagnahmerisiko risk of seizure beschleunigen accelerate Beschleuniger accelerator beschleunigte Abschreibung accelerated depreciation Beschluss resolution Beschluss mit einfacher Mehrheit ordinary resolution beschneiden, kürzen curtail beschäftigen, einsetzen, anwenden employ beschäftigen, verpflichten engage beschäftigt, besetzt engaged Beschäftigter, Angestellter, Arbeitnehmer employee Beschäftigung employment Beschäftigung job Beschäftigung occupation Beschäftigung bei Nacht night employment Beschäftigung ohne Gewerkschaftszugehörigkeit open shop Beschäftigung, Verabredung, Verpflichtung engagement Beschäftigungsart mode of employment Beschäftigungsniveau level of employment Beschäftigungsniveau occupational level Beschäftigungsumfang volume of employment Beschäftigungszeit period of employment beschreiben describe beschreibend, erklärend descriptive beschreibende Volkswirtschaftslehre descriptive economics Beschreibung description Beschreibung des Risikos description of risk beschränken confine beschränken restrain beschränkt limited beschränkt aufnahmefähiger Markt limited market beschränkte Absatzmöglichkeiten limited market beschränkter Kredit limited credit Beschränkung restraint Beschränkung der Geburtenzahl limitation of birth Beschränkung der Haftung limitation of liability Beschränkung der Mitgliederzahl limitation of membership Beschwerde complaint Beschwerde grievance Beschwerdeausschuss board of complaint Beschwerdebrief letter of complaint beschützen protect beschützend, schützend protective Besichtigungsfahrt sightseeing tour Besichtigungsreise tour of inspection Besitz possession Besitzer der Aktienmehrheit majority stockholder Besitzwechsel change in ownership besondere Gründe specific reasons besondere Havarie particular average besondere Risiken, besondere Gefahren special risks besondere Sorgfalt special diligence besondere Sozialleistungen fringe benefits besondere Vorzugsaktien (US) debenture stock besonderer Verrechnungsvermerk special crossing Besonderheit, Spezialität specialty besonders particular besonders specific besonders markierter Scheck marked check besonders, ungewöhnlich, speziell particular besorgen, ausstatten mit provide with besprechen talk over Besprechung conference Bestand an Diskontwechseln discount holdings Bestand aufnehmen take stock Bestand, Portefeuille portfolio Bestandsaufnahme, Bestandskontrolle inventory control Bestandteil element bestechen bribe Bestechung bribery Bestellnummer order number Bestellschein order form Bestellschein order ticket Bestellung von Hypotheken creation of mortgages Bestens-Auftrag market order besteuern tax besteuern, Steuer tax besteuert taxed Besteuerung taxation bestimmbar, errechenbar ascertainable bestimmt und unbedingt unconditional and definite bestimmt, endgültig definite bestimmt, sicherlich certain bestimmtes Ereignis definite event Bestimmung destination Bestimmungshafen, Entladehafen port of destination Bestimmungsland country of destination Bestimmungsort destination bestmöglich at best bestmöglich at the best bestätigen certify bestätigen confirm bestätigen, bescheinigen certify bestätigter Scheck certified cheque bestätigtes Akkreditiv confirmed letter of credit Bestätigung acknowledgment Bestätigung confirmation Bestätigungsschreiben confirmatory letter besuchen, Besuch visit Besucher visitor Beteiligung participation Beteiligung an einem Geschäft investment in a business Beteiligungen und andere Wertpapiere bonds and other interests Beteiligungskonto investment account Betrag amount Betrag, betragen amount betragend amounting to betraut mit dem Schutz der Ware entrusted with the protection of the goods betraut mit der Verwahrung der Ware entrusted with the custody of the goods betriebsbereit ready for operation betreffen, Unternehmen, Firma concern betreffs concerning Betrieb eines Kraftfahrzeugs operation of a vehicle betriebliche Leistung operating efficiency Betriebsart mode of operation Betriebsausgaben operating expenses Betriebsausstattung, Produktionsanlagen manufacturing facilities Betriebsberater management consultant Betriebsbuchhaltung factory bookkeeping Betriebseinkommen operating income Betriebsergebnis operating result betriebsfähig ready for service Betriebsführung durch Delegation management by delegation Betriebsführung durch Motivierung management by motivation Betriebsführung durch Systemerneuerung management by innovation Betriebsführung durch Zielvorgaben management by objectives Betriebsführung nach dem Ausnahmeprinzip management by exception Betriebsführung nach Ergebnissen management by results Betriebsgefahr operational risk Betriebsgefahren operational hazards Betriebshaftpflichtversicherung employer's liability insurance Betriebshierarchie management hierarchy Betriebskapital circulating capital Betriebskapital floating assets Betriebskosten cost of operation Betriebskosten operating costs Betriebskosten working expenses Betriebsleiter works manager Betriebsleitung general management Betriebsleitung management committee Betriebsobmann shop steward Betriebspolitik management policy Betriebspsychologie industrial psychology Betriebsstörung, Stillstand holdup Betriebsunfall industrial accident Betriebsunfall industrial accident Betriebsunterbrechungsversicherung business interruption insurance Betriebsverlust operating loss Betriebsverlust operational loss Betriebsvermögen working capital Betriebsversicherung factory insurance Betriebswirtschaftslehre managerial economics Betriebsüberwachung control of operations beträchtlich considerable beträchtlich substantial beträchtliche Kursansteigerungen substantial rises beträchtliche Schadensersatzleistung substantial damages betroffen, beteiligt concerned Betrug fraud Betrug entsteht dann wenn fraud originates when Betrugsabsicht intention to defraud betrügen defraud betrügen, Betrug defraud betrügerisch fraudulent betrügerische Falschbuchung fraudulent entry betrügerischer Bankrott fraudulent bankruptcy beurteilen, Richter judge Beurteilung der Kreditfähigkeit credit rating Beurteilung, Meinung estimation bevollmächtigen authorize bevollmächtigt authorized Bevollmächtigter duly authorized person Bevollmächtigung authorization bevorrechtigte Forderung preferential claim bevorrechtigte Forderung privileged claim bevorrechtigte Schuld preferential debt bevorrechtigter Gläubiger creditor by priority bevorrechtigter Gläubiger preferential creditor Bevorschussung von Versanddokumenten advance against shipping documents bevorzugen prefer bevorzugt preferential bevorzugt, bevorrechtigt preferred Bevorzugung durch den Verbraucher consumer preference Bevorzugung, Vorrang, Vorzugsrecht preference Bevölkerung population Bevölkerungspyramide population pyramid Bevölkerungsstatistik demography Bevölkerungstheorie von Malthus Malthusian theory of population Bevölkerungswachstum growth of population Bevölkerungsüberschuss surplus population bewegen move Beweggrund, Motiv motive beweglich mobile bewegliche Gerätschaften movable equipment bewegliche Güter movables bewegliche Sache chattel bewegliches Gut chattel bewegliches Gut movable goods Beweglichkeit mobility Beweglichkeit, Bereitschaft umzuziehen mobility of labour Bewegung, Antrag bei einer Sitzung motion Bewegungsstudie motion study Beweis proof Beweis der Echtheit proof of authenticity Beweis erbringen supply evidence Beweis, Beweismaterial evidence beweisen, vorführen demonstrate Beweisführung argumentation Beweislast burden of proof Beweismaterial means of evidence Bewerber applicant Bewerberliste list of applicants Bewerbung letter of application Bewerbung, Anwendung application Bewerbungsformblatt application form bewerkstelligen accomplish bewerten evaluate bewerten value bewertet, veranlagen, bemessen assessed Bewertung evaluation Bewertung rating Bewertung valuation Bewertung des Lagerbestands valuation of stocks Bewertung einer Tätigkeit, Einstufung job grading Bewertung nach Wiederbeschaffungspreis last in - first out Bewertung von Wertpapieren valuation of securities Bewertung, Veranlagung, Bemessung assessment Bewilligung der Eintragung authority for registration bewohnbar habitable bewährte Wertpapiere seasoned securities Bewusstseinstraining sensitivity training Berufsgruppenindex occupation index bezahlen pay bezahlen pay up bezahlt paid bezahlt mit Scheck paid by cheque bezahlt unter Nutzung des Rabatts paid under rebate bezahlte Rechnung settled account bezahlter Schaden claim paid Bezahltmeldung advice of payment Bezahlung pay bezeugen, Zeuge witness beziehen refer Beziehung zw. Management und Gewerkschaft industrial relations Beziehungen, Verwandtschaft relations Beziehungspflege, Firmenwerbung public relations Bezirksdirektion general agency Bezirksdirektion regional head office Bezirksstelle, Zweigstelle district office Bezirksvertreter local agent bezogene Bank bank drawn upon Bezogener drawee Bezogener payer Bezug auf solche Verträge reference to such contracts Bezugnahme, Referenz reference bezüglich in respect of bezüglich re bezüglich regarding bezüglich respective bezüglich respectively Bietungsgarantie bid bond Bietungsgarantie tender guarantee Bilanz balance sheet Bilanzposten item of the balance sheet Bilanzstichtag date of balance Bilanzverschleierung cooking of balances Bilanzverschleierung doctoring of balances Bilanzwert book value Bilder auf Banknoten denominational portraits Bildschirm screen Bildung von Reserven creation of reserves Bildungsaufwand cost of education billig cheap billigen approve billiger werden cheapen billiges Darlehen cheap credit billiges Geld cheap money billiges Geld wegen billiger Zinsen cheap money billiges Geld, billiger Kredit easy money Billigkeit cheapness billigst kaufen buy at cheapest billigst kaufen buy best billigst kaufen buy cheapest Billigung approval Billigung finden meet with approval Bimetallismus bi-metallic binden, verpflichten bind Binnenhandel domestic trade Binnenschifffahrtstransportversicherung inland marine insurance Binnentransportversicherung inland marine insurance Binnentransportversicherung inland transportation insurance Binnenwasserstraßentransportversicherung inland waterways insurance Binnenwassertransportversicherung inland marine insurance bis auf weiteres pending further notice bis auf Widerruf until cancelled bis die Gebühren bezahlt sind until the charges are paid blanko akzeptieren accept in blank Blanko-Rückseite blank back Blankoabtretung transfer in blank Blankoakzept blank acceptance Blankoindossament assignment in blank Blankoindossament blank endorsement Blankoindossament endorsement in blank Blankoindossament general endorsement Blankoindossament endorsement in blank Blankokredit blank credit Blankokredit credit in blank Blankoscheck blank check Blankozession blank transfer Blickfang eye catcher blindlings spekulierender Neuling lamb Block block Block, Notizblock pad blockieren, Blockade blockade Blockländer trade bloc blühen prosper blühen, gedeihen flourish blühend flourishing blühend prospering Blüte, Aufschwung, Hochkonjunktur boom Boden, niedrigster Stand bottom Bodenkredit land credit Bodenschätze natural resources Bonität soundness Bonus bonus Bonusrücklage bonus reserve borgen borrow Bote messenger Botengang errand Botschaft embassy Boykott boycott brachliegendes Kapital inactive capital brachliegendes Kapital loose capital brachliegendes, ungenutztes Kapital unemployed capital Branchenrisiko risk peculiar to the trade Branchenverzeichnis mercantile directory Brandgefahr fire hazard Brandgefahren fire hazards Brandkasse fire office Brandmauer fire wall Brandrisiko, Feuerrisiko fire risk Brandschaden fire damage Brandschaden fire loss Brandschaden loss by fire Brandschadenabteilung fire department Brandschadenersatzleistung fire indemnity Brandstiftung arson Brandursache cause of conflagration Brandversicherungspolice fire policy Brauch custom Brauch usage Brauch, Gepflogenheit usage Brauereiaktien breweries shares brechen infringe brechen, unterbrechen, Pause break brechen, zerbrechen break Brief letter Brief mit eingelegten Barmitteln cash letter Briefkasten letter-box Briefkopf head of a letter Briefkopf heading Briefkopf letter-head Briefkurs asked quotation Briefkurs offer price Briefkurs price asked Briefmarke postage stamp Briefmarke, Stempel stamp Briefmarke, Stempel, Steuermarke stamp Broschüre booklet Broschüre brochure Bruch eines Versprechens breach of promise Bruch, brechen breach Bruch, Bruchschaden breakage Bruch, Verlust durch Auslaufen leakage Bruch, Verlust durch Bruch, Bruchschaden breakage bruchfrei free from breakage Bruchschaden breakage Bruchteil fractional amount Bruchzins broken interest brutto gross Bruttobetrag gross amount Bruttoeinkünfte gross earnings Bruttoeinnahmen gross receipts Bruttoertrag gross proceeds Bruttoertrag gross yield Bruttogehalt gross salary Bruttogewinn gross profit Bruttogewinn gross weight Bruttohandelsspanne gross margin Bruttoprämie gross premium Bruttosozialprodukt gross national product Bruttoverdienst gross income Bruttoverlust gross loss Brückenwaage für Fahrzeuge und deren Ladung weighbridge Buch, buchen, verbuchen book buchen, verbuchen book Buchgeld credit money Buchhalter accountant Buchhalter bookkeeper Buchhalter, Kontenführer accountant Buchhaltung bookkeeping Buchmacher bookmaker buchmäßiger Verlust book loss Buchprüfer, Revisor auditor Buchschulden ordinary debts Buchungsnummer number of entry Buchwert book value Buchzeichen, Kennzeichen earmark Budget, Haushalt budget Bummelstreik go-slow Bundesobligationen government bond Bundessteuer federal tax Börse bourse Börse stock exchange Börsenbericht market report Börsenfernschreiber quotation ticker Börsengeschäfte stock exchange transactions Börsengeschäfte stock transactions Börsenhandel jobbing Börsenhandel stock jobbing Börsenhändler jobber Börsenhändler stock jobber Börsenhändler (Br.) floor trader Börsenkurs market rate Börsenmakler stock broker Börsenmakler stockbroker Börsenordnung stock exchange regulations Börsenschluss close of the exchange Börsensituation regiert von sog. Bullen bull market Börsensituation, in der die Bären dominieren bear market Börsenspekulation gambling on the stock exchange Börsentermingeschäft time bargain Börsenumsatzsteuer stock exchange tax Börsenumsatzsteuer (US) stock tax Börsenwert stock exchange value Börsenzentrum in New York Wall Street Bücher führen keep accounts Bücher führen keep books Bühne, Stufe stage Bündel bundle Bürge guarantor bürgerliches Recht, Gewohnheitsrecht common law Bürgschaft bail Bürgschaft, Bürge, Sicherheit surety Bürgschaft, Garante (Br.) guarantee Bürgschaftsvertrag contract of surety Bürgschaftsvertrag guaranty agreement Büro office Büro, Dienststelle office Büroangestellter clerk Büroangestellter white-collar worker Büroarbeit clerical work Büroarbeit desk work Büroarbeit secretarial job Büroarbeiten secretarial work Bürobedarf office supplies Büroeinrichtung office equipment Bürogehilfe clerical assistant Bürogehilfe junior clerk Büroklatsch office gossip Bürokratie bureaucracy Bürolandschaft office landscape Büroleiter office manager Büromaschinen office machines Büromöbel office furniture Büroräume office accommodation Bürovorsteher head clerk C C. & F., Kosten und Fracht (INCOTERM) cost and freight C.I.F. (Incoterm) cost insurance and freight Cent (US) cent Charakteristikum feature Charge, Satz, Beschickung batch Charter, Befrachtung, ein Schiff mieten charter Charterflugzeug charter plane Chartervertrag charter party Chef boss Chef chief Chef des Unternehmens head of the business Chef, Auftraggeber principal Chiffre cipher Clearinghaus clearing house Computer Programme software Computer, Rechner computer computerisierte Systeme computerized systems Container-Schiff container ship containerisierte Fracht containerized freight Containerisierung containerization Containerisierung, Umstellung auf Container containerization Couponabteilung coupon collection department Couponbogen coupon sheet Courtage, Maklerprovision brokerage D da since Dachgesellschaft, Beteiligungsgesellschaft holding company Dachverband der US Handelskammern United States Chamber of Commerce damals then damals berechtigt then entitled damals gültig then in force Dampfkesselversicherung steam boiler insurance Dankschreiben letter of thanks darauf ankommen lassen, riskieren take one's chance Darbietung, Vorführung, Präsentation presentation darf nicht erlassen werden, verzichtet werden may not be waived Darlehen loan Darlehen loan of money Darlehen gewähren grant a loan Darlehen für einen Tag overnight loan Darlehen für einen Tag overnight money Darlehen kündigen call in money Darlehen mit festgelegter Laufzeit time loan Darlehen verbilligen make credit easier Darlehen verteuern make credit more difficult Darlehen, Anleihe loan Darlehensantrag application for a loan Darlehensbedingungen terms of a loan Darlehenskonto loan account Darlehensmöglichkeiten credit facilities Darlehensversprechen promise to grant a loan Darlehensvertrag contract of loan Darlehensvertrag loan agreement Darlehensvertrag loan contract Darlehenszinsen loan interest Darlehnskasse loan society darüber hinaus moreover das Akzept unterschreiben to sign the acceptance das Arbeitsende registrieren clock out das Ausland betreffend foreign das begleitende Zahlungspapier the accompanying financial document das Datum dieses Verkerks the date of this notation das einen Wechsel einschließt including a bill of exchange das Gesetz beachten, einhalten observe the law das Gewicht der Ware the weight of the goods das Handlungsvorgehen the course of action das Höchstmaß an Hilfeleistung the maximum possible assistance das Höchstmaß an möglicher Unterstützung the maximum possible guidance das Inkasso von Handelspapieren the collection of commercial paper das Kapital erhöhen increase the capital das Lager wieder auffüllen restock das Leistungsvermögen des Absenders the performance of the consignor das maßgebliche Instrument the operative instrument das Problem des Betrugs the problem of fraud das Protokoll führen take the minutes das Risiko verbreiten, verteilen spread the risk das Versprechen der bestätigenden Bank the undertaking of the confirming bank das Versprechen der eröffnenden Bank the undertaking of the issuing bank das Vorhandensein der Ware the existence of the goods das Zahlungsland the country of payment das zunehmende Interesse in the increasing interest in dass Zahlung veranlasst wird that payment will be made Daten data Datenblock block of data Datenverarbeitung data processing datieren date datieren, Datum, Verabredung date Datowechsel bill after date Datumstempel dater Datumstempel der Post postmark Dauer duration Dauer der Invalidität period of invalidity Dauer der Verlängerung period of extension Dauer des Zahlungsverzugs period of delay in payment Dauer, Zeit, Zeitraum period Dauerauftrag standing order dauerhaft, andauernd permanent dauerhaft, unverderblich durable Dauerinvalidität permanent invalidity Dauerinventur continuous inventory Dauerkunde standing customer dauernde Erwerbsunfähigkeit, Dauerinvalidität permanent disability Dauerstellung long-term appointment dazwischenzwängen squeeze in Debitoren, Forderungen accounts receivable Debitposten debit item Debitzinssatz overdraft interest rate Deck deck decken cover decken, Umschlag, Deckung cover decken, unterstützen back Deckfracht deck cargo Deckung cover Deckung insurance coverage Deckung anbieten offer cover Deckung aufrechterhalten maintain cover Deckung beschaffen provide cover Deckung gewähren grant cover Deckung, Schutz cover Deckung, Versicherungsschutz coverage Deckungsbestätigung cover note Deckungsbestätigung eines Schecks certification of a cheque Deckungsgeschäft hedging transaction Deckungsgeschäfte hedging Deckungskäufe des Baisse-Spekulanten bear covering Deckungsverhältnis cover ratio Deckungszeitraum, Versicherungsdauer term of insurance Deckungszusage (US) binder Deferred-Payment-Akkreditive deferred payment credit Defizit deficiency Defizit deficit Defizit, Fehlbetrag deficit Deflation deflation Delcredereprovision delcredere commission Delcredereversicherung credit insurance delegieren delegate dem Bezogenen vorgelegt presented to the drawee dementsprechend accordingly dementsprechend benachrichtigen to advise accordingly den Arbeitsbeginn registrieren clock in den Bedarf decken satisfy needs den Diskontsatz erhöhen (Br.) put up the bank rate den Diskontsatz herabsetzen lower the discount rate den Diskontsatz senken (Br.) lower the bank rate den Empfang bestätigen acknowledge den Gewinn teilen pool the profits den Gewinn kassieren collect the proceeds den Goldstandard verlassen abandon the gold standard den Kosten nachgehen keep track of costs den Kredit zur Verfügung stellen to make the credit available den Stand halten to maintain a position den Verlust ausgleichen make up for losses den Weisungen entsprechen comply with the instructions den Zinssatz herabsetzen lower the interest rate Depositenabteilung deposit department Depositenabteilung deposit division Depositenbank bank of deposit Depositenbank deposit bank Depositengeschäft deposit banking Depositenkonto deposit account Depositenzinsen interest on deposits Depotgebühr deposit fee Depotkonto custodianship account Depotschein, Hinterlegungsschein deposit receipt Depotstelle, Verwahrer depositary Depotverwahrung safe deposit der Absender the party dispatching the goods der Akkredtitiv-Auftraggeber the applicant for the credit der angegebene Preis pro Einheit the unit price stated der Ansicht sein, dass to consider that der Auftragsgeber the principal der Begünstigte the beneficiary der Berechnungszeitraum the period covered der Beteiligte the party der betreffende Fälligkeitstag the appropriate maturity date der Bezogene the drawee der Bezogene weigert sich zu zahlen the drawee refuses to pay der der Bank zugegangene Auftrag the order received by the bank der Einfluss auf die Entwicklung the influence on development der Einfluss von Handelserleichterungen the influence of trade facilitation der eingezogene Betrag the amount collected der Entwicklung Rechnung tragen to stay abreast of changes der Erstbegünstigte the first beneficiary der geforderte Preis asked price der Inkassovorgang the collecting operation der Inkassovorgang the operation of collection der Käufer ist verantwortlich für the buyer is responsible for der Kunde the customer der Markt erholte sich the market recovered der neue Titel wurde gewählt the new title was chosen der Ruf des Absenders the standing of the consignor der Umfang dem ausdrücklich zugestimmt wurde the extent expressly consented to der Verzicht auf Inkassogebühren the waiving of collection charges der Verzicht auf Spesen the waiving of expenses der Wert der Ware the value of the goods der Wiederverwendung zuführen recycle der wirkliche Verdienst the real reward der Zinsbetrag the interest amount der zugegangene Auftrag the order received der zunehmende Einfluss the increasing influence der zunehmende Einfluss von the increasing influence of derb, grob rough deren Teilnahme whose participation deren Unterstützung von Wert war whose support has been of value derjenige dem der Vorbehalt gegeben wurde the party to whom the reserve was made derjenige der Bücher verschleiert cook of the books derjenige der solche Ermächtigung erteilt the party giving such authority des Handels und der Industrie of commerce and industry detaillieren, volle Angaben machen give full particulars deuten, Punkt point Devisen foreign currency Devisen foreign exchange Devisenausländer non-resident person Devisenbedarf need of foreign exchange Devisenbewirtschaftung exchange control Devisenbewirtschaftung foreign exchange control Devisengeschäft transaction in foreign exchange Devisengeschäfte exchange transactions Devisengeschäfte foreign exchange transactions Devisenhändler foreign exchange dealer Deviseninländer resident person Devisenkontrolle control of exchanges Devisenkontrolle control of foreign exchange Devisenkontrolle exchange control Devisenkurs exchange rate Devisenmakler foreign exchange broker Devisenmarkt foreign exchange market Devisenterminabschluß foreign exchange contract Devisenterminhandel future exchange Devisenterminkurs forward exchange rate Devisenzuteilung allocation of foreign exchange dezentralisieren decentralize Dezentralisierung decentralization dezimal decimal dezimalisieren decimalize Dezimalisierung decimalization Diagramm, Schaubild diagram die abgezogenen Auslagen the expenses deducted die abgezogenen Gebühren the charges deducted die Adresse der Bank the address of the bank die Akkreditiv-Bedingungen the conditions of the credit die Akkreditiv-Bedingungen the stipulations of the credit die allgemeinen Bedingungen the general conditions die andere Seite reverse side die Angelegenheit als dringend erachtet considers the matter to be urgent die Anlieferung der Ware the delivery of the goods die Anmerkungen, die angenommen werden the notations which may be accepted die Anschrift der Domizilstelle the address of the domicile die Anschrift des Bezogenen the address of the drawee die Anwendung regeln to govern the use of sth. die Arbeit des Sekretariats betreffend secretarial die Art der ausdrücklich zugestimmt wurde the manner expressly consented to die Art der Verfügbarstellung des Erlöses the method of disposal of the funds die Art der verlangten Versicherung the type of insurance required die aufgetreten sind that have arisen die augenscheinliche Echtheit prüfen to check the apparent authenticity die Ausdrücke the expressions die ausdrücklich vermerkt which expressly states die ausdrücklichen Weisungen the express terms die außerhalb ihrer Kontrolle liegen beyond their control die Bank die Zahlung geleistet hat the bank which has effected payment die Bank ist ermächtigt the bank is authorized die Bank ist nicht verpflichtet zu the bank has no obligation to die Bank muss benachrichtigen the bank must advise die Bank muss entscheiden the bank must determine die Bank muß dies mitteilen the bank must give notice to this effect die Bedingungen sind erfüllt the conditions are complied with die Bedingungen sind erfüllt the terms are complied with die Behandlung der Dokumente the handling of the documents die Beschaffenheit der Ware the condition of the goods die Beschreibung der Ware the description of the goods die besonderen Bedingungen the particular conditions die bestehen zwischen existing between die Bestimmungen von Artikel 1 the provisions of Article 1 die bestätigende Bank the confirming bank die Bestätigung hinzufügen to add the confirmation die Beteiligten the parties thereto die Beteiligten sind the parties hereto are die betreffende ausländische Währung the relative foreign currency die Bilanz ziehen draw the balance die briefliche Bestätigung the mail confirmation die Bücher abschließen close the books die Dienste anderer Banken the services of other banks die Dokumente können zurückgesandt werden the documents may be returned die Dokumente protestieren zu lassen to have the documents protested die Dokumente prüfen to examine the documents die durch das Dokument vertretene Ware the goods represented by the document die Echtheit von Unterschriften the genuineness of any signature die Einreicherbank the remitting bank die einzuhaltenden Bedingungen the conditions to be complied with die Entwicklung der Praxis the evolution in practice die erforderlichen Dokumente the documents required die erhaltenen Dokumente the documents received die Erleichterung des Handels the facilitation of trade die ermächtigt ist, Tratten zu akzeptieren which is authorized to accept drafts die ermächtigt ist, zu negoziieren which is authorized to negotiate die ermächtigt ist, zu zahlen which is authorized to pay die eröffnende Bank the issuing bank die eröffnende Bank ist verpflichtet the issuing bank is bound to die Eröffnung eines Kredits the issuance of a credit die folgenden Artikel the following articles die Form der Akzeptierung eines Wechsels the form of accepting a B/L die Form, in der sie empfangen worden sind the form in which they are received die ganze Nacht geöffnet open all night die Gefahr der Ware verbleibt bei the goods remain at the risk of die gegenwärtige größere Problematik the current major problem die geographische Verbreitung the geographical extension die Grenze erhöhen raise the limit die großen fünf Londoner Banken Big Five die Gültigkeit verlängern extend the validity die Handelspapiere the commercial documents die Handlungen des Absender the acts of the consignor die ICC Landesgruppen the ICC national committees die Inkassobank the collecting bank die Interessen und Probleme des Käufers the interests and problems of the buyer die keine Zahlungspapiere darstellen not being financial documents die Klauseln, die angenommen werden dürfen the clauses which may be accepted die Kosten decken cover the expenses die maßgebliche Änderungsmitteilung the operative amendment die Menge der Ware the quantity of the goods die mit dem Inkasso befaßten Banken the banks concerned with the collection die nach äußerer Aufmachung erscheinen which appear on their face die Nachfrage befriedigen meet the demand die neuen Richtlinien ersetzen die alten the new rules replace the old rules die nicht gelöst werden konnten that could not be solved die notwendige Information the necessary information die ältesten Anträge zuerst first in, first out die Parität wurde erhalten the parity was maintained die Qualität der Ware the quality of the goods die Regeln beachten, einhalten observe the rule die Regeln nationaler Gesetze the provisions of national law die Regeln staatlicher Gesetze the provisions of state law die Regeln örtlicher Gesetze the provisions of local law die revolutionäre Entwicklung im der Kommunikation the communcations revolution die richtige Anschrift feststellen to ascertain the proper address die Richtigkeit überprüfen verify die sich befassen mit which are concerned with die sich hieraus ergebende Entwicklung the resultant development die sofort überwiesen werden kann which can immediately be remitted die Spur verfolgen, einer Spur nachgehen keep track die ständige Fortentwicklung the continuing revolution in die tatsächlichen Gegebenheiten the realities die Umstellung im Seetransport the revolution in maritime transport die Unterlassungen des Absenders the omissions of the consignor die Usancen the existing usage die Verbreitung der Containerisierung the extension of containerization die Verfügungsgewalt übertragen to transfer title die Verpackung der Ware the packing of the goods die Verpflichtung des Käufers the buyer's duty die Versicherer der Ware the insurers of the goods die vertraglichen Beziehungen the contractual relationships die vollständige Anschrift the complete address die vom Auftraggeber benannte Bank the bank nominated by the principal die vorgeschriebenen Dokumente the stipulated documents die vorlegende Bank the presenting bank die Vorlegung the presentation die Vorlegung hat zu erfolgen presentation is to be made die Ware übernehmen to take delivery of the goods die Weisungen des Auftrags the instruction given in the order die Zahlungsfähigkeit des Absenders the solvency of the consignor die Zeichnungsberechtigung eines Unterzeichners the authority of any signatory die Zinsen senken lower the rate of interest die zusätzlich zu deckenden Gefahren the additional risks to be covered die übersendende Bank the remitting bank Diebstahl larceny Diebstahl theft dienen serve dienlich, nützlich useful Dienst, Dienstleistung, Kundendienst service Dienstabwesenheit absence from duty Dienstalter length of service Diensteid oath of office Dienstleistungen einer Bank services of a bank Dienstleistungsgewerbe service industries Dienstleistungsverkauf sale of services Dienststunden hours of attendance Dienststunden, Öffnungsstunden official hours Dienstunfähigkeit disability for service Dienstvertrag contract of personal service Dienstvorgesetzter, Aufsichtführender supervisor dies gilt für alle Inkassi this applies to all collections diese Artikel gelten für these articles apply to diese Dokumente sind vorschrieben these documents are called for diese Regeln sind verbindlich these definitions are binding diese Regeln sind verbindlich these provisions are binding diese Richtlinien enthalten these rules give dieser Kredit ist eröffnet worden such credit is issued Diplomat diplomat Diplomat diplomatist diplomatisch diplomatic diplomatische Immunität diplomatic immunity direkt direct direkt straightforward direkt an die Adresse von direct to the address of direkt vom Begünstigten directly from the beneficiary direkte Belastung direct debit direkte Geschäfte inter-office dealings direkte Kosten direct charges direkte Kosten direct costs direkte Versicherung direct insurance direkte Zuschrift, direkte Werbung direct mail direkter Schaden direct damage direkter Verkauf direct selling direktes Geschäft direct business Direktionsassistent manager's assistant Direktor director Direktoren, Abteilungsleiter officers of the company Diskont, Nachlass, Rabatt discount Diskont, Nachlass, Skonto discount Diskontbank discount bank Diskontbank (Br.) discount house Diskonterhöhung raise of discount Diskonterhöhung (Br.) increase of the bank rate Diskonterhöhung (Br.) rise in the bank rate diskontfähig bankable diskontierbar discountable diskontieren discount Diskontmakler discount broker Diskontpolitik discount policy Diskontsatz bank rate Diskontsatz discount rate Diskontsatz prime rate Diskontsatz rate of discount Diskontsatz der Bank von England bank rate Diskontsatz der Großbanken market rate of discount Diskontsatz erhöhen raise the discount rate Diskontsenkung (Br.) decrease of the bank rate Diskontsenkung (Br.) fall of the bank rate Diskontwechsel discount bill Diskretion, Ermessen discretion diskriminieren, benachteiligen discriminate Diskriminierung, Benachteiligung discrimination Dispache general-average statement Dispacheur general average adjuster Dispositionsdokument document of title Diversifikation diversification diversifizieren diversify Dividende dividend Dividendenausschüttung dividend disbursement Dividendenaussichten dividend prospects dividendenbevorrechtigt privileged as to dividend Dividendencoupon dividend coupon Dividendenfonds bonus fund Dividendenpapiere equities Dividendenpapiere equity securities Dividendenreserve bonus reserve Dividendensatz rate of dividend Dividendenvoraussage dividend forecast Divisenkursliste exchange list Dock, Trockendock dock Dokument document Dokumente aufnehmen to take up documents Dokumente aushändigen to deliver documents Dokumente freigeben to release documents Dokumente gegen Wechselakzept documents against acceptance Dokumente müssen vorgelegt werden documents are to be presented Dokumente verwendet zum instruments used for Dokumente werden nur freigegeben documents will only be released Dokumente zum Inkasso documents for collection Dokumente übergeben to hand over documents Dokumente, mit den die Gewalt übergeben wird documents transferring title to sb. Dokumentenakkreditiv documentary credit Dokumentenkredit paper credit Dokumententratte documentary draft dokumentäres Inkasso documentary collection Dollarparität dollar parity Dollarreserven dollar holdings Dollarscheck dollar check dolmetschen interpret Dolmetscher interpreter Domizilwechsel addressed bill Dämpfung moderation doppelte Buchführung double entry bookkeeping doppelte Sicherheit collateral securities doppelter Schadensersatz double damages Doppelverdiener moonlighter Doppelversicherung double indemnity Doppelversicherung double insurance drei grundlegende Gesichtspunkte three basic principles drei Tage Zahlungsfrist days of grace Dreiecksgeschäft triangular trade dreifach triplicate Dreimonatsgeld ninety days' loan dringend urgent dringend, dringlich urgent dringende Bestellung rush order dringender Verdacht strong suspicion Dringlichkeit urgency Dringlichkeit, Eile urgency Dringlichkeitsstufe degree of urgency drohen, Bedrohung threat Druck pressure Druck auf den Geldmarkt pressure on the money market drucken, Druck print Druckerei print shop Drucksache printed matter drücken squeeze down Dubiose bad debts Dubiose dubious debts Dubiose uncollectible receivables Dubiosenkonto delinquent account Dumping, Unterbietung dumping Duplikat, zweifach duplicate durch Akzeptleistung by acceptance durch automatische Datenverarbeitung by methods of automated data processing durch die avisierende Bank through the advising bank durch die Benennung einer Bank by nominating a bank durch die bisherigen Richtlinien by existing rules durch die Zulassung der Negoziierung by allowing for negotiation durch Dokumente belegt documentary durch eigene Arbeit verdientes Einkommen earned income durch ein Telekommunikationsmittel beauftragen instruct by any teletransmission durch eine andere Bank through another bank durch eine Hypothek abdecken cover by a mortgage durch einen Hinweis in dem Kredit by wording in the credit durch elektronische Datenverarbeitung by methods of electronic data processing durch Ermächtigung einer Bank zu handeln by authorizing a bank to act durch Ersuchen einer Bank zu handeln by requesting a bank to act durch Handzeichen show of hands durch hinausgeschobene Zahlung by deferred payment durch Indossament begeben, übertragen negotiate by endorsement durch irgendeine Bank by any bank durch Negoziierung by negotiation durch Sichtzahlung by sight payment durch Verkauf von Obligationen erworben debenture capital durch Verluste gemindertes Kapital impaired capital Durchbruch breakthrough durchführbar feasible Durchführbarkeit feasibility durchführen carry through Durchführung accomplishment Durchgangskonnossement through bill of lading Durchgangsverkehr through traffic Durchgangsverkehr transit traffic durchlaufende Gelder cash in transit durchlaufender Posten item in transit Durchlaufplan flow chart Durchschlag carbon copy Durchschlagpapier flimsy paper Durchschnitt average Durchschnittberechnung averaging Durchschnittsdauer average duration Durchschnittserwartung average expectation Durchschnittskurs market average Durchschnittssatz average rate Durchschnittssteuersatz composite rate Durchschnittswert mean value Durchsicht, nachprüfen review durchzählen enumerate dürfen vom Erlös abgezogen werden may be deducted from the proceeds E eben sosehr ... wie auch as much ... as Ebene level ebenso wie just as echt authentic echt genuine echt warranted echte Gefahr genuine risk echte Unterschrift genuine signature echter Wert real value Echtheit authenticity Echtheit einer Unterschrift genuineness of a signature Echtheit eines Dokuments genuineness of a document Echtzeit real time Ecke corner Eckzins base lending rate Eckzins base rate Edelmetall precious metal Edelmetallabteilung bullion department Effektenabteilung securities department Effektenbörse stock exchange Effektendifferenzgeschäft margin business Effektenemission capital issue Effektenhändler securities broker Effektenlombard advance against securities Effektenmarkt stock market Effektivbestand actual balance effektive Vertragserfüllung specific performance effektiver Wert, realer Wert, Sachwert real value ehe sie zahlen, vor der Bezahlung before parting with their money ehe sie Zahlung erhalten haben before receiving payment Ehre, ehren, honorieren honor Ehrenakzept acceptance for honor ehrenhalber honorary Ehrenmitglied honorary member Ehrenschuld debt of honor Ehrenzahlung payment for honor eichen calibrate Eichung calibration Eid oath eidesstattliche Erklärung affidavit eigene Mittel own funds eigene Wechsel zur Annahme vorlegen present a bill for acceptance eigenes Vermögen independent means eigenes Verschulden actual fault eigenhändig unterschreiben sign personally Eigenkapital equity Eigenkapital net worth Eigenrisiko, eigenes Risiko own risk Eigenschaft attribute eigentliche Wert intrinsic value Eigentum property Eigentum, Grundbesitz freehold Eigentumsbescheinigung ownership certificate Eigentumsrechte proprietary rights Eigentumswohnung freehold flat Eigentumsübergang mutation Eigentumsübergang passage of title Eigentumsübertragung transfer of ownership Eigentumsübertragung transfer of title Eigentümer owner Eigentümer proprietor Eigentümer eines Gegenstandes owner of an article Eigentümer in gutem Glauben bona fide owner Eigentümer von Obligationen bondholder Eigentümerschaft ownership Eigenversicherung insurance for one's own account Eigenwechsel note payable Eilpaket express parcel Eilzustellung express delivery ein Akkreditiv eröffnen open a letter of credit ein Akkreditivändern to amend a credit ein Akzept einlösen discharge an acceptance ein anderer Bezogener any other drawee ein anderes ähnliches Dokument unterschreiben to sign another similar instrument ein Angebot machen tender ein Auftrag an order ein Beispiel hierfür ist an example is ein Darlehen aufnehmen raise a loan ein Darlehen aufnehmen take up a loan ein Darlehen gewähren grant a loan ein Darlehen kündigen recall a loan ein Darlehen kündigen recall money ein Darlehen zurückzahlen repay a loan ein Defizit decken make good a deficiency ein Dokument amtlich hinterlegen lodge a document ein Dokument bei Gericht hinterlegen lodge a deed ein Dokument fälschen falsify ein Dokument unter Vorbehalt annehmen to accept a document under reserve ein Formblatt ausfüllen fill in a form ein Geschäft aufgeben abandon a business ein Geschäft aufgeben, sich zurückziehen give up a business ein Geschäft eröffnen open a business ein Geschäft fortführen continue a business ein Geschäft führen run a business ein Geschäft tätigen transact ein Gesuch ablehnen refuse a request ein Gesuch bewilligen grant a request ein Grundstück beleihen lend on mortgage ein größerer Beitrag a major contribution ein Handelspapier a document of commercial character ein Konto abschließen, Saldo ziehen strike a balance ein Konto begleichen, eine Rechnung zahlen settle an account ein Konto bei an account with ein Konto belasten charge to an account ein Konto belasten debit an account ein Konto erkennen credit an account with ein Konto eröffnen open an account ein Konto haben bei bank with ein Konto haben bei hold an account with ein Konto unterhalten keep an account ein Konto überprüfen examine an account ein Konto überziehen (US) overcheck an account ein Limit stellen fix a limit ein Limit vorgeben give a limit ein mangelhafter Zustand der Verpackung a defective condition of the packaging ein mangelhafter Zustand der Ware a defective condition of the goods ein namentlich genannter Frachtführer a named carrier ein namentlich genanntes Schiff a named vessel ein Pfand einlösen redeem a pledge ein Produkt auf den Markt bringen launch a product ein Projekt aufgeben abandon a project ein Recht aufgeben abandon a right ein Recht übertragen confer a right ein reines Transportdokument a clean transport document ein Risiko auf sich nehmen take a risk ein Risiko decken cover a risk ein Risiko übernehmen incur a risk ein Risiko übernehmen underwrite a risk ein Scheck stoppen stop a check ein Schiff verlassen abandon a ship ein Schurke a rogue ein solcher Vorbehalt such reserve ein unwiderrufliches Akkreditiv bestätigen to confirm an irrevocable credit ein Vermögen ansammeln hoard up a treasure ein Vermögen erwerben gain a fortune ein Versprechen der Bank an undertaking of the bank ein Versuch aufzunehmen an attempt to include ein Zahlungspapier a document of financial character ein zugefügter Vermerk a superimposed notation Einbauten und Zubehör fixtures and fittings Einbehaltung der Lohnsteuer pay-as-you-earn Einberufung einer Versammlung calling of a meeting einbezahlt paid in einbezahlt paid up einbezahlt paid-in einbezahltes Kapital paid up capital Einbrecher housebreaker einbringen yield einbringen, Ertrag yield Einbruch housebreaking Einbruch- und Diebstahlversicherung burglary insurance einbürgern naturalize Einbürgerung naturalization eine andere als die Einreicherbank other than the remitting bank eine Angabe des Zinssatzes an indication of the rate of interest eine Anleihe tilgen redeem a loan eine Anleihe zeichnen subscribe for a loan eine Ansicht vertreten hold a view eine Art von Anschreibung depletion eine Bank einsetzen to utilize a bank eine Bedingung erfüllen to meet a stipulation eine Bedingung in einem Kredit a requirement in a credit eine Beschränkung auferlegen impose a restriction eine Bestellung annehmen take an order eine bestimmte Zinsklausel a definite interest clause eine Bürgschaft stellen put a guarantee eine Dividende festlegen fix a dividend eine eingedruckte Klausel a printed clause eine Eintragung löschen cancel an entry eine Entscheidung treffen reach a decision eine feststehende Verpflichtung zur Zahlung a definite understanding to pay eine Filiale oder Bank zu remboursieren to reimburse a branch or bank eine Firma übernehmen, die Leitung übernehmen take over a company eine Forderung anmelden, Klage einbringen lodge a claim eine Frage aufbringen raise a question eine Frage behandeln enter into a question eine Frist bestimmen fix a time limit eine genau bestimmte Frist a specified period of time eine Grenze vorschreiben give a limit eine Grundlage schaffen establish a basis eine hinzugefügte Klausel a superimposed clause eine Hypothek aufnehmen effect a mortgage eine Hypothek aufnehmen raise a mortgage eine Hypothek bestellen create a mortgage eine Hypothek eintragen record a mortgage eine Hypothek eintragen register a mortgage eine Hypothek kündigen call in a mortgage eine Hypothek löschen cancel a mortgage eine Hypothek löschen discharge a mortgage eine Hypothek tilgen wipe off a mortgage eine Hypothek zurückzahlen redeem a mortgage eine Hypothek übernehmen assume a mortgage eine Karte studieren study a map eine Konzession erteilen grant a concession eine Kursangabe verlangen ask for a quotation eine Liste erstellen make out a list eine Lizenz erhalten obtain a licence eine Lizenz erteilen grant a licence eine Mannschaft anheuern hire a crew eine Option aufgeben abandon an option eine Politik aufgeben abandon a policy eine Quittung unterschreiben to sign a receipt eine Rechnung ausstellen make out an invoice eine Rechnung begleichen settle an account eine Rechnung bezahlen pay a bill eine Rechnung bezahlen pay an account eine Regel durchsetzen enforce a rule eine Risiko übernehmen take a risk eine Scheck bezahlen, einlösen pay a cheque eine Schuld abarbeiten work off a debt eine Schuld ablösen discharge a debt eine Schuld begleichen settle a debt eine Sicherheit hinterlegen deposit a security eine Sicherheit stellen deposit as a security eine solche Garantie such indemnity eine solche Zahlung ausführen to effect such payment eine Spanne lassen leave a margin eine Stellung aufgeben, räumen vacate a position eine Stellungnahme an item of written comment eine Steuer umgehen dodge a tax eine ständig steigende Zahl an ever increasing number eine Telefonnummer anwählen dial eine unbedingte Zinsklausel an unconditional interest clause eine Unterschrift beglaubigen attest a signature eine Unterschrift beglaubigen authenticate a signature eine Unterschrift beglaubigen certify a signature eine Urkunde ausstellen draw up a document eine Vereinbarung treffen reach an agreement eine Verpflichtung der benannten Bank an undertaking by the nominated bank eine Verpflichtung zu zahlen an undertaking to pay eine Verpflichtung zur Akzeptleistung an undertaking to accept eine Verpflichtung zur Negoziierung an undertaking to negotiate eine Verpflichtung übernehmen to incur an undertaking eine Versicherung abschließen effect an insurance eine Versicherungspolice ausstellen issue a policy eine Versicherungspolice beleihen lend money on an insurance policy eine Vollmacht zurückziehen withdraw an authority eine Weisung zum Einzug von Zinsen an instruction to collect interest eine Zahlung anweisen authorize a payment eine Zahlung leisten make a payment eine Zahlung leisten to make a payment eine Änderung des Akkredtivs an amendment to the credit einem Begünstigten avisiert advised to a beneficiary einem Dritten oder mehreren Dritten to one or more other parties einem Hindernis begegnen meet with an obstacle einem Konto gutschreiben credit an account einen Anspruch erheben lodge a claim einen Anspruch erheben raise a claim einen Antrag ablehnen dismiss an application einen Antrag einreichen present an application einen Antrag genehmigen allow an application einen Antrag stellen make an application einen Antrag zurückziehen withdraw an application einen Artikel auszeichnen label an article einen Artikel schreiben write an article einen Aufkäuferring binden corner the market einen Auftrag für jemanden platzieren place an order for sth. einen Auftrag zurückziehen withdraw an order einen Bericht vorlegen submit a report einen Brief schreiben write a letter einen Brief zustellen deliver a letter einen Bürgen stellen provide surety einen Dienst leisten render a service einen Eid ablegen take an oath einen Entschluss fassen take a decision einen Gewinn abwerfen leave a margin einen Kredit erhöhen increase a credit einen Kredit gewähren allow a credit einen Laden führen keep a shop einen Markt bearbeiten work a market einen Plan aufgeben abandon a plan einen Posten abhaken tick off an item einen Preis angeben quote a price einen Rabatt gewähren allow a discount einen Saldo ausgleichen settle a balance einen Scheck auf eine Bank ziehen draw a check on a bank einen Scheck ausstellen make out a check einen Scheck ausstellen write out a check einen Scheck einlösen cash a check einen Solawechsel zu unterschreiben to sign a promissory note einen Termin anberaumen fix a day einen Termin ansetzen fix a time-limit einen Unfall melden report an accident einen Vergleich annehmen accept a compromise einen Vergleich vorschlagen offer a compromise einen Verlust abdecken cover a loss einen Verlust erleiden incur a loss einen Vertrag schließen enter into a contract einen Vertrag schließen make an agreement einen Vertreter bestellen to nominate a representative einen Wechsel akzeptieren accept a bill einen Wechsel akzeptieren to accept a bill of exchange einen Wechsel aufnehmen, einlösen take up the bill einen Wechsel ausstellen make out a bill einen Wechsel bei Vorlage einlösen honor a bill on presentation einen Wechsel bezahlen, eine Tratte bezahlen to pay a bill of exchange einen Wechsel diskontieren discount a bill einen Wechsel einlösen honor a bill einen Wechsel einlösen meet a bill einen Wechsel nicht einlösen dishonor a bill einen Wechsel nochmals ziehen redraft a bill of exchange einen Wink geben give sb. a hint einer Person Vollmacht geben give a person full powers einer Sache nachgehen, tiefer eindringen go further into a question einer Spur nachgehen, ausfindig machen trace einer Verbindlichkeit entheben discharge from liability einer Verpflichtung nachkommen fulfill an obligation einer Verpflichtung nachkommen meet an obligation einer Ware zugeordnetes Material direct materials einer Zahlungsaufforderung nachkommen pay a claim einfach simple einfache Buchführung single entry bookkeeping einfache Havarie simple average einfache Havarie simple average einfache Mehrheit simple majority einfache Verzinsung simple interest einfache Zinsen simple interest einfaches Inkasso clean collection einfaches Prämiengeschäft single option einfrieren freeze Einfuhrbeschränkungen import restrictions Einfuhrerlaubnis import license Einfuhrquote import quota Einfuhrumsatzsteuer import-turnover tax Einfuhrwaren imported goods Einfuhrzoll import duty einfügen insert einführen introduce Einführung introduction Einführung von Aktien an der Börse introduction of shares Einführungsschreiben, Empfehlung letter of introduction Einführungswerbung introductory campaign Eingangsdatum date of receipt Eingangsdeklaration clearance inwards Eingangspost incoming mail eingefroren frozen eingefrorener Preis, fester Preis frozen price eingefrorenes Kapital frozen capital eingegangene Verpflichtungen incurred liabilities eingehende Post incoming mail eingehende Schecks incoming exchanges eingeplant scheduled eingeschlossen included eingeschränkte Garantie limited guarantee eingeschränktes Indossament qualified endorsement eingesetztes Kapital capital employed eingetragen registered eingetragener Eigentümer registered proprietor eingetragener Firmensitz registered office eingetragener Inhaber von Wertpapieren registered holder eingetragener Sitz der Firma registered office eingetragener Wohnsitz registered residence eingetragenes Kapital nominal capital eingetragenes Kapital registered capital eingetragenes Warenzeichen registered trade mark eingeweihte Kreise insiders eingezahltes Kapital paid-up capital eingezogene Beträge amounts collected Eingänge receipts Einhaltung von Vorschriften compliance with formalities Einheit entity Einheit unit Einheit, Gerät, Stück unit einheitlich uniform einheitliche Richtlinien uniform rules Einheitliche Richtlinien für Inkassi Uniform Rules for Collections einheitlicher Satz flat rate einheitlicher Zinssatz flat rate of interest einheitliches Gesetz uniform law einheitliches Handelsgesetz Uniform Commercial Code Einheitspolice standard policy Einheitspreis, Normalpreis standard price Einheitswert für die Grundsteuer rateable value einige zentral gelegene Banken a few centrally located banks Einkassierung encashment Einkaufen shopping Einkaufsabrechnung des Kommissionärs account purchases Einkaufsabteilung, Einkauf buying department Einkaufskontrolle checking of purchases Einkaufszentrum shopping center einklagbar actionable Einkommen income Einkommen aus Kapitalvermögen income from capital Einkommen der Familie family income Einkommensquelle source of earnings Einkommensteuer income tax einkommensteuerabzugsfähig deductible from income tax Einkommensteuerberechnung computation of income tax Einkommensteuererklärung income tax return Einkommensteuerzahler income tax payer Einkommensverlust loss of income Einkünfte earnings Einkünfte proceeds Einkünfte revenue Einkünfte aus freiberuflicher Tätigkeit professional earnings Einkünfte aus Kapitalvermögen income from capital Einkünfte aus Miete und Verpachtung income from property Einkünfte aus nichtselbständiger Arbeit income from dependent work Einkünfte aus selbstständiger Arbeit income from independent work Einlage deposit Einlage mit mehrfacher Ziehungsberechtigung alternate deposit Einlage, Anlage enclosure Einlage, Anzahlung deposit Einlagekapital capital paid up Einlagekapital deposit capital Einlagen von Privatpersonen individual deposits einlaufen, ankommen come in einlegen deposit einleitend, einführend, anfangs introductory einlösbar collectible einlösen honor einlösen, kassieren cash Einlösung eines Wechsels discharge of a bill Einmalprämie single premium Einmanngeschäft one-man business Einmannunternehmen one-man concern Einmischung interference Einnahmen receipts Einnahmen takings Einnahmen und Ausgaben receipts and expenditures Einnahmen, Ertrag returns Einnahmequellen means of income einpacken, eintüten, Beutel, Tasche, Tüte bag einreichen hand in Einreicher presenter Einreicher- und Inkassobanken remitting and collecting banks einrichten institute Einrichtungen, Erleichterungen facilities Einsatz, Material- und Kräfteeinsatz input einschalten switch on einschließen enclose einschließen include einschließen, beinhalten include einschließlich including einschließlich Dividende cum dividend Einschluss inclusion einschätzen, veranschlagen, bewerten estimate Einschreibbrief registered letter einschreiben enroll Einschreiben registered mail Einschreibsendung registered mail einschränken restrict einschränkend restrictive einschränkende Bedingung restrictive condition Einschränkung, Beschränkung restriction einseitig unilateral einseitiges Risiko unilateral risk einsetzen appoint einsetzen to utilize Einsetzung eines Ausschusses appointment of a committee Einsicht gewähren allow inspection Einsicht, Information intelligence einsparen economize Einsparung, Ersparnis saving Einspruch objection Einspruch erheben, Einspruch object Einspruch, Widerspruch objection einstellen recruit Einstellung weiterer Entwicklung suspension of further development Einstellung überflüssiger Arbeitskräfte featherbedding einstimmig unanimous einstimmig (adv.) unanimously Einstufung categorization Einstufung rating Einstufung tariff classification Einstufung der Kreditfähigkeit credit rating einsturzgefährdetes Bauwerk dangerous structure einstweilige Verfügung injunction einteilen in divide into Eintrag, Buchung entry Eintragung einer Firma incorporation of a company Eintragung in ein Register entry in a register Eintragungsvermerk note of entry eintreibbar recoverable Eintreibung von Schulden debt collection eintreten enter eintreten, eintragen, buchen enter Eintrittsalter age at entry einträglich gainful Einträglichkeit profitableness Einvernehmen, Verständnis understanding Einwand objection Einwand erheben raise an objection einwandern immigrate Einwanderungsquote immigration quota einwandfreier Wechsel clean bill einwilligen, Einwilligung assent einzahlen pay into the bank Einzahler depositor Einzahlung der Aktien verlangen make calls on shares Einzahlungen payments-in Einzahlungsbeleg deposit slip Einzahlungsbeleg pay-in slip Einzahlungsschein credit slip Einzahlungsschein deposit slip Einzelheiten particulars Einzelfall individual case Einzelfirma sole proprietorship Einzelhandel retail Einzelhandel retail trade Einzelhandelsgeschäft retail shop Einzelhandelskostenindex index of retail prices Einzelhandelspreisindex retail price index Einzelheit detail Einzelheiten full particulars Einzelhändler retailer Einzelkaufmann sole proprietor Einzelkosten individual costs einzeln single einzeln aufführen specify einzeln oder insgesamt any or all of which einzelne Sendung individual shipment Einzelperson individual Einzelposten single item Einzelprämie single premium Einzelprämienversicherung single-premium insurance Einzelstück, Einzelposten individual item Einzelversicherer individual insurer Einzelversicherer individual underwriter Einzelversicherer individual underwriter Einzelzahlung individual payment Einziehung von Außenständen collection of outstanding debts Einziehung von Banknoten withdrawal of banknotes Einziehung von Forderungen collection of debts Einzug eines Schecks collection of a check Einzugskosten encashment charges Eisenbahn railway Eisenbahnbehörde railway authority Eisenbahnfahrkarte railway ticket Eisenbahnnetz network of railroads elastisch elastic elastische Nachfrage elastic demand elastisches Angebot elastic supply Elastizität elasticity Elastizität der Nachfrage elasticity of demand Elastizität des Angebots elasticity of supply Elektrizitätswerk power station Elektronik electronics elektronisch electronic elektronische Datenverarbeitung electronic data processing Element element Element, Grundbestandteil element Elementarrisiken natural hazards elementär elementary eliminieren, ausschließen eliminate Eliminierung elimination Embargo, Handelssperre embargo Emissionsbank investment bank Emissionsbank issuing bank Emissionsbank issuing house Emissionsbedingungen terms of issue Emissionsgeschäft investment banking Emissionsmarkt market of issue Emissionspreis issue price Emissionspreis issuing price Emissionspreis rate of issue Emissionssteuer issue tax Emissionssyndikat underwriting syndicate Empfangsanzeige advice of receipt Empfangsanzeige, Eingangsanzeige advice of arrival Empfangsbescheinigung receipt voucher Empfangsbestätigung acknowledgement Empfangsbestätigung acknowledgement of receipt Empfangsdame receptionist Empfangsquittung receipt of delivery Empfangstag date of receipt empfehlen commend empfehlen recommend Empfehlung letter of recommendation Empfehlung recommendation Empfehlungen, Grüße regards Empfehlungsschreiben commendatory letter empfindlich sensitive empfindlicher Verlust considerable loss empfohlener Einzelhandelsabgabepreis recommended retail selling price Empfänger addressee Empfänger consignee Empfänger receiver Empfänger remittee Empfänger bezahlt die Fracht (Br.), unfrei freight forward Empfänger bezahlt die Fracht (US), unfrei freight collect Endalter age at expiry Endbescheid, endgültiger Bescheid definite decision Endbestand final stock Endbetrag final amount Ende April end of April Ende der Versicherungsdauer expiration of period Ende der Versicherungsdauer expiry of the policy Ende des Risikos termination of risk endgültig, letzte final endgültiger Bestimmungsort place of final destination endlos endless Endprodukt end product Endstation terminal Endverbraucher ultimate consumer Endwert final value Energieeinsparung saving of energy enger Markt narrow market Engpass bottleneck enorme Nachfrage nach Aktien run on stocks entbehrlich dispensable entbinden, entlassen, Entlassung discharge Entbindungsheim maternity home entehren, nichtachten, nicht einlösen dishonor enteignen dispossess Enteignung dispossession entflechten decartelize Entflechtung decartelization entgangener Gewinn lost profit Entgegenkommen accommodation entgegenkommen, unterbringen accommodate entgelten recompense entgeltliche Gegenleistung valuable consideration enthalten contain enthalten in contained in Enthaltsamkeit abstinence enthüllen reveal enthüllen, aufdecken disclose Enthüllung disclosure Enthüllung, Aufdeckung disclosure Entladehafen port of discharge Entladekosten unloading charges entladen unload entlassen dismiss entlassen, Entlassung discharge Entlassung dismissal Entlassung, Entlastung discharge Entlassungsschreiben notice of dismissal Entlastung eines Treuhänders discharge of a trustee Entleiher der zu dem Preis gerade noch leiht marginal borrower Entleiher, Borger borrower Entlohnung remuneration Entlohnung wages die mit dem Vorgang betraute Bank the bank to which the operation is entrusted entscheiden decide entscheidend decisive entscheidender Punkt crucial point entscheidet sich die Dokumente abzulehnen decides to refuse the documents entscheidet sich die Dokumente aufzunehmen decides to take up the documents Entscheidung decision Entscheidungstheorie decision theory Entschluss fassen take a decision entschädigen compensate entschädigen indemnify entschädigen, schadlos halten to indemnify Entschädigung indemnification Entschädigung indemnification Entschädigung indemnity Entschädigung indemnity for damages Entschädigung bei Grundstücksenteignung just compensation Entschädigung für Verlust oder Beschädigung compensation for loss or damage Entschädigung für Verluste indemnity for losses Entschädigung in einer runden Summe lump-sum settlement Entschädigungsanspruch claim for compensation Entschädigungsanspruch claim for indemnity Entschädigungsanspruch, Entschädigungsklage claim for compensation Entschädigungsbetrag indemnity sum Entschädigungsforderung claim for compensation entschädigungspflichtige Verletzung compensable injury Entschädigungssumme amount of indemnification Entschuldigung apology Entschuldigungsschreiben letter of apology entsprechend buchen enter in conformity entsprechend, anstatt, an Stelle von in lieu thereof entspricht AG-Gesetz und GmbH-Gesetz Companies Act entstandener Schaden loss occurred entstehend arising entwerfen, ziehen, Entwurf, Tratte draft entwickeln develop Entwicklung development Entwicklung neuer Dokumente development of new documents Entwicklung neuer Verfahren development of new methods entwicklungsfähiger Markt potential market Entwicklungsgebiet development areas Entwicklungsland developing country Entwicklungsmöglichkeiten development potentialities Entwurf, Gestaltung, Konstruktion design Epoche, Zeitraum era er weigert sich solche Zinsen zu zahlen he refuses to pay such interest erbauen, errichten, auslegen construct Erbe heir erben inherit erbitten solicit Erbschaft inheritance Erbschaft legacy Erbschaftssteuer death duties Erbschaftssteuer inheritance tax Erbschaftssteuerversicherung estate duty Erdbebenrisiko earthquake hazard Erdbebenrisiko, Erdbebengefahr earthquake risk Erdbebenversicherung earthquake insurance Ereignis incidence erfahren come to know Erfahrung experience Erfassung von Daten acquisition of data Erfassung von Daten collection of data erfinden invent Erfinder inventor Erfindung invention erfolgreiches Experiment successful experiment Erfolgschancen chances of success Erfolgsentlohnung payment by results Erfolgsrechnung income statement erforderlicher Geldbetrag requisite money erforderliches Kapital capital required erforschen, untersuchen investigate erforschen, Forschung research Erforschung der Einstellung zu einer Sache attitude survey Erforschung des Sachverhalts fact finding erfüllen comply with erfüllen fulfill Erfüllung compliance Erfüllung fulfillment Erfüllung performance Erfüllung einer Verpflichtung performance of an obligation Erfüllung eines Vertrages performance of a contract Erfüllung eines Vertrags performance of a contract Erfüllung Zug um Zug contemporaneous performance Erfüllungsgarantie performance bond Erfüllungsort place of performance Ergebnisse results Ergonomie ergonomics ergänzen amend ergänzen complement ergänzend supplementary Ergänzung supplement ergreifen seize Ergreifung, Beschlagnahme seizure Erhalt eines Schreibens receipt of a letter Erhalt von Geld receipt of money erhalten obtain erhalten receive erhalten, empfangen receive erholen, wieder einbringen recover erhältlich obtainable Erholung recovery Erholungsgebiet recreation area erhöhen, Erhöhung boost erhöhen, Erhöhung increase erhöhen, Erhöhung raise erhöht increased erhöht raised erhöhte Kosten increased costs erhöhte Lebenserwartung increased expectation of life erhöhte Lebenshaltungskosten increased cost of living erhöhte Nachfrage increased demand erhöhter Bedarf increased requirements Erhöhung der Nachfrage increase in demand Erhöhung des Diskontsatzes increase in the bank rate Erhöhung des Diskontsatzes increase in the discount rate Erhöhung des Diskontsatzes raising of the bank rate Erhöhung des Kapitals increase of capital Erhöhung des Risikos increase in the risk Erhöhung des Zinssatzes raising of the rate of interest Erhöhung, Zunahme, erhöhen, zunehmen increase erinnern remind Erkennungs-Symbole anbringen to place identifying symbols Erkennungszeichen anbringen to place identifying marks erklären declare erklären explain erklären, Kommentar comment erklärter Wille declared intention Erklärung declaration Erklärung explanation Erklärung statement Erklärung der Dividende declaration of dividend Erklärung einer Absicht, Willenserklärung declaration of intention Erklärungsbasis declaration basis erlangen, erhalten obtain Erlass einer Gebühr waiver of a fee erlauben allow erlauben, Erlaubnis permit Erlaubnis allowance Erlaubnis permission Erlaubnis, Zugeständnis concession Erlaß einer Schuld release of a debt Erlebensfallversicherung endowment insurance erledigen, handhaben handle erleichtern facilitate erleichtern, Erleichterung ease erleichtern, ermöglichen facilitate erlittener Verlust sustained loss Erläuterung, Anmerkung annotation Erlös proceeds Erlös abtreten to assign proceeds Erlöskonto account of proceeds Ermessen discretion Ermessen discretionary power Ermessenentscheidung arbitrary decision Ermessensfrage matter of discretion Ermessensfreiheit power of discretion ermächtigen authorize ermächtigen empower ermächtigt eine andere Bank authorizes another bank ermächtigter Angestellter authorized clerk Ermächtigung power of authority Ermächtigung zur Auszahlung withdrawal warrant Ermäßigung von Abgaben remission Ermäßigung, Kürzung, Rabatt reduction Ermäßigung, Nachlass abatement ermutigen encourage Ermutigung encouragement ermöglichen enable Ermüdung fatigue Ernennungsurkunde certificate of appointment erneuern renew erneuern, verlängern renew Erneuerung renewal Erneuerung der Versicherungspolice renewal of the policy Erneuerung wird fällig renewal falls due Erneuerung, Verlängerung renewal Erneuerungsschein certificate of renewal erneut in Betracht ziehen reconsider erneute Kauflust fresh demand Ernteverlust, Verlust der Ernte crop loss Ernteversicherung crop insurance Ernteversicherung growing crops insurance Erpressung blackmail errechnen compute Errechnung computation Errichtung formation Errichtung, Bau, Auslegung construction Ersatz für einen Schaden indemnity for a loss Ersatz für mittelbaren Schaden consequential damages Ersatz, Ersatzlieferung replacement Ersatz, Ersatzteil replacement Ersatzkosten opportunity cost Ersatzteile spare parts Ersatzwert alternative costs Ersatzwert, Neuwert, Wiederbeschaffungswert replacement value erscheinen to appear Erscheinungsform form of appearance Erschwerung des Absatzes hardening of the market erschöpfen exhaust erschöpft, geleert exhausted ersetzen replace ersetzen die bestehenden Richtlinien replace the existing rules ersetzen, Ersatz substitute Ersparnisse savings Ersparnisse aufbrauchen eat up savings erstattet erhalten, wiedererlangen recover erstattungsfähig recoverable Erstauftrag initial order erste Emission first issue erste Fassung first edition erste Hälfte des Monats first half of the month erste Hypothek first mortgage erste Hypothek first mortgage loan erste Klasse, hervorragend A1 at Lloyd's erste Prämie first premium erstklassig first rate erstklassig first-class erstklassig first-grade erstklassig first-rate erstklassig high-class erstklassige Kapitalanlage choice investment erstklassiger Bankwechsel mit Bankakzept prime bank bill Erstprämie first premium erstrangige Aktien blue chips Erstversicherer direct insurer Erstzahlung initial payment Ersuchen zu bestätigen request to confirm ersuchen, Ersuchen request ersucht eine andere Bank requests another Bank Ertrag yield Ertrag aus Aktien yield on shares Ertrag aus den Anlagen yield on invested funds Ertrag aus Wertpapieren yield on securities ertragen, dulden endure Ertragsberechnung calculation of proceeds Ertragskraft earning power Ertragsrate rate of return erträglich, tolerierbar tolerable erwartete Gefahren expected perils erwartete Kosten anticipated cost erwarteter Gewinn anticipated profit erwarteter Gewinn expected profit erwarteter Gewinnverlust bei Versicherungen imaginary profit erwarteter Preis anticipated price Erwartung eines Verlustes expectation of loss erweiterter Versicherungsschutz extended coverage Erwerb acquisition erwerben acquire Erwerber transferee Erwerbsfähigkeit ability to earn one's livelihood Erwerbsquelle means of living Erwerbsquelle means of subsistence erwerbsunfähig, arbeitsunfähig disabled Erwerbsunfähigkeit incapacity to work erworbenes Recht vested interest erzeugen, Erzeugnis produce Erzeuger producer erziehen educate Erziehung, Bildung education erzielbare Entschädigung recoverable sum erzwingen enforce Erzwingungsmöglichkeit means of enforcing erzwungen forced Eröffnung eines Kontos opening of an account Eröffnungsbilanz opening balance sheet Eröffnungskurs beginning rate Eröffnungskurs opening price Eröffnungskurs opening rate Eröffnungsnotierungen opening quotations erörtern, begründen, Grund, Vernunft reason erübrigen spare es begründet ein Versprechen it constitutes a definite undertaking es betrifft nur die Beziehungen zwischen it concerns only the relations between es bezieht sich auf it relates to es erscheint richtig it appears correct es erscheint vollständig it appears complete es fehlt die Unterschrift signature is missing es hat seine Ursache it originates es ist immer noch ein wesentliches Element it remains a vital element es ist nur in seltenen Fällen möglich it is rarely possible es macht eine Erweiterung notwenig it necessitates amplification es macht sich bezahlt it pays well es macht Vereinfachung notwendig it necessitates simplification es muß die Unstimmigkeiten nennen it must state the discrepancies es soll im Auftrag bestimmt werden ob the order should state whether es spielt eine Rolle it becomes important es wurde berücksichtigt thought has been given to es wurde betont stress was laid Etatsumme budget sum Etikette label Etikettierung, Preisauszeichnung labeling etwa erforderliche Indossamente vornehmen to make any necessary endorsements etwaige Unstimmigkeiten in den Dokumenten any discrepancies in the documents etwas anfordern, beantragen make application for sth. etwas annehmen adopt sth. etwas auf die lange Bank schieben shelve sth. etwas beurteilen form an opinion etwas bewältigen cope with sth. etwas eintragen record sth etwas geheim halten keep a secret etwas notieren write sth. down etwas sichern, etwas erwerben to secure sth etwas weiter bearbeiten, verfolgen follow up a matter etwas wieder gut machen make up for something EURO-Dollar Euro-dollars Eurokreditkarte Eurocard Europa Europe Europäer European Europäischer Gemeinsamer Markt EEC Euroscheck Eurocheque Existenzmittel means of subsistence Exklusivvertrag exclusive agreement Exotenfonds offshore funds expandieren, sich ausdehnen expand Export, exportieren export Exporteur, Ausführer exporter Exportförderung export promotion Exportgenehmigung, Ausfuhrgenehmigung export license Exportgeschäfte, Exportumsätze exports Exportkreditgarantie export credits guarantee Exportkreditversicherung export credit insurance Exportland country of exportation Exportsachbearbeiter export clerk Exportvergünstigungen export incentives Exportversicherung export credit insurance Exportvertreter export agent externes Konto external account extrem extreme F Fabrik factory Fabrikant manufacturer Fabrikationsbetrieb manufacturing company Fabrikgebäude factory building fabrikmäßig hergestellt factory-made Fabriksystem factory system Fabrikware manufactured goods Facharbeiter skilled labor Facharbeiter skilled worker Facharzt medical specialist Fachberater expert adviser Fachkenntnisse specialized knowledge Fachkenntnisse technical know-how Fachkenntnisse technical knowledge Fachkenntnisse, Erfahrung know-how Fachkundiger expert Fachmann, Sachverständiger, Experte expert Fachwissen, Fachkenntnisse know-how Factoring factoring Factoring-Geschäft factoring Fahrraddiebstahlversicherung cycle theft insurance Fahrradversicherung cycle insurance Fahrer driver Fahrkarte, Flugschein ticket Fahrkartenschalter ticket office fahrlässig negligent fahrlässige Handlung negligent act Fahrlässigkeit negligence Fahrpreis fare Fahrzeug vehicle Fahrzeughalter owner of a motor vehicle Faksimile facsimile Faktor factor Faktor, Einfluss factor fakturierte Ware, berechnete Ware invoiced goods Fakturierung invoicing fakultativ, wahlfrei facultative Fall, Beispiel instance Fallen der Aktienkurse fall of stocks fallen unter come under fallen, fallen lassen drop fallende Tendenz downward drift falls in the event of falls als Original gekennzeichnet if marked as original falls die Anschrift unrichtig ist if the address is incorrect falls die Anschrift unvollständig ist if the address is incomplete falls die Bank es versäumt zu handeln if the bank fails to act falls die Bank zu handeln bereit ist if the bank is prepared to act falls ein Auftrag etwas verbietet should an order prohibit sth. falls eine solche Negoziierung nicht erfolgt if such negotiation is not effected falls solche Weisungen nicht eingehen if such instructions are not received falls Waren versandt werden in the event of goods being dispatched Fallstudie case study falsch false falsch adressieren, fehlleiten misdirect falsch beurteilen misjudge falsch darstellen misrepresent falsch klassifizieren misclassify falsch verbuchen mis-enter falsch, Unrecht wrong Falschbuchung, Fehlbuchung false entry falsche Angabe false statement falsche Angaben false statement falsche Auslegung misinterpretation falsche Aussage false evidence falsche Beschreibung misdescription falsche Darstellung misstatement falsche Klassifizierung misclassification falscher Alarm false alarm falscher Name false name falscher Vorwand false pretences Falschgeld bogus money Falschgeld counterfeit money Familienvorstand head of the household Familienzulage family allowance Familienzulage family income supplement fangen capture Farm, Bauernhof farm Farmer, Bauer farmer Fass cask Fehlanzeige negative report Fehlberechnung, falsche Berechnung miscalculation Fehlbetrag deficiency Fehlbuchung, Falschbuchung erroneous entry Fehlen der Vollmacht absence of authority fehlend missing Fehler mistake Fehler bei der Übersetzung errors in the translation Fehler, Mangel defect Fehler, Verschulden fault Fehlerart type of error fehlerhaft defective fehlerhaft faulty fehlerhafter Vertrag defective contract Fehlerhaftigkeit faultiness Fehlinvestition false investment Fehlschlag failure Fehlschluss false conclusion Fehlverhalten misdemeanor feilhalten keep for sale Feingehaltsstempel hallmark Feinheitsgrad fineness Feldzug, Kampagne campaign Fenster window Fensterumschlag window envelope Fernmeldetechnik telecommunications Fernschreiber teleprinter Fernschreiber ticker Fernschreiber, Telegraph, Börsenschreiber ticker Fernsprechzelle call-box Fernstraße highway Fernstraße trunk road Fernstraßennetz network of trunk roads fertig ready Fertigungsindustrie manufacturing industry Fertigungsstufe stage of production Fertigungsumfang volume of production Fertigwaren finished goods Fertigwarenlagerung storage of finished goods fest firm fest angelegtes Geld locked-up money fest angelegtes Geld tied up money feste Bedingungen set terms feste Gebühr fixed charge feste Kurse firm prices feste Prämie fixed premium feste Summe fixed sum fester Betrag fixed sum Festgeld cash on deposit Festgeld fixed deposit Festgeld time deposit festgelegt fixed festgesetzt, festgelegt fixed festgestellt ascertained festhalten adhere festlegen constitute festsetzen ascertain festsetzen fix Festsetzung fixation feststehende Tatsache established fact feststellbar ascertainable Feststellung der Brandursache fire inquest Feststellung des Schadens ascertainment of damage Feststellung des Schadens ascertainment of loss Feststellung des Schadens assessment of damage Feststellung des Schadenswertes assessment of damage festverzinslich fixed interest bearing Feudalsystem feudal system Feuerbestattungskosten cremation expenses Feuerbestattungskostenversicherung cremation expenses insurance Feuergefahr fire hazards feuerhemmend fire-resisting Feuerleiter fire escape Feuerlöscher fire extinguisher Feuerlöschkosten fire extinguishing costs Feuermeldesystem fire alarm system Feuermeldevorrichtung fire alarm device Feuersbrunst, Brand conflagration Feuerschutz fire protection Feuerschutzabgabe fire brigade charge Feuersgefahr fire peril Feuersgefahr, Feuerrisiko fire hazard Feuersicherheit fire safety Feuerverhütung fire prevention Feuerversicherung fire insurance Feuerversicherung, Brandversicherung fire insurance Feuerversicherungsgesellschaft fire underwriter Feuerwehr fire brigade Feuerwehrmann fireman Filialbank affiliated bank Filialbanksystem branch banking Filiale branch office Filialladen multiple shop Filialladen multiple store Filialleiter branch manager Filmtheaterversicherung cinema insurance Finanzamt revenue office Finanzamt tax office Finanzanalyseabteilung analysis department Finanzaufstellung financial statement Finanzausschuß financial committee Finanzbehörden revenue authorities Finanzbericht financial report Finanzbuchführung financial accounting finanziell financial finanziell besser gestellt sein be better off finanziell unabhängig financially independent finanziell unterstützt financially supported finanzielle Angelegenheiten financial affairs finanzielle Hilfe financial aid finanzielle Hilfe, finanzielle Unterstützung pecuniary aid finanzielle Lage financial position finanzielle Lage financial status finanzielle Lage, Vermögenslage financial standing finanzielle Unterstützung pecuniary aid finanzielle Verlegenheit financial embarrassment finanzielle Verluste pecuniary losses finanzielle Verpflichtung financial obligation finanziellen Verhältnisse financial circumstances finanzieller Verlust financial loss finanzielles Ansehen financial standing finanzieren finance Finanzierung finance Finanzierung financing Finanzierungsart method of financing Finanzierungsgesellschaft finance company Finanzierungsgesellschaft financing company Finanzierungskosten costs of financing Finanzierungslücke money gap Finanzierungsvermittler company promoter Finanzkontrolle financial control Finanzkreise financial circles Finanzplatz financial center Finanzpolitik financial policy Finanzwirtschaft finance fingierte Zahlung sham payment fingiertes Konto pro forma account Firma company Firma firm Firma mit bankartigen Geschäften banking company Firmenbriefpapier, Büropapier, Bürobedarf stationery Firmeninhaber owner of a firm Firmenkapital capital funds Firmenname firm name Firmenreserven company reserves fixe Kosten fixed charges fixe Kosten fixed costs flach flat Flagge flag flau flat flaue Geschäftszeit dull season Flaute dullness flexibel, wendig flexible flink speedy Fluchtkapital flight capital Flug flight Flugabfertigungsstelle mit Busbahnhof air terminal Flugblatt pamphlet Flugblatt, Handzettel, Faltblatt leaflet Fluggastversicherung air passenger insurance Fluggastversicherung aircraft passenger insurance Fluglinie, Fluggesellschaft airline Flugrisiko aviation risk Flugsteig gate Flugzeug aircraft Flugzeugentführer hijacker Flugzeugentführung hijacking Flugzeugkaskoversicherung aircraft hull insurance Fluktuationsarbeitslosigkeit frictional unemployment fluktuieren, schwanken fluctuate Flut, Überschwemmung flood Fluß flow flüssig, liquid, zahlungsfähig liquid flüssige Geldmittel funds flüssige Güter wet goods flüssige Mittel, greifbare Mittel liquid funds fähig able fähig capable Fähigkeit ability Fähigkeit capability Folge der Ereignisse order of events Folge von Ereignissen chain of events folgen follow Folgen aus Verlusten consequences arising out of loss Folgen die sich ergeben aus consequences arising out of Folgen von Verzögerungen consequences arising out of delay Folgeprämie renewal premium Folgeschaden consequential damage Folgeschaden consequential loss fällig due fällig mature fällig werden become due fällig werden fall due fällig werdende Verbindlichkeiten maturing liabilities fällig zur Zahlung due for payment fällige Entschädigung accrued compensation fällige Prämie premium due fällige Schuld debt due fällige Zinsen interest payable Fälligkeit maturity Fälligkeit der Prämie premium due rate Fälligkeitsakzept accommodation acceptance Fälligkeitsdatum, Fälligkeitstag maturity date Fälligkeitstag day of maturity Fälligkeitstag due date Fälligkeitstermin day of falling due Fälligkeitstermin due date Fälligkeitstermin eines Wechsels due date of a bill Fälligkeitswert maturity value fälschen falsify fälschen forge fälschen, Fälschung counterfeit Fälscher eines Dokuments falsifier fälschlicherweise wrongly Fälschung counterfeit Fälschung falsification Fälschung forgery Fälschungen counterfeits Fond endowment fund Fond fund Fonds fund Forderungen accounts receivable Forderungen receivables Forderungsübergang subrogation Forfaitierung forfeiting Forfaitierung non-recourse financing Form der Benachrichtigung form of advice Form, Aufmachung eines Dokuments form of a document formaler Fehler lack of form formaler Gegenwert nominal consideration Formalität formality Formblatt ausfüllen fill in a form Formblatt zur Kreditbeantragung credit form Formen der Akkreditive forms of credit Formfehler formal defect formlos informal formlose Zusammenkunft informal meeting Formsache formality Formsache matter of form Formvorschrift formality Formvorschriften, Förmlichkeiten formal requirements Forscher researcher Forschung und Entwicklung research and development Forschungsabteilung research department fortsetzen continue Forstversicherung insurance of growing timber Fortdauer, Fortsetzung continuation fortlaufend numerieren number consecutively fortlaufend nummeriert consecutively numbered fortsetzen continue Fortsetzung continuation Fracht freight Fracht bezahlt freight paid Fracht im voraus bezahlt freight prepaid Fracht im voraus zu zahlen freight to be prepaid Fracht vorauszahlbar freight prepayable Fracht, Ladung, Frachtgut cargo Frachtaufkommen volume of cargo Frachtbrief consignment note Frachtbrief (US) waybill frachtfrei versichert bis freight and insurance paid to Frachtführer carrier Frachtkosten cost of freight Frachtkosten freight costs Frachtunternehmen carrier Frachtversicherer cargo underwriter Frachtversicherung cargo insurance Frachtversicherung cargo policy Frachtversicherung hull insurance Frachtversicherung insurance on freight Frachtvertrag contract of affreightment Frage question Frage von Bedeutung question of substance Frage, Anfrage query Fragebogen questionnaire Franchise franchise Franchiseklausel franchise clause Frankiermaschine franking machine frei uncontrolled frei vacant frei an Bord (INCOTERM) free on board frei Haus free to the door frei längsseits Schiff (INCOTERM) free alongside ship frei machen frank frei verladen Ihr Fahrzeug free on truck frei verladen unsere Station free on rail frei von Beschädigung außer im Strandungsfall free of particular average frei von Leckage free from leakage frei von Mängeln free from defects frei, leer vacant freie Marktwirtschaft free enterprise freie Stelle vacancy freie Stellen vacancies freie Unterkunft free accommodation freie Verfügungsgewalt discretionary power freie Wahl free choice freie Wahl des Arztes free choice of medical practitioner freier Markt free market freier Wechselkurs floating freier Wettbewerb open competition freies Grundeigentum (Br.) freehold Freigabe, Ausgabe release freigeben, ausgeben release freigegeben an den Bezogenen released to the drawee freigestellt, wahlfrei optional Freihafen free-harbour Freihafen free-port Freikarte free ticket freisprechen absolve Freistellungsbescheid notice of exemption Freiverkehr outside market Freiverkehr over the counter market freiwillig voluntary freiwillige Auflösung voluntary liquidation freiwillige Leistung, Kulanzleistung ex-gratia payment freiwillige Versicherung voluntary insurance Freizeit spare time Fremdenverkehrsgewerbe tourist trade Fremdenzimmer spare room Fremdfinanzierung financing with outside capital Fremdfinanzierung outside financing Fremdkapital borrowed capital Fremdkapital outside capital Fremdmittel outside funds Fremdmittel outside resources Fremdwährungsschuldverschreibungen bonds in foreign currency frequentieren, aufsuchen frequent Friedensrichter justice of the peace Frist einhalten comply with a term Frist einhalten keep a term Frist überschreiten exceed a term Frist, zeitliche Begrenzung time limit Fristenverlängerung extension of a period Fristenüberschreitung failure to meet a deadline fristlos without notice fristlos without previous notice Frostversicherung frost insurance früherer Indossant previous endorser früherer Indossant prior endorser Frühwarnsystem early warning system Fuhrgeld, Transport haulage Fuhrunternehmer carter Fundamt lost property office Fundbüro lost property office fundiert sound standing Fundsache, verlorene Sache lost property Funktion, Tätigkeit function Funktionsstörung malfunction Fusion merger Fusion, Verschmelzung fusion fusionieren merge Fusionierung merger Förderung von Kapitalanlagen promotion of investments führen, Führung lead führende Aktie market leader führende Geschäftsleute key businessmen Führer, Fremdenführer guide Führungskräfte executives Fülle, Flut glut Füllmaterial, Beiwerk padding fünffach quintuplicate fünffach, in fünffacher Ausfertigung quintuplicate für das Schicksal der Ware with regard to the fate of the goods für den Schaden aufkommen bear the damage für den Vorgang erforderlich required for the operation für den Vorgang üblich customary to the operation für den Zustand der Ware with regard to the condition of the goods für die Schulden haften liable for payment of the debts für dieses Problem on this problem für ein Handelsgeschäft relating to a trading transaction für eine bestimmte Zeit for a time certain für einen Posten geeignet qualified for an appointment für einen Schaden haftbar liable for a loss für etwas anderes halten take for sth. else für hinausgeschobene Zahlung zu remboursierento reimburse for deferred payment für Ihre Rechnung und Gefahr for your account and risk für Inkassi for collections für irgendwelche nicht gedeckten Risiken for any risks not being covered für Irrtümer for errors für jede Akzeptleistung remboursieren to reimburse for any acceptance für jede Negoziierung remboursieren to reimburse for any negotiation für jede Zahlung remboursieren to reimburse for any payment für laufende Rechnung on open account für Rechnung des Bezogenen for account of the drawee für Rechnung des letzteren for the account of the latter für Rechnung von for account of für Rechnung von for the account of für weniger als ein Jahr for less than a year für Zahlung sorgen provide for payment G galoppierende Inflation runaway inflation Gang course ganztags, ganztägig full-time ganztägig arbeiten work full-time Garantie guarantee Garantie, Bürgschaft, Sicherheit guarantee Garantie, Bürgschaft, Sicherheit guaranty Garantie, Gewährleistung, Zusicherung warranty Garantiebrief (Br.) letter of guarantee Garantiedauer duration of guarantee Garantiefonds guarantee fund Garantiefrist term of guarantee garantieren, Garantie (US) guaranty garantiert guaranteed garantierte Löhne guaranteed wages garantierte Mindestbeschäftigung guaranteed employment garantierte Preise guaranteed prices Garantieschein certificate of guarantee Garantieschein delcredere bond Garantiesyndikat underwriters Garantievertrag contract of guarantee Garantievertrag contract of indemnity Garantiezeit guarantee period Garantiezeit period of guarantee Garantiezeit, Versicherungsdauer duration of cover Gastronom caterer Gastronomie catering GATT-Abkommen General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Gebiet area Gebiet territory Gebietsaufteilung division of territory Gebietszuteilung, Gebietsaufteilung territorial allocation gebilligt approved gebilligte Dividende declared dividend Gebot, Angebot bid Gebot, gebotener Preis bid Gebäudeversicherung insurance of buildings gebunden, verpflichtet bound gebundener Preis maintained price gebundener Verkauf, Kupplungsverkauf tie-on sale Geburtenrate birth rate Geburtenziffer birth rate Geburtsort place of birth Gebühr fee Gebühr, Abgabe due Gebühr, belasten charge Gebühren im voraus bezahlt charges paid in advance Gebühren im voraus bezahlt fees paid in advance Gebühren sind einzuziehen charges to be collected Gebührenabrechnung account of charges Gebührenaufstellung, Gebührenverzeichnis table of charges Gebührenermäßigung reduction of fees gebührenfrei free of charge Gebührenordnung scale of charges and fees Gebührenrechnung bill of costs Gebührentabelle table of fees gedeckt covered gedeihend prosperous gediegenes Gold solid gold Gedächtnis, Datenspeicher memory geeignet qualified geeignet, anpassen fit geeignete Weisungen erteilen give appropriate instructions Gefahr danger Gefahr peril Gefahr, Risiko, Zufall hazard Gefahren der hohen See perils of the sea Gefahren der See dangers of the sea Gefahren der See hazards of the sea Gefahren der See marine perils Gefahren der See, Seegefahren, Seerisiken perils of the sea Gefahren der Seefahrt dangers of navigation Gefahrenabnahme, Gefahrenminderung decrease of risk Gefahrenart type of risk Gefahrenerhöhung, Risikozunahme increase of risk Gefahrengut, gefährliche Ladung dangerous goods Gefahrenklasse class of risk Gefahrenpunkt peril point Gefahrenzone danger zone Gefahrenzulage danger bonus gefährlich dangerous gefährlich, riskant hazardous gefährliche Güter hazardous goods gefährliche Ladung dangerous cargo gefährliche Tiere dangerous animals gefährliche Vorführungen dangerous performances gefährlicher Beruf hazardous occupation Gefälligkeitsflaggen flags of convenience Gefälligkeitsindossament accommodation endorsement Gefälligkeitswechsel accommodation bill Gefälligkeitswechsel kite gefälschte Münze forged coin gefälschte Unterschrift forged signature gefälschter Scheck forged check gefälschtes Indossament forged endorsement geforderter Preis asked price gefragt, gesucht sought gefragte Wertpapiere active securities Gefriergut frozen cargo gefunden found gegeben given gegebenenfalls as the case may be gegebenenfalls where appropriate gegebenenfalls, wo zutreffend where applicable gegen contra gegen Akzeptierung against acceptance gegen alle Gefahren against all risks gegen alle Risiken against all risks gegen alle Verantwortlichkeiten against all responsibilities gegen alle Verpflichtungen against all obligations gegen bar for ready money gegen Bestellung erhältlich obtainable on order gegen ein Patent verstoßen infringe a patent gegen ein Pfand Geld leihen lend on pawn gegen ein Warenzeichen verstoßen infringe a trade mark gegen eine Garantie against an indemnity gegen eine Regel verstoßen infringe a rule gegen Entgelt for value gegen Nachnahme cash on delivery gegen sofortige Bezahlung kaufen buy outright gegen Weisungen handeln disregard instructions gegen Zahlung against payment gegen Zahlung von upon payment of gegen Übergabe vorgeschriebener Dokumente against stipulated documents gegen, zuwider contrary to Gegenabschnitt counterfoil Gegenbuchung counter entry Gegenforderung counter claim Gegengewicht counterbalance Gegenleistung consideration gegenrechnen, Gegenrechnung, Aufrechnung offset gegenseitig mutual gegenseitig, auf Gegenseitigkeit mutual Gegenseitigkeit mutuality Gegenstand subject matter Gegenstand subject-matter Gegenstand der Versicherung object insured Gegenstand, Einwand erheben object Gegenwartswert value at the present Gegenwert erhalten value received gegenwärtig, jetzig, präsentieren, vorlegen present gegenwärtige und künftige Forderungen debts owing and accruing gegenwärtiger Wert present value gegenwärtiger Wert, Barwert present value gegenwärtiger Wert, Tageswert, Marktwert current value gegenzeichnen countersign Gegenzeichnung countersignature Gegner, Prozessgegner adversary Gehalt salary Gehaltserhöhung raise Gehaltserhöhung raise of salary Gehaltsvorschuß advance of salary Gehilfe assistant geistige Ermüdung mental fatigue geistige Störung mental defect gekoppelte Herstellungskosten joint costs gekoppelte Nachfrage joint demand gekoppeltes Angebot joint supply gekündigt, storniert cancelled gekürzte Prämie limited premium gelbe Seiten , Branchenadressbuch der Post yellow pages Geld money Geld abheben draw money Geld abheben withdraw money Geld anlegen place funds Geld annehmen accept funds Geld auf Abruf money at call and short notice Geld aufnehmen take up money Geld aufnehmen, Geld aufbringen raise money Geld ausleihen, verleihen lend money Geld bei einer Bank anlegen place money with a bank Geld binden, Geld festlegen tie up money Geld einzahlen deposit money Geld heraus bekommen get money back Geld im Umlauf money in circulation Geld schulden owe money Geld verdienen make money Geld von einem Konto abheben draw cash from an account Geld zurückerstatten refund money Geld überweisen remit money Geld überweisen transfer money Geld- pecuniary Geld- und Kapitalmarkt money and capital market Geldabfindung monetary indemnity Geldabfluß cash drain Geldanforderung money request Geldangebot supply of money Geldanlage money investment Geldautomat automated teller machine Geldautomat bancomat Geldautomat cash dispenser Geldbedarf money demand Geldbedarf need of money Geldbestände money holdings Geldbetrag amount of money Geldbewegung flow of money Geldentwertung depreciation of currency Gelder aufbringen raise funds Gelder zusammenlegen pool funds Geldfluß cash flow Geldforderung claim for money Geldgeber financier Geldgeber money source Geldgeber, Geldverleiher, Pfandleiher money lender Geldgeschäft money transaction Geldgeschäfte financial transactions Geldhändler, Makler in Geldgeschäften money jobber Geldinstitut lending institute Geldkassette cash box Geldkassette till Geldklemme money squeeze Geldknappheit lack of money Geldknappheit money pinch Geldknappheit money scarcity Geldknappheit scarcity of money Geldknappheit tightness of money Geldkrise money crisis Geldkurs bid Geldkurs demand price Geldkurs money rate Geldkursnotierung demand quotation geldlich monetary geldliche Abfindung monetary compensation geldliche Gegenleistung money consideration Geldmangel shortage of money Geldmarkt finance market Geldmarkt money market Geldmarktschwankungen fluctuations in the money market Geldmarktsätze money market rates Geldmengentheorie quantity theory of money Geldreserve money reserve Geldreserven cash reserves Geldschein, Banknote bank note Geldschrank safe Geldschwemme glut of money Geldschöpfung creation of money Geldstrafe fine Geldsystem, Münzsystem monetary system Geldtransport cash transport Geldtransportfahrzeug bullion van Geldumlauf circulation of money Geldumlauf cycle of money Geldumlauf monetary circulation Geldverlegenheit pecuniary embarrassment Geldverleiher money lender Geldverlust loss of cash Geldverschwendung waste of money Geldversorgung money supply Geldvolumen money supply Geldvolumen volume of money Geldwechsler money change Geldwechsler money changer Geldzuflüsse money inflows Geldüberfluß glut of money Geldüberhang glut of money Geldüberweisung money transfer Geldüberweisungsdienst money transmission service gelegen situated Gelegenheit occasion Gelegenheit opportunity Gelegenheit, Grund, Ereignis occasion Gelegenheit, günstiges Angebot bargain Gelegenheitsarbeiten odd jobs Gelegenheitsarbeiten verrichten jobbing Gelegenheitsarbeiter casual worker gelegentlich occasional gelernt, geschickt skilled geliehenes Geld borrowed money gelten hold good geltend machen to claim geltender Preis ruling price gelöscht defunct gemein, einfach, gewöhnlich common Gemeinbürgschaft joint surety Gemeinde borough Gemeinde community Gemeindeabgaben municipal rates Gemeindebehörde municipal authority Gemeindebehörden municipal authorities gemeindlich municipal Gemeinkosten overheads gemeinnützig non-commercial gemeinnützige Gesellschaft non-profit organization gemeinnützige Sparkasse, auf Gegenseitigkeit mutual savings bank gemeinsam joint gemeinsame Steuererklärung der Ehepartner joint return gemeinsamer Bekannter mutual friend Gemeinsamer Markt Common Market gemeinsames Konto joint account gemeinsames Unternehmen joint venture gemeinschaftliche Nutzung joint use Gemeinschaftsbilanz, Konzernbilanz consolidated balance sheet Gemeinschaftsrechnung joint account Gemeinschaftsschuld, Gemeinschuld corporate debt Gemeinschaftstelephon party line Gemeinschaftsunternehmen joint venture gemischt mixed gemischte Wirtschaftsform mixed economy gemischte Police mixed policy gemischtes Warenkonto trading account gemäß according to gemäß subject to gemäß den Bestimmungen des Akkreditivs as specified in the credit gemäß den Richtlinien subject to the regulations gemäß den Vorschriften arbeiten working to rule gemäß den Weisungen as per instructions gemäß Inkassoauftrag according to the collection order genau accurate genau 10 Jahre nach exactly 10 years since genaue Abschrift, Ablichtung true copy genaue Vorschriften a clear ruling genaue Zeit exact time Genauigkeit accuracy Genauigkeit eines Dokuments accuracy of a document genehmigen, billigen approve genehmigtes Aktienkapital authorized stock Genehmigung approbation Genehmigung approval genehmigungspflichtig subject to approval genehmigungspflichtig subject to authorization Generaldirektor director general Generalpolice floating policy Generalpolice open policy Generalstreik general strike Generalversammlung general meeting Generalvertreter general agent generelle Versicherung, Dachvertrag blanket insurance Genesungsheim, Kuranstalt convalescent home Genesungszeit, Erholungszeit convalescence Genossenschaft cooperative society genossenschaftlich cooperative genossenschaftlich, gemeinsam corporate genossenschaftliche Basis cooperative basis genossenschaftliche Basis, gemeinsame Basis mutual basis genossenschaftliche Sparkasse mutual savings bank genossenschaftliches Absatzwesen cooperative marketing geometrische Progression geometric progression geplatzter Scheck bounced check Gepäck baggage Gepäck (Br.) luggage Gepäckanhänger luggage label Gepäckaufbewahrung (Br.) left-luggage office Gepäckaufbewahrungsschein cloak room ticket Gepäckaufbewahrungsschein luggage ticket Gepäckversicherung baggage insurance gerade noch Gewinn machen break even gerecht just gerecht und zumutbar just and reasonable geregelte Geschäfte regulated dealings gerichtlich beglaubigen legalize gerichtlich entscheiden adjudicate gerichtliche Maßnahmen legal measures gerichtliche Maßnahmen ergreifen take legal measures gerichtliche Maßnahmen ergreifen take legal measures gerichtliche Schritte legal steps gerichtliches Vorgehen legal action Gerichtsgebühren law charges Gerichtshof court Gerichtskosten court fees Gerichtskosten law costs Gerichtskosten legal expenses gerichtsmedizinisch medico-legal Gerichtsstand place of jurisdiction Gerichtsverfahren law-suit gering slight geringer minor geringer, herabsetzen lower geringfügig negligible geringfügige Angelegenheit, Nebensache minor matter geringfügige Reparaturen minor repairs geringfügige Unsicherheit slight uncertainty gerissen, geschickt smart Gerät appliance Gerät device Geräte (im Computerbereich), Eisenwaren hardware Gerücht rumor Ges. mit unbeschränkter Haftung unlimited company gesamt overall gesamt total Gesamtangebot aggregate supply Gesamtbedarf composite demand Gesamtbetrag aggregate amount Gesamtbetrag total amount Gesamteinnahmen total receipts Gesamtertrag compound yield Gesamtertrag total return Gesamtgewinn overall profit Gesamtgläubiger joint creditor Gesamtgläubiger owner of joint rights Gesamtnachfrage aggregate demand Gesamtnutzen total utility Gesamtprüfung general examination Gesamtschuldner, Mitschuldner joint debtor gesamtschuldnerisch joint and several gesamtschuldnerisch haftend jointly and severally liable gesamtschuldnerische Haftung joint liability Gesamtschule comprehensive school Gesamtsumme aggregate Gesamtsumme, Endsumme sum total Gesamtverbindlichkeiten total liabilities Gesamtversicherung all-risk insurance Geschenk, Gabe gift Geschenksendung gift parcel geschickt handy geschlossen closed Geschädigter aggrieved party Geschäft business Geschäft transaction Geschäft auf gemeinsame Rechnung business on joint account Geschäft, Abschluß deal Geschäfte am Geldmarkt money operations Geschäfte durchführen transact business Geschäfte in kleinen Mengen odd business Geschäfte jeder Art erledigen handle any sort of business Geschäfte tätigen transact business Geschäfte, Umsätze dealings geschäftliche Transaktionen business dealings geschäftliches Risiko business risk Geschäftsablauf course of business Geschäftsanteil interest in the partnership Geschäftsanteil share in the company Geschäftsausfallversicherung loss of profit insurance Geschäftsbedingungen terms and conditions Geschäftseinlage investment in the business Geschäftseröffnung, freie Stelle opening Geschäftsfähigkeit capacity to contract Geschäftsfrau businesswoman geschäftsführend acting geschäftsführender Direktor managing director Geschäftsführung management Geschäftshaftpflichtversicherung business liability insurance Geschäftsjahr business year Geschäftsjahr financial year Geschäftsjahr, Rechnungsjahr fiscal year Geschäftsmann businessman Geschäftspapiere business papers Geschäftsräume business premises Geschäftsräume office premises Geschäftsräume der Bank bank premises Geschäftsräume, Firmengelände premises Geschäftsschluss close of business Geschäftsschulden trade debts Geschäftsstelle branch Geschäftsstelle branch office Geschäftsstunden hours of business Geschäftsstunden office hours Geschäftsumfang volume of business Geschäftsumfang, Geschäftsbereich scope of business Geschäftszweig branch of business Geschäftszyklus business cycle Geschäftsübernahme takeover geschätzte Inventur estimated inventory geschätzter Wert estimated value Geschwindigkeit speed Geschwindigkeit velocity Geselle journeyman Gesellschaft association Gesellschaft society Gesellschaft für besondere Transaktionen particular partnership Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung limited liability company Gesellschafter associate Gesellschafter member of a company Gesellschafter partner in a firm Gesellschafter, Partner partner Gesellschaftskapital joint capital of a company Gesellschaftsregister register of joint stock companies Gesellschaftsvermögen assets of a company Gesellschaftsvertrag contract of association Gesellschaftsvertrag der GmbH memorandum of association Gesellschaftsvertrag der oHG deed of partnership Gesellschaftsvertrag der oHG memorandum of partnership Gesetz statute Gesetz betreffend den Verkauf von Waren Sale of Goods Act Gesetz betreffend Fabriken Factory Acts Gesetz der großen Zahl law of large numbers Gesetz der Ökonomie der Zeit law of economy of time Gesetz des komparativen Nutzens law of comparative advantages Gesetz gegen unlauteren Wettbewerb Fair Trade Law Gesetz vom abnehmenden Ertrag law of diminishing returns Gesetz von Angebot und Nachfrage law of supply and demand Gesetzeslücke loophole in the law Gesetzesübertretung breach of law Gesetzesübertretung malfeasance gesetzlich legal gesetzlich begründeter Schadensersatzanspruch lawful damages gesetzlich festgelegt statutory gesetzlich haftbar legally liable gesetzlich, rechtsgültig legal gesetzliche Haftpflicht legal liability gesetzliche Rücklage legal reserve gesetzliche Rücklagen legal reserves gesetzliche Verpflichtung legal obligation gesetzlicher Höchstzinssatz legal rate gesetzlicher Schadensersatzanspruch damages at law gesetzliches Zahlungsmittel legal tender gesetzliches Zahlungsmittel (US) lawful money gesicherte Verbindlichkeiten secured liabilities gesichertes Darlehen secured credit gesiegelte Urkunde deed gesperrte Schuld, verjährte Schuld barred debt Gestalter designer gestattet nach geltendem Recht authorized by the law in force Gestell, Ständer rack gestohlenes Fahrzeug stolen vehicle gestufter Tarif graduated tariff gesund healthy Gesundheit health Gesundheit physical health Gesundheit wiederherstellen restore health Gesundheitsamt local health authority Gesundheitsrisiko health hazard Gesundheitsversorgung für alte Leute medicare getan, gehandelt done getätigter Umsatz business done getrennt separate getrennt halten keep apart getrennt halten keep separate getrennt von anderen Verträgen separate from other contracts getrennt von den Kaufverträgen separate from the sales contracts gewagt risky Gewahrsam custody Gewahrsam keeping Gewahrsamsklausel bailee clause Gewebe, Stoff fabric Gewerbe, Handel trade Gewerbeerlaubnis trading certificate Gewerbefreiheit freedom of trade Gewerbegebiet industrial estate gewerblich genutztes Gebäude industrial building gewerbliche Ausbildung industrial training gewerbliche Darlehen loans to trade and industry gewerbliche Feuerversicherung industrial fire risk insurance gewerbliches Fahrzeug commercial vehicle gewerbliches Risiko industrial risk Gewerkschaft trade union Gewicht weight Gewicht der Verpackung tare Gewicht der Verpackung weight of packing gewichteter Index weighted index Gewichtsangabe declaration of weight Gewichtsverlust loss in weight Gewichtsverlust, Untergewicht loss in weight Gewichtung weighting Gewinnaufteilung earnings statement Gewinn earning Gewinn gain Gewinn profit Gewinn abwerfen yield a profit Gewinn aus Handelsgeschäften trading profit Gewinn aus Kapitalanlagen investment gain Gewinn, Einnahmen gains Gewinn- und Verlustkonto profit and loss account Gewinn- und Verlustkonto profit-and-loss statement Gewinnabschätzung estimation of prospective profits Gewinnanteil share in the profits Gewinnanteil, Dividende dividend Gewinnanteilschein dividend warrant Gewinnberechnung calculation of profits Gewinnbeteiligung profit-sharing gewinnbringend gainful gewinnbringend profitable Gewinne wiederinvestieren ploughing back profits gewinnen gain Gewinnplan, Dividendensystem bonus scheme Gewinnrendite earnings yield Gewinnrückgang loss of profits Gewinnsatz rate of profit Gewinnspanne profit margin Gewinnverteilung bonus allocation Gewinnverteilung distribution of profits Gewinnverteilung division of profits Gewinnvortrag profit carried forward gewissenloser Geschäftemacher racketeer gewissenloses Praktizieren malpractice gewissermaßen in some measure gewissermaßen quasi gewissermaßen ein Monopol quasi-monopoly Gewissheit, Sicherheit certainty gewogener Mittelwert mean average gewähren, gestatten allow gewährleisten warrant Gewährleistung warranty Gewährleistung, Garantie warranty Gewährleistungsdauer length of warranty gewährte Frist time allowed Gewässerverschmutzung water pollution gewöhnlich ordinary gezeichnete Aktie subscribed share gezeichnetes Kapital subscribed capital gezielte Werbung selective advertising gezogene auf die eröffnende Bank drawn on the issuing bank gilt als is deemed to be Girogläubiger creditor by endorsement Girokontenüberziehung bank overdraft Girokonto checking account Girokonto current account Girokonto (US) checking account Girosystem check system Glanzpunkt highlight Glasversicherung glass breakage insurance Glasversicherung plate glass insurance gleich equal gleich, entsprechend equal gleichartig similar gleichbleibende Prämie level premium gleichbleibendes Risiko constant risk gleiche Entlohnung equal pay gleiches Akkreditiv similar credit Gleichgewicht equilibrium Gleichgültigkeit indifference gleichlautend conform gleichlautend in conformity gleichlautende Abschrift true copy gleichsam quasi gleichwertig, Gegenwert equivalent gleichzeitig concurrent gleichzeitig simultaneous gleitende Arbeitszeit flexible working hours Gleitklausel escalator clause Gleitskala, gestuft sliding scale Gliederung der Ausgaben classification of expenditures Gläubiger creditor Gläubigerausschuss committee of creditors Gläubigerausschuß board of creditors Gläubigerausschuß committee of creditors Gläubigermehrheit majority of creditors Glück, Vermögen fortune Glücksspiel gambling Glücksspiel game of chance Glücksspiel game of luck GmbH limited liability company GmbH private limited company Gold in Barren bullion Gold in Barren gold bullion Gold- oder Silberbarren bullion Gold- und Silberbestand bullion Goldabfluß flow of gold Goldabfluß gold outflow Goldabfluß outflow of gold Goldadagio gold premium Goldagio premium on gold Goldangebot gold supply Goldausfuhr gold export Goldbarren gold bar Goldbarren gold ingot Goldbestand gold holdings Goldbestand gold stock Golddeckung gold cover Golddeckung gold coverage Goldeinfuhr gold import Goldklausel gold clause Goldkurs gold rate Goldkurs rate of gold Goldmark gold mark Goldmarkt bullion market Goldminen, Goldbergwerke gold mines Goldmünzen gold coins Goldoption gold option Goldparität gold parity Goldpreis gold price Goldpreis price of gold Goldreserven gold reserves Goldreserven holdings of gold Goldstandard gold standard Goldstück gold piece Goldwert gold value Goldzufluß gold inflow Goldüberschuss surplus gold Grad der Invalidität degree of disablement Grafschaft county graphische Darstellung graph Gratifikation gratuity Gratifikation, Zuwendung gratuity gratis cost free gratis free of cost Gratisaktie bonus share grauer Markt gray market Gremium, Ausschuss board Grenbzneigung zu sparen marginal propensity to save Grenzbereich, Grenzland borderland Grenzbewohner borderer Grenze border Grenze der Entschädigung limit of indemnity Grenze, Grenzlinie boundary Grenze, limitieren, begrenzen limit Grenzertrag marginal profit Grenzertrag marginal revenue Grenzkosten marginal cost Grenzkostenrechnung marginal analysis Grenzkostenrechnung marginal costing Grenzleistung des Kapitals marginal efficiency of capital Grenzlinie borderline Grenzneigung zu verbrauchen marginal propensity to consume Grenznutzen marginal utility Grenzproduktion marginal production Grenzproduktivität marginal productivity Grenzproduktivität der Arbeit marginal productivity of labour Grenzübergangsstelle point of entry grobe Fahrlässigkeit gross fault grobe Schätzung rough estimate Großauftrag, Auftrag für unverpackte Ware bulk order große gemeinschaftliche Havarie general average große Havarie general average große Havarie, Havarie-grosse general average große Sorgfalt high diligence Großeinkauf, Einkauf unverpackter Ware bulk buying großenteils in a great measure großer Auftrag large order großes Passagierflugzeug airliner Großfeuer conflagration Großhandel wholesale Großhandel wholesale trade Großhandelsgenossenschaft wholesale cooperative Großhandelsgeschäft wholesale business Großhandelspreis wholesale price Großhandelsrabatt wholesale discount Großhändler wholesale dealer Großhändler wholesaler Großhändler an der Börse, Akkordarbeiter jobber Großlebensversicherung ordinary life insurance Grund der Kündigung cause of cancellation Grund, Ursache, Veranlassung cause Grundbesitz estate Grundbesitz freehold property Grundbesitz landed estate Grundbesitz real estate Grundbesitz real property holding Grundbesitz, Immobilien real estate Grundbesitzer land owner Grundbesitzer landholder Grundbesitzer owner of an estate Grundbuch land register Grundeigentum landed property Grundeigentümer land owner Grunderwerb land acquisition Grunderwerbssteuer land purchase tax Grundgebühr base fee Grundgedanke keynote Grundherr, Hausherr landlord grundlegend basic Grundlohn basic wage grundlos, ohne Basis baseless Grundpfand real security Grundpreis basis price Grundprämie basic premium Grundsatz maxim Grundsteuer rates Grundsteuer (Br.) rates Grundsteuernachlaß rate relief Grundsteuerpflichtiger, Hausbesitzer ratepayer Grundstück mit allen Gebäuden premises Grundstücke und Gebäude land and buildings Grundstückeigentümer, Hausherr landlord Grundstückeigentümerhaftpflicht landlord's liability Grundstücksbesteuerung tax on real estate Grundstücksertrag returns from landed property Grundstückskonto landed property account Grundstückskonto real estate account Grundstücksmakler real estate agent Grundstücksmakler, Grundstücksverwalter land agent Grundstücksmakler, Immobilienmakler real estate broker Grundstücksspekulation, Bodenspekulation real estate speculation Grundstücksverwaltungsabteilung real estate department Grundstückswert land value Grundstückswert value of the property Grundtarif basic rate Gruppe clique Gruppe group Gruppenakkord group piece rate Gruppenbonus group incentives Gruppenlebensversicherung group life insurance Gruppenversicherung collective insurance Gruppenversicherung group insurance Gruppenversicherung, Kollektivversicherung group insurance Größe size größer, bedeutender major größere Beträge substantial amounts größere Schwierigkeit, größeres Problem major difficulty Gründer founder Gründeraktien founder's shares Gründerrechte founder's rights Gründervorzugsrechte founder's preference rights Gründung foundation Gründung einer Firma formation of a company Gründungskapital original capital grüne Versicherungskarte green card Gummistempel rubber stamp Gunst, Gefallen favor gut ausgebildet well-trained gut erzogen well-educated Gutachten expert opinion Gutachten eines Sachverständigen opinion of an expert gute zeitliche Koordinierung timing guter Glauben good faith gutgläubig without notice gutgläubiger Empfänger bona fide receiver gutgläubiger Erwerber bona fide transferee gutgläubiger Erwerber einer Hypothek bona fide mortgagee gutgläubiger Erwerber eines Pfandrechts bona fide pledgee gutgläubiger Erwerber gegen Entgelt bona fide purchaser for value gutgläubiger Inhaber bona fide holder Guthaben money on account Guthaben bei einer Bank credit at a bank Guthabenüberschuss credit balance Gutschein token Gutschein voucher gutschreiben credit Gutschrift credit advice Gutschrift credit entry Gutschrift credit note gültig in force gültig valid gültig bis auf Widerruf valid until revoked gültige Quittung valid receipt gültiger Einwand valid objection gültiger Tarif tariff in force Gültigkeit validity Gültigkeitsdauer period of validity Gültigkeitsdauer validity period günstig favorable günstige Gelegenheit, günstiges Angebot bargain günstigste Bedingungen most favorable terms Güterbeförderung forwarding of goods Güterfernverkehr (US) highway transport Güterzug wagon train Güteverfahren, Schlichtungsverfahren conciliatory proceedings gütlich, außer Gericht, außergerichtlich amicably gütlich, unter Freunden amicable gütliche Beilegung, Schlichtung amicable adjustment gütlicher Vergleich, Vergleich amicable settlement H Hab und Gut goods and chattels haben alle aktiv teilgenommen have all played an active role haben sich grundlegend geändert have changed radically Habenichts have-not Habenzinsen credit interest Habenzinsen interest due Habenzinsen interest on credit balances Hafen port Hafenbehörde port authority Hafengebühr harbor dues Hafengebühren, Dockgebühren dock dues Hafenmeister harbor master Hafenrisiken port risks haftbar sein für be liable for haftbar werden become liable haftbar, verantwortlich accountable haftbar, verantwortlich liable Haftpflicht liability Haftpflichthöchstgrenze maximum liability Haftpflichtversicherung third-party insurance Haftpflichtversicherung (US) liability insurance Haftpflichtversicherung des Arbeitsgebers employer's liability insurance Haftung liabilities Haftung des Grundpächters landholder's liability Haftung für die Folgen liability for consequences Haftung für die Folgen liability for the consequences Haftung für irgendwelche Handlungen liability for any acts Haftung für irgendwelche Unterlassungen liability for any omissions Haftung gegen Dritten third-party liability Haftungsdauer indemnity period Haftungsumfang accountability Hagelschaden damage by hail Hagelversicherung hail insurance halbamtlich quasi official halber freier Tag half a holiday halber Preis half-price halbfertig semi-finished Halbfertigwaren goods in process Halbfertigwaren unfinished goods Halbjahresprämie semi-annual premium halbjährlich half-yearly halbjährliche Zinsen semi-annual interest halbmonatlich semi-monthly halbtags arbeiten work part-time halten hold halten keep halten, festhalten, besitzen hold halten, Lebensunterhalt keep Haltung attitude Handarbeit manual work Handel commerce Handel dealing Handel in Aktien dealing in stocks Handel in kleinen Mengen odd trading Handel in Obligationen dealing in bonds Handel und Industrie trade and industry Handel zwischen zwei Staaten bilateral trade handeln to act handeln mit deal in handeln nicht mit anderen Leistungen do not deal in other performances handeln nicht mit Dienstleistungen do not deal in services handeln nicht mit Waren do not deal in goods handeln, Handlung, Gesetz act Handels- und Geschäftsbank commercial bank Handelsabkommen commercial agreement Handelsabkommen trade agreement Handelsakademie commercial academy Handelsattache commercial attache Handelsbank merchant bank Handelsbarrieren trade barriers Handelsbilanz balance of trade Handelsbrauch commercial usage Handelsbrauch practices Handelsbrauch usance Handelsdefizit trade deficit handelserleichternde Maßnahmen trade facilitation activities Handelserleichterung trade facilitation handelsgerichtliche Eintragung incorporation Handelsgeschäft commercial transaction Handelsgesellschaft trading company Handelsgesetzbuch commercial code Handelsinteressen commercial interests Handelskammer chamber of commerce Handelskammer Chamber of Commerce Handelskrieg tariff war Handelsmesse trade fair Handelsministerium Department of Commerce Handelsministerium (Br.) Board of Trade Handelsmonopol trade monopoly Handelspapier, Dokument paper Handelspapiere commercial documents Handelspapiere gegen Akzeptierung documents against acceptance Handelspapiere gegen Zahlung documents against payment Handelspolitik commercial policy Handelsrechnung commercial invoice Handelsrecht commercial law Handelsrecht mercantile law Handelsregister register of companies Handelsregisterauszug certificate of registration Handelsreisender commercial traveler Handelsschiff merchant vessel Handelstratte commercial draft Handelsunternehmen commercial enterprise Handelsunternehmen mercantile concern Handelsverband trade association Handelsverbot interdiction of commerce Handelsverhältnis Import/Export terms of trade Handelsvertrag commercial treaty Handelsware merchandise Handelswechsel commercial bills Handelswechsel, Warenwechsel trade bill Handelswert commercial value Handelswert trade value Handelswert trade-in value handelsüblich according to custom and usage handelsüblich usual in trade handgefertigt hand-worked Handgeld earnest money Handgeld, Anzahlung earnest money Handlung act Handlung, Klage action Handlung, Operation, Betrieb operation Handlungsbevollmächtigter officer Handlungsreisender (Br., veraltet) bagman Handschrift handwriting handschriftlich handwritten Handwerk craft Handwerk, Kunsthandwerk handicraft Handwerker artisan Handwerker craftsman Handwerkskammer Chamber of Trade Handzettel, Flugblatt handbill Hauptschuldner principal debtor harte Bedingung, strenge Bedingung stringent condition harte Währung hard currency harter Test acid test Hartgeld coined money Hartgeld hard cash Hartgeld specie hat in Betracht gezogen has taken into account hauptberuflicher Vertreter full-time agent Hauptbestandteil, wesentlicher Bestandteil essential part Hauptbuch general ledger Hauptbuch ledger Hauptbuchführer ledger keeper Hauptbuchhalter chief accountant Hauptbüro, Zentrale main office Hauptbüro, Zentrale, Stammhaus head office Hauptgeschäftsstunden peak hours Hauptgläubiger principal creditor Hauptkassier cashier in charge Hauptkassier chief cashier Hauptkassier head cashier Hauptkassierer chief cashier Hauptkatalog main catalogue Hauptkonto general account Hauptlieferant main supplier Hauptpolice master policy Hauptquartier, Hauptgeschäftsstelle headquarters Hauptsitz head office hauptsächlich main hauptsächlich mainly Haupturlaubszeit vacation period Hauptursache chief cause Hauptverbraucher main consumer Hauptverkehrsstraße main artery road Hauptverkehrszeit rush hour Hauptversammlung shareholders' meeting Haus möbliert vermieten let a house furnished Haus vermieten let a house Haus- und Geschäftsräume domestic and business premises Hausbesitzer house owner Hausbesitzer owner of a house Hausbock xylophaga Hauseigentümer houseowner Hauseigentümer owner of a house Hauseigentümerversicherung house owner's policy Haushalt household Haushaltsführung housekeeping Haushaltsgeld housekeeping allowance Haushaltskontrolle budgetary control haushaltsmäßig, den Haushalt betreffend budgetary Haushaltsperiode budget period Hausherrin, Dame des Hauses landlady Hausrat household and personal effects Hausrat residence contents Hausrat- und Haftpflichtversicherung householder's comprehensive insurance Hausratsversicherung household insurance Hausratversicherung insurance of contents Hausschwamm dry rot Hausse bull market Haussier, Hausse-Spekulant bull Hausversicherung home insurance Hausversicherung residence insurance Hausvertreter home-service insurance man Hausverwalter caretaker Havarie-grosse Klausel general-average clause Havariebericht, Schadensbericht survey report Havarieeinschuss general average deposit Havariehandlung general average act Havariekommissar average adjuster Havariekommissar surveyor Havariekommissar von Lloyd Lloyd's agent Havarieverteilung adjustment of average Hebegebühr collection charge Heilmittel remedy Heimarbeitssystem homework system Heimatanschrift, Privatanschrift home address Heimathafen port of registry Heimatland home country Heimsparbüchse home safe Heimstätte, Eigenheim (US) homestead Heizkesselversicherung boiler insurance heiß hot heiße Aktien hot issues heißes Geld hot money helfen assist Helfer in Steuersachen tax expert Helikopter helicopter herabgesetzter Preis marked down price herabsetzen abate herabsetzen lower herabsetzen reduce herabsetzen, Herabsetzung von Preisen markdown herabsetzen, senken cut Herbst (US) fall Herr, Ehrenmann gentleman herrenlos unowned herrenloses Gut abandoned property Herrscher über Geld, Firmen und Leute tycoon herstellen fabricate herstellen, Herstellung manufacture Hersteller, Aussteller maker Herstellerhaftpflichtversicherung producer's liability insurance Herstellung manufacturing Herstellungskosten manufacturing costs Herstellungsland country of production Herstellungsnebenkosten manufacturing expenses Herstellungsverfahren manufacturing process hiermit bestätigt, hiermit beglaubigt certified herewith Hilfe aid Hilfe assistance Hilfe, Fürsorge aid Hilfeleistung assistance after accident Hilfsarbeit unskilled labor Hilfsarbeiter unskilled worker Himmelsschreiben skywriting hinausgeschobene Zahlung deferred payment Hindernis obstacle Hinreise outward journey Hinsicht regard Hinterbliebene surviving dependants Hinterbliebenenrente survivorship annuity Hintergrund background hinterlegen lodge hinterlegen, deponieren lodge Hinterlegung einer Eingabe filing of a petition Hinterlegung einer Sicherheit deposit of a security Hinterlegung eines Antrags filing of an application Hinterlegung zur Sicherheit collateral security Hinterlegungsschein certificate of deposit Hinterlegungsschein letter of deposit Hinterlegungsschein receipt of deposit Hinterlegungsschein warrant of deposit Hinterlegungsschein für Wertpapiere collateral note Hintertür loophole hinterzogene Einkommensteuer evaded income tax hinzufügen add hinzufügen append Histogramm histogram hoch im Preis high priced hoch im Preis high-priced hochachtungsvoll yours faithfully Hochfinanz high finance hochgradig, hochwertig high-grade Hochleistungs- high-performance Hochschulgelände campus Hochstapelei high-class robbery hochwertig high-quality hochwertige Ware quality goods hohe Zinsen dear interest hoher Gewinn large profit hohes Alter old-age Holdinggesellschaft controlling company Holdinggesellschaft holding company Holdinggesellschaft holding society Händler dealer Händler trader Händler am schwarzen Markt blacketeer Händlerrabatt trade discount Honorar des Arztes, ärztliches Honorar doctor's fee Härteklausel hardship clause horten hoard Horten hoarding Horten von Zahlungsmitteln stock-piling of currency härten, verhärten harden Härtezulage hardship allowance Hortung hoarding Hotel hotel Hotelgewerbe hotel business Hotelreservierung hotel reservation Hotelunterkunft hotel accommodation häufig frequent Häufigkeit frequency Häufigkeit frequency of occurrence Häufigkeit, Frequenz frequency Häufigkeitsverteilung frequency distribution häuslicher Unfall domestic accident Huckepacktransport piggyback trucking Hungerlohn starvation wages Hypothek mortgage hypothekarisch by mortgage hypothekarisch belasten, verpfänden, Hypothek mortgage hypothekarische Sicherheit hypothecary security hypothekarischer Kredit credit on mortgage Hypothekarschuld debt on mortgage Hypotheken beleihen advance upon mortgage Hypothekenabteilung mortgage department Hypothekenabtretung transfer of mortgage Hypothekenabzahlung mortgage amortization Hypothekenauszug aus dem Grundbuch mortgage note Hypothekenbank land bank Hypothekenbank mortgage bank Hypothekenbetrag mortgage money Hypothekenbrief mortgage deed Hypothekendarlehen mortgage loan Hypothekenforderung hypothecary claim Hypothekenforderung money secured by mortgage Hypothekenforderung mortgage claim Hypothekenforderung mortgages receivable Hypothekengeber mortgage lender Hypothekengläubiger mortgage creditor Hypothekengläubiger mortgagee Hypothekenpfandbrief mortgage bond Hypothekenpfandbrief mortgage debenture Hypothekenregister mortgage register Hypothekenrückzahlung mortgage repayment Hypothekensatz mortgage rate Hypothekenschuld debt on mortgage Hypothekenschuld hypothecary debt Hypothekenschuld mortgage debt Hypothekenschulden mortgages payable Hypothekenschuldner mortgage debitor Hypothekenschuldner mortgagor Hypothekenurkunde, Hypothekenbrief mortgage deed Hypothekenurkunde, Hypothekenschein mortgage certificate Hypothekenverschuldung mortgage indebtedness Hypothekenversicherung mortgage insurance Hypothekenzins mortgage interest Hypothekenzinsen mortgage interests hypothetische Frage hypothetical question Höchstalter limiting age Höchstalter, Altersgrenze age limit Höchstanbieter highest bidder Höchstangebot highest bid Höchstbetrag maximum amount Höchstgrenze maximum limit Höchstkontingent maximum quota Höchstkurs maximum rate Höchstkurs peak price Höchstkurs, Höchstpreis top price Höchstleistung maximum capacity Höchstlohn maximum wage Höchstpreis ceiling price Höchstpreis maximum price Höchstpreis peak price Höchstsatz, Höchstprämie maximum rate Höchstschaden maximum loss Höchststand highest level Höchstwert maximum Höchstwert maximum value Höchstzahl maximum number Höhe der Anlage amount of money invested Höhe der Sicherheitsleistung amount of security Höhe des Schadens quantum of damages Höhe einer Forderung amount of a claim höher im Rang sein rank before höhere Gewalt Act of God höhere Gewalt force majeure ICC-Bankenkommission ICC's Banking Commission Ideensammlungsmethode brainstorming identifizieren identify Identität identity Ödland waste land Öffentlicher Versorgungsbetrieb public utility ihrer Natur nach by their nature Ökonometrie econometrics I illiquide illiquid Illiquidität illiquidity im Akkreditiv aufgenommen ist is included in the credit im Akkreditiv-Geschäft in credit operations im allgemeinen generally im Auftrag des Kunden on behalf of the client im Auftrag von by order of im Auftrag von on behalf of im Ausland angelegtes Kapital capital invested abroad im Ausland hergestellte Ware goods of foreign make im Ausland wohnhaft resident abroad im Ausland zahlbar payable abroad im Ausland, ins Ausland abroad im Außendienst tätig sein work in the field im Dokument nicht enthalten not embodied in the document im Falle des Verlusts in the event of loss im Falle des Verlusts, im Schadensfalle in case of loss im Falle von in case of im Falle von in the event of im ganzen en bloc im Ganzen in the aggregate im Ganzen oder zum Teil in whole or in part im ganzen zahlen pay in full im Geschäft erfolgreich sein succeed in business im guten Glauben bona fide im Haben verbuchen enter on the credit side im Handelsregister gelöschte Firma defunct company im Klagewege, durch eine Klage by way of action im Komitee vertretene Länder countries represented in the committee im Land der Akzeptierung in the country of acceptance im Land der Zahlung in the country of payment im Lauf der Jahre, in der Zwischenzeit over the intervening years im Notfall in case of need im Obligo on risk im Rahmen von within the limits of im Rang nachstehen rank behind im Rang niedriger sein rank below im Schadensfalle in the event of damage im Schadensfalle in the event of loss im Scheckheft verbleibender Abschnitt counterfoil im Sinne dieser Artikel for the purpose of such articles im Sinne dieser Begriffsbestimmungen for the purpose of such definitions im Sinne dieser Regeln for the purpose of such provisions im Soll verbuchen enter on the debit side im Todesfalle in the event of death im Umlauf in circulation im Umlauf befindliche Zahlungsmittel money in circulation im Verhältnis proportional im voraus bestellen order in advance im voraus bezahlt prepaid im voraus bezahlte Prämie premium paid in advance im voraus zahlbar payable in advance im Welthandel in world trade im Wert begrenzter Scheck limited cheque im Zunehmen on the rise im Zusammenhang mit einem solchen Protest in connection with such protest im Zusammenhang mit irgendeiner Maßnahme in connection with any action im Überfluss abundant im Überfluss vorhanden sein abound im übrigen gleich ceteris paribus imaginär imaginary imaginäre Schadensersatzforderung imaginary damages imaginärer Firmenwert goodwill imaginärer Gewinn anticipated profit imaginärer Gewinn imaginary profit immaterielle Werte intangible assets Immobilien immovable property Immobilien immovables Immobilienbüro estate agency Immobilienfonds real estate fund Immobilienmakler realtor Immobilienmakler, Grundstücksmakler estate agent Implikation implication implizieren imply impliziert implicit Import, Einfuhr, importieren, einführen import Importbeschränkung limitation of imports Importeur, Einführer importer Importhafen port of importation Importhafen (US) port of entry Importland country of importation in Aktien umtauschbare Obligationen convertible bonds in allen Fällen in all cases in Anbetracht in view of in Arbeit befindliche Ware goods in process in ausländischem Besitz foreign-controlled in Bankkreisen in banking circles in bar in specie in Betracht kommen come into question in Betracht ziehen take in account in Betracht ziehen take into consideration in Bezahlung unserer Rechnung in payment of our account in blanko akzeptieren accept in blank in Container verladen containerize in den Akten on record in der Angabe einer bestimmten Anzahl in terms of a stated number in der Annahme dass assuming that in der Form in the form in der neuen Version in the new version in der Praxis in practice in der Regel normally in der Regel wird ein Kompromiss gefunden a compromise is normally agreed in der Verantwortlichkeit des Absenders at the responsibility of the sender in der vorgeschrieben Art in the manner specified in der Währung des Landes in currency of the country in deutscher Währung in German currency in die Höhe schießende Preise soaring prices in die Höhe treiben enhance in diesem Gebiet erfahren experienced in this area in eine Firma eintreten join a company in englischer Währung in English currency in Ermangelung von failing which in erster Linie primarily in französischer Währung in French currency in Gefahr bringen endanger in Gefahr bringen jeopardize in Geld schwimmen rolling in money in Geld umsetzen, verflüssigen turn into money in Geld umsetzen, zu Geld machen turn into cash in Geldverlegenheit hard up in getrenntem Umschlag under separate cover in gewisser Hinsicht in a way in gleicher Weise similarly in Grenzen halten keep within a limit in großem Umfang large scale in großem Umfang large-scale in großen Gebinden, Bulkware bulk in gutem Glauben bona fide in gutem Zustand halten keep in good repair in Höhe von, belaufend auf amounting to in ihrer äußeren Aufmachung on their face in inländischer Währung in local currency in keiner Hinsicht in no way in Kommission on sale or return in Kommission sale or return in Kommission, als Konsignationsware on consignment in Konkurrenz sein mit compete with in Kraft treten come into force in Pension gehen, in Rente gehen go on pension in Pfand nehmen take as security in Privatbesitz überführen denationalize in Raten zahlen pay by installments in Rechnung gestellte Ware goods billed to customer in Ruhestand gehen retire in solch einem Inkassoauftrag in such collection order in Umlauf befindliche Mittel money in circulation in Umlauf sein circulate in Verbindung bleiben keep in touch with in Verkehr bringen put in circulation in Verlegenheit embarrassed in Worten say in Zahlung nehmen receive in payment in Zukunft, nachstehend hereafter in Übereinstimmung mit in accord with in Übereinstimmung mit den Richtlinien in accordance with the terms in Übereinstimmung mit diesen Richtlinien in accordance with these rules in Übereinstimmung sein, entsprechen to be in accordance with in öffentlichem Besitz, jedermann zugänglich in the public domain in örtlicher Währung zahlbar payable in local currency inaktives Konto dormant account Inbesitznahme appropriation Index index Index, Meßziffer index index-gebundene Aktie index-linked stock Indexklausel index clause Indexnummer index number Indexversicherung insurance with index clause Indifferenzkurve indifference curve Indifferenzpunkt point of indifference indirekt indirect indirekten Steuern indirect taxes indirekter Schaden indirect loss or damage indirekter Schaden, mittelbarer Schaden indirect damage Individualismus individualism Individuum, einzeln individual Indossament endorsement Indossament erforderlich endorsement required Indossament mit Vorbehalt conditional endorsement Indossament ohne Obligo restrictive endorsement Indossament ohne Verbindlichkeit endorsement without recourse Indossant endorser Indossatar endorsee indossieren endorse indossieren indorse indossieren, ergänzen endorse indossieren, girieren, begeben endorse Indossierung endorsing induktive Methode inductive method industrialisieren industrialize Industrialisierung industrialization Industrie industry Industrieaktien industrials Industriedarlehen loans to industry Industrieemissionen industrial issues Industriekapitän captain of industry industriell industrial industrielle Erschließung industrial development industrielle Revolution industrial revolution Industrieobligation industrial obligation Industrieobligationen industrial securities Industriepotential industrial potential Industrieverlagerung relocation of industry Industriezweig line of industry Inflation inflation inflationistische Tendenz inflationary trend inflationär inflationary Inflationsausgleich inflationary adjustment Inflationsgefahr inflation peril Inflationsgewinn inflation gain Inflationsrate rate of inflation Inflationsspirale inflationary spiral inflatorische Lücke inflationary gap Information, Auskunft information Informationsaustausch exchange of information Informationsblatt handout informierend informatory Infrastruktur infrastructure Inhaber holder Inhaber einer Obligation bondholder Inhaber einer Schuldverschreibung debenture holder Inhaber einer Versicherungspolice policyholder Inhaber eines Schecks bearer of a cheque Inhaber eines Wechsels bearer of a bill Inhaber eines Wechsels holder of a bill of exchange Inhaber eines Wertpapieres, Überbringer bearer Inhaberaktie bearer share Inhaberaktie bearer stock Inhaberpapier bearer paper Inhaberscheck bearer cheque Inhaberschuldverschreibung bearer bond Inhaberschuldverschreibungen bonds payable to bearer Inhalt contents Inhalt, beinhaltete Daten, Inhaltsmerkmale data content Inhalt, Hausrat, Mobilien contents Inhaltsverzeichnis table of contents Initiative initiative Inkasso collection Inkasso durch Boten collection by hand Inkasso von Zahlungspapieren collection of financial documents Inkasso vornehmen collect Inkassoabteilung collection department Inkassoanzeige advice of collection Inkassoauftrag collecting order Inkassoauftrag collection order Inkassobüro collection agency Inkassodokumente documents collected Inkassogebühr charges for collection Inkassogebühren collecting charges Inkassoindossament endorsement for collection Inkassokosten collection costs Inkassokosten collection expenses Inkassoposten item for collection Inkassoprovision commission for collection Inkassovollmacht collecting power Inkassovollmacht power for collection Inkassowechsel bill for collection Inkorporationsurkunde certificate of incorporation Inkrafttreten coming into force Inlandsanleihe inland loan Inlandserzeugnisse home produced goods Inlandsinvestitionen domestic investments Inlandsmarkt domestic market Inlandsmarkt, Binnenmarkt home market Inlandsnachfrage home demand Inlandspostanweisung inland money order Inlandspreis domestic price Inlandsschulden domestic debts Inlandsumsätze domestic sales Inlandsverbrauch domestic consumption Inlandsverbrauch home consumption Inlandswechsel domestic bill Inlandswechsel inland bill inländisch domestic inländisches Recht domestic law Innenadresse inside address Innendienstbelegschaft inside staff Innenminister Home Secretary Innenministerium Home Office Innenstadt (US) downtown Innenstadt, Geschäftsstadt city innerbetrieblich interoffice innerbetrieblich, inländisch internal innerhalb von 90 Tagen nach Benachrichtigung within 90 days from its advice innerhalb von Grenzen within limits innewohnende unsichtbare Mängel latent defects innewohnender Mangel inherent vice Innovation innovation insbesondere in particular Inserent advertiser Insider insider Insolventenliste blacklist Insolvenz insolvency Inspektion, Nachschau inspection Inspektionskomitee, Gläubigerausschuss committee of inspection Inspektor inspector inspizieren inspect Installation, Einbau, Montage installation installieren, einrichten, einbauen install Instandhaltungskosten costs of maintenance Instandsetzungsabteilung maintenance department Instanzenweg normal channel Institut, Einrichtung institution institutionell institutional institutioneller Anleger institutional investor Instrukteur instructor Instrument instrument intelligent intelligent Intelligenz, Nachrichten intelligence Intelligenztest intelligence test Intensität intensity intensiv intensive intensive Bearbeitung intensive cultivation Interesse, Zins interest Interessen der Minorität minority interests Interessen, Beteiligung, Anteil interests Interessengemeinschaft community of interests Interessengemeinschaft pool Interessenkonflikt conflict of interest Interessensbereich sphere of interest Interimsquittung provisional receipt Interimsschein interim certificate Interimsschein provisional certificate international international international anerkannt internationally accepted International Chamber of Commerce ICC international gehandelte Wertpapiere interbourse securities internationale Handelsbedingungen der ICC Incoterms internationale Handelsgeschäfte international trading operations Internationale Handelskammer ICC Internationale Handelskammer International Chamber of Commerce internationale Postanweisung international money order Internationale Versicherungskarte international insurance card internationale Zahlungsbilanz balance of international payments internationales Versicherungsgeschäft international insurance business Interpolation interpolation intervenieren intervene Interventionspunkt intervention point Interview interview Invalide disabled person Invalidenrente disability benefits Invalidität disability Invaliditätsgrad disability percentage Invaliditätsrente, Invalidenrente disability annuity Inventar aufnehmen raise an inventory Inventar, Bestand inventory Inventuraufnahme taking of an inventory investieren invest Investition investment Investition, Kapitalanlage investment Investitionsbetrag amount of investment Investitionsfonds mutual fund Investitionsgüter capital goods Investitionstätigkeit investment activity Investitionszuschüsse investment grants Investmentgesellschaft investment trust Investmentgesellschaft unit trust Investmentzertifikat investment trust certificate irgendeine Bank any bank irgendeine Bank, mit Ausnahme von any bank, other than irgendwelche Bezugnahme any reference whatsoever irgendwelche Stempel anbringen to place any rubber stamps irgeneine Bank nach eigener Wahl any bank of his own choice irreführen mislead irreführend misleading irreführendes Markenzeichen deceptive mark irren be mistaken irrige Auffassung mistaken idea Irrtum error Irrtum, Fehler error Irrtümer bei der Übersetzung errors in translation Irrtümer beim Dolmetschen errors in interpretation Irrtümer und Auslassungen vorbehalten errors and omissions accepted Irrtümer und Auslassungen zugelassen E.& O.E. irrtümlicherweise mistakenly ist abgeändert worden has been the subject of amendments ist angewiesen zu avisieren is instructed to advise ist angewiesen zu bestätigen is instructed to confirm ist angewiesen zu eröffnen is instructed to issue ist auf den neuesten Stand gebracht it has been updated ist benutzbar gestellt worden has been made available ist immer noch unentbehrlich has remained indispensable ist unentbehrlich geblieben has remained indispensable ist unentbehrlich geworden has become indispensable ist unwirksam is not effective ist verantwortlich, darauf zu achten, daß is responsible for seeing that J Jagd nach qualifizierten Arbeitskräften headhunting Jagdhaftpflichtversicherung hunting liability insurance Jagdunfall hunting accident jagen hunt Jahr year Jahrbuch yearbook Jahresabrechnung annual account Jahresbericht annual report Jahresbericht director's report Jahresende year-end Jahreshauptversammlung annual general meeting Jahresmeldung annual return Jahresprämie annual premium Jahresversammlung annual meeting Jahreszeit season Jahrshauptversammlung annual general meeting je Kopf per capita je nach Lage des Falles as the case may be je nachdem welcher Betrag höher ist whichever is the greater je Tag per diem jederzeit kündbarer Leasing-Vertrag operating leasing jedes Dokumentenakkreditiv each documentary credit jedes Frachtstück separat versichert each package separately insured jemand der seinen Zahlungen nicht nachkommt defaulter jemandem einen Auftrag erteilen place an order with sb. jemandem Geld schulden owe sb money jemandem leihen lend to sb jemanden ausnehmen, übervorteilen fleece jemanden unterrichtet halten keep sb informed jemanden unterstützen back up sb. jemanden wegen etwas verklagen sue sb. for sth. jemanden zur Verantwortung heranziehen hold sb. liable jetziger Wert present value jährlich annual jährlich yearly jährliche Tilgungsrate annual amortization jährliche Zahlung annual payment jährliche Zahlung annuity Journal journal Jugendlicher zwischen 14 und 17 Jahren young person junge Aktien new shares junior junior Junior, Junior-Partner junior partner Jurist lawyer juristische Person corporate body juristische Person legal person K Kabel, Telegramm cable Kabelkurs cable rate Kai quay Kaigebühren quay dues Kalender calendar Kalenderjahr calendar year Kalendermonat calendar month Kalendertag calendar day Kalenderwoche calendar week Kalkulation, Berechnung calculation kalkulieren calculate Kanal canal Kanal channel Kandidat candidate kann an die Stelle von ... gesetzt werden can be substituted for ... kann annulliert werden may be cancelled kann auf den Unterschiedsbetrag ziehen can draw for the difference kann eine vorläufige Benachrichtigung geben may give preliminary notification kann geändert werden may be amended kann jemandem angekündigt werden may be advised to sb. kann nachgewiesen werden may be evidenced kann nicht entsprechen cannot comply kann sich in keinem Falle bedienen can in no case avail himself of kann so erhöht werden may be increased in such a way Kapazität, Fassungsvermögen capacity Kapital principal Kapital aufbringen, Kapital aufnehmen raise capital Kapital aufnehmen raise capital Kapital der AG joint stock Kapital ohne Ertrag dead capital Kapital zur Einzahlung aufrufen call for capital Kapital, Vermögen capital Kapitalabgabe, Kapitalsteuer capital levy Kapitalabwanderung flow of capital Kapitalanlage capital investment Kapitalanlageabteilung investment department Kapitalanlagegesellschaft investment company Kapitalanlagen capital investments Kapitalanlageplan investment plan Kapitalanleger investor Kapitalanleger, Kapitalgeber investor Kapitalanteil share in the capital Kapitalaufnahme raising of capital Kapitalaufwand capital expenditure Kapitalbedarf need for capital Kapitalbeschaffung finding of capital Kapitalbewegungen capital movements Kapitaldividende dividend on capital Kapitaleinfuhr import of foreign capital Kapitaleinlage capital brought in Kapitaleinsatz capital expenditure Kapitaleinsatz employment of capital Kapitalerhöhung capital increase Kapitalertrag capital yield Kapitalertrag investment income Kapitalertrag proceeds from capital Kapitalertrag yield on capital Kapitalflucht flight of capital Kapitalgeber lender of capital kapitalintensiv capital-intensive kapitalisieren capitalize Kapitalisierung capitalization Kapitalismus capitalism Kapitalist capitalist kapitalistisch capitalistic Kapitalkonto capital account Kapitalkonto stock account Kapitalmangel lack of capital Kapitalmangel scarcity of capital Kapitalmangel shortage of capital Kapitalmarkt capital market Kapitalreserve reserve capital Kapitalrückfluss reflux of capital Kapitalrückzahlung return of capital kapitalschwach financially weak Kapitalspritze injection of capital kapitalstark financially sound Kapitalverkehrssteuer corporation property transfer tax Kapitalvermögen capital assets Kapitalverzinsung rate of return Kapitalzinsen interest on capital Kapitalzuwachssteuer capital gains tax Karat carat Karenzzeit qualifying period Karte card Karte für Probeunterschrift signature card Karte, graphische Darstellung chart Kartei card index Kartell cartel Kartellbildung cartelization Karton cardboard Kassa bei Auftragserteilung cash with order Kassabuch cash book Kassabuch day book Kassageschäft cash transaction Kassageschäft dealing for cash Kassageschäft spot deal Kassageschäft spot operation Kassakonto cash account Kassakurs cash price Kassakurs, Kurs für Kassageschäfte spot rate Kassamarkt cash market Kasse gegen Dokumente cash against documents Kasse machen, die Kasse abrechnen cash up Kasse vor Lieferung cash before delivery Kasse, Kassette cash box Kasse, Ladenkasse till Kassenanweisung cash order Kassenanweisung pay voucher Kassenausgang cash out Kassenbestand cash assets Kassenbestand cash balance Kassenbestand cash in hand Kassenbestand cash in vault Kassenbestand cash on hand Kassenbote cash messenger Kassenbotenversicherung cash messenger insurance Kassenbuch cash journal Kassenbuchung cash entry Kassendarlehen cash loan Kasseneingang cash in Kassenkladde cash diary Kassenkonto cash account Kassenrevision cash stock taking Kassenstand cash position Kassenüberschuss overage of cash Kassier cashier Kassier teller Kassier der postalischen Eingang bearbeitet mail teller Katalog catalogue katastrophenartig, katastrophal catstrophic Katastrophenreserve, außerordentliche Reserve catastrophe reserve Katastrophenrückversicherung catastrophe reinsurance Kategorie category Katastrophe catastrophe Kauf (auf Rechnung) purchase Kauf auf Probe purchase on approval Kaufangebot offer to buy Kaufanreiz inducement to buy kaufen buy Kaufhaus department store Kaufinteressent prospective customer Kaufinteressentenliste list of prospective buyers Kaufkraft purchasing power Kaufkraft spending power Kaufkraft des Geldes value of money Kaufkraft einer Währung purchasing power of a currency Kaufkraftlenkung control of purchasing power Kaufkraftüberhang excess of purchasing power Kaufkurs buying rate Kauflust buying power Kaufmann merchant kaufmännische Kenntnisse commercial knowledge Kaufmotiv motive for buying sth. Kaufoption buyer's option Kaufoption call option Kaufpreis purchase price Kausalzusammenhang causal connection Kaution caution money Kautionsversicherung fidelity guarantee insurance Kautionsversicherung surety insurance kein Konto no account keine Deckung no funds keine Deckung not provided for keine Deckung not sufficient funds keine weitere Verpflichtung no further obligation Kellerwechsel kite Kenntnis knowledge Kenntnis der Vorschriften knowledge of the provisions Kenntnisse knowledge Kennziffer code number Kennziffer, Parameter parameter Kernenergie nuclear energy Kette chain Kettenladen chain store KFZ-Halter owner of a car KFZ-Steuer motor vehicle tax Kilogramm kilogram Kilometer kilometer Kilowatt kilowatt Kind infant Kinderermäßigung child allowance Kindersterblichkeit infant mortality Kirchensteuer church tax Kiste, Fall case Klage suit Klage vor Gericht legal action Klage wegen Nichtzahlung action for non-payment Klage, Beschwerde complaint Klage, Handlung action Klagerecht right of action Klagerücknahme abandonment of action Klammer bracket klar clear klar und deutlich festlegen to stipulate clearly and precisely klar, ohne Zweifel clear Klasse class Klassenbezeichnung grading klassifizieren classify klassifizieren, einstufen classify Klassifizierung, Einstufung classification Klausel clause Klausel betreffend bürgerliche Unruhen civil commotions clause Klausel betreffend die Vertragsstrafe penalty clause Klausel betreffend vorzeitige Fälligkeit acceleration clause klein petty klein halten, minimieren minimize Kleinanzeige small ad Kleinanzeige small advertisement Kleindiebstahl pilferage kleine Auslagen petty expenses kleine Geschäfte small transactions kleine Havarie petty average kleine Zweigstelle branchlet kleinere Schwierigkeit minor difficulty kleinere Änderungen minor changes kleinerer Schaden, Bagatellschaden minor loss kleineres Problem minor problem Kleingeld loose cash Kleingeld, Wechselgeld change Kleinlastwagen pickup car Kleinlebensversicherung home service office Kleinlebensversicherung industrial life insurance Kleinstobligationen baby bonds Klemme squeeze Klient, Kunde, Mandant client Kläger plaintiff knapp an Geld short of money knapp an Kapital short of capital knappes Geld, Geldknappheit tight money Knappheit scarcity Knappschaftsversicherung miners' insurance Kode code Kodierung, Verschlüsselung coding Koeffizient coefficient Koeffizient der Angebotselastizität coefficient of elasticity of supply Koeffizient der Nachfrageelastizität coefficient of elasticity of demand Kohlepapier carbon paper kollektiv collective Kollektivbesitz collective ownership Kollisionsklausel beidseitiges Verschulden both-to-blame collision clause Kolonnenführer gang leader Kombination, Verbindung combination kombinierter Transport combined transport Kommanditgesellschaft limited partnership Kommanditist partner liable to a fixed amount kommerziell commercial Kommission committee Kommission, Ausschuss commission Kommissionär commission agent Kommissionsgeschäft commission business Kommissionsware goods on consignment Kommissionsware goods on sale or return Kommunalabgaben local rates Kommunalanleihe municipal loan Kommunalobligation municipal bond Kommunalobligationen municipal debentures Kommunikationsbereich communications Kommunikationsmittel means of communication kompakt, kurzgefasst, Pakt, Vertrag compact Kompensation compensation Kompensation, Entschädigung, Ausgleich compensation Kompensationsgeschäft cross trade Kompensationsgeschäfte compensation transactions kompensieren compensate Kompensierung, Abfindung compensation komplementär, ergänzend complementary Komplementärprodukte complementary goods kompliziert complicated kompliziert machen, komplizieren complicate Komponente, Bestandteil component komprehensiv, umfassend comprehensive Kompromiss, Kompromiss schließen compromise Konferenz, Besprechung, Versammlung meeting konfiszieren, beschlagnahmen confiscate Konflikt conflict Konjunkturaufschwung economic boom konjunkturbedingt depending on market conditions konjunkturbedingt, zyklisch cyclical konjunkturbedingte Arbeitslosigkeit cyclical unemployment Konjunkturbeobachter economic forecaster Konjunkturpolitik business cycle policy Konjunkturschwankung cyclical fluctuation Konjunkturzyklus trade cycle Konkurrent, Mitbewerber competitor konkurrieren, im Wettstreit liegen compete Konkursgericht court of bankruptcy Konkursmasse bankrupt's assets Konkursvergehen act of bankruptcy Konnossement bill of lading Konnossement master's receipt Konnossement ohne Einschränkung clean bill of lading Konnossementsindossament endorsement of a bill of lading Konnossementsklausel bill of lading clause Konsignationsware consigned goods konsolidierte Bilanz consolidated balance sheet Konsortium consortium konstant constant konstante Kosten constant costs Konstruktionsfehler fault in construction Konsul consul konsularisch consular Konsulatsfaktura consular invoice Konsulatsgebühr consular fee konsultieren consult Konsumbesteuerung tax on consumption Konsumentenkredit loan for consumption Konsumgenossenschaft retail cooperative Konsumlenkung control of consumption Konsumsteigerung growth in consumption Kontakt, kontaktieren, Kontakt aufnehmen contact Konten fälschen, Bücher frisieren manipulate accounts Kontenabstimmung reconciliation of accounts Kontenart type of account Kontenauszug statement of account Kontenauszug der Bank bank statement Kontenbezeichnung name of account Kontenklasse class of accounts Kontenplan chart of accounts Kontenüberziehung overdraft Kontingent contingent Kontinuität continuity Konto account Konto auflösen, Konto abschließen close an account Konto des Begünstigten account payee Konto für Reserven aus Reingewinn earned surplus account Konto für unklare Posten overs and shorts Konto in ausländischer Währung foreign currency account Konto ohne Umsätze dead account Konto, Abrechnung account Kontoabtretung assignment of account Kontoauszug pass sheets Kontoauszug statement of account Kontoauszug, Erklärung statement Kontokorrent open account Kontokorrentkonto, laufendes Konto current account Kontokorrentkredit open credit Kontonummer account number Kontoänderung change of account Kontoumsatz account turnover Kontoüberziehung overdraft Konterbande contraband Kontroll-Liste check list Kontrolle control Kontrolle der Bewegung der Zahlungsmittel control of currency movement Kontrolle, kontrollieren, beherrschen control Kontrolleur, Revisor controller kontrollieren, Kontrolle control Kontrollmaßnahmen means of control Kontrollstelle board of control konventionell conventional konvertierbar convertible Konvertierbarkeit convertibility konvertieren, umwandeln convert Konzentration concentration Konzentration qualifizierter Arbeitskräfte localization of labor konzentrieren concentrate Konzernbuchführung entity accounting Konzession concession Konzession, Erlaubnis concession kooperieren cooperate koordinieren align koordinieren coordinate Koordinierung coordination Kopie, Abschrift, Ablichtung copy Korrelation correlation Korrespondenzbank correspondent bank Kosten charges Kosten cost Kosten costs Kosten der Anlieferung cost of delivery Kosten der Errichtung von Anlagen cost of construction Kosten der Gründung cost of foundation Kosten niedrig halten keep down costs Kosten sparen save costs Kosten/Nutzen-Analyse cost benefit analysis Kostenabweichung cost variance Kostenart type of costs Kostenaufgliederung breakdown of costs Kostenaufstellung cost report Kostenaufstellung specification of costs Kostenberechnung calculation of costs Kostenberechnung computation of costs kostenbewusst cost-conscious Kostendenken thinking in terms of cost Kostendämmung cost reduction Kosteneinsparung saving Kostenentwicklung development of costs Kostenermittlung costing Kostenersparnis durch Massenproduktion economies of scale Kostenänderung change in cost Kostenrechnung cost accounting Kostenrechnung eines Produkts product costing Kostenrechnung für einen Auftrag job costing Kostenreduzierung reduction of expenses kostensparend cost saving Kostenstelle cost center Kostentabelle scale of charges Kostentabelle table of costs Kostenvergleich comparison of costs Kostenvoranschlag machen give an estimate for Kostenwirksamkeit cost effectiveness Kostenzuordnung cost allocating Kostenüberwachung control of costs kostspielig costly Käufer der zu dem Preis gerade noch kauft marginal buyer Käufer, Einkäufer buyer Käuferland purchasing country käuflich buyable Krach, Zusammenstoß, Zusammenbruch crash Kraft, zwingen force Kraftfahrer motorist Kraftfahrzeughaftpflichtversicherung motor car liability insurance Kraftfahrzeughaftpflichtversicherung motor third party insurance Kraftfahrzeuginsassenversicherung motor vehicle passenger insurance Kraftfahrzeugmissbrauch misuse of motor cars Kraftfahrzeugsbesitzer, Fahrzeughalter owner of a car Kraftfahrzeugskaskoversicherung motor hull insurance Kraftfahrzeugversicherung automobile insurance Kraftfahrzeugversicherung motor car insurance Kraftfahrzeugversicherung motor vehicle insurance Krangebühr cranage Krankengeld sick pay Krankengeld sickness benefits Krankenhauskosten hospitality expense Krankenhausunterbringung hospital accommodation Krankenkasse sickness fund Krankenversicherung health insurance Krankheit illness Krankheitsnachweis evidence of sickness Krankienhauskosten hospital expense Kredit aufnehmen raise a credit Kredit mit kurzer Laufzeit short-term credit Kredit, Guthaben, Vertrauen credit Kreditabteilung credit department Kreditabteilung loan department Kreditabteilung loan division Kreditantrag borrowing request Kreditaufnahme borrowing Kreditaufnahme raising of credit Kreditauskunft credit information Kreditauskunftei mercantile agency Kreditausweitung credit expansion Kreditbedarf demand for advances Kreditbetrug obtain credit by false pretences Kreditbremse credit squeeze Kreditbrief an eine bestimmte Bank direct letter of credit Kreditbrief, Akkreditiv letter of credit Kreditbrief, Reisekreditbrief circular letter of credit Kreditbürge guarantor of a credit Kreditbürgschaft credit guarantee Kreditbüro credit agency Krediterleichterung credit accommodation Krediterleichterung relaxation of credit squeeze Krediterleichterungspolitik easy credit policy Krediteröffnung opening of credit Kreditfähigkeit borrowing power Kreditgeber letzter Instanz lender of last resort Kreditgeber, Darlehnsgeber lender Kreditgebühren charges for credit Kreditgenossenschaft cooperative credit association Kreditgeschäfte credit transactions Kreditgewährung grant of credit Kreditgrenze credit limit Kreditgrenze credit line Kreditgrenze credit margin Kreditgrenze, Darlehensgrenze credit limit Kreditkarte credit card Kreditkartengeld plastic money Kreditknappheit credit stringency Kreditkunde credit customer Kreditlaufzeit credit period Kreditmarkt money and capital market Kreditmöglichkeiten, Krediteinrichtungen credit facilities Kreditnehmer borrower Kreditoren payables Kreditoren, Verbindlichkeiten accounts payable Kreditorenkonto, Schuldposten accounts payable Kreditposten credit item Kreditreserven credit reserves Kreditschöpfung creation of credit Kreditumfang volume of credit Kreditumfang, Kreditvolumen volume of credit kreditunwürdig unworthy of credit Kreditverkauf sale on credit Kreditverlängerung credit extension Kreditvermögen borrowing power Kreditversicherung bad debts insurance Kreditversicherung credit insurance Kreditversicherung guarantee insurance kreditwürdig worthy of credit Kreditwürdigkeit credit standing Kreditwürdigkeit creditworthiness Kreditwürdigkeit financial standing Kreditüberwachung credit control Kreuzvermerk auf einem Wechsel crossing Kriegsgebiet operational zone Kriegsrente war pension Kriegsrisikenvereinbarung war risk agreement Kriegsrisiko war risk Kriegsrisikoversicherung war risk insurance Krise crisis Kummunalobligationen municipal bonds Kummunalobligationen municipals kumulativ accumulative kumulativ cumulative kumulative accumulative kumulative Vorzugsaktie cumulative preferred share Kunde client Kunde customer Kunden verlieren lose customers Kundenkontobetreuer (in Werbeagentur) account executive Kundenwechsel note receivable Kundschaft clientele Kunst des Verkaufens salesmanship Kupon abtrennen detach a coupon Kurs am freien Markt rate on the fee market Kurs unter pari price below par Kurs, Preis rate Kursanstieg rise in the market Kursblatt list of quotations Kursblatt quotation list Kursbuch railway guide Kursdifferenz difference in rates Kurserhöhung price increase Kurserhöhung, Anstieg der Preise appreciation of prices Kursgefüge price structure Kursgewinn advance Kursgewinn capital gain Kursgewinn market profit Kursgewinn price gain Kursgewinn des Börsenhändlers jobber's turn Kursindex price index number Kursnotierung market quotation Kursnotierung price quotation Kursnotierung quotation Kursnotierung quotation of prices Kursänderung change in prices Kursänderung change of rates Kursparität parity of exchange Kurspflege price management Kursrisiko exchange risk Kursrisiko, Umtauschrisiko foreign exchange risk Kursrückgang decline in prices Kursschwankung currency fluctuation Kursschwankungen price fluctuations Kurssicherung rate guarantee Kursstand price level Kurssteigerung price advance Kurssturz price drop Kurstabelle exchange table Kursverlust loss by exchange Kursverlust loss by redemption Kursverlust price loss Kursverlust, Abschlag disagio Kurswert market value Kurszettel price list Kurszettel rate sheet Kurszettel stock exchange list kurz short kurz fassen condense kurz gefasst, Kurzfassung abstract kurz, kurz einweisen, kurz unterrichten brief kurz, kurzzeitig short-time kurzarbeiten work short-time Kurzfassung precise Kurzform short form kurzfristig at short notice kurzfristig short term kurzfristig short-dated kurzfristig short-term kurzfristige Anlagewerte short-maturing securities kurzfristige Deckung short period cover kurzfristige Kapitalanlage temporary investment kurzfristige Verschuldung short-term indebtedness kurzfristiges Darlehen call loan kurzfristiges Darlehen call money kurzfristiges Darlehen day-to-day loan kurzfristiges Darlehen demand loan kurzfristiges Geld short-term money kurzfristiges Geschäft machen be in and out again of the market Kurzmitteilung, Aktennotiz memo Kurzmitteilung, Aktennotiz memorandum Kurzschrift shorthand Kurzwarenhändler haberdasher königlicher Kaufmann merchant prince Königreich kingdom können angenommen werden may be accepted können direkt übersandt werden may be sent directly können ermäßigt oder verkürzt werden may be reduced or curtailed können über eine andere Bank übersandt werden may be sent through another bank können übersandt werden may be sent Körperschaden, Verletzung bodily harm Körperschaden, Verletzung bodily injury Körperschaden, Verletzung physical injury Körperschaft body Körperschaft corporate enterprise Körperschaft corporation Körperschaft (Br.) corporation Körperschaft des öffentlichen Rechts public corporation Körperschaftssteuer corporation tax Körperverletzung battery Körperverletzung mit Todesfolge bodily harm with fatal consequences kündbar callable kündbar terminable kündbar, rückzahlbar terminable kündbare Obligationen optional bonds kündbare Obligationen redeemable bonds kündbares Darlehen callable loan kündigen give notice kündigen recall kündigen, stornieren cancel Kündigung cancellation Kündigung notice of determination Kündigung notice of termination Kündigung der Versicherungspolice cancellation of the policy Kündigung des Kredits notice of credit Kündigung einer Hypothek notice of redemption Kündigung eines Kredits withdrawal of a credit Kündigungsfrist period of cancellation Kündigungsfrist period of notice Kündigungsschreiben letter of cancellation künstlich artificial kürzen cut Küstendampfer coastal steamer Küstenschifffahrt, Küstenhandel coasting trade Küstenwache coast guards L laden, beladen, Ladung load Laden, Werkstätte shop Ladung zu einer Konferenz notice of meeting Lage position Lager store Lagerbestand stock Lagerempfangsschein warehouse receipt Lagerfläche storage space Lagergeld warehousing charges Lagerhalle, (US) Güterbahnhof depot Lagerhalter storekeeper Lagerhaltung storage Lagerist warehouseman Lagermiete warehouse rent Lagerraum storage room Lagerung von Waren storage of goods Lagerungskosten cost of storage Lagerversicherung warehouse insurance Lagerverwalter warehouse keeper lahme Ente lame duck Land country Landegebühren landing charges landen, ausladen land Landwirtschaft agriculture landwirtschaftliche Genossenschaft farm cooperative landwirtschaftliche Versicherung agricultural insurance Landwirtschaftslehre agricultural economics lang long langfristig long dated langfristig long term langfristig long-term langfristige Einlage long-term deposit langfristige Gelder money at long term langfristige Kapitalanlage long-time investment langfristige Verbindlichkeit long-term liability langfristige Verbindlichkeiten fixed liabilities langfristige Verbindlichkeiten long-term liabilities langfristige Verschuldung long-term debt langfristige Verschuldung long-term indebtedness langfristiger Kredit long-sighted loan langfristiger Kredit long-term loan langfristiges Darlehen long-term loan lassen, überlassen, vermieten let Last burden Lastenverkehr heavy traffic Lastschrift debit note Lastwagen (Br.), offener Lastwagen lorry Lattenverschlag crate Laufbursche office boy laufend current laufend running laufende Einnahmen current receipts laufende Geschäfte current transactions laufende Inventur perpetual inventory laufende Maschine running machine laufende Preis, gültige Preis price current laufende Reparaturen maintenance repairs laufende Risiken current risks laufende Verbindlichkeiten current liabilities laufende Versicherung, offene Police open policy laufende Zahlungen current payments laufender Credit open credit laufender Kontostand running total laufender Kredit standing credit Laufzeit tenor Laufzeit der Garantie, Garantiezeit term of guarantee Laufzeit der Hypothek mortgage term Laufzeit der Versicherungspolice policy period Laufzeit eines Darlehens term of a loan Laufzeit eines Mietvertrags life of a lease Laufzeit eines Vertrages, Vertragsdauer life of a contract Laufzeit eines Wechsels currency of a bill Laufzeit eines Wechsels term of a bill Laufzeit, Frist term Leasinggesellschaft leasing company lebendes Inventar, Vieh livestock Lebendgeburt live birth Lebensdauer length of life Lebenserwartung expectation of life Lebenserwartung expectancy of life Lebenserwartung life expectancy Lebensgefahr danger to life Lebenshaltungsindex cost of living index Lebenshaltungskosten cost of living Lebenshaltungskosten living costs Lebenshaltungskostenindex cost of living index Lebenshaltungsniveau level of living lebenslänglich Begünstigter life beneficiary lebenslängliche Rente, Leibrente life annuity Lebensmittel foods Lebensmittelladen grocery Lebensmittellagerung storage of food lebensnotwendige Güter necessities lebensnotwendige Güter, lebenswichtige Güter essentials Lebensstandard standard of living Lebensunterhalt subsistence Lebensversicherung assurance Lebensversicherung life assurance Lebensversicherung life insurance Lebensversicherung abschließen take out a life policy Lebensversicherung auf Erleben und Todesfall mixed life assurance Lebensversicherungsgesellschaft life insurance company Lebensversicherungsgesellschaft life office Lebensversicherungspolice life insurance policy Lebensversicherungsverein auf Gegenseitigkeit mutual life office Lebensversicherungsvertrag life insurance contract lebenswichtig vital lebenswichtige Güter essentials lebenswichtige Interessen vital interests Lebenszeit life time lebhaft active lebhaft brisk lebhaft, tätig active lebhafte Eröffnung active opening lebhafte Nachfrage keen demand lebhafte Nachfrage rush Leck leak Leckage leakage Leckage und Bruch leakage and breakage Leckageklausel leakage clause lecken leak leer blank leer empty Leergewicht dead weight Leergut empties Legitimationspapier paper of identity Lehrbeauftragter visiting lecturer Lehre apprenticeship Lehrgang course of instruction Lehrling apprentice Lehrvertrag articles of clerkship Lehrzeit period of apprenticeship Leibrente life annuity Leibrentner life annuitant Leiche dead body leicht realisierbare Aktivposten quick assets leicht zu handhaben manageable leichte Erhöhung slight increase leichte Fahrlässigkeit slight fault Leichtigkeit der Kreditaufnahme ease of borrowing leichtverdientes Geld easy money leihen gegen Sicherheit, beleihen lend against security leihen, ausleihen lend leihen, beleihen, ausleihen lend Leihgebühr lending fee Leihhaus pawn shop leisten, erbringen render Leistung achievement Leistung performance Leistungen beantragen claim benefits Leistungen beziehen draw benefits leistungsberechtigt entitled to benefits Leistungsdauer period of indemnification leistungsfähig efficient Leistungsfähigkeit efficiency Leistungsprämie incentive bonus Leistungsprämie, Leistungszulage efficiency bonus leistungsschwach inefficient Leistungsschwäche inefficiency Leistungssteigerung increase in efficiency leistungsunfähig unable to perform Leistungsunfähigkeit inability to perform leitende Bankleute banking executives leitende Position managerial position leitender Angestellter chief executive leitender Angestellter executive leitender Angestellter top executive leitender Angestellter top manager leitender Angestellter, Direktor (US) officer Leiter der Abordnung head of a delegation Leiter der Produktion production manager Leiter einer Vertretung, Abteilung (US) chief of an agency Leitfaden handbook Leitung, Anleitung guidance Leitungswasserversicherung water damage insurance Leitwährung key currency lernen learn Lerner, Anfänger learner Lernkurve learning curve Lernprozess learning process lesbar readable letzter Monat ultimo letzter Tag closing date letzter Tag des Monats ultimo letzter Termin deadline Leuchtstoffröhre fluorescent tube Lichtpause blueprint Liebhaberwert sentimental value Lieferanschrift address for delivery Lieferbedingungen conditions of sale Lieferbedingungen terms of delivery Liefererskonto discounts received Liefergarantie guarantee of delivery Lieferschein delivery note Liefertermin delivery date Lieferverzug default in delivery Lieferwagen, geschlossener LKW (Br.) van Liegegeld demurrage Liegenschaften landed property Liegezeit, Ruhezeit idle period Liegezeit, Stillstandszeit idle period limitierter Auftrag limit order lineare Erhöhung linear increase lineare Programmierung linear programming Linie, Branche, Artikel, Telephonverbindung line Linienführung line management liquid, flüssig solvent Liquidation dissolution Liquidation liquidation Liquidation, Auflösung liquidation Liquidationstag pay day Liquidator liquidator liquide Aktivposten quick assets liquidieren, auflösen liquidate Liquidität liquidity Liquidität solvency Liquiditätsklemme liquidity sqeeze Liquiditätsproblem liquidity problem Liquiditätsquote liquidity ratio Liquiditätsumschichtung change in liquidity Liquiditätsvorschriften liquidity requirements Liste list Liste der Direktoren register of directors Liste der engeren Wahl short list Liste der Mitglieder, Mitgliederverzeichnis register of members Listenpreis list price Lizenz license Lizenz royalty Lizenz (Br.) license Lizenz (US) license Lizenzgeber licensor Lizenzinhaber holder of a license Lizenznehmer licensee Lizenzvergabe franchise Lizenzvertrag licensing agreement LLoyds Lloyd's Lloyds Makler Lloyd's broker Lloyds Schifffahrtsregister Lloyd's Register Lloyds Schiffsregister Lloyd's Register of Shipment Lloyds Versicherer Lloyd's underwriter Lockartikel loss leaders locken entice Lockerung der Kreditbeschränkungen relaxation in credit restriction Lockerung des Kapitalmarktes easing of the capital market Locopreis, Preis am Ort price loco Logistik logistics Lohn pay Lohn, Arbeitsentgelt wage Lohn- und Gehaltsliste payroll Lohn- und Preiskontrolle wage and price control Lohn-Preis-Spirale wage-price spiral Lohnabrechnung wage accounting Lohnabtretung assignment of wages Lohnangleichung wage adjustment Lohnarbeiter wageworker Lohnausfall loss of pay Lohnempfänger wage earner lohnend remunerative Lohnerhöhung pay increase Lohnerhöhung rise in pay Lohngruppe wage group Lohnkonto pay account Lohnkonto, Lohnbuch, Lohnliste payroll Lohnkürzung wage cut Lohnliste pay sheet Lohnpause pay pause Lohnsachbearbeiter wages clerk Lohnscheck pay cheque Lohnstop wage freeze Lohnstreitigkeit wage dispute Lohntheorie wages theory Lohntüte wage packet Lohntüte wages packet Lohnverhandlung wage bargaining Lokogeschäft, Kassageschäft spot transaction Lombardbank loan bank lombardfähig acceptable as collateral Lombardgeschäft lombard business lombardierte Wertpapiere collateral securities lombardierte Wertpapiere pawned stock lombardierte Wertpapiere pledged securities lombardierte Wertpapiere securities lodged as collateral Lombardkredit collateral loan Lombardkredit loan upon collateral security Lombardkredit lombard credit Lombardsatz lending rate Lombardsatz rate of interest on advance Lombardwert hypothecary value Lombardzinsfuß bank rate for loans Länderrisikenindex business environment risk index Londoner Versicherungsbörse Lloyd's Längenmaßstab scale of length längsseits alongside ship Lorenzkurve Lorenz curve lose loose Luftfahrtslinie airline Luftfahrtversicherung aircraft insurance Luftfahrtversicherung aviation insurance Luftfracht airfreight Luftkorridor airlift Luftpost airmail Luftreise air journey Lufttransportversicherung air transport insurance Luftverschmutzung air pollution Lumpensammler rag and bone man lustlos dull lustlos slack lustlos sluggish lustlos, flau spiritless luxuriös, Luxus luxury Luxusgüter luxury goods Luxussteuer luxury tax Luxuswohnung luxury apartment Löhne wages löschen delete Löschfahrzeug fire engine Löschfahrzeug fire truck Löschung extinction Löschung einer Eintragung cancellation of an entry Löschung einer Hypothek liquidation of a mortgage Löschung einer Schuld extinction of a debt Löschungsbewilligung authority for cancellation Lösegeld ransom Lösegeldforderung ransom demand Lösung solution Lücke gap M machbar feasible machen, herstellen make Macht, Kraft, Energie power Magister Artium Master of Arts Magistrat magistrate Mahnbrief dunning letter Mahnbrief (US) dunning letter mahnen remind Mahnstatistik dunning statistics Mahnung reminder Mahnung (US) dunning Mahnung, Mahnschreiben reminder Makler broker Makler für Investitionen investment broker Makler in kleinen Mengen odd broker Maklergebühr broker's fee Maklergebühr brokerage Maklervertrag contract of brokerage Makroanalyse macroanalysis Makroökonomie macroeconomics managen, ein Unternehmen leiten manage Mandat, Auftrag mandate Mangel defect Mangel shortage Mangel an Anerkennung want of appreciation Mangel an Arbeitskräften shortage of labor Mangel an Bargeld cash shortage Mangel an Barmitteln lack of funds Mangel an etwas short of sth Mangel an Geld want of money Mangel an Kapital want of capital Mangel an Kapital want of funds Mangel an Rohstoffen want of raw material mangelhaft defective mangelnde Sorgfalt want of care mangelndes Geld, Geldmangel want of money mangelndes Vertrauen want of confidence mangels failing mangels for want of mangels Beweis for want of evidence mangels Deckung for want of cover mangels einer solchen Benennung in the absence of such nomination mangels Vertrauen for want of confidence mangels Zahlung for want of payment Mangelware goods in short supply Manipulation, Handhabung manipulation manipulieren manipulate Mantelvertrag skeleton agreement Marke brand Marke, Stempelmarke adhesive stamp Markenartikel branded goods Marketing, Vertrieb marketing markieren, kennzeichnen earmark Markierung check mark Markierungsvorschriften marking requirements Markt market Markt für Kapitalanlagen investment market Markt für kurzfristige Gelder money market Markt für langfristige Gelder capital market Markt in Obligationen bonds market Markt mit anziehenden Kursen rising market Markt mit fallenden Kursen falling market Markt mit gleichbleibenden Kursen steady market Markt mit stetig fallenden Kursen bear market Markt mit stetig steigenden Kursen bull market Marktanalyse market analysis marktbeherrschend market dominating Marktbericht market report marktbestimmt market-determined Marktdurchdringung market penetration marktfähig, marktgängig marketable Marktforschung market research Marktforschung marketing research Marktmonopol market monopoly Marktplatz marketplace Marktpotential market potential Marktpreis market price Marktschwankung fluctuation of the market Marktschwäche weakness of the market Marktstärke strength of the market Markttendenz, Markttrend, Marktentwicklung trend of the market Marktwert market value Marktwert, Verkehrswert market value Maschine machine maschinell hergestellt machine-made Maschinenarbeitsstunde machine hour Maschinenarbeitsstundensatz machine hour rate Maschinenerneuerung machine replacement maschinengeschrieben typewritten maschinengeschriebenes Schriftstück typescript Maschinenkonto machinery account Maschinenunterhaltung maintenance Maschinenversicherung machinery breakdown insurance Maschinenversicherung machinery insurance Maschinerie, Maschinen, Maschinenpark machinery Masse, Menge mass Massenarbeitslosigkeit mass unemployment Massengüterindustrie mass industry Massenladung, Schüttgut bulk cargo Massenmedien mass media Massenproduktion mass production Material material Materialeinsparung saving of material Materialfluß flow of material Materialknappheit scarcity of material Materialmangel shortage of material Materialprüfung material control Materialverschwendung waste of material Mathematik studieren study mathematics mathematische Anordnung, Array array mathematische Entscheidungsvorbereitung operations research mathematischer Erwartungswert actuarial expectation mathematischer Wert mathematical value Matrix matrix Maßeinheit unit of measurement maßgebende Bank leading bank maßgebende Behörde proper authority maßgebendes Kapitalinteresse controlling interest Maßnahmen hinsichtlich der Ware ergreifen to take action in respect of the goods Maßnahmen zur Arbeitseinsparung industrial engineering Maßstab scale Maßstab yardstick Maßstab für die Güte measure of quality Maßstab, Skala scale Mechaniker fitter Mechaniker mechanic mechanisch mechanical mechanisieren mechanize Mechanisierung mechanization medizinischer Beweis medical evidence Mehrbedarf increased demand Mehrbetrag surplus amount Mehrbietender outbidder Mehrdeutigkeit ambiguity mehrfach multiple mehrfache Risiken multiple perils Mehrgewinn surplus profit Mehrheit majority Mehrheit berechnet nach dem Wert majority in value Mehrheit nach Köpfen majority in number Mehrheitsbeschluss majority vote mehrkanalig multichannel Mehrkosten incremental cost Mehrlieferung excess delivery mehrseitig multilateral mehrsprachig multilingual Mehrwertsteuer value added tax Mehrwertsteuer value-added tax Mehrzahl aller Fälle majority of cases Mehrzweckmaschine multifunctional machine Meineid perjury Meinung opinion Meinungsaustausch exchange of ideas Meinungsforscher pollster Meinungsumfrage opinion poll meistbegünstigste Nation most-favored nation meistbegünstigt most favored meistbegünstigter Rückversicherer most favored reinsurer Meistbegünstigungsklausel most favored reinsurer clause Meistbegünstigungsklausel most-favored nation clause Meistbietender highest bidder Meister master Meldung der Durchführung eines Geschäfts advice of execution Meldung des Umzugs notice of removal Meldung über Nichtakzeptierung advice of non-acceptance Meldung über Nichtzahlung advice of non-payment Menge quantum Menge Geld great deal of money Mengeneinheit unit of quantity menschlich human menschliche Arbeitskraft manpower Merkantilismus mercantilism Marktenge narrowness of the market Messe fair messen, bemessen, Maß measure messen, bemessen, Maß, Maßnahme measure Metallabfälle scrap metal Methode der kleinsten Quadrate, Annäherung least-squares method Methode, Verfahren method metrisches Maßsystem metric system Meßziffer, Kennziffer index number Miete rent Miete, Pacht, Mietsumme rental mieten hire Mieten von Anlagen leasing mieten, pachten, Miete, Pacht rent Mieter eines Schiffes charterer Mieter eines Tresorfaches hirer of a safe Mieter, Pächter tenant Mietkauf hire purchase Mietkaufsystem hire purchase system Mietkaufvertrag hire purchase agreement Mietverlustversicherung rent insurance Mietvertrag, Pachtvertrag tenancy agreement Mietwert rent value Mikroökonomie microeconomics Mindereinnahmen deficiency in receipts Minderheitenaktionäre minority shareholders Minderheitsbeteiligung minority holding Minderlieferung short delivery Minderung decrease Minderung der Einkünfte decline in earnings Minderung des Wertes depreciation Minderung des Wertes, Wertminderung loss in value minderwertig inferior minderwertige Ware inferior goods Mindestanforderungen minimum requirements Mindestbeschäftigungszeit minimum period of employment Mindestbetrag minimum amount Mindesteinlage, Mindestanzahlung minimum deposit Mindestgebühr minimum charge Mindestgrenze minimum limit Mindestlohn minimum wage Mindestpreis reserved price Mindestprämie minimum premium Mindestsatz minimum rate Mindestunterstützung, Mindestzulage minimum benefit Mindestverdienst minimum pay Mindestversicherung minimum insurance Mindestwert minimum value Minenrisiko mine risk minimal halten keep to a minimum Minimum, mindest minimum Minister minister Ministerium government department Ministerium ministry Minorität minority Mischkalkulation mixed calculation Mischkonto mixed account missachten disregard Missachtung contempt Missbrauch abuse Missbrauch, missbrauchen misuse missbrauchen, Missbrauch abuse Misskredit disrepute Missverhältnis, schlechte Regelung maladjustment Missverhältnis, Unangemessenheit inadequacy missverstehen misunderstand Missverständnis misunderstanding Missverständnis, Irrtum misapprehension Missverständnisse misunderstandings Misswirtschaft maladministration mit Aktien eingedeckt sein long of stock mit angemessenen Mitteln with adequate means mit angemessener Sorgfalt with reasonable care mit angemessener Sorgfalt vorgehen to exercise reasonable care mit Ausnahme von other than mit ausreichender Bestimmtheit with reasonable certainty mit besonderer Havarie with particular average mit Bezug auf referring to mit Bezug auf relating to mit Datum und Nummer bezeichnen identify by date and number mit Datum versehen, datiert dated mit der Durchführung befasst involved in processing mit detaillierter Angabe des Betrags detailing the amount mit Dividende cum dividend mit einer Hypothek belasten encumber with a mortgage mit etwas fertig werden, etwas schaffen cope with mit freundlichen Grüßen yours sincerely mit genauen Anweisungen giving precise instructions mit großen Geldbeträgen umgehen handle large sums of money mit Hypothek belastet mortgaged mit Hypotheken belastbar mortgageable mit Hypotheken belastet encumbered with mortgages mit Hypotheken belasteter Grundbesitz mortgaged property mit jemandem Rücksprache nehmen confer with sb. mit Maschine geschrieben typewritten mit monatlicher Kündigung at a month's notice mit nächster Rechnung zu verrechnen for the next account mit Regressanspruch with recourse mit Scheck bezahlen pay by cheque mit Scheck zahlen remit by cheque mit schnellstem Postversand by the quickest mail mit Subventionen unterstützen subsidize mit Verlust at a sacrifice mit Verlust arbeiten operate at a deficit mit Vertretern der Industrie with representatives of industry mit Vertretern des Handels with representatives of commerce mit vollem Namen unterzeichnen sign in full mit vollständigen Anweisungen giving complete instructions Mitarbeiter co-operator Mitarbeiter co-worker Mitarbeiter collaborator Mitbesitz, gemeinsamer Besitz joint possession Mitbesitzer co-proprietor Miteigentumsrecht co-ownership Miteigentümer joint owner Miteigentümer part owner Mitglied member Mitglied der Börse member of the stock exchange Mitglied der Börse (US) insider Mitglied des Vorstands member of the board of directors Mitgliedschaft membership Mitherausgeber joint editor Mitschuldiger accessory Mittagessen lunch Mittagessen luncheon Mittagspause lunch break Mitte mean Mitte April middle of April Mitte der Woche, mittwöchig mid-week mitteilen communicate Mitteilungen über elektronische Systeme communication by electronic systems Mittel means Mittel median Mittel medium Mittel aufbringen raise of funds Mittel und Wege ways and means Mittel, Staatspapiere funds Mittel, Geldmittel means mittelbare Kosten indirect costs Mittelbeschaffung finding of means mittelfristig medium term mittelfristig middle-term mittelfristiger Kredit medium-term credit mittellos without means Mittellosigkeit lack of means mittels eines besonderen Dokuments by means of a separate document Mittelsmann intermediary Mittelsmann middleman mittlere Führungsebene middle management mittlere Qualität middling quality mittlerer Preis middle price Mitunterzeichner joint undersigner Mitversicherer co-insurer Mitversicherung co-insurance mitwirken, zusammenarbeiten co-operate mitwirken, zusammentreffen concur Mitwirkung, Zusammenarbeit co-operation Modeartikel fancy goods Modell model Modell der expandierenden Wirtschaft model of expanding economy Modell der freien Wirtschaft model of competitive economy Modell des wirtschaftlichen Gleichgewichts model of economic equilibrium modernisieren modernize Modernisierung modernization Modus, Verfahren mode Monat month monatlich monthly monatlich fällige Zahlungen monthly dues monatliche Kündigungsfrist 30 day's notice Monatsbedarf monthly requirements Monatsbeitrag monthly contribution Monatsgehalt monthly salary Monatsgeld money at one month Monatsprämie monthly premium Monatsrate monthly installment Mängelrüge notice of defects Monopol monopoly Monopolist monopolist monopolistisch monopolistic Montage assembly Montageband assembly line Monte-Carlo-Methode Monte Carlo Method Moral morale Mord, Totschlag, Ermordung homicide Motivation motivation Motivforschung motivation research Motorradversicherung motor cycle insurance mäßige Preise reasonable prices Multi multinational company multiplizieren multiply Musikinstrumentversicherung musical instruments insurance muss alle Benachrichtigungen senden must send all advises muss den Beteiligten benachrichtigen must advise the party muss die Bank entsprechend benachrichtigen must inform the bank accordingly muss die Bank sofort benachrichtigen must immediately advise the bank muss die Vorlegung vornehmen must make presentation muss geeignete Einzelheiten enthalten must bear appropriate detail muss sofort benachrichtigen must advise immediately muss unverzüglich übersenden must forward without delay muss vom Versicherer ausgestellt sein must be issued by the insurance company Muster sample Muster specimen Muster, Stoffmuster, Ausfallmuster pattern Musterauswahl range of patterns Musterbuch pattern book Musterzimmer showroom mutmaßlich presumably mutmaßlicher Fehler probable error Muttergesellschaft parent company Muttergesellschaft, Stammhaus parent company Mutterschaftsgeld maternity benefit Mutterschaftsversicherung maternity insurance Mutterschutzfrist maternity period Möbelwagen removal van möblierte Unterkunft lodgings möbliertes Zimmer furnished apartment mögliche Umsätze potential sales möglicher Käufer potential buyer möglicher Kunde potential customer Möglichkeit, Gelegenheit, Vergünstigung facility möglichst preferably müheloser Gewinn easy profit mühevoll troublesome Mühle, Fabrik, Walzwerk mill mündelsichere Kapitalanlage gilt-edged investment mündelsichere Wertpapiere gilt-edged securities mündlich verbal mündliche Vereinbarung verbal agreement mündliches Angebot verbal offer Münze coin Münze mint Münzfernsprecher coin box Münzgesetz monetary act Münzpreis des Goldes mint price of gold Münzprägung coinage Münzsystem system of coinage müssen begleitet sein von must be accompanied by müssen die Bank benennen must nominate the bank müssen eindeutig angeben must clearly indicate müssen prüfen of must verify that müssen sofort verständigen must immediately advise müssen vollständig und genau sein must be complete and precise müssen vom Auftraggeber getragen werden are to be borne by the principal müssen zur Verfügung gestellt werden must be made available müßig idle N nach Abtrennung des Coupons ex dividend nach den Regeln under the rules nach den Umständen according to circumstances nach den Weisungen in accordance with instructions nach den Weisungen in conformity with instructions nach den Weisungen eines Kunden acting on the instruction of a customer nach der Menge, mengenbezogen quantitative nach eigener Wahl of his own choice nach Eingang upon entry nach Eingang upon receipt nach Eingang when received nach Erhalt der vollen Zahlung when full payment has been received nach folgenden Regeln in accordance with the following rules nach Geschäftsschluss after hours nach Maß made to measure nach Möglichkeit, soweit wie möglich as far as possible nach Posten aufgliedern itemize nach Priorität order of priority nach Schluss, nach Dienstschluss after official hours nach Sicht zahlbar payable after sight nach Treu und Glauben handeln to act in good faith nach Wahl einer anderen Bank of another bank's choice nach Weisungen verfahren to act upon instructions nach Wert ad valorem nach Zahlungseingang when cashed nachahmen imitate Nachahmung imitation Nachbarschaftsrisiko neighbouring risk Nachbörse kerbmarket Nachbörsenpreise kerbmarket prices nachdatieren postdate nachfassen follow-up Nachfaßtermin follow-up date Nachfolge succession nachfolgend subsequent nachfolgender Indossant subsequent endorser Nachfolger successor Nachfrage und Angebot demand and supply Nachfrage nach Geld demand for money Nachfrageflexibilität market flexibility Nachfragegrenze limit of demand nachfragen, Nachfrage demand Nachfragestruktur pattern of demand Nachfragestruktur pattern of requirements Nachfrist days of grace Nachfrist period of grace Nachfrist, Fristverlängerung extension of time nachgeben, nachlassen slacken nachgesandter Brief forwarded letter Nachhinken time lag Nachindossament endorsement after maturity Nachlassen der Kurse fall in the market nachlassende Preise sliding down prices Nachlässigkeit negligence Nachnahme cash on delivery Nachnahme collect on delivery Nachname family name Nachprämie, Anpassungsprämie adjustment premium nachprotestliches Indossament endorsement super protest nachprüfen verify Nachprüfung verification Nachprüfung, Feststellung der Richtigkeit verification Nachricht geben, informieren furnish information Nachrichtenverbindung, Nachrichtenverkehr communication Nachrichtenweg line of communication Nachrichtenübermittlungsträger means of communication Nachschicht night shift nachschießen remargin Nachschlagewerk work of reference Nachschrift postscript Nachschubquelle source of supply Nachschuss additional contribution nachschusspflichtige Wertpapiere assessable securities nachschüssige Zahlung payment in arrear nachsenden forward Nachsichttratte, Zeitwechsel time bill nachstellige Hypothek junior mortgage Nachteil disadvantage Nachteil drawback Nachteil, Missstand, Hindernis drawback nachteilig disadvantageous Nachttresor night safe Nachversicherungspolice subsequent policy Nachweis der Identität proof of identity Nachweis des Gewichts attestation of weight Nachweis des Verlustes proof of loss Nachweis erbringen provide evidence Nachweis, Beweis, beweismaterial evidence Nachwirkung aftereffect Nachzahlung additional payment Nachzahlung back pay Nachzahlung, Nachschuss subsequent payment nackte Tatsachen hard facts Name name Name, benennen name Namen feststellen, Namen festhalten secure the name namens in the name of Namensaktie registered share Namensobligation registered bond Namenspolice named policy Namensverzeichnis directory narrensicher fool-proof Nation nation Nationaleinkommen national income Nationalität nationality Naturaleinkommen income in kind Naturalersatz replacement in kind Naturalleistung, Sachleistung payment in kind Naturallohn wages in kind Naturgesetz law of nature natürlicher Tod natural death Nebenabrede additional agreement Nebenausgaben contingencies Nebenausgaben extras Nebenausgaben incidentals nebenberuflich part-time nebenberufliche Tätigkeit part-time job nebenberuflicher Vertreter part-time agent Nebenbeschäftigung, zusätzliche Artikel sideline Nebeneinkommen additional income Nebengewinn extra gain Nebenkosten related costs Nebenplatz our-of-town point Nebenprodukt by-product Nebenwirkung secondary effect negativ, verneinend negative negoziierende Bank negotiating bank Negoziierung durch eine andere Bank negotiation by another bank Negoziierung durch jede Bank negotiation by any bank Negoziierung vornehmen to effect negotiation Neigung propensity Neigung zu horten, Neigung zu sparen propensity to hoard Neigung zu investieren propensity to invest Neigung zu verbrauchen propensity to consume Neigungstest aptitude test Nennbetrag face amount Nennwert denomination Nennwert face amount Nennwert face value Nennwert nominal par Nennwert nominal value Nennwert einer Banknote denomination of a bank note nennwertlos no-par netto net netto Kasse net cash Nettobetrag net amount Nettoeinkommen net income Nettoeinnahmen net receipts Nettoergebnis net effect Nettoerlös net proceeds Nettoertrag net yield Nettogewicht net weight Nettogewinn net income Nettogewinn, Reingewinn net profit Nettolohn net wages Nettolohn take-home-pay Nettopreis net price Nettoprämie net premium Nettoverdienst net earnings Nettoverkaufserlös net profit on sales Nettoverlust clear loss Nettoverlust net loss Nettovorteile net advantages Nettowert net worth Netzplantechnik critical path analysis Netzplantechnik network analysis Netzwerk, Netz network neu bewerten, aufwerten revaluate neu für alt new for old Neuanfang, Erholung comeback Neuauflage, Neuausgabe new issue Neudruck, Nachdruck reprint neue Aktie fresh share neue Art von Risiko new type of risk neue Arten von Dokumentenakkreditiven new types of documentary credits neue Methoden der Dokumentenerstellung new methods of producing documents Neuerung innovation Neuerwerbung new acquisition Neugestaltung reorganization neumodisch new-fashioned neuorganisieren, umorganisieren reorganize Neuorganisierung, Umorganisierung reorganization Neuverhandlung renegotiation Neuwert reinstatement value Neuwertversicherung reinstatement policy nicht abgesichert, ohne Sicherheit unsecured nicht abgesicherte Verbindlichkeit unsecured debt nicht abzugsfähig non-deductible nicht am Lager out of stock nicht amortisiert unamortized nicht an Order not to order nicht angelegtes Kapital idle money nicht annehmbar unacceptable nicht anwendbar unapplicable nicht aufgelistet unlisted nicht aufgerufen uncalled nicht ausgezeichnete Ware unpriced goods nicht beachten disregard nicht beachten ignore nicht beansprucht unclaimed nicht begleitet von not accompanied by nicht bei Sicht zahlbar payable at a tenor other than sight nicht beitreibbar uncollectible nicht berechenbar incalculable nicht berechtigt unauthorized nicht betroffen unconcerned nicht datiert undated nicht diskontierbar undiscountable nicht durch eigene Arbeit erworben unearned income nicht eingelöster Wechsel dishonoured note nicht eingeschränktes Dokument unqualified document nicht eingetragen unrecorded nicht einklagbar non-actionable nicht einlösbar irredeemable nicht einwandfreie Ware, fehlerhafte Ware faulty goods nicht entnommener Gewinn undrawn profit nicht erhältlich unavailable nicht feststellbar unascertainable nicht formgerecht bad in form nicht gewinnbringend unprofitable nicht greifbare Aktiven intangible assets nicht im Widerspruch zu not inconsistent with nicht informiert uninformed nicht interessiert uninterested nicht klagbar unenforceable nicht kompetent incompetent nicht konvertierbar inconvertible nicht Lebensmittel dry goods nicht mehr gut zu machender Verlust irreparable loss nicht mehr gültiger Pfandbrief disabled bond nicht mehr modisch out of fashion nicht notiert unquoted nicht offiziell unofficial nicht produktiv unproductive nicht registriert unregistered nicht rehabilitierter Konkursschuldner undischarged bankrupt nicht sicher unsafe nicht sortiert non-graded nicht später als am Fälligkeitstag not later than the maturity date nicht verfügbar unavailable nicht versicherbar uninsurable nicht verteilter Gewinn undivided profits nicht voll bezahlt partly paid nicht voll einbezahlte Aktien partly paid shares nicht vollstreckbar unenforceable nicht wieder gut zu machender Schaden irreparable damages nicht zugelassene Wertpapiere unlisted securities nicht zweckgebunden uncommitted nicht übertragbar unassignable nicht übertragbar untransferable Nichtakzeptierung non-acceptance Nichtannahme non-acceptance nichtanwendbar non-applicable nichtausgegebene Aktien unissued stock Nichtauslieferung non-delivery Nichtbeachtung non-observance Nichtbefolgung des Verfahrens failure to follow the procedures nichteigene Mittel capital from outside sources Nichteinhaltung der Garantie breach of warrantee Nichteinhaltung von Bedingungen breach of condition Nichterfüllung failure of performance Nichterfüllung non-performance Nichterfüllung, Versäumnis default nichtgelandete Ware short-landed goods nichtgelieferte Ware short-shipped goods Nichthonorierung eines Wechsels dishonoring of a B/L nichtig void nichtig void by law nichtig, ungültig, null und nichtig null and void Nichtigkeitserklärung annulment Nichtlieferung non-delivery Nichtmitglied nonmember nichtnotierte Werte outside securities nichtnotierte Werte unlisted securities Nichtoffenbarung non-disclosure nichtoffizielle Geschäfte unofficial dealings Nichtzahlung default of payment Nichtzahlung failure to pay Nichtzahlung non-payment Nichtzahlung, Zahlungsversäumnis failure to pay Nichtzulassung non-admission Niedergang, Rückgang decline Niederlassung, Kontenausgleich, Zahlung settlement niederschreiben write down niedrig im Preis low-priced niedrige Preise low prices niedrigeres Gebot lower bid niedrigste Notierung lowest quotation niedrigster Kurs lowest quotation niedrigster Kursstand bottom price niedrigster Preis bottom price niedrigstes Angebot, Mindestgebot lowest bid niedrigstes Gebot lowest bid noch nicht abgehobene Dividenden dividends not yet collected noch nicht abgelaufen unexpired noch nicht verrechneter Scheck uncleared check Nochgeschäft call of more Nochgeschäft put of more nochmals durchsehen, nachprüfen, Nachprüfung review nochmals entwerfen, neu entwerfen, ändern redraft nächster proximo näher prüfen examine more closely nähere Angaben statement of particulars Näheres, Einzelheiten full particulars Nominalwert face value Nominalwert nominal amount Nominalwert nominal value Nominalwert par value nominell nominal nomineller Preis nominal price nomineller Schaden nominal damage nomineller Schadensersatz nominal damages nominieren, benennen nominate normal, gewöhnlich normal normaler Zins ordinary interest normales Geschäftsjahr natural business year normalisieren normalize Normalpolice standard policy Normalverteilung normal curve of distribution normative Volkswirtschaftslehre normative economics normieren standardize Nostroguthaben bei ausländischen Banken balances with foreign bankers Nostroguthaben bei inländischen Banken balances with home bankers Nostrokonto nostro account Notadresse address in case of need Notadresse emergency address Notadresse notify address Notadresse referee in case of need Notar notary public notariell beglaubigt notarially certified Notausgang emergency exit Notausgang fire exit Notbehelf makeshift Notenausgabe issue of bank notes Notenausgabe note issue Notenbank bank of circulation Notenbank bank of issue Notenprivileg right of issuing bank notes Notenumlauf active circulation Notenumlauf circulation of bank notes Notenumlauf note circulation Notfall case of need notfalls in case of emergency Nothafen harbor of refuge notierte Aktie listed share notierter Kurs quoted price Notlage distress Notlage emergency Notlage, unerwartetes Ereignis emergency notleiden needy notleidend defaulted notleidende Obligationen defaulted bonds notleidender Wechsel overdue bill Notmaßnahmen emergency steps notwendig necessary notwendige Aufwendungen necessaries notwendige Aufwendungen necessary expenditures notwendige Auslagen reasonable expenses notwendige Sorgfalt necessary diligence notwendige Stempelmarken anbringen to affix any necessary stamps Notwendigkeit necessity null naught null nil null nought Null zero Nullabweichung zero deviation Numerierung numbering Nummer der Versicherungspolice policy number nummerieren, Zahl number Nummernkonto numbered account nur auf das Konto des Begünstigten account payee only nur bar ready money only nur dem Namen nach, nominell nominal nur einmal once only nur für einen kurzen Zeitraum for a short term only nur gegen bar cash only nur gegen bar cash only nur gegen Totalverlust total loss only nur gegen Zahlung only against payment nur in Übereinstimmung mit subject to compliance with nur zum Inkasso for collection only nur zum Teil genutzte Hypothek open mortgage nur zur Abrechnung, nicht übertragbar not negotiable nur zur Information for information only nur zur Verrechnung for deposit only Nutzen benefit nutzen utilize Nutzen ziehen benefit Nutzen ziehen benefit from nutzen, benutzen utilize Nutzfeuer friendly fire nutznießend beneficial Nutzschwelle break-even point Nutzung der Ressourcen utilization of resources Nutzungsschaden, Entgang der Nutzung loss of use nötigenfalls if necessary Nützlichkeit usefulness Nützlichkeit, Nutzen utility ob ... oder whether ... or ob beauftragt oder nicht whether instructed or not ob geltend zu machen ist, dass whether to claim that ob sie benutzbar sind whether they are available ob solche Dokumente abzulehnen sind whether to refuse such documents ob solche Dokumente aufzunehmen sind whether to take up such documents oben, erstklassig top obenerwähnt above-mentioned obengenannter Kurs above quotation Obergrenze upper limit objektiv, sachlich objective objektives Risiko physical hazard Obligation bond Obligation mit Gewinnbeteiligung income bond Obligation mit Gewinnbeteiligung income debenture Obligation, Pfandbrief, Versprechen bond Obligationen (Br.) debenture stock Obligationen besitzen hold bonds Obligationen mit verzögerter Verzinsung deferred bonds Obligationen ohne feste Fälligkeit indeterminate bonds Obligationen von Körperschaften corporation stocks Obligationenmakler bond broker obligatorisch obligatory obligatorische Rückversicherung obligatory reinsurance obligatorische Versicherung obligatory insurance oder andere ähnliche Dokumente or other similar documents oder ein anderes rechtliches Verfahren or other legal process oder irgendwelche andere Dokumente or any other documents whatsoever oder irgendwelche andere Personen or any other person whatsoever oder irgendwelche andere Ursachen or any other causes oder Worte ähnlicher Bedeutung or words of similar effect Fehler bei der Übermittlung errors arising in the transmission of messages offen open offene Deckung, Generalpolice open cover offene Police, Abschreibepolice floating policy offene Police, Generalpolice open policy offene Rechnung open account offene Rechnungen outstanding account offene Reserven disclosed reserves offener Markt open market offener Posten open item offener Posten unpaid item offensichtlich obvious offensichtlich (adv.) obviously offensichtlich, erwiesen, klar evident offenstehend, unbezahlt outstanding offenstehende Beträge open items Offerte tender offiziell, Beamter official offizielle Unterstützung official support offizieller Kurs official rate offizieller Wechselkurs official exchange rate ohne Bezug, ohne Rücksicht regardless ohne Bezugsrecht ex new ohne Datum dateless ohne Datum, undatiert undated ohne die nötigen Mittel with inadequate means ohne eigene Verpflichtung without obligation on its part ohne eigene Verpflichtung without responsibility on its part ohne Einzug solcher Zinsen without collecting such interest ohne Frage without question ohne Garantie without guarantee ohne Gewährleistung without guarantee ohne Indossament without endorsement ohne Kosten no expenses to be incurred ohne Lizenz unlicensed ohne ärztliche Untersuchung without medical examination ohne Regreß without recourse ohne Regreßanspruch without recourse ohne Rückgriff zu zahlen to pay without recourse ohne Verbindlichkeit without engagement ohne Vollmacht unauthorized ohne Vollmacht, nicht bevollmächtigt unauthorized ohne vorherige Benachrichtigung without prior notice ohne vorherige Zustimmung without prior agreement ohne Vorurteil without prejudice ohne Zustimmung aller Beteiligten without the agreement of all parties ohne Übersetzung without translation Oligopol oligopoly ändern modify ändern, abändern alter ändern, Änderung change Operationskosten surgery costs Operationskostenversicherung surgical fees insurance optimal ideal optimale Bevölkerungsdichte optimum population Optimismus optimism Optimist optimist optimistisch optimistic optimistische Haltung bullish attitude Optimum, optimal optimum Option option Option, Vorkaufsrecht option Optionenbörse options exchange Optionsberechtigter owner of an option Optionsvertrag option contract Orderpapier instrument to order Orderpapier order instrument Orderpapier order paper Orderscheck check to order Orderscheck order check Orderwechsel bill to order Orderwechsel order bill Organisation organization Organisationsabteilung coordination department organisieren, gestalten organize original original Original, ursprünglich original Originalwechsel original bill Ort location Ort des Verkaufs, Verkaufsstelle point of sale Ortspreis loco price Ortstarif local rate Oxydation oxidation P.E.R.T. programme evaluation and review technique Pacht lease Pacht, verpachten lease Pachtdauer term of lease Pachtgrundstück, Erbpachtgrundstück leasehold Pachtverhältnis tenancy Pachtvertrag contract of lease Packliste packing list Packpapier packing paper Packung pack Paket parcel Paketpolice package policy Paketpost parcel-post Paketversicherung parcel post insurance Palette pallet Panik panic Papier wird ersetzt paper is being replaced Papier, Dokument paper Papierabfälle, Makulatur waste paper Papiergeld paper money Papierverschwendung waste of paper Papierwährung paper currency Paragraf, Abschnitt, Absatz paragraph parallel parallel pari, Nennwert par Pari-Emission par emission Parität parity Paritätentabelle table of parities Paritätspunkt parity point Pariwert par value Parkinsons Gesetz Parkinson's Law Parkplatz parking place Parkuhr parking meter Parkwächter parking attendant Partei party Partei, Seite, Beteiligter party Parteien des Vertrags parties to a contract Partnerschaft, (ähnlich oHG) partnership Pass passport Passagier, Fahrgast, Fluggast passenger Passagierflugzeug airliner Passagiergut registered luggage Passiva, Verbindlichkeiten liabilities Passivposten der Bilanz liabilities Passivsaldo debit balance Passivzinsen interest payable Passkontrolle passport control Patent patent Patentamt patent office patentiert, durch Patent geschützt patented Patentinhaber owner of a patent Patentverlängerung extension of a patent Pauschalbetrag lump sum Pauschale lump-sum Pauschale, Pauschalbetrag lump sum Pauschalentschädigung damages at large Pauschalgeschäft package deal Pauschalprämie flat-rate premium Pauschalreise package tour Pauschalsatz lump rate Pauschalversicherung global cover Pauschalversicherung open policy Pauschalversicherung, Gesamtversicherung all-in insurance Pendler commuter Penny penny Penny (pl.) pence Pension pension Pension retirement pay Pension superannuation Pension beantragen, Rente beantragen apply for a pension Pension, Rente pension Pensionierung retirement Pensionsalter pension age Pensionsalter pensionable age pensionsberechtigt entitled to a pension pensionsberechtigt, rentenberechtigt pensionable Pensionskasse pension fund Pensionskasse pension pool Pensionskasse staff pension fund perfekt perfect periodisch periodical periodisch wiederkehrend recurring Personal personnel Personalabteilung personnel department Personalabteilung personnel division Personalabteilung staff department Personalausweis identity card Personalchef staff manager Personalchef, Leiter der Personalabteilung personnel manager Personalkredit personal loan Personenversicherung insurance of persons Personenversicherung personal insurance persönlich personal persönlich bekannt of known identity persönlich haftend individually liable persönlich haftender Gesellschafter partner liable to unlimited extent persönliche Daten, personenbezogene Daten personal data persönliche Vereinbarung private arrangement persönlicher Assistent personal assistant persönliches Eigentum, Sachbesitz personal property Petition, Eingabe petition Pfand pawn Pfand pledge Pfand, verpfänden pledge Pfandbriefe der öffentlichen Hand civil bonds Pfandbriefinhaber, Obligationär bondholder Pfandgeber pawner Pfandgegenstand pawned object Pfandgut pledged property Pfandhalter holder of a pledge Pfandleihe pawnshop Pfandleiher pawnbroker Pfandleihgeschäft pawn broking Pfandnehmer pawnee Pfandrecht lien Pflanze, Fabrik (US) plant Pflicht, Zoll duty Pflichtaktien qualifying shares Pflichtrückversicherung obligatory reinsurance Pflichtversicherung compulsory insurance Pflichtversicherung obligatory insurance pfändbar restrainable Pfändung restraint, seizing Pfändungsbefehl writ of attachment Photographie photo Photokopie photo-copy physisch tot actually dead Pilot, Lotse pilot Pirat, auf See überfallen pirate Piraterie, Seeräuberei piracy Plakat poster Plan plan Plan für die Altersversorgung pension plan Plan, Aufstellung schedule Plan, Vorhaben scheme Planerfüllung fulfillment of a plan planmäßig according to plan Planspiel business game Planungsabteilung planning department Planwirtschaft planned economy Platz site Platz, Fleck, Stelle spot Platz, Ort place platzen (Scheck) bounce Platzierung, Unterbringung placement Platzwechsel local bill plazieren place plädieren plead plus plus plötzliche Kurssteigerung jump in price plötzliche Zunahme sudden increase plötzlicher Anstieg abrupt rise plötzlicher Wechsel sudden change plötzliches Nachlassen sudden fall Plünderung looting Pächter leaseholder Pächter lessee Päckchen packet Police abändern amend a policy Police ausfertigen issue a policy Police ausstellen effect a policy Police beleihen borrow on a policy Police erneuern renew a policy Police für eine einzige Fahrt voyage policy Police kündigen cancel a policy Police ohne Wertangabe open policy Policenbüro policy signing office Policendarlehen, Beleihung einer Police loan on policy Politik, Versicherungspolice policy politisch political populär machen popularize populär, beliebt popular Portfolio portfolio Porto postage Portokasse petty cash Portokassenbuch petty cash book Portokassenkonto petty cash account positiv, überzeugt positive positive Volkswirtschaftslehre positive economics Post, mit der Post senden mail Postamt post office Postanweisung money order Postanweisung postal order Posteinlieferungsschein post receipt Posten item Posten post Posten, Artikel item Postgirodienst national giro Postgirodienst National Giro Service Postgirokonto giro account postlagernd poste restante Postleitzahl (Br.) postal code Postleitzahl (US) zip code Postleitzahl (US) zipcode Postscheck postal check Postscheckdienst, Postgirodienst giro Postscheckdienste giro services Postscheckkonto (Br.) giro account Postspardienst (US) postal saving Postsparguthaben postal savings Posttarif postal rate Postversandbescheinigung certificate of posting Postwertzeichen postal stamps Postzustellbezirk postal zone Potenzial, potenziell potential praktische Anwendung practical application praktische Erfahrung know-how praktische Erfahrung practical knowledge praktischer Arzt medical practioner praktizieren practise Prämienlohn premium pay Preis price Preis nach Börsenschluss price after hours Preis, Siegespreis prize Preisabsprache price agreement Preisabstützung pegging Preisangabe indication of price Preisangabe quotation of the price Preisangabe, Angebot quotation Preisangebot quotation Preisanstieg rise in prices Preisbewegung price movement Preisbildung formation of prices Preisbindung price maintenance Preisbindung zweiter Hand resale price maintenance Preisdifferenz price differential Preise erhöhen raise prices Preise haben sich erholt prices have recovered Preise herabsetzen lower prices Preise hochhalten keep up prices Preise niedrig halten keep prices down Preisentwicklung trend of prices Preiserholung, Erholung der Preise recovery of prices Preiserhöhung increase in price Preiserhöhung markup Preisermäßigung, Preisnachlass reduction of prices Preisfestlegung price fixing Preisfrage matter of price Preisführer price leader Preisgrenze, Limit price limit preisgünstig well-priced Preiskrieg price war Preislage price level Preisliste price list Preisnachlass, Rabatt, Diskont discount Preisniveau level of prices Preisschwankung fluctuation of price Preisschwankungen price fluctuations Preissenkung cut in prices Preisspirale inflationary spiral Preissteigerungsrate rate of price increase Preissturz slump Preissystem price system Preisunterbietung, Preisnachlass cutting of prices Preisverlust loss in price preiswert worth the money Preisüberwachung price control Presse, pressen, drängen press Prestigewerbung goodwill advertising prima super Primawechsel first bill of exchange Primawechsel first of exchange Primärindustrie primary industries Prinzip principle Prinzip der Entschädigung principle of indemnity Priorität priority Priorität erhalten obtain priority Prioritätsgläubiger privileged creditor privat, persönlich private Privatbank private bank Privatbankier (US) individual banker Privatbesitz private property private Unfallversicherung personal accident insurance privates Darlehen personal loan Privathaftpflichtversicherung personal liability insurance Privatsektor private sector Privatunternehmen, freie Wirtschaft private enterprise Privatversicherer private insurer privatwirtschaftliches Risiko commercial risk pro Tag per diem Probe trial Probebilanz trial balance Problem lösen solve a problem Produkt, Ware product Produktauswahl, Sortiment range of products Produktenbörse commodity exchange Produktenbörse produce exchange Produktion production Produktionsausfall loss of production Produktionseinschränkung limitation of production Produktionsfaktoren factors of production Produktionsfaktoren production factors Produktionskosten cost of production Produktionsplanung production planning Produktionssteigerung rise in output Produktionszahlen output figures produktiv productive Produktivität productivity Produktivitätssteigerung rise in productivity professionell professional Profite gainings Proforma pro forma Proformarechnung pro forma invoice Prägen minting Prägen von Münzen coinage Programm (Br.) program Programm (US) program Programmierer programmer programmierte Unterweisung programmed instruction progressiv progressive Projekt project Prokura power of procuration Prokura procuration Proletariat proletariat Prolongation eines Wechsels extension of a B/L Prolongationsgebühr backwardation Prolongationsgebühr, Aufgeld contango Prolongationskosten contango money Prämie premium Prämie berechnen charge a premium Prämie berichtigen adjust the premium Prämie festsetzen fix the premium Prämie für eigene Rechnung premium for own account Prämie ist fällig premium is due Prämie rückerstatten refund a premium Prämie, Aufgeld premium Prämie, Option option money Prämienabrechnung premium statement Prämienart type of premium prämienfrei free of premium prämienfreie Versicherung paid-up insurance Prämiengeschäft option business Prämiengeschäft, Optionsgeschäft option business Prämieninkasso collection of premiums Prämienlohnsystem bonus wages system Prämienquittung premium receipt Prämienrabatt premium discount Prämienrate installment premium Prämienrate premium installment Prämienrichtlinien, Einstufungsrichtlinien rating principles Prämienrückgewähr, Prämienrückvergütung return of premium Prämienrückzahlung refund of premium Prämiensatz premium rate Prämiensatz rate of option Prämiensatz rate of premium Prämiensystem incentive scheme Prämiensystem premium bonus system Prämientarif insurance tariff Prämienvolumen volume of premiums prompt, sofort, umgehend prompt proportionale Verteilung proportional allotment Proportionalregel average clause Präsident president Prospekt prospectus Protektionismus protectionism Protest protest Protest erheben enter a protest Protest erheben lodge a protest Protest erheben raise a protest Protest mangels Zahlung protest for non-payment Protest wegen Nicht-Annahme protest for non-acceptance Protestaufnahme act of protest Protestgebühren protest charges protestieren, Protest protest Protesturkunde deed of protest Protesturkunde notarial protest certificate Protesturkunde note of protest Protokoll minutes Protokoll führen keep the minutes Protokollbuch minute book Provinzbank country bank Provision commission Provision bei Devisengeschäften exchange commission Provisionsgrundlage commission basis Provisionskonto commission account provisionspflichtig subject to commission Provisionssatz rate of commission provisorisch, einstweilig provisional Prozedur, Verfahren procedure Prozent per cent Prozent percent Prozentsatz percentage prozentualer Anteil percentage Prozess, Verfahren process Prozesskostenversicherung legal expenses insurance prüfen to examine prüfen, untersuchen examine prüfen, überprüfen to verify Prüfung des Antrags examination of proposal Prüfungsausschuß board of examiners Prüfungskommission board of examiners Prüfungszeugnis certificate of inspection psychisch psychic psychische Verfassung mental health psychologisch psychological psychologische Faktoren psychological factors Punkt point Punkt der Tagesordnung point of the agenda Punkt einer Vereinbarung article of an agreement Punkt eines Vertrags article of a contract pünktlich zahlen pay punctually Qualifikation, Befähigung qualification qualifizieren qualify qualifiziert, befähigt, berechtigt qualified Qualität, Beschaffenheit quality Qualität, Güte quality Qualitätsgarantie guarantee of quality Qualitätskontrolle quality control quantitativ quantitative Quantität, Menge quantity Quarantäne quarantine Quartalstag quarter day Quelle source Quellen, Rohstoffquellen, Ressourcen resources querschreiben cross quittieren receipt quittierte Rechnung receipted bill Quittung receipt Quittungsbeleg voucher for receipt Quittungsformular receipt form Quittungsstempel receipt stamp Quorum, Mindestanzahl quorum Quote quota Quote, Anteil quota Quotenerhöhung quota increase Quotenrückversicherung quota share reinsurance quotieren, notieren, Kurse angeben quote Rabatt discount Rabatt rebate radioaktive Strahlung nuclear radiation Rahmen frame Rahmen framework Rahmenvereinbarung general agreement Rang rank Rang einer Hypothek rank of a mortgage Rang einnehmen, rangieren rank Rang, Prioritätenfolge order of priority rar scarce Rat advice Rat suchen seek advice Rat, Beratung counsel Rat, Ratschlag advice raten, beraten advise Ratenzahlung payment by installments Ratgeber adviser ratifizieren ratify Ratifizierung ratification Ration ration rationalisieren rationalize Rationalisierung rationalization Rationalisierungsbemühungen rationalization efforts rationiert rationed Rationierung rationing Ratsversammlung council Raub, Beraubung robbery Raubbau, Raubwirtschaft robber economy reagieren react Reaktion response real, wirklich real reale Vermögenswerte tangible assets Realeinkommen real income realer Wert real value realisierbar, verwertbar realizable Realisierbarkeitsstudie feasibility study Realkredit credit on landed property Realkredit credit on real estate Reallohn real wage Rechenfehler miscalculation Rechenmaschine calculator Rechenschaftsbericht statement of accounts rechenschaftspflichtig liable to account rechnen count rechnen reckon rechnen, berechnen, errechnen calculate Rechner calculator Rechnung bill Rechnung invoice Rechnung (US), Rechnung im Restaurant bill Rechnungsabschluss closing of accounts Rechnungsabschluß balance of accounts Rechnungsbetrag amount of an invoice Rechnungsbetrag, Rechnungssaldo balance of an invoice Rechnungsbuch account book Rechnungsdatum date of invoice Rechnungsjahr financial year Rechnungsmethode, Buchungsverfahren method of accounting Rechnungswesen accountancy Recht law Recht right Recht der Fahrlässigkeitshaftung law of negligence Recht erwerben become entitled Recht, Anrecht right rechtfertigen justify rechtfertigen, begründen justify rechtfertigt justified Rechtfertigung justification rechtliche Bedeutung legal meaning rechtmäßig lawful rechtmäßig vertretbar justifiable rechtmäßiger Eigentümer lawful owner rechtmäßiger Erbe true heir rechtmäßiger Inhaber holder in due course Rechtsabteilung legal department Rechtsanspruch legal claim Rechtsanspruch legal title Rechtsanspruch legitimate claim Rechtsanspruch title Rechtsanwalt (US) attorney-at-law Rechtsanwalt, (Br.) Staatsanwalt (US) attorney Rechtsanwaltskosten lawyer's fees Rechtsberater legal adviser Rechtsberatung legal advice Rechtsgeschäft transaction Rechtsgrundlage legal basis Rechtshilfe legal assistance rechtskräftig werden become final Rechtsmangel lack of title Rechtsmittel legal means Rechtsmittel legal remedy Rechtsmittel remedy Rechtssprechung jurisdiction rechtsverbindlich legally binding rechtswidrig illegal rechtswidrig unlawful rechtswidrig handeln act illegally rechtswidrig handeln act unlawfully rechtswidrige Handlung unlawful act rechtswirksam effective in law rechtswirksam legally effective Rechtswirksamkeit eines Dokuments legal effect of a document Redefreiheit freedom of speech Rediskont rediscount rediskontieren, Rediskont rediscount redlicher Erwerber purchaser without notice Reduktionsfaktor, Minderungsfaktor reduction factor Reduktionswert reduction value reduzieren, herabsetzen reduce reduzierter Preis reduced price Reduzierung reduction Reduzierung, Abbau cutback Reeder owner of a ship Reeder ship owner Referenz, Bezugnahme reference reformieren, Reform reform Regal shelf rege Nachfrage brisk demand Regel rule regelmäßig wiederkehrende Zahlung periodical payment regelmäßig wiederkehrende Zahlungen periodical payments regelmäßige Leistungen regular periodical payments regelmäßige Zahlungen regular payments regeln, anpassen, regulieren adjust regeln, beherrschen, Regel rule regeln, regulieren regulate Regelung regulation Regelung, Vereinbarung arrangement Regenversicherung pluvius insurance Regenversicherung rain insurance Regenwasser rainwater Regenwasserschaden rainwater damage reges Geschäft brisk business Regierung cabinet Regierung government Region, Gebiet region regional regional regionale Planung regional planning Register register Register, registrieren register Registrierbeamter, Standesbeamter registrar registrieren record Registrierkasse cash register Registrierung registration Registrierung registry Registrierung, Anmeldung registration Registrierungsbescheinigung von Pfandbriefen certificate of bonds Regress recourse Regress regress Regress nehmen recourse Regress, Rückgriff recourse regressiv regressive regresspflichtig liable to recourse regresspflichtig responsible for recourse regulierbar adjustable Regulierung adjustment Regulierungskosten adjustment costs regulär regular rehabilitierter Konkursschuldner discharged bankrupt Rehabilitierung, Wiedereingliederung rehabilitation Reibung friction reich, im Überfluss schwimmend affluent reichlich ample reichliche Mittel ample means reichliche Sicherheit ample security Reichtum, Überfluss affluence Reichweite in Meilen mileage reif, fällig, verfallen mature Reihe, Serie serial rein, sauber, ohne Einschränkung clean reine Schulden net liabilities reines Glücksspiel game of pure chance reines Konnossement clean bill of lading Reingewinn clear profit Reinschrift clean copy Reise journey Reise, Tour tour Reiseagentur, Reisebüro travel agency Reiseausfallkostenversicherung insurance of travelling expenses Reisebüro tourist office Reisegepäckversicherung luggage insurance Reisehandbuch, Reiseführer, Ratgeber guidebook Reisekostenabrechnung travel expense report Reisekreditbrief circular note Reisekreditbrief traveler's letter of credit Reisen traveling reisen, Reise travel Reisender traveler Reisender, Vertreter travelling salesman Reiseplan, Reiseroute itinerary Reisepolice voyage policy Reisescheck traveler's check Reisespesen traveling expenses Reiseunfallversicherung traveler's accident insurance Reiseunfallversicherung travelers' accident insurance Reiseversicherung travel insurance Reißzwecke tack Reklame publicity Rekordjahr record year Rekordumsatz record sales Rektapapier instrument not to order Rendite income return Rendite der Aktien yield on shares rennen run Rentabilitätsanalyse analysis of profitability Rentabilitätsgrenze limit of profitability Rente annuity Rente bewilligen, Pension bewilligen grant a pension Rente beziehen, Pension beziehen draw a pension Rente beziehen, Pension beziehen receive a pension Rentenbank annuity bank rentenberechtigt, pensionsberechtigt eligible for pension Rentenbrief annuity certificate Rentenempfänger annuitant Rentenempfänger holder of an annuity Rentenversicherung annuity insurance Rentenversicherungsvertrag annuity contract Rentenzahlung pension payment Rentner pensioner Reparaturkosten cost of repair Reparaturkosten cost of repairs reparieren, Reparatur repair Reportkurs rate of contango Repräsentationsfigur figurehead Repräsentationskosten cost of entertainment Repräsentationswerbung institutional advertising Requirierung requisition Reserve reserve Reserve für Leibrenten life annuity fund Reserven capital surplus Reserven money in reserve Reserven des Versicherers underwriting reserves Reserven in ausländischer Währung foreign funds Reserven in ausländischer Währung holdings of foreign currency Reserven in fremder Währung foreign exchange reserves reservieren reserve reservierte Haltung bearish attitude Reservierung reservation resolut, entschlossen resolute Respekttage, 3 Tage Gnade days of respite Respekttage, Verzugstage days of grace Rest, Restbestand remainder Restbetrag balance Restbetrag remainder Restbetrag remaining amount Restposten odd lot restriktive Kreditpolitik restrictive credit policy Restwert salvage value Resultate findings Retrozession retrocession retten save Revision audit Revision revision Revisionsbeamter comptroller Rezeption, Empfang reception Rezession, Flaute recession Rezession, Konjunkturrückgang recession Richter, beurteilen judge Richtlinie guideline Richtlinien instructions Richtlinien und Gebräuche customs and practice Ring, Vereinigung ring Risiken eingehen take hazards Risiko hazard Risiko risk Risiko begrenzen limit a risk Risiko decken cover a risk Risiko der Aufbringung risk of capture Risiko der Kollision collision risk Risiko der Strandung stranding risk Risiko der Verfügungsbeschränkung restraint risk Risiko des Auf-Grund-Laufens risk of running aground Risiko des Aufruhrs riot risk Risiko des Aufstands insurrection risk Risiko des Eigentümers owner's risk Risiko des Maschinenschadens breakdown of machinery risk Risiko des Sinkens, Risiko des Untergangs sinking risk Risiko kriegerischer Handlungen warlike operations risk Risiko verteilen spread a risk Risiko von Feindseligkeiten hostilities risk Risiko übernehmen take a risk Risiko, Gefahr hazard Risiko, Gefahr risk Risikoausschaltung elimination of risk Risikobegrenzung bei Katastrophen catastrophe limit Risikoeinstufung classification of risks Risikohäufung accumulation of risk Risikokapital venture capital Risikoprämie premium for risk Risikoverteilung diversification of risks riskant risky riskieren, Risiko risk Rivale rival Rohbilanz rough balance Rohmaterial raw material Rohmateriallagerung storage of raw material Rohstoffindustrie extractive industry Rohstoffmärkte commodity markets rollendes Inventar, Waggons und Lokomotiven rolling stock Rollgeld cartage Rollgeld, Fuhrgeld, Fuhrkosten cost of cartage Rost rust Rotation rotation rotieren rotate Räumung eines Gebäudes vacation of a building Routine routine Routinetätigkeit, Routineaufgabe routine job Ruf reputation rufen, anrufen, telefonieren, aufsuchen call Rufname first name Ruhegehalt, Pension pension Ruhegehaltsempfänger pensioner ruhegehaltsfähig pensionable ruhendes Konto broken account Ruhestand retirement Runde round Rundfunkwerbung radio advertising Rundreise circular trip Rundreisefahrkarte circular ticket Rundschreiben circular letter Rundschreiben zum Angebot von Obligationen bond circular rückdatieren backdate Rückerstattung reimbursement Rückerstattung verlangen to claim refund rückfinanzieren refinance Rückfinanzierung refinancing Rückführung repatriation Rückgang downward movement Rückgang drop Rückgang fall Rückgang des Geschäfts decline of business rückgängig machen countermand Rückgriff recourse Rückgriff auf den Auftraggeber recourse to drawer Rückgriff auf gutgläubige Inhaber recourse to bona fide holders Rückgriffsrecht right of recourse Rückkauf repurchase Rückkaufswert surrender value Rückkaufwert repurchase value Rückkaufwert surrender value Rückkopplung, Feedback feedback Rücklagen reserves for contingencies Rücklagen für Dubiose reserve for bad debts Rücklagen für schwebende Schäden reserve for pending claims rückläufig, fallend declining Rücknahme einer Klage waiver of an action Rücknahmepreis redemption price Rückprämie premium for the put Rückprämie put premium Rückprämiengeschäft put option Rückprämienkurs price of put Rückreise return journey Rückruf call-back rückschreitend retrograde Rückseite back Rücksendung von Leergut return of empties Rücksendungen returns Rückstand arrear Rückstand backlog Rückstände, Zahlungsrückstände arrears rückständig backward rückständige Forderungen debts in arrears rückständige Zinsen arrears of interest rückständige Zinsen back interest rückständiger Zins outstanding interest rückständiges Gebiet backward area Rücktrittsanzeige notice of withdrawal Rücktrittsklausel cancellation clause Rücktrittsklausel escape clause Rückvaluta backvalue rückvergütete Prämie returned premium Rückversicherer reinsurer rückversichern reinsure Rückversicherung reinsurance Rückversicherung annehmen accept reinsurance Rückversicherungsgesellschaft reinsurance company Rückversicherungspolice reinsurance policy Rückversicherungsprovision reinsurance commission Rückversicherungsvertrag reinsurance contract Rückware goods returned Rückwechsel counterbill rückzahlbar repayable Rückzahlung refund Rückzahlung repayment Rückzahlung einer Hypothek redemption of a mortgage Rückzahlungsbedingungen, Tilgungsplan terms of redemption Rückzahlungstermin date of redemption Rückzahlungstermin date of repayment Sachanlage real investment Sachkonto impersonal account Sachlage circumstances Sachschaden damage to property Sachschaden material damage Sachschaden property damage Sachschaden, Sachverlust loss of property Sachverhalt circumstances of the case Sachvermögen tangible property Sachversicherung insurance of property Sachversicherung property insurance Sachverständigengutachten expertise Sachverständiger in Havarieangelegenheiten despacheur Sack sack sagenhafter Reichtum fabulous wealth saisonbedingt seasonal saisonbedingt subject to seasonal influences saisonbedingte Anpassung seasonal adjustment saisonbedingte Schwankungen seasonal fluctuations saisonbereinigt seasonally adjusted Saisondarlehen seasonal loan Saisoneinflüsse seasonal influences Saisongeschäft seasonal business Saisonschwankungen unterliegen vary with the season Saisonzuschlag seasonal price increase Saldierung, Abschluss balancing Saldo balance Saldo einer Rechnung balance of an invoice Saldo eines Kontos balance of an account Saldo zu Ihren Gunsten balance in your favor Saldo zu Ihren Lasten debit balance Saldovortrag balance to be brought forward Saloübertrag balance forward Sammelaufwendung collective expenditure Sammelbuchung compound entry Sammelkonto collective account Sammelkonto omnibus account sammeln, einsammeln, Inkasso vornehmen collect Sammelposten compound item Sammeltarif joint rate Sammelversicherung group insurance Sammelversicherung, Gruppenversicherung collective insurance Sammelverwahrung, Sammeldepot collective deposit Sanierung reorganization Sanierungsmaßnahme reorganization measure Sanktion sanction Satz für Devisentermingeschäft future rate Satzung Articles of Association Satzung einer oHG Articles of Partnership Schaden damage Schaden durch Rost und Oxydierung loss by rust and oxidation Schaden durch Seewasser, Seewasserschaden damage by sea water Schaden durch Seewasser, Seewasserschaden sea-water damage Schaden durch Süßwasser, Süßwasserschaden damage by fresh water Schaden durch Süßwasser, Süßwasserschaden fresh-water damage Schaden erleiden meet with a loss Schaden erleiden suffer a loss Schaden erleiden sustain a loss Schaden ersetzen make good a loss Schaden leiden suffer damages Schaden mindern minimize loss Schaden regulieren adjust a claim Schaden regulieren settle a claim Schaden vergüten, Schaden ersetzen make up for a loss Schaden verursachen occasion a loss Schaden zufügen, Verlust zufügen inflict a loss schaden, beschädigen, Schaden damage Schaden, Nachteil harm Schadenbeteiligungsrückversicherung quota share reinsurance Schadenersatz damages Schadenersatz in natura compensation in kind Schadenersatzleistung payment of damages Schadenfestsetzung fixing of damages Schadenminderungsklausel sue and labor clause Schadensabschätzung estimation of damage Schadensabteilung claims department Schadensabteilung claims office Schadensachverständiger adjuster Schadensanzeige loss advice Schadensanzeige notice of claim Schadensanzeige notice of loss Schadensanzeige erstatten give notice of loss Schadensbearbeiter adjuster Schadensbearbeitungskosten claims expenses Schadensbenachrichtigung, Schadensmeldung notification of claim Schadensbetrag amount of damage Schadensbüro adjustment bureau Schadensbüro adjustment office Schadensbüro claims department Schadensereignis damaging event Schadensersatz indemnity Schadensersatz für Spätfolgen remote damages Schadensersatz gewähren award damages Schadensersatzanspruch wegen Nichterfüllung damages for non-performance Schadensersatzbemessung measure of damages Schadensersatzbetrag sum of indemnity Schadensersatzforderung, Ersatzanspruch claim for indemnification Schadensersatzklage action for damages schadensersatzpflichtig answerable for damages schadensersatzpflichtig held for damages schadensersatzpflichtig liable for damages schadensersatzpflichtig liable to indemnify schadensersatzpflichtig liable to pay damages Schadenserwartung expectation of loss Schadensfall case of loss Schadensfall event of damage or loss Schadensfestsetzung, Schadenbegutachtung loss assessment Schadensfeststellung, Schadensausmaß measure of damages Schadensfeuer hostile fire Schadensfälle bearbeiten handle claims Schadensfreiheitsrabatt no-claims bonus Schadenshäufigkeit frequency of loss Schadenshäufigkeit incidence of loss Schadenshäufigkeit loss frequency Schadensmeldung, Meldung des Schadens notification of loss Schadensquote loss ratio Schadensreferent claims agent Schadensregelung, Berichtigung adjustment Schadensregulierung adjustment of a loss Schadensregulierung claim settlement Schadensregulierung loss settlement Schadensrisiko durch Aussperrung lockout risk Schadensrisiko durch Streikhandlungen strike risk Schadenssachverständiger insurance adjuster Schadensstatistik loss statistics Schadenssumme amount of loss Schadensumfang, Schadensausmaß extent of loss Schadensverhütung loss prevention Schadensverteilung loss repartition Schadenswahrscheinlichkeit chance of loss Schadenswahrscheinlichkeit probability of loss Schadenswert, Schadensumfang, Schadenshöhe amount of loss Schadenszertifikat certificate of damage schadhaft damaged Schadloshaltung recoupment schalten, Schalter switch Schalter counter Schalterbeamter clerk Schaltsystem switching system scharf keen scharf, verwegen keen scharfe Konkurrenz keen competition scharfer Wettbewerb keen competition Schatzamt treasury Schatzanweisung treasury bond Schatzanweisungen treasury bills Schatzkanzler (Br.) Exchequer Schatzkanzler (Br.), Finanzminister Chancellor of the Exchequer Schatzmeister, Kassier treasurer Schatzschein treasury note Schaufensterbummel window shopping Schaufenstergestaltung, "Spiegeln" window dressing Schaufenstergestaltung, Schaufensterreklame window display Schaufensterpuppe dummy Scheck check Scheck cheque (Br.) Scheck (US) check Scheckbuch (US) check book Scheckbuch (US) checkbook Scheckbuch, Scheckheft cheque book (Br.) Scheckformblatt check form Scheckinhaber holder of a check Scheckkarte check card Scheckkonto check account Scheckschutzvorrichtung check protection device Scheckschutzvorrichtung device for protection of check Scheckverkehr check transactions Scheidemünze token coin Scheidemünze, Münze token coin Scheinauktion mock auction scheinbarer Wert apparent value scheinen der Auflistung zu entsprechen appear to be as listed scheinen zu sein appear to be scheinen, erscheinen appear Scheingeschäft simulated transaction Scheingewinn sham profit Schema, Plan, System scheme schematische Aufstellung der Organisation organization chart Schenkung donation Schenkungsurkunde deed of gift Schicht, umschalten auf Großbuchstaben shift Schiebung jobbery Schiedsgericht court of arbitration Schiedsgerichtsbarkeit arbitrage Schiedsgerichtsbarkeit arbitration Schiedsgerichtsbarkeitsklausel arbitration clause Schiedsgerichtskosten cost of arbitration Schiedsrichter arbiter Schiedsrichter conciliator Schiedsrichter, Richter am Schiedsgericht arbitrator schiedsrichterlich arbitral Schiedsspruch arbitration award Schiedsspruch annehmen abide by an award Schiedsverfahren arbitration proceedings Schiff ship Schiffsmakler ship broker Schiffsschweiß ship's sweat Schildchen, Karteireiter tab Schimmel, Verschimmeln mould Schlagzeile headline Schlange stehen, Reihe, Warteschlange queue schlau, gerissen cunning schlecht regeln maladjust schlecht verwalten mismanage schlechte Beschaffenheit badness schlechtes Geld, Falschgeld bad money schleichende Inflation creeping inflation Schleuderpreis underprice Schlichter umpire Schlichtung conciliation schließen, Schluss close schließen, zum Schluss kommen conclude schließlich finally Schließung closure Schließung eines Kontos closing of an account Schluss conclusion Schluss der Beweisführung close of argument Schlussfolgerungen ziehen draw the consequences Schlusskurs closing price Schlusspreis, Schlusskurs closing price Schlussrechnung account of settlement Schlußdividende final dividend Schlußkurs closing rate Schlußnotierung final quotation Schlußquittung receipt for the balance Schlüsse ziehen draw conclusions Schlüssel key Schlüsselbrett keyboard Schlüsselindustrie key industry Schlüsselperson key personality Schlüsselposition key position Schlüsselstellung key job Schlüsselwort code word Schmerzensgeld damages for pain and suffering Schmiergeld an Vorarbeiter kickback schmälern impair Schmuck, Schmucksachen jewelry Schmuckversicherung, Juwelenversicherung jewelry insurance Schmuggelware smuggled goods schneiden clip schnell rapid schnell wachsend fast-growing schnellere Methoden quicker methods Schnellhefter folder schädlich, nachteilig harmful schädlich, schädigend, nachteilig hurtful schätzen estimate Schätzung des Wertes appraisal Schätzungsmethode method of estimation Schätzwert appraised value Schätzwert estimated value Schranke, Hindernis barrier Schreibarbeit paperwork Schreibfehler clerical error Schreibfehler clerical mistake Schreibmaschine typewriter Schreibraum typing pool Schreibtisch desk Schrieb, Schriftsatz writ schriftlich written schriftlich niederlegen put into writing schriftliche Anzeige written information schriftliche Bewerbung written application schriftliche Kündigung, Benachrichtigung notice in writing schriftliche Mitteilung note schriftliche Zusicherung written agreement schriftliche Zustimmung written agreement schriftliche Übereinkunft written agreement schriftlicher Beweis literal proof schriftlicher Beweis written evidence schriftlicher Nachweis documentary proof schriftlicher Vertrag contract in writing schriftlicher Vertrag written agreement Schritt pace Schritt halten mit keep pace with Schrittmacher pacesetter Schräge skewness Schrägstrich slash Schrott scrap Schrumpfen, Minderung shrinkage Schrumpfung contraction Schuld debt Schuldanerkenntnis acknowledgement of debt Schuldbrief borrower's note Schulden einer Firma debts of a company Schulden eingehen enter liabilities Schulden übernehmen assume debts Schuldeneinziehung encashment of debt schuldenfrei free of debt schuldenfrei not indebted schuldenfrei unindebted Schuldenlast burden of debts Schuldenlast, Verschuldung indebtedness Schuldensaldo balance of debt Schuldner debtor Schuldnerland debtor nation Schuldschein certificate of indebtedness Schuldschein note of hand Schuldschein (I owe you) IOU Schuldverschreibung debenture Schuldverschreibung an Order debenture to order Schuldverschreibung an Order promissory not to order Schuldverschreibung auf den Inhaber bond to bearer Schuldverschreibung auf den Inhaber debenture to bearer Schuldverschreibung auf den Inhaber promissory not to bearer Schuldverschreibung auf den Namen debenture to registered holder Schule im Sekundarbereich, Gymnasium u.a. secondary school Schuttaufräumung clearance of debris Schutz protection Schutz aufheben suspend cover Schutz der Ware protection of goods Schutz gewähren extend cover Schutz gewähren give cover Schutz gewähren provide cover Schutzzölle protective tariffs schwache Währung weak currency Schwachstromanlage low tension installation Schwankung fluctuation Schwankungsbereich range Schwankungsbreite der Kurse price range Schwankungsrückstellung equalization fund schwarze Liste blacklist schwarzer Markt, verbotener Markt black market schwarzes Brett bill-board schwarzes Brett notice-board schwebend floating schwebend unadjusted schwebende Schulden floating debt schwebender Schaden, drohender Schaden pending loss Schweigegeld hush money schweigende Zustimmung tacit approval schwer heavy schwer verkäuflich hard to sell schwer zu liquidierende Aktivposten illiquid assets schwere Einbußen, schwerer Schaden heavy losses schwere Körperverletzung grievous bodily harm schwere Verluste heavy losses Schwerindustrie heavy industry Schwierigkeiten difficulties Schwindel humbug Schwindelbank bogus bank schwindelhaft bogus schwindeln, Schwindel swindle Schwindler confidence man schwitzen sweat Schwäche softness schwächer werden weaken Seefracht maritime freight Seegefahren, Seerisiko marine adventure Seegefahren, Seerisiko marine peril Seehafenspediteur, Schiffsmakler shipping agent Seehaftpflichtversicherung marine liability insurance Seekaskoversicherer hull underwriter Seekaskoversicherung marine hull insurance Seekonnossement bill of lading covering carriage by sea Seekonnossement marine bill of lading Seekonnossement ocean bill of lading seemäßige Verpackung seaworthy packing Seeprotest ship's protest Seeraub, Piraterie piracy Seerecht maritime law Seetransport marine transport Seetransport maritime transport Seetransportversicherung ocean marine insurance Seeversicherer marine insurer Seeversicherer marine underwriter Seeversicherung marine insurance Seeversicherung maritime insurance Seeversicherung, Seetransportversicherung marine insurance Seeversicherung, Überseetransportversicherung ocean marine insurance Seeversicherungsgesellschaft marine underwriter Seeversicherungspolice marine insurance policy Seeversicherungspolice marine policy Seewurf, Überbordwerfen, über Bord werfen jettison Segelliste, Liste der Abfahrten list of sailings sein Geld redlich verdienen turn an honest penny sein Vermögen vermachen make over one's estate seine Bank mit etwas betrauen entrusting sth. to his bank seine Bestätigung hinzuzufügen to add one's confirmation seit 1980 since 1980 seit deren Einführung im Jahre since their introduction in seitens der avisierenden Bank on the part of the advising bank seitens Dritter on the part of any third parties Sekretär, Sekretärin secretary Sektor sector Sekundawechsel second bill of exchange Sekundawechsel second of exchange selbst wenn even if Selbstbedienung self-service Selbstbedienungsladen self-service shop Selbstentzündung spontaneous combustion selbstgemacht home made Selbstkostenpreis cost price Selbstkostenpreis cost-price Selbstkostenpreis net cost price Selbstkostenrechnung cost accounting selbständig self-dependent Selbstversicherung self-insurance Selbstverstümmelung maiming oneself selten seldom Seltenheitswert scarcity value Sendung consignment Sendung shipment Sendung, Kommission consignment senior senior Serie series Seriennummer serial number serienweise rückzahlbare Obligationen installment bonds setzen, stellen set Show Business, Unterhaltungsgewerbe show business sich an das Gesetz halten abide by the law sich angliedern affiliate sich auf etwas spezialisieren specialize in sth. sich ausweisen prove one's identity sich behaupten hold one's ground sich beim Auftraggeber erholen to recover from the principal sich belaufen auf come to sth. sich bemühen to endeavor sich beraten lassen take legal advice sich beschweren complain sich bessern improve sich beteiligen participate sich beziehen auf refer to sich der Dienste einer anderen Bank bedient uses the services of another bank sich der Mehrheit anschließen join the majority sich einem Kartell anschließen join a cartel sich eines guten Rufes erfreuen enjoy a good reputation sich einmischen interfere sich enthalten, sich zurückhalten abstain sich entschädigen recoup sich entschuldigen apologize sich ergebend aus ihrer Nichtbefolgung arising from their failing sich erholen recover sich erneuernder Kredit revolving credit sich erreignen occur sich etablieren, begründen establish sich frei nehmen take a day off sich für Auslagen sofort zu erholen promptly to recover outlays sich hieraus ergebende Kosten costs resulting from this sich hieraus ergebende Verzögerungen delays resulting from this sich im Geschäft niederlassen settle down in business sich ins nächste Jahrhundert erstrecken to extend into the next century sich melden bei report to sich mit Dokumenten befassen to deal in documents sich ändern vary sich schnell verkaufend fast-selling sich selbst erklärend self-explanatory sich spezialisieren auf specialize in sich um 5 Punkte verbessern gain 5 points sich untereinander widersprechen to be inconsistent with one another sich unterscheiden, abweichen differ sich vergewissern ascertain sich verlassen auf rely on sich verpflichten commit sich verpflichten, jem. anstellen engage sich verrechnen miscalculate sich verschlechternde Zahlungsbilanz deteriorating balance of payments sich zurückziehen, in Pension gehen retire sicher safe sicher angelegt safely invested sicher aufbewahren keep in safe custody sicher, Tresor safe sichere Anlage safe investment sichere Annahme safe assumption sichere Aufbewahrung safekeeping sichere Verwahrung safe custody sichere Verwahrung safe keeping sicheres Ereignis certain event Sicherheit collateral Sicherheit safety Sicherheit security Sicherheit anbieten offer guarantee Sicherheit leisten provide security Sicherheit stellen give security Sicherheit stellen provide bail Sicherheitsabstand, Sicherheitsspanne safety margin Sicherheitsanweisungen safety instructions Sicherheitsbedingung safety condition Sicherheitseinrichtungen safety installations Sicherheitsfaktor safety factor Sicherheitsfaktoren factors of safety Sicherheitshypothek cautionary mortgage Sicherheitsingenieur, Sicherheitsbeauftragter safety engineer Sicherheitsmaßnahmen safety precautions Sicherheitsmaßnehmen, Sicherkeitsvorkehrungen safety measures Sicherheitsreserve contingency fund Sicherheitsrücklage reserve for contingencies Sicherheitstransportunternehmen security carrier company Sicherheitsvorrichtungen safety appliances Sicherheitsüberwachungsabteilung safety engineering department sichern, schützen, Gewähr leisten safeguard sichern, sicherstellen secure sichern, Sicherung, Schutzmaßnahme safeguard Sicherungsgeschäft hedge Sicht sight sichtbar visible sichtbare Exporte visible exports sichtbare Importe visible imports sichtbarer Teil des Handels visible items of trade Sichttratte sight bill Sichttratte sight draft Sichtwechsel bill on demand Sichtwechsel cash order Sichtwechsel sight bill Sichtzahlung sight payment sie ziehen es vor die Verfügungsgewalt zu haben they prefer to have control sie zögern they hesitate to do sth. sie übernehmen keine Haftung they assume no liability sie übernehmen keine Verantwortlichkeit they assume no responsibility siebentägige Kündigungsfrist seven days' notice Siegel seal Siegel, Dienstsiegel, Amtssiegel official seal Siegelwachs sealing wax Silbermünzen silver coins Silberstempel, Feingehaltstempel hallmark simulieren simulate Simulierung simulation sind viel benutzt worden have been widely used sind angehalten, sollen are to sind aufzunehmen in shall be incorporated into sind berechtigt zu shall be entitled to sind berechtigt, etwas zu tun are authorized to do sth. sind dahin auszulegen dass are to be construed as sind freizugeben are to be released sind für alle Beteiligten bindend are binding on all parties sind für alle Parteien verbindlich are binding upon all parties sind nicht verpflichtet zu have no obligation to sind wahrscheinlich are likely to sinken ease off Sinken der Preise decline in prices Sinnestäuschung mental delusion Situation, Lage situation Sitz der Firma, Gesellschaftssitz place of business sitzen sit Sitzstreik sit-down strike Sitzung, Beratung session Sitzungszimmer des Aufsichtsrats boardroom Slogan, Spruch, Werbespruch slogan so bald wie möglich as soon as practicable so genau wie möglich as accurately as possible Sockel socket sofern das Akkreditiv nicht zulässt unless the credit allows sofern der Auftrag nicht ausdrücklich angibt unless the order expressly states sofern die Dokumente vorgelegt werden provided that the documents are presented sofern dies der Auftrag nicht gestattet unless the order so authorizes sofern dies nicht ausdrücklich zugelassen unless specifically authorized sofern es nicht aus dem Dokument hervorgeht unless it appears from the document sofern keine andere Weisung erteilt ist unless otherwise instructed sofern nicht anders vorgeschrieben unless otherwise stipulated sofern nicht anderweitig vereinbart unless otherwise agreed sofern nicht ausdrücklich anders vereinbart unless otherwise expressly agreed sofern nicht im Widerspruch mit unless contrary to sofort immediate sofort beginnende Rente immediate annuity sofort lieferbar und sofort zahlbar spot sofort und auf der Stelle then and there sofort verfügbar immediately available sofortig immediately sofortig instant sofortig, umgehend promptly sofortige Barzahlung bei Kaufabschluß spot cash sofortige Lieferung immediate delivery sofortiger Tod instantaneous death Solawechsel promissory note Solawechsel sole bill solche Wechsel zu akzeptieren to accept such bills of exchange solche Wechsel zu negoziieren to negotiate such bills of exchange solche Wechsel zu zahlen to pay such bills of exchange Solidarbürgschaft joint security solidarische Bürgschaft joint surety solidarische Haftung, Gemeinbürgschaft joint guarantee Soll debit side soll als ... angesehen werden shall be deemed to be ... soll angemessen Zeit haben shall have a reasonable time soll eindeutig angeben, dass should clearly indicate that soll mit angemessener Sorgfalt prüfen shall take reasonable care to check Soll und Haben debit and credit soll versuchen den Grund festzustellen should endeavor to ascertain the reasons Sollbestand calculated assets sollen die Anschrift tragen, enthalten should bear the address sollen eindeutig angeben should clearly indicate sollte klar und vollständig angeben should clearly and fully indicate sollte spezielle Weisungen enthalten should give specific instructions sollten jedem Versuch entgegentreten should discourage any attempt to sollten nicht direkt versandt werden should not be dispatched direct sollten nicht versandt werden an should not be consigned to Sollzinsen debit interest Sollzinsen interest earned Sollzinsen interest on debit balances sämtliche Meldungen oder Nachrichten all advice or information Sonderangebot exceptional offer Sonderaufgabe specific function Sonderausstattung optional equipment Sonderpreis exceptional price Sonderrechtsklausel liberties clause Sondervergütung bonus sonstige Irrtümer, die sich ergeben bei other errors arising in sonstige strittige Punkte other matters in difference sorgen, Sorge care Sorgfalt walten lassen to exercise care sorglos, unachtsam careless sorgsam, sorgfältig careful Sorte grade Sorten foreign notes and coins Sortenabteilung foreign money department sortieren assort sortiert, gemischt assorted Sortiment assortment säumig defaulting Säumiger defaulter säumiger Zahler defaulter sowohl ... als auch both ... and sowohl ... und both ... and sozial social Sozialarbeit welfare work Sozialarbeiter welfare worker soziale Dienste social services Sozialismus socialism Sozialist socialist Sozialleistungen employee benefits Sozialprodukt national product Sozialversicherung social insurance Sozialversicherung social security Sozialversicherung (Br.) National Insurance Sozialversicherung (Br.) National Security Sozialversicherungsbeitrag social insurance contribution Sozialversicherungsbeiträge national insurance contributions Sozialversicherungsgesetz National Insurance Act Sozialversicherungsgesetz (Br.) National Insurance Act Sozialversicherungskarte national insurance card Sozialversicherungskarte (Br.) National Insurance Card Sozialversicherungskarte (US) Social Security Card Sozialversicherungsleistungen social insurance benefits Sozialversicherungsträger social insurance carrier sozusagen quasi Spalte column spalten split Spanne margin Spanne, Marge margin Spar- und Darlehnkasse savings and loan association Sparbriefe savings bonds Sparbuch pass book Sparbuch savings book Sparbucheinlage bank deposit Sparbüchse money box Spareinlage saving deposit Spareinlagen savings deposits Spareinlagenbuch (US) passbook Spareinlagenzuwachs growth of saving deposits sparen save Sparen saving Sparer depositor Sparer saver Sparförderung savings promotion Sparkasse penny bank Sparkasse providend bank Sparkasse savings bank Sparkasse trustee savings bank Sparkasse auf Gegenseitigkeit (Br.) Trustee Savings Bank Sparkassenabteilung savings department Sparkassenwesen savings banking Sparkonto deposit account Sparkonto savings account Sparkonto, Einlagenkonto deposit account Sparpfennig nest-egg Sparquote saving ratio sparsam thrifty sparsam, wirtschaftlich economical Sparsamkeit thrift Sparsamkeit thriftiness Sparverein provident society Spediteur forwarding agent Spediteur freight forwarder Spekulant adventurer Spekulant gambler Spekulant speculator Spekulant auf Gelegenheiten bargain hunter Spekulation gambling Spekulation speculation spekulatives Kaufen speculative buying spekulatives Risiko speculative risk spekulieren speculate spekulieren, spielen gamble Spende donation Sperre der Auszahlungen stoppage of payments Sperrgebiet prohibited zone Sperrkonto blocked account Spesen expense Spesen eingeschlossen charges included Spesenabrechnung note of expenses Spesenkonto expense account Spesenrechnung bill of costs Spesenrechnung bill of expenses Spezialgerät special equipment spezialisieren specialize spezialisiert specialized Spezialisierung specialization Spezialkenntnisse special knowledge speziell, besonders special spezielle Probleme specific problems spezielle Schadensversicherung specific insurance Sphäre, Kreis sphere Spiel, Glücksspiel, spielen gamble Spielen game-playing Spieler, Spekulant gambler Spielhölle gambling house Spielschuld gambling debt Spielschuld gaming debt Spitzenverdienst top salary Sponsor, Gönner sponsor spontan spontaneous Sportbootversicherung small craft insurance spätestens vom at the latest from Spottpreis knocked-down price Spottpreis, Locopreis spot price Sprachen lernen study languages Sprinkleranlage sprinkler installation Sprung nach vorn jump ahead sprunghafter Anstieg jump sprunghaftes Auf und Ab der Kurse pyrotechnics Spur track Spurweite gauge staatlich unterstützt grant-aided staatlich, Staatsangehöriger national staatliche Aufsicht government supervision staatliche Aufsicht state supervision staatliche Fürsorge national assistance staatliche Versicherung state insurance staatlicher Gesundheitsdienst National Health Service staatlicher Gesundheitsdienst (Br.) National Health Service staatlicher Kontrolleur (Br) (alte Form) comptroller Staatsanleihe government bond Staatsanleihe government securities Staatsanleihe state bond Staatsanleihen state securities Staatseinnahmen public revenue Staatsobligationen (Br.) gilt-edged stock Staatsobligationen (Br.) gilts stabil stable stabile Währung stable money stabilisieren stabilize Stabilisierung stabilization Stabilität stability Stadt London City of London Stadterneuerung urban renewal Stadtgebiet urban area Stadtgrenzen city limits Stadtplaner city planner Staffelung differentiation Stagflation stagflation Stagnation stagnation stagnierend stagnant Stahlkammer safe vault Stahlkammer strong-room Stahlkammer vault Stammaktie ordinary share Stammaktien common shares Stammaktien common stock Stammaktien common stocks Stammaktien ordinaries Stammaktien erstklassiger Firmen blue chips Stammaktienzertifikat stock certificate Stammaktionär ordinary shareholder Stammeinlage primary deposit Stammkunde patron Stammkunde, eingeschriebener Kunde registered customer Stammkundschaft patronage Stand der Dinge stage of affairs Stand, Messestand stand Stand, Messestand, Verkaufsstand stall Stand-by Letter of Credit stand-by credit Standard standard Standard der Ausführung standard performance Standardabweichung standard deviation Standardartikel standardized product standardisieren standardize Standardisierung standardization Standardwerte barometer stocks Standort location Standpunkt point of view Standpunkt standpoint Stapelware staple goods stark angeboten freely offered stark favorisierte Aktien high flyers starke Nachfrage keen demand starkes Anziehen der Preise strong rise of prices statisch static statistische Tabelle statistical table Statistik statistics Statistiker statistician statistisch statistical statistische Aufstellung statistical table statistische Aufzeichnungen statistical records Status status Statuten der Gesellschaft (Br.) articles of association Statuten des Gesellschaft (US) articles of corporation stehen für jegliche Vereinbarung mean any arrangement steigen rise Steigen der Aktien rise of shares Steigen der Kosten rise in costs steigende Aktien advancing stocks steigendes Risiko increasing risk steiler Anstieg rocket steiler Anstieg steep rise Stellagegeschäft put and call Stellenangebot vacancy Stellenbewerbung application for a job Stelleninhaber holder of a position stellvertretender Vorsitzender vice-chairman Stellvertreter, Stellvertretung proxy Stempelmarke revenue stamp Stempelsteuer stamp duty Stenotypistin, Schreibdame, Schreiber typist Stentypistin shorthand typist Sterbegeld death benefit Sterbegeld death grant Sterbegeld funeral benefit Sterbegeldversicherung funeral costs insurance Sterbegeldversicherung funeral expense insurance Sterberegister register of deaths Sterberisiko mortality risk Sterbeurkunde death certificate Sterblichkeit death rate Sterblichkeit mortality Sterblichkeitsgewinn mortality gain Sterblichkeitsstruktur pattern of mortality Sterblichkeitstabelle mortality table Sterblichkeitstafel mortality table Sterblichkeitsverlust mortality loss Sterblichkeitsziffer mortality rate Sterling Gebiet sterling area Sterling Silber sterling Steuer tax Steuer erheben raise a tax Steuer, Abgabe levy Steuerabzug tax deduction Steueraufkommen national revenue Steuerbefreiung tax exemption Steuerberater tax advisor Steuerbestimmungen tax regulations Steuereinkommen, Einkünfte des Staates revenue Steuereinnahmen inland revenue Steuereinnehmer tax collector Steuererklärung tax return Steuererleichterung tax relief Steuerermäßigung relief Steuerflucht tax evasion steuerfrei free of tax steuerfrei non assessable Steuerfreibetrag, Steuernachlass tax allowance Steuerhinterzieher tax dodger Steuerhinterziehung tax avoidance Steuerjahr tax year Steuerkasse tax collector's office Steuerklasse tax class Steuerlast tax burden Steuerparadies tax haven Steuerpolitik fiscal policy Steuerprivileg, Steuervergünstigung tax privilege Steuersatz rate of taxes Steuersenkung tax cutting Steuertabelle tax table Steuerumgehung evasion of taxes Steuerveranlagung tax assessment Steuerwohnsitz fiscal domicile Steuerzahler taxpayer Steuerzuschlag surtax stichhaltiges Argument valid argument Stichprobe random sampling Stichprobenentnahme sampling Stichtag key date Stichtag test day stiften endow Stiftung endowment Stiftung, Grundlage foundation still silent stille Reserve inner reserve stille Reserven hidden assets stille Reserven hidden reserves stille Reserven secret reserves stiller Teilhaber dormant partner stiller Teilhaber silent partner stiller Teilhaber sleeping partner stillschweigend tacit stillschweigend übereinstimmen agree tacitly stillschweigende Billigung tacit approval stillschweigende Vereinbarung tacit agreement stillschweigende Zustimmung silent consent stillschweigende Zustimmung tacit consent stillschweigende Übereinkunft tacit consent Stillstand deadlock Stillstand standstill stimmen, Stimme vote Stimmenabgabe casting of votes städtisch urban städtische Verkehrsmittel city transportation städtische Verordnung bye-law stornieren cancel Stornierung eines Auftrags withdrawal of an order Stornierung, Annullierung cancellation Strafe penalty strafrechtlich haftbar criminally liable Strahlenrisiken radiation hazards Strahlungsrisiko nuclear radiation risk Strandgut flotsam and jetsam Strandgut jetsam strategisch strategic strategische Planung strategic planning Straßengebühr road charge Straßenhändler, Wandergewerbetreibender hawker Straßenräuberei highway robbery Streit, streiten quarrel streichen delete streichen, annullieren, stornieren cancel Streik strike Streikdrohung threat of strike streiken, Streik strike Streikgeld strike-pay Streikklausel strikes clause Streikposten picket Streikrecht right to strike Streitigkeit mit den Gewerkschaftsvertretern labor dispute streng stringent streng genommen strictly speaking streng verboten strictly forbidden streng vertraulich strictly confidential Strenge stringency strenge Prüfung acid test strikt strict strikt stringent strittig disputable strittige Angelegenheit matter in dispute strittige Frage question at issue strittige Frage question in dispute strittiger Punkt question at issue Strohmann nominee Stromlinie streamline Struktur structure Strukturveränderungen structural changes Studie, Untersuchung study Studiengang, Lehrgang course of studies Stufe, Schritt step Stunde hour Stundenleistung hourly output Stundenleistung output per man-hour Stundenlohn, Stundensatz hourly rate Stundungsgesuch request for respite Sturmversicherung tornado insurance Sturmversicherung windstorm insurance störanfällig accident sensitive Stück piece Stück, Masse lump Stückarbeit, Stücklohn piece-work Stückchen bit Stückelung division into shares Stückkosten unit cost Stücklizenz quota license Stückpreis unit price Stückrechnung unit accounting Stückzahl number of units stützen support Stützung der Währung backing of currency Stützungskäufe pool support subjektiv subjective subjektiver Schaden sentimental damage subjektiver Wert subjective value subjektives Risiko moral hazard subjektives Risiko des Versicherten moral hazard subsidiär haftbar liable in the second degree Subskription subscription Subskriptionsbedingungen, Bezugsbedingungen terms of subscription Subvention subsidy Subvention, Zuschuss subsidy subventionieren subsidize subventioniert subsidized Suchbefehl search warrant suchen, Suche search Summe sum Summenrabatt discount for large sums Supermarkt supermarket Swapgeschäft swap Syndikat, Verband syndicate synthetisch synthetic synthetische Stoffe synthetics System framework System system System der Ausbeutung der Mieter Rachmanism systematisch systematically systemorientierte Betriebsführung management by system Sühnemaßnahmen sanctions T T-Konto t-account tabellarisieren tabularize Tabelle table Tabelle, Tafel table Tabellenform tabular form Tabelliermaschine tabulating machine Tagebuch diary Tagebuch, Terminkalender diary Tagegeld daily allowance Tageseinnahmen daily receipts Tagesgeld daily allowance Tagesgeld daily benefits Tagesgeld day-to-day money Tagesgeld demand loan Tagesgeld money at call Tagesgeld overnight loan Tageskurs current quotation Tageskurs current rate Tageskurs day's rate Tageskurs exchange of the day Tageskurs quotation of the day Tageskurs rate of the day Tagesordnung agenda Tagespreis current price Tagesverdienst daily earnings Tageszinsen daily interest Talon talon Tantiemen emoluments Tarif tariff Tarif festlegen make a tariff Tariffestsetzung tariff making Tarifierung rating Tarifklasse wage bracket Tarifpolitik tariff policy Tarifprämie tariff rate Tarifverhandlungen collective bargaining Tasche pocket Taschengeld pocket money Tatsache fact Tatsache matter of fact Tatsachenfeststellung fact-finding tatsächliche Kosten, Gestehungskosten actual costs tatsächliche Lage, Stand der Dinge actual state of affairs tatsächliche Todesfälle actual deaths tatsächlicher Betrag actual amount tatsächlicher Gesamtschaden actual total loss tatsächlicher Schaden actual loss tatsächlicher Totalschaden actual total loss tatsächlicher Verlust, tatsächlicher Schaden actual loss tatsächlicher Wert actual value tatsächlicher Wert, wirklicher Wert actual value tauschen, Tausch swap tauschen, Tauschhandel barter Tauschmittel means of exchange Tauschmittel medium of exchange Tauschwert exchange value Taxpolice valued policy Team, Arbeitsgruppe team Teamwork, Gruppenarbeit teamwork technisch technical technische Ausdrücke technical terms technische Bedingungen specifications technische Einzelheiten, Maßangaben specification technische Gründe technical reasons technische Schwierigkeiten technical difficulties technische Stelle technical position technische Unterstützung technical assistance technische Überprüfung technical check technischer Leiter technical director technischer Verlust technical loss Technokratie technocracy Technologie, Verfahrenstechnik technology technologischer Rückstand, Abstand technological gap Teepause tea break Teil part Teil des Dukumentenbetrags part of the amount of the documents Teil einer Anleihe portion of a loan Teilabtretung partial assignment Teilbesitz part possession Teilbetrag part Teilbetrag partial amount teilen divide Teilhaber member of a partnership Teilhaberschaft mit beschränkter Haftung limited partnership Teilhaberversicherung business partnership insurance Teilinanspruchnahmen partial drawings Teilinvalidität partial disability Teilinvalidität partial disablement teilnehmen participate teilnehmen an take an active part in teilnehmen, teilhaben participate Teilnehmer participant Teilschaden part damage Teilschaden partial loss Teilschaden, Beschädigung partial damage Teilschaden, Teilverlust partial loss Teilsendung partial shipment Teilung, Abteilung division Teilverlust partial loss Teilverschiffung partial shipment teilweise partial teilweise Annahme von Änderungen partial acceptance of amendments teilweise bezahlt, nur zum Teil bezahlt partly paid teilweise Erfüllung des Vertrags part performance teilweise, unvollständig, nur zum Teil partial Teilzahlung installment Teilzahlung part payment Teilzahlung partial payment Teilzahlung payment in part Teilzahlung, Abschlagszahlung payment on account Teilzahlungen installments Teilzahlungen partial payments Teilzahlungen werden angenommen partial payments will be accepted Teilzahlungsplan installment plan Teilzeitbeschäftigung part-time employment Telefonteilnehmer telephone subscriber telegrafische Anweisung cable money telegrafische Anweisung telegraphic money telegrafische Überweisung cable transfer Telegrafie telegraphy telegrafisch telegraphic telegrafische Geldüberweisung cable transfer telegrafische Überweisung telegraphic transfer Telefon phone Telefon telephone Telefonvermittlung telephone exchange Telex, Fernschreiben, Fernschreiber telex Tendenz drift Tendenz tendency Tendenz, Trend trend tendieren tend Termin für die Zahlung date of payment Termindollar forward dollar Termingeschäft forward transaction Termingeschäft future delivery Termingeschäfte futures Terminhandel futures trading Terminkalender date book Terminkalender diary Terminkauf sale for future delivery Terminkäufe forward purchases Terminkäufe forward sales Terminkäufer forward buyer Terminkurs, Kurs für Termingeschäfte forward rate Terminmarkt forward market Terminmarkt market for futures Terminnotierungen quotations for futures Terminnotierungen bei Warenlieferungen quotations for forward delivery Terminpreis forward price Terminspekulation speculation in futures Terminverkäufer forward seller Terminüberwachung follow-up of orders territoriale Gewässer, Hoheitsgewässer territorial waters Testament last will Testament testament testamentarisch testamentary Testamentsvollstrecker administrator Testamentsvollstrecker executor testen, Test test teuer expensive teuer, aufwendig expensive Teuerung dearness Teuerungszulage cost of living bonus teure Gelder, bei hohem Zinssatz dear money teures Geld, teurer Kredit dear money Textilien soft goods Thema, Gegenstand topic theoretisch theoretical Theorie theory Theorie der großen Stichproben theory of large samples tief, Tiefsstand low Tiefstand low level Tierversicherung, Viehversicherung livestock insurance tilgbar subject to redemption tilgen amortize Tilgung amortization Tilgung einer Anleihe redemption of a loan Tilgung einer Hypothek amortization of a mortgage Tilgung einer Hypothek paying off a mortgage Tilgung einer Hypothek satisfaction of a mortgage Tilgung einer Schuld satisfaction of a debt Tilgung eines Darlehens loan redemption Tilgungsart method of amortization Tilgungsfonds sinking-fund Tilgungsleistung amortization payment Tilgungsrate rate of redemption Tilgungsrate rate of repayment Tilgungsrücklage reserve for redemption Tip, Wink hint Titel des Haushaltsplanes item of the budget Tochtergesellschaft subsidiary Tochtergesellschaft subsidiary company Todesfallrisiko death risk Todesfallversicherung whole life insurance Todesnachweis proof of death Todestag day of death Todesursache cause of death täglich daily täglich kündbares Geld money at call Toleranz von 5% mehr ist statthaft a tolerance of 5% more will be permissible Toleranz von 5% weniger ist statthaft a tolerance of 5% less will be permissible Tonbandgerät tape-recorder Tonnage tonnage Tonne ton Tortengraphik, Kuchengraphik pie-chart Totalausverkauf clearance sale Totalschaden, Totalverlust total loss Totalverlust total loss Totalverlust, Totalschaden total loss Totenschein, Sterbeurkunde death certificate totes Kapital capital unemployed totes Kapital idle capital totes Konto nominal account tätig sein, betätigen operate Tätigkeitsbewertung job evaluation Tätigkeitseinstufung labour grade Tätigkeitskategorie job classification täuschen deceive täuschend deceptive täuschend, betrügerisch deceitful täuschend, betrügerisch deceptive Täuschung deceit Täuschungsabsicht fraudulent intent tragen carry tragen, abnutzen wear Tragfähigkeit loading capacity Tragweite einer Verpflichtung scope of an engagement Trampschiff tramp steamer Transferbeschränkungen restrictions on transfers Transit transit transitorisches Aktivum deferred charges to expense transitorisches Passivum deferred charges to income Transitverlust, Transportschaden loss in transit Transport transportation Transportbedingungen terms of conveyance Transportgewerbe, Transportunternehmen carrying business Transportgüter goods in transit transportieren, Transport transport Transportkosten cost of carriage Transportkosten transportation costs Transportkosten, Beförderung carriage Transportmittel means of transport Transportrisiko peril of transportation Transportrisiko risk of transport Transportrisiko transportation risk Transporttechnik transport technology Transportunternehmen forwarder Transportunternehmer common carrier Transportversicherung goods in transit insurance Transportversicherung insurance of goods in transit Transportversicherung transit insurance Transportversicherung transport insurance Tratte draft Tratten akzeptieren to accept drafts treffen meet Treibgut flotsam Trendanalyse analysis of trends Trendänderung, Umschwung change of tendency Trennungsgeld severance pay Tresorfach safe deposit box Tresorfachversicherung safe deposit box insurance Tresorraum strong room treten in Kraft come into force treten in Kraft am enter into force as from Tretmühle sweat-mill Treu und Glauben des Absenders the good faith of the consignor Treuhandquittung trust receipt Treuhandvertrag deed of trust Treuhänder fiduciary Treuhänder trustee treuhänderisch fiduciary treuhänderische Einlagen trust deposits treuhänderische Geschäfte fiduciary operations treulos unfaithful Trinkgeld tip trocken halten, trocken aufbewahren keep dry Träger means Träger eines Risikos bearer of a risk trägt alle Verpflichtungen shall be bound by all obligations Tropenkrankheit tropical disease Typ, auf Maschine schreiben type Typistin, Schreibkraft copy typist tödlicher Unfall fatal accident U Überbewertung overvaluation Überbringer, Inhaber bearer Überbringerscheck bearer check Überbringerscheck check to bearer Überbrückungsdarlehen bridging loan Überbrückungskredit interim loan Überbrückungskredit stop-gap loan Überbrückungszeitraum transitory period Übereignungsurkunde bill of sale Übereinkommen accord Übereinkommen mutual consent Übereinkommen, Verständigung understanding Übereinstimmung accord Übereinstimmung accordance Übereinstimmung conformity Überentschädigung overcompensation Überfall, überfallen raid Überfluss abundance Überflussgesellschaft affluent society Übergabe, Aushändigung handing over Übergangsposten deferred item Übergangsregelung temporary regulation Übergangsregelung transitional arrangement Übergewicht excess of weight Übergewicht overweight Übergewicht surplus weight Überkapazität excess capacity Überlassung cession Überlebender survivor Überlegung, Gegenleistung consideration Übermaß excess Übernachfrage exaggerated demand Übernahme der Ware taking in charge of the goods Übernahme einer Effektenemission underwriting Übernahme einer Haftung assumption of a liability Übernahme einer Schuld assumption of a debt Übernahme einer Schuld assumption of an obligation Übernahme eines Risikos assumption of a risk Übernahme zu hoher Verpflichtungen over-commitment Übernahmeangebot takeover bid Übernahmegebot takeover bid Übernahmepreis takeover price Übernahmevertrag takeover agreement Überproduktion overproduction Überprüfung der Gesundheit health examination Überprüfung, Untersuchung examination Überraschung surprise Überschlagen eines Fahrzeugs overturning of a vehicle Überschrift caption Überschuldung excessive indebtedness Überschuldung liabilities exceeding the assets Überschuldung overextension Überschuss excess Überschuss surplus Überschuss, Rücklage surplus funds Überschwemmungsversicherung flood insurance Übersee, (Br.) Ausland overseas Übersender remitter Übersendung transmission Übersendung, Überweisung remittance Übersetzer translator Übersetzung translation Übersetzungsbüro translation bureau Überstunden overtime Überstunden machen work overtime Übertrag carry-over Übertragbarkeit, Begebbarkeit negotiability Übertragung durch Aushändigung transfer by delivery Übertragung durch Indossament transfer by endorsement Übertragung einer Aktie transfer of a share Übertragung einer Vollmacht delegation Übertragung mittels Urkunde transfer by deed Übertragung von Aktien assignment of shares Übertragung von Vermögen conveyance of property Übertragungsurkunde deed of conveyance Übertreibung exaggeration Überversicherung double insurance Überversicherung excess insurance Überversicherung over-insurance Überversicherung over-insurance Überwachung supervision Überwachungsfunktion police function Überwachungsstelle supervisory board Überweisung credit transfer Überweisung remittance Überweisung auf ein Konto transfer into an account Überweisung des Betrags remittance for the amount payable Überweisung eines Guthabens credit transfer Überweisung, Übertragung transfer Überweisungsauftrag order for remittance Überzahlung excess payment Überzahlung overpayment Überzahlung payment in excess Überzeichnung over-subscription Übung, Gewohnheit practice öffentlich public öffentliche Anleihe public loan öffentliche Aufsicht, staatliche Kontrolle state control öffentliche Ausgaben zur Belebung des Handels deficit spending öffentliche Ausschreibung, Kostenvoranschlag tender öffentliche Meinung public opinion öffentliche Mittel public funds öffentliche Schulden public debts öffentliche Verschuldung public debt öffentlicher Dienst, Staatsdienst civil service örtliche Bedingungen local terms örtliche Zweigstelle local branch örtlicher Handelsbrauch local custom überfluten, überschwemmen overflow über Bord geworfene Ladung, Strandgut jetsam über Bord werfen jettison über dem Nennwert above par über den Schalter, am Schalter over the counter über Durchschnitt, überdurchschnittlich above average über einen solch langen Zeitraum over such a long period über Nennwert at a premium über pari above par über Wert above value überbieten outbid überbringen bear überbrücken, Brücke bridge übereinstimmen tally übereinstimmen mit correspond with übereinstimmen, vereinbaren agree übereinstimmend conformable überfällig overdue überfällige Prämie premium overdue überfälliger Scheck stale check überfüllter Markt glut in the market übergeben hand over übergeben surrender übergeben, überlassen, aufgeben surrender überholt outdated überhöhter Schadensersatz excessive damages überleben survive überlegen, Vorgesetzter superior übermäßig excessive übermäßiger Aufwand extravagant expenses übernehmen undertake übernehmen keine Haftung assume no liability übernehmen keine Verantwortung assume no responsibility übernehmen, sich verpflichten undertake überprüfen check überraschender Gewinn, unerwarteter Gewinn windfall profit überraschenderweise surprisingly überschreiten exceed überschreiten, übersteigen exceed überschuldet over-indebted überschüssig, Überschuss surplus überschüssige Zahlungsmittel surplus currency überschüssiges Material surplus material übersehen oversee übersenden consign übersenden transmit übersenden, überweisen remit übersetzen translate übertragbar negotiable übertragbar transferable übertragbar durch Indossament transferable by endorsement übertragbar, abtretbar transferable übertragbar, begebbar negotiable übertragbares Handelspapier, Wertpapier negotiable instrument übertragen carried forward übertragen confer übertragen, vortragen carry forward übertragen, Übertragung transfer übertragende Bank transferring bank übertreiben exaggerate überversichern over-insure überweisen, zahlen remit überweisen, übertragen transfer überbewerten overestimate überbewertete Währung overvalued currency überwiegen outbalance überzeichnen oversubscribe überzeichnet oversubscribed überziehen overdraw überzogen overdrawn überzogener Betrag amount overdrawn überzogenes Konto overdrawn account überzogenes Konto overextended account übliche Abnutzung fair wear and tear übliche Abzüge customary deductions übliche Sorgfalt ordinary care üblicher Marktpreis fair market value üblicher Zinssatz conventional interest übrig bleiben remain Uhr clock Uhrenstechkarte clock card Ultimogeld money for monthly clearance um Akzeptierung zu erlangen to obtain acceptance um Auskunft bitten request information um das Akkredtiv anzeigen zu lassen to have the credit advised um Handelspapiere auszuhändigen to deliver commercial documents um Irrtümern vorzubeugen in order to guard against confusion um Kunden werben, Kundenwerbung canvass um Missverständnissen vorzubeugen in order to guard against misunderstandings um sich zu vergewissern to ascertain um Zahlung zu erlangen to obtain payment um zu in order to Umbuchung eines Betrages transfer of an amount Umbuchung eines Konteneintrags transfer of an entry Umfang extent Umfang der Verkäufe volume of sales Umfang der Ausgaben volume of expenditures Umfang der Geschäfte volume of business Umfang der Versicherungen volume of insurances contracted Umfang der Vollmacht scope of authority Umfang der Warenvorräte volume of stocks Umfang des Außenhandels volume of foreign trade Umfang des Handels volume of trade Umfang des Marktes size of the market Umfang, Spielraum scope Umfang, Volumen volume umfassen, beinhalten, in sich einschließen comprise umfassend comprehensive umfassend extensive umfassende Police comprehensive policy umfassende Versicherung comprehensive insurance Umgang mit Material materials handling umgehend at your earliest convenience Umgehungsstraße bypass umgekehrt reverse umherziehend ambulatory umkommen, zugrunde gehen perish umladen to transship Umladung transshipment Umlauf, Zirkulation circulation Umlaufsgeschwindigkeit velocity of circulation Umlaufvermögen current assets Umlaufvermögen working assets Umlaufvermögen, Betriebskapital floating capital Umlaufzeit time of circulation Umrechnungskurs exchange rate Umrechnungskurs parity Umrechnungskurs rate of exchange Umriss outline Umsatz turnover Umsatz, Umsatzvolumen volume of sales Umsatzgeschwindigkeit rate of turnover Umsatzhöhe amount of turnover umsatzloses Konto inoperative account Umsatzsteuer turnover tax Umsatzvolumen volume of trade Umsatzvoraussage business forecasting Umsatzvoraussage sales forecast umschalten switch over to Umschlag envelope umschlagen, umsetzen transact Umschlagsgeschwindigkeit rate of turnover Umschlagskapazität handling capacity umschulden convert a debt Umschuldung conversion of a debt Umsicht, Behutsamkeit cautiousness Umstand, Sachlage circumstance umstellen reorganize Umstände circumstances Umstände außer unserer Kontrolle circumstances beyond control umständehalber owing to circumstances Umtausch von Wertpapieren switching Umtausch, Wechsel exchange umtauschen exchange Umtauschkosten cost of exchange Umtauschsätze currency rates umverteilen redistribute Umverteilung redistribution Umverteilung des Einkommens redistribution of income umwandelbar convertible Umwandelbarkeit convertibility umwandeln, einlösen convert Umwandlung conversion Umwandlung einer Anleihe conversion of a loan Umwandlung von Schulden conversion of debts Umwandlungsdifferenz conversion difference Umwandlungskurs conversion rate umziehen, entfernen, entlassen remove Umzug, Entfernung, Entlassung removal Umzugsgeld moving allowance Umzugskosten removal expenses Umzugsversicherung furniture-in-transit insurance UN-Kommission für internationales Handelsrecht UNCITRAL unabhängig independent Unabhängigkeit independency unabänderlich unalterable unabwendbar, unvermeidlich, unvermeidbar inevitable Unachtsamkeit carelessness unanfechtbar incontestable unangemessen unreasonable unangemessen, unzulänglich inadequate unangemessen, unzureichend inadequate Unangemessenheit, Unzulänglichkeit inadequacy unannehmbar unacceptable unauffindbar untraceable unausgesprochen unexpressed unbeabsichtigt unintentional unbeantwortet unanswered unbeaufsichtigt, unbeschränkt uncontrolled unbedacht unmindful unbedingte Annahme general acceptance unbedingte Anweisung unconditional order unbeglaubigt unauthenticated unbegrenzt unlimited unbegründet unfounded unbegründet, grundlos unfounded unbegründeter Anspruch bad claim unbekannt unknown unbelastet unencumbered unbelastet unmortgaged unbenutzt unused unberechtigte Forderung false claim unbeschädigt undamaged unbeschränkt absolute unbeschränkt open-end unbeschränkt unlimited unbeschränkt haftbar liable without limitation unbeschränkt haftender Partner general partner unbeschränkte Haftung unlimited liability unbeschränkter Eigentümer absolute owner unbeschränkter Kredit unlimited credit unbestimmt indefinite unbestimmt unascertained unbeständig unstable unbeständig unsteady Unbeständigkeit unsteadiness unbestätigt unconfirmed unbestätigtes Akkreditiv unconfirmed letter of credit unbestritten uncontradicted unbeweglich immovable unbezahlbar priceless unbezahlbar unpayable unbezahlt unpaid unbillige Härte undue hardship und/oder and/or undatiert undated unechter Ersatzanspruch fictitious claim uneinbringlich irrecoverable uneinbringlich uncollectible uneinbringlich verloren past recovery uneinbringliche Forderung irrecoverable debt uneinbringliche Forderungen bad debts uneinbringliche Forderungen irrecoverable debts uneingeschränkter freier Wettbewerb perfect competition uneingeschränktes Akzept clean acceptance uneinheitlich irregular unelastisch inelastic unelastische Nachfrage inelastic demand unelastisches Angebot inelastic supply unentgeltlich gratuitous unentschuldigtes Fernbleiben absenteeism unentwickelt undeveloped unerlaubte Geschäfte illicit dealing unerlaubte Geschäfte von Börsenmitgliedern insider dealings unerlaubter Skontoabzug unearned discount unerledigt outstanding unerledigt lassen, nicht tun fail unerlässlich indispensable unersetzlicher Verlust irrecoverable loss unerwartet unexpected unerwarteter großer Gewinn bonanza Unfall accident Unfall durch Ermüdung fatigue accident Unfall, Unfallopfer casualty Unfallanzeige notice of accident Unfallentschädigung accident indemnity Unfallhaftpflichtversicherung third-party insurance Unfallrente accident benefit Unfallrisiko accident hazard Unfallrisiko accident risk Unfallsentschädigung compensation for an accident Unfallstatistik accident statistics Unfallverhütung accident prevention Unfallvermeidung accident avoidance Unfallversicherung accident insurance Unfallversicherung casualty insurance Unfallversicherung compensation insurance Unfallversicherung (US) casualty insurance Unfallversicherungsgesellschaft casualty company Unfallzusatzversicherung (verdoppelt Wert) double-indemnity clause Unfähigkeit unability unfrei, Frachtkosten per Nachnahme carriage forward ungebührlicher Einfluss undue influence ungedeckt uncovered ungedeckter Kredit uncovered credit ungedeckter Scheck uncovered cheque ungedeckter Scheck, geplatzter Scheck bounced cheque ungeeignet unfit ungeeignet unqualified ungeeignet, untauglich unqualified ungefähre Zahl round figure ungelernter Arbeiter common laborer ungemünzt uncoined ungenaue Ausdrücke imprecise terms ungenutzt, stilliegend idle ungenutzte Kapazität spare capacity ungenutztes Geld idle money ungerade Zahlen odd numbers ungerade, gelegentlich odd ungerade, ungewohnt odd ungerechtfertigt unjustified ungeschickt, nicht ausgebildet unskilled ungesetzlich, illegal illegal ungesetzlicher Streik, spontaner Streik (US) quickie strike ungesichert unsecured ungesicherte Obligation naked debenture ungesicherte Obligationen plain bonds ungesicherte Verbindlichkeiten unsecured liabilities ungesichertes Darlehen unsecured loan ungewiss dubious ungewiss, unberechenbar incalculable ungewöhnlich hoher, ausbeuterischer Pacht rack rent ungleich uneven Ungleichheit disparity Ungültigkeit nullity ungünstig unfavorable ungünstige, passive Handelsbilanz unfavorable balance of trade ungünstige, passive Zahlungsbilanz unfavorable balance of payments unklare Weisungen unclear instructions unkontrolliert uncontrolled Unkostenaufstellung cost account unkündbar non-redeemable unkündbar not subject to call unkündbares Darlehen uncallable loan unkündbares Kapital capital not to be withdrawn unlauter unfair unlautere Handlungen unfair practices unlautere Methoden unfair practices unlauteres Unternehmen racket unmittelbar. sofort immediate unmittelbare Folge immediate consequence unmittelbarer Schaden direct loss unmöbliertes Zimmer unfurnished room Unmöglichkeit der Erfüllung impossibility of performance unpassend unsuitable unredlich dishonorable unregelmäßig irregular unregelmäßige Zahlungen irregular payments Unregelmäßigkeit irregularity unrentabel gainless unrentabel unprofitable unrentabel unremunerative unrichtig incorrect unrichtige Angabe false pretence Unrichtigkeit incorrectness Unruhe riot unschädlich, ohne Nachteil harmless unsicher uncertain unsicher unsettled unsichere Kapitalanlage insecure investment unsicheres Ereignis uncertain event unsichtbar invisible unsichtbare Ausfuhren invisible exports unsichtbare Einfuhren invisible imports unsichtbare Exporte invisible exports unsichtbare Hand invisible hand unsichtbare Handelsgüter invisible items of trade unsichtbare Handelsgüter invisibles unsichtbare Posten invisibles unsichtbare Transaktionen invisible transactions Unstimmigkeit discrepancy untauglich unfit untauglich, uneingeschränkt unqualified unten definierte Dokumente documents as defined below unter anderen Bedingungen on other terms and conditions unter anderen Bedingungen upon other terms unter Ausschluss von Havarie free from average unter dem Tageskurs under today's quotation unter der Linie, unter dem Strich bellow the line unter diesen Beschränkungen subject to these limitations unter diesen Umständen under the circumstances unter Eid on oath unter eine Kategorie fallen fall in a category unter Einhaltung einer Frist von 5 Tagen subject to a term of 5 days unter irgendeiner Bestimmung dieses Artikels under any provision of this article unter Nennwert below par unter Tarif bezahlen pay below tariff unter Vorbehalt akzeptieren to accept under reserve unter Vorbehalt negoziieren to negotiate under reserve unter Vorbehalt zahlen to pay under reserve unter Wert below value unter Wert ansetzen under price unter üblichem Vorbehalt under usual reserve Unterabteilung subdivision unterbelegt, nicht genug Arbeitskräfte under staffed unterbeschäftigt under employed unterbevölkert under populated unterbewerten under rate unterbewerten under value unterbewertet, unter Tarif under rated unterbewertet under rated Unterbewertung under valuation unterbezahlen under pay unterbezahlt under paid unterbieten under cut unterbieten under sell Unterbietung under selling unterbrechen discontinue unterbrechen interrupt Unterbrechung discontinuance Unterbrechung interruption Unterbrechung der Geschäftstätigkeit interruption of business Unterbrechung der Geschäftstätigkeit interruption of the business Unterbrechung durch höhere Gewalt interruption by Acts of God Unterbrechung, Einstellung discontinuation unterbreiten, vorlegen submit unterbringen, entgegenkommen accommodate Unterbringung bei einer Bank bank accommodation unterbrochen, eingestellt discontinued Unterdrückung suppression untere Paritätsgrenze lower limit of parity unterentwickeltes Gebiet underdeveloped area unterentwickeltes Land underdeveloped country untergegangene Sachen, verlorene Sachen goods destroyed untergeordnet ancillary Untergewicht short weight Untergewicht under weight Unterhalt, Lebensunterhalt living Unterhalt, Lebensunterhalt maintenance Unterhalt, Lebensunterhalt, Versorgung maintenance Unterhaltsklage action for support Unterhaltungskosten cost of maintenance Unterhaltungskosten maintenance costs Unterhaltungskosten maintenance expenses unterlassen leave something undone Unterlassung einer Mitteilung non-disclosure Unterlieferant sub-contractor unterliegen be liable to Untermieter lodger Unternehmen establishment Unternehmen nur mit Gewerkschaftsangehörigen union shop Unternehmen, Unternehmung enterprise Unternehmen, Verpflichtung undertaking Unternehmensform form of enterprise Unternehmensform type of enterprise Unternehmensgruppe group of companies Unternehmensleiter, Geschäftsführer manager Unternehmensleitung management Unternehmensleitung top management unternehmenslustig enterprising Unternehmer entrepreneur Unternehmer, Bauunternehmer contractor unternehmerisches Risiko business hazard Unternehmerlohn employer's salary Unternehmertätigkeit entrepreneurial activity Unterposten sub-item unterprivilegiert underprivileged Unterschied difference unterschätzen underestimate unterschreiben undersign unterschreiben underwrite unterschrieben oder mit Handzeichen versehen signed or initialed Unterschrift signature Unterschriftenkarte signature card Unterschriftenprobe specimen signature Unterschriftenverzeichnis list of authorized signatures Unterschriftsbeglaubigung confirmation of signature Unterschriftsberechtigung authority to sign Unterschriftsberechtigung power to sign Unterschriftsprobe specimen signature unterschwellig subliminal unterschwellige Werbung subliminal advertising unterstreichen underline unterstützen, Unterstützung support Unterstützung backing Unterstützung benefit Unterstützung support Unterstützung aller Beteiligten assistance to all parties untersuchen check Untersuchung fact-finding Untersuchung investigation Untersuchung der Büroeffizienz organization and methods Untersuchung der Lebenshaltungskosten family expenditure survey Untersuchung, Umfrage survey Untersuchungsausschuß board of inquiry Unterteilung sub-division Unterteilung in Zonen zoning Untertreibung understatement unterverpachten, untervermieten underlet unterversichern underinsure unterversichert underinsured Unterversicherung underinsurance Untervertreter sub-agent unterwerfen, Untertan subject untätig, flau inactive unumstößlich unalterable ununterbrochen uninterrupted ununterrichtet uninformed unverbindlich without responsibility unverbindlich non-committal unverbindliches Angebot offer without engagement unverbindliches Indossament qualified endorsement unverbrauchte Prämie unearned premium unverbürgt unauthenticated unverderbliche Güter durable commodities unvereinbar mit inconsistent with Unverfallbarkeit non-forfeiture unverfälscht unaltered unvergleichlich unmatched unverheiratet unmarried unverkäuflich unmerchantable unverkäuflich unsaleable unvermeidbares Ereignis inevitable event unvermeidlich inevitable unvermeidlich unavoidable unvermeidlicher Unfall inevitable accident Unvermögen inability unveränderlicher Markt pegged market unverändert unchanged unverpackt, lose loose unverpfändet unpledged unverschämt unreasonable unverschuldet unindebted unverschuldet without one's fault unversicherbar uninsurable unverteilte Gewinne, nicht ausgeschüttete undistributed profits unverteilter Reingewinn unappropriated earnings unverteilter Reingewinn unappropriated profits unverzinslich bearing no interest unverzinsliche Werte non-interest bearing securities unverzüglich without delay unvollkommen imperfect unvollständig unterzeichnet incompletely signed unvollständige Anweisungen incomplete instructions unvollständige Konkurrenz imperfect competition unvollständige Verschiffung short shipment unvollständiger Scheck inchoate check unvorhergesehen unforesee unvorhergesehen unforeseen unvorhergesehene Ausgaben incidentals unvorteilhaft unprofitable unwesentlich unessential unwichtig unimportant unwiderruflich irrevocable unwirksam effectless unwirtschaftlich uneconomic unwissend ignorant Unwissenheit ignorance unzeitgemäß out of time unzureichend versichert inadequately insured unzuverlässig unreliable Urheberrecht copyright Urkunde deed Urkunde fälschen tamper Urkunde, notarielle Urkunde deed Urkunden fälschen forge Urkundenfälscher forger Urkundenfälschung forging Urlaub, Ferien (US) vacation Urlaubsgeld vacation allowance Urlaubsgeld vacation money Urlaubszulage holiday pay Ursache eines Schadens cause of a loss Ursache, Verursachung, verursachen cause Ursprungsland country of origin Ursprungsort place of origin Ursprungszeugnis certificate of origin Urteil judgment Urteil, richterliche Entscheidung judgment utopisch utopian V Valorenversicherung insurance of specie in transit Valuta availability date Valuta interest date Valuta value date Vandalismus, mutwillige Beschädigung vandalism variabel variable variable Kosten running costs variable Kosten variable costs variabler Zins variable interest rate varieren vary Verabredung appointment veraltert obsolete veraltert, unmodisch obsolete Veralterung der Lagerbestände, Veralten obsolescence of stock Veralterung eines Gebrauchsgegenstandes obsolescence veraltet, datiert out of date veranlagen assess Veranlagung assessment Veranlagungsjahr year of assessment verantwortlich liable verantwortlich responsible verantwortlich für alle Folgen responsible for any consequences verantwortlich für deren Akzeptierung responsible for their acceptance verantwortlich für deren Zahlung responsible for their payment verantwortlich für die Festlegung responsible for stipulating verantwortlich machen, haftbar machen hold responsible Verantwortlichkeit responsibilities Verantwortlichkeit für die Folgen responsibility for the consequences Verantwortlichkeit, Haftung liability Verantwortung responsibility Verantwortung für die Folgen responsibility for the consequences Verantwortungsbereich field of responsibility Verarbeitung von Aufgabensätzen (EDV) batch processing Verarbeitungskosten conversion cost Verband federation Verband der Rechtsanwälte law society verbannen, Verbot ban verbessern amend Verbesserung amendment Verbesserung betterment Verbesserung der Liquidität liquidity improvement Verbesserung der Situation improvement verbilligt, herabgesetzt at a discount verbinden connect verbinden, Konzern combine verbindlich binding Verbindlichkeiten eingehen enter into engagements Verbindlichkeiten übernehmen take over liabilities Verbindung connection Verbindung, Verbindungsglied link verbleiben remain verborgener Fehler latent defect Verbrauch consumption verbrauchen, konsumieren consume Verbraucher consumer Verbraucherkredit consumer credit Verbraucherpreisindex consumer price index Verbrauchsgüter consumer goods Verbrauchsgüter convenience goods Verbrauchsgüterindustrie consumer industry Verbrauchssteuer consumption tax Verbrauchssteuer excise tax verbrauchte Prämie earned premium Verbreiterung des kombinierten Transports the extension of combined transport verbuchen enter in the books Verbuchung booking verbunden joint verbundene Versicherung comprehensive insurance verdammen condemn verdeckter Schaden hidden damage verderblich perishable verderbliche Güter perishable products verdienen earn verdienen, einbringen earn Verdiener earner Verdienst gainings Verdienst merit Verdienstausfall loss of earnings Verdienstspanne des Jobbers the jobber's turn Verdienstspanne des Jobbers turn of the jobber verdrehen, Rechtsverdrehung tort Veredelung finishing Veredelungsverfahren finishing process vereidigt sworn vereinbarter Wert agreed value Vereinbarung agreement Vereinbarung mit der Gewerkschaft joint agreement Vereinbarungen für die Kreditaufnahme borrowing arrangements vereinigen, konsolidieren consolidate vereinigte Ressourcen combined resources Vereinigung union Vereinte Nationen United Nations vererben bequest Verfahren technique Verfahrensstudie method study Verfall expiration Verfalldatum expiry date verfallen expired verfallen forfeit verfallen, hinfällig werden, ablaufen lapse verfallen, ungültig werden, auslaufen expire verfallene Police lapsed policy verfallene Wertpapiere obsolete securities Verfallszeit time of maturity Verfalltag date of expiration Verfalltag date of maturity Verfalltag expiration date Verfalltag expiry date Verfechter der Schutzzölle protectionist Verfälschung eines Dokuments falsification of a document Verfrachtung mit Container containerization verfügbar available verfügbar machen make available verfügbar zur Verwendung available for disposal verfügbare Gelder floating money verfügbare Mittel available funds verfügbare Mittel funds at disposal verfügbare persönliche Einkommen disposable personal income verfügbare Ware goods on hand Verfügbarkeit availability verfügen, verkaufen dispose Verfügung disposal Verfügungsgewalt power of disposition Verfügungsgewalt über die Ware control over the goods Vergehen offence Vergeudung des guten Ansehens waste of goodwill Vergleich comparison Vergleich compromise Vergleich mutual agreement vergleichbar comparable vergleichbar mit comparable with vergleichen compare Vergleichsbasis basis of comparison vergleichsweise comparative Vergnügen amusement Vergnügungssteuer amusement tax Vergnügungssteuer entertainment tax vergriffen out of print vergrößern enlarge Vergrößerung enlargement vergüten refund vergüten reimburse vergüten remunerate Verhaltensstruktur behavior pattern Verhandeln bargaining verhandeln, weiterbegeben, girieren negotiate Verhandlung negotiation Verhandlungsführer negotiator verheimlichen, verschweigen conceal Verheimlichung, Verschweigen concealment verhindern, verbieten prohibit Verhinderung prohibition Verhältnis proportion Verhältnis ratio Verhältnis Obligationen zu Stammaktien leverage Verhältnis von Preis und Ertrag price-earning ratio Verhältnis, Satz rate Verhältnis, Verhältniszahl ratio verhältnismäßig comparatively verhältnismäßig relative Verjährung prescription Verjährung des Anspruchs limitation of claim Verjährungsfrist period of limitation Verkauf sale Verkauf ab Zolllager sale ex bond Verkauf auf Probe sale on trial Verkauf auf Rechnung sale on account Verkauf nach Muster sale by sample Verkauf nach Warenbeschreibung sale by description Verkauf unter Eigentumsvorbehalt conditional sale Verkauf von Forderungen factoring Verkauf zur sofortigen Lieferung sale for prompt delivery verkaufen sell Verkaufen selling Verkaufsabrechnung des Kommissionärs account sales Verkaufsangebot offer for sale Verkaufsanreiz sales inducement Verkaufsförderung sales promotion Verkaufskurs selling rate Verkaufsnote bill of sale Verkaufspersonal sales force Verkaufspersonal salespeople Verkaufspreis price of sale Verkaufsprovision sales commission Verkaufsspesen selling expenses Verkaufsstelle, Abnehmer, Absatz outlet Verkaufssteuer purchase tax Verkaufsumfang volume of sales Verkaufsvertreter sales agent Verkaufswert selling value Verkaufszahlen, Umsätze sales figures Verkehrsdelikt motoring offence Verkehrsrisiko road risk Verkehrsstrom flow of traffic Verkehrsunfall automobile accident Verkehrsunfall motoring accident Verkehrsunfall traffic accident Verkehrsunfallprozess, Prozess wegen Unfalls accident action Verknappung shortage Verkäufer sales assistant Verkäufer salesman Verkäufer seller Verkäufer vendor Verkäuferin salesgirl Verkäuferin saleslady Verkäufermarkt sellers' market verkäuflich merchantable verkäuflich saleable Verkäuflichkeit salability Verladebescheinigung mate's receipt Verladedokument shipping document Verladehafen, Verladeort, Übernahmeort place of taking in charge Verladekosten loading charges Verladung loading of goods Verladung an Bord loading on board verlagern relocate verlangen demand verlangen, benötigen, wünschen want verlangsamen, nachlassen slow down verlangt die Zahlung von Zinsen requires the payment of interest Verlegenheit dilemma Verleger publisher verleihen lend Verleiher lender Verletzung injury Verletzung der Geheimhaltung breach of secrecy Verletzung der Geheimhaltung violation of secrecy Verletzung der Gewährleistung breach of warranty Verletzung der Sorgfalt neglect Verletzung des Berufsgeheimnisses violation of professional secrecy verlieren lose verlängern extend verlängerte Obligationen continued bonds Verlängerung extension Verlängerung extension of a period Verlängerung prolongation Verlängerung der Frist extension of time Verlängerung der Genehmigung extension of permit Verlängerung der Gültigkeit extension of validity Verlängerungsstück an Wechsel allonge verloren lost verloren gehen get lost Verlosung raffle Verlust loss Verlust ausgleichen set off a loss Verlust bei der Übermittlung loss in transit Verlust bei Übermittlung von Briefen loss in transit of any letters Verlust bei Übermittlung von Dokumenten loss in transit of any documents Verlust bei Übermittlung von Nachrichten loss in transit of any messages Verlust der Fracht loss of cargo Verlust der Kundschaft loss of custom Verlust des Arbeitsplatzes loss of employment Verlust des Schiffes loss of ship Verlust durch Auslaufen loss by leakage Verlust erleiden experience a loss Verlust in Kauf nehmen take a loss Verlust tragen bear a loss Verlust von Dienstleistungen loss of services Verlust, Schaden loss Verlustabzug loss deduction Verlustanzeige advice of loss Verlustausgleich, Entschädigung loss compensation Verluste erleiden suffer losses Verlustgeschäft losing bargain Verlustkonto loss account Verlustmeldung notice of loss Verlustrisiko durch Bruchschaden breakage risk Verlustrisiko durch Kesselschaden boilers risk Verlustrisiko durch Revolution revolution risk Verlustvortrag loss carried forward vermachen, überschreiben make over vermeiden avoid vermeiden, ausweichen evade Vermeidung avoidance Vermerk notation Vermerk der Registrierung note of registration Vermerk der Verladung notation of loading Vermietung von Maschinen leasing Verminderung decrement vermischen, Mischung blend Vermischung blending Vermittler go-between Vermittler von Privatkrediten personal loan broker Vermittler, Unterhändler mediator Vermittler, vermittelnd, dazwischen geschaltet intermediary Vermittlung mediation Vermächtnis legacy Vermögen fortune Vermögen der oHG oder KG partnership assets Vermögen im Ausland assets abroad vermögend well-to-do Vermögensanmeldung declaration of property Vermögensbewertung valuation of property Vermögensprüfung, Bedürftigkeitsnachweis means test Vermögensschaden pecuniary loss Vermögensschaden property loss Vermögensschaden erleiden suffer pecuniary loss Vermögensschäden financial losses Vermögenssteuer property tax Vermögensverhältnisse pecuniary circumstances Vermögensverwahrer custodian Vermögensverwalter fund manager Vermögensverwaltung administration of property Vermögensvorteil pecuniary advantage Vermögenswerte einer Bank assets of a bank Vernachlässigung der geschäftlichen Pflichtenneglect of business Vernehmung eines Zeugen hearing of a witness vernünftig, zumutbar reasonable veränderlicher Kurswert fluctuating market value veränderliches Risiko, wechselndes Risiko variable risk Veränderung, Wechsel change Veränderungen des internationalen Handels changes in international commerce Verordnung, Verordnungen regulation veräußern alienate veräußern dispose Veräußerung disposal verpachten lease Verpachtung lease of land Verpacken packaging verpackt packaged Verpackung package Verpackung packing Verpackung wrapping Verpackung eingeschlossen packing included Verpackungsabteilung packing department Verpackungskosten packing costs Verpackungsmaterial packing material verpflichten oblige verpflichten undertake Verpflichtung commitment Verpflichtung obligation Verpflichtung nicht einhalten default Verpflichtung vorbehaltlich übernehmen to incur an undertaking under reserve Verpflichtung zu zahlen obligation to pay Verpflichtung zur hinausgeschobenen Zahlung a deferred payment undertaking Verpflichtung, Schuldverschreibung obligation Verpflichtung, Verbindlichkeit engagement Verpflichtungen commitments Verpflichtungen obligations Verpflichtungen aus ... commitments arising from ... Verpflichtungen begründen create obligations Verpflichtungen eingehen incur debts Verpflichtungen nachkommen meet obligations Verpflichtungen nachkommen meet one's obligations verpfändbar pawnable verpfänden hypothecate verpfänden pledge verpfänden put sth in pawn verpfänden, Pfand pledge verpfändet in pawn verpfändet pawned verpfändet, mit einer Hypothek belastet mortgaged verpfändete Wertpapiere pawned securities verpfändeter Gegenstand pledged object Verpfändung hypothecation Verpfändung beweglicher Sachen pledge of chattels Verpfändungsurkunde letter of hypothecation Verpfändungsurkunde letter of lien Verpfändungsurkunde mortgage instrument Verpächter lessor verrechneter Scheck cleared check Verrechnungsabkommen clearing agreement Verrechnungsbank, Verrechnungsstelle clearing bank Verrechnungsgeschäft clearing transaction Verrechnungskonto clearing account Verrechnungsscheck crossed cheque Verrechnungsstelle clearing centre verringern diminish Verrrechnung clearing verrufene spekulative Wertpapiere cats and dogs versagen, verfehlen, durchfallen fail Versandabteilung shipping department Versandanweisungen shipping instructions Versandanzeige advice of dispatch Versandart mode of dispatch Versandauftrag mail-order Versandhaus mail-order house Versandhaus, Versandgeschäft mail-order business Versandkatalog mail-order catalogue Versandkosten forwarding charges Versandkosten forwarding expenses Versandpapiere shipping documents Versandpapiere shipping papers Versandvorschriften forwarding instructions verschieben postpone Verschiebung postponement verschiedene Regeln miscellaneous provisions verschiedene Risiken, gemischte Risiken miscellaneous risks Verschiedenes sundries Verschiffung, Sendung shipment Verschiffungshafen port of shipment Verschiffungskosten shipping costs verschleiern conceal verschleiern, verbergen conceal Verschleierung concealment verschmelzen amalgamate verschmelzen, fusionieren merge Verschmelzung affiliation Verschmelzung amalgamation verschmutzte Banknoten soiled banknotes Verschmutzung, Umweltverschmutzung pollution Verschmutzungskontrolle pollution control verschuldet encumbered verschuldet indebted Verschuldung indebtedness Verschuldung des Staates, Staatsschuld national debt Verschuldungsrate rate of indebtedness verschwenderisch wasteful Verschwendung wastage Verschwendung waste Verschwendung öffentlicher Gelder waste of public funds Verschwendung öffentlicher Mittel waste of public funds Verschwiegenheit, Geheimhaltung secrecy Verschwiegenheitspflicht duty to keep confidential Verschwiegenheitspflicht obligation of secrecy verschwören, Verschwörung plot Versehen accidental slip versehen furnish Versehen oversight versehen mit furnished with Versender forwarder versicherbar insurable versicherbar, versicherungsfähig insurable versicherbare Sache, versicherbares Eigentum insurable property versicherbarer Wert insurable value versicherbares Interesse insurable interest versicherbares Risiko insurable risk Versicherer assurer Versicherer insurer Versicherer underwriter Versicherer, Versicherungsgeber insurer versichern insure versichern, zusichern assure versichert assured versichert covered by insurance versichert gegen Feuer insured against fire versicherte Gefahr peril insured against versicherte Gefahren, gedeckte Risiken perils insured against versicherte Person insured person versicherte Person person insured versicherte Sache insured object versicherte Sache property insured versicherte Sache, versicherter Gegenstand subject-matter insured versicherter Gegenstand insured property Versicherter, Versicherungsnehmer insurant versichertes Objekt, versicherter Gegenstand object insured Versicherung insurance Versicherung insurance company Versicherung nehmen take out insurance Versicherung abschließen effect a policy Versicherung abschließen effect insurance Versicherung abschließen take out insurance Versicherung auf Gegenseitigkeit mutual insurance Versicherung auf Gegenseitigkeit mutual office Versicherung auf Gegenseitigkeit reciprocal insurance Versicherung auf verbundene Leben joint life assurance Versicherung beantragen apply for insurance Versicherung beantragen propose an insurance Versicherung decken cover insurance Versicherung der Seefrachtgüter cargo insurance Versicherung der Ware insurance of goods Versicherung gegen alle Risiken all-risk insurance Versicherung gegen alle üblichen Risiken insurance against all risks Versicherung gegen Beschädigung insurance against damage Versicherung gegen Bruchschaden insurance against breakage Versicherung gegen Erdbeben earthquake insurance Versicherung gegen Explosion explosion insurance Versicherung gegen Frostschäden frost damage insurance Versicherung kündigen cancel a policy Versicherung mit Optionen insurance with options Versicherung mit Prämienrückgewähr insurance with bonus Versicherung mit Selbstbeteiligung co-insurance Versicherung ohne ärztliche Untersuchung insurance without medical examination Versicherung ohne Prämienrückgewähr insurance without bonus Versicherung verkaufen sell insurance Versicherung von Lagerbeständen insurance of stocks Versicherung von Schiff und Ladung insurance of ship and cargo Versicherung zum Wiederbeschaffungswert replacement value insurance Versicherung übernehmen accept insurance Versicherung, bes. Lebensversicherung assurance Versicherungs-Aktiengesellschaft joint-stock insurance company Versicherungsabteilung insurance department Versicherungsanspruch insurance claim Versicherungsanstalt insurance institution Versicherungsantrag insurance proposal Versicherungsantrag proposal form Versicherungsantrag, Antragsformular application form Versicherungsart type of insurance Versicherungsarten classes of insurance Versicherungsaufsicht insurance control Versicherungsbeamter insurance officer Versicherungsbesteuerung insurance taxation Versicherungsbestimmungen insurance regulations Versicherungsbestimmungen provisions of an insurance policy Versicherungsbetrag amount insured Versicherungsbetrug insurance fraud Versicherungsbrauch, Versicherungstechnik actuarial practice Versicherungsdauer term of insurance Versicherungsdienst insurance service Versicherungsfachmann actuary Versicherungsfall insured event Versicherungsfähigkeit insurability Versicherungsgebühr insurance fee Versicherungsgegenstand, Versicherungsobjekt object insured Versicherungsgenossenschaft co-operative insurance association Versicherungsgeschäft insurance business Versicherungsgeschäft nach Einheitstarifen tariff business Versicherungsgeschäft nach Einheitstarifen tariff insurance Versicherungsgeschäfte insurance transactions Versicherungsgeschäfte tätigen transact insurance business Versicherungsgesellschaft insurance company Versicherungsgesellschaft auf Gegenseitigkeit mutual insurance society Versicherungsgesetzgebung insurance legislation Versicherungsgewerbe, Versicherungswesen insurance industry Versicherungsinspektor insurance inspector Versicherungsjahr insurance year Versicherungskalkulation actuarial calculation Versicherungsklausel insurance clause Versicherungskombination insurance combination Versicherungskonsortium syndicate of underwriters Versicherungskosten cost of insurance Versicherungskosten insurance charges Versicherungskosten insurance expenses Versicherungsleistungen insurance payments Versicherungsmakler insurance broker Versicherungsmarkt insurance market Versicherungsmathematik insurance mathematics Versicherungsmathematiker actuary versicherungsmathematisch actuarial versicherungsmathematische Abteilung actuarial department versicherungsmathematische Tabellen actuarial tables Versicherungsmedizin medico-actuarial science Versicherungsnehmer insurance holder Versicherungsnehmer insurant Versicherungsnehmer policy owner Versicherungsnehmer policyholder Versicherungsnummer insurance policy number Versicherungsort insurance location Versicherungsperiode period of insurance Versicherungspolice insurance policy Versicherungspolice policy Versicherungspolice, Politik policy Versicherungsprämie insurance premium Versicherungsprämie insurance rate Versicherungsprämie premium Versicherungsprämiensatz insurance rate Versicherungsprovision insurance commission Versicherungsrecht insurance law Versicherungsrisiken underwriting risks Versicherungssachverständiger insurance adjuster Versicherungssatz insurance rate Versicherungsschutz insurance cover Versicherungsschutz insurance coverage Versicherungsstatistik actuarial statistics Versicherungsstatistik insurance statistics Versicherungssteuer insurance tax Versicherungssumme sum insured Versicherungstätigkeiten insurance activities Versicherungsträger insurance carrier Versicherungsträger insurance company Versicherungsträger insurer Versicherungsverein auf Gegenseitigkeit friendly society Versicherungsverein auf Gegenseitigkeit mutual insurance association Versicherungsverein auf Gegenseitigkeit mutual insurance company Versicherungsverein auf Gegenseitigkeit (US) mutual insurance corporation Versicherungsverkäufer insurance salesman Versicherungsvertrag contract of insurance Versicherungsvertrag insurance agreement Versicherungsvertrag insurance contract Versicherungsvertreter insurance agent Versicherungsvertreter insurance canvasser Versicherungsvertreter insurance salesman Versicherungswerber insurance canvasser Versicherungswert actuarial value Versicherungswert insurable value Versicherungswert insurance value Versicherungswert insured value Versicherungswert, versicherter Wert insured value Versicherungswirtschaft insurance industry Versicherungszertifikat certificate of insurance Versicherungszertifikat insurance certificate Versicherungszweig class of insurance versiegelt sealed versiegelt sealed up versilbern, zu Geld machen convert into cash versorgen, liefern supply versorgen, sorgen cater for sth. Versorgung, Reserve, Rücklage provision Versorgungsklausel maintenance clause Versorgungsweg channel of supply Versäumnis failure Versäumnis lapse Versäumnisurteil judgment by default versäumte es anzuzeigen failed to inform versäumte es zu handeln failed to act versperren obstruct Verspätungszuschlag default fine verstaatlichen nationalize Verstaatlichung nationalization verstecken, beiseite schaffen hide versteckt hidden versteckte Gewinnausschüttung hidden distribution of profits versteckte Inflation hidden inflation versteckte Reserven, stille Rücklagen hidden reserves versteckte Wirkung hidden effect versteckter Fehler hidden fault versteckter Fehler, Mangel hidden fault versteckter Mangel hidden defect verstehen understand Versteigerer, Auktionator auctioneer Versteigerung auction versteuert tax paid Versteuerung von Versicherungen insurance taxation Verständnis understanding verstärken, bekräftigen reinforce Verstoß gegen ein Recht, Rechtsverletzung infringement verstreichen elapse verstreut scattered verstrichene Zeit elapsed time Verstümmelung von Nachrichten mutilation of messages Verstümmelungen, die sich ergeben bei mutilation arising in versuchen try versuchen, Versuch attempt Versuchsserie test series vertagen adjourn verteilen, vertreiben distribute Verteilung distribution Verteilung der Rückvergütung allotment of bonus Verteilung des Reingewinns appropriation of net proceeds Verteilung des Risikos, Risikoverteilung distribution of risks Verteilung von Geldmitteln appropriation of funds Verteilungsmethode method of allocation Verteilungsschlüssel distribution basis Vertrag agreement Vertrag contract Vertrag auf Lebenszeit life contract Vertrag betreffend eine Wette wagering contract Vertrag für nichtig erklären avoid a contract Vertrag unterzeichnen sign a contract Vertrag zu festen Preisen fixed-price contract Vertrag zwischen Regierungen treaty Vertrag zwischen zwei Partnern bilateral agreement vertraglich contractual vertraglich festlegen stipulate vertraglich verpflichtet liable under a contract vertragliche Vereinbarung contractual agreement vertragliche Vereinbarung, Klausel stipulation Vertragsbedingungen contract terms Vertragsbruch breach of contract vertragschießende Partei contracting party Vertragsdauer contract period Vertragsdauer life of an agreement Vertragserfüllung fulfillment of a contract Vertragserfüllung performance of a contract Vertragserneuerung renewal of contract Vertragshändler licensed dealer vertragsähnliche Vereinbarung quasi agreement Vertragspartei party to the contract Vertragspflicht duty under a contract Vertragsschaden damage for breach of contract Vertragsverletzung violation of a contract vertrauen, Vertrauen trust vertrauen, Vertrauen, Trust trust Vertrauensperson confidant Vertrauensvotum vote of confidence vertrauenswürdig trustworthy vertraulich confidential vertraut familiar vertreten represent Vertreter proxy Vertreter representative Vertreter der das Inkasso garantiert delcredere agent Vertreter des Auftraggebers principal's representative Vertreter einer Versicherungsgesellschaft insurance representative Vertreter, Agent agent Vertreterstab, Vertreterorganisation sales force Vertretung representation Vertretung im Notfall ohne Ermächtigung agency of necessity Vertretungsprovision agent's commission Vertretungsvertrag agency agreement Vertrieb distribution Vertriebsberater marketing consultant Vertriebsdirektor marketing director Vertriebserfahrung marketing know-how Vertriebskanal channel of distribution Vertriebsleiter marketing manager vertriebsorientiert, absatzorientiert marketing oriented Vertriebspolitik, Absatzpolitik marketing policy Vertriebsvereinbarung marketing agreement Vertriebsweg chain of distribution Vertriebsweg sales channel Verträge von Rom Treaty of Rome veruntreuen embezzle veruntreuen, unterschlagen embezzle veruntreuen, unterschlagen misappropriate Veruntreuung embezzlement Veruntreuung, Unterschlagung embezzlement Veruntreuung, Unterschlagung misappropriation verursacht durch die Entwicklung des Handels caused by the progress of trade verursacht durch die Umstellung caused by the revolution verursachter Schaden damage caused verursachter Schaden damage done Vervielfacher multiplier Vervollständigung completion Verwahrung keeping Verwahrung safe custody Verwahrungsvertrag contract of safe custody verwalten administer Verwalter administrator Verwaltung administration Verwaltung management Verwaltung von Wertpapieren management of securities Verwaltungsabteilung administration department Verwaltungskosten management costs Verwaltungskosten management expenses Verwaltungsrat administrative board Verwaltungsrat board of administration Verwaltungsrat board of directors verwaltungstechnisch administrative verwechseln, Verwechslung mistake Verwechslung mistake in name Verweisung cross reference verwenden, Verwendung use Verwendung der Mittel application of funds Verwendung des Erlöses application of proceeds Verwendung, Anwendung application verwerfen, ablehnen reject verwerflich objectionable Verwertung utilization verwickeln involve verwirklichen carry into effect verwirklichen, erkennen realize verwirklichen, realisieren, zu Geld machen realize Verwirklichung, Liquidierung realization Verwässerung des Aktienkapitals equity dilution Verzicht waiver verzichten waive Verzichterklärung notice of abandonment Verzichterklärung waiver verzinslich bearing interest verzollt duty paid Verzug default Verzugsaktien deferred shares Verzugsaktien deferred stock Verzugsschaden damage caused by delay Verzugszinsen interest for default Verzugszinsen interest on account of delay Verzugszinsen interest on arrears verzögerte Gebühren deferred charges verzögerte Nachfrage deferred demand Verzögerung oder Verlust unterwegs delay or loss in transit Verzögerung von Nachrichten delay of messages Verzögerung, verzögern delay Verzögerungen, die sich ergeben bei delays arising in the Verzögerungstaktik delaying tactics veröffentlichen publish Veröffentlichung publication Vetternwirtschaft nepotism Viehversicherung cattle insurance Vielfalt variety vielversprechend promising vierfach quadruplicate vierfach, in vierfacher Ausfertigung quadruplicate Viertel, Quartier, Vierteljahr quarter Vierteljahr quarter of the year Vierteljahresabrechnung quarterly account Vierteljahresprämie quarterly premium vierteljährlich quarterly vierzehn Tage, zwei Wochen fortnight Visaverlängerung extension of visa Visum visa Vizepräsident vice president Vizepräsident vice-president Volkswirtschaft national economy Volkswirtschaft studieren study economics Volkswirtschaftspolitik political economy Volkszählung census of population voll belastete Hypothek closed mortgage voll einbezahlt paid in full voll eingezahlt fully paid voll eingezahlte Aktien fully paid shares voll eingezahlte Aktien paid up stock voll eingezahltes Kapital capital paid in full voll gedeckter Schaden loss fully covered by insurance voll haftender Teilhaber ordinary partner voll konvertierbar fully convertible voll und ganz besitzen own outright Vollbeschäftigung full employment vollbringen achieve volle Deckung, voller Versicherungsschutz full coverage voller Wert full value Vollindossament endorsement in full Vollindossament full endorsement Vollinvalidität total disability Vollkasko- und Insassenversicherung fully comprehensive cover Vollkaskopolice comprehensive policy Vollkaskoversicherung comprehensive insurance Vollmacht authority Vollmacht certificate of authority Vollmacht letter of attorney Vollmacht power Vollmacht power of attorney Vollmacht warrant of attorney Vollmacht erteilen give authority to sb Vollmacht zu akzeptieren authority to accept Vollmacht zu bestätigen authority to confirm Vollmacht zu handeln authority to act Vollmacht zu negoziieren authority to negotiate Vollmacht zu unterschreiben authority to sign Vollmacht zu zahlen authority to pay Vollmachtsindossament procuration endorsement vollständige Einzelheiten folgen full details to follow vollständiger Name full name vollständiger Satz von Dokumenten full set of documents Vollständigkeit eines Dokuments sufficiency of a document vollstreckbar enforceable Vollstreckung enforcement Vollstreckungsbefehl writ of execution vom Begünstigten gezogen drawn by the beneficiary vom Begünstigten gezogene Tratten drafts drawn by the beneficiary vom Käufer bestimmter Markt buyers' market vom Parlament verabschiedetes Gesetz Act of Parliament vom Stapel laufen lassen launch vom Text verursachte Probleme problems caused by the text von allen vorgenannten Beteiligten of all the above named parties von Anfang an nichtig void from the beginning von Atomkraft angetriebenes Schiff nuclear vessel von außerordentlichem Wert of extreme value von außerordentlicher Bedeutung of extreme importance von dem der Auftrag zuging from whom the order was received von dem die Garantie gestellt wurde from whom the indemnity was obtained von dem es den Auftrag erhielt from whom it received the order von denen man nicht abweichen kann which cannot be departed from von der Genehmigung abhängig subject to approval von der Stange, Konfektionsware ready-made von der Versicherung ausgestellt sein must be issued by the insurance company von dieser Bank vorgenommen made by such bank von dieser Filiale vorgenommen made by such branch von einem Grundsatz abweichen deviate from a principle von einem Inkassoauftrag by a collection order von einem Konto abheben withdraw from an account von einem Tag zum anderen, laufend day-to-day von einer Arbeitsgruppe by a working party von einer Verpflichtung befreien release sb from an obligation von etwas Abstand nehmen refrain from von Fall zu Fall as the case arises von geringem Wert of small value von großem Wert of great value von Haus zu Haus warehouse to warehouse von hoher Kapazität high-capacity von jeder ergriffenen Maßnahme benachrichtigen to advise of any action taken von jemandem borgen borrow from sb von jetzt ab as from now von mittlerer Größe middle-sized von niedriger Qualität low grade vor Eingang der Nachricht prior to receipt of notice vor Eröffnung, vor den Dienststunden before official hours vor Fälligkeit prior to maturity vor Verlust bewahren, vor Schaden bewahren save from a loss vorangegangener Indossant preceding endorser vorangehend precedent Voranschlag, schätzen estimate vorantreiben promote Vorarbeiter foreman vorausbezahlt prepaid Vorausdatieren dating forward vorausgesetzt provided that vorausgesetzt dass subject to the condition that vorausgesetzt dass bezahlt ist subject to being paid Voraussage forecast Voraussage prediction Voraussage der geschäftlichen Entwicklung business forecasts voraussagen predict voraussetzen take for granted voraussetzen, als gegeben annehmen take for granted Voraussetzung supposition Voraussicht foresight Vorauszahlung advance payment Vorauszahlung payment in advance Vorauszahlung prepayment Vorauszahlungsvermerk notice of prepayment vorbehaltslos unconditional vorbereiten prepare Vorbescheid provisional decision Vorbörsengeschäfte pre-market dealings vordatieren antedate vordatieren date forward Vorderseite eines Dokuments face Vorderseite eines Schecks face of a cheque Vorfall, Ereignis incident Vorfall, Ereignis occurrence vorfallen, ereignen occur vorfertigen, vorfabrizieren prefabricate Vorführung, Demonstration demonstration vorgehen, maßgeblich sein override vorgeschriebene Bankreserven legal reserves vorgeschriebenes Pensionsalter mandatory retiring age Vorgesetzter superior Vorhand first option vorher, vorherig prior vorherig previous vorherige Billigung previous approval vorherige Krankheit previous illness vorherige Nachricht an den Begünstigten prior notice to the beneficiary vorherige Versicherung, Vorversicherung previous insurance vorherrschend prevailing Vorhersage, Prognose, Konjunkturprognose, forecasting vorhersagen, Vorhersage, Voraussage forecast vorhersehen foresee vorige Tag previous day vorige Woche previous week voriger Monat, Vormonat previous month voriges Jahr, Vorjahr previous year Vorladung summons Vorladung writ of summons Vorlage zum Akzept presentation for acceptance vorlegen present vorlegen, einreichen, unterbreiten submit vorlegen, vorbringen lay vorlegende Banken presenting banks Vorlegung presentation Vorlegung zur Zahlung presentation for payment vorliegende Sache matter in hand vorliegende Sache, vorliegender Fall matter in hand vorliegender Vertrag present contract vorläufig preliminary vorläufiger Bericht preliminary report vorläufiger Versicherungsschein insurance note vorläufiger Versicherungsschutz provisional cover Vormonat ultimo Vormund guardian Vorprämie call premium Vorprämie premium for the call Vorprämienkurs price of call Vorrang haben take priority Vorrang, Vorrecht, Priorität priority vorrangige Hypothek senior mortgage Vorrat an freien Arbeitskräften pool of labor Vorrecht privilege Vorrecht eines Anspruchs priority of a claim vorrätiges Material material on hand vorschießen, Vorschuss advance Vorschlag proposal Vorschlag, Antrag proposal Vorschlag, Suggestion suggestion vorschlagen propose vorschlagen, suggerieren suggest Vorschrift regulation Vorschrift, Verordnung, Bestimmung, Klausel provision Vorschriften einhalten comply with formalities Vorschuss advance Vorschuss, Darlehen advance vorschußweise by way of loan vorschüssige Zahlung payment in advance vorsehen provide vorsehen, verordnen, bestimmen provide Vorsicht caution Vorsicht, Warnung, warnen caution vorsichtig cautious vorsichtig precautious vorsichtig umgehen handle with care Vorsichtsmaßnahme measure of precaution Vorsichtsmaßnahme precaution Vorsichtsmaßnahmen precautions Vorsichtsmaßregel precaution Vorsitzende chairperson Vorsitzender chairman Vorsorgereserve provident fund vorsätzlich willfully vorsätzliche Handlung willful act vorsätzliche Körperverletzung malicious injury vorsätzliche Unterlassung willful default vorsätzliches Missverhalten willful misconduct Vorspiegelung falscher Tatsachen false pretences Vorspiegelung falscher Tatsachen willful misrepresentation Vorteil advantage Vorteil benefit Vorteil gain Vorteil ziehen aus take advantage of Vorteile eines Standorts advantages of a location vorteilhaft advantageous vorteilhafte Kapitalanlage paying investment vorteilhafte Kapitalanlage profitable investment vortäuschen mock vortragen carry over Vorurteil bias Vorvertrag preliminary agreement Vorvertrag preliminary contract Vorwahlnummer (Telefon) code number Vorwand pretence Vorwegnahme anticipation vorwegnehmen anticipate vorwegnehmend anticipatory Vorwort foreword vorzeitige Fälligkeit acceleration vorziehen prefer Vorzug preference Vorzugsaktie preferential share Vorzugsaktie preferred share Vorzugsaktien preference shares Vorzugsaktienzertifikat preference share certificate Vorzugsaktionär holder of preferential shares Vorzugsaktionär preferential shareholder Vorzugsdividende preference dividend Vorzugsrecht preferential right vorzugsweise preferable Vorzugszoll preferential duty Vorzugszolltarif preferential tariff vorübergehend temporary vorübergehende Arbeitsunfähigkeit temporary disability vorübergehende Berufung, zeitlich begrenzt temporary appointment vorübergehende Beschäftigung temporary employment vorübergehende Invalidität temporary disability vorübergehender Zeitraum transitory period Vostrokonto vostro account W wachsen grow Wachstum growth Wachstumsrate growth rate Wachstumsrate rate if increase Wachstumsrate rate of economic growth Wachstumsrate rate of increase Wachstumsstillstand zero growth Wachstumsstruktur pattern of growth Wachstumstheorien economics of growth Wachstumsziel growth target Wagen auf Rädern mobile shop Wagendiebstahl car theft Waggonladung wagon load Wagnis, Unternehmen, Risiko venture Wahl des richtigen Zeitpunkts timing Wahl, Auswahl choice wahrer Sachverhalt real facts wahrheitsgetreue Kopie true copy wahrscheinlich likely wahrscheinlich probably wahrscheinliche Lebensdauer probable duration of life Wahrscheinlichkeit likelihood Wahrscheinlichkeit probability Wahrscheinlichkeit eines Ereignisses probability of an event Wahrscheinlichkeit eines Schadens probability of a loss Wahrscheinlichkeitskurve probability curve Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung calculus of probability Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung theory of probability Wahrscheinlichkeitstheorie probability theory Wahrscheinlichkeitstheorie theory of probability Waldversicherung forest insurance Wandelobligation convertible bond Wandelpreis conversion price Wandelprämie conversion premium Wanderarbeiter migrant workers Ware ware Ware in gutem Zustand good merchantable quality and condition Ware ist bar zu zahlen und selbst zu transp. cash and carry Waren goods Waren mittlerer Preislage medium-prized goods Waren stapeln stockpile Waren unter Zollverschluss bonded goods Waren übergeben to release goods Waren- und Dienstleistungsverkehr exchange of goods and services Warenart kind of goods Warenausgangsbuch sales journal Warenauswahl range of goods Warenbestand goods in stock Warenbestandsaufnahme stocktaking Warenbestandsliste stock list Warenbörse commodity exchange Warenbörse produce exchange Wareneingang receipt of goods Wareneingangsbuch purchase journal Warengattung type of goods Warengattung type of merchandise Warengattung, Art von Ware kind of goods Warenhäuser stores Warenkorb basket of goods Warenkosten und Frachtkosten cost and freight Warenkredit commercial credit Warenkredit commercial loan Warenkredit omnibus credit Warenlager, Lagerhalle warehouse Warenliste list of articles Warenlombard advance against goods Warenstapelung, Vorratsbildung stockpiling Warenverkaufskonto sales account Warenverkäufe sale of goods Warenversand mit der Post dispatch of goods Warenversicherung insurance of merchandise Warenwechsel commercial bill Warenwert value of goods Warenzeichen trade-mark Warenzeicheninhaber owner of a trade-mark warnen warn Warnung warning warten wait Wartezeit waiting period Wartezeit waiting time Wartezeit, Leerlaufzeit idle time Wasserbehälter reservoir wasserdicht waterproof Wasserschaden water damage Wasserschadenversicherung sprinkler leakage insurance Wasserschadenversicherung water damage insurance Wasserstraßen waterways Wasserversorgung water supply Wechsel bill of exchange Wechsel auf kurze Sicht short bill Wechsel auf kurze Sicht short-dated bill Wechsel einlösen honor a bill at maturity Wechsel mit langer Laufzeit long-dated bill Wechsel ohne Dokumentensicherung clean bill of exchange Wechsel, Wechselstube, Telephonvermittlung exchange Wechsel- und Scheckbestand drafts and checks in hand Wechselakzept acceptance Wechselakzept acceptance of a draft Wechselbank discount house Wechselbestand bill holdings Wechselbetrag amount of draft Wechselbürge guarantor of a bill Wechselbürge, Wechselbürgschaft bill surety Wechselbürgschaft aval Wechselbürgschaft guarantee for a bill Wechselbürgschaft surety for a bill Wechseldelcredere delcredere for a bill Wechseldepot deposit of bills Wechseldiskontierung discounting of a bill Wechselgesetz bills of exchange act Wechselhaftung endorser's liability Wechselinhaber bearer of a bill Wechselklage action on a bill Wechselkonto account of exchange Wechselkredit bill credit Wechselkursschwankungen fluctuations of the exchange rate Wechselrecht exchange law Wechselreiter bill jobber Wechselreiter jobber in bills Wechselreiterei bill jobbing Wechselreiterei kite flying Wechselschuld bill debt Wechselschuld debt under a bill Wechselstelle bureau de change Wechselstempel, Wechselsteuermarke bill stamp Wechselstube exchange office Wechselumlauf circulation of bills Wechselverpflichtungen obligations arising out of a B/E Wegabweichungsklausel deviation clause wegen eines Formfehlers for want of form Wegerecht, Fuhrrecht right of way Weglassung omission wegnehmen take away wegnehmen take off weich soft weigern refuse Weigerung refusal Weihnachtseinkäufe Christmas shopping weise prudent Weisungen ausführen to give effect to instructions Weisungen befolgen comply with instructions Weisungen der Notadresse instructions from the case-of-need Weisungen für die weitere Behandlung instructions as to the further handling Weisungen hinsichtlich des Protestes instructions regarding protest weisungsgemäß according to instructions Weisungslinie chain of command Weisungslinie line of command weit verbreitet widely spread weitere Angaben, weitere Einzelheiten further particulars weiteres Beweismaterial other evidence weitergeben pass on weitergeben, überreichen hand on Weitergeber transferor weitersenden, nachsenden redirect Weißbuch White Paper Welthandel world trade Weltkrise world-wide crisis Weltmarktpreis world price Weltpolice world-wide policy Weltpostverband Universal Postal Union weltweit world-wide Weltwirtschaft world economy Weltwirtschaftszentrum London City Wende der Ereignisse, Wende des Schicksals turn of events wenden Sie sich an den Aussteller refer to drawer wenden, Wende turn wenig Änderung little change weniger minus weniger als 100 Aktien odd lot weniger entwickelte Länder nation which are less devemoped weniger erfahrene Völker nations which are less experienced wenn Akzeptierung verlangt wird where acceptance is called for wenn besondere Bestimmungen fehlen failing specific stipulations wenn das Akkreditiv Akzeptierung vorsieht if the credit provides for acceptance wenn das Akkreditiv Negoziierung vorsieht if the credit provides for negotiation wenn das Akkreditiv vorsieht if the credits provides for wenn der Auftrag eine Anweisung enthält if the order includes an instruction wenn Gebühren so verweigert worden sind whenever charges are so waived wenn und soweit if and to the extent to which wenn Zahlung verlangt wird where payment is called for Werbeabteilung advertising department Werbeabteilung public relations department Werbeabteilung publicity department Werbeagentur advertising agency Werbefeldzug drive Werbegeschenk free gift Werbegeschenk giveaway Werbekonzeption media concept werben advertise Werber canvasser Werbeträger, Werbemittel advertising media Werbung advertising Werbung, Inserat, Anzeige advertisement werfen cast Werftgebühr wharfage Werkstatt workshop Werkzeuge tools Werkzeugmaschine machine-tool Wert value Wert worth wert worth Wert der beschädigten Ware damaged value Wert der in Produktion befindlichen Ware value of goods in progress Wert der Ladung value of cargo Wert der unbeschädigten Ware sound value Wert des Wagens value of car Wert einer Ware value of a good Wert eines Gebäudes value of a building Wert erhalten value received Wert im beschädigten Zustand damaged value Wert im unbeschädigten Zustand sound value wert, Wert worth Wertabnahme, Wertminderung decrease in value Wertberechnung calculation of value Wertberichtigungskonto valuation account Wertbrief insured letter Werterhöhung, Wertzunahme increase in value Werterhöhungen, Verbesserungen improvements Wertgegenstände valuables wertlos worthless Wertminderung decline in value Wertminderung depreciation in value Wertminderung reduction in value Wertminderung shrinkage in value Wertminderung, Verfall deterioration Wertänderung change in value Wertpaket insured parcel Wertpapier mit Anspruch auf Dividende dividend paper Wertpapier, Handelspapier instrument Wertpapierbestände holdings of securities Wertpapiere securities Wertpapiere beleihen advance money on securities Wertpapiere beleihen lend money on securities Wertpapiere die zurückgekauft werden redeemable securities Wertpapiere hinterlegen lodge securities Wertpapiere kündigen call in securities Wertpapiergattung category of securities Wertpapierportefeuille bill case Wertprüfung value analysis Wertsachen valuables Wertsachenversicherung insurance of valuables Wertschätzung von Obligationen bond ratings Wertsendung consignment of valuables wertvoll valuable Wertzunahme increase in value Wertzunahme increment value Wertzuwachs increment value wesentlich essential wesentlich falsche Darstellung material misrepresentation wesentlicher Bestandteil essential element Wettbewerb competition wettbewerbsfähig competitive Wettbewerbsfreiheit freedom of competition Wetterversicherung weather insurance Wetterversicherung, Regenversicherung weather insurance Widerruf countermand widerrufen countermand widerruflich revocable Widerstandsgrenze resistance barrier widerstreitende Interessen conflicting interests wie such as wie auch immer benannt however named wie auch immer bezeichnet however described wie Banken vorgehen sollten the course of action banks should follow wie einem Dokument hinzugefügt as superimposed on a document wie gegenseitig vereinbart as mutually agreed wie im Kredit vorgeschrieben as stipulated in the credit wie immer es sein mag as the case may be wie in einem Dokument niedergelegt as stipulated in a document wie jeweils anwendbar as appropriate wie oben zu entscheiden to determine as above wie unten unter (B) definiert as defined in (B) below wie vereinbart as per agreement wie üblich according to custom wie üblich as customary wieder auffüllen replenish wieder erlangen recover wieder exportieren, rückexportieren re-export wieder flott machen refloat wieder gut machen, etwas nachholen make good for sth. wieder importieren, rückimportieren re-import wieder in Ordnung bringen readjust wieder zulassen readmit Wiederanlage reinvestment Wiederanpassung, Neuverteilung readjustment Wiederaufbau reconstruction wiederaufbereiten recycle Wiederaufbereitung, Wiederverwertung recycling Wiederauffinden von Information information retrieval Wiederaufforstung reforestation Wiederbeschaffungskosten costs of replacement Wiederbeschaffungskosten replacement costs Wiedereingliederung, Rehabilitation rehabilitation Wiedererstattung, Rückerstattung recovery Wiedergutmachung amends Wiedergutmachung reparation wiederherstellen restore Wiederholung eines Auftrags repeat order Wiederinkraftsetzung reinstatement Wiederinkraftsetzungsklausel reinstatement clause Wiederinkraftsetzungswert reinstatement value Wiederverkauf resale Wiederverkaufspreis resale price Wiederverladung reloading Wiederverwendung recycling Wiedervorlageverfahren follow-up system Wiegegeld weighing charges wilder Streik wildcat strike willkürlich arbitrary Winkelmakler outside broker wir bieten einen Dienst we provide a service wir mußten zukunftsorientiert vorgehen we had to look at the future wir wenden sie täglich an we use them every day wird die Bank remboursieren müssen shall be bound to reimburse the bank wird die Dokumente aufnehmen müssen shall be bound to take up the documents wird für jeglichen Verlust haften will be responsible for any loss wird haften shall be liable to wirklich actual wirklich berechtigt actually entitled wirkliche Sachverhalt real facts wirklicher Gesamtverlust actual total loss wirklicher Wert, Realwert real value wirksam effective wirksam werden come into operation wirksam werden take effect wirksam, rechtswirksam operative wirksam, wirkend effective wirksame Nachfrage effective demand Wirkung effect Wirtschaft economy Wirtschaft, Wirtschaftlichkeit economy wirtschaftlich economic wirtschaftlich, kommerziell commercial wirtschaftliche Nachfrage economic demand wirtschaftliche Unabhängigkeit economic independence wirtschaftliche Unabhängigkeit, Autarkie autarchy wirtschaftlicher Artikel, sparsames Gerät money saver wirtschaftliches Risiko economic risk Wirtschaftsberater economic adviser Wirtschaftsgebiet economic area Wirtschaftsgeographie economic geography Wirtschaftsgeschichte economic history Wirtschaftsgüter commodities wirtschaftsliberales Verhalten laissez-faire Wirtschaftsministerium Department of Trade and Industry Wirtschaftsplanung economic planning Wirtschaftsprüfer certified accountant Wirtschaftsprüfer chartered accountant Wirtschaftsrecht economic law Wirtschaftssanktionen economic sanctions Wirtschaftssystem economic system Wirtschaftstheorie economic theory Wirtschaftswachstum economic growth Wirtschaftswerbung commercial advertising Wirtschaftswissenschaftler, Volkswirt economist Wirtschaftszentrum commercial center Wissenschaft science Wissenschaftler scientist wissenschaftlich scientific wissenschaftliche Betriebsführung management science wissenschaftliche Betriebsführung scientific management wissenschaftliche Verfahren scientific methods wissentlich knowing wissentlich knowingly Witwengeld widow's allowance Witwenrente widow's annuity Witwenrente widow's pension Witwenversicherung widow's insurance wo die Vorlegung erfolgen soll at which presentation is to be made wo die Vorlegung erfolgen soll where presentation is to be made Wochenbeitrag weekly contribution Wochenfahrkarte weekly ticket Wochengeld maternity allowance Wochengeld, Wochenhilfe, Mutterschaftsgeld maternity benefit Wochenlohn weekly pay Wochenlohn weekly wage Wochenmiete weekly rent wählbar eligible wohlbehalten safe and sound Wohlfahrt welfare Wohlfahrtskomitee welfare committee Wohlfahrtsstaat welfare state Wohlfahrtssystem welfare system wohlhabend well off Wohlstand prosperity Wohlstand, Reichtum wealth Wohltätigkeitsverein auf Gegenseitigkeit mutual benefit association Wohngebiet housing area Wohngebiet residential area Wohngebiet residential zone wohnhaft resident Wohnort domicile Wohnrecht und Nutzungsrecht auf Lebenszeit life estate Wohnsitz residence Wohnsitzverlegung change of domicile Wohnungsbaugenossenschaft building society Wohnungseinbruchsversicherung residence burglary insurance Wohnungsnot housing shortage Wohnungssuche house hunting Wohnungszuschuss housing allowance während der Arbeitszeit on the job Währung currency Währungsbeschränkungen currency restrictions Währungseinflüsse monetary influences Währungseinheit monetary unit Währungseinheit unit of currency Währungsgebiet monetary area Währungsklausel currency clause Währungspolitik monetary policy Währungsreform currency reform Währungsreform monetary reform Währungsreserve reserve Währungssystem currency system Währungssystem monetary system womit eine Bank whereby a bank Wortlaut eines Briefes wording of a letter Wortlaut eines Vertrages wording of a contract Wortlaut eines Wechsels wording of a bill Wortlaut, Formulierung wording Wucher usury Wucherer usurer wucherische Zinsen excessive interest Wucherzins usurious interest Wucherzins, überhöhter Zins excessive interest wurde durchgeführt has been carried out wurden berücksichtigt have been borne in mind wurden heraufgesetzt were marked up wöchentlich weekly wöchentliches Taschengeld weekly allowance würdigen appreciate Würdigung appreciation X Xerographie, Kopierverfahren xerography Xerox, schnelldrucken, kopieren xerox Xeroxverfahren Xerox process Y Z Zahl figure Zahl, Figur figure zahlbar payable zahlbar an Überbringer payable to bearer zahlbar auf Verlangen payable on demand zahlbar bei Auftragserteilung cash with order zahlbar bei Fälligkeit payable when due zahlbar bei Sicht payable at sight zahlbar bei Sicht payable on demand zahlbar bei Verfall payable at expiration zahlbar bei Verfall payable at maturity zahlbar bei Vorlage payable on presentation zahlbar erst später payable at a future date zahlbar in Raten payable by installment zahlbar mittels Scheck payable by check zahlbar werden become payable Zahlbarstellung domiciliation zahlen pay zahlen Sie diesen Scheck an mich selbst pay self zahlende Bank paying bank zahllose Aspekte innumerable aspects Zahlmeister purser zahlreich numerous Zahlstelle paying office Zahltag pay day Zahlung payment Zahlung bei Lieferung payment on delivery Zahlung der Dividende payment of dividend Zahlung der Miete payment of rent Zahlung der Prämie, Prämienzahlung premium pay Zahlung der Rückstände payment of arrears Zahlung eines Pauschalbetrages lump sum payment Zahlung eingestellt payment stopped Zahlung einstellen suspend payment Zahlung erbitten request payment Zahlung gegen Dokumente documents against payment Zahlung in bar payment in cash Zahlung in Naturalien payment in kind Zahlung in Raten payment by installments Zahlung leisten make payment Zahlung leisten to effect payment Zahlung leisten an die Order von to make a payment to the order of Zahlung mittels Scheck payment by check Zahlung nach Belieben payment as you feel inclined Zahlung ohne Verpflichtung ex gratia payment Zahlung soll geleistet werden payment is to be made Zahlung unter Protest payment supra protest Zahlung verschieben postpone payment Zahlung verweigern refuse payment Zahlung von Schulden payment of debts Zahlung Zug um Zug matching payment with physical delivery Zahlungen payments Zahlungen leisten settle payments Zahlungen, Zahlungsverkehr payment transactions Zahlungsadresse domicile of a bill Zahlungsanspruch pecuniary claim Zahlungsanweisung order to pay Zahlungsaufforderung application for payment Zahlungsaufforderung notice to pay Zahlungsaufforderung request for payment Zahlungsaufforderung request to pay Zahlungsaufschub extension of payment Zahlungsaufschub, Stundung respite Zahlungsauftrag banker's order Zahlungsausgleich clearance of payments Zahlungsbedingungen terms of payment Zahlungsbefehl payment summons Zahlungsbeleg voucher for payment Zahlungsbestätigung confirmation of payment Zahlungsbilanz balance of payments Zahlungseingang receipt of payment Zahlungseinstellung cessation of payment Zahlungseinstellung suspension of payment Zahlungseinstellung suspension of payments Zahlungsempfänger payee Zahlungserleichterungen facilities for payment Zahlungserleichterungen facilities of payment Zahlungsersuchen, Mahnbrief letter requesting payment Zahlungsfähigkeit ability to pay Zahlungsfähigkeit capacity to pay Zahlungsfrist term of payment Zahlungsfrist time allowed for payment Zahlungsgarantie guaranty of payment Zahlungsmittel means of payment Zahlungsort place of payment Zahlungspapiere financial documents Zahlungspflicht duty of payment zahlungspflichtig liable to pay Zahlungspflichtiger payer Zahlungsquittung payment receipt Zahlungsregelung payments arrangement Zahlungsschwierigkeiten pecuniary difficulties Zahlungsstelle domicile Zahlungstag date of payment Zahlungstag day of payment Zahlungstermin term of payment Zahlungstermin, Zahlungsfrist term of payment zahlungsunfähig unable to pay zahlungsunfähig insolvent zahlungsunfähig unable to pay zahlungsunfähig, nicht flüssig illiquid zahlungsunfähig, Zahlungsunfähiger bankrupt Zahlungsunfähigkeit illiquidity Zahlungsunfähigkeit inability to pay Zahlungsunfähigkeit insolvency Zahlungsverbot interdiction of payment Zahlungsverkehr payments Zahlungsverpflichtungen liabilities to pay Zahlungsversprechen promise to pay Zahlungsverweigerung refusal of payment Zahlungsverweigerung refusal to pay Zahlungsverzug delay of payment Zahlungsweise form of payment Zahlungsweise method of payment Zahlungsweise mode of payment Zahlungswilligkeit willingness to pay Zahlungsziel term of credit Zahnärztliche Behandlung dental treatment Zedent assigner Zehnersystem decade system Zehrgeld für den Tag, Tagesgeld daily allowance Zeichen sign zeichnen subscribe Zeichnen von Versicherungsrisiken underwriting Zeichner subscriber Zeichner underwriter Zeichner dem Aktien zugeteilt werden allottee Zeichnungsbedingungen underwriting conditions zeichnungsberechtigt authorized to sign Zeichnungsbetrag amount of subscription Zeichnungsschluss closing of the subscription zeigen, Show, Darbietung show Zeit time Zeit sparen save time Zeit zur Überprüfung der Dokumente time in which to examine the documents Zeitausfall loss of time Zeitdauer term Zeiterfassungsverfahren method of time measurement Zeitgewinn gain of time zeitliche Begrenzung, Frist time limit zeitliche Beschränkung, Frist time limit Zeitpolice time policy zeitraubend time consuming Zeitraum period Zeitrente, Rente auf Zeit temporary annuity Zeitschrift, Journal journal Zeitschrift, Warenlager magazine Zeitstudien time studies Zeitungsaktien newspapers shares Zeitungsausschnitte clippings Zeitverlust loss of time Zeitverschwendung waste of time Zeitwert present value Zentralausschuss central committee Zentralbank central bank Zentrale general office Zentrale, Hauptbüro head office zentralisieren centralize Zentralisierung centralization Zentralkartei central file Zentralverwaltung, Hauptverwaltung head office zerbrechlich fragile Zerfall breakup Zertifikat certificate Zession assignment Zession cession Zessionar assignee Zessionsurkunde instrument of assignment Zettel slip Zettel ticket Zettel, Papier slip Zeugenvorladung witness summons ziehen, einen Wechsel ziehen draw ziehen, zeichnen draw Ziel goal Ziel, Vorgabe target zielen, Ziel aim Ziellinie target line Zielwechsel time bill ziemlich groß sizable Ziffer digit Zimmer vermieten let a room Zimmerdienst room service Zins, Zinsen interest Zinsanstieg interest increase Zinsauftrieb rise in interest Zinsaufwand interest expenditures Zinsaufwendungen interest payable Zinsbelastung interest charge Zinsberechnung calculation of interest Zinsberechnung computation of interest Zinsbetrag amount of interest Zinseingänge interest receipts Zinsen aus Kapitalanlagen interest on investments Zinsen berechnen charge interest Zinsen bringen carry an interest Zinsen erbringen bear interest Zinsen zahlen pay interest Zinsen zum Satz von interest at the rate of Zinserhöhung increase of the interest rate Zinserneuerungsschein renewal coupon Zinsertrag interest earned Zinsertrag interest earnings Zinsertrag interest income Zinseszins compound interest Zinseszins compounded interest Zinseszinsrechnung compound computation of interest Zinsforderungen interest receivable zinsfrei free of interest Zinsgefälle interest differential Zinskonto interest account zinslos non-interest-bearing zinsloser Überziehungskredit swing Zinsmarge interest margin Zinsnachlass interest rebate zinspflichtig subject to interest Zinssatz interest rate Zinssatz rate of interest Zinssatz für kurzfristige Anleihen short-term interest rate Zinssatz, Zinsrate rate of interest Zinsschein interest coupon Zinsschein interest voucher Zinsschein, Kupon interest warrant Zinsstaffel, Zinsberechnung interest computation Zinstabelle interest table Zinstabelle table of interest Zinstermin interest date Zinstermin interest payment date Zinsverlust loss of interest Zinszahl interest number Zinszahlung payment of interest Zinszahlungen interest payments zirkulieren, im Umlauf sein circulate Zwischenbilanz interim balance sheet zählbar countable Zähler meter Zählung, Volkszählung census Zoll customs Zollabfertigungsschein bill of clearance Zollabkommen tariff agreement Zollbarrieren, Zollschranken tariff barriers Zollbegleitschein carnet Zollbehörde customs authorities Zollfaktura customs invoice zollfrei duty free zollfreier Laden duty-free shop Zollfreigabebescheinigung clearance certificate Zollhintergehung defraudation of customs Zollmakler customs broker Zollmauern, Zollgrenzen tariff walls Zollsatz rate of duty Zollschranken customs barriers Zollschuppen customs shed Zollschutz tariff protection Zollsenkungen tariff cuts Zollsätze tariff rates Zolltarif tariff Zollunion customs union Zollunion tariff union Zollverschlusslager bonded warehouse Zone zone zu beanstanden objectionable zu den Akten nehmen take on file zu einem Vergleich kommen come to terms zu einer Pension berechtigend pensionable zu erneuern renewable zu Geld machen convert into money zu getreuen Händen überlassen entrust to one's safekeeping zu gleichen Bedingungen similar in terms zu gunsten von for the benefit of zu günstigen Bedingungen on easy terms zu herabgesetztem Preis offered down zu hoch bezahlen overpay zu hohe Berechnung overcharge zu sofortiger Freigabe for immediate release zu verzinsen, verzinslich interest-bearing zu weit gehende Einzelheiten aufnehmen to include excessive detail zu wenig berechnen undercharge zu zahlende aber nicht genutzte Fracht dead freight zu zahlende Rechnungen bills payable zu zahlender Betrag amount payable Zubehör, Einbauten, festes Inventar fixtures Zufall chance Zufall random Zufall, Aissicht chance zufällig accidental zufällig accidentally zufällig accidental zufällig haphazard zufällig incidental zufälliger Verlust, zufälliger Schaden loss by accident zufälliges Ereignis fortuitous event zufrieden gestellt satisfied zufrieden stellen satisfy zufriedenstellend, befriedigend satisfactory zufriedenstellende Ergebnisse satisfactory results zufriedenstellender Arbeitsplatz satisfactory job Zufriedenstellung, Befriedigung satisfaction Zugang access zugegen sein attend zugelassen licensed zugelassener Händler authorized dealer zugelassener Makler inside broker zugestandene Zeit allowed time zugestandene Zeit time allowed Zugänglichkeit accessibility zugunsten von in favour of zugunsten von in one's favour Zuhause home Zukunft future Zulage extra pay Zulass admittance zulassen admit Zulassung von Aktien admission of shares Zulassung von Obligationen admission of bonds Zulassung von Wertpapieren admission of securities Zulieferindustrie ancillary industry zulässig admissible zulässig allowable Zulässigkeit admissibility zum Erlangen von Zahlungen for obtaining the payment of money zum gesetzlichen Zinssatz at legal interest zum Kontoausgleich in order to balance the account zum Kurs von at the price of zum Nennwert at par zum Schein in pretence zum Schutz der Ware for the protection of the goods zum Tageskurs at the current rate zum Teil bezahlt paid in part zum Teil, teilweise in part zum Verkauf anbieten offer for sale zum Verkauf bereit halten keep for sale zum vollen Wert at full value zum Zwecke for the purpose of zum Zwecke der Ausführung for the purposes of giving effect Zunahme increase Zunahme increment Zunahme der Liquidität increase in liquidity zunehmen increase zunehmend increasing Zunft guild zur sofortigen Annahme subject to immediate acceptance zur Akzeptierung vorlegen make presentation for acceptance zur Annahme innerhalb von 3 Tagen subject to acceptance within 3 days zur Ansicht on sale or return zur Anzeige eventueller Änderungen for advising any amendments zur Ausgabe berechtigtes Aktienkapital authorized capital zur Bank gehöriges Grundstück bank premises zur Barzahlung on cash terms zur Deckung dienen serve as collateral zur Probe, Kauf auf Probe sale on approval zur Rückversicherung angenommen reinsurance accepted zur See gehörig maritime zur Selbsthilfe greifen take the law into on'e hands zur sofortigen Annahme subject to immediate acceptance zur Verfügung des Einreichers at the disposal of the presentor zur Verschiffung entgegengenommen received for shipment zur Verwendung in diesen Artikeln for the purpose of these articles zur Zahlung auffordern demand payment zur Zahlung vorlegen make presentation for payment zur Zeichnung auffordern invite tenders zur Zeit, bis auf weiteres for the time being zurück erhalten get back zurück datieren date back zurückbehalten retain Zurückbehaltung retention zurückdatieren backdate zurückfordern reclaim Zurückforderung reclamation zurückführen repatriate zurückgeben return zurückgezogene Aktie withdrawn share zurückkaufen rebuy zurückkehren return Zurücknahme withdrawal Zurücknahme einer Lizenz withdrawal of a license Zurücknahme eines Antrags withdrawal of an application zurückreichen, zurücksenden, zurückgeben return zurückweisen, ablehnen reject Zurückweisung rejection zurückzahlbar refundable zurückzahlen pay back zurückzahlen repay Zurückzahlung repayment zurückziehen, widerrufen take back zurückziehen, zurücknehmen, annullieren withdraw Zusage, Versprechen, zusagen, versprechen promise Zusammenarbeit collaboration Zusammenarbeit cooperation zusammenarbeiten collaborate Zusammenballung agglomeration zusammenbauen assemble zusammenbrechen, Zusammenbruch collapse Zusammenbruch breakdown zusammenfassen summarize Zusammenfassung summary Zusammenfassung, Kurzfassung, Auszug abstract zusammengefasst composite zusammengefasste Form, gekürzte Form condensed form zusammenlegen, Interessenverband pool zusammenschließen affiliate Zusammensetzung der Kapitalanlage composition of investment Zusammensetzung des Kapitals composition of capital Zusammensetzung, Vergleich composition zusammenstellen compile Zusammenstellung compilation Zusammenstoß collision zusammentreffen concurrence Zusammentreffen von Umständen concurrence of circumstances Zusatz addendum Zusatz, Abänderung amendment Zusatz, Ergänzung endorsement Zusatz, Zugang addition Zusatzausstattung peripheral equipment Zusatzausstattung supplementary equipment Zusatzbedingungen additional conditions Zusatzpolice supplementary policy Zusatzprämie additional premium Zusatzprämie supplementary premium Zusatzversicherung, Ergänzungsversicherung complementary insurance Zusatzversicherung, zusätzliche Versicherung additional insurance Zuschlag acceptance of a tender Zuschlag surcharge Zuschlag an Meistbietenden sale to the highest bidder Zuschlagsprämie additional premium Zuschuss grant zusichern assure zusichern, garantieren warrant Zusicherung assurance zusätzlich additional zusätzlich extra zusätzlich zu in addition to zusätzlich zum Hauptbetrag in addition to the principal amount zusätzlich zur Fracht anfallende Kosten costs additional to the freight charges zusätzliche Dividende additional dividend zusätzliche Kosten additional expenses zusätzliche Sicherheit additional security zusätzliche Sozialaufleistungen fringe benefits zusätzliche Zahlung additional payment Zustellungsbescheinigung recorded delivery zustimmen, Zustimmung consent zustimmend, bejahend affirmative Zustimmung affirmation Zustimmung von Seiten der Bank agreement on the part of the bank Zustimmung, zustimmen consent Zustimmungserklärung declaration of consent zuständig competent Zuständigkeit competence zuteilen allot zuteilen apportion Zuteilung allocation Zuteilung allotment Zuteilung von Aktien allotment of shares Zuteilungsschein certificate of allotment zuverlässig reliable zuverlässig, sicher reliable Zuverlässigkeit reliability zuviel berechnen overcharge zuviel Entschädigung zahlen overcompensate zuviel zahlen overpay zuvorkommend, höflich, kulant obliging Zuwachs accrual Zuwachs increment zuwachsen, auflaufen accrue zuweisen allocate zuweisen allot zuweisen assign Zuweisung allocation Zuweisung allotment Zuweisung assignment Zuweisung an die Reserven allocation to reserves Zuweisung, Kontingentierung allocation Zuweisungszettel allotment note Zuwendung für Lebensunterhalt subsistence money zuzahlen pay extra Zwangsanleihe forced loan Zwangsauflösung compulsory liquidation Zwangskurs forced exchange Zwangsliquidation compulsory liquidation Zwangsparen forced saving Zwangsregulierung forced execution Zwangssparen compulsory saving Zwangsverkauf forced sale Zwangsversteigerung forced sale Zwangsverwalter, Konkursverwalter official receiver Zwangsvollstreckung distraint Zwangswirtschaft controlled economy Zweck object Zweck des Unternehmens scope of business Zweck, Absicht, Ziel purpose Zweck, Verwendungszweck purpose Zweckbau functional building Zweckbestimmung von Mitteln earmarking of funds Zweckbestimmung von Zahlungen appropriation of payments zwecks in order to zwecks Auslieferung an einen Bezogenen for delivery to a drawee Zweifel, Bedenken, zweifeln, bezweifeln doubt zweifelhaft doubtful zweifelhafte Forderung doubtful claim zweifelhafter Börsenmakler bucketeer zweifeln doubt Zweig, Filiale branch Zweigniederlassung branch establishment Zweigstelle branch Zweigstelle local branch zweiseitig bilateral zweiseitiges Risiko bilateral risk Zweitbegünstigter second beneficiary Zweitbeschäftigung außerhalb der Arbeitszeit moonlighting zweite Emission second issue zweite Hälfte des Monats second half of the month zweite Hypothek second mortgage zweite Versicherung eingehen effect a second policy zweitrangig second rate zweitrangig secondary zwingen squeeze zwingend, obligatorisch, obligat obligatory zwischen den Abteilungen interdepartmental zwischen den Banken between the banks zwischen den Börsen interbourse zwischenbetrieblich inter-company zwischenbetrieblicher Vergleich inter-firm comparison zwischengeschaltet as intermediary zwischengewerkschaftlicher Streik jurisdictional strike Zwischenhändler distributor Zwischenkredit temporary credit zwischenmenschliche Beziehungen im Betrieb human relations Zwischensumme sub-total Zwischenverkauf vorbehalten subject to goods being unsold Zwischenverkauf vorbehalten subject to prior sale Zyklus, Kreis cycle zögernd, versuchsweise tentatively Zölle customs duties zzzzz zzzzz zzzzz COPYRIGHT WINFRIED HONIG zzzzz zzzzz NUERNBERG 2001 zzzzz zzzzz zzzzz zzzzz WINFRIED HONIG zzzzz zzzzz FRANZ-REICHEL-RING 12 zzzzz zzzzz 90473 Nuernberg zzzzz zzzzz Germany zzzzz zzzzz zzzzz zzzzz Tel. 0911 / 80 84 45 zzzzz zzzzz zzzzz zzzzz winfried.honig@online.de zzzzz zzzzz zzzzz zzzzz http://dict.leo.org zzzzz zzzzz http://www.dicdata.de zzzzz zzzzz http://mrhoney.purespace.de/latest.htm zzzzz zzzzz zzzzz End of Mr Honey's Banking Dictionary (German-English) (C)2001 by Winfried Honig 
42580	----	EXPOSITORY WRITING BY MERVIN JAMES CURL FORMERLY INSTRUCTOR IN ENGLISH UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS [Illustration: Publisher's Device] HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO COPYRIGHT, 1919, BY MERVIN JAMES CURL ALL RIGHTS RESERVED THE RIVERSIDE PRESS CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS U. S. A. TO THE STUDENTS IN RHETORIC III AT THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS WITH WHOM I HAD PLEASANT ASSOCIATION FROM 1914 TO 1918 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Since one of the pleasures of life is in being indebted to friends for kindnesses so generously given that the givers were unaware of the indebtedness which they were creating, the author is happy to set forth several acknowledgments of most helpful counsel and aid. To Dr. Emerson G. Sutcliffe, with whom a complete text on the whole subject of rhetoric had been projected, only to be set aside, and to result, for the present, in the text now published, the author wishes to express his thanks for advice, criticism, and general wise help throughout the preparation of this text. Dr. Herbert L. Creek read many sections of the book in manuscript, and made valuable suggestions. At the suggestion of Dr. Jacob Zeitlin the chapter on the "Informal Essay" was rewritten, with much improvement. Helpful advice was given concerning different sections of the book by Dr. Frank W. Scott, Dr. Harold N. Hillebrand, Dr. Clarissa Rinaker, and Miss Ruth Kelso. Dr. Robert C. Whitford and Mr. Bruce Weirick read a part of the book and kindly commented upon it. All these kind friends were members, at the time of giving aid, of the faculty of the University of Illinois. To Professor Fred L. Pattee, of the Pennsylvania State College, the author feels an especial debt of gratitude for unfailing interest and cheer and much wise counsel. To Mr. Warner G. Rice, a student in the University of Illinois, the author wishes to make acknowledgment for reading one chapter in manuscript and making valuable suggestions. So many friends have helped at one time and another that whatever of good the book may contain is doubtless due largely to them. For its faults the author alone is responsible. Due credit is made in the proper places to the several publishers who with unfailing kindness and courtesy allowed the use of material drawn from their publications. _Boston, Massachusetts_ _August 9, 1919_ CONTENTS I. THE NATURE AND MATERIAL OF EXPOSITION 1 II. HOW TO WRITE EXPOSITION 11 III. DEFINITION 73 IV. ANALYSIS 113 V. MECHANISMS, PROCESSES, AND ORGANIZATIONS 157 VI. CRITICISM 190 VII. THE INFORMAL ESSAY 231 VIII. EXPOSITORY BIOGRAPHY 257 IX. THE GATHERING OF MATERIAL FOR WRITING 297 INDEX 305 EXPOSITORY WRITING CHAPTER I THE NATURE AND MATERIAL OF EXPOSITION "The Anglo-Saxons," Emerson said, "are the hands of the world"--they, more than any other people, turn the wheels of the world, do its work, keep things moving. Without lingering to quarrel with Emerson, or to justify him, we may safely assert that Expository Writing is the hands of literature. In a world which man even as yet only slightly understands, surrounded as he is by his fellows who constantly baffle his intelligence, and shut up within the riddle of himself, Exposition attempts to explain, to make clear, to tear away the clouds of mystery and ignorance. Exposition attempts to answer the endless curiosity of man. "What is this?" man asks, of things and of ideas. "Who are you?" he addresses to his fellows. "How did this originate, what caused it, where is it going, what will it do, how is it operated?" he repeats from birth to grave. Perhaps the most interesting question in the world is the never-ending "What does this mean to me, how does it affect me, how can I use it?" These are the questions--and there are more of them--which Exposition tries to answer. Obviously, in making the answers the writing will often be garbed in the sack suit of business, will sometimes roll up its sleeves, will pull on the overalls or tie the apron. Then it may explain the workings of a machine, the wonders of a printing press, or may show the mysteries of Congressional action, or the organization of a department store, or even tell how to bake a lemon pie. But it may also appear in the opulence of evening costume, and criticize the ensemble of an orchestra, discuss the diplomacy of Europe, address us in appreciation of the Arts. It may assume the fine informality of the fireside and give us of its most delightful charms in discussing the joys of living and learning, the whimsicalities of the world. In any case it will be answering the endless curiosity of man. It would not be rash to say that more expository thinking is done than any other kind of mental activity. The child who dismantles a clock to find its secret is doing expository thinking; the official, of however complicated a business, who ponders ways and means, is trying to satisfy his business curiosity; the artist who studies the effect of balance, of light and shade, of exclusion or inclusion, is thinking in exposition; politicians are ceaselessly active in explaining to themselves how they may, and to their constituents how they did. We cannot escape Exposition. The question then arises, since this form of writing is always with us how can we make it effective and enjoyable? All writing should be interesting; all really effective writing does interest. It may not be required that every reader be interested in every bit of writing--that would be too much to hope for in a world where sympathies are unfortunately so restricted. To peruse a directory of Bangkok, if one has no possible acquaintance in that city, might become tedious, though one might draw pleasure from the queer names and the suggestions of romance. But if one has a lost friend somewhere in New York, and hopes that the directory will achieve discovery, the bulky and endless volume immediately takes on the greatest interest. Lincoln, driven at length to write a recommendation for a book, to escape the importunities of an agent, wisely, whimsically, wrote, "This is just the right kind of book for any one who desires just this kind of book." Wide though his sympathies were, he recognized that not every one enjoys everything. The problem of the writer of exposition is to make as wide an appeal as he can. Interest in reading is of two kinds: satisfaction and stimulation. And each of these may be either intellectual or emotional or both. The interest of satisfaction largely arises when the questions which the reader brings with him to his reading are answered. A reader who desires to know what is done with the by-products in a creamery, where the skim milk goes to, will be satisfied--and interested--when he learns the complete list of uses, among them the fact that skim milk is largely made into the white buttons that make our underclothing habitable. The reader who leaves an article about these by-products with the feeling that he has been only half told is sure to be dissatisfied, and therefore uninterested. In the same way, when a reader picks up an article or a book with the desire to be thrilled with romance or wonder, to be taken for the time away from the business of the world, to be wrenched with pity for suffering or with admiration for achievement--in other words, when a reader brings a hungry emotion to his reading--if he finds satisfaction, he is interested. The interest of stimulation may include that of satisfaction, but not necessarily. It is the interest that drives a person to further thinking or acting for himself, that loosens his own energies and makes him aware of desire for satisfaction that he did not know he had. A reader may, for example, peruse an editorial in a daily paper and find a complete array of facts, setting forth in detail the subject, and may be satisfied about the subject. He may read another editorial which will not leave him cold, indifferent, but will set his brain to churning with ideas, or may even make him clap on his hat and start forth to change things in the world. The second editorial has given him the interest of stimulation. Writing that makes the interest of stimulation is the writing of power: to the mere satisfaction of hunger, such as one can get from eating dry oatmeal, it adds the stimulation, the joy in life that a fragrant cup of coffee would add to the oatmeal. Exposition that satisfies is adequate; that which stimulates is powerful. Obviously, some expository writing would suffer from being filled with the power to rouse the reader. Much legal writing must be addressed to the intellect alone; often the entrance of stimulation, the rousing of the emotions, will destroy the chance for justice. Obviously, again, some subjects can be treated to contain both kinds of interest: an account of the devastation of northern France may be as cold as a ledger in its array of facts which are to be added; it may also be so treated as to rouse a vitriolic hatred for the government that caused such devastation to be made. Each treatment is allowable, and each necessary for a perfectly proper purpose. Let us admit, without debate, that much expository writing is stupid. Why is it thus? Largely for two reasons: the writer has not made his material mean anything to himself, and he has not made it significant for his reader. In writing exposition there is no place for him who draws his pen along like a quarry slave who is soon to be scourged to his dungeon and does not care for anything. A person who finds no interest in his subject should do one of two things: consult a physician to see if his health is normal so that he may expect reasonably vivid reactions to life and things; or choose a new subject. Interest, in other words, enters at the moment when the writing becomes related vitally to human beings, and not until that moment. Why do students enjoy reading the writings of William James? Simply because the author made his facts relate to himself and to everybody else. If a writer feels like saying, "I don't see anything interesting in this!" and yet he feels duty pointing a stern finger at composition, he should examine the subject more nearly, should see if it does not in some way affect him, does not present a front that he is really concerned with. Suppose, for example, that the task presents itself of accounting for the use of skim milk, and suppose that the writer thinks skim milk of all things the stupidest. Well, buttons, they say, are made from it--but who cares what buttons are made from; their purpose is to hold clothes together, and that's all! But wait a bit: here are some hundreds of gallons of skim milk, from which thousands of buttons can be made. Without the milk, the buttons will be cut from shells, perhaps, at a much larger cost. Ah, the pocketbook is affected, is it--well, let's have the milk used, then. And when one stops to think of it, is it not remarkable that from a soft thing like milk a hard thing like a button should be made? Isn't man, after all, rather ingenious? Who in the world ever thought of milk buttons? Some such process the mind often passes through in its approach to a subject. At length it finds interest, and then it can write--and not before. Here is the difference, then, between being a dumb beast of a reporter of facts, and a free agent of an interpreter. Some facts, to be sure, are in themselves so startling that mere report is sufficient. Slight comment is needed to horrify an audience at Turkish atrocities in the war. Perhaps comment would even weaken the effect. The terrible poignancy of such facts so fires the imagination that more is perhaps positively harmful. Many facts are not thus immediately translated into human experience. At first thought the fact that a new hotel will be supplied with indirect lighting seems a mere fact of trade: instead of ordering hanging chandeliers of one kind, the builder will order another kind. But thought of more fully, this fact takes on both the interest of satisfaction and that of stimulation: why did the builder decide to install the indirect system? and what will the effect be? Imagining one's self in that hotel at the end of a long and bewildering journey, with nerves on edge and eyes aflame with dust, will relate the fact of choice at once to human feelings and needs--and the subject is interesting. A reader can be made to understand the workings of the engine in a super-six automobile, and also to feel the power of it; to understand a cream separator and also to thrill to the economy of time and strength which it brings; to understand a clarinet and also to rouse to the beauty of its voice; to understand an adding machine and also to marvel at the uncanny weirdness of the invention. The writer interprets as soon as he brings his subject into relation with human life and shows its real value. As already mentioned, care is to be exercised to use the treatment which the subject demands. An explanation, for practical purposes, of a machine lathe will be dangerous if it attempts too much imaginative stimulation: there would lurk too great a danger to material fingers. An essay, on the other hand, such as those of Lamb and Stevenson, depends largely on its imaginative interpretation, on its appeal to the interest of stimulation. For a neutral newspaper account of a football game the following heading was used: "Yesterday's game between the University of Illinois and the University of Chicago resulted in no score for either side." That is a bald report of the facts, for a neutral audience. The interpreting spirit, as it appeared at the two universities, colored the tale: "Fighting Illini tie Maroons 0-0"; and, "Maroons hold Illini to 0-0 score." These two headings, if expanded into complete articles, would color the story with interpretation for a specific audience that is vitally interested. The accounts would probably be more interesting than that of the newspaper, but they would also run the chance of being less fair. For Webster's New International Dictionary _art_ is defined as follows: "Application of skill and taste to production according to æsthetic principles; an occupation having to do with the theory or practice of taste in the expression of beauty in form, color, sound, speech, or movement." George Gissing, making a definition of the same subject for his book, _The Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft_, writes as follows: It has occurred to me that one might define Art as: an expression, satisfying and abiding, of the zest for life. This is applicable to every form of Art devised by man, for, in his creative moment, whether he produce a great drama or carve a piece of foliage in wood, the artist is moved and inspired by supreme enjoyment of some aspect of the world about him; an enjoyment keener in itself than that experienced by another man, and intensified, prolonged, by the power--which comes to him we know not how--of recording in visible or audible form that emotion of rare vitality. Art, in some degree, is within the scope of every human being, were he but the ploughman who utters a few would-be melodious notes, the mere outcome of health and strength, in the field at sunrise; he sings or tries to, prompted by an unusual gusto in being, and the rude stave is all his own. Another was he, who also at the plough, sang of the daisy, or the field mouse, or shaped the rhythmic tale of Tam o' Shanter. Not only had life a zest for him incalculably stronger and subtler than that which stirs the soul of Hodge, but he uttered it in word and music such as go to the heart of mankind, and hold a magic power for ages.[1] [1] George Gissing: _The Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft_. By permission of the publishers, E. P. Dutton & Co., New York City. Of these two definitions obviously the first attempts merely to satisfy the intellectual curiosity of the reader, is a mere report of facts, and the second is interested in making an interpretation, in stimulating the reader. For most readers the words of Gissing would be more interesting; though, since a dictionary is not primarily an amusement, it is a bit unfair to mention the fact. Interesting our expository writing must be; it must also be truthful. Nothing worse can be imagined than the kind of writing that forgets the facts, that remembers only the desire to please. Under the pleasing phraseology of any bit of expository writing there must be the firm structure of thought, and the close weave of fact. Expository writing is commonly divided into Definition and Analysis. Definition attempts to set bounds to the subject, to say "thus far and no farther," to tell what the subject is. Analysis regards the subject as composed of parts, mutually related, which together form the whole, and attempts to divide the subject into as many parts as it contains. Analysis is divided into classification and partition. Classification groups individual members according to likeness, as one might classify Americans according to color or birthplace or education or health, in every case placing those who are alike together. Partition divides an organic whole into its parts, as one might divide the United States Government into its three branches of legislative, judicial, and executive, or the character of George Washington into its components. Now definition and analysis often intermingle and help each other, and are often informally treated, but somehow, in every piece of exposition, the underlying thought must have a sound basis of one or the other or both. This will be the nucleus of the thinking; it may then be treated as a bald report or as an interpretation, aiming merely to give information or to rouse the further interest of the reader. The method of treatment will be determined by the nature of the facts and the purpose of the author in writing. It cannot be too strongly stated that the underlying thought and the interest are really one, after all. As you approach a subject, and learn its character and meaning, you will be at the same time learning whether it is a subject capable of great appeal or only of slight attraction. Interest is not something laid on, but is a development from the nature of the facts themselves. The first question should be, "Is this interesting?" and then the second question may follow, "How shall I bring out the interest?" Remember that interest depends on relation to human beings; the closer the relation, the greater the interest. Mr. Henry Labouchere, English statesman and for many years editor of _Truth_, had an ideal reaction to life, so far as interest is concerned. If, scanning the horizon for interest, he had bethought himself of the rather impolite advice of the Muse to Sir Philip Sidney, "'Fool,' said my Muse to me, 'look in thine heart and write,'" he would have found, upon following the advice, a heart full of eager curiosity and readiness to be attracted to anything. The following account of one of his qualities, as related in his biography, is worth remembering when you feel like saying, "Oh, I don't see anything interesting in that!": "If he had encountered a burglar in his house already loaded with valuables, his first impulse would have been, not to call the police, but to engage the intruder in conversation, and to learn from him something of the habits of burglars, the latest and most scientific methods of burgling, the average profits of the business, and so forth. He would have been delighted to assist his new acquaintance with suggestions for his future guidance in his profession, and to point out to him how he might have avoided the mistake which had on this occasion led to his being caught in the act. In all this he would not by any means have lost sight of his property; on the contrary, the whole force of his intellect would have been surreptitiously occupied with the problem of recovering it with the least amount of inconvenience to his friend and himself. He would have maneuvered to bring off a deal. If by sweet reasonableness he could have persuaded the burglar to give up the 'swag,' he would have been delighted to hand him a sovereign or two, cheer him with refreshment, shake hands, and wish him better luck next time; and he would have related the whole story in the next week's _Truth_ with infinite humor and profound satisfaction." To make clear, to explain,--that is the task of exposition. Such writing does not have the excitement of the fighting-ring, which we find in argument, nor does it attain the lyric quality of impassioned description, or the keen wild flight of narrative. It keeps its feet on the earth, tells the truth--but tells it in such a way, with so much of reaction on the writer's part, and with so strong an appeal to the reader's curiosity or imagination or sympathy, that it is interesting, that it is always adequate, and may be powerful. CHAPTER II HOW TO WRITE EXPOSITION The Problem All writing--except mere exercise and what the author intends for himself alone--is a problem in strategy. The successful author will always regard his writing as a problem of manipulation of material wisely chosen to accomplish an objective against the enemy. The enemy is the reader. He is armed with two terrible weapons, lack of interest and lack of comprehension. Sometimes one weapon is stronger than the other, but a wise author always has an eye for both. The strategic problem is, then, so to choose material, and so to order and express it, that the reader will be forced to become interested, to comprehend, to arrive, in other words, at the point in his feeling and thinking to which the author wishes to lead him. The author's objective is always an effect in the reader's mind. In so far as the author creates this effect he is successful. And the time to consider the effect, to make sure of its accomplishment, is before the pen touches the paper. Sometimes the author makes a mistake in his planning, as did the composer Handel when he wrote the oratorio of "The Messiah." He placed the "Hallelujah Chorus" at the end of the oratorio. But when, toward the end of the second section, he saw from his place on the stage that the audience was not so enthusiastic as he had expected it to be at that point, he changed his plan, with practical shrewdness rushed to the front and shifted the famous chorus from the end of the third section to the end of the second, and had the satisfaction of seeing the audience so moved that first the King rose, and then, of course, the audience with him. The chorus has stood at the end of the second part to this day; that is the place for it--it brings about the effect that Handel desired much better there than if it were saved for the end of the oratorio. The oratorio is, in other words, a greater work than it would have been had not the author kept a keen eye for the audience, for the effect, and a willingness to change his plans whenever the gaining of the effect required a change. Just so the writer should constantly scan the horizon of the reader's mind for signs of interest and for shafts of intelligence. The effect that the writer desires in the reader's mind may be of different natures. In Baedeker's Guide-Book the aim is largely to satisfy the understanding, to meet the reader's desire for compact information. In some of Poe's tales the effect is of horror. Patrick Henry aimed primarily to rouse to vigorous action. Shakespeare wished to shed light upon the great truths of existence, to satisfy the reader's groping curiosity, and also to thrill the reader with pity and terror or with high good humor or the unrestrained laughter of roaring delight. In so far as the author accomplishes his purpose, in just so far he is successful. When friends complimented Cicero, telling him that he was the greatest orator, he replied somewhat as follows: "Not so, for when I give an oration in the Forum people say, 'How well he speaks!' but when Demosthenes addressed the people they rose and shouted, 'Come, let us up and fight the Macedonians!'" If Cicero was correct in his estimate, Demosthenes was the greater orator--of that there can be no doubt--for he gained his effect. President Wilson's great war messages had as one of their objects, certainly, the rousing in American hearts of a high thrill to the lofty object for which they fought, the overcoming of might with right. The remarkable success of the messages attests the author's power. Now the author will accomplish this effect in the reader's mind only if his writing "takes hold," and it will "take hold" only if it is weighty, that is, only if it bears toward the desired end in every part and in every implication. This is as true in writings that aim at light, frivolous effects as in those that stir the deeper emotions, in writing that aims at the understanding almost alone as in that which strives not only to make clear but to infuse with deathless appeal to the heart. A treatise on the fourth dimension must bear, in every stroke, toward the complete satisfaction of the reader's intellectual curiosity; a comedy must lay down each word in the intention of liberating the silver laughter of humor; a tragedy must leave us in every implication serious, even in its introduction of comical material to heighten the tragic nature of the whole. To make every word bear in the one general direction--that is the writer's task. In no other way can he move the reader's mind and heart as he wishes to. An author finds, however, that to gain the desired effect requires skillful manipulation on his part. He confronts a mass of refractory material, often full of contradictions, in which any potential effect seems almost as difficult to discover as the proverbial needle in the well-known haystack. For example, when a historian sits down, one hundred years hence, to the task of explaining the Great War, he will be confronted with an amazing welter of endless facts, tendencies, personal, national, and racial ambitions, enmities, competitions in trade, language, customs, indiscretions of diplomats, inscrutable moves of controlling powers, checks and counter checks, assertion and denial, accusation and assurance of innocence, bribery and plots and spy systems, amateur comment in newspaper and magazine, defenses by people who have retained their poise and other defenses by those whose faculties have been unseated by the awful strain of war--and everywhere he will find the endless array of events and detailed facts of organization of civil and military life to mold somehow into a consistent, intelligible whole. Well may he say that the task is too great for mortal man. Yet somehow the history is to be written, somehow the effect that he wishes is to be gained. Obviously the great prime task is to unify, to bring order out of chaos, to create from formless material a real edifice of thought. Exactly the same task awaits the writer of any kind of literature; in a short theme no less, the first great duty is to find some principle whereby the author can exclude the useless and include what is of value. The first question to ask is--and it is also the last and the intervening question--"What am I trying to accomplish?" At first thought this question may seem the most obvious, the most elementary, and the least helpful query possible. But upon its being successfully met depends the whole success of the writing, whether of choosing or ordering or proportioning the material, or of expressing the selected ideas. For, since the chief task before the writer is to make his thoughts and his expression drive in one direction, so that the whole composition is simplified in the reader's mind, is unified and given an organic existence, even the choice of words, upon which depends so much of the tone of the composition, is largely settled by the answer to this question of what the author hopes to accomplish. In Exposition, the explaining the relations among things and ideas, we are commonly told that we must "cover the ground," must "stick to the subject," must "include whatever is valuable and reject the rest." But such directions are insufficient. Until I have some touchstone, some applicable standard, I cannot tell whether material is valuable or not. It is as if one were brought into the presence of multifarious building material,--wood both hard and soft, cement and the other ingredients of concrete, bricks, stucco, and steel beams, and terra cotta tiles,--and then were requested to build a house, using whatever of the material might be of value, and removing the rest. The builder would be nonplussed. He cannot build, now with wood, now with stone, and again with tile; if he did, the saying would be all too true, "There's no place like home!" He can do nothing reasonable until he has been informed as to the kind of house desired, until he is given a principle of selection. Then, if he has been bidden to make a brick house, he at once knows what his object is, and can then reject whatever does not help him, in the accomplishment. In the same way, if I am asked to write five thousand words about Horticulture, I am at a loss to choose from the history of the science, or the present status, or the still unsolved problems, or the relative advancement in different countries, or the possibility of the pursuit of horticulture as a profession, or the poetic, the imaginative stimulus of working among apple blossoms, or the value to health of working in the open air. Perhaps any one of these divisions of the total subject would require five thousand words; certainly with so limited an amount of material of expression I cannot cover all; and if I choose a bit of each, the result will hopelessly confuse the reader as to the science, for I shall perforce write a series of mere _disjuncta membra_. I must, then, choose at once some guiding principle of selection that will make clear whether, for instance, the poetic appeal of the science has anything to do with my object. Then, and only then, shall I be able to write an article that will "take hold," that will bear in every part toward some definite goal, that will leave my reader with a well-organized, easily understood piece of writing. Only thus can I escape making a mere enumeration about as sensible as to add potatoes and church steeples and treasurers' reports and feather boas and card parties and library paste in the hope of making an integral whole. This guiding idea, which avoids such selections, may perhaps best be called the "controlling purpose" of the theme or article or book. The Controlling Purpose _What, then, is the controlling purpose? It is the answer to the question, "What am I trying to accomplish?" It is the intelligent determination on the writer's part to make the material of his writing march straight toward a definite goal which he wishes the reader to perceive. It is the actively operating point of view of the writer, the positive angle of vision that he takes toward the subject._ The controlling purpose in Lincoln's mind as he rode up to Gettysburg must have been to bring home to the civilians of the country, with a great humble thrill toward accomplishment, the fact that after the soldiers had done all they could, the civilians must reverently take up the fight for freedom and union. His address is immortal. But suppose, for a moment, that he had ascended the platform with the vague idea of "saying something about America, the war, you know, and the soldiers, and liberty,--oh, yes, Liberty, of course,--and, oh, things in general." Though he had thundered for hours his words would likely have been ineffective. Only an intense realization of the purpose in one's mind, and a consistent bending of one's efforts to gain this end, bring simplicity, weightiness, and the powerful effect in the reader's mind. From the reader's point of view, in fact, we might say that the controlling purpose is the means of making writing interesting, since nothing so holds a reader's mind as to feel that he is getting somewhere, that he is accomplishing something by his efforts. In no other way can he be made so clearly to see his progress, for only thus can he be prevented from undirected wandering. Source of the Controlling Purpose _a._ _The Subject itself_ When we ask how we shall find and choose the controlling purpose, we discover that it is determined by three things; the subject itself, the personality of the writer, and the character of the reader. Just how these three operate to determine the cast of the writing we shall now attempt to discover. The first thing for the writer to do is to look at the subject itself and learn what it is, really understand it. He must know its exact nature before he can be allowed to proceed with the development. Now this often requires much honesty, for it is necessary to put aside prejudice and bias of all kinds and to look at the subject just as it is, with a passionate desire to learn its exact nature. For example, if you are to write about the value of a college education, and you are an idealist, you may be tempted to overlook the fact that such a training does actually help a man to earn more money than he otherwise would. You may think that such a consideration is beneath your dignity. But you must put aside your prejudice for the time being and must look the fact honestly in the face. And, if you are a hard-headed, practical person, you must nevertheless admit that a college education is broadening, chastening, in its influence. In either case you will not stop until you have looked at all possible sides of the subject. You will amass such facts, then, as that a college education is broadening, that it increases earning capacity, that it puts a person in touch with the world, that it makes him more able to be a useful citizen. Other facts also will occur to you, but let us suppose that these are the most important. If you carefully examine them you will perhaps come to the conclusion that a college education is valuable in that it helps a person to realize his best possibilities in every way, as a citizen, a friend, a personality. Or, if you are to write about the aeroplane, you will discover that it is heavier than air, that it is propelled by motor-power, that it attains certain speeds, that it has definite lifting power, that it is self-stabilizing to a remarkable degree, that it is made of certain kinds of material, of certain weight, and that it has one, or two, or even three planes. In addition you will note the qualities of efficiency, of triumphing over winds, of beautiful poise, and smoothness of execution. In both these cases you have been seeking the core of your subject, the real meaning of it, its essence. You must, before you begin to write a word, be able to say what all the noticed facts amount to, to say, "All told, this subject, this machine, or whatever it is, means so-and-so." Perhaps of the aeroplane you would say, "This machine stands for wonderful potential efficiency, not yet completely understood." In the same way we say of people and things, "He is a bore," or "a tyrant," or, "That is a great social menace," or some other such comment. In each case we have tagged the person or thing with what we think it is at its heart, with its total significance. And not until we have done this are we at all ready to begin writing. _b._ _The Writer's Attitude_ The second influence in determining the controlling purpose is the reaction of the writer to the subject. In the following estimate of Lord Morley, the great English statesman, you will notice that, though the treatment seems to be, at first, purely objective, quite impersonal, the author cannot keep himself out: he enters with the fifth word, "thrilling," in which he shows where he stands himself in regard to truth, and he appears more at length in the last two clauses of the selection, where he definitely set the approval of his own heart upon Lord Morley's attitude. The third influence, that of the reader, appears also, for when you consider that the article was written for Englishmen to read, you see the molding for the national temper, different of necessity from that which would have been made for Frenchmen, for example. The author relies upon a knowledge of Morley among his readers, and upon a certain definite attitude among them toward the truth. You will catch that thrilling note in the oratory of Lord Morley at all times, for he touches politics with a certain spiritual emotion that makes it less a business or a game than a religion. He lifts it out of the street on to the high lands where the view is wide and the air pure and where the voices heard are the voices that do not bewilder or betray. He is the conscience of the political world--the barometer of our corporate soul. Tap him and you will see whether we are at "foul" or "fair." He has often been on the losing side: sometimes perhaps on the wrong side: never on the side of wrong. He is True as a dial to the sun, Although it be not shined upon. There is about him a sense of the splendid austerity of truth--cold but exhilarating. It is not merely that he does not lie. There are some other politicians of whom that may be said. It is that he does not trifle with truth. It is sacred and inviolate. He would not admit with Erasmus that "there are seasons when we must even conceal truth," still less with Fouché that "les paroles sont faites pour cacher nos pensées."[2] His regard for the truth is expressed in the motto to the essay "On Compromise": "It makes all the difference in the world whether we put truth in the first place or in the second." This inflexible veracity is the rarest and the most precious virtue in politics. It made him, if not, as Trevelyan says of Macaulay, "the worst popular candidate since Coriolanus," at least a severe test of a constituency's attachment. It is Lord Morley's contribution to the common stock. Truth and Justice--these are the fixed stars by which he steers his barque, and even the Prayer Book places Religion and Piety after them, for indeed they are the true foundation of religion and piety.[3] [2] Words were made to conceal our thoughts. [3] A. G. Gardiner: _Prophets, Priests, and Kings_. By permission of the publishers, E. P. Dutton & Co., New York City. The second consideration, then, is, "What does this subject mean to me?" Of course there are subjects in which this question is of slight importance: in writing a treatise on mathematics, for instance, one might be quite indifferent to any personal reaction, though in even such a piece of writing there might appear a thrill at the neat marshaling of forces for the inevitable waiting answer to the problem. In general, however, this question is of great importance. Stevenson goes so far as even to say that the author's attitude is more important than the facts themselves. Certainly a writer cannot tell what is the truth for himself unless he expresses his ideas in the light of his own personality. Suppose that in the case of the aeroplane, though you believe the central fact as we expressed it above, you are primarily appealed to by the fact that the motor is of the utmost importance, and that at present it is not so highly developed as it should be for perfect flying. You are, in other words, impressed with the problem that confronts engineers of making the motor more efficient. Your controlling purpose would now be modified, then, and would perhaps read, "The aeroplane is a machine of wonderful potential efficiency not yet completely understood, _especially as regards the driving power_." In the same way you would modify the purpose of the treatment of college education and might say, "A college education is valuable in that it helps a person to realize his best possibilities in every way, but _especially as an heir of all the wisdom of the ages gone_." The relative importance of this second consideration depends on whether the subject is much or little affected by personal interpretation. In the personal essay, as written by Lamb, for example, we may care more for the man than for the facts, or more for the facts as seen by the man than for the mere facts alone. In questions of society, of morality, of taste, in which the answer is not absolute in any case, in all matters that affect the well-being of humanity and in which there is a shifting standard, the attitude of the writer is important. The writer who wishes to have a voice of authority must cling to the fact as to a priceless jewel, but he must also remember that if, for example, he is writing on Feminism, or Socialism, or Church Attendance, or The Short Ballot, or The New Poetry, or The Value of Social Clubs in the Country, or any such subject, we, the readers, eagerly wait on his words as being primarily an expression of his personal reaction to the matter. And the final value of the treatment will depend on whether the personality is well-poised, largely sympathetic, able to take an elastic view of the subject and to bring it home to the reader as a piece of warmly felt and honestly stated conviction. In exposition, as well as in argument, we must ask the witness,--that is, the writer,--whether he is prejudiced or not. Especially must we do this when we happen to be the author ourselves. Violent condemnation of Capital by a man who has become embittered by mistreatment at the hands of employers must be taken with somewhat of caution, just as sweeping arraignment of Socialism by an arrogant capitalist must be eyed askance. It might not be amiss to remark here that the writer in a college class who declares that he has no reaction to his subject, that he is quite indifferent to it, should do one of two things, either choose a new subject, or drop from college and go to work at some vitalizing effort with other people which will bring home realities to him in such a way that he cannot fail to react. In the following brief incident it is interesting to note how the author shows his own personality. Another would have thought of the problem of dietetics involved, or of the absence of coffee or "parritch" or the rasher of bacon, or of the austerity of the meal. To Gissing[4] the incident was significant as showing a national characteristic both admirable and amusing. [4] George Gissing: _The Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft_, "Summer," XXI. By permission of the publishers, E. P. Dutton & Co., New York City. At an inn in the north I once heard three men talking at their breakfast on the question of diet. They agreed that most people ate too much meat, and one of them went so far as to declare that, for his part, he rather preferred vegetables and fruit. "Why," he said, "will you believe me that I sometimes make a breakfast of apples?" This announcement was received in silence; evidently the two listeners didn't quite know what to think of it. Thereupon the speaker, in rather a blustering tone, cried out, "Yes, I can make a very good breakfast on _two or three pounds of apples_." Wasn't it amusing? And wasn't it characteristic? This honest Briton had gone too far in frankness. 'T is all very well to like vegetables and fruit up to a certain point; but to breakfast on apples! His companions' silence proved that they were just a little ashamed of him; his confession savoured of poverty or meanness; to right himself in their opinion, nothing better occurred to the man than to protest that he ate apples, yes, but not merely one or two; he ate them largely, _by the pound_! I laughed at the fellow, but I thoroughly understood him; so would every Englishman; for at the root of our being is a hatred of parsimony. This manifests itself in all manner of ludicrous or contemptible forms, but no less is it the source of our finest qualities. An Englishman desires, above all, to live largely; on that account he not only dreads but hates and despises poverty. His virtues are those of the free-handed and warm-hearted opulent man; his weaknesses come of the sense of inferiority (intensely painful and humiliating) which attaches in his mind to one who cannot spend and give; his vices, for the most part, originate in loss of self-respect due to loss of secure position. _c._ _The Reader_ The third consideration is, "Who is my reader, and what are his characteristics?" The counter-question, "What difference does it make who my reader is?" can be summarily answered with the statement that it makes a great deal of difference. As soon as you note what a large part temperament plays in the forming of opinions in politics and religion and social questions, and remember that no two people ever react to any truth in exactly the same way--that what seems to one sensible person monstrous will appear to another equally sensible person as highly virtuous--you will see that in all writing, where either the understanding or the emotions are involved, this question assumes importance. If we believe the theory with which we set out, that all writing is done to accomplish an object, that is, a certain effect in the reader's mind, and then remember that different readers take different trails to the same objective, and that some must be even coaxed back from one trail into another, we shall see that it is vital that the reader do not select the wrong way, and, like a futile dog, "bark up the wrong tree." A hasty glance at current magazines will at once show how operative this consideration is in practical writing: _The Atlantic Monthly_ uses a different set of subjects and a different style of expression from that of _The Scientific American_ or _The Black Cat_ or _The Parisienne_. The editors, in other words, are remembering who their readers are and are trying to meet them with gifts, not with weapons of offense. After all, the reader is always the destination of all writing; the place where the effect will be made is the reader's mind. To apply this third consideration to our two subjects, the value of a college education and the aeroplane, let us see how the treatment should differ according to the differing readers. If, in the treatment of the first subject, we are presenting our statements to a body of educators, even though the facts of college education remain unmoved, and though our personal leaning toward the supreme value in dowering the student with the wisdom of the past is unchanged, we shall yet see that these educators have already thought as we have about the matter, that merely to repeat to them will be futile and wearying; and we shall, if we are wise, change the point of attack and develop the value as enabling the student _to apply to practical problems the wisdom of the past_. Or, if the readers are to be politicians whom we wish to enlist in sympathy with larger endowments, we shall perhaps treat the subject as being _increased political insight and sympathy with all people_. In the treatment of the aeroplane, if we are presenting our words to engineers, we shall probably analyze the present lack of proper engine power and try to suggest means of correction. And we shall make our presentation in language that has not been stripped of its technicalities but has been allowed to stand in engineering terms. But if we address a body of benevolent women who are trying to organize an "Airmen's Relief Fund," and who look upon the machine with horror as a potential destroyer of life, we shall simply show that _accidents may be caused through faulty engines which may often result in loss of life_. The original controlling purpose will now appear, "The value of a college education lies in its offering the best chance for personal development through showing to the student his heirship to all the wisdom of the ages past, especially as this is applied to present-day problems," or, "The aeroplane is a machine of great potential efficiency not yet completely understood, especially as regards the driving power, through which lack of understanding grave accidents may occur." Now if we scan these two statements carefully, I believe that we shall be persuaded of their inadequacy. To explain to the benevolent women who are interested in saving lives the fact that we do not yet fully understand the aeroplane, is like attempting to persuade a man from the path of an oncoming thunderous locomotive by telling him of the lack of laws to regulate public safety. In other words, we have forgotten that a wedge makes the easiest entrance, and we have attacked on far too broad a front, have failed to whittle away the chips that are of no value to the reader. Perhaps we need a complete restatement of the controlling purpose, occasioned by the nature of the reader. We may say that the value of a college education is in enabling a student to be of service to the state by applying the wisdom of the past, or that the aeroplane, partly through our ignorance of it, is causing terrible accidents. These purposes are far different from those with which we started out. All are perfectly true; these are better adapted to our particular readers, are more useful in helping to accomplish our selected aim. The gist of the matter is this: wisdom in writing demands that we discover the special loophole through which our readers regard the subject and then bring our material within the view from that loophole, bearing in mind always the training and the prejudices of the reader, and conforming material to suit the special needs. One large reason why college themes are liable to dullness is the fact that few students write for any one in particular. They merely put down colorless facts which do not stir a reader in the slightest. They forget that facts exist, really, only as they relate to people, individual people, and that they must be clothed attractively, as is virtue for a child's consumption, or the reader will have none of them. Even the patient writer of themes should regard a specially chosen reader as at the same time his best friend and his potentially worst enemy: friend in the sense of recipient of literary gifts, and enemy in the sense of possible foiler of all the author's good intentions. As enemy the reader must be conquered, must be made to read and understand; as friend he is to be sympathetically met and smiled upon. And if there be no reader determined by the circumstances, the writer should choose some well-known friend and adapt his material to that friend, or should select any ordinarily intelligent being and use the widest appeal that he can. _d._ _Relative Value of Sources_ Now the relative value of these three sources of the controlling purpose is variable. In an article for the encyclopædia the writer's reaction should be subordinated, since the reader comes to the encyclopædia for facts and not for opinion. Likewise the reader, in such an article, will be of minor importance, for the article is addressed to general ordinary intelligence that desires a straightforward statement. But as we have seen, an article on Feminism must with the greatest care watch the reader and the writer--the reader because the subject rouses both assent and opposition; the writer because the subject is of the kind that depend largely on opinion. So a theme on the problem of the hired man, or Tennyson's attitude toward science, or the reasons for attending one university rather than another, or the value of mechanical stokers, or the application of Mendel's Law to human beings will vary its purpose according to the varying importance of the three sources. Only one great caution needs to be made. Never falsify or mistreat the facts: they are the supreme thing. It is for this fault that the newspapers are most blameable: they consider their readers and their own points of view, but all too often they treat the facts cavalierly. A high reverence for the truth, and an unflinching determination to tell it are prime essentials. The Controlling Purpose and the Emotional Reaction So far we have been concerned with the problem of placing the _facts_ before the reader, of appealing to his intelligence. But writing consists of vastly more than that alone. After the understanding, sometimes before, must be considered the emotions. We have the facts, we know what we think of them, and we are reasonably sure of the reader's attitude. Now we must discover how to set the reader's emotions afire in so far as we desire such an effect. In listening to a great tragedy we perceive the cold analysis of a great truth of life; but that is not all: far out beyond the bounds of understanding our emotions are profoundly stirred and we _feel_ pity and terror. So in the account of a tremendous battle, of a fire, of anything that touches human life at all nearly and with power, our emotions are called into play. Now different pieces of writing, just like different subjects, call for different degrees of emotional reaction. Drama always rouses us, lyric poems depend upon their emotional quality, the informal essay has much emotional appeal, fiction of any sort stirs our feelings, and the more powerful the writing is, the more sure the appeal. At first thought most expository writing might be considered to make slight appeal, if any, to emotions. That is not necessarily true; the more effective the exposition, the more real is usually the call to feeling. Often this call is subtle, usually it is subordinate to the appeal to the understanding, but in most effective expository writing it will be found. In an explanation of the Panama Canal certainly there would be roused the reader's admiration and wonder at the magnitude of the operation. The mere analysis of the facts in a criminal trial often settles the case, so great is the emotional appeal. In didactic writing the call to emotion is less strong, though such a writer as Jonathan Edwards could explain the writhing of man like a spider before the Almighty in a profoundly moving way. In axiomatic mathematical propositions we find perhaps the least strong appeal: that the sum of the angles of a triangle is equal to two right angles might seem to be divorced from all excitement. But in most exposition when emotional appeal is overlooked the writing suffers. In an account of the American Civil War, for example, the writer might set out to show that the conflict was the culmination of the struggle between yeoman and cavalier begun long since in England. But the war meant more than that. The author will then see the emotional significance of the fight and will add to his purpose the intention to thrill the reader at the magnificent exhibition, on both sides, of devotion to an idea. So Emerson, in his essay on "Fate" in _The Conduct of Life_, fills the reader with gloom for page after page, detailing how thoroughly the individual is bound down by conditions of birth, sex, breeding, wealth--and then in two wonderful sentences he turns the whole course of thought and emotion by saying, "Intellect annuls fate. So far as a man thinks, he is free," and the reader is stirred as with a trumpet call to renewed courage, which, to use Emerson's words, "neither brandy, nor nectar, nor sulphuric ether, nor hell-fire, nor ichor, nor poetry, nor genius" can overcome. And the historian Greene, in his well-known account of Queen Elizabeth, states his controlling purpose in the words, "Elizabeth was at once the daughter of Henry and of Anne Boleyn." But these words are not the whole of his purpose; he intends, besides the intellectual grasping of the Queen's character, an intense admiration and wonder at the resourcefulness, the shrewd judgment, and a reaction of amusement to the strange outbreaks of unwomanly freaks or of feminine wiles. The controlling purpose, then, is almost always of a dual nature; it aims at both the understanding and the emotions. Whenever there is any real possibility of making it thus double the writer should so express it to himself. In the following magazine article such a double purpose obviously exists. First of all there are the facts of the marching of American troops through London. These facts are unchangeable. Baldly stated, the significance of the fact is that the New World is coming to the help of the Old World against the monster of unrestrained militarism. To a person who regards life coldly, as the mere interplay of calculable forces, one whose emotions are not concerned, this would be a sufficient statement of the whole truth, of the total significance. But such writing would miss the chance of power, would be forever less valuable than it ought to be, for a great warming of the heart answers those footfalls in London streets. In other words, just as we have seen that there are two kinds of exposition--mere noting of facts and interpreting of facts--so we now see that interpretation can be either lifeless, or moving, charged with power. It is the old difference between the drama and a sermon: the play thrills and the sermon convinces. Either may add the other quality--a fine drama or a well-made sermon does. In this account of American soldiers in London the truth is made clear, but far more than that it is made alive, pulsating with emotion of national pride, of racial solidarity, of high moral purpose. In so far as the writer succeeds in stirring us, in just so far he is more likely to make the truth take hold upon us and bind us firmly in its grasp. It is the writing that both convinces and moves us that is lasting, that is really powerful. "SOLEMN-LOOKING BLOKES"[5] [5] Stacy Aumonier, in _The Century Magazine_, December, 1917. By courtesy of the publisher, The Century Company, New York City. At midday on August 15 I stood on the pavement in Cockspur Street and watched the first contingent of American troops pass through London. I had been attracted thither by the lure of a public "show," by the blare of a band, and by a subconscious desire to pay tribute in my small way to a great people. It was a good day for London, intermittently bright, with great scurrying masses of cumuli overhead, and a characteristic threat of rain, which fortunately held off. Cockspur Street, as you know, is a turning off Trafalgar Square, and I chose it because the crowd was less dense there than in the square itself. By getting behind a group of shortish people and by standing on tiptoe I caught a fleeting view of the faces of nearly every one of the passing soldiers. London is schooled to shows of this kind. The people gather and wait patiently on the line of route. And then some genial policemen appear and mother the people back into some sort of line, an action performed with little fuss or trouble. Then mounted police appear, headed by some fat official in a cockade hat and with many ribbons on his chest. And some one in the crowd calls out: "Hullo, Percy! Mind you don't fall off yer 'orse!" Then the hearers laugh and begin to be on good terms with themselves, for they know that the "show" is coming. Then follows the inevitable band, and we begin to cheer. It is very easy and natural for a London crowd to cheer. I have heard Kaiser William II cheered in the streets of London! We always cheer our guests, and we love a band and a "show" almost as much as our republican friends across the channel. I have seen royal funerals and weddings, processions in honor of visiting presidents and kings, the return of victorious generals, processions of Canadian, Australian, Indian, French and Italian troops and bands. I wouldn't miss these things for worlds. They give color to our social life and accent to our everyday emotions. It is, moreover, peculiarly interesting to observe national traits on a march: the French, with their exuberant élan, throwing kisses to the women as they pass; our own Tommies, who have surprised the world with their gayety, and keep up a constant ragging intercourse with the crowd and cannot cease from singing; the Indians, who pass like a splendidly carved frieze; the Canadians, who move with a free and independent swing and grin in a friendly way; the Scotch, who carry it off better than any one. But I had never seen American troops, and I was anxious to see how they behaved. I said to myself, "The American is volatile and impressionable, like a child." I had met Americans who within an hour's acquaintance had told me their life-story, given me their views on religion, politics, and art, and invited me to go out to Iowa or Wisconsin or California, and spend the summer with them. Moreover, the American is above all things emotional and--may I say it?--sentimental. It would therefore be extremely interesting to see how he came through this ordeal. The first band passed, and the people were waving flags and handkerchiefs from the windows. We could hear the cheers go up from the great throng in the square. And there at last, sure enough, was Old Glory, with its silken tassels floating in the London breeze, carried by a solemn giant, with another on either side. And then they came, marching in fours, with their rifles at the slope, the vanguard of Uncle Sam's army. And we in Cockspur Street raised a mighty cheer. They were solemn, bronzed men, loose of limb, hard, and strong, with a curious set expression of purpose about them. _Tramp, tramp, tramp, tramp._ And they looked neither to the right nor the left; nor did they look up or smile or apparently take any notice of the cheers we raised. We strained forward to see their faces, and we cried out to them our welcome. _Tramp, tramp, tramp, tramp._ They were not all tall; some were short and wiry. Some of the officers were rather elderly and wore horn spectacles. But they did not look at us or raise a smile of response. They held themselves very erect, but their eyes were cast down or fixed upon the back of the man in front of them. There came an interval, and another band, and then Old Glory once more, and we cheered the flag even more than the men. Fully a thousand men passed in this solemn procession, not one of them smiling or looking up. It became almost disconcerting. It was a thing we were not used to. A fellow-cockney near me murmured: "They're solemn-looking blokes, ain't they?" _Tramp, tramp, tramp, tramp._ The band blared forth once more, a drum-and-fife corps with a vibrant thrill behind it. We strained forward more eagerly to see the faces of our friends from the New World. We loved it best when the sound of the band had died away and the only music was the steady throb of those friendly boots upon our London streets. And still they did not smile. I had a brief moment of some vague apprehension, as though something could not be quite right. Some such wave, I think, was passing through the crowd. What did it mean? _Tramp, tramp, tramp, tramp._ The cheers died away for a few moments in an exhausted diminuendo. Among those people, racked by three years of strain and suffering, there probably was not one who had not lost some one dear to them. Even the best nerves have their limit of endurance. Suddenly the ready voice of a woman from the pavement called out: "God bless you, Sammy!" And then we cheered again in a different key, and I noticed a boy in the ranks throw back his head and look up. On his face was the expression we see only on the faces of those who know the finer sensibilities--a fierce, exultant joy that is very near akin to tears. And gradually I became aware that on the faces of these grim men was written an emotion almost too deep for expression. As they passed it was easy to detect their ethnological heritage. There was the Anglo-Saxon type, perhaps predominant; the Celt; the Slav; the Latin; and in many cases definitely the Teuton: and yet there was not one of them that had not something else, who was not preëminently a good "United States man." It was as though upon the anvil of the New World all the troubles of the Old, after being passed through a white-hot furnace, had been forged into something clear and splendid. And they were hurrying on to get this accomplished. For once and all the matter must be settled. _Tramp, tramp, tramp, tramp._ There was a slight congestion, and the body of men near me halted and marked time. A diminutive officer with a pointed beard was walking alone. A woman in the crowd leaned forward and waved an American flag in his face. He saluted, made some kindly remark, and then passed on. _Tramp, tramp, tramp, tramp._ The world must be made safe for democracy. And I thought inevitably of the story of the Titan myth, of Prometheus, the first real democrat, who held out against the gods because they despised humanity. And they nailed him to a rock, and cut off his eyelids, and a vulture fed upon his entrails. But Prometheus held on, his line of reasoning being: "After Uranus came Cronus. After Cronus came Zeus. After Zeus will come other gods." It is the finest epic in human life, and all the great teachers and reformers who came after told the same story--Christ, Vishnu, Confucius, Mohammed, Luther, Shakespeare. The fundamental basis of their teaching was love and faith in humanity. And whenever humanity is threatened, the fires which Prometheus stole from the gods will burn more brightly in the heart of man, and they will come from all quarters of the world. He is trampling out the vintage where the grapes of wrath are stored; He hath loosed the fateful lightning of his terrible, swift sword. There is no quarter, no mercy, to the enemies of humanity. There is no longer a war; it is a crusade. And as I stood on the flags of Cockspur Street, I think I understood the silence of those grim men. They seemed to epitomize not merely a nation, not merely a flag, but the unbreakable sanctity of human rights and human life. And I knew that whatever might happen, whatever the powers of darkness might devise, whatever cunning schemes or diabolical plans, or whatever temporary successes they might attain, they would ultimately go down into the dust before "the fateful lightning." "After Zeus will come other gods." _Tramp, tramp, tramp, tramp._ Nothing could live and endure against that steady and irresistible progression. And we know how you can do things, America. We have seen your workshops, your factories, and your engines of peace. And we have seen those young men of yours at the Olympic Games, with their loose, supple limbs, their square, strong faces. When the Spartans, lightly clad, but girt for war, ran across the hills to Athens and, finding the Persian hosts defeated, laughed, and congratulated the Athenians, and ran back again--since those days there never were such runners, such athletes, as these boys of yours from Yale and Harvard, Princeton and Cornell. And so on that day, if we cheered the flag more than we cheered the men, it was because the flag was the symbol of the men's hearts, which were too charged with the fires of Prometheus to trust themselves expression. At least that is how it appeared to me on that forenoon in Cockspur Street, and I know that later in the day, when I met a casual friend, and he addressed me with the usual formula of the day: "Any news?" I was able to say: "Yes, the best news in the world." And when he replied: "What news?" I could say with all sincerity: "I have seen a portent. The world is safe for democracy." Proper Use of the Controlling Purpose Despite whatever of good has been said here about the controlling purpose, there may lurk the suspicion that it is, after all, dangerous, that perhaps it gives to a piece of writing a tendency toward bias, partial interpretation, even unfairness, and that it makes toward incompleteness. In the first place, in answering this charge, we must remember that facts _as related to people_ are eternally subject to different interpretations according to shifting significance, which is determined largely by the individual to whom the facts are related. In the second place we have to remind ourselves that seldom does a writer try to say all that can be said about his subject. Much is always either implied or left to another piece of writing. And finally, even when an author attempts perfect completeness and objectivity, he usually addresses his work to some one in particular, even though the "some one" is as vague as the general reading public; and that some one has a particular attitude that must be borne in mind. In "Solemn-Looking Blokes" not everything about the subject is said. From one point of view the tramp of American feet in London streets signified that the United States had emerged from its traditional aloofness and had joined the main current of the world; from another, that a tremendous military preparation was going on in America, the first fruits of which were those solemn ringing steps; from another, that however Europe had professed to despise American power, she was now willing, eager, to accept American aid; from another, that the old enmity between England and America has been forgotten in the common bond of like ideals and racial traditions. Each of these possible meanings--and there are more not listed here--is implied in the treatment actually given to the subject. No one of them is really developed. Instead, we have flowering before us the idea that the world is to be made safe for democracy. No one would presume to declare that the total possibilities of the subject are here met and explained; yet no one can rightly say that the chosen treatment is unfair. Considering the facts, the author, and the people who would read the article, and their emotional connection with the facts, we see that the author chose the purpose that seemed most useful--to make American hearts warm to the fact that their country was helping to make the world safer for all men everywhere. In other words, facts are useful only in so far as they accomplish some definite end, which, in writing, is to make the reader see the truth as the author thinks that he should try to make the reader see it. Now, of course, if the writer makes an unfair analysis, if he blindly or willfully falsifies in seeing or expressing his subject, his writing is not only useless but actually vicious. The analysis must be correct. Every subject has its center of truth, which can be discovered by patient clear thinking; if the thinking be either unclear or impatient, the interpretation will be false. If the author of "Solemn-Looking Blokes" has made an incorrect estimate, his writing is futile. There is no more challenging quest than the search for the real truth at the core of a chosen subject. Perhaps the very difficulty of attaining success is what has stayed many minds in floundering, timid, fogginess. As to the charge that infusion of emotional quality into the writing produces bias, first of all it must be said that if the subject contains no emotion, none should be attempted in the writing. In a report, for example, of the relative value of different woods for shingles, an author will hardly try to infuse emotion, for the reader wishes to learn, quickly and easily, just what kind of wood is the best. But most subjects are not thus aloof; even the report about shingles becomes of vast significance to the owner of extensive timber lands which are suddenly found to be of high value. All subjects which concern the prosperity and happiness of humanity are charged with emotion; the nearer to the great facts of life, such as birth, marriage, death, food, shelter, love, hatred, the keener the emotion. Who shall write of problems of heredity and leave us unstirred? Who shall treat of our vast irrigation projects, which turn the deserts into fair gardens and give food to millions of people, without firing the imagination? The writer's task is to look so clearly at his subject that he discovers its true value to both brain and heart. As a matter of fact, in writing of such subjects a writer finds that words _will be_ emotional, whether he will have them so or not, that they take sides, are charged with tendency and fly toward or away from an emotional quality with all the power of electricity. Now, this emotional quality, when it is uncontrolled, is dangerous. Words that show tendency must be guided with the firm hand lest they lead the reader into wrong impressions and into the confusion that comes from counter emotions, the strong impression of disunion. It is only by relating these cross-tendencies to a guiding idea that they can be made to serve the author's purpose. To choose wisely a controlling purpose that recognizes and handles the inherent emotions of words is merely to organize inescapable material. In the following selection from Emerson's "Fate" we find the emotional quality both high and well-organized. Such a paragraph might easily be made to confuse a reader hopelessly, but Emerson drives the chargers of his thought straight to his goal, intellectual and emotional, and holds tight his reins: Nature is no sentimentalist,--does not cosset or pamper us. We must see that the world is rough and surly, and will not mind drowning a man or a woman, but swallows your ship like a grain of dust. The cold, inconsiderate of persons, tingles your blood, benumbs your feet, freezes a man like an apple. The diseases, the elements, fortune, gravity, lightning, respect no persons. The way of Providence is a little rude. The habit of snake and spider, the snap of the tiger and other leapers and bloody jumpers, the crackle of the bones of his prey in the coil of the anaconda,--these are in the system, and our habits are like theirs. You have just dined, and however the slaughter-house is concealed in the graceful distance of miles, there is complicity, expensive races--race living at the expense of race. The planet is liable to shocks from comets, perturbations from planets, rendings from earthquake and volcano, alterations of climate, precessions of equinoxes. Rivers dry up by opening of the forest. The sea changes its bed. Towns and counties fall into it. At Lisbon an earthquake killed men like flies. At Naples three years ago ten thousand persons were crushed in a few minutes. The scurvy at sea, the sword of the climate in the west of Africa, at Cayenne, at Panama, at New Orleans, cut off men like a massacre. Our western prairies shake with fever and ague. The cholera, the small-pox, have proved as mortal to some tribes as a frost to crickets, which, having filled the summer with noise, are silenced by the fall of the temperature of one night. Without uncovering what does not concern us, or counting how many species of parasites hang on a bombyx, or groping after intestinal parasites or infusory biters, or the obscurities of alternate generation,--the forms of the shark, the _labrus_, the jaw of the sea-wolf paved with crushing teeth, the weapons of the grampus, and other warriors hidden in the sea, are hints of ferocity in the interior of nature. Let us not deny it up and down. Providence has a wild, rough, incalculable road to its end, and it is of no use to try to whitewash its huge, mixed instrumentalities, or to dress up that terrific benefactor in a clean shirt and white neck-cloth of a student in divinity.[6] [6] Ralph Waldo Emerson: "Fate," _The Conduct of Life_. Houghton Mifflin Company, publishers, Boston. Now this controlling purpose, including both the appeal to the understanding and that to the emotions, should be stated, clearly, before the author begins his actual writing, in one sentence. The value of this is at once apparent: our minds tend all too much to wander from subject to subject, browsing here and there, without any really directed feeding. Now such procedure, though difficult to avoid, is nevertheless harmful to our writing. The edge of the writing is never so keen, the telling of the message, whatever it may be, is never so well done, until we thoroughly organize and direct all that we are to say. In phrasing the controlling purpose in one sentence, we make just such an organization. And we have one which is most easily handled, most easily remembered, least likely to allow us to escape into empty wandering. Even in a long work this should be done, this unifying knot should be tied in the writer's mind. Those readers who rise from the last pages of a long historical work, covering several volumes and hundreds or thousands of pages, with a clear central conception of the whole work are profoundly grateful to the author. It is safe to say that such a conception could not have been given to the reader had not the writer, before he wrote a word, formulated in a few words the goal, the aim of his writing. This sentence should include the emotional appeal either as stated in a separate clause or phrase, or as expressed in the choice of words to present the facts. The amount of machinery that seems to be required for using the controlling purpose may appear too much for practical purposes in one short lifetime. The truth is that the actual finding of the purpose will require much less time, often, than the explanation of the process here has needed. In a short theme you will often be able to scan the subject itself, to estimate your own reaction to the subject, and to determine upon your reader with remarkable quickness. More frequently you will find difficulty in determining the emotional quality of the material and your desires. But a little practice will enable you to do the preliminary thinking with rapidity and comfort. But if your subject is difficult, and if the effect is of great importance, by no means allow yourself to be swerved from determination to find the real object which you are seeking, but even at the expense of time and trouble state the center of your intentions as related to the subject, yourself, and your reader. Practical Use of the Controlling Purpose We have yet to answer the practical question: when I sit down to write, of just what value will the controlling purpose be to me in the actual task of expressing my ideas? How can it really serve me in my writing? The answer is clear: the controlling purpose is of the utmost strategic value in helping to select and arrange material for attack upon the objective, which is the effect to be created in the reader's mind. Now the best strategy always combines the line of greatest advantage to the writer, the line of least resistance from the reader, and the necessities of the subject. In other words, what point can I attack easiest, where is my opponent weakest, what demands of the ground--gullies, hills, swamps, etc.--must I allow for? Sometimes these three are more or less mutually antagonistic; sometimes they unite with the greatest helpfulness, as we shall see. _Selection of Material_ The first question is, What, and how many, forces shall I choose for the attack? Remember, we do not now merely attack in general, wherever we find an enemy. Instead, we decide that our objective is, perhaps, a hill ten miles across the enemy's frontier. The taking of that hill is our controlling purpose. It would be easiest for us to use several regiments of fresh young troops. But the terrain is strewn with gullies and hillocks, with boulders and tangled timber. So we shall use two regiments of veteran troops who are accustomed to rough country, and follow these with some fresh youngsters who are endowed with sense and a desire to outdo the veterans. Since the enemy has a strong battery, we shall use heavy artillery. And since the enemy lacks machine guns, we shall use many of them and catch him where he is weak and may be terrified. We could easily send thirty camp kitchens to the fighting lines, but strategy demands that they be kept back. In exactly the same way Mr. Burroughs plans the essay which follows this discussion. His controlling purpose is obviously to make the reader understand the process of bee-hunting in such a way as to be attracted to it as a delightful sport. The nature of the subject demands that the several steps in the process be explained. Well, that suits Mr. Burroughs, because he knows these steps. The easiest method for him is to narrate his own experiences. Of course he could investigate the authorities on bee-hunting, and write a treatise, but that would be more difficult, and moreover, it would not meet the line of least resistance from the reader. To be successful, the essay must overcome the reader's inertia and make him feel that he is actually sharing in things that he enjoys. The selection is thus determined. From his personal experience, as giving the writer the greatest advantage, Mr. Burroughs chooses. He selects details about the beauty of nature because a reader would prefer to have fine surroundings. He mentions traits of the bee that are interesting or necessary to know. He narrates two special experiences of his own for added attractiveness. And all the while, lest inertia raise its head, he lures the reader with the glimpses of pails full of rich golden honey. In other words, keeping his eye for his controlling purpose, Mr. Burroughs can easily select the things that will accomplish that purpose to his own greatest advantage, the reader's greatest ease, and according to the demands of the subject. You do not find in the essay a discussion of the lucrative value of bees, nor of the complicated life of the hive, nor of the present standing of the science of bee-keeping. These topics, however interesting, are not useful to the controlling purpose. The standard is, not connection, but usefulness. "Any road," says Carlyle, "this simple Entepfuhl road, will lead you to the end of the world," and if you follow mere connection with your subjects, you will find yourself at the end of the world. The practical helpfulness of the controlling purpose is seen when you ask yourself the question, "Does the matter that I am putting in this paragraph, this sentence, actually advance my reader in thought or emotion or both, nearer the point to which I wish to lead him?" Thus the question of selection is answered. _The Ordering of the Material_ If we could have our own sweet will in attacking the hill ten miles beyond the border, we should ask the enemy to stack his arms, and then, with trumpet and drum and flag we should sweep in and take possession. But our sweet will must give way to necessity. Since unscalable crags lie ahead, we shall have to go round to the rear of the hill. Since we must cross a swamp, engineers must precede and build a road. Though we should like to crawl up a wide valley on the other side, we must choose a smaller one, because the enemy could wither us away in the larger one. And, to trick the enemy, we shall perhaps open fire far off on the left, while we are stealing out to the right, and thus we may take him off his guard. Our purpose of securing that hill makes these things necessary. Similarly, in writing, we may sometimes employ the order of greatest advantage, but more often we must modify this order to meet the requirements of the subject and to rouse the least resistance from the reader. In Stevenson's essay, "Pulvis et Umbra," part of which follows the essay by Mr. Burroughs, the author used the method of greatest advantage. His object is to thrill the reader at the thought that mankind constantly strives in spite of all his failures. Several orders are possible: he could treat of the striving alone, neglecting the failure; he could treat the striving first and then the failure, or vice versa, and so on. He saw that he would gain his purpose best if he treated failure first, until he had fairly overwhelmed the reader, and then suddenly shifted and showed that in spite of all this failure man still strives. He had to run the risk of offending the reader at the beginning by his insistence upon failure, and thus rousing the reader's possible great resistance. For we do not like to read unpleasant things. But he took the chance, knowing that if, by skillful use of words he could persuade the reader through the first part, he could easily thrill him with the reaction. For it makes a great difference whether we say, "In spite of striving, man always fails," or "In spite of failure, man always strives." The selection from the essay which appears here is taken from the middle. It is interesting to note that the first two sentences of the essay read: "We look for some reward of our endeavors and are disappointed; not success, not happiness, not even peace of conscience, crowns our ineffectual efforts to do well. Our frailties are invincible, our virtues barren; the battle goes sore against us to the going down of the sun." And the words of the final sentence of the essay are: "Let it be enough for faith, that the whole creation groans in mortal frailty, strives with unconquerable constancy: surely not all in vain." In the essay by Mr. Burroughs the author's advantage and the reader's acquiescence largely coincide, so that the author can at once begin with remarks about the attractiveness of the hunt, the delights of its successful conclusion. To discuss at once the possibility of being stung would have been unwise, because unpleasant, and the controlling purpose of the essay is to attract. Later, this topic can safely be tucked in. Mr. Wilson's war messages showed a combination of the lines of greatest advantage and of least resistance with the nature of the historical events. These messages began with a series of facts which, obviously true, would rouse no resistance and would at the same time insert some resentment against Germany, the very thing that the author wished to do. Then they followed the strict chronological order, as if the author were pursuing a course already mapped for him--which, of course, he was not doing. With the controlling purpose of showing that America's entrance into the war was occasioned entirely by Germany's actions, he then proceeded to base the proposals of the messages upon the very facts that the readers had already accepted in accordance with his ultimate point of view. Such skillful manipulation deserved the success that the messages met. All three of these examples gain their point, their objective. They do this largely because the authors knew exactly what they wished to do, what their controlling purposes were, and then marshaled their material so as to accomplish this end. Some of the topics that are subordinated, such, for example, as the possibility of being stung, are as important as others which are magnified, such as the beauty of nature--that is, they are as important in an impersonal way. As soon as the controlling purpose is known, however, they immediately become dangerous unless so placed as to bring the reader nearer the goal and not to push him from it. The point is that knowing the controlling purpose, that is, having thought out beforehand exactly what you wish to do with subject and reader, you are at once aware of both helps and obstacles, and can make use of the one, avoid the other. Thus you will consider both the reader's ease and his prejudices. If you are to write of abstruse matters, of some question in philosophy or ethics or religion, in order to carry your reader with you you will begin with things that he can understand, and thus pave a highway into the misty lands where you desire to take him. Failure of some eminent philosophers to receive recognition has been due to their lack of a comprehensive controlling purpose, to their restricting attention to the subject alone regardless of the reader. In setting forth the principle of the machinery that digs tunnels under rivers Mr. Brooks in _The Web-foot Engineer_ first shows how a boy digs a tunnel into a sand bank, and then proceeds, with the reader's understanding assured, to the more complex but still similar operation under the river. In explaining inductive reasoning, with the controlling purpose of making it seem both frequent and natural, Huxley showed first how we reason practically about the nature of apples in a basket at the grocer's. The reader's resistance is thus avoided and the writer's advantage is increased. A shrewd controlling purpose also makes allowance for the reader's prejudices. You ought to take as much care to cajole your reader into following you as the cook does to make us happy to the final morsel. After ices and cakes and coffee a roast or a soup is positively offensive; the cook wisely wins the battle of the spit and the dripping pan while the epicure is still receptive. So, if you are to explain democracy in a state where the recall of judges is practiced to an aristocrat who distrusts the "common herd" and is easily ruffled, you will do well to preface discussion of this recall with words about the general excellence of life in the state and then, when your reader is in a mood of acceptance, pass to the possibly offensive topic. Without knowing just what you wish to accomplish, you are likely to write in what may seem a dogged, defiant mood that intends to strike right and left, hoping to wallow through to victory. If between us and the enemy's fort is a stream which needs pontoons for crossing, and we blindly start out marching up toward victory with no pontoons, we shall perhaps sail away to sea, but shall also probably not win the fort. If we insist upon keeping our platoon as rigidly straight, even while we climb hills through the woods, as ever a line was kept at West Point, we shall come to grief. So, if the logic of the subject has imperious demands, the controlling purpose must make count of them. William James in his essay, "The Moral Equivalent of War," saw that before a reader could understand how civic work could be a moral equivalent, he must see what the morality of war is. The subject demands this. In an account of the United States Government it might be logically necessary to state and explain first the theory of checks and balances before the relations of executive, legislative, and judicial branches could be properly estimated. Wisely chosen, the controlling purpose of such an account would make this fact at once evident. Constantly keeping in mind, in planning and composing an article, what the objective is, makes even the individual paragraphs and sentences more successful. If you will examine the paragraphs in "Pulvis et Umbra," you will observe, pretty uniformly, at the beginning and end of each, a strong statement of the message of the paragraph, sentences of high emotional value. Each paragraph definitely advances the cause of the controlling purpose. Even the sentences--an example of a sentence uncontrolled occurs in Mr. Hamlin Garland's book, _A Son of the Middle Border_: "It stood on the bank of a wide river and had all the value of a seaport to me, for in summer-time great hoarsely bellowing steam-boats came and went from its quay, and all about it rose high wooded hills." The final item about the hills is in no way necessary, does not even help to give the feeling of a seaport, which more often than not lacks high hills. A sentence from Stevenson is in contrast: "The sun upon my shoulders warmed me to the heart, and I stooped forward and plunged into the sea." In this sentence facts, rhythm, even the sound of the words drive in one direction. Without being too dogmatic--for every problem in writing is new and not infrequently a law to itself--you may be sure that if you have a definite controlling purpose, and know well what it is, you will be more likely to attain success with subject and with reader when you come to the ordering of your material. Finally, since strategy suggests that we attack the weakest places in the enemy's defense, we shall do well, unless the logic of the subject or the reader's prejudice demand otherwise, to make our strongest blows when the enemy, the reader, is least prepared, that is, at the beginning and the end. Success in writing depends so much upon the freshness of the reader's mind, that an _attaque brusque_ at first to insert important things, and a strong reinforcement at the end, when the reader is pricking up his ears at the coming final period, form a wise strategy. If, in order to understand one point, another is necessary, or to avoid irritation, a roundabout method is advisable, the path is plain. When these accidents do not obtain, the reader's understanding will be most easily won at the beginning and the end. At these points you must see to it that the reader is guided, with the first word, toward the emotional tone that your controlling purpose demands, and toward some important idea that bolsters this purpose, even if, as we have seen Stevenson do, you seem to be at first flying away from the purpose which we later discover. Thus Mr. Taft, in an article entitled "Present Relations of the Learned Professions to Political Government," places the ministry at the beginning and the law at the end. His controlling purpose is to make the reader believe that every profession offers large chance for the conscientious man to be of use to the political government. Consequently he chooses the two that he thinks most important, and of these places the less important at the beginning and the more important at the end. In this way he succeeds at once in turning the reader as he wishes, and leaves him also with the strongest possible bias toward belief. And since these two professions offer the greatest chance for victory for his controlling purpose, he gives them much more space than to the others, almost three times as much to law, for instance, as to teaching. Moreover, since the emotions are affected in much writing, the skilled strategist will instantly bear in mind just what emotion he wishes to rouse, and will see that the ideas of greater moving value receive larger development. Mr. Burroughs gives much more space to the sections that deal with the excitement and the joy of bee-hunting than to those that deal with the less pleasant side. To the difficulty of detecting the flight of a bee he gives the single sentence: "Sometimes one's head will swim following it, and often one's eyes are put out by the sun." To the interesting actions of the bee when it is caught he gives at least ten times as much space. In this way he guides the reader's emotions in the way he wishes them to go--and makes successful writing. The chief strategic problem in exposition, then, is that of so choosing and arranging the material that the point of the writing is made with the proper emphasis. For the accomplishment of this purpose the writer must be able to answer the question, "_What do I wish to do in this piece of writing?_" Then he must bring all the material and its expression to bear upon the reader's mind so that the desired end may be inevitable. To determine what his purpose is the writer must consult the subject itself, his own personality, and the reader. He must also bear in mind the reader's intellect and his emotions. And he must unify the approach to both intellect and emotions. The firmly held conception of what his purpose is will determine what material he is to choose--what is useful and what is not--and also how to arrange this material and how to proportion the space that different sections shall have. He will arrange the material for the greatest advantage to himself and the least resistance from the reader. In other words, to make his writing successful in the sense of accomplishing its end, the writer must, before he sets down a single word, decide upon what his controlling purpose is to be and just how he intends to make material and expression--even in the individual sentence--unite to drive in the one direction of that controlling purpose. AN IDYL OF THE HONEY-BEE[7] _John Burroughs_ [7] John Burroughs: _Pepacton_. Houghton Mifflin Company, publishers, Boston. One looks upon the woods with a new interest when he suspects they hold a colony of bees. What a pleasing secret it is; a tree with a heart of comb-honey, a decayed oak or maple with a bit of Sicily or Mount Hymettus stowed away in its trunk or branches; secret chambers where lies hidden the wealth of ten thousand little free-booters, great nuggets and wedges of precious ore gathered with risk and labor from every field and wood about. But if you would know the delights of bee-hunting, and how many sweets such a trip yields beside honey, come with me some bright, warm, late September or early October day. It is the golden season of the year, and any errand or pursuit that takes us abroad upon the hills or by the painted woods and along the amber colored streams at such a time is enough. So, with haversacks filled with grapes and peaches and apples and a bottle of milk,--for we shall not be home to dinner,--and armed with a compass, a hatchet, a pail, and a box with a piece of comb-honey neatly fitted into it--any box the size of your hand with a lid will do nearly as well as the elaborate and ingenious contrivance of the regular bee-hunter--we sally forth. Our course at first lies along the highway, under great chestnut-trees whose nuts are just dropping, then through an orchard and across a little creek, thence gently rising through a long series of cultivated fields toward some high, uplying land, behind which rises a rugged wooded ridge or mountain, the most sightly point in all this section. Behind this ridge for several miles the country is wild, wooded, and rocky, and is no doubt the home of many wild swarms of bees. After a refreshing walk of a couple of miles we reach a point where we will make our first trial--a high stone wall that runs parallel with the wooded ridge referred to, and separated from it by a broad field. There are bees at work there on that goldenrod, and it requires but little manoeuvring to sweep one into our box. Almost any other creature rudely and suddenly arrested in its career and clapped into a cage in this way would show great confusion and alarm. The bee is alarmed for a moment, but the bee has a passion stronger than its love of life or fear of death, namely, desire for honey, not simply to eat, but to carry home as booty. "Such rage of honey in their bosom beats," says Virgil. It is quick to catch the scent of honey in the box, and as quick to fall to filling itself. We now set the box down upon the wall and gently remove the cover. The bee is head and shoulders in one of the half-filled cells, and is oblivious to everything else about it. Come rack, come ruin, it will die at work. We step back a few paces, and sit down upon the ground so as to bring the box against the blue sky as a background. In two or three minutes the bee is seen rising slowly and heavily from the box. It seems loath to leave so much honey behind and it marks the place well. It mounts aloft in a rapidly increasing spiral, surveying the near and minute objects first, then the larger and more distant, till having circled about the spot five or six times and taken all its bearings it darts away for home. It is a good eye that holds fast to the bee till it is fairly off. Sometimes one's head will swim following it, and often one's eyes are put out by the sun. This bee gradually drifts down the hill, then strikes away toward a farm-house half a mile away, where I know bees are kept. Then we try another and another, and the third bee, much to our satisfaction, goes straight toward the woods. We could see the brown speck against the darker background for many yards. A bee will usually make three or four trips from the hunter's box before it brings back a companion. I suspect the bee does not tell its fellows what it has found, but that they smell out the secret; it doubtless bears some evidence with it upon its feet or proboscis that it has been upon honey-comb and not upon flowers, and its companions take the hint and follow, arriving always many seconds behind. Then the quantity and quality of the booty would also betray it. No doubt, also, there are plenty of gossips about a hive that note and tell everything. "Oh, did you see that? Peggy Mel came in a few moments ago in great haste, and one of the up-stairs packers says she was loaded till she groaned with apple-blossom honey which she deposited, and then rushed off again like mad. Apple blossom honey in October! Fee, fi, fo, fum! I smell something! Let's after." In about half an hour we have three well-defined lines of bees established--two to farm-houses and one to the woods, and our box is being rapidly depleted of its honey. About every fourth bee goes to the woods, and now that they have learned the way thoroughly they do not make the long preliminary whirl above the box, but start directly from it. The woods are rough and dense and the hill steep, and we do not like to follow the line of bees until we have tried at least to settle the problem as to the distance they go into the woods--whether the tree is on this side of the ridge or in the depth of the forest on the other side. So we shut up the box when it is full of bees and carry it about three hundred yards along the wall from which we are operating. When liberated, the bees, as they always will in such cases, go off in the same directions they have been going; they do not seem to know that they have been moved. But other bees have followed our scent, and it is not many minutes before a second line to the woods is established. This is called cross-lining the bees. The new line makes a sharp angle with the other line, and we know at once that the tree is only a few rods into the woods. The two lines we have established form two sides of a triangle of which the wall is the base; at the apex of the triangle, or where the two lines meet in the woods, we are sure to find the trees. We quickly follow up these lines, and where they cross each other on the side of the hill we scan every tree closely. I pause at the foot of an oak and examine a hole near the root; now the bees are in this tree and their entrance is on the upper side near the ground, not two feet from the hole I peer into, and yet so quiet and secret is their going and coming that I fail to discover them and pass on up the hill. Failing in this direction, I return to the oak again, and then perceive the bees going out in a small crack in the tree. The bees do not know they are found out and that the game is in our hands, and are as oblivious of our presence as if we were ants or crickets. The indications are that the swarm is a small one, and the store of honey trifling. In "taking up" a bee-tree it is usual first to kill or stupefy the bees with the fumes of burning sulphur or with tobacco smoke. But this course is impracticable on the present occasion, so we boldly and ruthlessly assault the tree with an axe we have procured. At the first blow the bees set up a loud buzzing, but we have no mercy, and the side of the cavity is soon cut away and the interior with its white-yellow mass of comb-honey is exposed, and not a bee strikes a blow in defense of its all. This may seem singular, but it has nearly always been my experience. When a swarm of bees are thus rudely assaulted with an axe, they evidently think the end of the world has come, and, like true misers as they are, each one seizes as much of the treasure as it can hold; in other words, they all fall to and gorge themselves with honey, and calmly await the issue. When in this condition they make no defense and will not sting unless taken hold of. In fact they are as harmless as flies. Bees are always to be managed with boldness and decision. Any halfway measures, any timid poking about, any feeble attempts to reach their honey, are sure to be quickly resented. The popular notion that bees have a special antipathy toward certain persons and a liking for certain others has only this fact at the bottom of it; they will sting a person who is afraid of them and goes skulking and dodging about, and they will not sting a person who faces them boldly and has no dread of them. They are like dogs. The way to disarm a vicious dog is to show him you do not fear him; it is his turn to be afraid then. I never had any dread of bees and am seldom stung by them. I have climbed up into a large chestnut that contained a swarm in one of its cavities and chopped them out with an axe, being obliged at times to pause and brush the bewildered bees from my hands and face, and not been stung once. I have chopped a swarm out of an apple-tree in June and taken out the cards of honey and arranged them in a hive, and then dipped out the bees with a dipper, and taken the whole home with me in pretty good condition, with scarcely any opposition on the part of the bees. In reaching your hand into the cavity to detach and remove the comb you are pretty sure to get stung, for when you touch the "business end" of a bee, it will sting even though its head be off. But the bee carries the antidote to its own poison. The best remedy for bee sting is honey, and when your hands are besmeared with honey, as they are sure to be on such occasions, the wound is scarcely more painful than the prick of a pin. When a bee-tree is thus "taken up" in the middle of the day, of course a good many bees are away from home and have not heard the news. When they return and find the ground flowing with honey, and piles of bleeding combs lying about, they apparently do not recognize the place, and their first instinct is to fall to and fill themselves; this done, their next thought is to carry it home, so they rise up slowly through the branches of the trees till they have attained an altitude that enables them to survey the scene, when they seem to say, "Why, _this_ is home" and down they come again; beholding the wreck and ruins once more they still think there is some mistake, and get up a second or a third time and then drop back pitifully as before. It is the most pathetic sight of all, the surviving and bewildered bees struggling to save a few drops of their wasted treasures. Presently, if there is another swarm in the woods, robber-bees appear. You may know them by their saucy, chiding, devil-may-care hum. It is an ill-wind that blows nobody good, and they make the most of the misfortune of their neighbors; and thereby pave the way for their own ruin. The hunter marks their course and the next day looks them up. On this occasion the day was hot and the honey very fragrant, and a line of bees was soon established S.S.W. Though there was much refuse honey in the old stub, and though little golden rills trickled down the hill from it, and the near branches and saplings were besmeared with it where we wiped our murderous hands, yet not a drop was wasted. It was a feast to which not only honey-bees came, but bumble-bees, wasps, hornets, flies, ants. The bumble-bees, which at this season are hungry vagrants with no fixed place of abode, would gorge themselves, then creep beneath the bits of empty comb or fragment of bark and pass the night, and renew the feast next day. The bumble-bee is an insect of which the bee-hunter sees much. There are all sorts and sizes of them. They are dull and clumsy compared with the honey-bee. Attracted in the fields by the bee-hunter's box, they will come up the wind on the scent and blunder into it in the most stupid, lubberly fashion. The honey-bee that licked up our leavings on the old stub belonged to a swarm, as it proved, about half a mile farther down the ridge, and a few days afterward fate overtook them, and their stores in turn became the prey of another swarm in the vicinity, which also tempted Providence and were overwhelmed. The first mentioned swarm I had lined from several points, and was following up the clue over rocks and through gulleys, when I came to where a large hemlock had been felled a few years before and a swarm taken from a cavity near the top of it; fragments of the old comb were yet to be seen. A few yards away stood another short, squatty hemlock, and I said my bees ought to be there. As I paused near it I noticed where the tree had been wounded with an axe a couple of feet from the ground many years before. The wound had partially grown over, but there was an opening there that I did not see at the first glance. I was about to pass on when a bee passed me making that peculiar shrill, discordant hum that a bee makes when besmeared with honey. I saw it alight in the partially closed wound and crawl home; then came others and others, little bands and squads of them heavily freighted with honey from the box. The tree was about twenty inches through and hollow at the butt, or from the axe mark down. This space the bees had completely filled with honey. With an axe we cut away the outer ring of live wood and exposed the treasure. Despite the utmost care, we wounded the comb so that little rills of the golden liquid issued from the root of the tree and trickled down the hill. The other bee-tree in the vicinity, to which I have referred, we found one warm November day in less than half an hour after entering the woods. It also was a hemlock, that stood in a niche in a wall of hoary, moss-covered rocks thirty feet high. The tree hardly reached to the top of the precipice. The bees entered a small hole at the root, which was seven or eight feet from the ground. The position was a striking one. Never did apiary have a finer outlook or more rugged surroundings. A black, wood-embraced lake lay at our feet; the long panorama of the Catskills filled the far distance, and the more broken outlines of the Shawangunk range filled the near. On every hand were precipices and a wild confusion of rocks and trees. The cavity occupied by the bees was about three feet and a half long and eight or ten inches in diameter. With an axe we cut away one side of the tree and laid bare its curiously wrought heart of honey. It was a most pleasing sight. What winding and devious ways the bees had through their palace! What great masses and blocks of snow-white comb there were! Where it was sealed up, presenting that slightly dented, uneven surface, it looked like some precious ore. When we carried a large pail of it out of the woods, it seemed still more like ore. In lining bees through the woods, the tactics of the hunter are to pause every twenty or thirty rods, lop away the branches or cut down the trees, and set the bees to work again. If they still go forward, he goes forward also and repeats his observations till the tree is found or till the bees turn and come back upon the trail. Then he knows he has passed the tree, and he retraces his steps to a convenient distance and tries again, and thus quickly reduces the space to be looked over till the swarm is traced home. On one occasion, in a wild rocky wood, where the surface alternated between deep gulfs and chasms filled with thick, heavy growths of timber and sharp, precipitous, rocky ridges like a tempest-tossed sea, I carried my bees directly under their tree, and set them to work from a high, exposed ledge of rocks not thirty feet distant. One would have expected them under such circumstances to have gone straight home, as there were but few branches intervening, but they did not; they labored up through the trees and attained an altitude above the woods as if they had miles to travel, and thus baffled me for hours. Bees will always do this. They are acquainted with the woods only from the top side, and from the air above; they recognize home only by landmarks here, and in every instance they rise aloft to take their bearings. Think how familiar to them the topography of the forest summits must be--an umbrageous sea or plain where every mark and point is known. Another curious fact is that generally you will get track of a bee-tree sooner when you are half a mile from it than when you are only a few yards. Bees, like us human insects, have little faith in the near at hand; they expect to make their fortune in a distant field, they are lured by the remote and the difficult, and hence overlook the flower and the sweet at their very door. On several occasions I have unwittingly set my box within a few paces of a bee-tree and waited long for bees without getting them, when, on removing to a distant field or opening in the woods I have got a clue at once. Bees, like the milkman, like to be near a spring. They do water their honey, especially in a dry time. The liquid is then of course thicker and sweeter, and will bear diluting. Hence, old bee-hunters look for bee-trees along creeks and near spring runs in the woods. I once found a tree a long distance from any water, and the honey had a peculiar bitter flavor imparted to it, I was convinced, by rain water sucked from the decayed and spongy hemlock tree, in which the swarm was found. In cutting into the tree, the north side of it was found to be saturated with water like a spring, which ran out in big drops, and had a bitter flavor. The bees had thus found a spring or a cistern in their own house. Wild honey is as near like tame as wild bees are like their brothers in the hive. The only difference is that wild honey is flavored with your adventure, which makes it a little more delectable than the domestic article. PULVIS ET UMBRA[8] _Robert Louis Stevenson_ [8] R. L. Stevenson: _Across the Plains_. Copyright, 1892, by Charles Scribner's Sons, New York City. What a monstrous specter is this man, the disease of the agglutinated dust, lifting alternate feet or lying drugged with slumber; killing, feeding, growing, bringing forth small copies of himself; grown upon with hair like grass, fitted with eyes that move and glitter in his face; a thing to set children screaming;--and yet looked at nearlier, known as his fellows know him, how surprising are his attributes! Poor soul, here for so little, cast among so many hardships, filled with desires so incommensurate and so inconsistent, savagely surrounded, savagely descended, irremediably condemned to prey upon his fellow lives: who should have blamed him had he been of a piece with his destiny and a being merely barbarous? And we look and behold him instead filled with imperfect virtues, infinitely childish, often admirably valiant, often touchingly kind; sitting down, amidst his momentary life, to debate of right and wrong and the attributes of the deity; rising up to do battle for an egg or die for an idea; singling out his friends and his mate with cordial affection; bringing forth in pain, rearing with long-suffering solicitude, his young. To touch the heart of his mystery, we find in him one thought, strange to the point of lunacy: the thought of duty; the thought of something owing to himself, to his neighbor, to his God; an ideal of decency, to which he would rise if it were possible; a limit of shame, below which, if it be possible, he will not stoop. The design in most men is one of conformity; here and there, in picked natures, it transcends itself and soars on the other side, arming martyrs with independence; but in all, in their degrees, it is a bosom thought. It sways with so complete an empire that merely selfish things come second, even with the selfish: that appetites are starved, fears are conquered, pains supported; that almost the dullest shrinks from the reproof of a glance, although it were a child's; and all but the most cowardly stand amidst the risks of war; and the more noble, having strongly conceived an act as due to their ideal, affront and embrace death. Strange enough if, with their singular origin and perverted practice, they think they are to be rewarded in some future life: stranger still, if they are persuaded of the contrary, and think this blow, which they solicit, will strike them senseless for eternity. I shall be reminded what a tragedy of misconception and misconduct man at large presents: of organized injustice, cowardly violence, and treacherous crime; and of the damning imperfections of the best. They cannot be too darkly drawn. Man is indeed marked for failure in his efforts to do right. But where the best consistently miscarry, how tenfold more remarkable that all should continue to strive; and surely we should find it both touching and inspiriting, that in a field from which success is banished, our race should not cease to labor. If the first view of this creature, stalking in his rotatory isle, be a thing to shake the courage of the stoutest, on this nearer sight he startles us with an admiring wonder. It matters not where we look, under what climate we observe him, in what stage of society, in what depth of ignorance, burthened with what erroneous morality; by campfires in Assiniboia, the snow powdering his shoulders, the wind plucking his blanket, as he sits, passing the ceremonial calumet and uttering his grave opinions like a Roman senator; in ships at sea, a man inured to hardship and vile pleasures, his brightest hope a fiddle in a tavern and a bedizened trull who sells herself to rob him, and he for all that simple, innocent, cheerful, kindly like a child, constant to toil, brave to drown, for others; in the slums of cities, moving among indifferent millions to mechanical employments, without hope of change in the future, with scarce a pleasure in the present, and yet true to his virtues, honest up to his lights, kind to his neighbors, tempted perhaps in vain by the bright gin-palace, perhaps long-suffering with the drunken wife that ruins him; in India (a woman this time) kneeling with broken cries and streaming tears as she drowns her child in the sacred river; in the brothel, the discard of society, living mainly on strong drink, fed with affronts, a fool, a thief, the comrade of thieves, and even here keeping the point of honor and the touch of pity, often repaying the world's scorn with service, often standing firm upon a scruple, and at a certain cost, rejecting riches: everywhere some virtue cherished or affected, everywhere some decency of thought and carriage, everywhere the ensign of man's ineffectual goodness:--ah! if I could show you this! if I could show you these men and women, all the world over, in every stage of history, under every abuse of error, under every circumstance of failure, without hope, without help, without thanks, still obscurely fighting the lost fight of virtue, still clinging, in the brothel or on the scaffold, to some rag of honor, the poor jewel of their souls! OUTLINES The Value of Outlines It has been thought that the old Scotchman who said, "A man's years are three score and ten, or maybe by good hap he'll get ten more, but _it's a weary wrastle all the way through_!" came to his final words as the result of writing outlines. If this be true, surely it is unfortunate, for the writing of outlines brings exceeding great reward. An outline is not an ancient form of blind discipline, but rather a helping hand across the bogland of facts and ideas. It is a most useful instrument toward good writing; its justification is its practical usefulness. This usefulness, helpfulness, is double in its value--to the writer and to the instructor, when there is one. As to the value of an outline for the writer--without an outline you face in your writing a complicated problem, more complicated, in fact, than is justifiable. At one and the same time you must make your thinking logical and your expression adequate--distinguished if possible. Either of these tasks is sufficient to demand all your powers; together, they offer a really overwhelming problem. Stevenson, to whom style was of the greatest importance, as bone of the bone and blood of the blood of the writing, wrote to a friend, "Problems of style are (as yet) dirt under my feet; my problem is architectural, creative--to get this stuff joined and moving." It was only after he had fitted his material together that he felt able to devote himself to making the beautiful prose that is so much admired. A noted Frenchman is quoted as exclaiming, when first he beheld the famous Brooklyn Bridge, "How beautiful it is!", then, "How well made it is!" and finally, after a moment's reflection, "How well planned it is!" A good piece of writing should have the same comments made; but they cannot be made, usually, without the carefully planned outline. You face the problem, without an outline, of answering the two questions about every detail that presents itself for treatment: first, shall I include or exclude this detail; and secondly, how shall I make this detail help the general flow of my writing, and how shall I express it so that it shall contribute to the proper tone of the work? And while you thus judge each small detail, you must also keep your critical faculties active to estimate your total course, whether you are cleaving your way clearly, steadily, and with sufficient directness to your goal, whether the work as a whole is answering your desires. Now to ask the unaided brain, unless it has had long years of training, to perform all this critical work during the actual process of expression, is nothing short of cruel--and almost sure of failure. For in any writing which enlists from you even a spark of interest the fervor of creative work, the stimulating effect of seeing the work grow under your pen, tends often to unseat the critical powers, to destroy perspective, to make a detail seem more valuable or less valuable than it should, on the whim of the momentary interest or repulsion. Thus the logic of the writing is impaired, for details are included which should not enter, and others are excluded which ought to be welcomed, and proportions are bad. And the expression is so liable to unevenness as to be less worthy than it should be. Bad logic and uneven expression beget failure. The outline helps to overcome these difficulties. In the first place, it is not final, can be changed at will, and makes no extraordinary demands on the powers of expression. In the second place, as regards logic, the outline shows the relation of ideas to each other and to the whole subject; you can estimate rather easily whether a detail is of sufficient value to warrant inclusion, and, if so, how much space it deserves. For in the outline you have the bare fact, succinctly expressed, which enables you to focus your attention upon the thought. But since logic is more than mere inclusion and order and spacing, and deals also with the logic of attitude, the outline is again of service. For it shows what should be the tone of the complete piece of writing, and how this tone should be modified by the individual section of the writing. Suppose that you are to write of the attitude of a politician toward party principles. If a heading in your outline reads, "He never _feared_ to _modify_ principles to meet inevitable conditions," the attitude which you take in writing will be radically different from that which you would assume if the heading read, "He never _hesitated_ to _warp_ principles to outwit unfavorable conditions." Both the logic of structure and that of attitude, then, are aided by the use of an outline. And, at any point in the actual completed writing, you can easily determine by referring to the outline, whether you are gaining the effect that you desire and what progress you have made. And in the third place, as regards expression, the outline relieves you of the necessity of doing the constructive thinking of the subject, and enables you to apply all your powers to the actual saying of your message. Shakespeare might have written, instead of "the multitudinous seas incarnadine," "make all the ocean, that's full of fishes,[9] look red"--but he did not. Had he done so, where would now have been the power and the charm? Expression is of utmost value, and you can ill afford to slight it. For this reason, and especially since distinguished expression is so difficult to form, to be released from the attendant worry of constructive thinking is of the greatest help to the writer. Both logic and expression, then, are dependent on the outline: with it they are more sure. [9] If this be the meaning of "multitudinous." Instead, then, of feeling that dim dread of failure, which ever dogs the writer's steps, with a well-constructed outline you can feel comparative safety in the possession of a safe guide in case of perplexity. You will be initiated, will know the secrets of your subject, will have a "grip" with your facts and ideas, and can apply your powers to putting the intangible thoughts into tangible words. As for being of value to the instructor, often he too can estimate more surely and easily the worth of the writing if he has the skeleton to examine. For there the structural defects are more apparent, are not concealed by the pleasant flow of words, just as the structure of a skyscraper is more apparent before the wall-tiles or bricks are laid on to conceal the girders. The instructor can therefore often point out insufficiencies in the thought, or wrong relations, which might otherwise stand as defects in the finished work. The Form of the Outline Shall an outline be written in words and phrases or in complete sentences? In the first place, so far as any reader except the author is concerned, complete sentences are necessary for understanding. Often they are necessary for the writer himself. In an outline of a theme explaining gas engines the isolated heading _Speed_ means nothing definite to any one but the author, if indeed to him. A reader cannot tell from such a word whether speed is important or insignificant, or whether the author intends to give to gas engines credit for comparative excellence in this property. If, however, the heading reads, "In the important property of _Speed_ gas engines are the equal of steam engines," the reader knows at once what is meant, whether he may agree with the statement or not. He can definitely tell from an outline of complete sentences what the course of thought is to be and what will be the tone of the theme. The reader, then, needs complete sentences. The writer, on the other hand, might seem to be sufficiently helped by mere words or phrases, since he naturally knows what he means. But does he know? The chances are that when an author puts down such a heading as _Speed_ he has only a large general notion of what he means, without being sure of the immediate connection and application, and with perhaps no idea at all of the tone which he intends to catch. If the author will write the sentence quoted above, he will complete his thought, make it really definite, and be pretty sure to know what he is talking about, what he intends to do. Furthermore, even though he know, when he sets down a phrase, what he means by it, the chance is strong that when he arrives at the expansion of the phrase he will have forgotten some of the implications and may give the heading a cast that he did not intend. Whether he knows definitely what he means or not, the writer is more safe if he uses complete sentences, and for any other reader of the outline complete sentences are quite necessary. Outlines are of three kinds: those that show the topic relations by division into indented headings; those that show the sequence of paragraphs by statement of the topic sentence; and those that combine these two forms. The primary object of the first form, which is illustrated by the first outline of "An Idyl of the Honey-Bee" which follows, is to aid in the thinking, to plot out the ground and to group the material. In this first outline a glance at the five main headings makes the plan of the essay at once apparent--first a statement of the effect of bees upon us; then an account of a hunt; then some specific examples to drive things home; then some special directions that might be overlooked, and finally a tribute to the joy of the hunting. The benefit of this kind of outline is that the general relationships among topics are made clear, the large divisions of thought appear, and the writer can with comparative ease tell whether he has covered the subject, and whether he has chosen the best order of thought. It avoids the invertebrate flow of thought that is unaware of structure. In other words, it is of value chiefly to the thinking. It does not show which topics shall be grouped into paragraphs together, and it does not, of course, phrase the topic sentences, usually. In such an outline care should be taken to make each heading a complete sentence, and to make headings that are of the same rank fairly parallel in structure of expression unless this interferes with the tone of the heading. For example, A, B, and C under III are made similar in structure since they bear the same general relation to III. The second type of outline, that in which a list of the topic sentences is given, and which is illustrated by the second outline of "An Idyl of the Honey-Bee" which follows, is of value, especially if used with an outline of the first type, in that it shows just how much of the thought should go into the various paragraphs, and thereby establishes the divisions of expression. Comparison of the two outlines of "An Idyl of the Honey-Bee" will show that paragraph 5 in the second outline includes all the material in the four headings, 2, a, 1´, and b, under II in the first outline. Now for the writer to know beforehand how he intends to divide his material into paragraphs is of great value; otherwise he might be giving to some comparatively minor point--which for the moment assumes interest for him--a separate paragraph, as if, for example, Mr. Burroughs had dwelt at length on the interesting location of trees on ledges. In other words, this second kind of outline is valuable chiefly in its arrangement and placing of material. Its service in making the original choice is not so immediately apparent. It has also the advantage that it indicates pretty well what kind of expression is to be used in the expanded form. The third type of outline, which many writers prefer to either of the others, indicates both the topics to be treated and the division into paragraphs. It may be constructed in either of two ways: first, the topic sentences may be stated in their regular order, with the subdivisions of the thought as they appear in the indented outline grouped under the topic sentences; or in the indented outline the paragraphs may be indicated by the regular sign for the paragraph at any point where a new division is to be made. That is, in the first of the two outlines that follow, the first paragraph might be indicated in the first outline as including I and I, A; the second as including II and II, A; the third as including II, B, 1, a, b, etc. Or, in the second outline the subheadings of the first might be indicated under the various topic sentences. The value of this type of outline is obviously that it both shows the logic of the thought and the divisional arrangement for presentation in paragraphs. With such an outline the chances that you could go wrong, in even a long theme on a difficult subject, are slight. Do not fail, therefore, when your theme is to be of any considerable length, or when the subject is at all difficult, to make an outline. There is no greater pleasure in the world than that of creative effort when the creator knows what he is about. But when the ideas are hazy, when the writer does not know exactly what he wishes to do and what impression he wishes to make--then the process of creation is anything but pleasant. And since the outline presents a pattern of your work, since with it you cannot fail to see what your intentions are and what the requirements of your subject, regard it as your best writing friend--and make use of the rights of friendship and require service. FIRST OUTLINE OF "AN IDYL OF THE HONEY-BEE" I. A colony of bees increases our interest in a wood. A. The secret of the hidden golden store of honey is pleasing. II. The hunt is most interesting, especially in the autumn. A. Nature, as we tramp with luncheon and with bait, is in her greatest glory. B. We are stimulated by the odds against our finding the tree. 1. Determining the direction of the tree is a problem. a. It is easy to catch the first bee and watch it devour the bait. b. But to be sure of its rapid flight home requires sharp eyes and concentrated watching. c. Only after three or four trips of the first bee do others discover the secret of our bait and join in establishing the necessary "line" to the tree. 2. Determining the distance of the tree requires skill. a. From another point we make a new "line" that meets the first at the tree. 1´. This is called "cross-lining." b. It is easy to pass by the tree even when we know about where it is. C. Once found, the tree must be attacked boldly. 1. Bees do not sting a bold person. 2. But when a sting is touched, even on a dead bee, it hurts. 3. Honey is the best cure for the sting. D. The actions of the bees are interesting. 1. Those which are away from home do not recognize the ruins of their own hive, and begin to eat. a. At last they pathetically understand. 2. Robber bees come for plunder. a. Bumble-bees arrive in large numbers. 1´. Compared with honey-bees they are clumsy. III. Two examples from experience show the chances for missing and the delights of triumph. A. Both trees were hemlocks. B. Both were in interesting situations. C. Both yielded good store of honey. IV. Special facts, occasioned by the habits of bees, need to be remembered. A. In the woods, the hunter must stop, every little while, to test his "line." 1. Sometimes he is baffled, because the bees do not know the woods from the ground side. B. Bees hunt for honey far from home. 1. Usually it is easier to find a tree half a mile away than from only a few yards. C. Since bees like water, a careful hunter looks along creeks and near springs. V. Wild honey is better than tame because it tastes of the adventure of finding it. SECOND OUTLINE OF "AN IDYL OF THE HONEY-BEE" 1. The presence of a colony of bees in a wood gives it interest. 2. The fall is the best time to start with luncheon and bait off across the fields a-hunting. 3. After two miles we catch several bees and watch them start for home with our honey. 4. After several trips, other bees that have discovered the secret arrive. 5. With one line established, we move on, establish another, find the tree and attack it. 6. Boldness in handling bees is essential. 7. Bees that are away from home when their tree is attacked have considerable difficulty in recognizing it. 8. Robber bees join the plundered to eat all the remnants of honey. 9. A neighbor honey-bee leads to another store in a hemlock. 10. Another tree in the vicinity, also a hemlock, had a superb situation. 11. The honey in this tree was most pleasing to see and to carry home. 12. In lining bees one must stop every little while and test his line; bees puzzle sometimes by their actions since they know the woods only from above. 13. Bees discover their home to the hunter better when they are caught at some distance from the tree. 14. Since bees like water, it is well to hunt along brooks and near springs. 15. Wild honey is sweeter than tame. EXERCISES I. Select the words and phrases in the selection from _Pulvis et Umbra_ which immediately help to accomplish the controlling purpose of the essay. II. From what grade in the intellectual and social world does Stevenson select his examples in the paragraph beginning: _If the first view of this creature_, etc.? Why? From what grade would you select examples for a similar paragraph if you intended the creation of despair as your controlling purpose? What common qualities are found in _all_ Stevenson's examples through the selection? Why does he strive for this quality? III. Make an outline of "An Idyl of the Honey-Bee," using the material which now appears, but placing the accent of the essay upon the difficulty of obtaining the honey, instead of upon the pleasures of the hunt, as it is now placed--in other words, outline the essay with change of controlling purpose. IV. Write the first paragraph of the essay, and the last one, as you would wish them to appear if your intention were to make difficulty rather than joy the controlling purpose. V. 1. Make an outline for "Solemn-Looking Blokes" with the controlling purpose of bringing out the romantic nature of the presence of American troops in England. 2. Make an outline such as would suit the expression of an American who had been living in England since the declaration of war in 1914 and had been taunted with the apathy of the United States government, and now was supremely proud to see United States troops in England. VI. Write a final paragraph of "Solemn-Looking Blokes" to express any of the following controlling purposes: 1. Joy at the union of the old and the new worlds in a common cause. 2. Heartache at the awfulness of soldiers' sailing 3000 miles to die because an autocratic government precipitated war. 3. The pride of an American resident in London over the physique of the United States soldiers. 4. The astonishment of a London school-boy who has just read in his history how the American colonies rebelled. 5. The apprehension of a British Tory lest aristocracy be doomed when the troops of a great democracy appear so far away from home to battle against autocracy. VII. Write outlines and themes on any of the following subjects to accomplish the different controlling purposes: 1. The Scientific Reduction of Noise. 1. To show the _social duty_ of engineers. 2. To show the wonder of man's analytical powers. 3. To show the seriousness of the difficulties that must be faced. 2. The Growing Appreciation of Good Architecture in America. 1. To show the good educative work of our architects. 2. To show the influence of European travel. 3. To show the effect of the general rise in standards of education. 3. The Popular Magazines. 1. To show the general looseness of thinking. 2. To show the senseless duplication of material and ideas. 3. To show the opportunity for a host of authors. 4. The Effects of the Big Mail-Order Houses. 1. To show how they ruin the small country store. 2. To show how they increase the opportunities of the small buyers. 3. To show how they help give employment in the large cities. 5. Is Religion Declining? 1. To show the shifting of responsibility from creeds to deeds. 2. To show the changed status of the church. 3. To show the effect of increased education on religion. 6. "Best Sellers." 1. To show the relation of their immediate popularity to their final valuation. 2. To indicate the qualities necessary to a "best seller." 3. To show the effect upon the thinking of a nation that has many "best sellers." 7. Results of the Farm Credit Legislation. 1. To show the relief gained for the farmers. 2. To show the effect on increased production. 3. To show the fairer economic distribution. 8. The Use of Concrete. 1. To show the general economic value. 2. To show the general lightening of toil that it may have caused. 3. To show the variety of its service. 9. The American Spirit. 1. To show its idealism. 2. To show its indebtedness to England, or France, or Germany. 3. To show how it may help the world. 10. Beethoven's Piano-forte Sonatas. 1. To show them as the culmination of the sonata development. 2. To show their romantic nature. 3. To show the development of Beethoven's genius as he matured. 11. Heredity in Plants. 1. To show the similarity to heredity in man. 2. To show how knowledge of heredity in plants may serve an economic purpose. 3. To show the wonderful consistency of the laws of heredity in plants. 12. Glacial Action in the Mississippi Valley. 1. To show the economic result. 2. To indicate the sweep of time consumed in the formation. 3. To show the picturesque qualities in the gradual action. VIII. What is the controlling purpose in the following selection? Point out the influence upon the writer of knowing that Bostonians would read his words. Indicate how the selection would differ if the controlling object were to be bitter jealousy expressed by a resident in a newer, larger, envious city. Boston has a rather old-fashioned habit of speaking the English language. It came upon us rather suddenly one day as we journeyed out Huntington Avenue to the smart new gray and red opera house. The very coloring of the _foyer_ of that house--soft and simple--bespoke the refinement of the Boston of to-day. In the Metropolitan Opera House, New York, in every other one of the glib opera houses that are springing up mushroom-fashion across the land, our ears would have been assailed by "Librettos! Get your Librettos!" Not so in Boston. At the Boston Opera House the young woman back of the _foyer_ stand calmly announced at clocklike intervals: "Translations. Translations." And the head usher, whom the older Bostonians grasped by the hand and seemed to regard as a long-lost friend, did not sip out, "Checks, please." "Locations," he requested, as he condescended to the hand-grasps of the socially elect. "The nearer door for those stepping out," announces the guard upon the elevated train, and as for the surface and trolley-cars, those wonderful green perambulators laden down with more signs than nine ordinary trolley-cars would carry at one time, they do not speak of the newest type in Boston as "Pay-as-you-enter-cars," after the fashion of less cultured communities. In the Hub they are known as Prepayment cars--its precision is unrelenting.[10] [10] Edward Hungerford: _The Personality of American Cities_. By courtesy of the publisher, Robert M. McBride & Co., New York City. IX. What is the controlling purpose in the following selection from Mr. John Masefield's volume of _Gallipoli_? Analyze this controlling purpose as to the subject itself, the author's personal reaction, and the intended readers--largely perhaps, the American people. Let the reader imagine himself to be facing three miles of any very rough broken sloping ground known to him, ground for the most part gorse-thyme-and-scrub-covered, being poor soil, but in some places beautiful with flowers (especially a "spiked yellow flower with a whitish leaf") and on others green from cultivation. Let him say to himself that he and an army of his friends are about to advance up the slope towards the top, and that as they will be advancing in a line, along the whole length of the three miles, he will only see the advance of those comparatively near to him, since folds or dips in the ground will hide the others. Let him, before he advances, look earnestly along the line of the hill, as it shows up clear, in blazing sunlight only a mile from him, to see his tactical objective, one little clump of pines, three hundred yards away, across what seem to be fields. Let him see in the whole length of the hill no single human being, nothing but scrub, earth, a few scattered buildings, of the Levantine type (dirty white with roofs of dirty red) and some patches of dark Scotch pine, growing as the pine loves, on bleak crests. Let him imagine himself to be more weary than he has ever been in his life before, and dirtier than he has ever believed it possible to be, and parched with thirst, nervous, wild-eyed and rather lousy. Let him think that he has not slept for more than a few minutes together for eleven days and nights, and that in all his waking hours he has been fighting for his life, often hand to hand in the dark with a fierce enemy, and that after each fight he has had to dig himself a hole in the ground, often with his hands, and then walk three or four roadless miles to bring up heavy boxes under fire. Let him think, too, that in all those eleven days he has never for an instant been out of the thunder of cannon, that waking or sleeping their devastating crash has been blasting the air across within a mile or two, and this from an artillery so terrible that each discharge beats as it were a wedge of shock between the skull-bone and the brain. Let him think too that never, for an instant, in all that time, has he been free or even partly free from the peril of death in its most sudden and savage forms, and that hourly in all that time he has seen his friends blown to pieces at his side, or dismembered, or drowned, or driven mad, or stabbed, or sniped by some unseen stalker, or bombed in the dark sap with a handful of dynamite in a beef-tin, till their blood is caked upon his clothes and thick upon his face, and that he knows, as he stares at the hill, that in a few moments, more of that dwindling band, already too few, God knows how many too few, for the task to be done, will be gone the same way, and that he himself may reckon that he has done with life, tasted and spoken and loved his last, and that in a few minutes more may be blasted dead, or lying bleeding in the scrub, with perhaps his face gone and a leg and an arm broken, unable to move but still alive, unable to drive away the flies or screen the ever-dropping rain, in a place where none will find him, or be able to help him, a place where he will die and rot and shrivel, till nothing is left of him but a few rags and a few remnants and a little identification-disc flapping on his bones in the wind. Then let him hear the intermittent crash and rattle of the fire augment suddenly and awfully in a roaring, blasting roll, unspeakable and unthinkable, while the air above, that has long been whining and whistling, becomes filled with the scream of shells passing like great cats of death in the air; let him see the slope of the hill vanish in a few moments into the white, yellow, and black smokes of great explosions shot with fire, and watch the lines of white puffs marking the hill in streaks where the shrapnel searches a suspected trench; and then, in the height of the tumult, when his brain is shaking in his head, let him pull himself together with his friends, and clamber up out of the trench, to go forward against an invisible enemy, safe in some unseen trench expecting him.[11] [11] John Masefield: _Gallipoli_. By courtesy of the publishers, The Macmillan Company, New York City. What light does the following paragraph which appears at the beginning of the book throw upon the controlling purpose? Later, when there was leisure, I began to consider the Dardanelles Campaign, not as a tragedy, nor as a mistake, but as a great human effort, which came, more than once, very near to triumph, achieved the impossible many times, and failed, in the end, as many great deeds of arms have failed, from something which had nothing to do with arms nor with the men who bore them. That the effort failed is not against it; much that is most splendid in military history failed, many great things and noble men have failed. To myself, this failure is the second grand event of the war; the first was Belgium's answer to the German ultimatum.[12] [12] John Masefield: _Gallipoli_. By courtesy of the publishers, The Macmillan Company, New York City. X. Explain what would be your controlling purpose in a theme on any of the following subjects, and how you would _arrange your material_ to accomplish this purpose. 1. What is the Primary Function of a Successful Novel? 2. The Philosophy of Woman Suffrage. 3. Lynch Law and Law Reform. 4. The Conservatism of the American College Student. 5. Intellectual Bravery. 6. A Mediæval Free City. 7. Mr. Roosevelt's Career as an Index of the American Character. 8. Practical Efficiency as an Enemy to "Sweetness and Light." 9. The Æsthetics of the Skyscraper. 10. Possibilities for the Small Farmer in America. 11. The Future of Civil Engineering. 12. Housekeeping as an Exact Science. XI. Indicate what your controlling purpose would be in writing of the following subjects, if you chose your purpose from the _subject-matter alone_. Then show how the purpose might be affected by the different sets of readers as they are indicated in the subheadings. 1. The Intelligence of the Average Voter. a. For a woman who eagerly desires woman suffrage. b. For a refined but narrow aristocrat, descendant of an old family. c. For an agitating member of the I.W.W. 2. The Value of Courses in Literature for the Technical Student. a. For a hard-headed civil engineer. b. For a white-haired, kindly old professor of Greek, who resents the intrusion of science and labor. c. For a mother who wants her son to "get everything good from his technical course." 3. The Delights of Fishing. a. For a woman who cannot understand why her husband wants to be always going on silly fishing trips. b. For a group of city men who are devotees of the sport. c. For a small boy who hopes some day to go with "Dad" on his trips. 4. The Value of the Civic Center. a. For a man who resents the extra taxation that would be necessary to make one in his city. b. For a prominent, public-spirited architect. c. For a young woman graduate from college who eagerly desires to "do something" for her city. 5. The Spirit of the "Middle West," the "Old South" or any other section of the country. a. For a proud resident. b. For a sniffy resident of another section. c. For a person who has never thought of such a thing. CHAPTER III DEFINITION Definition is the process of explaining a subject by setting bounds to it, enclosing it within its limits, showing its extent. The ocean is properly defined by the shore; a continent or island is defined by its coastline: shores set limits to the ocean; coastlines bound the island or continent. So, when a child asks, "What is Switzerland?" you show on the map the pink or yellow or green space that is included within certain definite boundaries. These boundaries set a limit to the extent of that country; in other words, they define it. As soon as a traveler steps beyond the limit of that country, he is at once in another realm, has become identified with a quite different set of conditions and circumstances--he is, in fact, in a country that has a different definition from that of Switzerland. In the same way, when some one asks what truth is, or nickel steel, or a grand piano, or humanism, or art, or rotation of crops, or a rocking chair, or the forward pass, you attempt, in your reply, to set bounds to the thing in question, to restrict it, to fence it off, to state the line beyond which if it goes it ceases to be one thing and becomes another. It is by no means always an easy task to find this line. Many a child has come to grief in his attempts to keep safely within the limits of truth and yet be close up to the realm of desirable falsehood. Likewise many witnesses in court have been beguiled or browbeaten into crossing the line without knowing that they were getting into the country of the enemy. But though the quest for the line may be difficult, a true definition must set off the thing being defined from other things, must set bounds to it, enclose it within its limits, show its extent. The Process of Definition The logical process of defining consists of two steps: first, stating the class or group to which the object of definition belongs, as to say that Switzerland is a _country_, the forward pass is a _strategic device in football_, humanism is a _philosophy of personal development_; and second, pointing out the difference between the object of definition and other members of the class, showing how it is distinguished from them. Since the purpose of definition is to limit the thing defined, the practical value of the first step is at once apparent. If, in total ignorance, a resident of India asks you, "What is ragtime?" the most helpful thing in the world that you can do for him is to cleave away with one stroke everything else in the world but music--absolute exclusion of all other human interests--and place ragtime in that comparatively narrow field. That is the first thing of great help. However many qualities you may attribute to ragtime,--whether you call it inspiring, invigorating, pleasing, detestable, or what not,--you are making at best only slow progress toward defining, really limiting ragtime. The number of pleasing things, for example, is so endless, and the things are so diverse in character that your listener is almost as ignorant after such a quality has been attributed as he was before. But the moment that you limit ragtime to music you scatter untold clouds of doubt and place the inquirer in the comfortable position of having a fairly large working knowledge. What is left for the inquirer to do is merely to distinguish ragtime from other kinds of music--after all, a rather simple task. Likewise in any definition, such as that of rotation of crops, the first necessity is to place the subject in its proper field, in this case agriculture; the grand piano in the class of musical instruments; the rocking chair in the class of furniture. Now sometimes the task of discovering to what class your subject belongs is difficult. Is a believer in Unitarianism a Christian? He follows the ethical teachings of Jesus but denies him any special divinity. In this case obviously the question of classification will depend on the definition that we make of Christianity. Is a man who serves the state in legislative or judicial capacity and at the same time writes novels to be called a statesman or a man of letters? Governments have fallen into difficulty with each other over such things as contraband of war, there being great doubt at times whether a particular thing is properly contraband or not. The question is sometimes doubtful--you will be inclined to say, "I don't know what to call this," but in making a definition call it you must. The United States Government, facing the problem of discovering the proper class for frogs' legs, in determining customs duties after much perturbation placed them under the heading "poultry." Ordinarily you will find slight difficulty in determining the class; but in every case you must patiently search until you have found some class into which your subject naturally fits. Until you have done this you obviously cannot set it apart from other members, because you will not really know what the other members are, you will be forced to run through the total list of human ideas and things. Until you know that _oligarchy_ is one form of political society you cannot know whether to set it off from _democracy_ and _monarchy_ or from _Christianity_ and _Buddhism_. First, then, however difficult, discover the class to which your subject belongs. In the following definition of a _clearing-house_, you will find that in the course of time the class to which the subject belongs has changed, has come to include more space, needs a larger fence to surround it, and therefore the definition has been changed. What is a clearing-house? The Supreme Court of the State of Pennsylvania has defined it thus: "It is an ingenious device to simplify and facilitate the work of the banks in reaching an adjustment and payment of the daily balances due to and from each other at one time and in one place on each day. In practical operation it is a place where all the representatives of the banks in a given city meet, and, under the supervision of a competent committee or officer selected by the associated banks, settle their accounts with each other and make or receive payments of balances and so 'clear' the transactions of the day for which the settlement is made." But we must go farther than this, for though originally designed as a labor-saving device, the clearing-house has expanded far beyond those limits, until it has become a medium for united action among the banks in ways that did not exist even in the imaginations of those who were instrumental in its inception. A clearing-house, therefore, may be defined as a device to simplify and facilitate the daily exchange of items and settlements of balances among the banks, and a medium for united action upon all questions affecting their mutual welfare.[13] [13] Francis M. Burdick: _The Essentials of Business Law_. By courtesy of the publishers, D. Appleton & Co., New York City. Copyright 1902, 1908, by D. Appleton & Co. The second step in the logical process of definition is to show how the subject for definition differs from other members of its class. Once I am told that the piano is a musical instrument I must next learn wherein it differs from the violin, the kettle-drum, and the English horn. The surname _Tomlinson_ partly defines a person as a member of the Tomlinson family, but the definition is not complete until the name is modified and the person is distinguished by _George_ or _Charles_ or whatever name may belong to him. A skillful shepherd knows not only his flocks but also the characteristics of the different members of the flocks, so that he can say, "This sheep is the one in X flock that is always getting into the clover." Here "X flock" is the class, and the quality of abusing the clover is the distinguishing individual tag. Since the desire in this part of the process of defining is to set individuals apart, no mention will be made of qualities that are shared in common but only of those that are peculiar to the individual. These qualities that distinguish individual members of classes from each other are called the _differentia_, just as the class is commonly called the _genus_. For convenience in keeping the list of differentia reasonably small, to avoid unwieldiness of definition, care must be exercised in choosing the class. When a class which itself contains other possible classes is chosen, a long list of differentia will be necessary. It is well, therefore, to choose a relatively small class to begin with. For example, if I put the piano into the large class of _musical instruments_, I shall then be under the necessity of amassing sufficient differentia to set it apart from wind instruments whether of brass or wood, from instruments of percussion, and from other stringed instruments that do not use metal strings. If I restrict the class to _stringed instruments_, I thereby exclude the differentia of both wind instruments and instruments of percussion. If I further restrict the class, at the beginning, to _instruments with metal strings_, I need then to employ only such differentia as will set it off, perhaps, from instruments that do not have a sounding board for their metal strings. Such restriction of the class is advisable chiefly for purposes of economy of effort in discovering the differentia, and is usually accomplished, in expression, by preceding the class name with a limiting adjective or by using a limiting phrase. This adjective or this phrase is likely to be the expression of differentia among smaller classes, the differentia among individual members being stated more at length later in the definition. The process of definition will be complete, then, when the subject of definition has been assigned to a class, which for convenience should be relatively small, and the qualities that distinguish the subject from other members of the class have been found. The Two Main Classes of Definitions Two main classes of definition exist: first, the rigidly logical, scientific kind such as is found in dictionaries, textbooks, and other such writings which are not concerned with emotional values; and second, the less rigid, more expanded, more informal kind which aims to please as well as to instruct, and which is found in essays and all forms of writing with a strong human appeal. The two kinds are alike in the presence of both genus and differentia; they differ chiefly in the presence, in the less formal, of the qualities of pleasingness and stimulation as opposed to the quality, in the formal, of scientific impersonality, cold intellectuality. For example, the Standard Dictionary defines a _correspondent_ as "one who communicates by means of letters; specifically one who sends regular communications from a distant place to a newspaper or a business house." The author of the volume entitled _Famous War Correspondents_[14] defines, with much the same fundamental ideas, if not indeed exactly the same, a _war correspondent_ as follows: [14] F. L. Billiard: _Famous War Correspondents_. By courtesy of the publishers, Little, Brown & Co., Boston. Copyright, 1914. The war correspondent is a newspaper man assigned to cover a campaign. He goes into the field with the army, expecting to send his reports from that witching region known as "the front." He is a special correspondent commissioned to collect intelligence and transmit it from the camp and the battle ground. A non-combatant, he mingles freely with men whose business it is to fight. He may be ten thousand miles from the home office, but he finds competition as keen as ever it is in Fleet Street or Newspaper Row. He is engaged in the most dramatic department of a profession whose infinite variety is equalled only by its fascination. If he becomes a professional rather than an occasional correspondent, wandering will be his business and adventure his daily fare. Mr. A. G. Hales is of the opinion that the newspaper man who is chosen as a war correspondent has won the Victoria Cross of journalism. For the making of a first-rate war correspondent there are required all the qualifications of a capable reporter in any other branch of the profession, and others besides. Perhaps it is true that the regular hack work of the ordinary newspaper man is the best training for the scribe of war. The men who had reported fires and train wrecks in American cities proved themselves able to describe vigorously and clearly the campaign in Cuba. William Howard Russell had been doing a great variety of descriptive writing before he was sent to the Crimea. The prime requisites for a satisfactory war correspondent are those fundamental to success in any kind of newspaper work, the ability to see straight, to write vividly and accurately, and to get a story on the wire. Occasionally a brilliant workman appears from nowhere, the happy possessor of an almost uncanny intuition of movements and purposes. Such a man was Archibald Forbes. But Forbes, no less than the average special, had to have the physical capacity to march with the private soldier, to ride a hundred miles at a clip at top speed over rough country, to sleep in the open, to stand the heat of the desert and the cold of the mountain height, to endure hunger and thirst and all the deprivations of a hard campaign. Every correspondent at times must keep going until his strength is utterly spent. He must have the tenacity which does not yield to exhaustion until his messages are written and on the way to his paper. When the soldier ceases fighting, the correspondent's work is only begun. He needs also to have a degree of familiarity with the affairs of the present and the history of the past which will secure him the respect of the officers with whom he may associate. Along with the courage of the scout he should possess the suavity and tact of the diplomat, for he will have to get along with men of all types, and occasionally, indeed, his own influence may overlap into the field of international diplomacy. British correspondents, having covered many wars, small and great, since 1870, usually are acquainted with several languages, and often have acquired a knowledge of the technicalities of military science. Of the two kinds of definition--formal and informal--you will more often have occasion to write the second. You must guard against the danger, in such writing, of allowing the interest to cloud the truth, of being led into inaccurate partial statements by your desire to please. At the root of every good definition is still the accurate statement of genus and differentia. It is chiefly of the second kind that we shall treat here. If you can write a definition that is pleasing and stimulating and also accurate, you can always boil it down into the more bald formal statement such as the dictionary offers. Whatever powers of grace or neatness in expression you possess, whatever powers of saying things in a pleasing manner, it is your privilege to employ in the writing of definitions. General Cautions For the sake of clearness and general effectiveness a few cautions need to be made. In the first place, be sure to exclude everything from your definition that does not properly belong in it. For example, if you define the aeroplane as a machine that journeys through the air under its own power, you include dirigible balloons, which are not aeroplanes. You must introduce both the characteristics of being heavier than air and of having a plane or planes before your definition can stand. You will make this exclusion by choosing both class and differentia with the greatest care. In the second place, include everything that does properly belong in the definition. If you define a bridge as a roadway over a stream, either resting on piers or hanging on cables strung over towers, you exclude pontoon bridges certainly, and all bridges across dry chasms, if not other kinds. Not until you include all varieties of things crossed and all the methods of support and the various materials used will your definition be sound and complete. This does not mean that you will have to make an endless list of all possible forms, but that you will make a comprehensive statement which will allow of being distributed over all the different forms and kinds of bridges. In the third place, use simple and familiar diction. Since the first purpose of a definition is to explain, one that is obscure or difficult makes confusion worse confounded. The famous--or notorious--definition which Dr. Johnson made of so simple a thing as _network_, "anything reticulated or decussated at equal distances with interstices between the intersections," is worse than useless because it positively throws dust upon a comparatively easy matter to perceive--unless the reader take time out for meditation. Remember that the Gettysburg Address and many of Shakespeare's sonnets are largely in words of one syllable. And then do not be afraid that you will be understood; the fire is always presumably somewhat more uncomfortable than the frying-pan. In the fourth place, do not use the term that you are defining, or any derivative of it. When college freshmen, in mortal combat with a quiz question, define a description as _something that describes_, they use words that profit them nothing. That a cow is a cow is fairly obvious. The temptation to make this mistake, which, in the intellectual world, occupies the relative space of the saucy old advice, "Chase yourself round the block!" occurs usually when a long definition is being written, in which the writer forgets to keep the horizon clear, and finally falls into the formula _x_ is _x_. To avoid yielding to such temptation, you will do well, after a definition is complete, to phrase it in a single sentence which shall include both differentia and genus, and in which you can easily discover the evil formula _x_ is _x_. Bardolph, in Shakespeare's _King Henry IV_, yields to the temptation--for which we are glad as to humor but not made wise as to meaning--when Shallow puts him to the test: _Shallow_: Better accommodated! it is good; yea, indeed, it is: good phrases are surely, and ever were, very commendable. Accommodated! it comes of accommodo: very good; a good phrase. _Bardolph_: Pardon me, sir; I have heard the word. Phrase call you it? by this good day, I know not the phrase; but I will maintain the word with my sword to be a soldier-like word, and a word of exceeding good command, by heaven. Accommodated; that is, when a man is, as they say, accommodated; or when a man is, being, whereby 'a may be thought to be accommodated; which is an excellent thing. In the fifth place, be sure that you define, and do not merely "talk about" the subject. Any amount of however interesting comment that fails to accomplish the two necessities of definition, statement of the genus and the differentia, is futile; it is not definition. This temptation, like the former one, will be overcome if you take the trouble to phrase the actual material of your definition in one sentence that really includes both genus and differentia. As a minor suggestion, do not begin your definition with the words, "X is when" or "X is where," unless you are defining either a unit of time or a place--and even then you will do well to avoid these too frequently used phrases. Finally, do not make your definition too mechanical, too much lacking in real life. Thinking of how you must deal with genus and differentia, you are liable to be overwhelmed with the grim duty of being logical, and to forget that you should also be human, that people read definitions, as other kinds of writing, in the double hope of information and pleasure. No real antagonism exists between logic of the strictest kind and pleasurable presentation, as is proved by the examples quoted during the course of this chapter and at the end. While you remember your subject, remember also your reader; then you will be unlikely to make a dull definition. Methods of Defining You may use various methods of defining. Sometimes you will choose only one, and sometimes you will combine. There is no special virtue in one method more than another except as sometimes one happens to be more useful for a given case, as we shall see. In selecting your method, then, select on the basis of practical workability for the effect that you desire to create, adhering to one or using several as seems most effective. _a._ _The Method of Illustration_ One of the most useful, natural, and easy methods is that of giving an example or illustration of the thing that is being defined. The great usefulness of this method lies in the stimulating quality that the concrete example always has. If you wish to define an abstract quality, for example, such as _patriotism_, or _honor_, or _generosity_, you will often find advantage, for the first, in calling up the figure of Washington, of Lincoln, of Cromwell; in citing, for the second, the case of some man who, after bankruptcy, has set himself to pay all his former debts, or of Regulus who, though he had the chance not to keep his promise to return to Carthage as prisoner, yet bade Rome farewell and returned to unspeakable torture; in presenting, for the third, a specific set of conditions, such as possession of only one dime, which is then shared with another person who is even less fortunate, or showing a known person, like Sir Philip Sidney, who, though at death's door on the field of battle, urged that the exquisite joy of cold water be given to a comrade who was even more terribly in need. In every one of these cases the quality under definition is presented in an easily grasped, concrete form that has the great advantage of human interest, of stimulating the reader's thought. That using such a method is natural is apparent as soon as we remember that we think largely in concrete forms, specific cases. That it is rather easy is obvious, because so many instances are always at hand to be used. The danger in this method is that the example chosen will not be entirely fair. Such lack of fairness may occur if the example covers too little ground of the definition or if it too highly accentuates one phase of the subject of definition. If, for instance, you cite the example of the man who gave away his only pair of shoes, as an example of generosity, you may run the risk of making the reader think that nothing but an extreme act has the real stamp of the generous giver, or that generosity is expressed only in material ways, forgetting that it is generous to acknowledge a fault or to overlook unintended affront. To avoid this danger be sure that your example is fair and sufficiently comprehensive, and if it is not, choose other examples to add to it until you are convinced of the all-round fitness of your definition. In the following examples you may feel that Gissing does not wholly define _poverty_, whereas Shaw is more complete in his approach to defining _ability that gives value for money_, and Mr. Morman by taking a typical example and working it out arrives at complete understanding with perhaps less of piquant interest. Blackberries hanging thick upon the hedge bring to my memory something of long ago. I had somehow escaped into the country and on a long walk began to feel mid-day hunger. The wayside brambles were fruiting; I picked and ate, and ate on, until I had come within sight of an inn where I might have made a good meal. But my hunger was satisfied; I had no need of anything more, and, as I thought of it, a strange feeling of surprise, a sort of bewilderment, came upon me. What! Could it be that I had eaten, and eaten sufficiently, _without paying_? It struck me as an extraordinary thing. At that time, my ceaseless preoccupation was how to obtain money to keep myself alive. Many a day I had suffered hunger because I durst not spend the few coins I possessed; the food I could buy was in any case unsatisfactory, unvaried. But here nature had given me a feast, which seemed delicious, and I had eaten all I wanted. The wonder held me for a long time, and to this day I can recall it, understand it. I think there could be no better illustration of what it means to be poor in a great town.[15] [15] George Gissing: _The Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft_, "Autumn." By permission of the publishers, E. P. Dutton & Co., New York City. * * * * * In business, as a rule, a man must make what he gets and something over into the bargain. I have known a man to be employed by a firm of underwriters to interview would-be insurers. His sole business was to talk to them and decide whether to insure or not. Salary, £4000 a year. This meant that the loss of his judgment would have cost his employers more than £4000 a year. Other men have an eye for contracts or whatnot, or are born captains of industry, in which cases they go into business on their own account, and make ten, twenty, or two hundred per cent where you or I would lose five. Or, to turn back a moment from the giants to the minnows, take the case of a woman with the knack of cutting out a dress. She gets six guineas a week instead of eighteen shillings. Or she has perhaps a ladylike air and a figure on which a mantle looks well. For these she can get several guineas a week merely by standing in a show-room letting mantles be tried on her before customers. All these people are renters of ability; and their ability is inseparable from them and dies with them. The excess of their gains over those of an ordinary person with the same capital and education is the "rent" of the exceptional "fertility." But observe, if the able person makes £100,000, and leaves that to his son, who, being but an ordinary gentleman, can get only from two and a half to four per cent on it, that revenue is pure interest on capital and in no sense whatever rent of ability.[16] [16] George B. Shaw: _Socialism and Superior Brains_. By courtesy of the publishers, John Lane Company, New York City. * * * * * By "amortization" is meant the method of paying a debt by regular semi-annual or annual installments. To illustrate: Suppose a farmer gives a mortgage on his farm of $1000, with interest at 5 per cent. In addition to the interest, he agrees to pay 2 per cent a year on the principal. This makes a total of 7 per cent a year, or a payment of $70, which may be paid in two semi-annual installments of $35 each. The first year's interest and payment on the principal are taken as the amount to be paid annually. But of the first payment, $50 represents the interest and $20 the payment on the principal. After the first year's payment, therefore, instead of owing $1000, the farmer owes only $980, with interest at 5 per cent. For the sake of simplicity, let us suppose that payments are made annually. When the next time of payment comes round, the farmer pays his $70. Since his debt is less, the interest the second year amounts to $49 instead of $50, and therefore the payment on the principal is $21 instead of $20 as it was the first year. In the second year the debt is reduced to $959. On the return of the third time of payment the farmer pays another $70, of which amount $47.95 represents the interest and $22.05 the payment on the principal. This reduces the farmer's mortgage debt to $936.95. Now, this system of payment and method of reducing the debt continues until the mortgage has been lifted by a gradual process. Thus, while the annual payments are always the same, the amount of interest is always decreasing and the amount of the payments on the debt is always increasing. Consequently, the mortgage is paid off in ten to forty years according to the rate of payment on the loan that the debtor himself elects to pay when the contract is made. This is the simple principle of amortization, and it is recognized in Europe as the safest, easiest, and best method of reducing land-mortgage indebtedness hitherto conceived and put into practice.[17] [17] J. B. Morman: _Principles of Rural Credit_. By courtesy of the publishers, The Macmillan Company, New York City. If, then, you have a subject that is abstract and perhaps difficult to understand in abstract explanation; if you wish, to stimulate your readers and make their reading pleasant; if, for any reason, you wish to write informally, then you may well decide to employ the useful, natural, and easy method of definition by illustration. _b._ _The Method of Comparison or Contrast_ A second method, closely akin to that by illustration, is the method of defining by comparison or contrast. The value of this method lies in its liveliness and the ease with which it makes an idea comprehended. The liveliness derives largely from the usual presence of specific facts or things with which the subject of definition is compared or to which it is contrasted, and from the imaginative stimulus that perception of similarity in function creates. The implied definition of leader in politics in Lincoln's famous remark about changing political parties in war time, "Don't swap horses while crossing a stream," is not only true, but more, it is interesting. The ease of comprehension is due largely to employing the method of proceeding from the known to the unknown in that comparison is usually made to things already familiar. If contrast is used, there is the added interest of dramatic presentation found especially in oratorical definitions. Liveliness and ease in comprehension make this method a valuable one in addressing a popular or an unlearned body of readers; it presents the truth and it enlists interest. In the following examples you will not be aware of dramatic quality in the first but you will find picturesque qualities in both. Lord Cromer describes a responsible statesman in a democracy as very much in the position of a man in a boat off the mouth of a tidal river. He long has to strive against wind and current until finally a favorable conjunction of weather and tide forms a wave upon which he rides safely into the harbor. There is an essential truth in this which no man attempting to play the part of leader in a democracy can forget except at his peril. Government by public opinion is bound to get a sufficient body of public opinion on its side. But withal it is manifestly the duty of a leader to help form a just public opinion. He must dare to be temporarily unpopular, if only in that way he can get a temporary hearing for the truths which the people ought to have presented to them. He is to execute the popular will, but he is not to neglect shaping it. It is his duty to be properly receptive, but his main striving ought to be that virtue should go out of him to touch and quicken the masses of his citizens. If their minds and imaginations are played upon with sufficient persistence and sufficient skill, they will give him back his own ideas with enthusiasm. A man who throws a ball against a wall gets it back again as if hurled by the dead brick and mortar; but the original impulse is in his own muscle. So a democratic leader may say, if he chooses, that he takes only what is pressed upon him by the people; but his function is often first to press it upon them.[18] [18] Gustav Pollak: _Fifty Years of American Idealism_. Houghton Mifflin Company. By courtesy of _The Nation_. * * * * * The quack novel is a thing which looks like a book, and which is compounded, advertised, and marketed in precisely the same fashion as Castoria, Wine of Cardui, Alcola, Mrs. Summers's free-to-you-my-sister Harmless Headache Remedy, Viavi Tablettes, and other patent medicines, harmful and harmless. As the patent medicine is made of perfectly well-known drugs, so the quack novel of course contains perfectly familiar elements, and like the medicine, it comes wrapped in superlative testimonials from those who say they have swallowed it to their advantage. Instead of "After twenty years of bed-ridden agony, one bottle of your Fosforo cured every ache and completely restored my manhood," we have "The secret of his powers is the same God-given secret that inspired Shakespeare and upheld Dickens." This, from the Philadelphia _Sunday Dispatch_, accompanies a quack novel by Mr. Harold Bell Wright, of whom the Portland, Oregon, _Journal_ remarks, "It is this almost clairvoyant power of reading the human soul that has made Mr. Wright's books among the most remarkable works of the present age." Similar to that aroma of piety and charity which accompanies the quack medicines, an equally perceptible odor of sanctity is wafted to us with Mr. Wright; and just as imitators will make their boxes and bottles to resemble those of an already successful trade article, so are Mr. Wright's volumes given that red cloth and gold lettering which we have come to associate with the bindings of Mr. Winston Churchill's very popular and agreeable novels. Lastly--like the quack medicines--the quack novel is (mostly) harmful; not always because it is poisonous (though this occurs), but because it pretends to be literature and is taken for literature by the millions who swallow it year after year as their chief mental nourishment, and whose brains it saps and dilutes. In short, both these shams--the book and the medicine--win and bamboozle their public through methods almost identical.[19] [19] Owen Wister: _Quack Novels and Democracy_. By courtesy of The Atlantic Monthly Company, Boston. For complete truth you need to present both resemblance and difference. This necessity is apparent as soon as we remember that the differentia are of vital importance, that we understand the subject only when we see how it differs from other members of the same class. When these differences are obvious, of course they need no mention. But in defining _wit and humor_, for example, or _immorality and unconventionality_, we must know not only the parallelisms but also the divergencies. The best method of procedure is to discover in each of the subjects compared the vital things, the heart without which it could not exist, and then to observe how these work out in the particulars of the subject. In defining _State_ and _Nation_ in the following selection Mr. Russell takes care to show both resemblances and differences. _Nation_ is not to be defined by affinities of language or a common historical origin, though these things often help to produce a nation. Switzerland is a nation, in spite of diversities of race, religion, and language. England and Scotland now form one nation, though they did not do so at the time of our Civil War. This is shown by Cromwell's saying, in the height of the conflict, that he would rather be subject to the dominion of the royalists than to that of the Scotch. Great Britain was one state before it was one nation; on the other hand, Germany was one nation before it was one state. What constitutes a nation is a sentiment and an instinct--a sentiment of similarity and an instinct of belonging to the same group or herd. The instinct is an extension of the instinct which constitutes a flock of sheep, or any other group of gregarious animals. The sentiment which goes with this is like a milder and more extended form of family feeling. When we return to England after having been on the Continent, we feel something friendly in the familiar ways, and it is easy to believe that Englishmen on the whole are virtuous while many foreigners are full of designing wickedness. Such feelings make it easy to organize a nation into a state. It is not difficult, as a rule, to acquiesce in the orders of a national government. We feel that it is our government, and that its decrees are more or less the same as those which we should have given if we ourselves had been the governors. There is an instinctive, and usually unconscious, sense of a common purpose animating the members of a nation. This becomes especially vivid when there is a war or a danger of war. Any one who, at such a time, stands out against the orders of his government feels an inner conflict quite different from any that he would feel in standing out against the orders of a foreign government, in whose power he might happen to find himself. If he stands out, he does so with a more or less conscious hope that his government may in time come to think as he does; whereas, in standing out against a foreign government, no such hope is necessary. This group instinct, however it may have arisen, is what constitutes a nation, and what makes it important that the boundaries of nations should also be the boundaries of states.[20] [20] Bertrand Russell: _National Independence and Internationalism_. By courtesy of The Atlantic Monthly Company, Boston. _c._ _The Method of Division_ A third method, often used, and similar in its general form to analysis, divides the subject into its various headings, the sum of which must equal the whole. This method differs from analysis, perhaps, in that it treats the subject throughout as a unit rather than as a congregation of parts. This method may be used to define a subject like _mathematics_, in stating that it is the pure science which includes arithmetic, algebra, geometry, etc., or to define a quality like _patriotism_, by enumerating the qualities that patriotism has. These qualities may be, also, the uses to which the subject can be put, as in defining a tool or a machine. The method consists in establishing the genus and then, from a mental map of the subject, selecting the various parts that constitute the whole, whether these parts be of physical extent, as in defining the United States by giving the various sections of the country, or of spiritual significance, as in defining an honest man by stating the qualities that he should possess. One danger from this method is lack of completeness; great practical value attaches here to the caution to be sure that the definition includes all that properly belongs under it. Another danger is in the temptation to "talk about" the subject without actually defining it, merely saying some pleasant things and then ceasing. The caution against this danger in general must be remembered. Properly used, this method, though it is sometimes rather formal, should result in great clearness through completeness of definition. The following celebrated definition of a "classic" is a good example of compact definition by this method, and the definition of "moral atmosphere" of a more leisurely, informal breaking-up. A classic is an author who has enriched the human mind, who has really added to its treasure, who has got it to take a step further; who has discovered some unequivocal moral truth, or penetrated to some eternal passion, in that heart of man where it seemed as though all were known and explored, who has produced his thought, or his observation, or his invention, under some form, no matter what, so it be large, great, acute, and reasonable, sane and beautiful in itself; who has spoken to all in a style of his own, yet a style which finds itself the style of everybody,--in a style that is at once new and antique, and is the contemporary of all ages.[21] [21] Sainte-Beuve. * * * * * The moral atmosphere of the office was ideal. I mean more in the extended and not alone in our specific English sense, though in the latter it was even perhaps more marked. There was not only no temporizing, compromising, compounding with candor, in either major matters or trifling; there was no partiality or ingenuity or bland indifference by which the devil may be, and so often is, whipped round the stump. There was in the _Nation's_ field and conception of its function no temptation to anything of this sort, to be sure, which consideration may conceivably qualify its assessment of merit on the Day of Judgment--a day when we may hope the sins of daily journalism will, in consequence of the same consideration, be extended some leniency--but certainly cannot obscure the fact of its conspicuous integrity. There were people then--as now--that complained of its fairness; which involved, to my mind, the most naïve attitude imaginable, since it was the _Nation's_ practice that had provided the objector with his criterion of fairness in journalism. Of course he might assert that this was only a way of saying that the paper made extraordinary claims which in his estimation it failed to justify; but this was verbiage, the fact being as I have stated it. But I also mean by moral atmosphere the peace, the serenity, the gentleness, the self-respect, the feeling of character, that pervaded the office. We seemed, to my sense, so recently filled with the reactions of Park Row phenomena, "to lie at anchor in the stream of Time," as Carlyle said of Oxford--which, actually, we were very far from doing; there was never any doubt of the _Nation's_ being what is now called a "live wire," especially among those who took hold of it unwarily--as now and then some one did. Mr. Garrison shared the first editorial room with me. Mr. Godkin had the back office. The publication offices were in front, occupied by the amiable Mr. St. John and his staff, which included a gentle and aristocratic colored bookkeeper who resembled an East Indian philosopher--plainly a Garrisonian protégé. The silence I especially remember as delightful, and I never felt from the first the slightest constraint; Mr. Garrison had the courtesy that goes with active considerateness. The quiet was broken only by the occasional interchange of conversation between us, or by the hearty laugh of Mr. Godkin, whose laugh would have been the most noteworthy thing about him if he had not had so many other noteworthy characteristics; or by a visit now and then from Arthur Sedgwick, in my time not regularly "on" the paper, who always brought the larger world in with him (the office _was_ perhaps a little cloistral as a rule), or the appearance of Earl Shinn with his art or dramatic criticism--both the best written, if not also the best we have ever had in this country, and the latter so distinguished, I think, as to be unique. Of course, there were visitors, contributors and candid friends, but mainly we worked in almost Quakerish tranquillity five days in the week during my incumbency.[22] [22] Gustav Pollak: _Fifty Years of American Idealism_. Houghton Mifflin Company. By courtesy of _The Nation_. _d._ _The Method of Repetition_ A fourth method, which may be used in connection with any other, consists in repeating the definition over and over in different words, from different points of view, driving home by accumulated emphasis. The value of this method lies in its feeling of absolute sureness in the reader's mind: once completed, the definition seems quite settled, quite tamped down, quite clinched. It is a difficult method to employ, for the writer is in great danger of saying exactly the same thing again and again, forgetting to assume different points of view. From such a definition tediousness is of course the result. The subjects treated by this method are likely to be abstract matters upon which light is shed from various angles, as if one poured spot lights from all sides upon some object which remains the same but which delivers up all its phases. Emerson often used this method, as in the following example where both the method of repetition and that of comparison are used: The two parties which divide the state, the party of Conservatism and that of Innovation, are very old, and have disputed the possession of the world ever since it was made.... It is the counteraction of the centripetal and the centrifugal forces. Innovation is the salient energy; Conservatism the pause on the last movement. "That which is was made by God," says Conservatism. "He is leaving that, he is entering this other," enjoins Innovation. There is always a certain meanness in the argument of conservatism, joined with a certain superiority in its fact. It affirms because it holds. Its fingers clutch the fact, and it will not open its eyes to see a better fact. The castle which conservatism is set to defend is the actual state of things, good and bad. The project of innovation is the best possible state of things. Of course conservatism always has the worst of the argument, is always apologizing, pleading a necessity, pleading that to change would be to deteriorate: it must saddle itself with the mountainous load of the violence and vice of society, must deny the possibility of good, deny ideas, and suspect and stone the prophet; whilst innovation is always in the right, triumphant, attacking, and sure of final success. Conservatism stands on man's confessed limitations, reform on his indisputable infinitude; conservatism on circumstance, liberalism on power; one goes to make an adroit member of the social frame, the other to postpone all things to the man himself; conservatism is debonair and social, reform is individual and imperious. We are reformers in the spring and summer, in autumn and winter we stand by the old; reformers in the morning, conservers at night. Reform is affirmative, conservatism negative; conservatism goes for comfort, reform for truth. Conservatism is more candid to behold another's worth; reform more disposed to maintain and increase its own. Conservatism makes no poetry, breathes no prayer, has no invention; it is all memory. Reform has no gratitude, no prudence, no husbandry. It makes a great difference to your figure and your thought whether your foot is advancing or receding. Conservatism never puts the foot forward; in the hour when it does that, it is not establishment, but reform. Conservatism tends to universal seeming and treachery, believes in a negative fate; believes that men's temper governs them; that for me it avails not to trust in principles, they will fail me, I must bend a little; it distrusts nature; it thinks there is a general law without a particular application,--law for all that does not include any one. Reform in its antagonism inclines to asinine resistance, to kick with hoofs; it runs to egotism and bloated self-conceit; it runs to a bodiless pretension, to unnatural refining and elevation which ends in hypocrisy and sensual reaction. And so, while we do not go beyond general statements, it may be safely affirmed of these two metaphysical antagonists, that each is a good half but an impossible whole. Each exposes the abuses of the other, but in a true society, in a true man, both must combine.[23] [23] Ralph Waldo Emerson: "The Conservative," in _Nature, Addresses, and Lectures_. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. _e._ _The Method of Elimination_ Two methods, which are perhaps less frequently found, but which are none the less useful, remain to be mentioned. The first is the method of elimination, that is, the method of defining a thing by telling what it is not, by eliminating all things with which it might become confused. This method is of great value in defining an idea which is often considered to mean what it actually does not. By shutting out the erroneous interpretations, one by one, the errors are finally disposed of. This method is most effective when not only are the wrong interpretations excluded, but the correct idea, interpretation, is positively stated at some point. If this is not done there lingers in the reader's mind a taint of suspicion that either the author did not know exactly the correct meaning, or that the subject is really too difficult to bear real definition. And with a reader who does not think clearly in original ways a positive statement is almost essential lest he be unable to tell what the subject really is, after all, being unable to supply the residue after the process of elimination has been completed. Following this method Mr. Cross defines Socialism by showing that it is not anarchy, is not single tax, is not communism, and is not other systems with which it is often confused. The result is to leave socialism standing out by itself with clearness. In the following definition of college spirit the author has followed the method of elimination to clear away the haze that in many minds surrounds the subject: College spirit is like ancestry: we are all supposed to have it, but few of us know intimately what it is. The freshman in whose heart beats desire to show loyalty, the graduate whose pulse stirs as the train nears the "little old college," the alumnus who unties his purse-strings at the clarion call of a deficit--do these show loyalty by mere desire or by deeds? And if by deeds, by what kind of action shall their loyalty be determined? In the first place, college spirit is not mere voice culture. The man who yells until his face is purple and his throat is a candidate for the rest cure is not necessarily displaying college spirit--though he may possess it. Yelling is not excluded; it is merely denied the first place. For, to parody Shakespeare, a man can yell and yell and still be a college slacker. Cheering, indiscriminate noise making, even singing the college song with gusto at athletic games--none of these will stamp a man as necessarily loyal. Nor will participation in athletic sports or in "college activities" of other natures be sufficient to declare a man, for the participation may be of a purely selfish nature. The man who makes a record in the sprints chiefly for his own glory, or the man who edits the college paper because by so doing he can "make a good thing out of it" for himself, is not possessed of true college spirit, for college spirit demands more than mere selfishness. In the same way, taking part in celebrations, marching down Main Street with a flag fluttering round his ears, a sunflower in his buttonhole, an inane grin on his face, a swagger in his gait, and a determination to tell the whole world that his "dear old Alma Mater" is "the finest little college in the world"--this, too, is without avail, though it is not necessarily opposed to college spirit. For this exhibition, also, is largely selfish. Likewise, becoming a "grind," removing one's self from the human fellowship that college ought to furnish in its most delightful form, and becoming determined to prepare for a successful business career without regard to the warm flow of human emotion through the heart--this is not college spirit. All these harmless things are excluded because they are primarily selfish, and college spirit is primarily opposed to selfishness. True college spirit is found in the man whose heart has warmed to the love of his college, whose eyes have caught the vision of the ideals that the college possesses, whose brain has thought over and understood these ideals until they have become very fibre of his being. This man will yell not for the selfish pleasure of wallowing in sentimentality, but for the solid glory of his college; will run and leap, will edit the paper with the desire to make and keep the college in the front rank of athletic, social, and intellectual life; will study hard that the college may not be disgraced through him; will conduct himself like a gentleman that no one may sneer at the institution which has sponsored him; will resent any slurs upon the fair name of the college; will be willing to sacrifice himself, his own personal glory, for the sake of the college; will be willing to give of his money and his time until, perhaps, it hurts. And above all, he will never forget the gleam of idealism that he received in the old halls, the vision of his chance to serve his fellows. The man who does these things, who thinks these things, has true college spirit. _f._ _The Method of Showing Origin, Cause, Effect_ The other of these two methods is that of defining by showing the origin or causes of the subject or by showing its effects. If we can be made to see what forces went to the making of anything, or what has resulted from it, we shall have a fairly clear idea of the nature of the thing. Thus we may perhaps best understand the nature of _cabinet government_ by showing how the system came into being, what need it filled, what forces produced it. The same method might make clear _primitive Greek drama_, _the Hanseatic League_, _fertilization of land_, _the Federal Reserve System of Banking_, _the modern orchestra_. And by showing the effects we might define such matters as _the Montessori method of education_, _the Feudal System_, _anarchy_, _militarism_. The writer of a definition after this method needs to take care that when he has shown the various causes or effects, he surely binds them somehow together and vitally to the subject of definition. There must be no dim feeling in the mind of the reader that, after all, the subject is not yet clearly limned, not yet set off from other things. The definition which follows makes clear the origin of the mechanical engineer, and by showing what he does, what need there was for him, what lack he fills, makes clear what he is. The period of systematic and scientific power development is coincident with the true progress of the most basal of the several branches of natural philosophy, chemistry, physics, mechanics, thermodynamics, and the theory of elasticity of materials of construction; and there is no doubt that the steam engine, which was designed and built by workmen before these were formulated, attracted the attention of philosophers who, in attempting to explain what took place in it, created a related body of principles by which future development was guided, and which are now the fundamental bases for the design of the future. Those men who became familiar with the natural sciences, and also with the shop methods of making machinery, and who brought both to bear on the problem of the production of machinery for specified conditions, combining the special knowledge of the scientist and the shop mechanic, were the first mechanical engineers; and the profession of mechanical engineering, which is the term applied to this sort of business, was created out of the efforts to improve power systems, so as to make them more efficient and adapted to all classes of service, and to render that service for the least cost.[24] [24] C. E. Lucke: _Power_. By courtesy of the publishers, the Columbia University Press. Emerson makes a definition of the civilization of America in the following selection wherein he describes the effect of American society and life upon the individual. The true test of civilization is, not the crops, not the size of cities, not the census,--no, but the kind of man the country turns out. I see the vast advantages of this country, spanning the breadth of the temperate zone. I see the immense material prosperity,--towns on towns, states on states, and wealth piled in the massive architecture of cities: California quartz, mountains dumped down in New York to be repiled architecturally alongshore from Canada to Cuba, and thence westward to California again. But it is not New York streets, built by the confluence of workmen and wealth of all nations, though stretching out toward Philadelphia until they touch it, and northward until they touch New Haven, Hartford, Springfield, Worcester, and Boston,--not these that make the real estimation. But when I look over this constellation of cities which animate and illustrate the land, and see how little the government has to do with their daily life, how self-helped and self-directed all families are,--knots of men in purely natural societies, societies of trade, of kindred blood, of habitual hospitality, house and house, man acting on man by weight of opinion, of longer or better-directed industry; the refining influence of women, the invitation which experience and permanent causes open to youth and labor: when I see how much each virtuous and gifted person whom all men consider, lives affectionately with scores of people who are not known far from home, and perhaps with greatest reason reckons these people his superiors in virtue and in the symmetry and force of their qualities,--I see what cubic values America has, and in these a better certificate of civilization than great cities or enormous wealth.[25] [25] Ralph Waldo Emerson: "Civilization," in _Society and Solitude_. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. These, then, are the various methods that are in common use. The list might be extended, but perhaps enough varieties have been discussed to be of practical value. The choice of method will depend on the result that the writer wishes to accomplish; at times he will wish to please the reader's fancy with an illustration, and again he may wish to contrast the subject to something else. If at any time more methods than one are useful, there is not the slightest objection to combining; in fact, most definitions of any length will be found to have more than one method employed. Remember that the methods were made for you, not you for the methods. And so long as you make your subject clear, so long as you set it off by itself in a class, distinct from other members of the class, you can be sure of the value of your definition. EXERCISES I. Discover the restricting adjectives or phrases that will reduce the number of differentia required by the genus in the following definitions: 1. Vaudeville is _an entertainment_. 2. Pneumonia is _a disease_. 3. The Browning gun is _a machine_. 4. Landscape gardening is _an occupation_. 5. Smelting is _an operation_. 6. Lyrics are _writing_. 7. A college diploma is _a statement by a body of men_. 8. Rotation of crops is _a system_. 9. The Republican party is _an organization_. 10. Anglo-Saxon is _a language_. 11. An axe is _a tool_. 12. A printing press is _a steel structure_. 13. A hair-net is _weaving_. 14. Literature is _writing_. 15. Militarism is _an attitude of mind_. II. Write a definition of any of the following, showing how the subject has shifted its genus by its development, as the _clearing-house_ (page 75) has. 1. The Temperance Movement (sentimental crusade; sensible campaign for efficiency). 2. War. 3. Incantation (means of salvation; curiosity). 4. Household Science (drudgery; occupation). 5. Aristocracy (through physical strength; through birth; through property). 6. Justice (B.C.; A.D.). 7. Chemistry (magic; utility). 8. The Presidency of the United States (as changed by Mr. Wilson's procedure with Congress). 9. The Theater (under Puritan and Cavalier). 10. Electricity (curiosity; fearsome thing; utility). Of course any one of these ten subjects can be defined with a changeless genus, but such a genus is likely to be in the realm of the abstract, pretty thoroughly divorced from practical life. III. From the following definitions taken from Webster's New International Dictionary construct definitions of a more amplified, pleasing nature, after the manner of the definition of _war correspondents_. 1. _Laziness_ is the state of being disinclined to action or exertion; averse to labor; indolent; idle; slothful. 2. _Efficiency_ is the quality of being efficient, of producing an effect or effects; efficient power or action. 3. A _department store_ is a store keeping a great variety of goods which are arranged in several departments, especially one with dry goods as the principal stock. 4. _Metabolism_ is the sum of the processes concerned in the building up of protoplasm and its destruction incidental to the manifestation of vital phenomena; the chemical changes proceeding continually in living cells, by which the energy is provided for the vital processes and activities and new material is assimilated to repair the waste. 5. _Judgment_ is the faculty of judging or deciding rightly, justly, or wisely; good sense; as, a man of judgment; a politician without judgment. 6. _Puddling_ is the art or process of converting cast iron into wrought iron, or, now rarely, steel by subjecting it to intense heat and frequent stirring in a reverberatory furnace in the presence of oxidizing substances, by which it is freed from a portion of its carbon and other impurities. 7. _Overhead cost_ is the general expenses of a business, as distinct from those caused by particular pieces of traffic. 8. A _joke_ is something said or done for the sake of exciting a laugh; something witty or sportive (commonly indicating more of hilarity or humor than jest). 9. A _diplomat_ is one employed or skilled in the art and practice of conducting negotiations between nations, as in arranging treaties; performing the business or art of conducting international discourse. 10. A _visionary_ is one who relies, or tends to rely, on visions, or impractical ideas, projects, or the like; an impractical person. 11. An _entrepreneur_ is an employer in his character of one who assumes the risk and management of business. 12. _Loyalty_ is fidelity to a superior, or to duty, love, etc. 13. A _prig_ is one narrowly and self-consciously engrossed in his own mental or spiritual attainments; one guilty of moral or intellectual foppery; a conceited precisian. 14. _Heresy_ is an opinion held in opposition to the established or commonly received doctrine, and tending to promote division or dissension. 15. _Eugenics_ is the science of improving stock, whether human or animal, or of improving plants. IV. Compare the definitions of the following which you find in the Century Dictionary, the Standard Dictionary, the Webster's New International Dictionary and the New English Dictionary; find the common elements, and make a definition of your own. 1. Literature. 2. Living wage. 3. Capillary attraction. 4. Sympathy. 5. Classicism. 6. Inertia. 7. Fodder. 8. Religion. 9. Introspection. 10. Individuality. 11. Finance. 12. Capital. 13. Soil physics. 14. Progress. 15. Narrow-mindedness. V. Look up the definitions of the following terms and estimate the resulting amount of increase in your knowledge of the subject which includes the terms. Do you find any stimulus toward _thinking_ about the subject? What would you say, as the result of this investigation, about the value of definitions? What does Coleridge mean by his statement "Language thinks for us"? 1. _Religion_: awe, reverence, duty, mystery, peace, priest, worship, loyalty, prayer, supplication, trust, divinity, god, service, church, temple, heaven, fate. 2. _Socialism_: property, social classes, economic rights, capital, labor, wages, the masses, aristocracy, envy, self-respect, economic distribution, labor union, boycott, strike, lock-out, materialism, profit-sharing. 3. _Ability_: genius, wit, talent, insight, judgment, perseverance, logic, imagination, originality, intellectuality, vitality. 4. _Music_: sound, rhythm, melody, harmony, orchestra, interval (musical), key, beat, tonic, modulation, musical register, polyphony, monophony, sonata, oratorio, musical scale, diatonic, chromatic, tempo. 5. _Democracy_: independence, suffrage, representation, equality, popular, coöperation. VI. Are the two statements which follow definitions? If not, why not? What would be the effect of the use of definitions of this type in argument? Write a defining theme with such a definition as its nucleus, and test its value. 1. Beauty is its own excuse for being. 2. Virtue is its own reward. VII. In the following definitions[26] what are the genera? Are the definitions fair? How would you criticize them in general? Write a theme using the differentia noted, and trying to catch in the theme the spirit that is shown in the lists. [26] From B. L. T.'s "The Line o' Type Column." By courtesy of the _Chicago Tribune_. Highbrow: Browning, anthropology, economics, Bacon, the up-lift, inherent sin, Gibbon, fourth dimension, Euripides, "eyether," pâté de fois gras, lemon phosphate, Henry Cabot Lodge, Woodrow Wilson. Low-highbrow: Municipal government, Kipling, socialism, Shakespeare, politics, Thackeray, taxation, golf, grand opera, bridge, chicken à la Maryland, "eether," stocks and bonds, gin rickey, Theodore Roosevelt, chewing gum in private. High-lowbrow: Musical comedy, euchre, baseball, moving pictures, small steak medium, whiskey, Robert W. Chambers, purple socks, chewing gum with friends. Lowbrow: Laura Jean Libbey, ham sandwich, haven't came, pitch, I and her, melodrama, hair oil, the Duchess, beer, George M. Cohan, red flannels, toothpicks, Bathhouse John, chewing gum in public. VIII. Expand the following definition[27] into a theme, using the combined methods of illustration and comparison. What is the value of having the heart of the definition stated before the theme is begun? [27] George Bernard Shaw: _The Sanity of Art_. By courtesy of the publishers, Boni & Liveright. The worthy artist or craftsman is he who serves the physical and moral senses by feeding them with pictures, musical compositions, pleasant houses and gardens, good clothes and fine implements, poems, fictions, essays, and dramas which call the heightened senses and ennobled faculties into pleasurable activity. The great artist is he who goes a step beyond the demand, and, by supplying works of a higher beauty and a higher interest than have yet been perceived, succeeds, after a brief struggle with its strangeness, in adding this fresh extension of sense to the heritage of the race. IX. See "Poverty" (page 84). 1. In view of the fact that Gissing uses so slight an illustration to fix his ideal, what makes the definition valuable? Compare the value of this definition with another of the same subject such as you might find in a text on Sociology or Economics. 2. Define by illustration any of the following: Homesickness, Jealousy, Despair, Discouragement, Vulgarity, Opulence, Misery, Cheapness, Tenacity, Anger, Adaptability, Man of action, Man of executive ability, Statesman, Ward boss, Man of learning, Luck, Courage, Business success, "Bonehead Play," Political shrewdness, The "College Widow," Perfect technique, Up-to-date factory, Social tact, A Snob, "Some Kid," Other-worldliness, A Gentleman, A Lady, A "real meal," A fighting chance, Good breeding, A "Social climber," Community music, Poetic justice, A wage-slave, A political ring, Good team-work, Elasticity of mind, Bigotry. How far is definition by illustration concerned with _morality_? Could you, for example, so illustrate _courage_ as to seem to exclude a really courageous person? What necessity in employing this method does your answer to the preceding question indicate? Define any of the following: The ideal leader of the "gang," The ideal ward boss, The ideal town librarian, The ideal teacher, The ideal military general, captain, corporal, The ideal headwaiter, The ideal foreman in a factory, The ideal soda-clerk, The ideal athletic coach, The ideal intellectual leader, The ideal orchestra conductor, The ideal mayor, The ideal "boss" in a steel mill, on a farm, of an engineering gang, of cotton pickers, of lumberjacks. Is the definition of a _Responsible Statesman_ any the less sound because the differentia are duties rather than facts? Write a theme explaining why an executive too far "ahead of his times" fails of immediate results. 3. In the manner of the definition of _Amortization_, write a definition of the following: Collective buying, Sabotage, Montessori method of education, Dry cleaning, Dry farming. X. What is the chief value of the following selection as a real definition? Which is of greater value, this selection or the kind of definition that would be found in a text on geography? Define, in a manner similar to that of the selection: New England, The Middle West, The "Old Dominion," "The Cradle of Liberty," "Gotham," The "Gold Coast," "Dixie," "The Old South," "The Auld Sod," "The Corn Belt," "The Wheat Belt," The Anthracite Region, The Land of Big Game, "The Land of Heart's Desire," "The Cockpit of Europe," "The Vacation Land." Between the Seine and the Rhine lay once a beautiful land wherein more history was made, and recorded in old monuments full of grace and grandeur and fancy, than in almost any other region of the world. The old names were best, for each aroused memory and begot strange dreams: Flanders, Brabant, the Palatinate; Picardy, Valois, Champagne, Franche-Comté; Artois, Burgundy, and Bar. And the town names ring with the same sonorous melody, evoking the ghosts of a great and indelible past: Bruges, Ghent, Louvain, and Liége; Aix-la-Chapelle, Coblenz, and Trêves; Ypres and Lille, Tournai and Fontenoy, Arras and Malplaquet; Laon, Nancy, Verdun, and Varennes; Amiens, Soissons, and Reims. Cæsar, Charlemagne, St. Louis, Napoleon, with proconsuls, paladins, crusaders, and marshals unnumbered; kings, prince-bishops, monks, knights, and aureoled saints take form and shape again at the clang of the splendid names. It is not a large land, this Heart of Europe; three hundred and fifty miles, perhaps, from the Alps to the sea, and not more than two hundred and fifty from the Seine at Paris to the Rhine at Cologne; half the size, shall we say, of Texas; but what Europe was for the thousand years following the fall of Rome, this little country--or the men that made it great--was responsible. Add the rest of Normandy, and the spiritual energy of the Holy See, and with a varying and sometimes negligible influence from the Teutonic lands beyond the Rhine, and you have the mainsprings of mediævalism, even though for its full manifestation you must take into account the men in the far countries of the Italian peninsula and the Iberian, in France and England, Bavaria, Saxony, Bohemia.[28] [28] Ralph Adams Cram: _The Heart of Europe_. By courtesy of the publishers, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York City. Copyright, 1915. XI. Note the two selections that follow, in comparison with the definitions of a responsible statesman and quack novels on pages 87 and 88, and write a definition of any of the following groups, using the method of comparison and contrast. A sale of personal property is the transfer of its general ownership from one person to another for a price in money. It is almost always the result of a contract between the seller and the buyer. If the contract provides for the transfer of ownership at once the transaction is called "a present sale," or "a bargain and sale," or "an executed contract of sale." If it provides for the transfer of ownership at some future time it is called "a contract to sell," or "an executory contract of sale." The business transaction most nearly resembling a sale is that of barter, or the transfer of one article of personal property for another, as when A and B trade horses, or wagons, or oats, or cows. It differs from a sale only in this, that the consideration for each transfer is the counter-transfer of a chattel instead of money. Next to barter in its likeness to sale is a mortgage of personal property, usually called a chattel mortgage. This, in form, is a sale, but it contains a proviso that if the mortgagor pays a certain amount of money, or does some other act, at a stipulated time, the sale shall be void. Even though the mortgagor does not perform the act promised at the agreed time, he still has the right to redeem the property from the mortgage by paying his debt with interest. In other words, a chattel mortgage does not transfer general ownership, or absolute property in the chattels, while a sale does. A sale differs from a bailment.... The former is the transfer of title to goods, the latter of their possession. A bailee undertakes to restore to the bailor the very thing bailed, although it may be in a changed form, while the buyer is to pay money to the seller for the subject-matter of their contract.[29] [29] Francis M. Burdick: _The Essentials of Business Law_. By courtesy of the publishers, D. Appleton & Co., New York City. Copyright, 1902 and 1908. The familiar distinction between the poetic and the scientific temper is another way of stating the same difference. The one fuses or crystallizes external objects and circumstances in the medium of human feeling and passion; the other is concerned with the relations of objects and circumstances among themselves, including in them all the facts of human consciousness, and with the discovery and classification of these relations. There is, too, a corresponding distinction between the aspects which conduct, character, social movement, and the objects of nature are able to present, according as we scrutinize them with a view to exactitude of knowledge, or are stirred by some appeal which they make to our various faculties and forms of sensibility, our tenderness, sympathy, awe, terror, love of beauty, and all the other emotions in this momentous catalogue. The starry heavens have one side for the astronomer, as astronomer, and another for the poet, as poet. The nightingale, the skylark, the cuckoo, move one sort of interest in an ornithologist, and a very different sort in a Shelley or a Wordsworth. The hoary and stupendous formations of the inorganic world, the thousand tribes of insects, the great universe of plants, from those whose size and form and hue make us afraid as if they were deadly monsters, down to "the meanest flower that blows," all these are clothed with one set of attributes by scientific intelligence, and with another by sentiment, fancy, and imaginative association.[30] [30] John Morley: _Miscellanies_, vol. I. By courtesy of the publishers, The Macmillan Company, New York City. 1. Autocracy and Democracy. 2. Fame and Notoriety. 3. Cribbing and Lying. 4. Immorality and Unconventionality. 5. Musician and Music Lover. 6. Popularity and Cheapness. 7. Enthusiast and Crank. 8. An Irish Bull and a Paradox. 9. Puppy Love and Real Love. 10. Boiling and Broiling. 11. Honesty and Truthfulness. 12. White Lies and Falsehoods. 13. Liberty and License. 14. Wages and Unearned Increment. 15. Knowledge and Scholarship. 16. Religion and Superstition. 17. Broadmindedness and Spinelessness. 18. Architecture and Architectural Engineering. 19. Socialism and Anarchy. 20. Wit and Humor. 21. Enough and Sufficient. 22. Genetic Heredity and Social Heredity. 23. Lying and Diplomacy. 24. Theology and Religion. 25. Force, Energy, and Power. 26. Sanitary Engineers and Plumbers. 27. Business, Trade, and Commerce. 28. "Kidding" and Taunting. 29. Eminence and Prominence. 30. Realism and Romanticism. 31. Kinetic and Potential Energy. 32. Popular and Permanent Literature. 33. A "Gentleman Farmer" and a Producer. 34. An Employer and a Slave-driver. 35. A Practical Joke and a "Mean Trick." Is the following selection properly a definition by the method of comparison? What is defined? Are the general statements that serve as background true? In how far does the whole selection depend for its validity upon the truth of these general statements? There is a difference between boys and men, but it is a difference of self-knowledge chiefly. A boy wants to do everything because he does not know he cannot; a man wants to do something because he knows he cannot do everything; a boy always fails, and a man sometimes succeeds because the man knows and the boy does not know. A man is better than a boy because he knows better; he has learned by experience that what is a harm to others is a greater harm to himself, and he would rather not do it. But a boy hardly knows what harm is, and he does it mostly without realizing that it hurts. He cannot invent anything, he can only imitate; and it is easier to imitate evil than good. You can imitate war, but how are you going to imitate peace? So a boy passes his leisure in contriving mischief. If you get another fellow to walk into a wasp's camp, you can see him jump and hear him howl, but if you do not, then nothing at all happens. If you set a dog to chase a cat up a tree, then something has been done; but if you do not set the dog on the cat, then the cat just lies in the sun and sleeps and you lose your time. If a boy could find out some way of doing good, so that he could be active in it, very likely he would want to do good now and then; but as he cannot, he very seldom wants to do good.[31] [31] William Dean Howells: _A Boy's Town_. By courtesy of the publishers, Harper & Brothers, New York City. Copyright, 1890. XII. Does the style of the definition of moral atmosphere (page 9) fit well with the subject? Would the definition be more effective if written in a more formal style? Define: 1. The scholarly atmosphere of a university. 2. The business atmosphere of the Stock Exchange. 3. The holy atmosphere of a large church. 4. The inhuman atmosphere of an ordinary criminal court. 5. The human atmosphere of a reunion (of a class, a family, a group of friends). 6. The majestic atmosphere of Niagara Falls. 7. The beautiful atmosphere of a pond of skaters. {inspiring } 8. The {overpowering} atmosphere of a steel mill. {brutal } {beautiful } 9. The calm atmosphere of a dairy farm. XIII. Does the following selection serve to define _honor_ as too difficult of attainment, as too closely bound up with fighting? Is any definition of _privilege_ implied? Define honor as taught in a college and honor as taught in the business world. Can a State University afford to maintain the kind of honor that forces it to "remain loyal to unpopular causes and painful truths"? Is the honor that seeks "to maintain faith even with the devil" foolish? Write a report on the state of honor in your college or university such as Washington or Lincoln would have written after investigating conditions in the student politics of the institution, or conditions in examinations and quizzes. Honor, perhaps because it is associated in the public mind with old ideas of dueling and paying gambling debts, and in general with the habits, good and bad, of a privileged class, is not in high repute with a modern industrial community, where bankruptcy laws, the letter of the statute book, the current morality of an easy-going, good-natured, success-loving people, mark out a smoother path. But the business of a college is not to fit a boy for the world, but to fit him to mould the world to his ideal. Honor is not necessarily old-fashioned and antiquated; it will adapt itself to the present and to the future. If it is arbitrary, or at least has an arbitrary element, so are most codes of law. If honor belongs to a privileged class, it is because it makes a privileged class; a body of men whose privilege it is to speak out in the scorn of consequence, to keep an oath to their own hurt, to remain loyal to unpopular causes and painful truths, to maintain faith even with the devil, and not swerve for rewards, prizes, popularity, or any of the blandishments of success. Because it is arbitrary, because it has rules, it needs to be taught. To teach a code of honor is one of the main purposes of education; a college cannot say, "We teach academic studies," and throw the responsibility for honor on parents, on preliminary schools, on undergraduate opinion, on each boy's conscience. Honor is taught by the companionship, the standards, the ideals, the talk, the actions of honorable men; it is taught by honoring honorable failure and turning the back on all manner of dishonorable success.[32] [32] Henry Dwight Sedgwick: _The New American Type_. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, publishers. XIV. Define, by showing the origin, any of the following: Highway Engineering, The County Agricultural Adviser, Customs Officer, A private secretary, The linotype machine, National public opinion, The Federal Reserve Board, The "Spoils System," The American Federation of Labor, American "Moral Leadership" in 1918, The Caste System, The mechanical stoker, The canal lock, The trial balance sheet, The Babcock Test. XV. Are the following statements true definitions? Wherein does their worth consist? What causes any weakness that they may have? 1. Life is one long process of getting tired. 2. Life is the distribution of an error--or errors. 3. Life is eight parts cards and two parts play; the unseen world is made manifest to us in the play. 4. Life is the art of drawing sufficient conclusions from insufficient premises. 5. The body is but a pair of pincers set over a bellows and a stewpan and the whole fixed upon stilts. 6. Morality is the custom of one's country and the current feeling of one's peers. Cannibalism is moral in a cannibal country. 7. Heaven is the work of the best and kindest men and women. Hell is the work of prigs, pedants and professional truth-tellers. The world is an attempt to make the best of both. 8. Going to your doctor is having such a row with your cells that you refer them to your solicitor. Sometimes you, as it were, strike against them and stop their food, when they go on strike against yourself. Sometimes you file a bill in chancery against them and go to bed.[33] [33] All these are from _The Note-Books of Samuel Butler_, published by A. C. Fifield, London. XVI. In the light of the following definition of _Superiority of Status_ write a definition of any of the following: Superiority of birth, Superiority of training, Superiority of vitality, Superiority of environment, Superiority of patronage. There is another sort of artificial superiority which also returns an artificial rent: the superiority of pure status. What are called "superiors" are just as necessary in social organization as a keystone is in an arch; but the keystone is made of no better material than any other parts of a bridge; its importance is conferred upon it by its position, not its position by its importance. If half-a-dozen men are cast adrift in a sailing-boat, they will need a captain. It seems simple enough for them to choose the ablest man; but there may easily be no ablest man. The whole six, or four out of the six, or two out of the six, may be apparently equally fit for the post. In that case, the captain must be elected by lot; but the moment he assumes his authority, that authority makes him at once literally the ablest man in the boat. He has the powers which the other five have given him for their own good. Take another instance. Napoleon gained the command of the French army because he was the ablest general in France. But suppose every individual in the French army had been a Napoleon also! None the less a commander-in-chief, with his whole hierarchy of subalterns, would have had to be appointed--by lot if you like--and here, again, from the moment the lot was cast, the particular Napoleon who drew the straw for the commander-in-chief would have been the great, the all-powerful Napoleon, much more able than the Napoleons who were corporals and privates. After a year, the difference in ability between the men who had been doing nothing but sentry duty, under no strain of responsibility, and the man who had been commanding the army would have been enormous. As "the defenders of the system of Conservatism" well know, we have for centuries made able men out of ordinary ones by allowing them to inherit exceptional power and status; and the success of the plan in the phase of social development to which it was proper was due to the fact that, provided the favored man was really an ordinary man, and not a duffer, the extraordinary power conferred on him did effectually create extraordinary ability as compared with that of an agricultural laborer, for example, of equal natural endowments. The gentleman, the lord, the king, all discharging social functions of which the laborer is incapable, are products as artificial as queen bees. Their superiority is produced by giving them a superior status, just as the inferiority of the laborer is produced by giving him an inferior status. But the superior income which is the appanage of superior status is not rent of ability. It is a payment made to a man to exercise normal ability, in an abnormal situation. Rent of ability is what a man gets by exercising abnormal ability in a normal situation.[34] [34] George Bernard Shaw: _Socialism and Superior Brains_. By courtesy of the publishers, John Lane Company. XVII. In the following selection how many definitions occur, or how many things are defined? Do you understand what the author says? How many words do you have to look up in the dictionary before you understand the article? Could the author have made the subject clear in a sensible extent of space? What would you say is the chief virtue of the selection? How is it gained? For what kind of audience was the article written? What was the author's controlling purpose? Point out how he attains it. Do you find any _pattern-designers_ among novelists, poets, architects, landscape gardeners? Name a novel, a poem, a building, a park, which is primarily a pattern-design. Name one which is not a pattern-design so much as a dramatic expression. Which is the more significant? Which is more difficult to make? Define: Futurist painting, Free verse, Social morality, in relation to their preceding forms. Explain, through definition, the controversy between Paganism and Christianity, between Monarchy and Democracy, between Classical Education and Industrial Education, between Party Politics and Independent Politics, between Established Religion and Non-Conformist Views. Music is like drawing, in that it can be purely decorative, or purely dramatic, or anything between the two.... You can compose a graceful, symmetrical sound-pattern that exists solely for the sake of its own grace and symmetry. Or you can compose music to heighten the expression of human emotion; and such music will be intensely affecting in the presence of that emotion, and utter nonsense apart from it. For examples of pure pattern-designing in music I should have to go back to the old music of the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries ... designed to affect the hearer solely by its beauty of sound and grace and ingenuity of pattern; absolute music, represented to-day in the formal sonata and symphony.... The first modern dramatic composers accepted as binding the rules of good pattern-designing in sound; and this absurdity was made to appear practicable from the fact that Mozart had such an extraordinary command of his art that his operas contain numbers which, though they seem to follow the dramatic play of emotion and character, without reference to any other consideration whatever, are seen, upon examining them from the point of view of the absolute musician, to be perfectly symmetrical sound-patterns.... Even Mozart himself broke away in all directions, and was violently attacked by his contemporaries for doing so, the accusations levelled at him being exactly those with which the opponents of Wagner so often pester ourselves. Wagner completed the emancipation of the dramatic musician from these laws of pattern-designing; and we now have operas, and very good ones, too, written by composers not musicians in the old sense at all: that is, they are not pattern-designers; they do not compose music apart from drama. The dramatic development also touched purely instrumental music. Liszt tried hard to extricate himself from pianoforte arabesques, and become a tone poet like his friend Wagner. He wanted his symphonic poems to express emotions and their development. And he defined the emotion by connecting it with some known story, poem, or even picture: Mazeppa, Victor Hugo's Les Preludes, Kaulbach's Die Hunnenschlacht, or the like. But the moment you try to make an instrumental composition follow a story, you are forced to abandon the decorative pattern forms, since all patterns consist of some form which is repeated over and over again, and which generally consists in itself of a repetition of two similar halves. For example, if you take a playing-card (say the five of diamonds) as a simple example of pattern, you find not only that the diamond pattern is repeated five times, but that each established form of a symphony is essentially a pattern form involving just such symmetrical repetitions; and, since a story does not repeat itself, but pursues a continuous chain of fresh incident and correspondingly varied emotions, Liszt invented the symphonic poem, a perfectly simple and fitting common-sense form for his purpose, and one which makes Les Preludes much plainer sailing for the ordinary hearer than Mendelssohn's Melusine overture or Raff's Lenore or Im Walde symphonies, in both of which the formal repetitions would stamp Raff as a madman if we did not know that they were mere superstitions.[35] [35] George Bernard Shaw: _The Sanity of Art_, "Wagnerism." By courtesy of the publishers, Boni & Liveright. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS Suppose that the president of a railroad asked you to report on the feasibility of a proposed line through a range of hills; or that you found it necessary to prove to an over-conservative farmer that he should erect a hollow-tile silo at once; or that your duty as chairman of the town playground committee led you to examine an empty lot for its possibilities; or that, as an expert in finance, you were trying to learn the cause of the deficit in a country club's accounts. In the first case you would examine the proposed route for its practicability, would estimate the grades to be reduced, would look into the question of drainage, would consider the possibility of landslides, would survey the quality of the road-bed: all with a view to making a complete report on the practicability of the route proposed. In the other cases you would determine the conditions in general that you confronted, would answer the questions: what is the value of a hollow-tile silo? why is this site suitable for a playground? what is wrong with the finances of this club? Such tasks as these occur in life all the time; in college they confront one whenever an inconsiderate instructor asks for a term paper on, say, "Conditions in New York that Made the Tweed Ring Possible," or "The Influence of the Great War on Dyestuffs," or "Tennyson's Early Training as an Influence on his Poetry," or some other subject. In every one of these cases the writer who attempts to answer the questions involved is writing analysis, for _Analysis is the breaking up of a subject into its component parts, seeing of what it is composed_. In every such case you would wish, first of all, to tell the truth. Of what use would your analysis be if you incorrectly estimated the drainage of the proposed railway route and the company had to expend thousands of dollars in fighting improper seepage? Unless the analysis was accurate, it would be useless or worse. But suppose that you told the truth about the site for the playground, its central position, its wealth of shade, its proper soil conditions, and yet forgot to take into account the sluggish, noisome stream that flowed on one side of the plot and bred disease? Your report would be valueless because it would be, in a vital point, quite lacking. In other words, it would be incomplete. For practical purposes it would therefore, of course, be untrue. If you wish to write an analysis, then, your path is straight, and it leads between the two virtues of truth and thoroughness. Your catechism should be: Have I hugged my fact close and told the truth about it?, and, Have I really covered the ground? The question of truth enters into every analysis; none may falsify. Completeness, on the other hand, is a more relative matter. In the report of a tariff commission it is essential; all the ground must be covered. In a thorough survey of Beethoven's music no sonata or quartette may be omitted. In determining the causes of an epidemic no clue is to be left unexamined until all possibilities have been exhausted. In the case of the term paper mentioned above, on the other hand, "Tennyson's Early Training as an Influence on his Poetry," not everything in his early life can be considered in anything short of a volume. In such a case you may well be puzzled what to do until you are suddenly cheered by the thought that your task is primarily one of interpretation, that what you are seeking is the _spirit_ of the training. There would seem, therefore, to be various degrees of completeness in analysis. On the basis of completeness, then, we may divide analysis into the two classes of the _Formal_ and the _Informal_. The Two Classes of Analysis Formal analysis is sometimes called _logical analysis_--that is, complete, as in the report of a tariff commission--because it continues its splitting into subheadings until the demands of the thought are entirely satisfied. Such thorough meeting of all demands might well occur in an analysis of trades-unions, or methods of heating houses, or such subjects. Informal analysis, on the other hand, which is sometimes called _literary analysis_, does not attempt to be so thorough, but aims rather at giving the core of the subject, at making the spirit of it clear to the reader. For example, Mr. P. E. More in an essay on Tennyson, which is primarily an informal analysis, makes one main point, that "Tennyson was the Victorian Age." This he divides into three headings: (1) Tennyson was humanly loved by the great Victorians; (2) Tennyson was the poet of compromise; (3) Tennyson was the poet of insight. Now in these three points Mr. More has not said all that he could say, in fact he has omitted many things that from some angle would be important, but he has said those things truthfully that are needed for a proper interpretation of the subject, for a sufficient illumination of it, for showing its spirit. It is, therefore, a piece of informal analysis. The two examples which follow illustrate formal and informal analysis, the first one classifying rock drills thoroughly, and the second very informally discussing some odds against Shakespeare. Hammer drills may be classed under several heads, as follows: (1) Those mounted on a cradle like a piston drill and fed forward by a screw; (2) those used and held in the hand; and (3) those used and mounted on an air-fed arrangement. The last two classes are often interchangeable. Mr. Leyner, though now making drills of the latter classes, was the pioneer of the large 3-inch diameter piston machine to be worked in competition with large piston drills. The smaller Leyner Rock Terrier drill was brought out for stopping and driving; it could not, apparently, compete with machines of other classes. When the drills are thus divided we have: 1. Cradle drills--Leyner, Leyner Rock Terrier, Stephens Imperial hammer drills and the Kimber. 2. Drills used only with air feed--Gordon drill and the large sizes of the Murphy, Little Wonder, and others. 3. Drills used held in the hand or with air feed--Murphy, Flottman, Cleveland, Little Wonder, Shaw, Hardy Nipper, Sinclair, Sullivan, Little Jap, Little Imp, Traylor, and others. Again, they may be divided into those that are valveless, with the differential piston or hammer itself acting as a valve. The Murphy, Sinclair, Little Wonder, Shaw, Little Imp, Leyner Rock Terrier, and Kimber drills belong to this class. The large Leyner drill is worked by a spool valve resembling that of the Slugger drill; the Flottman by a ball valve; the Little Jap by an axial valve; the Gordon drill, by a spool valve set at one end of the cylinder at right angles to it; the Waugh and Sullivan drills by spool valves set in the same axial line as the cylinder; the Hardy Nipper, and the Stephens Imperial hammer drills by an air-moved slide-valve set midway on the side of the cylinder; the Cleveland by a spool set towards the rear of the cylinder. They may again be divided into those drills in which the piston hammer delivers its blow on the end of the steel itself. A collar is placed on the drill to prevent its entering the cylinder. The other class has an anvil block or striking pin. This anvil block fits into the end of the cylinder between the piston and the steel. It receives and transmits the blow, and also prevents the drill end from entering the cylinder.[36] [36] Eustace M. Weston: _Rock Drills_. By courtesy of the publishers, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. Copyright. * * * * * Powerful among the enemies of Shakespeare are the commentator and the elocutionist; the commentator because, not knowing Shakespeare's language, he sharpens his faculties to examine propositions advanced by an eminent lecturer from the Midlands, instead of sensitizing his artistic faculty to receive the impression of moods and inflexions of being conveyed by word-music; the elocutionist because he is a born fool, in which capacity, observing with pain that poets have a weakness for imparting to their dramatic dialog a quality which he describes and deplores as "sing-song," he devotes his life to the art of breaking up verse in such a way as to make it sound like insanely pompous prose. The effect of this on Shakespeare's earlier verse, which is full of the naïve delight of pure oscillation, to be enjoyed as an Italian enjoys a barcarolle, or a child a swing, or a baby a rocking-cradle, is destructively stupid. In the later plays, where the barcarolle measure has evolved into much more varied and complex rhythms, it does not matter so much, since the work is no longer simple enough for a fool to pick to pieces. But in every play from _Love's Labour's Lost_ to _Henry V_, the elocutionist meddles simply as a murderer, and ought to be dealt with as such without benefit of clergy. To our young people studying for the stage I say, with all solemnity, learn how to pronounce the English alphabet clearly and beautifully from some person who is at once an artist and a phonetic expert. And then leave blank verse patiently alone until you have experienced emotion deep enough to crave for poetic expression, at which point verse will seem an absolutely natural and real form of speech to you. Meanwhile, if any pedant, with an uncultivated heart and a theoretic ear, proposes to teach you to recite, send instantly for the police.[37] [37] George Bernard Shaw: _Dramatic Opinions and Essays_. Archibald Constable & Co., Ltd., London, publishers. Analyses are to be divided also upon the basis of whether the subject is an individual or a group of individuals, that is, whether the subject is, for example, the quality of patriotism, which is to be analyzed into its components, or, in the second place, shade trees, which are to be grouped into the classes which together constitute such trees. Of these two kinds of analysis we call the first _Partition_ and the second _Classification_. The logical process is the same in the two cases, in that it divides the subject; the difference lies in the fact that in the first case the subject is always single, though it may of course be complicated, and in the second it is always plural, and may contain a very large number of individuals, as for example the human race--all the billions of all the ages gone and yet to come. In this treatment of analysis you will find the main divisions made on the basis of formality and the matter of single or plural subject treated under each of the other headings. Formal Analysis Formal analysis, which requires completeness of division,--which is not well done until every individual case is accounted for, or, in Partition, every quality or factor or part,--is found in reports to corporations, in estimates of conditions for some society, in government documents, in textbooks, and in other kinds of writing where detailed and complete information is necessary for judgment. A report to the city of Chicago on the subject of the smoke nuisance will be valuable largely as it entirely covers the ground, discovers all the conditions that the city has to face. Such a report will be primarily a partition of the question, though it may employ classification of various like situations or conditions. Likewise an account of the game birds of North America will be a formal analysis only if every kind of game bird is given a place in the account. The object of formal classification and partition is to give information, to array facts completely. The following classification of oriental rugs, which in its course also employs definition, or a close approach to it, will be finally sufficient only if no rug can be found which is not included within the classes named. The partition of the character of Queen Elizabeth will be of lasting value as formal partition only if it really accounts for the total character of the subject. That it makes only two main divisions is in no way indicative of its completeness; the question is merely, are all the qualities included under those two headings? It is a common impression that oriental rugs are as difficult to know as the 320,000 specimens of plants, and the 20,000,000 forms of animal life that Herbert Spencer advised for the teaching of boys. This impression is wrong. There are only six groups or families of oriental rugs, and less than fifty common kinds. The novice can learn to distinguish the six families in sixty minutes. He would confuse them occasionally on so short acquaintance, but a college examiner would give him a passing grade. Persian rugs are the rugs that are profusely decorated with a great variety of flowers, leaves, vines, and occasional birds and animals, woven free hand, with purely decorative intent. India rugs are those in which flowers, leaves, vines, and occasional animals are woven as they appear in nature. Early Indian weavers transcribed flowers to rugs as if they were botanists; modern Indian weavers are copyists of Persian patterns and their copies are plainly not originals. In broad generalization, therefore, the two families of oriental rugs that are decorated almost exclusively with flowers have distinct styles that render their identification comparatively easy. The Turkoman and Caucasian families of oriental rugs also pair off by themselves. They are the rugs of almost pure geometric linear design. Turkoman rugs, comprising the products of Turkestan, Bokhara, Afghanistan, and Beluchistan, are red rugs with web or open ends, woven in the patterns of the kindergarten--squares, diamonds, octagons, etc. That wild tribes should dye their wools in the shades of blood and weave the designs of childhood is fitting and logical. Caucasian rugs differ from Turkoman rugs in being dyed in other colors than blood red, in omitting the apron ends, and in being more crowded, elaborate, and pretentious in geometric linear pattern. The Caucasian weaver's distinction as the oriental cartoonist, the expert in wooden men, women, and animals, is well deserved. He holds the oriental rug patent on Noah's ark designs. Incidentally Mount Ararat and Noah's grave, "shown" near Nakhitchevan, are located on the southern border of his country. Chinese and Turkish rugs pair off almost as logically as the other rug families, although they are totally unlike in appearance. They contain both geometric linear and floral designs; the designs of the very early rugs of both groups generally are geometric, and the later ones floral. But these facts are not identifying. Chinese rugs can be recognized instantly by their colors, which are determined by their backgrounds, the reverse of the Persian method, which is to make the design the principal color medium. The Chinese colors are probably best described as the lighter and softer colors of silk--dull yellows, rose, salmon red, browns, and tans, the design usually being blue. The Chinese were the original manufacturers and dyers of silk, and they applied their silk dyes to their rugs. Turkish rugs that are ornamented with flowers and leaves can be distinguished from Persian and Indian products by the ruler-drawn character of their patterns. A keen observer describes them as quasi-botanical forms angularly treated. Turkish rugs that contain the patterns common to the Caucasian and Turkoman families can be recognized by their brighter, sharper, and more contrasting colors. The key to the identification of this most difficult rug family is to be found in the Turkish prayer rugs. To know Turkish rugs, one must see many of them; to know the other families one need see only a few. Reduced to a minimum statement, the identification of the six oriental rug families amounts to this: Persian rugs--floral designs drawn free hand. India rugs--floral designs photographed and copied. Turkoman rugs--geometric linear design, blood red, web ends. Caucasian rugs--geometric linear designs, numerous blended colors. Chinese rugs--floral and geometric linear designs, silk colors. Turkish rugs--floral designs, angular, ruled; and geometrical designs, bright contrasting colors. To be able to identify an oriental rug as a particular kind of Persian, Indian, Turkish, Turkoman, Caucasian or Chinese weaving is somewhat more of an accomplishment. The way to begin is to study first the rugs that have distinct or fairly constant characteristics. Take Persian rugs, for example: Bijar--rugs as thick as two or even three ordinary rugs. Fereghan--small leaf design, usually with green border. Gorevan or Scrapi--huge medallions, strong reds and blues. Herat or Ispahan--intricate, stately design on claret ground. Hamadan--a camel hair rug. Kashan--dark, rich, closely patterned, extremely finely woven. Kermanshah--the "parlor" rug, soft cream, rose, and blue. Khorassan--plum colored, small leaf design, long, soft, wool. Kurd--colored yarn run through the end web. Meshed--soft rose and blue with silver cast. Polonaise--delicately colored antique silk rug. Saraband--palm leaf or India shawl design on rose or blue ground. Sehna--closest woven small rug, minute pattern. Shiraz--limp rug, the sides overcast with yarns of various colors. Tabriz--reddish yellow, the design sometimes resembling a baseball diamond. To extend this list would make wearisome reading. Let it suffice to indicate that many oriental rugs, like people, have marked facial distinctions, and that many others have marked peculiarities of body and finish, that make them easy to recognize. Ease of naming, however, ceases with distinct markings, and rugs that are out-and-out hybrids, the cross-bred products of wars, migrations, and trade, are not named, but attributed. Hybrid oriental rugs--the bane of the novice and the joy of the collector--are largely an epitome of the wars of Asia. Cyrus the Great, heading a host of Persians, conquered the Babylonians 500 years before Christ. Of course the Babylonians became interested in Persian rugs and appropriated some of their patterns. Two hundred years later Alexander the Great invaded Asia and conquered it, except the distant provinces of India and China. The Mohammedan Arabs mastered the Persians in the East and the Spaniards in the West in the sixth century. Genghis Khan, out of China with warriors as numerous as locusts, made a single nation of Central Asia in the thirteenth century; and Tamerlane later made subject farther dominions. Even 200 years ago the Afghans conquered the Persians; and as recently as 1771, 600,000 Tartars fled from eastern Russia to the frontiers of China under conditions to make DeQuincey's essay, "Revolt of the Tartars," a contribution to rug literature. The wonder is not, therefore, that Chinese patterns are found in Turkestan, Persian, and Turkish rugs; that Persian patterns are found in Indian, Caucasian and Turkish rugs; that Turkish-Mohammedan patterns reach from Spain to China; and that European designs are found wherever oriental invention bent the knee to imitation. The wonder is rather that there are so many oriental rugs with distinct or fairly constant characteristics.[38] [38] Arthur U. Dilley: "Oriental Rugs," in _The New Country Life_, November, 1917. By courtesy of the publishers, Doubleday, Page & Co. * * * * * She was at once the daughter of Henry and of Anne Boleyn. From her father she inherited her frank and hearty address, her love of popularity and of free intercourse with the people, her dauntless courage and her amazing self-confidence. Her harsh, manlike voice, her impetuous will, her pride, her furious outbursts of anger, came to her with her Tudor blood. She rated great nobles as if they were school-boys; she met the insolence of Essex with a box on the ear; she would break now and then into the gravest deliberations to swear at her ministers like a fishwife. But strangely in contrast with the violent outlines of her Tudor temper stood the sensuous, self-indulgent nature she derived from Anne Boleyn. Splendour and pleasure were with Elizabeth the very air she breathed. Her delight was to move in perpetual progresses from castle to castle through a series of gorgeous pageants, fanciful and extravagant as a caliph's dream. She loved gaiety and laughter and wit. A happy retort or a finished compliment never failed to win her favour. She hoarded jewels. Her dresses were innumerable. Her vanity remained, even to old age, the vanity of a coquette in her teens. No adulation was too fulsome for her, no flattery of her beauty too gross. "To see her was Heaven," Hatton told her, "the lack of her was hell." She would play with her rings that her courtiers might note the delicacy of her hands; or dance a coranto that the French Ambassador, hidden dexterously behind a curtain, might report her sprightliness to his master. Her levity, her frivolous laughter, her unwomanly jests, gave colour to a thousand scandals. Her character, in fact, like her portrait, was utterly without shade. Of womanly reserve or self-restraint she knew nothing. No instinct of delicacy veiled the voluptuous temper which had broken out in the romps of her girlhood and showed itself almost ostentatiously throughout her later life. Personal beauty in a man was a sure passport to her liking. She patted handsome young squires on the neck when they knelt to kiss her hand, and fondled her "sweet Robin," Lord Leicester, in the face of the court.[39] [39] J. R. Green: _Short History of the English People_. Informal Analysis The formal analyses are in general far less frequent than the informal, which are found constantly in the weekly and monthly magazines and in the editorials of our daily papers. These analyses aim at giving the core of the subject, the gist of the matter, with sufficient important facts or points as background. Thus you will read an account of our relations with Mexico during the revolution in that country. Not everything is said; only the vital things. A study of the character of Mr. Roosevelt or of Mr. Wilson, an article explaining the problems that had to be faced in the building of the Keokuk or the Shoshone dams, a treatment of the question of conscription in England--these and thousands of others flood upon us with the object of illuminating our approach to the subject, of interpreting for us the heart of the matter. Mr. More, in the essay already mentioned, says little about Tennyson's verse form, about his zeal for the tale of Arthur, about the influence upon him of the classics of Greece and Rome. Into a complete treatise these would of course enter; here Mr. More's object is not all-inclusiveness, as one should examine the Pyramids for not only their plan and size but also for their minute finish, their varying materials, their methods of jointure, and the thousand other details; rather he estimates what his subject is, as one should journey round the Pyramids, view them in general, find their significance, and discover the few essentials that make them not cathedrals, not Roman circuses, but Pyramids. In other words, interpretation is the object rather than completeness of fact. Obviously an informal analysis must be complete as far as it goes, must be complete for its author's purpose, is not good writing if it gives only a partial interpretation which gets nowhere. It is at once apparent, then, that the controlling purpose which has been discussed at length in an earlier chapter is in informal analysis of the utmost importance. Only as it is clearly held in mind will the author know when to stop, what to choose. In formal analysis, where his object is to say all that there is to say, he chooses and ceases to choose by the standard of completeness of fact; in informal analysis he must choose and cease to choose by the standard of whether he has accomplished the desired effect, made the desired interpretation. His analysis, therefore, is valuable only when he has chosen the proper interpretation and has made it effective and clear. If he wishes to analyze a period of history for the purpose of showing the romance of the period, he will choose and cease to choose largely in so far as his material helps to establish the romance, and he will not hesitate to neglect many a fact that would be otherwise important. In the following selection from George Eliot's _Mill on the Floss_ you will find an analysis of the effect of the Rhone scenery on the author written purposely with the intention of driving home the dreariness of the subject, and therefore with material chosen for that end: Journeying down the Rhone on a summer's day, you have perhaps felt the sunshine made dreary by those ruined villages which stud the banks in certain parts of its course, telling how the swift river once rose, like an angry, destroying god, sweeping down the feeble generations whose breath is in their nostrils, and making their dwellings a desolation. Strange contrast, you may have thought, between the effect produced on us by these dismal remnants of commonplace houses, which in their best days were but the sign of a sordid life, belonging in all its details to our own vulgar era; and the effect produced by those ruins on the castled Rhine, which have crumbled and mellowed into such harmony with the green and rocky steeps, that they seem to have a natural fitness, like the mountain-pine; nay, even in the day when they were built they must have had this fitness, as if they had been raised by an earth-born race, who had inherited from their mighty parent a sublime instinct of form. And that was a day of romance! If these robber barons were somewhat grim and drunken ogres, they had a certain grandeur of the wild beast in them--they were forest boars with tusks, tearing and rending: not the ordinary domestic grunter; they represented the demon forces forever in collision with beauty, virtue, and the gentle uses of life; they made a fine contrast in the picture with the wandering minstrel, the soft-lipped princess, the pious recluse, and the timid Israelite. That was a time of color, when the sunlight fell on glancing steel and floating banners; a time of adventure and fierce struggle--nay, of living, religious art and religious enthusiasm; for were not cathedrals built in those days, and did not great emperors leave their Western palaces to die before the infidel strongholds in the sacred East? Therefore it is that these Rhine castles thrill me with a sense of poetry: they belong to the grand historic life of humanity, and raise up for me the vision of an epoch. But these dead-tinted, hollow-eyed, angular skeletons of villages on the Rhone oppress me with the feeling that human life--very much of it--is a narrow, ugly, grovelling existence, which even calamity does not elevate, but rather tends to exhibit in all its bare vulgarity of conception; and I have a cruel conviction that the lives these ruins are the traces of were part of a gross sum of obscure vitality, that will be swept into the same oblivion with the generations of ants and beavers.[40] [40] George Eliot: _Mill on the Floss_. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, publishers. Informal analysis is not only less complete, but also less strict in adherence to pure analysis alone. It employs whatever is of value, believing that the material, the message, is greater than the form. Outside really formal analysis, which is likely to be fairly dull to all except those who are eager for the particular information given, most analytical articles make free use of definition whenever it will serve well to aid the reader's understanding or to move his emotions toward a desired goal; of description if it, like definition, proves of value; even of anecdote and argument if these forms are the fittest instruments for the fight. Thus Hawthorne, analyzing English weather, does not hesitate to dress out his analysis in the charms of personal experience and anecdote and description, which in no way obscure the facts of the weather, but merely take away the baldness of a formal statement and add the relish of actual life. One chief condition of my enjoyment was the weather. Italy has nothing like it, nor America. There never was such weather except in England, where, in requital of a vast amount of horrible east wind between February and June, and a brown October and black November, and a wet, chill, sunless winter, there are a few weeks of incomparable summer scattered through July and August, and the earlier portion of September, small in quantity, but exquisite enough to atone for the whole year's atmospherical delinquencies. After all, the prevalent sombreness may have brought out those sunny intervals in such high relief that I see them, in my recollection, brighter than they really were: a little light makes a glory for people who live habitually in a gray gloom. The English, however, do not seem to know how enjoyable the momentary gleams of their summer are; they call it broiling weather, and hurry to the seaside with red, perspiring faces, in a state of combustion and deliquescence; and I have observed that even their cattle have similar susceptibilities, seeking the deepest shade, or standing midleg deep in pools and streams to cool themselves, at temperatures which our own cows would deem little more than barely comfortable. To myself, after the summer heats of my native land had somewhat effervesced out of my blood and memory, it was the weather of Paradise itself. It might be a little too warm; but it was that modest and inestimable superabundance which constitutes a bounty of Providence, instead of just a niggardly enough. During my first year in England, residing in perhaps the most ungenial part of the kingdom, I could never be quite comfortable without a fire on the hearth; in the second twelvemonth, beginning to get acclimatized, I became sensible of an austere friendliness, shy, but sometimes almost tender, in the veiled, shadowy, seldom smiling summer; and in the succeeding years,--whether that I had renewed my fibre with English beef and replenished my blood with English ale, or whatever were the cause,--I grew content with winter and especially in love with summer, desiring little more for happiness than merely to breathe and bask. At the midsummer which we are now speaking of, I must needs confess that the noontide sun came down more fervently than I found altogether tolerable; so that I was fain to shift my position with the shadow of the shrubbery, making myself a movable index of a sundial that reckoned up the hours of an almost interminable day. For each day seemed endless, though never wearisome. As far as your actual experience is concerned, the English summer day has positively no beginning and no end. When you awake, at any reasonable hour, the sun is already shining through the curtains; you live through unnumbered hours of Sabbath quietude, with a calm variety of incident softly etched upon their tranquil lapse; and at length you become conscious that it is bedtime again, while there is still enough daylight in the sky to make the pages of your book distinctly legible. Night, if there be any such season, hangs down a transparent veil through which the bygone day beholds its successor; or, if not quite true of the latitude of London, it may be soberly affirmed of the more northern parts of the island, that To-morrow is born before its Yesterday is dead. They exist together in the golden twilight, where the decrepit old day dimly discerns the face of the ominous infant; and you, though a mere mortal, may simultaneously touch them both with one finger of recollection and another of prophecy. I cared not how long the day might be, nor how many of them. I had earned this repose by a long course of irksome toil and perturbation, and could have been content never to stray out of the limits of that suburban villa and its garden. If I lacked anything beyond, it would have satisfied me well enough to dream about it, instead of struggling for its actual possession. At least, this was the feeling of the moment; although the transitory, flitting, and irresponsible character of my life there was perhaps the most enjoyable element of all, as allowing me much of the comfort of house and home, without any sense of their weight upon my back. The nomadic life has great advantages, if we can find tents ready pitched for us at every stage.[41] [41] Nathaniel Hawthorne: _Our Old Home_. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, publishers. An extension of this willingness to make grist of whatever comes to the writer's mill lies in the close approach, at times, that analysis makes to the informal essay. Of course the line is difficult to draw--and perhaps not necessarily drawn--and most informal essays are to some extent, at least, analytical. The more you desire your analysis to become interesting, the more you wish to take hold of your reader, the more you will make use of the close approach unless your subject and its facts are of a kind to repel such intimacy. An analysis of the nebular hypothesis deals with facts of so august a nature, on so nearly an unimaginable plane, that intimacy seems out of place, impudent, like levity in cathedrals. But if you have such a subject as George Gissing[42] chose in the following analysis of the sportswoman's attitude and character, you may well, as he did, throw aside the formalities of expression and at once make truce of intimacy with your reader. So long as you do not obscure the facts of the analysis, make it unclear or blurred, so long you are safe. [42] George Gissing: _The Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft_, "Spring." By permission of the publishers, E. P. Dutton & Co., New York City. I found an article, by a woman, on "Lion Hunting," and in this article I came upon a passage which seemed worth copying: "As I woke my husband, the lion--which was then about forty yards off--charged straight towards us, and with my .303 I hit him full in the chest, as we afterwards discovered, tearing his windpipe to pieces and breaking his spine. He charged a second time, and the next shot hit him through the shoulder, tearing his heart to ribbons." It would interest me to look upon this heroine of gun and pen. She is presumably quite a young woman; probably, when at home, a graceful figure in drawing-rooms. I should like to hear her talk, to exchange thoughts with her. She would give one a very good idea of the matron of old Rome who had her seat in the amphitheatre. Many of those ladies, in private life, must have been bright and gracious, highbred and full of agreeable sentiment; they talked of art and of letters; they could drop a tear over Lesbia's sparrow; at the same time, they were connoisseurs in torn windpipes, shattered spines, and viscera rent open. It is not likely that many of them would have cared to turn their own hands to butchery, and, for the matter of that, I must suppose that our Lion Huntress of the popular magazine is rather an exceptional dame; but no doubt she and the Roman ladies would get on well together, finding only a few superficial differences. The fact that her gory reminiscences are welcomed by an editor with the popular taste in view is perhaps more significant than appears either to editor or public. Were this lady to write a novel (the chances are she will) it would have the true note of modern vigour. Of course her style has been formed by her favourite reading; more than probably, her ways of thinking and feeling owe much to the same source. If not so already, this will soon, I dare say, be the typical Englishwoman. Certainly, there is "no nonsense about her." Such women should breed a terrible race. Kinds of Informal Analysis _a._ _Enumeration_ Informal analysis may appear in various forms, not all of which are at once apparent as analysis until we disabuse our minds of thinking that analysis must be, always, complete in facts. For example, informal analysis often appears in the form of enumeration, in which the author "has some things to say"--always for a definite purpose--and says them in some reasonable order. Thus Mr. Herbert Croly, in his article "Lincoln as More than American," analyzes Lincoln's character as related to the characters of other Americans through the qualities of intellectuality, humanness, magnanimity, and humility. More might be said; the analysis is not complete in fact, but it serves the purpose of the author. It is distinctly in the enumerative order, the progression being determined by the controlling purpose of delineating Lincoln as worthy of not only respect but even true awe, the awe that we give only to those great souls who, in spite of all their mental supremacy, are yet beautifully humble. _b._ _Equation_ Informal analysis often appears in the form of equation: the subject of analysis is stated as equal to something else--a quality, an instrument from another field of human knowledge, the same thing in other more common or well-known words. For example, William James, in his essay "The Social Value of the College Bred," first states that the value of a college education is "to help you to know a good man when you see him," and then explains what he means by this phrase. This form of analysis, then, is usually in the nature of a double equation: _x_ is equal to _y_, which, in turn, can be split up into _a_, _b_, _c_. The method really consists in arriving at an easily comprehended statement of the significance of the subject through the medium of a more immediately workable or attractive or simple synonymous statement. It is an application of the old formula of going from the known to the unknown, except that in this case we proceed from the unknown to the known and then return to the unknown with increased light. _c._ _Statement of Significance_ A third form of informal analysis is the showing of the significance of the subject, its root meaning. In this case the writer attempts not so much to break the subject into its obvious parts as to set before the reader the meaning of it as a whole, in so short a compass, often, that it will not need further explanation, or if it does, that it may be then divided after the statement in easier form has been made. The following explanation of the philosophy of Nietzsche illustrates this form of analysis: The central motive of Nietzsche seems to me to be this. It is clear to him that the moral problem concerns the perfection, not of society, not of the masses of men, but of the great individual. And so far he, indeed, stands where the standard of individualistic revolt has so often been raised. But Nietzsche differs from other individualists in that the great object toward which his struggle is directed is the discovery of what his own individuality itself means and is. A Titan of the type of Goethe's or Shelley's Prometheus proclaims his right to be free of Zeus and of all other powers. But by hypothesis Prometheus already knows who he is and what he wants. But the problem of Nietzsche is, above all, the problem. Who am I, and, What do I want? What is clear to him is the need of strenuous activity in pressing on toward the solution of this problem. His aristocratic consciousness is the sense that common men are in no wise capable of putting or of appreciating this question. His assertion of the right of the individual to be free from all external restraints is the ardent revolt of the strenuous seeker for selfhood against whatever hinders him in this task. He will not be interrupted by the base universe in the business--his life-business--of finding out what his own life is to mean for himself. He knows that his own will is, above all, what he calls the will for power. On occasion he does not hesitate to use this power to crush, at least in ideal, whoever shall hinder him in his work. But the problem over which he agonizes is the inner problem. What does this will that seeks power genuinely desire? What is the power that is worthy to be mine?[43] [43] Josiah Royce: _Nietzsche_. By courtesy of The Atlantic Monthly Company. _d._ _Relationship_ A fourth class of informal analytical writing is the showing the relationship that exists between two ideas or things, as cause and effect, as source and termination, as contrary forces, or as any relation that has real existence. Under this heading will be found the large group of articles that answer the question _why?_, as for example, "Why the Quebec Bridge Collapsed," "Causes of the Strike among the Garment Workers," "Popular Opinion as Affecting Government Action," and other such subjects. In the following analysis of the relation existing between human action as result, and impulse and desire as causes, you will find such an informal presentation of material. All human activity springs from two sources: impulse and desire. The part played by desire has always been sufficiently recognized. When men find themselves not fully contented, and not able instantly to procure what will cause content, imagination brings before their minds the thought of things which they believe would make them happy. All desire involves an interval of time between the consciousness of a need and the opportunity for satisfying it. The acts inspired by desire may in themselves be painful, the time before satisfaction can be achieved may be very long, the object desired may be something outside our own lives, and even after our own death. Will, as a directing force, consists mainly in following desires for more or less distant objects, in spite of the painfulness of the acts involved and the solicitations of incompatible but more immediate desires and impulses. All this is familiar, and political philosophy hitherto has been almost entirely based upon desire as the source of human actions. But desire governs no more than a part of human activity, and that not the most important but only the more conscious, explicit, and civilized part. In all the more instinctive part of our nature we are dominated by impulses to certain kinds of activity, not by desires for certain ends. Children run and shout, not because of any good which they expect to realize, but because of a direct impulse to running and shouting. Dogs bay the moon, not because they consider that it is to their advantage to do so, but because they feel an impulse to bark. It is not any purpose, but merely an impulse, that prompts such actions, as eating, drinking, love-making, quarrelling, boasting. Those who believe that man is a rational animal will say that people boast in order that others may have a good opinion of them; but most of us can recall occasions when we have boasted in spite of knowing that we should be despised for it. Instinctive acts normally achieve some result which is agreeable to the natural man, but they are not performed from desire for this result. They are performed from direct impulse, and the impulse often is strong even in cases in which the normal desirable result cannot follow. Grown men like to imagine themselves more rational than children and dogs, and unconsciously conceal from themselves how great a part impulse plays in their lives. This unconscious concealment always follows a certain general plan. When an impulse is not indulged in the moment in which it arises, there grows up a desire for the expected consequences of indulging the impulse. If some of the consequences which are reasonably to be expected are clearly disagreeable, a conflict between foresight and impulse arises. If the impulse is weak, foresight may conquer; this is what is called acting on reason. If the impulse is strong, either foresight will be falsified, and the disagreeable consequences will be forgotten, or, in men of heroic mold, the consequences may be recklessly accepted. When Macbeth realizes that he is doomed to defeat, he does not shrink from the fight; he exclaims:-- Lay on, Macduff, And damned be he that first cries, Hold, enough! But such strength and recklessness of impulse is rare. Most men, when their impulse is strong, succeed in persuading themselves, usually by a subconscious selectiveness of attention, that agreeable consequences will follow from indulgence of their impulse. Whole philosophies, whole systems of ethical valuation, spring up in this way; they are the embodiment of a kind of thought which is subservient to impulse, which aims at providing a quasi-rational ground for the indulgence of impulse. The only thought which is genuine is that which springs out of the intellectual impulse of curiosity, leading to the desire to know and understand. But most of what passes for thought is inspired by some non-intellectual impulse, and is merely a means of persuading ourselves that we shall not be disappointed or do harm if we indulge this impulse. When an impulse is restrained, we feel discomfort, or even violent pain. We may indulge the impulse in order to escape from this pain, and our action is then one which has a purpose. But the pain only exists because of the impulse, and the impulse itself is directed to an act, not to escaping from the pain of restraining the impulse. The impulse itself remains without a purpose, and the purpose of escaping from pain only arises when the impulse has been momentarily restrained. Impulse is at the basis of our activity, much more than desire. Desire has its place, but not so large a place as it is seemed to have. Impulses bring with them a whole train of subservient fictitious desires: they make men feel that they desire the results which will follow from indulging the impulses, and that they are acting for the sake of these results, when in fact their action has no motive outside itself. A man may write a book or paint a picture under the belief that he desires the praise which it will bring him; but as soon as it is finished, if his creative impulse is not exhausted, what he has done grows uninteresting to him, and he begins a new piece of work. What applies to artistic creation applies equally to all that is most vital in our lives: direct impulse is what moves us, and the desires which we think we have are a mere garment for the impulse. Desire, as opposed to impulse, has, it is true, a large and increasing share in the regulation of men's lives. Impulse is erratic and anarchical, not easily fitted into a well-regulated system; it may be tolerated in children and artists, but it is not thought proper to men who hope to be taken seriously. Almost all paid work is done from desire, not from impulse: the work itself is more or less irksome, but the payment for it is desired. The serious activities that fill a man's working hours are, except in a few fortunate individuals, governed mainly by purposes, not by impulses toward these activities. In this hardly any one sees an evil, because the place of impulse in a satisfactory existence is not recognized. An impulse, to one who does not share it actually or imaginatively, will always seem to be mad. All impulse is essentially blind, in the sense that it does not spring from any prevision of consequences. The man who does not share the impulse will form a different estimate as to what the consequences will be, and as to whether those that must ensue are desirable. This difference of opinion will seem to be ethical or intellectual, whereas its real basis is a difference of impulse. No genuine agreement will be reached, in such a case, so long as the difference of impulse persists. In all men who have any vigorous life, there are strong impulses such as may seem utterly unreasonable to others. Blind impulses sometimes lead to destruction and death, but at other times they lead to the best things the world contains. Blind impulse is the source of war, but it is also the source of science, and art, and love. It is not the weakening of impulse that is to be desired, but the direction of impulse toward life and growth rather than toward death and decay. The complete control of impulse by will, which is sometimes preached by moralists, and often enforced by economic necessity, is not really desirable. A life governed by purposes and desires, to the exclusion of impulses, is a tiring life; it exhausts vitality, and leaves a man, in the end, indifferent to the very purposes which he has been trying to achieve. When a whole nation lives in this way, the whole nation tends to become feeble, without enough grasp to recognize and overcome the obstacles to its desires. Industrialism and organization are constantly forcing civilized nations to live more and more by purpose rather than impulse. In the long run such a mode of existence, if it does not dry up the springs of life, produces new impulse, not of the kind which the will has been in the habit of controlling or of which thought is conscious. These new impulses are apt to be worse in their effects than those which have been checked. Excessive discipline, especially when it has been imposed from without, often issues in impulses of cruelty and destruction; this is one reason why militarism has a bad effect on national character. Either lack of vitality, or impulses which are oppressive and against life, will almost always result if the spontaneous impulses are not able to find an outlet. A man's impulses are not fixed from the beginning by his native disposition: within certain wide limits, they are profoundly modified by his circumstances and his way of life. The nature of these modifications ought to be studied, and the results of such study ought to be taken account of in judging the good or harm that is done by political and social institutions.[44] [44] Bertrand Russell: _Why Men Fight_. By courtesy of the publishers, The Century Company, New York City. _e._ _Statement of a Problem_ A fifth form in which analysis often appears is as a statement of a problem. An engineer who is asked by a city to investigate the conditions that confront the municipality as regards water supply will have such a problem to state. The statement will presumably consist of several divisions. First of all, of course--and this will be essential in all such statements--will be an analysis of the conditions themselves. In this particular case he will find out how much water is needed, how great the present supply is, what sources are available for increased supply, what the character of the water in these other sources is, and anything else that may be of value to the city. If any former attempts at solution have been made, he may mention them. If he is asked to recommend a plan of procedure, he will make an analysis of the details of this plan and will present them. Now obviously the nature of the audience will determine somewhat the manner of approach to the conditions. If, for example, the problem is to be stated to the financial committee of the city, the angle of approach will be that of cost; if to a prospective constructing engineer, from that of difficulties of construction of reservoirs or from that of availability of sources. If you are to state the problem of lessening the illiteracy in a given neighborhood, you will approach the subject for the school committee from the angle, perhaps, of the establishment of night schools, or from that of the necessary welding of nationalities; for the charitable societies from that of the poverty that compels child labor in the community. And in the recommendations for meeting the conditions, if such recommendations are made, attention must be paid to the particular people who will read the analysis. Of course if you make an abstract, complete survey, you will cover the ground in whatever way seems most suitable. Such an analysis, when it is in the nature of a report, will presumably be in brief, tabulated form. If, on the other hand, it is not a report, the subject may be treated more informally, made more pleasing. The following statement of the problem of the development of power machinery is made rather formally from the angle of the constructive engineer with an eye also to the financial conditions. The problem of power-machinery development is, therefore, divisible into several parts: First, what processes must be carried out to produce motion against resistance, from the energy of winds, the water of the rivers, or from fuel. Second, what combinations of simply formed parts can be made to carry out the process or series of processes. These two steps when worked out will result in some kind of engine, but it may not be a good engine, for it may use up too much natural energy for the work it does; some part may break or another wear too fast; some part may have a form that no workman can make, or use up too much material or time in the making; in short, while the engine may work, it may be too wasteful, or do its work at too great a cost of coal or water, attendance in operation, or investment, or all these together. There must, therefore, be added several other elements to the problem, as follows: Third, how many ways are there of making each part, and which is the cheapest, or what other form of part might be devised that would be cheaper to make, or what cheaper material is there that would be equally suitable. Fourth, how sensitive to care are all these parts when in operation, and how much attendance and repairs will be required to keep the machine in good operating condition. Fifth, how big must the important parts of the whole machine be to utilize all the energy available, or to produce the desired amount of power. Sixth, how much force must each part of the mechanism sustain, and how big must it be when made of suitable material so as not to break. Seventh, how much work can be produced by the process for each unit of energy supplied.[45] [45] Charles E. Lucke: _Power_. By courtesy of the publishers, the Columbia University Press. Principles of Analysis The problem that confronts you, then, in either kind of analysis, however formal or informal it may be, is, How shall I go to work? The first necessity is the choosing of a basis for division of the subject, whether it be in classification or partition. The necessity for this arises from the demand of the human mind for logical consistency. Life seems often wildly inconsistent, but we demand that explanation of it or any phase of it be arranged according to what seems to us some logical law of progression, some consistent point of view. And in truth without some such law or basis the mind soon becomes hopelessly enmeshed and bewildered. I cannot expect my reader to understand my treatise on locomotive engines, my classification of them, if I regard them now as engines of speed, now as means of conveyance, now as potential destroyers of life, and now as instruments whereby capitalists become rich and workmen become poor. As often as I change my point of view, so often I shall be under the necessity of making a new arrangement of the engines, a new alignment. It is like skimming past a cornfield with the platoons of green spears constantly shifting their number, their direction, and their general appearance. If I station myself at one point, I can soon make reasonable estimates, but so long as I whirl from point to point my estimate must whirl likewise and I shall be confused rather than helped. If, then, you are to analyze, say, our present-day domestic architecture, it is not enough to heap together everything that occurs to you about houses: their size, material, color, arrangement, finish, beauty, convenience, situation as regards sidewalks, their heating and upkeep. To prevent your reader from becoming hopelessly muddled, from seeming to deal with the valley of the unorganized dry bones of fact, you must have some guiding principle, some basis, some point of view. Suppose that you take _beauty_ as your basis. Then at once you have a standard by which you can judge all houses, to which you can relate questions of position, arrangement, convenience, lighting, heating, etc. Each of these questions is now significant as affecting the cause of beauty. You could, of course, choose _convenience_ as your basis, to which, then, beauty would be subordinate as contributing or opposing. Asked to analyze the architecture of a railroad terminal, you will not do well to plant dynamite under it and make an architectural rummage sale of its parts; rather you will choose, perhaps, _serviceability_ as your basis, and will then examine tracks, offices, waiting rooms, etc. to see what the whole is. No part will thereby be overlooked; each will be significant, and the whole will be unified by your single point of view. An analysis of MacDowell's music might be based on _emotional power_; of the currency problem on that of _general distribution_; of universities on that of _proportion of cultural to so-called practical courses_. Notice, also, that the choosing of a basis of division is just as necessary in one kind of analysis as in another, that formality and informality do not affect the logic of the situation in the least, that whatever the subject or the proposed method of treatment, you must be consistent in your point of view, must make a pivot round which the whole can turn. Sometimes more than one principle will be necessary, in a complicated analysis, as in judging a route for a railway we saw the necessity for considering grades, drainage, landslides, etc., as we might interweave the bases of cost, beauty, convenience, etc., but--like the reins of the ten-span circus horses--all will be found to run back finally to the single driver--in the case of the railway, _practicability_. In classifying dredges, for example, we may use as basis the action of the machine upon the bottom of the body of water, that is, whether the action is continuous or intermittent; in this case we shall find four types of continuous dredges: the ladder, the hydraulic, the stirring, and the pneumatic; and we shall find two classes of intermittent: the dipper and the grapple dredges. Or we may divide all dredges on the basis of whether they are self-propelling or non-propelling. Finally, we may take as basis for the classification the manner of disposing of the excavated materials, in which case we shall find several groups. In the following example we have two bases used for classifying clearing-houses. The use of more than one basis will depend on whether we can by such use make more easily clear to a reader the nature of the subject and on whether different readers will need different angles of approach. The clearing-houses in the United States may be divided into two classes, the sole function of the first of which consists in clearing-notes, drafts, checks, bills of exchange, and whatever else may be agreed upon; and the second of which, in addition to exercising the functions of the class just mentioned, prescribes rules and regulations for its members in various matters, such as the fixing of uniform rates of exchange, interest charges, collections, etc. Clearing-houses may also be divided into two classes with reference to the funds used in the settlement of balances: First, those clearing-houses which make their settlements entirely on a cash basis, or, as stated in the decision of the Supreme Court above referred to, "by such form of acknowledgment or certificate as the associated banks may agree to use in their dealings with each other as the equivalent or representative of cash"; and second, those clearing-houses which make their settlements by checks or drafts on large financial centers.[46] [46] James G. Cannon: _Clearing-Houses_. By courtesy of the publishers, D. Appleton & Co., New York City. Copyright, 1900. Sometimes, also, the minor sections may have a different basis from the main one, a different principle of classification. For example, a general basis for an analysis of the Mexican situation during Mr. Wilson's administration might be _general world progress_. This might cover our immediate relations with Mexico, our less close relations with South America, and our rather more remote relations with Europe. The first division might then possibly choose for its principle _fundamental causes for inter-irritation_; the second, _our trade relations with South America_; and the third, the _possibility of trouble through the Monroe Doctrine_. All would unite under the one heading of general progress, and so long as they were kept distinct would be serviceable. For the uniting into one main principle is the important thing. It is by this, and this only, that the reader will easily receive a clear understanding of the subject. Having selected this unifying basis, you must then be careful lest your subdivisions be only the subject restated in other words. If you are analyzing a railroad route for practicability, do not name one division _general serviceability_, for you will merely have made a revolution of 360 degrees and be facing exactly as you faced before. In analyzing Scott's works for humor do not name one division _ability to see the funny side of life_, for again you will have said only that two equals two. Each section must be less than the whole. Even more caution is required to keep the divisions from overlapping. The man who wrote an enthusiastic account of the acting of Sir Johnston Forbes-Robertson with subheadings as follows: (1) emotional power, (2) effect on audience, (3) intellect, (4) appealing qualities, saw that his divisions--like a family of young kittens--overlapped and sprawled generally. When he had selected _moving power_ as his main principle, and had then divided the treatment into the following headings: (1) appearance, (2) voice, (3) general handling of the situation, (4) effect at the time, and (5) memories of the performance, he found that his kittens had become well-mannered little beasties and sat each in his place. The overlapping of subdivisions is likely to occur because of one or both of two causes: lack of clear thinking, and lack of clear expression. Be sure, then, first to cut neatly between parts in dividing your apple, and then to label each part carefully so that the reader will not say, "Why, three is just like two!" Finally, be sure that the sum of your divisions equals the whole. This means that in logical analysis you must continue the process of dividing until nothing is left. You must follow the old advice: "Cut into as small pieces as possible, and then cut each piece several times smaller!" Such would be the process in analyzing and classifying types of cathedral architecture; your work will not be complete until you have included all possible forms. The same would hold true in a thorough analysis of bridges; all forms would demand entrance. When you write informal or literary analysis, on the other hand, since here the object is illumination rather than exhaustion, almost suggestiveness rather than completeness, choose the significant vital divisions and let the rest go. This does not mean that in informal analysis you may be careless; "any old thing" is far from being the motto; strict thinking and shrewd selection are quite as necessary as in formal analysis. The point is that the divisions will be fewer in number, as in an article on the subject of the failure of freshmen in the first semester your object, in informal analysis, would be to group the causes, for the convenience of the reader, into a few general divisions which should give him a clear idea of the subject without necessitating long and painful reading. In literary analysis especially it is often well to express in one sentence the gist of your thought, as Mr. More says, "Tennyson was the Victorian Age." It is always well to be able to express this sentence. Of course care must be exercised not to make the structure of the article too evident by the presence of such a sentence, but its judicious use will help to unify the thought for the reader. For most minds analysis is difficult. Whatever you can do, therefore, to make it easy will be worth while in gaining success. EXERCISES I. Why, from the point of view of analysis, is it difficult to select a list of "the greatest ten" living men, or women? Make such a list and then examine its foundations. Is a similar list of novels or plays or symphonies as difficult to make? II. Use any of the following sentences as a nucleus sentence on which to build an informal analysis. 1. The attitude of scientific efficiency is incompatible with feelings of humanity. 2. A college career does not always develop, but in fact often kills, intellectual integrity. 3. The worst enemy of the American Public is the newspaper that for political or business reasons distorts news. 4. Studies are the least valuable of college activities except as they stimulate the imagination. 5. Our Country is so large that a citizen is really justified, mentally and morally, in being provincial. 6. The study of literature in college is, except for the person of no imagination, deadening to the spirit. 7. The fifteen-and twenty-cent magazine is a menace to American life in that its fiction grossly distorts the facts of life. 8. The farmer who wishes to keep his soil in good condition should use legumes as increasers of fertility. 9. The effect of acquisition of land property is always to drive the possessors into the Tory camp. 10. The engineer is a poet who expresses himself in material forms rather than words. III. Make a formal classification, in skeleton form, of any of the following subjects. Then determine what qualities the subject has that indicate how such a classification can be made interesting, either by material or treatment. Then write an analytical theme which shall thoroughly cover the skeleton classification and shall also be attractive. (Compare the classification of Rock Drills (page 115) and Oriental Rugs (page 119) to note the difference in the amount of interest.) 1. Building materials for houses. 2. China dinner-ware. 3. Forms of democratic government. 4. Methods of irrigation in the United States. 5. Types of lyric poetry. 6. Chairs. 7. Commercial fertilizers. 8. Tractors for the farm. 9. Contemporary philosophies of Europe and America. 10. American dances. 11. Elevators. 12. Filing systems. 13. Races of men in Europe. 14. Gas ranges. 15. Pianos. 16. Contemporary short stories of the popular magazines. Indicate, in any given subject, how many possible bases for classification you could choose, as, for example, you might classify chairs on the basis of comfort, expense, presence of rockers, upholstery, adaptation to the human figure, material for the seat, shape of back, etc. IV. Analyze any of the following problems, first without recommendation of solution, and second with recommendation as if you were making a report to a committee or employer or officer. 1. Summer work for college students. 2. Keeping informed of world affairs while doing one's college work faithfully. 3. "Outside activities" for college students. 4. Faculty or non-faculty control of college politics. 5. Choosing a college course with relation to intended career in life. 6. Selecting shrubbery for continuous bloom with both red and blue berries in winter. 7. The mail-order houses. 8. Preventing money panics. 9. Dye-manufacture in the United States. 10. Gaining foreign markets. 11. The farmer and the commission merchant. 12. The brand of flour selected for use in large hotels. 13. Color photography. 14. Wind pressure in high buildings. 15. Street pavement. 16. Electrification of railroads. 17. Heating system for an eight-room house. 18. Choice of cereal for children of six, nine, and eleven--two boys, one girl. 19. Lighting the farmhouse. 20. Creating a high class dairy or sheep herd. 21. Creating an apple (or other fruit) orchard. 22. Method of shipping potatoes to a distant point, in boxes, barrels, sacks. 23. Best use of a twenty-acre farm near a large city. 24. Investment of $500.00. 25. Best system of bookkeeping for the farmer. 26. Kind of life insurance for a man of twenty. 27. Location of a shoe factory with capital of $250,000.00. 28. Cash system in a large general store. 29. Reconciling Shakespeare's works with the known facts of his life. 30. The secret of Thomas Hardy's pessimism. 31. Reconciling narrow religious training with the increased knowledge derived from college. 32. The failure of college courses in English composition to produce geniuses. 33. The creation of a conscientious political attitude in a democracy. 34. Selection of $10,000 worth of books as the nucleus for a small town library. V. Decide upon a controlling purpose for an informal analysis of any of the following subjects, indicate how you hope to make the analysis interesting, state why you choose the basis that you do--and then write the theme. 1. Prejudices, Flirts, Entertainments, Shade-trees, Methods of advertising, Languages, Scholastic degrees, Systems of landscape gardening for small estates, Migratory song birds of North America, Laces. 2. Causes of the Return-to-the-Soil movement, Origins of our dairy cattle, Benefits of intensive agriculture, Imported plant diseases, Legumes. 3. Opportunities for the Civil (or Mechanical or Electrical, etc.) Engineer, Difficulties of modern bridge-building, The relation of the engineer to social movements, The contribution of the engineer to intellectual advance. 4. Changes in the United States system of public finance since Hamilton's time, The equitable distribution of taxation, The benefits of the Federal Reserve Movement in Finance, Forms of taxation, Systems of credit. 5. Possibilities for Physiological Chemistry, Obstacles to color photography, The chemistry of the kitchen, The future of the telescope, The battle against disease germs, Theories of the atom, Heredity in plants or animals, Edible fresh-water fish. 6. Bores, The terrors of childhood, The vanities of young men, Methods of coquetry,--of becoming popular,--of always having one's way, The idiosyncrasies of elderly bachelors, Books to read on the train, Acquaintances of the dining-car. VI. Write a 250 word analysis of whatever type you choose on any of the following subjects: The dishonesty of college catalogues, The prevalence of fires in the United States, Causes of weakness in I beams, Effect of fairy stories on children, Religious sectarianism, Public attitude toward an actress, The business man's opinion of the college professor, The tyranny of the teaching of our earliest years, The state of American forests, Municipal wastefulness, Opportunities for lucrative employment at ---- college or university, The effect of oriental rugs in a room, The attitude of people in a small town toward their young people in college, People who are desolate without the "Movies" four or five times a week. VII. Write a 1500-2000 word analytical theme on any of the following subjects: 1. The Responsibilities of Individualism. 2. American Slavery to the Printed Word. 3. The Ideal Vacation. 4. What Shall We Do with Sunday? 5. The Value of Reading Fiction. 6. Why I am a Republican, or Democrat, or Pessimist, or Agnostic, or Humanist, or Rebel in general, or Agitator or--whatnot? 7. The Classics and the American Student in the Twentieth Century. 8. The Chief Function of a College. 9. The Decline of Manners. 10. A Defense of Cheap Vaudeville. 11. The Workingman Should Know His Place and Keep It. 12. The Study of History as an Aid to a Critical Estimate of the Present. 13. The Relation of Friendship to Similarity in Point of View. 14. Intellectual Leadership in America. 15. The Present Situation in the World of Baseball. 16. The Reaction of War upon the Finer Sensibilities of Civilians. 17. Patriotism and Intellectual Detachment. 18. The Breeding Place of Social Improvements. 19. Organization in Modern Life. 20. The Conflict of Political and Moral Loyalty. 21. Why Has Epic Poetry Passed from Favor? 22. The Stability of American Political Opinion. 23. The Shifting Geography of Intellectual Leadership in the World. VIII. In the following selection what does Mr. Shaw analyze? On what basis? Is he thorough? If not, what does he omit? Does the omission, if there is any, vitally harm the analysis? Passion is the steam in the engine of all religious and moral systems. In so far as it is malevolent, the religions are malevolent too, and insist on human sacrifices, on hell, wrath, and vengeance. You cannot read Browning's Caliban upon Setebos; or, Natural Theology in the Island, without admitting that all our religions have been made as Caliban made his, and that the difference between Caliban and Prospero is not that Prospero has killed passion in himself whilst Caliban has yielded to it, but that Prospero is mastered by holier passions than Caliban's. Abstract principles of conduct break down in practice because kindness and truth and justice are not duties founded on abstract principles external to man, but human passions, which have, in their time, conflicted with higher passions as well as with lower ones. If a young woman, in a mood of strong reaction against the preaching of duty and self-sacrifice and the rest of it, were to tell me that she was determined not to murder her own instincts and throw away her life in obedience to a mouthful of empty phrases, I should say to her: "By all means do as you propose. Try how wicked you can be: it is precisely the same experiment as trying how good you can be. At worst you will only find out the sort of person you are. At best you will find that your passions, if you really and honestly let them all loose impartially, will discipline you with a severity which your conventional friends, abandoning themselves to the mechanical routine of fashion, could not stand for a day." As a matter of fact, we have seen over and over again this comedy of the "emancipated" young enthusiast flinging duty and religion, convention and parental authority, to the winds, only to find herself, for the first time in her life, plunged into duties, responsibilities, and sacrifices from which she is often glad to retreat, after a few years' wearing down of her enthusiasm, into the comparatively loose life of an ordinary respectable woman of fashion.[47] [47] George Bernard Shaw: _The Sanity of Art_. By courtesy of the publishers, Boni & Liveright. Analyze the relation of _sincerity_ to _teaching_, of _intellectual bravery_ to _reading_, of _subservience_ to _politics_, of _vitality_ to _creative writing_, of _broadmindedness_ to _social reform_, of _sympathy_ to _social judgment_. Rewrite Mr. Shaw's article so as to place the sentence which now begins the selection at the end. Is the result an improvement or a drawback? What difference in the reader might make this change advisable? IX. In the light of the following statement of the philosophy of Mr. Arthur Balfour, the English statesman, analyze, into one word if possible, the philosophy of Lincoln, of Bismarck, of Mr. Wilson, of Robert E. Lee, of Webster, of William Pitt, of Burke, of any political thinker of whom you know. In the same way analyze the military policy of Napoleon or Grant or any other general; the social philosophy of Jane Addams, Rousseau, Carlyle, Jefferson, or any other thinker; the creed of personal conduct of Browning, Whitman, Thackeray (as shown in _Vanity Fair_), or of any other person concerned with the individual. Analyze the effect of such a philosophy as Mr. Balfour's. Analyze the relation of such a philosophy as this to the actively interested personal conduct of the holder of it toward definite personal ends. Balfour is essentially a sceptic. He looks out on life with a mingled scorn and pity--scorn for its passionate strivings for the unattainable, pity for its meanness and squalor. He does not know the reading of the riddle, but he knows that all ends in failure and disillusion. Ever the rosy dawn of youth and hope fades away into the sadness of evening and the blackness of night, and out of that blackness comes no flash of revelation, no message of cheer. The Worldly Hope men set their hearts upon Turns Ashes--or it prospers; and anon Like Snow upon the Desert's dusty Face Lighting a little Hour or two--is gone. Why meddle with the loom and its flying shuttle? We are the warp and weft with which the great Weaver works His infinite design--that design which is beyond the focus of all mortal vision, and in which the glory of Greece, the pomp of Rome, the ambition of Carthage, seven times buried beneath the dust of the desert, are but inscrutable passages of glowing color. All our schemes are futile, for we do not know the end, and that which seems to us evil may serve some ultimate good, and that which seems right may pave the path to wrong. In this fantastic mockery of all human effort the only attitude is the "wise passiveness" of the poet. Let us accept the irrevocable fate unresistingly. In a word, Drift. That is the political philosophy of Mr. Balfour.[48] [48] A. G. Gardiner: _Prophets, Priests, and Kings_. By permission of the publishers, E. P. Dutton & Co., New York City. X. Analyze the method of treatment that the author uses in the following selections about King Edward VII and Mr. Thomas Hardy, and in the one just quoted about Mr. Balfour. Would the result in the reader's mind be as good, or better, if the author specified a larger number of qualities? Why? What feeling do you have as to the fairness of the three treatments? Does any one of the three seem to claim completeness? Which is most nearly complete? Write a similar analysis, reducing to one or two main qualities or characteristics, the American Civil War, the French Revolution, the Industrial Revolution, the Romantic Movement in Literature, the Celtic Spirit, the Puritan Spirit, Socialism, Culture. Now, King Edward is, above everything else, a very human man. He is not deceived by the pomp and circumstance in the midst of which it has been his lot to live, for he has no illusions. He is eminently sane. He was cast for a part in the piece of life from his cradle, and he plays it industriously and thoroughly; but he has never lost the point of view of the plain man. He has much more in common with the President of a free State than with the King by Divine right. He is simply the chief citizen, _primus inter pares_, and the fact that he is chief by heredity and not by election does not qualify his views of the reality of the position. Unlike his nephew, he never associates the Almighty with his right to rule, though he associates Him with his rule. His common sense and his gift of humor save him from these exalted and antiquated assumptions. Nothing is more characteristic of this sensible attitude than his love for the French people and French institutions. No King by "Divine right" could be on speaking terms with a country which has swept the whole institution of Kingship on to the dust-heap. And his saving grace of humor enables him to enjoy and poke fun at the folly of the tuft-hunter and the collector of Royal cherry stones. He laughingly inverts the folly. "You see that chair," he said in tones of awe to a guest entering his smoking room at Windsor. "That is the chair John Burns sat in." His Majesty has a genuine liking for "J. B." who, I have no doubt, delivered from that chair a copious digest of his Raper lecture, coupled with illuminating statistics on infantile mortality, some approving comments on the member for Battersea, and a little wholesome advice on the duties of a King. This liking for Mr. Burns is as characteristic of the King as his liking for France. He prefers plain, breezy men who admit him to the common humanities rather than those who remind him of his splendid isolation. He would have had no emotion of pride when Scott, who, with all his great qualities, was a deplorable tuft-hunter, solemnly put the wine glass that had touched the Royal lips into the tail pocket of his coat, but he would have immensely enjoyed the moment when he inadvertently sat on it.[49] [49] A. G. Gardiner: _Prophets, Priests, and Kings_. By permission of the publishers, E. P. Dutton & Co., New York City. Thomas Hardy lives in the deepening shadow of the mystery of this unintelligible world. The journey that began with the bucolic joy of _Under the Greenwood Tree_ has reached its close in the unmitigated misery of _Jude the Obscure_, accompanied by the mocking voices of those aerial spirits who pass their comments upon the futile struggle of the "Dynasts," as they march their armies to and fro across the mountains and rivers of that globe which the eye of the imagination sees whirling like a midge in space. Napoleon and the Powers! What are they but puppets in the hand of some passionless fate, loveless and hateless, whose purposes are beyond all human vision? O Immanence, That reasonest not In putting forth all things begot, Thou buildest Thy house in space--for what? O Loveless, Hateless!--past the sense Of kindly-eyed benevolence, To what tune danceth this Immense? And for answer comes the mocking voice of the Spirit Ironic-- For one I cannot answer. But I know 'T is handsome of our Pities so to sing The praises of the dreaming, dark, dumb Thing That turns the handle of this idle Show. Night has come down upon the outlook of the writer as it came down over the somber waste of Egdon Heath. There is not a cheerful feature left, not one glint of sunshine in the sad landscape of broken ambitions and squalor and hopeless strivings and triumphant misery. Labor and sorrow, a little laughter, disillusion and suffering--and after that, the dark. Not the dark that flees before the cheerful dawn, but the dark whose greatest benediction is eternal nothingness. Other men of genius, most men of genius, have had their periods of deep dejection in which only the mocking voice of the Spirit Ironic answered their passionate questionings. Shakespeare himself may be assumed to have passed through the valley of gloom in that tremendous period when he produced the great tragedies; but he came out of the shadow, and _The Winter's Tale_ has the serenity and peace of a cloudless sunset. But the pilgrimage of Thomas Hardy has led us ever into the deeper shadow. The shades of the prison-house have closed around us and there is no return to the cheerful day. The journey we began with those jolly carol-singers under the greenwood tree has ended in the hopeless misery of Jude.[50] [50] A. G. Gardiner: _Prophets, Priests, and Kings_. By permission of the publishers, E. P. Dutton & Co., New York City. XI. On what basis is the following analysis of the farmer's life made? Do you discover any overlapping of parts? Is the analysis so incomplete as to be of slight value? At what point can you draw the line between analysis and mere "remarks" about a subject? Over and above the hardiness which the farm engenders, and of a far higher quality, is the moral courage it calls into play. Courage is the elemental virtue, for life has been and will forever be a fight. A farmer's life is one incessant fight. Think what he dares! He dares to try to control the face of this planet. In order to raise his crops he pits himself against the weather and the seasons; he forces the soil to his wishes; he wars against the plant world, the bacterial world. Is not that a fight, looked at philosophically, to make one stand aghast? After I had been on the farm seven years, the tremendousness of the fight that my fellow farmers were waging disclosed itself to me with a force no figure of speech can convey. Until one can be brought to some realization of this aspect of the farmer's life, he has no adequate grounds for comprehending the discipline and development which is the very nature of the case that life must receive. I often contrast the life of the clerk at his books, or the mechanic at his bench, or the professional man at his desk, with the lot of the farmer. The dangers and uncertainties they confront seem to me extraordinarily mild compared with the risk the farmer runs. That the former will be paid for their work is almost certain; it is extremely uncertain whether the farmer will be paid for his. He must dare to lose at every turn; scarcely a week passes in which he does not lose, sometimes heavily, sometimes considerably. Those moments in a battle when it seems as if every plan had gone to smash, which so test the fortitude of a general, are moments which a farmer experiences more frequently and more strenuously than men in most occupations. If he sticks to his task successfully his capacity for courage must grow to meet the demands; if he will not stick, he is sifted out by force of circumstance, leaving the stronger type of man to hold the farm.[51] [51] Arthur M. Judy: _From the Study to the Farm_. By courtesy of The Atlantic Monthly Company. Analyze the life of the iron-worker, the country doctor, the head-nurse of a city hospital, the college professor, the private detective. XII. Would you classify the following selection as formal or informal classification or partition? Write a similar treatment of fuel power, moral power, physical strength, intellectual power. Wherever rain falls streams will form, the water of which represents the concentrated drainage of all the land sloping toward that particular valley at the bottom of which the stream flows. This stream flow consists of the rainfall over the whole watershed less the amount absorbed by the earth or evaporated from the surface, and every such stream is a potential source of power. The possible water-power of a country or district is, therefore, primarily dependent on rainfall, but also, of course, on absorption and surface evaporation. In places where the land is approximately flat, the tendency to concentrate rainfall into streams would be small, as the water would tend to lie rather in swampy low pools, or form innumerable tiny, slowly moving brooks. On the contrary, if the country were of a rolling or mountainous character, there would be two important differences introduced. First, water would concentrate in a few larger and faster-moving streams, the water of which would represent the collection from perhaps thousands of square miles; and secondly, it would be constantly falling from higher to lower levels on its way to the sea. While, therefore, all streams are potential, or possible sources of power, and water-power might seem to be available all over the earth, yet, as a matter of fact, only those streams that are large enough or in which the fall of level is great enough, are really worth while to develop; and only in these districts where the rainfall is great enough and the earth not too flat or too absorbent, or the air too dry, may any streams of useful character at all be expected. The power represented by all the water of a stream, and its entire fall from the source to the sea, is likewise only partly available. No one would think of trying to carry water in pipes from the source of a stream a thousand miles to its mouth for the sake of running some water-wheels.[52] [52] Charles E. Lucke: _Power_. By courtesy of the publishers, the Columbia University Press. XIII. For what kind of reader do you judge that the following partition of the orchestra was written? Is the partition complete? What is the basis on which it is made? How does it differ from an appreciative criticism of the orchestra as a musical instrument? (See chapter on _Criticism_.) Make a similar partition of the brass band, the feudal system, the United States Government, the United States Army, the Hague Conference, the pipe organ, the printing press, a canal lock, a Greek drama, a large modern circus, mathematics, etc. The modern orchestra is the result of a long development, which it would not be profitable to trace in this book. It is a body of instruments, selected with a view to their ability to perform the most complex music. It will be readily understood that such an instrumental body must possess a wide range of timbres, a great compass, extensive gradations of force, the greatest flexibility, and a solid sonority which can be maintained from the finest pianissimo to the heaviest forte. Of course the preservation of some of these qualities, such as flexibility and solidity, depend largely upon the skill of the composer, but they are all inherent in the orchestra. They are gained by the use of three classes of instruments, grouped under the general heads of wood, brass, and strings, which have special tone-colors and individuality when heard in their distinct groups, but which combine admirably in the ensemble. It is the custom to name the three groups in the order given because, for the sake of convenience, composers place the flute parts at the top of the page of the score where the wide margin gives room for their high notes. The other wood-wind instruments follow the flutes, so as to keep the wood-choir together. The brass is placed under the wood because its members are so often combined with some of the wood instruments in sounding chords. This brings the strings to the bottom of the page, the instruments of percussion (drums, cymbals, etc.) being inserted between them and the brass. The instruments of the conventional symphonic orchestra of the classic period, then, are flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons in the wood department, horns, trumpets, and trombones in the brass, and violins, violas, violoncellos, and double-basses for strings. Modern composers have added for special reasons the English horn, which is the alto of the oboe, the bass-clarinet, the contrabassoon (which sounds an octave lower than the ordinary bassoon), the bass-tuba, a powerful double-bass brass instrument, and the harp. The piccolo, a small, shrill flute sounding an octave higher than the ordinary flute, was introduced into the symphony orchestra by Beethoven, though it had frequently been used before in opera scores.[53] [53] W. H. Henderson: _What is Good Music_? By courtesy of the publishers, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York City. Copyright, 1898. XIV. Criticize the following analysis of the indispensability of Law. Write an analysis of the necessity for conformity to current style in dress, the necessity for theaters, of the reason why ultimate democracy is inevitable for the whole world; of the inevitability of conflict between advancing thought and established religion; of the unavoidability of struggle between capital and labor. The truth is, laws, religions, creeds, and systems of ethics, instead of making society better than its best unit, make it worse than its average unit, because they are never up to date. You will ask me: "Why have them at all?" I will tell you. They are made necessary, though we all secretly detest them, by the fact that the number of people who can think out a line of conduct for themselves even on one point is very small, and the number who can afford the time for it is still smaller. Nobody can afford the time to do it on all points. The professional thinker may on occasion make his own morality and philosophy as the cobbler may make his own boots; but the ordinary man of business must buy at the shop, so to speak, and put up with what he finds on sale there, whether it exactly suits him or not, because he can neither make a morality for himself nor do without one. This typewriter with which I am writing is the best I can get; but it is by no means a perfect instrument; and I have not the smallest doubt that in fifty years' time authors will wonder how men could have put up with so clumsy a contrivance. When a better one is invented I shall buy it: until then, not being myself an inventor, I must make the best of it, just as my Protestant and Roman Catholic and Agnostic friends make the best of their imperfect creeds and systems. Oh, Father Tucker, worshiper of Liberty, where shall we find a land where the thinking and moralizing can be done without division of labor? Besides, what have deep thinking and moralizing to do with the most necessary and least questionable side of law? Just consider how much we need law in matters which have absolutely no moral bearing at all. Is there anything more aggravating than to be told, when you are socially promoted, and are not quite sure how to behave yourself in the circles you enter for the first time, that good manners are merely a matter of good sense, and that rank is but the guinea's stamp: the man's the gowd for a' that? Imagine taking the field with an army which knew nothing except that the soldier's duty is to defend his country bravely, and think, not of his own safety, nor of home and beauty, but of England! Or of leaving the traffic of Piccadilly or Broadway to proceed on the understanding that every driver should keep to that side of the road which seemed to him to promote the greatest happiness to the greatest number! Or of stage managing Hamlet by assuring the Ghost that whether he entered from the right or the left could make no difference to the greatness of Shakespeare's play, and that all he need concern himself about was holding the mirror up to nature! Law is never so necessary as when it has no ethical significance whatever, and is pure law for the sake of law. The law that compels me to keep to the left when driving along Oxford Street is ethically senseless, as is shown by the fact that keeping to the right serves equally well in Paris; and it certainly destroys my freedom to choose my side; but by enabling me to count on every one else keeping to the left also, thus making traffic possible and safe, it enlarges my life and sets my mind free for nobler issues. Most laws, in short, are not the expression of the ethical verdicts of the community, but pure etiquette and nothing else. What they do express is the fact that over most of the field of social life there are wide limits within which it does not matter what people do, though it matters enormously under given circumstances whether you can depend on their all doing the same thing. The wasp, who can be depended on absolutely to sting if you squeeze him, is less of a nuisance than the man who tries to do business with you not according to the custom of business, but according to the Sermon on the Mount, or than the lady who dines with you and refuses, on republican and dietetic principles, to allow precedence to a duchess or to partake of food which contains uric acid. The ordinary man cannot get through the world without being told what to do at every turn, and basing such calculations as he is capable of on the assumption that every one else will calculate on the same assumptions. Even your man of genius accepts a hundred rules for every one he challenges; and you may lodge in the same house with an Anarchist for ten years without noticing anything exceptional about him. Martin Luther, the priest, horrified the greater half of Christendom by marrying a nun, yet was a submissive conformist in countless ways, living orderly as a husband and father, wearing what his bootmaker and tailor made for him, and dwelling in what the builder built for him, although he would have died rather than take his Church from the Pope. And when he got a Church made by himself to his liking, generations of men calling themselves Lutherans took that Church from him just as unquestioningly as he took the fashion of his clothes from the tailor. As the race evolves, many a convention which recommends itself by its obvious utility to every one passes into an automatic habit like breathing. Doubtless also an improvement in our nerves and judgment may enlarge the list of emergencies which individuals may be entrusted to deal with on the spur of the moment without reference to regulations; but a ready-made code of conduct for general use will always be needed as a matter of overwhelming convenience by all members of communities. The continual danger to liberty created by law arises, not from the encroachments of Governments, which are always regarded with suspicion, but from the immense utility and consequent popularity of law, and the terrifying danger and obvious inconvenience of anarchy; so that even pirates appoint and obey a captain. Law soon acquires such a good character that people will believe no evil of it; and at this point it becomes possible for priests and rulers to commit the most pernicious crimes in the name of law and order. Creeds and laws come to be regarded as applications to human conduct of eternal and immutable principles of good and evil; and breakers of the law are abhorred as sacrilegious scoundrels to whom nothing is sacred. Now this, I need not tell you, is a very serious error. No law is so independent of circumstances that the time never comes for breaking it, changing it, scrapping it as obsolete, and even making its observance a crime. In a developing civilization nothing can make laws tolerable unless their changes and modifications are kept as closely as possible on the heels of the changes and modifications in social conditions which development involves. Also there is a bad side to the very convenience of law. It deadens the conscience of individuals by relieving them of the ethical responsibility of their own actions. When this relief is made as complete as possible, it reduces a man to a condition in which his very virtues are contemptible. Military discipline, for example, aims at destroying the individuality and initiative of the soldier whilst increasing his mechanical efficiency, until he is simply a weapon with the power of hearing and obeying orders. In him you have legality, duty, obedience, self-denial, submission to external authority, carried as far as it can be carried; and the result is that in England, where military service is voluntary, the common soldier is less respected than any other serviceable worker in the community. The police constable, who is a civilian and has to use his own judgment and act on his own responsibility in innumerable petty emergencies, is by comparison a popular and esteemed citizen. The Roman Catholic peasant who consults his parish priest instead of his conscience, and submits wholly to the authority of his Church, is mastered and governed either by statesmen and cardinals who despise his superstition, or by Protestants who are at least allowed to persuade themselves that they have arrived at their religious opinions through the exercise of their private judgment. The moral evolution of the social individual is from submission and obedience as economizers of effort and responsibility, and safeguards against panic and incontinence, to willfulness and self-assertion made safe by reason and self-control, just as plainly as his physical growth leads him from the perambulator and the nurse's apron strings to the power of walking alone, and from the tutelage of the boy to the responsibility of the man. But it is useless for impatient spirits (like you and I, for instance) to call on people to walk before they can stand. Without high gifts of reason and self-control: that is, without strong common-sense, no man yet dares trust himself out of the school of authority. What he does is to claim gradual relaxations of the discipline, so as to have as much liberty as he thinks is good for him, and as much government as he thinks he needs to keep him straight. If he goes too fast he soon finds himself asking helplessly, "What ought I to do?" and so, after running to the doctor, the lawyer, the expert, the old friend, and all the other quacks for advice, he runs back to the law again to save him from all these and from himself. The law may be wrong; but anyhow it spares him the responsibility of choosing, and will either punish those who make him look ridiculous by exposing its folly, or, when the constitution is too democratic for this, at least guarantee that the majority is on his side.[54] [54] George Bernard Shaw: _The Sanity of Art_. By courtesy of the publishers, Boni & Liveright. CHAPTER V MECHANISMS, PROCESSES, AND ORGANIZATIONS The problem of giving directions for making or doing something, or of explaining the working of an organization, is not always easy to solve. Most difficulties, however, occur through lack of considering just what the problem involves, and through lack of sufficiently simplifying the material. Thus, when you ask an old man in a strange city where the post-office is, he is likely to reply somewhat as follows: "You keep on just as you are going for a little ways, and then turn down a narrow street on the right and go along for four blocks, and then turn to your left and go until you come to a square, and then go across it and down a side street and through an office building, and then it's the stone building on the corner of the second street to your right." You stroke your chin, meditate a bit, and, if you are polite, thank your informant for his kind intentions. Then you ask the next person whom you meet to tell you where the post-office is. The old man meant well, of course, but he failed to simplify. So did the author of the little book that Johnny received for Christmas mean well when he explained how to make a beautiful chemical effect. But Johnny, who was a fairly impetuous youth, did not stop to read the footnote at the end which warned against working near a fire. When he was seraphically pouring his chemicals together near the old oil lamp in the "shop" there came a flash, a deafening roar--and little Johnny had no time either to examine footnotes or, after the smoke had cleared, for _post-mortem_ complaints. The trouble lay in the fact that the author did not give Johnny the necessary information at the essential time. It seems that neither piety nor wit will suffice to locate post-offices or direct experiments or explain machines. Better than either of these is the ability to make the mechanism, the process, the organization transparently clear, with each bit of information given at exactly the proper moment. For, since the object of such explanation as attempts to make clear is primarily information, the main quality of the writing should be clearness. Everything that stands in the way of this quality should be made to surrender to explanation. If the subject is itself interesting or remarkable, the facts may speak for themselves, as in an account of the nebular hypothesis; if the subject is merely common, as for example the force pump, the primary aim should be clearness. Pleasing presentation, however desirable, is secondary. No amount of pleasant reading on the subject of making photographs, the working of periscopes, the organization of literary societies will be of value if at the end the reader has not a well-ordered idea of how to go to work or of how the thing of which you treat is operated. General Cautions For these reasons certain principles of caution can be laid down. The first caution is, do not take too much for granted on the reader's part. First of all take stock of your reader and his knowledge of the subject and then write in accordance with your discoveries. If, in explaining the bicycle to a Fiji Islander, you fail to note that the two wheels are placed tandem rather than parallel, he may form a thoroughly queer notion of the machine. And your protest, "Why, I supposed he would _know that_!" is in vain. This caution does not mean that you must adopt a tone of condescension, must say, "Now children," and patter on, but that you will not omit any important part of the explanation unless you are sure that your reader is acquainted with it. The second caution, which is corollary with the first, is that you do not substitute for the gaps in the written information the silent knowledge that is in your own mind. The danger here lies in the fact that, knowing your subject well, you will write part of it and think the rest. Having for a long time practiced the high hurdles, for example, when you come to explain them you will run the paradoxical risk of being so thoroughly acquainted with the subject that you will actually omit much vital information and thus make your treatment thin. And the third caution is, avoid being over technical. An expert can always understand plain English; a layman, on the other hand, can soon become hopelessly bewildered in a sea of technicalities. Treatment of technicalities demands sense, therefore; when a term is reasonably common its presence can do no harm, but when a term is known only to the few, substitute for it, when writing for the many, plain English, or define your terms. Centralization Perhaps the greatest lack in expositions of this type is centralization. A reader rises from the account of a cream separator or a suspension bridge or the feudal system with the feeling that many cogs and wires and wheels and spouts and lords and vassals are involved, but without a clear correlation of all these elements into a clear and simple whole. Now a suspension bridge is much more organic than a scrap heap, and the feudal system than a city directory. It is for you as the writer to make this clear, to show that all the things are related, that they affect each other and interact. For this purpose you will find the greatest help in the device of ascertaining what the root principle is, the fundamental notion or purpose of the subject that you are explaining. For example, to make your reader see the relation of the various parts of the tachometer you should discover and present the fact that the machine relies primarily on the principle of centrifugal force as affecting the mercury that whirls as the automobile moves. Once this principle is grasped by the reader, the various parts of the mechanism assume their proper places and relations and become clear. Now obviously this root principle is to be sought _in the subject itself_; here is no place for an author to let his fancy roam where it will without keeping an eye steadily upon the machine or process. You are trying to explain the machine, not some vague or fanciful idea of what the machine might be if it were like what your fancy says; therefore, in the words of the good old advice, which comes handy in most writing, "keep your eye on the object," which in this case will be the machine or the process or the organization. And the more complicated the mechanism or process, the more necessary will be the discovery of the root principle--a printing machine, for instance, with its amazing complexity, will be helped wonderfully by such a device, and the reader will welcome the device even more than he would in an explanation of how, for example, a fountain pen works--though he will be glad for it in any case. This root principle, nucleus, core, kernel can often be stated in one sentence. You can say, for instance, in speaking of bridges like those across the East River, "A suspension bridge consists of a roadway hung by wires from huge cables which are anchored at the ends and are looped up over one or more high supports in the stream." This sentence may not be immediately and entirely clear, but it serves to show quickly what relations parts have to each other, and to it the reader may refer in his mind when detailed treatment of the maze of wires and bolts becomes bewildering. Often this sentence need not be expressed alone; it should always be thought out in the writer's mind. If it is expressed, such a sentence may stand at the beginning as a sort of quick picture, or it may come at the end as a collecting statement of what has preceded, or at any point where it seems to be of the most value to the reader. It may take various forms as, for example, it may state in essence how the machine or process works, is operated, or what it is for, or of what it consists. If it occurs at the end as a summary, it may be a summary of _facts_ in which the points made or the parts described are enumerated, or it may be a summary of _essence_, in which the significance or the principle of the thing is stated. In the following examples the sentence will be found near the beginning in both cases, and in the nature of a statement of the principle of operation. Of tools used for cutting, perhaps the most remarkable of all is the oxygen blow-pipe. This is a little tool something the shape of a pistol--which a workman can easily hold in one hand. It is connected by a flexible tube to a cylinder of compressed oxygen, and by another tube to a supply of coal-gas. Thus a jet of oxygen and a jet of coal-gas issue from the nozzle at the end of the blow-pipe, and, mingling there, produce a fine point of flame burning with intense heat. If this be directed upon the edge of a thick bar or plate of steel it will in a few seconds melt a tiny groove in it, and, if the pipe be moved along, that groove can be developed into a cut and in that way very thick pieces of steel can be severed quite easily. The harder the steel, too, the more easily it is cut, for hard steel contains more carbon than soft, and that has a tendency to burn with oxygen, actually increasing the heat of the flame. A bar of iron a foot long can be cut right down the center in fifty seconds. It is said that scientific burglars have been known to use blow-pipes to open safes with; but a very strange thing about them is that, while they will cut hard steel of almost any thickness almost like butter, they are completely baffled by a thin sheet of copper. The reason of this is that copper is such a good conductor of heat that the heat of the flame is conducted quickly away, and so the part in contact with the flame never becomes hot enough to melt.[55] [55] Thomas W. Corbin: _Engineering of To-day_. By courtesy of the publishers, Seeley, Service & Co., London. * * * * * There is another very efficient substitute for the dynamite cartridge, which may abolish blasting even in hard-rock mines. It is a hydraulic cartridge, or an apparatus that works on the principle of the hydraulic jack. Unlike dynamite, which consists of a lot of stored and highly concentrated energy that is let fly to do what destruction it may, the hydraulic cartridge is absolutely inert and devoid of potential energy when placed in the blast-hole. Only after it is in place is the energy applied to it. This it gradually accumulates until it acquires enough to burst open the rock without wasting a lot of energy in pulverizing it. The apparatus is under the direct control of the miner all the time. There is nothing haphazard about its operation. The cartridge consists of a strong steel cylinder, made in various sizes. Disposed at right angles to the length of the cylinder are a number of pistons, or rams, that may be forced out laterally by pumping water into the cylinder. The cartridge is introduced into the blast-hole with the rams retracted. Then a quick-action pump is operated to move the rams out so that they come in contact with the rock. After this, by means of a screw-lever a powerful pressure is exerted upon the water, which forces out the rams until the rock gives way under the strain.[56] [56] Taken from _The Century Magazine_ by permission of the publishers, The Century Co. Processes The development of this kind of exposition will vary somewhat according to the nature of the subject. If you are explaining a process--how to make a campfire, or how to find the width of an unbridged river, or how to make bread--you will naturally follow the chronological order and tell what to do first, what second, and so on. If several materials are to be used in the process, you may enumerate them all at the beginning, for collection, or state them piece by piece as they are needed. For example, you may say, "In making a kite you will need so many pieces of such wood of such and such sizes, with paper or cloth, strong twine, glue, nails, etc." You may cast the whole process into a personal mood by telling how some one, perhaps yourself, did it on a previous occasion. This method, if it is judiciously used, adds interest. You must take care not to seem to encumber obviously simple directions, however, with the machinery of personal narrative so that the whole account is longer than it should be. In case you are treating some process in which mistakes are easily made, you can often help the reader by showing how some one--preferably yourself--did it wrongly and thereby came to grief. Or you can state concisely what not to do if there is chance for mistake. In developing films, for example, you may warn the reader not to mix any of the Hypo with the Fixing Bath; in picking his apples not to break the twigs of the tree; in paddling a canoe through rapids not to become excited. Note how, in the account which follows of how to handle a punt, the author makes the material quite human and personal--to the reader's pleasure. You may get yourself a tub or a working-boat or a wherry, a rob-roy or a dinghy, for every craft that floats is known on the Thames; but the favorite craft are the Canadian canoe and the punt. The canoe you will be familiar with, but your ideas of a punt are probably derived from a farm-built craft you have poled about American duck-marshes--which bears about the same relationship to this slender, half-decked cedar beauty that a canal-boat bears to a racing-shell. During your first perilous lessons in punting, you will probably be in apprehension of ducking your mentor, who is lounging among the cushions in the bow. But you cannot upset the punt any more than you can discompose the Englishman; the punt simply upsets you without seeming to be aware of it. And when you crawl dripping up the bank, consoled only by the fact that the Humane Society man was not on hand with his boat-hook to pull you out by the seat of the trousers, your mentor will gravely explain how you made your mistake. Instead of bracing your feet firmly on the bottom and pushing with the pole, you were leaning on the pole and pushing with your feet. When the pole stuck in the clay bottom, of course it pulled you out of the boat. Steering is a matter of long practice. When you want to throw the bow to the left, you have only to pry the stern over to the right as you are pulling the pole out of the water. To throw the bow to the right, ground the pole a foot or so wide of the boat, and then lean over and pull the boat up to it. That is not so easy, but you will learn the wrist motion in time. When all this comes like second nature, you will feel that you have become a part of the punt, or rather that the punt has taken life and become a part of you. A particular beauty of punting is that, more than any other sport, it brings you into personal contact, so to speak, with the landscape. In a few days you will know every inch of the bottom of the Char, some of it perhaps by more intimate experience than you desire. Over there, on the other curve of the bend, the longest pole will not touch bottom. Fight shy of that place. Just beyond here, in the narrows, the water is so shallow that you can get the whole length of your body into every sweep. As for the shrubbery on the bank, you will soon learn these hawthorns, if only to avoid barging into them. And the Magdalen chestnut, which spreads its shade so beautifully above the water just beyond, becomes quite familiar when its low-reaching branches have once caught the top of your pole and torn it from your hands.[57] [57] John Corbin: _An American at Oxford_. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, publishers. Mechanisms If you are explaining a mechanism, you may follow different orders. You may explain chronologically, showing what happens first, what next, and so on, as in the printing press you would show what happens first to the paper, and then what processes follow. Here you must be careful not to give a long list at the beginning of all the different parts of the machine. Such a list bewilders and is rarely of any real value. Instead of saying, for example, that a reaper and binder consists of a reel, a knife, a canvas platform and belt, etc., you will do well to simplify at the beginning, and say, perhaps, that from the front the machine looks like a dash with an inverted V at one end: thus: ____[Greek: L] and then go on to relate the various parts to this simple scheme. The brief paragraph which follows illustrates the principle in a slight space. The stone-boat is a peculiar vehicle incidental to America, and has nothing whatsoever to do with the water. It resembles a huge metal tray or shovel hauled by a team of horses. And its special path is as novel as the boat itself. It is only two wooden lines fashioned from tree-logs adzed roughly flat on the upper side, well greased, and laid promiscuously and roughly parallel on the ground. The stone is prized and levered on to the tray, and hauled with a speed, which, bearing in mind the primitive road, is astonishing, to the dump, where a sharp swing round on the part of the horses pitches the mass down the bank.[58] [58] F. A. Talbot: _The Making of a Great Canadian Railway_. By courtesy of the publishers, Seeley, Service & Co., London. If you prefer, you can use, instead of the chronological order, the device of showing what the need was for the machine and how it fills the need, or what the object of the machine is and how it accomplishes that object. An explanation of the cotton gin might present the woeful waste of time before the gin was invented and then show how the invention annuls that waste. One of the periscope might state the object of invisible observation and then show how, by tubes and mirrors, this object is accomplished. Or finally, as a third general method, you may state the root principle and then expand in detail. With this scheme you might state that the piano is an instrument in which felt hammers strike metal strings that are stretched across a sounding board, and then go on to show the significance, as related to this notion, of keys, pedals, music rest, and other details. Often this method is the most helpful for a reader, since it gives him at once a nucleus of theory round which he can group the details with immediate or rapid understanding of their relations and significance. In so simple a machine as the ice cream freezer to introduce names like "dasher" without previous warning may result in momentary confusion, whereas if the principle is stated at the beginning, and the reader knows that the object is to bring the cream into contact with the coldest possible _surface_ so as to produce speed in freezing, the "dasher," when mentioned, is at once significant. The description and explanation of a track-layer, which follows, is so made as to be both clear and interesting. The track-layer is one of the most interesting tools with which the railway-builder carries out his epoch-making work. It is a cumbersome, ungainly, and fearsome-looking implement, but with a convincing, grim, and business-like appearance. From the front it resembles a gallows, and for this reason has earned the sinister sobriquet of "the gibbet" among certain members of the engineering fraternity. On the front of the truck there is a lofty rectangular scaffolding of rigid construction, strongly based and supported for the hard, heavy work it has to perform. A jib runs forward into the air from the bottom of either leg to meet at the outer extremity and to form a derrick. The car on which the structure is mounted carries a number of small steam-engines, each of which has to perform a particular function, while at the commanding point high up on the rectangular construction is a small bridge, from which the man in control of the machine carries out his various tasks and controls the whole machine. Ropes, hooks, and pulleys are found on every side, and though, from the cursory point of view, it appears an intricate piece of mechanism, yet its operation is absurdly simple. This machine constitutes the front vehicle of the train, with the bridge facing the grade and the projecting boom overhanging the track. Immediately behind are several trucks piled high with steel rails, fish-plates to secure connection between successive lengths of rails, spikes, and other necessaries. Then comes the locomotive, followed by a long train of trucks laden with sleepers. On the right-hand side of the train, level with the deck of the trucks, extends a continuous trough, with its floor consisting of rollers. It reaches from the rearmost car in the train to 40 or 50 feet in advance of the track-layer, the overhanging section being supported by ropes and tackle controlled from the track-layer truck whereby the trough can be raised and lowered as desired. The appliance is operated as follows. The engine pushes the fore-part of the train slowly forward until the end of the last rail laid is approached. The rollers in the trough, which is in reality a mechanical conveyor, are set in motion. Then the gangs of men stationed on the rear trucks with might and main pitch the bulky sleepers into the trough. Caught up by the rollers, the ties are whirled along to the front of the train, and tumble to the ground in a steady, continuous stream. As they emerge, they are picked up by another gang of men who roughly throw them into position on to the grade. Other members of the gang, equipped with axes and crowbars, push, pull, haul, and prize the ties into their relative positions and at equal distances apart. When thirty or forty sleepers have been deposited in this manner, a pair of steel rails are picked up by the booms from the trucks behind the track-layer, are swung through the air, and lowered. As they near the ground ready hands grasp the bar of steel, steady it in its descent, and guide it into its correct position. The gauge is brought into play dexterously, and before one can realize what has happened the men are spiking the pair of rails to the sleepers, have slipped the bolts into the fish-plates connecting the new rail with its fellow already in position, and the track-layer has moved slowly forward some 13 or 16 feet over a new unit of track, meanwhile disgorging further sleepers from the mouth of the trough. The noise is deafening, owing to the clattering of the weighty baulks of timber racing over the noisy rollers in the conveyor, the rattle of metal, and the clang-clang of the hammers as the men with powerful strokes drive home the spikes fastening the rail to its wooden bed, and the hissing and screeching of steam. Amid the silence of the wilderness the din created by the track-layer at work is heard for some time before you can gain a glimpse of the machine train. The men speak but little, for the simple reason that they could scarcely make themselves heard if they attempted conversation. Each moves with wonderful precision, like a part of an intricate machine. In this way the rail creeps forward relentlessly at a steady, monotonous pace. The lines of sleepers and rails on the track disappear with amazing rapidity, and the men engaged in the task of charging the conveyor-trough and swinging the rails forward, appear to be in a mad race with steam-driven machinery. The perspiration rolls off their faces in great beads, and they breathe heavily as they grasp and toss the weighty strips of timber about as if they were straws. There is no pause or diminution in their speed. If they ease up at all the fact becomes evident at the front in the course of a few seconds in a unanimous outcry from the gangs on the grade for more material, which spurs the lagging men on the trucks behind to greater effort. The only respite from the exhausting labor is when the trucks have been emptied of all rails or sleepers and the engine has to run back for a further supply, or when the hooter rings out the time for meals or the cessation of labor. The track-layer at work is the most fascinating piece of machinery in the building of a large railway. The steam-shovel may be alluring, and the sight of a large hill of rock being blown sky-high may compel attention, but it is the mechanical means which have been evolved to carry out the last phase--the laying of the metals--that is the most bewitching. One can see the railway growing in the fullest sense of the word--can see the thin, sinuous ribbon of steel crawling over the flat prairie, across spidery bridges, through ravine-like rock-cuts, gloomy tunnels, and along lofty embankments. Now and again, when the apparatus has secured a full complement of hands, and every other factor is conducive, the men will set to work in more deadly earnest than usual, bent on setting up a record. Races against time have become quite a craze among the crews operating the track-layer on the various railways throughout America, and consequently the men allow no opportunity to set up a new record, when all conditions are favorable, to slip by.[59] [59] F. A. Talbot: _The Making of a Great Canadian Railway_. By courtesy of the publishers, Seeley, Service & Co., London. Organizations If you are explaining an organization you may again use the chronological order and show how the organization came about as it is, how for example the Federal Reserve Board was appointed for certain reasons each of which has its correspondent in the constitution of the board. Such a method is useful in explaining the feudal system, the college fraternity, the national convention of a political party. Or, finally, you can state the root idea, sometimes appearing as purpose or significance, and then expand it. A labor union, thus treated, is a body of men who individually have slight power of resisting organized capital, but can collectively obtain their rights and demands. Aids in Gaining Clearness Clearness then, through centralization, is the all-important necessity of expositions of this type. To aid in gaining this quality you will do well to avoid technical terms, as has already been mentioned. You can make use of graphic charts when they will be useful, so long as they are not merely a lazy device for escaping the task of writing clearly. Some machines, such as the printing press or the rock drill, defy explanation without charts and plates. Textbooks often wisely make use of this device. You can also use familiar illustrations, as the one here used of the reaper and binder or the one likening Brooklyn Bridge to a letter H with the sides far apart, the cross piece extended beyond the sides, and a cable looped over the tops of the sides. Such illustrations at the beginning of the whole or sections are useful in helping the reader to visualize. Another important aid to clearness is to take care that nothing is mentioned for which the way has not been prepared. Just as in a play we insist that the action of a character be consistent, that a good man do not suddenly commit wanton murder, and that the villain do not suddenly appear saintly, so we rightly demand that we be not suddenly confronted with a crank, wheel, office, or step in a process which bewilders us. You ought to write so that your reader will never pucker his brow and say, "What is this?" And when a detail has some special bearing, introduce it at the significant point. To have told little Johnny in the beginning that he must keep his chemicals away from flame would have avoided explosion and death; to declaim loudly after the explosion is of no value. And finally, from a purely rhetorical standpoint, make careful transition from section to section so that the reader will know exactly where divisions occur, and make liberal use of summaries whenever they may be useful without being too cumbersome. Notice how, in the following paragraph, the writer has given the gist of the machines so that, if he wishes to expand and make a full treatment, he will still have a nucleus which will considerably facilitate the reader's understanding. Continuous dredges are of four types--the ladder, the hydraulic, the stirring, and the pneumatic dredges. The ladder dredge excavates the bottom by means of a series of buckets running with great velocity along a ladder. The buckets scrape the soil at the bottom, raise the débris to the surface and discharge it into barges or conveyors so as to send it to its final destination. The hydraulic dredge removes the material from the bottom by means of a large centrifugal pump which draws the materials, mixed with water, into a suction tube and forces them to distant points by means of a long line of pipes. The stirring dredges are those employed in the excavation of soils composed of very finely divided particles; they agitate the soils and the material thus brought into suspension is carried away by the action or current of water. The pneumatic dredges are those in which the material from the bottom is forced into the suction tube and thence into the discharging pipe, by the action of continuous jets of compressed air turned upward into the tube.[60] [60] Charles Prelini: _Dredges and Dredging_. By courtesy of the publishers, D. Van Nostrand Company, New York City. Notice also the care with which the author of the paragraph which follows and explains the phonopticon states early in his treatment the scientific basis for the operation of the machine, without knowing which a reader would be hopelessly confused to understand how the machine could possibly do what the author says it does. The element selenium, when in crystalline form, possesses the peculiar property of being electro-sensitive to light. It is a good or bad conductor of electricity according to the intensity of the light that falls upon it, and its response to variations of illumination is virtually instantaneous. This interesting property has been utilized in a wide variety of applications, ranging from the transmission of a picture over a telegraph line to the automatic detection of comets; but by far the most marvelous application is that of the phonopticon.... It is an apparatus that will actually read a book or a newspaper, uttering a characteristic combination of musical sounds for every letter it scans. The principle of operation is not difficult to understand. A row of, say, three tiny selenium crystals is employed, each crystal forming part of a telephone circuit leading to a triple telephone-receiver. In each circuit there is an interrupter that breaks up the current into pulsations, or waves, of sufficient frequency to produce a musical note in the receiver. The frequency differs in the three circuits, so that each produces its characteristic pitch. Although the conductivity of selenium is increased by intensifying its illumination, the electrical connections in this apparatus are so chosen that while the crystals are illuminated no sounds are heard in the telephone, but when the crystals are darkened, there is an instant audible response. The apparatus is placed upon the printed matter that is to be read, with the row of crystals disposed at right angles to the line of type. The paper directly under the crystals is illuminated by a beam of light. This is reflected from the unprinted part of the paper with sufficient intensity to keep the telephone quiet, but when the crystals are moved over the black printing, the light is diminished, and the crystals lose their conductivity, causing the telephone to respond with a set of sounds which vary with the shape of the letter. Suppose the apparatus was being moved over the letter V, the upper crystal would encounter the letter first, then the middle one would respond, next the lower one would come into action for an instant, followed by a second response of the middle crystal and a final response of the upper crystal. A set of notes would be sounded somewhat after this fashion: _me_, _re_, _do_, _re_, _mi_. The sound combination with such letters as S and O is more complicated but it is distinguishable. When we read with the natural eye we do not spell out the words letter by letter, but recognize them by their appearance as a whole. In the same way with the mechanical eye entire words can be recognized after a little practice. * * * * * Of course the phonopticon is yet in the laboratory stages, but it offers every prospect of practical success, and its possibilities are untold. It is quite conceivable that the apparatus may be elaborated to such an extent that a blind man may see (by ear) where he is going. His world may never be bathed in sunshine, but he may learn to admire the beauties of nature as translated from light into music.[61] [61] Taken from _The Century Magazine_ by permission of the publishers, The Century Co. Aids in Gaining Interest If mere clearness alone were the only quality to strive for, this kind of writing might remain, however useful, eternally dull except to one who is vitally interested in the facts, however they are treated. But for this there is no need; no reason exists why you should not make this kind of writing attractive. For you can, in addition to making a machine clear, endow it with life; in addition to enumerating the steps in a process, make it a fascinating adventure. Suppose that you are explaining how to learn to swim--is not the thought of waving one's arms and legs in dreamy or frantic rhythm as he lies prone across the piano bench humorous? Why, then, exclude the humor? And is not the person who is trying to learn much alive, with the pit of his stomach nervously aware of the hardness of the bench? Why, then, make him a wooden automaton, or worse, a dead agent? So long as you do not obscure the point that the reader should note, all the life, all the humor of which you and the process are capable should be introduced. Just so with a machine. You can explain the engine of an airship so that the reader will exclaim, "I see"; what you ought to do is so to explain the engine that he will say, "I see, and bless you, I'd like to see one go!" You ought to make the beautiful efficiency, the exquisite humming life of the thing, its poise, its athletic trimness so take hold of the reader that his imagination will be fired, his interest thoroughly aroused. Now this you cannot do by thrusting in extraneous matter to leaven the lump. Webster in the Senate did not introduce vaudeville to enliven his _Reply to Hayne_, but he found in the subject itself the interest. First of all, then, study your machine, your process, your organization, until you see what its quality is, its spirit, until you are yourself aware of its life, and then make this live for your reader. A railroad locomotive should be made thrilling with its pomp and power, a military movement should be made an exquisitely quick piece of living constructive work, a submarine should have all the craft and the romance of a haunting redskin, the roasting of a goose should be made a process to rouse the joys of gluttony forevermore. Now to do this will require exercise of the imagination, and if you find yours weak your first duty is to develop it. If it is strong and active, on the other hand, allow it free play, only watching lest it may obscure the subject--for clearness is always first. There need, however, be no discrepancy between the two qualities. The following extract from an essay by Mr. Dallas Lore Sharp illustrates the possibilities of both interest and truth. ANY CHILD CAN USE IT THE PERFECT AUTOMATIC CARPET-LAYER No more carpet-laying bills. Do your own laying. No wrinkles. No crowded corners. No sore knees. No pounded fingers. No broken backs. Stand up and lay your carpet with the Perfect Automatic. Easy as sweeping. Smooth as putting paper on the wall. You hold the handle and the Perfect Automatic does the rest. Patent Applied For. Price ---- --but it was not the price! It was the tool--a weird hybrid tool, part gun, part rake, part catapult, part curry-comb, fit apparently for almost any purpose, from the business of blunderbuss to the office of an apple-picker. Its handle, which any child could hold, was somewhat shorter and thicker than a hoe-handle, and had a slotted tin barrel on its ventral side along its entire length. Down this barrel, their points sticking through the slot, moved the tacks in single file to a spring-hammer close to the floor. This hammer was operated by a lever or tongue at the head of the handle, the connection between the hammer at the distal end and the lever at the proximal end being effected by means of a steel-wire spinal cord down the dorsal side of the handle. Over the fist of a hammer spread a jaw of sharp teeth to take hold of the carpet. The thing could not talk; but it could do almost anything else, so fearfully and wonderfully was it made. As for laying carpets with it, any child could do that. But we didn't have any children then, and I had quite outgrown my childhood. I tried to be a boy again just for that night. I grasped the handle of the Perfect Automatic, stretched with our united strength, and pushed down on the lever. The spring-hammer drew back, a little trap at the end of the slotted tin barrel opened for the tack, the tack jumped out, turned over, landed point downward upon the right spot in the carpet, the crouching hammer sprang, and-- And then I lifted up the Perfect Automatic to see if the tack went in,--a simple act that any child could do, but which took automatically and perfectly all the stretch out of the carpet; for the hammer did not hit the tack; the tack really did not get through the trap; the trap did not open the slot; the slot--but no matter. We have no carpets now. The Perfect Automatic stands in the garret with all its original varnish on. At its feet sits a half-used can of "Beesene, the Prince of Floor Pastes."[62] [62] Dallas Lore Sharp: _The Hills of Hingham_, "The Dustless Duster." Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, publishers. Besides the devices that have been mentioned you can use that of making the agents in the action definite, real persons, and you can make a process seem to be actually going on before the eyes of the reader. You can suffuse the whole theme with a human spirit, for everything has a human significance if only you will find it. Finally, use tact in approaching your reader. Do not "talk down" to him, and do not over-compliment his intelligence or wheedle him. Rather regard him as a person desirous of knowing, your subject as a thing capable of interest, and yourself as a really enthusiastic devotee. Take this attitude, and as long as you make clear, so long your chances for success will be good. EXERCISES I. 1. Indicate other practical root principles beside the one mentioned which a theme on any of the following subjects might well try to express. 1. How to teach a dog tricks--the patience required. 2. How to learn to swim--the humor, or the grim determination. 3. How to manage an automobile--the cool-headedness required. 4. How to find the trouble with a balky engine--the careful, patient, unangered searching. 5. How to make an exquisite angel cake--the delicacy necessary. 6. A steel mill--the power displayed. 7. The aeroplane motor--its concentrated energy. 8. The reaper and binder--the coöperation of parts. 9. The camera--its sensitiveness. 10. The adding machine--the uncanny sureness of it. 11. The United States Supreme Court--its deliberateness. 12. The feudal system--its picturesque injustice. 13. The college literary society--its opportunities. 14. The Grange--its sensible usefulness. 15. The Federal Reserve Board--its safety. 2. Make two or more outlines for each subject, choosing your material to indicate different root principles. Wherein does the difference in material consist? How much material is common to all the outlines on the same subject? Is this common material made of essential or non-essential facts? II. Find some simplifying device such as the one suggested for the reaper and binder, for any of the following mechanisms, and indicate how you would relate the parts of the machine to the device. 1. A concrete mixer. 2. A derrick. 3. A vacuum cleaner. 4. A lawn-mower. 5. A rock-crusher. 6. A pile-driver. 7. A Dover egg-beater. 8. A hay-tedder. 9. A printing-press. 10. An apple-sorter. III. State, _in one complete sentence_, the nucleus from which a theme treatment of any of the following subjects would grow. Be sure that this sentence is sufficiently inclusive, has much meat. Mr. Wilson, in writing of the National House of Representatives, evidently had a sentence like the following in mind: "The House of Representatives is an efficient business body the work of which is accomplished largely through committees, and centralized round a powerful speaker." 1. The operation of a sewing machine. 2. The explanation of a pulley. 3. The explanation of a cream separator. 4. The principle of the fireless cooker. 5. The principle of the steam turbine. 6. The principle of the bread mixer. 7. The principle of the piano. 8. The principle of the electric car. 9. The principle of the steel construction of sky scrapers. 10. The principle of the metal lathe. 11. The Interstate Commerce Commission. 12. The college fraternity. 13. A national political convention. 14. The Roman Catholic Church, or any other church. 15. The modern orchestra. 16. The Boy Scout Movement. 17. The International Workers of the World. 18. An American State University. 19. A stock exchange. 20. A national bank. 21. How to play tennis. 22. How to detect the tricks of fakirs at county fairs. 23. How to make a symmetrical load of hay. 24. How to run "the quarter." 25. How to pack for camping. 26. How to rush a freshman. 27. How to make money from poultry. 28. How to make a successful iron casting. 29. How to plan a railroad terminal yard. 30. How to use the slide rule. IV. The Track Layer (page 166). 1. In view of the fact that the text suggests avoidance of a beginning list of parts of a machine, what is your opinion of the list in this selection? Could the explanation have been made as well without this list? Better? 2. Would this explanation be as well done if the author began with hearing the machine at a distance, and then approached, described the appearance of the machine, and finally stated its principle? Does the method, the order, have any really close connection with the value of the explanation? V. Write themes on the following subjects, bearing in mind that the _facts_ of the subject remain constant even though the readers may vitally differ and therefore need widely varying treatments. 1. The adding machine. a. For a business man who wishes to reduce expenses in his office. b. For a woman who has worked painfully at figures in an office for thirty years and regards the process of "figuring" as sacred. c. For a person who says, "I just never could get figures straight anyway!" 2. The typewriter. a. For a person who complains that people haven't brains enough to read his "perfectly plain handwriting." b. For a person who thinks that the clicking sound of the machine will be terribly disagreeable. c. For an old gentleman who for years clung to the use of a quill, and has only within a few years brought himself to use a fountain pen. 3. Fruit farming (limited to one kind of fruit). a. For a city man of not too robust health but of considerable wealth who wishes a reasonably quiet pleasant existence. b. For a young man who has just inherited 150 acres of fine apple land but is half inclined toward becoming a bank clerk. c. For a person who has read Burroughs and thinks that the poetic appeal of fruit trees and birds must be delightful. 4. The Process of Canvassing for a Book. a. For a college student who wishes to make much money. b. For a person who always buys books from canvassers and whom you wish to enlighten as to their methods. c. For a young man who possesses a glib tongue which he wishes to turn to good financial use. 5. The Commission Form of City Government. a. For a man who wishes to improve the régime in his city. b. For a person who contends that our municipal government is hopelessly behind that of European cities. c. For a politician of doubtful character who has served several terms as mayor under the old system. 6. The Hague Peace Conference. a. For a person who declares that international coöperation is impossible. b. For a person who is seeking a precedent for a "League to Enforce Peace." c. For a militarist. VI. Compare the two selections which follow, and determine which is the more interesting, and why. Would the kind of treatment that the second receives be fitting for the first? Rewrite each, in condensed form, in the style of the other. It will, I believe, be more interesting if, instead of talking of launches in general, I describe the launch of the great British battleship _Neptune_ which I witnessed recently at the famous naval dockyard at Portsmouth. It will, however, be necessary to commence with a short general explanation. As we already know, the keel of a vessel is laid upon a row of blocks, and from the keel it grows upwards plate by plate. As it thus gets higher and higher it has to be supported laterally, in order to keep it in an upright position, and for this reason strong props or shores are placed along the sides at frequent intervals. Now it is easy to see that the vessel cannot move until these shores have been taken away, yet, if they are removed, what is to prevent the ship from falling over? This dilemma is avoided by putting the vessel on what is called a cradle. It is to my mind best described by comparison with a sledge. A sledge has a body on which the passenger or load is placed, while under it are runners, smooth strips which will slide easily over the slippery surfaces of the snow, and finally there is the smooth snow to form the track. In the same way the ship, when it starts on its first journey, rests upon the body of the cradle, which in turn rests upon "runners" which slide upon the "launching ways," the counterpart of the smooth snow. These "ways" are long narrow timber stages, one on each side of the ship and parallel with the keel. They are several feet wide, and long enough to reach right down into the water. Needless to say, they are very strong, and the upper surface is quite smooth so that the runners will slide easily, and there is a raised edge on each to keep them from gliding off sideways. Grease and oil are plentifully supplied to these ways, and then the "runners" are placed upon them. These, too, are formed of massive baulks of timber, and their underside is made smooth so as to present as good a sliding surface as possible to the "ways." Finally upon the runners is built up the body of the cradle itself. Timber is again the material, and it is carefully fitted to the underside of the ship so that, when the weight is transferred from the blocks under it to the cradle, it will rest evenly and with the least possible strain; for it must be borne in mind that a ship is designed to be supported on the soft even bed which the water affords and not on a timber framework. There is a danger, therefore, of the hull becoming distorted while resting upon the cradle, so it is stayed and strengthened inside with temporary timber work. So far all seems easy, but the weight of the ship is still on the blocks, while the cradle is as yet doing practically nothing. There remains the stupendous task of transferring the weight of the ship, thousands of tons, from one to the other. How can it be done? This is left until the morning of the day appointed for the launch, and it is then done by a method which is quite startling in its simplicity. The power to be obtained by means of a wedge has been known for ages, yet it is that simple device which enables this seemingly impossible work to be accomplished with ease. Between the "runners," as I have termed them, and the body of the cradle itself, a large number of wedges are inserted, perhaps as many as a thousand. But of course they cannot be driven one at a time, as a single wedge would simply crush into the timber without lifting the cradle at all; they are therefore all driven at once. An army of men are employed, and they all stand with heavy hammers ready to strike. At the sound of a gong a thousand hammers fall as one, and a thousand wedges begin to raise the ship with the cradle on it. Then a second sound on the gong, and a second time a thousand hammers strike together; then again and again, until all the wedges have been driven home and the weight of the ship has been lifted partly off the blocks on to the cradle. Then the blocks are gradually removed, a proceeding which is rendered easy by the fact that it has for one of the layers which compose it a pair of wedges which can be easily withdrawn so as to leave all the other timbers free. There are an enormous number of these blocks to be removed from under a big ship, and the operation takes considerable time. They are removed, too, gradually, so that the whole of the weight of the ship, which will ultimately rest upon the cradle, may come on to it by degrees, and so if there should be anything wrong--with the cradle, for instance--the operation of removing the blocks could be suspended before it had gone too far; for the engineer, though he sometimes does very daring things, and none more daring than the launching of a big ship, is really a very cautious man, and always likes to keep on the safe side. At Portsmouth there is an old custom in connection with the removal of the blocks from under the ship which prescribes that the men shall sing at their work. This is a matter in which they take a pride, so that while the blocks are being taken away sounds of excellent male voice part-singing float out from the invisible "choir" underneath the ship. The removal of the blocks is so arranged that it shall be completed just before the time for the ceremony, since when they are all gone the ship is all "alive," straining, as it were, to get away down the slippery ways into the water, and a very slight mishap would be sufficient to bring about a premature launch. Indeed, during these last moments the vessel is only held back by a few blocks left under the bow--it must be understood that a ship commences its career by entering the water _backwards_--and one timber prop on each side, called the "dog-shores." These "dog-shores" are, in effect, huge catches which keep the ship from moving, and which are released at the right moment by the falling of two weights. The launch of the _Neptune_ took place at eleven o'clock in the morning, and for an hour or so previously spectators had been assembling. Picture to yourself a great steel vessel--merely the hull, of course--500 feet long and as high as a three-story house. Close to the bow is a gaily decorated platform, crowded with people, while thousands occupy stands on either side, and still more stand on the open ground and on every point from which a view can be obtained. On the bow of the vessel there is hung a festoon of flowers with a bottle of wine concealed in it, while round the bow passes a cord, the ends of which are supporting the weights which hang just over the dog-shores. As the clock strikes, the lady who is to perform the ceremony, a royal duchess, arrives upon the scene and takes her place on the elevated platform close to the bow of the ship. A short religious service is conducted by the chaplain of the dockyard assisted by the choir of the dockyard church, and then the duchess leans forward, takes hold of the wine bottle suspended by the floral festoon, draws it towards her and lets it go again. As the bottle swings back and dashes to pieces against the steel stem of the vessel, she says, "Success to the _Neptune_ and all who sail in her." Then an official steps forward with a mallet and chisel. The former he hands to the lady, while the latter he holds with its edge upon the cord. Now is the critical moment, and among all the thousands of spectators not a sound is to be heard. A few blows of the mallet upon the chisel and the cord is severed; exactly at the same moment the two weights fall, the dog-shores are knocked out of the way, and the great vessel begins slowly and majestically to glide down to the water. The few remaining blocks under the bow are pulled over by the motion of the ship, and fall with a crash, which is soon drowned by the cheers of the people and sounds of patriotic airs played by the band. There are a large number of sailors and workmen upon the ship, and as soon as she is in the water they drop the anchors and bring her to rest, while tugs rush to her and take her in tow to the dock where she is to be fitted up. But what becomes of the cradle? It is made in two halves, the part on each side being connected to that on the other by chains passing under the keel, and in these chains there is a connection which can be released by pulling a cord from the deck of the ship. When the ship has reached the water, therefore, and the cradle has done its work, the cord is pulled and the two halves of the cradle, being mainly of timber, float off, to be captured and towed back to shore. The grease upon the launching ways and cradle is melted by the heat due to friction, and much of it is to be found floating upon the water immediately after the launch, so numbers of small boats immediately put off and men with scoops collect it.[63] [63] Thomas W. Corbin: _Engineering of To-day_. By courtesy of the publishers, Seeley, Service & Co., London. * * * * * The word _head_ affords a good example of radiation. We may regard as the central meaning that with which we are most familiar,--a part of the body. From this we get (1) the "top" of anything, literally or figuratively, whether it resembles a head in shape (as the head of a cane, a pin, or a nail), or merely in position of preëminence (as the head of a page, the head of the table, the head of the hall); (2) figuratively, "leadership," or concretely, "a leader" (the head of the army, the head of the school); (3) the "head" of a coin (the side on which the ruler's head is stamped); (4) the "source" of a stream, "spring," "well-head," "fountain-head"; (5) the hydraulic sense ("head of water"); (6) a "promontory," _as Flamborough Head_, _Beechy Head_; (7) "an armed force," a "troop" (now obsolete); (8) a single person or individual, as in "five head of cattle"; (9) the "main points," as in "the heads of a discourse" (also "notes" of such points); (10) mental power, "intellectual force." Here again there is no reason for deriving any of our ten special senses from any other. They are mutually independent, each proceeding in a direct line from the central primary meaning of head. The main process of radiation is so simple that it is useless to multiply examples. We may proceed, therefore, to scrutinize its operations in certain matters of detail. In the first place, we observe that any derived meaning may itself become the source of one or more further derivatives. It may even act as a center whence such derivatives radiate in considerable numbers, precisely as if it were the primary sense of the word. Thus, in the case of _head_, the sense of the "top" of anything immediately divides into that which resembles a human head in (1) shape, or (2) position merely. And each of these senses may radiate in several directions. Thus from (1) we have the head of a pin, of a nail, of a barrel, of an ulcer, "a bud" (in Shakespeare); from (2) the head of a table, of a hall, of a printed page, of a subscription-list. And some of these meanings may also be further developed. "The head of the table," for instance, may indicate position, or may be transferred to the person who sits in that position. From the head of an ulcer, we have the disagreeable figure (so common that its literal meaning is quite forgotten), "to come to a head," and Prospero's "Now does my project gather to a head," in _The Tempest_. Sense No. 2, the "forefront" of a body of persons, the "leader," cannot be altogether separated from No. 1. But it may come perfectly well from the central meaning. In every animal but man the head actually precedes the rest of the body as the creature moves. At all events, the sense of "leadership" or "leader" (it is impossible to keep them apart) has given rise to an infinity of particular applications and idiomatic phrases. The head of a procession, of an army, of a class, of a revolt, of a "reform movement," of a new school of philosophy--these phrases all suggest personal leadership, but in different degrees and very various relations to the persons who are led, so that they may all be regarded as radiating from a common center. By a succession of radiations the development of meanings may become almost infinitely complex. No dictionary can ever register a tithe of them, for, so long as a language is alive, every speaker is constantly making new specialized applications of its words. Each particular definition in the fullest lexicon represents, after all, not so much a single meaning as a little group of connected ideas, unconsciously agreed upon in a vague way by the consensus of those who use the language. The limits of the definition must always be vague, and even within these limits there is large scope for variety. If the speaker does not much transgress these limits in a given instance, we understand his meaning. Yet we do not and cannot see all the connotations which the word has in the speaker's mind. He has given us a conventional sign or symbol for his idea. Our interpretation of the sign will depend partly on the context or the circumstances, partly on what we know of the speaker, and partly on the association which we ourselves attach to the word in question. These considerations conduct us, once more, to the principle on which we have so often insisted. Once more we are forced to admit that language, after all, is essentially poetry. For it is the function of poetry, as Sainte-Beuve says, not to tell us everything, but to set our imaginations at work: "La poésie ne consiste pas à tout dire, mais à tout faire rêver." Besides the complexity that comes from successive radiation, there is a perpetual exchange of influences among the meanings themselves. Thus when we speak of a man as "the intellectual head of a movement," _head_ means "leader" (No. 3), but has also a suggestion of the tenth sense, "mind." If two very different senses of a word are present to the mind at the same moment, the result is a pun, intentional or unintentional. If the senses are subtly related, so that they enforce or complement each other, our phrase becomes imaginatively forcible, or, in other words, recognizable poetry as distinguished from the unconscious poetry of language. So, too, the sudden re-association of a derived sense with the central meaning of a word may produce a considerable change in effect. _Head_ for "leader" is no longer felt as metaphorical, and so of several other of the radiating senses of this word. Yet it may, at any moment, flash back to the original meaning, and be revivified as a conscious metaphor for the nonce. "He is not the _head_ of his party, but their mask"; "The leader fell, and the crowd was a body without a _head_." Radiation is a very simple process, though its results may become beyond measure complicated. It consists merely in divergent specialization from a general center. It is always easy to follow the spokes back to the hub.[64] [64] Greenough and Kittredge: _Words and Their Ways in English Speech_. By courtesy of the publishers, The Macmillan Company, New York City. Write a theme on any of the following subjects, adapting your style to the character of the subject--formal or informal, impersonal or personal, etc. In each of these subjects discover the root principle which will serve as your controlling object, and state it in a sentence. State also how you expect to make the theme interesting. 1. How to handle a swarm of bees. 2. How a publicity campaign is managed. 3. The process of inoculation. 4. The process of fumigation. 5. How an ingot of steel is made. 6. The physiological process of stimulation. 7. The process of reforming criminals. 8. How to break into society. 9. How to memorize a long sonata. 10. How to make a well. 11. The process of civilization. 12. How a locomotive is assembled. 13. How a torpedo is launched. 14. How good literary taste is acquired. 15. The process of naturalization. 16. The process of simplification in language. 17. The process of organizing a "clean up" campaign. 18. How big steel beams are put in place on the twentieth story. 19. The process of fertilization of land. 20. The process of inoculating land for alfalfa. 21. The process of making a trial balance sheet. 22. How to audit the accounts of a club, store, treasurer, or organization. 23. The process of pasteurization. 24. The process of modulation in music. 25. How to fire a blast furnace. VII. Write the material contained in the explanations of the blow-pipe and the hydraulic cartridge (page 161) in the more picturesque form of a personal experience, showing how you, or some one, used the mechanism for a particular purpose. Which method of treatment is more effective? Why? Would you be willing to lay down a general rule about the method of treatment? If not, why not? VIII. Use the method employed to explain dredges (page 170) to write a theme that shall discriminate briefly the various types of the following: 1. Valves. 2. Tractors. 3. Egg-beaters. 4. Styles in landscape painting. 5. Systems of bookkeeping. 6. Methods of learning a foreign language. 7. Churns. 8. Methods of packing apples. IX. In the following selection you will find an account of how an engineering problem was solved. With this as a model, write an account of any of the following: 1. The Shoshone, or Keokuk, or Roosevelt Dam. 2. The Panama Canal. 3. The Cape Cod Canal. 4. The Chicago Drainage Canal. 5. The Chicago Breakwater. 6. The Galveston Sea Wall. 7. The Key West Railroad. 8. The Mississippi Levees. 9. An Army Cantonment. 10. A Shipyard. 11. A Big City Subway. 12. Some Development in Your Own Town. The construction of the reservoirs and aqueduct for bringing a daily supply of five hundred million gallons into New York from the Catskill Mountains has involved engineering work of great magnitude, and in some cases of considerable perplexity and difficulty. As it turned out, the most serious problem was encountered at the Hudson River, where the engineers had to determine upon the best method for conducting the water past that great natural obstacle. Four alternative plans were considered: first, to lay steel pipes in trenches dredged across the river bottom; second, to drive a tunnel through the glacial deposit in the river bottom; third, to carry the aqueducts across the river on a bridge; and lastly, to build a huge inverted siphon at a depth sufficient to bring it entirely within the solid underlying rock. The last was the plan adopted. To determine the depth and character of the rock, fifteen vertical holes were drilled from the surface of the river, and two inclined holes, of different degrees of inclination, were driven from each shore. Six of the vertical holes reached bed rock, and one of them in the center of the river reached an ultimate depth of 768 feet, when it had to be abandoned without reaching bed rock. This boring developed the fact that the present Hudson River flows in an old glacial gorge which has been filled up with deposits of silt, sand, gravel, clay, and boulders to a depth of over 800 feet. Now it was realized that a deep-pressure tunnel, to be perfectly reliable, must lie in absolutely sound and unfissured rock; and since it was impossible to test the rock by vertical borings made from scows anchored in the river, the engineers determined to explore the underlying material by means of inclined borings driven from either shore. Accordingly, two shafts were sunk to a depth of between two and three hundred feet, and from them two diamond drill borings were started, which ultimately crossed at a depth of 1500 feet below the surface of the river. A good rock was found at that level. To make the survey more reliable, a second pair of holes was drilled at a less inclination, which crossed at a depth of 950 feet below the river surface. The rock was found to be perfectly satisfactory, and such water as was found was limited in extent and due to well-understood geologic causes. It was therefore determined to sink the east and west shafts to a depth of from 1150 to 1200 feet below ground surface, and connect them by a tunnel 3022 feet in length at a depth of 1100 feet below the river surface. The shafts have been sunk, that on the West Shore to 1153 feet, the East Shore shaft to 1185 feet, and the boring of the tunnel toward the center of the river has made good progress, the easterly section having advanced at the present writing about 260 feet, and the westerly section 170 feet from their respective shafts. Both the shafts and the tunnel will be lined with a high grade of Portland cement concrete which will give them a finished internal diameter of 14 feet. The aqueduct reaches the Hudson River at an elevation of 400 feet above mean water level. Hence the total head of water is about 1500 feet, and the total pressure on each square foot of the tunnel is 46 1/2 tons, which is balanced with a wide margin of safety by the weight of the super-incumbent mass of rock, silt, and water.[65] [65] "The Catskill Water Supply Tunnel," in the _Scientific American_, vol. 104. By courtesy of The Scientific American Publishing Company. X. In the following account of an emotional and mental process what root principle do you find? Does the author show traces of influence from the intended readers, the American public? Does the author take too much for granted in the reader, or not enough? Does she show tact in approaching the reader? Write the account in an impersonal, abstract way, as if you were reporting "a case" for a statistician, and then give your estimate of the two. What light does your estimate throw upon the advice to make the actors in a process specific? How long would you say, wise reader, it takes to make an American? By the middle of my second year in school I had reached the sixth grade. When, after the Christmas holidays, we began to study the life of Washington, running through a summary of the Revolution, and the early days of the Republic, it seemed to me that all my reading and study had been idle until then. The reader, the arithmetic, the song book, that had so fascinated me until now, became suddenly sober exercise books, tools wherewith to hew a way to the source of inspiration. When the teacher read to us out of a big book with many bookmarks in it, I sat rigid with attention in my little chair, my hands tightly clasped on the edge of my desk; and I painfully held my breath, to prevent sighs of disappointment escaping, as I saw the teacher skip the parts between bookmarks. When the class read, and it came my turn, my voice shook and the book trembled in my hands. I could not pronounce the name of George Washington without a pause. Never had I prayed, never had I chanted the songs of David, never had I called upon the Most Holy, in such utter reverence and worship as I repeated the simple sentences of my child's story of the patriot. I gazed with adoration at the portraits of George and Martha Washington, till I could see them with my eyes shut. And whereas formerly my self-consciousness had bordered on conceit, and I thought myself an uncommon person, parading my schoolbooks through the streets, and swelling with pride when a teacher detained me in conversation, now I grew humble all at once, seeing how insignificant I was beside the Great. As I read about the noble boy who would not tell a lie to save himself from punishment, I was for the first time truly repentant of my sins. Formerly I had fasted and prayed and made sacrifice on the Day of Atonement, but it was more than half play, in mimicry of my elders. I had no real horror of sin, and I knew so many ways of escaping punishment. I am sure my family, my neighbors, my teachers in Polotzk--all my world, in fact--strove together, by example and precept, to teach me goodness. Saintliness had a new incarnation in about every third person I knew. I did respect the saints, but I could not help seeing that most of them were a little bit stupid, and that mischief was much more fun than piety. Goodness, as I had known it, was respectable, but not necessarily admirable. The people I really admired, like my Uncle Solomon, and Cousin Rachel, were those who preached the least and laughed the most. My sister Frieda was perfectly good, but she did not think the less of me because I played tricks. What I loved in my friends was not inimitable. One could be downright good if one really wanted to. One could be learned if one had books and teachers. One could sing funny songs and tell anecdotes if one traveled about and picked up such things, like one's uncles and cousins. But a human being strictly good, perfectly wise, and unfailingly valiant, all at the same time, I had never heard or dreamed of. This wonderful George Washington was as inimitable as he was irreproachable. Even if I had never, never told a lie, I could not compare myself to George Washington; for I was not brave--I was afraid to go out when snowballs whizzed--and I could never be the First President of the United States. So I was forced to revise my own estimate of myself. But the twin of my new-born humility, paradoxical as it may seem, was a sense of dignity I had never known before. For if I found that I was a person of small consequence, I discovered at the same time that I was more nobly related than I had ever supposed. I had relatives and friends who were notable people by the old standards,--I had never been ashamed of my family,--but this George Washington, who died long before I was born, was like a king in greatness, and he and I were Fellow Citizens. There was a great deal about Fellow Citizens in the patriotic literature we read at this time; and I knew from my father how he was a Citizen, through the process of naturalization, and how I also was a citizen, by virtue of my relation to him. Undoubtedly I was a Fellow Citizen, and George Washington was another. It thrilled me to realize what sudden greatness had fallen on me; and at the same time it sobered me, as with a sense of responsibility. I strove to conduct myself as befitted a Fellow Citizen. Before books came into my life, I was given to star-gazing and day-dreaming. When books were given me, I fell upon them as a glutton pounces on his meat after a period of enforced starvation. I lived with my nose in a book, and took no notice of the alternations of the sun and stars. But now, after the advent of George Washington and the American Revolution, I began to dream again. I strayed on the common after school instead of hurrying home to read. I hung on fence rails, my pet book forgotten under my arm, and gazed off to the yellow-streaked February sunset, and beyond, and beyond. I was no longer the central figure of my dreams; the dry weeds in the lane crackled beneath the tread of Heroes. What more could America give a child? Ah, much more! As I read how the patriots planned the Revolution, and the women gave their sons to die in battle, and the heroes led to victory, and the rejoicing people set up the Republic, it dawned on me gradually what was meant by _my country_. The people all desiring noble things, and striving for them together, defying their oppressors, giving their lives for each other--all this it was that made _my country_. It was not a thing that I _understood_; I could not go home and tell Frieda about it, as I told her other things I learned at school. But I knew one could say "my country" and _feel_ it, as one felt "God" or "myself." My teacher, my schoolmates, Miss Dillingham, George Washington himself could not mean more than I when they said "my country," after I had once felt it. For the Country was for all the Citizens, and I _was a Citizen_. And when we stood up to sing "America," I shouted the words with all my might. I was in very earnest proclaiming to the world my love for my newfound country. "I love thy rocks and rills, Thy woods and templed hills." Boston Harbor, Crescent Beach, Chelsea Square--all was hallowed ground to me. As the day approached when the school was to hold exercises in honor of Washington's Birthday, the halls resounded at all hours with the strains of patriotic songs; and I, who was a model of the attentive pupil, more than once lost my place in the lesson as I strained to hear, through closed doors, some neighboring class rehearsing "The Star-Spangled Banner." If the doors happened to open, and the chorus broke out unveiled-- "O! say, does that Star-Spangled Banner yet wave O'er the land of the free, and the home of the brave?" delicious tremors ran up and down my spine, and I was faint with suppressed enthusiasm.[66] [66] Mary Antin: _The Promised Land_. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, publishers. Write an account of any of the following processes _as processes_. 1. The high school "star" learns in college that other bright people exist. 2. The first realization of death. 3. Becoming loyal to a school. 4. Discovering pride of ancestry. 5. Finding that classical music is interesting. 6. A despised person becomes, on acquaintance, delightful. 7. Becoming reconciled to a new town, or system of government, or catalogue system in a library. 8. Learning that not everything was discovered by an American. 9. Becoming aware that there is a life of thought. 10. Becoming reconciled to a great loss of money or friends. 11. Deciding upon a new wall-paper. 12. Fitting into the town circles after a year away at college. 13. Discovering that some beliefs of childhood must be abandoned. 14. Perceiving that you really agree with some one with whom you have been violently squabbling. 15. The literary person finds attractiveness in engineering and agriculture--and vice versa. 16. Working out a practical personal philosophy of life. 17. Finding a serious motive in life. 18. Determining upon a tactful approach to a "touchy" person. 19. Acquiring the college point of view in place of the high-school attitude. 20. Discovering one's provincialism. 21. Discovering one's racial or national loyalty. 22. Finding out that the world does not depend on any individual, but goes ahead, whether he lives or dies. CHAPTER VI CRITICISM Few of us pass a day without answering such questions as, "What do you think of the Hudson car?" or, "How did Kreisler's playing strike you?" or, "What is your opinion of the work of Thackeray or Alice Brown or Booth Tarkington?" or, "Do you like the X disc harrow?" When we are among intimate friends we give our opinions, based on our personal reaction to the subject of inquiry or on our impartial estimate of it as an automobile, a musical performance, a collection of books, or an agricultural machine. Many of us give a large space in our conversation to such estimates on all conceivable subjects. And, for purposes of insignificant conversation, there is no reason why we should not. Accused of making "Criticism" in the formal sense, however, many of us should recoil with terrified denial. But that is exactly what we are doing, whether we praise or blame, accept or reject, so long as we base our opinion on sincere personal or sound principles, we criticize. _For criticism is the attempt to estimate the worth of something--object or idea--either abstractly on a basis of principles and relations, or personally on the basis of our reactions to the subject of criticism._ That is, we may, for example, criticize the roads of New York State on the basis of what a road is for and how well these roads serve their purpose, or we may take as basis the inspiration, the keen ecstasy that we feel as we skim over the smooth boulevard. So long as our notions of good roads are sound, so long as we react sensibly, with balance, to the smooth rounding way, we make good criticism, we judge the worth of the subject of criticism and find it either good or bad. It is to be noted that this criticism is something more than mere comment, than mere off-hand remarks. The old saying is, "Anybody can say _something_ about _anything_!" An off-hand utterance _may_ tell the truth; we cannot be sure that it will. Only when we have a well-considered basis of either principle or personal feeling can we be at all certain of our opinions. Now the range in which our opinions, our criticisms, may be expressed, is as wide as human thought and accomplishment. We sometimes think of criticism as being confined to literature and art, and speak of literary criticism, musical criticism, dramatic criticism, and art criticism, as if these were all. The term criticism has actually been so restricted in common practice that unless otherwise noted it is taken for granted as applying to these subjects. But criticism is much more comprehensive than such restriction indicates: any object or subject is capable of criticism. Just as we might arrive at the conclusion that Booth Tarkington's stories about Penrod are either good or bad, so we might say that a make of piano, a type of bridle, a new kind of fertilizer, a method of bookkeeping, a recipe for angel cake is good or is sufficient or is valueless. We might have--in fact we do have--Engineering Criticism, Carpenter Criticism, Needlework Criticism, Poultry Criticism, and as many kinds as there are classes of subjects. In this treatment we shall use the term in this broad sense and include all subjects in our scope. Of course we are to remember that the criticism becomes of more value as the subject of criticism is of more moment: criticism of the drama is nobler, perhaps, than criticism of egg beaters and picture hooks. We must also remember that the less high orders of criticism are neither useless nor undesirable but often most helpful. Requirements demanded of the Critic Since, then, the brand of the critic is on us all, since we practice the habit, consciously or not, most of the time, and since the range is so wide, no reason exists why we should be terrified at the thought of writing criticism, of making formal estimate. Certain requirements are demanded, to be sure; not every one can dive into the sea of criticism without making an awkward splash and receiving a reddening smart. But these requirements are in no way beyond the possibility of acquiring by any one who will set himself to the task. _a._ _Ability to analyze_ In the first place, a critic must have the power to analyze. We have seen that analysis consists in breaking a subject into its components, in discovering of what it is made. This is the first great necessity in criticizing. You wish, for example, to make a criticism of a new rifle for your friends. It is not enough that you should with gusto enunciate, "It's just great!" "Oh, it's fine, fine and dandy!" "Golly but it's a good one!" Your friends are likely to ask "Why?" or to say, "The gentleman doth protest too much!" If, on the other hand, you remark that the rifle is admirable because of its sights, its general accuracy, its cartridge chamber, its comparative freedom from recoil, then you will be giving your friends definite and useful criticism, for you will have analyzed the virtue of the object into its components. Now this necessity for analysis exists in criticism of literature and art just as in criticism of rifles. Before you can properly estimate the value of a novel or a play you must divide the impression it makes into the various heads, such as emotional power, convincingness in the message of the book or play, truth to life, and whatever heading you may think necessary. Until you do this your impressions, your judgments will of necessity be vague and dim in their outlines, and though they may seem to be comprehensive, will be found actually to be insufficient to give your reader or listener a firm notion of the subject--he will have no nucleus of thought round which his total estimate will center. As soon, however, as you analyze, and make definite, so soon he will receive real enlightenment. In the following account of the work of James Russell Lowell at the Court of Saint James we find at once this careful breaking of the subject into parts which can be treated definitely. Had the writer merely uttered general impressions of the diplomacy of our ambassador we who read should have been comparatively unhelped. To those who hold the semi-barbarous notion that one of the duties of a foreign minister is to convey a defiant attitude toward the people to whom he is accredited--that he should stick to his post, to use the popular phrase, "with his back up," and keep the world that he lives in constantly in mind that his countrymen are rough, untamable, and above all things quarrelsome, Mr. Lowell has not seemed a success. But to them we must observe, that they know so little of the subject of diplomacy that their opinion is of no sort of consequence. The aim of diplomacy is not to provoke war, but to keep the peace; it is not to beget irritation, or to keep it alive, but to produce and maintain a pacific temper; not to make disputes hard, but easy, to settle; not to magnify differences of interest or feeling, but to make them seem small; not to win by threats, but by persuasion; not to promote mutual ignorance, but mutual comprehension--to be, in short, the representative of a Christian nation, and not of a savage tribe. No foreign minister, it is safe to say, has ever done these things so successfully in the same space of time as Mr. Lowell. If it be a service to the United States to inspire Englishmen with respect such as they have never felt before for American wit and eloquence and knowledge, and thus for American civilization itself, nobody has rendered this service so effectually as he has done. They are familiar almost _ad nauseam_ with the material growth of the United States, with the immense strides which the country has made and is making in the production of things to eat, drink, and wear. What they know least of, and had had most doubts about, is American progress in acquiring those gifts and graces which are commonly supposed to be the inheritance of countries that have left the ruder beginnings of national life far behind, and have had centuries of leisure for art, literature, and science. Well, Mr. Lowell has disabused them. As far as blood and training go, there is no more genuine American than he. He went to England as pure a product of the American soil as ever landed there, and yet he at once showed English scholars that in the field of English letters they had nothing to teach him. In that higher political philosophy which all Englishmen are now questioning so anxiously, he has spoken not only as a master, but almost as an oracle. In the lighter but still more difficult arts, too, which make social gatherings delightful and exciting to intellectual men, in the talk which stimulates strong brains and loosens eloquent tongues, he has really reduced the best-trained and most loquacious London diners-out to abashed silence. In fact, he has, in captivating English society,--harder, perhaps, to cultivate, considering the vast variety of culture it contains, than any other society in the world,--in making every Englishman who met him wish that he were an Englishman too, performed a feat such as no diplomatist, we believe, ever performed before.[67] [67] Gustav Pollak: _Fifty Years of American Idealism_. Houghton Mifflin Company. By courtesy of _The Nation_. _b._ _Knowledge of the General Field_ Besides the ability to analyze the critic must have some knowledge of the general field in which the subject lies. For a man who has never thought about musical form to attempt criticism of a sonata is foolish--he can at best merely comment. It is this fact that vitiates much of the cracker-barrel criticism of the country store--subjects are estimated about which the critic is largely ignorant. When an uneducated person makes shrewd comment, as he often does, on a play, he will usually be found to have criticized a character such as he has known or the outcome of a situation the like of which he is familiar with rather than the play as a whole. Now perfect criticism would demand perfect knowledge, but since that is impossible, a good working knowledge will suffice, the wider the better. Knowledge of the general principles of piano playing will enable a critic to estimate, in the large, the work of a performer; he cannot criticize minutely until he has added more detailed knowledge to his mental equipment. _c._ _Common Sense_ However much knowledge and ability to analyze a critic may have, he is a will-o'-the-wisp unless he have common sense and balance. Since a critic is in many ways a guide, he must guard as sacred his ability to see the straight road and to refuse the appeal of by-paths, however attractive. As critic, you must not be overawed by a name, be it of artist or manufacturer, nor allow much crying of wares in the street to swerve you from your fixed determination to judge and estimate only on the worth of the subject _as you find it_. This is far from meaning that the critic should give no weight to the opinions of others; you should always do that; but, having examined the subject, and knowing your opinions, you should then speak the truth as you see it. Your one final desire should be to go to the heart of the matter accurately, and then to state this clearly. And just as you do not blindly accept a great name, so do not be wheedled by gloss and appearance, but keep a steady aim for the truth. _d._ _Open-mindedness_ Finally, this balance, this passion for the truth, will lead the critic to strive always for open-mindedness. "I would rather be a man of disinterested taste and liberal feeling," wrote Hazlitt, "to see and acknowledge truth and beauty wherever I found it, than a man of greater and more original genius, to hate, envy, and deny all excellence but my own...." And he was right when he said it: the willingness to accept a new idea or object if it is worthy, whether it go against the critic's personal desires or not, is one of the great qualities that he will find indispensable. "I never heard of such a thing!" is not a sufficient remark to condemn the thing. In fact, almost a sufficient answer to such an exclamation would be, "Well, what of it?" or, "'T is time you did." Methods of Criticism Armed with open-mindedness, then, with balance and common sense, with knowledge of the field, and with ability to analyze, you are ready to begin. What method shall you pursue? Though no absolutely sharp line can be drawn between kinds of criticism, we may treat of three that are fairly distinct: the historical method, the method by standards, and the appreciative. In most criticism we are likely to find more than one method employed, often all three. You need not confine yourself to one any more than a carpenter need refuse to use any but one tool, but for purposes of comprehension and presentation we shall keep the three here fairly distinct. We shall examine the three now, briefly, in the order named. _a._ _The Historical Method_ Suppose that you are asked to criticize one of Cooper's novels, say _The Last of the Mohicans_. You find in it red men idealized out of the actual, red men such as presumably never existed. You may, then, in disgust throw the book down and damn it with the remark, "The man does not tell the truth!" But you will not thereby have disposed of Cooper. Much better it would be to ask, How came this man to write thus? When did he write? For whom? How did men at that time regard the Indian? In answering these questions you will relate Cooper's novel to the time in which it was written, you will see that before that time the Indian was regarded with unmixed fear, as too often since with contempt, and that at only that time could he have been idealized as Cooper treats him. You would relate the novel to the whole movement of Sentimentalism, which thought that it believed the savage more noble than civilized man, and you would then, and only then, get a proper perspective. Your original judgment, that Cooper's Indians are not accurate portraits of their kind, would not be modified; for the whole work, however, you would have a new attitude. In the same way, asked for an opinion of the old-style bicycle with enormous front wheel and tiny trailer, you would not summarily reply, "I prefer a chainless model of my own day," but would discover the place that the old style occupied in the total development of the bicycle, would look at it as related to the preceding absence of any bicycle, and would see that, though it may to-day be useless, in its time it was remarkable. Likewise you will discover that the old three-legged milking stool has been in immemorial use in rude byres and stables, since three points--the ends of the legs--always make a firm plane, which four points do not necessarily do. And one hundred years hence, when a critic comes to judge the nature faking of the early twentieth century, he will relate this sentimental movement to the times in which it appeared, and, though he may well finally be disgusted, he will understand what the thing was and meant, how it came about, what causes produced it. Illustration of the value of this method is found in the following historical account of the American business man. To a European this man sometimes is inexplicable--until he reads some illuminating setting forth of the facts as here. As long as the economic opportunities of American life consisted chiefly in the appropriation and improvement of uncultivated land, the average energetic man had no difficulty in obtaining his fair share of the increasing American economic product; but the time came when such opportunities, although still important, were dwarfed by other opportunities, incident to the development of a more mature economic system. These opportunities which were, of course, connected with the manufacturing, industrial, and technical development of the country, demanded under American conditions a very special type of man--the man who would bring to his task not merely energy, but unscrupulous devotion, originality, daring, and in the course of time a large fund of instructive experience. The early American industrial conditions differed from those of Europe in that they were fluid, and as a result of this instability, extremely precarious. Rapid changes in markets, business methods, and industrial machinery made it difficult to build up a safe business. A manufacturer or a merchant could not secure his business salvation, as in Europe, merely by the adoption of sound conservative methods. The American business man had greater opportunities and a freer hand than his European prototype; but he was too beset by more severe, more unscrupulous, and more dangerous competition. The industrious and thrifty farmer could be fairly sure of a modest competence, due partly to his own efforts, and partly to the increased value of his land in a more populous community; but the business man had no such security. In his case it was war to the knife. He was presented with choice between aggressive daring business operations, and financial insignificance or ruin. No doubt this situation was due as much to the temper of the American business man as to his economic environment. The business man in seeking to realize his ambitions and purposes was checked neither by government control nor social custom. He had nothing to do and nothing to consider except his own business advancement and success. He was eager, strenuous, and impatient. He liked the excitement and risk of large operations. The capital at his command was generally too small for the safe and conservative operation of his business; and he was consequently obliged to be adventurous, or else to be left behind in the race. He might well be earning enormous profits one year and be skirting bankruptcy the next. Under such a stress conservatism and caution were suicidal. It was the instinct of self-preservation, as well as the spirit of business adventure, which kept him constantly seeking for larger markets, improved methods, or for some peculiar means of getting ahead of his competitors. He had no fortress behind which he could hide and enjoy his conquests. Surrounded as he was by aggressive enemies and undefended frontiers, his best means of security lay in a policy of constant innovation and expansion. Moreover, even after he had obtained the bulwark of sufficient capital and more settled industrial surroundings, he was under no temptation to quit and enjoy the spoils of his conquests. The social, intellectual, or even the more vulgar pleasures, afforded by leisure and wealth, could bring him no thrill which was anything like as intense as that derived from the exercise of his business ability and power. He could not conquer except by virtue of a strong, tenacious, adventurous, and unscrupulous will; and after he had conquered, this will had him in complete possession. He had nothing to do but to play the game to the end--even though his additional profits were of no living use to him.[68] [68] Herbert Croly: _The Promise of American Life_. By courtesy of the publishers, The Macmillan Company, New York City. In criticizing literature and art this method is often difficult, for we must take into account race, geography, and other conditions. We must see that only in New England, of all the sections of the United States, could Hawthorne have written, that Tolstoi could not have written in Illinois as he did in Russia, that Norse Sagas could not have appeared among tropical peoples, that among the French alone, perhaps, could Racine have come to literary power as he did. And in examining the work of two writers who treat the same subject in general, as Miss Jewett and Mrs. Freeman treat New England life, we shall find the influence of ancestry and environment and training largely determining, on the one hand the quaint fine sunshine, on the other hand the stern hard Puritanism. We shall also have to learn what incidents in an author's life have helped to determine his point of view, how early poverty, or sorrow, or a great experience of protracted agony or joy have made him sympathetic, or how aristocratic breeding and the early introduction into exclusive circles have made him naturally unresponsive to some of the squalor, the sadness of lowly life. We shall perceive that the early removal of Scott to the country began his intense love for Scottish scenery and history, that the bitter laughter of Byron's mother turned part of the poet's nature to gall. In other words, when we are dealing with the exquisitely fine products of impassioned thought we have a difficult task because so many influences mold these thoughts, so many lines of procedure are determined by conditions outside the particular author or artist, all of which must be considered if we wish our work to be really of value. The following illustration shows in brief space the attempt to link a movement in literature to the times in which it appeared, to show that it is naturally a product of the general feeling of the times. Yet, after all, it is not the theories and formulæ of its followers that differentiate the "new poetry"; the insistence upon certain externalities, the abandonment of familiar traditions, even the new spirit of the language employed, none of these are more than symptoms of the deep inner mood which lies at the roots of the whole tendency. This tendency is in line with the basic trend of our times, and represents the attempt in verse, as in many other branches of expression, to cast off a certain passionate illusionment and approach the universe as it actually is--the universe of science, perhaps, rather than that of the thrilled human heart. This is the kernel of the entire new movement, as has already been clearly pointed out by several writers on the subject. Everywhere in the new verse we are conscious of a certain objective quality, not the objective quality of _The Divine Comedy_ or _Faust_, which is achieved by the symbolic representation in external forms of inner spiritual verities, but an often stark objectivity accomplished by the elimination of the feeling human medium, the often complete absence of any personal reaction. We are shown countless objects and movements, and these objects and movements are glimpsed panoramically from the point of view of outline, color, and interrelation, as through the senses merely; the transfiguring lens of the soul is seldom interposed or felt to be present. To the "new poet" the city street presents itself in terms of a series of sense-impressions vividly realized, a succession of apparently aimless and kaleidoscopic pageantries stripped of their human significance and symbolic import. They have ceased to be signs of a less outward reality, they have become that reality itself--reality apprehended from a singly sensuous standpoint untainted by any of the human emotions of triumph or sorrow, pity or adoration. Love is thus frequently bared of its glamour and death of its peculiar majesty, which may now be regarded as deceitful and fatuous projections of the credulous soul, and not to be tolerated by the sophisticated mood of the new and scientific poet, for it is exactly with these beautiful "sentimentalities" that the analytic mind of science is not concerned.[69] [69] From _Scribner's Magazine_, September, 1917. By courtesy of the publishers, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York City. Copyright, 1917. This method seeks, then, to place a work, whether of art or science or industry, in its place in the whole course of development of such ideas. It examines causes such as commercial demands, general prosperity, war, and only after this examination gives the work its estimate of value. Now this method may seem uninteresting, dry, dull. Not always does it escape this blame. For it is inevitably impersonal, it looks at the thing perhaps coldly--at least without passion. But in so doing, and in considering the precedents and surroundings of the object of criticism, it largely escapes the superficiality of personal whim, and it avoids silly reaction to unaccustomed things. Much of our empty criticism of customs in dress and manners of architecture such as that of Southern California, of other religions such as those of the Chinese and the Hindoos, would be either done away or somewhat modified if we used this method. One reason, perhaps, why the Goths destroyed the beautiful art works of Rome was the fact that they had not the critical spirit, did not relate these works to their development and race. Of course there were other reasons. By linking the object of criticism to the race as a whole, by seeing how and why it became created, the critic is largely broadened and the reader is kept from superficiality. Moreover, when this method is not too abstractly pursued, it gives to things, after all, a human meaning, for it links them to humanity. That it may be misleading in literature and art is obvious, for a creation may be accounted for in an attractive way as the result of certain forces that had their beginnings in sense and wisdom, and so be made to seem admirable, whereas it really has little worth on a basis of lasting usefulness and significance. But, properly and thoroughly used, this method, even though it gives us an account of a work rather than finally settling its value, scatters away the vague mists of superficial generalization and drives deeply into causes and results. _b._ _The Method by Standards_ As the historical method is generally impersonal, objective, so is the method of criticizing by standards. In using this method we try to determine whether the object of criticism fulfills the demands of its type, whether its quality is high or low. For example, we thus judge a tennis court as to its firm footing, its softness, its retention of court lines, its position as regards the sun. In all these qualities an ideal tennis court would be satisfactory; the question is, is this one. So a headache powder should relieve pain without injuring with evil drugs; if this one does, we shall not condemn it. If the rocks in a landscape painting look like those which the heroic tenor in grand opera hurls aside as so much "puffed wheat," we must condemn the artist, for rocks should look solid. An evangelist should have certain qualities of piety and reverence, and should accomplish certain lasting results; we shall judge Billy Sunday, for example, according to whether he does or does not fulfill these demands. Likewise a lyric poem should have certain qualities of freshness, grace, passion, by which we rate any given lyric. In fact, we ask, in any given case, does this work do what such a thing is supposed to do, does it have the qualities that such a thing is supposed to have? And on our answer will depend our judgment. This is the kind of criticism that business men use constantly; they rate a cash system or a form of order blank or an arrangement of counters in a store on the basis of the presence or absence of the qualities that distinguish an ideal system, blank, arrangement. In the following example we have a combination of the historical and the standards methods, finally accounting for and judging the value of the common kinds of cargo steamers. A trip round any busy seaport will show the reader, if he has not noticed it already, that there are many different types of the ordinary cargo steamer. The feature which displays the difference most noticeably is the arrangement of the structures on the deck, and it may be reasonably asked why there are these varieties, and how it is that a common type has not come to be agreed upon. The answer to that question is that the differences are not merely arbitrary, but are due to a variety of influences, and it will be interesting to look briefly at these, as the reader will then be able, the next time he sees a cargo steamer, to understand something of the ideas underlying its design. The early steamers had "flush" decks, which means that the deck ran from end to end without any structures of considerable size upon it; a light bridge was provided, supported upon slender uprights, for "lookouts" purposes, and that was all. On the face of it this seems a very simple and admirable arrangement. It had many disadvantages, however, as we shall see. In the first place, it permitted a wave to come on board at the bow and sweep right along the deck, often doing great damage. This was mitigated somewhat by building the ships with "shear," that is, with a slope upwards fore and aft, so as to make the ends taller than the middle. That, however, was not sufficient, so ships were built with an upper deck, so that the bow should be high enough to cut through the waves instead of allowing the water to come on board. Owing, however, to the method by which the tonnage of a ship is reckoned, as will be explained later, that had the effect of adding largely to the tonnage _on which dues have to be paid_ without materially increasing the carrying capacity of the ship. The difficulty was therefore got over in this way. The bow was raised and covered in, forming what is known as a "top-gallant forecastle," which not only had the effect of keeping the water off the deck, but provided better accommodation for the crew as well. That did not provide, however, against a wave overtaking the ship from the rear and coming on board just where the steering wheel was, so a hood or covering over the wheel became usual, called the "poop." Nor did either of these sufficiently protect that very important point, the engine-room. For it needs but a moment's thought to see that there must be openings in the deck over the engines and boilers, and if a volume of water should get down these, it might extinguish the fires and leave the ship helpless, absolutely at the mercy of the waves. The light navigating bridge was therefore developed into a substantial structure the whole width of the ship, surrounding and protecting the engine-and-boiler-room openings, and incidentally providing accommodation for the officers. Ships of this type answered very well indeed, for if a wave of exceptional size should manage to get over the forecastle, the water fell into the "well" or space between the forecastle and bridge-house, and then simply ran overboard, so that the after part of the ship was kept dry. Then troubles arose with the loading. The engines, of course, need to be in the center, for they represent considerable weight, which, if not balanced, will cause one end of the ship to float too high in the water. Thus the hold of the ship is divided by the engine-room into two approximately equal parts, but out of the after-hold must be taken the space occupied by the tunnel through which the propeller shaft runs, from the engine to the screw. Thus the capacity of the after-hold becomes less than the forward one, and if both are filled with a homogeneous cargo such as grain (and, as we shall see presently, such a cargo must always entirely fill the hold), the forward part of the ship would float high in the water. The trouble could not be rectified by placing the engines further forward, for then the ship would not float properly when light. Shipowners overcame this trouble, however, by raising the whole of the "quarter-deck"--the part of the deck, that is, which lies behind the after end of the "bridge-house"--and by that means they made the after-hold deeper than the other. Thus the commonest type of all, the "raised quarter-deck, well-decker," came into existence, a type of which many examples are to be seen on the sea.[70] [70] Thomas W. Corbin: _Engineering of To-day_. By courtesy of the publishers, Seeley, Service & Co., London. In the following paragraphs Professor Thomas R. Lounsbury of Yale University criticizes the use of final e in English words. You will note that he uses a combination of the historical method and the method by standards. There seems to be something peculiarly attractive to our race in the letter _e_. Especially is this so when it serves no useful purpose. Adding it at random to syllables, and especially to final syllables, is supposed to give a peculiar old-time flavor to the spelling. For this belief there is, to some extent, historic justification. The letter still remains appended to scores of words in which it has lost the pronunciation once belonging to it. Again, it has been added to scores of others apparently to amplify their proportions. We have in our speech a large number of monosyllables. As a sort of consolation to their shrunken condition an _e_ has been appended to them, apparently to make them present a more portly appearance. The fancy we all have for this vowel not only recalls the wit but suggests the wisdom of Charles Lamb's exquisite pun upon Pope's line that our race is largely made up of "the mob of gentlemen who write with ease." The belief, in truth, seems to prevail that the final _e_ is somehow indicative of aristocracy. In proper names, particularly, it is felt to impart a certain distinction to the appellation, lifting it far above the grade of low associations. It has the crowning merit of uselessness; and in the eyes of many uselessness seems to be regarded as the distinguishing mark of any noble class, either of things or persons. Still, I have so much respect for the rights of property that it seems to me every man ought to have the privilege of spelling and pronouncing his own name in any way he pleases. The prevalence of this letter at the end of words was largely due to the fact that the vowels, _a_, _o_, and _u_ of the original endings were all weakened to it in the break-up of the language which followed the Norman conquest. Hence, it became the common ending of the noun. The further disappearance of the consonant _n_ from the original termination of the infinitive extended this usage to the verb. The Anglo-Saxon _tellan_ and _helpan_, for instance, after being weakened to _tellen_ and _helpen_, became _telle_ and _helpe_. Words not of native origin fell under the influence of this general tendency and adopted an _e_ to which they were in no wise entitled. Even Anglo-Saxon nouns which ended in a consonant--such, for instance, as _hors_ and _mús_ and _stán_--are now represented by _horse_ and _mouse_ and _stone_. The truth is, that when the memory of the earlier form of the word had passed away an _e_ was liable to be appended, on any pretext, to the end of it. The feeling still continues to affect us all. Our eyes have become so accustomed to seeing a final e which no one thinks of pronouncing, that the word is felt by some to have a certain sort of incompleteness if it be not found there. In no other way can I account for Lord Macaulay's spelling the comparatively modern verb _edit_ as _edite_. This seems to be a distinction peculiar to himself. * * * * * In the chaos which came over the spelling in consequence of the uncertainty attached to the sound of the vowels, the final _e_ was seized upon as a sort of help to indicate the pronunciation. Its office in this respect was announced as early as the end of the sixteenth century; at least, then it was announced that an unsounded _e_ at the end of a word indicated that the preceding vowel was long. This, it need hardly be said, is a crude and unscientific method of denoting pronunciation. It is a process purely empirical. It is far removed from the ideal that no letter should exist in a word which is not sounded. Yet, to some extent, this artificial makeshift has been, and still is, a working principle. Were it carried out consistently it might be regarded as, on the whole, serving a useful purpose. But here, as well as elsewhere, the trail of the orthographic serpent is discoverable. Here as elsewhere it renders impossible the full enjoyment of even this slight section of an orthographic paradise. Here, as elsewhere, manifests itself the besetting sin of our spelling, that there is no consistency in the application of any principle. Some of our most common verbs violate the rule (if rule it can be called), such as _have_, _give_, _love_, _are_, _done_. In these the preceding vowel is not long but short. There are further large classes of words ending in _ile_, _ine_, _ite_, _ive_, where this final _e_ would serve to mislead the inquirer as to the pronunciation had he no other source of information than the spelling. Still, in the case of some of these words, the operation of this principle has had, and is doubtless continuing to have, a certain influence. Take, for instance, the word _hostile_. In the early nineteenth century, if we can trust the most authoritative dictionaries, the word was regularly pronounced in England as if spelled hós-t[)i]l. So it is to-day in America. But the influence of the final _e_ has tended to prolong, in the former country, the sound of the preceding _i_. Consequently, a usual, and probably the usual, pronunciation there is hos-t[=i]le. We can see a similar tendency manifested in the case of several other adjectives. A disposition to give many of them the long diphthongal sound of the _i_ is frequently displayed in the pronunciation of such words as _agile_, _docile_, _ductile_, _futile_, _infantile_. Save in the case of the last one of this list, the dictionaries once gave the _ile_ nothing but the sound of _il_; now they usually authorize both ways. Were the principle here indicated fully carried out, pronunciations now condemned as vulgarisms would displace those now considered correct. In accordance with it, for instance, _engine_, as it is spelled, should strictly have the _i_ long. One of the devices employed by Dickens in _Martin Chuzzlewit_ to ridicule what he pretended was the American speech was to have the characters pronounce _genuine_ as _gen-u-[=i]ne_, prejudice as _prej-u-d[=i]ce_, _active_ and _native_ as _ac-t[=y]ve_ and _na-t[=i]ve_. Doubtless he heard such pronunciations from some men. Yet, in these instances, the speaker was carried along by the same tendency which in cultivated English has succeeded in turning the pronunciation _hos-t[)i]l_ into _hos-t[=i]le_. Were there any binding force in the application of the rule which imparts to the termination _e_ the power of lengthening the preceding vowel, no one would have any business to give to it in the final syllable of the words just specified any other sound than that of "long i." The pronunciations ridiculed by Dickens would be the only pronunciations allowable. Accordingly, the way to make the rule universally effective is to drop this final _e_ when it does not produce such an effect. If _genuine_ is to be pronounced _gen-u-[)i]n_, so it ought to be spelled.[71] [71] Thomas R. Lounsbury: _English Spelling and Spelling Reform_. By courtesy of the publishers, Harper & Brothers, New York City. Copyright. Now it is evident that unless the critic's standards are fair and sensible, unless they are known to be sound and essential, his criticism is likely to be valueless. If my ideas of the qualities of ideal tennis courts are erratic or queer, my judgment of the individual court will be untrustworthy. Your first duty as critic, then, is to look at your standards. In judging such things as ice cream freezers, motorcycles, filing systems, fertilizers, rapid-firing guns, and other useful devices, you will find no great difficulty in choosing your standards. When you come to literature and the arts, however, you find a difficult task. For who shall say exactly what a lyric poem shall do? Or who shall bound the field of landscape painting? No sooner does Reynolds begin painting, after he has formulated the laws of his art and stated them with decision, than he violates them all. No sooner did musicians settle just what a sonata must be than a greater musician appeared who transcended the narrower form. Moreover, in the field of literature and the arts we often find great difficulty in surmounting the cast of our individual minds; we like certain types and are unconsciously led to condemn all others. The great critic rises superior to his peculiar likes and prejudices, but most of us are hindered by them. One great benefit to be derived from writing this particular kind of criticism is in gaining humility--humility at the greatness of some of the works of the past, before which, when we really look at them, we are moved to stand uncovered, and humility at the lack of real analysis that we have made before we attempt the criticism, and finally humility at the tremendous effort we must make to write criticism at all worthy of the subjects. But the difficulty of writing such criticism well should make you exert yourself to the utmost to acquire skill before you attempt this form. This method, like the historical, makes against superficiality, for it necessitates real knowledge of the class to which the object of criticism belongs, the purposes of the class, its bearings, and then a sure survey of the individual itself. And in forcing the critic to examine his standards to determine their fairness and soundness it makes against hasty judgment. Properly used, this method should result in something like finality of judgment. _c._ _The Appreciative Method_ There come occasions when you are not primarily interested in the historical significance of the subject of criticism, and when you are indifferent to objective standards, when, in fact, you are almost wholly interested in the _individual_ before you, in what it is or in the effect it has on you. You rather _feel_ toward it than care to make a cold analysis of it; you are moved by it, are conscious of a personal reaction to it. In such cases you will make use of what is called appreciative criticism. This method consists in interpreting, often for one who does not know the work, the value of the work, the good things in it, either as they appear to one who studies or as they affect the critic. After reading a new book, for example, or attending a concert, or driving a wonderfully smooth running automobile, or watching the team work in a football game, you are primarily interested in the phenomena shown as they are in their picturesque individuality or in your own emotional reaction to them. In the following example George Gissing makes an appreciative criticism of English cooking, not by coldly tracing the historical influences that have made this cooking what it is, nor by subjecting it to certain fixed standards to which admirable cooking should attain, but rather by telling us what English cooking is and by giving us the flavor of his own emotional delight in it. As so often when my praise has gone forth for things English, I find myself tormented by an after-thought--the reflection that I have praised a time gone by. Now, in this matter of English meat. A newspaper tells me that English beef is non-existent; that the best meat bearing that name has merely been fed up in England for a short time before killing. Well, well; we can only be thankful that the quality is still so good. Real English mutton still exists, I suppose. It would surprise me if any other country could produce the shoulder I had yesterday. Who knows? Perhaps even our own cookery has seen its best days. It is a lamentable fact that the multitude of English people nowadays never taste roasted meat; what they call by that name is baked in the oven--a totally different thing, though it may, I admit, be inferior only to the right roast. Oh, the sirloin of old times, the sirloin which I can remember, thirty or forty years ago! That was English, and no mistake, and all the history of civilization could show nothing on the tables of mankind to equal it. To clap that joint into a steamy oven would have been a crime unpardonable by gods and men. Have I not with my own eyes seen it turning, turning on the spit? The scent it diffused was in itself a cure for dyspepsia. It is a very long time since I tasted a slice of boiled beef; I have a suspicion that the thing is becoming rare. In a household such as mine, the "round" is impracticable; of necessity it must be large, altogether too large for our requirements. But what exquisite memories does my mind preserve! The very coloring of a round, how rich it is, yet how delicate, and how subtly varied! The odor is totally different from that of roast beef, and yet it is beef incontestable. Hot, of course, with carrots, it is a dish for a king; but cold it is nobler. Oh, the thin broad slice, with just its fringe of consistent fat! We are sparing of condiments, but such as we use are the best that man has invented. And we know _how_ to use them. I have heard an impatient innovator scoff at the English law on the subject of mustard, and demand why, in the nature of things, mustard should not be eaten with mutton. The answer is very simple; this law has been made by the English palate--which is impeccable. I maintain it is impeccable. Your educated Englishman is an infallible guide to all that relates to the table. "The man of superior intellect," said Tennyson--justifying his love of boiled beef and new potatoes--"knows what is good to eat"; and I would extend it to all civilized natives of our country. We are content with nothing but the finest savours, the truest combinations; our wealth, and happy natural circumstances, have allowed us an education of the palate of which our natural aptitude was worthy. Think, by the bye, of those new potatoes, just mentioned. Our cook, when dressing them, puts into the saucepan a sprig of mint. This is genius. No otherwise could the flavour of the vegetable be so perfectly, yet so delicately, emphasized. The mint is there, and we know it; yet our palate knows only the young potato.[72] [72] Gissing: _The Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft_, "Winter." By permission of the publishers, E. P. Dutton & Co., New York. Appreciative criticism may on the one hand approach criticism by standards, since, for example, to praise a pianist for melting his tones one into another implies that such melting is a standard. It may, again, consist largely in telling what the thing _is_, as to say that the Progressive Party was one that looked forward rather than backward, planned reforms for the people, insisted on clean politics, etc. It may, in the third place, consist in giving a transcript of the writer's feelings as he is in the presence of the subject of criticism, as one might picture the reaction of inspiration to a view from a mountain peak, or express his elation in listening to a famous singer, or show his wild enthusiasm as he watches his team slowly fight its way over the goal line. In all three of these cases the criticism answers the question, "What does this work seem to be, what do I find in it, and wherein do I think it is good?" That is appreciative criticism. Now since you can adequately estimate in this way only when you are aware of the qualities of the subject, the first requirement for success in this kind of criticism is keen and intelligent sympathy with the work, an open-minded, sensible hospitality to ideas and things. If I am quite unmoved by music, I cannot make reliable appreciative criticism of it. If I have no reaction to the beauty of a big pumping station, when asked for criticism of it, I shall perforce be silent. If my mind is closed to new ideas, I can never "appreciate" a new theory in science, in sociology, in art or in religion. In the next place, I must refrain from morbid personal effusion. Certain of our sentimental magazines have published, at odd times, extremely personal rhapsodies about symphonies and poems. The listener has been "wafted away," has heard the birdies sing, the brooks come purling over their stones, has seen the moon come swimming through the clouds--but the reader of such criticism need not be too harshly censured if he mildly wonders whether the critic ought not to consult a physician. Sometimes this fault occurs through the endeavor to make the criticism attractive, one of the strong demands of the appreciative kind. Since the personal note exists throughout, and since you wish to make your reader attracted to the object that you criticize, your writing should be as pleasing as is legitimately possible. Allow yourself full rein to express the beauties of your subject with all the large personal warmth of which you are capable, with as neatly turned expression as you can make, always remembering to keep your balance, to avoid morbidness in any form. It is in this way that you will give to your criticism one of its most valued qualities, appealing humanness. Less final, perhaps, in some ways, than the historical method or the method by standards, the appreciative is likely to be of more immediate value in re-creating the work for your reader, in giving him a real interpretation of it. And this method, like the other two, fights against superficiality. Such a silly saying--silly in criticism--as "I like it but I don't know why" can have no place here. One may well remember the answer attributed to the artist Whistler, when the gushing woman remarked, "I don't know anything about art but I know what I like!" "So, Madam, does a cow!" If you guard against the morbid or sentimental effusive style, and really tell, honestly and attractively, what you find good in the subject, your criticism is likely to be of value. Note that in the selection which follows, though the author feels strongly toward his subject, he does not fall, at any time, into gushing remarks that make a reader feel sheepish, but rather keeps a really wholesome tone throughout. To-day I have read _The Tempest_. It is perhaps the play that I love best, and, because I seem to myself to know it so well, I commonly pass it over in opening the book. Yet, as always in regard to Shakespeare, having read it once more, I find that my knowledge was less complete than I supposed. So it would be, live as long as one might; so it would ever be, whilst one had the strength to turn the pages and a mind left to read them. I like to believe that this was the poet's last work, that he wrote it in his home in Stratford, walking day by day in the fields which had taught his boyhood to love rural England. It is ripe fruit of the supreme imagination, perfect craft of the master hand. For a man whose life business it has been to study the English tongue, what joy can there be to equal that of marking the happy ease wherewith Shakespeare surpasses, in mere command of words, every achievement of these even, who, apart from him, are great? I could fancy that, in _The Tempest_, he wrought with a peculiar consciousness of this power, smiling as the word of inimitable felicity, the phrase of incomparable cadence, was whispered to him by the Ariel that was his genius. He seems to sport with language, to amuse himself with new discovery of its resources. From king to beggar, men of every rank and of every order of mind have spoken with his lips; he has uttered the lore of fairyland; now it pleases him to create a being neither man nor fairy, a something between brute and human nature, and to endow its purposes with words. Those words, how they smack of the warm and spawning earth, of the life of creatures that cannot rise above the soil! We do not think of it enough; we stint our wonder because we fall short in appreciation. A miracle is worked before us, and we scarce give heed; it has become familiar to our minds as any other of nature's marvels, which we rarely pause to reflect upon. _The Tempest_ contains the noblest meditative passage in all the plays; that which embodies Shakespeare's final view of life, and is the inevitable quotation of all who would sum the teachings of philosophy. It contains his most exquisite lyrics, his tenderest love passages, and one glimpse of fairyland which--I cannot but think--outshines the utmost beauty of _A Midsummer Night's Dream_; Prospero's farewell to the "elves of hills, brooks, standing lakes and groves." Again a miracle; these are things which cannot be staled by repetition. Come to them often as you will, they are ever fresh as though new minted from the brain of the poet. Being perfect, they can never droop under that satiety which arises from the perception of fault; their virtue can never be so entirely savoured as to leave no pungency of gusto for the next approach. Among the many reasons which make me glad to have been born in England, one of the first is that I read Shakespeare in my mother tongue. If I try to imagine myself as one who cannot know him face to face, who hears him only speaking from afar, and that in accents which only through the laboring intelligence can touch the living soul, there comes upon me a sense of chill discouragement, of dreary deprivation. I am wont to think that I can read Homer, and, assuredly, if any man enjoys him, it is I; but can I for a moment dream that Homer yields me all his music, that his word is to me as to him who walked by the Hellenic shore when Hellas lived? I know that there reaches me across the vast of time no more than a faint and broken echo; I know that it would be fainter still, but for its blending with those memories of youth which are as a glimmer of the world's primeval glory. Let every land have joy of its poet; for the poet is the land itself, all its greatness and its sweetness, all that incommunicable heritage for which men live and die. As I close the book, love and reverence possess me. Whether does my full heart turn to the great Enchanter, or to the Island upon which he has laid his spell? I know not. I cannot think of them apart. In the love and reverence awakened by this voice of voices, Shakespeare and England are but one.[73] [73] George Gissing: _The Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft_, "Summer." By permission of the publishers, E. P. Dutton & Co., New York. Practical Helps We have said that criticism of literature and art seems to be more difficult than criticism of machines and buildings and commercial systems. It is. Literature and art, as being the expression of the high thought of the human heart about the world, man, and his relations to the world, demand in a critic who attempts to estimate them at least some underlying philosophy of life, at least some insight into the affairs of the human soul. And such philosophy, such insight, does not come without being eagerly sought or without much thinking. I can soon tell whether a force pump is efficient; I may for some time pause before I estimate a picture or a lyric poem. For the field of the pump is small and definite, its relations are simple, whereas the lyric is intimately bound up with the whole of life. But we need not, therefore, despair of writing criticism of literature and art. The more sensible thing is to simplify our task. This we can do, in large measure, by asking the famous three questions of Coleridge: First, What did the author intend to do? second, How did he accomplish his purpose, well or ill? third, Was the purpose worth striving for? These three questions, sensibly considered and properly answered, will make a by no means paltry criticism. Still the problem remains, how shall I write this criticism, whatever method I may be pursuing. Certain points of advice may be of use. In the first place, be sure of your attitude, that it is fair and sincere, that it is honest and as unprejudiced as possible. Then do not browbeat your reader into accepting this attitude. Allow him the right to make final decision, and, moreover, credit him with the right to some brains--he will be thus much happier. In the second place, be sure that you know what you are talking about, that you are sure of the _facts_, whether you treat literature or machinery or government or rotation of crops. Without proper facts you can never reach a sound conclusion. And "keep your eye on the object." In no kind of writing is there a greater tendency to fritter off into related subjects which are still not exactly the one in hand. Be sure that you write about the subject, then, and not about some other. In the next place, since many remarks apply equally well to a host of subjects, as, for instance, that it is "efficient" or "inspiring," aim first of all, before you write a word, to find the one characteristic that your subject possesses that distinguishes it from others. Ask yourself wherein it is itself, wherein it differs from other like things, what it is without which this particular subject would not be itself. And having determined this point, be sure to make your reader see it. Whatever else you do, prize that characteristic as the jewel of your criticism's soul, and so sharply define, limit, characterize that your reader's impression will be not the slightest blurred. A student whose theme in criticism received from the instructor the verdict that it was not distinguishing, that it might apply as well to another poet, replied that the theme had originally been written about another, and in the press of circumstance had been copied with only a change in the title. The point is that the criticism had not been a good estimate of the original subject. It was worthless in both cases, because it was not distinguishing. Finally, when you come to the expression, be sure that what you say means something, and that you know what it means. Ask yourself, "What does this mean that I have written?" and, if you have to admit that you do not know, in all conscience suppress it. Avoid the stock phrases that are colorless. You can fling "interesting" at almost any book, or its opposite, "stupid," just as you can apply "true to life," "good style," "suggestive," "gripping," "vital," "red-blooded," "imaginative," and hosts of other words and phrases equally well to scores of subjects. The reviewer through whose mind a constant stream of subjects passes, is forced to fall into this cant unless he be a genius, but you have no business to do so. The trouble here, again, is in not knowing exactly what you wish to say and are saying, lack of thorough knowledge of your subject, for you do not know it until you have reached its heart. The result of half-knowledge is always flabbiness and ineffectiveness. Be careful, moreover, in making the structure of your total criticism, especially in criticism by standards, that you do not make the form of your work seem mechanical and wooden. Do not, for example, except in a report, give a dry list of the qualities which the subject should possess, and then one by one apply them to see if it will pass muster. Such writing may be true, but it is awkward. The form of critical writing should be as neat as that of any other kind of writing. And in all your attitude and expression try to treat the subject as far as possible in its relation to humanity, to keep it from being a mere abstraction, to make it seem of real significance to the lives of men, if possible to the life of your reader. The value of writing criticism should by this time be apparent. It forces our minds out of the fogginess of vague thinking, it makes us see things sharply, it guides us away from the taint of superficiality, it makes a solid base for our opinions. Through criticism we discover why we are interested, and then naturally we desire more interest, and by feeding grow to a larger appreciation and conception of the realm in which our minds are at work. We thus do away with the mere chance whim of like and dislike, and understand why we like what we do. In other words, criticism increases our intelligent reaction to life. EXERCISES I. Mr. Lowell's Work in England (page 193). 1. By what standards is the work of Lowell as United States Minister to England criticized? 2. Do these standards exhaust the qualifications of an admirable minister? 3. If not, what other standards would you suggest? 4. What is the _controlling purpose_ of the criticism? 5. In view of this _controlling purpose_, are the standards which the criticism includes sufficient? 6. Write a similar criticism on any of the following subjects: The presidency of Theodore Roosevelt. The presidency of Woodrow Wilson. The work of Mr. Goethals on the Panama Canal. The career of Mr. Bryce as British Ambassador to the United States. The career of James J. Hill, or of Cecil Rhodes, as Empire-builders. 7. Write a historical criticism of Lowell's career in England, _accounting for_ the attitude he assumed as determined by the understanding of America which the English nation of the time had, and by Lowell's character. II. The American Business Man (page 197). 1. Criticize any of the following by accounting for their rise and their characteristics: The athletic coach in American colleges. The present-day university president. The "information" man at the railway station. The county adviser in agriculture. The reference librarian. The floorwalker in department stores. 2. Write an appreciative criticism of the American Business Man as he might seem to an Englishman on his first trip to America; as he might seem to Plato; to Napoleon; to the poet Shelley; to Shakespeare; to a Turkish rug merchant. III. The "New Poetry" (page 200). 1. Is this criticism fair and unbiased? 2. What attitude does the author try to create in the reader? How would the choice of material have differed had the author desired an opposite effect? 3. Criticize, by relating to the times in which the subject appeared, the following: Cubist Art, Sentimentalism, The Renaissance of Wonder, The Dime Novel, The Wild-West Moving Picture Film. IV. Cargo Steamers (page 203). 1. Criticize, by the method used in this example: Gang Plows, Electric Street Cars, Football Fields, Art Galleries (their architecture), Adding Machines, Systems of Bookkeeping. V. The English Language (page 205). 1. Criticize, by the method of standards, the following: American Costumes as Candidates for Universal Use, The Metric System, The American Monetary System, The Gary Schools, The Civic Center Idea. VI. English Cooking (page 210). 1. If Gissing had been criticizing English cooking from the point of view of a dietitian, what standards would he have chosen? 2. Criticize modern American cooking by showing its rise and the influences that have controlled it. 3. Write an appreciative criticism of any of the following subjects: Thanksgiving Dinner in the Country, A "Wienie Roast," The First Good Meal after an Illness, The Old Swimmin' Hole, The Fudge that Went Wrong, American Hat Trimming, The Florist's Shop, Grandmother's Garden, The Old Orchard. VII. The Tempest (page 213). 1. Does Gissing here allow his natural bias as an Englishman to sway him too much? Do you know as much about _The Tempest_, from this criticism, as you would like to? 2. Criticize, _as an American_, with yet due restraint: Lincoln's Addresses, Mr. Wilson's Leadership in Idealism, Walt Whitman's "Captain, My Captain," MacDowell's "Indian Suite" or "Sea Pieces" or "Woodland Sketches," St. Gaudens' "Lincoln," O. Henry's Stories of New York, John Burroughs' Nature Essays, Patrick Henry's Speeches, Mrs. Wharton's Short Stories. VIII. Make a list of trite or often used expressions that you find in criticisms in the weekly "literary" page of an American newspaper. Try to substitute diction that is more truly alive. IX. When next you hear a symphony, listen so that you can write an Appreciative Criticism. Then look up the history of symphonic music and the life of the composer, and write a Historical Criticism. Do this with any piano composition which you admire. X. Rock Drills. Tappet valve drills were the earliest design made for regular work, and are now the only type really suitable for work with steam, as the condensation of the steam interferes with other valve actions. They have also special advantages for certain work which have prevented them from becoming obsolete. The valve motion is positive and not affected by moisture in compressed air. The machine will keep on boring a hole that may offer great frictional resistance where some other drills would stick. Disadvantages. These drills cannot deliver a perfectly "free" or "dead" blow. In other words, there is always some exhaust air from the front of the piston, caught between it and the cylinder by the reversal of the valve just before the forward stroke is finished. In some ground this is by no means a defect, for where the ground is dead or sticky this cushion helps to "pick the drill up" for a rapid and sure return stroke, preventing its sticking and insuring a maximum number of blows per minute. The length of stroke must be kept long enough for the movement of the piston to knock over the valve. The valve on the Rio Tinto machine is a piston, or spool valve; on other machines the valve is of the plain D-slide valve type. The Rand "giant" drill has a device to reduce the total air pressure on the back of the valve. This of course makes the valve take up its own wear and form its own bearing surface, thus reducing leakage. The seats generally require periodical cleaning and are raised to give material to allow "scraping up." Where the lubrication is deficient, as it generally is, the coefficient of friction may reach 25 per cent, especially in the presence of grit. Taking a valve area of 6 sq. in. exposed to 80-lb. pressure, it might require a force of 120 lbs. to move the valve. This means that the blow struck by the piston is retarded to a corresponding degree, and in some cases the valve tends to wear its seat into an irregular surface. Some writers have contended that the turning movement of the piston is also hindered; but as the blow of the tappet occurs at the beginning and end of the stroke, while the turning movement is a positive and continuous one along all the length of the back stroke, this effect is not noticeable. As the tappet is struck 400 to 600 times per minute, the wear and stress is great. Specially hardened surfaces on pistons and tappets are needed as well as large wearing surfaces, or renewable bushings, for the tappet to rock on. When wear takes place the throw of the valve is reduced; cushioning becomes greater and the stroke is shortened. The resistance and pressure of the tappet tends to throw increased and unequal wear on the opposite side of the cylinder.[74] [74] Eustace M. Weston: _Rock Drills_. By courtesy of the publishers, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. 1. If you were writing an appreciative criticism of the working of a rock drill, how would you change the style of writing? 2. Write a criticism by standards of the Water-Tube Boiler, of the Diesel Engine, of Oil as Fuel for Ships, of one particular make of Corn Planter or Wheel Hoe, or Piano, or Motorcycle, or Machine Gun, or Mining Explosive, or of one method of Advertising, or of the German Army, or of the Dreadnaught as a Fighting Machine. XI. Jingo Morality. Captain Mahan's chosen example is the British occupation of Egypt. To discuss the morality of this, he says, is "as little to the point as the morality of an earthquake." It was for the benefit of the world at large and of the people of Egypt--no matter what the latter might think about it, or how they would have voted about it--and that is enough. Tacitly, he makes the same doctrine apply to the great expansion of the foreign power of the United States, which he foresees and for which he wants a navy "developed in proportion to the reasonable possibilities of the future political." What these possibilities are he nowhere says, and he gives the reader no chance of judging whether they are reasonable or not. But he speaks again and again of the development of the nation and of national sentiment as a "natural force," moving on to its desired end, unconscious and unmoral. What he says of British domination over Egypt, Captain Mahan would evidently and logically be ready to say of American domination of any inferior power--that it has no more to do with morality than an earthquake. Of course, this really means the glorification of brute force. The earthquake view of international relations does away at once with all questions of law and justice and humanity, and puts everything frankly on the basis of armor and guns. Finerty could ask no more. No one could accuse Captain Mahan of intending this, yet he must "follow the argument." He speaks approvingly of international interference with Turkey on account of the Armenian atrocities. But has not the Sultan a complete defense, according to Captain Mahan's doctrine? Is he not an earthquake, too? Are not the Turks going blindly ahead, in Armenia, as a "natural force," and is anybody likely to be foolish enough to discuss the morality of a law of nature? Of course, the powers tell the Sultan that he is no earthquake at all, or, if he is, that they will bring to bear upon him a bigger one which will shake him into the Bosphorus. But if there is no question of morality involved, the argument and the action are simply so much brute force; and that, we say, is what Captain Mahan's doctrine logically comes to. Another inadvertent revelation of the real implications of his views is given where he is dwelling on the fact that "the United States will never seek war except for the defense of her rights, her obligations, or her necessary interests." There is a fine ambiguity about the final phrase, but let that pass. No one can suspect that Captain Mahan means to do anything in public or private relations that he does not consider absolutely just. But note the way the necessity of arguing for a big navy clouds his mind when he writes of some supposed international difficulty: "But the moral force of our contention might conceivably be weakened, in the view of an opponent, by attendant circumstances, _in which case our physical power to support it should be open to no doubt_." That is to say, we must always have morality and sweet reasonableness on our side, must have all our quarrels just, must have all the precedents and international law in our favor, but must be prepared to lick the other fellow anyhow, if he is so thick-headed and obstinate as to insist that morals and justice are on _his_ side. This earthquake and physical-power doctrine is a most dangerous one for any time or people, but is peculiarly dangerous in this country at this time. The politicians and the mob will be only too thankful to be furnished a high-sounding theory as a justification for their ignorant and brutal proposals for foreign conquest and aggression. They will not be slow, either, in extending and improving the theory. They will take a less roundabout course than Captain Mahan does to the final argument of physical power. If it comes to that in the end, what is the use of bothering about all these preliminaries of right and law? They will be willing to call themselves an earthquake or a cyclone, if only their devastating propensities can be freely gratified without any question of morals coming in. With so many signs of relaxed moral fiber about us, in public and in private life, it is no time to preach the gospel of force, even when the preacher is so attractive a man and writer as Captain Mahan.[75] [75] Gustav Pollak: _Fifty Years of American Idealism_. Houghton Mifflin Company. By courtesy of _The Nation_. 1. In the light of this criticism, write an estimate, on the standard of high moral international relations, of Mr. Wilson's policy toward Mexico. 2. Write a criticism by standards of the remark of Mr. Lloyd George and Mr. George Creel that they are thankful that England, that America, were _not_ prepared for war in 1914. 3. Write an appreciative criticism of Captain Mahan's doctrine from the point of view of a man who thumps his chest and cries "America über Alles!" Compare the sanity of your criticism with that of the article above. 4. Would the criticism of Captain Mahan's doctrine be sounder if he had been a German? 5. Criticize the statement that what young people need is industrial education, something to teach them how to earn a living. Then criticize the other statement that the necessary thing is to make young people into fine personalities, into true gentlemen and gentlewomen. XII. Vegetarianism. There is to me an odd pathos in the literature of vegetarianism. I remember the day when I read these periodicals and pamphlets with all the zest of hunger and poverty, vigorously seeking to persuade myself that flesh was an altogether superfluous, and even repulsive, food. If ever such things fall under my eyes nowadays, I am touched with a half humorous compassion for the people whose necessity, not their will, consents to this chemical view of diet. There comes before me the vision of certain vegetarian restaurants, where, at a minimum outlay, I have often enough made believe to satisfy my craving stomach; where I have swallowed "savory cutlet," "vegetable steak," and I know not what windy insufficiencies tricked up under specious names. One place do I recall where you had a complete dinner for sixpence--I dare not try to remember the items. But well indeed do I see the faces of the guests--poor clerks and shopboys, bloodless girls and women of many sorts--all endeavoring to find a relish in lentil soup and haricot something-or-other. It was a grotesquely heart-breaking sight. I hate with a bitter hatred the names of lentils and haricots--those pretentious cheats of the appetite, those tabulated humbugs, those certificated aridities calling themselves human food! An ounce of either, we are told, is equivalent to--how many pounds? of the best rump-steak. There are not many ounces of common sense in the brain of him who proves it, or of him who believes it. In some countries, this stuff is eaten by choice; in England only dire need can compel to its consumption. Lentils and haricots are not merely insipid; frequent use of them causes something like nausea. Preach and tabulate as you will, the English palate--which is the supreme judge--rejects this farinaceous makeshift. Even as it rejects vegetables without the natural concomitant of meat; as it rejects oatmeal-porridge and griddle-cakes for a midday meal; as it rejects lemonade and ginger-ale offered as substitutes for honest beer. What is the intellectual and moral state of that man who really believes that chemical analysis can be an equivalent for natural gusto?--I will get more nourishment out of an inch of right Cambridge sausage; aye, out of a couple of ounces of honest tripe; than can be yielded me by half a hundredweight of the best lentils ever grown.[76] [76] George Gissing: _The Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft_, "Winter." By permission of the publishers, E. P. Dutton & Co., New York City. 1. Write a criticism by standards of this appreciative criticism. Is Gissing fair or sensible in his attitude? 2. Write an appreciative criticism of Feminism, Temperance, Socialism, Open-Air Sleeping, The Bahai Movement in America, Community Singing, The Moving Picture as Substitute for the Novel, Drinks that Do Away with Coffee, Systems for Growing Strong without Effort. 3. How far ought a writer to allow purely _personal_ reaction to determine his judgment in criticism? XIII. Emerson's Literary Quality. Emerson's quality has changed a good deal in his later writings. His corn is no longer in the milk; it has grown hard, and we that read have grown hard too. He has now ceased to be an expansive, revolutionary force, but he has not ceased to be a writer of extraordinary gripe and unexpected resources of statement. His startling piece of advice, "Hitch your wagon to a star," is typical of the man, as combining the most unlike and widely separate qualities. Because not less marked than his idealism and mysticism is his shrewd common sense, his practical bent, his definiteness,--in fact, the sharp New England mould in which he is cast. He is the master Yankee, the centennial flower of that thrifty and peculiar stock. More especially in his later writings and speakings do we see the native New England traits,--the alertness, eagerness, inquisitiveness, thrift, dryness, archness, caution, the nervous energy as distinguished from the old English unction and vascular force. How he husbands himself,--what prudence, what economy, always spending up, as he says, and not down! How alert, how attentive; what an inquisitor; always ready with some test question, with some fact or idea to match or verify, ever on the lookout for some choice bit of adventure or information, or some anecdote that has pith and point! No tyro basks and takes his ease in his presence, but is instantly put on trial and must answer or be disgraced. He strikes at an idea like a falcon at a bird. His great fear seems to be lest there be some fact or point worth knowing that will escape him. He is a close-browed miser of the scholar's gains. He turns all values into intellectual coin. Every book or person or experience is an investment that will or will not warrant a good return in ideas. He goes to the Radical Club, or to the literary gathering, and listens with the closest attention to every word that is said, in hope that something will be said, some word dropped, that has the ring of the true metal. Apparently he does not permit himself a moment's indifference or inattention. His own pride is always to have the ready change, to speak the exact and proper word, to give to every occasion the dignity of wise speech. You are bartered with for your best. There is no profit in life but in the interchange of ideas, and the chief success is to have a head well filled with them. Hard cash at that; no paper promises satisfy him; he loves the clink and glint of the real coin. His earlier writings were more flowing and suggestive, and had reference to larger problems; but now everything has got weighed and stamped and converted into the medium of wise and scholarly conversation. It is of great value; these later essays are so many bags of genuine coin, which it has taken a lifetime to hoard; not all gold, but all good, and the fruit of wise industry and economy.[77] [77] John Burroughs: _Birds and Poets_. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, publishers. 1. Would you describe this as appreciative criticism or criticism by standards? If it is appreciative, has it any of the value that we commonly attribute to criticism by standards? Why? If it is criticism by standards, does it approach the appreciative? Why? 2. Criticize, in the method that Mr. Burroughs uses, the literary quality and message of Carlyle, Walt Whitman, William James, John Dewey, Macaulay, Hawthorne, Arnold Bennett, and others. 3. Criticize, in the same manner, Beethoven's Fifth Symphony, the Cathedral of Rheims, the Parthenon, the Capitol at Washington, Michigan Boulevard in Chicago, the Skyline of Lower New York, the Sweep of the Mississippi River, the Quality of Niagara Falls, the Quality of Harold Bell Wright's Works. Of course any other individual can be substituted for any of these. XIV. Military Drill. A lettered German, speaking to me once of his year of military service, told me that, had it lasted but a month or two longer, he must have sought release in suicide. I know very well that my own courage would not have borne me to the end of the twelvemonth; humiliation, resentment, loathing, would have goaded me to madness. At school we used to be "drilled" in the playground once a week; I have but to think of it, even after forty years, and there comes back upon me that tremor of passionate misery which, at the time, often made me ill. The senseless routine of mechanical exercise was in itself all but unendurable to me; I hated the standing in line, the thrusting out of arms and legs at a signal, the thud of feet stamping in constrained unison. The loss of individuality seems to me sheer disgrace. And when, as often happened, the drill-sergeant rebuked me for some inefficiency as I stood in line, when he addressed me as "Number Seven!" I burned with shame and rage. I was no longer a human being; I had become part of a machine, and my name was "Number Seven." It used to astonish me when I had a neighbor who went through the drill with amusement, with zealous energy. I would gaze at the boy, and ask myself how it was possible that he and I should feel so differently. To be sure, nearly all my schoolfellows either enjoyed the thing, or at all events went through it with indifference; they made friends with the sergeant, and some were proud of walking with him "out of bounds." Left, right! Left, right! For my own part, I think I have never hated man as I hated that broad-shouldered, hard-visaged, brassy-voiced fellow. Every word he spoke to me I felt as an insult. Seeing him in the distance, I have turned and fled, to escape the necessity of saluting, and, still more, a quiver of the nerves which affected me so painfully. If ever a man did me harm, it was he; harm physical and moral. In all seriousness I believe that some of the nervous instability from which I have suffered from boyhood is traceable to those accursed hours of drill, and I am very sure that I can date from the same wretched moments a fierceness of personal pride which has been one of my most troublesome characteristics. The disposition, of course, was there; it should have been modified, not exacerbated.[78] [78] George Gissing: _The Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft_, "Spring." By permission of the publishers, E. P. Dutton & Co., New York City. 1. Draw up a list of the headings that might appear in a criticism of military drill by standards, in a criticism by the historical method, and in a less purely personal appreciative criticism than the example here. Which of the criticisms, as judged from these headings, would be of most value to a reader of intelligence? 2. In a subject like this is so strong a personal reaction justified? Is it possibly of real value? Does the criticism prove anything about military drill? 3. Write an appreciative criticism of a thoroughly personal nature of any of the following: Carpentry, Rug-beating, Chapel-attendance, Memorizing Poetry, Repairing Automobiles in the Mud, Fishing in the Rain, Cleaning House, Getting up Early, Being Polite to People Whom You Dislike, Being Made to Do One's Duty, College Politics. XV. National Sentiment. National sentiment is a fact and should be taken account of by institutions. When it is ignored, it is intensified and becomes a source of strife. It can be rendered harmless only by being given free play so long as it is not predatory. But it is not, in itself, a good or admirable feeling. There is nothing rational and nothing desirable in a limitation of sympathy which confines it to a fragment of the human race. Diversities of manners and customs and traditions are on the whole a good thing, since they enable different nations to produce different types of excellence. But in national feeling there is always latent or explicit an element of hostility to foreigners. National feeling, as we know it, could not exist in a nation which was wholly free of external pressure of a hostile kind. And group feeling produces a limited and often harmful kind of morality. Men come to identify the good with what serves the interest of their own group, and the bad with what works against those interests, even if it should happen to be in the interest of mankind as a whole. This group morality is very much in evidence during war, and is taken for granted in men's ordinary thought. Although almost all Englishmen consider the defeat of Germany desirable for the good of the world, yet most of them honor a German fighting for his country, because it has not occurred to them that his action ought to be guided by a morality higher than that of the group. A man does right, as a rule, to have his thoughts more occupied with the interests of his own nation than with those of others, because his actions are more likely to affect his own nation. But in time of war, and in all matters which are of equal concern to other nations and to his own, a man ought to take account of the universal welfare, and not allow his survey to be limited by the interest, or supposed interest, of his own group or nation.[79] [79] Bertrand Russell: _National Independence and Internationalism_. By courtesy of The Atlantic Monthly Company. 1. Write a criticism of any of the following, judging by the results produced: School Spirit, Capitalism, Living in a Small Town, National Costume, Giving up One's Patriotism, Family Loyalty, Race Loyalty, Class Distinction, Restriction of Reading to the authors of One Nation. 2. Would Mr. Russell's criticism be of more value if it showed more emotion, if it were less detached? Can a writer profitably criticize such a reality as _national sentiment_ without introducing emotion? XVI. A constitutional statesman is in general a man of common opinions and uncommon abilities. The reason is obvious. When we speak of a free government, we mean a government in which the sovereign power is divided, in which a single decision is not absolute, where argument has an office. The essence of the _gouvernement des avocats_, as the Emperor Nicholas called it, is, that you must persuade so many persons. The appeal is not to the solitary decision of a single statesman,--not to Richelieu or Nesselrode alone in his closet,--but to the jangled mass of men, with a thousand pursuits, a thousand interests, a thousand various habits. Public opinion, as it is said, rules; and public opinion is the opinion of the average man. Fox used to say of Burke, "Burke is a wise man, but he is wise too soon." The average man will not bear this: he is a cool, common person, with a considerate air, with figures in his mind, with his own business to attend to, with a set of ordinary opinions arising from and suited to ordinary life. He can't bear novelty or originalities; he says, "Sir, I never heard of such a thing _before_ in my life," and he thinks this a _reductio ad absurdum_. You may see his taste by the reading of which he approves. Is there a more splendid monument of talent and industry than the _Times_? No wonder that the average man--that any one--believes in it. As Carlyle observes: "Let the highest intellect, able to write epics, try to write such a leader for the morning newspapers: it cannot do it; the highest intellect will fail." But did you ever see anything there that you had never seen before? Out of the million articles that every one has read, can any one person trace a single marked idea to a single article? Where are the deep theories and the wise axioms and the everlasting sentiments which the writers of the most influential publication in the world have been the first to communicate to an ignorant species? Such writers are far too shrewd. The two million or whatever number of copies it may be they publish, are not purchased because the buyers wish to know the truth. The purchaser desires an article which he can appreciate at sight; which he can lay down and say, "An excellent article, very excellent--exactly my own sentiments." Original theories give trouble; besides, a grave man on the Coal Exchange does not desire to be an apostle of novelties among the contemporaneous dealers in fuel,--he wants to be provided with remarks he can make on the topics of the day which will not be known _not_ to be his, that are not too profound, which he can fancy the paper only reminded him of. And just in the same way, precisely as the most popular political paper is not that which is abstractly the best or most instructive, but that which most exactly takes up the minds of men where it finds them, catches the fleeting sentiment of society, puts it in such a form as society can fancy would convince another society which did not believe; so the most influential of constitutional statesmen is the one who most felicitously expresses the creed of the moment, who administers it, who embodies it in laws and institutions, who gives it the highest life it is capable of, who induces the average man to think, "I could not have done it any better if I had had time myself." It might be said that this is only one of the results of that tyranny of commonplace which seems to accompany civilization. You may talk of the tyranny of Nero and Tiberius; but the real tyranny is the tyranny of your next-door neighbor. What law is so cruel as the law of doing what he does? What yoke is so galling as the necessity of being like him? What espionage of despotism comes to your door so effectually as the eye of the man who lives at your door? Public opinion is a permeating influence, and it exacts obedience to itself; it requires us to think other men's thoughts, to speak other men's words, to follow other men's habits. Of course, if we do not, no formal ban issues; no corporeal pain, no coarse penalty of a barbarous society is inflicted on the offender: but we are called "eccentric"; there is a gentle murmur of "most unfortunate ideas," "singular young man," "well-intentioned, I dare say; but unsafe, sir, quite unsafe." The prudent of course conform: The place of nearly everybody depends on the opinion of every one else. There is nothing like Swift's precept to attain the repute of a sensible man, "Be of the opinion of the person with whom at the time you are conversing." This world is given to those whom this world can trust. Our very conversation is infected: where are now the bold humor, the explicit statement, the grasping dogmatism of former days? they have departed, and you read in the orthodox works dreary regrets that the art of conversation has passed away. It would be as reasonable to expect the art of walking to pass away: people talk well enough when they know to whom they are speaking; we might even say that the art of conversation was improved by an application to new circumstances. "Secrete your intellect, use common words, say what you are expected to say," and you shall be at peace; the secret of prosperity in common life is to be commonplace on principle. Whatever truth there may be in these splenetic observations might be expected to show itself more particularly in the world of politics: people dread to be thought unsafe in proportion as they get their living by being thought to be safe. "Literary men," it has been said, "are outcasts"; and they are eminent in a certain way notwithstanding. "They can say strong things of their age; for no one expects they will go out and act on them." They are a kind of ticket-of-leave lunatics, from whom no harm is for the moment expected; who seem quiet, but on whose vagaries a practical public must have its eye. For statesmen it is different: they must be thought men of judgment. The most morbidly agricultural counties were aggrieved when Mr. Disraeli was made Chancellor of the Exchequer: they could not believe he was a man of solidity, and they could not comprehend taxes by the author of "Coningsby" or sums by an adherent of the Caucasus. "There is," said Sir Walter Scott, "a certain hypocrisy of action, which, however it is despised by persons intrinsically excellent, will nevertheless be cultivated by those who desire the good repute of men." Politicians, as has been said, live in the repute of the commonalty. They may appeal to posterity; but of what use is posterity? Years before that tribunal comes into life, your life will be extinct; it is like a moth going into chancery. Those who desire a public career must look to the views of the living public; an immediate exterior influence is essential to the exertion of their faculties. The confidence of others is your _fulcrum_: you cannot--many people wish you could--go into Parliament to represent yourself; you must conform to the opinions of the electors, and they, depend on it, will not be original. In a word, as has been most wisely observed, "under free institutions it is necessary occasionally to defer to the opinions of other people; and as other people are obviously in the wrong, this is a great hindrance to the improvement of our political system and the progress of our species."[80] [80] Walter Bagehot: "The Character of Sir Robert Peel," _Works_, vol. III. Travelers Insurance Company, Hartford, Conn. 1. Apply Bagehot's criticism of the effects of a democratic average to the fate of Socrates, Jesus, Columbus, Galileo, Roger Williams, Benjamin Franklin, Abraham Lincoln. Do your results justify Bagehot's statements? 2. If Bagehot's theory is true, how do you account for any advance in a democracy, for woman suffrage, for example, or the election of senators by popular vote, or the inaugurating of an income tax? 3. Apply his remarks about literary men to the career of Thomas Carlyle, Heine, Galsworthy, and others who have criticized their times. 4. Does the Christian religion tend to make a man act on his own original ideas? XVII. Do you believe the following statement by a well-known musical critic? If the statement is true, how far is it possible to extend it, to how many forms of art or business? While the lover of music may often be in doubt as to the merit of a composition, he need never be so in regard to that of a performance. Here we stand on safe and sure ground, for the qualities that make excellence in performance are all well known, and it is necessary only that the ear shall be able to detect them. There may, of course, be some difference of opinion about the reading of a sonata or the interpretation of a symphony; but even these differences should be rare. Differences of judgment about the technical qualities of a musical performance should never exist. Whether a person plays the piano or sings well or ill is not a question of opinion, but of fact. The critic who is acquainted with the technics of the art can pronounce judgment upon a performance with absolute certainty, and there is no reason in the world why every lover of music should not do the same thing. There should not be any room for such talk as this: "I think Mrs. Blank sang very well, didn't you?" "Well, I didn't like it much." And there should be no room for the indiscriminate applause of bad performances which so often grieve the hearts of judicious listeners. Bad orchestral playing, bad piano playing, bad singing are applauded every day in the course of the musical season by people who think they have a right to an opinion. I repeat that it is not a matter of opinion but a matter of fact; and a person might just as well express the belief that a short fat man was finely proportioned as to say that an ill-balanced orchestra was a good one, and he might as well say that in his opinion a fire-engine whistle was music as to say that a throaty voice-production was good singing.[81] [81] W. H. Henderson: _What is Good Music_? By courtesy of the publishers, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York City. Copyright, 1898. CHAPTER VII THE INFORMAL ESSAY It is a fine thing to be serious, to draw one's self up to a formal task of explaining a machine or analyzing an idea or criticizing a novel; and it is just as fine, and often more pleasurable, to banish the grim seriousness of business and take on pliancy, smile at Life--even though there be tears--and chuckle at Care. Life is more than mere toil; there are the days of high feast and carnival, the days of excursion, and then the calm quiet days of peaceful meditation, sometimes even the days of gray sadness shot through with the crimson thread of sacrifice and sorrow. Often in the least noisy days we see most clearly, with most balance, and with the keenest humor, the finest courage. Like an athlete who cannot be forever in the life of stern rigor but must stray at times into the ways of the drawing-room and the library, so we at times take our ways into the realm of whim and sparkle and laughter, of brooding contemplation, of warm peace of soul. "I want a little breathing-space to muse on indifferent matters," says Hazlitt, and, "Give me the clear blue sky over my head, and the green turf beneath my feet, a winding road before me, and a three hours' march to dinner--and then to thinking!" In such moods we look for a good friend to talk with, and when the friend is not at hand--why, we may write informal essays to make record of our thoughts and feelings. For the Informal Essay is the transcript of a personal reaction to some phase or fact of life, personal because the author does not regard life with the cold eye of the scientific thinker, and because he does not, on the other hand, insist, as does the reformer, that others than himself accept the views he sets forth. He will not force his belief upon others, will not even hold it too feverishly himself, but, if we cannot accept, will even smile urbanely--though he may think we are quite wrong--and bow, and go his own way. The greatest charm of the informal essay is its personal nature. There is little, if indeed anything, personal about the analysis of problems or situations, slight revelation of the author in a treatise on dietetics or party politics or bridge building. This kind of writing is essentially the writing of our business. "But what need of ceremony among friends?" Lamb asks, and hits the heart of the informal essay. We are with friends, and with them, if the mood is on us, we chat about the delights of munching apples on snappy October mornings, or the humor of the scramble for public office, or the romance of spanning a stream in the hills, or, at times, the mysteries of life and death. And then the chat is thoroughly personal, we feel no grim duty, but only the quiet pleasure of uttering whatever we may think or feel, about things in which we find our personal interests aroused. It is as the counterpart in literature of such talk in living that the informal essay reveals the personal note, is really the lyric of prose. For the informal essay does not affirm, "This must be done!" or, "I will defend this with my life!" or, "This is undeniable truth!" Rather it says, "This is how I feel about things to-day," and if the essayist be aware that he has not always felt thus, that he may even feel differently again, he is unabashed. He will make you his confidant, will tell you what he thinks and how he feels, will banish the cold front of business, and will not be secretive and niggardly of himself, but only duly reticent. As soon as we turn to informal essays we find this personal note. Here is Cowley's essay "Of Myself," frankly telling of his life. Our eye falls upon Hazlitt's words, "I never was in a better place or humor than I am at present for writing on this subject. I have a partridge getting ready for my supper, my fire is blazing on the hearth, the air is mild for the season of the year, I have had but a slight fit of indigestion to-day (the only thing that makes me abhor myself), I have three hours good before me, and therefore I will attempt it." Such intimacy, such personal contact is to be found only in the informal essay. Only in a form of writing that we frankly acknowledge as familiar would Samuel Johnson write "The Scholar's Complaint of His Own Bashfulness." And once in the writing, the author cannot keep himself out. Steele, not Addison, wrote the words, "He is said to be the first that made Love by squeezing the Hand"--honest, jovial, garrulous Dick Steele, thinking, perhaps, of his "Darling Prue." If, then, you have some random ideas that interest you, if the memory of your kite-flying days comes strong upon you, or of your early ambitions to be a sailor or a prima donna, if you can see the humor of rushing for trains or eluding taxes, or reciting without study, if you feel keenly the joy of climbing mountains, or canoeing, or gardening, or fussing with engines, or making things with hammer and nails or flour and sugar, if you see the beauty in powerful machinery or in the deep woods and streams and flowers, or the patient heroism--modest heroism--of the men in "Information" booths at railway stations, if you find pathos in the world, or humor, or any personal significance, and are able to understand without being oppressed with seriousness or poignant reality, even of humor,--if you remember or see or feel such things, and wish to talk quite openly about them as they appeal to you, write an informal essay. Now you can write a personal essay that will be enjoyable only if your personality is attractive. And you cannot draw a reader to you unless you have a keen reaction to the facts of life. Writing informal essays is impossible for the man whose life is neutral, who goes unseeing, unhearing through the world; it is most natural to the man who touches life at many points and touches with pleasure. Those magic initials, R. L. S., which the world, especially the young world, loves, mean to us a personality that reveled in playing with lead soldiers, in hacking a way through the tropical forests of Samoa, in pursuing streams to their sources, in cleaning "crystal," in talking with all living men, in reading all living books, in whiling the hours with his flageolet. "I have," says Lamb, "an almost feminine partiality for old china." We think, perhaps, of Bacon as a cold austere figure, until we know him, but is he cold when, writing of wild thyme and water mints he says, "Therefore you are to set whole alleys of them, to have the pleasure when you walk or tread" of sniffing their sweet fragrance? And is a man uninterested who writes, "I grant there is one subject on which it is pleasant to talk on a journey; and that is what one shall have for supper when we get to our inn at night"? When we consider the loves of that bright flower of English young manhood, Rupert Brooke, we can the more keenly feel the loss that the essay, as well as poetry, had in his untimely death. These have I loved: White plates and cups, clean-gleaming, Ringed with blue lines; and feathery, faëry dust; Wet roofs, beneath the lamplight; the strong crust Of friendly bread; and many-tasting food; Rainbows; and the blue bitter smoke of wood; And radiant raindrops couching in cool flowers; And flowers themselves, that sway through sunny hours, Dreaming of moths that drink them under the moon; Then, the cool kindliness of sheets, that soon Smooth away trouble; and the rough male kiss Of blankets; grainy wood; live hair that is Shining and free; blue-massing clouds; the keen Unpassioned beauty of a great machine; The benison of hot water; furs to touch; The good smell of old clothes; and other such-- The comfortable smell of friendly fingers, Hair's fragrance, and the musty reek that lingers About dead leaves and last year's ferns.... Dear names, And thousand other throng to me! Royal flames; Sweet water's dimpling laugh from tap or spring; Holes in the ground; and voices that do sing; Voices in laughter, too; and body's pain, Soon turned to peace; and the deep-panting train; Firm sands; the little dulling edge of foam That browns and dwindles as the wave goes home; And washen stones, gay for an hour; the cold Graveness of iron; moist black earthen mould; Sleep; and high places; footprints in the dew; And oaks; and brown horse-chestnuts, glossy-new; And new-peeled sticks; and shining pools on grass;-- All these have been my loves.[82] [82] Rupert Brooke: _Collected Poems_. By courtesy of the publishers, John Lane Company. Lamb's young Bo-bo was in the right of it, the right frame of mind, when he cried, "O, father, the pig, the pig, do come and taste how nice the burnt pig eats!" The true writer of informal essays can see that Card Catalogues are humorous, that The Feel of Leather Covered Books is sufficiently interesting to deserve treatment, that Shaving, and Going to Bed Last, and Wondering if the Other Man Knows More, and Manners, and Politeness, and The Effect of Office-holding upon Personality, and Intellectual Deviltry, and The Humility of Sinners, and The Arrogance of Saints, and The Joys of Calling Names, and City Chimney-pots, and The "Woman's Page," and Keeping Up, and The Pleasures of Having a Besetting Sin, and The Absurdities of Education, and When Shakespeare Nods, and thousands of other subjects are all waiting to have their essays. Can there be any possible interest in a carpet layer? Mr. Dallas Lore Sharp, as we have seen,[83] finds it quite wonderful. Is he not to be envied that his reaction was too keen to leave the tool lifeless? An informal essayist would even, we think, find taste in the white of an egg. And without this delight in life his essays will not be read, for they will not present a pleasing personality, and the life of the essay is its personal note. [83] See Chapter V. A personality that is quite alive and thoroughly interested in all sorts of things almost necessarily sees the concrete. Most informal essays are full of individual instances, of anecdotes and scraps from life. The author of "The Privileges of Age" in the _Atlantic Monthly_ does not vaguely talk about age in general. She begins, "I have always longed for the privileges of age--since the days when it seemed to me that the elderly people ate all the hearts out of the watermelons," and she continues with the misfortunes of being young, "In coaching, our place was always between the two fattest! O Isabella is thin! She can sit there!" In sheer delight at the memory Hazlitt writes, "It was on the tenth of April, 1798, that I sat down to a volume of the New Eloise, at the inn of Llangollen, over a bottle of sherry and a cold chicken." So Addison, when he will tell us of Sir Roger de Coverley, confides to us his habit of standing up in church service, even in prayer time, to look round him and see if all his tenants are there, or shows him calling out lustily to John Matthews, "to mind what he was about and not disturb the congregation" when John was kicking his heels for diversion. Concrete again, is Sir Roger's remark at the theater, "And let me tell you ... though he speaks but little, I like the old Fellow in Whiskers as well as any of them." All such detailed bits of life the essayist relishes, and in turn they enrich his personality and make him able to give the personal note that is the heart of the informal essay. This mood of human interest is illustrated, of course, by other writers than the informal essayists. The historian Parkman filled his volumes with the intimate details of personal experience that keep them warm and forever alive. As distinct from the dry-as-dust chroniclers, who eschew all of the throbbing incidents of life, he was eager to include whenever inclusion would help the reader's true imagination, such details as that, back in colonial times, the thunderous praying of a member of the General Court of Massachusetts, who had retired to his room for Heavenly counsel, revealed the secret of the proposed attack upon the fortress of Louisbourg to a landlady--and hence to all the world. Nor does he fail to mention that when the Grand Battery at Louisbourg was captured, William Tufts, of Medford, a lad of eighteen, climbed the flagstaff with his red coat in his teeth and made it fast to the pole for a flag. As we read Parkman's words, we can feel his heart glow with the joy of the climbing lad, we know that in the historian there was beating the throb of human love such as would have made him an admirable essayist had he turned his hand to the form. If, then, you feel like confidential writing, what may your subjects be? Essayists have written about three main classes of subjects: first always, people, their glory, their pathos, their sadness, and their whims; second, nature as it appeals to the writers in a personal way, reflecting their joys and sorrows, or contributing to their sense of pleasure, beauty, and companionship in the world; and third, matters of science, industry, art, literature, as the essayists think these affect the emotions of humanity. If you are in wonderment and desire to speak of the bravery of men fighting the battle of life, you may write with Stevenson the somber but inspiring "Pulvis et Umbra." If you are tempted to smile at the tendency of people to announce beliefs militantly, you may write with Mr. Crothers "On Being a Doctrinaire." If man's ceaseless quest of the perfect appeals, you may write with Mr. Sharp "The Dustless Duster." The interesting old custom of having an awesome "spare chamber," the hurly-burly and humor of moving, the fascinating process of shaving that Grandfather performs on Sunday, the ways in which some people make themselves lovable, others hateful, others pitiful, and still others ridiculous--these are your rightful field if you but care to use them. The informal essayist loves humanity not blindly but wisely. "There is something about a boy that I like," Charles Dudley Warner wrote, and thereby proved himself worthy to write such essays. Lamb, thinking of chimney-sweeps, cries out, "I have a kindly yearning toward these dim specks--poor blots--innocent blacknesses." Nor is the essayist restricted to the lives of others; the true informal essayist never forgets his own boyhood. The swimming and fishing larks, the tramp for the early chestnuts, the machines that you built at ten years, the tricks you played on friends and enemies, human and four-footed--these await your essay. Especially your grown-up self offers a fertile meadowland of essays. What are your hobbies--and have you any follies? If you can but poke fun at yourself, we will listen. Finally, if you have an interesting acquaintance, a rosy corner grocer, or a maiden aunt of the old school, or a benignant grandfather, or a quaint laundress, or "hired man," or anybody who is worth the words--and who is not?--and who really interests you, you may make a character sketch. Thus Stevenson in "A Scotch Gardener," Leigh Hunt in "The Old Lady," "The Old Gentleman," "The Maidservant," and John Brown in "Jeems the Doorkeeper." Remember only one thing--you must, for some reason, see attractiveness in the character, even the paradoxical attractiveness of repulsion. Remember that Hazlitt wrote an essay on "The Pleasures of Hating." When people do not offer subjects, turn to nature, as Mr. Burroughs and Mr. Sharp and John Muir have turned in our day, and as others have turned at times ever since there was an essay. Do you admire the cool deep woods, the songs of the thrushes, the clouds that roll into queer shapes, the endlessly talking brooks, the bugs that strive and fight and achieve, the queer hunted live things that you see everywhere? There is your essay. Mr. Warner wrote a delightful series about gardening in which he makes fun--partly of himself, partly of nature. Richard Jefferies found a subject in "July Grass." Mr. Belloc gives the spirit of the primeval currents of air that bore the ships of our forefathers in his essay, "On a Great Wind." California sequoias, red-eyed vireos, the pig in his pen, the silly hens in their yard, friendly dogs, a group of willows, a view from a mountain-top, trees that rush past as you skim the road in your car, there's hardly a phase of nature that does not offer an essay, have you but the eyes to see and the heart to warm. One caution must be given. This kind of essay will try to lure you into words that seem poetic but really lie; beware that you tell the truth, for a sunset, glorious though it is, is still a sunset. For the higher imaginative flights we reserve our verse. On the other hand, scientific analysis is not for the essay; it is too impersonal. Nature, as seen in the informal essay, is the nature of emotion that keeps its balance through humor and sanity. Do not, then, write an essay about nature unless you are sure of your balance, unless you are sure that you can tell the truth. But the essayist does not stop with the creations in nature; he goes on to the works of man. He sees the exquisite beauty of a deftly guided mathematical problem, the answer marshaled to its post in order, he feels the exultation of a majestic pumping station, he knows the wonder of the inspiration of artists. As you pass the steel skeleton of the skyscraper, or see the liner gliding up the harbor, or thrill to the locomotive that paws off across the miles, or stand in awe and watch the uncanny linotype machine at its weird mysteries, you may find your subject all ready for the expression. Mr. Joseph Husband finds the romance of these.[84] Books, too, chats with your favorite authors, trips through art galleries, listening to concerts, finding the wonders of the surgeon,--all these, as they appeal to you, as you react to them, as they disclose a meaning, are fit subjects for your essay. Thus Mr. Crothers writes in "The Hundred Worst Books." [84] _America at Work._ Men, nature, things, all are at your beck if you but keenly feel their appeal, if you have an honest thought about them. As you treat them do not hesitate to use the word "I"; in the essay we expect the word, we look for it, we miss it when it eludes us, for the great charm of the informal essay is its personal note, its revelation of the heart of the writer. Since the essay is urbanely personal, it does not take itself too seriously. Our definition declared that the essayist will not try to force his views upon his reader nor hold them too feverishly himself. If you are militant about a subject, you should write, not an informal essay, but a treatise or an argument in which full play will be given to your cudgels. If you violently believe in woman-suffrage--as you well may--so that you can be only dead-serious about it, do not write an informal essay. For the essay aims at the spirit as well as the intellect, hopes to create a glow in the reader as well as to convince him of a truth. You should write an informal essay when you are in the mood of Sir Roger de Coverley as he remarked, "There is much to be said on both sides." This does not mean that you should write spinelessly--not in the least; it means only that you should be an artist rather than a blind reformer. Sometimes the mind wishes to go upon excursion, to give play to the "wanton heed and giddy cunning" that are in the heart. The essay, says Richard Middleton, "should have the apparent aimlessness of life, and, like life, its secret purpose." It may be mere "exuberant capering round a discovered truth," to borrow Mr. Chesterton's phrase. Again, it may feel the length of the shadows, the cold breath of the mists of the still, unpierced places. The essay does not deny the shadows; it rather believes in riding up to the guns with a smile and the gesture of courtesy. It sees the truth always, but it also prefers not to be a pest in declaring the truth disagreeably. "Therefore we choose to dally with visions." Many an informal essay has been written on "Death," but not in the mood of the theologian. The essay has about it the exquisite flavor of personality such as we find in the cavalier lads who rode to feasting or to death with equal grace and charm. The real essay ought not to leave its reader uncomfortable; it leaves to the militant writers to work such mischief. Do not, therefore, ever allow your essay to become a sermon, for to the sermon there is only one side. And do not try to wrench a moral from everything. If you do, the moral will be anæmic and thin. Do not, after watching brooks, be seized with a desire to have your reader "content as they are." Nor, after the locomotive has melted into the distance shall you buttonhole your reader and bid him, like the engine, be up and doing! Better is it to play pranks with respectability and logic. Stevenson's ability to write charming essays came partly from the fact that, as Barrie has said of him, "He was the spirit of boyhood tugging at the skirts of this old world of ours and compelling it to come back and play." Mr. Chesterton often inspires us to do some really new thinking by his ridiculous contentions. Where but in the essay could a man uphold the belief that Faith is Nonsense and perhaps Nonsense is Faith? In fact, humor is always present in the informal essay. It may be grave or even sad, it is never really boisterous, it is best subtle and quiet, but of whatever kind it should be present. Meredith said "humor is the ability to detect ridicule of those we love without loving them the less." Note, in the light of these words, John Brown's description of his friend Jeems: "Jeems's face was so extensive, and met you so formidably and at once, that it mainly composed his whole; and such a face! Sydney Smith used to say of a certain quarrelsome man, 'His very face is a breach of the peace.' Had he seen our friend's he would have said that he was the imperative mood on two (very small) legs, out on business in a blue greatcoat." Lamb had the gentle humor in exquisite degree, kindly and shrewd. When the little chimney-sweep laughed at him for falling in the street Lamb thought, "there he stood ... with such a maximum of glee and minimum of mischief, in his mirth--for the grin of a genuine sweep hath absolutely no malice in it--that I could have been content, if the honor of a gentleman might endure it, to have remained his butt and mockery till midnight." The humor is often ironic, frequently dry and lurking, but kindly still, for the essayist loves his fellow man. Since the essay is not super-serious, it need not be too conscientiously thorough and exhaustive. It must, to be sure, have some point, some core of thought, must meditate, but it need not reach a final conclusion. It often believes, with Stevenson, that "to travel hopefully is better than to arrive," and it spends its time on the pleasant way. It takes conclusions about as seriously as we take them when we sit with pipe and slippers by the fireside and chat. Its view of the subject is limited also. It is not a piece of research, it need not cover the whole ground with all the minutiæ. The essayist, first of all, will admit that he does not say all that might be said. Very likely he will declare that he is merely making suggestions rather than giving a treatment. Think how endless a real treatise on old china would be, and then how brief and sketchy Lamb's essay is. The beauty of writing an informal essay is that you can stop when you please, you do not feel the dread command of the subject. Just as the conclusion may be dodged, so the strict laws of rhetoric may be winked at. De Quincey remarks, "Here I pause for a moment to exhort the reader ... etc.," and for a whole page talks about a different subject! But we do not mind, for, as has been said of him--and the remark is equally true of many essayists--he is like a good sheep dog, he makes many detours, may even disappear behind a knoll, but finally he will come eagerly and bravely back with his flock and guide the sheep home. Digressions are allowable, so long as safe return is made. The formlessness of the essay is to be held by an invisible web that is none the less binding, like the bonds of the Fenris wolf. We may go round the subject or stand off and gaze at it, may introduce anecdotes, bits of conversation, illustrations of various sorts, may even cast the essay largely in narrative form, so long as at the heart of it there is our idea. "You may tack and drift, only so you tack and drift round the buoy." Hazlitt, in "On Persons One Would Wish to Have Seen," uses much conversation. Thackeray, in "Tunbridge Toys," clings to the narrative medium. Mr. Richard Burton, in the foreword to his _Little Essays in Literature and Life_, sums up the informal essay thus: The way of the familiar essay is one, of the formal essay another. The latter is informational, it defines, proves; the former, seeking for friendlier and more personal relations with the reader, aims at suggestion, stimulation. The familiar essay can be an impressionistic reflection of the author's experience in the mighty issues of living, or it may be the frank expression of a mere whim. It should touch many a deep thing in a way to quicken the sense of the charm, wonder, and terror of the earth. The essayist can fly high, if he but have wings, and he can dive deeper than any plummet line of the intellect, should it happen that the spirit move him. It is thus the ambition of the familiar essayist to speak wisdom albeit debonairly, to be thought-provoking without heaviness, and helpful without didacticism. Keenly does he feel the lachrymæ rerum, but, sensible to the laughing incongruities of human expression, he has a safeguard against the merely solemn and can smile at himself or others, preserving his sense of humor as a precious gift of the high gods. And most of all, he loves his fellow men, and would come into fellowship with them through thought that is made mellow by feeling....[85] [85] Richard Burton: _Little Essays in Literature and Life_. By courtesy of the publishers, The Century Company, New York City. And so we return to our definition: the essay is the transcript of personal reaction to some phase or fact of life, not weighted with an over-solemn feeling of responsibility, charged with never-failing balance and humor and liberty to wander without necessarily arriving, frankly individual in its treatment of life, life as it seems to the writer, whether the essay be about people or things or nature. Of the length of the essay we may not be too definite. It may be only a page in duration; it may cover fifty. When the writer has said what he wishes to say, he blithely ceases, and leaves the work to the reader. In style all the graces, all the lightness, the daintiness, the neatness that he can command the author uses. He loves words for their sound, their suggestiveness, their color. And since he is frequently expressing a mood, he will, so far as he can, adapt the style to the mood. So Lamb, in the exquisite reverie, "Dream Children," casts his vision into the dreamy cadence that lures us into his very mood. So, finally, Mr. Belloc, describing the wind, says: When a great wind comes roaring over the eastern flats toward the North Sea, driving over the Fens and the Wingland, it is like something of this island that must go out and wrestle with the water, or play with it in a game or battle; and when, upon the western shores, the clouds come bowling up from the horizon, messengers, out-riders, or comrades of the gale, it is something of the sea determined to possess the land. The rising and falling of such power, its hesitations, its renewed violence, its fatigue and final repose--all these are symbols of a mind; but more than all the rest, its exultation! It is the shouting and hurrahing of the wind that suits a man.[86] [86] Hilaire Belloc: "On a Great Wind." _From First and Last._ By courtesy of the publishers, E. P. Dutton & Co., New York. THE PRIVILEGES OF AGE[87] [87] From The Contributors' Club. By courtesy of The Atlantic Monthly Company. I have always longed for the privileges of age,--since the days when it seemed to me that the elderly people ate all the hearts out of the watermelons. Now it suddenly occurs to me that I am at last entitled to claim them. Surely the shadow on the dial has moved around it, the good time has come, and the accumulated interest of my years shall be mine to spend. Have you not had the same experience? For many years, as you may have noticed, the majority of the inhabitants of the earth were old. Even those persons over whom we were nominally supposed to exercise a little brief authority were older than we, and we approached the dragons of our kitchen with a deprecating eye. But now the majority has moved behind us; most people, even some really quite distinguished people, are younger than we. No longer can we pretend that our lack of distinction is due to immaturity. No longer can we privately assure ourselves that some day we, too, shall do something, and that it is only the becoming modesty of youth which prevents our doing it at once. One thing, willy-nilly, we have done,--or rather nature has done it for us. She is like von Moltke. "Without haste, without rest," is her motto, and knowing our tendency to dally, she quietly takes matters into her own hands. Suddenly, unconscious of the effort, we awake one morning and find ourselves old. If we can only succeed in being old enough, we shall also be famous, like old Parr, who never did anything, so far as I am aware, but live to the age of one hundred and forty-five. In order properly to appreciate our present privileges, let us consider the days of old and the years that are past. It was in the time before motors, and we rode backwards in the carriage. We did not like to ride backwards. In traveling, we were always allotted the upper berths. There was no question about it. We couldn't expect our venerable aunt, or our delicate cousin, or our dignified grandmother to swing up into an upper berth, could we? And in those days they cost just as much as lower ones and we paid our own traveling expenses. How expert we grew at swinging up and swinging down! Naturally the best rooms at the hotels went to the elder members of the party. In coaching, our place was always between the two fattest! "O Isabella is thin! she can sit there!" And what did we ask in return for these many unnoticed renunciations? Only the privilege of getting up at five to go trout-fishing, or the delight of riding all morning cross-saddle to eat a crumby luncheon in a buggy forest at noon. We wondered what the others meant when they said that the beds were not comfortable, and we marveled why the whole machinery of heaven and earth should be out of gear unless, at certain occult and punctually recurring hours, they had a cup of tea. And why was it necessary to make us unhappy if they didn't have a cup of tea? Young people are supposed to be mannerly, at least they were in my day, but old people may be as rude as they please, and no one reproves them. If they do not like a thing, they promptly announce the fact. The privilege of self-expression they share with the very young. Which reminds me, I detest puddings. Henceforth I shall decline to eat them, even in the house of my friends. Mine is the prerogative no longer to dissemble, for hypocrisy is abhorrent to the members of the favored class to which I now belong. They are like a dear and honored servitor of mine who used, on occasion, to go about her duties with the countenance of a thunderstorm. "Elizabeth," said I, once, reprovingly, "you should not look so cross." "But Miss Isabella," she remarked with reason, "if you don't _look_ cross when you _are_ cross, how is any one to know you are cross?" Speaking of thunderstorms, I am afraid of them. I have always been afraid since the days when I used to hide under the nursery table when I felt one coming. But was I allowed to stay under the table? Certainly not. All these years have I maintained a righteous and excruciating self-control. But old ladies are afraid and unashamed. I have heard of one who used to get into the middle of a featherbed. I shall not insist on the featherbed, but I shall close the shutters and turn on the lights and be as cowardly as I please. The two ends of life, infancy and age, are indulged in their little fancies. For a baby, we get up in the night to heat bottles, and there are certain elderly clergymen whose womenkind always arise at four in the morning to make coffee for them. That is not being addicted to stimulants. But the middle span of life is like a cantilever bridge: if it can bear its own weight it is expected to bear anything that can possibly be put upon it. "Old age deferred" has no attractions for me. I decline to be middle-aged. I much prefer to be old. Youth is haunted by misgivings, by hesitancies, by a persistent idea that, if only we dislike a thing enough, there must be some merit in our disliking it. Not so untrammeled age. From now on, I practice the philosophy of Montesquieu and pursue the general good by doing that which I like best. Absolutely and unequivocally, that which I like best. For there is no longer any doubt about it: I have arrived. I do not have to announce the fact. Others realize it. My friends' daughters give me the most comfortable chair. They surround me with charming, thoughtful, delicate little attentions. Mine is the best seat in the motor, mine the host's arm at the feast, mine the casting vote in any little discussion. O rare Old Age! How hast thou been maligned! O blessed land of privilege! True paradise for the disciples of Nietzsche, where at last we dare appear as selfish as we are! A BREATH OF APRIL[88] [88] John Burroughs: _Leaf and Tendril_. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, publishers. These still, hazy, brooding mid-April mornings, when the farmer first starts afield with his plow, when his boys gather the buckets in the sugar-bush, when the high-hole calls long and loud through the hazy distance, when the meadow-lark sends up her clear, silvery shaft of sound from the meadow, when the bush sparrow trills in the orchard, when the soft maples look red against the wood, or their fallen bloom flecks the drying mud in the road,--such mornings are about the most exciting and suggestive of the whole year. How good the fields look, how good the freshly turned earth looks!--one could almost eat it as does the horse;--the stable manure just being drawn out and scattered looks good and smells good; every farmer's house and barn looks inviting; the children on the way to school with their dinner-pails in their hands--how they open a door into the past for you! Sometimes they have sprays of arbutus in their button-holes, or bunches of hepatica. The partridge is drumming in the woods, and the woodpeckers are drumming on dry limbs. The day is veiled, but we catch such glimpses through the veil. The bees are getting pollen from the pussy-willows and soft maples, and the first honey from the arbutus. It is at this time that the fruit and seed catalogues are interesting reading, and that the cuts of farm implements have a new fascination. The soil calls to one. All over the country, people are responding to the call, and are buying farms and moving upon them. My father and mother moved upon their farm in the spring of 1828; I moved here upon mine in March, 1874. I see the farmers, now going along their stone fences and replacing the stones that the frost or the sheep and cattle have thrown off, and here and there laying up a bit of wall that has tumbled down. There is a rare music now in the unmusical call of the phoebe-bird--it is so suggestive. The drying road appeals to one as it never does at any other season. When I was a farm-boy, it was about this time that I used to get out of my boots for half an hour and let my bare feet feel the ground beneath them once more. There was a smooth, dry, level place in the road near home, and along this I used to run, and exult in that sense of light-footedness which is so keen at such times. What a feeling of freedom, of emancipation, and of joy in the returning spring I used to experience in those warm April twilights! I think every man whose youth was spent on the farm, whatever his life since, must have moments at this season when he longs to go back to the soil. How its sounds, its odors, its occupations, its associations, come back to him! Would he not like to return again to help rake up the litter of straw and stalks about the barn, or about the stack on the hill where the grass is starting? Would he not like to help pick the stone from the meadow, or mend the brush fence on the mountain where the sheep roam, or hunt up old Brindle's calf in the woods, or gather oven-wood for his mother to start again the big brick oven with its dozen loaves of rye bread, or see the plow crowding the lingering snowbanks on the side-hill, or help his father break and swingle and hatchel the flax in the barnyard? When I see a farm advertised for rent or for sale in the spring, I want to go at once and look it over. All the particulars interest me,--so many acres of meadow-land, so many of woodland, so many of pasture--the garden, the orchard, the outbuildings, the springs, the creek--I see them all, and am already half in possession. Even Thoreau felt this attraction, and recorded in his Journal: "I know of no more pleasing employment than to ride about the country with a companion very early in the spring, looking at farms with a view to purchasing, if not paying for them." Blessed is the man who loves the soil! THE AMATEUR CHESSMAN[89] [89] By Frances Lester Warner, from "The Point of View" in _Scribner's Magazine_. I used to envy chess-players. Now I play. My method of learning the game was unprincipled. I learned the moves from the encyclopædia, the traditions from "Morphy, On Chess," and the practice from playing with another novice as audacious as I. Later, finding some people who could really play, I clove to them until they taught me all that I could grasp. My ultimate ambition is, I suppose, the masterly playing of the game. Its austere antiquity rebukes the mildest amateur into admiration. I therefore strive, and wistfully aspire. Meanwhile, however, I am enjoying the gay excitement of the unskilled player. There is nobody like the hardy apprentice for getting pleasure out of chess. We find certain delights which no past-master can know; pleasures exclusively for the novice. Give me an opponent not too haughty for my unworthy steel, one who may perhaps forget to capture an exposed bishop of mine, an opponent who, like me, will know the early poetry of mad adventure and the quiet fatalism of unexpected defeat. With this opponent I will engage to enjoy three things which, to Mr. Morphy, immortality itself shall not restore--three things: a fresh delight in the whimsical personality of the various chessmen; the recklessness of uncertainty and of unforeseen adventure; the unprecedented thrill of checkmating my opponent by accident. Mr. Morphy, I admit, may perhaps have retained through life a personal appreciation of the characters of the pieces: the conservative habits of the king; the politic, sidelong bishop; the stout little roundhead pawns. But since his forgotten apprenticeship he has not known their many-sided natures. To Mr. Morphy they long since became subject--invariably calculable. With a novice, the men and women of the chess-board regain their individuality and their Old World caprices, their mediæval greatness of heart. Like Aragon and the Plantagenets, they have magnificent leisure for the purposeless and aimless quest. The stiff, kind, circular eyes of my simple boxwood knight stare casually about him as he goes. Irresponsibly he twists among his enemies, now drawing rein in the cross-country path of an angry bishop, now blowing his horn at the very drawbridge of the king. And it is no cheap impunity that he faces in his errant hardihood. My opponent seldom lapses. My knights often die in harness, all unshriven. That risk lends unfailing zest. Most of all, I love my gentle horsemen. My opponent, too, has her loyalties, quixotic and unshaken. Blindly, one evening, I imperiled my queen. Only the opposing bishop needed to be sacrificed to capture her. The spectators were breathless at her certain fate. But my opponent sets high value upon her stately bishop. Rather this man saved for defense than risked for such a captive, feminist though she be, and queen. With ecclesiastical dignity the bishop withdrew, and my queen went on her tranquil way. Of all the men, the king reveals himself least readily. A noncommittal monarch at best. At times imperial and menacing, my king may conquer, with goodly backing from his yeomen and his chivalry. Sometimes, again, like Lear, he is no longer terrible in arms, his royal guard cut down. And at his death he loves always to send urgently for his bishop, who is solacing, though powerless to save. All this is typical of our second pleasure, the exhilaration of incautious and unpremeditated moves. Inexplicable, for example, this pious return of the outbound bishop at the last battle-cry of the king. At times, however, a move may well be wasted to the end that all may happen decently and in order. My opponent shares with me this respect for ceremony. Together we lament the ruins when a lordly castle falls. Our atrocities are never heartless; we never recriminate. My opening moves, in general, are characterized by no mean regard for consequences. Let my men rush forth to the edge of the hostile country. Once there, there will be time enough to peer about and reconnoitre and see what we shall see. Meanwhile, the enemy is battering gloriously at my postern-gate, but at least the fight is on! Part of our recklessness in these opening moves consists in our confidential revelations to each other of all our plans and disquieting problems. "This needn't worry you at present," I remark, planting my castle on an irrational crag. "I'm only putting it there in _case_." That saves much time. My opponent might otherwise have found it necessary to waste long minutes in trying to fathom the unknowable of my scheme. Without this companionable interchange chess is the most lonely of human experiences. There you sit, a being solitary and unsignaled--a point of thought, a mere center of calculation. You have no partner. All the world is canceled for the time, except, perched opposite you, another hermit intellect implacably estranged and sinister. Oh, no! As yet we discuss our plots. Poor journeymen players of the royal game! Strange clues to character appear around the friendly chess-board. There is the supposedly neutral observer of the game, who must murmur warnings or lament the ill-judged moves; without him, how would life and chess be simplified? There is the stout-hearted player who refuses to resign though his defeat is demonstrably certain, but continues to jog about the board, eluding actual capture; in life would he resign? There is the player who gives little shrieks at unexpected attacks; the player who explains his mistakes and what he had intended to do instead; the player who makes no sign whether of gloating or of despair. Most striking of all is the behavior of all these when they face the necessity of playing against the handicap of past mistakes; a wrong move may never be retracted by the thoroughbred. No apology, no retracting of the path; we must go on as if the consequences were part of our plan. It lures to allegory, this checkered board, these jousts and far crusades. Then, on to checkmate, the most perfect type of utter finality, clear-cut and absolute. Shah-mat! Checkmate! The king is dead. In most conclusions there is something left ragged; something still in abeyance, in reserve. Here, however, is no shading, no balancing of the scales. We win, not by majority, as in cards; success or failure is unanimous. There was one ballot, and that is cast. No matter how ragged the playing that went before, the end of a game of chess is always perfect. It satisfies the spirit. Always at last comes contentment of soul, though it be our king that dies. The following subjects are suggested as suitable for treatment in informal essays. They can, in many cases, be changed to suit individual experience, can be made either broader or more restricted. Perhaps they will suggest other somewhat similar but more usable subjects. PEOPLE 1. The Pleasures of Selfishness. 2. Wondering if the Other Person Knows More. 3. Pipe and Slippers and Dreams. 4. Middle-aged Kittens. 5. Being "Tough." 6. Early Rising. 7. Scientific Eating. 8. The Joys of the Straphanger. 9. Vicarious Possessions in Shop Windows. 10. Shopping with the Bargain Hunter. 11. New Year's Resolutions. 12. The Gossip of the Waiting-Room (of a Railroad Station, Doctor's Office, etc.). 13. The Stimulation of Closet Skeletons. 14. Planning Houses. 15. Keeping an Expense Book. 16. The Millinery of the Choir. 17. The Joys of Being Profane before the Consciously Pious. 18. "Darius Greens." 19. Tellers of Dreams. 20. Making the Most of Misfortunes. 21. The Moral Value of Carrying a Cane. 22. Souvenir Hunting. 23. The Person Who Has Always Had "The Same Experience Myself." 24. Prayer-meeting Courtships. 25. The Exhaustion of Repose. 26. "See the Birdie, Darling!" 27. Politeness to Rich Relatives. 28. "It must be so; I Read it in a Book!" 29. "Anyway," as Stevenson said, "I did my darndest." 30. The Moral Rigor of the Nightly Setting-up Exercises. 31. "Hooking Rides." 32. A Society to Forbid Learning to Play the Trombone (or Cornet or Piano or anything else). 33. A Sophomore for Life. 34. Country Auctions. 35. The Virtues of Enviousness. 36. The Melancholy of Old Bachelors. 37. Village "Cut-ups." 38. Early Assurances of Doleful Dying. 39. Failing, to make Money, through Failure to make Money. 40. People who never Did Wrong as Children. 41. "Just Wait till I'm Grown-up!" 42. Philosophers' Toothaches. 43. The Morality of Stubbing One's Toe in the Dark. 44. The Dolefulness of Celebrations. 45. What to Do with Bores. 46. The Young and the Still-young Woman. 47. The Satisfaction of Intolerance. 48. The Struggle to be an "Intellectual." 49. Church Socials. 50. The Revelations of Food Sales. 51. White-haired Enthusiasm. 52. "I have It in my Card Index." 53. The Rigors of Shaving. 54. The Right to a "Beauty Box." 55. "Hopelessly Sane." 56. The "Job" After Graduation. 57. The Stupidity of Heaven. 58. The Boon Companions of Hell. 59. People Who Remember When You Were "Only So High!" 60. Being a Gentleman though Rich. 61. Great Men One Might Wish to Have Thrashed. 62. The Awful Servant. 63. Morality When the Thermometer Reads 95°. 64. The Technique of Teas. 65. Dangers of Criticism. 66. Starvation or a New Cook? 67. Superior Profanity. 68. The Logic of the Movies. 69. The "Woman's Page." 70. The Neatness of Men. 71. On Taking Off One's Hat. 72. Fashions in Slang. 73. Ambitions at Thirteen. 74. The Joys of Whittling. 75. Learning, without Education. THINGS 1. Individuality in Shoes. 2. Alarm Clocks. 3. Rail Fences. 4. Chimney Pots. 5. Illuminated Mottoes. 6. "Fresh Paint." 7. Social Caste of Tombstones. 8. The Lure of Banks. 9. The Witchery of Seed Catalogues. 10. Colonial Windows. 11. Fishing Tackle in the Attic in January. 12. The Invitation of the Label. 13. Stolen Umbrellas. 14. The Dolefuless of the Comic Supplement. 15. The Humorousness of Card Catalogues. 16. The Sweets and Dregs of Tin Roofs. 17. The Tyranny of Remembered Melodies. 18. Friendly Old Clothes. 19. The Age of the Pennant. 20. The Upper Berth. 21. Bills in Dining Cars. 22. Pound Cake. 23. The Toothsome Drumstick. 24. Cravats One Might Wish to Have Worn. 25. Spite Fences. 26. Personality of Teapots. 27. "All You Have to Do Is--" 28. Smoke on the Skyline. 29. The First Long Trousers. 30. The New Pipe. 31. The Old Springboard. 32. Drinking Fountains. 33. The Work-savers--now in the Attic. 34. Candlesticks. 35. The Cantankerousness of Gas Engines. 36. Weeds. 37. The Pride of Uniforms. 38. Leather-covered Books. 39. The Pursuit of Oriental Rugs. 40. Wedding Presents. 41. Bird Baths. 42. The Charm of Oil-Heaters. 43. The Coquetry of Gift Shops. 44. The Passing of the Hitching Post. 45. Names One Might Wish to Have Had. 46. Hall Bedrooms. 47. The Lure of Historic Tablets. 48. The Futility of Diaries. 49. Squeaking Boards at Midnight. 50. The Caste of Letter Heads. NATURE 1. Walking in the Rain. 2. Skylines. 3. The Personified Trees of Childhood. 4. Coffee in the Woods. 5. The Psychology of Hens. 6. The Humanity of Barnyards. 7. The Smell of Spring. 8. The Perfume of Bonfires. 9. The Sounds of Running Water. 10. Tracks in the Snow. 11. The Spectrum of Autumn. 12. The Mellowness of Gardens. 13. The Clamor of the Silent Stretches. 14. The Innocent Joy of Not Knowing the Birds. 15. The Rigors of the Sleeping Porch. 16. Inspiration of Mountain-tops. 17. Noises on Cold Winter Nights. 18. Cherries or Robins? 19. The Airedale Pal. 20. Snakes I Have Never Met. 21. The Exhilaration of Winds. 22. Spring Fever. 23. The Philosophy of Campfires. 24. Birds in a City Yard. 25. The Majesty of Thunderstorms. 26. The Music of Snow Water. 27. Hedges. 28. Mountain Springs. 29. The Deep Woods. 30. Summer Clouds. 31. The Companionable Birds. 32. The Dignity of Crows. 33. Trout Pools. 34. Muskrat Trails. 35. The First Flowers of Spring. 36. The Squirrels in the Park. 37. The Dry Sounds in Nature. 38. The Honk of the Flying Wedge. 39. The Pageant of the Warblers. 40. The Challenge of Crags and Ledges. 41. The White-birch Country. 42. Apple Blossom Time. 43. The Majesty of Rivers. 44. Old Orchards. 45. Dried Herbs. 46. Friendly Roadside Bushes. 47. The Exultant Leap of Waterfalls. 48. The Wind in Hemlock, Pine, and Spruce. 49. Tree Houses. 50. The Collection of Pressed Flowers. CHAPTER VIII EXPOSITORY BIOGRAPHY Biography is of three kinds. First there is the purely dramatic, such as we find in the plays of Shakespeare, Barrie, and others, and often in novels of the more dramatic kind, which sets the subject to marching up and down before our eyes, with the gestures and the speech of life. Such biography sometimes covers a whole life, more often only a fraction from which we are to judge of the whole. From this kind of biography we draw our own conclusions of the hero; the producer sweeps aside the curtain, displays his people, bows, and leaves us to our comment. This is a most stimulating form of writing. The reader vicariously treads the Roman Forum, or fights under the banner of the great Alfred, or perhaps jostles in the surge of politics, or dreams an artist's dream, or even performs the humble chores of a lonely farmhouse. The personalities may never have lived except in the writer's brain, yet who that has read of Colonel Newcome ever lets fade from his list of friends that delightful gentleman? Who that has once met Falstaff forgets the roaring, jolly old knave? Stevenson gave witness that almost more than from any one else his courage and good cheer in dark days had caught fire from the personality of Shakespeare's heroine Rosalind. If these persons of the imagination can stimulate, how much more ought the subjects of the other two forms of biography to fire the brain, for they are usually taken from real life, are people who have faced the actual problems such as the reader is meeting, people who have perhaps flamed in a glorious career from birth to death or perhaps have gone quietly all their days. The second form of biography is purely analytical. It watches its subject, follows him through life, and only after this study sets down its words, which aim to state for the reader the meaning of the life. Such biography is illustrated in the brief analyses of Mr. Balfour and Mr. Hardy on page 148. Here the author is the logical thinker who draws the conclusions of careful meditation and says: such was the significance of this man, this woman. The third kind of biography, the expository, the kind with which we are here concerned, attempts to combine the other two, hopes to present the pageant of life which the hero lived, and especially to make an estimate of its importance, its significance. Some novels approach this form when the author stops, as Thackeray often does, to comment on the meaning of his people and their deeds. This kind of biography attempts to accomplish what Carlyle thought should be attempted, the ability to say, "There is my hero, there is the physiognomy and meaning of his appearance and transit on this earth; such was he by nature, so did the world act on him, so he on the world, with such result and significance for himself and us." The Problem The primary object of expository biography is so to build up before the reader's eyes the figure of the hero, so to cast against the background of life the warm personality, so to recreate the lineaments and so to give perspective to the whole that the reader will know the hero, will be able to grasp his hand as a fellow human being with the game of life to play, and will be aware of the significance of the personality to his times and to the reader himself. To _paint the man_ is the pleasurable adventure before the writer. Sir Christopher Wren bade us, if we wished a memorial of him, to "look around" upon the arches and the high dim places of his cathedral. So the writer of expository biography must plant himself in the deeds and desires of his hero, must gaze steadily into his eyes until he discovers the center of his being, and must then set down the words, which, if well enough chosen, wisely enough fitted, will outlast the toughest stone. It is in lack of true comprehension of the hero's life that so many expository biographies fail to inspire the reader, in the failure to remember that the writer is not merely "silently expressing old mortality, the ruins of forgotten times," but is trying to catch and record a living force, to live as long as men understand it and are moved by it. The chief duty of the biographer, then, is to discover the life-problem of his hero, to understand it, to learn how the hero came by it, how he tried to solve it, and what its significance is. Now this is much more easily accomplished with the personalities who have closed their span of existence than with those whom we know still living, with their answer to their problem yet incomplete. Few of us have what Mary Lamb said she possessed, "a knack I know I have of looking into peoples' real character and never expecting them to act out of it--never expecting another to do as I would in the same case." All the facts of personality, the hints and gleams and shadows, bewilder us at times with our friends, and we regret the lack of perspective that reveals the central life-problem. But when we turn to Julius Cæsar, to Jeanne d'Arc, to George Washington, or to some humble dweller of past days, we can see the life whole, can discover the heredity, the natural endowment, the surroundings, the changing deeds and the shifting acquaintances and friends that determined for the hero what the life-problem should be. With the truly remarkable advantage, then, of this central conception, we can fall into cadence with the stride of our hero marching against his problem and can picture forth the struggle and its significance. In every biography there is this problem. Your hero is at "that game of consequences to which we all sit down, the hanger-back not least," as Stevenson called life, and the manner in which the hero perceives the "imperious desires and staggering consequences" will determine the flavor of his life. To turn to Stevenson himself we find a white-hot flame of romance cased in a feeble wraith of a body, the heart of the man daring all things, romping through life a deathless youth before the problem of adjustment between body and spirit. Or take the compounding of that tremendous figure, George Washington--adamant integrity, the zeal which, if unchecked, would often have brought the house tumbling about his ears, the endless capacity for indignation, and with these the patience that left men well-nigh dazed and the self-control that made him god-like. Set him in the midst of the hurly-burly of a young nation as doubtful of itself as youth, as eager, as impetuous, as contradictory, with the forces of the Old World pitted against it and with many traitors in its fold. Then conceive the problem of forming wise conjunction between vision and accomplishment, between desire and restraint, and the life of the man is at once unified, centered, illuminated, and made significant. The same result follows searching to the heart of any hero, high or low, and failure thus to reach the heart causes the pallid uninteresting heaping of details that mean nothing to the reader. No architect can glorify the horizon with the silhouette of a cathedral, nor can he even give a meaning to his accumulation of stone and mosaic and mortar, if he heaps here a pile and there a pile, rears here a chapel, somewhere else as fancy directs lays out an aisle, with no central problem of relationship. Nor can you dignify your hero's nature with a mere basket collection of the flying chips of life--a deed here, a word there, a desire at another time. First, then, discover the problem that your hero faced in the relation of his character to itself and to its times. The Chief Aid in Solving the Problem To discover the problem, really to understand it, requires as your chief tool imaginative sympathy. Without this your writing will leave your hero as flat and shiny as any conscientiously laundered piece of linen. You are to picture him in relief, in the round, to make him live again, step down from his pedestal, and put his shoulder alongside ours and speak to us. We read in a history that faces the necessity of condensation how William the Conqueror "consolidated his domains"--and it means nothing at all to us of stimulating individual value. We do not think of the recalcitrant underlings whose necks he had to force to bow, of the weary eyes that gladly closed at the end of a terrible day's work, of the frequent desire, which at times must be suppressed, perhaps at times gratified, to run a sword through an opposing subject. We forget, in other words, that William was a man, a personality, a bundle of nervous reactions and desires. But the writing fails, as biography, unless we do remember these things. It is in the discovery and understanding of these details and in combining them into a personality that our sympathy is required. No one should set pen to paper in the service of biography who has not a lively personal interest in his hero, who has not an open, loving feeling for him--saint or villain whichever he may be--and desires to make his reader, in turn, _feel_ the hero's personality. The ideal biographer is he who can peep out through the eyes of his hero at the sights which he saw, can feel the surge of ambition, of love, of hate, the quickening of the heart at success, and the cold pallor of defeat. We have seen a grown person watch with cold eyes a child who wrestles with a problem of digging a ditch or building a dam or making a harness for the dog, gradually lose the coldness of indifference, forget the gulf of years, kindle to the problem, and finally with delight catch up spade or leather and give assistance. Until you feel a similar thrill of sharing experience with your hero, do not write about him. Most of us really have this interest but we browbeat ourselves into a belief that a biography, especially an expository biography, must be dull. And, sad though we may be to admit it, most such biographies written for courses in literature or history, are--well, plain stupid. The lives are, to use Samuel Johnson's words, "begun with a pedigree and ended with a funeral," and the dull stretch between is a mere series of events which find unity only in that they all happen to the same person. Such writing is, truly, inexcusable; it is like the railway journey of the unfortunate soul who sees nothing but the clambering aboard and then the folding of the hands for a long dull jouncing until lethargy can be thrown off and it is time to clamber down again. Had the traveler but the insight, or the inclination, he would perceive that his journey is a high adventure spiced with a delicious flavor of challenge and reply. Just so you may find that the writing of expository biography has the charm of life itself. The patient clerk bends over his record sheet and attests the arrival, the departure, of lifeless baggage tossed from hand to hand, from car to car, piled up, taken down and set finally to rest at its destination. But you deal not with lifeless baggage but with the fascinating compound of flesh and blood, of desire and of will, that changes the face of the world. No mere matter-of-fact attitude here, but the perpetual wonder and joy at the turns and flashes of human personality. Rather than be a matter-of-fact man Lamb wisely preferred being a "matter-of-lie" man; the writer of expository biography finds that his material is of such a nature as to be more interesting even than lies. As Sir Thomas Browne said of his not remarkable life, "which to relate were not a history but a piece of poetry and would sound to common ears a fable." Most of us find that the most fascinating study for man is Man. Not only do we believe that "man is a noble animal, splendid in ashes, and pompous in the grave," but that while alive he is more alluring than anything else. We might conceivably even argue that Socrates advised "Know thyself" out of fear lest our curiosity about our fellows absorb all our effort. But so great is our fear of the formality of biography that we often belie our sympathy and think that only the large dim figures of the past, kings and potentates, who stride through mighty events, are possible for treatment. Our fear is false. Stevenson was again correct in saying, "The man who lost his life against a hen roost is in the same pickle with the man who lost his life against a fortified place of the first order." No life ever existed--absolutely not one--that was not capable of an absorbing expository biography. The true biographer never takes the point of view of the philosopher who said, "Most men and women are merely one couple more." Rather he knows that, however slight in the sweeping cycle of time a stick of striped candy may be, to the child who drops it into the gutter it is of more weight than a royal scepter. He knows, too, that the ordinary, respectable citizen, one of the "common people," though he never is subject to scandal like a villain and never molds kingdoms like the great figures of history, is nevertheless, in his quiet sphere, a fit hero for biography. He sees that to such a person the gaining, through patient years of toil, of a little homestead, is as great a victory as for an emperor to conquer a country, that to be elected moderator of the town meeting or president of the "literary club" is a large adventure. Barrie had the imagination to see that the day when the six haircloth chairs entered his mother's parlor as the culmination of a long campaign, was a day to her of thrilling adventure, of conquest, of triumph. And yet we are afraid that biography ought to be dull! Fear of the formality of writing is often the cause of our making expository biography a mere combination of the succession of events which history shows and a few dull comments about the subject, instead of a real interpretation illuminated with the magic of sympathetic understanding. With this fear upon us we write as awkwardly, as lifelessly, as we deport ourselves at a reception where we forget the pulse of humanity and are clutched by the fear of--we know not what. Such a fear would palsy the hand of him who should attempt to weave even the treasury of facts in the following statement with an estimate of their significance. Writing of General Judah P. Benjamin, of the American Civil War, Mr. Gamaliel Bradford says: Benjamin was a Jew. He was born a British subject. He made a brilliant reputation at the Louisiana Bar and was offered a seat in the United States Supreme Court. He became United States senator. When his state seceded, he went with it, and filled three cabinet positions under the Confederacy. He fell with the immense collapse of that dream fabric. Then, at the age of fifty-four, he set himself to build up a new fortune and a new glory, and he died one of the most successful and respected barristers in London.[90] [90] Gamaliel Bradford: _Judah P. Benjamin_. By courtesy of The Atlantic Monthly Company. But with fear thrown off, with enthusiastic desire really to understand sympathetically, we find no lack of interest. To any one the terrible storm in the harbor of Apia, when ships were wrecked like straws and lives were spilled out by scores, would offer material because of the horror of the events. But only with imaginative sympathy could we write an expository biography of a humble "Jackie" on a United States boat in the harbor. With such sympathy, as we read that after the gruelling agony of long fruitless fighting against the storm the sailors of the United States Steamship _Trenton_, which was pounding its wooden hull to splinters on the reef, climbed into the rigging and cheered while the more lucky British boat _Calliope_ steamed past on her way to safety in the open sea, we are thrilled with the fact that of those gallant seamen every one is worthy of record. Some quiet lad from perhaps a white farmhouse tucked into a little valley, who was honestly doing his duty and hoping for the glory of the time when he should be a petty officer, now while the teeth of death are already bared gloriously lifts up his young voice in gallant recognition of his more successful fellows of the _Calliope_! And yet the official record of the event would imply no possibility of finding romance in this humble individual life. The "meanest flower that blows" moved the poet's heart; we need not be poets, but only sympathetic human beings, with the great gift of comradeship, to be moved by even the lowliest man or woman. And the objection that rises unbidden and declares us unfit to write expository biography because we have not ourselves known great men is false. Quite truly Carlyle demolishes such objection: "What make ye of Parson White of Selborne? He had not only no great men to look on, but not even men; merely sparrows and cockchafers; yet has he left us a _Biography_ of these; which, under its title _Natural History of Selborne_, still remains valuable to us; which has copied a little sentence or two _faithfully_ from the Inspired Volume of Nature, and is itself not without inspiration. Go ye and do likewise." Certainly if you face the setting forth of the life of some large figure of the past you have a fascinating pageant to unriddle, to centralize. And just as surely if you turn to the familiar figures of your home town, of your family history, and really lay your spirit alongside, you will find deep significance for yourself and for your reader. For every human being has its Waterloo. Sometimes we play Wellington, sometimes Bonaparte, but whether winning or losing we all tread the same way, and the fight is as significant to each as ever the victory or defeat of Waterloo was to Wellington or Napoleon. The Process of Solving the Problem With this great requisite of imaginative sympathy that sees value in all human beings, then, we set out on our chief task, to find the life-problem of our particular hero. This necessitates definition and analysis. Somehow we must find the sphere in which our hero moved, the group to which he belonged, and must then discover the qualities that he showed in the group which made him a real individual. Such definition and analysis will appear when we examine the character of the hero and the events in his life. 1. Defining the Character In placing the subject of biography in a group we must take care to unify the character and at the same time to escape making him merely typical. A biography is a portrait, and if it omits the peculiar lineaments that distinguish the hero from all others, if it overlooks the little details of personality, it is valueless, and certainly uninteresting. The names of characters in old dramas, such as _Justice Clement_, _Justice Shallow_, _Fastidious Brisk_, _Sir Politick Would-be_, and of some of Scott's characters such as _Poundtext_, _Rev. Gabriel Kettledrummle_, _Mr. Holdenough_, indicate the central point of view of the characters but do not individualize them. Before we are really interested in these people we must see the personal traits that give charm. The unifying and centralizing of the character will be accomplished through discovering the fundamental nature. When Cavour wrote, "I am a son of Liberty, and it is to her that I owe all that I am," he classified himself at once through revealing the inner heart of his being. Mr. George Whibley gives both outward action and inward attitude when he writes, "George Buchanan was the type and exemplar of the wandering Scot." So a writer in the New York _Nation_[91] classifies William James by finding the controlling motives of his life. "He was a force of expansion, not a force of concentration. He 'opens doors and windows,' shakes out a mind that has long lain in the creases of prejudice. He is the most vital and gifted exemplar of intellectual sympathy." Again, Mr. Bradford, in characterizing General Sherman, writes, "Sherman is like one of our clear blue January days, with a fresh north wind. It stimulates you. It inspires you. But crisp, vivid, intoxicating as it is, it seems to me that too prolonged enjoyment of such weather would dry my soul till the vague fragrance of immortality was all gone out of it." And when some one asked Goldsmith, referring to Boswell, "Who is this Scotch cur at Johnson's heels?" Goldsmith replied, "He is not a cur, he is only a bur. Tom Davies flung him at Johnson in sport, and he has the faculty of sticking." Each of these characterizations classifies the subject; no one of them makes him a distinct personality, for thousands have been wandering Scots, forces of expansion, burs. The typifying is of great value in establishing the central point of view of the subject, but it cannot be left to stand alone in a real portrait. [91] Vol. 94, p. 363. It is necessary that we define our hero by determining the class to which he belongs, but such definition brings a great danger, the danger of making a warped interpretation. At once we must take care, when we discover the type of a man, not to overwork the type qualities, not to make everything conform to this inner core, whether the detail properly fits or not. For example, once we have called a man a _liberal_ we shall need to guard against denying the conservative acts which are in themselves contradictory of the general nature though in the large they fuse with it. Such a tag is likely, if not guarded against, to make the writer the victim of a kind of color-blindness in character, so that he can see only the crimson of _liberal_, the lavender of _conservative_. In a sentence like the following there lurks the possibility of overworking a point of view, of riding rough-shod over details that do not immediately swing into line. Speaking of General Hooker, "General Walker observes shrewdly, 'He was handsome and picturesque in the extreme, but with a fatally weak chin' ... Bear it in mind in our further study." Spontaneity of reaction to the hero is in possible danger of extinction when the biographer has solidly set down the class name. The same danger is at hand when we find and state the controlling motive of the hero's life, as when we say that he was primarily ambitious, or exhibited above everything else courage. We need be careful lest trivial matters be made to appear ambitious, thrillingly courageous, and lest we deny what seems contradictory. In the following characterization of the historian Green by his friend the Rev. Mr. Haweis we find no such cramping effect, but a welling forth of creative impression that makes Green live before our eyes. That slight nervous figure, below the medium height; that tall forehead, with the head prematurely bald; the quick but small eyes, rather close together; the thin mouth, with lips seldom at rest, but often closed tightly as though the teeth were clenched with an odd kind of latent energy beneath them; the slight, almost feminine hands; the little stoop; the quick alert step; the flashing exuberance of spirits; the sunny smile; the torrent of quick invective, scorn, or badinage, exchanged in a moment for a burst of sympathy or a delightful and prolonged flow of narrative--all this comes back to me vividly! And what narrative, what anecdote, what glancing wit! What a talker! A man who shrank from society, and yet was so fitted to adorn and instruct every company he approached, from a parochial assembly to a statesman's reception! But how enchanting were my walks with him in the Victoria Park, that one outlet of Stepney and Bethnal Green! I never in my life so lost count of time with any one before or since.... I have sometimes, after spending the evening with him at my lodgings, walked back to St. Philip's Parsonage, Stepney, towards midnight, talking; then he has walked back with me in the summer night, talking; and when the dawn broke it has found us belated somewhere in the lonely Mile End Road, still unexhausted, and still talking.[92] [92] Haweis: _Music and Morals_. By courtesy of the publishers, Longmans, Green & Co., New York City. But when we have inveighed as much as we need against the dangers of classification, we must swing round to the first statement that for unifying the character and giving it fundamental significance such classification is of great importance. Merely to find the type to which a character belongs is not sufficient; such a process leaves the character stamped, to be sure, but without interest. We care for living people not chiefly because of their type but because of their individuality, the little traits that set them apart from their fellows. The next step, therefore, is to discover and reveal the individuality. The type to which a character belongs is shown by the large sweep of his whole life; his individuality is revealed often most clearly in the slight incidents by the way. For this reason the personal anecdote assumes importance as adding both interest and completeness that consists in filling in the broad expanses of the portrait with the lines of individual expression. This does not mean that all anecdotes are of value for expository biography; only those which are truly in the stream of personality, which help to establish either the type or the individual. The whimsical nature of the little incident which Mr. George Whibley[93] relates of the "scoundrel" Tom Austin is of value not because it makes a picturesque note at a hanging, but because it really helps to establish the full picture of the man: "When Tom Austin was being haltered for hanging, the Chaplain asked him had he anything to say. 'Only, there's a woman yonder with some curds and whey, and I wish I could have a pennyworth of them before I am hanged, because I don't know when I shall see any again.'" It is easily said that Lincoln was a great democratic soul and a great humorist. These are two useful tags. But when we know that to the Englishman who remarked, "In England, you know, no gentleman blacks his own shoes," he replied, "Whose does he black, then?" we feel the peculiar tang of the Lincoln personality along with the type qualities of democrat and humorist. After we have classified Washington as an austere, cold, unemotional being, we find both corrective for a too narrow classification, and insight into the peculiar qualities of the man when we read how he swore "like an angel from Heaven" on the famous occasion of the encounter with Lee. For the anecdote is, we see, really in the main flow of Washington's nature. General Wolfe is tagged as a romantic young warrior but takes on both interest and personality when we read of his repeating Gray's "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard" as his men silently rowed him to the battle on the Heights of Abraham. The personality of Madame de Staël's father is largely illuminated when we learn that though the little daughter sat primly at table as long as her mother remained in the room, as soon as she retired, with a cry of delight the child flung her napkin at her father's head. Anecdote is highly useful so long as we remember that it is not for adornment but for revelation, not primarily for interest--though that is an important function--but rather for proving in dramatic particular the quality which we claim for our hero. Properly chosen anecdotes should be the high lights in the proof of qualities which the writer's exposition establishes in more sober manner. And of course they also serve to show the differentia which make the character an individual, and thus help to complete the definition. [93] _A Book of Scoundrels._ 2. Analyzing the Character _a._ _Heredity_ When once we have defined the character, have found its class and to some extent its differentia, we can by analysis add to our comprehension of it and to the distinguishing personal traits. We must break up the character and see its manifestations and the results of the influences that molded it. Heredity at once demands recognition. It is not insignificant that Emerson was the descendant of a long line of New England clergymen. The bravery of Stevenson is accounted for partly by the doughty old builder of lighthouses, his grandfather Robert Stevenson. Descent holds often, apparently, a guiding rein in directing a character into its life-problem. Emerson's problem was comparatively simplified, so far as personal integrity concerned him, for he was by nature good. Lowell testified that it was perfectly natural for himself to turn to literature, since in his childhood he had become so accustomed to the smell of Russia leather in the bindings of his father's books. The following sentence[94] shows the grip of descent through the centuries which is not disguised by the man's name: "The Mr. Balfour of those days has been altogether outgrown by the Admiralty First Lord of the existing coalition, a Balfour in name only, in breadth of shoulders, thickness of frame, heaviness of jaw, and proportions of forehead a Cecil marvelously recalling, not only his illustrious uncle, but that relative's Elizabethan ancestors." "Men are what their mothers made them," says Emerson. "You may as well ask a loom which weaves huckabuck why it does not make cashmere, as expect poetry from this engineer, or a chemical discovery from that jobber." Partly, at least, the life-problem is determined by the heredity; to each there is but one future, "and that is already determined in his lobes and described in that little fatty face, pig-eye, and squat form," to quote Emerson again even though he lays undue stress, perhaps, upon the power of descent. In the paragraph which follows you will find an interesting account of the ancestry of O. W. Holmes, with a statement also of the essential quiet of his life, which is nevertheless so often thought of as worthy of biographical treatment. [94] T. H. S. Escott: _Great Victorians_. T. Fisher Unwin, London. Dr. Holmes came of this good, old, unmixed New England stock that ran back to Hell on the one side in the severest orthodoxy and up to Heaven on the other in large liberality. He discovered that the title deeds were all in Heaven--while all other claims were by squatters' rights outside the Garden of Eden. So Dr. Holmes grew into a Unitarian and proceeded to cultivate the descent which lies outside Paradise. His father was a minister, so beautiful in countenance, Holmes tells us, that he could never have believed an unkind thing, and his mother of different line was a Liberal by descent. Holmes was born, too, to the conflicting traditions of Yale and Harvard; but beyond being born, practically nothing ever happened to him afterwards. He had a little group of friends who were actually companions. During his whole life, except the two years of medical study in Europe in the beginning of his career, and the "hundred days in Europe" celebrated in one of his later books, he was never further away from Boston, for the most part, than Salem or Beverly, that Beverly, to which he referred in replying to a friend who had addressed a letter to him from "Manchester-by-the-Sea," as "Beverly-by-the-Depot." He went some summers to Pittsfield where he had a summer house, and where the sparkling Berkshire air seemed to suit his effervescent mind. But he was never "quite at home beyond the smell of the Charles River."[95] [95] Thomas R. Slicer: _From Poet to Premier_. By courtesy of the publishers, The Grolier Society, London. _b._ _Interests_ Then when your hero grows up, what are his interests? To what profession or kind of work does he turn? Where does he find the satisfaction for his energy that searches an outlet? Does he, like Thomas Carlyle, try one and another profession only to fail and be driven, finally, into the one work in which he could find the answer to the life-problem that his personality presents? When his profession is chosen, what are his interests? Does he work out his problem in a narrowly restricted field, or does he call in the powers of a wide range of significant pursuits? No expository biography of Leonardo da Vinci can overlook the astounding breadth of the man's activity, especially as shown in the remarkable document which he presented to Ludovico Sforza arranging his attainments under nine different headings in military engineering and adding a tenth for civil engineering and architecture,--and finally throwing in, as a suggestion, his worth as painter and sculptor! There were the compounds of a life-problem sufficiently complex to satisfy the most captious. Or if the hero never moves from a tiny hamlet, treads only one path--as Pericles is said to have done between house and office during the great days of his power--the fact is significant. The grasp of ideas within whatever field the hero may choose is also important. The distinction between the personality that is merely efficient in handling facts, and the personality that dominates the facts and drives them at his bidding, that shows real power, has direct bearing on the nature and the solution of the life-problem. _c._ _Beliefs_ Nor can you overlook the hero's beliefs, whether in ethics or religion, in politics, in the laws of society. In the analysis of Mr. Balfour, on page 148, at once is apparent the large influence on his answer that is caused by his sophistication. The bravery of the Stoic, the voluptuous sentimentality of many religious people of modern times, vitally affect the nature of the character which possesses them. If your hero is by nature an aristocrat, if his sympathies are limited to the few choice people of the world, his life-problem is radically different from that of the natural democrat like Abraham Lincoln. Finally, whatever ideas he may hold about the relation in society of man to man, of man to woman, will inevitably influence his solution of his particular question, just as his beliefs are themselves partly determined by his physical being. _d._ _Friends_ Closely allied with his beliefs will be his choice of friends. Has he the gift of familiarity, or does he struggle in vain to break through the bars of personality, or is he terrified at the gulf between himself and another? Does he regard friends as useful instruments, as pleasant companions, or as objects of devoted affection? And how do his friends react to him? It is worth remembering that the boy Tennyson wrote, in grief, "Byron is dead!"--not only the boy but the older poet is illuminated by the words. Stephen A. Douglas holding Lincoln's hat beside the platform while the Gettysburg Address was being delivered showed not only the mellowness of his own nature but the commanding power of friendship that Lincoln possessed. The number of friends and the range of their activity--whether selected from all sections of human activity or from the hero's own more limited field--are important. _e._ _Deeds_ Finally, the deeds of the hero are of the greatest significance in indicating how he met his life-problem. Did he "greet the unknown with a cheer" or did he like a doubtful bather shrink back from plunging into the stream of activity? Were his deeds actuated by generous motives, or by petty? "If," says Stevenson, "it is for fame that men do brave actions, they are only silly fellows after all." Macbeth strode through large events, as did Robert E. Lee, yet the dominating motives were quite different, and these motives throw the utmost light on the fundamentals of character. Before you write, then, first define your hero, find his type and his individuality, and then analyze his character to determine his descent, his intellectual interests, his beliefs, his friends, and his deeds. And remember that these are not in water-tight compartments, separated from each other, but that they fuse together to make the personality, to create the life-problem, and to answer it. The Use of Events in the Life Dramatic biography is almost wholly the moving events of life. The evil of cheap fiction is partly that it will be nothing but events, that only dust will be raised, no meaning found. Expository biography may err in the opposite direction and exclude the "moving show," become only abstract analysis and definition. You must guard against this, because absence of events both complicates the writer's task and makes his success with the reader more problematic. Moreover, since so largely the positive personality of the hero will express itself in action, since largely through events we shall discover what the life-problem is and especially how it is met, to omit the flow of events is to lame the interpretation. All readers, it is well to remember, have the child's desire for more than mere information about the machine; they wish to "see it go." The vitality of fiction is always increased by dramatic presentation. Since you have a real character to make vital, bring to your writing the devices that make characters real. Carlyle[96] well characterizes the denatured style of treating living beings: [96] Thomas Carlyle: "Biography," in _Critical and Miscellaneous Essays_. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, publishers. Those modern Narrations, of the Philosophic kind, where "Philosophy, teaching by Experience," has to sit like owl on housetop, _seeing_ nothing, _understanding_ nothing, uttering only, with solemnity enough, her perpetual and most wearisome hoo-hoo:--what hope have we, except the for the most part fallacious one of gaining some acquaintance with our fellow-creatures, though dead and vanished, yet dear to us; how they got along in those old days, suffering and doing; to what extent, and under what circumstances, they resisted the Devil and triumphed over him, or struck their colors to him, and were trodden under foot by him; how, in short, the perennial Battle went, which men name Life, which we also in these new days, with indifferent fortune have to fight, and must bequeath to our sons and grandsons to go on fighting.... _a._ _Choice of Events_ The question at once arises, what events shall the writer select? The total course is mapped for you: there is the pedigree, there the birth, and finally there the funeral. These are inescapable. Just so, for most heroes, marriage. But to choose only those facts that are common to all, to make your hero do only the conventionally unavoidable things, will leave him without personality. The question is, what did he do that was peculiar to himself, what reaction to life did he alone, of all the myriads, make? It is true that most men and women spend their time at their profession or appointed task, whatever it may be, but what the reader cries for is _how_ did they spend their time and energy? It is not sufficient that you tell your reader that Robert Franz labored at his profession of music. What you must do is to show how, in poverty, which, but for the inexhaustible kindness of Liszt, would have been unrelieved, with total deafness upon him, with his musician's-fingers twisted and useless with paralysis, and with only slight recognition from the world for his efforts, he quite beautifully subordinated his own personality for the sake of his art and for years labored in unremunerative love at the unwritten harmonies of Bach and Handel that the public might have complete realization of the otherwise crippled productions. When you tell that, your reader will understand _Robert Franz_, not merely a somebody. Choose, then, the events that all share in common if they are of value in giving a framework for your narrative presentation, but especially choose those events that in their nature illuminate the personality and complement your analysis. We think of events as being public. There is also the hero's private life. Often, especially with the more humble heroes, the home life is more important than the public deeds, brings out more clearly the real man than any amount of marching in the market place or discussing in the public square. The incident related of Robert E. Lee when he was President of Washington College is more revealing, almost, of his greatness of heart than a far more important deed of the great General. When a sophomore to whom Lee had recommended more intense application to work, with the warning of possible failure, remarked, "But, General, you failed," Lee quietly replied, "I hope that you may be more fortunate than I." To neglect either public or private life makes the biography less valuable; light upon the personality from whatever honest source is to be eagerly sought. _b._ _Relation of Events to Personality_ With your choice made, you yet face the difficulty of uniting events and personality. It is not that you have parallel lines, one of action and one of character; the two lines join and become one. You have the choice of observing the personality through the medium of events, or events through the medium of personality. Of the two, the latter is to be preferred. To understand the personality we heed to know whether it controls and directs events, or merely receives them. Into every life a large measure of chance enters. Does the personality merely receive the events, or does it master chance? Suppose that the following analysis[97] of two widely different characters is correct, just: [97] Amiel's _Journal_. Mozart--grace, liberty, certainty, freedom, and precision of style, and exquisite and aristocratic beauty, serenity of soul, the health and talent of the master, both on a level with his genius; Beethoven--more pathetic, more passionate, more torn with feeling, more intricate, more profound, less perfect, more the slave of his genius, more carried away by his fancy or his passion, more moving, and more sublime than Mozart.... One is serene, the other serious.... The first is stronger than destiny, because he takes life less profoundly; the second is less strong, because he has dared to measure himself against deeper sorrows.... In Mozart the balance of the whole is perfect, and art triumphs; in Beethoven feeling governs everything and emotion troubles his art in proportion as it deepens it. Now we know that Mozart's attitude toward patrons was sweetly deferential and graceful, whereas Beethoven rushed into the courtyard of his patron Prince Lobkowitz, shouting, "Lobkowitz donkey! Lobkowitz donkey!!" and when, in the company of Goethe, he once met an archduke, though Goethe made a profound bow with bared head, Beethoven reached up, jammed his hat down tighter upon his head, and, rigidly erect, stalked by without recognition of rank. These actions of Beethoven are emotionally tempestuous. We have our choice of interpreting them as resulting from his personality or of determining his personality as revealed by the deeds. In general it is better to view deeds and events in the light of personality. _c._ _Relation to Society and Times_ Events happen to more than the hero alone; he is a member of society. It is necessary, therefore, to link the events of his life to the current of his times, to fit him into the background against which his life was played. How was he affected, what influence did he exert, what offices or positions of trust did he hold? Often, of course, estimate of the personality will be considerably determined by his relations with his contemporaries. You need to bear two cautions in mind: first, not to misjudge a man because moral or social standards have shifted since his times; and second, not to introduce so much matter about his relationships as to obscure the outlines of his personality or as to relegate him to less than the chief position. Imaginative sympathy will be sufficient to prevent the first. If you really look through your hero's eyes at the life that he saw, with his standards in mind, though you may have to condemn his attitude from a more modern point of view, you will be able to see that his deeds are quite comprehensible, that perhaps, had you been in his place, you would have acted likewise. We no longer decorate important bridges with the heads of criminals set on pikes, as our ancestors did, nor do we burn supposed witches. But though we condemn Edward the First of England for the one and the Salem Puritans for the other, we can still love both Edward and the Puritans--if we have imaginative sympathy. The second caution requires simply that you make your hero dominate the scene. Now this is not an easy task when you are reviewing, in many pages, the gorgeous pageant of an age. We can easily imagine that if Parr had written the Life of Johnson which he said would have been so much superior to that by Boswell, and had included the threatened "view of the literature of Europe," the poor old hero would have been roughly jostled away behind the furniture. Mr. Barrett Wendell paid Carlyle a tribute of the highest kind in writing of his _Frederick the Great_: Such a mass of living facts--for somehow Carlyle never lets a fact lack life--I had never seen flung together before; and yet the one chief impression I brought away from the book was that to a degree rare in even small ones it possessed as a whole the great trait of unity. In one's memory, each fact by and by fell into its own place; the chief ones stood out; the lesser sank back into a confused but not inextricable mass of throbbing vitality. And from it all emerged more and more clearly the one central figure who gave his name to the whole--Frederick of Prussia. It was as they bore on him from all quarters of time and space, and as he reacted on them far and wide, that all these events and all these people were brought back out of their dusty graves to live again.[98] [98] Barrett Wendell: _English Composition_. By courtesy of the publishers, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York City. Copyright, 1891. Make your hero stand near the footlights, then, and take care that he be not in the shadows of the wings. _d._ _Rhetorical Value of Events_ From a purely rhetorical point of view the inclusion of the events in the hero's life is important because it offers a useful structural scheme for the writing, the chronological order. The exact succession of events need not be followed, surely; sometimes the intended effect will demand a reversal of actual order, but the relation in time will be found valuable for showing the growth of personality, of intellectual grasp, of influence upon the world. Do not, then, neglect the active life of your hero. By presenting it you will find the task of composition lightened, you will help to establish the personality, and you will give to the writing the dramatic vitality that is so much desired by the reader. The Problem of Telling the Truth However imaginatively sympathetic you may be in interpreting your hero, however carefully you may try to find his life-problem, and however well you may attempt to define and analyze his personality, you will be confronted with one almost insuperable problem--how to tell the truth. In no form of exposition is this problem more difficult. For we are more moved by human personality than by anything else, more "drawn to" a person than to a machine, more affected by the comparatively parallel problem of another human being than by the inanimate existence of wood and steel. Long observation and study of our heroes seems often to make us even less fitted to estimate their worth, for we reach the state of companionship with them where we resent any fact that does not tally with our formed judgment, and are tempted to exclude it. Mr. Gamaliel Bradford divides biographers into "those who think they are impartial and those who know they are not." Partiality operates, of course, both for and against personalities. To quote Mr. Bradford again, "Gardiner, for all his fairness, obviously praises the Puritans because they were Puritans, the Cavaliers although they were Cavaliers." Adulation and damnation are the logical extremes which result from a too operative blind spot on the retina of judgment. You must remember and cling to the fact that no man is perfect and no man wholly bad. Much as Boswell loved Johnson he had the good sense to write, of his biography, "And he will be seen as he really was, for I profess to write, not his panegyric, which must be all praise, but his Life; which, great and good as he was, must not be supposed to be entirely perfect." George Washington has terribly suffered in the estimates of later times because of the desire to make him perfect. The true expository biographer will conceal nothing that is significant, whether he wishes, in spite of himself, perhaps, that it did not exist. The best cure for the errors of falsity from over-love or over-condemnation is still sane imaginative sympathy. Stevenson made perhaps the greatest personal triumph in his portraiture when he drew Weir of Hermiston, the dour old "hanging judge" who so outraged by his life all the author's feelings and is yet so presented that the reader loves him despite his inhumanity, really perceives that an honest, even if tough, heart beat in his breast. Another safeguard is absence of desire to make rhetorical effect. An aureole is picturesque, horns and hoofs add piquancy; the hand itches to deck the hero as saint or to fit him out as devil. But you must subordinate any such cheap desire, must write with the restraint that comes from seeing your hero steady and seeing him whole. Balance is the golden word. "This thing is true," wrote Emerson, "but that is also true." The vulgarity of the superlatives of political campaigns has no place in your pages. This imaginatively sympathetic attitude must not rely on itself alone, but must employ the other safeguard against untruth, must passionately pursue facts, and facts, and still facts to make the conception of the hero complete and to give the writing that so much desired quality of fullness. The very greatest care is necessary to determine what facts are true and what are fallacious. You are largely at the mercy of your second or third or tenth-hand sources when you write of historical characters. When your hero is a living person you must challenge the report of your own senses and general experience lest you admit what is false or omit what is significant. The Danger of Making a "Lesson" And when you have assembled all your facts, and have determined upon your interpretation of the hero, take the greatest caution that you do not try to make the life a "lesson." Presumably a child never more earnestly desires to commit murder than when some little Willie or Susie has been held up as a model. If Willie and Susie escape with only kicked shins, they may count luck benevolent. Your duty is to understand and love, not to preach about the character. You are to give us an estimate of the great adventure of this person through life, and leave to us to make the moral, if any is to be made. If the life has a message, the reader will catch it; if it has not, silence is virtuous. The Rhetorical Form Finally, the rhetorical problem of forming your material presents itself. First of all do not forget that all the charms of style of which you are capable should be summoned to your aid. Since you deal with the fascinating subject of human personality your writing should not be dull. All too many biographical essays begin stupidly. When a first sentence reads, "Augustine was born at Tagaste, near Carthage (about forty miles south of it), North Africa, November 13, A.D. 354, seven years after the birth of Chrysostom," a reader hardly finds a warmly inviting gleam in the writer's eye; he continues to read only if he brought determination with him. But when Mr. Charles Whibley begins, of Captain Hind, "James Hind, the Master Thief of England, the fearless Captain of the Highway, was born at Chipping Norton in 1618"; or of Haggart, "David Haggart was born at Canonmills, with no richer birthright than thievish fingers and a left hand of surpassing activity"; or of Sir Thomas Overbury, "Thomas Overbury, whose haggard ghost still walks in the secret places of the Tower, was born a squire's son, in 1581,"--when he uses such sentences to introduce the hero to the reader, the ejaculatory "Eh?" takes voice and the reader canters down the new delightful lane where a finger beckons. Whether you use anecdote, or quotation, or important fact, or statement of birth, or description, let your beginning invite and not dismay. The chief structural problem is, without doubt, to fuse the analyzed elements of deeds and friends and interests and others into one organic whole. If you use the chronological sequence of events, which has already been discussed, showing how each event or group of events indicates the character, you will have an easily followed plan. Such a plan, or that of treating the whole life from the point of view of the central, controlling motive, is the ideal method. If you choose to unify the whole by showing how events, friends, interests of various kinds, and the other manifestations of the hero's life all establish the central motive, you will have a more difficult, though more elastic form. With this plan you can distribute the details in the points where they will be of most value, can, for example, indicate a change in the hero's nature by approaching through an event, a friendship, a turning of tastes in reading or in general interests. The difficulty here lies in the tendency toward such dispersion of details as to destroy unity even though to gain this is the chief intention. In the face of this difficulty you may use a third method, which is likely to be less pleasing, less artistic, but more easily applied. You can divide your material under the headings "events," "friends," "heredity," "interests," and then can treat each group, by itself, from the central point of view. This is a useful method, and in complicated lives it is sometimes the only method that is reasonably easy to handle. Closely similar to this method is that of dividing your material under the headings of the ways in which your hero affected his times, the ways in which he was known. Thus you might treat of the reputation as converser, as organizer, as literary man, as public servant, as friend of the poor, or whatever heading your hero's life affords. Whatever method you may employ, you should remember that a human life does not appear in separate, distinct phases, that a man does not seem to be now this, now that, but rather all details, of whatever nature, mingle and fuse into a unit, however complicated it may be. You should attempt, then, to make one main thread, of however many colors it may be woven, rather than a series of parallel threads. Note how Thackeray neatly unites various phases and forms of interest in Goldsmith's life,[99] so neatly that as you casually read you are not aware of the diversity of material--though it is there--but think rather of the total effect. [99] At the end of the chapter. If, then, you assume the attitude of imaginative sympathy, and study your hero until you know what his particular life-problem was, what his type and what his individuality, and with love and yet restraint make your estimate, aiming at truth to character and to facts of his life, you will produce writing that will be more than a mere scholar's document, writing that will warm the heart of your reader to a new personality and will be a friend of a winter evening fireside. OLIVER GOLDSMITH[100] [100] William Makepeace Thackeray: _The English Humorists of the Eighteenth Century_. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, publishers. "Jeté sur cette boule, Laid, chétif et souffrant; Étouffé, dans la foule, Faute d'être assez grand; "Une plainte touchante De ma bouche sortit. Le bon Dieu me dit: Chante, Chante, pauvre petit. "Chanter, ou je m'abuse, Est ma tâche ici-bas. Tous ceux qu'ainsi j'amuse, Ne m'aimeront-ils pas?" In these charming lines of Béranger,[101] one may fancy described the career, the suffering, the genius, the gentle nature of Goldsmith, and the esteem in which we hold him. Who of the millions whom he has amused doesn't love him? To be the most beloved of English writers, what a title that is for a man! A wild youth, wayward, but full of tenderness and affection, quits the country village where his boyhood has been passed in happy musing, in idle shelter, in fond longing to see the great world out of doors, and achieve fame and fortune; and after years of dire struggle and neglect and poverty, his heart turning back as fondly to his native place as it had longed eagerly for change when sheltered there, he writes a book and a poem, full of the recollections and feelings of home; he paints the friends and scenes of his youth, and peoples Auburn and Wakefield with remembrances of Lissoy. Wander he must, but he carries away a home-relic with him, and dies with it on his breast. His nature is truant; in repose it longs for change,--as on the journey it looks back for friends and quiet. He passes to-day in building an air-castle for to-morrow, or in writing yesterday's elegy; and he would fly away this hour, but that a cage and necessity keep him. What is the charm of his verse, of his style and humor?--his sweet regrets, his delicate compassion, his soft smile, his tremulous sympathy, the weakness which he owns? Your love for him is half pity. You come hot and tired from the day's battle, and this sweet minstrel sings to you. Who could harm the kind vagrant harper? Whom did he ever hurt? He carries no weapon save the harp on which he plays to you and with which he delights great and humble, young and old, the captains in the tents or the soldiers round the fire, or the women and children in the villages, at whose porches he stops and sings his simple songs of love and beauty. With that sweet story of "The Vicar of Wakefield" he has found entry into every castle and hamlet in Europe. Not one of us, however busy or hard, but once or twice in our lives has passed an evening with him, and undergone the charm of his delightful music. [101] For translation, see page 296. Goldsmith's father was no doubt the good Doctor Primrose, whom we all of us know. Swift was yet alive, when the little Oliver was born at Pallas, or Pallasmore, in the county of Longford, in Ireland. In 1730, two years after the child's birth, Charles Goldsmith removed his family to Lissoy, in the county Westmeath, that sweet "Auburn" which every person who hears me has seen in fancy. Here the kind parson brought up his eight children; and loving all the world, as his son says, fancied all the world loved him. He had a crowd of poor dependants besides those hungry children. He kept an open table, round which sat flatterers and poor friends, who laughed at the honest rector's many jokes, and ate the produce of his seventy acres of farm. Those who have seen an Irish house in the present day can fancy that one at Lissoy. The old beggar still has his allotted corner by the kitchen turf; the maimed old soldier still gets his potatoes and buttermilk; the poor cottier still asks his honor's charity and prays God bless his reverence for the sixpence; the ragged pensioner still takes his place by right of sufferance. There's still a crowd in the kitchen, and a crowd round the parlor table; profusion, confusion, kindness, poverty. If an Irishman comes to London to make his fortune, he has a half-dozen of Irish dependants who take a percentage of his earnings. The good Charles Goldsmith left but little provision for his hungry race when death summoned him; and one of his daughters being engaged to a Squire of rather superior dignity, Charles Goldsmith impoverished the rest of his family to provide the girl with a dowry. The small-pox, which scourged all Europe at that time, and ravaged the roses off the cheeks of half the world, fell foul of poor little Oliver's face when the child was eight years old, and left him scarred and disfigured for his life. An old woman in his father's village taught him his letters, and pronounced him a dunce. Paddy Byrne, the hedge-schoolmaster, then took him in hand; and from Paddy Byrne he was transmitted to a clergyman at Elphin. When a child was sent to school, in those days, the classic phrase was that he was placed under Mr. So-and-So's _ferule_. Poor little ancestors! it is hard to think how ruthlessly you were birched, and how much of needless whipping and tears our small forefathers had to undergo! A relative--kind Uncle Contarine--took the main charge of little Noll; who went through his school-days righteously doing as little work as he could, robbing orchards, playing at ball, and making his pocket-money fly about whenever fortune sent it to him. Everybody knows the story of that famous "Mistake of a Night," when the young schoolboy, provided with a guinea and a nag, rode up to the "best house" in Ardagh, called for the landlord's company over a bottle of wine at supper, and for a hot cake for breakfast in the morning,--and found, when he asked for the bill, that the best house was Squire Featherstone's, and not the inn for which he mistook it. Who does not know every story about Goldsmith? That is a delightful and fantastic picture of the child dancing and capering about in the kitchen at home, when the old fiddler gibed at him for his ugliness, and called him Æsop; and little Noll made his repartee of:-- "Heralds proclaim aloud this saying: See Æsop dancing and his monkey playing." One can fancy a queer, pitiful look of humor and appeal upon that little scarred face, the funny little dancing figure, the funny little brogue. In his life and writings, which are the honest expression of it, he is constantly bewailing that homely face and person; anon he surveys them in the glass ruefully, and presently assumes the most comical dignity. He likes to deck out his little person in splendor and fine colors. He presented himself to be examined for ordination in a pair of scarlet breeches, and said honestly that he did not like to go into the Church because he was fond of colored clothes. When he tried to practise as a doctor, he got by hook or by crook a black velvet suit, and looked as big and as grand as he could, and kept his hat over a patch on the old coat. In better days he bloomed out in plum-color, in blue silk, and in new velvet. For some of those splendors the heirs and assignees of Mr. Filby, the tailor, have never been paid to this day; perhaps the kind tailor and his creditor have met and settled their little account in Hades. They showed until lately a window at Trinity College, Dublin, on which the name of _O. Goldsmith_ was engraved with a diamond. Whose diamond was it? Not the young sizar's, who made but a poor figure in that place of learning. He was idle, penniless, and fond of pleasure; he learned his way early to the pawn-broker's shop. He wrote ballads, they say, for the street-singers, who paid him a crown for his poem; and his pleasure was to steal out at night and hear the verses sung. He was chastised by his tutor for giving a dance in his rooms, and took the box on the ear so much to heart that he packed up his all, pawned his books and little property, and disappeared from college and family. He said he intended to go to America; but when his money was spent, the young prodigal came home ruefully, and the good folks there killed their calf (it was but a lean one) and welcomed him back. After college he hung about his mother's house, and lived for some years the life of a buckeen,--passed a month with this relation and that, a year with one patron, and a great deal of time at the public-house. Tired of this life, it was resolved that he should go to London, and study at the Temple; but he got no farther on the road to London and the woolsack than Dublin, where he gambled away the fifty pounds given him for his outfit, and whence he returned to the indefatigable forgiveness of home. Then he determined to be a doctor, and Uncle Contarine helped him to a couple of years at Edinburgh. Then from Edinburgh he felt that he ought to hear the famous professors of Leyden and Paris, and wrote most amusing pompous letters to his uncle about the great Farheim, Du Petit, and Duhamel du Monceau, whose lectures he proposed to follow. If Uncle Contarine believed those letters; if Oliver's mother believed that story which the youth related, of his going to Cork with the purpose of embarking for America, of his having paid his passenger money and having sent his kit on board, of the anonymous captain sailing away with Oliver's valuable luggage in a nameless ship, never to return,--if Uncle Contarine and the mother at Ballymahon believed his stories, they must have been a very simple pair, as it was a very simple rogue indeed who cheated them. When the lad, after failing in his clerical examinations, after failing in his plan for studying the law, took leave of these projects and of his parents and set out for Edinburgh, he saw mother and uncle, and lazy Ballymahon, and green native turf and sparkling river for the last time. He was never to look on Old Ireland more, and only in fancy revisit her. "But me not destined such delights to share, My prime of life in wandering spent and care, Impelled, with steps unceasing, to pursue Some fleeting good that mocks me with the view That like the circle bounding earth and skies Allures from far, yet, as I follow, flies; My fortune leads to traverse realms alone, And find no spot of all the world my own." I spoke in a former lecture of that high courage which enabled Fielding, in spite of disease, remorse, and poverty, always to retain a cheerful spirit and to keep his manly benevolence and love of truth intact,--as if these treasures had been confided to him for the public benefit, and he was accountable to posterity for their honorable employ; and a constancy equally happy and admirable I think was shown by Goldsmith, whose sweet and friendly nature bloomed kindly always in the midst of a life's storm and rain and bitter weather. The poor fellow was never so friendless but he could befriend some one; never so pinched and wretched but he could give of his crust, and speak his word of compassion. If he had but his flute left, he could give that, and make the children happy in the dreary London court. He could give the coals in that queer coal-scuttle we read of to his neighbor; he could give away his blankets in college to the poor widow, and warm himself as he best might in the feathers; he could pawn his coat, to save his landlord from jail. When he was a school-usher he spent his earnings in treats for the boys, and the good-natured schoolmaster's wife said justly that she ought to keep Mr. Goldsmith's money as well as the young gentlemen's. When he met his pupils in later life, nothing would satisfy the Doctor but he must treat them still. "Have you seen the print of me after Sir Joshua Reynolds?" he asked of one of his old pupils. "Not seen it! Not bought it! Sure, Jack, if your picture had been published, I'd not have been without it half-an-hour." His purse and his heart were everybody's, and his friend's as much as his own. When he was at the height of his reputation, and the Earl of Northumberland, going as Lord Lieutenant to Ireland, asked if he could be of any service to Doctor Goldsmith, Goldsmith recommended his brother and not himself to the great man. "My patrons," he gallantly said, "are the booksellers, and I want no others." Hard patrons they were, and hard work he did; but he did not complain much. If in his early writings some bitter words escaped him, some allusions to neglect and poverty, he withdrew these expressions when his Works were republished, and better days seemed to open for him; and he did not dare to complain that printer and publisher had overlooked his merit or left him poor. The Court's face was turned from honest Oliver; the Court patronized Beattie. The fashion did not shine on him; fashion adored Sterne; fashion pronounced Kelly to be the great writer of comedy of his day. A little--not ill-humor--but plaintiveness--a little betrayal of wounded pride which he showed renders him not the less amiable. The author of the _Vicar of Wakefield_ had a right to protest when Newbery kept back the manuscript for two years; had a right to be a little peevish with Sterne,--a little angry when Colman's actors declined their parts in his delightful comedy, when the manager refused to have a scene painted for it and pronounced its damnation before hearing. He had not the great public with him; but he had the noble Johnson and the admirable Reynolds and the great Gibbon and the great Burke and the great Fox,--friends and admirers illustrious indeed, as famous as those who, fifty years before, sat round Pope's table. Nobody knows, and I dare say Goldsmith's buoyant temper kept no account of, all the pains which he endured during the early period of his literary career. Should any man of letters in our day have to bear up against such, Heaven grant he may come out of the period of misfortune with such a pure, kind heart as that which Goldsmith obstinately bore in his breast! The insults to which he had to submit were shocking to read of,--slander, contumely, vulgar satire, brutal malignity, perverting his commonest motives and actions. He had his share of these; and one's anger is roused at reading of them, as it is at seeing a woman insulted or a child assaulted, at the notion that a creature so very gentle and weak, and full of love, should have to suffer so. And he had worse than insult to undergo,--to own to fault, and deprecate the anger of ruffians. There is a letter of his extant to one Griffiths, a bookseller, in which poor Goldsmith is forced to confess that certain books sent by Griffiths are in the hands of a friend from whom Goldsmith had been forced to borrow money. "He was wild, sir," Johnson said, speaking of Goldsmith to Boswell, with his great, wise benevolence and noble mercifulness of heart,--"Dr. Goldsmith was wild, sir; but he is no more." Ah! if we pity the good and weak man who suffers undeservedly, let us deal very gently with him from whom misery extorts not only tears but shame; let us think humbly and charitably of the human nature that suffers so sadly and falls so low. Whose turn may it be to-morrow? What weak heart, confident before trial, may not succumb under temptation invincible? Cover the good man who has been vanquished,--cover his face and pass on. For the last half-dozen years of his life Goldsmith was far removed from the pressure of any ignoble necessity, and in the receipt, indeed, of a pretty large income from the booksellers, his patrons. Had he lived but a few years more, his public fame would have been as great as his private reputation, and he might have enjoyed alive part of that esteem which his country has ever since paid to the vivid and versatile genius who has touched on almost every subject of literature, and touched nothing that he did not adorn. Except in rare instances, a man is known in our profession and esteemed as a skilful workman years before the lucky hit which trebles his usual gains, and stamps him a popular author. In the strength of his age and the dawn of his reputation, having for backers and friends the most illustrious literary men of his time, fame and prosperity might have been in store for Goldsmith had fate so willed it, and at forty-six had not sudden disease taken him off. I say prosperity rather than competence; for it is probable that no sum could have put order into his affairs, or sufficed for his irreclaimable habits of dissipation. It must be remembered that he owed £2000 when he died. "Was ever poet," Johnson asked, "so trusted before?" As has been the case with many another good fellow of his nation, his life was tracked and his substance wasted by crowds of hungry beggars and lazy dependents. If they came at a lucky time (and be sure they knew his affairs better than he did himself, and watched his pay-day), he gave them of his money; if they begged on empty-purse day, he gave them his promissory bills, or he treated them to a tavern where he had credit, or he obliged them with an order upon honest Mr. Filby for coats,--for which he paid as long as he could earn, and until the shears of Filby were to cut for him no more. Staggering under a load of debt and labor; tracked by bailiffs and reproachful creditors; running from a hundred poor dependents, whose appealing looks were perhaps the hardest of all pains for him to bear; devising fevered plans for the morrow, new histories, new comedies, all sorts of new literary schemes; flying from all these into seclusion, and out of seclusion into pleasure,--at last, at five-and-forty death seized him and closed his career. * * * * * The younger Colman has left a touching reminiscence of him: "I was only five years old," he says, "when Goldsmith took me on his knee one evening whilst he was drinking coffee with my father, and began to play with me,--which amiable act I returned, with the ingratitude of a peevish brat, by giving him a very smart slap on the face: it must have been a tingler, for it left the marks of my spiteful paw on his check. This infantile outrage was followed by summary justice, and I was locked up by my indignant father in an adjoining room to undergo solitary imprisonment in the dark. Here I began to howl and scream most abominably, which was no bad step toward my liberation, since those who were not inclined to pity me might be likely to set me free for the purpose of abating a nuisance. "At length a generous friend appeared to extricate me from jeopardy; and that generous friend was no other than the man I had so wantonly molested by assault and battery. It was the tender-hearted Doctor himself, with a lighted candle in his hand and a smile upon his countenance, which was still partially red from the effects of my petulance. I sulked and sobbed as he fondled and soothed, till I began to brighten. Goldsmith seized the propitious moment of returning good-humor, when he put down the candle and began to conjure. He placed three hats, which happened to be in the room, and a shilling under each: the shillings, he told me, were England, France, and Spain. 'Hey, presto cockalorum!' cried the Doctor; and lo, on uncovering the shillings, which had been dispersed each beneath a separate hat, they were all found congregated under one! I was no politician at five years old, and therefore might not have wondered at the sudden revolution which brought England, France, and Spain all under one crown; but as also I was no conjuror, it amazed me beyond measure.... From that time, whenever the Doctor came to visit my father, 'I plucked his gown to share the good man's smile; a game at romps constantly ensued, and we were always cordial friends and merry playfellows. Our unequal companionship varied somewhat as to sports as I grew older; but it did not last long: my senior playmate died in his forty-fifth year, when I had attained my eleventh.... In all the numerous accounts of his virtues and foibles, his genius and absurdities, his knowledge of nature and ignorance of the world, his 'compassion for another's woes' was always predominant; and my trivial story of his humoring a forward child weighs but as a feather in the recorded scale of his benevolence." Think of him reckless, thriftless, vain, if you like,--but merciful, gentle, generous, full of love and pity. He passes out of our life, and goes to render his account beyond it. Think of the poor pensioners weeping at his grave; think of the noble spirits that admired and deplored him; think of the righteous pen that wrote his epitaph, and of the wonderful and unanimous response of affection with which the world has paid back the love he gave it. His humor delighting us still, his song fresh and beautiful as when he first charmed with it, his words in all our mouths, his very weaknesses beloved and familiar,--his benevolent spirit seems still to smile upon us, to do gentle kindnesses, to succor with sweet charity; to soothe, caress, and forgive; to plead with the fortunate for the unhappy and the poor. EXERCISES I. List the chief qualities that you find in some historic figure, such as Oliver Cromwell, Louis XIV, Alexander Hamilton. Then make a chronological list of the dates in the life. Compare the two lists and determine how many members of the second list need to be included to make an expository account intelligible. Do you find other members which, though not really necessary, are so interesting as to be worth including? Can you establish any final general law about the relation of dates and qualities? Make the same experiment upon the life of some one of your acquaintances. II. What was the character of Michael Henchard, the chief figure in Thomas Hardy's novel _The Mayor of Casterbridge_, that enabled him to write the following as his epitaph? On the basis of the epitaph write a life of Michael Henchard. _Michael Henchard's Will_ That Elizabeth--Jane Farfrae be not told of my death, or made to grieve on account of me. & that I be not bury'd in consecrated ground. & that no sexton be asked to toll the bell. & that nobody is wished to see my dead body. & that no murners walk behind me at my funeral. & that no flours be planted on my grave. & that no man remember me. To this I put my name. Michael Henchard. III. Write an obituary notice of an acquaintance of yours; of the political "boss" of your town, county, state; of Abraham Lincoln; of Ulysses S. Grant before he awoke to his opportunities, in the Civil War, and another of him at the time of his death; of Theodore Roosevelt before he formed the Progressive Party and another of him after the election of 1916. Try in each case to give the reader a knowledge of the character and of the events in the life. IV. How much basis have you for making an estimate of the people of whom the following were said, if you limit your knowledge to the remark? 1. "To know her was a liberal education." 2. "He was the homeliest man that came up before Troy." 3. "No man ever came out of his presence without being braver than when he went in." 4. "He never said a stupid thing and never did a wise one." 5. "He was a very perfect gentle knight." 6. "I never knew him to do a mean act." What conclusion do you draw as to the usefulness of general remarks about character? V. What relation do you find between personality and character? On which can you more surely depend for making a just estimate? Which do contemporaries of a subject for biography usually emphasize? VI. Explain how the mistake was possible by which Daniel Webster's celebrated _Seventh of March Speech_ was interpreted at the time of delivery as a betrayal of Webster's principles, although later it was regarded as a speech of real integrity. VII. Explain how a man like Thomas Jefferson can be regarded by many as a great statesman and by others, such as Mrs. Gertrude Atherton for example, as a disgustingly vulgar person, almost a rascal. What light does your explanation throw upon the duties and dangers of writing biography? VIII. What light do the following remarks throw upon the speakers? How much justification would you feel in using the remarks as basis for biographical estimate? 1. "I would rather be right than President!" 2. "The state? I am the state!" 3. "The public be damned!" 4. "If they appoint me street scavenger I will so dignify the office by dutiful service that every one will clamor for it." 5. "Gentlemen, I am an unconscionable time a-dying." 6. "When you find something that you are afraid to do, do it at once!" 7. "I never asked a favor of any man." 8. "We haven't begun to fight!" IX. Make the outline for an expository biography of one of the large figures of history, including the important events and showing the relations with contemporaries and the effect upon them. Then make a similar outline for the biography of some comparatively humble person of whom you know who has affected a more restricted group of contemporaries. Compare the two with a view to making this statement: As the great man was to his large group, so the lesser man was to his smaller group. What light does this shed on the individual life without regard to station in society? X. Write a life of Napoleon from the point of view of Wellington, of Prince Metternich, of Louis Philippe; a life of Robert Burns from the point of view of a country parson, of François Villon (supposing that Villon knew Burns), of William Shakespeare; a life of Michael Angelo from the point of view of an art student, of a humble worshiper in St. Peter's; a life of Richard Croker from the point of view of a ward boss, of a widow who has received coal for years from Tammany Hall, of an old-time gentleman in New York City; a life of Andrew Carnegie from the point of view of a laborer in the steel mills, of a spinster librarian in a small quiet town, of a college senior who is a member of the I.W.W., of a holder of shares in the steel trust; a life of Edison from the point of view of an artist who prefers candles to electricity, of a farmer's wife who no longer has to clean a multitude of lamps; a life of Jane Addams from the point of view of a political gangster, of a poor Italian woman whom Miss Addams has befriended, of a college girl who has a vision of woman's larger usefulness. XI. Write the life of a man who has just been elected to some office of prominence, such as a seat in the state senate or perhaps to the national house of representatives, and who is expected by all his friends and acquaintances to make a brilliant record. Then write another of the same man who has ignominiously failed to meet expectations and who has come back to his home town with a ruined reputation. Try to take the point of view of a person who does not know that the career is to fail, and then see how you will modify the whole account in the second life. XII. What is the central motive in Goldsmith's life as found by Thackeray? How does he bring out his conception of Goldsmith? Make an outline of the article in which you will list the various events in Goldsmith's life. Make another outline to show wherein the character and quality of the man are shown. Is enough given in each case to make sufficient knowledge on the reader's part? Do you think that Thackeray overemphasizes the sentimental appeal of Goldsmith's weaknesses and his mellow kindness? Do you find any element of information about the man conspicuously lacking, as, for instance, a statement of Goldsmith's friendships, his effect upon his times, or his beliefs? Is there any lack of imaginative sympathy on the part of Thackeray? Suppose that an efficient business man had written the article, would Goldsmith's lack of responsibility have escaped so easily? In the light of your answer to the preceding question do you think that the article is really fair? _Translation of Béranger's poem_ (page 285) Cast upon this ball, plain, insignificant and suffering; choked in the crowd, through not being tall enough; my lips utter a piteous complaint. God says to me, "Sing, child, sing." To sing, or I mistake, is my task here below. Will not all those whom I thus amuse love me? CHAPTER IX THE GATHERING OF MATERIAL FOR WRITING Two main sources exist from which you can get the material for expository themes: books, including magazines and papers; and lectures or interviews of any kind. Libraries differ greatly in the degree of convenience, and some lecturers are much more readily intelligible than others, and their lectures much more easily codified in notes. Even the most conveniently arranged library, with the most accommodating librarian, is rather formidable unless one knows the method of approach. And until one has thought out the problem of taking notes from lectures, even the most intelligible speaker presents great difficulties. Perhaps a few words here will be of some use in unriddling the mysteries. First of all a word needs to be said about the greatest slavery of modern times--slavery to the printed word. "I read it in a book!" is still for many people sufficient reason for believing anything, however untrue, illogical, impossible it may be. It is well to remember that nearly everybody writes books and yet very few of us are wise. Obviously, not everything can be authoritative, especially when it is contradicted in the next book. A reader without a good steadying sense of balance, a shrewd determination to weigh what he reads and judge of its value for himself is as helpless as a man in a whirlpool. You need not be too stiff-necked toward a book, need not deny for the mere sake of denial, but you do need to stand off and regard every book with reasonable caution. Sometimes you can see for yourself that what is said is not true. Sometimes you can at once feel that the spirit of the book is unsafe, wild, unthinking. Sometimes you will detect at once a blinding prejudice. Then be cautious. If the subject is unknown to you, so that you have no safe basis for judgment about it, you are, to look the matter squarely in the face, at the mercy of the book. But shrewd inquiries as to the author's reputation, his opportunities for knowledge of the subject, and an ever-watchful eye for reasonableness and good judgment, will save you from many mistakes. And always remember that the mere fact of a statement's being in print does not make it more true than it was when merely oral. Don't, then, believe a printed statement which you would hotly deny if you heard it from the lips of some one. It is a matter of intellectual self-respect to read and judge, not to read and blindly swallow. Whether you read or listen, you will need to make notes. It would be delightful if our flattering feeling that we can remember whatever we read or hear were true--the trouble is, it is not. It is better to play safe and have the record in notes, than to be too independent and find a blank in your mind when time to write arrives. The chief virtue in note-taking is economy. Economy saves time, space, effort. The three interweave and are inextricable, in the total, but may be somewhat distinguished. As to time: there is no virtue whatever in slaving for hours over notes that need only a few minutes. Notes are tools: their object is temporary, to be of service for composition or future reference; they are not an object in themselves. Do not worship them. On the other hand, since dull tools will not cut, don't slight them. No greater pity can exist than for the pale student who wrinkles her brow--it usually is _her_ brow--and attempts to make of notes a complete transcription of a lecture or a book, with each comma and every letter in proper sequence joined--only to pack the notes away in a box in the attic--or perhaps burn them! A builder who should have too meticulous care for his scaffolding is in danger of never seeing his building completed. Notes seek essentials, and therefore time should not be wasted on non-essentials. But, since slovenly, ill-assorted, illegible notes require extraordinary time for deciphering and arranging, it is of the greatest importance that you conserve your future minutes by making your notes neat, ordered, legible. Any abbreviations that you can surely remember are most useful. A complete sentence--which really has no special need for completeness--that you cannot read is worthless, but a few words that indicate the gist of the thought, and are immediately legible, are most valuable. Moreover, if you take time enough for every word, you are in danger of becoming so engrossed in penmanship as to lose the broad sweep of the lecture or book. Notes must drive toward unity and away from chaos. Your first principle, then, should be to set down neatly what will be of real service, and let the rest go. As to space--any one who has made manuscripts from notes has learned how irritating, how bewildering a huge mass of material can be. Some subjects require such a mass, and in such a case the note-taker will use as much space as he needs. But economy, which is the cardinal virtue, will require as little diffusion, as great concentration as possible. If you can succeed in including everything of value on one sheet, instead of scattering it over several, you are to be congratulated. Only, be sure that you do not neglect something of real value. You can often save much space and effort and the use of stores of connecting words and phrases if you will indent and subordinate sub-topics so that the eye will show the relation at once. Such practice is admirable mental training, also, for it teaches the listener or reader to keep his brain detached for seeing relationships, for grasping the parts in relation to the whole and to each other. If interesting remarks which do not bear directly upon the main subject attract with sufficient intensity to make record worth while, set them down in brackets, to indicate their nature. Remembering, then, that a concentrated barrage is of more value in attack than scattered fire, use as little space as may suffice for the essentials. That is the second principle. As to effort, remember that the old sea-captain whose boat was so leaky that he declared he had pumped the whole Atlantic through it on one voyage would have entered port more easily with a better boat. If you do not take time and pains for grouping and ordering as you make your notes, be sure that you will have much pumping to do when the article is to be made. Grouping and ordering require concentration in reading or listening--but there is no harm in that. You ought to be able to write one thing and listen to another at the same time. Watch especially for any indication in a lecture of change in topic. And don't be bothered by the demands of formal rhetoric: if a complete sentence stands in your way, set your foot on it and "get the stuff." And, of course, avoid a feverish desire to set down every word that may be uttered; any one who has seen the notebooks of students in which reports of lectures begin with such records as "This morning, in pursuance of our plan, we shall consider the topic mentioned last time, namely,--etc." become aware of the enormous waste of energy that college students show. Essentials, set down in athletic leanness--that is the ideal. In taking notes from books, people differ greatly. Some use a separate slip for each note, and much can be said in commendation of this system. Some are able to heap everything together and then divine where each topic is. In any case, strive for economy, catch the "high spots," and as far as possible keep like with like, notes on the same topic together. It is always well, often imperative, to jot down the source of each note, so that you can either verify or later judge of the value in the light of the worth of the source. Note-taking, in other words, is a matter of brains and common sense: brains to see what is important, and sense to see that neatness and order are essential to true economy, the great virtue of notes. With the best of intentions, then, you enter the library. Since each library is arranged on a somewhat individual scheme, and different collections have different materials, you will need to examine the individual library. A wise student will inquire at the desk for any pamphlet that may help to unriddle the special system. Librarians are benevolent people, do not wish to choke you, and are glad to answer any reasonable question. If your questions are formless, if you really do not know what you want, sit down on the steps and think it over until you do, and then enter boldly and politely ask for information. Don't, if you wish to learn about ship subsidies, for example, stroll in and inquire for "Some'n 'bout boats?" The complimentarily implied power of reading your mind is not especially welcome to even a librarian who is subject to vanity--and incidentally he may think that you are irresponsible. Any one who has been connected with a college library knows that the notorious questions such as "Have you Homer's Eyelid?" are not uncommon--and seldom bring desired results. Since you have entered for information, summon all your resourcefulness to try every possibility before you agree that there is no help for you there. You can use the Card Catalogue, the Reference Books, the Indexes, Year-Books and Magazine Guides, and finally, if every other source fails, can lay your troubles before the librarian--but not until you have fought bravely. Too many students are faint-hearted: if they wish for information about, let us say, employers' liability, and do not at once find a package of information ready-wrapped, they sigh, and then smile, and then brightly inform the instructor, "The library hasn't a single word about that subject!" The Card Catalogue does not list employers' liability, let us say, and you do not know any authors who have written on the subject. Do not despair; look up _insurance_, _workmen_, _accidents_, _social legislation_, _government help_, and other such titles until your brain can think of nothing more. Only then resort to outside help. The Card Catalogue will contain a card for each book in the library: if you know the title, look for it. If you know the author but not the title, look for the "author card." If you know neither author nor title, look for the general subject heading. For each book will usually have the three cards of subject, author, and title. If the subject is a broad one, such, for example, as _Engineering_, do not set yourself the task of looking through every card, but, if you wish for a treatise on the history of engineering, look for the word _History_, in the engineering cards, and then examine what books may be collected under that heading. If you find cross references, that is, a recommendation to "see" other individual cards, or other subject headings, do not overlook the chance to gain added information. Most of us too often forget the encyclopædias. If the catalogue has been exhausted, then see what the encyclopædias may contain. Look in the volume that contains the index, first, for often a part of an article will tell you exactly what you wish, but the article as a whole will not be listed under the subject that you are seeking. The _Encyclopædia Britannica_, the _New International_, the _Nelson's Loose Leaf_ will be of service on general topics. For agriculture consult _Bailey's Encyclopædia_. For religion see the _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_ (Scribner), the _Jewish Encyclopædia_, the _New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopædia of Religious Knowledge_ (Funk and Wagnalls), the _Catholic Encyclopædia_ (Robert Appleton). For dictionaries you will find the _Murray's New English Dictionary_, often called the _Oxford Dictionary_, _The Standard Dictionary_, _The Century_, _Webster's New International_, _Black's Law Dictionary_ and others. Often you will wish to find contemporary, immediate material. The magazines are regularly catalogued in the _Reader's Guide_, month by month, with a combined quarterly and yearly and then occasional catalogue, with the articles listed under the subject and the title or author. Use your resourcefulness here, as you did in the card catalogue, and do not give up. _Poole's Index_ will also help. Many annuals are of value. The _World Almanac_ has a bewildering mass of information, as does the _Eagle Almanac_ for New York City and Long Island especially. The _Canadian Annual Review_, the _Statesman's Year-Book_, _Heaton's Annual_ (Canadian), the _New International Year Book_, which is "a compendium of the world's progress for the year," the _Annual Register_ (English), the _Navy League Annual_ (English, but inclusive), and the _American Year-Book_, among others, will be of service. Often these books will give you the odd bit of information that you have hunted for in vain elsewhere. For engineering, the _Engineering Index_ (monthly and collected) is useful. For biography you will find Stephen's _Dictionary of National Biography_ useful, and Lamb's _Biographical Dictionary of the United States_. Do not forget the _Who's Who_, the _Who's Who in America_, and the corresponding foreign books for brief information about current people of note. For what may be called scattered information you can go to the _American Library Association Index_ to general literature, _The Information Quarterly_ (Bowker), _The Book Review Digest_ (Wilson), _The United States Catalog_ (with its annual _Cumulative Book Index_), and the (annual) _English Catalogue of Books_. In using a book, employ the Table of Contents and the Index to save time. For example, you will thus be referred to page 157 for what you want. If instead you begin to hunt page by page, you will find that after you have patiently run your eyes back and forth over the first 156 pages, your brain will be less responsive than you would wish when you finally arrive at page 157. Moreover, there is all that time lost! Often individual libraries have compiled lists of their own books on various subjects. If you can find such lists, use them. In other words, the search for material and the taking of notes is a matter of strategy: it requires that the seeker use his wits, plan his campaign, find what is available, and in the briefest time compatible with thoroughness assimilate whatever of it is of value. Caution and indefatigable zeal and resourcefulness--these are almost sure to win the day. INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIVE SELECTIONS Amiel's _Journal_, "Mozart and Beethoven", 277-278 Antin, Mary, _The Promised Land_, "The Making of an American", 186-189 _Atlantic Monthly_, The Contributor's Club, "The Privileges of Age", 245-247 Aumonier, Stacy, "Solemn-Looking Blokes" (_Century Magazine_), 29-33 Bagehot, Walter, _Works_, vol. III, "A Constitutional Statesman", 227-229 Belloc, Hilaire, _First and Last_, "On a Great Wind", 244 Bradford, Gamaliel, _Confederate Portraits_, "Judah P. Benjamin", 264 Brooke, Rupert, _Collected Poems_, "The Great Lover", 234-235 Bullard, F. Lauriston, _Famous War Correspondents_, "A Definition of the Correspondent", 78 Burdick, Francis M, _The Essentials of Business Law_-- "Definition of the Clearing-House", 76 "Definition of Sale", 105 Burroughs, John, _Birds and Bees_, "An Idyl of the Honey-Bee", 48-55 Outline of "An Idyl of the Honey-Bee", 64-66 _Birds and Poets_, "Emerson's Literary Quality", 224 _Leaf and Tendril_, "A Breath of April", 247-249 Burton, Richard, _Little Essays in Literature and Life_, "The Nature of the Informal Essay", 243-244 Butler, Samuel, _The Note-Books of Samuel Butler_, "A Group of Definitions", 109 Cannon, J. G, _Clearing-Houses_, "Classification of Clearing-Houses", 140 Carlyle, Thomas, _Essay on Biography_, Selection from, 275-276 Sartor Resartus, "The Entepfuhl Road", 40 _Century Magazine_, "The Hydraulic Cartridge", 161-162 "The Phonopticon", 171-172 Corbin, John, _An American at Oxford_, "How to Handle a Punt", 163-164 Corbin, T. W, _Engineering of To-day_, "Cargo Steamers", 203-205 "The Oxygen Blow-Pipe", 161 "Launching the Neptune", 178-181 Cram, R. A., _The Heart of Europe_, "Definition of the Heart", 104 Croly, Herbert, _The Promise of American Life_, "The American Business Man", 197-199 Dilley, Arthur U, _Oriental Rugs_, "A Classification of Rugs", 119-122 Eliot, George, _The Mill on the Floss_, "The Scenery of the Rhone", 124-125 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, _Conduct of Life_, "Fate", 27-28; 36-37 _Nature, Addresses, and Lectures_, "A Definition of Conservative and Innovator", 93-95 _Society and Solitude_, "Definition of Civilization in America", 98-99 Escott, T. H. S, _Great Victorians_, "Balfour", 271 Gardiner, A. G., _Prophets, Priests, and Kings_, "Balfour", 148 "King Edward VII", 148-149 "Lord Morley", 19 "Thomas Hardy", 149-150 Garland, Hamlin, _A Son of the Middle Border_, a sentence from, 45 Gissing, George, _The Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft_-- "Apples for Diet", 21-22 "A Definition of Art", 7 "A Definition of Poverty", 84-85 "English Cooking", 210-211 "Military Drill", 225-226 "The Sportswoman", 128-129 "The 'Tempest'", 213-214 "Vegetarianism", 222-223 Green, J. R., _Short History of the English People_, "Estimate of the Character of Elizabeth", 122-123 Greenough and Kittredge, _Words and Their Ways in English Speech_, "The Process of Radiation", 181-183 Haweis, Rev. Mr., _Music and Morals_, "The Character of J. R. Green", 268-269 Hawthorne, Nathaniel, _Our Old Home_, "English Weather", 126-128 Henderson, W. H., _What is Good Music_-- "Criticism of Musical Performances", 230 "The Modern Orchestra", 152-153 Howells, W. D., _A Boy's Town_, "The Difference Between Boys and Men", 107 Hungerford, Edward, _The Personality of American Cities_, "Boston", 68-69 Judy, A. M., _From the Study to the Farm_, "The Farmer's Life", 150-151 Lounsbury, T. R., _English Spelling and Spelling Reform_, "Final e", 205-208 Lucke, C. E., _Power_, "The Mechanical Engineer", 98 "The Problem of Power Machinery", 137 "Water Power", 151-152 Masefield, John, _Gallipoli_, "The Horror of the Fight", 69-70 Morley, John, _Miscellanies_, vol. I, "The Distinction Between the Poetic and the Scientific Spirit", 105-106 Morman, J. B., _The Principles of Rural Credit_, "Amortization", 85-86 Pollak, Gustav, _Fifty Years of American Idealism_-- "Jingo Morality", 220-222 "Lowell at St. James", 193-194 "Moral Atmosphere", 91-93 "Responsible Statesman", 87 Prelini, Charles, _Dredges and Dredging_, "The Operation of Dredges", 170 Royce, Josiah, "Nietzsche" (_Atlantic Monthly_), 131 Russell, Bertrand, _National Independence and Internationalism_-- "National Sentiment", 226-227 "State and Nation", 89-90 _Why Men Fight_, "Impulse and Desire", 132-135 Sainte-Beuve, "Definition of a Classic", 91 _Scientific American_, "The Catskill Water Supply", 185-186 _Scribner's Magazine_, The Point of View, "The New Poetry", 200-201 Sedgwick, H. D., _The New American Type_, "Honor", 108 Shakespeare, William, _King Henry IV_, "Bardolph on 'Accommodate'", 81-82 Sharp, Dallas Lore, _The Hills of Hingham_, "The Carpet Layer", 173-174 Shaw, G. B., _Dramatic Opinions and Essays_-- "The Odds Against Shakespeare", 116-117 _Sanity of Art_, "Definition of Artist", 103 "Indispensability of Law", 153-156 "Passion", 146-147 "Pattern Designers and Dramatic Composers", 111-112 _Society and Superior Brains_-- "Ability that Gives Value for Money", 85 "Superiority of Status", 109-110 Slicer, T. R., _From Poet to Premier_, "O. W. Holmes", 272 Standard Dictionary, Definition of "Correspondent", 78 Stevenson, R. L., "Pulvis et Umbra", 55-57 "The sun upon my shoulders", 45 Talbot, F. A., _The Making of a Great Canadian Railway_-- "The Stone Boat", 165 "The Track Layer", 166-168 Taylor, B. L., _The Line o' Type Column_, "Highbrow," etc., 102 Thackeray, W. M., _The English Humorists of the Eighteenth Century_, "Oliver Goldsmith", 285-294 Warner, Frances L., "The Amateur Chessman" (From The Point of View, _Scribner's Magazine_), 249-252 Webster's New International Dictionary, Definition of "Art", 6 A series of definitions, 100-101 Wendell, Barrett, _English Composition_, "Carlyle's Frederick the Great", 279-280 Weston, E. M., _Rock Drills_, "Hammer Drills", 115-116 "Tappet Valve Drills", 219-220 Wister, Owen, _Quack Novels and Democracy_, "The Quack Novel", 88-89 INDEX Ability of the critic to analyze, 192-194. Adaptation of treatment to subject, 6. Addison, Joseph, 233-236. Aids in gaining clearness in Mechanisms, Processes, and Organizations, 169-172. Aids in gaining interest in Mechanisms, Processes, and Organizations, 172-175. Aids in solving the problem in Expository Biography, 261-265. Amiel, Frederic, 277. Amount of expository writing, 2. Analysis, 8, 113-143; definition of, 113; enumeration as one kind of informal analysis, 129; equation as one kind of informal analysis, 130; formal analysis, 118; informal analysis, 129-137; kinds of analysis, the two, 115-118; kinds of informal analysis, 129-137; object of informal analysis, 124; the principles of analysis, 138-143; relationship as a form of informal analysis, 131; statement of a problem as a form of informal analysis, 136; statement of significance as a form of informal analysis, 130; the two virtues of analysis, 114. Analyzing the character in Expository Biography, 270-275. Antin, Mary, 189. Appreciative method of criticism, 209-215. Aumonier, Stacy, 29. Bagehot, Walter, 229. Balfour, Arthur James, 273. Barrie, Sir J. M., 241, 263. Beethoven, Ludwig van, 278. Belloc, Hilaire, 239, 244. Biography, Expository, 257-296; aid in solving the problem of, 261-265; analyzing the character of the hero, 270-275; beliefs of the hero, 273; choice of events in hero's life for, 276-277; defining the hero's character, 266-270; deeds of the hero, 274; events in hero's life, use of, 275-280; friends of the hero, 274; heredity of the hero, 270-272; interests of the hero, 272; kinds of, 257; lesson, danger of making one, 282; life problem of the hero, 258-260; object of expository biography, 258; problem, the chief, of expository biography, 258-261; problem of telling the truth, 280-281; process of solving the problem, 266-274; relation of events to personality, 277-278; relation of hero to society and times, 278-280; rhetorical form of expository biography, 282-285; rhetorical value of events, 280. B. L. T., 102. Boswell, James, 267, 279, 281. Bradford, Gamaliel, 264, 267, 281. Breadth of interest in writer of Informal Essays, 233-234. Brooke, Rupert, 234. Brooks, Sidney, 43. Brown, John, 238, 241. Browne, Sir Thomas, 262. Bullard, F. Lauriston, 78. Burdick, Francis M., 76, 105. Burroughs, John, 40, 41, 47, 224, 238, 247. Burton, Richard, 243. Butler, Samuel, 109. Byron, Lord, 200, 274. Cannon, J. G., 140. Carlyle, Thomas, 40, 258, 265, 272, 275, 279. Catalogs, use of, 301-302. Cause for stupidity in expository writing, 4, 25. Cause, method of showing, in definition, 97. Cautions about definitions, 80. Cavour, 266. Centralization, finding the root principle in mechanisms, etc., 159-162. Chesterton, Gilbert, 240, 241. Cicero, 12. Classification, 8, 117. Clearness: aids in gaining, 169-172; in explaining mechanisms, etc., 157, 162. Coleridge, Samuel T., 215. Comparison and contrast, method of in defining, 86. Controlling purpose: definition of, 16; emotional reaction to, 26-33; practical use of, 39-47; proper use of, 33-38; source of, 16-26; source of in reader's attitude, 22-25; source of in subject, 16-18; source of in writer's attitude, 18-22; stated in one sentence, 37; value, relative, of sources for, 25. Cooper, James F., 196. Corbin, John, 164. Corbin, T. W., 161, 181, 205. Cowley, 232. Cram, Ralph Adams, 104. Critic, the: ability to analyze, 192-194; common sense, 195; knowledge of the general field of criticism, 194-195; open-mindedness, 195-196. Criticism, 190-217; ability to analyze, possessed by the critic, 192-194; common sense of critic, 195; criticism and comment, 91; definition of, 190; diction in, 216-217; knowledge of general field, possessed by critic, 194-195; methods: appreciative, 209-215; historical, 196-202; standards, 202-209; open-mindedness of critic, 195-196; practical helps for writing, 215-217; range of criticism, 191. Croly, Herbert, 129, 199. Crothers, S. M., 237, 240. Da Vinci, Leonardo, 273. Deeds of hero in Expository Biography, 274. Defining the character of the hero in Expository Biography, 266-270. Definition of analysis, 113; of criticism, 190; of informal essay, 231. Definition: 8, 73-112; cautions, general, about, 80; definition of, 73; differentia and genus, 77; difficulty in discovering genus, 74; methods of defining: of comparison or contrast, 86; of division, 90; of elimination, 95; of illustration, 83; of repetition, 93; of showing origin, cause, and effect, 97; process of definition, 74; restricting the genus, 77; two classes of, 78. Demosthenes, 12. De Quincey, 242. Dictionaries, use of, 302. Dilley, Arthur U., 122. Douglas, Stephen A., 274. Economy, in note-taking, 298-299. Edwards, Jonathan, 27. Elimination as a method in definition, 95. Eliot, George, 124-125. Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 1, 27, 93, 95, 98, 224, 271, 282. Emotions, the, and the controlling purpose, 26-33. Encyclopædias, use of, 302. Enumeration as a form of informal analysis, 129. Equation as a form of informal analysis, 130. Escott, T. H. S., 271. Essay. _See_ Informal Essay. Events in hero's life for expository biography, 275-280. Exposition: amount of, 2; answers questions, 1, 2; causes for stupidity in writing exposition, 4, 25; emotions and exposition, 27; problem, the, in writing, 11; success of, 12; task of, 9-10; truth of, 7. Formal analysis, 118. Franz, Robert, 276. Freeman, Mrs. M. E. W., 199. Friends of the hero in expository biography, 274. Gardiner, A. G., 19, 148, 149, 150. Garland, Hamlin, 45. Gissing, George, 7, 21, 84, 103, 128, 209, 214, 223, 226. Goethe, Johann, 270. Goldsmith, Oliver, 267, 284, 285. Gray, 270. Green, J. R., 28, 268. Greenough and Kittredge, 183. Hardy, Thomas, 294. Haweis, the Rev. Mr., 268. Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 126. Hazlitt, 195, 231, 232, 236, 238, 243. Henderson, W. H., 153, 230. Henry, Patrick, 12. Heredity in expository biography, 270-272. Historical method of criticism, 196-202. Holmes, O. W., 271-272. Howells, W. D., 107. Humor in the informal essay, 241-242. Hungerford, Edward, 69. Hunt, Leigh, 238. Husband, Joseph, 239. Huxley, Thomas, 44. Illustration as a method of definition, 83. Imaginative sympathy in expository biography, 261-265. Informal analysis, 123-138. Informal Essay, 231-244; breadth of interest in author of, 233-234; definition of, 231; humor in, 241-242; nature as subject for, 238-239; not too exhaustive, 242; not too serious, 240-242; not too rhetorically strict, 242-243; people as subjects for, 237-238; personal nature, 232-233; range of subject, 237; things as subjects for, 239-240. Interest in writing, 2; aids to gain, in mechanisms, processes and organizations, 172-175; of two kinds, 3; relation to underlying thought, 8. Interpreting and reporting, 5. James, William, 4, 44, 266. Jefferies, Richard, 239. Jewett, Miss S. O., 199. Johnson, Dr. Samuel, 81, 233. Judicial criticism, here treated as criticism by standards, 202-209. Judy, A. M., 151. Labouchere, Henry, 9. Lamb, Charles, 6, 26, 232, 235, 242, 262. Lamb, Mary, 259. Lee, Robert E., 274, 277. Libraries: catalogues of, 301-302; dictionaries, 302; encyclopædias, 302; use of, 301-304. Lincoln, Abraham, 2, 16, 87, 269, 270. Liszt, Franz, 276. Lounsbury, Thomas, 205. Lowell, J. R., 271. Lucke, C. E., 98, 137, 152. Masefield, John, 69, 70, 71. Materials: ordering of, 41-47; selecting of, 39-41. Mechanisms, 157-175; aids for gaining clearness, 169-172; aids for gaining interest, 172-175; cautions, 158-159; centralization, 159-162; expression of root principle in one sentence, 160-161; necessity for clearness, 157-158; orders to be followed, 164-168. Meredith, George, 241. Methods, in criticism: appreciative, 209-215; historical, 196-202; standards, 202-209; in definition: comparison and contrast, 86; division, 90; elimination, 95; illustration, 83; origin, cause, and effect, 97; repetition, 93. Middleton, Richard, 240. More, P. E., 115, 123. Morley, John, 18, 105-106. Morman, J. B., 85. Mozart, W. A., 277. Notes: care in taking, 300; economy the chief virtue, 298-299; methods of taking, 300; space of notes, 299-300. Order of Material, 41-47. Organizations: 157-162 (general discussion), 168-169; aids to clearness, 169-172; aids to interest, 172-175. Parkman, Francis, 236. Parr, 279. Partition, 8, 117. People as subjects for informal essays, 237-238. Pericles, 273. Poe, E. A., 12. Pollak, Gustav, 86, 93, 194, 222. Prelini, Charles, 170. Problem, statement of a, in informal analysis, 136. Problem of expository biography, 248-261. Processes: 157-162 (general discussion), 162-164; aids to gaining clearness in, 169-172; aids to gaining interest in, 172-175. Relation of events to personality in expository biography, 277-278. Relation of hero to society and times in expository biography, 278-280. Repetition as a method in definition, 93. Reporting vs. interpreting, 5. Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 208. Rhetorical strictness absent in informal essay, 242-243. Rhetorical value of events in expository biography, 280. Royce, Josiah, 131. Russell, Bertrand, 90, 135, 227. Sainte-Beuve, 91. Scott, Sir Walter, 200. Sedgwick, H. D., 108. Selection of material, 39-41. Shakespeare, William, 12, 60, 81, 257. Sharp, Dallas Lore, 173, 174, 237, 238. Shaw, G. B., 85, 102, 110, 112, 117, 146, 147, 156. Sidney, Sir Philip, 9. Significance, statement of, as form of informal analysis, 130. Slavery to printed word, 297. Slicer, T. R., 277. Smith, Sydney, 241. Socrates, 263. Sources of the controlling purpose, 16, 26. Standards, criticism by, 202-209. Steele, Richard, 232. Stevenson, R. L., 6, 41, 45, 55, 58, 66, 237, 238, 241, 257, 259, 260, 263, 271, 274, 281. Strategy, the problem of, in writing, 11. Sympathy, imaginative, in expository biography, 261-265. Taft, Wm. H., 46. Talbot, F. A., 165, 168. Taylor, Bert Lester, 102. Tennyson, Alfred, 26, 274. Thackeray, Wm. M., 258, 284. Truth, as related to interest, 7-8. Unification, 13-14. Warner, C. D., 238, 239. Warner, Frances L., 249. Webster, Daniel, 173. Weston, E. M., 116, 220. Whibley, Charles, 266, 269, 283. Whistler, 212. Wilson, Woodrow, 12, 176. Wister, Owen, 89. Transcriber's Note Obvious typographical errors were repaired, as listed below. Other apparent inconsistencies or errors have been retained. Missing, extraneous, or incorrect punctuation has been corrected. Most of the inconsistent hyphenation has been retained as many appear in quoted passages. Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold (=bold=). Although oe ligatures have been expanded, other diacritical marks are enclosed by square brackets. For example, [)i] represents a breve over the letter i, and [=y] represents a macron over the letter y. Page 87, "wihe" changed to "with". (The value of this method lies in its liveliness and the ease with which it makes an idea comprehended.) Page 97, "aboveall" changed to "above all" for consistency. (And above all, he will never forget the gleam of idealism that he received in the old halls, the vision of his chance to serve his fellows.) Page 203, "froward" changed to "forward". (... and my trivial story of his humoring a forward child weighs but as a feather in the recorded scale of his benevolence.) 
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Black Friers. black-Freiers. 1586. 1586. 1586 To the most vertuous A tres-vertueux Sr. Tou dé most vertueus Sir, Marke de Bussy Marc de Bussy Escuier Sir, Mark de Bussy Esquier L, of Sr. de Beruille. Ia. Escoué,ier L. of Beruille, I. B. gent. Be. Gent. Cadom. Beruille. I. B. gent of Caen of Caen. health. Salut. health. THe experience hauing L'Experience m'aiant Dé experience hàuyng in the olde tyme iadis appris quel in dé aùld teìm learned vnto me what ennuy apporte à ceux lèrned ontou my houat sorow is for them qui sont reffugiez en soro is for dem dat that be refugiate in païs estranger, quand by refugiat in a a strange countrey, ilz ne peuuent strange contré, houen when they can not entendre le language dè can not onderstand vnderstand the du lieu auquel ilz dé langage of dat language of that sont exilez: & quand plàs in houitch dè by place in whiche they ilz ne peuuent se exeiled: and houen dè be exiled: and when faire entendre aux can not mêk dem tou they can not make habitans de la by onderstoud by them to be vnderstood contrée en laquelle spìtch tou dé by speach to the ilz se sont retirez: inhabiters of dat inhabiters of that i'ay esté (à ceste contré houêrin dê by contrey, wherein they cause) esmeu à reteired: ey hàf be retired: I haue compassion, tellement (dêrfòr) bin mouued bene (therefore) que pour tirer de tou compassion, so moued to compassion, peine, vne infinité dat for tou dràà out so that for to drawe de personnes, que noz of paìn, en infinit out of paine, an persecutions nomber of persons, dé infinite number of dernieres ont fait houitch aour làst persons, the whiche venir en ce païs, persecutions hàf our last persecutions I'ay trouué bon de càsed tou com in dis haue caused to come leur mettre en main contré, ey taùt goud in this contrey, I quelques petis tou pout intou dêr thought good to put dialogues en hands certain chart into their hands Francois, & Anglois, Deialogs in Franch, certeine short ésquelz (pour leur and Inglich, in Dialogues in French, plus ample houitch (for dêr and Englishe in which instruction) I'ay fuller (instruction) (for their fuller escrit l'Anglois, non ey hàf rouitin dé Instruction) I haue seulement selon que Inglish, not ònelé so written the English, les habitans du païs as dé inhabiters of not onely so as the l'Escriuent: Mais dé contré dou rouit inhabiters of the aussi ainsy qu'il it: Bout also, so às countrey do write it: est, & doit estre it is, and must by But also, so as it prononcé: Ce dont ilz pronounced: Houêrof is, and must be seront fais dê chàl by mêd pronounced: Whereof participans souz la partàkers onder dé they shall be made faueur de vostre fàueur of yor partakers vnder the vertueuse pieté à vertueus godlynes, fauour of your laquelle ie les tou dé houitch ey dou vertuous godlynesse, dedie, vous suppliant dedicat dem: to the which I doe les prendre en vostre Bisitching you tou dedicate them: protection. Et quand tàk dem onder yor beseching you to take & quand, de supporter protection: and tou them vnder your de ma temerité, aiant bêr àlso: ouis mey protection: and to osé tant presumer que ràchenes, houitch hàf beare also with my de vous presenter bin so bauld tou rashnesse, whiche ouurage tant rude, & presùm tou present haue bene so bolde to mal raboté: Et ce ontou you a ouorke so presume to present faisant, vous me rùd, and onefiled: vnto you a worke so donnerez occasion non And so, you chàl gife rude, and vnfiled: seulement de vous my occasion, not ònlé and so you shall geue dedier mon perpetuel tou dedicat ontou you me occasion, not seruice: Mais aussi mey perpetuall onely to dedicate de prier Dieu pour seruis: Bout àlso tou vnto you my vostre tres-heureux prê God, for yor mòst perpetuall seruice: accroissement en happy incréés in àl But also to pray God, toute grandeur & heìnes, and estats, for your most happy états auec vraye & ouis trù and encrease in all honorable felicité. honorable felicité. highnesse, and estates, with true, and honorable felicitie. To the faithfull AVX Lecteurs fideles. Tou dé fêtfull Readers. Réders. Health. Salut. Hêls. GEntle Reader, To the BEneuole lecteur, à GEntell Réder, tou dé ende that you stumble fin que vous ne end dat you stumble not about the choppiez en la not abaut dè réding, reading, and lecture, & and onderstending of vnderstanding of intelligence de ces déés littel Deialogs these little dialogues dressez houitch ey mèd for Dialogues whiche I pour vostre yor instructiòn: you made for your instruction, vous chàl mark, dat dòs instruction: you marquerez que les letters must by shall marke that lettres doiuent estre pronònced lòng those letters must be prononcées longues, houitch by noted ouis pronounced long qui sont notées d'vn an accent gràf, è: whiche be noted with accent graue, è: Vous you chàl remember an accent graue, è retiendez aussi, que àlso, dat dé letter, you shall remember la lettre, é, sur é houêropon dé vois also, that the laquelle la voix doit must by lifted op, is letter, é, whervppon estre esleuée, est nòted dus, é, you the voice must be notée ainsy, é: & chàl lèrne àlso, dat lifted vp, is noted mesme vous dé letter, E, houen thus, é, you shal apprendrez, que it must by prononced learne also, that ladite lettre, E, lòng, giuing onto it this letter, E, when quand il la faut dé sond of en, E, it must be pronounced prononcer longue, luy neuter (almost leik long, geuing vnto it donnant la voix d'vn ontou dé bêling of a the sounde of an E, é neutre, presque chip) is nòted dus, ê neuter (almost like semblable au Feinalé, you chàl vnto the baling of a béslement de la remember, dat dòs sheepe) is noted brebis) Est notée diptongs Ay, and Ey, thus, ê: Finally, you ainsy ê: finalement, aùt tou by pronònced shall remember, that vous retiendrez, que lòng, and dé maus those dipthonges, Ay, les dipthongues Ay, hàlf opin, leik dé, and Ey, ought to be et, ey doiuent estre E. neuter dé houitch pronounced long, and prononcées, longues, Deialogs, Ey prê dé the mouth halfe open, & la bouche à demy Christien Réder tou lyke the E. neuter ouuerte, comme le, E. recééf ìuen so the whiche Dialogues, neutre lesquelz acceptable, às dau dê I pray the Christian Dialogues ie prie did com aùt of a mòr Reader, to receaue tous fideles sufficient hand den euen so acceptable, Chrestiens, receuoir mein is, for a tokin as though they did autant acceptables, of dat goud ouil come out of a more que s'ilz partoient houitch ey bêr tou àl sufficient hand then de main plus dem houitch hou lif myne is, for a token suffisante que la in dé fêr of God: hom of that good will mienne, pour vn gage ey prê tou gif vs his which I bare to all de ceste bonne péés. them which do liue in affection que ie the feare of God: porte à tous ceux qui Whom I pray to geue viuent en la crainte vs his peace. de Dieu Auquel ie prie nous donner sa paix. So be it. Ainsi soit il. So be it. The rising in the Le leuer du matin. Dé reising in dé morning màrning. BArbara, Peter, BBarbe, Pierre, BArbara, Pìter, Stephen, Iames. Estienne, Iaques. Stìuin, Iémes. The Father. Le Pere. Dé Fàder. The Mother. La Mere. Dé Moder. Barbara. Barbe. Barbara. How now children, Comment enfans, Haù nau tchildren, will you not rise to voulez vous point ouil you not reis tou day? vous leuer dê? auiourd'huy? Peter. Pierre. Pìter. What ist a clock? Quelle heure est il? Houat ist a clak? Bar. Barbe. Bar. It is seuen a clock. Il est vij heures It is séuin a clak. Stephen. Estiene. Stìuin. I beleue you not. Ie ne vous croy Ey bilìf you not. point? Bar. Barbe. Bar. Why do you not beleue Pourquoy ne me croiez Houey dou you bilìf me? vous point? my? Steuen. Estienne. Stìuin. Because I am yet all Parce que ie suis Bycàs ey am yet àl sleepye and that I am encor' tout endormy slìpé, and dat ey am accustomed to awake stumé de m'esueiller acostuméd tou aouêk alwayes at fiue of tousiours à cinq àl ouês at feif of dé the clocke. heures. clak. Iames Iaques. Iéms. Beleue this bearer: Croiez ce porteur: à Bilìf dis bêrer: hy he is scant well grand peine est-il is scant ouel aouêkt awake at eight of the bien eueillé à huict at êct of dé clak, clocke, how then heures, comment donc haù den could hy by could he be awaket at s'éueuilleroit-il à aouêkt at feìf? fiue? cinq? Barbara. Barbe. Bar. You say true. Vous dites vray You sè tru. Stephen. Estienne. Stìuin. You will iest. Vous voulez rire. You ouil iest. Barbara. Barbe. Bar. Rise quickely: it is Leuez vous tost Il Reis kouiklé: It is tyme to go to est temps d'aller à teim tou goe tou schoole: your maister l'escole Vostre scoùl: yor mêster will ierke you, if maistre vous batra, ouil ierk you, if you you can not say your sy vous ne scauez can not sè your lessons. dire voz lessons. lessons. Peter. Pierre. Pìter. Oure maister hath no Nostre Maistre n'a Aour mêster has no roddes. point de verges. rads. Barbara. Barbe. Bar. I will carye him som. Ie luy en porteray. Ey ouil caré him some. Iames. Iaques. Iéms. It is needelesse for Il n'en est ià It is nìdles: for oui we will study well. besoin, car nous ouil studi ouel. estudirons bien. Stephen. Estienne. Stìuin. Geue me my hosen. Donnez moy mes Gif my mey hosen. chausses. Barbara. Barbe. Bar. Which of them? Lesquelles? Houitch of dem? Stephen. Estienne. Stìuin. My redd hoses. Mes chausses rouges. My red hoses. Peter. Pierre. Pìter. And to me my blacke Et à moy mes chausses And tou my mey blak ones. noires. ouones. Iames. Iaques. Iéms. Bring me my whit Apportez moy mes Bring my mey houeit hoses, and a cleane chausses blanches, & hoses, and a clìn shyrt: Or els, bring vne chemise nette: ou chert: Or els, bring me my graye hoses, my bien m'apportez mes my mey grê hoses, mey greene dwblet and a chausses grises, mon grìn doublet, and a handkercher. pourpoint verd, & vn handkêrtcher. mouchoir. Barbara. Barbe. Bar. Holde, here be your Tenez, voi-là voz Haùld, hiér by yor hosen. chausses. hòsin. Iames. Iaques. Iéms. Here lacke some Il y faut des Hiér lak som poeints. pointes. esguillettes. Barbara. Barbe. Bar. You played them. Vous les auez iouées. You plêd dem. Iames. Iaques. Iéms. I haue not, they be Non ay, elles sont Ey haf not: dê by broken. rompues. bròkin. Barbara. Barbe. Bar. Button your ierkin Boutonnez vostre Botton you ierkin Peter: where be your colet: Pierre Où sont Pìter houêr by yor garters? voz iartieres? guerters? Peter. Pierre. Pìter. I lost them. Ie les aye perdues. Ey làst dem. Barbara. Barbe. Bar. You deserue to be Vous meritez d'estre You desêrf tou by beaten: But you feare batu: mais vous ne béétin: Bout you féér nothing, why doe you craignez rien. Que ne nòting: houey dou you not gyrt you Stephen? vous iartez vous? not guert you? Stephen. Estienne. Stìuin. I can not bowe downe. Ie ne me peux Ey can not baù daon. baisser. Barbara. Bar. Bar. Truely you are but a Vrayement vous Trùlé you àr bout a wagge, whiche lookes n'estes qu'vn poste ouag houitch loukes but for the death of qui ne demandez que bout for dé dêts of the day. la mort au iour. dé dê. Peter. Pierre. Pìter. Geue me my Baillez moy mes Gif my mey double doublesoulshoes. souliers à double sòòl chous. semelle. Barbara. Bar. Bar. Here be them. Les voila. Hièr by dem. Iames. Iaques. Iéms. Where is the showing Où est le Houêr is dé chouing horne? chause-pied? horn? Barbara. Bar. Bar. Take it vpon the Prenez-le sur la Tàk it opon dé tabel. table. table Stephen. Estienne. Stìuin. Geue me my pantables, Donnez moy mes Gif me mey pantables, and my pompes: But mulles, & mes and mey pamps: Bout where be my sockes? escarpins: Mais où ouêr by mey sakes? sont mes chaussons? Barbara. Bar. Bar. Here be them, Les voy la. Hiér by dem, Iames, put on your Iaques, mettez vostre Iéms, Pout en yor hatte: make cleane chapeau, nettoyez hat, mêk clìn yor your cap: vostre cêp. Peter, where layde bonnet de nuit. Pìter, houêr lêd yor you your night cap? you neict kêp? Peter. Pier. Pìter. I left it vpon the Ie l'ay laissé sur le Ey left it oppon dé bedde. lict. béd. Barbara. Barbe. Bar. Are you ready? Estes-vous prestz? àr you rédy? Peter. Pierre. Pìter. How should I be Comment seroy-ie Haù choùld ey by ready? You brought me prest? vous m'auez redy? you brààt my a a smock, in steade of apporté vne chemise à smok, in stéd of mey my shirt. femme, au lieu de ma shert. chemise. Barbara. Barbe. Bar. I forgat my selfe: Ie me suis oubliée: Ey forgat mey self: holde, here is your Tenez voila vostre haùld, hiér is yor shirt. chemise. shert. Peter. Pierre. Pìter. Now you are a good Vous estés maintenant Naù you àr a goud wenche. vne bonne fille. ouentch. Barbara. Barbe. Bar. Why doe you not put Que ne vous chaussez Houey dou you not on your showes? you vous? vous allez pout en your choùs? goe alwayes tousiours les you go alouês sleepe-shotte. souliers en slip-chat. pantoufle. Peter. Pierre. Pìter My showes be naught. Mes souliers ne Mey choùs by nààt. vallent rien. Barbara. Barbe. Bar. Better is to haue a Il vaut mieux auoir Beter is tou hàf a bad excuse, then not vne mauuaise excuse bad excùs, den not at at all. que point du tout àl. Peter. Pierre. Pìter. Now, we be ready: Maintenant, nous Naù, ouy by redy: Gif Geue us our sommes prests: donnez vs aour breakefast, breakefast, that we nous nostre desieuner dat ouy mê go to may goe to schoole. que nous allions à scoùl. l'escole. Barbara. Barbe. Bar. Did you say your Auez-vous dit voz Did you sê yor prêrs? prayers? prieres? Iames. Iaques. Iéms. Not yet. Non pas encor' Not yet. Barbara. Bar. It is not well done: Ce n'est pas bien It is not ouel don: Pray God, then you fait. Priez Dieu, Prê God, den you chàl shall haue your puis vous aurez à haf yor brekfast. breakfast. desieuner. Iames. Iaques. Iéms. Brother, it is for mon frere c'est à Broder, it is for you you to day to pray vous auiourd'huy à tou dê tou prê GOD: God: and my cosen prier Dieu: Et mon and mey cosin chàl shall pray GOD to cousin priera Dieu prê GOD tou màro: Den morowe: Then, it demain: puis ce sera it shàl by mey torne shalbe my turne to à moy à prier tou prê. pray. Sonneday Dimenche Sondê Monneday Lundy Mondê Twesday Mardy Tùsdê Weddenesday Mecredy Ouednesd Thursday Ieudy Tursdê Friday Vendredy Freidê Sathurday. Samedy. Saterdê. Barbara. Barbe. Bar. Kneele downe all. Agenouillez vous Knìl daòn àl. tous. Stephen. Estienne Stìuin Our helpe be in the Nostre aide soit au Aouor help by in dé name of GOD, whiche Nom de Dieu, qui a nêm of GOD, houitch hath made heauen and fait le Ciel & la hàs mêd héuin, and earth. So be it. Terre. Ainsi soit il. yérs. So by it. OVr Father whiche art Nostre Pere qui es és AOuor Fàder houitch in heauen, halowed be Cieux. Ton Nom soit art in héuin, haloued thy name. Thy sanctifié, ton regne by dey nêm, dey kingdoms come. Thy aduienne Ta volunté kingdom com. Dey ouil will be done, in soit faite en la by don, in yêrs, as earth, as it is in terre, comme au ciel. it is in hèuin: Gif heauen. Geue us this Donne nous vs dis dê aouor dêlé day our dayly bread, auiourd'huy nostre bred, and forgif vs and forgeue vs our pain quotidien, & aouor offences, as offences, as we nous pardonne noz ouy forgif dem dat forgeue them that offences, comme nous trespas against vs: trespasse agaynst vs: pardonnons à ceux qui and let vs not by led And let vs not be led nous offencent: Et ne intou temptacion: into temptation: but nous induy point en Bout deleiuer vs from deliuer vs from tentation, mais nous ìuil: For dein is dé euill: For thine is, deliure du malin: Car kingdom, dé pauér, the kingdome, the à toy est le regne, and dé glory for euer power, and the glory la puissance, & la and euer. for euer and euer. gloire és siecles des siecles. Iames. Iaques. Iém. So be it. Ainsi soit il. So by it. Peter. Pierre. Pìter. Let vs eate, and Mangeons, buuons Let vs éét, and drinke, recognoissans, que drink, acknòledging acknowledging, that tous biens sont de dat àl goudnes dou all goodnesse doe Dieu venans, Au nom com from God, In dé come from God, In the du Pere & du Filz, & nêm of dé Fàder, and name of the Father, du Saint Esprit. of dé son, and of dé and of the Sonne, and holy gost. of the holy Ghost. Iames. Iaques. Iém. So be it. Ainsi soit-il. So by it. Barbara. Barbe. Bar. Now breake your fast, Desieunez maintenant, Naù bréék yor fast, then go aske your puis alléz demander den go ask yor Fàders fathers, and mothers benediction à voz and moders blessing. blessing. parens. Iames. Iaques Iéms. I pray you Father, Ie vous prie mon Ey prê you Fàder, prê pray to GOD to blesse pere, priez Dieu tou GOD tou bles my. me. qu'il me benye. The Father Le pere. Dé Fàder. God blesse you you my Dieu vous benye mon GOD bles you mey son. sonne. filz. Stephen. Estienne. Stìuin. I pray you mother, Ie vous prie ma Mere Ey prê you moder, gif geue me your donnez moy vostre my yor blessing. blessing. benediction. The Mother. La Mere. Dé Moder. God blesse you all, Dieu vous benye tous God bles you àl mey my children. mes enfans. tchildren. Barbara. Barbe. Bar. Go to children. take Or sus enfans prenez Go tou tchildren. tàk your books and gos voz liures, & vous en yor bouks and go you you to schoole: But allez à l'Escolle: tou scoùl: Bout plê play not by the way. mais ne iouez pas en not bey dé ouê. chemin. Go you in peace and Allez en paix, & Go you in péés, and learne well, then you apprenez bien, lors lêrn ouel, den you shalbe called the vous serez appelez chàl by càled dé children of God. enfans de Dieu tchildren of God. Stephen. Estienne. Stìuin. Where is my booke? Où est mon liure. Houêr is mey bouk? Barbara. Barbe. Bar. Where did you put it? Où l'auez vous mis. Houêr did you pout it? Stephen. Estienne Stìuin. I layde it ysterday Ie le laissay hier Ey lêd it ysterdê vppon the window. sur la fenestre. oppon dè oueindo. Barbara. Barbe. Bar. Take it then. Prenez l'y donc. Tàk it den. James. Iaques. Iém. Geue me my paper Donnez moy mon liure. Gif my mey pàper booke. bouk. Barbara. Barbe. Bar. Hold, here is your Tenez voy-la vostre Haùld, hiér is yor paper, and your papier & vostre pàper, and yor inkehorne also. Escritoire aussi. ìnkhorne àlso. Iames. Iaques. Iém. There is neither Il n'y à ny plumes ny Dêr is nêder péns, pennes, nor ink. encre. nor ìnk. Barbara. Barbe. Bar. What did you with Qu'en auez vous fait? Houat did you ouis all? àl? Peter. Pierre. Pìter. He lost them, and he Il les à vendues, & à Hé làst dem and hé sold his penneknife. vendu son saùld his penkneif. trencheplume. Barbara. Barbe. Bar. Truely, I will tell Vrayment, ie le diray Trùlé, Ey ouil tél it it to your mother. à vostre mere. tou yor moder. Iames. Iaques. Iém. I pray doe not tell Ie vous prie ne luy Ey prê dou not têl her, and I will loue dites point & ie vous hêr, and ey ouil lof you well. aymeray bien. you ouel. Barbara. Barbe. Bar. Will ye doe so? Goe Ferez-vous? Allez, ie Ouìll y dou so, Go to, I will not tell ne luy diray point tou, Ey ouil not têl her: hér: Here is a peny to buy Voy-la vn denier pour Hiér is a peny tou you some quilles. vous achetter des bei you som quiles. casses. Iames. Iaques. Iém. I thanke ye, I will Grand-mercy, i'en Ey tànk y, ey ouil buy some as I go to achetteray en allant beì som, as ey go tou schoole. à l'écolle. scoùle. Barbara. Barbe. Bar. Well sayd, Goe in Vous dites bien, Ouel sèd, Go in Gods Gods name. Allez au nom de Dieu. nêm. To the market Au marché. Tou dé market. Ayles, Ralf, Alix, Raphael, êles, Ràlf, Androw, Simon, André, Simon, Andro, Seimon, The Draper, Le Drapier, Dé Dràper, The Poulterer, Le poullailler, Dé Paulterer, The Fishmonger, Le Poissonnier, The butcher, Le Boucher. Dé Boutcher. The Costardmonger. Le Fruitier. Dé Costardmonguer. Ayles. Alix. êles. Is it not tyme to goe Est-il point temps Is it not teìm tou go to the market? d'aller au marché? tou dé market? It is almost ten a Il est pres de dix It is àlmost ten a clocke: heures: clak: Goe I pray, and make Allez ie vous prie & Go ey prê and mêk hast to come agayne. vous hastez de hast tou com again. reuenir. Ralf. Raphael. Ràlf. I goe by and by: But I'y vay tantost Mais Ey go bey and bey: is it so late as you est-il bien si tard Bout is it so làt às say? que vous dites. you sê? Ayles Alix. êl. Yes truely, Goe Ouy vrayement, Allez Ys trùlé, Go kouiklé. quikely. tost. Ralf. Raphael. Ràlf. Good morow cosen Bon iour cousin Goud maro cosin Androw. André. Andro. Androw. André. Andro. And to you also cosen Et à vous aussi And tou you àlso Ralf. Cousin Raphael. cosin Ràlf. Ralf. Raphael. Ràlf. How doe you? Comment vous portez Haù dou you? vous? How is it with you? Comment vous est-il? Haù is it ouis you? Androw. André. And. Well thankes be to Bien Dieu mercy, Ouel tanks by tou God: So so. tellement quellement. God: So so. Ralf. Raphael. Ràlf. From whence come you? D'où venez vous? From houens com y? Androw. André. And. I come from home. Ie vien du logis. Ey com from hòm. Relf. Raphael. Ràlf. Whether goe you? Où allez-vous? Houéder go you? Androw. André. And. I go to the market. Ie m'en vay au Ey go tou dé market. marché. Ralf. Raphael. Ràlf. And I also: We shall Et moy aussi: Nous And ey àlso: Ouy chàl goe together, if you yrons ensemble si go tou guéder if you will. vous voulez. ouil. Androw. André. And. I am glad of your Ie suis ioyeux de Ey am glad of yor company: But before vostre compagnie, company: Bout bifòr we goe, it were good Mais auant que d'y ouy go, it ouêr goud to drinke a pinte of aller, il seroit bon tou drink a peint of wine. de boire vne pinte de ouein. vin. Ralf. Raphael. Ràlf. Whether shall we goe? Où yrons nous? Houéder chàl ouy go? Androw. André At the Byshops head, A la teste de At Bichops hêd, or at or at the Cardinals l'Euesque ou au dé Cardinals hat. hat. chappeau du Cardinal. Ralf. Raphael. Ràlf. Let vs goe: How Allons: Hau Simon, Let vs go: Haù Symon, shall we haue aurons nous vne pinte Seimon, chàl ouy hàf a pynte of wine well de vin bien tirée. a peint of ouein ouel drawen? drààn? Symon. Symon. Seimon. You be well come: Vous estés les You by ouel com: What wine will you tresbien venuz Quel Houat ouein ouil y drinke? Will you eate vin voulez vous drinke? Ouil y éét any thinke. boire? Voulez vous any tink? manger quelque chose. Ralf. Raphael. Ràlf Geue vs of the best Donnez nous du Gif vs of dé best wine you haue: Geue meilleur vin que vous ouein you hàf: Gif vs vs some whitte wine. aiez. Donnez nous du som houeit ouein. vin blanc. Clairet wine. Du vin clairet Claret ouein. Red wine. Du vin rouge Red ouein. Frenche wine. Du vin francois Franch ouein. Gaskyne wine. Du vin de gascoigne. Gaskin ouein. New Renishe wine. Du vin de rin Nù Renich ouein. nouueau. Good sakke. De bon sec Goud Sek. Good Mamesie. De bonne maluoisie Goud Mamesi. Good Muscadene. De bonne muscadelle. Goud Muskadin. New wine. Du vin nouueau Nù ouein. Old wine. Du vin vieil. Aùld ouein. Androw. André. Andro. Bring vs a quart of Apportez nous vne Bring vs a kouart of your best Whitte quarte de vostre vin yor best houeit wine: For it is blanc car il est le oueìn: For it is wholesommer in the plus sain au matin: & haùlsommer in dé morning: and a role vn pain molet & du màrning: and a ròl, and some butter. beurre. and som bouter. Simon. Symon Seimon. You shall haue it: Vous l'aurez. Que You chùl hàf it. Haù How like you this vous semble de ce leik you dis oueìn? wine? vin? Ralf. Raphael. Ràlf. I like it very well. Il me semble tres Ey leik it very ouel. bon. Androw. André Andro. This wine is faire Ce vin est beau & Dis oueìn is fêr, and and pure. pur. pùr. Simon. Symon Seimon. To you gosseppe Ralf. A vous compere Tou you gossif Ràlf. Raphael. Ralf. Raph. Ràlf. I thanke ye, Ie vous remercye: Ey tànk y, Grammercy, Grammercy, good grand mercy mon bon goud broder. brother. frere. Androw. André Andro. Let vs dispach: Let Depeschons nous: Let vs dispatch: Let vs make hast, to faisons haste de vs mék hast, tou breake our fast. deieuner. bréék aouor fast. Ralf. Raph. Ràlf. Pure some wine: Versez du vin. Pouòr som oueìn: Geue me some wine. Donnez moy vn peu de Gif my som oueìm. vin. Androw. André. Andro. The pot is emptie: Le pot est vuide il Dé pot is empté: Dêr There is no more: n'y en a plus. En is no mòr: Chàl ouy Shall we haue an aurons nous encores hàf an oder peint? other pynt? vne pinte. Ralf. Raph. Ràlf. No, It is tyme to goe Nenny, il est temps No, It is teìm tou go to the market. d'aller au marché. tou dê market. Androw. André. Andro. When you please. Quand il vous plaira. Houen you pléés. Ralf. Raph. Ràlf. How Simon. Hau Simon. Haù Stìuin. Simon. Simon. seimon. Doe you lacke any Vous faut-il quelque Dou you lak any tink? thinke? Doe you call? chose, appellez vous? Dou you càl? Ralf. Raph. Ràlf. What doe we owe? Que deuons nous? Houat dou ouy aù: What haue we to pay? Qu'auons nous à Houat hàf ouy tou pê? paier? What must you haue? Que vous faut il? Houat must you hàf? Let vs haue a Ayons vn conte: Let vs hàf a rékning: reakening: What is to pay? Qu'y à-il à payer? Houat is tou pê? Simon. Symon. Seimon. You haue to pay: you Vous auez à payer, You hàf tou pê. you owe, eight pence, and vous deuez viij aù, êct pens: and you you be well come. deniers & vous estes by ouel com. les bien venuz. Androw. André. Andro. Hold you money, Fare Tenez vostre argent à Haùld yor monné: Fare you well gossippe. Dieu compere. y ouel gossippe. Simon. Symon. Seimon. GOD be wy my frendes A Dieu mes amis à God bouei mey frinds: at your vostre commandement. At yor commundement. commaundement. Androw. André. Andro. Now let vs goe to the Maintenant allons au Naù let vs go tou dé market. marché market. Ralf. Raph. Ràlf. Let vs go. Allons. Let vs go. The Poulter. Le poulailler. Dé Paulter. What doe you buye? Qu'achettez vous? Houat dou you beì? What doe you lacke? Que vous faut il? Houat dou you lak? Ralf. Raph. Ràlf. Showe me a coupell of Monstrez moy vne Chaù my a couple of good, and fatte couple de bons & gras goud, and fat rabits. rabettes. lapins. A fat Capon. Vn chapon gras. A fat kêpon. A good henne. Vne bonne poule. A goud hén. A fatte goose. Vne oye grasse. A fat goùs. A good goseling Vn bon oison A goud gaseling A dosen of larkes. Vne douzaine A dozéine of larks. d'allouettes. A stoke doue. Vn ramier. A stok douf. A Hayre. Vn lieure. A hêr. A mallart. Vn canard. A malart. A ducke. Vne cane. A douk. A drake. Vne cerceule A drêke. A crane. Vne grue A crêne. Vn moyneau } A sparrow. Vn passereau } A sparo. Vn moisou } A woodcoke. Vn videcoq A Oùdcok. A swanne. Vn cyne A souan. A blackbirde. Vn estourneau A blakbêrd. A Parret. vn perroquet A parret. The poult. Le poul. Dé Paul. Here be them, that be En voila qui sont Hiér by dem, dat be very good and fat. fort bons & gras. very goud and fat. Ralf. Raph. Ràlf. They be very stale. Ilz sont vieux tuez. Dê by very stêl. The Poul. Le poul. Dé Paul. Truely, they be very Veritablement ilz Trùlé dê by very nù. new. sont bien fraiz. Ralf. Raph. Ràlf. How sell you them? Que les vendez vous? Haù sêl you dem? How much? Combien? Haù mutch? The Poul. Le poul. Dé Paul. Ten pence the couple. Dix deniers le Ten pens dé couple. couple. Ralf. Raph. Ràlf. It is to much, C'est trop, It is tou mutch, you are to, deare, Vous estes trop cher. you àr tou, diéér. They be not worth so Ilz ne vallent pas Dê by not ouors so much. tant mutch. They be worth but a Ilz ne vallent qu'vn Dê by ouors bout a grote. gros. gràt. The Poul. Le poul. Dé Paul. They be not mine for Ie ne les ay point Dê by not meìn for that price. They pour le pris. Ilz me dat preis, dê cost my coast me more. coustent d'auantage. mòr. Ralf. Raph. Ràlf. Tell me your lowest Dites moy vostre Tel my yor lauest word. dernier mot ouord. The Poul. Le poul. Dé Paul. Are you willing to Voulez vous acheter àr you ouilling tou buye? be? Ràlf. Yes, if you will, be Ouy si vous voulez, Ys, if you ouil, by reasonable. estre raisonnable. rêsonnabel. The Poul. Le poul. Dé Paul. At one word: you A vn mot vous en At ouen ouord: you shall pay two grotes paierez deux gros. chàl pê tou gràtes for them. for dem. Ralf. Raph. Ràlf. I will pay but six Ie n'en paieray que Ey ouil pê bout six pence for. six deniers pens for. The Poul. Le poul. Dé Paul. I may not sell them Ie ne les peux vendre Ey mê not sel dem so. so. ainsi. Ralf. Raphael. Ràlf. Fare you well then. A Dieu donc. Far ouel den. The Poul. Le poul. Dé Paul. Here ye Syr: Cast Escoutez Sire: mettez Hiér y Ser: Cast th'other penye. l'autre denier. toder peny. Ralf. Raph. Ràlf. I will pay no no more Ie n'en paieray non Eil pê no mòr for. for. plus. The Poul. Le poul. Dé Paul. You are a very hard Vous estes vn homme You àr a very hard man: Well, you shall fort dur: Bien vous man: Ouel, you chàl haue them: les aurez. hàf dem: I sell this day. Ie vens auiourd'huy Ey sell dis dê Robin Robin-hoodes peners: au prix de houds peners: Chàl ey Shall I fleae them? Robin-hout. Les fléé dem? escorcheray ie? Ralf. Raph. Ràlf. Yea, here is your Ouy voila vostre Yé, hiér is yor money. argent. monné. God be wy Ser. A Dieu Sire. God bouey Ser. The Poul. Le poul. Dé Paul. Well come Ser, at Bien venu Monsieur à Ouel com Ser, at yor your commaundement. vostre commandement. commaundement. The Costerdmonger. Le fruitier Dê Costardmonger. BVuy you any apples? Acheté vous des BEy y any aples? pommes. Who buye of my Qui achette mes Hoù beì of mey aples? apples. pommes. Ayles Alix. êles. How many for a peny? Combien pour vn Haù many for a peny? denier? How sell you the Qu'en vendez vous le Haù sell y dé hundreth? Cent? hondred? The Cost. Le fruitier. Dé Cost. I sell them, twelfe a Ie les vends douze au Ey sell dem, touelf a peny. denier. peny. You shall pay two Vous en paierez deux You chàl pê tou shillings for the soulz du cent. chelings for dé hundreth. hondred. Ayles. Alix. êl. Haue you any Pepines. Auez vous des pommes Hàf you any pepins. de renette. The Cost. Le fruit. The Cost. The fayrest in Les plus belles de Dé fêrest in London. London. Londres. Ayles. Alix. êl. Shal I haue thirtie En auray-ie Trente au Chàl ey hàf serty for for a peny? denier? a peny? Or els, you shall Ou bien vous aurez vn Or els, you chàl hàf haue a shilling for soulz pour le cent de a chilling for dé the hundreth of your voz pommes de hundred of yor pepines. renette. pepins. The Cost. Le fruit. Dé Cost. Here ye, fayre mayde: Escoutez belle fille, Hiér y, fêr mêd, Ouil Will you haue them les voulez vous auoir y hàf, dem for twenty for twenty pence the pour vingt deniers le pens dé hundred? hundreth. Cent. Ayles. Alix. êl. I am at one word. Ie suis à vn mot Ey am at ouon ouord. The Cost. Le fruit. Dé Cost. Go to, you shall haue Or sus vous les aurez Go tou, you chàl hàf them: dem. Where will you haue Où les mettrez vous? Houêr ouil y hàf dem. them. Ayles. Alix. êl. Put them in myne Mettez les en mon Pout dem in mein apurne. deuanteau. êpurne. The Cost. Le fruit. Dé Cost. One, Two, Vne, Deux, Ouon, Tou, Three, Foure, Trois, Quatre, Trij, Faòr, Fiue, Sixe, Cinq, Six, Feìf, Six, Seuen, Eight, Sept, Huit, Seuin, êct, Nyne, Ten, Neuf, Dix, Nein, Ten, Eleuen, Twelfe, Onze, Douze, Aleuin, Touelf, Thirten. Treize, Tertin. Foureten. Quatorze, Fòrtin. Fiften. Quinze. Fiftin. Sixten. Saize. Sixtin. Seuenten. Dixsept. Seuentin. Eighten. Dixhuit. êcttin. Ninten. Dixneuf. Neintin. Twenty. Vint. Touenty. One and twenty. vint & vn. Ouon and touenty. Two and twenty. vint & deux. Tou and touenty. Three and twenty. vint & trois. Trìj and touenty. Foure and twenty. vint & quatre. Faòr and touenty. Fiue and twenty. vint & vinq. Feif and touenty. And here be foure, Et en voyla quatre, And hiér by faòr, whiche makes fiue qui font Cinq vints, houitch mêkes feif score and foure. & quatre. scòr, and faòr. Ayles. Alix. êl. You shall geue me one Vous m'en donnerez You chàl gif my ouon aboue. vne par dessus. abauf. The Cost. Le fruit. Dé Cost. Hold, here is, for Tenez, voyla pour Hauld, hiér is for you: vous: you: As you shall finde Comme vous les As you chàl feìnd them, come agayne. trouuerez reuenez. dem, com again. Ailes. Alix. êl. So I will. Ainsi feray-ie So ey ouil. The Draper. Le Drapier. Dé Drap. What lacke ye? Que vous defaut-il? Houat lak y? What doe ye buy. Qu'achattez vous. Houat dou y beìj? What will you haue. Que voulez vous Houat ouil you hàf, auoir. What will you buy. Que voullez vous Houat ouil you beìj. acchetter? What please you to Que vous plaist il Houat pléés you tou buy. acheter. beìj. What please you to Que vous plaist il Houat pléés you hàf. haue. auoir. What seeke y. Que cerchez vous. Houat sìjk y. Will you haue any Voullez vous auoir du Ouil y hàf any clàs. cloth. drap? Come in, I will show Entrez, ie vous en Com in, ey ouil chaù you some. monstreray. you som. Come hether Ser. Venez ça Monsieur, Com heder Ser. Come in, you shall Entrez, vous aurez Com in, you chàl hàf haue good cheape. bon marché. goud tchéép. See if I haue any Regardez si i'ay Sìj if ey hàf any thing that likes you. quelque chose qui ting dat leiks you. vous duise: I will vse you well. Ie vous feray bon Ey ouil ùs you oueil. marché. You shall finde me as Vous me trouuerez You chàl feind my as reasonable, or more, autant, ou plus rêsonable, or mòr as as any other, raisonable qu'vn any oder, autre, you shall see good vous voirrez de bonne you chàl sij goud wares. marchandise. ouêrs. Come in, if you Entrez, s'il vous Com in, if you pléés. please. plaist. Androw. André. Andro. God be here. Dieu soit ceans. God by hiér. The Drap. Le Drapier. Dé Drap. Well come Ser. Bien venu Monsieur. Ouel com Ser. Androw. André. Andro. Haue you any good Auez vous de bon drap Hàf you any goud bràd broade cloth. large. clàs. Haue you any fine Auez vous du Carisie Hàf you any feìn Caresie. bien fin. kêrsi. Haue you any Caresie Auez vous du creseau Hàf you any kêrsi Flanders deye. tainture de Flandres. Flanders deìj. Haue you any Cottun. Auez vous du rouleau. Hàf you any Cotton. Any Fryse. De la frise. Any freìs. Any rugette. De la reuesche. Any rouguet. Any stamell. De l'Estamet. Any Stamél. Any frisadoe. De la frisade. Any freisàdo. Any sardge. De la sarge. Any sêrge. Any skarlatte. De l'Escarlate. Any skêrlét. Any veluet. Du veloux. Any vêluet. Any granadoe silke. De la soye de Any grenàdo silk. Grenade. Any Spanishe silke. De la soye Any Spanich silk. d'Espaigne. Any satten. Du satin. Any saten. Any damaske. Du damas. Any Damask. Any taffettey. Du taffetas. Any tafeté. Any sarsenet. Du tierselin. Any sarsenet. Any grosgrayne. Du gros-grain. Any gròsgrain. Any chamelet. Du camelot. Any tchamelet. Any worstede. De l'Ostade. Any ouorsted. Any mokadoe. De la Moucade. Any mokado. Any braunched veluet. Du veloux figuré. Any branchd veluet. Any tuffte taffetey. Du taffetas Any touft tafeté. mouchetté. Any Welshe plaine. Du demy drap. Any ouêltch plêin. Any fustiane. De la futaine. Any fustian. Any buckeren. Du bou-gueren. Any boukeren. Any sacke cloth. Du droguet. Any sak clàs. Any holland. De la hollande. Any holland. Any trype veluet. De la tripe de Any treìp vêluet. veloux. Any tuffte veluet. Du veloux moucheté. Any touft vêluet. The Drap. Le drap. Dé Drap. What collour will ye De quelle couleur Houat coleur ouil y haue. voulez vous auoir. hàf. Androw. André. Andro. What collour haue ye. De quelle couleur Houat couleur hàf y. auez vous. The Drap. Le drap. Dé Drap. I haue fayre whitte. I'ay de beau blanc. Ey hàf fêr houeit. Blacke. Du noir Blak. Gray. Du gris. Grê. Fayre French taney. De beau tanay de Fêr Franch tàné. France. Violet. Du violet. Veielet. Greene. Du verd. Griin. Mingled collour. De la couleur meslée. Mingled couleur. Sheepes collour. De la couleur de Chips couleur. brebis. yallow. Du iaulne. yêlo. Blue. Du bleu. Blùù. Orenge collour. De l'orengé. Oringe couleur. Fayre straw collour. De belle couleur de Fére stràà couleur. foirre. Fayre purple collour. De belle couleur de Fêr purple, couleur. pourpre. I haue of all I'en ay de toutes Ey hàf of àl coleurs, collours, and of all couleurs, & à tous and of àl preices. prices. prix. Androw. André. Andro. Showe me some fayre Monstrez moy de beau Chaù my som fêr dark darke greene if you verd-brun si vous en grijn if you hàf any. haue any. auez. The Drap. Le drap. Dé Drap. yea forsoth, I haue Ouy Monsieur, i'en yés farsoùs, ey hàf that which is very aye de fort beau & dat houitch is very fayre, and good. bon. fêr, and goud. There is no better in Il n'y en a point de Dêr is no better in this towne. meilleur en ceste dis tòn. ville. It is of good syse. Il est de bonne It is of goud seìs. laise. Vew it well. voiez le bien Veùù it ouel. Did you euer see En veites vous iamais Did you euer sij better. de meilleur? better. Androw. André. Andro. I haue sene better, I'en ay veu de Ey hàf sijn beter, and worse also. meilleur & de pire and ouors àlso. aussi. Haue you any better. En auez vous point de Hàf you any beter. meilleur. The Drap. Le drap. Dé Drap. yes marye: But it is Sy ay bien mais il ys màry: Bout it is of more higher price. est de plus haut of mòr heier preis. prix. Androw. André. And. Let me haue the sight Monstrez le moy Let my hàf dé seit of of it. it. The Drap. Le drap. Dé Drap. Here is of the best Voi-là du meilleur Hier is of dé best you did euer see. que vous veites dat you did euer sij. onques. Andro. André. And. It is good in did: Il est bon vrayement: It is goud in did: But showe me of the Mais monstrez moy du Bout chaù my of dé very best that you tres meilleur que very best dat you haue. vous aiez. hàf. The Drap. Le drap. Dé Drap. It shalbe done. Hold, Il sera fait, tenez It chàl be don. here is of the best voyla du meilleur que Haùld, hiér is of dé that I haue. i'aye. best dat ey hàf. Androw. André. And. If you haue no Sy vous n'en auez de If you hàf no beter, better, you haue meilleur, vous n'auez you hàf nòting for nothing for me. rien pour moy. my. The Drap. Le drap. Dé Drap. What say you to this Que dites vous de Houat sê you tou dis same. cestuy-cy? sêm. Androw. André. Andro. It is indifferent. Il est indifferent, It is indifferent. So, So. tellement quellement. So, so. The Drap. Le drap. Dé Drap. I haue no better. Ie n'en ay point de Ey hàf no beter. meilleur. The collour is sure. La couleur en est Dé couleur is sùr. seure, It is in grayne. Il est taint en Dé couleur is in graine gràin. It will not stayne. Il ne d'eschargera It ouìl not stêin. point. And. André. And. How sell you the yard Combien en vendez Haù sell you dé yêrd of it? vous la verge. of it? How do you sell the Qu'en vendez vous la Haù dou you sel dé yard. verge. yêrd. How is it the yard. Combien la verge. Haù is it dé yêrd. What shall coast me Que m'en coustera Houat chàl còst my dé the elle? l'aune. êl. What shall I pay for Qu'en payeray ie de Houat chàl ey pê for the yard. la verge. dé yêrd. What shall I geue for Qu'en donneray ie de Houat chàl ey gif for the elle. l'aune. dé êl. What is worth the Que vault la verge de Houat is ouors dé yarde of this cloth. ce drap. yêrd of dis clàs. The Drap. Le Drap. Dé Drap. At one word, I would A vn mot ie le At ouon ouord, ey sell it fayne: for voudrois vendre douze ouold sel it fêin, twelue shillinges and solz huit deniers la for twelue chelins eight pence the yard. verge. and êct pens de yêrd. I sell it for fiften Ie le vends, quinze Ey sel it for fiftin shillings the yard. solz la verge. chelins dé yêrd. It shall caost you Il vous coustera It chàl còst you sixtene shillings, saize souds six sixtin chelins, and and sixe pence the deniers l'aune, six pens dé êl. elle. you shall pay a marke Vous en payrez vn You chàl pê à mark for the yarde of the marke de la verge. for dé yêrd, of dé same. sêm. it is well worth Il vaut bien onze It is ouel ouors eleuen shillings the souds la verge. aleuin chelins dé yard. yêrd. you shall geue me Vous m'en donnerez You chàl gif my twenty shillinges for vint souds de la touenty chelins for the yard. verge. dé yêrd. Androw. André. Andro. It is to much. C'Est trop. It is tou much. you are to deare. Vous estes trop cher. You àr tou dièr. you hold your wares Vous tenez vostre you haùld yor ouêrs, to high. denrée trop haut. tou heij. The Drap. Le drap. Dé Drap. What is it worth of Que vaut-il de vostre Houat is it ouors of your money. argent. yor monné. Androw. André. Andro. I will geue nine I'en donneray neuf Ey ouil gif nein shillings for the souds de la verge. chelins for dé yêrd. yard. The Drap. Le drap. Dé Drap. you offer me not that Vous ne m'en offrez You òffer my not dat it caost me. point ce qu'il me it còst my. couste. What will you geue. Qu'en baillerez vous. Houat ouil you gif. What will ye geue Qu'en voulez-vous Houat ouil y gif for. for. bailler. Tell me a good word, Dittes moy vn bon mot Tel my a goud ouord, that I may sell. à fin que ie vende. dat ey mê sêll. Androw. André. Andro. I will geue ten I'en bailleray dix Ey ouil gif ten shillinges sixe pence soudz six deniers de chelins six pens for for the yard. la verge. dé yêrd. The Drap. Le drap. Dé Drap. I can not sell it for Ie ne le peux vendre Ey can not sêl it fòr that price. à ce prix dat preis. you offer me to much vous m'offrez trop de you òfer my tou mutch lost. perte. làst. Androw. André. Andro. Shall I haue it for L'auray-ie pour Chàl ey hàf it for foureten shillinges. quatorze souds. fòrtin chelins. The Drap. Le drap. Dé Drap. No truely. Non certes. Nò trùlé. I should be a loser I'y serois perdant Il Ey choùld by a lòser by, it caost me more. me couste d'auantage. bey, it còst my mòr. It is better worth. Il vaut d'auantage. It is beter ouors. Androw. And. Andro. It is worth no more. C'est ce qu'il vaut. It is ouors no mòr. Will ye take sixten En voulez vous Ouil y tàk sixtin, shillinges for the prendre saize souds chelins for dé yêrd. yard. de la verge. The Drap. Le drap. Dé Drap. It caost me more then Il me couste plus que It còst my mòr den you offer me. vous ne m'Offrez. you òffer my. Androw. And. Andro. You shall not sell it Vous ne le vendrez you chàl not sel it at your owne word. pas tout à vostre at yor ouòn ouord. mot. The Drap. Le drap. Dé Drap. I could sell it for Ie ne le sçaurois Ey caùld sel it for no lesse. vendre à moins: no les. But bycause I am Mais par ce que ie Bout bycàs ey am desirous to sell: I desire de vendre Ie desireus tou sel: Eyl will bate out a rabattray vn soud de bét aut a chelin of shilling of my price. mon prix mey preis. Androw. And. Andro. At one word, I will A vn mot ie n'en At ouón ourd, ey ouil geue but seuenten donneray que dix-sept gif bout seuentin shillinges for. souds. chelins for. The Drap. Le drap. Dé Drap. It is not mine for Il n'est pas mien à It is not mein for that price. ce prix, toutesfois dat preis: Neuerthelesse, you vous l'aurez. Neuerdéles, you chàl shal haue it. hàf it. Haw much will ye haue Combien en voullez Haù mutch ouil y hàf of it. vous. of it. Androw. And. Andro. I must haue three Il m'en faut trois Ey must hàf trij êls elles and a half. aulnes & demye and a hàlf. The Drap. Le drap. Dé Drap. You shall haue what Vous aurez ce qu'il You chàl hàf houat you please. vous plaira. you pléés. One. Empreud. Ouon. Two. Deux. Toù. Three, and a halfe Trois & demye à bonne Trij, and a hàlf goud good measure. mesure. mésur. Androw. And. Andro. Make good measure I Faites bonne mesure Mêk goud mésur ey pray. ie vous prie. prê. The Drap. Le drap. Dé Drap. Measure it your selfe Mesurez-le vous mesme Mésur it yor self if if you please. s'il vous plaist. you pléés. Androw. And. Andro. It is needelesse, I Il n'en est point de It is nijdles, Ey would trust you in besoin. Ie me fierois ouòld trust you in a greater matter. à vous en plus grande gréter mater. chose. How much must you Combien vous faut il Haù mutch must you haue in all. pour le tout. hàf in àl. The Drap. Le drap. Dé Drap. Three elles, and a Les trois aulnes & Dé trij êls, and a halfe, come to foure demye font quatre hàlf, com tou faòr yardes, and two third verges deux tiers, yêrds, and toù têrd partes of the yard: ainsi à dixsept souds parts of dé yêrd: So So at seuenten la verge, le tout at seuintin chelins shillinges the yard, vaut trois liures dé yerd, dé haòl, the whole, comes to dixneuf souds quatre coms tou trij paund three pound nineten deniers. neintin chelins and shilinges and foure faòr pens. pence. Androw. André. Andro. You say true: Vous dites vray You sê tru: Here is your money. Voila vostre argent. Hiér is yor monné. The Drap. Le drap. Dé Drap. God geue me a good Dieu me doint bonne God gif my a goud handsell, étrene. handsél, I do buy your I'achette vostre ey dou beì yor custome: challandise costum: I hope that you shall I'Espere que vous me Ey hòp dat you chàl bare me good lucke, porterez bon heur, et bêr my goud lok: and and that I shall haue que i'auray dat ey chàl hàf mòr more of your money. d'auantage de vostre of yor monné. argent. Androw. André. Andro. Dout not of is: Fare N'en doutez point à Daut not of it: Far ye well Syr. Dieu Sire. ouel Syr. The Drap. Le drap. Dé Drap. God be wy Syr, at A Dieu Monsieur à God bouey Ser, at yor your commaundement. vostre commandement. commaundement. Androw. And. Andro. But I pray Syr. Mais ie vous prie Bout ey prê you Ser. Sire. Could you not mache Sçauriez vous Coùld you not match this collour? assortir ceste dis colleur. couleur. The Drap. Le drap. Dé Drap. yes forsoth, I can: Ouy Monsieur, Ie le Ye fersoùs, Ey can: peux: We must see: Il faut voir, Ouy must sij: Let me see: Here is Que ie voye, Voila du Let my sij, Hiér is the nearest that I plus sortable que dé nierest dat ey haue. i'ay. hàf. Androw. And. Andro. This like me not. Cestuy-cy ne me Dis leik my not. rauient point. The Drap. Le dra Dé Drap. I haue none other. Ie n'en ay point Ey hàf non oder. d'autre. Androw. And. ANdro. Fare ye well then. A Dieu donc. Far ouel den. The Fishmonger. Le poissonnier. Dé Fichmonguer. What doe you lake. Dequoy auez-vous Houat dy lak. affaire? Ra. Ra. Ra. What fishe haue you. Quel poisson auez Houat fich hàf you. vous. The Fish. Le Pois. Dé Fich. I haue good salt I'ay de bon poisson Ey hàf goud sàlt fish. salé. fich. Soles Des soles. Sòòls. A good plaise. Vne bonne plis. A goud plês. Viuers. Des viures. Veiuers. Rotches, or Des rouges. Rotches, or Gornettes. Gornettes. Whittinges. Des merlenc. Houeittings. Waisters. Des huistres. Ouêsters. Thurnebacke. De la Raye. Tornebak. Smeltes. De l'eperlenc. Smelts. Redde hering. Du hareng sor. Red hering. Whitte hering. Du hareng blanc. Houeit hering. Shrimpes. De la creuette. Cherimps. A loupster. Vn hommar. A laùpster. Crabbes. Des escreuices. Cràbs. A picke. Vn brochet. A pik. A pickerell. Vn brocheton. A pikerel. A millers thumbe. Vn gouion. A milers tombe. A saumond. Vn saumond. A Sàmon. A lamproye. Vne lamproye. A làmproê. Elles. Des anguilles. Iìles. A dorey. Vne dorée. A doré. A makerell. Vn maquereau. A makrél. A trouette. Vne trouite. A traut. Smal lamproyes. Des lamprions. Smàl làmproês. Moskels. Des mousles. Mouscles. Cockelles. Des coques. Cocles. A tenche. Vne tenche. A tentch. A carpe. Vne carpe. A kêrp. Kempes. Des pimperneaux. Kémps. A whale. Vne ballaine. A Houàl. And of sondry other Et de plusieurs And of sondré òder fishes. autres poissons. fiches. Ra. Ra. Ra. What shall I pay for Que payeray-ie pour Houat chàl ey pê for a quarteron of vn quarteron a kouartern of waisters, for this d'huistres, pour ce ouêsters: for dis side of salt fish. costé de poisson seìd of sàlt fich. salé, For this Thurnbacke, Pour cette raye & For dis tornbac, and and for half a pour demy cent for hàlf a hondred of hundreth of smelts. d'Eperlenc. smelts. The Fish. Le Poisson. Dé Fich. Will you haue but one Ne voulez vous auoir Ouil you hàf bout word. qu'vn mot. ouon ouord Ra. Ra. Ra. No. Non. Nò. The Fish. Le poiss. Dé Fich. you shall paye eight Vous en paierez huit you chàl pê êèct grotes for. gros. grates for. Ra. Ra. Ra. I shall not: I will Non feray, ie n'en Ey chàl not: Eyl pê pay, but fiue grotes paieray que cinq bout feif gràtes for. for. gros. The Fish. Le poiss. Dé Fich. you come not to buy. vous ne venez point you com not tou beì. pour acheter. Ra. Ra. Ra. But I doe: But you Sy fais, mais vous Bout ey dou: Bout you will sell your waeres voulez vendre vostre ouil sel yor ouérs to deare. denrée trop chere. tou diér. Will you take money. Voulez vous prendre Ouil y tàk mey monné. mon argent. The Fish. Le poiss. Dé Fich. yes, with other: Ouy, auec d'autre: yé, ouis oder: A word wye Syr. vn mot auec vous A ourd ouéy: Sèr. Sire. I will buy your I'acheteray vostre Ey ouil beì yor custume. chalandise. costum. Take all for two Prenez le tout pour Tàk àl for tou shillinges. deux solz. chelins. Ra. Ra. Ra. I will pay no more Ie n'en payeray non Eyl pê no mor for. for. plus. The Fish. Le Poiss. Dé Fich. I should be a looser I'y perdrois: Iettez Ey choùld by a louser by: Cast th'other two les autres deux by: Cast toder tou pence. deniers. pens. Ra Ra. Ra. I can not. Ie ne peux. Ey can not. The Fish. Le Poiss. Dé Fich. Take it in Gods name. Prenez le au nom de Tàk it in Gods nêm. Dieu. Ra. Ra. Ra. Hold here is your Tenez, voy-la vostre Haùld, hiér is yor monney. payement. monné. Fare you well. A Dieu. Far y ouel. The Butcher Le Boucher Dé Boutcher. What doe you buy? Qu'achetez vous. Houat dy beì. Come hether Syr. Venez ça Monsieur. Com heder Sér. What will you haue? Que voulez vous Houat ouil y hàf. auoir. What lake you? Dequoy auez vous Houat lak y. affaire. Simon. Simon. Seimon. A fatte shippes Vne chair de mouton A fat chips flech flesh. gras. A side of porke. Vn costé de pourceau. A seìd of pork. This breast of beefe. C'este poitrine de Dis brést of bif. beuf. A quarter of vealle. Vn quartier de veau. A kouarter of of véél. A nettes toung. Vne langue de beuf. a nets tòng. This roumpe of beefe. C'este queu de beuf. Dis ròmp of bif. A calfes plucke. Vne couroy de veau. a calfs pluk. Calfes feete. Des pieds de veau. Càlfes fit. Sheepes feete. Des pieds de mouton. Chips fit. A sheepes head. Vne teste de mouton. a chips hed. A sheepe gather. vne couroye de a chips gàder. mouton. A calfes leagge. vne iambe de veau. a càlfs lég. A shoulder of motton. vne espaule de a choùlder of mouton. moutton. A loygne of veale. vne longe de veau. a loueìn of véél. A quarter of lambe. vn quartier d'agneau. a kouarter of làmb. The butch. Le bou. Dé bout. I haue the beast I'ay la meilleure Ey hàf de best mét in meate in this towne viande de c'este dis tòòn, and dé and the fatest. ville, & la plus fatest. grasse. Choose. Choisissez. Tchoùs. Simon. Simon. Seimon. How sell you the Que vendez vous le Haù sèl y dé ouèct of waight of this beef. poids de ce beuf. dis bif. The bu. Le bou. Dé bout. Foureten pence the Quatorze deniers le Fortin pens dé ouèct, waight if you will. poids, si vous if you ouil. voulez. Simon. Symon. Seimon. I will pay for it I'en paieray douze Eil pê for it touelf twelfe pence at a deniers à vn mot. pens at a ouord. word. The butch. Le bou. Dé bout. You must come higher: Il vous faut monter You must com heier: plus haut For my wares is not Car ma marchandise For mey ouêr is not leane: See in an n'est point maigre: léén: Sìi in an oder other place, and if voiez en vn autre plàs, and if you dou you doe finde, fatter lieu & si vous feind, fater flech flesh then myne you trouuez de la chair den meìn, you chàl shall haue it at your plus grasse que la hàf it at yor preis. price. mienne vous l'aurez à vostre prix. Simon. Simon. Seimon. I am a man one at Ie suis homme à vn Ey am a man at ouon word. mot. ouord. The Butch. Le bou. Dé Bout. Take the wares Prenez la marchandise Tàk dé ouêr ouis aut without money, and as sans argent, & comme monné, and as you you shall finde it, vous la trouuerez chàl feind it, you you shall pay me for. vous paierez. chàl pê my for. Simon. Symon. Seimon. I thanke you: Take my Ie vous remercye, Ey tànk y: Tàk mey money if you may. prenez mon argent si monné if you mê. vous pouuez. The Butch. Le bou. Dé Bout. You shall haue it, vous l'aurez pour You chàl hàf it, for for the old l'amour de la vielle dé auld ackouintàns acquaintance sake: accointance: sêk: Will you haue all the vouléz vous auoir Ouil y hàf àl dé whole side. tout le costé. haùld seìd? Simon. Simon. Seimon. Yes, what doth it Ouy, combien est-ce Eys, houat dous it waight? qu'il poise? ouèèct? The Butch. le bou. Dé Bout. It waightes, fiue Il poise, Cinq poids, It ouèèctes, toù waightes, tho deux liures & demye à paonds, and a hàlf, poundes, and a halfe bon poidz. goud ouèèct. good waight. Simon. Symon. Seimon. Hold, here is fiue Tenez, voy-la cinq Haùld, hiér is fef shillinges and foure soulz quatre deniers, chelins and fòr pens. pence I pray GOD to graunt Ie prye Dieu qu'il Ey prê God tou grànt you a good market. vous doint vn bon you a goud market. marché. The Butch. Le bou. Dé Bout. Fare you well brother A Dieu mon frere Far y ouel broder Simon. Symon. Seimon. At your à vostre At yor commaundement. commaundement. commandement. At the table. A la Table. At dé tabel. THe maister. LE maistre. Dé mêster. The Mistresse. La Maistresse. Dé mistres. The neighbour. Le voisin. Dé nêbeur. The schoolemaister. Le maistre d'Escole. Dé scoùlmêster. The sonne. Le filz. Dé son. The daughter. La fille, Dé dààter. The man seruaunt. Le seruiteur. Dé man seruant. The mayde seruaunt. La seruante. Dé mêd seruant. The Maister. Le maistre. Dé mêster. Dicke. Richard. Dik. Richard. Richard. Rithard. Anone forsoth. What Tantost pour vray: Anen for sòùs. Houat is your pleasure. Quel est vostre is yor plêsur? plaisir? The Maist. Le mais. Dé mêst. Goe tell my neighbour va dire à mon voisin Go tel mey nêèbeur roper, that I pray le cordier que ie le roper, dat ey prê him him to come to morow prie de venir demain tou com tou màro tou to dine with me: And disner auec moy, & deìn ouis my: and from thence. Go thou de-là, t'en va prier from dèns, Gò dau desire my sonnes le Maistre d'escole deseìr mey sons scoùl schoolemaister, to de mon filz de nous mêster, tou bêr vs beare vs compaignie. faire compagnye. company. Richard. Rich. Ri. Well Syr. Bien Monsieur. Ouel Sér. Good euen maister Bon soir Monsieur le Goud ìuin mêster roper. cordier. Ròper. The neigh. Le voisin. Dé néèb. Good euen my frend. Bon soir mon amy. Goud ìuin mey frìnd. Rich. Richard. Ri. My maister deisireth Mon maistre vous prie Mey mêster deseires you to beare him de luy faire you to bêr him company to morow at compagnie, demain à company tou màro at dyner. disner. diner. The neigh. Le voisin. Dé nèèb. How doth your Comment se portent Haù dous yor mèster, maister, and your vostre maistre, & and yor méstris? mistresse. vostre maitresse. Rich. Ric. Ri. They be in good Ilz sont en bonne Dê by in goud hels, health, thankes be to santé Dieu mercy. tànks by tou God. God. The neigh. Le voisin. Dé nèèb. Where be them? Où sont-ilz? Houèr by dem? Rich. Ric. Rich. They be at home. Ils sont au logis. Dey by at hòm. The neigh. Le voisin. Dé nèèb. Haue me recommaunded Recommandez moy Hàf my recommanded To him. à luy. To him. To her. à elle. To hèr. To them. à eux. Tou dem. And tell them, that I Et leur dittes, que And tel dem, dat ey will not misse. ie n'y failliray pas. ouil not mis. Rich. Rich. Ri. I will tell them so: Ie le leur diray Dieu Ey ouil tem dem so: God saue you Syr. vous gard Monsieur. God sàf y Ser. The school. Le M. d'E. Dé scoùlmè. And you also my Et vous aussi mon And you also mey frend: amy. frìnd. What newes? Quelles nouuelles? Houat nùùs? Rich. Richart. Ri. My maister, and my Mon maistre & ma Mey mêster, and mey mistresse desire you, maitresse vous prient mistres deseir you, to dine to morow with de disner demain auec tou dein tou màro, them. eux. ouis dem. The school. Le Mai. d'Ec. Dé schoùl. I trouble them euery Ie les trouble Ey troubel dem eury foote: But sence they tousiours, mais puis fout: Bout Sìns dê will haue it so: qu'ilz le veullent ouil hàf it so: ainsi, I will come. I'yray. Ey ouil com. Rich. Rich. Ri. Fare you well Syr. A Dieu Monsieur. Far y ouel Ser. The school. Le M. d'E. Dé scoùl. God be wy my frend A Dieu Richard mon God bouey mey frìnd Dicke. amy Dik. Haue me recommanded Recommandez moy à Hàf my recommanded to your maister, and vostre maistre, & à tou yor mêster, and to your mistresse vostre maistresse tou yor mestris àlso. also. aussy. Ri. Rich. Ri. I will tell them so. Ie leur diray ainsi. Ey ouil tel dem so. The maist. Le mai. Dé maist. Will they come? Viendront ilz. Ouil dé com? Ri. Rich. Ri. I Syr. Ouy Monsieur, Ey Ser. They promised so. ilz ont ainsi promis. Dê promised so. The neigh. Le voisin Dé nèèb. God be here. Dieu soit ceans. God by hiér. The mistresse. La Maistr. Dé mestr. Good morow neighbour. Bon iour mon voisin Goud màro nèèbeur. Here well come. Vous estés le bien Hiér ouel com. venu. The neigh. Le voisin. Dé nèèb. I thanke ye Ie vous remercye, Ey tànk y mestris. mistresse. Madmoyselle. The school. Le M. D'Es. Dé scoùl. God saue all the Dieu gard toute la God sàf àl dé company. compagnye. company. The maist. Le maist. Dé mèst. Well come Syr. Bien venu, Monsieur. Ouel com Ser. The school. Le Maistre. Dé scoùl. I thanke you Syr. Ie vous remercye Ey tànk y Ser. Monsieur. The maist. La Maitresse. Dé mestris. Why is not come my Que n'est venue ma Houey is not com mey gossip your wife? commere vostre femme. gassip yor oueif? The school. Le M. d'Es. Dé scoùl. She is very busie at Elle est fort Chy is very busé at home. empeschée au logis, hòm. She is gone forth. elle est allée Chy is gon fors. dehors, Shee is gone to the elle est allée au Chy is gon tou dé market. marché market. The mist. La maistresse. Dé mest. What to doe? Que faire. Houat tou dou. The school. Le M. d'Es. Dé Scoùl. She is gone thether Elle y est allée Chy is gon déder tou to buy sone egges. achetter des oeufs. beì som égues. A pigge. Vn cochon. A pigge. Some nuttes. Des noix. Som nuts. Some peasen. Des poix. Som péésen. Som beanes. Des feues. Som bééns. Some aotte meale. Du gruau Som oatmèl. Some pudinges. Des boudins. Som poudings. som saucerlings. Des saucisses. Som sàcerlings Some apples. Des pommes. Some appels. Some peares. Des poires. som pèèrs. Some pease cottes. Des poix en gousse som péés cots. Som cherises. Des cerises. som tcherises. Some raisins. Du raisin. som rèsins. Some figges. Des figues. som figues. Some butter. Du beurre. som bouter. Some rise. Du ris. som reis. Some milke. Du laict. som milk. Some plummes. Des prunes. som plommes. Some prunes. Des pruneaux. som prùnes. Some almondes Des amandes. som àlmonds. Some turneps. Des naueaux. som turneps. A pye, or a pasty. Vn pasté. a pei, or a pasté. A caeke. Vn gasteau. a kêk. A custarde. Vn flan. a costard. Some oringes. Des orenges. som oringes. Some lymones. Des citrons. som leimons. A cabushe. Vn chou à pomme. a cabuch. A henne. Vne poulle. a hen. The mistr. La maistresse Dé mest. Be her affaires so Sont ses affaires si By hêr affêres so great that she may grandes qu'elle ne grét, dat chy mê not not come? puisse venir com? The school. Le M. d'Es. Dé scoùl. I, in deede. Ouy en verité. Ey, in did. The mist. La maist. Dé mést. It shalbe then for an Ce sera donc pour vne It chàl by den for an other tyme. autre fois. oder teìm. The neigh. Le voisin. Dé nêèb. Be it so. Il soit ainsi. Be it so. The maist. Le Maistre. Dé mést. You be all well come. Vous estés tous les You by àl ouel come: bien venuz: Much good may it do Bon prou vous face. Mitch gréty. to you. You see your fare. Vous voiez vostre You sìi yor fêr. chere. The mist. Le Mai. Dé mést. Pore here some Versez icy à boire. Pòr hiér som drink. drinke. To you Syr. I A vous Monsieur, ie Tou you Sèr. Ey recommaunde you my vous recommande mon recommànd you mey sonne. Filz. sonne. The school. Le M. d'Es. Dé scoùl. I thanke your Ie vous remercye, Ey tànk y mestris: mistresse: Madamoyselle. your some is Vostre filz m'est Yor son is altogether tout recommandé. àltougueder recommanded vnto me: C'est vn tres-gentil recommanded ontou my: He is a very prety enfant. He is a very prety child. tcheild. The mist. la Maistresse. Dé mést. But a very shroude Mais vn tres-mauuais Bout a very cheraùd boy. garçon. bouê. The neigh. Le voisin. Dé nêèb. He is the mothers C'est le filz de la Hy is dé moders son. sonne. Mere. The mist. La més. Dé mèst. I loue him in deede. Ie l'aime voirement. Ey lof him did. The maist. Le Maistre. Dê mêst. What newes? Quelles nouuelles? Houat nùùs? The neigh. Le voisin. Dé nêèb. There is no other Il n'y a nulles Der is not oder nùùs, newes, but of the nouuelles, autres que bout of dé siknes, sickenesse and the de la maladie & de la and dé dêrs, houitch dearth, which be now cherté, qui sont by nàu a dês àlmost a dayes almost auiourd'huy presque teràut àl Fràns. throughout all par toute la France. Fraunce. The maist. Le Maistre. Dé mèst. It is Gods hand which C'est la main de It is Gods hand, reuengeth the iniurie Dieu, qui venge houitch reuengés dé done to his Church. l'iniure faite à son iniurie don tou his Eglise. Tchéurtch. The neigh. Le voisin. Dé nêèb. you say true. Vous dites vray. you sê tru. The maist. Le Maistre. Dé mêst. I beleue, that there Ie croy qu'il en Ey bilìf, dat dêr scappes alwayes some eschappe tousiours skêps alouès som of of them. quelques vns. dem. The neigh. Le voi. Dé nègh. Few, or none at all. Peu ou point du tout. Feù, or non at àl. The maist. Le Mais. Dé mèst. Is the number of them Le nombre en est-il Is dé nomber of dem great, that are come grand, de ceux qui grét, dat àr com òuer ouer into this sont passez en ce into dis contré. countrey? païs The neigh. Le voi. Dé nèèb. Very great: and there Fort grand & y en a Very grêt: and dêr by be many of them beaucoup qui viuent many of dem houich whiche doe liue very bien à peine, tant dou lif very hard, so hard, so great is leur pauureté est grét is dêr pouerté. their pouertie. grande. The maist. Le Mai. Dé mèst. Truely, I take great vrayement i'ay grant Trùlé ey tàk grêt pitie of their pitié de leur pity of dèr miserable miserable estate: But miserable estat: Mais estêt: Bout ey hòp, I hope that God will i'espere que Dieu dat God ouil remember remember them: for he aura memoire d'eux, dem: For he néuer neuer forsaketh them Car il n'abandonne forsékes dem houitch which doe thrust in iamais, ceux qui dou trust in him. him. esperent en luy. The maist. Le maist. Dé mèst. Commen Syrs, let Ça messieurs, que Commen Sers, let eury euery one take rowme. chacun prenne place. ouon tàk roùm. Iames pray God. Iaques priez Dieu. Iéms, prê God. Iames, sonne. Iaques, filz. Iémes son. The eyes of all Toutes choses Dé eìs of al tings thinges do looke vp, regardent à toy, dou louk op, and and thrust in thee, O Seigneur, tu leur trust in dy, O Lord, Lord, thou geuest donnes viande en duë dau giuest dem mét in them meate in due saison: Tu ouures ta dùù sééson: dau season: Thou openest main, & remplis de openest dey hand and thy hand and fillest tes benedictions, filest ouis dey with thy blessing toute chose viuante blessing eury liuing euery liuyng thing: ting: Good Lord Blesse vs, Bon Seigneur beny Goud Lord bles vs, and all thy giftes, nous, & tous les dons and àl dey gifts, which we do receaue lesquelz nous houitch ouy dou recéf of thy bounteous receuons de ta large of dej bontieus liberality through liberalité, par Iesus libéralité, terau Iesu Christ our Lord. Christ nostre IESV Chreist aouor Seigneur. Lord. The maist. Le maist. Dé mêst. So be it. Ainsi soit il. So be it. Mary daugh. Marye fille. Mary dààht. Let vs eate, and Mangeons, Buuons, Let vs éét, and drinke, recognoissans, que drink, alknoledging, acknowledging, that tous biens, sont de dat àl goudnes dou all goodnesse doe Dieu venans. com of God. come of God. In the name of the Au nom du pere, & du In dé nêm of dé Father, and of the filz & du sainct fàder, and of dè son, sonne, and of the Esprit. and of dé holy gòst. holy ghost. The school. Le M. d'Es. Dé scoùl. It is a most true C'est vn dit tres It is a most tru saying. ueritable. sêing. The maist. Le maist. Dé mèst. You spend the tyme in Vous passez le temps You spend dé teìm in talking, and you eate en deuis & ne mangez tàlking and you éét nothing. point. nòting. Geue vs some whitte Donnez nous du pain Gif vs som houeit bread. blanc: bréd. Some manchet. Du pain de bouche. som haùsòld bréd: Bring the second Apportez le second Bring dé second course. seruice. couòrs. Goe fetche the Allez querir le Go fetch dé frut. fruite: dessert. Geue here a tarte, Baillez icy vne Gif hiér a tàrt, and and a custarde. tarte, & vne dariole. a costard. My frend, haue we not M'amye auons nous pas Mey frìnd, hàf ouy a cake. vn gasteau? not a kêk? The mist. La maist. Dé mest. Here is one. En voy-cy vn. Hiér is ouon. The maist. Le maist. Dé mést. you be very litle Vous estes You by very litle eaters: fort-petits mangeurs. ééters. Take away, and pore Ostez d'icy, & nous Tàk aouê, and pouòr vs some wine: versez du vin. vs som oueìn. My sonne come say Mon filz, venez dire Mey son, com sê graces. graces. graces. Iames. Iaques. Iéms. The kyng of eternall Le Roy de gloire Dé king of eternal glory, make vs eternelle, nous face glory, mêk vs partakers of his participans de sa partàkers of his heauenly table. celeste table. héuinlé tàble. The school. Le M. d'Es. Dé scoùl. So be it. Ainsi soit-il. So by it. Mary. Marie. Mêry. God saue his Dieu sauue son Eglise God sàf his vniuersal vniuersal Church our vniuerselle, nostre tchurch aouor Kuìn, Queene and the Royne, & royaume & and dé réélme, and Realme, and graunt vs nous doint paix, & grànt vs péés and peace, and truth in verité en Iesus trus in Chreist Christ Iesus. Christ. Iesus. The neigh. Le voisin. Dé nèèb. So be it. Ainsi soit-il. So by it. The maist. Le maist. Dé mèst. God blesse you my Dieu vous benye mes God bles you mey children: enfans: tchildren: Syrs, come nere the Messieurs, approchez Sers, com niér dé fier. du feu. feier: There ayre of the l'air du feu est dé èèr of dé feier is fire is alwayes good. tousiours bon. àlouês goud. Make vs a good fire. Faites nous vn bon Mêk vs a goud feier. feu. Bring a byllet, or Apportez vne busche, Bring a bylet or tou. twayne. ou deux Now goe fetch a Fagot Maintenant allez Naù go fetch a faguet and some coales. querir vn fagot & du and som còles. cherbon. The school. Le M. d'Es. Dé scoùl. Syr, it is tyme to Monsieur, il est Ser, It is teìm tou goe. temps de se retirer. go. The maist. Le maist. Dé mèst. What hast haue you? Quelle haste auez Houat hàst, hàf you? vous. The school. Le M. d'Es. Dé scoùl. I must goe to my Il faut que i'aille à Ey must go tou mey schollers, to the end mes escoliers, afin scolers tou dé énd dê they leese no tyme. qu'ilz ne perdent lìjs no teìm. point le temps. The maist. Le maist. Dé mèst. You haue yet tyme Vous auez encores You hàf yet teìm enough. temps assez. enof. The school. Le M. d'Es. Dé scoùl. I pray you to geue me Ie vous prye me Ey prê you tou gif my leaue this once, an donner congé ceste lééf, dis ouons, an other tyme you shall fois, vne autre fois oder teìm you chàl commaund me. vous me commanderez. commaund my. The maist. Le maist. Dé mêst. Syr, you shalbe Monsieur, vous me Ser, you chàlby alwayes, well come to serez tousiours bien àlouès, ouel com tou me: venu: my: I would be loth to Ie serois bien marry Ey ould by làs tou let you from your de vous empescher de let you from yor goud good worke. vostre bonne oeuure. ouork. The school. Le M. d'Es. Dé scoùl. I thanke you sir: Grand mercy Monsieur: Ey tànk you ser: Goud Good euen mistresse. Bon soir ìuin méstris. Madamoiselle. The neigh. Le voisin. Dé nèèb. God be wy sir, and A Dieu Monsieur, & God boey ser, and you you also mistresse. vous aussi also méstris. Madamoiselle. I thanke you for your Ie vous remercie de Ey tànk y for yor good chere. vostre bonne chere. goud tchiér. The maist. Le maist. Dé mèst. It is not worth El' ne vaut pas le It is not ouors thankes, good euen remercier, Bon soir tànks: Goud ìuin neighbour, you are voisin, Vous estes le nèèbeur: you àr ouel well come. bien venu. com. The mistres. La maist. Dé mést. Fare ye well Syrs: We A Dieu Messieurs, Far ouel sers: Oui doe thanke you for nous vous remercions dou tànk y for yor your good company. de vostre bonne goud company. compagnye. Iames, Goe to Iaques allez à Iéms, Go tou scoùl schoole, with your l'Escole quand & ouis yor mèster. maister. vostre maistre. Iames. Iaques. Iéms. Well mother, I goe. Bien ma mere i'y vay. Ouel moder ey go. At playing. Au Ieu. At plêing. PEter. PIerre. Pìter. Iames. Iaques. Iéms. Thomas. Thomas. Tàmes. Stephen. Estienne. Stìuin. The scholemaister. Le precepteur. Dé scoùlemêster. The Vsher. Le sousmaistre. Dé Oucher. The seruaunt. Le seruiteur Dé seruant. The school. Le precep. Dé scoùl. What is it of the Quelle heure est il? Houat ist a clàk? clocke? Peter. Pierre. Pìter. It is almost two a Il est pres de deux It is àlmost toù a clocke. heures clak. Tyme to goe to play temps d'aller iouer Teìm tou go tou plê if it please you to s'il vous plaist nous if it pléés you tou geue vs leaue. donner congé. gif vs lééf. The school. Le precep. Dé scoùl. Children, Goe play: Enfans allez iouer: Tchildren, Go plê: But take heede that Mais gardez de Bout tàk hìjd dat you you hurt not one an blesser l'vn l'autre. heurt not ouon an other. oder. Iames. Iaques. Iéms. I thanke you maister. Grand mercy mon Ey tànk y mèster. Maistre. The Vsher. Le sousmai. Dé Oucher. Doe soe, that we here Faites que nous Dou so dat ouy hier no complaintes on ye. n'oyons nulle no complaints on y. plaintes de vous. Peter. Pierre. Pìter. We will play quitely. Nous iouerons Ouy ouil plê paisiblement. kouittlê. Stephen. Estienne. Stìuin. What game shal we A quel ieu iourons Houat gêm chàl ouy play at? nous. plé at? Peter. Pierre. Pìter. Let vs play at dyce. Iouons aux dez. Let vs plê at deìs. Iames. Iaques. Iéms. I did neuer learne to Ie n'apprins iamais à Ey did neuer lêrn tou play at dyce. iouer aux dez. plê at deìs. Peter. Pierre. Pìter. Let vs then play at Iouons donques aux Let vs den plê at tables. tables. tàbels. Stephen. Estienne. Stìuin. Our maister should Nostre Maistre n'en Aouor mêster choùld not be wel pleased seroit point content. not be ouel plêsed with all. ouis àl. Peter. Pier. Pìter. Shall we then play at Iourons nous donques Chàl ouy den plê at boules? aux boules. baùles? Stephen. Estienne. Stìuin. No: But we shall play Non: mais nous Nò: Bout ouy chàl plê at tanyse, or els at iourons à la paume, at tanis, or èls at Cartes. ou bien aux cartes. kêrtes. Iames. Iaques. Iéms. Let it be at Cartes, Aux cartes soit. Nous Let it by at kêrts we bestow our tyme in emploions nostre ouy bystaù aouor teìm vayn: and I feare temps en vain. Et in vaìn: and ey fêr much, that our crains beaucoup que mutch, dat aouor maister calles vs to nostre maistre nous mêster càls vs tou our bookes, before we appelle pour aller à aouor bouks, bifòr haue begon our game. noz liures, auant que ouy hàf bygon aouor nous aions Commencé gêm. nostre ieu. Peter. Pierre. Pìter. Let vs then play for Iouons donques pour Let vs den plê for pynes. des esplingues. pines. Stephen. Estienne. Stìuin. Let it be so: But let Bien soit: Mais Let it by so: Bout vs hast to begin. hastons nous de let vs hàst tou commencer. byguin. Shall we play at Iourons nous à la Chàl ouy plê at Trumpe? Triomfe? Tromp. Peter. Pierre. Pìter. Yea. Ouy. Yé. Stephen. Estienne. Stìuin. How shall we play? Comment iourons nous? Haù chàl ouy plê? Peter. Pierre. Pìter. The kyng shalbe worth Le roy vaudra six Dé king chàl by ouors six pynes, The esplingues, La Roine six pines. Dê Quìn, Queene, foure: quatre. faor: The knaue, two: and Le varlet deux & Dé kenéf, toù: and eche carte one: and chaque carte vne: & etch kêrt ouon: and who haue the asse qui aura l'ar, hoù chàl hàf dé às shall rubbe. pillera chàl rob. Thomas. Thomas. Tames. You say well: Vous dittes bien you say ouel: We will play my nous iouerons mon ouy ouil plê mey brother, and I frere & moy contre broder, and ey agaynst Stephen and Estiene & contre against Stìuin, and against you. vous. against you. Peter. Pierre. Pìter. Will you haue it so Le voulez vous ainsi Ouil you hàf it so, Stephen? Estiene. Stìuin. Stephen. Estiene. Stìuin. Yea. Ouy. Yé. Thomas. Thomas. Tames. Let vs begin then. Commençons donc: Let vs begin den. Who shal deale? Qui donnera. Hoù chàl déél? Peter. Pierre. Pìter. The same shall deale, Celuy donnera qui Dé sêm chàl déél, dat that shall cut the couppera la plus chàl cout dé fêrest fayrest carte. haute carte kêrt. Iames. Iaques. Iéms. Let vs see then: Who Voions donc qui Let vs sij den hoù shall deale. donnera. chàl déél. Stephen. Estiene. Stìuin. I must deale: for I Ie donneray: Car I'ay Ey must déél: for ey did cut a kyng. couppé vn Roy. did cout a kyng. Iames. Iaques. Iéms. Deale twelue a peece. Donnez en à chacun Déél touelf a pìjs. douze. Thomas. Thomas. Tames. Nine for euery man is C'est assez de chacun Neìn for eury man is enough. neuf. enof. Peter. Pierre. Pìter. Well deale then. Bien donnez donc. Ouel déél den. Stephen. Estiene. Stìuin. I dealt right. The I'ay donné Ey dêlt reict: Dé trumpe is. Of droitement, la tromp. Of cloubs. clubbes. triumphe est de trefles. Of hartes. De coeurs. Of harts. Of speades. De piques. Of spêds. Of dyamondes. De carreaux. Of deiamands. Peter. Pierre Pìter. I rubbe: But you Ie pille: Mais vous Ey rob: Bout you dealt all to them. leur auez tout donné. dêlt àl tou dem. Stephen. Estiene. Stìuin. I can not mende it: Ie n'y sçaurois que Ey can not mend it: faire. The cartes did rise Les cartes sont ainsi Dé kêrtes did reìs so. venues. so. Peter. Pierre. Pìter. You did not shufle Vous ne les auez pas You did not chofel them wel. bien meslées. dem ouel. Stephen. Estiene. Stìuin. But I haue. Sy ay. Bout ey hàf. Thomas. Thomas. Tames. You doe owe me euery Vous me deuez chacun You dou aù my eury man two pinnes, for deux esplingues, pour man toù pines, for dé the knaue that I le varlet que i'ay. knêf dat ey hàf. haue. Stephen. Estiene. Stìuin. Let see. Voions le. Let sij. Thomas. Thomas. Tames. Here it is. Voy-le-la. Hiêr it is. Iames Iaques. Iéms. And you do owe me Et vous m'en deuez And you dou aù my euery man ten, for chacun dix, pour le eury man ten, for dé the king, and the Roy & la Roine. king, and dé kuìn. Queene Peter. Pierre. Pìter. Show them. Monstrez-les. Chaù dem. Iames. Iaques. Iéms. Here be them. Les voyla. Hiér by dem. Peter. Pierre. Pìter. Notwithstandyng all Neantmoins toutes voz Notouistanding àl yor your fayre cartes, I belles cartes, I'ay fêr kêrts, Ey hàf dé haue the game: And la partie: Et m'en guêm: and you dou aù you do owe me euery deuez chacun pour six my eury man, for six man, for six cartes. cartes kêrts. The seruaunt. Le ser. Dé seruant. Children, Come to you Enfans venez à voz Tchildren: Com tou bookes: The liures: le precepteur yor bouks: Dé schoolmaister doth vous attend à scoùlmêster dous taré tary for you in the l'Escole. for you in dê scoùl. schoole. Peter. Pierre. Pìter. We doe but begyn to Nous ne faisons que Ouy dou bout biguin play. commencer à iouer. tou plê. Do you call vs all Nous appellez vous Dou you càl vs ready? desia. àlredy. you ieste I beleue. Vous vous moquez You iest ey bilìf. comme ie croy. The seruaunt. Le ser. Dé seruant. I doe not: Non fay. Ey dou not: Come I pray you, Venez ie vous prye, Com ey prê, lest you least you be beaten. que ne soiez batus. by bétin. Peter. Pierre. Pìter. Let vs goe then, and Allons donc & nous Let vs go den and ouy we shall make an end acheuerons vne autre chàl mèk an énd an an other tyme. fois. oder teìm. Iames. Iaque. Iéms. Our maister commeth Nostre precepteur Aouor mêster coms himselfe for vs. vient luy mesme pour himselfe for vs. nous. The school. Le precep. Dé scoùl. Will you neuer be Serez vous iamais las Ouil you neuer be weary of playing: de iouer? ouéry of plêing: To your bookes, and A voz liures, et & Tou yor bouks, and learne well your aprenez bien voz lèrne ouel den go you lessons: Then goe you leçons, puis vous en hòm koueietlé. home quietly. allez au logis paisiblement. Peter. Pierre. Pìter. So shall we doe Aussi ferons nous mon So chàl ouy dou maister. maistre. mèster. Iames. Iaque. Iéms. Good euen maister. Bon soir mon Maistre. Goud ìuin mèster. The school. Le prece. Dé scoùl. Where is your cutsie? Où est vostre Houèr is yor keursi? reuerence you forget it Vous l'oubliez You forguet it alwayes: tousiours. alouês. Haue me recommaunded Recommandez moy à voz Hàf my recommanded to your parents, and parents: Et soiez icy tou yor pàrents, and be here to morow demain de bonne by hiér tou màro by betymes. heure. teìms. Vpon the way. Sur le chemin Oppon dé ouê. THe Gentelman. LE Gentilhomme. Dé Gentilman. The marchaunt man. Le Marchand. Dé martchandmand. The seruing man. Le seruiteur. Dé seruyng man The plowman. Le Laboureur. Dé plaùmann. The Inne keeper L'hostelier. Dé ìn kìper. The Gentel. Le Gen. Dé gent. Neadd, bring hether Edouard amene icy mon Néd, bring héder mey my horse, It is great cheual. Il est grand hors. It is grét teìm tyme to be goyng. temps de partir. tou by going. The seruing. Le ser. Dé seruyng. When you please: sir Quand il vous plaira, Houen you pléés: ser here is your horse. Monsieur voicy vostre hiér is yor hors. cheual. The gentel. Le gent. Dé gent. Let vs ride a a good Allons bon pas pour Let vs reìd a goud passe, to ouertake atteindre c'est homme pàs, tou ouertàk dat that man, which doth qui cheuauche là man, houitch dous ride there afore vs: deuant nous. Dieu reìd dêr afòr vs: God God saue you sir. gard. Sire. sàf y ser. The march. Le mar. Dé march. God blesse you Syr. Dieu vous benie God bles you Ser. Monsieur. The gentel. Le gent. Dé gent. Whether go you sir. Où allez vous Sire. Houéder go you Ser? The march. Le march. Dé march. I would fayne be in Ie voudrois estre en Ey oùld feìn by in Fraunce. France. Frans. The gentl. Le Gen. Dé gent. And I also. Et moy aussi. And ey also, But where about do Mais où vous pensez Bout houêr abaut dou you mynde to take vous embarquer? you meind tou tàk shipping? chippìng? The march. Le Mar. Dé march. At Rye, God willing. A la Rye, Dieu At Rey, God ouiling. aidant. The gentel. Le Gen. Dé gent. I would we were Ie voudrois que nous Ey oùld ouy ouêr dêr. there. y fussions. The march. Le Mar. Dé march. I hope we shalbe I'espere que nous y Ey hòp ouy chàl by there to morow serons demain de dêr tou màro byteìms. betymes. bonne heure. The gentel. Le Gent. Dé gent. Nedde, geue me a Edouard donné moy vne Nêd, gif my a ouan: waund: For I will not houssine car ie ne For ey ouil not speur spurre my horse veux point ésperonner mey hors. mon cheual. The ser. Le seru. Dé ser. Here is one sir. En voyla vne Hiér is ouon Ser. Monsieur. The gent. Le Gentle. Dé gent. Is is a hasell wanne? Est-ce vne houssine Is it a hàsel ouan. de coudre. Dé ser. Le ser. Dé ser. No Syr: It is a holly Non Monsieur: C'en Nò Ser: It is a hòly wanne. est vne de hous. ouan. The march. Le march. Dé march. But I pray you Syr: Mais ie vous prie Bout ey prê you Ser. Monsieur: Be we not out of our Sommes nous point By ouy not aut of way? hors de nostre aouor ouê. chemin. The gentl. Le gent. Dé gentle. I can not tell in Ie ne sçay vrayement. Ey can not tel in deede: did: This plowman, which Ce laboureur qui Dis ploùman houitch tilleth his grounde, laboure sa terre, tilés his grànd, ouil will set vs againe on nous remettra en set vs again on aouor our way, if we be out nostre chemin: si ouê, if ouy by aut of of the same. nous en sommes hors. dé sêm. Here ye my frend: Escoutez mon amy: Hiér y mey frìnd: Is this the ready way Est ce cy le droit Is dis dé red ouê tou to goe to Rye? chemin pour aller à go tou Reì? la Rie. The plow. Le labou. Dé plaù. Yes Syr: Ouy Monsieur: ys Ser: Keepe still on the Tenez tousiours à la Kìjp stil on dé reict right hand. main droite. hand. The gentle. Le gent. Dé gent. Is there neuer a Y à il point de lieu Is dêr neuer a haùs house here by, icy pres où nous hiér bey houêrin ouy wherein we may lodge. puissions loger. mê lodge? The plow. Le labou. Dé plaù. Yes forsoth: Ouy Monsieur: ys farsoùs: you haue two milles vous auez à deux you hàf toù meils hence, a very good milles d'icy, vne héns, a very goud ìn. Inne. fort bonne hostellerie. The gentl. Le gent. Dé gent. I thanke ye my frend. Grand mercy mon amy. Ey tànk y mey frìnd. God be here: Dieu soit ceans: God by hiér: Shall we lodge with Logerons nous ceans, Chàl ouy lodge ouy you, this night? pour meshuy? dis neict? Haue you any beadyng? Auez vous de bons Hàf you any goud lits. béding. Good stables? Bonnes estables. Goud stèbles? Good hay? and good Bon foin. Bonne Goud hê, and goud oates. auoyne. òòtes. The inkeeper. l'Hostellier. Dé ìnkìjper. You be very well come Vous estes les tres You by very ouell com Syrs. bien venuz Messieurs. Sèrs. The gent. Le gent. Dé gent. I pray rubbe well our Ie vous prie frottes Ey prê, roub ouel horses and geue them bien noz cheuaulx: & aouor horses: and gif good litter: leur faites bonne dem goud litter. littiere: Bring some hay, and Apportez du foin, & Bring som hê, and som some oates. de l'auoyne. òòtes. The in. l'Host. Dé ìn. How much will you Combien en voulez Haù mutch ouil y hàf? haue. vous. The ser. Le seruit. Dé ser. Bring halfe a bushell Apportez, demy Bring hàlf a bouchel of oates for our boisseau d'auoine of òòtes, for aouor three horses and full pour noz trois trij horses, and ful the manger of hay. cheuaux, & du foin dé menger of hè. plain le rastelier. The in. l'Host. Dé ìn. You shal haue it. Vous l'aurez. You chàl hàf it. The gent. Le gent. Dé gent. Nedd, pull of our Edouard, tire noz Ned, poul of aouor bootes, and make them botes, & les fay bouts, and mèk dem cleane and our nettes, & nos eperons clìn & aouor speurs spurres also: aussi. àlso: Let the bridle of my Qu'on pende la bride Let dé breidel of mey horse be hunged on de mon cheual, au hors by hangd on dé the pommel of his pommeau de sa selle. pommel of his saddel. sadle. The ser. Le ser. Dé ser. It hangeth there Elle y pend desia: It hangs dêr àlrédy: already? But there is Mais il y a vn de vos Bout dèr is ouon of one of your styruppes estriefz rompu, & you sterops bròkin, broken: and one of l'vne des sengles, and ouon of dé guerts the gyrtes ready to qui se rompt. rédy tou bréék. breake. The gent. Le gent. Dé gent. Goe buy others, and Allez en achetter Go beì oders, and bring me a new d'autres, & bring my a nù gyrdle: For myne is m'apportez vne guerdel: For mein is worne. ceinture neuue: car ouorne. la mienne est vsée. Goe fetche Aller querir Go fetch A saddler. Vn sellier A sadeler. A spurrier. Vn eperonnier. A spurrier. A taylor. Vn tailleur. A têler. A shoemaker. Vn cordonnier. A choùmèker. A cabeller. Vn sauatier. A càbler. A hattemaker. Vn chappelier. A hatmèker. A capper. Vn bonnetier. A capper. A seamester. Vne lingere. A sémster. A habredasher. Vn mercier. A habredacher. A mercer. Vn grossier. A mèrcer. A grosser. vn epissier. A gròsser. An armourer. vn armeurier. An armurer. A cutteller. vn coutellier. A coutler. A chandeler. vn chandelier. A tchandler. A grinder. vn forbisseur. A greìnder. A carier. vn voiturier. A carier. A vintener. vn vinnotier. A vintner. A brewer. vn brasseur. A brùer. A cooke. vn cuisinier. A couk. A cooper. vn tonnelier. A coùper. A fishmonger. vn poissonnier. A fichmonguer. A butcher. vn boucher. A boutcher. A baker. vn drapier. A dràper. A draper. vn boulenger. A bèker. A pewterer. vn etamier. A peauterer. A peinter. vn peintre. A peinter. A smith. vn mareschal. A smit. A locksmith. vn serreurier. A loksmit. An yronmonger. vn feron. A yeynmonguer. A broker. vn courtier. A bròker. A poulterer. vn poullallier. A paùlterer. A goldsmith. vn orfeure. A gaùldsmit. A carpendore. vn charpentier. A kerpendor. A ioygner. vn menuisier. A ioeìner. A fruiterer. vn fruitier. A frùterer. A woodmonger. vn marchand de bois. A oudmonguer. A gyrdler. vn ceinturier. A guerdeler. A clockmaker. vn horloger. A clomêker. A coalier. vn cherbonnier. A còlier. A thinker. vn maignen. A tìnker. A glouer. vn gantier. A glouer. A ieweller. vn biblotier. A ioueller. The march. Le march. Dé march. Syr. Monsieur. Ser. Is it not tyme to goe Est-il point temps Is it not teìm tou go to bed: d'aller au lit. tou béd: We must be on horse Il nous faut estre à Ouy must by on hors backe to morow very cheual demain de bak to màro very earely. grand matin. êrlé. The gent. Le gent. Dé gent. You say true. Vous dites verité. You sê trù. Myne host, let our Mon hoste, qu'on nous Meìn òòst, let aouor beds be made, and let face noz lits: Et que beds by mèd and let vs haue a fire made, nous ayons du feu, & vs hàf a feir mèd, & cleane shittes. des linceux netz. and clìn shìts. The host. l'Host. Dé òòst. It shalbe done. Il sera fait. It chàl by don. Syrs, your beds be Messieurs, voz lits Sèrs, yor beds by made: sont faitz: mêd: When it please you, quand il vous plaira Houen it pléés you, you may go to bed. aller au lit. you mê go tou bed. The gent. Le gent. Dé gent. Nedd, take thou the Edouard, pren la Ned, tàk dau dé candell, and showe me chandelle, & kàndel, and chaù my light to the priuyes. m'esclaire aux leict tou dé priués. priuées. The ser. Le ser. Dé ser. When it please you Quand il vous plaira Houen it pléés you Syr. Monsieur. Sèr. The march. Le march. Dé march. Good euen Syr. Bonsoir Monsieur. Goud ìuin Sèr. THe gent. Le gent. Dé gent. God geue you good Dieu vous doint bonne God gif you goud night: nuit: neict: But it were good for Mais il seroit bon Bout it ouèr goud for vs to pray before we que nous priassions vs tou prê God bifòr go to bed. Dieu auant que ouy go tou béd. d'aller au lit. The march. Le march. Dé march. Let vs pray when you Prions, quand il vous Let vs prè houen you please. plaira. pléés. The gent. Le gent. Dé gent. O Lord whiche art Seigneur qui es seul O Lord houitch art onely good, true and bon veritable ònlé goud, trù, gracious and gratieux & gracious and mercyfull, which misericordieux, qui mercyfull, houitch commaundeth them that commaunde à ceux qui commandés dem dat lof loue thy name, to ayment ton nom, de dey nêm, tou cast àl cast all feare, and mettre arriere d'eux fêr, and kèr from dem care from them, and toute crainte & and tou cast it on dy to cast it on thee sollicitude, & de promising most promising most s'en demettre sur mercyfullé dey self mercyfully thy selfe toy, promettant leur tou by dêr protecteur to be their protector estre against àl dêr enemis against all their misericordieusement and dêr refuge in enemies, and their protecteur contre dangers, dêr refuge in daungers: tous leurs enemis, & gouerneur in dé dê, their gouernour in leur refuge aux dêr leict in darknes, the way: their light daungers: leur and dêr ouatcheman in darkenesse, and gouuerneur de iour, àlso on dé neict: their watchman also leur lumiere en Neuer tou slip, bout on the night: Neuer obscurité, & mesme, tou ouatch continualé to slip, but to watch leur garde durant la for dé preseruyng of continually for the nuit: Non pas pour dé fêsful: ouy preseruyng of the dormir, ains à fin de bisìtch dy of dey faythfull: We veiller tousiours bontieus goundnés, O beseeche thee of thy pour la preseruation Lord, tou forgif vs, bounteous goodnesse, des fideles. Nous te houêrin ouy hàf O Lord, to gorgiue supplions par ta offended dy dis dê, vs, wherein we haue bonté infinie, and tou recéef vs in offended thee this Seigneur, nous dey protection dis day, & to receaue vs pardonner en ce que neict, dat ouy mê in thy protection t'auons offencé ce rest in koueietnes this night, what we iourd'huy, & de nous bòs of body and saùl: may rest in receuoir c'este nuit Graùnt aouor eìjs quietnesse both of en ta protection, à slip: Bout let aouor body, & soule: Graunt fin que nous harts ouatch our eyes sleepe: But reposions en paix, perpetuallé ontou dy, let our hartes watch tant corporellement dat dé ouêknes of dé perpetuallye vnto que spirituellement. flech càs vs not tou thee that the weknes Octroye le dormir à offend dy: Lord, let of the flesh, cause noz yeux mais fay que vs at àl teims fìjl vs not to offend noz coeurs veillent dey goudnes taoùoard thee: Lord, let vs at perpetuellement à vs dat ouy by at àl all times feele thy toy, à fin que teims stired tou prês goodnes toward vs, l'infirmité de nostre dy, and dat lèèt, that we be at all chair ne nous cause êrlé & at middê dey tymes styrred to de t'offencer fay prêses by in aouor prayse thee & that Seigneur que nous mausses and at late, early and at sentions tousiours ta midneict: Lord midday thy praise be bonté enuers nous, instruct vs in dey in our own mouthes àfin que nous soyons iudgements dat àl dé and at midnight: Lord tousiours esmeuz à te dês of aouor leif instruct vs in thy louer, & que tes bying léd in holines, iudgments, that al louanges soyent en & purité ouy mê by the dayes of our life noz bouches soir, & conducted at lêt, beyng lead in matin, & au millieu intou dé euerlastyng holines, & puritie, de la iournée, & à rest houitch dau hast we may be abducted at minuict: Seigneur promised bey dey late into the instruy nous en tes mercy, tou dem dat euerlastyng rest, iugemens àfin que obê dey ouord: Tou dy which thou hast tous les iours de O Lord, by honor, promised by thy mercy nostre vie estans prês and glory for to them that obey thy guidez en sainteté & euer. word: To thee O Lord, pureté, nous soyons be honor, prayse & finalement conduis en glory for euer. ton perdurable repos, lequel tu as par ta misericorde promis à ceux qui obeyssent à ta parolle: A toy Seigneur, soit honneur, louange & gloire à iamais. The march. Le mar. Dé march. So be it. Ainsy soit il. So be it. The gent. Le Gen. Dé gent. The peace of God, La paix de Dieu, qui Dé prês of God, which passeth all passe tout houitch passés àl vnderstandyng, keepe entendement, garde onderstandyng kìjp our hartes, and noz cueurs & noz aouor harts, and myndes, in the pensées, en la meinds, in dé knowledge and loue of cognoissance & amour knòledge and lof of God, and of his sonne de Dieu & de son Filz God, and of his son Iesus Christ our Iesus Christ nostre Iesus Chreist aouor Lord: and the Seigneur. Et la Lord: and dé blessing blessing of God all benediction de Dieu of God àlmeicty, dé mightie: The father, tout puissant, Le fàder, dé son, and dé the Sonne, and the Pere le Filz & le holy Gost, by amongst holy Ghost, be Sainct esprit, soit vs, and remeìn ouis amongest vs, and entre nous & demeure vs àlouês. remayne with vs tousiours auec nous. alwayes. The march. Le mar. Dé march. So be it. Ainsi soit-il. So by it. Now Syr, I byde you Maintenant Monsieur Naù Syr, ey beid you the good night. ie vous donne bonne dé goud neict. nuit. The gent. Le Gen. Dé gent. He that mayd the good Celuy qui feist les Hì dat mèd dé goud nights Graunt to geue bonnes nuits vous en neicts Grànt tou gif you foureten in stead doint quatorze pour you faòrtin in stéd of foure. quatre. of faòr. The ser. Le serui. Dé ser. Syr, Is it not yet Monsieur est-il point Sèr, Is it not yet tyme to goe? encor temps de teim tou go? partir. The gent. Le Gent. Dé gent. What is it of the Qu'elle heure est-il? Houat ist a clak. clocke. The ser. Le ser. Dé ser. It is almost fiue of Il est pres de cinq It is àlmost feìf a the clocke. heures. clak. The gent. Le Gen. Dé gent. Is it a fayre Le temps est-il beau. Is it a fêr ouêder? weather. The ser. Le ser. Dé ser. Very fayre Syr. Fort beau, Monsieur. Very fêr Sèr. The gent. Le gent. Dé gent. Are you ready Syr? Estes vous prest àr you rédy Sèr? Let Let vs pray God? Sire? Prions Dieu. vs prê God. The mar. Le mar. Dé mar. When you please Syr. Quand il vous plaira Houen you pléés Sèr. Monsieur. The gent. Le Gen. Dé gent. O LORD good God, Seigneur bon Dieu, O Lord goud GOD eternall and Pere Eternel, & tout eternal, and àlmeicty almightie Father, puissant qui nous as fàder, houitch hast whiche hast by thy fait la grace de nous bey dey gràs, geided grace, guided and guider & conduire and conducted vs conducted vs vnder souz ta sainte onder dey holy thy holy protection sauuegarde iusques au protection tou dé to the begynnyng of commencement de ce biguinning of dis dê, this day, we most iour Nous te ouy most humblé humbly beseeche thee, supplions bisiitch dy, tou to keepe, and treshumblement nous kijp, and sustein vs susteine vs alwayes garder & soustenir àlouês bey dey vertu, by thy vertue, that tousiours par ta dat in dé sêm ouy mè in the same we may vertu à ce qu'en fàl intou no sin, fall into no sinne: iceluy nous ne Bout direct vs ràder But direct vs rather tombions en peché tou obè, and sèrf dy, to obey and serue ains au contraire, according tou dey thee accordyng to thy nous dirige à t'Obeyr holy ouil: Let àl holy will: Let all & seruir selon ta aouor tàuts by hòlé our thoughtes be sainte volonté soient lifted op ontou dy, wholly lifted vp vnto toutes noz pensées du and geìd so aouor thee, and guide so iour esleuées à toy, dìds, dat ouy mè sê, our wordes, and our & conduy tellement nor tìnk, nor dou any deedes, that we may noz parolles & ting contrary tou dey say, nor thinke, nor opperations que nous holy ouil: Hiér vs doe any thyng ne disions ne aouor GOD, and Fàder, contrary to thy holy pensions n'y facions and so replenich vs will: Here vs our chose contraire à t'a ouis dey gràs, and GOD, and Father, and sainte volonté: mercy, dat ouy so replenishe vs with Exauce nous nostre imploey àl dis dê in thy graces, and Dieu, nostre Pere, & ioè, & dat ouy mê mercy, that we employ nous remply tellement deleict in singuing all this day in ioye, de tes graces & of dey prèses, terauh and that we may delue misericordes, que Iesus Chreist dey son in singing of thy nous emploions tout aouor Lord. prayses, through ce iour en ioye & que Iesus Christ thy nous prenions plaisir sonne our Lord. à chanter tes louanges par Iesus Christ ton Filz nostre Seigneur. The mar. Le Mar. Dé mar. So be it. Ainsy soit-il. So by it. Now it is tyme to Maintenant il est Naù it is teìm tou goe. temps de partir. go. The gent. Le Gen. Dé gent. When you will, I am Quand vous voudrez ie Houen you ouil, Ey am ready: suis prest. rédy. I hope we shall haue I'espere que nous Ey hòp ouy chàl hàf, a fayre weather to aurons beau temps a fèr ouèder tou dê. day. auiourd'huy. The mar. Le Mar. Dé mar. God graunt it. Dieu le vueille. God grànt it. The gent. Le Gen. Dé gent. Nedd, bring my sword, Edouard, apporte mon Néd, bring mey souord my dagge, espée. Ma pistolle. mey dag. My harkebuse. Ma harquebuze, Mey harkebus. Bring heather our Ameine icy noz Bring héder aouor horses. cheuaux, horses. My mowile. Ma mule. Mey moueìl. Mine asse. Mon asne. mein às. Mine oxe. Mon beuf. Mein ox. My hogge. Mon pourceau. Mey hog. My dogge. Mon chien. Mey dog. My grayhunde. Mon leurier. Mey grèhond. The ser. Le Ser. Dé ser. Syr, here be your Monsieur voycy voz Sèr, hiér by yor horses and all that cheuaux & tout ce que horses, and àl dat you commaunded me. m'auez commandé you commanded my. The gent. Le Gen. Dé gent. Thou diddest forget Tu as oublié mon Dau didst forguet mey my head peece. morrion. héd pìjs. The ser. Le ser. Dé ser. I goe for it, Syr. Ie le vay querir, Ey go for it, Sèr. Monsieur. The gent. Le Gen. Dé gent. Myne host, let vs Mon hoste ayons vn Mein òòst, let vs hàf haue a reakenyng. conte. a rékening. Let vs reaken. Contons. Let vs réken. Reaken with vs. And Contez auec nous, & Réken ouis vs. And come for your monney. venez receuoir vostre com for yor monné. argent. The inkeeper. L'host. Dé ìnki. God saue you Syrs. Dieu vous gard God sàf y Sèrs. Messieurs. The gent. Le gent. Dé gent. And you also myne Et vous aussi mon And you àlso mein host. hoste. hòòst. The in. L'host. Dé ìnk. Syrs, you doe owe, Messieurs vous deuez Sèrs, you dou aù, for for you and for your pour vous & pour voz yor men, and horses, men, and horses, gents & cheuaux faòr chelins and six foure shillings and quatre soudz & six pens: And you by ouel six pence: And you be deniers, & vous estés com. well come. les bien venuz. The gent. Le gent. Dé gent. It is to much. C'est trop. It is tou mutch. The in. l'Host. Dé ìn. Truely Syr, all is Vrayement Monsieur Trùlé Sèr, àl is very very deare now a tout est fort cher diér nau a dès. dayes. maintenant. The gent. Le gent. Dé gent. Hold you monney. Tenez vostre argent. Haùld yor monné. The mar. Le mar. Dé mar. Are you pleased myne Estes vous content àr you pléésd mein host. mon hoste. òòst. The in. l'Host. Dé ìn. Yea, forsooth: I Ouy, Monsieur, ie yé, fresoùs: Ey tànk thanke you. vous remercie. y. The gent. Le gent. Dé gent. I pray you myne host Ie vous prie mon Ey prê you mein òòst, let vs on our right hoste mettez nous en sét vs on aouor reict way to Rye. nostre droit chemin ouê tou Reì. de la Rye. The in. l'Host. Dé ìn. Folow on this path Suyuez ce sentier Folò on dis pats til till you come to the iusques à ce que you com tou dé heì high way. Then keepe veniez au grand ouê: Den kìjp àlouês alwayes on the left chemin: Puis tenez on dé léft hand, hand, leauyng on the tousiours la main léuing on dé reict right hand, a high gauche, laissant à hand, a heì hedge dé hedge the whiche you main droite, vne houitch you chàl shall finde, about a haute haye que vous feìnd, abaut a meìl myle hence: trouuerez enuiron à hens: vn mille d'icy: Doubtlesse that way Sans doute, ce chemin Daùtles, dat ouê ouil will bryng you la vous conduira bring you strèct tou straight to Rye. droit à la Rye. Rie. The gent. Le gent. Dé gent. How farre is to Rye? Combien y a il d'icy Haù far is tou Rìe? à la Rye. The in. l'Host. Dé ìn. There is about twenty Il y a enuiron vint Dêr is abaut touenty myles. milles. meils. The gent. Le gent. Dé gent. Is it a fayre way? Le chemin est il Is it a fêr ouê? beau? The in. L'Host. Dé ìn. Yea Syr very fayre. Ouy, fort beau Yé Sèr, very fêr. Monsieur. The gent. Le gent. Dé gent. I thanke you myne Grand mercy mon Ey tànk y mein òòst: host: hoste: I commit you to God. Ie vous recommandes à Ey commit you tou Dieu. God. The in. l'Host. Dé ìn. God be your speede Dieu vous conduye God by yor spìjd Syrs: Messieurs Sêrs: Fare you well, at A Dieu, à vostre Far yé ouel, at yor your commaundement. commandement. commandement. The gent. Le gent. Dé gent. LOrd GOD, we beseeche SEigneur Dieu, nous LOrd GOD, ouy bisìtch thee most humbly to te supplions dy most humblé tou by be our conductor in tres-humblement, nous aouor conducteur in this our voyage: So estre conducteur en dis aouor veiage So that (beyng by thy cestuy nostre voyage: dat (beyng bey dey bountifull mercy, si que nous (estans bontifull mercy, preserued in the same par ta preserued in dé sêm from all daungers, misericordieuse from all dangers, and and perils) we may bonté, preseruez en perils) ouy mê retorn returne in peace: iceluy de tous in péés: Bles vs goud Blesse vs good Lord, daungers & perils) Lord, and bring aouor and bryng our nous retournions en affêrs tou a goud affaires to a good paix: Beny nous bon end. Terauh Iesus ende. Through Iesus Seigneur, & meine noz Chreist dey son aouor Christ thy sonne our affaires à bonne fin. Lord. Tou hom by Lord. To whom be Par Iesus Christ ton giuin àl honeur and geuen all honor and filz nostre Seigneur: glory for euer. glory for euer. Auquel soit rendu tout honneur, & gloire à iamais. So be it. Ainsi soit-il. So by it. Bien commencer est vne chose bonne: Mais bonne fin l'Oeuure de loz couronne. Lós équitable. Au Lecteur sur le present traité, V. D. B. Sonet. Sçauoir bien proprement toute chose nommer, Par mots signifiants l'Essence, & la nature, C'est l'oeuure d'vn seul Dieu, ou d'vne ame tres-pure: Car Adam nomma tout parauant que pecher. Sçauoir accortement escrire, & remarquer, Les voix, les sons diuers, d'humaine creature, C'est certes, tesmoigner qu'on à prins nourriture, Des Muses au pourpris, & suiuy leur sentier: L'homme ignorant qui fuit leur sainte compagnie, Ingrat, n'imite rien que par haine & enuie: Voy-là pourquoi Bellot monstre en ce brief discours, Qu'il ne veut point haïr, & encores moins nuire: Des Muses nourrisson, il veut la France instruire A parler bon Anglois, pour nourrir paix tousiours. Transcriber's note Scribal abbreviations were resolved (e.g "lõg" transcribed as "long"). Spelling and punctuation were kept as in the original. All inconsistencies and typographical mistakes were retained, including missing, swapped or duplicated words or letters, unmatching translation or phonetics, inconsistent phonetics, missing or absurd punctuation or capitalization, and just ordinary typos. 
5849	----	THE PHILOSOPHY OF STYLE. By Herbert Spencer PART I. CAUSES OF FORCE IN LANGUAGE WHICH DEPEND UPON ECONOMY OF THE MENTAL ENERGIES. i. The Principle of Economy. § 1. Commenting on the seeming incongruity between his father's argumentative powers and his ignorance of formal logic, Tristram Shandy says:--"It was a matter of just wonder with my worthy tutor, and two or three fellows of that learned society, that a man who knew not so much as the names of his tools, should be able to work after that fashion with them." Sterne's intended implication that a knowledge of the principles of reasoning neither makes, nor is essential to, a good reasoner, is doubtless true. Thus, too, is it with grammar. As Dr. Latham, condemning the usual school-drill in Lindley Murray, rightly remarks: "Gross vulgarity is a fault to be prevented; but the proper prevention is to be got from habit--not rules." Similarly, there can be little question that good composition is far less dependent upon acquaintance with its laws, than upon practice and natural aptitude. A clear head, a quick imagination, and a sensitive ear, will go far towards making all rhetorical precepts needless. He who daily hears and reads well-framed sentences, will naturally more or less tend to use similar ones. And where there exists any mental idiosyncrasy--where there is a deficient verbal memory, or an inadequate sense of logical dependence, or but little perception of order, or a lack of constructive ingenuity; no amount of instruction will remedy the defect. Nevertheless, some practical result may be expected from a familiarity with the principles of style. The endeavour to conform to laws may tell, though slowly. And if in no other way, yet, as facilitating revision, a knowledge of the thing to be achieved--a clear idea of what constitutes a beauty, and what a blemish--cannot fail to be of service. § 2. No general theory of expression seems yet to have been enunciated. The maxims contained in works on composition and rhetoric, are presented in an unorganized form. Standing as isolated dogmas--as empirical generalizations, they are neither so clearly apprehended, nor so much respected, as they would be were they deduced from some simple first principle. We are told that "brevity is the soul of wit." We hear styles condemned as verbose or involved. Blair says that every needless part of a sentence "interrupts the description and clogs the image;" and again, that "long sentences fatigue the reader's attention." It is remarked by Lord Kaimes, that "to give the utmost force to a period, it ought, if possible, to be closed with that word which makes the greatest figure." That parentheses should be avoided and that Saxon words should be used in preference to those of Latin origin, are established precepts. But, however influential the truths thus dogmatically embodied, they would be much more influential if reduced to something like scientific ordination. In this, as in other cases, conviction will be greatly strengthened when we understand the why. And we may be sure that a comprehension of the general principle from which the rules of composition result, will not only bring them home to us with greater force, but will discover to us other rules of like origin. § 3. On seeking for some clue to the law underlying these current maxims, we may see shadowed forth in many of them, the importance of economizing the reader's or hearer's attention, To so present ideas that they may be apprehended with the least possible mental effort, is the desideratum towards which most of the rules above quoted point. When we condemn writing that is wordy, or confused, or intricate--when we praise this style as easy, and blame that as fatiguing, we consciously or unconsciously assume this desideratum as our standard of judgment. Regarding language as an apparatus of symbols for the conveyance of thought, we may say that, as in a mechanical apparatus, the more simple and the better arranged its parts, the greater will be the effect produced. In either case, whatever force is absorbed by the machine is deducted from the result. A reader or listener has at each moment but a limited amount of mental power available. To recognize and interpret the symbols presented to him, requires part of this power; to arrange and combine the images suggested requires a further part; and only that part which remains can be used for realizing the thought conveyed. Hence, the more time and attention it takes to receive and understand each sentence, the less time and attention can be given to the contained idea; and the less vividly will that idea be conceived. § 4. How truly language must be regarded as a hindrance to thought, though the necessary instrument of it, we shall clearly perceive on remembering the comparative force with which simple ideas are communicated by signs. To say, "Leave the room," is less expressive than to point to the door. Placing a finger on the lips is more forcible than whispering, "Do not speak." A beck of the hand is better than, "Come here." No phrase can convey the idea of surprise so vividly as opening the eyes and raising the eyebrows. A shrug of the shoulders would lose much by translation into words. Again, it may be remarked that when oral language is employed, the strongest effects are produced by interjections, which condense entire sentences into syllables. And in other cases, where custom allows us to express thoughts by single words, as in _Beware, Heigho, Fudge,_ much force would be lost by expanding them into specific propositions. Hence, carrying out the metaphor that language is the vehicle of thought, there seems reason to think that in all cases the friction and inertia of the vehicle deduct from its efficiency; and that in composition, the chief, if not the sole thing to be done, is, to reduce this friction and inertia to the smallest possible amount. Let us then inquire whether economy of the recipient's attention is not the secret of effect, alike in the right choice and collocation of words, in the best arrangement of clauses in a sentence, in the proper order of its principal and subordinate propositions, in the judicious use of simile, metaphor, and other figures of speech, and even in the rhythmical sequence of syllables. ii. Economy in the Use of Words. § 5. The greater forcibleness of Saxon English, or rather non-Latin English, first claims our attention. The several special reasons assignable for this may all be reduced to the general reason--economy. The most important of them is early association. A child's vocabulary is almost wholly Saxon. He says, _I have,_ not _I possess_---_I wish,_ not I _desire;_ he does not _reflect,_ he _thinks;_ he does not beg for _amusement,_ but for _play_; he calls things _nice_ or _nasty,_ not _pleasant_ or _disagreeable._ The synonyms which he learns in after years, never become so closely, so organically connected with the ideas signified, as do these original words used in childhood; and hence the association remains less strong. But in what does a strong association between a word and an idea differ from a weak one? Simply in the greater ease and rapidity of the suggestive action. It can be in nothing else. Both of two words, if they be strictly synonymous, eventually call up the same image. The expression--It is _acid,_ must in the end give rise to the same thought as--It is sour; but because the term _acid_ was learnt later in life, and has not been so often followed by the thought symbolized, it does not so readily arouse that thought as the term sour. If we remember how slowly and with what labour the appropriate ideas follow unfamiliar words in another language, and how increasing familiarity with such words brings greater rapidity and ease of comprehension; and if we consider that the same process must have gone on with the words of our mother tongue from childhood upwards, we shall clearly see that the earliest learnt and oftenest used words, will, other things equal, call up images with less loss of time and energy than their later learnt synonyms. § 6. The further superiority possessed by Saxon English in its comparative brevity, obviously comes under the same generalization. If it be an advantage to express an idea in the smallest number of words, then will it be an advantage to express it in the smallest number of syllables. If circuitous phrases and needless expletives distract the attention and diminish the strength of the impression produced, then do surplus articulations do so. A certain effort, though commonly an inappreciable one, must be required to recognize every vowel and consonant. If, as all know, it is tiresome to listen to an indistinct speaker, or read a badly-written manuscript; and if, as we cannot doubt, the fatigue is a cumulative result of the attention needed to catch successive syllables; it follows that attention is in such cases absorbed by each syllable. And if this be true when the syllables are difficult of recognition, it will also be true, though in a less degree, when the recognition of them is easy. Hence, the shortness of Saxon words becomes a reason for their greater force. One qualification, however, must not be overlooked. A word which in itself embodies the most important part of the idea to be conveyed, especially when that idea is an emotional one, may often with advantage be a polysyllabic word. Thus it seems more forcible to say, "It is _magnificent,_" than "It is _grand._" The word _vast_ is not so powerful a one as _stupendous._ Calling a thing _nasty_ is not so effective as calling it _disgusting._ § 7. There seem to be several causes for this exceptional superiority of certain long words. We may ascribe it partly to the fact that a voluminous, mouth-filling epithet is, by its very size, suggestive of largeness or strength; witness the immense pomposity of sesquipedalian verbiage: and when great power or intensity has to be suggested, this association of ideas aids the effect. A further cause may be that a word of several syllables admits of more emphatic articulation; and as emphatic articulation is a sign of emotion, the unusual impressiveness of the thing named is implied by it. Yet another cause is that a long word (of which the latter syllables are generally inferred as soon as the first are spoken) allows the hearer's consciousness a longer time to dwell upon the quality predicated; and where, as in the above cases, it is to this predicated quality that the entire attention is called, an advantage results from keeping it before the mind for an appreciable time. The reasons which we have given for preferring short words evidently do not hold here. So that to make our generalization quite correct we must say, that while in certain sentences expressing strong feeling, the word which more especially implies that feeling may often with advantage be a many-syllabled or Latin one; in the immense majority of cases, each word serving but as a step to the idea embodied by the whole sentence, should, if possible, be a one-syllabled or Saxon one. § 8. Once more, that frequent cause of strength in Saxon and other primitive words-their imitative character may be similarly resolved into the more general cause. Both those directly imitative, as _splash, bang, whiz, roar,_ &c., and those analogically imitative, as _rough, smooth, keen, blunt, thin, hard, crag,_ &c., have a greater or less likeness to the things symbolized; and by making on the senses impressions allied to the ideas to be called up, they save part of the effort needed to call up such ideas, and leave more attention for the ideas themselves. § 9. The economy of the recipient's mental energy, into which are thus resolvable the several causes of the strength of Saxon English, may equally be traced in the superiority of specific over generic words. That concrete terms produce more vivid impressions than abstract ones, and should, when possible, be used instead, is a thorough maxim of composition. As Dr. Campbell says, "The more general the terms are, the picture is the fainter; the more special they are, 'tis the brighter." We should avoid such a sentence as:--"In proportion as the manners, customs, and amusements of a nation are cruel and barbarous, the regulations of their penal code will be severe." And in place of it we should write:--"In proportion as men delight in battles, bull-fights, and combats of gladiators, will they punish by hanging, burning, and the rack." § 10. This superiority of specific expressions is clearly due to a saving of the effort required to translate words into thoughts. As we do not think in generals but in particulars--as, whenever any class of things is referred to, we represent it to ourselves by calling to mind individual members of it; it follows that when an abstract word is used, the bearer or reader has to choose from his stock of images, one or more, by which he may figure to himself the genus mentioned. In doing this, some delay must arise some force be expended; and if, by employing a specific term, an appropriate image can be at once suggested, an economy is achieved, and a more vivid impression produced. iii. The Principle of Economy applied to Sentences. § 11. Turning now from the choice of words to their sequence, we shall find the same general principle hold good. We have _a priori_ reasons for believing that in every sentence there is some one order of words more effective than any other; and that this order is the one which presents the elements of the proposition in the succession in which they may be most readily put together. As in a narrative, the events should be stated in such sequence that the mind may not have to go backwards and forwards in order to rightly connect them; as in a group of sentences, the arrangement should be such, that each of them may be understood as it comes, without waiting for subsequent ones; so in every sentence, the sequence of words should be that which suggests the constituents of the thought in the order most convenient for the building up that thought. Duly to enforce this truth, and to prepare the way for applications of it, we must briefly inquire into the mental act by which the meaning of a series of words is apprehended. § 12. We cannot more simply do this than by considering the proper collocation of the substantive and adjective. Is it better to place the adjective before the substantive, or the substantive before the adjective? Ought we to say with the French--un _cheval noir;_ or to say as we do--a black horse? Probably, most persons of culture would decide that one order is as good as the other. Alive to the bias produced by habit, they would ascribe to that the preference they feel for our own form of expression. They would expect those educated in the use of the opposite form to have an equal preference for that. And thus they would conclude that neither of these instinctive judgments is of any worth. There is, however, a philosophical ground for deciding in favour of the English custom. If "a horse black" be the arrangement, immediately on the utterance of the word "horse," there arises, or tends to arise, in the mind, a picture answering to that word; and as there has, been nothing to indicate what _kind_ of horse, any image of a horse suggests itself. Very likely, however, the image will be that of a brown horse, brown horses being the most familiar. The result is that when the word "black" is added, a check is given to the process of thought. Either the picture of a brown horse already present to the imagination has to be suppressed, and the picture of a black one summoned in its place; or else, if the picture of a brown horse be yet unformed, the tendency to form it has to be stopped. Whichever is the case, a certain amount of hindrance results. But if, on the other hand, "a black horse" be the expression used, no such mistake can be made. The word "black," indicating an abstract quality, arouses no definite idea. It simply prepares the mind for conceiving some object of that colour; and the attention is kept suspended until that object is known. If, then, by the precedence of the adjective, the idea is conveyed without liability to error, whereas the precedence of the substantive is apt to produce a misconception, it follows that the one gives the mind less trouble than the other, and is therefore more forcible. § 13. Possibly it will be objected that the adjective and substantive come so close together, that practically they may be considered as uttered at the same moment; and that on hearing the phrase, "a horse black," there is not time to imagine a wrongly-coloured horse before the word "black" follows to prevent it. It must be owned that it is not easy to decide by introspection whether this is so or not. But there are facts collaterally implying that it is not. Our ability to anticipate the words yet unspoken is one of them If the ideas of the hearer kept considerably behind the, expressions of the speaker, as the objection assumes, he could hardly foresee the end of a sentence by the time it was half delivered: yet this constantly happens. Were the supposition true, the mind, instead of anticipating, would be continually falling more and more in arrear. If the meanings of words are not realized as fast as the words are uttered, then the loss of time over each word must entail such an accumulation of delays as to leave a hearer entirely behind. But whether the force of these replies be or be not admitted, it will scarcely be denied that the right formation of a picture will be facilitated by presenting its elements in the order in which they are wanted; even though the mind should do nothing until it has received them all. § 14. What is here said respecting the succession of the adjective and substantive is obviously applicable, by change of terms, to the adverb and verb. And without further explanation, it will be manifest, that in the use of prepositions and other particles, most languages spontaneously conform with more or less completeness to this law. § 15. On applying a like analysis to the larger divisions of a sentence, we find not only that the same principle holds good, but that the advantage of respecting it becomes marked. In the arrangement of predicate and subject, for example, we are at once shown that as the predicate determines the aspect under which the subject is to be conceived, it should be placed first; and the striking effect produced by so placing it becomes comprehensible. Take the often-quoted contrast between "Great is Diana of the Ephesians," and "Diana of the Ephesians is great." When the first arrangement is used, the utterance of the word "great" arouses those vague associations of an impressive nature with which it has been habitually connected; the imagination is prepared to clothe with high attributes whatever follows; and when the words, "Diana of the Ephesians," are heard, all the appropriate imagery which can, on the instant, be summoned, is used in the formation of the picture: the mind being thus led directly, and without error, to the intended impression. When, on the contrary, the reverse order is followed, the idea, "Diana of the Ephesians" is conceived with no special reference to greatness; and when the words "is great" are added, the conception has to be remodeled: whence arises a loss of mental energy and a corresponding diminution of effect. The following verse from Coleridge's 'Ancient Mariner,' though somewhat irregular in structure, well illustrates the same truth: "Alone, alone, all, all alone, Alone on a wide, wide sea And never a saint took pity on My soul in agony." § 16. Of course the principle equally applies when the predicate is a verb or a participle. And as effect is gained by placing first all words indicating the quality, conduct or condition of the subject, it follows that the copula also should have precedence. It is true that the general habit of our language resists this arrangement of predicate, copula and subject; but we may readily find instances of the additional force gained by conforming to it. Thus, in the line from 'Julius Caesar' "Then burst his mighty heart," priority is given to a word embodying both predicate and copula. In a passage contained in 'The Battle of Flodden Field,' the like order is systematically employed with great effect: "The Border slogan rent the sky! _A Home! a Gordon!_ was the cry; _Loud were _the clanging blows: _Advanced--forced back---now low, now high, _The pennon sunk and rose; _As bends_ the bark's mast in the gale When _rent are_ rigging, shrouds and sail, It wavered 'mid the foes." § 17. Pursuing the principle yet further, it is obvious that for producing the greatest effect, not only should the main divisions of a sentence observe this sequence, but the subdivisions of these should be similarly arranged. In nearly all cases, the predicate is accompanied by some limit or qualification, called its complement. Commonly, also, the circumstances of the subject, which form its complement, have to be specified. And as these qualifications and circumstances must determine the mode in which the acts and things they belong to are conceived, precedence should be given to them. Lord Kaimes notices the fact that this order is preferable; though without giving the reason. He says:--"When a circumstance is placed at the beginning of the period, or near the beginning, the transition from it to the principal subject is agreeable: it is like ascending or going upward." A sentence arranged in illustration of this will be desirable. Here is one:--"Whatever it may be in theory, it is clear that in practice the French idea of liberty is--the right of every man to be master of the rest." § 18. In this case, were the first two clauses, up to the word "I practice" inclusive, which qualify the subject, to be placed at the end instead of the beginning, much of the force would be lost; as thus:--"The French idea of liberty is--the right of every man to be master of the rest; in practice at least, if not in theory." § 19. Similarly with respect to the conditions under which any fact is predicated. Observe in the following example the effect of putting them last:--"How immense would be the stimulus to progress, were the honour now given to wealth and title given exclusively to high achievements and intrinsic worth!" § 20. And then observe the superior effect of putting them first:--"Were the honour now given to wealth and title given exclusively to high achievements and intrinsic worth, how immense would be the stimulus to progress!" § 21. The effect of giving priority to the complement of the predicate, as well as the predicate itself, is finely displayed in the opening of 'Hyperion': "_Deep in the shady sadness of a vale Far sunken from the healthy breath of morn, Far from the fiery noon and eve's one star Sat_ gray-haired Saturn, quiet as a stone." Here it will be observed, not only that the predicate "sat" precedes the subject "Saturn," and that the three lines in italics, constituting the complement of the predicate, come before it; but that in the structure of that complement also, the same order is followed: each line being so arranged that the qualifying words are placed before the words suggesting concrete images. § 22. The right succession of the principal and subordinate propositions in a sentence manifestly depends on the same law. Regard for economy of the recipient's attention, which, as we find, determines the best order for the subject, copula, predicate and their complements, dictates that the subordinate proposition shall precede the principal one when the sentence includes two. Containing, as the subordinate proposition does, some qualifying or explanatory idea, its priority prevents misconception of the principal one; and therefore saves the mental effort needed to correct such misconception. This will be seen in the annexed example: "The secrecy once maintained in respect to the parliamentary debates, is still thought needful in diplomacy; and in virtue of this secret diplomacy, England may any day be unawares betrayed by its ministers into a war costing a, hundred thousand lives, and hundreds of millions of treasure: yet the English pique themselves on being a self-governed people." The two subordinate propositions, ending with the semicolon and colon respectively, almost wholly determine the meaning of the principal proposition with which it concludes; and the effect would be lost were they placed last instead of first. § 23. The general principle of right arrangement in sentences, which we have traced in its application to the leading divisions of them, equally determines the proper order of their minor divisions. In every sentence of any complexity the complement to the subject contains several clauses, and that to the predicate several others; and these may be arranged in greater or less conformity to the law of easy apprehension. Of course with these, as with the larger members, the succession should be from the less specific to the more specific--from the abstract to the concrete. § 24. Now, however, we must notice a further condition to be fulfilled in the proper construction of a sentence; but still a condition dictated by the same general principle with the other: the condition, namely, that the words and expressions most nearly related in thought shall be brought the closest together. Evidently the single words, the minor clauses, and the leading divisions of every proposition, severally qualify each other. The longer the time that elapses between the mention of any qualifying member and the member qualified, the longer must the mind be exerted in carrying forward the qualifying member ready for use. And the more numerous the qualifications to be simultaneously remembered and rightly applied, the greater will be the mental power expended, and the smaller the effect produced. Hence, other things equal, force will be gained by so arranging the members of a sentence that these suspensions shall at any moment be the fewest in number; and shall also be of the shortest duration. The following is an instance of defective combination:--"A modern newspaper-statement, though probably true, would be laughed at if quoted in a book as testimony; but the letter of a court gossip is thought good historical evidence, if written some centuries ago." A rearrangement of this, in accordance with the principle indicated above, will be found to increase the effect. Thus:--"Though probably true, a modern newspaper-statement quoted in a book as testimony, would be laughed at; but the letter of a court gossip, if written some centuries ago, is thought good historical evidence." § 25. By making this change, some of the suspensions are avoided and others shortened; while there is less liability to produce premature conceptions. The passage quoted below from 'Paradise Lost' affords a fine instance of a sentence well arranged; alike in the priority of the subordinate members, in the avoidance of long and numerous suspensions, and in the correspondence between the order of the clauses and the sequence of the phenomena described, which, by the way, is a further prerequisite to easy comprehension, and therefore to effect. "As when a prowling wolf, Whom hunger drives to seek new haunt for prey, Watching where shepherds pen their flocks at eye, In hurdled cotes amid the field secure, Leaps o'er the fence with ease into the fold; Or as a thief, bent to unhoard the cash Of some rich burgher, whose substantial doors, Cross-barr'd, and bolted fast, fear no assault, In at the window climbs, or o'er the tiles; So clomb this first grand thief into God's fold; So since into his church lewd hirelings climb." § 26. The habitual use of sentences in which all or most of the descriptive and limiting elements precede those described and limited, gives rise to what is called the inverted style: a title which is, however, by no means confined to this structure, but is often used where the order of the words is simply unusual. A more appropriate title would be the _direct style,_ as contrasted with the other, or _indirect style_: the peculiarity of the one being, that it conveys each thought into the mind step by step with little liability to error; and of the other, that it gets the right thought conceived by a series of approximations. § 27. The superiority of the direct over the indirect form of sentence, implied by the several conclusions that have been drawn, must not, however, be affirmed without reservation. Though, up to a certain point, it is well for the qualifying clauses of a period to precede those qualified; yet, as carrying forward each qualifying clause costs some mental effort, it follows that when the number of them and the time they are carried become great, we reach a limit beyond which more is lost than is gained. Other things equal, the arrangement should be such that no concrete image shall be suggested until the materials out of which it is to be made have been presented. And yet, as lately pointed out, other things equal, the fewer the materials to be held at once, and the shorter the distance they have to be borne, the better. Hence in some cases it becomes a question whether most mental effort will be entailed by the many and long suspensions, or by the correction of successive misconceptions. § 28. This question may sometimes be decided by considering the capacity of the persons addressed. A greater grasp of mind is required for the ready comprehension of thoughts expressed in the direct manner, where the sentences are anywise intricate. To recollect a number of preliminaries stated in elucidation of a coming idea, and to apply them all to the formation of it when suggested, demands a good memory and considerable power of concentration. To one possessing these, the direct method will mostly seem the best; while to one deficient in them it will seem the worst. Just as it may cost a strong man less effort to carry a hundred-weight from place to place at once, than by a stone at a time; so, to an active mind it may be easier to bear along all the qualifications of an idea and at once rightly form it when named, than to first imperfectly conceive such idea and then carry back to it, one by one, the details and limitations afterwards mentioned. While conversely, as for a boy, the only possible mode of transferring a hundred-weight, is that of taking it in portions; so, for a weak mind, the only possible mode of forming a compound conception may be that of building it up by carrying separately its several parts. § 29. That the indirect method--the method of conveying the meaning by a series of approximations--is best fitted for the uncultivated, may indeed be inferred from their habitual use of it. The form of expression adopted by the savage, as in "Water, give me," is the simplest type of the approximate arrangement. In pleonasms, which are comparatively prevalent among the uneducated, the same essential structure is seen; as, for instance, in--"The men, they were there." Again, the old possessive case--"The king, his crown," conforms to the like order of thought. Moreover, the fact that the indirect mode is called the natural one, implies that it is the one spontaneously employed by the common people: that is--the one easiest for undisciplined minds. § 30. There are many cases, however, in which neither the direct nor the indirect structure is the best; but where an intermediate structure is preferable to both. When the number of circumstances and qualifications to be included in the sentence is great, the most judicious course is neither to enumerate them all before introducing the idea to which they belong, nor to put this idea first and let it be remodeled to agree with the particulars afterwards mentioned; but to do a little of each. Take a case. It is desirable to avoid so extremely indirect an arrangement as the following:--"We came to our journey's end, at last, with no small difficulty after much fatigue, through deep roads, and bad weather." Yet to transform this into an entirely direct sentence would not produce a satisfactory effect; as witness:--"At last, with no small difficulty, after much fatigue, through deep roads, and bad weather, we came to our journey's end." § 31. Dr. Whately, from whom we quote the first of these two arrangements,' proposes this construction:--"At last, after much fatigue, through deep roads and bad weather, we came, with no small difficulty, to our journey's end." Here it will be observed that by introducing the words "we came" a little earlier in the sentence, the labour of carrying forward so many particulars is diminished, and the subsequent qualification "with no small difficulty" entails an addition to the thought that is very easily made. But a further improvement may be produced by introducing the words "we came" still earlier; especially if at the same time the qualifications be rearranged in conformity with the principle already explained, that the more abstract elements of the thought should come before the more concrete. Observe the better effect obtained by making these two changes:--"At last, with no small difficulty, and after much fatigue, we came, through deep roads and bad weather, to our journey's end." This reads with comparative smoothness; that is, with less hindrance from suspensions and reconstructions of thought--with less mental effort. § 32. Before dismissing this branch of our subject, it should be further remarked, that even when addressing the most vigorous intellects, the direct style is unfit for communicating ideas of a complex or abstract character. So long as the mind has not much to do, it may be well able to grasp all the preparatory clauses of a sentence, and to use them effectively; but if some subtlety in the argument absorb the attention--if every faculty be strained in endeavouring to catch the speaker's or writer's drift, it may happen that the mind, unable to carry on both processes at once, will break down, and allow the elements of the thought to lapse into confusion. iv. The Principle of Economy applied to Figures. § 33. Turning now to consider figures of speech, we may equally discern the same general law of effect. Underlying all the rules given for the choice and right use of them, we shall find the same fundamental requirement--economy of attention. It is indeed chiefly because they so well subserve this requirement, that figures of speech are employed. To bring the mind more easily to the desired conception, is in many cases solely, and in all cases mainly, their object. § 34. Let us begin with the figure called Synecdoche. The advantage sometimes gained by putting a part for the whole, is due to the more convenient, or more accurate, presentation of the idea. If, instead of saying "a fleet of ten ships," we say "a fleet of ten _sail_," the picture of a group of vessels at sea is more readily suggested; and is so because the sails constitute the most conspicuous parts of vessels so circumstanced: whereas the word _ships_ would very likely remind us of vessels in dock. Again, to say, "_All hands_ to the pumps," is better than to say, "All _men_ to the pumps," as it suggests the men in the special attitude intended, and so saves effort. Bringing "gray _hairs_ with sorrow to the grave," is another expression, the effect of which has the same cause. § 35. The occasional increase of force produced by Metonymy may be similarly accounted for. "The low morality of _the bar,_" _is_ a phrase both more brief and significant than the literal one it stands for. A belief in the ultimate supremacy of intelligence over brute force, is conveyed in a more concrete, and therefore more realizable form, if we substitute _the pen_ and _the sword_ for the two abstract terms. To say, "Beware of drinking!" is less effective than to say, "Beware of _the bottle!_" and is so, clearly because it calls up a less specific image. § 36. The Simile is in many cases used chiefly with a view to ornament, but whenever it increases the _force_ of a passage, it does so by being an economy. Here in an instance: "The illusion that great men and great events came oftener in early times than now, is partly due to historical perspective. As in a range of equidistant columns, the furthest off look the closest; so, the conspicuous objects of the past seem more thickly clustered the more remote they are." § 37. To construct by a process of literal explanation, the thought thus conveyed would take many sentences, and the first elements of the picture would become faint while the imagination was busy in adding the others. But by the help of a comparison all effort is saved; the picture is instantly realized, and its full effect produced. § 38. Of the position of the Simile, it needs only to remark, that what has been said respecting the order of the adjective and substantive, predicate and subject, principal and subordinate propositions, &c., is applicable here. As whatever qualifies should precede whatever is qualified, force will generally be gained by placing the simile before the object to which it is applied. That this arrangement is the best, may be seen in the following passage from the 'Lady of the Lake'; "As wreath of snow, on mountain breast, Slides from the rock that gave it rest, Poor Ellen glided from her stay, And at the monarch's feet she lay." Inverting these couplets will be found to diminish the effect considerably. There are cases, however, even where the simile is a simple one, in which it may with advantage be placed last, as in these lines from Alexander Smith's 'Life Drama': "I see the future stretch All dark and barren as a rainy sea." The reason for this seems to be, that so abstract an idea as that attaching to the word "future," does not present itself to the mind in any definite form, and hence the subsequent arrival at the simile entails no reconstruction of the thought. § 39. Such, however, are not the only cases in which this order is the most forcible. As the advantage of putting the simile before the object depends on its being carried forward in the mind to assist in forming an image of the object, it must happen that if, from length or complexity, it cannot be so carried forward, the advantage is not gained. The annexed sonnet, by Coleridge, is defective from this cause: "As when a child, on some long winter's night, Affrighted, clinging to its grandam's knees, With eager wond'ring and perturb'd delight Listens strange tales of fearful dark decrees, Mutter'd to wretch by necromantic spell; Or of those hags who at the witching time Of murky midnight, ride the air sublime, And mingle foul embrace with fiends of hell; Cold horror drinks its blood! Anon the tear More gentle starts, to hear the beldame tell Of pretty babes, that lov'd each other dear, Murder'd by cruel uncle's mandate fell: Ev'n such the shiv'ring joys thy tones impart, Ev'n so, thou, Siddons, meltest my sad heart." § 40. Here, from the lapse of time and accumulation of circumstances, the first part of the comparison is forgotten before its application is reached, and requires re-reading. Had the main idea been first mentioned, less effort would have been required to retain it, and to modify the conception of it into harmony with the comparison, than to remember the comparison, and refer back to its successive features for help in forming the final image. § 41. The superiority of the Metaphor to the Simile is ascribed by Dr. Whately to the fact that "all men are more gratified at catching the resemblance for themselves, than in having it pointed out to them." But after what has been said, the great economy it achieves will seem the more probable cause. Lear's exclamation-- "Ingratitude! thou marble-hearted fiend," would lose part of its effect were it changed into-- "Ingratitude! thou fiend with heart like marble;" and the loss would result partly from the position of the simile and partly from the extra number of words required. When the comparison is an involved one, the greater force of the metaphor, consequent on its greater brevity, becomes much more conspicuous. If, drawing an analogy between mental and physical phenomena, we say, "As, in passing through the crystal, beams of white light are decomposed into the colours of the rainbow; so, in traversing the soul of the poet, the colourless rays of truth are transformed into brightly tinted poetry"; it is clear that in receiving the double set of words expressing the two halves of the comparison, and in carrying the one half to the other, considerable attention is absorbed. Most of this is saved, however, by putting the comparison in a metaphorical form, thus: "The white light of truth, in traversing the many sided transparent soul of the poet, is refracted into iris-hued poetry." § 42. How much is conveyed in a few words by the help of the Metaphor, and how vivid the effect consequently produced, may be abundantly exemplified. From 'A Life Drama' may be quoted the phrase-- "I spear'd him with a jest," as a fine instance among the many which that poem contains. A passage in the 'Prometheus Unbound,' of Shelley, displays the power of the metaphor to great advantage: "Methought among the lawns together We wandered, underneath the young gray dawn, And multitudes of dense white fleecy clouds Were wandering, in thick flocks along the mountains _Shepherded_ by the slow unwilling wind." This last expression is remarkable for the distinctness with which it realizes the features of the scene: bringing the mind, as it were, by a bound to the desired conception. § 43. But a limit is put to the advantageous use of the Metaphor, by the condition that it must be sufficiently simple to be understood from a hint. Evidently, if there be any obscurity in the meaning or application of it, no economy of attention will be gained; but rather the reverse. Hence, when the comparison is complex, it is usual to have recourse to the Simile. There is, however, a species of figure, sometimes classed under Allegory, but which might, perhaps, be better called Compound Metaphor, that enables us to retain the brevity of the metaphorical form even where the analogy is intricate. This is done by indicating the application of the figure at the outset, and then leaving the mind to continue the parallel.' Emerson has employed it with great effect in the first of his I Lectures on the Times':--"The main interest which any aspects of the Times can have for us is the great spirit which gazes through them, the light which they can shed on the wonderful questions, What are we, and Whither we tend? We do not wish to be deceived. Here we drift, like white sail across the wild ocean, now bright on the wave, now darkling in the trough of the sea; but from what port did we sail? Who knows? Or to what port are we bound? Who knows? There is no one to tell us but such poor weather-tossed mariners as ourselves, whom we speak as we pass, or who have hoisted some signal, or floated to us some letter in a bottle from far. But what know they more than we? They also found themselves on this wondrous sea. No; from the older sailors nothing. Over all their speaking trumpets the gray sea and the loud winds answer, Not in us; not in Time." § 44. The division of the Simile from the Metaphor is by no means a definite one. Between the one extreme in which the two elements of the comparison are detailed at full length and the analogy pointed out, and the other extreme in which the comparison is implied instead of stated, come intermediate forms, in which the comparison is partly stated and partly implied. For instance:--"Astonished at the performances of the English plow, the Hindoos paint it, set it up, and worship it; thus turning a tool into an idol: linguists do the same with language." There is an evident advantage in leaving the reader or hearer to complete the figure. And generally these intermediate forms are good in proportion as they do this; provided the mode of completing it be obvious. § 45. Passing over much that may be said of like purport upon Hyperbole, Personification, Apostrophe, &c., let us close our remarks upon construction by a typical example. The general principle which has been enunciated is, that other things equal, the force of all verbal forms and arrangements is great, in proportion as the time and mental effort they demand from the recipient is small. The corollaries from this general principle have been severally illustrated; and it has been shown that the relative goodness of any two modes of expressing an idea, may be determined by observing which requires the shortest process of thought for its comprehension. But though conformity in particular points has been exemplified, no cases of complete conformity have yet been quoted. It is indeed difficult to find them; for the English idiom does not commonly permit the order which theory dictates. A few, however, occur in Ossian. Here is one:--"As autumn's dark storms pour from two echoing hills, so towards each other approached the heroes. As two dark streams from high rocks meet and mix, and roar on the plain: loud, rough, and dark in battle meet Lochlin and Inisfail...As the troubled noise of the ocean when roll the waves on high; as the last peal of the thunder of heaven; such is noise of the battle." § 46. Except in the position of the verb in the first two similes, the theoretically best arrangement is fully carried out in each of these sentences. The simile comes before the qualified image, the adjectives before the substantives, the predicate and copula before the subject, and their respective complements before them. That the passage is open to the charge of being bombastic proves nothing; or rather, proves our case. For what is bombast but a force of expression too great for the magnitude of the ideas embodied? All that may rightly be inferred is, that only in very rare cases, and then only to produce a climax, should all the conditions of effective expression be fulfilled. v. Suggestion as a Means of Economy. § 47. Passing on to a more complex application of the doctrine with which we set out, it must now be remarked, that not only in the structure of sentences, and the use of figures of speech, may economy of the recipient's mental energy be assigned as the cause of force; but that in the choice and arrangement of the minor images, out of which some large thought is to be built up, we may trace the same condition to effect. To select from the sentiment, scene, or event described those typical elements which carry many others along with them; and so, by saying a few things but suggesting many, to abridge the description; is the secret of producing a vivid impression. An extract from Tennyson's 'Mariana' will well illustrate this: "All day within the dreamy house, The door upon the hinges creaked, The blue fly sung i' the pane; the mouse Behind the mouldering wainscot shrieked, Or from the crevice peered about." § 48. The several circumstances here specified bring with them many appropriate associations. Our attention is rarely drawn by the buzzing of a fly in the window, save when everything is still. While the inmates are moving about the house, mice usually keep silence; and it is only when extreme quietness reigns that they peep from their retreats. Hence each of the facts mentioned, presupposing numerous others, calls up these with more or less distinctness; and revives the feeling of dull solitude with which they are connected in our experience. Were all these facts detailed instead of suggested, the attention would be so frittered away that little impression of dreariness would be produced. Similarly in other cases. Whatever the nature of the thought to be conveyed, this skilful selection of a few particulars which imply the rest, is the key to success. In the choice of component ideas, as in the choice of expressions, the aim must be to convey the greatest quantity of thoughts with the smallest quantity of words. § 49. The same principle may in some cases be advantageously carried yet further, by indirectly suggesting some entirely distinct thought in addition to the one expressed. Thus, if we say, "The head of a good classic is as full of ancient myths, as that of a servant-girl of ghost stories"; it is manifest that besides the fact asserted, there is an implied opinion respecting the small value of classical knowledge: and as this implied opinion is recognized much sooner than it can be put into words, there is gain in omitting it. In other cases, again, great effect is produced by an overt omission; provided the nature of the idea left out is obvious. A good instance of this occurs in 'Heroes and Heroworship.' After describing the way in which Burns was sacrificed to the idle curiosity of Lion-hunters--people who came not out of sympathy, but merely to see him--people who sought a little amusement, and who got their amusement while "the Hero's life went for it!" Carlyle suggests a parallel thus: "Richter says, in the Island of Sumatra there is a kind of 'Light-chafers,' large Fire-flies, which people stick upon spits, and illuminate the ways with at night. Persons of condition can thus travel with a pleasant radiance, which they much admire. Great honour to the Fire-flies! But--!--" vi. The Effect of Poetry explained. § 50. Before inquiring whether the law of effect, thus far traced, explains the superiority of poetry to prose, it will be needful to notice some supplementary causes of force in expression, that have not yet been mentioned. These are not, properly speaking, additional causes; but rather secondary ones, originating from those already specified reflex results of them. In the first place, then, we may remark that mental excitement spontaneously prompts the use of those forms of speech which have been pointed out as the most effective. "Out with him!" "Away with him!" are the natural utterances of angry citizens at a disturbed meeting. A voyager, describing a terrible storm he had witnessed, would rise to some such climax as--"Crack went the ropes and down came the mast." Astonishment may be heard expressed in the phrase--"Never was there such a sight!" All of which sentences are, it will be observed, constructed after the direct type. Again, every one knows that excited persons are given to figures of speech. The vituperation of the vulgar abounds with them: often, indeed, consists of little else. "Beast," "brute," "gallows rogue," "cut-throat villain," these, and other like metaphors and metaphorical epithets, at once call to mind a street quarrel. Further, it may be noticed that extreme brevity is another characteristic of passionate language. The sentences are generally incomplete; the particles are omitted; and frequently important words are left to be gathered from the context. Great admiration does not vent itself in a precise proposition, as--"It is beautiful"; but in the simple exclamation--"Beautiful!" He who, when reading a lawyer's letter, should say, "Vile rascal!" would be thought angry; while, "He is a vile rascal!" would imply comparative coolness. Thus we see that alike in the order of the words, in the frequent use of figures, and in extreme conciseness, the natural utterances of excitement conform to the theoretical conditions of forcible expression. § 51. Hence, then, the higher forms of speech acquire a secondary strength from association. Having, in actual life, habitually heard them in connection with vivid mental impressions, and having been accustomed to meet with them in the most powerful writing, they come to have in themselves a species of force. The emotions that have from time to time been produced by the strong thoughts wrapped up in these forms, are partially aroused by the forms themselves. They create a certain degree of animation; they induce a preparatory sympathy, and when the striking ideas looked for are reached, they are the more vividly realized. § 52. The continuous use of these modes of expression that are alike forcible in themselves and forcible from their associations, produces the peculiarly impressive species of composition which we call poetry. Poetry, we shall find, habitually adopts those symbols of thought, and those methods of using them, which instinct and analysis agree in choosing as most effective, and becomes poetry by virtue of doing this. On turning back to the various specimens that have been quoted, it will be seen that the direct or inverted form of sentence predominates in them; and that to a degree quite inadmissible in prose. And not only in the frequency, but in what is termed the violence of the inversions, will this distinction be remarked. In the abundant use of figures, again, we may recognize the same truth. Metaphors, similes, hyperboles, and personifications, are the poet's colours, which he has liberty to employ almost without limit. We characterize as "poetical" the prose which uses these appliances of language with any frequency, and condemn it as "over florid" or "affected" long before they occur with the profusion allowed in verse. Further, let it be remarked that in brevity--the other requisite of forcible expression which theory points out, and emotion spontaneously fulfils--poetical phraseology similarly differs from ordinary phraseology. Imperfect periods are frequent; elisions are perpetual; and many of the minor words, which would be deemed essential in prose, are dispensed with. § 53. Thus poetry, regarded as a vehicle of thought, is especially impressive partly because it obeys all the laws of effective speech, and partly because in so doing it imitates the natural utterances of excitement. While the matter embodied is idealized emotion, the vehicle is the idealized language of emotion. As the musical composer catches the cadences in which our feelings of joy and sympathy, grief and despair, vent themselves, and out of these germs evolves melodies suggesting higher phases of these feelings; I so, the poet develops from the typical expressions in which men utter passion and sentiment, those choice forms of verbal combination in which concentrated passion and sentiment may be fitly presented. § 54. There is one peculiarity of poetry conducing much to its effect--the peculiarity which is indeed usually thought its characteristic one--still remaining to be considered: we mean its rhythmical structure. This, improbable though it seems, will be found to come under the same generalization with the others. Like each of them, it is an idealization of the natural language of strong emotion, which is known to be more or less metrical if the emotion be not too violent; and like each of them it is an economy of the reader's or hearer's attention. In the peculiar tone and manner we adopt in uttering versified language, may be discerned its relationship to the feelings; and the pleasure which its measured movement gives us, is ascribable to the comparative ease with which words metrically arranged can be recognized. § 55. This last position will scarcely be at once admitted; but a little explanation will show its reasonableness. For if, as we have seen, there is an expenditure of mental energy in the mere act of listening to verbal articulations, or in that silent repetition of them which goes on in reading--if the perceptive faculties must be in active exercise to identify every syllable--then, any mode of so combining words as to present a regular recurrence of certain traits which the mind can anticipate, will diminish that strain upon the attention required by the total irregularity of prose. Just as the body, in receiving a series of varying concussions, must keep the muscles ready to meet the most violent of them, as not knowing when such may come; so, the mind in receiving unarranged articulations, must keep its perceptives active enough to recognize the least easily caught sounds. And as, if the concussions recur in a definite order, the body may husband its forces by adjusting the resistance needful for each concussion; so, if the syllables be rhythmically arranged, the mind may economize its energies by anticipating the attention required for each syllable. § 56. Far-fetched though this idea will perhaps be thought, a little introspection will countenance it. That we do take advantage of metrical language to adjust our perceptive faculties to the force of the expected articulations, is clear from the fact that we are balked by halting versification. Much as at the bottom of a flight of stairs, a step more or less than we counted upon gives us a shock; so, too, does a misplaced accent or a supernumerary syllable. In the one case, we _know_ that there is an erroneous preadjustment; and we can scarcely doubt that there is one in the other. But if we habitually preadjust our perceptions to the measured movement of verse, the physical analogy above given renders it probable that by so doing we economize attention; and hence that metrical language is more effective than prose, because it enables us to do this. § 57. Were there space, it might be worthwhile to inquire whether the pleasure we take in rhyme, and also that which we take in euphony, axe not partly ascribable to the same general cause. PART II. CAUSES OF FORCE IN LANGUAGE WHICH DEPEND UPON ECONOMY OF THE MENTAL SENSIBILITIES. i. The Law of Mental Exhaustion and Repair. § 58. A few paragraphs only, can be devoted to a second division of our subject that here presents itself. To pursue in detail the laws of effect, as applying to the larger features of composition, would carry us beyond our limits. But we may briefly indicate a further aspect of the general principle hitherto traced out, and hint a few of its wider applications. § 59. Thus far, then, we have considered only those causes of force in language which depend upon economy of the mental _energies:_ we have now to glance at those which depend upon economy of the mental _sensibilities._ Questionable though this division may be as a psychological one, it will yet serve roughly to indicate the remaining field of investigation. It will suggest that besides considering the extent to which any faculty or group of faculties is tasked in receiving a form of words and realizing its contained idea, we have to consider the state in which this faculty or group of faculties is left; and how the reception of subsequent sentences and images will be influenced by that state. Without going at length into so wide a topic as the exercise of faculties and its reactive effects, it will be sufficient here to call to mind that every faculty (when in a state of normal activity) is most capable at the outset; and that the change in its condition, which ends in what we term exhaustion, begins simultaneously with its exercise. This generalization, with which we are all familiar in our bodily experiences, and which our daily language recognizes as true of the mind as a whole, is equally true of each mental power, from the simplest of the senses to the most complex of the sentiments. If we hold a flower to the nose for long, we become insensible to its scent. We say of a very brilliant flash of lightning that it blinds us; which means that our eyes have for a time lost their ability to appreciate light. After eating a quantity of honey, we are apt to think our tea is without sugar. The phrase "a deafening roar," implies that men find a very loud sound temporarily incapacitates them for hearing faint ones. To a hand which has for some time carried a heavy body, small bodies afterwards lifted seem to have lost their weight. Now, the truth at once recognized in these, its extreme manifestations, may be traced throughout. It may be shown that alike in the reflective faculties, in the imagination, in the perceptions of the beautiful, the ludicrous, the sublime, in the sentiments, the instincts, in all the mental powers, however we may classify them-action exhausts; and that in proportion as the action is violent, the subsequent prostration is great. § 60. Equally, throughout the whole nature, may be traced the law that exercised faculties are ever tending to resume their original state. Not only after continued rest, do they regain their full power not only do brief cessations partially reinvigorate them; but even while they are in action, the resulting exhaustion is ever being neutralized. The two processes of waste and repair go on together. Hence with faculties habitually exercised--as the senses of all persons, or the muscles of any one who is strong--it happens that, during moderate activity, the repair is so nearly equal to the waste, that the diminution of power is scarcely appreciable; and it is only when the activity has been long continued, or has been very violent, that the repair becomes so far in arrear of the waste as to produce a perceptible prostration. In all cases, however, when, by the action of a faculty, waste has been incurred, _some_ lapse of time must take place before full efficiency can be reacquired; and this time must be long in proportion as the waste has been great. ii Explanation of Climax, Antithesis, and Anticlimax. § 61. Keeping in mind these general truths, we shall be in a condition to understand certain causes of effect in composition now to be considered. Every perception received, and every conception realized, entailing some amount of waste--or, as Liebig would say, some change of matter in the brain; and the efficiency of the faculties subject to this waste being thereby temporarily, though often but momentarily, diminished; the resulting partial inability must affect the acts of perception and conception that immediately succeed. And hence we may expect that the vividness with which images are realized will, in many cases, depend on the order of their presentation: even when one order is as convenient to the understanding as the other. § 62. There are sundry facts which alike illustrate this, and are explained by it. Climax is one of them. The marked effect obtained by placing last the most striking of any series of images, and the weakness--often the ludicrous weakness--produced by reversing this arrangement, depends on the general law indicated. As immediately after looking at the sun we cannot perceive the light of a fire, while by looking at the fire first and the sun afterwards we can perceive both; so, after receiving a brilliant, or weighty, or terrible thought, we cannot appreciate a less brilliant, less weighty, or less terrible one, while, by reversing the order, we can appreciate each. In Antithesis, again, we may recognize the same general truth. The opposition of two thoughts that are the reverse of each other in some prominent trait, insures an impressive effect; and does this by giving a momentary relaxation to the faculties addressed. If, after a series of images of an ordinary character, appealing in a moderate degree to the sentiment of reverence, or approbation, or beauty, the mind has presented to it a very insignificant, a very unworthy, or a very ugly image; the faculty of reverence, or approbation, or beauty, as the case may be, having for the time nothing to do, tends to resume its full power; and will immediately afterwards appreciate a vast, admirable, or beautiful image better than it would otherwise do. Conversely, where the idea of absurdity due to extreme insignificance is to be produced, it maybe greatly intensified by placing it after something highly impressive: especially if the form of phrase implies that something still more impressive is coming. A good illustration of the effect gained by thus presenting a petty idea to a consciousness that has not yet recovered from the shock of an exciting one, occurs in a sketch by Balzac. His hero writes to a mistress who has cooled towards him the following letter: "Madame, Votre conduite m'étonne autant qu'elle m'afflige Non contente de me déchirer le coeur par vos dédains vous avez l'indélicatesse de me retenir une brosse à dents, que mes moyens ne me permettent pas de remplacer, mes propriétés etant grevées d'hypothèques "Adieu, trop, belle et trop ingrate ainie! Puissions nous nous revoir dans un monde meilleur! "Charles Edouard" § 63. Thus we see that the phenomena of Climax, Antithesis, and Anticlimax, alike result from this general principle. Improbable as these momentary variations in susceptibility may seem, we cannot doubt their occurrence when we contemplate the analogous variations in the susceptibility of the senses. Referring once more to phenomena of vision, every one knows that a patch of black on a white ground looks blacker, and a patch of white on a black ground looks whiter, than elsewhere. As the blackness and the whiteness must really be the same, the only assignable cause for this is a difference in their actions upon us, dependent upon the different states of our faculties. It is simply a visual antithesis. iii. Need of Variety. § 64. But this extension of the general principle of economy--this further condition to effective composition, that the sensitiveness of the faculties must be continuously husbanded--includes much more than has been yet hinted. It implies not only that certain arrangements and certain juxtapositions of connected ideas are best; but that some modes of dividing and presenting a subject will be more striking than others; and that, too, irrespective of its logical cohesion. It shows why we must progress from the less interesting to the more interesting; and why not only the composition as a whole, but each of its successive portions, should tend towards a climax. At the same time, it forbids long continuity of the same kind of thought, or repeated production of like effects. It warns us against the error committed both by Pope in his poems and by Bacon in his essays--the error, namely, of constantly employing forcible forms of expression: and it points out that as the easiest posture by and by becomes fatiguing, and is with pleasure exchanged for one less easy, so, the most perfectly-constructed sentences will soon weary, and relief will be given by using those of an inferior kind. § 65. Further, we may infer from it not only that we should avoid generally combining our words in one manner, however good, or working out our figures and illustrations in one way, however telling; but that we should avoid anything like uniform adherence, even to the wider conditions of effect. We should not make every section of our subject progress in interest; we should not always rise to a climax. As we saw that, in single sentences, it is but rarely allowable to fulfill all the conditions to strength; so, in the larger sections of a composition we must not often conform entirely to the law indicated. We must subordinate the component effect to the total effect. § 66. In deciding how practically to carry out the principles of artistic composition, we may derive help by bearing in mind a fact already pointed out--the fitness of certain verbal arrangements for certain kinds of thought. That constant variety in the mode of presenting ideas which the theory demands, will in a great degree result from a skilful adaptation of the form to the matter. We saw how the direct or inverted sentence is spontaneously used by excited people; and how their language is also characterized by figures of speech and by extreme brevity. Hence these may with advantage predominate in emotional passages; and may increase as the emotion rises. On the other hand, for complex ideas, the indirect sentence seems the best vehicle. In conversation, the excitement produced by the near approach to a desired conclusion, will often show itself in a series of short, sharp sentences; while, in impressing a view already enunciated, we generally make our periods voluminous by piling thought upon thought. These natural modes of procedure may serve as guides in writing. Keen observation and skilful analysis would, in like manner, detect further peculiarities of expression produced by other attitudes of mind; and by paying due attention to all such traits, a writer possessed of sufficient versatility might make some approach to a completely-organized work. iv. The Ideal Writer. § 67. This species of composition which the law of effect points out as the perfect one, is the one which high genius tends naturally to produce. As we found that the kinds of sentences which are theoretically best, are those generally employed by superior minds, and by inferior minds when excitement has raised them; so, we shall find that the ideal form for a poem, essay, or fiction, is that which the ideal writer would evolve spontaneously. One in whom the powers of expression fully responded to the state of feeling, would unconsciously use that variety in the mode of presenting his thoughts, which Art demands. This constant employment of one species of phraseology, which all have now to strive against, implies an undeveloped faculty of language. To have a specific style is to be poor in speech. If we remember that, in the far past, men had only nouns and verbs to convey their ideas with, and that from then to now the growth has been towards a greater number of implements of thought, and consequently towards a greater complexity and variety in their combinations; we may infer that we are now, in our use of sentences, much what the primitive man was in his use of words; and that a continuance of the process that has hitherto gone on, must produce increasing heterogeneity in our modes of expression. As now, in a fine nature, the play of the features, the tones of the voice and its cadences, vary in harmony with every thought uttered; so, in one possessed of a fully developed power of speech, the mould in which each combination of words is cast will similarly vary with, and be appropriate to the sentiment. § 68. That a perfectly endowed man must unconsciously write in all styles, we may infer from considering how styles originate. Why is Johnson pompous, Goldsmith simple? Why is one author abrupt, another rhythmical, another concise? Evidently in each case the habitual mode of utterance must depend upon the habitual balance of the nature. The predominant feelings have by use trained the intellect to represent them. But while long, though unconscious, discipline has made it do this efficiently, it remains from lack of practice, incapable of doing the same for the less active feelings; and when these are excited, the usual verbal forms undergo but slight modifications. Let the powers of speech be fully developed, however--let the ability of the intellect to utter the emotions be complete; and this fixity of style will disappear. The perfect writer will express himself as Junius, when in the Junius frame of mind; when he feels as Lamb felt, will use a like familiar speech; and will fall into the ruggedness of Carlyle when in a Carlylean mood. Now he will be rhythmical and now irregular; here his language will be plain and there ornate; sometimes his sentences will be balanced and at other times unsymmetrical; for a while there will be considerable sameness, and then again great variety. His mode of expression naturally responding to his state of feeling, there will flow from his pen a composition changing to the same degree that the aspects of his subject change. He will thus without effort conform to what we have seen to be the laws of effect. And while his work presents to the reader that variety needful to prevent continuous exertion of the same faculties, it will also answer to the description of all highly organized products, both of man and of nature: it will be not a series of like parts simply placed in juxtaposition, but one whole made up of unlike parts that are mutually dependent. 
52320	----	[Illustration: Geo. W. Matsell] VOCABULUM; OR, THE ROGUE'S LEXICON. COMPILED FROM THE MOST AUTHENTIC SOURCES. BY GEORGE W. MATSELL, SPECIAL JUSTICE, CHIEF OF POLICE, ETC., ETC. NEW-YORK: PUBLISHED BY GEORGE W. MATSELL & CO. PROPRIETORS OF THE NATIONAL POLICE GAZETTE. No. 3 Tryon Row. ENTERED, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1859, by GEORGE W. MATSELL & CO., in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New-York. PREFACE. When a young man enters upon the business of life, he may have some indefinite idea of what he intends to follow out to the close thereof; but he soon finds himself surrounded by circumstances which control his actions and business pursuits, and lead him into channels of thought and industry that had not previously entered into his philosophy. At least I have found it to be so, and I have no doubt others have had a similar experience. To become a lexicographer, certainly never entered into my calculation, or even found a place in the castle-building of my younger days; and if a kind friend had suggested to me that I was destined to fill such a position in life, I would simply have regarded him as a fit subject for the care of the authorities. This improbable event has now taken place; and I present myself to the world as the compiler of a language used in all parts of the world, and yet understood connectedly but by few persons. The rogue fraternity have a language peculiarly their own, which is understood and spoken by them no matter what their dialect, or the nation where they were reared. Many of their words and phrases, owing to their comprehensive meaning, have come into general use, so that a Vocabulum or Rogue's Lexicon, has become a necessity to the general reader, but more especially to those who read police intelligence. Occupying the position of a Special Justice, and Chief of the Police of the great Metropolis of New-York, where thieves and others of a like character from all parts of the world congregate, and realizing the necessity of possessing a positive knowledge of every thing connected with the class of individuals with whom it was my duty to deal, I was naturally led to study their peculiar language, believing that it would enable me to converse with them more at ease, and thus acquire a knowledge of their character, besides obtaining from them information that would assist me in the position I occupied, and consequently be of great service to the public. To accomplish this task was no mean undertaking, as I found that it required years of diligent labor to hunt up the various authorities, and these when found proved only partially available, as much of the language in present use was unwritten, and could only be obtained by personal study among first-class thieves who had been taught it in their youth. The difficulties surrounding it, did not deter me from following out my resolution, and by closely pursuing it, I had opened up to me a fountain of knowledge that I could not have obtained if I had not possessed a clear understanding of this peculiar dialect. Experience has since demonstrated to me that any man engaged in police business can not excel without understanding the rogues' language, in the study of which they will find this Lexicon of invaluable service. It is not, however, to policemen alone that this book will be of service, as these cant words and phrases are being interwoven with our language and many of them are becoming recognized Anglicisms. It is not unusual to see them in the messages of presidents and governors--to hear them enunciated at the bar and from the pulpit, and thus they have come to be acknowledged as appropriately expressive of particular ideas; so that while they are in common use among the footpads that infest the land, the _élite_ of the Fifth Avenue pay homage to their worth, by frequently using them to express thoughts, that could not, otherwise, find a fitting representative. The vocabulary of the rogue is not of recent date; although it is mainly made up of arbitrary or technical words and phrases, while others are of a purely classical origin. It is a language of great antiquity, and may be dated back to the earliest days of the roving gipsy bands, that infested Europe, from whom the greater portion of it has been derived. It might more properly be termed the Romany or Gipsy language, adapted to the use of modern rogues in all parts of the world, and in which the etymologist will find words drawn from every known language. Some of these words are peculiarly national, but as a general thing the language of the rogue in New-York is the language of the rogue the world over. Among policemen, not only in this city but in different parts of the United States, the cant language of thieves is attempted to be used; but there being no standard they are unable to do so understandingly, and each one gives to the words the corrupted sense in which he received it; thus speaking as it were, a miserable "_patois_," to the exclusion of the true "Parisian French." This departure from the true meaning of the words used is mischievous in its tendency, as it is calculated to mislead and bewilder, so that rogues might still converse in the presence of an officer, and he be ignorant of what they said. This I have endeavored to correct, and although I may not claim infallibility in these matters, yet I believe that I have arrived at as high a degree of perfection as is now attainable. To the readers of the _National Police Gazette_, the oldest and most reliable criminal journal published in the United States, this work will prove invaluable, as it will enable them to understand and fully comprehend language that the editors and correspondents are frequently compelled to use in order to convey the idea as understood by rogues in general. GEO. W. MATSELL. _New-York, 1859._ VOCABULUM; OR, THE ROGUE'S LEXICON. A ABRAHAM. To sham; to pretend sickness. ABRAHAM COVE. A naked or poor man; a beggar in rags. ACADEMY. A penitentiary, or prison for minor offenses. ACCOUNTS. To cast accounts; to vomit. ACE OF SPADES. A widow. ACKRUFFS. River-thieves; river-pirates. ACORN. A gallows. ACTEON. A cuckold. ACTIVE CITIZEN. A louse. ADAM. An accomplice; a pal. ADAM-TILER. A fellow whose business it is to receive the plunder from the "File"--the one who picked the pocket--and get away with it. ADDLE-COVE. A foolish man. AGOG. Anxious; impatient; all-agog. AGOGARE. Anxious; eager; impatient; be quick. AIR AND EXERCISE. To work in the stone quarry at Blackwell's Island or at Sing Sing. ALAMORT. Confounded; struck dumb; unable to say or do any thing. ALBERT. A chain. ALBONIZED. Whitened. ALLS. The five alls. First, the monarch's motto, "I govern all." Second, the bishop's motto, "I pray for all." Third, the lawyer's motto, "I plead for all." Fourth, the soldier's motto, "I fight for all." Fifth, the farmer's motto, "I pay for all." ALTEMAL. All in a heap, without items; the sum total. ALTITUDES. A state of drunkenness; being high. AMBIDEXTER. One who befriends both sides; a lawyer who takes fees from both parties in a suit. AMERACE. Very near; don't go far; be within call. AMPUTATE YOUR MAHOGANY or TIMBER. Be off quick; away with you. AMUSE. To amuse; to invent plausible stories and thereby rob or cheat unsuspecting persons. AMUSERS. Fellows who carry snuff or pepper in their pockets, which they throw into a person's eyes and then run away; the accomplice rushing up to the victim, pretending to assist, robs him while suffering with pain. ANGLERS. Small thieves who place a hook on the end of a stick, and therewith steal from store-windows, doors, etc. It also applies to fencemen; putters up, etc. ANKLE. "A sprained ankle;" the mother of a child born out of wedlock. ANODYNE. Death; to anodyne, to kill. "Ahr say, Bill, vy don't yer hopen that jug and draw the cole?" "Vy, my cove, aren't you avare as how a bloke snoses hin it?" "Vell, vot hof it, aren't yer habel to put him to hanodyne?" ANOINTED. Flogged. APPLES AND PEARS. Stairs. AQUA. Water. ARCH-COVES. Chief of the gang or mob; headmen; governors; presidents. ARCH-DUKE. A funny fellow. ARCH-GONNOFF. The chief of a gang of thieves. ARD. Hot. ARK. A ship; a boat; a vessel. ARTFUL DODGERS. Lodgers; fellows who dare not sleep twice in the same place for fear of arrest. ARTICLE. Man. "You're a pretty article." A term of contempt. ARTICLES. A suit of clothes. ARTIST. An adroit rogue. ASSAY. Go on; commence; try it. ATTLEBOROUGH. Not genuine; made to imitate. At the town of Attleborough jewelry is manufactured from the baser metals, or so alloyed as to deceive those who are not good judges of the genuine article. AUTUM. A church. AUTUM-BAWLER. A parson. AUTUM-CACKLER. A married woman. AUTUM-COVE. A married man. AUTUM-DIVERS. Pickpockets who practise in churches. AUTUM-JET. A parson. AUTUMED. Married. AWAKE. To know; to let know. B BABY PAPS. Caps. BACONNING. A fat round face; a full pale face. BADGER. A panel thief; a fellow who robs a man's pocket after he has been enticed into bed with a woman; to torment. BAG OF NAILS. Every thing in confusion. BAGGED. Imprisoned. BALL. Prison allowance. BALLUM-RANCUM. A ball where all the dancers are thieves and prostitutes. BALSAM. Money. BAM. A lie; to bamboozle; humbug. BANDERO. A widow's weeds. BANDOG. A civil officer. BANGUP. The best; very fine; height of the fashion. BAPTIZED. Liquor that has been watered. BARDY. A sixpence. BARKER. One who patrols the streets for customers in front of his employer's shop; vide Chatham street. BARKING. Shooting. BARKING-IRONS. Pistols. BARNACLES. A good booty; a pair of spectacles; hand-cuffs. BARREL FEVER. Delirium tremens. BASTER. A house-thief. BAT. A prostitute who walks the streets only at night. BAZAAR. A counter. BEAK. A magistrate; a judge. BEAKQUERE. A sharp, strict magistrate who is attentive to his duty. BEANS. Five-dollar gold-pieces. BEAT. Get the best of him; "Beat the flat;" rob the man. BEATER-CASES. } BEATERS. } Boots. BEAU-TRAPS. Well-dressed sharpers; fortune-hunters. BELCHER TIE. A flashy neckerchief. BEN. A vest. BENDER. A spree; a drunken frolic. BENE. Good; first rate. BENE-BOUSE. Good drink. BENE-COVE. A good man. BENE-CULL. A good fellow. BENE-DARKMAN. Good night. BENEN-COVE. A better man. BENFLAKE. A cheap beef-steak. BENISON. A blessing. BENJAMIN. A coat. BENS. Fools. BESS. A pick of a very simple construction. BETSEY. _See Bess._ BETTING HIS EYES. A term used by gamblers when a "sucker" looks on at the game, but does not bet. BETTY. A picklock. BEVER. An afternoon lunch. BIENLY. Excellently, "She coaxed so bienly." BIG THING. A rich booty. BILBOA. A pointed instrument. BILK. To cheat. BILL OF SALE. A widow's weeds. BILLY. A piece of whalebone or rawhide about fourteen inches long, with an oval-shaped lump of lead at each end, one larger than the other, the whole being covered with buckskin or india-rubber. BILLY BUTTER. Mutton. BILLY NOODLE. A soft fellow that believes the girls are all in love with him. BINGAVAST. Get you gone, "Bing we to New-York;" go we to New-York. BINGO. Liquor. BINGO-BOY. A drunken man. BINGO-MORT. A drunken woman. BIRDLIME. Time. Time arrests and reveals all things. BIRTHDAY SUIT. Stark naked. BIT. Out-witted, "The cove was bit;" "The cove has bit the flat, and pinched his cole," outwitted and robbed him. BIT. Done; sentenced; convicted. BITE. To steal; to rob. BLACK ACT. Picking locks. BLACK COVE-DUBBER. A turn-key; a prison keeper. BLACK FRIARS. Look out. BLACK OINTMENT. Raw meat. BLACK SPY. The devil. BLACK-BOX. A lawyer. BLACKLEG. A gambler. BLARNEY. A picklock. BLEAK. Handsome; "The Moll is bleak," the girl is handsome. BLEAK-MORT. A pretty girl. BLEATING RIG. Sheep-stealing. BLEED. To compel a person to give money under threat of exposure. BLINK. Not to see when one may. "The copper blinks, and won't drop to me," i. e. the officer pretends not to see me; the officer looks another way. To go to sleep. BLOCK-HOUSE. A prison. BLOKE. A man. BLOSS. Woman; mistress; girl. BLOTTED. Written. BLOW. To inform. BLOW A CLOUD. Smoke a segar or pipe. BLOWEN. The mistress of a thief. "The blowen kidded the bloke into a panel crib, and shook him of his honey and thimble," i. e. the girl enticed the man into a thieving-house, and robbed him of his watch and money. BLUDGEONER. A fellow who passes off some well-dressed woman as his wife. She goes out in search of a gallant, and entices her victim into some unfrequented place. The bludgeoner waits outside until she gives him a signal that the man is robbed, when he rushes in with a knife, pistol, or club, and accuses the man with having seduced his wife. The poor fool gets away as fast as possible, and does not know that he is robbed. BLUDGET. A female thief who decoys her victims into alley-ways, or other dark places, for the purpose of robbing them. BLUE-BILLY. A peculiar handkerchief. BLUE-PIGEON-FLYING. Stealing lead off the tops of houses. BLUE-PLUM. A bullet; "Surfeit the bloke with blue-plum," shoot him. BLUE-RUIN. Bad gin. BLUFF. To bluster; look big. BLUFFER. The landlord of a hotel. BLUNDERBUSS. An ignorant, blustering fellow. BLUNT. Money. BOARDING-HOUSE. City prison; the Tombs. BOARDING-SCHOOL. Penitentiary. BOAT. "To boat with another;" to go in with him; to be his partner in the same boat--in the same scrape. BOATED. Transported; gone to sea. BOB. The fellow that carries off the plunder; a shop-lifter; a cover or staller. BOB MY PAL. My girl. BOB-CULL. A good fellow. BOBBIE. A policeman. BODY-COVER. A coat. BOGUS. Bad coin; false. BOKE. The nose. BOLT. Run away. BONE. To take; to steal; to ask him for it. BONEBOX. The mouth. BONED. Arrested; taken; carried off. BONESETTER. A hard-riding horse. BONNET. Hat. "Bonnet him," knock his hat down over his eyes. BONNETTER. One who entices another to play; or the fellow who takes the "flat" in hand after the "roper in" has introduced him to the house. BOOBY-HATCH. Station-house; watch-house. BOODLE. A quantity of bad money. BOODLE-CARRIER. The man who carries the bulk of the counterfeit money that is to be passed. The person who passes, or shoves it, as it is called, having but one "piece" at a time. The fellow with the boodle keeps close in the wake of the shover, to receive the good money, and supply him with the counterfeit, as occasion requires. BOOKED. Arrested. BOOLY-DOG. An officer; a policeman. BOOSING-KEN. A drinking-shop. BOOTH. A place in which thieves congregate. BOOZE. Intoxicating drink. BORDELLO. A house of ill-fame. BOSHING. A flogging. BOTS. Boots. BOTTLE-HEAD. A stupid fellow. BOUNCE. To scold; blow up; to swagger; to convince by the force of sound more than sense. BOUNCER. A fellow that robs while bargaining with the store-keeper. BOUNCING CHEAT. A bottle. BOUNG. A purse. BOWER. A prison. BOWSPRIT IN PARENTHESIS. A pulled nose. BRACKET-MUG. A very ugly face. BRADS. Money. BRAG. To boast. BRASS. Money. BREAD-BAG. The stomach. BREAK-'O-DAY DRUM. A place for the sale of liquor, that never closes day or night. BREAKUPS. Steamboat-landings; dispersing of people from theatres, lecture-rooms, churches, etc. BRIEF. Duplicate. BROAD PITCHING. The game of three-card monte. BROADS. Cards. BROADY. Materials of any kind. BROKEN LEG. A woman that has had a child out of marriage. BROTHER OF THE BLADE. A soldier. BROTHER OF THE BOLUS. A doctor. BROTHER OF THE BUNG. A brewer. BROTHER OF THE BUSKIN. An actor. BROTHER OF THE COIF. A counsellor-at-law. BROTHER OF THE GUSSET. A pimp. BROTHER OF THE QUILL. An author; an editor. BROTHER OF THE STRING. Fiddler, or musician. BROTHER OF THE SURPLICE. A minister. BROTHER OF THE WHIP. A coachman. BRUISER. A fighter. BRUSH. To flatter; to humbug; an encounter. "It was the hardest brush I ever saw; both men were as game as pebbles. It was nothing but cut, carve, and come again." BRUSHER. A full glass. BRUSHING UP A FLAT. Praising or flattering. BUBB. To drink; "Bubb your lush," drink your grog. BUBBLE. To cheat. BUCK. A hack-driver; bail. BUCKET. A live man. BUCKLER. A collar. BUCKS-FACE. A cuckold. BUDGE. A thief that sneaks into a store, and hides until the persons who lock up are gone, when he lets in his accomplice. BUFE. A dog. BUFE-NAPPER. A dog-thief; a mean rogue. BUFFER. A pugilist. BUFFET. A false swearer. BUFFING IT HOME. Swearing point blank to a circumstance or thing. BUG. A breast-pin. BUGABOSE. Sheriff's officers. BUGAROCH. Handsome; very pretty. BUGGER. A pickpocket; a buggsman. BUGGING. Taking money from a thief by a policeman. BULK AND FILE. Shop-lifters; two pickpockets operating together--the "bulk" jostles the party that is to be robbed, and the "file" steals the treasure. BULL. A locomotive. BULL-DOGS. Pistols. BULL-TRAPS. Rogues who personate officers for the purpose of extorting money. BULLY. A lump of lead tied in a corner of a kerchief. BULLY TIMES. Good times. BUMMER. A sponger. BUMY-JUICE. Porter or beer. BUN. A fellow that can not be shaken off. BUNG. A purse or pocket. BURNERS. Rogues who cheat countrymen with false cards or dice. BURNING. Cheating. BURNT OUT. Worn-out roués; fellows that sorrow for the past, fear the future, and can only make the present endurable through means that are revolting to human reason. BURST. The conclusion of an entertainment; a spree. BURSTER. A burglar. Sometimes it denotes bread. BUS-NAPPER. A constable. BUST. To enter forcibly; a burglary. BUSTLED. Confused; perplexed; puzzled. BUTTEKER. A store. BUTTER-KEN. A shop or store. BUTTERED. Whipped. BUTTON. To secure; to entice a simpleton to play. BUZZING. Searching for. "I was in a push and had to buzz about half a glass before I touched a flat's thimble and slang. I fenced the swag for half a century"--"I was in a crowd and searched for half an hour before I succeeded in stealing a man's watch and chain, which I sold for fifty dollars." C CAB-MOLL. A woman that keeps a bad house. CACKLE. To blab. "The cove cackles"--tells all he knows. CAD. A baggage-smasher; a railroad conductor. CADGER. A beggar; a mean thief. CADY. A hat. CAG. Sulky; morose. CAIN AND ABEL. A table. CAKE. An easy fool of a policeman; a flat cop. CALF-SKIN FIDDLE. A drum. CALLE. A gown. CAM. Cambric, "Cam wiper." Cambric kerchief. CAMESOR. A shirt or shift. CAN. A dollar. CAN'T SEE. Very drunk; so that he can not see a hole through a ladder. CANARY-BIRD. A convict. CANK. Dumb. CANNIS COVE. A dog-man; a dog-merchant; a dog-thief. CANT. A gift; to give. CAP. To join in, "I will cap in with him"--I will appear to be his friend. CAP BUNG. Hand it over; give it to me. CAP YOUR LUCKY. Run away. CAPER COVE. A dancing-master. CAPPER. One who supports another's assertion, to assist in cheating, "The burner bammed the flat with sham books, and his pal capped in for him"--The sharp cheated the countryman with false cards, and his confederate assisted (capped) in the fraud. CAPTAIN HEEMAN. A blustering fellow; a coward. CAPTAIN TOPER. A smart highwayman. CARAVAN. Plenty of cash; rich; money enough. CARLER. A clerk. CARREL. Jealous. CART OF TOGS. A gift of clothes. CASA. A house, "Tout that casa"--mark that house. "It is all bob; let's dub the gig of the casa"--Now the coast is clear; let us break open the door of the house. CASE. A dollar. CASS. Cheese. CASSE. A house. CAST. Course, "He traversed the cast"--he walked the course. CASTER. A cloak. CASTOR. A hat. CAT. A drunken prostitute; a cross old woman; a muff; a pewter pot. CAT AND MOUSE. Keeps house, "He keeps a cat and mouse." CATAMARAN. An ugly woman. CATCH-POLE. A constable. CATTER. A crowbar. CAVED. Gave up; surrendered. CAXON. A wig. CENTURY. One hundred dollars; one hundred. CHAFER. The treadmill. CHAFF. Humbug. CHAFFEY. Boisterous; happy; jolly. CHAFFING. Talking; bantering. CHALK. To mark; to spot. CHALK FARM. The arm. CHALKS. To walk your chalks; to run away. CHANT. Talk; to publish; to inform. "Give me your chant," Give me your name. CHANT COVES. Reporters. CHAPT. Dry; thirsty. CHARLEY. A gold watch. CHARLEY PRESCOT. A vest. CHARM. A picklock. CHATES. Gallows. CHATTS. Lice. Chatt, a louse. CHATTY FEEDER. A spoon. CHEESE. Be silent; listen. "Cheese it, the coves are fly," be silent, the people understand us. CHERRY PIPE. A pipe; a full-grown woman. CHIE. Who is it? do you know? CHIN. A child. CHINK. Money. CHINKERS. Handcuffs and leg-irons united by a chain; money. CHIPS. Money. CHIVE. A file or saw. "Chive your darbies," file your irons off. CHIVEY. To scold. CHOKER. A neckerchief. CHOPPED UP. When large quantities of goods are sold to a receiver, they are divided into small lots, and put into various houses, and this is called "chopping up the swag." CHOVEY. A shop or store. CHRISTENING. Erasing the name of the maker from a stolen watch and putting another in its place. CHUMP. Head. CHURCH. A term of endearment, "My church." CITY COLLEGE. The Tombs. CLANKERS. Silver vessels. CLARET. Blood. CLEAN. Expert; smart. CLEAR. Run; go away; be off. CLERKED. Imposed upon. "The flat will not be clerked." CLEYMANS. Artificial sores made by beggars to impose on the credulous. CLICK. A blow; a thrust. CLICKER. A knock down. CLINK. To grab; to snatch; be quick; start. CLOUT. Handkerchief. CLOWER. A basket. CLY. A pocket. CLY-FAKING. Picking pockets. COACHWHEEL. A dollar. COCK AND HEN CLUB. A place frequented by thieves of both sexes. COCKED HIS TOES UP. Dead. "He is dead." COCUM. Sly; wary. COFFEE. Beans. COG. To cheat; to impose; a tooth. COGLIONE. A fool; a woman's dupe; a fop. COLD DECK. A prepared deck of cards played on a novice or "sucker." COLD PIG. A person that has been robbed of his clothes. COLLAR. To seize or take. COLLARED. Taken; arrested. COLLEGE. A State prison. COLLEGE CHUM. A fellow-prisoner. COLTMAN. One who lets horses and vehicles to burglars. COMMISSION. A shirt or shift. COMMISTER. A parson. COMMIT. To inform. CONFIDENCE MAN. A fellow that by means of extraordinary powers of persuasion gains the confidence of his victims to the extent of drawing upon their treasury, almost to an unlimited extent. To every knave born into the world it has been said that there is a due proportion of fools. Of all the rogue tribe, the Confidence man is, perhaps, the most liberally supplied with subjects; for every man has his soft spot, and nine times out of ten the soft spot is softened by an idiotic desire to overreach the man that is about to overreach us. This is just the spot on which the Confidence man works. He knows his subject is only a knave wrongside out, and accordingly he offers him a pretended gold watch at the price of a brass one; he calls at the front door with presents from no where, as none could be expected; he writes letters in the most generous spirit, announcing large legacies to persons who have no kin on the face of the earth who cares a copper for them. The Confidence man is perfectly aware that he has to deal with a man who expects a result without having worked for it, who gapes, and stands ready to grasp at magnificent returns. The consequence is, that the victim--the confiding man--is always _done_. The one plays a sure game; his sagacity has taught him that the great study of the mass of mankind is to get something and give nothing; but as this is bad doctrine, he wakes up out of his "brown study," and finds himself, in lieu of his fine expectations, in possession of a turnip for a watch, a cigar-box in place of a casket. The Confidence man always carries the trump card; and whoever wishes to be victimized can secure his object by making a flat of himself in a small way, while attempting to victimize somebody else. CONK. The nose. CONSOLATION. Assassination. To kill a man, is to give him consolation. CONVENIENT. A mistress. COOK. Melt; dissolve. COPBUSY. The act of handing over stolen property by a thief to one of his pals for the purpose of preventing its being found on him if arrested. COPPED. Arrested. "The knuck was copped to rights, a skin full of honey was found in his kick's poke by the copper when he frisked him," the pickpocket was arrested, and when searched by the officer, a purse was found in his pantaloons pocket full of money. COPPED TO RIGHTS. Arrested on undoubted evidence of guilt. CORINTH. A bad house. CORINTHIANS. Bad women who move in respectable society. CORN-THRASHERS. Farmers. COUPLE. To live with. COVE or COVEY. A man. COVER. The follow that covers the pickpocket while he is operating. COVING. Palming; stealing jewelry before the face and eyes of the owner, or person that is selling it. COW. A dilapidated prostitute. COW JUICE. Milk. COW'S GREASE. Butter. COWS AND KISSES. Miss, or the ladies. CRAB-SHELLS. Shoes. CRABS. Feet. CRACK. To force; to burst open. CRACKSMAN. A burglar who uses force instead of picklocks or false keys. CRAMMER. A falsehood. CRAMP WORDS. Sentence of death. CRAMP-RINGS. Shackles or handcuffs. CRAMPED. Killed; murdered; hanged. CRAMPING CULL. Executioner; hangman. CRANKY. Mad; insane. CRANKY-HUTCH. An insane asylum. CRASH. To kill. "Crash that cull," kill that fellow. CREAMY. Secretly. CREATURE. Liquor. CREEME. To slip money into the hands of another. CRIB. A house. CROAKE. To murder; to die. CROAKED. Dead. CROAKERS. Newspapers. CROKUS. A doctor. "The cove sold a stiff un to a crokus for twenty cases," the rogue sold a corpse to a doctor for twenty dollars. CROSLEITE. To cheat a friend. CROSS. Dishonest. CROSS-COVE. A thief; any person that lives in a dishonest way is said to be "on the cross," from the fact that highwaymen were in the habit of waiting for their victims on the cross-roads. CROSS-DRUM. A drinking-place where thieves resort. CROSS-FANNING. Picking a pocket with the arms folded across the chest. A knuck in the front rank of a crowd desiring to steal a watch from the pocket of a gentleman standing on either side of him, first folds his arms across his breast; and pretending to be intensely looking at some object before him, stretches out the arm next his victim, and by rapid movements of his fingers and hands excites his attention, and, while in this attitude, with the hand which is stretched across his own breast, he twists the watch from the other's pocket. CROSSED. To meet another and pass him. "The swell moved as he crossed me," the gentleman bowed as he passed me. CROW. The crow is the fellow that watches outside when his accomplices are inside, and gives them warning of the approach of danger. CRUMEY. Fat; pockets full; plenty. CRUMP. One who procures false witnesses. CRUSHER. A policeman. CUES. The points. CUFFIN QUEERS. Magistrates. CUFFIR. A man. CULING. Snatching reticules and purses from ladies. CULL. A man; sometimes a partner. CUPBOARD LOVE. He or she loves only for what they can get. CUPSHOT. Drunk. CURBINGLAW. Stealing goods out of windows. CURLERS. Fellows who sweat gold coins by putting them in a bag, and after violently shaking, gather the dust. CURTISONS. Broken-down lawyers; Tombs skinners. CUSSINE. A male. CUT. To abandon; to renounce acquaintance; drunk; "Half cut," half drunk. CUT BENE. Pleasant words; to speak kind. CUT UP. "The jug cut up very fat, and the gonniffs all got their regulars; there was no sinking in that mob," the bank was very rich, and the thieves all received their share; there was no cheating in that gang. CUTTER. A peculiar instrument that first-class screwsmen (burglars) use for cutting through iron chests, doors, etc. CUTTING HIS EYES. Beginning to see; learning; suspicious. CUTTY-EYED. To look out of the corner of the eyes; to look suspicious; to leer; to look askance. "The copper cutty-eyed us," the officer looked suspicious at us. CYMBAL. A watch. D D. I. O. Damn it! I'm off. DACE. Two cents. DADDLES. Hands. DAGAN. A sword. DAIRY. The breasts of a woman that suckles a baby. DAISY-ROOTS. Boots and shoes. DAISYVILLE. The country. DAKMA. Silence; "Dakma the bloke, and cloy his cole," silence the man, and steal his money. DAMBER. First. DAMBER COVE. The head man. DANAN. Stairs. DANCE AT HIS DEATH. To be hung; "May he dance when he dies," may he be hanged. DANCERS. Shooting stars; fellows who do not remain long in one place. DANCING. Sneaking up stairs to commit a larceny. DANGLER. A roué; a seducer. DANGLERS. A bunch of seals. DAPPER. Well made. "The crack was dapper." DARBIES. Handcuffs; fetters. DARBY. Cash. "Fork over the darby," hand over the cash. DARK CULLEY. A man who visits his mistress only at night. DARKEY. A dark lantern. "The coves had screwed the gig of the jug, when Jack flashed the darkey into it, and found it planted full of coppers. 'Bingavast!' was the word; some one has cackled," the thieves had opened the door of a bank with false keys, and when they looked in with the aid of a dark lantern, they found the place filled with officers. One of the thieves cried out: "Be off! some one has cackled." DAUB. A ribbon. DAVEY. Affidavit; to witness under oath. DAWB. To bribe. "The bene cove was scragged, because he could not dawb the beak," the good fellow was hanged, because he could not bribe the judge. DAY-LIGHTS. The eyes. DEAD BEAT. Without hope; certain. DEAD BROKE. Not a cent. DEAD GAME. A term used by gamblers when they have a certainty of winning. DEAD SET. A concentrated attack on a person or thing. DEAD SWAG. Not worth so much as it was thought to be; things stolen that are not easily disposed of. DEAD TO RIGHTS. Positively guilty, and no way of getting clear. DEATH HUNTER. The undertaker. DEEK THE COVE. See the fellow; look at him. DELLS. A prostitute. DERREY. An eye-glass. DEVIL BOOKS. Cards. DEW-BEATERS. The feet. DEWS. A gold eagle; ten dollars. DIAL-PLATE. The face. DIARY. To remember; to enter in a book. "I'll diary the joskin," I'll remember the fool. DIB. Portion or share. DIBS. Money. DIDDLE. Liquor. DIDDLE COVE. A landlord. DIE. Dummy, or pocket-book. DIFT COVE. A neat little man. DIGGERS. Finger-nails. DIMBER. Handsome; pretty. DIMBER-MORT. Pretty girl; enchanting girl. DING. To throw away; to strike. DIP. A kiss in the dark; a pickpocket. DIP. To pick a pocket; the act of putting a hand into a pocket. DIPT. Pawned. DISMAL DITTY. The psalm or hymn sung by persons just before they are hanged. DISPATCH. A mittimus; a warrant of arrest. DIVER. A pickpocket. DIVING. Picking pockets. DIVING-BELL. A rum-shop in a basement. DOASH. A cloak. DOBING LAY. To steal from stores early in the morning. Two thieves enter a store, as soon as the porter opens it; one of them inquires about some goods he pretends he was looking at the day before, and wishes to see them. The goods inquired for are either in the back of the store or up stairs. In the absence of the porter, the other fellow robs the store. DOCTOR GREEN. A young inexperienced fellow. DOCTORS. False cards or dice. DOG-NIPPERS. Rogues who steal dogs, and restore them to their owners after a reward has been offered. DOGS-PASTE. Sausage-meat; mince meat. DOING POLLY. Picking oakum in prison. DOLLY SHOP. A loan office. DOMESTIC. Made at home. The man robbed himself; some one in the house assisted the thieves. "You may look at home for the thief." DOMMERER. A fellow that pretends to be deaf and dumb. DONBITE. A street. DONE. Convicted. DONKEY-RIDING. Cheating in weight or measure; miscounting. DONNEZ. To give. DOOKIN COVE. A fortune-teller. DOPEY. A thief's mistress. DOSE. Burglary. DOSS. A bed. "The badger got under the doss, and frisked the bloke's pokes of two centuries and a half, and then bounced the flat till he mizzled." DOTS. Money. DOWN. Hatred; dislike; vindictive; to suspect another. "The copper cutty-eyed me and measured my mug, and is down on the job," the officer looked at me from the corners of his eyes, and examined my face; he suspects what we are about. DOWNER. A five cent piece. DOWNEY. A smooth, pleasant talker; a knowing fellow. DOWSE. To strike. "Dowse his mug." hit his face. DOXIE. A girl. DRAB. A nasty woman. DRAG. A cart or wagon. DRAGGING. Stealing from shop-doors. DRAGONS. Sovereigns; gold coins. DRAGSMAN. A thief that steals from express wagons and carts; also trunks from the back of coaches. They sometimes have a fast horse and light wagon. DRAW. } Picking pockets. "I say, my kinchin, DRAWING. } what's your lay?" "Vy, yer see, } as how I am learning to draw." DRAY. Three. DROMEDARY. A clumsy, blundering fellow. DROPS, or DROPPERS. Fellows that cheat countrymen by dropping a pocket-book filled with bad money, near their heels, and then pretend that they found it. By the aid of an accomplice, the countryman is induced to purchase it, with the avowed intention of finding the real owner, believing it to contain good money. DROPT DOWN. Low-spirited. "The kiddy dropt down when he went to be scragged," the youngster was very low-spirited when he walked out to be hanged. DRUM. A drinking-place. DRUMSTICK. A club. DRY UP. Be silent; stop that. DUB. A key; a picklock. DUB LAY. Robbing houses by picking the locks. DUB O' THE HICK. A blow on the head. The copper tipt the dromedary a dub o' the hick with his drum-stick. DUB THE JIGGER. Open the door. DUBLER. A picker of locks. DUCE. Two cents; two. DUDS. Clothes. DUFF. Pudding. DUFFER. A fellow, in the dress of a sailor, who knocks at the basement-door, and inquires if the lady of the house does not want to buy some smuggled goods, and then exhibits imitation silks, satins, Irish linens, etc., etc., which he pretends to have run ashore without the knowledge of the custom-house officers. DUKES. The hands. DUMMY. A pocket-book; a portmonnaie. "Frisk the dummy of the screens, ding it and bolt; they are crying out beef," take out the money and throw the pocket-book away; run, they are crying, stop thief! DUN. A _very importunate_ creditor. Dunny, in the provincial dialect of several counties in England, signifies _deaf_; to dun, then, perhaps may mean to deafen with _importunate demands_; it may have been derived from the word _donnez_, which signifies _give_. But the word undoubtedly originated in the days of one Joe Dun, a famous bailiff of the town of Lincoln, England, who was so extremely active and dexterous in his business, that it became a proverb, when a man refused to pay, to say, "Why don't you Dun him?" that is, send Dun after him. Hence it became a cant word, and is now as old as the days of Henry VII. Dun was also the name for the hangman, before that of Jack Ketch. "And presently a halter got, Made of the best strong hempen teer, And ere a cat could lick her ear, Had tied it up with as much art, As Dun himself could do for's heart." _Cotton's Virgil Trav._ Book IV. [Illustration] DUNEKER. A thief that steals cattle. DUNNAKIN. It can't be helped; necessary. DUNNEY. Deaf; to dun. DUNNOCK. A cow. DURIA. Fire. DUSTMAN. Dead man. "Poor Bill is a dustman; he was a bene cove," poor Bill is dead; he was a good man. DUSTY. Dangerous. "Two fly-cops and a beak tumbled to us, and Bill thought as how it was rather dusty, and so, shady was the word," two detectives and a magistrate came upon us suddenly; Bill said it was rather dangerous, and so we got out of sight. E EARTH-BATH. A grave. EASE. To rob. EASE THE COVE. Rob the man. EASON. To tell. EASY. Killed. "Make the cull easy," kill him; gag him. EAT. To take back; to recall; to retract; to unsay. EAVES. A hen-roost; a poultry-house. EAVESDROPPER. A mean fellow; a petty larceny vagabond. EDGE. Encourage; persuade; induce. EGROTAT. He is sick. ELBOW. Turn the corner; get out of sight. ELBOW-SHAKER. A man that gambles with dice. ELEPHANT. The fellow has an enormous booty, and knows not how to secrete it. If he had less, he would be able to save more. ELFEN. Walk light; on tiptoe. EMPEROR. A drunken man. ENGLISH BURGUNDY. London porter. EQUIPT. Rich; full of money; well dressed, "The cull equipped me with a deuce of finifs," the man gave me two five-dollar bills. ERIFFS. Young thieves; minor rogues. ETERNITY-BOX. A coffin. EVERLASTING. The treadmill. EVIL. A wife; a halter; matrimony. EWE. An old woman dressed like a young girl, "An old ewe dressed lamb fashion." "A white ewe," a beautiful woman. EXECUTION-DAY. Wash-day; cleaning house. EYE. Nonsense; humbug. F FACER. A glass filled so full that there is no room for the lip; a staller, or one who places himself in the way of persons who are in hot pursuit of his accomplices. FADGE. It won't do, "It won't fadge." FAG. A lawyer's clerk; to beat. "Fag the flat," beat the fool. FAGGER. A small boy put into a window to rob the house, or to open it for others to rob. FAGGOT. To bind. "Faggot the culls," bind the men. FAIKING. Cutting out the wards of a key. FAITHFUL. A tailor that gives long credit. "I say, Sam, what kind of crib was that you cracked?" "Oh! it belonged to one of the faithful." FAKEMENT. A written or printed paper; the written deposition of a witness. FAKER. A jeweller. FAM GRASP. To shake hands. "Fam grasp the cove," shake hands with the fellow. FAM LAY. Thieves who rob jewellers' stores by pretending to want to make a purchase. FAMILY-MAN. A receiver of stolen goods from a dwelling-house. FAMLY-MAN. Connected with thieves. FAMS. Hands. FAN. A waistcoat. FANNY BLAIR. The hair. FARMER. An alderman. FASTNER. A warrant. FAT. Money. FATERS. Fortune-tellers. FEEDERS. Silver spoons or forks. "Nap the feeders," steal the spoons. FEINT. A pawn-broker. FEKER. Trade; profession. FEN. A common woman. FENCE. A receiver of stolen goods; to sell stolen goods. "The bloke fenced the swag for five cases," the fellow sold the plunder for five dollars. FENCED. Sold. FERM. A hole. FIB. To beat. "Fib the bloke's quarron in the rum-pad, and draw the honey in his poke," beat the fellow's carcase in the street, and steal the money in his pocket. FIBBING. Striking with the fist. FIDLAM BENS. Thieves who have no particular lay, whose every finger is a fish-hook; fellows that will steal any thing they can remove. FIDLAM COVES. Small thieves who steal any thing they can lay hands on. FIGDEAN. To kill. FIGGER. A juvenile thief put through side-lights at outside doors to unbolt the door and admit other thieves to the house. FIGGING LAW. The art of picking pockets. FIGNER. A small thief. FIGURE-DANCER. One who alters the numbers or figures on bank-bills. FILE. A pick-pocket. The file is one who is generally accompanied by two others, one of whom is called the "Adam tyler;" and the other the "bulker," or "staller." It is their business to jostle, or "ramp" the victim, while the "file" picks his pocket and then hands the plunder to the Adam tyler, who makes off with it. FINE. Imprisoned. "The cove had a fine of two stretchers and a half imposed upon him for relieving a joskin of a load of cole," the fellow was sentenced to imprisonment for stealing a countryman's money. FINGER-BETTER. A fellow who wants to bet on credit, and indicates the favorite card by pointing to it with his finger. FINNIFF. Five dollars. FIRE. Danger. "This place is all on fire; I must pad like a bull or the cops will nail me," every body is after me in this place; I must run like a locomotive or the officers will arrest me. FISH. A seaman. FITTER. A fellow that fits keys to locks for burglars. FIZZLE. To escape. "The cove made a fizzle," the fellow escaped. FIZZLED. Broke up; fell through. FLAG ABOUT. A low strumpet. FLAM. To humbug. "Flam the bloke," humbug the fellow. FLAME. A mistress. FLAPPERS. Hands. FLASH. Knowing; to understand another's meaning; to "patter flash," to speak knowingly. FLASH HER DILES. Spend her money. FLASH PANNY. A house resorted to by rogues of both sexes. FLASH YOUR IVORY. Laugh; show your teeth. FLASH-DRUM. A drinking-place resorted to by thieves. FLASH-HOUSE. A house of resort for thieves. FLASH-KEN. A thieves' boarding-house. FLASH-MAN. A fellow that has no visible means of living, yet goes dressed in fine clothes, exhibiting a profusion of jewelry about his person. FLAT. A man that is not acquainted with the tricks and devices of rogues. FLATTER-TRAP. The mouth. FLAWED. Half-drunk; quick-tempered; not exactly honest. FLAY. To vomit. FLESH-BROKER. A match maker; a procuress. FLICKER. To drink. "Flicker with me," drink with me. FLICKERING. Laughing; smiling; drinking. FLICKING. Cutting. "Flick me some panam and caffar," cut me some bread and cheese. "Flick the Peter and rake the swag, for I want to pad my beaters," cut the portmanteau and divide the plunder, I want to walk my boots, (to be off.) FLIMP. To tussel; to wrestle. FLIMPING. Garroting; highway robbery. FLIMSEY. A bank-note. FLING. To get the best of another. "The sharp will fling the bloke," the rogue will cheat the man. FLOORERS or TRIPPERS. Fellows that cause persons to slip or fall in the street, and then, while assisting them up, steal their watch or portmonnaie. They are sometimes called "rampers." A gentleman in a hurry on his way to the bank, or any other place of business, is suddenly stopped by a fellow directly in front of him, going in an opposite direction to himself, who has apparently slipped or stumbled, and in endeavoring to save himself from falling, thrusts his head into the pit of the gentleman's stomach, thereby knocking him down. Immediately two very kind gentlemen, one on each side, assist him to rise, and when on his feet busy themselves in brushing the dirt from his clothing, during which operation they pick his pockets. Thanking his kind assistants with much profuseness, he goes on his way, and very soon afterwards finds himself minus his watch or pocket-book, and perhaps both. FLUE-SCRAPERS. Chimney-sweeps. FLUSH. Plenty; the cove. FLUTE. The recorder of a city. FLUX. To cheat; cozen; over-reach. FLY. Knowing; up to him. "The bloke was fly, and I could not draw his fogle," the man was aware of what I wanted, and I could not steal his handkerchief. FLY-COP. Sharp officer; an officer that is well posted; one who understands his business. FLYERS. Shoes. FLYING COVES. Fellows who obtain money by pretending to persons who have been robbed, that they can give them information that will be the means of recovering their lost goods. FLYING JIGGERS. Turnpike-gates. FOB. To cheat. FOG. Smoke. FOGLE. A pocket-handkerchief. FOGLE-HUNTING. Stealing pocket-handkerchiefs. FOGRAM. A fusty old fellow. FOGUE. Fierce; fiery; impetuous. FOGUS. Tobacco. "Tip me a gage of fogus," give me a cigar, or a pipe and tobacco. FORK. A pickpocket. FORKS. The fore and middle fingers. FOXEY. Cunning; crafty; sly. FOXING. To pretend to be asleep. FOYST. A cheat. FOYSTER. A pickpocket. FRAMER. A shawl. FREE. To steal. FRENCH CREAM. Brandy--called "French cream," by the old Tabbies, when mixed with their tea. FRIDAY. Hangman's day. FRIDAY FACE. A dismal countenance; the face of a man who is sentenced to be executed. FRISK. To search; to examine. FROG. A policeman. FROG AND TOE. The city of New-York. "Coves, let us frog and toe," coves, let us go to New-York. FRUMPER. A sturdy blade. FUBSEY. Plump. FUBSEY DUMMEY. A fat pocket-book. FULLIED. Committed for trial. FUMBLES. Gloves. FUN. To cheat. "To fun a man," is to cheat him. FUNK. To frighten. FUNKED OUT. Frightened; backed out. FUNKERS. The very lowest order of thieves. FUSSOCK. An old fat woman. FUSTIAN. Wine. G GABBEY. A foolish fellow. GABS. Talk. GADDING THE HOOF. Going without shoes. GAFF. A theatre; a fair. "The drop-coves maced the joskins at the gaff," the ring-droppers cheated the countrymen at the fair. GAFFING. Tossing; pitching; throwing. GAGE. Man; fellow. "Deck the gage," see the man. GAGERS. Eyes. GAIT. Manner; fashion; way; profession. "I say, Tim, what's your gait now?" "Why, you see, I'm on the crack," (burglary.) GALENA. Salt pork. GALIGASKIN. A pair of breeches. GAM. Stealing. GAME. The particular line of rascality the rogue is engaged in; thieving; cheating. GAMMON. To deceive. "What rum gammon the old sharp pitched into the flat," how finely the knowing old fellow flattered the fool. GAMMY. Bad. GAN. The mouth or lips. GANDER. A married man not living at home with his wife. GANG. Company; squad; mob. GAPESEED. Wonderful stories; any thing that will cause people to stop, look, or listen. GARRET. The head. GARRETTING. To rob a house by entering it through the scuttle or an upper window. GARROTE. To choke. GARROTERS. Fellows that rob by choking their victim. Three fellows work together in this manner: The tallest of the three steps behind the victim, and putting his right arm around the neck, compresses the windpipe, and at the same time, locks the right leg by throwing his own around it. Another of the confederates secures his hands, while the third rifles his pockets. Should the garroting be done on a public thoroughfare, where people are passing, the garroters engage in laughter and jocular remarks, as if it were a pleasant lark among friends. They sometimes sprinkle rum on and about the victim's neck and face, so as to induce persons who find him, after they have left him half-dead and stupified, to believe that he is drunk. GATTER. Drink of any kind. GELTER. Money. GERMAN FLUTE. A pair of boots. GETAWAY. A locomotive; railroad train. GHOULS. Fellows who watch assignation-houses, and follow females that come out of them to their homes and then threaten to expose them to their husbands, relatives, or friends, if they refuse to give them not only money, but also the use of their bodies. GIG. A door. "Dub the gig of the cosa," break open the door of the house. GIG-LAMPS. A pair of spectacles. GIGG. A nose. "Snitchel the bloke's gigg," smash the man's nose. GIGGER. A lock or door. "Dub the gigger," open the door. GIGGER-DUBBER. A turn-key; a prison-keeper. GILFLIRT. A proud, capricious woman. GILL. A woman. GILT or JILT. A crowbar. GILT-DUBBER. A hotel-thief. GILYORE. Plenty. GINGERLY. Cautiously. GIP. A thief. GLASS. An hour. "The badger piped his Moll about a glass and a half before she cribbed the flat." GLAZE. Break the glass. "I say, Bill, you mill the glaze, and I'll touch the swag and mizzle," I say, Bill, you break the glass, and I will steal the goods and run away. GLAZIER. A fellow that breaks windows or showcases, to steal the goods exposed for sale. GLIB. Smooth; polite. "The bloke is glib," the fellow is polite. GLIBE. Writing; a written agreement. GLIM FLASHY. In a passion; savage. GLIMMER. The fire. GLIMS. Eyes. GLIMSTICKS. Candlesticks. GLUM. Sombre; low-spirited. GLUTTON. A fellow that can stand a great deal of beating. GNARLER. A little dog, who, by his barking, alarms the family. Gnarlers are more feared by burglars than guns or pistols. GNOSTICS. Knowing ones; smart fellows; sharps. GO. The fashion. "All the go," all the fashion. GO BACK. To turn against. "He won't go back on the cove; he is staunch," he will not turn against the fellow, for he is a true man. GO THE JUMP. Sneak into a room through the window. GOADS. Peter Funks; cappers in. GOATER. Dress. GOAWAYS. Railroad trains. "The knuck was working the goaways at Jersey City, and had but just touched a bloke's leather, as the bull bellowed for the last time, and so the cove mizzled through the jigger. The flat roared beef; but it was no go, as the bull was going very mad," the pickpocket was busy in the cars at Jersey City, and had just stolen a man's pocket-book, as the locomotive blew its whistle for the last time. The thief bolted through the door, and off the cars, just as the victim had discovered his loss and cried, "stop thief!" But it was of no avail, as the locomotive was going very fast. GOB. The mouth. GOBSTICKS. Silver forks or spoons. GOBSTRING. A bridle. GODFATHERS. Jurymen; so called because they name the degrees of crime as to grand or petit larceny, etc., etc. GOLDFINCH. Gold coin. GONNOFF. A thief that has attained the higher walks of his profession. GOOH. A prostitute. GOOSEBERRY-LAY. Stealing wet clothes from clothes-lines or bushes. GOOSEBERRY-PUDDING. Woman. GOOSECAP. A silly fellow; a fool. GOOSING SLUM. A brothel. GOREE. Gold dust. GORGER. A gentleman; a well-dressed man. GOT HIM DOWN CLOSE. Know all about him; know where to find him. GOT HIM DOWN FINE. Know for a certainty; Know all his antecedents. GOVERNOR'S STIFF. A governor's pardon. GRABBED. Arrested. GRABBLE. To seize. "You grabble the goose-cap and I'll frisk his pokes," you seize the fool, and I'll search his pockets. GRAFT. To work. GRAFTING. Working; helping another to steal. GRASSVILLE. The country. GREASE. A bribe. "Grease the copper in the fist, and he'll be as blind as your mother," put money in the officer's hand, and he will not watch you. GREED. Money. GRIG. A merry fellow. GRIM. Death; "Old Grim." GRIN. A skeleton. GRIPE-FIST. A broker; a miser. GROANERS. Thieves who attend at charity sermons, and rob the congregation of their watches and purses, exchange bad hats for good ones, steal the prayer-books, etc., etc. GROGHAM. A horse. GROPERS. Blind men. GROUND SWEAT. A grave. GRUEL. Coffee. GRUNTER. A country constable. GUERRILLAS. This name is applied by gamblers to fellows who skin suckers when and where they can, who do not like the professional gamblers, but try to beat them, sometimes inform on them, and tell the suckers that they have been cheated. GUMMEY-STUFF. Medicine. GUN. To watch; to examine; to look at. GUN. A thief. GUNNED. Looked at; examined. "The copper gunned me as if he was fly to my mug," the officer looked at me as if he knew my face. GUNPOWDER. A scolding or quick-tempered woman. GUNS. Pickpockets. GUTTER. Porter. GUTTER-LANE. The throat. GUY. A dark lantern. H HACKUM. A bravado; a slasher. "Capt. Hackum," a fellow who slashes with a bowie-knife. HALF-A-HOG. A five-cent piece. HALF-A-NED. A five-dollar gold piece. HALF-A-STRETCH. Six months' imprisonment. HAMLET. A captain of police. HAMS. Pants. HANDLE. Nose. "The cove flashed a rare handle to his physog." The fellow has a very large nose. HANG BLUFF. Snuff. HANG IT UP. Think of it; remember it. HANG OUT. The place one lives in. "The cops scavey where we hang out," the officers know where we live. HANGMAN'S DAY. Friday is so called from the custom of hanging people on a Friday. HANK. To know something about a man that is disreputable. "He has a hank on the bloke whereby he sucks honey when he chooses," he knows something about the man, and therefore induces him to give him money when he chooses. HARD. Metal. HARD COLE. Silver or gold money. HARDWARE. False coin. HARE IT. Return; come back. HARMAN. A constable. HARMAN BEAK. The sheriff. HARP. A woman. HARRIDAN. A haggard old woman; a scold. HASH. To vomit. HATCHES. In distress; in trouble; in debt. HAVEY CAVEY. Wavering; doubtful. HAVIL. A sheep. HAWK. A confidence man; a swindler. HEAVE. To rob. "To heave a crib," to rob a house. HEAVER. The breast or chest of a person. HEAVERS. Persons in love. HEAVING. Stealing; taking, "The cove was done for heaving a peter from a cart," the fellow was convicted for stealing a trunk from a cart. HEDGE. To bet on both sides; to be friends with both sides; to pray "Good God," "Good Devil." HEELER. An accomplice of the pocket-book dropper. The heeler stoops behind the victim, and strikes one of his heels as if by mistake; this draws his attention to the pocket-book that lies on the ground. HEELS. To run away. HEMP. To choke. HEMP THE FLAT. Choke the fool. HEN. A woman. HERRING. All bad; all alike. HICKEY. Tipsy; not quite drunk; elated. HICKJOP. A fool. HICKSAM. A countryman; a fool. HIGH BEAK. The first judge; the president; the governor; the head official. HIGH BLOKE. A well-dressed fellow. HIGH GAG. Telling secrets; a fellow that whispers. HIGH JINKS. Small gamblers. HIGH PADS. Highway robbers. HIGH ROPES. In a passion; very loud. HIGH TIDE. Plenty of money. HIGH TOBERS. Gonnoffs; the highest order of thieves, who generally go well dressed, and frequent watering-places, etc., etc. HIGH TOBY. A highway robber. HIGH-LIVER. A fellow who lives in a garret. HIGHFLYER. An audacious, lewd woman. HIKE. Run away. "Hike; the cops have tumbled to us," run; the officers have seen us. HIP INSIDE. Inside coat-pocket. HIP OUTSIDE. Outside coat-pocket. HISTORY OF THE FOUR KINGS. A pack of cards. "The bloke's skin is lathy, he studies the history of the four kings closer than the autum-bawler's patter," the man's purse is thin; he studies a pack of cards more than the parson's sermons. HOB OR NOB. What will you drink? HOBB. A country-fellow. HOBINOL. A clown. HOBNAIL. A countryman. HOCK. Caught in hock; caught by the heels. "If the cove should be caught in the hock he won't snickle," if the fellow should be caught in the act, he would not tell. HOCKEY. Drunk. HOCKS. The feet. HOCUS. To stupify. "Hocus the bloke's lush, and then frisk his sacks," put something into the fellow's drink that will stupify him, and then search his pockets. HOD. A mason; a builder. HOG IN ARMOR. A blustering office-holder. HOG IN TOGS. A well-dressed loafer. HOGG. A ten-cent piece. HOGGING. To humbug. HOGO. High-flavored; strong-scented. HOIST. To rob houses by climbing into a window. It is generally done by two or three follows, one of whom stands close to the house, and the others climb up on him to the window. HOISTER. A shop-lifter. HOISTING. Putting a man upright on his head, and shaking him until his money and watch fall out of his pockets; they hold this to be no robbery. HOISTLAY. _See Hoist._ HOLLOW. Certain; a decided beat. HONEY. Money. HOODY-DOODY. A short clump of a person. HOOF. Foot. "To beat the hoof," to travel on foot. HOOKED. To steal. HOOKER. A thief. HOOP. A ring. HOOP IT. Run away. HOP THE TWIG. Be off; go off. HOPPED THE TWIG. Hung. HORNESS. Watchman. HORSE-CAPPERS. Fellows that cheat simple people out of their money by the aid of a broken-down first-class horse. HOSTEL. A tavern. HOT. Too well known. "The cove had better move his beaters into Dewsville, it is too hot for him here; if he stops, he'll be sure to be sick for twenty stretches," the fellow had better go into the country, for if he stays, he will be sent to prison for twenty years. HOUSE TO LET. A widow's weeds. HUBBUB. Pain in the stomach. HUE. Lash him. HUEY. The National Police Gazette. HUFF. A bullying, cowardly fellow. HUG. To choke. HUGGING THE HOOKER. Choking the thief. HUMBOX. An auctioneer's rostrum. HUMMER. A great lie. HUMPHREY. A coat used by pickpockets, that has pocket-holes, but no pockets. HUSH. Murder. "Hush the bloke," kill the fellow. HUSH-STUFF. Money given to prevent a witness from testifying. I ICKEN. Oak. ICKEN BAUM. An oak-tree. IDEA-POT. A man's head. IMPOST-TAKER. One who lends money to thieves and gamblers at very high rates. IMPUDENT. To cut the tails of a man's coat. IMPURE. A lady of easy virtue. INDORSER. One who flogs another on the back. INGLERS. Horse-dealers who cheat those that deal with them. INKLE. Let him know. INLAID. Plenty of money saved. INNOCENT. A corpse. INNOCENTS. Convicts, because it is supposed that they can not commit crime. INSIDER. One who knows. INTIMATE. A shirt. "Intimate as your shirt." IRON. Courage; fearless; staunch. IRON DOUBLET. Innocence; not guilty. IRONED. Handcuffed. IVORIES. The teeth. "How the blowen flashes her ivories," how the girl shows her teeth. IVY BUSH. A very small-faced man who has a large quantity of hair on his face and head. J JABBER. To talk in an unknown language. JACK. A small coin. JACK COVE. A mean low fellow. JACK DANDY. A little impertinent fellow. JACK KETCH. The hangman. This cognomen for the hangman is of very ancient date. In the year 1682, we find in "Butler's Ghost," p. 54, the following lines: "Till Ketch observing he was choused, And in his province much abused; In open hall the tribute dunned, To do his office, or refund." Jack Ketch had not been long appointed to his office; for we find the name of his predecessor (Dun) in the former part of this poem, "For you, yourself, to act Squire Dun, Such ignominy ne'er saw the sun." The addition of "Squire" to Dun's name was an evidence that he had executed some state criminal, which, according to the custom of the times, accorded to him that title. The predecessor of Dun was one Gregory; from whom the gallows was called the "Gregorian tree," and by which name it is mentioned in the prologue to "Mercurius Pragmaticus," tragi-comedy, acted in 1641: "This trembles under the black rod, and he Doth fear his fate from the Gregorian tree." Gregory succeeded Derrick, who flourished in the year 1608, as we find in an old book of that time: "For he rides his circuit with the devil, and Derrick must be his host, and Tyburn the inne at which he will light." "At the gallows where I leave them, as to the haven at which they must all cast anchor, if Derrick's cables do but hold." JACK OF LEGS. A very tall fellow. JACK SPRAT. A small fellow. JACK WRIGHT. A fat fellow. JACK-GAGGER. A fellow that lives on the prostitution of his wife. JACK-RUN. A license. JACKED. Lamed. JACKET. To show one up; point one out. The fly cops pulled him, and allowed the flat cops to jacket him; so you see it was dusty for him, and I advised him to pike into Daisyville for a few moons until the down blew off. JACOB. A ladder. JACOBITE. A shirt-collar. JADE. A long term of imprisonment. JAGGER. A gentleman. JAGUE. A cut; a ditch. JAM. A gold ring. JAMMED. Killed; murdered; hanged. JANASMUG. A go-between; one who goes between the thief and the fence. JANAZARIES. A mob of pickpockets. JAPANNED. A convict is said to be japanned when the chaplain pronounces him to be converted. JARK. A seal. JARKMAN. One who writes characters for servants, begging petitions, etc., etc. JARVEY. A driver. JASKER. A seal. JAW COVES. Auctioneers, lawyers. JAZEY. A man with an enormous quantity of hair on his head and face. JEFFEY. Lightning. JEM. A gold ring. JENNEY. A hook on the end of a stick. JENNY LINDA. A window, pronounced _winder_. JERRY. A chamber-pot. JERRY-SNEAK. A hen-pecked husband. JESSANY. A man well dressed. JET AUTUM. A parson. JEW'S-EYE. A pleasant, agreeable sight. JIG. A trick. JIGGER. A door. "Dub the jigger," open the door. JILT. A prostitute who hugs and kisses a countryman while her accomplice robs him. JILTER. A sneak-thief. JINGLEBRAINS. A wild, thoughtless fellow. JOB. A robbery. "To do a job," to commit a robbery. JOB. Patience; take time; don't be in a hurry. JOB'S DOCK. An hospital. "The poor cove is in Job's dock," the poor fellow is in the hospital. JOBATION. A reproof; painful. JOBBER-NOT. A tall, ungainly fellow. JOCK. Enjoy; to enjoy any thing. JOCKUM GAGE. A chamber-pot. JOEY. A hypocrite. Sometimes, four. JOLLY. The head; an excuse; a pretense. JOMER. A mistress. JORDAIN. A blow. "I'll tip the Jack Cove a jordain on the jazey, if I transnear him," I'll hit the mean fellow with my club on his big nose, if I get near him. JORDAN. Disagreeable; hard to be done. JOSEPH. A coat that's patched; a sheepish, bashful fellow. JOSEPH'S COAT. Guarded against temptation. "I say, my bene blowen, can't you kiddy the bloke?" "No, Dick, it's of no use trying, he wears a Joseph's coat," I say, my good girl, can't you seduce the man? No, Dick, it's no use trying, he is guarded against temptation. JOSKIN. A countryman; a silly fellow. "The cove maced the joskin of twenty cases," the fellow cheated the countryman out of twenty dollars. JUG. A bank. JUMP. A widow; run away. JUMPED HIS BAIL. Run away from his bail. JUMPERS. Fellows that rob houses by getting into windows. JURK. A seal. K KATE. A smart, brazen-faced woman. KATEY. A picklock. KE-KEYA. Devil; Satan. KEELER. A small tub, or firkin. KEFFEL. A horse. KELTER. Condition; order. KEN. A house. "Bite the ken," rob the house. KEN-CRACKER. A house-breaker. KETCH. Hang. "I'll ketch you," I'll hang you. KICK. A pocket. "The Moll stubbled her skin in her kick," the woman held her purse in her pocket. KICK-CLOY. A pair of breeches. KICKED THE BUCKET. Dead. KICKSIES. Pants; breeches. KID. A child; a youth; a young one. KIDDED. Coaxed; amused; humbugged. "The sneaksman kidded the cove of the crib, while his pal tapped the till," the thief amused the store-keeper, while his comrade robbed the money-drawer. KIDDIES. Young thieves. KIDDEN. A boy lodging-house. KIDMENT. Comical. KIDNEY. The same kind. KIDSMAN. A fellow that boards and lodges boys for the purpose of teaching them how to steal, putting them through a course of training, as a dog-trainer will train dogs for the hunt. The kidsman accompanies the kid, and though committing no depredations himself, he controls and directs the motions of the others. KILL DEVIL. New rum. KIMBAW. To bully; to beat. "Let's kimbaw the bloke," let us bully or beat the fellow. KINCHIN. A young child. KINCHIN COVES. Boys taught how to steal. KINCHIN MORTS. Girls educated to steal. KIP. A bed; half a fool. KIRJALIS. Who fears? I fear not; come on. KIRKBUZZER. A fellow that picks pockets in churches. KIT. A dancing-master; the implements of a burglar. KITCHEN PHYSIC. Food. "A little kitchen physic will set me up." I have more need of a cook than a doctor. KITE. A letter; fancy stocks. KITING. Restless; going from place to place. KITTLE. To tickle; to please. KITTLER. One who tickles or pleases. KITTYS. Stock in trade; tools. "The bobbies seized the screwsman's kittys," the officers seized the burglar's tools. KLEM. To strike. "Klem the bloke," hit the man. KNAPPED. Arrested. KNIGHT OF ALSATIA. A person that treats the whole company. KNIGHT OF THE POST. A fellow that will swear any thing for money. KNOB. The head. KNOB-THATCHER. A wig-maker. KNOCK-ME-DOWN. Very strong liquor. KNOSE. Tobacco; smoke. KNOT. A gang of thieves. KNOWLEDGE-BOX. The head. KNUCK. A pickpocket. KONE. Counterfeit money. KONIACKER. A counterfeiter. L LACE. To beat; to whip. LACED MUTTON. A common woman. LACH. Let in. "The cove is bene, shall we lach him?" the man is good, shall we let him in? "If he is not leaky." "I'll answer for him; he is staunch." LADDER. "He mounted the ladder," he was hung. LADY. A humpbacked female. LADY BIRD. A kept mistress. LAG. A convicted felon. LAGE. Water; a basket. LAGE OF DUDS. A basket of clothes. LAGGED. Convicted; transported. LAID. Pawned. LAMB. To flog. LAMBASTE. Flog. "Lambaste the bloke," flog the fellow. LAMBO. To beat with a club. LAMP. Eye. "The cove has a queer lamp," the man has a blind or squinting eye. LAND-BROKER. An undertaker. "The cove buys lands for stiff uns," the man purchases land for dead people. LAND-YARD. The grave-yard. LANTERN-JAWED. Thin-faced. LAP. Drink; butter-milk; pick it up; to take; to steal. LAP UP. To wipe out; to put out of sight. LARK. A boat; a piece of fun; looking for something to steal; on a lark. LARREY. Cunning. LATHY. Not fat. "I touched the joskin's skin, but it was as lathy as his jaws were lantern," I stole the countryman's purse, but it was as thin as his face. LATITAT. Attorney. LAVENDER COVE. A pawnbroker. LAW. "Give the cove law," give the fellow a chance to escape. LAY. A particular kind of rascality, trade, or profession; on the look out; watching for something to steal. Sometimes the same as gait. "What's the cove's lay?" "Why, you see, he is on the ken's crack"--house-breaking. LEAF. Autumn. "I will be out in the leaf," I will be out in the autumn. LEAK. To impart a secret. LEAKY. Not trustworthy. LEAP THE BOOK. A false marriage. LEAST. Keep out of the way; hide; out of sight. LEATHER. A pocket-book; portmonnaie. "The bloke lost his leather," the man lost his pocket-book. LEERY. On guard; look out; wide awake. LEFT-HANDED WIFE. A concubine. It was an ancient custom among the Germans for a man, if he married his concubine, to give her his left hand, instead of the right. LEG. A gambler. LEG IT. Run away; clear out. LEG-BAIL AND LAND-SECURITY. Runaway. LEGGED. Full-fettered; double-ironed. LENTEN. Nothing to eat; starving. LETCH. Unusual fastenings to a door. LIB. Sleep. "The coves lib together," the fellows sleep together. LIBBEGE. A bed. LIBBEN. A private house. LIBKEN. A lodging-house. LICK. To coax. LIFE-PRESERVER. A slung-shot. LIFT. Help. "Lift the poor cove, he is almost lenten," help the poor fellow, he is almost starved. LIFTERS. Crutches. LIG. A bedstead. LIGHT MANS. The day. LIGHT-HOUSE. A man with a very red nose. LIL. A pocket-book. LILL. A bad bill. LILLY WHITE. A chimney-sweep; a negro. LIMB. A lawyer, or lawyer's clerk. LIMBO. A prison. LIMBS. A long-legged fellow. LINGO. Talk; language. LION. Be saucy; lion the fellow; make a loud noise; substitute noise for good sense; frighten; bluff. LISTNERS. Ears. LIVE EELS. Fields. "Bill has gone to live eels, to read and write with Joe." _See Read._ LOB. A money-drawer; the till. LOBLAY. Robbing money-drawers. LOBSNEAK. A fellow that robs money-drawers. LOCK. Sometimes a receiver of stolen money; a character. "The cove stood a queer lock," the fellow had a bad character. LOLL. The favorite child; the mother's darling. LOLLOP. Lazy. LOLLOP FEVER. Lazy fever. LONG. A large price. LONG-GONE. Sentenced for life. LONG-TAILED-ONES. Bank bills for large amount. LOO. For the good of all. LOOBY. An ignorant fellow; a fool. LOPE. Run; be off. "The cove loped down the dancers, and got off with the wedge-feeders," the thief leaped down the stairs, and got away with the silver spoons. LORD LOVEL. A spade or shovel. LOUNGE. The prisoner's box in a criminal court. LOW TIDE. Very little money left. LOWING-LAY. Stealing cattle, oxen, or cows. LOWRE. Coin. LUGGER. A sailor. LUGS. Ears. LULLABY KID. An infant. LULLIE-PRIGGERS. Thieves who rob clothes-lines. LULLIES. Wet linen. LUMBER. To walk; to walk in a careless, unconcerned manner. LUMBER. To receive stolen property from a thief for safe keeping, or disposing of it for his benefit. LUMBERER. A pawnbroker. LUMBERER CRIB. A pawnbroker's shop. LUMBS. Too many; too much. LUMP. To beat. "Lump the booby," flog the fool. LUMP OF LEAD. A bullet; sometimes the head. LUMPING THE LIGHTER. Transported. LUN. The funny fellow; a clown. LUNAN. A girl. LURCH. Abandon. "Lurch the booby, he has leaked his insides out to the coppers," abandon the fool, he has told the officers all he knows. LURRIES. Valuables; watches; rings; money. LUSH. Drink. LUSHINGTONS. Drunken men. LUSHY. Drunk. "The bang-up kiddies had a spree, and got bloody lushy," the dashing boys had a party, and got very drunk. LUSTRES. Diamonds. LYE. Urine. M M T. Empty. "The bloke's leather was M T," the man's pocket-book had nothing in it--was empty. MAB. A harlot. MACE COVE. A false pretense man; a swindler; "On the mace," to live by swindling. MAD TOM. A fellow who feigns to be foolish. MADAM RHAN. A bad woman; a strumpet. MADAME. A kept mistress. MADE. Stolen. "The copper asked me where I made the benjamin. I told him I didn't make it, but got it on the square," the officer asked me where I stole the coat, and I told him that I did not steal it, but got it honestly. MADGE. Private places. MAGG. A half-cent. MAGGING. Getting money by cheating countrymen with balls, patent safes, etc., etc. MAGSMEN. Fellows who are too cowardly to steal, but prefer to cheat confiding people by acting upon their cupidity. MAKE HIM SWIM FOR IT. Cheat him out of his share. MAN-TRAP. A widow. MANDERER. A beggar. MARKING. Observing; taking notice. MARRIED. Two fellows handcuffed together. MATER. Mother. MAUDLING. Crying. MAULD. Very drunk. MAUNDING. Asking alms; soliciting. MAWKS. A slattern. MAWLEY. Hand. "Tip us your mawley," tip us your hand. MAX. Gin; intoxicating liquor. MAZZARD. The face. MEASURE. To examine closely. "The copper snapped and measured me, but could not drop to my chant or mug, and so he turned me up, and I moved my beaters like a bull," the officer examined me, but could not recollect my name or face, and then let me go, and I moved my boots like a locomotive. MEDLAR. A fellow that smells bad. MELLOW. Good-natured; a little intoxicated. MELT. To spend money. "The cove melted a finniff in lush before we parted," the fellow spent five dollars for drink before we parted. MERKIN. Hair-dye. MESTING. Dissolving; melting. MIDDLE-PIECE. The stomach. MILCH COW. A man that is easily cheated out of his money. MILKEN. A house-breaker. MILKY. White. MILKY DUDS. White clothes. MILL. The treadmill; a fight; a chisel. MILL DOSE. Working in prison. MILL LAY. Breaking into houses; on the crack. MILL THE GLAZE. Break the window. A young thief who had turned State's evidence gave his testimony to the officer as follows: "Jack and Sneaky bustled in front of the jigger. Jack dingged Sneaky's castor into the crib; Sneaky brushed to get it; Jack pulled the jigger to, and Smasher milled the glaze, touched the swag, and mizzled like a bull, and, ye see, I played shady to pipe the bloke what was done," Jack and Sneaky pretended to scuffle in front of the shop-door. Jack pulled off Sneaky's hat and threw it into the store; Sneaky rushed in to get it; Jack, in the meantime, pulled the door to. Smasher broke the window, stole the jewelry, and was off like a locomotive. I remained near by to watch and see what steps the man would take to recover his property. MILL TOG. A shirt. MILLER. A fighter. MILLING COVE. A pugilist. "How the milling cove served out the cull," how the boxer beat the man. MINNIKON. Very small. MINT. Plenty of money. MISCHIEF. A man with his wife on his back. MISH. A shirt. MISH-TOPPER. A coat or petticoat. MISS. A mistress. MIX-METAL. A silver-smith. MIZZLE. Go; run; be off. MOABITES. Constables. MOBILITY. The mob; opposition to nobility. MOBS. A number of thieves working together. MOEY. A petition. A convict would say to another: "My pals have got up a bene moey to send to the head bloke, and if it comes off rye buck, I shall soon vamose from the stir; but if it should turn out a shise, then I must do my bit," my partners have got up a good petition to send to the Governor, and if it turns out well, I shall soon leave the prison; but if it should be good for nothing, I must stay my time out. MOHAIR. An upholsterer. MOIETY. Fifty. MOKE. A negro. MOLL. A woman. MOLL BUZZER. A thief that devotes himself to picking the pockets of women. MOLL-SACK. Reticule. MOLLEY. A miss; a young woman; an effeminate fellow; a sodomite. MONDONGO. Filthy; full of stench, it stinks beyond the power of endurance. MONEKER. A name. MONEY. A private place. MOON. One month; thirty days' imprisonment. "The poor cove was done for two stretches and six moons," the poor fellow was sentenced for two years and six months. MOON-EYED HEN. A squinting prostitute. MOOSE-FACE. A rich, ugly-faced man; a poor but handsome young girl who marries an old, wrinkle-faced, ill-looking rich man, is said to have married a moose-face. MOPSEY. A short dowdy woman. MOPUSSES. Money. MORNING DROP. The gallows. "He napped the Governor's stiff, and escaped the morning drop," he received the Governor's pardon, and escaped the gallows. MORRIS. Move off; dance off. MORT. A woman. MOSES. A man that fathers another man's child for a consideration. MOSH. Dining at an eating-house and leaving without making payment. MOSS. Money. "A rolling stone gathers no moss." MOUNT. To give false testimony. MOUNTER. Men who give false bail; or who, for a consideration, will swear to any thing required. MOUNTERS. Fellows who hire clothes to wear for a particular occasion; those who wear second-hand clothes. MOUSE. Be quiet; be still; talk low; whisper; step light; make no noise; softly. MOUTH. A noisy fellow; a silly fellow. MOUTH IT. Speak loud. MOUTHING. Crying. "The mort is mouthing," the girl is crying. MOVED. Bowed to. "The swell moved to the Moll as they crossed," the gentleman bowed to the girl as they passed each other. MOW. To kiss. "The bloke was mowing the molly," the man was kissing the girl. MUCK. Money. MUCK-WORM. A miser. MUD. A fool. MUFFLERS. Boxing-gloves. MUG. The face; a simple fellow. MULL. To spend money. MUM. Say nothing; nothing to say. MUMMER. The mouth. MUMPERS. Beggars. MUND. Mouth. MUNG. To solicit; to beg. MUNS. The face. "Tout the mab's muns," look at the woman's face. MUSH. An umbrella. MUSHROOM-FAKERS. Umbrella hawkers. MUSIC. The verdict of a jury when they find "not guilty." MUSS. A quarrel; a row. MY UNCLE. A pawnbroker. N NABBED. Arrested. NABCHEAT. A hat. NABGIRDER. A bridle. NABS. Coxcombs. NACKY. Ingenious. NAIDER. Nothing; can't have it. NAILED. Fixed; secured; taken; arrested. NAMASED. Ran away; got out of sight; ran. NAP. To cheat. NAPPER. A cheat; a thief; the head. NARP. A shirt. NARY. Not. "I frisked the joskin's sacks, but nary red was there," I searched the countryman's pockets, but not a cent was there. NASK. A prison. NATTY KIDS. Young thieves; smart, well-dressed youngsters. NATURAL. Not fastidious; a liberal, clever fellow. "The bloke is very natural," the fellow is very liberal. NAZY. Drunken. NAZY COVES. Drunken fellows. NAZY NOBS. Drunken coxcombs or fops. NEB. The face. NECKWEED. Hemp. NED. A ten-dollar gold piece. NEDDY. A slung-shot. NEGLIGEE. A woman with nothing on but her shift. NEMAN. Stealing. NERVE. Courage; endurance; staunch. NESCIO. No; I know not; can't say. NETTLED. Diseased. NEW LIGHT. New coin; new money. NIB. The mouth. NICK. To cut. "The knuck nicked the bloke's kicks into the bottom of his poke, and the dummy fell into his mauley," the pickpocket cut through the man's pants into the bottom of his pocket, when the pocket-book dropped into his hand. This mode of stealing is only practised by the artists of the fraternity. NICKEY. The devil; "Old Nick." NIDERING. Bad; without mitigation of any kind. NIG. To clip. NIL. Nothing. NIM. To steal. NIMENOG. A very silly fellow. NIPPER-KIN. A tumbler; a drinking vessel. NIPPERED. Turning a key in the inside of a door, from the outside, with a peculiar pair of forceps or nippers. Hotel-thieves use nippers to enter rooms after the inmates have gone to sleep. NIPPERS. An instrument for turning a key on the outside of the door, used by hotel-thieves. NIQUE. Contempt; don't care. NISH. Keep quiet; be still. NIX. Nothing. NOB. One who stands at the head; a king; a man of rank. NOBLERS. Confederates of thimble-riggers, who appear to play, to induce the flats to try their luck with the "little joker." NOCKY BOY. A simpleton. NOD. Asleep. "Gone to the land of Nod," gone to sleep. NODDLE. An empty-pated fellow; a fool; the head of an animal. NONSENSE. Melting butter in a wig. NOOSED. Married. NOPE. A blow. NOSE. A spy; one who informs. "His pal nosed, and the bene cove was pulled for a crack," his partner informed against him, and the good fellow was arrested for burglary. NOSEMY. Tobacco. NOTCH. A pocket. NOTE. A singer. NOUSE-BOX. The head. NOZZLE. A chimney. NUB. The neck. NUBBING. Hanging. NUBIBUS. In the clouds. "Blow a nubibus," make a smoke. NUG. Dear. "My nug," my dear. NULL. To flog. NUMS. Sham; not real. NYPPER. A cut-purse, so called by a person named Wotton, who in the year 1585, kept in London an academy for the education and perfection of rogues in the art of abstracting purses and pocket-books. At that period persons wore their purses at their girdles. Cutting them was a branch of the light-fingered art, which is now out of use, though the name remains. Instruction in the practice of this art was given as follows: A purse and a pocket were separately suspended, attached to which, both around and above them, were small bells; each contained counters, and he who could withdraw a counter without causing any of the bells to ring, was adjudged to be a "Nypper." A nypper was a pick-purse; a pick-pocket was called a "Foyster." O O YES. To cry out. "The O yes of beef was rushing out of his oven like steam from a bull," the cry of stop thief was rushing out of his big mouth like steam from a locomotive. O. K. All right; "Oll kerect." OAF. A silly fellow. OAFISH. Simple. OAK. Strong; rich; good reputation. OAK TOWEL. An oaken cudgel. OAR. Meddle with. OCCUPY. To wear. "The cove occupies the oaf's benjamin," the fellow wears the silly man's coat. OCHIVES. Bone-handled knives. OCHRE. Money. OFFICE. Information conveyed by a look, word, or in any way by which the person receiving it is intelligibly impressed. "The cove tipped the office, and I was fly to the cop," the fellow gave me the hint, and then I knew it was a policeman. OFFICING. Signalizing; a preconcerted signal by a confederate. OGLE THE COVE. Look at the fellow. OGLES. The eyes. OIL OF BARLEY. Strong beer. OLD. Death. OLD DOSS. The Tombs. OLD ONE. The Devil. OLD POGER. The Devil. OLD SHOE. Good Luck. OLD TOAST. A smart old man. OLIVER. The moon. OLIVER'S SKULL. A chamber-pot. OLLI COMPOLLI. The chief rogue; a very smart thief. ON A STRING. To send a person to look for something that you are sure is in some other place, is putting him on a string, or humbugging, fooling him. ON HIS MUSCLE. "The fellow travels on his muscle," he presumes on his abilities to fight. ON IT. "On the cross," getting a living by other than honest means. ON THE MACE. Ready to cheat; cheating for a living; a professional cheat. ON THE MUSCLE. On the fight; a fighter; a pugilist. ON THE SHALLOW. Half-naked. ON THE SHARP. Persons who are well acquainted with the mysteries of gaming, and therefore not easily cheated. OPTIME. Class. "He's optime No. one as a screwsman," he is a first-class burglar. ORACLE. To plan a robbery or any kind of deceit. ORGAN. Pipe. "Will you lush and cock an organ with me, my bene cove?" will you drink and smoke a pipe with me, my good fellow? OSTLER. House thief. OTTOMISED. To be dissected. "The bene cove was scragged, ottomised, and put in a glass case for oafs to ogle," the good fellow was hung, dissected, and put in a glass case for fools to gaze at. OTTOMY. A skeleton. OUT-AND-OUT. A spree; a frolic. OUT-AND-OUTER. Distinguished; first-class. OUTS. Ex-officers. OUTSIDE PAL. The thief that watches outside when his confederates are working within. OUTSIDE PLANT. A sly place in which the receiver generally keep his goods after purchasing. OUTSIDER. Not in the secret; not of our party. OVEN. A large mouth. "The bloke should be a baker--twig his oven," the man should be a baker--look at his big mouth. OWLERS. Smugglers. OWLS. Women who walk the streets only at night. P PACKET. A false report. PAD. A street; highway, "To go on the pad," to go on the street. PAD THE HOOF. Walk the street; to be off. PADDING KEN. A lodging-house. PAIR OF WINGS. A pair of oars. PAL. A companion; the partner of a thief. PALAVER. Talk; flattery; conference. PALLIARDS. Female mendicants who beg with a number of children, borrowing from others of the same fraternity if they have not enough of their own, giving an opiate to one to make it sleep, pinching and sticking pins into another to make it cry, and making artificial sores on the arms, hands, and face of a third, all to move the hand of the benevolent from their purses to the outstretched hand of the beggar. PALLING IN. A connection formed by a male and female thief to steal and sleep together. PALM. To fee or bribe. PALMER. A thief that adroitly slips jewelry from the top of a show-case into his pocket. PAM. A knave. PANEL-CRIB. A place especially and ingeniously fitted up for the robbery of gentlemen who are enticed thereto by women who make it their business to pick up strangers. Panel-cribs are sometimes called badger-cribs, shakedowns, touch-cribs, and are variously fitted for the admission of those who are in the secret, but which defy the scrutiny of the uninitiated. Sometimes the casing of the door is made to swing on well-oiled hinges which are not discoverable in the room, while the door itself appears to be hung in the usual manner, and well secured by bolts and lock. At other times the entrance is effected by means of what appears to be an ordinary wardrobe, the back of which revolves like a turn-style on pivots in the middle above and below. When the victim has undressed himself and got into bed with the woman, the thief enters, and picking the pocket-book out of the pocket, abstracts the money, and supplying its place with a small roll of paper, returns the book to its place. He then withdraws, and coming to the door raps and demands admission, calling the woman by the name of wife. The frightened victim, springing out of bed, dresses himself in a hurry, feels his pocket-book in its proper place, and escapes through another other door, congratulating himself on his happy deliverance. He soon, however, finds out that he has been victimized, and not unfrequently tells the story of his loss and shame to the police; while others, minus their cash, pocket the dear-bought experience. PANEL-THIEF. One who fits up a place for the purpose of robbing men that are brought to the panel-crib by women who are trained to pick up gentlemen that are on a visit to the city on business or pleasure. They endeavor to select those who are not likely to remain and prosecute the thieves that have robbed and duped them of their money. PANNAM. Bread. PANNY. A house. "The cove done the panny," the fellow robbed the house; "the cops frisked my panny and nailed my screws," the officers searched my house and seized my picklocks, or false keys. PANTER. The heart. "The lead reached the poor cove's panter, and so there was nothing to be done but to give him a ground sweat," the bullet entered the poor fellow's heart, and all that we had then to do was to put him in the grave. PANZY. A burglar. PAP LAP. An infant. "He is but a pap lap," he is but a baby. PAPER-SKULL. A thin-skulled fellow. PARCHMENT. A ticket of leave. "The cove has his parchment," the man has his ticket of leave. PARCHMENT COVES. Ticket-of-leave men. PARELL. To make clear. PARK RAILING. The teeth. PARNEY. A ring. PARSON. A guide-post. PARTIAL. Putting one's hand into another man's pocket; stealing. PASH. Price; cost. PATE. The head. PATRICO. One who in olden time used to marry persons by placing the man on the right hand side and the woman on the left side of a dead animal. Causing them to join hands, he commanded them to live together till death did them part, and so, shaking hands, the wedding was ended. PATTER. To talk. "How the Moll lushes her jockey and patters," how the girl drinks her gin and talks. PATTERED. Tried in a court of justice. "The wire was pattered for drawing a skin from a bloke's poke, who buffed him home, and of course his godfathers named him, and the beak slung him for five stretchers and a moon," the pickpocket was tried for stealing a purse from the man's pocket, who caught him in the act, and of course the jury convicted him, and the judge sentenced him for five years and a month. [Illustration] PAUM. To conceal in the hand. "To paum pennyweights" to steal rings or any kind of jewelry by working it with the fingers under the palm of the hand, and then up the sleeve or into a pocket. These fellows are called paum-coves. PAW. The hand or foot. "The fore-paw hand;" "the hind paw foot." PEACH. To inform; "to turn stag;" to blow the gab; to squeal or squeak. PEAK. Lace goods. PEAL. A ball. PEAR. To draw supplies from both sides; to give the officers information, and then tell the thieves to get out of the way. PEAR-MAKING. The act of drawing supplies from both sides. _See Pear._ PECCAVI. I have sinned; I am wrong; a confession of wrong. PECK. Food. PECK AND BOOZE. Food and drink. PECKISH. Hungry. PECULIAR. A mistress. PED. A basket. PEDDLER'S PONY. A walking-stick. PEEL. Strip; undress. PEEPER. A spy-glass; an opera-glass; a looking-glass. "Track up the dancers and pike with the peeper," jump up stairs and run off with the looking-glass. PEEPERS. Eyes. PEEPING TOM. A curious, prying fellow, who minds other people's business more than his own. PEEPY. Drowsy. PEER. To look cautiously about; to be circumspect; careful. PEERY. Suspicious. "The bloke's peery," the man suspects something. "There's a peery, 'tis snitch," we are observed, nothing can be done. PEGTANTRUM. Dead. PELT. A passion; rage. "What a pelt the cull is in," what a passion the fellow is in. PENNYWEIGHT. Jewelry; gold and silver trinkets. PEPPERY. Warm; passionate. PERSUADERS. Spurs. "The kiddy clapped his persuaders to his prad, but it was no go, the trap boned him," the highwayman spurred his horse hard, but the officer seized him. PETER. A portmanteau; a travelling-bag; a trunk; an iron chest; a cash-box. PETER-BITER. A man who steals baggage at hotels, railroad depots, and from the back of coaches. PHARO. Strong malt liquor. PHARSE. The eighth part. PHILISTINES. Police officers; officers of justice. PHIZ. The face. "A rum phiz," an odd face. PHYSOG. The face. PICAROON. A sharper; a rogue. PICKLE. A smart fellow. PICKLING. Stealing; petit larceny. PICKLING-TUBS. Shoes and boots. PICTURE-FRAME. The gallows. PIECE. A prostitute. PIG. A police officer. "Floor the pig and bolt," knock down the officer and run away. PIG TOGETHER. Sleep together, two or more in a bed. PIG WIDGEON. A simple fellow. PIG'S EYES. Small eyes. PIG'S FOOT. A jimmy cloven at one end like a pig's foot. PIGEON. A thief that joins in with other thieves to commit a crime, and then informs the officer, who he pigeons for; and for this service the officer is supposed to be _occasionally_ both deaf and blind. PIKE. To run away; to pike off. PILCHER. A stealer; generally applied to fellows who steal pocket-handkerchiefs. PILGARLIC. I; myself. "There was no one with him but Pilgarlic," he was alone. PIMP. A boarding-house runner; an attaché of a bawdy-house. PIMPLE. The head. PIN. To drink one's allotted share. PIN-BASKET. The youngest child; the baby. PIN-MONEY. Money received by a married woman for prostituting her person. PINCH. To steal. PINCHED. Arrested. PINCHERS. Sometimes called "Exchangers;" fellows who go into stores or exchange offices with a twenty-dollar gold coin and ask to have it changed for bank bills, and after receiving the bills, suddenly pretend to have changed their minds, and, handing the bills back again, make very profuse apologies for the trouble they have given, etc., etc. The man during the short time that he had the money in his possession, contrived to change bad bills for some of the good ones. PINK. To stab. PINKED. Stabbed. PINKED BETWEEN THE LACINGS. Convicted by reason of perjury. A man encased in steel or iron is only vulnerable at those parts where his corselet is laced; and hence when an honest man is convicted of a false charge by a treacherous advantage of some weak point, he is said to be "pinked between the lacings." PINNED. Arrested. PINNIPE. A crab. PINNIPED. Sideways; crab-fashion. PINS. Legs. PIPER. A short-winded person; a broken-winded horse. PIPING. Following; trailing; dogging; looking after; watching. PIT. A pocket. PLAIUL. Go home. PLANT. To bury; to conceal. Stolen goods are said to be planted when they are concealed. "Plant your wids and stow them," be careful what you say. PLANTER. One who hides stolen property. PLANTING. Hiding; concealing. PLASTIC. A model artist. PLATE. Money. PLATE OF MEAT. A street or highway. PLAYED OUT. Exhausted; expended. PLAYTHINGS. Burglar's tools. PLUCK. To pull. PLUCK THE RIBBON. Pull the bell. PLUMB. Honest; upright; good. PLUMBY. It is all right, or as it should be; we have plenty; they have enough. PLUMP. Rich; plenty of money. "A plump skin," a full purse. PLYER. A crutch. POGY. Drunk. POINT. To pay. POKE. A pocket; a purse. POLISHER. One who is in prison. "The cove polishes the people's iron with his eyebrows," the fellow looks out of the grated windows of his prison. POLL. The head. POLL HIM. Get hold of the property, and then refuse to pay for it. POLT. A blow. "Lend the pam a polt in the muns," give the fool a blow in the face. POMP. The game. "Save the pomp," save the game. PONCE. A man who is kept by a woman. PONCESS. A woman that keeps a man by prostitution. POND. The ocean. PONEY. Money. "Post the poney," put down the money. PONGELO. Drink; liquor. POP. To pawn; to shoot. POPS. Pistols. "I popped the bloke," I shot the fellow. POPSHOP. Pawnbroker's shop. PORK. To inform the coroner of the whereabouts of a corpse. PORKER. A saddle. Saddles are mostly made of hog's skins. PORT ST. MARTIN. A valise; a portmanteau. POSH. Money; smallest piece of money. POST. Pay; put up. POST THE COLE. Pay the money. POT-HUNTER. A poor person who steals food only to prevent himself from starving. POUCH. A pocket. POULTERER. A fellow who opens letters, abstracts the money and then drops them back into the post-office box. "The kiddy was pulled for the poultry rig," the boy was arrested for opening letters and robbing them. PRAD. A horse. PRAD-BORROWERS. Horse-thieves. PRAD-LAY. Stealing horses. PRANCER. A horse. PRATE ROAST. A talkative fellow. PRATER. A hen. PRATING CHEAT. The tongue. PRATT. Back parts. PREMONITORY. The penitentiary. PRIG. A thief. PRIGGER-NAPPER. A police officer. PRIGGERS. Thieves in general. PRIGSTAR. A rival in a love affair. PRIM. A handsome woman. PRIME TWIG. First-rate condition. PROD. A cart or wagon; a coach. PROG. Food. PROP. A breast-pin. PROPS. Dice. PROSPECTING. Looking for something to steal. PUFFERS. Peter Funks. PULL. To arrest. To "pull a purse," is to steal a purse. PUNCH. A blow struck with the fist. "A punch in the day-light, the victualling-office, or the haltering place," a blow in the eye, the stomach, or under the ear. PUNK. A bad woman. PUPPY. Blind. PUSH. A crowd. PUT. An ignorant clown. PUT A FELLOW UP TO HIS ARMPITS. Cheated by his companions of his share of the plunder. PUT AWAY. Locked up; imprisoned. PUT TO BED WITH A SHOVEL. Buried in the earth. PUT UP. Information given to thieves by persons in the employ of parties to be robbed, such as servants, clerks, porters, etc., whereby the thief is facilitated in his operations. PUT UP JOB. A job is said to be put up if the porter of a store should allow a "fitter" to take an impression of the keys of the door or the safe; or when a clerk sent to the bank to make a deposit, or to draw an amount of money, allows himself to be thrown down and robbed, in order to have his pocket picked. PUZZLE-COVE. A lawyer. Q QUACKING CHEAT. A duck. QUAG. Unsafe; not reliable; not to be trusted. QUAIL. An old maid. QUAIL-PIPE. A woman's tongue. QUAKING-CHEAT. A calf or a sheep. QUANDARY. What shall I do. QUARREL-PICKER. A glazier. QUARROON. A body. QUARTERED. To receive a part of the profits. QUASH. To kill; the end of; no more. QUEAN. A slut; a worthless woman. QUEEN DICK. Never. "It happened in the reign of Queen Dick," it never occurred; has never been. QUEEN STREET. "The joskin lives in Queen Street," the fool is governed entirely by his wife. QUEER. Counterfeit bank bills; base; roguish; worthless. QUEER. To puzzle. "The cove queered the full bottom," the fellow puzzled the judge. "The bloke queered his ogles among the bruisers," he had his eyes blacked by the pugilists. QUEER BIRDS. Reformed convicts who return to their old profession. QUEER BLUFFER. The keeper of a rum-shop that is the resort of the worst kind of rogues, and who assists them in various ways. QUEER BURY. An empty purse. QUEER COLE FENCER. A passer of bad money. QUEER COLE MAKER. One who makes bad money. QUEER PRANCER. A bad horse. QUEER ROOSTER. A fellow that lodges among thieves to hear what they have to say, and then imparts his information to officers for a consideration. QUEMAR. Burn the fellow. QUES. Points. QUIDS. Cash; five dollars. "The swell tipped the mace cove fifty quids for the prad," the gentleman gave fifty dollars for the horse. QUINSEY. Choaked. "Quinsey the bloke while I frisk his sacks," choke the fellow while I pick his pockets. QUOD. Prison. QUOTA. Share. "Tip me my quota," give me my share. R RABBIT. A rowdy. "Dead rabbit," a very athletic rowdy fellow. RABBIT-SUCKERS. Young spendthrifts; fast young men. RACKLAW. A married woman. RAG. A dollar. "Not a rag," not a dollar. RAG-WATER. Intoxicating liquor of all kinds. If frequently taken to excess, will reduce any person to rags. RAGGED. Abused; slandered. RAGS. Paper money. "Poor cove, rags are few with him," poor fellow, money is not plenty with him. RAILS. Curtain lectures. RAINBOW. A footman; so called from the fact that he wears livery, or garments of different colors. RAINY DAY. A day of sickness; a day of want; bad times and rainy days. RAKE. To apportion; share. RALPH. A fool. RAMMER. The arm. "The copper seized my rammer, and run me like a prad to the wit," the officer laid hold of my arm, and run me like a horse to prison. RAMP. To snatch; to tear anything forcibly from the person. Pickpockets are said to be ramping a man when a number of them rush on him as if in a great hurry to pass, but manage to run against him, and in the flurry pick his pocket. RANCAT COVE. A man covered with fur. RANDY. Unruly; rampant. RANGLING. Intriguing with a number of women. RAP. To take a false oath; to curse. RAPPER. A perjurer. RASCAGLION. A eunuch. RAT. A trick; a cheat. "To smell a rat," to suspect. RATTLE. A hackney coach. RATTLING COVE. A coachman. READ AND WRITE. Flight. "He took to _read and write_ with Joe in Daisyville." READER. A pocket-book. READER MERCHANTS. Pickpockets who operate in and about the banks. READY. Cash. RECKON. Cheat. RECRUITING. Thieves hunting for plunder. RED. Gold; a cent. RED FUSTIAN. Porter or red wine. RED LANE. The throat. RED RAG. The tongue. "Shut your potato-trap and give the red rag a holiday," shut your mouth and let your tongue rest. RED RIBBON. Brandy. RED SUPER. A gold watch. REDGE. Gold. REEFING. Drawing. "Reefing up into work," drawing up the pocket until the purse or portmonnaie is within reach of the fingers. REGULARS. Share or portion. "The coves cracked the swell's crib, fenced the swag, and then each bloke napped his regulars," the fellows broke open a gentleman's house, sold the goods to a receiver, and each man received his portion. REP. A man of good reputation. REPS. A woman of good reputation. REVERSED. A man made to stand on his head by rowdies, in order that his money may fall out of his pockets. It is then picked up as money found. RHINO. Money. RHINO FAT. Being rich. RIB. A cross, ill-natured wife. RIB-ROAST. The act of scolding a husband unmercifully by his wife. RIBBON. Liquor. RICHARDSNARY. A dictionary. RIG. Joke; fun. RIGGING. Clothing. RIGHT. All right; just as it was wished to be. RIGHT SORT. One of your kind; a good fellow. RIGHTS. "To rights," clear. "Oh! then, you are _to rights_ this time," there is a clear case against you. RING. To ring in is to join in with another and appear to think as he thinks; to intrude; to force one's self into company where he is not wanted. RIP. A poor devil. RIPPERS. Spurs. ROAST. To arrest. ROBIN'S MEN. From Robin Hood. Expert thieves; grand larceny men; bank robbers, etc. ROCKED IN A STONE CRADLE. Born in a prison. RODGER. A portmanteau. ROGUE. "_Rogue_ and pulley," a man and woman going out to rob gentlemen. ROLL OF SNOW. A roll of linen. ROME COVE. A king; the president. ROME MORT. A queen. ROME VILLE. New-York. ROMONERS. Fortune-tellers. ROMONEY. A gipsy. ROOFER. A hat. ROOK. A cheat. ROOST-LAY. Stealing poultry. ROPED. Led astray; taken in and done for. ROPER-IN. A man who visits hotels and other places for the purpose of ingratiating himself with persons who are supposed to have plenty of cash and little prudence, and inducing them to visit gaming-houses. ROSE. A secret. ROTAN. Any wheeled carriage. ROUGH MUSIC. Noise made by beating old tins. ROUGHS. Men that are ready to fight in any way or shape. ROUND. Good. ROUND ABOUT. An instrument used by burglars to cut a large hole into an iron chest or door. ROUND ROBIN. A burglar's instrument. ROUNDING. Informing; giving information. ROVERS. Thoughts. RUB. Run. "Don't rub us to wit," don't run us to prison. RUB US TO WIT. Send us to prison. RUFFELS. Hand-cuffs. RUFFIAN. The devil. "May the ruffian nab the cuffin queer, and let the copper twine with his kinchins around his colquarren," may the devil take the justice, and let the policeman be hanged with all his children about his neck. "The ruffian cly you," the devil take you. RUG. Sleep. RUGG. It is all right. RUM BITE. A smart cheat; a clean trick. RUM BLOWEN. A handsome girl. RUM BLUFFER. A jolly landlord. RUM CHUB. A fellow. RUMBEAK. A magistrate that can be bribed. RUMBING. A full purse. RUMBLE THE FLATS. Playing cards. RUMBO. A prison. RUMBOB. A money-drawer. RUMBOB. A young apprentice. RUMBOSE. Wine or any kind of good drink. RUMBUGHER. A valuable dog. RUN. Fine; good; valuable. RUN IN. Arrested. RUNNING HIM THROUGH. A term used by gamblers when they play with a sucker, and don't give him a chance to win a single bet. RUSHERS. House-breakers who break into country houses. RUSTY. Ill-natured. His tongue goes like a door on rusty hinges. RYBUCK. All right; straight; it will do; I am satisfied. RYDER. A cloak. S SACHEVEREL. An iron door. SACK. A pocket. SAINT GILES BUZZMAN. A handkerchief thief. SAINT TERRA. A churchyard. SAM. A stupid fellow. SANGUINARY. Bloody. SANS. Without; nothing. SAWNEY. Bacon; fat pork. SCAMP-FOOT. A foot-pad. SCANDAL PROOF. One who has eaten shame and drank after it; or would blush at being ashamed. SCANDAL SOUP. Tea. SCARCE. To slip away; to make one's self scarce. SCAVOIR. Sharp; cunning; knowledge. SCENT. Bad management. "The cove was nabbed on the scent," the fellow was arrested by reason of his own bad management. SCHEME. A party of pleasure. SCHOFEL. Bad money. SCHOFEL-PITCHERS. Passers of bad money. SCHOOL. A gang of thieves. "A school of knucks," a gang of pickpockets. SCHOOL OIL. A whipping. SCHOOLING. Jostling; pitching. SCOLD'S CURE. A coffin. "The blowen has napped the scold's cure," the jade is in her coffin. SCOT. A young bull. SCOUR. To run away. SCOUT. A watchman. SCRAGG. The neck. SCRAGGED. Hanged. SCRAN. Food. SCRANNING. Begging. SCRAPE. Trouble. SCRAPP. A plan to rob a house or commit any kind of roguery. SCRAPPER. A pugilist. SCRATCH. To write; to forge. SCRATCH. Time agreed upon; to meet at the appointed time; to face another. SCRATCHER. A forger; a copyist. SCREAVES. Paper money. SCREEN. A bank-bill. SCREW. A key. SCREWING. Opening a lock with keys. SCREWING UP. Choking; garroting. "Screw up the bloke, and that will stop his blasted red rag from chanting beef," choke the man, and that will prevent him from crying "stop thief." SCREWSMAN. A burglar who works with keys, picks, dubs, bettys, etc., etc. SCRIP. Writing-paper. "The bloke freely scratched the scrip, and tipped me forty cases," the man readily signed the paper, and gave me forty dollars. SCROBE. A private chastisement. SCROOF. To live with a friend, and at his expense. SCROOFING. Living at a friend's expense. Thieves are in the habit of scroofing with an old pal when they first come out of prison, until they can steal something for themselves. SCRUB. A mean fellow. SCRUB-BADO. A mean, insignificant puppy; the lowest of the low; _the itch_. SCUTTLE. To cut a pocket. SEA-CRAB. A sailor. SEAVEY. Sense; knowledge. SECRET. Cheated. "The bloke was let into the secret," the man was cheated. SEES. The eyes. SEND. To drive or break. "Take the jimmy and send it into the jigger," take the crow and force it into the door. SERENE. All right. It is all _serene_. SERVE HIM OUT. Give him a good thrashing. SERVED. Found guilty; convicted. SET. Prepared beforehand; "a set thing;" a trap; a determined thing. SETTER. A shadow; an officer in disguise, who points out the thief for others to arrest. SETTLED. Knocked down; murdered. SETTLING. Killing. "Settling a bloke," killing a man. SHADOW. A first-class police officer; one who possesses naturally the power of retaining with unerring certainty the peculiar features and characteristics of persons, added to the indomitable perseverance of the slot-hound to follow his quarry. SHADY. Quiet; out of sight; not easily found. SHADY GLIM. A dark lantern. SHAKE. A prostitute; one who gambles with dice; to shake; to draw any thing from the pocket. "The knuck shook the swell of his fogle," the pickpocket stole the gentleman's handkerchief. SHAKEDOWN. A panel-thief or badger's crib. SHAKESTER. A lady. SHALERS. Girls. SHALLY. A negative; a person that is never positive. SHAM LEGGERS. Men who pretend to sell smuggled goods. [Illustration] SHAP. A hat. SHAPES. Naked. SHARK. A custom-house officer. SHARP. A man that is well posted; one who "knows a thing or two;" a gambler. SHARPER. One who obtains goods or money by any kind of false pretense or representation. SHARPER'S TOOLS. A fool and false dice or cards. SHAVER. A cheat. SHEEN. Bad money. SHEENEY. A Jew thief. SHELF. A pawn-shop. SHELION. A shilling. SHERIFF'S BALL. An execution. SHERO. The head. SHERRID. Run away. SHICKSTER. A woman. SHIFTING. Cheating or stealing. SHIGUS. A judge. SHILLEY. No stability. SHIN-BREAKING. Borrowing money. SHINERAGS. Nothing. SHINES. Gold coin. SHOE-LEATHER. A phrase to denote some one is approaching. SHOON. A fool; a country lout. SHOOTING-STARS. Thieves who do not remain long in one place. SHOP. A prison. SHOPPED. Imprisoned. SHOVE. Pass money. "Shove the blunt," spend the money. "Shove queer," pass counterfeit money. SHOVING. Passing bad money. SHRED. A tailor. SHYCOCK. A man who is fearful of being arrested; shy of the officers. SICER. Sixpence. SICK. Imprisoned. SIDE-POCKET. A drinking-saloon in an out-of-the-way-place; a resort for thieves. SIFTING. Examining; emptying purses or pocket-books for the purpose of examining their contents, is called sifting. SILENCE. To kill; to knock down. SIMKIN. A fool. SIMON. A simpleton. SING. To cry aloud. "The cove sings beef," the fellow calls thief. SING SMALL. Have little to say for yourself. SINK. To cheat; to hide from a partner. SINKERS. Thieves who do not divide fair with their companions. SINKING. Cheating a partner; not dividing fair. SKEP. A pocket full of money; a place for keeping money; a savings bank. SKEW. A cup. SKEWER. A sword or dagger. SKILLEY. Prison fare. SKIN. A purse. "The bloke's skin was full of honey," the man's purse was full of money. SKINK. A waiter. SKINNERS. Small lawyers who hang about police offices and figuratively skin their clients. SKIP-KENNEL. A footman. SKIPPER. A barn. SKIT. Humbug; a joke. SKULL. The head of the house; the President of the United States; the Governor; the head man. SKY-BLUE. Gin. SKYCER. A mean, sponging fellow. SLAMKIN. A slovenly female. SLANEY. A theatre. SLANG or SLAG. A watch-chain. "The knucks twisted the swell's thimble, slang, and onions, and also touched his leather, but it was very lathy. It only raked a case and a half; the thimble was a foist, but the slang and onions were bene. The altemel of the swag raked only fifteen cases," the pickpockets stole a gentleman's watch, chain, and seals, and also his pocket-book; but there was only a dollar and a half a piece for them in it. The watch was a cheat, but the chain and seals were good. The whole plunder divided gave the thieves fifteen dollars each. SLANGED. Chained by the leg. SLAP-BANG. An eating-house; a restaurant. SLASH. Outside coat pocket. SLAT. A half-dollar. SLATE. A sheet. SLAWEY. A female servant. SLICK-A-DIE. A pocket-book. SLIM. Punch. SLINGTAIL. Poultry. SLIPPERY. Soap. SLOP. Tea. SLOPS. Ready-made clothing. SLOUGH. To bow the head. SLUBBER. A heavy, stupid fellow. SLUBBER DE GULLION. A mean fellow. SLUICE YOUR GOB. Take a good long drink. SLUICED. To drink. "The bene cove sluiced their gobs with slim till they all snoozed in the strammel like sounders," the good fellow gave them punch till they slept in the straw like hogs. SLUM. A package of bank bills; a low drinking-place. SLUMING. Passing spurious bills. SLUMMING. Stealing packages of bank-bills. SLY-BOOTS. A fellow that pretends to be a fool. SMACK. To share. "Smack the swag," share the spoil. SMACK. To swear on the Bible. "The queer cuffin bid me smack the calf-skin, but I only bussed my thumb," the justice told me to kiss the book, but I only kissed my thumb. SMACKING COVE. A coachman. SMALL SNOW. Children's linen. SMART. Spruce. SMASH. To change. SMASH-FEEDER. A silver spoon. SMASHER. Money-changer. SMEAR. A plasterer; a mason. SMEAR GILT. A bribe. SMELLER. A nose. SMELLING CHEAT. A bouquet. SMELTS. Half-eagles; five dollars. SMICKET. A woman's shift or skirt. SMILE. To drink. SMILER. A bumper. SMIRK. A superficial fellow. SMITER. The arm. SMOKE. Humbug; any thing said to conceal the true sentiment of the talker; to cover the intent. SMOKE. To observe; to suspect; to understand. SMOKY. Suspicious; curious; inquisitive. SMOUCH. To steal. SMUG. A blacksmith. SMUSH. To seize suddenly; to snatch. SMUT. Indecent. SNABLE. To plunder; sometimes to kill. SNAFFLERS. Highwaymen. SNAGLING. Stealing poultry by putting a worm on a fish-hook, thereby catching the fowl, then twisting their necks and putting them in a bag. SNAGS. Large teeth. SNAKE. A fellow that glides into a store or warehouse, and conceals himself for the purpose of letting in his companions. SNAKED. Arrested. SNAM. To snatch. SNAPPED. Arrested. SNAPPER. A gun. SNAPPERS. Pistols. SNAPT. Arrested; caught. SNEAK-THIEF. A fellow who sneaks into areas, basement-doors or windows, or through front-doors by means of latch-keys, and entering the various apartments, steals any thing he can carry off. SNEAKING. Conveying away stolen goods. SNEAKSMAN. _See Sneak-thief._ SNEEZER. A snuff-box. SNID. Six. SNIDE STUFF. Bad money. SNITCH. An informer; the nose; a spy. SNITE. Slap; wipe. "Snite his snitch," wipe his nose. SNIVEL. To cry. SNOOZING-KEN. A bawdy-house. SNOT. A gentleman. SNOUT. A hogshead. SNOW. Linen. SNUDGE. A thief who conceals himself under the bed. SNUFF. Offended. "To take snuff," to be offended. SNUG. Quiet; all right. SOAP. Money. SOD. A worn-out debauchee, whom excess of indulgence has rendered unnatural. SOFT. Bank bills; paper money. SOLDIER. A smoked herring. SOLFA. A clerk. SOP. A bribe. SOT-WEED. Tobacco. SOUNDERS. Hogs. SPADO. A sword. SPANISH. Silver coin. SPARK. A diamond. SPEAK. To steal; to take away. "Bob spoke with the toney on the chestnut prancer," Bob robbed the fool on the chestnut horse. "To speak with," to steal from. SPEAKER. Plunderer. SPEALERS. Gamblers. SPEILER. A gambler. SPEILING. Gambling. SPICE. To steal. SPICER. A foot-pad. SPICER HIGH. A highway-robber. SPIT. A sword or dagger. SPLIT. Parted; separated. SPLIT CAUSE. A lawyer. SPLIT ON HIM. Informs against; denounces him. SPLIT OUT. No longer friends; quarrelled; dissolved partnership. SPOONEY. Foolish. SPORT. A gamester; a man fond of racing and gaming of all kinds. SPOT. To make a note of something you wish to remember; to look at a person with the intention of remembering him; to point one out to another as a suspected person, or one to be remembered. SPOUT. A pawnbroker's shop. SPRAT. Sixpence. SPREAD. Butter. "The cove pinched a keeler of spread, and was pulled foul. The beaks sent him to the premonitory for three moons," the fellow stole a tub of butter, and was arrested with it in his possession. The judges sent him to the penitentiary for three months. SPRINGING THE PLANT. To discover the place where stolen property is concealed; to remove stolen property from its place of concealment. "When I was in the old doss I told my skinner to see Jack and tell him to spring the plant, fence it, and send me my regulars, as I wanted to melt it," when I was in the Tombs I told my lawyer to see Jack, and tell him to remove the plunder from the place in which we hid it, to sell it, and send me my share of the proceeds, as I wanted to spend it. SPUD. Base coin; bad money. SPUNG. A miser. SPUNK. Matches. SPUNK-FAKERS. Match-sellers. SQUAIL. A drink. SQUARE. Honest; upright; good. SQUEAK or SQUEAL. To inform. A thief is said to "squeak" or "squeal" when, after his arrest, he gives information against his accomplices, or where stolen property may be found. SQUEAKER. A child. SQUEEZE. Silk or satin. SQUEEZE CLOUT. A silk handkerchief. SQUELCH. A fall. STAG. One who has turned State's evidence. STAG. To see. "_Stag_ the cop," see the policeman. STAGGED. Discovered; informed on. STAIT. City of New-York. STAKE. Plunder, large or small in value, as the case may be. STALL. One whose business it is to conceal as far as possible the manipulation of his confederate who is trying to pick a person's pocket. The stall places himself either in front, back, or sideways, or by any stratagem attracts the attention of the intended victim. Any thing said or done by which the attention is directed from the true state of the case is called a _stall_. STALLING-KEN. A house for the reception of stolen goods. STAMFISH. To talk in a way not generally understood. STAMP. A particular way of throwing dice out of the box. STAMPERS. Feet; shoes; sometimes the stairs. STANDING. Purchasing stolen property. STANDING IN. Bidding for; making an offer; taking part with. "The bloke _stands in_ with the cross-coves, and naps his regulars," the man takes part with the thieves, and receives his share of the plunder. STAR THE GLAZE. Break the show-case; break the glass. STAR-GAZERS. Prostitutes; street-walkers. STARCH. Pride. STARDER. A receiver. STARK NAKED. Stripped of every thing; "skinned by a Tombs lawyer." START. The Tombs. "The cove has gone to the old start," the fellow has gone to the Tombs. STAUNCH. Can not be made to tell; reliable; can be trusted with a secret. "I say, Smasher, won't the cove squeak if he's pinched and promised by the beak to be turned up?" "No, not for all the blasted beaks this side of Sturbin. I tell you he is a staunch cove, and there need be no fear." I say, Smasher, won't the fellow betray us if he is arrested and promised by the judge to be set at liberty again? No, not for all the blasted judges this side of State prison. I tell you he is a reliable fellow, and there is no fear. STAY-TAPE. A dry-goods clerk. STEAMBOAT. A term used by gamblers. _See Indians about._ STEAMER. A tobacco pipe. STEEL. House of Refuge. STEPPER. The treadmill. STEPPING-KEN. A dance-house. STICK. A breastpin. STICK-FLAMS. Gloves. STICKS. Pistols; household furniture. STIFF. A letter; a written or printed paper; a newspaper. STIFF 'UN. A corpse. STIFLE. Kill. STIFLE THE SQUEAKER. Kill the child. STINK. To publish an account of a robbery. STIR. A crowd; a fire. STOGGER. A pickpocket. STONE PITCHER. Sing Sing. STOP. A detective officer. STOP LAY. Two or more well-dressed pickpockets go into a fashionable quiet street and promenade singly until they select a person that will answer their purpose; one of them stops the person and inquires the direction to a place somewhat distant. On being informed of the route he should take, he pretends not to exactly understand his informant, who, getting a little more interested in his desire to be explicit, draws closer to the inquirer. At about this point, one or both the others walk up and in an instant the amiable individual is minus some part of his movable property. The above practice is what is termed the "stop lay." STOW YOUR WID. Be silent. STRAMMEL. Straw; hay. STRANGER. A guinea. STRAW-MAN. False bail. STRETCH. One year. STRETCHERS. Horse-racers. STRIKE. To get money from candidates before an election, under the pretense of getting votes for them; to borrow without intending to pay back. STRING. To humbug. "String the bloke and pinch his honey," humbug the man and get his money. STRUMMER-FEKER. A hair-dresser. STUBBLE. Stop it. STUBBLE YOUR RED RAG. Hold your tongue. STUFF. Money. STUKE. A handkerchief. STUMPS. Legs. STUN HIM OUT OF HIS REGULARS. Cheat him out of his rights; deprive him of his share of the plunder. STUNNER. Extra; superior; very good. STURBIN. State prison. SUBSIDE. Get out of the way; run away. SUCK. Any kind of liquor. SUCKED. Cheated. SUCKER. A term applied by gamblers to a person that can be cheated at any game of cards. SUDSDAY. Washday. SUET. Liquor. SUGAR. Money. SUITE. Watch, seals, etc. SUPER or SOUPER. A watch. SUPOUCH. A landlady. SURE THING. A term used to denote that the person is certain to be a winner. SUSPERCOL. To hang. SWABLER. A dirty fellow. SWADDLER. A fellow who pretends to be anxious for the salvation of every body, and harangues crowds of gaping knaves and fools in the parks, or any other public place. The pickpockets generally pay him well for his efforts. Sometimes fellows who pick a quarrel with a man, beat him, and at the same time rob him, are called swaddlers. SWAG. Plunder. SWAG-COVE. A receiver of stolen goods. SWAG-RUM. Full of wealth. SWEATING. Reducing the weight of gold coin by putting it in a bag and shaking it violently for some time, and then collecting the dust which is thus worn off. SWELL. A gentleman. "Swell mob," the well-dressed thieves with good address, who appear like honest gentlemen. SWIG. Liquor of any kind. SWIG-COVES. Fellows who traverse the country under the pretense of begging old clothes. SWING. To hang. SWITCHED. Married. SYEBUCK. Sixpence. SYNTAX. A schoolmaster. T TABBY. An old maid; or a talkative old woman. TACE. A candle; silence; hold your tongue. TACKLE. A mistress; sometimes clothing. TAIL-DIVER. A thief who steals pocket-handkerchiefs from coat-tail pockets. TALE. The number; quantity; share. "Give him tale," give him his share. TALLEYMEN. Men who loan clothing to prostitutes. TANGLE-FOOT. Bad liquor. TANGLE-FOOTED. Drunk. TANNER. Sixpence. "The kiddy tipped the rattling cove a tanner for lush," the lad gave the coachman sixpence to get a drink. TAP. To arrest. TAPE. Liquor. TAPPERS. Officers. TARRELS. Skeleton-keys. TATS. False dice; rags. TATTLER. A watch or clock. "To flash a tattler," to sport a watch. TATTY-TOG. A sweat-cloth. TEASE. A slave; to work. TEEHOKOIS. Dogs or dog. TEIZE. To flog. "To nap the teize," to receive a flogging. TESTON. A coin with a head on it. THEATRE. Police court. THIMBLE. A watch. THORNS. Anxious; fearful. THRESWINS. Three cents or pence. THROUGH HIM. Search him. THROW. To cheat; to rob; to steal. THROWING OFF. A term used by gamblers when a capper is the partner of a sucker. The capper can lose when he pleases, thereby throwing the sucker off, as it is termed. THRUMS. Three-cent pieces. TIBBS. A goose. TIBBY. A cat. TICK. Trust. TICKRUM. A license. TIED UP GONNOFFING. Stopped stealing; living honestly. TIFFING. A good natured war of words. TILE. A hat. TIMBER. Matches. TIME ON THAT. Wait awhile, sir; not so fast. TIP. Information; give; hand to me; lend. "Tip me your daddle, my bene cove," give me your hand, my good fellow. TIPPET. The halter. TIT. A horse. TITTER. A sword. TIZZY. Sixpence. TO BE PUT IN A HOLE. To be cheated by a comrade out of a just share of the plunder. TO BLOW THE GAB. To confess. TO BLOWER. One who imparts secrets; to inform. TO BOUNCE. To brag or hector; to tell improbable stories. TO BOUNCE HIM. To get one's property and refuse to pay for it. TO BREAK A LEG. To seduce a girl. TO HAVE A GAME DEAD. The gambler has a sure thing, and must beat his opponent. TO RIGHTS. The evidence is conclusive enough to convict. "Try all they knew, the coppers could not pinch him to rights--he was too fly for them," the officers were not able to find evidence enough against him. He was too cunning for them. TO TURN STAG. To turn informer. TO YARD KICK. Coat and pants. TOBBY COVES. Fellows that in the night walk the streets near a river. They stun their victim by striking him with a bludgeon; they then rob him and tumble him into the river. If the body is found, it is difficult to say that the man was not accidentally drowned. TOBED. Struck on the head and made senseless. TOBY. The highway. TOBY-LAY. Robbing on the highway. TODGE. To smash. "Todge the bloke and pad," smoke the man and run. TOGE. A coat. TOGEMANDS. A gown or cloak. TOGS. Clothes. "The swell is rum-togged," the gentleman is well dressed. TOLOBON. The tongue. TOLOBON RIG. Fortune-tellers. TOM-CONEY. A foolish fellow. TOMBSTONES. Teeth. TOMMEY. Bread. TONEY. A simpleton. TOOLS. Burglars' instruments. TOOTH-MUSIC. Chewing food with a good appetite. TOP. To cheat; to trick. TOP-DIVER. A roué. TOP-ROPES. Extravagant or riotous living. TOP-TOG. An overcoat. TOPPED. Hanged. "The cove was topped for settling a bloke," the fellow was hanged for killing a man. TOPPER. A blow on the head. TOPPING-COVE. The head man of a party; sometimes the hangman. TOTH. Rum. TOUCH. To steal. TOUNGE-PAD. A scold. TOUT. Look; take notice; remember that. TOUTED. Followed or pursued. TOUTING-KEN. The bar of a drinking-place. TOWER. Rage; very angry. TOWN-TODDLERS. Silly fellows easily taken in by the sharpers. TRACK. To go. TRADESMEN. Thieves. TRANSLATORS. Second-hand boots or shoes. TRAP. Shrewd; smart. TRAPES. Sluttish women. TRAPS. Officers. TRAY. Three. TRIB. A prison. TRICKS. Anything stolen from a person at one time by pickpockets. TRICUM LEGIS. A quirk or quibble. TRINING. Hanging. TRINKETS. Bowie-knife and revolver. TRISTIS. Not good. "The fly kinchin is a tristis canis," the smart boy is a sad dog. TROLL. To loaf or loiter about. TROT. An old woman. TROTTER-CASES. Stockings. TROTTERS. Feet. TRUCKS. Pants. TRUET. Stealing money under pretense of changing it. TRUMP. A brave fellow. TRUMPET. A vain fellow who has a decided partiality for the letter I. TRUNDLERS. Peas. TRUNKER. The body. TRUNT. Nose. TRY ON. To endeavor; attempt it. "Coves who try on," fellows who live by stealing. TUMBLED. Suspected; found it out. "Tumbled on him," came upon him unexpectedly. "Tumbled to him," suspected him; thought it was him. TUMBLER. A cart; a lock; a sharper. TUNE. To beat. "Tune the toney," beat the fool. TURF. Race-course. "The knucks work the turf for leather and skins," the pickpockets attend the race-courses to steal pocket-books and purses. TURKEY-MERCHANTS. Purchasers of stolen silk. TURNED UP. Acquitted; discharged. TURNING OVER. Examining. TURTLE-DOVES. A pair of gloves. TWIG. To observe. "Twig the copper, he is peery," observe the officer, he is watching us. TWISTED. Convicted, hanged. TWITTOCK. Two. TWO TO ONE. A pawnbroker. TYBURN BLOSSOM. A young thief. TYE. A neckcloth. TYKE. A dog; a clown. U U. S. COVE. A soldier; a man in the employ of the United States. U. S. PLATE. Fetters; handcuffs. UNCLE. A pawnbroker. UNDER-DUBBER. A turnkey. UNICORN. Two men and one woman, or two women and one man banded together to steal. UNTRUSS. To let down the shutters of a store. UP HILLS. False dice. UP THE SPOUT. Pawned. UP TO. Knowing. UP TO SLUM. Humbug; gammon. UP TO SNUFF. Cunning; shrewd. UPISH. Testy; quarrelsome. UPPER-BENJAMIN. An overcoat. UPRIGHT MAN. King of the gipsies; the head of a gang of thieves; the chief of banditti. UPRIGHTS. Liquor measures. USED UP. Killed; murdered. V VAG. Vagrant. "Done on the vag," committed for vagrancy. VAMOSE. Run away; be off quick. VAMP. To pledge. VAMPERS. Stockings. VAMPIRE. A man who lives by extorting money from men and women whom they have seen coming out of or going into houses of assignation. VARDY. Opinion. VELVET. The tongue. VENITE. Come. VENUS' CURSE. Venereal disease. VERGE. A gold watch. VICTUALLING OFFICE. The stomach. VINCENT'S LAW. The art of cheating at cards. VINEGAR. A cloak or gown. VIRTUE ATER. A prostitute. VIXEN. A she-fox. VOWEL. Give your note; I. O. U. W WAITS. Strolling musicians; organ-players, etc. WALL-FLOWERS. Second-hand clothing exposed for sale. WAME. The stomach. WARE HAWK. Lookout; beware. WARM. Rich; plenty of money; dangerous. WASTE. A tavern. WATERED. Longed for. "The cove's chops watered for it," the fellow longed for it. WATTLES. The cars. WEDGE. Silver-ware. WEDGE-BOX. A silver snuff-box. WEEDING. Taking a part and leaving the balance in such a manner as not to excite suspicion. When a thief abstracts a portion from the plunder without the knowledge of his pals, and then receives an equal proportion of the remainder, it is called "Weeding the swag." WELCH COMB. The thumb and finger. WELL. Not to divide fair; to conceal a part. WESAND. The throat. WET-SNOW. Wet linen. WETTING. Drinking. WHACK. Share of the plunder. WHEEDLE. To decoy a person by fawning or insinuation. WHET. To drink. WHIDDLE. To tell or discover. "He whiddles," he peaches. "He whiddles the whole scrap," he tells all he knows. "The cull whiddled because they would not tip him his regulars," the fellow informed because they would not share with him. "The joskin whiddles beef, and we must pad the hoof," the countryman cries "thief," and we must be off. WHIDDLER. An informer; one who tells the secrets of another. WHIDS. Words. "Tip me your wattles, my pal, and touch my whids, or I'll make you whindle like a kinchin," give me your ears and take my words, or I'll make you snivel like a child. WHIFFLER. A fellow that yelps or cries out with pain. WHINDLE. A low cry; a painful suppressed cry. WHIP-JACKS. Men who pretend to be shipwrecked sailors. WHIPE. A blow. WHIPER. A kerchief. WHIPPED. Cheated out of a share, or equal part of the plunder. WHIPSTER. A sharper; a cunning fellow. WHISKER. An enormous lie. WHISKIN. A drinking-vessel. WHISTLER. The throat. WHIT. A prison. "Five gonnoffs were rubbed in the darkmans out of the whit and piked like bulls into grassville," five thieves broke out of prison in the night, and ran like locomotives into the country. WHITE TAPE. Gin. WHITE VELVET. Gin. WHITE WOOL. Silver. WIBBLE. Bad drink. WIFE. A fetter fixed to one leg. WIFFLER. A relaxation. WILD. A village. WILLOW. Poor. WIN. A cent. WIN. To steal; to cheat. "The sneak tracked the dancers and win a twittock of witcher glimsticks," the thief went up-stairs and stole a pair of candlesticks. WIND. Money. "Raise the wind," get money. WINDER. To sentence for life. "The cove has napped a winder for settling a tony," the fellow has been sentenced for life for killing a fool. WINGS. Oars. WINNINGS. Plunder; money or goods. WIRE. A pickpocket; the fellow who picks the pocket. WIREHOOK. A pickpocket. WISH. Be off; away with you. WITCHER. Silver. WITCHER BUBBER. A silver bowl. WOBALL. A milkman. WOBBLE. To boil; to reel; to stagger. WOOD. In a quandary. WOODBIRD. A sheep. WOODEN COAT. A coffin. WOODEN HABEAS. A man who dies in prison is said to go out on a wooden habeas; that is, in his coffin. WORD-PECKER. A wit; a punster. WORM. To obtain knowledge by craft and cunning. Y YACK. A watch. YAM. To eat. YAVUM. Bread and milk. YELLOW. Jealousy. YELPER. A fellow who cries before he is hurt. YIDISHER. A Jew. YOKED. Married. YOKLE. A countryman. Z ZANY. A jester. ZNEES. Ice; snow; frost. ZOUCHER. A slovenly fellow. ZUCKE. A dilapidated prostitute. SCENE IN A LONDON FLASH-PANNY. "Ho! there, my rum-bluffer; send me a nipperkin of white velvet." "Make it two," said a woman, seating herself on a skinner's knee; "and if Jim don't post the cole, I will." "Why, Bell, is it yourself? Tip us your daddle, my bene mort. May I dance at my death, and grin in a glass-case, if I didn't think you had been put to bed with a shovel--you've been so long away from the cock and hen club." "No, Jim, I only piked into Deuceaville with a dimber-damber, who couldn't pad the hoof for a single darkman's without his bloss to keep him from getting pogy." "Oh! I'm fly. You mean Jumping Jack, who was done last week, for heaving a peter from a drag. But you talked of padding the hoof. Why, sure, Jack had a rattler and a prad?" "Yes, but they were spotted by the harmans, and so we walked Spanish." "Was he nabbed on the scent?" "No, his pal grew leaky and cackled." "Well, Bell, here's the bingo--sluice your gob! But who was the cull that peached?" "A slubber de gullion named Harry Long, who wanted to pass for an out-and-out cracksman, though he was merely a diver." "Whew! I know the kiddy like a copper, and saved him once from lumping the lighter by putting in buck. Why, he scarcely knows a jimmy from a round robin, and Jack deserved the tippet for making a lay with him, as all coves of his kidney blow the gab. But how did you hare it to Romeville, Bell, for I suppose the jets cleaned you out?" "I kidded a swell in a snoozing-ken, and shook him of his dummy and thimble." "Ah! Bell! you were always the blowen for a rum bing." "It was no great quids, Jim--only six flimseys and three beans. But I'm flush of the balsam now, for I dance balum-rancum for the bens." Bell here produced a rum bing, which at once made her popular, and the nucleus of a host of admirers; for, as it respects money, it is with rogues and their doxeys as with all the rest of the world. Bell truly justified the adage, that "What's got over the devil's back, goes under the devil's belly;" for she gave a general order to the rum-bluffer, to supply all the lush that was called for by the company, at her expense; and thereon there was a demand for max, oil of barby, red tape, blue ruin, white velvet, and so forth, that kept all the tapsters in the establishment in a state of restless activity for the next half-hour. "Bell, you're benish to-night," exclaimed Knapp, who probably had a design on the purse, which the course of events somewhat interfered with. "Stubble your red rag," answered a good-looking young fellow. "Bell had better flash her dibs than let you bubble her out of them." "Why, you joskin," retorted Jim; "if you don't stow your whids I'll put your bowsprit in parenthesis. Ogle the cove, Bell--he wants to pass for a snafler in his belcher tye, though he never bid higher than a wipe in an upper benjamin." "I may bid as high as your pintle, and make you squint like a bag of nails," replied the intruder, "though you rub us to whit for it." "Oh! it's all plummy," said Knapp, "so you may cly your daddles. But come, Bell, let us track the dancers and rumble the flats, for I'm tired of pattering flash and lushing jackey." "Bar that toss, Jim," said Bell, "for you're as fly at the pictures, as the devil at lying, and I would rather be a knight of Alsatia than a plucked pigeon." This resolution produced a round of applause, which was followed by another round of liquor--promptly paid for by the lady of the rum bing, whose generosity now so far extended itself, that she withdrew from Mr. Knapp's protection, and, even without waiting to be asked, deposited herself in the lap of him of the belcher tye. She had scarcely asserted her title to the premises, before it was disputed by another fair damsel, who emphatically declared, that if the tenant in possession did not immediately leave that, she would astonish her mazzard with the contents of a "nipperkin of thunder and lightning." "If you do," returned Bell, "I will fix my diggers in your dial-plate, and turn it up with red." "Mizzle, you punk." "Well said," Madame Rhan, "but the bishop might as soon call the parson pig-stealer." "You lie, you bat. I couple with no cove but my own. But say, Harry, will you suffer yourself to be made a two-legged stool of by a flag-about?" "Oh! button your bone-box, Peg," replied Harry. "Bell's a rum blowen, and you only patter because your ogle's as green as the Emerald Isle." "It's not half so green as yourself, halter-mad Harry," retorted Peg; "for you know if I wished to nose I could have you twisted--not to mention any thing about the cull that was hushed for his reader." On a bench, close by the last speaker, was seated Hitch, a police officer, who appeared to be quite at home with the company, and to occasion no alarm or misgivings; but the moment Peg mentioned the circumstance of "the cull that was hushed for his reader," he rose from the table, drew forth a pair of handcuffs, and tapping Knapp's rival on the shoulder, playfully whispered: "Harry, my lad, the game's up; hold out your wrists for the ruffles." "There they are, Mr. Hitch, though I suppose you'll be asking me in a week or so to hold out my gorge for a Tyburn tippet." These proceedings naturally drew a crowd around the parties concerned; but though all sympathized with the prisoner, and the minion of the law was without any assistant, yet there was not the slightest attempt at a rescue, or even the least disposition manifested by the captive of a desire to escape. "Only nine months on the pad, and to be up for scragging! What a pity!" "He's too young--he hasn't had his lark half out; and it's like making a man pay a debt he don't owe, to twist him before he has gone the rounds." "He'll die game for all that! Poor fellow! he takes it like a glass of egg-nog." "Ah! Mr. Hitch! isn't it out of order, and he so green? You ought to give a chap a year to ripen for the hemp." "Do, Hitch, give him a little longer rope, and take him in his regular turn. You're sure to have him, you know, when his time's up." "O! stubble it, George. Hitch can't, or he would; for he never hurries a cove when it's left to himself." "That's a fact, my kiddies," exclaimed the officer, who seemed pleased at the compliment; "but the commissioner wants Harry, and so, of course, I must pull him." "I'm satisfied, whatever comes of it," added the prisoner. Bell whispered in the officer's ear: "Couldn't you let him pike if I come down with a thimble and ten beans?" "A watch and ten guineas?" "Of course." "I might if you paid on delivery." "Ready's the word." "Warehawk, then, and follow." Hitch departed with his prisoner, followed by Bell; but in a few minutes the latter returned and whispered to Knapp: "Your client has slipped the darbys, and his name's Walker. Here's a flimsy, to lay low and bottle your gab." The flash-panny was now in the full tide of successful operation--two thirds of its patrons being about three sheets in the wind, and none of them perfectly sober. In one corner there was a mill, wherein the combatants hit the wall more frequently than they hit each other. In another, two blowens were clapper-clawing each other for a bob-cull, who was seconding both parties, and declaring that the winner should have him. Here a snafler lay snoring on a bench, while a buzman, just half a degree less intoxicated, was endeavoring to pick his pocket. There, three cracksmen were engaged in a remarkably animated dispute on the state of the country. Under almost every table might be seen a son or daughter of Adam, luxuriating in the realms of Nod. But the bulk of the company were amusing themselves in a dance; for one of the fixtures of the establishment was an Irish piper, who, by the way, was a little fortune to it, for every one treated Pat. The dance was yet in its fullest vigor, when Hitch returned and called Bell to one of the tables. "Bell", said he, "I have been looking for you more eagerly than any of your lovers for several months past--though I found you at length by an accident. What have you done with the bloke?" "Me, Hitch? Why, I have neither seen or heard of him." "Come, Bell, it's no use our wasting time in small talk. You were with him the last night he was heard of." "Not I, faith, Hitch. Bring me the book, and I'll swear No to that." "How then came you by his super?" "Blast the super! for I fear it has got me into a muss." "If I take you to Newgate for it, Bell, it will be apt to get you into a halter." "Well, then it will save me from the Bay fever, or dying in the gutter; for all such as I am must draw one of the three chances." "Make me your confessor, Bell, without any equivocation or drawback, and I may stand between you and Jack Ketch." "But what about the stone-jug?" "That depends upon circumstances. Is the bloke living or dead?" "Living, for all I know to the contrary." "You know all about him, Bell." "If I do, may I cly the jerk at a drag; be trussed in a Kilmainham garter, and fall to the surgeons." "Well, it may be so," said Hitch, musing; "for if you knew all, half the world would have known it before this time. However, Bell, you can supply a link or two in the chain of evidence, so give me the particulars; and remember, if you tell me a lie I will smell it as it comes out of your mouth." Just then the guests of the Crooked Billet were interrupted by an uproar in the street. "Some swells on a lark," exclaimed lawyer Knapp; "dub the jigger and let them in." And Jim was right; for on the jigger being dubbed, in staggered four bloods, who were sufficiently top-heavy to be ready for any thing. Two of the newcomers, who prided themselves on "knowing the ropes," while their companions were green from the fens. Immediately on their entrance, this hopeful addition to the convivial party already assembled, began to exhibit their "tip-top education" by squaring off for a fight, pattering flash, and ordering in lush. In fact, they out-heroded Herod, for they proved themselves to be yet greater blackguards than the poor rogues whom they were so emulous to imitate. And yet they were "gentlemen," who would have been shocked at the touch of a mechanic, though they gloried in doing things up nutty, like pickpockets and highwaymen. But they were not such knowing kiddies after all, though they considered themselves bang up to the mark; for suddenly one of them cried out that he had lost his purse; and then they all discovered that they had lost every thing they had which was fairly removable. Thereupon there was a devil of a muss, generally, with vociferous calling for the police. The four fellows who had the four worst hats, exchanged them _sans ceremonie_ with the strangers, while a couple of fogle-hunters tore off the skirts of their coats to mend their breeches. To finish their spree, by and by in rushed the police, and, on the charge of an elderly, responsible-looking cracksman, hurried the bloods off to the nearest station-house. What rascally things are policemen! Alas! and alack! just about as rascally as all the rest of the world. * * * * * NUMERATION. 1. Eno. 1. On. 2. Owt. 2. Duo. 3. Eehrt. 3. Tray. 4. Ruof. 4. Quartre. 5. Evif. 5. Cink or Finniff. 6. Xis. 6. Double Tray. 7. Neves. 7. A Round. 8. Thgie. 8. Double Quarter. 9. Enin. 9. A Floorer. 10. Net. 10. Double Finniff. EXAMPLES. Tim Sullivan buzzed a bloke and a shakester of a reader. His jomer stalled. Johnny Miller, who was to have his regulars, called out, "cop-bung," for as you see a fly-cop was marking. Jack speeled to the crib, when he found Johnny Doyle had been pulling down sawney for grub. He cracked a casa last night, and fenced the swag. He told Jack as how Bill had flimped a yack, and pinched a swell of a spark-fawney, and had sent the yack to church, and got half a century and a finnif for the fawney. TRANSLATION. Tim Sullivan picked the pockets of a gentleman and lady of a pocket-book and purse. Tim's fancy-girl stood near him and screened him from observation. Johnny Miller, who was to have a share of the plunder, called out to him: "Hand over the stolen property--a detective is observing your manoeuvres." Sullivan ran immediately to his house, when he found Johnny Doyle had provided something to eat, by stealing some bacon from a store-door. Doyle committed a burglary last night, and disposed of the property plundered. He told Sullivan that Bill had hustled a person, and obtained a watch, and also robbed a well-dressed gentleman of a diamond ring. The watch he sent to have the works taken out and put into another case, or the maker's name erased and another inserted; the ring realized him fifty-five dollars. INTERCEPTED LETTER. RAED MOT: Ecnis uoy evah neeb ot eht tiw, semit evah neeb llud. Mij dna em evah enod gnihton fo yna tnuocca. Tsal thgin I dezzub a ekolb dna a retsekahs fo a redaer dna a niks. Ym remoj dellats. A evoc-ssorc, ohw dah sih sraluger, dellac tuo, "poc gnub," os sa a gip saw gnikram. I deleeps ot eht birc, erehw I dnuof Mij dah neeb gnillup nwod yenwas rof burg. Eh dekcarc a asac tsal thgin, dna decnef eht gaws. Eh dlot em sa Llib dah depmilf a kcay, dna dehcnip a llews of a yenwaf; eh tnes eht kcay ot hcruhc, dna tog eerht sffinnif dna a retooc rof eht yenwaf. Ruoy dlo Llom derauqs flesreh rof a elpuoc fo snoom, retfa uoy tnew ot tiw; tub uoy ees a detsalb reppoc deye-yttuc reh, dna derrettap ylneib htiw reh, dna desimorp reh ytnelp fo eloc fi d'ehs eson rof mih, dna ni esruoc, Llom ekil, ehs saw demmab yb mih, dna os, uoy ees, ehs tup pu roop kcalb Llib, dna eh saw deppoc ot sthgir; rof nehw yeht deksirf mih, yeht dnuof a tol fo egdew-sredeef ni eht ekop fo sih skcik. Eht henuats-nu sevoc, sa uoy swonk, Mot, si reven drakcab nev yeht dluohs emoc drarof. Nev I detnahc roop S'llib senutrofsim lla no me dias sa woh eh sav a eneb hcnuats evoc sa reve dellap htiw a eneb ekolb dna t'ndluohs tnav a wef seirutnec ot esaerg htiv. Yeht deppit em, rof Llib, evif seirutnec dna a flah. Won, uoy ees, taht si tav I sllac nieb a dneirf, deedni, nev uoy si ni deen. Nov rehto nosaer yv I t'nsah detfarg yletal, si taht eht detsalb yeuh evag ym tnahc dna gum; dna ni esruoc, uoy swonk I ma oot yreel ot evig eht spoc eht egatnavdah revo em. On erom ta tneserp. NHOJ YELLEK. APPENDIX. THE GAMBLER'S FLASH. WORDS FREQUENTLY USED BY GAMBLERS AMONG THEMSELVES, SOMETIMES IN GENERAL CONVERSATION, AND SOMETIMES WHILE AT PLAY. A A GOSS. The card that has won three times in one deal. ANTI-GOSS. The card that has lost three times in one deal. It is sometimes called a "hotel." For instance, a gambler who has been playing, finally gets "broke;" but the love of play which from habit has become a second nature in him, causes him to linger behind to see the luck of others at the table. Being "dead broke," he borrows from a brother gambler money enough to pay his hotel or boarding-house bill. While looking on at the game an anti-goss occurs, and thinking that the fourth time is sure to win, he stakes the money he has borrowed to pay the hotel, boarding-house, or washerwoman's bill, whichever it may be, and he loses. The exclamation among gamblers would then be, "There goes his hotel." ARTIST. One who excels as a gamester. B BANK. Without a party to play against, there can be no faro-playing. The player must play against some body, and that some body is a party of one or more, who hire rooms, and own gambling instruments. The gambling concern is owned by them, and the servants, from the negro at the door who answers to the touch of the bell, to the gentlemanly "picker-up," are in their pay, and act entirely in accordance with their instructions. The capital which the owners invest in this gambling co-partnership is called the "bank," but the amount varies greatly. Some banking concerns are not worth over $100, while others are worth $100,000. It is sometimes easy to break a bank of limited capital, but to make bankrupt the other is almost an impossibility. The necessity of a large capital is apparent. If four or six parties seated at the table should have $50 each on the table, and four of the six should win and the other two lose, then the bank in five minutes would be $1000 the loser. The bank must be always prepared to lose a thousand or two of an evening, they knowing well enough that it will all come back to them before the game closes. BANKER. The man who puts the money up to be played for. The owner of the bank. BETTER. A party who enters a gambling-saloon, takes his seat at the table, and commences to play, is a better. BETTING ON TIME. This frequently occurs when the character of a party is such that he can be trusted to pay the money he borrows or the debts he incurs. If his character is good in this respect, then he will be permitted to play after he is "broke," if it occurs that he should be the loser when he rises from the table. This is betting on time. The same thing is done in Wall street every day by speculating brokers. In Wall street gambling there are the "bulls" and the "bears," the object of the one being to raise stock above its actual value and then dispose of it, while the other party depresses it below its value and then purchases it. Nothing of this sort, however, occurs among the professional gamblers, who locate in Broadway and some of the down-town streets running from it. C CALLING THE TURN. When there is one turn, say 4, 6, and 8, and the player calls 4, 8, the caller loses; but if on the other hand it should be the cards he calls, then he wins, and is paid four to one. When a man calls both, he wins and loses on the same turn. In the last turn the player can win three ways. He can copper, call, and play the winning card. He can double the limit of the game, which is the privilege of the player on the last turn. CAPPER. A man who sets at the table and plays, but neither wins nor loses. He is there only for the purpose of swelling the number of players, so that the game won't hurry through too quickly, thus giving the actual player proper time to consider the game and study the moves he should make. CAPPER. A man in the employ of the bank, who pretends to be playing against it, and winning large amounts. Some gambling-houses in New-York keep two sets of cappers all the time; one set goes on at ten in the morning and retires at six in the evening, when the night-set comes on. Thus the game is continually going on; no matter when a man entered, he finds the game in full blast, and there never is any necessity to start it because of a fresh arrival. Professional gamblers drop to cappers very quickly. Cappers usually want to make too big bets--that is, make too heavy bets. As a general thing they want to bet with the red checks, which represent $5, putting down ten or twenty at a time. CASHING. This is getting the money from the bank for the checks or chips, if the player has any left on hand when he stops playing. CAT HOPP. Is when there is one turn left in the box of the same denomination. For instance, two jacks and a five; or three cards in the box, and two of a similar count. CHANGING IN. Handing in your money for the chips. CHIPS or CHECKS. The chips or checks are round fancy pieces of ivory of the size of a half dollar, and a trifle thicker. These represent money, and are received from the dealer to play with in exchange for money. They are much easier to handle, and the dealer can see at a glance how much money is bet on a card. The color of the chips indicate the value they represent. There are three colors, namely, white, red and blue. White chips represent twenty-five cents, or one dollar, according to the house. Red chips represent five times the value of the white chips. Blue chips represent $25, $50, and $100. A hundred dollar chip is the highest "fish", as the gambler calls it. CHOPPING. A card which commences to win and lose alternately, is called chopping, and to commence to lose and win alternately, is anti-chopping. COLD DECK. This is generally done in short cards, or short games. A pack of cards is shuffled, and just as they are about to be dealt out, another pack is substituted. This is sometimes done by faro-players. The dealer having shuffled the cards, or having got another party to do it, drops the cards at his feet, and lifts the packed cards from a handkerchief on his lap. He calls on Sambo, the darkey waiter, to lift a check at his feet, and thus the evidence of his guilt is carried off unobserved. When cleverly done, the trick can not be discovered. One gambler often plays this trick on another, and hence it derives the expressive name of "cold deck." COPPER. A card can be played to win or lose, at the option of the player. If he wishes to play any particular card to lose, he places a penny on top of the money he stakes. This signifies that he plays it to lose; hence it is called coppering. CRAPS or PROPS. A game peculiar to Boston. Sometimes it is played with shells, and sometimes with coffee-beans, but more generally the former, as they can be loaded. If four shells are not at hand, four coffee-beans answer the same purpose. It is a substitute for the dice. Thousands of dollars have been lost on this game, but as it has not received the same condemnation from the moral portion of the community that dice has, Bostonians patronize it. There is no other reason why that city alone should patronize it. The game is so childish, that it is ten times more dangerous than any other, and gamblers have no trouble in "roping in" men to play at it, who would faint with horror at the sight of a pack of cards. CUE. Is a calculation which confirmed gamblers are guided altogether by in playing. They know that after three cards of one denomination have gone out, they can not be split. CUE-BOX. The cue-box is an exact representation of the lay-out of the cards on the table. The player, by looking at the cue-box, can instantly see what cards have been drawn from the box, thus relieving him of the trouble of keeping the run of the cards in his head. For instance if four jacks had been drawn from the box, and a player should place his money on the jack, they being all drawn, he could not win or lose. CUE-KEEPER. The man who keeps the cues or marks, so that a player knows by looking at it, which card is in and which is out. D DEALER. The party who deals out the cards, receiving generally for his services from ten to twenty per cent of the profits of the game from the banker. DOUBLE CARD. Two cards of the same denomination. E EVEN. The player who trys to make up what he has lost. Having lost $50, he stakes another $50, perhaps his last, for the purpose of getting back what he had lost, to be even with the bank, or get broke in the attempt. F FLAT. One who has no knowledge, or an imperfect knowledge, of gambling. No matter how much a man may know of all the sciences in the world, if he is ignorant of gambling, and should enter a gambling-room, the players would smile and say, "There's a flat," a man who did not know any thing. G GAFF. The gaff is a ring worn on the fore-finger of the dealer. It has a sharp point on the inner side, and the gambler, when dealing from a two-card box, can deal out the card he chooses; some, however, are smart enough to do this trick without the gaff. It is now out of date, and the only city in which it is now in use, is Baltimore. The gaff has been the initiative idea of tricks of this character, and many improvements, of which it is the foundation, have been discovered by sharpers. H HOCK. The last card in the box. Among thieves a man is in hock when he is in prison; but when one gambler is caught by another, smarter than himself, and is beat, then he is in hock. Men are only caught, or put in hock, on the race-tracks, or on the steamboats down South. In a hock-game, if a man hits a card, he is obliged to let his money lie until it either wins or loses. Of course there are nine hundred and ninety-nine chances against the player, and the oldest man living never yet saw him win, and thus he is caught in hock. I ITEMS. Items derives his name from looking at a party's hand, and conveying to the opposition player what it contains by signs. This is Item's occupation. A looking-glass is sometimes used, sometimes signs which mutes would only understand, and sometimes the signs are agreed upon and known only to the parties interested. L LAMAS. High chips or checks representing $25, $50, and $100. There are no $1000 lamas, for the simple reason that with $100 chips any amount of money can be laid on the table. LAY-OUT. The "lay-out" is composed of all the cards in a suit, commencing at the ace and ending at the king. These cards are posted upon a piece of velvet, which can be spread upon the table whenever the dealer chooses to open the game. When play has commenced, each player places his stake upon any card he may choose, and as the cards are drawn from the box, his bet is determined. LEAVING OUT. When a dispute arises, a referee of outsiders or lookers-on, is appointed, to whom the difficulty is referred, and whose decision among professional men is decisive. LITTLE FIGURE. Ace, deuce, and tray. LOOK-OUT. The look-out is the man who is supposed to keep every thing straight, and see that no mistake is made, and that the dealer does not neglect to lift any money that he has won. M MARKER. Marking is frequently done in playing the game of faro. It is something put down on the card, a pencil, a knife, or any thing, to represent any amount of money the player pleases. He says: I bet $5, $10, $50, or $100, as it suits him and his finances. This saves him from delaying the game by going through his pockets for the exact money he wants. When the deal is out, he settles. N NUDGE. This is not often practised at the game of faro; it is applicable, as its name implies, to cribbage and similar games. The office of a nudger is to touch an associate with his feet. These touchings are signs, which are denominated nudging. P PALMING. Concealing cards in the palm of the hands. PARLIEU. Is to allow one's money to lie on the table and double. For instance, the player puts $5 on the table, and it wins; instead of lifting it, he lets the original sum lie--that is called a parlieu. PICKER-UP. We frequently read of country-men being "roped" into gambling-houses, but this occurs from the ignorance of the reporters, who know nothing of the language used by gamblers and sportsmen. Gamblers of the higher grade in New-York, never use the word "roper-in." It is usually confidence-men, ball-players, pocket book droppers, and others attached to that fraternity. The roper-in takes a man over to Brooklyn or New-Jersey, and is an actor in the swindle; the picker-up takes his man to a gambling-saloon, and there leaves him to be enchanted, enchained, and allured by what he sees. Sometimes he only gives the man he has picked up his card, which will admit him to a gaming-house, where he can play a card of another description. The roper-in and the picker-up therefore should not be confounded. The picker-up is always a gentleman, in manners, taste, dress, and appearance, and sometimes has the superficial knowledge of a scholar. He is thoroughly informed on all the topics of the day. He has seen New-Orleans, knows all about it, and can talk of the gallant defense made there from behind the cotton-bales. He knows all about the evil results arising out of the agitation of the slavery question. He loves Boston and New-England, for it was there he was born and spent his earliest and his happiest days; it was the cradle and the birth-place of liberty, and the world looked with unreserved delight upon the efforts which the men of the East put forth in the cause of freedom; he has spent many happy years in the far West, its vast prairies, its wide-spread, majestic forests, and mighty rivers, and he can not help warming up when he reverts to these themes, which moved the hearts of philosophers, poets, and statesmen. This is the picker-up. He first sees the man's name on the hotel-register, and where he is from. He then sees him out, studies his character, and ascertains his means and the object of his visit to the city; and the picker-up, if smart, reads his victim phrenologically without touching his head. Every man has some weak point which can be played upon, and the duty of the picker-up is to discover it. It does not take him long generally to get a stranger to visit a gambling-hell. Very many of the servants of hotels are in the pay of pickers-up--the duty of the servant being to get information concerning guests, which his employer can use. PIKER. Is a man who plays very small amounts. Plays a quarter, wins, pockets the winnings, and keeps at quarters; and never, if he can help it, bets on his winnings. PLAYING ON VELVET. Playing on the money that has been won from the bank. PRESS. When a man wins a bet, and instead of lifting and pocketing the winnings, he adds to the original stake and winnings, it becomes a press. PRIVATE GAME. So called because the flat is led to suppose that no professional gamblers are admitted, and thus he is the more easily duped. PUBLIC GAME. A game where any body can be admitted. R REPEATER. For instance, when a card wins or loses at one deal, and the same thing occurs the next deal, it is a repeater. ROUNDER. One who hangs around faro-banks, but does not play. In other words, a loafer, a man who travels on his shape, and is supported by a woman, but does not receive enough money to enable him to play faro. Gamblers call such men rounders, outsiders, loafers. RUSSER. A big player. S SHOE-STRING. When a man bets a small amount and runs it up to a large amount, it is called a shoe-string. SHORT CARDS. By some called short game. A game of seven-up or cribbage. For instance, "Have you been playing faro to-night?" "No." "What then?" "I have been playing short cards." SKINNING. A sure game, where all who play are sure to lose, except the gamesters. SLEEPER. A bet won by the bank or a better, which has been overlooked and lies on the table without a claimant. SPLIT. When two cards come alike. For instance, if two jacks should come out, the banker takes one half of the money. SQUARE GAME. When cards are dealt fairly, and there is no cheating. STRIPPERS. Cards cut at the sides for the purpose of carrying on a skinning game. STUCK. When a man has lost all his money, and is trying on the last throw to retrieve his loss and he is beat, then he is stuck. SUCKER. A flat; one who can play cards, but does not know all the tricks and traps in gambling. SUMMER GAME. Playing merely for amusement. SUMMER GAME. Playing a game for the benefit of another person with his money. SUPPER CUSTOMERS. Some of the fashionable gambling-houses have free suppers for their customers; this is done to induce the better class of gambling merchants to patronize the house. But there are some men who frequent these houses and take supper, but never play. When such a one is asked if he is going to take a hand in, his usual answer is, "Thank you, sir, I'm a supper customer to night." T TELL-BOX. The tell-box is an improvement on the gaff, and has a fine spring attached to it. The object is to cheat the dealer. The dealer plays with a pack of cards which the player has had a chance to handle, and he rubs the backs of certain of them with sand-paper. The rough card adheres to the smooth one, and the fact that it does not move a hair's breadth in the box enables him to know the card that is covered, and he plays accordingly. He can also play in the same manner with a new pack of cards without sanding them, as certain cards require a greater amount of ink than others. THE POT. The six, seven, and eight. TRICKS. When a player takes the cards from his opponent that counts. If the queen is put down and king follows, which is higher, then the queen is taken. That is a trick. TRICK GAMES. Such games as whist, where tricks count. Z ZODIAC. This word has degenerated into Soda. It means the top card in the box. TECHNICAL WORDS AND PHRASES, USED BY BILLIARD-PLAYERS. ATTITUDE. The position in which the player stands while at the billiard-table, when about to strike the ball. The acquisition of a good attitude is a matter of first importance to the new beginner. It is almost impossible to lay down fixed rules in this particular, as the peculiarities of height and figure would render the rules that would be excellent in one case, totally inapplicable in the other. Perfect ease is the grand _desideratum_; and this is to be acquired by practice, and a close observation of the best players. BANK. When the player makes his own ball hit any of the cushions before striking the object-ball. BILLIARD-SHARP. A class of character not tolerated in respectable saloons. As a general thing, the billiard-sharp is a retired marker, who fancies it is no longer respectable to work for an honest living, but that he is smart enough, and has learned tricks enough at his former business, to enable him to win as much money as he wants from the less experienced amateurs of the game, who figure in his vocabulary as "the flats." He generally frequents those establishments where one or two billiard-tables are made the stall behind which some dishonest occupation is carried on; and here he is at home, and in his glory. He makes himself particularly friendly with any one who will ask him to "take a drink," and in his assumed duties he fills the offices of lounger, runner, talker, player, sponge, shoulder-hitter, and referee. He is also a runner, and sort of travelling blower to second-rate manufacturers of billiard-tables. These men supply him with clothes, to enable him to mingle in respectable society, and allow him an enormous per centage for every billiard-table sold to a stranger through his agency. In addition to this, it is his business to pull down the reputation of such manufacturers as despise and scorn the means by which he earns his dishonest livelihood. As soon as he has made "a hit" in one saloon, he is off to another, and in this way goes the rounds of the city until all the places which harbor him, are, in his own phrase, "played out." Such a man is to be avoided as one of the worst species of sharpers. He has a thousand pretenses under which to borrow money, and will act as if quite offended if refused. The stranger should avoid all such men, and especially any one with whom he is not well acquainted, who should ask him to play for any given sum, "just to give an interest to the game." BOWERY SHOT. When the balls played with and at, are jarred together--a pushing shot. BREAK. The position the balls are left in after the shot. BURST. A term chiefly used at pin-pool, when a player has exceeded the number which is placed as the common limit to the game, and must, therefore, either retire from the game, or take a privilege of another life. CAROM. (French, _Carombolage_.) To hit more than one of the balls on the table with your own. In England this word has been corrupted to "cannon." COUNT. Is the reckoning of the game. Making a count, is to make a stroke which will add some figures to the player's reckoning. DISCOUNT. When one player is so much the superior of another, that he allows all the counts made by his opponent to be deducted from his own reckoning, he is said to "discount" his adversary's gains. In "double" and "treble discounts," twice and thrice the amount of his opponent's gains are deducted from the player's score. In no other game but billiards are such immense odds possible. A man of close observation, temperate habits, steady nerves, and large experience, may give almost any odds to an inferior player, and still have a fair chance of success. DOUBLET or CROSS. When the ball to be pocketed is first made to rebound from the opposite cushion. FOLLOW. When a player's ball rolls on after another ball which it has impelled forward. FORCE. When the player's ball retrogrades after coming in contact with another. FOUL STROKE or SHOT. Any stroke made in violation of the known rules of the game. FULL BALL, QUARTER BALL, HALF BALL, FINE or CUT BALL, OWN or CUE BALL, and OBJECT BALL. The "object ball" is the ball aimed at; the "own or cue ball" is the ball directed toward the "object ball;" the other terms relate to the position in which the object ball is struck. GERMANTOWNER. _See Bowery Shot._ HAZARD. To drive any of the balls into any of the pockets. HAZARD, DOUBLE. When two balls are pocketed with the same stroke. HAZARD, LOSING. When the player's ball is pocketed by his own act. HAZARD, TAKING A. A term used to express that a player is so confident of making a certain hazard, that he will undertake to do it, under penalty of losing, in case he does not succeed, as many lives as he would have gained if successful. The phrase is most frequently employed in two-ball pool. HAZARD, WINNING. When the player pockets either of the red balls, or his adversary's ball. HUG. When any of the balls run close alongside of a particular cushion, they are said to hug it. JAW. When a ball is prevented from dropping into a pocket by the cushions, which extend like jaws on either side. JUMP. When the player forces his ball by a downward stroke to leap up from the table. KILLED or DEAD BALL. When a ball in pool has lost its lives, and its chances are not renewed by privileges, it is said to be killed. KISS. When the ball played with strikes another ball more than once, they are said to kiss; or when two balls, not played with, come in contact. LONE GAME. A game in which one of the parties is an experienced player, and the other a novice--the former having the game in his own hands. MISS. To fail striking any of the balls upon the table. MISS-CUE. When the cue, from any cause, slips off the ball without accomplishing the intended stroke. PLAYING FOR SAFETY. When the player foregoes a possible advantage, in order to leave the balls in such a position that his opponent can make nothing out of them. PLAYING SPOT-BALL. When the player is not limited to the number of times he may pocket the red ball from the spot. PRIVILEGE. When a player loses the lives, or chances, which were given to his ball on its entry into the game, and desires to purchase another chance from the other players, he asks a "privilege." SCRATCH. When a player wins a stroke or count by accident, without deserving it, he is said to have made a scratch. STRINGING FOR THE LEAD. A preliminary arrangement, by which it is determined who shall have the choice of lead and balls. TIMBER LICK. _See Bowery Shot._ BROKERS' TECHNICALITIES IN BRIEF. A BULL is one who buys stocks on speculation, thinking they will rise, so that he can sell at a profit. A BEAR is one who sells stocks on speculation, thinking they will fall, so that he can buy in for less money to fill his contracts. A CORNER is when the bears can not buy or borrow the stock to deliver in fulfillment of their contracts. A DEPOSIT is earnest-money, lodged in the hands of a third party, as a guaranty; "5 up," "10 up," etc., is the language expressive of a deposit. OVERLOADED is when the bulls can not pay for the stocks they have purchased. SHORT is when a person or party sells stocks when they have none, and expect to buy or borrow them in time to deliver. LONG is when a person or party has a plentiful supply of stocks. A FLYER is to buy some stock with a view to selling it in a few days, and either make or lose, as luck will have it. A WASH is a pretended sale, by special agreement between the seller and buyer, for the purpose of getting a quotation reported. A HUNDRED STRETCHES HENCE Oh! where will be the culls of the bing A hundred stretches hence? The bene morts, who sweetly sing, A hundred stretches hence? The autum-cacklers, autum-coves, The jolly blade who wildly roves; And where the buffer, bruiser, blowen, And all the cops and beaks so knowin', A hundred stretches hence? And where the swag, so bleakly pinched, A hundred stretches hence? The thimbles, slang, and danglers filched, A hundred stretches hence? The chips, the fawneys, chatty-feeders, The bugs, the boungs, and well-filled readers; And where the fence and snoozing-ken, With all the prigs and lushing men, A hundred stretches hence? Played out their lay, it will be said A hundred stretches hence, With shovels they were put to bed A hundred stretches since! Some rubbed to whit had napped a winder, And some were scragged and took a blinder, Planted the swag, and lost to sight, We'll bid them, one and all, good night, A hundred stretches hence. TECHNICAL WORDS AND PHRASES IN GENERAL USE BY PUGILISTS. * * * * * ABROAD. Confused; staggered. A GENERAL. Possessed of superior science. BACK-HANDED BLOW. Striking with the back of the clenched fist. BARNEY. A fight that is sold. BEAK. The nose. BEAM-ENDS. Thrown or knocked into a sitting position. BOKO. The nose. BOTTOM. Power of endurance. BOUNCED. Frightened with stories of another's prowess. BREAD-BASKET. The stomach. BUFFER. A pugilist. CHANCERY. When one boxer gets the head of his opponent under his left arm, and holding him by the left wrist, strikes him in the face with his right hand, severely punishing him. CLARET. Blood. CHOPPER. A blow given from above. COLORS. The respective handkerchiefs that each fights under. COMMISSARY. The person who fixes the ropes and stakes. CONK. The nose. CORINTHIAN CANVAS. A term applied to the _propria personæ_ of an English nobleman who is an amateur of pugilism. COUNTER-HITTING. When both parties in a fight strike each other at the same time. CROSS-BUTTOCK. To get an adversary on the hip, and then throw him. CUT OF TIME. Defeated; could not come up to the call. DADDLES. The hands. DOING WORK. Training. DOUBLER. A blow which causes the person struck to bend forward. DUKES. The hands. DUTCH COURAGE. Cowardice; one who drinks liquor to stimulate his courage. ENOUGH. When one of the boxers wishes to discontinue the fight he exclaims, "Enough." FACER. A severe blow struck directly in the face. FEINTING. Making pretense of delivering a blow. FIBBING. Short, quick blows when the parties are close to each other. FIDDLER. A pugilist that depends more upon his activity than upon his bottom. FINICKING FOP. A dandy or empty swell who makes much ado about pugilism, because he thinks it knowing and stylish. FINE FETTLE. In good condition; healthy. FLABBY. The flesh in a soft condition. FLOORER. A knock-down blow. FORKS. The hands. FOSSED. Thrown. FOUL. An unwarrantable interference on the part of a second to frustrate an opponent's designs. FOUL BLOW. A blow given contrary to the accepted rules of the ring; below the belt. GAME. Courageous, unflinching. GAVE IN. Yielded. GLUTTONY. Punishing a man severely, without special regard to the science of pugilism. One who can endure a great amount of punishment, is called a _glutton_. GOB. The mouth. GOOD-WOOLED. A man of unflinching courage. GOT HOME. A telling blow. GROGGY. Not able to stand erect from punishment received. GRUEL. Punishment. GULLET. The throat. HIGH-COLORING. Drawing blood freely. IN DIFFICULTIES. Nearly defeated. IN MOURNING. The eyes blackened and closed up. IN TROUBLE. Almost beaten. IVORIES. Teeth. JOLLYING. Low expressions used by one combatant to the other during the fight, for the purpose of irritating him and diverting his attention. KNOWLEDGE-BOX. The head. LAMPS. The eyes. LEARY. Active; smart. LEVELLER. When one of the contestants is brought completely to the ground. LISTENERS. The ears. MARK. The pit of the stomach. MAZZARD. The mouth. MENTOR. A second in the ring. MILLED. _See Punished._ MILLING COVES. Persons who regularly frequent milling-pannies, for the purpose of exhibiting their skill in boxing. MILLING-PANNIES. Places of resort for pugilists in which sparring exhibitions are given. MITTENS. Boxing-gloves. MITTEN-MILL. A glove fight. MUSH. The mouth. NUT. The head. NUT-CRACKER. A severe blow on the head. OGLES. The eyes. PINS. The legs. PLUCK. Spirit; boldness; courage. POTATO-TRAP. The mouth. PUFFED. Swollen. PUNISHED. Severely bruised or cut in the fight. RALLY. When the fighters close up and strike promiscuously. RANTER. One who makes greater pretension of skill in boxing than he exhibits when engaged in a set-to. RIB-BENDER. A forcible hit in the ribs. RUBY. Blood. SHAKE-UP. A pugilistic encounter. SHIFT. When a boxer purposely falls to save himself from a knock-down blow, he is said to make a _shift_. SLOGGER. A pugilist. SMELLER. The nose. SPARRING GILLS. _See Milling Coves._ STAMINA. Ability to punish and endure punishment. TAKE THE SHINE OUT. To lower the man's self-esteem. THE CROOK. Entwining the legs for a fall. THE SCRATCH. A line drawn in the middle of the ring. THREW DOWN THE GLOVE. Gave a challenge. TIME. The breathing-space which, by the accepted rules of the ring, is confined to a given period. "Coming to time," is coming promptly to the line at the expiration of the time agreed upon. TOLD OUT. Beaten; defeated. UPPER CUT. A terrific blow struck upwards. UPPER CUSTOMER. A term applied to patrons of the ring amongst the upper classes who are not themselves pugilists. UPPER STORY. The head. WHITE FEATHER. Cowardice. WIND UP. The finishing round. ADVERTISEMENT. WILLIAM BRISTOL, whose chant used to be Bristol Bill, wishes to nose his old pals, and the public generally, that he has tied up prigging, and is now squaring it at No. 350 Back Hill, Hatten Garden, where he keeps on hand, for ready cole--tick being no go--upper benjamins, built on a downy plan; slap-up velveeten togs, lined with the same broady; moleskin ditto, any color, lined with the same broady; kerseymere kicksies, any color, built very slap with the artful dodge; stout cord ditto, built in the "Melton Mowbray" style; broad cord ditto, made very saucy; moleskin, all colors, built hanky spanky, with double fakement down the side, and artful buttons at the bottom; stout ditto, built very serious. Out and out fancy sleeve kicksies, cut to drop down on the trotters. Waist benjamins, cut long, with moleskin back and sleeves. Blue cloth ditto, cut slap-up. Mud-pipes, knee-caps, and trotter-cases, built very low. A decent allowance made to Seedy Swells, Tea Kettle Purgers, Head Robbers, and Flunkeys out of Collar. N. B. Gentlemen finding their own Broady, can be accommodated. * * * * * WILLIAM BRISTOL, formerly known as Bristol Bill, wishes to inform his old friends, and the public generally, that he has given up stealing, and is now getting his living honestly, at 350 Back Hill, Hatten Garden, where he keeps on hand, for ready money, overcoats of a superior style and pattern; superior velveteen coats, lined with the same material; moleskin, any color, lined with the same stuff; kerseymere knee-breeches, any color, made very fashionable, with the yellow neckhandkerchief included; cord ditto, made in the "Melton Mowbray" style; broad cord ditto, made the top of the fashion; moleskins, of all colors, made in the latest fashion, with double stripes down the side, and buttons at the bottom; stout ditto, very strongly made. Waistcoats, cut long-waisted, with moleskin back and sleeves. 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28569	----	THE INDUSTRIAL READERS _Book III_ MAKERS OF MANY THINGS BY EVA MARCH TAPPAN, PH.D. _Author of "England's Story," "American Hero Stories," "Old World Hero Stories," "Story of the Greek People," "Story of the Roman People," etc. Editor of "The Children's Hour."_ [Illustration] HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO COPYRIGHT, 1916, BY EVA MARCH TAPPAN ALL RIGHTS RESERVED The Riverside Press CAMBRIDGE . MASSACHUSETTS U . S . A PREFACE The four books of this series have been written not merely to provide agreeable reading matter for children, but to give them information. When a child can look at a steel pen not simply as an article furnished by the city for his use, but rather as the result of many interesting processes, he has made a distinct growth in intelligence. When he has begun to apprehend the fruitfulness of the earth, both above ground and below, and the best way in which its products may be utilized and carried to the places where they are needed, he has not only acquired a knowledge of many kinds of industrial life which may help him to choose his life-work wisely from among them, but he has learned the dependence of one person upon other persons, of one part of the world upon other parts, and the necessity of peaceful intercourse. Best of all, he has learned to see. Wordsworth's familiar lines say of a man whose eyes had not been opened,-- "A primrose by a river's brim A yellow primrose was to him, And it was nothing more." These books are planned to show the children that there is "something more"; to broaden their horizon; to reveal to them what invention has accomplished and what wide room for invention still remains; to teach them that reward comes to the man who improves his output beyond the task of the moment; and that success is waiting, not for him who works because he must, but for him who works because he may. Acknowledgment is due to the Diamond Match Company, Hood Rubber Company, S. D. Warren Paper Company, The Riverside Press, E. Faber, C. Howard Hunt Pen Company, Waltham Watch Company, Mark Cross Company, I. Prouty & Company, Cheney Brothers, and others, whose advice and criticism have been of most valuable aid in the preparation of this volume. EVA MARCH TAPPAN. CONTENTS I. THE LITTLE FRICTION MATCH 1 II. ABOUT INDIA RUBBER 6 III. "KID" GLOVES 16 IV. HOW RAGS AND TREES BECOME PAPER 25 V. HOW BOOKS ARE MADE 36 VI. FROM GOOSE QUILLS TO FOUNTAIN PENS AND LEAD PENCILS 46 VII. THE DISHES ON OUR TABLES 56 VIII. HOW THE WHEELS OF A WATCH GO AROUND 64 IX. THE MAKING OF SHOES 73 X. IN THE COTTON MILL 82 XI. SILKWORMS AND THEIR WORK 92 THE INDUSTRIAL READERS BOOK III MAKERS OF MANY THINGS I THE LITTLE FRICTION MATCH I remember being once upon a time ten miles from a store and one mile from a neighbor; the fire had gone out in the night, and the last match failed to blaze. We had no flint and steel. We were neither Indians nor Boy Scouts, and we did not know how to make a fire by twirling a stick. There was nothing to do but to trudge off through the snow to the neighbor a mile away and beg some matches. Then was the time when we appreciated the little match and thought with profound respect of the men who invented and perfected it. It is a long way from the safe and reliable match of to-day back to the splinters that were soaked in chemicals and sold together with little bottles of sulphuric acid. The splinter was expected to blaze when dipped into the acid. Sometimes it did blaze, and sometimes it did not; but it was reasonably certain how the acid would behave, for it would always sputter and do its best to spoil some one's clothes. Nevertheless, even such matches as these were regarded as a wonderful convenience, and were sold at five dollars a hundred. With the next kind of match that appeared, a piece of folded sandpaper was sold, and the buyer was told to pinch it hard and draw the match through the fold. These matches were amazingly cheap--eighty-four of them for only twenty-five cents! There have been all sorts of odd matches. One kind actually had a tiny glass ball at the end full of sulphuric acid. To light this, you had to pinch the ball and the acid that was thus let out acted upon the other chemicals on the match and kindled it--or was expected to kindle it, which was not always the same thing. Making matches is a big business, even if one hundred of them are sold for a cent. It is estimated that on an average each person uses seven matches every day. To provide so many would require some seven hundred million matches a day in this country alone. It seems like a very simple matter to cut a splinter of wood, dip it into some chemicals, and pack it into a box for sale; and it would be simple if it were all done by hand, but the matches would also be irregular and extremely expensive. The way to make anything cheap and uniform is to manufacture it by machinery. [Illustration: THE ENDLESS MATCH MACHINE The match splints are set in tiny holes like pins in a pincushion, and the belt revolves, passing their heads through various chemicals.] The first step in making matches is to select some white-pine plank of good quality and cut it into blocks of the proper size. These are fed into a machine which sends sharp dies through them and thus cuts the match splints. Over the splint cutter a carrier chain is continuously moving, and into holes in this chain the ends of the match splints are forced at the rate of ten or twelve thousand a minute. The splints remain in the chain for about an hour, and during this hour all sorts of things happen to them. First, they are dipped into hot paraffin wax, because this will light even more easily than wood. As soon as the wax is dry, the industrious chain carries them over a dipping-roll covered with a layer consisting partly of glue and rosin. Currents of air now play upon the splint, and in about ten minutes the glue and rosin on one end of it have hardened into a hard bulb. It is not a match yet by any means, for scratching it would not make it light. The phosphorus which is to make it into a match is on another dipping-roll. This is sesqui-sulphide of phosphorus. The common yellow phosphorus is poisonous, and workmen in match factories where it was used were in danger of suffering from a terrible disease of the jaw bone. At length it was discovered that sesqui-sulphide of phosphorus would make just as good matches and was harmless. Our largest match company held the patent giving them the exclusive right to certain processes by which the sesqui-sulphide was made; and this patent they generously gave up to the people of the United States. After the splints have been dipped into the preparation of phosphorus, they are carried about on the chain vertically, horizontally, on the outside of some wheels and the inside of others, and through currents of air. Then they are turned over to a chain divided into sections which carries them to a packing-machine. This machine packs them into boxes, a certain number in each box, and they are slid down to girls who make the boxes into packages. These are put into wooden containers and are ready for sale. As in most manufactures, these processes must be carried on with great care and exactness. The wood must be carefully selected and of straight grain, the dipping-rolls must be kept covered with a fresh supply of composition, and its depth must be always uniform. Even the currents of air in which the splints are dried must be just warm enough to dry them and just moist enough not to dry them too rapidly. The old sulphur matches made in "card and block" can no longer be bought in this country; the safety match has taken their place. One kind of safety match has the phosphorus on the box and the other igniting substances on the match, so that the match will not light unless it is scratched on the box; but this kind has never been a favorite in the United States. The second kind, the one generally used, may be struck anywhere, but these matches are safe because even stepping upon one will not light it; it must be scratched. A match is a little thing, but nothing else can do its work. II ABOUT INDIA RUBBER When you pick a dandelion or a milkweed, a white sticky "milk" oozes out; and this looks just like the juice of the various sorts of trees, shrubs, and vines from which India rubber is made. The "rubber plant" which has been such a favorite in houses is one of these; in India it becomes a large tree which has the peculiar habit of dropping down from its branches "bush-ropes," as they are called. These take root and become stout trunks. There is literally a "rubber belt" around the world, for nearly all rubber comes from the countries lying between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. More than half of all that is brought to market is produced in the valley of the Amazon River; and some of this "Para rubber," as it is called, from the seaport whence it is shipped, is the best in the world. [Illustration: _Courtesy General Rubber Co._ TAPPING RUBBER TREES IN SUMATRA The plantation on which this photograph was taken has 45,000 acres of planted rubber trees, and employs 14,000 coolies.] The juice or latex flows best about sunrise, and so the natives who collect it have to be early risers. They make little cuts in the bark of the tree, stick on with a bit of clay a tiny cup underneath each cut, and move on through the forest to the next tree. Sometimes they make narrow V-shaped cuts in the bark, one above another, but all coming into a perpendicular channel leading to the foot of the tree. Later in the day the collectors empty the cups into great jugs and carry them to the camp. When the rubber juice reaches the camp, it is poured into a great bowl. The men build a fire of sticks, and always add a great many palm nuts, which are oily and make a good deal of smoke. Over the fire they place an earthen jar shaped like a cone, but without top or bottom. Now work begins. It is fortunate that it can be done in the open air, and that the man can sit on the windward side, for the smoke rises through the smaller hole thick and black and suffocating. The man takes a stick shaped like a paddle, dips it into the bowl, and holds it in the smoke and heat, turning it rapidly over and over till the water is nearly dried out of the rubber and it is no longer milky, but dark-colored. Then he dips this paddle in again and again. It grows heavier at each dipping, but he keeps on till he has five or six pounds of rubber. With a wet knife he cuts this off, making what are called "biscuits." After many years of this sort of work, some one found that by resting one end of a pole in a crotched stick and holding the other in his hand, a man could make a much larger biscuit. For a long time people thought that rubber trees could not be cultivated. One difficulty in taking them away from their original home to plant is that the seeds are so rich in oil as to become rancid unusually soon. At length, however, a consignment of them was packed in openwork baskets between layers of dried wild banana leaves and slung up on deck in openwork crates so as to have plenty of air. By this means seven thousand healthy little plants were soon growing in England, and from there were carried to Ceylon and the East. On the rubber plantations collecting juice from trees standing near together and in open ground is an altogether different matter from cutting a narrow path and forcing one's way through a South American or African jungle. The bark of the trees is cut in herringbone fashion. The collector simply slices a thin piece off the bark and at once milk begins to ooze out. On the great plantations of the East the rubber is collected chiefly by Chinese and Indians. They are carefully taught just how to tap the trees. They begin four or five feet from the ground, and work down, cutting the thinnest possible slice at each visit. When they have almost reached the ground, they begin on the opposite side of the trunk; and by the time they have reached the ground on that side the bark on the first side has renewed itself. The latex is strained and mixed with some acid, usually acetic, in order to coagulate or thicken it. It is then run between rollers, hung in a drying house, and generally in a smokehouse. The rubber arrives at the factory in bales or cases. First of all it must be thoroughly washed in order to get rid of sand or bits of leaves and wood. A machine called a "washer" does this work. It forces the rubber between grooved rolls which break it up; and as this is done under a spray of water, the rubber is much cleaner when it comes out. Another machine makes it still cleaner and forms it into long sheets about two feet wide. Having thoroughly wet the rubber, the next step is to dry it thoroughly. The old way was to hang it up for several weeks. The new way is to cut it into strips, lay it upon steel trays, and place it in a vacuum dryer. This is kept hot, and whatever moisture is in the rubber is either evaporated or sucked out by a vacuum pump. It now passes through another machine much like the washer, and is formed into sheets. The square threads from which elastic webbing is made may be cut from these sheets, though sometimes the sheet is wound on an iron drum, vulcanized by being put into hot water, lightly varnished with shellac to stiffen it, then wound on a wooden cylinder, and cut into square threads. Boiling these in caustic soda removes the shellac. To make round threads, softened rubber is forced through a die. Rubber bands are made by cementing a sheet of rubber into a tube and then cutting them off at whatever width may be desired. Toy balloons are made of such rubber. Two pieces are stamped out and joined by a particularly noisy machine, and then the balloon is blown out by compressed air. Early in the nineteenth century it was known that rubber would keep out water, but it was sticky and unmanageable. After a while a Scotch chemist named McIntosh succeeded in dissolving rubber in naphtha and spreading it between two thicknesses of cloth. That is why his name is given to raincoats made in this way. Overshoes, too, were made of pure rubber poured over clay lasts which were broken after the rubber had dried. These overshoes were waterproof,--there was no denying that; but they were heavy and clumsy and shapeless. When they were taken off, they did not stand up, but promptly fell over. In hot weather they became so sticky that they had to be kept in the cellar; and in winter they became stiff and inelastic, but they never wore out. How to get rid of the undesirable qualities and not lose the desirable ones was the question. It was found out that if sulphur was mixed with rubber, the disagreeable stickiness would vanish; but the rubbers continued to melt and to freeze by turns until an American named Charles Goodyear discovered that if rubber mixed with sulphur was exposed to about 300° F. of heat for a number of hours, the rubber would remain elastic, but would not be sticky and would no longer be affected by heat or cold. This is why you often see the name Goodyear on the bottom of rubbers. Rubber overshoes were improved at once. As they now are made, the rubber is mixed with sulphur, whiting, litharge, and several other substances. An honest firm will add only those materials that will be of service in making the rubber more easy to mould or will improve it in some way. Unfortunately, substances are often added, not for this purpose, but to increase the weight and apparent value of the articles. That is why some rubber overshoes, for instance, wear out so much faster than others. To make an overshoe, the rubber is run through rollers and formed into thick sheets for soles and thinner sheets for uppers. Another machine coats with gum the cloth used for lining and stays. Rubber and rubber-lined cloth go to the cutting-room, where all the different parts of the shoes are cut out. They are then put together and varnished. While still on the last, they are dipped into a tank of varnish and vulcanized--a very simple matter now that Goodyear has shown us how, for they are merely left in large, thoroughly heated ovens for eight or ten hours. The rubber shoe or boot is now elastic, strong, waterproof, ready for any temperature, and so firmly cemented together with rubber cement that it is practically all in one piece. During the last few years there have been frequent calls from various charities for old rubber overshoes, pieces of rubber hose, etc. These are of considerable value in rubber manufacturing. They are run through a machine which tears them to shreds, then through a sort of fanning-mill which blows away the bits of lining. Tiny pieces of iron may be present from nails or rivets; but these are easily removed by magnets. This "reclaimed" rubber is powdered and mixed with the new, and for some purposes the mixture answers very well. Imitation rubber has been made by heating oil of linseed, hemp, maize, etc., with sulphur; but no substitute for rubber is a success for all uses. [Illustration: _Courtesy U. S. Tire Co._ HOW RUBBER GOES THROUGH THE FACTORY Splitting Para biscuits, mixing the rubber, rolling the rubber fabric on cylinders, and building tires on the tire machines.] There are many little conveniences made of rubber which we should greatly miss, such as the little tips put into pencil ends for erasing pencil marks. These are made by filling a mould with rubber. Rubber corks are made in much the same manner. Tips for the legs of chairs are made in a two-piece mould larger at the bottom than at the top, and with a plunger that nearly fits the small end. Often on chair tips and in the cup-shaped eraser that goes over the ends of some pencils you can see the "fin," as the glassworkers call it, where the two pieces of the mould did not exactly fit. Rubber cannot be melted and cast in moulds like iron, but it can be gently heated and softened, and then pressed into a mould. Rubber stamps are made in this way. The making of rubber heels and soles is now a large industry; hose for watering and for vacuum and Westinghouse brakes is made in increasing quantities. The making of rubber tires for automobiles and carriages is an important industry. The enormous and increasing use of electricity requires much use of rubber as an insulator. Rubber gloves will protect an electrical workman from shock and a surgeon from infection. Rubber beds and cushions filled with air are a great comfort in illness. Rubber has great and important uses; but we should perhaps miss quite as much the little comforts and conveniences which it has made possible. Rubber and gutta-percha are not the same substance by any means. Both of them are made of the milky juice of trees, but of entirely different trees. The gutta-percha milk is collected in an absurdly wasteful manner, namely, by cutting down the trees and scraping up the juice. When this juice reaches the market, it is in large reddish lumps which look like cork and smell like cheese. It has to be cleaned, passed through a machine that tears it into bits, then between rollers before it is ready to be manufactured. It is not elastic like rubber; it may be stretched; but it will not snap back again as rubber does. It is a remarkably good nonconductor of electricity, and therefore it has been generally used to protect ocean cables, though recently rubber has been taking its place. It makes particularly excellent casts, for when it is warm it is not sticky, but softens so perfectly that it will show the tiniest indentation of a mould. It is the best kind of splint for a broken bone. If a boy breaks his arm, a surgeon can put a piece of gutta-percha into hot water, set the bone, bind on the softened gutta-percha for a splint, and in a few minutes it will be moulded to the exact shape of the arm, but so stiff as to keep the bone in place. Another good service which gutta-percha renders to the physician results from its willingness to dissolve in chloroform. If the skin is torn off, leaving a raw surface, this dissolved gutta-percha can be poured over it, and soon it is protected by an artificial skin which keeps the air from the raw flesh and gives the real skin an opportunity to grow again. III "KID" GLOVES There is an old proverb which says, "For a good glove, Spain must dress the leather, France must cut it, and England must sew it." Many pairs of most excellent gloves have never seen any one of these countries, but the moral of the proverb remains, namely, that it takes considerable work and care to make a really good glove. The first gloves made in the United States were of thick buckskin, for there was much heavy work to be done in the forest and on the land. The skin was tanned in Indian fashion, by rubbing into the flesh side the brains of the deer--though how the Indians ever thought of using them is a mystery. Later, the white folk tried to tan with pigs' brains; but however valuable the brains of a pig may be to himself, they do not contain the properties of soda ash which made those of the deer useful for this purpose. [Illustration: CUTTING HIDES INTO GLOVES The hides are kept in racks, and before cutting are stretched by hand. Then the steel die cuts out the shape of the glove. Notice the curiously shaped cut for the thumb.] Years ago, when a man set out to manufacture gloves, usually only a few dozen pairs, he cut out a pattern from a shingle or a piece of pasteboard, laid it upon a skin, marked around it, and cut it out with shears. Pencils were not common, but the glovemaker was fully equal to making his own. He melted some lead, ran it into a crack in the kitchen floor--and cracks were plentiful--and then used this "plummet," as it was called, for a marker. After cutting the large piece for the front and back of the glove, he cut out from the scraps remaining the "fourchettes," or _forks_; that is, the narrow strips that make the sides of the fingers. Smaller scraps were put in to welt the seams; and all this went off in great bundles to farmhouses to be sewed by the farmers' wives and daughters for the earning of pin-money. If the gloves were to be the most genteel members of the buckskin race, there was added to the bundle a skein of silk, with which a slender vine was to be worked on the back of the hand. The sewing was done with a needle three-sided at the point, and a stout waxed thread was used. A needle of this sort went in more easily than a round one, but even then it was rather wearisome to push it through three thicknesses of stout buckskin. Moreover, if the sewer happened to take hold of the needle too near the point, the sharp edges were likely to make little cuts in her fingers. After a while sewing machines were invented, and factories were built, and now in a single county of the State of New York many thousand people are at work making various kinds of leather coverings for their own hands and those of other folk. Better methods of tanning have been discovered, and many sorts of leather are now used, especially for the heavier gloves. Deer are not so common as they used to be, and a "buckskin" glove is quite likely to have been made of the hide of a cow or a horse. "Kid" generally comes from the body of a sheep instead of that of a young goat. Our best real kidskin comes from a certain part of France, where the climate seems to be just suited to the young kids, there is plenty of the food that they like, and, what is fully as important, they receive the best of care. It is said that to produce the very finest kidskin, the kids are fed on nothing but milk, are treated with the utmost gentleness, and are kept in coops or pens carefully made so that there shall be nothing to scratch their tender skins. Glovemakers are always on the lookout for new kinds of material, and when, not many years ago, there came from Arabia with a shipment of Mocha coffee two bales of an unknown sort of skin, they were eager to try it. It tanned well and made a glove that has been a favorite from the first. The skin was found to come from a sheep living in Arabia, Abyssinia, and near the headwaters of the river Nile. It was named Mocha from the coffee with which it came, and Mocha it has been ever since. The Suède glove has a surface much like that of the Mocha. Its name came from "Swede," because the Swedes were the first to use the skin with the outside in. Most of our thinner "kid" gloves are made of lambskin; but dressing the skins is now done so skillfully in this country that "homemade" gloves are in many respects fully as good as the imported; indeed, some judges declare that in shape and stitching certain grades are better. When sheepskins and lambskins come to market from a distance, they are salted. They have to be soaked in water, all bits of flesh scraped off, and the hair removed, generally by the use of lime. After another washing, they are put into alum and salt for a few minutes; and after washing this off, they are dried, stretched, and then are ready for the softening. Nothing has been found that will soften the skins so perfectly as a mixture of flour, salt, and the yolk of eggs--"custard," as the workmen call it. The custard and the skins are tumbled together into a great iron drum which revolves till the custard has been absorbed and the skins are soft and yielding. Now they are stretched one way and another, and wet so thoroughly that they lose all the alum and salt that may be left and also much of the custard. Now comes dyeing. The skin is laid upon a table, smooth side up, and brushed over several times with the coloring matter; very lightly, however, for if the coloring goes through the leather, the hands of the customers may be stained and they will buy no more gloves of that make. The skins are now moistened and rolled and left for several weeks to season. When they are unrolled, the whole skin is soft and pliable. It is thick, however, and no one who is not an expert can thin it properly. The process is called "mooning" because the knife used is shaped like a crescent moon. It is flat, its center is cut out, and the outer edge is sharpened. Over the inner curve is a handle. The skin is hung on a pole, and the expert workman draws the mooning knife down it until any bit of dried flesh remaining has been removed, and the skin is of the same thickness, or, rather, thinness throughout. All this slow, careful work is needed to prepare the skin for cutting out the glove; and now it goes to the cutter. There is no longer any cutting out of gloves with shears and pasteboard patterns, but there is a quick way and a slow way nevertheless. The man who cuts in the quick way, the "block-cutter," as he is called, spreads out the skin on a big block made by bolting together planks of wood with the grain running up and down. He places a die in the shape of the glove upon the leather, gives one blow with a heavy maul, and the glove is cut out. This answers very well for the cheaper and coarser gloves, but to cut fine gloves is quite a different matter. This needs skill, and it is said that no man can do good "table-cutting" who has not had at least three years' experience; and even then he may not be able to do really first-class work. He dampens the skin, stretches it first one way and then the other, and examines it closely for flaws or scratches or weak places. He must put on his die in such a way as to get two pairs of ordinary gloves or one pair of "elbow gloves" out of the skin if possible, and yet he must avoid the poor places if there are any. No glove manufacturer can afford to employ an unskilled or careless cutter, for he will waste much more than his wages amount to. There used to be one die for the right hand and another for the left, and it was some time before it occurred to any one that the same die would cut both gloves if only the skin was turned over. [Illustration: CLOSING THE GLOVE When sewing time comes, the glove goes from hand to hand down the workroom, each stitcher doing a certain seam or seams.] [Illustration: WHERE THE GLOVE GETS ITS SHAPE After inspection the glove goes to a row of men who fit it on a steam-heated brass hand, giving it its final shape and finish.] Now comes the sewing. Count the pieces in a glove, and this will give some idea of the work needed to sew them together. Notice that the fourchettes are sewed together on the wrong side, the other seams on the right side, and that the tiny bits of facing and lining are hemmed down by hand. Notice that two of the fingers have only one fourchette, while the others have two fourchettes each. Notice how neatly the ends of the fingers are finished, with never an end of thread left on the right side. The embroidery must be in exactly the right place, and it must be fastened firmly at both ends. This embroidery is not a meaningless fashion, for the lines make the hand look much more slender and of a better shape. Sewing in the thumbs needs special care and skill. There must be no puckering, and the seam must not be so tightly drawn as to leave a red line on the hand when the glove is taken off. No one person does all the sewing on a glove; it must pass through a number of hands, each doing a little. Even after all the care that is given it, a glove is a shapeless thing when it comes from the sewing machines. It is now carried to a room where stands a long table with a rather startling row of brass hands of different sizes stretching up from it. These are heated, the gloves are drawn upon them, and in a moment they have shape and finish, and are ready to be inspected and sold. The glove is so closely associated with the hand and with the person to whom the hand belongs that in olden times it was looked upon as representing him. When, for instance, a fair could not be opened without the presence of some noble, it was enough if he sent his glove to represent him. To throw down one's glove before a man was to challenge him to a combat. At the coronation of Queen Elizabeth, as of many other sovereigns of England, the "Queen's champion," a knight in full armor, rode into the great hall and threw down his glove, crying, "If there be any manner of man that will say and maintain that our sovereign Lady, Queen Elizabeth, is not the rightful and undoubted inheritrix to the imperial crown of this realm of England, I say he lieth like a false traitor, and therefore I cast him my gage." IV HOW RAGS AND TREES BECOME PAPER It was a great day for the children on the farm when the tin peddler came around. He had a high red wagon, fairly bristling with brooms, mop-handles, washtubs, water-pails, and brushes. When he opened his mysterious drawers and caverns, the sunshine flashed upon tin pans, dippers, dustpans, and basins. Put away rather more choicely were wooden-handled knives, two-tined forks, and dishes of glass and china; and sometimes little tin cups painted red or blue and charmingly gilded, or cooky-cutters in the shape of dogs and horses. All these rare and delightful articles he was willing to exchange for rags. Is it any wonder that the thrifty housewife saved her rags with the utmost care, keeping one bag for white clippings and one for colored? These peddlers were the great dependence of the paper mills, for the finest paper is made from linen and cotton rags. When the rags reach the factory, they are carefully sorted. All day long the sorters sit before tables whose tops are covered with coarse wire screens, and from masses of rags they pick out buttons, hooks and eyes, pins, bits of rubber, and anything else that cannot possibly be made into paper. At the same time they sort the rags carefully into different grades, and with a knife shaped like a small sickle fastened upright to the table they cut them into small pieces. Some of the dust falls through the screen; but to remove the rest of it, the cut-up rags are tossed about in a wire drum. Sometimes they are so dusty that when they come out of the drum they weigh only nine tenths as much as when they go in. The dust is out of them, but not the dirt. To remove that, they are now put into great boilers full of steam; and here they cook and turn over, and turn over and cook for hours. Lime and sometimes soda are put with them to cleanse them and remove the coloring material; but when they are poured out, they look anything but clean, for they are of a particularly dirty brown; and the water that is drained away from them looks even more uninteresting. Of course the next step is to wash this dirty brown mass; and for at least four hours it is scrubbed in a machine which beats it and rolls it and chops it and tumbles it about until the wonder is that anything is left of it. All this while, the water has been flowing through it, coming in clean and going out dirty; and at length the mass becomes so light a gray that making white paper of it does not seem quite hopeless. It is now bleached with chloride of lime, and washed till it is of a creamy white color and free from the lime, and then beaten again. If you fold a piece of cheap paper and tear it at the fold, it will tear easily; but if you do the same thing with paper made of linen and cotton, you will find it decidedly tough. Moreover, if you look closely at the torn edge of the latter, you will see the fibers clearly. It is because of the beating that the fibers are so matted together and thus make the paper tough. While the pulp is in the beater, the manufacturer puts in the coloring matter, if he wishes it to be tinted blue or rose or lavender or any other color. No one would guess that this white or creamy or azure liquid had ever been the dirty rags that came into the mill and were sorted on the wire tables. Besides the coloring, a "filler" is usually added at this time, such as kaolin, the fine clay of which china is made. This fills the pores and gives a smoother surface to the finished paper--a good thing if too much is not put in. A little sizing is also added, made of rosin. Save for this sizing, ink would sink into even the finished paper as it does into blotting paper. After this, more water is added to the pulp and it is run into tanks. Now the preparation is completed, and the pulp is pumped to large and complicated machines which undertake to make it into paper. It first flows through screens which are shaken all the while as if they were trembling. This shaking lets the liquid and the finer fibers through, but holds back the little lumps, if any remain after all the beating and straining and cutting that it has had. The pulp flows upon an endless wire screen. Rubber straps at the sides keep it in, but the extra water drops through the meshes. The pulp is flowing onward, and so the tiny fibers would naturally straighten out and flow with it, like sticks in a river; but the wire screen is kept shaking sideways, and this helps the fibers to interlace, and the paper becomes nearly as strong one way as the other. If you hold a sheet of paper up to the light, it will show plainly what is next done to it. Sometimes you can see that it is marked by light parallel lines running across it close together, and crossed by other and stouter lines an inch or two apart. Sometimes the name of the paper or that of the manufacturer is marked in the same way by letters lighter than the rest of the sheet. Sometimes the paper is plain with no markings whatever. This difference is made by what is called the "dandy," a cylinder covered with wire. For the first, or "laid" paper, the small wires run the length of the cylinder and the stouter ones around it. Wherever the wires are, the paper is a little thinner. In some papers this thinness can be seen and felt. For the second kind of paper the design, or "watermark," is formed by wires a little thicker than the rest of the covering. For the third, or "wove" paper, the dandy is covered with plain woven wire like that of the wire cloth; so there are no markings at all. This work can be easily done because at this point the paper is so moist. The paper is now not in sheets, but in a long web like a web of cloth. It passes between felt-covered rollers to press out all the water possible, then over steam-heated cylinders to be dried, finally going between cold iron rollers to be made smooth, and is wound on a reel, trimmed and cut into sheets of whatever size is desired. The finest note papers are not finished in this way, but are partly dried, passed through a vat of thin glue, any excess being squeezed off by rollers, then cut into sheets, and hung up to dry thoroughly at their leisure. Paper made of properly prepared linen and cotton is by far the best, but there are so many new uses for paper that there are not rags enough in the world to make nearly what is needed. There are scores of newspapers and magazines where there used to be one; and as for paper bags and cartons and boxes, there is no limit to their number and variety. A single manufacturer of pens and pencils calls for four thousand different sorts and sizes of boxes. School-children's use of paper instead of slates, the fashion of wrapping Christmas gifts in white tissue, and the invention of the low-priced cameras have increased enormously the amount of paper called for. In the attempt to supply the demand all sorts of materials have been used, such as hemp, old rope, peat, the stems of flax, straw, the Spanish and African esparto grass, and especially wood; but much more paper is made of wood than of all the rest together. Poplar, gum, and chestnut trees, and especially those trees which bear cones, such as the spruce, fir, balsam, and pine are used. There are two methods of manufacturing wood pulp; the mechanical, by grinding up the wood, and the chemical, by treating it chemically. By the mechanical method the wood is pressed against a large grindstone which revolves at a high speed. As fast as the wood is ground off, it is washed away by a current of water, and strained through a shaking sieve and a revolving screen which drives out part of the water by centrifugal force. In a great vat of pulp a drum covered with wire cloth revolves, and on it a thin sheet of pulp settles. Felting, pressed against this sheet, carries it onward through rolls. The sheets are pressed between coarse sacking. Such paper is very poor stuff. In its manufacture the fiber of the wood is so ground up that it has little strength. It is used for cardboard, cartons, and packing-papers. Unfortunately, it is also used for newspapers; and while it is a good thing for some of them to drop to pieces, it is a great loss not to have the others permanent. When we wish to know what people thought about any event fifty years ago, we can look back to the papers of that time; but when people fifty years from now wish to learn what we thought, many of the newspapers will have fallen to pieces long before that time. [Illustration: _Courtesy S. D. Warren Co._ WHERE RAGS BECOME PAPER The vat where the rags cook and turn over, and the big room where the web of finished paper is passed through rollers and cut into a neat pile of trimmed sheets.] There is, however, a method called the "sulphite process," used principally in treating the coniferous woods, by which a much better paper can be made. In all plants there is a substance called "cellulose." This is what gives strength to their stems. The wood is chipped and put into digesters large enough to hold twenty tons, and is steam-cooked together with bisulphite of magnesium or calcium for seven or eight hours. Another method used for cooking such woods as poplar and gum, is to boil the wood in caustic soda, which destroys everything except the cellulose. Wood paper of one kind or another is used for all daily papers and for most books. Whether the best wood paper will last as long as the best rag paper, time only can tell. The Government of the United States tests paper in several ways before buying it. First, a single sheet is weighed; then a ream is put on the scales to see if it weighs four hundred and eighty times as much. This shows whether the paper runs evenly in weight. Many sheets are folded together and measured to see if the thickness is regular. To test its strength, a sheet is clamped over a hole one square inch in area, and liquid is pressed against it from below to see how much it will stand before bursting. Strips of the paper are pulled in a machine to test its breaking strength. A sheet is folded over and over again to see whether holes will appear at the corners of the folds. It is examined under the microscope to see of what kind of fibers it is made and how much loading has been used in its manufacture. To test blotting paper, strips are also put into water to see how high the water will rise on them. Besides writing and wrapping papers and the various kinds of board, there are many sorts which are used for special purposes. India paper, for instance, is light, smooth, and strong, so opaque that printing will not show through it, and so lasting that if it is crumpled, it can be ironed out and be as good as new. This is used for books that are expected to have hard wear but must be of light weight. There are tissue papers, crêpe papers for napkins, and tarred paper to make roofs and even boats water-tight. If tar is brushed on, it may make bubbles which will break afterwards and let water in; but if tar is made a part of the paper itself, it lasts. Paper can easily be waxed or paraffined, and will then keep out air and moisture for some time. Better still, it can be treated with oil and will then make a raincoat that will stand a year's wear, or even, if put on a bamboo frame, make a very good house, as the Japanese found out long ago. Paper coated with powdered gum and tin is used for packing tea and coffee. Transfer or carbon papers so much used in making several copies of an article on the typewriter are made by coating paper with starch, flour, gum, and coloring matter. Paper can be used for shoes and hats, ties, collars, and even for "rubbers." It has been successfully used for sails for light vessels, and is excellent made into light garments for hospital use because it is so cheap that it can be burned after wearing. Wood pulp can be run through fine tubes into water and made so pliable that it can be twisted into cord or spun and woven into "silk." Not only water but also fire can be kept out by paper if it is treated with the proper substances. An object can be covered with a paste of wood pulp, silica, and hemp; and when this is dry, a coat of water-glass will afford considerable protection. There has been some degree of success in making transparent paper films for moving pictures; and if these are coated with water-glass, they will not burn. Paper can be so treated that it will either conduct electricity or become a nonconductor, as may be desired. In Germany, a "sandwich paper" has been made by pressing together four layers--felt, pulp, cotton, pulp--which is cheap and strong and useful for many purposes. When we come to papier maché, there is no end to the kinds of articles that are made of it. The papier maché, or _paper pulped_, is made by kneading old newspapers or wrapping papers with warm water into a pulp. Clay and coloring are added and something of the nature of glue; and it is then put into a mould. Sometimes to make it stronger for large mouldings, bits of canvas or even wire are also used. The best papier maché is made of pure wood cellulose. The beautiful boxes and trays covered with lacquer which the Japanese and Chinese make are formed of this; but it has many much humbler uses than these. Paper screws are employed in ornamental wood work, and if a hole is begun for such a screw, it will twist its way into soft wood as well as steel would do. Barrels of paper reinforced with wire are common. Gear wheels and belt pulleys are made of papier maché, and even the wheels of railroad coaches; at least the body of the wheels is made of it, although the tire, hub, and axle are of cast-steel. Circular saws of pulp are in use which cut thin slices of veneer so smoothly that they can be used without planing. Papier maché is used for water pipes, the bodies of carriages, hencoops, and garages. Indeed, it is quite possible to build a house, shingle it, decorate it with elaborate mouldings and cornices, finish it with panels, wainscoting, imitation tiling, and furnish it with light, comfortable furniture covered with imitation leather, silk, or cloth, and spread on its floors soft, thick carpets or rugs woven in beautiful designs--and all made of wood pulp. Even the window panes could be made of pulp; and if they were not perfectly transparent, they would at least let in a soft, agreeable light, and they would not break. Pails, washtubs, bathtubs, and even dishes of paper can be easily found. There are not only the paper cups provided on railroad trains and the cheap picnic plates and saucers, but some that are really pretty. Ice cream is sometimes served in paper dishes and eaten with paper spoons. Milk bottles are successfully made of paper, with a long strip of some transparent material running up and down the side to show how much--or how little--cream is within. Napkins and tablecloths made of paper thread woven into "cloth" are cheaper than linen and can be washed as easily. Paper towels and dishcloths are already common; but when paper shall fully come to its own, it is quite possible that there will be little washing of dishes. They can be as pretty as any one could wish, but so cheap that after each meal they can be dropped into the fire. Indeed, there are few things in a house, except a stove, that cannot be made of some form of paper,--and perhaps that too will be some day. V HOW BOOKS ARE MADE The first step in making ready to print a manuscript is to find out how many words there are in it, what kind of type to use, how much "leading" or space between the lines there shall be, and what shall be the size of the page. In deciding these questions, considerable thinking has to be done. If the manuscript is a short story by a popular author, it may be printed with wide margins and wide leading in order to make a book of fair size. If it is a lengthy manuscript which will be likely to sell at a moderate but not a high price, it is best to use only as much leading as is necessary to make the line stand out clearly, and to print with a margin not so wide as to increase the expense of the book. The printer prints a sample of the page decided upon, any desired changes are made, and then the making of the book begins. [Illustration: _Courtesy The Riverside Press._ WHERE THIS BOOK WAS SET UP The monotype girl wrote these words on her keyboard, where they made tiny holes in a roll of paper. The roll went to the casting-room where it guided a machine to make the type much as a perforated music-roll guides a piano to play a tune.] The type is kept in a case at which the compositor stands. This case is divided into shallow compartments, each compartment containing a great many e's or m's as the case may be. The "upper case" contains capitals; the "lower case," small letters. Those letters which are used most often are put where the compositor can reach them most readily. He stands before his case with a "composing stick" in his hand. This "stick" is a little iron frame with a slide at the side, so that the line can be made of any length desired. The workman soon learns where each letter is, and even an apprentice can set the type in his stick reasonably rapidly. On one side of every piece of type there is a groove, so that he can tell by touch whether it is right side up or not. He must look out especially to make his right-hand margins regular. You will notice in books that the lines are all of the same length, although they do not contain the same number of letters. The compositor brings this about by arranging his words and spaces skillfully. The spaces must be as nearly as possible of the same length, and yet the line must be properly filled. If a line is too full, he can sometimes place the last syllable on the following line; if it is not full enough, he can borrow a syllable, and he can at least divide his space so evenly that the line will not look as if it were broken in two. Not many years ago all type was set in this manner; but several machines have now been invented which will do this work. In one of the best of them the operator sits before a keyboard much like that of a typewriter. When he presses key _a_, for instance, a mould or matrix of the letter _a_ is set free from a tube of _a_'s, and slides down to its place in the stick. At the end of the line, the matrices forming it are carried in front of a slot where melted type metal from a reservoir meets them. Thus a cast is made of the matrices, and from this cast the printing is done. This machine is called a linotype because it casts a whole line of type at a time. Most book work is done on the monotype machine. When a manuscript goes to the press to be set up in this way, the copy is given to the keyboard operator who sets it up on a machine which looks much like a typewriter. Instead of writing letters, however, the machine punches tiny holes in a strip of paper which is wound on a roll. When the roll is full it goes to the casting room where it is put on another machine containing hot type metal and bronze matrices from which the letters of the words are to be cast. The holes in the paper guide the machine to make the type much as a perforated music roll guides a piano to play a tune. The reason why the machine is called a monotype is that the letters are made one at a time, and _monos_ is the Greek word for _one_. By the linotype and monotype machines type can be set in a "galley," a narrow tray about two feet long, with ledges on three sides. When a convenient number of these galleys have been filled, long slips are printed from them called "galley proofs." These have wide margins, but the print is of the width that the page of the book will be. They are read by the proof-readers, and all such mistakes as the slipping in of a wrong letter, or a broken type, the repetition of a word, or the omission of space between words are corrected. Then the proof goes to the author, who makes any changes in his part of the work which seem to him desirable; and it is also read by some member of the editorial department. If there are many changes to be made, another proof is usually taken and sent to the author. The reason for this extreme carefulness is that it costs much less to make changes in the galley proof than in the "page proof." This latter is made by dividing the galley into pages, leaving space for the beginnings of chapters and for pictures, if any are to appear on the printed pages, and setting up the numbers of the pages and their running titles. Page proof also goes to proof-readers and to the author. Corrections on page proof are more expensive than on galley proof because adding or striking out even a few words may make it necessary to change the arrangement on every page to the end of the chapter. Years ago all books were printed directly from the type; and some are still printed so. After printing, the letters were returned to their compartments. If a second edition was called for, the type had to be set again. Now, however, books are generally printed not from type, but from a copper model of the type. To make this, an impression of the page of type is made in wax and covered with graphite, which will conduct electricity. These moulds are hung in a bath of copper sulphate, where there are also large plates of copper. A current of electricity is passed through it, and wherever the graphite is, a shell of copper is deposited, which is exactly like the face of the type. This shell is very thin, but it is made strong by adding a heavy back of melted metal. From these plates the books are printed. A correction made in the plate is more expensive than it would have been if made in the galley or in the page, because sawing out a word or a line is slow, delicate work; and even if one of the same length is substituted, the types spelling it have to be set up, a small new plate cast, and soldered in. [Illustration: _Courtesy The Riverside Press._ WHERE THIS BOOK WAS PRINTED The girls are feeding big sheets of paper into the presses, thirty-two pages being printed at one time. The paper is fed into many modern presses by means of a machine attached to the press. The pressmen see that the printing is done properly.] Printing one page at a time would be altogether too slow; therefore the plates are arranged in such a way that sixteen, thirty-two, or sometimes sixty-four pages can be printed on one side of the paper, and the same number on the other side. Every page must come in its proper place when the sheet is folded for binding. Try to arrange a sheet of even sixteen pages, eight on each side, so that when it is folded every page will be in the right place with its printing right side up, and you will find that it is not very easy until you have had considerable experience. If the sheet is folded into four leaves, the book is called a "quarto," or "4to"; if into eight, it is an "octavo," or "8vo"; if into twelve, a "duodecimo," or "12mo." Books are sometimes advertised in these terms; but they are not definite, because the sheets of the different varieties of paper vary in size. Of late years, publishers have often given the length and width of their books in inches. After the sheets come from the press, they are folded to page size. Sometimes this is done by hand, but more often by a folding machine through which the sheet of paper travels, meeting blunt knives which crease it and fold it. If you look at the top of a book you will see that the leaves are put together in groups or "signatures." These signatures usually contain eight, sixteen, or thirty-two pages. If the paper is very thick, not more than eight leaves will be in a signature; if of ordinary thickness, sixteen are generally used. The signatures are piled up in order, and a "gatherer" collects one from each pile for every book. The book is now gathered and "smashed," or pressed enough to make it solid and firm for binding. Next the signatures are sewed and the book is trimmed so the edges will be even. If the edges are to be gilded, the book is put in a gilding press and a skillful workman covers the edges with a sizing made of the white of eggs. Gold leaf is then laid upon them and they are burnished with tools headed with agate and bloodstone or instruments of various sorts until they are bright. Sometimes the edges are "marbled," and this is an interesting process to watch. On the surface of a vat of thin sizing the marbler drops a little of many colors of paint. Then he draws a comb lightly across the surface, making all sorts of odd figures, no two alike. The book is held tight and the edges are allowed to touch the sizing. All these odd figures are now transferred to the edges of the leaves and will stand a vast amount of hard use before they will wear off. Thus far the book is flat at the edges of the leaves and at the back. Books are sometimes bound in this way, but the backs are usually rounded into an outward curve, and the fronts into an inward curve. This is done by a machine. At each end of the outward curve a deep groove is pressed to receive the cover. To make the covers of a cloth-bound book, two pieces of pasteboard of the right size are cut and laid upon a piece of cloth coated with glue. The edges of the cloth are turned over and pressed down, as you can often see if the paper lining of the cover is not too heavy. The cover needs now only its decorations to be complete. A die is made for these, and the lettering and ornamentation are stamped on in colors. If more than one color is used, a separate die has to be made for each. If this work is to be done in gold, the design is stamped on lightly and sizing made of white of eggs is brushed on wherever the gold is to come. Gold leaf is laid upon this sizing, and the cover is stamped again. The same die is used, but this time it is hot enough to make the gold and egg stick firmly to the cover. To put the cover on, a piece of muslin called a "super" is glued to the back of the book with its ends projecting over the sides, and a strip of cartridge paper is glued over the super. Then the book is pasted into the cover. It is now kept under heavy pressure for a number of hours until it is thoroughly dry and ready to be sent away for sale. So it is that a well-made cloth-bound book is manufactured. Leather-bound books are more expensive, not only because their materials cost more, but also because the greater part of the work of binding and decorating has to be done by hand. If a book is to be illustrated, this must also be attended to, the number and style of the pictures decided upon, and the artist engaged before the book is put in press, in order that there may be no delay in completing it. Many publishers do not print at all, but have their work done at some printing establishment. Where all the making of a book, however, from manuscript to cover, is in the hands of one firm, there is a certain fellow-feeling among the different departments, and a wholesome pride in making each one of "our books" as excellent as possible in every detail. As one of the women workers in such an establishment said to me, "I often think that we become almost as interested in a book as the author is." VI FROM GOOSE QUILLS TO FOUNTAIN PENS AND LEAD PENCILS Whenever there was a convenient goosepond on the way to school, the children of less than one hundred years ago used to stop there to hunt for goose quills. They carried these to the teacher, and with his penknife--which took its name from the work it did--he cut them into the shape of pens. The points soon wore out, and "Teacher, will you please mend my pen?" was a frequent request. When people began to make pens of steel, they made them as nearly like quill pens as possible, with pen and holder all in one. These were called "barrel pens." They were stiff, hard, and expensive, especially as the whole thing was useless as soon as the pen was worn out, but they were highly esteemed because they lasted longer than quills and did not have to be mended. After a while separate pens were manufactured that could be slipped into a holder; and one improvement after another followed until little by little the cheap, convenient writing tool that we have to-day was produced. A pen is a small thing, but each one is worked upon by twenty to twenty-four persons before it is allowed to be sold. The material is the best steel. It comes in sheets five feet long and nineteen inches wide, and about one fortieth of an inch thick, that is, three times as thick as the finished pen. The first machine cuts the sheet crosswise into strips from two to three inches wide, varying according to the size of the pen to be made. These strips are put into iron boxes and kept at a red heat for a number of hours to anneal or soften them. Then they pass between heavy rollers, a process which not only helps to toughen them, but also stretches the steel so that it is now fifty inches long instead of nineteen. At least six or seven people have handled the material already, and even now there is nothing that looks like pens; but the next machine cuts them out, by dies, of course. The points interlap; and the cutting leaves odd-shaped openwork strips of steel for the scrap-heap. This part of the work is very quick, for the machine will cut thousands of pens in an hour. Now is when the little hole above the slit is punched and the side slits cut. To make the steel soft and pliable, it must be annealed again, kept red hot for several hours, and then cooled. Thus far it has looked like a tiny fence paling, but at length it begins to resemble a pen, for it is now stamped with whatever letters or designs may be desired, usually the name of the maker and the name and number of the variety of pen, and it is pressed between a pair of dies to form it into a curve. The last annealing left the metal soft so that all this could be done, but too soft to work well as a pen; and it has to be heated red hot again, and then dropped into cold oil to harden it. Centrifugal force, which helps in so many manufactures, drives the oil away, and the pens are dried in sawdust. They are now sufficiently hard, but too brittle. They must be tempered. To do this, they are placed in an iron cylinder over a fire, and the cylinder revolved till the pen is as elastic as a spring. The pen is of the correct shape, is tough and elastic; and now it is put into "tumbling barrels" which revolve till it is bright and ready for the finishing touches. If you look closely at the outside of a steel pen just above the nib, you will see that across it run tiny lines. They have a use, for they hold the ink back so that it will not roll down in drops, and they help to make the point more springy and easier to write with. The pen must be slit up from the point. This is done by a machine, and a most accurate one, for the cut must go exactly through the center of the point and not reach beyond the little hole that was punched. Only one thing is lacking now to make the pen a useful member of society, ready to do its work in the world; and that is to grind off the points and round them in order to keep them from sticking into the paper. After so much careful work, it does seem as if not one pen out of a thousand could be faulty; but every one has to be carefully examined to make sure that the cutting, piercing, marking, forming, tempering, grinding, and slitting, are just what they should be. These pens carry the maker's name, and a few poor ones getting into the market might spoil the sale of thousands of boxes; therefore the examiner sits before a desk covered with black glass and looks at every pen. The faulty ones are heated so that they cannot be used, and they go to the scrap-heap. Now the pens are ready so far as usefulness goes, but people have preferences in color. Some prefer bronze, some gray, and some black; so off the pens go to the tempering-room, their last trip, and there are heated in a revolving cylinder till the right color appears; then they are chilled and lacquered, put into boxes, labeled, packed, and sold for such low prices that the good folk of a century ago, who paid from twenty-five to fifty cents for a pen, would have opened their eyes in amazement. When the typewriter was invented, some people said, "That will be the death of the steel pen"; but as a matter of fact, it has greatly increased its sale. The typewriter makes writing so easy and so quick that many more letters are written than formerly. All these letters have to be answered, and few people compared with the whole number own typewriters, and therefore the pen still holds its place. The lacquer on a steel pen protects it until it has been used for a while. After that, it will rust, if it is not wiped, and it will wear out whether it is wiped or not. All that the gold pen asks is not to be bent or broken, and it will last almost forever. It has the flexibility of the quill, but does not have to be "mended." Gold pens are made in much the same way as are steel pens; but just at the point a tiny shelf is squeezed. Upon this shelf a bit of the alloy of two exceedingly hard metals, iridium and osmium, is secured by melting the gold around it; and it is this bit which stands all the wear of rubbing on the paper. When gold pens were first made, tiny bits of diamonds or rubies were soldered on for points; but they were expensive, and they had a disagreeable fashion of falling off. A century ago, writers would have thought it the height of luxury to have a gold pen; but now they are not satisfied unless they can be saved the trouble of dipping it into an inkstand, and they look upon the fountain pen as their special friend. The fountain pen carries its supplies with it. The pen itself is like any other gold pen, but the barrel is full of ink. A little tube carries the ink to the point, and the slight bending back of the pen as one writes lets it run out upon the paper. At the end of the slit, at the back of the pen, is a hole to let air into the barrel as the ink runs out. A perfect fountain pen ought to be prepared to write--without shaking--whenever the cap is taken off, and not to refuse to work so long as a drop of ink remains in the barrel. It should never drop ink at the point and, whether the point is up or down, it should never leak there or anywhere else. The stylographic pen is quite a different article. There is no pen to it; the writing is done with the end of a needle which projects through a hole at the point. The barrel and point are full of ink; but even if the pen is held point down, it will not leak because the needle fills up the hole. When you press the point on paper to write, the needle falls back just enough to let out what ink is needed. The flow stops the instant the pen ceases to touch the paper. The special advantage of the stylographic is that the mere weight of the pen is sufficient pressure, and therefore many hours of writing do not tire the muscles of the hand. The advantage of the fountain pen is that it has the familiar action of the gold pen, and that it will adapt itself to any style of handwriting. A pen of almost any kind is a valuable article, but for rough-and-ready use we should find it hard to get on without its humble friend, the lead pencil. A lead pencil, by the way, has not a particle of lead in it. The "lead" is all graphite, or plumbago. Years ago sticks of lead were used for marking, and made a pale-gray line. When graphite was introduced, its mark was so black that people called it black lead, and the name has stuck. No one who has ever tried to use a pencil of real lead could fail to appreciate graphite, and when a graphite mine was discovered in England, it was guarded by armed men as watchfully as if it had been a mine of diamonds. That mine was exhausted long ago, but many others have been found. The best graphite in the world comes from Ceylon and Mexico. When graphite was first used for pencils, it was cut into slabs and these slabs into small strips. The broken and powdered graphite was not used until it was discovered that it could be mixed with clay and so made into sticks. In a lead pencil there are only three substances, graphite, clay, and wood, but a really good one must be manufactured with as much care as if it were made up of twenty. First of all, the graphite is ground and ground and ground, until, if you take a pinch of it between your thumb and finger, you can hardly feel that anything is there. It is now sifted through fine silk and mixed with water and finely powdered clay, and becomes a wet, inky mass. This clay comes from Austria and Bohemia and is particularly smooth and fine. The amount put in is carefully weighed. If you have a hard pencil, it was made by using considerable clay; if your pencil is soft, by using very little; and if it is very soft and black, it is possible that a little lampblack was added. This inky mass is ground together between millstones for several weeks. Then it goes between rollers, and at length is squeezed through a die and comes out in soft, doughy black strings. These are the "leads" of the pencils. They have been thoroughly wet, and now they must be made thoroughly dry. They are laid on boards, then taken off, cut into pieces the length of a pencil, and put into ovens and baked for hours in a heat twenty times as great as that of a hot summer day. They certainly ought to be well dried and ready for the wood. The red cedar of Florida, Tennessee, Georgia, and Alabama is the best wood for pencils because it is soft and has a fine, straight grain. It is cut into slabs about as long as one pencil, as wide as six, and a little thicker than half a pencil. Every piece must be examined to make sure that it is perfect, and it must be thoroughly seasoned and kiln-dried to free it from oil. Then it goes through a grooving-machine which cuts out a groove half as deep as the lead. The lead is laid into one piece, another is glued on top of it; and there is a pencil ready for work. [Illustration: _Courtesy Joseph Dixon Crucible Co._ HOW THE LEAD GETS INTO A PENCIL (1) The cedar slab. (2) Planed and grooved. (3) The leads in place. (4) Covered with the other half of the slab. (5) The round pencils cut out. (6) The pencil separated and smoothed. (7) The pencil varnished and stamped.] Such a pencil would be useful, but to sell well it must also be pretty; and therefore it goes through machinery which makes it round or oval or six-sided, as the case may be, rubs it smooth, and varnishes it, and then, with gold leaf or silver leaf or aluminum or ink, stamps upon it the name of the maker, and also a number or letter to show how hard the lead is. The pencil is now ready for sale, but many people like to have an eraser in the end, and this requires still more work. These erasers are round or flat or six-sided or wedge-shaped. They are let into the pencil itself, or into a nickel tip, or drawn over the end like a cap, so that any one's special whim may be gratified. Indeed, however hard to please any one may be, he ought to be able to find a pencil to suit his taste, for a single factory in the United States makes more than six hundred kinds of pencils, and makes so many of them that if they were laid end to end they would reach three times across the continent. There are many exceedingly cheap pencils, but they are expensive in the end, because they are poorly made. The wood will often split in sharpening, and the lead is of poor materials so badly mixed that it may write blacker in one place than another, and is almost sure to break. Good pencils bearing the name of a reliable firm are cheapest. VII THE DISHES ON OUR TABLES If any one should give you a lump of clay and ask you to make a bowl, how should you set about it? The first thing would be, of course, to put it on a table so you could work on it with both hands. You would make a depression at the top and push out the sides and smooth them as best you could. It would result in a rough, uneven sort of bowl, and before it was done, you would have made one discovery, namely, that if the table only turned around in front of you, you could see all sides of the bowl from the same position, and it would be easier to make it regular. This is just what the potter's wheel does. It is really two horizontal wheels. The upper one is a disk a foot or two in diameter. This is connected by a shaft with the lower one, which is much larger. When the potter was at work at a wheel of this sort, he stood on one foot and turned the lower wheel with the other, thus setting the upper wheel in motion. This was called a "kick-wheel." As wheels are made now, the potter sits at his work and turns the wheel by means of a treadle. Almost any kind of clay will make a dish, but no one kind will make it so well that the addition of some other kind would not improve it. Whatever clays are chosen, they must be prepared with great care to make sure that not one grain in them is coarser than any other. Sometimes one will slip through, and you can see on the finished dish what a bad-looking place it makes. Even for the coarsest earthenware, such as flower-pots, the moist clay is forced down a cylinder and through a wire sieve; and for stoneware and porcelain it has to go through several processes. When flint and feldspar are used, they are ground fine at the quarry. On reaching the factory, they are mixed with the proper quantities of other clays--but in just what proportions is one of the secrets of the trade. Then they go into "plungers" or "blungers," great round tanks with arms extending from a shaft in the center. The shaft revolves and the arms beat the clay till all the sand and pebbles have settled on the bottom, and the fine clay grains are floating in the water above them. These pass into canvas bags. The water is forced out through the canvas, and on every bag there is left a thin sheet of moist clay. If this is to be used for the finest work, it is ground and pounded and washed still more, until it is a wonder that any of it survives; then it is sifted through a screen so fine that its meshes are only one one hundred and fiftieth of an inch across. Now it becomes "slip," and after a little more beating and tumbling about, it is ready to go to the man at the wheel. This man is called the "thrower," because he lifts the lump of clay above his head and throws it down heavily upon the center of the wheel. The things that happen to that lump of clay when he touches it and the wheel revolves seem like the work of magic. He presses his thumbs into it from above and draws the walls up between his thumbs and fingers. He clasps his hands around it, and it grows tall and slender. He lays his finger on the top of the little column of clay, and it flattens in a moment. He points his finger at it, barely touching it, and a little groove appears, running around the whole mass. He seems to be wasting considerable time in playing with it, but all the while he is making sure that the clay is perfectly uniform and that there are no bubbles of air in it. He holds a piece of leather against the outside surface and a wet sponge against the inside, to make them perfectly smooth; and in a moment he has made a bowl. He holds his bent finger against the top of the bowl, and it becomes a vase. With another touch of his magical finger the top of the vase rolls over into a lip. If he makes a cup or a mug, he models a handle in clay and fastens it in place with slip. When it is done, he draws a wire deftly between the article and the table, and puts it on a board to dry. When you watch a potter at work, it all looks so simple and easy that you feel sure you could do it; but see how skillfully he uses his hands, how strong they are, and yet how lithe and delicate in their movements. See into what odd positions he sometimes stretches them; and yet these are plainly the only positions in which they could do their work. See how every finger does just what he wishes it to do. Notice all these things, and you will not be so certain that making pottery is the easiest thing in the world. No two pieces of hand work are exactly the same; and skillful as the potter is, his pieces are not precisely alike. Many of them therefore are passed over to the turner for finishing. He uses an ordinary lathe, and with this he thins any place that may be a little too thick, rounds the edge, and smooths it. The article is partly dried when he takes it, and so its walls can be cut thinner. When it leaves his lathe, all signs of hand work have vanished, but the dish is exactly like the others of the set, and this is what the greater number of people want. In some potteries there is hardly a throwing wheel in use, and articles are formed in plaster of Paris moulds. There are two ways of using these moulds. By one method, the mould is put upon a "jigger," a power machine which keeps it revolving, and clay is pressed against its walls from within. Above the mould is a piece of iron cut in the shape of the inside curve of the bowl or whatever is being made. This skims off all the extra clay from the inside of the walls. Plates and saucers are made on a jigger. The mould used for this work is a model of the top of the plate. The workman makes a sort of pancake of clay and throws it upon the mould. A second mould, shaped like half of the bottom of the plate, is brought down close and revolves, cutting off all the extra clay and shaping the bottom of the plate. When the very finest ware is to be made, the mould is used in quite another fashion. If a pitcher, for instance, is to be cast, the mould is made in two sections and tied tightly together. Then the slip is poured into it and left for a while. The plaster of Paris absorbs the water and a layer of clay is formed all about the walls. When this is thick enough, the liquid is poured out, and after the pitcher has dried awhile, the mould is carefully opened and the pitcher is very gently taken out. The handle is made in a little mould of its own and fastened on with slip. "Eggshell" porcelain is made in this way. The clay shell becomes smaller as it dries, so there is no trouble about removing it from the mould--if one knows how. If a large article is to be cast, the mould is made in sections. Of course this fine ware must all be made by hand, especially as machines do not work well with the finest clays; but cheap dishes are all made by machinery. After any clay article is thrown, or moulded, or cast, it is passed through a little doorway and set upon a shelf in a great revolving cage. The air in this cage is kept at about 85° F.; but this heat is nothing to what is to follow; and after the articles are thoroughly dry, they are placed in boxes of coarse fire-clay, which are called "saggers," piled up in a kiln, the doors are closed, and the fires are lighted. For a day and night, sometimes for two days and two nights, the fires burn. The heat goes up to 2000° or 2500° F. Every few hours test pieces, which were put in for this purpose, are taken out. When they are found to be sufficiently baked, the fire-holes are bricked up and the furnace is left for two days longer to cool. The ware is then called "biscuit." Biscuit is dull and porous. It is soon to be glazed, but first whatever underglaze decorating is desired may be done. Sometimes the decorations are painted by hand, and sometimes they are printed on thin paper, laid upon the ware, and rubbed softly till they stick fast. After a while the paper is pulled off, but the colors remain. Gold must be applied over the glaze, and the article fired a second time. After this decorating, the ware is generally passed to a man who stands before a tub of glaze, and dips in each article, though sometimes he stands before the pieces of ware and sprays them with an air brush. Many different kinds of glaze are used, made of ground flint, feldspar, white clay, and other substances. Common sea salt works exceedingly well, not in liquid form, but thrown directly into the fire. The chief thing to look out for in making a glaze is to see that the materials in it are so nearly like those in the ware that they will not contract unevenly and make little cracks. This glaze is dried in a hot room, then looked over by "trimmers," who scrape it off from such parts as the feet of cups and plates, so that they will not stick to the saggers in firing. Besides this, little props of burned clay are used to hold the dishes up and keep them from touching one another. These props have fanciful names, such as "spurs," "stilts," "cockspurs," etc. Often you can see on the bottom of a plate the marks made by these supports. [Illustration: IN THE POTTERY Pieces of coarse pottery being delivered to the kiln for firing.] The articles now are sent to a kiln to be fired. When they come out there is another chance for decorating, for colors may be put on, and another firing will make them look like underglaze painting If the decorator wishes the ware to have the appearance of being ornamented with masses of gold, he can trace his design in yellow paste, fire it, cover it with gold, and fire it again. To make the "gilt-band china" so beloved by the good housewives of the last century, the decorator puts the plate upon a horizontal wheel, holds his brush full of gold against it, and turns the wheel slowly. Sometimes the outlines of a design are printed and the coloring put in by hand. When broad bands of color are desired to be put around a plate or other article, the decorator sometimes brushes on an adhesive oil where the color is to go, and paints the rest of the plate with some water-color and sugar; then when the oil is partly dry, he dusts on the color in the form of powder. A plunge into water will wash away the water-color and leave the oil with the powder sticking to it. Shaded groundwork is made with an atomizer. Indeed, there are almost as many methods of decorating wares of clay as there are persons who work at it. The results are what might be expected from the prices; some articles are so cheap and gaudy that any one will soon tire of them. Others are really artistic and will be a "joy forever"--until they break. VIII HOW THE WHEELS OF A WATCH GO AROUND If an electric automobile could be charged in fifteen seconds and then would run for forty hours without recharging, it would be looked upon as a great wonder; but to wind a watch in fifteen seconds and have it run for forty hours is so common that we forget what a wonder it is. When you wind your watch, you put some of the strength of your own right hand into it, and that is what makes it go. Every turn of the key or the stem winds up tighter and tighter a spring from one to two feet long, but so slender that it would take thousands to weigh a pound. This is the main spring. It is coiled up in a cup-shaped piece of metal called a "barrel"; and so your own energy is literally barreled up in your watch. The outer end of this spring is held fast by a hook on the inside of the barrel; the inner end is hooked to the hub of a wheel which is called the "main wheel," and around this hub the spring is coiled. This spring has three things to do. It must send the "short hand," or hour hand, around the dial or face of the watch, once in twelve hours; it must send the "long hand," or minute hand, around once an hour; and it must also send the little "second hand" around its own tiny circle once a minute. To do this work requires four wheels. The first or main wheel is connected with the winding arrangements, and sets in motion the second, or center wheel, so called because it is usually in the center of the watch. This center wheel revolves once an hour and turns the minute hand. By a skillful arrangement of cogs it also moves the hour hand around the dial once in twelve hours. The center wheel moves the third wheel. The chief business of the third wheel is to make the fourth turn in the same direction as the center wheel. The fourth wheel revolves once a minute, and with it turns the tiny second hand. Suppose that a watch has been made with only the main spring, the four wheels, and the three hands, what would happen when it was wound? You can tell very easily by winding up a mechanical mouse or a train of cars or any other toy that goes by a spring. It will go fast at first, then more and more slowly, then it will stop. This sort of motion might do for a mouse, but it would not answer for a watch. A watch must move with steadiness and regularity. To bring this about, there is a fifth wheel. Its fifteen teeth are shaped like hooks, and it has seven accompaniments, the balance wheel, the hair spring, and five others. This wheel, together with its accompaniments, is able to stop the motion of the watch five times a second and start it again so quickly that we do not realize its having been stopped at all. A tiny arm holds the wheel firmly, and then lets it escape. Therefore, the fifth wheel and its accompaniments are called the "escapement." This catching and letting go is what makes the ticking. A watch made in this way would run very well until a hot day or a cold day came; then there would be trouble. Heat makes metals expand and makes springs less elastic. Therefore in a hot day the watch would go more slowly and so lose time; while in a cold day it would go too fast and would gain time. This fault is corrected by the balance, a wheel whose rim is not one circle, but two half-circles, and so cunningly made that the hotter this rim grows, the smaller its diameter becomes. In the rim of the wheel are tiny holes into which screws may be screwed. By adding screws or taking some away, or changing the position of some of them, the movement of the watch can be made to go faster or slower. All this would be difficult enough to manage if a watch was as large as a cart wheel, with wheels a foot in diameter; but it does seem a marvel how so many kinds of wheels and screws and springs, one hundred and fifty in all, can be put into a case sometimes not more than an inch in diameter, and can find room to work; and it is quite as much of a marvel how they can be manufactured and handled. Remembering how accurate every piece must be, it is no wonder that in Switzerland, where all this work used to be done by hand, a boy had to go to a "watch school" for fourteen years before he was considered able to make a really fine watch. He began at the beginning and was taught to make, first, wooden handles for his tools, then the tools themselves, such as files, screw drivers, etc. His next work was to make wooden watchcases as large as dinner-plates. After this, he was given the frame to which the various wheels of a watch are fastened and was taught how and where to drill the holes for wheels and screws. After lessons in making the finer tools to be used, he was allowed to make a watch frame. All this took several years, for he had to do the same work over and over until his teachers were satisfied with it. Then he was promoted to the second room. Here he learned to adjust the stem-winding parts, to do fine cutting and filing, and to make watches that would strike the hour and even the minute. Room three was called the "train room," because the wheels of a watch are spoken of as "the train." The model watch in this room was as large as a saucer. The young man had to study every detail of this, and also to learn the use of a delicate little machine doing such fine work that it could cut twenty-four hundred tiny cogs on one of the little wheels of a watch. In the fourth room he learned to make the escapement wheel and some other parts; and he had to make them, not merely passably, but excellently. In the fifth and last room, he must do the careful, patient work that makes a watch go perfectly. There are special little curves that must be given to the hair spring; and the screws on the balance wheel must be carefully adjusted. If the watch ran faster when it was lying down than when it was hanging up, he learned that certain ones of the bearings were too coarse and must be made finer. In short, he must be able to make a watch that, whether hanging up or lying down, and whether the weather was hot or cold, would not vary from correct time more than two and a half seconds a day at the most. Then, and not till then, was the student regarded as a first-class watchmaker. The graduate of such a school knew how to make a whole watch, but he usually limited his work to some one part. Every part of a watch was made expressly for that watch, but sometimes a hundred different persons worked on it. The very best of the Swiss watches were exceedingly good; the poorest were very bad, and much worse to own than a poor American watch because it costs more to repair a Swiss watch than an American watch. [Illustration: _Courtesy Waltham Watch Co._ WHERE WATCHES ARE MADE Once a single man made a whole watch by hand. Now one watch may be the product of a hundred hands, each man doing his particular part.] Even though in America the parts of watches are made by machinery, an apprentice has to undergo just as careful and just as extended training here as in Switzerland. A poor watch is worse than none at all, and careless work would not be tolerated in any watch factory. Of late even Switzerland has been importing American machinery in order to compete with the United States. These machines do such careful, minute, intricate work that, as you stand and watch them, you feel as if they must know what they are about. One of them takes the frame,--that is, the plates to which the wheels are fastened,--makes it of the proper thinness, cuts the necessary holes in it, and passes it over to the next machine, which is reaching out for it. The feeder gives the first machine another plate; and so the work goes on down a whole line of machines. At length the plate is taken in hand by a machine, or rather a group of machines, which can do almost anything. Before they let it go, they actually perform one hundred and forty-two different operations, each bringing it nearer completion. These machines are automatic, but nevertheless they must be constantly watched by expert machinists to keep them in order and make sure of their turning out perfect work. While one line of machines has been perfecting the plate, others have been at work on screws and wheels and springs. As many of these as are needed for one watch are put into a little division of a tray and carried to another room for its jewels and the rest of its outfit. The jewels, which are pieces of rubies, sapphires, garnets, or even diamonds, are very valuable to a watch. When you know that the little wheels are in constant motion, and that the balance wheel, for instance, vibrates eighteen thousand times an hour, it is plain that a vast amount of wear comes upon the spot where the pivots of these wheels rest. No metal can be made smooth enough to prevent friction, and there is no metal hard enough to prevent wear. The "jewels" are smoother and harder. They are sawed into slabs so thin that fifty of them piled up would measure only an inch. These are stuck to blocks to be polished, cut into disks flat on one side but with a little depression on the other to receive oil, bored through the center, and placed wherever the wear is greatest--provided the purchaser is willing to pay for them. A "full-jeweled" watch contains twenty-three jewels; that is, in twenty-three of the places where the most severe wear comes, or where friction might prevent the watch from going with perfect smoothness, there will be practically no wear and no friction. A low-priced watch contains only seven jewels, but if you want a watch to last, it pays to buy one that is full-jeweled. And now these plates and wheels and screws are to be put together, or "assembled," as this work is called. This is a simple matter just as soon as one has learned where the different parts belong, for they are made by machinery and are sure to fit. After the assembling comes the adjusting of the balance wheel and the hair spring. There is nothing simple about this work, for the tiny screws with the large heads must be put into the rim of the balance wheel with the utmost care, or else all the other work will be useless, and the watch will not be a perfect time keeper; that is, one that neither loses nor gains more than thirty seconds a month. It is said that the earliest watches made in Europe cost fifteen hundred dollars and took a year to make. There has always been a demand for a cheap pocket timepiece, and of late this demand has been satisfied by the manufacture of the "dollar watch." Properly speaking, this is not a watch at all, but a small spring clock. It has no jewels, and its parts are stamped out of sheets of brass or steel by machinery. The hair springs are made in coils of eight and then broken apart; and the main springs are made by the mile. Twenty holes are drilled at a time, and the factory in which "dollar watches" were first manufactured is now able to turn out fifteen thousand a day. IX THE MAKING OF SHOES Did you ever stop to think how many different qualities you expect in a shoe? You want the sole to be hard and firm so as to protect your feet in rough walking; and also soft and yielding so as to feel springy and not board-like. You want the upper leather to keep the cold air from coming in; and also porous enough to let the perspiration out. Your feet are not exactly like those of any one else; and yet you expect to find at any shoe store a comfortable shoe ready-made. You expect that shoe to come close to your foot, and yet allow you to move it with perfect freedom. You expect all these good qualities, and what is more remarkable, it does not seem difficult for most people to get them. There is an old saying, "To him who wears shoes, the whole earth is covered with leather"; and although many different materials have been tried in shoemaking, leather is the only one that has proved satisfactory, for the sole of the shoe at least. Of late, however, rubber and rubber combinations and felts and felt combinations have been used. Most hides of which soles are made come from the large beef packing-houses or from South America. Goatskins come from Africa and India. The greater part of a hide is made up of a sort of gelatine. This easily spoils, and therefore it has to be "tanned"; that is, soaked in tannin and water. When a man set out to build a tannery, he used to go into the woods where he could be sure of enough oak trees to supply him for many years with the bark from which tannin is made; but it has been found that the bark of several other kinds of trees, such as larch, chestnut, spruce, pine, and hemlock, will tan as well as that of oak. Tannin is now prepared in the forest and brought to the tanners, who put their tanneries where they please, usually near some large city. The hides are first soaked in water, and every particle of flesh is scraped away. They are laid in heaps for a while, then hung in a warm room till the hair loosens and can be easily removed, then soaked in tannic extract and water. The tannin unites with the gelatine; and thus the hide becomes leather. This process requires several months. Hides are also tanned by the use of chemicals, in what is called "chrome" tanning. This process requires only a few hours, but it is expensive. In earlier times the shoemaker used to go from house to house with his lapstone, waxed end, awl, and other tools. The farmer provided the leather, which he had tanned from the hides of his own cattle. Now, however, manufacturers can buy the soles of one merchant, the heels of another, the box toe and stiffenings of another, and so on. In the United States there are many factories which do nothing but cut soles, or rather stamp them out with dies, a hundred or more in a minute. These soles and also the less heavy inner soles go through machines that make all parts of them of a uniform thickness. The traveling shoemaker always hammered his sole leather to make it wear better; but now a moment between very heavy rollers answers the same purpose. Another machine splits the inner sole for perhaps a quarter of an inch all the way around, and thus makes a little lip to which to sew the welt. A number of layers or "lifts" of leather are cemented together for the heel, and are put under heavy pressure. The upper parts of a shoe, the "uppers," as they are called, are the vamp or front of the shoe, the top, the tip, and (in a laced shoe) the tongue. Nearly all the upper leather that shows when a shoe is on is made from the hides of cattle, calves, goats, and sheep; but besides the parts that show there are stiffeners for the box toe and the counters to support the quarters over the heel; there are linings, and many other necessary "findings," forty-four parts in all in an ordinary shoe. Much experimenting and more thinking have gone into every one of these forty-four parts; and much remembering that shoes have harder wear than anything else in one's wardrobe. The cotton linings, for instance, must be woven in a special way in order to make them last and not "rub up" when they are wet with water or perspiration. They are bleached with the utmost care not to weaken them, and they are singed between red-hot copper plates to remove all the nap. Then, too, a good deal of metal is used in making a shoe, not only the ornamental buckles on dress shoes and the heavy, useful buckles on storm boots, but various pieces that help to make the shoe strong and enduring. There are nails, shanks to strengthen the arch of the shoe, metal shanks to the buttons, and eyelets. Not many years ago, eyelets soon wore brassy, and then the shoe looked old and cheap. They are now enameled, or the top of them is made of celluloid in a color to match the shoe. The tags on lacings and the hooks for holding lacings are also enameled. A "box-toe gum" is used to support the box-toe stiffening. Cement covers the stitches; and many sorts of blacking are used in finishing the work. It is by no means a simple operation to make a pair of shoes. At a busy shoe factory it is always "tag day," for when an order is received, the first step in filling it is to make out a tag or form stating how the shoe is to be made up and when it is to be finished. These records are preserved, and if a customer writes, "Send me 100 pairs of shoes like those ordered October 10, 1910," the manufacturer has only to read the record in order to know exactly what is wanted. [Illustration: _Courtesy United Shoe Mchy. Co._ THE GOODYEAR PULLING-OVER MACHINE This machine cost $1,500,000 and five years of experiment to perfect. It shapes the forepart of the upper of a shoe over a wooden last.] Next, the leather is selected, first grade or second grade, according to the price to be paid. The patterns for the uppers are now brought into play--and, by the way, it is no small matter to prepare the hundreds of patterns needed for a new line of shoes in all the different widths and sizes. In some factories the cutting is done by machinery; in others the "upper cutter" lays the leather on a block and cuts around the pattern with a small but very sharp knife. It needs skill and judgment to be a cutter; for a careless workman can easily waste the skins badly by not laying the patterns on to the best advantage. While this work is going on, the linings, trimmings, soles, and other parts are also being prepared, and all these many pieces now meet in the "stitching-room." At the first glance, it does not seem as if the right ones could ever come together, even though they are marked, and sometimes it does happen that a 4a vamp, for instance, is put with 5a quarters, and nobody knows the difference until the experienced eye of the foreman notices that something is wrong with the shoe. The uppers of the shoe are now stitched up, and after a careful inspection, they are sent on to the "lasting-room." The "last" of the earlier times was roughly whittled out, and it was the same for both feet; but the last of to-day is almost a work of art, so carefully is it made and polished. The shoe manufacturers jokingly declare that lasts must be changed three times a day in order to keep up with the fashions. Feet do not change in form, save when they have been distorted by badly shaped shoes; but in spite of this, people insist upon having their shoes long and narrow, or short and wide, with high heels or with low heels, with broad toes or with pointed toes, as the whim of the moment may be. It really is a big problem for the shoe manufacturers to suit people's fancies and yet give them some degree of comfort. While the uppers are being stitched, the soles and inner soles and counters have been made ready and brought to the lasting-room. The toe stiffeners and also the counters are now cemented into their places. The inner sole is tacked to the last, and the uppers are put in place and held there by a tack at the heel. This is done by machines; but their working is simple compared with that of the machine which now takes charge of the half-made shoe. This machine puts out sturdy little pincers which seize the edge of the uppers, pull it smoothly and evenly into place, and drive a tack far enough in to keep it from slipping. Now comes the welting. A welt is a narrow strip of leather which is sewed to the lower edge of the upper all the way around the shoe except at the heel. This brings the upper, the lip of the inner sole, and the welt together. The inside of the shoe is now smooth and even, but around the outside of the sole is the ridge made by the welt and the sewing, and within the ridge a depression that must be filled up. Tarred paper or cork in a sort of cement are used for this. The shank is fastened into its place and the welt made smooth and even. The outer sole is coated with rubber cement, put into position under heavy pressure to shape it exactly like the sole of the last, and then sewed to the welt. If it was not for the welt, the outer sole would have to be sewed directly to the inner sole. The nailing and pegging of the old-fashioned shoemaker are also reproduced by the modern machine. The shoe is still open at the heel; but now the heel parts of both sole and uppers are fastened together; the edges have been nicely trimmed, and next the heels are nailed to the shoe by another machine which does the work at a blow, leaving the nails standing out a little below the lowest lift. Another lift is forced upon these; and that is why the heel of a new shoe shows no signs of nails. The heel is trimmed, and then come the final sandpapering and blackening. The bottom of a new shoe has a peculiar soft, velvety appearance and feeling; and this is produced by rubbing it with fine emery paper fastened upon a little rubber pad. A stamping-machine marks the sole with the name of the manufacturer. Last of all, the shoe is put upon a treeing machine, where an iron foot stretches it into precisely the shape of the wooden last on which it was made. This is the method by which large numbers of shoes are made, but there are many details which differ. Laced shoes must have tongues as well as eyelets, while buttoned shoes must have buttons and buttonholes. "Turned" shoes have no inner sole, but uppers and outer sole are sewed together wrong side out and then turned. In shoemaking, as in all other business, if a manufacturer is to succeed, he must see that there is no waste. He has of course no use for a careless cutter, who would perhaps waste large pieces of leather; but even the tiniest scraps are of value for some purpose. They can be treated with chemicals, softened by boiling, and pressed into boards or other articles or made into floor coverings. At any rate, they must be used for something. No business is small enough or large enough to endure waste. X IN THE COTTON MILL If you ravel a bit of cotton cloth, you will find that it is made up of tiny threads, some going up and down, and others going from right to left. These threads are remarkably strong for their size. Look at one under a magnifying glass, in a brilliant light, and you will see that the little fibers of which it is made shine almost like glass. Examine it more closely, and you will see that it is twisted. Break it, and you will find that it does not break off sharp, but rather pulls apart, leaving many fibers standing out from both ends. Cotton comes to the factory tightly pressed in bales, and the work of the manufacturer is to make it into these little threads. The bales are big, weighing four or five hundred pounds apiece. They are generally somewhat ragged, for they are done up in coarse, heavy jute. The first glance at an opened cotton bale is a little discouraging, for it is not perfectly clean by any means. Bits of leaves and stems are mixed in with the cotton, and even some of the smaller seeds which have slipped through the gin. There is dust, and plenty of it, that the coarse burlap has not kept out. The first thing to do is to loosen the cotton and make it clean. Great armfuls are thrown into a machine called a "bale-breaker." Rollers with spikes, blunt so as not to injure the fiber, catch it up and tear the lumps to pieces, and "beaters" toss it into a light, foamy mass. Something else happens to the cotton while it is in the machine, for a current of air is passing through it all the while, and this blows out the dust and bits of rubbish. This current is controlled like the draft of a stove, and it is allowed to be just strong enough to draw the cotton away from the beater when it has become light and open, leaving the harder masses for more beating. When it comes out of the opener, it is in sheets or "laps" three or four feet wide and only half an inch thick. They are white and fleecy and almost cloudlike; and so thin that any sand or broken leaves still remaining will drop out of their own weight. In this work the manufacturer has been aiming, not only at cleaning the cotton and making it fluffy, but also at mixing it. There are many sorts of cotton, some of longer or finer or more curly or stronger fiber than others, some white and some tinged with color; but the cloth woven of cotton must be uniform; therefore all these kinds must be thoroughly mixed. Even the tossing and turning and beating that it has already received is not enough, and it has to go into a "scutcher," three or four laps at a time, one on top of another, to have still more beating and dusting. When it comes out, it is in a long roll or sheet, so even that any yard of it will weigh very nearly the same as any other yard. The fibers, however, are lying "every which way," and before they can be drawn out into thread, they must be made to lie parallel. This is brought about in part by carding. When people used to spin and weave in their own houses, they used "hand cards." These were somewhat like brushes for the hair, but instead of bristles they had wires shaped much as if wire hairpins had been bent twice and put through leather in such a way as to form hooks on one side of it. This leather was then nailed to a wooden back and a handle added. The carder took one card in each hand, and with the hooks pointing opposite ways brushed the cotton between them, thus making the fibers lie parallel. This is just what is done in a mill, only by machinery, of course. Instead of the little hand cards, there are great cylinders covered with what is called "card clothing"; that is, canvas bristling with the bent wires, six or seven hundred to the square inch. This takes the place of one card. The place of the other is filled by what are called "flats," or narrow bars of iron covered with card clothing. The cylinders move rapidly, the flats slowly, and the cotton passes between them. It comes out in a dainty white film not so very much heavier than a spider's web, and so beautifully white and shining that it does not seem as if the big, oily, noisy machines could ever have produced it. In a moment, however, it is gone somewhere into the depths of the machine. We have seen the last of the fleecy sheet, for the machinery narrows it and rounds it, and when it comes into sight again, it looks like a soft round cord about an inch thick, and is coiled up in cans nearly a yard high. This cord is called "sliver." [Illustration: IN A COTTON MILL The "sliver" coming through the machine, and the "roving" being twisted and wound on bobbins.] The sliver is not uniform; even now its fibers are not entirely parallel, and it is as weak as wet tissue paper. It now pays a visit to the "drawing-frame." Four or six slivers are put together and run through this frame. They go between four pairs of rollers, the first pair moving slowly, the others more rapidly. The slow pair hold the slivers back, while the fast one pull them on. The result is that when the sliver comes out from the rollers, its fibers are much straighter. This process is repeated several times; and at last when the final sliver comes out, although it looks almost the same as when it came from the carding-machine, its fibers are parallel. It is much more uniform, but it is very fragile, and still has to be handled with great care. It is not nearly strong enough to be twisted into thread; and before this can be done, it must pass through three other machines. The first, or "slubber," gives it a very slight twist, just enough to suggest what is coming later, and of course in doing this makes it smaller. The cotton changes its name at every operation, and now it is called "roving." It has taken one long step forward, for now it is not coiled up in cans, but is wound on "bobbins," or great spools. The second machine, the "intermediate speeder," twists it a very little more and winds it on fresh bobbins. It also puts two rovings together, so that if one happens to be thin in one place, there is a chance for it to be strengthened by a thicker place in the other. The third machine, the "fine speeder," simply makes a finer roving. All this work must be done merely to prepare the raw cotton to be twisted into the tiny threads that you see by raveling a piece of cotton cloth. Now comes the actual twisting. If you fasten one end of a very soft string and twist the other and wind it on a spool, you will get a spool of finer, stronger, and harder-twisted string than you had at first. This is exactly what the "ring-spinner" does. Imagine a bobbin full of roving standing on a frame. Down below it are some rolls between which the thread from the bobbin passes to a second bobbin which is fast on a spindle. Around this spindle is the "spinning-ring," a ring which is made to whirl around by an endless belt. This whirling twists the thread, and another part of the machine winds it upon the second bobbin. Hundreds of these ring-spinners and bobbins are on a single "spinning-frame" and accomplish a great deal in a very short time. The threads that are to be used for the "weft" or "filling" go directly into the shuttles of the weavers after being spun; but those which are to be used for "warp" are wound first on spools, then on beams to go into the loom. Little children weave together strips of paper, straws, and splints,--"over one, under one,"--and the weaving of plain cotton cloth is in principle nothing more than this. The first thing to do in weaving is to stretch out the warp evenly. This warp is simply many hundreds of tiny threads as long as the cloth is to be, sometimes forty or fifty yards. They must be stretched out side by side and close together. To make them regular, they are passed between the teeth of a sort of upright comb; then they are wound upon the loom beam, a horizontal beam at the back of the loom. Here they are as close together as they will be in the cloth. With a magnifying glass it is easy to count the threads of the warp in an inch of cloth. Some kinds of cloth have a hundred or even more to the inch. In order to make cloth, the weaver must manage in some way to lower every other one of these little threads and run his shuttle over them, as the children do the strips of paper in their paper weaving. Then he must lower the other set and run the shuttle over _them_. "Drawing in" makes this possible. After the threads leave the beam, they are drawn through the "harnesses." These are hanging frames, one in front of the other, filled with stiff, perpendicular threads or wires drawn tight, and with an eye in each thread. Through these eyes the threads of the warp are drawn, the odd ones through one, and the even through the other. Then, keeping the threads in the same order, they pass through the teeth of a "reed,"--that is, a hanging frame shaped like a great comb as long as the loom is wide; and last, they are fastened to the "front beam," which runs in front of the weaver's seat and on which the cloth is to be rolled when it has been woven. Each harness is connected with a treadle. The weaver puts his foot on the treadle of the odd threads and presses them down. Then he sends his shuttle, containing a bobbin full of thread, sliding across over the odd threads and under the even. He puts his foot on the treadle of the even threads and sends the shuttle back over the even and under the odd. At each trip of the shuttle, the heavy reed is drawn back toward the weaver to push the last thread of the woof or filling firmly into place. This is the way cloth is woven in the hand looms which used to be in every household. The power loom used in factories is, even in its simplest form, a complicated machine; but its principle is exactly the same. If colors are to be used, great care is needed in arranging warp and woof. If you ravel a piece of checked gingham, you will see that half the warp is white and half colored; and that in putting in the woof or filling, a certain number of the threads are white and an equal number are colored. If you look closely at the weaving of a tablecloth, you will see that the satin-like figures are woven by bringing the filling thread not "over one and under one," but often over two or three and under one. In drilling or any other twilled goods, several harnesses have to be used because the warp thread is not lowered directly in line with the one preceding, but diagonally. Such work as this used to require a vast amount of skill and patience; but the famous Jacquard machine will do it with ease, and will do more complicated weaving than any one ever dreamed of before its invention, for it will weave not only regular figures extending across the cloth, but can be made to introduce clusters of flowers, a figure, or a face wherever it is desired. By the aid of this, every little warp thread or cluster of threads can be lifted by its own hooked wire without interfering with any other thread. Cards of paper or thin metal are made for each pattern, leaving a hole wherever the hook is to slip through and lift up a thread. After the cards are once made, the work is as easy as plain weaving; but there must be a separate card for every thread of filling in the pattern, and sometimes a single design has required as many as thirty thousand pattern cards. The machines in a cotton mill are the result of experimenting, lasting through many years. They do not seem quite so "human" as those which help to carry on some parts of other manufactures; but they are wonderfully ingenious. For instance, the sliver is so light that it seems to have hardly any weight, but it balances a tiny support. If the sliver breaks, the support falls, and this stops the machine. Again, if one of the threads of the warp breaks when it is being wound on the beam, a slender bent wire that has been hung on it falls. It drops between two rollers and stops them. Then the workman knows that something is wrong, and a glance will show where attention is needed. Success in a cotton mill demands constant attention to details. A mill manager who has been very successful has given to those of less experience some wise directions about running a mill. For one thing, he reminds them that building is expensive and that floor space counts. If by rearranging looms space can be made for more spindles, it is well worth while to rearrange. He tells them to study their machines and see whether they are working so slowly that they cannot do as much as possible, or so fast as to strain the work. He bids them to keep their gearings clean, to be clear and definite in their orders, and to read the trade papers; but above everything else to look out for the little things, a little leak in the mill dam, a little too much tightness in a belt, or the idleness of just one spindle. Herein lies, he says, one of the great differences between a successful and an unsuccessful superintendent. Weaving as practiced in factories is a complicated business; but whether it is done with a simple hand loom in a cottage or with a big power loom in a great factory, there are always three movements. One separates the warp threads; one drives the shuttle between them; and one swings the reed against the filling thread just put in. XI SILKWORMS AND THEIR WORK About silk there is something particularly agreeable. There are few people who do not like the sheen of a soft silk, the sparkle of light on a "taffeta," and the richness of the silk that "can stand alone." Its delicate rustle is charming, and the "feel" of it is a delight. It has not the chill of linen, the deadness of cotton, or the "scratchiness" of woolen. It pleases the eye, the ear, and the touch. The caterpillars of a few butterflies and of many moths are spinners of fibers similar to silk. Among these last is the beautiful pale-green lunar moth. Spiders spin a lustrous fiber, and it is said that a lover of spiders succeeded, by a good deal of petting and attention, in getting considerable material from a company of them. Silkworms, however, are the only providers of real silk for the world. Once in a while glowing accounts are published of the ease with which they can be raised and the amount of money which can be made from them with very small capital. This business, however, like all other kinds of business, requires close attention and skill if it is to be a success. An expert has said that it needs more time to build a spool of silk than a locomotive. The way to begin to raise silkworms is first of all to provide something for them to eat. They are very particular about their bill of fare. The leaf of the osage orange will answer, but they like much better the leaf of the white mulberry. Then send to a reliable dealer for a quarter of an ounce of silkworm eggs. That sounds like a small order, but it will bring you nine or ten thousand eggs, ready to become sturdy little silkworms if all goes well with them. Put them on a table with a top of wire netting covered with brown paper, and keep them comfortably warm. In a week or two, there will appear some little worms about an eighth of an inch long and covered with black hairs. These tiny worms have to become three inches or more in length, and they are expected to accomplish the feat in about a month. If a boy four feet tall should grow at the silkworm's rate for one month, he would become forty-eight feet tall. It is no wonder that the worms have to make a business of eating, or that the keeper has to make a business of providing them with food. They eat most of the time, and they make a queer little crackling sound while they are about it. They have from four to eight meals a day of mulberry leaves. The worms from a quarter of an ounce of eggs begin with one pound a day, and work up to between forty and fifty. Silkworms like plenty of fresh air, and if they are to thrive, their table must be kept clean. A good way to manage this is to put over them paper full of holes large enough for them to climb through. Lay the leaves upon the paper; the worms will come up through the holes to eat, and the litter on their table can be cleared away. As the worms grow larger, the holes must be made larger. It is no wonder that their skins soon become too tight for them. They actually lose their appetite for a day or two, and they slip away to some quiet corner under the leaves, and plainly wish there were no other worms to bother them. Soon the skin comes off, and they make up for lost time so energetically that they have to drop their tight skins three times more before they are fully grown. Wet mulberry leaves must not be given them, or they will become sick and die, and there will be an end of the silkworm business from that quarter-ounce of eggs. They must have plenty of room on their table as well as in their skins. At first a tray or table two feet long and a little more than one foot wide will be large enough; but when they are full-grown, they will need about eighty square feet of table or shelves. At spinning time, even this will not be enough. After the worms have shed their skins four times and then eaten as much as they possibly can for eight or ten days, they begin to feel as if they had had enough. They now eat very little and really become smaller. They are restless and wander about. Now and then they throw out threads of silk as fine as a spider's web. They know exactly what they want; each little worm wants to make a cocoon, and all they ask of you is to give them the right sort of place to make it in. When they live out of doors in freedom, they fasten their cocoons to twigs; and if you wish to give them what they like best, get plenty of dry twigs and weave them together in arches standing over the shelves. Pretty soon you will see one worm after another climb up the twigs and select a place for its cocoon. Before long it throws out threads from its spinneret, a tiny opening near the mouth, and makes a kind of net to support the cocoon which it is about to weave. The silkworm may have seemed greedy, but he did not eat one leaf too much for the task that lies before him. There is nothing lazy about him; and now he works with all his might, making his cocoon. He begins at the outside and shapes it like a particularly plump peanut of a clear, pale yellow. The silk is stiffened with a sort of gum as it comes out of the spinneret. The busy little worm works away, laying its threads in place in the form of a figure eight. For some time the cocoon is so thin that one can watch him. It is calculated that his tiny head makes sixty-nine movements every minute. The covering grows thicker and the room for the silkworm grows smaller. After about seventy-two hours, put your ear to the cocoon, and if all is quiet within, it is completed and the worm is shut up within it. Strange things happen to him while he sleeps in the quiet of his silken bed, for he becomes a dry brown chrysalis without head or feet. Then other things even more marvelous come to pass, for in about three weeks the little creature pushes the threads apart at one end of the cocoon and comes out, not a silkworm at all, but a moth with head and wings and legs and eyes. This moth lays hundreds of eggs, and in less than three weeks it dies. This is what the silkworm will do if it is left alone; but it is the business of the silk-raiser to see that it is not left alone. About eight days after the cocoon is begun, it is steamed or baked to kill the chrysalis so that it cannot make its way out and so spoil the silk. The quarter of an ounce of eggs will make about thirty pounds of cocoons. Now is the time to be specially watchful, for there is nothing in which rats and mice so delight as a plump, sweet chrysalis; and they care nothing whatever for the three or four thousand yards of silk that is wound about each one. To take this silk off is a delicate piece of work. A single fiber is not much larger than the thread of a cobweb, and before the silk can be used, several threads must be united in one. First, the cocoon is soaked in warm water to loosen the gum that the worm used to stick its threads together. Ends of silk from half a dozen or more cocoons are brought together, run through a little hole in a guide, and wound on a reel as one thread. This needs skill and practice, for the reeled silk must be kept of the same size. The cocoon thread is so slender that, of course, it breaks very easily; and when this happens, another thread must be pieced on. Then, too, the inner silk of the cocoon is finer than the outer; so unless care is taken to add threads, the reeled silk will be irregular. The water must also be kept just warm enough to soften the gum, but not too hot. The silk is taken off the reel, and the skeins are packed up in bales as if it were of no more value than cotton. Indeed, it does not look nearly so pretty and attractive as a lap of pure white cotton, for it is stiff and gummy and has hardly any luster. Now it is sent to the manufacturer. It is soaked in hot soapy water for several hours, and it is drawn between plates so close together that, while they allow the silk to go through, they will not permit the least bit of roughness or dirt to pass. If the thread breaks, a tiny "faller," such as are used in cotton mills, falls down and stops the machine. The silk must now be twisted, subjected to two or three processes to increase its luster, and dyed,--and if you would like to feel as if you were paying a visit to a rainbow, go into a mill and watch the looms with their smooth, brilliant silks of all the colors that can be imagined. After the silk is woven, it is polished on lustering machines, singed to destroy all bits of free fibers or lint, freed of all threads that may project, and scoured if it is of a light color; then sold. [Illustration: _Courtesy Cheney Bros._ HOW SPUN SILK IS MADE Every manufacturer saves everything he can, and even the waste silk which cannot be wound on reels is turned into a salable product] The moth whose cocoon provides most of our silk is called the "bombyx mori." There are others, however, and from some of these tussah silk, Yamamai, and Shantung pongee are woven. These wild moths produce a stronger thread, but it is much less smooth than that of the bombyx. There is also a great amount of "wood silk," or artificial silk, on the market. To make this, wood pulp is dissolved in ether and squirted through fine jets into water. It is soon hard enough to be twisted into threads and woven. It makes an imitation of silk, bright and lustrous, but not wearing so well as the silk of the silkworm. Nevertheless, for many purposes it is used as a substitute for silk, and many braids and passementeries are made of it. Then, too, there are the "mercerized" goods, which often closely resemble real silk, although there is not a thread of silk in them. It was discovered many years ago that if a piece of cotton cloth was boiled in caustic soda, it would become soft and thick and better able to receive delicate dyes. Unfortunately, it also shrank badly. At length it occurred to some one that the cloth might be kept from shrinking by being stretched out during the boiling in soda. He was delighted to find that this process made it more brilliant than many silks. The threads that fasten the cocoon to the bush and those in the heart of the cocoon are often used, together with the fiber from any cocoons through which the worms have made their way out. This is real silk, of course, but it is made of short fibers which cannot be wound. It is carded and spun and made into fabric called "spun silk," which is used extensively for the heavier classes of goods. Then, too, silks are often "weighted"; that is, just before they are dyed, salts of iron or tin are added. One pound of silk will absorb two or three pounds of these chemicals, and will apparently be a heavy silk, while it is really thin and poor. Moreover, this metallic weighting rubs against the silk fiber and mysterious holes soon begin to appear. A wise "dry cleaner" will have nothing to do with such silks, lest he should be held responsible for these holes. It is this weighting which produces the peculiar rustle of taffeta; and if women would be satisfied with a taffeta that was soft and thin, the manufacturers would gladly leave out the salts of iron, and the silks would wear much better. Cotton is seldom mixed with the silk warp thread; but it is used as "filling" in a large class of goods with silk warp. The custom has arisen of advertising such goods as "silk," which of course is not a fair description of them. Advertisements sometimes give notice of amazing sales of "Shantung pongee," which has been made in American looms and is a very different article from the imported "wild silk" pongee. With so many shams in the market, how is a woman to know what she is buying and whether it will wear? There are a few simple tests that are helpful. Ravel a piece of silk and examine the warp and woof. If they are of nearly the same size, the silk is not so likely to split. See how strong the thread is. Burn a thread. If it burns with a little flame, it is cotton. If it curls up and smells like burning wool, it is probably silk. Another test by fire is to burn a piece of the goods. If it is silk, it will curl up; if it is heavily weighted, it will keep its shape. If you boil a sample in caustic potash, all the silk in it will dissolve, but the cotton will remain. If the whole sample disappears, you may be sure that it was all silk. Soft, finely woven silks are safest because they will not hold so much weighting. Crêpe de chine is made of a hard twisted thread and therefore wears well. Taffeta can carry a large amount of weighting, and is always doubtful; it may wear well, and it may not. There is always a reason for a bargain sale of silks. The store may wish to clear out a collection of remnants or to get rid of a line of goods which are no longer to be carried; but aside from this, there is usually some defect in the goods themselves or else they have failed to please the fashionable whim of the moment. Silk is always silk, and if you want it, you must pay for it. Transcriber's Note Some illustrations have been moved from their original locations to paragraph breaks, so as to be nearer to their corresponding text, or for ease of document navigation. 
15456	----	{Transcribers Notes: Do you remember how to spell "pharmacopoeia" or "Winnipiseogee"? This was for sixth grade! Here is a chance to expand your vocabulary or just enjoy a trip to the grade school of 1900. The original text uses a specialized font to indicate pronunciation. Italics are used to specify words or syllables in the text. The approximations given here retain only the emphasis (accent). See the DOC or PDF format for the original graphics. Don Kostuch} ECLECTIC EDUCATIONAL SERIES. McGUFFEY'S [Registered] ECLECTIC SPELLING-BOOK. REVISED EDITION. McGuffey Editions and Colophon are Trademarks of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. NEW YORK-CHICHESTER-WEINHEIM-BRISBANE-SINGAPORE-TORONTO PREFACE. In revising this book, care has been taken to preserve all the excellences that have so long and so favorably distinguished McGUFFEY'S ECLECTIC SPELLING-BOOK: and the chief changes that have been made, have been suggested by the evident plan of the original work. The old system of indicating the pronunciation by numerals, called "superiors," has been abandoned, and the diacritical marks used by Webster have been adopted. The Revised Speller conforms in orthography, pronunciation, and syllabication to the latest edition of Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. Exercises have been given on each of the distinctive marks used in the book, as will be seen by reference to Lessons 36-57. A number of lessons have been added in the department of prefixes and suffixes, and now nearly all the more common of these etymological principles have been explained. (See Lessons 136-167.) In arranging the text of the several lessons, the object has been not to appeal merely to arbitrary memory, but to associate each lesson with some principle of sound, meaning, or accent, which would tend to aid the pupil in acquiring a knowledge of our language. Several distinct lessons on pronunciation are given, and towards the close of the book numerous lessons of difficult words in orthography have been introduced. Instead of indicating silent letters by italics, as has hitherto been done, a new type has been made in which such letters are canceled, thus enabling the pupil to discover their status at a glance. The pages have been enlivened, as in the other books of this Series, by attractive engravings. The publishers take pleasure in acknowledging the valuable services of W. B. Watkins, D. D., who planned and executed this revision. DECEMBER, 1879. 16 Copyright, 1879, by Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co. THE ENGLISH ALPHABET. The English Alphabet consists of twenty-six letters, viz.: a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w,x,y,z. Letters are divided into VOWELS and CONSONANTS. The Vowels are those letters which can be perfectly sounded without the aid of any other letter. The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, w, and y. The vowel sounds of w and y are the same as those of u and i. A, e, and o are always vowels. I, u, w, and y are sometimes consonants. A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one sound. When both vowels are sounded, the diphthong is called PROPER, because then it is really a DIPHTHONG, or double sound; that is, the sounds of the vowels unite; as, oi in oil; ou in sound. When only one of the vowels is sounded, the diphthong is called IMPROPER, because then, as one of the vowels is silent, it is not properly a DIPHTHONG, though it takes that name; as, oa in boat, ui in suit, where a and i are silent. The following diphthongs are in common use, viz.: oi, oy, ou, ow, ae, ai, au, aw, ay, ea, ei, eo, eu, ew, ey, ia, ie, oa, oe, ua, ue, ui; as in toil, boy, round, plow, seal, coal, head, sail, say, aught, yeoman. Of these, oi, oy, ou, and ow are generally proper diphthongs; though sometimes ou and ow are improper, as in famous, where o is silent, and in slow, where w is silent. A Triphthong is the union of three vowels in one syllable; as, eau in beau, iew in view. The triphthong is properly a union of letters, not sounds. OF THE VARIOUS SOUNDS. All the vowels, and some of the consonants, have several sounds; in this book these sounds are indicated by diacritical marks, as in the following tables: TABLE OF VOCALS. Long Sounds. Sound as is ----- ----- a ate a care a arm a last a all oo fool e eve e err i ice o ode u use Short Sounds. Sound as is ----- ----- a am e elm i in o odd u up oo look Diphthongs. oi,oy,as in oil, boy ou,ow, as in out, owl TABLE OF SUBVOCALS Sound as is ----- ----- b bib d did g gig j jug n nine m maim ng hang l lull v valve th this z zinc zh azure r rare w we y yet TABLE OF ASPIRATES Sound as is ----- ----- f fife h him k cake p pipe s same t tart sh she ch chat th thick wh why NOTE.--The foregoing forty-four sounds are those most employed in the English language. Some of these sounds are represented by other letters, as shown in the following table. For further instruction concerning the sounds, see Lessons 36-57. TABLE OF SUBSTITUTES. Sound for as in ----- --- ----- a o what e a there e a feint i e police i e sir o u son o oo to o oo wolf o a fork o e work u oo full u e burn u oo rude y i fly y i myth c k can c s cite ch sh chaise ch k chaos g j gem n ng ink s z as s sh sure x gz exact gh f laugh ph f phlox qu k pique[1] qu kw quit [Footnote 1: The u is canceled in this book when qu is sounded like k.] W, in its vowel sounds, corresponds with u; an in new (pro. nu). A has, in a few words, the sound of e; as in any (pro. en'ny). U has, in a few words, the sound of e; as in bury (pro. ber'ry); or that of i, as in busy (pro. biz'y). OF THE CONSONANTS. The Consonants are those letters which can not be perfectly sounded without the aid of a vowel. The consonants are b, c, d, f, g, h, l, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, z, and sometimes i, u, w, and y. The consonants are divided into MUTES and SEMI-VOWELS. The Mutes are those consonants that admit of no sound without the aid of a vowel. They are b, d, k, p, q, t, and c and g hard. The Semi-vowels are those consonants that can be sounded imperfectly by themselves. They are f, h, j, l, m, n, r, s, v, x, z, and c and g soft. Four of the semi-vowels are called LIQUIDS; viz., l, m, n, and r. They are called liquids because they unite so readily with other sounds, or flow into them. OF SYLLABLES AND WORDS. A Syllable is a sound, or a combination of sounds, uttered by a single impulse of the voice: it may have one or more letters; as a, bad, bad-ness. A Word is either a syllable or a combination of syllables; as, not, notion. A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable; as, man. A word of two syllables is called a Dissyllable; as, manly. A word of three syllables is called a Trisyllable; as, manliness. Words of more than three syllables are called Polysyllables. Accent is a stress of voice placed upon some one syllable more than the others. Every word composed of two or more syllables has one of them accented. This accent is denoted by a mark (') at the end of the accented syllable; as, mid'night, a ban'don. A Primitive Word is one which is not derived from any other word; as, man, great, full. A Derivative Word is one which is formed from some other word by adding something to it; as, manful, greatness, fully. A Simple Word is one which is not composed of more than one word; as, kind, man, stand, ink. A Compound Word is one that is composed of two or more simple words; as, ink-stand, wind-mill. Spelling is naming or writing the letters of a word. Script Alphabet [Illustration: The following letter are shown in an ideal hand-written script.] CAPITAL LETTERS. A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z LOWER-CASE LETTERS. a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z THE ALPHABET. A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z THE ALPHABET. a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z PICTORIAL ALPHABET. A [Illustration: Axe] B [Illustration: Boy] C [Illustration: Cat] D [Illustration: Dog] E [Illustration: Elk] F [Illustration: Fox] G [Illustration: Girl] H [Illustration: Hen] I [Illustration: Ink] J [Illustration: Jug] K [Illustration: Kid (Goat)] L [Illustration: Lark] M [Illustration: Man] N [Illustration: Nut] O [Illustration: Ox] P [Illustration: Pig] Q [Illustration: Quail] R [Illustration: Rat S [Illustration: Sun] T [Illustration: Top] U [Illustration: Urn] V [Illustration: Vine] W [Illustration: Wren] X [Illustration: letter X] Y [Illustration: Yak] Z [Illustration: Zebra] McGUFFEY'S ECLECTIC SPELLING-BOOK. Lesson 1. SHORT SOUNDS OF VOWELS. Short Sound of A. am cat gap ban cap an bad bag can map as mad gag fan nap at pad hag pan rap ax sad lag ran hap rat gad tag tan jam sat sap fag van ham Short Sound of E. bed den net sell tent led ken pet nest rent red men set zest sent wed wen yet test went beg jet sex pest felt leg let fell rest pelt hen met bell jest melt Lesson 2. SHORT SOUNDS OF VOWELS.--CONTINUED. Short Sound of I. if rid him sin jig it lid rim tin rig is sip fix dig bib bit tip six fig jib hit nip din big rib sit lip pin pig fib Short Sound of O. on cob nod box dot ox job pod hop jot got rob rod mop lot cot sob log sop pot jot cod hog pop rot lot God dog top not Short Sound of U. up mud rum rut gush us dug sum hung dust cub mug bun bung must hub pug dun lung rust rub tug run sung gust bud jug sun hulk drum Lesson 3. REVIEW OF SHORT SOUNDS OF VOWELS. man lap pat tap had fin get ten wet peg fit dim mix hid his hot rot fob dot con rug hum fun hut cut had fun hug gum flog den fog dip nag dram did tub fog bet help sod hod gun pen lift lad bet did cog rush Lesson 4. Long Sound of A. date jade came cage bane late fade dame page lace mate rate same sage wake Long Sound of E. me we she heed weed fee jeer feed deed deep feel leer meek keep peep seek veer beef reel weep Long Sound of I. pile dike fire life bide file like tire rife hide mile pike sire wife ride Long Sound of O. code dolt bone hope dote node jolt cone pope note bode molt hone rope vote rove bolt tone cope hold Long Sound of U. lure cube mute lune huge cure tube duke dune pule pure lute jute use cue Lesson 5. Short Sounds of Vowels. crab bled chip shot bump grab fled ship blot lump drab sled whip spot pump slab sped slip plot jump stab then drip trot hump brag bent spit clog bulk cram best crib frog just clan hemp gift plod drug clad vest king stop shut dash west grit clod hush Lesson 6. Various Vowel Sounds. bard deal tank dell ill card veal rank tell bill hard meal sank well fill bark neat hank yell rill dark heat dank belt hill dint bang dime rave cull hint fang lime gave dull lint gang tine lave gull mint hang fine pave hull tint rang mine save mull Lesson 7. Long Sounds of Vowels. blaze sneer drive globe dean craze creed tribe drone bean shape steep brine stone bead state sleek spire probe beam crape fleet bride shore lean fume smite blame clear mope spume spite flame drear mold fluke quite slate blear tore flume whine spade spear robe dure spine prate smear poke Lesson 8. Various Sounds of Vowels. clasp small cramp bring moan grasp stall stamp cling coast flask fall grand sling toast graft wall stand swing roast craft squall lamp thing roach book boon stork wad pod good spoon horse was rob took bloom snort wash rock foot broom short wast soft hook stool north what lost Lesson 9. Long Sounds of Vowels under the Accent. fa'tal le'gal lo'cal cu'bit na'tal re'gal fo'cal du'el pa'pal re'al vo'cal hu'man pa'gan pe'nal o'ral u'nit ba'by ta'per o'val du'ly la'dy di'al to'tal fu'ry la'zy tri'al bo'ny ju'ry ma'zy fi'nal co'ny pu'ny na'vy vi'tal go'ry pu'pil ra'cy ri'val ro'sy hu'mid Sa'tan vi'al po'sy tu'mid Lesson 10. Short Sounds of Vowels under the Accent. al'um el'der civ'il cul'prit al'to hec'tic dit'ty clum'sy can'ter helm'et gid'dy dul'cet mar'ry fen'nel fil'ly fun'nel ral'ly ken'nel sil'ly gul'ly nap'kin bel'fry liv'id buck'et hap'py ed'dy lim'it gus'set pan'try en'try lim'ber sul'len ram'mer en'vy riv'et sum'mon mam'mon test'y lin'en hur'ry tab'let self'ish mil'let mul'let Lesson 11. Various Sounds of A. care fast charm camp war mare mast chart damp warp share cask lard hand warm spare mask arm land ward snare past yard sand warn game scar lake waft fray lame spar dale raft play name star gale chaff gray fame garb cape aft stay tame barb shame staff bray Lesson 12. Various Sounds of A. dan'ger am'ber lard'er clat'ter man'ger ban'ter mar'gin flat'ter quak'er ban'ner ar'dent lat'ter qua'ver hand'y ar'my mat'ter dra'per man'na art'ist pat'ter wa'ger can'cer har'vest tat'ter fa'vor pan'der par'ty rag'ged fla'vor tam'per tar'dy rack'et sa'vor plan'et ar'dor van'ish ma'jor ham'per car'pet gal'lant ca'per stam'mer gar'ment pat'tern Lesson 13. Various Sounds of E. sheep ce'dar bet'ter cler'gy creep fe'ver fet'ter fer'vor sleep tre'mor let'ter her'mit sweep ge'nus en'ter mer'cy speed se'cret ev'er ser'mon breeze re'bus nev'er ser'pent teeth se'quel sev'er mer'chant sneeze se'quence dex'ter ver'bal breed he'ro mem'ber ver'dict bleed ze'ro plen'ty per'son freed se'cant ven'om fer'ment Lesson 14. Various Sounds of I. bird bri'er bib'ber thir'ty birch ci'der bit'ter thirst'y chirp mi'ser dif'fer third'ly flirt spi'der din'ner birch'en girl vi'per frit'ter chirp'er shirt cli'ent lit'ter girl'ish squirm gi'ant riv'er gird'er squirt i'tem shiv'er stir'less third i'cy sil'ver first'ly girt spi'ral in'ner birth'day gird i'vy liv'er mirth'ful Lesson 15. Various Sounds of O. bro'ker col'ic cor'net worst clo'ver ton'ic cor'set come drov'er top'ic or'gan love gro'cer mor'al sor'did dove o'ver com'ma tor'pid shoot o'dor dog'ged form'al moon so'lar doc'tor for'ty moose po'lar cop'per lord'ly tooth pok'er fod'der morn'ing gorge home'ly fos'ter orb'it most po'em pon'der mor'tal prop Lesson 16. Various Sounds of U. hu'mor but'ter mur'der pru'dent ju'ror mut'ter mur'mur fru'gal tu'mor rud'der tur'ban tru'ly stu'por shut'ter tur'nip tru'ant tu'tor suf'fer tur'key cru'et cu'rate sup'per pur'port bru'in lu'cid mum'my curl'y dru'id stu'dent mus'ket fur'ry ru'in stu'pid num'ber fur'nish ru'by lu'nar nut'meg cur'vet bru'tal tu'mult stut'ter bur'den gru'el Lesson 17. Various Sounds of the Vowels. June furl husk from halt dupe hurl musk pomp malt tune turn rusk romp salt flute churn stung long waltz plume hurt pluck song swan glue curl drunk strong wasp droop deck chill for sheath gloom neck drill corn shell loop next quill fork shorn hoof text skill form shout roof desk spill sort shrub proof nest frill torch shrug Lesson 18. Words Accented on the last Syllable. a wake' be hest' be hind' re cede' be came' be set' be side' con crete' be have' ca det' be tide' com pete' be take' de fend' de rive' se crete' e late' de pend' re cite' con cede' per vade' re pel' re tire' con vene' for sake' at tend' re vile' im pede' a bate' con sent' re mise' re plete' cre ate' im pend' re vive' un seen' es tate' im pel' con nive' su preme' re late' com pel' ex cite' re lease' Lesson 19. be rate' a bode' ex pire' a cute' a pace' a lone' con fide' a buse' re bate' a tone' con fine' con fuse' de bate' af ford' con spire' de duce' de face' ca jole' po lite' de lude' de fame' de pose' re cline' ma ture' se date' com pose' re fine' pol lute' col late' en force' re pine' pro cure' re gale' en robe' re quire' re buke' em pale' ex plore' re spire' re duce' en gage' ex pose' u nite' se clude' en rage' im port' en twine' se cure' Lesson 20. blade plash bream dress twine glade clash cream swim blind grade crash dream spend grind shade smash gleam speck spike trade trash steam fresh smile skate slash stream whelp while brisk drove blush cheap carve quilt grove flush peach farce filth stove slush teach parse pinch clove brush reach barge flinch smote crush bleach large mince store thrush glean snarl Lesson 21. ab'bey rec'ord pit'y col'ter ab'bot check'er dis'tant fo'cus atom ed'it din'gy glo'ry ash'es lev'el diz'zy lo'cust cap'tor meth'od fin'ish mo'ment car'rot splen'did gim'let po'tent cav'il ves'per spir'it co'gent ehap'ter west'ern tim'id do'tage chat'tel bed'lam pig'gin no'ted fath'om des'pot tin'sel stor'age gal'lon ren'der tip'pet sto'ry gal'lop tem'pest wit'ness pro'test Lesson 22. shake chose march pine oil snake prose parch wild moil baste those starch mild coil haste froze larch tile foil taste force lark slide soil paste porch stark glide toil bunch broth prism spent boy hunch cloth sixth fence coy lunch froth stint hence hoy punch moth smith pence joy plump botch whist thence toy stump stock midst whence cloy Lesson 23. Monosyllables miscellaneously arranged. free clip shelf quest shine spin hate chide flax wore shad tape fringe still think band race clock trim marsh pack mire cheek door booth bath kite full clung wince dock bank frock loft spray gold fell troop pulp join pipe pink glass grape friz club hilt lurk pose brow shop last cloud zest grace Lesson 24. Words in which the final e is silent. ca'ble nee'dle rab'ble bub'ble fa'ble Bi'ble sam'ple bun'dle ga'ble ti'tle sim'ple crum'ble sa'ble ri'fle tem'ple muf'fle sta'ble no'ble dim'ple muz'zle cra'dle fick'le fid'dle pud'dle la'dle am'ple kin'dle ruf'fle ma'ple ap'ple lit'tle tum'ble sta'ple baffle bot'tle pur'ple bee'tle bat'tle cob'ble cir'cle fee'ble cat'tle fond'le sad'dle Lesson 25. an'gel ab'sent bish'op blun'der ba'sis ac'rid big'ot blus'ter ca'ter blank'et bil'let cus'tom fla'grant clas'sic blis'ter cut'ler fra'grant crag'gy cin'der cut'ter has'ty dam'sel crick'et sum'mer ha'tred dan'dy fif'ty sun'der la'bel fab'ric fil'let shud'der pa'tent fam'ish lim'pid thun'der sa'cred fran'tic pil'fer tum'bler state'ment lath'er pil'lar ul'cer va'cate lav'ish print'er un'der Lesson 26. DICTATION EXERCISES. NOTE TO TEACHERS.--These lessons are intended as exercises in the meaning as well as the spelling of words. Distinguish carefully words of similar sound, but which differ in their spelling. At the recitation the sentences should be read aloud by the teacher, and the pupils required to write them out neatly and correctly upon their slates or on the blackboard. He ate seven or eight apples. Send the pale maid with the pail of milk. He owed for the paper on which he wrote an ode to the moon. We are not quite ready for the quiet man. Age gives edge to wine. He said the idol looked like a satyr. Clever satire often rouses the idle. Lesson 27. Sounds of ai, ou, ow, and ea, paid bound cow cheat head grain found how treat dead staid ground town beast stead waif hound growl bleat tread rail mound clown preach dread flail pound frown speak thread quail round crown streak sweat snail sound drown feast death Lesson 28. Dissyllables with short Sounds of Vowels. ad'age fren'zy bick'er blos'som bal'last emp'ty crit'ic cot'ton bant'ling gen'try dig'it com'ic can'to mer'it flim'sy drop'sy ras'cal men'tal flip'pant flor'id las'so sher'iff frig'id frol'ic an'tic ten'dril in'fant gos'pel sad'ness vel'lum in'gress gos'sip sal'ver vel'vet in'mate hor'rid sand'y nec'tar in'quest jol'ly mag'got ves'try in'sect rock'et Lesson 29. Trisyllables with short Sounds of the Vowels. bal'co ny del'i cate lib'er ate bar'o ny des'o late lim'i tate cav'i ty der'o gate im'mo late fac'ul ty dev'as tate in'di cate grav'i ty em'u late in'ti mate mal'a dy hes'i tate in'du rate van'i ty med'i tate in'vo cate am'pu tate pet'ri fy ir'ri tate ab'so lute plen'i tude lit'i gate al'ti tude rec'ti tude mil'i tate am'bu lance res'o lute stip'u late Lesson 30. Miscellaneous Sounds. prime swine straw crawl brawn snore gloss flank brick charge crow quench green tinge shark Scotch chest goose brand thrift space prow twist flange crank wealth slice twain limp screw throb thrice chess flake soon flesh finch flash flaw twelve flung clean loaf scale Lesson 31. Long Sounds of I and U, and short Sounds of E and I. a bide' ac cuse' con tend' ad mit' a like' im pure' con tent' ad dict' a live' im pute' in tend' as sist' a rise' as sume' in tent' com mit' de cide' com mute' dis sect' con sist' de file' com mune' de ject' de pict' de fine' com pute' de test' dis till' de ride' con clude' de tect' emit' de sire' con fute' in spect' en list' di vide' dis pute' ob ject' en rich' di vine' en dure' re spect' for bid' Lesson 32. Silent Letters. B is silent after m and before t, and p is silent before s. The silent letters are canceled in this lesson, as they are throughout the book. lamb numb debt debt'or comb bomb doubt doubt'ful tomb crumb psalm sub'tle dumb thumb pshaw psal'ter DICTATION EXERCISES ON THE ABOVE. The lamb is a dumb animal. He climbed the hill to the tomb, but his limbs became numb. Comb your hair, but do not thumb your book. Bombs are now commonly called "shells." The debtor, who was a subtle man, doubted his word, and gave not a crumb of comfort. Take your psalter and select a joyous psalm. His answer was, "Pshaw!" Lesson 33. Sounds of igh, oa, shr, and thr. nigh load coax shrank thrash thigh oats hoax shrewd threat fight boat oath shrift throng light oak coach shrike throve flight foal float shrunk thrust fright goat poach thrill throat tight soap hoarse three thrum Lesson 34. Long and short Sounds of A, and short Sound of E. gain a bash' dis patch' pre tend' nail ca bal' dis tract' re flect' taint ca nal' ex pand' re fresh' trail cra vat' a bet' re lent' aim de camp' be deck' re ject' maim pro tract' be held' re quest' train re cant' be quest' re bel' strain re fract' de fect' re gress' chain re lax' e lect' re press' paint at tack' e rect' sub ject quaint at tract' e vent' neg'lect' Lesson 35. Short Sounds of Vowels under the Accent. ac'ci dent ben'e fit dif'fer ent ad'a mant brev'i ty dif'fi cult am'i ty clem'en cy fil'a ment an'i mal des'ti ny in'cre ment an'nu al neg'li gent in'do lent can'is ter pend'u lum his'to ry flat'ter y rem'e dy in'ju ry fam'i ly reg'u lar pil'lo ry lax'i ty rel'e vant sim'i lar man'i fest pen'i tence tit'u lar man'i fold pen'e trate tim'or ous Lesson 36. SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS, DIPHTHONGS, AND CONSONANTS. In this lesson, and in the pages immediately following, will be found forty-three exercises on the various sounds of the English language. Some of these have been given already, but are repeated here for the more thorough instruction of the pupil Let the teacher carefully discriminate between the different sounds of the vowels, and fully drill the scholars in their correct enunciation. 1. Regular Long Sound of A, marked a. make la'tent brave a base'ment safe cham'ber crave a bate'ment gaze pas'try grave ad ja'cent saint man'gy shave a wa'ken Lesson 37. 2. Regular Short Sound of A, marked a. span ad'der crack can'di date trap an'vil gland cal'i co plat ban'ish slack grat'i tude sham bran'dy plaid mag'is trate 3. Sound of A before r in such words as air, care, marked a. dare af fair' chair trans par'ent rare de spair' prayer for bear'ance flare be ware' scare par'ent age glare com pare' square care'ful ness Lesson 38. 4. Sound of the Italian A, as in arm, marked a. farm ar'bor guard ar'gu ment harm ar'mor daunt ar'ti choke barn bar'ber harsh car'di nal yarn car'go jaunt car'pen ter 5. Sound of A in certain words before ff, ft, ss, st, sk, sp, and in a few before nce and nt, marked a, as in staff. mass chance gasp chan'cel lor class pass'port quaff chan'cer y vast mas'ter chant craft'i ness task graft'ed prance ad van'tage Lesson 39. 6. Sound of broad A. as in all, marked a. thrall de bauch' drawl au'di ence tall de fault' pawn laud'a ble wart de fraud' sprawl plaus'i ble awe as sault' warmth talk'a tive 7. Short Sound of broad A, as in what, marked a. wan wan'ton squash squal'id ness wand wan'der squab was'ish ly squat squan'der squad watch'ful ness wat'ch wal'low swamp what ev'er Lesson 40. 8. Regular Long Sound of E, as in eve, marked e. feel fe'male wean de'i ty keel pee'vish these de'cen cy glee que'ry priest e gre'gious deem nei'ther cheer fre'quen cy 9. Regular Short Sound of E, as in end, marked e. ebb pen'ny sledge, en'e my fret sec'ond spread rec'og nize helm ten'der knelt len'i ty them rec'tor cleft mem'o ry Lesson 41. 10. Sound of E as in there, marked e, This corresponds with the sound of a in care. ne'er par terre' where up on' where ere long' where un to' there of' there by' where a bouts' heir'ess where at' where with al' 11. Sound of E like a, as in prey, marked e. they neigh'bor neigh'bor hood whey hei'nous sur vey'or freight o bey' pur vey'ance deign in veigh' con vey'ance Lesson 42. 12. Sound of E before r, verging toward the sound of u in urge, and marked e. term er'mine terse ter'ma gant pearl ear'ly merge per'son al err per'fect yearn mer'chan dise learn mer'cer swerve ser'mon ize 13. Regular Long Sound of I. as in ice, marked i. fife di'et Christ brib'er y crime qui'et spice di'a dem shrine fi'at strive li'a ble thrive pli'ant slime i'ci cle Lesson 43. 14. Regular Short Sound of I, as in ill, marked i. sting piv'ot spring dif'fi dent bliss splin'ter twitch pin'a fore inch tin'der thick in'fa my strip wick'ed sphinx lit'ur gy 15. Sound of I like that of long e, as in pique, marked i. pe tite' fa tigue' mag a zine' an tique' in trigue' sub ma rine' ca price' po lice' ver'di gris fas cine' va lise' quar'an tine Lesson 44. 16. Sound of I before r, verging toward u in urge, marked i. stir birth'right girth girl'ish ness first gird'le thirst mirth'ful ness firm irk'some firth thir'ti eth skirt vir'gin smirch flirt'ing ly 17. Regular Long Sound of O, as in old, marked o. host po'et chrome fo'lio smoke to'ry blown glo'ri fy sport lo'cate scold o'pi ate slope so'lo droll po'et ry Lesson 45. 18. Regular Short Sound of O, as in not, marked o. bond mon'ster croft lon'gi tude frost pot'ter sconce prompt'i tude lodge lodg'ment mosque nom'i nate prong yon'der frond ob'li gate 19. Sound of O like short u, as in dove, marked o. month blood'shed sponge cov'ert ly glove love'ly tongue cov'e nant shove noth'ing flood broth'er hood front cov'et blood moth'er Iy Lesson 46. 20. Sound of O like oo long, as in do, marked o. whom tour'ist group who ev'er move rou tine' prove shoe'-mak er tour through out' douche en tomb'ment shoe en tomb' youth mov'ing ly 21. Sound of O like oo short, as in wolf, marked o. wolf bo'som em bo'som wol ver ene' would wom'an un bo'som wom'an ly could wolf'ish wom'an hood wom'an ish should wolf'-net worst'ed wolf'ish ly Lesson 47. 22. Sound of 0 like a (broad a), as in form, marked o. born tort'ure corpse form'al ist horn fork'ed thorn cor'mo rant morse' for'mer scorn hor'ta tive lorn for'ward scorch mor'ti fy 23. Another mark has been added in this book to indicate a sound of O where it precedes r, as in work, marked o. work wor'thy worse wor'thi ly word wor'ship world world'li ness worm ef'fort whorl wor'ship er wort world'ly whort work'ing-man Lesson 48. 24. Regular Long Sound of double 0, as in moon, marked 00. tool moon'shine groom boor'ish ness noon noon'tide school gloom'i ly spool bloom'ing soothe room'i ness groove gloom'y smooth sooth'say ing 25. Regular Short Sound of double O, as in wool, marked oo. wool hood'wink brook coop'er age look look'out crook rook'er y rook wood'land shook book'-bind er hood wool'ly stood crook'ed ness Lesson 49. 26. Regular Long Sound of U, as in mute. marked u. sue beau'ty deuce beau'ti ful lieu feud'al sluice cu'ti cle nude cu'bic juice mu'ti ny suit flu'id fugue pu'ri ty 27. Regular Short Sound of U, as in but, marked u. lungs slum'ber clump but'ter y plush rus'set stunt cus'to dy dunce duch'ess skulk 1ux'u ry trump scuf'fle young sum'ma ry Lesson 50. 28. Sound of U when preceded by r in the same syllable, as in rude, marked u. It is the same sound as oo. true ru'mor prune cru'di ty crude ru'ral truce rhru'ma tism cruse truf fle spruce pru'dent ly rule bru'tish cruise pru'ri ent 29. Sound of U like that of short oo, as in put, marked u. bull pul'pit ful'ly ful fill'ment pull pul'ley bush'y bul'le tin put cush'ion puss'y bull'ion ist push bul'wark butch'er bush'i ness Lesson 51. 30. Sound of U before r in such words as urge, marked u. urge jour'ney spurn ur'gen cy burn stur'geon nurse curl'i ness spur church'man curst jour'nal ist curb bur'gess burst hurt'ful ness 31. Regular Long Sound of Y, as in fly, marked y. ap ply' ty'rant pyre dy'nas ty de ny' hy'dra type an'ti type re ly' ty'phus fyke a sy'lum re ply' ty'ro chyme hy e'na Lesson 52. 32. Regular Short Sound of Y, as in hymn, marked y. pyx sys'tem lymph sym'me try cyst syn'tax nymph syn'co pe tymp phys'ic tryst syn'dic ate Styx lyr'ic rynd syn op'sis 33. The sound of oi or oy (unmarked), as heard in oil, oyster. oint re coil' spoil en joy'ment voice re joice' moist dis joint'ed troy de stroy' broil em ploy'ment poise em ploy' choice ap point'ment Lesson 53. 34. The sound of ow (unmarked), as heard in owl. When the ow is sounded as in blown, the o is marked long (blown). howl al low' crowd flow'er y gown en dow' prowl pow'er ful cowl vow'el scowl em bow'el down row'el brown en dow'ment 35. The diphthong ou has two leading sounds: that of ow in words derived from the Anglo-Saxon, as in out; and that of oo in words derived from the French, as in soup. sour found'ling fount an nounce'ment pout ground'less mount un found'ed soup rou lette' croup crou'pi er roup group'ing wound trou'ba dour Lesson 54. 36. The consonant C has two regular sounds: as soft c in cede, marked c; as hard c in cot, where it has the sound of k, and is marked c. cives ac'id trace De cem'ber mace sol'ace brace in ces'sant clot tac'tic curd en act'ment acts traf'fic cave e lect'or 37. The sound of N as heard in link, is marked thus, n, which is the same sound as that represented by ng. lank monk'ey drink con'gru ous monk con'gress trunk sin'gu lar sunk lan'guage conch drunk'en ness Lesson 55. 38. S bas two regular sounds: when unmarked it has its sharp or hissing sound, as in yes; when marked thus, s, it has the buzzing sound of z in zeal. sick mass'y smelt pos sess'ive pest vest'ment gross as sess'or has a muse' grows re sem'ble ease in fuse' ruse res'o nant 39. Ch has three sounds: unmarked (English ch), it has nearly the sound of tsh, as in child; marked thus, eh (French ch), it has the sound of sh, as in chaise; and marked thus, ch (Latin ch), it has the sound of k, as in chorus. such speech'less child choc'o late chef ma chine' chaise chiv'al ry chasm chem'ist chrism char'ac ter Lesson 56. 40. G has two regular sounds: marked thus, g (g hard), it has the sound of g in go; marked thus, g (g soft), it has the compound sound of j, as in gem. gear'ing gew'gaw slug gid'di ness gen'tile slug'gish crag guil'lo tine gen'der gest'ure gibe gen'er al 41. Th has two sounds: its sharp sound, as in thing, which is unmarked, and its soft sound, as in thine, marked th. thin the'ist breath myth'ic al thaw the'sis theft the'o ry this gath'er thine hith'er to than both'er breathe oth'er wise Lesson 57. 42. X has three sounds: its regular sharp sound (unmarked) like ks, as in expect, and its soft or flat sound like gz, as in exist, marked x;. At the beginning of words x has the sound of z as in xebec (ze'bec). ex'it ex pan'sive' ex tra'ne ous ex cel' ex'pi ate ex te'ri or ex alt' ex am'ple ex ec'u tive' ex empt' ex ult'ant ex or'di um 43. Q is followed in all cases by u, and has usually the sound of kw, as in queen; but in a few words derived from the French, qu is sounded like k, as in coquette. quack queer'ly quoit qui e'tus queen quo'rum quote quo ta'tion plaque piqu'ant bisque co quet'tish clique' co quet' torque piqu'an cy Lesson 58. cas cade' a base' in clude' a larm' ex change' a maze' ad jure' a far' in flame' a brade' de pute' re mark' ob late' cru sade' re fuse' de bark' par take' de base' ma nure' em bark' ad dress' re gret' in ject' ac quit' re flex' ex cept' in vent' a drift' ar rest' ex pect' mo lest' re miss' con test' ex pend' op press' be fit' de press' ex press' re dress' per sist' Lesson 59. HOMOPHONOUS WORDS. NOTE.--These exercises on words of similar sound, instead of being gathered into a single department, are interspersed throughout the book. raised, lifted up. plait, a fold. razed, destroyed. plate, flattened metal. pries, inspects closely. plumb, perpendicular. prize, to value. plum, a fruit. pray, to supplicate. place, site; spot. prey, a spoil. plaice, a fish. pore, a small opening. please, to gratify. pour, to cause to flow. pleas, excuses. poll, the head. bell, a sounding vessel. pole, a rod; a perch. belle, a fine young lady. Lesson 60. bight, a bay. piece, a part. bite, to seize with the teeth. peace, quietness. bloat, to swell. new, not old. blote, to dry and smoke. knew, did know. board, a plank. gnu, a quadruped. bored, did bore. limb, a branch. bread, food. limn, to draw or paint. bred, reared. arc, part of a circle. blue, a color. ark, a vessel. blew, did blow. prays, supplicates. boar, the male swine. praise, honor. bore, to pierce. preys, spoils. Lesson 61. Words accented on the last Syllable. ab rupt' dis cuss' a cross' a gree' an nul' de duct' a dopt' a sleep' con struct' in duct' a loft' es teem' in struct' re but' a non' de cree' in trust' re sult' be long' de gree' at tire' in vite' com port' dis close' en tice' o blige' re port' dis pose' en tire' per spire' con sole' re store' in cline' sub lime' re pose' en throne' in cite' sur vive' con voke' ex plode' Lesson 62. DICTATION EXERCISES. Dost consider that dust thou art? He paid the servant his hire, and the wages were higher than last year. With whoop and hurra they tore the hoop from the barrel. The mower will cut more grass to-morrow. The foreign consul took counsel with the enemy, and called a council of war. English consols are high. Kings are sometimes guilty of flagrant wrongs. Many a fragrant flower blooms unseen. He tore his clothes in a struggle to close the door. His course toward that coarse lad was wrong. Lesson 63. Words accented on the first Syllable. con'tact nos'tril cur'ry pun'gent for'est prod'uct ful'crum rus'tic hob'by prob'lem hud'dle rub'bish loft'y ros'ter pub'lic sulk'y log'ic tor'rent pub'lish sul'try af'flux bank'rupt kin'dred scrib'ble am'bush cam'phor pick'et trip'let an'them hav'oc tick'et trick'le an'nals hag'gard wick'et liz'ard as'pect hatch'et in'voice vil'la Lesson 64. cam'bric de'ist cy'press trib'al ca'dence e'qual Fri'day cri'sis da'tive free'dom ice'berg hy'drant na'tive need'ful li'bel sci'ence pave'ment meet'ing mi'grate si'lent duke'dom boun'ty pow'der boy'hood dur'ance coun'ty prow'ess clois'ter cu'beb cow'ard sound'ings joy'ous pu'trid drow'sy tow'el loi'ter pur'ist fount'ain tow'er loy'al Lesson 65. beard build palm verse witch crease built calf search script eaves squint half fern guess heave live talk kern start leap stick walk sperm wrath knee cliff chalk serve floor spleen writ lawn were czar have bronze daub herb haunch frank buzz fault strength flaunt slake snatch spawn sneak haunt smack dredge drift purse sharp clamp church fund clutch kneel Lesson 66. en no'ble, in duce'ment a bu'sive, e lope'ment a cu'men pe ru'sal ex po'nent ac cu'sant pur su'ant he ro'ic al lure'ment re fus'al pro mo'tive a muse'ment sul phu'ric de tach'ment es tab'lish at tend'ant dog mat'ic fa nat'ic as sem'blage dra mat'ic fan tas'tic ap pend'ant ec stat'ic gi gan'tic in tes'tate e las'tic in hab'it com'pen sate Lesson 67. cit, a citizen. wreak, to revenge. sit, to rest on a seat. reek, vapor. duct, a channel. bier, a carriage for the dead. ducked, plunged under. beer, fermented liquor. chuff, a clown. rest, quietness; ease. chough (chuf), a bird. wrest, to turn; to twist. coin, metal stamped. ring, a circle. coigne, a corner. wring, to twist. cole, a kind of cabbage. rote, repetition. coal, carbon. wrote, did write. find, to discover. strait, a narrow channel. fined, did fine; mulcted. straight, not crooked. prints, calicoes. wave, an undulation. prince, a king's son. waive, to refuse. Lesson 68. bole, the body of a tree. hist, hush! bowl, a vessel. hissed, did hiss. boll, a pod. paws, the feet of beasts. nose, part of the face. pause, a stop. knows, does know. faun, a sylvan god. mote, a particle. fawn, a young deer. moat, a ditch. pride, vanity. toled, allured. pried, did pry. told, did tell. wain, a wagon. tolled, did toll. wane, to decrease. rein, part of a bridle. see, to behold. rain, falling water. sea, a body of water. reign, to rule. si, a term in music. Lesson 69. a float' post pone' di lute' de mure' be low' pro rogue' a new' de plume' be moan' dis course' dis use' re cruit' be stow' de port' en sue' re cluse' de plore' re mote' im bue' re fute' a breast' at tempt' a bridge' e clipse' a head' dis tress' dis miss' e vince' be friend' con nect' a midst' ex tinct' be held' bur lesque' be twixt' for give' in flect' de flect' be witch' in flict' Lesson 70. Long Sounds of Vowels. au stere' de crease' ap peal' dis creet' be queath' in crease' ap pear' en treat' re vere' de mean' ap pease' ex treme' be seech' fu see' ar rear' gran dee' bo hea' re peal' blas pheme' im peach' a light' de scribe' ac quire' dis guise' a wry' de spise' at trite' es quire' be guile' pre scribe' as sign' ig nite' be lie' de cline' de mise' in quire' de prive' re quite' com prise' ma lign' Lesson 71. Words accented on the Penult. a mend'ed con tent'ed di lem'ma an gel'ic re flect'ive dis tem'per ap pen'dix de crep'it do mes'tic as sem'bly de fend'ant em bel'lish as sess'ment de mer'it em bez'zle pa rent'al re fresh'ing re dun'dant po et'ic re plen'ish a sun'der pre sent'ed re sent'ment con cur'rent pu tres'cent re splen'dent ef ful'gent pre vent'ive sur ren'der en cum'ber Lesson 72. Trisyllables with the short Sounds of the Vowels. ac quit'tal de liv'er in sip'id be nig'nant di min'ish in trin'sic be wil'der con sist'ent ma lig'nant com mit'ment con tin'gent pa cif'ic con sid'er e nig'ma pro hib'it a bol'ish car bon'ic em bod'y ab hor'rent co los'sus har mon'ic ad com'plish de mol'ish im pos'tor ad mon'ish a pos'tate la con'ic al lot'ment des pot'ic ma son'ic Lesson 73. hart, the male deer. hour, sixty minutes. heart, the seat of life. our, belonging to us. hear, to perceive by the ear in, within. inn, a hotel. here, in this place. key, a fastener. heard, did hear. quay (ke), a wharf. herd, a drove. rhyme, poetry. hie, to hasten. rime, white frost. high, lofty. knot, a fastening of cord. him, objective case of he. hymn, a song of praise. not, negation. hole, an opening. know, to understand. whole, all; entire. no, not so. Lesson 74. The Vowel in the last Syllable silent. ba'con sweet'en dam'son bit'ten to'ken trea'son fat'ten driv'en bra'zen weak'en flax'en kit'ten ha'ven wea'sel glad'den pris'on ha'zel height'en hap'pen quick'en maid'en light'en mad'den ris'en ma'son lik'en rav'el smit'ten ra'ven rip'en sad'den stiff'en shak'en tight'en red'den swiv'el wea'zen wid'en fresh'en writ'ten tak'en bro'ken o'pen fast'en wak'en clo'ven leav'en glis'ten spok'en froz'en length'en drunk'en dea'con gold'en reck'on mut'ton Lesson 75. The Vowel in the last Syllable not silent. cray'on asp'en tal'on glu'ten de'mon cab'in wag'on cit'ron ci'on drag'on sud'den kitch'en si'phon flag'on fel'on mit'ten co'lon lin'den lem'on pis'ton o'men grav'el mel'on her'on bar'rel bev'el chan'nel flan'nel par'cel plat'en chick'en slov'en Lesson 76. Dissyllables with the long Sounds of the Vowels. a'gue fa'mous cai'tiff ci'pher ca'lyx fail'ure fra'cas high'land cha'os faith'ful gate'-way mo'hair dai'ly frail'ty name'sake oak'um dai'sy game'ster stra'tum poul'tice bea'dle neat'ly mea'sles trea'cle bea'ver clear'ance peo'ple trea'tise drear'y cre'dence le'gion treat'ment ea'ger flee'cy re'gion twee'zers mean'ness greed'y stee'ple wea'ry Lesson 77. Words ending with ow, the last Letter being silent. ar'row sal'low fel'low win'dow har'row tal'1ow mel'low win'now nar'row shal'low fal'low wid'ow mar'row shad'ow mead'ow bor'row spar'row el'bow bil'low mor'row Words containing ei or ie, promiscuously arranged. grieve re trieve' be siege' de ceiv'er thieve ag grieve' bre vier' de ceit'ful ceiled a piece' de ceive' dis sei'zin pieced con ceit' re lief' a chiev'ing sheik be lieve' re lieve' re ceiv'er Lesson 78. aught, any thing. oar, for rowing. ought, should. ore, unrefined metal. wry, crooked. o'er, over. rye, a kind of grain. ow'er, one who owes. lead, a metal. adds, joins to. led, did lead. adz, a joiner's tool. read, perused. ale, a liquor. red, a color. ail, to feel pain. read, to peruse. ate, did eat. reed, a plant. eight, twice four. all, the whole. ant, an insect. awl, a sharp instrument. aunt, a relation. Lesson 79. bald, without hair. air, the atmosphere. bawled, cried out. ere, before. bad, ill; vicious. e'er, ever. bade, past tense of bid. heir, one who inherits. baize, a kind of cloth. aisle, walk in a church. bays, plural of bay. isle, an island. bear, an animal. I'll, I will. bare, naked. cere, to cover with wax. bay, part of the ocean. sear, to burn; dry. bey, a Turkish officer. seer, a prophet. be, to exist. ball, a round body. bee, an insect. bawl, to cry out. Lesson 80. gai'ter plant'ain shriv'el jaun'dice clev'er das'tard jos'tle si'lex paint'er scab'bard but'ton mas'tiff way'ward scaf'fold pic'nic sar'casm di'gest sham'bles grum'ble tar'nish light'ning tran'script hus'tle tar'tar por'trait nest'ling mur'rain ha rangue' nov'ice men'ace rum'ble re lapse' Tues'day pen'ance troub'le pro fess' cli'mate shep'herd ar'gue re venge' wrist'let whole'some pin'cers flight'y Lesson 81. DICTATION EXERCISES. To essay the task, requires courage. The discourse was an able essay. An agent will assay the ore, and forward a receipt. Contemn a mean act; but do not always condemn the actor. They were to seize the fort, and cease firing. They affect great grief; but do not effect their purpose. Do you dissent from my opinion? The hill was difficult of descent. A decent regard for others' ills is human. They advise the young to take the advice of the old. The enemy will invade the rich province. They were strongly inveighed against. Lesson 82. ed'u cate em'er y meth'od ist eb'on y ex'o dus pen'i tent ef'fi gy fel'o ny sen'ti nel el'e phant gen'e sis fel'low ship em'bas sy fed'er al res'i dent ad'mi ral can'ni bal myr'i ad ag'o ny fac'to ry slip'per y al'i ment gal'ler y min'u end al'co hol man'u al tyr'an ny am'nes ty par'a sol sym'pho ny Lesson 83. mul'ber ry cul'ti vate am'ulet mus'cu lar jus'ti fy an'ces try pun'ish ment mul'ti ply Cal'va ry sub'se quent mul'ti tude cav'al ry sup'pli cant sub'sti tute mar'i gold am'pli fy cam'o mile bat'ter y grat'i fy pan'to mime can'o py pac'i fy rad'i cal char'i ty rar'e fy pat'ron ize chas'ti ty sanc'ti fy sat'el lite maj'es ty Lesson 84. bail, surety. bold, brave. bale, a pack of goods. bowled, did bowl. bait, a lure. bourn, a limit. bate, to lessen. borne, carried. base, low; vile. bow, a weapon. bass, a part in music. beau (bo), a man of dress. beach, the shore. break, to sever by force. beech, a kind of tree. brake, a thicket. beat, to strike. bruise, to crush. beet, a vegetable. brews (bruz), does brew. bin, a box. by, near. been (bin), existed. buy, to purchase. Lesson 85. berth, a sleeping-place. cast, to throw. birth, coming into life. caste, an order or class. braid, to weave. cede, to yield. brayed, did bray. seed, to sow; to scatter. breach, a gap. coarse, not fine. breech, the hinder part. course, way; career. broach, a spit; to pierce. dam, mother of beasts. brooch, an ornament. damn, to condemn. but, except. cane, a reed; a staff. butt, a cask; a mark. Cain, a man's name. call, to name. ceil, to line the top of caul, a kind of net-work. seal, a sea animal. Lesson 86. DICTATION EXERCISES. The ensign would not sign the paper. His design was known. He maligned his rival, and suffered condign punishment. A benign face. He was arraigned after the campaign. He deigned not to feign surprise. Squirrels gnaw the bark. He affirmed it with phlegm. The knight carried a knapsack. He had a knack for rhymes. She knew how to knead the dough. They cut the knot with a knife. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. The knave had hard knuckles, but little knowledge. Lesson 87. Sounds of O and U. con'dor sol'id or'ange spon'dee doc'trine loz'enge os'trich toc'sin cos'tive of'fal pomp'ous jock'ey fos'sil of'fice pon'tiff mot'ley frost'y ol'ive prom'ise nos'trum ton'nage nov'el cum'brous buck'le won'der boot'y cus'tard bus'tle won'drous move'ment flour'ish dud'geon wont'ed stuc'co hun'dred dun'geon wor'ry buz'zard hus'band lunch'eon Lesson 88. Short Sounds of Vowels. doub'le bed'stead eb'on fend'er knuck'le cher'ub eph'od heav'y nour'ish cres'cent es'sence heif'er south'ern crev'ice eth'ics jeal'ous frus'trate dex'trous feath'er jel'ly rep'tile ster'ile brim'stone ab'bess ref'use ves'tige dic'tate ad'junct sen'tence wed'lock frig'ate dag'ger skep'tic Wednes'day pil'lage bram'ble speck'le zeal'ous trib'ute cal'lous Lesson 89. cell, a small room. cart, a vehicle. sell, to barter away. carte, a bill of fare. cent, a small coin. dear, costly; beloved. sent, did send. deer, an animal. scent, odor; smell. due, owing; fit. chased, did chase. dew (du), moisture condensed. chaste, pure. clause, part of a sentence. doe, the female deer. claws, the nails of a beast. dough, unbaked paste. cord, a small rope. dram, a glass of spirits. chord, musical tones in hamony drachm, a small weight. fane, a temple. cote, a pen; a fold. fain, gladly. coat, an outer garment. feign, to pretend. Lesson 90. be speak' ab solve' ad judge' in dulge' nan keen' de volve' be grudge' re pulse' im plead' dis solve' sub duct' suc cumb' con ceal' re solve' be numb' af front' con geal' re spond' con vulse' a mong' re frain' re print' re proach' re take' re main' re strict' en croach' re trace' re strain' re sist' pa trol' re pay' re tain' sub mit' pa role' de lay' re tail' dis tinct' be fore' al lay' Lesson 91. dust, powdered earth. day, twenty-four hours. dost, second person of do. dey, a Turkish title. earn, to gain by labor. ewe (yu), a female sheep. urn, a kind of vase. you, the person spoken to. ern, the sea-eagle. die, to expire. yew (yu), a kind of tree. dye, to color. eye, the organ of sight. draught (draft), drawing I, myself. ay, yes. draft, a bill of exchange. aye, an affirmative vote. dun, a dark color. flee, to run away. done, performed. flea, an insect. fate, destiny. flew (flu) , did fly. fete, a festival. flue, a passage for smoke. Lesson 92. ag'ile hack'ney pas'sive bis'cuit al'oes knap'sack prac'tice fil'bert dac'tyl lad'der rab'id im'age fash'ion lat'tice rap'id im'pulse gal'ley lan'cet tac'tics mil'dew bit'tern crys'tal crim'son kid'ney brisk'et dis'tance grid'dle lin'tel cis'tern dis'taff live'long liq'uid chim'ney dwin'dle gyp'sy liq'uor chis'el pick'le hith'er rid'dance Lesson 93. slui'cy bol'ster cer'tain driz'zle jui'cy court'ship sur'ly tick'le stew'ard fro'ward sur'geon twink'le jew'el co'coa ear'nest thim'ble neu'tral nose'gay jour'nal vil'lain cor'ner gor'gon au'dit so'da cor'sair lord'ship caus'tic so'fa. corse'let mor'bid awk'ward so'ber for'feit mort'gage gaud'y sto'ic gor'geous mor'sel lau'rel to'paz Lesson 94. DICTATION EXERCISES. The awl is used by all shoe-makers. He said that he would do aught that he ought to do. The man who stole the bale of goods gave bail. The Bey rode a bay horse around the bay. Deer break through the brake and brush. He had just lain down in the narrow lane. The horse with the long mane ran through the main street of a town in Maine. Which of the pair of fine pears will you pare for the child? The joiner's plane will smooth the plain door. You can rein your horse, if it should rain. The kings reign wisely. Lesson 95. bal'us trade fab'ri cate bev'er age al'ka li gal'ax y cher'u bim al'ka line mas'to don dem'o crat ap'o gee mack'er el den'i zen al'i quot mar'i ner den'si ty as'ter isk par'a graph ex'or cist az'i muth par'al lax ed'i fy bach'e lor par'a gon em'a nate cal'a bash par'a pet em'pha size cal'a mus par'a phrase ep'i cure Lesson 96. fir, a kind of tree. fort, a stronghold. fur, soft hair. forte, one's strong point. faint, weak; languid. forth, forward. feint, a pretense. fourth, the next after third. fair, clear; handsome. fare, food; cost of passage. frays, quarrels. phrase, part of a sentence, feet, plural of foot. fore, toward the front. feat, an exploit. four, twice two. floe, a large piece of ice. foul, impure. flow, a current. fowl, a bird. flour, ground wheat. freeze, to become ice. flow'er, a blossom. frieze, a kind of cloth. Lesson 97. ex'pe dite' ped'i ment cur'ren cy hel'le bore pel'i can ful'some ly per'i gee pet'u lant nul'li ty reg'i cide rec'om pense sub'si dy rec'on dite' spher'ic al sub'ter fuge fif'ti eth syn'o nym con'ju gate mir'a cle tyr'an nize con'tro vert nim'ble ness witch'er y con'se crate rig'or ous wil'der ness cor'o net ris'i ble whim'si cal dom'i nant Lesson 98. ar'bi trate hard'i hood for'mu la ar'ma ment har'le quin gor'mand ize ar'mis tice car'ni val or'der ly ar'chi tect car'bon ate or'di nal arch'er y gar'den er or'di nate bar'ba rism gar'ni ture or'phan age dec'i mal met'a phor crit'i cism des'pot ism ed'it or cyl'in der em'pha sis sen'a tor mys'ter y ep'i taph ser'a phim mys'ti fy leth'ar gy spec'i men phys'ic al pen'ta teuch spec'u late typ'i fy Lesson 99. Short and long Sounds of the Vowels. but'ler com'mon dis'mal blem'ish buck'ler dog'ma dis'trict elem'ent cud'gel dol'phin mim'ic cher'ry judg'ment hos'tile mis'sive cred'it snuff'ers mod'ern syn'od em'bers bond'age con'vent cli'max aid'ance cot'tage soph'ist fi'brous bail'iff for'age sor'rel hy'brid base'ment hos'tage stop'ple hy'men brace'let pros'trate tod'dy hy'phen brave'ly Lesson 100. furs, skins with soft hair. groan, a deep sigh. furze, a prickly shrub. grown, increased. gage, to pledge. gall, bile. gauge, to measure. Gaul, old name of France. gate, door; entrance. gild, to overlay with gold. gait, manner of walking. guild, a corporation. gilt, adorned with gold. gloze, to smooth over. guilt, crime. glows, shines. great, large; vast. guest, a visitor. grate, a range of bars. guessed, did guess. grease, soft fat. hale, sound; healthy. Greece, a country. hail, frozen rain. Lesson 101. a lert' ex pert' sub vert' re move' as sert' in ert' su perb' a do' a ver' in fer' ab surd' a loof' a vert' in sert' re cur' bal loon' con cern' in vert' de mur' buf foon' per vert' pre fer' dis turb' hal loo' a vail' re claim' dis play" be fall' a wait' ab stain' en tail' re call' de cay' ac quaint' ob tain' en thrall' de claim' af fray' con tain' re sort' de fray' as suage' per suade' as sort' pre vail' block ade' a broad' be sought' Lesson 102. al'pha pad'lock ad'dle hon'ey an'ise plac'id bar'rack com'fort brack'et Sab'bath man'date moth'er dam'ask saf'fron man'ly oth'er mad'der stag'nant stag'nate smoth'er clos'et con'trite cher'ish ves'tal com'ment oc'tave den'tist leg'ate con'course vol'ume fresh'et mem'brane con'text bon'fire rel'ish mes'sage con'vex con'quer rem'nant res'cue Lesson 103. flout a fresh' fir'kin a'er ate' meant con temn' serv'ile la'i ty wren con tempt' skir'mish de'vi ous quick com mand' ster'ling re'al ize solve com mence' sur'feit re'qui em wrong com mend' ur'gent co'gen cy quince com pact' fur'lough no'ti fy shrimp com plaint' jas'mine po'ten cy cause es tray' lack'ey o'ri ole gauze ap proach' latch'et o'ri ent quoin cor rode' mat'in jo'vi al squaw cur tail' scat'ter vo'ta ry cross re pute' sav'age zo'di ac Lesson 104. DICTATION EXERCISES. I accept all your presents except the last. His joy was in excess, at the news of his access to fortune. Though your terms exceed my expectations, I must accede to them. The best cosmetic is air and exercise. He pretended to exorcise evil spirits. Both assent to go up the ascent. He was indicted for inditing a false letter. Champagne is made in France. The soldiers crossed the champaign. The law will levy a tax to build a levee. The levee was held at the mayor's residence. The senior brother was addressed as seignior. Lesson 105. cer'ti fy for'ti fy cog'ni zance fer'ti lize for'ti tude con'ju gal herb'al ist fort'u nate glob'u lar serv'i tude or'di nance or'i gin ter'mi nate or'gan ism hom'i ly fer'ven cy ar'bi ter af'flu ent mer'cu ry ar'ter y bal'us ter nurs'er y har'mo ny bar'ri er per'fi dy lar'ce ny bar'ris ter per'ju ry har'mo nize car'ri on Lesson 106. Words accented on the first Syllable. cler'ic al fes'ti val li'bra ry el'e gy eth'ic al like'li hood em'i grant her'ald ry mi'cro cosm em'per or her'e tic mi'cro scope ep'i gram her'o ism ni'tro gen pa'pa cy di'a lect ped'ant ry fla'gran cy di'a gram ped'es tal fra'gran cy di'a ry med'i cine ra'di ance fin'er y lex'i con sla'ver y i'vo ry sed'u lous main'te nance pli'a ble quer'u lous Lesson 107. Monosyllables representing different Sounds. stray sleet strike trope curse ache fleece trite grope hearse bathe steer splice broke purge lathe speech stripe stroke scourge plaint sphere tithe cloak verge brain fief yield crock squeal slave field fierce block league quake thief pierce flock plead stave fiend tierce shock squeak plague shriek niece mock heath Lesson 108. SYNTHETIC EXERCISES. Make Sentences containing the following Words. bough, a branch of a tree. grieves, laments. bow, to bend. greaves, armor for the legs. brute, a beast. hew (hu), to cut; to chop. bruit, to noise abroad. hue, a color; dye. cite, to summon. Hugh, a man's name. site, a situation. kill, to deprive of life. sight, the sense of seeing. kiln, a large oven. climb, to ascend. leaf, of a tree or book. clime, climate; region. lief, willingly; gladly. core, the inner part. maze, an intricate place. corps, a body of soldiers. maize, Indian corn. creek, a narrow inlet. mean, low; middle point. creak, a grating noise. mien, air; manner. Lesson 109. Miscellaneous Sounds. bul'let coop'er nor'mal pre cise' bull'y wool'en or'phan pre side' bull'ock cool'ly tor'por pro scribe' bul'rush scoun'drel quar'ter com mode' bush'el bal'sam ac claim' en gross' bull'ion squad'ron o paque' con sume' crup'per war'rant sca lene' pre sume' cuck'oo quad'rant se cede' be dew' Lesson 110. false naught pitch batch edge quart sought flitch match hedge sward bought stitch hatch ledge swarm bright fitch latch wedge thwart plight hitch patch fledge bilge budge fosse breadth twinge bridge judge thong breast print ridge drudge notch cleanse fling hinge grudge blotch friend string cringe plunge prompt knell swift Lesson 111. hall, a large room. hoop, a ring; a band. haul, to drag by force. whoop, to make a noise. hay, dried grass. hied, made haste. hey! an exclamation. hide, to conceal. hare, an animal. hoard, to lay up. hair, of the head. horde, a tribe. heal, to cure. hoes, plural of hoe. heel, hinder part of the foot. hose, stockings. jam, a conserve of fruit. hire, wages. jamb, the sidepiece of a high'er, more high. door or fireplace. hoe, a farming tool. knead, to work dough. ho! an exclamation. need, want. Lesson 112. faith theme length sor'row sol'emn scrape chime launch dur'ing hire'ling strange whilst morgue gib'bet tres'pass greet smart pledge bod'kin shil'ling perch badge gourd gos'ling mat'tock champ dodge schist lob'by ram'part drench brawl flounce tan'sy tran'quil squeeze dwarf screech lock'et cun'ning grist yawl spasm van'dal her'ring shrink grant starve ex'tra drug'gist copse spunk scalp cut'lass spon'sor Lesson 113. knight, a title of honor. lee, the sheltered side. night, time of darkness. lea, a meadow; field. knave, a wicked person. lie, to deceive. nave, hub of a wheel. lye, water passed through ashes. loan, any thing lent. links, parts of a chain. lone, solitary. lynx, an animal. knap, a small protuberance. loch, a lake. nap, a short sleep. lough (lok), a lake. lac, a kind of gum. lock, to fasten a door. lack, to want; need. lax, loose; vague. laid, placed. lacks, wants; needs. lade, to load. lacs, plural of lac. Lesson 114. Words containing I consonant, sounded like Y consonant; as alien, pronounced al'yen. al'ien on'ion bat tal'ion sav'ior bil'ious pe cul'iar pan'nier brill'iant re bell'ion un'ion fil'ial dis un'ion sen'ior mill'ion o pin'ion jun'ior pill'ion do min'ion gal'liard pin'ion com mun'ion span'iel trill'ion mut'u al val'iant coll'ier punc til'io bill'iards pon'iard punc til'ious bill'ion ruff'ian ver mil'ion In'dian Chris'tian aux il'ia ry Lesson 115. The following words, according to the analogy of the English language, should he spelled with the termination er, with the exception of the last word of each line. cen'ter mi'ter spec'ter sep'ul cher fi'ber ni'ter o'cher the'a ter lus'ter som'ber mau'ger ma neu'ver mea'ger sa'ber um'ber cal'i ber me'ter scep'ter om'ber ac cou'ter a'cre na'cre lu'cre mas'sa cre Lesson 116. In the following words, ng is pronounced as if the g were doubled; as anger, pronounced ang'ger. an'ger lan'guor jin'gle youn'ger an'gle lan'guid min'gle con'ger an'gry man'gle sin'gle bun'gler an'guish man'go tin'gle hun'ger clan'gor san'guine din'gle hun'gry dan'gle span'gled lon'ger wran'gler fan'gled span'gle lon'gest fin'ger jan'gle tan'gle stron'ger lan'guish ban'gle wran'gle bun'gle un'guent Lesson 117. In the following, S has the sound of sh as sure, (pro. shure). sure'ly cen'sure fis'sure is'su ance sure'ness press'ure ton'sure as sur'ance sure'ty is'sue as sure' in sur'ance sug'ar tis'sue in sure' in sur'er The following words are spelled, according to analogy, with the termination se. con dense' dis pense' im mense' pre tense' de fense' ex pense' of fense' sus pense' re cense' in cense' pre pense' li'cense Lesson 118. lane, a narrow passage. main, chief lain, past participle of lie. mane, hair on the neck of a horse. mail, armor. lapse, to fall. male, masculine. laps, plural of lap. mark, a sign. leak, to run out. marque, letters of reprisal. leek, a kind of onion. mead, a drink. lo! behold! meed, reward. low, not high. meet, fit; proper. lore, learning. mete, to measure. low'er, more low. meat, food in general. maid, a maiden. might, strength; power. made, finished. mite, a small insect. Lesson 119. mode', way; manner. nay, no. mowed, cut down. neigh, to cry as a horse. mule, an animal. nit, egg of an insect. mewl (mul), to squall. knit, to unite. mist, fine rain. gneiss, a kind of mineral. missed, did miss. more, a greater quantity. nice, delicate; fine. mow'er, one who mows. owe, to be bound. muse, to meditate. oh! alas! mews (muz), an inclosure. ode, a poem. owed, indebted. none, not one. one (wun), a single thing. nun, a religious woman. won, gained. Lesson 120. a mal'gam ate cheese e man'ci pate as sas'sin ate dirt e rad'i cate ca pac'i tate bleak e vac'u ate co ag'u late goad a ban'don ment con cat'e nate slouch in fat'u ate con fab'u late gone in val'i date con grat'ulate scarf be at'i fy con tam'i nate nerve pro cras'ti nate de cap'i tate raid re tal'i ate e jac'u late graze e vap'o rate e lab'o rate stale pre var'i cate Lesson 121. cir'cus ca pac'i ty an'a gram cur'few com par'i son am'bi ent cur'tain com par'a tive al'li gate fer'tile com pat'i ble cal'a mine fer'vid con cav'i ty hal'cy on fur'nace de clar'a tive Jes'u it fur'long di ag'o nal ped'i gree mer'maid di am'e ter reg'is ter nerv'ous dog mat'ic al rev'el ry pur'chase em bas'sa dor skep'tic al sur'face de prav'i ty ver'i ly Lesson 122. In words like the following, sier, zier, sure, zure, su, sion, and sia are pronounced zhur, zhur, zhu, zhun, and zha. bra'sier em bra'sure cas'u al ly gla'zier e ras'ure cas'u ist ry gra'zier e va'sion treas'ur er ship ras'ure in va'sion us'u al ly seiz'ure per sua'sion pleas'ur a ble ho'sier ad he'sion meas'ur a ble o'sier co he'sion oc ca'sion al fu'sion am bro'sia pro vis'ion al az'ure, dis clos'ure u su'ri ous meas'ure ex plo'sion dis com pos'ure pleas'ure col lu'sion in de cis'ion Lesson 123. SYNTHETIC AND DICTATION EXERCISES. brid'al, belonging to a bride. met'al, a substance. met'tle, spirit. bri'dle, a check; a curb. vice, defect; fault. les'son, a task for recitation. vise, an instrument. wail, to lament. less'en, to make less. wale, to mark with stripes. Filled with choler, he seized the youth by the collar. The priest filled the censer. He is a censor of the press. The ship took divers persons as divers for pearls. The plaintiff assumed a plaintive air. To lessen the number of exercises, will make an easier lesson. Lesson 124. scrive'ner friv'o lous fru gal'i ty slug'gard im'age ry gram mat'ic al stub'born in'di go hi lar'i ty sub'urbs in'sti gate hu man'i ty symp'tom liq'ui date in hab'it ant med'ley pil'grim age i ras'ci ble peas'ant fish'er y le gal'i ty pheas'ant hick'o ry lo cal'i ty pen'sive in'ter est lo quac'i ty pres'ence mit'ti mus men dac'i ty read'y min'strel sy ra pac'i ty Lesson 125. NOTE.--These words are not exactly alike in sound, and should be carefully distinguished. as sist'ance, help; relief rab'bit, an animal. as sist'ants, helpers. rab'bet, a term in carpentry. de vis'er, an inventor. di vi'sor, a term in Arithmetic. lin'e a ment, a feature. lin'i ment, an ointment. def'er ence, respect. prin'ci pal, chief dif'fer ence, variation. prin'ci ple, rule of action. in gen'u ous, open; free. li'ar, one who tells lies. in gen'ious, having skill. lyre, a kind of harp. Lesson 126. DICTATION EXERCISES ON THE ABOVE. His assistants gave him great assistance. He was the deviser of the machine. Which is the larger, the divisor or the quotient? This difference being settled, he will pay due deference to your opinion. The ingenious mechanic was also an ingenuous man. Not a lineament could be recognized by his friends. Apply to the wound a healing liniment. The principal in the agreement was devoid of moral principle. Though a great liar, he could play upon the lyre. The rabbit was tame. The carpenter will rabbet the boards. Lesson 127. In words like the following, U should receive its proper consonant sound; as nature, pronounced nat'yur. nat'ure sig'na ture ag'ri cult ure creat'ure sep'ul ture leg'is la ture feat'ure fur'ni ture ar'chi tect ure fut'ure for'feit ure tem'per a ture capt'ure lig'a ture lit'er a ture rapt'ure ap'er ture flo'ri cult ure text'ure quad'ra ture ju'di ca ture pict'ure ad vent'ure hor'ti cult ure script'ure con ject'ure man u fact'ure Lesson 128. pail, a wooden vessel. Paul, a man's name. pale, not bright. pall, a covering. pear, a fruit. pique, to give offense. pare, to cut thin. peak, the top. pair, a couple. peer, a nobleman. raze, to pull down. pier, a wharf raise, to lift up. quartz, a kind of rock. rays, beams of light. quarts, measures. pain, uneasiness. plain, smooth. pane, a square of glass. plane, a surface; tool. peel, rind; skin. quire, twenty-four sheets of paper. peal, a sound of bells. port, a harbor. choir (kwir), a band of singers. Porte, a Turkish court. Lesson 129. X with the sound of gz; as exact, pronounced egz act'. ex act' ex act'ly ex ag'g'er ate ex ist' ex am'ine ex an'i mate ex ult' ex em'plar ex as'per ate ex hale' ex er'tion ex ec'u trix ex haust' ex hib'it ex hil'a rate ex ert' ex ist'ence ex on'er ate ex hort' ex ist'ent ex em'pli fy ex ude' ex ot'ic ex or'bi tant ex ergue' ex haust'ive ux o'ri ous Lesson 130. Ti has often the sound of sh: followed by on, it is pronounced shun. na'tion ces sa'tion de vi a'tion pa'tient col la'tion dep re da'tion fac'tious cre a'tion des per a'tion frac'tious dic ta'tion lib er a'tion sta'tion do na'tion me di a'tion lo'tion du ra'tion mod er a'tion mo'tion e qua'tion nu mer a'tion no'tion tes ta'tion op er a'tion po'tion for ma'tion tol er a'tion por'tion frus tra'tion trep i da'tion quo'tient gra da'tion val u a'tion Lesson 131. Other examples in which final tion is pronounced shun. men'tion ab strac'tion ed u ca'tion sec'tion at trac'tion em ula'tion frac'tion de trac'tion ex cla ma'tion dic'tion dis trac'tion ex pec ta'tion fic'tion ex trac'tion ex por ta'tion fric'tion in frac'tion fer men ta'tion junc'tion pro trac'tion gen er a'tion ac'tion re frac'tion grav i ta'tion cap'tion re trac'tion hab i ta'tion op'tion con trac'tion il lus tra'tion fac'tion sub trac'tion im por ta'tion Lesson 132. Examples in which sci, ti, and ci have the sound of sh. auc'tion au da'cious ab er ra'tion cau'tion ca pa'cious ad mi ra'tion cau'tious ve ra'cious ad o ra'tion gla'cial fal la'cious ad u la'tion gra'cious fu ga'cious ag gra va'tion spa'cious lo qua'cious ap pli ca'tion Gre'cian ra pa'cious ap pro ba'tion spe'cious sa ga'cious prep a ra'tion par'tial te na'cious pres er va'tion con'science vi va'cious proc la ma'tion spe'cie vo ra'cious prof a na'tion Lesson 133. Ci, ce, and si with the sound of sh. spe'cies ju di'cial ac ces'sion o'cean lo gi'cian com pres'sion so'cial ma gi'cian de clen'sion spe'cial mu si'cian ex pres'sion cru'cial tac ti'cian im pres'sion pre'cious op ti'cian op pres'sion pas'sion pa tri'cian pre ten'sion man'sion phy si'cian suc ces'sion pen'sion pro vin'cial trans gres'sion ten'sion fi nan'cial ad mis'sion tor'sion om nis'cient con cus'sion Lesson 134 DICTATION EXERCISES. They propose to alter the place of the altar. He cast his ballot for mayor. The ballet dancer and the ballad singer arrived. The wine seller lived in a cellar. He said that the cymbal was a symbol of music. They sent an arrant rogue on the errand. His manner of conducting the manor did not suit the lord. The prophet of Mammon foretold great profit. The relics of the kingdom were saved by the relict of the king. The stature of the statue of Liberty is fixed by statute. Lesson 135. rack, an engine of torture. write, to make letters. wrack, a sea-plant. wright, a workman. rap, to strike. roe, eggs of a fish. wrap, to roll together. row, to impel with oars. reck, to heed; to care. rose, a flower. wreck, destruction. rows, does row. rice, a kind of grain. roes, plural of roe. rise, increase; ascent. sees, beholds. rite, a ceremony. seas, large bodies of water. right, not wrong. seize, to lay hold of Lesson 136. OF AFFIXES. Many words are formed by adding something to the end of another word. The added part is called an affix; as ly, added to man, forms manly. In this, and the following seventeen lessons, the more common affixes are indicated. Plurals formed by adding s to the Singular. roofs so'los ty'ros al bi'nos hoofs ha'los jun'tos me men'tos scarfs las'sos can'tos oc ta'vos truths ze'ros quar'tos si roc'cos Plurals formed by adding es to the Singular. ech'oes to ma'toes po ta'toes car'goes mu lat'toes bra va'does mot'toes vol ca'noes por'ti coes grot'toes mos qui'toes vi ra'goes Lesson 137. Words in which f and fe are changed into ves in the Plural: as, leaf, leaves; wife, wives. beeves lives thieves calves our selves' sheaves wives wolves halves them selves' leaves knives loaves shelves your selves' Words in which Y final is changed into ies in the Plural. skies la'dies to'ries gro'cer ies spies du'ties can'dies for'ger ies cries beau'ties tro'phies gal'ler ies Lesson 138. Words ending in Y which form the Plural by adding a. toys chim'neys al'leys at tor'neys drays val'leys pul'leys Sat'ur days buoys mon'eys tur'keys hol'i days whys jour'neys mon'keys cor du roys' Words in which the Plurals are formed irregularly. As the Plural only is given, the teacher might require the pupil to ascertain the Singular, and to spell it. mice cri'ses ter'mi ni chil'dren neb'u lae a lum'ni ver'te brae stra'ta syn op'ses geese { kine, cows } { staves, staffs} { broth'ers,breth'ren } { pease, peas} { dies, dice} Lesson 139. Ing signifies continuing to; as talking, continuing to talk. The following words, in taking their suffix, double the final letter. The last letter is doubled when the word ends with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel. plan'ning win'ning stop'ping a bet'ting fret'ting blot'ting gun'ning re bel'ling bid'ding rob'bing shut'ting o mit'ting Other words ending with consonants, which do not double the final letter. act'ing fail'ing mean'ing ex pand'ing land'ing rain'ing coax'ing con sent'ing build'ing sail'ing suit'ing vis'it ing Lesson 140. Words ending in e silent, generally drop the e in adding ing. mak'ing seiz'ing rul'ing ex pir'ing nam'ing forc'ing lin'ing re fus'ing plagu'ing hedg'ing squeez'ing in trigu'ing ach'ing writ'ing schem'ing alleg'ing The final e is retained when it is necessary to prevent a change of pronunciation, or to maintain the identity of a word. hoe'ing shoe'ing change'a ble toe'ing singe'ing trace'able tinge'ing dye'ing peace'a ble foe'man blue'ness charge'a ble Lesson 141. Ed, as a suffix, generally signifies did. In words like the following the e in ed is silent, and the wards, though of two and three syllables, are pronounced in one and two. blazed wedged boiled be reaved drained solved coiled be sieged' hailed called soiled blas phemed' lamed hauled bowed ac quired' paved mauled crowned con trol1ed' stowed warmed plowed a bused' saved warned roused ac cused' feared warped scoured com muned' flowed proved soured con fused' glued shoved dodged de coyed' begged loved filled en joyed' Lesson 142. In words like the following, ed is pronounced as t; and, although of two and three syllables, the words are pronounced in one and two. graced fixed es caped' at tacked' scraped mixed em braced' con fessed' cracked boxed en grossed' op pressed' In other words formed by the affix ed, the last letter is doubled in words of one syllable, or in words accented on the last syllable, when they end with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel; as, wed, wed'ded. If the word ends in any other consonant than d or t, the e in ed becomes silent, and the two syllables become one; as, hem, hemmed, pronounced hemd. jut'ted shunned com pelled o mit'ted fret'ted tapped e quipped' im bed'ded fit'ted rubbed de murred' com mit'ted Lesson 143. Words not included in the ahove rule, do not double the final consonant. act'ed failed quar'reled ex pand'ed land'ed rained bar'reled mer'it ed rest'ed coaxed trav'eled vis'it ed Y is sometimes changed into i; as cry, cried. cried dried mar'ried glo'ried tried fried tar'ried sto'ried shied spied car'ried wor'ried Lesson 144. Ar, er, and or signify one who does, or that which does; as, baker, one who bakes. If the word ends in e, r only is added. After a consonant y is generally changed into i. Another letter is sometimes united to the affix; as law, law'yer. The final consonants are doubled, as in Lesson 142. beg'gar bank'er bak'er cre a'tor dig'ger plant'er pa'cer cru sad'er dip'per build'er pav'er dic ta'tor clip'per giv'er stran'ger en grav'er trot'ter 1aw'yer writ'er sur viv'or los'er saw'yer boast'er be liev'er woo'er read'er mourn'er ad vis'er vouch'er rid'er own'er as sign'er wres'tler dy'er rul'er in vei'gler Lesson 145. Words formed by the Affixes er or or. be gin'ner la'bor er nav'i ga tor in dors'er rea'son er ded'i ca tor de sert'er li'bel er cal'cu la tor dis turb'er wag'on er spec'u la tor u surp'er con'quer or pros'e cu tor con duct'or for'eign er cul'ti va tor tor ment'or cus'tom er mul'ti pli er en chant'er mur'der er nu'mer a tor sup port'er gov'ern or gen'er a tor ag gress'or pen'sion er ra'di a tor Lesson 146. In adjectives, er is generally added to form the comparative, and est to form the superlative; as, rich, richer, richest. strict'er fierc'est wealth'i er wor'thi est broad'er slow'est greed'i er read'i est bright'er gaunt'est drear'i er haugh'ti est Ly is an abbreviation of like; as manly for man-like, or like a man. Ly is still further shortened into y; as, rock, rocky. bright'ly eas'y heav'i ly thor'oug ly gay'ly earth'y heart'i ly might'i ly no'bly speed'y read'i ly has'ti ly wind'y spon'gy tar'di ly stead'i ly Lesson 147. Ness is from the Saxon nesse, and means state or quality; as, neatness, state of being neat. bleak'ness smooth'ness come'li ness fierce'ness numb'ness drow'si ness hoarse'ness wrong'ness naught'i ness calm'ness sweet'ness wea'ri ness The termination full adds its own meaning to the word; as, joyful, full of joy. The final l is omitted in the derivatives. change'ful mourn'ful skill'ful fan'ci ful fright'ful woe'ful will'ful pit'i ful spite'ful wrath'ful aw'ful du'ti ful Lesson 148. The termination less gives a negative meaning to the derivative; as graceless, without grace. brain'less sight'less friend'less worth'less cease'less soul'less head'less house'less guile'less friut'less guilt'less noise'less The affix age signifies the pay for, a state of being, or composed of; as cartage, the pay for carting. mar'riage fer'ri age vag'a bond age herb'age her'mit age dis ad van'tage wharf'age pat'ron age es'pi on age Lesson 149. The suffix al signifies relating to; an signifies pertaining to; ant and ent, in many instances, signify the agent or doer. tid'al com'ic al me dic'i nal ur'ban pub'li can di oc'e san claim'ant as sist'ant i tin'er ant a'gent pres'i dent cor re spond'ent Able and ible signify that may be, capable of being, fit or worthy to be, or capacity. eat'a ble blam'a ble am'i ca ble sal'a ble laugh'a ble nav'i ga ble leg'i ble for'ci ble com bus'ti ble cred'i ble au'di ble in del'i ble Lesson 150. Ist, ster, ee, and ess, generally signify the person who, or thing which. The last is an affix denoting the feminine gender. aur'ist phys'i cist pi a'nist tap'ster chor'is ter for'est er grant ee' mort ga gee' as sign ee' em'press shep'herd ess mar'chion ess Dom signifies the office of or state of being; hood, the state of being; ish, somewhat, like; and ism, the condition or doctrines of. king'dom chris'ten dom hea'then dom child'hood maid'en hood live'li hood knav'ish yel'low ish a'gu ish Bud'dhism Meth'od ism Mor'mon ism Lesson 151. Eer or ier generally signifies one who has charge of; en means made of, or, with adjectives, to make; ic signifies pertaining to, belonging to, or like; and ise or ize, to make, to become, or to assimilate. cash ier' fin an cier' gon do lier' cloth'ier en gi neer' can non eer' beech'en be hold'en em bold'en bright'en en light'en en liv'en civ'ic ce phal'ic me tal'lic u'til ize cat'e chise crit'i cise sat'ir ize civ'il ize os'tra cize Lesson 152. Ion and ment denote the state of being, or the act of; fy, to make or become; ance or ence, the act or state of; ive, having a tendency to, or the power or nature of; ory, the power or nature of, or belonging to; and ous, partaking of, or full of. dis per'sion di ver'sion as per'sion ex cep'tion e lec'tion con di'tion a tone'ment a gree'ment dec're ment de'i fy stu'pe fy sat'is fy an noy'ance ac cord'ance con cord'ance oc cur'rence ab hor'rence in dul'gence a mu'sive con clu'sive of fen'sive cur'so ry ar'mo ry man'da to ry dan'ger ous li'bel ous har mo'ni ous Lesson 153. Kin, ling, let, and ule indicate smallness or diminution. lamb'kin man'i kin la'dy kin duck'ling un'der ling fos'ter ling leaf'let riv'u let flag'eo let glob'ule mol'e cule an i mal'cule Some means like or same, full of, or very; ward denotes in the direction of; ure means state of; and y, full of, or composed of. tire'some cum'ber some vent'ure some east'ward heav'en ward aft'er ward verd'ure cur'va ture im post'ure smok'y sin'ew y sil'ver y Lesson 154. ruff, an article of dress. roar, to make a loud noise. rough (ruf), uneven. row'er, one who rows. retch, to vomit. sail, a sheet of canvas. wretch, a miserable person. sale, the act of selling. rode, did ride. seen, beheld. road, a way; route. scene, a view. rowed, did row. seine, a net for fishing. room, an apartment. slay, to kill. rheum, a serous fluid. sleigh, a vehicle on runners. sow, to scatter seed. sley, a weaver's reed. sew (so), to use a needle. seem, to appear. so, thus; in like manner. seam, a line of junction. Lesson 155. rude, uncivil; rough. slow, not fast. rood, fourth of an acre. sloe, a kind of fruit. serf, a slave; servant. sun, the source of light. surf, a swell of the sea. son, a male child. serge, a kind of cloth. steel, refined iron. surge, to rise; to swell. steal, to rob; to pilfer. sheer, pure; clear. stile, steps over a fence. shear, to cut or clip. style, manner of writing. side, a part; a margin. stare, to look fixedly. sighed, did sigh. stair, a step. slew (slu), did slay. sweet, pleasing to the taste. slue, to slip aside. suite (swet), retinue. Lesson 156. OF PREFIXES. When a syllable or word is placed before another word, it is called a prefix. The prefix re generally gives the idea of repetition or return; as, recall, to call back. re build' re ap pear' re an'i mate re touch' re as cend' re gen'er ate re seat' re im burse' re sus'ci tate re view' ro doub'le re ver'ber ate The prefix un generally gives a negative meaning; as, unapt, not apt. un paid' un friend'ly un court'ly un clean' un health'y un ea'sy un known' un stead'y un fruit'ful un nerve' un err'ing un learn'ed Lesson 157. In, also, has a negative meaning; it often becomes im, il, ir, or ig, for the sake of sound. in act'ive in sin cere' ir res'o lute im prop'er im po lite' ir re lig'ious il le'gal il lu'sive irre spect'ive ig no'ble ig'no rant ir'ri ta ble im ma te ri al'i ty im prac ti ca bil'i ty in di vis i bil'i ty in de struc ti bil'i ty in com pat i bil'i ty ir re sist i bil'i ty in com press i bil'i ty im pen e tra bil'i ty Lesson 158. Dis is a Latin particle, and has the force of a negative or privative; as, disagree, not to agree, disarm, to deprive of arms. dis please' dis ap pear' dis con tin'ue dis joint' dis be lieve' dis in her'it dis lodge' dis o blige' dis or'gan ize dis charge' dis cour'age dis sim'i lar dis grace' dis cov'er dis crim'i nate The prefix after conveys its own meaning. aft'er piece aft'er noon aft'er most aft'er guard aft'er math aft'er-thought Lesson 159. Post is a Latin word, meaning after. post'script post-di lu'vi an post me rid'i an post'-date post po si'tion post'hu mous ly Other words are formed by prefixing the English word post, a letter- carrier. post'al post'man post'mark post'-chaise post'-town post'-office post-haste' post'boy post'mas ter Bene is a Latin prefix, signifying well. ben'e dict ben e fac'tion be nef'i cence ben'e fice ben e fi'cial be nev'o lence Lesson 160. Fore adds its own meaning to the word; as foretaste, to taste before; pre is from the Latin prae, before; ante (Latin), before. Anti (Greek), means against or opposite. fore'sight fore tell'er fore bod'ing ly fore'most fore knowl'edge fore de ter'mine fore know' fore'cas tle pre med'i tate pre fix' pre cau'tion pre oc'cu py pre judge' pre ced'ing pre-em'i nent pre serve' pre des'tine an te pas'chal pre sage' an'te past an te mun'dane pre text' an'te date an te nup'tial fore warn' an'ti pode an ti cli'max fore'front an'ti dote an ti feb'rile Lesson 161. The word miss signifies to err, to go wrong; in the compound the last s is omitted. mis guide' mis be lief' mis reck'on mis spell' mis con ceive' mis con'strue mis choose' mis di rect' mis gov'ern mis chance' mis re cite' mis guid'ance Words formed by the prefixes up and under. up raise' un der lay' un'der hand up heave' un der write' un'der growth up'right un der sign' un'der brush up'ward un der neath' un'der shot Lesson 162. Words formed by the prefixes out and over. out brave' o ver reach' o'ver board out grow' o ver awe' o'ver alls out pour' o ver flow' o'ver night out talk' o ver freight' o'ver sight Counter, from the Latin contra, against. coun'ter pane coun'ter sign coun ter move' coun'ter feit coun'ter point coun ter weight' Extra (Latin), beyond. ex tra ju di'cial ex tra phys'ic al ex tra pro vin'cial ex tra trop'ic al Lesson 163. Semi (Latin), and hemi (Greek), ha1f; super (Latin), over or above; trans (Latin), beyond or through; and inter (Latin), among or between. sem'i breve sem'i co lon sem'i qua ver sem'i tone sem'i cir cle sem i ton'ic hem'i sphere hem'i cy cle hem i morph'ic hem'i trope hem i he'dral hem i spher'ic su per add' su per fi'cial su per in duce' su per scribe' su per'flu ous su per struct'ure tran scend'ent trans at lan'tic tran'si to ry trans fig'ure trans fus'i ble trans mis'si ble in'ter course in ter mit'tent in ter reg'num in'ter lude in ter ces'sor in ter sec'tion LESSON 164. Ad signifies to, and for euphony takes the forms of ac, af, ag, al, an, ap, ar, and as; as ad and verto, advert, to turn to. ad duce' al lure' as sail' ag'gre gate ac count' an nex' ad vance' ag'gra vate ac cord' ar rive' ad'verb ap pend'age af fix' as cend' ad'verse ar'ro gance Bi (from Latin bis, twice) means two, double, or in two. bi'fid bi den'tate bi no'mi al bi'form bi cor'nous bi en'ni al bi'nate bi fur'cate bi noc'ular bi'ped bi lin'gual bi valv'u lar bi sect' bi par'tite bi sul'phu ret Lesson 165. Con (Latin cum, with) signifies with or together; it takes the forms of com, col, co, cog, and cor, for ease in pronunciation. con vert' con de scend' con ven'tion al com press' com pan'ion com pen sa'tion col lect' col'lo quy col lat'er al co here' co-ex ist' co-ex ten'sive cog'nate cog'ni zant cog nos'ci ble cor rect' cor re spond' cor o na'tion con cur' con vul'sion con sec'u tive con dign' con vey'er con se quen'tial con form' con tu'sion con nat'u ral Lesson 166. De signifies down or from; epi significs on, near, during; and ex has the meaning out of. Ex also becomes e, ec, or ef. de scend' ex tract' ep i dem'ic de tract' e vade' ep'i lep sy de note' ef fuse' ep i glot'tis de vote' ec'logue ep i derm'is Dia, ob, per, and circum mean respectively apart, against, through, and around. With English words, dis gives a negative meaning. dis tend' dis sev'er dis em bar'rass ob trude' ob lique'ly ob lit'er ate per plex' per fect'ive per sist'en cy cir'cuit cir cum volve' cir cum ja'cent Lesson 167. Mal signifies evil, ill; mono is from Greek monos, single; pan (Greek), signifies all, every thing; and poly (Greek polus), many. mal'con tent ma li'cious ma lev'o lent mon'o tone mon'o gram mo nop'o Iy pan'o ply pan'the ist pan o ra'ma pol'y gon pol'y pus pol'y the ism Pro is a Latin preposition signifying for, before, and forth; uni (Latin unus, one) signifies one or producing one; syn (sometimes syl and sym) signifies together; and sub (sometimes suf, sup, and sug) denotes under, below. pro'noun u'ni ty syn'the sis sub scribe' pro pel' u'ni form syl'la ble suf'fix pro duce' u'ni corn sym'pa thy sup press' pro vide' u'ni val ve syn tac'tic sug gest' Lesson 168. Compound Words promiscuously arranged. ale'-house lime'-kiln hedge'hog hail'stone boat'man pen'knife lay'man four'score grist'-mill safe'guard load'stone mid'night waist'coat oat'meal pitch'fork bee'-hive pole'-star ship'wreck key'-stone snow'-drop wrist'band knee'-pan sports'man block'head bride'groom jew's'-harp cross'-bow light'-house luke'warm off'spring Lesson 169. Compound Words. Lisle'-glove night'fall harts'horn north-east' book'-case corn'-stalk joint'-stock foot'stool loop'-hole well'-bred cork'screw bur'dock snuff'-box watch'-word whirl'pool towns'man broom'stick fools'cap house'wife dooms'day work'shop char'coal brown'-bread for sooth' out weigh' down'right down'cast horn'pipe tooth'ache noon'day heir'loom air'brake law'suit Lesson 170. Compound Words. can'dle stick post'al-card but'ter fly hand'ker chief cop'y-book wa'ter-fall bed'-cham ber oft'en times gas'-me ter ev'er green type'-writ er cler'gy man gen'tle man jour'ney man bric'-a-brac pep'per mint hum'ming-bird na'vy-yard camp'-meet ing musk'-mel on fool'-hard y mas'ter piece blood'-ves sel al might'y pass'o ver hon'ey-comb by'stand er fowl'ing-piece stem'-wind er bass'-vi ol pow'der-horn school'-mas ter tale'-bear er Lesson 171. SYNTHETIC AND DICTATION EXERCISES. A'bel, a man's name. de scend'ent, falling. a'ble, powerful. cough'er, one who coughs. al'ley, a narrow passage. coffer, a chest. al ly', one who assists. can'died, covered with sugar. al lu'sion, a reference. can'did, honest; truthful. il lu'sion, mockery. cent'u ry, 100 years. de scend'ant, offspring. sen'try, a guard. The able man's name was Abel. A narrow alley. France was an ally of England in the Crimean war. He made an allusion to the illusion that possessed him. His descendant was descendent from the same line. The cougher sat on the coffer. The candid youth ate the candied cakes. The sentry wore a costume of the last century. Lesson 172. Words spelled alike, whose Pronunciation and Meaning differ. aye, always. conjure, to enchant. aye, an affirmative vote. bow, a weapon. chose, did choose. bow, part of a ship. chose, a thing; a chattel. chap, a boy. bass, a term in music. chap, the jaw. bass, a fish. gout, a disease. conjure', to implore. gout, taste; relish. Lesson 173. Words spelled alike, whose Pronunciation and Meaning differ. mall, a public walk. scald, a poet. mall, a mallet. sew'er (so'er), one who sews. slough (sluf), a snake's skin. sew'er (su'er), a drain. slough, a miry place. court'e sy, civility. wear, a dam in a river. courte'sy, a slight bow. wear, waste. slav'er, a slave ship. min'ute (min'it), sixty seconds. slav'er, spittle. mi nute', very small. i'ron y (i'urn y), of iron. hind'er, in the rear. i'ron y, ridicule. hin'der, to obstruct. worst'ed, a kind of yarn. scald, a burn. worst'ed, defeated. Lesson 174. Words in which the letter A is often mispronounced. Some of the words in this and succeeding lessons have two pronunciations, but in all cases the preferable one is given. hearth mam ma' an'cient fra'ter nize grass a slant' la'va com man dant' slant pa pa' saun'ter ti a'ra gape a las' pal'frey al ter'nate gaunt al'mond rap'ine af fla'tus far scath'less dra'ma hi a'tus swathe pag'eant la'ma ba na'na lance stal'wart da'ta sul ta'na calm aft'er ma'gi man da'mus laugh par'ent pa'thos oc ta'vo Lesson 175. Words in which A is frequently mispronounced. chal'dron ar ca'num u ra'ni urn na'tant er ra'tum a qua'ri um hal'berd ver ba'tim ap pa ra'tus tas'sel val'en tine ig no ra'mus sau'cy ca'ri ous ir ra'tion al mael'strom tra'che a lit er a'ti squa'lor bar bar'ic lit er a'tim dai'ry bar ri cade' ul ti ma'tum ca'ret ra'di us mar a nath'a gra'tis chol'e ra gym na'si um ra'dix ca na'ry ex pa'ti ate Lesson 176. Sounds of A frequently mispronounced. gla'mour sac'ra ment glance al'ways raft'er a'pri cot zouave a mass' scal'lop gar'ru lous drain Ar'ab craft'y bra va'do stanch ba'thos grass'y de fal'cate scarce cal'dron em balm' ca ca'o cant chas'ten a ghast' rail'ler y can't fac'ile was'sail an dan'te strap fair'y balm'y hal'i but yacht ga'la al'der na'ive te scath qua'si Al'dine fi na'le calk lo cale' Lesson 177. Sounds of A often mispronounced. swath pau'per gra va'men a men' halve ha'rem to ma'to gua'no jean pa sha' sa'li ent na'ive catch fac'et pa'ri ah har'ass balm fal'chion far ra'go sat'ire groat laugh'ter tap'es try jal'ap trance tar'iff de ca'dence e clat' yea ba salt' a're a prai'rie are hur ra' va ga'ry ra'tion shaft ba ton' cu'po la Sal'ic scared quag'mire cu ra'tor ta'pis Lesson 178. Words in which the Sounds of E are often mispronounced. ei'ther eq'ui ty leg'end a ry pre'cept ten'a ble ab ste'mi ous weap'on e'go tism a me'na ble prel'ate ter'ra pin a pe'ri ent yel'low al le'gro ste're o type ven due' in her'ent sac ri le'gious for get' le'ni ent be nef'i cent stead'y yes'ter day a men'i ty en'gine e'qua ble e le'gi ac ket'tle pe'o ny hy men e'al treb'le e'qui poise em py re'an Lesson 179. Words in which the Sounds of E are often mispronounced. leant pet'rel cere'ment les see' dreamt se'ries lei'sure me lee' eyre seam'stress ef fete' deaf'en rear steel'yard en feoff' rou'e deaf sex'ton keel'son e lite' teat fe'brile' seck'eI khe dive' pert fec'und bes'tial res'pite tete sen'na fet'id there'fore feoff ten'et fe'tich pref'ace egg tep'id se'nile tet'ter yet le'ver he'lot met'ric Lesson 180. Words in which the Sounds of E are often mispronounced. per'uke nep'o tism ter'ri ble neth'er as cet'ic res'in ous pet'al red'o lent rec'i pe res'in co te rie' tet'a nus ra ceme' em ploy e' ref'lu ent pre'lude at ta che' hy e'mal me'grim pre'mi er cer'e brum ven'ue o bei'sance ve'he ment bre vet' gen'er a def'i cit car tel' Ma dei'ra splen'e tic e'pact her'o ine i de'a Lesson 181. Words in which the Sounds of I are often mispronounced. fi'nite mer'can tile pa ri'e tal pro'file pi az'za rec i ta tive' de bris' he gi'ra an ni'hi late A'pril de cli'vous cal li'o pe fi nanec' O ri'on he li'ac al ox'ide i tal'ic zo di'ac al ar'chives ho ri'zon i soch'ro nous vis'or si'ne cure men in gi'tis sir'up so ri'tes ma ni'ac al bas tile' bron chi'tis scar la ti'na rib'ald trip'ar tite i so therm'al Lesson 182. Words in which the Sounds of I are often mispronounced. rid ti rade' py ri'tes vive ton tine' fa ri'na rinse bro'mine mar'i time shire li'chen pi a'no width ob lique' vir'u lent si'ren vis'count cyn'o sure ti'ny vi'rile is'o late li'en spike'nard vol'a tile an'ile trib'une en fran'chise ei'der qui'nine, de ci'sive, tri'o di late' pu'er ile Lesson 183. Words in which the Sounds of I are often mispronounced. fu'tile as pir'ant ad ver tis'er ar tiste' in quir'y tri syl'la ble fi nesse' sub sid'ence' ka lei'do scope stir'rup chas'tise ment ad ver'tise ment sub'tile di gres'sion in ter ne'cine chlo'rine di men'sion lar yn gi'tis Al'pine di plo'ma mi rac'u lous chi cane' sim'o ny in ci'so ry cui sine' crin'o line vi vip'a rous li'lac par'a digm is o la'tion vic'ar e chi'nus si mul ta'ne ous Lesson 184. Words in which 0 is sometimes mispronounced. holm tro'phy mon'as ter y yolk on'ly proc'u ra tor scoff mon'grel mi cros'co py nonce be troth' drom'e da ry cost proc'ess zo ol'o gy won't doc'ile al lop'a thy wont prov'ost au tom'a ton shone grov'e1 hy drop'a thy sloth fore'head La oc'o on forge joc'und pho tog'ra phy doth don'key in ter loc'u tor Lesson 185. Words in which O is sometimes mispronounced. front'ier ap ro pos' ab do'men plov'er vo'ca ble dis com'fit a mour' pos til'ion court'e ous hov'er pre co'cious pa rot'id sur tout' o'o lite con do'lence sloth'fu1 dol'or ous cog no'men Sou chong' ca lor'ic op po'nent caout'choue front'is piece co ro'na re volt' prob'i ty col'port eur fort'night pome gran'ate po'ta ble com'pass sov'er eign a ro'ma Lesson 186. Words in which U is sometimes mispronounced. tulle col'umn in au'gu rate joust sut'ure ce ru'le an guide pup'pet vi tu'per ate yours su'mac ac cu'mu late ghoul ful'some co ad ju'tor gi'aour con'duit pu'pil la ry de but cu'cum ber in'sti tute duc'at tru'cu lent eu re'ka U'lan con nois seur' cae su'ra sup'ple ju'gu lar con'sti tute du'ty nu'mer ous tour'na ment Lesson 187. Words properly accented on the first Syllable. con'strue com'bat ant pu'is sance trav'erse dis'pu tant in'ter im ramp'ant gon'do la au'top sy ath'lete pleth'o ra tym'pa num syr'inge mis'chiev ous wise'a cre ex'tant blas'phe mous or'ches tral brig'and con'ver sant im'po tent con'cord san'he drim con'gru ent dis'cord con'tra ry im'be cile do'nate pro'te an pha'e ton ob'long dis'ci pline ret'i na Lesson 188. roll, to turn over and over. soar, to mount upward. role, a part performed. stake, a pointed stick. sign, a token; a mark. steak, a slice of flesh. sine, a line in geometry. step, a pace; a foot-print. skull, part of the head. steppe, a dreary plain. scull, to impel a boat. stoop, to bend forward. sleeve, an arm cover. stoup, a basin; a pitcher. sleave, untwisted silk. sum, the amount; whole. slight, to neglect; feeble. some, a part; a portion. sleight, dexterity. tale, that which is told. soul, the immortal spirit. tail, terminal appendage. sole, bottom of the foot. tare, allowance in weight. sore, a hurt; painful. tear, to rend; to lacerate. Lesson 189. tacks, small nails. toe, part of the foot. tax, import; duty. tow, coarse part of flax. throne, seat of a king. tract, a region. thrown, cast. tracked, followed. team, horses hitched together their, belonging to them. teem, to bring forth. there, in that place. tear, water from the eye. throw, to cast; to hurl. tier, a row or rank. throe, agony. threw (thru), did throw. tide, rising of the sea. through, from end to end. tied, bound; fastened. time, duration. toad, a harmless reptile. thyme, a pungent herb. towed, drawn by a rope. Lesson 190. Words properly accented on the first Syllable. prog'ress eq'ui page ex'qui site ly in'grate phos'phor us com'pa ra ble pae'an lu'di crous per'emp to ry cou'pon vic'i nage or'tho e py du'ress in'te gral ex'em pla ry good'man in'te ger lam'en ta ble o'zone an'ces tor in'ter est ing a'corn an'ti podes con'tu me ly pro'logue at'ro phy sub'lu na ry thir'teen com'plai sant va'ri o loid sar'dine det'o nate e'ti o late Lesson 191. Words properly accented on the second Syllable. trust ee' he ral'dic ap pel'la tive mon soon' ple thor'ic a nem'o ne pro lix' re cu'sant ar tif i cer back slide' ple be'ian ar bit'ra ment where as' pre ced'ence con sum'mate ly gain say' le the'an ca mel'o pard re cess' il lus'trate con not'a tive pla card' im mob'ile in ter'po late a dept' phi lip'pic te leg'ra phy suc cess' o de'on pe riph'ra sis ro mance' e la'ine re con'nais sance Lesson 192. Words properly accented on the second Syllable. cos tume' so no'rous re med'i less with draw' ly ce'um pre ced'en cy suc cinct' mu se'um hy per'bo le ex cess' e ner'vate py ram'i dal de funct' ac cli'mate te leph'o ny ca nine' in un'date il lus'tra tive' mo rale' con den'sate ex ec'u tor re lay' Lin nae'an ex tem'po re si moom' ob jur'gate gla di'o lus re course' ad um'brate in fer'a ble ac cess' cho re'us chal ced'o ny Lesson 193. Words properly accented on the second Syllable. ex traor'di na ry in ter'po la tor in com'pa ra ble con sol'a to ry ir ref'ra ga ble de lib'er a tive ir rep'a ra ble' pro thon'o ta ry ir rev'o ca ble dis crim'i na tive in dis'so lu ble com mem'o ra tive in dis'pu ta ble ac cel'er a tive in ex'o ra ble sa lu'ta to ry ab sol'u to ry pa ri'e ta ry de mon'stra tive ly nun cu'pa to ry oc tog'e na ry in ex'pli ca ble Lesson 194. Words properly accented on the third Syllable. rev er ie' am a teur' dem o ni'ac al ob li gor' bom ba zine' ho me op'a thy jag u ar' tam bour ine' ap o the'o sis im pro vise' ric o chet' [noun] her e dit'a ment or mo lu' mule teer' spon ta ne'i ty et i quette' mau so le'um ep i zo'o ty av a lanche con ser va'tor hy per bo're an as sign or' cot y le'don ep i cu're an po lo naise' no men clat'ure Pyth a go're an cat a falque' hy men e'an hip po pot'a mus dis ha bille' den u da'tion rec i proc'i ty Lesson 195. Words frequently mispronounced, or improperly accented. mulet sa'chem jave'lin hos'tler soot asth'ma chest'nut de'tail [noun] noose le'gend wres'tle fa cade' twice de sign' [noun] or'chis strych'nine niche isth'mus list'en per'fume [noun] salve this'tle bay'ou mus tache' height rai'sn gib'bous bas'ket milch a dult' gla'cier Gae'lic browse [noun] psalm'ist griev'ous Le vant' [noun] vase oft'en na'sal soft'en Lesson 196. Words frequently mispronounced, or improperly accented. though goose'ber ry da guerre'o type gist sooth'say er cab ri o let' fifth ju've nile min i a ture' drought lic'o rice leg er de main' nook a pos'tle char i ot eer' poor ar'gen tine an i mad vert' roil Ar min'ian av oir du pois' sauce de co'rous Cy clo pe'an rhythm cyc'la men Eu ro pe'an schism so'journ er spo li a'tion root cov'et ous in'ter est ed Lesson 197. Words frequently mispronounced, or improperly accented. pom'mel ab'jeet ness nu mis'ma tist bel'lows ab'a cus ig nit'i ble fig'ure ad'verse'ly Jan'u a ry di rect' Bur'gun dy Feb'ru a ry as'sets Bed'ou in in'ven to ry je june' en vi'rons cor'ol la ry ver'min ex'ple tive vi'o la ble ran'sack um'pi rage rep'a ra ble short'-lived o'a sis des'pi ca ble so'journ ar'se nic bap'tis ter y cais'son ar'ti san pres'by ter y Lesson 198. Words frequently mispronounced, or improperly accented. in'nate chol'er ic se'cre to ry ter'mites gon'fa lon dec're to ry way'lay cen'tu ple ex'ple to ry slaugh'ter re'tro cede con sis'to ry frag'ile nu'cle us pre cep'to ry car'riage cen'tau ry rep'er to ry thor'ough co quet'ry chi rur'ger y sched'ule sto mach'ic sperm a ce'ti grand'eur in'ter stice pan e gyr'ist hir sute' ce ram'ic pan'e gy rize ben'zine re volt'ing mel lif'lu ous Lesson 199. Words frequently mispronounced, or impropedy accented. ag'gran dize dem'on strate tur'mer ic al'der man tre men'dous mne mon'ic Al'co ran stu pen'dous vir'e lay al'ge bra gov'ern ment ex'pur gate mis'tle toe Ar'a bic am'ber-gris pres'by ter com'bat ive min'a ret rasp'ber ry com'mu nist or'de al ven'i son com'plai sance plat'i num pos'i tive con'verse ly fem'i nine dis hon'est dis as'ter gen'u ine chiv'al ric dram'a tist por tent'ous Lesson 200. Words to be carefully discriminated. cor'po ral, an officer. ve'ni al, pardonable. cor po're al, bodily. ve'nal, mercenary; base. du'al ist, a believer in two gods. ap'po site, suitable; fit. op'po site, over against. du'el ist, one who fights a duel ac cla ma'tion, a slout. ac cli ma'tion, inurement to climate. de scen'sion, descent. dis sen'sion, strife. an'a lyze, to separate. ce're ous, like wax. an'nal ize. to record. se'ri ous, grave; solemn. or'a cle, a prophet. Sir'i us, the dog-star. au'ri cle, the external ear. Lesson 201. The words opposite one another in the lines have nearly the same meaning, and are called Synonyms. au'thor ize com mis'sion em pow'er ap par'ent ob'vi ous ev'i dent ac cord'ant con'so nant a gree'ing de port'ment de mean'or be hav'ior di dac'tic pre cep'tive in struc'ive fla gi'tious a tro'cious out ra'geous ad her'ent par'ti san fol'low er in'di gence pen'u ry pov'er ty syc'o phant par'a site flat'ter er har'bin ger pre cur'sor fore run'ner Lesson 202. to, towards; unto. vane, a weathercock. too, also. vain, proud; empty. two, one and one. vein, a blood-vessel. trey, three at cards. waste, to consume; loss. tray, a shallow vessel. waist, part of the body. vale, a valley; a dell. ware, merchandise. veil, a cover; a curtain. wear, to use; to waste. wait, to tarry; to stay. way, a road; manner. weight, heaviness; load. weigh, to balance. weighted, balanced. week, seven days. wade, to walk in water. weak, not strong. weth'er, a sheep. wood, timber; a forest. weath'er, state of the air. would, preterit of will. Lesson 203. Words sometimes incorrectly pronounced alike, but which should be carefully discriminated. line loin creek crick sex sects loam loom pint point yon yawn lose loose sat sot least lest morn mourn phase face scrawl scroll rout route laud lord tents tense stalk stock east yeast with withe can ken dawn don close clothes blanch blench dose doze coarse corse want wont wen when white wight wax whacks alms arms moor more Lesson 204. Words nearly alike in Sound, to be carefully distinguished. as say' es say' ep'ic ep'och de cease' dis ease' bea'con beck'on de scent' dis sent' coffin cough'ing de vice' de vise' grist'ly gris'ly huz za' hus sar' di'vers di'verse in tense' in tents' cho'ral cor'al a loud' al lowed' gant'let gaunt'let im merse' a merce' mu'sic mu'cic af fect' ef fect' rad'ish red'dish e lude' al lude' sculp'tor sculpt'ure Cas'tile cast'-steel hum'ble um'bel Lesson 205. as cent', steepness. bur'y (ber'ry), to cover with earth. as sent', agreement. an'chor, for a ship. ber'ry, a small fruit. ank'er, a liquid measure. can'non, a great gun. al'ter, to change. can'on, a rule or law. al'tar, a place for sacrifice. ceil'ing, top of a room. au'ger, an instrument. seal'ing, as with wax. au'gur, to foretell. cel'lar, a lower room. bur'row, hole for shelter. sel'ler, one who sells. bor'ough, a corporate town. ces'sion, a giving up. ses'sion, a sitting. bold'er, more bold. cous'in, a relation. bowl'der, a large pebble. coz'en, to cheat. Lesson 206. cen'su al, of the census. phil'ter, a love-charm. sen'su al, carnal. great'er, larger. coun'cil, an assembly. gra'ter, that which grates. coun'sel, advice. ho'ly, sacred; pure. can'vas, a kind of coarse cloth. whol'ly, entirely. can'vass, to discuss. mar'tin, a bird. crew'el, worsted yarn. mar'ten, a kind of weasel. cru'el, inhuman; savage. man'ner, form; method. cyg'net, a young swan. man'or, district. sig'net, a seal. man'tel, shelf over a fireplace. chol'er, anger; wrath. man'tle, a cloak. col'lar, for the neck. mar'tial, warlike. fil'ter, to strain. mar'shal, an officer. Lesson 207. Words nearly alike in Sound, to be carefully distinguished. con'so nance con'so nants cen'sus sen'ses e lys'i an e lis'ion Lat'in lat'ten e mer'sion im mer'sion con'cert con'sort for'mer ly form'ally cor'nice Corn'ish pass'a ble pas'si ble hal'low halo pe ti'tion par ti'tion rel'ic rel'ict com'i ty com mit'tee or'der ord'ure dep ra va'tion dep ri va'tion fa'ther far'ther ve rac'i ty vo rac'i ty plaint'iff plaint'ive sta'tion a ry sta'tion er y pa'tience pa'tients Lesson 208. Words nearly alike in Sound, to be carefully distinguished. bile boil ad her'ence ad her'ents wig whig con fi dant' con'fi dent God gaud at tend'ance at tend'ants dance daunts ac'ci dence ac'ci dents dome doom e lic'it il lic'it wheel weal em'i nence im'mi nence lease lees e rup'tion ir rup'tion sense since sal'a ry cel'er y dross draws bar'ren ness bar'on ess whit wit proph'e cy proph'e sy Lesson 209. med'al, a stamped coin. pen'cil, used for writing. med'dle, to interfere. pen'sile, hanging. mi'nor, one under age. pet'ty, small; little. mi'ner, a worker in mines. pet'it', a term in law. mit'y, full of mites. pom'ace, ground apples. might'y, powerful. pum'ice, a spongy stone. na'val, of ships. rig'or, severity; stiffness. na'vel, the central part. rig'ger, one who rigs. cen'sor, one who censures. suck'er, a kind of fish. cens'er, a pan for incense. suc'cor, help; assistance. pan'nel, a kind of saddle. sur'plus, excess. pan'el, a jury roll. sur'pluce, a clerical dress. Lesson 210. pal'let, a small bed. com'pli ment, regard. pal'ate, part of the mouth. com'ple ment, fullness. pal'ette, an oval board. coun'sel or, an adviser. em'i grate, to move out. coun'cil or, member of a council. im'mi grate, to move in. cas'tor, the beaver. straight'en, to make straight. cast'er, one who casts. strait'en, to narrow. cur'rent, running. cal'en dar, an almanac. cur'rant, a small fruit. cal'en der, a hot press. cap'i tol, a public edifice. sut'ler, an army trader. cap'i tal, principal. sub'tler, more subtle. Lesson 211. Words which require Care in Spelling. jilt dol'lar rip'ple nat'u ral gyre schol'ar trip'le gut'tur al jow1 grap'ple pop'py lit'er al troll chap'el cop'y diz'zi ly goal ren'net sun'ny bus'i ly knoll sen'ate mon'ey ver'ti cal dole freck'le glim'mer ar'ti cle turf shek'el prim'er du'te ous verb wit'ty tread'le beau'te ous pirn cit'y ped'dle fin'i cal perk hop'per cod'dle pin'na cle surd prop'er mod'el cyn'ic al Lesson 212. Words which require Care in Spelling. scream com'et peb'ble in ter cede' screen vom'it reb'el su per sede' sheave plum'met sib'yl col'o nize sheet sum'mit spin'et ad ver tise' shield ver'y lin'net par'a lyze twirl mer'ry cam'el se'cre cy churl bod'y tram'mel ec'sta sy clerk shod'dy mam'mal vac'il late quirk mud'dy sev'en fas'ci nate fraud stud'y heav'en co er'cion broad guin'ea par'rot de ter'sion awe'd nin'ny clar'et ex er'tion Lesson 213. Words which require Care in Spelling. grief do'ing a byss' hid'e ous sheaf stew'ing a miss' pre'vi ous guile, yeo'man as sess' im'pi ous chyle chlo'ral ab'scess a'que ous rend know'ing sick'le par'ti cle wrench go'ing nick'el crit'ic al dearth con dole' tal'ents dil'i gent worth con trol' bal'ance el'e gant mirth en roll' si'lence fal'li ble earth dis pel' com peer' prel'a cy spurt fore tell' ad here' jeal'ous y Lesson 214. Words which require Care in Spelling. which stom'ach re prieve' in i'tial ditich sau'sage con ceive' of fi'cial feud word'y de grade' es sen'tial sued tur'gid a fraid' sol sti'tial prude ver'ger pre pare' a bun'dant wooed vir'tue for bear' de pend'ent balk leop'ard bar'ter in veigh'er shawl lep'er tar'tar be tray'er guise fam'ine mar'tyr di'a logue sighs gam'mon suc ceed' dy nam'ics flies salm'on ac cede' me chan ics Lesson 215. Words which require Care in Spelling. wield scan'dal se rene' an'no tate weird han'dle un clean' an'o dyne swale clam'or be tween' col on nade' swain gram'mar ma rine' ser e nade' storm ham'mer com plete' dom i neer' swarm palm'er de feat' bel ve dere' scythe sa'tyr de ceit' pen'ni less writhe trai'tor co erce' mon'ey less sieve wait'er dis burse' joc'u lar give cra'ter dis perse' jock'ey ing Lesson 216. Words which require Care in Spelling. skein val'id kir'tle pol'i cy slain sal'ad tur'tle leg'a cy crane mal'let fer'tile cur'ti lage sword val'et myr'tle syn'a gogue boast breez'y wid'geon cod'i cil ghost greasy pig'eon dom'i cile queer gar'den mal'ice ver'sa tile brief par'don pal'ace hyp'o crite spoke e'vil tor'toise hip'po drome croak ea'gle mor'tise scen'er y self pole'ax sel'vage ple'na ry sylph poult'ry por'ridge dean'er y Lesson 217. Words which require Care in Spelling. zinc col'lege con fer' u ten'sil brink knowl'edge a stir' pre hen'sile fought leath'er oc cur' fa tigu'ing caught teth'er ef face' be lea'guer wrought cau'cus e rase' si li'ceous fuse mawk'ish chas tise' vex a'tious news au'thor bap tize' fa ce'tious views awn'ing a chieve' sus pi'cion choose ar'id per ceive' po si'tion wooes heir'ship be reave' in cis'ion ooze air'y re nown' de ris'ion whose car'ry re nounce' e di'tion Lesson 218. Words which require Care in Spelling. earl ran'cor in vade' di ur'nal knurl can'ker up braid' hi ber'nal shirk flux'ion ur bane' at tor'ney jerk suc'tion or dain' de ter'gent pith hos'pice a dieu' con ta'gion myth au'spice im brue' her ba'ceous growth bot'tom pre cede' frol'ic some loath au'tumn pro ceed' frol'ick ing loathe trunn'ion re deem' de pres'sion clothe bun'ion ex treme' dis cre'tion Lesson 219. Words which require Care in Spelling. risk coup'le wry'ness ve'hi cle wrist cup'board ri'ot typ'ic al shred cho'rus ly'rist ob'sta cle dread po'rous li'vre pro'to col scheme hill'y ten'on mys'tic al chief lil'y pen'non mis'ti ness siege san'dal ros'trum rec're ant seat can'dle phan'tom reck'on er seethe nu'tant fan'ion wretch'ed ly keyed neu'ter ver'sion of'fi cer tweed nui'sance ter'tian oph'i cleide Lesson 220. Words containing silent Letters. thought hand'some re doubt' hec'a tomb wreathe vict'uals re scind' sci'o list wreath scis'sors gneis'sose co a lesce' rhomb schot'tish be nign' ap'a thegm gnat g'no'mon cam paign' di'a phragm rogue' for'eign ar raign' psy'chic al gnaw dough'ty op pugn' sac'cha rine gnash haugh'ty re sign' rheu mat'ic gnarl chron'ic de light' rhap'so dy gnome daugh'ter ex pugn' rhet'o ric phlegm ghast'ly af fright' ca tarrh'al Lesson 221. Silent Letters. taught hon'est ca tarrh' pneu mat'ics source gher'kin con demn' psal'ter y brought chalk'y de mesne' pneu mo'ni a realm isl'and de pot' rhi noc'e ros vault naph'tha burgh'er ren'dez vous knob gris'tle calk'er jeop'ard y qualm thros'tle, rhom'boid hem'or rhage wroth chris'ten tme'sis rhiz'o pod fraugt jeop'ard ptis'an ptar'mi gan knock wrig'gle, psy'chic pseu'do nym knife bris'tle rhym'er psalm'ist ry Lesson 222. Words liable to be misspelled. tres'tle glu'ey ness collect'i ble' pa paw' crys'tal line e ras'a ble gey'ser chrys'a lis ac cor'di on gaug'ing lach'ry mose sac er do'tal co log'ne ker'o sene' ef fer ves'cence qua drille' glyc'er ine tran quil'li ty sky'ey ar'go naut com mit'ti ble sor'ghum fore'bod'ing cor us ca'tion sur vey' ex cheq'uer mac a ro'ni starve'ling sib'yl line pic'ca lil li pro'gramme sib'i lant fil'i bus ter Lesson 223. Words liable to be misspelled. fleam ey'ing gen e al'o gy glyph wee'vil bac ca lau're ate liege lac'quer ab o rig'i nes cuish du et' ar chae ol'o gy taunt quar tet' as a fet'i da drap phe'nix er y sip'e las fleche rogu'ish ho mo ge'ne ous frere whey'ey hy per crit'i cism jardes ledg'er ich thy ol'o gy crypt sach'el ig'nis-fat u us sou lar'ynx lack a dai'si cal Lesson 224. Words frequently mispronounced. for'tress dan'druff prod'uce con cise' car'bine fran'chise com'bat dis own' chlo'ride hom'age thith'er dis dain' cof'fee rhu'barb o'nyx di vulge' com'rade cov'ert dis arm' ex tol' sau'cer ma'tron jo cose' for bade' dec'ade mon'ad bour geois' suf fuse' quin'sy pa'tron Cay enne' pos sess' gal'lows lith'arge con tour' fare well' mis'le par'tridge di verge' be neath' fau'cet wa'ter di vert' re source' Lesson 225 . Words frequently mispronounced. di'a mond par'a dise cin cho'nit chan de lier' a'li as in vei'gle gran'a ry par'a chute stra te'gic cou'ri er pot-pour ri' ex cur'sion eg'lan tine hy'gi ene a cous'tics sor'cer y con'fis cate an cho'vy ex'tir pate psal'mo dy pa la'ver cor'di al guard'i an Cau ca'sian cor'ri dor com'mu nism ap par'el gas'e ous sub al'tern so pra'no doc'i ble cou ra'geous im mor telle' Lesson 226. Words liable to be misspelled. som'er sault how'itz er bar'y tone stim'u lus syc'a more bil'lings gate sil'hou ette a bridg'ment bry'o ny pa vil'ion ad'di ble cen'ti ped quin till'ion aes thet'ic cim'e ter ci vil'ian al'che my col'an der cen'ti gram ar'que buse cop'i er ma nil'la ai'lan'tus nas tur'tium eu'pho ny as bes'tus chic'o ry pros'e lyte as cend'ant hei'nous ness pu'tre fy syz'y gy deb o nair' pro bos'cis bar'be cue por'phy ry Lesson 227. Words liable to be misspelled. bal'dric mal fea'sance cal lig'ra phy ban'yan sur'cin gle dys'en ter y bau'ble pleu'ri sy rem i nis'cence la pel' por'ce lain hy poc'ri sy ker'chief os'cil late hy pot'e nuse gnos'tic del'e ble syn ec'do che but'-end lau'da num si de're al cam'phene crys'tal lize ad sci ti'tious catch'up pol'y glot am au ro'sis cess'-pool guer ril'la lill i pu'tian ci gar' quin tes'sence lil i a'ceos Lesson 228. Words liable to be misspelled. clew coif'fure con fec'tion er y clinch fledge'ling klep to ma'ni a sleuth af'ghan cor nu co'pi a blonde che nille' cot y led'o nous glebe che mise' di u tur'ni ty gyves chas'seur terp sich o re'an guy chev'ron me temp sy cho'sis crutch cor'ymb me te or'o lite touch e leve' per ip neu'mo ny kraal hogs'head phar ma co poe'ia chintz meer'scham phar ma ceu'tic al ceirge buhr'-stone sac cha rif'er ous Lesson 229. Words liable to be misspelled or mispronounced. el e phan ti'a sis ir re cog'ni za ble par a di si'ac al gu ber na to'ri al par a pher na'li a el ee mos'y na ry ver i si mil'i tude pol y cot y le'don tin tin nab u la'tion het er o ge'ne ous su per e rog'a tive hi e ro glyph'ic al pu sil la nim'i ty hyp o chon dri'ac al phan tas ma go'ri a his to ri og'ra pher ob'li ga to ri ly in dis'so lu ble'ness id i o syn'cra sy in dis'pu ta ble'ness ir re me'di a ble' er y si pel'a tous ip e cac u an'ha ir ref'ra ga ble ness Lesson 230. Words of irregular Pronunciation. of (ov) tough (tuf) trough (trawf) sice (siz) hough (hok) bus'y (biz'y) tige (tej) fiord (fyord) ma'ny (men'y) says (sez) bouy (bwoy) pret'ty (prit'ty) said (sed) cough (kawf) wom'en (wim'en) loir (lwar) mont (mong) cann on' (kan yun') a'ny (en'y) rouge (roozh) sa lon' (sa long') newt (nut) mauve (mov) chap'eau (shap'o) beaux (boz) ruche (roosh) cha teau' (sha to') once (wuns) Czech (tchek) cro quet (kro ka') i'ron (i'urn) caf'e (kaf 'a) men age' (-azh') Lesson 231. Words of irregular Pronunciation. pa tois' (pat wa') bou quet' (boo ka') bi jou (be zhoo') breech'es (brich'ez) phthis'ic (tiz'ik) por'poise (por'pus) bu'reau (bu'ro) a gain' (a gen') En'glish (ing'glish) dis cern' (diz zern') flam'beau (flam'bo) e nough' (e nuf') haut'boy (ho'boy) en nui' (ong nwe') hic'cough (hik'kup) ron deau' (ron do') right'eous (ri'chus) vign ette' (vin yet') cham'ois (sham'my) squir'rel (or skwur'rel) bou'doir (boo'dwor) suf fice' (suf fiz') ser'geant (sar'jent) cor'tege (kor'tazh) Lesson 232. Words of irregular Pronunciation. sough (suf) men ag'e rie (men azh'e ry) myrrh (mer) ci ce ro'ne (che che- or sis'e-) suave (swav) chev'aux-de-frise (shev'o de frez) shew (sho) pap'ier-ma che (pap'ya ma sha) strew (stru) de col le te' (da kol le ta') bouffe (boof) tic-dou lou reux' (tik doo lo roo') nom (nong) ver mi cel'li (-chel'li or -sel'li) clough (kluf) su per fi'cies (su per fish'ez) nee (na) ra tion a'le (rash un a'le) ghat (gawt) ha bit u e (a bit n a') creux (kru) hal le lu jah (hal le lu'ya) Lesson 233. Words of irregular Pronunciation. bus'i ness (biz'nes) roq'ue laure (rok'e lor) colo nel (kur'nel) sac'ri fice (sak'ri fiz) hau teur' (ho tur') chef-d'oeuvre' (sha doovr') bdell'ium (del'yum) es cri toire' (es kri twor') cui rass' (kwe ras') belles-let'tres (bel let'ter) gauch rie' (gosh re') res tau rant' (res to rang') trous seau' (troo so') mign on ette' (min yon et') gun'wale (gun'nel) fuch'si a (fook'si a) dah'lia (dal'ya) re veil'le (re val'ya) soi ree' (swa ra') pap e terie' (pap a tre') sap'phire' (saf'ir) sur veil'lance' (-val'yans) cog'nac (kon'yak) Ple'ia des (ple'ya dez) Lesson 234. Words of irregular Pronunciation. nes'cience (nesh'ens) re cher che' (ruh sher sha') ba rege' (ba razh') so bri quet' (so bre ka') diph'thong (dif-) aid'-de-camp (ad'de kong) sol'dier (sol'jer) mag gio're (mad jo'ra) fort'une' (fort'yun) made moi selle' (-mwa zel') neph'ew (nef'yu) fleur-de-lis' (flur de le') let'tuce (let'tis) deb au chee' (deb o she') en tree' (ong tra') res er voir' (rez er vwor') re gime' (ra zhem') eis tedd'fod (is teth'fod) scru toire' (skru twor') pro te ge' (pro ta zha') phy sique' (fe zek') de noue'ment (-noo'mong) Lesson 235. Words of irregular Pronunciation. cri tique' (kri tek') en core' (ong kor') pen chant' (pong shong') se ance' (sa ongs') chig'non (shen'yong) mor ceau' (mor so') cha let' (sha la') dan seuse' (dong zurz') e lan' (a lang') sang-froid' (song frwa') mem'oir (mem'wor) qui vive (ke vev) mon sieur' (mo ser') faux pas' (fo pa') blanc-mange' (blo-monj') bon ton (bong tong) a mende' (a mongd') bon'mot (bong'mo) cen time' (son tem') mil lier' (mi lya') biv'ouac (biv'wak) sa vant' (sa vong') Lesson 236. Names of Men. Charles Ad'am Har'old A'sa Frank Al'bert Hen'ry Bas'il George An'drew Ho'mer Ca'leb Hugh Ar'thur I'saac Ce'phas James Clar'ence Ja'cob Cy'rus Job Da'vid Jo'seph Eu'gene John Ed'ward Lew'is Fe'lix Luke Ed'win No'ah Ja'bez Mark Ez'ra Pat'rick Leon'ard Saul Fran'cis Pe'ter Mo'ses Ralph Gil'bert Will'iam Rob'ert Lesson 237. Names of Men. Her'bert Ab'sa lom Al ex an'der Hi'ram An'tho ny An dro ni'cus Hor'ace Ben'ja min Bar thol'o mew Ja'son E li'jah Eb en e'zer Jes'se Fer'di nand Em man'u el Law'rence Fred'er ick E ze'ki el Le'vi I sa'iah (-ya) Jer e mi'ah Lu'ther Le an'der Le on'i das Os'car Ol'i ver Na po'le on Phil'ip Sam'u el The oph'i lus Rich'ard Tim'o thy Zech a ri'ah Lesson 238. Names of Women. Anne A'da Es'ther Lo'is Blanche Ag'nes Eu'nice Lu'cy Eve Al'ice E'va Ma'bel Grace An'na Fan'ny Mar'tha Jane Ber'tha Flo'ra Ma'ry Jean Clar'a Fran'ces My'ra Kate Co'ra Ger'trude Nan'cy Maud E'dith Hel'en Ra'chel May Ed'na Han'nah Rho'da Pearl El'la I'da Sa'rah Ruth Em'ma Lau'ra Su'san Lesson 239. Names of Women. A'my Ad'e line A me'li a Bet'sey A man'da Ar a bel'la Bridg'et Bar'ba ra Dor o the'a Char'lotte Be'a trice E liz'a beth Chlo'e Deb'o rah E van'ge line Dor'cas E li'za Fe lic'i a Di'nah Em'i ly Fred er i'ca El'len Mar'ga ret Ge'or gi an'a Flor'ence Pris cil'la Is a bel'la Ja net' Re bec'ca La vin'i a Ro'sa Su san'na Vic to'ri a Lesson 240. Abbreviations used in Writing and Printing. A. or Am., Answer. Bro., Brother. A. B., Bachelor of Arts. C. H., Court-House. A. C., or B. C., Before Christ. Co., Company; County. C. O. D., Collect on delivery. A. D., In the year of our Lord. A. M., Master of Arts; Before Cr., Credit. noon; In the year of the world. D. D., Doctor of Divinity. Do., or ditto, The same. Bart., Baronet. Dr., Doctor; Debtor. Bbl., Barrel; barrels. e. g. (exempli gratia), For example. B. L., Bachelor of Laws. Lesson 241. Abbreviations used in Writing and Printing. Ed., Editor; Edition. H. B. M., Her Britannic Majesty. Eng., England; English. Esq., Esquire. Hhd., Hogshead. Etc. (et cetera), And so forth. H.R., House of Representatives. Fri., Friday. Fahr., Fahrenheit. Ibid., In the same place. F.R.S., Fellow of the Royal Society. Id.(idem), The same. i. e. (id est), That is. Gen., General; Genesis. Jas., James. Gov., Governor. Jun. or Jr., Junior. G.P.O., General Post-Office. Lat., Latitude. Lb., Pound; pounds. Lesson 242. Abbreviations used in Writing and Printing. LL. D., Doctor of Laws. Mrs., Mistress. Long., Longitude. N., North. L. S., Place of the Seal. N. A., North America. M., Monsieur. MS., Manuscript. M. C., Member of Congress. No., Number. Mon., Monday. N. B. (nota bene), Take notice. M. D., Doctor of Medicine. pp., Pages. Messrs., Gentlemen. Per., By the. M. P., Member of Parliament. P. M., Postmaster; Afternoon. P.O., Post-Office. Mr., Mister; Master. Prof, Professor. Lesson 243. Abbreviations used in Writing and Printing. P. S., Postscript. St., Saint; Street. Pub. Doc., Public Document. Sun., Sunday. Supt., Superintendent. Pxt., He painted it. Thurs., Thursday. Sc., He engraved it. Tues., Tuesday. Q. M., Quartermaster. V., vid., or vide, See. Rec'd., Received. Viz.(videlicet), Namely. Rev., Reverend. Vol., Volume. S., Shilling; South. Vs. (versus), Against. S. A., South America. Wed., Wednesday. Sat., Saturday. W.I., West Indies. Sen., Senior; Senator. Wt., Weight. Lesson 244. Abbreviations of the States, with their Pronunciation. Ala., Al a ba'ma. Ia., I'o wa. Ark., Ar'kan sas. Kan., Kan'sas. Cal., Cal i for'ni a. Ky., Ken tuck'y. Col. or Colo., Col o ra'do. Lou. or La., Lou i si a'na. Conn. or Ct., Con nect'i cut Mass., Mas sa chu'setts. Md., Ma'ry land. Del., Del'a ware. Me., Maine. Flor. or Fla., Flor'i da. Mich., Mich'i gan. Geo. or Ga., Geor'gi a. Minn., Min ne so'ta. Ill., Il li nois'. Miss., Mis sis sip'pi. Ind., In di an'a. Mo., Mis sou'ri. Lesson 245. Abbreviations of the States, with their Pronunciation. Neb., Ne bras'ka. R. I., Rhode Is1'and. N. C., North Car o li'na. S. C., South Car o li'na. N. H., New Hamp'shire Tenn., Ten nes see'. Tex., Tex'as. N. J., New Jer'sey. Uh., U'tah (yoo'ta). Nev., Ne va'da. U.S.A., U nit'ed States of A mer'i ca. N. Y., New York. Or., Or'e gon. Va., Vir gin'i a. O., O hi'o. Vt., Ver mont'. Pa. or Penn., Penn syl va'ni a. Wis., Wis con'sin. W Va., West Vir gin'i a. Lesson 246. American and Foreign Geographical Names. Al'ba ny Ba'den Al le ghe'ny Ayr (ar) Bal'ti more A'si a (a'shi a) Aulne (on) Bor deaux' (-do') Cin cin na'ti Bos'ton Chi ca'go Eu phra'tes Chey enne' Cai'ro Ha wai'i Main Cey'lon' Pal'es tine Mo bile' I'ser (e'zer) Phil a del'phi a Pau (po) Mad rid' Pyr'e nees Saone Mil wau'kee Szeg ed in' Seine Mon ta'na Vi en'na Thames (temz) New Or'leans Wash'ing ton Lesson 247. Other Geographical Names of frequent Mispronunciation. Guanaxuato (gwa na hwa'to) Aube (ob) Poughkeepsie (po kip'si) Caen (kon) Worcester (woos'ter) Dieppe (dyep) Youghiogheny (yoh'ho ga'ni) Foix (fwa) Newfoundland (nu'fund land) Joux (zhoo) Chuquisaca (choo ke sa'ka) Lisle (lel) Guatemala (ga te ma'la) Moux (moo) Winnipiseogee (-pis sok'ki) Oude (owd) Venezuela (ven e zwe'la) Sioux (soo) Altamaha (al ta ma ha') Thau (to) Chautauqua (sha ta'kwa) Y (i) Lesson 248. OF CHARACTERS USED IN PUNCTUATION. A Comma [, ] denotes the slightest degree of separation between the elements of a sentence. A Semicolon [; ] denotes a degree of separation somewhat greater than that indicated by a comma. A Colon [:] marks a still greater degree of separation than a semicolon. A Period [.] usually indicates the close of a sentence. The Interrogation Point [?] is used at the end of a question. The Exclamation Point [!] denotes astonishment or other emotion. A Hyphen [ - ] is used to join words or syllables. A Dash [-] marks a sudden break or stop in a sentence. A Parenthesis [( )] includes words which might be left out without injuring the sense. Brackets [ ] inclose words, etc., intended to explain or rectify what precedes or follows. An Apostrophe ['] indicates the omission of one or more letters; or denotes the possessive case. Quotation Marks [" "] show that the passage included, is taken from some other author. OF CAPITAL LETTERS. A Capital should begin: (1) the first word of every sentence, and of every line of poetry; (2) proper names of persons, places, months, and days; (3) all appellations of the Deity; (4) titles of honor; (5) names of things personified; (6) names denoting the race or nation of individuals; (7) adjectives derived from proper names; (8) the first word of a direct quotation or speech; (9) the principal words in the titles of books; (10) words denoting important events, the chief subject of a composition, etc. (11) The pronoun I and the interjection O are always capitals. 
660	----	None 
15659	----	THE BEACON SECOND READER BY JAMES H. FASSETT GINN AND COMPANY BOSTON - NEW YORK - CHICAGO - LONDON ATLANTA - DALLAS - COLUMBUS - SAN FRANCISCO COPYRIGHT, 1914, BY JAMES H. FASSETT ALL RIGHTS RESERVED PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 431.1 The Athenæum Press GINN AND COMPANY - PROPRIETORS - BOSTON - U.S.A. PREFACE In the "Beacon Second Reader" the author has chosen for his stories only those of recognized literary merit; and while it has been necessary to rearrange and sometimes rewrite them for the purpose of simplification, yet he has endeavored to retain the spirit which has served to endear these ancient tales to the children of all ages. The fairy story appeals particularly to children who are in the second school year. It has been proved by our ablest psychologists that at about this period of development, children are especially susceptible to the stimulus of the old folklore. They are in fact passing through the stage which corresponds to the dawn of the human race, when demons, dragons, fairies, and hobgoblins were as firmly believed in as rivers and mountains. As a test of this theory the author asked hundreds of second-grade and third-grade school children to recall the stories which they had read during the preceding year, and to express their preferences. The choice of more than ninety per cent proved to be either folklore stories, pure and simple, or such tales as contained the folklore element. To be sure, children like other stories, but they respond at once with sparkling eyes and animated voices when the fairy tale is suggested. How unwise, therefore, it is to neglect this powerful stimulus which lies ready at our hands! Even a pupil who is naturally slow will wade painfully and laboriously through a fairy story, while he would throw down in disgust an account of the sprouting of the bean or the mining of coal. It can hardly be questioned, moreover, that the real culture which the child derives from these literary classics is far greater than that which he would gain from the "information" stories so common in the average second and third readers. CONTENTS PAGE THE SHIP _Old English Rhyme_ 13 THE WOLF AND THE SEVEN YOUNG KIDS _William and Jacob Grimm_ 14 THEY DIDN'T THINK _Phoebe Cary_ 22 TOM THUMB _English Fairy Tale_ 24 SUPPOSE _Alice Cary_ 34 CINDERELLA _English Fairy Tale_ 36 RAINDROPS _Ann Hawkshawe_ 43 THE FOUR FRIENDS _William and Jacob Grimm_ 44 LITTLE BIRDIE _Alfred Tennyson_ 54 MOTHER FROST _William and Jacob Grimm_ 55 IF EVER I SEE _Lydia Maria Child_ 65 WHY THE BEAR'S TAIL IS SHORT _German Folk Tale_ 66 RUMPELSTILTSKIN _William and Jacob Grimm_ 70 BED IN SUMMER _Robert Louis Stevenson_ 81 THE GOLDEN TOUCH _Greek Myth_ 82 OVER IN THE MEADOW _Olive A. Wadsworth_ 89 THE BELL OF ATRI _German Folk Tale_ 92 THE BABY _Hugh Miller_ 96 BRUCE AND THE SPIDER _Scottish Tradition_ 97 THE WISE LITTLE PIG _Anonymous_ 100 AN INDIAN STORY 102 A GOOD PLAY _Robert Louis Stevenson_ 112 DICK WHITTINGTON _English Folk Tale_ 113 THE NEW MOON _Eliza Lee Follen_ 124 BRIAR ROSE _William and Jacob Grimm_ 126 ALL THINGS BEAUTIFUL _Mrs. C.F. Alexander_ 135 THE BAKER BOYS AND THE BEES _German Folk Tale_ 136 FALLING SNOW _Anonymous_ 142 LITTLE GOODY TWO SHOES _Ascribed to Goldsmith_ 143 ONE STEP AND THEN ANOTHER _Anonymous_ 157 GOOD NIGHT AND GOOD MORNING _Lord Houghton_ 158 DAVID AND GOLIATH _Adapted from the Bible_ 160 PHONETIC TABLES 167 [Illustration] THE SHOEMAKER AND THE ELVES--I shoemaker beautiful to-morrow leather already bought sew enough A shoemaker and his wife lived in a little house on the edge of a wood. They were very, very poor, and each day they grew poorer and poorer. At last there was nothing left in the house but leather for one pair of shoes. "I will cut out this last pair of shoes," the shoemaker said to his wife. "To-morrow I will sew them and peg them." So he cut out the leather and left it on his bench. The next morning he went into his shop to make the shoes. What did he see! A pair of shoes, all nicely made and ready to be sold. The stitches were so fine and the shoes so well made that they were quickly sold. With the money the poor shoemaker bought leather for two pairs of shoes. Then he said to his wife, "I will cut out the leather for two pairs of shoes. To-morrow I will sew them and peg them." So he cut out the leather for the shoes and left it on his bench. The next morning when he went into his shop to make the shoes, what did he find! [Illustration] Yes, there were two pairs of shoes already made. The work was so well done that those shoes were also sold very quickly. With the money the poor shoemaker bought enough leather for four pairs of shoes. Those he also cut out and left upon his bench. The next morning he found four pairs of beautiful shoes, all well made. And so it went on and on. Instead of being a very poor shoemaker, he became a very rich shoemaker. His shoes were so well made that even the queen herself wore them. [Illustration] THE SHOEMAKER AND THE ELVES--II At last the shoemaker said to his wife, "We must find out who makes the shoes." So one bright moonlight night they hid behind a curtain, where they could watch the bench and not be seen. Just on the stroke of midnight, two little elves jumped through the window. They went skipping and dancing up to the bench. Sitting cross-legged they took up the leather and began to work. How their needles flew back and forth, back and forth! How their little hammers beat rap-a-tap-tap, rap-a-tap-tap! Almost before the shoemaker and his wife could think, the work was all done. The tiny elves ran about, skipping and dancing, skipping and dancing. Then, whisk! quick as a wink, they were gone. The next morning the good shoemaker said to his wife, "What can we do for those dear little elves?" "I should like very much to make some clothes for them," said his wife. "They were almost naked." "If you will make their coats, I will make them some shoes," said the shoemaker. "Their little feet were bare." When the clothes and shoes were ready, they were put upon the bench. [Illustration] The shoemaker and his wife again hid behind the curtain. Just as before, when the clock struck twelve, in jumped the tiny elves. They went skipping and dancing, skipping and dancing, to their work. They saw the little coats, the tiny stockings, and the neat little shoes. They clapped their hands for joy. Then, slipping on their clothes, they skipped, hand in hand, out of the window. The shoemaker and his wife never saw the little elves again, but after that night, good luck seemed always to be with them. _English Folk Tale_ THE SHIP laden move I saw a ship a-sailing, A-sailing on the sea; And, oh, it was all laden With pretty things for thee! There were comfits in the cabin, And apples in the hold; The sails were made of silk, And the masts were made of gold. The four and twenty sailors That stood between the decks Were four and twenty white mice, With chains about their necks. The captain was a duck, With a jacket on his back; And when the ship began to move, The captain said, "Quack! quack!" _Old English Rhyme_ [Illustration] THE WOLF AND THE SEVEN YOUNG KIDS--I quietly rough piece scissors learned thought chalk youngest There was once an old goat who had seven little kids. She loved them all as much as any mother ever loved her children. One day the old goat wished to go into the woods to get food for her kids. Before she started she called them all to her and said: "Dear children, I am going into the woods. Now do not open the door while I am away. If the old wolf should get into our hut, he would eat you all up, and not a hair would be left. You can easily tell him by his rough voice and his black feet." "Dear mother," cried all the young kids, "we will be very careful not to let the old wolf in. You need not think of us at all, for we shall be quite safe." So the old goat went on her way into the dark woods. She had not been gone long when there came a loud rap at the door, and a voice cried: "Open the door, my dear children. I have something here for each of you." But the young kids knew by the rough voice that this was the old wolf. So one of them said, "We shall not open the door. Our mother's voice is soft and gentle. Your voice is rough. You are a wolf." The old wolf ran away to a shop, where he ate a piece of white chalk to make his voice soft. Then he went back to the goat's hut and rapped at the door. He spoke in a soft voice and said, "Open the door for me, my dear children. I am your mother." But the oldest little goat thought of what his mother had said. "If you are our mother, put your foot on the window sill, that we may see it." When the wolf had done this, all the little goats cried out, "No, you are not our mother. We shall not open the door. Our mother's feet, are white and yours are black. Go away; you are the wolf." [Illustration] Then the wolf went to the miller's, and said to him, "Mr. Miller, put some flour on my foot, for I have hurt it." The miller was so afraid of the wolf that he did as he was told. Then the wicked wolf went to the goat's house again and said, "Open the door, dear children, for I am your mother." "Show us your foot," said the little kids. So the wolf put his one white foot on the window sill. When the little kids saw that it was white, they thought this was really their mother, and they opened the door. In jumped the ugly old wolf, and all the little kids ran to hide themselves. The first hid under the table, the second in the bed, the third in the oven, the fourth in the kitchen, the fifth in the cupboard, the sixth under the washtub, and the seventh, who was the smallest of all, in the tall clock. The wolf quickly found and gobbled up all but the youngest, who was in the clock. Then the wolf, who felt sleepy, went out and lay down on the green grass. Soon he was fast asleep. THE WOLF AND THE SEVEN YOUNG KIDS--II Not long after this the old goat came home from the woods. Ah, what did she see! The house door was wide open; the tables and chairs were upset. The washtub was broken in pieces, and the bed was tipped over. "Where are my dear children?" cried the poor goat. At last she heard a little voice crying, "Dear mother, here I am in the tall clock." The old goat helped the little goat out. Soon she learned how the wolf had eaten her dear children. Then she went out of the hut, and there on the grass lay the wolf sound asleep. As the goat looked at the wicked old wolf, she thought she saw something jumping about inside him. "Ah," she said, "it may be that my poor children are still alive." So she sent the little kid into the house for a pair of scissors and a needle and some thread. She quickly cut a hole in the side of the wicked old wolf. At the first snip of the scissors, one of the kids stuck out his head. As the old goat cut, more and more heads popped out. At last all six of the kids jumped out upon the grass. They went hopping and skipping about their mother. Then the old goat said to them, "Go and bring me some large stones from the brook." The seven little kids ran off to the brook and soon came back with seven large stones. They put these stones inside the wicked old wolf. [Illustration] The old goat sewed up the wolf's side so gently and quietly that he did not wake up nor move. When at last the wicked wolf did wake up, the great stones inside him made him feel very heavy. He was thirsty, too, so he walked down to the brook to drink. The stones were so heavy that they tipped him over the edge of the bank into the deep water, and he was drowned. WILLIAM AND JACOB GRIMM THEY DIDN'T THINK danger folks seized Once a trap was baited With a piece of cheese; It tickled so a little mouse, It almost made him sneeze. An old rat said, "There's danger, Be careful where you go!" "Nonsense!" said the other, "I don't think you know!" So he walked in boldly-- Nobody in sight-- First he took a nibble, Then he took a bite; Close the trap together Snapped as quick as wink, Catching mousey fast there, 'Cause he didn't think. Once there was a robin, Lived outside the door, Who wanted to go inside And hop upon the floor. "No, no," said the mother, "You must stay with me; Little birds are safest Sitting in a tree." "I don't care," said Robin, And gave his tail a fling, "I don't think the old folks Know quite everything." Down he flew, and kitty seized him Before he'd time to blink; "Oh," he cried, "I'm sorry, But I didn't think." PHOEBE CARY [Illustration] [Illustration] TOM THUMB--I thumb people suit reins fought frightened brought thistledown In the days of King Arthur, there lived a wise man named Merlin. He knew all the fairies and where they lived. Even the fairy queen was a friend of his. Once, while he was traveling, night overtook him in a deep forest. He rapped at the door of a small cottage and asked for some food. Merlin looked so hungry and poor that the farmer and his wife took pity on him. They not only gave him a bowl of milk with some brown bread, but they said he might stay through the night. Merlin saw that, in spite of their pleasant cottage, both the farmer and his wife were very sad. "Why are you sad?" asked Merlin. "You seem to have a good farm, a pleasant cottage, and many things to make you happy." "Ah!" said the woman, "we are unhappy because we have no child. I should be the happiest woman in the world if I had a son. Why, even if he were no bigger than my husband's thumb, we should love him dearly." "That would be indeed a very strange kind of child," said Merlin, "but I hope you may have your wish." Now Merlin was on his way to call on the queen of the fairies. When he came to her castle the next day, he told the fairy queen the wish of the farmer's wife. The queen of the fairies said, "The good woman shall have her wish. I will give her a son no larger than her husband's thumb." TOM THUMB--II Soon after this the good farmer's wife had a son. He was, indeed, just the size of his father's thumb. People came from far and wide to see the tiny boy. One day the fairy queen and some other fairies came to see him. The queen kissed the little boy and named him Tom Thumb. [Illustration] Each of the other fairies made Tom a gift. He had a shirt made of silk from a spider's web, a coat of thistledown, a hat made from the leaf of an oak, tiny shoes made from a mouse's skin, and many other gifts besides. Tom never grew any larger than a man's thumb, but he could do many clever tricks. One day his mother was mixing a pudding. Tom leaned over the edge of the bowl to see how it was made. He slipped, and in he went, head first. His mother did not see him fall, and kept stirring and stirring the pudding. Tom could not see nor hear, but he kicked and kicked inside the pudding. The pudding moved and tossed about. His mother was afraid. She did not know what to think. "There must be witches in it," she said. She went to the window to throw the pudding out. Just then a poor beggar was passing by the house. "Here is a pudding you may have, if you like," said Tom's mother. The beggar thanked her and put it into his basket. He had not gone very far, when Tom got his head out of the pudding and shouted in a shrill voice: "Take me out! take me out!" The poor beggar was so frightened that he dropped his basket, pudding and all, and ran off as fast as he could. Tom crawled out of the pudding, climbed out of the basket, and ran home. His mother washed him and put him to bed. TOM THUMB--III Not long after this Tom's mother took him with her when she went to milk the cow. That he might not get lost, she tied him to a wisp of hay. When Tom's mother was not looking, the cow took the wisp of hay into her mouth. She began to chew and chew. Tom began to jump about and shout. He frightened the cow so that she opened her great mouth and out Tom jumped. Then Tom's mother took him in her apron and ran with him to the house, but he was not hurt in the least. [Illustration] One day Tom was in the field helping his father. "Let me drive the horse home," said Tom "You drive the horse!" said his father. "How could you hold the reins?" "I could stand in the horse's ear and tell him which way to go," said Tom. So his father put him in the horse's ear, and he drove safely home. "Mother! mother!" cried Tom. But when Tom's mother came out, she could see no one. She began to be afraid. "Where are you, Tom?" she cried. "Here I am in the horse's ear. Please take me down," said Tom. His mother lifted him gently down, kissed him, and gave him a blackberry for his supper. Tom's father made him a whip out of a straw. Tom tried to drive the cows, but he fell into a deep ditch. There a great bird saw him and thought he was a mouse. The bird seized Tom in her claws and carried him toward her nest. As they were passing over the sea, Tom got away and fell into the water, where a great fish swallowed him at one mouthful. Soon after this the fish was caught, and it was such a big one that it was sent at once to King Arthur. When the cook cut open the fish, out jumped Tom Thumb. Tom was brought before the king, and his story was told. TOM THUMB--IV The king grew very fond of Tom and his wise sayings. He took Tom with him wherever he went. If it began to rain, Tom would creep into the king's pocket and sleep until the rain was over. The king had a new suit made for Tom, and gave him a needle for a sword. A mouse was trained for Tom to ride. The king and queen never tired of seeing him ride his queer little horse and bravely wave his sword. One day, as they were going hunting, a cat jumped out and caught Tom's mouse. [Illustration] Tom drew his sword and tried to drive the cat away. The king ran to help poor Tom, but the little mouse was dead, and Tom was scratched and bitten. Tom was put to bed, but he did not die. No indeed! he was soon well again, and fought many brave battles and did many brave deeds to please the king. _English Fairy Tale_ [Illustration] SUPPOSE wouldn't pouring earnest lady Suppose, my little lady, Your doll should break her head, Could you make it whole by crying Till your eyes and nose are red? And wouldn't it be better far To treat it as a joke, And say you're glad 'twas Dolly's, And not your head that broke? Suppose you're dressed for walking, And the rain comes pouring down, Will it clear off any sooner Because you scold and frown? And wouldn't it be nicer For you to smile than pout, And so make sunshine in the house When there is none without? Suppose your task, my little man, Is very hard to get, Will it make it any easier For you to sit and fret? And wouldn't it be wiser Than waiting like a dunce, To go to work in earnest, And learn the thing at once? ALICE CARY [Illustration] CINDERELLA--I Once upon a time there lived a maiden named Cinderella. Her mother was dead, and she had to work very, very hard in the kitchen. She had two older sisters, but they were cross to little Cinderella. They made her stay among the pots and the kettles and do all the hard work about the house. Sometimes, to keep warm, she crept in among the cinders. That is why she was called Cinderella. One day the sisters came dancing into the house. "We have been invited to the king's ball," they cried. At length the day of the great ball came, and the two sisters rode away in their fine silk dresses. Poor Cinderella, who had to stay behind, looked at her old ragged clothes, and burst into tears. "Alas," she cried, "why should I always have to stay in the kitchen while my sisters dress in silks and satins?" Hardly had she spoken when there stood before her a dear little old lady with a golden wand in her hand. "My child," she cried, "I am your fairy godmother, and you shall go to the ball, too. First go into the garden, Cinderella, and bring to me the largest pumpkin you can find." When Cinderella had done this, the fairy waved her golden wand over the yellow pumpkin. In a flash, it was not a pumpkin at all, but a beautiful yellow coach. "Now bring me four white mice, two large ones and two small ones." In a moment Cinderella brought a trap full of mice into the room. The fairy waved her golden wand, and the two largest mice were turned into two snow-white horses. Two small mice became two men, one a coachman, the other a footman. "But how am I to go in these clothes?" said Cinderella. "Ah, let me see," said the fairy, and she slowly waved her wand over the maiden's head. [Illustration] Oh, what a change! The rags tumbled to the floor. And, what do you think! in their place was a beautiful pink silk dress. The ugly shoes fell off. And, lo! a tiny pair of glass slippers were on Cinderella's little feet. "Now listen to what I say," said the fairy godmother. "You must not stay after the clock strikes twelve. At that time your coach will again be a pumpkin, the men will be mice, and you will have on your old ragged dress." Cinderella said she would not forget. Then she jumped into the coach, and away she drove to the king's ball. CINDERELLA--II The king's son was charmed with Cinderella. She was so very beautiful that he would dance with her and with no one else. Cinderella had such a good time that she forgot about the clock. It began to strike twelve--one, two, three. Cinderella ran from the room. Down the steps of the palace she flew. She ran so fast that she lost one of her little glass slippers. The clock finished striking. Lo! the coach turned into a pumpkin. The horses and men turned into mice. Poor Cinderella had to walk home in her ragged clothes. The next morning the prince found Cinderella's little glass slipper on the stairs. "There is only one maiden in all the world who can wear so tiny a slipper," said the prince. "I will marry her and no other." The prince hunted far and wide for a maiden who could put it on. Many tried, but none could do it. At last he came to the house where Cinderella lived. The two older sisters tried and tried to put the slipper on their large feet. While the prince was waiting, Cinderella came into the room. "Let me try it," she said. "You!" cried the older sisters. "You could never put it on." "Let her try it," said the prince. At once the little glass slipper was fitted to the tiny foot. [Illustration] Then Cinderella stood up; her ragged clothes turned into a beautiful silk dress, and there were two little slippers on her two little feet. Then the prince knew that Cinderella was the one he had danced with at the ball, and taking her hand, he led her out to his coach. Soon they were married and lived happily ever after. _English Fairy Tale_ RAINDROPS Oh, where do you come from, You little drops of rain, Pitter-patter, pitter-patter, Down the windowpane? Tell me, little raindrops, Is that the way you play? Pitter-patter, pitter-patter, All the rainy day? I sit here at the window; I've nothing else to do; Oh, I wish that I could play, This rainy day, with you! The little raindrops cannot speak, But "pitter-patter-pat" Means, "We can play on this side, Why can't you play on that?" ANN HAWKSHAWE [Illustration] THE FOUR FRIENDS--I comb music giants chief Once upon a time a man had a donkey. His donkey had worked for him many years. At last the donkey grew so old that he was no longer of any use for work, and his master wished to get rid of him. The donkey, fearing he might be killed, ran away. He took the road to Bremen, where he had often heard the street band playing. He liked music, so he thought he might join the band. He had not gone far when he came upon an old dog. The dog was panting, as if he had been running a long way. "Why are you panting, my friend?" asked the donkey. "Ah," said the dog, "I am too old for the hunt. My master wished to have me killed. So I ran away. But how I am to find bread and meat, I do not know." "Well," said the donkey, "come with me. I am going to play in the band at Bremen. I think you and I can easily earn a living by music. I can play the lute, and you can play the kettledrum." The dog was quite willing, and so they be walked on. They had not gone far when they saw a cat sitting in a yard. He looked as sad as three days of rainy weather. "What's the matter with you, old Tom?" asked the donkey. "You would be sad, too," said the cat, "if you were in my place; for now that I am getting old and cannot catch mice, they wish to drown me. I have run away, but how I am going to live, I do not know." "Come with us to Bremen," said the donkey. "We are going to play in the band. I know you love music, as you sing so well at night. You too can join the band." "That is just what I should like to do," said the cat. So the donkey, the dog, and the cat all walked on together. [Illustration] After a time the three came to a farmyard. There on the gate sat a cock, crying "Cock-a-doodle-doo" with all his might. "Why are you making so much noise?" asked the donkey. "Ah," said the cock, "I find I must have my head cut off so that I may serve as a dinner for Monday. I'm crowing as hard as I can while my head is still on." "Come with us, old Red Comb," said the donkey. "We are going to Bremen to join the band. You have a fine voice. You can join, too." "Ah," said the cock, "that is just what I should like to do." And they all went on their way to Bremen. THE FOUR FRIENDS--II At evening the four friends came to a wood, where they stopped for the night. The donkey and the dog lay down under a large tree. The cat climbed up on one of the branches. The cock flew to the very top of the tree, where he felt quite safe. From his perch on the top of the tree the cock saw a light. Calling to his friends, he said, "We are not far from a house. I can see a light." "Let us go on," said the donkey, "for it may be just the house for us." As they drew near, the light grew larger and brighter. At last they could see that it came from the window of a robber's house. The donkey, who was the tallest, went up and looked in. "What do you see, old Long Ears?" asked the cock. "What do I see?" answered the donkey. "Why, a table spread with plenty to eat and drink, and the robbers having their supper." "We should be there, too, if we had our rights," said the cock. "Ah, yes," said the donkey; "if we could only get inside." Then the four friends talked over what they had better do in order to drive the robbers out of the house. At last they hit upon a plan. The donkey stood upon his hind legs and placed his front feet on the window sill. [Illustration] The dog then stood on the donkey's back The cat climbed upon the dog, while the cock perched upon the cat's head. The donkey gave a signal, and they began all at the same time, to make their loudest music. The donkey brayed, the dog barked, the cat mewed, and the cock crowed, all with such force that the windowpane shook and was almost broken. The robbers had never heard such a noise. They thought it must come from witches, or giants, or goblins, and they all ran as fast as they could to the wood behind the house. Then our four friends rushed in and ate what the robbers had left upon the table. It did not take long, for they acted as if they had been hungry for a month. When the four had eaten, they put out the light, and each went to sleep in the spot which he liked the best. The donkey lay down in the yard. The dog lay behind the door. The cat curled himself in front of the fire, while the cock flew up on a high beam. They soon fell fast asleep. THE FOUR FRIENDS--III When all was still and the light was out, the robber chief sent one of his bravest men back to the house. The man found the house quiet, so he went into the kitchen to strike a light. Seeing the great fiery eyes of the cat, he thought they were live coals and held a match to them. Puss was so angry that he flew up and scratched the man's face. This gave the robber a great fright, and he ran for the door. As he went by, the dog sprang up and bit him in the leg. In the yard the robber ran into the donkey, who gave him a great kick. The cock on the beam was waked by the! noise, and cried, "Cock-a-doodle-doo!" The man ran as fast as his legs could carry him back to the robber chief. "Ah!" he cried. "In that house is a wicked witch, who flew at me and scratched my face with her long nails. By the door stood a man with a knife, who cut me in the leg. [Illustration] Out in the yard lay a great black giant, who struck me a blow with his wooden club. Upon the roof sat the judge, who cried, 'What did he do? What did he do?' When I heard this I ran off as fast as I could." The robbers never went near the house again. The four friends liked the place so well that they would not leave it, and so far as I know, they are there to this day. WILLIAM AND JACOB GRIMM LITTLE BIRDIE What does little birdie say, In her nest at peep of day? Let me fly, says little birdie, Mother, let me fly away. Birdie, rest a little longer, Till the little wings are stronger. So she rests a little longer, Then she flies away. What does little baby say, In her bed at peep of day? Baby says, like little birdie, Let me rise and fly away. Baby, sleep a little longer, Till the little limbs are stronger. If she sleeps a little longer, Baby too shall fly away. ALFRED TENNYSON [Illustration] MOTHER FROST--I broad daughters through heart At the edge of a wood there was a great, clear, bubbling spring of cold water. Near this spring lived a widow and her two daughters. One of them was very beautiful and a great help about the house, while the other was ugly and idle. The mother loved only the ugly one, for she was her own child. She cared so little for the other daughter that she made her do all the hard work. Every day the poor girl would sit beside the spring and spin and spin, until her fingers bled. One day, while she was washing the blood from her hands, the spindle fell into the spring and sank to the bottom. With tears in her eyes, she ran and told her stepmother what she had done. The stepmother was angry and said, "You let the spindle fall into the spring. Now you must go and get it out." The maiden went back to the spring to look for the spindle. She leaned so far over the edge that her hand slipped, and down, down, she sank to the very bottom. All at once she found that she was in a beautiful field where many wild flowers grew. As she walked across the field, she came to a baker's oven full of new bread. The loaves cried to her, "Oh, pull us out! pull us out, or we shall burn!" "Indeed I will!" cried the maiden. Stepping up, she pulled all the sweet brown loaves out of the oven. As she walked along, she came to a tree full of apples. The tree cried, "Shake me! shake me! my apples are all quite ripe!" "Indeed I will!" cried the maiden. So she shook the tree again and again, until there was not an apple left on its branches. Then she picked up the apples, one by one, and piled them in a great heap. [Illustration] When she had picked up all the apples, she walked on. At last she came to a small house. In the doorway sat an old woman who had such large teeth that the girl felt afraid of her and turned to run away. Then the old woman cried, "What do you fear, my child? Come in and live here with me. If you will do the work about the house, I will be very kind to you. Only take care to make my bed well. You must shake it and pound it so that the feathers will fly about. Then the children down on the earth will say that snowflakes are falling, for I am Mother Frost." The old woman spoke so kindly that she won the maiden's heart. "I will gladly work for you," she said. The girl did her work well, and each day she shook up the bed until the feathers flew about like snowflakes. She was very happy with Mother Frost, who never spoke an angry word. After the girl had stayed a long time with the kind old woman, she began to feel homesick. She could not help it, though her life with Mother Frost had been so happy. At length she said, "Dear Mother Frost, you have been very kind to me, but I should like to go home to my friends." "I am pleased to hear you say that you wish to go home," said Mother Frost. "You have worked for me so well that I will show you the way myself." She took the maiden by the hand and led her to a broad gateway. The gate was open, and as she went through a shower of gold fell over the maiden. It clung to her clothes, so that she was dressed in gold from her head to her feet. "That is your pay for having worked so hard," said the old woman. "And here is your spindle that fell into the spring." Then the gate was closed, and the maiden found herself once more in the world. She was not far from her own home, and as she came into the farmyard, a cock on the roof cried loudly: "Cock-a-doodle-doo! Our golden lady has come home, too." MOTHER FROST--II When the stepmother saw the girl with her golden dress, she was kind to her. Then the maiden told how the gold had fallen upon her. The mother could hardly wait to have her own child try her luck in the same way. This time she made the idle daughter go to the spring and spin. The lazy girl did not spin fast enough to make her fingers bleed. So she pricked her finger with a thorn until a few drops of blood stained the spindle. At once she let it drop into the water, and sprang in after it herself. The ugly girl found herself in a beautiful field, just as her sister had. She walked along the same path until she came to the baker's oven. She heard the loaves cry, "Pull us out! pull us out, or we shall burn!" [Illustration] But the lazy girl said to the brown loaves, "I will not. I do not want to soil my hands in your dirty oven." Then she walked on until she came to the apple tree. "Shake me! shake me!" it cried, "for my apples are quite ripe." "I will not," said the girl, "for some of your apples might fall on my head." As she spoke, she walked lazily on. At last the girl stood before the door of Mother Frost's house. She had no fear of Mother Frost's great teeth, but walked right up to the old woman and offered to be her servant. For a whole day the girl was very busy, and did everything that she was told to do. On the second day she began to be lazy, and on the third day she was still worse. She would not get up in the morning. The bed was never made, or shaken, so the feathers could fly about. At last Mother Frost grew tired of her and told her that she must go away. This was what the lazy girl wanted, for she felt sure that now she would have the golden shower. Mother Frost led her to the great gate, but she passed under it, a kettle full of black pitch was upset over her. [Illustration] "That is what you get for your work," said the old woman, as she shut the gate. The idle girl walked home, covered with pitch. When she went into the farmyard the cock on the roof cried out: "Cock-a-doodle-doo! Our sticky lady has come home, too." The pitch stuck so fast to the girl that, as long as she lived, it never came off. WILLIAM AND JACOB GRIMM IF EVER I SEE If ever I see, On bush or tree, Young birds in their pretty nest; I must not, in play, Steal the birds away, To grieve their mother's breast. My mother, I know, Would sorrow so, Should I be stolen away; So I'll speak to the birds In my softest words, Nor hurt them in my play. And when they can fly In the bright blue sky, They'll warble a song to me; And then if I'm sad It will make me glad To think they are happy and free. LYDIA MARIA CHILD [Illustration] WHY THE BEAR'S TAIL IS SHORT Did you ever go to a circus where there was a bear in a cage? Did you notice how short his tail was? I will tell you how the bear's tail came to be short. One very cold day in winter, a fox saw some men taking home a load of fish. The fox jumped upon the wagon while the men were not looking. He threw off some of the best fish until he had enough for his dinner. Then Mr. Fox jumped from the wagon and began to eat the fish. While he was eating the fish, Mr. Bear came along. "Good morning," said Mr. Bear, "you have had good luck fishing to-day. Those are very fine fish. How did you catch them?" "They are fine fish," said Mr. Fox. "If you will go fishing with me to-night, I will show you how to catch even better fish than these." "I will go with you gladly," said the bear. "I will bring my hook and line too." "You don't need a hook and line," said the fox. "I always catch fish with my tail. You have a much longer tail than I, and can fish so much the better." At sunset the bear met the fox. They went across the frozen river until they came to a small hole in the ice. "Now, Mr. Bear," said the fox, "sit down here on the ice and put your tail through the hole. You must keep still for a long while. That is the best way to catch fish. Wait until a great many fish take hold of your tail. Then pull with all your might." The bear sat very still for a long time. At last he began to feel cold and he moved a little. "Ow!" he cried, for his tail had begun freeze in the ice. "Is it not time to pull out the fish?" said the bear. "No, no," cried the fox. "Wait until more fish have taken hold of your tail. You are very strong. You can wait a little longer." So the poor bear waited until it was almost morning. [Illustration] Just then some dogs began to bark on the bank of the river. The bear was so afraid that he jumped up quickly and pulled with all his might, but his tail was frozen fast in the ice. He pulled and pulled until at length the tail was broken short off. Mr. Fox ran away laughing and laughing at the trick he had played upon Mr. Bear. Bears' tails have been short ever since. _German Folk Tale_ [Illustration] RUMPELSTILTSKIN--I glistened guess mourn chamber Once upon a time there lived a miller who had a beautiful daughter. Now the miller had to visit the king's castle and, while there, he happened to meet the king face to face. The king stopped and spoke to the miller. The miller, wishing the king to think that he was very rich, told him that he had a daughter who could spin straw into gold. "Ah," said the king, "that is indeed a wonderful gift. To-morrow you must bring your daughter to my castle, that she may spin some gold for me." Then the miller was afraid and wished he had not spoken, but he had to do as the king ordered. The next day he brought his daughter to the castle. Now it happened that the king loved gold above all things. So taking the poor girl by the hand, he led her into one of the great rooms of the castle. There, in the middle of the room, stood a spinning wheel, and near it was a great heap of straw. The king turned to the miller's daughter, and said: "There is your spinning wheel, and here is the straw. If you do not spin all of it into gold by morning, your head shall be cut off." Then the king left the room and locked the door behind him. The poor girl could only sit and weep, for she had not the least idea how to spin straw into gold. While she was crying, the door flew open and a little old man stepped into the room. He had bandy legs, a long red nose, and wore a tall, peaked cap. Bowing low to the maiden he said: "Good evening, my dear young lady. Why are you crying?" "Alas," said the girl, "the king has ordered me to spin all this straw into gold, and I do not know how." Then the little man said, "What will you give me if I will spin it for you?" "This string of gold beads from my neck," said the girl. The little man took the beads, and, sitting down, began to spin. Whir! whir! went the wheel; round and round it whirled. Lo, as the maiden looked, she saw the coarse straw turn into beautiful golden threads. The little man kept so busily at work that soon all the straw was gone, and in its place lay a heap of the finest gold. The next morning the king unlocked the door. How his eyes sparkled at the sight of the gold! These riches made the king even more greedy than before. He led the maiden to a still larger chamber, which was full of straw. Turning to the trembling girl, he said, "There is your spinning wheel, and here is the straw. If you do not spin all of it into gold by morning, your head shall be cut off." The maiden's eyes filled with tears at the sight of that huge heap of straw. Sitting down, she began to cry. All at once the door opened and in jumped the little old man. He took off his pointed cap and said to the miller's daughter, "What will you give me if I help you again, and spin this straw into gold?" "This ring from my finger," said the maiden. The little man took the ring, and seating himself before the spinning wheel, began to spin. Whir! whir! went the wheel. Faster and faster it whirled. In the morning the straw had all been turned into finest gold. When the king opened the door, how his eyes glistened at the sight of the gold! Still, it only made him greedy for more, so taking the poor girl by the hand, he led her to a much larger chamber. This was so full of straw that there was hardly room for her to sit at the spinning wheel. Turning to the maiden, the king said: "There is your spinning wheel, and here is the straw. If you do not spin all of it into gold by morning, your head shall be cut off. But if you do spin the gold, I will marry you and make you my queen." "For," thought the king, "though she is only a miller's daughter, yet she can make me the richest king in the world." Hardly had the door closed behind the king, when the little old man came hopping and skipping into the room. Taking off his pointed cap, he said to the girl, "What will you give me if I will again spin this straw for you?" "Ah!" said the maiden, "I have nothing more to give." "Then you must make me a promise," said the little man. "You must promise to give me your first child, after you have become queen." [Illustration] The poor girl saw no other way to save her life, so she gave her promise to the little man. Then he sat down and began to spin. Whir! whir! went the wheel. Faster and faster he spun. Soon the great roomful of straw was all turned into gold. When the king opened the door the next morning, he saw the maiden sitting beside a large heap of shining gold. The king kept his promise, and made the poor miller's daughter his queen. RUMPELSTILTSKIN--II About a year later the queen had a lovely child, but she forgot all about her promise. One day the little old man came hopping into the queen's room and said, "Now give me what you have promised." The queen was filled with terror, and offered the little man all the riches of the kingdom if he would leave her the child. "No, I do not care for riches; you must keep your promise." Then the queen began to mourn and to weep, until the little man had pity for her. "I will give you three days," he said, "and if, in that time, you can guess my name, you shall keep the child." The queen lay awake that night, thinking of all the names she had ever heard. In the morning men were sent to every part of the kingdom to find strange names. The next day the little man came again. The queen began to call off to him all the names that she had found--Caspar, Melchior, and many, many others. At each one the little man shook his head, and said, "No, that is not my name." Then the queen had her men go from house to house through the town. They took down the name of every man, woman, and child. When the little man came again, the queen had a long list of names to give him. "Is your name Cowribs, or Sheepshanks, or Bandy legs?" she said to him at last. He answered to each one, "No, that is not my name." On the third day the queen's men began to come back from all parts of the kingdom. They had been far and wide to find new names. One of these men said, "I could not find any new names, but going by some deep woods, I heard a fox wish good-night to a rabbit. [Illustration] Soon I came upon a little house, in front of which a fire was burning. Around this fire danced a little man. He wore a pointed cap, and had a long nose and bandy legs. As he went hopping and jumping about, first on one leg and then on the other, he sang: My baking and brewing I will do to-day, The queen's son to-morrow I will take away, No wise man can show the queen where to begin, For my name, to be sure, is Rumpelstiltskin." The queen clapped her hands for joy. She knew that at last she had found the name. She sent the servant away with a bag of gold, and waited for the queer little man to come to her. At sunset the little fellow came hopping and skipping up to the queen. "Now, O queen," he said, "this is your last chance. Tell me my name." The queen asked, "Is your name Conrad?" "No." "Henry?" "No." "Then your name is Rumpelstiltskin." "The fairies have told you!" shouted the little man dancing about. He became so angry that, in his rage, he stamped his right foot into the ground. This made him more angry still, and taking hold of his left foot with both hands, he pulled so hard that he tore himself quite in two. WILLIAM AND JACOB GRIMM [Illustration] BED IN SUMMER In winter I get up at night And dress by yellow candle-light. In summer, quite the other way, I have to go to bed by day. I have to go to bed and see The birds still hopping on the tree, Or hear the grown-up people's feet Still going past me in the street. And does it not seem hard to you, When all the sky is clear and blue, And I should like so much to play, To have to go to bed by day? ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON [Illustration] THE GOLDEN TOUCH--I touch slightest creature statue Many years ago there lived a king named Midas. King Midas had one little daughter, whose name was Marigold. King Midas was very, very rich. It was said that he had more gold than any other king in the world. One room of his great castle was almost filled with yellow gold pieces. At last the king grew so fond of his gold that he loved it better than anything else in all the world. He even loved it better than his own little daughter, dear little rosy-cheeked Marigold. His one great wish seemed to be for more and more gold. One day while he was in his gold room counting his money, a beautiful fairy boy stood before him. The boy's face shone with a wonderful light, and he had wings on his cap and wings on his feet. In his hand he carried a strange-looking wand, and the wand also had wings. "Midas, you are the richest man in the world," said the fairy. "There is no king who has so much gold as you." "That may be," said the king. "As you see, I have this room full of gold, but I should like much more; for gold is the best and the most wonderful thing in the world." "Are you sure?" asked the fairy. "I am very sure," answered the king. "If I should grant you one wish," said the fairy, "would you ask for more gold?" "If I could have but one wish," said the king, "I would ask that everything I touched should turn to beautiful yellow gold." "Your wish shall be granted," said the fairy "At sunrise to-morrow morning your slightest touch will turn everything into gold. But warn you that your gift will not make you happy." "I will take the risk," said the king. THE GOLDEN TOUCH--II The next morning King Midas awoke very early. He was eager to see if the fairy's promise had come true. As soon as the sun arose he tried the gift by touching the bed lightly with his hand. The bed turned to gold. [Illustration] He touched the chair and table. Upon the instant they were turned to solid gold. The king was wild with joy. He ran around the room, touching everything he could see. His magic gift turned all to shining, yellow gold. The king soon felt hungry and went down to eat his breakfast. Now a strange thing happened. When he raised a glass of clear cold water to drink, it became solid gold. Not a drop of water could pass his lips. The bread turned to gold under his fingers. The meat was hard, and yellow, and shiny. Not a thing could he get to eat. All was gold, gold, gold. His little daughter came running in from the garden. Of all living creatures she was the dearest to him. He touched her hair with his lips. At once the little girl was changed to a golden statue. A great fear crept into the king's heart, sweeping all the joy out of his life. In his grief he called and called upon the fairy who had given him the gift of the golden touch. "O fairy," he begged, "take away this horrible golden gift! Take all my lands. Take all my gold. Take everything, only give me back my little daughter." [Illustration] In a moment the beautiful fairy was standing before him. "Do you still think that gold is the greatest thing in the world?" asked the fairy. "No! no!" cried the king. "I hate the very sight of the yellow stuff." "Are you sure that you no longer wish the golden touch?" asked the fairy. "I have learned my lesson," said the king. "I no longer think gold the greatest thing in the world." "Very well," said the fairy, "take this pitcher to the spring in the garden and fill it with water. Then sprinkle those things which you have touched and turned to gold." The king took the pitcher and rushed to the spring. Running back, he first sprinkled the head of his dear little girl. Instantly she became his own darling Marigold again, and gave him a kiss. The king sprinkled the golden food, and to his great joy it turned back to real bread and real butter. Then he and his little daughter sat down to breakfast. How good the cold water tasted. How eagerly the hungry king ate the bread and butter, the meat, and all the good food. The king hated his golden touch so much that he sprinkled even the chairs and the tables and everything else that the fairy's gift had turned to gold. _Greek Myth_ [Illustration] OVER IN THE MEADOW Over in the meadow, In the sand, in the sun, Lived an old mother toad And her little toadie one. "Wink!" said the mother; "I wink," said the one; So she winked and she blinked In the sand, in the sun. Over in the meadow, Where the stream runs blue, Lived an old mother fish And her little fishes two. "Swim!" said the mother; "We swim," said the two; So they swam and they leaped Where the stream runs blue. [Illustration] Over in the meadow, In a hole in a tree, Lived a mother bluebird And her little birdies three. "Sing!" said the mother; "We sing," said the three; So they sang and were glad In the hole in the tree. [Illustration] Over in the meadow, In a snug beehive, Lived a mother honeybee And her little honeys five. "Buzz!" said the mother; "We buzz," said the five; So they buzzed and they hummed In the snug beehive. [Illustration] Over in the meadow, Where the clear pools shine, Lived a green mother frog, And her little froggies nine. "Croak!" said the mother; "We croak," said the nine; So they croaked and they splashed Where the clear pools shine. [Illustration] Over in the meadow, In a sly little den, Lived a gray mother spider And her little spiders ten. "Spin!" said the mother; "We spin," said the ten; So they spun lace webs In their sly little den. OLIVE A. WADSWORTH [Illustration] THE BELL OF ATRI miser justice whose Once upon a time a good and wise king ruled in the city of Atri. He wished all his people to be happy. In order that justice might be done to every one, he ordered a great bell to be hung in a tower. Tied to the bell was a strong rope, so long that it reached nearly to the ground. "I have placed the bell in the center of my city," said the king, "so that it will be near all the people. The rope I have made long, so that even a little child can reach it." Then the king gave out this order: "If there be any one among my people who feels that he has not been justly treated, let him ring this bell. Then, whether he be old or young, rich or poor, his story shall be heard." The bell of justice had hung in its place for many years. Many times it had been rung by the poor and needy, and justice had been done. At length the old rope became worn with use and age. When it was taken down, another rope, long enough and strong enough, could not be found. So the king had to send away for one. "What if some one should need help while the rope is down?" cried the people. "We must find something to take its place." So one of the men cut a long grapevine and fastened it to the great bell. It was in the springtime, and green shoots and leaves hung from the grapevine rope. Near Atri, there lived a rich old soldier. This soldier owned a horse that had been with him through many battles. The horse had grown old and lame, and was no longer able to work. So his cruel master turned him out into the streets to get his living as best he could. "If you cannot find enough to eat, then you may die," said the miser; "you are of no use to me." The old horse went limping along; he grew thinner and thinner. At length he limped up to the tower where the bell of justice hung. His dim eyes saw the green shoots and the fresh leaves of the grapevine. Thinking they were good to eat, he gave a pull at the vine. "Ding-dong! ding-dong!" said the great bell. The people came running from all sides. "Who is calling for justice?" they cried. There stood the old horse, chewing on the grapevine. "Ding-dong! ding-dong!" rang the great bell. "Whose horse is this?" asked the judges, as they came running up. Then the story of the old horse was told. The judges sent for his cruel master. They ordered that he should build a warm barn, and that the faithful horse should have the best of hay and grain as long as he lived. The people shouted for joy at this act of justice, but the miser hung his head in shame and led the old horse away. _German Folk Tale_ THE BABY No shoes to hide her tiny toes, No stockings on her feet; Her little ankles white as snow, Or early blossoms sweet. Her simple dress of sprinkled pink; Her tiny, dimpled chin; Her rosebud lips and bonny mouth With not one tooth between. Her eyes so like her mother's own, Two gentle, liquid things; Her face is like an angel's face-- We're glad she has no wings. HUGH MILLER [Illustration] [Illustration] BRUCE AND THE SPIDER Robert Bruce, King of Scotland, was hiding in a hut in the forest. His enemies were seeking him far and wide. Six times he had met them in battle, and six times he had failed. Hope and courage were gone. Bruce had given up all as lost. He was about to run away from Scotland, and to leave the country in the hands of his enemies. Full of sorrow, he lay stretched on a pile of straw in the poor woodchopper's hut. While he lay thinking, he noticed a spider spinning her web. The spider was trying to spin a thread from one beam of the cottage to another. It was a long way between the beams, and Bruce saw how hard a thing it was for her to do. "She can never do it," thought the king. The little spider tried it once and failed She tried it twice and failed. The king counted each time. At length she had tried it six times and had failed each time. "She is like me," thought the king. "I have tried six battles and failed. She has tried six times to reach the beam and failed." Then starting up from the straw, he cried, "I will hang my fate upon that little spider. If she swings the seventh time and fails, then I will give up all for lost. If she swings the seventh time and wins, I will call my men together once more for a battle with the enemy." The spider tried the seventh time, letting herself down upon her slender thread. She swung out bravely. "Look! look!" shouted the king. "She has reached it. The thread hangs between the two beams. If the spider can do it, I can do it." Bruce got up from the straw with new strength and sent his men from village to village, calling the people to arms. The brave soldiers answered his call and came trooping in. At length his army was ready to fight, and when the king led them in a great battle against the enemy, this time, like the spider, Bruce won. _Scottish Tradition_ [Illustration] THE WISE LITTLE PIG Where are you going, you little pig? "I'm leaving my mother, I'm growing so big." So big, young pig! So young, so big! What! leaving your mother, you foolish young pig? Where are you going, you little pig? "I've got a new spade, and I'm going to dig." To dig, little pig! A little pig dig! Well, I never saw a pig with a spade, that could dig! Where are you going, you little pig? "I'm going to have a nice ride in a gig." In a gig, little pig! What! a pig in a gig! Well, I never yet saw a pig ride in a gig! Where are you going, you little pig? "I'm going to the barber's to buy me a wig." A wig, little pig! A pig in a wig! Why, whoever before saw a pig in a wig? Where are you going, you little pig? "I'm going to the ball to dance a fine jig." A jig, little pig! A pig dance a jig! Well, I never before saw a pig dance a jig! ANONYMOUS [Illustration] AN INDIAN STORY--I believe tomahawks signs tongue Many years ago two boys lived on a farm in New England. It was so long ago that there were few white people in this country. The farms were scattered, and around them were great forests. The houses were made of logs, with strong, heavy doors. Far away in the woods lived many Indians. Sometimes the Indians would come down where the white people lived, and would capture any white person whom they could find. They even dared to attack, and often burned, the scattered log cabins. The white prisoners would be taken to the Indian villages and would be held there as captives. One cold winter morning the two brothers, John and William, were going skating on the river. In order to reach the river, they had to pass through some woods. John, the older brother, started first. He threw his skates over his back and ran off whistling toward the river. William, the younger brother, had to stay behind to fill with wood the huge box beside the fireplace. Indians had not been seen near the farm for many years, so John was not in the least afraid. As he went through the woods toward the river two huge Indians, with painted faces, jumped from behind the trees where they had been hiding. Before John could run he was caught, and his hands were tied behind his back. Then they heard William shout as he ran down the path after his brother. John knew that the Indians might kill him if he warned his brother. But he was brave, and before they could stop him, he cried out, "Indians! Indians!" The Indians were angry and struck at John with their tomahawks. But he was not afraid; he faced the Indians bravely. William heard the shout of warning, and ran like a deer back to the log cabin. The heavy door was shut with a slam, and John's father, with his rifle, waited for the Indian attack. But the two Indians did not dare attack the log cabin. Dragging John after them, they started up the river bank toward their Indian town, many, many miles away. All day long they traveled, and at night they built a small fire. Over this fire they roasted a partridge which one of them had shot. John was given his share of the bird and a handful of parched Indian corn. The Indians looked at John's skates, which still hung over his shoulder. They did not know what skates were. They thought they must be some of the white man's magic. On and on they traveled for many days, following an old Indian path. All through the long march John still carried his skates. At length they came to the Indian village. AN INDIAN STORY--II The Indian houses were long huts covered with strips of birch bark. Four or five families lived in each of these houses. John was given to an Indian woman who had lost her own boy the year before. John's Indian mother was good to him, and treated him as if he were her own son. One time the Indian boys thought they would test John's courage, so they formed in two lines, while each boy held a stout stick. Then they ordered John to run down between the two long lines. They had their sticks all ready to beat him. They thought John would be afraid and so would do as they told him. But John was a strong lad, and jumping upon the first Indian boy, he took his stick away from him. [Illustration] Armed with this stick, John struck right and left at the heads of the boys until they were all glad to run away. The Indian men liked to see John's courage, and laughed long and loud when the Indian boys ran away. After this the boys were glad to have John play with them. With their bows and arrows they shot at a mark. They swam in the river and played games of tag, hide and seek, and ball. In the spring the Indian women planted the yellow corn. When the corn was up, the squaws went into the fields to hoe out the weeds. For a hoe they used a flat piece of stone tied to a wooden handle. As John was a white boy the squaws tried to make him help hoe the corn. When John took the hoe, he hoed up the corn and left the weeds. The angry squaws made signs to him that he must not do so. Then John threw the hoe far from him. "Hoeing is fit for squaws, not for warriors," he shouted. He had learned this from the Indian boys. The old men were pleased. They thought John would make a fine warrior. AN INDIAN STORY--III John had lived with the Indians a year. He had learned to speak their tongue, but they did not trust him. Some of them were always with him, for they were afraid he would run away. All this time John had kept his skates carefully hidden. One day the ice froze clear and smooth. John brought his skates down to the river bank. Many of the Indians followed to see what he was going to do. They crowded around him on the ice. John thought he would play a trick on them. He strapped the skates upon the feet of an Indian boy. The boy tried to stand up, but his feet slipped out from under him, and down he bumped upon the ice. How the Indians laughed! They thought it was a great joke. Each of them in turn tried on the skates. How they sprawled and fell upon the ice! What fun it was for the other Indians! When they were tired of the sport they held out the skates to John and asked him to put them on. John strapped on the skates with great care. He was a good skater, but he made believe that he could not skate at all. He fell down and bumped his head. He tripped over his toes and made great fun for the Indians. They did not see that each time he fell he was a little farther out on the ice. All at once John jumped up. Away he flew, skating for his life. Down the river he went, swift as a bird. The Indians rushed after him, but he had too great a start. [Illustration] The Indians were swift runners, but John, on his skates, was swifter still. He knew that the river must flow toward the ocean, and that near the ocean lived the white people. On and on he skated. Two days later he saw the smoke of a white man's cabin and knew that he was safe. John soon found his father and mother. How glad they were to see him! A GOOD PLAY We built a ship upon the stairs, All made of the back-bedroom chairs, And filled it full of sofa pillows, To go a-sailing on the billows. We took a saw and several nails, And water in the nursery pails; And Tom said, "Let us also take An apple and a slice of cake,"-- Which was enough for Tom and me To go a-sailing on, till tea. We sailed along for days and days, And had the very best of plays; But Tom fell out and hurt his knee, So there was no one left but me. ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON [Illustration] DICK WHITTINGTON--I Dick Whittington was a poor little boy who lived in the country. His father and mother were both dead. Poor little Dick was always willing to work, but sometimes there was no work for him to do, so he often had nothing to eat. Now Dick was a bright boy. He kept both ears open to hear what was said around him. He had heard many times about the great city of London. Men said that in this great city the people were rich. Dick had even heard that the streets were paved with gold. "How I should like to visit that great city," thought Dick, "for I could pick up gold from the streets!" Dick had earned a little money, so one day he set out to walk to London. He walked and walked and walked, but London was a long way from his home. At last a man with a wagon came along. He was a kind man, and he gave Dick a ride. "Where are you going?" asked Dick. "I'm going to London," said the man. "You are very good to give me a ride. I am going there, too," said Dick. It was dark when they reached London. That night Dick slept in a barn with the horses. The next morning he looked for the golden stones in the streets. He looked and looked, but he could find only dust and dirt. There were many, many people in London, and Dick thought that he could soon find something to do. He wandered around the streets, seeking for work. He asked many people, but no one wanted the poor little country boy. As Dick had no money for food, he soon became very, very hungry. At last he grew so weak that he fell down before the door of a great house. Here the cook found him and began to beat him with a stick. "Run away, you lazy boy!" she cried. Poor Dick tried to rise, but he was so faint from want of food that he could not stand. Just then the owner of the house, Mr. Fitzwarren, came up. He took pity on the poor boy and ordered the cook to give him some food. Then he turned to Dick and said: "If you wish to work, you may help the cook in the kitchen. You will find a bed in the attic." Dick thanked Mr. Fitzwarren again and again for his kindness. The cook was very cross to Dick and whipped him almost every day. His bed in the attic was only a pile of old rags. He soon found that there were many rats and mice in the attic. They ran over his bed and made so much noise every night that he could not sleep. "I wish I had a cat," thought Dick, "for she could eat up these rats and mice." [Illustration] One day Dick earned a penny by blacking a man's shoes. "I will try to buy a cat with this penny," thought Dick. So he started out and soon met a woman with a large cat. "Will you sell me that cat?" said Dick. "I will give you this penny for her." "You are a good boy," said the woman, "and you may have the cat for a penny, for I know you will treat her kindly." That night Dick's bed was free from rats, and Miss Puss had a good supper. Dick began to love his cat dearly. DICK WHITTINGTON--II Now Mr. Fitzwarren had many ships which sailed to distant lands. When a ship sailed Mr. Fitzwarren let every one in his house send something on it. The things were sold, and when the ship came back, each person had the money for what he had sent. One of the ships was ready to sail. Every one in the house except Dick had sent something. "What is Dick going to send in the ship?" said Mr. Fitzwarren. "Oh, that boy has nothing to send," said the cross cook. "It is true," said poor Dick; "I have nothing but my dear cat." "Well, then you must send your cat," said Mr. Fitzwarren. How lonely poor Dick was without Puss! [Illustration] The cook made fun of him for sending a cat on the ship. At last Dick became so unhappy that he made up his mind to run away. He started early in the morning, before any one in the house was up. He had gone but a short way when he heard the sound of the six great bells of Bow. As they rang, "Ding-dong, ding-dong!" they seemed to say: Turn back, Whittington, Lord Mayor of London. "It is strange that the bells should speak to me," said Dick, "but if I am to be Lord Mayor of London, I will gladly turn back." So he ran back to the house of Mr. Fitzwarren. "I hope they have not missed me," said Dick, as he gently opened the door and stole softly in. DICK WHITTINGTON--III Dick's cat was taken across the ocean. The ship sailed and sailed, until at last it came to a distant country. Now the king and queen of this country were very rich. When the captain was asked to show his goods before them he was very glad indeed to do so. The king and queen first gave the captain a great feast. Gold and silver dishes filled with food were brought in. [Illustration] When these dishes were placed upon the table an army of rats came out. There were white rats, and black rats, and brown rats, and big rats, and little rats. At once they fell upon the food and ate it nearly all up. "Why do you let the rats do this?" asked the captain. "Alas, we cannot help ourselves," said the king. "I would give half my kingdom to be rid of them." Then the captain thought of Dick Whittington's cat. "I have an animal which will rid you of them," said the captain. "Pray bring it in at once," said the queen. What fun Dick's cat had killing the rats and mice in the king's palace! "We must buy that little animal," said the queen. "I do not care how much she may cost." The captain could hardly carry all the jewels and gold that the king gave him for the cat. Then the ship with Dick's money came back to London, and the captain told the story to Mr. Fitzwarren. "We must take these jewels and all this gold at once to Mr. Whittington," said the honest man. "He is no longer a poor boy, for this has made him rich." [Illustration] They found Dick in the kitchen blacking the stove. "Come with me at once into the parlor," said Mr. Fitzwarren. Then the bags of gold and jewels were piled at Dick's feet. "See what your cat has brought you," said Mr. Fitzwarren. "You are now a rich man and may yet be Lord Mayor of London." And it is true that after Dick Whittington became a man, he was made Lord Mayor of London. _English Folk Tale_ [Illustration] THE NEW MOON Dear mother, how pretty The moon looks to-night! She was never so cunning before; Her two little horns Are so sharp and so bright, I hope she'll not grow any more. If I were up there, With you and my friends, I'd rock in it nicely, you'd see; I'd sit in the middle And hold by both ends. Oh, what a bright cradle 'twould be! I would call to the stars To keep out of the way, Lest we should rock over their toes; And then I would rock Till the dawn of the day, And see where the pretty moon goes. And there we would stay In the beautiful skies, And through the bright clouds we would roam; We would see the sun set, And see the sun rise, And on the next rainbow come home. ELIZA LEE FOLLEN [Illustration] BRIAR ROSE--I A long time ago there lived a king and queen who were very, very sad because they had no children. One day, when the queen was resting near a spring, a frog crept out of the water and said to her: "You shall have your wish. Within a year you shall have a little girl." What the frog said came true. The queen had a little child who was so beautiful that the king gave a party in her honor. He wished to invite all the wise women in the land, for these wise women could grant fairy gifts to his little child. There were thirteen of them, but only twelve were invited, as the king had only twelve golden plates. After the dinner was over, the wise women in turn arose from the table and named their fairy gifts to the little princess. The first gave to her goodness; the second, beauty; the third, riches; and so on, up to the last. Before the twelfth wise woman could speak, in walked the thirteenth. This woman was in a great rage because she had not been invited. She cried in a loud voice, "When the princess is fifteen years old she shall prick her finger with a spindle and shall fall down dead." At these words every one turned pale with fright. The twelfth wise woman, who had not yet spoken, now came up and said: "I could not stop this woman's evil words, I can only make them less harsh. The king's child shall not die, but a deep sleep shall fall upon her, in which she shall stay one hundred years." BRIAR ROSE--II The little princess was so beautiful, so kind; and so good that no one who knew her could help loving her. As she grew older the king and queen began to feel very unhappy, for they could not help thinking of what was to happen to their dear little daughter. They ordered all the spindles in the kingdom to be burned. Now, as it happened, on the very day that the princess was fifteen years old the king and queen were away from home. The princess was quite alone in the castle, and she rain about over the palace, looking in at rooms and halls, just as her fancy led her. At last she came to an old tower at the top of a winding stair. She saw a little door. In the lock was a rusty key. When she turned it, the door flew open. There, in a small room, sat an old woman with her spindle, spinning flax. "Good Morning," said the princess. "Do tell me what that funny thing is that jumps about so." And then she held out her hand to take the spindle. It came about just as the fairy had foretold. The princess pricked her finger with the spindle. At once she fell upon a bed which was near, and lay in a deep sleep as if dead. This sleep came not only upon the princess, but spread over the whole castle. The king and queen, who had just come home, fell asleep, and all their lords and ladies with them. The horses went to sleep in the stable; the dogs in the yard; the doves on the roof; the flies on the wall; yes, even the fire that burned in the fireplace grew still and slept. The meat stopped roasting before the fire. The cook in the kitchen was just going to box the ears of the kitchen boy, but her hand dropped and she sank to sleep. Outside the castle the wind was still, and upon the trees not a leaf stirred. In a short time there sprung up around the castle a hedge of thorn bushes. Year by year the hedge grew higher and higher, until at last nothing of the castle could be seen above it, not even the roof, nor the chimneys, nor the flag on the tower. BRIAR ROSE--III As years went by the story of the sleeping beauty was told all over the kingdom. Many kings' sons came and tried to get through the hedge of thorns, but this they could not do. The sharp thorns seemed to have hands which held the young men fast. After many, many years a prince came from a far-off kingdom. He heard the story of the castle and its sleeping beauty. He knew what danger lay in the great hedge of thorn bushes. But the young prince was brave, and he was not to be turned back. "I am not afraid. I will go out and see this beautiful Briar Rose," he said. It happened that the hundred years of the magic spell had just ended. The day had come when the sleeping princess was to wake up again. As the prince came to the hedge of thorn bushes, it was in full bloom and covered with beautiful red flowers. There, through the thorn bushes, lay a wide road. Soon the prince came to the gates of the castle. He found the horses and dogs lying asleep on the ground. The doves sat on the roof with their heads under their wings. He went into the castle. Even the flies on the wall still slept. Near the throne lay the king and queen, while all around were the sleeping lords and ladies. [Illustration] The whole castle was so still that he could hear his heart beat. The prince went on from room to room until he came to the old tower. Going up the winding stair he saw the little door. A rusty key was in the lock, and the door was half open. There before him lay the sleeping princess. The prince bent down and gave her a kiss. As he did so the sleeping beauty opened her eyes. With her the whole castle awoke. The king waked up, and the queen, and all the lords and ladies. The horses in the stable stood up and shook themselves. The dogs jumped about and wagged their tails. The doves on the roof lifted their heads and flew into the fields. The flies on the wall began to buzz. The fire in the kitchen began to burn. The meat began to roast. The cook boxed the ears of the kitchen boy, so that he ran off crying. The hedge of thorn bushes around the castle dried up and blew away. Then the prince married the beautiful princess, and they lived happily ever after. WILLIAM AND JACOB GRIMM ALL THINGS BEAUTIFUL All things bright and beautiful, All creatures great and small, All things wise and wonderful, The Lord God made them all. Each little flower that opens, Each little bird that sings, He made their glowing colors, He made their tiny wings. The cold wind in the winter, The pleasant summer sun, The ripe fruits in the garden, He made them every one. He gave us eyes to see them, And lips that we might tell How great is God Almighty, Who hath made all things well. MRS. C.F. ALEXANDER [Illustration] THE BAKER BOYS AND THE BEES--I trouble Andernach guarded Long years ago many cities had great stone walls around them. The walls were built to keep out enemies, for in those old days cities often went to war with one another. The city of Andernach had around it one of these great walls. There was only one gateway into the city, and this gateway was guarded by strong iron doors. Just behind the doors lived a gatekeeper, who did nothing but open and shut the gates. He watched them well. No one could come in who was not friendly to the city. The gates were not opened very often. Some days they were not opened at all. So the gatekeeper had much spare time. "I am very fond of honey," thought he. "I think I will buy a few hives of bees. I can place the hives on the top of the wall. There nobody will trouble them." Soon there were rows of beehives on the top of the wall over the gate. It happened that, not far away, there was another walled city, named Lintz. The people of Lintz were the enemies of the people of Andernach. They were always watching each other, and fought when they could get a chance. Now the people of Lintz planned to attack and capture the city of Andernach. They called their wisest men together to see how the attack should be made. Many plans were talked over. At length an old man said, "Men of Lintz, you know that the men of Andernach are lazy. They like to lie late in their beds. If we attack the city at sunrise, we shall capture it before they can get their eyes open." This plan seemed wise to the people of Lintz, and in army was soon ready to march against the city of Andernach. One dark night the army crept softly toward the walls of the sleeping city. THE BAKER BOYS AND THE BEES--II The only people who rose early in Andernach were the bakers. They had to have fresh bread ready for breakfast. After their work was done the bakers used to have a morning nap, but the baker boys had to stay awake and watch the loaves of bread. Two of these boys, named Hans and Fritz, were fast friends and were always together. One morning, just at sunrise, Hans said to Fritz, "Let us creep upon the wall over the gatekeeper's house. I think we can find some honey. The old gatekeeper is asleep; he will not hear us." The two boys crept softly up the stairs. They soon reached the top of the wall. "Did you hear that noise?" whispered Fritz. "Yes, it must be the old gatekeeper," said Hans, in a low voice. "No, it seems to come from over the wall," said Fritz. The two boys crawled to the edge of the wall and carefully looked over. There stood the army of Lintz. A ladder was placed against the wall. The soldiers would soon mount over the gate into the city. What was to be done? There was no time to wake the people. What could two boys do against an army? In an instant Fritz thought of the beehives. Ah, the bees were awake if the people were not! Each boy seized a hive and bore it carefully to the edge of the wall. Then with a strong push down tumbled hives, honey, and bees upon the heads of the enemy. Such buzzing, such stinging, such shouting as arose! The boys ran down the stairs to the city hall. [Illustration] The old bell ringer was aroused by the cries. Soon the wild clang of the bell awoke the people of Andernach. Armed men ran to the city gate, but the bees had done their work well. There was no need for soldiers. The army of Lintz was running away. Over the great gate the people of Andernach placed a statue of the two baker boys whose quick wit had saved the city. _German Folk Tale_ FALLING SNOW See the pretty snowflakes Falling from the sky; On the wall and housetops Soft and thick they lie. On the window ledges, On the branches bare; Now how fast they gather, Filling all the air. Look into the garden, Where the grass was green; Covered by the snowflakes, Not a blade is seen. Now the bare black bushes All look soft and white, Every twig is laden,-- What a pretty sight! ANONYMOUS LITTLE GOODY TWO SHOES All the world must know that Two Shoes was not her real name. No; her father's name was Meanwell, and he was for many years a well-to-do farmer. While Margery (for that was her real name) was yet a little girl her father became very poor. He was so poor that at last he and Margery's mother and Margery and her little brother were all turned out of doors. They did not have a roof to cover their heads. Margery's father felt so unhappy that at last he died, and only a few days later Margery's mother died, too. Poor little Margery and her brother were left alone in the wide world. Their sorrow would have made you pity them, but it would have done your heart good to see how fond they were of each other. They always went about hand in hand, and when you saw one you were sure to see the other. [Illustration] Look at them in the picture. They were both very ragged, and though Tommy had two shoes, Margery had but one. They had nothing, poor little things, to live upon but what kind people gave to them. Each night they lay on the hay in just such a barn as you see here. [Illustration] LITTLE GOODY TWO SHOES--II Mr. Smith was a very good man who lived in the town where little Margery and Tommy were born. Although he was a poor man, he took the children home to live with him. "They shall not want for food nor for a bed to sleep in while I live," he said. Mr. Smith had a friend who was a very wealthy man. When he heard the story about Margery and Tommy, this man gave Mr. Smith some money to buy little Margery a new pair of shoes and Tommy a new suit of clothes. Can you see Tommy in the picture wearing his new clothes? [Illustration] The gentleman who had given the money for Margery's new shoes and Tommy's new clothes wished to take Tommy with him to London to make a sailor of him. When the time came for Tommy to go, both children began to cry. They kissed each other a hundred times. At last Tommy wiped away Margery's tears and said: "Don't cry, little sister, for I will come home to you again and bring you beautiful clothes and much money." That night Margery went to bed weeping for her dear little brother. It was the first time they had ever been parted. The next morning the shoemaker came in with Margery's new shoes. She put them on in great glee and ran out to Mrs. Smith crying, "Two shoes, two shoes. See goody two shoes!" This she did to all the people she met, so that soon she was known far and wide as Goody Two Shoes. LITTLE GOODY TWO SHOES--III Dear little Margery saw how good and wise Mr. Smith was. She thought it was because he read so many books. Soon Margery wished, above all things, to learn to read. She would borrow books from the school children and sit down and read and read. Very soon she could read better than any of her playmates. Margery took such delight in her books that she wished everybody else could read, too, so she formed this plan of teaching very little children how to read. First, she made letters out of bits of wood with her knife. She worked and worked until there were ten sets of the small letters: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z and six sets of the large letters: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z She then made the little tots spell words with her wooden letters. Take the word "plum-pudding" (and who can think of a better one!); the first little child picked up the letter p, the next l, the next u, the next m, and so on, until the whole word was spelled. If a child took up a wrong letter, he was to pay a fine or play no more. Each morning, with her basket full of wooden letters, Margery went around from house to house. The little children learned to read very fast. Can you see Margery with her basket of letters in this picture? [Illustration] [Illustration] The first house she came to was Farmer Wilson's. See, here it is. Margery stopped and ran up to the door. Tap, tap, tap. "Who is there?" "Only little Goody Two Shoes," said Margery, "come to teach Billy." "Is that you, little Goody?" said Mrs. Wilson. "I am glad to see you." Then out came the little boy. "How do, Doody Two Shoes," said he, not being able to speak plainly. Margery took little Billy by the hand and led him to a quiet spot under a tree. Then she threw the letters on the ground all mixed up together like this: z a y w b m p j f x c o q g e k v n i d h r i t u s Billy picked them up, calling each one by its right name, and put them all in just their right places. They now looked like this: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Do you think you could have done as well as little Billy? The next place Margery came to was Farmer Simpson's, and here it is. [Illustration] "Bowwow, wow," said the dog at the door. "Be still, sir," said Mrs. Simpson. "Why do you bark at little Two Shoes? Come, Alice, here is Goody Two Shoes ready to teach you." Then out came the little one. "Well, Alice," said Two Shoes, "have you learned your lesson?" "Yes, indeed, I have," said the little one, and taking the letters, she formed them in this way: ba be bi bo bu da de di do du fa fe fi fo fu ha he hi ho hu As she formed them she gave their exact sounds. The next place Margery came to was Gaffer Cook's house. Here a number of poor children all came around her at once. These children had been to her school longer than the first little tots, and could read words and lines. This is what Margery gave them to read: "He that will thrive must rise by five." "Truth can be blamed, but cannot be shamed." "A friend in your need is a friend indeed." "A wise head makes a close mouth." "A lie stands upon one leg, but truth upon two." "A good boy will make a good man." "Honor your parents and the world will honor you." "Love your friends and your friends will love you." Did you ever read lines like these in your school reader? LITTLE GOODY TWO SHOES--IV At last Margery grew up and was given a real school to teach and a real schoolroom to teach in. She still used her little wooden letters, and made the children fetch each one to spell the words. One day, as Margery was going home from school, she saw some bad boys who had caught a young crow. She went over to them and gave them a penny for the poor little bird, and took him home. Margery called the crow Ralph, and under her care he grew into a very fine bird indeed. She even taught him to speak and to pick out a few of the letters. Some time after this a poor lamb had lost his mother, and the farmer was about to kill him. Margery bought him and took him home with her to play with the children. This lamb she called Will, and a pretty fellow he was. Do look at him. See him run and play with the children. [Illustration] The lamb was trained to carry home the books and the slates of the children who behaved well at school. See what a fine, strong fellow he is, and how he trudges along. [Illustration] Margery also had a present of a little dog. His name was Jumper. Look at him sitting up and begging in the picture. Did you ever see a dog with such bright eyes? He almost seems able to talk. [Illustration] Jumper, Jumper, Jumper! He was always playing and jumping about, and Jumper was a good name for him. His place was just outside the door. See how he sits, the saucy fellow! [Illustration] LITTLE GOODY TWO SHOES--V One day Jumper came whining into the schoolroom. He took hold of Margery's dress and pulled and pulled. "What do you wish, dear Jumper?" asked Margery. But the dog only whined and pulled her toward the door. At last Margery went outdoors to see what was the matter. Then Jumper left her and ran back into the schoolroom. He took hold of the dress of one of the little girls and tugged and tugged. At length she too followed Jumper to the door. By this time all the children were on their feet and quickly followed the teacher out of the schoolroom. They were none too soon. The last little girl had hardly passed the door when, with a great crash, the roof fell in. All the children were safe, but what had become of Margery's dear books and letters and other things? Margery did not lose her school. A rich man who lived near ordered the schoolhouse to be rebuilt at his own expense. Another gentleman, Sir Charles Jones, having heard of Margery's good sense, offered her a home if she would teach his daughter. In fact he finally fell in love with Margery, and they were married in the great church. And what do you think! On her wedding day, while the bells were ringing, Margery's brother Tommy came home. He had become the captain of a great ship. He had sailed to many lands, and he brought her all kinds of presents. Do you think she deserved to be very happy? She did not forget the children, you may be sure. A house in the village was fitted up as a school, and all the boys and girls were taught to read and write. _Ascribed to_ GOLDSMITH ONE STEP AND THEN ANOTHER One step and then another, And the longest walk is ended; One stitch and then another, And the largest rent is mended. One brick upon another, And the highest wall is made; One flake upon another, And the deepest snow is laid. ANONYMOUS [Illustration] GOOD NIGHT AND GOOD MORNING curious neighed curtsied A fair little girl sat under a tree, Sewing as long as her eyes could see; Then smoothed her work and folded it right, And said, "Dear work, good night, good night!" Such a number of rooks came over her head, Crying "Caw, caw!" on their way to bed. She said, as she watched their curious flight, "Little black things, good night, good night!" The horses neighed, and the oxen lowed, The sheep's "bleat, bleat!" came over the road; All seeming to say, with a quiet delight, "Good little girl, good night, good night!" She did not say to the sun, "Good night!" Though she saw him there like a ball of light, For she knew he had God's time to keep All over the world, and never could sleep. The tall pink foxglove bowed his head; The violets curtsied and went to bed; And good little Lucy tied up her hair, And said, on her knees, her favorite prayer. And while on her pillow she softly lay, She knew nothing more till again it was day; And all things said to the beautiful sun, "Good morning, good morning! our work is begun." LORD HOUGHTON [Illustration] DAVID AND GOLIATH--I Philistines guarding Goliath Long, long ago there lived, in the country of Israel a boy named David. He was a shepherd boy, and all day long he watched the quiet sheep as they ate sweet grass on the hillside. Although David was only a boy, he was tall and strong and brave. When he knew he was in the right, he feared nothing. David's quiet life did not last long. There was a great war between the people of Israel and men called the Philistines. All the strong men in David's town went to join the army of Israel. David could not go, as he had to tend the sheep, but his three older brothers went to the war. For a long time David's father heard nothing from his three oldest boys. At length he called David to him and said, "Take to your brothers a bag of this corn and these ten loaves of bread. Find out how your brothers are, and bring word to me." The next morning David rose very early, and taking the bag of corn and the loaves of bread, he went to the camp where his brothers were. The camp of Israel was on the side of a high mountain. Across the valley from this mountain and on the side of another mountain was the camp of the Philistines. After David had come to the camp and had found his brothers, shouts of anger and fear came from the soldiers. David looked across the valley to the camp of the Philistines. There he saw a huge soldier dressed in shining armor. This giant soldier carried a great spear and shield. "Who is that man?" asked David. "Do you not know? That is Goliath," said the soldiers. "Every day he comes out and dares any man on our side to meet him in battle." "Does no one of our soldiers dare to meet him?" asked David. [Illustration] "We have no man so strong as he in our whole army," said the soldiers. The giant from the opposite hillside shouted with a loud voice, and again dared the army of Israel to choose a man to meet him. David was a brave boy; he was stirred to anger at the sight of this great giant. "Is not God on the side of our people?" he asked. "I will fight with this man, even though he kill me." DAVID AND GOLIATH--II The king of Israel heard of these brave words and sent for David to come before him. When he saw that David was only a boy, he said, "You are not able to go against this Philistine. You are only a boy, while he has fought in many battles." Then David said to the king, "Once, when I was guarding my father's sheep, I killed a lion and a bear without help from any one but the Lord. He will help me fight this man." Then the king said, "Go, and the Lord be with you." The king fitted David with heavy armor and gave to him his own sword, but David said, "I am not used to this heavy armor; it will only hinder me." So he threw it off. Then David went to a brook near by and chose five smooth stones. [Illustration] Armed with these five stones and his sling; he went bravely out to meet the giant. When the giant saw that David was only a boy, he was angry and cried out: "Do you dare fight with me? I will kill you, and will give your flesh to the birds and the beasts." David looked at him without fear and said, "You come against me with a sword and with a spear and with a shield, but I come to you in the name of the Lord. This day will he give you into my hand. I will kill you and take your head from you, and I will give the bodies of the Philistines to the birds and the beasts." When they came near to each other, David fitted one of the five stones to his sling. He whirled the sling swiftly about his head. The stone flew straight to its mark. It struck the Philistine full in the forehead. The huge giant took one step and, with a groan, fell to the earth. Then David, standing upon the giant, took his sword and cut off the head of his enemy. When the Philistines saw that their giant was dead, they were filled with fear. They left their camp and tried to run away, but the army of Israel followed them and won a great victory. For this brave deed David was made a captain and was held in honor by the king. _Adapted from the Bible_ PHONETIC TABLES The following tables are planned to supplement those already developed in the "Beacon Primer" and in the "Beacon First Reader." The earlier tables are introduced in order that the teacher may have them for rapid review work with her slower pupils, and also for those pupils entering the class without any previous phonetic training. The strictly new matter, which includes the last ten pages, should receive special emphasis and care in its development and drill. REVIEW OF THE VOWELS _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_, and _u_ fix jut fob jig lag rid tug kin van yet fog cab bog pod vex wed box mix wax cud Yes Jug Kid Sit Six Pug Jim Yell Red Fox Keg Dug Win Ned Will Puff Hug Bess Rub Vim In the following words a blend of two consonants follows the vowel. felt tilt elm elk self kilt sick rich loft link silk lank test gilt dish lock limp tuft hilt nick gust bulk pelt lint dust land gush wilt belt sack pick hack lent sent mist sink bunt lash lend rush sash hush rust luck such king dusk ring fond hulk dent sunk lack kick sank desk bank hint welt wing back wink sulk bent went lamp must rock pack hand wind lump wick duck bunk punt mock husk band much bump mush bend jump mend hump pump bond musk damp In the following words a blend of two consonants precedes the vowel. The vowel must be sounded with the preceding consonants. fled flog flag clip cliff grit slip grin frog grip slat trot trill stiff slop spot blot prig sled still sniff drip slap slab scan scud twit step spin brag span crab stag glen drag slum stab crag trim skill skim slim glad crop drop snuff skin skip scab snob skull snip bled stun twin dress grab drill skiff from swell drug twig grim snap scum bran stub snag stem plum sped spill prop slam drum gruff snug tress snub smell spell brim bless spun The correct pronunciation of _wh_ is important. In reality the _h_ is sounded before the _w_, and in the oldest English it was so written. This table combines the features of the two previous tables. wit chip flock crank theft whit shut trick shock sling whet shed shelf trunk trust whig shop swift plank sting whip shad frock swing fresh whiff chub strap smith twist when shun prick string track whist trash brick smack crash whim chest crust stump stock which script scrub splash scrap whisk spend shred struck block ship cramp grunt scamp frank chill smash print shrink throb chat twitch stack thump pluck sprang spring drink thrush shrub sham switch check stretch brush chess snatch thank scratch spank In the following words the vowel is long because of the final _e_. tide rote rite fade core gore lute five trade glide tone pole live plate wore cope lobe tore crave drive tube lane hive spore pride wipe bide save globe stove slate pore rave snipe snore mere flake cove stone spine store stole cave flame blade mute wide stale grove crime stake hone mete grape shave skate mine wake smite grime spike more wave white stride brake score slope drone spade spoke fume strife twine shape snake wade slime strive whale strike slave mode stripe blame stroke shine smile swore scrape smoke shade shore shame throne The following words illustrate the effect of final _e_ in lengthening the vowel otherwise short. Final _se_ usually has the sound of _ze_. cot cote slat slate glaze rob robe trip tripe nose cut cute slid slide doze not note grip gripe fuse dot dote slop slope maze tub tube shin shine hose con cone slim slime froze cub cube glad glade these nod node snip snipe gaze met mete shot shote rise plat plate spin spine size flam flame plan plane wise shad shade strip stripe haze mop mope grim grime rose whit white twin twine daze sham shame prim prime those scrap scrape plum plume close Before _r_ the sounds of the vowels _a_, _e_, _i_, and _u_ are greatly modified. These combinations occur so frequently that much drill is required. Final _e_ affects _ar_ as in _care_. stir serf mar jar fur slur tart cart bur furl star turf first curl gird jerk lard fern bird dart firm scar card char spar hurl lark hurt part arch turn blur purr pert spur hard barn darn carp herd dark burn term hark yard start shirt bark yarn harp sharp clerk skirt chirp park spark shark mark spurt third parch smart churn perch harm charm starch march mirth smirch * * * * * tare scare dare pare rare fare snare hare ware glare bare spare mare stare share In the words of this table _ea_ and _ee_ have the long sound of _e_. fear tear lean heap fleet thee east ease keep beef near plea heed greet year freed dean team weed ream tease deed treat wean teach sheet yeast meet spree plead sheaf mead steep sheer eaves greed creak creek shear spear breed agree sneer bleed speed beach sheen green preen cheap sweep sheep reach street freeze dream tweed fleece cream weave screen peach gleam wheat streak bream leaves cleans crease teapot beams please greedy Easter spleen breeze gleans squeak beaver season grease sneeze wheeze sheath stream reason teacher sheaves scream beacon In the words of this table _ai_ and _ay_ have the long sound of _a_. rail lain hail bail flail slay fray nail bait frail vain mail gray clay paid dray bray main wail pray raise saint stray snail faint staid away paint faith train gayly spray chain plain maid stain strain waist braid drain grain praise strait twain claim sway sprain raisin afraid dainty In the words of this table _oa_ and _oe_ have the long sound of _o_. oats soar floe roar coat coax float oak goal soap roam hoed load loan soak whoa loam boat goat moat cloak coarse foam roast toast groan throat shoal croak coast loaves hoarse moan coach board In the words of this table _ie_ and final _y_ take the long sound of _i_. fie hie sly cry shy vie sty pry why lied fried sky tied vied tried pried ally rely defy deny reply spry skies flies cried supply spied plied dried comply In the words of this table _ew_ and _ue_ are pronounced very nearly like _u_ long. hue due stew hew cue pew mew view ague jewel rescue sinew argue subdue value mildew pewter renew steward ensue In the words of this table _oi_ and _oy_ are pronounced alike. coy coil join loin toil soil foist boil coin cloy point broil joist hoist joint enjoy voice royal noise spoil moist avoid choice annoy doily employ oyster anoint poison boiler In the words of this table _au_ and _aw_ take the sound of _a_ in _all_. jaw claw haul Paul flaw faun yawn bawl thaw slaw fault hawk daub Maud fraud fawn gauze vault brawl cause dawn drawl pawn lawful crawl awful pauper straw brawn drawn pause awning lawyer spawn caucus In the words of this table _ou_ and _ow_ are pronounced alike. gout rout scow pout scour town trout scout down shout prow cloud snout tower proud flour south scowl pouch mount stout spout aloud power bound count about crowd pound crouch towel couch sound blouse devout found growl frown grouse wound clown vowel drown sprout shroud flower round shower mound ground In the following list of words _oo_ is pronounced like _u_ in _rude_. boot cool tool pool roof poor root toot loop loon soon food hoot boor rood noon coop hoop hoof coon loom loose moor boon sloop proof stoop troop stool spool boost noose sooth room boom croon moon mood roost shoot broom doom goose scoop tooth bloom brood gloom groom swoop swoon spoon moose choose groove Review the sound of _qu_. quilt quid quill equip quit quell quite quiz quire quail queer quote quest quick squire squirt queen quince quake squint squaw quack squirm square quaint squeak squeal quench squeeze squirrel REVIEW sly card loft due ear stir why cliff tied cue jaw turn curl hilt coil boil tube cloy clay nail lute mail rose spar crag slay Paul flaw hoof haul firm quill gore pray sank boot wore stew herd heap stun stem fried twin tried scow bless smile mew term trout mere glean froze glide store slave sheaf team more quite noise mode daub boom shore stoop mend score gauze sheet much chain stone grime grunt hawk moon pawn shark pump peach quick block quack snake sound pouch queen march smash cramp stump smoke switch sky glare rely room tress skill doily gruff plied royal gayly tooth sloop scrap scare snare ensue coast spurt pried croak perch strife twain strait growl flower noose stripe gauze awful power parch annoy smart strive moose stride choice blame churn loaves afraid starch throat sinew beaver rescue coarse oyster praise poison teapot lawful sprain struck breezy hoarse anoint squeal screen sprout groove choose squint scrape shower grouse twitch blouse supply stretch caucus dainty throne pauper shroud season reason square auburn teacher subdue sprawl freezer awning mildew employ smirch pewter squeeze squirrel preacher squirm comply In the following list of words _c_ is soft before _e_ or _i_. cite ace ice cell cent vice rice lace city since nice trice dice farce fence slice pace mice voice lance price trace grace pence mince truce mace cease hence prince place brace fleece dance thence space twice peace glance chance splice spruce choice quince whence In the following list of words _g_ and _dg_ before _e_ and _i_ are pronounced like _j_. gin gist gill gem gibe germ tinge edge urge huge serge judge singe ledge large barge fudge lodge dodge ridge cringe lunge budge hedge badge sledge nudge wedge fringe range bridge merge grudge trudge mange smudge charge plunge dredge change _K_ and _ck_ are sounded exactly alike. Their use is not so confusing from the point of view of sounding as from spelling. The use of the _ck_ after a short vowel should be strongly emphasized by the teacher. nick dike flake fleck flick cake sock deck meek flock pack yoke slick shock poke track hack dock snake neck stuck clack sleek strike crack freak pluck truck stroke brake drake shake black struck sneak spoke tweak broke smack shuck * * * * * bake sake like beak stoke back sack lick beck stock take slake pike Luke smoke tack slack pick luck smock rake stake peak duke croak rack stack peck duck crock lake dike speak coke cloak lack Dick speck cock clock _Tch_ generally has the same sound as _ch_. _Ch_ usually follows vowels having the long sound, while _tch_ usually follows vowels having the short sound. each teach peach reach speech bleach screech leech breach beech coach roach poach broach preach fetch stretch itch botch notch blotch catch sketch crutch pitch latch batch snatch ditch match hatch patch hutch twitch clutch switch witch stitch scratch flitch This table contains a further development of the two sounds of _th_. fifth tenth strength thud thill thing thump thick thank thatch throb throne thrust thrash thrush this thus these those that them than then the thee thy bathe lathe seethe lithe blithe withe clothe scathe thine breathe soothe smooth thence sheathe In the following list of words _ie_ has the sound of long _e_. field niece priest piece shield grief yield siege thief relief brief chief fiend shriek believe In the following list of words _o_ has a sound midway between its sound in _for_ and in _fox_. cost moss song broth frost soft toss long cloth strong lost loss tong froth loft In the following list of words _a_ has the sound of short _o_. was wand swap what swamp wad wash swan want wander wan wasp swab watch washer Two vowels together are often sounded separately. fuel poem giant quiet duel poet idea gruel truant suet diet real trial pliant dial _Tion_ and _sion_ are pronounced _shun_. nation mention vision tension session ration pension notion mission station option fraction motion passion action REVIEW fuel snail cede defy bare field stare skirt thief gruel trial mete roost away ledge mere deny grace quiet fence paint quail dried share snore whist niece spare judge braid yeast poem value growl crawl scowl goose giant Maud argue groan moist yawn swore drawl mirth coach raisin squirt oyster annoy boiler strain choice swoon broom gaudy priest gleans squaw sneeze whisk quake rescue truant poison prince renew crouch sprout dredge crease flower motion greedy chance charm bridge mound believe supply nation notion squeak shower lawyer plunge square employ comply quench awning stream mildew sheaves The following list contains words with the most common suffixes. jacket market velvet trumpet locket basket ticket thicket secret blanket bracket bucket goblet musket rocket gimlet closet carpet racket hornet mantle camel model parcel ravel panel saddle travel slumber chapel canter pickle lumber cinder printer master whisper helper sister corner barber under lobster farmer scamper winter number tumbler blunder jester pitcher milker farther monster marble cycle uncle thimble jumble grumble stumble tingle tickle speckle candle nimble tumble ankle twinkle single dangle dimple cackle buckle magic picnic handle bundle frolic mimic simple wrinkle merit arctic solid limit habit infant stupid visit spirit distant rapid profit pulpit merchant timid ashes classes servant kisses dishes dresses brushes losses stitches bunches wishes glasses matches lunches pinches fishes branches churches goblin sweeten cabin driven robin quicken satin harden pumpkin seven napkin beacon shorten beckon reckon dragon blacken sermon wagon lemon prison season melon lesson mason fifty angry ugly milky sixty sadly dainty rusty hungry pantry empty silky finely safely lately pages merely widely purely prices nicely lonely closely wages races spices ages places faces cases cages stages laces blazes closes roses axes gazes noses rises hateful sizes uses prizes wasteful helpful rival naval needful spiteful final vital cheerful thankful oval opal graceful truthful local legal wakeful careful floral fatal The following list contains words with the most common prefixes. awake abed afloat adorn afraid aloud asleep alert afire ago amid adrift away about agree alas alone across ablaze award became again become apart because around begin alive belong along untwist abuse unhitch awhile unjust between unhurt began depend befall delay behave declare beside demand before devote unbend display unlock excite untrue displace unfit explode unchain disgust unclean expand exceed encamp decay discharge expect enrage depart dispute excel enjoy defend dismiss expose inquire endure disturb excuse inclose enlarge forbid express inform engrave forgive explain intent except forget require insist exchange forsake unwind invite explore rebound behind inflame exclaim recess unfold remark repeat recite reply refer repair replace recall renew regret release retain rejoice return reduce report regard refresh restore remain coachman huntsman seaman postman salesman workman footman hackman railroad birthday foreman boatman inkstand daylight fireplace teacup seaside seaweed sunbeam tiptoe stairway necktie rainbow railway seashore cobweb spyglass beehive Usually the vowel followed by one consonant is given the long sound, whereas, when the consonant is doubled, the vowel usually has the short sound, as illustrated in the following words. biter plater toper hoping bitter platter stopper hopping diner shiny tiny doted dinner shinny tinny dotted cuter hater poker offer cutter hated paper wider holy hatter taper spider holly riding favor diver bony ridding fever gallon bonny biting clover racer bogy bitting over cider boggy caning halo label Mary canning solo yellow marry planer polo jolly mate planner flabby jelly matter ruder shabby maker robed rudder ruddy taker robbed loping tulip dummy pining lopping cedar common pinning baker tamer moment tuning shady liner silent stunning lady pacer ruby planing tidy giddy bonnet planning pony sudden penny The following words illustrate silent _k_, _g_, _w_, _b_, _l_, _t_, and _gh_. knee kneel knelt knell knit knife knot knock knob knew knave knead know knack gnat gnaw gnu gnash gnarl gnome wry wren wrist wrote write wrap wring wrung wrong wrest wreck wrath wretch wreak wrench writhe wreath high sigh wright thigh light fight tight sight knight right fright plight night blight slight bright flight might caught naught taught daughter aught tightly brightly lightly lightning naughty climb comb crumb dumb lamb limb numb thumb debt doubt combing calf half balm calm chalk stalk walk folks talk often soften castle jostle rustle thistle whistle chestnut fasten listen 
16936	----	file was produced from images generously made available by The University of Florida, The Internet Archive/Children's Library) [Illustration: COVER NATIONAL SERIES PARKER'S SECOND READER SOLD BY BOOKSELLERS GENERALLY THROUGHOUT THE UNITED STATES.] [Illustration] PARKER'S SECOND READER. NATIONAL SERIES OF SELECTIONS FOR READING; ADAPTED TO THE STANDING OF THE PUPIL. BY RICHARD G. PARKER, A.M. PRINCIPAL OF THE NORTH JOHNSON SCHOOL, BOSTON; AUTHOR OF "AIDS TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION," "OUTLINES OF GENERAL HISTORY," "THE SCHOOL COMPEND OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY," ETC. PART SECOND. DESIGNED FOR THE YOUNGER CLASSES IN SCHOOLS, ACADEMIES, &c. * * * * * "Understandest thou what thou readest?"--ACTS 6:30. * * * * * NEW YORK: A.S. BARNES & BURR, 51 & 53 JOHN STREET. SOLD BY BOOKSELLERS, GENERALLY, THROUGHOUT THE UNITED STATES. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year Eighteen Hundred and Fifty-one, BY A.S. BARNES & CO., In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District of New York. STEREOTYPED BY HOBART & ROBBINS; NEW ENGLAND TYPE AND STEREOTYPE FOUNDRY, BOSTON PREFACE. In the preparation of this volume, I have kept fresh in my recollection the immature state of the minds which I have endeavored to enlighten; and while it has been my aim to present such a succession of reading lessons as are suitable for the younger classes in our common schools and academies, I have not forgotten that the first step to be taken, in making good readers, is to open the understanding wide enough to afford a sufficient entrance for the ideas which are to be communicated by reading. Words are but sounds, by which ideas should be conveyed; and written language is of little use, if it convey but sound alone. Great pains have therefore been taken to exclude from this volume what the young scholar cannot understand, while, at the same time, it has been the aim of the author to avoid a puerile style, by which the early intellect is kept down, and its exertions are repressed. In every step and stage of its progress, the maxim "_Excelsior_" should be the aim of the youthful mind; and the hand of the teacher should be extended, not to _lift it up_, but only to _assist it in its endeavors to raise itself_. All of the labor must not be done by the teacher, nor by books. _They_ are of use only in exciting the mind to act for itself. They may, indeed, act as pioneers, but the pupil must not be _carried_ in their arms; he must perform the march himself. And herein lies the great difficulty of the teacher's task: on the one hand, to avoid the evil of leaving too little to be done by the scholar; and, on the other, to be careful that he be not required to do too much. Real difficulties should be lightened, but some labor should be permitted to remain. To make such labor attractive, and easily endured without discouragement, is the task which best shows the tact and skill of the teacher. If this volume be found useful in aiding the teacher, by doing all that should be required _from the book_, the design of the author will be accomplished. R.G.P. _Kneeland Place_, } _May, 1851._ } CONTENTS. [_The Poetical Extracts are designated by Italic Letters_] Lesson Page Preface v 1. The Author's Address to the Pupil 9 2. Same subject, continued 13 3. " " " 17 4. The Discontented Pendulum, _Jane Taylor_ 19 5. Address of the Author to the Pupil, continued 23 6. " " " " " " " concluded 26 7. How to find out the Meaning of Words, _Original_ 29 8. Same subject, continued " 31 9. " " concluded " 34 10. Words " 38 11. Definitions " 42 12. Reading and Spelling " 48 13. Importance of Learning to Spell, _Original Version_ 51 14. Demosthenes, _Original_ 53 15. Hard Words, " 57 16. Fire: a Conversation, " 63 17. Same subject, continued " 67 18. " " concluded " 73 19. The Lark and her Young Ones, _Altered from Æsop_ 79 20. Dogs, _Original_ 82 21. Same subject, concluded " 85 22. Frogs and Toads, _Bigland_ 87 23. Maida, the Scotch Greyhound, _Altered from Bigland_ 90 24. Gelert, " 94 25. Knock again _Child's Companion_ 96 26. Same subject, continued, " 98 27. " " concluded, " 100 28. Make Good Use of Time, _Emma C. Embury_ 102 29. Same subject, continued, " 107 30. " " concluded, " 111 31. Verse, or Poetry, _Original_ 116 32. _A Morning Hymn_, _Anonymous_ 121 33. _Evening Hymn_, " 122 34. _The Gardener and the Hog_, _Gay_ 123 35. _The Hare and many Friends_, " 125 36. Maxims, _Selected_ 128 37. How to be Happy, _Child at Home_ 129 38. Obedience and Disobedience, _Child's Companion_ 133 39. Obstinacy, _Lessons without Books_ 139 40. King Edward and his Bible, _L.H. Sigourney_ 144 41. What does it Mean to be Tempted? _Rose-bud_ 147 42. Same subject, continued, " 151 43. " " " " 154 44. " " concluded, " 157 45. _Mary Dow_, _H.F. Gould_ 163 46. _It Snows_, " 165 47. _The Dissatisfied Angler Boy_, " 166 48. _The Violet: a Fable_, _Children's Magazine_ 168 49. Captain John Smith, _Juvenile Miscellany_ 170 50. Same subject, continued, " 173 51 " " " " 176 52. " " concluded, " 179 53. John Ledyard, " 180 54. Same subject, concluded, " 183 55. Learning to Work, _Original_ 185 56. Same subject, continued, _Abbott_ 187 57. " " concluded, " 189 58. The Comma, _Parker's Rhetorical Reader_ 193 59. The Semicolon, " 199 60. The Colon, " 202 PARKER'S SECOND READER. LESSON I. _The Author's Address to the Pupil._ 1. I present to you, my little friend, a new book, to assist you in learning to read. I do not intend that it shall be a book full of hard words, which you do not understand. 2. I do not think it proper to require children to read what they cannot understand. I shall, therefore, show you how you may understand what is in this book, and how you may be able, with very little assistance from your teacher, to read all the hard words, not only in this book, but also in any book which you may hereafter take up. 3. But first let me repeat to you a saying, which, when I was a little boy, and went to school, my teacher used to repeat to me. He said that any one might lead a horse to the water, but no one could make him drink. The horse must do that himself. He must open his own mouth, and draw in the water, and swallow it, himself. 4. And so it is with anything which I wish to teach you. I can tell you many things which it will be useful for you to know, but I cannot open your ears and make you hear me. I cannot turn your eyes so that they will look at me when I am talking to you, that you may listen to me. That, you must do yourself; and if you do not do it, nothing that I can say to you, or do for you, will do you any good. 5. Many little boys and girls, when their teacher is talking to them, are in the habit of staring about the school-room, or looking at their fellow-pupils, or, perhaps, slyly talking to them or laughing with them, when they ought to be listening to what their teacher is saying. 6. Others, perhaps, may appear to be looking at their teacher, while, at the same time, they are thinking about tops and marbles, or kites and dolls, and other play-things, and have no more idea of what their teacher is saying to them than if he were not in the room. 7. Now, here is a little picture, from which I wish to teach you a very important lesson. The picture represents a nest, with four little birds in it. The mother bird has just been out to get some food for them. The little birds, as soon as their mother returns, begin to open their mouths wide, and the mother drops some food from her bill into the mouth of each one; and in this manner they are all fed, until they are old enough to go abroad and find food for themselves. [Illustration] 8. Now, what would these little birds do, if, when their mother brings them their food, they should keep their mouths all shut, or, perhaps, be feeling of one another with their little bills, or crowding each other out of the nest? 9. You know that they would have to go without their food; for their mother would not open their mouths for them, nor could she swallow their food for them. They must do that for themselves, or they must starve. 10. Now, in the same manner that little birds open their mouths to receive the food which their mother brings to them, little boys and girls should have their ears open to hear what their teachers say to them. 11. The little birds, as you see in the picture, have very large mouths, and they keep them wide open to receive all the food that their mother drops; so that none of their food ever falls into the nest, but all goes into their mouths, and they swallow it, and it nourishes them, and makes them grow. 12. So, also, little boys and girls should try to catch, in their ears, everything that their teacher says to them, and keep it in their minds, and be able to recollect it, by often thinking about it; and thus they will grow wise and learned, and be able to teach other little boys and girls, of their own, when they themselves grow up. 13. Now, my little friend, please to open your eyes and see what I have put into this book for you, and open your ears to hear what your kind teacher has to say to you, that your minds may grow, and that you may become wise and good children. LESSON II. _The same subject, continued._ 1. I told you, in the last lesson, that I would teach you how to understand what is in this book, and how to read the hard words that you may find in this or in any other book. 2. Now, before you can understand them, you must be able to read them; and in order that you may understand how to read them, you must take the words to pieces; that is, take a few of the letters at a time, and see whether you can read a part of the word first, and then another part, until you have read the whole of it in parts, and then you can put the parts together, and thus read the whole word. 3. Now, in order that you may understand what I mean, I will explain it to you by taking a long word to pieces, and letting you read a part of it at a time, until you have learned how to read the whole word. 4. In the next line, you may read the parts of the word all separated: Ab ra ca dab ra. Now you have read the parts of the word ab-ra-ca-dab-ra all separated, you can read them very easily together, so as to make one word, and the word will be Abracadabra. 5. This long and hard word was the name of a false god, that was worshiped many hundreds of years ago, by a people who did not know the true God, whom we worship; and they very foolishly supposed that by wearing this name, written on paper, in a certain manner, it would cure them of many diseases. 6. Here are a few more long and hard words, divided in the same manner, which you may first read by syllables, that is, one syllable at a time: Val e tu di na´ ri an. In de fat i ga bil´ i ty. Hy po chon dri´ a cal. Me temp sy cho´ sis. Hal lu ci na´ tion. Zo o no´ mi a. Ses qui pe dal´ i ty. 7. You may now read these long words as they are here presented, without a division of the syllables, as follows: valetudinarian, indefatigability, hypochondriacal, metempsychosis, hallucination, zoonomia, sesquipedality. 8. Now, you see that words which look hard, and which you find difficult to read, can be easily read, if you take the pains to divide them into parts or syllables, and not try to read the whole word at once. 9. I now propose to relate to you a little story which I read when I was a little boy, and which I think will make you remember what I have just told you about reading hard words, by first taking them to pieces, and reading a part of them at a time. 10. A father, who was dying, called his seven sons around his bed, and showed them a bundle of small sticks tied together, and asked each one to try to break all the sticks at once, without untying the bundle. [Illustration] 11. Each of the sons took the bundle of sticks, and putting it across his knee, tried with all his strength to break it; but not one of them could break the sticks, or even bend them, while they were tied together. 12. The father then directed his oldest son to untie the bundle, and to break each stick separately. As soon as the bundle was untied, each of the sons took the sticks separately, and found that they could easily break every one of them, and scatter them, in small pieces, all about the floor. 13. "Now," said the father, "I wish you, my dear sons, to learn a lesson from these sticks. So long as you are all united in love and friendship, you need fear little from any enemies; but, if you quarrel among yourselves, and do not keep together, you see by these little sticks how easily your enemies may put you down separately." 14. Now, this was a very wise father, and he taught his sons a very useful lesson with this bundle of sticks. I also wish to teach you, my little friend, whoever you are, that are reading this book, another useful lesson from the same story. 15. Hard words, especially long ones, will be difficult to you to read, unless, like the sons in the story, you untie the bundle; that is, until you take the long words apart, and read one part or syllable at a time. Thus you may learn what is meant by that wise saying, "_Divide and conquer_." LESSON III. _The same subject, continued._ 1. I have another lesson to teach you from the same story of the old man and the bundle of sticks, which I think will be very useful to you, and will make your lessons very much easier to you. 2. Whenever you have a lesson to learn, do not look at it all at once, and say, I cannot learn this long lesson; but divide it into small parts, and say to yourself, I will try to learn this first little part, and after I have learned that, I will rest two or three minutes, and then I will learn another little part, and then rest again a few minutes, and then I will learn another. 3. I think that in this way you will find study is not so hard a thing as it seemed to you at first, and you will have another explanation of that wise saying, _Divide and conquer_. 4. I will now tell you another story that I read when I was a little boy. It was called a fable. But before I tell you the story, I must tell you what a fable is. 5. A fable is a story which is not true. But, although it is not a true story, it is a very useful one, because it always teaches us a good lesson. 6. In many fables, birds and beasts are represented as speaking. Now, you know that birds and beasts cannot talk, and therefore the story, or fable, which tells us that birds and beasts, and other things, that are not alive, do talk, cannot be true. 7. But I have told you, that although fables are not true stories, they are very useful to us, because they teach us a useful lesson. This lesson that they teach is called the _moral_ of the fable; and that is always the best fable that has the best moral to it, or, in other words, that teaches us the best lesson. 8. The story, or the fable, that I promised to tell you, is in the next lesson, and I wish you, when you read it, to see whether you can find out what the lesson, or moral, is which it teaches; and whether it is at all like the story of the father and the bundle of sticks, that I told you in the last lesson. While you read it, be very careful that you do not pass over any word the meaning of which you do not know. LESSON IV. _The Discontented Pendulum._--JANE TAYLOR. [Illustration] 1. An old clock, that had stood for fifty years in a farmer's kitchen, without giving its owner any cause of complaint, early one summer's morning, before the family was stirring, suddenly stopped. 2. Upon this, the dial-plate (if we may credit the fable) changed countenance with alarm; the hands made a vain effort to continue their course; the wheels remained motionless with surprise; the weights hung speechless;--each member felt disposed to lay the blame on the others. 3. At length the dial instituted a formal inquiry as to the cause of the stagnation, when hands, wheels, weights, with one voice, protested their innocence. 4. But now a faint tick was heard below from the pendulum, who thus spoke:--"I confess myself to be the sole cause of the present stoppage; and I am willing, for the general satisfaction, to assign my reasons. The truth is, that I am tired of ticking." 5. Upon hearing this, the old clock became so enraged, that it was on the very point of _striking_. "Lazy wire!" exclaimed the dial-plate, holding up its hands. 6. "Very good!" replied the pendulum; "it is vastly easy for you, Mistress Dial, who have always, as everybody knows, set yourself up above me,--it is vastly easy for you, I say, to accuse other people of laziness! You, who have had nothing to do, all the days of your life, but to stare people in the face, and to amuse yourself with watching all that goes on in the kitchen! 7. "Think, I beseech you, how you would like to be shut up for life in this dark closet, and to wag backwards and forwards, year after year, as I do." 8. "As to that," said the dial, "is there not a window in your house, on purpose for you to look through?"--"For all that," resumed the pendulum, "it is very dark here; and although there is a window, I dare not stop, even for an instant, to look out at it. 9. "Besides, I am really tired of my way of life; and, if you wish, I'll tell you how I took this disgust at my employment. I happened this morning to be calculating how many times I should have to tick in the course of only the next twenty-four hours; perhaps some of you, above there, can give me the exact sum." 10. The minute-hand, being _quick_ at figures, presently replied, "Eighty-six thousand four hundred times." 11. "Exactly so," replied the pendulum; "well, I appeal to you all, if the very thought of this was not enough to fatigue one; and when I began to multiply the strokes of one day by those of months and years, really, it is no wonder if I felt discouraged at the prospect: so, after a great deal of reasoning and hesitation, thinks I to myself, I'll stop." 12. The dial could scarcely keep its countenance during this harangue; but, resuming its gravity, thus replied: "Dear Mr. Pendulum, I am really astonished that such a useful, industrious person as yourself, should have been overcome by this sudden action. 13. "It is true, you have done a great deal of work in your time; so have we all, and are likely to do; which, although it may fatigue us to _think_ of, the question is, whether it will fatigue us to _do_. Would you now do me the favor to give about half a dozen strokes, to illustrate my argument?" 14. The pendulum complied, and ticked six times in its usual pace. "Now," resumed the dial, "may I be allowed to inquire if that exertion was at all fatiguing or disagreeable to you?" 15. "Not in the least," replied the pendulum; "it is not of six strokes that I complain, nor of sixty, but of _millions_." 16. "Very good," replied the dial; "but recollect, that though you may _think_ of a million strokes in an instant, you are required to _execute_ but one; and that, however often you may hereafter have to swing, a moment will always be given you to swing in." 17. "That consideration staggers me, I confess," said the pendulum.--"Then I hope," resumed the dial-plate, "we shall all immediately return to our duty; for the maids will lie in bed, if we stand idling thus." 18. Upon this, the weights, who had never been accused of _light_ conduct, used all their influence in urging him to proceed; when, as with one consent, the wheels began to turn, the hands began to move, the pendulum began to swing, and, to its credit, ticked as loud as ever; while a red beam of the rising sun, that streamed through a hole in the kitchen window, shining full upon the dial-plate, it brightened up, as if nothing had been the matter. 19. When the farmer came down to breakfast that morning, upon looking at the clock, he declared that his watch had gained half an hour in the night. LESSON V. _Address of the Author to the Pupil,--continued from Lesson 3d._ 1. The fable of the old clock, which has just been read, is intended to teach us a lesson, or moral, and that is, that whenever we have anything to do, whether it be a long lesson or a piece of hard work, we must not think of it all at once, but divide the labor, and thus conquer the difficulty. 2. The pendulum was discouraged when it thought that it had to tick eighty-six thousand four hundred times in twenty-four hours; but when the dial asked it to tick half a dozen times only, the pendulum confessed that it was not fatiguing or disagreeable to do so. 3. It was only by thinking what a large number of times it had to tick in twenty-four hours, that it became fatigued. 4. Now, suppose that a little boy, or a little girl, has a hard lesson to learn, and, instead of sitting down quietly and trying to learn a little of it at a time, and after that a little more, until it is all learned, should begin to cry, and say I cannot learn all of this lesson, it is too long, or too hard, and I never can get it, that little boy, or girl, would act just as the pendulum did when it complained of the hard work it had to do. 5. But the teacher says to the little boy, Come, my dear, read over the first sentence of your lesson to me six times. The little boy reads the first sentence six times, and confesses to his teacher that it was not very hard work to do so. 6. The teacher then asks him to read it over six times more; and the little boy finds that, before he has read it to his teacher so often as the six times more, he can say it without his book before him. 7. In this way, that little boy will find, that it is not, after all, so hard work to get what he calls a hard lesson; because all that he has to do, is to read a small portion of the lesson at a time, and to repeat the reading of that small portion until he can repeat it without the book. 8. When he has done this, he can take another small portion of the lesson, and do the same with that, until, by degrees, he has learnt the whole lesson; and then he will feel happy, because he knows that his teacher, and his parents, will be pleased with him. 9. But some pupils say to themselves, when they have a lesson to learn, I do not want to study this lesson now; I will study it by and by, or to-morrow morning. 10. But, by and by, and when to-morrow comes, they feel no more disposed to study their lesson than they did when the lesson was first given to them. 11. Now, my little friend, if you wish your time at school to pass pleasantly, do not say to yourself, I will get my lesson by and by, or to-morrow, but set yourself about it immediately, learn it as quickly as you can, and I will assure you will not only make your teachers and your parents happier, but you will be much happier yourself. LESSON VI. _The Author to the Pupil._ 1. In the first lesson, I told you that I would show you how to understand what is in this book; and how you may, with very little assistance from your teacher, be able to read all the hard words that you find in any book. 2. Many little boys and girls are very fond of running out of their places in school, and going up to their teachers with a great many unnecessary questions. This always troubles the teacher, and prevents his going through with all his business in time to dismiss you at the usual hour. 3. Whenever you meet with any real difficulty, that you cannot overcome yourself without his assistance, you should watch for an opportunity when he is at leisure, and endeavor to attract his attention quietly, and without noise and bustle, so that your fellow-pupils may not be disturbed, and then respectfully and modestly ask him to assist you. 4. But if you are noisy and troublesome, and run up to him frequently with questions that, with a little thought, you could easily answer yourself, he will not be pleased with you, but will think that you wish to make trouble; and, perhaps, will appear unkind to you. 5. I will now endeavor to show you how you may understand what is in your book, so that you will have no need to be troublesome to your teacher. 6. In the first place, then, always endeavor to understand every line that you read; try to find out what it means, and, if there is any word that you have never seen or heard of before, look out the word in a dictionary, and see what the meaning of the word is; and then read the line over again, and see whether you can tell what the whole line means, when you have found out the meaning of the strange word. 7. Now, as you can understand everything best when you have an example, I will give you one, as follows. In the tenth chapter of the Acts of the Apostles, at the first verse, there are these words: 1. "There was a certain man in Cesarea, called Cornelius, a centurion of the band called the Italian band, 2. "A devout man, and one that feared God with all his house, and gave much alms to the people, and prayed to God always." 8. I suppose you know what most of the words in these verses mean, except the word _centurion_ in the first verse, and the word _alms_ in the second. 9. Now, if you look for the word _centurion_ in the dictionary, it will tell you that _centurion_ means a military officer, who commanded a hundred men. Thus you find that Cornelius was a soldier; and not only that he was a soldier, but that he was an officer, that commanded soldiers. 10. Again, if you look for the word _alms_ in your dictionary, you will find that it means money given to the poor; and thus you find that Cornelius was a very good man, and not only prayed to God, but also gave much money to assist the poor. 11. You see, then, how useful a book a dictionary is at school, and how important it is that you should have one. If your parents cannot give you a very good one, any one is better than none. 12. But if you have no dictionary, or if you cannot find the word you wish to find in the dictionary, you must then wait for a convenient time to ask your teacher, and he will always be pleased to find that you are trying to understand the words in your lesson. 13. If you have a dictionary, and do not know how to find out the words in it, ask your teacher to show you; and when he has showed you how to use it, be sure never to pass over a single word without knowing what it means. LESSON VII. _How to find out the Meaning of Words._--ORIGINAL. [Illustration] 1. Many years ago, when I lived in a small town, near the Merrimac river, a little Spanish girl came to board in the same house. 2. She could speak very well in her own language; but the people in her country speak a language very different from ours: and when she first began to speak, she heard nothing but Spanish words; and she learned no other. 3. She could not speak a word of English, and did not understand a word that was spoken to her by any of the family. 4. Her parents were very rich, but they placed her in the family, that she might learn to speak English. 5. She had no dictionary to turn to, to look out the meaning of words; and if she was hungry, she could not ask for bread, and if she was thirsty, she could not ask for water, nor milk, nor tea, for she did not know the meaning of either of the words, _water_, _tea_, nor _milk_. 6. Perhaps you would be puzzled to tell how she could learn to speak English, if she had no one to teach her, and had no dictionary to inform her about the words. 7. But it was not many days before she could say "_bread_," if she was hungry, and "_water_," if she wanted to drink; and I was very much surprised to find how soon it was, at the dinner-table, she could ask for meat, or potato, or pudding; and, at tea-time, for tea, or milk, or sugar, or butter, or bread. 8. I have no doubt that you would like to know how this little Spanish girl learned to speak all of these words. I do not intend to tell you quite yet, but I think you will find out yourself, if you will read the next lesson. LESSON VIII. _The same subject, continued._ 1. About twenty years ago, I was very ill, and, for a long time, my friends thought I never should recover. 2. By the very attentive care of my physician, and by the devoted attention of my wife, I unexpectedly grew better; and the doctor said that I must take a voyage for the recovery of my health. 3. A kind friend, who was going to the West Indies, in a vessel of his own, very generously offered to take me with him, and I gratefully accepted the offer. 4. We sailed from Boston early one morning, and were soon out of sight of the land. I was quite ill during the voyage; but fortunately the voyage was a short one, and we reached the place of our destination on the fourteenth day after we sailed. 5. The island, where we landed, was a beautiful spot; and lemons, oranges, pine-apples, and many other delicious fruits, were growing out in the open air. 6. The people who lived on this island did not speak the English language; and the family with whom I was to reside could speak only in French. 7. I observed, at dinner-time, that some of the persons at the table held out their tumblers to the servant, and said something which sounded to me like _O_. 8. I often heard this word; and every time it was spoken, _water_ was brought, or poured out, or something was done with _water_. 9. I then made up my mind that this word that I thought was O meant water; and I found out afterwards that I was right, except that I did not spell it right. 10. This I discovered by means of the Bible, from which the family used to read. 11. It was a very large one, with very large letters; and as I was very fond of hearing them read, and of looking over the book while some one was reading aloud, I noticed that whenever the reader came to the letters e, a, u, he called them O; and thus I found out that water, in their language, was called O, but was spelt e, a, u. 12. In the same manner, I found out the words, or names, which they gave to bread, and sugar, and butter, and meat, and figs, and oranges, and lemons, and pine-apples. 13. And now, perhaps, you may be able to find out how the little Spanish girl, mentioned in the last lesson, learned the meaning of English words that she had never heard until she came to live in the family where nothing but English was spoken. 14. She was obliged to listen, when any one spoke, and watch to see what was wanted; and in the same manner in which I found out the meaning of O, and what to call bread, and sugar, and butter, and meat, and figs, and oranges, and other fruits, she learned to call things by their English names. 15. But, in order to do this, she was obliged to listen very attentively, to try to remember every new name that she learned; and, by so doing, in less than a year she could talk almost as plainly as any one in the house. 16. It was very easy for her to learn the names of things, because she heard them spoken very often. Such words as _chair_, _table_, _water_, _sugar_, _cake_, _potato_, _pudding_, and other words which are the names of things she could see, she learned very quickly. 17. But such words as _come_ and _go_, or _run_ and _walk_, and the little words _to_ and _from_, and _over_ and _under_, or such words as _quickly_ and _slowly_, and many other words of the same kind, she could not learn so easily. 18. In the next lesson perhaps you will find out how she learned the meaning of these words. LESSON IX. _The same subject, continued._ [Illustration] 1. There was a small family living very near to your residence, my young friends who are reading this lesson, consisting of the father, the mother, and four young children. 2. The oldest was a boy of twelve years old, the next was a little girl of about eight, the third was another pretty little girl of six, and the youngest was an infant boy, only nine months old. 3. As you may well suppose, the baby, as he was called, was the delight, not only of the father and the mother, but also of his elder brother and his two sisters. 4. The oldest brother had a dog whose name was Guido,--an Italian name, which is pronounced as if it were spelt Gwe´do. 5. The dog had learned to love the dear little baby as much as the rest of the family; and very often, when he was lying on the floor, the baby would pull his tail, or his ears, or put his little hand into the creature's mouth, and Guido would play as gently with him as if he knew that the baby was a very tender little thing, and could not bear any rough treatment. 6. Nothing pleased the whole family, and Guido among the rest, so much, as to hear the baby try to say _papa_, and _mamma_, and _bub_, and _sis_; for he could not say _brother_, nor _sister_, nor pronounce any other words plainly. 7. The youngest sister was very fond of making him say these words; and every time the little creature repeated them to her, she would throw her arms around his little neck, and hug and kiss him with all the affectionate love her little heart could express. 8. She often used to dress her little doll as prettily as she knew how; tying its frock on one day with a pretty blue ribbon, and on another with a red one; for she had noticed, that whenever the doll was newly dressed, the dear little baby would look very steadily at it, and hold out its little arms towards it; and then she would carry it to her little brother, and say to him, "Dolly,--pretty dolly,--bub want to see dolly?" 9. One day she had dressed her doll in a very bright new dress, with very gay ribbons, and was carrying it towards her father to show it to him, when suddenly she heard the baby cry out, "Dolly!" 10. She immediately ran with delight to her little brother, holding up the doll in its new shining dress, and repeated her usual words, "Dolly,--bub want dolly?" 11. The baby, delighted, looked up in its mother's face, and laughed, and crowed, and giggled, and in its delight again repeated the word "Dolly!" 12. Pleased with her success, the little sister was unwearied in her efforts to make her little brother repeat other words; and day by day she was gratified to find the list of words which he lisped was growing in length. 13. By the unwearied endeavors of father, mother, brother and sisters, this pretty little baby, by the time that it was three years old, could speak plainly anything that was repeated to him, and had learned the names of almost everything that he saw about the house, the yard, and the street. 14. But it was observed that Guido, the dog, although he could not speak a word, had also learned the names of many things; and when George, the oldest son, told him to go and bring his ball to him, Guido would wag his tail, and go up into George's chamber, and look about the room until he had found the ball; and then he would run down the stairs, and dropping the ball at his young master's feet, look up in his face, expecting that George would throw it down for him to catch again. [Illustration] 15. The baby, however, learnt words and names much faster than Guido; for although Guido knew as much as any dog knows, yet dogs are different creatures from children, and cannot learn so much nor so fast as children can, because it has not pleased God to give them the same powers. 16. Now, perhaps you may wish to know who this interesting family were of whom I have been speaking; and you will probably be surprised to learn, that all I have told you about this little baby is true of every little baby, and that the manner that every infant is taught to speak is the same. 17. It is the same manner as that in which the little Spanish girl, mentioned in the seventh lesson, was taught to speak the English language. LESSON X. _Words._--ORIGINAL. 1. I told you, in the last lesson, how an infant child first learned to speak, when it was taught by its father and mother, and brother and sisters. 2. I intend to show you, in this lesson, how the little child learned the meaning of a great many words himself, without the assistance of any one else. 3. He was very fond of Guido, the dog, and watched everything he did, especially when his brother George was playing with him. 4. When George called Guido, and said to the dog, "_Come here_, Guido," the little boy could not help noticing that Guido _went to_ George. 5. When George's father or mother called George, and said, "Come here, George," the little child saw that George _went to_ his father, or his mother. 6. Now, nobody told the little child what George, or his father, or his mother, meant by the word _come_; but he always saw, that when any one said to another, "_Come_," that the one who was spoken to always _moved towards_ the person who called him, and in this way the little child found out what his father or his mother meant by the word _come_. 7. It was in this way, my young friend who are reading this lesson, that you, yourself, learned the meaning of most of the words that you know. 8. When you were a little child, like the infant of whom I have been speaking, you knew no more about words, or about speaking, than he did. 9. But, by hearing others speak and use words, you learned to use them yourself; and there is no word ever used, either in books or anywhere else, that you cannot find out its meaning, provided that you hear it used frequently, and by different persons. 10. I will now give you an example, to show you what I mean. I will give you a word that you probably never heard of before; and although I shall not tell you what the word means, I think you will find it out yourself, before you have read many more lines of this lesson. 11. The word _hippoi_ is the word that I shall choose, because I know that you do not know the meaning of it; but I wish you to read the following sentences in which the word is used, and I think that you will find out what _hippoi_ means, before you have read them all. 12. In California, and in Mexico, and in most parts of South America, there are many wild _hippoi_, which feed on the grass that grows wild there. 13. The Indians hunt the _hippoi_; and when they catch them, they tame them, and put bridles on their heads, and bits in their mouths, and saddles on their backs, and ride on them. 14. A carriage, with four white _hippoi_, has just passed by the window, and one of the _hippoi_ has dropped his shoe. The coachman must take him to the blacksmith, to have the shoe put on. 15. The noise which _hippoi_ make is a very strange noise, and when they make it they are said to neigh (_pronounced na_). 16. The hoofs of cows and goats and sheep and deer are cloven; that is, they are split into two parts; but the hoofs of _hippoi_ are not split or cloven, and for that reason they are called whole-hoofed animals. 17. My father has in his barn four _hippoi_. One of them is red, and has a short tail; another is white, with a few dark hairs in his mane, or long hair on the top of his neck; the third is gray, with dark spots on his body; and the fourth is perfectly black, and has a very long tail, which reaches almost to the ground. 18. Now, from these sentences, I think you will see that _hippoi_ does not mean cows, or goats, or sheep, or deer; and I do not think it necessary to tell you anything more about it, except that it is a word that was spoken by the Corinthians and the Colossians and the Ephesians, the people to whom St. Paul addressed those epistles or letters in the Bible called by their names. 19. When you have read this lesson, your teacher will probably ask you what the word _hippoi_ means; and I hope you will be able to tell him that _hippoi_ means----[here put in the English word for _hippoi_.] LESSON XI. _Definitions._ 1. In the last lesson, I gave you a word which you had not seen before, to find out the meaning of it, without looking in a dictionary. 2. I told you, in a former lesson, how the little Spanish girl found out the meaning of words which she did not know; and afterwards informed you how the infant child was taught to speak. 3. Now, I doubt not that you can speak a great many words, and know what they mean when you use them; but I do not think that you ever thought much about the way in which you learned them. 4. Perhaps you will be surprised to hear that everybody learns to talk and to use words in the same way that the little Spanish girl and the little infant learned them; that is, by hearing others use them in different ways, just as the word _hippoi_ was used in the last lesson. 5. Nobody ever told you, probably, the meaning of a great many words that you know; and yet you know them full as well, and perhaps better, than if any one had told you about them. 6. Perhaps you have a brother whose name is John, or George, or James, or a sister whose name is Mary, or Jane, or Ann, or Lucy. You have always heard them called by these names, ever since you, or they, were quite young; and have noticed that when John was called, that the one whose name is John would answer; and as each one answered when spoken to, you learnt which was John, and which was Mary, and which was Lucy. 7. So also, when a certain animal, having two large horns and a long tail, and which is milked every night and morning, passed by, you heard some one say _cow_; and in this way you learned what the word _cow_ means. 8. So also, when water falls from the sky in drops, little children hear people say it rains; and thus they find out what _rain_, means. 9. Now, when anybody asks you what any word means, although you know it very well, yet it is a very hard thing to tell what it means,--that is, to give a definition of it,--as you will see by the little story I am about to tell you. 10. A teacher, who was very anxious to make his scholars understand their lessons, once told them he had a very hard question he wished to ask them, and that he would let the one who answered the question best take the head of the class. 11. This teacher never allowed any of his pupils to speak to him without first raising his right hand above his head, to signify that the child had something to say; and when any child raised his hand in this way, if he was not busy, he called upon the child to say what he wished. 12. In this way he prevented the children from troubling him when he was busy; and in this way he also prevented them from interrupting each other, as would be the case if several of them should speak at once. 13. On the day of which I am about to speak, he said to them, Now, children, I have a very hard question to ask you, that does not require you to study, but only to think about it, in order to answer it well; and the one who gives me the best answer shall go to the head of the class. The question is this: _What is a bird?_ 14. Before they heard the question, they looked very sober, and thought their master intended to puzzle them, or to give them a long sentence to commit to memory. But as soon as they heard the question, they began to smile among themselves, and wonder how their teacher should call that a hard question. 15. A dozen hands were immediately raised, to signify that so many of the children were ready to answer it. 16. Well, John, said the teacher, your hand is up; can you tell me _what a bird is_? 17. John immediately rose, and standing on the right-hand side of his seat, said, A bird is a thing that has two legs. 18. Well, said the teacher, suppose some one should saw off two of the legs of my chair; it would then be a thing that has two legs; but it would not be a bird, would it? You see, then, that your answer is not correct. 19. I will not mention the names of the other children who raised their hands; but I will tell you what the answers were which some of them made to the questions, and what the teacher said about each of their answers. 20. One of the children said that a bird is an _animal_ with two legs. But, said the teacher, all little boys and girls, and all men and women, are animals with two legs; but they are not birds. 21. Another child said that a bird is an animal that has wings. But the teacher said there are some fishes that have wings, and that fishes are not birds. 22. A bright little girl then modestly rose and said, A bird is an animal that has legs and wings, and that flies. The teacher smiled upon her very kindly, and told her that it is true that a bird has legs and wings, and that it flies; but, said he, there is another animal, also, that has legs and wings, and that flies very fast in the air. It is called a _bat_. It flies only in the night; but it has no feathers, and therefore is not a bird. 23. Upon hearing this, another bright-eyed child very timidly rose and said, A bird is an animal that has legs, wings and feathers. Very well, said the teacher; but can you not think of anything else that a bird has, which other creatures have not? 24. The children looked at one another, wondering what their teacher could mean; and no one could think what to say, until the teacher said to them, Think a moment, and try to tell me how a bird's mouth looks. Look first at my mouth. You see I have two lips, and these two lips form my mouth. Now, tell me whether a bird has two lips; and if he has not, what he has instead of lips. 25. One of the children immediately arose and said, that a bird has no lips, but he has a bill; and that bill opens as the lips of a man do, and forms the mouth of the bird. 26. Yes, said the teacher; and now listen to me while I tell you the things you should always mention, when you are asked what a bird is,-- First, A bird is an animal. Secondly, It has two legs. Thirdly, It has two wings. Fourthly, It has feathers. Fifthly, It has a hard, glossy bill. 27. And now, said the teacher, you see that I was right when I told you that I had a hard question to ask you, when I asked What is a bird? 28. Now, if you will join all of these things which belong to a bird in the description which you give in answer to my question, What is a bird, you will then give a correct definition of a bird,--that is, you will tell exactly what a bird is, and no more, and no less. 29. A bird is an animal covered with feathers, having two legs, two wings, and a hard, glossy bill. 30. When you are asked what anything is, recollect what I have told you about a bird, and try to recall everything that you ever knew about the thing, and in this way you will be able to give a satisfactory answer. 31. This will also teach you to think, and that is one of the most important objects for which you go to school. It will enable you also to understand what you read; and you can always read those things best which you understand well. LESSON XII. _Reading and Spelling._ 1. Another important thing for which you go to school is to learn how to spell. It is not always very easy to spell, because there are so many different ways in which the same letters are pronounced in different words. 2. That you may understand what I mean, I shall give an example, to show you how many different ways the same letters are pronounced in different words; and also another example, to show you how many different ways there are of spelling the same syllable. 3. To show you, first, in how many different ways the same letters are pronounced in different words, I shall take the letters o, u, g, h. 4. The letters _o, u, g, h_, are sounded or pronounced like the letter _o_ alone, in the word _though_. The letters _o, u, g, h_, are pronounced like _uf_, in the word _tough_. 5. In the word _cough_, the letters _o, u, g, h_, are pronounced like _off_. In the words _slough_ and _plough_, the letters _o, u, g, h_, are pronounced like _ow_; and in the word _through_, they are pronounced like _ew_, or like _u_. 6. In the word _hiccough_ the letters _ough_ are pronounced like _up_--and in the word _lough_, the letters are pronounced like _lok_. 7. There are many words which end with a sound like _shun_; and this syllable is spelled in many different ways, as you will see in the following example. 8. In the words _ocean_, _motion_, _mansion_, _physician_, _halcyon_, _Parnassian_, _Christian_, and many other such words, the last syllable is pronounced as if it were spelled _shun_. 9. You see, then, that in some words a syllable sounding very much like _shun_ is spelled _cean_, as in ocean; in some it is spelled _tion_, as in nation; in some it is spelled _sion_, as in mansion; in some it is spelled _cian_, as in physician; in some it is spelled _cyon_, as in halcyon; in some it is spelled _sian_, as in Parnassian. 10. It is such things as these which make both reading and spelling very hard lessons for young children. If they think of them all at once, as the pendulum did of the eighty-six thousand times that it had to swing in twenty-four hours, it is no wonder if they feel discouraged, and say, I can't get these hard lessons. 11. But you must recollect that, as the pendulum, every time it had to swing, had a moment given it to swing in, so you also have a moment given you to learn everything in; and if you get a little at a time, you will, in the end, finish it all, if it be ever so large. 12. You have seen the workman engaged in building a brick house. He takes one brick at a time, and lays it on the mortar, smoothing the mortar with his trowel; and then he takes another brick, and another, until he has made a long row for the side of the house. 13. He then takes another brick, and lays that on the first row; and continues laying brick after brick, until the house gradually rises to its proper height. 14. Now, if the workman had said that he could never lay so many bricks, the house would never have been built; but he knew that, although he could lay but one brick at a time, yet, by continuing to lay them, one by one, the house would at last be finished. 15. There are some children, who live as much as a mile, or a half of a mile, from the school-house. If these children were told that they must step forward with first one foot and then the other, and must take three or four thousand steps, before they could reach the school-house, they would probably be very much discouraged, every morning, before they set out, and would say to their mothers, Mother, I can't go to school,--it is so far; I must put out one foot, and drag the other after it, three thousand times, before I can get there. 16. You see, then, that although it may appear to be a very hard thing to learn to read and to spell so many words as there are in large books, yet you are required to learn but a few of them at a time; and if there were twice as many as there are, you will learn them all, in time. 17. I shall tell you a story, in the next lesson, to show you how important it is to know how to spell. LESSON XIII. _Importance of Learning to Spell._--ORIGINAL VERSION. 1. A rich man, whose education had been neglected in early life, and who was, of course, very ignorant of many things which even little boys and girls among us now-a-days know very well, lived in a large house, with very handsome furniture in it. 2. He kept a carriage, and many servants, some of whom were very much better educated than he was himself. 3. This rich man had been invited out many times to dine with his neighbors; and he observed that at the dinners to which he was invited there were turkeys, and ducks, and chickens, as well as partridges, and quails, and woodcocks, together with salmon, and trout, and pickerel,--with roasted beef, and lamb, and mutton, and pork. 4. But he noticed that every one seemed to be more fond of chickens than anything else, but that they also ate of the ducks and the turkeys. 5. He, one day, determined to invite his friends to dine with him, in return for their civilities in inviting him; and he made up his mind to have an abundance of those things, in particular, of which he had observed his friends to be most fond. 6. He accordingly sent his servant to market, to buy his dinner; and, for fear the servant should make any mistake, he wrote his directions on paper, and, giving the paper, with some money, to the servant, he sent him to the market. 7. The servant took the paper and the money, and set off. Just before he reached the market, he opened the paper, to see what his master had written. 8. But his master wrote so very badly, it took him a long time to find out what was written on the paper; but, at last, he contrived to make it out, as follows: 9. "Dukes would be preferred to Turks; but Chittens would be better than either." 10. What his master meant by dukes, and turks, and chittens, he could not guess. No such things were for sale at the market, and he did not dare to return home without buying something. 11. As he could find nothing like dukes nor turks, he happened to see a poor woman carrying home a basket full of kittens. This was the most like _chittens_ of anything he could find; and not being able to get what his master had written for, he thought his master meant kittens. He therefore bought the basket of kittens, and carried them home for his master's dinner. LESSON XIV. _Demos'thenes._--ORIGINAL. 1. There lived, a great many years ago, in Athens, one of the most renowned cities of Greece, a very celebrated orator, whose name was Demos'thenes. 2. But you will not understand what an _orator_ is, until you are told that it means a person who speaks before a large number of people, to persuade them what to do, or to give them information, or good advice. 3. Thus, when a minister or clergyman preaches a good sermon, and speaks in such a manner as to please all who hear him, convincing them of their duty, and persuading them to do it, he is called an orator. 4. Demos'thenes was not a clergyman, or minister, but he spoke before large assemblies of the Athenians, and they were very much delighted to hear him. Whenever it was known that he intended to speak in public, every one was anxious to hear him. 5. Now, I wish to show you how hard he worked, and what he did, to become a great orator. 6. In the first place, then, he had a very weak voice, and could not speak loud enough to be heard by a large assembly; and, besides this, he was very much troubled with shortness of breath. These were very great discouragements, and had he not labored very hard to overcome them, he never could have succeeded. 7. To cure his shortness of breath, he used to go up and down stairs very frequently, and run up steep and uneven places; and to strengthen his voice, he often went to the sea-shore, when the waves were very noisy and violent, and talked aloud to them, so that he could hear his own voice above the noise of the waters. [Illustration] 8. He could not speak the letter _r_ plainly, but pronounced it very much as you have heard some little boys and girls pronounce it, when they say a _wed wose_ for a _red rose_, or a _wipe cherwy_ instead of a _ripe cherry_. 9. Besides this, he stammered, or stuttered, very badly. To cure himself of these faults in speaking, he used to fill his mouth full of pebbles, and try to speak with them in his mouth. 10. He had a habit, also, of making up faces, when he was trying to speak hard words; and, in order to cure himself of this, he used to practice speaking before a looking-glass, that he might see himself, and try to correct the habit. 11. To break himself of a habit he had of shrugging up his shoulders, and making himself appear hump-backed, he hung up a sword over his back, so that it might prick him, with its sharp point, whenever he did so. [Illustration] 12. He shut himself up in a cave under ground, and, in order to confine himself there to his studies, he shaved the hair off of one half of his head, so that he might be ashamed to go out among men. 13. It was in this way that this great man overcame all of his difficulties, and, at last, became one of the greatest orators that have ever lived. 14. Now, whenever you have a hard lesson to read, or to study, think of Demos'thenes, and recollect how he overcame all his difficulties, and I think you will find that you have few things to do so hard as these things which he did. 15. When your teacher requests you to put out your voice and speak loud, remember what Demos'thenes used to do to strengthen his voice, and you will find very little trouble in speaking loudly enough to be heard, if you will only try. LESSON XV. _Hard Words._ 1. In one of the former lessons, you were taught how to read long and hard words, by taking them to pieces, and reading a part of a word at a time. 2. I promised you also that this book should not be filled with hard words; but I did not promise that there should be no hard words in it. 3. Having taught you how to read hard words, I propose, in this lesson, to give you a few long words to read,--not for the purpose of understanding what they mean, but only to make you able to read such words, when you find them in any other book. 4. The best way of getting rid of all difficulties, is to learn how to overcome them, and master them; for they cease to be difficulties, when you have overcome them. 5. Demos'thenes, as I told you in the last lesson, had a very hard task to perform, before he became a great orator. You, also, can become a good scholar, if you will take pains to study your lessons, and learn them well. 6. Before you read any lesson to your teacher from this book, it is expected that you will study it over, and find out all the most difficult words, so that you may read them right off to him, without stopping to find them out, while he is waiting to hear you read them. 7. Now, here I shall place a few hard words for you to study over, to read to your teacher when you read this lesson to him; and he will probably require every one in your class to read them all aloud to him. 8. I wish you not to go up to your teacher to ask him to assist you, until you have tried yourself to read them, and find that you cannot. 9. There are some words that are not pronounced as they are spelt, as I have taught you in a former lesson. 10. Such a word as _phthisic_, which is pronounced as if it were spelled _tis´ic_, I dare say would puzzle you, if you had never seen it before; but before you go up to your teacher, to ask him any questions, you should read over the whole of your lesson, and perhaps you will find, in the lesson itself, something that will explain what puzzled you; and thus you could find it out from your book, without troubling your teacher. 11. Here are some of the long words I wish you to read. 12. Organization, Theoretical, Metaphysical, Metempsychosis, Multitudinous, Arithmetician, Metaphysician, Hyperbolical. 13. Apotheosis, Indefeasible, Feasibility, Supersaturated, Prolongation, Meridional, Ferruginous, Fastidiousness. 14. Haberdashery, Fuliginous, Exhalation, Prematurely, Depreciation, Appreciability, Resuscitate, Surreptitious, Interlocutory. 15. Sometimes the letters _a e_, and _o e_, are printed together, like one letter, as in the words Cæsar, Coelebs, and then the syllable is pronounced as if it were spelled with _e_ alone, as in the following words: 16. Diæresis, Aphæresis, OEcumenical, Æthiop, Subpoena, Encyclopædia, Phoenix, Phoebus, Æolus. 17. When there are two little dots over one of the letters, they are both to be sounded, as in the word Aërial, which is pronounced a-e-ri-al. 18. The letter _c_ is one which puzzles many young persons who are learning to read, because it is sometimes pronounced like _k_, as in the word _can_, and sometimes like _s_, as in the word _cent_; and they do not know when to pronounce it like _k_, and when to sound it like _s_. 19. But if you will recollect that _c_ is sounded like _k_ when it stands before the letters _a_, _o_, or _u_, and that it is sounded like _s_ before the letters _e_, _i_, and _y_, you will have very little trouble in reading words that have the letter _c_ in them. 20. So also the letter _g_ has two sounds, called the hard sound, and the soft sound. The hard sound is the sound given to it in the word _gone_; the soft sound is that which is heard in the word _gentle_. 21. The same rule which you have just learnt with regard to the letter _c_ applies to the letter _g_. It has its hard sound before _a_, _o_, and _u_, and its soft sound before _e_, _i_, and _y_. 22. There are, it is true, some words where this rule is not applied; but these words are very few, so that you may safely follow this rule in most words. 23. The letters _ph_ are sounded like _f_. The letters _ch_ are sounded sometimes like _k_, as in the words _loch_ and _monarch_, and sometimes like _sh_, as in the words _chaise_ and _charade_; and they have sometimes a sound which cannot be represented by any other letters, as in the words _charm_ and _chance_. 24. I suppose that you have probably learned most of these things which I have now told you in your spelling-book; but I have repeated them in this book, because I have so often found that little boys and girls are very apt to forget what they have learned. 25. If you recollect them all, it will do you no harm to read them again, but it will impress them more deeply on your memory. But if you have forgotten them, this little book will recall them to your mind, so that you will never forget them. 26. I recollect, when I was a little boy, that the letter _y_ used to trouble me very much when it began a word, and was not followed by one of the letters which are called vowels, namely, _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_, _u_. I knew how to pronounce _ya_, _ye_, _yi_, _yo_, _yu_; but one day, when I was studying a lesson in geography, I saw a word which was spelt _Y, p, r, e, s_, which puzzled me very much. 27. I knew that the letters _p, r, e, s_, would spell _pres_, but I did not know what to call the _y_. After studying it a long time, I found that the letter _y_, in that word and some others, was to be pronounced like the long _e_, and that the word was pronounced _Epres_, though it was spelled _Y, p, r, e, s_. 28. Perhaps you will be able, when you grow up, to write a book; and to tell little boys and girls who go to school, when you have grown up, how to read hard words, better than I have told you. 29. If you wish to do so, you must try to recollect what puzzles you most now, and then you will be able to inform them how to get over their difficulties and troubles at school; and when they grow up, I have no doubt that they will feel very grateful to you for the assistance you have given them. LESSON XVI. _Fire,[A]--a Conversation between a Mother and her little Daughter._ [Illustration] _Daughter._ Mother dear, you told me, the other day, that nobody knows what _light_ is, except the Great Creator. Now, can you tell me _what fire is_? _Mother._ I fear, my child, that you have asked another question which I cannot directly answer. What fire is, is known only by its effects. _Daughter._ And what are its effects, mother? _Mother._ Some of its effects are as well known to you, my dear, as they are to me; and I shall, in the first place, call to your recollection what you yourself know about _fire_, before I attempt to give you any further information in relation to it. _Daughter._ Why, mother, I am sure I do not know what fire is. _Mother._ No, Caroline, I know that you do not know what fire is; neither do I, nor does any one, except the Great Creator himself. This is one of his secrets, which, in his wisdom, he reserves for himself. But you certainly know some of the effects of fire. For instance, you know that when you have been out into the cold, you wish, on your return, to go to the fire. Now, can you tell me what you go to the fire for? _Daughter._ Why, certainly, mother; I go to the fire to warm myself. _Mother._ And how does the fire warm you, my dear? _Daughter._ Why, it sends out its heat, mother; and I hold out my hands to it, and feel the heat. _Mother._ And where does the heat come from, Caroline? _Daughter._ Why, the heat comes from the fire, mother. _Mother._ Then, my dear, you know at least one of the effects of fire. It produces, or rather sends out, heat. _Daughter._ But does not the fire make the heat, mother? _Mother._ If you had a little bird, or a mouse, in a cage, and should open the door and let it out, should you say that you _made_ the little bird, or the mouse? _Daughter._ Say that I made them, mother?--why, no; certainly not. I only let them go free. God made them. You told me that God made all things. _Mother._ Neither did the fire make the heat. It only made it free, somewhat in the same manner that you would make the bird or the mouse free, by opening the door of the cage. _Daughter._ Why, mother, is heat kept in cages, like birds or mice? _Mother._ No, my dear, not exactly in cages, like birds or mice; but a great deal closer, in a different kind of cage. _Daughter_ Why, mother, what sort of a cage can heat be kept in? _Mother._ I must answer your question, Caroline, by asking you another. When Alice makes her fire in the kitchen, how does she make it? _Daughter._ She takes some wood, or some coal, and puts under it some pine wood, which she calls kindling, and some shavings, and then takes a match and sets the shavings on fire, and very soon the fire is made. _Mother._ But does she not first do something to the match? [Illustration] _Daughter._ O, yes; I forgot to say that she lights the match first, and then sets fire to the shavings with the lighted match. _Mother._ But how does she light the match, my dear? _Daughter._ Why, mother, have you never seen her? She rubs one end of the match on the box, where there is a little piece of sand-paper, and that sets the match on fire. _Mother._ Is there any fire in the sand-paper, Caroline? _Daughter._ Why, no, mother; certainly not. _Mother._ Was there any fire in the match, before she lighted it? _Daughter._ Why, no, mother; if there had been, she would have had no need to light it. _Mother._ You see, then, that fire came when she rubbed the match against the sand-paper; and that the fire was not in the sand-paper, nor in the match. _Daughter._ Yes, mother, but I did not see where it came from. _Mother._ I am going to explain that to you, my dear, in the next lesson. FOOTNOTE: [A] This lesson, together with the two following lessons, is taken from a little book, called "Juvenile Philosophy," published by Messrs. A.S. Barnes & Co., 51 John-street, New York. It consists of nine conversations, between a little girl and her mother, on the subjects, Rain, Color, Vision or Sight, the Eye, Light, Fire, Heat and Wind. LESSON XVII. _The same subject, continued._ _Mother._ Did you ever see a person rub his hands together, when he was cold? _Daughter._ O yes, mother, a great many times. I have seen father come in from the cold, and rub his hands together, and afterwards hold them to the fire and rub them again, and then they get warm. _Mother._ And now, Caroline, take your hand and rub it quickly backwards and forwards, over that woolen table-cloth, on the table in the corner of the room, and tell me whether that will make your hand warm. _Daughter._ O, yes, dear mother; I feel it grow warmer, the faster I rub it. _Mother._ Here are two small pieces of wood. Touch them to your cheek, and tell me whether they feel warm now. _Daughter._ They do not feel warm, nor cold, mother. _Mother._ Now rub them together quickly a little while, and then touch them to your cheek. [Illustration: R] _Daughter._ O, dear, mother! they are so hot that they almost burnt my cheek. _Mother._ Yes, Caroline; and do you not recollect, when you read Robinson Crusoe, that his man Friday made a fire by rubbing two pieces of wood together? _Daughter._ O, yes, dear mother; and I have often wondered why Alice could not light her lire and the lamp in the same manner, without those matches, which have so offensive a smell. _Mother._ It is very hard work, my dear, to obtain fire by rubbing two pieces of wood together; and it would take too long a time to do it. The two pieces of wood would grow warm by a very little rubbing; but in order to make them take fire, they must be rubbed together a great while. _Daughter._ But, mother, if it takes so long a time to get fire by rubbing two pieces of wood together, why can Alice set the match on fire so easily by rubbing it once on the sand-paper? _Mother._ That is what I am about to explain to you, my dear. Here, take this piece of paper and hold it up to the lamp. _Daughter._ It has taken fire, mother. [Illustration: L] _Mother._ Now take this piece of pine wood, and hold that up to the lamp in the same manner, and see whether that will take fire too. _Daughter._ Yes, mother, it has taken fire; but I had to hold it up to the lamp much longer than I did the paper. _Mother._ Now take this piece of hard wood, and do the same with that. _Daughter._ The hard wood takes longer still to catch fire, mother. _Mother._ Yes, my child. And now I am going to make the hard wood take fire more quickly than the paper did. _Daughter._ Dear mother, how can you do it? _Mother._ I am going to show you, my dear. Here is a small phial, which contains something that looks like water. It is spirits of turpentine. I shall dip the point of the piece of hard wood into the phial, and take up a little of the spirits of turpentine. Now, Caroline, touch the point of the hard wood with the turpentine on it to the flame. _Daughter._ Why, mother, it caught fire as soon as I touched the flame with it! _Mother._ Yes, certainly; and you now see that some things, like the spirits of turpentine and the paper, take fire very readily, and others take fire with more difficulty. _Daughter._ Yes, mother; but when Alice drew the match across the sand-paper, there was no flame nor fire to touch it to. How, then, could it take fire? _Mother._ Hold this piece of paper up to the blaze of the lamp, my dear, but be careful not to touch the fire or flame of the lamp; only hold it close to the blaze. _Daughter._ Why, mother, it has taken fire! _Mother._ You see, then, that a thing will sometimes take fire when it does not touch the fire. _Daughter._ Yes, mother; but I do not understand where the fire comes from. _Mother._ The fire comes from the heat, my dear. Now, you know that heat is produced by rubbing two things together; and that some things, like the spirits of turpentine, take fire very easily, or with very little heat; and others, like the hard wood, require to be heated some time,--or, in other words, require much heat,--to make them take fire, or to burn. Some things require only as much heat to make them take fire as can be obtained by rubbing them together very quickly, like the wood which Robinson Crusoe's man Friday used. _Daughter._ But, mother, the match is made of wood,--why does that take fire so easily? _Mother._ It is true, Caroline, that the match is made of wood; but it has something at the end of it, which takes fire much more easily than the spirits of turpentine. Indeed, so easily does it take fire, that it requires only so much heat to set it on fire as can be obtained by drawing the match once across the sand-paper. _Daughter._ But, mother, matches do not always take fire. I have seen Alice rub several across the sand-paper, before she could set one on fire. _Mother._ That is true, and the reason of this is, that the matches are not all well made. Now, if I should take several pieces of hard wood and tie them together, and dip their ends into the spirits of turpentine, what would happen, if the ends of some of the pieces did not touch the spirits of turpentine, because I had not tied them together with their points all even? _Daughter._ Why, mother, some of them would take fire easily, because the points had the spirits of turpentine on them; while those which did not touch the spirits could not be lighted so easily. _Mother._ So it is, my dear, with the matches. They are all dipped into the substance which takes fire so easily; but some of the ends do not reach the substance, and do not become coated with it, and therefore they will not light more easily than the pine wood of which they are made. LESSON XVIII. _The same subject, concluded._ _Daughter._ Well, mother, I understand, now, how the match is set on fire. It is rubbed on the sand-paper, and that produces heat, and the heat sets the match on fire. But I always thought that fire makes heat, and not that heat makes fire. _Mother._ Heat does not always make fire, Caroline; for, if it did, everything would be on fire. _Daughter._ Everything on fire, mother! why, what do you mean? _Mother._ I mean, my dear, that everything contains heat. _Daughter._ Everything contains heat, mother, did you say? Why, then, is not everything warm? Some things, mother, are very cold; as ice, and snow, and that marble slab. _Mother._ Yes, my child, everything contains heat, as I shall presently show you. When Alice goes to make a fire in a cold day, she does not carry the heat with her, and put it into the fire, nor into the wood, nor the coal, does she? _Daughter._ Why, no, to be sure not, mother. _Mother._ And the heat that comes from the fire, after it is made, does not come in at the windows, nor down the chimney, does it? _Daughter._ Why, no, mother; it feels cold at the windows, and cold air comes down the chimney. _Mother._ But, after the fire is made, we feel much heat coming from the fire, do we not? _Daughter._ Why, yes, mother; that is what the fire is made for. We feel cold, and we want a fire to make us warm; and when the fire is made, it sends out heat, and makes us warm. _Mother._ Well, now, where can the heat come from? You know what fire is made from, do you not? _Daughter._ Certainly, mother; the fire is made of wood, or of coal. _Mother._ But is the wood or the coal warm before the fire is made? _Daughter._ No, mother, the wood and the coal come from the cold wood-house, or the cellar, and they are both very cold. _Mother._ And yet, the wood and the coal become very hot when they are on fire. _Daughter._ O yes, mother, so hot that we cannot touch them with our hands, and we have to take the shovel or the tongs to move them. _Mother._ And do they burn the shovel and the tongs, my dear? _Daughter._ Why, no, mother; if they did, the shovel and the tongs would be of little use in stirring the fire. _Mother._ Can you think of any reason why they do not burn the shovel and the tongs? _Daughter._ You told me, mother, that some things require a very little heat to set them on fire, and that other things require a great deal. I suppose that there was not heat enough to set them on fire; and if there had been, they would not burn, because they are made of iron. _Mother._ You are partly right, my dear, and partly wrong. They would not burn, because there was not heat enough in the fire to burn them. But there are very few things, and in fact it may be doubted whether there is anything, which will not burn, when sufficient heat is applied. But let us return to the fire: you say the heat does not come from the windows nor from the chimney, and you say, also, that the wood and the coal are both cold. Now, where can the heat come from? _Daughter._ I am sure I cannot tell, mother; will you please to tell me? _Mother._ You recollect that I told you that the rubbing of the match on the sand-paper produces a little heat, which caused the match to burn. The match was then applied to the shavings, and, as it was burning, gave out heat enough to set the shavings on fire; the shavings produced heat enough to set the pine wood, or kindling, on fire, and then the pine wood, or kindling, produced more heat, and set the wood and coal on fire. Now, there was nothing to produce the heat but the match, the shavings, the wood and the coal; and _the heat must have been in them_. The fire only served to set it free, and let it come out of the match, the wood, and the coal. _Daughter._ But, mother, how did the heat get into the wood and coal? _Mother._ It is not known, my dear, how the heat _got into_ the wood and coal, any more than how the fruit gets on to a tree. We say that it grows on the tree; but what growing is, and how it is caused, are among the secrets of God. _Daughter._ If the heat is in the wood and the coal, mother, why do we not feel it in them? They both feel cold. I cannot perceive any heat in them. _Mother._ The heat is in the wood and the coal, although you do not see it. Do you see any smoke in the wood and the coal, my dear? _Daughter._ No, mother, I do not. _Mother._ Did you never see a stick of wood fall on the hearth from the kitchen fire, and see the smoke coming from it? [Illustration] _Daughter._ O yes, mother, very often; and the smoke goes all over the room, and into my eyes, and makes the tears come into my eyes. _Mother._ And can you see the smoke in the wood before the wood is put on the fire? _Daughter._ No, mother, I am sure I cannot. _Mother._ But you are sure that the smoke comes from the wood, are you not? _Daughter._ O yes, mother; I see it coming right out of the wood. _Mother._ Then, my dear, I suppose you know that if there is something in the wood and coal, which you call _smoke_, although you cannot see it until it comes out, you can easily conceive how another thing, which we call _heat_, can be in the wood and coal, which we cannot perceive until it is made to come out. _Daughter._ O yes, mother; how wonderful it is! _Mother._ Yes, my dear, all the works of God are wonderful; and what is very surprising is, that many of his most wonderful works are so common, so continually before our eyes, that we do not deem them wonderful until we have been made to think much about them, by talking about them, as you and I have talked about the rain, and the clouds, and light, and its colors. _Daughter._ I have been thinking, mother, about Alice and the fire. You told me that the fire did not _make_ the heat, any more than I _make_ the little mouse or the bird when I open the cage door and let them out. I see now how it is. Alice brings the wood and the coal into the kitchen fireplace, and the match lets the heat out of the shavings, and the shavings let it out of the wood and the coal, until we get heat enough to make us warm. _Mother._ Yes, my dear; and there is no more heat in the room after the fire is made than there was before,--only, before the fire was made, the heat was hid, and we could not perceive it; but when the fire is made, it makes the heat come out, and makes it free, just as I make the little bird free, by opening his cage door. LESSON XIX. _The Lark and her Young Ones._--Altered from ÆSOP. 1. A lark having built her nest in a corn-field, the corn grew ripe before the young ones were able to fly. Fearing that the reapers would come to cut down the corn before she had provided a safe place for her little ones, she directed them every day, when she went out to obtain their food, to listen to what the farmers should say about reaping the corn. 2. The little birds promised their mother that they would listen very attentively, and inform her of every word they should hear. 3. She then went abroad; and on her return, the little birds said to their mother, Mother, you must take us away from here; for while you were gone we heard the farmer tell his sons to go and ask some of his neighbors to come to-morrow morning early, and help them cut down the corn. 4. Is that what he said? asked their mother. Yes, mother, said the little birds; and we are very much afraid that you cannot find a safe place for us before the farmer and his neighbors begin to cut down the corn. 5. Do not be afraid, my children, said the lark; if the former depends on his neighbors to do his work for him, we shall be safe where we are. So lie down in the nest, and give yourselves no uneasiness. 6. The next day, when the mother went out for food, she directed the little ones again to listen, and to tell her all that they should hear. 7. In the evening, when she returned, the little ones told her that the farmer's neighbors did not come to assist him on that day; and that the farmer had told his sons to go and request his friends and relations to come and assist him to cut down the corn, early in the next day morning. 8. I think, my children, said the lark, we shall still be safe here; and we will, therefore, feel no anxiety or concern to-night. 9. On the third day, the mother again charged the young larks to give her a faithful report of what was done and said, while she was absent. 10. When the old lark returned that evening, the little larks told her that the farmer had been there, with his sons, early in the morning; but, as his friends and relations had not come to assist him, he had directed his sons to bring some sharp sickles early in the next morning, and that, with their assistance, he should reap the corn himself. 11. Ah! said the mother, did he say so? Then it is time for us to prepare to be gone; for when a man begins to think seriously of doing his work himself, there is some prospect that it will be done; but if he depends on his friends, his neighbors, or his relations, no one can tell when his work will be done. 12. Now, this little story is called a Fable. It cannot be true, because birds do not and cannot speak. 13. But, although it is not true, it is a very useful little story, because it teaches us a valuable lesson: and that is, that it is best to do our own work ourselves, rather than to depend upon others to do it for us; for, if we depend upon them, they may disappoint us, but whatever we determine to do for ourselves, we can easily accomplish, if we go right to work about it. LESSON XX. _Dogs._--ORIGINAL. 1. I never knew a little boy that was not fond of a dog, and I have never seen many dogs which were not fond of little children. 2. It is not safe for little children to touch every strange dog that they see, because some dogs are naturally rather cross, and may possibly bite any one who touches them, when they do not know the persons. 3. But when a dog knows any one, and sees that his master is fond of that person, he will let such a person play with him. He is always pleased with any attentions that his master's friends bestow on him. 4. Large dogs are generally more gentle than small ones, and seldom bark so much as the little ones do. They are also more easily taught to carry bundles and baskets, and draw little carriages for children to ride in. 5. Some people are very much afraid of dogs, because they sometimes run mad. The bite of a mad dog produces a very dreadful disease, called _Hydropho'bia_. 6. This is a long and hard word, and means _a fear of water_. It is called by that name because the person who has the disease cannot bear to touch or to see water. 7. Dogs that are mad cannot bear to see water. They run from it with dreadful cries, and seem to be in very great distress. 8. Whenever, therefore, a dog will drink water, it is a pretty sure sign that he is not mad. 9. This dreadful disease very seldom affects dogs that are properly supplied with water. 10. Dogs require a great deal of water. They do not always want much at a time, and it is seldom that they drink much. But whoever keeps a dog ought always to keep water in such a place that the dog may go to it to drink, whenever he requires it. 11. A dog is a very affectionate animal, and he will permit his master, and his master's children and friends, to do a great many things to him, which he would perhaps bite others for doing. 12. There are many very interesting stories told of dogs, which show their love and fidelity to their masters, which you can read in a book called "Anecdotes of Dogs." 13. But there are a few little stories about dogs that I know, which I will tell you, that are not contained in that book. I know these stories to be true. 14. My son had a dog, whose name was Guido. He was very fond of playing in the street with the boys, early in the morning, before they went to school. 15. Guido was always very impatient to get out into the street in the morning, to join the boys in their sports; and all the boys in the street were very fond of him. 16. He used to wake very early, and go into the parlor, and seat himself in a chair by the window, to look out for the boys; and as soon as he saw a boy in the street, he would cry and whine until the servant opened the door for him to go out. 17. One very cold morning, when the frost was on the glass, so that he could not see out into the street, he applied his warm tongue to the glass, and licking from it the frost, attempted to look out. 18. But the spot which he had made clear being only large enough to admit one of his eyes, he immediately made another, just like it, in the same manner, for the other eye, by which he was enabled to enjoy the sight as usual. In the next lesson, I will tell you some other little stories of Guido, and another dog, whose name was Don, that belonged to my daughter. LESSON XXI. _The same subject, concluded._ 1. One day I went to take a walk, with a friend of mine, in the country; and Don, the dog I mentioned in the last lesson, followed us. 2. We walked to a little grove about a mile from my house, to see the grave of a beautiful little child, that was buried on the summit of a little hill, covered with pines, spruce and other evergreens. 3. While we were admiring the beauty of the spot, Don was running about the grove; and I completely lost sight of him, and supposed that he had returned home. 4. But presently I saw him at a distance, barking up a tree at a squirrel that had escaped from him. 5. As I turned to go home, I said to my friend, You see Don is away, and does not see me. I am going to drop my handkerchief here, and send him after it. 6. We had got half way home, when presently Don came bounding along, and very shortly came up to us. 7. As soon as he came up to me, I stopped, and feeling in my coat-pocket, said to him,--Don, I have lost my pocket-handkerchief,--go find it. 8. I had scarcely uttered the words before he was off. He was gone only two or three minutes, and then, returning with my handkerchief in his mouth, he dropped it at my feet. 9. Guido, the other dog, was very fond of going into the water himself; but he never would allow any one else to go in. 10. The reason was this. My little son George was one day looking over into the water, to watch the eels that were gliding through the water below, and losing his balance, he fell into the water. 11. No one was near except Guido, and he immediately jumped in after George, and, with great labor, brought him on shore, and saved him from drowning. 12. Ever since that time, Guido has been very unwilling to let any one go near the water. It seemed as if he had reasoned about it, and said to himself, It is hard work to drag a boy out of the water, but it is much easier to keep him from going in. 13. Guido was not a very large dog. He was of the breed, or kind, named Spaniel; so called because that kind of dog originally came from Hispaniola. He had long ears, curling hair, a long bushy tail, and webbed feet, like all dogs that are fond of the water. 14. Webbed feet are those in which the toes are not separated, but seem to be joined together by a thin substance, like thick skin, which enables them to swim more easily. 15. Don was a very large dog, of the Newfoundland species, a kind which is remarkable for its beauty and intelligence. LESSON XXII. _Frogs and Toads._--BIGLAND. 1. Frogs and toads resemble one another in figure, but custom and prejudice have taught us to make a very different estimate of their properties: the first is considered as perfectly harmless, while the latter is supposed to be poisonous. 2. In this respect, the toad has been treated with great injustice: it is a torpid, harmless animal, that passes the greatest part of the winter in sleep. 3. Astonishing stories have been told of toads found in the center of solid blocks of stone, and other similar situations, without the least trace of the way by which they entered, and without any possibility of their finding any kind of nutriment. 4. Toads, as well as frogs, are of a variety of species; and in the tropical climates they grow to an enormous size. It is very probable that they contribute to clear both the land and the water of many noxious reptiles of a diminutive size, which might prove exceedingly hurtful to man. 5. The toad, however, is one of the most inoffensive of all animals. We have even heard that it has sometimes been successfully applied for the cure of the cancer, the most dreadful, and one of the most fatal, of human evils. 6. Mr. Pennant has related some interesting particulars respecting a toad which was perfectly domesticated, and continued in the same spot for upwards of thirty-six years. 7. It frequented the steps before the hall-door of a gentleman's house in Devonshire; and, from receiving a regular supply of food, it became so tame as always to crawl out of its hole in an evening, when a candle was brought, and look up, as if expecting to be carried into the house. 8. A reptile so generally detested being taken into favor, excited the curiosity of every visitant; and even ladies so far conquered their natural horror and disgust as to request to see it fed. It seemed particularly fond of flesh maggots, which were kept for it in bran. 9. When these were laid upon a table, it would follow them, and, at a certain distance, would fix its eyes and remain motionless for a little while, as if preparing for the stroke, which was always instantaneous. 10. It threw out its tongue to a great distance, when the insect stuck by the glutinous matter to its lip, and was swallowed with inconceivable quickness. 11. After living under the protection of its benefactor upwards of thirty-six years, it was one day attacked by a tame raven, which wounded it so severely that it died shortly afterward. 12. The erroneous opinion of toads containing and ejecting poison has caused many cruelties to be exercised upon this harmless, and undoubtedly useful tribe. Toads have been inhumanly treated, merely because they are ugly; and frogs have been abused, because they are like them. 13. But, we are to observe, that our ideas of beauty and deformity, of which some arise from natural antipathies implanted in us for wise and good purposes, and others from custom and caprice, are of a relative nature, and peculiar to ourselves. 14. None of these relative distinctions, of great and small, beautiful or ugly, exist in the all-comprising view of the Creator of the universe: in his eyes, the toad is as pleasing an object as the canary-bird, or the bulfinch. LESSON XXIII. _Maida, the Scotch Greyhound._--Altered from BINGLEY. [Illustration] 1. A hound is a dog with long, smooth, hanging ears, and long limbs, that enable him to run very swiftly. The greyhound is not so called on account of his color, but from a word which denotes his Grecian origin. 2. The Scotch greyhound is a larger and more powerful animal than the common greyhound; and its hair, instead of being sleek and smooth, is long, stiff and bristly. It can endure great fatigue. 3. It was this dog that the Highland chieftains, in Scotland, used in former times, in their grand hunting-parties. 4. Sir Walter Scott had a very fine dog of this kind, which was given to him by his friend Macdonnel of Glengarry, the chief of one of the Highland clans. His name was Maida. 5. He was one of the finest dogs of the kind ever seen in Scotland, not only on account of his beauty and dignified appearance, but also from his extraordinary size and strength. 6. He was so remarkable in his appearance, that whenever his master brought him to the city of Edinburgh, great crowds of people collected together to see him. 7. When Sir Walter happened to travel through a strange town, Maida was usually surrounded by crowds of people, whose curiosity he indulged with great patience, until it began to be troublesome, and then he gave a single short bark, as a signal that they must trouble him no more. 8. Nothing could exceed the fidelity, obedience and attachment, of this dog to his master, whom he seldom quitted, and on whom he was a constant attendant, when traveling. 9. Maida was a remarkably high-spirited and beautiful dog, with long black ears, cheeks, back, and sides. The tip of his tail was white. His muzzle, neck, throat, breast, belly and legs, were also white. 10. The hair on his whole body and limbs was rough and shaggy, and particularly so on the neck, throat, and breast: that on the ridge of the neck he used to raise, like a lion's mane, when excited to anger. 11. His disposition was gentle and peaceable, both to men and animals; but he showed marked symptoms of anger to ill-dressed or blackguard-looking people, whom he always regarded with a suspicious eye, and whose motions he watched with the most scrupulous jealousy. 12. This fine dog probably brought on himself premature old age, by the excessive fatigue and exercise to which his natural ardor incited him; for he had the greatest pleasure in accompanying the common greyhounds; and although, from his great size and strength, he was not at all adapted for coursing, he not unfrequently turned and even ran down hares. 13. Sir Walter used to give an amusing account of an incident which befell Maida in one of his chases. "I was once riding over a field on which the reapers were at work, the stooks, or bundles of grain, being placed behind them, as is usual. 14. "Maida, having found a hare, began to chase her, to the great amusement of the spectators, as the hare turned very often and very swiftly among the stooks. At length, being hard pressed, she fairly bolted into one of them. 15. "Maida went in headlong after her, and the stook began to be much agitated in various directions; at length the sheaves tumbled down, and the hare and the dog, terrified alike at their overthrow, ran different ways, to the great amusement of the spectators." 16. Among several peculiarities which Maida possessed, one was a strong aversion to artists, arising from the frequent restraints he was subjected to in having his portrait taken, on account of his majestic appearance. 17. The instant he saw a pencil and paper produced, he prepared to beat a retreat; and, if forced to remain, he exhibited the strongest marks of displeasure. 18. Maida's bark was deep and hollow. Sometimes he amused himself with howling in a very tiresome way. When he was very fond of his friends, he used to grin, tucking up his whole lips and showing all his teeth; but this was only when he was particularly disposed to recommend himself. 19. Maida lies buried at the gate of Abbotsford, Sir Walter's country seat, which he long protected; a grave-stone is placed over him, on which is carved the figure of a dog. It bears the following inscription, as it was translated by Sir Walter: "Beneath the sculptured form which late you wore, Sleep soundly, Maida, at your master's door." LESSON XXIV. _Gelert._--BINGLEY, altered. 1. I have one more story to tell you about the Highland greyhound. It is an old Welsh story, and shows how extremely dangerous it is to indulge in anger and resentment. 2. In a village at the foot of Snowden, a mountain in Wales, there is a tradition that Llewellyn (_pronounced_ Lewel´lin), son-in-law to King John, had a residence in that neighborhood. 3. The king, it is said, had presented him with one of the finest greyhounds in England, named Gelert. In the year 1205, Llewellyn, one day, on going out to hunt, called all his dogs together; but his favorite greyhound was missing, and nowhere to be found. 4. He blew his horn as a signal for the chase, and still Gelert came not. Llewellyn was much disconcerted at the heedlessness of his favorite, but at length pursued the chase without him. For want of Gelert, the sport was limited; and getting tired, Llewellyn returned home at an early hour, when the first object that presented itself to him, at his castle gate, was Gelert, who bounded, with his usual transport, to meet his master, having his lips besmeared with blood. 5. Llewellyn gazed with surprise at the unusual appearance of his dog. On going into the apartment where he had left his infant son and heir asleep, he found the bed-clothes all in confusion, the cover rent, and stained with blood. 6. He called on his child, but no answer was made, from which he hastily concluded that the dog must have devoured him; and, giving vent to his rage, plunged his sword to the hilt in Gelert's side. 7. The noble animal fell at his feet, uttering a dying yell, which awoke the infant, who was sleeping beneath a mingled heap of the bed-clothes, while beneath the bed lay a great wolf covered with gore, which the faithful and gallant hound had destroyed. 8. Llewellyn, smitten with sorrow and remorse for the rash and frantic deed which had deprived him of so faithful an animal, caused an elegant marble monument, with an appropriate inscription, to be erected over the spot where Gelert was buried, to commemorate his fidelity and unhappy fate. The place, to this day, is called Beth-Gelert, or The Grave of the Greyhound. LESSON XXV. _Knock Again._--CHILD'S COMPANION. 1. I remember having been sent, when I was a very little boy, with a message from my father to a particular friend of his, who resided in the suburbs of the town in which my parents then lived. 2. This gentleman occupied an old-fashioned house, the door of which was approached by a broad flight of stone steps of a semi-circular form. The brass knocker was an object of much interest to me, in those days; for the whim of the maker had led him to give it the shape of an elephant's head, the trunk of the animal being the movable portion. 3. Away, then, I scampered, in great haste; and having reached the house, ran up the stone steps as usual; and, seizing the elephant's trunk, made the house reëcho to my knocking. No answer was returned. 4. At this my astonishment was considerable, as the servants, in the times I write of, were more alert and attentive than they are at present. However, I knocked a second time. Still no one came. 5. At this I was much more surprised. I looked at the house. It presented no appearance of a desertion. Some of the windows were open to admit the fresh air, for it was summer; others of them were closed. But all had the aspect of an inhabited dwelling. 6. I was greatly perplexed; and looked around, to see if any one was near who could advise me how to act. Immediately a venerable old gentleman, whom I had never seen before, came across the way, and, looking kindly in my face, advised me to knock again. 7. I did so without a moment's hesitation, and presently the door was opened, so that I had an opportunity of delivering my message. I afterward learned that the servants had been engaged in removing a heavy piece of furniture from one part of the house to the other; an operation which required their united strength, and prevented them from opening the door. LESSON XXVI. _The same subject, continued._ 1. As I was tripping lightly homeward, I passed the kind old gentleman, about half way down the street. He took me gently by the arm; and, retaining his hold, began to address me thus, as we walked on together: 2. "The incident, my little friend, which has just occurred, may be of some use to you in after life, if it be suitably improved. Young people are usually very enthusiastic in all their undertakings, and in the same proportion are very easily discouraged. 3. "Learn, then, from what has taken place this morning, to persevere in the business which you have commenced, provided it be laudable in itself; and, ten to one, you will succeed. If you do not at first obtain what you aim at, _knock again_. A door may be opened when you least expect it. 4. "In entering on the practice of a profession, engaging in trade, or what is usually called settling in the world, young people often meet with great disappointments. 5. "Friends, whom they naturally expected to employ them, not unfrequently prefer others in the same line; and even professors of religion do not seem to consider it a duty to promote the temporal interest of their brethren in the Lord. 6. "Nevertheless, industry, sobriety, and patience, are usually accompanied by the Divine blessing. Should you therefore, my little friend, ever experience disappointments of this kind, think of the brass knocker; _knock again_; be sober, be diligent, and your labors will be blessed. 7. "In the pursuit of philosophy many difficulties are encountered. These the student must expect to meet; but he must not relinquish the investigation of truth, because it seems to elude his search. He may knock at the gate of science, and apparently without being heard. But let him _knock again_, and he will find an entrance." LESSON XXVII. _The same subject, concluded._ 1. "Do you ever pray to God? I hope and trust you do. God commands and encourages us to pray to him. But he does not always answer our prayers at the time, or in the way, we expect. 2. "What then? We know that he hears them. We know that he is a gracious God, a reconciled Father in Christ. Let us _knock again_. Let us ask in faith, and, if what we ask be pleasing in his sight, he will grant it in his own good time. 3. "You know who it was that said, 'Ask, and it shall be given you; seek, and ye shall find; _knock_, and it shall be opened unto you: for every one that asketh, receiveth; and he that seeketh, findeth; and to him that _knocketh_, it shall be opened.' 4. "Once more: our progress in the Divine life, even after we have wholly given ourselves to the Lord, does not always equal our wishes or expectations. We find much indwelling sin, much remaining corruption, to struggle with. 5. "But let us not despond. The grace of our Lord is sufficient for us, and his strength is made perfect in our weakness. Let us _knock again_. 6. "Let us continue, with humble confidence, to do what we know to be pleasing in our Master's sight. Let us work out our own salvation, with fear and trembling; for it is God that worketh in us both to will and to do of his good pleasure." 7. We had now reached the gate of my father's garden; and the good old gentleman, taking me kindly by the hand, bid me try to remember what he had said. He then went his way, and I saw him no more. 8. I afterward endeavored to find out who he was; but I did not succeed. His advice, however, sunk deep into my mind, and has often been of singular value to me since. 9. My disposition is naturally sanguine, and my disappointments proportionably acute. But, upon calling to mind the old mansion, the brass knocker, and my venerable counselor, I have frequently been led to _knock again_, when I might otherwise have sat down in despondency. 10. I hope that many of my readers will derive similar benefit from the perusal of this little history; for the sole end of its publication will be answered, if the young persons under whose eyes it may come be induced, at every season of doubt and perplexity, in the exercise of simple confidence in God, to _knock again_. LESSON XXVIII _Make Good Use of your Time._--EMMA C. EMBURY. [Illustration: "To everything there is a season, and a time for every purpose under heaven."] 1. "My dear Anna," said Mrs. Elmore, as she bade her little girl farewell, "I shall be absent ten days; and as you have already had so many lessons from me respecting the manner of distributing your hours of amusement and study, I will only say to you, now, '_Make good use of your time_.'" 2. Anna's eyes filled with tears as the carriage drove off, and she felt very lonely when she returned to the parlor without her mother. She thought over her mother's parting words, until she felt quite proud of the confidence reposed in her, and resolved not to abuse it by neglect. 3. She accordingly took her books and sat down to her studies, as attentively as if her mother had been waiting to hear her recitation. 4. Anna was an affectionate, intelligent child. She would have made any sacrifices to please her mother, and she really loved her studies; but her one great fault was a disposition to loiter away time. 5. This her mother well knew; and after trying admonition, until she almost feared she was increasing the evil by allowing Anna to depend too much upon her guidance, she determined to test the effect of leaving her to her own responsibility. 6. For an hour after her mother's departure, Anna sat in close attention to her studies. All at once, she started up. "I am so hungry," said she, "I must go to Betty for some luncheon;--but stop--I will finish my exercise first." 7. She wrote a line or two; then throwing down her pen, petulantly exclaimed, "There! I have made two mistakes, because I was in such a hurry;--I will not finish it till I come back." 8. So away ran the little girl to her old nurse, and the next half-hour was spent in satisfying her hunger. As she was returning, with laggard step, she happened to spy, from the window, a beautiful butterfly fluttering about the rose-bushes in the garden; and, quite forgetting her unfinished exercise, away she flew in chase of the butterfly. 9. But, agile as were her movements, the insect was too nimble for her; and after an hour's race beneath the burning sun, she returned, flushed and overheated, without having succeeded in its capture. 10. Again she applied herself to her books; but study was not so easy now as it would have been a little earlier. Anna was too tired to apply her mind to her lessons; and after loitering a while over her desk, she threw herself on the sofa, and fell into a sound sleep, from which she was only awakened by a summons to dinner. 11. After dinner, Betty proposed taking her out to walk; and though conscious that she had not performed half her duties, she had not resolution enough to refuse to go. Tying on her bonnet, she took a little basket on her arm, and set out with Betty to gather wild-flowers. 12. When they reached the woods, Betty sought out a mossy seat under an old tree, and, taking her work from her pocket, began to sew as industriously as if she had been at home. 13. "O Betty!" exclaimed Anna, "how can you sit and sew, when there are so many pleasant sights and sounds around you?" 14. "I can hear the pleasant sounds, my child, without looking round to see where they come from," replied Betty; "and as for the pretty sights, though I can enjoy them as much as any one, I cannot neglect my work for them. 15. "I promised your mother to have these shirts finished when she came home, and I mean to do so."--"Dear me!" said the little girl, "I wish I had brought my book, and I might have studied my lesson here." 16. "No, no, Anna," said the old woman; "little girls can't study in the woods, with the birds singing and the grasshoppers chirping around them. Better attend to your books in-doors." 17. Betty continued her sewing; and towards sunset, when they arose to return, she had stitched a collar and a pair of wristbands, while Anna had filled her basket with flowers. 18. As they approached the village, Betty called at a poor cottage, to inquire after a sick child, and Anna was shocked at the poverty and wretchedness of the inmates. The little children were only half clothed, their faces were covered with dirt, and their rough locks seemed to bid defiance to the comb. 19. Pitying the condition of the poor little girls, Anna determined to provide them with some better clothing; and she returned home full of benevolent projects. 20. The next morning, as soon as she rose, she began to look over her wardrobe; and selecting three frocks which she had outgrown, she carried them to Betty, to alter for Mrs. Wilson's children. 21. "I shall do no such thing," said Betty; "Mrs. Wilson's children are not suffering for clothes; the weather is warm, and they are as well clad as they will be the day after they are dressed up in your finery. 22. "Mrs. Wilson is an untidy, slovenly woman; and though your mother charged me to look after her sick baby, she did not tell me to furnish new clothes for the other dirty little brats!" 23. "Well, Betty, if you don't choose to do it, I'll try it myself."--"Pretty work you'll make of it, to be sure! you will just cut the frocks to pieces, and then they will fit nobody." 24. "Well, I am determined to fix them for those poor little ragged children," said Anna; "and if you will not help me, I will get Kitty the chambermaid to do it." LESSON XXIX. _The same subject, continued._ 1. Anna found a very good assistant in the warm-hearted, thoughtless Irish girl. Kitty cut out the frocks, and Anna sat herself down to make them. 2. She found it rather tedious work, and, if she had not been afraid of Betty's ridicule, she would have been tempted to throw her task aside; but as Kitty promised to help her, as soon as her household duties were completed, Anna determined to persevere. 3. When night came, she had finished one frock, and begun another; so she went to bed quite happy, forgetting that, in her benevolent zeal, she had neglected her studies and her music, as well as her mother's plants and her own Canary-bird. 4. The next day, she again went to work at the frocks, and, with Kitty's assistance, they were completed before tea-time. Never was a child happier than Anna, when she saw the three little frocks spread out upon the bed. 5. A degree of self-satisfaction was mingled with her benevolence, and she began to think how pleased her mother would be to learn how hard she had worked in the cause of charity. She ran off for Betty to take her down to Mrs. Wilson's cottage; but she found Betty in no humor to gratify her. 6. "I'll have nothing to do with it!" said the old woman. "Kitty helped you to spoil your pretty frocks, and she may help you dress the dirty children;--they will look fine, to be sure, in your French calico dresses!" 7. Anna was too happy to mind Betty's scolding; so away she flew to find Kitty, and they set off together for Mrs. Wilson's cottage. When they arrived there, they found the children by the edge of the pond making dirt pies, while their faces and hands bore testimony to their industry. 8. Kitty stripped and washed them, though nothing but the bribe of a new frock could have induced them to submit to so unusual an operation. Anna almost danced with pleasure, when she beheld their clean faces, well-combed locks, and new dresses. [Illustration] 9. Her mother had now been three days gone, and Anna felt that she had not quite fulfilled her trust. But she satisfied herself with the thought that two days had been devoted to a charitable purpose, and she was sure her mother would think that she had made good use of that portion of her time. 10. The fourth day, she determined to make amends for past neglect, by studying double lessons. She went to her room and locked the door, resolving to perform all her duties on that day, at least. 11. She had scarcely commenced her studies, however, when she recollected that she had not watered her mother's plants since she had been gone. She threw down her books, and running into the garden, sought her little watering-pot; but it was not to be found. 12. She was sure she had put it either in the summer-house, or the tool-house, or under the piazza, or somewhere. After spending half an hour in search of it, she remembered that she had left it under the great elm-tree, in the field. 13. By this time, the sun was shining with full vigor upon the delicate plants; and, forgetting her mother's caution to water them only in the shade, she overwhelmed the parched leaves with a deluge of water, and went off quite content. 14. She then thought of her bird; and on examining his cage, found that he could reach neither the seed nor the water. So she replenished his cups, decorated his cage with fresh chickweed, treated him to a lump of sugar, and played with him until she had loitered away the best part of the morning. 15. Immediately after dinner, a little friend came to see her, and the rest of the day was consumed in dressing dolls, or arranging her baby-house. LESSON XXX. _The same subject, concluded._ 1. On the fifth day, she summoned courage enough to persevere, and actually performed every task with attention. 2. In the afternoon, Betty took her out to walk, and Anna coaxed her into a visit to Mrs. Wilson's cottage. What was her indignation, as she approached the house, to see the children again playing on the margin of the duck-pond! 3. As soon as they saw her, they ran to hide themselves, but not until she had observed that their new frocks were as dirty, and almost as ragged, as the old ones. Betty did not fail to make Anna fully sensible of her own superior wisdom. 4. "I told you so, child," said she; "I told you it was all nonsense to try to dress up those dirty creatures; much good you have done, to be sure!" Anna almost cried with vexation, as she thought of all the time and labor she had wasted upon her benevolent task, and she walked home with a heavy heart. 5. The next morning, she had scarcely risen from the breakfast-table, when Kitty came to show her a beautiful little ship, which, her brother, who was a sailor, had made for her, as a token of remembrance. [Illustration] 6. Anna was delighted with it; nothing could be more beautiful than its graceful form, its delicate rigging and snowy sails. She begged to have it set on her table, that she might see it while she was studying, and the good-natured Kitty left it with her. 7. But in vain the heedless child tried to study; her eyes and thoughts wandered perpetually to the pretty toy before her. "How I should like to see it sail!" said she to herself. The more she looked at it, the more anxious she became to see it in the water. 8. At length, taking it carefully up, she stole down stairs, and hurried across the garden to a little brook in the adjacent field. Here she launched her tiny bark; but it had scarcely touched the water, when it turned over on its side. She then recollected that she had once heard her father speak of the manner of ballasting a ship; so she hastened to gather a quantity of small stones, with which she filled the little cabin. 9. Again she intrusted her ship to the crystal streamlet; but, alas! the weight of the stones carried it straight to the bottom. There it lay in the pebbly channel, with the clear waters rippling above it, and the little girl stood aghast upon the brink. 10. She bared her arm, and attempted to reach it, but without success. At length, while making a desperate effort to regain it, she lost her balance, and fell into the water. 11. Fortunately, the water was not deep, and she soon scrambled out again; but she was thoroughly wet, and, having been very warm before the accident, she was now chilled to the heart. 12. Grasping the little ship, the cause of all the mischief, she hurried home, and creeping softly into the kitchen, sought her friend Kitty, to screen her from Betty's anger. By this time she was shivering with a violent ague, and Kitty carried her immediately to Betty. 13. Poor Anna! she was now obliged to be put to bed, and to take some of Betty's bitter herb tea, seasoned too with scolding, and all kinds of evil predictions. She felt very unhappy, and cried sadly; but repentance, in this case, came too late. 14. Her head began to ache dreadfully; her skin was parched with fever, and before the next morning she was very ill. She had taken a violent cold, which brought on an attack of scarlet fever; and when Mrs. Elmore returned, she found her little daughter stretched on a bed of sickness. 15. How did that fond mother tremble, as she watched by the bedside of her darling child, uncertain whether she would ever again lift up her head from her uneasy pillow! 16. Anna did not know her mother in the delirium of fever, and her melancholy cry of "Mother! mother! come back!--I will never be so bad again!" wrung Mrs. Elmore's heart. 17. For three weeks Anna lay between life and death; and when she was at length pronounced out of danger, she was as helpless as an infant. 18. One day, as she sat propped up by pillows, she told her mother all that had passed during her absence, and awaited her decision respecting the use she had made of her time. 19. "My dear child," said Mrs. Elinore, "I trust the past will afford a lesson you will never forget. So far from having made good use of your time, you have done harm in everything you have undertaken. 20. "Your attempts at study, instead of affording you any real instruction, have only given you habits of inattention, which you will find very difficult to overcome; for your eyes have wandered over the page, while your thoughts have been with the fool's, to the ends of the earth. 21. "Your irregular care of my plants, which you thought would serve instead of habitual attention, has been the means of destroying them as effectually as if you had allowed them to perish from total neglect. 22. "Your injudicious benevolence to the Wilsons served only to make the children envious of each other, without giving them habits of neatness, which are essential to the well-being of such a family; while it had a worse effect upon yourself, because it not only wasted your precious time, but excited in you a feeling of vanity, on account of what you considered a good action. 23. "If, instead of trusting so boldly to your good resolutions, you had entered upon your duties with an humble mind, and resolved to _try_ to do right,--if you had apportioned your time with some degree of regularity,--you might have performed all that was required of you, enjoyed all your amusements, and gratified every kindly feeling, without a single self-reproach. 24. "As it is, you feel sensible of having failed in everything,--of having exposed yourself to great peril, and subjected your mother to great anxiety, simply from your disposition to loiter, when you should labor. 25. "I trust that, in the solitude of your sick chamber, 'the still small voice' of your many wasted hours has made itself heard, and that hereafter you will not so utterly fail to make good use of your time." LESSON XXXI. _Verse, or Poetry._ 1. All the lessons in this book which you have thus far read have been in prose. I intend to give you some lessons in verse, or, as it is sometimes, but improperly called, poetry. 2. There is a great deal of difference between verse and poetry; but as this book is intended for those who are not quite old enough to understand all these differences, I shall not attempt at present to point them out to you. 3. But I wish you first to understand the difference, which you can see with your eye, between prose and verse. The lines of verse often end in what are called _rhymes_. Thus, if one line ends with the word _found_, the next line ends with a word which sounds very much like it, as _ground, round, bound, sound, hound, wound_. 4. These are called _rhymes_. Here are a few such lines. IMPROVEMENT OF TIME. "Defer not till to-morrow to be wise; To-morrow's sun to thee may never rise." BEST USE OF MONEY. "When wealth to virtuous hands is given, It blesses like the dew of Heaven; Like Heaven, it hears the orphan's cries, And wipes the tears from widow's eyes." 5. Sometimes the rhymes occur in alternate lines; that is, two lines come together which are not rhymes, and are followed by two lines to make rhymes to both, as follows: "Let the sweet work of prayer and praise Employ our youngest breath; Thus we're prepared for longer days, Or fit for early death." 6. There are some kinds of verses that do not rhyme. These are called _blank_ verse. Here is an example of blank verse: "Mark well, my child, he said; this little stream Shall teach thee charity. It is a source I never knew to fail: directed thus Be that soft stream, the fountain of thy heart. For, oh! my much-loved child, I trust thy heart Has those affections that shall bless thyself; And, flowing softly like this little rill, Cheer all that droop. The good man did not err." 7. Now, there are several things that I wish you to notice in these lines. In the first place, if you will count the syllables, you will find that there are exactly ten syllables in each line; and it is always the case, that in verse it is necessary that there should be a certain number of syllables of a certain kind. 8. What that number is, I cannot now explain to you; but you will be able to understand from a book called a grammar, which you will probably study at some future time, if you do not study it now. It is contained in that part of grammar called Prosody. 9. The next thing I wish you to notice is, that every line of verse always begins with a capital letter. 10. And thirdly you will notice, that the lines of verse are more regular in their sound than lines of prose. They have a kind of musical sound about them, which you very rarely hear, except in verse. 11. And fourthly you will notice, that some of the words are shortened by leaving out a letter, and putting in its place a mark called an _apostrophe_, which looks just like a comma, only it is placed higher up in the line, as in the following line: "Thus we're prepared for longer days." 12. In this line, if the words were written out at full length, with all their letters in them, the line would stand as follows: "Thus we are prepared for longer days." 13. But this would destroy what is called the _measure_ of the line, by putting too many syllables into it; and therefore the words _we are_ are shortened, so as to be read as one syllable, and the line is to be read as follows: "Thus weer prepared for longer days." 14. The next difference I shall point out to you between prose and verse, is that in verse the words are placed in a different order from what they would be in prose; as you will notice in the following lines: "When all thy mercies, oh my God! My rising soul surveys, Transported with the view, I'm lost In wonder, love and praise." 15. Now, if these lines were written in prose, the words would stand in the following order: "O my God! when my rising soul surveys all thy mercies, I'm transported with the view of them, and lost in wonder, love and praise." 16. And now that I have explained to you a few of the points in which verse differs from prose, I will only add, that when you read verse, you must not stop at the end of every line, unless there is a pause or mark there; and that you must avoid reading it as if you were singing it to a tune. LESSON XXXII. _God Present Everywhere._ 1. Thou, Lord, by strictest search hast known My rising up and lying down; My secret thoughts are known to thee, Known long before conceived by me. 2. Surrounded by thy power I stand, On every side I find thy hand: O skill for human reach too high! Too dazzling bright for mortal eye! 3. From thy all-seeing Spirit, Lord, What hiding-place does earth afford? O where can I thy influence shun, Or whither from thy presence run? 4. If up to heaven I take my flight, 'Tis there thou dwell'st enthroned in light; If to the world unseen, my God, There also hast thou thine abode. 5. If I the morning's wings could gain, And fly beyond the western main; E'en there, in earth's remotest land, I still should find thy guiding hand. 6. Or, should I try to shun thy sight Beneath the sable wings of night; One glance from thee, one piercing ray, Would kindle darkness into day. 7. The veil of night is no disguise, No screen from thy all-searching eyes; Through midnight shades thou find'st thy way, As in the blazing noon, of day. 8. Thou know'st the texture of my heart, My reins, and every vital part: I'll praise thee, from whose hands I came A work of such a wondrous frame. 9. Let me acknowledge too, O God, That since this maze of life I trod, Thy thoughts of love to me surmount The power of numbers to recount. 10. Search, try, O God, my thoughts and heart, If mischief lurk in any part; Correct me where I go astray, And guide me in thy perfect way. LESSON XXXIII. _Devotion._ 1. While thee I seek, protecting Power, Be my vain wishes stilled; And may this consecrated hour With better hopes be filled. 2. Thy love the power of thought stowed, To thee my thoughts would soar: Thy mercy o'er my life has flowed, That mercy I adore. 3. In each event of life, how clear Thy ruling hand I see! Each blessing to my soul more dear, Because conferred by thee. 4. In every joy that crowns my days, In every pain I bear, My heart shall find delight in praise, Or seek relief in prayer. 5. When gladness wings my favored hour, Thy love my thoughts shall fill; Resigned, when storms of sorrow lower, My soul shall meet thy will. 6. My lifted eye, without a tear, The gathering storm shall see; My steadfast heart shall know no fear-- That heart will rest on thee. LESSON XXXIV. _The Gardener and the Hog._--GAY. 1. A gardener, of peculiar taste, On a young hog his favor placed, Who fed not with the common herd,-- His tray was to the hall preferred; He wallowed underneath the board, Or in his master's chamber snored, Who fondly stroked him every day, And taught him all the puppy's play. 2. Where'er he went, the grunting friend Ne'er failed his pleasure to attend. As on a time the loving pair Walked forth to tend the garden's care, The master thus addressed the swine: 3. "My house, my garden, all is thine: On turnips feast whene'er you please, And riot in my beans and peas; If the potato's taste delights, Or the red carrot's sweet invites, Indulge thy morn and evening hours, But let due care regard my flowers; My tulips are my garden's pride-- What vast expense these beds supplied!" 4. The hog, by chance, one morning roamed Where with new ale the vessels foamed; He munches now the steaming grains, Now with full swill the liquor drains; Intoxicating fumes arise, He reels, he rolls his winking eyes; Then, staggering, through the garden scours, And treads down painted ranks of flowers; With delving snout he turns the soil, And cools his palate with the spoil. 5. The master came,--the ruin spied. "Villain, suspend thy rage!" he cried: "Hast then, thou most ungrateful sot, My charge, my only charge, forgot? What, all my flowers?" No more he said; But gazed, and sighed, and hung his head. 6. The hog, with stuttering speech, returns:-- "Explain, sir, why your anger burns; See there, untouched, your tulips strown, For I devoured the roots alone!" 7. At this the gardener's passion grows; From oaths and threats he fell to blows; The stubborn brute the blows sustains, Assaults his leg, and tears the veins. Ah! foolish swain, too late you find That sties were for such friends designed! 8. Homeward he limps with painful pace, Reflecting thus on past disgrace: Who cherishes a brutal mate, Shall mourn the folly soon or late. LESSON XXXV. _The Hare and many Friends._--GAY. 1. A hare, who, in a civil way, Complied with everything, like Gay, Was known by all the bestial train Who haunt the wood, or graze the plain. Her care was never to offend, And every creature was her friend. 2. As forth she went, at early dawn, To taste the dew-besprinkled lawn, Behind she hears the hunter's cries, And from the deep-mouthed thunder flies. 3. She starts, she stops, she pants for breath; She hears the near advance of death; She doubles to mislead the hound, And measures back her mazy round; Till, fainting in the public way, Half dead with fear, she gasping lay. 4. What transport in her bosom grew, When first the horse appeared in view! "Let me," says she, "your back ascend, And owe my safety to a friend. You know my feet betray my flight,-- To friendship every burden's light." 5. The horse replied:--"Poor honest puss, It grieves my heart to see thee thus. Be comforted,--relief is near; For all your friends are in the rear." 6. She next the stately bull implored; And thus replied the mighty lord:-- "Since every beast alive can tell That I sincerely wish you well, I may, without offense, pretend To take the freedom of a friend. Love calls me hence; a favorite cow Expects me near yon barley-mow; And when a lady's in the case, You know all other things give place. To leave you thus might seem unkind; But see,--the goat is just behind." 7. The goat remarked her pulse was high, Her languid head, her heavy eye,-- "My back," says he, "may do you harm; The sheep's at hand, and wool is warm." 8. The sheep was feeble, and complained His sides a load of wool sustained: Said he was slow, confessed his fears; For hounds eat sheep, as well as hares. 9. She now the trotting calf addressed, To save from death a friend distressed. "Shall I," says he, "of tender age, In this important care engage? Older and abler passed you by; How strong are those! how weak am I! 10. "Should I presume to bear you hence, Those friends of mine may take offense. Excuse me, then,--you know my heart; But dearest friends, alas! must part. How shall we all lament! Adieu! For see,--the hounds are just in view." 11. 'Tis thus in friendships; who depend On many, rarely find a friend. [Illustration] LESSON XXXVI. _Maxims._--SELECTED. Never delay until to-morrow what you can do to-day. Never trouble others for what you can do yourself. Never spend your money before you have it. Never buy what you do not want, because it is cheap. Pride costs more than hunger, thirst, or cold. We never repent of having eaten too little. Nothing is troublesome that we do willingly. How much pains have those evils cost us which never happened! Take things always by their smooth handle. When angry, count ten before you speak; if very angry, a hundred. Hear as little as possible spoken against others; and believe nothing of the kind, until you are absolutely forced to believe it. Always believe that if you heard what may be said on the other side of the question, a very different account of the matter might be given. Do to others what you would have them do to you. LESSON XXXVII. _How to be Happy._--CHILD AT HOME. 1. Every child must have observed how much happier and more beloved some children are than others. There are some children whom you always love to be with. They are happy themselves, and they make you happy. 2. There are others, whose society you always avoid. The very expression of their countenances produces unpleasant feelings. They seem to have no friends. 3. No person can be happy without friends. The heart is formed for love, and cannot be happy without the opportunity of giving and receiving affection. 4. But you cannot receive affection, unless you will also give it. You cannot find others to love you, unless you will also love them. Love is only to be obtained by giving love in return. Hence the importance of cultivating a cheerful and obliging disposition. You cannot be happy without it. 5. I have sometimes heard a girl say, "I know that I am very unpopular at school." Now, this is a plain confession that she is very disobliging and unamiable in her disposition. 6. If your companions do not love you, it is your own fault. They cannot help loving you, if you will be kind and friendly. If you are not loved, it is a good evidence that you do not deserve to be loved. It is true, that a sense of duty may, at times, render it necessary for you to do that which will be displeasing to your companions. 7. But, if it is seen that you have a noble spirit, that you are above selfishness, that you are willing to make sacrifices of your own personal convenience to promote the happiness of your associates, you will never be in want of friends. 8. You must not regard it as your _misfortune_ that others do not love you, but your _fault_. It is not beauty, it is not wealth, that will give you friends. Your heart must glow with kindness, if you would attract to yourself the esteem and affection of those by whom you are surrounded. 9. You are little aware how much the happiness of your whole life depends upon the cultivation of an affectionate and obliging disposition. If you will adopt the resolution that you will confer favors whenever you have an opportunity, you will certainly be surrounded by ardent friends. 10. Begin upon this principle in childhood, and act upon it through life, and you will make yourself happy, and promote the happiness of all within your influence. 11. You go to school on a cold winter morning. A bright fire is blazing upon the hearth, surrounded with boys struggling to get near it to warm themselves. After you get slightly warmed, another school-mate comes in, suffering with cold. "Here, James," you pleasantly call out to him, "I am almost warm; you may have my place." 12. As you slip aside to allow him to take your place at the fire, will he not feel that you are kind? The worst dispositioned boy in the world cannot help admiring such generosity. 13. And even though he be so ungrateful as to be unwilling to return the favor, you may depend upon it that he will be your friend as far as he is capable of friendship. If you will habitually act upon this principle, you will never want friends. 14. Suppose, some day, you were out with your companions, playing ball. After you had been playing for some time, another boy comes along. He cannot be chosen upon either side, for there is no one to match him. "Henry," you say, "you may take my place a little while, and I will rest." 15. You throw yourself down upon the grass, while Henry, fresh and vigorous, takes your bat and engages in the game. He knows that you gave up to accommodate him; and how can he help liking you for it? 16. The fact is, that neither man nor child can cultivate such a spirit of generosity and kindness, without attracting affection and esteem. 17. Look and see which of your companions have the most friends, and you will find that they are those who have this noble spirit,--who are willing to deny themselves, that they may make their associates happy. 18. This is not peculiar to childhood. It is the same in all periods of life. There is but one way to make friends; and that is, by being friendly to others. 19. Perhaps some child, who reads this, feels conscious of being disliked, and yet desires to have the affection of his companions. You ask me what you shall do. I will tell you. 20. I will give you an infallible rule. Do all in your power to make others happy. Be willing to make sacrifices of your own convenience, that you may promote the happiness of others. 21. This is the way to make friends, and the only way. When you are playing with your brothers and sisters at home, be always ready to give them more than their share of privileges. 22. Manifest an obliging disposition, and they cannot but regard you with affection. In all your intercourse with others, at home or abroad, let these feelings influence you, and you will receive a rich reward. LESSON XXXVIII. _Obedience and Disobedience._--CHILD'S COMPANION. 1. You have never disobeyed your parents, or your teachers, or any who have been placed in authority over you, without being uncomfortable and unhappy! Obedience, in a child, is one of the most necessary qualities; for it protects him from all the evils of his want of experience, and gives him the benefit of the experience of others. 2. One fine summer's day, I went to spend an afternoon at a house in the country, where some young people were enjoying a holiday. 3. They were running cheerfully up and down a meadow, covered over with yellow crocuses, and other flowers; and I looked on them with delight, while they gamboled and made posies, as they felt disposed. "Here sister with sister roamed over the mead, And brother plucked flow'rets with brother; And playmates with playmates ran on with such speed That the one tumbled over the other." 4. Now, they all had been told to keep away from the ditch at the bottom of the field; but, notwithstanding this injunction, one little urchin, of the name of Jarvis, seeing a flower in the hedge on the opposite bank, which he wished to gather, crept nearer and nearer to the ditch. 5. The closer he got to the flower, the more beautiful it appeared to be, and the stronger the temptation became to pluck it. 6. Now, what right had he to put himself in the way of temptation? The field, as I said before, was covered over with flowers; and that in the hedge was no better than the rest, only it was a forbidden flower, and when anything is forbidden it becomes, on that very account, a greater temptation to a disobedient heart. 7. Jarvis had gathered a whole handful of flowers before he saw the one growing in the hedge; but he threw all these away, so much was his mind set on getting the one which he wanted. 8. Unluckily for him, in getting down the bank, his foot slipped, and down he rolled into a bed of stinging nettles, at the bottom of the ditch, which fortunately happened to have in it but little water. 9. Jarvis screamed out with might and main, as he lay on his back; for, whichever way he turned, his cheeks and his fingers brushed against the nettles. [Illustration] 10. His cries soon brought his companions around him; but, as they were all young, they knew not how to render him assistance, on account of the stinging nettles, and the depth of the ditch. 11. I ran to the spot, and pulled up Master Jarvis in a pretty pickle, his jacket and trowsers plastered with mud, and his hands and face covered with blotches. 12. Here was the fruit of disobedience! And as it was with Jarvis, so will it be with every one who acts disobediently. 13. Whenever you feel a temptation to disobey God; to disobey his holy word; to disobey the admonitions of your own conscience; to disobey your parents, your teachers, or any in authority over you,--be sure that a punishment awaits you, if you do not resist it. 14. As you are not able to resist it in your own strength, ask God's assistance for Christ's sake, and it will not be withheld. Now, remember Jarvis, and the bed of stinging nettles! 15. The Bible tells us very plainly how much God sets his face against disobedience. "The children of Israel walked forty years in the wilderness, till all the people that were men of war, which came out of Egypt, were consumed, because they obeyed not the voice of the Lord." 16. "Let no man deceive you with vain words: for, because of these things cometh the wrath of God upon the children of disobedience." Nor is it disobedience to God that is alone hateful in his sight; for disobedience to parents is spoken of as an evil thing, too. 17. "The eye that mocketh at his father, and despiseth to obey his mother, the ravens of the valley shall pluck it out, and the young eagles shall eat it." 18. But I cannot bear to think that you are disobedient! I would rather consider you obedient in all things, and encourage you in holding on your way, obeying the will of God, and the word of all in authority over you. "The Lord rules over sea and land, And blest indeed are they Who all his counsels understand, And his commands obey." 19. I have often been struck with the simplicity with which some children obey their parents. This tractable disposition is very amiable in a child. 20. It was no longer ago than last week, that, in crossing a field, I overtook three children: one, a little girl of about five years old, was on the foot-path, and, just as I came up, her brother called her to him, where he was in the field. 21. "No, William," said the little maid; "my mother told me not to go off the foot-path, and it would be very wicked to disobey my mother." 22. I caught the little creature up in my arms; and having a small neat book in my pocket, suitable for a child, I gave it to her, and told her to remember that the reason why I gave it was, that she had been obedient to her mother. "Though cares on cares in parent hearts be piled, Great is that blessing--an obedient child!" 23. Without obedience there can be no order. The man must obey his master, the maid her mistress, and the scholar his teacher. If you attend a Sunday-school, whatever class you are in, be obedient to your instructors, or you will make but little progress. By obedience you will learn faster, secure the respect of those about you, and set a proper example to those younger than yourself. 24. If you are in a place of work, be obedient to your employer. Those make the best masters and mistresses who have been the most obedient servants; for the discharge of one duty disposes us to perform another. 25. The best way to qualify yourselves to act well when grown up, is to act well while you are children. LESSON XXXIX. _Obstinacy._--LESSONS WITHOUT BOOKS. 1. There is a certain fault which almost all children have in a greater or less degree. It is called by different names; sometimes it is termed wilfulness, sometimes pertinacity, and sometimes it receives the still harsher name of obstinacy. 2. Almost all our faults are owing to the perversion or abuse of propensities originally good; and perseverance, when carried too far, or expended upon unworthy objects, becomes a troublesome infirmity. 3. Louisa and Emily had both something of this infirmity, but differing both in degree and in its mode of operation. 4. What are called _little things_ did not trouble Emily at all; and, on the contrary, they troubled Louisa very much. 5. But, when anything did seem peculiarly desirable to Emily,--when she set her heart upon having her own way,--she carried her perseverance to a degree which deserved to be called obstinacy. 6. She could _give up_, as children term it, with less effort, and more grace, than most others; but if anything determined her not to give up, she was immovable. 7. "You are almost always in the right," my daughter, her father once said to her, "and Heaven preserve you from error; for when you once fall into it, you will be too apt to persevere." 8. It happened, at one time, that she and Louisa were having some nice sun-bonnets made. Emily went for them at the time when they were to be finished, and finding only one completed, immediately appropriated it to herself, because she was really in greater need of it than Louisa, who had one that answered her purpose very well. 9. Louisa resented this, because that, being the eldest, she considered herself as having the first right; but Emily could not be persuaded to give up, although Louisa's equanimity was very much disturbed on that account. 10. If it had been proposed to her beforehand to let Louisa have the bonnet voluntarily, she would not have hesitated, for she was not selfish; but when Louisa claimed it as a right, she resisted. 11. Her mother afterwards told her that she should always avoid irritating the peculiar humors of her companions. "You," said she, "would not have minded waiting for the other bonnet a day or two, but to Louisa it was quite a serious evil." 12. And here let me remark upon the proneness which all children have to magnify the importance of little things. A strife often arises among them, about just nothing at all, from a mere spirit of competition. [Illustration] 13. One says, "This is my seat." Another, who would not else have thought of desiring that particular seat, immediately regards it in the light of a prize, and exclaims, "No, I meant to have that seat; and I had it just before you took it." 14. Half a dozen claimants will appear directly, and perhaps get into a serious quarrel; whereas, had the reply been, in the first instance, "Very well, let it be your seat," there would have been an end to the matter. 15. But to return to Louisa. She magnified a thousand little things, of every day occurrence, in such a manner as proved a very serious inconvenience to herself. 16. She wished to have her potato sliced, but never mashed. She could not bear to see a door open a single moment; and, even if she were at her meals, and the closet door happened to stand ajar, she would jump up and fly to shut it, with the speed of lightning. 17. She could not _endure_ the feeling of gloves; nor could she any better endure to have her hat tied. Her aunt bore with all these follies a while, and then deliberately resolved to counteract them. 18. Louisa at first thought this was very hard and unreasonable. "Why can't I have my potato sliced, Aunt Cleaveland?" said she; "what hurt can it do? And why can't I shut the door when it is open? is there any harm in that?" 19. "Not at all, my dear, in the thing itself," Mrs. Cleaveland replied; "but there is a great deal of evil in having your tranquillity disturbed by things of such small moment. 20. "If you allow yourself to be distressed by trifles now, how will you bear the real trials of life, which you must inevitably sustain, sooner or later? 21. "By and by, you will find out that your suffering from these sources is all imaginary, and then you will thank me for having restrained you. 22. "Now, here is this nice dish of mashed potatoes, which we have every day. If such a little hungry girl as you are, since you have breathed our healthy mountain air, cannot eat it, and with relish too, I am greatly mistaken; and, in process of time, I have no doubt you will cease to observe whether the door is open or shut." 23. On the first day of trial, Louisa just tasted the potato, and left the whole of it upon her plate. Her aunt took no notice of this. The next day, Louisa came in to dinner after a long walk, and was very hungry. 24. There was but one dish of meat upon the table, and it was of a kind which she did not much like; so, forgetting all her repugnance to mashed potato, she ate it very heartily. 25. Mrs. Cleaveland, however, forbore to take any notice of this change; and it was not until after several weeks had elapsed, and Louisa had ceased to think of the distinction between sliced potato and mashed potato, that her aunt reminded her of the importance which she had formerly attached to the former. 26. "Now, my dear Louisa," said Mrs. Cleaveland, "since you find the task is not so very difficult as you apprehended, promise me that you will try to cure yourself of all these little infirmities; for such I must term them. 27. "There is so much real suffering in life, that it is a pity to have any which is merely imaginary; and though, while you are a little girl, living with indulgent friends, your whims might all be gratified, a constant and uniform regard to them will be impossible by and by, when you are old enough to mingle with the world." LESSON XL. _King Edward and his Bible._--MRS. L.H. SIGOURNEY. 1. I will tell you a little story about a young and good king. He was king of England more than two hundred and eighty years ago. His name was Edward, and, because there had been five kings before him of the name of Edward, he was called Edward the Sixth. 2. He was only nine years old when he began to reign. He was early taught to be good, by pious teachers, and he loved to do what they told him would please God. He had a great reverence for the Bible, which he knew contained the words of his Father in heaven. [Illustration] 3. Once, when he was quite a young child, he was playing with some children about his own age. He wished much to reach something which was above his head. To assist him, they laid a large, thick book in a chair, for him to step on. Just as he was putting his foot upon it, he discovered it to be the Bible. 4. Drawing back, he took it in his arms, kissed it, and returned it to its place. Turning to his little playmates, he said, with a serious face,--"Shall I dare to tread under my feet that which God has commanded me to keep in my heart?" 5. This pious king never forgot his prayers. Though the people with whom he lived were continually anxious to amuse him, and show him some new thing, they never could induce him to omit his daily devotions. 6. One day he heard that one of his teachers was sick. Immediately, he retired to pray for him. Coming from his prayers, he said, with a cheerful countenance, "I think there is hope that he will recover. I have this morning earnestly begged of God to spare him to us." 7. After his teacher became well, he was told of this; and he very much loved the young king for remembering him in his prayers. 8. Edward the Sixth died when he was sixteen years old. He was beloved by all, for his goodness and piety. His mind was calm and serene in his sickness. 9. If you are not tired of my story, I will tell you part of a prayer which he used often to say, when on his dying bed. 10. "My Lord God, if thou wilt deliver me from this miserable life, take me among thy chosen. Yet not my will, but thy will, be done. Lord, I commit my spirit unto thee. Thou knowest how happy it were for me to be with thee. Yet, if thou shouldst send me life and health, grant that I may truly serve thee." 11. Children, you should do like King Edward, reverence your Bible, and love to pray to God. LESSON XLI. _What does it Mean to be Tempted._--M.H., IN THE ROSE-BUD. 1. "Mother," said little Frank, "I wish you would tell me what it means to be tempted. I heard you say, the other day, that people are tempted to do many wicked things;--pray tell me, mother, if such a little boy as I am is ever tempted?" 2. "Yes, my child, every day you live; and when I have told you what temptation is, I think you will confess that you have not only been tempted, but often yielded to temptation. 3. "To be tempted, means to be drawn by the offer of present pleasure to do what is wrong. There are many kinds of temptation, and I think you will understand me better if I give you an instance. 4. "You know, my dear Frank, that both your father and I have forbidden your going to the pond where your cousin Henry was drowned, because we think it very dangerous for you to venture there. But you also know that the other day you went, and suffered severely afterward for your disobedience." 5. "Yes, mother," said Frank; "but then I should not have gone, if William Brown had not showed me his pretty ship, just as I was coming out of school, and asked me to go see him launch it; and oh, mother, if you had only seen it! 6. "It had masts and sails, just like a _real_ ship; and on the deck a little man, which William called the captain. And then, when it was on the water, it sailed along so sweetly!--the pond was as smooth as a looking-glass, so that we could see two little ships all the time. 7. "I didn't think of disobeying you, mother; I only thought of the pretty ship, and that there could be no harm in seeing William sail it."--"The harm, my dear son (as you call it)," said his mother, "was not in sailing the boat,--this is an innocent pleasure in itself; but it was doing it after it had been forbidden by your parents, that made it wrong. 8. "The temptation to disobedience came in the form of a little ship. You were drawn by it to the pond, the forbidden spot. You saw it sail gayly off, and stood on the bank delighted." 9. "But, mother," interrupted Frank, "I shouldn't have got into the water and muddied my clothes, if the little ship hadn't got tangled in the weeds; and the boys all shouted, Clear her! Clear her! and I couldn't help stepping in, I was so near; and my foot slipped, and I fell in." 10. "Yes," said his mother, "and but for assistance of your play-fellows, you might have been drowned. But God, whose eye was upon you all the while, saw fit to spare you; and how thankful you ought to be that he did not take you away in your disobedience! 11. "You now see how you were tempted, first to go with William Brown to the pond, and then to step into the water; which shows how one temptation leads to another. But did not something within you, my son, tell you, while there, that you were doing wrong to disobey your parents?" 12. "No, mother; I do not recollect that it did. I'm sure I did not think a word about it till I was alone in bed, and was asking my heavenly Father to take care of me. Then something seemed to say, 'Frank, you have done wrong to-day.' 13. "And I felt how wicked I had been, and could not ask God to forgive me till I had confessed all to you. I knew you were away when I came home, and I thought you hadn't returned. 14. "I was so unhappy that I called Betsy, and told her how I felt. She told me it was an accident, and no matter at all; that she had taken care of my clothes, and she believed you would never know anything about it. 15. "But all this was no comfort to me; the something within would not be quiet. If it had spoken to me in the same way when I first saw the little ship, I think I should not have gone to the pond." 16. "Frank," said his mother, "this something within, which is conscience, did then speak, but you did not listen to its voice. The voice of temptation was louder, and you obeyed it, just as you followed some noisy boys, the other day, though I was calling to you, 'Frank, come back.' 17. "I spoke louder than usual, and at any other time you would have heard my voice; but you were too much attracted by the boys to listen to me. 18. "Temptation makes us deaf to the voice within; and yielding to temptation, as you see, my son, leads us into sin; and this is why we pray, in the Lord's prayer, 'Lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil,' which is sin, for there is no greater evil than sin. 19. "It is to keep us from this great evil that God has given us this voice within, to warn us not to follow temptation, though the sin appear but a trifling one, and though it hold out the promise of pleasure, as the little ship did." LESSON XLII. _The same subject, continued._ 1. "I will name some of the temptations to which little boys are a good deal exposed, and yield to without thinking, and sometimes without knowing to what they may lead. 2. "Sometimes the temptation to steal comes in the form of some beautiful fruit; perhaps in his father's garden, which he has been forbidden to touch; or perhaps in an orchard far from the eye of the owner, where he might take it without fear of being seen; and he says to himself, 'No one will ever know it; I will take only a few.' 3. "But does he forget that the eye of God is upon him, and does he not hear the voice of conscience saying, 'Thou shalt not steal!' He would shudder to be called a thief; but taking what does not belong to us, be it ever so small a thing, is stealing. 4. "And when detected, he is tempted to lie, to conceal his fault and avoid punishment; and here again we see how one sin leads to another. The temptations to cruelty are many. Sometimes they appear in the form of a bird's nest, placed by a fond and loving mother on the high bough of a tree, to secure her young brood from danger. 5. "The boy, in his rambles in the woods, sees the nest, climbs the tree, and, though the little birds are too feeble to fly, and the anxious mother flutters round, as if to entreat the cruel boy to spare her little ones, he is unmindful of her tenderness, and, thinking only of his prize, bears it off to his companions, who enjoy it with him. 6. "Here is a sinful feeling indulged, which, if not subdued, may lead to murder. I wish you to remember, my dear boy, that it is by allowing ourselves to commit little sins that we become great sinners. 7. "You would be frightened if you could have placed before you a picture of the course of sin. You would exclaim, What a monster!--he must never come near me,--it is dangerous even to look on him! Let me entreat you, then, my son, to guard against temptation. [Illustration] 8. "If you say to temptation, as you would to a wicked companion, who had often led you into mischief, 'Go away; I do not like your company,' temptation, though for a while it may plead to be indulged, will soon do as the wicked companion would, if often sent away with such a reproof, discontinue to come; or, if found in your company, will not harm you; for conscience, like a good friend, will be ever near; and your blessed Saviour, who has promised to help those who are tempted, will assist you to overcome temptation. 9. "I hope now you understand what it means to be tempted."--"I think I do, mother," said Frank, "and I thank you for telling me so much about temptation. I shall never again repeat the Lord's prayer without thinking what it means, and I hope God will keep me from the great evil of sin." He then kissed his mother, and she promised to tell him, some other time, how we are tempted by sinful thoughts. LESSON XLIII. _The same, subject, continued._ [Illustration] 1. It was not long after Frank had the conversation with his mother upon the temptation to sinful actions, that he claimed her promise to tell him how we may be tempted to sinful thoughts. 2. It was Sunday evening. Frank and his mother were sitting alone together at a window which opened upon a flower-garden, rich in the hues with which God has seen fit to adorn this beautiful part of creation. 3. "You have been at church to-day, my son," said his mother; "and to my eye you did nothing offensive, for you sat still during the sermon, and appeared engaged with your book during the prayers. 4. "I saw only the _outward_ part; but remember there was an eye of infinite purity looking upon your heart, and seeing the thoughts that were passing there. You only can tell if they were fit to meet that eye." 5. Frank looked down; for, like most children, he was not apt to examine either his thoughts or motives, but was well satisfied if he gained the approbation of his parents. 6. His mother, seeing he was struggling to disclose something, said, "You are an honest boy, Frank, and do not, I trust, wish to conceal the truth from your mother. If you have received my approbation for correct conduct, you certainly cannot enjoy it, if you feel that it is not deserved." 7. "That is what troubles me, mother," said Frank; "for, while I was sitting so still, and you thought I was attending to the sermon, I was all the while watching a pretty little dog, that was running from pew to pew, trying to find his master; and when he got on the pulpit step, and rolled off, I came so near laughing that I was obliged to put my handkerchief to my mouth, and make believe to cough. 8. "I kept my eye upon him till church was done, and thought, if I could see him at the door, I would try to make him follow me home, and keep him. 9. "I feel now, mother, that all this was very wrong, and that these naughty thoughts tempted me to break God's holy Sabbath." 10. "I am glad you feel this, my son; for, besides being sinful to desire to have the little dog, which was coveting what belonged to another, the time and place in which you indulged the thought was the breaking of that commandment which says, 'Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy.'" 11. "But, mother," asked Frank, impatiently, "how shall I keep these thoughts out? They come before I know it. Sometimes a boy has a new suit of clothes on, and I cannot help looking at him; and sometimes the girls will play with their gloves, and tie and untie their bonnets; and sometimes the little children get to sleep, and I can't help watching them, to see if they will not slip off the seat. 12. "I think, mother, if we did not sit in the gallery, I shouldn't see so many things to tempt me to wicked thoughts in church." 13. "If I really believed this myself, Frank, I should think it important to change our seat: but the mischief does not lie here; it is in your heart. 14. "If this were right, and you really loved God and his service, the thought of his presence would keep out these troublesome intruders; not altogether, my son, for the best of people are sometimes subject to wandering thoughts; but it is a temptation which they overcome, by turning their attention immediately to the services, and by taking their eyes from the object that drew away their thoughts from God." LESSON XLIV. _The same subject, concluded._ 1. "If some great king, who loved his people, and was continually giving them some good things, should appoint a day when he would meet his subjects, rich and poor, young and old, and should declare to them how they may best please him; and a person should be appointed to read to them, from a book he had himself written, directions for their conduct; and that, as a reward for obedience, should promise they should be admitted to his palace, where nothing that could trouble them should ever be allowed to enter--" 2. "Why, mother," exclaimed Frank, "I should so admire to see a king, that I should be willing to do everything he required; and should be afraid, all the time, of doing something he did not like, while in his presence. I should keep looking at him all the time, to see if he were pleased;--but go on, mother." 3. "Well, my son, suppose this great person, who is also good, should keep a book in which he noted down all your actions, and even looks; and, on a certain day which he had appointed, and which was known to himself, should call together a great multitude of people, his friends and yours, and should read to them all that he had written there,--do you think you would be careless or indifferent what was written against your name?" 4. "O no, mother! I should be so anxious that I should want to hide myself, for fear something should be read that I should be ashamed of,--something very bad. But, mother, no king ever did this, that you know of. If he did, pray tell me more about him; and if his subjects were not all good and obedient." 5. "I have heard of a king, my son, who has done more than this; but not an earthly king. Earthly kings are limited in their power; for they are but men. But the king of whom I speak is the Lord of the whole earth." 6. "Do you mean God, mother?"--"I do, my son. You have told me how you should behave in the presence of an earthly king on the day he should appoint to meet his people; and would you treat with less reverence and respect him who is the King of kings and Lord of lords? 7. "Can you, on entering his house, say, 'The Lord is in his holy temple,' and feel no desire to meet him there; but allow any trifle that meets your eye to carry your thoughts away? Do you, when his holy book is read, feel no desire to hear the directions he has given to lead you to your heavenly home? 8. "And when the petitions are sent up imploring his blessings, and asking his forgiveness, have you none to offer? Are you so blest as to have nothing to ask, and so good as to need no forgiveness? 9. "O my son, be careful how you neglect these gracious privileges! And when his ministers, whom he has appointed to declare his will,--to instruct you out of his word,--preach to you from the sacred pulpit, will you turn a deaf ear, and lose their instructions, and at the same time displease your heavenly Father? 10. "This great and powerful king is also your father and friend. He loves you more than any earthly friend. He is willing to hear all your petitions, and is even more ready to give than we are to ask. He has appointed one day in seven in which to meet us, and this is the Sabbath, about the keeping of which we are now talking. 11. "And he has also appointed a day in which he will judge the world, from the book which he has kept of our accounts. 12. "On that day there will be assembled a great multitude, which no man can number, out of every kindred and tongue; great and small, good and bad. You and I will be there, my son. 13. "There will be the minister and his people, the Sunday-school teacher and his scholars, all to receive either the sentence, 'Come, ye blessed of my Father, inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world,' or, 'Depart from me, ye cursed, into everlasting punishment.'" 14. Frank was moved by this representation of the consequences of his neglect of the duties he owed his heavenly Father, and said, "O, how sad it would be, how dreadful, if, on that day I should be sent to dwell forever where God is not, and where you and father are not!" 15. "Dreadful, indeed, my son, would be such a separation; and when you think of this, let it make you more earnest to serve and please God; for Jesus Christ, who came upon earth once to die for us all, and will come again to judge the earth, has gone to prepare mansions in heaven for those who love him, that they may dwell with him forever in perfect happiness. 16. "Let us now, my son, pray to our heavenly Father to prepare us for this blessedness, that where he is, there we may be also." Frank and his mother knelt together, and offered up the following prayer:-- PRAYER FOR GOOD THOUGHTS. 17. Almighty and most merciful Father! teach us thy will, that we may know how to please thee. Put good thoughts into our hearts, and right words into our lips, that our services may be such as thou wilt please to accept. 18. Forgive, we pray thee, the sins we have committed this day, in thought, word, or deed, and make us truly sorry on account of them. Help us to love thee more, and serve thee better, for the time to come. [Illustration] 19. Bless all our friends, and make them thy friends. Make us a household serving thee, that after this life is over, we may all meet in heaven. 20. O then, great Shepherd, who neither slumberest nor sleepest, take us under thy protection this night; and when the cheerful light of day again returns, lead us forth in thy fold, and keep us from every temptation that will draw us away from thee. 21. May our peaceful slumbers remind us of the sleep of death; and, on the morning of the resurrection, wilt thou clothe us in the righteousness of Christ, and receive us to dwell with him in life everlasting! Amen. LESSON XLV. _Mary Dow._--H.F. GOULD. 1. "Come in, little stranger," I said, As she tapped at my half-opened door, While the blanket pinned over her head Just reached to the basket she bore. 2. A look full of innocence fell From her modest and pretty blue eye, As she said, "I have matches to sell, And hope you are willing to buy. 3. "A penny a bunch is the price; I think you'll not find it too much; They're tied up so even and nice, And ready to light with a touch." 4. I asked, "What's your name, little girl?" "'Tis Mary," said she,--"Mary Dow," And carelessly tossed off a curl, That played o'er her delicate brow. 5. "My father was lost in the deep,-- The ship never got to the shore; And mother is sad, and will weep, When she hears the wind blow and sea roar. 6. "She sits there at home, without food, Beside our poor sick Willie's bed; She paid all her money for wood, And so I sell matches for bread. 7. "For every time that she tries Some things she'd be paid for to make, And lays down the baby, it cries, And that makes my sick brother wake. 8. "I'd go to the yard and get chips, But, then, it would make me too sad, To see men there building the ships, And think they had made one so bad. 9. "I've one other gown, and, with care, We think it may decently pass, With my bonnet that's put by to wear To meeting and Sunday-school class. 10. "I love to go there, where I'm taught, Of One who's so wise and so good, He knows every action and thought, And gives e'en the raven his food. 11. "For He, I am sure, who can take Such fatherly care of a bird, Will never forget or forsake The children who trust to his word. 12. "And now, if I only can sell The matches I brought out to-day, I think I shall do very well, And mother'll rejoice at the pay." 13. "Fly home, little bird," then I thought, "Fly home, full of joy, to your nest!" For I took all the matches she brought, And Mary may tell you the rest. LESSON XLVI. _It Snows._--H.F. GOULD. 1. It snows! it snows! from out the sky, The feathered flakes, how fast they fly! Like little birds, that don't know why They're on the chase, from place to place, While neither can the other trace. It snows! it snows! a merry play Is o'er us, on this heavy day! 2. As dancers in an airy hall, That hasn't room to hold them all, While some keep up and others fall, The atoms shift; then, thick and swift, They drive along to form the drift, That, weaving up, so dazzling white, Is rising like a wall of light. 3. But now the wind comes whistling loud, To snatch and waft it, as a cloud, Or giant phantom in a shroud; It spreads, it curls, it mounts and whirls, At length a mighty wing unfurls, And then, away! but where, none knows, Or ever will.--It snows! it snows! 4. To-morrow will the storm be done; Then out will come the golden sun, And we shall see, upon the run Before his beams, in sparkling streams, What now a curtain o'er him seems. And thus with life it ever goes, 'Tis shade and shine!--It snows! it snows! LESSON XLVII. _The Dissatisfied Angler Boy._--H.F. GOULD. [Illustration] 1. I'm sorry they let me go down to the brook, I'm sorry they gave me the line and the hook, And I wish I had stayed at home with my book. I'm sure 'twas no pleasure to see That poor, little, harmless, suffering thing, Silently writhe at the end of the string; Or to hold the pole, while I felt him swing In torture, and all for me! 2. 'Twas a beautiful speckled and glossy trout, And when from the water I drew him out On the grassy bank, as he floundered about, It made me shivering cold, To think I had caused so much needless pain; And I tried to relieve him, but all in vain; O! never, as long as I live, again May I such a sight behold! 3. O, what would I give once more to see The brisk little swimmer alive and free, And darting about, as he used to be, Unhurt, in his native brook! 'Tis strange how people can love to play, By taking innocent lives away; I wish I had stayed at home to-day, With sister, and read my book. LESSON XLVIII. _The Violet: a Fable._--CHILDREN'S MAGAZINE. 1. Down in a humble dell A modest violet chanced to dwell Remote from gayer flowers; Its days were passed in simple ease, It sipped the dew and kissed the breeze, Nor thought of happier hours. 2. Long lived it in this quiet way, Till, on a hot and sultry day About the midst of June, It chanced to spy a lady fair, All dressed in satins rich and rare, Come walking by, at noon. 3. And thus the silly flower began:-- "I much should like to live with man, And other flowers to see;-- Why is it (for I cannot tell) That I forever here should dwell, Where there is none but me?" 4. While thus it spoke, the lady stopped To pick up something she had dropped, And there the flower she spied; And soon she plucked it from its bed, Just shook the dew-drop from its head, And placed it at her side. 5. Soon at the lady's splendid home The violet found that she was come, For all was bright and gay: And then upon the mantel-shelf, With many a flower beside herself, Was placed, without delay. 6. And oh, how glad and proud was she In such a splendid place to be!-- But short was her delight; For rose and lily turned away, And would not deign a word to say To such a country wight. 7. She passed the day in much disgrace, And wished that she might change her place, And be at home again: She sighed for her own mossy bed, Where she might rest her aching head; But now to wish were vain. 8. Next morn, the housemaid, passing by, Just chanced the little flower to spy, And then, without delay, She rudely seized its tender stalk, And threw it in the gravel walk, And left it to decay. 9. And thus it mourned,--"O silly flower, To wish to leave its native bower! Was it for this I sighed? O, had I more contented been, And lived unnoticed and unseen, I might not thus have died!" 10. Nor let this lesson be forgot: Remain contented with the lot That Providence decrees. Contentment is a richer gem Than sparkles in a diadem, And gives us greater ease. LESSON XLIX. _Captain John Smith._--JUVENILE MISCELLANY. 1. The adventures of this singular man are so various, and so very extraordinary, that the detail of them seems more like romance than true history. He was born in Lincolnshire, England, and was left an orphan at an early age. 2. His love of adventure displayed itself while he was yet a school-boy. He sold his satchel, books and clothes, and went over to France, without the knowledge of his guardians. 3. Afterward, he served as a soldier in the Netherlands for several years. At the end of his campaign, he returned to England, where he recovered a small portion of the estate left him by his deceased father. 4. This money enabled him to resume his travels under more favorable auspices, at the age of seventeen. He again went to France, and embarked at Marseilles (_pronounced_ Mar-sales´), with some pious pilgrims, bound to Italy. 5. During this voyage a violent tempest threatened destruction to the vessel; and poor Smith being the suspected cause of the impending danger was thrown, without mercy, into the sea. [Illustration] 6. He saved himself by his great expertness in swimming; and soon after went on board another vessel, bound to Alexandria, where he entered into the service of the Emperor of Austria, against the Turks. 7. His bravery, and great ingenuity in all the stratagems of war, soon made him famous, and obtained for him the command of two hundred and fifty horsemen. 8. At the siege of Regal, the Ottomans sent a challenge, purporting that Lord Turbisha, to amuse the ladies, would fight with any captain among the Austrian troops. Smith accepted the challenge. 9. Flags of truce were exchanged between the two armies, and crowds of fair dames and fearless men assembled to witness the combat. Lord Turbisha entered the field well mounted and armed. 10. On his shoulders were fixed two large wings made of eagles' feathers, set in silver, and richly ornamented with gold and precious stones. A janizary, or Turkish soldier, bore his lance before him, and another followed, leading a horse superbly caparisoned. 11. Smith came upon the ground with less parade. A flourish of trumpets preceded him, and his lance was supported by a single page. 12. The Turk fell at the first charge, and Smith returned to his army in triumph. This so enraged one of the friends of the slain that he sent a challenge to Smith, offering him his head, his horse and his armor, if he dared come and take them. 13. The challenge was accepted, and the combatants came upon the ground with nearly the same ceremony and splendor. Their lances broke at the first charge, without doing injury to either; but, at the second onset, the Turk was wounded, thrown from his horse, and killed. LESSON L. _The same subject, continued._ 1. The Christian army were at this time anxious to finish erecting some fortifications, and were very willing to amuse their enemies in this way. They therefore persuaded Captain Smith to send a challenge in his turn, offering his head, in payment for the two he had won, to any one who had skill and strength enough to take it. 2. The offer was accepted; and a third Turk tried his fortune with the bold adventurer. This time Captain Smith was nearly unhorsed; but, by his dexterity and judgment, he recovered himself, and soon returned to the camp victorious. 3. These warlike deeds met with much applause; and the prince gave him a coat of arms, signed with the royal seal, representing three Turk's heads on a white field. 4. Not long after this, Captain Smith was left wounded on the field of battle,--was taken prisoner by the Turks,--and sent as a slave to a noble lady in the interior of the country. 5. He could speak Italian well, and his fair mistress was very fond of that language. She listened to accounts of his bravery, his adventures, and his misfortunes, with deepening interest; and finally sent him to her brother, a powerful bashaw, with a request that he should be treated with much kindness. 6. The proud officer was angry that his sister should trouble herself about a vile European slave; and, instead of attending to her request, he caused him to be loaded with irons, and abused in the most shameful manner. 7. During the long and tedious period of his slavery, he suffered as much as it is possible for man to endure; but at length he killed his tyrannical master, and, with great peril, escaped through the deserts into Russia. 8. His romantic genius would not long allow him to remain easy. He could not be happy unless he was engaged in daring and adventurous actions. He no sooner heard of an expedition to Virginia, under the command of Christopher Newport, than he resolved to join it. 9. He arrived in this country with the first emigrants, who settled in Jamestown, April 26, 1607. It is said this infant settlement must have perished, had it not been for the courage and ingenuity of Captain Smith. [Illustration] 10. Once they were all nearly dying with hunger, and the savages utterly refused to sell them any food. In this extremity, Smith stole the Indian idol, Okee, which was made of skins stuffed with moss, and would not return it until the Indians sold them as much corn as they wanted. LESSON LI. _The same subject, continued._ 1. The colony were once in imminent danger of losing their brave and intelligent friend. While exploring the source of the Chickahominy river, he imprudently left his companions, and, while alone, was seen and pursued by a party of savages. He retreated fighting, killed three Indians with his own hand, and probably would have regained his boat in safety, had he not accidentally plunged into a miry hole, from which he could not extricate himself. 2. By this accident, he was taken prisoner; and the Indians would have tortured him, and put him to death, according to their cruel customs, had not his ever-ready wit come to his aid. 3. He showed them a small ivory compass, which he had with him, and, by signs, explained many wonderful things to them, till his enemies were inspired with a most profound respect, and resolved not to kill the extraordinary man without consulting their chief. 4. He was, accordingly, brought into the presence of the king, Powhatan, who received him in a robe of raccoon skins, and seated on a kind of throne, with two beautiful young daughters at his side. After a long consultation, he was condemned to die. 5. Two large stones were brought, his head laid upon one of them, and the war-clubs raised to strike the deadly blow. At this moment, Pocahontas, the king's favorite daughter, sprang forward, threw herself between him and the executioners, and by her entreaties saved his life. 6. Powhatan promised him that he should return to Jamestown, if the English would give him a certain quantity of ammunition and trinkets. Smith agreed to obtain them, provided a messenger would carry a leaf to his companions. On this leaf he briefly stated what must be sent. 7. Powhatan had never heard of writing;--he laughed at the idea that a leaf could speak, and regarded the whole as an imposition on the part of the prisoner. 8. When, however, the messenger returned with the promised ransom, he regarded Smith as nothing less than a wizard, and gladly allowed him to depart. It seemed to be the fate of this singular man to excite a powerful interest wherever he went. 9. Pocahontas had such a deep attachment for him, that, in 1609, when only fourteen years old, she stole away from her tribe, and, during a most dreary night, walked to Jamestown, to tell him that her father had formed the design of cutting off the whole English settlement. 10. Thus she a second time saved his life, at the hazard of her own. This charming Indian girl did not meet with all the gratitude she deserved. 11. Before 1612, Captain Smith received a wound, which made it necessary for him to go to England, for surgical aid; and after his departure a copper kettle was offered to any Indian who would bring Pocahontas to the English settlement. 12. She was, accordingly, stolen from her father, and carried prisoner to Jamestown. Powhatan offered five hundred bushels of corn as a ransom for his darling child. 13. Before the negotiation was finished, an Englishman of good character, by the name of Thomas Rolfe, became attached to Pocahontas, and they were soon after married, with the king's consent. 14. This event secured peace to the English for many years. The Indian bride became a Christian, and was baptized. LESSON LII. _The same subject, concluded._ 1. In 1616, Pocahontas went to England with her husband,--was introduced at court, and received great attention. 2. King James is said to have been very indignant that any of his subjects should have dared to marry a princess; but Captain Smith has been accused, perhaps falsely, of being sufficiently cold and selfish to blush for his acquaintance with the generous North American savage. 3. Pocahontas never returned to her native country. She died at Gravesend, in 1617, just as she was about to embark for America. 4. She left one son, Thomas Rolfe; and from his daughter are descended several people of high rank in Virginia, among whom was the celebrated John Randolph of Roanoke. 5. Smith had many adventures, after his wound obliged him to leave Jamestown. He visited this country again; made a voyage to the Summer Isles; fought with pirates; joined the French against the Spaniards; and was adrift, in a little boat, alone, on the stormy sea, during a night so tempestuous that thirteen French ships were wrecked, near the Isle of Re; yet he was saved. 6. He died in London, in 1631, in the fifty-second year of his age, after having published his singular adventures in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. LESSON LIII. _John Ledyard._--JUVENILE MISCELLANY. 1. Few men have done so much, in a short life, as John Ledyard. When he was a mere boy, he built a canoe with his own hands, and descended Connecticut river alone and unassisted. 2. He enlisted as a soldier, at Gibraltar; and afterwards, in the humble character of corporal of the marines, he sailed round the world with the celebrated Captain Cook. 3. After his return to England, he formed the bold design of traversing the northern parts of Europe and Asia, crossing Behring's Straits, and examining the whole of North America, from east to west. 4. Sir Joseph Banks, famous for his generosity to men of enterprise, furnished him with money for the undertaking. He expended nearly all of it in purchasing sea stores; and these, most unluckily, were all seized by a custom-house officer, on account of some articles which the English law forbade to be exported. 5. Poor Ledyard was now left in utter poverty; but he was a resolute man, and he would not be discouraged. With only ten guineas in his purse, he attempted to _walk_ over the greater part of three continents. 6. He walked through Denmark and Sweden, and attempted to cross the great Gulf of Bothnia, on his way to Siberia; but when he reached the middle of that inland sea, he found the water was not frozen, and he was obliged to foot it back to Stockholm. 7. He then traveled round the head of the gulf, and descended to St. Petersburg. Here he was soon discovered to be a man of talents and activity; and though he was without money, and absolutely destitute of stockings and shoes, he was treated with great attention. 8. The Portuguese ambassador invited him to dine, and was so much pleased with him, that he used his influence to obtain for him a free passage in the government wagons, then going to Irkutsk, in Siberia, at the command of the Empress Katharine. 9. He went from this place to Yakutz, and there awaited the opening of the spring, full of the animating hope of soon completing his wearisome journey. But misfortune seemed to follow him wherever he went. 10. The empress could not believe that any man in his senses was traveling through the ice and snows of uncivilized Siberia, merely for the sake of seeing the country and the people. 11. She imagined that he was an English spy, sent there merely for the purpose of prying into the state of her empire and her government. She therefore employed two Russian soldiers to seize him, and convey him out of her dominions. 12. Taken, he knew not why, and obliged to go off without his clothes, his money, or his papers, he was seated in one of the strange-looking sledges used in those northern deserts, and carried through Tartary and White Russia, to the frontiers of Poland. 13. Covered with dirty rags, worn out with hardships, sick almost unto death, without friends and without money, he begged his way to Konigsberg, in Prussia. LESSON LIV. _The same subject, concluded._ 1. In this hour of deep distress, he found a person willing to take his draft for five guineas on the Royal Society of England. With this assistance, he arrived in the land of our forefathers. 2. He immediately applied to his ever-ready friend, Sir Joseph Banks, for employment. Sir Joseph, knowing that nothing suited him better than perilous adventures, told him that a company had just been formed, for the purpose of penetrating into the interior of Africa, and discovering the source of the river Niger. 3. Burning sands, savage negroes, venomous serpents, all the frightful animals of the torrid zone, could not alarm the intrepid soul of Ledyard. He immediately expressed his desire to go. 4. When the map was spread before him, and his dangerous journey pointed out, he promptly exclaimed, "I will go to-morrow morning." 5. The gentleman smiled at his eagerness, and gladly intrusted him with an expedition in which suffering and peril were certain, and success extremely doubtful. He left London on the 30th of June, 1788, and arrived in Grand Cairo on the 19th of August. 6. There he spent his time to great advantage, in searching for and deciphering the various wonders of that ancient and once learned land. 7. His letters from Egypt were delightful. They showed much enthusiasm, united with the most patient and laborious exertion. The company formed great hopes concerning his discoveries in Senaar, and awaited letters from that country with much anxiety. 8. But, alas! he never reached there. He was seized with a violent illness at Cairo; died, and was decently buried beside the English who had ended their days in that celebrated city. 9. We should never read accounts of great or good men without learning some profitable lesson. If we cannot, like Ledyard, defend Gibraltar, sail round the world with Captain Cook, project trading voyages to the north-west coast, study Egyptian hieroglyph´ics, and traverse the dreary northern zone on foot,--we can, at least, learn from him the important lesson of _perseverance_. 10. The boy who perseveringly pores over a hard lesson, and who will not give up an intricate problem until he has studied it out, forms a habit, which, in after life, will make him a great man; and he who resolutely struggles against his own indolence, violent temper, or any other bad propensity, will most assuredly be a good one. LESSON LV. _Learning to Work._--ORIGINAL. 1. A few years ago, several little volumes were published, called "_The Rollo Books_," which are full of interesting stories about a little boy of that name. They were written by a gentleman whose name is Abbott. 2. They are not only interesting, but also very instructive books; and no little boy or girl can read them, without learning many very useful lessons from them. They are not only useful to young persons, but their parents, also, have derived many useful hints from them, in the management of their children. 3. The following little story is taken from one of them, called "_Rollo at Work_;" and I hope that my little friends who read this story at school will also read it at home to their parents, because it will be both interesting and useful to them. 4. The story begins, by telling us that Rollo's father had set him at work in the barn, with a box full of nails, directing him to pick them all over, and to put all those that were alike by themselves. 5. Rollo began very willingly at first, but soon grew tired of the work, and left it unfinished. The remainder of the story will be found in the following lessons, in Mr. Abbott's own words. LESSON LVI. _The same subject, continued._--ABBOTT. 1. That evening, when Rollo was just going to bed, his father took him up in his lap, and told him he had concluded what to do. 2. "You see it is very necessary," said he, "that you should have the power of confining yourself steadily and patiently to a single employment, even if it does not amuse you. 3. "I have to do that, and all people have to do it; and you must learn to do it, or you will grow up indolent and useless. You cannot do it now, it is very plain. 4. "If I set you to doing anything, you go on as long as the novelty and the amusement last; and then your patience is gone, and you contrive every possible excuse for getting away from your task. 5. "Now, I am going to give you one hour's work to do, every forenoon and afternoon. I shall give you such things to do as are perfectly plain and easy, so that you will have no excuse for neglecting your work, or leaving it. 6. "But yet I shall choose such things as will afford you no amusement; for my wish is that you should learn to work, not play." 7. "But, father," said Rollo, "you told me there was pleasure in work, the other day. But how can there be any pleasure in it, if you choose such things as have no amusement in them, at all?" 8. "The pleasure of working," said his father, "is not the fun of doing amusing things, but the satisfaction and solid happiness of being faithful in duty, and accomplishing some useful purpose. 9. "For example, if I were to lose my pocket-book on the road, and should tell you to walk back a mile, and look carefully all the way, until you found it, and if you did it faithfully and carefully, you would find a kind of satisfaction in doing it; and when you found the pocket-book, and brought it back to me, you would enjoy a high degree of happiness. Should not you?" 10. "Why, yes, sir, I should," said Rollo.--"And, yet, there would be no amusement in it. You might, perhaps, the next day, go over the same road, catching butterflies; that would be amusement. Now, the pleasure you would enjoy in looking for the pocket-book would be the solid satisfaction of useful work. 11. "The pleasure of catching butterflies would be the amusement of play. Now, the difficulty is, with you, that you have scarcely any idea, yet, of the first. 12. "You are all the time looking for the other; that is, the amusement. You begin to work, when I give you anything to do; but if you do not find amusement in it, you soon give it up. But if you would only persevere, you would find, at length, a solid satisfaction, that would be worth a great deal more." 13. Rollo sat still, and listened; but his father saw, from his looks, that he was not much interested in what he was saying; and he perceived that it was not at all probable that so small a boy could be reasoned into liking work. 14. In fact, it was rather hard for Rollo to understand all that his father said; and still harder for him to feel the force of it. He began to grow sleepy, and so his father let him go to bed. LESSON LVII. _The same subject, concluded._ [Illustration] 1. The next day, his father gave him his work. He was to begin at ten o'clock, and work till eleven, gathering beans in the garden. 2. His father went out with him, and waited to see how long it took him to gather half a pint, and then calculated how many he could gather in an hour, if he was industrious. Rollo knew that if he failed now he should be punished in some way, although his father did not say anything about punishment. 3. When he was set at work, the day before, about the nails, he was making an experiment, as it were, and he did not expect to be actually punished, if he failed; but now he knew that he was under orders, and must obey. 4. So he worked very diligently, and when his father came out, at the end of the hour, he found that Rollo had got rather more beans than he had expected. Rollo was much gratified to see his father pleased; and he carried in his large basket full of beans to show his mother, with great pleasure. 5. Then he went to play, and enjoyed himself very highly. The next morning, his father said to him,--"Well, Rollo, you did very well yesterday; but doing right once is a very different thing from forming a habit of doing right. I can hardly expect you will succeed as well to-day; or, if you should to-day, that you will to-morrow." 6. Rollo thought he should. His work was to pick up all the loose stones in the road, and carry them, in a basket, to a great heap of stones behind the barn. 7. But he was not quite faithful. His father observed him playing several times. He did not speak to him, however, until the hour was over; and then he called him in. 8. "Rollo," said he, "you have failed to-day. You have not been very idle, but have not been industrious; and the punishment which I have concluded to try first is, to give you only bread and water for dinner." 9. So, when dinner-time came, and the family sat down to the good beef-steak and apple-pie which was upon the table, Rollo knew that he was not to come. He felt very unhappy, but he did not cry. 10. His father called him, and cut off a good slice of bread, and put into his hands, and told him he might go and eat it on the steps of the back door. "If you should be thirsty," he added, "you may ask Mary to give you some water." 11. Rollo took the bread, and went out, and took his solitary seat on the stone step leading into the back yard; and, in spite of all his efforts to prevent it, the tears would come into his eyes. 12. He thought of his guilt in disobeying his father, and he felt unhappy to think that his father and mother were seated together at their pleasant table, and that he could not come, because he had been an undutiful son. He determined that he would never be unfaithful in his work again. 13. He went on, after this, several days, very well. His father gave him various kinds of work to do, and he began, at last, to find a considerable degree of satisfaction in doing it. 14. He found, particularly, that he enjoyed himself a great deal more after his work than before; and, whenever he saw what he had done, it gave him pleasure. 15. After he had picked up the loose stones before the house, for instance, he drove his hoop about there with unusual satisfaction; enjoying the neat and tidy appearance of the road much more than he would have done, if Jonas had cleared it. In fact, in the course of a month, Rollo became quite a faithful and efficient little workman. [Illustration] LESSON LVIII. _The Comma._ THE COMMA is a mark like this =,= When you come to a comma in reading, you must generally make a short pause. Sometimes you must use the falling inflection of the voice, when you come to a comma; and sometimes you must keep your voice suspended, as if some one had stopped you before you had read all that you intended. The general rule, when you come to a comma, is, to stop just long enough to count one. EXAMPLES. Diligence, industry, and proper improvement of time, are material duties of the young. He is generous, just, charitable, and humane. By wisdom, by art, by the united strength of a civil community, men have been enabled to subdue the whole race of lions, bears, and serpents. [Sometimes a comma must be read like a question.] Do you pretend to sit as high in school as Anthony? Did you read as correctly, articulate as distinctly, speak as loudly, or behave as well, as he? Did he recite his lesson correctly, read audibly, and appear to understand what he read? Was his copy written neatly, his letters made handsomely, and did no blot appear on his book? Was his wealth stored fraudfully, the spoil of orphans wronged, and widows who had none to plead their rights? Have not you, too, gone about the earth like an evil genius, blasting the fair fruits of peace and industry? Is that a map which you have before you, with the leaves blotted with ink? Will you say that your time is your own, and that you have a right to employ it in the manner you please? [Sometimes a comma is to be read like a period, with the falling inflection of the voice.] The teacher directed him to take his seat, to study his lesson, and to pass no more time in idleness. It is said by unbelievers that religion is dull, unsocial, uncharitable, enthusiastic, a damper of human joy, a morose intruder upon human pleasure. Charles has brought his pen instead of his pencil, his paper instead of his slate, his grammar instead of his arithmetic. Perhaps you have mistaken sobriety for dullness, equanimity for moroseness, disinclination to bad company for aversion to society, abhorrence of vice for uncharitableness, and piety for enthusiasm. Henry was careless, thoughtless, heedless, and inattentive. [Sometimes the comma is to be read like an exclamation.] O, how can you destroy those beautiful things which your father procured for you! that beautiful top, those polished marbles, that excellent ball, and that beautiful painted kite,--oh, how can you destroy them, and expect that he will buy you new ones! O, how canst thou renounce the boundless store of charms that Nature to her votary yields! the warbling woodland, the resounding shore, the pomp of groves, the garniture of fields, all that the genial ray of morning gilds, and all that echoes to the song of even, all that the mountain's sheltering bosom shields, and all the dread magnificence of heaven, oh, how canst thou renounce, and hope to be forgiven! [Sometimes the comma, and other marks, are to be read without any pause or inflection of the voice.] You see, boys, what a fine school-room we have, in which you can pursue your studies. You see, my son, this wide and large firmament over our heads, where the sun and moon, and all the stars, appear in their turns. Therefore, my child, fear, and worship, and love God. He that can read as well as you can, James, need not be ashamed to read aloud. He that can make the multitude laugh and weep as you can, Mr. Shakspeare, need not fear scholars. [Sometimes the pause of a comma must be made where there is no pause in your book. Spaces are left, in the following sentences, where the pause is proper.] James was very much delighted with the picture which he saw. The Europeans were hardly less amazed at the scene now before them. The inhabitants were entirely naked. Their black hair, long and curled, floated upon their shoulders, or was bound in tresses around their head. Persons of reflection and sensibility contemplate with interest the scenes of nature. The succession and contrast of the seasons give scope to that care and foresight, diligence and industry, which are essential to the dignity and enjoyment of human beings. [The pupil may read the following sentences; but before reading them, he may tell after what word the pause should be made. The pause is not printed in the sentences, but it must be made when reading them. And here it may be observed, that the comma is more frequently used to point out the grammatical divisions of a sentence than to indicate a rest or cessation of the voice. Good reading depends much upon skill and judgment in making those pauses which the sense of the sentence dictates, but which are not noted in the book; and the sooner the pupil is taught to make them, with proper discrimination, the surer and the more rapid will be his progress in the art of reading.] While they were at their silent meal a horseman came galloping to the door, and, with a loud voice, called out that he had been sent express with a letter to Gilbert Ainslee. The golden head that was wont to rise at that part of the table was now wanting. For even though absent from school I shall get the lesson. For even though dead I will control the trophies of the capitol. It is now two hundred years since attempts have been made to civilize the North American savage. Doing well has something more in it than the fulfilling of a duty. You will expect me to say something of the lonely records of the former races that inhabited this country. There is no virtue without a characteristic beauty to make it particularly loved by the good, and to make the bad ashamed of their neglect of it. A sacrifice was never yet offered to a principle, that was not made up to us by self-approval, and the consideration of what our degradation would have been had we done otherwise. The following story has been handed down by family tradition for more than a century. The succession and contrast of the seasons give scope to that care and foresight, diligence and industry, which are essential to the dignity and enjoyment of human beings, whose happiness is connected with the exertion of their faculties. A lion of the largest size measures from eight to nine feet from the muzzle to the origin of the tail, which last is of itself about four feet long. The height of the larger specimens is four or five feet. The following anecdote will show with what obstinate perseverance pack-horses have been known to preserve the line of their order. Good-morning to you, Charles! Whose book is that which you have under your arm? A benison upon thee, gentle huntsman! Whose towers are these that overlook the wood? The incidents of the last few days have been such as will probably never again be witnessed by the people of America, and such as were never before witnessed by any nation under heaven. To the memory of Andre his country has erected the most magnificent monuments, and bestowed on his family the highest honors and most liberal rewards. To the memory of Hale not a stone has been erected, and the traveler asks in vain for the place of his long sleep. LESSON LIX. _The Semicolon._ THE SEMICOLON is made by a comma placed under a period, thus =;= When you come to a semicolon, you must generally make a pause twice as long as you would make at a comma. Sometimes you must keep the voice suspended when you come to a semicolon, as in the following: EXAMPLES. That God whom you see me daily worship; whom I daily call upon to bless both you and me, and all mankind; whose wondrous acts are recorded in those Scriptures which you constantly read; that God who created the heaven and the earth is your Father and Friend. My son, as you have been used to look to me in all your actions, and have been afraid to do anything unless you first knew my will; so let it now be a rule of your life to look up to God in all your actions. [Sometimes you must use the falling inflection of the voice when you come to a semicolon, as in the following:] EXAMPLES. Let your dress be sober, clean, and modest; not to set off the beauty of your person, but to declare the sobriety of your mind; that your outward garb may resemble the inward plainness and simplicity of your heart. In meat and drink, observe the rules of Christian temperance and sobriety; consider your body only as the servant and minister of your soul; and only so nourish it, as it may best perform an humble and obedient service. Condescend to all the weakness and infirmities of your fellow-creatures; cover their frailties; love their excellences; encourage their virtues; relieve their wants; rejoice in their prosperity; compassionate their distress; receive their friendship; overlook their unkindness; forgive their malice; be a servant of servants; and condescend to do the lowest offices for the lowest of mankind. [The semicolon is sometimes used for a question, and sometimes as an exclamation.] EXAMPLES. Hast thou not set at defiance my authority; violated the public peace, and passed thy life in injuring the persons and properties of thy fellow-subjects? O, it was impious; it was unmanly; it was poor and pitiful! Have not you too gone about the earth like an evil genius; blasting the fair fruits of peace and industry; plundering, ravaging, killing, without law, without justice, merely to gratify an insatiable lust for dominion? What a glorious monument of human invention, that has thus triumphed over wind and wave; has brought the ends of the earth in communion; has established an interchange of blessings, pouring into the sterile regions of the north all the luxuries of the south; diffused the light of knowledge and the charities of cultivated life; and has thus bound together those scattered portions of the human race, between which Nature seemed to have thrown an insurmountable barrier! LESSON LX. _The Colon._ THE COLON consists of two periods placed one above the other, thus =:= Sometimes the passage ending with a colon is to be read with the voice suspended; but it should generally be read with the falling inflection of the voice. The general rule, when you come to a colon, is to stop just long enough to count three; or three times as long as you are directed to pause at a comma. EXAMPLES. Law and order are forgotten: violence and rapine are abroad: the golden cords of society are loosed. The temples are profaned: the soldier's curse resounds in the house of God: the marble pavement is trampled by iron hoofs: horses neigh beside the altar. Blue wreaths of smoke ascend through the trees, and betray the half-hidden cottage: the eye contemplates well-thatched ricks, and barns bursting with plenty: the peasant laughs at the approach of winter. [The following passages ending with a colon are to be read with the voice suspended:] Do not flatter yourselves with the hope of perfect happiness: there is no such thing in the world. A boy at school is by no means at liberty to read what books he pleases: he must give attention to those which contain his lessons; so that, when he is called upon to recite, he may be ready, fluent, and accurate, in repeating the portion assigned him. As we perceive the shadow to have moved along the dial, but did not perceive its moving; and it appears that the grass has grown, though nobody ever saw it grow: so the advances we make in knowledge, as they consist of such minute steps, are perceivable only by the distance gone over. When the proud steed shall know why man restrains his fiery course, or drives him o'er the plains; when the dull ox, why now he breaks the clod, is now a victim, and now Egypt's god: then shall man's pride and dullness comprehend his actions', passions', being's use and end. Jehovah, God of hosts, hath sworn, saying: Surely, as I have devised, so shall it be; and as I have purposed, so shall it stand. George, you must not laugh at me; I will not bear it. You forget what you are about when you ridicule me: I know more than you do about the lessons. I never heard a word about it before, said George, yesterday: who told you about it, Charles? I never heard one word of it before, said my uncle Toby, hastily: how came he there, Trim? Thou shalt pronounce this parable upon the King of Babylon; and shalt say: How hath the oppressor ceased? It is not only in the sacred fane that homage should be paid to the Most High: there is a temple, one not made with hands; the vaulted firmament: far in the woods, almost beyond the sound of city-chime, at intervals heard through the breezeless air. THE END. [Illustration: List of textbooks] Transcriber's Notes: To retain the flavor of this schoolbook, the Transcriber has left all grammar errors in tact. Any exceptions are noted below. Page vii: Opening bracket added to first sentence. [_The Poetical Extracts Page 131: Period added: generosity. Page 139: Period added: she was immovable. Page 150: Period added: 18. Page 154: Period added: The same, subject, continued. Page 165: Word "might" changed to "mighty" due to space in poem and poem's scheme. Page 202: Word "curse" is presumed: "...curse resounds in the ..." 
44802	----	by Google Books THE COMIC ENGLISH GRAMMAR: A NEW AND FACETIOUS INTRODUCTION TO THE ENGLISH TONGUE. By Percival Leigh Embellished with upwards of forty-five Characteristic Illustrations By John Leech. 1845. PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. Fashion {003}requires, and like the rest of her sex, requires because she requires, that before a writer begins the business of his book, he should give an account to the world of his reasons for producing it; and therefore, to avoid singularity, we shall proceed with the statement of our own, excepting only a few private ones, which are neither here nor there. To advance the interests of mankind by promoting the cause of Education; to ameliorate the conversation of the masses; to cultivate Taste, and diffuse Refinement; these are the objects we have in view in submitting a Comic English Grammar to the patronage of a discerning Public. Few persons there are, whose ears are so extremely obtuse, as not to be frequently annoyed at the violations of Grammar by which they are so often assailed. It is really painful to be forced, in walking along the streets, to hear such phrases as, "That 'ere omnibus." "Where've you bin?" "Vot's the odds?" and the like. Very dreadful expressions are also used by cartmen and others in addressing their horses. What can possibly induce a human being to say "Gee woot!" "'Mather way!" or "Woa not to mention the atrocious "Kim aup!" of the barbarous butcher's boy. It is notorious that the above and greater enormities are perpetrated in spite of the number of Grammars already before the world. This fact sufficiently excuses the present addition to the stock; and as serious English Grammars have hitherto failed to effect the desired reformation, we are induced to attempt it by means of a Comic one. With regard to the moral tendency of our labors, we may be here permitted to remark, that they will tend, if successful, to the suppression of _evil speaking _; and as the Spartans used to exhibit a tipsy slave to their children with a view to disgust them with drunkenness, so we, by giving a few examples here and there, of incorrect phraseology, shall expose, in their naked deformity, the vices of speech to the ingenious reader. The {004}comical mind, like the jaundiced eye, views everything through a colored medium. Such a mind is that of the generality of our countrymen. We distinguish even the nearest ties of relationship by facetious names. A father is called "dad," or "poppa;" an uncle, "nunkey and a wife, a "rib," or more pleasantly still, as in the advertisements for situations, "an encumbrance." We will not allow a man to give an old woman a dose of rhubarb if he have not acquired at least half a dozen sciences; but we permit a quack to sell as much poison as he pleases. When one man runs away with another's wife, and, being on that account challenged to fight a duel, shoots the aggrieved party through the head, the latter is said to receive _satisfaction_. We never take a glass of wine at dinner without getting somebody else to do the same, as if we wanted encouragement; and then, before we venture to drink, we bow to each other across the table, preserving all the while a most wonderful gravity. This, however, it may be said, is the natural result of endeavoring to keep one another in countenance. The way in which we imitate foreign manners and customs is very amusing. Savages stick fish-bones through their noses; our fair countrywomen have hoops of metal poked through their ears. The Caribs flatten the forehead; the Chinese compress the foot; and we possess similar contrivances for reducing the figure of a young lady to a resemblance to an hour-glass or a devil-on-two-sticks. There being no other assignable motive for these and the like proceedings, it is reasonable to suppose that they are adopted, as schoolboys say, "for fun." We could go on, were it necessary, adducing facts to an almost unlimited extent; but we consider that enough has now been said in proof of the comic character of the national mind. And in conclusion, if any other than an English or American author can be produced, equal in point of wit, humor, and drollery, to Swift, Sterne, Dickens, or Paulding, we hereby engage to eat him; albeit we have no pretensions to the character of a "helluo librorum." "English {005}Grammar," according to Lindley Murray, "is the art of speaking and writing the English language with propriety." The English language, written and spoken with propriety, is commonly called the King's English. A monarch, who, three or four generations back, occupied the English throne, is reported to have said, "If beebles will be boets, they must sdarve." This was a rather curious specimen of "King's English." It is, however, a maxim of English law, that "the King can do no wrong." Whatever bad English, therefore, may proceed from the royal mouth, is not "King's English," but "Minister's English," for which they alone-are responsible. King's English (or perhaps, under existing circumstances it should be called, _Queen's_ English) is the current coin of conversation, to mutilate which, and unlawfully to _utter_ the same, is called _clipping_ the King's English; a high crime and misdemeanor. Clipped English, or bad English, is one variety of Comic {006}English, of which we shall adduce instances hereafter. Slipslop, or the erroneous substitution of one word for another, as "prodigy" for "protegee," "derangement" for "arrangement," "exasperate" for "aspirate," and the like, is another. [Illustration: 015] Slang, which consists in cant words and phrases, as "dodge" for "sly trick," "no go" for "failure," and "camey" "to flatter," may be considered a third. Latinised English, or Fine English, sometimes assumes the character of Comic English, especially when applied to the purposes of common discourse; as {007}"Extinguish the luminary," "Agitate the coramunicator," "Are your corporeal functions in a condition of salubrity?" "A sable visual orb," "A sanguinary nasal protuberance." American English is Comic English in a "_pretty particular considerable tarnation_" degree. English Grammar is divided into four parts-Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody; and as these are points that a good grammarian always stands upon, he, particularly when a pedant, and consequently somewhat _flat_, may very properly be compared to a table. PART I. ORTHOGRAPHY. CHAPTER I. OF THE NATURE OF THE LETTERS, AND OF A COMIC ALPHABET. Orthography is like a schoolmaster, or instructor of youth. It teaches us the nature and powers of letters and the right method of spelling words. Comic Orthography teaches us the oddity and absurdities of _letters_, and the wrong method of spelling words. The following is an example of Comic Orthography:-- islinton foteenth of my {008}Deer jemes febuary 1844. wen fust i sawed yu doun the middle and up agin att the bawl i maid Up my Mind to skure you for my oan for i Felt at once that my appiness was at Steak, and a sensashun in my Bussum I coudent no ways accom For. And i said to mary at missis Igginses said i theres the Mann for my money o ses Shee i nose a Sweeter Yung Man than that Air Do you sez i Agin then there we Agree To Differ, and we was sittin by the window and we wos wery Neer fallin Out. my deer gemes Sins that Nite i Ha vent slept a Wink and Wot is moor to the Porpus i'Have quit Lost my Happy tight and am gettin wus and wus witch i Think yu ort to pitty Mee. i am Tolled every Day that ime Gettin Thinner and a Jipsy sed that nothin wood Cure me But a Ring. i wos a Long time makin my Mind Up to right to You for of Coarse i Says jemes will think me too forrad but this bein Leep yere i thout ide Make a Plunge, leastways to aUThem as dont Want to Bee old Mades all their blessed lives, so my Deer Jemes if yow want a Pardoner for Better or for wus nows Your Time dont think i Behave despicable for tis my Luv for yu as makes Me take this Stepp. please to Burn this Letter when Red and excuse the scralls and Blotches witch is Caused by my Teers i remain till deth Yure on Happy Vallentine _jane you No who_. poscrip nex sunday Is my sunday out And i shall be Att the corner of Wite Street at a quawter pas Sevn. {009} Wen This U. C. remember Mee j. g. [Illustration: 018] Now, to proceed with Orthography, we may remark, that a letter is the least part of a word. Of a _comic letter_ an instance has already been given. Dr. Johnson's letter to Lord Chesterfield is a capital letter. The letters of the Alphabet are the representatives of articulate sounds. The Alphabet is a Republic of Letters. There {010}are many things in this world erroneously as well as vulgarly compared to "bricks." In the case of the letters of the Alphabet, however, the comparison is just; they constitute the fabric of a language, and grammar is the mortar. The wonder is that there should be so few of them. The English letters are twenty-six in number. There is nothing like beginning at the beginning; and we shall now therefore enumerate them, with the view also of rendering their insertion subsidiary to mythological instruction, in conformity with the plan on which some account of the Heathen Deities and ancient heroes is prefixed or subjoined to a Dictionary. We present the reader with a form of Alphabet composed in humble imitation of that famous one, which, while appreciable by the dullest taste, and level to the meanest capacity, is nevertheless that by which the greatest minds have been agreeably inducted into knowledge. THE ALPHABET. A, was Apollo, the god of the carol, B, stood for Bacchus, astride on his barrel; C, for good Ceres, the goddess of grist, D, was Diana, that wouldn't be kiss'd; E, was nymph Echo, that pined to a sound, F, was sweet Flora, with buttercups crown'd; G, was Jove's pot-boy, young Ganymede hight, H, was fair Hebe, his barmaid so tight; I, little Io, turn'd into a cow, J, jealous Juno, that spiteful old sow; K, was Kitty, more lovely than goddess or muse; L, Lacooon--I wouldn't have been in _his_ shoes! {011} M, was blue-eyed Minerva, with stockings to match, N, was Nestor, with grey beard and silvery thatch; O, was lofty Olympus, King Jupiter's shop, P, Parnassus, Apollo hung out on its top; Q, stood for Quirites, the Romans, to wit; R, for rantipole Roscius, that made such a hit; S, for Sappho, so famous for felo-de-se, T, for Thales the wise, F. R. S. and M. D: U, was crafty Ulysses, so artful a dodger, V, was hop-a-kick Vulcan, that limping old codger; Wenus-Venus I mean-with a W begins, (Veil, if I ham a Cockney, wot need of your grins?) X, was Xantippe, the scratch-cat and shrew, Y, I don't know what Y was, whack me if I do! Z was Zeno the Stoic, Zenobia the clever, And Zoilus the critic, whose fame lasts forever. Letters are divided into Vowels and Consonants. The vowels are capable of being perfectly uttered by themselves. They are, as it were, independent members of the Alphabet, and like independent members elsewhere, form a small minority. The vowels are _a, e, i, o, u_, and sometimes _w_ and _y_. An I. O. U. is a more pleasant thing to have, than it is to give. A blow in the stomach is very likely to W up. W is a consonant when it begins a word, as "Wicked Will Wiggins whacked his wife with a whip but in every other place it is a vowel, as crawling, drawling, sawney, screwing, Jew. Y follows the same rule. A consonant is an articulate sound; but, like an old bachelor, if it exists alone, it exists to no purpose. [Illustration: 021] It {012}cannot be perfectly uttered without the aid of a vowel; and even then the vowel has the greatest share in the production of the sound. Thus a vowel joined to a consonant becomes, so to speak, a "better half:" or at all events very strongly resembles one. A dipthong is the union of two vowels in one sound, as ea in heavy, eu in Meux, ou in stout. A tripthong is a similar union of three vowels, as _eau_ in the word beau; a term applied to dandies, and addressed to geese: probably because they are birds of a feather. A proper dipthong is that in which the sound is formed by both the vowels: as, aw in awkward, ou in lout. An {013}improper dipthong is that in which the sound is formed by one of the vowels only, as ea in heartless, oa in hoax. According to our notions there are a great many improper dipthongs in common use. By improper dipthongs we mean vowels unwarrantably dilated into dipthongs, and dipthongs mispronounced, in defiance of good English. For instance, the rustics and dandies say, "Loor! whaut a foine gaal! Moy oy!" "Whaut a precious soight of crows!" "As I was a cornin' whoam through the corn fiddles (fields) I met Willum Jones." "I sor (saw) him." "Dror (draw) it out." "Hold your jor (jaw)." "I caun't. You shaun't. How's your Maw and Paw? Do you like taut (tart)?" We have heard young ladies remark,-- "Oh, my! What a naice young man!" "What a bee--eautiful day!" "Im so fond of dayncing!" Again, dandies frequently exclaim,-- "I'm postively tiawed (tired)." "What a sweet tempaw! (temper)." "How daughty (dirty) the streets au!" And they also call,-- Literature, "literetchah." Perfectly, "pawfacly." Disgusted, "disgasted." Sky, "ske--eye." Blue, "ble--ew." We might here insert a few remarks on the nature of {014}the human voice, and of the mechanism by means of which articulation is performed; but besides our dislike to prolixity, we are afraid of getting _down in the mouth_, and thereby going the _wrong way_ to please our readers. We may nevertheless venture to invite attention to a few comical peculiarities in connection with articulate sounds. Ahem! at the commencement of a speech, is a sound agreeably droll. The vocal comicalities of the infant in arms are exceedingly laughable, but we are unfortunately unable to spell them. The articulation of the Jew is peculiarly ridiculous. The "peoplesh" are badly spoken of, and not well spoken. Bawling, croaking, hissing, whistling, and grunting, are elegant vocal accomplishments. Lisping, as, thweet, Dthooliur, thawming, kweechau, is by some considered interesting, by others absurd. But of all the sounds which proceed from the human mouth, by far the funniest are Ha! ha! ha!--Ho! ho! ho! and He! he! he! [Illustration: 023] CHAPTER II. OF SYLLABLES. Syllable {015}is a nice word, it sounds so much like syllabub! A syllable, whether it constitute a word or part of a word, is a sound, either simple or compound, produced by one effort of the voice, as, "O! what, a lark!--Here, we, are!" Spelling is the art of putting together the letters which compose a syllable, or the syllables which compose a word. [Illustration: 024] Comic spelling is usually the work of imagination. The {016}chief rule to be observed in this kind of spelling, is, to spell every word as it is pronounced; though the rule is not universally observed by comic spellers. The following example, for the genuineness of which we can vouch, is one so singularly apposite, that although we have already submitted a similar specimen of orthography to the reader, we are irresistibly tempted to make a second experiment on his indulgence. The epistolary curiosity, then, which we shall now proceed to transcribe, was addressed by a patient to his medical adviser. "Sir, "My Granmother wos very much trubeld With the Gout and dide with it my father wos also and dide with it when i wos 14 years of age i wos in the habbet of Gettin whet feet Every Night by pumping water out of a Celler Wich Cas me to have the tipes fever wich Cas my Defness when i was 23 of age i fell in the Water betwen the ice and i have Bin in the habbet of Gettin wet when traviling i have Bin trubbeld with Gout for seven years "Your most humbel "Servent Among the various kinds of spelling may be enumerated spelling for a favor; or giving what is called a broad hint. Certain rules for the division of words into syllables are laid down in some grammars, and we should be very glad to follow the established usage, but limited as we are by considerations of comicality and space, we {017}cannot afford to give more than two very general directions. If you do not know how to spell a word, look it out in the dictionary, and if you have no dictionary by you, write the word in such a way, that, while it may be guessed at, it shall not be legible. CHAPTER III. OF WORDS IN GENERAL. There is no one question that we are aware of more puzzling than this, "What is your opinion of _things_ in general?" _Words_ in general are, fortunately for us, a subject on which the formation of an opinion is somewhat more easy. Words stand for things: they are a sort of counters, checks, bank-notes, and sometimes, indeed, they are _notes_ for which people get a great deal of money. Such words, however, are, alas! not generally English words, but Italian. Strange! that so much should be given for a mere song. It is quite clear that the givers, whatever may be their pretensions to a refined or literary taste, must be entirely unacquainted with _Words_worth. Fine words are oily enough, and he who uses them is vulgarly said to "cut it fat;" but for all that it is well known that they will not butter parsnips. Some say that words are but wind: for this reason, when people are having words, it is often said, that "the wind's up." Different {018}words please different people. Philosophers are fond of hard words; pedants of tough words, long words, and crackjaw words; bullies, of rough words; boasters, of big words; the rising generation, of slang words; fashionable people, of French words; wits, of sharp words and smart words; and ladies, of nice words, sweet words, soft words, and soothing words; and, indeed, of words in general. Words (when spoken) are articulate sounds used by common consent as signs of our ideas. A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable: as, you, are, a, great, oaf. A word of two syllables is named a Dissyllable; as, cat-gut, mu-sic. A word of three syllables is termed a Trisyllable; as, Mag-net-ism, Mum-mer-y. A word of four or more syllables is entitled a Polysyllable; as, in-ter-mi-na-ble cir-cum-lo-cu-ti-on, ex-as-pe-ra-ted, func-ti-o-na-ry, met-ro-po-li-tan, ro-tun-di-ty. Words of more syllables than one are sometimes comically contracted into one syllable; as, in s'pose for suppose, b'lieve for believe, and 'scuse for excuse: here, perhaps, 'buss, abbreviated from omnibus, deserves to be mentioned. In like manner, many long words are elegantly trimmed and shortened; as, ornary for ordinary, 'strornary for extraordinary, and curosity for curiosity; to which mysterus for mysterious may also be added. Polysyllables are an essential element in the sublime, both in poetry and in prose; but especially in that {019}species of the sublime which borders very closely on the ridiculous; as, "Aldiborontiphoscophormio, Where left's thou Chrononhotonthologos? [Illustration: 028] All words are either primitive or derivative. A primitive word is that which cannot be reduced to any simpler word in the language; as, brass, York, knave. A derivative word, under the head of which compound words are also included, is that which may be reduced to another and a more simple word in the English language; as, brazen, Yorkshire, knavery, mud-lark, lighterman. Broadbrim is a derivative word; but it is one often applied to a very _primitive_ kind of person. PART II. ETYMOLOGY. CHAPTER I. A COMICAL VIEW OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Etymology {020}teaches the varieties, modifications, and derivation of words. The derivation of words means that which they come from _as words_; for what they come from _as sounds_, is another matter. Some words come from the heart, and then they are pathetic; others from the nose, in which case they are ludicrous. The funniest place, however, from which words can come is the stomach. By the way, the Mayor would do well to keep a ventriloquist, from whom, at a moment's notice, he might ascertain the voice of the corporation. Comic Etymology teaches us the varieties, modifications, and derivation, of words invested with a comic character. Grammatically speaking, we say that there are, in English, as many sorts of words as a cat is said to have lives, nine; namely, the Article, the Substantive or Noun, the Adjective, the Pronoun, the Verb, the Adverb, the Preposition, the Conjunction, and the Interjection. Comically speaking, there are a great many sorts of words which we have not room enough to particularise j individually. We can therefore only afford to classify them. For instance; there are words which are spoken in {021}the _Low Countries_, and are _High Dutch_ to persons of quality. Words in use amongst all those who have to do with horses. Words that pass between rival cab-men. Words spoken in a state of intoxication. Words uttered under excitement. Words of endearment, addressed by parents to children in arms. Similar words, sometimes called burning, tender, soft, and broken words, addressed to young ladies, and whispered, lisped, sighed, or drawled, according to circumstances. Words of honor; as, tailors' words and shoemakers' words; which, like the above-mentioned, or lovers' words, are very often broken. With many other sorts of words, which will be readily suggested by the reader's fancy. But now let us go on with the parts of speech. 1. An Article is a word prefixed to substantives to point them out, and to show the extent of their meaning; as, _a_ dandy, _an_ ape, _the_ simpleton. One kind of comic article is otherwise denominated an oddity, or queer article. Another kind of comic article is often to be met with in some of our monthly magazines. 2. A Substantive or Noun is the name of anything that exists, or of which we have any notion; as, _tinker, tailor, soldier, sailor, apothecary, ploughboy, thief._ Now the above definition of a substantive is Lindley Murray's, not ours. We mention this, because we have an objection, though, not, perhaps, a serious one, to {022}urge against it; for, in the first place, we have "no notion" of impudence, and yet impudence is a substantive; and, in the second, we invite attention to the following piece of Logic, A substantive is something, But nothing is a substantive; Therefore, nothing is something. A substantive may generally be known by its taking an article before it, and by its making sense of itself; as, a _treat_, the _mulligrubs_, an _ache_. 3. An Adjective is a word joined to a substantive to denote its quality; as a _ragged_ regiment, an _odd_ set. You may distinguish an adjective by its making sense with the word thing: as, a _poor_ thing, a _sweet_ thing, a _cool_ thing; or with any particular substantive, as a _ticklish_ position, an _awkward_ mistake, a _strange_ step. 4. A Pronoun is a word used in lieu of a noun, in order to avoid tautology: as, "The man wants calves; _he_ is a lath; _he_ is a walking-stick.'' 5. A Verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer: as, I am; I calculate; I am fixed. A verb may usually be distinguished by its making sense with a personal pronoun, or with the word to before it: as I yell, he grins, they caper; or to drink, to smoke, to chew. Fashionable accomplishments! Certain substantives are, with peculiar elegance, and by persons who call themselves _genteel_, converted into verbs: as, "Do you _wine?_" "Will you _liquor?_" 6. An Adverb is a part of speech which, joined to a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, serves to express quality or circumstance concerning it: as, "She swears {023}_dreadfully_; she is _incorrigibly_ lazy; and she is _almost continually_ in liquor." 7. An Adverb is generally characterised by answering to the question, How?'how much? when? or where? as in the verse, "_Merrily_ danced the Quaker's wife," the answer to the question, How did she dance? is, merrily. 8. Prepositions serve to connect words together, and to show the relation between them: as, "Off _with_ his head, so much _for_ Buckingham!" 9. A Conjunction is used to connect not only words, but sentences also: as, Smith _and_ Jones are happy _be~ cause_ they are single. A miss is _as_ good _as_ a mile. [Illustration: 032] 10. An {024}Interjection is a short word denoting passion or emotion: as, '_Oh_, Sophonisba! Sophonisba, _oh!_" Pshaw! Pish! Pooh! Bah! Ah! Au! Eughph! Yaw! Hum! Ha! Lauk! La! Lor! Heigho! Well! There! &c. [Illustration: 033] Among the foregoing interjections there may, perhaps, be some unhonored by the adoption of genius, and unknown in the domains of literature. For the present notice of them some apology may be required, but little will be given; their insertion may excite astonishment, but their omission would have provoked complaint: though unprovided with a Johnsonian title to a place in the English vocabulary, they have long been recognised by the popular voice; and let it be remembered, that as custom supplies the defects of legislation, so that which is not sanctioned by magisterial authority may nevertheless be justified by vernacular usage. CHAPTER II. OF THE ARTICLES. The {025}Articles in English are two, _a_ and _the_; _a_ becomes _an_ before a vowel, and before an _h_ which is not sounded: as, _an_ exquisite, _an_ hour-glass. But if the _h_ be pronounced, the _a_ only is used: as, _a_ homicide, _a_ homoepathist, _a_ hum. _A_ or _an_ is called the indefinite article, because it is used, in a vague sense, to point out some one thing belonging to a certain kind, but in other respects indeterminate; as, "A horse, a horse, my kingdom for a horse!" So say grammarians. Eating-house keepers tell a different story. A cheese, in common discourse, means an object of a certain shape, size, weight, and so on, entire and perfect; so that to call half a cheese a cheese, would constitute a flaw in an indictment against a thief who had stolen one. But a waiter will term a fraction, or a modicum of cheese, a cheese; a plate-full of pudding, a pudding; and a stick of celery, _a salary_. Here we are reminded of the famous exclamation of one of these gentry:--"Sir! there's two teas and a brandy-and-water just sloped without paying!" _The_ is termed the definite article, inasmuch as it denotes what particular thing or things are meant as, "_The_ miller he stole corn, _The_ weaver he stole yarn, And the little tailor he stole broad-cloth To keep the three rogues warm." A substantive to which no article is prefixed is taken in {026}a general sense; as, "Applesauce is proper for goose that is, for all geese. [Illustration: 035] A few additional remarks may advantageously be made with respect to the articles. The mere substitution of the definite for the indefinite article is capable of changing entirely the meaning of a sentence. "That is _a_ ticket" is the assertion of a certain fact; but "That is _the_ ticket!" means something which is quite different. The article is not prefixed to a proper name; as, Stubbs, Wiggins, Brown or Hobson, except for the sake of distinguishing a particular family, or description of persons; as, He is _a_ Burke; that is, one of the Burkes, or _a_ person resembling Burke. The {027}definite article is frequently used with adverbs in the comparative and superlative degree: as, "_The_ longer I live, _the_ taller, I grow or, as we have all heard the showman say, "This here, gentlemen and ladies, {028}is the vonderful heagle of the sun; the 'otterer it grows, the higherer he flies!" [Illustration: 037] CHAPTER III. SECTION I. OF SUBSTANTIVES IN GENERAL. Substantives are either proper or common. Proper names, or substantives, are the names belonging to individuals: as William, Birmingham. These are sometimes converted into nicknames, of improper names: as Bill, Brummagem. Common names, or substantives, denote kinds containing many sorts, or sorts containing many individual» under them: as brute, beast, bumpkin, cherub, infant, goblin, &c. Proper names, when an article is prefixed to them, are employed as common names: as, "They thought him a perfect _Chesterfield_; he quite astonished the _Browns_." Common names, on the other hand, are made to denote individuals, by the addition of articles or pronouns: as, "There was _a_ little man, and he had little gun." "_That_ boy will be the death of me!" Substantives are considered according to gender, number, and case; they are all of the third person when spoken _of_, and of the second when spoken _to_; {029}as, Matilda, fairest maid, who art In countless bumpers toasted, O let thy pity baste the heart Thy fatal charms have roasted! [Illustration: 038] SECTION II. OF GENDER. The distinction between nouns with regard to sex is called Gender. There are three genders: the Masculine, the Feminine, and the Neuter. The masculine gender belongs to animals of the male kind: as, a fop, a jackass, a boar, a poet, a lion. The feminine gender is peculiar to animals of the female kind: as, a poetess, a lioness, a goose. The {030}neuter gender is that of objects which are neither males nor females: as, a toast, a tankard, a pot, a pipe, a pudding, a pie, a sausage, &c. &c. &c. We might go on to enumerate an infinity of objects of the neuter gender, of all sorts and kinds; but in the selection of the foregoing examples we have been guided by two considerations:-- 1. The desire of exciting agreeable emotions in the mind of the reader. 2. The wish to illustrate the following proposition, "That almost everything nice is also neuter." Except, however, a nice young lady, a nice duck, and one or two other nice things, which we do not at present remember. Some neuter substantives are by a figure of speech converted into the masculine or feminine gender: thus we say of the sun, that when he shines upon a Socialist, t he shines upon a thief; and of the moon, that she affects the minds of lovers. [Illustration: 039] There {031}are certain nouns with which notions of strength, vigor, and the like qualities, are more particularly connected; and these are the neuter substantives which are figuratively rendered masculine. On the other hand, beauty, amiability, and so forth, are held to invest words with a feminine character. Thus the sun is said to be masculine, and the moon feminine. But for our own part, and our view is confirmed by the discoveries of astronomy, we believe that the sun is called masculine from his supporting and sustaining the moon, {032}and finding her the wherewithal to shine away as she does of a night, when all quiet people are in bed; and from his being obliged to keep such a family of stars besides. [Illustration: 040] The moon, we think, is accounted feminine, because she is thus maintained and kept up in her splendor, like a fine lady, by her husband the sun. Furthermore, the moon is continually changing; on which account alone she might be referred to the feminine gender. The earth is feminine, tricked out, as she is, with gems and flowers. Cities and towns are likewise feminine, because there are as many windings, turnings, and little odd corners in them as there are in the female mind. A ship is feminine, inasmuch as she is blown about by every wind. Virtue is feminine by courtesy. Fortune and misfortune, like mother and daughter, are both feminine. The Church is feminine, because she is married to the state; or married to the state because she is feminine--we do not know which. Time is masculine, because he is so trifled with by the ladies. The English language distinguishes the sex in three manners; namely, 1. By different words; as, MALE. FEMALE. Bachelor Maid. Brother Sister. Wizard Father And several other Witch Mother, &c. Words we don't mention, (Pray pardon the crime,) Worth your attention, But wanting in rhyme. 2. By {033}a difference of termination; as, MALE. FEMAL�. Poet Poetess. Lion Lioness, &c. 3. By a noun, pronoun, or adjective being prefixed to the substantive; as, male. female. A cock-lobster A hen-lobster. A jack-ass A jenny-ass (vernacular.) A man-servant, A maid-servant, or flunkey. or Abigail. A male flirt (A common animal) A female flirt (A rare animal.) We have heard it said, that every Jack has his Jill. That may be; but it is by no means true that every cock has his hen; for there is a Cock-swain, but no Hen-swain. Cock-eye, but no Hen-eye. Cock-ade, but no Hen-ade. Cock-atrice, but no Hen-atrice. Cock-horse, but no Hen-horse. Cock-ney, but no Hen-ney. Then we have a weather-cock, but no weather-hen; a tum-cock, but no turn-hen; and many a jolly cock, but not one jolly hen; unless we except some of those by whom their mates are pecked. Some words; as, parent, child, cousin, friend, neighbour, servant and several others, are either male or female, according to circumstances. It is a great pity that our language is so poor in the terminations that denote gender. Were we to say of a woman {034}that she is a rogue, a knave, a scamp, or a vagabond, we feel that we should use, not only strong but improper expressions. Yet we have no corresponding terms to apply, in case of necessity, to the female. Why is this? Doubtless because we never want them. For the same reason, our forefathers transmitted to us the words, philosopher, astronomer, philologer, and so forth, without any feminine equivalent. Alas! for the wisdom of our ancestors! They never calculated on the March of Intellect. SECTION III. OF NUMBER. Number is the consideration of an object as one or more; as, one poet, two, three, four, five poets; and so on, ad infinitum. The singular number expresses one object only; as a towel, a viper. The plural signifies more objects than one; as, towels, vipers. Some nouns are used only in the singular number; dirt, pitch, tallow, grease, filth, butter, asparagus, &c.; others only in the plural; as, galligaskins, breeches, &c. Some words are the same in both numbers; as, sheep, swine, and some others. The plural number of nouns is usually formed by adding _s_ to the singular; as, dove, doves, love, loves, &c. Julia, dove returns to dove, Quid pro quo, and love for love; Happy in our mutual loves, Let us live like turtle doves! [Illustration: 044] When, {035}however, the substantive singular ends in _x, ch softy sh, ss, or s_, we add es in the plural. But remember, though box In the plural makes boxes, That the plural of ox Should be _oxen_, not oxes. SECTION IV. OF CASE. There is nearly as much difference between Latin and English substantives, with respect to the number of cases pertaining to each, as there is between a quack-doctor {036}and a physician; for while in Latin sub-stantives have six cases, in English they have but three. But the analogy should not be strained too far; for the fools in the world (who furnish the quack with his cases) more than double the number of the wise. [Illustration: 045] The cases of substantives are these: the Nominative, the Possessive or Genitive, and the Objective or Accusative. The Nominative Case merely expresses the name of a thing, or the subject of the verb: as, "The doctors differ;"--"The patient dies!" Possession, which is nine points of the law, is what is signified by the Possessive Case. This case is distinguished by an apostrophe, with the letter _s_ subjoined to it: as, My soul's idol!"--"A pudding's end." But {037}when the plural ends in _s_, the apostrophe only is retained, and the other _s_ is omitted: as, "The Ministers' Step;"--"The Rogues' March;"--"Crocodiles' tears--"Butchers' mourning." When the singular terminates in _ss_, the letter _s_ is sometimes, in like manner, dispensed with: as, "For goodness' sake!"--"For righteousness' sake!" Nevertheless, we have no objection to "Burgess's" Stout. The Objective Case follows a verb active, and expresses the object of an action, or of a relation: as "Spring beat Bill;" that is, Bill or "William Neate." Hence, perhaps, the phrase, "I'll lick you _elegant_." The Objective Case is also used with a preposition: as, "You are in a mess." English substantives may be declined in the following manner: SINGULAR. What is the nominative case Of her who used to wash your face, Your hair to comb, your boots to lace? _A mother!_ What the possessive? Whose the slap That taught you not to spill your pap, Or to avoid a like mishap! _A mother's!_ And shall I the objective show? What do I hear where'er I go? How is your?--whom they mean I know, _My mother!_ PLURAL.{038} Who are the anxious watchers o'er The slumbers of a little bore, That screams whene'er it doesn't snore? _Why, mothers!_ Whose pity wipes its piping eyes, And stills maturer childhood's cries, Stopping its mouth with cakes and pies? _Oh! mother's!_ And whom, when master, fierce and fell, Dusts truant varlets' jackets well, Whom do they, roaring, run and tell? _Their mothers!_ CHAPTER IV. OF ADJECTIVES. SECTION I. OF THE NATURE OF ADJECTIVES AND THE DEGREES OF COMPARISON. An English Adjective, whatever may be its gender, number, or case, like a rusty weathercock, never varies. Thus we say, "A certain cabinet; certain rogues." But as a rusty weathercock may vary in being more or less rusty, so an adjective varies in the degrees of comparison. The degrees of comparison, like the Genders, the Graces, the Fates, the Kings of Cologne, the Weird Sisters, and many other things, are three; the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative. The Positive state simply expresses the quality of an object; as, fat, ugly, foolish. The Comparative degree increases or lessens the signification {039}of the positive; as fatter, uglier, more foolish, less foolish. The Superlative decree increases or lessens the positive to the highest or lowest degree; as fattest, ugliest, most foolish, least foolish. Amongst the ancients, Ulysses must have been the _fattest_, because nobody could _compass_ him. Aristides the Just was the ugliest, because he was so very _plain_. The most _foolish_, undoubtedly, was Homer; for who was more _natural_ than he? The positive becomes the comparative by the addition of _r_ or _er_; and the superlative by the addition of _st_ or _est_ to the end of it; as, brown, browner, brownest; stout, stouter, stoutest; heavy, heavier, heaviest; wet, wetter, wettest. The adverbs more and most, prefixed to the adjective, also form the superlative degree; as, heavy, more heavy, most heavy. Monosyllables are usually compared by er and est, and dissyllables by more and most; except dissyllables ending in y or in le before a mute, or those which are accented on the last syllable; for these, like monosyllables, easily admit of er and est. But these terminations are scarcely ever used in comparing words of more than two syllables. We have some words, which, from custom, are irregular in respect of comparison; as, good, better, best; bad, worse, worst, &c.; but the Yankee's "notion" of comparison was decidedly funny; "My uncle's a tarnation rogue; but I'm a tarnationer." SECTION II. A FEW REMARKS ON THE SUBJECT OF COMPARISON. Lindley {040}Murray judiciously observes, that "if we consider the subject of comparison attentively, we shall perceive that the degrees of it are infinite in number, or at least indefinite:" and he proceeds to say, "A mountain is larger than a mite; by how many degrees? How much bigger is the earth than a grain of sand? By how many degrees was Socrates wiser than Alci-biades? or by how many is snow whiter than this paper? It is plain," quoth Lindley, "that to these and the like questions no definite answers can be returned." No; but an impertinent one may. Ask the first news-boy you meet, any one of these questions, and see if he does not immediately respond, 'Ax my eye or, "As much again as half." But when quantity can be exactly measured, the degrees of excess may be exactly ascertained. A foot is just twelve times as long as an inch; a tailor is nine times less than a man. Moreover, to compensate for the indefiniteness of the degrees of comparison, we use certain adverbs and words of like import, whereby we render our meaning tolerably intelligible; as, "Byron was a _much greater_ poet than Muggins." "Honey is _a great deal_ sweeter than wax." "Sugar is _considerably_ more pleasant than the cane." "Maria says, that Dick the butcher is _by far_ the most killing young man she knows." The words very, exceedingly, and the like, placed before the positive, give it the force of the superlative; and {041}this is called by some the superlative of eminence, as distinguished from the superlative of comparison. Thus, Very Reverend is termed the superlative of eminence, although it is the title of a dean, not of a cardinal; and Most Reverend, the appellation of an Archbishop, is called the superlative of comparison. A _Bishop_, in our opinion, is _Most Excellent_. The comparative is sometimes so employed as to express the same pre-eminence or inferiority as the superlative. For instance; the sentence, "Of all the cultivators of science, the botanist is the most crafty," has the same meaning as the following: "The botanist is more crafty than any other cultivator of science." Why? some of our readers will ask-- Because he is acquainted with all sorts of _plants._ CHAPTER V. OF PRONOUNS. Pronouns or proxy-nouns are of three kinds; namely, the Personal, the Relative, and the Adjective Pronouns. _Note_.--That when we said, some few pages back, that a pronoun was a word used instead of a noun, we did not mean to call such words as thingumibob, what-siname, what-d'ye-call-it, and the like, pronouns. And that, although we shall proceed to treat of the pronouns in the English language, we shall have nothing to do, at present, with what some people please to call pronoun-_ciation_. SECTION I. OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. "Mr. {042}Addams, don't be personal, Sir!" "I'm not, Sir." "You am, Sir!" "What did I say, Sir?--tell me that." "You reflected on my perfession, Sir; you said, as there was some people as always stuck up for the cloth; and you insinnivated that certain parties dined off goose by means of cabbaging fiom their customers. I ask any gentleman in the room, if that an't personal. [Illustration: 051] {043} "Veil, Sir, vot I says I'll stick to." "Yes, Sir, like vax, as the saying is." "Wot d'ye mean by that, Sir?" "Wot I say, Sir!" "You 're a individual, Sir!" "You 're another, Sir!" "You 're no gentleman, Sir!" "You 're a humbug, Sir!" "You 're a knave, Sir!" "You 're a rogue, Sir!" "You 're a wagabond, Sir!" "You 're a willain, Sir!" "You 're a tailor, Sir!" "You 're a cobler, Sir!" (Order! order! chair! chair! &c. The above is what is called personal language. How many different things one word serves to express in English! A pronoun may be as personal as possible, and yet nobody will take offence at it. There are five Personal Pronouns; namely, I, thou, he, she, it; with their plurals, we, ye or you, they. Personal Pronouns admit of person, number, gender, and case. Pronouns have three persons in each number. In the Singular; I, is the first person. Thou, is the second person. He, she, or it, is the third person. In the plural; We, is the first person. Ye or you, is the second person. They, is the third person. This {044}account of persons will be very intelligible when the following Pastoral Fragment is reflected on: HE. I love thee, Susan, on my life: Thou art the maiden for a wife. He who lives single is an ass; She who ne'èr weds a luckless lass. It's tiresome work to live alone; So come with me, and be my own. SHE. We maids are oft by men deceived; Ye don't deserve to be believed; You don't--but there's my hand--heigho! They tell us, women can't say no! The speaker or speakers are of the first person; those spoken to, of the second; and those spoken of, of the third. Of the three persons, the first is the most universally admired. The second is the object of much adulation and flattery, and now and then of a little abuse. The third person is generally made small account of; and, amongst other grievances, suffers a great deal from being frequently bitten about the back. The Numbers of pronouns, like those of substantives, are, as we have already seen, two; the singular and the plural. In addressing yourself to anybody, it is customary to use the second person plural instead of the singular. This practice most probably arose from a notion, that to be thought twice the man that the speaker was, gratified the vanity of the person addressed. Thus, the {045}French put a double Monsieur on the backs of their letters. Editors say "We," instead of "I," out of modesty. The Quakers continue to say "thee" and "thou," in the use of which pronouns, as well as in the wearing of broad-brimmed hats and of stand-up collars, they perceive a peculiar sanctity. Gender has to do only with the third person singular of the pronouns, he, she, it. He is masculine; she is feminine; it is neuter. Pronouns have the like cases with substantives; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective. Would that they were the hardest cases to be met with in this country! The personal pronouns are thus declined:-- ===> See page image. CASE. FIRST PERSON SINGULAR. FIRST PERSON PLURAL. Nom. I We. Poss. Mine Ours. Obj. Me Us. CASE. SECOND PERSON. SECOND PERSON. Nom. Thou Ye or you. Poss. Thine Yours. Obj. Thee You. Now the third person singular, as we before observed, has genders; and we shall therefore decline it in a different way. Variety is charming. THIRD PERSON SINGULAR. CASE. MASC. FEM. NEUT. Nom. He She It. Poss. His Hers Its. Obj. Him Her It. CASE. PLURAL. Nom. They. Poss. Theirs. Obj. Them. We {046}beg to inform thee, that the third person plural has no distinction of gender. SECTION II. OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS. The Pronouns called Relative are such as relate, for the most part, to some word or phrase, called the antecedent, on account of its going before: they are, _who_, _which_, and _that_: as, "The man who does not drink enough when he can get it, is a fool: but he that drinks too much is a beast." _What_ is usually equivalent to _that which_, and is, therefore, a kind of compound relative, containing both the antecedent and the relative; as, "You want what you'll very soon have!" that is to say, the thing which you will very soon have. _Who_ is applied to persons, _which_ to animals and things without life; as, "He is a gentleman who keeps a horse and lives respectably." To the dog which pinned the old woman, they cried, '_Cosar!_'" That, as a relative, is used to prevent the too frequent repetition of _who and which_, and is applied both to persons and things; as, He that stops the bottle is a Cork man." "This is the _house that_ Jack built." Who is of both numbers; and so is an Editor; for, according to what we observed just now, he is both singular and plural. Who, we repeat, is of both numbers, and is thus declined:-- ====> See Page Image SINGULAR AND PLURAL. To despair shall I doom? Which, {047}that and what are indeclinable; except that whose is sometimes used as the possessive case of which; "The roe, poor dear, laments amain, Whose sweet hart was by hunter slain." Who, which, and what, when they are used in asking questions, are called Interrogatives; as, "Who is Mr. Walker?". "Which is the left side of a round plum-pudding?" "What is the damage?" Those who, have made popular phraseology their study, will have found that which is sometimes used for whereas, and words of like signification; as in Dean Swift's "Mary the Cookmaid's Letter to Dr. Sheridan:" "And now I know whereby you would fain make an excuse, Because my master one day in anger call'd you a goose; _Which_, and I am sure I have been his servant since October, And he never called me worse than sweetheart, drunk or sober." What, or, to speak more improperly, wot, is generally substituted by cabmen and hack-drivers for who; as, "The donkey wot wouldn't go." "The girl wot sweeps the crossing." That, likewise, is very frequently rejected by the vulgar, {048}who use as in its place; as, "Them as asks shan't have any; and them as don't ask don't want any." SECTION III. OF THE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. Adjective pronouns partake of the nature of both pronouns and adjectives. They may be subdivided into four sorts: the possessive, the distributive, the demonstrative, and the indefinite. The possessive pronouns are those which imply possession or property. Of these there are seven; namely, my, thy, his, her, our, your, their. The word self is added to possessives; as, myself, yourself, "Says I to myself, says I." Self is also sometimes {049}used with personal pronouns; as, himself, itself, themselves. His self is a common, but not a proper expression. [Illustration: 057] The distributive are three; each, every, either; they denote the individual persons or things' separately, which, when taken together, make up a number. Each is used when two or more persons or things are mentioned singly; as, "each of the Catos;" "each or the Browns." Every relates to one out of several; as, "Every mare is a horse, but every horse is not a mare." Either refers to one out of two; as, "When I between two jockeys ride, I have a knave on either side." Neither signifies "not either;" as, "Neither of the Bacons was related to Hogg." The demonstrative pronouns precisely point out the subjects to which they relate; such are this and that, with their plurals these and those; as, "This is a Hoosier lad; that is a Yankee school-master." This refers to the nearest person or thing, and to the latter or last mentioned; that to the most distant, and to the former or first mentioned; as, "This is a man; that is a nondescript." "At the period of the Reformation in Scotland, a curious contrast between the ancient and modern ecclesiastical systems was observed; for while that had been always maintained by a Bull, this was now supported by a Knox" The indefinite are those which express their subjects in an indefinite or general manner; as, some, other, any, one, all, such, &c. When the definite article the comes before the word other, {050}those who do not know better, are accustomed to strike out the he in the, and to say, t'other. The same persons also use other in the comparative degree; for sometimes, instead of saying quite the reverse, or perhaps reverse, they avail themselves of the expression more t'other. So much for the pronouns. CHAPTER VI. OF VERBS. SECTION I. OF THE NATURE OF VERBS IN GENERAL. The nature of Verbs in general, and that in all languages, is, that they are the most difficult things in the Grammar. Verbs are divided into Active, Passive, and Neuter; and also into Regular, Irregular, and Defective. To these divisions we beg to add another; Verbs Comic. A Verb Active implies an agent, and an object acted upon; as, to love; "I love Wilhelmina Stubbs." Here, I am the agent; that is, the lover; and Wilhelmina Stubbs is the object acted upon, or the beloved object. A Verb Passive expresses the suffering, feeling, or undergoing of something; and therefore implies an object acted upon, and an agent by which it is acted upon; as, to be loved; "Wilhelmina Stubbs is loved by me." A {051}Verb Neuter expresses neither action nor passion, but a state of being; as, I bounce, I lie. "Gracious, Major!" [Illustration: 060] Of Verbs Regular, Irregular, and Defective, we shall have somewhat to say hereafter. Verbs Comic are, for the most part, verbs which cannot be found in the dictionary, and are used to express ordinary actions in a jocular manner; as, to "bolt," to "mizzle," which signify to go or to depart; to "bone," to "prig," that is to say, to steal; to "collar," which means to seize, an expression probably derived {052}from the mode of prehension, or rather apprehension characteristic of the New Police, as it is one very much in the mouths of those who most frequently come in contact with that body: to "liquor,"'or drink; to "grub," or eat; to "sell," or deceive, &c. Under the head of Verbs Comic, the Yankeeisms, I "calculate," I "reckon," I "realise," I "guess," and the like, may also be properly enumerated. Auxiliary, or helping Verbs (by the way we marvel that the New Englanders do not call their servants auxiliaries instead of helps) are those, by the help of which we are chiefly enabled to conjugate our verbs in English. They are, do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, with their variations; and let and must, which have no variation. Let, however, when it is _anything but a helping_ verb, as, for instance, when it signifies to _hinder_, makes let-test and letteth. The phrase, "This House to Let," generally used instead of "to be let," meaning in fact, the reverse of what is intended to convey, is really a piece of comic English. To verbs belong Number, Person, Mood, and Tense. These may be called the properties of a verb; and like those of opium, they are soporiferous properties. There are two very important objects which the writer of every book has, or ought to have in view, to get a reader who is wide awake, and to keep him so:--the latter of which, when Number, Person, Mood, and Tense are to be treated of, is no such easy matter; seeing that the said writer is then in some danger of going to sleep himself. Never mind. If we nod, let the reader wink. What can't be cured must be endured. SECTION II. OF NUMBER AND PERSON. Verbs {053}have two numbers, the Singular and the Plural: as, "I fiddle, we fiddle," &c. In each number there are three persons; as, SINGULAR. PLURAL. First Person I love We love. Second Person Thou lovest Ye or you love. Third Person He loves They love. What a deal there is in every Grammar about love! Here the following Lines, by a Young Lady, (now no more,) addressed to Lindley Murray, deserves to be recorded:-- "Oh, Murray! fatal name to me, Thy burning page with tears is wet; Since first 'to love' I learned of thee, Teach me, ah! teach me to forget!'" SECTION III. OF MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. Mood or Mode is a particular form of the verb, or a certain variation which it undergoes, showing the manner in which the being, action, or passion, is represented. The moods of verbs are five, the Indicative, the Imperative, the Potential, the Subjunctive, and the Infinitive. The Indicative Mood simply points out or declares a thing: as, "He teaches, he is taught or it asks a question: as, "Does he teach? Is he taught?" Q. Why {054}is old age the best teacher? A. Because he gives you the most wrinkles. Q. Why does a rope support a rope-dancer? A. Because it is taught. The Imperative Mood commands, exhorts, entreats, or permits: as, "Vanish thou; trot ye; let us hop; be off!" The Potential Mood implies possibility or liberty, power, will, or obligation: as, "A waiter may be honest. Yuu may stand upon truth or lie. I can filch. He would cozen. They should learn." The Subjunctive Mood is used to represent a thing as done conditionally; and is preceded by a conjunction, expressed or understood, and accompanied by another verb: as, "_If_ the skies should fall, larks would be caught," "Were I to punch your head, I should serve you right:" that is, "_if_ I were to punch your head." The Infinitive Mood expresses a thing generally, without limitation, and without any distinction of number or person: as, "to quarrel, to fight, to be licked." The Participle is a peculiar form of the verb, and is so called, because it participates in the properties both of a verb and of an adjective: as, "May I have the pleasure of _dancing_ with you?" "_Mounted_ on a tub he addressed the bystanders." "_Having_ uplifted a stave, they departed." The Participles are three; the Present or Active, the Perfect or Passive, and the Compound Perfect: as, "I felt nervous at the thought of _popping_ the question, but that once _popped_, I was not sorry for _having popped_ it." The {055}worst of _popping_ the question is, that the _report_ is always sure to get abroad. SECTION IV. OF THE TENSES. Tense is the distinction of time, and consists of six divisions, namely, the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, and the First and Second Future Tenses. Time is also distinguished by a fore-lock, scythe, and hour-glass; but the youthful reader must bear in mind, that these things are not to be confounded with tenses. [Illustration: 064] The {056}Present Tense, as its name implies, represents an action or event occurring at the present time: as "I lament; rogues prosper; the mob rules." The Imperfect Tense represents a past action or event, but which, like a mutton chop, may be either thoroughly done, or not thoroughly done; were it _meet_, we should say, _under-done_: as, "When I was a little boy some fifteen years ago, My mammy doted on me--Lork! she made me quite a show." "When our reporter left, the Honorable Gentleman was still on his legs." The legs of most "Honorable Gentlemen" must be tolerably stout ones; for the "majority" do not stand on trifles. However, we are not going to commit ourselves, like some folks, nor to get committed, like other folks; so we will leave "Honorable Gentlemen" to manage matters their own way. The Perfect Tense declares a thing to have been done at some time, though an indefinite one, antecedent to the present time. That, however, which the Perfect Tense represents as done, is completely, or, as we say of a green one, when he is humbugged by the thimble-rig people, regularly done; as, "I have been out on the river." "I have caught a crab." Catching a crab is a thing regularly (in another sense than completely) done, when civic swains pull young ladies up to Richmond. We beg to inform persons unacquainted with aquatic phraseology, that "pulling up" young ladies, or others, is a very different thing from "pulling up" an omnibus conductor or a cabman. What an equivocal language is ours! How much less agreeable {057}to be "pulled up" at the Police office than to be "pulled up" in a row-boat! how wide the discrepancy between "pulling up" radishes and "pulling up" horses! The Pluperfect Tense represents a thing as doubly past; that is, as past previously to some other point of time also past; as, "I fell in love before I _had arrived_ at years of discretion." [Illustration: 066] The First Future Tense represents the action as yet to come, either at a certain or an uncertain time; as, "The tailor _will send_ my coat home to-morrow; and when I find it perfectly convenient, I _shall pay_ him." The Second Future intimates that the action will be completed {058}at or before the time of another future action or event; as, "I wonder how many conquests I _shall have made_ by to-morrow morning." N. B. One ball is often the means of killing a great many people. The consideration of the tenses suggests various moral reflections to the thinking mind. A couple of examples will perhaps suffice;-- 1. _Present_, though moderate fruition, is preferable to splendid, but contingent futurity; i. e. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. 2. _Imperfect_ nutrition is less to be deprecated than privation of aliment;--a new way of putting an old proverb, which we need not again insert, respecting half a loaf. SECTION V. THE CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS TO HAVE AND TO BE. We have observed that boys, in conjugating verbs, give no indications of delight, except that which an ingenious disposition always feels in the acquisition of knowledge. Now, having arrived at that part of the Grammar in which it becomes necessary that these same verbs should be considered, we feel ourselves in an awkward dilemma. The omission of the conjugations is a _serious_ omission--which, of course, is objectionable in a _comic_ work--and the insertion of them would be equally serious, and therefore quite as improper. What _shall_ we do? We will adopt a middle course; referring the reader to Murray and other talented authors for full information on these matters; and requesting him to be content with our confining ourselves {059}to what is more especially suitable to these pages--a glance at the _Comicalities_ of verbs. If being a youngster I had not been smitten, Of having been jilted I should not complain, Take warning from me all ye lads who are bitten, When this part of Grammar occurs to your brain. As there is a certain _intensity_ of feeling abroad, which renders people indisposed to trouble themselves with verbal matters, we shall take the liberty of making very short work of the Regular Verbs. Even Murray can only afford to conjugate one example,--To Love. The learner must amplify this part of the Grammar for himself: and we recommend him to substitute for "to love," some word less harrowing to a sensitive mind: as, "to fleece, to tax," verbs which excite disagreeable emotions only in a sordid one; and which also, by association of ideas, conduct us to useful reflections on Political Economy. We advise all whom it may concern, however, to pay the greatest attention to this part of the Grammar, and before they come to the Verbs Regular, to make a particular study of the Auxiliary Verbs: not only for the excellent reasons set forth, in "Tristram Shandy," but also to avoid those awkward mistakes in which the Comicalities of the Verbs, or Verbal Comicalities, chiefly consist. "Did it rain to-morrow?" asked Monsieur Grenouille. "Yes it was!" replied Monsieur Crapaud. We propose the following as an _auxiliary mode_ of conjugating verbs:--"I love to roam on the crested foam, Thou lovest to roam on the crested foam, He loves to roam on the crested foam, We love to roam on the {060}crested foam, Ye or you love to roam on the crested foam, They love to roam on the crested foam," &c. The Auxiliary Verbs, too, are very useful when a peculiar emphasis is required: as, "I shall give you a drubbing!" "Will you?" "I know a trick worth two of that." "Do you, though?" "It might" as the Quaker said to the Yankee, who wanted to know what his name might be; "it might be Beelzebub, but it is not." [Illustration: 069] Now we may as well say what we have to say about the conjugation of regular verbs active. SECTION VI. THE CONJUGATION OF REGULAR VERBS ACTIVE. Regular Verbs Active are known by their forming their imperfect tense of the indicative mood, and their perfect participle, by adding to the verb ed, or d only when the verb ends in e: as, PRESENT. IMPERFECT. PERF. PARTICPL. I reckon I reckoned. Reckoned. I realise. I realised. Realised. Here {061}should follow the conjugation of the regular active verb, To Love; but we have already assigned a good reason for omitting it; besides which we have to say, that we think it a verb highly unfit for conjugation by youth, as it tends to put ideas into their heads which they would otherwise never have thought of; and it is moreover our opinion, that several of our most gifted poets may, with reason, have attributed the so unfortunate attachments which, though formed in early youth, served to embitter their whole lives, to the poison which they thus sucked in with the milk, so to speak, of their Mother Tongue, the Grammar. [Illustration: 070] We shall therefore dismiss Cupid, and he must look for other lodgings. PASSIVE. Verbs {062}Passive are said to be regular, when their perfect participle is formed by the addition of d, or ed to the verb: as, from the verb "To bless," is formed the passive, "I am blessed, I was blessed, I shall be blessed," &c. The conjugation of a passive verb is nothing more than the repetition of that of the auxiliary To Be, the perfect participle being added. And now, having cut the regular verbs (as Alexander did the Gordian knot) instead of conjugating them, let us proceed to consider the SECTION VII. IRREGULAR VERBS Irregular Verbs are those of which the imperfect tense and the perfect participle are _not_ formed by adding _d or ed_ to the verb: as, PRESENT. IMPERFECT. PERFECT PART I blow. I blew. blown. To say I am blown, is, under certain circumstances, such as windy and tempestuous weather, proper enough; but I am blowed, it will at once be perceived, is not only an ungrammatical, but also a vulgar expression. Great liberties are taken with the Irregular Verbs, insomuch that in the mouths of some persons, divers of them become doubly irregular in the formation of their participles. Among such Irregular Verbs we may enumerate the following:-- PRESENT. IMPERFECT. PERF. OR PASS. PART. Am wur bin. Burst bust busted. {063} PRESENT. IMPERFECT. PERF. OR PASS. PART. ==> See Page Scan SECTION VIII. OF DEFECTIVE VERBS. Most men have five senses, Most verbs have six tenses; But as there are some folks Who are blind, deaf, or dumb folks, Just so there are some verbs Defective, or rum verbs, which are used only in some of their moods and tenses. ===> See Page Scan CHAPTER VII. OF ADVERBS. Having {064}as great a dislike as the youngest of our readers can have to repetitions, we shall not say what an adverb is over again. It is, nevertheless, right to observe, that some adverbs are compared: as, far, farther, farthest; near, nearer, nearest. In comparing those which end in ly, we use more and most: as, slowly, more slowly, most slowly. There are a great many adverbs in the English Language: their number is probably even greater than that of abusive epithets. They are divisible into certain classes; the chief of which are Number, Order, Place, Time, Quantity, Manner or Quality, Doubt, Affirmation, Negation, Interrogation, and Comparison. A nice little list, truly! and perhaps some of our readers may suppose that we are going to exemplify it at length: if so, all we can say with regard to their expectation is, that we wish they may get it gratified. In the meantime, we will not turn our Grammar into a dictionary, to please anybody. However, we have no objection to a brief illustration of the uses and properties of adverbs, as contained in the following passage:-- "Formerly, when first I began to preach and to teach, whithersoever I went, the little boys followed me, and now and then pelted me with brick-bats, as heretofore they pelted Ebenezer Grimes. And whensoever I opened my mouth, straightways the ungodly began to crow. Oftentimes was I hit in the mouth with an orange: yea, and once, moreover, with a rotten egg: whereat {065}there was much laughter, which, notwithstanding, I took in good part, and wiped my face and looked pleasantly. For peradventure I said, they will listen to my sermon; yea, and after that we may have a collection. So I was nowise discomfited; wherefore I advise thee, Brother Habakkuk, to take no heed of thy persecutors, seeing that I, whereas I was once little better off than thyself, have now a chapel of mine own. And herein let thy mind be comforted, that, preach as much as thou wilt against the Bishop, thou wilt not, therefore, in these days, be in danger of the pillory. Howbeit," &c. Vide Life of the late pious and Rev. Samuel Simcox (letter to Habakkuk Brown.) CHAPTER VIII. OF PREPOSITIONS. Prepositions are, for the most part, put before nouns and pronouns: as, "out of the frying-pan into the fire." The preposition of is sometimes used as a part of speech of peculiar signification, and one to which no name has as yet been applied: as, "What you been doing of?" At and up are not rarely used as verbs, but we should scarcely have been justified in so classing them by the authority of any polite writer; such use of them being confined to the vulgar: as, "Now then, Bill, at him again." "So she upped with her fists, and fetched him a whop." After is improperly pronounced arter, and against, agin: {066}as, "Hallo! Jim, vot are you arter? don't you know that ere's agin the Law?" CHAPTER IX. OF CONJUNCTIONS.. A Conjunction means literally, a union or meeting together. [Illustration: 075] An ill-assorted marriage is A COMICAL CONJUNCTION. But {067}our conjunctions are used to connect words and sentences, and have nothing to do with the joining of hands. They are chiefly of two sorts, the Copulative and Disjunctive. The Copulative Conjunction is employed for the connection or continuation of a sentence: as, "Jack and Gill went up the Hill," "I will sing a song if Gubbins will." "A thirsty man is like a Giant because he is a Grog for drink." The Conjunction Disjunctive is used not only for purposes of connection, but also to express opposition of meaning in different degrees: as, "We pay less for our letters, but shall have to pay more for our coats: they have lightened our postage, but they will increase our taxes. Conjunctions are the hooks and eyes of Language, in which, as well as in dress, it is very possible to make an awkward use of them: as, "For if the year consist of 365 days 6 hours, and January have 31 days, then the relation between the corpuscular theory of light and the new views of Mr. Owen is at once subverted: for 'When Ignorance is bliss, 'tis folly to be wise because 1760 yards make a mile; and it is universally acknowledged that 'war is the madness of many for the gain of a few therefore Sir Isaac Newton was right in supposing the diamond to be combustible." The Siamese twins, it must be admitted, form a singular conjunction. A tin pot fastened to a dog's tail is a disagreeable conjunction to the unfortunate animal. A happy pair may be regarded as an uncommon conjunction. The {068}word as, so often used in this and other Grammars, is a conjunction: as, "Mrs. A. is as well as can be expected." [Illustration: 077] CHAPTER X. OF DERIVATION. Those who know Latin, Greek, Saxon, and the other languages from which our own is formed, do not require to {069}be instructed in philological derivation; and on those who do not understand the said tongues, such instruction would be thrown away. In what manner English words are derived, one from another, the generality of persons know very well: there are, however, a few words and phrases, which it is expedient to trace to their respective sources; not only because such an exercise is of itself delightful to the inquiring mind; but because we shall thereby be furnished (as we hope to show) with a test by means of which, on hearing an expression for the first time, we shall be able, in most instances, to decide at once respecting its nature and quality. These words, of which many have but recently come into vogue, which, though by no means improper or immoral, are absolutely unutterable in any polite assembly. It is not, at first, very easy to see what can be the objection to their use; but derivation explains it for us in the most satisfactory manner. The truth is, that the expressions in question take their origin from various trades and occupations, in which they have for the most part, a literal meaning; and we now perceive what horrible suspicions respecting one's birth, habits, and education, their figurative employment would be likely to excite. To make the matter indisputably clear, we will explain our position by a few examples. {070} WORDS AND PHRASES. WHAT DERIVED FROM. To be done, Cooks. To be done brown, Ditto. A sell, (a cheat,) Jews. To lather (to beat,) Barbers. To strap (ditto,) Cobblers. To hide (ditto,) Curriers. Spicy (showy,) Grocers. To hang out (to dwell,) Publicans. Swamped (ruined,) Watermen. To put one's oar in (to interfere,) Ditto. Mahogany (for table,) Upholsterers. Dodge (trick,) Pickpockets. To bung up an eye, Brewers. To chalk down, Publicans. A close shaver (a miser,) Barbers. To be off your feed, Ostlers. Hold hard (stop,) Omnibus-men. Numerous examples, similar to the foregoing, will, no doubt, present themselves, in addition, to the mind of the enlightened student. We have not, however, quite done yet with our remarks on this division of our subject. The intrinsic vulgarity of all modes of speech which may be traced to mean or disreputable persons, will, of course, not be questioned. But--and as we have got hold of a nice bone, we may as well get all the marrow we can out of it--the principle which is now under consideration has a much wider range than is apparent at first sight. Now we will suppose a red-hot lover addressing the goddess of his idolatry--by the way, how strange it is, that these goddesses should be always having their temples {071}on fire, that a Queen of Hearts should ever be seated on a burning throne!--but to return to the lover: he was to say something. Well, then, let A. B. be the lover. He expresses himself thus: "Mary, my earthly hopes are centred in you. You need not doubt me; my heart is true as the dial to the sun. Words cannot express how much I love you. Nor is my affection an ordinary feeling: it is a more exalted and a more enduring sentiment than that which bears it name. I have done. I am not eloquent: I can say no more, than that I deeply and sincerely love you." This, perhaps, will be regarded by connoisseurs as tolerably pathetic, and for the kind of thing not very ridiculous. Now, let A. S. S. be the lover: and let us have his version of the same story:-- "Mary, my capital in life is invested in you. You need not stick at giving me credit; my heart is as safe as the bank. The sum total of my love for you defies calculation. Nor is my attachment anything in the common way. It is a superior and more durable article than that in general wear. My stock of words is exhausted. I am no wholesale dealer in that line. All I can say is, that I have a vast fund of unadulterated affection for you." In this effusion the Stock Exchange, the multiplication table, and the dry goods and grocer's shops have been drawn upon for a clothing to the suitor's ideas; and by an unhappy choice of words, the most delightful and amiable feelings of our nature, without which life would be a desert and man a bear, are invested with a ridiculous disguise. We would willingly enlarge upon the topic which we have {072}thus slightly handled, but that we feel that we should by so doing, intrench too far on the boundaries of Rhetoric, to which science, more particularly than to Grammar, the consideration of Metaphor belongs; besides which, it is high time to have done with Etymology. PART III. SYNTAX. "Now then, reader, if you are quite ready, we are.--All right! * * * *" The asterisks are intended to stand for a word used in speaking to horses. Don't blush, young ladies; there's not a shadow of harm in it: but as to spelling it, we are as unable to do so as the ostler's boy was, who was thrashed for his ignorance by his father. "Where are we now, coachman?" "The third part of Grammar, Sir, wot treats of the agreement and construction of words in a sentence." "Does a coachman say _wot_ for _which_ because he has a licence?" "Can't say, Ma'am?" "Drive on, coachman." And we must drive on, or boil on, or whatever it is the fashion to call getting on in these times. A {073}sentence is an aggregate of words forming a complete sense. Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound. A simple sentence has in it but one subject and one finite verb; that is, a verb to which number and person belong: as, "A joke is a joke." A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences connected together: as, "A joke is a joke, but a ducking is no joke. Corpulence is the attribute of swine, mayors, and oxen." Simple sentences may be divided (if we choose to take the trouble) into the Explicative or explaining; the Interrogative, or asking; the imperative, or commanding. An explicative sentence is, in other words, a direct assertion: as, "Sir, you are impertinent."--_Johnson_. An interrogative sentence "merely asks a question:" as, "Are you a policeman? How's your Inspector?" An imperative sentence is expressive of command, exhortation, or entreaty; as, "Shoulder arms!" "Turn out your toes!" "Charge bayonets!" A phrase is two or more words properly put together, making either a sentence or part of a sentence: as, "Good morning!" "Your most obedient!" Some phrases consist of two or more words improperly put together: these are improper phrases: as, "Now then, old stupid!" "Stand out of the sunshine!" Other phrases consist of words put together by ladies: as, "A duck of a man," "A love of a shawl," "so nice," "quite refreshing," "sweetly pretty." "Did you ever?" "No I never!" [Illustration: 083] Other phrases again consist of French and English words put together by people of quality, because their knowledge {074}of both languages is pretty nearly equal: as, "I am au désespoir," "mis hors de combat," "quite ennuyé," or rather in nine cases out of ten, "ennuyeé,"--"I have a great envié" to do so and so. These constitute an important variety of comic English. If you want to know what subjects and objects are, you should go to the Morgue at Paris. But in Grammar-- The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of; the attribute is that which is affirmed or denied of it; and the object is the thing affected by such action. The {075}nominative denotes the subject, and usually goes before the verb or attribute; and the word or phrase, denoting the object, follows the verb; as, "The flirt torments her lover." Here, a flirt is the subject; torments, the attribute or thing affirmed; and her lover, the object. [Illustration: 084] It strikes us, though, that we are somewhat digressing from our subject, namely Syntax, which, Principally {076}consists of two parts (which the flirt does not, for she is all body and no soul) Concord and Government. Concord is the agreement which one word has with another, in gender, number, case or person. Note.--That a want of agreement between words does not invalidate _deeds_. We apprehend that such an engagement as the following, properly authenticated, would hold good in law. I ose Jon stubs too hunder dollar for valley reseved an promis to pay Him Nex Sattaday Signed Willum Gibs is x Mark March 18, 1844. Also that a friend of ours, to whom the following bill was sent, could not have refused to discharge it on the score of its incorrect grammar. ==> See Page Scan Government {077}is that power which one part of speech has over another, in directing its mood, tense, or case. Government is also that power, of which, if the Agrarians have their way, we shall soon see very little in this country. Hurrah! No taxes! No army! No navy! No parsons! No lawyers! No Congress! No Legislature! No anything! No nothing! To produce the agreement and right disposition of words in a sentence, the following rules (and observations?) should be carefully studied. RULE I. A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person: as "I perceive." "Thou hast been to Boston." "Apes chatter." "Frenchmen gabble." Certain liberties are sometimes taken with this rule: as, "I own I likes good beer." "You'm a fine fellow, aint yer?" Such modes of speaking are adopted by those who neither know nor care anything about grammatical correctness: but there are other persons who care a great deal about it, but unfortunately do not know what it consists in. Such folks are very fond of saying, "How it rain!" "It fit you very well." "He say he think it very unbecoming." "I were gone before you {078}was come," and so forth, in which forms of speech they perceive a peculiar elegance. The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is sometimes used as the nominative case to the verb: as, "to be good is to be happy which is as grammatical an assertion as "Toby Good is Toby Happy;" and rather surpasses it in respect of sense. "That two pippins are a pair, is a proposition which no man in his senses will deny." "To be a connoisseur in boots, To hate all rational pursuits, To make your money fly, as though Gold would as fast as mushrooms grow; To haunt the Opera, save whene'er There's anything worth hearing there; To smirk, to smile, to bow, to dance, To talk of what they eat in France, To languish, simper, sue, and sigh, And stuff her bead with flattery; Are means to gain that worthless part, A fashionable lady's heart." Here are examples enough, in all conscience, of infinitive moods serving as nominative oases. All verbs, save only in the infinitive mood or participle, require a nominative case either expressed or understood: as, "Row with me down the river," that is "Row thou, or do thou row." "Come where the aspens quiver," "come thou, or do thou come." "Fly not yet;" "fly not thou, or do not thou fly." "Pass the ruby;" "Pass thou, or do thou pass the ruby" (not the Rubicon. A {079}well known popular song affords an example of the violation of this rule. "Ven as the Captain comed for to hear on't, Wery much applauded vot she'd done." [Illustration: 088] The verb applauded has here no nominative case, whereas it ought to have been governed by the pronoun he. "He very much applauded," &c. Every nominative case, except when made absolute, or used, like the Latin Vocative, in addressing a person, should belong to some verb, implied if not expressed. A beautiful example of this grammatical maxim, {080}and one, too, that explains itself, is impressed upon the mind very soon after its first introduction to letters: as, "Who kill'd Cock Robin? I said the sparrow, With my bow and arrow; I kill'd Cock Robin." Of the neglect of this rule also, the ballad lately mentioned presents an instance: as, "Four-and-twenty brisk young fellows Clad in jackets, blue array,-- And they took poor Billy Taylor From his true love all avay." The only verb in these four lines is the verb took, which is governed by the pronoun they. The four-and-twenty brisk young fellows, therefore, though undeniably in the nominative, have no verb to belong to: while, at the same time, whatever may be thought of their behavior to Mr. William Taylor, they are certainly not absolute in point of case. When a verb comes between two nouns, either of which may be taken as the subject of the affirmation, it may agree with either of them: as, "Two-and-six-pence is half-a-crown." Due regard, however, should be paid to that noun which is most naturally the subject of the verb: it would be clearly wrong to say, "Ducks and green peas is a delicacy." "Fleas is a nuisance." A nominative case, standing without a personal tense of a verb, and being put before a participle, independently of the rest of the sentence, is called a case absolute: as, "My brethren, to-morrow being Sunday, I shall {081}preach a sermon in John street; after which we shall join in a hymn, and that having been sungy Brother Biggs will address you." The objective case is sometimes incorrectly made absolute by showmen and others: as, "Here, gentlemen and ladies, you will see that great warrior Napoleon Bonaparte, standing agin a tree with his hands in his breeches pockets, him taking good care to keep out of harm's vay. And there, on the extreme right, you will observe the Duky Vellingtdn a valking about amidst the red-hot cannon balls, him not caring von straw." [Illustration: 090] RULE II. Two or more singular nouns, joined together by a copulative conjunction, expressed, or understood are equivalent {082}to a plural noun, and therefore require verbs, nouns, and pronouns, agreeing with them in the plural number: as, "Veal, wine, and vinegar are very good victuals I vow." "Burke and Hare were nice men." "A hat without a crown, a tattered coat, threadbare and out at elbows, a pair of breeches which looked like a piece of dirty patchwork diversified by various holes, and of boots which a Jew would hardly have raked from a kennel, at once proclaimed him a man who had seen better days." This rule is not always adhered to in discourse quite so closely as a fastidious ear would require it to be: as, "And so, you know, Mary, and I, and Jane was a dusting the chairs, and in comes Missus." RULE III. When the conjunction disjunctive comes between two nouns, the verb, noun, or pronoun, is of the singular number, because it refers to each of such nouns taken separately: as, "A cold in the head, or a sore eye is a great disadvantage to a lover." If singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun of different persons, be disjunctively connected, the verb must agree with the person which stands nearest to it; as, "I or thou art." "Thou or I am" "I, thou, or he is" &c. But as this way of writing or speaking is very inelegant, and as saying, "Either I am, or thou art," and so on, will always render having recourse to it unnecessary, the rule just laid down is almost useless, except inasmuch as it suggests a moral maxim, namely, "Always be on good terms with your next door neighbor." It also forcibly reminds us of some beautiful lines by Moore, {083}in which the heart, like a tendril, is said to twine round the "nearest and loveliest thing." Now the person which is placed nearest the verb is the object of choice; ergo, the most agreeable person--ergo, the loveliest person or thing. Should a conjunction disjunctive occur between a singular noun or pronoun, and a plural one, the verb agrees with the plural noun or pronoun: as, "Neither a king nor his courtiers are averse to butter:" (particularly when thickly spread.) "Darius or the Persians were hostile to Greece." RULE IV. A noun or multitude, that is, one which signifies many, can have a verb or Pronoun to agree with it either in the singular or plural number; according to the import of such noun, as conveying unity or plurality of idea: as, "The nations humbugged." "The multitude have to pay many taxes." "The city Council are at a loss to know what to do." "The people is a many headed monster." RULE V. Pronouns agree with their antecedents, and with the nouns to which they belong, in gender and number: as, "This is the blow which killed Ned." "England was once governed by a celebrated King, who was called Rufus the Red, but whose name was by no means so illustrious as that of Alfred." "General M. and the Lieutenant had put on their boots." "The lady appeared, and she smiled, but the smile belied her feelings." The relative being of the same person with the antecedent, {084}the verb always agrees with it: as, "Thou who learnest Syntax" "I who enlighten thy mind." The objective case of the personal pronouns is by some, for want of better information, employed in the place of these and those: as, "Let them things alone." "Now then, Jemes, make haste with them chops." The adverb there, is sometimes, with additional impropriety, joined to the pronoun them: as, "Look after them there sheep." The objective case of a pronoun in the first person is put after the interjections Oh! and Ah! as, "Oh! dear me," &c. The second person, however, requires a nominative case: as, "Oh! you good-for-nothing man!" "Ah! thou gay Lothario!" [Illustration: 093] RULE VI. When {085}there is no nominative case between the relative and the verb, the relative itself is the nominative to the verb: as, "The master who flogged us." "The rods which were used." But when the nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the relative exchanges, as it were, the character of sire for that of son, and becomes the governed instead of the governor; depending for its case | on some word in its own member of the sentence: as, "He who is now at the head of affairs, whom the people delight to honor, and to whom is intrusted the helm of state--is a Polk." RULE VII. The relative and the verb, when the former is preceded by two nominatives of different persons, may agree in person with either, according to the sense: as, "I am the young gentleman who do the lovers at the Chatham;" or, "who does." [Illustration: 095] Let this maxim be borne constantly in mind. "A murderer of good characters should always be made an example of." RULE VIII. Every adjective, and every adjective pronoun, relates to a substantive, expressed or implied: as, "Dando was an unprincipled, as well as a voracious man." "Few quarrel with their bread and butter;" that is, "few persons." "This is the wonderful eagle of the sun." That is, "This eagle" &c. Adjective pronouns agree in number with their substantives: "This muff, these muffs; that booby, these boobies; another numscull, other numsculls." Some {086}people say, "Those kind of things," or, "This four-and-twenty year," neither of which expressions they have any business to use. Adjectives are sometimes improperly used as adverbs: as, "He behaved very bad." "He insulted me most gross." "He eat and drank uncommon." "He wur beat very severe." "It hailed tremendous" or, more commonly, "tremenjus." RULE IX. The article a or an agrees with nouns in the singular number only: as, "A fool, an ass, a simpleton, a ninny, {087}a lout--I would not give a farthing for a thousand such." The definite article the may agree with nouns in the singular and plural number: as, "The toast, the ladies, the ducks." The articles are often properly omitted; when used, they serve to determine or limit the thing spoken of: as, "Variety is charming." "Familiarity doth breed contempt." "A stitch in time saves nine." "The heart that has truly loved never forgets." RULE X. One substantive, in the possessive or genitive case, is governed by another, of a different meaning: as, "A fiddle-stick's end." "Monkey's allowance." "Virtue's reward." [Illustration: 096] RULE XI. Active verbs govern the objective case: as, "I kissed her." "She scratched me" "Virtue rewards her followers." For {088}which reason she is like a cook. Verbs neuter do not govern an objective case. Observe, therefore, that such phrases: as, "She cried a good one," "He came the old soldier over me," and so forth, are highly improper in a grammatical point of view, to say nothing of other objections to them. These verbs, however, are capable of governing words of a meaning similar to their own: as, in the affecting ballad of Giles Scroggins-- "I wont, she cried, and screamed a scream" The verb To Be has the same case after it as that which goes before it: as, "It was I" not "It was me" "The Grubbs were they who eat so much tripe at our last party not "The Grubbses were them." RULE XII. One verb governs another that depends upon it, in the infinitive mood: as, "Cease to smoke pipes." "Begin to wear collars." "I advise you to shave" "I recommend you to go to church." "I resolved to visit the Carolinas." "And there I learned to wheel about And jump Jim Crow." In general the preposition to is used before the latter of two verbs; but sometimes it is more properly omitted: as, "I saw you take it, young fellow; come along with me." "Let me get hold of you, that's all!" "Did I hear you speak?" "I'll let you know!" "You dare not hit me." "Bid me discourse" "You need not sing" The proposition for is sometimes unnecessarily intruded into a sentence, in addition to the preposition to, before an infinitive mood: as, How came you for to think, {089}for to go, for to do such a thing?" Do you want me for to punch your head?" Adjectives, substantives, and participles, often govern the infinitive mood: as, "Miss Hopkins, I shall be happy to dance the next set with you." "Oh! Sir, it is impossible to refuse you." "Have you an inclination to waltz?" "I shall be delighted in endeavoring to do so." The infinitive mood is frequently made absolute, that is, independent of the rest of the sentence: as, "To say the truth, I was rather the worse for liquor." "Not to mince matters, Miss, I love you." [Illustration: 098] RULE XIII. The {090}relation which words and phrases bear to each other in point of time, should always be duly marked: instead of saying, "Last night I intended to have made strong love to her," we should say, "Last night I intended to make strong love to her;" because, although the intention of making strong love may have been abandoned (on reflection) this morning, and is now, therefore, a thing which is past, yet it is undoubtedly, when last night and the thoughts connected with it are brought back, again present to the mind. RULE XIV. Participles have the same power of government with that of the verbs from which they are derived: as, "Oh, what an exquisite singer Rubini is! I am so fond of hearing him." "Look at that horrid man; I declare he is quizzing us!" "No, he is only taking snuff." "See, how that thing opposite keeps making mouths." "How fond they all are of wearing mustaches! Don't you like it?" "Oh, yes! there is no resisting them." "Heigho! I am dying to have an ice--" Young man for a husband, Miss? For shame, Sir! don't be rude! Participles are sometimes used as substantives: as, "The French mouth is adapted to the making of grimaces." "The cobbler is like the parson; he lives by the mending of soles." "The tailor reaps a good harvest from the sewing of cloth." "Did you ever see a shoot-ing of the moon?" Is this what the witches mean when they sing, in the acting play of Macbeth, "We fly by night?" If {091}they "shoot the moon," they are shooting stars. There is a mode of using the indefinite article a before a participle, for which there is no occasion, as it does not convert the participle into a substantive, and makes no alteration in the sense of what is said; in this case the article, therefore, is like a wart, a wen, or a knob at the end of the nose, neither useful nor ornamental: as, "Going out a shooting." "Are you a coming to-morrow?" "I was a thinking about what Jem said." "Here you are, a going of it, as usual!" A liberty not unfrequently taken with the English Language, is the substitution of the perfect participle for the imperfect tense, and of the imperfect tense for the perfect participle: as, "He run like mad, with the great dog after him." "Maria come and told us all about it." "When I had wrote the Valentine, I sealed it with my thimble." "He has rose to (be) a common* councilman." "I was chose Lord Mayor." "I've eat (or a eat) lots of vension in my time." "I should have spoke if you hadn't put in your oar." "You were mistook." "He sent her an affecting copy of verses, which was wrote with a Perryian pen." RULE XV. Adverbs are generally placed in a sentence before adjectives, after verbs active or neuter, and frequently between the auxiliary and the verb: as, "He came, Sir, and he was most exceedingly drunk; he could hardly stand upon his legs; he made a very lame discourse; he spoke incoherently and ridiculously; and was impatiently heard by the whole assembly." "He is fashionably dressed." "She is conspicuously ugly." "The eye of {092}jealousy is proverbially sharp, and yet it is indisputiably green" "The French Marquis was a very charming man; he danced exquisitely and nimbly, and was greatly admired by all the ladies." [Illustration: 101] Several adverbs have been coined of late; and some of them are very remarkable for a "particular" elegance: as, "I reckon you're catawampously chawed up." In the example just given there is to be found, besides the new adverb, a word which, if not also new to the {093}English student, is rendered so both by its orthography and pronunciation; namely, _chawed_. This term is no other than "chewed," modified. "Chawed up" is a very strong expression, and is employed to signify the most complete state of discomfiture and defeat, when a man is as much crushed, mashed, and comminuted, morally speaking, as if he had literally and corporeally undergone the process of mastication. "Catawampously" is a concentration of "hopelessly," "tremendously," "thoroughly," and "irrevocably;" so that "catawampously chawed up," means, brought as nearly to a state of utter annihilation as anything consistently with the laws of nature can possibly be. For the metaphorical use of the word "chawed," three several reasons have been given: 1. Familiarity with the manner in which the alligator disposes of his vie-tims. 2. The cannibalism of the Aborigines. 3. The delicate practice of chewing tobacco. Each of these is supported by numerous arguments, on the consideration of which it would be quite out of the question to enter in this place. RULE XVI. Two English negatives (like French lovers) destroy one another,--and become equivalent to an affirmative: as, "The question before the House was not an unimportant one;" that is, "it was an important one." "Mr. Brown was free to confess that he did not undertake to say that he would not on some future occasion give a satisfactory answer to the honorable gentleman." Thus, at one and the same time, we teach our readers Syntax and secretiveness. It is probable that small boys are often unacquainted with {094}this rule; for many of them, while undergoing personal chastisement, exclaim, for the purpose, as it would appear, of causing its duration to be shortened--"Oh pray, Sir, oh pray, Sir, oh pray, Sir! I won't do so no more!" RULE XVII. Prepositions govern the objective case: as, "What did the butcher say of her?" "He said that she would never do for him; that she was too thin for a wife, and he was not fond of a spare rib." The delicate ear is much offended by any deviation from this rule: as, in a shocking and vulgar song which it was once our misfortune to hear:-- "There I found the faithless she Frying sausages for he." We had occasion, in the Etymology, to remark on a certain misuse of the preposition, of. This, perhaps, is best explained by stating that of in the instances cited, is made to usurp the government of cases which are already under a rightful jurisdiction: as, "What are you got a eating of?" "He had been a beating of his wife." RULE XVIII. Conjunctions connect similar moods and tenses of verbs, and cases of nouns and pronouns: as, "A coat of arms suspended on a wall is like an executed traitor; it is hanged, drawn, and quartered." "If you continue thus to drink brandy and water and to smoke cigars, you will be like Boreas the North wind, who takes 'cold without' wherever he goes, and always 'blows a cloud' when it comes in his way." "Do you think there is any {095}thing between him and her?" "Yes; he, and she are engaged ones." [Illustration: 104] Note.--To ask whether there is any thing between two persons of opposite sexes, is one way of inquiring whether they are in love with each other. It is not, however, in our opinion, a very happy phrase, inasmuch as whatever intervenes between a couple of fond hearts, must tend to prevent them from coming together. RULE XIX. Some conjunctions govern the indicative; some the subjunctive mood. In general, it is right to use the subjunctive, {096}when contingency or doubt is implied: as, "If I were to say that the moon is made of green cheese." "If I were a wiseacre." "If I were a Wilt-shire-man." "A lady, unless, she be toasted, is never drunk." And when she is toasted, those who are drunk are generally the gentlemen. [Illustration: 105] Those conjunctions which have a positive and absolute signification, require the indicative mood: as, "He who fasts may be compared to a horse: for as the animal eats not a bit, so neither does the man partake of a morsel." "The rustic is deluded by false hopes, for his daily food is gammon." Every philosopher has his weak points, and in the Sylva Sylvarum may be found some gammon of Bacon. RULE XX. When a comparison is made between two or more things, the latter noun or pronoun is not governed by the {097}conjunction than or as, but agrees with the verb, or is governed by the verb or preposition, expressed or understood: as, "The French are a lighter people than we," (that is "than we are,") "and yet we are not so dark as they," that is, "as they are." "I should think that they admire me more than them," that is, "than they admire them." "It is a shame, Martha! you were thinking more of that young officer than me," that is, "of me." [Illustration: 106] Sufficient attention is not always paid, in discourse, to this rule. Thus, a schoolboy may be often heard to exclaim, "What did you hit me for, you great fool?" "You're bigger than me. Hit some one of your own size!" "Not fling farther than him? just can't I, that's all!" "You and I have got more marbles than them," RULE XXI. An {098}ellipsis, or omission of certain words, is frequently allowed, for the sake of avoiding disagreeable repetitions, and of expressing our ideas in a few words. Instead of saying, "She was a little woman, she was a round woman, and she was an old woman," we say, making use of the figure Ellipsis, "She was a little, round, and old woman." When, however, the omission of words is productive of obscurity, weakens the sentence, or involves a violation of some grammatical principle, the ellipsis must not be used. It is improper to say, "Puddings fill who fill them;" we should supply the word those. "A beautiful leg of mutton and turnips" is not good language: those who would deserve what they are talking about ought to say, "A beautiful leg of mutton and fine turnips." In common discourse, in which the meaning can be eked out by gestures, signs, and inarticulate sounds variously modified, the ellipsis is much more liberally and more extensively employed than in written composition. "May I have the pleasure of--hum? ha?" may constitute an invitation to take wine. "I shall be quite--a--a--" may serve as an answer in the affirmative. "So then you see he was--eh!--you see--," is perhaps an intimation that a man has been hanged. "Well, of all the--I never!" is often tantamount to three times as many words expressive of surprise, approbation, or disapprobation, according to the tone in which it is uttered. "Will you?--ah!--will you?--ah!--ah!--ah!" will do either for "Will you be so impertinent, you scoundrel? will you dare to do so another {099}time?" or, "Will you, dearest, loveliest, most adorable of your sex, will you consent to make me happy; will you be mine? speak! answer, I entreat you! One word from those sweet lips will make me the most fortunate man in existence!" There is, however, a kind of ellipsis which those who indulge in that style of epistolary writing, wherein sentiments of a tender nature are conveyed, will do well to avoid with the greatest care. The ellipsis alluded to, is that of the first person singular of the personal pronoun, as instanced in the following model of a billet-doux:-- Camberwell, April 1, 1844. MY DEAREST FANNY, Have not enjoyed the balm of sleep all the livelong night. Encountered, last night, at the ball, the beau ideal of my heart. Never knew what love was till then. Derided the sentiment often; jested at scars, because had never felt a wound. Feel at last the power of beauty--Write with a tremulous hand; waver between hope and fear. Hope to be thought not altogether unworthy of regard: fear to be rejected as having no pretensions to the affections of such unparalleled loveliness. Know not in what terms to declare my feelings. Adore you, worship you, dote on you, am wrapt up in you! think but on you, live but for you, would willingly die for you!--in short, love you! and imploring you to have some compassion on one who is distracted for your sake Remain Devotedly yours T. Tout. RULE XXII. A {100}Regular and dependent construction should be carefully preserved throughout the whole of a sentence, and all its parts should correspond to each other. There is, therefore, an inaccuracy in the following sentence; "Greenacre was more admired, but not so much lamented, as Burke." It should be, "Greenacre was more admired than Burke, but not so much lamented." Of these two worthies there will be a notice of the following kind in a biographical dictionary, to be published a thousand years hence in America. Greenacre.--A celebrated critic who so cut up a blue-stocking lady of the name of Brown, that he did not leave her a leg to stand upon. Burke.--A famous orator, whose power of stopping people's mouths was said to be prodigious. It is farther reported of him that he was only once hung up, and that on the occasion of the last speech he ever made. Perhaps it may be said that the rule last stated comprehends all preceding rules and requires exemplification accordingly. We therefore call the attention of the reader to the following paragraph, requesting him to consider what, and how many, violations of the maxims of Syntax it contains. "We teaches, that is, my son and me teaches, the boys English Grammar. Tom or Dick have learned something every day but Harry what is idler, whom I am sure will never come to no good, for he is always a miching and doing those kind of things (he was catch but yesterday in a skittle grounds) he only makes his book all dog's ears. I beat he, too, pretty smartish, as I ought, you will say, for to have did. I was going to have {101}sent him away last week but he somehow got over me as he do always. I have had so much trouble with he, that between you and I, if I was not paid for il, I wouldn't have no more to do with such a boy. There never wasn't a monkey more mischievious than him; and a donkey isn't more stupider and not half so obstinate as that youngster." The Syntax of the Interjection has been sufficiently stated under Rule V. Interjections afford more matter for consideration in a Treatise on Elocution than they do in a work on Grammar; but there is one observation which we are desirous of making respecting them, and which will not, it is hoped, be thought altogether foreign to our present subject. Almost every interjection has a great variety of meanings, adapted to particular occasions and circumstances, and indicated chiefly by the tone of the voice. Of this proposition we shall now give a few illustrations, which we would endeavor to render still clearer by the addition of musical notes, but that these would hardly express, with adequate exactness, the modulations of sound to which we allude; and besides, we hope to be sufficiently understood without such help. This part of the Grammar should be read aloud by the student; or, which is better still, the interjection, where it is possible, should be repeated with the proper intonation by a class; the sentence which gives occasion to it being read by the preceptor. We will select the interjection Oh! as the source from which our examples are to be drawn. "I'll give it to you, you idle dog: I will!" "Oh, pray, Sir! Oh, pray, Sir! Oh! Oh! Oh!" "I shall ever have the highest esteem for you, Sir; but as to love, that is out of the question." "Oh, {102}Matilda!" "I say, Jim, look at that chaffinch: there's a shy!" "Oh, Crikey!" "Miss Timms, do you admire Lord Byron?" "Oh, yes!" "What do you think of Rubini's singing?" "Oh!" "So then, you see, we popped round the corner, and caught them just in the nick of time." "Oh!" "Sir, your behavior has done you great credit." "Oh!" "Oats are looking up." "Oh!" "Honorable Members might say what they pleased; but he was convinced, for his part, that the New Poor Law had given great general satisfaction." "Oh! oh!" There being now no reason (or rule) to detain us in the Syntax, we shall forthwith advance into Prosody, where we shall have something to say, not only about rules, but also of measures. PART IV. PROSODY. Prosody {103}consists of two parts; wherefore, although it may be a topic, a head, or subject for discussion, it can never be a point; for a point is that which hath no parts. Besides, there are a great many lines to be considered in the second part of Prosody, which treats of Versification. The first division teaches the true Pro-nunciation of Words, including Accent, Quantity, Emphasis, Pause, and Tone. Lord Chesterfield's book about manners, which is intended to teach us the proper tone to be adopted in Society, may be termed an Ethical Prosody. Lord Chesterfield may have been a polished gentleman, but Dr. Johnson was of the two the more shining character. CHAPTER I. OF PRONUNCIATION SECTION I. OF ACCENT. Though penetrated ourselves by the desire of imparting instruction, we are far from wishing to bore our readers; and therefore we shall: endeavor to repeat nothing here that we have said before. Accent {104}is the marking with a peculiar stress of the voice a particular letter or syllable in a word, in such a manner as to render it more distinct or audible than the rest. Thus, in the word théatre, the stress of the voice should be on the letter e and first syllable the; and in contrary, on the first syllable con. How shocking it is to hear people say con-trary, the-atre! The friends of education will be reminded with regret, that an error in the pronunciation of the first of these words is very early impressed on the human mind. "Mary, Mary, Quite contrary, How does your garden grow?" How many evils, alas! arise from juvenile associations! Words of two syllables never have more than one of them accented, except for the sake of peculiar emphasis. Gentlemen, however, whose profession it is to drive certain public vehicles called cabs, are much accustomed to disregard this rule, and to say, "po-lite" (or "pur-lite"), "gén-téel," "con-cern," "po-lice," and so on: nay, they go so far as to convert a word of one syllable into two, for the sake of indulging in this style of pronunciation; and thus the word "queer" is pronounced by them as "ke-veer." The word "a-men," when standing alone, should be pronounced with two accents. The accents in which it usually is pronounced are very inelegant. Clerks, now-a-days, alas! are no scholars. Dissyllables, formed by adding a termination, usually have the former syllable accented: as, "Foolish, block-head," &c. ===>See Page Scan The {105}accent in dissyllables, formed by prefixing a syllable to the radical word, is commonly on the latter syllable: as, "I protest, I declare, I entreat, I adore, I expire." Protestations, declarations, entreaties, and adorations, proclaim a swain to be simply tender; but expiration (for love) proves him to be decidedly soft. [Illustration: 114] A man who turns lover becomes a protest-ant; and his conduct at the same time generally undergoes a reformation, especially if he has previously been a rake. The zeal, however, of a reformed rake, like that of Jack in Dean Swift's "Tale of a Tub," is sometimes apt to outrun his discretion. When the same word, being a dissyllable, is both a noun {106}and a verb, the verb has mostly the accent on the latter, and the noun on the former Syllable: as, "Molly, let Hymen's gentle hand Cemént our hearts together, With such a cément as shall stand In spite of wind and weather. "I do presage--and oft a fact A présage doth foretoken-- Our mutual love shall ne'er contract, Our côntract ne'er be broken." There are many exceptions to the rule just enunciated (so that, correctly as well as familiarly speaking, it is perhaps _no_ rule;) for though verbs seldom have an accent on the former, yet nouns frequently have it on the latter syllable: as, "Mary Anne is my delight Both by day and eke by night; For by day her soft contrôl Soothes my heart and calms my soul; And her image while I doze Comes to sweeten my repôse; Fortune favoring my design, Please the pigs she shall be mine!" The former syllable of most dissyllables ending in y, our, ow, le, ish, ck, ter, age, en, èt, is accented: as "Grânny, noôdle," &c. Except allôw, avôw, endôw, bestôw, belôw. "Sir I cannot allôw You your flame to avôw; Endôw yourself first with the rhino: My hand to bestôw On a fellow belôw Me!--I'd rather be--never mind--- _I_ know." "Music," {107}in the language of the Gods, is sometimes pronounced "mû-sic!" Nouns of two syllables ending in er, have the accent on the former syllable: as, "Bûtcher, bâker." It is, perhaps, a singular thing, that persons who pursue the callings denoted by the two words selected as examples, should always indicate their presence at an area by crying out, in direct defiance of Prosody, "But-chér, ba-kér;" the latter syllable being of the two the more strongly accented. Dissyllabic verbs ending in a consonant and e final, as "Disclose," "repine," or having a dipthong in the last syllable, as, "Believe," "deceive," or ending in two consonants, as "Intend," are accented on the latter syllable. "Matilda's eyes a light disclôse, Which with the star of Eve might vie; Oh! that such lovely orbs as those Should sparkle at an apple-pie! "Thy love I thought was wholly mine, Thy heart I fondly hoped to rule; Its throne I cannot but repine At sharing with a goosb'ry fool! "Thou swear'st no flatterer can decéive Thy mind,--thy breast no coxcomb rifle; Thou art no trifler, I beliéve, But why so plaguy fond of trifle? "Why, when we're wed--I don't inténd To joke, Matilda, or be funny; I really fear that you will spend The Honey Moon in eating honey!" Most {108}dissyllabic nouns, having a dipthong in the latter syllable, have the aécent also on that syllable: as, "A Hamlet that draws Is sure of applâuse." A Hamlet that draws? There are not many who can give even an outline of the character. In a few words ending in _ain_ the accent is placed on the former syllable: as, "Villain," which is pronounced as the natives of Whitechapel pronounce "willing." Those dissyllables, the vowels of which are separated in pronunciation, always have the accent on the first syllable: as, lion, scion, &c. When is a young and tender shoot Like a fond swain? When 'tis a scion. What's the most gentlemanly brute Like, of all flow'rs? A _dandy_lion.' Trisyllables, formed by adding a termination or prefixing a syllable, retain the accent of the radical word: as, "Lôveliness, shéepishness, knâvery, assûrance." The first syllable of trisyllables ending in ons, al, ion, is accented in the generality of cases: as in the words "sérious, câpital," &c. "Dr. Johnson declared, with a sérious face, That he reckoned a punster a villain: What would he have thought of the horrible case Of a man who makes jokes that are killing?" In his diction to speak 'tis not easy for one Who must furnish both reason and rhyme: "Sir, the rogue who has utter'd a câpital pun, Has committed a câpital crime.' Trisyllables {109}ending in ce, ent, ate, y, re, le, and ude, commonly accent the first syllable. Many of those, however, which are derived from words having the accent on the last syllable and of those of which the middle syllable has a vowel between two consonants, are excepted. They who would elegantly speak Should not say "impudence," but "cheek;" Should all things éatable call "prog;" Eyes "ogles," côuntenance "phisog." A coach should nôminate a "drag," And spécify as "moke," a nag: For éxcellent, use "prime" or "bang up," Or "out and out;" and "scrag," for hang up. The théâtre was wont to teach The public réctitude of speech, But we who live in modern age Consult the gallery, not the stage. Trisyllables ending in ator have the accent placed on the middle syllable; as, "Spectâtor, narrâtor," &c. except ôrator, sénator, and a few other words. Take care that you never pronounce the common name of the vegetable sometimes called Irish fruit, "purtator." A dipthong in the middle syllable of a trisyllable is accented: as also, in general, is a vowel before two consonants: as, "Doméstic," "endéavor." An endeavor to appear domesticated, or in common phraseology, to "do" the domestic, is sometimes made by young gentlemen, and generally with but an ill grace. {110}Avoid such attempts, reader, on all occasions: and in particular never adventure either to nurse babies, or (when you shall have "gone up to the ladies") to pour water into the tea-pot from the kettle. A legal or medical student sometimes thinks proper, from a desire of appearing at once gallant and facetious, to usurp the office of pouring out the tea itself, on which occasions he is very apt to betray his uncivilised habits by an unconscious but very unequivocal manipulation used in giving malt liquor what is technically termed a "head." Many polysyllables are regulated as to accent by the words from which they are derived: as, "Inex-préssibles, Sûbstituted, Unobjéctionably, Désignated, Transatlàntic, Délicacy, Decidedly, Unquéstionable." Words ending in ator are commonly accented on the last syllable but one, let them be as long as they may: as, respirâtor, regulator, renovâtor, indicâtor, and all the other alors that we see in the newspapers. Many words ending in ion, ous, ty, ia, io, and cal, have their accent on the last syllable but two: as, "Con-si-de-râ-ti-on, pro-di-gi-ous, im-pe-ne-tra-bil-i-ty, en-cy-clo-pæ'-di-a, brag-ga-dô-ci-o, an-ti-mo-nârch-i-cal," all of which words we have divided into syllables, by way of a hint that they are to be pronounced (comically speaking) after the manner of Dominie Sampson. Words that end in le usually have the accent on the first syllable: as, "Amicable, déspicable," &c.: although we have heard people say "despicable." "I never see such a despicable fellow, not in all my born days." Words of this class, however, the second syllable of which has a vowel before two consonants, are often differently {111}accented: as in "Respéctable, contémptible. [Illustration: 120] Having, in compliance with grammatical usage, laid down certain rules with regard to accent, we have to inform the reader that there are so many exceptions to almost all of them, that perhaps there is scarcely one which it is worth while to attend to. We hope we have some measure amused him; but as to instruction, fear that, in this part of our subject, we have given him {112}very little of that. Those who would acquire a correct accent had better attend particularly to the mode of speaking adopted in good society; avoid debating clubs; and go to church. For farther satisfaction and information we refer them, and we beg to say that we are not joking--to _Walker_. SECTION II. OF QUANTITY. The quantity of a syllable means the time taken up in pronouncing it. As there is in Arithmetic a long division and a short division, so in Prosody is Quantity considered as long or short. A syllable is said to be long, when the accent is on the vowel, causing it to be slowly joined in pronunciation to the next letter: as, "Flea, small, creature." A syllable is called short, when the accent lies on the consonant, so that the vowel is quickly joined to the succeeding letter: as "Crack, little, devil." The pronunciation of a long syllable commonly occupies double the time of a short one: thus, "Pâte," and "Broke," must be pronounced as slowly again as "Pàt," and "Knôck." We have remarked a curious tendency in the more youthful students of Grammar to regard the quantity of words (in their lessons) more as being "small" or "great" than as coming under the head of "long" or "short." Their predilection for small quantities of words is very striking and peculiar; food for the mind they seem to look upon as physic; and all physic, in their estimation, is most agreeably taken in infinitesimal doses. The Homoeopathic system of acquiring knowledge {113}is more to their taste than even the Hamiltonian. It is quite impossible to give any rules as to quantity worth reading. The Romans may have submitted to them, but that is no reason why we should. We will pronounce our words as we please: and if foreigners want to know why, we will tell them that, when there is no law to the contrary, we always does as we likes with our own. [Illustration: 122] SECTION III. ON EMPHASIS. Emphasis {114}is the distinguishing of some word or words in a sentence, on which we wish to lay particular stress, by a stronger and fuller sound, and sometimes by a particular tone of the voice. A few illustrations of the importance of emphasis will be, perhaps, both agreeable and useful. When a young lady says to a young gentlemen, "You are a _nice_ fellow; you _are!_"--she means one thing. When a young gentleman, addressing one of his own sex, remarks, "_You're_ a nice fellow; _you_ are;"--he means another thing. "Your friend is a gentlemen," pronounced without any particular emphasis, is the simple assertion of a fact. "Your friend is a gentleman," with the emphasis on the words "friend" and "gentleman," conveys an insinuation besides. So simple a question as "Do you like pine-apple rum?" is susceptible of as many meanings as there are words in it; according to the position of the emphasis. "_Do_ you like pine-apple rum?" is as much as to say, "Do you, though, really like pine-apple rum?" "Do _you_ like pine-apple rum?" is tantamount to, "Can it be that a young gentleman (or lady) like you, can like pine-apple rum?" "Do you _like_ pine-apple rum?" means, "Is it possible that instead of disliking, you are fond of pine-apple rum?" "Do {115}you like _pine-apple_ rum?" is an enquiry as to whether you like that kind of rum in particular. And lastly, "Do you like pine-apple _rum?_" is equivalent to asking if you think that the flavor of the pineapple improves that especial form of alcohol. A well-known instance of an emphasis improperly placed was furnished by a certain Parson, who read a passage in the Old Testament in the following unlucky manner: "And he said unto his sons, Saddle me the ass; and they saddled _him._" Young ladies are usually very emphatic in ordinary discourse. "What a little _dear!_ Oh! how _sweetly_ pretty! Well! I never _did_, I declare! _So_ nice, and _so_ innocent, and _so_ good-tempered, and _so_ affectionate, and _such_ a color! And _oh! such lovely eyes!_ and such hair! He _was_ a little duck! he was, he was, he was. Tzig a tzig, tzig, tzig, tzig, tzig!" &c. &c. &c. This emphatic way of speaking is indicative of two very amiable feelings implanted by nature in the female occiput, and called by the Phrenologists Adhesiveness and Philoprogenitivenes. Those who attempt to imitate it will be conscious, while forcing out their words, of a peculiar mental motion, which we cannot explain otherwise than by saying, that it is analogous to that which attends the act of pressing or squeezing; as when, with the thumb of the right hand, we knead one lump of putty to another, in the palm of the left. Perhaps we might also instance, sucking an orange. In all these cases, the organ of Weight, according to Phrenology, is also active; and this, perhaps, is one of the faculties which induce young ladies to lay a stress upon their words. Nevertheless, we fear that a damsel {116}would hardly be pleased by being told that her weight was considerable, though it would, at the same time, grievously offend her to accuse her of lightness. Here we need scarcely observe, that we refer to lightness, not of complexion, but of sentiment, which is always regarded as a dark shade in the character. This defect, we think, we may safely assert, will never be observed in emphatic fair ones. But we have not quite yet exhausted the subject of emphasis, considered in relation to young ladies. Their letters are as emphatic as their language is, almost every third word being underlined. Such epistles, inasmuch as they are addressed to the heart, ought not to be submitted to the ear; nevertheless we must say that we have occasionally been wicked and waggish enough to read them aloud--to ourselves alone, of course. The reader may, if he choose, follow our example. We subjoin a specimen of female correspondence, endeared to us by many tender recollections, and admirably adapted to our present purpose. ===>See Page Scan. I was terribly afraid that Matilda and I would have caught our Death of cold; but thank Goodness no such untoward event took place. It was very uncomfortable and I so wished you had been there.. When we got home who do you think was there? Mr. Sims; and he said he thought that I was so much grown. Only think. And so then you know we took some refreshment, for I assure you, what with the journey and altogether we were very nearly famished; and we were all invited {117}to go to the Chubbs' that Evening to a small Teà Party, for which I must own I thought Mr. Chubb a ism* man. After tea we had a carpet waltz, and although I was very tired I enjoyed it much. There were some very pretty girls there, and one or two agreeable young men; but oh! &c. The remainder of this letter being of a nature personally interesting to ourselves only, and likely, in the opinion of some readers, to render its insertion attributable to motives of vanity, we shall not be found fault with for objecting to transcribe any more of it. SECTION IV. OF PAUSES. A Pause, otherwise called a rest, is an absolute cessation of the voice, in speaking or reading, during a perceptible interval, longer or shorter, of time. Comic Pauses often occur in Oratory. "Unaccustomed as I am to public speaking," is usually followed by a pause of this sort. A young gentleman, his health having been drunk at a party, afforded, in endeavoring to return thanks, a signal illustration of the Pause Comic. "Gentlemen," he began, "the Ancient Romans,"--(A pause,)--"gentlemen, the Ancient Romans,"--(Hear!)--"The Ancient Romans, Gentlemen,"--(Bravo! hear! hear!)--"Gentlemen--that is--the Ancient Romans"--"were very fine fellows, Jack, I dare say," added a friend, pulling the speaker down by the coat-tail. That notable Ancient Roman, Brutus, is represented by Shakspeare as making a glorious pause: as "Who's here {118}so vile that would not love his country? If any, speak, for him have I offended. I pause for a reply." [Illustration: 127] Here of course, Brutus pauses, folds his arms, and looks magnanimous. We have heard, though, of an idle and impudent schoolboy, who, at a public recitation, when he had uttered the words "I pause for a reply," {119}gravely took out his penknife and began paring his nails. This was minding his paws with a vengeance. SECTION V. OF TONES. Tones consist of the modulations of the voice, or the notes or variations of sound which we use in speak-ing: thus differing materially both from emphasis, and pauses. An interesting diversity of tones is exhibited by the popular voice at an election. Also by charcoal-men, milk-men, and chimneysweeps; and by fruit-sellers, and news-boys. We cannot exactly write tones (though it is easy enough to write notes,) but we shall nevertheless endeavor to give some idea of their utility. Observe, that two doves billing resemble two magistrates bowing;--because they are beak to beak. [Illustration: 128] A {120}lover and a police-magistrate (unless the two characters should chance to be combined, which sometimes happens, that is, when the latter is a lover of justice) would say, "Answer me," in very different tones. A lover again would utter the words "For ever and ever," in a very different tone from that in which a minister would repeat them. A young lady, on her first introduction to you, says, "Sir," in a tone very unlike that in which she sometime afterwards delivers herself of the same monosyllable when she is addressing you under the influence of jealousy. As to the word "Sir," the number of constructions which, according to the tone in which it is spoken, it may be made to bear, are incalculable. We may adduce a few instances. "Please, Sir, let me off." "No, Sir!" "Waiter! you, Sir." "Yes, Sir! yes, Sir!" "Sir, I am greatly obliged to you." "Sir, you are quite welcome." "Your servant, Sir" (by a man who brings you a challenge.) "Servant, Sir" (by a tailor bowing you to the door.) "Sir, you are a gentleman!" "Sir, you are a scoundrel!" We need not go on with examples ad infinitum. If after what we have said anybody does not understand the nature of Tone, all we shall say of him is, that he is a _Tony_ Lumpkin. CHAPTER II. OF VERSIFICATION. It {121}is with peculiar pleasure that we approach this part of Prosody. We belong to a class of persons to whom a celebrated phrenological manipulator ascribes "some poetical feeling, if studied or called forth;" and, to borrow another expression from the same quarter, we sometimes "versify a little;" that is to say, we versify our literary occupations by an occasional flirtation with the muses. We have a great respect for the memory of our old schoolmaster; notwithstanding which, we think we can beat him (which, we shall be told by the wags, would be tit for tat) at poet-making, though, indeed, he was a magician in his way. "I'll make thee a poet, my boy," he used to say, "or the rod shall." Let us try what we can do. A verse consists of a certain number and variety of syllables, put together and arranged according to certain laws. Verses being also called dulcet strains, harmonious numbers, tuneful lays, and so forth, it is clear that such combination and arrangement must be so made as to please the ear. Versification is the making of verses. This seems such a truism as to be not worth stating; but it is necessary to define what Versification is, because many people suppose it to be the same thing with poetry. We will prove that it is not. "Much business in the Funds has lately been Transacted various monied men between; Though speculation early in the week Went slowly; nought was done whereof to speak. The largest operations, it was found, Were twenty-five and fifty thousand _pound_." We {122}might proceed in the same strain, but we have already done half a dozen lines without a particle of poetry in them; and we do not wish to overwhelm people with proofs of what a great many will take upon trust. Every fool knows what Rhyme is; so we need not say anything about that. ON POETICAL FEET Poetical feet! Why, Fanny Elsler's feet and Taglioni's feet are poetical feet--are they not? or else what is meant by calling dancing the poetry of Motion? And cannot each of those _artistes_ boast of a toe which is the very essence of all poetry--a TO' KAAO'N? No. You may make verses _on_ Taglioni's feet, (though if she be a poetess, she can do that better than you, standing, too, on one leg, like the man that Horace speaks of;) but you cannot make them _of_ her feet. Feet of which verses are composed are made of syllables, not of bones, muscles, and ligaments. Feet and pauses are the constituent parts of a verse. We have heard one boy ask of another, who was singing, "How much is that a yard?" still the yard is not a poetical measure. The feet which are used in poetry consist either of two or three syllables. There are four kinds of feet of two, and an equal number of three syllables. Four and four are eight: therefore Pegasus is an octoped; and if our readers do not understand this logic, we are sorry for it. But as touching the feet--we have 1. The {123}Trochee, which has the first syllable accent, ed, and the last unaccented: as, "Yànkëe dôodlë." 2. The Iambus, which has the first syllable unaccented, and the last accented: as, "Thé mâid hërsëlf with roûge, àlâs! bëdaübs." 3. The Spondee, which has both the words or syllables accented: as, "âll hâil, grëat king, Tom Thumb, all hail!" 4. The Pyrrhic, which has both the words or syllables unaccented: as, "ôn thë tree'top." 5. The Dactyl, which has the first syllable accented and the two latter unaccented: as, "Jônàthin, Jëffër-sôn." 6. The Amphibrach has the first and last syllables unaccented and the middle one accented: as, "Oë'r-whelmïng, transported, ecstatic, delightful, àccéptëd, àddrëssës." 7. The Anapaest (or as we used to say, _Nasty-beast_) has the two first syllables unaccented and the last accented: as, "ôvërgrôwn grënàdiër." 8. The Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented: as, "Matrïmôny, exquisite nëss." These feet are divided into principal feet, out of which pieces of poetry may be wholly or chiefly formed; and secondary feet, the use of which is to diversify the number and improve the verse. We shall now proceed to explain the nature of the principal feet. Iambic verses are of several kinds, each kind consisting of a certain number of feet or syllables. 1. The shortest form of the English Iambic consists of an Iambus, with an additional short syllable thus coinciding with the Amphibrach: as, {124} "What Sùsàn, My beauty! Refuse one So true t' ye? This ditty Of sadness Begs pity For madness." 2. The second form of the English Iambic consists of two Iambuses, and sometimes takes an additional short syllable: as, "My eÿe, whàt fün. With dog and gun, And song and shout, To roam about! And shoot our snipes! And smoke our pipes! Or eat at ease, Beneath the trees, Our bread and cheese! To rouse the hare From gloomy lair; To scale the mountain And ford the fountain, While rustics wonder To hear our thunder." 3. The third form consists of three Iambuses: as in the following _morceau_, the author of which is, we regret to say, unknown to us; though we did once hear somebody say that it was Mr. Anon. "Jâck Spràtt éat âll thé fât, His wife eat all the lean, And so between them both, They lick'd the platter clean." In {125}this verse an additional short syllable is also admitted: as, "�lëxïs yoüthful ploügh-bôy, A Shepherdess adored, Who loved fat Hodge, the cow-boy, So t'other chap was floored." 4. The fourth form is made up of four Iambuses: as, "�dieü my boots, cômpàniôns old, New footed twice, and four times soled; My footsteps ye have guarded long, Life's brambles, thorns, and flints among; And now you're past the cobbler's art, And fate declares that we must part. Ah me! what cordial can restore The gaping patch repatch'd before? What healing art renew the weal Of subject so infirm of heel? What potion, pill, or draught control So deep an ulcer of the sole? 5. The fifth species of English Iambic consists of five Iambuses: as, You Côme, Tràgïc Müse, ïn tâttèr'd vést ârrày'd, And while through blood, and mud, and crimes I wade, Support my steps, and this, my strain, inspire With Horror's blackest thoughts and bluest fire!" The Epic of which the above example is the opening, will perhaps appear hereafter. This kind of Iambic constitutes what is called the heroic measure:--of which we shall have more to say by and by; but shall only {126}remark at present that it, in common with most of the ordinary English measures, is susceptible of many varieties, by the admission of other feet, as Trochees, Dactyls, Anapaests, &c. 6. Our Iambic in its sixth form, is commonly called the Alexandrine measure. It consists of six Iambuses: as, "His worship gâve thë word, ànd Snôoks was borne âwày." The Alexandrine is sometimes introduced into heroic rhyme, and when used, as the late Mr. John Reeve was wont to say, "with a little moderation," occasions an agreeable variety. Thus the example quoted is preceded by the following lines:-- "What! found at midnight with a darkey, lit, A bull-dog, jemmy, screw, and centre-bit And tongueless of his aim? It cannot be But he was bent, at least, on felony; He stands remanded. 'Ho! Policeman A!' His worship gave the word, and Snooks was borne away." 7. The seventh and last form of our Iambic measure is made up of seven Iambuses. This species of verse has been immortalised by the adoption of those eminent hands, Messrs. Sternhold and Hopkins. It runs {127}thus:-- Goôd pëople âll, I prây dràw nëar, fôr yôu I needs müst têll, That William Brown is dead and gone; the man you knew full well. A broad-brimm'd hat, black breeches, and an old Welch wig he wore: And now and then a long brown coat all button'd up before." The present measure is as admirably adapted for the Platform as for the Conventicle. "My name it is Bill Scroggins, and my fate it is to die, For I was at the Sessions tried and cast for felony. My friends, to these my dying words I pray attention lend, The public-house has brought me unto this untimely end." Verses of this kind are now usually broken into two lines, with four feet in the first line, and three in the second: as, "I wish I wëre â little pig To wallow in the mire, To eat, and drink, and sleep at ease Is all that I desire." Trochaic verse is of several kinds. 1. The shortest Trochaic verse in the English language consists of one Trochee and a long syllable: as, "Billy Black Got the sack." Lindley Murray asserts that this measure is defective in dignity, and can seldom be used on serious occasions. Yet it is Pope who thus sings: "Dreadful screams, Dismal gleams. Fires that glow, Shrieks of woe," &c. And for our own poor part, let us see what we can make out of a storm. {128} ===> See Page Scan 2. The second English form of the Trochaic consists of two feet: as, "Vermicelli, Cürrànt jêlly." It sometimes contains two feet, or trochees, with an additional long syllable: as, "Youth inclined tô wed, Go and shave thy head." 3. The third species consists of three trochees: as, "Sing a song ôf sixpence. Or of three trochees, with an additional long syllable: as, {129} "Thrice mÿ côat, hâve o'er thée rôll'd, Summer hot and winter cold, Since the Snip's creative art Into being bade thee start; Now like works the most sublime, Thou displaty'st the power of time. Broad grey patches plainly trace, Right and left each blade-bone's place; When thy shining collar's scann'd, Punsters think on classic land: Thread-bare sleeves thine age proclaim, Elbows worn announce the same; Elbows mouldy-black of hue, Save where white a crack shines through; While thy parting seams declare Thou'rt unfit for farther wear-- Then, farewell! "What! Moses! ho!" "Clo', Sir? clo', Sir? clo', Sir? clo'?" 4. The fourth Trochaic species consists of four trochees, as: "Ugh! yôu little lümp ôf blübbër, Sleep, oh! sleep in quiet, do! Cease awhile your bib to slobber-- Cease your bottle mouth to screw. "How I wish your eyelids never Would unclose again at all; For I know as soon as ever You're awake, you're sure to squall. "Dad and Mammy's darling honey, Tomb-stone cherub, stuff'd with slops, Let each noodle, dolt, and spooney Smack, who will, your pudding chops. {130} "As for me, as soon I'd smother, As I'd drown a sucking cat, You, you cub, or any other, Nasty little squalling brat." "Would you, you disagreeable old Bachelor?" [Illustration: 139] This form may take an additional long syllable, but this measure is very uncommon. Example: "Chrônônhôtônthôlôgôs the Great, Godlike in a barrow kept his state." 5. The fifth Trochaic species is likewise uncommon; and, as a Bowbellian would say, "uncommon" ugly, It contains five trochees: as, "Hëre lies Màrÿ, wife ôf Thômas Càrtër, Who to typhus fever proved a martyr." These are a specimen of the "uncouth rhymes" so touchingly alluded to by Gray. 6. The sixth form of the English Trochaic is a line of six trochees: as, "Môst bëwitching damsel, charming Aràbéllâ, Prithee, cast an eye of pity on a fellow." The Dactylic measure is extremely uncommon. The following {131}may be considered an example of one species of it: "Cëlià thé crüël, resolv'd nôt tô mârry sôon, Boasts of a heart like a fortified garrison, Bulwarks and battlements keeping the _beaux_ all off, Shot from within knocking lovers like foes all off." Anapaestic verses are of various kinds. 1. The shortest anapæstic verse is a single anapaest: "In thë glass There's an ass." This measure, after all, is ambiguous; for if the stress of the voice be laid on the first and third syllables, it becomes trochaic. Perhaps, therefore, it is best to consider the first form of our Anapæstic verse, as made up of two anapaests: as, "Sët â schôolbôy ât wôrk With a knife and a fork." And here if you like, you may have another short syllable: as, "And hôw sôon thë yoüng glüttôn Will astonish your mutton!" 2. The second species consists of three anapaests: as, "Amàrÿllïs was slëndër ànd tail, Colin Clodpole was dumpy and fat; And tho' she did'n't like him at all, Yet he doted on her for all that." This metre is sometimes denominated sing-song. 3. The third kind of English Anapæstics may be very well exemplified by an Irish song: "Hâve yôu e'er hàd thë lück tô sëe Dônnÿbrôok Fair?" It {132}consists, as will have been observed, of four ana-pæsts. Sometimes it admits of a short syllable at the end of the verse: as, In the dëad ôf thë night, when with dire càtërwàuling Of grimalkins in chorus the house-tops resound: All insensibly drunk, and unconsciously sprawling In the kennel, how pleasant it is to be found!" The various specimens of versification of which examples have been given, may be improved and varied by the admission of secondary feet into their composition; but as we are not writing an Art of Poetry, we cannot afford to show how: particularly as the only way, after all, of acquiring a real knowledge of the structure of English verse, is by extensive reading. Besides, there yet remain a few Directions for Poetical Beginners, which we feel ourselves called upon to give, and for which, if we do not take care, we shall not have room. The commencement of a poet's career is usually the writing of _nonsense_ verses. The nonsense of these compositions is very often unintentional; but sometimes words are put together avowedly without regard to sense, and with no other view than that of acquiring a familiarity with metrical arrangement: as, "Approach, disdain, involuntary, tell." But this is dry work. It may be necessary to compose in this way just at first, but in our opinion, there is a good and a bad taste to be displayed even in writing nonsense verses; that is, verses which really deserve that name. We recommend the young poet to make it his aim to render his nonsense as perfect as---- It {133}were manifestly culpable to make no mention, in a work of this sort, of certain measures which are especially and essentially, of a comic nature. Some of these have been already adverted to, but two principal varieties yet remain to be considered. 1. Measures taken from the Latin, in which the structure of the ancient verse, as far as the number and arrangement of the feet are concerned, is preserved, but the quantity of which is regulated in accordance with the spirit of our own language. The character of such verses will be best displayed by employing them on sentimental or serious subjects. Take, for example, Long and Short, or Hexameter and Pentameter verses. "Jülïà, girl ôf my heart, ïs thàn jëssâmïne swëetër, ôr frësh mëads Hày-côvër'd; whât rôse tints thôse ôn hër chëeks, thàt flôurish, Approach? those bright eyes, what stars, what glittering dew-drops? And oh! what Parian marble, or snow, that bosom? If she my love return, what bliss will be greater than mine; but What more deep sadness if she reprove my passion? Either a bridegroom proud yon ivy-clad church shall receive me Soon; or the cold church-yard me with its turf shall cover." Or the Sapphic metre of which the late Mr. Canning's "Knife-Grinder" is so brilliant an example. Sappho, fair reader, was a poetess, who made love-verses which could be actually scanned. History relates {134}that, for the sake of some unprincipled or unfeeling fellow, she committed _felo de se_. "I can endüre this crüël pain nô lôngër; Fare ye well, blue skies, rivers, fields, and song-birds!' Thus the youth spoke; and adding, 'Oh, Jemima!' Plunged in the billow!" [Illustration: 143] 2. Measures reducible to no rule, or Doggrel. Sternhold and Hopkins were illustrious as Doggrel writers. Doggrel {135}is commonly used by anonymous poets for the purpose of embodying the moral reflections which a homicide or an execution excites in the sensitive mind. May we hope that our remarks on Prosody will in some little degree tend to facilitate, perhaps to improve, the future treatment of those two deeply interesting subjects--Love and Murder? [Illustration: 144] CHAPTER III. PUNCTUATION. "Mind {136}your stops." This is one of the earliest maxims inculcated by the instructors of youth. Hence it is clear that the subject of Punctuation is an important one: but inasmuch as the reader, who has arrived at the present page, has either not understood a word that he has been reading, or else knows as much about the matter as we can tell him, we fear that a long dissertation concerning periods, commas, and so on, would only serve to embarrass his progress in learning with useless stops. We shall, therefore, confine ourselves to that notice of Punctuation, and that only, which the peculiar nature of our work may require. First, it may be remarked, that the notes of admiration which we so often hear in theatres, may be called notes of hand. Secondly, that notes of interrogation are not at all like bank notes; although they are largely uttered in Banco Regino. Let us now proceed with our subject. Punctuation is the soul of Grammar, as Punctuality is that of business. Perhaps somebody or other may take advantage of what we have said, to prove both Punctuation and Punctuality immaterial. No matter. It {137}is both absurd and inconvenient to stand upon points. [Illustration: 146] Of how much consequence, however, Punctuation is, the student may form some idea, by considering the different effects which a piece of poetry, for instance, which he has been accustomed to regard as sublime or beautiful, will have, when liberties are taken with it in that respect. Imagine an actor commencing Hamlet's famous soliloquy, thus: "To be; or not to be that is. The question," &c. Or {138}saying, in the person of Duncan, in Macbeth: "This castle hath a pleasant seat, the air." Or as the usurper himself, exclaiming, "The devil damn thee black, thou cream-faced loon! Where got'st thou that goose? Look!" [Illustration: 147] Crying, as Romeo, "It is my lady O! It is my love!" Or in the character of Norval, in the tragedy of Douglas, giving this account of himself and his origin: "My name is Norval. On the Grampian hills My father feeds." We {139}have now said as much as we think it necessary to say on the head of English Grammar. We shall conclude our labors with an "Address to Young Students and as to the question, what that has to do with our subject, we shall leave it to be settled by Lindley Murray, whose example, in this respect, we follow. All we shall observe is, that in our opinion, advice concerning manners stand in the same relation to a Comic English Grammar, as instruction in morals does to a Serious one. For the remarks which it will now be our business to make, we bespeak the indulgence of our elder readers, and the attention of such as are of tender age. ADDRESS TO YOUNG STUDENTS. Young Gentlemen, Having attentively perused the foregoing pages, you will be desirous, it is to be presumed, of carrying still farther those comical pursuits in which, with both pleasure and profit to yourselves, you have been lately engaged. Should such be your laudable intention, you will learn, with feelings of lively satisfaction, that it is one, in the accomplishment of which, thanks to Modern Taste, you will find encouragement at every step. The literature of the day is professedly comic, and of the few works which are not made ludicrous by the design of their authors, the majority are rendered so in spite {140}of it. In the course of your reading, however, you will be frequently brought into contact with hack-ney-coachmen, cabmen, lackeys, turnkeys, thieves, lawyers' clerks, medical students, and other people of that description, who are all very amusing when properly viewed, as the monkeys and such like animals at the Zoological Gardens are, when you look at them through the bars of their cage. But too great familiarity with persons of this class is sure to breed contempt, not for them and their manners, but for the usages and modes of expression adopted in parlors and drawingrooms, that is to say, in good society. Nay, it is very likely to cause those who indulge in it to learn various tricks and eccentricities, both of behavior and speech, for "It is certain, that either wise bearing or ignorant carriage is caught, as men take diseases, one of another." Shakspere. Beset thus, as you will necessarily be, by perils and dangers in your wanderings amid the fields of Comicality, you will derive great advantage from knowing be-fore-hand what you are likely to meet with, and what it will be incumbent on you to avoid. It is to furnish you with this information that the following hints and instructions are intended. Be careful, when you hear yourself called by name, to reply "Here I am," and not "Here you are," an error into which you are very likely to be led by the perusal of existing authors. When you partake, if it be your habit to do so, of the beverage called porter, drink it as you would water, or any other liquid. Do not wink your eye, or nod sideways to your companion; such actions, especially when preceded by blowing away the foam which col lects {141}on the top of the vessel, being exceedingly inelegant: in order that you may not be incommoded by this foam or froth, always pour the fluid gently into a tumbler, instead of drinking it out of the metallic tankard in which it is usually brought to you. In asking for malt liquor generally, never request the waiter to "draw it mild and do not, on any occasion, be guilty of using the same phrase in a metaphorical sense, that is to say, as a substitute for "Do it quietly," "Be gentle," and the like. Never exhort young ladies, during a quadrille, to "fake away," or to "flare up," for they, being unacquainted with the meaning of such terms, will naturally conclude that it is an improper one. Avoid inquiries after the health of another person's mother, using that word synonymously with Mamma, to denote a female parent. Though you may be really innocent of any intention to be rude, your motives may very possibly be misconstrued. Remember also on no account to put questions, either to friends or strangers, respecting the quantity of soap in their possession. Should it be necessary for you to speak of some one smoking tobacco, do not call that substance a weed, or the act of using it "blowing a cloud." When an acquaintance pays you a visit, take care, in rising to receive him, not to appear to be washing your hands, and, should you be engaged in writing at the time, place your pen on the table, or in the inkstand, and not behind your ear. Observe, when your tailor comes to measure you, the way in which he wears his hair, and should your own {142}style in this particular unfortunate resemble his, be sure to alter it immediately. Never dance _â la cuisinière_, that is to say, do not cut capers. Eschew large shirt pins. Never say "Ma'am" or "Miss," in addressing a young lady, if you cannot contrive to speak to her without doing so, say nothing. Never, under any circumstances, let the abbreviation "gent." for gentleman, escape the enclosure of your teeth. Above all things, for the sake of whatever you hold most dear, never say "me and another gent." When you receive a coin of any kind, deposit it at once in your pocket, without the needless preliminary of furling it in the air. Never ask a gentleman how much he has a-year. In speaking of a person of your own age, or of an elderly gentleman, do not say, Old So-and-so, but So-and-so, or Mr. So-and-so, as the case may be: and have no nicknames for each other. We were much horrified not long since, by hearing a great coarse fellow, in a leathern hat and fustian jacket, exclaim, turning round to his companion, "Now, then, come along, old Blokey!" When you have got a cold in the head and weak eyes, do not go and call on young ladies. Do not eat gravy with a knife, for fear those about you should suppose you to be going to commit suicide. In offering to help a person at dinner, do not say, "Allow me to _assist_ you." When you ask people what wine they will take, never say, "What'll you have?" or, "What'll you _do it in?_" If {143}you are talking to a clergyman about another member of the clerical profession, adopt some other method of describing his avocation than that of saying, "I believe he is in your line." Do not recommend an omelet to a lady, as a good _article_. Be cautious not to use the initial letter of a person's surname, in mentioning or in addressing him. For instance, never think of saying, "Mrs. Hobbs, pray, how is Mr. H.?" Call all articles of dress by their proper names. What delight can be found by a thinking mind in designating a hat as a tile, trousers, kickseys, a neckerchief, a fogle, or a choker; or a great coat, an upper Benjamin? And never speak of clothes, collectively, as toggs or toggery. We here approach the conclusion of our labors. Young gentlemen, once more it is earnestly requested that you will give your careful attention to the rules and admonitions which have been above laid down for your guidance. We might have given a great many more; but we hope that the spirit of our instructions will enable the diligent youth to supply, by observation and reflection, that which, for obvious reasons, we have necessarily left unsaid. And now we bid you farewell. That you may never have the misfortune of entering, with splashed boots, a drawing-room full of ladies; that you may never, having been engaged in a brawl on the previous evening, meet, with a black eye, the object of your affections the next morning; that you may never, in a moment of agitation, omit the aspirate, or use it when you ought not; that your laundress may always {144}do justice to your linen; and your tailor make your clothes well, and send them home in due time; that your braces may never give way during a waltz; that you may never, sitting in a strong light at a large dinner-party, suddenly remember that you have not shaved for two days; that your hands and face may ever be free from tan, chaps, freckles, pimples, brandy-blossoms, and all other disfigurements; that you may never be either inelegantly fat, or ridiculously lean; and finally, that you may always have plenty to eat, plenty to drink, and plenty to laugh at, we earnestly and sincerely wish. And should your lot in life be other than fortunate, we can only say, that we advise you to bear it with patience; to cultivate Comic Philosophy; and to look upon your troubles as a joke. [Illustration: 153] 
15364	----	Transcriber's Note: Phonetic characters are represented by the following symbols: [^1] = raised "1", etc. [e] = inverted "e" or schwa [oe] = oe ligature character ['x] = any letter "x" with acute accent [=x] = any letter "x" with macron [)x] = any letter "x" with breve [=xy] = any pair of letters "xy" with joining macron, except [=OE], [=ae] = OE, ae ligature characters with macron ['oe], ['ae] = oe, ae ligature characters with acute accent and [)xy] = any pair of letters "xy" with joining breve, except [)AE], [)ae], [)OE], [)oe] = AE, ae, OE, oe ligature characters with breve _S.P.E. TRACT NO. IV_ THE PRONUNCIATION OF ENGLISH WORDS DERIVED FROM THE LATIN BY JOHN SARGEAUNT WITH PREFACE AND NOTES BY H. BRADLEY CORRESPONDENCE & MISCELLANEOUS NOTES BY H.B., R.B., W.H.F., AND EDITORIAL _AT THE CLARENDON PRESS_ MDCCCCXX ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF ENGLISH WORDS DERIVED FROM LATIN [This paper may perhaps need a few words of introduction concerning the history of the pronunciation of Latin in England. The Latin taught by Pope Gregory's missionaries to their English converts at the beginning of the seventh century was a living language. Its pronunciation, in the mouths of educated people when they spoke carefully, was still practically what it had been in the first century, with the following important exceptions. 1. The consonantal _u_ was sounded like the _v_ of modern English, 2. The _c_ before front vowels (_e_, _i_, _o_, _æ_, _oe_), and the combinations _t[)i]_, _c[)i]_ before vowels, were pronounced _ts_. 3. The _g_ before front vowels had a sound closely resembling that of the Latin consonantal _i_. 4. The _s_ between vowels was pronounced like our _s_. 5. The combinations _æ_, _oe_ were no longer pronounced as diphthongs, but like the simple _e_. 6. The ancient vowel-quantities were preserved only in the penultima of polysyllables (where they determined the stress); in all other positions the original system of quantities had given place to a new system based mainly on rhythm. Of this system in detail we have little certain knowledge; but one of its features was that the vowel which ended the first syllable of a disyllabic was always long: _p[=a]ter_, _p[=a]trem_, _D[=e]us_, _p[=i]us_, _[=i]ter_, _[=o]vis_, _h[=u]mus_. Even so early as the beginning of the fifth century, St. Augustine tells us that the vowel-quantities, which it was necessary to learn in order to write verse correctly, were not observed in speech. The Latin-speaking schoolboy had to learn them in much the same fashion as did the English schoolboy of the nineteenth century. It is interesting to observe that, while the English scholars of the tenth century pronounced their Latin in the manner which their ancestors had learned from the continental missionaries, the tradition of the ancient vowel-quantities still survived (to some extent at least) among their British neighbours, whose knowledge of Latin was an inheritance from the days of Roman rule. On this point the following passage from the preface to Ælfric's Latin Grammar (written for English schoolboys about A.D. 1000) is instructive:-- Miror ualde quare multi corripiunt sillabas in prosa quae in metro breues sunt, cum prosa absoluta sit a lege metri; sicut pronuntiant _pater_ brittonice et _malus_ et similia, quae in metro habentur breues. Mihi tamen uidetur melius inuocare Deum Patrem honorifice producta sillaba quam brittonice corripere, quia nec Deus arti grammaticae subiciendus est. The British contagion of which Ælfric here complains had no permanent effect. For after the Norman Conquest English boys learned their Latin from teachers whose ordinary language was French. For a time, they were not usually taught to write or read English, but only French and Latin; so that the Englishmen who attempted to write their native language did so in a phonetic orthography on a French basis. The higher classes in England, all through the thirteenth century, had two native languages, English and French. In the grammar schools, the Latin lessons were given in French; it was not till the middle of the fourteenth century that a bold educational reformer, John Cornwall, could venture to make English the vehicle of instruction. In reading Latin, the rhythmically-determined vowel-quantities of post-classical times were used; and the Roman letters were pronounced, first as they were in French, and afterwards as in English, but in the fourteenth century this made little difference. In Chaucer's time, the other nations of Europe, no less than England, pronounced Latin after the fashion of their own vernaculars. When, subsequently, the phonetic values of the letters in the vernacular gradually changed, the Latin pronunciation altered likewise. Hence, in the end, the pronunciation of Latin has become different in different countries. A scholar born in Italy has great difficulty in following a Frenchman speaking Latin. He has greater difficulty in understanding an Englishman's Latin, because in English the changes in the sounds of the letters have been greater than in any other language. Every vowel-letter has several sounds, and the normal long sound of every vowel-letter has no resemblance whatever to its normal short sound. As in England the pronunciation of Latin developed insensibly along with that of the native tongue, it eventually became so peculiar that by comparison the 'continental pronunciation' may be regarded as uniform. It is sometimes imagined that the modern English way of pronouncing Latin was a deliberate invention of the Protestant reformers. For this view there is no foundation in fact. It may be conceded that English ecclesiastics and scholars who had frequent occasion to converse in Latin with Italians would learn to pronounce it in the Italian way; and no doubt the Reformation must have operated to arrest the growing tendency to the Italianization of English Latin. But there is no evidence that before the Reformation the un-English pronunciation was taught in the schools. The grammar-school pronunciation of the early nineteenth century was the lineal descendant of the grammar-school pronunciation of the fourteenth century. This traditional system of pronunciation is now rapidly becoming obsolete, and for very good reasons. But it is the basis of the pronunciation of the many classical derivatives in English; and therefore it is highly important that we should understand precisely what it was before it began to be sophisticated (as in our own early days) by sporadic and inconsistent attempts to restore the classical quantities. In the following paper Mr. Sargeaunt describes, with a minuteness not before attempted, the genuine English tradition of Latin pronunciation, and points out its significance as a factor in the development of modern English. H.B.] * * * * * It seems not to be generally known that there is a real principle in the English pronunciation of words borrowed from Latin and Greek, whether directly or through French. In this matter the very knowledge of classical Latin, of its stresses and its quantities, still more perhaps an acquaintance with Greek, is apt to mislead. Some speakers seem to think that their scholarship will be doubted unless they say 'doctrínal' and 'scriptúral' and 'cinéma'. The object of this paper is to show by setting forth the principles consciously or unconsciously followed by our ancestors that such pronunciations are as erroneous as in the case of the ordinary man they are unnatural and pedantic. An exception for which there is a reason must of course be accepted, but an exception for which reason is unsound is on every ground to be deprecated. Among other motives for preserving the traditional pronunciation must be reckoned the claim of poetry. Mark Pattison notes how a passage of Pope which deals with the Barrier Treaty loses much of its effect because we no longer stress the second syllable of 'barrier'. Pope's word is gone beyond recovery, but others which are threatened by false theories may yet be preserved. The _New English Dictionary_, whose business it is to record facts, shows that in not a few common words there is at present much confusion and uncertainty concerning the right pronunciation. This applies mostly to the position of the stress or, as some prefer to call it, the accent, but in many cases it is true also of the quantity of the vowels. It is desirable to show that there is a principle in this matter, rules which have been naturally and unconsciously obeyed, because they harmonize with the genius of the English tongue. For nearly three centuries from the Reformation to the Victorian era there was in this country a uniform pronunciation of Latin. It had its own definite principles, involving in some cases a disregard of the classical quantities though not of the classical stress or accent. It survives in borrowed words such as _[=a]li[)a]s_ and _st[)a]mina_, in naturalized legal phrases, such as _N[=i]s[=i] Prius_ and _[=o]nus probandi_, and with some few changes in the Westminster Play. This pronunciation is now out of fashion, but, since its supersession does not justify a change in the pronunciation of words which have become part of our language, it will be well to begin with a formulation of its rules. The rule of Latin stress was observed as it obtained in the time of Quintilian. In the earliest Latin the usage had been other, the stress coming as early in the word as was possible. Down to the days of Terence and probably somewhat later the old rule still held good of quadrisyllables with the scansion of _m[)u]l[)i][)e]r[)i]s_ or _m[)u]l[)i][)e]r[=e]s_, but in other words had given way to the later Quintilian rule, that all words with a long unit as penultimate had the stress on the vowel in that unit, while words of more than two syllables with a short penultimate had the stress on the antepenultimate. I say 'unit' because here, as in scansion, what counts is not the syllable, but the vowel plus all the consonants that come between it and the next vowel. Thus _inférnus_, where the penultimate vowel is short, no less than _suprémus_, where it is long, has the stress on the penultima. In _volucris_, where the penultimate unit was short, as it was in prose and could be in verse, the stress was on the _o_, but when _ucr_ made a long unit the stress comes on the _u_, though of course the vowel remains short. In polysyllables there was a secondary stress on the alternate vowels. Ignorance of this usage has made a present-day critic falsely accuse Shakespeare of a false quantity in the line Coríolánus in Coríoli. It may be safely said that from the Reformation to the nineteenth century no Englishman pronounced the last word otherwise than I have written it. The author of the Pronouncing Dictionary attached to the 'Dictionary of Gardening' unfortunately instructs us to say _gládiolus_ on the ground that the _i_ is short. The ground alleged, though true, is irrelevant, and, although Terence would have pronounced it _gládiolus_, Quintilian, like Cicero, would have said _gladíolus_. Mr. Myles quotes Pliny for the word, but Pliny would no more have thought of saying _gládiolus_ than we should now think of saying 'laboúr' except when we are reading Chaucer. We need not here discuss the dubious exceptions to this rule, such as words with an enclitic attached, e.g. _prim[)a]que_ in which some authorities put the stress on the vowel which precedes the enclitic, or such clipt words as 'illuc', where the stress may at one time have fallen on the last vowel. In any case no English word is concerned. In very long words the due alternation of stressed and unstressed vowels was not easy to maintain. There was no difficulty in such a combination as _hónoríficábilí_ or as _tudínitátibús_, but with the halves put together there would be a tendency to say _hónoríficabilitúdinitátibus_. Thus there ought not to be much difficulty in saying _Cónstantínopólitáni_, whether you keep the long antepenultima or shorten it after the English way; but he who forced the reluctant word to end an hexameter must have had 'Constantinóple' in his mind, and therefore said _Constántinópolitáni_ with two false stresses. The result was an illicit lengthening of the second _o_. His other false quantity, the shortening of the second _i_, was due to the English pronunciation, the influence of such words as 'metropol[)i]tan', and, as old schoolmasters used to put it, a neglect of the Gradus. Even when the stress falls on this antepenultimate _i_, it is short in English speech. Doubtless Milton shortened it in 'Areopagitica', just as English usage made him lengthen the initial vowel of the word. Probably very few of the Englishmen who used the traditional pronunciation of Latin knew that they gave many different sounds to each of the symbols or letters. Words which have been transported bodily into English will provide examples under each head. It will be understood that in the traditional pronunciation of Latin these words were spoken exactly as they are spoken in the English of the present day. For the sake of simplicity it may be allowed us to ignore some distinctions rightly made by phoneticians. Thus the long initial vowel of _alias_ is not really the same as the long initial vowel of _area_, but the two will be treated as identical. It will thus be possible to write of only three kinds of vowels, long, short, and obscure. The letter or symbol _a_ stood for two long sounds, heard in the first syllables of _alias_ and of _larva_, for the short sound heard in the first syllable of _stamina_, and for the obscure sound heard in the last syllable of each of these last two words in English. The letter _e_ stood for the long sounds heard in _genus_ and in _verbum_, for the short sound heard in _item_, and for the obscure sound heard in _cancer_. When it ended a word it had, if short, the sound of a short _i_, as in _pro lege_, _rege_, _grege_, as also in unstressed syllables in such words as _precentor_ and _regalia_. The letter _i_ stood for the two long sounds heard in _minor_ and in _circus_ and for the short sound heard in _premium_ and _incubus_. The letter _o_ stood for the two long sounds heard in _odium_ and in _corpus_, for the short sound in _scrofula_, and for the obscure in _extempore_. The two long sounds of _u_ are heard in _rumor_, if that spelling may be allowed, and in the middle syllable of _laburnum_, the two short sounds in the first _u_ of _incubus_ and in the first _u_ of _lustrum_, the obscure sound in the final syllables of these two words. Further the long sound was preceded except after _l_ and _r_ by a parasitic _y_ as in _albumen_ and _incubus_. This parasitic _y_ is perhaps not of very long standing. In some old families the tradition still compels such pronunciations as _moosic_. The diphthongs _æ_ and _oe_ were merely _e_, while _au_ and _eu_ were sounded as in our _August_ and _Euxine_. The two latter diphthongs stood alone in never being shortened even when they were unstressed and followed by two consonants. Thus men said _[=Eu]stolia_ and _[=Au]gustus_, while they said _[)Æ]schylus_ and _[)OE]dipus._ Dryden and many others usually wrote the _Æ_ as _E_. Thus Garrick in a letter commends an adaptation of 'Eschylus', and although Boswell reports him as asking Harris 'Pray, Sir, have you read Potter's _Æschylus_?' both the speaker and the reporter called the name _Eschylus_. The letter _y_ was treated as _i_. The consonants were pronounced as in English words derived from Latin. Thus _c_ before _e_, _i_, _y_, _æ_, and _oe_ was _s_, as in _census_, _circus_, _Cyrus_, _Cæsar_, and _coelestial_, a spelling not classical and now out of use. Elsewhere _c_ was _k_. Before the same vowels _g_ was _j_ (d[ezh]), as in _genus_, _gibbus_, _gyrus_. The sibilant was voiced or voiceless as in English words, the one in _rosaceus_, the other in _saliva_. It will be seen that the Latin sounds were throughout frankly Anglicized. According to Burney a like principle was followed by Burke when he read French poetry aloud. He read it as though it were English. Thus on his lips the French word _comment_ was pronounced as the English word _comment_. The rule that overrode all others, though it has the exceptions given below, was that vowels and any other diphthongs than _au_ and _eu_, if they were followed by two consonants, were pronounced short. Thus _a_ in _magnus_, though long in classical Latin, was pronounced as in our 'magnitude', and _e_ in _census_, in Greek transcription represented by [Greek: eta], was pronounced short, as it is when borrowed into English. So were the penultimate vowels in _villa_, _nullus_, _cæspes_. This rule of shortening the vowel before two consonants held good even when in fact only one was pronounced, as in _nullus_ and other words where a double consonant was written and in Italian pronounced. Moreover, the parasitic _y_ was treated as a consonant, hence our 'v[)a]cuum'. In the penultima _qu_ was treated as a single consonant, so that the vowel was pronounced long in _[=a]quam_, _[=e]quam_, _in[=i]quam_, _l[=o]quor_. So it was after _o_, hence our 'coll[=o]quial'; but in earlier syllables than the penultima _qu_ was treated as a double consonant, hence our 'sub[)a]queous', 'equity', 'iniquity'. EXCEPTIONS. 1. When the former of the two consonants was _r_ and the latter another consonant than _r_, as in the series represented by _larva_, _verbum_, _circus_, _corpus_, _laburnum_, the vowels are a separate class of long vowels, though not really recognized as such. Of course our ancestors and the Gradus marked them long because in verse the vowel with the two consonants makes a long unit. 2. A fully stressed vowel before a mute and _r_, or before _d_ or _pl_, was pronounced long in the penultima. Latin examples are _labrum_, _Hebrum_, _librum_, _probrum_, _rubrum_, _acrem_, _cedrum_, _vafrum_, _agrum_, _pigrum_, _aprum_, _veprem_, _patrem_, _citrum_, _utrum_, _triplus_, _duplex_, _Cyclops_. Moreover, in other syllables than the penultima the vowel in the same combinations was pronounced long if the two following vowels had no consonant between them, as _patria_, _Hadria_, _acrius_. (Our 'triple' comes from _triplum_ and is a duplicate of '_treble_'. Perhaps the short vowel is due to its passage through French. Our 'citron' comes from _citronem_, in which _i_ was short.) 3. The preposition and adverb _post_ was pronounced with a long vowel both by itself and in composition with verbs, but its adjectives did not follow suit. Hence we say in English 'p[=o]stpone', but 'p[)o]sterior' and 'p[)o]sthumous'. Monosyllables ending in a vowel were pronounced long, those ending in a consonant short. Enclitics like _que_ were no real exception as they formed part of the preceding word. There were, however, some real exceptions. 1. Pronouns ending in _-os_, as _hos_, _quos_. These followed _eos_ and _illos_. 2. Words ending in _-es_, as _pes_, _res_. 3. Words ending in _r_, as _par_, _fer_, _vir_, _cor_, _fur_. These had that form of long vowel which we use in 'part', 'fertile', 'virtue', 'cordate', 'furtive'. In, disyllables the former vowel or diphthong, if followed by a single consonant, or by a mute and _r_, or by _cl_ or _pl_, was pronounced long, a usage which according to Mr. Henry Bradley dates in spoken Latin from the fourth century. Examples are _apex_, _tenet_, _item_, _focus_, _pupa_, _Psyche_, _Cæsar_, _foetus_. I believe that at first the only exceptions were _tibi_, _sibi_, _ibi_, _quibus_, _tribus_. In later days the imperfect and future of _sum_ became exceptions. Here perhaps the short vowel arose from the hideous and wholly erroneous habit, happily never universal though still in some vogue, of reciting _erám_, _erás_, _erát_. There are actually schoolbooks which treat the verse _ictus_, the beat of the chanter's foot, as a word stress and prescribe _terra tribús scopulís_. I can say of these books only _Pereant ipsi, mutescant scriptores_, and do not mind using a post-classical word in order to say it. In disyllables the former vowel or diphthong, if followed immediately by another vowel or diphthong, had the quality, and if emphatic also the quality, of a long vowel. The distinction was not recognized, and seems not to be generally acknowledged even now. We seem not to have borrowed many words which will illustrate this. We have however _fiat_, and _pius_ was pronounced exactly as we pronounce 'pious', while for a diphthong we may quote Shelley, Mid the mountains Euganean I stood listening to the paean. English derivatives will show the long quality of the vowels in _aer_, _deus_, _coit_, _duo_. To these add _Graius_. The rule of _apex_ applies also to words of more than two syllables with long penultima, as _gravamen_, _arena_, _saliva_, _abdomen_, _acumen_. The rule of _aer_ also holds good though it hardly has other instances than Greek names, as _Macháon_, _Ænéas_, _Thalía_, _Achelóus_, _Ach['æ]i_. In words of more than two syllables with short penultima the vowel in the stressed antepenultima was pronounced short when there was a consonant between the two last vowels, and _i_ and _y_ were short even when no consonant stood in that place. Examples are _stamina_, _Sexagesima_, _minimum_, _modicum_, _tibia_, _Polybius_. But _u_, _au_, _eu_ were, as usual, exceptions, as _tumulus_, _Aufidus_, _Eutychus_. I believe that originally men said _C[)æ]sarem_, as they certainly said _c[)æ]spitem_ and _C[)æ]tulum_, as also _C[)æ]sarea_, but here in familiar words the cases came to follow the nominative. Exceptions to the rule were verb forms which had _[=a]v_, _[=e]v_, _[=i]v_, or _[=o]v_ in the antepenultima, as _am[=a]veram_, _defieverat_, _audivero_, _moveras_, and like forms from aorists with the penultima long, as _suaseram_, _egero_, _miserat_, _roseras_, and their compounds. This rule was among the first to break down, and about the middle of the nineteenth century the Westminster Play began to observe the true quantities in the antepenultimate syllables. Thus in spite of 'cons[)i]deration' boys said _s[=i]dera_, and in spite of 'n[)o]minal' they said _nômina_, while they still said _s[)o]litus_ and _r[)a]pidus_. On the other hand the following rule, of which borrowed words provide many examples, still obtains in the Play. In words of more than two syllables any vowel in the antepenultima other than _i_ or _y_ was pronounced long if no consonant divided the two following vowels. Possibly the reason was that there was a synæresis of the two vowels, but I doubt this, for a parasitic _y_ was treated as a consonant. Examples are _alias_, _genius_, _odium_, _junior_, _anæmia_, and on the other hand _f[)i]lius_, _L[)y]dia_. Compound verbs with a short prefix were exceptions, as _[)o]beo_, _r[)e]creo_, whence our 'recreant'. A long prefix remained long as in _d[=e]sino_. The only other exception that I can remember was _Ph[)o]loe_. In polysyllables the general rule was that all vowels and diphthongs before the penultima other than _u_, when it bore a primary or secondary stress, and _au_ and _eu_ were pronounced short except where the 'alias' rule or the 'larva' rule applied. Thus we said _h[)e]r[)e]ditaritis_, _[)æ]qu[)a]bilitas_, _imb[)e]cillus_, _susp[)i]cionem_, but _fid[=u]ciarius_, _m[=e]diocritas_, _p[=a]rticipare_. I do not know why the popular voice now gives _[)A]riadne_, for our forefathers said _[=A]riadne_ as they said _[=a]rea_. In very long words the alternation of stress and no-stress was insisted on. I remember a schoolmaster who took his degree at Oxford in the year 1827 reproving a boy for saying _Álphesib['oe]us_ instead of _Alphesib['oe]us_, and I suspect that Wordsworth meant no inverted stress in Laódamía, that at Jove's command-- nor Landor in Artémidóra, gods invisible-- though I hope that they did. * * * * * It is not to be thought that these rules were in any way arbitrary. So little was this so that, I believe, they were never even formulated. If examples with the quantities marked were ever given, they must have been for the use of foreigners settling in England. English boys did not want rules, and their teachers could not really have given them. The teachers did not understand that each vowel represented not two sounds only, a long and a short, but many more. This fact was no more understood by John Walker, the actor and lexicographer, who in 1798 published a Key to the Classical Pronunciation of Greek and Latin proper names. His general rule was wrong as a general rule, and so far as it agreed with facts it was useless. He says that when a vowel ends a syllable it is long, and when it does not it is short. Apart from the confusion of cause and effect there is the error of identifying for instance the _e_ in _beatus_ and the _e_ in _habebat_. Moreover, Walker confounds the _u_ in 'curfew', really long, with the short and otherwise different _u_ in 'but'. The rule was useless as a guide, for it did not say whether _moneo_ for instance was to be read as _ino-neo_ or as _mon-eo_, and therefore whether the _o_ was to be long or short. Even Walker's list is no exact guide. He gives for instance _M[=o]-na_, which is right, and _M[=o]-næses_, which is not. Now without going into the difference between long vowels and ordinary vowels, of which latter some are long in scansion and some short, it is clear that there is no identity. In fact _Mona_, has the long _o_ of 'moan' and _Monæses_ the ordinary _o_ of 'monaster'. A boy at school was not troubled by these matters. He had only two things to learn, first the quantity of the penultimate unit, second the fact that a final vowel was pronounced. When he knew these two things he gave the Latin word the sounds which it would have if it were an English word imported from the Latin. Thus he finds the word _civilitate_. I am not sure that he could find it, but that does not matter. He would know 'civility', and he learns that the penultima of the Latin word is long. Therefore he says _c[)i]v[)i]l[)i]t[=a]t[)e]_. Again he knows '[)i]nf[)i]n[)i]t' (I must be allowed to spell the word as it is pronounced except in corrupt quires). He finds that the penultima of _infinitivus_ is long, and he therefore says _[)i]nf[)i]n[)i]t[=i]v[)u]s_. Again he knows 'irradiate', and finding that the penultima of _irradiabitur_ is short he says _[)i]rr[=a]d[)i][)a]b[)i]t[)u]r_. It is true that some of these verb forms under the influence of their congeners came to have an exceptional pronunciation. Thus _irradi[=a]bit_ led at last to _irradi[=a]bitur_, but I doubt whether this occurred before the nineteenth century. The word _dabitur_, almost naturalized by Luther's adage of _date et dabitur_, kept its short _a_ down to the time when it regained it, in a slightly different form, by its Roman right; and _am[)a]mini_ and _mon[)e]mini_ were unwavering in their use. Old people said _v[=a]ri[)a]bilis_ long after the true quantities had asserted themselves, and the word as the specific name of a plant may be heard even now. Its first syllable of course follows what I shall call the 'alias' rule. We may still see this rule in other instances. All men say 'hippopót[)a]mus', and even those who know that this _a_ is short in Greek can say nothing but 'Mesopot[=a]mia', unless indeed the word lose its blessed and comforting powers in a disyllabic abbreviation. When a country was named after Cecil Rhodes, where the _e_ in the surname is mute, we all called it 'Rhod[=e]sia'. Had it been named after a Newman, where the _a_ is short or rather obscure, we should all have called it 'Newm[=a]nia ', while, named after a Davis, it would certainly have been 'Dav[)i]sia'. The process of thought would in each case have been unconscious. A new example is 'aviation', whose first vowel has been instinctively lengthened. Again, when the word 'telegram' was coined, some scholars objected to its formation and insisted upon 'telegrapheme', but the most obdurate Grecian did not propose to keep the long Greek vowel in the first syllable. When only the other day 'cinematograph' made its not wholly desirable appearance, it made no claim to a long vowel in either of its two first syllables. Not till it was reasonably shortened into 'c[)i]n[)e]ma' did a Judge from the Bench make a lawless decree for a long second vowel, and even he left the _i_ short though it is long in Greek. Of course with the manner of speech the quantities had to be learnt separately. The task was not as difficult as some may think. To boys with a taste for making verses the thumbing of a Gradus (I hope that no one calls it a Gr[)a]dus) was always a delightful occupation, and a quantity once learnt was seldom forgotten. It must be admitted that, as boys were forced to do verses, whether they could or not, there were always some who could read and yet forget. Although these usages did not precede but followed the pronunciation of words already borrowed from Latin, we may use them to classify the changes of quantity. We shall see that although there are some exceptions for which it is difficult to give a reason, yet most of the exceptions fall under two classes. When words came to us through French, the pronunciation was often affected by the French form of the word. Thus the adjective 'present' would, if it had come direct from Latin, have had a long vowel in the first syllable. To an English ear 'pr[)e]sent' seemed nearer than 'pr[=e]sent' to the French 'présent'. The _N.E.D._ says that 'gladiator' comes straight from the Latin 'gladiatorem'. Surely in that case it would have had its first vowel long, as in 'radiator' and 'mediator'. In any case its pronunciation must have been affected by 'gladiateur'. The other class of exceptions consists of words deliberately introduced by writers at a late period. Thus 'adorable' began as a penman's word. Following 'inéxorable' and the like it should have been 'ádorable'. Actually it was formed by adding _-able_ to 'adóre', like 'laughable'. It is now too stiff in the joints to think of a change, and must continue to figure with the other sins of the Restoration. Before dealing with the words as classified by their formation, we may make short lists of typical words to show that for the pronunciation of English derivatives it is idle to refer to the classical quantities. From _[=æ]_: [)e]difice, [)e]mulate, c[)e]rulean, qu[)e]stion. From _[=oe]_: [)e]conomy, [)e]cumenical, conf[)e]derate. From _[=a]_,: don[)a]tive, n[)a]tural, cl[)a]mour, [)a]verse. From _[)a]_: [=a]lien, st[=a]tion, st[=a]ble, [=a]miable. From _[=e]_: [)e]vident, Quadrag[)e]sima, pl[)e]nitude, s[)e]gregate. From _[)e]_: s[=e]ries, s[=e]nile, g[=e]nus, g[=e]nius. From _[=i]_: lasc[)i]vious, erad[)i]cate, d[)i]vidend, f[)i]lial, susp[)i]cion. From _[)i]_: l[=i]bel, m[=i]tre, s[=i]lex. From _[=o]_: [)o]rator, pr[)o]minent, pr[)o]montory, s[)o]litude. From _[)o]_: b[=o]vine, l[=o]cal, f[=o]rum, coll[=o]quial. From _[=u]_: fig[)u]rative, script[)u]ral, sol[)u]ble. From _[)u]_: n[=u]merous, C[=u]pid, all[=u]vial, cer[=u]lean. The _N.E.D._ prefers the spelling 'oecumenical'; but Newman wrote naturally 'ecumenical', and so does Dr. J.B. Bury. Dublin scholarship has in this matter been markedly correct. _CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS ACCORDING TO THEIR LATIN STEMS._ In classification it seems simplest to take the words according to their Latin stems. We must, however, first deal with a class of adjectives borrowed bodily from the Latin nominative masculine with the insertion of a meaningless _o_ before the final _-us_.[1] These of course follow the rules given above. In words of more than two syllables the antepenultimate and stressed vowel is shortened, as '[)e]mulous' from _æmulus_ and in 'fr[)i]volous' from _fr[=i]volus_, except where by the 'alias' rule it is long, as in 'egr[=e]gious' from _egr[)e]gius_. Words coined on this analogy also follow the rules. Thus 'glabrous' and 'fibrous' have the vowels long, as in the traditional pronunciation of _glabrum_ and _fibrum_, where the vowels in classical Latin were short. The stressed _u_ being always long we have 'lug[=u]brious' and 'sal[=u]brious', the length being independent of the 'alias' rule. Some words ending in _-ous_ are not of this class. Thus 'odorous' and 'clamorous' appear in Italian as _odoroso_ and _clamoroso_. Milton has Sonórous mettal blowing Martial sounds. The Italian is _sonoro_, and our word was simply the Latin _sonorus_ borrowed bodily at a somewhat late period. Hence the stress remains on the penultima. Skeat thought that the word would at last become 'sónorous'. It maybe hoped that Milton's line will save it from the effect of a false analogy. [Footnote 1: I regard this statement as inaccurate. The _-ous_ in these words does not come from the nominative ending _-us_, but is the ordinary _-ous_ from L. _-osus_ (through Fr.). It was added to many Latin adjective stems, because the need of a distinctly adjectival ending was felt. Similarly in early French _-eux_ was appended to adjectives when they were felt to require a termination, as in _pieux_ from _pi-us_. Compare the English _capacious_, _veracious_, _hilarious_, where _-ous_ is added to other stems than those in _o_. Other suffixes of Latin origin are used in the same way: e.g. _-al_ in _aerial_, _ethereal_.--H.B.] In classifying by stems it will be well to add, where possible, words of Greek origin. Except in some late introductions Greek words, except when introduced bodily, have been treated as if they came through Latin, and some of the bodily introductions are in the same case. Thus 'anæsthetic' is spelt with the Latin diphthong and the Latin _c_. Even 'skeleton' had a _c_ to start with, while the modern and wholly abominable 'kaleidoscope' is unprincipled on the face of it. STEMS ENDING IN -ANT AND -ENT. These are participles or words formed as such. Our words have shed a syllable, thus _regentem_ has become 'regent'. Disyllables follow the 'apex' rule and lengthen the first vowel, as 'agent', 'decent', 'potent'. Exceptions are 'clement' and 'present', perhaps under French influence. Words of more than two syllables with a single consonant before the termination throw the stress back and shorten a long penultima, as 'ignorant', 'president', 'confident', 'adjutant'. Where there are two heavy consonants, the stress remains on the penultima, as 'consultant', 'triumphant', even when one of the consonants is not pronounced, as 'reminiscent'. In some cases the Latinists seem to have deliberately altered the natural pronunciation. Thus Gower has 'ápparaúnt', but the word became 'appárent' before Shakespeare's time, and later introductions such as 'adherent' followed it. What right 'adjacent' has to its long vowel and penultimate stress I do not know, but it cannot be altered now. STEMS ENDING IN -ATO AND -UTO. These are mostly past participles, but many of them are used in English as verbs. It must be admitted that the disyllabic words are not wholly constant to a principle. Those verbs that come from _-latum_ consistently stress the last vowel, as 'dilate', 'relate', 'collate'. So does 'create', because of one vowel following another. Of the rest all the words of any rank have the stress on the penultima, as 'vibrate', 'frustrate', 'mígrate', 'cástrate', 'púlsate', 'vácate'. Thus Pope has The whisper, that to greatness still too near, Perhaps, yet vibrates on his Sov'reign's ear, and Shelley Music, when soft voices die, Vibrates in the memory. There are, however, verbs of no literary account which in usage either vary in the stress or take it on the latter syllable. Such are 'locate', 'orate', 'negate', 'placate', and perhaps 'rotate'. With most of these we could well dispense. 'Equate' is mainly a technical word. Dictionaries seem to prefer the stress on the ultima, but some at least of the early Victorian mathematicians said 'équate', and the pronunciation is to be supported. Trisyllabic verbs throw the stress back and shorten the penultima, as 'dés[)o]late', 'súff[)o]cate', 'scínt[)i]llate'. Even words with heavy double consonants have adopted this habit. Thus where Browning has (like Milton and Cowper) I the Trinity illústrate Drinking water'd orange pulp, In three sips the Arian frustrate. While he drains his at one gulp, it is now usual to say 'íllustrate'. Adjectives of this class take as early a stress as they can, as 'órnate', 'pínnate', 'délicate', 'fórtunate'. Nouns from all these words throw the accent back and shorten or obscure all but the penultimate vowel, as 'ignorance', 'evaporation'. STEMS IN -IA. Here even disyllables shorten the penultima, as 'copy', 'province', while longer words throw the stress back as well as shorten the penultima, as 'injury', 'colony', while 'ignominy' almost lost its penultimate vowel, and therefore threw back the stress to the first syllable. Shakespeare frankly writes the word as a trisyllable, Thy ignomy sleep with thee in the grave. Milton restored the lost syllable, often eliding the final vowel, as in Exile, or ignominy, or bonds, or pain. Even with heavy consonants we have the early stress, as in 'industry'. Greek words follow the same rules, as 'agony', 'melody'. Some words of this class have under French influence been further abbreviated, as 'concord'. Corresponding STEMS IN -IO keep the same rules. Perhaps the only disyllable is 'study'; the shortening of a stressed _u_ shows its immediate derivation from the old French _estudie_. Trisyllabic examples are 'colloquy', 'ministry', 'perjury'. Many words of this class have been further abbreviated in their passage through French. Such are 'benefice', 'divorce', 'office', 'presage', 'suffrage', 'vestige', 'adverb', 'homicide', 'proverb'. The stress in 'divórce' is due to the long vowel and the two consonants. A few of these words have been borrowed bodily from Latin, as 'odium', 'tedium', 'opprobrium'. STEMS IN -DO AND -TO (-SO). These words lose the final Latin syllable and keep the stress on the vowel which bore it in Latin. The stressed vowel, except in _au_, _eu_, is short, even when, as in 'vivid', 'florid', it was long in classical Latin. This, of course, is in accord with the English pronunciation of Latin. Examples are 'acid', 'tepid', 'rigid', 'horrid', 'humid', 'lurid ', 'absurd', 'tacit', 'digit', 'deposit', 'compact', 'complex', 'revise', 'response', 'acute'. Those which have the suffix _-es_ prefixed throw the stress back, as 'honest', 'modest'. Those which have the suffix _-men_ prefixed also throw the stress back, as 'moment', 'pigment', 'torment', and to the antepenultima, if there be one, as 'argument', 'armament', 'emolument', the penultimate vowel becoming short or obscure. In 'temperament' the tendency of the second syllable to disappear has carried the stress still further back. We may compare 'Séptuagint', where _u_ becomes consonantal. An exception for which I cannot account is 'cemént', but Shakespeare has 'cément'. STEMS IN -T[=A]T. These are nouns and have the stress on the antepenultima, which in Latin bore the secondary stress. They of course show the usual shortening of the vowels with the usual exceptions. Examples are 'charity', 'equity', 'liberty', 'ferocity', 'authority', and with long antepenultima 'immunity', 'security', 'university'. With no vowel before the penultima the long quality is, as usual, preserved, as in 'satiety'. STEMS IN -OSO. These are adjectives and throw the stress back to the antepenultima, if there be one. In disyllables the penultimate vowel is long, as in 'famous', 'vinous'; in longer words the antepenultimate vowel is short, as 'criminous', 'generous'. Many, however, fall under the 'alias' rule, as 'ingenious', 'odious', while those which have _i_ in the penultimate run the two last syllables into one, as 'pernicious', 'religious', 'vicious'. A few late introductions, coming straight from the Latin, retained the Latin stress, as 'morose', 'verbose'. STEMS IN -T[=O]RIO AND -S[=O]RIO. In these words the stress goes back to the fourth syllable from the end, this in Latin having the secondary stress, or, as in 'circulatory', 'ambulatory', even further. In fact the _o_, which of course is shortened, tends to disappear. Examples are 'declamatory', 'desultory', 'oratory', 'predatory', 'territory'. Three consonants running, as in 'perfunctory', keep the stress where it has to be in a trisyllable, such as 'victory'. So does a long vowel before _r_ and another consonant, as in 'precursory'. Otherwise two consonants have not this effect, as in 'prómontory', 'cónsistory'. In spite of Milton's A gloomy Consistory, and them amidst With looks agast and sad he thus bespake, the word is sometimes mispronounced. STEMS IN -[=A]RIO. These follow the same rules, except that, as in 'ádversary', combinations like _ers_ are shortened and the stress goes back; and that words ending in _-entary_, such as 'elementary' and 'testamentary', stress the antepenultima. Examples are 'antiquary', 'honorary', 'voluntary', 'emissary'. It is difficult to see a reason for an irregular quantity in the antepenultima of some trisyllables. The general rule makes it short, as in 'granary', 'salary', but in 'library' and 'notary' it has been lengthened. The _N.E.D._ gives 'pl[=e]nary', but our grandfathers said 'pl[)e]nary'. Of course 'diary' gives a long quality to the _i_. STEMS IN -[)I]LI. These seem originally to have retained the short _i_. Thus Milton's spelling is 'facil' and 'fertil' while other seventeenth-century writers give 'steril'. This pronunciation still obtains in America, but in England the words seem to have been usually assimilated to 'fragile', as Milton spells it, which perhaps always lengthened the vowel. The penultimate vowel is short. STEMS IN -[=I]LI. Here the long _i_ is retained, and in disyllables the penultima is lengthened, as in 'anile', 'senile', 'virile'. There is no excuse for following the classical quantity in the former syllables of any of these words. As an English word 'sedilia' shortens the antepenultimate, like 'tibia' and the rest, the 'alias' rule not applying when the vowel is _i_. STEMS IN -B[)I]LI. These mostly come through French and change the suffix into _-ble_. Disyllables lengthen the penultima, as 'able', 'stable', 'noble', while 'mobile', as in French, lengthens its latter vowel. Trisyllables shorten and stress the antepenultima, as 'placable', 'equable', but of course _u_ remains long, as in 'mutable'. Longer words throw the stress further back, except mere negatives, like 'implácable', and words with heavy consonants such as 'delectable'. Examples are 'miserable', 'admirable', 'intolerable', 'despicable'. The Poet Laureate holds that in these words Milton kept the long Italian _a_ of the penultimate or secondary stress. Fall'n Cherube, to be weak is miserable. In English we have naturalized _-able_ as a suffix and added it to almost any verb, as 'laughable', 'indescribable', 'desirable'. The last word may have been taken from French. The form 'des[)i]derable' occurs from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century. Originally 'acceptable' threw the stress back, as in Milton's So fit, so acceptable, so Divine, but the double mute has brought it into line with 'delectable'. Nowadays one sometimes hears 'dispútable', 'despícable', but these are intolerable vulgarisms. SUFFIXES IN T[)I]LI AND S[)I]LI. These words mostly lengthen the _i_ and make the usual shortenings, as 'missile', 'sessile', 'textile', 'volatile', but of course 'futile'. Exceptions which I cannot explain are 'foss[)i]l' and 'fus[)i]le'. SUFFIX IN [=A]LI. These adjectives shorten the _-a_ and, with the usual exceptions, the preceding vowels, as 'dóctrinal', 'fílial', 'líberal', 'márital', 'medícinal', but of course by the 'alias' rule 'arb[=o]real' (not a classical word in Latin) and 'g[=e]nial'. Words like 'national' and 'rational' were treated like trisyllables, which they now are. The stress is on the antepenultima except when heavy consonants bring it on to the penultima, as in 'sepulcral', 'parental', 'triumphal'. Those who say 'doctrínal' on the ground that the second vowel is long in Latin commit themselves to 'medicínal', 'natúral', 'nutríment', 'instrúment', and, if their own principle be applied, they make false quantities by the dozen every day of their lives. Three words mostly mispronounced are, from their rarity, perhaps not past rescue. They are 'décanal', 'ruridécanal', and 'prébendal'. There is no more reason for saying 'decánal' than for saying 'matrónal' or for saying 'prebéndal' than for saying 'caléndar'. Of course words like 'tremendous', being imported whole, keep the original stress. In our case the Latin words came into existence as _décanális_, _prébendális_, parallel with _náturális_, which gives us 'nátural'. That mostly wrong-headed man, Burgon of Chichester, was correct in speaking of his rights or at any rate his claims as 'décanal'. STEMS IN -LO. Of these 'stimulus' and 'villa' have been borrowed whole, while _umbella_ is corrupted into 'umbrella'. Disyllables lengthen the penultima, as 'stable', 'title', 'pupil'. Under French influence 'disciple' follows their example. In longer words the usual shortenings are made, as in 'frivolous', 'ridiculous'. The older words in _-ulo_ change the suffix into _-le_, as 'uncle', 'maniple', 'tabernacle', 'conventicle', 'receptacle', 'panicle'. Later words retain the _u_, as 'vestibule', 'reticule', 'molecule'. STEMS IN -NO. The many words of this class are a grief to the classifier, who seeks in vain for reasons. Thus 'german' and 'germane' have the same source and travelled, it seems, by the same road through France. The Latin _hyacinth[)i]nus_ and _adamant[)i]nus_ are parallel words, yet Milton has 'hyacinthin' for the one and 'adamantine' for the other. One classification goes a little way. Thus 'human' and 'urban' must have come through French, 'humane' and 'urbane' direct from Latin. On the other hand while 'meridian' and 'quartan' are French, 'publican', 'veteran', and 'oppidan' are Latin. Words with a long _i_, if they came early through France, shorten the vowel, as 'doctrine', 'discipline', 'medicine', and 'masculine', while 'genuine', though a later word, followed them, but 'anserine' and 'leonine' did not. Disyllables seem to prefer the stress on the ultima, as 'divine', 'supine', but even these are not consistent. Some critics would scan Cassio's words The dívine Desdemona, though Shakespeare nowhere else has this stress, while Shelley has. Shelley, too, has She cannot know how well the súpine slaves Of blind authority read the truth of things. The grammatical term, too, is 'súpine'. Later introductions also have this stress, as 'bóvine', 'cánine', 'équine'. The last word is not always understood. At any rate Halliwell-Phillips, referring to a well-known story of Shakespeare's youth, says that the poet probably attended the theatre 'in some equine capacity'. As it is agreed that 'bovine' and 'equine' lengthen the former vowel, we ought by analogy to say 'c[=a]nine', as probably most people do. Words of more than two syllables have the stress on the antepenultima and the vowel is short, as in 'libertine', 'adulterine', but of course '[=u]terine'. When heavy consonants bring the stress on to the penultima, the _i_ is shortened, as in 'clandest[)i]n(e)', 'intest[)i]n(e)', and so in like disyllables, as 'doctr[)i]n(e)'. The modern words 'morphin(e)' and 'strychnin(e)', coined, the one from Morpheus and the other from the Greek name of the plant known to botanists as _Withania somnifera_, correctly follow 'doctrine' in shortening the _i_, though another pronunciation is sometimes heard. STEMS IN -TUDIN. These shorten the antepenultima, as 'plenitude', 'solitude', with the usual exceptions, such as 'fortitude'. STEMS IN -TION. These words retain the suffix, which in early days was disyllabic, as it sometimes is in Shakespeare, for instance in Portia's Before a friend of this descriptión Shall lose a hair through Bassanio's fault. Thus they came under the 'alias' rule, and what is now the penultimate vowel is long unless it be _i_. Examples are 'nation', 'accretion', 'emotion', 'solution', while _i_ is shortened in 'petition', 'munition', and the like, and left short in 'admonition' and others. In military use an exception is made by 'ration', but the pronunciation is confined to one sense of the word, and is new at that. I remember old soldiers of George III who spoke of 'r[=a]tions'. Perhaps the ugly change is due to French influence. Originally the adjectives from these words must have lengthened the fourth vowel from the end long, as n[=a]t[)i][)o]nal, but when _ti_ became _sh_ they came to follow the rule of Latin trisyllables in our pronunciation. STEMS IN -IC. Of these words we have a good many, both Latin and Greek. Those that came direct keep the stress on the vowel which was antepenultimate and is in English penultimate, and this vowel is short whatever its original quantity. Examples are 'aquatic', 'italic', 'Germanic'. Words that came through French threw the stress back, as 'lúnatic'. Skeat says that 'fanatic' came through French, but he can hardly be right, for the pronunciation 'fánatic' is barely three score years old. There is no inverted stress in Milton's Fanátic Egypt and her priests. As for 'unique' it is a modern borrowing from French, and of late 'ántique' or 'ántic', as Shakespeare has it, has followed in one of its senses the French use. It is a pity in face of Milton's With mask and ántique Pageantry, and it obscures the etymological identity of 'antique' and 'antic', but the old pronunciation is irredeemable. At least the new avoids the homophonic inconvenience. Greek words of this class used as adjectives mostly follow the same rule, as 'sporadic', 'dynamic', 'pneumatic', 'esoteric', 'philanthropic', 'emetic', 'panegyric'. As nouns the earlier introductions threw the stress back, as 'heretic', 'arithmetic', but later words follow the adjectives, as 'emetic', 'enclitic', 'panegyric'. As for 'politic', which is stressed as we stress both by Shakespeare and by Milton, it must be under French influence, though Skeat seems to think that it came straight from Latin. STEMS IN -OS. These words agree in being disyllabic, but otherwise they are a tiresome and quarrelsome people. For their diversity in spelling some can make a defence, since 'horror', 'pallor', 'stupor' came straight from Latin, but 'tenor', coming through French, should have joined hands with 'colour', 'honour', 'odour'. The short vowel is inevitable in 'horror' and 'pallor', the long in 'ardour', 'stupor', 'tumour'. The rest are at war, 'clamour', 'colour', 'honour', 'dolour', 'rigour', 'squalor', 'tenor', 'vigour' in the short legion, 'favour', 'labour', 'odour', 'vapour' in the long. Their camp-followers ending in -ous are under their discipline, so that, while 'cl[)a]morous', 'r[)i]gorous', 'v[)i]gorous' agree with the general rule, '[=o]dorous' makes an exception to it. All the derivatives of _favor_ are exceptions to the general rule, for 'favourite' and 'favorable' keep its long _a_. Of course 'l[)a]b[=o]rious' is quite in order, and so is 'v[)a]pid'. STEMS IN -TOR AND -SOR. These words, when they came through French, threw the stress back and shortened the penultimate, _[=o]r[=a]torem_ becoming _orateur_, and then '[)o]r[)a]tor', with the stress on the antepenultimate. Others of the same type are 'auditor', 'competitor', 'senator', and Shelley has The sister-pest, congrégator of slaves, while 'amateur' is borrowed whole from French and stresses its ultima. Trisyllables of course shorten the first vowel, as 'cr[)e]ditor', 'j[)a]nitor'. Polysyllables follow the stress of the verbs; thus 'ágitate' gives 'ágitator' and 'compóse' gives 'compósitor'. To the first class belongs 'circulator', 'educator', 'imitator', 'moderator', 'negotiator', 'prevaricator', with which 'gladiator' associates itself; to the second belongs 'competitor'. Words which came straight from Latin keep the stress of the Latin nominative, as 'creator', 'spectator', 'testator', 'coadjutor', 'assessor', to which in Walton's honour must be added 'Piscator' and 'Venator'. On 'curator' he who decides does so at his peril. On one occasion Eldon from the Bench corrected Erskine for saying 'cúr[)a]tor'. 'Cur[=a]tor, Mr. Erskine, cur[=a]tor.' 'I am glad', was the reply, 'to be set right by so eminent a sen[=a]tor and so eloquent an or[=a]tor as your Lordship.' Neither eminent lawyer knew much about it, but each was so far right that he stuck to the custom of his country. On other grounds Erskine might be thought to have committed himself to 'tést[)a]tor', if not quite to the 'testy tricks' of Sally in Mrs. Gaskell's 'Ruth'. STEMS IN -ERO AND -URO. Adjectives of this type keep the Latin stress, which thus falls on the ultima, and shorten or obscure the penultimate vowel, as 'mature', 'obscure', 'severe', 'sincere', but of course '[=a]ustere'. Of like form though of other origin is 'secure'. Nouns take an early stress, as 'áperture', 'sépulture', 'líterature', 'témperature', unless two mutes obstruct, as in 'conjécture'. Of the disyllables 'nature' keeps a long penultima, while 'figure' has it short, not because of the Latin quantity, but because of the French. The lonely word 'mediocre' lengthens its first vowel by the 'alias' rule and also stresses it. Whether the penultima has more than a secondary stress is a matter of dispute. STEMS IN -ARI. These words have the stress on the antepenultima, which they shorten, as in 'secular' or keep short as in 'jocular', 'familiar', but of course 'pec[=u]liar'. _ON CERTAIN GREEK WORDS._ It will have been seen that Greek words are usually treated as Latin. Thus 'crisis' lengthens the penultima under the 'apex' rule, while 'critical' has it short under the general rule of polysyllables. Other examples of lengthening are 'bathos', 'pathos', while the long quantity is of course kept in 'colon' and 'crasis'. For the 'alias' rule we may quote '[=a]theist', 'cryptog[=a]mia', 'h[=o]meopathy', 'heterog[=e]neous', 'pandem[=o]nium', while the normal shortenings are found in 'an[)o]nymous', 'eph[)e]meral', 'pand[)e]monium', '[)e]r[)e]mite'. Ignorance of English usage has made some editors flounder on a line of Pope's: Yes, or we must renounce the Stagirite. The birthplace of Aristotle was of course Stag[=i]ra or, as it is now fashionable to transcribe it, Stageira, as Pope doubtless knew, but the editors who accuse him of a false quantity in Greek are on the contrary themselves guilty of one in English. The penultima in English is short whether it was long or, as in 'dynamite' and 'malachite', short in Greek. There is, however, one distinct class of Greek words in which the Latin rule is not followed. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries there were scholars who rightly or wrongly treated the Greek accent as a mark of stress. It is clear that this habit led to an inability to maintain a long quantity in an unstressed syllable. Shakespeare must have learnt his little Greek from a scholar who had this habit, for he writes 'Andrón[)i]cus' and also I am misánthr[)o]pos and hate mankind. Of course all scholars shortened the first vowel of the word, and doubtless Shakespeare shortened also the third. Busby also thus spoke Greek with the result that Dryden in later life sometimes wrote epsilon instead of eta and also spoke of 'Cleoménes' and 'Iphig[=e]n[)i]a'. As a boy at Westminster he wrote Learn'd, Vertuous, Pious, Great, and have by this An universal Metempsuchosis. Macaulay with an ignorance very unusual in him rebuked his nephew for saying 'metamórph[)o]sis', and Dr. Johnson, had he been living, would have rebuked Macaulay. For the sake of our poets we ought to save 'apothé[)o]sis', which is in some danger. Garth may perhaps be forgotten, Allots the prince of his celestial line An Apotheosis and rights divine, but 'Rejected Addresses' should still carry weight. In the burlesque couplet, ascribed in the first edition to the younger Colman and afterwards transferred to Theodore Hook, we have That John and Mrs. Bull from ale and tea-houses May shout huzza for Punch's apotheosis. It need hardly be said that 'tea-houses' like 'grandfathers' has the stress on the antepenultimate. There are other words of Greek origin which now break the rules, though I believe the infringement to be quite modern. First we have the class beginning with _proto_. It can hardly be doubted that our ancestors followed rule and said 'pr[)o]tocol', and 'pr[)o]totype', and I suspect also 'pr[)o]tomartyr'. There seems, however, to be a general agreement nowadays to keep the Greek omega. As for 'protagonist' the word is so technical and is often so ludicrously misunderstood that writers on the Greek drama would do well to retain the Greek termination and say 'protagonistes'; for 'protagonist' is very commonly mistaken and used for the opposite of 'antagonist'. Next come words beginning with _hypo_ or _hyph_. In a disyllable the vowel is long by the 'apex' rule, as in 'hyphen'. In longer words it should be short. So once it was, and we still say 'hypocaust', 'hypocrit', 'hypochondria' (whence 'hypped'), 'hypothesis', and others, but a large group of technical and scientific words seems determined to have a long _y_. It looks as though there were a belief that _y_ is naturally long, though the French influence which gives us 't[=y]rant' does not extend to 'tyranny'. I do not know what Mr. Hardy calls his poem, but I hope he follows the old use and calls it 'The D[)y]nasts'. It might be thought that 'd[)y]nasty' was safe, but it is not. Some modern words like 'dynamite' have been misused from their birth. Another class begins with _hydro-_ from the Greek word for water. None of them seem to be very old, but probably 'hydraulic' began life with a short _y_. Surely Mrs. Malaprop, when she meant 'hysterics' and said 'hydrostatics', must have used the short _y_. Of course 'hydra' which comes from the same root follows the 'apex' rule. Words beginning with _hyper-_ seem nowadays always to have a long _y_ except that one sometimes hears 'h[)y]perbole' and 'h[)y]perbolical'. Of course both in _hypo-_ and in _hyper-_ the vowel is short in Greek, so that here at least the strange lengthening cannot be ascribed to the Grecians. The false theory of a long _y_ has not affected 'cynic' or 'cynical', while 'Cyril' has been saved by being a Christian name. We may yet hope to retain _y_ short in 'cylinder', 'cynosure', 'lycanthropy', 'mythology', 'pyramid', 'pyrotechnic', 'sycamore', 'synonym', 'typical'. As for 'h[=y]brid' it seems as much a caprice as '[=a]crid', a pronunciation often heard. Though 'acrid' is a false formation it ought to follow 'vivid' and 'florid'. The 'alias' rule enforces a long _y_ in 'hygiene' and 'hygienic'. On the matter of Greek names the lettern and the pulpit are grievous offenders. Once it was not so. The clergymen of the old type and the scholars of the Oxford Retrogression said T[)i]m[=o]th[)e][)u]s, because they had a sense of English and followed, consciously or unconsciously, the 'alias' rule. If there was ever an error, it was on the lips of some illiterate literate who made three syllables of the word. Now it seems fashionable to say T[=i]m[)o]th[)e][)u]s. The literate was better than this, for he at least had no theory, and frank ignorance is to be forgiven. It is no shame to a man not to know that the second _i_ in 'Villiers' is as mute as that in 'Parliament' or that Bolingbroke's name began with Bull and ended with brook, but when ignorance constructs a theory it is quite another matter. The etymological theory of pronunciation is intolerable. Etymology was a charming nymph even when men had but a distant acquaintance with her, and a nearer view adds to her graces; but when she is dragged reluctant from her element she flops like a stranded mermaid. The curate says 'Deuteronómy', and on his theory ought to say 'económy' and 'etymológy'. When Robert Gomery--why not give the reverend poetaster his real if less elegant name--published his once popular work, every one called it 'The Omnípresence of the Deïty', and Shelley had already written And, as I look'd, the bright omnípresence Of morning through the orient cavern flowed. It is true that Ken a century earlier had committed himself to Thou while below wert yet on high By Omniprésent Deity, and later Coleridge, perhaps characteristically, had sinned with There is one Mind, one omniprésent Mind, but neither the bishop nor the poet would have said 'omniscíence', or 'omnipótence'. Another word to show signs of etymological corruption is '[)e]volution'. It seems to have been introduced as a technical term of the art of war, and of course, like 'd[)e]volution', shortened the _e_. The biologists first borrowed it and later seem desirous of corrupting it. Perhaps they think of such words as '[=e]gress', but the long vowel is right in the stressed penultimate. One natural tendency in English runs strongly against etymology. This is the tendency to throw the stress back, which about a century ago turned 'contémplate' into 'cóntemplate' and somewhat later 'illústrate' into 'íllustrate'. Shakespeare and Milton pronounced 'instinct' as we pronounce 'distinct' and 'aspect' as we pronounce 'respect'. Thus Belarius is made to say 'Tis wonder That an invisible instínct should frame them To royalty unlearn'd, and Milton has By this new felt attraction and instinct, and also In battailous aspéct and neerer view. The retrogression of the stress is in these instances well established, and we cannot quarrel with it; but against some very recent instances a protest may be made. One seems to be a corruption of the War. In 1884 the _N.E.D._ recognized no pronunciation of it save 'allý', as in Romeo's This gentleman, the prince's neer Alie. The late Mr. B.B. Rogers in his translations of Aristophanes has of course no other pronunciation. His verses are too good to be spoiled by what began as a vulgarism. Another equally recent vulgarism, not recognized by the _N.E.D._ and bad enough to make George Russell turn in his grave, is 'mágazine' for 'magazíne'. It is not yet common, but such vulgarisms are apt to climb. In times not quite so recent the word 'prophecy' has changed, not indeed its stress, but the quantity of its final vowel. When Alford wrote 'The Queen's English', every one lengthened the last vowel, as in the verb, nor do I remember any other pronunciation in my boyhood. Now the _N.E.D._ gives the short vowel only. Alford to his own satisfaction accounted for the long vowel by the diphthong _ei_ of the Greek. It is to be feared that his explanation would involve 'dynast[=y]' and 'polic[=y]', even if it did not oblige us to turn 'Pompey' into 'Pomp[=y]'. In this case it may be suspected that the noun was assimilated to the verb, which follows the analogy of 'magnify' and 'multiply'. The voice of the people which now gives us 'prophec[)y]' seems here to have felt the power of analogy and assuredly will prevail. _ON PROPER NAMES._ It is to be hoped that except in reading Latin and Greek texts we shall keep to the traditional pronunciation of proper names as it is enshrined in our poetry and other literature. We must continue to lengthen the stressed penultimate vowel in Athos, Cato, Draco, Eros, Hebrus, Lichas, Nero, Otho, Plato, Pylos, Remus, Samos, Titus, Venus, and the many other disyllables wherein it was short in the ancient tongues. On the other hand we shall shorten the originally long stressed antepenultimate vowel in Brasidas, Euripides, Icarus, Lavinia, Lucilius, Lydia, Nicias, Onesimus, Pegasus, Pyramus, Regulus, Romulus, Scipio, Sisyphus, Socrates, Thucydides, and many more. Quin, and the actors of his day, used to give to the first vowel in 'Cato' the sound of the _a_ in 'father'. They probably thought that they were Italianizing such names. In fact their use was neither Latin nor English. They were like the men of to-day who speak of the town opposite Dover as 'Cally', a name neither French nor English. A town which once sent members to the English Parliament has a right to an English name. Prior rhymed it with 'Alice' and Browning has When Fortune's malice Lost her Calais. Shakespeare, of course, spelt it 'Callis', and this form, which was first evicted by Pope, whom other editors servilely followed, ought to be restored to Shakespeare's text. In the pronunciation of Cato the stage regained the English diphthong in the mouth of Garrick, whose good sense was often in evidence. It is recorded that his example was not at once followed in Scotland or Ireland. If there was any Highlander on the stage it may be hoped that he gave to the vowel the true Latin sound as it appears in 'Mactavish'. A once well-known schoolmaster, a correspondent of Conington's, had a daughter born to him whom in his unregenerate days he christened Rosa. At a later time he became a purist in quantities, and then he shortened the _o_ and took the voice out of the _s_ and spoke of her and to her as Rossa. The mother and the sisters refused to acknowledge what they regarded as a touch of shamrock and clung persistently to the English flower. The good gentleman did not call his son Sol[=o]mon,[2] though this is the form which ought to be used by those who turn the traditional English 'Elk[)a]nah' into 'Elk[=a]nah', 'Ab[)a]na' into 'Ab[=a]na', and 'Zeb[)u]lun' into 'Zeb[=u]lun'. If they do not know Poor Elk[)a]nah, all other troubles past, For bread in Smithfield dragons hiss'd at last, yet at least they ought to know Of Abb[)a]na and Pharphar, lucid streams. The malison of Milton on their heads! If the translators of the Bible had foreseen 'Zeb[=u]lun', they would have chosen some other word than 'princes' to avoid the cacophony of 'the princes of Zeb[=u]lun'. [Footnote 2: But pedantry would not suggest this. The New Testament has [Greek: Solomôn], and the Latin Christian poets have the _o_ short. True, the Vatican Septuagint has [Greek: Salômôn], but there the vowel of the first syllable is _a_.--H.B.] That these usages were familiar is evident from the pronunciation of proper, especially Biblical, names. Thus 'B[=a]bel' and 'B[)a]bylon', 'N[=i]nus' and 'N[)i]neveh', were spoken as unconsciously as M[=i]chael' and 'M[)i]chaelmas'. Nobody thought of asking the quantity of the Hebrew vowels before he spoke of 'C[=a]leb' and 'B[=a]rak', of 'G[)i]deon' and 'G[)i]lead', of 'D[)e]borah' and 'Ab[)i]melech', of '[=E]phraim' and 'B[=e]lial'. The seeming exceptions can be explained. Thus the priest said 'H[)e]rod' because in the Vulgate he read 'H[)e]rodes', but there was no Greek or Latin form to make him say anything else than 'M[=e]roz', 'P[=e]rez', 'S[=e]rah', 'T[=e]resh'. He said '[)A]dam' because, although the Septuagint and other books retained the bare form of the name, there were other writings in which the name was extended by a Latin termination. There was no like extension to tempt him to say anything but 'C[=a]desh', '[=E]dom', 'J[=a]don', 'N[=a]dab'. I must admit my inability to explain 'Th[)o]mas', but doubtless there is a reason. The abbreviated form was of course first 'Th[)o]m' and then 'T[)o]m'. Possibly the pet name has claimed dominion over the classical form. As in the _herba impia_ of the early botanists, these young shoots sometimes refuse to be 'trash'd for overtopping'. A story is told of an eccentric Essex rector. He was reading in church the fourth chapter of Judges, and after 'Now D[)e]borah, a prophetess', suddenly stopped, not much to the astonishment of the rustics, for they knew his ways. Then he went on 'Deb[)o]rah? Deb[)o]rah? Deb[=o]rah! Now Deb[=o]rah, a prophetess', and so on. Probably a freak of memory had reminded him that the letter was omega in the Septuagint. It will be remembered that Miss Jenkyns in _Cranford_ liked her sister to call her Deb[=o]rah, 'her father having once said that the Hebrew name ought to be so pronounced', and it will not be forgotten that the good rector was too sound a scholar to read 'Deb[=o]rah' at the lettern. An anecdote of Burgon's is to the point. He had preached in St. Mary's what he regarded as an epoch-making sermon, and afterwards he walked home to Oriel with Hawkins, the famous Provost. He looked for comment and hoped for praise, but the Provost's only remark was, 'Why do you say Emm[=a]us?' 'I don't know; isn't it Emm[=a]us?' 'No, no; Emm[)a]us, Emm[)a]us.' When Hawkins was young, in the days of George III, every one said Emmaus, and in such matters he would say, 'I will have no innovations in my time.' On the King's lips the phrase, as referring to politics, was foolish, but Hawkins used it with sense. PS.--I had meant to cite an anecdote of Johnson. As he walked in the Strand, a man with a napkin in his hand and no hat stept out of a tavern and said, 'Pray, Sir, is it irréparable or irrepáirable that one should say?'--'The last, I think, Sir, for the adjective ought to follow the verb; but you had better consult my dictionary than me, for that was the result of more thought than you will now give me time for.' The dictionary rightly gives _irréparable_, and both the rule and example of the Doctor's _obiter dicta_ (literally _obiter_) are wrong. J.S. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES AND CORRESPONDENCE * * * * * ADDENDA TO HOMOPHONES IN TRACT II Several correspondents complain of the incompleteness of the list of Homophones in Tract II. The object of that list was to convince readers of the magnitude of the mischief, and the consequent necessity for preserving niceties of pronunciation: evidence of its incompleteness must strengthen its plea. The following words may be added; they are set here in the order of the literary alphabet. Add to Table I (p. 7) band, [^1] _a tie_, [^2] _a company_. bend, [^1] _verb_, [^2] _heraldic sub._ bay, [^1] _tree_, [^2] _arm of sea_, [^3] _window_, [^4] _barking of dog_, and '_at bay_', [^5] _a dam_, [^6] _of antler_, [^7] _a colour_. blaze, [^1] _of flame_, [^2] _to sound forth_. bluff, [^1] _adj. & sub. = broad = fronted_, [^2] _blinker_, [^3] _sub. and v. confusing_ [^1] _and_ [^2]. boom, [^1] _to hum_, [^2] _= beam_. cant, [^1] _whine_, [^2] _to tilt_. chaff, [^1] _of wheat_, [^2] _= chafe (slang)_. cove, [^1] _a recess_, [^2] _= chap (slang)_. file, [^1] _string_, [^2] _rasp_, [^3] _= to defile_. grave, [^1] _sub._, [^2] _adj._ hind, [^1] _fem. of stag_, [^2] _a peasant_, [^3] _adj. of behind_. limb, [^1] _member_, [^2] _edge_, [^3] limn. limber, [^1] _shaft of cart (verb in artillery)_, [^2] _naut. subs._, [^3] _adj. pliant_. loom, [^1] _subs._, [^2] _v._ nice, gneiss. ounce, [^1] _animal_, [^2] _a weight_. plash, [^1] _= pleach_, [^2] _a puddle_. port, [^1] _demeanour, & military v._, [^2] _haven_, [^3] _gate & naut.= port-hole_, [^4] _= larboard_, [^5] _a wine_. shingle, [^1] _a wooden tile_, [^2] _gravel_, [^3] (_in pl._) _a disease_. shrub, [^1] _a bush_, [^2] _a drink_. smack, [^1] _a sounding blow_, [^2] _a fishing boat_, [^3] _taste_. throw, throe. Also note that _so_ should be added to _sew, sow_, and that the words _leech_, _leach_, are not sufficiently credited with etymological variety: [see below p. 33]. To Table II add when, _wen_. To Table VIII The following words, the absence of which has been noted, are not true homophones:-- crack fool fume gentle interest palm stem trip To Table IX add must [^1] _obs? new wine_, [^2] _verb._ To Shakespearean obsoletes p. 27 add limn, _lost in_ limb. * * * * * THE SKILFUL LEECH The Poet Laureate has pointed out that several useful words have been lost to the English language because their identity in sound with other words renders it impossible to use them without the risk either of being misunderstood or of calling up undesirable associations. It is owing to this cause that English--or, at least, the English of Great Britain--has no word that can correctly be used as a general designation for a member of the healing profession. In America, I believe, the word is 'physician'; but in England that appellation belongs to one branch of the profession exclusively. The most usual term here is 'doctor'; but the M.D. rightly objects to the application of this title to his professional brother who has no degree; and in a university town to say that John Smith is a doctor would be inconveniently ambiguous. 'Medical man' is cumbrous, and has the further disadvantage (in these days) of not being of common gender. Now the lack of any proper word for a meaning so constantly needing to be expressed is certainly a serious defect in modern (insular) English. The Americans have some right to crow over us here; but their 'physician' is a long word; and though it has been good English in the sense of _medicus_ for six hundred years, it ought by etymology to mean what _physicien_ does in French, and _physicist_ in modern English. Our ancestors were better off in this respect than either we or the Americans. The only native word to denote a practiser of the healing art is _leech_, which is better than the foreign 'physician' because it is shorter. It was once a term of high dignity: Chaucer could apply it figuratively to God, as the healer of souls; and even in the sixteenth century a poet could address his lady as 'My sorowes leech'. Why can we not so use it now? Why do we not speak of 'The Royal College of Leeches'? Obviously, because a word of the same form happens to be the name of an ugly little animal of disgusting habits. If I were to introduce my medical attendant to a friend with the words 'This is my leech', the gentleman (or lady) so presented would think I was indulging in the same sort of pleasantry as is used when a coachman is called a 'whip'; and he (or she) would probably not consider the joke to be in the best of taste. Of course all educated people know that it was once not unusual to speak of a man of medicine as a 'leech'; but probably there are many who imagine that this designation was a disparaging allusion to the man's tool of trade, and that it could be applied only to inferior members of the profession. The ancient appellation of the healer is so far obsolete that if I were to answer a question as to a man's profession with the words 'Oh, he is a leech', there would be some risk of being misunderstood to mean that he was a money-lender. Etymologists generally have regarded the name of the bloodsucking animal as the same word with _leech_ a physician, the assumption being that the animal received its name from its use as a remedial agent. But the early forms, both in English and Low German, show that the words are originally unconnected. The English for _medicus_ was in the tenth century _l['æ]ce_ or _léce_, and in the thirteenth century _leche_; the word for _sanguisuga_ was in the tenth century _lyce_, and in the thirteenth century _liche_. According to phonetic law the latter word should have become _litch_ in modern English; but it very early underwent a punning alteration which made it homophonous with the ancient word for physician. The unfortunate consequence is that the English language has hopelessly lost a valuable word, for which it has never been able to find a satisfactory substitute. H.B. DIFFERENTIATION OF HOMOPHONES On this very difficult question the attitude of a careful English speaker is shown in the following extract from a letter addressed to us: METAL, METTLE: AND PRINCIPAL, PRINCIPLE 'I find that I do not _naturally_ distinguish _metal_ and _mettle_ in pronunciation, tho' when there is any danger of ambiguity I say _metal_ for the former and _met'l_ for the latter; and I should probably do so (without thinking about it) in a public speech. In my young days the people about me usually pronounced _met'l_ for both. Theoretically I think the distinction is a desirable one to make; the fact that the words are etymologically identical seems to me irrelevant. The words are distinctly two in modern use: when we talk of _mettle_ (meaning spiritedness) there is in our mind no thought whatever of the etymological sense of the word, and the recollection of it, if it occurred, would only be disturbing. So I intend in future to pronounce metal as _met[e]l_ (when I don't forget). And I am not sure that _met[e]l_ is, strictly speaking, a "spelling-pronunciation": It is possible that the difference in spelling originated in a difference of pronunciation, not the other way about. For _metal_ in its literal sense was originally a scientific word, and in that sense may have been pronounced carefully by people who would pronounce it carelessly when they used it in a colloquial transferred sense approaching to slang. 'The question of _principal_ and _principle_ is different. When I was young, educated people in my circle always, I believe, distinguished them; so to this day when I hear principal pronounced as principle it gives me a squirm, tho' I am afraid nearly everybody does it now. That the words are etymologically distinct does not greatly matter; it is of more importance that I have sometimes been puzzled to know which word a speaker meant; if I remember right, I once had to ask. 'It would be worth while to distinguish _flower_ and _flour_ (which originally, like _metal_ and _mettle_, were the same word); yet in practice it is not easy to make the difference audible. The homophony is sometimes inconvenient.' CORRECTION TO TRACT II On p. 37 of TRACT II the words 'the Anglo-prussian society which Mr. Jones represents' have given offence and appear to be inaccurate. The German title of the series in which Jones's Dictionary is one has the following arrangement of words facing the English title: HERAUSGEGEBEN UND DER "ASSOCIATION PHONÉTIQUE INTERNATIONALE" GEWIDMET VON H. MICHAELIS, and this misled me. I am assured that, though the dictionary may be rightly described as Anglo-Prussian, the Phonetic Association is Gallo-Scandinavian. In behalf of the S.P.E. I apologize to the A. Ph. I. for my mistake which has led one of its eminent associates to accuse me of bearing illwill towards the Germans. The logic of that reproach baffles me utterly. [R.B.] * * * * * SOME LEXICAL MATTERS FAST = QUICK OR FIRM 'An Old Cricketer' writes: 'After reading your remarks on the ambiguity of the word _fast_ (Tract III, p. 12) I read in the report of a Lancashire cricket match that _Makepeace was the only batsman who was fast-footed_. But for the context and my knowledge of the game I should have concluded that Makepeace kept his feet immovably on the crease; but the very opposite was intended. At school we used to translate [Greek: podas ôkus Achilleus] "swift-footed Achilles", and I took that to mean that Achilles was a sprinter. I suppose _quick-footed_ would be the epithet for Makepeace.' SPRINTER is a good word, though _Sprinting Achilles_ could not be recommended. BRATTLE A correspondent from Newcastle writes advocating the recognition of the word _brattle_ as descriptive of thunder. It is a good old echo-word used by Dunbar and Douglas and Burns and by modern English writers. It is familiar through the first stanza of Burns's poem 'To a Mouse'. Wee sleekit cow'rin tim'rous beastie, O what a panic's in thy breastie. Thou need na start awa sae hasty Wi' bickering brattle.... which is not suggestive of thunder. The _N.E.D._ explains this as 'to run with brattling feet, to scamper'. In Burns's 'A Winter Night', it is the noisy confusion of _biting Boreas_ in the bare trees and bushes: I thought me on the ourie cattle Or silly sheep, wha bide this brattle O' winter war. It is possible that _brattle_ has fallen into disuse through too indiscriminate application. After Burns's famous poem the word can establish itself only in the sense of a scurrying dry noise: it is too small for thunder. We would call attention to the principle involved in this judgement, for it is one of the main objects of our society to assist and guide Englishmen in the use of their language by fully exposing the facts that should determine their practice. Every word has its history, and no word can prosper in the speech or writing of those who do not respect its inherited and unalterable associations; these cannot be got rid of by ignoring them. Littré in the preface to his dictionary claims for it this pre-eminent quality of usefulness, that it will enable his countrymen to speak and write good French by acquainting them with historic tradition, and he says that it was enthusiasm for this one purpose that sustained him in his great work. Its object was to harmonize the present use of the language with the past usage, in order that the present usage may possess all the fullness, richness, and certitude which it can have, and which naturally belong to it. His words are: 'Avant tout, et pour ramener à une idée mère ce qui va être expliqué dans la _Préface_, je dirai, définissant ce dictionnaire, qu'il embrasse et combine l'usage présent de la langue et son usage passé, afin de donner à l'usage présent toute la plénitude et la sûreté qu'il comporte.' It is the intention of our society to offer only expert and well-considered opinion on these literary matters, which are often popularly handled in the newspapers and journals as fit subjects for private taste and uninformed prejudice: and since the Oxford Dictionary has done more fully for English what Littré did for French, our task is comparatively easy. But experts cannot be expected, all of them, to have the self-denying zeal of Émile Littré, and the worth of our tracts will probably improve with the increase of our subscribers. BICKER As Burns happens to use _bickering_ as his epithet for the mouse's brattle, we may take this word as another illustration of Littré's principle. The _N.E.D._ gives the original meaning as _skirmish_, and quotes Shakespeare, If I longer stay We shall begin our ancient bickerings, which a man transposing the third and fourth words might say to-day without rising above colloquial speech; but there is another allied signification which Milton has in Smoak and bickering flame; and this is followed by many later writers. It would seem therefore, if the word is to have a special sense, that it must be focused in the idea of something that both wavers and skirmishes, and this suggests another word which caught our eye in the dictionary, that is BRANGLE It is defined in the _N.E.D._ as 'a brawl, wrangle, squabble' and marked _obsolete_. It seems to differ from its numerous synonyms by the suggestion of what we call a muddle: that is an active wrangling which has become inextricably confused. SURVIVALS IN LANCASHIRE SPEECH Mr. Ernest Stenhouse sends us notes on Tract II, from which we extract the following: '_Poll_ (= to cut the hair) is still familiar in Lancashire. _Tickle_ (unstable) is obsolescent but not yet obsolete. As a child I often heard _meterly_ (= moderately): e.g. _meterly fausse_ (? false) = moderately cunning. It may still be in use. _Bout_ (= without = A.S. butan) is commonly heard. 'The words tabulated in Tract II, p. 34, and the following pairs are not homophones in Lancashire: stork, stalk; pattern, patten; because although the _r_ in stork and pattern is not trilled as in Scotland, it is distinctly indicated by a modification of the preceding vowel, somewhat similar to that heard in the _[(or]e_ words (p. 35). 'Homophony may arise from a failure to make distinctions that are recognized in P.S.P. Thus in Lancashire the diphthong sound in _flow_, _snow_, _bone_, _coal_, _those_, &c., is very often pronounced as a pure vowel (cf. French _eau_, _mot_): hence confusion arises between _flow_ and _flaw_, _sow_ and _saw_, _coal_ and _call_: both these vowel sounds tending to become indistinguishable from the French _eau_.' FEASIBLE _Feasible_ is a good example of a word which appears in danger of being lost through incorrect and ignorant use. It can very well happen that a word which is not quite comfortable may feel its way to a useful place in defiance of etymology; and in such cases it is pedantry to object to its instinctive vagaries. But _feasible_ is a well-set comfortable word which is being ignorantly deprived of its useful definite signification. In the following note Mr. Fowler puts its case clearly, and his quotations, being typically illustrative of the manner in which this sort of mischief comes about, are worthy of attention. 'With those who feel that the use of an ordinary word for an ordinary notion does not do justice to their vocabulary or sufficiently exhibit their cultivation, who in fact prefer the stylish to the working word, _feasible_ is now a prime favourite. Its proper sense is "capable of being done, accomplished, or carried out". That is, it means the same as _possible_ in one of the latter's senses, and its true function is to be used instead of _possible_ where that might be ambiguous. _A thunderstorm is possible_ (but not _feasible_). Irrigation is possible (or, indifferently, _feasible_). _A counter-revolution is possible_; i.e., (a) one may for all we know happen, or (b) we can if we choose bring one about; but, if _b_ is the meaning, _feasible_ is better than _possible_ because it cannot properly bear sense _a_, and therefore obviates ambiguity. 'The wrong use of _feasible_ is that in which, by a slipshod extension, it is allowed to have also the other sense of _possible_, and that of _probable_. This is described by the highest authority as "hardly a justifiable sense etymologically, and ... recognized by no dictionary". It is however becoming very common; in all the following quotations, it will be seen that the natural word would be either _possible_ or _probable_, one of which should have been chosen:--Continuing, Mr. Wood said: "I think it is very feasible that the strike may be brought to an end this week, and it is a significant coincidence that ...". / Witness said it was quite feasible that if he had had night binoculars he would have seen the iceberg earlier. / We ourselves believe that this is the most feasible explanation of the tradition. / This would appear to offer a feasible explanation of the scaffold puzzle.' PROTAGONIST Mr. Sargeaunt (on p. 26) suggests that we might do well to keep the full Greek form of this word, and speak and write _protagonistes_. Familiarity with _Agonistes_ in the title of Milton's drama, where it is correctly used as equivalent to 'mighty champion', would be misleading, and the rejection of the English form 'protagonist' seems otherwise undesirable. The following remarks by Mr. Fowler show that popular diction is destroying the word; and if ignorance be allowed its way we shall have a good word destroyed. 'The word that has so suddenly become a prime favourite with journalists, who more often than not make it mean champion or advocate or defender, has no right whatever to any of those meanings, and almost certainly owes them to the mistaking of the first syllable (representing Greek [Greek: prôtos] "first") for [Greek: pro] "on behalf of"--a mistake made easy by the accidental resemblance to _antagonist_. "Accidental", since the Greek [Greek: agônistês] has different meanings in the two words, in one "combatant", but in the other "play-actor". The Greek [Greek: prôtagônistês] means the actor who takes the chief part in a play--a sense readily admitting of figurative application to the most conspicuous personage in any affair. The deuteragonist and tritagonist take parts of second and third importance, and to talk of several protagonists, or of a chief protagonist or the like, is an absurdity. In the newspapers it is a rarity to meet _protagonist_ in a legitimate sense; but two examples of it are put first in the following collection. All the others are outrages on this learned-sounding word, because some of them distinguish between chief protagonists and others who are not chief, some state or imply that there are more protagonists than one in an affair, and the rest use _protagonist_ as a mere synonym for advocate. 'Legitimate uses: _The "cher Halévy" who is the protagonist of the amazing dialogue. / Marco Landi, the protagonist and narrator of a story which is skilfully contrived and excellently told, is a fairly familiar type of soldier of fortune._ 'Absurd uses with _chief_, &c.: _The chief protagonist is a young Nonconformist minister. / Unlike a number of the leading protagonists in the Home Rule fight, Sir Edward Carson was not in Parliament when.... / It presents a spiritual conflict, centred about its two chief protagonists, but shared in by all its characters._ 'Absurd plural uses: _One of the protagonists of that glorious fight for Parliamentary Reform in 1866 is still actively among us. / One of these immense protagonists must fall, and, as we have already foreshadowed, it is the Duke. / By a tragic but rapid process of elimination most of the protagonists have now been removed. / As on a stage where all the protagonists of a drama assemble at the end of the last act. / That letter is essential to a true understanding of the relations of the three great protagonists at this period. / The protagonists in the drama, which has the motion and structure of a Greek tragedy_ (Fy! fy!--a Greek tragedy and protagonists?). 'Confusions with _advocate_, &c.: _The new Warden is a strenuous protagonist of that party in Convocation. / Mr ----, an enthusiastic protagonist of militant Protestantism. / The chief protagonist on the company's side in the latest railway strike, Mr ----. / It was a happy thought that placed in the hands of the son of one of the great protagonists of Evolution the materials for the biography of another. / But most of the protagonists of this demand have shifted their ground. / As for what the medium himself or his protagonists may think of them--for etymological purposes that is neither here nor there._ 'Perhaps we need not consider the Greek scholar's feelings; he has many advantages over the rest of us, and cannot expect that in addition he shall be allowed to forbid us a word that we find useful. Is it useful? or is it merely a pretentious blundering substitute for words that are useful? _Pro-_ in _protagonist_ is not the opposite of _anti-_; _-agonist_ is not the same as in _antagonist_; _advocate_ and _champion_ and _defender_ and _combatant_ are better words for the wrong senses given to _protagonist_; and _protagonist_ in its right sense of _the_ (not _a_) chief actor in an affair has still work to do if it could only be allowed to mind its own business.' * * * * * AMERICAN APPRECIATION We are glad to reprint the following short extracts from the _New York Times Book Review and Magazine_, September 26, 1920. 'THE CAMPAIGN FOR PURE ENGLISH 'Among those who joined it (the S.P.E.) immediately were Arthur J. Balfour, A.C. Bradley, Austin Dobson, Thomas Hardy, J.W. Mackail, Gilbert Murray, Mrs. Humphry Ward, and Mrs. Wharton.... The rallying of these men and women of letters was not more significant than the prompt adhesion of the Professors of English in the various British Universities: W.M. Dixon, Oliver Elton, E.S. Gordon, C.H. Herford, W.P. Ker, G.C. Moore-Smith, F.W. Moorman, A. Quiller-Couch, George Saintsbury, and H.C.K. Wyld.... 'There is a peril to the proper development of the language in offensive affectations, in persistent pedantry, and in other results of that comprehensive ignorance of the history of English, which we find plentifully revealed in many of our grammars. It is high time that men who love the language, who can use it deftly and forcibly, and who are acquainted with the principles and the processes of its growth, should raise the standard of independence.... 'It is encouraging to realize that the atrophy of the word-making habit is less obvious in the United States than it is in Great Britain.... We cannot but regret that it is not now possible to credit to their several inventors American compounds of a delightful expressiveness--_windjammer, loan-shark, scare-head_, and that more delectable _pussy-footed_--all of them verbal creations with an imaginative quality almost Elizabethan in its felicity, and all of them examples of the purest English.... We Americans made the compound _farm-hand_, and employ it in preference to the British [English?] _agricultural labourer_. '_The attention of the officers of the society may be called to the late Professor Lounsbury's lively and enlightening_ History of the English Language, _and to Professor George Philip Krapp's illuminating study of_ Modern English. BRANDER MATTHEWS.' * * * * * REPORT Of the proceedings of the Society for the first year ending Xmas, 1920. The Society still remains governed by the small committee of its original founders: the support of the public and the press has been altogether satisfactory: the suggestions and programme which the committee originally put forward have met with nothing but favourable criticism; no opposition has been aroused, and we are therefore encouraged to meet the numerous invitations that we have received from all parts of the English-speaking world to make our activities more widely known. The sale of the Tracts has been sufficient to pay their expenses; and we are in this respect very much indebted to the Oxford University Press for its generous co-operation; for it has enabled us to offer our subscribers good workmanship at a reasonable price. The publication of this Tract IV closes our first 'year': we regret that the prevalent national disturbances have extended it beyond the solar period, but the conditions render explanation and apology needless. Our list shows 188 members, and their names include many well-known men of letters, Professors of Literature, Editors, Journalists, and others interested in the history and present condition of the language. Nineteen members sent donations (above 10s. 6d.) which together amounted to about £40; and thirty-two sent subscriptions of ten shillings for the supply of one year's publications. To these subscribers (whose names are printed in the list below) all the four Tracts for this year have been sent: and it will appear that since they might have bought the four Tracts for 7s. 6d., they have made a donation of 2s. 6d. apiece to the funds of the Society. This margin is very useful and we hope that they will renew their 10s. subscription in advance for the ensuing year. That will ensure their receiving the Society's papers as they are issued, and it will much assist the machinery of publication. Also Members who have not hitherto subscribed are now specially invited to do so. They can judge of the Society's work, and can best support it in this way. The publications of 1921 _will be sent as soon as issued to all such subscribers_. Subscriptions may be sent to the Secretary, L. Pearsall Smith, 11 St. Leonard's Terrace, Chelsea, London, S.W., to whom all communications should be addressed, or they may be paid direct to 'Treasurer of S.P.E.', Barclay's Bank, High Street, Oxford. * * * * * LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS *+ Aikin, Dr. W.A., 66 Bedford Gardens. * Bennett, Arnold, 80 Piccadilly. Bottomley, Gordon, The Sheiling, Silverdale, Carnforth. Brindley, H.H., 25 Madingly Road, Cambridge. * Brown, Miss E.O., Bournstream, Wotton-under-Edge. Carleton, Brig.-Gen. L.R., Holmdale, Grasmere. * Case, Thomas, Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Curtis, James, 179 Marylebone Road, N.W. 1. Dixon, Prof. J. Main, Univ. S. California, Los Angeles. Elliott, Rear-Adml. H.V., 13 South Road, Weston-super-Mare. Fry, Miss Agnes, Failand House, nr. Bristol. * Gainsford, W.D., Skendleby Hall, Spilsbury. * Harman, Capt. H.A., D.S.O., King's College, Lagos, S. Nigeria. Headlam, Rev. Stewart, Wavertree, St. Margaret-on-Thames. * Henderson, T., Upumulo Napumulo, Natal. Horniman, Miss A.E.F., 1h.* Montague Mansions, W. 1. Hunt, Howard L., Univ. S. California, Los Angeles. * Lacy, Miss H., Highbury Crescent, N. 5. + Lawrence, A., 13 Norfolk Crescent, W. 2. Lindsay, Prof. W.M., 5 Howard Place, St. Andrews. Melland, E. Alport, Bakewell. Morton, G.H., 13 Kimberley Terrace, Tredegar. * Muirhead, L., Haseley Court, Wallingford. * Nickerson, Rev. D., Newton-on-Ouse, York. * O'May, J., c/o Messrs. Barker & Co., Singapore. Partington, S., Sunny Brow, Eden Mount, Grange on Sands, Lancs. * Pickering-Jones, J., West Africa House, Water Street, Liverpool. Portal, Miss E., 82 Carlisle Mansions, Victoria Street, S.W. * Pryor, Mrs., Lannock Manor, Stevenage, Herts. Ramsden, William, Marshfield, Huddersfield. Reade, H.V., 181 Queen's Gate, S.W. Rieder, Madame A., Lyceum Club, 128 Piccadilly. Robinson, Frances G., The Towers, Sneyd Park, nr. Bristol. Samuel, Rt. Hon. Sir Herbert, 31 Porchester Terrace, Hyde Park. Sampson, John, University Library, Liverpool. Scrivener, Miss J., The Ladies' College, Cheltenham. * Sheldon, E.W., 46 Park Avenue, New York. Shepherd, Arthur, 46 Edwardes Square, W. 8. * Strachey, Lady, 51 Gordon Square, W.C. Teixeira de Mattos, A., 9 Cheltenham Terrace, S.W. 3. Thompson, Rev. E.J., Wesleyan College, Bankura, Bengal. * Tilley A., 2 Selwyn Gardens, Cambridge. Warrington, T.C., High School, Leek, Staffs. * Waterhouse, Mrs. T.C., Lomberdale Hall, Bakewell. Wheeler, Horace L., Public Library, Back Bay, Boston, Mass. Wigram, Col. Clive, 37 Chester Square, S.W. 1. Wollaston, G.H., Flaxley Cottage, Flax Bourton. ++ The Ladies' College, Cheltenham. ++ Queen's University, Belfast. ++ Minnesota University. ++ Princeton University. * Donors of above 10s. 6d. + Subscribers for 1921. ++ Universities, Colleges, or Libraries to which the issues of 1921 will be sent without prepayment. The secretary should be informed of any error in the above addresses, and of any permanent change of address. FINIS 
22399	----	[Illustration] FIRE-SIDE PICTURE ALPHABET OF HUMOUR AND DROLL MORAL TALES OR WORDS & THEIR MEANINGS ILLUSTRATED BOSTON MAYHEW & BAKER. 208 WASHINGTON ST. * * * * * MAYHEW & BAKER, 208 Washington St., Boston, Publish the following list of new and beautiful Illustrated Juveniles, for Children: KING JOLLYBOY'S ROYAL STORY BOOK, FOR LITTLE FOLKS. Large Quarto, printed in red and black, on thick, heavy paper, and unsurpassed for style of printing by any American publication. New and delightful moral stories, with comic Illustrations. PRICE 50 CENTS. * * * * * A COMPANION TO "FIVE LITTLE PIGS." * * * * * THE WONDERFUL ADVENTURES OF THE LITTLE MAN AND HIS LITTLE GUN. There was a Little Man, and he had a little gun, And the bullets were made of lead, lead, lead; He went to the brook, and he shot a little duck, And he hit her right through the head, head, head. With New and Original Comic Illustrations, Music, &c. * * * * * MAYHEW AND BAKER, 208 WASHINGTON STREET, AND ALL BOOKSELLERS. * * * * * AMUSEMENT FOR CHILDREN. * * * * * HOME PASTIMES, OR THE CHILD'S OWN TOY MAKER. [Illustration] BEAUTIFULLY PRINTED IN COLORS, ON THICK PASTEBOARD, With full directions to cut out and paste together, making an assortment of Wheelbarrows, Cabs, Railway Cars, Carriages, Windmills, &c., that can be made to move. Now ready, No. 1. Charlie's Wheelbarrow. No. 3. Miss Hattie's French Bedstead. No. 2. Frank's Sledge. No. 4. Tom Thumb's Carriage. NEW TOYS IN PREPARATION. * * * * * A MANUAL OF CRICKET AND BASE BALL, Illustrated with Plans for Laying out the Grounds and forming Clubs, to which are added Rules and Regulations for Cricket, adopted by the MARYLEBONE CLUB. Also, Rules and Regulations which govern several Base Ball Clubs. PRICE 25 CENTS. Sent by Mail, Prepaid, on receipt of the Price in Stamps. * * * * * MAYHEW AND BAKER, 208 WASHINGTON STREET, AND ALL BOOKSELLERS. * * * * * Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1858, by MAYHEW & BAKER, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. PRINTED BY ALFRED MUDGE & SON, _No. 34 School St., opp. City Hall, Boston._ * * * * * ENGRAVED BY JOHN ANDREW * * * * * [Illustration: LAUGH AND LEARN] * * * * * THE FIRESIDE PICTURE ALPHABET. [Illustration] BOSTON: MAYHEW & BAKER, 208 WASHINGTON STREET. * * * * * POETICAL PREFACE TO THE FIRESIDE PICTURE ALPHABET. * * * * * TO PRECEPTORS. With learning may laughter be found; "'Tis good to be merry and wise;" To gayly get over the ground, As higher and higher we rise. Some children their letters may learn, While others will surely do more, As the subjects suggestively turn To matters not thought of before. Descriptions and pictures combined Are here made attractive and clear; So suited that children may find From error the truth to appear. * * * * * [Illustration] A a. ABLUTION, _The Act of Cleansing_. The little sweep has washed his face, But not as we advise; For black as soot he's made the soap, And rubbed it in his eyes. * * * * * [Illustration] B b. BARTER, _Exchange_. Here's Master Mack presenting fruit, Of which he makes display; He knows he'll soon have Lucy's rope, And with it skip away. * * * * * [Illustration] C c. CATASTROPHE, _a Final Event_, (_generally unhappy_.) "O, here's a sad catastrophe!" Was Mrs. Blossom's cry; Then--"Water! water! bring to me-- Or all my fish will die." * * * * * [Illustration] D d. DELIGHTFUL, _Pleasant_, _Charming_. These boys are bathing in the stream When they should be at school; The master's coming round to see Who disregards his rule. * * * * * [Illustration] E e. ECCENTRICITY, _Irregularity_, _Strangeness_. We often see things seeming strange; But scarce so strange as this:-- Here every thing is mis-applied, Here every change amiss. * * * * * [Illustration] F f. FRAUD, _Deceit_, _Trick_, _Artifice_, _Cheat_. Here is Pat Murphy, fast asleep, And there is Neddy Bray; The thief a watchful eye doth keep Until he gets away. * * * * * [Illustration] G g. GENIUS, _Mental Power_, _Faculty_. A little boy with little slate May sometimes make more clear The little thoughts that he would state Than can by words appear. * * * * * [Illustration] H h. HORROR, _Terror_, _Dread_. This little, harmless speckled frog Seems Lady Townsend's dread; I fear she'll run away and cry, And hide her silly head. * * * * * [Illustration] I i. J j. ICHABOD AT THE JAM. ICHABOD, _a Christian Name_. JAM, _a Conserve of Fruits_. Enough is good, excess is bad; Yet Ichabod, you see, Will with the jam his stomach cram, Until they disagree. * * * * * [Illustration] K k. KNOWING, _Conscious_, _Intelligent_. Tho' horses know both beans and corn, And snuff them in the wind, They also all know Jemmy Small, And what he holds behind. * * * * * [Illustration] L l. LUCKY, _Fortunate_, _Happy by Chance_. We must admire, in Lovebook's case, The prompt decision made, As he could not have gained the wood If time had been delayed. * * * * * [Illustration] M m. MIMIC, _Imitative_, _Burlesque_. The Gentleman, who struts so fine, Unconscious seems to be Of imitation by the boy Who has the street-door key. * * * * * [Illustration] N n. NEGLIGENCE, _Heedlessness_, _Carelessness_. The character Tom Slowboy bears Would much against him tell, For any work that's wanted done, Or even play done well. * * * * * [Illustration] O o. OBSTINACY, _Stubbornness_, _Waywardness_. The obstinacy of the pig Is nature--as you see; But boys and girls who have a mind Should never stubborn be. * * * * * [Illustration] P p. PETS, _Favorites_, _Spoilt Fondlings_. Some people say that Aunty Gray To animals is kind; We think, instead, they are over fed, And kept too much confined. * * * * * [Illustration] Q q. QUANDARY, _A Doubt_, _a Difficulty_. Dame Partlett's in difficulty, And looks around with doubt; Let's hope, as she some way got in, She may some way get out. * * * * * [Illustration] R r. RIVALRY, _Competition_, _Emulation_. In every competition prize This should be kept in view-- Whoever wins should be the one Who does deserve it too. * * * * * [Illustration] S s. SLUGGARD, _An Inactive, Lazy Fellow_. To lie so many hours in bed You surely must be ill, And need some physic, Master Ned, As birch, or draught, or pill! * * * * * [Illustration] T t. TOPSY-TURVY, _Upside Down_, _Bottom Top_. Here's Topsy-Turvy, upside down, The ceiling seems the base; Reverse the ground and 'twill be found The things are out of place. * * * * * [Illustration] U u. V v. UNCOMMON VEGETATION. UNCOMMON, _Rare_, _not Frequent_. VEGETATION, _the Power of Growth_. Th' uncommon vegetation, here, With art has much to do; The trees are nature, but the fruit Uncommon and untrue. * * * * * [Illustration] W w. WONDER, _Admiration_, _Astonishment_. The wise may live and wonder still, However much they know, But simple Giles has wonder found Within the penny show. * * * * * [Illustration] X x. NO ENGLISH WORD BEGINS WITH THIS LETTER. XANTIPPE, _A Greek Matron_, _Wife of Socrates_. Here's Socrates and Xantippe-- Philosopher and wife-- For gentleness renowned was he; She, better known for strife. * * * * * [Illustration] Y y. YEARN, _To Grieve_, _to Vex_. Miss Cross has tried to reach the grapes, She's tried and tried again-- And now she's vexed to think that all Her efforts are in vain. * * * * * [Illustration] Z z. ZANY, _A Buffoon_, _a Merry Andrew_. Here's Zany reading in a book, With heels above his head; And, judging by his laughing look, Finds fun in what he's read. * * * * * "HERE'S A NICE BOOK FOR THE HOLIDAYS." * * * * * WILLIS, THE PILOT, A SEQUEL TO THE SWISS FAMILY ROBINSON; Or, Adventures of an Emigrant Family wrecked on an unknown coast of the Pacific Ocean; interspersed with Tales, Incidents of Travel, and Illustrations of Natural History. BEAUTIFULLY ILLUSTRATED. * * * * * From the many favorable Notices of the Press, read the following: "The scene is laid chiefly in the South Seas, and the narrator illustrates the geography and ethnology of that section of the far West. Some of the adventures are marvellous indeed, and Willis is a rich specimen of a hardy, fearless, and honest tar." "This book takes up the story of 'The Swiss Family Robinson,' and carries it forward to a happy termination. 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6480	----	THE STUDY OF WORDS ON THE STUDY OF WORDS BY RICHARD CHENEVIX TRENCH, D.D. ARCHBISHOP 'Language is the armoury of the human mind, and at once contains the trophies of its past, and the weapons of its future, conquests' --COLERIDGE 'Out, idle words, servants to shallow fools!'--SHAKESPEARE TWENTIETH EDITION revised by THE REV. A. L. MAYHEW Joint Author of 'The Concise Middle English Dictionary' PREFACE TO THE TWENTIETH EDITION. In all essential points this edition of The Study of Words is the same book as the last edition. The aim of the editor has been to alter as little of Archbishop Trench's work as possible. In the arrangement of the book, in the order of the chapters and paragraphs, in the style, in the general presentation of the matter, no change has been made. On the other hand, the work has been thoroughly revised and corrected. A great deal of thought and labour has of late been bestowed on English philology, and there has been a great advance in the knowledge of the laws regulating the development of the sounds of English words, and the result has been that many a derivation once generally accepted has had to be given up as phonetically impossible. An attempt has been made to purge the book of all erroneous etymologies, and to correct in the text small matters of detail. There have also been added some footnotes, in which difficult points are discussed and where reference is given to recent authorities. All editorial additions, whether in the text or in the notes, are enclosed in square brackets. It is hoped that the book as it now stands does not contain in its etymological details anything inconsistent with the latest discoveries of English scholars. A. L. MAYHEW. WADHAM COLLEGE, OXFORD: _August_, 1888. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. These lectures will not, I trust, be found anywhere to have left out of sight seriously, or for long, the peculiar needs of those for whom they were originally intended, and to whom they were primarily addressed. I am conscious, indeed, here and there, of a certain departure from my first intention, having been in part seduced to this by a circumstance which I had not in the least contemplated when I obtained permission to deliver them, by finding, namely, that I should have other hearers besides the pupils of the Training-School. Some matter adapted for those rather than for these I was thus led to introduce--which afterwards I was unwilling, in preparing for the press, to remove; on the contrary adding to it rather, in the hope of obtaining thus a somewhat wider circle of readers than I could have hoped, had I more rigidly restricted myself in the choice of my materials. Yet I should greatly regret to have admitted so much of this as should deprive these lectures of their fitness for those whose profit in writing and in publishing I had mainly in view, namely schoolmasters, and those preparing to be such. Had I known any book entering with any fulness, and in a popular manner, into the subject-matter of these pages, and making it its exclusive theme, I might still have delivered these lectures, but should scarcely have sought for them a wider audience than their first, gladly leaving the matter in their hands, whose studies in language had been fuller and riper than my own. But abundant and ready to hand as are the materials for such a book, I did not; while yet it seems to me that the subject is one to which it is beyond measure desirable that their attention, who are teaching, or shall have hereafter to teach, others should be directed; so that they shall learn to regard language as one of the chiefest organs of their own education and that of others. For I am persuaded that I have used no exaggeration in saying, that for many a young man 'his first discovery that words are living powers, has been like the dropping of scales from his eyes, like the acquiring of another sense, or the introduction into a new world,'--while yet all this may be indefinitely deferred, may, indeed, never find place at all, unless there is some one at hand to help for him, and to hasten the process; and he who so does, will ever after be esteemed by him as one of his very foremost benefactors. Whatever may be Horne Tooke's shortcomings (and they are great), whether in details of etymology, or in the philosophy of grammar, or in matters more serious still, yet, with all this, what an epoch in many a student's intellectual life has been his first acquaintance with _The Diversions of Purley_. And they were not among the least of the obligations which the young men of our time owed to Coleridge, that he so often himself weighed words in the balances, and so earnestly pressed upon all with whom his voice went for anything, the profit which they would find in so doing. Nor, with the certainty that I am anticipating much in my little volume, can I refrain from quoting some words which were not present with me during its composition, although I must have been familiar with them long ago; words which express excellently well why it is that these studies profit so much, and which will also explain the motives which induced me to add my little contribution to their furtherance: 'A language will often be wiser, not merely than the vulgar, but even than the wisest of those who speak it. Being like amber in its efficacy to circulate the electric spirit of truth, it is also like amber in embalming and preserving the relics of ancient wisdom, although one is not seldom puzzled to decipher its contents. Sometimes it locks up truths, which were once well known, but which, in the course of ages, have passed out of sight and been forgotten. In other cases it holds the germs of truths, of which, though they were never plainly discerned, the genius of its framers caught a glimpse in a happy moment of divination. A meditative man cannot refrain from wonder, when he digs down to the deep thought lying at the root of many a metaphorical term, employed for the designation of spiritual things, even of those with regard to which professing philosophers have blundered grossly; and often it would seem as though rays of truth, which were still below the intellectual horizon, had dawned upon the imagination as it was looking up to heaven. Hence they who feel an inward call to teach and enlighten their countrymen, should deem it an important part of their duty to draw out the stores of thought which are already latent in their native language, to purify it from the corruptions which Time brings upon all things, and from which language has no exemption, and to endeavour to give distinctness and precision to whatever in it is confused, or obscure, or dimly seen'--_Guesses at Truth, First Series_, p. 295. ITCHENSTOKE: Oct. 9, 1851. CONTENTS. LECTURE I. INTRODUCTORY LECTURE LECTURE II. ON THE POETRY IN WORDS LECTURE III. ON THE MORALITY IN WORDS LECTURE IV. ON THE HISTORY IN WORDS LECTURE V. ON THE RISE OF NEW WORDS LECTURE VI. ON THE DISTINCTION OF WORDS LECTURE VII. THE SCHOOLMASTER'S USE OF WORDS INDEX OF WORDS ON THE STUDY OF WORDS INTRODUCTORY LECTURE. There are few who would not readily acknowledge that mainly in worthy books are preserved and hoarded the treasures of wisdom and knowledge which the world has accumulated; and that chiefly by aid of books they are handed down from one generation to another. I shall urge on you in these lectures something different from this; namely, that not in books only, which all acknowledge, nor yet in connected oral discourse, but often also in words contemplated singly, there are boundless stores of moral and historic truth, and no less of passion and imagination, laid up--that from these, lessons of infinite worth may be derived, if only our attention is roused to their existence. I shall urge on you how well it will repay you to study the words which you are in the habit of using or of meeting, be they such as relate to highest spiritual things, or our common words of the shop and the market, and of all the familiar intercourse of daily life. It will indeed repay you far better than you can easily believe. I am sure, at least, that for many a young man his first discovery of the fact that words are living powers, are the vesture, yea, even the body, which thoughts weave for themselves, has been like the dropping of scales from his eyes, like the acquiring of another sense, or the introduction into a new world; he is never able to cease wondering at the moral marvels that surround him on every side, and ever reveal themselves more and more to his gaze. We indeed hear it not seldom said that ignorance is the mother of admiration. No falser word was ever spoken, and hardly a more mischievous one; implying, as it does, that this healthiest exercise of the mind rests, for the most part, on a deceit and a delusion, and that with larger knowledge it would cease; while, in truth, for once that ignorance leads us to admire that which with fuller insight we should perceive to be a common thing, one demanding no such tribute from us, a hundred, nay, a thousand times, it prevents us from admiring that which is admirable indeed. And this is so, whether we are moving in the region of nature, which is the region of God's wonders, or in the region of art, which is the region of man's wonders; and nowhere truer than in this sphere and region of language, which is about to claim us now. Oftentimes here we walk up and down in the midst of intellectual and moral marvels with a vacant eye and a careless mind; even as some traveller passes unmoved over fields of fame, or through cities of ancient renown--unmoved, because utterly unconscious of the lofty deeds which there have been wrought, of the great hearts which spent themselves there. We, like him, wanting the knowledge and insight which would have served to kindle admiration in us, are oftentimes deprived of this pure and elevating excitement of the mind, and miss no less that manifold instruction which ever lies about our path, and nowhere more largely than in our daily words, if only we knew how to put forth our hands and make it our own. 'What riches,' one exclaims, 'lie hidden in the vulgar tongue of our poorest and most ignorant. What flowers of paradise lie under our feet, with their beauties and their parts undistinguished and undiscerned, from having been daily trodden on.' And this subject upon which we are thus entering ought not to be a dull or uninteresting one in the handling, or one to which only by an effort you will yield the attention which I shall claim. If it shall prove so, this I fear must be through the fault of my manner of treating it; for certainly in itself there is no study which _may_ be made at once more instructive and entertaining than the study of the use and abuse, the origin and distinction of words, with an investigation, slight though it may be, of the treasures contained in them; which is exactly that which I now propose to myself and to you. I remember a very learned scholar, to whom we owe one of our best Greek lexicons, a book which must have cost him years, speaking in the preface of his completed work with a just disdain of some, who complained of the irksome drudgery of such toils as those which had engaged him so long,--toils irksome, forsooth, because they only had to do with words. He disclaims any part with those who asked pity for themselves, as so many galley-slaves chained to the oar, or martyrs who had offered themselves for the good of the literary world. He declares that the task of classing, sorting, grouping, comparing, tracing the derivation and usage of words, had been to him no drudgery, but a delight and labour of love. [Footnote: It is well worth the while to read on this same subject the pleasant _causerie_ of Littré 'Comment j'ai fait mon Dictionnaire.' It is to be found pp. 390-442 of his _Glanures_.] And if this may be true in regard of a foreign tongue, how much truer ought it to be in regard of our own, of our 'mother tongue,' as we affectionately call it. A great writer not very long departed from us has borne witness at once to the pleasantness and profit of this study. 'In a language,' he says, 'like ours, where so many words are derived from other languages, there are few modes of instruction more useful or more amusing than that of accustoming young people to seek for the etymology or primary meaning of the words they use. There are cases in which more knowledge of more value may be conveyed by the history of a word than by the history of a campaign.' So writes Coleridge; and impressing the same truth, Emerson has somewhere characterized language as 'fossil poetry.' He evidently means that just as in some fossil, curious and beautiful shapes of vegetable or animal life, the graceful fern or the finely vertebrated lizard, such as now, it may be, have been extinct for thousands of years, are permanently bound up with the stone, and rescued from that perishing which would else have been their portion,--so in words are beautiful thoughts and images, the imagination and the feeling of past ages, of men long since in their graves, of men whose very names have perished, there are these, which might so easily have perished too, preserved and made safe for ever. The phrase is a striking one; the only fault one can find with it is that it is too narrow. Language may be, and indeed is, this 'fossil poetry'; but it may be affirmed of it with exactly the same truth that it is fossil ethics, or fossil history. Words quite as often and as effectually embody facts of history, or convictions of the moral sense, as of the imagination or passion of men; even as, so far as that moral sense may be perverted, they will bear witness and keep a record of that perversion. On all these points I shall enter at full in after lectures; but I may give by anticipation a specimen or two of what I mean, to make from the first my purpose and plan more fully intelligible to all. Language then is 'fossil poetry'; in other words, we are not to look for the poetry which a people may possess only in its poems, or its poetical customs, traditions, and beliefs. Many a single word also is itself a concentrated poem, having stores of poetical thought and imagery laid up in it. Examine it, and it will be found to rest on some deep analogy of things natural and things spiritual; bringing those to illustrate and to give an abiding form and body to these. The image may have grown trite and ordinary now: perhaps through the help of this very word may have become so entirely the heritage of all, as to seem little better than a commonplace; yet not the less he who first discerned the relation, and devised the new word which should express it, or gave to an old, never before but literally used, this new and figurative sense, this man was in his degree a poet--a maker, that is, of things which were not before, which would not have existed but for him, or for some other gifted with equal powers. He who spake first of a 'dilapidated' fortune, what an image must have risen up before his mind's eye of some falling house or palace, stone detaching itself from stone, till all had gradually sunk into desolation and ruin. Or he who to that Greek word which signifies 'that which will endure to be held up to and judged by the sunlight,' gave first its ethical signification of 'sincere,' 'truthful,' or as we sometimes say, 'transparent,' can we deny to him the poet's feeling and eye? Many a man had gazed, we are sure, at the jagged and indented mountain ridges of Spain, before one called them 'sierras' or 'saws,' the name by which now they are known, as _Sierra_ Morena, _Sierra_ Nevada; but that man coined his imagination into a word which will endure as long as the everlasting hills which he named. But it was said just now that words often contain a witness for great moral truths--God having pressed such a seal of truth upon language, that men are continually uttering deeper things than they know, asserting mighty principles, it may be asserting them against themselves, in words that to them may seem nothing more than the current coin of society. Thus to what grand moral purposes Bishop Butler turns the word 'pastime'; how solemn the testimony which he compels the world, out of its own use of this word, to render against itself--obliging it to own that its amusements and pleasures do not really satisfy the mind and fill it with the sense of an abiding and satisfying joy: [Footnote: _Sermon_ xiv. _Upon the Love of God_. Curiously enough, Montaigne has, in his Essays, drawn the same testimony out of the word: 'This ordinary phrase of Pass-time, and passing away the time, represents the custom of those wise sort of people, who think they cannot have a better account of their lives, than to let them run out and slide away, to pass them over and to baulk them, and as much as they can, to take no notice of them and to shun them, as a thing of troublesome and contemptible quality. But I know it to be another kind of thing, and find it both valuable and commodious even in its latest decay, wherein I now enjoy it, and nature has delivered it into our hands in such and so favourable circumstances that we commonly complain of ourselves, if it be troublesome to us or slide unprofitably away.'] they are only 'pastime'; they serve only, as this word confesses, to _pass_ away the _time_, to prevent it from hanging, an intolerable burden, on men's hands: all which they can do at the best is to prevent men from discovering and attending to their own internal poverty and dissatisfaction and want. He might have added that there is the same acknowledgment in the word 'diversion' which means no more than that which _diverts_ or turns us aside from ourselves, and in this way helps us to forget ourselves for a little. And thus it would appear that, even according to the world's own confession, all which it proposes is--not to make us happy, but a little to prevent us from remembering that we are unhappy, to _pass_ away our time, to _divert_ us from ourselves. While on the other hand we declare that the good which will really fill our souls and satisfy them to the uttermost, is not in us, but without us and above us, in the words which we use to set forth any transcending delight. Take three or four of these words--'transport,' 'rapture,' 'ravishment,' 'ecstasy,'--'transport,' that which _carries_ us, as 'rapture,' or 'ravishment,' that which _snatches_ us out of and above ourselves; and 'ecstasy' is very nearly the same, only drawn from the Greek. And not less, where a perversion of the moral sense has found place, words preserve oftentimes a record of this perversion. We have a signal example of this in the use, or rather misuse, of the words 'religion' and 'religious' during the Middle Ages, and indeed in many parts of Christendom still. A 'religious' person did not then mean any one who felt and owned the bonds that bound him to God and to his fellow-men, but one who had taken peculiar vows upon him, the member of a monastic Order, of a 'religion' as it was called. As little did a 'religious' house then mean, nor does it now mean in the Church of Rome, a Christian household, ordered in the fear of God, but a house in which these persons were gathered together according to the rule of some man. What a light does this one word so used throw on the entire state of mind and habits of thought in those ages! That then was 'religion,' and alone deserved the name! And 'religious' was a title which might not be given to parents and children, husbands and wives, men and women fulfilling faithfully and holily in the world the duties of their several stations, but only to those who had devised a self-chosen service for themselves. [Footnote: A reviewer in Fraser's Magazine, Dec. 1851, doubts whether I have not here pushed my assertion too far. So far from this, it was not merely the 'popular language' which this corruption had invaded, but a decree of the great Fourth Lateran Council (A.D. 1215), forbidding the further multiplication of monastic Orders, runs thus: Ne nimia _religionum_ diversitas gravem in Ecclesia Dei confusionem inducat, firmiter prohibemus, ne quis de cetero novam _religionem_ inveniat, sed quicunque voluerit ad _religionem_ converti, unam de approbatis assumat.] But language is fossil history as well. What a record of great social revolutions, revolutions in nations and in the feelings of nations, the one word 'frank' contains, which is used, as we all know, to express aught that is generous, straightforward, and free. The Franks, I need not remind you, were a powerful German tribe, or association of tribes, who gave themselves [Footnote: This explanation of the name _Franks_ is now generally given up. The name is probably a derivative from a lost O.H.G. _francho_, a spear or javelin: compare A.S. _franca_, Icel. _frakka_; similarly the Saxons are supposed to have derived their name from a weapon--_seax_, a knife; see Kluge's _Dict_. (s.v. _frank_).] this proud name of the 'franks' or the free; and who, at the breaking up of the Roman Empire, possessed themselves of Gaul, to which they gave their own name. They were the ruling conquering people, honourably distinguished from the Gauls and degenerate Romans among whom they established themselves by their independence, their love of freedom, their scorn of a lie; they had, in short, the virtues which belong to a conquering and dominant race in the midst of an inferior and conquered one. And thus it came to pass that by degrees the name 'frank' indicated not merely a national, but involved a moral, distinction as well; and a 'frank' man was synonymous not merely with a man of the conquering German race, but was an epithet applied to any man possessed of certain high moral qualities, which for the most part appertained to, and were found only in, men of that stock; and thus in men's daily discourse, when they speak of a person as being 'frank,' or when they use the words 'franchise,' 'enfranchisement,' to express civil liberties and immunities, their language here is the outgrowth, the record, and the result of great historic changes, bears testimony to facts of history, whereof it may well happen that the speakers have never heard. [Footnote: 'Frank,' though thus originally a German word, only came back to Germany from France in the seventeenth century. With us it is found in the sixteenth; but scarcely earlier.] The word 'slave' has undergone a process entirely analogous, although in an opposite direction. 'The martial superiority of the Teutonic races enabled them to keep their slave markets supplied with captives taken from the Sclavonic tribes. Hence, in all the languages of Western Europe, the once glorious name of Slave has come to express the most degraded condition of men. What centuries of violence and warfare does the history of this word disclose.' [Footnote: Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_, c. 55. [It is very doubtful whether the idea of 'glory' was implied originally in the national name of _Slav_. It is generally held now that the Slavs gave themselves the name as being 'the intelligible,' or 'the intelligibly speaking' people; as in the case of many other races, they regarded their strange-speaking neighbours as 'barbarian,' that is 'stammering,' or even as 'dumb.' So the Russians call their neighbours the Germans _njemets_, connected with _njemo_, indistinct. The old name _Slovene_, Slavonians, is probably a derivative from the substantive which appears in Church Slavonic in the form _slovo_, a word; see Thomsen's _Russia and Scandinavia_, p. 8. _Slovo_ is closely connected with the old Slavonic word for 'fame'-- _slava_, hence, no doubt, the explanation of _Slave_ favoured by Gibbon.]] Having given by anticipation this handful of examples in illustration of what in these lectures I propose, I will, before proceeding further, make a few observations on a subject, which, if we would go at all to the root of the matter, we can scarcely leave altogether untouched,--I mean the origin of language, in which however we will not entangle ourselves deeper than we need. There are, or rather there have been, two theories about this. One, and that which rather has been than now is, for few maintain it still, would put language on the same level with the various arts and inventions with which man has gradually adorned and enriched his life. It would make him by degrees to have invented it, just as he might have invented any of these, for himself; and from rude imperfect beginnings, the inarticulate cries by which he expressed his natural wants, the sounds by which he sought to imitate the impression of natural objects upon him, little by little to have arrived at that wondrous organ of thought and feeling, which his language is often to him now. It might, I think, be sufficient to object to this explanation, that language would then be an _accident_ of human nature; and, this being the case, that we certainly should somewhere encounter tribes sunken so low as not to possess it; even as there is almost no human art or invention so obvious, and as it seems to us so indispensable, but there are those who have fallen below its knowledge and its exercise. But with language it is not so. There have never yet been found human beings, not the most degraded horde of South African bushmen, or Papuan cannibals, who did not employ this means of intercourse with one another. But the more decisive objection to this view of the matter is, that it hangs together with, and is indeed an essential part of, that theory of society, which is contradicted alike by every page of Genesis, and every notice of our actual experience--the 'urang-utang theory,' as it has been so happily termed--that, I mean, according to which the primitive condition of man was the savage one, and the savage himself the seed out of which in due time the civilized man was unfolded; whereas, in fact, so far from being this living seed, he might more justly be considered as a dead withered leaf, torn violently away from the great trunk of humanity, and with no more power to produce anything nobler than himself out of himself, than that dead withered leaf to unfold itself into the oak of the forest. So far from being the child with the latent capabilities of manhood, he is himself rather the man prematurely aged, and decrepit, and outworn. But the truer answer to the inquiry how language arose, is this: God gave man language, just as He gave him reason, and just because He gave him reason; for what is man's _word_ but his reason, coming forth that it may behold itself? They are indeed so essentially one and the same that the Greek language has one word for them both. He gave it to him, because he could not be man, that is, a social being, without it. Yet this must not be taken to affirm that man started at the first furnished with a full-formed vocabulary of words, and as it were with his first dictionary and first grammar ready-made to his hands. He did not thus begin the world _with names_, but _with the power of naming_: for man is not a mere speaking machine; God did not teach him words, as one of us teaches a parrot, from without; but gave him a capacity, and then evoked the capacity which He gave. Here, as in everything else that concerns the primitive constitution, the great original institutes, of humanity, our best and truest lights are to be gotten from the study of the first three chapters of Genesis; and you will observe that there it is not God who imposed the first names on the creatures, but Adam-- Adam, however, at the direct suggestion of his Creator. _He_ brought them all, we are told, to Adam, 'to see what he would call them; and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the name thereof' (Gen. ii. 19). Here we have the clearest intimation of the origin, at once divine and human, of speech; while yet neither is so brought forward as to exclude or obscure the other. And so far we may concede a limited amount of right to those who have held a progressive acquisition, on man's part, of the power of embodying thought in words. I believe that we should conceive the actual case most truly, if we conceived this power of naming things and expressing their relations, as one laid up in the depths of man's being, one of the divine capabilities with which he was created: but one (and in this differing from those which have produced in various people various arts of life) which could not remain dormant in him, for man could be only man through its exercise; which therefore did rapidly bud and blossom out from within him at every solicitation from the world without and from his fellow-man; as each object to be named appeared before his eyes, each relation of things to one another arose before his mind. It was not merely the possible, but the necessary, emanation of the spirit with which he had been endowed. Man makes his own language, but he makes it as the bee makes its cells, as the bird its nest; he cannot do otherwise. [Footnote: Renan has much of interest on this matter, both in his work _De l'Origine du Langage_, and in his _Hist. des Langues Semitiques_. I quote from the latter, p. 445: Sans doute les langues, comme tout ce qui est organisé, sont sujettes à la loi du développement graduel. En soutenant que le langage primitif possédait les éléments nécessaires à son intégrité, nous sommes loin de dire que les mécanismes d'un âge plus avancé y fussent arrivés a leur pleine existence. Tout y était, mais confusément et sans distinction. Le temps seul et les progrès de l'esprit humain pouvaient opérer un discernement dans cette obscure synthèse, et assigner à chaque élément son rôle spécial. La vie, en un mot, n'était ici, comme partout, qu'à la condition de l'évolution du germe primitif, de la distribution des rôles et de la séparation des organes. Mais ces organes eux-mêmes furent détermines dès le premier jour, et depuis l'acte générateur qui le fit être, le langage ne s'est enrichi d'aucune fonction vraiment nouvelle. Un germe est posé, renfermant en puissance tout ce que l'être sera un jour; le germe se développe, les formes se constituent dans leurs proportions régulières, ce qui était en puissance devient en acte; mais rien ne se crée, rien ne s'ajoute: telle est la loi commune des êtres soumis aux conditions de la vie. Telle fut aussi la loi du langage.] _How_ this latent power evolved itself first, how this spontaneous generation of language came to pass, is a mystery; even as every act of creation is of necessity such; and as a mystery all the deepest inquirers into the subject are content to leave it. Yet we may perhaps a little help ourselves to the realizing of what the process was, and what it was not, if we liken it to the growth of a tree springing out of, and unfolding itself from, a root, and according to a necessary law--that root being the divine capacity of language with which man was created, that law being the law of highest reason with which he was endowed: if we liken it to this rather than to the rearing of a house, which a man should slowly and painfully fashion for himself with dead timbers combined after his own fancy and caprice; and which little by little improved in shape, material, and size, being first but a log house, answering his barest needs, and only after centuries of toil and pain growing for his sons' sons into a stately palace for pleasure and delight. Were it otherwise, were the savage the primitive man, we should then find savage tribes, furnished scantily enough, it might be, with the elements of speech, yet at the same time with its fruitful beginnings, its vigorous and healthful germs. But what does their language on close inspection prove? In every case what they are themselves, the remnant and ruin of a better and a nobler past. Fearful indeed is the impress of degradation which is stamped on the language of the savage, more fearful perhaps even than that which is stamped upon his form. When wholly letting go the truth, when long and greatly sinning against light and conscience, a people has thus gone the downward way, has been scattered off by some violent catastrophe from those regions of the world which are the seats of advance and progress, and driven to its remote isles and further corners, then as one nobler thought, one spiritual idea after another has perished from it, the words also that expressed these have perished too. As one habit of civilization has been let go after another, the words which those habits demanded have dropped as well, first out of use, and then out of memory and thus after a while have been wholly lost. Moffat, in his _Missionary Labours and Scenes in South Africa_, gives us a very remarkable example of the disappearing of one of the most significant words from the language of a tribe sinking ever deeper in savagery; and with the disappearing of the word, of course, the disappearing as well of the great spiritual fact and truth whereof that word was at once the vehicle and the guardian. The Bechuanas, a Caffre tribe, employed formerly the word 'Morimo,' to designate 'Him that is above' or 'Him that is in heaven' and attached to the word the notion of a supreme Divine Being. This word, with the spiritual idea corresponding to it, Moffat found to have vanished from the language of the present generation, although here and there he could meet with an old man, scarcely one or two in a thousand, who remembered in his youth to have heard speak of 'Morimo'; and this word, once so deeply significant, only survived now in the spells and charms of the so- called rainmakers and sorcerers, who misused it to designate a fabulous ghost, of whom they told the absurdest and most contradictory things. And as there is no such witness to the degradation of the savage as the brutal poverty of his language, so is there nothing that so effectually tends to keep him in the depths to which he has fallen. You cannot impart to any man more than the words which he understands either now contain, or can be made, intelligibly to him, to contain. Language is as truly on one side the limit and restraint of thought, as on the other side that which feeds and unfolds thought. Thus it is the ever- repeated complaint of the missionary that the very terms are well-nigh or wholly wanting in the dialect of the savage whereby to impart to him heavenly truths; and not these only; but that there are equally wanting those which should express the nobler emotions of the human heart. Dobrizhoffer, the Jesuit missionary, in his curious _History of the Abipones,_ tells us that neither these nor the Guarinies, two of the principal native tribes of Brazil, possessed any word in the least corresponding to our 'thanks.' But what wonder, if the feeling of gratitude was entirely absent from their hearts, that they should not have possessed the corresponding word in their vocabularies? Nay, how should they have had it there? And that in this absence lies the true explanation is plain from a fact which the same writer records, that, although inveterate askers, they never showed the slightest sense of obligation or of gratitude when they obtained what they sought; never saying more than, 'This will be useful to me,' or, 'This is what I wanted.' Dr. Krapf, after laborious researches in some widely extended dialects of East Africa, has remarked in them the same absence of any words expressing the idea of gratitude. Nor is it only in what they have forfeited and lost, but also in what they have retained or invented, that these languages proclaim their degradation and debasement, and how deeply they and those that speak them have fallen. For indeed the strange wealth and the strange poverty, I know not which the strangest and the saddest, of the languages of savage tribes, rich in words which proclaim their shame, poor in those which should attest the workings of any nobler life among them, not seldom absolutely destitute of these last, are a mournful and ever- recurring surprise, even to those who were more or less prepared to expect nothing else. Thus I have read of a tribe in New Holland, which has no word to signify God, but has one to designate a process by which an unborn child may be destroyed in the bosom of its mother. [Footnote: A Wesleyan missionary, communicating with me from Fiji, assures me I have here understated the case. He says: 'I could write down several words, which express as many different ways of killing an unborn child.' He has at the same time done me the favour to send me dreadful confirmation of all which I have here asserted. It is a list of some Fiji words, with the hideous meanings which they bear, or facts which they imply. He has naturally confined himself to those in one domain of human wickedness--that, namely, of cruelty; leaving another domain, which borders close on this, and which, he assures me, would yield proofs quite as terrible, altogether untouched. It is impossible to imagine a record more hideous of what the works of the arch-murderer are, or one more fitted to stir up missionary zeal in behalf of those dark places of the earth which are full of the habitations of cruelty. A very few specimens must suffice. The language of Fiji has a word for a club which has killed a man; for a dead body which is to be eaten; for the first of such bodies brought in at the beginning of a war; for the flesh on each side of the backbone. It has a name of honour given to those who have taken life; it need not have been the life of an enemy; if only they have shed blood--it may have been the life of a woman or a child--the title has been earned. It has a hideous word to express the torturing and insulting of an enemy, as by cutting off any part of his body--his nose or tongue, for instance--cooking and eating it before his face, and taunting him the while; the [Greek: hakrotaeriazein] of the Greeks, with the cannibalism added. But of this enough.] And I have been informed, on the authority of one excellently capable of knowing, an English scholar long resident in Van Diemen's Land, that in the native language of that island there are [Footnote: This was written in 1851. Now, in 1888, Van Diemen's Land is called Tasmania, and the native language of that island is a thing of the past.] four words to express the taking of human life--one to express a father's killing of a son, another a son's killing of a father, with other varieties of murder; and that in no one of these lies the slightest moral reprobation, or sense of the deep-lying distinction between to 'kill' and to 'murder'; while at the same time, of that language so richly and so fearfully provided with expressions for this extreme utterance of hate, he also reports that a word for 'love' is wanting in it altogether. Yet with all this, ever and anon in the midst of this wreck and ruin, there is that in the language of the savage, some subtle distinction, some curious allusion to a perished civilization, now utterly unintelligible to the speaker; or some other note, which proclaims his language to be the remains of a dissipated inheritance, the rags and remnants of a robe which was a royal one once. The fragments of a broken sceptre are in his hand, a sceptre wherewith once he held dominion (he, that is, in his progenitors) over large kingdoms of thought, which now have escaped wholly from his sway. [Footnote: See on this matter Tylor, _Early History of Mankind_, pp. 150-190; and, still better, the Duke of Argyll, _On Primeval Man_; and on this same survival of the fragments of an elder civilization, Ebrard, _Apologetik_, vol. ii. p. 382. Among some of the Papuans the faintest rudiments of the family survive; of the tribe no trace whatever; while yet of these one has lately written:--'Sie haben religiöse Gebräuche und Uebungen, welche, mit einigen anderen Erscheinungen in ihrem Leben, mit ihrem jetzigen Culturzustande ganz unvereinbar erscheinen, wenn man darin nicht die Spuren einer früher höhern Bildung erkennen will.' Sayce agrees with this.] But while it is thus with him, while this is the downward course of all those that have chosen the downward path, while with every impoverishing and debasing of personal and national life there goes hand in hand a corresponding impoverishment and debasement of language; so on the contrary, where there is advance and progress, where a divine idea is in any measure realizing itself in a people, where they are learning more accurately to define and distinguish, more truly to know, where they are ruling, as men ought to rule, over nature, and compelling her to give up her secrets to them, where new thoughts are rising up over the horizon of a nation's mind, new feelings are stirring at a nation's heart, new facts coming within the sphere of its knowledge, there will language be growing and advancing too. It cannot lag behind; for man feels that nothing is properly his own, that he has not secured any new thought, or entered upon any new spiritual inheritance, till he has fixed it in language, till he can contemplate it, not as himself, but as his word; he is conscious that he must express truth, if he is to preserve it, and still more if he would propagate it among others. 'Names,' as it has been excellently said, 'are impressions of sense, and as such take the strongest hold upon the mind, and of all other impressions can be most easily recalled and retained in view. They therefore serve to give a point of attachment to all the more volatile objects of thought and feeling. Impressions that when past might be dissipated for ever, are by their connexion with language always within reach. Thoughts, of themselves are perpetually slipping out of the field of immediate mental vision; but the name abides with us, and the utterance of it restores them in a moment.' Men sometimes complain of the number of new theological terms which the great controversies in which the Church from time to time has been engaged, have left behind them. But this could not have been otherwise, unless the gains through those controversies made, were presently to be lost again; for as has lately been well said: 'The success and enduring influence of any systematic construction of truth, be it secular or sacred, depends as much upon an exact terminology, as upon close and deep thinking itself. Indeed, unless the results to which the human mind arrives are plainly stated, and firmly fixed in an exact phraseology, its thinking is to very little purpose in the end. "Terms," says Whewell, "record discoveries." That which was seen, it may be with crystal clearness, and in bold outline, in the consciousness of an individual thinker, may fail to become the property and possession of mankind at large, because it is not transferred from the individual to the general mind, by means of a precise phraseology and a rigorous terminology. Nothing is in its own nature more fugacious and shifting than thought; and particularly thoughts upon the mysteries of Christianity. A conception that is plain and accurate in the understanding of the first man becomes obscure and false in that of the second, because it was not grasped and firmly held in the form and proportions with which it first came up, and then handed over to other minds, a fixed and scientific quantity.' [Footnote: Shedd, _History of Christian Doctrine_, vol. i. p. 362; compare _Guesses at Truth_, 1866, p. 217; and Gerber, _Sprache als Kunst_, vol. i. p. 145.] And on the necessity of names at once for the preservation and the propagation of truth it has been justly observed: 'Hardly any original thoughts on mental or social subjects ever make their way among mankind, or assume their proper importance in the minds even of their inventors, until aptly selected words or phrases have as it were nailed them down and held them fast.' [Footnote: Mill, _System of Logic_, vol. ii. p. 291.] And this holds good alike of the false and of the true. I think we may observe very often the way in which controversies, after long eddying backward and forward, hither and thither, concentrate themselves at last in some single word which is felt to contain all that the one party would affirm and the other would deny. After a desultory swaying of the battle hither and thither 'the high places of the field' the critical position, on the winning of which everything turns, is discovered at last. Thus the whole controversy of the Catholic Church with the Arians finally gathers itself up in a single word, 'homoousion;' that with the Nestorians in another, 'theotokos.' One might be bold to affirm that the entire secret of Buddhism is found in 'Nirvana'; for take away the word, and it is not too much to say that the keystone to the whole arch is gone. So too when the medieval Church allowed and then adopted the word 'transubstantiation' (and we know the exact date of this), it committed itself to a doctrine from which henceforward it was impossible to recede. The floating error had become a fixed one, and exercised a far mightier influence on the minds of all who received it, than except for this it would have ever done. It is sometimes not a word, but a phrase, which proves thus mighty in operation. 'Reformation in the head and in the members 'was the watchword, for more than a century before an actual Reformation came, of all who were conscious of the deeper needs of the Church. What intelligent acquaintance with Darwin's speculations would the world in general have made, except for two or three happy and comprehensive terms, as 'the survival of the fittest,' 'the struggle for existence,' 'the process of natural selection'? Multitudes who else would have known nothing about Comte's system, know something about it when they know that he called it 'the positive philosophy.' We have been tempted to depart a little, though a very little, from the subject immediately before us. What was just now said of the manner in which language enriches itself does not contradict a prior assertion, that man starts with language as God's perfect gift, which he only impairs and forfeits by sloth and sin, according to the same law which holds good in respect of each other of the gifts of heaven. For it was not meant, as indeed was then observed, that men would possess words to set forth feelings which were not yet stirring in them, combinations which they had not yet made, objects which they had not yet seen, relations of which they were not yet conscious; but that up to man's needs, (those needs including not merely his animal wants, but all his higher spiritual cravings,) he would find utterance freely. The great logical, or grammatical, framework of language, (for grammar is the logic of speech, even as logic is the grammar of reason,) he would possess, he knew not how; and certainly not as the final result of gradual acquisitions, and of reflexion setting these in order, and drawing general rules from them; but as that rather which alone had made those acquisitions possible; as that according to which he unconsciously worked, filled in this framework by degrees with these later acquisitions of thought, feeling, and experience, as one by one they arrayed themselves in the garment and vesture of words. Here then is the explanation of the fact that language should be thus instructive for us, that it should yield us so much, when we come to analyse and probe it; and yield us the more, the more deeply and accurately we do so. It is full of instruction, because it is the embodiment, the incarnation, if I may so speak, of the feelings and thoughts and experiences of a nation, yea, often of many nations, and of all which through long centuries they have attained to and won. It stands like the Pillars of Hercules, to mark how far the moral and intellectual conquests of mankind have advanced, only not like those pillars, fixed and immovable, but ever itself advancing with the progress of these. The mighty moral instincts which have been working in the popular mind have found therein their unconscious voice; and the single kinglier spirits that have looked deeper into the heart of things have oftentimes gathered up all they have seen into some one word, which they have launched upon the world, and with which they have enriched it for ever--making in that new word a new region of thought to be henceforward in some sort the common heritage of all. Language is the amber in which a thousand precious and subtle thoughts have been safely embedded and preserved. It has arrested ten thousand lightning flashes of genius, which, unless thus fixed and arrested, might have been as bright, but would have also been as quickly passing and perishing, as the lightning. 'Words convey the mental treasures of one period to the generations that follow; and laden with this, their precious freight, they sail safely across gulfs of time in which empires have suffered shipwreck, and the languages of common life have sunk into oblivion.' And for all these reasons far more and mightier in every way is a language than any one of the works which may have been composed in it. For that work, great as it may be, at best embodies what was in the heart and mind of a single man, but this of a nation. The _Iliad_ is great, yet not so great in strength or power or beauty as the Greek language. [Footnote: On the Greek language and its merits, as compared with the other Indo-European languages, see Curtius, _History of Greece,_ English translation, vol. i. pp. 18-28.] _Paradise Lost_ is a noble possession for a people to have inherited, but the English tongue is a nobler heritage yet. [Footnote: Gerber (_Sprache als Kunst,_ vol. i. p. 274): Es ist ein bedeutender Fortschritt in der Erkenntniss des Menschen dass man jetzt Sprachen lernt nicht bloss, um sich den Gedankeninhalt, den sie offenbaren, anzueignen, sondern zugleich um sie selbst als herrliche, architektonische Geisteswerke kennen zu lernen, und sich an ihrer Kunstschönheit zu erfreuen.] And imperfectly as we may apprehend all this, there is an obscure sense, or instinct I might call it, in every one of us, of this truth. We all, whether we have given a distinct account of the matter to ourselves or not, believe that words which we use are not arbitrary and capricious signs, affixed at random to the things which they designate, for which any other might have been substituted as well, but that they stand in a real relation to these. And this sense of the significance of names, that they are, or ought to be,--that in a world of absolute truth they ever would be,--the expression of the innermost character and qualities of the things or persons that bear them, speaks out in various ways, It is reported of Boiardo, author of a poem without which we should probably have never seen the _Orlando Furioso_ of Ariosto, that he was out hunting, when the name Rodomonte presented itself to him as exactly fitting a foremost person of the epic he was composing; and that instantly returning home, he caused all the joy-bells of the village to be rung, to celebrate the happy invention. This story may remind us of another which is told of the greatest French novelist of modern times. A friend of Balzac's, who has written some _Recollections_ of him, tells us that he would sometimes wander for days through the streets of Paris, studying the names over the shops, as being sure that there was a name more appropriate than any other to some character which he had conceived, and hoping to light on it there. You must all have remarked the amusement and interest which children find in any notable agreement between a name and the person who owns that name, as, for instance, if Mr. Long is tall--or, which naturally takes a still stronger hold upon them, in any manifest contradiction between the name and the name-bearer; if Mr. Strongitharm is a weakling, or Mr. Black an albino: the former striking from a sense of fitness, the latter from one of incongruity. Nor is this a mere childish entertainment. It continues with us through life; and that its roots lie deep is attested by the earnest use which is often made, and that at the most earnest moments of men's lives, of such agreements or disagreements as these. Such use is not un-frequent in Scripture, though it is seldom possible to reproduce it in English, as for instance in the comment of Abigail on her husband Nabal's name: 'As his name is, so is he; Nabal is his name, and folly is with him' (i Sam. xxv. 25). And again, 'Call me not Naomi,' exclaims the desolate widow-- 'call me not Naomi [or _pleasantness_]; call me Marah [or _bitterness_], for the Almighty hath dealt very bitterly with me.' She cannot endure that the name she bears should so strangely contradict the thing she is. Shakespeare, in like manner, reveals his own profound knowledge of the human heart, when he makes old John of Gaunt, worn with long sickness, and now ready to depart, play with his name, and dwell upon the consent between it and his condition; so that when his royal nephew asks him, 'How is it with aged Gaunt?' he answers, 'Oh, how that name befits my composition, Old _Gaunt_ indeed, and _gaunt_ in being old-- _Gaunt_ am I for the grave, _gaunt_ as the grave--' [Footnote: Ajax, or [Greek: Aias], in the play of Sophocles, which bears his name, does the same with the [Greek: aiai] which lies in that name (422, 423); just as in the _Bacchae_ of Euripides, not Pentheus himself, but others for him, indicate the prophecy of a mighty [Greek: penthos] or grief, which is shut up in his name (367). A tragic writer, less known than Euripides, does the same: [Greek: Pentheus, esomenes sumphoras eponymos]. Eteocles in the _Phoenissae_ of Euripides makes a play of the same kind on the name of Polynices.] with much more in the same fashion; while it is into the mouth of the slight and frivolous king that Shakespeare puts the exclamation of wonder, 'Can sick men play so nicely with their names?' [Footnote: 'Hus' is Bohemian for 'goose' [the two words being in fact cognate forms]; and here we have the explanation of the prophetic utterance of Hus, namely, that in place of one goose, tame and weak of wing, God would send falcons and eagles before long.] Mark too how, if one is engaged in a controversy or quarrel, and his name imports something good, his adversary will lay hold of the name, will seek to bring out a real contradiction between the name and the bearer of the name, so that he shall appear as one presenting himself under false colours, affecting a merit which he does not really possess. Examples of this abound. There was one Vigilantius in the early Church;--his name might be interpreted 'The Watchful.' He was at issue with St. Jerome about certain vigils; these he thought perilous to Christian morality, while Jerome was a very eager promoter of them; who instantly gave a turn to his name, and proclaimed that he, the enemy of these watches, the partisan of slumber and sloth, should have been not Vigilantius or The Watcher, but 'Dormitantius' or The Sleeper rather. Felix, Bishop of Urgel, a chief champion in the eighth century of the Adoptianist heresy, is constantly 'Infelix' in the writings of his adversary Alcuin. The Spanish peasantry during the Peninsular War would not hear of Bonaparte, but changed the name to 'Malaparte,' as designating far better the perfidious kidnapper of their king and enemy of their independence. It will be seen then that Aeschylus is most true to nature, when in his _Prometheus Bound_ he makes Strength tauntingly to remind Prometheus, or The Prudent, how ill his name and the lot which he has made for himself agreed, bound as he is with adamantine chains to his rock, and bound, as it might seem, for ever. When Napoleon said of Count Lobau, whose proper name was Mouton, 'Mon mouton c'est un lion,' it was the same instinct at work, though working from an opposite point. It made itself felt no less in the bitter irony which gave to the second of the Ptolemies, the brother-murdering king, the title of Philadelphus. But more frequent still is this hostile use of names, this attempt to place them and their owners in the most intimate connexion, to make, so to speak, the man answerable for his name, where the name does not thus need to be reversed; but may be made as it now is, or with very slightest change, to contain a confession of the ignorance, worthlessness, or futility of the bearer. If it implies, or can be made to imply, anything bad, it is instantly laid hold of as expressing the very truth about him. You know the story of Helen of Greece, whom in two of his 'mighty lines' Marlowe's Faust so magnificently apostrophizes: 'Is this the face that launched a thousand ships, And burned the topless towers of Ilium?' It is no frigid conceit of the Greek poet, when one passionately denouncing the ruin which she wrought, finds that ruin couched and fore-announced in her name; [Footnote: [Greek: Helenas [=helenaos], helandros, heleptolis], Aeschylus, _Agamemnon_, 636.] as in English it might be, and has been, reproduced-- '_Hell_ in her name, and heaven in her looks.' Or take other illustrations. Pope Hildebrand in one of our _Homilies_ is styled 'Brand of Hell,' as setting the world in a blaze; as 'Höllenbrand' he appears constantly in German. Tott and Teuffel were two officers of high rank in the army which Gustavus Adolphus brought with him into Germany. You may imagine how soon those of the other side declared that he had brought 'death' and 'hell' in his train. There were two not inconsiderable persons in the time of our Civil Wars, Vane (not the 'young Vane' of Milton's and Wordsworth's sonnets), and Sterry; and one of these, Sterry, was chaplain to the other. Baxter, having occasion to mention them in his profoundly instructive _Narrative of his Life and Times_, and liking neither, cannot forbear to observe, that '_vanity_ and _sterility_ were never more fitly joined together;' and speaks elsewhere of 'the vanity of Vane, and the sterility of Sterry.' This last, let me observe, is an eminently unjust charge, as Baxter himself in a later volume [Footnote: Catholic Theology, pt, 3, p. 107.] has very handsomely acknowledged. [Footnote: A few more examples, in a note, of this contumely of names. Antiochus Epiphanes, or 'the Illustrious,' is for the Jews, whom he so madly attempted to hellenize, Antiochus Epimanes, or 'the Insane.' Cicero, denouncing Verres, the infamous praetor of Sicily, is too skilful a master of the passions to allow the name of the arch-criminal to escape unused. He was indeed Verres, for he _swept_ the province; he was a _sweep-net_ for it (everriculum in provincia); and then presently, giving altogether another turn to his name, Others, he says, might be partial to 'jus verrinum' (which might mean either Verrine law or boar- sauce), but not he. Tiberius Claudius Nero, charged with being a drunkard, becomes in the popular language 'Biberius Caldius Mero.' The controversies of the Church with heretics yield only too abundant a supply, and that upon both sides, of examples of this kind. The 'royal- hearted' Athanasius is 'Satanasius' for the Arians; and some of St. Cyprian's adversaries did not shrink from so foul a perversion of his name as to call him Koprianos, or 'the Dungy.' But then how often is Pelagius declared by the Church Fathers to be a pelagus, a very _ocean_ of wickedness. It was in vain that the Manichaeans changed their master's name from Manes to Manichaeus, that so it might not so nearly resemble the word signifying madness in the Greek (devitantes nomen insaniae, Augustine, _De Haer_. 46); it did not thereby escape. The Waldenses, or Wallenses, were declared by Roman controversialists to be justly so called, as dwelling 'in valle densa,' in the thick valley of darkness and ignorance. Cardinal Clesel was active in setting forward the Roman Catholic reaction in Bohemia with which the dismal tragedy of the Thirty Years' War began. It was a far-fetched and not very happy piece of revenge, when they of the other side took pleasure in spelling his name 'CLesel,' as much as to say, He of the 150 ass-power. Berengar of Tours calls a Pope who had taken sides against him not pontifex, but 'pompifex.' Metrophanes, Patriarch of Constantinople, being counted to have betrayed the interests of the Greek Church, his spiritual mother, at the Council of Florence, saw his name changed by popular hate into 'Metrophonos,' or the 'Matricide.' In the same way of more than one Pope Urbanus it was declared that he would have been better named 'Turbanus' (quasi _turbans_ Ecclesiam). Mahomet appears as 'Bafomet,' influenced perhaps by 'bafa,' a lie, in Provençal. Shechem, a chief city of the heretical Samaritans, becomes 'Sychar,' or city of lies (see John iv. 5), so at least some will have it, on the lips of the hostile Jews; while Toulouse, a very seedplot of heresies, Albigensian and other, in the Middle Ages, is declared by writers of those times to have prophesied no less by its name (Tolosa = tota dolosa). In the same way adversaries of Wiclif traced in his name an abridgement of 'wicked- belief.' Metternich was 'Mitternacht,' or Midnight, for the political reformers of Germany in the last generation. It would be curious to know how often the Sorbonne has been likened to a 'Serbonian' bog; some 'privilegium' declared to be not such indeed, but a 'pravilegium' rather. Baxter complains that the Independents called presbyters 'priestbiters,' Presbyterian ministers not 'divines' but 'dry vines,' and their Assembly men 'Dissembly men.'] Where, on the other hand, it is desired to do a man honour, how gladly, in like manner, is his name seized on, if it in any way bears an honourable significance, or is capable of an honourable interpretation --men finding in that name a presage and prophecy of that which was actually in its bearer. A multitude of examples, many of them very beautiful, might be brought together in this kind. How often, for instance, and with what effect, the name of Stephen, the proto-martyr, that name signifying in Greek 'the Crown,' was taken as a prophetic intimation of the martyr-crown, which it should be given to him, the first in that noble army, to wear. [Footnote: Thus in a sublime Latin hymn by Adam of St. Victor: Nomen habes _Coronati_; Te tormenta decet pati Pro _corona_ gloriae. Elsewhere the same illustrious hymnologist plays in like manner on the name of St. Vincentius: Qui _vincentis_ habet nomen Ex re probat dignum omen Sui fore nominis; _Vincens_ terra, _vincens_ mari Quidquid potest irrogari Poenae vel formidinis. In the Bull for the canonization of Sta. Clara, the canonizing Pope does not disdain a similar play upon her name: Clara Claris praeclara meritis, magnae in caelo claritate gloriae, ac in terrâ miraculorum sublimium, clare claret. On these 'prophetic' names in the heathen world see Pott, _Wurzel-Wörterbuch_, vol. ii. part 2, p. 522.] Irenaeus means in Greek 'the Peaceable'; and early Church writers love to remark how fitly the illustrious Bishop of Lyons bore this name, setting forward as he so earnestly did the peace of the Church, resolved as he was, so far as in him lay, to preserve the unity of the Spirit in the bond of peace. [Footnote: We cannot adduce St. Columba as another example in the same kind, seeing that this name was not his birthright, but one given to him by his scholars for the dove-like gentleness of his character. So indeed we are told; though it must be owned that some of the traits recorded of him in _The Monks of the West_ are not _columbine_ at all.] The Dominicans were well pleased when their name was resolved into 'Domini canes'--the Lord's watchdogs; who, as such, allowed no heresy to appear without at once giving the alarm, and seeking to chase it away. When Ben Jonson praises Shakespeare's 'well-filed lines'-- 'In each of which he seems to _shake a lance_ As brandished in the eyes of ignorance' --he is manifestly playing with his name. Fuller, too, our own Church historian, who played so often upon the names of others, has a play made upon his own in some commendatory verses prefixed to one of his books: 'Thy style is clear and white; thy very name Speaks pureness, and adds lustre to the frame.' He plays himself upon it in an epigram which takes the form of a prayer: 'My soul is stainèd with a dusky colour: Let thy Son be the soap; I'll be the fuller.' John Careless, whose letters are among the most beautiful in Foxe's _Book of Martyrs_, writing to Philpot, exclaims, 'Oh good master Philpot, which art a principal pot indeed, filled with much precious liquor,--oh pot most happy! of the High Potter ordained to honour.' Herein, in this faith that men's names were true and would come true, in this, and not in any altogether unreasoning superstition, lay the root of the carefulness of the Romans that in the enlisting of soldiers names of good omen, such as Valerius, Salvius, Secundus, should be the first called. Scipio Africanus, reproaching his soldiers after a mutiny, finds an aggravation of their crime in the fact that one with so ill- omened a name as Atrius Umber should have seduced them, and persuaded them to take him for their leader. So strong is the conviction of men that names are powers. Nay, it must have been sometimes thought that the good name might so react on the evil nature that it should not remain evil altogether, but might be induced, in part at least, to conform itself to the designation which it bore. Here we have an explanation of the title Eumenides, or the Well-minded, given to the Furies; of Euxine, or the kind to strangers, to the inhospitable Black Sea, 'stepmother of ships,' as the Greek poet called it; the explanation too of other similar transformations, of the Greek Egesta transformed by the Romans into 'Segesta,' that it might not suggest 'egestas' or penury; [Footnote: [But the form _Segesta_ is probably older than _Egesta_, the Romans here, as in other cases, retaining the original initial _s_, which in Greek is represented generally by the rough, sometimes by the smooth breathing.]] of Epidamnus, which, in like manner seeming too suggestive of 'damnum,' or loss, was changed into 'Dyrrachium'; of Maleventum, which became 'Beneventum'; of Cape Tormentoso, or Stormy Cape, changed into 'Cape of Good Hope'; of the fairies being always respectfully spoken of as 'the good people' in Ireland, even while they are accredited with any amount of mischief; of the dead spoken of alike in Greek and in Latin simply as 'the majority'; of the dying, in Greek liturgies remembered as 'those about to set forward upon a journey'[Footnote: [Greek: oi exodeuontes]]; of the slain in battle designated in German as 'those who remain,' that is, on the field of battle; of [Greek: eulogia], or 'the blessing,' as a name given in modern Greek to the smallpox! We may compare as an example of this same euphemism the famous 'Vixerunt' with which Cicero announced that the conspirators against the Roman State had paid the full penalty of their treason. Let me observe, before leaving this subject, that not in one passage only, but in passages innumerable, Scripture sets its seal to this significance of names, to the fact that the seeking and the finding of this significance is not a mere play upon the surface of things: it everywhere recognizes the inner band, which ought to connect, and in a world of truth would connect, together the name and the person or thing bearing the name. Scripture sets its seal to this by the weight and solemnity which it everywhere attaches to the imposing of names; this in many instances not being left to hazard, but assumed by God as his own peculiar care. 'Thou shalt call his name Jesus' (Matt. i. 21; Luke i. 31) is of course the most illustrious instance of all; but there is a multitude of other cases in point; names given by God, as that of John to the Baptist; or changed by Him, as Abram's to Abraham (Gen. xvii. 3), Sarai's to Sarah, Hoshea's to Joshua; or new names added by Him to the old, when by some mighty act of faith the man had been lifted out of his old life into a new; as Israel added to Jacob, and Peter to Simon, and Boanerges or Sons of thunder to the two sons of Zebedee (Mark iii. 17). The same feeling is at work elsewhere. A Pope on his election always takes a new name. Or when it is intended to make, for good or for ill, an entire breach with the past, this is one of the means by which it is sought to effect as much (2 Chr. xxxvi. 4; Dan. i. 7). How far this custom reaches, how deep the roots which it casts, is exemplified well in the fact that the West Indian buccaneer makes a like change of name on entering that society of blood. It is in both cases a sort of token that old things have passed away, that all have become new to him. But we must draw to a close. Enough has been said to attest and to justify the wide-spread faith of men that names are significant, and that things and persons correspond, or ought to correspond, to them. You will not, then, find it a laborious task to persuade your pupils to admit as much. They are prepared to accept, they will be prompt to believe it. And great indeed will be our gains, their gains and ours,-- for teacher and taught will for the most part enrich themselves together,--if, having these treasures of wisdom and knowledge lying round about us, so far more precious than mines of Californian gold, we determine that we will make what portion of them we can our own, that we will ask the words which we use to give an account of themselves, to say whence they are, and whither they tend. Then shall we often rub off the dust and rust from what seemed to us but a common token, which as such we had taken and given a thousand times; but which now we shall perceive to be a precious coin, bearing the 'image and superscription' of the great King: then shall we often stand in surprise and in something of shame, while we behold the great spiritual realities which underlie our common speech, the marvellous truths which we have been witnessing _for_ in our words, but, it may be, witnessing _against_ in our lives. And as you will not find, for so I venture to promise, that this study of words will be a dull one when you undertake it yourselves, as little need you fear that it will prove dull and unattractive, when you seek to make your own gains herein the gains also of those who may be hereafter committed to your charge. Only try your pupils, and mark the kindling of the eye, the lighting up of the countenance, the revival of the flagging attention, with which the humblest lecture upon words, and on the words especially which they are daily using, which are familiar to them in their play or at their church, will be welcomed by them. There is a sense of reality about children which makes them rejoice to discover that there is also a reality about words, that they are not merely arbitrary signs, but living powers; that, to reverse the saying of one of England's 'false prophets,' they may be the fool's counters, but are the wise man's money; not, like the sands of the sea, innumerable disconnected atoms, but growing out of roots, clustering in families, connecting and intertwining themselves with all that men have been doing and thinking and feeling from the beginning of the world till now. And it is of course our English tongue, out of which mainly we should seek to draw some of the hid treasures which it contains, from which we should endeavour to remove the veil which custom and familiarity have thrown over it. We cannot employ ourselves better. There is nothing that will more help than will this to form an English heart in ourselves and in others. We could scarcely have a single lesson on the growth of our English tongue, we could scarcely follow up one of its significant words, without having unawares a lesson in English history as well, without not merely falling on some curious fact illustrative of our national life, but learning also how the great heart which is beating at the centre of that life was gradually shaped and moulded. We should thus grow too in our sense of connexion with the past, of gratitude and reverence to it; we should rate more highly and thus more truly all which it has bequeathed to us, all that it has made ready to our hands. It was not a small matter for the children of Israel, when they came into Canaan, to enter upon wells which they digged not, and vineyards which they had not planted, and houses which they had not built; but how much vaster a boon, how much more glorious a prerogative, for any one generation to enter upon the inheritance of a language which other generations by their truth and toil have made already a receptacle of choicest treasures, a storehouse of so much unconscious wisdom, a fit organ for expressing the subtlest distinctions, the tenderest sentiments, the largest thoughts, and the loftiest imaginations, which the heart of man has at any time conceived. And that those who have preceded us have gone far to accomplish this for us, I shall rejoice if I am able in any degree to make you feel in the lectures which will follow the present. LECTURE II. ON THE POETRY IN WORDS. I said in my last lecture, or rather I quoted another who had said, that language is fossil poetry. It is true that for us very often this poetry which is bound up in words has in great part or altogether disappeared. We fail to recognize it, partly from long familiarity with it, partly from insufficient knowledge, partly, it may be, from never having had our attention called to it. None have pointed it out to us; we may not ourselves have possessed the means of detecting it; and thus it has come to pass that we have been in close vicinity to this wealth, which yet has not been ours. Margaret has not been for us 'the Pearl,' nor Esther 'the Star,' nor Susanna 'the Lily,' [Footnote: See Jacob Grimm, _Ueber Frauennamen aus Blumen_, in his _Kleinere Schriften_, vol. ii. pp. 366-401; and on the subject of this paragraph more generally, Schleicher, _Die Deutsche Sprache_, p. 115 sqq.] nor Stephen 'the Crown,' nor Albert 'the illustrious in birth.' 'In our ordinary language,' as Montaigne has said, 'there are several excellent phrases and metaphors to be met with, of which the beauty is withered by age, and the colour is sullied by too common handling; but that takes nothing from the relish to an understanding man, neither does it derogate from the glory of those ancient authors, who, 'tis likely, first brought those words into that lustre.' We read in one of Molière's most famous comedies of one who was surprised to discover that he had been talking prose all his life without being aware of it. If we knew all, we might be much more surprised to find that we had been talking poetry, without ever having so much as suspected this. For indeed poetry and passion seek to insinuate, and do insinuate themselves everywhere in language; they preside continually at the giving of names; they enshrine and incarnate themselves in these: for 'poetry is the mother tongue of the human race,' as a great German writer has said. My present lecture shall contain a few examples and illustrations, by which I would make the truth of this appear. 'Iliads without a Homer,' some one has called, with a little exaggeration, the beautiful but anonymous ballad poetry of Spain. One may be permitted, perhaps, to push the exaggeration a little further in the same direction, and to apply the same language not merely to a ballad but to a word. For poetry, which is passion and imagination embodying themselves in words, does not necessarily demand a _combination_ of words for this. Of this passion and imagination a single word may be the vehicle. As the sun can image itself alike in a tiny dew-drop or in the mighty ocean, and can do it, though on a different scale, as perfectly in the one as in the other, so the spirit of poetry can dwell in and glorify alike a word and an Iliad. Nothing in language is too small, as nothing is too great, for it to fill with its presence. Everywhere it can find, or, not finding, can make, a shrine for itself, which afterwards it can render translucent and transparent with its own indwelling glory. On every side we are beset with poetry. Popular language is full of it, of words used in an imaginative sense, of things called--and not merely in transient moments of high passion, and in the transfer which at such moments finds place of the image to the thing imaged, but permanently,--by names having immediate reference not to what they are, but to what they are like. All language is in some sort, as one has said, a collection of faded metaphors. [Footnote: Jean Paul: Ist jede Sprache in Rücksicht geistiger Beziehungen ein Wörterbuch erblasster Metaphern. We regret this, while yet it is not wholly matter of regret. Gerber (_Sprache als Kunst_, vol. i. p. 387) urges that language would be quite unmanageable, that the words which we use would be continually clashing with and contradicting one another, if every one of them retained a lively impress of the image on which it originally rested, and recalled this to our mind. His words, somewhat too strongly put, are these: Für den Usus der Sprache, für ihren Verstand und ihre Verständlichkeit ist allerdings das Erblassen ihrer Lautbilder, so dass sie allmählig als blosse Zeichen für Begriffe fungiren, nothwendig. Die Ueberzahl der Bilder würde, wenn sie alle als solche wirkten, nur verwirren und jede klarere Auffassung, wie sie die praktischen Zwecke der Gegenwart fordern, unmöglich machen. Die Bilder würden ausserdem einander zum Theil zerstören, indem sie die Farben verschiedener Sphären zusammenfliessenlassen, und damit für den Verstand nur Unsinn bedeuten.] Sometimes, indeed, they have not faded at all. Thus at Naples it is the ordinary language to call the lesser storm-waves 'pecore,' or sheep; the larger 'cavalloni,' or big horses. Who that has watched the foaming crests, the white manes, as it were, of the larger billows as they advance in measured order, and rank on rank, into the bay, but will own not merely the fitness, but the grandeur, of this last image? Let me illustrate my meaning more at length by the word 'tribulation.' We all know in a general way that this word, which occurs not seldom in Scripture and in the Liturgy, means affliction, sorrow, anguish; but it is quite worth our while to know _how_ it means this, and to question 'tribulation' a little closer. It is derived from the Latin 'tribulum,' which was the threshing instrument or harrow, whereby the Roman husbandman separated the corn from the husks; and 'tribulatio' in its primary signification was the act of this separation. But some Latin writer of the Christian Church appropriated the word and image for the setting forth of a higher truth; and sorrow, distress, and adversity being the appointed means for the separating in men of whatever in them was light, trivial, and poor from the solid and the true, their chaff from their wheat, [Footnote: Triticum itself may be connected with tero, tritus; [so Curtius, _Greek Etym._ No. 239].] he therefore called these sorrows and trials 'tribulations,' threshings, that is, of the inner spiritual man, without which there could be no fitting him for the heavenly garner. Now in proof of my assertion that a single word is often a concentrated poem, a little grain of pure gold capable of being beaten out into a broad extent of gold-leaf, I will quote, in reference to this very word 'tribulation,' a graceful composition by George Wither, a prolific versifier, and occasionally a poet, of the seventeenth century. You will at once perceive that it is all wrapped up in this word, being from first to last only the explicit unfolding of the image and thought which this word has implicitly given; it is as follows:-- 'Till from the straw the flail the corn doth beat, Until the chaff be purgèd from the wheat, Yea, till the mill the grains in pieces tear, The richness of the flour will scarce appear. So, till men's persons great afflictions touch, If worth be found, their worth is not so much, Because, like wheat in straw, they have not yet That value which in threshing they may get. For till the bruising flails of God's corrections Have threshèd out of us our vain affections; Till those corruptions which do misbecome us Are by Thy sacred Spirit winnowed from us; Until from us the straw of worldly treasures, Till all the dusty chaff of empty pleasures, Yea, till His flail upon us He doth lay, To thresh the husk of this our flesh away; And leave the soul uncovered; nay, yet more, Till God shall make our very spirit poor, We shall not up to highest wealth aspire; But then we shall; and that is my desire.' This deeper religious use of the word 'tribulation' was unknown to classical antiquity, belonging exclusively to the Christian writers; and the fact that the same deepening and elevating of the use of words recurs in a multitude of other, and many of them far more signal, instances, is one well deserving to be followed up. Nothing, I am persuaded, would more mightily convince us of the new power which Christianity proved in the world than to compare the meaning which so many words possessed before its rise, and the deeper meaning which they obtained, so soon as they were assumed as the vehicles of its life, the new thought and feeling enlarging, purifying, and ennobling the very words which they employed. This is a subject which I shall have occasion to touch on more than once in these lectures, but is itself well worthy of, as it would afford ample material for, a volume. On the suggestion of this word 'tribulation', I will quote two or three words from Coleridge, bearing on the matter in hand. He has said, 'In order to get the full sense of a word, we should first present to our minds the visual image that forms its primary meaning.' What admirable counsel is here! If we would but accustom ourselves to the doing of this, what a vast increase of precision and force would all the language which we speak, and which others speak to us, obtain; how often would that which is now obscure at once become clear; how distinct the limits and boundaries of that which is often now confused and confounded! It is difficult to measure the amount of food for the imagination, as well as gains for the intellect, which the observing of this single rule would afford us. Let me illustrate this by one or two examples. We say of such a man that he is 'desultory.' Do we attach any very distinct meaning to the word? Perhaps not. But get at the image on which 'desultory' rests; take the word to pieces; learn that it is from 'desultor,' [Footnote: Lat. _desultor_ is from _desult_-, the stem of _desultus_, past part, of _desilire_, to leap down.] one who rides two or three horses at once, leaps from one to the other, being never on the back of any one of them long; take, I say, the word thus to pieces, and put it together again, and what a firm and vigorous grasp will you have now of its meaning! A 'desultory' man is one who jumps from one study to another, and never continues for any length of time in one. Again, you speak of a person as 'capricious,' or as full of 'caprices.' But what exactly are caprices? 'Caprice' is from _capra_, a goat. [Footnote: The etymology of _caprice_ has not been discovered yet; the derivation from _capra_ is unsatisfactory, as it does not account for the latter part of the word.] If ever you have watched a goat, you will have observed how sudden, how unexpected, how unaccountable, are the leaps and springs, now forward, now sideward, now upward, in which it indulges. A 'caprice' then is a movement of the mind as unaccountable, as little to be calculated on beforehand, as the springs and bounds of a goat. Is not the word so understood a far more picturesque one than it was before? and is there not some real gain in the vigour and vividness of impression which is in this way obtained? 'Pavaner' is the French equivalent for our verb 'to strut,' 'fourmiller' for our verb 'to swarm.' But is it not a real gain to know further that the one is to strut _as the peacock does_, the other to swarm _as do ants_? There are at the same time, as must be freely owned, investigations, moral no less than material, in which the nearer the words employed approach to an algebraic notation, and the less disturbed or coloured they are by any reminiscences of the ultimate grounds on which they rest, the better they are likely to fulfil the duties assigned to them; but these are exceptions. [Footnote: A French writer, Adanson, in his _Natural History of Senegal_ complains of the misleading character which names so often have, and urges that the only safety is to give to things names which have and can have no meaning at all. His words are worth quoting as a curiosity, if nothing else: L'expérience nous apprend, que la plupart des noms significatifs qu'on a voulu donner à différens objets d'histoire naturelle, sont devenus faux à mesure qu'on a découvert des qualités, des propriétés nouvelles ou contraires à celles qui avaient fait donner ces noms: il faut donc, pour se mettre à l'abri des contradictions, éviter les termes figurés, et même faire en sorte qu'on ne puisse les rapporter à quelque étymologie, a fin que ceux, qui ont la fureur des étymologies, ne soient pas tenus de leur attribuer une idée fausse. II en doit être des noms, comme des coups des jeux de hazard, qui n'ont pour l'ordinaire aucune liaison entre eux: ils seraient d'autant meilleurs qu'ils seraient moins significatifs, moins relatifs à d'autres noms, ou à des choses connues, par ce que l'idée ne se fixant qu'à un seul objet, le saisit beaucoup plus nettement, que lorsqu'elle se lie avec d'autres objets qui y ont du rapport. There is truth in what he says, but the remedy he proposes is worse than the disease.] The poetry which has been embodied in the names of places, in those names which designate the leading features of outward nature, promontories, mountains, capes, and the like, is very worthy of being elicited and evoked anew, latent as it now has oftentimes become. Nowhere do we so easily forget that names had once a peculiar fitness, which was the occasion of their giving. Colour has often suggested the name, as in the well-known instance of our own 'Albion,'--'the silver- coasted isle,' as Tennyson so beautifully has called it,--which had this name from the white line of cliffs presented by it to those approaching it by the narrow seas. [Footnote: The derivation of the name _Albion_ has not been discovered yet; it is even uncertain whether the word is Indo-European; see Rhys, _Celtic Britain_, p. 200.] 'Himalaya' is 'the abode of snow.' Often, too, shape and configuiation are incorporated in the name, as in 'Trinacria' or 'the three- promontoried land,' which was the Greek name of Sicily; in 'Drepanum' or 'the sickle,' the name which a town on the north-west promontory of the island bore, from the sickle-shaped tongue of land on which it was built. But more striking, as the embodiment of a poetical feeling, is the modern name of the great southern peninsula of Greece. We are all aware that it is called the 'Morea'; but we may not be so well aware from whence that name is derived. It had long been the fashion among ancient geographers to compare the shape of this region to a platane leaf; [Footnote: Strabo, viii. 2; Pliny, H.N. iv. 5; Agathemerus, I.i. p. 15; echein de omoion schaema phullps platanan] and a glance at the map will show that the general outline of that leaf, with its sharply- incised edges, justified the comparison. This, however, had remained merely as a comparison; but at the shifting and changing of names, that went with the breaking up of the old Greek and Roman civilization, the resemblance of this region to a leaf, not now any longer a platane, but a mulberry leaf, appeared so strong, that it exchanged its classic name of Peloponnesus for 'Morea' which embodied men's sense of this resemblance, _morus_ being a mulberry tree in Latin, and _morea_ in Greek. This etymology of 'Morea' has been called in question; [Footnote: By Fallmerayer, _Gesck. der Halbinsel Morea,_ p. 240, sqq. The island of Ceylon, known to the Greeks as Taprobane, and to Milton as well (_P. L._ iv. 75), owed this name to a resemblance which in outline it bore to the leaf of the betel tree. [This is very doubtful.]] but, as it seems to me, on no sufficient grounds. Deducing, as one objector does, 'Morea' from a Slavonic word 'more,' the sea, he finds in this derivation a support for his favourite notion that the modern population of Greece is not descended from the ancient, but consists in far the larger proportion of intrusive Slavonic races. Two mountains near Dublin, which we, keeping in the grocery line, have called the Great and the Little Sugarloaf, are named in Irish 'the Golden Spears.' In other ways also the names of places will oftentimes embody some poetical aspect under which now or at some former period men learned to regard them. Oftentimes when discoverers come upon a new land they will seize with a firm grasp of the imagination the most striking feature which it presents to their eyes, and permanently embody this in a word. Thus the island of Madeira is now, I believe, nearly bare of wood; but its sides were covered with forests at the time when it was first discovered, and hence the name, 'madeira' in Portuguese having this meaning of wood. [Footnote: [Port. _madeira,_ 'wood,' is the same word as the Lat. _materia_.]] Some have said that the first Spanish discoverers of Florida gave it this name from the rich carpeting of flowers which, at the time when first their eyes beheld it, everywhere covered the soil. [Footnote: The Spanish historian Herrera says that Juan Ponce de Leon, the discoverer of Florida, gave that name to the country for two reasons: first, because it was a land of flowers, secondly, because it was discovered by him on March 27, 1513, Easter Day, which festival was called by the Spaniards, 'Pascua Florida,' or 'Pascua de Flores,' see Herrera's _History_, tr. by Stevens, ii. p. 33, and the _Discovery of Florida_ by R. Hakluyt, ed. by W. B. Rye for the Hakluyt Soc., 1851, introd. p. x.; cp. Larousse (s.v.), and Pierer's _Conversations Lexicon_. It is stated by some authorities that Florida was so called because it was discovered on Palm Sunday; this is due to a mistaken inference from the names for that Sunday--Pascha Florum, Pascha Floridum (Ducange), Pasque Fleurie (Cotgrave); see _Dict. Géog. Univ_., 1884, and Brockhaus.] Surely Florida, as the name passes under our eye, or from our lips, is something more than it was before, when we may thus think of it as the land of flowers. [Footnote: An Italian poet, Fazio degli Uberti, tells us that Florence has its appellation from the same cause: Poichè era posta in un prato di fiori, Le denno il nome bello, oude s' ingloria. It would be instructive to draw together a collection of etymologies which have been woven into verse. These are so little felt to be alien to the spirit of poetry, that they exist in large numbers, and often lend to the poem in which they find a place a charm and interest of their own. In five lines of _Paradise Lost_ Milton introduces four such etymologies, namely, those of the four fabled rivers of hell, though this will sometimes escape the notice of the English reader: 'Abhorred Styx, the flood of deadly _hate_, Sad Acheron of _sorrow_, black and deep, Cocytus, named of _lamentation_ loud Heard on the rueful stream; fierce Phlegethon, Whose waves of torrent _fire_ inflame with rage.' 'Virgil, that great master of the proprieties,' as Bishop Pearson has so happily called him, does not shun, but rather loves to introduce them, as witness his etymology of 'Byrsa,' _Aen_. i. 367, 368; v. 59, 63 [but the etymology here is imaginative, the name _Byrsa_ being of Punic, that is of Semitic, origin, and meaning 'a fortress'; compare Heb. _Bozrah_]; of 'Silvius,' _Aen_. vi. 763, 765; of 'Argiletum,' where he is certainly wrong (_Aen_. viii. 345); of 'Latium,' with reference to Saturn having remained _latent_ there (_Aen_. viii. 322; of. Ovid, _Fasti_, i. 238); of 'Laurens' (_Aen_. vii. 63): Latiumque vocari Maluit, his quoniam _latuisset_ tutus in oris: and again of 'Avernus' (=[Greek: aornos], _Aen_. vi. 243); being indeed in this anticipated by Lucretius (vi. 741): quia sunt avibus contraria cunctis. Ovid's taste is far from faultless, and his example cannot go for much; but he is always a graceful versifier, and his _Fasti_ swarms with etymologies, correct and incorrect; as of 'Agonalis' (i. 322), of 'Aprilis' (iv. 89), of 'Augustus' (i. 609-614), of 'Februarius' (ii. 19-22), of 'hostia' (i. 336), of 'Janus' (i. 120-127), of 'Junius' (vi. 26), of 'Lemures' (v. 479-484), of 'Lucina' (ii. 449), of 'majestas' (v. 26), of 'Orion' (v. 535), of 'pecunia' (v. 280, 281), of 'senatus' (v. 64), of 'Sulmo'(iv. 79; cf. Silius Italicus, ix. 70); of 'Vesta' (vi. 299), of 'victima' (i. 335); of 'Trinacris' (iv. 420). He has them also elsewhere, as of 'Tomi' (_Trist._ iii. 9, 33). Lucilius, in like manner, gives us the etymology of 'iners': Ut perhibetur iners, _ars_ in quo non erit ulla; Propertius (iv. 2, 3) of 'Vertumnus'; and Lucretius of 'Magnes' (vi. 909).] The name of Port Natal also embodies a fact which must be of interest to its inhabitants, namely, that this port was discovered on Christmas Day, the _dies natalis_ of our Lord. Then again what poetry is there, as indeed there ought to be, in the names of flowers! I do not speak of those, the exquisite grace and beauty of whose names is so forced on us that we cannot miss it, such as 'Aaron's rod,' 'angel's eyes,' 'bloody warrior,' 'blue-bell, 'crown imperial,' 'cuckoo-flower,' blossoming as this orchis does when the cuckoo is first heard, [Footnote: In a catalogue of _English Plant Names_ I count thirty in which 'cuckoo' formed a component part.] 'eye- bright,' 'forget-me-not,' 'gilt-cup' (a local name for the butter-cup, drawn from the golden gloss of its petals), 'hearts-ease,' 'herb-of- grace,' 'Jacob's ladder,' 'king-cup,' 'lady's fingers,' 'Lady's smock,' 'Lady's tresses,' 'larkspur,' 'Lent lily,' 'loose-strife,' 'love-in- idleness,' 'Love lies bleeding,' 'maiden-blush,' 'maiden-hair,' 'meadow-sweet,' 'Our Lady's mantle,' 'Our Lady's slipper,' 'queen-of- the-meadows,' 'reine-marguerite,' 'rosemary,' 'snow-flake,' 'Solomon's seal,' 'star of Bethlehem,' 'sun-dew,' 'sweet Alison,' 'sweet Cicely,' 'sweet William,' 'Traveller's joy,' 'Venus' looking-glass,' 'Virgin's bower,' and the like; but take 'daisy'; surely this charming little English flower, which has stirred the peculiar affection of English poets from Chaucer to Wordsworth, and received the tribute of their song, [Footnote: 'Fair fall that gentle flower, A golden tuft set in a silver crown,' as Brown exclaims, whose singularly graceful _Pastorals_ should not be suffered to fall altogether to oblivion. In Ward's recent _English Poets_, vol. ii. p. 65, justice has been done to them, and to their rare beauty.] becomes more charming yet, when we know, as Chaucer long ago has told us, that 'daisy' is day's eye, or in its early spelling 'daieseighe,' the eye of day; these are his words: 'That men by reson well it calle may The _daisie_, or elles the ye of day.' _Chaucer_, ed. Morris, vol. v. p. 281. For only consider how much is implied here. To the sun in the heavens this name, eye of day, was naturally first given, and those who transferred the title to our little field flower meant no doubt to liken its inner yellow disk, or shield, to the great golden orb of the sun, and the white florets which encircle this disk to the rays which the sun spreads on all sides around him. What imagination was here, to suggest a comparison such as this, binding together as this does the smallest and the greatest! what a travelling of the poet's eye, with the power which is the privilege of that eye, from earth to heaven, and from heaven to earth, and of linking both together. So too, call up before your mind's eye the 'lavish gold' of the drooping laburnum when in flower, and you will recognize the poetry of the title, 'the golden rain,' which in German it bears. 'Celandine' does not so clearly tell its own tale; and it is only when you have followed up the [Greek: chelidonion], (swallow-wort), of which 'celandin' is the English representative, that the word will yield up the poetry which is concealed in it. And then again, what poetry is there often in the names of birds and beasts and fishes, and indeed of all the animated world around us; how marvellously are these names adapted often to bring out the most striking and characteristic features of the objects to which they are given. Thus when the Romans became acquainted with the stately giraffe, long concealed from them in the interior deserts of Africa, (which we learn from Pliny they first did in the shows exhibited by Julius Caesar,) it was happily imagined to designate a creature combining, though with infinitely more grace, something of the height and even the proportions of the _camel_ with the spotted skin of the _pard_, by a name which should incorporate both these its most prominent features, [Footnote: Varro: Quod erat figura ut camelus, maculis ut panthera; and Horace (Ep. ii. I, 196): Diversum confusa genus panthera camelo.] calling it the 'camelopard.' Nor can we, I think, hesitate to accept that account as the true one, which describes the word as no artificial creation of scientific naturalists, but as bursting extempore from the lips of the common people, who after all are the truest namers, at the first moment when the novel creature was presented to their gaze. 'Cerf-volant,' a name which the French have so happily given to the horned scarabeus, the same which we somewhat less poetically call the 'stag-beetle,' is another example of what may be effected with the old materials, by merely bringing them into new and happy combinations. You know the appearance of the lizard, and the _star_-like shape of the spots which are sown over its back. Well, in Latin it is called 'stellio,' from _stella_, a star; just as the basilisk had in Greek this name of 'little king' because of the shape as of a _kingly_ crown which the spots on its head might be made by the fancy to assume. Follow up the etymology of 'squirrel,' and you will find that the graceful creature which bears this name has obtained it as being wont to sit under the shadow of its own tail. [Footnote: [The word _squirrel_ is a diminutive of the Greek word for squirrel, [Greek: skiouros], literally 'shadow-tail.']] Need I remind you of our 'goldfinch,' evidently so called from that bright patch of yellow on its wing; our 'kingfisher,' having its name from the royal beauty, the kingly splendour of the plumage with which it is adorned? Some might ask why the stormy petrel, a bird which just skims and floats on the topmost wave, should bear this name? No doubt we have here the French 'pétrel,' or little Peter, and the bird has in its name an allusion to the Apostle Peter, who at his Master's bidding walked for a while on the unquiet surface of an agitated sea. The 'lady-bird' or 'lady-cow' is prettily named, as indeed the whole legend about it is full of grace and fancy [Footnote: [For other names for the 'lady-bird,' and the reference in many of them to God and the Virgin Mary, see Grimm, _Teutonic Mythology_, p. 694.]]; but a common name which in many of our country parts this creature bears, the 'golden knob,' is prettier still. And indeed in our country dialects there is a wide poetical nomenclature which is well worthy of recognition; thus the shooting lights of the Aurora Borealis are in Lancashire 'the Merry Dancers'; clouds piled up in a particular fashion are in many parts of England styled 'Noah's Ark'; the puff-ball is 'the Devil's snuff-box'; the dragon-fly 'the Devil's darning-needle'; a large black beetle 'the Devil's coach-horse.' Any one who has watched the kestrel hanging poised in the air, before it swoops upon its prey, will acknowledge the felicity of the name 'windhover,' or sometimes 'windfanner,' which it popularly bears. [Footnote: In Wallace's _Tropical Nature_ there is a beautiful chapter on humming birds, and the names which in various languages these exquisite little creatures bear.] The amount is very large of curious legendary lore which is everywhere bound up in words, and which they, if duly solicited, will give back to us again. For example, the Greek 'halcyon,' which we have adopted without change, has reference, and wraps up in itself an allusion, to one of the most beautiful and significant legends of heathen antiquity; according to which the sea preserved a perfect calmness for all the period, the fourteen 'halcyon days,' during which this bird was brooding over her nest. The poetry of the name survives, whether the name suggested the legend, or the legend the name. Take again the names of some of our precious stones, as of the topaz, so called, as some said, because men were only able to _conjecture_ ([Greek: topazein]) the position of the cloud-concealed island from which it was brought. [Footnote: Pliny, _H. N._ xxxvii. 32. [But this is only popular etymology: the word can hardly be of Greek origin; see A. S. Palmer, _Folk-Etymology_, p. 589.]] Very curious is the determination which some words, indeed many, seem to manifest, that their poetry shall not die; or, if it dies in one form, that it shall revive in another. Thus if there is danger that, transferred from one language to another, they shall no longer speak to the imagination of men as they did of old, they will make to themselves a new life, they will acquire a new soul in the room of that which has ceased to quicken and inform them any more. Let me make clear what I mean by two or three examples. The Germans, knowing nothing of carbuncles, had naturally no word of their own for them; and when they first found it necessary to name them, as naturally borrowed the Latin 'carbunculus,' which originally had meant 'a little live coal,' to designate these precious stones of a fiery red. But 'carbunculus,' word full of poetry and life for Latin-speaking men, would have been only an arbitrary sign for as many as were ignorant of that language. What then did these, or what, rather, did the working genius of the language, do? It adopted, but, in adopting, modified slightly yet effectually the word, changing it into 'Karfunkel,' thus retaining the framework of the original, yet at the same time, inasmuch as 'funkeln' signifies 'to sparkle,' reproducing now in an entirely novel manner the image of the bright sparkling of the stone, for every knower of the German tongue. 'Margarita,' or pearl, belongs to the earliest group of Latin words adopted into English. The word, however, told nothing about itself to those who adopted it. But the pearl might be poetically contemplated as the sea-stone; and so our fathers presently transformed 'margarita' into 'mere-grot,' which means nothing less. [Footnote: Such is the A.S. form of _margarita_ in three versions of the parable of the Pearl of Great Price, St. Matt. xiii. 45; _see Anglo-Saxon Gospels_, ed. Skeat, 1887.] Take another illustration of this from another quarter. The French 'rossignol,' a nightingale, is undoubtedly the Latin 'lusciniola,' the diminutive of 'luscinia,' with the alteration, so frequent in the Romance languages, of the commencing 'l' into 'r.' Whatever may be the etymology of 'luscinia,' it is plain that for Frenchmen in general the word would no longer suggest any meaning at all, hardly even for French scholars, after the serious transformations which it had undergone; while yet, at the same time, in the exquisitely musical 'rossignol,' and still more perhaps in the Italian 'usignuolo,' there is an evident intention and endeavour to express something of the music of the bird's song in the liquid melody of the imitative name which it bears; and thus to put a new soul into the word, in lieu of that other which had escaped. Or again--whatever may be the meaning of Senlac, the name of that field where the ever-memorable battle, now better known as the Battle of Hastings, was fought, it certainly was not 'Sanglac,' or Lake of Blood; the word only shaping itself into this significant form subsequently to the battle, and in consequence of it. One or two examples more of the perishing of the old life in a word, and the birth of a new in its stead, may be added. The old name of Athens, 'Athaevai,' was closely linked with the fact that the goddess Pallas Athêne was the guardian deity of the city. The reason of the name, with other facts of the old mythology, faded away from the memory of the peasantry of modern Greece; but Athens is a name which must still mean something for them. Accordingly it is not 'Athaevai now, but 'Avthaevai, or the Blooming, on the lips of the peasantry round about; so Mr. Sayce assures us. The same process everywhere meets us. Thus no one who has visited Lucerne can fail to remember the rugged mountain called 'Pilatus' or 'Mont Pilate,' which stands opposite to him; while if he has been among the few who have cared to climb it, he will have been shown by his guide the lake at its summit in which Pontius Pilate in his despair drowned himself, with an assurance that from this suicide of his the mountain obtained its name. Nothing of the kind. 'Mont Pilate' stands for 'Mons _Pileatus_,' the '_capped_ hill'; the clouds, as one so often sees, gathering round its summit, and forming the shape or appearance of a cap or hat. When this true derivation was forgotten or misunderstood, the other explanation was invented and imposed. [Footnote: [The old name of Pilatus was _Fractus Mons_, 'broken mountain' from its rugged cliffs and precipices. _Pilatus_ did not become general till the close of the last century.]] An instructive example this, let me observe by the way, of that which has happened continually in the case of far older legends; I mean that the name has suggested the legend, and not the legend the name. We have an apt illustration of this in the old notion that the crocodile ([Greek: krokodeilos]) could not endure saffron. I have said that poetry and imagination seek to penetrate everywhere; and this is literally true; for even the hardest, austerest studies cannot escape their influence; they will put something of their own life into the dry bones of a nomenclature which seems the remotest from them, the most opposed to them. Thus in Danish the male and female lines of descent and inheritance are called respectively the sword-side and the spindle-side. [Footnote: [In the same way the Germans used to employ _schwert_ and _kunkel_; compare the use of the phrases _on ða sperehealfe_, and _on ða spinlhealfe_ in King Alfred's will; see Kemble, _Codex Diplomaticus_, No. 314 (ii. 116), Pauli's _Life of Alfred_, p. 225, Lappenberg's _Anglo-Saxon Kings_, ii. 99 (1881).]] He who in prosody called a metrical foot consisting of one long syllable followed by two short (-..) a 'dactyle' or a finger, with allusion to the long first joint of the finger, and the two shorter which follow, whoever he may have been, and some one was the first to do it, must be allowed to have brought a certain amount of imagination into a study so alien to it as prosody very well might appear. He did the same in another not very poetical region who invented the Latin law-term, 'stellionatus.' The word includes all such legally punishable acts of swindling or injurious fraud committed on the property of another as are not specified in any more precise enactment; being drawn and derived from a practice attributed, I suppose without any foundation, to the lizard or 'stellio' we spoke of just now. Having cast its winter skin, it is reported to swallow it at once, and this out of a malignant grudge lest any should profit by that which, if not now, was of old accounted a specific in certain diseases. The term was then transferred to any malicious wrong whatever done by one person to another. In other regions it was only to be expected that we should find poetry. Thus it is nothing strange that architecture, which has been called frozen music, and which is poetry embodied in material forms, should have a language of its own, not dry nor hard, not of the mere intellect alone, but one in the forming of which it is evident that the imaginative faculties were at work. To take only one example--this, however, from Gothic art, which naturally yields the most remarkable-- what exquisite poetry in the name of 'the rose window' or better still, 'the rose,' given to the rich circular aperture of stained glass, with its leaf-like compartments, in the transepts of a Gothic cathedral! Here indeed we may note an exception from that which usually finds place; for usually art borrows beauty from nature, and very faintly, if at all, reflects back beauty upon her. In this present instance, however, art is so beautiful, has reached so glorious and perfect a development, that if the associations which the rose supplies lend to that window some hues of beauty and a glory which otherwise it would not have, the latter abundantly repays the obligation; and even the rose itself may become lovelier still, associated with those shapes of grace, those rich gorgeous tints, and all the religious symbolism of that in art which has borrowed and bears its name. After this it were little to note the imagination, although that was most real, which dictated the term 'flamboyant' to express the wavy flame-like outline, which, at a particular period of art, the tracery in the Gothic window assumed. 'Godsacre' or 'Godsfield,' is the German name for a burial-ground, and once was our own, though we unfortunately have nearly, if not quite, let it go. What a hope full of immortality does this little word proclaim! how rich is it in all the highest elements of poetry, and of poetry in its noblest alliance, that is, in its alliance with faith-- able as it is to cause all loathsome images of death and decay to disappear, not denying them, but suspending, losing, absorbing them in the sublimer thought of the victory over death, of that harvest of life which God shall one day so gloriously reap even there where now seems the very triumphing place of death. Many will not need to be reminded how fine a poem in Longfellow's hands unfolds itself out of this word. Lastly let me note the pathos of poetry which lies often in the mere tracing of the succession of changes in meaning which certain words have undergone. Thus 'elend' in German, a beautiful word, now signifies wretchedness, but at first it signified exile or banishment. [Footnote: On this word there is an interesting discussion in Weigand's _Etym. Dict._, and compare Pott, _Etym. Forsch._ i. 302. _Ellinge_, an English provincial word of infinite pathos, still common in the south of England, and signifying at once lonely and sad, is not connected, as has been sometimes supposed, with the German _elend_, but represents Anglo-Saxon _ae-lenge_, protracted, tedious; see the _New English Dictionary_ (s.v. _alange_)] The sense of this separation from the native land and from all home delights, as being the woe of all woes, the crown of all sorrows, little by little so penetrated the word, that what at first expressed only one form of misery, has ended by signifying all. It is not a little notable, as showing the same feeling elsewhere at work, that 'essil' (= exilium) in old French signified, not only banishment, but ruin, destruction, misery. In the same manner [Greek: nostimos] meaning at first no more than having to do with a return, comes in the end to signify almost anything which is favourable and auspicious. Let us then acknowledge man a born poet; if not every man himself a 'maker' yet every one able to rejoice in what others have made, adopting it freely, moving gladly in it as his own most congenial element and sphere. For indeed, as man does not live by bread alone, as little is he content to find in language merely the instrument which shall enable him to buy and sell and get gain, or otherwise make provision for the lower necessities of his animal life. He demands to find in it as well what shall stand in a real relation and correspondence to the higher faculties of his being, shall feed, nourish, and sustain these, shall stir him with images of beauty and suggestions of greatness. Neither here nor anywhere else could he become the mere utilitarian, even if he would. Despite his utmost efforts, were he so far at enmity with his own good as to put them forth, he could not succeed in exhausting his language of the poetical element with which it is penetrated through and through; he could not succeed in stripping it of blossom, flower, and fruit, and leaving it nothing but a bare and naked stem. He may fancy for a moment that he has succeeded in doing this; but it will only need for him to become a little better philologer, to go a little deeper into the story of the words which he is using, and he will discover that he is as remote as ever from such an unhappy consummation, from so disastrous a success. For ourselves, let us desire and attempt nothing of the kind. Our life is not in other ways so full of imagination and poetry that we need give any diligence to empty it of that which it may possess of these. It will always have for us all enough of dull and prosaic and commonplace. What profit can there be in seeking to extend the region of these? Profit there will be none, but on the contrary infinite loss. It is _stagnant_ waters which corrupt themselves; not those in agitation and on which the winds are freely blowing. Words of passion and imagination are, as one so grandly called them of old, 'winds of the soul' ([Greek: psyches anemoi]), to keep it in healthful motion and agitation, to lift it upward and to drive it onward, to preserve it from that unwholesome stagnation which constitutes the fatal preparedness for so many other and worse evils. LECTURE III. ON THE MORALITY IN WORDS. Is man of a divine birth and of the stock of heaven? coming from God, and, when he fulfils the law of his being, and the intention of his creation, returning to Him again? We need no more than the words he speaks to prove it; so much is there in them which could never have existed on any other supposition. How else could all those words which testify of his relation to God, and of his consciousness of this relation, and which ground themselves thereon, have found their way into his language, being as that is the veritable transcript of his innermost life, the genuine utterance of the faith and hope which is in him? In what other way can we explain that vast and preponderating weight thrown into the scale of goodness and truth, which, despite of all in the other scale, we must thankfully acknowledge that his language never is without? How else shall we account for that sympathy with the right, that testimony against the wrong, which, despite of all aberrations and perversions, is yet the prevailing ground-tone of all? But has man fallen, and deeply fallen, from the heights of his original creation? We need no more than his language to prove it. Like everything else about him, it bears at once the stamp of his greatness and of his degradation, of his glory and of his shame. What dark and sombre threads he must have woven into the tissue of his life, before we could trace those threads of darkness which run through the tissue of his language! What facts of wickedness and woe must have existed in the one, ere such words could exist to designate these as are found in the other! There have never wanted those who would make light of the moral hurts which man has inflicted on himself, of the sickness with which he is sick; who would persuade themselves and others that moralists and divines, if they have not quite invented, have yet enormously exaggerated, these. But are statements of the depth of his fall, the malignity of the disease with which he is sick, found only in Scripture and in sermons? Are those who bring forward these statements libellers of human nature? Or are not mournful corroborations of the truth of these assertions imprinted deeply upon every province of man's natural and spiritual life, and on none more deeply than on his language? It needs but to open a dictionary, and to cast our eye thoughtfully down a few columns, and we shall find abundant confirmation of this sadder and sterner estimate of man's moral and spiritual condition. How else shall we explain this long catalogue of words, having all to do with sin or with sorrow, or with both? How came they there? We may be quite sure that they were not invented without being needed, and they have each a correlative in the world of realities. I open the first letter of the alphabet; what means this 'Ah,' this 'Alas,' these deep and long-drawn sighs of humanity, which at once encounter me there? And then presently there meet me such words as these, 'Affliction,' 'Agony,' 'Anguish,' 'Assassin,' 'Atheist,' 'Avarice,' and a hundred more--words, you will observe, not laid up in the recesses of the language, to be drawn forth on rare occasions, but many of them such as must be continually on the lips of men. And indeed, in the matter of abundance, it is sad to note how much richer our vocabularies are in words that set forth sins, than in those that set forth graces. When St. Paul (Gal. v. 19-23) would range these over against those, 'the works of the flesh' against 'the fruit of the Spirit,' those are seventeen, these only nine; and where do we find in Scripture such lists of graces, as we do at 2 Tim. iii. 2, Rom. i. 29- 31, of their contraries? [Footnote: Of these last the most exhaustive collection which I know is in Philo, _De Merced. Meret._ Section 4. There are here one hundred and forty-six epithets brought together, each of them indicating a sinful moral habit of mind. It was not without reason that Aristotle wrote: 'It is possible to err in many ways, for evil belongs to the infinite; but to do right is possible only in one way' (_Ethic. Nic._ ii. 6. 14).] Nor can I help noting, in the oversight and muster from this point of view of the words which constitute a language, the manner in which its utmost resources have been taxed to express the infinite varieties, now of human suffering, now of human sin. Thus, what a fearful thing is it that any language should possess a word to express the pleasure which men feel at the calamities of others; for the existence of the word bears testimony to the existence of the thing. And yet such in more languages than one may be found. [Footnote: In the Greek, [Greek: epichairekakia], in the German, 'schadenfreude.' Cicero so strongly feels the want of such a word, that he _gives_ to 'malevolentia' the significance, 'voluptas ex malo alterius,' which lies not of necessity in it.] Nor are there wanting, I suppose, in any language, words which are the mournful record of the strange wickednesses which the genius of man, so fertile in evil, has invented. What whole processes of cruelty are sometimes wrapped up in a single word! Thus I have not travelled down the first column of an Italian dictionary before I light upon the verb 'abbacinare' meaning to deprive of sight by holding a red-hot metal basin close to the eyeballs. Travelling a little further in a Greek lexicon, I should reach [Greek: akroteriazein] mutilate by cutting off all the extremities, as hands, feet, nose, ears; or take our English 'to ganch.' And our dictionaries, while they tell us much, cannot tell us all. How shamefully rich is everywhere the language of the vulgar in words and phrases which, seldom allowed to find their way into books, yet live as a sinful oral tradition on the lips of men, for the setting forth of things unholy and impure. And of these words, as no less of those dealing with the kindred sins of revelling and excess, how many set the evil forth with an evident sympathy and approbation of it, and as themselves taking part with the sin against Him who has forbidden it under pain of his highest displeasure. How much ability, how much wit, yes, and how much imagination must have stood in the service of sin, before it could possess a nomenclature so rich, so varied, and often so heaven-defying, as that which it actually owns. Then further I would bid you to note the many words which men have dragged downward with themselves, and made more or less partakers of their own fall. Having once an honourable meaning, they have yet with the deterioration and degeneration of those that used them, or of those about whom they were used, deteriorated and degenerated too. How many, harmless once, have assumed a harmful as their secondary meaning; how many worthy have acquired an unworthy. Thus 'knave' meant once no more than lad (nor does 'knabe' now in German mean more); 'villain' than peasant; a 'boor' was a farmer, a 'varlet' a serving-man, which meaning still survives in 'valet,' the other form of this word; [Footnote: Yet this itself was an immense fall for the word (see _Ampère, La Langue Française_, p. 219, and Littré, _Dict. de la Langue Française_, preface, p. xxv.).] a 'menial' was one of the household; a 'paramour' was a lover, an honourable one it might be; a 'leman' in like manner might be a lover, and be used of either sex in a good sense; a 'beldam' was a fair lady, and is used in this sense by Spenser; [Footnote: _F. Q._ iii. 2. 43.] a 'minion' was a favourite (man in Sylvester is 'God's dearest _minion_'); a 'pedant' in the Italian from which we borrowed the word, and for a while too with ourselves, was simply a tutor; a 'proser' was one who wrote in prose; an 'adventurer' one who set before himself perilous, but very often noble ventures, what the Germans call a glücksritter; a 'swindler,' in the German from which we got it, one who entered into dangerous mercantile speculations, without implying that this was done with any intention to defraud others. Christ, according to Bishop Hall, was the 'ringleader' of our salvation. 'Time-server' two hundred years ago quite as often designated one in an honourable as in a dishonourable sense 'serving the time.' [Footnote: See in proof Fuller, _Holy State_, b. iii. c. 19.] 'Conceits' had once nothing conceited in them. An 'officious' man was one prompt in offices of kindness, and not, as now, an uninvited meddler in things that concern him not; something indeed of the older meaning still survives in the diplomatic use of the word. 'Demure' conveyed no hint, as it does now, of an overdoing of the outward demonstrations of modesty; a 'leer' was once a look with nothing amiss in it (_Piers Plowman_). 'Daft' was modest or retiring; 'orgies' were religious ceremonies; the Blessed Virgin speaks of herself in an early poem as 'God's wench.' In 'crafty' and 'cunning' no _crooked wisdom_ was implied, but only knowledge and skill; 'craft,' indeed, still retains very often its more honourable use, a man's 'craft' being his skill, and then the trade in which he is skilled. 'Artful' was skilful, and not tricky as now. [Footnote: Not otherwise 'leichtsinnig' in German meant cheerful once; it is frivolous now; while in French a 'rapporteur' is now a bringer back of _malicious_ reports, the malicious having little by little found its way into the word.] Could the Magdalen have ever bequeathed us 'maudlin' in its present contemptuous application, if the tears of penitential sorrow had been held in due honour by the world? 'Tinsel,' the French 'etincelle,' meant once anything that sparkled or glistened; thus, 'cloth of _tinsel_' would be cloth inwrought with silver and gold; but the sad experience that 'all is not gold that glitters, that much showing fair to the eye is worthless in reality, has caused that by 'tinsel,' literal or figurative, we ever mean now that which has no realities of sterling worth underlying the specious shows which it makes. 'Specious' itself, let me note, meant beautiful at one time, and not, as now, presenting a deceitful appearance of beauty. 'Tawdry,' an epithet applied once to lace or other finery bought at the fair of St. Awdrey or St. Etheldreda, has run through the same course: it at one time conveyed no suggestion of _mean_ finery or _shabby_ splendour, as now it does. 'Voluble' was an epithet which had nothing of slight in it, but meant what 'fluent' means now; 'dapper' _was_ what in German 'tapfer' _is_; not so much neat and spruce as brave and bold; 'plausible' was worthy of applause; 'pert' is now brisk and lively, but with a very distinct subaudition, which once it had not, of sauciness as well; 'lewd' meant no more than unlearned, as the lay or common people might be supposed to be. [Footnote: Having in mind what 'dirne,' connected with 'dienen,' 'dienst,' commonly means now in German, one almost shrinks from mentioning that it was once a name of honour which could be and was used of the Blessed Virgin Mary (see Grimm, _Wörterbuch_, s. v.). 'Schalk' in like manner had no evil subaudition in it at the first; nor did it ever obtain such during the time that it survived in English; thus in _Sir Gawayne and the Green Knight_, the peerless Gawayne is himself on more than one a 'schalk' (424, 1776). The word survives in the last syllable of 'seneschal,' and indeed of 'marshal' as well.] 'To carp' is in Chaucer's language no more than to converse; 'to mouth' in _Piers Plowman_ is simply to speak; 'to garble' was once to sift and pick out the best; it is now to select and put forward as a fair specimen the worst. This same deterioration through use may be traced in the verb 'to resent.' Barrow could speak of the good man as a faithful 'resenter' and requiter of benefits, of the duty of testifying an affectionate 'resentment' of our obligations to God. But the memory of benefits fades from us so much more quickly than that of injuries; we remember and revolve in our minds so much more predominantly the wrongs, real or imaginary, men have done us, than the favours we owe them, that 'resentment' has come in our modern English to be confined exclusively to that deep reflective displeasure which men entertain against those that have done, or whom they fancy to have done, them a wrong. And this explains how it comes to pass that we do not speak of the 'retaliation' of benefits at all so often as the 'retaliation' of injuries. 'To retaliate' signifies no more than to render again as much as we have received; but this is so much seldomer practised in the matter of benefits than of wrongs, that 'retaliation' though not wholly strange in this worthier sense, has yet, when so employed, an unusual sound in our ears. 'To retaliate' kindnesses is a language which would not now be intelligible to all. 'Animosity' as originally employed in that later Latin which gave it birth, was spiritedness; men would speak of the 'animosity' or fiery courage of a horse. In our early English it meant nothing more; a divine of the seventeenth century speaks of 'due Christian animosity.' Activity and vigour are still implied in the word; but now only as displayed in enmity and hate. There is a Spanish proverb which says, 'One foe is too many; a hundred friends are too few.' The proverb and the course which this word 'animosity' has travelled may be made mutually to illustrate one another. [Footnote: For quotations from our earlier authors in proof of many of the assertions made in the few last pages, see my _Select Glossary of English Words used formerly in senses different from their present_, 5th edit. 1879.] How mournful a witness for the hard and unrighteous judgments we habitually form of one another lies in the word 'prejudice.' It is itself absolutely neutral, meaning no more than a judgment formed beforehand; which judgment may be favourable, or may be otherwise. Yet so predominantly do we form harsh unfavourable judgments of others before knowledge and experience, that a 'prejudice' or judgment before knowledge and not grounded on evidence, is almost always taken in an ill sense; 'prejudicial' having actually acquired mischievous or injurious for its secondary meaning. As these words bear testimony to the _sin_ of man, so others to his _infirmity_, to the limitation of human faculties and human knowledge, to the truth of the proverb, that 'to err is human.' Thus 'to retract' means properly no more than to handle again, to reconsider. And yet, so certain are we to find in a subject which we reconsider, or handle a second time, that which was at first rashly, imperfectly, inaccurately, stated, which needs therefore to be amended, modified, or withdrawn, that 'to retract' could not tarry long in its primary meaning of reconsidering; but has come to signify to withdraw. Thus the greatest Father of the Latin Church, wishing toward the close of his life to amend whatever he might then perceive in his various published works incautiously or incorrectly stated, gave to the book in which he carried out this intention (for authors had then no such opportunities as later editions afford us now), this very name of '_Retractations_', being literally 'rehandlings,' but in fact, as will be plain to any one turning to the work, withdrawings of various statements by which he was no longer prepared to abide. But urging, as I just now did, the degeneration of words, I should seriously err, if I failed to remind you that a parallel process of purifying and ennobling has also been going forward, most of all through the influences of a Divine faith working in the world. This, as it has turned _men_ from evil to good, or has lifted them from a lower earthly goodness to a higher heavenly, so has it in like manner elevated, purified, and ennobled a multitude of the words which they employ, until these, which once expressed only an earthly good, express now a heavenly. The Gospel of Christ, as it is the redemption of man, so is it in a multitude of instances the redemption of his word, freeing it from the bondage of corruption, that it should no longer be subject to vanity, nor stand any more in the service of sin or of the world, but in the service of God and of his truth. Thus the Greek had a word for 'humility'; but for him this humility meant--that is, with rare exceptions--meanness of spirit. He who brought in the Christian grace of humility, did in so doing rescue the term which expressed it for nobler uses and a far higher dignity than hitherto it had attained. There were 'angels' before heaven had been opened, but these only earthly messengers; 'martyrs' also, or witnesses, but these not unto blood, nor yet for God's highest truth; 'apostles,' but sent of men; 'evangels,' but these good tidings of this world, and not of the kingdom of heaven; 'advocates,' but not 'with the Father.' 'Paradise' was a word common in slightly different forms to almost all the nations of the East; but it was for them only some royal park or garden of delights; till for the Jew it was exalted to signify the mysterious abode of our first parents; while higher honours awaited it still, when on the lips of the Lord, it signified the blissful waiting-place of faithful departed souls (Luke xxiii. 43); yea, the heavenly blessedness itself (Rev. ii. 7). A 'regeneration' or palingenesy, was not unknown to the Greeks; they could speak of the earth's 'regeneration' in spring-time, of recollection as the 'regeneration' of knowledge; the Jewish historian could describe the return of his countrymen from the Babylonian Captivity, and their re-establishment in their own land, as the 'regeneration' of the Jewish State. But still the word, whether as employed by Jew or Greek, was a long way off from that honour reserved for it in the Christian dispensation--namely, that it should be the vehicle of one of the most blessed mysteries of the faith. [Footnote: See my _Synonyms of the N.T._ Section 18.] And many other words in like manner there are, 'fetched from the very dregs of paganism,' as Sanderson has it (he instances the Latin 'sacrament,' the Greek 'mystery'), which the Holy Spirit has not refused to employ for the setting forth of the glorious facts of our redemption; and, reversing the impious deed of Belshazzar, who profaned the sacred vessels of God's house to sinful and idolatrous uses (Dan. v. 2), has consecrated the very idol-vessels of Babylon to the service of the sanctuary. Let us now proceed to contemplate some of the attestations to God's truth, and then some of the playings into the hands of the devil's falsehood, which lurk in words. And first, the attestations to God's truth, the fallings in of our words with his unchangeable Word; for these, as the true uses of the word, while the other are only its abuses, have a prior claim to be considered. Thus, some modern 'false prophets,' willing to explain away all such phenomena of the world around us as declare man to be a sinner, and lying under the consequences of sin, would fain have them to believe that pain is only a subordinate kind of pleasure, or, at worst, a sort of needful hedge and guardian of pleasure. But a deeper feeling in the universal heart of man bears witness to quite another explanation of the existence of pain in the present economy of the world--namely, that it is the correlative of sin, that it is _punishment_; and to this the word 'pain,' so closely connected with 'poena,' bears witness. [Footnote: Our word _pain_ is actually the same word as the Latin _poena_, coming to us through the French _peine_.] Pain _is_ punishment; for so the word, and so the conscience of every one that is suffering it, declares. Some will not hear of great pestilences being scourges of the sins of men; and if only they can find out the immediate, imagine that they have found out the ultimate, causes of these; while yet they have only to speak of a 'plague' and they implicitly avouch the very truth which they have set themselves to deny; for a 'plague,' what is it but a stroke; so called, because that universal conscience of men which is never at fault, has felt and in this way confessed it to be such? For here, as in so many other cases, that proverb stands fast, 'Vox populi, vox Dei'; and may be admitted to the full; that is, if only we keep in mind that this 'people' is not the populace either in high place or in low; and this 'voice of the people' no momentary outcry, but the consenting testimony of the good and wise, of those neither brutalized by ignorance, nor corrupted by a false cultivation, in many places and in various times. To one who admits the truth of this proverb it will be nothing strange that men should have agreed to call him a 'miser' or miserable, who eagerly scrapes together and painfully hoards the mammon of this world. Here too the moral instinct lying deep in all hearts has borne testimony to the tormenting nature of this vice, to the gnawing pains with which even in this present time it punishes its votaries, to the enmity which there is between it and all joy; and the man who enslaves himself to his money is proclaimed in our very language to be a 'miser,' or miserable man. [Footnote: 'Misery' does not any longer signify avarice, nor 'miserable' avaricious; but these meanings they once possessed (see my _Select Glossary_, s. vv.). In them men said, and in 'miser' we still say, in one word what Seneca when he wrote,-- 'Nulla avaritia sine poena est, _quamvis satis sit ipsa poenarum_'-- took a sentence to say.] Other words bear testimony to great moral truths. St. James has, I doubt not, been often charged with exaggeration for saying, 'Whosoever shall keep the whole law, and yet offend in one point, he is guilty of all' (ii. 10). The charge is an unjust one. The Romans with their 'integritas' said as much; we too say the same who have adopted 'integrity' as a part of our ethical language. For what is 'integrity' but entireness; the 'integrity' of the body being, as Cicero explains it, the full possession and the perfect soundness of _all_ its members; and moral 'integrity' though it cannot be predicated so absolutely of any sinful child of Adam, is this same entireness or completeness transferred to things higher. 'Integrity' was exactly that which Herod had _not_ attained, when at the Baptist's bidding he 'did many things gladly' (Mark vi. 20), but did _not_ put away his brother's wife; whose partial obedience therefore profited nothing; he had dropped one link in the golden chain of obedience, and as a consequence the whole chain fell to the ground. It is very noticeable, and many have noticed, that the Greek word signifying wickedness (_ponaeria_) comes of another signifying labour (_ponos_). How well does this agree with those passages in Scripture which describe sinners as '_wearying themselves_ to commit iniquity,' as '_labouring_ in the very fire'; 'the martyrs of the devil,' as South calls them, being at more pains to go to hell than the martyrs of God to go to heaven. 'St. Chrysostom's eloquence,' as Bishop Sanderson has observed, 'enlarges itself and triumphs in this argument more frequently than in almost any other; and he clears it often and beyond all exception, both by Scripture and reason, that the life of a wicked or worldly man is a very drudgery, infinitely more toilsome, vexatious, and unpleasant than a godly life is.' [Footnote: _Sermons_, London, 1671, vol. ii. p. 244.] How deep an insight into the failings of the human heart lies at the root of many words; and if only we would attend to them, what valuable warnings many contain against subtle temptations and sins! Thus, all of us have felt the temptation of seeking to please others by an unmanly _assenting_ to their opinion, even when our own independent convictions did not agree with theirs. The existence of such a temptation, and the fact that too many yield to it, are both declared in the Latin for a flatterer--'assentator'--that is, 'an assenter'; one who has not courage to say _No_, when a _Yes_ is expected from him; and quite independently of the Latin, the German, in its contemptuous and precisely equivalent use of 'Jaherr,' a 'yea-Lord,' warns us in like manner against all such unmanly compliances. Let me note that we also once possessed 'assentation' in the sense of unworthy flattering lip- assent; the last example of it in our dictionaries is from Bishop Hall: 'It is a fearful presage of ruin when the prophets conspire in assentation;' but it lived on to a far later day, being found and exactly in the same sense in Lord Chesterfield's Letters to his son; he there speaks of 'abject flattery and indiscriminate assentation.' [Footnote: _August_ 10, 1749. [In the _New English Dictionary_ a quotation for the word is given as late as 1859. I. Taylor, in his _Logic in Theology_, p. 265, says: 'A safer anchorage may be found than the shoal of mindless assentation']] The word is well worthy to be revived. Again, how well it is to have that spirit of depreciation, that eagerness to find spots and stains in the characters of the noblest and the best, who would otherwise oppress and rebuke us with a goodness and a greatness so immensely superior to our own,--met and checked by a word at once so expressive, and so little pleasant to take home to ourselves, as the French 'dénigreur,' a 'blackener.' This also has fallen out of use; which is a pity, seeing that the race which it designates is so far from being extinct. Full too of instruction and warning is our present employment of 'libertine.' A 'libertine,' in earlier use, was a speculative free-thinker in matters of religion and in the theory of morals. But as by a process which is seldom missed free-_thinking_ does and will end in free-_acting_, he who has cast off one yoke also casting off the other, so a 'libertine' came in two or three generations to signify a profligate, especially in relation to women, a licentious and debauched person. [Footnote: See the author's _Select Glossary_ (s.v.)] Look a little closely at the word 'passion,' We sometimes regard a 'passionate' man as a man of strong will, and of real, though ungoverned, energy. But 'passion' teaches us quite another lesson; for it, as a very solemn use of it declares, means properly 'suffering'; and a 'passionate' man is not one who is doing something, but one suffering something to be done to him. When then a man or child is 'in a passion,' this is no outcoming in him of a strong will, of a real energy, but the proof rather that, for the time at least, he is altogether wanting in these; he is _suffering_, not doing; suffering his anger, or whatever evil temper it may be, to lord over him without control. Let no one then think of 'passion' as a sign of strength. One might with as much justice conclude a man strong because he was often well beaten; this would prove that a strong man was putting forth his strength on him, but certainly not that he was himself strong. The same sense of 'passion' and feebleness going together, of the first as the outcome of the second, lies, I may remark by the way, in the twofold use of 'impotens' in the Latin, which meaning first weak, means then violent, and then weak and violent together. For a long time 'impotent' and 'impotence' in English embodied the same twofold meaning. Or meditate on the use of 'humanitas,' and the use (in Scotland at least) of the 'humanities,' to designate those studies which are esteemed the fittest for training the true humanity in every man. [Footnote: [Compare the use of the term _Litterae Humaniores_ in the University of Oxford to designate the oldest and most characteristic of her examinations or 'Schools.']] We have happily overlived in England the time when it was still in debate among us whether education is a good thing for every living soul or not; the only question which now seriously divides Englishmen being, in what manner that mental and moral training, which is society's debt to each one of its members, may be most effectually imparted to him. Were it not so, were there any still found to affirm that it was good for any man to be left with powers not called out and faculties untrained, we might appeal to this word 'humanitas,' and the use to which the Roman put it, in proof that he at least was not of this mind. By 'humanitas' he intended the fullest and most harmonious development of all the truly human faculties and powers. Then, and then only, man was truly man, when he received this; in so far as he did not receive this, his 'humanity' was maimed and imperfect; he fell short of his ideal, of that which he was created to be. In our use of 'talents,' as when we say 'a man of talents,' there is a clear recognition of the responsibilities which go along with the possession of intellectual gifts and endowments, whatever these may be. We owe our later use of 'talent' to the parable (Matt. xxv. 14), in which more or fewer of these are committed to the several servants, that they may trade with them in their master's absence, and give account of their employment at his return. Men may choose to forget the ends for which their 'talents' were given them; they may count them merely something which they have gotten; [Footnote: An [Greek: hexis], as the heathen did, not a [Greek: dorema], as the Christian does; see a remarkable passage in Bishop Andrewes' _Sermons_, vol. iii. p. 384.] they may turn them to selfish ends; they may glorify themselves in them, instead of glorifying the Giver; they may practically deny that they were given at all; yet in this word, till they can rid their vocabulary of it, abides a continual memento that they were so given, or rather lent, and that each man shall have to render an account of their use. Again, in 'oblige' and 'obligation,' as when we speak of 'being obliged,' or of having 'received an obligation,' a moral truth is asserted--this namely, that having received a benefit or a favour at the hands of another, we are thereby morally _bound_ to show ourselves grateful for the same. We cannot be ungrateful without denying not merely a moral truth, but one incorporated in the very language which we employ. Thus South, in a sermon, _Of the odious Sin of Ingratitude_, has well asked, 'If the conferring of a kindness did not _bind_ the person upon whom it was conferred to the returns of gratitude, why, in the universal dialect of the world, are kindnesses called _obligations_?' [Footnote: _Sermons_, London, 1737, vol. i. p. 407.] Once more--the habit of calling a woman's chastity her 'virtue' is significant. I will not deny that it may spring in part from a tendency which often meets us in language, to narrow the whole circle of virtues to some one upon which peculiar stress is laid; [Footnote: Thus in Jewish Greek [Greek: eleaemosnuae] stands often for [Greek: dikaosnuae] (Deut. vi. 25; Ps. cii. 6, LXX), or almsgiving for righteousness.] but still, in selecting this peculiar one as _the_ 'virtue' of woman, there speaks out a true sense that this is indeed for her the citadel of the whole moral being, the overthrow of which is the overthrow of all; that it is the keystone of the arch, which being withdrawn, the whole collapses and falls. Or consider all which is witnessed for us in 'kind.' We speak of a 'kind' person, and we speak of man-'kind,' and perhaps, if we think about the matter at all, fancy that we are using quite different words, or the same words in senses quite unconnected. But they are connected, and by closest bonds; a 'kind' person is one who acknowledges his kinship with other men, and acts upon it; confesses that he owes to them, as of one blood with himself, the debt of love. [Footnote: Thus Hamlet does much more than merely play on words when he calls his father's brother, who had married his mother, 'A little more than _kin_, and less than _kind_.' [For the relation between _kind_ (the adj.) and _kind_ ('nature,' the sb.) see Skeat's Dict.]] Beautiful before, how much more beautiful do 'kind' and 'kindness' appear, when we apprehend the root out of which they grow, and the truth which they embody; that they are the acknowledgment in loving deeds of our kinship with our brethren; of the relationship which exists between all the members of the human family, and of the obligations growing out of the same. But I observed just now that there are also words bearing on them the slime of the serpent's trail; uses, too, of words which imply moral perversity--not upon their parts who employ them now in their acquired senses, but on theirs from whom little by little they received their deflection, and were warped from their original rectitude. A 'prude' is now a woman with an over-done affectation of a modesty which she does not really feel, and betraying the absence of the substance by this over-preciseness and niceness about the shadow. Goodness must have gone strangely out of fashion, the corruption of manners must have been profound, before matters could have come to this point. 'Prude,' a French word, means properly virtuous or prudent. [Footnote: [Compare French _prude_, on the etymology of which see Schelar's _French Dict._, ed. 3 (1888)].] But where morals are greatly and generally relaxed, virtue is treated as hypocrisy; and thus, in a dissolute age, and one incredulous of any inward purity, by the 'prude' or virtuous woman is intended a sort of female Tartuffe, affecting a virtue which it is taken for granted none can really possess; and the word abides, a proof of the world's disbelief in the realities of goodness, of its resolution to treat them as hypocrisies and deceits. Again, why should 'simple' be used slightingly, and 'simpleton' more slightingly still? The 'simple' is one properly of a single fold; [Footnote: [Latin _simplicem_; for Lat. _sim-_, _sin-_= Greek [Greek: ha] in [Greek: ha-pax], see Brugmann, _Grundriss_, Section 238, Curtius, _Greek Etym._ No. 599.]] a Nathanael, whom as such Christ honoured to the highest (John i. 47); and, indeed, what honour can be higher than to have nothing _double_ about us, to be without _duplicities_ or folds? Even the world, which despises 'simplicity,' does not profess to admire 'duplicity,' or double-foldedness. But inasmuch as it is felt that a man without these folds will in a world like ours make himself a prey, and as most men, if obliged to choose between deceiving and being deceived, would choose the former, it has come to pass that 'simple' which in a kingdom of righteousness would be a world of highest honour, carries with it in this world of ours something of contempt. [Footnote: 'Schlecht,' which in modern German means bad, good for nothing, once meant good,--good, that is, in the sense of right or straight, but has passed through the same stages to the meaning which it now possesses, 'albern' has done the same (Max Müller, _Science of Language_, 2nd series, p. 274).] Nor can we help noting another involuntary testimony borne by human language to human sin. I mean this,--that an idiot, or one otherwise deficient in intellect, is called an 'innocent' or one who does no hurt; this use of 'innocent' assuming that to do hurt and harm is the chief employment to which men turn their intellectual powers, that, where they are wise, they are oftenest wise to do evil. Nor are these isolated examples of the contemptuous use which words expressive of goodness gradually acquire. Such meet us on every side. Our 'silly' is the Old-English 'saelig' or blessed. We see it in a transition state in our early poets, with whom 'silly' is an affectionate epithet which sheep obtain for their harmlessness. One among our earliest calls the newborn Lord of Glory Himself, 'this harmless _silly_ babe,' But 'silly' has travelled on the same lines as 'simple,' 'innocent,' and so many other words. The same moral phenomenon repeats itself continually. Thus 'sheepish' in the _Ormulum_ is an epithet of honour: it is used of one who has the mind of Him who was led as a sheep to the slaughter. At the first promulgation of the Christian faith, while the name of its Divine Founder was still strange to the ears of the heathen, they were wont, some in ignorance, but more of malice, slightly to mispronounce this name, turning 'Christus' into 'Chrestus'--that is, the benevolent or benign. That these last meant no honour thereby to the Lord of Life, but the contrary, is certain; this word, like 'silly,' 'innocent,' 'simple,' having already contracted a slight tinge of contempt, without which there would have been no inducement to fasten it on the Saviour. The French have their 'bonhomie' with the same undertone of contempt, the Greeks their [Greek: eyetheia]. Lady Shiel tells us of the modern Persians, 'They have odd names for describing the moral qualities; "Sedakat" means sincerity, honesty, candour; but when a man is said to be possessed of "sedakat," the meaning is that he is a credulous, contemptible simpleton.' [Footnote: _Life and Manners in Persia_, p. 247.] It is to the honour of the Latin tongue, and very characteristic of the best aspects of Roman life, that 'simplex' and 'simplicitas' never acquired this abusive signification. Again, how prone are we all to ascribe to chance or fortune those gifts and blessings which indeed come directly from God--to build altars to Fortune rather than to Him who is the author of every good thing which we have gotten. And this faith of men, that their blessings, even their highest, come to them by a blind chance, they have incorporated in a word; for 'happy' and 'happiness' are connected with 'hap,' which is chance;--how unworthy, then, to express any true felicity, whose very essence is that it excludes hap or chance, that the world neither gave nor can take it away. [Footnote: The heathen with their [Greek: eudaimonia], inadequate as this word must be allowed to be, put _us_ here to shame.] Against a similar misuse of 'fortunate,' 'unfortunate,' Wordsworth very nobly protests, when, of one who, having lost everything else, had yet kept the truth, he exclaims: 'Call not the royal Swede _unfortunate_, Who never did to _Fortune_ bend the knee.' There are words which reveal a wrong or insufficient estimate that men take of their duties, or that at all events others have taken before them; for it is possible that the mischief may have been done long ago, and those who now use the words may only have inherited it from others, not helped to bring it about themselves. An employer of labour advertises that he wants so many 'hands'; but this language never could have become current, a man could never have thus shrunk into a 'hand' in the eyes of his fellow-man, unless this latter had in good part forgotten that, annexed to those hands which he would purchase to toil for him, were also heads and hearts [Footnote: A similar use of [Greek: somata] for slaves in Greek rested originally on the same forgetfulness of the moral worth of every man. It has found its way into the Septuagint and Apocrypha (Gen. xxxvi. 6; 2 Macc. viii. 11; Tob. x. 10); and occurs once in the New Testament (Rev. xviii. 13). [In Gen. xxxvi. 6 the [Greek: somata] of the Septuagint is a rendering of the Hebrew _nafshôth_, souls, so Luther translates 'Seelen.']]--a fact, by the way, of which, if he persists in forgetting it, he may be reminded in very unwelcome ways at the last. In Scripture there is another not unfrequent putting of a part for the whole, as when it is said, 'The same day there were added unto them about three thousand _souls_' (Acts ii. 41). 'Hands' here, 'souls' there--the contrast may suggest some profitable reflections. There is another way in which the immorality of words mainly displays itself, and in which they work their worst mischief; that is, when honourable names are given to dishonourable things, when sin is made plausible; arrayed, it may be, in the very colours of goodness, or, if not so, yet in such as go far to conceal its own native deformity. 'The tongue,' as St. James has said, 'is a _world_ of iniquity' (iii. 7); or, as some would render his words, and they are then still more to our purpose, '_the ornament_ of iniquity,' that which sets it out in fair and attractive colours. How much wholesomer on all accounts is it that there should be an ugly word for an ugly thing, one involving moral condemnation and disgust, even at the expense of a little coarseness, rather than one which plays fast and loose with the eternal principles of morality, makes sin plausible, and shifts the divinely reared landmarks of right and wrong, thus bringing the user of it under the woe of them 'that call evil good, and good evil, that put darkness for light, and light for darkness, that put bitter for sweet, and sweet for bitter' (Isai. v. 20). On this text, and with reference to this scheme, South has written four of his grandest sermons, bearing this striking title, _Of the fatal Imposture and Force of Words_. [Footnote: _Sermons_, 1737, vol. ii. pp. 313-351; vol. vi. pp. 3-120. Thus on those who pleaded that their 'honour' was engaged, and that therefore they could not go back from this or that sinful act:--'Honour is indeed a noble thing, and therefore the word which signifies it must needs be very plausible. But as a rich and glistening garment may be cast over a rotten body, so an illustrious commanding word may be put upon a vile and an ugly thing--for words are but the garments, the loose garments of things, and so may easily be put off and on according to the humour of him who bestows them. But the body changes not, though the garments do.'] How awful, yea how fearful, is this 'imposture and force' of theirs, leading men captive at will. There is an atmosphere about them which they are evermore diffusing, a savour of life or of death, which we insensibly inhale at each moral breath we draw. [Footnote: Bacon's words have often been quoted, but they will bear being quoted once more: Credunt enim homines rationem suam verbis imperare. Sed fit etiam ut verba vim suam super intellectum retorqueant et reflectant.] 'Winds of the soul,' as we have already heard them called, they fill its sails, and are continually impelling it upon its course, to heaven or to hell. Thus how different the light in which we shall have learned to regard a sin, according as we have been wont to designate it, and to hear it designated, by a word which brings out its loathsomeness and deformity; or by one which palliates this and conceals; men, as one said of old, being wont for the most part to be ashamed not of base deeds but of base names affixed to those deeds. In the murder trials at Dublin, 1883, those destined to the assassin's knife were spoken of by approvers as persons to be removed, and their death constantly described as their 'removal.' In Sussex it is never said of a man that he is drunk. He may be 'tight,' or 'primed,' or 'crank,' or 'concerned in liquor,' nay, it may even be admitted that he had taken as much liquor as was good for him; but that he was drunk, oh never. [Footnote: 'Pransus' and 'potus,' in like manner, as every Latin scholar knows, mean much more than they say.] Fair words for foul things are everywhere only too frequent; thus in 'drug-damned Italy,' when poisoning was the rifest, nobody was said to be poisoned; it was only that the death of this one or of that had been 'assisted' (aiutata). Worse still are words which seek to turn the edge of the divine threatenings against some sin by a jest; as when in France a subtle poison, by whose aid impatient heirs delivered themselves from those who stood between them and the inheritance which they coveted, was called 'poudre de succession.' We might suppose beforehand that such cloaks for sin would be only found among people in an advanced state of artificial cultivation. But it is not so. Captain Erskine, who visited the Fiji Islands before England had taken them into her keeping, and who gives some extraordinary details of the extent to which cannibalism then prevailed among their inhabitants, pork and human flesh being their two staple articles of food, relates in his deeply interesting record of his voyage that natural pig they called '_short_ pig,' and man dressed and prepared for food, '_long_ pig.' There was doubtless an attempt here to carry off with a jest the revolting character of the practice in which they indulged. For that they were themselves aware of this, that their consciences did bear witness against it, was attested by their uniform desire to conceal, if possible, all traces of the practice from European eyes. But worst, perhaps, of all are names which throw a flimsy veil of sentiment over some sin. What a source, for example, of mischief without end in our country parishes is the one practice of calling a child born out of wedlock a 'love-child,' instead of a bastard. It would be hard to estimate how much it has lowered the tone and standard of morality among us; or for how many young women it may have helped to make the downward way more sloping still. How vigorously ought we to oppose ourselves to all such immoralities of language. This opposition, it is true, will never be easy or pleasant; for many who will endure to commit a sin, will profoundly resent having that sin called by its right name. Pirates, as Aristotle tells us, in his time called themselves 'purveyors.' [Footnote: _Rhet_. iii. 2: [Greek: oi laestai autous poriotas kalousi nun.]] Buccaneers, men of the same bloody trade, were by their own account 'brethren of the coast.' Shakespeare's thieves are only true to human nature, when they name themselves 'St. Nicholas' clerks,' 'michers,' 'nuthooks,' 'minions of the moon,' anything in short but thieves; when they claim for their stealing that it shall not be so named, but only conveying ('convey the wise it call'); the same dislike to look an ugly fact in the face reappearing among the voters in some of our corrupter boroughs, who receive, not bribes--they are hugely indignant if this is imputed to them--but 'head-money' for their votes. Shakespeare indeed has said that a rose by any other name would smell as sweet; but there are some things which are not roses, and which are counted to smell a great deal sweeter being called by any other name than their own. Thus, to deal again with bribes, call a bribe 'palm oil,' or a 'pot de vin,' and how much of its ugliness disappears. Far more moral words are the English 'sharper' and 'blackleg' than the French 'chevalier d'industrie': [Footnote: For the rise of this phrase, see Lemontey, _Louis XIV_. p. 43.] and the same holds good of the English equivalent, coarse as it is, for the Latin 'conciliatrix.' In this last word we have a notable example of the putting of sweet for bitter, of the attempt to present a disgraceful occupation on an amiable, almost a sentimental side, rather than in its own proper deformity. [Footnote: This tendency of men to throw the mantle of an honourable word over a dishonourable thing, or, vice versa, to degrade an honourable thing, when they do not love it, by a dishonourable appellation, has in Greek a word to describe it, [Greek: hypokorizesthai], itself a word with an interesting history; while the great ethical teachers of Greece frequently occupy themselves in detecting and denouncing this most mischievous among all the impostures of words. Thus, when Thucydides (iii. 82) would paint the fearful moral ruin which her great Civil War had wrought, he adduces this alteration of the received value of words, this fitting of false names to everything--names of honour to the base, and of baseness to the honourable--as one of the most remarkable tokens of this, even as it again set forward the evil, of which it had been first the result.] Use and custom soon dim our eyes in such matters as these; else we should be deeply struck by a familiar instance of this falsehood in names, one which perhaps has never struck us at all--I mean the profane appropriation of 'eau de vie' (water of life), a name borrowed from some of the Saviour's most precious promises (John iv. 14; Rev. xxii. 17), to a drink which the untutored savage with a truer instinct has named 'fire-water'; which, sad to say, is known in Tahiti as 'British water'; and which has proved for thousands and tens of thousands, in every clime, not 'water of life,' but the fruitful source of disease, crime, and madness, bringing forth first these, and when these are finished, bringing forth death. There is a blasphemous irony in this appropriation of the language of heaven to that which, not indeed in its use, but too frequent abuse, is the instrument of hell, that is almost without a parallel. [Footnote: Milton in a profoundly instructive letter, addressed by him to one of the friends whom he made during his Italian tour, encourages him in those philological studies to which he had devoted his life by such words as these: Neque enim qui sermo, purusne an corruptus, quaeve loquendi proprietas quotidiana populo sit, parvi interesse arbitrandum est, quae res Athenis non semel saluti fuit; immo vero, quod Platonis sententia est, immutato vestiendi more habituque graves in Republica motus mutationesque portendi, equidem potius collabente in vitium atque errorem loquendi usu occasum ejus urbis remque humilem et obscuram subsequi crediderim: verba enim partim inscita et putida, partim mendosa et perperam prolata, quid si ignavos et oscitantes et ad servile quidvis jam olim paratos incolarum animos haud levi indicio declarant? Contra nullum unquam audivimus imperium, nullam civitatem non mediocriter saltern floruisse, quamdiu linguae sua gratia, suusque cultus constitit. Compare an interesting Epistle (the 114th) of Seneca.] If I wanted any further evidence of this, the moral atmosphere which words diffuse, I would ask you to observe how the first thing men do, when engaged in controversy with others, be it in the conflict of the tongue or the pen, or of weapons more wounding yet, if such there be, is ever to assume some honourable name to themselves, such as, if possible, shall beg the whole subject in dispute, and at the same time to affix on their adversaries a name which shall place them in a ridiculous or contemptible or odious light. [Footnote: See p. 33.] A deep instinct, deeper perhaps than men give any account of to themselves, tells them how far this will go; that multitudes, utterly unable to weigh the arguments on one side or the other, will yet be receptive of the influences which these words are evermore, however imperceptibly, diffusing. By argument they might hope to gain over the reason of a few, but by help of these nicknames they enlist what at first are so much more potent, the prejudices and passions of the many, on their side. Thus when at the breaking out of our Civil War the Parliamentary party styled _themselves_ 'The Godly,' while to the Royalists they gave the title of 'The Malignants,' it is certain that, wherever they could procure entrance and allowance for these terms, the question upon whose side the right lay was already decided. The Royalists, it is true, made exactly the same employment of what Bentham used to call question-begging words, of words steeped quite as deeply in the passions which animated _them_. It was much when at Florence the 'Bad Boys,' as they defiantly called themselves, were able to affix on the followers of Savonarola the title of Piagnoni or The Snivellers. So, too, the Franciscans, when they nicknamed the Dominicans 'Maculists,' as denying, or at all events refusing to affirm as a matter of faith, that the Blessed Virgin was conceived without stain (sine macula), perfectly knew that this title would do much to put their rivals in an odious light. The copperhead in America is a peculiarly venomous snake. Something effectual was done when this name was fastened, as it lately was, by one party in America on its political opponents. Not otherwise, in some of our northern towns, the workmen who refuse to join a trade union are styled 'knobsticks,' 'crawlers,' 'scabs,' 'blacklegs.' Nor can there be any question of the potent influence which these nicknames of contempt and scorn exert. [Footnote: [See interesting chapter on Political Nicknames in D'Israeli's _Curiosities of Literature_.]] Seeing, then, that language contains so faithful a record of the good and of the evil which in time past have been working in the minds and hearts of men, we shall not err, if we regard it as a moral barometer indicating and permanently marking the rise or fall of a nation's life. To study a people's language will be to study _them_, and to study them at best advantage; there, where they present themselves to us under fewest disguises, most nearly as they are. Too many have had a hand in the language as it now is, and in bringing it to the shape in which we find it, it is too entirely the collective work of a whole people, the result of the united contributions of all, it obeys too immutable laws, to allow any successful tampering with it, any making of it to witness to any other than the actual facts of the case. [Footnote: Terrien Poncel, _Du Langage_, p. 231: Les langues sont faites à l'usage des peuples qui les parlent; elles sont animées chacune d'un esprit différent, et suivent un mode particulier d'action, conforme à leur principe. 'L'esprit d'une nation et le caractère de sa langue, a écrit G. de Humboldt, 'sont si intimement liés ensemble, que si l'un était donné, l'autre devrait pouvoir s'en déduire exactement.' La langue n'est autre chose que la manifestation extérieure de l'esprit des peuples; leur langue est leur esprit, et leur esprit est leur langue, de telle sorte qu'en devéloppant et perfectionnant l'un, ils développent et perfectionnent nécessairement l'autre. And a recent German writer has well said, Die Sprache, das selbstgewebte Kleid der Vorstellung, in welchem jeder Faden wieder eine Vorstellung ist, kann uns, richtig betrachtet, offenbaren, welche Vorstellungen die Grundfaden bildeten (Gerber, _Die Sprache als Kunst_).] Thus the frivolity of an age or nation, its mockery of itself, its inability to comprehend the true dignity and meaning of life, the feebleness of its moral indignation against evil, all this will find an utterance in the employment of solemn and earnest words in senses comparatively trivial or even ridiculous. 'Gehenna,' that word of such terrible significance on the lips of our Lord, has in French issued in 'gêne,' and in this shape expresses no more than a slight and petty annoyance. 'Ennui' meant once something very different from what now it means. [Footnote: _Ennui_ is derived from the Late Latin phrase _in odio esse_.] Littré gives as its original signification, 'anguish of soul, caused by the death of persons beloved, by their absence, by the shipwreck of hopes, by any misfortunes whatever.' 'Honnêteté,' which should mean that virtue of all virtues, honesty, and which did mean it once, standing as it does now for external civility and for nothing more, marks a willingness to accept the slighter observances and pleasant courtesies of society in the room of deeper moral qualities. 'Vérité' is at this day so worn out, has been used so often where another and very different word would have been more appropriate, that not seldom a Frenchman at this present who would fain convince us of the truth of his communication finds it convenient to assure us that it is 'la vraie vérité.' Neither is it well that words, which ought to have been reserved for the highest mysteries of the spiritual life, should be squandered on slight and secular objects,--'spirituel' itself is an example in point,--or that words implying once the deepest moral guilt, as is the case with 'perfide,' 'malice,' 'malin,' in French, should be employed now almost in honour, applied in jest and in play. Often a people's use of some single word will afford us a deeper insight into their real condition, their habits of thought and feeling, than whole volumes written expressly with the intention of imparting this insight. Thus 'idiot,' a Greek word, is abundantly characteristic of Greek life. The 'idiot,' or [Greek: idiotas], was originally the _private_ man, as contradistinguished from one clothed with office, and taking his share in the management of public affairs. In this its primary sense it was often used in the English of the seventeenth century; as when Jeremy Taylor says, 'Humility is a duty in great ones, as well as in _idiots_.' It came then to signify a rude, ignorant, unskilled, intellectually unexercised person, a boor; this derived or secondary sense bearing witness to a conviction woven deep into the Greek mind that contact with public life, and more or less of participation in it, was indispensable even to the right development of the intellect, [Footnote: Hare, _Mission of the Comforter_, p. 552.] a conviction which would scarcely have uttered itself with greater clearness than it does in this secondary use of 'idiot.' Our tertiary, in which the 'idiot' is one deficient in intellect, not merely with intellectual powers unexercised, is only this secondary pushed a little farther. Once more, how wonderfully characteristic of the Greek mind it is that the language should have one and the same word ([Greek: kalos]), to express the beautiful and the good--goodness being thus contemplated as the highest beauty; while over against this stands another word ([Greek: aischros]) used alike for the ugly to look at and for the morally bad. Again, the innermost differences between the Greek and the Hebrew reveal themselves in the several salutations of each, in the 'Rejoice' of the first, as contrasted with the 'Peace' of the second. The clear, cheerful, world-enjoying temper of the Greek embodies itself in the first; he could desire nothing better or higher for himself, nor wish it for his friend, than to have _joy_ in his life. But the Hebrew had a deeper longing within him, and one which finds utterance in his 'Peace.' It is not hard to perceive why this latter people should have been chosen as the first bearers of that truth which indeed enables truly to _rejoice_, but only through first bringing _peace_; nor why from them the word of life should first go forth. It may be urged, indeed, that these were only forms, and such they may have at length become; as in our 'good-by' or 'adieu' we can hardly be said now to commit our friend to the Divine protection; yet still they were not forms at the beginning, nor would they have held their ground, if ever they had become such altogether. How much, again, will be sometimes involved in the gradual disuse of one name, and the coming up of another in its room. Thus, little as the fact, and the moral significance of the fact, may have been noticed at the time, what an epoch was it in the history of the Papacy, and with what distinctness marking a more thorough secularizing of its whole tone and spirit, when '_Ecclesia_ Romana,' the official title by which it was wont at an earlier day to designate itself, gave place to the later title, '_Curia_ Romana,' the Roman _Church_ making room for the Roman _Court_. [Footnote: See on this matter _The Pope and the Council_, by Janus, p. 215.] The modifications of meaning which a word has undergone as it had been transplanted from one soil to another, so that one nation borrowing it from another, has brought into it some force foreign to it before, has deepened, or extenuated, or otherwise modified its meaning,--this may reveal to us, as perhaps nothing else would, fundamental diversities of character existing between them. The word in Greek exactly corresponding to our 'self-sufficient' is one of honour, and was applied to men in their praise. And indeed it was the glory of the heathen philosophy to teach man to find his resources in his own bosom, to be thus sufficient for himself; and seeing that a true centre without him and above him, a centre in God, had not been revealed to him, it was no shame for him to seek it there; far better this than to have no centre at all. But the Gospel has taught us another lesson, to find our sufficiency in God: and thus 'self- sufficient,' to the Greek suggesting no lack of modesty, of humility, or of any good thing, at once suggests such to us. 'Self-sufficiency' no man desires now to be attributed to him. The word carries for us its own condemnation; and its different uses, for honour once, for reproach now, do in fact ground themselves on the innermost differences between the religious condition of the world before Christ and after. It was not well with Italy, she might fill the world with exquisite specimens of her skill in the arts, with pictures and statues of rarest loveliness, but all higher national life was wanting to her during those centuries in which she degraded 'virtuoso,' or the virtuous man, to signify one skilled in the appreciation of painting, music, and sculpture; for these, the ornamental fringe of a people's life, can never, without loss of all manliness of character, be its main texture and woof--not to say that excellence in them has been too often dissociated from all true virtue and moral worth. The opposite exaggeration of the Romans, for whom 'virtus' meant predominantly warlike courage, the truest 'manliness' of men, was more tolerable than this; for there is a sense in which a man's 'valour' is his value, is the measure of his worth; seeing that no virtue can exist among men who have not learned, in Milton's glorious phrase,' to hate the cowardice of doing wrong.' [Footnote: It did not escape Plutarch, imperfect Latin scholar as he was, that 'virtus' far more nearly corresponded to [Greek: andreia] than to [Greek: arete] (_Coriol. I_)] It could not but be morally ill with a people among whom 'morbidezza' was used as an epithet of praise, expressive of a beauty which on the score of its sickly softness demanded to be admired. There was too sure a witness here for the decay of moral strength and health, when these could not merely be dissevered from beauty, but implicitly put in opposition to it. Nor less must it have fared ill with Italians, there was little joy and little pride which they could have felt in their country, at a time when 'pellegrino,' meaning properly the strange or the foreign, came to be of itself a word of praise, and equivalent to beautiful. [Footnote: Compare Florio's Ital. Diet.: 'pelegrino, excellent, noble, rare, pregnant, singular and choice.'] Far better the pride and assumption of that ancient people who called all things and persons beyond their own pale barbarous and barbarians; far better our own 'outlandish,' used with something of the same contempt. There may be a certain intolerance in our use of these; yet this how much healthier than so far to have fallen out of conceit with one's own country, so far to affect things foreign, that these last, merely on the strength of being foreign, commend themselves as beautiful in our sight. How little, again, the Italians, until quite later years, can have lived in the spirit of their ancient worthies, or reverenced the most illustrious among these, we may argue from the fact that they should have endured so far to degrade the name of one among their noblest, that every glib and loquacious hireling who shows strangers about their picture- galleries, palaces, and ruins, is called 'cicerone,' or a Cicero! It is unfortunate that terms like these, having once sprung up, are not again, or are not easily again, got rid of. They remain, testifying to an ignoble past, and in some sort helping to maintain it, long after the temper and tone of mind that produced them has passed away. [Footnote: See on this matter Marsh, _On the English Language_, New York, 1860, p. 224.] Happily it is nearly impossible for us in England to understand the mingled scorn, hatred, fear, suspicion, contempt, which in time past were associated with the word 'sbirri' in Italian. [Footnote: [Compare V. Hugo's allusion to Louis Napoleon in the _Châtiments_: 'Qui pour la mettre en croix livra, _Sbire_ cruel! Rome républicaine à Rome catholique!']] These 'sbirri' were the humble, but with all this the acknowledged, ministers of justice; while yet everything which is mean and false and oppressive, which can make the name of justice hateful, was implied in this title of theirs, was associated with their name. There is no surer sign of a bad oppressive rule, than when the titles of the administrators of law, titles which should be in themselves so honourable, thus acquire a hateful undermeaning. What a world of concussions, chicane and fraud, must have found place, before tax- gatherer, or exciseman, 'publican,' as in our English Bible, could become a word steeped in hatred and scorn, as alike for Greek and Jew it was; while, on the other hand, however unwelcome the visits of the one or the interference of the other may be to us, yet the sense of the entire fairness and justice with which their exactions are made, acquits these names for us of the slightest sense of dishonour. 'Policeman' has no evil subaudition with us; though in the last century, when a Jonathan Wild was possible, 'catchpole,' a word in Wiclif's time of no dishonour at all, was abundantly tinged with this scorn and contempt. So too, if at this day any accidental profits fall or 'escheat' to the Crown, they are levied with so much fairness and more than fairness to the subject, that, were not the thing already accomplished, 'escheat' would never yield 'cheat,' nor 'escheator' 'cheater,' as through the extortions and injustices for which these dues were formerly a pretext, they actually have done. It is worse, as marking that a still holier sanctuary than that of civil government has become profane in men's sight, when words which express sacred functions and offices become redolent of scorn. How thankful we may be that in England we have no equivalent to the German 'Pfaffe,' which, identical with 'papa' and 'pope,' and a name given at first to any priest, now carries with it the insinuation of almost every unworthiness in the forms of meanness, servility, and avarice which can render the priest's office and person base and contemptible. Much may be learned by noting the words which nations have been obliged to borrow from other nations, as not having the same of home-growth-- this in most cases, if not in all, testifying that the thing itself was not native, but an exotic, transplanted, like the word that indicated it, from a foreign soil. Thus it is singularly characteristic of the social and political life of England, as distinguished from that of the other European nations, that to it alone the word 'club' belongs; France and Germany, having been alike unable to grow a word of their own, have borrowed ours. That England should have been the birthplace of 'club' is nothing wonderful; for these voluntary associations of men for the furthering of such social or political ends as are near to the hearts of the associates could have only had their rise under such favourable circumstances as ours. In no country where there was not extreme personal freedom could they have sprung up; and as little in any where men did not know how to use this freedom with moderation and self-restraint, could they long have been endured. It was comparatively easy to adopt the word; but the ill success of the 'club' itself everywhere save here where it is native, has shown that it was not so easy to transplant or, having transplanted, to acclimatize the thing. While we have lent this and other words, political and industrial for the most part, to the French and Germans, it would not be less instructive, if time allowed, to trace our corresponding obligations to them. And scarcely less significant and instructive than the presence of a word in a language, will be occasionally its absence. Thus Fronto, a Greek orator in Roman times, finds evidence of an absence of strong family affection on the part of the Romans in the absence of any word in the Latin language corresponding to the Greek [Greek: philostorgos] How curious, from the same point of view, are the conclusions which Cicero in his high Roman fashion draws from the absence of any word in the Greek answering to the Latin 'ineptus'; not from this concluding, as we might have anticipated, that the character designated by the word was wanting, but rather that the fault was so common, so universal with the Greeks, that they failed to recognize it as a fault at all. [Footnote: _De Orat_. ii. 4: Quem enim nos _ineptum_ vocamus, is mihi videtur ab hoc nomen habere ductum, quod non sit aptus. Idque in sermonis nostri consuetudine perlate patet. Nam qui aut tempus quid postulet, non videt, aut plura loquitur, aut se ostentat, aut eorum quibuscum est vel dignitatis vel commodi rationem non habet, aut denique in aliquo genere aut inconcinnus aut multus est, is ineptus esse dicitur. Hoc vitio cumulata est eruditissima illa Graecorum natio. Itaque quod vim hujus mali Graeci non vident, ne nomen quidem ei vitio imposuerunt. Ut enim quasras omnia, quomodo Graeci ineptum appellent, non invenies.] Very instructive you may find it to note these words, which one people possess, but to which others have nothing to correspond, so that they have no choice but to borrow these, or else to go without altogether. Here are some French words for which it would not be easy, nay, in most cases it would be impossible, to find exact equivalents in English or in German, or probably in any language: 'aplomb,' 'badinage,' 'borné,' 'chic,' 'chicane,' 'cossu,' 'coterie,' 'égarement,' 'élan,' 'espièglerie,' 'etourderie,' 'friponnerie,' 'gentil,' 'ingénue,' 'liaison,' 'malice,' 'parvenu,' 'persiflage,' 'prévenant,' 'ruse,' 'tournure,' 'tracasserie,' 'verve.' It is evident that the words just named have to do with shades of thought which are to a great extent unfamiliar to us; for which, at any rate, we have not found a name, have hardly felt that they needed one. But fine and subtle as in many instances are the thoughts which these words embody, there are deeper thoughts struggling in the bosom of a people, who have devised for themselves such words as the following: 'gemüth,' 'heimweh,' 'innigkeit,' 'sehnsucht,' 'tiefsinn,' 'sittsamkeit,' 'verhängniss,' 'weltschmerz,' 'zucht'; all these being German words which, in a similar manner, partially or wholly fail to find their equivalents in French. The petty spite which unhappily so often reigns between nations dwelling side by side with one another, as it embodies itself in many shapes, so it finds vent in the words which they borrow from one another, and the use to which they put them. Thus the French, borrowing 'hablár' from the Spaniards, with whom it means simply to speak, give it in 'hâbler' the sense of to brag; the Spaniards paying them off in exactly their own coin, for of 'parler' which in like manner is but to speak in French, they make 'parlár,' which means to prate, to chat. [Footnote: See Darmesteter, _The Life of Words_, Eng. ed. p. 100.] But it is time to bring this lecture to an end. These illustrations, to which it would be easy to add more, justify all that has been asserted of a moral element existing in words; so that they do not hold themselves neutral in that great conflict between good and evil, light and darkness, which is dividing the world; that they are not satisfied to be passionless vehicles, now of the truth, and now of lies. We see, on the contrary, that they continually take their side, are some of them children of light, others children of this world, or even of darkness; they beat with the pulses of our life; they stir with our passions; we clothe them with light; we steep them in scorn; they receive from us the impressions of our good and of our evil, which again they are most active still further to propagate and diffuse. [Footnote: Two or three examples of what we have been affirming, drawn from the Latin, may fitly here find place. Thus Cicero (_Tusc_. iii. 7) laments of 'confidens' that it should have acquired an evil signification, and come to mean bold, over-confident in oneself, unduly pushing (compare Virgil,_Georg_. iv. 444), a meaning which little by little had been superinduced on the word, but etymologically was not inherent in it at all. In the same way 'latro,' having left two earlier meanings behind, one of these current so late as in Virgil (_Aen_. xii. 7), settles down at last in the meaning of robber. Not otherwise 'facinus' begins with being simply a fact or act, something done; but ends with being some act of outrageous wickedness. 'Pronuba' starts with meaning a bridesmaid it ignobly ends with suggesting a procuress.] Must we not own then that there is a wondrous and mysterious world, of which we may hitherto have taken too little account, around us and about us? Is there not something very solemn and very awful in wielding such an instrument as this of language is, with such power to wound or to heal, to kill or to make alive? and may not a deeper meaning than hitherto we have attached to it, lie in that saying, 'By thy words thou shalt be justified, and by thy words thou shalt be condemned'? LECTURE IV. ON THE HISTORY IN WORDS. Language, being ever in flux and flow, and, for nations to which letters are still strange, existing only for the ear and as a sound, we might beforehand expect would prove the least trustworthy of all vehicles whereby the knowledge of the past has reached our present; that one which would most certainly betray its charge. In actual fact it has not proved so at all. It is the main, oftentimes the only, connecting link between the two, an ark riding above the water-floods that have swept away or submerged every other landmark and memorial of bygone ages and vanished generations of men. Far beyond all written records in a language, the language itself stretches back, and offers itself for our investigation--'the pedigree of nations,' as Johnson calls it [Footnote: This statement of his must be taken with a certain amount of qualification. It is not always that races are true to the end to their language; external forces are sometimes too strong. Thus Celtic disappeared before Latin in Gaul and Spain. Slavonic became extinct in Prussia two centuries ago, German taking its room; the negroes of Hayti speak French, and various American tribes have exchanged their own idioms for Spanish and Portuguese. See upon this matter Sayce's _Principles of Comparative Philology_, pp. 175-181.]-- itself in its own independent existence a far older and at the same time a far more instructive document than any book, inscription, or other writing which employs it. The written records may have been falsified by carelessness, by vanity, by fraud, by a multitude of causes; but language never deceives, if only we know how to question it aright. Such investigations as these, it is true, lie plainly out of your sphere. Not so, however, those humbler yet not less interesting inquiries, which by the aid of any tolerable dictionary you may carry on into the past history of your own land, as attested by the present language of its people. You know how the geologist is able from the different strata and deposits, primary, secondary, or tertiary, succeeding one another, which he meets, to arrive at a knowledge of the successive physical changes through which a region has passed; is, so to say, in a condition to preside at those past changes, to measure the forces that were at work to produce them, and almost to indicate their date. Now with such a language as the English before us, bearing as it does the marks and footprints of great revolutions profoundly impressed upon it, we may carry on moral and historical researches precisely analogous to his. Here too are strata and deposits, not of gravel and chalk, sandstone and limestone, but of Celtic, Latin, Low German, Danish, Norman words, and then once more Latin and French, with slighter intrusions from many other quarters: and any one with skill to analyse the language might, up to a certain point, re-create for himself the history of the people speaking that language, might with tolerable accuracy appreciate the diverse elements out of which that people was made up, in what proportion these were mingled, and in what succession they followed, one upon the other. Would he trace, for example, the relation in which the English and Norman occupants of this land stood to one another? An account of this, in the main as accurate as it would be certainly instructive, might be drawn from an intelligent study of the contributions which they have severally made to the English language, as bequeathed to us jointly by them both. Supposing all other records to have perished, we might still work out and almost reconstruct the history by these aids; even as now, when so many documents, so many institutions survive, this must still be accounted the most important, and that of which the study will introduce us, as no other can, into the innermost heart and life of large periods of our history. Nor, indeed, is it hard to see why the language must contain such instruction as this, when we a little realize to ourselves the stages by which it has reached us in its present shape. There was a time when the languages which the English and the Norman severally spoke, existed each by the side of, but un-mingled with, the other; one, that of the small dominant class, the other that of the great body of the people. By degrees, however, with the reconciliation and partial fusion of the two races, the two languages effected a transaction; one indeed prevailed over the other, but at the same time received a multitude of the words of that other into its own bosom. At once there would exist duplicates for many things. But as in popular speech two words will not long exist side by side to designate the same thing, it became a question how the relative claims of the English and Norman word should adjust themselves, which should remain, which should be dropped; or, if not dropped, should be transferred to some other object, or express some other relation. It is not of course meant that this was ever formally proposed, or as something to be settled by agreement; but practically one was to be taken and one left. Which was it that should maintain its ground? Evidently, where a word was often on the lips of one race, its equivalent seldom on those of the other, where it intimately cohered with the whole manner of life of one, was only remotely in contact with that of the other, where it laid strong hold on one, and only slight on the other, the issue could not be doubtful. In several cases the matter was simpler still: it was not that one word expelled the other, or that rival claims had to be adjusted; but that there never had existed more than one word, the thing which that word noted having been quite strange to the other section of the nation. Here is the explanation of the assertion made just now--namely, that we might almost reconstruct our history, so far as it turns upon the Norman Conquest, by an analysis of our present language, a mustering of its words in groups, and a close observation of the nature and character of those which the two races have severally contributed to it. Thus we should confidently conclude that the Norman was the ruling race, from the noticeable fact that all the words of dignity, state, honour, and pre-eminence, with one remarkable exception (to be adduced presently), descend to us from them--'sovereign,' 'sceptre,' 'throne,' 'realm,' 'royalty,' 'homage,' 'prince,' 'duke,' 'count,' ('earl' indeed is Scandinavian, though he must borrow his 'countess' from the Norman), 'chancellor,' 'treasurer,' 'palace,' 'castle,' 'dome,' and a multitude more. At the same time the one remarkable exception of 'king' would make us, even did we know nothing of the actual facts, suspect that the chieftain of this ruling race came in not upon a new title, not as overthrowing a former dynasty, but claiming to be in the rightful line of its succession; that the true continuity of the nation had not, in fact any more than in word, been entirely broken, but survived, in due time to assert itself anew. And yet, while the statelier superstructure of the language, almost all articles of luxury, all having to do with the chase, with chivalry, with personal adornment, are Norman throughout; with the broad basis of the language, and therefore of the life, it is otherwise. The great features of nature, sun, moon, and stars, earth, water, and fire; the divisions of time; three out of the four seasons, spring, summer, and winter; the features of natural scenery, the words used in earliest childhood, the simpler emotions of the mind; all the prime social relations, father, mother, husband, wife, son, daughter, brother, sister,--these are of native growth and un-borrowed. 'Palace' and 'castle' may have reached us from the Norman, but to the Saxon we owe far dearer names, the 'house,' the 'roof,' the 'home,' the 'hearth.' His 'board' too, and often probably it was no more, has a more hospitable sound than the 'table' of his lord. His sturdy arms turn the soil; he is the 'boor,' the 'hind,' the 'churl'; or if his Norman master has a name for him, it is one which on his lips becomes more and more a title of opprobrium and contempt, the 'villain.' The instruments used in cultivating the earth, the 'plough,' the 'share,' the 'rake,' the 'scythe,' the 'harrow,' the 'wain,' the 'sickle,' the 'spade,' the 'sheaf,' the 'barn,' are expressed in his language; so too the main products of the earth, as wheat, rye, oats, bere, grass, flax, hay, straw, weeds; and no less the names of domestic animals. You will remember, no doubt, how in the matter of these Wamba, the Saxon jester in _Ivanhoe_, plays the philologer, [Footnote: Wallis, in his _Grammar_, p. 20, had done so before.] having noted that the names of almost all animals, so long as they are alive, are Saxon, but when dressed and prepared for food become Norman--a fact, he would intimate, not very wonderful; for the Saxon hind had the charge and labour of tending and feeding them, but only that they might appear on the table of his Norman lord. Thus 'ox,' 'steer,' 'cow,' are Saxon, but 'beef' Norman; 'calf' is Saxon, but 'veal' Norman; 'sheep' is Saxon, but 'mutton' Norman: so it is severally with 'swine' and 'pork,' 'deer' and 'venison,' 'fowl' and 'pullet.' 'Bacon,' the only flesh which perhaps ever came within the hind's reach, is the single exception. Putting all this together, with much more of the same kind, which has only been indicated here, we should certainly gather, that while there are manifest tokens preserved in our language of the Saxon having been for a season an inferior and even an oppressed race, the stable elements of English life, however overlaid for a while, had still made good their claim to be the solid groundwork of the after nation as of the after language; and to the justice of this conclusion all other historic records, and the present social condition of England, consent in bearing witness. Then again, who could doubt, even if the fact were not historically attested, that the Arabs were the arithmeticians, the astronomers, the chemists, the merchants of the Middle Ages, when he had once noted that from them we have gotten these words and so many others like them- 'alchemy,' 'alcohol,' 'alembic,' 'algebra,' 'alkali,' 'almanack,' 'azimuth,' 'cypher,' 'elixir,' 'magazine,' 'nadir,' 'tariff,' 'zenith,' 'zero '?--for if one or two of these were originally Greek, they reached us through the Arabic, and with tokens of their transit cleaving to them. In like manner, even though history were silent on the matter, we might conclude, and we know that we should rightly conclude, that the origins of the monastic system are to be sought in the Greek and not in the Latin branch of the Church, seeing that with hardly an exception the words expressing the constituent elements of the system, as 'anchorite,' 'archimandrite,' 'ascetic,' 'cenobite,' 'hermit,' 'monastery,' 'monk,' are Greek and not Latin. But the study of words will throw rays of light upon a past infinitely more remote than any which I have suggested here, will reveal to us secrets of the past, which else must have been lost to us for ever. Thus it must be a question of profound interest for as many as count the study of man to be far above every other study, to ascertain what point of culture that Indo-European race of which we come, the _stirps generosa et historica_ of the world, as Coleridge has called it, had attained, while it was dwelling still as one family in its common home. No voices of history, the very faintest voices of tradition, reach us from ages so far removed from our own. But in the silence of all other voices there is one voice which makes itself heard, and which can tell us much. Where Indian, and Greek, and Latin, and Teutonic designate some object by the same word, and where it can be clearly shown that they did not, at a later day, borrow that word one from the other, the object, we may confidently conclude, must have been familiar to the Indo-European race, while yet these several groups of it dwelt as one undivided family together. Now they have such common words for the chief domestic animals--for ox, for sheep, for horse, for dog, for goose, and for many more. From this we have a right to gather that before the migrations began, they had overlived and outgrown the fishing and hunting stages of existence, and entered on the pastoral. They have _not_ all the same words for the main products of the earth, as for corn, wheat, barley, wine; it is tolerably evident therefore that they had not entered on the agricultural stage. So too from the absence of names in common for the principal metals, we have a right to argue that they had not arrived at a knowledge of the working of these. On the other hand, identical names for dress, for house, for door, for garden, for numbers as far as a hundred, for the primary relations of the family, as father, mother, brother, sister, son, daughter, for the Godhead, testify that the common stock, intellectual and moral, was not small which they severally took with them when they went their way, each to set up for itself and work out its own destinies in its own appointed region of the earth. [Footnote: See Brugmann, _Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen_ (1886), Section 2.] This common stock may, indeed, have been much larger than these investigations declare; for a word, once common to all these languages, may have survived only in one; or possibly may have perished in all. Larger it may very well, but poorer it cannot, have been. [Footnote: Ozanam (_Les Germains avant le Christianisme_, p. 155): Dans le vocabulaire d'une langue on a tout le spectacle d'une civilisation. On y voit ce qu'un peuple sait des choses invisibles, si les notions de Dieu, de l'âme, du devoir, sont assez pures chez lui pour ne souffrir que des termes exacts. On mesure la puissance de ses institutions par le nombre et la propriété des termes qu'elles veulent pour leur service; la liturgie a ses paroles sacramentelles, la procédure a ses formules. Enfin, si ce peuple a étudié la nature, il faut voir à quel point il en a pénétré les secrets, par quelle variété d'expressions, par quels sons flatteurs ou énergiques, il a cherché à décrire les divers aspects du ciel et de la terre, à faire, pour ainsi dire, l'inventaire des richesses temporelles dont il dispose.] This is one way in which words, by their presence or their absence, may teach us history which else we now can never know. I pass to other ways. There are vast harvests of historic lore garnered often in single words; important facts which they at once proclaim and preserve; these too such as sometimes have survived nowhere else but in them. How much history lies in the word 'church.' I see no sufficient reason to dissent from those who derive it from the Greek [Greek: kyriakae], 'that which pertains to the Lord,' or 'the house which is the Lord's.' It is true that a difficulty meets us at the threshold here. How explain the presence of a Greek word in the vocabulary of our Teutonic forefathers? for that _we_ do not derive it immediately from the Greek, is certain. What contact, direct or indirect, between the languages will account for this? The explanation is curious. While Angles, Saxons, and other tribes of the Teutonic stock were almost universally converted through contact with the Latin Church in the western provinces of the Roman Empire, or by its missionaries, some Goths on the Lower Danube had been brought at an earlier date to the knowledge of Christ by Greek missionaries from Constantinople; and this [Greek: kyriakae] or 'church,' did, with certain other words, pass over from the Greek to the Gothic tongue; these Goths, the first converted and the first therefore with a Christian vocabulary, lending the word in their turn to the other German tribes, to our Anglo-Saxon forefathers among the rest; and by this circuit it has come round from Constantinople to us. [Footnote: The passage most illustrative of the parentage of the word is from Walafrid Strabo (about A.D. 840): Ab ipsis autem Graecis Kyrch à Kyrios, et alia multa accepimus. Sicut domus Dei Basilica, i.e. Regia à Rege, sic etiam Kyrica, i.e. Dominica à Domino, nuncupatur. Si autem quaeritur, quâ occasione ad nos vestigia haec graecitatis advenerint, dicendum praecipuè à Gothis, qui et Getae, cùm eo tempore, quo ad fidem Christi perducti sunt, in Graecorum provinciis commorantes, nostrum, i.e. theotiscum sermonem habuerint. Cf. Rudolf von Raumer, _Einwirkung des Christenthums auf die Althochdeutsche Sprache_, p. 288; Niedner, _Kirch. Geschichte_, p. 2. [It may, however, be as well to remark that no trace of the Greek [Greek: kyriakae] occurs in the literary remains of the Gothic language which have come down to us; the Gothic Christians borrowed [Greek: ekklaesia], as the Latin and Celtic Christians did.]] Or again, interrogate 'pagan' and 'paganism,' and you will find important history in them. You are aware that 'pagani,' derived from 'pagus,' a village, had at first no religious significance, but designated the dwellers in hamlets and villages as distinguished from the inhabitants of towns and cities. It was, indeed, often applied to _all_ civilians as contradistinguished from the military caste; and this fact may have had a certain influence, when the idea of the faithful as soldiers of Christ was strongly realized in the minds of men. But it was mainly in the following way that it grew to be a name for those alien from the faith of Christ. The Church fixed itself first in the seats and centres of intelligence, in the towns and cities of the Roman Empire; in them its earliest triumphs were won; while, long after these had accepted the truth, heathen superstitions and idolatries lingered on in the obscure hamlets and villages; so that 'pagans' or villagers, came to be applied to _all_ the remaining votaries of the old and decayed superstitions, although not all, but only most of them, were such. In an edict of the Emperor Valentinian, of date A.D. 368, 'pagan' first assumes this secondary meaning. 'Heathen' has run a course curiously similar. When the Christian faith first found its way into Germany, it was the wild dwellers on the _heaths_ who were the slowest to accept it, the last probably whom it reached. One hardly expects an etymology in _Piers Plowman_; but this is there: '_Hethene_ is to mene after _heth_, And untiled erthe.' B. 15, 451, Skeat's ed. (Clarendon Press). Here, then, are two instructive notices--one, the historic fact that the Church of Christ planted itself first in the haunts of learning and intelligence; another, morally more significant, that it did not shun discussion, feared not to encounter the wit and wisdom of this world, or to expose its claims to the searching examination of educated men; but, on the contrary, had its claims first recognized by them, and in the great cities of the world won first a complete triumph over all opposing powers. [Footnote: There is a good note on 'pagan' in Gibbon's _Decline and Fall_, c. 21, at the end; and in Grimm's _Deutsche Mythol_. p. 1198; and the history of the changes in the word's use is well traced in another interest by Mill, _Logic_, vol. ii. p. 271.] I quoted in my first lecture the saying of one who, magnifying the advantage to be derived from such studies as ours, did not fear to affirm that oftentimes more might be learned from the history of a word than from the history of a campaign. Thus follow some Latin word,. 'imperator' for example; as Dean Merivale has followed it in his _History of the Romans_, [Footnote: Vol. iii. pp. 441-452.] and you will own as much. But there is no need to look abroad. Words of our own out of number, such as 'barbarous,' 'benefice,' 'clerk,' 'common-sense,' 'romance,' 'sacrament,' 'sophist,' [Footnote: For a history of 'sophist' see Sir Alexander Grant's _Ethics of Aristotle_, 2nd ed. vol. i. p. 106, sqq.] would prove the truth of the assertion. Let us take 'sacrament'; its history, while it carries us far, will yet carry us by ways full of instruction; and these not the less instructive, while we restrict our inquiries to the external history of the word. We find ourselves first among the forms of Roman law. The 'sacramentum' appears there as the deposit or pledge, which in certain suits plaintiff and defendant were alike bound to make, and whereby they engaged themselves to one another; the loser of the suit forfeiting his pledge to sacred temple uses, from which fact the name 'sacramentum,' or thing consecrated, was first derived. The word, as next employed, plants us amidst the military affairs of Rome, designating the military oath by which the Roman soldiers mutually engaged themselves at the first enlisting never to desert their standards, or turn their backs upon the enemy, or abandon their general,--this employment teaching us the sacredness which the Romans attached to their military engagements, and going far to account for their victories. The word was then transferred from this military oath to any solemn oath whatsoever. These three stages 'sacramentum' had already passed through, before the Church claimed it for her own, or indeed herself existed at all. Her early writers, out of a sense of the sacredness and solemnity of the oath, transferred this name to almost any act of special solemnity or sanctity, above all to such mysteries as intended more than met eye or ear. For them the Incarnation was a 'sacrament,' the lifting up of the brazen serpent was a 'sacrament,' the giving of the manna, and many things more. It is well to be acquainted with this phase of the word's history, depriving as it does of all convincing power those passages quoted by Roman Catholic controversialists from early church-writers in proof of their seven sacraments. It is quite true that these may have called marriage a 'sacrament' and confirmation a 'sacrament,' and we may reach the Roman seven without difficulty; but then they called many things more, which even the theologians of Rome do not include in the 'sacraments' properly so called, by the same name; and this evidence, proving too much, in fact proves nothing at all. One other stage in the word's history remains; its limitation, namely, to the two 'sacraments,' properly so called, of the Christian Church. A reminiscence of the employment of 'sacrament,' an employment which still survived, to signify the plighted troth of the Roman soldier to his captain and commander, was that which had most to do with the transfer of the word to Baptism; wherein we, with more than one allusion to this oath of theirs, pledge ourselves to fight manfully under Christ's banner, and to continue his faithful soldiers and servants to our life's end; while the _mysterious_ character of the Holy Eucharist was mainly that which earned for it this name. We have already found history imbedded in the word 'frank'; but I must bring forward the Franks again, to account for the fact with which we are all familiar, that in the East not Frenchmen alone, but _all_ Europeans, are so called. Why, it may be asked, should this be? This wide use of 'Frank' dates from the Crusades; Michaud, the chief French historian of these, finding evidence here that his countrymen took a decided lead, as their gallantry well fitted them to do, in these romantic enterprises of the Middle Ages; impressed themselves so strongly on the imagination of the East as _the_ crusading nation of Europe, that their name was extended to all the warriors of Christendom. He is not here snatching for them more than the honour which is justly theirs. A very large proportion of the noblest Crusaders, from Godfrey of Bouillon to St. Lewis, as of others who did most to bring these enterprises about, as Pope Urban II., as St. Bernard, were French, and thus gave, in a way sufficiently easy to explain, an appellation to all. [Footnote: See Fuller, _Holy War_, b. i. c. 13.] To the Crusades also, and to the intense hatred which they roused throughout Christendom against the Mahomedan infidels, we owe 'miscreant,' as designating one to whom the vilest principles and practices are ascribed. A 'miscreant,' at the first, meant simply a misbeliever. The name would have been applied as freely, and with as little sense of injustice, to the royal-hearted Saladin as to the vilest wretch that fought in his armies. By degrees, however, those who employed it tinged it more and more with their feeling and passion, more and more lost sight of its primary use, until they used it of any whom they regarded with feelings of abhorrence, such as those which they entertained for an infidel; just as 'Samaritan' was employed by the Jews simply as a term of reproach, and with no thought whether he on whom it was fastened was in fact one of that detested race or not; where indeed they were quite sure that he was not (John viii. 48). 'Assassin' also, an Arabic word whose story you will find no difficulty in obtaining,--you may read it in Gibbon, [Footnote: Decline and Fall, c. 64.]--connects itself with a romantic chapter in the history of the Crusades. Various explanations of 'cardinal' have been proposed, which should account for the appropriation of this name to the parochial clergy of the city of Rome with the subordinate bishops of that diocese. This appropriation is an outgrowth, and a standing testimony, of the measureless assumptions of the Roman See. One of the favourite comparisons by which that See was wont to set out its relation of superiority to all other Churches of Christendom was this; it was the hinge, or 'cardo,' on which all the rest of the Church, as the door, at once depended and turned. It followed presently upon this that the clergy of Rome were 'cardinales,' as nearest to, and most closely connected with, him who was thus the hinge, or 'cardo,' of all. [Footnote: Thus a letter professing to be of Pope Anacletus the First in the first century, but really belonging to the ninth: Apostolica Sedes _cardo_ et caput omnium Ecclesiarum a Domino est constituta; et sicut _cardine_ ostium regitur, sic hujus S. Sedis auctoritate omnes Ecclesiae reguntur. And we have 'cardinal' put in relation with this 'cardo' in a genuine letter of Pope Leo IX.: Clerici summae Sedis _Cardinales_ dicuntur, _cardini_ utique illi quo cetera moventur, vicinius adhaerentes.] 'Legend' is a word with an instructive history. We all have some notion of what at this day a 'legend' means. It is a tale which is _not_ true, which, however historic in form, is not historic in fact, claims no serious belief for itself. It was quite otherwise once. By this name of 'legends' the annual commemorations of the faith and patience of God's saints in persecution and death were originally called; these legends in this title which they bore proclaiming that they were worthy to be read, and from this worthiness deriving their name. At a later day, as corruptions spread through the Church, these 'legends' grew, in Hooker's words, 'to be nothing else but heaps of frivolous and scandalous vanities,' having been 'even with disdain thrown out, the very nests which bred them abhorring them.' How steeped in falsehood, and to what an extent, according to Luther's indignant turn of the word, the 'legends' (legende) must have become 'lyings' (lügende), we can best guess, when we measure the moral forces which must have been at work, before that which was accepted at the first as 'worthy to be read,' should have been felt by this very name to announce itself as most unworthy, as belonging at best to the region of fable, if not to that of actual untruth. An inquiry into the pedigree of 'dunce' lays open to us an important page in the intellectual history of Europe. Certain theologians in the Middle Ages were termed Schoolmen; having been formed and trained in the cloister and cathedral _schools_ which Charlemagne and his immediate successors had founded. These were men not to be lightly spoken of, as they often are by those who never read a line of their works, and have not a thousandth part of their wit; who moreover little guess how many of the most familiar words which they employ, or misemploy, have descended to them from these. 'Real,' 'virtual,' 'entity,' 'nonentity,' 'equivocation,' 'objective,' 'subjective,' with many more unknown to classical Latin, but now almost necessities to us, were first coined by the Schoolmen; and, passing over from them into the speech of others more or less interested in their speculations, have gradually filtered through the successive strata of society, till now some of them have reached to quite the lowest. At the Revival of Learning, however, their works fell out of favour: they were not written in classical Latin: the forms into which their speculations were thrown were often unattractive; it was mainly in their authority that the Roman Church found support for her perilled dogmas. On all these accounts it was esteemed a mark of intellectual progress to have broken with them, and thrown off their yoke. Some, however, still clung to these Schoolmen, and to one in particular, John _Duns_ Scotus, the most illustrious teacher of the Franciscan Order. Thus it came to pass that many times an adherent of the old learning would seek to strengthen his position by an appeal to its famous doctor, familiarly called Duns; while those of the new learning would contemptuously rejoin, 'Oh, you are a _Dunsman_' or more briefly, 'You are a _Duns_,' --or, 'This is a piece of _duncery_'; and inasmuch as the new learning was ever enlisting more and more of the genius and scholarship of the age on its side, the title became more and more a term of scorn. 'Remember ye not,' says Tyndal, 'how within this thirty years and far less, the old barking curs, _Dunce's_ disciples, and like draff called Scotists, the children of darkness, raged in every pulpit against Greek, Latin, and Hebrew?' And thus from that conflict long ago extinct between the old and the new learning, that strife between the medieval and the modern theology, we inherit 'dunce' and 'duncery.' The lot of Duns, it must be confessed, has been a hard one, who, whatever his merits as a teacher of Christian truth, was assuredly one of the keenest and most subtle-witted of men. He, the 'subtle Doctor' by pre- eminence, for so his admirers called him, 'the wittiest of the school- divines,' as Hooker does not scruple to style him, could scarcely have anticipated, and did not at all deserve, that his name should be turned into a by-word for invincible stupidity. This is but one example of the singular fortune waiting upon words. We have another of a parallel injustice, in the use which 'mammetry,' a contraction of 'Mahometry,' obtained in our early English. Mahomedanism being the most prominent form of false religion with which our ancestors came in contact, 'mammetry' was used, up to and beyond the Reformation, to designate first any false religion, and then the worship of idols; idolatry being proper to, and a leading feature of, most of the false religions of the world. Men did not pause to remember that Mahomedanism is the great exception, being as it is a protest against all idol-worship whatsoever; so that it was a signal injustice to call an idol a 'mawmet' or a Mahomet, and idolatry 'mammetry.' A misnomer such as this may remind us of the immense importance of possessing such names for things as shall not involve or suggest an error. We have already seen this in the province of the moral life; but in other regions also it nearly concerns us. Resuming, as words do, the past, shaping the future, how important it is that significant facts or tendencies in the world's history should receive their right names. It is a corrupting of the very springs and sources of knowledge, when we bind up not a truth, but an error, in the very nomenclature which we use. It is the putting of an obstacle in the way, which, however imperceptibly, is yet ever at work, hindering any right apprehension of the thing which has been thus erroneously noted. Out of a sense of this, an eminent German scholar of the last century, writing _On the Influence of Opinions on Language_, did not stop here, nor make this the entire title of his book, but added another and further clause--_and on the Influence of Language on Opinions_; [Footnote: _Von dem Einfluss der Meinungen in die Sprache, und der Sprache in die Meinungen_, von J, D. Michaëlis, Berlin, 1760.] the matter which fulfils the promise of this latter clause constituting by far the most interesting and original portion of his work: for while the influence of opinions on words is so little called in question, that the assertion of it sounds almost like a truism, this, on the contrary, of words on opinions, would doubtless present itself as a novelty to many. And yet it is an influence which has been powerfully felt in every region of human knowledge, in science, in art, in morals, in theology. The reactive energy of words, not merely on the passions of men (for that of course), but on their opinions calmly and deliberately formed, would furnish a very curious chapter in the history of human knowledge and human ignorance. Sometimes words with no fault of theirs, for they did not originally involve any error, will yet draw some error in their train; and of that error will afterwards prove the most effectual bulwark and shield. Let me instance--the author just referred to supplies the example--the word 'crystal.' The strange notion concerning the origin of the thing, current among the natural philosophers of antiquity, and which only two centuries ago Sir Thomas Browne thought it worth while to place first and foremost among the _Vulgar Errors_ that he undertook to refute, was plainly traceable to a confusion occasioned by the name. Crystal, as men supposed, was ice or snow which had undergone such a process of induration as wholly and for ever to have lost its fluidity: [Footnote: Augustine: Quid est crystallum? Nix est glacie durata per multos annos, ita ut a sole vel igne facile dissolvi non possit. So too in Beaumont and Fletcher's tragedy of _Valentinian_, a chaste matron is said to be 'cold as crystal _never to be thawed again_.'] and Pliny, backing up one mistake by another, affirmed that it was only found in regions of extreme cold. The fact is, that the Greek word for crystal originally signified ice; but after a while was also imparted to that diaphanous quartz which has so much the look of ice, and which alone _we_ call by this name; and then in a little while it was taken for granted that the two, having the same name, were in fact the same substance; and this mistake it took ages to correct. Natural history abounds in legends. In the word 'leopard' one of these has been permanently bound up; the error, having first given birth to the name, being afterwards itself maintained and propagated by it. The leopard, as is well known, was not for the Greek and Latin zoologists a species by itself, but a mongrel birth of the male panther or pard and the lioness; and in 'leopard' or 'lion-pard' this fabled double descent is expressed. [Footnote: This error lasted into modern times; thus Fuller (_A Pisgah Sight of Palestine_, vol. i. p. 195): 'Leopards and mules are properly no creatures.'] 'Cockatrice' embodies a somewhat similar fable; the fable however in this case having been invented to account for the name. [Footnote: See Wright, _The Bible Word Book_, s. v. [The word _cockatrice_ is a corrupt form of Late Latin _cocodrillus_, which again is a corruption of Latin _crocodilus_, Gr. [Greek: krokodeilos], a crocodile.]] It was Eichhorn who first suggested the calling of a certain group of languages, which stand in a marked contradistinction to the Indo- European or Aryan family, by the common name of 'Semitic.' A word which should include all these was wanting, and this one was handy and has made its fortune; at the same time implying, as 'Semitic' does, that these are all languages spoken by races which are descended from Shem, it is eminently calculated to mislead. There are non-Semitic races, the Phoenicians for example, which have spoken a Semitic language; there are Semitic races which have not spoken one. Against 'Indo-European' the same objection may be urged; seeing that several languages are European, that is, spoken within the limits of Europe, as the Maltese, the Finnish, the Hungarian, the Basque, the Turkish, which lie altogether outside of this group. 'Gothic' is plainly a misnomer, and has often proved a misleader as well, when applied to a style of architecture which belongs not to one, but to all the Germanic tribes; which, moreover, did not come into existence till many centuries after any people called Goths had ceased from the earth. Those, indeed, who first called this medieval architecture 'Gothic,' had no intention of ascribing to the Goths the first invention of it, however this language may seem now to bind up in itself an assertion of the kind. 'Gothic' was at first a mere random name of contempt. The Goths, with the Vandals, being the standing representatives of the rude in manners and barbarous in taste, the critics who would fain throw scorn on this architecture as compared with that classical Italian which alone seemed worthy of their admiration, [Footnote: The name, as the designation of a style of architecture, came to us from Italy. Thus Fuller in his _Worthies_: 'Let the Italians deride our English and condemn them for _Gothish_ buildings.' See too a very curious expression of men's sentiments about Gothic architecture as simply equivalent to barbarous, in Phillips's _New World of Words_, 1706, s.v. 'Gothick.'] called it 'Gothic,' meaning rude and barbarous thereby. We who recognize in this Gothic architecture the most wondrous and consummate birth of genius in one region of art, find it hard to believe that this was once a mere title of slight and scorn, and sometimes wrongly assume a reference in the word to the people among whom first it arose. 'Classical' and 'romantic,' names given to opposing schools of literature and art, contain an absurd antithesis; and either say nothing at all, or say something erroneous. 'Revival of Learning' is a phrase only partially true when applied to that mighty intellectual movement in Western Europe which marked the fifteenth century and the beginning of the sixteenth. A revival there might be, and indeed there was, of _Greek_ learning at that time; but there could not be properly affirmed a revival of Latin, inasmuch as it had never been dead; or, even as those who dissent from this statement must own, had revived nearly two centuries before. 'Renaissance,' applied in France to the new direction which art took about the age of Francis the First, is another question-begging word. Very many would entirely deny that the bringing back of an antique pagan spirit, and of pagan forms as the utterance of this, into Christian art was a 'renaissance' or new birth of it at all. But inaccuracy in naming may draw after it more serious mischief in regions more important. Nowhere is accuracy more vital than in words having to do with the chief facts and objects of our faith; for such words, as Coleridge has observed, are never inert, but constantly exercise an immense reactive influence, whether men know it or not, on such as use them, or often hear them used by others. The so-called 'Unitarians,' claiming by this name of theirs to be asserters of the unity of the Godhead, claim that which belongs to us by far better right than to them; which, indeed, belonging of fullest right to us, does not properly belong to them at all. I should, therefore, without any intention of offence, refuse the name to them; just as I should decline, by calling those of the Roman Obedience 'Catholics,' to give up the whole question at issue between them and us. So, also, were I one of them, I should never, however convenient it might sometimes prove, consent to call the great religious movement of Europe in the sixteenth century the 'Reformation.' Such in _our_ esteem it was, and in the deepest, truest sense; a shaping anew of things that were amiss in the Church. But how any who esteem it a disastrous, and, on their parts who brought it about, a most guilty schism, can consent to call it by this name, has always surprised me. Let me urge on you here the importance of seeking in every case to acquaint yourselves with the circumstances under which any body of men who have played an important part in history, above all in the history of your own land, obtained the name by which they were afterwards themselves willing to be known, or which was used for their designation by others. This you may do as a matter of historical inquiry, and keeping entirely aloof in spirit from the bitterness, the contempt, the calumny, out of which very frequently these names were first imposed. Whatever of scorn or wrong may have been at work in them who coined or gave currency to the name, the name itself can never without serious loss be neglected by any who would truly understand the moral significance of the thing; for always something, oftentimes much, may be learned from it. Learn, then, about each one of these names which you meet in your studies, whether it was one that men gave to themselves; or one imposed on them by others, but never recognized by them; or one that, first imposed by others, was yet in course of time admitted and allowed by themselves. We have examples in all these kinds. Thus the 'Gnostics' call _themselves_ such; the name was of their own devising, and declared that whereof they made their boast; it was the same with the 'Cavaliers' of our Civil War. 'Quaker,' 'Puritan,' 'Roundhead,' were all, on the contrary, names devised by others, and never accepted by those to whom they were attached. To the third class 'Whig' and 'Tory' belong. These were nicknames originally of bitterest party hate, withdrawn from their earlier use, and fastened by two political bodies in England each on the other, [Footnote: In North's _Examen_. p. 321, is a very lively, though not a very impartial, account of the rise of these names.] the 'Whig' being properly a Scottish covenanter, [Footnote: [For a full account of the name see Nares, and Todd's _Johnson_.]] the 'Tory' an Irish bog-trotting freebooter; while yet these nicknames in tract of time so lost and let go what was offensive about them, that in the end they were adopted by the very parties themselves. Not otherwise the German 'Lutherans' were originally so called by their antagonists. [Footnote: Dr. Eck, one of the earliest who wrote against the Reformation, first called the Reformed 'Lutherani.'] 'Methodist,' in like manner, was a title not first taken by the followers of Wesley, but fastened on them by others, while yet they have been subsequently willing, though with a certain reserve, to accept and to be known by it. 'Momiers' or 'Mummers,' a name in itself of far greater offence, has obtained in Switzerland something of the same allowance. Exactly in the same way 'Capuchin' was at first a jesting nickname, given by the gamins in the streets to that reformed branch of the Franciscans which afterwards accepted it as their proper designation. It was provoked by the peaked and pointed hood ('cappuccio,' 'cappucino') which they wore. The story of the 'Gueux,' or 'Beggars,' of Holland, and how they appropriated their name, is familiar, as I doubt not, to many. [Footnote: [See chapter on Political Nicknames in D'Israeli's _Curiosities of Literature_.]] A 'Premier' or 'Prime Minister,' though unknown to the law of England, is at present one of the institutions of the country. The acknowledged leadership of one member in the Government is a fact of only gradual growth in our constitutional history, but one in which the nation has entirely acquiesced,--nor is there anything invidious now in the title. But in what spirit the Parliamentary Opposition, having coined the term, applied it first to Sir Robert Walpole, is plain from some words of his spoken in the House of Commons, Feb. 11, 1742: 'Having invested me with a kind of mock dignity, and styled me a _Prime Minister_, they [the Opposition] impute to me an unpardonable abuse of the chimerical authority which they only created and conferred.' Now of these titles some undoubtedly, like 'Capuchin' instanced just now, stand in no very intimate connexion with those who bear them; and such names, though seldom without their instruction, yet plainly are not so instructive as others, in which the innermost heart of the thing named so utters itself, that, having mastered the name, we have placed ourselves at the central point, from whence best to master everything besides. It is thus with 'Gnostic' and 'Gnosticism'; in the prominence given to _gnôsis_ or knowledge, as opposed to faith, lies the key to the whole system. The Greek Church has loved ever to style itself the Holy 'Orthodox' Church, the Latin, the Holy 'Catholic' Church. Follow up the thoughts which these words suggest. What a world of teaching they contain; above all when brought into direct comparison and opposition one with the other. How does all which is innermost in the Greek and Roman mind unconsciously reveal itself here; the Greek Church regarding as its chief blazon that its speculation is right, the Latin that its empire is universal. Nor indeed is it merely the Greek and Latin Churches which utter themselves here, but Greece and Rome in their deepest distinctions, as these existed from their earliest times. The key to the whole history, Pagan as well as Christian, of each is in these words. We can understand how the one established a dominion in the region of the mind which shall never be overthrown, the other founded an empire in the world whose visible effects shall never be done away. This is an illustrious example; but I am bold to affirm that, in their degree, all parties, religious and political, are known by names that will repay study; by names, to understand which will bring us far to an understanding of their strength and their weakness, their truth and their error, the idea and intention according to which they wrought. Thus run over in thought a few of those which have risen up in England. 'Puritans,' 'Fifth-Monarchy men,' 'Seekers,' 'Levellers,' 'Independents,' 'Friends,' 'Rationalists,' 'Latitudnarians,' 'Freethinkers,' these titles, with many more, have each its significance; and would you get to the heart of things, and thoroughly understand what any of these schools and parties intended, you must first understand what they were called. From this as from a central point you must start; even as you must bring back to this whatever further knowledge you may acquire; putting your later gains, if possible, in subordination to the name; at all events in connexion and relation with it. You will often be able to glean information from names, such as, if not always important, will yet rarely fail to be interesting and instructive in its way. Thus what a record of inventions, how much of the past history of commerce do they embody and preserve. The 'magnet' has its name from Magnesia, a district of Thessaly; this same Magnesia, or else another like-named district in Asia Minor, yielding the medicinal earth so called. 'Artesian' wells are from the province of Artois in France, where they were long in use before introduced elsewhere. The 'baldachin' or 'baudekin' is from Baldacco, the Italian form of the name of the city of Bagdad, from whence the costly silk of this canopy originally came. [Footnote: [See Devic's Supplement to Littré; the Italian _l_ is an attempt to pronounce the Arabic guttural Ghain. In the Middle Ages _Baldacco_ was often supposed to be the same as 'Babylon'; see Florio's _Ital. Dict._ (s.v. _baldacca_).]] The' bayonet' suggests concerning itself, though perhaps wrongly, that it was first made at Bayonne--the 'bilbo,' a finely tempered Spanish blade, at Bilbao--the 'carronade' at the Carron Ironworks in Scotland-- 'worsted' that it was spun at a village not far from Norwich-- 'sarcenet' that it is a Saracen manufacture--'cambric' that it reached us from Cambray--'copper' that it drew its name from Cyprus, so richly furnished with mines of this metal--'fustian' from Fostat, a suburb of Cairo--'frieze' from Friesland--'silk' or 'sericum' from the land of the Seres or Chinese--'damask' from Damascus--'cassimere' or 'kersemere' from Cashmere--'arras' from a town like-named--'duffel,' too, from a town near Antwerp so called, which Wordsworth has immortalized--'shalloon' from Chalons--'jane' from Genoa--'gauze' from Gaza. The fashion of the 'cravat' was borrowed from the Croats, or Crabats, as this wild irregular soldiery of the Thirty Years' War used to be called. The 'biggen,' a plain cap often mentioned by our early writers, was first worn by the Beguines, communities of pietist women in the Low Countries in the twelfth century. The 'dalmatic' was a garment whose fashion was taken to be borrowed from Dalmatia. (_See_ Marriott.) England now sends her calicoes and muslins to India and the East; yet these words give standing witness that we once imported them from thence; for 'calico' is from Calicut, a town on the coast of Malabar, and 'muslin' from Mossul, a city in Asiatic Turkey. 'Cordwain' or 'cordovan' is from Cordova--'delf' from Delft--'indigo' (indicum) from India--'gamboge' from Cambodia--the 'agate' from a Sicilian river, Achates--the 'turquoise' from Turkey--the 'chalcedony' or onyx from Chalcedon--'jet' from the river Gages in Lycia, where this black stone is found. [Footnote: In Holland's _Pliny_, the Greek form 'gagates' is still retained, though he oftener calls it 'jeat' or 'geat.'] 'Rhubarb' is a corruption of Rha barbarum, the root from the savage banks of the Rha or Volga--'jalap' is from Jalapa, a town in Mexico--'tobacco' from the island Tobago--'malmsey' from Malvasia, for long a flourishing city in the Morea--'sherry,' or 'sherris' as Shakespeare wrote it, is from Xeres--'macassar' oil from a small Malay kingdom so named in the Eastern Archipelago--'dittany' from the mountain Dicte, in Crete-- 'parchment' from Pergamum--'majolica' from Majorca--'faience' from the town named in Italian Faenza. A little town in Essex gave its name to the 'tilbury'; another, in Bavaria, to the 'landau.' The 'bezant' is a coin of Byzantium; the 'guinea' was originally coined (in 1663) of gold brought from the African coast so called; the pound 'sterling' was a certain weight of bullion according to the standard of the Easterlings, or Eastern merchants from the Hanse Towns on the Baltic. The 'spaniel' is from Spain; the 'barb' is a steed from Barbary; the pony called a 'galloway' from the county of Galloway in Scotland; the 'tarantula' is a poisonous spider, common in the neighbourhood of Tarentum. The 'pheasant' reached us from the banks of the Phasis; the 'bantam' from a Dutch settlement in Java so called; the 'canary' bird and wine, both from the island so named; the 'peach' (persica) declares itself a Persian fruit; 'currants' derived their name from Corinth, whence they were mostly shipped; the 'damson' is the 'damascene' or plum of Damascus; the 'bergamot' pear is named from Bergamo in Italy; the 'quince' has undergone so many changes in its progress through Italian and French to us, that it hardly retains any trace of Cydon (malum Cydonium), a town of Crete, from which it was supposed to proceed. 'Solecisms,' if I may find room for them here, are from Soloe, an Athenian colony in Cilicia, whose members soon forgot the Attic refinement of speech, and became notorious for the ungrammatical Greek which they talked. And as things thus keep record in the names which they bear of the quarters from which they reached us, so also will they often do of the persons who, as authors, inventors, or discoverers, or in some other way, stood in near connexion with them. A collection in any language of all the names of persons which have since become names of things--from nomina _apellativa_ have become nomina _realia_--would be very curious and interesting, I will enumerate a few. Where the matter is not familiar to you, it will not be unprofitable to work back from the word or thing to the person, and to learn more accurately the connexion between them. To begin with mythical antiquity--the Chimaera has given us 'chimerical,' Hermes 'hermetic,' Pan 'panic,' Paean, being a name of Apollo, the 'peony,' Tantalus 'to tantalize,' Hercules 'herculean,' Proteus 'protean,' Vulcan 'volcano' and 'volcanic,' and Daedalus 'dedal,' if this word, for which Spenser, Wordsworth, and Shelley have all stood godfathers, may find allowance with us. The demi-god Atlas figures with a world upon his shoulders in the title-page of some early works on geography; and has probably in this way lent to our map-books their name. Gordius, the Phrygian king who tied the famous 'gordian' knot which Alexander cut, will supply a natural transition from mythical to historical. The 'daric,' a Persian gold coin, very much of the same value as our own rose noble, had its name from Darius. Mausolus, a king of Caria, has left us 'mausoleum,' Academus 'academy,' Epicurus 'epicure,' Philip of Macedon a 'philippic,' being such a discourse as Demosthenes once launched against the enemy of Greece, and Cicero 'cicerone.' Mithridates, who had made himself poison-proof, gave us the now forgotten 'mithridate' (Dryden) for antidote; as from Hippocrates we derived 'hipocras,' or 'ypocras,' often occurring in our early poets, being a wine supposed to be mingled after the great physician's receipt. Gentius, a king of Illyria, gave his name to the plant 'gentian,' having been, it is said, the first to discover its virtues. [Footnote: Pliny, _H. N._ xxv. 34.] Glaubers, who has bequeathed his salts to us, was a Dutch chemist of the seventeenth century. A grammar used to be called a 'donat' or 'donet' (Chaucer), from Donatus, a Roman grammarian of the fourth century, whose Latin grammar held its place as a school-book during a large part of the Middle Ages. Othman, more than any other the grounder of the Turkish dominion in Europe, reappears in our 'Ottoman'; and Tertullian, strangely enough, in the Spanish 'tertulia.' The beggar Lazarus has given us 'lazar' and 'lazaretto'; Veronica and the legend connected with her name, a 'vernicle,' being a napkin with the Saviour's face impressed upon it. Simon Magus gave us 'simony'; this, however, as we understand it now, is not a precise reproduction of his sin as recorded in Scripture. A common fossil shell is called an 'ammonite' from the fanciful resemblance to the twisted horns of Jupiter Ammon which was traced in it; Ammon again appearing in 'ammonia.' Our 'pantaloons' are from St. Pantaleone; he was the patron saint of the Venetians, who therefore very commonly received Pantaleon as their Christian name; it was from them transferred to a garment which they much affected. 'Dunce,' as we have seen, is derived from Duns Scotus. To come to more modern times, and not pausing at Ben Jonson's 'chaucerisms,' Bishop Hall's 'scoganisms,' from Scogan, Edward the Fourth's jester, or his 'aretinisms,' from Aretin; these being probably not intended even by their authors to endure; a Roman cobbler named Pasquin has given us the 'pasquil' or 'pasquinade.' Derrick was the common hangman in the time of Charles II.; he bequeathed his name to the crane used for the lifting and moving of heavy weights. [Footnote: [But _derick_ in the sense of 'gallows' occurs as early as 1606 in Dekker's _Seven Deadly Sins of London_, ed. Arber, p. 17; see Skeat's _Etym. Dict._, ed. 2, p. 799.]] 'Patch,' a name of contempt not unfrequent in Shakespeare, was, it is said, the proper name of a favourite fool of Cardinal Wolsey's. [Footnote: [The Cardinal's two fools were occasionally called _patch_, a term for a 'domestic fool,' from the patchy, parti-coloured dress; see Skeat (s. v.).]] Colonel Negus in Queen Anne's time is reported to have first mixed the beverage which goes by his name. Lord Orrery was the first for whom an 'orrery' was constructed; Lord Spencer first wore, or first brought into fashion, a 'spencer'; and the Duke of Roquelaure the cloak which still bears his name. Dahl, a Swede, introduced from Mexico the cultivation of the 'dahlia'; the 'fuchsia' is named after Fuchs, a German botanist of the sixteenth century; the 'magnolia' after Magnol, a distinguished French botanist of the beginning of the eighteenth; while the 'camelia' was introduced into Europe from Japan in 1731 by Camel, a member of the Society of Jesus; the 'shaddock' by Captain Shaddock, who first transplanted this fruit from the West Indies. In 'quassia' we have the name of a negro sorcerer of Surinam, who in 1730 discovered its properties, and after whom it was called. An unsavoury jest of Vespasian has attached his name in French to an unsavoury spot. 'Nicotine,' the poison recently drawn from tobacco, goes back for its designation to Nicot, a physician, who first introduced the tobacco-plant to the general notice of Europe. The Gobelins were a family so highly esteemed in France that the manufactory of tapestry which they had established in Paris did not drop their name, even after it had been purchased and was conducted by the State. A French Protestant refugee, Tabinet, first made 'tabinet' in Dublin; another Frenchman, Goulard, a physician of Montpellier, gave his to the soothing lotion, not unknown in our nurseries. The 'tontine' was conceived by Tonti, an Italian; another Italian, Galvani, first noted the phenomena of animal electricity or 'galvanism'; while a third, Volta, lent a title to the 'voltaic' battery. Dolomieu, a French geologist, first called attention to a peculiar formation of rocks in Eastern Tyrol, called 'dolomites' after him. Colonel Martinet was a French officer appointed by Louvois as an army inspector; one who did his work excellently well, but has left a name bestowed often since on mere military pedants. 'Macintosh,' 'doyly,' 'brougham,' 'hansom,' 'to mesmerize,' 'to macadamize,' 'to burke,' 'to boycott,' are all names of persons or words formed from their names, and then transferred to things or actions, on the ground of some sort of connexion between the one and the other. [Footnote: Several other such words we have in common with the French. Of their own they have 'sardanapalisme,' any piece of profuse luxury, from Sardanapalus. For 'lambiner,' to dally or loiter over a task, they are indebted to Denis Lambin, a worthy Greek scholar of the sixteenth century, but accused of sluggish movement and wearisome diffuseness in style. Every reader of Pascal's _Provincial Letters_ will remember Escobar, the famous casuist of the Jesuits, whose convenient devices for the relaxation of the moral law have there been made famous. To the notoriety which he thus acquired, he owes his introduction into the French language; where 'escobarder' is used in the sense of to equivocate, and 'escobarderie' of subterfuge or equivocation. A pale green colour is in French called 'céladon' from a personage of this name, of a feeble and _fade_ tenderness, who figures in _Astrée_, a popular romance of the seventeenth century. An unpopular minister of finance, M. de Silhouette, unpopular because he sought to cut down unnecessary expenses in the State, saw his name transferred to the slight and thus cheap black outline portrait called a 'silhouette' (Sismondi, _Hist, des Français_, vol. xix, pp. 94, 95). In the 'mansarde' roof we are reminded of Mansart, the architect who introduced it. In 'marivaudage' the name of Marivaux is bound up, who was noted for the affected euphuism which goes by this name; very much as the sophist Gorgias gave [Greek: gorgiazein] to the Greek. The point of contact between the 'fiacre' and St. Fiacre is well known: hackney carriages, when first established in Paris, waited for their hiring in the court of an hotel which was adorned with an image of the Scottish saint.] To these I may add 'guillotine,' though Dr. Guillotin did not invent this instrument of death, even as it is a baseless legend that he died by it. Some improvements in it he made, and it thus happened that it was called after him. Nor less shall we find history, at all events literary history, in the noting of the popular characters in books, who have supplied words that have passed into common speech. Thus from Homer we have 'mentor' for a monitor; 'stentorian' for loud-voiced; and inasmuch as, with all of Hector's nobleness, there is a certain amount of big talk about him, he has given us 'to hector'; [Footnote: See Col. Mure, _Language and Literature of Ancient Greece_, vol. i. p. 350.] while the medieval romances about the siege of Troy ascribe to Pandarus that shameful traffic out of which his name has passed into the words 'to pander' and 'pandarism.' 'Rodomontade' is from Rodomonte, a hero of Boiardo; who yet, it must be owned, does not bluster and boast, as the word founded on his name seems to imply; adopted by Ariosto, it was by him changed into Rodamonte. 'Thrasonical' is from Thraso, the braggart of Roman comedy. Cervantes has given us 'quixotic'; Swift 'lilliputian'; to Molière the French language owes 'tartuffe' and 'tartufferie.' 'Reynard' with us is a sort of duplicate for fox, while in French 'renard' has quite excluded the old 'volpils' being originally no more than the proper name of the fox-hero, the vulpine Ulysses, in that famous beast-epic of the Middle Ages, _Reineke Fuchs_. The immense popularity of this poem we gather from many evidences--from none more clearly than from this. 'Chanticleer' is the name of the cock, and 'Bruin' of the bear in the same poem. [Footnote: See Génin, _Des Variations du Langage Français_, p.12] These have not made fortune to the same extent of actually putting out of use names which before existed, but contest the right of existence with them. Occasionally a name will embody and give permanence to an error; as when in 'America' the discovery of the New World, which belonged to Columbus, is ascribed to another eminent discoverer, but one who had no title to this honour, even as he was entirely guiltless of any attempt to usurp it for himself. [Footnote: Humboldt has abundantly shown this (_Kosmos_, vol. ii. note 457). He ascribes its general reception to its introduction into a popular work on geography, published in 1507. The subject has also been very carefully treated by Major, _Life of Prince Henry the Navigator_, 1868. pp. 382-388] Our 'turkeys' are not from Turkey, as was assumed by those who so called them, but from that New World where alone they are native. This error the French in another shape repeat with their 'dinde' originally 'poulet _d'Inde_,' or Indian fowl. There lies in 'gipsy' or Egyptian, the assumption that Egypt was the original home of this strange people; as was widely believed when they made their first appearance in Europe early in the fifteenth century. That this, however, was a mistake, their language leaves no doubt; proclaiming as it does that they are wanderers from a more distant East, an outcast tribe from Hindostan. 'Bohemians' as they are called by the French, testifies to a similar error, to the fact that at their first apparition in Western Europe they were supposed by the common people in France to be the expelled Hussites of Bohemia. Where words have not embodied an error, it will yet sometimes happen that the sound or spelling will _to us_ suggest one. Against such in these studies it will be well to be on our guard. Thus many of us have been tempted to put 'domus' and 'dominus' into a connexion which really does not exist. There has been a stage in most boys' geographical knowledge, when they have taken for granted that 'Jutland' was so called, not because it was the land of the Jutes, but on account of its _jutting_ out into the sea in so remarkable a manner. At a much later period of their education, 'Aborigines,' being the proper name of an Italian tribe, might very easily lead astray. [Footnote: See Pauly, _Encyclop._ s. v. Latium.] Who is there that has not mentally put the Gulf of Lyons in some connexion with the city of the same name? We may be surprised that the Gulf should have drawn its title from a city so remote and so far inland, but we accept the fact notwithstanding: the river Rhone, flowing by the one, and disemboguing in the other, seems to offer to us a certain link of connexion. There is indeed no true connexion at all between the two. In old texts this Gulf is generally called _Sinus Gallicus_; in the fourteenth century a few writers began to call it _Sinus Leonis_, the Gulf of the Lion, possibly from the fierceness of its winds and waves, but at any rate by a name having nothing to do with Lyons on the Rhone. The oak, in Greek [Greek: drys], plays no inconsiderable part in the Ritual of the Druids; it is not therefore wonderful if most students at one time of their lives have put the two in etymological relation. The Greeks, who with so characteristic a vanity assumed that the key to the meaning of words in all languages was to be found in their own, did this of course. So, too, there have not been wanting those who have traced in the name 'Jove' a heathen reminiscence of the awful name of Jehovah; while yet, however specious this may seem, on closer scrutiny the words declare that they have no connexion with one another, any more than 'Iapetus' and 'Japheth,' or, I may add, than 'God' and 'good,' which yet by an honourable moral instinct men can hardly refrain from putting into an etymological relation with each other. Sometimes a falsely-assumed derivation of a word has reacted upon and modified its spelling. Thus it may have been with 'hurricane.' In the tearing up and _hurrying_ away of the _canes_ in the sugar plantations by this West-Indian tornado, many have seen an explanation of the name; just in the same way as the Latin 'calamitas' has been derived from 'calamus,' the stalk of the corn. In both cases the etymology is faulty; 'hurricane,' originally a Carib word, is only a transplanting into our tongue of the Spanish 'huracan.' It is a signal evidence of the conservative powers of language, that we may continually trace in speech the record of customs and states of society which have now passed so entirely away as to survive in these words alone. For example, a 'stipulation' or agreement is so called, as many affirm, from 'stipula,' a straw; and tells of a Roman custom, that when two persons would make a mutual engagement with one another, [Footnote: See on this disputed point, and on the relation between the Latin 'stipulatio' and the old German custom not altogether dissimilar, J. Grimm, _Deutsche Rechtsalterthümer_, pp. 121, sqq. [This account of the derivation of 'stipulatio' is generally given up now; for Greek cognates of the word see Curtius, _Greek Etymology_, No. 224.]] they would break a straw between them. We all know what fact of English history is laid up in 'curfew,' or 'couvre-feu.' The 'limner,' or 'illuminer,' for so we find the word in Fuller, throws us back on a time when the _illumination_ of manuscripts was a leading occupation of the painter. By 'lumber,' we are reminded that Lombards were the first pawnbrokers, even as they were the first bankers, in England: a 'lumber'-room being a 'lombard'-room, or a room where the pawnbroker stored his pledges. [Footnote: See my _Select Glossary_, s. v. Lumber.] Nor need I do more than remind you that in our common phrase of '_signing_ our name,' we preserve a record of a time when such first rudiments of education as the power of writing, were the portion of so few, that it was not as now an exception, but the custom, of most persons to make their mark or 'sign'; great barons and kings themselves not being ashamed to set this _sign_ or cross to the weightiest documents. To 'subscribe' the name would more accurately express what now we do. As often as we term arithmetic the science of calculation, we implicitly allude to that rudimental stage in this science, when pebbles (calculi) were used, as now among savage tribes they often are, to help the practice of counting; the Greeks made the same use of one word of theirs ([Greek: psephizein]); while in another ([Greek: pempazein]) they kept record of a period when the _five_ fingers were so employed. 'Expend,' 'expense,' tell us that money was once weighed out (Gen. xxiii. 16), not counted out as now; 'pecunia,' 'peculatus,' 'fee' (vieh) keep record all of a time when cattle were the main circulating medium. In 'library' we preserve the fact that books were once written on the bark (liber) of trees; in 'volume' that they were mostly rolls; in 'paper,' that the Egyptian papyrus, 'the paper-reeds by the brooks,' furnished at one time the ordinary material on which they were written. Names thus so often surviving things, we have no right to turn an etymology into an argument. There was a notable attempt to do this in the controversy so earnestly carried on between the Greek and Latin Churches, concerning the bread, whether it should be leavened or unleavened, that was used at the Table of the Lord. Those of the Eastern Church constantly urged that the Greek word for bread (and in Greek was the authoritative record of the first institution of this sacrament), implied, according to its root, that which was raised or lifted up; not, therefore, to use a modern term, 'sad' or set, or, in other words, unleavened bread; such rather as had undergone the process of fermentation. But even if the etymology on which they relied (artos from airo, to raise) had been as certain as it is questionable, they could draw no argument of the slightest worth from so remote an etymology, and one which had so long fallen out of the consciousness of those who employed the word. Theories too, which long since were utterly renounced, have yet left their traces behind them. Thus 'good humour.' 'bad humour.' 'humours,' and, strangest contradiction of all, '_dry_ humour,' rest altogether on a now exploded, but a very old and widely accepted, theory of medicine; according to which there were four principal moistures or 'humours' in the natural body, on the due proportion and combination of which the disposition alike of body and mind depended. [Footnote: See the _Prologue_ to Ben Jonson's _Every Man out of His Humour_.] Our present use of 'temper' has its origin in the same theory; the due admixture, or right tempering, of these humours gave what was called the happy temper, or mixture, which, thus existing inwardly, manifested itself also outwardly; while 'distemper,' which we still employ in the sense of sickness, was that evil frame either of a man's body or his mind (for it was used of both), which had its rise in an unsuitable mingling of these humours. In these instances, as in many more, the great streams of thought and feeling have changed their course, flowing now in quite other channels from those which once they filled, but have left these words as abiding memorials of the channels wherein once they ran. Thus 'extremes,' 'golden mean,' 'category,' 'predicament,' 'axiom,' 'habit'--what are these but a deposit in our ethical terminology which Aristotle has left behind him? But we have not exhausted our examples of the way in which the record of old errors, themselves dismissed long ago, will yet survive in language--being bound up in words that grew into use when those errors found credit, and that maintain their currency still. The mythology which Saxon or Dane brought with them from their German or Scandinavian homes is as much extinct for us as are the Lares, Larvae, and Lemures of heathen Rome; yet the deposit it has permanently left behind it in the English language is not inconsiderable. 'Lubber,' 'dwarf,' 'oaf,' 'droll,' 'wight,' 'puck,' 'urchin,' 'hag,' 'night-mare,' 'gramary,' 'Old Nick,' 'changeling' (wechselkind), suggest themselves, as all bequeathed to us by that old Teutonic demonology. [Footnote: [But the words _puck_, _urchin_, _gramary_, are not of Teutonic origin. The etymology of _puck_ is unknown; _urchin_ means properly 'a hedgehog,' being the old French _eriçon_ (in modern French _hérisson_), a derivative from the Latin _ericius_, 'a hedgehog'; _gramary_ is simply Old French _gramaire_, 'grammar' = Lat. _grammatica_ (_ars_), just as Old French _mire_, 'a medical man' = Lat. _medicum_.]] Few now have any faith in astrology, or count that the planet under which a man is born will affect his temperament, make him for life of a disposition grave or gay, lively or severe. Yet our language affirms as much; for we speak of men as 'jovial' or 'saturnine,' or 'mercurial'--'jovial,' as being born under the planet Jupiter or Jove, which was the joyfullest star, and of happiest augury of all: [Footnote: 'Jovial' in Shakespeare's time (see _Cymbeline_, act 5, sc. 4) had not forgotten its connexion with Jove.] a gloomy severe person is said to be 'saturnine,' born, that is, under the planet Saturn, who makes those that own his influence, having been born when he was in the ascendant, grave and stern as himself: another we call 'mercurial,' or light- hearted, as those born under the planet Mercury were accounted to be. The same faith in the influence of the stars survives in 'disastrous,' 'ill-starred,' 'ascendancy,' 'lord of the ascendant,' and, indeed, in 'influence' itself. What a record of old speculations, old certainly as Aristotle, and not yet exploded in the time of Milton, [Footnote: See _Paradise Lost_, iii. 714-719.] does the word 'quintessence' contain; and 'arsenic' the same; no other namely than this that metals are of different sexes, some male ([Greek: arsenika]), and some female. Again, what curious legends belong to the 'sardonic' [Footnote: See an excellent history of this word, in Rost and Palm's _Greek Lexicon_, s. v. [Greek: sardonios].] or Sardinian, laugh; a laugh caused, as was supposed, by a plant growing in Sardinia, of which they who ate, died laughing; to the 'barnacle' goose, [Footnote: For a full and most interesting study on this very curious legend, see Max Müller's _Lectures on Language_, vol. ii. pp. 533-551; [for the etymology of the word _barnacle_ in this connexion see the _New English Dictionary_ (s. v.).]] to the 'amethyst' esteemed, as the word implies, a preventive or antidote of drunkenness; and to other words not a few, which are employed by us still. A question presents itself here, and one not merely speculative; for it has before now become a veritable case of conscience with some whether they ought to use words which originally rested on, and so seem still to affirm, some superstition or untruth. This question has practically settled itself; the words will keep their ground: but further, they have a right to do this; for no word need be considered so to root itself in its etymology, and to draw its sap and strength from thence, that it cannot detach itself from this, and acquire the rights of an independent existence. And thus our _weekly_ newspapers commit no absurdity in calling themselves 'journals,' or 'diurnals'; and we as little when we name that a 'journey' which occupies not one, but several days. We involve ourselves in no real contradiction, speaking of a 'quarantine' of five, ten, or any number of days more or fewer than _forty_; or of a population 'decimated' by a plague, though exactly a tenth of it has not perished. A stone coffin may be still a 'sarcophagus,' without thereby implying that it has any special property of consuming the flesh of bodies which are laid within it. [Footnote: See Pliny, _H. N._ ii. 96; xxxvi. 17.] In like manner the wax of our 'candles' ('candela,' from 'candeo') is not necessarily _white_; our 'rubrics' retain their name, though seldom printed in _red_ ink; neither need our 'miniatures' abandon theirs, though no longer painted with _minium_ or carmine; our 'surplice' is not usually worn over an undergarment of skins; our 'stirrups' are not ropes by whose aid we climb upon our horses; nor are 'haversacks' sacks for the carrying of oats; it is not barley or bere only which we store up in our 'barns,' nor hogs' fat in our 'larders'; a monody need not be sung by a single voice; and our lucubrations are not always by candlelight; a 'costermonger' or 'costardmonger' does not of necessity sell costards or apples; there are 'palaces' which are not built on the Palatine Hill; and 'nausea' [Footnote: [From _nausea_ through the French comes our English _noise_; see Bartsch and Horning, Section 90.]] which is not sea-sickness. I remember once asking a class of school-children, whether an announcement which during one very hard winter appeared in the papers, of a '_white_ _black_bird' having been shot, might be possibly correct, or was on the face of it self-contradictory and absurd. The less thoughtful members of the class instantly pronounced against it; while after a little consideration, two or three made answer that it might very well be, that, while without doubt the bird had originally obtained this name from its blackness, yet 'blackbird' was now the name of a species, and a name so cleaving to it, as not to be forfeited, even when the blackness had quite disappeared. We do not question the right of the '_New_ Forest' to retain this title of New, though it has now stood for eight hundred years; nor of 'Naples' to be _New_ City (Neapolis) still, after an existence three or four times as long. It must, then, be esteemed a piece of ethical prudery, and an ignorance of the laws which languages obey, when the early Quakers refused to employ the names commonly given to the days of the week, and substituted for these, 'first day,' 'second day,' and so on. This they did, as is well known, on the ground that it became not Christian men to give that sanction to idolatry which was involved in the ordinary style--as though every time they spoke of Wednesday they were rendering homage to Woden, of Thursday to Thor, of Friday to Friga, and thus with the rest; [ Footnote: It is curious to find Fuller prophesying, a very few years before, that at some future day such a protest as theirs might actually be raised (_Church History_, b. ii. cent. 6): 'Thus we see the whole week bescattered with Saxon idols, whose pagan gods were the godfathers of the days, and gave them their names. This some zealot may behold as the object of a necessary reformation, desiring to have the days of the week new dipt, and called after other names. Though, indeed, this supposed scandal will not offend the wise, as beneath their notice; and cannot offend the ignorant, as above their knowledge.'] or at all events recognizing their existence. Now it is quite intelligible that the early Christians, living in the midst of a still rampant heathenism, should have objected, as we know they did, to 'dies _Solis_,' or Sunday, to express the first day of the week, their Lord's-Day. But when the later Friends raised _their_ protest, the case was altogether different. The false gods whose names were bound up in these words had ceased to be worshipped in England for about a thousand years; the words had wholly disengaged themselves from their etymologies, of which probably not one in a thousand had the slightest suspicion. Moreover, had these precisians in speech been consistent, they could not have stopped where they did. Every new acquaintance with the etymology or primary use of words would have entangled them in some new embarrassment, would have required a new purging of their vocabulary. 'To charm,' 'to bewitch,' 'to fascinate,' 'to enchant,' would have been no longer lawful words for those who had outlived the belief in magic, and in the power of the evil eye; nor 'lunacy,' nor 'lunatic,' for such as did not count the moon to have anything to do with mental unsoundness; nor 'panic' fear, for those who believed that the great god Pan was indeed dead; nor 'auguries,' nor 'auspices,' for those to whom divination was nothing; while to speak of 'initiating' a person into the 'mysteries' of an art, would have been utterly heathenish language. Nay, they must have found fault with the language of Holy Scripture itself; for a word of honourable use in the New Testament expressing the function of an interpreter, and reappearing in our 'hermeneutics,' is directly derived from and embodies the name of Hermes, a heathen deity, and one who did not, like Woden, Thor, and Friga, pertain to a long extinct mythology, but to one existing in its strength at the very time when he wrote. And how was it, as might have been fairly asked, that St. Paul did not protest against a Christian woman retaining the name of Phoebe (Rom. xvi. I), a goddess of the same mythology? The rise and fall of words, the honour which in tract of time they exchanged for dishonour, and the dishonour for honour--all which in my last lecture I contemplated mainly from an ethical point of view--is in a merely historic aspect scarcely less remarkable. Very curious is it to watch the varying fortune of words--the extent to which it has fared with them, as with persons and families; some having improved their position in the world, and attained to far higher dignity than seemed destined for them at the beginning, while others in a manner quite as notable have lost caste, have descended from their high estate to common and even ignoble uses. Titles of dignity and honour have naturally a peculiar liability to be some lifted up, and some cast down. Of words which have risen in the world, the French 'maréchal' affords us an excellent example. 'Maréchal,' as Howell has said, 'at first was the name of a smith-farrier, or one that dressed horses'--which indeed it is still--'but it climbed by degrees to that height that the chiefest commanders of the gendarmery are come to be called marshals.' But if this has risen, our 'alderman' has fallen. Whatever the civic dignity of an alderman may now be, still it must be owned that the word has lost much since the time that the 'alderman' was only second in rank and position to the king. Sometimes a word will keep or even improve its place in one language, while at the same time it declines from it in another. Thus 'demoiselle' (dominicella) cannot be said to have lost ground in French, however 'donzelle' may; while 'damhele,' being the same word, designates in Walloon the farm-girl who minds the cows. [Footnote: See Littré, _Etudes et Glanures_, p. 16; compare p. 30. Elsewhere he says: Les mots ont leurs déchéances comme les families.] 'Pope' is the highest ecclesiastical dignitary in the Latin Church; every parish priest is a 'pope' in the Greek. 'Queen' (gunae) has had a double fortune. Spelt as above it has more than kept the dignity with which it started, being the title given to the lady of the kingdom; while spelt as 'quean' it is a designation not untinged with contempt. [Footnote: [_Queen_ and _quean_ are not merely different spellings of the same Old English word; for _queen_ represents Anglo- Saxon _cwe:n_, Gothic _qens_, whereas _quean_ is the phonetic equivalent of Anglo-Saxon _cwene_ Gothic _qino_]] 'Squatter' remains for us in England very much where it always was; in Australia it is now the name by which the landed aristocracy are willing to be known. [Footnote: Dilke, _Greater Britain_, vol. ii. p. 40] After all which has thus been adduced, you will scarcely deny that we have a right to speak of a history in words. Now suppose that the pieces of money which in the intercourse and traffic of daily life are passing through our hands continually, had each one something of its own that made it more or less worthy of note; if on one was stamped some striking maxim, on another some important fact, on the third a memorable date; if others were works of finest art, graven with rare and beautiful devices, or bearing the head of some ancient sage or hero king; while others, again, were the sole surviving monuments of mighty nations that once filled the world with their fame; what a careless indifference to our own improvement--to all which men hitherto had felt or wrought--would it argue in us, if we were content that these should come and go, should stay by us or pass from us, without our vouchsafing to them so much as one serious regard. Such a currency there is, a currency intellectual and spiritual of no meaner worth, and one with which we have to transact so much of the higher business of our lives. Let us take care that we come not in this matter under the condemnation of any such incurious indifference as that which I have imagined. LECTURE V. ON THE RISE OF NEW WORDS. If I do not much mistake, you will find it not a little interesting to follow great and significant words to the time and place of their birth. And not these alone. The same interest, though perhaps not in so high a degree, will cleave to the upcoming of words not a few that have never played a part so important in the world's story. A volume might be written such as few would rival in curious interest, which should do no more than indicate the occasion upon which new words, or old words employed in a new sense--being such words as the world subsequently heard much of--first appeared; with quotation, where advisable, of the passages in proof. A great English poet, too early lost, 'the young Marcellus of our tongue,' as Dryden so finely calls him, has very grandly described the emotion of 'some watcher of the skies, When a new planet swims into his ken.' Not very different will be our feeling, as we watch, at the moment of its rising above the horizon, some word destined, it may be, to play its part in the world's story, to take its place for ever among the luminaries in the moral and intellectual firmament above us. But a caution is necessary here. We must not regard as certain in every case, or indeed in most cases, that the first rise of a word will have exactly consented in time with its first appearance within the range of our vision. Such identity will sometimes exist; and we may watch i the actual birth of some word, and may affirm with confidence that at such a time and on such an occasion it first saw the light--in this book, or from the lips of that man. Of another we can only say, About this time and near about this spot it first came into being, for we first meet it in such an author and under such and such conditions. So mere a fragment of ancient literature has come down to us, that, while the earliest appearance there of a word is still most instructive to note, it cannot in all or in nearly all cases be affirmed to mark the exact moment of its nativity. And even in the modern world we must in most instances be content to fix a period, we may perhaps add a local habitation, within the limits of which the term must have been born, either in legitimate scientific travail, or the child of some flash of genius, or the product of some _generatio aequivoca_, the necessary result of exciting predisposing causes; at the same time seeking by further research ever to narrow more and more the limits within which this must have happened. To speak first of words religious and ecclesiastical. Very noteworthy, and in some sort epoch-making, must be regarded the first appearance of the following:--'Christian'; [Footnote: Acts xi. 26.] 'Trinity'; [Footnote: Tertullian, _Adv. Prax._ 3.] 'Catholic,' as applied to the Church; [Footnote: Ignatius, _Ad Smyrn_. 8.] 'canonical,' as a distinctive title of the received Scriptures; [Footnote: Origen, _Opp_. vol. iii. p. 36 (ed. De la Rue).] 'New Testament,' as describing the complex of the sacred books of the New Covenant; [Footnote: Tertullian, _Adv. Marc._ iv. I; _Adv. Prax._ xv. 20.] 'Gospels,' as applied to the four inspired records of the life and ministry of our Lord. [Footnote: Justin Martyr, _Apol_. i. 66.] We notice, too, with interest, the first coming up of 'monk' and 'nun,' [Footnote: 'Nun' (nonna) first appears in Jerome (_Ad Eustoch. Ep._ 22); 'monk' (monachus) a little earlier: Rutilius, a Latin versifier of the fifth century, who still clung to the old Paganism, gives the derivation: Ipsi se _monachos_ Graio cognomine dicunt, Quod _soli_ nullo vivere teste volunt.] marking as they do the beginnings of the monastic system;--of 'transubstantiation,' [Footnote: Hildebert, Archbishop of Tours (d. 1134), is the first to use it (_Serm_. 93).] of 'concomitance,' [Footnote: Thomas Aquinas is reported to have been the first to use this word.] expressing as does this word the grounds on which the medieval Church defended communion in one kind only for the laity; of 'limbo' in its theological sense; [Footnote: Thomas Aquinas first employs 'limbus' in this sense.] witnessing as these do to the _consolidation_ of errors which had long been floating in the Church. Not of so profound an interest, but still very instructive to note, is the earliest apparition of names historical and geographical, above all of such as have since been often on the lips of men; as the first mention in books of 'Asia'; [Footnote: Aeschylus, _Prometheus Vinctus_, 412.] of 'India'; [Footnote: Id. _Suppl_. 282.] of 'Europe'; [Footnote: Herodotus, iv. 36.] of 'Macedonia'; [Footnote: Id. v. 17.] of 'Greeks'; [Footnote: Aristotle, _Meteor_, i. 14. But his _Graikoi_ are only an insignificant tribe, near Dodona. How it came to pass that Graeci, or Graii, was the Latin name by which all the Hellenes were known, must always remain a mystery.] of 'Germans' and 'Germany'; [Footnote: Probably first in the _Commentaries_ of Caesar; see Grimm, _Gesch. d. Deutschen Sprache_, p. 773.] of 'Alemanni'; [Footnote: Spartian, _Caracalla_, c. 9.] of 'Franks'; [Footnote: Vopiscus, _Aurel_. 7; about A.D. 240.] of 'Prussia' and 'Prussians'; [Footnote: 'Pruzia' and 'Pruzzi' first appear in the _Life of S. Adalbert_, written by his fellow-labourer Gaudentius, between 997-1006.] of 'Normans'; [Footnote: The _Geographer of Ravenna_.] the earliest notice by any Greek author of Rome; [Footnote: Probably in Hellanicus, a contemporary of Herodotus.] the first use of 'Italy' as comprehending the entire Hesperian peninsula; [Footnote: In the time of Augustus Caesar; see Niebuhr, _History of Rome_, Engl. Translation, vol. i. p. 12.] of 'Asia Minor' to designate Asia on this side Taurus. [Footnote: Orosius, i. 2: in the fifth century of our era.] 'Madagascar' may hereafter have a history, which will make it interesting to know that this name was first given, so far as we can trace, by Marco Polo to the huge African island. Neither can we regard with indifference the first giving to the newly-discovered continent in the West the name of 'America'; and still less should we Englishmen fail to take note of the date when this island exchanged its earlier name of Britain for 'England'; or again, when it resumed 'Great Britain' as its official designation. So also, to confirm our assertion by examples from another quarter, it cannot be unprofitable to mark the exact moment at which 'tyrant' and 'tyranny,' forming so distinct an epoch as this did in the political history of Greece, first appeared; [Footnote: In the writings of Archilochus, about 700 B.C. A 'tyrant' was not for Greeks a bad king, who abused a rightful position to purposes of lust or cruelty or other wrong. It was of the essence of a 'tyrant' that he had attained supreme dominion through a violation of the laws and liberties of the state; having done which, whatever the moderation of his after-rule, he would not escape the name. Thus the mild and bounteous Pisistratus was 'tyrant' of Athens, while a Christian II. of Denmark, 'the Nero of the North,' would not in Greek eyes have been one. It was to their honour that they did not allow the course of the word to be arrested or turned aside by occasional or partial exceptions in the manner of the exercise of this ill-gotten dominion; but in the hateful secondary sense which 'tyrant' with them acquired, and which has passed over to us, the moral conviction, justified by all experience, spake out, that the ill-gotten would be ill-kept; that the 'tyrant' in the earlier sense of the word, dogged by suspicion, fear, and an evil conscience, must, by an almost inevitable law, become a 'tyrant' in our later sense of the word.] or again, when, and from whom, the fabric of the external universe first received the title of 'cosmos,' or beautiful order; [ Footnote: Pythagoras, born B.C. 570, is said to have been the first who made this application of the word. For much of interest on its history see Humboldt, _Kosmos_, 1846, English edit., vol. i. p. 371.] a name not new in itself, but new in this application of it; with much more of the same kind. Let us go back to one of the words just named, and inquire what may be learned from acquaintance with the time and place of its first appearance. It is one the coming up of which has found special record in the Book of life: 'The disciples,' as St. Luke expressly tells us, 'were called Christians first in Antioch' (Acts xi. 26). That we have here a notice which we would not willingly have missed all will acknowledge, even as nothing can be otherwise than curious which relates to the infancy of the Church. But there is here much more than an interesting notice. Question it a little closer, and how much it will be found to contain, how much which it is waiting to yield up. What light it throws on the whole story of the apostolic Church to know where and when this name of 'Christians' was first imposed on the faithful; for imposed by adversaries it certainly was, not devised by themselves, however afterwards they may have learned to glory in it as the name of highest dignity and honour. They did not call themselves, but, as is expressly recorded, they 'were called,' Christians first at Antioch; in agreement with which statement, the name occurs nowhere in Scripture, except on the lips of those alien from, or opposed to, the faith (Acts xxvi. 28; I Pet. iv. 16). And as it was a name imposed by adversaries, so among these adversaries it was plainly heathens, and not Jews, who were its authors; for Jews would never have called the followers of Jesus of Nazareth, 'Christians,' or those of Christ, the very point of their opposition to Him being, that He was _not_ the Christ, but a false pretender to the name. [Footnote: Compare Tacitus (_Annal_, xv. 24): Quos _vulgus_ ... Christianos appellabat. It is curious too that, although a Greek word and coined in a Greek city, the termination is Latin. Christianos is formed on the model of Romanus, Albanus, Pompeianus, and the like.] Starting then from this point, that 'Christians' was a title given to the disciples by the heathen, what may we deduce from it further? At Antioch they first obtained this name--at the city, that is, which was the head-quarters of the Church's missions to the heathen, in the same sense as Jerusalem had been the head-quarters of the mission to the seed of Abraham. It was there, and among the faithful there, that a conviction of the world-wide destination of the Gospel arose; there it was first plainly seen as intended for all kindreds of the earth. Hitherto the faithful in Christ had been called by their adversaries, and indeed often were still called, 'Galileans,' or 'Nazarenes,'--both names which indicated the Jewish cradle wherein the Church had been nursed, and that the world saw in the new Society no more than a Jewish sect. But it was plain that the Church had now, even in the world's eyes, chipped its Jewish shell. The name 'Christians,' or those of Christ, while it told that Christ and the confession of Him was felt even by the heathen to be the sum and centre of this new faith, showed also that they comprehended now, not all which the Church would be, but something of this; saw this much, namely, that it was no mere sect and variety of Judaism, but a Society with a mission and a destiny of its own. Nor will the thoughtful reader fail to observe that the coming up of this name is by closest juxtaposition connected in the sacred narrative, and still more closely in the Greek than in the English, with the arrival at Antioch, and with the preaching there, of that Apostle, who was God's appointed instrument for bringing the Church to a full sense that the message which it had, was not for some men only, but for all. As so often happens with the rise of new names, the rise of this one marked a new epoch in the Church's life, and that it was entering upon a new stage of its development. [Footnote: Renan (_Les Apôtres_ pp. 233-236) has much instruction on this matter. I quote a few words; though even in them the spirit in which the whole book is conceived does not fail to make itself felt: L'heure où une création nouvelle reçoit son nom est solennelle; car le nom est le signe définitif de l'existence. C'est par le nom qu'un être individuel ou collectif devient lui-même, et sort d'un autre. La formation du mot 'chrétien' marque ainsi la date précise où l'Eglise de Jésus se sépara du judaïsme.... Le christianisme est complètement détaché du sein de sa mère; la vraie pensée de Jésus a triomphé de l'indécision de ses premiers disciples; l'Eglise de Jérusalem est dépassée; l'Araméen, la langue de Jésus, est inconnue à une partie de son école; le christianisme parle grec; il est lancé définitivement dans le grand tourbillon du monde grec et romain; d'où il ne sortira plus.] It is a small matter, yet not without its own significance, that the invention of this name is laid by St. Luke,--for so, I think, we may confidently say,--to the credit of the Antiochenes. Now the idle, frivolous, and witty inhabitants of the Syrian capital were noted in all antiquity for the invention of nicknames; it was a manufacture for which their city was famous. And thus it was exactly the place where beforehand we might have expected that such a title, being a nickname or little better in their mouths who devised it should first come into being. This one example is sufficient to show that new words will often repay any amount of attention which we may bestow upon them, and upon the conditions under which they were born. I proceed to consider the causes which suggest or necessitate their birth, the periods when a language is most fruitful in them, the sources from which they usually proceed, with some other interesting phenomena about them. And first of the causes which give them birth. Now of all these causes the noblest is this--namely, that in the appointments of highest Wisdom there are epochs in the world's history, in which, more than at other times, new moral and spiritual forces are at work, stirring to their central depths the hearts of men. When it thus fares with a people, they make claims on their language which were never made on it before. It is required to utter truths, to express ideas, remote from it hitherto; for which therefore the adequate expression will naturally not be forthcoming at once, these new thoughts and feelings being larger and deeper than any wherewith hitherto the speakers of that tongue had been familiar. It fares with a language then, as it would fare with a river bed, suddenly required to deliver a far larger volume of waters than had hitherto been its wont. It would in such a case be nothing strange, if the waters surmounted their banks, broke forth on the right hand and on the left, forced new channels with a certain violence for themselves. Something of the kind they must do. Now it was exactly thus that it fared--for there could be no more illustrious examples--with the languages of Greece and Rome, when it was demanded of them that they should be vehicles of the truths of revelation. These languages, as they already existed, might have sufficed, and did suffice, for heathenism, sensuous and finite; but they did not suffice for the spiritual and infinite, for the truths at once so new and so mighty which claimed now to find utterance in the language of men. And thus it continually befell, that the new thought must weave a new garment for itself, those which it found ready made being narrower than that it could wrap itself in them; that the new wine must fashion new vessels for itself, if both should be preserved, the old being neither strong enough, nor expansive enough, to hold it. [ Footnote: Renan, speaking on this matter, says of the early Christians: La langue leur faisait défaut. Le Grec et le Sémitique les trahissaient également. De là cette énorme violence que le Christianisme naissant fit au langage (_Les Apôtres_, p. 71)] Thus, not to speak of mere technical matters, which would claim an utterance, how could the Greek language possess a word for 'idolatry,' so long as the sense of the awful contrast between the worship of the living God and of dead things had not risen up in their minds that spoke it? But when Greek began to be the native language of men, to whom this distinction between the Creator and the creature was the most earnest and deepest conviction of their souls, words such as 'idolatry,' 'idolater,' of necessity appeared. The heathen did not claim for their deities to be 'searchers of hearts,' did not disclaim for them the being 'accepters of persons'; such attributes of power and righteousness entered not into their minds as pertaining to the objects of their worship. The Greek language, therefore, so long as they only employed it, had not the words corresponding. [Footnote: [Greek: Prosopolaeptaes, kardiognostaes.]] It, indeed, could not have had them, as the Jewish Hellenistic Greek could not be without them. How useful a word is 'theocracy'; what good service it has rendered in presenting a certain idea clearly and distinctly to the mind; yet where, except in the bosom of the same Jewish Greek, could it have been born? [Footnote: We preside at its birth in a passage of Josephus, _Con. Apion._ ii. 16.] These difficulties, which were felt the most strongly when the thought and feeling that had been at home in the Hebrew, the original language of inspiration, needed to be transferred into Greek, reappeared, though not in quite so aggravated a form, when that which had gradually woven for itself in the Greek an adequate clothing, again demanded to find a suitable garment in the Latin. An example of the difficulty, and of the way in which the difficulty was ultimately overcome, will illustrate this far better than long disquisitions. The classical language of Greece had a word for 'saviour' which, though often degraded to unworthy uses, bestowed as a title of honour not merely on the false gods of heathendom, but sometimes on men, such as better deserved to be styled 'destroyers' than 'saviours' of their fellows, was yet in itself not unequal to the setting forth the central office and dignity of Him, who came into the world to _save_ it. The word might be likened to some profaned temple, which needed a new consecration, but not to be abolished, and another built in its room. With the Latin it was otherwise. The language seemed to lack a word, which on one account or another Christians needed continually to utter: indeed Cicero, than whom none could know better the resources of his own tongue, remarkably enough had noted its want of any single equivalent to the Greek 'saviour.' [Footnote: Hoc [Greek: soter] quantum est? ita magnum ut Latinè uno verbo exprimi non possit.] 'Salvator' would have been the natural word; but the classical Latin of the best times, though it had 'salus' and 'salvus,' had neither this, nor the verb 'salvare'; some, indeed, have thought that 'salvare' had always existed in the common speech. 'Servator' was instinctively felt to be insufficient, even as 'Preserver' would for us fall very short of uttering all which 'Saviour' does now. The seeking of the strayed, the recovery of the lost, the healing of the sick, would all be but feebly and faintly suggested by it, if suggested at all. God '_preserveth_ man and beast,' but He is the 'Saviour' of his own in a more inward and far more endearing sense. It was long before the Latin Christian writers extricated themselves from this embarrassment, for the 'Salutificator' of Tertullian, the 'Sospitator' of another, assuredly did not satisfy the need. The strong good sense of Augustine finally disposed of the difficulty. He made no scruple about using 'Salvator'; observing with a true insight into the conditions under which new words should be admitted, that however 'Salvator' might not have been good Latin before the Saviour came, He by his coming and by the work had made it such; for, as shadows wait upon substances, so words wait upon things. [Footnote: _Serm_. 299. 6: Christus Jesus, id est Christus Salvator: hoc est enim Latine Jesus. Nec quaerant grammatici quam sit Latinum, sed Christiani, quam verum. Salus enim Latinum nomen est; salvare et salvator non fuerunt haec Latina, antequam veniret Salvator: quando ad Latinos venit, et haec Latina fecit. Cf. _De Trin_. 13. 10: Quod verbum [salvator] Latina lingua antea non habebat, sed habere poterat; sicut potuit quando voluit. Other words which we owe to Christian Latin, probably to the Vulgate or to the earlier Latin translations, are these--'carnalis,' 'clarifico,' 'compassio,' 'deitas' (Augustine, _Civ. Dei_, 7. i), 'glorifico,' 'idololatria,' 'incarnatio,' 'justifico,' 'justificatio,' 'longanimitas,' 'mortifico,' 'magnalia,' 'mundicors,' 'passio,' 'praedestinatio,' 'refrigerium' (Ronsch, _Vulgata_, p. 321), 'regeneratio,' 'resipiscentia,' 'revelatio,' 'sanctificatio,' 'soliloquium,' 'sufficientia,' 'supererogatio,' 'tribulatio.' Many of these may seem barbarous to the Latin scholar, but there is hardly one of them which does not imply a new thought, or a new feeling, or the sense of a new relation of man to God or to his fellow-man. Strange too and significant that heathen Latin could get as far as 'peccare' and 'peccatum,' but stopped short of 'peccator' and 'peccatrix.'] Take another example. It seemed so natural a thing, in the old heathen world, to expose infants, where it was not found convenient to rear them, the crime excited so little remark, was so little regarded as a crime at all, that it seemed not worth the while to find a name for it; and thus it came to pass that the word 'infanticidium' was first born in the bosom of the Christian Church, Tertullian being the earliest in whose writings it appears. Yet it is not only when new truth, moral or spiritual, has thus to fit itself to the lips of men, that such enlargements of speech become necessary: but in each further unfolding of those seminal truths implanted in man at the first, in each new enlargement of his sphere of knowledge, outward or inward, the same necessities make themselves felt. The beginnings and progressive advances of moral philosophy in Greece, [Footnote: See Lobeck, _Phrynichus_, p. 350.] the transplantation of the same to Rome, the rise of the scholastic, and then of the mystic, theology in the Middle Ages, the discoveries of modern science and natural philosophy, these each and all have been accompanied with corresponding extensions in the domain of language. Of the words to which each of these has in turn given birth, many, it is true, have never travelled beyond their own peculiar sphere, having remained purely technical, or scientific, or theological to the last; but many, too, have passed over from the laboratory and the school, from the cloister and the pulpit, into everyday use, and have, with the ideas which they incorporate, become the common heritage of all. For however hard and repulsive a front any study or science may present to the great body of those who are as laymen in regard of it, there is yet inevitably such a detrition as this continually going forward, and one which it would be well worth while to trace in detail. Where the movement is a popular one, stirring the heart and mind of a people to its depths, there these new words will for the most part spring out of their bosom, a free spontaneous birth, seldom or never capable of being referred to one man more than another, because in a manner they belong to all. Where, on the contrary, the movement is more strictly theological, or has for its sphere those regions of science and philosophy, where, as first pioneers and discoverers, only a few can bear their part, there the additions to the language and extensions of it will lack something of the freedom, the unconscious boldness, which mark the others. Their character will be more artificial, less spontaneous, although here also the creative genius of a single man, as there of a nation, will oftentimes set its mark; and many a single word will come forth, which will be the result of profound meditation, or of intuitive genius, or of both in happiest combination--many a word, which shall as a torch illuminate vast regions comparatively obscure before, and, it may be, cast its rays far into the yet unexplored darkness beyond; or which, summing up into itself all the acquisitions in a particular direction of the past, shall furnish a mighty vantage- ground from which to advance to new conquests in those realms of mind or of nature, not as yet subdued to the intellect and uses of man. 'Cosmopolite' has often now a shallow or even a mischievous use; and he who calls himself 'cosmopolite' may mean no more than that he is _not_ a patriot, that his native country does _not_ possess his love. Yet, as all must admit, he could have been no common man who, before the preaching of the Gospel, launched this word upon the world, and claimed this name for himself. Nor was he a common man; for Diogenes the Cynic, whose sayings are among quite the most notable in antiquity, was its author. Being demanded of what city or country he was, Diogenes answered that he was a 'cosmopolite'; in this word widening the range of men's thoughts, bringing in not merely a word new to Greek ears, but a thought which, however commonplace and familiar to us now, must have been most novel and startling to those whom he addressed. I am far from asserting that contempt for his citizenship in its narrower sense may not have mingled with this his challenge for himself of a citizenship wide as the world; but there was not the less a very remarkable reaching out here after truths which were not fully born into the world until _He_ came, in whom and in whose Church all national differences and distinctions are done away. As occupying somewhat of a middle place between those more deliberate word-makers and the multitude whose words rather grow of themselves than are made, we must not omit him who is a _maker_ by the very right of his name--I mean, the poet. That creative energy with which he is endowed, 'the high-flying liberty of conceit proper to the poet,' will not fail to manifest itself in this region as in others. Extending the domain of thought and feeling, he will scarcely fail to extend that also of language, which does not willingly lag behind. And the loftier his moods, the more of this maker he will be. The passion of such times, the all-fusing imagination, will at once suggest and justify audacities in speech, upon which in calmer moods he would not have ventured, or, venturing, would have failed to carry others with him: for it is only the fluent metal that runs easily into novel shapes and moulds. Nor is it merely that the old and the familiar will often become new in the poet's hands; that he will give the stamp of allowance, as to him will be free to do, to words which hitherto have lived only on the lips of the people, or been confined to some single dialect and province; but he will enrich his native tongue with words unknown and non-existent before--non-existent, that is, save in their elements; for in the historic period of a language it is not permitted to any man to do more than work on pre-existent materials; to evolve what is latent therein, to combine what is apart, to recall what has fallen out of sight. But to return to the more deliberate coining of words. New necessities have within the last few years called out several of these deliberate creations in our own language. The almost simultaneous discovery of such large abundance of gold in so many quarters of the world led some nations so much to dread an enormous depreciation of this metal, that they ceased to make it the standard of value--Holland for instance did so for a while, though she has since changed her mind; and it has been found convenient to invent a word, 'to demonetize' to express this process of turning a precious metal from being the legal standard into a mere article of commerce. So, too, diplomacy has recently added more than one new word to our vocabulary. I suppose nobody ever heard of 'extradition' till within the last few years; nor of 'neutralization' except, it might be, in some treatise upon chemistry, till in the treaty of peace which followed the Crimean War the 'neutralization' of the Black Sea was made one of the stipulations. 'Secularization,' in like manner, owes its birth to the long and weary negotiations which preceded the Treaty of Westphalia (1648). Whenever it proved difficult to find anywhere else compensation for some powerful claimant, there was always some abbey or bishopric which with its revenues might be seized, stripped of its ecclesiastical character, and turned into a secular possession. Our manifold points of contact with the East, the necessity that has thus arisen of representing oriental words to the western world by means of an alphabet not its own, with the manifold discussions on the fittest equivalents, all this has brought with it the need of a word which should describe the process, and 'transliteration' is the result. We have long had 'assimilation' in our dictionaries; 'dissimilation' has as yet scarcely found its way into them, but it speedily will. [It has already appeared in our books on language. [Footnote: See Skeat's _Etym. Dict_. (s. v. _truffle_). Pott (_Etym. Forsch_. vol. ii. p. 65) introduced the word 'dissimilation' into German.]] Advances in philology have rendered it a matter of necessity that we should possess a term to designate a certain process which words unconsciously undergo, and no other would designate it at all so well. There is a process of 'assimilation' going on very extensively in language; the organs of speech finding themselves helped by changing one letter for another which has just occurred, or will just occur in a word; thus we say not 'a_df_iance,' but 'a_ff_iance,' not 're_n_ow_m_,' as our ancestors did when 'renom' was first naturalized, but 're_n_ow_n_'; we say too, though we do not write it, 'cu_b_board' and not 'cu_p_board,' 'su_t_tle' and not 'su_b_tle.' But side by side with this there is another opposite process, where some letter would recur too often for euphony or ease in speaking, were the strict form of the word too closely held fast; and where consequently this letter is exchanged for some other, generally for some nearly allied; thus 'cae_r_uleus' was once 'cae_l_uleus,' from caelum [Footnote: The connexion of _caeruleus_ with _caelum_ is not at all certain.] 'me_r_idies' is for 'me_d_idies/ or medius dies. In the same way the Italians prefer 've_l_eno' to 've_n_eno'; the Germans '_k_artoffel' to '_t_artüffel,' from Italian 'tartufola' = Latin terrae tuber, an old name of the potato; and we 'cinnamo_n_' to 'cinnamo_m_' (the earlier form). So too in 'turtle,' 'marble,' 'purple,' we have shrunk from the double '_r_' of 'turtur,' 'marmor,' 'purpura.' [Footnote: See Dwight, _Modern Philology_, 2nd Series, p. 100; Heyse, _System der Sprachwissenschaft_, Section 139- 141; and Peile, _Introduction to Greek and Latin Etymology_, pp. 357- 379.] New necessities, new evolutions of society into more complex conditions, evoke new words; which come forth, because they are required now; but did not formerly exist, because in an anterior period they were not required. For example, in Greece so long as the poet sang his own verses, 'singer' (aoidos) sufficiently expressed the double function; such a 'singer' was Homer, and such Homer describes Demodocus, the bard of the Phaeacians; that double function, in fact, not being in his time contemplated as double, but each of its parts so naturally completing the other, that no second word was required. When, however, in the division of labour one made the verses which another chaunted, then 'poet' or 'maker,' a word unknown to the Homeric age, arose. In like manner, when 'physicians' were the only natural philosophers, the word covered this meaning as well as that other which it still retains; but when the investigation of nature and natural causes detached itself from the art of healing, became an independent study, the name 'physician' remained to that which was as the stock and stem of the art, while the new offshoot sought out and obtained a new name for itself. But it is not merely new things which will require new names. It will often be discovered that old things have not got a name at all, or, having one, are compelled to share it with something else, often to the serious embarrassment of both. The manner in which men become aware of such deficiencies, is commonly this. Comparing their own language with another, and in some aspects a richer, compelled, it may be, to such comparison through having undertaken to transfer treasures of that language into their own, they become conscious of much worthy to be uttered in human speech, and plainly utterable therein, since another language has found utterance for it; but which hitherto has found no voice in their own. Hereupon with more or less success they proceed to supply the deficiency. Hardly in any other way would the wants in this way revealed make themselves felt even by the most thoughtful; for language is to so large an extent the condition and limit of thought, men are so little accustomed, indeed so little able, to contemplate things, except through the intervention, and by the machinery, of words, that the absence of words from a language almost necessarily brings with it the absence of any sense of that absence. Here is one advantage of acquaintance with other languages besides our own, and of the institution that will follow, if we have learned those other to any profit, of such comparisons, namely, that we thus become aware that names are not, and least of all the names in any one language, co- extensive with things (and by 'things' I mean subjects as well as objects of thought, whatever one can _think_ about), that innumerable things and aspects of things exist, which, though capable of being resumed and connoted in a word, are yet without one, unnamed and unregistered; and thus, vast as may be the world of names, that the world of realities, and of realities which are nameable, is vaster still. Such discoveries the Romans made, when they sought to transplant the moral philosophy of Greece to an Italian soil. They discovered that many of its terms had no equivalents with them; which equivalents thereupon they proceeded to devise for themselves, appealing for this to the latent capabilities of their own tongue. For example, the Greek schools had a word, and one playing no unimportant part in some of their philosophical systems, to express 'apathy' or the absence of all passion and pain. As it was absolutely necessary to possess a corresponding word, Cicero invented 'indolentia,' as that 'if I may so speak' with which he paves the way to his first introduction of it, sufficiently declares. [Footnote: _Fin_. ii. 4; and for 'qualitas' see _Acad_. i. 6.] Sometimes, indeed, such a skilful mint-master of words, such a subtle watcher and weigher of their force as was Cicero, [Footnote: Ille verborum vigilantissimus appensor ac mensor, as Augustine happily terms him.] will have noticed even apart from this comparison with other languages, an omission in his own, which thereupon he will endeavour to supply. Thus the Latin had two adjectives which, though not kept apart as strictly as they might have been, possessed each its peculiar meaning, 'invidus' one who is envious, 'invidiosus' one who excites envy in others; [Footnote: Thus the monkish line: _Invidiosus_ ego, non _invidus_ esse laboro.] at the same time there was only one substantive, 'invidia' the correlative of them both; with the disadvantage, therefore, of being employed now in an active, now in a passive sense, now for the envy which men feel, and now for the envy which they excite. The word he saw was made to do double duty; under a seeming unity there lurked a real dualism, from which manifold confusions might follow. He therefore devised 'invidentia,' to express the active envy, or the envying, no doubt desiring that 'invidia' should be restrained to the passive, the being envied. 'Invidentia' to all appearance supplied a real want; yet Cicero himself did not succeed in giving it currency; does not seem himself to have much cared to employ it again. [Footnote: _Tusc._ iii. 9; iv. 8; cf. Döderlein, _Synon._ vol. iii, p. 68.] We see by this example that not every word, which even an expert in language proposes, finds acceptance; [Footnote: Quintilian's advice, based on this fact, is good (i. 6. 42): Etiamsi potest nihil peccare, qui utitur iis verbis quae summi auctores tradiderunt, multum tamen refert non solum quid _dixerint_, sed etiam quid _persuaserint_. He himself, as he informs us, invented 'vocalitas' to correspond with the Greek [Greek: euphonia] (_Instit._ i. 5. 24), but I am not conscious that he found any imitators here.] for, as Dryden, treating on this subject, has well observed, 'It is one thing to draw a bill, and another to have it accepted.' Provided some words live, he must be content that others should fall to the ground and die. Nor is this the only unsuccessful candidate for admission into the language which Cicero put forward. His 'indolentia' which I mentioned just now, hardly passed beyond himself; [Footnote: Thus Seneca a little later is unaware, or has forgotten, that Cicero made any such suggestion. Taking no notice of it, he proposes 'impatientia' as an adequate rendering of [Greek: apatheia]. There clung this inconvenience to the word, as he himself allowed, that it was already used in exactly the opposite sense (_Ep_. 9). Elsewhere he claims to be the inventor of 'essentia' (_Ep_. 38;.)] his 'vitiositas,' [Footnote: _Tusc_. iv. 15.] 'indigentia,' [Footnote: _Ibid_. iv. 9. 21.] and 'mulierositas,' [Footnote: _Ibid_. iv. ii.] not at all. 'Beatitas' too and 'beatitudo,' [Footnote: Nat. Dear. i. 34.] both of his coining, yet, as he owns himself, with something strange and unattractive about them, found almost no acceptance at all in the classical literature of Rome: 'beatitude,' indeed, obtained a home, as it deserved to do, in the Christian Church, but 'beatitas' none. Coleridge's 'esemplastic,' by which he was fain to express the all-atoning or unifying power of the imagination, has not pleased others at all in the measure in which it pleased himself; while the words of Jeremy Taylor, of such Latinists as Sir Thomas Browne and Henry More, born only to die, are multitudinous as the fallen leaves of autumn. [Footnote: See my _English Past and Present_, 13th edit. p. 113.] Still even the word which fails is often an honourable testimony to the scholarship, or the exactness of thought, or the imagination of its author; and Ben Jonson is over-hard on 'neologists,' if I may bring this term back to its earlier meaning, when he says: 'A man coins not a new word without some peril, and less fruit; for if it happen to be received, the praise is but moderate; if refused, the scorn is assured,' [Footnote: Therefore the maxim: Moribus antiquis, praesentibus utere verbis.] I spoke just now of comprehensive words, which should singly say what hitherto it had taken many words to say, in which a higher term has been reached than before had been attained. The value of these is incalculable. By the cutting short of lengthy explanations and tedious circuits of language, they facilitate mental processes, such as would often have been nearly or quite impossible without them; and such as have invented or put these into circulation, are benefactors of a high order to knowledge. In the ordinary traffic of life, unless our dealings are on the smallest scale, we willingly have about us our money in the shape rather of silver than of copper; and if our transactions are at all extensive, rather in gold than in silver: while, if we were setting forth upon a long and costly journey, we should be best pleased to turn even our gold coin itself into bills of exchange or circular notes; in fact, into the highest denomination of money which it was capable of assuming. How many words with which we are now perfectly familiar are for us what the circular note or bill of exchange is for the traveller or the merchant. As innumerable pence, a multitude of shillings, not a few pounds are gathered up and represented by one of these, so have we in some single word the quintessence and final result of an infinite number of anterior mental processes, ascending one above the other, until all have been at length summed up for us in that single word. This last may be compared to nothing so fitly as to some mighty river, which does not bring its flood of waters to the sea, till many rills have been swallowed up in brooks, and brooks in streams, and streams in tributary rivers, each of these affluents having lost its separate name and existence in that which at last represents and contains them all. Science is an immense gainer by words which thus say singly, what whole sentences might with difficulty have succeeded in saying. Thus 'isothermal' is quite a modern invention; but how much is summed up by the word; what a long story is saved, as often as we speak of 'isothermal' lines. Physiologists have given the name of 'atavism' to the emerging again of a face in a family after its disappearance during two or three generations. What would have else needed a sentence is here accomplished by a word. Lord Bacon somewhere describes a certain candidate for the Chair of St. Peter as being 'papable.' There met, that is, in him all the conditions, and they were many, which would admit the choice of the Conclave falling upon him. When Bacon wrote, one to be 'papable' must have been born in lawful wedlock; must have no children nor grandchildren living; must not have a kinsman already in the Conclave; must be already a Cardinal; all which facts this single word sums up. When Aristotle, in the opening sentences of his _Rhetoric_, declares that rhetoric and logic are antistrophic,' what a wonderful insight into both, and above all into their relations to one another, does the word impart to those who have any such special training as enables them to take in all which hereby he intends. Or take a word so familiar as 'circle,' and imagine how it would fare with us, if, as often as in some long and difficult mathematical problem we needed to refer to this figure, we were obliged to introduce its entire definition, no single word representing it; and not this only, but the definition of each term employed in the definition;--how well nigh impossible it would prove to carry the whole process in the mind, or to take oversight of all its steps. Imagine a few more words struck out of the vocabulary of the mathematician, and if all activity and advance in his proper domain was not altogether arrested, yet would it be as effectually restrained and hampered as commercial intercourse would be, if in all its transactions iron or copper were the sole medium of exchange. Wherever any science is progressive, there will be progress in its nomenclature as well. Words will keep pace with things, and with more or less felicity resuming in themselves the labours of the past, will at once assist and abridge the labours of the future; like tools which, themselves the result of the finest mechanical skill, do at the same time render other and further triumphs of art possible, oftentimes such as would prove quite unattainable without them. [Footnote: See Mill, _System of Logic_, iv. 6, 3.] It is not merely the widening of men's intellectual horizon, which, bringing new thoughts within the range of their vision, compels the origination of corresponding words; but as often as regions of this outward world hitherto closed are laid open, the novel objects of interest which these contain will demand to find their names, and not merely to be catalogued in the nomenclature of science, but, so far as they present themselves to the popular eye, will require to be popularly named. When a new thing, a plant, or fruit, or animal, or whatever else it may be, is imported from some foreign land, or so comes within the sphere of knowledge that it needs to be thus named, there are various ways by which this may be done. The first and commonest way is to import the name and the thing together, incorporating the former, unchanged, or with slight modification, into the language. Thus we did with the potato, which is only another form of 'batata,' in which shape the original Indian word appears in our earlier voyagers. But this is not the only way of naming; and the example on which I have just lighted affords good illustration of various other methods which may be adopted. Thus a name belonging to something else, which the new object nearly resembles, may be transferred to it, and the confusion arising from calling different things by the same name disregarded. It was thus in German, 'kartoffel' being only a corruption, which found place in the last century, of 'tartuffel' from the Italian 'tartiiffolo'(Florio), properly the name of the truffle; but which not the less was transferred to the potato, on the ground of the many resemblances between them. [Footnote: [See Kluge, _Etym. Dict_. (s. v. _Kartoffel_).]] Or again this same transfer may take place, but with some qualifying or distinguishing addition. Thus in Italy also men called the potato 'tartufo,' but added 'bianco,' the white truffle; a name now giving way to 'patata.' Thus was it, too, with the French; who called it apple, but 'apple of the earth'; even as in many of the provincial dialects of Germany it bears the name of 'erdapfel' or earth-apple to this day. It will sometimes happen that a language, having thus to provide a new name for a new thing, will seem for a season not to have made up its mind by which of these methods it shall do it. Two names will exist side by side, and only after a time will one gain the upper hand of the other. Thus when the pineapple was introduced into England, it brought with it the name of 'ananas' erroneously 'anana' under which last form it is celebrated by Thomson in his _Seasons_. [Footnote: [The word ananas is from a native Peruvian name _nanas_. The pineapple was first seen by Europeans in Peru; see the _New English Dictionary_ (s. v.).]] This name has been nearly or quite superseded by 'pineapple' manifestly suggested by the likeness of the new fruit to the cone of the pine. It is not a very happy formation; for it is not _likeness_, but _identity_, which 'pineapple' suggests, and it gives some excuse to an error, which up to a very late day ran through all German-English and French-English dictionaries; I know not whether even now it has disappeared. In all of these 'pineapple' is rendered as though it signified not the anana, but this cone of the pine; and not very long ago, the _Journal des Débats_ made some uncomplimentary observations on the voracity of the English, who could wind up a Lord Mayor's banquet with fir-cones for dessert. Sometimes the name adopted will be one drawn from an intermediate language, through which we first became acquainted with the object requiring to be named. 'Alligator' is an example of this. When that ugly crocodile of the New World was first seen by the Spanish discoverers, they called it, with a true insight into its species, 'el lagarto,' _the_ lizard, as being the largest of that lizard species to which it belonged, or sometimes 'el lagarto de las Indias,' the Indian lizard. In Sir Walter Raleigh's _Discovery of Guiana_ the word still retains its Spanish form. Sailing up the Orinoco, 'we saw in it,' he says, 'divers sorts of strange fishes of marvellous bigness, but for _lagartos_ it exceeded; for there were thousands of these ugly serpents, and the people call it, for the abundance of them, the river of _lagartos_, in their language.' We can explain the shape which with us the word gradually assumed, by supposing that English sailors who brought it home, and had continually heard, but may have never seen it written, blended, as in similar instances has often happened, the Spanish article 'el' with the name. In Ben Jonson's 'alligarta,' we note the word in process of transformation. [Footnote: 'Alcoran' supplies another example of this curious annexation of the article. Examples of a like absorption or incorporation of it are to be found in many languages; in our own, when we write 'a newt,' and not an ewt, or when our fathers wrote 'a nydiot' (Sir T. More), and not an idiot; in the Italian, which has 'lonza' for onza; but they are still more numerous in French. Thus 'lierre,' ivy, was written by Ronsard, 'l'hierre,' which is correct, being the Latin 'hedera.' 'Lingot' is our 'ingot,' but with fusion of the article; in 'larigot' and 'loriot' the word and the article have in the same manner grown together. In old French it was l'endemain,' or, le jour en demain: 'le lendemain,' as now written, is a barbarous excess of expression. 'La Pouille,' a name given to the southern extremity of Italy, and in which we recognize 'Apulia,' is another variety of error, but moving in the same sphere (Génin, _Récréations Philologiques_, vol. i. pp. 102-105); of the same variety is 'La Natolie,' which was written 'L'Anatolie' once. An Irish scholar has observed that in modern Irish 'an' (='the') is frequently thus absorbed in the names of places, as in 'Nenagh, 'Naul'; while sometimes an error exactly the reverse of this is committed, and a letter supposed to be the article, but in fact a part of the word, dropt: thus 'Oughaval,' instead of 'Noughhaval' or New Habitation. [See Joyce, _Irish Local Names_.]] Less honourable causes than some which I have mentioned, give birth to new words; which will sometimes reflect back a very fearful light on the moral condition of that epoch in which first they saw the light. Of the Roman emperor, Tiberius, one of those 'inventors of evil things,' of whom St. Paul speaks (Rom. i. 30), Tacitus informs us that under his hateful dominion words, unknown before, emerged in the Latin tongue, for the setting out of wickednesses, happily also previously unknown, which he had invented. It was the same frightful time which gave birth to 'delator,' alike to the thing and to the word. The atrocious attempt of Lewis XIV. to convert the Protestants in his dominions to the Roman Catholic faith by quartering dragoons upon them, with license to misuse to the uttermost those who refused to conform, this 'booted mission' (mission bottée), as it was facetiously called at the time, has bequeathed 'dragonnade' to the French language. 'Refugee' had at the same time its rise, and owed it to the same event. They were called 'réfugiés' or 'refugees' who took refuge in some land less inhospitable than their own, so as to escape the tender mercies of these missionaries. 'Convertisseur' belongs to the same period. The spiritual factor was so named who undertook to convert the Protestants on a large scale, receiving so much a head for the converts whom he made. Our present use of 'roué' throws light on another curious and shameful page of French history. The 'roué,' by which word now is meant a man of profligate character and conduct, is properly and primarily one broken on the wheel. Its present and secondary meaning it derived from that Duke of Orleans who was Regent of France after the death of Lewis XIV. It was his miserable ambition to gather round him companions worse, if possible, and wickeder than himself. These, as the Duke of St. Simon assures us, he was wont to call his 'roués'; every one of them abundantly deserving to be broken on the wheel,--which was the punishment then reserved in France for the worst malefactors. [Footnote: The 'roués' themselves declared that the word expressed rather their readiness to give any proof of their affection, even to the being broken upon the wheel, to their protector and friend.] When we have learned the pedigree of the word, the man and the age rise up before us, glorying in their shame, and not caring to pay to virtue even that hypocritical homage which vice finds it sometimes convenient to render. The great French Revolution made, as might be expected, characteristic contributions to the French language. It gives us some insight into its ugliest side to know that, among other words, it produced the following: 'guillotine,' 'incivisme,' 'lanterner,' 'noyade,' 'sansculotte,' 'terrorisme.' Still later, the French conquests in North Africa, and the pitiless severities with which every attempt at resistance on the part of the free tribes of the interior was put down and punished, have left their mark on it as well; 'razzia' which is properly an Arabic word, having been added to it, to express the swift and sudden sweeping away of a tribe, with its herds, its crops, and all that belongs to it. The Communist insurrection of 1871 bequeathed one contribution almost as hideous as itself, namely 'pétroleuse,' to the language. It is quite recently that we have made any acquaintance with 'recidivist'--one, that is, who falls back once more on criminal courses. But it would ill become us to look only abroad for examples in this kind, when perhaps an equal abundance might be found much nearer home. Words of our own keep record of passages in our history in which we have little reason to glory. Thus 'mob' and 'sham' had their birth in that most disgraceful period of English history, the interval between the Restoration and the Revolution. 'I may note,' says one writing towards the end of the reign of Charles II., 'that the rabble first changed their title, and were called "the mob" in the assemblies of this [The Green Ribbon] Club. It was their beast of burden, and called first "mobile vulgus," but fell naturally into the contraction of one syllable, and ever since is become proper English.' [Footnote: North, _Examen_, p. 574; for the origin of 'sham' see p. 231. Compare Swift in _The Tatler_, No. ccxxx. 'I have done the utmost,' he there says, 'for some years past to stop the progress of "mob" and "banter"; but have been plainly borne down by numbers, and betrayed by those who promised to assist me.'] At a much later date a writer in _The Spectator_ speaks of 'mob' as still only struggling into existence. 'I dare not answer,' he says, 'that mob, rap, pos, incog., and the like, will not in time be looked at as part of our tongue.' In regard of 'mob,' the mobile multitude, swayed hither and thither by each gust of passion or caprice, this, which _The Spectator_ hardly expected, while he confessed it possible, has actually come to pass. 'It is one of the many words formerly slang, which are now used by our best writers, and received, like pardoned outlaws, into the body of respectable citizens.' Again, though the murdering of poor helpless lodgers, afterwards to sell their bodies for dissection, can only be regarded as the monstrous wickedness of one or two, yet the verb 'to burke,' drawn from the name of a wretch who long pursued this hideous traffic, will be evidence in all after times, unless indeed its origin should be forgotten, to how strange a crime this age of ours could give birth. Nor less must it be acknowledged that 'to ratten' is no pleasant acquisition which the language within the last few years has made; and as little 'to boycott,' which is of still later birth. [Footnote: This word has found its way into most European languages, see the New English Dictionary (s. v.)] We must not count as new words properly so called, although they may delay us for a minute, those comic words, most often comic combinations formed at will, wherein, as plays and displays of power, writers ancient and modern have delighted. These for the most part are meant to do service for the moment, and, this done, to pass into oblivion; the inventors of them themselves having no intention of fastening them permanently on the language. Thus Aristophanes coined [Greek: mellonikiao], to loiter like Nicias, with allusion to the delays by whose aid this prudent commander sought to put off the disastrous Sicilian expedition, with other words not a few, familiar to every scholar. The humour will sometimes consist in their enormous length, [Footnote: As in the [Greek: amphiptolemopedesistratos] of Eupolis; the [Greek: spermagoraiolekitholachanopolis] of Aristophanes. There are others a good deal longer than these.] sometimes in their mingled observance and transgression of the laws of the language, as in the [Greek: danaotatos], in the [Greek: autotatos] of the Greek comic poet, the 'patruissimus' and 'oculissimus,' comic superlatives of patruus and oculus, 'occisissimus' of occisus; 'dominissimus' of dominus; 'asinissimo' (Italian) of asino; or in superlative piled on superlative, as in the 'minimissimus' and 'pessimissimus' of Seneca, the 'ottimissimo' of the modern Italian; so too in the 'dosones,' 'dabones,' which in Greek and in medieval Latin were names given to those who were ever promising, ever saying 'I will give,' but never crowning promise with performance. Plautus, with his exuberant wit, and exulting in his mastery of the Latin language, is rich in these, 'fustitudinus,' 'ferricrepinus' and the like; will put together four or five lines consisting wholly of comic combinations thrown off for the occasion. [Footnote: _Persa_, iv. 6, 20-23.] Of the same character is Chaucer's 'octogamy,' or eighth marriage; Butler's 'cynarctomachy,' or battle of a dog and bear; Southey's 'matriarch,' for by this name he calls the wife of the Patriarch Job; but Southey's fun in this line of things is commonly poor enough; his want of finer scholarship making itself felt here. What humour for example can any one find in 'philofelist' or lover of cats? Fuller, when he used 'to avunculize,' meaning to tread in the footsteps of one's uncle, scarcely proposed it as a lasting addition to the language; as little did Pope intend more than a very brief existence for 'vaticide,' or Cowper for 'extra- foraneous,' or Carlyle for 'gigmanity,' for 'tolpatchery,' or the like. Such are some of the sources of increase in the wealth of a language; some of the quarters from which its vocabulary is augmented. There have been, from time to time, those who have so little understood what a language is, and what are the laws which it obeys, that they have sought by arbitrary decrees of their own to arrest its growth, have pronounced that it has reached the limits of its growth, and must not henceforward presume to develop itself further. Even Bentley with all his vigorous insight into things is here at fault. 'It were no difficult contrivance,' he says, 'if the public had any regard to it, to make the English tongue immutable, unless hereafter some foreign nation shall invade and overrun us.' [Footnote: Works, vol. II. p. 13.] But a language has a life, as truly as a man, or as a tree. As a man, it must grow to its full stature; unless indeed its life is prematurely abridged by violence from without; even as it is also submitted to his conditions of decay. As a forest tree, it will defy any feeble bands which should attempt to control its expansion, so long as the principle of growth is in it; as a tree too it will continually, while it casts off some leaves, be putting forth others. And thus all such attempts to arrest have utterly failed, even when made under conditions the most favourable for success. The French Academy, numbering all or nearly all the most distinguished writers of France, once sought to exercise such a domination over their own language, and might have hoped to succeed, if success had been possible for any. But the language heeded their decrees as little as the advancing tide heeded those of Canute. Could they hope to keep out of men's speech, or even out of their books, however they excluded from their own _Dictionary_, such words as 'blague,' 'blaguer,' 'blagueur,' because, being born of the people, they had the people's mark upon them? After fruitless resistance for a time, they have in cases innumerable been compelled to give way--though in favour of the words just cited they have not yielded yet--and in each successive edition of their _Dictionary_ have thrown open its doors to words which had established themselves in the language, and would hold their ground there, altogether indifferent whether they received the Academy's seal of allowance or not. [Footnote: Nisard (_Curiosites de l'Etym. Franc._ p. 195) has an article on these words, where with the epigrammatic neatness which distinguishes French prose, he says, Je regrette que l'Académie repousse de son Dictionnaire les mots _blague, blagueur_, laissant gronder à sa porte ces fils effrontés du peuple, qui finiront par l'enfoncer. On this futility of struggling against popular usage in language Montaigne has said, 'They that will fight custom with grammar are fools'; and, we may add, not less fools, as engaged in as hopeless a conflict, they that will fight it with dictionary.] Littré, the French scholar who single-handed has given to the world a far better Dictionary than that on which the Academy had bestowed the collective labour of more than two hundred years, shows a much juster estimate of the actual facts of language. If ever there was a word born in the streets, and bearing about it tokens of the place of its birth, it is 'gamin'; moreover it cannot be traced farther back than the year 1835; when first it appeared in a book, though it may have lived some while before on the lips of the people. All this did not hinder his finding room for it in the pages of his _Dictionary_. He did the same for 'flâneur,' and for 'rococo,' and for many more, bearing similar marks of a popular origin. [Footnote: A work by Darmesteter, _De la Création actuelle de Mots nouveaux dans la Langue Française_, Paris, 1877, is well worth consulting here.] And with good right; for though fashions may descend from the upper classes to the lower, words, such I mean as constitute real additions to the wealth of a language, ascend from the lower to the higher; and of these not a few, let fastidious scholars oppose or ignore them for a while as they may, will assert a place for themselves therein, from which they will not be driven by the protests of all the scholars and all the academicians in the world. The world is ever moving, and language has no choice but to move with it. [Footnote: One has well said, 'The subject of language, the instrument, but also the restraint, of thought, is endless. The history of language, the mouth speaking from the fulness of the heart, is the history of human action, faith, art, policy, government, virtue, and crime. When society progresses, the language of the people necessarily runs even with the line of society. You cannot unite past and present, still less can you bring back the past; moreover, the law of progress is the law of storms, it is impossible to inscribe an immutable statute of language on the periphery of a vortex, whirling as it advances. Every political development induces a concurrent alteration or expansion in conversation and composition. New principles are generated, new authorities introduced; new terms for the purpose of explaining or concealing the conduct of public men must be created: new responsibilities arise. The evolution of new ideas renders the change as easy as it is irresistible, being a natural change indeed, like our own voice under varying emotions or in different periods of life: the boy cannot speak like the baby, nor the man like the boy, the wooer speaks otherwise than the husband, and every alteration in circumstances, fortune or misfortune, health or sickness, prosperity or adversity, produces some corresponding change of speech or inflection of tone.'] Those who make attempts to close the door against all new comers are strangely forgetful of the steps whereby that vocabulary of the language, with which they are so entirely satisfied that they resent every endeavour to enlarge it, had itself been gotten together--namely by that very process which they are now seeking by an arbitrary decree to arrest. We so take for granted that words with which we have been always familiar, whose right to a place in the language no one dreams now of challenging or disputing, have always formed part of it, that it is oftentimes a surprise to discover of how very late introduction many of these actually are; what an amount, it may be, of remonstrance and resistance some of them encountered at the first. To take two or three Latin examples: Cicero, in employing 'favor,' a word soon after used by everybody, does it with an apology, evidently feels that he is introducing a questionable novelty, being probably first applied to applause in the theatre; 'urbanus,' too, in our sense of urbane, had in his time only just come up; 'obsequium' he believes Terence to have been the first to employ. [Footnote: On the new words in classical Latin, see Quintilian, Inst. viii. 3. 30-37.] 'Soliloquium' seems to us so natural, indeed so necessary, a word, this 'soliloquy,' or talking of a man with himself alone, something which would so inevitably demand and obtain its adequate expression, that we learn with surprise that no one spoke of a 'soliloquy' before Augustine; the word having been coined, as he distinctly informs us, by himself. [Footnote: Solil. 2. 7.] Where a word has proved an unquestionable gain, it is interesting to watch it as it first emerges, timid, and doubtful of the reception it will meet with; and the interest is much enhanced if it has thus come forth on some memorable occasion, or from some memorable man. Both these interests meet in the word 'essay.' Were we asked what is the most remarkable volume of essays which the world has seen, few, capable of replying, would fail to answer, Lord Bacon's. But they were also the first collection of these, which bore that name; for we gather from the following passage in the (intended) dedication of the volume to Prince Henry, that 'essay' was itself a recent word in the language, and, in the use to which he put it, perfectly novel: he says--'To write just treatises requireth leisure in the writer, and leisure in the reader; ... which is the cause which hath made me choose to write certain brief notes set down rather significantly than curiously, which I have called _Essays_. The word is late, but the thing is ancient.' From this dedication we gather that, little as 'essays' now can be considered a word of modesty, deprecating too large expectations on the part of the reader, it had, as 'sketches' perhaps would have now, as 'commentary' had in the Latin, that intention in its earliest use. In this deprecation of higher pretensions it resembled the 'philosopher' of Pythagoras. Others had styled themselves, or had been willing to be styled, 'wise men.' 'Lover of wisdom' a name at once so modest arid so beautiful, was of his devising. [Footnote: Diogenes Laërtius, Prooem. Section 12.] But while thus some words surprise us that they are so new, others surprise us that they are so old. Few, I should imagine, are aware that 'rationalist,' and this in a theological, and not merely a philosophical sense, is of such early date as it is; or that we have not imported quite in these later times both the name and the thing from Germany. Yet this is very far from the case. There were 'rationalists' in the time of the Commonwealth; and these challenging the name exactly on the same grounds as those who in later times have claimed it for their own. Thus, the author of a newsletter from London, of date October 14, 1646, among other things mentions: 'There is a new sect sprung up among them [the Presbyterians and Independents], and these are the _Rationalists_, and what their reason dictates them in Church or State stands for good, until they be convinced with better;' [Footnote: _Clarendon State Papers_, vol. ii. p. 40 of the _Appendix._] with more to the same effect. 'Christology' has been lately characterized as a monstrous importation from Germany. I am quite of the remonstrant's mind that English theology does not need, and can do excellently well without it; yet this novelty it is not; for in the _Preface_ to the works of that illustrious Arminian divine of the seventeenth century, Thomas Jackson, written by Benjamin Oley, his friend and pupil, the following passage occurs: 'The reader will find in this author an eminent excellence in that part of divinity which I make bold to call _Christology_, in displaying the great mystery of godliness, God the Son manifested in human flesh.' [Footnote: _Preface to Dr. Jackson's Works_, vol. i. p. xxvii. A work of Fleming's, published in 1700, bears the title, _Christology_.] In their power of taking up foreign words into healthy circulation and making them truly their own, languages differ much from one another, and the same language from itself at different periods of its life. There are languages of which the appetite and digestive power, the assimilative energy, is at some periods almost unlimited. Nothing is too hard for them; everything turns to good with them; they will shape and mould to their own uses and habits almost any material offered to them. This, however, is in their youth; as age advances, the assimilative energy diminishes. Words are still adopted; for this process of adoption can never wholly cease; but a chemical amalgamation of the new with the old does not any longer find place; or only in some instances, and very partially even in them. The new comers lie upon the surface of the language; their sharp corners are not worn or rounded off; they remain foreign still in their aspect and outline, and, having missed their opportunity of becoming otherwise, will remain so to the end. Those who adopt, as with an inward misgiving about their own gift and power of stamping them afresh, make a conscience of keeping them in exactly the same form in which they have received them; instead of conforming them to the laws of that new community into which they are now received. Nothing will illustrate this so well as a comparison of different words of the same family, which have at different periods been introduced into our language. We shall find that those of an earlier introduction have become English through and through, while the later introduced, belonging to the same group, have been very far from undergoing the same transforming process. Thus 'bishop' [A.S. biscop], a word as old as the introduction of Christianity into England, though derived from 'episcopus,' is thoroughly English; while 'episcopal,' which has supplanted 'bishoply,' is only a Latin word in an English dress. 'Alms,' too, is thoroughly English, and English which has descended to us from far; the very shape in which we have the word, one syllable for 'eleëmosyna' of six, sufficiently testifying this; 'letters,' as Horne Tooke observes,' like soldiers, being apt to desert and drop off in a long march.' The seven-syllabled and awkward 'eleëmosynary' is of far more recent date. Or sometimes this comparison is still more striking, when it is not merely words of the same family, but the very same word which has been twice adopted, at an earlier period and a later--the earlier form will be thoroughly English, as 'palsy'; the later will be only a Greek or Latin word spelt with English letters, as 'paralysis.' 'Dropsy,' 'quinsy,' 'megrim,' 'squirrel,' 'rickets,' 'surgeon,' 'tansy,' 'dittany,' 'daffodil,' and many more words that one might name, have nothing of strangers or foreigners about them, have made themselves quite at home in English. So entirely is their physiognomy native, that it would be difficult even to suspect them to be of Greek descent, as they all are. Nor has 'kickshaws' anything about it now which would compel us at once to recognize in it the French 'quelques choses' [Footnote: 'These cooks have persuaded us their coarse fare is the best, and all other but what they dress to be mere _quelques choses_, made dishes of no nourishing' (Whitlock, _Zootomia_, p. 147).]--'French _kickshose_,' as with allusion to the quarter from which it came, and while the memory of that was yet fresh in men's minds, it was often called by our early writers. A very notable fact about new words, and a very signal testimony of their popular origin, of their birth from the bosom of the people, is the difficulty so often found in tracing their pedigree. When the _causae vocum_ are sought, as they very fitly are, and out of much better than mere curiosity, for the _causae rerum_ are very often wrapt up in them, those continually elude our research. Nor does it fare thus merely with words to which attention was called, and interest about their etymology awakened, only after they had been long in popular use--for that such should often give scope to idle guesses, should altogether refuse to give up their secret, is nothing strange--but words will not seldom perplex and baffle the inquirer even where an investigation of their origin has been undertaken almost as soon as they have come into existence. Their rise is mysterious; like almost all acts of _becoming_, it veils itself in deepest obscurity. They emerge, they are in everybody's mouth; but when it is inquired from whence they are, nobody can tell. They are but of yesterday, and yet with inexplicable rapidity they have already lost all traces of the precise circumstances under which they were born. The rapidity with which this comes to pass is nowhere more striking than in the names of political or religious parties, and above all in names of slight or of contempt. Thus Baxter tells us that when he wrote there already existed two explanations of 'Roundhead,' [Footnote: _Narrative of my Life and Times_, p. 34; 'The original of which name is not certainly known. Some say it was because the Puritans then commonly wore short hair, and the King's party long hair; some say, it was because the Queen at Stafford's trial asked who that _round-headed_ man was, meaning Mr. Pym, because he spake so strongly.'] a word not nearly so old as himself. How much has been written about the origin of the German 'ketzer' (= our 'heretic'), though there can scarcely be a doubt that the Cathari make their presence felt in this word. [Footnote: See on this word Kluge's _Etym. Dict_.] Hardly less has been disputed about the French 'cagot.' [Footnote: The word meant in old times 'a leper'; see Cotgrave's _Dictionary_, also _Athenceum_, No. 2726.] Is 'Lollard,' or 'Loller' as we read it in Chaucer, from 'lollen,' to chaunt? that is, does it mean the chaunting or canting people? or had the Lollards their title from a principal person among them of this name, who suffered at the stake?--to say nothing of 'lolium,' found by some in the name, these men being as _tares_ among the wholesome wheat. [Footnote: Hahn, _Ketzer im Mittelalter_ vol. ii. p. 534.] The origin of 'Huguenot' as applied to the French Protestants, was already a matter of doubt and discussion in the lifetime of those who first bore it. A distinguished German scholar has lately enumerated fifteen explanations which have been offered of the word. [Footnote: Mahn, _Etymol. Untersuch_. p. 92. Littré, who has found the word in use as a Christian name two centuries before the Reformation, has no doubt that here is the explanation of it. At any rate there is here what explodes a large number of the proposed explanations, as for instance that Huguenot is another and popular shape of 'Eidgenossen.'] [How did the lay sisters in the Low Countries, the 'Beguines' get their name? Many derivations have been suggested, but the most probable account is that given in Ducange, that the appellative was derived from 'le Bègue' the Stammerer, the nickname of Lambert, a priest of Liège in the twelfth century, the founder of the order. (See the document quoted in Ducange, and the 'New English Dictionary' (s. v.).)] Were the 'Waldenses' so called from one Waldus, to whom these 'Poor Men of Lyons' as they were at first called, owed their origin? [Footnote: [It is not doubted now that the Waldenses got their name from Peter Waldez or Valdo, a native of Lyons in the twelfth century. Waldez was a rich merchant who sold his goods and devoted his wealth to furthering translations of the Bible, and to the support of a set of poor preachers. For an interesting account of the Waldenses see in the _Guardian_, Aug. 18, 1886, a learned review by W. A. B. C. of _Histoire Littéraire des Vaudois_, par E. Montet.]] As little can any one tell us with any certainty why the 'Paulicians' and the 'Paterines' were severally named as they are; or, to go much further back, why the 'Essenes' were so called. [Footnote: Lightfoot, _On the Colossians_, p. 114 sqq.] From whence had Johannes Scotus, who anticipated so much of the profoundest thinking of later times, his title of 'Erigena,' and did that title mean Irish-born, or what? [Footnote: [There is no doubt whatever that _Erigena_ in this case means 'Irish-born.']] 'Prester John' was a name given in the Middle Ages to a priest-king, real or imaginary, of wide dominion in Central Asia. But whether there was ever actually such a person, and what was intended by his name, is all involved in the deepest obscurity. How perplexing are many of the Church's most familiar terms, and terms the oftenest in the mouth of her children; thus her 'Ember' days; her 'Collects'; [Footnote: Freeman, _Principles of Divine Service_, vol. i. p. 145.] her 'Breviary'; her 'Whitsunday'; [Footnote: See Skeat, s. v.] the derivation of 'Mass' itself not being lifted above all question. [Footnote: Two at least of the ecclesiastical terms above mentioned are no longer perplexing, and are quite lifted above dispute: _ember_ in 'Ember Days' represents Anglo-Saxon _ymb-ryne_, literally 'a running round, circuit, revolution, anniversary'; see Skeat (s. v.); and _Whitsunday_ means simply 'White Sunday,' Anglo-Saxon _hwita Sunnan-daeg_.] As little can any one inform us why the Roman military standard on which Constantine inscribed the symbols of the Christian faith should have been called 'Labarum.' And yet the inquiry began early. A father of the Greek Church, almost a contemporary of Constantine, can do no better than suggest that 'labarum' is equivalent to 'laborum,' and that it was so called because in that victorious standard was the end of _labour_ and toil (finis laborum)! [Footnote: Mahn, _Elym. Untersuch_. p. 65; cf. Kurtz, _Kirchen-geschichte_, 3rd edit. p. 115.] The 'ciborium' of the early Church is an equal perplexity; [Footnote: The word is first met in Chrysostom, who calls the silver models of the temple at Ephesus (Acts xix, 24) [Greek: mikra kiboria]. [A primary meaning of the Greek [Greek: kiborion] was the cup-like seed-vessel of the Egyptian water- lily, see _Dict. of Christian Antiquities_, p. 65.]] and 'chapel' (capella) not less. All later investigations have failed effectually to dissipate the mystery of the 'Sangraal.' So too, after all that has been written upon it, the true etymology of 'mosaic' remains a question still. And not in Church matters only, but everywhere, we meet with the same oblivion resting on the origin of words. The Romans, one might beforehand have assumed, must have known very well why they called themselves 'Quirites,' but it is manifest that this knowledge was not theirs. Why they were addressed as Patres Conscripti is a matter unsettled still. They could have given, one would think, an explanation of their naming an outlying conquered region a 'province.' Unfortunately they offer half a dozen explanations, among which we may make our choice. 'German' and 'Germany' were names comparatively recent when Tacitus wrote; but he owns that he has nothing trustworthy to say of their history; [Footnote: _Germania_, 2.] later inquirers have not mended the matter, [Footnote: Pott, _Etymol. Forsch._ vol. ii. pt. 2, pp. 860-872.] The derivation of words which are the very key to the understanding of the Middle Ages, is often itself wrapt in obscurity. On 'fief' and 'feudal' how much has been disputed. [Footnote: Stubbs, _Constitutional History of England_, vol. i. p. 251.] 'Morganatic' marriages are recognized by the public law of Germany, but why called 'morganatic' is unsettled still. [Footnote: [There is no mystery about this word; see a good account of the term in Skeat's _Diet_. (s. v.).]] Gypsies in German are 'zigeuner'; but when this is resolved into 'zichgauner,' or roaming thieves, the explanation has about as much scientific value as the not less ingenious explanation of 'Saturnus' as satur annis, [Footnote: Cicero, _Nat. Deor._ ii. 25.] of 'severitas' as saeva veritas (Augustine); of 'cadaver' as composed of the first syllables of _ca_ro _da_ta, _ver_mibus. [Footnote: Dwight, _Modern Philology_, lst series, p. 288.] Littré has evidently little confidence in the explanation commonly offered of the 'Salic' law, namely, that it was the law which prevailed on the banks of the Saal. [Footnote: For a full and learned treatment of the various derivations of 'Mephistopheles' which have been proposed, and for the first appearance of the name in books, see Ward's _Marlowe's Doctor Faustus_, p. 117.] And the modern world has unsolved riddles innumerable of like kind. Why was 'Canada' so named? And whence is 'Yankee' a title little more than a century old? having made its first appearance in a book printed at Boston, U.S., 1765. Is 'Hottentot' an African word, or, more probably, a Dutch or Low Frisian; and which, if any, of the current explanations of it should be accepted? [Footnote: See _Transactions of the Philological Society_, 1866, pp. 6-25.] Shall we allow Humboldt's derivation of 'cannibal,' and find 'Carib' in it? [Footnote: See Skeat, s. v.] Whence did the 'Chouans,' the insurgent royalists of Brittany, obtain their title? When did California obtain its name, and why? Questions such as these, to which we can give no answer or a very doubtful one, might be multiplied without end. Littré somewhere in his great Dictionary expresses the misgiving with which what he calls 'anecdotal etymology' fills him; while yet it is to this that we are continually tempted here to have recourse. But consider now one or two words which have _not_ lost the secret of their origin, and note how easily they might have done this, and having once lost, how unlikely it is that any searching would have recovered it. The traveller Burton tells us that the coarse cloth which is the medium of exchange, in fact the money of Eastern Africa, is called 'merkani.' The word is a native corruption of 'American,' the cloth being manufactured in America and sold under this name. But suppose a change should take place in the country from which this cloth was brought, men little by little forgetting that it ever had been imported from America, who then would divine the secret of the word? So too, if the tradition of the derivation of 'paraffin' were once let go and lost, it would, I imagine, scarcely be recovered. Mere ingenuity would scarcely divine the fact that a certain oil was so named because 'parum affinis,' having little affinity which chemistry could detect, with any other substance. So, too, it is not very probable that the derivation of 'licorice,' once lost, would again be recovered. It would exist, at the best, but as one guess among many. There can be no difficulty about it when we find it spelt, as we do in Fuller, 'glycyrize or liquoris.' Those which I cite are but a handful of examples of the way in which words forget, or under predisposing conditions might forget, the circumstances of their birth. Now if we could believe in any merely _arbitrary_ words, standing in connexion with nothing but the mere lawless caprice of some inventor, the impossibility of tracing their derivation would be nothing strange. Indeed it would be lost labour to seek for the parentage of all words, when many probably had none. But there is no such thing; there is no word which is not, as the Spanish gentleman loves to call himself, an 'hidalgo,' or son of something. [Footnote: The Spanish _hijo dalgo_, a gentleman, means a son of wealth, or an estate; see Stevens' _Dict_. (s. v.)] All are embodiments, more or less successful, of a sensation, a thought, or a fact; or if of more fortuitous birth, still they attach themselves somewhere to the already subsisting world of words and things, [Footnote: J. Grimm, in an interesting review of a little volume dealing with what the Spaniards call 'Germanía' with no reference to Germany, the French 'argot,' and we 'Thieves' Language,' finds in this language the most decisive evidence of this fact (_Kleine Schrift_. vol. iv. p. 165): Der nothwendige Zusammenhang aller Sprache mit Ueberlieferung zeigt sich auch hier; kaum ein Wort dieser Gaunermundart scheint leer erfunden, und Menschen eines Gelichters, das sich sonst kein Gewissen aus Lügen macht, beschämen manchen Sprachphilosophen, der von Erdichtung einer allgemeinen Sprache geträumt hat. Van Helmont indeed, a sort of modern Paracelsus, is said to have _invented_ the word 'gas'; but it is difficult to think that there was not a feeling here after 'geest' or 'geist,' whether he was conscious of this or not.] and have their point of contact with it and departure from it, not always discoverable, as we see, but yet always existing. [Footnote: Some will remember here the old dispute--Greek I was tempted to call it, but in one shape or another it emerges everywhere--whether words were imposed on things [Greek: thesei] or [Greek: physei], by arbitrary arrangement or by nature. We may boldly say with Bacon, Vestigia certe rationis verba sunt, and decide in favour of nature. If only they knew their own history, they could always explain, and in most cases justify, their existence. See some excellent remarks on this subject by Renan, _De l'Origine du Langage_, pp. 146-149; and an admirable article on 'Slang' in the _Times_, Oct. 18, 1864.] And thus, when a word entirely refuses to tell us anything about itself, it must be regarded as a riddle which no one has succeeded in solving, a lock of which no man has found the key--but still a riddle which has a solution, a lock for which there is a key, though now, it may be, irrecoverably lost. And this difficulty-- it is oftentimes an impossibility--of tracing the genealogy even of words of a very recent formation, is, as I observed, a strong argument for the birth of the most notable of these out of the heart and from the lips of the people. Had they first appeared in books, something in the context would most probably explain them. Had they issued from the schools of the learned, these would not have failed to leave a recognizable stamp and mark upon them. There is, indeed, another way in which obscurity may rest on a new word, or a word employed in a new sense. It may tell the story of its birth, of the word or words which compose it, may so bear these on its front, that there can be no question here, while yet its purpose and intention may be hopelessly hidden from our eyes. The secret once lost, is not again to be recovered. Thus no one has called, or could call, in question the derivation of 'apocryphal' that it means 'hidden away.' When, however, we begin to inquire why certain books which the Church either set below the canonical Scriptures, or rejected altogether, were called 'apocryphal' then a long and doubtful discussion commences. Was it because their origin was _hidden_ to the early Fathers of the Church, and thus reasonable suspicions of their authenticity entertained? [Footnote: Augustine (_De Civ. Dei_, xv. 23): Apocrypha nuncupantur eo quod eorum occulta origo non claruit Patribus. Cf. _Con. Faust_, xi. 2.] Or was it because they were mysteriously kept out of sight and _hidden_ by the heretical sects which boasted themselves in their exclusive possession? Or was it that they were books not laid up in the Church chest, but _hidden away_ in obscure corners? Or were they books _worthier to be hidden_ than to be brought forward and read to the faithful? [Footnote: For still another reason for the epithet 'apocryphal' see Skeat's _Etym. Dict_.]--for all these explanations have been offered, and none with such superiority of proof on its side as to have deprived others of all right to be heard. In the same way there is no question that 'tragedy' is the song of the goat; but why this, whether because a goat was the prize for the best performers of that song in which the germs of Greek tragedy lay, or because the first actors were dressed like satyrs in goatskins, is a question which will now remain unsettled to the end. [Footnote: See Bentley, _Works_, vol. i. p. 337.] You know what 'leonine' verses are; or, if you do not, it is very easy to explain. They are Latin hexameters into which an internal rhyme has forced its way. The following, for example, are all 'leonine': Qui pingit _florem_ non pingit floris _odorem_: Si quis det _mannos_, ne quaere in dentibus _annos_. Una avis in _dextra_ melior quam quattuor _extra_. The word has plainly to do with 'leo' in some shape or other; but are these verses leonine from one Leo or Leolinus, who first composed them? or because, as the lion is king of beasts, so this, in monkish estimation, was the king of metres? or from some other cause which none have so much as guessed at? [Footnote: See my _Sacred Latin Poetry_, 3rd edit. p. 32.] It is a mystery which none has solved. That frightful system of fagging which made in the seventeenth century the German Universities a sort of hell upon earth, and which was known by the name of 'pennalism,' we can scarcely disconnect from 'penna'; while yet this does not help us to any effectual scattering of the mystery which rests upon the term. [Footnote: See my _Gustavus Adolphus in Germany_, p. 131. [_Pennal_ meant 'a freshman,' a term given by the elder students in mockery, because the student in his first year was generally more industrious, and might be often seen with his _pennal_ or pen-case about him.]] The connexion of 'dictator' with 'dicere', 'dictare,' is obvious; not so the reason why the 'dictator' obtained his name. 'Sycophant' and 'superstition' are words, one Greek and one Latin, of the same character. No one doubts of what elements they are composed; and yet their secret has been so lost, that, except as a more or less plausible guess, it can never now be recovered. [Footnote: For a good recapitulation of what best has been written on 'superstitio' see Pott, _Etym. Forschungen_, vol. ii. p. 921.] But I must conclude. I may seem in this present lecture a little to have outrun your needs, and to have sometimes moved in a sphere too remote from that in which your future work will lie. And yet it is in truth very difficult to affirm of any words, that they do not touch us, do not in some way bear upon our studies, on what we shall hereafter have to teach, or shall desire to learn; that there are any conquests which language makes that concern only a select few, and may be regarded indifferently by all others. For it is here as with many inventions in the arts and luxuries of life; which, being at the first the exclusive privilege and possession of the wealthy and refined, gradually descend into lower strata of society, until at length what were once the elegancies and luxuries of a few, have become the decencies, well-nigh the necessities, of all. Not otherwise there are words, once only on the lips of philosophers or theologians, of the deeper thinkers of their time, or of those directly interested in their speculations, which step by step have come down, not debasing themselves in this act of becoming popular, but training and elevating an ever-increasing number of persons to enter into their meaning, till at length they have become truly a part of the nation's common stock, 'household words,' used easily and intelligently by nearly all. I cannot better conclude this lecture than by quoting a passage, one among many, which expresses with a rare eloquence all I have been labouring to utter; for this truth, which many have noticed, hardly any has set forth with the same fulness of illustration, or the same sense of its importance, as the author of _The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences_. 'Language,' he observes, 'is often called an instrument of thought, but it is also the nutriment of thought; or rather, it is the atmosphere in which thought lives; a medium essential to the activity of our speculative powers, although invisible and imperceptible in its operation; and an element modifying, by its qualities and changes, the growth and complexion of the faculties which it feeds. In this way the influence of preceding discoveries upon subsequent ones, of the past upon the present, is most penetrating and universal, although most subtle and difficult to trace. The most familiar words and phrases are connected by imperceptible ties with the reasonings and discoveries of former men and distant times. Their knowledge is an inseparable part of ours: the present generation inherits and uses the scientific wealth of all the past. And this is the fortune, not only of the great and rich in the intellectual world, of those who have the key to the ancient storehouses, and who have accumulated treasures of their own, but the humblest inquirer, while he puts his reasonings into words, benefits by the labours of the greatest. When he counts his little wealth, he finds he has in his hands coins which bear the image and superscription of ancient and modern intellectual dynasties, and that in virtue of this possession acquisitions are in his power, solid knowledge within his reach, which none could ever have attained to, if it were not that the gold of truth once dug out of the mine circulates more and more widely among mankind.' LECTURE VI. ON THE DISTINCTION OF WORDS. Synonyms, and the study of synonyms, with the advantages to be derived from a careful noting of the distinction between them, constitute the subject with which in my present Lecture I shall deal. But what, you may ask, is meant when, comparing certain words with one another, we affirm of them that they are synonyms? We imply that, with great and essential resemblances of meaning, they have at the same time small, subordinate, and partial differences--these differences being such as either originally, and on the strength of their etymology, were born with them; or differences which they have by usage acquired; or such as, though nearly or altogether latent now, they are capable of receiving at the hands of wise and discreet masters of language. Synonyms are thus words of like significance in the main; with a large extent of ground which they occupy in common, but also with something of their own, private and peculiar, which they do not share with one another. [Footnote: The word 'synonym' only found its way into the English language about the middle of the seventeenth century. Its recent incoming is marked by the Greek or Latin termination which for a while it bore; Jeremy Taylor writing 'synonymon,' Hacket 'synonymum,' and Milton (in the plural) 'synonyma.' Butler has 'synonymas.' On the subject of this chapter see Marsh, _Lectures on the English Language_, New York, 1860, p. 571, sqq.] So soon as the term 'synonym' is defined thus, it will be at once perceived by any acquainted with its etymology, that, strictly speaking, it is a misnomer, and is given, with a certain inaccuracy and impropriety, to words which stand in such relations as I have just traced to one another; since in strictness of speech the terms, 'synonyms' and 'synonymous' applied to words, affirm of them that they cover not merely almost, but altogether, the same extent of meaning, that they are in their signification perfectly identical and coincident; circles, so to speak, with the same centre and the same circumference. The term, however, is not ordinarily so used; it evidently is not so by such as undertake to trace out the distinction between synonyms; for, without venturing to deny that there may be such perfect synonyms, words, that is, with this absolute coincidence of the one with the other, yet these could not be the objects of any such discrimination; since, where no real difference exists, it would be lost labour and the exercise of a perverse ingenuity to attempt to draw one out. There are, indeed, those who assert that words in one language are never exactly synonymous, or in all respects commensurate, with words in another; that, when they are compared with one another, there is always something more, or something less, or something different, in one as compared with the other, which hinders this complete equivalence. And, those words being excepted which designate objects in their nature absolutely incapable of a more or less and of every qualitative difference, I should be disposed to consider other exceptions to this assertion exceedingly rare. 'In all languages whatever,' to quote Bentley's words, 'a word of a moral or of a political significance, containing several complex ideas arbitrarily joined together, has seldom any correspondent word in any other language which extends to all these ideas.' Nor is it hard to trace reasons sufficient why this should be so. For what, after all, is a word, but the enclosure for human use of a certain district, larger or smaller, from the vast outfield of thought or feeling or fact, and in this way a bringing of it under human cultivation, a rescuing of it for human uses? But how extremely unlikely it is that nations, drawing quite independently of one another these lines of enclosure, should draw them in all or most cases exactly in the same direction, neither narrower nor wider; how almost inevitable, on the contrary, that very often the lines should not coincide--and this, even supposing no moral forces at work to disturb the falling of the lines. How immense and instructive a field of comparison between languages does this fact lay open to us; while it is sufficient to drive a translator with a high ideal of the task which he has undertaken well- nigh to despair. For indeed in the transferring of any matter of high worth from one language to another there are losses involved, which no labour, no skill, no genius, no mastery of one language or of both can prevent. The translator may have worthily done his part, may have 'turned' and not 'overturned' his original (St. Jerome complains that in his time many _versiones_ deserved to be called _eversiones_ rather); he may have given the lie to the Italian proverb, 'Traduttori Traditori,' or 'Translators Traitors,' men, that is, who do not 'render' but' surrender' their author's meaning, and yet for all this the losses of which I speak will not have been avoided. Translations, let them have been carried through with what skill they may, are, as one has said, _belles infideles_ at the best. How often in the translation of Holy Scripture from the language wherein it was first delivered into some other which offers more words than one whereby some all-important word in the original record may be rendered, the perplexity has been great which of these should be preferred. Not, indeed, that there was here an embarrassment of riches, but rather an embarrassment of poverty. Each, it may be, has advantages of its own, but each also its own drawbacks and shortcomings. There is nothing but a choice of difficulties anyhow, and whichever is selected, it will be found that the treasure of God's thought has been committed to an earthen vessel, and one whose earthiness will not fail at this point or at that to appear; while yet, with all this, of what far- reaching importance it is that the best, that is, the least inadequate, word should be chosen. Thus the missionary translator, if he be at all aware of the awful implement which he is wielding, of the tremendous crisis in a people's spiritual life which has arrived, when their language is first made the vehicle of the truths of Revelation, will often tremble at the work he has in hand; he will tremble lest he should permanently lower or confuse the whole spiritual life of a people, by choosing a meaner and letting go a nobler word for the setting forth of some leading truth of redemption; and yet the choice how difficult, the nobler itself falling how infinitely below his desires, and below the truth of which he would make it the bearer. Even those who are wholly ignorant of Chinese can yet perceive how vast the spiritual interests which are at stake in China, how much will be won or how much lost for the whole spiritual life of its people, it may be for ages to come, according as the right or the wrong word is selected by our missionaries there for designating the true and the living God. As many of us indeed as are ignorant of the language can be no judges in the controversy which on this matter is, or was lately, carried on; but we can all feel how vital the question, how enormous the interests at stake; while, not less, having heard the allegations on the one side and on the other, we must own that there is only an alternative of difficulties here. Nearer home there have been difficulties of the same kind. At the Reformation, for example, when Latin was still more or less the language of theology, how earnest a controversy raged round the word in the Greek Testament which we have rendered 'repentance'; whether 'poenitentia' should be allowed to stand, hallowed by long usage as it was, or 'resipiscentia,' as many of the Reformers preferred, should be substituted in its room; and how much on either side could be urged. Not otherwise, at an earlier date, 'Sermo' and 'Verbum' contended for the honour of rendering the 'Logos' of St. John; though here there can be no serious doubt on which side the advantage lay, and that in 'Verbum' the right word was chosen. But this of the relation of words in one language to words in another, and of all the questions which may thus be raised, is a sea too large for me to launch upon now; and with thus much said to invite you to have open eyes and ears for such questions, seeing that they are often full of teaching, [Footnote: Pott in his _Etymol. Forschungen_, vol. v. p. lxix, and elsewhere, has much interesting instruction on the subject. There were four attempts to render [Greek: eironeia], itself, it is true, a very subtle word. They are these: 'dissimulatio' (Cicero); 'illusio' (Quintilian); 'simulatio' and 'irrisio.'] I must leave this subject, and limit myself in this Lecture to a comparison between words, not in different languages, but in the same. Synonyms then, as the term is generally understood, and as I shall use it, are words in the same language with slight differences either already established between them, or potentially subsisting in them. They are not on the one side words absolutely identical, for such, as has been said already, afford no room for discrimination; but neither on the other side are they words only remotely similar to one another; for the differences between these last will be self-evident, will so lie on the surface and proclaim themselves to all, that it would be as superfluous an office as holding a candle to the sun to attempt to make this clearer than it already is. It may be desirable to trace and fix the difference between scarlet and crimson, for these might easily be confounded; but who would think of so doing between scarlet and green? or between covetousness and avarice; while it would be idle and superfluous to do the same for covetousness and pride. They must be words more or less liable to confusion, but which yet ought not to be confounded, as one has said; in which there originally inhered a difference, or between which, though once absolutely identical, such has gradually grown up, and so established itself in the use of the best writers, and in the instinct of the best speakers of the tongue, that it claims to be openly recognized by all. But here an interesting question presents itself to us: How do languages come to possess synonyms of this latter class, which are differenced not by etymology, nor by any other deep-lying cause, but only by usage? Now if languages had been made by agreement, of course no such synonyms as these could exist; for when once a word had been found which was the adequate representative of a thought, feeling, or fact, no second one would have been sought. But languages are the result of processes very different from this, and far less formal and regular. Various tribes, each with its own dialect, kindred indeed, but in many respects distinct, coalesce into one people, and cast their contributions of language into a common stock. Thus the French possess many synonyms from the _langue d'Oc_ and _langue d'Oil_, each having contributed its word for one and the same thing; thus 'atre' and 'foyer,' both for hearth. Sometimes different tribes of the same people have the same word, yet in forms sufficiently different to cause that both remain, but as words distinct from one another; thus in Latin 'serpo' and 'repo' are dialectic variations of the same word; just as in German, 'odem' and 'athem' were no more than dialectic differences at the first. Or again, a conquering people have fixed themselves in the midst of a conquered; they impose their dominion, but do not succeed in imposing their language; nay, being few in number, they find themselves at last compelled to adopt the language of the conquered; yet not so but that a certain compromise between the two languages finds place. One carries the day, but on the condition that it shall admit as naturalized denizens a number of the words of the other; which in some instances expel, but in many others subsist as synonyms side by side with, the native words. These are causes of the existence of synonyms which reach far back into the history of a nation and a language; but other causes at a later period are also at work. When a written literature springs up, authors familiar with various foreign tongues import from one and another words which are not absolutely required, which are oftentimes rather luxuries than necessities. Sometimes, having a very sufficient word of their own, they must needs go and look for a finer one, as they esteem it, from abroad; as, for instance, the Latin having its own expressive 'succinum' (from 'succus'), for amber, some must import from the Greek the ambiguous 'electrum.' Of these thus proposed as candidates for admission, some fail to obtain the rights of citizenship, and after longer or shorter probation are rejected; it may be, never advance beyond their first proposer. Enough, however, receive the stamp of popular allowance to create embarrassment for a while; until, that is, their relations with the already existing words are adjusted. As a single illustration of the various quarters from which the English has thus been augmented and enriched, I would instance the words 'wile,' 'trick,' device,' finesse,' 'artifice,' and 'stratagem.' and remind you of the various sources from which we have drawn them. Here 'wile,' is Old-English, 'trick' is Dutch, 'devise' is Old-French, 'finesse' is French, 'artificium' is Latin, and '[Greek: stratagema]' Greek. By and by, however, as a language becomes itself an object of closer attention, at the same time that society, advancing from a simpler to a more complex condition, has more things to designate, more thoughts to utter, and more distinctions to draw, it is felt as a waste of resources to employ two or more words for the designating of one and the same thing. Men feel, and rightly, that with a boundless world lying around them and demanding to be catalogued and named, and which they only make truly their own in the measure and to the extent that they do name it, with infinite shades and varieties of thought and feeling subsisting in their own minds, and claiming to find utterance in words, it is a wanton extravagance to expend two or more signs on that which could adequately be set forth by one--an extravagance in one part of their expenditure, which will be almost sure to issue in, and to be punished by, a corresponding scantness and straitness in another. Some thought or feeling or fact will wholly want one adequate sign, because another has two. [Footnote: We have a memorable example of this in the history of the great controversy of the Church with the Arians, In the earlier stages of this, the upholders of the orthodox faith used [Greek: ousia] and [Greek: hypostasis] as identical in force and meaning with one another, Athanasius, in as many words, affirming them to be such. As, however, the controversy went forward, it was perceived that doctrinal results of the highest importance might be fixed and secured for the Church through the assigning severally to these words distinct modifications of meaning. This, accordingly, in the Greek Church, was done; while the Latin, desiring to move _pari passu_ did yet find itself most seriously embarrassed and hindered in so doing by the fact that it had, or assumed that it had, but the one word, 'substantia,' to correspond to the two Greek.] Hereupon that which has been well called the process of 'desynonymizing' begins--that is, of gradually discriminating in use between words which have hitherto been accounted perfectly equivalent, and, as such, indifferently employed. It is a positive enriching of a language when this process is at any point felt to be accomplished; when two or more words, once promiscuously used, have had each its own peculiar domain assigned to it, which it shall not itself overstep, upon which others shall not encroach. This may seem at first sight only as a better regulation of old territory; for all practical purposes it is the acquisition of new. This desynonymizing process is not carried out according to any prearranged purpose or plan. The working genius of the language accomplishes its own objects, causes these synonymous words insensibly to fall off from one another, and to acquire separate and peculiar meanings. The most that any single writer can do, save indeed in the terminology of science, is to assist an already existing inclination, to bring to the clear consciousness of all that which already has been obscurely felt by many, and thus to hasten the process of this disengagement, or, as it has been well expressed, 'to regulate and ordinate the evident nisus and tendency of the popular usage into a severe definition'; and establish on a firm basis the distinction, so that it shall not be lost sight of or brought into question again. Thus long before Wordsworth wrote, it was obscurely felt by many that in 'imagination' there was more of the earnest, in 'fancy' of the play, of the spirit, that the first was a loftier faculty and power than the second. The tendency of the language was all in this direction. None would for some time back have employed 'fancy' as Milton employs it, [Footnote: _Paradise Lost_, v. 102-105 5 so too Longinus, _De Subl._ 15.] ascribing to it operations which we have learned to reserve for 'imagination' alone, and indeed subordinating 'imaginations' to fancy, as a part of the materials with which it deals. Yet for all this the words were continually, and not without injury, confounded. Wordsworth first, in the _Preface_ to his _Lyrical Ballads_, rendered it impossible for any, who had read and mastered what he had written on the matter, to remain unconscious any longer of the essential difference between them. [Footnote: Thus De Quincey (_Letters to a Young Man whose Education has been neglected_): 'All languages tend to clear themselves of synonyms, as intellectual culture advances; the superfluous words being taken up and appropriated by new shades and combinations of thought evolved in the progress of society. And long before this appropriation is fixed and petrified, as it were, into the acknowledged vocabulary of the language, an insensible _clinamen_ (to borrow a Lucretian word) prepares the way for it. Thus, for instance, before Mr. Wordsworth had unveiled the great philosophic distinction between the powers of _fancy_ and _imagination_, the two words had begun to diverge from each other, the first being used to express a faculty somewhat capricious and exempted from law, the other to express a faculty more self-determined. When, therefore, it was at length perceived, that under an apparent unity of meaning there lurked a real dualism, and for philosophic purposes it was necessary that this distinction should have its appropriate expression, this necessity was met half way by the _clinamen_ which had already affected the popular usage of the words.' Compare what Coleridge had before said on the same matter, _Biogr. Lit_. vol. i. p. 90; and what Ruskin, _Modern Painters_ part 3, Section 2, ch. 3, has said since. It is to Coleridge that we owe the word 'to desynonymize' (_Biogr. Lit_. p. 87)--which is certainly preferable to Professor Grote's 'despecificate.' Purists indeed will object that it is of hybrid formation, the prefix Latin, the body of the word Greek; but for all this it may very well stand till a better is offered. Coleridge's own contributions, direct and indirect, in this province are perhaps more in number and in value than those of any other English writer; thus to him we owe the disentanglement of 'fanaticism' and 'enthusiasm' (_Lit. Rem_. vol. ii. p. 365); of 'keenness' and 'subtlety' (_Table-Talk_, p. 140); of 'poetry' and 'poesy' (_Lit. Rem_. vol. i. p. 219); of 'analogy' and 'metaphor' (_Aids to Reflection_, 1825, p. 198); and that on which he himself laid so great a stress, of 'reason' and 'understanding.'] This is but one example, an illustrious one indeed, of what has been going forward in innumerable pairs of words. Thus in Wiclif's time and long after, there seems to have been no difference recognized between a 'famine' and a 'hunger'; they both expressed the outward fact of a scarcity of food. It was a genuine gain when, leaving to 'famine' this meaning, by 'hunger' was expressed no longer the outward fact, but the inward sense of the fact. Other pairs of words between which a distinction is recognized now which was not recognized some centuries ago, are the following: 'to clarify' and 'to glorify'; 'to admire' and 'to wonder'; 'to convince' and 'to convict'; 'reign' and 'kingdom'; 'ghost' and 'spirit'; 'merit' and 'demerit'; 'mutton' and 'sheep'; 'feminine' and 'effeminate'; 'mortal' and 'deadly'; 'ingenious' and 'ingenuous'; 'needful' and 'needy'; 'voluntary' and 'wilful.' [footnote: For the exact difference between these, and other pairs or larger groups of words, see my _Select Glossary_.] A multitude of words in English are still waiting for a similar discrimination. Many in due time will obtain it, and the language prove so much the richer thereby; for certainly if Coleridge had right when he affirmed that 'every new term expressing a fact or a difference not precisely or adequately expressed by any other word in the same language, is a new organ of thought for the mind that has learned it.' [footnote: _Church and State_, p. 200.] we are justified in regarding these distinctions which are still waiting to be made as so much reversionary wealth in our mother tongue. Thus how real an ethical gain would it be, how much clearness would it bring into men's thoughts and actions, if the distinction which exists in Latin between 'vindicta' and 'ultio,' that the first is a moral act, the just punishment of the sinner by his God, of the criminal by the judge, the other an act in which the self-gratification of one who counts himself injured or offended is sought, could in like manner be fully established (vaguely felt it already is) between our 'vengeance' and 'revenge'; so that 'vengeance' (with the verb 'to avenge') should never be ascribed except to God, or to men acting as the executors of his righteous doom; while all retaliation to which not zeal for his righteousness, but men's own sinful passions have given the impulse and the motive, should be termed 'revenge.' As it now is, the moral disapprobation which cleaves, and cleaves justly, to 'revenge,' is oftentimes transferred almost unconsciously to 'vengeance'; while yet without vengeance it is impossible to conceive in a world so full of evil-doing any effectual assertion of righteousness, any moral government whatever. The causes mentioned above, namely that our modern English, Teutonic in its main structure, yet draws so large a portion of its verbal wealth from the Latin, and has further welcomed, and found place for, many later accessions, these causes have together effected that we possess a great many duplicates, not to speak of triplicates, or of such a quintuplicate as that which I adduced just now, where the Teutonic, French, Italian, Latin, and Greek had each yielded us a word. Let me mention a few duplicate substantives, Old-English and Latin: thus we have 'shepherd' and 'pastor'; 'feeling' and 'sentiment'; 'handbook' and 'manual'; 'ship' and 'nave'; 'anger' and 'ire'; 'grief' and 'sorrow'; 'kingdom,' 'reign,' and 'realm'; 'love' and 'charity'; 'feather' and 'plume'; 'forerunner' and 'precursor'; 'foresight' and 'providence'; 'freedom' and 'liberty'; 'bitterness' and 'acerbity'; 'murder' and 'homicide'; 'moons' and 'lunes.' Sometimes, in theology and science especially, we have gone both to the Latin and to the Greek, and drawn the same word from them both: thus 'deist' and 'theist'; 'numeration' and 'arithmetic'; 'revelation' and 'apocalypse'; 'temporal' and 'chronic'; 'compassion' and 'sympathy'; 'supposition' and 'hypothesis'; 'transparent' and 'diaphanous'; 'digit' and 'dactyle.' But to return to the Old-English and Latin, the main factors of our tongue. Besides duplicate substantives, we have duplicate verbs, such as 'to whiten' and 'to blanch'; 'to soften' and 'to mollify'; 'to unload' and 'to exonerate'; 'to hide' and 'to conceal'; with many more. Duplicate adjectives also are numerous, as 'shady' and 'umbrageous'; 'unreadable' and 'illegible'; 'unfriendly' and 'inimical'; 'almighty' and 'omnipotent'; 'wholesome' and 'salubrious'; 'unshunnable' and 'inevitable.' Occasionally our modern English, not adopting the Latin substantive, has admitted duplicate adjectives; thus 'burden' has not merely 'burdensome' but also 'onerous,' while yet 'onus' has found no place with us; 'priest' has 'priestly' and 'sacerdotal'; 'king' has 'kingly,' 'regal,' which is purely Latin, and 'royal,' which is Latin distilled through the French. 'Bodily' and 'corporal,' 'boyish' and 'puerile,' 'fiery' and 'igneous,' 'wooden' and 'ligneous,' 'worldly' and 'mundane,' 'bloody' and 'sanguine,' 'watery' and 'aqueous,' 'fearful' and 'timid,' 'manly' and 'virile,' 'womanly' and 'feminine,' 'sunny' and 'solar,' 'starry' and 'stellar,' 'yearly' and 'annual,' 'weighty' and 'ponderous,' may all be placed in the same list. Nor are these more than a handful of words out of the number which might be adduced. You would find both pleasure and profit in enlarging these lists, and, as far as you are able, making them gradually complete. If we look closely at words which have succeeded in thus maintaining their ground side by side, and one no less than the other, we shall note that in almost every instance they have little by little asserted for themselves separate spheres of meaning, have in usage become more or less distinct. Thus we use 'shepherd' almost always in its primary meaning, keeper of sheep; while 'pastor' is exclusively used in the tropical sense, one that feeds the flock of God; at the same time the language having only the one adjective, 'pastoral,' that is of necessity common to both. 'Love' and 'charity' are used in our Authorized Version of Scripture promiscuously, and out of the sense of their equivalence are made to represent one and the same Greek word; but in modern use 'charity' has come predominantly to signify one particular manifestation of love, the ministry to the bodily needs of others, 'love' continuing to express the affection of the soul. 'Ship' remains in its literal meaning, while 'nave' has become a symbolic term used in sacred architecture alone. 'Kingdom' is concrete, as the 'kingdom' of Great Britain; 'reign' is abstract, the 'reign' of Queen Victoria. An 'auditor' and a 'hearer' are now, though they were not once, altogether different from one another. 'Illegible' is applied to the handwriting, 'unreadable' to the subject-matter written; a man writes an 'illegible' hand; he has published an 'unreadable' book. 'Foresight' is ascribed to men, but' providence' for the most part designates, as _pronoia_ also came to do, the far-looking wisdom of God, by which He governs and graciously cares for his people. It becomes boys to be 'boyish,' but not men to be 'puerile.' 'To blanch' is to withdraw colouring matter: we 'blanch' almonds or linen; or the cheek by the withdrawing of the blood is 'blanched' with fear; but we 'whiten' a wall, not by withdrawing some other colour, but by the superinducing of white; thus 'whited sepulchres.' When we 'palliate' our own or other people's faults, we do not seek 'to cloke' them altogether, but only to extenuate the guilt of them in part. It might be urged that there was a certain preparedness in these words to separate off in their meaning from one another, inasmuch as they originally belonged to different stocks; and this may very well have assisted; but we find the same process at work where original difference of stock can have supplied no such assistance. 'Astronomy' and 'astrology' are both words drawn from the Greek, nor is there any reason beforehand why the second should not be in as honourable use as the first; for it is the _reason_, as 'astronomy' the _law_, of the stars. [footnote: So entirely was any determining reason wanting, that for some while it was a question _which_ word should obtain the honourable employment, and it seemed as if 'astrology' and 'astrologer' would have done so, as this extract from Bishop Hooper makes abundantly plain (_Early Writings_, Parker Society, p. 331): 'The _astrologer_ is he that knoweth the course and motions of the heavens and teacheth the same; which is a virtue if it pass not its bounds, and become of an astrologer an _astronomer_, who taketh upon him to give judgment and censure of these motions and courses of the heavens, what they prognosticate and destiny unto the creature.'] But seeing there is a true and a false science of the stars, both needing words to utter them, it has come to pass that in our later use, 'astrology' designates always that pretended science of imposture, which affecting to submit the moral freedom of men to the influences of the heavenly bodies, prognosticates future events from the position of these, as contrasted with 'astronomy' that true science which investigates the laws of the heavenly bodies in their relations to one another and to the planet upon which we dwell. As these are both from the Greek, so 'despair' and 'diffidence' are both, though the second more directly than the first, from the Latin. At a period not very long past the difference between them was hardly appreciable; one was hardly stronger than the other. If in one the absence of all _hope_, in the other that of all faith, was implied. In _The Pilgrim's Progress_, a book with which every English schoolmaster should be familiar, 'Mistress _Diffidence_' is 'Giant _Despair's_' wife, and not a whit behind him in deadly enmity to the pilgrims; even as Jeremy Taylor speaks of the impenitent sinner's '_diffidence_ in the hour of death,' meaning, as the context plainly shows, his despair. But to what end two words for one and the same thing? And thus 'diffidence' did not retain that energy of meaning which it had at the first, but little by little assumed a more mitigated sense, (Hobbes speaks of 'men's diffidence,' meaning their distrust 'of one another,') till it has come now to signify a becoming distrust of ourselves, a humble estimate of our own powers, with only a slight intimation, as in the later use of the Latin 'verecundia,' that perhaps this distrust is carried too far. Again, 'interference' and 'interposition' are both from the Latin; and here too there is no anterior necessity that they should possess those different shades of meaning which actually they have obtained among us;--the Latin verbs which form their latter halves being about as strong one as the other. [Footnote: The word _interference_ is a derivative from the verb _ferire_ to strike, which is certainly stronger in meaning than _ponere_, to place.] And yet in our practical use, 'interference' is something offensive; it is the pushing in of himself between two parties on the part of a third, who was not asked, and is not thanked for his pains, and who, as the feeling of the word implies, had no business there; while 'interposition' is employed to express the friendly peace-making mediation of one whom the act well became, and who even if he was not specially invited thereunto, is still thanked for what he has done. How real an increase is it in the wealth and efficiency of a language thus to have discriminated such words as these; and to be able to express acts outwardly the same by different words, according as we would praise or blame the temper and spirit out of which they sprung. [Footnote: If in the course of time distinctions are thus created, and if this is the tendency of language, yet they are also sometimes, though far less often, obliterated. Thus the fine distinction between 'yea' and 'yes,' 'nay' and 'no,' once existing in English, has quite disappeared. 'Yea' and 'Nay,' in Wiclif s time, and a good deal later, were the answers to questions framed in the affirmative. 'Will he come?' To this it would have been replied, 'Yea' or 'Nay,' as the case might be. But 'Will he not come?'--to this the answer would have been, 'Yes,' or 'No.' Sir Thomas More finds fault with Tyndale, that in his translation of the Bible he had not observed this distinction, which was evidently therefore going out even then, that is in the reign of Henry VIII., and shortly after it was quite forgotten.] Take now some words not thus desynonymized by usage only, but having a fundamental etymological distinction,--one, however, which it would be easy to overlook, and which, so long as we dwell on the surface of the word, we shall overlook; and try whether we shall not be gainers by bringing out the distinction into clear consciousness. Here are 'arrogant,' 'presumptuous,' and 'insolent'; we often use them promiscuously; yet let us examine them a little more closely, and ask ourselves, as soon as we have traced the lines of demarcation between them, whether we are not now in possession of three distinct thoughts, instead of a single confused one. He is 'arrogant' who claims the observance and homage of others as his due (ad rogo); who does not wait for them to offer, but himself demands all this; or who, having right to one sort of observance, claims another to which he has no right. Thus, it was 'arrogance' in Nebuchadnezzar, when he required that all men should fall down before the image which he had reared. He, a man, was claiming for man's work the homage which belonged only to God. But one is 'presumptuous' who _takes_ things to himself _before_ he has acquired any title to them (prae sumo); as the young man who already usurps the place of the old, the learner who speaks with the authority of the teacher. By and by all this may very justly be his, but it is 'presumption' to anticipate it now. 'Insolent' means properly no more than unusual; to act 'insolently' is to act unusually. The offensive meaning which 'insolent' has acquired rests upon the sense that there is a certain well-understood rule of society, a recognized standard of moral and social behaviour, to which each of its members should conform. The 'insolent' man is one who violates this rule, who breaks through this order, acting in an _unaccustomed_ manner. The same sense of the orderly being also the moral, is implied in 'irregular'; a man of 'irregular' is for us a man of immoral life; and yet more strongly in Latin, which has but one word (mores) for customs and morals. Or consider the following words: 'to hate,' 'to loathe,' 'to detest,' 'to abhor'. It would be safe to say that our blessed Lord 'hated' to see his Father's house profaned, when, the zeal of that house consuming Him, He drove forth in anger the profaners from it (John ii. 15); He 'loathed' the lukewarmness of the Laodiceans, when He threatened to spue them out of his mouth (Rev. iii. 16); He 'detested' the hypocrisy of the Pharisees and Scribes, when He affirmed and proclaimed their sin, and uttered those eight woes against them (Matt, xxiii.); He 'abhorred' the evil suggestions of Satan, when He bade the Tempter to get behind Him, shrinking from him as one would shrink from a hissing serpent in his path. Sometimes words have no right at all to be considered synonyms, and yet are continually used one for the other; having through this constant misemployment more need than synonyms themselves to be discriminated. Thus, what confusion is often made between 'genuine' and 'authentic'; what inaccuracy exists in their employment. And yet the distinction is a very plain one. A 'genuine' work is one written by the author whose name it bears; an 'authentic' work is one which relates truthfully the matters of which it treats. For example, the apocryphal _Gospel of St. Thomas_ is neither 'genuine' nor 'authentic.' It is not 'genuine' for St. Thomas did not write it; it is not 'authentic,' for its contents are mainly fables and lies. _The History of the Alexandrian War_, which passes under Caesar's name, is not 'genuine,' for he did not write it; it is 'authentic,' being in the main a truthful record of the events which it professes to relate. Thiers' _History of the French Empire_, on the contrary, is 'genuine,' for he is certainly the author, but very far indeed from 'authentic '; while Thucydides' _History of the Peloponnesian War_ is both 'authentic' and 'genuine.' [Footnote: On this matter see the _New English Dictionary_ (s. v. _authentic_). It will there be found that the prevailing sense of 'authentic' is reliable, trustworthy, of established credit; it being often used by writers on Christian Evidences in contradistinction to 'genuine.' However, the Dictionary shows us that careful writers use the word in the sense of 'genuine,' of undisputed origin, not forged, or apocryphal: there is a citation bearing witness to this meaning from Paley. The Greek [Greek: authentikos] meant 'of firsthand authority, original.'] You will observe that in most of the words just adduced, I have sought to refer their usage to their etymologies, to follow the guidance of these, and by the same aid to trace the lines of demarcation which divide them. For I cannot but think it an omission in a very instructive little volume upon synonyms edited by the late Archbishop Whately, and a partial diminution of its usefulness, that in the valuation of words reference is so seldom made to their etymologies, the writer relying almost entirely on present usage and the tact and instinct of a cultivated mind for the appreciation of them aright. The accomplished author (or authoress) of this book indeed justifies this omission on the ground that a work on synonyms has to do with the present relative value of words, not with their roots and derivations; and, further, that a reference to these often brings in what is only a disturbing force in the process, tending to confuse rather than to clear. But while it is quite true that words will often ride very slackly at anchor on their etymologies, will be borne hither and thither by the shifting tides and currents of usage, yet are they for the most part still holden by them. Very few have broken away and drifted from their moorings altogether. A 'novelist,' or writer of _new_ tales in the present day, is very different from a 'novelist' or upholder of _new_ theories in politics and religion, of two hundred years ago; yet the idea of _newness_ is common to them both. A 'naturalist' was once a denier of revealed truth, of any but _natural_ religion; he is now an investigator, often a devout one, of _nature_ and of her laws; yet the word has remained true to its etymology all the while. A 'methodist' was formerly a follower of a certain 'method' of philosophical induction, now of a 'method' in the fulfilment of religious duties; but in either case 'method' or orderly progression, is the central idea of the word. Take other words which have changed or modified their meaning--'plantations,' for instance, which were once colonies of men (and indeed we still 'plant' a colony), but are now nurseries of trees, and you will find the same to hold good. 'Ecstasy' _was_ madness; it _is_ intense delight; but has in no wise thereby broken with the meaning from which it started, since it is the nature alike of madness and of joy to set men out of and beside themselves. And even when the fact is not so obvious as in these cases, the etymology of a word exercises an unconscious influence upon its uses, oftentimes makes itself felt when least expected, so that a word, after seeming quite to have forgotten, will after longest wanderings return to it again. And one main device of great artists in language, such as would fain evoke the latent forces of their native tongue, will very often consist in reconnecting words by their use of them with their original derivation, in not suffering them to forget themselves and their origin, though they would. How often and with what signal effect does Milton compel a word to return to its original source, 'antiquam exquirere matrem'; while yet how often the fact that he is doing this passes even by scholars unobserved. [Footnote: Everyone who desires, as he reads Milton, thoroughly to understand him, will do well to be ever on the watch for such recalling, upon his part, of words to their primitive sense; and as often as he detects, to make accurate note of it for his own use, and, so far as he is a teacher, for the use of others. Take a few examples out of many: 'afflicted' (_P. L._ i. 186); 'alarmed' (_P. L._ iv. 985); 'ambition' (_P. L._ i. 262; _S. A._ 247); 'astonished' (_P. L._ i. 266); 'chaos' (_P. L._ vi. 55); 'diamond' (_P. L._ vi. 364); 'emblem' (_P. L._ iv. 703); 'empiric' (_P. L._ v. 440); 'engine' (_P. L._ i. 750); 'entire' (= integer, _P. L._ ix. 292); 'extenuate' (_P. L._ x. 645); 'illustrate' (_P. L._ v. 739); 'implicit' (_P. L._ vii. 323); 'indorse' (_P. R._ iii. 329); 'infringe' (_P. R._ i. 62); 'mansion' (_Com_. 2); 'moment' (_P. L._ x. 45); 'oblige' (_P. L._ ix. 980); 'person' (_P. L._ x. 156); 'pomp' (_P. L._ viii. 61); 'sagacious' (_P. L._ x. 28l); 'savage' (_P. L._ iv. l72); 'scene' (_P. L._ iv. 140;) 'secular' (_S. A._ 1707); 'secure' (_P. L._ vi. 638); 'seditious' (_P. L._ vi. 152); 'transact' (_P. L._ vi. 286); 'voluble' (_P. L._ ix. 436). We may note in Jeremy Taylor a similar reduction of words to their origins; thus, 'insolent' for unusual, 'metal' for mine, 'irritation' for a making vain, 'extant' for standing out (applied to a bas-relief), 'contrition' for bruising ('the _contrition_ of the serpent'), 'probable' for worthy of approval ('a _probable_ doctor'). The author of the excellent _Lexique de la Langue de Corneille_ claims the same merit for him and for his great contemporaries or immediate successors: Faire rendre aux mots tout ce qu'ils peuvent donner, en varier habilement les acceptions et les nuances, les ramener à leur origine, les retremper fréquemment à leur source étymologique, constituait un des secrets principaux des grands écrivains du dix- septième siècle. It is this putting of old words in a new light, and to a new use, though that will be often the oldest of all, on which Horace sets so high a store: Dixeris egregie, notum si callida verbum Reddiderit junctura novum; and not less Montaigne: 'The handling and utterance of fine wits is that which sets off a language; not so much by innovating it, as by putting it to more vigorous and various service, and by straining, bending, and adapting it to this. They do not create words, but they enrich their own, and give them weight and signification by the uses they put them to.'] Moreover, even if all this were not so, yet the past history of a word, a history that must needs _start_ from its derivation, how soon soever this may be left behind, can hardly be disregarded, when we are seeking to ascertain its present value. What Barrow says is quite true, that 'knowing the primitive meaning of words can seldom or never _determine_ their meaning anywhere, they often in common use declining from it'; but though it cannot 'determine,' it can as little be omitted or forgotten, when this determination is being sought. A man may be wholly different now from what once he was; yet not the less to know his antecedents is needful, before we can ever perfectly understand his present self; and the same holds good with words. There is a moral gain which synonyms will sometimes yield us, enabling us, as they do, to say exactly what we intend, without exaggerating or putting more into our speech than we feel in our hearts, allowing us to be at once courteous and truthful. Such moral advantage there is, for example, in the choice which we have between the words 'to felicitate' and 'to congratulate,' for the expressing of our sentiments and wishes in regard of the good fortune that may happen to others. To 'felicitate' another is to wish him happiness, without affirming that his happiness is also ours. Thus, out of that general goodwill with which we ought to regard all, we might 'felicitate' one almost a stranger to us; nay, more, I can honestly 'felicitate' one on his appointment to a post, or attainment of an honour, even though _I_ may not consider him the fittest to have obtained it, though I should have been glad if another had done so; I can desire and hope, that is, that it may bring all joy and happiness to him. But I could not, without a violation of truth, 'congratulate' him, or that stranger whose prosperity awoke no lively delight in my heart; for when I 'congratulate' a person (congratulor), I declare that I am sharer in his joy, that what has rejoiced him has rejoiced also me. We have all, I dare say, felt, even without having analysed the distinction between the words, that 'congratulate' is a far heartier word than 'felicitate,' and one with which it much better becomes us to welcome the good fortune of a friend; and the analysis, as you perceive, perfectly justifies the feeling. 'Felicitations' are little better than compliments; 'congratulations' are the expression of a genuine sympathy and joy. Let me illustrate the importance of synonymous distinctions by another example, by the words, 'to invent' and 'to discover'; or 'invention' and 'discovery.' How slight may seem to us the distinction between them, even if we see any at all. Yet try them a little closer, try them, which is the true proof, by aid of examples, and you will perceive that they can by no means be indifferently used; that, on the contrary, a great truth lies at the root of their distinction. Thus we speak of the 'invention' of printing, of the 'discovery' of America. Shift these words, and speak, for instance, of the 'invention' of America; you feel at once how unsuitable the language is. And why? Because Columbus did not make that to be, which before him had not been. America was there, before he revealed it to European eyes; but that which before _was_, he _showed_ to be; he withdrew the veil which hitherto had concealed it; he 'discovered' it. So too we speak of Newton 'discovering' the law of gravitation; he drew aside the veil whereby men's eyes were hindered from perceiving it, but the law had existed from the beginning of the world, and would have existed whether he or any other man had traced it or no; neither was it in any way affected by the discovery of it which he had made. But Gutenberg, or whoever else it may be to whom the honour belongs, 'invented' printing; he made something to be, which hitherto was not. In like manner Harvey 'discovered' the circulation of the blood; but Watt 'invented' the steam-engine; and we speak, with a true distinction, of the 'inventions' of Art, the 'discoveries' of Science. In the very highest matters of all, it is deeply important that we be aware of and observe the distinction. In religion there have been many 'discoveries,' but (in true religion I mean) no 'inventions.' Many discoveries--but God in each case the discoverer; He draws aside the veils, one veil after another, that have hidden Him from men; the discovery or revelation is from Himself, for no man by searching has found out God; and therefore, wherever anything offers itself as an 'invention' in matters of religion, it proclaims itself a lie,--as are all self-devised worships, all religions which man projects from his own heart. Just that is known of God which He is pleased to make known, and no more; and men's recognizing or refusing to recognize in no way affects it. They may deny or may acknowledge Him, but He continues the same. As involving in like manner a distinction which cannot safely be lost sight of, how important the difference, the existence of which is asserted by our possession of the two words, 'to apprehend' and 'to comprehend' with their substantives 'apprehension' and 'comprehension.' For indeed we 'apprehend' many truths, which we do not 'comprehend.' The great mysteries of our faith--the doctrine, for instance, of the Holy Trinity, we lay hold upon it, we hang on it, our souls live by it; but we do not '_com_prehend' it, that is, we do not take it all in; for it is a necessary attribute of God that He is _incomprehensible_; if He were not so, either He would not be God, or the Being that comprehended Him would be God also (Matt, xi. 27). But it also belongs to the idea of God that He may be '_ap_prehended' though not '_com_prehended' by his reasonable creatures; He has made them to know Him, though not to know Him _all_, to '_ap_prehend' though not to '_com_prehend' Him. We may transfer with profit the same distinction to matters not quite so solemn. Thus I read Goldsmith's _Traveller_, or one of Gay's _Fables_, and I feel that I 'comprehend' it;--I do not believe, that is, that there was anything stirring in the poet's mind or intention, which I have not in the reading reproduced in my own. But I read _Hamlet_, or _King Lear_: here I 'apprehend' much; I have wondrous glimpses of the poet's intention and aim; but I do not for an instant suppose that I have 'comprehended,' taken in, that is, all that was in his mind in the writing; or that his purpose does not stretch in manifold directions far beyond the range of my vision; and I am sure there are few who would not shrink from affirming, at least if they at all realized the force of the words they were using, that they 'comprehended 'Shakespeare; however much they may 'apprehend' in him. How often 'opposite' and 'contrary' are used as if there was no difference between them, and yet there is a most essential one, one which perhaps we may best express by saying that 'opposites' complete, while 'contraries' exclude one another. Thus the most 'opposite' moral or mental characteristics may meet in one and the same person, while to say that the most 'contrary' did so, would be manifestly absurd; for example, a soldier may be at once prudent and bold, for these are opposites; he could not be at once prudent and rash, for these are contraries. We may love and fear at the same time and the same person; we pray in the Litany that we may love and dread God, the two being opposites, and thus the complements of one another; but to pray that we might love and hate would be as illogical as it would be impious, for these are contraries, and could no more co-exist together than white and black, hot and cold, in the same subject at the same time. Or to take another illustration, sweet and sour are 'opposites,' sweet and bitter are 'contraries,' [Footnote: See Coleridge, _Church and State_, p. 18.] It will be seen then that there is always a certain relation between 'opposites'; they unfold themselves, though in different directions, from the same root, as the positive and negative forces of electricity, and in their very opposition uphold and sustain one another; while 'contraries' encounter one another from quarters quite diverse, and one only subsists in the exact degree that it puts out of working the other. Surely this distinction cannot be an unimportant one either in the region of ethics or elsewhere. It will happen continually, that rightly to distinguish between two words will throw a flood of light upon some controversy in which they play a principal part, nay, may virtually put an end to that controversy altogether. Thus when Hobbes, with a true instinct, would have laid deep the foundations of atheism and despotism together, resolving all right into might, and not merely robbing men, if he could, of the power, but denying to them the duty, of obeying God rather than man, his sophisms could stand only so long as it was not perceived that 'compulsion' and 'obligation,' with which he juggled, conveyed two ideas perfectly distinct, indeed disparate, in kind. Those sophisms of his collapsed at once, so soon as it was perceived that what pertained to one had been transferred to the other by a mere confusion of terms and cunning sleight of hand, the former being a _physical_, the latter a _moral_, necessity. There is indeed no such fruitful source of confusion and mischief as this--two words are tacitly assumed as equivalent, and therefore exchangeable, and then that which may be assumed, and with truth, of one, is assumed also of the other, of which it is not true. Thus, for instance, it often is with 'instruction' and 'education,' Cannot we 'instruct' a child, it is asked, cannot we teach it geography, or arithmetic, or grammar, quite independently of the Catechism, or even of the Scriptures? No doubt you may; but can you 'educate' without bringing moral and spiritual forces to bear upon the mind and affections of the child? And you must not be permitted to transfer the admissions which we freely make in regard of 'instruction,' as though they also held good in respect of 'education.' For what is 'education'? Is it a furnishing of a man from without with knowledge and facts and information? or is it a drawing forth from within and a training of the spirit, of the true humanity which is latent in him? Is the process of education the filling of the child's mind, as a cistern is filled with waters brought in buckets from some other source? or the opening up for that child of fountains which are already there? Now if we give any heed to the word 'education,' and to the voice which speaks therein, we shall not long be in doubt. Education must educe, being from 'educare,' which is but another form of 'educere'; and that is to draw out, and not to put in. 'To draw out' what is in the child, the immortal spirit which is there, this is the end of education; and so much the word declares. The putting in is indeed most needful, that is, the child must be instructed as well as educated, and 'instruction' means furnishing; but not instructed instead of educated. He must first have powers awakened in him, measures of value given him; and then he will know how to deal with the facts of this outward world; then instruction in these will profit him; but not without the higher training, still less as a substitute for it. It has occasionally happened that the question which out of two apparent synonyms should be adopted in some important state-document has been debated with no little earnestness and passion; as at the great English Revolution of 1688, when the two Houses of Parliament were at issue whether it should be declared of James II, that he had 'abdicated,' or had 'deserted,' the throne. This might seem at first sight a mere strife about words, and yet, in reality, serious constitutional questions were involved in the debate. The Commons insisted on the word 'abdicated,' not as wishing to imply that in any act of the late king there had been an official renunciation of the crown, which would have been manifestly untrue; but because 'abdicated' in their minds alone expressed the fact that James had so borne himself as virtually to have entirely renounced, disowned, and relinquished the crown, to have forfeited and separated himself from it, and from any right to it for ever; while 'deserted' would have seemed to leave room and an opening for a return, which they were determined to declare for ever excluded; as were it said of a husband that he had 'deserted' his wife, or of a soldier that he had 'deserted' his colours, this language would imply not only that he might, but that he was bound to return. The speech of Lord Somers on the occasion is a masterly specimen of synonymous discrimination, and an example of the uses in highest matters of state to which it may be turned. As little was it a mere verbal struggle when, at the restoration a good many years ago of our interrupted relations with Persia, Lord Palmerston insisted that the Shah should address the Queen of England not as 'Maleketh' but as 'Padischah,' refusing to receive letters which wanted this superscription. Let me press upon you, in conclusion, some few of the many advantages to be derived from the habit of distinguishing synonyms. These advantages we might presume to be many, even though we could not ourselves perceive them; for how often do the greatest masters of style in every tongue, perhaps none so often as Cicero, the greatest of all, [Footnote: Thus he distinguishes between 'voluntas' and 'cupiditas'; 'cautio' and 'metus' (_Tusc_. iv. 6); 'gaudium,' 'laetitia,' 'voluptas' (_Tusc_. iv. 6; _Fin_. ii. 4); 'prudentia' and 'sapientia' (_Off_. i. 43); 'caritas' and 'amor' (_De Part. Or_. 25); 'ebrius' and 'ebriosus,' 'iracundus' and 'iratus,' 'anxietas' and 'angor' (_Tusc_. iv. 12); 'vitium,' 'morbus,' and 'aegrotatio' (_Tusc_. iv. 13); 'labor' and 'dolor' (_Tusc_. ii. 15); 'furor' and 'insania' (_Tusc_. iii. 5); 'malitia' and 'vitiositas' (_Tusc_. iv. 15); 'doctus' and 'peritus' (_Off_. i. 3). Quintilian also often bestows attention on synonyms, observing well (vi. 3. 17): 'Pluribus nominibus in eadem re vulgo utimur; quae tamen si diducas, suam quandam propriam vim ostendent;' he adduces 'salsum,' 'urbanum,' 'facetum'; and elsewhere (v. 3) 'rumor' and 'fama' are discriminated happily by him. Among Church writers Augustine is a frequent and successful discriminator of words. Thus he separates off from one another 'flagitium' and 'facinus' (_De Doct. Christ_, iii. 10); 'aemulatio' and 'invidia' (_Expl. ad Gal._ x. 20); 'arrha' and 'pignus' (_Serm._ 23. 8,9); 'studiosus' and 'curiosus' (_De Util. Cred._ 9); 'sapientia' and 'scientia' (_De Div. Quaes_. 2, qu. 2); 'senecta' and 'senium' (_Enarr. in Ps._ 70. l8); 'schisma' and 'haeresis' (_Con. Cresc_. 2. 7); with many more (see my _Synonyms of the N.T._ Preface, p. xvi). Among the merits of the Grimms' _Wörterbuch_ is the care which they, and those who have taken up their work, bestow on the discrimination of synonyms; distinguishing, for example, 'degen' and 'schwert'; 'feld,' 'acker' and 'heide'; 'aar' and 'adler'; 'antlitz' and 'angesicht'; 'kelch,' 'becher' and 'glas'; 'frau' and 'weib'; 'butter,' 'schmalz' and 'anke'; 'kopf' and 'haupt'; 'klug' and 'weise'; 'geben' and 'schenken'; 'heirath' and 'ehe.'] pause to discriminate between the words they are using; how much care and labour, how much subtlety of thought, they have counted well bestowed on the operation; how much importance they avowedly attach to it; not to say that their works, even where they do not intend it, will afford a continual lesson in this respect: a great writer merely in the precision and accuracy with which he employs words will always be exercising us in synonymous distinction. But the advantages of attending to synonyms need not be taken on trust; they are evident. How large a part of true wisdom it is to be able to distinguish between things that differ, things seemingly, but not really, alike, is very remarkably attested by our words 'discernment' and 'discretion'; which are now used as equivalent, the first to 'insight,' the second to 'prudence'; while yet in their earlier usage, and according to their etymology, being both from 'discerno,' they signify the power of so seeing things that in the seeing we distinguish and separate them one from another. [Footnote: L'esprit consiste à connaitre la ressemblance des choses diverses, et la différence des choses semblables (Montesquieu). Saint-Evremond says of a reunion of the Précieuses at the Hotel Rambouillet, with a raillery which is not meant to be disrespectful-- 'Là se font distinguer les fiertés des rigueurs, Les dédains des mépris, les tourments des langueurs; On y sait démêler la crainte et les alarmes, Discerner les attraits, les appas et les charmes.'] Such were originally 'discernment' and 'discretion,' and such in great measure they are still. And in words is a material ever at hand on which to train the spirit to a skilfulness in this; on which to exercise its sagacity through the habit of distinguishing there where it would be so easy to confound. [Footnote: I will suggest here a few pairs or larger groups of words on which those who are willing to exercise themselves in the distinction of synonyms might perhaps profitably exercise their skill;--'fame,' 'popularity,' 'celebrity,' 'reputation,' 'renown';-- 'misfortune,' 'calamity,' 'disaster';--'impediment,' 'obstruction,' 'obstacle,' 'hindrance';--'temerity,' 'audacity,' 'boldness';-- 'rebuke,' 'reprimand,' 'censure,' 'blame';--'adversary,' 'opponent,' 'antagonist,' 'enemy';--'rival,' 'competitor';--'affluence,' 'opulence,' 'abundance,' 'redundance';--'conduct,' 'behaviour,' 'demeanour,' 'bearing';--'execration,' 'malediction,' 'imprecation,' 'anathema';--'avaricious,' 'covetous,' 'miserly,' 'niggardly';-- 'hypothesis,' 'theory,' 'system' (see De Quincey, _Lit. Rem._ American ed. p.229);--'masculine,' 'manly';--'effeminate,' 'feminine';-- 'womanly,' 'womanish';--'malicious,' 'malignant';--'savage,' 'barbarous,' 'fierce,' 'cruel,' 'inhuman';--'low, 'mean,' 'abject,' 'base';--'to chasten,' 'to punish,' 'to chastise';--'to exile,' 'to banish';--'to declare,' 'to disclose,' 'to reveal,' 'to divulge';--'to defend,' 'to protect,' 'to shelter';--'to excuse,' 'to palliate';--'to compel,' 'to coerce,' 'to constrain,' 'to force.'] Nor is this habit of discrimination only valuable as a part of our intellectual training; but what a positive increase is it of mental wealth when we have learned to discern between things which really differ, and have made the distinctions between them permanently our own in the only way whereby they can be made secure, that is, by assigning to each its appropriate word and peculiar sign. In the effort to trace lines of demarcation you may little by little be drawn into the heart of subjects the most instructive; for only as you have thoroughly mastered a subject, and all which is most characteristic about it, can you hope to trace these lines with accuracy and success. Thus a Roman of the higher classes might bear four names: 'praenomen,' 'nomen,' 'cognomen,' 'agnomen'; almost always bore three. You will know something of the political and family life of Rome when you can tell the exact story of each of these, and the precise difference between them. He will not be altogether ignorant of the Middle Ages and of the clamps which in those ages bound society together, who has learned exactly to distinguish between a 'fief' and a 'benefice.' He will have obtained a firm grasp on some central facts of theology who can exactly draw out the distinction between 'reconciliation,' 'propitiation,' 'atonement,' as used in the New Testament; of Church history, who can trace the difference between a 'schism' and a 'heresy.' One who has learned to discriminate between 'detraction' and 'slander,' as Barrow has done before him, [Footnote: 'Slander involveth an imputation of falsehood, but detraction may be couched in truth, and clothed in fair language. It is a poison often infused in sweet liquor, and ministered in a golden cup.' Compare Spenser, _Fairy Queen_, 5. 12. 28-43.] or between 'emulation' and 'envy,' in which South has excellently shown him the way, [Footnote: _Sermons_, 1737, vol. v. p. 403. His words are quoted in my _Select Glossary_, s. v 'Emulation.'] or between 'avarice' and 'covetousness,' with Cowley, will have made no unprofitable excursion into the region of ethics. How effectual a help, moreover, will it prove to the writing of a good English style, if instead of choosing almost at hap-hazard from a group of words which seem to us one about as fit for our purpose as another, we at once know which, and which only, we ought in the case before us to employ, which will prove the exact vesture of our thoughts. It is the first characteristic of a well-dressed man that his clothes fit him: they are not too small and shrunken here, too large and loose there. Now it is precisely such a prime characteristic of a good style, that the words fit close to the thoughts. They will not be too big here, hanging like a giant's robe on the limbs of a dwarf; nor too small there, as a boy's garments into which the man has painfully and ridiculously thrust himself. You do not, as you read, feel in one place that the writer means more than he has succeeded in saying; in another that he has said more than he means; in a third something beside what his precise intention was; in a fourth that he has failed to convey any meaning at all; and all this from a lack of skill in employing the instrument of language, of precision in knowing what words would be the exactest correspondents and aptest exponents of his thoughts. [Footnote: La propriété des termes est le caractère distinctif des grands écrivains; c'est par là que leur style est toujours au niveau de leur sujet; c'est à cette qualité qu'on reconnaît le vrai talent d'écrire, et non à l'art futile de déguiser par un vain coloris les idées communes. So D'Alembert; but Caesar long before had said, Delectus verborum, eloquentiae origo.] What a wealth of words in almost every language lies inert and unused; and certainly not fewest in our own. How much of what might be as current coin among us, is shut up in the treasure-house of a few classical authors, or is never to be met at all but in the columns of the dictionary, we meanwhile, in the midst of all this riches, condemning ourselves to a voluntary poverty; and often, with tasks the most delicate and difficult to accomplish,--for surely the clothing of thought in its most appropriate garment of words is such,--needlessly depriving ourselves of a large portion of the helps at our command; like some workman who, being furnished for an operation that will challenge all his skill with a dozen different tools, each adapted for its own special purpose, should in his indolence and self-conceit persist in using only one; doing coarsely what might have been done finely; or leaving altogether undone that which, with such assistances, was quite within his reach. And thus it comes to pass that in the common intercourse of life, often too in books, a certain restricted number of words are worked almost to death, employed in season and out of season--a vast multitude meanwhile being rarely, if at all, called to render the service which _they_ could render far better than any other; so rarely, indeed, that little by little they slip out of sight and are forgotten nearly or altogether. And then, perhaps, at some later day, when their want is felt, the ignorance into which we have allowed ourselves to fall, of the resources offered by the language to satisfy new demands, sends us abroad in search of outlandish substitutes for words which we already possess at home. [Footnote: Thus I observe in modern French the barbarous 'derailler,' to get off the rail; and this while it only needed to recall 'derayer' from the oblivion into which it had been allowed to fall.] It was, no doubt, to avoid so far as possible such an impoverishment of the language which he spoke and wrote, for the feeding of his own speech with words capable of serving him well, but in danger of falling quite out of his use, that the great Lord Chatham had Bailey's Dictionary', the best of his time, twice read to him from one end to the other. And let us not suppose the power of exactly saying what we mean, and neither more nor less than we mean, to be merely a graceful mental accomplishment. It is indeed this, and perhaps there is no power so surely indicative of a high and accurate training of the intellectual faculties. But it is much more than this: it has a moral value as well. It is nearly allied to morality, inasmuch as it is nearly connected with truthfulness. Every man who has himself in any degree cared for the truth, and occupied himself in seeking it, is more or less aware how much of the falsehood in the world passes current under the concealment of words, how many strifes and controversies, 'Which feed the simple, and offend the wise,' find all or nearly all the fuel that maintains them in words carelessly or dishonestly employed. And when a man has had any actual experience of this, and at all perceived how far this mischief reaches, he is sometimes almost tempted to say with Shakespeare, 'Out, idle words, servants to shallow fools'; to adopt the saying of his clown, 'Words are grown so false I am loathe to prove reason with them.' He cannot, however, forego their employment; not to say that he will presently perceive that this falseness of theirs whereof he accuses them, this cheating power, is not of their proper use, but only of their abuse; he will see that, however they may have been enlisted in the service of lies, they are yet of themselves most true; and that, where the bane is, there the antidote should be sought as well. If Goethe's _Faust_ denounces words and the falsehood of words, it is by the aid of words that he does it. Ask then words what they mean, that you may deliver yourselves, that you may help to deliver others, from the tyranny of words, and, to use Baxter's excellent phrase, from the strife of 'word- warriors.' Learn to distinguish between them, for you have the authority of Hooker, that 'the mixture of those things by speech, which by nature are divided, is the mother of all error.' [Footnote: See on all this matter in Locke's _Essay on Human Understanding,_ chapters 9, 10 and 11 of the 3rd book, certainly the most remarkable in the _Essay;_ they bear the following titles: _Of the Imperfection of Words, Of the Abuse of Words, Of the Remedies of the Imperfection and Abuse of Words._] And although I cannot promise you that the study of synonyms, or the acquaintance with derivations, or any other knowledge but the very highest knowledge of all, will deliver you from the temptation to misuse this or any other gift of God--a temptation always lying so near us--yet I am sure that these studies rightly pursued will do much in leading us to stand in awe of this gift of speech, and to tremble at the thought of turning it to any other than those worthy ends for which God has endowed us with a faculty so divine. LECTURE VII. THE SCHOOLMASTER'S USE OF WORDS. At the Great Exhibition of 1851, there might be seen a collection, probably by far the completest which had ever been got together, of what were called _the material helps of education_. There was then gathered in a single room all the outward machinery of moral and intellectual training; all by which order might be best maintained, the labour of the teacher and the taught economized, with a thousand ingenious devices suggested by the best experience of many minds, and of these during many years. Nor were these material helps of education merely mechanical. There were in that collection vivid representations of places and objects; models which often preserved their actual forms and proportions, not to speak of maps and of books. No one who is aware how much in schools, and indeed everywhere else, depends on what apparently is slight and external, would lightly esteem the helps and hints which such a collection would furnish. And yet it would be well for us to remember that even if we were to obtain all this apparatus in its completest form, at the same time possessing the most perfect skill in its application, so that it should never encumber but always assist us, we should yet have obtained very little compared with that which, as a help to education, is already ours. When we stand face to face with a child, that spoken or unspoken word which the child possesses in common with ourselves is a far more potent implement and aid of education than all these external helps, even though they should be accumulated and multiplied a thousandfold. A reassuring thought for those who may not have many of these helps within their reach, a warning thought for those who might be tempted to put their trust in them. On the occasion of that Exhibition to which I have referred, it was well said, 'On the structure of language are impressed the most distinct and durable records of the habitual operations of the human powers. In the full possession of language each man has a vast, almost an inexhaustible, treasure of examples of the most subtle and varied processes of human thought. Much apparatus, many material helps, some of them costly, may be employed to assist education; but there is no apparatus which is so necessary, or which can do so much, as that which is the most common and the cheapest--which is always at hand, and ready for every need. Every language contains in it the result of a greater number of educational processes and educational experiments, than we could by any amount of labour and ingenuity accumulate in any educational exhibition expressly contrived for such a purpose.' Being entirely convinced that this is nothing more than the truth, I shall endeavour in my closing lecture to suggest some ways in which you may effectually use this marvellous implement which you possess to the better fulfilling of that which you have chosen as the proper task of your life. You will gladly hear something upon this matter; for you will never, I trust, disconnect what you may yourselves be learning from the hope and prospect of being enabled thereby to teach others more effectually. If you do, and your studies in this way become a selfish thing, if you are content to leave them barren of all profit to others, of this you may be sure, that in the end they will prove not less barren of profit to yourselves. In one noble line Chaucer has characterized the true scholar:-- 'And gladly would he learn, and gladly teach.' Print these words on your remembrance. Resolve that in the spirit of this line you will work and live. But take here a word or two of warning before we advance any further. You cannot, of course, expect to make any original investigations in language; but you can follow safe guides, such as shall lead you by right paths, even as you may follow such as can only lead you astray. Do not fail to keep in mind that perhaps in no region of human knowledge are there such a multitude of unsafe leaders as in this; for indeed this science of words is one which many, professing for it an earnest devotion, have done their best or their worst to bring into discredit, and to make a laughing-stock at once of the foolish and the wise. Niebuhr has somewhere noted 'the unspeakable spirit of absurdity' which seemed to possess the ancients, whenever they meddled with this subject; but the charge reaches others beside them. Their mantle, it must be owned, has in after times often fallen upon no unworthy successors. What is commoner, even now, than to find the investigator of words and their origin looking round about him here and there, in all the languages, ancient and modern, to which he has any access, till he lights on some word, it matters little to him in which of these, more or less resembling that which he wishes to derive? and this found, to consider his problem solved, and that in this phantom hunt he has successfully run down his prey. Even Dr. Johnson, with his robust, strong, English common-sense, too often offends in this way. In many respects his _Dictionary_ will probably never be surpassed. We shall never have more concise, more accurate, more vigorous explanations of the actual meaning of words, at the time when it was published, than he has furnished. But even those who recognize the most fully this merit, must allow that he was ill equipped by any preliminary studies for tracing the past history of words; that in this he errs often and signally; sometimes where the smallest possible amount of knowledge would have preserved him from error; as for instance when he derives the name of the peacock from the peak, or tuft of pointed feathers, on its head! while other derivations proposed or allowed by him and others are so far more absurd than this, that when Swift, in ridicule of the whole band of philologers, suggests that 'ostler' is only a contraction of oat-stealer, and 'breeches' of bear-riches, these etymologies are scarcely more ridiculous than many which have in sober earnest, and by men of no inconsiderable reputation, been proposed. Oftentimes in this scheme of random etymology, a word in one language is derived from one in another, in bold defiance of the fact that no points of historic contact or connexion, mediate or immediate, have ever existed between the two; the etymologist not caring to ask himself whether it was thus so much as possible that the word should have passed from the one language to the other; whether in fact the resemblance is not merely superficial and illusory, one which, so soon as they are stripped of their accidents, disappears altogether. Take a few specimens of this manner of dealing with words; and first from the earlier etymologists. Thus, what are men doing but extending not the limits of their knowledge but of their ignorance, when they deduce, with Varro, 'pavo' from 'pavor,' because of the fear which the harsh shriek of the peacock awakens; or with Pliny, 'panthera' from [Greek: pan thaerion], because properties of all beasts meet in the panther; or persuade themselves that 'formica,' the ant, is 'ferens micas,' the grain-bearer. Medieval suggestions abound, as vain, and if possible, vainer still. Thus Sirens, as Chaucer assures us, are 'serenes' being fair-weather creatures only to be seen in a calm. [Footnote: _Romaunt of the Rose_, 678.] 'Apis,' a bee, is [Greek: apous] or without feet, bees being born without feet, the etymology and the natural history keeping excellent company together. Or what shall we say of deriving 'mors' from 'amarus,' because death is bitter; or from 'Mars,' because death is frequent in war; or 'à _morsu_ vetiti pomi,' because that forbidden bite brought death into the world; or with a modern investigator of language, and one of high reputation in his time, deducing 'girl' from 'garrula,' because girls are commonly talkative? [Footnote: Ménage is one of these 'blind leaders of the blind,' of whom I have spoken above. With all their real, though not very accurate, erudition, his three folio volumes, two on French, one on Italian etymologies, have done nothing but harm to the cause which they were intended to further. Génin (_Récréations Philologiques_, pp. 12-15) passes a severe but just judgment upon them. Ménage, comme tous ses devanciers et la plupart de ses successeurs, semble n'avoir été dirigé que par un seul principe en fait d'étymologie. Le voici dans son expression la plus nette. Tout mot vient du mot qui lui ressemble le mieux. Cela posé, Ménage, avec son érudition polyglotte, s'abat sur le grec, le latin, l'italien, l'espagnol, l'allemand, le celtique, et ne fait difficulté d'aller jusqu'à l'hébreu. C'est dommage que de son temps on ne cultivât pas encore le sanscrit, l'hindotistani, le thibétain et l'arabe: il les eût contraints à lui livrer des étymologies françaises. Il ne se met pas en peine des chemins par où un mot hébreu ou carthaginois aurait pu passer pour venir s'établir en France. Il y est, le voilà, suffit! L'identité ne peut être mise en question devant la ressemblance, et souvent Dieu sait quelle ressemblance! Compare Ampère, _Formation de la Langue Française_, pp. 194, 195.] All experience, indeed, proves how perilous it is to etymologize at random, and on the strength of mere surface similarities of sound. Let me illustrate the absurdities into which this may easily betray us by an amusing example. A clergyman, who himself told me the story, had sought, and not unsuccessfully, to kindle in his schoolmaster a passion for the study of derivations. His scholar inquired of him one day if he were aware of the derivation of 'crypt'? He naturally applied in the affirmative, that 'crypt' came from a Greek word to conceal, and meant a covered place, itself concealed, and where things which it was wished to conceal were placed. The other rejoined that he was quite aware the word was commonly so explained, but he had no doubt erroneously; that 'crypt,' as he had now convinced himself, was in fact contracted from 'cry-pit'; being the pit where in days of Popish tyranny those who were condemned to cruel penances were plunged, and out of which their cry was heard to come up--therefore called the 'cry-pit,' now contracted into 'crypt'! Let me say, before quitting my tale, that I would far sooner a schoolmaster made a hundred such mistakes than that he should be careless and incurious in all which concerned the words which he was using. To make mistakes, as we are in the search of knowledge, is far more honourable than to escape making them through never having set out in this search at all But while errors like his may very well be pardoned, of this we may be sure, that they will do little in etymology, will continually err and cause others to err, who in these studies leave this out of sight for an instant--namely, that no amount of resemblance between words in different languages is of itself sufficient to prove that they are akin, even as no amount of apparent unlikeness in sound or present form is sufficient to disprove consanguinity. 'Judge not according to appearances,' must everywhere here be the rule. One who in many regions of human knowledge anticipated the discoveries of later times, said well a century and a half ago, 'Many etymologies are true, which at the first blush are not probable'; [Footnote: Leibnitz (_Opp_. vol. v. p. 61): Saepe fit ut etymologiae verae sint, quae primo aspectu verisimiles non sunt.] and, as he might have added, many appear probable, which are not true. This being so, it is our wisdom on the one side to distrust superficial likenesses, on the other not to be repelled by superficial differences. Have no faith in those who etymologize on the strength of _sounds_, and not on that of _letters_, and of letters, moreover, dealt with according to fixed and recognized laws of equivalence and permutation. Much, as was said so well, is true, which does not seem probable. Thus 'dens' [Footnote: Compare Max Muller, _Chips from a German Workshop_, vol. iv. p. 25; Heyse, _System der Sprachwissenschaft_, p. 307.] and 'zahn' and 'tooth' are all the same word, and such in like manner are [Greek: chen], 'anser,' 'gans,' and 'goose;' and again, [Greek: dakru] and 'tear.' Who, on the other hand, would not take for granted that our 'much' and the Spanish 'mucho,' identical in meaning, were also in etymology nearly related? There is in fact no connexion between them. Between 'vulgus' and 'volk' there is as little. 'Auge' the German form of our 'eye,' is in every letter identical with a Greek word for splendour ([Greek: auge]); and yet, intimate as is the connexion between German and Greek, these have no relation with one another whatever. Not many years ago a considerable scholar identified the Greek 'holos' ([Greek: holos]) and our 'whole;' and few, I should imagine, have not been tempted at one stage of their knowledge to do the same. These also are in no way related. Need I remind you here of the importance of seeking to obtain in every case the earliest spelling of a word which is attainable? [Footnote: What signal gains may in this way be made no one has shown more remarkably than Skeat in his _Etymological Dictionary_.] Here then, as elsewhere, the condition of all successful investigation is to have learned to disregard phenomena, the deceitful shows and appearances of things; to have resolved to reach and to grapple with the things themselves. It is the fable of Proteus over again. He will take a thousand shapes wherewith he will seek to elude and delude one who is determined to extort from him that true answer, which he is capable of yielding, but will only yield on compulsion. The true inquirer is deceived by none of these. He still holds him fast; binds him in strong chains; until he takes his proper shape at the last; and answers as a true seer, so far as answer is possible, whatever question may be put to him. Nor, let me observe by the way, will that man's gain be small who, having so learned to distrust the obvious and the plausible, carries into other regions of study and of action the lessons which he has thus learned; determines to seek the ground of things, and to plant his foot upon that; believes that a lie may look very fair, and yet be a lie after all; that the truth may show very unattractive, very unlikely and paradoxical, and yet be the very truth notwithstanding. To return from a long, but not unnecessary digression. Convinced as I am of the immense advantage of following up words to their sources, of 'deriving' them, that is, of tracing each little rill to the river from whence it was first drawn, I can conceive no method of so effectually defacing and barbarizing our English tongue, of practically emptying it of all the hoarded wit, wisdom, imagination, and history which it contains, of cutting the vital nerve which connects its present with the past, as the introduction of the scheme of phonetic spelling, which some have lately been zealously advocating among us. I need hardly tell you that the fundamental idea of this is that all words should be spelt as they are sounded, that the writing should, in every case, be subordinated to the speaking. [Footnote: I do not know whether the advocates of phonetic spelling have urged the authority and practice of Augustus as being in their favour. Suetonius, among other amusing gossip about this Emperor, records of him: Videtur eorum sequi opinionem, qui perinde scribendum ac loquamur, existiment (_Octavius_. c. 88).] This, namely that writing should in every case and at all costs be subordinated to speaking, which is everywhere tacitly assumed as not needing any proof, is the fallacy which runs through the whole scheme. There is, indeed, no necessity at all for this. Every word, on the contrary, has _two_ existences, as a spoken word and a written; and you have no right to sacrifice one of these, or even to subordinate it wholly, to the other. A word exists as truly for the eye as for the ear; and in a highly advanced state of society, where reading is almost as universal as speaking, quite as much for the one as for the other. That in the _written_ word moreover is the permanence and continuity of language and of learning, and that the connexion is most intimate of a true orthography with all this, is affirmed in our words, 'letters,' 'literature,' 'unlettered,' as in other languages by words exactly corresponding to these. [Footnote: As [Greek: grammata, agrammatos], litterae, belles-lettres.] The gains consequent on the introduction of such a change in our manner of spelling would be insignificantly small, the losses enormously great. There would be gain in the saving of a certain amount of the labour now spent in learning to spell. The amount of labour, however, is absurdly exaggerated by the promoters of the scheme. I forget how many thousand hours a phonetic reformer lately assured us were on an average spent by every English child in learning to spell; or how much time by grown men, who, as he assured us, for the most part rarely attempted to write a letter without a Johnson's _Dictionary_ at their side. But even this gain would not long remain, seeing that pronunciation is itself continually changing; custom is lord here for better and for worse; and a multitude of words are now pronounced in a manner different from that of a hundred years ago, indeed from that of ten years ago; so that, before very long, there would again be a chasm between the spelling and the pronunciation of words;--unless indeed the spelling varied, which it could not consistently refuse to do, as the pronunciation varied, reproducing each of its capricious or barbarous alterations; these last, it must be remembered, being changes not in the pronunciation only, but in the word itself, which would only exist as pronounced, the written word being a mere shadow servilely waiting upon the spoken. When these changes had multiplied a little, and they would indeed multiply exceedingly on the removal of the barriers to change which now exist, what the language before long would become, it is not easy to guess. This fact however, though sufficient to show how ineffectual the scheme of phonetic spelling would prove, even for the removing of those inconveniences which it proposes to remedy, is only the smallest objection to it. The far more serious charge which may be brought against it is, that in words out of number it would obliterate those clear marks of birth and parentage, which they bear now upon their fronts, or are ready, upon a very slight interrogation, to reveal. Words have now an ancestry; and the ancestry of words, as of men, is often a very noble possession, making them capable of great things, because those from whom they are descended have done great things before them; but this would deface their scutcheon, and bring them all to the same ignoble level. Words are now a nation, grouped into tribes and families, some smaller, some larger; this change would go far to reduce them to a promiscuous and barbarous horde. Now they are often translucent with their inner thought, lighted up by it; in how many cases would this inner light be then quenched! They have now a body and a soul, the soul quickening the body; then oftentimes nothing but a body, forsaken by the spirit of life, would remain. These objections were urged long ago by Bacon, who characterizes this so-called reformation, 'that writing should be consonant to speaking,' as 'a branch of unprofitable subtlety;' and especially urges that thereby 'the derivations of words, especially from foreign languages, are utterly defaced and extinguished.' [Footnote: The same attempt to introduce phonography has been several times made, once in the sixteenth century, and again some thirty years ago in France. What would be there the results? We may judge of these from the results of a partial application of the system. 'Temps' is now written 'tems,' the _p_ having been ejected as superfluous. What is the consequence? at once its visible connexion with the Latin 'tempus,' with the Spanish 'tiempo,' with the Italian 'tempo,' with its own 'temporel' and 'temporaire,' is broken, and for many effaced. Or note the result from another point of view. Here are 'poids' a weight, 'poix' pitch, 'pois' peas. No one could mark in speaking the distinction between these; and thus to the ear there maybe confusion between them, but to the eye there is none; not to say that the _d_ in poi_d_s' puts it for us in relation with 'pon_d_us,' the _x_ in 'poi_x_' with 'pu_x_,' the _s_ in 'poi_s_' with the Low Latin 'pi_s_um.' In each case the letter which these reformers would dismiss as useless, and worse than useless, keeps the secret of the word. On some other attempts in the same direction see in D'Israeli, _Amenities of Literature_, an article _On Orthography and Orthoepy_; and compare Diez, _Romanische Sprache_, vol. i. p. 52. [In the form _poids_ we have a striking example of a wretchedly bad spelling which is due to an attempt to make the spelling etymological. Unfortunately the etymology is erroneous: the French word for weight has nothing in the world to do with Latin _pondus_; it is the phonetic representative of the Latin _pensum_, and should be spelt _pois_.]] From the results of various approximations to phonetic spelling, which at different times have been made, and the losses thereon ensuing, we may guess what the loss would be were the system fully carried out. Of those fairly acquainted with Latin, it would be curious to know how many have seen 'silva' in 'savage,' since it has been so written, and not 'salvage,' as of old? or have been reminded of the hindrances to a civilized and human society which the indomitable forest, more perhaps than any other obstacle, presents. When 'fancy' was spelt 'phant'sy,' as by Sylvester in his translation of Du Bartas, and other scholarly writers of the seventeenth century, no one could doubt of its identity with 'phantasy,' as no Greek scholar could miss its relation with phantasia. Spell 'analyse' as I have sometimes seen it, and as phonetically it ought to be, 'annalize,' and the tap-root of the word is cut. How many readers will recognize in it then the image of dissolving and resolving aught into its elements, and use it with a more or less conscious reference to this? It may be urged that few do so even now. The more need they should not be fewer; for these few do in fact retain the word in its place, from which else it might gradually drift; they preserve its vitality, and the propriety of its use, not merely for themselves, but also for the others that have not this knowledge. In phonetic spelling is, in fact, the proposal that the learned and the educated should of free choice place themselves under the disadvantages of the ignorant and uneducated, instead of seeking to elevate these last to their own more favoured condition. On this subject one observation more. The multitude of difficulties of every sort and size which would beset the period of transition, and that no brief period, from our present spelling to the very easiest form of phonetic, seem to me to be almost wholly overlooked by those who are the most eager to press forward this scheme: while yet it is very noticeable that so soon as ever the 'Spelling Reform' approaches, however remotely, a practical shape, the Reformers, who up to this time were at issue with all the rest of the world, are at once at issue among themselves. At once the question comes to the front, Shall the labour-pangs of this immense new-birth or transformation of English be encountered all at once? or shall they be spread over years, and little by little the necessary changes introduced? It would not be easy to bring together two scholars who have bestowed more thought and the results of more laborious study on the whole subject of phonetic spelling than Mr. Ellis and Dr. Murray have done, while yet at the last annual meeting of the Philological Society (May 20, 1881) these two distinguished scholars, with mutual respect undiminished, had no choice but to acknowledge that, while they were seeking the same objects, the means by which they sought to attain them were altogether different, and that, in the judgment of each, all which the other was doing in setting forward results equally dear to both was only tending to put hindrances in the way, and to make the attainment of those results remoter than ever. [Footnote: [For arguments in defence of phonetic spelling the student is referred to Sweet's _Handbook of Phonetics_ (Appendix); Skeat's _Principles of English Etymology_, p. 294; Max Muller's _Lectures on the Science of Language_, ii. 108.]] But to return. Even now the relationships of words, so important for our right understanding of them, are continually overlooked; a very little matter serving to conceal from us the family to which they pertain. Thus how many of our nouns are indeed unsuspected participles, or are otherwise most closely connected with verbs, with which we probably never think of putting them in relation. And yet with how lively an interest shall we discover those to be of closest kin, which we had never considered but as entire strangers to one another; what increased mastery over our mother tongue shall we through such discoveries obtain. Thus 'wrong' is the perfect participle of 'to wring' that which has been 'wrung' or wrested from the right; as in French 'tort,' from 'torqueo,' is the twisted. The 'brunt' of the battle is its heat, where it 'burns' the most fiercely; [Footnote: The word _brunt_ is a somewhat difficult form to explain. It is probably of Scandinavian origin; compare Danish _brynde_, heat. For the dental suffix -_t_, see Douse, _Gothic_, p. 101. The suffix is not participial.] the 'haft' of a knife, that whereby you 'have' or hold it. This exercise of putting words in their true relation and connexion with one another might be carried much further. Of whole groups of words, which may seem to acknowledge no kinship with one another, it will not be difficult to show that they had the same parentage, or, if not this, a cousinship in common. For instance, here are 'shore,' 'share,' 'shears'; 'shred,' 'sherd'; all most closely connected with the verb 'to sheer.' 'Share' is a portion of anything divided off; 'shears' are instruments effecting this process of separation; the 'shore' is the place where the continuity of the land is interrupted by the sea; a 'shred' is that which is shorn from the main piece; a 'sherd,' as a pot-'sherd,' (also 'pot-share,' Spenser,) that which is broken off and thus divided from the vessel; these not all exhausting this group or family of words, though it would occupy more time than we can spare to put some other words in their relation with it. But this analysing of groups of words for the detecting of the bond of relationship between them, and their common root, may require more etymological knowledge than you possess, and more helps from books than you can always command. There is another process, and one which may prove no less useful to yourselves and to others, which will lie more certainly within your reach. You will meet in books, sometimes in the same book, and perhaps in the same page of this book, a word used in senses so far apart from one another that at first it will seem to you absurd to suppose any bond of connexion between them. Now when you thus fall in with a word employed in these two or more senses so far removed from one another, accustom yourselves to seek out the bond which there certainly is between these several uses. This tracing of that which is common to and connects all its meanings can only be done by getting to its centre and heart, to the seminal meaning, from which, as from a fruitful seed, all the others unfold themselves; to the first link in the chain, from which every later one, in a direct line or a lateral, depends. We may proceed in this investigation, certain that we shall find such, or at least that such there is to be found. For nothing can be more certain than this (and the non-recognition of it is a serious blemish in Johnson's _Dictionary_), that a word has originally but one meaning, that all other uses, however widely they may diverge from one another and recede from this one, may yet be affiliated to it, brought back to the one central meaning, which grasps and knits them all together; just as the several races of men, black, white, and yellow and red, despite of all their present diversity and dispersion, have a central point of unity in that one pair from which they all have descended. Let me illustrate this by two or three familiar examples. How various are the senses in which 'post' is used; as 'post'-office; 'post'-haste; a 'post' standing in the ground; a military 'post'; an official 'post'; 'to post' a ledger. Is it possible to find anything which is common to all these uses of 'post'? When once we are on the right track, nothing is easier. 'Post' is the Latin 'positus,' that which is _placed_; the piece of timber is 'placed' in the ground, and so a 'post'; a military station is a 'post,' for a man is 'placed' in it, and must not quit it without orders; to travel 'post,' is to have certain relays of horses ''placed' at intervals, that so no delay on the road may occur; the 'post '-office avails itself of this mode of communication; to 'post' a ledger is to 'place' or register its several items. Once more, in what an almost infinite number of senses 'stock' is employed; we have live 'stock,' 'stock' in trade or on the farm, the village 'stocks,' the 'stock' of a gun, the 'stock'-dove, the 'stocks,' on which ships are built, the 'stock' which goes round the neck, the family 'stock,' the 'stocks,' or public funds, in which money is invested, with other 'stocks' besides these. What point in common can we find between them all? This, that being all derived from one verb, they cohere in the idea of _fixedness_ which is common to them all. Thus, the 'stock' of a gun is that in which the barrel is fixed; the village 'stocks' are those in which the feet are fastened; the 'stock' in trade is the fixed capital; and so too, the 'stock' on the farm, although the fixed capital has there taken the shape of horses and cattle; in the 'stocks' or public funds, money sticks fast, inasmuch as those who place it there cannot withdraw or demand the capital, but receive only the interest; the 'stock' of a tree is fast set in the ground; and from this use of the word it is transferred to a family; the 'stock' is that from which it grows, and out of which it unfolds itself. And here we may bring in the 'stock'-dove, as being the 'stock' or stirps of the domestic kinds. I might group with these, 'stake' in both its spellings; a 'stake' is stuck in the hedge and there remains; the 'stakes' which men wager against the issue of a race are paid down, and thus fixed or deposited to answer the event; a beef-'steak' is a portion so small that it can be stuck on the point of a fork; and so forward. [Footnote: See the _Instructions for Parish Priests_, p. 69, published by the _Early English Texts Society_.] When we thus affirm that the divergent meanings of a word can all be brought back to some one point from which, immediately or mediately, they every one proceed, that none has primarily more than one meaning, it must be remembered that there may very well be two words, or, as it will sometimes happen, more, spelt as well as pronounced alike, which yet are wholly different in their derivation and primary usage; and that, of course, between such homonyms or homographs as these no bond of union on the score of this identity is to be sought. Neither does this fact in the least invalidate our assertion. We have in them, as Cobbett expresses it well, the same combination of letters, but not the same word. Thus we have 'page,' the side of a leaf, from 'pagina,' and 'page,' a small boy; 'league,' a treaty (F. ligue), from 'ligare,' to bind, and 'league' (O. F. legue), from leuca, a Celtic measure of distance; 'host' (hostis), an army, 'host' (O. F. hoste), from the Latin hospitem, and 'host' (hostia), in the Roman Catholic sacrifice of the mass. We have two 'ounces' (uncia and Pers. yuz); two 'seals' (sigillum and seolh); two 'moods' (modus and mod); two 'sacks' (saccus and sec); two 'sounds' (sonus and sund); two 'lakes' (lacus and lacca); two 'kennels' (canalis and canile); two 'partisans' (partisan and partegiana); two 'quires' (choeur and cahier); two 'corns' (corn and cornu); two 'ears' (ohr and ähre); two 'doles' (deuil and theil); two 'perches' (pertica and perca); two 'races' (raes and the French race); two 'rocks,' two 'rooks,' two 'sprays,' two 'saws,' two 'strains,' two 'trunks,' two 'burrows,' two 'helms,' two 'quarries'; three 'moles,' three 'rapes' (as the 'rape' of Proserpine, the 'rape' of Bramber, 'rape'-seed); four 'ports,' three 'vans,' three 'smacks.' Other homonyms in the language are the following: 'ash,' 'barb,' 'bark,' 'barnacle,' 'bat,' 'beam,' 'beetle,' 'bill,' 'bottle,' 'bound,' 'breeze,' 'bugle,' 'bull,' 'cape,' 'caper,' 'chap,' 'cleave,' 'club,' 'cob,' 'crab,' 'cricket,' 'crop,' 'crowd,' 'culver,' 'dam,' 'elder,' 'flag,' 'fog,' 'fold,' 'font,' 'fount,' 'gin,' 'gore,' 'grain,' 'grin,' 'gulf,' 'gum,' 'gust,' 'herd,' 'hind,' 'hip,' 'jade,' 'jar,' 'jet,' 'junk,' 'lawn,' 'lime,' 'link,' 'mace,' 'main,' 'mass,' 'mast,' 'match,' 'meal,' 'mint,' 'moor,' 'paddock,' 'painter,' 'pernicious,' 'plot,' 'pulse,' 'punch,' 'rush,' 'scale,' 'scrip,' 'shingle,' 'shock,' 'shrub,' 'smack,' 'soil,' 'stud,' 'swallow,' 'tap,' 'tent,' 'toil,' 'trinket,' 'turtle.' You will find it profitable to follow these up at home, to trace out the two or more words which have clothed themselves in exactly the same outward garb, and on what etymologies they severally repose; so too, as often as you suspect the existence of homonyms, to make proof of the matter for yourselves, gradually forming as complete a list of these as you can. [Footnote: For a nearly complete list of homonyms in English see List of Homonyms at the end of Skeat's _Etym. Dict._; Kock's _Historical Grammar of the English Language_, vol. i. p. 223; Mätzner's _Engl. Grammatik_, vol. i. pp. 187-204; and compare Dwight's _Modern Philology_, vol. ii. p. 311.] You may usefully do the same in any other language which you study, for they exist in all. In them the identity is merely on the surface and in sound, and it would, of course, be lost labour to seek for a point of contact between meanings which have no closer connexion with one another in reality than they have in appearance. Let me suggest some further exercises in this region of words. There are some which at once provoke and promise to reward inquiry, by the evident readiness with which they will yield up the secret, if duly interrogated by us. Many, as we have seen, have defied, and will probably defy to the end, all efforts to dissipate the mystery which hangs over them; and these we must be content to leave; but many announce that their explanations cannot be very far to seek. Let me instance 'candidate.' Does it not argue an incurious spirit to be content that this word should be given and received by us a hundred times, as at a contested election it is, and we never ask ourselves, What does it mean? why is one offering himself to the choice of his fellows called a 'candidate'? If the word lay evidently beyond our horizon, we might acquiesce in our ignorance; but resting, as manifestly it does, upon the Latin 'candidus,' it challenges inquiry, and a very little of this would at once put us in possession of the Roman custom for which it witnesses--namely, that such as intended to claim the suffrages of the people for any of the chief offices of the State, presented themselves beforehand to them in a _white_ toga, being therefore called 'candidati.' And as it so often happens that in seeking information upon one subject we obtain it upon another, so will it probably be here; for in fully learning what this custom was, you will hardly fail to learn how we obtained 'ambition,' what originally it meant, and how Milton should have written-- 'To reign is worth ambition, though in hell. Or again, any one who knows so much as that 'verbum' means a word, might well be struck by the fact (and if he followed it up would be led far into the relation of the parts of speech to one another), that in grammar it is not employed to signify any word whatsoever, but restricted to the verb alone; 'verbum' is the verb. Surely here is matter for reflection. What gives to the verb the right to monopolize the dignity of being 'the word'? Is it because the verb is the animating power, the vital principle of every sentence, and that without which understood or uttered, no sentence can exist? or can you offer any other reason? I leave this to your own consideration. We call certain books 'classics.' We have indeed a double use of the word, for we speak of the Greek and Latin as the 'classical' languages, and the great writers in these as '_the_ classics'; while at other times you hear of a 'classical' English style, or of English 'classics.' Now 'classic' is connected plainly with 'classis.' What then does it mean in itself, and how has it arrived at this double use? 'The term is drawn from the political economy of Rome. Such a man was rated as to his income in the third class, such another in the fourth, and so on; but he who was in the highest was emphatically said to be of _the_ class, "classicus"--a class man, without adding the number, as in that case superfluous; while all others were infra classem. Hence, by an obvious analogy, the best authors were rated as "classici," or men of the highest class; just as in English we say "men of rank" absolutely, for men who are in the highest ranks of the state.' The mental process by which this title, which would apply rightly to the best authors in _all_ languages, came to be restricted to those only in two, and these two to be claimed, to the seeming exclusion of all others, as _the_ classical languages, is one constantly recurring, making itself felt in all regions of human thought; to which therefore I would in passing call your attention, though I cannot now do more. There is one circumstance which you must by no means suffer to escape your own notice, nor that of your pupils--namely, that words out of number, which are now employed only in a figurative sense, did yet originally rest on some fact of the outward world, vividly presenting itself to the imagination; which fact the word has incorporated and knit up with itself for ever. If I may judge from my own experience, few intelligent boys would not feel that they had gained something, when made to understand that 'to insult' means properly to leap as on the prostrate body of a foe; 'to affront,' to strike him on the face; that 'to succour' means by running to place oneself under one that is falling; 'to relent,' (connected with 'lentus,') to slacken the swiftness of one's pursuit; [Footnote: 'But nothing might _relent_ his hasty flight,' Spenser _F. Q._ iii. 4.] 'to reprehend,' to lay hold of one with the intention of forcibly pulling him back; 'to exonerate,' to discharge of a burden, ships being exonerated once; that 'to be examined' means to be weighed. They would be pleased to learn that a man is called 'supercilious,' because haughtiness with contempt of others expresses itself by the raising of the eyebrows or 'supercilium'; that 'subtle' (subtilis for subtexilis) is literally 'fine-spun'; that 'astonished' (attonitus) is properly thunderstruck; that 'sincere' is without wax, (sine cera,) as the best and finest honey should be; that a 'companion,' probably at least, is one with whom we share our bread, a messmate; that a 'sarcasm' is properly such a lash inflicted by the 'scourge of the tongue' as brings away the _flesh_ after it; with much more in the same kind. 'Trivial' is a word borrowed from the life. Mark three or four persons standing idly at the point where one street bisects at right angles another, and discussing there the idle nothings of the day; there you have the living explanation of 'trivial,' 'trivialities,' such as no explanation not rooting itself in the etymology would ever give you, or enable you to give to others. You have there the 'tres viae,' the 'trivium'; and 'trivialities' properly mean such talk as is holden by those idle loiterers that gather at this meeting of three roads. [Footnote: But 'trivial' may be from 'trivium' in another sense; that is, from the 'trivium,' or three preparatory disciplines,--grammar, arithmetic, and geometry,--as distinguished from the four more advanced, or 'quadrivium'; these and those together being esteemed in the Middle Ages to constitute a complete liberal education. Preparatory schools were often called '_trivial_ schools,' as occupying themselves with the 'trivium.'] 'Rivals' properly are those who dwell on the banks of the same river. But as all experience shows, there is no such fruitful source of contention as a water-right, and these would be often at strife with one another in regard of the periods during which they severally had a right to the use of the stream, turning it off into their own fields before the time, or leaving open the sluices beyond the time, or in other ways interfering, or being counted to interfere, with the rights of their neighbours. And in this way 'rivals' came to be applied to any who were on any grounds in unfriendly competition with one another. By such teaching as this you may often improve, and that without turning play-time into lesson-time, the hours of relaxation and amusement. But 'relaxation,' on which we have just lighted as by chance, must not escape us. How can the bow be 'relaxed' or slackened (for this is the image), which has not been bent, whose string has never been drawn tight? Having drawn tight the bow of our mind by earnest toil, we may then claim to have it from time to time 'relaxed.' Having been attentive and assiduous then, but not otherwise, we may claim 'relaxation' and amusement. But 'attentive' and 'assiduous' are themselves words which will repay us to understand exactly what they mean. He is 'assiduous' who sits close to his work; he is 'attentive,' who, being taught, stretches out his neck that so he may not lose a word. 'Diligence' too has its lesson. Derived from 'diligo,' to love, it reminds us that the secret of true industry in our work is love of that work. And as truth is wrapped up in 'diligence,' what a lie, on the other hand, lurks in 'indolence,' or, to speak more accurately, in our present employment of it! This, from 'in' and 'doleo,' not to grieve, is properly a state in which we have no grief or pain; and employed as we now employ it, suggests to us that indulgence in sloth constitutes for us the truest negation of pain. Now no one would wish to deny that 'pain' and 'pains' are often nearly allied; but yet these pains hand us over to true pleasures; while indolence is so far from yielding that good which it is so forward to promise, that Cowper spoke only truth, when, perhaps meaning to witness against the falsehood I have just denounced, he spoke of 'Lives spent in _indolence_, and therefore _sad_,' not 'therefore _glad_,' as the word 'indolence' would fain have us to believe. There is another way in which these studies I have been urging may be turned to account. Doubtless you will seek to cherish in your scholars, to keep lively in yourselves, that spirit and temper which find a special interest in all relating to the land of our birth, that land which the providence of God has assigned as the sphere of our life's task and of theirs. Our schools are called 'national,' [Footnote: This was written in England, and in the year 1851.] and if we would have them such in reality, we must neglect nothing that will foster a national spirit in them. I know not whether this is sufficiently considered among us; yet certainly we cannot have Church-schools worthy the name, least of all in England, unless they are truly national as well. It is the anti-national character of the Roman Catholic system which perhaps more than all else offends Englishmen; and if their sense of this should ever grow weak, their protest against that system would soon lose much of its energy and strength. But here, as everywhere else, knowledge must be the food of love. Your pupils must know something about England, if they are to love it; they must see some connexion of its past with its present, of what it has been with what it is, if they are to feel that past as anything to them. And as no impresses of the past are so abiding, so none, when once attention has been awakened to them, are so self-evident as those which names preserve; although, without this calling of the attention to them, the most broad and obvious of these foot-prints which the past time has left may continue to escape our observation to the end of our lives. Leibnitz tells us, and one can quite understand, the delight with which a great German Emperor, Maximilian I., discovered that 'Habsburg,' or 'Hapsburg,' the ancestral name of his house, really had a meaning, one moreover full of vigour and poetry. This he did, when he heard it by accident on the lips of a Swiss peasant, no longer cut short and thus disguised, but in its original fulness, 'Habichtsburg,' or 'Hawk's- Tower,' being no doubt the name of the castle which was the cradle of his race. [Footnote: _Opp._ vol. vi. pt. 2. p. 20.] Of all the thousands of Englishmen who are aware that Angles and Saxons established themselves in this island, and that we are in the main descended from them, it would be curious to know how many have realized to themselves a fact so obvious as that this 'England' means 'Angle-land,' or that in the names 'Essex,' 'Sussex,' and 'Middlesex,' we preserve a record of East Saxons, South Saxons, and Middle Saxons, who occupied those several portions of the land; or that 'Norfolk' and 'Suffolk' are two broad divisions of 'northern' and 'southern folk,' into which the East Anglian kingdom was divided. 'Cornwall' does not bear its origin quite so plainly upon its front, or tell its story so that every one who runs may read. At the same time its secret is not hard to attain to. As the Teutonic immigrants advanced, such of the British population as were not either destroyed or absorbed by them retreated, as we all have learned, into Wales and Cornwall, that is, till they could retreat no further. The fact is evidently preserved in the name of 'Wales', which means properly 'The foreigners,'--the nations of Teutonic blood calling all bordering tribes by this name. But though not quite so apparent on the surface, this fact is also preserved in 'Cornwall', written formerly 'Cornwales', or the land inhabited by the Welsh of the Corn or Horn. The chroniclers uniformly speak of North Wales and Corn-Wales. [Footnote: See _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, year 997, where mention is made of the _Cornwealas_, the Cornish people.] These Angles, Saxons, and Britons or Welshmen, about whom our pupils may be reading, will be to them more like actual men of flesh and blood, who indeed trod this same soil which we are treading now, when we can thus point to traces surviving to the present day, which they have left behind them, and which England, as long as it is England, will retain. The Danes too have left their marks on the land. We all probably, more or less, are aware how much Danish blood runs in English veins; what large colonies from Scandinavia (for as many may have come from Norway as from modern Denmark), settled in some parts of this island. It will be interesting to show that the limits of this Danish settlement and occupation may even now be confidently traced by the constant recurrence in all such districts of the names of towns and villages ending in 'by,' which signified in their language a dwelling or single village; as Nether_by_, Apple_by_, Der_by_, Whit_by_, Rug_by_. Thus if you examine closely a map of Lincolnshire, one of the chief seats of the Danish settlement, you will find one hundred, or well nigh a fourth part, of the towns and villages to have this ending, the whole coast being studded with them--they lie nearly as close to one another as in Sleswick itself; [Footnote: Pott, _Etym. Forsch._ vol. ii. pt. 2, p.1172] while here in Hampshire 'by' as such a termination, is utterly unknown. Or again, draw a line transversely through England from Canterbury by London to Chester, the line, that is, of the great Roman road, called Watling Street, and north of this six hundred instances of the occurrence of the same termination may be found, while to the south there are almost none. 'Thorpe,' equivalent to the German 'dorf' as Bishops_thorpe_, Al_thorp_, tells the same tale of a Norse occupation of the soil; and the terminations, somewhat rarer, of 'thwaite,' 'haugh,' 'garth,' 'ness,' do the same no less. On the other hand, where, as in this south of England, the 'hams' abound (the word is identical with our 'home'), as Bucking_ham_, Eg_ham_, Shore_ham_, there you may be sure that not Norsemen but West Germans took possession of the soil. 'Worth,' or 'worthy,' tells the same story, as Bos_worth_, Kings_worthy_; [Footnote: See Sweet's _Oldest English Texts_ (index).] the 'stokes' in like manner, as Basing_stoke_, Itchen_stoke_, are Saxon, being (as some suppose) places _stock_aded, with stocks or piles for defence. You are yourselves learning, or hereafter you may be teaching others, the names and number of the English counties or shires. What a dull routine task for them and for you this may be, supplying no food for the intellect, no points of attachment for any of its higher powers to take hold of! And yet in these two little words, 'shire' and 'county,' if you would make them render up even a small part of their treasure, what lessons of English history are contained! One who knows the origin of these names, and how we come to possess such a double nomenclature, looks far into the social condition of England in that period when the strong foundations of all that has since made England glorious and great were being laid; by aid of these words may detect links which bind its present to its remotest past; for of lands as of persons it may be said, 'the child is father of the man,' 'Shire' is connected with 'shear,' 'share,' and is properly a portion 'shered' or 'shorn' off. [Footnote: It must be confessed that there are insuperable difficulties in the way of connecting Anglo-Saxon _scir_ with the verb _sceron_, to shear, and of explaining it as equivalent to 'shorn off.' The derivation of 'shire' has not yet been ascertained.] When a Saxon king would create an earl, it did not lie in men's thoughts, accustomed as they were to deal with realities, that such could be a merely titular creation, or exist without territorial jurisdiction; and a 'share' or 'shire' was assigned him to govern, which also gave him his title. But at the Conquest this Saxon officer was displaced by a Norman, the 'earl' by the 'count'--this title of 'count,' borrowed from the later Roman empire, meaning originally 'companion' (comes), one who had the honour of being closest companion to his leader; and the 'shire' was now the 'county' (comitatus), as governed by this 'comes.' In that singular and inexplicable fortune of words, which causes some to disappear and die out under the circumstances apparently most favourable for life, others to hold their ground when all seemed against them, 'count' has disappeared from the titles of English nobility, while 'earl' has recovered its place; although in evidence of the essential identity of the two titles, or offices rather, the wife of the earl is entitled a 'countess'; and in further memorial of these great changes that so long ago came over our land, the two names 'shire' and 'county' equally survive as in the main interchangeable words in our mouths. A large part of England, all that portion of it which the Saxons occupied, is divided into 'hundreds'. Have you ever asked yourselves what this division means, for something it must mean? The 'hundred' is supposed to have been originally a group or settlement of one hundred free families of Saxon incomers. If this was so, we have at once an explanation of the strange disproportion between the area of the 'hundred' in the southern and in the more northern counties--the average number of square miles in a 'hundred' of Sussex or Kent being about four and twenty; of Lancashire more than three hundred. The Saxon population would naturally be far the densest in the earlier settlements of the east and south, while more to west and north their tenure would be one rather of conquest than of colonization, and the free families much fewer and more scattered. [Footnote: Kemble, _The Saxons in England_, vol. i. p. 420; Stubbs, _Constitutional History of England,_ p. 98.] But further you have noticed, I dare say, the exceptional fact that the county of Sussex, besides the division into hundreds, is divided also into six 'rapes'; thus the 'rape' of Bramber and so on. [This 'rape' is connected by Lappenberg, ii. 405 (1881), with the Icel. _hreppr_, which according to the Grágás was a district in which twenty or more peasants maintained one poor person]. Let us a little consider, in conclusion, how we may usefully bring our etymologies and other notices of words to bear on the religious teaching which we would impart in our schools. To do this with much profit we must often deal with words as the Queen does with the gold and silver coin of the realm. When this has been current long, and by often passing from man to man, with perhaps occasional clipping in dishonest hands, has lost not only the clear brightness, the well- defined sharpness of outline, but much of the weight and intrinsic value which it had when first issued from the royal mint, it is the sovereign's prerogative to recall it, and issue it anew, with the royal image stamped on it afresh, bright and sharp, weighty and full, as at first. Now to a process such as this the true mint-masters of language, and all of us may be such, will often submit the words which they use. Where use and custom have worn away their significance, we too may recall and issue them afresh. With how many it has thus fared!--for example, with one which will be often in your mouths. You speak of the 'lessons' of the day; but what is 'lessons' here for most of us save a lazy synonym for the morning and evening chapters appointed to be read in church? But realize what the Church intended in calling these chapters by this name; namely, that they should be the daily instruction of her children; listen to them yourselves as such; lead your scholars to regard them as such, and in this use of 'lessons' what a lesson for every one of us there may be! [Footnote: [Still etymologically _lessons_ mean simply 'readings, the word representing French _leçons_ = Latin _lectiones_.]] 'Bible' itself, while we not irreverently use it, may yet be no more to us than the verbal sign by which we designate the written Word of God. Keep in mind that it properly means 'the book' and nothing more; that once it could be employed of any book (in Chaucer it is so), and what matter of thought and reflection lies in this our present restriction of 'bible' to one book, to the exclusion of all others! So strong has been the sense of Holy Scripture being '_the_ Book,' the worthiest and best, that book which explains all other books, standing up in their midst,--like Joseph's kingly sheaf, to which all the other sheaves did obeisance,-- that this name of 'Bible' or 'Book' has been restrained to it alone: just as 'Scripture' means no more than 'writing'; but this inspired Writing has been acknowledged so far above all other writings, that this name also it has obtained as exclusively its own. Again, something may be learned from knowing that the 'surname,' as distinguished from the 'Christian' name, is the name over and above, not 'sire'-name, or name received from the father, as some explain, but 'sur'-name (super nomen). There was never, that is, a time when every baptized man had not a Christian name, the recognition of his personal standing before God; while the surname, the name expressing his relation, not to the kingdom of God, but to a worldly society, is of much later growth, super-added to the other, as the word itself declares. What a lesson at once in the growing up of a human society, and in the contrast between it and the heavenly Society of the Church, might be appended to this explanation! There was a period when only a few had surnames; had, that is, any significance in the order of things temporal; while the Christian name from the first was the possession of every baptized man. All this might be brought usefully to bear on your exposition of the first words in the Catechism. There are long words from the Latin which, desire as we may to use all plainness of speech, we cannot do without, nor find their adequate substitutes in homelier parts of our language; words which must always remain the vehicles of much of that truth whereby we live. Now in explaining these, make it your rule always to start, where you can, from the derivation, and to return to that as often as you can. Thus you wish to explain 'revelation.' How much will be gained if you can attach some distinct image to the word, one to which your scholars, as often as they hear it, may mentally recur. Nor is this difficult. God's 'revelation' of Himself is a drawing back of the veil or curtain which concealed Him from men; not man finding out God, but God discovering Himself to man; all which is contained in the word. Or you wish to explain 'absolution.' Many will know that it has something to do with the pardon of sins; but how much more accurately will they know this, when they know that 'to absolve' means 'to loosen from': God's 'absolution' of men being his releasing of them from the bands of those sins with which they were bound. Here every one will connect a distinct image with the word, such as will always come to his help when he would realize what its precise meaning may be. That which was done for Lazarus naturally, the Lord exclaiming, 'Loose him, and let him go,' the same is done spiritually for us, when we receive the 'absolution' of our sins. Tell your scholars that 'atonement' means 'at-one-ment'--the setting at one of those who were at twain before, namely God and man, and they will attach to 'atonement' a definite meaning, which perhaps in no way else it would have possessed for them; and, starting from this point, you may muster the passages in Scripture which describe the sinner's state as one of separation, estrangement, alienation, from God, the Christian's state as one in which he walks together with God, because the two have been set 'at one.' Or you have to deal with the following, 'to redeem,' 'Redeemer,' 'redemption.' Lose not yourselves in vague generalities, but fasten on the central point of these, that they imply a 'buying,' and not this merely, but a 'buying back'; and then connect with them, so explained, the whole circle of statements in Scripture which rest on this image, which speak of sin as a slavery, of sinners as bondsmen of Satan, of Christ's blood as a ransom, of the Christian as one restored to his liberty. Many words more suggest themselves; I will not urge more than one; but that one, because in it is a lesson more for ourselves than for others, and with such I would fain bring these lectures to a close. How solemn a truth we express when we name our work in this world our 'vocation,' or, which is the same in homelier Anglo-Saxon, our 'calling.' What a calming, elevating, ennobling view of the tasks appointed us in this world, this word gives us. We did not come to our work by accident; we did not choose it for ourselves; but, in the midst of much which may wear the appearance of accident and self-choosing, came to it by God's leading and appointment. How will this consideration help us to appreciate justly the dignity of our work, though it were far humbler work, even in the eyes of men, than that of any one of us here present! What an assistance in calming unsettled thoughts and desires, such as would make us wish to be something else than that which we are! What a source of confidence, when we are tempted to lose heart, and to doubt whether we shall carry through our work with any blessing or profit to ourselves or to others! It is our 'vocation,' not our choosing but our 'calling'; and He who 'called' us to it, will, if only we will ask Him, fit us for it, and strengthen us in it. 
22577	----	PRACTICAL GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION BY THOMAS WOOD, A.M., LL.B. THE BRADDOCK (PENNSYLVANIA) HIGH SCHOOL D. APPLETON AND COMPANY NEW YORK CHICAGO PREFACE This book was begun as a result of the author's experience in teaching some classes in English in the night preparatory department of the Carnegie Technical Schools of Pittsburg. The pupils in those classes were all adults, and needed only such a course as would enable them to express themselves in clear and correct English. English Grammar, with them, was not to be preliminary to the grammar of another language, and composition was not to be studied beyond the everyday needs of the practical man. Great difficulty was experienced because of inability to secure a text that was suited to the needs of the class. A book was needed that would be simple, direct and dignified; that would cover grammar, and the essential principles of sentence structure, choice of words, and general composition; that would deal particularly with the sources of frequent error, and would omit the non-essential points; and, finally that would contain an abundance of exercises and practical work. It is with these ends in view that this book has been prepared. The parts devoted to grammar have followed a plan varying widely from that of most grammars, and an effort has been made to secure a more sensible and effective treatment. The parts devoted to composition contain brief expositions of only the essential principles of ordinary composition. Especial stress has been laid upon letter-writing, since this is believed to be one of the most practical fields for actual composition work. Because such a style seemed best suited to the general scheme and purpose of the book, the method of treatment has at times been intentionally rather formal. Abundant and varied exercises have been incorporated at frequent intervals throughout the text. So far as was practicable the exercises have been kept constructive in their nature, and upon critical points have been made very extensive. The author claims little credit except for the plan of the book and for the labor that he has expended in developing the details of that plan and in devising the various exercises. In the statement of principles and in the working out of details great originality would have been as undesirable as it was impossible. Therefore, for these details the author has drawn from the great common stores of learning upon the subjects discussed. No doubt many traces of the books that he has used in study and in teaching may be found in this volume. He has, at times, consciously adapted matter from other texts; but, for the most part, such slight borrowings as may be discovered have been made wholly unconsciously. Among the books to which he is aware of heavy literary obligations are the following excellent texts: Lockwood and Emerson's Composition and Rhetoric, Sherwin Cody's Errors in Composition, A. H. Espenshade's Composition and Rhetoric, Edwin C. Woolley's Handbook of Composition, McLean, Blaisdell and Morrow's Steps in English, Huber Gray Buehler's Practical Exercises in English, and Carl C. Marshall's Business English. To Messrs. Ginn and Company, publishers of Lockwood and Emerson's Composition and Rhetoric, and to the Goodyear-Marshall Publishing Company, publishers of Marshall's Business English, the author is indebted for their kind permission to make a rather free adaptation of certain parts of their texts. Not a little gratitude does the author owe to those of his friends who have encouraged and aided him in the preparation of his manuscript, and to the careful criticisms and suggestions made by those persons who examined the completed manuscript in behalf of his publishers. Above all, a great debt of gratitude is owed to Mr. Grant Norris, Superintendent of Schools, Braddock, Pennsylvania, for the encouragement and painstaking aid he has given both in preparation of the manuscript and in reading the proof of the book. T.W. BRADDOCK, PENNSYLVANIA. CONTENTS CHAPTER I.--SENTENCES--PARTS OF SPEECH--ELEMENTS OF SENTENCE--PHRASES AND CLAUSES II.--NOUNS Common and Proper Inflection Defined Number The Formation of Plurals Compound Nouns Case The Formation of the Possessive Case Gender III.--PRONOUNS Agreement with Antecedents Person Gender Rules Governing Gender Number Compound Antecedents Relative Interrogative Case Forms Rules Governing Use of Cases Compound Personal Compound Relative Adjective Miscellaneous Cautions IV.--ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS Comparison Confusion of Adjectives and Adverbs Improper Forms of Adjectives Errors in Comparison Singular and Plural Adjectives Placing of Adverbs and Adjectives Double Negatives The Articles V.--VERBS Principal Parts Name-form Past Tense Past Participle Transitive and Intransitive Verbs Active and Passive Voice Mode Forms of the Subjunctive Use of Indicative and Subjunctive Agreement of Verb with its Subject Rules Governing Agreement of the Verb Miscellaneous Cautions Use of _Shall_ and _Will_ Use of _Should_ and _Would_ Use of _May_ and _Might_, _Can_ and _Could_ Participles and Gerunds Misuses of Participles and Gerunds Infinitives Sequence of Infinitive Tenses Split Infinitives Agreement of Verb in Clauses Omission of Verb or Parts of Verb Model Conjugations _To Be_ _To See_ VI.--CONNECTIVES: RELATIVE PRONOUNS, RELATIVE ADVERBS, CONJUNCTIONS, AND PREPOSITIONS Independent and Dependent Clauses Case and Number of Relative and Interrogative Pronouns Conjunctive or Relative Adverbs Conjunctions Placing of Correlatives Prepositions QUESTIONS FOR THE REVIEW OF GRAMMAR A GENERAL EXERCISE ON GRAMMAR VII.--SENTENCES Loose Periodic Balanced Sentence Length The Essential Qualities of a Sentence Unity Coherence Emphasis Euphony VIII.--CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION Rules for Capitalization Rules for Punctuation IX.--THE PARAGRAPH Length Paragraphing of Speech Indentation of the Paragraph Essential Qualities of the Paragraph Unity Coherence Emphasis X.--LETTER-WRITING Heading Inside Address Salutation Body of the Letter Close Miscellaneous Directions Outside Address Correctly Written Letters Notes in the Third Person XI.--THE WHOLE COMPOSITION Statement of Subject The Outline The Beginning Essential Qualities of the Whole Composition Unity Coherence The Ending Illustrative Examples Lincoln's _Gettysburg Speech_ Selection from _Cranford_ List of Books for Reading XII.--WORDS--SPELLING--PRONUNCIATION Words Good Use Offenses Against Good Use Solecisms Barbarisms Improprieties Idioms Choice of Words How to Improve One's Vocabulary Spelling Pronunciation GLOSSARY OF MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS PRACTICAL GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION * * * * * CHAPTER I SENTENCES.--PARTS OF SPEECH.--ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE.--PHRASES AND CLAUSES 1. In thinking we arrange and associate ideas and objects together. Words are the symbols of ideas or objects. A SENTENCE is a group of words that expresses a single complete thought. 2. SENTENCES are of four kinds: 1. DECLARATIVE; a sentence that tells or declares something; as, _That book is mine_. 2. IMPERATIVE; a sentence that expresses a command; as, _Bring me that book_. 3. INTERROGATIVE; a sentence that asks a question; as, _Is that book mine?_ 4. EXCLAMATORY; a declarative, imperative, or interrogative sentence that expresses violent emotion, such as terror, surprise, or anger; as, _You shall take that book!_ or, _Can that book be mine?_ 3. PARTS OF SPEECH. Words have different uses in sentences. According to their uses, words are divided into classes called Parts of Speech. The parts of speech are as follows: 1. NOUN; a word used as the name of something; as, _man, box, Pittsburgh, Harry, silence, justice_. 2. PRONOUN; a word used instead of a noun; as, _I, he, it, that._ Nouns, pronouns, or groups of words that are used as nouns or pronouns, are called by the general term, SUBSTANTIVES. 3. ADJECTIVE; a word used to limit or qualify the meaning of a noun or a pronoun; as, _good, five, tall, many_. The words _a, an_, and _the_ are words used to modify nouns or pronouns. They are adjectives, but are usually called ARTICLES. 4. VERB; a word used to state something about some person or thing; as, _do, see, think, make_. 5. ADVERB; a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb; as, _very, slowly, clearly, often_. 6. PREPOSITION; a word used to join a substantive, as a modifier, to some other preceding word, and to show the relation of the substantive to that word; as, _by, in, between, beyond_. 7. CONJUNCTION; a word used to connect words, phrases, clauses, and sentences; as, _and, but, if, although, or_. 8. INTERJECTION; a word used to express surprise or emotion; as, _Oh! Alas! Hurrah! Bah!_ Sometimes a word adds nothing to the meaning of the sentence, but helps to fill out its form or sound, and serves as a device to alter its natural order. Such a word is called an EXPLETIVE. In the following sentence _there_ is an expletive: _THERE are no such books in print_. 4. A sentence is made up of distinct parts or elements. The essential or PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS are the Subject and the Predicate. The SUBJECT of a sentence is the part which mentions that about which something is said. The PREDICATE is the part which states that which is said about the subject. _Man walks_. In this sentence, _man_ is the subject, and _walks_ is the predicate. The subject may be simple or modified; that is, may consist of the subject alone, or of the subject with its modifiers. The same is true of the predicate. Thus, in the sentence, _Man walks_, there is a simple subject and a simple predicate. In the sentence, _The good man walks very rapidly_, there is a modified subject and a modified predicate. There may be, also, more than one subject connected with the same predicate; as, _THE MAN AND THE WOMAN walk_. This is called a COMPOUND SUBJECT. A COMPOUND PREDICATE consists of more than one predicate used with the same subject; as, _The man BOTH WALKS AND RUNS_. 5. Besides the principal elements in a sentence, there are SUBORDINATE ELEMENTS. These are the Attribute Complement, the Object Complement, the Adjective Modifier, and the Adverbial Modifier. Some verbs, to complete their sense, need to be followed by some other word or group of words. These words which "complement," or complete the meanings of verbs are called COMPLEMENTS. The ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENT completes the meaning of the verb by stating some class, condition, or attribute of the subject; as, _My friend is a STUDENT, I am WELL, The man is GOOD Student, well_, and _good_ complete the meanings of their respective verbs, by stating some class, condition, or attribute of the subjects of the verbs. The attribute complement usually follows the verb _be_ or its forms, _is, are, was, will be_, etc. The attribute complement is usually a noun, pronoun, or adjective, although it may be a phrase or clause fulfilling the function of any of these parts of speech. It must not be confused with an adverb or an adverbial modifier. In the sentence, _He is THERE, there_ is an adverb, not an attribute complement. The verb used with an attribute complement, because such verb _joins_ the subject to its attribute, is called the COPULA ("to couple") or COPULATIVE VERB. Some verbs require an object to complete their meaning. This object is called the OBJECT COMPLEMENT. In the sentence, _I carry a BOOK_, the object, _book_, is required to complete the meaning of the transitive verb _carry_; so, also in the sentences, _I hold the HORSE_, and _I touch a DESK_, the objects _horse_ and _desk_ are necessary to complete the meanings of their respective verbs. These verbs that require objects to complete their meaning are called Transitive Verbs. ADJECTIVE and ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS may consist simply of adjectives and adverbs, or of phrases and clauses used as adjectives or adverbs. 6. A PHRASE is a group of words that is used as a single part of speech and that does not contain a subject and a predicate. A PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE, always used as either an adjective or an adverbial modifier, consists of a preposition with its object and the modifiers of the object; as, _He lives IN PITTSBURG, Mr. Smith OF THIS PLACE is the manager OF THE MILL, The letter is IN THE NEAREST DESK_. There are also Verb-phrases. A VERB-PHRASE is a phrase that serves as a verb; as, _I AM COMING, He SHALL BE TOLD, He OUGHT TO HAVE BEEN TOLD_. 7. A CLAUSE is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate; as, _The man THAT I SAW was tall_. The clause, _that I saw_, contains both a subject, _I_, and a predicate, _saw_. This clause, since it merely states something of minor importance in the sentence, is called the SUBORDINATE CLAUSE. The PRINCIPAL CLAUSE, the one making the most important assertion, is, _The man was tall_. Clauses may be used as adjectives, as adverbs, and as nouns. A clause used as a noun is called a SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSE. Examine the following examples: Adjective Clause: The book _that I want_ is a history. Adverbial Clause: He came _when he had finished with the work_. Noun Clause as subject: _That I am here_ is true. Noun Clause as object: He said _that I was mistaken_. 8. Sentences, as to their composition, are classified as follows: SIMPLE; a sentence consisting of a single statement; as, _The man walks_. COMPLEX; a sentence consisting of one principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses; as, _The man that I saw is tall_. COMPOUND; a sentence consisting of two or more clauses of equal importance connected by conjunctions expressed or understood; as, _The man is tall and walks rapidly_, and _Watch the little things; they are important_. EXERCISE I _In this and in all following exercises, be able to give the reason for everything you do and for every conclusion you reach. Only intelligent and reasoning work is worth while. In the following list of sentences: (1) Determine the part of speech of every word. (2) Determine the unmodified subject and the unmodified predicate; and the modified subject and the modified predicate. (3) Pick out every attribute complement and every object complement. (4) Pick out every phrase and determine whether it is a prepositional phrase or a verb-phrase. If it is a prepositional phrase, determine whether it is used as an adjective or as an adverb. (5) Determine the principal and the subordinate clauses. If they are subordinate clauses, determine whether they are used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. (6) Classify every sentence as simple, complex, or compound._ 1. Houses are built of wood, brick, stone, and other materials, and are constructed in various styles. 2. The path of glory leads but to the grave. 3. We gladly accepted the offer which he made. 4. I am nearly ready, and shall soon join you. 5. There are few men who do not try to be honest. 6. Men may come, and men may go, but I go on forever. 7. He works hard, and rests little. 8. She is still no better, but we hope that there will be a change. 9. Let each speak for himself. 10. It was I who told him to go. 11. To live an honest life should be the aim of every one. 12. Who it really was no one knew, but all believed it to have been him. 13. In city and in country people think very differently. 14. To be or not to be, that is the question. 15. In truth, I think that I saw a brother of his in that place. 16. By a great effort he managed to make headway against the current. 17. Beyond this, I have nothing to say. 18. That we are never too old to learn is a true saying. 19. Full often wished he that the wind might rage. 20. Lucky is he who has been educated to bear his fate. 21. It is I whom you see. 22. The study of history is a study that demands a well-trained memory. 23. Beyond the city limits the trains run more rapidly than they do here. 24. Alas! I can travel no more. 25. A lamp that smokes is a torture to one who wants to study. EXERCISE 2 (1) _Write a list of six examples of every part of speech._ (2) _Write eight sentences, each containing an attribute complement. Use adjectives, nouns, and pronouns._ (3) _Write eight sentences, each containing an object complement._ (4) _Write five sentences, in each using some form of the verb TO BE, followed by an adverbial modifier._ CHAPTER II NOUNS 9. A noun has been defined as a word used as the name of something. It may be the name of a person, a place, a thing, or of some abstract quality, such as, _justice_ or _truth_. 10. COMMON AND PROPER NOUNS. A PROPER NOUN is a noun that names some particular or special place, person, people, or thing. A proper noun should always begin with a capital letter; as, _English, Rome, Jews, John_. A COMMON NOUN is a general or class name. 11. INFLECTION DEFINED. The variation in the forms of the different parts of speech to show grammatical relation, is called INFLECTION. Though there is some inflection in English, grammatical relation is usually shown by position rather than by inflection. The noun is inflected to show number, case, and gender. 12. NUMBER is that quality of a word which shows whether it refers to one or to more than one. SINGULAR NUMBER refers to one. PLURAL NUMBER refers to more than one. 13. PLURALS OF SINGULAR NOUNS ARE FORMED ACCORDING TO THE FOLLOWING RULES: 1. Most nouns add _s_ to the singular; as, _boy, boys; stove, stoves_. 2. Nouns ending in _s, ch, sh_, or _x_, add _es_ to the singular; as, _fox, foxes; wish, wishes; glass, glasses; coach, coaches_. 3. Nouns ending in _y_ preceded by a vowel (_a, e, i, o, u_) add _s_; as, _valley, valleys_, (_soliloquy, soliloquies_ and _colloquy, colloquies_ are exceptions). When _y_ is preceded by a consonant (any letter other than a vowel), _y_ is changed to _i_ and _es_ is added; as, _army, armies; pony, ponies; sty, sties_. 4. Most nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_ add _s_, as, _scarf, scarfs; safe, safes_. A few change _f_ or _fe_ to _v_ and add _es_; as, _wife, wives; self, selves_. The others are: _beef, calf, elf, half, leaf, loaf, sheaf, shelf, staff, thief, wharf, wolf, life_. (_Wharf_ has also a plural, _wharfs_.) 5. Most nouns ending in _o_ add _s_; as, _cameo, cameos_. A number of nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a consonant add _es_; as, _volcano, volcanoes_. The most important of the latter class are: _buffalo, cargo, calico, echo, embargo, flamingo, hero, motto, mulatto, negro, potato, tomato, tornado, torpedo, veto_. 6. Letters, figures, characters, etc., add the apostrophe and _s_ (_'s_); as, _6's, c's, t's, that's_. 7. The following common words always form their plurals in an irregular way; as, _man, men; ox, oxen; goose, geese; woman, women; foot, feet; mouse, mice; child, children; tooth, teeth; louse, lice_. COMPOUND NOUNS are those formed by the union of two words, either two nouns or a noun joined to some descriptive word or phrase. 8. The principal noun of a compound noun, whether it precedes or follows the descriptive part, is in most cases the noun that changes in forming the plural; as, _mothers-in-law, knights-errant, mouse-traps_. In a few compound words, both parts take a plural form; as, _man-servant, men-servants; knight-templar, knights-templars_. 9. Proper names and titles generally form plurals in the same way as do other nouns; as, _Senators Webster and Clay, the three Henrys_. Abbreviations of titles are little used in the plural, except _Messrs._ (_Mr._), and _Drs._ (_Dr._). 10. In forming the plurals of proper names where a title is used, either the title or the name may be put in the plural form. Sometimes both are made plural; as, _Miss Brown, the Misses Brown, the Miss Browns, the two Mrs. Browns_. 11. Some nouns are the same in both the singular and the plural; as, _deer, series, means, gross_, etc. 12. Some nouns used in two senses have two plural forms. The most important are the following: BROTHER _brothers_ (by blood) _brethren_ (by association) CLOTH _cloths_ (kinds of cloth) _clothes_ (garments) DIE _dies_ (for coinage) _dice_ (for games) FISH _fishes_ (separately) _fish_ (collectively) GENIUS _geniuses_ (men of genius) _genii_ (imaginary beings) HEAD _heads_ (of the body) _head_ (of cattle) INDEX _indexes_ (of books) _indices_ (in algebra) PEA _peas_ (separately) _pease_ (collectively) PENNY _pennies_ (separately) _pence_ (collectively) SAIL _sails_ (pieces of canvas) _sail_ (number of vessels) SHOT _ shots_ (number of discharges) _shot_ (number of balls) 13. Nouns from foreign languages frequently retain in the plural the form that they have in the language from which they are taken; as, _focus, foci; terminus, termini; alumnus, alumni; datum, data; stratum, strata; formula, formul�; vortex, vortices; appendix, appendices; crisis, crises; oasis, oases; axis, axes; phenomenon, phenomena; automaton, automata; analysis, analyses; hypothesis, hypotheses; medium, media; vertebra, vertebr�; ellipsis, ellipses; genus, genera; fungus, fungi; minimum, minima; thesis, theses_. EXERCISE 3 _Write the plural, if any, of every singular noun in the following list; and the singular, if any, of every plural noun. Note those having no singular and those having no plural_. News, goods, thanks, scissors, proceeds, puppy, studio, survey, attorney, arch, belief, chief, charity, half, hero, negro, majority, Mary, vortex, memento, joy, lily, knight-templar, knight-errant, why, 4, x, son-in-law, Miss Smith, Mr. Anderson, country-man, hanger-on, major-general, oxen, geese, man-servant, brethren, strata, sheep, mathematics, pride, money, pea, head, piano, veto, knives, ratios, alumni, feet, wolves, president, sailor-boy, spoonful, rope-ladder, grandmother, attorney-general, cupful, go-between. _When in doubt respecting the form of any of the above, consult an unabridged dictionary._ 14. CASE. There are three cases in English: the Nominative, the Possessive, and the Objective. The NOMINATIVE CASE; the form used in address and as the subject of a verb. The OBJECTIVE CASE; the form used as the object of a verb or a preposition. It is always the same in form as is the nominative. Since no error in grammar can arise in the use of the nominative or the objective cases of nouns, no further discussion of these cases is here needed. The POSSESSIVE CASE; the form used to show ownership. In the forming of this case we have inflection. 15. THE FOLLOWING ARE THE RULES FOR THE FORMING OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE: 1. Most nouns form the possessive by adding the apostrophe and _s_ (_'s_); as, _man, man's; men, men's; pupil, pupil's; John, John's_. 2. Plural nouns ending in _s_ form the possessive by adding only the apostrophe ('); as, _persons, persons'; writers, writers'_. In stating possession in the plural, then one should say: _Carpenters' tools sharpened here, Odd Fellows' wives are invited_, etc. 3. Some singular nouns ending in an _s_ sound form the possessive by adding the apostrophe alone; as, _for appearance' sake, for goodness' sake_. But usage inclines to the adding of the apostrophe and _s_ (_'s_) even if the singular noun does end in an _s_ sound; as, _Charles's book, Frances's dress, the mistress's dress_. 4. When a compound noun, or a group of words treated as one name, is used to denote possession, the sign of the possessive is added to the last word only; as, _Charles and John's mother_ (the mother of both Charles and John), _Brown and Smith's store_ (the store of the firm Brown & Smith). 5. Where the succession of possessives is unpleasant or confusing, the substitution of a prepositional phrase should be made; as, _the house of the mother of Charles's partner_, instead of, _Charles's partner's mother's house_. 6. The sign of the possessive should be used with the word immediately preceding the word naming the thing possessed; as, _Father and mother's house, Smith, the lawyer's, office, The Senator from Utah's seat_. 7. Generally, nouns representing inanimate objects should not be used in the possessive case. It is better to say _the hands of the clock_ than _the clock's hands_. NOTE.--One should say _somebody else's_, not _somebody's else_. The expression _somebody else_ always occurs in the one form, and in such cases the sign of the possessive should be added to the last word. Similarly, say, _no one else's, everybody else's_, etc. EXERCISE 4 _Write the possessives of the following:_ Oxen, ox, brother-in-law, Miss Jones, goose, man, men, men-servants, man-servant, Maine, dogs, attorneys-at-law, Jackson & Jones, John the student, my friend John, coat, shoe, boy, boys, Mayor of Cleveland. EXERCISE 5 _Write sentences illustrating the use of the possessives you have formed for the first ten words under Exercise 4._ EXERCISE 6 _Change the following expressions from the prepositional phrase form to the possessive:_ 1. The ships of Germany and France. 2. The garden of his mother and sister. 3. The credit of Jackson & Jones. 4. The signature of the president of the firm. 5. The coming of my grandfather. 6. The lives of our friends. 7. The dog of both John and William. 8. The dog of John and the dog of William. 9. The act of anybody else. 10. The shortcomings of Alice. 11. The poems of Robert Burns. 12. The wives of Henry the Eighth. 13. The home of Mary and Martha. 14. The novels of Dickens and the novels of Scott. 15. The farm of my mother and of my father. 16. The recommendation of Superintendent Norris. EXERCISE 7 _Correct such of the following expressions as need correction. If apostrophes are omitted, insert them in the proper places:_ 1. He walked to the precipices edge. 2. Both John and William's books were lost. 3. They sell boy's hats and mens' coats. 4. My friends' umbrella was stolen. 5. I shall buy a hat at Wanamaker's & Brown's. 6. This student's lessons. 7. These students books. 8. My daughters coming. 9. John's wife's cousin. 10. My son's wife's aunt. 11. Five years imprisonment under Texas's law. 12. John's books and Williams. 13. The Democrat's and Republican Convention. 14. France's and England's interests differ widely. 15. The moons' face was hidden. 16. Wine is made from the grape's juice. 17. Morton, the principals, signature. 18. Jones & Smith, the lawyers, office. 16. GENDER. Gender in grammar is the quality of nouns or pronouns that denotes the sex of the person or thing represented. Those nouns or pronouns meaning males are in the MASCULINE GENDER. Those meaning females are in the FEMININE GENDER. Those referring to things without sex are in the NEUTER GENDER. In nouns gender is of little consequence. The only regular inflection is the addition of the syllable-_ess_ to certain masculine nouns to denote the change to the feminine gender; as, _author, authoress; poet, poetess_. -I_x_ is also sometimes added for the same purpose; as, _administrator, administratrix_. The feminine forms were formerly much used, but their use is now being discontinued, and the noun of masculine gender used to designate both sexes. CHAPTER III PRONOUNS 17. PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT. A PRONOUN is a word used instead of a noun. The noun in whose stead it stands is called its ANTECEDENT. _JOHN took Mary's BOOK and gave IT to HIS friend_. In this sentence _book_ is the antecedent of the pronoun _it_, and _John_ is the antecedent of _his_. 18. PRONOUNS SHOULD AGREE WITH THEIR ANTECEDENTS IN PERSON, GENDER, AND NUMBER. 19. PERSONAL PRONOUNS are those that by their form indicate the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken about. Pronouns of the FIRST PERSON indicate the speaker; they are: _I, me, my, mine, we, us, our, ours_. Pronouns of the SECOND PERSON indicate the person or thing spoken to; they are: _you, your, yours_. There are also the grave or solemn forms in the second person, which are now little used; these are: _thou, thee, thy, thine_, and _ye_. Pronouns of the THIRD PERSON indicate the person or thing spoken of; they are: _he, his, him, she, her, hers, they, their, theirs, them, it, its_. Few errors are made in the use of the proper person of the pronoun. 20. GENDER OF PRONOUNS. The following pronouns indicate sex or gender; Masculine: _he, his, him_. Feminine: _she, her, hers_. Neuter: _it, its_. IN ORDER TO SECURE AGREEMENT IN GENDER IT IS NECESSARY TO KNOW THE GENDER OF THE NOUN, EXPRESSED OR UNDERSTOOD, TO WHICH THE PRONOUN REFERS. Gender of nouns is important only so far as it concerns the use of pronouns. Study carefully the following rules in regard to gender. These rules apply to the singular number only, since all plurals of whatever gender are referred to by _they, their, theirs_, etc. THE FOLLOWING RULES GOVERN THE GENDER OF PRONOUNS: MASCULINE; referred to by _HE, HIS_, and _HIM_: 1. Nouns denoting males are always masculine. 2. Nouns denoting things remarkable for strength, power, sublimity, or size, when those things are regarded as if they were persons, are masculine; _as, WINTER, with HIS chilly army, destroyed them all_. 3. Singular nouns denoting persons of both sexes are masculine; as, _EVERY ONE brought HIS umbrella_. FEMININE; referred to by _SHE, HER_, or _HERS_: 1. Nouns denoting females are always feminine. 2. Nouns denoting objects remarkable for beauty, gentleness, and peace, when spoken of as if they were persons, are feminine; as, _SLEEP healed him with HER fostering care_. NEUTER; referred to by _IT_ and _ITS_: 1. Nouns denoting objects without sex are neuter. 2. Nouns denoting objects whose sex is disregarded are neuter; as, _IT is a pretty child, The WOLF is the most savage of ITS race_. 3. Collective nouns referring to a group of individuals as a unit are neuter; as, _The JURY gives its VERDICT, The COMMITTEE makes ITS report_. An animal named may be regarded as masculine; feminine, or neuter, according to the characteristics the writer fancies it to possess; as, _The WOLF seeks HIS prey, The MOUSE nibbled HER way into the box, The BIRD seeks ITS nest. Certain nouns may be applied to persons of either sex. They are then said to be of COMMON GENDER. There are no pronouns of common gender; hence those nouns are referred to as follows: 1. By masculine pronouns when known to denote males; as, _MY CLASS-MATE_ (known to be Harry) _is taking HIS examinations_. 2. By feminine pronouns when known to denote females; as, _EACH OF THE PUPILS of the Girls High School brought HER book._ 3. By masculine pronouns when there is nothing in the connection of the thought to show the sex of the object; as, _Let every PERSON bring his book_. 21. NUMBER OF PRONOUNS. A more common source of error than disagreement in gender is disagreement in number. _They, their, theirs_, and _them_ are plural, but are often improperly used when only singular pronouns should be used. The cause of the error is failure to realize the true antecedent. _If ANYBODY makes that statement, THEY are misinformed_. This sentence is wrong. _Anybody_ refers to only one person; both _any_ and _body_, the parts of the word, denote the singular. The sentence should read, _If ANYBODY makes that statement, HE is misinformed. Similarly, _Let EVERYBODY keep THEIR peace_, should read, _Let EVERYBODY keep HIS peace. 22. COMPOUND ANTECEDENTS. Two or more antecedents connected by _or_ or _nor_ are frequently referred to by the plural when the singular should be used. _Neither John nor James brought THEIR books_, should read, _Neither John nor James brought HIS books_. When a pronoun has two or more singular antecedents connected by _or_ or _nor_, the pronoun must be in the singular number; but if one of the antecedents is plural, the pronoun must, also, be in the plural; as, _Neither the Mormon nor his wives denied THEIR religion_. When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by _and_, the pronoun must be in the plural number; as, _John and James brought THEIR books_. Further treatment of number will be given under verbs. EXERCISE 8 _Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with the proper pronouns. See that there is agreement in person, gender, and number:_ 1. Has everybody finished ---- work. 2. If any one wishes a longer time, let ---- hold up ---- hand. 3. The panther sprang from ---- lurking place. 4. Many a man has (have) lost ---- money in speculation. 5. The cat came each day for ---- bit of meat. 6. Everyone has to prove ---- right to a seat. 7. Let every boy answer for ---- self (selves). 8. The crowd was so great that we could hardly get through ----. 9. Let any boy guess this riddle if ---- can. 10. Company H was greatly reduced in ---- numbers. 11. Every animal has some weapon with which ---- can defend ----self (selves). 12. Nowhere does each dare do as ---- pleases (please). 13. The elephant placed ---- great foot on the man's chest. 14. The child did not know ---- mother. 15. Death gathers ---- unfailing harvest. 16. Every kind of animal has ---- natural enemies. 17. The committee instructed ---- chairman to report the matter. 18. Two men were present, but neither would tell what ---- saw. 19. Truth always triumphs over ---- enemies. 20. Nobody did ---- duty more readily than I. 21. The cat never fails to catch ---- prey. 22. I have used both blue crayon and red crayon, but ---- does (do) not write so clearly as white. 23. If John and Henry whisper (whispers) ---- will be punished. 24. If John or Henry whisper (whispers) ---- will be punished. 25. Both Columbus and Cabot failed to realize the importance of ---- discoveries. 26. Neither the lawyer nor the sheriff liked ---- task. 27. The canary longed to escape from ---- cage. 28. The rat ran to ---- hole. 29. The dog seemed to know ---- master was dead. 30. Everyone should try to gather a host of friends about ----. 31. If any one wishes to see me, send ---- to the Pierce Building. 32. Probably everybody is discouraged at least once in ---- life. 33. Nobody should deceive ----selves (self). 34. Let each take ---- own seat. 35. Let each girl in the class bring ---- book. 36. Let each bring ---- book. 37. Let each bring ---- sewing. 38. The fox dropped ---- meat in the pool. 39. The rock lay on ---- side. 40. Let sleep enter with ---- healing touch. 41. Each believed that ---- had been elected a delegate to the Mother's Congress. 42. Consumption demands each year ---- thousands of victims. 43. Summer arrays ----self (selves) with flowers. 44. Despair seized him in ---- powerful grasp. 45. If any boy or any girl finds the book, let ---- bring it to me. 46. Let every man and every woman speak ----mind. 47. Spring set forth ---- beauties. 48. How does the mouse save ---- self (selves) from being caught? 49. The hen cackled ---- loudest. 50. Some man or boy lost ---- hat. 51. John or James will favor us with ---- company. 52. Neither the captain nor the soldiers showed ----self (selves) during the fight. 53. If the boys or their father come we shall be glad to see ----. 54. Every man and every boy received ---- dinner. 55. Every man or boy gave ---- offering. EXERCISE 9 _By what gender of the pronouns would you refer to the following nouns?_ Snake, death, care, mercy, fox, bear, walrus, child, baby, friend (uncertain sex), friend (known to be Mary), everybody, someone, artist, flower, moon, sun, sorrow, fate, student, foreigner, Harvard University, earth, Germany? 23. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. Relative Pronouns are pronouns used to introduce adjective or noun clauses that are not interrogative. In the sentence, _The man THAT I MENTIONED has come_, the relative clause, _that I mentioned_, is an adjective clause modifying _man_. In the sentence, _WHOM SHE MEANS, I do not know_, the relative clause is, _whom she means_, and is a noun clause forming the object of the verb _know_. The relative pronouns are _who_ (_whose, whom_), _which, that_ and _what_. _But_ and _as_ are sometimes relative pronouns. There are, also, compound relative pronouns, which will be mentioned later. 24. _Who_ (with its possessive and objective forms, _whose_ and _whom_) should be used when the antecedent denotes persons. When the antecedent denotes things or animals, _which_ should be used. _That_ may be used with antecedents denoting persons, animals or things, and is the proper relative to use when the antecedent includes both persons and things. _What_, when used as a relative, seldom properly refers to persons. It always introduces a substantive clause, and is equivalent to _that which_; as, _It is WHAT (that which) he wants_. 25. _That_ is known as the RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE, because it should be used whenever the relative clause limits the substantive, unless _who_ or _which_ is of more pleasing sound in the sentence. In the sentence, _He is the man THAT DID THE ACT_, the relative clause, _that did the act_, defines what is meant by man; without the relative clause the sentence clearly would be incomplete. Similarly, in the sentence, _The book THAT I WANT is that red-backed history_, the restrictive relative clause is, _that I want_, and limits the application of _book_. 26. _Who_ and _which_ are known as the EXPLANATORY or NON-RESTRICTIVE RELATIVES, and should be used ordinarily only to introduce relative clauses which add some new thought to the author's principal thought. _Spanish, WHICH IS THE LEAST COMPLEX LANGUAGE, is the easiest to learn_. In this sentence the principal thought is, _Spanish is the easiest language to learn_. The relative clause, _which is the least complex language_, is a thought, which, though not fully so important as the principal thought, is more nearly coördinate than subordinate in its value. It adds an additional thought of the speaker explaining the character of the Spanish language. When _who_ and _which_ are thus used as explanatory relatives, we see that the relative clause may be omitted without making the sentence incomplete. Compare the following sentences: Explanatory relative clause: That book, _which is about history_, has a red cover. Restrictive relative clause: The book _that is about history_ has a red cover. Explanatory relative clause: Lincoln, _who was one of the world's greatest men_, was killed by Booth. Restrictive relative clause: The Lincoln _that was killed by Booth_ was one of the world's greatest men. NOTE.--See §111, for rule as to the punctuation of relative clauses. 27. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. An Interrogative Pronoun is a pronoun used to ask a question. The interrogative pronouns are, _who_ (_whose, whom_), _which_, and _what_. In respect to antecedents, _who_ should be used only in reference to persons; _which_ and _what_ may be used with any antecedent, persons, animals, or things. EXERCISE 10 _Choose the proper relative or interrogative pronoun to be inserted in each of the following sentences. Insert commas where they are needed._ (_See_ §111): 1. The kindly physician ---- was so greatly loved is dead. 2. This is the man ---- all are praising. 3. John ---- is my coachman is sick. 4. The intelligence ---- he displayed was remarkable. 5. Intelligence ---- he had hitherto not manifested now showed its presence. 6. He maintains that the book ---- you used is now ruined. (Does _which_ or _that_ have the more pleasing sound here?) 7. The pleasure ---- education gives the man ---- has it is a sufficient reward for the trouble ---- it has cost. 8. That man ---- wears a cap is a foreigner. 9. The best hotel is the one ---- is nearest the station. 10. Who is it ---- is worthy of that honor? 11. The carriages and the drivers ---- you ordered yesterday have arrived. 12. ---- thing is it ---- you want? 13. He purchased ---- he wished. 14. There is no cloud ---- has not its silver lining. 15. It is the same dog ---- I bought. 16. The man and horse ---- you see pass here every afternoon. 17. ---- did they seek? 18. They inquired ---- he was going to do. 19. Who was it ---- lost the book? 20. The man ---- was a Frenchman was very much excited. 21. It is neither the party nor its candidate ---- gains support. 22. That is a characteristic ---- makes him seem almost rude. 23. It is the same tool ---- I used all day. 24. He is a man ---- inspires little confidence. 25. ---- does he expect of us? 26. It is just such a thing ---- I need. 27. There are few ---- will vote for him. 28. The wagon and children ---- you just saw came from our town. 29. He ---- writes out his lesson does all ---- can be expected. 30. Was it you or the cat ---- made that noise? 31. It is the same song ---- he always sings. 32. Such ---- I have is yours. 33. All the men and horses ---- we had were lost. 34. That is ---- pleased me most and ---- everyone talked about. 35. The horse was one ---- I had never ridden before. 36. That is ---- everyone said. 28. CASE FORMS OF PRONOUNS. Some personal, relative, and interrogative pronouns have distinctive forms for the different cases, and the failure to use the proper case forms in the sentence is one of the most frequent sources of error. The case to be used is to be determined by the use which the pronoun, not its antecedent, has in the sentence. In the sentence, _I name HIM_, note that _him_ is the object of the verb _name_. In the sentence, _WHOM do you seek_, although coming at the first of the sentence, _whom_ is grammatically the object of the verb _seek_. In the use of pronouns comes the most important need for a knowledge of when to use the different cases. Note the following different case forms of pronouns: Nominative: _I, we, you, thou, ye, he, she, they, it, who_. Objective: _me, us, you, thee, ye, him, her, it, them, whom_. Possessive: _my, mine, our, ours, thy, thine, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, their, theirs, whose_. It will be noted that, while some forms are the same in both the nominative and objective cases, _I, WE, HE, SHE, THEY, THOU_, AND _WHO_ ARE ONLY PROPER WHERE THE NOMINATIVE CASE SHOULD BE USED. _ME, US, HIM, THEM, THEE, WHOM_, AND _HER_, except when _her_ is possessive, ARE ONLY PROPER WHEN THE OBJECTIVE CASE IS DEMANDED. These forms must be remembered. It is only with these pronouns that mistakes are made in the use of the nominative and objective cases. 29. THE FOLLOWING OUTLINE EXPLAINS THE USE OF THE DIFFERENT CASE FORMS OF THE PRONOUNS. The outline should be mastered. THE NOMINATIVE CASE SHOULD BE USED: 1. When the noun or pronoun is the subject of a finite verb; that is, a verb other than an infinitive. See 3 under Objective Case. 2. When it is an attribute complement. An attribute complement, as explained in Chapter I, is a word used in the predicate explaining or stating something about the subject. Examples: _It is I, The man was HE, The people were THEY of whom we spoke._ 3. When it is used without relation to any other part of speech, as in direct address or exclamation. THE OBJECTIVE CASE SHOULD BE USED: 1. When the noun or pronoun is the object of a verb; as, _He named ME, She deceived THEM, They watch US_. 2. When it is the object of a preposition, expressed or understood: as, _He spoke of ME, For WHOM do you take me, He told (to) ME a story._ 3. When it is the subject of an infinitive; as, _I told HIM to go, I desire HER to hope_. The infinitives are the parts of the verb preceded by _to_; as, _to go, to see, to be, to have been seen_, etc. The sign of the infinitive, to, is not always expressed. The objective case is, nevertheless, used; as, _Let HIM (to) go, Have HER (to be) told about it._ 4. When it is an attribute complement of an expressed subject of the infinitive _to be_; as, _They believed her to be ME, He denied it to have been him_. (See Note 2 below.) THE POSSESSIVE CASE SHOULD BE USED: When the word is used as a possessive modifier; as, _They spoke of HER being present, The book is HIS (book), It is THEIR fault._ NOTE I.--When a substantive is placed by the side of another substantive and is used to explain it, it is said to be in APPOSITION with that other substantive and takes the case of that word; as, _It_ was given _to John Smith, HIM whom you see there._ NOTE 2.--The attribute complement should always have the case of that subject of the verb which is expressed in the sentence. Thus, in the sentence, _I could not wish John to be HIM, him_ is properly in the objective case, since there is an expressed subject of the infinitive, _John_, which is in the objective case. But in the sentence, _I should hate to be HE, he_ is properly in the nominative case, since the only subject that is expressed in the sentence is _I_, in the nominative case. NOTE 3.--Where the relative pronoun _who (whom)_ is the subject of a clause that itself is the object clause of a verb or a preposition, it is always in the nominative case. Thus the following sentences are both correct: _I delivered it to WHO owned it, Bring home WHOEVER will come with you._ EXERCISE 11 _Write sentences illustrating the correct use of each of the following pronouns:_ I, whom, who, we, me, us, they, whose, theirs, them, she, him, he, its, mine, our, thee, thou. EXERCISE 12 _In the following sentences choose the proper form from the words in italics:_ 1. My brother and _I me_ drove to the east end of the town. 2. Between you and _I me_ things are doubtful. 3. May James and _I me_ go to the circus? 4. Will you permit James and _I me_ to go to the play? 5. Who made that noise? Only _I me_. 6. He introduced us all, _I me_ among the rest. 7. He promised to bring candy to Helen and _I me_. 8. Was it _I me_ that you asked for? 9. Who spoke? _I me_. 10. I am taken to be _he him_. 11. No, it could not have been _me I_. 12. All have gone but you and _I me_. 13. You suffer more than _me I_. 14. Everyone has failed in the examination except you and _I me_. 15. He asked you and _I me_ to come to his office. 16. See if there is any mail for Mary and _me I_. 17. Neither you nor _I me_ can teach the class. 18. They think it to be _I me_. 19. This is the student _whom who_ all are praising. 20. The one that is _he him_ wears a brown hat. 21. He is a man _who whom_ all admired. 22. He is one of those men _who whom_ we call snobs. 23. I did not see that it was _her she_. 24. It is in fact _he him_. 25. He still believes it to be _them they_. 26. Between you and _I me_, it is my opinion that _him he_ and John will disagree. 27. We saw John and _she her_; we know it was _them they_. 28. I did not speak of either you or _she her_. 29. Our cousins and _we us_ are going to the Art Gallery. 30. Aunt Mary has asked our cousins and _us we_ to take dinner at her house. 31. They are more eager than _we us_ since they have not seen her for a long time. 32. It could not have been _we us who whom_ you suspected. 33. _We us_ boys are going to the ball game. 34. They sent letters to all _who whom_ they thought would contribute. 35. This money was given by John _who whom_ you know is very stingy. 36. The superintendent, _who whom_, I cannot doubt, is responsible for this error, must be discharged. 37. The teacher told you and _I me_ to stay. 38. The teacher told you and _him he_ to stay. 39. The teacher told you and _she her_ to stay. 40. There are many miles between England and _we us_. 41. They can't play the game better than _we us_. 42. It is unpleasant for such as _they them_ to witness such things. 43. Between a teacher and _he him who whom_ he teaches there is sometimes a strong fellowship. 44. You are nearly as strong as _him he_. 45. All were present but John and _he him_. 46. Father believed it was _she her_. 47. Mother knew it to be _her she_. 48. It was either _he him_ or _she her_ that called. 49. Because of _his him_ being young, they tried to shield him. 50. It was _he him who whom_ the manager said ought to be promoted. 51. The throne was held by a king _who whom_ historians believe to have been insane. 52. _Who whom_ did he say the man was? 53. _Who whom_ did he say the judge suspected? 54. _Who whom_ do you consider to be the brightest man? 55. _Who whom_ do you think is the brightest man? 56. He cannot learn from such as _thou thee_. 57. If they only rob such as _thou thee_, they are honest. 58. What dost _thou thee_ know? 59. They do tell _thee thou_ the truth. 60. She told John and _me I_ to study. 61. My father allowed my brother and _her she_ to go. 62. My brother and _she her_ were allowed to go by my father. 63. Turn not away from _him he_ that is needy. 64. Neither Frances nor _she her_ was at fault. 65. The property goes to _they them_. 66. He thought it was _her she_, but it was _him he_ and William who did it. 67. It was through _she her_ that word came to _me I_. 68. I thought it was _her she_. 69. I wish you were more like _he him_. 70. I thought it to be _she her_. 71. It seems to be _he_. I should hate to be _he_. I should like to be _he_ or _she_. (All these sentences are in the correct form.) 72. He is a man in _whom who_ I have little faith. 73. You are as skillful as _she her_. 74. We escorted her mother and _her she_ to the station. 75. _She her_ and _I me_ are going on the boat. 76. If any are late it will not be _us we_. 77. _Who whom_ are you going to collect it from? 78. _Who whom_ do men say that he is? 79. _Who whom_ do you think _him he_ to be? 80. _They them_ and their children have gone abroad. 81. It was not _they them_. 82. _Who whom_ am I said to be? 83. I do not know to _who whom_ to direct him. 84. How can one tell _who whom_ is at home now? 85. _Who whom_ is that for? 86. Choose _who whom_ you please. 87. Do you think _I me_ to be _her she who whom_ you call Kate? 88. Some _who whom_ their friends expected were kept away. 89. Give it to _who whom_ seems to want it most. 90. _Who whom_ do you think I saw there? 91. I hope it was _she her who whom_ we saw. 92. It could not have been _him he_. 93. _Who whom_ did you say did it? 94. Let _them they_ come at once. 95. The man on _who whom_ I relied was absent. 96. I know it was _they them who whom_ did it. 97. Will he let _us we_ go? 98. It came from _they them who whom_ should not have sent it. 99. It was not _us we_ from _who whom_ it came. 100. Can it be _she her_? 101. _Thou thee_ art mistaken. 102. Let me tell _thee thou, thee thou_ wilt do wrong. 103. Send _who whom_ wants the pass to me. 104. Tell _who whom_ you choose to come. 105. Is he the man for _who whom_ the city is named? 106. The book is for _who whom_ needs it. 107. I do not know _who whom_ the book is for. 30. The COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS are formed by adding _self_ or _selves_ to certain of the objective and possessive personal pronouns; as, _herself, myself, itself, themselves_, etc. They are used to add emphasis to an expression; as, _I, MYSELF, did it, He, HIMSELF, said so._ They are also used reflexively after verbs and prepositions; as, _He mentioned HIMSELF, He did it for HIMSELF_. The compound personal pronouns should generally be confined to their emphatic and reflexive use. Do not say, _MYSELF and John will come_, but, _John and I will come_. Do not say, _They invited John and MYSELF_, but, _They invited John and ME_. The compound personal pronouns have no possessive forms; but for the sake of emphasis _own_ with the ordinary possessive form is used; as, _I have my OWN book, Bring your OWN work, He has a home of his OWN._ 31. There are no such forms as _hisself, your'n, his'n, her'n, theirself, theirselves, their'n_. In place of these use simply _his, her, their_, or _your_. EXERCISE 13 _Write sentences illustrating the correct use of the following simple and compound personal pronouns:_ Myself, me, I, them, themselves, him, himself, her, herself, itself, our, ourselves. EXERCISE 14 _Choose the correct form in the following sentences. Punctuate properly._ (_See_ §108): 1. _Yourself you_ and John were mentioned 2. She told Mary and _me myself_ to go with _her herself_. 3. The book is for _you yourself_ and _I me myself_. 4. Henry and _I me myself_ are in the same class. 5. He thinks _you yourself_ and _I me myself_ should bring the books. 6. Our friends and _we us ourselves_ are going out to-night. 7. _Herself she_ and her husband have been sick. 8. _They themselves_ and their children have gone abroad. 9. You play the violin better than _he himself_. 10. The machine failed to work well, because _it itself_ and the engine were not properly adjusted to each other. 11. Let them do it _theirselves themselves_. 12. He came by _hisself himself_. 13. The teacher _hisself himself_ could not have done better. 14. I'll bring my gun, and you bring _your'n yours your_ own. 15. That book is _his'n his_. EXERCISE 15 _Fill the blanks in the following sentences with the proper emphatic or reflexive forms. Punctuate properly._ (_See_ §108): 1. He ---- said so. 2. I ---- will do it. 3. We ---- will look after her. 4. That, I tell you, is ---- book. 5. It belongs to me ----. 6. Those books are my ----. 7. Let them ---- pay for it. 8. The horse is to be for ---- use. 9. The horse is to be for the use of ----. 10. He said it to ----. 11. He deceived ----. 12. I do not wish ---- to be prominent. 32. The COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS are formed by adding _ever, so_, or _soever_ to the relative pronouns, _who, which_, and _what_; as, _whoever, whatever, whomever, whosoever, whoso, whosoever_, etc. It will be noted that _whoever, whosoever_, and _whoso_ have objective forms, _whomever, whomsoever_, and _whomso_; and possessive forms, _whosoever, whosesoever_, and _whoseso_. These forms must be used whenever the objective or possessive case is demanded. Thus, one should say, _I will give it to WHOMEVER I find there_. (See §29 and Note 3.) EXERCISE 16 _Fill the following blanks with the proper forms of the compound relatives:_ 1. We will refer the question to ---- you may name. 2. ---- it may have been, it was not he. 3. I shall receive presents from ---- I wish. 4. It was between him and ---- was with him. 5. ---- they may choose, I will not vote for him. 6. Let them name ---- they think will win. 7. Give it to ---- you think needs it most. 8. He may take ---- he cares to. 9. He will take ---- property he finds there. 10. He promised to ask the question of ---- he found there. 11. ---- can have done it? 12. ---- else may be said, that is not true. 13. There are the two chairs; you may take ---- you like. 14. ---- you take will suit me. 15. You may have ---- you wish. 16. ---- is nominated, will you vote for him? 17. ---- they nominate, I will vote for him. 18. ---- does that is a partizan. 19. ---- candidate is elected, I will be satisfied. 20. He may name ---- he thinks best. 21. ---- he says is worthy of attention. 22. ---- she takes after, she is honest. 23. ---- follows him will be sorry. 24. ---- he may be, he is no gentleman. 25. ---- they do is praised. 33. There are certain words, called ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, which are regarded as pronouns, because, although they are properly adjective in their meaning, the nouns which they modify are never expressed; as, _One_ (there is a possessive form, _one's_, and a plural form, _ones_), _none, this, that, these, those, other, former, some, few, many_, etc. 34. SOME MISCELLANEOUS CAUTIONS IN THE USE OF PRONOUNS: 1. The pronoun _I_ should always be capitalized, and should, when used as part of a compound subject, be placed second; as, _James and I were present, not I and James were present_. 2. Do not use the common and grave forms of the personal pronouns in the same sentence; as, _THOU wilt do this whether YOU wish or not_. 3. Avoid the use of personal pronouns where they are unnecessary; as, _John, HE did it, or Mary, SHE said_. This is a frequent error in speech. 4. Let the antecedent of each pronoun be clearly apparent. Note the uncertainty in the following sentence; _He sent a box of cheese, and IT was made of wood_. The antecedent of _it_ is not clear. Again, _A man told his son to take HIS coat home_. The antecedent of _his_ is very uncertain. Such errors are frequent. In relative clauses this error may sometimes be avoided by placing the relative clause as near as possible to the noun it limits. Note the following sentence: _A cat was found in the YARD WHICH wore a blue ribbon_. The grammatical inference would be that the yard wore the blue ribbon. The sentence might be changed to, _A CAT, WHICH wore a blue ribbon, was found in the yard_. 5. Relative clauses referring to the same thing require the same relative pronoun to introduce them; as, _The book THAT we found and the book THAT he lost are the same_. 6. Use _but that_ when _BUT_ is a conjunction and _that_ introduces a noun clause; as, _There is no doubt BUT THAT he will go_. Use _but what_ when _but_ is a preposition in the sense of _except_; as, _He has no money but (except) WHAT I gave him_. 7. _Them_ is a pronoun and should never be used as an adjective. _Those_ is the adjective which should be used in its place; as, _Those people_, not, _Them people_. 8. Avoid using _you_ and _they_ indefinitely; as, _YOU seldom hear of such things, THEY make chairs there_. Instead, say, _ONE seldom hears of such things, Chairs are made there_. 9. _Which_ should not be used with a clause or phrase as its antecedent. Both the following sentences are wrong: _He sent me to see John, WHICH I did. Their whispering became very loud, which annoyed the preacher_. 10. Never use an apostrophe with the possessive pronouns, _its, yours, theirs, ours_ and _hers_. EXERCISE 17 _Correct the following sentences so that they do not violate the cautions above stated_: 1. How can you say that when thou knowest better? 2. May I and Mary go to the concert? 3. He asked me to write to him, which I did. 4. Grant thou to us your blessing. 5. The train it was twenty minutes late. 6. Mother she said I might go. 7. Mary told her mother she was mistaken. 8. The man cannot leave his friend, for if he should leave him he would be angry. 9. Sarah asked her aunt how old she was. 10. That is the man whom we named and that did it. 11. Mr. Jones went to Mr. Smith and told him that his dog was lost. 12. This is the book that we found and which he lost. 13. She told her sister that if she could not get to the city, she thought she had better go home. 14. Jack cannot see Henry because he is so short. 15. Then Jack and George, they went home. 16. Bring them books here. 17. Them are all wrong. 18. There are no men in the room but that can be bought. 19. I have no doubt but what it was done. 20. Them there should be corrected. 21. I have faith in everything but that he says. 22. I have no fears but what it can be done. 23. Napoleon, he threw his armies across the Rhine. 24. Thou knowest not what you are doing. 25. It was thought advisable to exile Napoleon, which was done. 26. A grapevine had grown along the fence which was full of grapes. 27. Keep them people out of here. 28. The two cars contained horses that were painted yellow. 29. She is a girl who is always smiling and that all like. 30. You never can tell about foreigners. 31. They say that is not true. 32. The cabin needed to be swept, which we did. 33. They use those methods in some schools. 34. It is the house that is on the corner and which is painted white. 35. You can easily learn history if you have a good memory. 36. How can you tell but what it will rain? 37. He does everything but what he should do. 38. He has everything but that he needs. 39. It was a collie dog which we had and that was stolen. 40. Aunt, she said that she didn't know but what she would go. 41. Tell I and John about it. 42. He went to his father and told him he had sinned. 43. Dost thou know what you doest? 44. It's appearance was deceitful. 45. The chair was also their's. 46. There is a slight difference between mine and your's. 47. Which of the two is her's? 48. They are both our's. CHAPTER IV ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 35. An ADJECTIVE is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun. An ADVERB is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Adjectives and adverbs are very closely related in both their forms and their use. 36. COMPARISON. The variation of adjectives and adverbs to indicate the degree of modification they express is called COMPARISON. There are three degrees of comparison. The POSITIVE DEGREE indicates the mere possession of a quality; as, _true, good, sweet, fast, lovely_. The COMPARATIVE DEGREE indicates a stronger degree of the quality than the positive; as, _truer, sweeter, better, faster, lovelier_. The SUPERLATIVE DEGREE indicates the highest degree of quality; as, _truest, sweetest, best, fastest, loveliest_. Where the adjectives and adverbs are compared by inflection they are said to be compared regularly. In regular comparison the comparative is formed by adding _er_, and the superlative by adding _est_. If the word ends in _y_, the _y_ is changed to _i_ before adding the ending; as, _pretty, prettier, prettiest_. Where the adjectives and adverbs have two or more syllables, most of them are compared by the use of the adverbs _more_ and _most_, or, if the comparison be a descending one, by the use of _less_ and _least_; as, _beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful_, and _less beautiful, least beautiful_. 37. Some adjectives and adverbs are compared by changing to entirely different words in the comparative and superlative. Note the following: POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE bad, ill, evil, badly worse worst far farther, further farthest, furthest forth further furthest fore former foremost, first good, well better best hind hinder hindmost late later, latter latest, last little less least much, many more most old older, elder oldest, eldest NOTE.--_Badly_ and _forth_ may be used only as adverbs. _Well_ is usually an adverb; as, _He talks well_, but may be used as an adjective; as, _He seems well_. 38. CONFUSION OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. An adjective is often used where an adverb is required, and vice versa. The sentence, _She talks FOOLISH_, is wrong, because here the word to be modified is _talks_, and since _talks_ is a verb, the adverb _foolishly_ should be used. The sentence, _She looks CHARMINGLY_, means, as it stands, that her manner of looking at a thing is charming. What is intended to be said is that she appears as if she was a charming woman. To convey that meaning, the adjective, _charming_, should have been used, and the sentence should read, _She looks charming_. Wherever the word modifies a verb or an adjective or another adverb, an adverb should be used, and wherever the word, whatever its location in the sentence, modifies a noun or pronoun, an adjective should be used. 39. The adjective and the adverb are sometimes alike in form. Thus, both the following sentences are correct: _He works HARD_ (adverb), and _His work is HARD_ (adjective). But, usually, where the adjective and the adverb correspond at all, the adverb has the additional ending _ly_; as, _The track is SMOOTH_, (adjective), and _The train runs SMOOTHLY_, (adverb). EXERCISE 18 _In the following sentences choose from the italicized words the proper word to be used:_ 1. The sunset looks _beautiful beautifully_. 2. The man acted _strange strangely_. 3. Write _careful carefully_ and speak _distinct distinctly_. 4. Speak _slow slowly_. 5. He acted _bad badly_. 6. He behaved very _proper properly_. 7. The boat runs _smooth smoothly_. 8. He is a _remarkable remarkably_ poor writer. 9. I am in _extremely extreme_ good health. 10. The typewriter works _good well_. 11. The bird warbles _sweet sweetly_. 12. He was _terrible terribly_ angry. 13. He was in a _terrible terribly_ dangerous place. 14. He talks _plainer more plainly_ than he ever did before. 15. The dead Roman looked _fierce fiercely_. 16. The fire burns _brilliant brilliantly_. 17. You are _exceeding exceedingly_ generous. 18. He struggled _manful manfully_ against the opposition. 19. My health is _poor poorly_. 20. He is sure surely a _fine fellow_. 21. Have everything _suitable suitably_ decorated. 22. That can be done _easy easily_. 23. I can speak _easier more easily_ than I can write. 24. The music of the orchestra was _decided decidedly_ poor. 25. She is a _remarkable remarkably_ beautiful girl. 26. The wind roared _awful awfully_. 27. The roar of the wind was _awful awfully_. 28. I have studied grammar _previous previously_ to this year. 29. I didn't study because I felt too _bad badly_ to read. 30. The roses smell _sweetly sweet_. 31. They felt very _bad badly_ at being beaten. 32. That violin sounds _different differently_ from this one. 33. The soldiers fought _gallant gallantly_. 34. She looks _sweet sweetly_ in that dress. 35. I can wear this coat _easy easily_. 36. Speak _gentle gently_ to him. 37. He talks _warm warmly_ on that subject. 38. He works _well good_ and _steady steadily_. 39. He stood _thoughtful thoughtfully_ for a moment and then went _quiet quietly_ to his tent. 40. He walked down the street _slow slowly_, but all the time looked _eager eagerly_ about him. 41. The music sounds _loud loudly_. 42. That coin rings _true truly_. 43. He looked _angry angrily_ at his class. 44. He moved _silent silently_ about in the crowd. 45. His coat fits _nice nicely_. 46. That is _easy easily_ to do. 47. He went over the work very _thorough thoroughly_. EXERCISE 19 _The adjectives and adverbs in the following sentences are correctly used. In every case show what they modify:_ 1. The water lay smooth in the lake. 2. She looked cold. 3. The train runs smoothly now. 4. The sun shone bright at the horizon. 5. The sun shone brightly all day. 6. She looks coldly about her. 7. Be careful in your study of these sentences. 8. Study these sentences carefully. 9. We found the way easy. 10. We found the way easily. 11. He looked good. 12. He looked well. 13. We arrived safe. 14. We arrived safely. 15. Speak gently. 16. Let your speech be gentle. EXERCISE 20 _Write sentences containing the following words correctly used:_ Thoughtful, thoughtfully, masterful, masterfully, hard, hardly, cool, coolly, rapid, rapidly, ungainly, careful, carefully, eager, eagerly, sweet, sweetly, gracious, graciously. 40. IMPROPER FORMS OF ADJECTIVES. The wrong forms in the following list of adjectives are frequently used in place of the right forms: RIGHT WRONG everywhere everywheres not nearly nowhere near not at all not much or not muchly ill illy first firstly thus thusly much muchly unknown unbeknown complexioned complected EXERCISE 21 _Correct the errors in the following sentences:_ 1. She goes everywheres. 2. Hers is the most illy behaved child I know. 3. Not muchly will I go. 4. Use the lesser quantity first. 5. He is nowhere near so bright as John. 6. You do the problem thusly. 7. The causes are firstly, ignorance, and second, lack of energy. 8. They came unbeknown to me. 9. He is a dark complected man. 10. It all happened unbeknownst to them. 11. His vote was nowhere near so large as usual. 41. ERRORS IN COMPARISON are frequently made. Observe carefully the following rules: 1. The superlative should not be used in comparing only two things. One should say, _He is the LARGER of the two_, not _He is the LARGEST of the two_. But, _He is the largest of the three_, is right. 2. A comparison should not be attempted by adjectives that express absolute quality--adjectives that cannot be compared; as, _round, perfect, equally, universal_. A thing may be _round_ or _perfect_, but it cannot be _more round_ or _most round_, _more perfect_ or _most perfect_. 3. When two objects are used in the comparative, one must not be included in the other; but, when two objects are used in the superlative, one must be included in the other. It is wrong to say, _The discovery of America was MORE IMPORTANT THAN ANY geographical discovery_, for that is saying that the discovery of America was more important than itself--an absurdity. But it would be right to say, _The discovery of America was more important THAN ANY OTHER geographical discovery_. One should not say, _He is the most honest OF HIS fellow-workmen_, for he is not one of his fellow-workmen. One should say, _He is more honest THAN ANY of his fellow-workmen_, or, _He is the most honest OF ALL the workmen_. To say, _This machine is BETTER THAN ANY machine_, is incorrect, but to say, _This machine is better THAN ANY OTHER machine_, is correct. To say, _This machine is the BEST OF ANY machine_ (or _any other machine_), is wrong, because all machines are meant, not one machine or some machines. To say, _This machine is the BEST OF machines_ (or _the best of all machines_), is correct. Note the following rules in regard to the use of _other_ in comparisons: a. After comparatives followed by _than_ the words _any_ and _all_ should be followed by _other_. b. After superlatives followed by _of, any_ and _other_ should not be used. 4. Avoid mixed comparisons. _John is as good, if not better than she_. If the clause, _if not better_, were left out, this sentence would read, _John is as good than she_. It could be corrected to read, _John is as good AS, if not better than she_. Similarly, it is wrong to say, _He is one of the greatest, if not the greatest, man in history_. EXERCISE 22 _Choose the correct word from those italicized:_ 1. The _older oldest_ of the three boys was sick. 2. Of Smith and Jones, Smith is the _wealthiest wealthier_. 3. Of two burdens choose the _less least_. 4. Which can run the _fastest faster_, John or Henry? 5. Of the two men, Smith and Jones, the _first former_ is the _better best_ known. 6. Which is the _larger largest_ of the two? 7. Which is the _best better_ of the six? 8. Which is the _larger largest_ number, six or seven 9. Which is the _more most_ desirable, health or wealth? 10. My mother is the _oldest older_ of four sisters. 11. The _prettier prettiest_ of the twins is the _brighter brightest_. 12. This is the _duller dullest_ season of the year. 13. The other is the _worse worst_ behaved of the two. 14. Which was the _hotter hottest_, yesterday or to-day? 15. That is the _cleaner cleanest_ of the three streets. EXERCISE 23 _Correct any of the following sentences that may be wrong. Give a valid reason for each correction:_ 1. He was the most active of all his friends. 2. He is the brightest of all his brothers. 3. Of all the other American Colleges, this is the largest. 4. Philadelphia is larger than any city in Pennsylvania. 5. Philadelphia is the largest of all other cities in Pennsylvania. 6. No city in Pennsylvania is so large as Philadelphia. 7. That theory is more universally adopted. 8. He was, of all others, the most clever. 9. This apple is more perfect than that. 10. No fruit is so good as the orange. 11. The orange is better than any fruit. 12. Of all other fruits the orange is the best. 13. The orange is the best of all the fruits. 14. The orange is better than any other fruit. 15. That is the most principal thing in the lesson. 16. Which has been of most importance, steam or electricity? 17. He was more active than any other of his companions. 18. This apple is rounder than that. 19. This apple is more nearly round than that. 20. Paris is the most famous of any other European city. 21. Pennsylvania is the wealthiest of her sister states. 22. No state is so wealthy as Pennsylvania. 23. Pennsylvania is the wealthiest of any of the States. 24. Pennsylvania is wealthier than any of her other sister states. 25. New York is one of the largest, if not the largest city in the world. 26. That book is as good if not better than mine. 27. John is taller than any other boy in his classes. 28. John is taller than any boy in his class. 29. Iron is the most useful of all other metals. 30. Iron is the more useful of the metals. 31. Iron is the most useful of the metals. 32. Of iron and lead, lead is the heaviest. 33. Iron is among the most useful, if not the most useful metal. 34. He is among the oldest if not the oldest of the men in the Senate. 35. That picture is more beautiful than all the pictures. 42. SINGULAR AND PLURAL ADJECTIVES. Some adjectives can be used only with singular nouns and some only with plural nouns. Such adjectives as _one, each, every_, etc., can be used only with singular nouns. Such adjectives as _several, various, many, sundry, two_, etc., can be used only with plural nouns. In many cases, the noun which the adjective modifies is omitted, and the adjective thus acquires the force of a pronoun; as, _FEW are seen, SEVERAL have come_. The adjective pronouns _this_ and _that_ have plural forms, _these_ and _those_. The plurals must be used with plural nouns. To say _those kind_ is then incorrect. It should be _those kinds_. _Those sort of men_ should be _that sort of men_ or _those sorts of men_. 43. EITHER AND NEITHER are used to designate one of two objects only. If more than two are referred to, use _any, none, any one, no one_. Note the following correct sentences: _NEITHER John nor Henry may go._ _ANY ONE of the three boys may go._ 44. EACH OTHER should be used when referring to two; ONE ANOTHER when referring to more than two. Note the following correct sentences: _The two brothers love EACH OTHER._ _The four brothers love ONE ANOTHER._ EXERCISE 24 _Correct such of the following sentences as are incorrect. Be able to give reasons:_ 1. He is six foot tall. 2. I like those kind of fruit. 3. He lost several pound. 4. I have not seen him this twenty year. 5. Have you heard these news? 6. Are they those kind of people? 7. He rode ten mile. 8. There were fifteen car-load of people. 9. These kind of books are interesting. 10. Several phenomenon marked his character. 11. There are a few crisis in every man's career. 12. Each strata of the rock lies at an angle. 13. The poem has six verse in it. 14. Either of the five will do. 15. Little children should love each other. 16. Neither of the large cities in the United States is so large as London. 17. You will be able to find it in either one of those three books. 18. Those two brothers treat one another very coldly. 19. Neither of the many newspapers published an account of it. 20. Either law or medicine is his profession. 21. Some ten box of shoes were on the train. 22. Those two statements contradict one another. 23. The Sahara Desert has several oasis. 24. How can he associate with those sort of men? 45. PLACING OF ADVERBS AND ADJECTIVES. In the placing of adjective elements and adverbial elements in the sentence, one should so arrange them as to leave no doubt as to what they are intended to modify. Wrong: A man was riding on a _horse wearing gray trousers_. Right: A _man wearing gray trousers_ was riding on a horse. The adverb _only_ requires especial attention. Generally _only_ should come before the word it is intended to modify. Compare the following correct sentences, and note the differences in meaning. _Only_ he found the book. He _only_ found the book. He found _only_ the book. He found the book _only_. The placing of the words, _almost, ever, hardly, scarcely, merely_, and _quite_, also requires care and thought. EXERCISE 25 _Correct the errors in the location of adjectives and adverbs in the following sentences:_ 1. I only paid five dollars. 2. I have only done six problems. 3. The clothing business is only profitable in large towns. 4. The school is only open in the evening. 5. I only need ten minutes in which to do it. 6. He had almost climbed to the top when the ladder broke. 7. I never expect to see the like again. 8. A black base-ball player's suit was found. 9. Do you ever remember to have seen the man before? 10. The building was trimmed with granite carved corners. 11. People ceased to wonder gradually. 12. The captain only escaped by hiding in a ditch. 13. I never wish to think of it again. 14. On the trip in that direction he almost went to Philadelphia. 15. Acetylene lamps are only used now in the country. 16. He only spoke of history, not of art. 17. I know hardly what to say. 18. I was merely talking of grammar, not of English literature. 19. The girls were nearly dressed in the same color. 20. He merely wanted to see you. 46. DOUBLE NEGATIVES. _I am here_ is called an affirmative statement. A denial of that, _I am not here_, is called a negative statement. The words, _not, neither, never, none, nothing_, etc., are all negative words; that is, they serve to make denials of statements. Two negatives should never be used in the same sentence, since the effect is then to deny the negative you wish to assert, and an affirmative is made where a negative is intended. _We haven't no books_, means that we have some books. The proper negative form would be, _We have no books_, or _We haven't any books_. The mistake occurs usually where such forms as _isn't, don't, haven't_, etc., are used. Examine the following sentences: Wrong: _It isn't no_ use. Wrong: There _don't none_ of them believe it. Wrong: We _didn't_ do _nothing_. _Hardly, scarcely, only_, and _but_ (in the sense of _only_) are often incorrectly used with a negative. Compare the following right and wrong forms: Wrong: It was so dark that we _couldn't hardly_ see. Right: It was so dark that we _could hardly_ see. Wrong: There _wasn't only_ one person present. Right: There _was only_ one person present. EXERCISE 26 Correct the following sentences: 1. I can't find it nowhere. 2. For a time I couldn't scarcely tell where I was. 3. They are not allowed to go only on holidays. 4. There isn't but one person that can make the speech. 5. They didn't find no treasure. 6. It won't take but a few minutes to read it all. 7. I haven't seen but two men there. 8. There isn't no one here who knows it. 9. I didn't see no fire; my opinion is that there wasn't no fire. 10. I can't hardly prove that statement. 11. I didn't feel hardly able to go. 12. She couldn't stay only a week. 13. I hadn't scarcely reached shelter when the storm began. 14. You wouldn't scarcely believe that it could be done. 15. He said that he wouldn't bring only his wife. 16. There isn't nothing in the story. 17. He doesn't do nothing. 18. I can't think of nothing but that. 19. He can't hardly mean that. 20. He isn't nowhere near so bright as I. 21. He can't hardly come to-night. 22. It is better to not think nothing about it. 23. She can't only do that. 24. There isn't no use of his objecting to it. 25. There shan't none of them go along with us. 26. Don't never do that again. 27. We could not find but three specimens of the plant. 28. He wasn't scarcely able to walk. 29. He hasn't none of his work prepared. 47. THE ARTICLES. _A, an_, and _the_, are called Articles. _A_ and _an_ are called the INDEFINITE ARTICLES, because they are used to limit the noun to any one thing of a class; as, _a book, a chair_. But _a_ or _an_ is not used to denote the whole of that class; as, _Silence is golden_, or, _He was elected to the office of President_. _The_ is called the DEFINITE ARTICLE because it picks out some one definite individual from a class. In the sentence, _On the street are A brick and A stone house_, the article is repeated before each adjective; the effect of this repetition is to make the sentence mean two houses. But, in the sentence, _On the street is A brick and stone house_, since the article is used only before the first of the two adjectives, the sentence means that there is only one house and that it is constructed of brick and stone. Where two nouns refer to the same object, the article need appear only before the first of the two; as, _God, the author and creator of the universe_. But where the nouns refer to two different objects, regarded as distinct from each other, the article should appear before each; as, _He bought a horse and a cow_. _A_ is used before all words except those beginning with a vowel sound. Before those beginning with a vowel sound _an_ is used. If, in a succession of words, one of these forms could not be used before all of the words, then the article must be repeated before each. Thus, one should say, _AN ax, A saw, and AN adze_ (not _An ax, saw and adze_), _made up his outfit_. Generally it is better to repeat the article in each case, whether or not it be the same. Do not say, _kind of A HOUSE_. Since _a house_ is singular, it can have but one kind. Say instead, a _kind of house, a sort of man_, etc. EXERCISE 27 _Correct the following where you think correction is needed:_ 1. Where did you get that kind of a notion? 2. She is an eager and an ambitious girl. 3. He received the degree of a Master of Arts. 4. The boy and girl came yesterday. 5. Neither the man nor woman was here. 6. He was accompanied by a large and small man. 7. He planted an oak, maple and ash. 8. The third of the team were hurt. 9. The noun and verb will be discussed later. 10. I read a Pittsburg and Philadelphia paper. 11. Read the third and sixth sentence. 12. Read the comments in a monthly and weekly periodical. 13. He is dying from the typhoid fever. 14. He was elected the secretary and the treasurer of the association. 15. What sort of a student are you? 16. He is a funny kind of a fellow. 17. Bring me a new and old chair. 18. That is a sort of a peculiar idea. 19. He was operated upon for the appendicitis. 20. Lock the cat and dog up. 48. No adverb necessary to the sense should be omitted from the sentence. Such improper omission is frequently made when _very_ or _too_ are used with past participles that are not also recognized as adjectives; as, Poor: I am _very insulted_. He was _too wrapped_ in thought to notice the mistake. Right: I am _very much insulted_. He was _too much wrapped_ in thought to notice the mistake. EXERCISE 28 _Write sentences containing the following adjectives and adverbs. Be sure that they are used correctly._ Both, each, every, only, evidently, hard, latest, awful, terribly, charming, charmingly, lovely, brave, perfect, straight, extreme, very, either, neither, larger, oldest, one, none, hardly, scarcely, only, but, finally, almost, ever, never, new, newly, very. CHAPTER V VERBS 49. A VERB has already been defined as a word stating something about the subject. Verbs are inflected or changed to indicate the time of the action as past, present, or future; as, _I talk, I talked, I shall talk_, etc. Verbs also vary to indicate completed or incompleted action; as, _I have talked, I shall have talked_, etc. To these variations, which indicate the time of the action, the name TENSE is given. The full verbal statement may consist of several words; as, _He MAY HAVE GONE home_. Here the verb is _may have gone_. The last word of such a verb phrase is called the PRINCIPAL VERB, and the other words the AUXILIARIES. In the sentence above, _go (gone)_ is the principal verb, and _may_ and _have_ are the auxiliaries. 50. In constructing the full form of the verb or verb phrase there are three distinct parts from which all other forms are made. These are called the PRINCIPAL PARTS. The First Principal Part, since it is the part by which the verb is referred to as a word, may be called the NAME-FORM. The following are name-forms: _do, see, come, walk, pass_. The Second Principal Part is called the PAST TENSE. It is formed by adding _ed_ to the name-form; as, _walked, pushed, passed_. These verbs that add _ed_ are called Regular Verbs. The verb form is often entirely changed; as, _done (do), saw (see), came (come)_. These verbs are called Irregular Verbs. The Third Principal Part is called the PAST PARTICIPLE. It is used mainly in expressing completed action or in the passive voice. In regular verbs the past participle is the same in form as the past tense. In irregular verbs it may differ entirely from both the name-form and the past tense, or it may resemble one or both of them. Examples: _done (do, did), seen (see, saw), come (come, came), set (set, set)_. 51. THE NAME-FORM, when unaccompanied by auxiliaries, is used with all subjects, except those in the third person singular, to assert action in the present time or present tense; as, _I go, We come, You see, Horses run_. The name-form is also used with various auxiliaries (_may, might, can, must, will, should, shall_, etc.) to assert futurity, determination, possibility, possession, etc. Examples: _I may go, We shall come, You can see, Horses should run_. By preceding it with the word _to_, the name-form is used to form what is called the PRESENT INFINITIVE; as, _I wish to go, I hope to see_. What may be called the S-FORM of the verb, or the SINGULAR form, is usually constructed by adding _s_ or _es_ to the name-form. The s-form is used with singular subjects in the third person; as, _He goes, She comes, It runs, The dog trots_. The s-form is found in the third personal singular of the present tense. In other tenses, if present at all, the s-form is in the auxiliary, where the present tense of the auxiliary is used to form some other tense of the principal verb. Examples: _He has_ (present tense), _He has gone_ (perfect tense), _He has been seen_. Some verbs have no s-form; as, _will, shall, may_. The verb _be_ has two irregular s-forms: _Is_, in the present tense, and _was_ in the past tense. The s-form of _have_ is _has_. 52. The past tense always stands alone in the predicate; i. e., IT SHOULD NEVER BE USED WITH ANY AUXILIARIES. To use it so, however, is one of the most frequent errors in grammar. The following are past tense forms: _went, saw, wore, tore_. To say, therefore, _I have saw, I have went, It was tore, They were wore_, would be grossly incorrect. 53. The third principal part, the past participle, on the other hand, CAN NEVER BE USED AS A PREDICATE VERB WITHOUT AN AUXILIARY. The following are distinctly past participle forms: _done, seen, sung_, etc. One could not then properly say, _I seen, I done, I sung_, etc. The distinction as to use with and without auxiliaries applies, of course, only to irregular verbs. In regular verbs, the past tense and past participle are always the same, and so no error could result from their confusion. The past participle is used to form the _Perfect Infinitives_; as, _to have gone, to have seen, to have been seen_. 54. The following is a list of the principal parts of the most important irregular verbs. The list should be mastered thoroughly. The student should bear in mind always that, THE PAST TENSE FORM SHOULD NEVER BE USED WITH AN AUXILIARY, and that THE PAST PARTICIPLE FORM SHOULD NEVER BE USED AS A PREDICATE VERB WITHOUT AN AUXILIARY. In some instances verbs have been included in the list below which are always regular in their forms, or which have both regular and irregular forms. These are verbs for whose principal parts incorrect forms are often used. PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS _Name-form Past Tense Past Participle_ awake awoke or awaked awaked begin began begun beseech besought besought bid (to order or to greet) bade bidden or bid bid (at auction) bid bidden or bid blow blew blown break broke broken burst burst burst choose chose chosen chide chid chidden or chid come came come deal dealt dealt dive dived dived _Name-form Past Tense Past Participle_ do did done draw drew drawn drink drank drunk or drank drive drove driven eat ate eaten fall fell fallen flee fled fled fly flew flown forsake forsook forsaken forget forgot forgot or forgotten freeze froze frozen get got got (gotten) give gave given go went gone hang (clothes) hung hung hang (a man) hanged hanged know knew known lay laid laid lie lay lain mean meant meant plead pleaded pleaded prove proved proved ride rode ridden raise raised raised rise rose risen run ran run see saw seen seek sought sought set set set shake shook shaken shed shed shed shoe shod shod sing sang sung sit sat sat slay slew slain sink sank sunk speak spoke spoken _Name-form Past Tense Past Participle_ steal stole stolen swim swam swum take took taken teach taught taught tear tore torn throw threw thrown tread trod trod or trodden wake woke or waked woke or waked wear wore worn weave wove woven write wrote written NOTES.--_Ought_ has no past participle. It may then never be used with an auxiliary. _I had ought to go_ is incorrect. The idea would be amply expressed by _I ought to go_. MODEL CONJUGATIONS of the verbs _to be_ and _to see_ in all forms are given under §77 at the end of this chapter. EXERCISE 29 _In the following sentences change the italicized verb so as to use the past tense, and then so as to use the past participle:_ Example: (Original sentence), _The guests begin to go home._ (Changed to past tense), _The guests began to go home._ (Changed to past participle), _The guests have begun to go home._ 1. Our books _lie_ on the mantel. 2. John _comes_ in and _lays_ his books on the desk. 3. I _see_ the parade. 4. He _runs_ up the road. 5. They _set_ their chairs in a row. 6. The noise _wakes_ me. 7. Cæsar _bids_ him enter. 8. If they _prove_ their innocence, they should be discharged. 9. His friends _plead_ strongly for him. 10. Do you know what they _mean_ by that? 11. I _awake_ early every morning. 12. He _begins_ to think of strange things. 13. The children _beseech_ me to go with them. 14. My mother _bids_ me to say that she will be here at six. 15. Smith _bids_ fifty dollars for the chair. 16. My servants _break_ many dishes. 17. They _choose_ their associates. 18. The box _bursts_ open. 19. His mother _chides_ him for his misbehavior. 20. He _comes_ here every day. 21. I _deal_ there this week. 22. The boys _dive_ beautifully. 23. You _do_ so much more than is necessary. 24. They _draw_ lots for the watch. 25. Jones _drinks_ this wine very seldom. 26. They _drive_ over to Milton once a week. 27. They _drive_ a sorrel horse. 28. The cows _eat_ grass. 29. The Gauls _flee_ before Cæsar. 30. The swallows all _fly_ into the chimney at evening. 31. They _forsake_ the cause without any reason. 32. Cæsar _gives_ them no answer. 33. They _get_ no money for their services. 34. You _forget_ that we have no right to do that. 35. Water _freezes_ at thirty-two degrees Fahrenheit. 36. The ball _goes_ to the opposing team. 37. You _hang_ the rope on the tree. 38. The sheriff _hangs_ the murderer at noon. 39. I _know_ of nothing more worrying. 40. She _lays_ the knife on the table. 41. They _lie_ in bed until eleven. 42. Why they _rise_ so late, I do not know. 43. They _raise_ no objection. 44. John _runs_ very rapidly. 45. You _sit_ very quietly. 46. Cæsar _seeks_ to learn the intention of the enemy. 47. The politician vigorously _shakes_ all hands. 48. The roof _sheds_ water in all storms. 49. The blacksmith _shoes_ horses. 50. The choir _sings_ for each service. 51. You _speak_ too rapidly to be easily understood. 52. Few men _steal_ because they want to. 53. I _swim_ one hundred yards very readily. 54. They _teach_ all the elementary branches there. 55. You _take_ all subscriptions for the concert. 56. Those clothes _tear_ readily. 57. They _tread_ the grapes in making wine. 58. Who _throws_ paper on the floor? 59. I always _wear_ old clothes in which to work. 60. She _writes_ to her mother daily. 61. They _weave_ the best rugs in Philadelphia. EXERCISE 30 _Write original sentences containing the following verbs, correctly used:_ Begun, blew, bidden, bad, chose, broke, come, dealt, dived, drew, driven, flew, forsook, froze, given, give, gave, went, hanged, knew, rode, pleaded, ran, seen, saw, shook, shod, sung, slew, spoke, swum, taken, torn, wore, threw, woven, wrote, written. EXERCISE 31 _Insert the proper form of the verb in the following sentences. The verb to be used is in black-faced type at the beginning of each group:_ 1. BEGIN. He ---- to act at once. The reports ---- to disturb him a little. He has ---- to feel hurt over them. 2. BID. The proprietor ---- us a pleasant good day. No matter how much he ---- the auctioneer will not hear him. We were ---- to enter. 3. BLOW. The cornetist ---- with all his might. The ship was ---- about all day. The wind does ---- terrifically sometimes. It may ---- to-night. The wind ---- all last night. 4. BREAK. He fell and ---- his leg. It is well that his neck was not ----. 5. BURST. During the battle the shells frequently ---- right over us. Oaken casks have often ----. 6. CHIDE. He ---- us frequently about our actions. He was never ---- himself. 7. CHOOSE. They ---- him president. They have ---- wisely. 8. COME. He ---- at nine to-day. He has always ---- earlier heretofore. Let him ---- when he wishes. 9. DEAL. Before explaining the game, he ---- out the cards. 10. DIVE. Twice last summer he ---- off the bridge. 11. DO. Thou canst not say I ---- it. He often ---- it. 12. DRAW. The picture was ---- by a famous artist. He formerly ---- very well, but I think that now he ---- very poorly. 13. DRIVE. The horse was ---- twenty miles. He almost ---- it to death. 14. EAT. He ---- everything which the others had not ----. How can he ---- that? 15. FLEE. Since the cashier has ----, they think that a warrant would be useless. 16. FLY. The air-ship ---- three hundred miles on its first trip. That it has ---- so far is sufficient proof of its success. 17. FORSAKE. He ---- his new friends just as he had ---- all the others. 18. FREEZE. The man was ---- stiff. He evidently ---- to death so easily because he had been so long without food. 19. GIVE. She was not ---- as much as her sisters. Her father ---- her less because of her extravagance. But, he now ---- her enough to make it up. 20. GO. She ---- to school to-day. She ---- yesterday. She has ---- every day this month. 21. KNOW. He ---- that he cannot live. As long as I have ---- him, this is the first time I ever ---- he was married. 22. MEAN. He ---- to do right, and has always ---- to do so. 23. RIDE. They ---- as if they had ---- a long distance. They say that they ---- from Larimer this morning. 24. PLEAD. The mother ---- an hour for her son's life. 25. PROVE. They ---- him a thief in the eyes of the people, even if he was not ---- so to the satisfaction of the jury. 26. RUN. John ---- the race as though he had ---- races all his life. The race was ---- very rapidly. Soon after that race, he ---- in another race. 27. SEE. Smith, who has just arrived, says he ---- two men skulking along the road. He was not ---- by them. That play is the best I ever ----. 28. SEEK. The detectives ---- all through the slums for him. Now they ---- him in the better parts of the city. No criminal was ever more eagerly ----. 29. SHAKE. During the day his hand was ---- five hundred times. He ---- hands with all who came. 30. SHOE. The entire army was ---- with Blank's shoes. 31. SING. The choir ---- the anthem as they had never ---- it before. They always ---- it well. 32. SINK. The stone ---- as soon as it is in the water. The ship was ---- in forty fathoms of water. They ---- the ship in 1861. 33. SPEAK. Though they claimed that they always ---- to her, she was really never ---- to by any member of the family. 34. STEAL. The money was ----; whether or not he ---- it I do not know. Everyone believes that he has frequently ---- goods from the store. 35. TAKE. I was ---- for him several times that day. No one ever ---- me for him before. 36. TEACH. John ---- school every day. He has ---- for ten years. He first ---- when he was eighteen years old. 37. TEAR. The dog ---- at the paper until it was ---- entirely to pieces. He ---- up everything he finds. 38. THROW. He was ---- by a horse which never before ---- anyone. 39. WEAR. The trousers were ---- entirely out in a month, but I ---- the coat and vest for six months. 40. WEAVE. This carpet was ---- at Philadelphia. The manufacturers say they never ---- a better one, and they ---- the best in the country. 41. WRITE. Although he has ---- several times, he has never ---- anything about that. He ---- to me just last week. He ---- at least once a month. EXERCISE 32 _Correct the errors in the use of verbs in the following sentences:_ 1. He plead all day to be released. 2. The horse was rode to death. 3. The letter was wrote before he knowed the truth. 4. He was immediately threw out of the room. 5. She run around all day and then was sick the next day. 6. I never seen anything like it. 7. He was very much shook by the news. 8. The matter was took up by the committee. 9. The horse has been stole from the owner. 10. Goliath was slew by David. 11. The words have been spoke in anger. 12. I have went to church every day. 13. Was the river froze enough for skating? 14. He begun to take notice immediately. 15. The umbrella was blew to pieces. 16. I have broke my ruler. 17. Jones was chose as leader of the class. 18. He said he come as soon as he could. 19. I done it. 20. I have never did anything so foolish. 21. I have ate all that was in the lunch-box. 22. The horse was drove ten miles. EXERCISE 33 _Write sentences in which the following verb forms are properly used:_ begun, blew, broke, chose, come, came, done, did, drew, drunk, drove, ate, flew, forsook, froze, forgot, gave, give, went, hang, hung, knew, rode, run, shook, sung, slew, spoke, stole, took, tore, threw, wore, wrote. 55. TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. A TRANSITIVE VERB is one in which the action of the verb goes over to a receiver; as, _He KILLED the horse, I KEEP my word_. In both these sentences, the verb serves to transfer the action from the subject to the object or receiver of the action. The verbs in these sentences, and all similar verbs, are transitive verbs. All others, in which the action does not go to a receiver, are called INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 56. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE. The ACTIVE VOICE represents the subject as the doer of the action; as, _I tell, I see, He makes chairs_. The PASSIVE VOICE represents the subject as the receiver of the action; as, _I am told, I am seen, I have been seen, Chairs are made by me_. Since only transitive verbs can have a receiver of the action, only transitive verbs can have both active and passive voice. 57. There are a few special verbs in which the failure to distinguish between the transitive and the intransitive verbs leads to frequent error. The most important of these verbs are the following: _sit, set, awake, wake, lie, lay, rise, arise, raise, fell_, and _fall_. Note again the principal parts of these verbs: wake (to rouse another) woke, waked woke, waked awake (to cease to sleep) awoke, awaked awaked fell (to strike down) felled felled fall (to topple over) fell fallen lay (to place) laid laid lie (to recline) lay lain raise (to cause to ascend) raised raised (a)rise (to ascend) (a)rose (a)risen set (to place) set set sit (to rest) sat sat The first of each pair of the above verbs is transitive, and the second is intransitive. Only the first, then, of each pair can have an object or can be used in the passive voice. NOTES.--The following exceptions in the use of _sit_ and _set_ are, by reason of usage, regarded as correct: _The sun sets, The moon sets, They sat themselves down to rest_, and _He set out for Chicago_. _Lie_, meaning to deceive, has for its principal parts, _lie, lied, lied. Lie_, however, with this meaning is seldom confused with _lie_ meaning to recline. The present participle of _lie_ is _lying_. Compare the following sentences, and note the reasons why the second form in each case is the correct form. WRONG RIGHT Awake me early to-morrow. Wake me early to-morrow. He was awoke by the noise. He was woke (waked) by the noise. He has fallen a tree. He has felled a tree. I have laid down. I have lain down. I lay the book down (past tense). I laid the book down. The river has raised. The river has risen. He raised in bed. He rose in bed. I set there. I sat there. I sat the chair there. I set the chair there. EXERCISE 34 _Form an original sentence showing the proper use of each of the following words:_ Lie, lay (to place), sit, set, sat, sitting, setting, lie (to recline), lie (to deceive), lying, laying, rise, arose, raised, raise, fell (to topple over), fallen, felled, awake, wake, awaked, woke, falling, felling, rising, raising, waking, awaking, lain, laid, lied. EXERCISE 35 _Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong:_ 1. Let sleeping dogs lay. 2. The sun has sat in the golden west. 3. He has laid in bed all morning. 4. He will sit out on his journey this morning. 5. Let him sit there as long as he wishes. 6. He sat the chair by the table. 7. He awoke everybody at daylight. 8. He laid down to sleep. 9. Let him lie there until he wakes. 10. The shower has lain the dust. 11. The curtain raised because it was raised by his orders. 12. The river has risen four feet. 13. Falling trees is his amusement. 14. To have been awaked then would have been sad. 15. To have waked then would have been sad. 16. Waking at dawn, they renewed the journey. 17. He has set there all day. 18. He lay the papers before the judge. 19. The judge laid the papers aside. 20. Lieing in the shade is his most strenuous occupation. EXERCISE 36 _In the following sentences fill the blanks with the proper forms of the verbs indicated:_ SIT AND SET 1. I ---- in that seat all the evening. 2. Please ---- here until I return. 3. He was still ----ting there on my return. 4. The sun ---- in the west. 5. He ---- out for home yesterday. 6. ---- down and rest awhile. 7. James ---- down and talked to me. 8. He was engaged in ----ting out flowers. 9. I ---- the bucket on the rock above the bridge. 10. Last evening we ---- at the table for more than an hour. 11. ---- here until I call my mother. 12. ---- the lamp on the table. 13. He has ---- there all day. 14. The chair was ---- by the desk. 15. I usually ---- up until twelve. 16. She ---- the hen on some eggs and she remained ---- there. 17. She told me to ---- there, and I ---- down. 18. By whom has the lamp been ---- there? 19. I ---- my chair by the window and ---- there all the afternoon. 20. How can she ---- still for so long? 21. The moon ---- at twelve. LAY AND LIE 1. I ---- down this afternoon to rest. 2. I ---- in bed until late every morning. 3. I have frequently ---- in bed until eleven. 4. He always ---- his books on the desk. 5. He just now ---- his books on the desk. 6. He has ---- them there every morning. 7. His books have sometimes ---- there all day. 8. His books have sometimes been ----ing there before I arrive. 9. After he ---- down he remembered that he had left a letter on his desk. 10. Will it not be well for you to ---- down for a while? 11. I ---- on the grass yesterday for an hour or more. 12. I have ---- down and feel much better. 13. Now I ---- me down to sleep. 14. The scene of the play is ---- in rural Pennsylvania. 15. The tramps ---- behind the barn waiting for dawn. 16. I had ---- down to rest before (set or sit) ting out on my journey. 17. The floor was ---- by an expert carpenter. 18. She told me to ---- the matter before the teacher. 19. ---- down, Fido. 20. When we are weary, we ---- down. 21. Who ---- that on the table? 22. He has repeatedly ---- about the matter. 23. He ---- without the slightest hesitation. 24. ----ing down is a good way to rest. 25. ----ing is a sin. 26. He ---- to his father, and his father knew it. RAISE AND RISE (ARISE) 1. I will ---- and go unto my father. 2. He has ---- early to-day. 3. I do not know why he ---- so early. 4. ---- your hand if you know. 5. Everyone ---- his hand. 6. They have all ---- their hands. 7. All their hands were ---- at once. 8. The price of meat has ----. 9. The bread would not ----. 10. I ---- in order that I might see better. 11. The flag was very carefully ----. 12. He tried to ---- himself from the condition into which he had fallen. 13. The curtain is to ---- at eight. I myself shall see to ----ing it then. 14. The boy ---- and answers. 15. He is ---- rapidly to prominence. 16. Will you please ---- the window? 17. The safe was ---- by means of a rope. 18. It is like trying to ---- one's self by one's boot-straps. 19. ---- and march to the front of the room. 20. The river ---- rapidly. FELL AND FALL 1. Gladstone, when living, ---- a tree each morning for exercise. 2. To ---- an ox with one blow of the fist is a feat of wonderful strength. 3. He was ---- to the earth by a blow from a club. 4. To ---- often is to be expected in learning to skate. 5. ----ing down is a small matter to the young. 6. He has often ---- from the roof of the porch. 7. After he ---- once, he seemed to try to do so again. 8. I did not see him----. 9. Not a shot is fired but a bird ----. 10. Let the tree be ---- across the road. 11. It is hard to avoid ----ing on the ice. AWAKE AND WAKE 1. Have them ---- me very early. 2. He went upstairs and ---- his brother. 3. His brother did not wish to be ---- so early. 4. This morning I ---- at dawn. 5. It is unpleasant to ---- so early. 6. You say that you have never ---- after nine? 7. Who ---- so early, this morning? 8. He would not say who ---- him. 9. ----ing in the dead of night is unpleasant. 10. ----ing everybody up by their noise is an every night occurrence. 11. The sun ---- me early. 12. The whole country-side seemed to ---- at once. 13. He had himself ---- at six o'clock. 58. MODE. Mode is that form of the verb which indicates the manner in which the action or state is to be regarded. There are several modes in English, but only between the indicative and subjunctive modes is the distinction important. Generally speaking, the INDICATIVE MODE is used when the statement is regarded as a fact or as truth, and the SUBJUNCTIVE MODE is used when the statement expresses uncertainty or implies some degree of doubt. 59. FORMS OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. The places in which the subjunctive differs from the indicative are in the present and past tenses of the verb _be_, and in the present tense of active verbs. The following outline will show the difference between the indicative and the subjunctive of _be_: INDICATIVE PRESENT OF BE INDICATIVE PAST OF BE I am we are I was we were thou art you are thou wert or wast you were he (she, it) is they are he (she, it) was they were SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT OF BE SUBJUNCTIVE PAST OF BE If I be If we be If I were If we were If thou be If you be If thou were If you were If he (she, it) be If they be If he (she, it) were If they were _If_ is used only as an example of the conjunctions on which the subjunctive depends. Other conjunctions may be used, or the verb may precede the subject. NOTE.--It will be noticed that _thou art_ and _thou wast_, etc., have been used in the second person singular. Strictly speaking, these are the proper forms to be used here, even though _you are_ and _you were_, etc., are customarily used in addressing a single person. In the subjunctive of _be_, it will be noted that the form _be_ is used throughout the present tense; and the form _were_ throughout the past tense. In other verbs the subjunctive, instead of having the s-form in the third person singular of the present tense, has the name-form, or the same form as all the other forms of the present tense; as, indicative, _he runs, she sees, it seems, he has;_ subjunctive, _if he run, though she see, lest it seem, if he have_. NOTE.--An examination of the model conjugations under §77 will give a further understanding of the forms of the subjunctive. 60. USE OF INDICATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE. The indicative mode would be properly used in the following sentence, when the statement is regarded as true: _If that evidence is true, then he is a criminal_. Similarly: _If he is rich, he ought to be charitable_. Most directly declarative statements are put in the indicative mode. But when the sense of the statement shows uncertainty in the speaker's mind, or shows that the condition stated is regarded as contrary to fact or as untrue, the subjunctive is used. Note the two sentences following, in which the conditions are properly in the subjunctive: _If those statements be true, then all statements are true, Were I rich, I might be charitable_. The subjunctive is usually preceded by the conjunctions, _if, though, lest, although_, or the verb precedes the subject. But it must be borne in mind that these do not always indicate the subjunctive mode. THE USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE DEPENDS ON WHETHER THE CONDITION IS REGARDED AS A FACT OR AS CONTRARY TO FACT, CERTAIN OR UNCERTAIN. It should be added that the subjunctive is perhaps going out of use; some of the best writers no longer use its forms. This passing of the subjunctive is to be regretted and to be discouraged, since its forms give opportunity for many fine shades of meaning. EXERCISE 37 _Write five sentences which illustrate the correct use of BE in the third person singular without an auxiliary, and five which illustrate the correct use of WERE in the third person singular._ EXERCISE 38 _Choose the preferable form in the following sentences, and be able to give a definite reason for your choice. In some of the sentences either form may be used correctly:_ 1. He acts as if it _were was_ possible always to escape death. 2. If it _was were_ near enough, I should walk. 3. If I _was were_ only wealthy! 4. If I _were was_ in his place, I should study medicine. 5. If you _are be_ right, then the book is wrong. 6. If he _was were_ I, he would come. 7. Though he _was were_ very economical, he remained poor. 8. Though she _was were_ an angel, I should dislike her. 9. If he _be is_ there, ask him to pay the bill. 10. If he _be is_ there, he makes no sign of his presence. 11. If this _be is_ wrong, then all love of country is wrong. 12. If it _rains rain_, I stay at school. 13. Take care lest you _are be_ deceived by appearances. 14. Would that I _was were_ a bird. 15. If it _snow snows_, I can't come. 16. If your father _comes come_, bring him to dinner. 17. If your father _was were_ here, you would act differently. 18. Though he _were was_ king over all the earth I should despise him. 19. If he _come comes_, he will find me at home. 20. _Was were_ it necessary, I should jump. 21. If to-morrow _be is_ pleasant, we shall go driving. 22. If my mother _was were_ here, she would say I might go. 23. If she _was were_ at home, I did not hear of it. 24. If that _is be_ his motive, he is unworthy. 25. Though this _seem seems_ improbable, it is true. 26. If a speech _is be_ praised by none but literary men, it is bad. 27. If the father _pays pay_ the debt, he will be released. 28. Though Mary _be is_ young, she is a writer of note. 29. Unless he _takes take_ better care of his health, he will die. 30. If he _be is_ honest, he has not shown it. 31. If he _be is_ honest, he will insist on paying me. 32. If he ever _tell tells_ the truth, he conceals the fact. 61. AGREEMENT OF VERB WITH ITS SUBJECT. THE VERB SHOULD AGREE WITH ITS SUBJECT IN PERSON AND NUMBER. The most frequent error is the failure of the verb to agree in number with its subject. Singular subjects are used with plural verbs, and plural subjects with singular verbs. These errors arise chiefly from a misapprehension of the true number of the subject. The s-form of the verb is the only distinct singular form, and occurs only in the third person, singular, present indicative; as, _He runs, she goes, it moves_. _Is, was_, and _has_ are the singular forms of the auxiliaries. _Am_ is used only with a subject in the first person, and is not a source of confusion. The other auxiliaries have no singular forms. Failure of the verb and its subject to agree in person seldom occurs, and so can cause little confusion. Examine the following correct forms of agreement of verb and subject: A barrel of clothes WAS shipped (not _were shipped_). A man and a woman HAVE been here (not _has been here_). Boxes ARE scarce (not _is scarce_). When WERE the brothers here (not _when was_)? 62. AGREEMENT OF SUBJECT AND VERB IN NUMBER. The general rule to be borne in mind in regard to number, is that IT IS THE MEANING AND NOT THE FORM OF THE SUBJECT THAT DETERMINES WHETHER TO USE THE SINGULAR OR THE PLURAL FORM OF THE VERB. This rule also applies to the use of singular or plural pronouns. Many nouns plural in form are singular in meaning; as, _politics, measles, news_, etc. Many, also, are treated as plurals, though in meaning they are singular; as, _forceps, tongs, trousers_. Some nouns, singular in form, are, according to the sense in which, they are used, either singular or plural in meaning; as, _committee, family, pair, jury, assembly, means_. The following sentences are all correct: _The assembly has closed its meeting, The assembly are all total abstainers, The whole family is a famous one, The whole family are sick_. In the use of the adjective pronouns, _some, each_, etc., the noun is often omitted. When this is done, error is often made by using the wrong number of the verb. _Each, either, neither, this, that_, and _one_, when used alone as subjects, require singular verbs. _All, those, these, few, many_, always require plural verbs. _Any, none_, and _some_ may take either singular or plural verbs. In most of these cases, as is true throughout the subject of agreement in number, reason will determine the form to be used. Some nouns in a plural form express quantity rather than number. When quantity is plainly intended the singular verb should be used. Examine the following sentences; each is correct: _Three drops of medicine is a dose, Ten thousand tons of coal was purchased by the firm, Two hundred dollars was the amount of the collection, Two hundred silver dollars were in the collection_. EXERCISE 39 _In each of the following sentences, by giving a reason, justify the correctness of the agreement in number of the verb and the noun:_ 1. The jury have agreed. 2. The jury has been sent out to reconsider its verdict. 3. The committee has presented its report, but they have differed in regard to one matter. 4. The whole tribe was destroyed. 5. The tribe were scattered through the different states. 6. The regiment were almost all sick. 7. A variety of persons was there. 8. The society meets each month. 9. The society is divided in its opinion. 10. A number were unable to be present. 11. A great number was present. 12. The number present was great. 13. What means were used to gain his vote? 14. That means of gaining votes is corrupt. 15. Seventeen pounds was the cat's weight. 16. Twenty years of his life was spent in prison. 17. Two hundred pounds was his weight. 18. The family are all at home. 19. The family is large. 20. A pair of gloves has been lost. 21. A pair of twins were sitting in the doorway. 22. The army was defeated. EXERCISE 40 _Construct sentences in which each of the words named below is used correctly as the subject of some one of the verbs, IS, WAS, HAS, HAVE, ARE, WAS, HAVE, GO, GOES, RUN, RUNS, COME, COMES:_ One, none, nobody, everybody, this, that, these, those, former, latter, few, some, many, other, any, all, such, news, pains, measles, gallows, ashes, dregs, goods, pincers, thanks, victuals, vitals, mumps, flock, crowd, fleet, group, choir, class, army, mob, tribe, herd, committee, tons, dollars, bushels, carloads, gallons, days, months. EXERCISE 41 _Go over each of the above sentences and determine whether IT or THEY should be used in referring to the subject._ 63. THE FOLLOWING RULES GOVERN THE AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH A COMPOUND SUBJECT: 1. When a singular noun is modified by two adjectives so as to mean two distinct things, the verb should be in the plural; as, _French and German literature ARE studied._ 2. When the verb applies to the different parts of the compound subject, the plural form of the verb should be used; as, _John and Harry ARE still to come._ 3. When the verb applies to one subject and not to the others, it should agree with that subject to which it applies; as, _The employee, and not the employers, WAS to blame, The employers, and not the employee, WERE to blame, The boy, as well as his sisters, DESERVES praise._ 4. When the verb applies separately to several subjects, each in the singular, the verb should be singular; as, _Each book and each paper WAS in its place, No help and no hope IS found for him, Either one or the other IS he, Neither one nor the other IS he._ 5. When the verb applies separately to several subjects, some of which are singular and some plural, it should agree with the subject nearest to it; as, _Neither the boy, nor his sisters DESERVE praise, Neither the sisters nor the boy DESERVES praise._ 6. When a verb separates its subjects, it should agree with the first; as, _The leader WAS slain and all his men, The men WERE slain, and also the leader._ EXERCISE 42 _Choose the proper form of the verb in the following sentences:_ 1. Hard and soft coal _is are_ used. 2. The boy and the girl _have has_ come. 3. Neither James nor I _are is_ to go. 4. Neither James nor they _are is_ to go. 5. Henry, and not his sister, _is are_ sure to be invited. 6. The children and their father _was were_ on the train. 7. Each man and each woman _was were_ present. 8. Either Tennyson or Wordsworth _was were_ the author of that poem. 9. Either the man or his children _was were_ lost. 10. Either the children or their father _was were_ lost. 11. Bread and milk _are is_ frugal but wholesome fare. 12. The teacher _was were_ cut off by the fire, and also her pupils. 13. The pupils _was were_ cut off by the fire, and also the teacher. 14. Dogs and cats _is are_ useless animals. 15. Neither the daughters nor their mother _is are_ at home. 16. Either the soldier or his officers _is are_ mistaken. 17. The cat and all her kittens _was were_ at the door. 18. Tennyson, not Wordsworth, _were was_ the author. 19. Each of the trustees _has have_ a vote. 20. Our success or our failure _is are_ due solely to ourselves. 21. Neither sincerity nor cordiality _characterize characterizes_ him. 22. Everyone of these chairs _is are_ mine. 23. Each day and each hour _bring brings_ new questions. 24. The car and all its passengers _was were_ blown up. 25. The ambition and activity of the man _has have_ been the _cause causes_ of his success. 26. Old and new hay _is are_ equally good for horses. 27. Matthew or Paul _are is_ responsible for that belief. 28. A man, a woman, and a child _is are_ comprised in the group. 29. The pupils and also the teacher _were was_ embarrassed. 30. The teacher and also the pupils _were was_ embarrassed. 31. Neither he nor I _are is am_ going. 32. Book after book _was were_ taken from the shelves. 33. Either Aunt Mary or her daughters _is are_ coming. 34. Either the daughters or Aunt Mary _is are_ coming. 35. Aunt Mary, but not her daughters, _is are_ coming. 36. The daughters, but not Aunt Mary, _is are_ coming. 37. Both Aunt Mary and her daughter _is are_ coming. 38. Mary, and not her mother, _is are_ coming. 39. No preacher and no woman _is are_ allowed to enter. 40. Every adult man and woman _has have_ a vote. 41. Money, if not culture, _gains gain_ a way. 42. Brain power, as well as money, _talk talks_. 43. Each boy and girl _bring brings_ books. 64. SOME MISCELLANEOUS CAUTIONS IN REGARD TO AGREEMENT IN NUMBER: 1. Do not use a plural verb after a singular subject modified by an adjective phrase; as, _The thief, with all his booty, was captured_. 2. Do not use a singular form of the verb after _you_ and _they_. Say: _You were, they are, they were_, etc., not, _you was, they was,_ etc. 3. Do not mistake a noun modifier for the noun subject. In the sentence, _The SALE of boxes was increased, sale_, not _boxes_, is the subject of the verb. 4. When the subject is a relative pronoun, the number and the person of the antecedent determine the number and the person of the verb. Both of the following sentences are correct: _He is the only one of the men THAT IS to be trusted, He is one of those men THAT ARE to be trusted._ It is to be remembered that the singulars and the plurals of the relative pronouns are alike in form; _that, who_, etc., may refer to one or more than one. 5. Do not use incorrect contractions of the verb with _not_. _Don't_ cannot be used with _he_ or _she_ or _it_, or with any other singular subject in the third person. One should say, _He doesn't_, not _he don't; it doesn't_, not _it don't; man doesn't_, not _man don't_. The proper form of the verb that is being contracted in these instances is _does_, not _do_. _Ain't_ and _hain't_ are always wrong; no such contractions are recognized. Such colloquial contractions as _don't, can't_, etc., should not be used at all in formal composition. EXERCISE 43 _Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong:_ 1. The ship, with all her crew, were lost. 2. You was there, John, was you not? 3. They was never known to do that before. 4. A barrel of apples were sold. 5. How many were there who was there? 6. This is one of the books that is always read. 7. He don't know his own relatives. 8. I ain't coming to-night. 9. The art gallery, with all its pictures, was destroyed. 10. John, when was you in the city? 11. The book, with all its errors, is valuable. 12. Who they was, I couldn't tell. 13. This is one of the mountains which are called "The Triplets." 14. This is one of the eleven pictures that has gained prizes. 15. The hands of the clock is wrong. 16. The gallery of pictures are splendid. 17. This is one of those four metals that is valuable. 18. This is the one of those four metals that are valuable. 19. That answer, as you will see, hain't right. 20. The whole box of books were shipped. EXERCISE 44 _In the following sentences correct such as are wrong:_ 1. "Cows" are a common noun. 2. Such crises seldom occurs. 3. Fifty dollars were given him as a present. 4. There were four men, each of which were sent by a different bank. 5. At that time the morals of men were very low. 6. Mathematics are my most interesting study. 7. There was once two boys who was imprisoned in the Tower. 8. The jury is delivering its verdict. 9. The "Virginians" is a famous book. 10. Ten minutes were given him in which to answer. 11. Everyone of these farms are mine. 12. Lee, with his whole army, surrender. 13. Farm after farm were passed by the train. 14. He is one of the greatest men that has ever been president. 15. Three hundred miles of wires were cut down. 16. Three fourths of his time are wasted. 17. Three quarts of oats is all that is needed. 18. A variety of sounds charms the ear. 19. A variety of recitations were given. 20. The committee have adjourned. 21. Washington was one of the greatest generals that has ever lived. 22. Take one of the books that is lying on the table. 23. The house is one of those that overlooks the bay. 24. Question after question were propounded to him. 25. He was one of the best orators that has been produced by the school. 26. He is one of those persons who are quick to learn. 27. A black and white horse were in the ring. 28. A black and a white horse was in the ring. 29. The committee disagree on some points. 30. Mary, where was you yesterday? 31. The end and aim of his life are to get money. 32. All the crop were lost. 33. One of them are gone. 34. There comes the children. 35. Were either of these men elected? 36. The alumni of this school is not very loyal. 37. There seem to be few here. 38. There seems to be a few here. 39. Neither of the letters were received. 40. In all those songs there are a sprightliness and charm. 41. The Association of Engineers are still flourishing. 42. Neither John nor Henry have come. 43. Either this book or that are wrong. 44. This book and that is wrong. 45. This book, not that, is wrong. 46. Either this book or those students is wrong. 47. Either those students, or this book is wrong. 48. This chemical with its compounds were the agents used in tanning. 65. USE OF SHALL AND WILL. The use of the auxiliaries, _shall_ and _will_, with their past tenses, is a source of very many errors. The following outline will show the correct use of _shall_ and _will_, except in dependent clauses and questions: To indicate simple futurity or probability: Use _shall_ with _I_ and _we_; use _will_ with all other subjects. To indicate promise, determination, threat, or command on the part of the speaker; i. e., action which the speaker means to control; Use _will_ with _I_ and _we_; use _shall_ with all other subjects. Examine the following examples of the correct use of _shall_ and _will_: Statements as to probable future events: _We shall_ probably be there. I think _you will_ want to be there. _It will_ rain before night. Statements of determination on the part of the speaker: _I will_ come in spite of his command. _You shall_ go home. _It shall_ not happen again, I promise you. 66. SHALL AND WILL IN QUESTIONS. In interrogative sentences _shall_ should always be used with the first person. In the second and third persons that auxiliary should be used which is logically expected in the answer. Examine the agreement in the use of _shall_ and _will_ in the following questions and answers: QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. _Shall_ I miss the car? You _will_ miss it. _Shall_ you be there? I think I _shall_ (probability). _Will_ he do it? I think he _will_ (assertion). _Shall_ your son obey the teacher? He _shall_ (determination). _Will_ you promise to come? We _will_ come (promise). 67. SHALL AND WILL IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. In dependent clauses which are introduced by _that_, expressed or understood, the auxiliary should be used which would be proper if the dependent clause were a principal clause. The sentence, _They assure us that they SHALL come_, is wrong. The direct assurance would be, _We WILL come_. The auxiliary, then, in a principal clause would be _will_. _Will_ should, therefore, be the auxiliary in the dependent construction, and the sentence should read, _They assure us that they WILL come_. Further examples: I suppose _we shall_ have to pay. He thinks that _you will_ be able to do it. He has decided that _John shall_ replace the book. In all dependent clauses expressing a condition or contingency use _shall_ with all subjects. Examples; _If he shall_ go to Europe, it will be his tenth trip abroad. _If you shall_ go away, who will run the farm? _If I shall_ die, I shall die as an honest man. EXERCISE 45 _Justify the correct use of SHALL and WILL in the following sentences:_ 1. I will go if you wish. 2. I shall probably go if you wish. 3. I will have it in spite of all you can do. 4. We shall return by way of Dover. 5. We will fight it out on this line if it takes all summer. 6. I feel that I shall not live long. 7. We think we shall come to-morrow. 8. I promise you, the money shall be raised. 9. You will then go to Philadelphia. 10. You shall never hear from me again. 11. He will surely come to-morrow. 12. How shall you answer him? 13. I think I shall ride. 14. He is sure they will come. 15. He is sure that I will come. 16. Shall you be there? 17. Will he who fails be allowed to have a reexamination? 18. Will you be there? 19. Will all be there? 20. He says he shall be there. 21. He has promised that he will be there. 22. I fear that he will fail to pass. 23. We think she will soon be well. 24. We are determined that they shall pay. 25. We expect that they will bring their books. 26. I doubt that he will pay. 27. We have promised that we will do it. 28. If he shall ask, shall I refer him to you? EXERCISE 46 _Fill the blanks in the following sentences with SHALL or WILL:_ 1. I think I ---- find the work easy. 2. I ---- probably be refused, but I ---- go anyway. 3. ---- you be busy to-night? Yes, I ---- be in class until ten. 4. I ---- probably fail to pass the examination. 5. If no one assists me, I ---- drown. 6. No. I ---- never sell my library. 7. If I fail I ---- be obliged to take an examination. 8. ---- my men begin work to-day? 9. ---- you stop at Chicago on your way West? No, I don't, think I ----. 10. ---- you promise me to sing at the concert to-night? Yes, I ---- sing to-night. 11. ---- I put more wood on the fire? 12. I ---- be lost; no one ---- help me. 13. It ---- be there when you need it. 14. It is demanded that the pupils ---- be orderly and attentive. 15. I think it ---- rain soon. 16. We ---- be disappointed. 17. ---- we be permitted to go? 18. We ---- do it for you. 19. ---- I go or remain at home? 20. I ---- be very grateful to you if you ---- do this. 21. If you ---- ask her, she ---- go with you. 22. If you ---- stop, I ---- go with you. 23. Where ---- we join you? 24. I think we ---- be there in time. 25. I ---- go to the river for a boat ride. 26. When ---- you be twenty years of age? 27. ---- we ever see you again? 28. Perhaps we ---- return next year. 29. We promise, we ---- return. 30. You ---- probably suffer for it. 31. I ---- not impose on you in that way. 32. ---- I ask for your mail? 33. I hope that we ---- be there before the curtain rises. 34. ---- they probably be there? 35. ---- you please fetch me a paper? 36. ---- we stop for you on our way downtown? 37. When ---- I find you in your office? 38. They ---- never do it if I can help. 39. You ---- do as I say. 40. I ---- never, never, go there again. 41. We ---- decide what to do about that at our next meeting which ---- be in October. 42. ---- it make any difference to you? 43. ---- I go with you? 44. No, you ---- please stay here. 45. He ---- never enter this house again. 46. It is believed that they ---- probably be present. 47. He fears that he ---- die. 48. He requests that you ---- come to-day at seven o'clock. 49. She asks that it ---- be sent at once. 50. It is thought that his death ---- not seriously change things. 51. It is believed that the emperor ---- have to retract. 52. A story is told that ---- gain little credence. 53. I fear that I ---- take cold. 54. She says that I ---- take cold. 55. They say that they ---- do it in spite of anything done to prevent. 56. He is determined that he ---- go away. 57. She is determined that he ---- go to school. 58. They say they ---- probably not go. 59. John thinks he ---- probably live to be past sixty. 60. He tells me that he thinks that he ---- be elected. 61. They say that they ---- meet you. 62. They assure us that we ---- find good stores in Berlin. 63. He says he fears he ---- miss his train. 64. Wright says his father ---- become famous. 65. He writes that he ---- be here to-day. 66. Do you say that you ---- be present? 67. The book says that ---- be wrong. 68. Does she say that she ---- come? 69. I told you that I ---- not come. 70. I tell you that she ---- not come. 71. He says that he ---- go as a matter of duty. 72. John says that ---- not happen anyway. 73. Does he say that he ---- surely come? 74. Does John write what he ---- promise to do in the matter? 75. ---- you be sure to be there? EXERCISE 47 _Write five sentences in which SHALL is used in an independent clause, and five in which SHALL is used in a dependent clause._ _Write five sentences in which WILL is used in an independent clause, and five in which WILL is used in a dependent clause._ _Write five interrogative sentences in which SHALL is used and five in which WILL is used._ 68. SHOULD AND WOULD. _Should_ and _would_ are the past tenses of _shall_ and _will_, and have corresponding uses. _Should_ is used with _I_ and _we_, and _would_ with other subjects, to express mere futurity or probability. _Would_ is used with _I_ and _we_, and _should_ with other subjects, to express conditional promise or determination on the part of the speaker. Examples: Futurity: I _should_ be sorry to lose this book. If we _should_ be afraid of the storm, we _should_ be foolish. It was expected that they _would_ be here. Volition or determination: If it _should_ occur, we _would_ not come. It was promised that it _should_ not occur again. He decided that it _should_ be done. _Should_ is sometimes used in the sense of _ought_, to imply duty; as, _He should have gone to her aid_. _Would_ is often used to indicate habitual action; as, _This would often occur when he was preaching_. EXERCISE 48 _Justify the correct use of SHOULD and WOULD in the following sentences:_ 1. I feared that they would not come. 2. He should know his duty better than that. 3. I should be displeased if he would act that way. 4. We should be ruined if we did that. 5. You should have seen his face. 6. We would often take that road. 7. He said that he would come at once. 8. If that should happen, we should not come. 9. If you were I, what should you do? 10. I should see the president of the class. 11. We should have been at the meeting. 12. He said that we should have been at the meeting. 13. He promised that he would be at the meeting. 14. If I should say so, he would dislike me. 15. Should he come, I would go with him. 16. They would usually stop at the new hotel. 17. What would they do in the city? 18. She asked if she should write the letter. 19. She said they would write the letter. 20. She agreed that it would be right. 21. She assured us that she would attend to it. EXERCISE 49 _Fill in the blanks with SHOULD or WOULD in the following sentences:_ 1. I fear I ---- be drowned if I ---- go swimming. 2. I ---- be much pleased to meet him. 3. It was feared that they ---- not accept. 4. If it ---- storm, we ---- not start. 5. She ---- often come to class with no books. 6. I believed that he ---- come late. 7. He ---- never have been invited. 8. If that had become known, we ---- surely have been ruined. 9. To think that he ---- do such a thing! 10. I ---- like to see the game. 11. You ---- not enjoy it. 12. ---- you like to see the game? 13. ---- I bring my opera glasses? 14. Mary ---- never have known it. 15. He ---- have easily deceived her. 16. They were anxious that we ---- not miss the train. 17. If we ---- come late, ---- it make any difference? 18. If they had proposed it, we ---- have voted it down. 19. On what date ---- that come? 20. I suppose I ---- have done it; but, it ---- have inconvenienced me. 21. Had Lee known that, he ---- never have surrendered. 22. I ---- never have believed she ---- do such a thing. 23. We ---- never have come. 24. ---- you think him capable of such a trick? 25. I knew I ---- not be here on time. 26. ---- they dare to attempt opposition? 27. How ---- you go about it? 28. Lincoln, under those circumstances, ---- probable not have been elected. 29. It ---- have changed our whole history. 30. He said that it ---- have changed our whole history. 31. He said he ---- come. 32. She thinks they ---- not do it. 33. We believe that we ---- like to go at once. 34. They say it ---- be done now. 35. I think I ---- like to go. EXERCISE 50 _Write five sentences in which SHOULD is used independently, and five in which SHOULD is used dependently._ _Write five sentences in which WOULD is used independently, and five in which WOULD is used dependently._ _Write five sentences in which SHOULD is used in questions, and five in which WOULD is used in questions._ 69. USE OF MAY AND MIGHT, CAN AND COULD. _May_, with its past tense, _might_, is properly used to denote permission. _Can_, with its past tense, _could_, refers to the ability or possibility to do a thing. These two words are often confused. EXERCISE 51 _Fill the blanks in the following sentences:_ 1. ---- I go home? 2. ---- we get tickets at that store? 3. ---- the mountain be climbed? 4. ---- we come into your office? 5. You ---- stay as long as you wish. 6. ---- you finish the work in an hour? 7. How ---- you say such a thing? 8. Several people ---- use the same book. 9. We ---- afford to delay a while. 10. ---- John go with me? 11. You ---- often hear the noise. 12. What ---- not be done in a week? 13. That ---- be true, but it ---- not be relied on. 14. What ---- he do to prevent it? 15. When ---- we hand in the work? 70. PARTICIPLES AND GERUNDS. The past participle has already been mentioned as one of the principal parts of the verb. Generally, the PARTICIPLES are those forms of the verb that ARE USED ADJECTIVELY; as, _seeing, having seen, being seen, having been seen, seen, playing, having played_, etc. In the following sentences note that the verb form in each case modifies a substantive: _He, HAVING BEEN INVITED TO DINE, came early, John, BEING SICK, could not come_. The verb form in all these cases is called a participle, and must be used in connection with either a nominative or objective case of a noun or pronoun. The GERUND is the same as the participle in its forms, but differs in that, while the participle is always used adjectively, the GERUND IS ALWAYS USED SUBSTANTIVELY; as, _I told OF HIS WINNING the race, AFTER HIS ASSERTING it, I believe the statement_. 71. MISUSES OF PARTICIPLES AND GERUNDS. 1. A participle should not be used unless it stands in a grammatical and logical relation to some substantive that is present in the sentence. Failure to follow this rule leads to the error known as the "dangling participle." It is wrong to say, _The dish was broken, RESULTING from its fall_, because _resulting_ does not stand in grammatical relation to any word in the sentence. But it would be right to say, _The dish was broken as a result of its fall_. Examine, also, the following examples: Wrong: I spent a week in Virginia, _followed_ by a week at Atlantic City. Right: I spent a week in Virginia, _following_ it by a week at Atlantic City. Right: I spent a week in Virginia, _and then_ a week at Atlantic City. 2. A participle should not stand at the beginning of a sentence or principal clause unless it belongs to the subject of that sentence or clause. Compare the following: Wrong: Having been sick, it was decided to remain at home. Right: Having been sick, I decided to remain at home. 3. A participle preceded by _thus_ should not be used unless it modifies the subject of the preceding verb. Compare the following: Wrong: He had to rewrite several pages, _thus causing_ him a great deal of trouble. Right: He had to rewrite several pages, _and was thus caused_ a great deal of trouble. Right: He had to rewrite several pages, _thus experiencing_ a great deal of trouble. 4. The gerund is often used as the object of a preposition, and frequently has a noun or pronoun modifier. Owing to confusion between the gerund and the participle, and to the failure to realize that the gerund can only be used substantively, the objective case of a modifying noun or pronoun is often wrongly used before the gerund. A substantive used with the gerund should always be in the possessive case. Say, _I heard OF JOHN'S COMING_, not, _I heard OF JOHN COMING_. 5. When a gerund and a preposition are used, the phrase should be in logical and immediate connection with the substantive it modifies, and the phrase should never introduce a sentence unless it logically belongs to the subject of that sentence. Exception: When the gerund phrase denotes a general action, it may be used without grammatical connection to the sentence; as, _In traveling, good drinking water is essential_. Compare the following wrong and right forms: Wrong: _After seeing his mistake_, a new start was made. Right: _After seeing his mistake_, he made a new start. Wrong: _By writing rapidly, the work_ can be finished. Right: _By writing rapidly, you_ can finish the work. Wrong: _In copying the exercise_, a mistake was made. Right: _In copying the exercise, I_ made a mistake. EXERCISE 52 _In the following sentences, choose the proper form of the substantive from those italicized:_ 1. He spoke of _John John's_ coming down. 2. The idea of _his him_ singing is absurd. 3. Do you remember _me my_ speaking about it? 4. What is the use of _you your_ reading that? 5. _He his him_ being arrested was a sufficient disgrace. 6. _He him his_ being now of age, sold the farm. 7. _He him his_ selling it was very unexpected. 8. You should have heard _him his_ telling the story. 9. You should have heard _his him_ telling of the story. 10. To think of _them they their_ having been seen there! 11. What is the object of _Mary Mary's_ studying French? 12. _It its_ being John was a great surprise. 13. What is the use of _them they their_ talking so much? 14. _John John's_ going to school takes all his evenings. 15. The beauty of _James James's_ writing got him the position. 16. He had heard about _me my_ coming to-day. 17. _John John's_ coming was a surprise. EXERCISE 53 _Wherever participles or gerunds are improperly used in the following sentences, correct the sentences so as to avoid such impropriety. See §107 for rule as to punctuation:_ 1. Having assented to your plan, you try to hold me responsible. 2. He asked him to make the plans, owing to the need of an experienced architect. 3. It was decided to send his son abroad being anxious for his health. 4. On hearing that, a new plan was made. 5. Moving slowly past our window, we saw a great load of lumber. 6. Intending to go to the theater, the whole afternoon was spent in town. 7. He was taken into the firm, thus gaining an increased income. 8. Not having the lesson prepared, he told John to stay after class. 9. No letter was written for more than a week, causing considerable anxiety. 10. Expecting us to come, we disappointed him. 11. After telling me the story, I left him. 12. By reading aloud to the class, they do not gain much. 13. He had to wait several hours for the train, thus causing him to lose a great deal of valuable time. 14. After listening to his lecture for an hour he became tiresome. 15. We listened attentively to his lecture, thus showing our interest. 72. INFINITIVES. The Infinitives are formed by the word _to_ and some part of the verb or of the verb and auxiliary. For _see_ and _play_ as model verbs, the infinitives are as follows: PRESENT ACTIVE PRESENT PASSIVE to see to be seen to play to be played PRESENT PERFECT ACTIVE PRESENT PERFECT PASSIVE to have seen to have been seen to have played to have been played The word _to_ is frequently omitted. In general, other verbs follow the same endings and forms as do the infinitives above. It is necessary to know the difference between the two tenses, since the misuse of tenses leads to a certain class of errors. 73. SEQUENCE OF INFINITIVE TENSES. The wrong tense of the infinitive is frequently used. The following rules should be observed: 1. If the action referred to by the infinitive is of the same time or of later time than that indicated by the predicate verb, the PRESENT INFINITIVE should be used. 2. When the action referred to by the infinitive is regarded as completed at the time indicated by the predicate verb, the PERFECT INFINITIVE should be used. Examine the following examples: Wrong: _I should have liked to have gone._ Right: _I should have liked to go_ (same or later time). Right: _I should like to have gone_ (earlier time). Wrong: _It was bad to have been discovered._ Right: _It is bad to have been discovered_ (earlier time). Right: _It was bad to be discovered_ (same or later time). Right: _She did not believe her son to have committed the crime_ (earlier time). Right: _When he died, he believed himself to have been defeated for the office_ (earlier time.) EXERCISE 54 _In the following sentences choose the proper form from those italicized:_ 1. I was sorry _to have heard to hear_ of John's death. 2. Should you have been willing _to go to have gone_ with us? 3. The game was intended _to be played to have been played_ yesterday. 4. I intended _to write to have written_ long ago. 5. He wished _to have met to meet_ you. 6. I should have liked _to meet to have met_ you. 7. Mary was eager _to have gone to go_. 8. Nero was seen _to have fiddled to fiddle_ while Rome burned. 9. Nero is said _to have fiddled to fiddle_ while Rome burned. 10. This was _to be done to have been done_ yesterday. 11. They agreed _to finish to have finished_ it yesterday. 12. He was willing _to sing to have sung_ alone. 13. He expected _to have spoken to speak_ here to-morrow. 14. The Civil War is said _to cause to have caused_ more loss of life than any other war. 15. Blackstone is said _to have failed to fail_ at the practice of law. 16. It would have been hard _to accomplish to have accomplished_ that result. 17. He was foolish enough _to have spoiled to spoil_ six negatives. 18. I wanted _to have attended to attend_ the convention. 19. It would be terrible _to be lost to have been lost_ in the forest. 20. We were asked _to have waited to wait_. 21. I am eager _to have seen to see it_. 22. I am pleased _to meet to have met_ you. 74. SPLIT INFINITIVES. In the sentence, care should be taken to avoid as much as possible the inserting of an adverb or an adverbial modifier between the parts of the infinitive. This error is called the "split infinitive." Compare the following: Bad: He seemed _to easily learn_. Good: He seemed _to learn easily_. Bad: He is said _to have rapidly run_ along the street. Good: He is said _to have run rapidly_ along the street. EXERCISE 55 _Correct the following split infinitives:_ 1. She is known to have hurriedly read the note. 2. Mary tried to quickly call help. 3. He was asked to slowly read the next paragraph. 4. John attempted to rudely break into the conversation. 5. The plan was to secretly destroy the documents. 6. His policy was to never offend. 7. He wished to in this way gain friends. 8. He proposed to greatly decrease his son's allowance. 75. AGREEMENT OF VERB IN CLAUSES. In a compound predicate, the parts of the predicate should agree in tense; PAST TENSE SHOULD FOLLOW PAST TENSE, AND PERFECT TENSE FOLLOW PERFECT TENSE. Examine the following: Wrong: He _has tried_ to do, and really _did_ everything possible to stop his son. Right: He _has tried_ to do, and really _has done_ everything possible to stop his son. Right: He _tried_ to do, and really _did_ everything possible to stop his son. Wrong: I _hoped_ and _have worked_ to gain this recognition. Right: I _hoped_ and _worked_ to gain this recognition. Right: I _have hoped_ and _have worked_ to gain this recognition. EXERCISE 56 _Correct the following sentences:_ 1. I went last week and have gone again this week. 2. I have heard of his being here, but not saw him. 3. I saw John, but I have not seen Henry. 4. He desired to see John, but has not wished to see Henry. 5. John was sent for, but has not yet arrived. 6. I endeavored to find a way of avoiding that, but have not succeeded. 7. I have never seen its superior, and, in fact, never saw its equal. 8. She has succeeded in getting his promise, but did not succeed in getting his money. 9. I hoped and have prayed for your coming. 10. I have believed and usually taught that theory. 11. I intended to and have endeavored to finish the work. 12. No one has wished to see so much and saw so little of the world as I. 13. He has gained the favor of the king and was sent to Italy. 14. We have needed you and did our best to find you. 76. OMISSION OF THE VERB OR PARTS OF THE VERB. The verb or some of its parts are often omitted. This omission sometimes makes the sentence ungrammatical or doubtful in its meaning. _I like him better than John_. This sentence may have the meaning shown in either of its following corrected forms: _I like him better than John DOES_, or _I like him better than I LIKE John_. As a matter of good usage, the verb or any other part of speech should be repeated wherever its omission either makes the sentence ambiguous or gives it an incomplete sound. Bad: _He was told to go where he ought not_. Good: _He was told to go where he ought not to go_. Good: _He was told to go where he should not go_. EXERCISE 57 _Correct the following sentences:_ 1. I admire Mary more than John. 2. I think she is older than John. 3. He should have succeeded in gaining the end he tried. 4. I asked him to do what I should not have. 5. I did what I ought not. 6. We wish him better luck than Mary. 7. We want to see him more than Henry. 8. I should hate him worse than you. 9. He wanted me to do what I didn't care to. 10. You may, as you please, do it or not. 11. She may go if she wishes or not. 12. We think of you oftener than mother. 77. MODEL CONJUGATIONS OF THE VERBS TO BE AND TO SEE. CONJUGATION OF TO BE PRINCIPAL PARTS: AM, WAS, BEEN INDICATIVE MODE PRESENT TENSE _Person Singular Number Plural Number_ 1. I _am_ We _are_ 2. [*]Thou _art_ (you _are_) You _are_ 3. He _is_ They _are_ [Footnote *: The forms, _thou art, thou wast, thou hast_, etc., are the proper forms in the second person singular, but customarily the forms of the second person plural, _you are, you were, you have_, etc., are used also in the second person singular. These distinct second person singular forms will be used throughout the model conjugations.] PAST TENSE 1. I _was_ We _were_ 2. Thou _wast_ or _wert_ You _were_ 3. He _was_ They _were_ PRESENT PERFECT TENSE (_Have_ with the past participle, _been_.) 1. I _have been_ We _have been_ 2. Thou _hast been_ You _have been_ 3. He _has been_ They _have been_ PAST PERFECT TENSE (_Had_ with the past participle, _been_.) 1. I _had been_ We _had been_ 2. Thou _hadst been_ You _had been_ 3. He _had been_ They _had been_ FUTURE TENSE (_Shall_ or _will_ with the present infinitive, _be_.[*]) _Person Singular Number Plural Number_ 1. I _shall be_ We _shall be_ 2. Thou _shalt be_ You _shall be_ 3. He _shall be_ They _shall be_ [Footnote *: To determine when to use _shall_ and when to use _will_ in the future and future perfect tenses, see §§ 65, 66, and 67. In these model conjugations the forms of _shall_ are given with the future and the forms of _will_ with the future perfect.] FUTURE PERFECT TENSE (_Shall_ or _will_ with the perfect infinitive, _have been_.[*]) 1. I _will have been_ We _will have been_ 2. Thou _wilt have been_ You _will have been_ 3. He _will have been_ They _will have been_ [Footnote *: See Note under Future Tense.] SUBJUNCTIVE MODE (Generally follows _if, though, lest, although_, etc. See §59.) PRESENT TENSE 1. (If) I _be_ (If) we _be_ 2. (If) thou _be_ (If) you _be_ 3. (If) he _be_ (If) they _be_ PAST TENSE 1. (If) I _were_ (If) we _were_ 2. (If) thou _were_ (If) you _were_ 3. (If) he _were_ (If) they _were_ PRESENT PERFECT TENSE (_Have_, unchanged, with the past participle, _been_.) 1. (If) I _have been_ (If) we _have been_ 2. (If) thou _have been_ (If) you _have been_ 3. (If) he _have been_ (If) they _have been_ PAST PERFECT TENSE (_Had_, unchanged, with the past participle, _been_.) _Person Singular Number Plural Number_ 1. (If) I _had been_ (If) we _had been_ 2. (If) thou _had been_ (If) you _had been_ 3. (If) he _had been_ (If) they _had been_ FUTURE TENSE (_Shall_ or _will_, unchanged, with present infinitive _be_.[*]) [Footnote *: See Note to Future Indicative.] 1. (If) I _shall be_ (If) we _shall be_ 2. (If) thou _shall be_ (If) you _shall be_ 3. (If) he _shall be_ (If) they _shall be_ FUTURE PERFECT TENSE (_Shall_ or _will_, unchanged, with the perfect infinitive, _have been_.*) 1. (If) I _shall have been_ (If) we _shall have been_ 2. (If) thou _shall have been_ (If) you _shall have been_ 3. (If) he _shall have been_ (If) they _shall have been_ POTENTIAL MODE[*] [Footnote *: The distinct potential mode is no longer used by many authorities on grammar, and the potential forms are regarded as of the indicative mode. It has, however, been thought best to use it in these model conjugations. As to when to use the different auxiliaries of the potential mode see §§ 68 and 69. The conjugation with _must_ (or _ought to_) is sometimes called the OBLIGATIVE MODE. The conjugation with _should_ or _would_ is sometimes called the CONDITIONAL MODE.] PRESENT TENSE (_May, can_, or _must_, with the present infinitive, _be_.) 1. I _may, can_, or _must be_ We _may, can_, or _must be_ 2. Thou _mayst, canst_, or _must be_ You _may, can_, or _must be_ 3. He _may, can_, or _must be_ They _may, can_, or _must be_ PAST TENSE (_Might, could, would_, or _should_, with the present infinitive, _be_.) _Person Singular Number Plural Number_ 1. I _might, could, would_, or We _might, could, would_, or _should be_ _should be_ 2. Thou _mightst, couldst,_ You _might, could, would,_ or _wouldst,_ or _shouldst be_ _should be_ 3. He _might, could, would,_ They _might, could, would,_ or or _should be_ _should be_ PRESENT PERFECT TENSE (_May, can_, or _must_, with the perfect infinitive, _have been_. For forms substitute _have been_ for _be_ in the present potential.) PAST PERFECT TENSE (_Might, could, would_, or _should_, with the perfect infinitive _have been_. For forms substitute _have been_ for _be_ in the past potential.) IMPERATIVE MODE[*] [Footnote *: The imperative is the same in both singular and plural.] _Be_ INFINITIVE MODE PRESENT TENSE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE _To be To have been_ PARTICIPLES PRESENT TENSE PERFECT TENSE _Being Having been_ GERUNDS (Same as participles) CONJUGATION OF TO SEE PRINCIPAL PARTS: SEE, SAW, SEEN INDICATIVE MODE PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE _Simple_ _Person Singular Number Plural Number_ 1. I _see_ We _see_ 2. Thou _seest_ You _see_ 3. He _sees_ They _see_ _Emphatic_ 1. I _do see_ We _do see_ 2. Thou _dost see_ You _do see_ 3. He _does see_ They _do see_ _Progressive_ 1. I _am seeing_ We _are seeing_ 2. Thou _art seeing_ You _are seeing_ 3. He _is seeing_ They _are seeing_ PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE _Simple_ 1. I _am seen_ We _are seen_ 2. Thou _art seen_ You _are seen_ 3. He _is seen_ They _are seen_ _Progressive_ 1. I _am being seen_ We _are being seen_ 2. Thou _art being seen_ You _are being seen_ 3. He _is being seen_ They _are being seen_ PAST TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE _Simple_ 1. I _saw_ We _saw_ 2. Thou _sawest_ You _saw_ 3. He _saw_ They _saw_ _Emphatic_ _Person Singular Number Plural Number_ 1. I _did see_ We _did see_ 2. Thou _didst see_ You _did see_ 3. He _did see_ They _did see_ _Progressive_ 1. I _was seeing_ We _were seeing_ 2. Thou _wast_ or _wert seeing_ You _were seeing_ 3. He _was seeing_ They _were seeing_ PAST TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE _Simple_ 1. I _was seen_ We _were seen_ 2. Thou _wast_ or _wert seen_ You _were seen_ 3. He _was seen_ They _were seen_ _Progressive_ 1. I _was being seen_ We _were being seen_ 2. Thou _wert_ or _wast being seen_ You _were being seen_ 3. He _was being seen_ They _were being seen_ PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE _Simple_ (Substitute _seen_ for _been_ in the present perfect indicative of _to be_.) _Progressive_ (Substitute _been seeing_ for _been_ in the present perfect indicative of _to be_.) PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE (Substitute _been seen_ for _been_ in the present perfect indicative of _to be_.) PAST PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE _Simple_ (Substitute _seen_ for _been_ in the past perfect indicative of _to be_.) _Progressive_ (Substitute _been seeing_ for _been_ in the past perfect indicative of _to be_.) PAST PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE (Substitute _been seen_ for _been_ in the past perfect indicative of _to be_.) FUTURE TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE _Simple_ (Substitute _see_ for _be_ in the future indicative of _to be_.) _Progressive_ (Substitute _be seeing_ for _be_ in the future indicative of _to be_.) FUTURE TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE (Substitute _be seen_ for _be_ in the future indicative of _to be_.) FUTURE PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE _Simple_ (Substitute _have seen_ for _have been_ in the future perfect indicative of _to be_.) _Progressive_ (Substitute _have been seeing_ for _have been_ in the future perfect indicative of _to be_.) FUTURE PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE (Substitute _have been seen_ for _have been_ in the future perfect indicative of _to be_.) SUBJUNCTIVE MODE PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE _Simple_ _Person Singular Number Plural Number_ 1. (If) I _see_ (If) we _see_ 2. (If) thou _see_ (If) you _see_ 3. (If) he _see_ (If) they _see_ _Emphatic_ _Person Singular Number Plural Number_ 1. (If) I _do see_ (If) we _do see_ 2. (If) thou _do see_ (If) you _do see_ 3. (If) he _do see_ (If) they _do see_ _Progressive_ 1. (If) I _be seeing_ (If) we _be seeing_ 2. (If) thou _be seeing_ (If) you _be seeing_ 3. (If) he _be seeing_ (If) they _be seeing_ PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE 1. (If) I _be seen_ (If) we _be seen_ 2. (If) thou _be seen_ (If) you _be seen_ 3. (If) he _be seen_ (If) they _be seen_ PAST TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE _Simple_ 1. (If) I _saw_ (If) we _saw_ 2. (If) thou _saw_ (If) you _saw_ 3. (If) he _saw_ (If) they _saw_ _Emphatic_ 1. (If) I _did see_ (If) we _did see_ 2. (If) thou _did see_ (If) you _did see_ 3. (If) he _did see_ (If) they _did see_ _Progressive_ 1. (If) I _were seeing_ (If) we _were seeing_ 2. (If) thou _were seeing_ (If) you _were seeing_ 3. (If) he _were seeing_ (If) they _were seeing_ PAST TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE 1. (If) I _were seen_ (If) we _were seen_ 2. (If) thou _were seen_ (If) you _were seen_ 3. (If) he _were seen_ (If) they _were seen_ PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE _Simple_ (Substitute _seen_ for _been_ in the present perfect subjunctive of _to be_.) _Progressive_ (Substitute _been seeing_ for _been_ in the present perfect subjunctive of _to be_.) PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE (Substitute _been seen_ for _been_ in the present perfect subjunctive of _to be_.) PAST PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE _Simple_ (Substitute _seen_ for _been_ in the past perfect subjunctive of _to be_.) _Progressive_ (Substitute _been seeing_ for _been_ in the past perfect subjunctive of _to be_.) PAST PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE (Substitute _been seen_ for _been_ in the past perfect subjunctive of _to be_.) FUTURE TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE _Simple_ (Substitute _see_ for _be_ in the future subjunctive of _to be_.) _Progressive_ (Substitute _be seeing_ for _be_ in the future subjunctive of _to be_.) FUTURE TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE (Substitute _be seen_ for _be_ in the future subjunctive of _to be_.) FUTURE PERFECT--ACTIVE VOICE _Simple_ (Substitute _seen_ for _been_ in the future perfect subjunctive of _to be_.) _Progressive_ (Substitute _been seeing_ for _been_ in the future perfect subjunctive of _to be_.) FUTURE PERFECT--PASSIVE VOICE (Substitute _been seen_ for the future perfect subjunctive of _to be_.) POTENTIAL MODE PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE _Simple_ (Substitute _see_ for _be_ in the present potential of _to be_.) _Progressive_ (Substitute _be seeing_ for _be_ in the present potential of _to be_.) PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE _Simple_ (Substitute _be seen_ for _be_ in the present potential of _to be_.) PAST TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE _Simple_ (Substitute _see_ for _be_ in the past potential of _to be_.) _Progressive_ (Substitute _be seeing_ for _be_ in the past potential of _to be_.) PAST TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE (Substitute _be seen_ for _be_ in the past potential of _to be_.) PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE _Simple_ (Substitute _have seen_ for _be_ in the present potential of _to be_.) _Progressive_ (Substitute _have been seeing_ for _be_ in the present potential of _to be_.) PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE (Substitute _have been seen_ for _be_ in the present potential of _to be_.) PAST PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE _Simple_ (Substitute _have seen_ for _be_ in the past potential of _to be_.) _Progressive_ (Substitute _have been seeing_ for _be_ in the past potential of _to be_.) PAST PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE (Substitute _have been seen_ for _be_ in the past potential of _to be_.) IMPERATIVE MODE ACTIVE VOICE _Simple_ _see_. _Emphatic_ _do see_. _Progressive_ _be seeing_. PASSIVE VOICE _be seen_ INFINITIVE MODE PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE _Simple_ _to see._ _Progressive_ _to be seeing._ PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE _Simple_ _to be seen_ PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE _Simple_ _to have seen._ _Progressive_ _to have been seeing._ PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE _Simple_ _to have been seen._ PARTICIPLES PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE _seeing_ PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE _being seen_ PAST TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE[*] _seen_ [Footnote *: There is no past participle in the active voice.] PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE _Simple_ _having seen_ _Progressive_ _having been seeing_ PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE _having been seen_ GERUNDS PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE _seeing_ PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE _being seen_ PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE _having seen_ PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE _having been seen_ CHAPTER VI CONNECTIVES: RELATIVE PRONOUNS, RELATIVE ADVERBS, CONJUNCTIONS, AND PREPOSITIONS 78. INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT CLAUSES. A sentence may consist of two or more independent clauses, or it may consist of one principal clause and one or more dependent clauses. INDEPENDENT CLAUSES are joined by conjunctions; such as, _hence, but, and, although_, etc. DEPENDENT CLAUSES are joined to the sentence by relative adverbs; such as, _where, when_, etc., or by relative pronouns; as, _who, what_, etc. These dependent clauses may have the same office in the sentence as nouns, pronouns, adjectives, or adverbs. (See §7.) 79. CASE AND NUMBER OF RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. Failure to use the proper case and number of the relative pronouns has already been touched upon (see §29), but a further mention of this fault may well be made here. The relative pronoun has other offices in the sentence than that of connecting the dependent and principal clauses. It may serve as a subject or an object in the clause. The sentence, _I wonder WHOM will be chosen_, is wrong, because the relative here is the subject of _will be chosen_, not the object of _wonder_, and should have the nominative form _who_. Corrected, it reads, _I wonder WHO will be chosen_. Examine the following sentences: Wrong: We know _who_ we mean. Right: We know _whom_ we mean. Wrong: You may give it to _whoever_ you wish. Right: You may give it to _whomever_ you wish. Wrong: Do you know _whom_ it is? Right: Do you know _who_ it is? (Attribute complement.) Wrong: Everybody _who were_ there were disappointed. (Disagreement in number.) Right: Everybody _who was_ there was disappointed. The relative pronoun takes the case required by the clause it introduces, not the case required by any word preceding it. Thus, the sentence, _He gave it to WHO had the clearest right_, is correct, because _who_ is the subject of the verb _had_, and therefore in the nominative case. _Give it to WHOMEVER they name_, is right, because _whomever_ is the object of _they name_. Errors in the use of interrogative pronouns are made in the same way as in the use of the relatives. The interrogative pronoun has other functions besides making an interrogation. It serves also as the subject or object in the sentence. Care must be taken, then, to use the proper case. Say, _Whom are you looking for?_ not, _Who are you looking for?_ NOTE. Some writers justify the use of _who_ in sentences like the last one on the ground that it is an idiom. When, as in this book, the object is training in grammar, it is deemed better to adhere to the strictly grammatical form. EXERCISE 58 _In the following sentences, choose the proper forms from those italicized:_ 1. _Who whom_ do you wish to see? 2. You will please write out the name of _whoever whomever_ you want. 3. I saw _who whom_ was there. 4. _Who whom_ was it you saw? 5. _Who whom_ did you see? 6. John did not know _whom who_ to ask. 7. Why did he not ask _whomever whoever_ was there? 8. _Who whom_ can tell the difference? 9. Give it to _whoever whomever_ you please. 10. None of those who _were was_ wanted _was were_ there. 11. The one of those who _were was_ wanted was not there. 12. He is one of those fellows who _are is_ always joking. 13. _Whom who_ was called "The Rail Splitter?" 14. Do you not know _whom who_ it was? 15. That is one of the birds that _is are_ very rare. 16. One of the books which _was were_ brought was one hundred years old. 17. I am not among those _who whom were was_ there. 18. Only one of the men who _were was_ on board survived. 19. Everyone else who _was were_ there _was were_ lost. 20. I am the one of the three men who _is am are_ guilty. 21. He was chosen one of the four speakers who _was were_ to speak on Commencement Day. 22. It was one of the books which _were was_ being sought by the librarian. 23. Give it to one of the men _who whom_ is found there. 24. To _who whom_ did you give it? 25. It was for _whomever whoever_ was present. 26. Ask _whomever whoever_ is nearest the door. 80. CONJUNCTIVE OR RELATIVE ADVERBS. It is better to use a _WHEN_ CLAUSE only in the subordinate part of the sentence, to state the time of an event. Compare the following: Bad: He was turning the corner, when suddenly he saw a car approaching. Good: When he was turning the corner, he suddenly saw a car approaching. Bad: When the news of the fire came, it was still in the early morning. Good: The news of the fire came when it was still in the early morning. 81. Do not use a _WHEN_ or a _WHERE_ CLAUSE in defining a subject or in place of a predicate noun. Bad: Commencement is when one formally completes his school course. Good: Commencement is the formal completion of one's school course. Bad: Astronomy is where one studies about the stars. Good: Astronomy is the study of the stars. 82. _So, then_, and _also_, the conjunctive adverbs, should not be used to unite coördinate verbs in a sentence unless _and_ or _but_ be used in addition to the adverb. Bad: The boys' grades are low, _so_ they indicate lack of application. Good: The boys' grades are low, _and so_ indicate lack of application. Bad: He read for a while, _then_ fell asleep. Good: He read for a while, _and then_ fell asleep. Bad: I'll be down next week; _also_ I shall bring Jack along. Good: I'll be down next week; _and also_ I shall bring Jack along. EXERCISE 59 _Correct the following sentences:_ 1. Anarchism is when one believes in no government. 2. I am studying German, also French. 3. The clock had just struck five when the cab came. 4. I shall work until nine o'clock, then I shall retire. 5. I was sick all day, so I couldn't come to the office. 6. I was going up street yesterday when unexpectedly I met Jones. 7. Death is when one ceases to live. 8. Dinner is ready, so I shall have to cease work. 9. He told half of the story, then he suddenly stopped. 10. He loves good music, also good pictures. 11. A restaurant is where meals are served. 83. CONJUNCTIONS. There are certain conjunctions, and also certain pairs of conjunctions that frequently cause trouble. AND or BUT should not be used to join a dependent clause to an independent clause; as, _It was a new valise AND differing much from his old one_. Say instead, _It was a new valise, differing much from his old one_, or _It was a new valise, and differed very much from his old one_. Similarly, _It was a new book WHICH_ (not _and which_) _interested him very much_. This "and which" construction is a frequent error; _and which_ should never be used unless there is more than one relative clause, and then never with the first one. BUT or FOR should not be used to introduce both of two succeeding statements. Both of the following sentences are bad by reason of this error: _He likes geometry, BUT fails in algebra, BUT studies it hard, He read all night, FOR the book interested him, FOR it was along the line of his ambition_. THAN and AS should not be followed by objective pronouns in sentences like this: _I am as large AS HIM_. The verb in these sentences is omitted. If it is supplied, the error will be apparent. The sentence would then read, _I am as large as HIM (is large)_. The correct form is, _I am as large as he (is large)_. Similarly, _He is taller than I (am tall), She is brighter than HE (is bright)_. AS may be used as either a conjunction or an adverb. _He is AS tall AS I_. The first _as_ is an adverb, the second _as_ is a conjunction. _As_ is properly used as an adverb when the equality is asserted, but, when the equality is denied, _so_ should be used in its place. _He is AS old AS I_, is correct, but the denial should be, _He is NOT SO old AS I_. After _not_ do not use _as_ when _as_ is an adverb. NEITHER, when used as a conjunction, should be followed by NOR; as, _Neither he NOR (not or) I can come. Neither_ should never be followed by _or_. EITHER, when used as a conjunction, should be followed by OR. 84. PLACING OF CORRELATIVES. The correlatives, such as _neither--nor, either--or, not only--but also_, should be placed in clear relation to similar parts of speech or similar parts of the sentence. One should not be directed toward a verb and the other toward some other part of speech. Bad: He _not only_ brought a book, _but also_ a pencil. Good: He brought _not only_ a book _but also_ a pencil. Bad: He would offer _neither_ reparation _nor_ would he apologize. Good: _Neither_ would he offer reparation _nor_ would he apologize. Good: He would offer _neither_ reparation _nor_ apology. 85. The prepositions _without, except, like_, and the adverb _directly_ should not be used as conjunctions. Wrong: _Without_ (_unless_) you attend to class-room work, you cannot pass. Wrong: This she would not do _except_ (_unless_) we promised to pay at once. Wrong: I acted just _like_ (_as_) all the others (did). Wrong: _Directly_ (_as soon as_) he came, we harnessed the horses. EXERCISE 60 _Correct the following sentences:_ 1. Mary is as old as her. 2. I read as much as him. 3. He either wore his coat or a sort of vest. 4. He walked to the next town, but did not come back, but stayed all night. 5. We are better players than them. 6. He became thoroughly under the influence of the hypnotist and doing many absurd things. 7. There we met a man named Harmon and whom we found very entertaining. 8. They work harder than us. 9. John is not as tall as you. 10. Neither John or James is as tall as you. 11. I admire Mary more than she. 12. That can't be done without you get permission from the principal. 13. He dresses just like I do. 14. Directly he came we launched the canoes. 15. This cannot be done except you are a senior. 16. Neither she nor I was present. 17. He not only had a trained pig but also a goose. 18. Mary is not as pretty as Helen. 19. The men neither interested him nor the places. 20. He has traveled more than me. 21. We like him very much, for he is very interesting, for he has traveled so much. 22. It is a good book and which has much valuable information. 23. It was a rough town and harboring many criminals. 24. He took an interest neither in studies, nor did he care for athletics. 25. He neither took an interest in studies nor athletics. EXERCISE 61 _Construct sentences in which the following words are correctly used:_ When, where, than, as--as, so--as, neither--nor, not only--but also, either--or, except, like, without, directly. 86. PREPOSITIONS. Some mistakes are made in the use of prepositions. Note the following brief list of words with the appropriate prepositions to be used with each: agree _with_ a person differ _from_ (person or thing) agree _to_ a proposition differ _from_ or _with_ an opinion bestow _upon_ different _from_ compare _with_ (to determine value) glad _of_ compare _to_ (because of similarity) need _of_ comply _with_ part _from_ (a person) confide _in_ (to trust in) part _with_ (a thing) confide _to_ (to intrust to) profit _by_ confer _on_ (to give) prohibit _from_ confer _with_ (to talk with) reconcile _to_ (a person) convenient _to_ (a place) reconcile _with_ (a statement) convenient _for_ (a purpose) scared _by_ dependent _on_ think _of_ or _about_ Do not use prepositions where they are unnecessary. Note the following improper expressions in which the preposition should be omitted: continue _on_ _down_ until covered _over_ inside _of_ off _of_ outside _of_ started _out_ where _to_? wish _for_ to come remember _of_ more than you think _for_ Do not omit any preposition that is necessary to the completeness of the sentence. Bad: He is a dealer and shipper _of_ coal. Good: He is a dealer _in_ and shipper _of_ coal. EXERCISE 62 _Illustrate in sentences the correct use of each of the expressions listed under the first paragraph of_ §86. _Form sentences in which correct expressions are used in place of each of the incorrect expressions listed under the second paragraph of_ §86. QUESTIONS FOR THE REVIEW OF GRAMMAR SENTENCES, PARTS OF SPEECH, AND SENTENCE ELEMENTS. What are the four kinds of sentences? What are the different parts of speech? Define each. What is the difference between a clause and a phrase? What is the difference between a principal clause and a subordinate clause? Illustrate. Illustrate an adverbial clause. An adjective clause. Illustrate an adverbial phrase. An adjective phrase. What is an attribute complement? Illustrate. What is an object complement? Illustrate. Illustrate and explain the difference between simple, complex, and compound sentences. NOUNS. What is the difference between singular and plural number? How is the plural of most nouns formed? Of nouns ending in _s, ch, sh, x_, or _z_? In _y_? In _f_ or _fe_? In _o_? Of letters, figures, etc.? Of compound nouns? Of proper names and titles? How is the possessive case of most nouns formed? Of nouns ending in _s_ or in an _s_ sound? Of a compound noun or of a group of words? What is gender? How is the feminine gender formed from the masculine? What is the difference between common and proper nouns? PRONOUNS. What is a pronoun? What is the antecedent of a pronoun? What is the rule for their agreement? What is meant by "person" in pronouns? Name five pronouns of each person. Name the pronouns that indicate masculine gender. Feminine. Neuter. What pronouns may be used to refer to antecedents that stand for persons of either sex? To antecedents that are collective nouns of unity? To animals? What are nouns of common gender? By what pronouns are they referred to? Should a singular or a plural pronoun be used after _everybody_? After _some one_? After _some people_? After two nouns connected by _or_? By _nor_? By _and_? What are relative pronouns? Name them. With what kind of antecedents may each be used? What is the difference between the explanatory relative and the restrictive relative? Illustrate. What is an interrogative pronoun? What pronouns may be used only in the nominative case? In the objective case? When should the nominative case be used? The objective? The possessive? May _thou_ and _you_ be used in the same sentence? When should _but that_ be used, and when _but what_? May _them_ be used adjectively? May _which_ be used with a clause as an antecedent? May _which_ and _that_, or _who_ and _that_ be used in the same sentence with the same antecedent? ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. Distinguish between adjectives and adverbs. Illustrate. What is comparison? What is the positive degree, the comparative, the superlative? Illustrate each. May one say, _He is the largest of the two?_ Reason? _He is the larger of the three?_ Reason? _He is the largest of all?_ Reason? Name three adjectives which cannot be compared. May one say, _Paris is larger than any city?_ Reason? _Paris is larger than all cities?_ Reason? _Paris is the largest of any other city?_ Reason? Is a singular or plural noun demanded by _every_? By _two_? By _various_? By _each_? With how many objects may _either_ be used? _Neither_? Where should the adjective or adverb be placed in the sentence? What is meant by a double negative? Illustrate. What is its effect? What is the definite article? VERBS. What is a verb? What is a principal verb? An auxiliary? Illustrate. What are the principal parts of a verb? Name each. With what is the s-form used? With which form can no auxiliary be used? Make a sentence using each of the principal parts of the verbs, _go, see, begin, come, drink, write_. What is a transitive verb? Illustrate. An intransitive verb? Illustrate. What is the difference between active and passive voice? Does a transitive or does an intransitive verb have both voices? Illustrate the passive voice. Distinguish between the use of _sit_ and _set_. Of _lay_ and _lie_. Of _rise_ and _raise_. What is the general rule for the use of the subjunctive mode? In what way and where does the subjunctive of _be_ differ from the indicative in its forms? How do other verbs differ in the form of the subjunctive? In what respects should a verb agree with its subject? Does the form of the subject always determine its number? What should be the guide in determining whether to use a singular or plural verb? What class of subjects may not be used with _don't, can't_, etc.? What determines whether to use a singular or a plural verb after _who_, _which_, and _that_? What form of the verb is used after _you_? After _they_? When are _shall_ and _should_ used with _I_ and _we_? When with other subjects? What rule governs their use in questions. What form is used in dependent clauses introduced by _that_, expressed or understood? In contingent clauses? Distinguish the use of _may_ and _might_ from _can_ and _could_. What is a "dangling participle"? Is it an error? May the gerund be correctly used without any grammatical connection to the rest of the sentence? As the object of a preposition is a participle or gerund used? Which is used adjectively? Which may be used in connection with a possessive substantive as a modifier? When it is dependent on another verb, in what case should the present infinitive be used? When the perfect infinitive? What is a "split infinitive"? Need the parts of a compound predicate agree in tense? CONNECTIVES. By what are independent clauses connected? Dependent clauses? Name two conjunctive adverbs. Should a _when_ clause be used in a subordinate or in the principal part of the sentence? May _so, then_, or _also_ be used alone as conjunctive adverbs? May _and_ or _but_ be used to join a dependent clause to a principal clause? What case should follow _than_ or _as_? Should _neither_ be followed by _nor_ or _or_? A GENERAL EXERCISE ON GRAMMAR EXERCISE 63 _Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong. After each sentence, in parenthesis, is placed the number of the paragraph in which is discussed the question involved:_ 1. He likes to boast of Mary cooking. (71.) 2. It is an error and which can't be corrected. (83.) 3. He said he should come if he could. (68.) 4. Can I use your pencil? (69.) 5. If you were I, what would you do? (68.) 6. We would like to go. (68.) 7. Neither the members of the committee nor the chairman is present. (63-5.) 8. He only spoke of history, not of art. (45.) 9. Socialists don't have no use for trusts. (46.) 10. This is John's book. (13.) 11. I feared that they should not come. (68.) 12. Mother's and father's death. (15-4.) 13. Mary was eager to have gone. (73.) 14. The boys, as well as their teacher, is to be praised. (64-1.) 15. The members of Congress watch each other. (44.) 16. I fear that I will take cold. (67.) 17. Some one has forgotten their umbrella. (20.) 18. Neither of the three is well. (43.) 19. Whom do you consider to be the brighter man in the class? (29) (41.) 20. He is determined that he shall go away. (67.) 21. Neither John nor James brought their books. (22.) 22. Whom did the man say he was? (29.) 23. His clothes look prettily. (38.) 24. The play progressed smooth until the last act. (38.) 25. Henry and William is to come to-morrow. (22.) 26. This is the lesser of the two evils. (40.) 27. Do you think you will stop at Chicago? (66.) 28. I am believed to be him. (29.) 29. He sings very illy. (40.) 30. When they come to build the bridge the stream was too deep for them to work. (54.) 31. She is very discontented. (48.) 32. Iron is the most useful of all other metals. (41-3.) 33. The barrel bursted from the pressure. (54.) 34. Shall my work soon begin? (66.) 35. He is six foot tall. (42.) 36. Seeing his mistake, I was not urged further by him. (71.) 37. Will the dog bite? (66.) 38. I am believed to be he. (29.) 39. I am eager to have seen it. (73.) 40. I think it shall rain soon. (67.) 41. She showed the dish to Mary and I. (29.) 42. Mary asked her mother to wash her face. (34-4.) 43. Who did the man say he was? (29.) 44. He deserved the place, for he is well educated, for he has been through Oxford University. (83.) 45. Choose who you please. (29.) 46. It don't make any difference about that. (64-5.) 47. The pump was froze fast. (54.) 48. A boat load of fishes was the days catch. (13-12.) 49. Wagner was never too rattled to play. (48.) 50. It is him. (29.) 51. He did it hisself. (31.) 52. He eat all there was on the table. (54.) 53. He sent a chest of tea, and it was made of tin. (34-4.) 54. The murderer was hung at noon. (54.) 55. It is a queer kind of a book. (47.) 56. You may give it to whoever you wish. (32.) 57. Whoever is nominated, will you vote for him? (32.) 58. I think I will find the work easy. (67.) 59. He sent his son abroad, being anxious for his health. (71.) 60. Neither they nor Mary was there. (22.) 61. Brewer's the blacksmith's shop. (15-6.) 62. Goliath was slew by David. (54.) 63. Myself and mother are sick. (30.) 64. John is as good, if not better than she. (41-4.) 65. If anybody creates a disturbance, have the police put them out. (21.) 66. The paper was addressed to John and herself. (30.) 67. John's and William's dog. (15-4.) 68. Tell the boy and girl to come here. (47.) 69. Everybody's else mail has came. (15, 54.) 70. He knows nothing about it but that he has read in the paper. (34-6.) 71. Awake me early in the morning. (57.) 72. If he be honest, he has not shown it. (60.) 73. Either Adams or Monroe were president. (63-4.) 74. Washington, the general and the president, was born on February 22d. (47.) 75. Horne's and Company's Store. (15-4.) 76. A hole had been tore in the ships' side. (54.) 77. I sat my chair by the window. (57.) 78. I sat myself down to rest. (57.) 79. I can't hardly see to write. (46.) 80. John is one of the people who comes each night. (64-4.) 81. He laid on the couch all day. (57.) 82. Death is when one ceases to live. (81.) 83. I was told to set here. (57.) 84. Iron is more useful than any other metal. (41-3.) 85. I not only told him, but also Morton. (84.) 86. McKinley was nowhere near so strenuous as Roosevelt. (40.) 87. It weighs several ton. (42.) 88. John is not as bright as Henry. (83.) 89. Germany and France's ships. (15-4.) 90. John's employer's wife's friend. (15-5.) 91. You had ought to go home. (54.) 92. This is the man who wants the ticket. (26.) 93. Which is the larger of the three? (41-1.) 94. An axe is the tool which they use. (26.) 95. It is that characteristic that makes him so disagreeable. (26.) 96. The horse which we drove, and the horse which you had last week are the same. (26, 34-5.) 97. I don't like those kind of people. (42.) 98. I do not question but what he is right. (34-6.) 99. Let him lay there. (57.) 100. My friend and me drove to Hughesville. (29.) 101. American and English grammar is alike. (63-1.) 102. William and Mary has to go to the city. (63-2.) 103. The boy, and not his parents, were wrong. (63-3.) 104. The price of meat has raised. (57.) 105. This train runs slow. (38.) 106. Which is the best of the two? (41-1.) 107. Iron is the most useful of all other metals. (41-3.) 108. Without the safety catch is raised, the gun can't be discharged. (85.) 109. The family is all at home. (62.) 110. The horse run the mile in two minutes. (54.) 111. This suit hasn't hardly been wore. (46, 54.) 112. The knife has laid there all day. (57.) 113. The noise of the street was very loud, which kept me awake. (34-9.) 114. The jury has agreed. (62.) 115. Such things make him terrible nervous. (38.) 116. Whom do you think is the brightest man? (29.) 117. The army were defeated. (62.) 118. If I was you, I should go at once. (60.) 119. She may go if she wishes or not. (76.) 120. Everybody whom was there was given a vote. (79.) 121. I like her better than you. (76.) 122. Who do you want? (79.) 123. Knox is one of the alumnuses of the college. (13-13.) 124. By law, no one is allowed to kill more than two deers. (13.) 125. The clock had just struck five when the cab came. (80.) 126. When was you there? (64-2.) 127. He is as tall as me. (83.) 128. Neither John nor her will come. (29.) 129. You hear such statements everywheres. (34-8, 40.) 130. You never can tell whom you will meet on the train. (79.) 131. I wish you were more like she. (29.) 132. Winter, with her frost, destroyed them all. (20.) 133. Tell everybody to cast their vote for Jones. (21.) 134. He is the only one of the members who pay dues. (64-4.) 135. Was it necessary, I should jump? (60.) 136. The production of oranges were encouraged. (64-3.) 137. The ship, with all its passengers, were lost. (64-1.) 138. He has fell from his chair. (57.) 139. I will raise and go to my father. (57.) 140. The policeman failed the ruffian with his club. (57.) 141. They make pottery in Trenton. (34-8.) 142. Iron is more useful than all metals. (41-3.) 143. I intended to and have endeavored to finish the work. (75.) 144. He won't come, except we pay his expenses. (85.) 145. Neither German or French is taught there. (83.) 146. We have needed you and did our best to find you. (75.) 147. He awoke at nine. (57.) 148. I wish I was a bird. (60.) 149. If it rains, I stay at school. (60.) 150. Thou shouldst pray when you are in trouble. (34-2.) 151. The Indians, they hid behind trees. (34-3.) 152. We started out for the city at noon. (86.) 153. The king, he said they should kill him. (34-3.) 154. Outside of the house stood a large moving van. (86.) CHAPTER VII SENTENCES 87. Classified as to their rhetorical construction, sentences are considered as loose, periodic, and balanced. The LOOSE SENTENCE is so constructed that it may be closed at two or more places and yet make complete sense; as, Napoleon felt his _weakness_, and tried to win back popular _favor_ by concession after _concession_, until, at his fall, he had nearly restored parliamentary _government_. Note that this sentence could be closed after the words. _weakness, favor_, and _concession_, as well as after _government_. 88. The PERIODIC SENTENCE holds the complete thought in suspense until the close of the sentence. Compare the following periodic sentence with the loose sentence under §87: Napoleon, feeling his weakness, and trying to win back popular favor by concession after concession, had, at his fall, nearly restored parliamentary government. Both loose and periodic sentences are proper to use, but, since periodic sentences demand more careful and definite thought, the untrained writer should try to use them as much as possible. 89. The BALANCED SENTENCE is made up of parts similar in form, but often contrasted in meaning; as, _He is a man; Jones is a gentleman._ 90. SENTENCE LENGTH. As to the length of the sentence there is no fixed rule. Frequently, sentences are too long, and are, in their thought, involved and hard to follow. On the other hand, if there is a succession of short sentences, choppiness and roughness are the result. One should carefully examine sentences which contain more than thirty or thirty-five words to see that they are clear in their meaning and accurate in their construction. EXERCISE 64 _Compose, or search out in your reading, five loose sentences, five periodic sentences, and five balanced sentences._ EXERCISE 65 _In the following sentences, determine whether each sentence is loose, periodic, or balanced. Change all loose sentences to the periodic form:_ 1. At the same time the discontent of the artisans made the lower class fear a revolution, and that class turned to Napoleon, because they felt him to be the sole hope for order and stable government. 2. The members of the council were appointed by the king, and held office only at his pleasure. 3. A society and institutions that had been growing up for years was overturned and swept away by the French Revolution. 4. Galileo was summoned to Rome, imprisoned, and forced publicly to adjure his teaching that the earth moved around the sun. 5. He draws and sketches with tolerable skill, but paints abominably. 6. Loose sentences may be clear; periodic sentences may not be clear. 7. He rode up the mountains as far as he could before dismounting and continuing the ascent on foot. 8. They visited the town where their father had lived, and while there, procured the key to the house in which he had been born. 9. His death caused great grief and extreme financial distress in the family. 10. There stands the Tower of London in all its grimness and centuries of age, holding within its walls the scene of many a stirring tragedy. 11. Few men dislike him, but many would gladly see him overthrown merely as an example. 12. Germany is moving in the same direction, although the reformers find it a hard task to influence public opinion, and a far harder one to change the various laws prevalent in the many German states. 13. Is this thing we call life, with all its troubles, pains, and woes, after all, worth living? 14. He read much, but advanced little intellectually, for all the facts and philosophy of his reading found no permanent lodgment in his mind. 15. His coming home was very unexpected, because he had started on a trip that usually took ten days, and that he had said would take longer this time. 16. It was during the time of the National Convention that Napoleon first became very prominent by defending the convention against a mob. EXERCISE 66 _Combine each of the following groups of sentences into one well constructed long sentence:_ 1. In highly developed commercial communities banks cannot afford space in their vaults for valuables. Especially, they cannot afford it merely to accommodate their patrons. Hence, in such communities the furnishing of places for safe deposit has become a separate business. 2. History should be a part of the course in all schools. It develops the memory. It furnishes the explanation of many social phenomena. It broadens the intellectual view. It gives culture as no other study can give it. 3. He never desired a higher education. This was possible because of the money bequeathed to him by his father. It had left him no need for a great earning capacity. More likely, it was because of the inborn dulness and lethargy of his mind. 4. New York is the pivotal state in all national elections. Its great number of electors makes it always possible for it to throw the election either way. Therefore, until one knows to which party New York will fall, he cannot tell how the election will result. 5. Our forefathers were devout. They were easily shocked in many ways. However, they permitted many liberties in the application of sermons to particular individuals. Such things would nowadays be strongly disapproved or resented. 6. Man's life is divided into two parts by a constantly moving point. This point is called the present. It divides the past from the future. 7. The Spartans were tormented by ten thousand absurd restraints. They were unable to please themselves in the choice of their wives. They were unable to please themselves in their choice of food or clothing. They were compelled to assume a peculiar manner, and to talk in a peculiar style. Yet they gloried in their liberty. 8. The mere approach to the temperance question is through a forest of statistics. This forest is formidable and complicated. It causes one, in time, to doubt the truth of numbers. 9. They passed the old castle. It was almost unrecognizable. This was by reason of the scaffolding which surrounded it. The castle was now being transformed into a national museum. 10. He stood looking with curiosity at John Peters. Peters limped slightly. Otherwise, he looked well and happy. He was moving about shaking hands right and left. 11. They rushed at him with a yell. He had by this time reached the base of the fountain. With a sudden wonderful leap he sprang onto the railing. There he was out of reach. He balanced himself by touching the brackets which held the lamps. 12. The unintelligent worker reminds one of the squirrel on the wheel. The squirrel rushes round and round and round all day long. At the end of the day the squirrel is still a squirrel. It is still rushing round and round. It is getting nowhere. 13. The man looked at the ladder. He believed he could reach it. There was a sudden flash of hope in his face. His face was already scorched by the fire. 14. Smith was financially embarrassed. He was determined to get to his home. He crawled on top of the trucks of an express car. The car was about to leave the terminal. He courted almost certain death. 15. The commander again looks toward the hills. He looks for a long time. Something seems to excite his apprehension. He converses earnestly with the staff officer. Then the two look more than once toward a poplar tree. The tree stands at the top of the hill. Only its top half shows. The hill is on the east. 16. The most important political question has been the tariff question. This has been most important for ten years. It is important because it is believed to have caused high prices and trusts. 17. The pleasantest month is June. It has flowers. It has mild weather. It has a slight haze in the atmosphere. These things seem to flood one's soul with peace and contentment. 91. The essential qualities that a sentence should possess, aside from correctness, are those of Unity, Coherence, Emphasis, and Euphony. UNITY. Unity demands that the sentence deal with but one general thought, and that it deal with it in such a consistent and connected manner that the thought is clearly and effectively presented. Unity demands, also, that closely related thoughts should not be improperly scattered among several sentences. 1. Statements having no necessary relation to one another should not be embodied in one sentence. Bad: The house sat well back from the road, _and its owner_ was a married man. Good: The house sat well back from the road. _Its owner_ was a married man. a. Avoid the "comma blunder"; that is, do not use a comma to divide into clauses what should be separate sentences, or should be connected by a conjunction. Bad: Jones lives in the country, _he_ has a fine library. Good: Jones lives in the country. _He_ has a fine library. Good: Jones lives in the country _and has_ a fine library. b. Avoid the frequent use of the parenthesis in the sentence. Bad: This is a city (it is called a city, though it has but twelve hundred people) that has no school-house. 2. Avoid all slipshod construction of sentences. a. Avoid adding a clause to an apparently complete thought. Bad: That is not an easy problem, _I think_. Good: That, _I think_, is not an easy problem. Good: _I do not think_ that is an easy problem. Bad: He could not be elected mayor again under any circumstances, _at least so I am told_. Good: He could not, _I am told_, be elected mayor again under any circumstances. Good: _I am told_ that he could not under any circumstances be elected mayor again. b. Avoid long straggling sentences. Poor: The students often gathered to watch the practice of the team, but, just before the last game, the management excluded almost all, and only a few who had influence were allowed to enter, and this favoritism caused much hard feeling and disgust, so that the students were reluctant to support the team, and lost most of their interest, a fact which had a bad effect on the athletics of the institution. 3. Unite into one sentence short sentences and clauses that are closely and logically connected with one another. Bad: That it is a good school is not without proof. Its diploma admits to all colleges. Good: That it is a good school is not without proof, for its diploma admits to all colleges. Good: That its diploma admits to all colleges is proof that it is a good school. Bad: This fact was true of all of us. With the exception of John. Good: This fact was true of all of us, with the exception of John. Bad: Edward came. But John never appeared. Good: Edward came, but John never appeared. Bad: The town has two railroads running through it. Also, three trolley lines. Good: The town has two railroads running through it, and also three trolley lines. Good: The town has two railroads and three trolley lines running through it. 4. Do not change the point of view. Bad: _We_ completed our themes, and _they_ were handed in to the teacher. (In the first part of the sentence, the subject is _we_; in the second it is _themes_.) Good: We completed our themes and handed them in to the teacher. Good: Our themes were completed and handed in to the teacher. Bad: The _stage_ took us to the foot of the hill, and _we_ walked from there to the top, where _our friends_ met us. Good: _We_ were taken to the foot of the hill by the stage, and _we_ walked from there to the top, where _we_ were met by our friends. EXERCISE 67 _Revise such of the following sentences as violate the principles of unity:_ 1. I frequently had ridden on a bicycle, and though the first ride made me stiff, I felt little inconvenience afterwards. 2. Of the firm Jones & Smith, Jones is a man to be respected. While Smith is thoroughly dishonest. 3. John had plenty of energy and ambition. And it is hard to understand why he didn't succeed. 4. I have taken thorough courses in history in both grade school and high school, and I also worked on the farm in the summer. 5. In the East the people are conservative. But, in the West, they are radical and progressive. 6. The news came that special rates would be given from Chicago, and that we could go to Seattle and back for fifty dollars, and so, when our checks came, we seized our grips and started on a trip which was so long and eventful, but as enjoyable as any two months we had ever spent, and gave us an experience that was very valuable in our work, which we took up on our return in the fall. 7. The town has a fine public library, besides there are a number of steel mills. 8. One may reach Boston in two ways. Either by water or by rail. 9. Women (and Christian American women, too) frequently try to evade the customs laws. 10. My aunt has some of Jefferson's silver spoons, so she says. 11. He graduated from college (I think it was Harvard, though I am not sure) and then taught for three years. 12. This is one of Hugo's novels, it is very good. 13. He accomplishes everything he undertakes, if it is at all possible. 14. Washington was president of the United States. But Hamilton guided its financial policy. 15. Every year they sell three hundred sets, and Mr. West helps to write the letters. 16. The country people were the chief patrons of the store. Although no small amount of trade came from the town. 17. The box sat under a tree, and the dog, which was a collie, would go when he was told and sit on it, and no one could call him away but his master who was very often cruelly slow in doing so, but the dog never lost patience. 18. He was one of those persons (of whom there are so painfully many) who never do what they promise. 19. He then went to his room, which was in the back of the house, to sleep, and his books were found there the next day. 20. He was the man that I had mentioned, who had been recommended for the position. Who had been refused because of his deficiencies in English. 21. I can't go, I don't think. 22. He was a very big and very strong man. And, he should have made a great football player. 23. He will surely be elected, I haven't any fear. 24. The food was good, and the service was fine, but we did not care to stay on account of the weather, which was rainy most of the time, and because it was an out-of-the-way place. 25. He converses intelligently and pleasantly, and never gossips, hence he is an agreeable companion. 26. He died of smallpox, and was ninety years old. 27. There were twenty boys in the class. Each past twenty-five years of age. 28. He is in every way honorable, at least so far as money matters are concerned. 29. I had not previously thought of going to college, but now I was enthusiastic on the matter, and all my time (at least most of it) was devoted to poring over catalogues, of which I had a great number, and many of which I knew by heart from having gone over them so often, and finally a college was selected which seemed to suit me, so I went there in the fall to study chemistry. 30. He was very sensitive. So that we could tease him very little without making him angry. 31. There are a great number of stations along this short line of railroad, these, however, do little business. 32. They stopped and asked us the road to Milton, and it was discovered that they were going in the wrong direction, as Milton lay south of Williamsport, and we were camping twenty miles north. 33. He will most likely be suspended, it may perhaps be. 34. That day my cousin went home, and the next day John came to spend a few hours with me, and in the afternoon we drove all over the valley, but neither of us grew tired, because there were so many things to converse about, and so many long treasured questions to ask, and John left in the evening, and then I went to bed. 35. He has been proved a gambler, there you have it all. 36. Mrs. Smith (whose husband had been killed by a falling beam in one of the buildings he was constructing) consented to give us a room and board. 37. He read his lesson carefully, then he closed the book to think it over. 38. He is the most peculiar person I ever met--in the last few years at least. 39. I am reading a book, it is very interesting. 40. They get a great deal of amusement when he is walking (which he does every nice day) by whistling in time with his steps. 41. He gave me this book which you see, and I have been able to get a vast amount of information out of it. 42. It was noticed by everyone that he always behaved well. When he was in school. 43. The magician was present. And pleased everybody with his performances. 44. Because he liked music, John was considered an odd fellow, and his father was dead. 92. COHERENCE. Coherence in the sentence demands that the arrangement and the construction of the sentence be clear and free from ambiguity. 1. Frame the sentence so that it can have but one possible meaning. Wrong: He owned several dogs and was greatly troubled with the mange. Right: He owned several dogs and was greatly troubled _because they had_ the mange. Right: He was greatly troubled because several of _his dogs had_ the mange. 2. See that the antecedent of every pronoun is clear and explicit. Wrong: The dog was bitten on the front _foot which_ has since died. Right: The _dog, which_ has since died, was bitten on the front foot. Right: The dog was bitten on the front foot and has since died. 3. See that the word to which each modifier refers is unmistakable. a. Place every modifying element as near as possible to the word which it modifies. Wrong: He was sitting in a chair reading a _book made_ in the mission style. Right: He was sitting in a _chair made_ in the mission style and was reading a book. Right: He was sitting reading a book in a chair made in the mission style. Wrong: The table had been inlaid by his _father, containing_ over fifteen hundred pieces. Right: The _table, containing_ over fifteen hundred pieces, had been inlaid by his father. Right: The table contained over fifteen hundred pieces and had been inlaid by his father. b. Avoid the "squinting construction." By this term is meant the placing of a clause so that it is impossible to tell whether it refers to the preceding or succeeding part of the sentence. Wrong: It would be hard to explain, _if you were to ask me_, what the trouble was. Right: If you were to ask me what the trouble was, it would be hard to explain. 4. Place correlatives so that there can be no doubt as to their office. _Neither--nor, both--and_, etc., are frequently not placed next to the expressions they are meant to connect. See §84. Wrong: He _neither_ brought a trunk _nor_ a suit-case. Right: He brought _neither_ a trunk _nor_ a suit-case. Wrong: He _not only_ received money from his father, _but also_ his mother. Right: He received money _not only_ from his father, _but also_ from his mother. Right: He _not only_ received money from his father, _but also_ received it from his mother. 5. Omit no word that is not accurately implied in the sentence. Wrong: The man _never has_, and _never will_ be successful. Right: The man _never has been_, and _never will be_ successful. Wrong: It _is no_ concern to him. Right: It _is of no_ concern to him. 6. Use a summarizing word, in general, to collect the parts of a long complex sentence. Republicans, Democrats, Socialists, Prohibitionists, and Populists--_all_ were there. 7. Express similar thoughts, when connected in the same sentence, in a similar manner. Bad: I decided _on doing_ the work that night, and _to write_ it out on the typewriter. Good: I decided _to do_ the work that night and _to write_ it out on the typewriter. Bad: _Textbooks are going_ out of use in the modern law schools, but some schools still use them. Good: _Textbooks are going_ out of use in the modern law schools, but in some _they_ are still used. Good: Though _textbooks are going_ out of use in modern law schools, _they are still used_ in some of them. Bad: _One_ should never try to avoid work in school, for _you_ always increase your trouble by doing so. Good: _One_ should never try to avoid work in school, for _one_ always increases his trouble by doing so. Good: _One_ usually only increases _his_ troubles by trying to avoid work in school. EXERCISE 68 _Point out and correct any lack of coherence that exists in the following sentences:_ 1. Chicken lice are troubling all the farmers in the state. 2. The statute requires that one study three years, and that you pass an examination. 3. He is home. 4. Rich and poor, old and young, large and small, good and bad, were in the assemblage. 5. He both presented me with a gold piece and an increase in salary. 6. Tell the doctor, if he comes before seven, to call. 7. When the dog came on the porch, feeling playful, I laid aside my paper. 8. I only knew John. 9. The cart was pulled by a man creaking under a heavy load. 10. John told his father that his coat was too tight for him. 11. I not only knew the president but also the whole board of directors. 12. The boxes were full of broken glass with which we made fire. 13. Mrs. Smith wants washing. 14. A young woman died very suddenly last Sunday while I was away from home as a result of a druggist's mistake. 15. He was hit in the discharge of his duty by a policeman. 16. A dog has been found by Mrs. Jones with one black ear. 17. In taking the census innumerable errors are made, thus making the result unreliable. 18. It was a pleasure to see them work and their good nature. 19. The boy went to the teacher and told him that his trouble was that he used the wrong book. 20. John was not punished because of his ill health, and he was not entirely to blame for it. 21. They said they saw them coming before they saw them. 22. The officers arrested the men and they were then locked up. 23. You made the same mistake that you now make last week. 24. Wishing to make no mistake the boy was told by him to see the professor. 25. It resulted opposite to that in which it was expected. 26. They are required to report both on their way to work and coming home. 27. Under his direction we were taught grammar and something of composition was taken up. 28. Taking all precautions, a watchman is on duty every night. 29. We tried to study, but didn't do any. 30. I do not care either to see you or Henry. 31. He has a number of kennels with many dogs scattered over the farm. 32. Mrs. X. wants a picture of her children painted very badly. 33. One of the drawbacks to the work is that time is very scarce, in this way limiting what can be done. 34. The bicycle was easy to learn to ride, which I did. 35. Rails are placed along the sides of the bridges, and horses are forbidden to trot over them. 36. John told Henry that he thought he needed help. 37. He has to stop for rest, and to avoid getting too far ahead. 38. Board, room, clothes, laundry, and amusements, are higher there than here. 39. Mathematics is not only necessary, but also languages. 40. After having read the proof, it is rolled up, and you mail it back to the printer. 41. The baskets were unpacked and the girls waited upon them. 42. They knew all that was to be learned, including John. 43. We could say that the greater part of us had both seen the Niagara Falls and Canada. 44. Let him wear a loose shoe that has sore feet. 45. Being out of work, and as I did not wish to loaf, I started to school. 46. He tried to study unsuccessfully, and in the end failed. 47. He built a house for his wife with seven windows. 48. He sent her an invitation to go for a ride on the back of his business card. 49. I saw five automobiles the other night sitting on our front door step. 50. Mrs. Smith was killed last night while cooking in a dreadful manner. 51. Post cards are both increasing in variety and beauty. 52. He neither told John nor his father. 53. Mary told her mother, if she were needed, she would be called. 54. He bought a horse when ten years old. 55. The child the parent often rebuked. 56. Sitting on a chair the entire house could be watched. 57. Coming along the road a peculiar noise was heard by us. 58. Under the enforced sanitary laws people ceased to die gradually. 59. I knew him as a physician when a boy. 60. He came leading his dog on a bicycle. 61. When wanted he sent me a letter. 93. EMPHASIS. Emphasis demands that the sentence be so arranged that the principal idea shall be brought into prominence and the minor details subordinated. 1. Avoid weak beginnings and weak endings in the sentence. Bad: He was a student who did nothing right _as a rule_. Good: He was a student, who, _as a rule_, did nothing right. 2. A change from the normal order often makes a great change in emphasis. Normal: A lonely owl shrieked from a thick tree not far back of our camp. Changed: From a thick tree not far back of our camp a lonely owl shrieked. 3. Where it is suitable, arrange words and clauses so as to produce a climax; i. e., have the most important come last. Bad: Human beings, dogs, cats, horses, all living things were destroyed. Good: Cats, dogs, horses, human beings, all living things were destroyed. 4. Avoid all words which add nothing to the thought. Bad: He is universally praised by all people. Good: He is universally praised. Bad: The darkness was absolutely impenetrable, and not a thing could be seen. Good: The darkness was absolutely impenetrable. Bad: Mr. Smith bids me say that he regrets that a slight indisposition in health precludes his granting himself the pleasure of accepting your invitation to come to your house to dine. Good: Mr. Smith bids me say that he regrets that sickness prevents his accepting your invitation to dine. EXERCISE 69 _Reconstruct all of the following sentences that violate the principles of emphasis:_ 1. Children, women, and men were slain without pity. 2. I'll prove his guilt by means of marked money, if I can. 3. Most of the students have done good work, although some have not. 4. Will you please start up the machine. 5. Where ignorance leads to a condition of blissful happiness, it would be folly to seek a condition of great wisdom. 6. A man having foolishly tried to board a moving train yesterday, was killed by being run over. 7. As a maker of violins he has never had an equal before nor since. 8. All his friends were collected together. 9. The field was so wet that we could not play on it, except occasionally. 10. Few were superior to him as a sculptor. 11. Railway companies, trolley companies, cable companies, and even hack lines were affected by the change. 12. Books were his constant companions, and he was with them always. 13. That great, gaunt mass of stones, rock, and earth, which falls upon your vision at the edge of the horizon of your view, is known by the appellation of Maxon Mountain. 14. The noise of trains is heard ceaselessly from morning till night, without stopping at all. 15. He tried to do right so far as we know. 16. That knowledge is the important thing to gain beyond all else. 94. EUPHONY. Euphony demands that the sentence be of pleasing sound. 1. Avoid repeating the same word in a sentence. Bad: He _commanded_ his son to obey his _commands_. 2. Avoid words and combinations of words that are hard to pronounce. Bad: He seized quickly a thick stick. 3. Avoid a rhyme and the repetition of a similar syllable. Bad: They went for a _walk_ in order to _talk_. EXERCISE 70 _Correct such of the following sentences as lack euphony:_ 1. In the problems, he solved one once. 2. Most of the time he does the most he can. 3. She worries about what to wear wherever she goes. 4. It is impossible for one to believe that one so changeable can be capable of such work. 5. Those are our books. 6. Every time there was a chance for error, error was made. 7. It is true that the man spoke truly when he said, "Truth is stranger than fiction." 8. The well must have been well made, else it would not have served so well. 9. Everything he said was audible throughout the auditorium. 10. He acted very sillily. 11. He is still worried over the ill fulfillment of John's promise. 12. In his letters there is something fine in every line. 13. They ordered the members of the order to pay their dues. EXERCISE 71. A GENERAL EXERCISE ON SENTENCES _Revise the following sentences. In parentheses after each sentence is the number of the paragraph in which the error involved is set forth:_ 1. Not only should we go to church, but also prayer-meeting. (92-4.) 2. In the East, just above the horizon, Mars may be readily seen in the evenings. (93-1.) 3. There is nothing distinctive about the style of the book, and it tells the story of a young Russian couple. (91-1.) 4. The nasal noise in his enunciation was displeasing. (94-2.) 5. Books, papers, records, money, checks, and receipts, were burned. (92-6.) 6. I tried to learn to write plainly, and have failed. (92-7.) 7. He has not and never will succeed in doing that. (92-5.) 8. He is sick as a result of the picnic, it may be. (91-2.) 9. Finally they stepped from the boat into the water, and tried to move it by all of them pushing. (92-2.) 10. One is sure to become dull in mind, and ill in health, if you fail to exercise. (93-1.) 11. The trip was comparatively quickly and easily made. (94-1.) 12. She was of ordinary family, but he didn't think of criticizing that, since his own parents were of the German peasantry. (91-4.) 13. The man was sentenced to either be hanged or life-imprisonment. (92-7.) 14. People of wealth (and it is by no means an exception to the rule) fail to notice the misery about them. (91-1-b.) 15. There one can see miles and miles. For there are no mountains. (91-3-a.) 16. She told her that she thought that she had come too soon. (92-2.) 17. By the judge's mistake, he was made a free man, and started on a career of crime again. (93-1.) 18. Flora Macdonald was a genuine heroine. (94-3.) 19. No criticism was made of the object, but of the means. (92-5.) 20. If you observe the relation of spelling to pronunciation, you will have little trouble in pronunciation. (94-1.) 21. He threw the stone at the window. And then he ran. (91-3.) 22. The reading of Poe's stories at least is entertaining, if not elevating. (92-3-b.) 23. John the lion killed. (92-3-b.) 24. He arose suddenly upsetting the table. (92-3-b.) 25. Bridget was a faithful servant, she never failed in her duties for more than five years. (91-1-a.) 26. Instead of six, now four years only are to be spent in college. (92-3-a.) 27. We started down the river toward Harrisburg. But we did not get very far. For a storm soon came upon us. (91-3.) 28. He says that he has the book at his home which belongs to Anderson. (92-2). 29. I secured a horse and went for a ride, and after my return, we had supper. (91-4.) 30. Two of the company were killed in the battle. The others escaped without a scratch. (91-3.) 31. Different from most persons, he will not mention to any one his faults. (92-2.) 32. Not only is the book interesting, but it is instructive also. (93-1.) 33. May not only he be satisfied with the result, but delighted. (92-4.) 34. Main Street is very long, and the hotels are on Market Street. (91-1.) 35. He saw the money passing the store which had been lost. (92-2.) CHAPTER VIII CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION RULES FOR CAPITALIZATION 95. Capitalize all proper nouns and adjectives derived from proper nouns. France, French, Paris, Parisian, John, etc. 96. Capitalize all titles when used with proper nouns. Capitalize, also, the titles of governmental officers of high rank even when used separately. Do not capitalize other titles when used separately. Uncle Sam, Bishop Anselm, Professor Morton, the Postmaster General, Postmaster Smith of Kelley Cross Roads, the postmaster of Kelley Cross Roads. 97. Capitalize the important words in titles of books. The Master of Ballantrae, The Trail of the Lonesome Pine, The Discovery of America. 98. Capitalize the first word of every sentence, of every line of poetry, and of every complete sentence that is quoted. He said, "Is it I whom you seek?" He said she was a "perfect woman, nobly planned." 99. Capitalize the words, _mother, father_, etc., when used with proper names of persons, or when used without a possessive pronoun to refer to some definite person. Capitalize also, common nouns in phrases used as proper nouns. Father John, my Uncle John, my uncle, if Uncle writes, if my uncle writes, along the river, along the Hudson River, Madison Square. 100. Capitalize the names, _North, South, East_, and _West_, when referring to parts of the country; words used to name the Deity; the words, _Bible_ and _Scriptures_; and the words _I_ and _O_, but not _oh_ unless it is at the beginning of a sentence. EXERCISE 72 _Secure five examples under each of the above rules, except the last._ RULES FOR PUNCTUATION 101. Punctuation should not be done for its own sake, but simply to make the meaning clearer; never punctuate where no punctuation is needed. The following rules of punctuation are generally accepted: _The Period_ (.) 102. Use the period after (1) every complete sentence that is not interrogative nor exclamatory; (2) after every abbreviation; and (3) after _Yes_ and _No_ when used alone. _The Interrogation Point_ (?) 103. Use the interrogation point after every direct question. _The Exclamation Point_ (!) 104. Use the exclamation point after every exclamatory sentence or expression. Alas! It is too late. Fire if you dare! _The Comma_ (,) 105. Use the comma after each word of a series of words that all have the same grammatical relation to the rest of the sentence, unless conjunctions are used between all of those words. Ours is a red, white, and blue flag. He talked, smoked, and read. He talked and smoked and read. Do not, however, precede the series by a comma. Wrong: He lectures on, Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays. Right: He lectures on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays. 106. Use the comma to separate two adjectives modifying the same noun, but not if one modifies both the other adjective and the noun. An honest, upright man. An old colored man. A soiled red dress. 107. Use the comma to set off non-emphatic introductory words or phrases, and participial phrases. John, come here. By the way, did you see Mary? After having done this, Cæsar crossed the Rubicon. Cæsar crossed the Rubicon, thus taking a decisive step. 108. Use the comma to set off appositive expression (see §29, Note 1), or a geographical name that limits a preceding name. He was told to see Dr. Morton, the principal of the school. Muncy, Pennsylvania, is not spelled the same as Muncie, Indiana. 109. Use the comma to set off any sentence element that is placed out of its natural order. If it is possible, he will do it. To most people, this will seem absurd. 110. Use the comma to set off slightly parenthetical remarks that are thrown into the sentence. If the break is very marked, use the dash or parenthesis. That, if you will permit me to explain, cannot be done without permission from the police. Two men, Chase and Arnold, were injured. He, himself, said it. 111. Use the comma to set off explanatory or non-restrictive clauses, but not to set off restrictive clauses. (See §§ 25 and 26.) Mr. Gardner, who has been working in the bank, sang at the church. But: The Mr. Gardner whom you know is his brother. 112. Use the comma to separate coördinate clauses that are united by a simple conjunction. He can sing well, but he seldom will sing in public. He doesn't wish to sing, and I do not like to urge him. 113. Use the comma to separate the members of a compound sentence when those members are short and closely connected in their thought. John carried the suit-case, I the hat box, and William the umbrella. 114. Use the comma to separate dependent and conditional clauses introduced by such words as _if, when, though,_ unless the connection be close. He did not stop, though I called repeatedly. Your solution is right in method, even if you have made a mistake in the work. But: You are wrong when you say that. 115. Use the comma to set off short, informal quotations, unless such quotation is a word or phrase closely woven into the sentence. William said, "Good morning"; but, "Hello," was Henry's greeting. But: He introduced the man as "my distinguished friend." 116. Use the comma to set off adverbs and adverbial phrases; such as, _however, then, also, for example, so to speak,_ etc. Such a man, however, can seldom be found. This sentence, for example, can be improved by changing the order. 117. Use the comma whenever for any reason there is any distinct pause in the sentence that is not otherwise indicated by punctuation, or whenever something clearly is omitted. We want students, not boys who simply come to school. Cæsar had his Brutus; Charles the First, his Cromwell; ... _The Semicolon_ (;) 118. Use the semicolon to separate the clauses of a compound sentence that are long or that are not joined by conjunctions. He says that he shall teach for two more years; then he shall probably return to college. 119. Use a semicolon to separate the clauses of a compound sentence that are joined by a conjunction, only when it is desirable to indicate a very definite pause. I have told you of the theft; but I have yet to tell you of the reason for it. 120. Use a semicolon to separate the parts of a compound or a complex sentence, when some of those parts are punctuated by commas. As men, we admire the man that succeeds; but, as honest men, we cannot admire the man that succeeds by dishonesty. Wrong: He spends his money for theatres, and dinners, and wine, and for his family he has not a cent. Right: He spends his money for theatres, and dinners, and wine; and for his family he has not a cent. 121. Use a semicolon before certain adverbs and adverbial expressions, when they occur in the body of the sentence and are used conjunctively; such as, _accordingly, besides, hence, thus, therefore_, etc. I do not care to see the game; besides, it is too cold. John is sick; however, I think he will be here. 122. Use the semicolon before the expressions, _namely, as, that is_, etc., or before their abbreviations, _viz., i.e.,_ etc., when they are used to introduce a series of particular terms, simple in form, which are in apposition with a general term. At present there are four prominent political parties; namely, the Republican, the Democratic, the Prohibition, and the Socialist. _The Colon_ (:) 123. Use the colon after an introduction to a long or formal quotation, before an enumeration, or after a word, phrase, or sentence that constitutes an introduction to something that follows. Mr. Royer says in his letter: "You will remember that I promised to send you a copy of my latest musical composition. I am mailing it to you to-day." There are four essentials of a legal contract: competent parties, consideration, agreement, and legal subject matter. 124. Use the colon after the salutation of a formal letter. (See §161.) _The Dash_ (--) 125. Use the dash to indicate any sudden break in thought or construction. I am pleased to meet you, Captain--what did you say your name is? The man I met--I refer to Captain Jones--was in the naval service. 126. Use the dash in the place of the comma to set off more definitely some part of a sentence. I was always lacking what I needed most--money. 127. Use the dash preceded by a comma before a word which sums up the preceding part of a sentence. Democrats, Republicans, Prohibitionists, Socialists, and Populists,--_all_ were there. 128. Do not use dashes where not required or in place of some other mark of punctuation. _The Parenthesis Marks_ ( ) 129. Use the parenthesis marks only to enclose a statement that is thrown into the sentence, but is grammatically independent of it. He belongs (at least so it is said) to every secret society in town. 130. Do not use a comma or other punctuation mark with the parenthesis marks unless it would be required even if there were no parenthesis. When other punctuation is used it should follow the parenthesis. They sent us (as they had agreed to do) all the papers in the case. We expect John to bring his roommate home with him (he has been very anxious to do so); but we expect no one else. Modern usage is to avoid entirely the use of the parentheses. _The Bracket_ [ ] 131. Use the bracket to enclose some statement or word of the writer that is thrown into a quotation by way of explanation or otherwise. His letter reads: "We have decided to get Mr. Howard [his cousin] to deliver the address..." _The Quotation Marks_ (" ") 132. Use quotation marks to enclose quotations of the exact language of another. The Bible says, "Charity suffereth long." 133. Use single quotation marks (' ') to enclose a quotation within a quotation. The speaker in closing said: "I can imagine no more inspiring words than those of Nelson at Trafalgar, 'England expects every man to do his duty.'" 134. If a quotation consists of several paragraphs, quotation marks should precede each paragraph and follow the last. 135. Do not use quotation marks to enclose each separate sentence of a single continuous quotation. 136. Do not use quotation marks to enclose well-known nicknames, titles of books, proverbial phrases, or to indicate one's own literary invention. 137. Examine the location of quotation marks and other punctuation in the following sentences: Wrong: "You may do as you wish, he said, if you only wish to do right." Right: "You may do as you wish," he said, "if you only wish to do right." Wrong: "Can you come," she asked? Right: "Can you come?" she asked. _The Apostrophe_ (') 138. Use the apostrophe to mark certain plurals and possessives. See §§ 13 and 15. Use the apostrophe to indicate the omission of letters. Doesn't, Can't, What's the matter? _The Hyphen_ (-) 139. Use the hyphen when a word must be divided at the end of a line. Never divide words of one syllable, nor short words; such as, _though, through, also, besides, over_, etc. Never divide words except at the end of a syllable, and always put the hyphen at the end of the first line, not at the beginning of the second. Wrong division: _int-end, prop-ose, superint-endent, expre-ssion_. Proper division: _in-tend, pro-pose, superin-tendent, expres-sion_. In writing it is good usage not to divide a word like _expression_ by placing _ex_ on one line and the rest of the word on the next line. 140. Use the hyphen to divide certain compound words. No rule can be given by which to determine when compounded words demand the hyphen. Only custom determines. Always use a hyphen with _to-day, to-morrow_, and _to-night_. EXERCISE 73 _Punctuate and capitalize the following selections. For instructions as to paragraphing and the arrangement of conversation, see_ §§ 143 _and_ 144: 1. however father had told us not to expect good accommodations because it is a very small town 2. tomorrow if it is a clear day we will go to pittsburgh 3. will that be satisfactory was his question 4. it doesnt make any difference said she whether you come or not 5. whats the matter with you john 6. john replied i mean that poem that begins the curfew tolls the knell of parting day 7. and that day i was only a child then I travelled all alone to new york city 8. he is a member at least he claims to be of the presbyterian church 9. the author says that the hero of waterloo wellington was a general of great military training 10. buddhist brahmin mohammedan christian jewish every religion was represented 11. his letter will tell what he wants or will attempt to do so 12. you will please hand in the following sentences one three seven and nine 13. four presidents have been unitarians namely the two adams fillmore and taft 14. the verse to which you refer is as follows the boast of heraldry the pomp of power all that beauty all that wealth eer gave await alike the inevitable hour the paths of glory lead but to the grave 15. a noun is the name of something as william france book cat 16. the train leaves at eight therefore we shall have to rise at seven at latest 17. the different points discussed are these first the history of the divine right theory second the exponents of the theory and third the result of the theory 18. in the first problem divide in the second multiply 19. if the break is slight use a comma if it is more perceptible use a semicolon if it is very sharp use a period 20. william if you gear me answer 21. he told mother that he must go home at least that is what she understood 22. as noise it is an undoubted success as music it is a flat failure 23. that may be true but i still doubt it 24. separate the clauses by a comma unless the connection be close 25. even though that be true it does not prove what we want proved 26. mary said yes but helen said no 27. he is called the peerless leader 28. such a man for example was lincoln 29. if as you say it ought to be done why dont you do it 30. that too is a mistake 31. that is wool not cotton as you seem to think 32. the english are stolid the french lively 33. in that case let us have war 34. such an opinion i may say is absurd 35. alas when i had noticed my mistake it was too late 36. the house which was built by smith is on the corner of a large lot 37. he means the house that has green shutters 38. those are all good books but none of them will do 39. dickens wrote nicholas nickleby hugo les miserables thackeray henry esmond 40. he is a good student and also a great athlete 41. he gave me a red silk handkerchief 42. having assigned the lesson he left the room 43. royers address is danville illinois 44. you will find it discussed in paragraphs one two and three 45. i had classes under the president dr harris 46. moreover naxon the cashier has fled 47. oh that is what you mean is it 48. for this you will need a piece of clean white paper 49. the bible says the lord thy god is a jealous god 50. the boundary of uncle sams lands is the rio grande river 51. theodore roosevelt is not the only strenuous man in history 52. the north quickly recovered from the civil war 53. he told mother to write to my uncle about it 54. he said then why are you here 55. in that army old young and middle aged men served for their country could no longer raise a picked army 56. he was told to ask the principal professor morton 57. in the same town muncy lives smith now a respected man 58. a peasant named ali according to a good old oriental story needing badly a donkey for some urgent work decided to apply to his neighbor mehmed whose donkey ali knew to be idle in the stable that day i am sorry my dear neighbor said mehmed in reply to alis request but i cannot please you my son took the donkey this morning to the next village i assure you insisted ali i shall take the very best care of him my dear neighbor can you not take my word demanded mehmed with a show of anger i tell you the donkey is out but at this point the donkey began to bray loudly there that is the donkey braying now well said the justly indignant mehmed if you would rather take my donkeys word than my word we can be friends no longer and under no circumstances can i lend you anything. 59. a coroner was called upon to hold an inquest over the body of an italian the only witness was a small boy of the same nationality who spoke no english the examination proceeded thus where do you live my boy the boy shook his head do you speak english another shake of the head do you speak french another shake do you speak german still no answer how old are you no reply have you father and mother no reply do you speak italian the boy gave no sign well said the coroner i have questioned the witness in four languages and can get no answer it is useless to proceed the court is adjourned. NOTE. Further exercise in punctuation may be had by copying without the marks of punctuation selections from books, and afterwards inserting the proper marks. CHAPTER IX THE PARAGRAPH 141. The PARAGRAPH is a connected series of sentences all dealing with the development of a single topic. Where the general subject under discussion is very narrow, the paragraph may constitute the whole composition; but usually, it forms one of a number of subtopics, each dealing with some subdivision of the general subject. For each one of these subtopics a separate paragraph should be made. The purpose of the paragraph is to aid the reader to comprehend the thought to be expressed. The paragraph groups in a logical way the different ideas to be communicated. It gives rest to the eye of the reader, and makes clearer the fact that there is a change of topic at each new paragraph. 142. PARAGRAPH LENGTH. There is no fixed rule governing the proper length of the paragraph, but, probably, no paragraph need be more than three hundred words in length. If the whole composition is not more than two hundred and fifty words in length, it will not often need to be subdivided into paragraphs. In a letter, paragraphing should be more frequent than in other compositions. Paragraphing should not be too frequent. If paragraphing is too frequent, by making each minute subdivision of equal importance, it defeats its purpose of grouping ideas about some general topic. 143. Sometimes a sentence or even a part of a sentence may be set off as a separate paragraph in order to secure greater emphasis. This, however, is only using the paragraph for a proper purpose--to aid in gaining clearness. 144. PARAGRAPHING OF SPEECH. In a narrative, each direct quotation, together with the rest of the sentence of which it is a part, should constitute a separate paragraph. This rule should be always followed in writing a conversation. Examine the following: A certain Scotch family cherishes this anecdote of a trip which Dr. Samuel Johnson made to Scotland. He had stopped at the house of this family for a meal, and was helped to the national dish. During the meal the hostess asked: "Dr. Johnson, what do you think of our Scotch broth?" "Madam," was the answer, "in my opinion it is fit only for pigs." "Then have some more," said the woman. The only case in which the quoted words can be detached from the remainder of the sentence is where they form the end of the sentence after some introductory words, as in the second paragraph of the example just given. 145. INDENTATION OF THE PARAGRAPH. The first sentence of each new paragraph should be indented. See example under §144. No other sentence should be so indented. 146. The essential qualities which each paragraph should have are: Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis. UNITY. Unity requires that the paragraph should deal with only one subject, and should include nothing which does not have a direct bearing on that subject. Thus, in the following paragraph, the italicized sentence violates the principle of Unity, because, very obviously it belongs to some other paragraph: Never did any race receive the Gospel with more ardent enthusiasm than the Irish. _St. Patrick, a zealous priest, was thought to have banished the snakes from the island_. So enthusiastic were the Irish, that, not content with the religious work in Ireland, the Irish Church sent out its missionaries to Scotland, to Germany, and to the Alps and Apennines. It founded religious houses and monasteries.... Separate paragraphs should not be made of matter which belongs together. If the ideas can all be fairly included under one general topic, unity demands that they be grouped in one paragraph. Thus, in describing the route followed in a certain journey, one should not use a separate paragraph for each step in the journey. Wrong: In returning to the University, I went from Pittsburgh to Cleveland. Then I took a berth for the night on one of the lake steamers running from Cleveland to Detroit. From Detroit I completed the journey to Ann Arbor on an early train the next morning. If unity is to be secured, not only must all the ideas brought out in the paragraph deal with the same topic, but also, they must be developed in some consistent, systematic order. A certain point of view should be generally maintained as to tense, subject, and manner of expression. 147. HOW TO GAIN UNITY. Careful thought before beginning the paragraph is necessary if unity is to be gained. The topic of the paragraph should be determined, and should be clearly indicated by a topic sentence. Usually this topic sentence should be placed near the beginning of the paragraph. The first sentence is the clearest and best place for it. The topic sentence need not be a formal statement of the subject to be discussed, but may be any sentence that shows what is to be the central idea of the paragraph. With the topic determined, there are various ways of developing it. It may be developed by repetition; by adding details and specific instances to the general statement; by presenting proof; by illustration; or by showing cause or effect. 148. Examine the following paragraphs. Each possesses the quality of unity. The topic sentence in each case is italicized. _To rule was not enough for Bonaparte._ He wanted to amaze, to dazzle, to overpower men's souls, by striking, bold, magnificent, and unanticipated results. To govern ever so absolutely would not have satisfied him, if he must have governed silently. He wanted to reign through wonder and awe, by the grandeur and terror of his name, by displays of power which would rivet on him every eye, and make him the theme of every tongue. Power was his supreme object; but power which should be gazed at as well as felt, which should strike men as a prodigy, which should shake old thrones as an earthquake, and, by the suddenness of its new creations, should awaken something of the submissive wonder which miraculous agency inspires. From _The Character of Napoleon Bonaparte_, by Channing. _There is something in the very season of the year that gives a charm to the festivity of Christmas._ At other times we derive a great portion of our pleasures from the mere beauties of Nature. Our feelings sally forth and dissipate themselves over the sunny landscape and we "live abroad and everywhere." The song of the bird, the murmur of the stream, the breathing fragrance of spring, the soft voluptuousness of summer, the golden pomp of autumn; earth with its mantle of refreshing green, and heaven with its deep delicious blue and its cloudy magnificence--all fill us with mute but exquisite delight, and we revel in the luxury of mere sensation. But in the depth of winter, when Nature lies despoiled of every charm, and wrapped in her shroud of sheeted snow, we turn our gratifications to moral sources. The dreariness and desolation of the landscape, the short gloomy days and darksome nights, while they circumscribe our wanderings, shut in also our feelings from rambling abroad, and make us more keenly disposed for the pleasures of the social circle. Our thoughts are more concentrated; our friendly sympathies more aroused. We feel more sensibly the charm of each other's society, and are brought more closely together by dependence on each other for enjoyment. Heart calleth unto heart, and we draw our pleasures from the deep wells of living kindness which lie in the quiet recesses of our bosoms; and which, where resorted to, furnish forth the pure element of domestic felicity. From _Christmas_, by Washington Irving. 149. COHERENCE. Coherence demands that each paragraph shall be perfectly clear in its meaning, and that it be so constructed that it may be readily grasped by the reader. The relation of sentence to sentence, of idea to idea, must be clearly brought out. The whole fabric of the paragraph must be woven together--it must not consist of disconnected pieces. 150. HOW TO GAIN COHERENCE. Where vividness or some other quality does not gain coherence in the sentence, it is usually gained by the use of words or phrases which refer to or help to keep in mind the effect of the preceding sentences, or which show the bearing of the sentence on the paragraph topic. These words may be of various sorts; as, _it, this view, however, in this way_, etc. Sometimes the subject is repeated occasionally throughout the paragraph, or is directly or indirectly indicated again at the end of the paragraph. Examine carefully the following selections. Note the italicized words of coherence, and note in each case how they aid the flow of thought from sentence to sentence, and help to keep in mind the paragraph topic. I will give you my opinion and advice in regard to the _two books_ you have named. The _first_ is interesting and easy to read. _It_ is, _also_, by no means lacking in the value of the information it presents. _But the second_, while it is no less interesting and equally valuable in its contents, seems to me far more logical and scholarly in its construction. _In addition to this_ I think you will find it cheaper in price, by reason of its not being so profusely illustrated. _Therefore_, I should advise you to procure the _second_ for your study. _Either, indeed_, will do, but since you have a choice, take the better one. A Husbandman who had a quarrelsome family, after having tried in vain to reconcile them by words, thought he might more readily prevail by an example. _So_ he called his sons and bade them lay a bundle of sticks before him. _Then having tied them_ up into a fagot, he told _the lads_, one after another, to take it up and break it. _They all tried_, but tried in vain. _Then_, untying _the fagot_, he gave _them_ the sticks to break one by one. _This_ they did with the greatest ease. _Then_ said the father: "_Thus_, my sons, as long as you remain united, you are a match for all your enemies; but differ and separate, and you are undone." _�sop's Fables_. Examine also the selections under §§ 205 and 206. 151. EMPHASIS. The third quality which a paragraph should possess is emphasis. The paragraph should be so constituted as to bring into prominence the topic or the point it is intended to present. The places of greatest emphasis are usually at the beginning and at the end of the paragraph. In short paragraphs sufficient emphasis is generally gained by having a topic sentence at the beginning. In longer paragraphs it is often well to indicate again the topic at the end by way of summary in order to impress thoroughly on the reader the effect of the paragraph. EXERCISE 74 _The few following suggestions for practice in paragraph construction are given by way of outline. Additional subjects and exercises will readily suggest themselves to teacher or student._ _These topics are intended to apply only to isolated paragraphs--"paragraph themes." As has been suggested, more latitude in the matter of unity is allowed in compositions so brief that more than one paragraph is unnecessary._ Write paragraphs: 1. Stating the refusal of a position that has been offered to you, and giving your reasons for the refusal. 2. Describing the appearance of some building. Give the general appearance and then the details. 3. Explaining how to tie a four-in-hand necktie. 4. Stating your reasons for liking or not liking some book or play. 5. Describing the personal appearance of some one of your acquaintance. 6. To prove that the world is round. 7. To prove that it pays to buy good shoes. (Develop by illustration.) 8. Showing by comparison that there are more advantages in city life than in country life. Write paragraphs on the following subjects: 9. My Earliest Recollection. 10. The Sort of Books I Like Best. 11. Why I Like to Study X Branch. 12. My Opinion of My Relatives. 13. The Man I Room With. 14. Why I Was Late to Class. 15. What I Do on Sundays. 16. How to Prevent Taking Cold. 17. How to Cure a Cold. 18. My Best Teacher. 19. My Favorite Town. 20. Why I Go Fishing. 21. My Favorite Month. 22. What Becomes of My Matches. 23. Baseball is a Better Game than Football. 24. The View from X Building. 25. Why I Go to School. 26. My Opinion of Rainy Days. 27. My Most Useful Friend. 28. Why I Dislike Surprise Parties. 29. Why I Like to Visit at X's. 30. The Police Service of X Town. CHAPTER X LETTER-WRITING NOTE TO TEACHER.--For the purpose of training in composition, in the more elementary work, letter-writing affords probably the most feasible and successful means. Letter-writing does not demand any gathering of material, gains much interest, and affords much latitude for individual tastes in topics and expression. Besides, letter-writing is the field in which almost all written composition will be done after leaving school; and so all training in school will be thoroughly useful. For this reason, it is suggested that letter-writing be made one of the chief fields for composition work. In Exercise 75, are given a number of suggestions for letter-writing. Others will readily occur to the teacher. THE HEADING 152. POSITION OF HEADING. In all business letters the writer's address and the date of writing should precede the letter and be placed at the upper right hand side of the sheet not less than an inch from the top. This address and date is called the HEADING. In friendly letters the parts of the heading are sometimes placed at the end of the letter on the left side a short distance below the body of the letter. This is permissible, but to place it at the beginning in all letters is more logical and customary. Never write part of the heading at the beginning and part at the end of the letter. 153. ORDER OF HEADING. The parts of the heading should be sufficient to enable the accurate addressing of a reply, and should be in the following order: (1) the street address, (2) the town or the city address, (3) the date. If all cannot be easily placed on one line, two or even three lines should be used; but, in no case, should the above order be varied. Examples: Wrong: March 31, 1910, Red Oaks, Iowa, 210 Semple Street. Right: 210 Semple Street, Red Oaks, Iowa, March 31, 1910. Right: 210 Semple Street, Red Oaks, Iowa, March 31, 1910. Right: 210 Semple Street, Red Oaks, Iowa, March 31, 1910. If only two lines are used, put the writer's address on the first line and the date on the second. Wrong: January 19, 1910, Sharon, Pennsylvania, The Hotel Lafayette. Right: The Hotel Lafayette, Sharon, Pennsylvania, January 19, 1910. 154. PUNCTUATION OF HEADING. Place a period after each abbreviation that is used. In addition to this, place commas after the street address, after the town address, after the state address, and after the number of the day of the month. Place a period after the number of the year. Examine the correct address under §153. 155. FAULTS TO BE AVOIDED IN HEADINGS. Avoid the use of abbreviations in the friendly letter, and avoid their too frequent use in the business letter. It is better to avoid abbreviating any but the longer names of states. Avoid all such abbreviations as the following: _St._ for _Street; Ave._ for _Avenue; Apart._ for _Apartments; Chi._ for _Chicago; Phila._ for _Philadelphia_. Wrong: Hardie Apart., Pbg., Pa. Right: Hardie Apartments, Pittsburg, Pa. Do not use the sign # before the street number. Do not omit the word _Street_. Wrong: 229 Market. Right: 229 Market Street. Do not write the date thus: _9/10/10_. Represent the numbers by figures, not words. See §§ 75 and 76. Do not use _st., rd.,_ etc., after the number of the day. Wrong: 9/8/09. Right: September 8, 1909. Wrong: September the Ninth, Nineteen Hundred and Nine. Right: September 9, 1909. Wrong: March 10th, 1910. Right: March 10, 1910. THE INSIDE ADDRESS 156. POSITION OF INSIDE ADDRESS. In strictly commercial letters the name and the address of the person to whom the letter is being sent should come at the beginning of the letter, and should begin flush with the margin at the left side of the page, and a little below the level of the heading. The second line of the inside address should be set in a little from the margin. See model letters under §174. In formal friendly letters and in letters of a non-commercial nature, the inside address should stand a little below the bottom of the letter at the left side of the page. In informal friendly letters the inside address may be omitted. 157. PUNCTUATION OF INSIDE ADDRESS. In punctuating the inside address, place a period after each abbreviation that is used. In addition to this, place a comma after the name of the addressee, a comma after the street address, if one be given, and after the name of the town or city. Place a period after the name of the state or country. Examine the correct inside address under §174. 158. FAULTS TO BE AVOIDED IN THE INSIDE ADDRESS. Do not omit the town, city, or state address from the inside address. Wrong: Mr. E. P. Griffith, My dear Sir: Right: Mr. E. P. Griffith. Muskogee, Oklahoma. My dear Sir: Right: Mr. E. P. Griffith, 221 Fiji Avenue, Muskogee, Oklahoma. My dear Sir: Do not omit proper titles. Wrong: R. R. Stolz, Muncy, Pennsylvania. Right: Mr. R. R. Stolz, Muncy, Pennsylvania. When two or more men are addressed, do not omit the title _Mr._, before the name of each of the men, unless their names constitute a partnership or trading name. Right: Jones & Smith, (_firm name_) New York City. Gentlemen: Right: Mr. Jones and Mr. Smith, (_not a firm name_) New York City. Gentlemen: Avoid all abbreviations of titles preceding the name except _Mr., Mrs., Messrs._, and _Dr._ Abbreviations of titles placed after the name, such as, _Esq., D.D., A.M._, etc., are proper. Do not use _Mr._ and _Esq._ with the same name. Avoid all other abbreviations except in case of a state with a very long name. In this case it is permissible to abbreviate, but it is better form to write the name in full. _United States of America_ may be abbreviated to _U. S. A._ Wrong: Merch. Mfg. Co., N. Y. C. Gentlemen: Right: The Merchants' Manufacturing Company. New York City. Gentlemen: Wrong: Mr. William Shipp, Bangor, Me. Dear Sir: Right: Mr. William Shipp, Bangor, Maine. Dear Sir: Do not place a period after the title _Miss. Miss_ is not an abbreviation. THE SALUTATION 159. POSITION OF SALUTATION. The salutation should begin flush with the margin and on the line next below the inside address. See correctly written letters under §174. 160. FORM OF SALUTATION. The salutation varies with the form of the letter and the relations between the writer and receiver of the letter. Where the parties are strangers or mere business acquaintances the most common salutations for individuals are, _Dear Sir, Dear Madam_, or _My dear Sir, My dear Madam_. For a group of persons, or for a company or a partnership, _Gentlemen, Dear Sirs, Dear Madams_ or _Mesdames_ are used. In less formal business letters such salutations as, _My dear Mr. Smith_, or _Dear Miss Jaekel_ may be used. In the case of informal and friendly letters, as in business and formal letters, the salutation to be used is largely a matter of taste. The following are illustrations of proper salutations for friendly letters: _My dear Doctor, Dear Cousin, Dear Cousin Albert, Dear Miss Jaekel, Dear Major, My dear Miss Smith, Dear William, Dear Friend,_ etc. It is considered more formal to prefix _My_ to the salutation. It is over formal to use simply _Sir_ or _Madam_ in any letter, or to use _Dear Sir_ or _Dear Madam_ when writing to a familiar friend. If one uses a very familiar salutation, such as _Dear Brown, Dear John,_ etc., it is better to put the inside address at the close of the letter, or to omit it. 161. PUNCTUATION OF SALUTATION. Punctuate the salutation with a colon, except in informal letters, when a comma may be used. 162. FAULTS TO BE AVOIDED IN THE SALUTATION. Use no abbreviations except _Dr., Mr., Mrs._ Do not use the abbreviation _Dr._, when that title is used as a final word in a salutation. Wrong: My dear Maj. Wren: Right: My dear Major Wren: Wrong: My dear Dr.: Right: My dear Doctor: Do not use a name alone as a salutation. Wrong: Mr. W. W. Braker: Will you please inform ... Right: Mr. W. W. Braker, Muncy, Pennsylvania. Dear Sir: Will you please inform ... In the salutation capitalize only the important nouns and the first word of the salutation. Wrong: My Dear Sir: Right: My dear Sir: Wrong: My very Dear Friend: Right: My very dear Friend: Wrong: Dear sir: Right: Dear Sir: THE BODY OF THE LETTER 163. THE SUBJECT MATTER OF THE LETTER. In friendly letters much latitude is allowed in the body of the letter, but business letters should be brief and to the point. No letter, however, should be lacking in the courteous forms or in completeness. 164. FORM OF BODY. The body of the letter usually begins on the line below the salutation and is indented the same distance from the margin as any other paragraph would be indented. See model letters under §174. In commercial letters paragraph divisions are made more frequently than in other composition. Each separate point should be made the subject of a separate paragraph. 165. FAULTS IN BODY OF THE LETTER. In letters that are intended to be complete and formal, avoid the omission of articles, pronouns, and prepositions. Avoid also expressions that are grammatically incomplete. Only in extremely familiar and hasty letters should the "telegraph style" be adopted. Bad: Received yours of the 10th. Have had no chance to look up man. Will do so soon. Good: I have received your letter of the tenth. I have had no chance as yet to look up the man, but I will do so soon. Bad: Address c/o John Smith, Mgr. Penna. Tele. Good: Address in care of John Smith, Manager of the Pennsylvania Telegraph. Bad: In reply will say ... Good: In reply I wish to say ... Bad: Yours of the 10th at hand. Good: Your letter of the 10th is at hand. Bad: Your favor received ... Good: We have received your letter ... Bad: Enclose P. O. money order for $2. Good: We enclose post office money order for two dollars, ($2). Bad: We have read your plan. Same is satisfactory. Good: We have read your plan, and it is satisfactory. Avoid the use of abbreviations in the letter. It is well to avoid the too frequent use of the pronoun _I_ in the letter, though care must be taken not to carry this caution to extremes. _I_, however, should not be omitted when necessary to the completeness of the sentence. Do not try to avoid its use by omitting it from the sentence, but by substituting a different form of sentence. There is no objection to beginning a letter with _I_. Punctuate the letter just as carefully as any other composition. Excepting in letters of a formal nature, there is no objection to the use of colloquial expressions such as _can't, don't,_ etc. Unless you have some clear reason to the contrary, avoid the use of expressions that have been used so much that they are worn out and often almost meaningless. Such expressions as the following ones are not wrong, but are often used when they are both inappropriate and unnecessary. Your esteemed favor is at hand. In reply permit me to say ... We beg leave to advise ... We beg to suggest ... Thanking you for the favor, we are ... Please find enclosed ... In answer to your favor of the tenth ... We take pleasure in informing you ... In reply would say ... We beg to acknowledge receipt of your favor ... Awaiting your further orders, we are ... THE CLOSE 166. FINAL WORDS. Business letters frequently close with some final words, such as, _Thanking you again for your kind assistance, I am ..., A waiting your further orders, we are_ ..., etc. These expressions are not wrong, but are often used when not at all necessary. 167. THE COMPLIMENTARY CLOSE. The complimentary close should be written on a separate line near the middle of the page, and should begin with a capital letter. Appropriateness is the only guide to the choice of a complimentary close. The following complimentary closes are proper for business letters: Yours respectfully, Yours very truly, Yours truly, Very truly yours, The following complimentary closes are proper for friendly letters: Yours sincerely, Very truly yours, Yours very truly, Your loving son, Yours cordially, Affectionately yours, 168. FAULTS IN THE CLOSE. Do not use abbreviations, such as, _Yrs. respy., yrs. try.,_ etc. 169. THE SIGNATURE OF THE WRITER. The letter should be so signed as to cause no doubt or embarrassment to any one addressing a reply. The signature should show whether the writer is a man or a woman; and, if a woman, it should indicate whether she is to be addressed as _Miss_ or _Mrs._ In formal letters it is customary for a woman to indicate how she is to be addressed by signing her name in the following manner: Sincerely yours, Caroline Jones. (Mrs. William Jones). Very truly yours, (Miss) Matilda Stephens. In signing a company name write first the name of the company, and after it the name of the writer. Example: D. Appleton & Company, per J. W. Miller. MISCELLANEOUS DIRECTIONS 170. In beginning the letter, place the address and date an inch and a half or two inches below the top of the page. Leave a margin of about a half inch or more on the left side of the page. Indent the beginning of each paragraph about an inch or more beyond the margin. In using a four-page sheet, write on the pages in their order, 1, 2, 3, 4. In the correctly written forms of letters under §174 observe the indentation of the lines. The first line of the inside address should be flush with the margin, the second somewhat set in. The salutation should begin flush with the margin. The body of the letter should begin on the line below the salutation, and some distance in from the margin. THE OUTSIDE ADDRESS 171. POSITION OF OUTSIDE ADDRESS. Place the address on the envelope so that it balances well. Do not have it too far toward the top, too close to the bottom, nor too far to one side. See addressed envelope under §173. Place the stamp squarely in the upper right-hand corner, not obliquely to the sides of the envelope. 172. PUNCTUATION OF OUTSIDE ADDRESS. Punctuation may be omitted at the end of the lines of the address. If it is used, place a period at the end of the last line, and a comma after each preceding line. Within the lines punctuate just as you would in the inside address. If an abbreviation ends the line, always place a period after it, whether the other lines are punctuated or not. 173. FAULTS IN THE OUTSIDE ADDRESS. Avoid the use of abbreviations except those that would be proper in the inside address or in the heading. See §§ 155 and 158. Do not use the sign # before the number of the street address. No letters or sign at all should be used there. See §155. Compare the following forms of addresses: Bad: Col. Wm. Point, #200 John St., Trenton, N. J. Good: Colonel William Point, 200 John Street, Trenton, New Jersey. Good: Colonel William Point 200 John Street Trenton, New Jersey Bad: Chas. Jones, c/o Edward Furrey, Wilkinsburg, Pa. Good: Mr. Charles Jones In care of Mr. Edward Furrey Wilkinsburg Pennsylvania Bad: Rev. Walter Bertin Good: The Reverend Walter Bertin Bad: Pres. of Bucknell Univ. Good: For the President of Bucknell University. A properly arranged address: [Illustration: Mr. Robert D. Royer, 201 Tenth Street, Danville, Illinois.] 174. CORRECTLY WRITTEN LETTERS 200 Mead Avenue, Wilkinsburg, Pennsylvania, January 12, 1909. Mr. A. M. Weaver, Cambridge, Massachusetts. My dear Sir: I have received your letter of inquiry about the sale of my law books. I will say in answer that at present I have no intention of selling them. You may, however, be able to secure what you want from H. B. Wassel, Esquire, Commonwealth Building, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. He has advertised the sale of a rather extensive list of books. Very truly yours, Charles M. Howell. Muncy, New York, January 12, 1909. My dear Professor Morton: We are trying to establish in the school here some permanent system of keeping students' records. I have been told that you have worked out a card method that operates successfully. If you can give me any information in regard to your method, I shall consider it a very great favor. I enclose a stamped envelope for your reply. Very sincerely yours, Harris A. Plotts. Professor E. A. Morton, Braddock, Pennsylvania. Braddock, Pennsylvania, January 12, 1909. My dear Mrs. Hagon: I wish to thank you for your kind aid in securing Captain Howard to deliver one of the lectures in our course. Only your influence enabled us to get so good a man at so Iowa price. Very sincerely, Sylvester D. Dunlop. 173 State Street, Detroit, Michigan, January 23, 1910. To whom it may concern: It gives me great pleasure to testify to the character, ability and attainments of Mr. E. J. Heidenreich. He has been a trusted personal associate of mine for more than twenty years. He may be counted upon to do successfully anything that he is willing to undertake. Harry B. Hutchins. My dear Walter: I am to be in the city only a few more weeks before leaving permanently. Before I go, I should like to have you come out and take dinner with me some evening. How would next Wednesday at six o'clock suit you? If you can come at that time, will you please write or telephone to me sometime before Tuesday? Very cordially yours, Paul B. Vandine. 6556 Broad Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, March 30, 1909. The Lafayette, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, March 31, 1909. My dear Paul: I shall be very glad to accept your invitation to take dinner with you before you take final leave of the city. The time you mention, next Wednesday evening, is entirely satisfactory to me. I was more than pleased to receive your invitation, for the prospect of talking over old times with you is delightful. Sincerely yours, Walter Powell. Napoleon, Ohio, February 28, 1908. The American Stove Company, Alverton, Pennsylvania. Gentlemen: With this letter I enclose a check for ten dollars, for which please send me one of your small cook stoves, of the sort listed in your catalogue on page two hundred thirty-eight. It will be a great favor if you will hasten the shipment of this stove as much as possible, since it is urgently needed in a summer cottage that I have for rent. Very truly yours, Ernest Burrows. 223 Siegel Street, New York City, June 5, 1910. The Acme Tapestry Company, Syracuse, New York. Dear Sirs: Will you please send me a price list and descriptive catalogue of your tapestries and carpets? I have been commissioned to purchase all the tapestries and carpets that may be needed for the new Young Women's Christian Association Building, on Arlington Avenue, this city. I understand that institutions of this sort are allowed a ten per cent discount by you. Will you please tell me if this is true? Very truly yours, Anna R. Fleegor. (Mrs. C. C. Fleegor.) Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, May 10, 1910. The Merchant's Electric Wiring Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Gentlemen: I am writing to ask if you can give me employment in your work for about ten weeks beginning June 15th. I am at present taking a course in electrical engineering at Bucknell University, and am in my sophomore year., It is my plan to gain some practical experience in various sorts of electrical work during the vacations occurring in my course. This summer I want to secure practical experience in electric wiring. If you wish references as to my character and ability, I would refer you to Mr. William R. Stevenson, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, and to Mr. Harry E. McCormick, Superintendent of the Street Railways Company, Danville, Illinois. Salary is a very slight object to me in this work, and I shall be willing to accept whatever compensation you may see fit to offer me. Respectfully yours, Harvey H. Wilkins. Drawsburg, Ohio, May 21, 1910. My dear Norman: I have just heard of your good fortune and hasten to assure you of my sincere pleasure in the news. May you find happiness and prosperity in your new location. But do not forget that your old friends are still living and will always be interested in your welfare. Your affectionate cousin, Mary E. Johnston. 223 Holbrook Avenue, Wilkinsburg, Indiana. November 10, 1908. The Jefferson Life Insurance Company, Norfolk, Virginia. Gentlemen: I am the holder of Policy Number 2919 in your company. In that Policy, which was taken out about ten years ago, my occupation is stated to be carpenter. Lately I have changed occupations, and am now engaged in conducting a store. If, in order to maintain the validity of my policy, the change of occupation should be recorded on your books, will you please have the proper entry made. I should like to know if at the present time my policy has any cash surrender value, and if so, what that value is. Very truly yours, Arthur J. Pearse. Bunnell Building, Scranton, Pennsylvania, April 20, 1909. Mr. James R. Elliot, Germantown, Colorado. My dear Elliot: Will you please send me, as soon as you conveniently can, the addresses of George English, Ira S. Shepherd, and G. N. Wilkinson. This request for addresses may lead you to think that wedding invitations are to be looked for. Your conclusion, I am happy to say, is a correct one; I expect to be married sometime in June. Cordially your friend, Charles R. Harris. The Anglo-American Hotel, Vienna, Austria, March 19, 1907. Dear Aunt Emily: You will no doubt be surprised when you read the heading of this letter and learn that we are now in Vienna. We had really intended, as I wrote to you, to spend the entire months of March and April in Berlin, but a sudden whim sent us on to this city. Until we came to Vienna I had but a very vague idea of the city, and thought it a place of little interest. I was surprised to find it a place of so many beautiful buildings and beautiful streets. Still more was I surprised to find what a festive, stylish place it is. Paris may have the reputation for fashion and frivolity, but Vienna lacks only the reputation; it certainly does not lack the fashionable and frivolous air. The other day in one of the shops here, I discovered, as I thought, a very fine miniature. I purchased it to present to you, and have already sent it by post. It ought to reach you as soon as this letter. We have not received the usual letter from you this week, but suppose it is because we so suddenly changed our address. The necessity of forwarding it from Berlin has probably caused the delay. Father and Mother join in sending their love to you. Your affectionate niece, Mary. NOTES IN THE THIRD PERSON 175. It is customary and desirable to write certain kinds of notes in the third person. Such a note contains nothing but the body of the note, followed at the left side of the paper, by the time and the place of writing. Use no pronoun but that of the third person. Never use any heading, salutation, or signature. Use no abbreviations except _Mr., Mrs._, or _Dr._ Spell out all dates. 176. CORRECTLY WRITTEN NOTES IN THE THIRD PERSON. Mrs. Harry Moore requests the pleasure of Mr. Leighou's company at dinner on Sunday, June the first, at two o'clock. 1020 Highland Street, Washington, Pennsylvania, May the twenty-fifth. The Senior Class of Bucknell University requests the pleasure of Professor and Mrs. Morton's company on Tuesday evening, June the tenth, at a reception in honor of Governor Edwin S. Stuart. Bucknell University, June the fifth. Mr. Leighou regrets that a previous engagement prevents his acceptance of Mrs. Moore's kind invitation for Sunday, June the first. 110 Braddock Avenue, May the twenty-seventh. EXERCISE 75 _Make use of some of the following suggestions for letters. Have every letter complete in all its formal parts. Fill in details according to your own fancy:_ 1. A letter to the X Express Company of your town, complaining of their delay in delivering a package to you. 2. A letter to a friend, thanking him for the entertainment afforded you on a recent visit to his house. 3. A letter to the X Book Company, inquiring what dictionary they publish, the prices, etc. 4. A letter to Mr. X, asking him for a position in his office, and stating your qualifications. 5. A letter congratulating a friend on some good fortune that has befallen him. 6. A letter asking a friend his opinion of some business venture that you are thinking of entering upon. Explain the venture. 7. A letter to your home, describing to your parents your school. 8. A letter to a friend, telling him of the chance meeting with some friend. 9. A letter to the X store ordering from them material for covering a canoe that you are building. Explain your needs. 10. A letter describing experiences which you had on your vacation. 11. A letter arranging to meet a friend at a certain place, time, etc. 12. A letter explaining how to reach your home from the railway station. Leave no doubt. 13. A letter describing some new acquaintance. 14. A letter telling some humorous story that you have recently heard. 15. A letter to a relative telling him the recent occurrences in your town. 16. A letter detailing your plans for the succeeding year. 17. A letter describing some play which you have recently attended. 18. A letter to your parents explaining to them why you failed in an examination. 19. A letter inviting a friend to visit you at a certain time. 20. A letter accepting an invitation to visit a friend. 21. A letter stating your opinions on some public question; as, prohibition, woman suffrage, etc. 22. A letter discussing the baseball prospects in your town or school. 23. A letter to the X school, inquiring about courses of study given, prices, etc. 24. A formal third person invitation to a reception given to some organization to which you belong. 25. A formal third person acceptance of such invitation. 26. A travel letter describing your visit to various places of interest. 27. A letter describing a day's outing to a friend who was unable to go with you. 28. A letter describing a house to a man who wishes to purchase it. 29. A letter to a schoolmate describing to him various events which happened at school during his absence. 30. A letter in reply to an inquiry from a friend as to what outfit he will need to take along on a prospective camping trip. 31. A letter describing to a friend the appearance and characteristics of a dog which you have lately bought. 32. A letter to your parents telling them of your boarding place, your recent visit to the theater, your meeting an old friend, your work, your new acquaintances. Arrange the topics and make the transition as smooth as possible. 33. A letter telling about an intended celebration by the school of some national holiday. 34. A letter about a lecture that you recently attended. Describe the place, occasion, lecturer, address, etc. 35. A letter telling a friend the first impression you formed of your school. CHAPTER XI THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 177. By the term WHOLE COMPOSITION or THEME is meant a composition consisting of a number of related paragraphs all dealing with one general subject, whether the composition be a narration, a description, or an exposition. The following general principles applying to the construction of the whole composition are stated for the guidance of the inexperienced writer. 178. STATEMENT OF SUBJECT. Care should be used in the statement of the subject. It should not be so stated as to be more comprehensive than the composition, but should be limited to cover only what is discussed. For a small essay, instead of a big subject, take some limited phase of that subject: Too broad: _College, Photography, Picnics_. Properly limited: _A College Education as an Aid to Earning Power, Does College Life Make Loafers? Photography as a Recreation, How Picnics Help the Doctor._ 179. THE OUTLINE. Just as in the building of a house or of a machine, if anything creditable is to be attained, a carefully made plan is necessary before entering on the construction; so in the writing of an essay or theme, there should be made some plan or outline, which will determine what different things are to be discussed, and what is to be the method of developing the discussion. By the inexperienced writer, at least, a composition should never be begun until an outline has been formed for its development. As soon as the material for the composition is in hand, the outline should be made. It should be an aid in the construction of the composition, not a thing to be derived after the composition is completed. Only by the previous making of an outline can a logical arrangement be gained, topics properly subordinated, and a suitable proportion secured in their discussion. In the previous chapter on the paragraph the following different subtopics, were discussed: Definition of Paragraph. How to Secure Unity. Length of Paragraph. How to Secure Coherence. The Topic Sentence. Too Frequent Paragraphing. Unity in the Paragraph. Paragraphing of Speech. Coherence in the Paragraph. Paragraphing for Emphasis. Examples of Unity. Examples showing how Unity is Purpose of the Paragraph. Destroyed. Emphasis in the Paragraph. The Paragraph Theme. If the topics had been taken up in the above irregular order, a sorry result would have been obtained. Compare the above list of topics with the following arrangement of the same topics in a logical outline. THE PARAGRAPH 1. Its definition and purpose. 2. Its length. Paragraphing of speech. Paragraphing for emphasis. Too frequent paragraphing. 3. Its essential qualities. A. Unity. Definition. Examples showing how unity is destroyed. How to secure unity. The topic sentence. Development of topic sentence. Examples showing unity. B. Coherence. Definition. How to secure coherence. Examples showing coherence. C. Emphasis. Places of emphasis in the paragraph. 4. Practical construction of the paragraph. 5. The paragraph theme. 180. USE AND QUALITIES OF THE OUTLINE. The use of the outline is not restricted to an expository composition, as above, but is also necessary in narration and description. Usually, in a narration, the order of time in which events occurred, is the best order in which to present them, though other arrangements may frequently be followed with very good reason. In a description different methods may be followed. Often a general description is given, and then followed by a statement of various details. Thus, in describing a building, one might first describe in a general way its size, its general style of architecture, and the impression it makes on the observer. Then more particular description might be made of its details of arrangement and peculiarities of architecture and ornamentation. The whole object of the outline is to secure clearness of statement and to avoid confusion and repetition. To secure this end the outline should present a few main topics to which all others either lead up or upon which they depend. These topics or subtopics should all bear some apparent and logical relation to one another. The relation may be that of chronology; that of general statement followed by details; that of cause and effect; or any other relation, so long as it is a logical and natural one. The outline should not be too minute and detailed. It should be sufficient only to cover the various divisions of the subject-matter, and to prevent the confusion of subtopics. A too detailed outline tends to make the composition stiff and formal. The outline should have proportion. The essential features of the subject should be the main topics. Minor subjects should not be given too great prominence, but should be subordinated to the main topics. 181. THE BEGINNING OF THE COMPOSITION. To choose a method of beginning a composition often causes trouble. Usually a simple, direct beginning is the best. But sometimes an introductory paragraph is necessary in order to explain the writer's point of view, or to indicate to what phases of the subject attention is to be given. Examine the following methods of beginning. THE INDUSTRY OF LAWYER Oddly enough, hardly any notice is taken of an industry in which the United States towers in unapproachable supremacy above all other nations of the earth. The census does not say a word about it, nor does there exist more than the merest word about it in all the literature of American self-praise. MY CHILDHOOD FEAR OF GHOSTS Nothing stands out more keenly in the recollection of my childhood, than the feelings of terror which I experienced when forced to go to bed without the protecting light of a lamp. Then it was that dread, indefinite ghosts lurked behind every door, hid in every clothes-press, or lay in wait beneath every bed. THE USES OF IRON No other metal is put to so many uses and is so indispensable as iron. The opening sentences of a composition should be able to stand alone; their meaning or clearness should not depend upon reference to the title. Bad: THE VALUE OF LATIN IN THE HIGH SCHOOL There is a rapidly growing belief _that this study_ has too large a place in our high-school courses of study. Good: THE VALUE OF LATIN IN THE HIGH SCHOOL There is a rapidly growing belief _that Latin_ has too large a place in our high school courses of study. 182. UNITY IN THE COMPOSITION. Unity is an essential element of the whole composition as well as of the paragraph, and its demands here are in general the same. Nothing must be brought into the composition which does not fall well within the limits of the subject. In the different subdivisions, also, nothing must be discussed which properly belongs to some other division of the topic. As in the paragraph, a definite point of view should be adopted and adhered to. There must not be a continual changing of relation of parts of the composition to the subject, nor of the writer's relation to the subject. A consistent point of view is especially necessary in a narrative. If the writer is telling of events within his own experience, care must be taken not to bring in any conversation or occurrence, at which, by his own story, he could not have been present. A continual changing back and forth between present and past tenses must also be avoided. One or the other should be adopted consistently. 183. COHERENCE IN THE COMPOSITION. A composition must also be coherent. Its different parts must be closely knit together and the whole closely knit to the subject. Just as in the paragraph, words of reference and transition are needed, so in the composition, words, or sentences of reference and transition are needed, in order to bind the whole together and show the relation of its parts. For this purpose, the beginning of a new division or any definite change of topic should be closely marked, so as to prevent confusion. There should be transition sentences, or sentences which show the change of topic from paragraph to paragraph, and yet at the same time bridge the thought from paragraph to paragraph. These transition sentences may come at the end of a preceding paragraph, or at the beginning of a following one, or at both of these places. Examine the following parts of paragraphs in which the words or phrases showing transition from part to part are italicized: (Last sentence of first paragraph) ... The American War was pregnant with misery of every kind. (Second paragraph) _The mischief, however,_ recoiled on the unhappy people of this country, who were made the instruments by which the wicked purposes of the authors were effected. The nation was drained of its best blood, and of its vital resources of men and money. The expense of the war was enormous--much beyond any former experience. (Third paragraph) _And yet, what has the British nation received in return_ for this expense.... ... I was now enabled to see the _extent and aspect of my prison. In its size_ I had been greatly mistaken.... (Beginning of paragraph following one on Unity in the paragraph) _The second of the essentials of the paragraph_, coherence, demands that.... Frequently, in the longer compositions, a separate paragraph is devoted to accomplishing the transition from part to part. Observe the following: (Paragraph 7) ... The only other law bearing on this matter is the Act of Assembly of last year authorizing the receipts from the automobile taxes to be used in the construction of roads. This then completes the enumeration of what has already been done toward building good roads. (Paragraph 8. Transitional paragraph) _There are, however, several promising plans for the securing of this important result, which are now being seriously discussed._ (Paragraph 9) _The first of these plans is_ ... The following are a few of the words and phrases often used to indicate transition and to show relation between the paragraphs: _So much for, It remains to mention, In the next place, Again, An additional reason, Therefore, Hence, Moreover, As a result of this, By way of exception._ Examine the selection under §187. 184. THE ENDING OF THE COMPOSITION. In a longer composition, the ending should neither be too abrupt, nor, on the other hand, should it be too long drawn out. It should be in proportion to the length of the composition. Usually, except in the case of a story, it should consist of a paragraph or two by way of summary or inference. In a story, however, the ending may be abrupt or not. The kind of ending depends entirely upon the nature and the scheme of development of the story. Examine the following endings: Ending of a theme on _The Uses of Iron_: Only some of the more important uses of this wonderful metal, iron, have been mentioned. There are hundreds of other uses to which it is constantly put--uses which no other metal could fill. Gold may once have been called the king of metals, but it has long since lost its claim to that title. Ending of a story: John heard her answer, and began to move slowly away from the gate. "Good-bye," he said. And then he was gone, forever. Suggested subjects for the making of outlines and compositions. 1. How I Spent my Vacation. 2. Shall Final Examinations be Abolished? 3. The Subjects which Should be Taught in High Schools. 4. My Qualifications for a Position. 5. The Uses of Iron. 6. Paul Revere's Ride. 7. The City Park. 8. My Town as a Place of Residence. 9. The Value of Railroads. 10. Why I Believe in Local Option. 11. A Winter's Sleigh Ride. 12. Shall Foreign Immigration be Restricted? 13. My Youthful Business Ventures. 14. Why I Belong to the X Political Party. 15. Various Methods of Heating a House. 185. Below is given in full Lincoln's _Gettysburg Speech_. It is perfect in its English and its construction. Study it with especial reference to its coherence, unity, and emphasis. Some of the words of coherence have been italicized. Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers, brought forth upon this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. _Now_ we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether _that nation_, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of _that war_. We have come to dedicate a portion of _that field_ as the final resting-place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do _this. But_ in a larger sense we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who _struggled here_ have consecrated it far above our power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember, what we say here; but it can never forget what _they did here_. It is for us, the living, _rather_, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which _they who fought here_ have thus far so nobly advanced. _It is rather for us_ to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us, that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they here gave the last full measure of devotion; that we here highly resolve that _these dead_ shall not have died in vain; that _this nation_, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, and for the people, shall not perish from the earth. 186. _Small Economies_, from Mrs. Gaskell's _Cranford_. I have often noticed that everyone has his own individual small economies--careful habits of saving fractions of pennies in some one peculiar direction--any disturbance of which annoys him more than spending shillings or pounds on some real extravagance. An old gentleman of my acquaintance, who took the intelligence of the failure of a Joint-Stock Bank, in which some of his money was invested, with a stoical mildness, worried his family all through a long summer's day because one of them had torn (instead of cutting) out the written leaves of his now useless bank-book. Of course, the corresponding pages at the other end came out as well, and this little unnecessary waste of paper (his private economy) chafed him more than all the loss of his money. Envelopes fretted his soul terribly when they first came in. The only way in which he could reconcile himself to such waste of his cherished article was by patiently turning inside out all that were sent to him, and so making them serve again. Even now, though tamed by age, I see him casting wistful glances at his daughters when they send a whole inside of a half-sheet of note paper, with the three lines of acceptance to an invitation, written on only one of the sides. I am not above owning that I have this human weakness myself. String is my foible. My pockets get full of little hanks of it, picked up and twisted together, ready for uses that never come. I am seriously annoyed if any one cuts the string of a parcel instead of patiently and faithfully undoing it fold by fold. How people can bring themselves to use india-rubber bands, which are a sort of deification of string, as lightly as they do, I cannot imagine. To me an india rubber band is a precious treasure. I have one which is not new--one that I picked up off the floor nearly six years ago. I have really tried to use it, but my heart failed me, and I could not commit the extravagance. Small pieces of butter grieve others. They cannot attend to conversation because of the annoyance occasioned by the habit which some people have of invariably taking more butter than they want. Have you not seen the anxious look (almost mesmeric) which such persons fix on the article? They would feel it a relief if they might bury it out of their sight by popping it into their own mouths and swallowing it down; and they are really made happy if the person on whose plate it lies unused suddenly breaks off a piece of toast (which he does not want at all) and eats up his butter. They think that this is not waste. Now Miss Matty Jenkins was chary of candles. We had many devices to use as few as possible. In the winter afternoons she would sit knitting for two or three hours--she could do this in the dark, or by firelight--and when I asked if I might not ring for candles to finish stitching my wristbands, she told me to "keep blind man's holiday." They were usually brought in with tea; but we only burnt one at a time. As we lived in constant preparation for a friend who might come in any evening (but who never did), it required some contrivance to keep our two candles of the same length, ready to be lighted, and to look as if we burnt two always. The candles took it in turns; and, whatever we might be talking or doing, Miss Matty's eyes were habitually fixed upon the candle, ready to jump up and extinguish it and to light the other before they had become too uneven in length to be restored to equality in the course of the evening. One night, I remember this candle economy particularly annoyed me. I had been very much tired of my compulsory "blind man's holiday," especially as Miss Matty had fallen asleep, and I did not like to stir the fire and run the risk of awakening her; and so I could not even sit on the rug, and scorch myself with sewing by firelight, according to my usual custom.... 187. A LIST OF BOOKS FOR READING. These books are of a varied character and are all interesting and of recognized excellence in their English. Most of them are books that, as a matter of general education, should be read by everyone. Fiction: Treasure Island--Stevenson. Kidnapped--Stevenson. Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde--Stevenson. The Scarlet Letter--Hawthorne. Twice Told Tales--Hawthorne. The Luck of Roaring Camp--Bret Harte. Tales of Mystery and Imagination--Poe. Silas Marner--Eliot. Robinson Crusoe--Defoe. Ivanhoe--Scott. Henry Esmond--Thackeray. Pilgrim's Progress--Bunyan. The Spy--Cooper. The Man without a Country--Hale. Tales of a Traveller--Irving. The Legend of Sleepy Hollow--Irving. Rip Van Winkle--Irving. Lorna Doone--Blackmore. Uncle William--Lee. The Blue Flower--Van Dyke. Non-fiction: Sesame and Lilies--Ruskin. Stones of Venice--Ruskin. The American Commonwealth--Bryce. A History of the English People--Green. Views Afoot--Taylor. The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table--Holmes. Conspiracy of Pontiac--Parkman. Autobiography--Franklin. Lincoln--Douglas Debates. Critical Periods of American History--Fiske. Certain Delightful English Towns--Howells. The Declaration of Independence. Bunker Hill Oration--Webster. On Conciliation with America--Burke. The Sketch Book--Irving. CHAPTER XII WORDS.--SPELLING.--PRONUNCIATION 188. To write and to speak good English, one must have a good working vocabulary. He must know words and be able to use them correctly; he must employ only words that are in good use; he must be able to choose words and phrases that accurately express his meaning; and he must be able to spell and pronounce correctly the words that he uses. WORDS 189. GOOD USE. The first essential that a word should have, is that it be in good use. A word is in good use when it is used grammatically and in its true sense, and is also: (1) _Reputable_; in use by good authors and writers in general. The use of a word by one or two good writers is not sufficient to make a word reputable; the use must be general. (2) _National_; not foreign or local in its use. (3) _Present_; used by the writers of one's own time. 190. OFFENSES AGAINST GOOD USE. The offenses against good use are usually said to be of three classes: Solecisms, Barbarisms, and Improprieties. 191. SOLECISMS are the violations of the principles of grammar. Solecisms have been treated under the earlier chapters on grammar. 192. BARBARISMS. The second offense against good use, a barbarism, is a word not in reputable, present or national use. The following rules may be given on this subject: 1. AVOID OBSOLETE WORDS. Obsolete words are words that, once in good use, have since passed out of general use. This rule might also be made to include obsolescent words: words that are at present time passing out of use. Examples of obsolete words: methinks yesterwhiles twixt yclept afeard shoon 2. AVOID NEWLY COINED EXPRESSIONS OR NEW USES OF OLD EXPRESSIONS. There are a great many words current in the newspapers and in other hasty writing that have not the sanction of general good use at the present time, though many of these words may in time come into use. A safe rule is to avoid all words that are at all doubtful. Examples: an invite an exposé a try enthuse a combine fake A common newspaper fault is the coining of a verb or adjective from a noun, or a noun from a verb. Examples: locomote suicided derailment pluralized burglarized refereed 3. AVOID FOREIGN WORDS. A foreign word should not be used until it has become naturalized by being in general, reputable use. Since there are almost always English words just as expressive as the foreign words, the use of the foreign words usually indicates affectation on the part of the one using them. Examples: billet-doux (love letter) conversazione (conversation) ad nauseam (to disgust) distingué (distinguished) ad infinitum (infinitely) entre nous (between us) 4. AVOID PROVINCIALISMS. Provincialisms are expressions current and well understood in one locality, but not current or differently understood in another locality. Examples: guess (think) reckon (suppose) near (stingy) smart (clever) tuckered (tired out) lift (elevator) tote (carry) ruination (ruin) 5. AVOID VULGARISMS. Vulgarisms are words whose use shows vulgarity or ignorance. Such words as the following are always in bad taste: chaw nigger your'n gal flustrated hadn't oughter haint dern his'n 6. AVOID SLANG. Slang is a form of vulgarism that is very prevalent in its use even by educated people. Slang words, it is true, sometimes come into good repute and usage, but the process is slow. The safest rule is to avoid slang expressions because of their general bad taste and because of their weakening effect on one's vocabulary of good words. Examples of slang: grind swipe booze long green on a toot dough pinch peach dukes 7. AVOID CLIPPED OR ABBREVIATED WORDS. The use of such words is another form of vulgarism. Examples: pard (partner) rep (reputation) doc (doctor) cal'late (calculate) musee (museum) a comp (complimentary ticket) 8. AVOID TECHNICAL OR PROFESSIONAL WORDS. Such words are usually clearly understood only by persons of one class or profession. Examples: valence hagiology allonge kilowatt sclerosis estoppel 193. WHEN BARBARISMS MAY BE USED. In the foregoing rules barbarisms have been treated as at all times to be avoided. This is true of their use in general composition, and in a measure true of their use in composition of a special nature. But barbarisms may sometimes be used properly. Obsolete words would be permissible in poetry or in historical novels, technical words permissible in technical writing, and even vulgarisms and provincialisms permissible in dialect stories. EXERCISE 76 _Substitute for each of the barbarisms in the following list an expression that is in good use. When in doubt consult a good dictionary:_ Chaw, quoth, fake, reckon, dern, forsooth, his'n, an invite, entre nous, tote, hadn't oughter, yclept, a combine, ain't, dole, a try, nouveau riche, puny, grub, twain, a boom, alter ego, a poke, cuss, eld, enthused, mesalliance, tollable, disremember, locomote, a right smart ways, chink, afeard, orate, nary a one, yore, pluralized, distingué, ruination, complected, mayhap, burglarized, mal de mer, tuckered, grind, near, suicided, callate, cracker-jack, erst, railroaded, chic, down town, deceased (verb), a rig, swipe, spake, on a toot, knocker, peradventure, guess, prof, classy, booze, per se, cute, biz, bug-house, swell, opry, rep, photo, cinch, corker, in cahoot, pants, fess up, exam, bike, incog, zoo, secondhanded, getable, outclassed, gents, mucker, galoot, dub, up against it, on tick, to rattle, in hock, busted on the bum, to watch out, get left. EXERCISE 77 _Make a list of such barbarisms as you yourself use, and devise for them as many good substitute expressions as you can. Practice using the good expressions that you have made._ EXERCISE 78 _Correct the italicized barbarisms in the following sentences:_ 1. They can go _everywheres_. 2. He spends all his time _grinding_. 3. There _ain't_ a _sightlier_ town in the state. 4. He ate the whole _hunk_ of cake. 5. He was treated very _illy_. 6. Smith's new house is very _showy_. 7. Not _muchly_ will I go. 8. All were ready for breakfast before _sun-up_. 9. Do you like _light-complected_ people? 10. I had never _orated_ before. 11. Their clothes are always _tasty_ in appearance. 12. He has money, but he is very _near_. 13. He left the room _unbeknown_ to his mother. 14. If manners are any indication, she belongs to the _nouveau riche_. 15. I feel pretty _tollable_ today. 16. I _reckon_ all will be able to get seats. 17. Do you _callate_ to get there before noon? 18. If I had as much _long green_ as he has, I wouldn't be such a _tight-wad_. 19. He was the _beau ideal_ of soldier. 20. John is a _crazy cuss_. 21. Let me say _en passant_ we did not ask for the tickets. 22. Even at that time John had a bad _rep_. 23. That woman is the Countess of Verdun, _née_ Smith. 24. _Methinks_ you are wrong. 25. The teacher _spake_ sharply to her. 26. I _didn't go for to do_ it. 27. It will be published _inside of_ two months. 28. The duke and his wife were travelling _incog_. 29. I hadn't _thought on_ that. 30. There is little difference _twixt_ the two. 31. Come now, _fess up_. 32. It's a _right smart ways_ to Williamsport. 33. You _wot_ not what you say. 34. He bought a _poke_ of apples for his lunch. 35. Brown runs a pretty _classy_ store. 36. I finally _got shut_ of him. 37. I _could of_ jumped across. 38. That can't be done _nohow_. 39. You make such _dumb_ mistakes. 40. I never saw such a _bum_ show. 194. IMPROPRIETIES. The third offense against good use, an impropriety, is the use of a proper word in an improper sense. In many cases an offense against good use may be called a barbarism, an impropriety, or a solecism, since the fields covered by the three terms somewhat overlap one another. Many improprieties have their origin in the similarities in sound, spelling or meaning of words. The following exercises deal with a number of common improprieties resulting from the confusion of two similar words. EXERCISE 79 _Study the proper use of the words given under each of the following divisions. In each group of sentences fill the blanks with the proper words:_ ACCEPT, EXCEPT. See Glossary at end of book, under _except_. 1. I cannot ---- your gift. 2. Have you no books ---- these? 3. Cicero was not ---- from the list of those condemned. 4. He ---- the invitation. AFFECT, EFFECT. See Glossary under _effect_. 1. Will your plan ---- a reform from the present condition? 2. The sad news will seriously ---- his mother. 3. How was the bank ---- by the indictment of its president? 4. The change of schedule was ---- without a hitch. AGGRAVATE, IRRITATE. See Glossary. 1. Her manner ---- me. 2. The crime was ---- by being committed in cold blood. 3. The children do everything they can to ---- her. 4. His illness was ---- by lack of proper food. ALLUDE, MENTION. See Glossary. 1. He ---- (to) certain events which he dared not name directly. 2. The attorney ---- (to) no names. 3. That passage in his book delicately ---- (to) his mother. 4. In his speech the labor leader boldly ---- (to) his recent arrest. ARGUE, AUGUR. _To argue_ is to state reasons for one's belief. _To augur_ means _to foretell, to presage_. 1. The reported quarrel ---- ill for the army. 2. He will ---- at length on any subject. 3. Her darkening looks ---- a quarrel. AVOCATION, VOCATION. A _vocation_ is one's principal work or calling. _An avocation_ is something aside from or subordinate to that principal calling. 1. The young physician enthusiastically pursues his ----. 2. Law is his ----, but politics is his ----. 3. The ministry should be one's ----, never his ----. 4. While preparing for his life work, school teaching was for a time his ----. BESIDES, BESIDE. _Besides_ means _in addition to. Beside_ refers to place; as, _He sits beside you_. 1. ---- you, who else was there? 2. Is there nothing ---- this to do? 3. John walked ---- me. 4. ---- me was a tree. CALCULATE, INTEND. _To calculate_ means _to compute, to adjust_ or _to adapt. Intend_ means _to have formed the plan to do something_. 1. He ---- to sell books this summer. 2. He ---- that the work will take ten years. 3. He ---- to finish it as soon as he can. 4. The oil is ---- to flow at the rate of a gallon a minute. CHARACTER, REPUTATION. See Glossary. 1. In this community his ---- is excellent. 2. One's friends may endow him with a good ----, but not with a good ----. 3. Slander may ruin one's ----, but it will not destroy his ----. 4. See that your ---- is right, and your ---- will establish itself. CLAIM, ASSERT. _To claim_ means to make a demand for what is one's own. It should not be confused with _assert_. 1. I ---- that I am innocent. 2. John ---- the property as his. 3. They ---- their right to the land. 4. The cashier ---- the money in payment of a note. 5. Do you still ---- that you were born in America? COUNCIL, COUNSEL, CONSUL. A _council_ is a group of persons called in to hold consultation. _Counsel_ means _an adviser_, as a lawyer; or _advice_ that is given. _Consul_ is an officer of the government. 1. In the colonies each governor had his ----. 2. The advisers gave him ---- when he desired it. 3. The United States has a ---- in every important foreign port. 4. In criminal cases the accused must be provided with ----. 5. The president's cabinet constitutes for him a sort of ----. 6. In Rome two ---- were elected to manage the affairs of the state. EMIGRATION, IMMIGRATION. See Glossary. 1. Foreign ---- into the United States is greatly restricted. 2. The ---- of the citizens of the United States to Canada is becoming a matter of concern. 3. Our ---- Bureau enforces the Chinese Exclusion Act. 4. The treatment of the royalists caused a great ---- from France. GOOD, WELL. _Good_ is an adjective. _Well_ is usually an adverb, though sometimes an adjective; as, _Are you well to-day?_ 1. She talks very ----. 2. She prepares a ---- paper, even if she does not write ----. 3. Do ---- what you are doing. 4. Did you have a ---- time? 5. Recite it as ---- as you can. HOUSE, HOME. _House_ means only _a building. Home_ means a place that is one's habitual place of residence. 1. He thought often of the flowers about the door of his old ----. 2. They have recently bought a ---- which they intend to make their ----. 3. Mr. Heim lives here now, but his ---- is in Lewisburg. 4. He has several miserable ---- that he rents. 5. Such a place is not fit to be called a ----. MOST, ALMOST. _Almost_ is an adverb meaning _nearly. Most_ never has this meaning. 1. I was ---- injured when the machine broke. 2. It is ---- time for him to come. 3. The ---- discouraging thing was his indifference. 4. I ---- missed the car. 5. ---- of the books are torn. LET, LEAVE. See Glossary, under _leave_. 1. Will his employer ---- him go so early. 2. I shall ---- at noon. 3. ---- me help you with your coat. 4. ---- me here for a while. 5. This book I ---- with you. 6. Do not ---- that danger disturb you. LIKE, AS. _Like_ should not be used as a conjunction in the sense of _as_. As a preposition it is correct. It is wrong to say, _Do like I do_; but right to say, _Do as I do_. 1. He looks ---- James. 2. Read ---- James does. 3. Does she look ---- me? 4. She thinks of it ---- I thought. 5. Lincoln could do a thing ---- that. 6. Other men could not do ---- Lincoln did. LIKELY, LIABLE, PROBABLY. It is better to avoid using _likely_ as an adverb; but it may be used as an adjective; as, _He is likely to come. Probably_ refers to any sort of possibility. _Liable_ refers to an unpleasant or unfavorable possibility; it should not be used as equivalent to _likely_. 1. He is ---- to arrest for doing that. 2. The president's car will ---- arrive at noon. 3. It is ---- to rain to-day. 4. Is he ---- to write to us? 5. Continued exposure makes one more ---- to serious illness. 6. What will ---- come of it? LOAN, LEND. _Loan_ should be used only as a noun, and _lend_ only as a verb. 1. I wish to obtain a ---- of fifty dollars. 2. Will you ---- me your knife? 3. A ---- of money loses both itself and friend. 4. A ---- is something that one ---- to another. MAD, ANGRY. Mad means _insane, uncontrollably excited through fear_, etc. It should not be used for _angry_ or _vexed_. 1. His manner of speaking makes me ----. 2. It makes one ---- to see such behavior. 3. The noise almost drove me ----. MUCH, MANY. _Much_ refers to quantity; _many_ to number. 1. Sometimes they have as ---- as fifty in a class. 2. ---- of the trouble comes from his weak eyes. 3. Do you use ---- horses on the farm? 4. How ---- marbles did the boy have? NEAR, NEARLY. _Near_ is an adjective; _nearly_ an adverb. 1. Is the work ---- finished? 2. The man was ---- the end of the porch. 3. It was ---- noon when Blucher came. 4. They are ---- insane with worry. 5. Mary is not ---- so old as John. OBSERVATION, OBSERVANCE. _Observation_ means to _watch, to look at. Observance_ means _to celebrate, to keep_. _Observation_ applies to a fact or an object; _observance_ to a festival, a holiday, or a rule. 1. The ---- of the astronomer proved the theory. 2. Sunday ---- is of value to one's bodily as well as to one's spiritual health. 3. The ---- of the sanitary regulations was insisted upon. 4. The scientist needs highly developed powers of ----. RESPECTIVELY, RESPECTFULLY. _Respectively_ means _particularly, relating to each. Respectfully_ means _characterized by high regard._ 1. These three kinds of architecture were characterized ---- as "severe," "graceful," and "ornate." 2. Sign your letter "Yours ----," not "yours ----." 3. Their shares were ---- two hundred dollars and five hundred dollars, 4. The class ---- informed the faculty of their desire. SUSPECT, EXPECT. _Suspect_ means _to mistrust. Expect_ means _to look forward to_. 1. I ---- that he will come. 2. He ---- his brother of hiding his coat. 3. When do you ---- to finish the work? 4. The man was never before ---- of having done wrong. TEACH, LEARN. See Glossary under _learn_. 1. You must ---- him to be careful. 2. He must ---- to be careful. 3. To ---- a class to study is a difficult task. 4. Who ---- your class to-day. TRANSPIRE, HAPPEN. _Transpire_ does not mean _to happen_. It means _to become gradually known, to leak out_. 1. She knows everything that ---- in the village. 2. It ---- that he had secretly sold the farm. 3. No more important event than this has ---- in the last ten years. 4. It has now ---- that some money was stolen. QUITE, VERY. _Quite_ is not in good use in the sense of _very_ or _to a great degree_. It properly means _entirely_. 1. The book is ---- easy to study. 2. Have you ---- finished your work. 3. The train ran ---- slowly for most of the distance. 4. That is ---- easy to do. 5. We were ---- unable to reach the city any sooner. EXERCISE 80 _The following list includes some groups of words that are often confused. Far the proper meaning of the words refer to a good dictionary. Write sentences using the words in their proper senses:_ practical, skilled sensible, sensitive couple, two access, accession future, subsequent allusion, illusion, delusion folk, family conscience, consciousness evidence, testimony identity, identification party, person, firm limit, limitation plenty, many, enough of majority, plurality portion, part materialize, appear solicitation, solicitude invent, discover human, humane prescribe, proscribe bound, determined some, somewhat, something fix, mend mutual, common foot, pay noted, notorious creditable, credible wait for, wait on exceptionable, exceptional in, into EXERCISE 81 _Show how the use of each of the two italicized words in the following sentences would affect the meaning of the sentence:_ 1. We experienced a _succession series_ of hindrances. 2. That _statement assertion_ was made by an eye witness. 3. The student has remarkable _ability capacity_. 4. In my _estimate estimation_ the cost will be higher than fifty dollars. 5. The _import importance_ of his words is not fully understood. 6. The _union unity_ of the clubs is remarkable. 7. The _acts actions_ of the president were closely watched. 8. The man needed a new _stimulus stimulant_. 9. He was _captivated captured_ by her unusual charms. 10. We are quick to _impute impugn_ motives that we think to exist. 11. He was _convinced convicted_ by John's argument. 12. The dog's suffering was _alleviated relieved_ by the medicine. 13. He _persuaded advised_ me to consult a lawyer. 14. His behavior was _funny odd_. 15. The plan seems _practical practicable_. 16. That is the _latest last_ letter. 17. That certainly was not a _human humane_ action. 18. He _waited on waited for_ his mother. 19. The _completeness completion_ of the work brought many congratulations. EXERCISE 82 _Supply a word which will remedy the italicized impropriety in each of the following sentences. When in doubt consult a dictionary:_ 1. The _majority_ of the illustrations are good. 2. No one can accurately _predicate_ what the weather will be. 3. Shall you _except_ the invitation? 4. They _claim_ that the assertion cannot be proved. 5. They finally _located_ the criminal in Dravosburg. 6. I shall _leave_ you go at noon. 7. The _balance_ of the essay was uninteresting. 8. By questions they tried to _eliminate_ the true story. 9. They _impugn_ false motives to me. 10. He was greatly _effected_ by the news. 11. Sabbath _observation_ was then very strict. 12. They _expect_ that she wrote the letter. 13. The _invention_ of electricity has revolutionized all manufactures. 14. Who _learned_ her to sing? 15. Edison _discovered_ the phonograph. 16. One cannot comprehend the _enormity_ of a billion of dollars. 17. Many _complements_ were paid to her beauty. 18. His _consciousness_ pricked him. 19. How could any one be guilty of such a cruel _action_. 20. The _advancement_ of the army was very slow. 195. IDIOMS. There are in English, as in other languages, a number of expressions that cannot be justified by the rules of grammar or rhetoric; and yet these expressions are among the most forcible ones in the language, and are continually used by the best writers. These expressions that lie outside all rules we call idioms. Compare the following idiomatic expressions with the unidiomatic expressions that succeed them. The second expression in each group is in accord with the strict rules of composition; but the first, the idiomatic, is far more forceful. Idiomatic: The book which I read about. Unidiomatic: The book about which I read. Idiomatic: More than one life was lost. Unidiomatic: More lives than one life were lost. Idiomatic: Speak loud. Speak louder. Unidiomatic: Speak loudly. Speak more loudly. Idiomatic: A ten-foot pole. Unidiomatic: A ten-feet pole. Idiomatic: He strove with might and main. Unidiomatic: He strove with might. (Might and main are two words of the same meaning.) Idiomatic: He lectured on every other day. Unidiomatic: He lectured on one day out of every two. Idioms are not to be avoided. On the contrary, because they contribute great ease and force to composition, their use is to be encouraged. But the distinction between idiomatic and unidiomatic expressions is a fine one, and rests solely on usage. Care must be taken not to go beyond the idiomatic. There is probably little danger that the ordinary writer or speaker will not use idioms enough. The following expressions are examples of commonly used idioms: He was standing at the door _in his shirt sleeves_. I _don't think_ it will rain (I think it will not rain). She walked out of the room _on her father's arm_. John was a poor _shot_. Do you feel _like a little candy_? See what my foolishness has brought me _to_. What part of the city will they settle _in_? What was the house built _for_? John needs a match to light his pipe _with_. That is all I ask _for_. What are you driving _at_? _Hard put to it._ _By all odds._ _Must needs._ I must _get up_ by noon. _Get rid of._ _Get used to._ _Never so good._ _Whether or no._ I can't go _either_. _You forget yourself_ when you speak so harshly. I can come only _every other_ day. If the bell rings _answer the door_. _I take it_ that you will be there too. _Come and see_ me. _Try and_ do it. The thief _took to his heels_. 196. CHOICE OF WORDS. The words in which a thought is expressed may not offend against good use, and yet still be objectionable because they do not accurately and appropriately express the thought. One should choose not merely a word that will approximately express the thought, but the one word that best expresses it. The following suggestions are given to aid in the choice of words: 1. CHOOSE SIMPLE ENGLISH WORDS and avoid what is called "fine writing." Young writers and newspaper writers are greatly given to this offense of fine or bombastic writing. Examples: FINE WRITING SIMPLE STYLE Was launched into eternity Was hanged Disastrous conflagration Great fire Called into requisition the services Sent for the doctor of the family physician Was accorded an ovation Was applauded Palatial mansion Comfortable house Acute auricular perceptions Sharp ears A disciple of Izaak Walton A fisherman 2. DISTINGUISH BETWEEN GENERAL AND SPECIFIC TERMS. In some cases general words may be used to advantage, but more often specific words should be used, since they call to the mind a definite image. Compare these sentences: The _high color_ of his face showed his embarrassment. His _crimson_ face showed his embarrassment. He was a _large_ man. He was a _fat_ man. He was a man of _large frame_. He was a _tall, heavily proportioned_ man. He was a man _six feet four inches tall_ and _heavy_ in proportion. It was an _impressive_ building. It was a building of _impressive size_. It was a building of _impressive beauty_. His _fault_ was robbery. His _crime_ was robbery. 3. AVOID OVER-STATEMENT OF FACTS. The use of words that are too strong is a fault especially characteristic of Americans. Examples: Poor: The concert was _simply exquisite_. Better: The concert was _very good_. Poor: She was _wild_ over the mistake. Better: She was _much annoyed_ by the mistake. 4. AVOID HACKNEYED PHRASES; expressions that have been worked to death. Examples: His paternal acres. The infuriated beast. The gentle zephyrs of springtime. Was gathered to his fathers. The blushing bride was led to the hymeneal altar. Applauded to the echo. EXERCISE 83 _For each of the following expressions devise the best simple English expression that you can:_ 1. Individual was precipitated. 2. Tendered him a banquet. 3. At the witching hour of midnight. 4. The devouring element was checked. 5. Piscatorial sport. 6. Pedal extremities. 7. Fraught with tremendous possibilities. 8. Amid the plaudits of the multitude. 9. Caudal extremity. 10. Passed to his long home. 11. Dissected the Thanksgiving bird. 12. Presided at the organ. 13. Finger of scorn pointed at him. 14. Wended his way. 15. The green eyed monster. 16. The whole aggregation of knowledge chasers. 17. Maternal ancestor. 18. Shuffled off this mortal coil. 19. Failed to materialize at the banquet. 20. Tonsorial artist. 21. Twirler of the sphere. 22. Pugilistic encounters. 23. Performed his matutinal ablutions. 24. Partook of a magnificent collation. 25. Solemnized the rites of matrimony. EXERCISE 84 _In the third paragraph of the selection from Cranford (see §186) observe the use of the following words: HUMAN, WEAKNESS, HANKS, TWISTED, ANNOYED, and UNDOING. Study the specific nature of these words by grouping about each of them other words of somewhat similar meaning, and then comparing the force of the various words in each group._ _This sort of exercise may be continued by choosing passages from any careful writer and studying the words that he has used._ EXERCISE 85 _Substitute for each of the following expressions some expression that will be less general or less exaggerated:_ 1. She is _nice_ looking. 2. We had a _perfectly gorgeous_ time. 3. John is a _professional_ man. 4. The play was _simply exquisite_. 5. To hear his voice makes me feel _funny_. 6. The opposing team was _completely annihilated_. 7. A _noise_ caught our attention. 8. His manners are _horrid_. 9. We had a _great_ time. 10. Such arrogance is _unendurable_. 11. That is a _good_ book. 197. HOW TO IMPROVE ONE'S VOCABULARY. The few following suggestions may be found helpful in the acquiring of a good vocabulary: 1. CULTIVATE THE DICTIONARY HABIT. Learn the meaning, pronunciation, and spelling of each new word that you meet. Only when these three things are grasped about each word, does one really know the word. Some persons have found it an invaluable aid to carry with them a small note book or card on which they note down to be looked up at a convenient time words concerning which they are in doubt. 2. IN YOUR WRITING AND SPEAKING USE AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE THE NEW WORDS THAT YOU ACQUIRE. 3. CONSTRUCT GOOD ENGLISH EXPRESSIONS for all the slang, fine writing, and hackneyed phrases that you meet, and then use the good expressions instead of the bad ones. 4. STUDY SYNONYMS; words of similar form and meaning. Only by a knowledge of synonyms can you express fine shades of meaning. _Crabbe's_ English Synonyms and _Fernald's_ Synonyms and Antonyms are good books of reference for this purpose. In addition to these books, lists of synonyms will be found in many books that are designed for general reference. 5. TRY TO GET THE ONE WORD that will best express the idea. 6. READ GOOD BOOKS and good magazines, and read them carefully. 7. CULTIVATE THE SOCIETY of those who use good language. EXERCISE 86 _Look up the meaning of each of the words in the following groups of synonyms. Construct sentences in which each word is used correctly:_ 1. Love, like. 2. Wit, humor. 3. Discover, invent. 4. Observe, watch. 5. Pride, vanity, conceit. 6. Proof, evidence, testimony. 7. Balance, rest, remainder. 8. Word, term, expression. 9. Bring, fetch, carry. 10. Abandon, desert, forsake. 11. Propose, purpose, intend. 12. Healthful, healthy, wholesome. 13. Student, pupil, scholar. 14. Capacity, power, ability. 15. Blame, censure, criticism. 16. Accede, agree, yield, acquiesce. 17. Trickery, cunning, chicane, fraud. 18. Instruction, education, training, tuition. 19. Hardship, obstacle, hindrance, difficulty. 20. Maxim, precept, rule, law 21. Multitude, crowd, throng, swarm. 22. Delight, happiness, pleasure, joy. 23. Work, labor, toil, drudgery, task. 24. Silent, mute, dumb, speechless. 25. Kill, murder, assassinate, slay. 26. Hatred, enmity, dislike, ill-will. 27. Example, pattern, sample, model. 28. Obvious, plain, clear, apparent. 29. Noted, eminent, famous, prominent, notorious. 30. Old, aged, antique, ancient, antiquated, obsolete. SPELLING 198. The following is a list of words that are frequently misspelled or confused. Where possible, an effort has been made to arrange them in groups in order that they may be more easily remembered. The word with an added ending has been used in most cases in place of the bare word itself as, _occasional_ instead of _occasion_. A few rules have been included. accede descend pressure accident fascinate misspelled accommodate mischievous possession accordance miscellaneous accuracy muscle recollection succeed susceptible dispelled occasional miscellaneous occur existence monosyllable experience intellectual across sentence parallel amount embellishment apart foregoing wholly arouse forehead woolly village already forty villain all right foreign till forfeit amateur formally perpetual grandeur formerly persuade perspiration appal fulfill apparatus willful police appetite policies approximate guardian opportunity guessing presence opposite precede disappoint imminent preceptor disappearance immediately accommodation fiend choose commission siege chosen grammar friend inflammation yielding boundary recommend elementary summary seize symmetrical receive final committee receipt finally usual ledger succeed usually legible proceed ascend assassin recede ascent dissimilar secede discerning essential accede discipline messenger intercede discontent concede discreet necessary supersede descent necessity passport 199. Words ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, if monosyllables, or if the last syllable is accented, double the final consonant before the ending _-ed_ and _-ing_, but not before _-ence_; as, rob, rob_bed_, rob_bing_, rob_bers_. confer, confer_red_, confer_ring_, confer_ence_. transmit, transmit_ted_, transmit_ting_, transmi_ssion_. impel, impel_led_, impel_ling_, imp_ulsion_. Similar to the above are. defer, infer, prefer, refer, transfer, occur (occurrence), abhor (abhorrence), omit, remit, permit, commit, beset, impel, compel, repel, excel (excellence), mob, sob, rub, skid. If these words are not accented on the last syllable, the consonant is not doubled; as, benefit, benefit_ed_, benefit_ing_, benefi_cial_. Similar are: differ, summon, model. 200. Words ending in silent _e_ drop the _e_ before a suffix beginning with a vowel; as, arrive, arriv_ing_, arriv_ed_, arriv_al_. precede, preced_ed_, preced_ing_, preced_ence_. receive, receiv_ed_, receiv_ing_. Similar are: move, write, blame, tame, come, receive, believe, relieve, grieve, deceive, conceive, perceive, seize, precede, concede, supersede, recede, argue, rue, construe, woe, pursue. 201. Words ending in _-ge, -ce_, or _-se_, retain the _e_ before endings: as, arrange, arrangement; arrange, arranging. Similar are: gauge, manage, balance, finance, peace, service, amuse, use. 202. Words in _-dge_ do not retain the _e_ before endings; as, acknowledge, acknowledg_ment_, acknowledg_ed_, acknowledg_ing_. Similar are: nudge, judge. 203. Most words ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant change _y_ to _i_ before all endings except-_ing_: busy, bus_iness_, bus_ied_, busy_ing_. Similar are: duty, mercy, penny, pity, vary, weary, study. 204. WORDS OF SIMILAR SOUND: canvas (cloth) principle (rule) canvass (all meanings except _cloth_) principal (chief) capitol (a building) stationary (immovable) capital (all meanings except _building_) stationery (articles) counsel (advice or an adviser) miner (a workman) council (a body of persons) minor (under age) complement (a completing element) angel (a spiritual being) compliment (praise) angle (geometrical) 205. MISCELLANEOUS WORDS: annual laundry schedule awkward leisure separate beneficial lenient Spaniard decimal license speak exhilarate mechanical specimen familiarize mediæval speech fiber medicine spherical fibrous militia subtle genuine motor surely gluey negotiate technical height origin tenement hideous pacified their hundredths phalanx therefore hysterical physique thinnest icicle privilege until irremediable prodigies vengeance laboratory rarefy visible laid rinse wherein larynx saucer yielding PRONUNCIATION 206. The following list is made up of words that are frequently mispronounced. An effort has been made to arrange them in groups according to the most frequent source of error in their pronunciation. The only marks regularly used are the signs for the long and short sounds of the vowel. a as in _hate_ i as in _high_ u as in _use_ a as in _hat_ i as in _hit_ u as in _run_ e as in _me_ o as in _old_ oo as in _boot_ e as in _met_ o as in _hop_ oo as in _foot_ When sounds are not otherwise indicated take the sound that comes most naturally to the tongue. 207. a AS IN _HATE_: WORD CORRECT PRONUNCIATION alma mater _alma mater_ apparatus _apparatus_ apricot _apricot_ attaché _attasha'_ audacious _audashus_ ballet _bal'la_ blasé _blaza'_ blatant _blatant_ chasten _chasen_ Cleopatra _Cleopatra_ compatriot _compatriot_ gratis _gratis_ or _grahtis_ harem _harem_ or _hahrem_ heinous _hanous_ hiatus _hiatus_ implacable _implakable_ nape _nap_ née _na_ négligé _naglezha'_ patron _patron_ protégé _protazha'_ résumé _razuma'_ tenacious _tenashus_ tomato _tomato_ or _tomahto_ valet _va'la_ or _val'et_ vase _vas, vahz_, or _vaz_ veracious _verashus_ vivacious _vivashus_ 208. a AS IN _HAT_: alternative _alternative_ Arab _Ar'ab_, not _arab_ arid _ar'id_ asphalt _asfalt_, not _fawlt_ bade _bad_ catch not _ketch_ defalcate _defal'kate_, not _fawl_ dilletante _dilletan'te_ forbade _forbad_ granary _granary_ program _pro'gram_, not _grum_ rapine _rap'in_ rational _rational_ sacrament _sacrament_ 209. � AS IN _ARM_: aunt _änt_ behalf _behäf_ calf _käf_ calm _käm_ half _häf_ laugh _läf_ psalm _säm_ 210. e AS IN _ME_: amenable _amenable_ clique _klek_, not _klick_ creek _krek_, not _krick_ either _eether_ (preferable) mediocre _mediocre_ naïve _na'eve_ (_a_ as in _arm_) neither _neether_ (preferable) precedence _prece'dence_ precedent _prece'dent_ (when an adjective) predecessor _predecessor_ predilection _predilection_ premature _premature_ quay _ke_ resplendent _resplen'dent_ sacrilegious _sacrilegious_, not -_religious_ series _serez_ sleek _slek_, not _slick_ suite _swet_, not like _boot_ 211. e AS IN _MET_: again _agen_ against _agenst_ crematory _krem'atory_ deaf _def_, not _def_ heroine _heroin_, not like _hero_ measure _mezhure_, not _ma_ metric _metrik_ precedent _prec'edent_ (noun) prelate _prel'at_ presentation _prezentation_ sesame _ses'ame_ steady _stedy_, not _stiddy_ tenet _ten'et_ weapon _wepon_, not _wepon_ 212. i AS IN _HIGH_: appendicitis _appendicitis_ biennial _biennial_ biography _biography_ bronchitis _bronkitis_ carbine _carbine_ decisive _decisive_ demise _demise_ dynasty _di'nasty_ finis _finis_ grimy _grimy_ hiatus _hia'tus_ inquiry _inqui'ry_ long-lived _long-livd_ peritonitis _peritonitis_ privacy _privacy_ short-lived _short-livd_ simultaneous _simultaneous_ tiny _tiny_, not _teny_ 213. i AS IN _HIT_: bicycle _bi'sicle_ breeches _briches_ breeching _briching_ feminine _feminin_ genuine _genuin_ hypocrisy _hipok'risy_ italic _ital'ik_ Italian _italyan_ maritime _maritim_ pretty _pritty_ puerile _pu'eril_ respite _res'pit_ tribune _trib'un_ 214. o AS IN _OLD_: Adonis _Adonis_ apropos _apropo_ bowsprit _bowsprit_ brooch _broch_ not _broosh_ compromise _compromize_ jowl _jol_, not like _owl_ molecular _molecular_ ogle _ogle_ trow _tro_ vocable _vocable_ zoology _zoology_, not _zoo_ 215. o AS IN _HOP_: choler _koler_ dolorous _dolorous_ florid _florid_ molecule _molecule_ obelisk _obelisk_ probity _probity_ solecism _solesism_ solstice _solstice_ stolid _stolid_ 216. oo AS IN _BOOT_: bouquet _booka'_ canteloupe _can'taloop_ coup d'état _koo data'_ coupon _koo'pon_ ghoul _gool_ hoof _hoof_ roof _roof_ root _root_ route _root_ routine _rootine_ wound _woond_ 217. u AS IN _USE_: accurate _ak'kurat_ culinary _kulinary_ gubernatorial _gubernatorial_ jugular _jugular_ 218. u AS IN _US_: constable _kunstable_ courtesan _kur'tezan_ hover _huver_ iron _iurn_ monetary _munetary_ nothing _nuthing_ wont _wunt_ (different from _won't_) 219. MISCELLANEOUS WORDS. adobe _ado'ba_ algebra not _bra_ alien _alyen_, not _alien_ ameliorate _amelyorate_ antarctic _antarktik_ anti not _anti_ archangel _arkangel_ archbishop _arch_, not _ark_ arch fiend _arch_, not _ark_ architect _arkitect_ awkward _awkward_, not _ard_ Beethoven _batoven_ Bingen _Bing'en_ blackguard _blag'gard_ Bowdoin _bodn_ brougham _broom_ business _bizness_ caldron _kawldron_ calk _kawk_ Cayenne _kien'_ courtier _kortyer_ cuckoo _kookoo_ dilemma _dilem'ma_ directly not _directly_ dishevelled _dishev'ld_ Don Juan _Don Juan_ or _hooan_ drought _drowt_ drouth _drowth_ extempore _extempore_ (four syllables) familiarity _familyarity_ gaol _jal_ genealogy _-alogy_, not _-ology_ gemus _genyus_ Gloucester _gloster_ gooseberry _gooz_, not _goos_ Hawaiian _Hawi'yan_ (_a_ as in _arm_) Helena _hel'ena_ (except _St. Hele'na_) inconvenience _inconvenyence_ Israel _izrael_, not _issrael_ jeans _janes_ joust _just_ or _joost_ larynx _lar'inx'_ or _la'rinx_, not _larnix_ literature _literature_, or _choor_ Messrs. _meshyerz_ or _mesyerz_ Mineralogy _-alogy_, not _-ology_ nature _nature_, or _choor_ oleomargarine _g_ is hard, as in _get_ orchid _orkid_ oust _owst_, not _oost_ peculiar _peculyar_ pecuniary _pekun'yari_ perspiration not _prespiratian_ prestige _pres'tij_ or _prestezh'_ pronunciation _pronunzeashun_ or _pronunsheashun_ saucy not _sassy_ schedule _skedyul_ semi not _semi_ theater _the'ater_ not _thea'ter_ turgid _turjid_ usage _uzage_ usurp _uzurp_ vermilion _vermilyun_ wife's not _wives_ Xerxes _zerxes_ 220. WORDS WITH A SILENT LETTER: almond _ahmund_ chasten _chasen_ chestnut _chesnut_ glisten _glissen_ kiln _kill_ often _ofen_ ostler _osler_ poignant _poin'ant_ psalter _sawlter_ salmon _samun_ schism _sism_ soften _sofen_ subtle _sutle_ sword _sord_ thyme _time_ toward _tord_ 221. WORKS CHIEFLY OF FOREIGN PRONUNCIATION: WORD CORRECT PRONUNCIATION bivouac _biv'wak_ chargé d'affaires _shar zha'daffar'_ connoisseur _connissur_ dishabille _dis'abil_ ennui _onwe_, not _ongwe_ finale _finah'le_ foyer _fwaya'_ massage _masahzh_ naïve _nah'ev_ papier maché _papya mahsha_ piquant _pe'kant_ prima facie _prima fa'shie_ pro tempore _pro tem'pore_ régime _razhem'_ 222. WORDS OFTEN PRONOUNCED WITH A WRONG NUMBER OF SYLLABLES: aerial _aereal_, not _areal_ athlete two sylables, not _ath e lete_ attacked _attakt_, two syllables casualty _kazh'ualte_, not _ality_ conduit _condit_ or _kundit_, not _dooit_ different three syllables, not _diffrunt_ elm not _ellum_ helm not _hel um_ history three syllables, not _histry_ honorable not _honrable_ hygienic _hy gi en' ic_, four syllables interest not _intrust_ interesting not _intrusting_ ivory not _ivry_ omelet not _omlet_ realm not _rellum_ separable not _seprable_ ticklish two syllables, not _tickelish_ valuable _valuable_, not _valuble_ vaudeville _vodvil_ Zeus _zus_, not _zeus_ 223. WORDS ACCENTED ON THE FIRST SYLLABLE: admirable _ad'mirable_ alias _a'lias_ applicable _ap'plicable_ bicycle _bi'sikle_ chastisement _chas'tisement_ construe _con'strue_ despicable _des'picable_ desultory _des'ultory_ disputant _dis'putant_ exigency _ex'ijency_ explicable _ex'plicable_ exquisite _ex'quisite_ extant _ex'tant_ formidable _for'midable_ Genoa _jen'oa_ gondola _gon'dola_ harass _har'ass_ hospitable _hos'pitable_ impious _im'pious_, not _imp?ous_ industry _in'dustry_ inventory _in'ventory_ lamentable _lam'entable_ mischievous _mis'chievous_ obligatory _ob'ligatory_ pariah _pa'riah_ peremptory _per'emptory_ preferable _pref'erable_ Romola _Rom'ola_ vehemence _ve'hemence_ 224. WORDS ACCENTED ON THE SECOND SYLLABLE: WORD CORRECT PRONUNCIATION abdomen _abdo'men_ acclimate _accli'mate_ acumen _acu'men_ albumen _albu'men_ artificer _artif'iser_ bitumen _bitu'men_ chicanery _shika'nery_ illustrate _illus'trate_ incognito _inkog'nito_ incomparable _incom'parable_ indisputable _indis'putable_ inexorable _inex'orable_ inexplicable _inex'plicable_ inhospitable _inhos'pitable_ inquiry _inqui'ry_ irrevocable _irrev'ocable_ misconstrue _miscon'strue_ nitrogenous _nitroj'enous_ opponent _oppo'nent_ pianist _pian'ist_ refutable _refut'able_ syllabic _syllab'ic_ telegraphy _teleg'raphy_ vagary _vaga'ry_ Yosemite _yo swm' i te_ 225. WORDS ACCENTED ON THE LAST SYLLABLE: address _address'_ adept _adept'_ adult _adult'_ ally _ally'_ commandant _commandänt' (ä as in arm)_ contour _contour'_ dessert _dessert'_ dilate _dilate'_ excise _eksiz'_ finance _finance'_ grimace _grimace'_ importune _importune'_ occult _occult'_ pretence _pretence'_ research _research'_ robust _robust'_ romance _romance'_ tirade _tirade'_ 226. WORDS WHOSE PRONUNCIATION DEPENDS ON MEANING: accent _Accent'_ the first syllable. Place the _ac'cent_ upon the first syllable. aged An _a'ged_ man. Properly _aged_ wine (one syllable). blessed The _bless'ed_ saints. Let them be _blessed_ (one syllable). contrast The strange _con'trast_. _Contrast'_ the two. converse Did you _converse'_ with him? Is the _con'verse_ true? desert The sandy _des'ert_. They _desert'_ their friends. learned He _learned_ (one syllable) to sing. A _learn ed_ man. precedent A _prece'dent_ place. It establishes a _prec'edent_. project A new _proj'ect_. To _project'_ from. GLOSSARY OF MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS ADMIRE. Do not use _admire_ in the sense of _like_. Wrong: I should _admire_ to be able to do that. Right: I should _like_ to be able to do that. AGGRAVATE. Do not use _aggravate_ in the sense of _irritate_ or _disturb_. _Aggravate_ means _to make worse_. Wrong: His impudence _aggravates_ me. Right: His impudence _irritates_ me. AIN'T. _Ain't_ and _hain't_ are never proper as contractions of _am not, is not_, or _are not_. ALLOW. Do not use _allow_ in the sense of _assert, say_, or _intend_. Wrong: He _allowed_ that he had better start. I _allow_ to be back before noon. Right: He _said_ that he had better start. I _intend_ to be back before noon. ALLUDE. Do not use _allude_ in the sense of _refer_. To _allude_ to a thing means to refer to it in an indirect way. Wrong: He _alluded_ by name to John Milton. Right: He _alluded_ to Milton by the term "Blind Poet." ANY. Do not use _any_ in the sense of _at all_ or _to any degree_. Wrong: Because of the injury he can not see _any_. AS. Do not use _as_ for the relative pronouns _who_ and _that_. Wrong: I am the man _as_ digs your garden. Not _as_ I remember. Right: I am the man _who_ digs your garden. Not _that_ I remember. AS. Do not use _as_ in the sense of _since_ or _because_. Wrong: I cannot come _as_ I am sick now. Right: I cannot come; I am sick now. Right: I cannot come _because_ I am sick now. AT. Do not use _at_ for _in_ with the names of large cities Wrong: He lives _at_ Philadelphia. Right: He lives _in_ Philadelphia. ATTACKTED. Do not use this form for _attacked_. AWFUL, AWFULLY. These are two very much overworked words. Substitute other and more accurate expressions. Wrong: We have had an _awfully_ good time. That is an _awfully_ pretty dress. Right: We have had an _exceedingly_ nice time. That is a _very_ pretty dress. BADLY. Do not use _badly_ in the sense of _very much_. Wrong: She wanted _badly_ to come. Right: She wanted _very much_ to come. BESIDE, BESIDES. _Beside_ means _next to. Besides_ means _in addition to_. Right: John lives _beside_ his mother. Right: _Besides_ the daughters, there are three sons. BETWEEN. Do not use _between_ when referring to more than two objects. Wrong: There is bad feeling _between_ the members of the class. Right: There is bad feeling _among_ the members of the class. BLOWED. Do not use _blowed_ for _blew_ or _blown_. There is no such word. BEST. Do not use _best_ when only two objects are referred to. Use _better_. _Best_ should be used only when more than two are referred to. Wrong: He is the _best_ of the two brothers. Right: He is the _better_ of the two brothers. Right: He is the _best_ of the three brothers. BOUND. Do not use _bound_ for _determined_. Wrong: He was _bound_ to go skating. Right: He was _determined_ to go skating. Right: He _bound_ himself to pay three hundred dollars. BUT. Do not use _but_ after a negative in the sense of _only_. See §46. Wrong: There _isn't but_ one apple left. Right: There _is but_ one apple left. CALCULATE. Do not use _calculate_ in the sense of _think, expect_, or _intend_. CAN. Do not use _can_ to denote permission. It denotes ability or possibility. _May_ denotes permission. See §69 Wrong: _Can_ I speak to you for a minute? Right: _May_ I speak to you for a moment? CHARACTER, REPUTATION. Do not confuse these two words. _Character_ means one's moral condition. _Reputation_ means the morality that others believe one to possess. CLUM. There is no such form of the verb _climb_. COMPLECTED. Do not use _complected_ for _complexioned_. See §40. CONCLUDE. Do not use conclude in the sense of _forming an intention._ Right: Finally, I _decided_ to go home. Right: I was forced to _conclude_ that I had made an error. CONSIDERABLE. Do not use _considerable_ in the sense of _very much_. Wrong: This lesson is _considerable_ better than yesterday's. CUTE. A much overworked word. Use some expression that is more accurate; as, _pretty, amusing_, etc. DECEASE, DISEASE. Do not confuse _decease_ and _disease_. The first means _death_, the second _sickness_. _The deceased_ means a person who is dead. Wrong: The _diseased_ will be buried at four o'clock. Wrong: The property of the _diseased_ will be sold at auction. DECEASE. Do not use _decease_ as a verb in the sense of _die_. Wrong: His father _deceased_ last year. DEMAND. _Demand_ should not have a person as its object. Wrong: He _demanded_ John to pay. Right: He _demanded_ payment from John. He _demanded_ that John pay. DIFFERENT. Use the preposition _from_ after _different_, not _than_. DON'T. Do not use _don't_ with a subject in the third person singular. See §64. DOWN. Do not use _down_ as a verb in the sense of _defeat_ or _overthrow_. Wrong: Our football team _has downed_ every other team in the state. Right: Our football team _has defeated_ every other team in the state. DROWNDED. _Drownded_ is not a proper form of the verb _drown_. Say _drowned_. (Pronounced _drownd._) EACH OTHER. Do not use _each other_ to refer to more than two objects. See §44. Wrong: The members of the regiment helped _each other_. Right: The members of the regiment helped _one another_. EFFECT, AFFECT. Do not confuse _effect_ and _affect. Effect_ means _a result_, or _to cause a thing to be done. Affect_ means _to disturb_ or _have an influence on_. Wrong: The news _effected_ him seriously. Right: The news _affected_ him seriously. Wrong: The _affect_ of this news was to cause war. Right: The _effect_ of this news was to cause war. EITHER. Do not use _either_ with reference to more than two objects, nor follow it by a plural verb. See §43. Wrong: _Either_ of the three will do. _Either_ you or John _have_ done it. Right: _Any one_ of the three will do. _Either_ you or John _has_ done it. EMIGRATE, IMMIGRATE. Do not confuse _emigrate_ and _immigrate_. _To emigrate_ means _to go out of a place_, to _immigrate_ means _to come into a place_. Right: The Italians _emigrate_ from their country. Right: Of those who _immigrate_ to America, a large number are Italians. ENOUGH. Do not follow _enough_ by a clause beginning with _that_ or _so that_. Wrong: I studied _enough_ that I could recite the lesson. Right: I studied _enough to_ recite the lesson. ENTHUSE. Do not use _enthuse_ in the sense of to create enthusiasm. Wrong: He tried to _enthuse_ his audience. Right: He tried to _arouse_ enthusiasm in his audience. ETC. _Etc._ stands for _et cetera_, and means _and so forth_. Do not spell it _ect_. Do not use it in composition that is intended to be elegant. EVERYBODY. _Everybody_ should not be followed by a plural verb or a plural pronoun. See §21. EXCEPT, ACCEPT. Do not confuse these two words. _Accept_ means _to acknowledge_. _Except_ means _to exclude_. Right: I cannot _accept_ such slovenly work. Wrong: I _except_ your apology. EXCEPT. Do not use _except_ for _unless_. See §85. Wrong: I can not sleep _except_ it is quiet. EXPECT. Do not use _expect_ in the sense of _suppose_ or _think_. Wrong: I _expect_ you have read that book. Right: I _suppose_ you have read that book. FINE. Do not use _fine_ in place of some more definite word. _Fine_ is a much over-worked word. Wrong: The book is _fine_ for class-room work. Right: The book is _well adapted_ for class-room work. FIRSTLY. _Firstly_ should never be used. Say _first_. See §40. FIRST-RATE. Do not use _first-rate_ as an adverb in the sense of _very well_. Wrong: That does _first-rate_. Right: That does _very well_. Right: He is a _first-rate fellow_. FORMER. Do not use _former_ when more than two are referred to. Say _first_. See §41. FROM. Do not use _from_ with _whence, hence_ and _thence_. Wrong: _From whence_ have you come? Right: _Whence_ have you come? _From where_ have you come? FUNNY. Do not use _funny_ for _singular_ or _strange_. _Funny_ is an overworked word. Wrong: It is _funny_ that he died. Right: It is _singular_ that he died. GENT. Do not use the word at all. Say _gentleman_ or _man_. GENTLEMAN. Do not use _gentleman_ to denote sex only. Say _man_. _Gentleman_ is properly used, however, to denote a person of refinement. Wrong: Only _gentlemen_ are allowed to vote in Pennsylvania. Right: Mr. Lincoln was a _gentleman_ in the true sense of the word. GOT. Do not use got with _have_ or _had_ to indicate merely _possession_ or _obligation. Got_ means acquired through effort. Wrong: I _have got_ the measles. You _have got_ to do it. Right: I _have_ the measles. You _must_ do it. Right: After much study I _have got_ my lesson. GRAND. Do not use _grand_ in place of some more definite and accurate expression. It is another over-worked word. Wrong: We have had a _grand time_ this afternoon. Right: We have had a _very pleasant_ time this afternoon. GUESS. Do not use _guess_ in the sense of _think_ or _suppose_. Wrong: I _guess_ the trains are late to-day. Right: I _suppose_ the trains are late to-day. Right: Can you _guess_ the riddle? HAD OUGHT. Do not use _had_ with _ought_. See §54. HARDLY. Do not use _hardly_ after a negative. See §46. Wrong: I _can not hardly_ believe that. Right: I _can hardly_ believe that. HAVE. Do not use _have_ after _had_. Wrong: If I _had have been_ able to go. Right: If I _had been_ able to go. HEIGHTH. Do not use _heighth_ for _height_. HUNG. Do not confuse _hung_ and _hanged_. _Hanged_ is the proper word to use in reference to executions. Wrong: He was condemned _to be hung_. Right: He was condemned _to be hanged_. Right: The picture was _hung_ in the parlor. HUMBUG. Do not use _humbug_ as a verb. Wrong: He has _humbugged_ the people for years. ILLY. Do not use _illy_ for the adverb _ill_. See §40. IN, INTO. Do not confuse _in_ and _into_. Wrong: He went _in_ the house. Right: He went _into_ the house. Right: He exercised _in_ a gymnasium. KIND. Do not precede kind by _those_ or _these_. Wrong: I do not like _those kind_ of plays. Right: I do not like _that kind_ of play. KIND OF A. Do not use _a_ or _an_ after _kind of_. See §47. Wrong: It is _one kind of_ a mistake. Right: It is _one kind of_ mistake. LADY. Do not use _lady_ to designate sex only. It is properly used to indicate persons of refinement. Wrong: Is Mrs. Johnson a colored _lady_? Right: Is Mrs. Johnson a colored _woman_? Right: Mrs. Johnson is a colored _woman_, and _a lady_. LATTER. Do not use _latter_ to refer to more than two objects. Use _last_. See §41. LAY. Do not confuse _lay_ and _lie_. See §57. LEARN. Do not confuse _learn_ and _teach_. _Learn_ means _to acquire knowledge. Teach_ means _to impart knowledge_. Wrong: He can _learn_ you as much as any one can. Right: He can _teach_ you as much as any one can. LEAVE. Do not confuse _leave_ and _let_. Leave means _to let remain_. Let means _to give permission_. Wrong: Will your mother _leave_ you go? Right: Will your mother _let_ you go? Right: I shall _leave_ my trunk in my room. LIABLE. Do not use _liable_ for _likely_. Wrong: It is _liable_ to rain to-day. Right: It is _likely_ to rain to-day. Right: He is _liable_ for all that he has agreed to pay. LIGHTNING. Do not use _lightning_ as a verb in place of _lightens_. Wrong: During the storm, it _lightnings_ frequently. Right: During the storm, it _lightens_ frequently. LIKE. Do not use _like_ for _as_. _Like_ is a preposition. _As_ is a conjunction. Wrong: He doesn't talk _like_ he did yesterday. Right: He doesn't talk _as_ he did yesterday. Right: It looks _like_ a mahogany chair. LIT ON. Do not use _lit on_ in the sense of _met with_ or _discovered_. Wrong: I at last _lit on_ this plan. LOT. Do not use _lot_ in the sense of _a great number_ or _a great deal_. Wrong: A _lot_ of people were there, She talks _a lot_. MOST. Do not use _most_ for _almost_. Wrong: I have _most_ completed the book. Right: I have _almost_ completed the book. Right: He has done _the most_ of the work. MRS. Do not use _Mrs._ before titles; as, _Mrs. President, Mrs. Professor, Mrs. Doctor_. MUCH. Do not use _much_ for _many_. _Much_ refers to quantity. _Many_ refers to number. Wrong: As _much as_ five hundred people were present. Right: As _many as_ five hundred people were present. MUTUAL. Do not confuse _mutual_ and _common_. _Mutual_ means _interchanged_. Wrong: John and William had a _mutual_ liking for Mary. Right: John and William had a _common_ liking for Mary. Right: John and William had a _mutual_ liking for each other. NEAR. Do not use _near_ for _nearly_. Wrong: He ran _near_ all the way to the station. I came _nearly_ making the same mistake. Right: He ran _nearly_ all the way to the station. I came _near_ making the same mistake. NERVE. Do not use _nerve_ in the sense of _impudence_. NEWSY. Do not use _newsy_ in the sense of _full of news_. NEITHER. Do not use _neither_ with reference to more than two objects, nor follow it by a plural verb. Wrong: _Neither_ of the three could come. _Neither_ of the two _are_ here. Right: _No one_ of the three could come. _Neither_ of the two _is_ here. NO GOOD. Do not use _no good_ in the sense of _worthless_ or _not good_. Wrong: The book is _no good_. NO PLACE. Do not use _no place_ after a negative. See §46. Wrong: I am not going _no place_. Right: I am not going _anywhere_. I _am going nowhere_. NOTORIOUS. Do not use _notorious_ in the sense of _famous_ or _noted. Notorious_ means of _evil reputation_. Wrong: Gladstone was a _notorious_ statesman of England. Right: Several _notorious thieves_ were arrested. NOWHERE NEAR. Do not use _nowhere near_ for _not nearly_. See §40. Wrong: _Nowhere near_ so many people came as were expected. Right: _Not nearly_ so many people came as were expected. Right: James was _nowhere near_ the scene of the fire. OF. Do not use _of_ for _have_ in such expressions as _could, have, might have, should have_, etc. Wrong: If I _could of_ been there. Right: If I _could have_ been there. ONLY. Guard against the improper use of _only_ after a negative. See §46. Wrong: There _are not only_ four books on that subject. Right: There _are only_ four books on that subject. OUTSIDE OF. Do not use _outside of_ for _aside from_. Wrong: _Outside of_ James, all had a good time. Right: _Aside from_ James, all had a good time. OVER WITH. Do not use _over with_ for _over_. Wrong: I must write the letter and have it _over with_. PANTS. Do not use the word _pants_ for _trousers_. PHOTO. Do not use _photo_ for _photograph_. PIECE. Do not use _piece_ in the sense of _way_ or _distance_. Wrong: I shall walk a _little piece_ with you. Right: I shall walk a _little way_ with you. PLACE. Do not use _place_ after _any, every, no_, etc., in the sense of _anywhere, everywhere, nowhere_, etc. Wrong: I can not find it _any place_. Right: I can not find it _anywhere_. PLENTY. Do not use _plenty_ as an adjective or an adverb. Wrong: Money is _plenty_. He is _plenty able_ to do it. Right: Money is _plentiful_. He is _quite able_ to do it. POORLY. Do not use _poorly_ for _ill_ or _bad_. Wrong: He feels very _poorly_. PRINCIPLE, PRINCIPAL. Do not confuse _principle_ and _principal_. _Principle_ means a _rule_ or _truth_. _Principal_ means _leader, chief, the most important_. PROPOSE. Do not use _propose_ in the sense of _intend_. Wrong: I _propose_ to tell all I know. Right: I _intend_ to tell all I know. PROVIDING. Do not use _providing_ for _if_ or _on the condition_. Wrong: I will go _providing_ you can get tickets for three. Right: I will go _on the condition that_ you get the tickets. RAISE, RISE. Do not confuse _raise_ with _rise_. See §57. RECOMMEND, RECOMMENDATION. Do not use _recommend_ as a noun. _Recommendation_ is the noun. Wrong: Her employer gave her a good _recommend_. Right: Her employer gave her a good _recommendation_. RIGHT AWAY, RIGHT OFF. Do not use _right away_ or _right off_ in the sense of _immediately_. Wrong: After the play we will come _right off_. Right: After the play we will come _at once_. SAME. Do not use _same_ as a pronoun. Wrong: I will write the letter and mail _same_ at once. Right: I will write the letter and mail _it_ at once. SAY. Do not use _say_ in the sense of _order_ or _command_. Wrong: Your mother _said for_ you to come home at once. Right: Your mother _said that_ you should come home at once. SCARCELY. Do not use _scarcely_ after a negative. See §46. Wrong: There _was not scarcely_ a pound of meat for us all. Right: There _was scarcely_ a pound of meat for us all. SELDOM EVER. Do not use _seldom_ with _ever_. Say instead _seldom_ or _seldom, if ever_. Wrong: Fires _seldom ever_ occur. Right: Fires _seldom_ occur. Fires _seldom, if ever_ occur. SHUT OF. Do not use _shut of_ in the sense of _rid of_. Wrong: We are _shut of_ him at last. SIGHT. Do not use _sight_ in the sense of _many_ or _much_. Wrong: A great _sight of people_ flocked to hear him. Right: A great _many people_ flocked to hear him. SIT, SET. Do not confuse these two words. See §57. SO. Do not use _so_ alone as a conjunction. Say _so that_. Wrong: He spoke in the open air, _so_ more could see and hear him. Right: He spoke in the open air, _so that_ more could see and hear him. SOME. Do not use _some_ as an adverb in the sense of _somewhat_ or a _little_. Wrong: He plays the violin _some_. Right: He plays the violin _a little_. SORT OF A. Do not use _a_ after _sort of_. See _Kind of a_. SORT. Do not precede _sort_ by _these_ or _those_. See _Kind_. SUCH. Do not follow _such_ by _who, which_, or _that_ as relatives. Wrong: All _such persons who_ think so will soon see their mistake. Right: All _such persons as_ think so will soon see their mistake. Right: He spoke with _such_ force _that_ we were compelled to listen. (_That_ is not a relative here.) TASTY. Do not use _tasty_ in the sense of _tasteful_. THAT. Do not use _that_ as an adverb. Wrong: I did not think the book was _that_ small. Right: I did not think that the book was _so_ small. THAT THERE, THIS HERE, THESE HERE, THOSE THERE. _There_ and _here_, in all these expressions are worse than unnecessary. THEM THERE. Do not use _them there_ for _those_. Wrong: Bring me _them there_ books. Right: Bring me _those_ books. THREE FIRST, TWO FIRST, ETC. Do not say _three first_, but _first three_. There can be only one _first_. TOO. Do not use _too_ alone before a verb or a participle. Wrong: He is _too excited_ to listen to you. Right: He is _too much excited_ to listen to you. VERY. Do not use _very_ alone before a verb or a participle. Wrong: You are _very_ mistaken. Right: You are _very much_ mistaken. WAIT ON, WAIT FOR. Do not confuse these two expressions. _Wait on_ means _to serve_. _Wait for_ means _to await_. Wrong: Do not _wait on_ me if I do not come at noon. Right: Do not _wait for_ me if I do not come at noon. WAKE, AWAKE. Do not confuse _wake_ and _awake_. See §57. INDEX References are to pages. Sections or subdivisions on the pages are sometimes indicated in parenthesis after the page numbers. Since the _EXERCISES_ follow throughout the subjects treated, exercises on any subject may be found by looking up that subject in this text index. _A_, use of article. Abbreviated words, rule against. Abbreviations, punctuation of (§102); use of, in letters. _Accept_, for _except_, Glossary. Active voice and passive voice, explained; forms of. Adjectives, defined; capitalization of proper; confused with adverbs; distinguished from adverbs; errors in comparison of; improper forms of; list of irregular; placing of; adjective pronouns; punctuation of two or more adjectives modifying same noun (§106); singular and plural. _Admire_, for _like_, Glossary. Adverbs, defined; comparison of; conjunctive; confusion with adjectives; distinguished from adjectives; double negative; errors in comparison; list of irregularly compared; omission of; punctuation of (§116), (§121). _�sop's Fables_, quotation from. _Affect_, for _effect_, Glossary. _Aggravate_, for _irritate_, Glossary. Agreement, of adjective and noun; of pronoun and antecedent; of verb and subject; of verb in clauses. Ain't, Glossary. _Allow_, for _assert_ or _intend_, Glossary. _Allude_, for _refer_, Glossary. _Also_, without _and_. _Among_, for _between_, Glossary. _An_, use of article. _And_, use of. Antecedents, of pronouns, defined; agreement of pronouns and; clearness of; compound; indefinite; of relative pronouns. _Any_, for _at all_, Glossary. Apostrophe, general use of; with plural nouns; with possessive nouns; with possessive pronouns. Apposition, explained. Appositives, punctuation of (§108). _Argue_, for _augur_. _Arise_. Articles, explained; use of. _As_, as conjunction or adverb; as a relative pronoun, Glossary; for _like_; for _since_, Glossary; punctuation of (§122). _At_, for _in_, Glossary. _Attackted_, mispronunciation of _attacked_, Glossary. Attribute complement, explained; case of (note 2). Auxiliary verbs, explained; _shall_ and _will_; _should_ and _would_; _may, can, might_, and _could_. _Avocation_, for _vocation_. _Awake_, for _wake_, Glossary. _Awful_, for _awfully_, Glossary. _Bad_, for _badly_, Glossary. Balanced sentence. Barbarisms, defined; rules for avoidance of; when proper. Beginning of the composition. _Beside_, for _besides_, Glossary. _Best_, for _better_, Glossary. _Between_, for _among_, Glossary. _Bible_, capitalization of (§100). _Blowed_, for _blew_, Glossary. Body, of the letter. Books for reading, list of. _Bound_, for _determined_, Glossary. Brackets, use of. _But_, as a relative pronoun; with a negative; with a dependent clause; to introduce two succeeding statements. _But that_, for _but what_. _Calculate_, for _intend_. _Can_, use of; model conjugation of. "Cant expressions," in letters. Capitalization, rules for. Cases, classified and defined; case forms of pronouns; case of word in apposition; case forms of relative pronouns; outline for use of case forms; rules for forming possessive. _Character_, for _reputation_, Glossary. _Character of Napoleon Bonaparte_, by Channing, quotation from. Choice of words, rules to aid in. _Christmas_, by Washington Irving, quotation from. _Claim_, for _assert_. Clauses, defined; adjective; adverbial; agreement, of verb in; principal or independent; subordinate or dependent; substantive; _when_ and _where_ clauses. Climax in sentences. Clipped words, rule against. Close of letter. _Clum_, for _climbed_, Glossary. "_In care of_," misuse of _c|o_ for. Coherence, of paragraph; how to gain in paragraph; illustrations of in paragraph; of sentence; of whole composition; words of. Colon. "Comma blunder". Comma. Common gender, defined, of nouns and pronouns. Comparative degree; misuse of, in reference to more than two things. Comparison, degrees of; irregular forms in; errors in; manner of comparing. _Complected_, for _complexioned_, Glossary. Complex sentence. Complimentary close, in letters. Compound nouns, explained; rules for forming plurals of. Compound pronouns, personal; relative. Compound sentence. Compound subject; agreement of verb with. Compound words, use of hyphen with (§140). _Concluded_, for _to form an opinion_, Glossary. Conditional clauses, punctuation of (§114). Confusion of adjectives and adverbs. Conjunctions, defined; misuses of; correlatives. _Considerable_, for _considerably_, Glossary. _Consul_, for _council_, or _counsel_. Contractions of _not_, use of, in formal composition. Co-ordinate clauses, punctuation of (§§112, 113), (§§118, 119, 120). Copulative verb. Correctly written letters. Correlatives, placing of. _Could_, use of; model conjugations of. _Council, counsel_ and _consul_ confused. _Cranford_, by Mrs. Gaskell, selection from. _Cute_, for _pretty, clever_, etc., Glossary. Dash, use of. _Decease_, Glossary. Definition, by a _when_ or _where_ clause. Degrees in comparison, classified. _Demand_, Glossary. Dependent and conditional clauses, punctuation of (§114), (§§119, 120). Dictionary, value of its use. _Different_, with _than_, Glossary. _Directly_, misused as a conjunction. _Disease_, Glossary. Division of words at ends of lines (§139). _Don't_, Glossary. Double negatives. _Down_, misuse as a verb, Glossary. _Drownded_, mispronunciation of _drowned_, Glossary. _East_, capitalization of (§100). _Each other_, misuse with more than two objects, Glossary. _Effect_, for _affect_, Glossary. _Either_, misuse with more than two objects, Glossary. _Either-or_. Elements of the sentence: Principal elements, subject; predicate. Subordinate elements: attribute complement; adjective modifier; adverbial modifier; object complement. _Emigration_, for _immigration_, Glossary. Emphasis, in paragraphs; in sentence. Ending of whole composition. _Enough_, Glossary. _Euthuse_, Glossary. Enumerations, punctuation before, (§§122, 123). _Esq._, misuse after Mr.. _Etc._, misspelling of, Glossary. Euphony, in sentences. _Everybody_, followed by a plural form, Glossary. _Everywheres_, for _everywhere_. Examples, of beginning of whole composition; of correctly written letters; of ending of whole composition; of outline of whole composition. Exclamation point, use of. _Except_, for _accept_, Glossary. Explanatory relative clauses, punctuation of (§111). Expletives. _Expect_, for _suppose_. _Fall_, for _fell_. _Father_, capitalization of (§99). _Fell_, for _fall_. Feminine gender, defined; of nouns and pronouns. Final words, in letters. "Fine-writing". _Fine_, Glossary. _Firstly_, Glossary. _First-rate_, Glossary. _For_, used to introduce two succeeding clauses. Foreign words. _Former_, Glossary. Form of letters. From, Glossary. _Funny_, for _singular_, Glossary. Gender, defined and classified formation of feminine from masculine; gender of pronouns. General terms, use of. _Gent_, Glossary. _Gentleman_, Glossary. Geographical names, punctuation of (§108). Gerunds, explanation of; confusion with participle; with noun or pronoun modifier; placing of gerund phrase. Gettysburg speech, by Lincoln. _Good_, for _well_. Good use of words; offenses against. _Got_, Glossary. _Grand_, Glossary. Grave forms of personal pronouns, use of. _Guess_, for _think_, Glossary. Hackneyed expressions, general rule against; in letters. _Had, ought_, Glossary. _Hain't_, Glossary. _Hanged_, confused with _hung_, Glossary. _Hardly_, placing of; with a negative, Glossary. _Have_, misuse after _had_, Glossary. Heading, of letters. _Heighth_, for _height_, Glossary. _Here_, misuse with demonstratives, Glossary. _Her'n_. _Him_, misuse with gerund. _Hisself_. _His'n_. _Home_, confused with _house_; for _at home_, Glossary. _Humbug_, Glossary. _Hung_, confused with _hanged_, Glossary. Hyphen, use of. _I_, capitalization of (§100). Order of. In the letter. Idioms. _i. e._, punctuation of (§122). _Illy_, Glossary. _Immigration_, confused with _emigration_, Glossary. Imperative mode. Improving one's vocabulary, rules for. Improprieties. Indentation, of paragraph; of paragraph, in letters. Infinitives, explanation of; forms of; cases used with; rules for sequence of infinitive tenses; split. Inflection, defined. _In_, confused with _into_, Glossary. Inside address of letters. Interjection. Interrogation point, use of. Interrogative pronouns. Intransitive verbs, see _Transitive_. Introductory words or phrases, punctuation of (§107). _Kind_, with plural modifiers, Glossary. _Kind of a_. _Lady_, Glossary. _Latter_, confused with _last_, Glossary. _Lay_, confused with lie. _Learn_, for _teach_, Glossary. _Leave_, for _let_, Glossary. _Lend_, confused with _loan_. Length, of paragraphs; of sentences. Letter writing; body of letter; close; heading; illustrations of correctly written letters; inside address; miscellaneous directions; notes in third person; outside address; salutation. _Liable_, for _likely_. _Lie_, confused with _lay_. _Lightning_, Glossary. _Like_, misuse as a conjunction. _Lit on_, Glossary. _Loan_, confused with _lend_. Loose sentences. _Lot_ for _a great deal_, Glossary. _Mad_, for _angry_. Masculine gender, defined; of pronouns. _May_; model conjugation of. _Messrs._, use of. _Might_; model conjugations of. Mode, definition of; indicative; infinitive; imperative; obligative, footnote; participal; potential, of; subjunctive. Modifiers, placing of. _Most_ for _almost_. _Mother_, capitalization of (§99). _Mrs._, Glossary. _Much_, for _many_. _Muchly_. _Mutual_, confused with _common_, Glossary. Name, form of verb. _Namely_, punctuation of (§122). _Near_, confused with _nearly_. _Neither_, misuse with more than two objects, Glossary. _Neither-nor_. _Nerve_, Glossary. Neuter gender, defined; of nouns and pronouns. Newly coined expressions, rule against. _Newsy_, Glossary. Nominative case, defined; when used, note. _No place_, Glossary. _No_, punctuation of (§102). _No good_, for _worthless_. _North_, capitalization of (§100). _Not muchly_. Notes in the third person. _Not only--but also_. _Notorious_, confused with _noted_, Glossary. Nouns, common; proper; case of; gender of; number of. _Nowhere near_, for _not nearly_, Glossary. Number, defined; agreement of verb and subject in number; singular; plural; of relative pronouns; of pronouns; of pronouns with compounded antecedent; rules for forming plurals of nouns. _Number_, sign #, used for. _O_ and _oh_, capitalization of (§100). Object complement, explained. Objective case, defined; when used. Obligative mode (footnote). _Observance_, confused with _observation_. Obsolete words. _Of_, Glossary. Omission, of adverb _much_; of important words; of prepositions; punctuation in case of (§117); (§138); of verbs. _One another_, use of. _Only_, placing of; with a negative, Glossary. Order of heading in letters. _Other_, use of in comparison. _Ought_. Outline, for composition; illustration of. Outside address, of letters. _Outside of_, Glossary. Over-statement of facts, rule against. _Over with_, Glossary. _Pants_, Glossary. Paragraphing of letters. Paragraphs; coherence in; emphasis in; indentation of; in letters; length of; unity in. Parenthesis marks, use of; too frequent use of. Parts of speech, classified. Passive voice and active voice explained; forms of. Past participle, explanation and use of. Past tense, explanation and use of. Participles, explanation of; confusion with gerunds; dangling; at beginning of sentence; preceded by _thus_. Period, use of. Periodic sentence. Personal pronouns, defined; classified; compound personal pronouns; use of common and of grave forms of; unnecessary use of. _Piece_, Glossary. _Photo_, Glossary. Phrases, defined; prepositional; verb; punctuation of adverbial phrases (§116), (§121). _Place_, Glossary. Placing of adjectives and adverbs. _Plenty_, Glossary. Plural number, explained; rules for forming plurals of nouns. Point of view, in paragraph; in sentence; in whole composition. _Poorly_, for _ill_, Glossary. Positive degree. Position, in letters, of complimentary close; of heading; of inside address; of salutation; of outside address. Possessive case, defined; rules for forming possessives of nouns; when used. Potential mode, explanation and forms of. Predicate of the sentence; defined; compound, predicate, explained. Prepositional phrase. Prepositions, defined; omission of; proper use of; unnecessary use of; used as conjunctions. _Principal_, confused with _principle_, Glossary. Principal parts of verbs, explained; classified; list of; rules for use of. Principal verbs, explained. Professional words. Pronouns, defined; adjective; antecedent of, defined; agreement with antecedent; case forms of; compound personal; compound relative; gender of; interrogative; number of; outline of, use of case forms of; relative; rules determining gender of; with compound antecedents. Pronunciation, lists of frequently mispronounced words; words given wrong sounds; words given wrong accent; words of foreign pronunciation; words of similar spelling. Proper adjectives, capitalization of (§95). Proper nouns, defined; capitalization of (§95). _Propose_, for _intend_, Glossary. _Providing_, for _if_, Glossary. Provincialisms, definition and rule against use of. Punctuation, rules for; in letters, body; heading; inside address; outside address; salutation. Qualities, essential: Of sentences, unity; emphasis; euphony. Of paragraphs, unity; coherence; emphasis. Of whole composition, unity; coherence. _Quite_, for _very_. Quotation marks, use of. Quotations, punctuation of (§115), (§123), (§131), (§§132-137). _Raise_, confused with _rise_, Glossary. _Recommend_, confused with _recommendation_, Glossary. Relative causes, cases in; explanatory or non-restrictive; introduction of successive; punctuation of (§111); use of _when_ or _where_ clause. Relative pronouns, defined and explained; agreement of verb with; case and number of; compound; explanatory or non-restrictive; restrictive; use of, with different antecedents. Repetition of similar words or syllables. _Reputation_, confused with _character_, Glossary. _Respectfully_, confused with _respectively_. _Rev._. _Right away_, Glossary. _Right off_, Glossary. _Rise_, confused with _raise_, Glossary. Salutation, in letters. _Some_, misuse as a pronoun, Glossary. _Say_, for _order_ or _command_, Glossary. _Scarcely_, placing of; with a negative, Glossary. Scriptures, capitalization, of (§100). _Seldom ever_, Glossary. Semi-colon, use of. Sentence elements out of natural order, (§109). Sentences: defined; declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory; essential qualities of; loose, periodic, balanced; simple, complex, compound; length of; slipshod construction of. Sequence of tenses, infinitive; in clauses. Series of words, punctuation of. _Set_, confused with _sit_, Glossary. S-form of verb. _Shut of_, for _rid of_, Glossary. _Sight_, for _many_, Glossary. Signature of writer, in letters. Simple sentence, defined. Simple words, use of. Similar expressions of similar thoughts. Singular form of verb, explanation and use of, after you and they. Singular number, explained. _Sit_, confused with _set_, Glossary. _Shall_ and _will_, use of, in dependent clauses; in principal clauses; in questions; model conjugations of; past tenses of. _Should_ and _would_, model conjugations of; use of. Slang. _So_, use of. Solecisms. _Some_, misuse as an adverb, Glossary. _Somebody else's_. _Sort_, with plurals, Glossary. _Sort of a_, Glossary. _South_, capitalization of, (§100). Speech, paragraphing of. Specific terms, use of. Spelling, lists of words frequently misspelled; rules for; of words of similar sound. "Squinting construction." _Street_, omission of in letters. Subject of sentence or clause, defined; agreement of verb and subject; compound; relative pronoun as, of whole composition; statement of, in composition. Subject matter of letters. Subjunctive mode. _Such_, Glossary. Summarizing word, use of; punctuation of, (§127). Superlative degree; misuse in comparing only two things. _Suspect_, for _expect_. Syllables, division of words into, (§139). Synonyoms, value of. _Tasty_, for _tasteful_, Glossary. Technical words. "Telegraph style," in letters. Tense, explained; sequence of. _Than_, use of. _That_, with what antecedents used; as a restrictive relative; misuse of, Glossary. _That is_, punctuation of, (§122). _The_, use of article. _Their'n, theirself, theirselves_. _Them_, for _those_. _Then_, use of. _There_, improper use of after demonstratives, Glossary. _They_, indefinite use of; with singular verb. Third person, notes in the. _Those kind_, and _these sort_. _Three first_, Glossary. _Thusly_. Title of whole composition. Titles, abbreviations of; capitalization of, (§§ 96, 97). _To-day, to-morrow, to-night_, hyphens with, (§140). _Too_, misuse of, Glossary. Transition, in whole composition. Transitive and intransitive verbs, confusion of; explanation of. _Transpire_, for _happen_. _Try and_, Glossary. _Two first_, Glossary. _Unbeknown_, for _unknown_. Unity: Of paragraph; how to gain; illustrations of. Of sentence. Of whole composition. Unnecessary words, use of. Verb phrase, explained. Verbs, defined; agreement of verb and subject; agreement of verb in clauses; auxiliary; gerunds; infinitives; mode; model conjugations of _to-be_ and _to see_; omission of verbs or parts of; participles; principal; principal parts; principal parts, list of; transitive and intransitive; use of auxiliaries; voice. _Very_. _viz._, punctuation of, (§122). Vocabulary, rules for improvement of. _Vocation_, confused with _avocation_. Vulgarisms. _Wake_, confused with _awake_, Glossary. _Wait on_, confused with _wait for_, Glossary. _Ways_, Glossary. Weak beginnings and endings of sentences. _Well_, confused with _good_. _West_, capitalization of, (§100). _What_, with what antecedents. _When_. _Where_. _Which_, with clause or phrase as antecedent; with what antecedents used. _Who_, with what antecedents used. Whole composition; beginning of, ending of; paragraph composition or paragraph theme. _Will_, use of, see _shall_. _Without_, misuse as a conjunction. Words, choice of; clipped or abbreviated; division of at ends of lines, (§139); foreign; good use of; how to improve vocabulary of, idioms; in place of figures in letters; newly-coined; of coherence; professional; pronunciation of, provincialisms; simple English; slang; spelling of; technical words; vulgarisms. _Would_, see _should_. _Yes_, punctuation of, (102). _You_, indefinite use of; with singular verb. _Yours truly_ and _yours respectfully_, wrong abbreviation of. _Your'n_. 
25038	----	None 
1489	----	None 
668	----	None 
667	----	None 
41243	----	BROOKS'S READERS FIRST YEAR BY STRATTON D BROOKS SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS [Illustration] NEW YORK - CINCINNATI - CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY Copyright, 1906, by AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY. Copyright, 1907, Tokyo. ------ BROOKS'S READERS, FIRST YEAR. The sole purpose of this book is to help the children to learn to read. While it may ultimately lead to the acquisition of knowledge concerning many subjects, its present aim is only to make reading easy. The lessons are, therefore, on subjects familiar to every child. The words are such as children habitually use in conversation; they are introduced gradually, and as a rule are repeated many times. Since proficiency in reading is best attained by much practice, care has been taken to present as large an amount as possible of interesting matter which the child can readily master. Every line is for the pupil to read. The stories are so constructed as to encourage and secure naturalness of expression without the intervention of rules or formal drills. The gradation both in thought and in expression is easy and natural. Although the learning of words by much repetition and familiarity with their forms is an essential feature of this book, its foundation is nevertheless phonetic. Yet, for the sake of leaving it perfectly adaptable to any method of teaching, the phonetic basis has not been emphasized. The systematic introduction of words which may serve as key-words for the acquisition of others containing similar phonetic elements has been carefully observed, and it is believed that this is the natural method untrammeled by any artificial classification. As further aids toward making the child's first reading lessons easy, the sentences are short. There are no broken lines in the first hundred pages. Indentations help the young reader to keep the place. There are no interfering illustrations in the text. Each story is complete without turning a leaf. Grateful acknowledgments are extended to Miss Frances Lilian Taylor of Galesburg, Illinois, to Mr. W. J. Button of Chicago, and to Miss Matilda Mitchell, primary teacher, Phillips Brooks School, Boston, for valuable suggestions and assistance. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS As stated on the preceding page, the foundation of this work is phonetic. The author believes that children may profitably learn many words without reference to their phonetic composition, and that among these certain key-words should be selected from which the elementary sounds of the language may be developed. These elements will give the pupils the power of acquiring new words. For example, observe the following key-words and the sounds developed from them:-- [**Transcriber's Note: To represent the diacritical marks used in the text, square brackets have been used to enclose a letter and a symbol. The symbol precedes the letter to represent a symbol above the letter, and follows the letter to represent a mark below the letter. [)x] - a letter with a breve above it, [x+] - a letter with an up tack (upside down "T") under it, [=x] - a letter with a macron above it, [~x] - a letter with a tilde above it, [.x] - a letter with a dot above it, [x:] - a letter with a diaresis under it. The "$" signs are used to represent bold typeface.] Page 5, $flag$; teach f, l, [)a], g. Page 7, $fan$; teach n. Page 8, $can$; teach c. Page 10, $has$; teach h, [s+]. Page 10, $get$; teach [)e], t. Page 12, $cap$; teach p. Page 13, $drum$; teach d, r, [)u]. Page 14, $am$; teach m. Page 15, $not$; teach [)o]. Page 15, $big$; teach b, [)i]. Page 16, $see$; teach s, [=e]. Page 17, $ball$; teach [a:]. Page 17, $play$; teach [=a]. Page 18, $jump$; teach j. Page 19, $bird$; teach [~i]. Page 19, $fly$; teach [=y] = [=i]. Page 21, $wall$; teach w. Page 24, $good$; teach oo. Page 25, $with$; teach th. Page 31, $some$; teach [.o]. Observe the great number of easy and common words that may be developed from the sounds thus learned from the first ten key-words named above. The list includes _an_, _as_, _ran_, _had_, _pan_, _man_, _tan_, _let_, _met_, _pet_, _bet_, _men_, _pen_, _fig_, _did_, _bit_, _little_, _not_, _lot_, _got_, _hot_, _log_, and a great many more. Similar key-words emphasizing the remaining sounds should be selected as the work proceeds. Teachers preferring to introduce the sounds less rapidly, may teach these first words as words and select others later in the book to serve as key-words. The blackboard should be in constant use, and the pupils' ingenuity in forming new words and new sentences should be tested at every recitation. The few exercises in script given at the beginning of the book are suggestive of the manner in which much additional drill in reading may be presented on the blackboard. The diacritical marks should not be taught to the children. [**Transcriber's Note: The { } are used to denote handwritten script.] [Illustration] a flag {a flag} a flag [Illustration] [Illustration] I have a flag {I have a flag} [Illustration] I have a fan. I see the fan. See the fan. See the fan I have. {I have a fan.} {I see the fan.} {See the fan I have.} [Illustration] See the flag. I have the fan. I can see the flag. I have a dog. Can the dog have the flag? The dog can see the flag. Can I see the dog? Can I see a fan? Can the dog see the fan? can fan flag dog I see a flag. I see a fan. I see a dog. The dog can see. The dog can have the flag. I can have the fan. I can see the dog. {I see a flag.} {I see a fan.} {I see a dog.} {The dog can see.} {The dog can have the flag.} {I can have the flag.} {I can see the dog.} [Illustration] has get boy See! The dog has the flag. The boy has the dog. Can the boy get the flag? I can get the flag. {I have the dog.} {I can get the flag.} [Illustration] girl and See the girl and the fan. [Illustration] cap {cap} hat {hat} The boy has a cap. The girl has a hat. I see the girl and the hat. I see the boy and the cap. I have a hat and a cap. Can the dog have the cap? The boy has a cap and a flag. [Illustration] run {run} drum {drum} See the dog run. The boy has a drum. The dog has a hat. Can the boy get the hat? Can the dog get the drum? The girl can run. The girl can get the drum. [Illustration] am my little I am a boy. I am a little boy. See my drum and my cap. not big is I am a girl. I am not a big girl. I am a little girl. I have a big fan. See the fan I have. [Illustration] The girl is not a big girl. The fan is not a little fan. A little girl can not have a drum. The girl has a cap and a fan. The boy and the girl can run. cat you me to I see you. I see you, little cat. Can you not see me? Run, run to me, little cat. The big dog can not get you. [Illustration] I can run to you, little girl. Can you run to me? I am not a big cat. I am a little cat. I see you and I run to you. ball play catch it The ball! Get the ball! Can the girl play ball? Can the boy catch the ball? [Illustration] Run, little boy, and catch it. See, I can play ball. I have it. I can catch it. You can not get it, little boy. You can not catch a ball. The little girl and I can play ball. jump hop like See the big boy and the little boy. Can the little boy jump? [Illustration] Jump, jump, jump! Hop, hop, hop! Can you hop to me, little boy? I can not hop to you. I can jump to you. I like to run and jump. I see you can jump, little boy. You can jump like a big boy. bird fly I see a little bird. The bird can fly. Fly, little bird, fly. I like to see you fly. Can you fly, little girl? Can you fly like me? I like to fly. I am a bird. [Illustration] The dog and the cat can play. The boy can hop and jump. The little girl can not fly like the bird. [Illustration] in tree I am a bird. I am in a tree. Can you see me, little boy? [Illustration] nest by wall The bird has a nest. The nest is in the tree. The tree is by the wall. Can you see the bird in the nest? I can see the tree by the wall. I can see the nest in the tree. The bird is not in the nest. Fly to the nest, little bird. Fly to the nest in the tree. do sing let I have a bird. My bird can sing to me. Do you see it in the tree? Let it fly and sing. I can sing to you, little boy. Can you sing to me? Sing to me, fly to me. I am in the tree. The tree is by the wall. I can not fly like you, little bird. You can not play like me. Do you like to play? You have a nest and can sing. You can not get me, little boy. The cat can not catch me. I am in my nest in the tree. [Illustration] one two bed dogs I have two little dogs. I have one cat. Do you see it? My dogs like to run and play. My dogs have a little bed. Do you see the dogs in the bed? I like my dogs and my cat. [Illustration] milk drink good for Run to me, little dogs. Do you like milk? I have a little milk for you. See the milk. Do you like it? Can you drink it? Is it good? I like to drink milk. I like to see you drink it. Milk is good for you. doll pretty with here The little girl has a doll. Is it not a pretty doll? [Illustration] My pretty doll, I like to play with you. You can not run with the dogs. You can not sing with the bird. You can play here with me. I have a pretty bed for you. Here it is. Here is your bed. I like to play with my pretty doll. [Illustration] Grace our sister she The girl with the doll is Grace. She is our little sister. She is a good girl. She likes to play with the doll. She likes to sing to it. She sings about the bird in the tree. [Illustration] will song Will you sing to me, Grace? Will you sing me a pretty song? The bird will sing to you, sister. Little bird, pretty bird, Little bird in the tree, Sing a song, little bird, Sing to sister and me. [Illustration] this rabbit how See this pretty rabbit, Grace. I like this little rabbit. See how it can jump. Rabbit, run to me. Jump, rabbit. Let me see how you can jump. I like to play with you. I like to see you hop and jump. Do you like milk, little rabbit? Can you drink like my dogs? Do you have a pretty bed like the doll? My dogs will not catch you, rabbit. [Illustration] Bennie brother many This is Bennie. Bennie is my brother. See the little rabbits with Bennie. How many rabbits do you see? See how the rabbits jump and play. about gray Here is a song I sing about Bennie. Our Bennie Boy has a little rabbit, Our Bennie Boy has a little rabbit, Our Bennie Boy has a little rabbit, One little rabbit gray. One little, two little, three little rabbits, Four little, five little, six little rabbits, Seven little, eight little, nine little rabbits, Ten little rabbits gray. [Illustration] Ten, nine, eight, seven, six, five, four, three, two, one. [Illustration] look at top spin Look, look, Grace! Look, sister! Look at my big top. See how I can spin it. Can you spin it, Grace? I can not spin a top, Bennie. I like to play with my doll. Boys like to spin tops. Girls do not like to spin tops. [Illustration] come book give mother tell Come here, Bennie, my little boy. Do you see this pretty book? I will give it to a good little boy. Will you give it to me, mother? Am I a good boy? I like a pretty book. I will tell sister Grace about it. Grace will like to look at it. [Illustration] picture some of Come here, Grace, and see this book. It is a pretty picture book. Come and look at the pictures with me. I will tell you about some of the pictures. How good mother is! How good she is to give you this book! See this picture of a boy and a girl. [Illustration] See! Here is a picture of a dog. It looks like one of my dogs. [Illustration] Here is a picture of a rabbit. It is a big gray rabbit. [Illustration] Here is a picture of some boys. See the boys run and play. [Illustration] Here is a picture of a little girl. She has a doll and a fan. She looks like you, Grace. [Illustration] baby child love This is our baby sister. Is she not a pretty child? I love our baby. Have you a baby sister? [Illustration] walk talk far your Can our baby walk? She can walk a little. She can not walk far. See how she can walk. Come, baby, come to your sister. See how far you can walk. The good child can walk to me. She can not talk to me. well call soon too Look, mother, look! Call the baby. See how well she can walk. See how far she can walk. Soon she can run and play. She will soon talk, too. She likes to look at pictures. I will let her look at my book. Come, baby! See this pretty book! I will let you see the pictures. Here is a picture of a flag. Here is a girl with a fan. Here is a dog with a hat. Call the dog, baby. Call the dog. The baby calls. The dog will not come. Our baby sister will soon talk. She will talk to mother and Grace. ground found round eggs Bennie, come here, come here. Look here on the ground. What have you found, Grace? I have found a nest. It has eggs in it. See the eggs. How round they are! [Illustration] any oh no her we How many birds are in this nest? Let me see the pretty nest. I do not see any birds in it. I see some eggs in the nest. How many do you see? Is the nest for me? Oh, no, no, no. [Illustration] Is the nest for you? Oh, no, no, no. The bird made the nest on the ground. The nest is not for me. The nest is not for you. The nest is for the good little bird. We found the nest on the ground. She loves her nest and her round eggs. We will not get any of her eggs. [Illustration] kittens on what Here is a picture of some cats. I see one big cat and two kittens. The mother cat is on some books. She calls the kittens. Come, kittens, come. See what is here. See what I have found. What can the mother cat see? under they now The mother cat is on the books. What can she see under the books? Now the kittens come and look. What can they see? They look on the books. They look under the books. They look in one book. What do they see now? Have you a little kitten? What can it do? My kitten plays with a ball. I give it milk to drink. Our brother Bennie has ten gray rabbits. Has he any little kittens? I can not tell you now. I will call Bennie. He can tell. [Illustration] morning bright sun sky What a bright morning this is! It is a good morning for play. Look at the sun in the sky. Do you like to see the sun? How bright it is this morning! kite high so as down Look at my kite, brother. See how high it can fly. Oh, it is a good kite. It looks like a big bird. It can fly as high as a bird. I will run and it will fly high. See it! See it now! See how high in the sky it is! How bright it looks in the sky! Will it fly to the sun? Oh, no, no! It can not fly so high. The sun is too high. No bird can fly to the sun. Now, let it come down. Do not let it come down in the tree. Oh, how I like my pretty kite! [Illustration] cradle may take make name I see a pretty cradle. The cradle is high in the tree. Tell me about this little cradle. Tell me what is in the cradle. I see some birds in the cradle. One, two, three baby birds. What is your name, little bird? The bird will not tell you. What can you make, little bird? I can make a nest. My nest is high in the tree. It is a cradle for my little birds. Can you make a cradle, little boy? Oh, no, I can not make a cradle. I can not make a nest. May I take your nest? May I take it for our baby? She will like to play with it. No, no, little boy. The nest is not for your baby. It is for my three little birds. [Illustration] Don care all time Our baby is in her cradle. The cradle is not like the bird's cradle. Our big dog is by the cradle. The dog's name is Don. Can Don take care of the baby? He takes care of her all the time. What a good dog he is! [Illustration] go stay must side No, Don, you can not go with me. You must stay here with mother. You must take care of the baby. You must stay by her cradle. Take the baby with you, Grace. She can walk by your side. You may take the dog, too. [Illustration] brook water sit Now, baby, come with me. You and Don may walk with me. We will walk down by the brook. I like to see the pretty brook. We will sit here and look at it. How the water runs and runs! It runs all the time. fall into from home Sit here by my side, baby. See all the water in the brook. See how the water runs and runs. You must not fall into it. Water is good to drink. We do not drink it from the brook. The birds drink it. Don drinks it. How do birds drink? How do dogs drink? Soon we must go home. Mother will call and we must go. We can not stay here all the time. The birds sing in the trees by the brook. The rabbits come to see the water. Don must not catch the rabbits. [Illustration] yes sir school Marian Good morning, little girl. What is your name? Good morning, sir. My name is Marian. Do you go to school? Yes, sir, I go with my little brother. Bennie is my brother, too. read father gave write What do you do at school, Marian? Can you read? Can you write? Yes, sir, I can read a little. Here is my book. My father gave it to me. I can write, too. Let me see how you can write. {My name is Marian.} You can write well, little girl. Does your dog go to school with you? Oh, no, no, sir! Dogs do not care for books. They do not read. They do not write. The school is for boys and girls. It is not for dogs. [Illustration] Rose wagon horse fine that What little girl is this? Her name is Rose. She is in her little wagon. It is a pretty wagon. See what a fine big horse she has. Oh, that is not a horse. That is a big dog. Well, he looks a little like a horse. Jo ho draw are where The dog's name is Jo. He can draw the wagon for Rose. What a fine horse he is! Where will he go with Rose? He will take her to school. Now, here we are at school. Ho! ho, Jo! You are a good dog, Jo. You must not go in with me. All the girls say, Good morning, Rose. Good morning, girls. Where will your horse go now? Will he go into school with you? Oh, no, he must go home. Dogs do not go to school. [Illustration] ride Ned old hold know See my pretty wagon, Bennie. You may have a ride in it. I will play that I am a horse. Where did you get this wagon, Ned? My father gave it to me this morning. Come, get into it. I will be your horse. I will draw the wagon with you in it. You are a good old horse, Ned. I like to ride in your wagon. You must not run away. Ho! ho! You must hold your horse, Bennie. You must not let him run. I know you will not run away, Ned. You will give me a good ride. Here we are at the old tree. Ho! Now we will go home. You may draw the wagon, Bennie. I will get into it and ride. How do you like to be a horse? I like to play that I am a horse. [Illustration] going but day away Our little baby boy is going away. Do you know where he is going? Is he going to school, mother? May he go with me in my wagon? Some day he may go with you. But he is not going to school now. Shut Eye Town sleep say Can you tell where the baby is going? Oh, I know, I know. He is going to sleep. He is going to Shut Eye Town. Will you go with him, Marian? Where is Shut Eye Town, mother? Is it far, far away? It is where baby is going. Baby is going to sleep. Now shut your eyes, baby. Shut your bright eyes and go to sleep. Now he is in Shut Eye Town. He will come home in the morning. He will say, Good morning, mother. He will say, Here I am, Marian. I have come home from Shut Eye Town. [Illustration] ring train cars bell Ring! ring! ring! Do you see our train? We are on the cars. Where is this train going? Is it going to Shut Eye Town? Oh, no! We do not go to that town. Ring the bell, sister. Here we go. REVIEW Come here, my good child. Tell me your name. How old are you? Do you go to school? What do you do at school? Have you any books? Do you like to read? Have you a flag at your school? Can you play ball with Bennie? What is your doll's name? How many dogs have you? What can birds do? Do you like to look at pictures? Where is Shut Eye Town? Can you ride to that town? Have you a baby at home? How many little girls do you know? [Illustration] rain cloud house black think See how black that cloud is. I think it is going to rain. Yes, I see the rain now. We must run to the house. Do you like the rain, Bennie? No, I do not like the rain now. I can not fly my kite in the rain. wind blow hear loud roar Do you hear the wind, Bennie? Hear it blow! Hear it roar! Yes, I hear it. How loud it blows! It blows and blows. It roars and roars. We can hear the wind roar. But we can not see it. It blows all about the house. It blows the clouds and it blows the trees. It roars on the house top. It roars in the rain. I do not like to hear the wind roar. It blows my kite away. It blows the birds about the trees. Wind, do not blow all day. Let the bright sun shine. flowers grow show snow find blue red white yellow lily Ring, ring! Sing, sing! Here come the flowers to town. I have some blue flowers. I have a red, red rose. How pretty they are! Do you know where the flowers grow? Oh, yes, yes! We know. Come with us and we will show you. Show me where the roses grow. Show me where to find blue flowers. Go down by the brook. Go and look, look, look. You will find a white lily. It is as white as snow. [Illustration] We found yellow flowers on the ground. We found some roses on the wall. You may find as many. Go and look. Ring, ring! Sing, sing! Here come the flowers to town. [Illustration] taking shall Where are you going, Marian? Are you going far? I am taking a walk. Will you not come with me? Oh, yes, Marian. I like to walk. Where shall we go? Let us look for some flowers. I know where they grow. them best there cold which I see some roses now. Shall I run and get them? Some roses are white, some are red. I like this red rose best. Now we will go down by the brook. We will find white flowers there. I found a white lily there one day. It was white as milk. It was white as snow. Some flowers grow under the snow. How cold they must be! Sing, sing, lily bells ring! Here are yellow, red, and blue flowers. Which do you like best? I like the blue flowers best. I will give them to you. [Illustration] chickens wings can't don't Look, look! Look there, brother! See the pretty little birds, We do not call them birds, Marian. They are little chickens. See them run about on the ground. Have they no wings? Can't they fly? Chickens have wings, but they don't fly. us chick something count Let us call the little chickens to us. Chick, chick, chick, chick! Come here, little chickens, come to me. I have something for you. Come and get it. See all the chickens run. They know that you have something. They think you will give it to them. Some of my chickens are white. Some are black, and some are yellow. Which do you like best? I can not tell. I like them all. How many chickens have you? I can't tell how many. They run about so I can't count them. Can you count them, Marian? [Illustration] falling shine drive out Oh, Ned, the rain is not falling now. I think we may go and play. The clouds are going away. I think the sun will shine soon. Let us go out and see. Yes, there is the sun in the blue sky. It will drive the rain clouds away. Now I can fly my kite. sight light night then See how the sun shines. It drives the black clouds far away. What a pretty sight it is! It shines on the trees and flowers. It shines for the birds and the brook. How bright it is! How high it is! It is high in the sky. My kite can not fly so high. The sun gives us light. It shines all day. By and by it will go down. Then day will go and night will come. We can not see the sun at night. Where shall we go then, Ned? We shall go home to mother. I think we shall go to Shut Eye Town. owl says who [Illustration] What is this? Do you know? It is an owl. The owl is a bird. See its big eyes. It sits high up in the old tree. It sits there all day. It likes to fly at night. It can not see in the bright light. Do you know what the owl says? It says, Who! who! who! REVIEW Where do pretty flowers grow? What is as white as snow? Where can the baby go? Who says "Ho! ho!" to our dog Jo? Tell me something that you know. What can little kittens do? What bird is it that says Who! who? Can one boy play as well as two? Where can red roses be found? Does a bird make its nest on the ground? Name something bright and round. Who is going to Shut Eye Town? How many chickens can you count? What bird can fly about at night? What shines bright and gives us light? Tell me what you do at school. why said was went did him his guess shining fish One day Ned went down to the brook. No one went with him. The sky was blue. No cloud was in sight. The sun was shining bright. It was a fine day. Why did Ned go to the brook? Did he go to get some flowers? I think not. I will tell you all about it. His mother said to him: "Where are you going, Ned?" "I am going to the brook," said Ned. "What are you going to do there?" "Oh, I am going to catch some fish. I will catch some for you, mother." "Oh, Ned, do not catch all the fish." [Illustration] Well, Ned, how many fish did you catch? Guess how many, Grace. Let me think. Did you catch ten? Oh, no, not so many as that. Did you catch five fish for mother? Oh, no, not so many as that. Well, then, did you catch one fish for sister? Oh, no, not so many as that. [Illustration] room chair box table door Oh, Marian, let us play house. Here we are at home. What a fine, big room we have! This is the door, and this is the table. The big box will do for a table. The little box will do for a chair. We must have two chairs, Grace. I will go and get mother's chair. The round box is the baby's cradle. But the baby can not sit in it. It is too little. Here are the chairs. Come, now, sit down by the table. The baby may sit here by me. What is that, Grace? I hear the door bell. I think some one is at the door. Come in! Come in! Good morning, Ned. Come in and see our fine house. [Illustration] bee honey busy Oh, mother, do come here! Here is a big fly. It is in this yellow flower. That is not a fly. It is a bee. It gets honey from the flower. Oh, I like honey. Don't you, mother? See how busy the bee is. It is busy all the day. A BUSY TIME We are all busy this morning. The boys are playing. The girls are reading. The flowers are growing. The rabbits are jumping. The birds are singing. I am thinking of something. Father is going to town. Mother is counting her chickens. Brother is ringing the bell. Sister is walking to school. Baby is sleeping at home. The sun is shining. The horses are running. Ned is making a wagon for me. We are all having a good time. [Illustration] bought brought thought robin What do you think I have, Grace? I have brought you something. Can you guess what it is? I do not know what it is, Marian. Let me think. I will guess three times. Is it a red rose? Is it a yellow kitten? Is it something you have bought for me? [Illustration] Yes, Grace, I bought it in town for you. I think you will like it. But you must guess what it is. Is it a book? Is it a picture? Yes, Grace, it is a picture. See! I bought it for you. Don't you think it is pretty? Oh, I thought it was a picture. It is a picture of a bird and a nest. Yes, it is a picture of a robin. The robin is by its nest. The nest is high in a big tree. There are four eggs in the nest. The eggs are blue. They are as blue as the sky. This is a pretty picture, Marian. I am glad you brought it to me. [Illustration] blocks build windows made Robert has some pretty blocks. His father brought them from town. He can build a house with the blocks. The house will have doors and windows. The little girl is Robert's sister. "You may build a train of cars," he says. Do you see the train she made? [Illustration] new clock tick-tock up We have a new clock at our house. Father bought it for Grace and me. It is by the window in my room. Do you know what a clock does? It tells the time of day. It talks to us. What does the pretty clock say? It says, "Tick-tock, tick-tock, tick-tock." In the morning it says, "Get up, get up." At night it says, "Bed time, bed time." cow stand eats grass sets THE COW Here is our old cow in the brook. Why does she stand in the water? She drinks the water from the brook. The cow gives milk for us. She eats the grass by the brook. She walks under the trees. She sees many red and yellow flowers. She hears the wind roar in the tree tops. She hears the robin sing. Come here, old cow. Why do you stand in the brook? Why do you walk in the grass? The cow will not tell me. She looks at me. She does not talk. [Illustration] When the sun sets the cows come home. Why do they come home at night? I think Ned will drive them home. umbrella sat stood ran leaf [Illustration] THE RAIN See, Ned. See the rain. It rains and rains. Who has an umbrella? "I have," said the robin; And he sat under a leaf. "I have," said the bee; And it went into a flower. "I have," said the little yellow chicken; And it ran under its mother's wing. "I have," said the cow; And she stood under a tree. "Who cares for an umbrella," said Ned; And he ran in the rain. o'clock every everything Well, Ned, where are you going now? Are you going to school? Yes, sir, I go to school at nine o'clock. I go to school every day. What do you do at school? Tell me all the things you do. We read and we write. We look at the pretty pictures. We sing about the flowers. Is that all you do, Ned? Oh, no, no. It is not all. I can't tell you everything we do. Every day we play a little. Every day we read something new. At three o'clock we go home. [Illustration] again fast sometimes always still when THE BROOK Here we are at the brook again. See how fast the water runs. Stand still and hear the brook sing. I hear it, I hear it. What does it say when it sings? It says: I am a little brook. I run, and I sing as I run. I give water to the trees and the grass. I give water to the pretty white lily. The cows come to see me. I give them water to drink. The robins sing to me every morning. The flowers love me. Why do you run all the time, little brook? Where are you going this fine day? I am running to the sea. I run, and still I am always here. Boys and girls like to play by the brook. They find many pretty things. Can you tell what they find? I think they sometimes find a flower. Sometimes they catch a fish in the brook. Good-by, little brook! We will see you again. [Illustration] sand full put live MY BOX OF SAND I have a box full of sand. My father made the box. My big brother put the sand in it. I can build a house of sand. I put windows and doors in it. It is not a good house to live in. [Illustration] boat sail ship carry THE BOAT Will you make me a boat, father? Make a little boat with a sail. Where will you sail your boat, Robert? I will sail it on the brook, father. I will play it is a big, big ship. But I will not let it sail far. The brook shall not carry it away. [Illustration] place sweet glad ever humble OUR HOME Good morning, Bennie. Is Marian at home? Yes, Rose, I think she is in the house. Will you go in? What a pretty home you have! What is Marian doing this morning? She is reading in her new book. She will be glad to see you. I love my home. There is no place like it. Do you know why I think so? Father and mother live here. Sister and brother live here. Our baby lives here. I love them all. They all love me. There is a pretty song about home. We sing it at school. Did you ever hear it? Oh, yes. Shall I sing it to you? "Home, home, sweet, sweet home! Be it ever so humble, There is no place like home." Now, is not that a pretty song? Every child loves to sing it. wood branches tall small THE TREES See all the trees, Robert. Can you count them? No, Ned, there are so many. I can not count them all. I like to walk through the woods. I like to see the tall trees. Some of these trees are large. Some are small. What are trees good for, Robert? Tell me all about them. They are good for wood. We build houses of wood. Oh, yes; I know. Tables and chairs are made of wood. [Illustration] The baby's cradle is made of wood. My blocks are made of wood. So is my little wagon. So is the boat my father made for me. The birds like the tall trees. They build nests in the branches. Many flowers grow in the woods. Rabbits live and play there. [Illustration] Jack sailor sea waves storm THE SAILOR BOY Here is a sailor boy. His name is Jack. Jack's home is by the sea. He loves the sea. He likes to play in the sand. Jack likes to hear the waves. They sing him to sleep at night. Sometimes there is a storm at sea. Then the wind and the waves roar. Jack likes to hear them roar. He likes to see the big waves. Sometimes Jack sails out with his father. They go out in a boat to catch fish. The wind blows the white sails. The boat sails far away. At night they come home. How many fish did you catch, Jack? How far did you go? What did you see? Is not Jack a fine sailor boy? [Illustration] REVIEW Where do you live, Grace? I live at home, sir. I live with mother and father. Where do the robins live? They live in the old tree in the woods. The tree is their home. Where do fishes live? Some live in the brook, some in the sea. What has wings but can not fly? I think it must be a little chicken. What can fly but has no wings? I know, I know. It is Ned's kite. What runs all day but has no feet? It must be the clock in our room. I think it is the brook. Oh, no, it is a train of cars. Bopeep sheep lambs back lost [Illustration] LITTLE BOPEEP My name is Bopeep. Do you see all my sheep and lambs? I take care of them. I find grass and water for them. One day I lost my pretty sheep. I could not find them any where. How did Bopeep find her sheep? I will tell you how she found them. She looked here, she looked there. She went down to the brook. No sheep were there. She called and called. She stood still to listen. She heard not a sheep. Bopeep sat down on the grass. The birds sang to her. The brook sang to the birds. Then little Bopeep went to sleep. The sheep and lambs came running. They came out of the woods. "Here we are, little Bopeep," they said. "We have come back to you. We have come to live with you again." Little Bopeep looked up. She saw her sheep and lambs. All had come back to her. How glad she was to see them! They drank the water from the brook. They ate the green grass. The lambs played under the trees. "Oh, my pretty lambs!" said little Bopeep. can could find found look looked play played call called stand stood listen listened hear heard sit sat sing sang come came see saw drink drank eat ate winter summer sleds bring were THE SNOW One morning in winter Grace heard her mother calling her. "Come here, Grace! Come here, and look out of the window." Grace ran to the window and looked out. What do you think she saw? The snow was falling. The ground was white with snow. "Oh, mother," said Grace, "how pretty it is! Everything is white with snow. Where does the snow come from?" "It falls from the clouds," said her mother. "In summer the clouds bring rain. In winter they bring snow." [Illustration] At school the boys and girls were glad. "It snows! It snows!" they said. "Now we shall have a fine time. We can make snowballs. We can ride on our sleds. We can play in the snow." playthings happy silk masts gold MY SHIP AT SEA I will play I have a ship at sea. My ship is sailing. It is sailing on the blue sea. Now it is far, far away. Some day it will come home again. It will come home to baby and me. Many pretty things are in my ship. It is full of bright playthings. They are all for baby and me. Oh, my pretty ship! All its sails are of silk. Its masts are of yellow gold. It sails all day and all night. When it comes back, how happy I shall be. But now it is sailing on the blue sea. [Illustration] I have a ship a-sailing, A-sailing on the sea, And it is full of pretty things For baby and for me. There is candy in the cabin, And apples in the hold. The sails are made of silk, And the masts are made of gold. earth Christmas angels heaven All the bells on earth shall ring On Christmas day, On Christmas day; All the bells on earth shall ring On Christmas day in the morning. All the angels in heaven shall sing On Christmas day, On Christmas day; All the angels in heaven shall sing On Christmas day in the morning. And every one on earth shall sing On Christmas day, On Christmas day; And every one on earth shall sing On Christmas day in the morning. [Illustration] CHRISTMAS BELLS be over spring mind frozen bare sunny South THE BIRDS IN WINTER One morning Marian looked out of her window. The snow was falling. "How cold the wind blows," she said. "The trees are all frozen and bare. The brook is frozen over. The pretty robin's nest is full of snow. There are no birds in the woods. Where do the birds go when winter comes?" "They fly to the sunny South, where the snow does not come," said Robert. "They will come back to us in the spring. They will sing glad songs and build new nests." [Illustration] Out in the snow a little bird was hopping. "See, Robert, see!" said Marian. "That little bird did not fly to the sunny South. "How cold it must be! Its little feet must be frozen." "That is a snowbird," said Robert. "It likes the snow. It does not mind the cold. It stays here all winter." story heard horn corn meadow LITTLE BOY BLUE "Oh, Ned," said Rose one day, "what do you think I have? It is a new story book. Father gave it to me this morning. I have been reading in it." "It is a pretty book," said Ned. "Are there any good stories in it?" "Oh, yes. One story is about a little boy who went to sleep in the meadow. I don't know what his name was, but they called him Little Boy Blue. He took care of the sheep and the cows. He had a horn to blow. The sheep and the cows would come when they heard the horn." [Illustration] "Here is the story, now. And here is the picture of Little Boy Blue. "Little Boy Blue, Come, blow your horn! The sheep are in the meadow, The cows are in the corn. Where, where can the little boy be? Oh, here he is, sleeping, don't you see?" farm farmer helps been DRIVING THE COWS Robert lives on a farm. His father is a farmer. Robert helps his father. He helps take care of the chickens and the lambs. Sometimes he drives the cows to the meadow. Sometimes he drives them home at night. "Where are the cows, Robert?" "I think they are in the meadow." "Will you not drive them home? It is time to milk them." "Yes, father, I will bring them home. I like to drive them. I will take the dog with me. [Illustration] Come, Don. You know how to drive the cows. You may come with me. There they are by the meadow brook. See, they are drinking from the brook. Drive them, Don! Drive them home. There they go! What a fine thing it is to live on a farm!" Frank seen never would city street river tools THE BOX OF TOOLS Frank lives in the city. He has never seen a farm. He has never seen a brook. He has never heard the robins singing in the tree tops. A river runs by the city. Sometimes Frank goes down to the river to see the boats and ships. Sometimes he plays in the street by his home. The street is not a good place to play. Frank has many playthings, and he is as happy as any farmer boy. He would not be happy on a farm. [Illustration] One day Frank's father gave him a box of tools. Frank made many things with his tools. He made a kite and a little wagon. He made a stand for his mother. He made a cradle for his sister's doll. [Illustration] Spring is the time for flowers. Summer is the time for corn to grow Autumn is the time for apples to fall. Winter is the time for wind and snow. seasons autumn gone warm green SPRING Winter has gone. Spring has come. There is no snow on the ground now. The days are warm and bright. The sun is high in the sky. Soon the ground will be green with grass. There are wild flowers in the woods now. All the birds have come back from the South. The robin is here. He is building a nest in the old tree. Soon there will be some little blue eggs in the nest. The old owl did not go South. But he is glad that spring has come. [Illustration] goat fox buzz THE FIVE GOATS Five goats were in a field. There they found green grass to eat, and good water to drink. At night the farmer's boy and his little sister came to drive them home. One night the goats wanted to stay in the field. The little girl ran after them. But she could not drive them out. "Now I will try," said the boy. So the boy ran after the goats. But they would not go out for him. Just then a dog came by. "Let me try," said the dog. "I have more legs than a boy. I can run faster." He ran after the goats. He barked and barked. But the goats would not go out of the field. Soon a fox came to see what the dog was doing. "Let me try," he said. "I know more than a dog, and I can run fast." The fox ran after the goats. But he could not drive them out of the field. "Let me try," said a horse that was looking on. "I am big and strong." But the goats would not go out for the horse. A busy bee came into the field. "Buzz! buzz!" it said. "I think I can drive them out. Let me try." "What can you do? You are too little to drive goats," said the boy. "You are smaller than I am," said the little girl. "You can not bark," said the dog. "You don't know much," said the fox. "You can't run round the field on four feet," said the horse. "Buzz, buzz, buzz!" said the bee. "We will see; we will see;" and away it flew. It flew by the big goat's ear. "Buzz, buzz, buzz!" it said. The goat looked up. "What is that?" he said; and he ran out of the field. The little goat looked up. "If you go out, I will go out," he said; and out he ran. "So will I. So will I. So will I," said the three white goats; and all ran out of the field. Then the boy and his sister drove the goats home. "If the bee had not helped us, what could we have done?" they said. butter cream bread churn dish pans fresh turns MAKING BUTTER Do you know how I make butter? I will tell you. Every day the cows give us fresh milk. Ned brings the milk to the house. I have some large tin pans. At night I put the fresh milk in these pans. In the morning I find yellow cream on the top of the milk. Then I take off the cream and put it in my churn. I churn and churn till the cream turns to butter. I take the butter out. I leave the buttermilk in the churn. [Illustration] Here is one of my butter balls. It is on a little dish. Bennie and Marian like butter. They like bread and milk, too. All boys and girls eat bread. Do you like bread and butter? MARY AND THE BROOK "Stop, stop, pretty brook!" Said Mary one day, To a bright, happy brook That was running away. "You run on so fast! I wish you would stay; My boat and my flowers You will carry away. "But I will run after; Mother says that I may; For I would know where You are running away." So Mary ran on; But I have heard say, That she never could find Where the brook ran away. [Illustration] REVIEW Do you live in the city? Have you ever seen a farm? What does a farmer do? Where do the birds go in winter? When does the sun shine? When does the snow fall? What is as white as snow? Why would you like to be a sailor? Why do you love your home? Where do the fishes live? What can Bennie build with sand? How does Robert's mother make butter? What do boys and girls do at school? What does the clock tell Marian? What things are made of wood? What do you do on Christmas day? WORD LIST Most of these words are also included in the word lists at the heads of the various Lessons. Some regularly formed derivatives are omitted. a bout´ a gain´ all al´ways am an and an´gels an´y are as at ate au´tumn a way´ ba´by back ball bare bark be bed bee been bell Ben´nie best big bird black blocks blow blue boat book Bo peep´ bought bow box boy branch´es bread bright bring brook broth´er brought build bus´y but but´ter but´ter milk buzz by call call´ing came can can't cap care car´ry cars cat catch chair chick chick´ens child chil´dren Christ´mas churn cit´y clock clouds cold came com´ing corn could count cow cra´dle cream day did dish do does dog doll Don done don't door down drank draw drink drive drove drum ear earth eat eggs eight ev´er ev´er y ev´er y-thing eye fall fall´ing fan far farm farm´er fast fa´ther feet field find fine fish five flag flow´er fly for found four fox Frank fresh from fro´zen full fun gave get girl give glad go goat go´ing gold gone good good-by´ Grace grass gray green ground grow guess hap´py has hat have he hear heard heav´en helps her here high him his ho hold home hon´ey hop horn horse house how hum´ble I in in´to is it Jack Jo jump just kite kit´ten know lambs large leaf legs let light like lil´y lis´ten lit´tle live look lost loud lore made make man´y Mar´i an Ma´ry mast may me mead´ow milk mind more morn´ing moth´er must my name Ned nest nev´er new night nine no not now o'clock´ of oh old on one our out o´ver owl pan pic´ture place play play´things pret´ty put rab´bit rain ran read red ride ring riv´er roar Rob´ert rob´in room rose round run said sail sail´or sand sang sat saw say says school sea seasons see seen set sev´en shall she sheep shine ship show shut side sight silk sing sir sis´ter sit six sky sled sleep small snow so some some´thing some´times song soon south spin spring stand stay still stood storm sto´ry street sum´mer sun sun´ny sweet ta´ble take tak´ing talk tall tell ten that the their them then there they thing think this thought three tick-tock time tin to too tools top town train tree try turns two um brel´la un´der up us wag´on walk wall warm was wa´ter waves we well went were what when where which white who why will wind win´dow wings win´ter with wood would write yel´low yes you your 
7841	----	A PRIMARY READER Old-time Stories, Fairy Tales and Myths Retold by Children By E. LOUISE SMYTHE PREFACE. This book originated in a series of little reading lessons prepared for the first grade pupils in the Santa Rosa public schools. The object of the lessons was three-fold: to provide reading matter for the little ones who had only a small vocabulary of sight-words; to acquaint them early with the heroes who have come down to us in song and story; and to create a desire for literature. It has been my endeavor to follow Dr. G. Stanley Hall's suggestions in his monograph, "How to Teach Reading," where he asks for "true child-editions, made by testing many children with the work piece-meal and cutting and adapting the material till it really and closely fitted the minds and hearts of the children." Various stories were given to the pupils; discussions followed. After a time the story was produced orally by the children. Notes were made on expressions used and points of interest dwelt upon. Later the story was either written on the blackboard or mimeographed and put into the pupils' hands to read. It gave great delight to the children to recognize an old friend in a new dress, and as interest was aroused, but little difficulty was encountered in recognizing words that were indeed "new" in their sight vocabulary, but old servants in their oral vocabulary. The spirit of the book may be illustrated by referring to the roast turkey in the story of The Little Match Girl. The story was told as dear old Hans Christian Andersen gave it to the little German children of fifty years ago. But American children have a different idea of the fowl which graces the table at Christmas time. The story as it came from the lips of the children referred to the "turkey," and "goose" was used in only one instance. As the story was to appeal to our children, the word was changed to suit their ideas. Again, in the story of Red Riding-Hood we preferred to use the German ending, as it leaves a far happier impression on the minds of the children than the accepted English version. The incongruity of the wolf's swallowing whole the grandmother and child does not destroy the child's enjoyment of the story, while the happy release of both grandmother and little girl forms a suitable close. Also, as this old story handed down in so many languages is an interpretation of one of the Sun myths, it seems better to cling to the original, especially when it meets so entirely with the child's approval. Before presenting the Norse myths for reading, they had been the subject of many conversations, queries and illustrations. Some were even dramatized--in a childlike way, of course. Detailed descriptions of Mt. Ida, Asgard, and some of the principal heroes, were given. But, though the little audience seemed interested in the introductory remarks, these never came back when the children were called upon to reproduce the story. The narrator at once plunged into the story part. It is for this reason descriptions of heroes and places have been omitted in these stories. It is thus left for each teacher who uses this book to employ her own method of introducing the gods of the hardy Norseman to her pupils. The following works will be found useful and quite available to most teachers: Andersen's Norse Mythology, Mabie's Norse Stories, Mara Pratt's Stories from Norseland, Fiske's Myths and Myth Makers, Taylor's Primitive Culture, Vol. I.; and Longfellow's Poems. Hoping these stories will interest other children as they have interested those who helped build them, I send them forth. E. LOUISE SMYTHE. _Santa Rosa, California._ CONTENTS. THE UGLY DUCKLING THE LITTLE PINE TREE THE LITTLE MATCH GIRL LITTLE RED RIDING-HOOD THE APPLES OF IDUN HOW THOR GOT THE HAMMER THE HAMMER LOST AND FOUND THE STORY OF THE SHEEP THE GOOD SHIP ARGO JASON AND THE HARPIES THE BRASS BULLS JASON AND THE DRAGON [Illustration: THEY DRESSED THOR LIKE FREYJA.] THE UGLY DUCKLING. under broke does keep only turkey warm ugly water A duck made her nest under some leaves. [Illustration: THE DUCK'S NEST.] She sat on the eggs to keep them warm. At last the eggs broke, one after the other. Little ducks came out. Only one egg was left. It was a very large one. At last it broke, and out came a big, ugly duckling. "What a big duckling!" said the old duck. "He does not look like us. Can he be a turkey?--We will see. If he does not like the water, he is not a duck." * * * * * * * mother jumped duckling splash swim bigger called began little The next day the mother duck took her ducklings to the pond. [Illustration: THE DUCK TAKES HER DUCKLINGS TO SWIM.] Splash! Splash! The mother duck was in the water. Then she called the ducklings to come in. They all jumped in and began to swim. The big, ugly duckling swam, too. The mother duck said, "He is not a turkey. He is my own little duck. He will not be so ugly when he is bigger." * * * * * * * yard alone while noise hurt that eating know want Then she said to the ducklings, "Come with me. I want you to see the other ducks. Stay by me and look out for the cat." They all went into the duck yard. What a noise the ducks made! While the mother duck was eating a big bug, an old duck bit the ugly duckling. "Let him alone," said the mother duck. "He did not hurt you." [Illustration: "HE DID NOT HURT YOU," SAID THE MOTHER DUCK.] "I know that," said the duck, "but he is so ugly, I bit him." * * * * * * * lovely help there walked bushes afraid The next duck they met, said, "You have lovely ducklings. They are all pretty but one. He is very ugly." [Illustration: "YOUR CHILDREN ARE ALL PRETTY EXCEPT ONE."] The mother duck said, "I know he is not pretty. But he is very good." Then she said to the ducklings, "Now, my dears, have a good time." But the poor, big, ugly duckling did not have a good time. The hens all bit him. The big ducks walked on him. The poor duckling was very sad. He did not want to be so ugly. But he could not help it. He ran to hide under some bushes. The little birds in the bushes were afraid and flew away. * * * * * * * because house would away hard lived "It is all because I am so ugly," said the duckling. So he ran away. At night he came to an old house. The house looked as if it would fall down. It was so old. But the wind blew so hard that the duckling went into the house. [Illustration: THE UGLY DUCKLING FINDS THE OLD HOUSE.] An old woman lived there with her cat and her hen. The old woman said, "I will keep the duck. I will have some eggs." * * * * * * * growl walk corner animals The next day, the cat saw the duckling and began to growl. The hen said, "Can you lay eggs?" The duckling said, "No." "Then keep still," said the hen. The cat said, "Can you growl?" [Illustration: THE CAT SAID, "CAN YOU GROWL?"] "No," said the duckling. "Then keep still," said the cat. And the duckling hid in a corner. The next day he went for a walk. He saw a big pond. He said, "I will have a good swim." But all of the animals made fun of him. He was so ugly. * * * * * summer away cake winter swans spring flew bread leaves The summer went by. Then the leaves fell and it was very cold. The poor duckling had a hard time. It is too sad to tell what he did all winter. At last it was spring. The birds sang. The ugly duckling was big now. One day he flew far away. [Illustration: "OH, SEE THE LOVELY SWAN!"] Soon he saw three white swans on the lake. He said, "I am going to see those birds. I am afraid they will kill me, for I am so ugly." He put his head down to the water. What did he see? He saw himself in the water. But he was not an ugly duck. He was a white swan. The other swans came to see him. The children said, "Oh, see the lovely swans. The one that came last is the best." And they gave him bread and cake. It was a happy time for the ugly duckling. THE LITTLE PINE TREE pine leaves other woods needles better fairy gold sleep A little pine tree was in the woods. It had no leaves. It had needles. The little tree said, "I do not like needles. All the other trees in the woods have pretty leaves. I want leaves, too. But I will have better leaves. I want gold leaves." Night came and the little tree went to sleep. A fairy came by and gave it gold leaves. [Illustration: THE FAIRY GIVES THE PINK TREE GOLD LEAVES.] woke cried glass little again pretty When the little tree woke it had leaves of gold. It said, "Oh, I am so pretty! No other tree has gold leaves." Night came. A man came by with a bag. He saw the gold leaves. He took them all and put them into his bag. The poor little tree cried, "I do not want gold leaves again. I will have glass leaves." * * * * * * * night sunshine bright looked wind blew So the little tree went to sleep. The fairy came by and put the glass leaves on it. The little tree woke and saw its glass leaves. How pretty they looked in the sunshine! 'No other tree was so bright. Then a wind came up. It blew and blew. The glass leaves all fell from the tree and were broken. * * * * * again green goat hungry Again the little tree had no leaves. It was very sad, and said, "I will not have gold leaves and I will not have glass leaves. I want green leaves. I want to be like the other trees." And the little tree went to sleep. When it woke, it was like other trees. It had green leaves. A goat came by. He saw the green leaves on the little tree. The goat was hungry and he ate all the leaves. [Illustration: THE GOAT EATS THE GREEN LEAVES.] happy best Then the little tree said, "I do not want any leaves. I will not have green leaves, nor glass leaves, nor gold leaves. I like my needles best." [Illustration: THE PINE TREE WITH NEEDLES.] And the little tree went to sleep. The fairy gave it what it wanted. When it woke, it had its needles again. Then the little pine tree was happy. THE LITTLE MATCH GIRL. almost match across dark running bare year slippers fell It was very cold. The snow fell and it was almost dark. It was the last day of the year. A little match girl was running in the street. Her name was Gretchen. She had no hat on. Her feet were bare. When she left home, she had on some big slippers of her mama's. But they were so large that she lost them when she ran across the street. * * * * * * * apron curly lights bunch about smelled could matches cooking Gretchen had a lot of matches in her old apron. She had a little bunch in her hand. But she could not sell her matches. No one would buy them. Poor little Gretchen! She was cold and hungry. The snow fell on her curly hair. But she did not think about that. She saw lights in the houses. She smelled good things cooking. She said to herself, "This is the last night of the year." * * * * * * * knew window fire money even pile Gretchen got colder and colder. She was afraid to go home. She knew her papa would whip her, if she did not take some money to him. It was as cold at home as in the street. They were too poor to have a fire. They had to put rags in the windows to keep out the wind. Gretchen did not even have a bed. She had to sleep on a pile of rags. * * * * * * * frozen candle sitting lighted thought stove near think step She sat down on a door step. [Illustration: GRETCHEN ON THE DOOR STEP.] Her little hands were almost frozen. She took a match and lighted it to warm her hands. The match looked like a little candle. Gretchen thought she was sitting by a big stove. It was so bright. She put the match near her feet, to warm them. Then the light went out. She did not think that she was by the stove any more. * * * * * * * another dishes roast table cloth ready fork knife turkey Gretchen lighted another match. Now she thought she could look into a room. In this room was a table. A white cloth and pretty dishes were on the table. There was a roast turkey, too. It was cooked and ready to eat. The knife and fork were in his back. The turkey jumped from the dish and ran to the little girl. The light went out and she was in the cold and dark again. Christmas candles many until Gretchen lighted another match. Then she thought she was sitting by a Christmas tree. Very many candles were on the tree. It was full of pretty things. Gretchen put up her little hands. The light went out. The lights on the Christmas tree went up, up--until she saw they were the stars. * * * * * * * grandma never before dying going been Then she saw a star fall. "Some one is dying," said little Gretchen. Her grandma had been very good to the little girl. But she was dead. The grandma had said, "When a star falls some one is going to God." The little girl lighted another match. It made a big light. Gretchen thought she saw her grandma. She never looked so pretty before. She looked so sweet and happy. * * * * * * * take goes "O grandma," said the little girl, "take me. When the light goes out you will go away. The stove and the turkey and the Christmas tree all went away." Then Gretchen lighted a bunch of matches. She wanted to keep her grandma with her. The matches made it very light. The grandma took the little girl in her arms. They went up, up--where they would never be cold or hungry. They were with God. * * * * * * * found next burned dead froze death The next day came. Some men found a little girl in the street. She was dead. In her hand were the burned matches. They said, "Poor little thing, she froze to death." They did not know how happy she was in heaven. LITTLE RED RIDING-HOOD. six take cake coat butter basket hood always off When May was six years old, her grandma made her a red coat with a hood. She looked so pretty in it that the children all called her "Red Riding-Hood." One day her mama said, "I want you to take this cake and some butter to grandma." Red Riding-Hood was very glad to go. She always had a good time at grandma's. [Illustration: LITTLE RED RIDING-HOOD AND HER MOTHER] She put the things into her little basket and ran off. * * * * * * * wolf mill shall going first wood When Red Riding-Hood came to the wood, she met a big wolf. [Illustration: SHE MEETS THE WOLF.] "Where are you going?" said the wolf. Red Riding-Hood said, "I am going to see my grandma. Mama has made her a cake and some butter." "Does she live far?" said the wolf. "Yes," said Red Riding-Hood, "in the white house by the mill." "I will go too, and we shall see who will get there first," said the wolf. * * * * * * * short flowers soft stopped tapped pull pick voice string The wolf ran off and took a short way, but Red Riding-Hood stopped to pick some flowers. When the wolf got to the house, he tapped on the door. The grandma said, "Who is there?" The wolf made his voice as soft as he could. He said, "It is little Red Riding-Hood, grandma." Then the old lady said, "Pull the string and the door will open." The wolf pulled the string and the door opened. He ran in and ate the poor old lady. Then he jumped into her bed and put on her cap. * * * * * * * tapped thank dear arms hug called When Red Riding-Hood tapped on the door, the wolf called out, "Who is there?" Red Riding-Hood said, "It is your little Red Riding-Hood, grandma." Then the wolf said, "Pull the string and the door will open." When she went in, she said, "Look, grandma, see the cake and butter mama has sent you." "Thank you, dear, put them on the table and come here." * * * * * * * better hear eyes ears how teeth ate cruel poor When Red Riding-Hood went near the bed, she said, "Oh, grandma, how big your arms are!" "The better to hug you, my dear." "How big your ears are, grandma." "The better to hear you, my dear." "How big your eyes are, grandma." "The better to see you, my dear." "How big your teeth are, grandma!" "The better to eat you." Then the cruel wolf jumped up and ate poor little Red Riding-Hood. * * * * * * * just hunter scream killed heard open Just then a hunter came by. He heard Red Riding-Hood scream. The hunter ran into the house and killed the old wolf. [Illustration: THE GRANDMOTHER, THE HUNTER AND LITTLE RED RIDING- HOOD.] When he cut the wolf open, out jumped Little Red Riding-Hood and her grandma. THE APPLES OF IDUN. once hills field journey rocks cattle walked pieces three Once upon a time three of the gods went on a journey. One was Thor and one was Loki. Loki was ugly and mean. The gods liked to walk over the hills and rocks. They could go very fast for they were so big. The gods walked on and on. At last they got very hungry. Then they came to a field with cattle. [Illustration: LOKI AND ANOTHER GOD TAKE A WALK.] Thor killed a big ox and put the pieces into a pot. * * * * * meat share talking cross eagle right They made a big fire but the meat would not cook. They made the fire bigger and bigger, but the meat would not cook. Then the gods were very cross. Some one said, "Give me my share, and I will make the meat cook." The gods looked to see who was talking. There in an oak tree was a big eagle. [Illustration: THE THREE GODS TRY TO COOK THE OX.] The gods were so hungry that they said, "Well, we will." * * * * * supper stuck enough minute claws stones pole against flew The supper was ready in a minute. Then the eagle flew down to get his share. He took the four legs and there was not much left but the ribs. This made Loki cross for he was very hungry. He took a long pole to hit the eagle. But the pole stuck to the eagle's claws. The other end stuck to Loki. Then the eagle flew away. He did not fly high. He flew just high enough for Loki to hit against the stones. * * * * * please giant flying tried feathers suit Loki said, "Please let me go! Oh, please let me go!" But the eagle said, "No, you tried to kill me. I will not let you go." And the eagle hit him against the stones. Loki said again, "Please let me go!" But the eagle said, "No, I have you now." Then Loki knew the eagle was a giant and not a bird. This giant had a suit of eagle's feathers. He was flying in his eagle suit when he saw Loki. * * * * * city beautiful apples felt growing young Now the gods lived in a city named Asgard. In this city Idun kept the beautiful golden apples. When the gods felt they were growing old, they ate the apples and were young again. The giant wanted to be like the gods. So he said to Loki, "I will let you go, if you will get me the apples of Idun." [Illustration: IDUN WITH HER APPLES.] But Loki said, "I can't do that." * * * * * bumped gate putting stayed golden morning So the eagle bumped him on the stones again. Then Loki said, "I can't stand this. I will get the apples for you." Loki and the eagle went to the city. The eagle stayed by the gate, but Loki went into the city. He went up to Idun. She was putting the apples into a beautiful golden box. [Illustration: LOKI AND IDUN] Loki said, "Good morning, Idun Those are beautiful apples." And Idun said, "Yes, they are beautiful." "I saw some just like them, the other day," said Loki. [Illustration: IDUN WITH HER APPLES.] strange show bring picked Idun knew there were no other apples like these, and she said, "That is strange. I would like to see them." Loki said, "Come with me and I will show them to you. It is only a little way. Bring your apples with you." As soon as Idun was out of the gates the eagle flew down. He picked her up in his claws. Then he flew away with her to his home. * * * * * after pale falcon passed story began Day after day passed and Idun did not come back. The gods did not have the golden apples to eat, so they began to get old. At last they said, "Who let the apples go?" Then Loki looked pale and the gods said, "Loki, you did it." And Loki said, "Yes, I did." [Illustration: THE GODS ASK WHERE IDUN IS.] He did not tell a story that time. Then Loki said, "I will get Idun and the apples back, if I may have the falcon suit." * * * * * changed faster The gods said, "You may have it, if you will bring the apples back." Loki put on the falcon suit and flew away. He looked like a big bird flying. When Loki came to the giant's home, he was glad the giant was not there. He changed Idun into a nut and then flew away with the nut. [Illustration: THE GIANT SEES THE BIRD FLY AWAY] When the giant came home, Idun was gone. The golden apples were gone, too. Then the giant put on his eagle suit and flew after Loki. Loki heard the eagle coming. Loki flew faster. * * * * * breath over changed walls blazed burned Poor Loki was all out of breath. The eagle flew faster and faster. Then the gods got on the walls to look for Loki. They saw him coming and the eagle after him. So they made fires on the walls. At last Loki flew over the walls. Then the gods lighted the fires. The fires blazed up. The eagle flew into the fire and was burned. As soon as Loki put the nut down, it changed to Idun. The gods ate the beautiful golden apples and were young again. [Illustration] HOW THOR GOT THE HAMMER. proud porch lying journeys tricks wife always alone asleep Sif was Thor's wife. Sif had long golden hair. Thor was very proud of Sif's golden hair. Thor was always going on long journeys. One day he went off and left Sif alone. She went out on the porch and fell asleep. Loki came along. He was always playing tricks. He saw Sif lying asleep. He said, "I am going to cut off her hair." [Illustration] So Loki went up on the porch and cut off Sif's golden hair. * * * * * where around crying answer found somebody When Sif woke up and saw that her hair was gone, she cried and cried. Then she ran to hide. She did not want Thor to see her. When Thor came home, he could not find Sif. "Sif! Sif!" he called, "Where are you?" But Sif did not answer. Thor looked all around the house. At last he found her crying. [Illustration: "OH THOR, ALL MY HAIR, IS GONE!"] "Oh, Thor, look, all my hair is gone! Somebody has cut it off. It was a man. He ran away with it." * * * * * angry mischief right getting cutting something Then Thor was very angry. He said, "I know it was Loki. He is always getting into mischief. Just wait until I get him!" And Thor went out to find Loki. Pretty soon he found him. Thor said, "Did you cut off Sif's hair?" Loki said, "Yes, I did." "Then you must pay for cutting off my wife's hair," said Thor. [Illustration: "DID YOU CUT OFF SIF'S HAIR?"] "All right," said Loki, "I will get you something better than the hair." * * * * * ground thumb beads dwarfs crooked crown worked Loki went down, down into the ground to the home of the dwarfs. It was very dark down there. The only light came from the dwarfs' fires. The dwarfs were ugly little black men. They were not any bigger than your thumb. They had crooked backs and crooked legs. Their eyes looked like black beads. [Illustration: LOKI AND THE DWARFS.] Loki said, "Can you make me a gold crown that will grow like real hair?" The dwarfs said, "Yes, we can." So the busy little dwarfs worked all night. * * * * * morning showed laughed spear wonderful three ship standing brother nobody stepped else When morning came the dwarfs gave Loki his crown of golden hair. They gave him a spear and a ship, too. [Illustration: THE DWARFS BRING TO LOKI THE SHIP, THE SPEAR AND THE CROWN OF HAIR.] Loki took the things up to Asgard, where the gods all lived. Then the gods all came up to him. He showed them the things. The gods said, "They are very wonderful." And Loki said, "Oh, nobody else can make such things as my little dwarfs." A little dwarf, named Brok, was standing near by. He heard Loki say that. Then he stepped up and said, "My brother can make just as good things as these." Loki laughed and said, "If you can get three things as wonderful as these, I will give you my head." [Illustration: BROK TELLS LOKI THAT HIS BROTHER CAN MAKE BETTER GIFTS] * * * * * anywhere misses spear mark Brok went down into the ground where his little dwarfs were working. Brok's brother was named Sindre. He said to his brother, "Loki says that you can't make such nice things as his dwarfs can. He said that he would give me his head if I could get him such wonderful things as his." This made the dwarfs angry. Their eyes grew big. They said, "He will see what we can do." Sindre wanted to know what the wonderful things were. Brok said, "Loki has a golden crown that will grow like real hair. A ship that can go anywhere. A spear that never misses the mark." "We will show him," said the dwarfs. * * * * * * burning blow pigskin bellows blew blowing The dwarfs soon had the fires burning. Then Sindre put a pigskin into the fire. He gave the bellows to Brok and said, "Now blow as hard as you can." Then Sindre went out. Brok blew and blew. A little fly came in and bit him on the hand. The fly bit him so hard that Brok thought he would have to stop blowing, but he did not. Then Sindre came back. He took out a golden pig from the fire. * * * * * stand lump ring He next put a lump of gold into the fire. He said to Brok, "Blow and blow and blow, and do not stop." Then Sindre went out again. So Brok blew as hard as he could. Then the same fly came in and bit him again. Brok thought that he could not stand it, but he kept on. When Sindre came back, he took a gold ring from the fire. * * * * * hard forehead brush iron blood hammer handle spoiled mean Then Sindre put a lump of iron into the fire. He said to Brok, "Now blow as hard as you can." And Sindre went out. Brok blew and blew. The same mean fly came again, and bit him on the forehead. It bit so hard that the blood ran into his eyes. Brok put up his hand to brush away the fly. Just then Sindre came back. He took the hammer out of the fire. [Illustration: THE DWARFS WITH THE GOLDEN PIG, THE RING AND THE HAMMER.] "There!" he said, "You have almost spoiled it. The handle is too short, but it cannot be helped now." * * * * * hurried proud came pocket Brok hurried up to Asgard with his things. All the gods came around to see. Then Loki came up to show his things. He put the crown of gold on Sif's head and it began to grow like real hair. He gave the spear to Odin and said, "This spear will never miss its mark." [Illustration: SIF WITH THE GOLDEN CROWN] Then he took out the ship. He said, "This is a wonderful ship. It will sail on any sea, and yet you can fold it up and put it into your pocket." Loki felt very proud, for he thought his things were the best. * * * * * fold sail afraid sorry each ring shining faster gave All the gods felt very sorry for little Brok. They thought Loki's things were fine. They were afraid Brok's would not be so nice. [Illustration: BROK SHOWS HIS THINGS TO THE GODS.] They said, "Now, Brok, show your things." Brok took out the gold ring. He said, "Each night this ring will throw off a ring just like it. He gave the ring to Odin." Then Brok took out the golden pig. He said, "This pig can go anywhere, on the ground or in the air. It can go faster than any horse. If the night is dark, the shining pig will make it light." * * * * * frost giants turned blowing [Illustration: THOR WITH HIS HAMMER] Then Brok showed the hammer. He said, "This is not a very pretty hammer. When I was making it, Loki turned himself into a fly and made me spoil it. The fly bit me so hard that I had to stop blowing. So the handle is a little short. But it is a wonderful hammer. If you throw it at anything, it will hit the mark and come back to you." The gods picked up the hammer and passed it around. They said, "It will be just the things with which to keep the Frost Giants out of Asgard." * * * * * touch neck without way The gods said, "Brok's things are the best." Brok gave the hammer to Thor. That is the way Thor got his wonderful hammer. Then Brok said to Loki, "You said I could have your head if my things were the best." And Loki was angry and said, "Yes, I told you that you could have my head. But you can't touch my neck." Of course, Brok could not get his head without touching his neck. So Brok did not get Loki's head. [Illustration: THE FROST GIANT] THE HAMMER LOST AND FOUND. everything planned The Frost Giants did not like the sunshine. They did not like to see the flowers. They did not like to hear the birds sing. They wanted to spoil everything. The Frost Giants wanted to get into Asgard. But they did not know how. They were afraid of Thor and his hammer. They said, "If we can only get the hammer, we can get into Asgard." They talked and planned all night. At last one Frost Giant said, "I know how we can get the hammer. I will dress in a bird suit. Then I will fly up to Thor's house and get the hammer." [Illustration: THE FROST GIANTS TALKED AND PLANNED ALL NIGHT.] * * * * * Freyja The next night the Frost Giant flew into the house while Thor was asleep. He took the hammer and flew away with it. When Thor woke, he put out his hand to get the hammer. It was gone. He said, "Loki, the hammer is gone. The Frost Giants have taken it. We must get it back." [Illustration: THE FROST GIANT FLEW INTO THE HOUSE WHILE THOR WAS ASLEEP.] Loki said, "I can get it back, if Freyja will let me have her falcon suit." So he went to Freyja and said, "Will you let me have your falcon suit? I can get the hammer back if you will." Freyja said, "Yes, of course I will. If I had a gold suit you could have it. Any thing to get the hammer back." * * * * * people city Thrym strange buried eight miles deep falcon Loki took the falcon suit and put it on. He flew over the city. All the people saw him flying. They said, "What a strange bird!" They did not know that it was Loki going for the hammer. [Illustration: LOKI BORROWS THE FALCON SUIT.] When Loki came to the city of the Frost Giants, he took off the falcon suit. He walked and walked until he came to Thrym's house. Thrym was the giant who took the hammer. Thrym was sitting on the porch, making gold collars for his dogs. When he saw Loki, he said, "What do you want?" Loki said, "I have come for the hammer." The old giant laughed and said, "You will never get that hammer. It is buried eight miles deep in the ground. "But there is one way you can get it. I will give you the hammer if you get Freyja for my wife." * * * * * clothes shook necklace So Loki went back to Asgard. Thor said, "Well, did you get the hammer?" "No, but we can get it if Freyja will be Thrym's wife." Then they went to Freyja's house. They said, "Put on your very best clothes and come with us. You must be Thrym's wife." Freyja said, "Do you think I will be the Frost Giant's wife? I won't be his wife." Thor said, "We can get the hammer back if you will." But Freyja said, "No, I will not be his wife." Loki said, "You will have to, if we get the hammer back." Still Freyja said, "I will not go." And she was very angry. She shook so hard that she broke her necklace and it fell to the floor. * * * * * bride braided wagon vail servant goat Then the gods said, "Thor, you must dress like Freyja. You will have to play you are the bride." Thor said, "I won't do it. You will all laugh at me. I won't dress up like a girl." They said, "Well, that is the only way we can get the hammer back." Thor said, "I do not like to dress like a girl, but I will do it." Then they dressed Thor up like Freyja. They put on Freyja's dress, necklace and vail, and braided his hair. Loki said, "I will dress up too, and be your servant." They got into Thor's goat wagon and went to the Giants' home. [Illustration: THOR AND LOKI APPROACH THE HOUSE OF THE GIANTS] * * * * * dinner salmon mead whole thirsty barrels When the Frost Giants saw them coming, they said, "Get ready, here comes the bride! We will sit down to the table as soon as they come." The dinner was ready on time. The table was full of good things. All sat down. The bride ate a whole ox and eight salmon before the others had a bite. "She must be very hungry," the Frost Giants said. "Yes," Loki said, "she was so glad to come. She hasn't eaten anything for eight days." Then they brought in the mead. [Illustration: THOR AND LOKI MET BY THRYM] The bride drank three barrels of mead. "How thirsty she is!" said the Frost Giants. Loki said, "Yes, she is very thirsty. She was so glad to come. She did not drink anything for eight days." * * * * * kiss stepped whirled lifted shone lap Old Thrym said, "I had every thing I wanted but Freyja. Now I have Freyja." And Thrym went to kiss the bride. He lifted her vail, but her eyes shone like fire. [Illustration: THRYM PUTS THE HAMMER IN THOR'S LAP.] [Illustration: THOR AND HIS HAMMER.] Thrym stepped back. He said, "What makes Freyja's eyes shine so?" Loki said, "Oh, she was so glad to come. She did not sleep for eight nights." Then Loki said, "It is time for the hammer. Go and get it and put it in the bride's lap." As soon as the hammer was in his lap, Thor tore off the vail. He took the hammer and whirled it around. Fire flew from it. The fire burned the house and the Frost Giants ran away. So Thor got his hammer back. The following stories by Miss Smythe were originally published under the title of "The Golden Fleece." They have been carefully revised and illustrated for this book. THE STORY OF THE SHEEP. ago horns fleece king Greece loved playing Helle grass garden catch clouds Long, long ago there lived a king in Greece. He had two little children, a boy and a girl. They were good children and loved each other very much. One day they were playing in the garden. "Oh, Helle, look!" said the boy. There on the grass was a fine large sheep. This sheep had a fleece of gold and his horns were gold, too. [Illustration: THE KING AND HIS TWO CHILDREN.] The children wanted to pat the sheep, but they could not catch him. When they went near, he ran away on the clouds. * * * * * grew golden hold tame ride tight Every day they played in the garden and every day the sheep came, too. By and by he grew tame and let the children pat his golden fleece. One day the boy said, "Helle, let us take a ride." First he helped his sister on the sheep's back. Then he got on and held to the horns. "Hold tight to me, Helle," he said. * * * * * sky dizzy sea sister land dragon lose nailed Colchis The sheep went up, up into the sky, and ran a long way on the clouds. But Helle got dizzy and fell down into the sea. The boy felt very bad to lose his sister, but went right on. Then he came to the land Colchis. He killed the sheep and gave the golden fleece to the king. [Illustration: THE BOY GIVES THE GOLDEN FLEECE TO THE KING.] The king was glad to have it and nailed it to an oak tree. [Illustration: THE SHEEP WENT UP INTO THE SKY AND RAN A LONG WAY ON THE CLOUDS] By the tree was a dragon. The dragon never went to sleep. He would not let any one but the king come to the tree. So no one could get the golden fleece. THE GOOD SHIP ARGO. across untied wade Jason brave party rained creek bridge shoe-strings invited Jason was a brave young man. He lived a little way from the king's city. One day the king gave a big party and invited Jason. It was a very dark night and it rained hard. Jason had to go across a creek, but there was no bridge. [Illustration: JASON COMES TO THE KING'S HOUSE.] The creek was full of water and Jason had to wade. One of his shoe-strings came untied and he lost his shoe in the water. When he came to the king's house, he had but one shoe. * * * * * knew bring fight wild Argo asked animals shoe Argonauts The king did not like this, for a fairy had said, "The man who shall come to your house with one shoe, will be king." So he knew Jason was to be king. Then he said to Jason, "You may be king when you bring me the golden fleece." Jason was glad to go, and asked many brave men to go with him. To get the golden fleece they would have to fight wild men and animals. They made a big ship which they named "Argo." The men who went on the Argo were called Argonauts. JASON AND THE HARPIES. wings blind nobody strong iron hard skin drive claws scratched brass Harpies The ship Argo sailed a long way. There were two strong men on the ship. They had wings and could fly. One day the Argo came to a land where the blind king lived. This poor king had a hard time. When he sat down to the table to eat, some ugly birds called Harpies, came too. The Harpies had skin like brass and nobody could hurt them. They had claws of iron, and scratched people when they tried to drive them away. When the king's dinner was ready, the Harpies came and took it away. When Jason and his men came, the king told them all about it. Jason said they would help him. * * * * * food drowned tired swords hurt flying They all sat down to the table. When the food was put on the table, the Harpies came flying in. Jason and his men took their swords. [Illustration: JASON TRIES TO KILL THE HARPIES.] They cut at the Harpies but could not hurt them. Then the two men with wings flew up in the air. The Harpies were afraid and flew away. The men flew after them. At last the Harpies grew very tired and fell into the sea and were drowned. Then the men with wings came back. Now the blind king could eat all he wanted. * * * * * thanked rocks moved friends helping good-bye over apart icebergs It was now time for Jason and his friends to go away. The king thanked them over and over again for helping him. When they said good-bye, he told them how to get to the land where they would find the golden fleece. On the sea where Jason and his men had to sail, were two big rocks. These rocks moved on the waterlike icebergs. They were as high as a big hill. They would come close to each other, then they would go far apart. * * * * * fishes pieces dove past break together row almost rocks When fishes swam in the water the rocks would come together and kill the fishes. If birds flew in the air, the rocks would come together and kill birds. If a boat sailed on the water, the rocks would come together and break the boat into little pieces. These rocks had been put in the sea, so no one could go to the land where the golden fleece was. When the ship Argo came to the rocks, Jason sent a dove out. The rocks came together when the dove was almost past. Then they went far apart. Jason made his men row as hard as they could. The rocks began to come together. "Row hard, my men," said Jason. Just as they got past, the rocks hit, but Jason and his men were all right. So they came to Colchis. THE BRASS BULLS. something plow bulls stronger chains noses mouths smoke plant stone flew stall When Jason came to Colchis, he went to the king and said, "Will you give me the golden fleece?" The king wanted to keep the fleece. So he said to Jason, "You may have it, but you must do something for me first." "You must plow with the brass bulls, and plant the dragon's teeth." The brass bulls looked like real bulls, but they were larger and stronger. They blew out fire and smoke from their noses and mouths. The bulls had a stall made of iron and stone. They had to be tied with strong iron chains. * * * * * daughter Medea carriage snakes through pulled When the dragon's teeth were planted, iron men grew up. They always killed the one who had planted them. The king wanted the bulls to kill Jason. [Illustration: MEDEA GATHERS FLOWERS.] He said, "If the bulls do not kill him the iron men will." The king had a daughter named Medea. She saw Jason was a brave young man and did not want him killed. She knew how to help him. She stepped into her carriage, which was pulled by flying snakes. Then Medea flew through the air. She went to hills and creeks and picked all kinds of flowers. She took the flowers home and cooked them. * * * * * nothing face rub juice legs cut Then Medea went to Jason when the king did not know it. She said to Jason, "Rub your face and hands and legs with this juice." [Illustration: MEDEA GIVES JASON THE JUICE.] When he did this, he was as strong as a giant. Nothing could hurt him then. Fire could not burn him, and swords could not cut him. The next day Jason had to plow with the brass bulls and plant the dragon's teeth. * * * * * climbed early tied princess seats hold untied opened place Early in the morning, the king and princess went out to the place. They had good seats where they could see well. All the people in the city came out to see Jason plow. The little boys climbed the trees so they could see better. Then Jason came to the place. The stall where the brass bulls were tied was not far off. The door was opened and Jason went in. He untied the bulls and took hold of their horns. Then he made the bulls come out of their stall. * * * * * pushed kicked until The bulls were very angry and blew fire and smoke from their mouths. This made the cruel king glad. But the people who saw it were afraid. They did not want Jason killed. They did not know that the princess had helped him. Jason pushed the bulls' heads down to the ground. Then they kicked at him with their feet, but could not hurt him. He held their heads down on the ground until the plow was ready. * * * * * handle slowly noon wheat lie just Jason took the chains in one hand. He took the handle of the plow in the other. The bulls jumped and wanted to run away. But Jason held so hard they had to go very slowly. When it was noon the ground was all plowed. Then Jason let the bulls go. They were so angry that they ran away to the woods. Now Jason went to the king and said, "Give me the dragon's teeth." The king gave him his hat full. Then Jason planted the dragon's teeth, just as a man plants wheat. By this time he was very tired, so he went to lie down. [Illustration: JASON SOWS THE DRAGON'S TEETH.] evening knees marble threw growing fight In the evening he came back. The iron men were growing up. Some of the men had only their feet in the ground. Some of them were in the ground up to their knees. Some had only their heads out. They all tried to get out so they could kill Jason. Then Jason did what Medea told him he should do. He took a giant's marble and threw it near the men. All the iron men wanted to get the marble. So they began to fight each other. As soon as one had his feet out of the ground, he cut at the man next to him. So they killed each other. Then Jason took his sword and cut off all the heads that were out of the ground. So all the iron men were killed and the king was very angry. But Medea and the people were glad. JASON AND THE DRAGON. yourself fond father The next day Jason went to the king and said, "Now, give me the golden fleece." The king did not give it to him, but said, "Come again." Then Medea said, "If you want the golden fleece, you must help yourself. My father will not give it to you. A dragon is by the tree where the golden fleece is, and he never sleeps. He is always hungry and eats people if they go near him. I can not kill him but I can make him sleep. He is very fond of cake. I will make some cake and put in something to make the dragon sleep." * * * * * became climbed angry So Medea made the cakes and Jason took them and threw them to the dragon. The dragon ate them all and went to sleep. Then Jason climbed over the dragon and took the nail out of the tree. He put the golden fleece under his coat and ran to the ship Argo. Medea went with him and became his wife. [Illustration: THE DRAGON FINDS THE FLEECE IS GONE.] Oh, how angry the king was! He had lost the golden fleece and the brass bulls and the dragon's teeth. And now his daughter was gone. * * * * * through nine stones He sent his men in ships to take Jason, but they could not get him. At last Medea and Jason and the other Argonauts came to Greece. Jason's father was there. He was a very old man. Jason wanted his father to be king, so he asked Medea to make the old man young. Then Medea took her carriage and flew through the air. She did not come back for nine days. She picked flowers from the hills. She found all kinds of stones, too. * * * * * stick died woke When she went home she put all these things into a pot and cooked them. [Illustration: MEDEA MAKES THE OLD KING YOUNG.] Then she put a stick into the pot and leaves grew on it. Some of the juice fell on the ground and grass grew up. So Medea knew the juice would make things grow. Jason's father went to sleep and Medea put some of the juice into his mouth. His white hair turned black and teeth grew in his mouth. When he woke up, he looked and felt like a young man. He lived many years and when he died Jason was king. 
17594	----	TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES: In this book, as well as using _ to indicate the italic font, the = symbol has been used to show text printed in smaller capital letters in the original printed version. Please see the HTML version for a more accurate reproduction. Bracketed words, such as [the?], were present in the original text. They were not added by the transcriber. Obvious printing errors were repaired; these changes are listed at the end of the text. In ambiguous cases, the text has been left as it appears in the original book. In particular, many mismatched quotation marks have not been changed. LECTURES ON LANGUAGE, AS PARTICULARLY CONNECTED WITH ENGLISH GRAMMAR. DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF TEACHERS AND ADVANCED LEARNERS. BY WM. S. BALCH. Silence is better than unmeaning words.--_Pythagoras._ PROVIDENCE: B. CRANSTON & CO. 1838. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1838, BY B. CRANSTON & CO. In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Rhode-Island. PROVIDENCE, Feb. 24, 1838. TO WM. S. BALCH, SIR--The undersigned, in behalf of the Young People's Institute, hasten to present to you the following _Resolutions_, together with their personal thanks, for the Lectures you have delivered before them, on the Philosophy of Language. The uncommon degree of interest, pleasure and profit, with which you have been listened to, is conclusive evidence, that whoever possesses taste and talents to comprehend and appreciate the philosophy of language, which you have so successfully cultivated, cannot fail to attain a powerful influence over the minds of his audience. The Committee respectfully request you to favor them with a copy of your Lectures for the Press. Very respectfully, Your most obedient servants, C. T. JAMES, E. F. MILLER, H. L. WEBSTER. * * * * * _Resolved_, That we have been highly entertained and greatly instructed by the Lectures of our President, on the subject of Language; that we consider the principles he has advocated, immutably true, exceedingly important, and capable of an easy adoption in the study of that important branch of human knowledge. _Resolved_, That we have long regretted the want of a system to explain the grammar of our vernacular tongue, on plain, rational, and consistent principles, in accordance with philosophy and truth, and in a way to be understood and practised by children and adults. _Resolved_, That in our opinion, the manifold attempts which have been made, though doubtless undertaken with the purest intentions, to simplify and make easy existing systems, have failed entirely of their object, and tended only to perplex, rather than enlighten learners. _Resolved_, That in our belief, the publication of these Lectures would meet the wants of the community, and throw a flood of light upon this hitherto dark, and intricate, and yet exceedingly interesting department of a common education, and thus prove of immense service to the present and future generations. _Resolved_, That Messrs. Charles T. James, Edward F. Miller, and Henry L. Webster, be a Committee to wait on Rev. William S. Balch, and request the publication of his very interesting Course of Lectures before this Institute. * * * * * PROVIDENCE, Feb. 25, 1838. MESSRS. C. T. JAMES, E. F. MILLER, AND H. L. WEBSTER: GENTLEMEN--Your letter, together with the Resolutions accompanying it, was duly and gratefully received. It gives me no ordinary degree of pleasure to know that so deep an interest has been, and still is, felt by the members of our Institute, as well as the public generally, on this important subject; for it is one which concerns the happiness and welfare of our whole community; but especially the rising generation. The only recommendation of these Lectures is the subject of which they treat. They were written in the space of a few weeks, and in the midst of an accumulation of engagements which almost forbade the attempt. But presuming you will make all due allowances for whatever errors you may discover in the style of composition, and regard the _matter_ more than the _manner_, I consent to their publication, hoping they will be of some service in the great cause of human improvement. I am, gentlemen, Very respectfully yours, WM. S. BALCH. PREFACE. There is no subject so deeply interesting and important to rational beings as the knowledge of language, or one which presents a more direct and powerful claim upon all classes in the community; for there is no other so closely interwoven with all the affairs of human life, social, moral, political and religious. It forms a basis on which depends a vast portion of the happiness of mankind, and deserves the first attention of every philanthropist. Great difficulty has been experienced in the common method of explaining language, and grammar has long been considered a dry, uninteresting, and tedious study, by nearly all the teachers and scholars in the land. But it is to be presumed that the fault in this case, if there is any, is to be sought for in the manner of teaching, rather than in the science itself; for it would be unreasonable to suppose that a subject which occupies the earliest attention of the parent, which is acquired at great expense of money, time, and thought, and is employed from the cradle to the grave, in all our waking hours, can possibly be dull or unimportant, if rightly explained. Children have been required to learn verbal forms and changes, to look at the mere signs of ideas, instead of the things represented by them. The consequence has been that the whole subject has become uninteresting to all who do not possess a retentive verbal memory. The philosophy of language, the sublime principles on which it depends for its existence and use, have not been sufficiently regarded to render it delightful and profitable. The humble attempt here made is designed to open the way for an exposition of language on truly philosophical principles, which, when correctly explained, are abundantly simple and extensively useful. With what success this point has been labored the reader will determine. The author claims not the honor of entire originality. The principles here advanced have been advocated, believed, and successfully practised. William S. Cardell, Esq., a bright star in the firmament of American literature, reduced these principles to a system, which was taught with triumphant success by Daniel H. Barnes, formerly of the New-York High School, one of the most distinguished teachers who ever officiated in that high and responsible capacity in our country. Both of these gentlemen, so eminently calculated to elevate the standard of education, were summoned from the career of the most active usefulness, from the scenes they had labored to brighten and beautify by the aid of their transcendant intellects, to unseen realities in the world of spirits; where mind communes with mind, and soul mingles with soul, disenthraled from error, and embosomed in the light and love of the Great Parent Intellect. The author does not pretend to give a system of exposition in this work suited to the capacities of small children. It is designed for advanced scholars, and is introductory to a system of grammar which he has in preparation, which it is humbly hoped will be of some service in rendering easy and correct the study of our vernacular language. But this book, it is thought, may be successfully employed in the instruction of the higher classes in our schools, and will be found an efficient aid to teachers in inculcating the sublime principles of which it treats. These Lectures, as now presented to the public, it is believed, will be found to contain some important information by which all may profit. The reader will bear in mind that they were written for, and delivered before a popular audience, and published with very little time for modification. This will be a sufficient apology for the mistakes which may occur, and for whatever may have the appearance of severity, irony, or pleasantry, in the composition. On the subject of Contractions much more might be said. But verbal criticisms are rather uninteresting to a common audience; and hence the consideration of that matter was made more brief than was at first intended. It will however be resumed and carried out at length in another work. The hints given will enable the student to form a tolerable correct opinion of the use of most of those words and phrases, which have long been passed over with little knowledge of their meaning or importance. The author is aware that the principles he has advocated are new and opposed to established systems and the common method of inculcation. But the difficulties acknowledged on all hands to exist, is a sufficient justification of this humble attempt. He will not be condemned for his good intentions. All he asks is a patient and candid examination, a frank and honest approval of what is true, and as honest a rejection of what is false. But he hopes the reader will avoid a rash and precipitate conclusion, either for or against, lest he is compelled to do as the author himself once did, approve what he had previously condemned. With these remarks he enters the arena, and bares himself to receive the sentence of the public voice. CONTENTS. LECTURE I. GENERAL VIEW OF LANGUAGE. Study of Language long considered difficult.--Its importance.--Errors in teaching.--Not understood by Teachers.--Attachment to old systems.--Improvement preferable.--The subject important.--Its advantages.--Principles laid down.--Orthography.--Etymology.--Syntax.-- Prosody. LECTURE II. THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE. General principles of Language.--Business of Grammar.--Children are Philosophers.--Things, ideas, and words.--Actions.--Qualities of things.--Words without ideas.--Grammatical terms inappropriate.-- Principles of Language permanent.--Errors in mental science.--Facts admit of no change.--Complex ideas.--Ideas of qualities.--An example.--New ideas.--Unknown words.--Signs without things signified.--Fixed laws regulate matter and mind. LECTURE III. WRITTEN AND SPOKEN LANGUAGE. Principles never alter.--They should be known.--Grammar a most important branch of science.--Spoken and written Language.--Idea of a thing.--How expressed.--An example.--Picture writing.--An anecdote.--Ideas expressed by actions.--Principles of spoken and written Language.--Apply universally.--Two examples.--English language.--Foreign words.--Words in science.--New words.--How formed. LECTURE IV. ON NOUNS. Nouns defined.--Things.--Qualities of matter.--Mind.--Spiritual beings.--Qualities of mind.--How learned.--Imaginary things.--Negation. --Names of actions.--Proper nouns.--Characteristic names.--Proper nouns may become common. LECTURE V. ON NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. Nouns in respect to persons.--Number.--Singular.--Plural.--How formed.--Foreign plurals.--Proper names admit of plurals.--Gender.--No neuter.--In figurative language.--Errors.--Position or case.--Agents.-- Objects.--Possessive case considered.--A definitive word.--Pronouns.-- One kind.--Originally nouns.--Specifically applied. LECTURE VI. ON ADJECTIVES. Definition of adjectives.--General character.--Derivation.--How understood.--Defining and describing.--Meaning changes to suit the noun.--Too numerous.--Derived from nouns.--Nouns and verbs made from adjectives.--Foreign adjectives.--A general list.--Difficult to be understood.--An example.--Often superfluous.--Derived from verbs.--Participles.--Some prepositions.--Meaning unknown.--With.-- In.--Out.--Of. LECTURE VII. ON ADJECTIVES. Adjectives.--How formed.--The syllable _ly_.--Formed from proper nouns. --The apostrophe and letter _s_.--Derived from pronouns.--Articles.--_A_ comes from _an_.--_In_definite.--_The_.--Meaning of _a_ and _the_.-- Murray's example.--That.--What.--"Pronoun adjectives."--_Mon_, _ma_.--Degrees of comparison.--Secondary adjectives.--Prepositions admit of comparison. LECTURE VIII. ON VERBS. Unpleasant to expose error.--Verbs defined.--Every thing acts.--Actor and object.--Laws.--Man.--Animals.--Vegetables.--Minerals.--Neutrality degrading.--Nobody can explain a neuter verb.--_One_ kind of verbs.--_You_ must decide.--Importance of teaching children the truth.--Active verbs.--Transitive verbs false.--Samples.--Neuter verbs examined.--Sit.--Sleep.--Stand.--Lie.--Opinion of Mrs. W.--Anecdote. LECTURE IX. ON VERBS. Neuter and intransitive.--Agents.--Objects.--No actions as such can be known distinct from the agent.--Imaginary actions.--Actions known by their effects.--Examples.--Signs should guide to things signified.-- Principles of action.--=Power=.--Animals.--Vegetables.--Minerals.--All things act.--Magnetic needle.--=Cause=.--Explained.--First Cause.--=Means=.--Illustrated.--Sir I. Newton's example.--These principles must be known.--=Relative= action.--Anecdote of Gallileo. LECTURE X. ON VERBS. A philosophical axiom.--Manner of expressing action.--Things taken for granted.--Simple facts must be known.--Must never deviate from the truth.--Every _cause_ will have an _effect_.--An example of an intransitive verb.--Objects expressed or implied.--All language eliptical.--Intransitive verbs examined.--I run.--I walk.--To step.-- Birds fly.--It rains.--The fire burns.--The sun shines.--To smile.--Eat and drink.--Miscellaneous examples.--Evils of false teaching.--A change is demanded.--These principles apply universally.--Their importance. LECTURE XI. ON VERBS. The verb =to be=.--Compounded of different radical words.--=Am=. --Defined.--The name of Deity.--_Ei_.--=Is=.--=Are=.--=Were=, =was=.--=Be=.--A dialogue.--Examples.--Passive Verbs examined.--Cannot be in the present tense.--The past participle is an adjective. LECTURE XII. ON VERBS. =Mood=.--Indicative.--Imperative.--Infinitive.--Former distinctions.-- Subjunctive mood.--=Time=.--Past.--Present.--Future.--The future explained.--How formed.--Mr. Murray's distinction of time.--Imperfect.-- Pluperfect.--Second future.--How many tenses.--=Auxiliary Verbs=.--Will. --Shall.--May.--Must.--Can.--Do.--Have. LECTURE XIII. ON VERBS. Person and number in the agent, not in the action.--Similarity of agents, actions, and objects.--Verbs made from nouns.--Irregular verbs.--Some examples.--Regular Verbs.--_Ed_.--_Ing_.--Conjugation of verbs.--To love.--To have.--To be.--The indicative mood varied.--A whole sentence may be agent or object.--Imperative mood.--Infinitive mood.--Is always future. LECTURE XIV. ON CONTRACTIONS. A temporary expedient.--Words not understood.--All words must have a meaning.--Their formation.--Changes of meaning and form.--Should be observed.--=Adverbs=.--Ending in _ly_.--Examples.--Ago.--Astray.--Awake. --Asleep.--Then, when.--There, where, here.--While, till.--Whether, together.--Ever, never, whenever, etc.--Oft.--Hence.--Perhaps.--Not. --Or.--Nor.--Than.--As.--So.--Conjunctions.--Rule 18.--If.--But.--Tho. --Yet. LECTURES ON LANGUAGE. LECTURE I. GENERAL VIEW OF LANGUAGE. Study of Language long considered difficult.--Its importance.--Errors in teaching.--Not understood by Teachers.--Attachment to old systems.--Improvement preferable.--The subject important.--Its advantages.--Principles laid down.--Orthography.--Etymology.-- Syntax.--Prosody. LADIES AND GENTLEMEN, It is proposed to commence, this evening, a course of Lectures on the Grammar of the English Language. I am aware of the difficulties attending this subject, occasioned not so much by any fault in itself, as by the thousand and one methods adopted to teach it, the multiplicity of books pretending to "simplify" it, and the vast contrariety of opinion entertained by those who profess to be its masters. By many it has been considered a needless affair, an unnecessary appendage to a common education; by others, altogether beyond the reach of common capacities; and by all, cold, lifeless, and uninteresting, full of doubts and perplexities, where the wisest have differed, and the firmest often changed opinions. All this difficulty originates, I apprehend, in the wrong view that is taken of the subject. The most beautiful landscape may appear at great disadvantage, if viewed from an unfavorable position. I would be slow to believe that the means on which depends the whole business of the community, the study of the sciences, all improvement upon the past, the history of all nations in all ages of the world, social intercourse, oral or written, and, in a great measure, the knowledge of God, and the hopes of immortality, can be either unworthy of study, or, if rightly explained, uninteresting in the acquisition. In fact, on the principles I am about to advocate, I have seen the deepest interest manifested, from the small child to the grey-headed sire, from the mere novice to the statesman and philosopher, and all alike seemed to be edified and improved by the attention bestowed upon the subject. I confess, however, that with the mention of _grammar_, an association of ideas are called up by no means agreeable. The mind involuntarily reverts to the days of childhood, when we were compelled, at the risk of our bodily safety, to commit to memory a set of arbitrary rules, which we could neither understand nor apply in the correct use of language. Formerly it was never dreamed that grammar depended on any higher authority than the books put into our hands. And learners were not only dissuaded, but strictly forbidden to go beyond the limits set them in the etymological and syntactical rules of the authors to whom they were referred. If a query ever arose in their minds, and they modestly proposed a plain question as to the _why_ and _wherefore_ things were thus, instead of giving an answer according to common sense, in a way to be understood, the authorities were pondered over, till some rule or remark could be found which would apply, and this settled the matter with "proof as strong as holy writ." In this way an end may be put to the inquiry; but the thinking mind will hardly be satisfied with the mere opinion of another, who has no evidence to afford, save the undisputed dignity of his station, or the authority of books. This course is easily accounted for. Rather than expose his own ignorance, the teacher quotes the printed ignorance of others, thinking, no doubt, that folly and nonsense will appear better second-handed, than fresh from his own responsibility. Or else on the more common score, that "misery loves company." Teachers have not unfrequently found themselves placed in an unenviable position by the honest inquiries of some thinking urchin, who has demanded why "_one noun governs_ another in the possessive case," as "master's slave;" why there are more tenses than _three_; what is meant by a _neuter_ verb, which "signifies neither action nor passion;" or an "intransitive verb," which expresses the highest possible action, but terminates on no object; a cause without an effect; why _that_ is sometimes a pronoun, sometimes an adjective, and not unfrequently a conjunction, &c. &c. They may have succeeded, by dint of official authority, in silencing such inquiries, but they have failed to give a satisfactory answer to the questions proposed. Long received opinions may, in some cases, become law, pleading no other reason than antiquity. But this is an age of investigation, which demands the most lucid and unequivocal proof of the point assumed. The dogmatism of the schoolmen will no longer satisfy. The dark ages of mental servility are passing away. The day light of science has long since dawned upon the world, and the noon day of truth, reason, and virtue, will ere long be established on a firm and immutable basis. The human mind, left free to investigate, will gradually advance onward in the course of knowledge and goodness marked out by the Creator, till it attains to that perfection which shall constitute its highest glory, its truest bliss. You will perceive, at once, that our inquiries thro out these lectures will not be bounded by what has been said or written on the subject. We take a wider range. We adopt no sentiment because it is ancient or popular. We refer to no authority but what proves itself to be correct. And we ask no one to adopt our opinions any farther than they agree with the fixed laws of nature in the regulation of matter and thought, and apply in common practice among men. Have we not a right to expect, in return, that you will be equally honest to yourselves and the subject before us? So far as the errors of existing systems shall be exposed, will you not reject them, and adopt whatever appears conclusively true and practically useful? Will you, can you, be satisfied to adopt for yourselves and teach to others, systems of grammar, for no other reason than because they are old, and claim the support of the learned and honorable? Such a course, generally adopted, would give the ever-lasting quietus to all improvement. It would be a practical adoption of the philosophy of the Dutchman, who was content to carry his grist in one end of the sack and a stone to balance it in the other, assigning for a reason, that his honored father had always done so before him. Who would be content to adopt the astrology of the ancients, in preferance to astronomy as now taught, because the latter is more modern? Who would spend three years in transcribing a copy of the Bible, when a better could be obtained for one dollar, because manuscripts were thus procured in former times? What lady would prefer to take her cards, wheel, and loom, and spend a month or two in manufacturing for herself a dress, when a better could be earned in half the time, merely because her respected grandmother did so before her? Who would go back a thousand years to find a model for society, rejecting all improvements in the arts and sciences, because they are innovations, encroachments upon the opinions and practices of learned and honorable men? I can not believe there is a person in this respected audience whose mind is in such voluntary slavery as to induce the adoption of such a course. I see before me minds which sparkle in every look, and thoughts which are ever active, to acquire what is true, and adopt what is useful. And I flatter myself that the time spent in the investigation of the science of language will not be unpleasant or unprofitable. I feel the greater confidence from the consideration that your minds are yet untrammeled; not but what many, probably most of you, have already studied the popular systems of grammar, and understood them; if such a thing is possible; but because you have shown a disposition to learn, by becoming members of this Institute, the object of which is the improvement of its members. Let us therefore make an humble attempt, with all due candor and discretion, to enter upon the inquiry before us with an unflinching determination to push our investigations beyond all reasonable doubt, and never rest satisfied till we have conquered all conquerable obstacles, and come into the possession of the light and liberty of truth. The attempt here made will not be considered unimportant, by those who have known the difficulties attending the study of language. If any course can be marked out to shorten the time tediously spent in the acquisition of what is rarely attained--a thoro knowledge of language--a great benefit will result to the community; children will save months and years to engage in other useful attainments, and the high aspirations of the mind for truth and knowledge will not be curbed in its first efforts to improve by a set of technical and arbitrary rules. They will acquire a habit of thinking, of deep reflection; and never adopt, for fact, what appears unreasonable or inconsistent, merely because great or good men have said it is so. They will feel an independence of their own, and adopt a course of investigation which cannot fail of the most important consequences. It is not the saving of time, however, for which we propose a change in the system of teaching language. In this respect, it is the study of one's life. New facts are constantly developing themselves, new combinations of ideas and words are discovered, and new beauties presented at every advancing step. It is to acquire a knowledge of correct principles, to induce a habit of correct thinking, a freedom of investigation, and at that age when the character and language of life are forming. It is, in short, to exhibit before you truth of the greatest practical importance, not only to you, but to generations yet unborn, in the most essential affairs of human life, that I have broached the hated subject of grammar, and undertaken to reflect light upon this hitherto dark and disagreeable subject. With a brief sketch of the outlines of language, as based on the fixed laws of nature, and the agreement of those who employ it, I shall conclude the present lecture. We shall consider all language as governed by the invariable laws of nature, and as depending on the conventional regulations of men. Words are the signs of ideas. Ideas are the impressions of things. Hence, in all our attempts to investigate the important principles of language, we shall employ the sign as the means of coming at the thing signified. Language has usually been considered under four divisions, viz.: Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. Orthography is _right spelling_; the combination of certain letters into words in such a manner as to agree with the spoken words used to denote an idea. We shall not labor this point, altho we conceive a great improvement might be effected in this department of learning. My only wish is to select from all the forms of spelling, the most simple and consistent. Constant changes are taking place in the method of making words, and we would not refuse to cast in our mite to make the standard more correct and easy. We would prune off by degrees all unnecessary appendages, as unsounded or italic letters, and write out words so as to be capable of a distinct pronunciation. But this change must be _gradually_ effected. From the spelling adopted two centuries ago, a wonderful improvement has taken place. And we have not yet gone beyond the possibility of improvement. Let us not be too sensitive on this point, nor too tenacious of old forms. Most of our dictionaries differ in many respects in regard to the true system of orthography, and our true course is to adopt every improvement which is offered. Thro out this work we shall spell some words different from what is customary, but intend not, thereby, to incur the ignominy of bad spellers. Let small improvements be adopted, and our language may soon be redeemed from the difficulties which have perplexed beginners in their first attempts to convey ideas by written words.[1] In that department of language denominated Etymology, we shall contend that all words are reducible to two general classes, nouns and verbs; or, _things_ and _actions_. We shall, however, admit of subdivisions, and treat of pronouns, adjectives, and contractions. We shall contend for only two cases of nouns, one kind of pronouns, one kind of verbs, that all are active; three modes, and as many tenses; that articles, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections, have no distinctive character, no existence, in fact, to warrant a "local habitation or a name." In the composition of sentences, a few general rules of Syntax may be given; but the principal object to be obtained, is the possession of correct ideas derived from a knowledge of things, and the most approved words to express them; the combination of words in a sentence will readily enough follow. Prosody relates to the quantity of syllables, rules of accent and pronunciation, and the arrangement of syllables and words so as to produce harmony. It applies specially to versification. As our object is not to make poets, who, it is said, "are born, and not made," but to teach the true principles of language, we shall give no attention to this finishing stroke of composition. In our next we shall lay before you the principles upon which all language depends, and the process by which its use is to be acquired. LECTURE II. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE. General principles of Language.--Business of Grammar.--Children are Philosophers.--Things, ideas, and words.--Actions.--Qualities of things.--Words without ideas.--Grammatical terms inappropriate.-- Principles of Language permanent.--Errors in mental science.--Facts admit of no change.--Complex ideas.--Ideas of qualities.--An example.--New ideas.--Unknown words.--Signs without things signified.--Fixed laws regulate matter and mind. All language depends on two general principles. _First._ The fixed and unvarying laws of nature which regulate matter and mind. _Second._ The agreement of those who use it. In accordance with these principles all language must be explained. It is not only needless but impossible for us to deviate from them. They remain the same in all ages and in all countries. It should be the object of the grammarian, and of all who employ language in the expression of ideas, to become intimately acquainted with their use. It is the business of grammar to explain, not only verbal language, but also the sublime principles upon which all written or spoken language depends. It forms an important part of physical and mental science, which, correctly explained, is abundantly simple and extensively useful in its application to the affairs of human life and the promotion of human enjoyment. It will not be contended that we are assuming a position beyond the capacities of learners, that the course here adopted is too philosophic. Such is not the fact. Children are philosophers by nature. All their ideas are derived from things as presented to their observations. No mother learns her child to lisp the name of a thing which has no being, but she chooses objects with which it is most familiar, and which are most constantly before it; such as father, mother, brother, sister. She constantly points to the object named, that a distinct impression may be made upon its mind, and the thing signified, the idea of the thing, and the name which represents it, are all inseparably associated together. If the father is absent, the child may _think_ of him from the idea or impression which his person and affection has produced in the mind. If the mother pronounces his _name_ with which it has become familiar, the child will start, look about for the object, or thing signified by the _name_, father, and not being able to discover him, will settle down contented with the _idea_ of him deeply impressed on the mind, and as distinctly understood as if the father was present in person. So with every thing else. Again, after the child has become familiar with the name of the being called father; the name, idea and object itself being intimately associated the mother will next begin to teach it another lesson; following most undeviatingly the course which nature and true philosophy mark out. The father comes and goes, is present or absent. She says on his return, father _come_, and the little one looks round to see the thing signified by the word father, the idea of which is distinctly impressed on the mind, and which it now sees present before it. But this loved object has not always been here. It had looked round and called for the father. But the mother had told it _he was gone_. Father gone, father come, is her language, and here the child begins to learn ideas of actions. Of this it had, at first, no notion whatever, and never thought of the father except when his person was present before it, for no impressions had been distinctly made upon the mind which could be called up by a sound of which it could have no conceptions whatever. Now that it has advanced so far, the idea of the father is retained, even tho he is himself absent, and the child begins to associate the notion of coming and going with his presence or absence. Following out this course the mind becomes acquainted with things and actions, or the changes which things undergo. Next, the mother begins to learn her offspring the distinction and qualities of things. When the little sister comes to it in innocent playfulness the mother says, "_good_ sister," and with the descriptive word _good_ it soon begins to associate the quality expressed by the affectionate regard, of its sister. But when that sister strikes the child, or pesters it in any way, the mother says "_naughty_ sister," "bad sister." It soon comprehends the descriptive words, _good_ and _bad_, and along with them carries the association of ideas which such conduct produces. In the same way it learns to distinguish the difference between _great_ and _small_, _cold_ and _hot_, hard and soft. In this manner the child becomes acquainted with the use of language. It first becomes acquainted with things, the idea of which is left upon the mind, or, more properly, the _impression of which_, left on the mind, _constitutes the idea_; and a vocabulary of words are learned, which represent these ideas, from which it may select those best calculated to express its meaning whenever a conversation is had with another. You will readily perceive the correctness of our first proposition, that all language depends on the fixed and unerring laws of nature. Things exist. A knowledge of them produces ideas in the mind, and sounds or signs are adopted as vehicles to convey these ideas from one to another. It would be absurd and ridiculous to suppose that any person, however great, or learned, or wise, could employ language correctly without a knowledge of the things expressed by that language. No matter how chaste his words, how lofty his phrases, how sweet the intonations, or mellow the accents. It would avail him nothing if _ideas_ were not represented thereby. It would all be an unknown tongue to the hearer or reader. It would not be like the loud rolling thunder, for that tells the wondrous power of God. It would not be like the soft zephyrs of evening, the radiance of the sun, the twinkling of the stars; for they speak the intelligible language of sublimity itself, and tell of the kindness and protection of our Father who is in heaven. It would not be like the sweet notes of the choral songsters of the grove, for they warble hymns of gratitude to God; not like the boding of the distant owl, for that tells the profound solemnity of night; not like the hungry lion roaring for his prey, for that tells of death and plunder; not like the distant notes of the clarion, for that tells of blood and carnage, of tears and anguish, of widowhood and orphanage. It can be compared to nothing but a Babel of confusion in which their own folly is worse confounded. And yet, I am sorry to say it, the languages of all ages and nations have been too frequently perverted, and compiled into a heterogeneous mass of abstruse, metaphysical volumes, whose only recommendation is the elegant bindings in which they are enclosed. And grammars themselves, whose pretended object is to teach the rules of speaking and writing correctly, form but a miserable exception to this sweeping remark. I defy any grammarian, author, or teacher of the numberless systems, which come, like the frogs of Egypt, all of one genus, to cover the land, to give a reasonable explanation of even the terms they employ to define their meaning, if indeed, meaning they have. What is meant by an "_in_-definite article," a _dis_-junctive _con_-junction, an _ad_-verb which qualifies an _adjective_, and "sometimes another _ad_-verb?" Such "parts of speech" have no existence in fact, and their adoption in rules of grammar, have been found exceedingly mischievous and perplexing. "Adverbs and conjunctions," and "_adverbial_ phrases," and "conjunctive expressions," may serve as common sewers for a large and most useful class of words, which the teachers of grammar and lexicographers have been unable to explain; but learners will gain little information by being told that such is an _adverbial phrase_, and such, a _conjunctive expression_. This is an easy method, I confess, a sort of wholesale traffic, in parsing (_passing_) language, and may serve to cloak the ignorance of the teachers and makers of grammars. But it will reflect little light on the principles of language, or prove very efficient helps to "speak or write with propriety." Those who _think_, will demand the _meaning_ of these words, and the reason of their use. When that is ascertained, little difficulty will be found in giving them a place in the company of respectable words. But I am digressing. More shall be said upon this point in a future lecture, and in its proper place. I was endeavoring to establish the position that all language depends upon permanent principles; that words are the signs of ideas, and ideas are the impressions of things communicated to the mind thro the medium of some one of the five senses. I think I have succeeded so far as simple material things are concerned, to the satisfaction of all who have heard me. It may, perhaps, be more difficult for me to explain the words employed to express complex ideas, and things of immateriality, such as mind, and its attributes. But the rules previously adopted will, I apprehend, apply with equal ease and correctness in this case; and we shall have cause to admire the simple yet sublime foundation upon which the whole superstructure of language is based. In pursuing this investigation I shall endeavor to avoid all abstruse and metaphysical reasoning, present no wild conjectures, or vain hypotheses; but confine myself to plain, common place matter of fact. We have reason to rejoice that a wonderful improvement in the science and cultivation of the mind has taken place in these last days; that we are no longer puzzled with the strange phantoms, the wild speculations which occupied the giant minds of a Descartes, a Malebranch, a Locke, a Reid, a Stewart, and hosts of others, whose shining talents would have qualified them for the brightest ornaments of literature, real benefactors of mankind, had not their education lead them into dark and metaphysical reasonings, a continued tissue of the wildest vagaries, in which they became entangled, till, at length, they were entirely lost in the labyrinth of their own conjectures. The occasion of all their difficulty originated in an attempt to investigate the faculties of the mind without any means of getting at it. They did not content themselves with an adoption of the principles which lay at the foundation of all true philosophy, viz., that the facts to be accounted for, _do exist_; that truth is eternal, and we are to become acquainted with it by the means employed for its development. They quitted the world of materiality they inhabited, refused to examine the development of mind as the effect of an existing cause; and at one bold push, entered the world of thought, and made the unhallowed attempt to reason, a priori, concerning things which can only be known by their manifestations. But they soon found themselves in a strange land, confused with sights and sounds unknown, in the _explanation_ of which they, of course, choose terms as unintelligible to their readers, as the _ideal realities_ were to them. This course, adopted by Aristotle, has been too closely followed by those who have come after him.[2] But a new era has dawned upon the philosophy of the mind, and a corresponding change in the method of inculcating the principles of language must follow.[3] In all our investigations we must take things as we find them, and account for them as far as we can. It would be a thankless task to attempt a change of principles in any thing. That would be an encroachment of the Creator's rights. It belongs to mortals to use the things they have as not abusing them; and to Deity to regulate the laws by which those things are governed. And that man is the wisest, the truest philosopher, and brightest Christian, who acquaints himself with those laws as they do exist in the regulation of matter and mind, in the promotion of physical and moral enjoyment, and endeavors to conform to them in all his thoughts and actions. From this apparent digression you will at once discover our object. We must not endeavor to change the principles of language, but to understand and explain them; to ascertain, as far as possible, the actions of the mind in obtaining ideas, and the use of language in expressing them. We may not be able to make our sentiments understood; but if they are not, the fault will originate in no obscurity in the facts themselves, but in our inability either to understand them or the words employed in their expression. Having been in the habit of using words with either no meaning or a wrong one, it may be difficult to comprehend the subject of which they treat. A man may have a quantity of sulphur, charcoal, and nitre, but it is not until he learns their properties and combinations that he can make gunpowder. Let us then adopt a careful and independent course of reasoning, resolved to meddle with nothing we do not understand, and to use no words until we know their meaning. A complex idea is a combination of several simple ones, as a tree is made up of roots, a trunk, branches, twigs, and leaves. And these again may be divided into the wood, the bark, the sap, &c. Or we may employ the botanical terms, and enumerate its external and internal parts and qualities; the whole anatomy and physiology, as well as variety and history of trees of that species, and show its characteristic distinctions; for the mind receives a different impression on looking at a maple, a birch, a poplar, a tamarisk, a sycamore, or hemlock. In this way complex ideas are formed, distinct in their parts, but blended in a common whole; and, in conformity with the law regulating language, words, sounds or signs, are employed to express the complex whole, or each distinctive part. The same may be said of all things of like character. But this idea I will illustrate more at large before the close of this lecture. First impressions are produced by a view of material things, as we have already seen; and the notion of action is obtained from a knowledge of the changes these things undergo. The idea of quality and definition is produced by contrast and comparison. Children soon learn the difference between a sweet apple and a sour one, a white rose and a red one, a hard seat and a soft one, harmonious sounds and those that are discordant, a pleasant smell and one that is disagreeable. As the mind advances, the application is varied, and they speak of a sweet rose, changing from _taste_ and _sight_ to smell, of a sweet song, of a hard apple, &c. According to the qualities thus learned, you may talk to them intelligibly of the _sweetness_ of an apple, the _color_ of a rose, the _hardness_ of iron, the _harmony_ of sounds, the _smell_ or scent of things which possess that quality. As these agree or disagree with their comfort, they will call them _good_ or _bad_, and speak of the qualities of goodness and badness, as if possessed by the thing itself. In this apparently indiscriminate use of words, the ideas remain distinct; and each sign or object calls them up separately and associates them together, till, at length, in the single object is associated all the ideas entertained of its size, qualities, relations, and affinities. In this manner, after long, persevering toil, principles of thought are fixed, and a foundation laid for the whole course of future thinking and speaking. The ideas become less simple and distinct. Just as fast as the mind advances in the knowledge of things, language keeps pace with the ideas, and even goes beyond them, so that in process of time a single term will not unfrequently represent a complexity of ideas, one of which will signify a whole combination of things. On the other hand, there are many instances where the single declaration of a fact may convey to the untutored mind, a single thought or nearly so, when the better cultivated will take into the account the whole process by which it is effected. To illustrate: _a man killed a deer_. Here the boy would see and imagine more than he is yet fully able to comprehend. He will see the obvious fact that the man levels his musket, the gun goes off with a loud report, and the deer falls and dies. How this is all produced he does not understand, but knowing the fact he asserts the single truth--the man killed the deer. As the child advances, he will learn that the sentence conveys to the mind more than he at first perceived. He now understands how it was accomplished. The man had a gun. Then he must go back to the gunsmith and see how it was made, thence back to the iron taken from its bed, and wrought into bars; all the processes by which it is brought into the shape of a gun, the tools and machinery employed; the wood for the stock, its quality and production; the size, form and color of the lock, the principle upon which it moves; the flint, the effect produced by a collision with the steel, or a percussion cap, and its composition; till he finds a single gun in the hands of a man. The man is present with this gun. The motives which brought him here; the movements of his limbs, regulated by the determinations of the mind, and a thousand other such thoughts, might be taken into the account. Then the deer, his size, form, color, manner of living, next may claim a passing thought. But I need not enlarge. Here they both stand. The man has just seen the deer. As quick as thought his eye passes over the ground, sees the prey is within proper distance, takes aim, pulls the trigger, that loosens a spring, which forces the flint against the steel; this produces a spark, which ignites the charcoal, and the sulphur and nitre combined, explode and force the wad, which forces the ball from the gun, and is borne thro the air till it reaches the deer, enters his body by displacing the skin and flesh, deranges the animal functions, and death ensues. The whole and much more is expressed in the single phrase, "a man killed a deer." It would be needless for me to stop here, and examine all the operations of the mind in coming at this state of knowledge. That is not the object of the present work. Such a duty belongs to another treatise, which may some day be undertaken, on logic and the science of the mind. The hint here given will enable you to perceive how the mind expands, and how language keeps pace with every advancing step, and, also, how combinations are made from simple things, as a house is made of timber, boards, shingles, nails, and paints; or of bricks, stone, and mortar; as the case may be, and when completed, a single term may express the idea, and you speak of a wood, or a brick house. Following this suggestion, by tracing the operations of the mind in the young child, or your own, very minutely, in the acquisition of any knowledge before wholly unknown to you, as a new language, or a new science; botany, mineralogy, chemistry, or phrenology; you will readily discover how the mind receives new impressions of things, and a new vocabulary is adopted to express the ideas formed of plants, minerals, chemical properties, and the development of the capacities of the mind as depending on material organs; how these things are changed and combined; and how their existence and qualities, changes and combinations, are expressed by words, to be retained, or conveyed to other minds. But suppose you talk to a person wholly unacquainted with these things, will he understand you? Talk to him of stamens, pistils, calyxes; of monandria, diandria, triandria; of gypsum, talc, calcareous spar, quartz, topaz, mica, garnet, pyrites, hornblende, augite, actynolite; of hexahedral, prismatic, rhomboidal, dodecahedral; of acids and alkalies; of oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and carbon; of the configuration of the brain, and its relative powers; do all this, and what will he know of your meaning? So of all science. Words are to be understood from the things they are employed to represent. You may as well talk to a man in the hebrew, chinese, or choctaw languages, as in our own, if he does not know what is signified by the words selected as the medium of thought. Your language may be most pure, perfect, full of meaning, but you cannot make yourself understood till your hearers can look thro your signs to the things signified. You may as well present before them a picture of _nothing_. The great fault in the popular system of education is easily accounted for, particularly in reference to language. Children are taught to study signs without looking at the thing signified. In this way they are mere copyists, and the mind can never expand so as to make them independent, original thinkers. In fact, they can, in this way, never learn to reason well or employ language correctly; no more than a painter can be successful in his art, by merely looking at the pictures of others without having ever seen the originals. A good artist is a close observer of nature. So children should be left free to examine and reflect, and the signs will then serve their proper use--the means of acquiring the knowledge of things. In vain you may give a scholar a knowledge of the Hebrew, Greek, or Latin, learn him to translate with rapidity or speak our own language fluently. If he has not thereby learned the knowledge of things signified by such language, he is, in principle, advanced no farther than the parrot which says "pretty poll, pretty poll." I am happy, however, in the consideration that a valuable change is taking place in this respect. Geography is no longer taught on the old systems, but maps are given to represent more vividly land and water, rivers, islands, and mountains. The study of arithmetic, chemistry, and nearly all the sciences have been materially improved within a few years. Grammar alone remains in quiet possession of its unquestioned authority. Its nine "parts of speech," its three genders, its three cases, its half dozen kinds of pronouns, and as many moods and tenses, have rarely been disquieted. A host of book makers have fondled around them, but few have dared molest them, finding them so snugly ensconced under the sanctity of age, and the venerated opinions of learned and good men. Of the numberless attempts to simplify grammar, what has been the success? Wherein do modern "simplifiers" differ from Murray? and he was only a _compiler_! They have all discovered his errors. But who has corrected them? They have all deviated somewhat from his manner. But what is that but saying, that with all his grammatical knowledge, he could not explain his own meaning? All the trouble originates in this; the rules of grammar have not been sought for where they are only to be found, in the laws that govern matter and thought. Arbitrary rules have been adopted which will never apply in practice, except in special cases, and the attempt to bind language down to them is as absurd as to undertake to chain thought, or stop the waters of Niagara with a straw. Language will go on, and keep pace with the mind, and grammar should explain it so as to be correctly understood. I wish you to keep these principles distinctly in view all thro my remarks, that you may challenge every position I assume till proved to be correct--till you distinctly understand it and definite impressions are made upon your minds. In this way you will discover a beauty and perfection in language before unknown; its rules will be found few and simple, holding with most unyielding tenacity to the sublime principles upon which they depend; and you will have reason to admire the works and adore the character of the great Parent Intellect, whose presence and protection pervade all his works and regulate the laws of matter and mind. You will feel yourselves involuntarily filled with sentiments of gratitude for the gift of mind, its affections, powers, and means of operation and communication, and resolved more than ever to employ these faculties in human improvement and the advancement of general happiness. LECTURE III. WRITTEN AND SPOKEN LANGUAGE. Principles never alter.--They should be known.--Grammar a most important branch of science.--Spoken and written Language.--Idea of a thing.--How expressed.--An example.--Picture writing.--An anecdote.--Ideas expressed by actions.--Principles of spoken and written Language.--Apply universally.--Two examples.--English language.--Foreign words.--Words in science.--New words.--How formed. We now come to take a nearer view of language as generally understood by grammar. But we shall have no occasion to depart from the principles already advanced, for there is existing in practice nothing which may not be accounted for in theory; as there can be no effect without an efficient cause to produce it. We may, however, long remain ignorant of the true explanation of the principles involved; but the fault is ours, and not in the things themselves. The earth moved with as much grandeur and precision around its axis and in its orbit before the days of Gallileo Gallilei, when philosophers believed it flat and stationary, as it has done since. So the great principles on which depends the existence and use of all language are permanent, and may be correctly employed by those who have never examined them; but this does not prove that to be ignorant is better than to be wise. We may have taken food all our days without knowing much of the process by which it is converted into nourishment and incorporated into our bodies, without ever having heard of delutition chymification, chylification, or even digestion, as a whole; but this is far from convincing me that the knowledge of these things is unimportant, or that ignorance of them is not the cause of much disease and suffering among mankind. And it is, or should be, the business of the physiologist to explain these things, and show the great practical benefit resulting from a general knowledge of them. So the grammarian should act as a sort of physiologist of language. He should analyze all its parts and show how it is framed together to constitute a perfect whole. Instead of exacting of you a blind submission to a set of technical expressions, and arbitrary rules, I most urgently exhort you to continue, with unremitting assiduity, your inquiries into the reason and propriety of the positions which may be taken. It is the business of philosophy, not to meddle with things to direct how they should be, but to account for them and their properties and relations as they are. So it is the business of grammar to explain language as it exists in use, and exhibit the reason why it is used thus, and what principles must be observed to employ it correctly in speaking and writing. This method is adopted to carry out the principles already established, and show their adaptation to the wants of the community, and how they may be correctly and successfully employed. Grammar considered in this light forms a department in the science of the mind by no means unimportant. And it can not fail to be deeply interesting to all who would employ it in the business, social, literary, moral, or religious concerns of life. Those who have thoughts to communicate, or desire an acquaintance with the minds of others, can not be indifferent to the means on which such intercourse depends. I am convinced, therefore, that you will give me your most profound attention as I pursue the subject of the present lecture somewhat in detail. And I hope you will not consider me tedious or unnecessarily prolix in my remarks. I will not be particular in my remarks upon the changes of spoken and written language, altho that topic of itself, in the different sounds and signs employed in different ages and by different nations to express the same idea, would form a most interesting theme for several lectures. But that work must be reserved for a future occasion. You are all acquainted with the signs, written and spoken, which are employed in our language as vehicles (some of them like omnibusses) of thought to carry ideas from one mind to another. Some of you doubtless are acquainted with the application of this fact in other languages. In other words, you know how to sound the name of a thing, how to describe its properties as far as you understand them, and its attitudes or changes. This you can do by vocal sounds, or written, or printed signs. On the other hand, you can receive a similar impression by hearing the description of another, or by seeing it written or printed. But here you will bear in mind the fact that the word, spoken or written, is but the sign of the idea derived from the thing signified. For example: Here is an apple. I do not now speak of its composition, the skin, the pulp, &c.; nor of its qualities, whether sour, or sweet, or bitter, good or bad, great or small, long or short, round or flat, red, or white, or yellow. I speak of a single thing--an apple. Here it is, present before you. Look at it. It is now removed. You do not see it. Your minds are occupied with something else, in looking at that organ, or this representation of Solomon's temple, or, perhaps, lingering in melancholy review of your old systems of grammar thro which you plodded at a tedious rate, goaded on by the stimulus of the ferule, or the fear of being called ignorant. From that unhappy reverie I recal your minds, by saying _apple_. An apple? where? There is none in sight. No; but you have distinct recollections of a single object I just now held before you. You see it, mentally, and were you painters you might paint its likeness. What has brought this object so vividly before you? The single sound _apple_. This sound has called up the idea produced in your mind on looking at this object which I now again present before you. Here is the thing represented--the apple. Again I lay it aside, and commence a conversation with you on the varieties of apples, the form, color, flavor, manner of production, their difference from other fruit, where found, when, and by whom. Here! look again. What do you see? A-P-P-L-E--_Apple_. What is that? The representation of the idea produced in the mind by a certain object you saw a little while ago. Here then you have the spoken and written signs of this single object I now again present to your vision. This idea may also be called up by the sense of feeling, smelling, or tasting, under certain restrictions. Here you would be no more liable to be mistaken than by seeing. We can indeed imagine things which would feel, and smell, and taste, and look some like an apple, but it falls to the lot of more abstruse reasoners to make their suppositions, and then account for them--to imagine things, and then treat of them as realities. We are content with the knowledge of things as they do exist, and think there is little danger of mistaking a potato for an apple, or a squash for a pear. Tho in the dark we may lay hold of the Frenchman's _pomme de terre_--apple of the earth, the first bite will satisfy us of our mistake if we are not too metaphysical. The same idea may be called up in your minds by a picture of the apple presented to your sight. On this ground the picture writing of the ancients may be accounted for; and after that, the hieroglyphics of Egypt and other countries, which was but a step from picture writing towards the use of the alphabet. But these signs or vehicles for the conveyance or transmission of their thoughts, compared with the present perfect state of language, were as aukward and uncomly as the carriages employed for the conveyance of their bodies were compared with those now in use. They were like ox carts drawn by mules, compared with the most splendid barouches drawn by elegant dapple-greys. A similar mode would be adopted now by those unacquainted with alphabetical writing. It was so with the merchant who could not write. He sold his neighbor a grindstone, on trust. Lest he should forget it--lest the _idea_ of it should be obliterated from the mind--he, in the absence of his clerk, took his book and a pen and drew out a _round picture_ to represent it. Some months after, he dunned his neighbor for his pay for a cheese. "I have bought no cheese of you," was the reply. Yes, you have, for I have it charged. "You must be mistaken, for I never bought a cheese. We always make our own." How then should I have one charged to you? "I cannot tell. I have never had any thing here on credit except a grindstone." Ah! that's it, that's it, only I forgot to make a hole through it!" Ideas may also be exchanged by actions. This is the first and strongest language of nature. It may be employed, when words have failed, in the most effectual manner. The angry man, choked with rage, unable to speak, tells the violent passions, burning in his bosom, in a language which can not be mistaken. The actions of a friend are a surer test of friendship than all the honied words he may utter. Actions speak louder than words. The first impressions of maternal affection are produced in the infant mind by the soothing attentions of the mother. In the same way we may understand the language of the deaf and dumb. Certain motions express certain ideas. These being duly arranged and conformed to our alphabetic signs, and well understood, the pupil may become acquainted with book knowledge as well as we. They go by sight and not by sound. A different method is adopted with the blind. Letters with them are so arranged that they can _feel_ them. The signs thus felt correspond with the sounds they hear. Here they must stop. They cannot see to describe. Those who are so unfortunate as to be blind and deaf, can have but a faint knowledge of language, or the ideas of others. On similar principles we may explain the pantomime plays sometimes performed, where the most entertaining scenes of love and murder are represented, but not a word spoken. Three things are always to be born in mind in the use and study of all language: 1st, the thing signified; 2d, the idea of the thing; and 3d, the word or sign chosen to represent it. _Things_ exist. Thinking beings conceive _ideas of things_. Those who employ language adopt _sounds or signs to convey those ideas_ to others. On these obvious principles rest the whole superstructure of all language, spoken or written. Objects are presented to the mind, impressions are there made, which, retained, constitute the idea, and, by agreement, certain words are employed as the future signs or representations of those ideas. If we saw an object in early life and knew its _name_, the mention of that name will recal afresh the idea which had long lain dormant in the memory, (if I may so speak,) and we can converse about it as correctly as when we first saw it. These principles, I have said, hold good in all languages. Proof of this may not improperly be offered here, provided it be not too prolix. I will endeavor to be brief. In an open area of sufficient dimensions is congregated a delegation from every language under heaven. All are so arranged as to face a common center. A white horse is led into that spot and all look at the living animal which stands before them. The same impression must be made on all minds so far as a single animal is concerned. But as the whole is made up of parts, so their minds will soon diverge from a single idea, and one will think of his size, compared with other horses; another of his form; another of his color. Some will think of his noble appearance, others of his ability to travel, or (in jockey phrase) his _speed_. The farrier will look for his blemishes, to see if he is _sound_, and the jockey at his teeth, to _guess_ at his _age_. The anatomist will, in thought, dissect him into parts and see every bone, sinew, cartilage, blood vessel, his stomach, lungs, liver, heart, entrails; every part will be laid open; and while the thoughtless urchin sees a single object--a white horse--others will, at a single glance, read volumes of instruction. Oh! the importance of knowledge! how little is it regarded! What funds of instruction might be gathered from the lessons every where presented to the mind! One impression would be made on all minds in reference to the single tangible object before them; no matter how learned or ignorant. There stands an animal obvious to all. Let him be removed out of sight, and a very exact picture of him suspended in his place. All again agree. Here then is the proof of our first general principle, viz. all language depends on the fixed and unvarying laws of nature. Let the picture be removed and a man step forth and pronounce the word, _ippos_. The Greek starts up and says, "Yes, it is so." The rest do not comprehend him. He then writes out distinctly, [Greek: IPPOS]. They are in the dark as to the meaning. They know not whether a horse, a man, or a goose is named. All the Greeks, however, understand the meaning the same as when the horse or picture was before them, for they had _agreed_ that _ippos_ should represent the _idea_ of that animal. Forth steps another, and pronounces the word _cheval_. Every Frenchman is aroused: Oui, monsieur? Yes, sir. Comprenez vous? Do you understand? he says to the rest. But they are dumb. He then writes C-H-E-V-A-L. All are as ignorant as before, save the Frenchmen who had agreed that _cheval_ should be the name for horse. Next go yourself, thinking all will understand you, and say, _horse_; but, lo! none unacquainted with your language are the wiser for the sound you utter, or the sign you suspended before them; save, perhaps, a little old Saxon, who, at first looks deceived by the similarity of sound, but, seeing the sign, is as demure as ever, for he omits the _e_, and pronounces it shorter than we do, more like a yorkshire man. But why are you not understood? Because others have not entered into an _agreement_ with you that _h-o-r-s-e_, spoken or written, shall represent that animal. Take another example. Place the living animal called man before them. Less trouble will be found in this case than in the former, for there is a nearer agreement than before in regard to the signs which shall be employed to express the idea. This word occurs with very little variation in the modern languages, derived undoubtedly from the Teutonic, with a little change in the spelling, as Saxon _mann_ or _mon_, Gothic _manna_, German, Danish, Dutch, Swedish and Icelandic like ours. In the south of Europe, however, this word varies as well as others. Our language is derived more directly from the old Saxon than from any other, but has a great similarity to the French and Latin, and a kind of cousin-german to all the languages of Europe, ancient and modern. Ours, indeed, is a compound from most other languages, retaining some of their beauties and many of their defects. We can boast little distinctive character of our own. As England was possessed by different nations at different periods, so different dialects were introduced, and we can trace our language to as many sources, German, Danish, Saxon, French, and Roman, which were the different nations amalgamated into the British empire. We retain little of the real old english--few words which may not be traced to a foreign extraction. Different people settling in a country would of course carry their ideas and manner of expressing them; and from the whole compound a general agreement would, in process of time, take place, and a uniform language be established. Such is the origin and condition of our language, as well as every other modern tongue of which we have any knowledge. There is one practice of which our savans are guilty, at which I do most seriously demur--the extravagant introduction of exotic words into our vocabulary, apparently for no other object than to swell the size of a dictionary, and boast of having found out and defined thousands of words more than any body else. A mania seems to have seized our lexicographers, so that they have forsaken the good old style of "plainness of speech," and are flourishing and brandishing about in a cloud of verbiage as though the whole end of instruction was to teach loquacity. And some of our popular writers and speakers have caught the infection, and flourish in borrowed garments, prizing themselves most highly when they use words and phrases which no body can understand. I will not contend that in the advancement of the arts and sciences it may not be proper to introduce foreign terms as the mean of conveying a knowledge of those improvements to others. It is better than to coin new words, inasmuch as they are generally adopted by all modern nations. In this way all languages are approximating together; and when the light of truth, science, and religion, has fully shone on all the nations, we may hope one language will be spoken, and the promise be fulfilled, that God has "turned unto the people a pure language, that they may call upon the name of the Lord, to serve him with one consent." New ideas are formed like new inventions. Established principles are employed in a new combination, so as to produce a new manifestation. Words are chosen as nearly allied to former ideas as possible, to express or represent this new combination. Thus, Fulton applied steam power to navigation. A new idea was produced. A boat was seen passing along the waters without the aid of wind or tide. Instead of coining a new word to express the whole, a word which nobody would understand, two old ones were combined, and "_steamboat_" became the sign to represent the idea of the thing beheld. So with rail-road, cotton-mill, and gun-powder. In the same way we may account for most words employed in science, although in that case we are more dependant on foreign languages, in as much as a large portion of our knowledge is derived from them. But we may account for them on the same principle as above. _Phrenology_ is a compound of two greek words, and means the science or knowledge of the mind. So of geology, mineralogy, &c. But when improvements are made by those who speak the english, words in our own language are employed and used not only by ourselves, but also by those nations who profit by our investigations. I trust I have now said enough on the general principles of language as applied to things. In the next lecture I will come down to a sort of bird's eye view of grammar. But my soul abhors arbitrary rules so devoutly, I can make no promises how long I will continue in close communion with set forms of speech. I love to wander too well to remain confined to one spot, narrowed up in the limits fixed by others. Freedom is the empire of the mind; it abjures all fetters, all slavery. It kneels at the altar of virtue and worships at the shrine of truth. No obstacles should be thrown in the way of its progress. No limits should be set to it but those of the Almighty. LECTURE IV. ON NOUNS. Nouns defined.--Things.--Qualities of matter.--Mind.--Spiritual beings.--Qualities of mind.--How learned.--Imaginary things.-- Negation.--Names of actions.--Proper nouns.--Characteristic names.--Proper nouns may become common. Your attention is, this evening, invited to the first divisions of words, called _Nouns_. This is a most important class, and as such deserves our particular notice. _Nouns are the names of things._ The word _noun_ is derived from the Latin _nomen_, French _nom_. It means _name_. Hence the definition above given. In grammar it is employed to distinguish that class of words which name things, or stand as signs or representatives of things. We use the word _thing_ in its broadest sense, including every possible entity; every being, or thing, animate or inanimate, material or immaterial, real or imaginary, physical, moral, or intellectual. It is the noun of the Saxon _thincan_ or _thingian_, to think; and is used to express every conceivable object of thought, in whatever form or manner presented to the human mind. Every word employed to designate things, or name them, is to be ranked in the class called _nouns_, or names. You have only to determine whether a word is used thus, to learn whether it belongs to this or some other class of words. Here let me repeat: 1. Things exist. 2. We conceive ideas of things. 3. We use sounds or signs to communicate these ideas to others. 4. We denominate the class of words thus used, _nouns_. Perhaps I ought to stop here, or pass to another topic. But as these lectures are intended to be so plain that all can understand my meaning, I must indulge in a few more remarks before advancing farther. In addition to individual, tangible objects, we conceive ideas of the _qualities_ of things, and give _names_ to such qualities, which become _nouns_. Thus, the _hardness_ of iron, the _heat_ of fire, the _color_ of a rose, the _bitterness_ of gall, the _error_ of grammars. The following may serve to make my views more plain. Take two tumblers, the one half filled with water, the other with milk; mix them together. You can now talk of the milk in the water, or the water in the milk. Your ideas are distinct, tho the objects are so intimately blended, that they can not be separated. So with the qualities of things. We also speak of mind, intellect, soul; but to them we can give no form, and of them paint no likeness. Yet we have ideas of them, and employ words to express them, which become _nouns_. This accounts for the reason why the great Parent Intellect has strictly forbidden, in the decalogue, that a likeness of him should be constructed. His being and attributes are discoverable only thro the medium of his works and word. No man can see him and live. It would be the height of folly--it would be more--it would be blasphemy--to attempt to paint the likeness of him whose presence fills immensity--whose center is every where, and whose circumference is no where. The name of this Spirit or Being was held in the most profound reverence by the Jews, as we shall have occasion to mention when we come to treat of the verb =to be=. We talk of angels, and have seen the unhallowed attempt to describe their likeness in the form of pictures, which display the fancy of the artist very finely, but give a miserable idea of those pure spirits who minister at the altar of God, and chant his praises in notes of the most unspeakable delight. We have also seen _death_ and the pale horse, the firy dragon, the mystery of Babylon, and such like things, represented on canvass; but they betoken more of human talent to depict the marvellous, than a strict regard for truth. Beelzebub, imps, and all Pandemonium, may be vividly imagined and finely arranged in fiction, and we can name them. Wizzards, witches, and fairies, may play their sportive tricks in the human brain, and receive names as tho they were real. We also think and speak of the qualities and affections of the mind as well as matter, as wisdom, knowledge, virtue, vice, love, hatred, anger. Our conceptions in this case may be less distinct, but we have ideas, and use words to express them. There is, we confess, a greater liability to mistake and misunderstand when treating of mind and its qualities, than of matter. The reason is evident, people know less of it. Its operations are less distinct and more varying. The child first sees material objects. It is taught to name them. It next learns the qualities of things; as the sweetness of sugar, the darkness of night, the beauty of flowers. From this it ascends by gradation to the higher attainments of knowledge as revealed in the empire of mind, as well as matter. Great care should be taken that this advancement be easy, natural, and thoro. It should be constantly impressed with the importance of obtaining clear and definite ideas of things, and never employ words till it has ideas to express; never name a thing of which it has no knowledge. This is ignorance. It would be well, perhaps, to extend this remark to those older than children, in years, but less in real practical knowledge. The remark is of such general application, that no specification need be made, except to the case before us; to those affected proficients in grammar, whose only knowledge is the memory of words, which to them have no meanings, if, indeed, the writers themselves had any to express by them; a fact we regard as questionable, at best. There is hardly a teacher of grammar, whose self-esteem is not enormous, who will not confess himself ignorant on many of the important principles of language; that he has never understood, and could never explain them. He finds no difficulty in repeating what the books say, but if called upon to express an opinion of his own, he has none to give. He has learned and used words without knowing their meaning. Children should be taught language as they are taught music. They should learn the simple tones on which the whole science depends. Distinct impressions of sounds should be made on their minds, and the characters which represent them should be inseparably associated with them. They will then learn tunes from the compositions of those sounds, as represented by notes. By dint of application, they will soon become familiar with these principles, if possessed of a talent for song, and may soon pass the acme with ease, accuracy, and rapidity. But there are those who may sing very prettily, and tolerably correct, who have never studied the first rudiments of music. But such can never become adepts in the science. So there are those who use language correctly, who never saw the inside of a grammar book, and who never examined the principles on which it depends. But this, by no means, proves that it is better to sing by rote, than "with the understanding." These rudiments, however, should form the business of the nursery, rather than the grammar school. Every mother should labor to give distinct and forcible impressions of such things as she learns her children to _name_. She should carefully prevent them from employing words which have no meaning, and still more strictly should she guard them against attaching a wrong meaning to those they do use. In this way, the foundation for future knowledge and eminence, would be laid broad and deep. But I wander. We attach names to imaginary things; as ghosts, genii, imps. To this class belong the thirty thousand gods of the ancients, who were frequently represented by emblems significant of the characters attached to them. We employ words to name these imaginary things, so that we read and converse about them understandingly, tho our ideas may be exceedingly various. Nouns are also used to express negation, of which no idea can be formed. In this case, the mind rests on what exists, and employs a word to express what does not. We speak of _a hole_ in the paper. But we can form no idea of _a hole_, separated from the surrounding substances. Remove the parts of the paper till nothing is left, and then you may look in vain for the hole. It is not there. It never was. In the same way we use the words nothing, nobody, nonentity, vacuum, absence, space, blank, annihilation, and oblivion. These are relative terms, to be understood in reference to things which are known to exist. We must know of _some_thing before we can talk of _no_thing, of an entity before we can think of nonentity. In a similar way we employ words to name actions, which are produced by the changes of objects. We speak of a race, of a flight, of a sitting or session, of a journey, of a ride, of a walk, of a residence, etc. In all these cases, the mind is fixed on the persons who performed these things. Take for example, a race. Of that, we can conceive no idea separate from the agent or object which _ran_ the _race_. Without some other word to inform us we could not decide whether a _horse_ race, a _foot_ race, a boat race, the race of a mill, or some other race, was the object of remark. The same may be said of flight, for we read of the flight of birds, the flight of Mahommed, the flight of armies, and the flight of intellect. We also give names to actions as tho they were taking place in the present tense. "The _reading_ of the report was deferred;" steamboat _racing_ is dangerous to public safety; _stealing_ is a crime; false _teaching_ deserves the reprobation of all. The hints I have given will assist you in acquiring a knowledge of nouns as used to express ideas in vocal or written language. This subject might be pursued further with profit, if time would permit. As the time allotted to this lecture is nearly exhausted, I forbear. I shall hereafter have occasion to show how a whole phrase may be used to name an idea, and as such stand as the agent or object of a verb. Some nouns are specifically used to designate certain objects, and distinguish them from the class to which they usually belong. In this way they assume a distinctive character, and are usually denominated =proper nouns=. They apply to persons, places and things; as, John Smith, Boston, Hylax. _Boy_ is applied in common to all young males of the human species, and as such is a _common noun_ or name. _John Smith_ designates a particular boy from the rest. Proper names may be also applied to animals and things. The stable keeper and stageman has a name for every horse he owns, to distinguish it from other horses; the dairyman for his cows, the boy for his dog, and the girl for her doll. Any word, in fact, may become a proper name by being specifically used; as the ship Fair Trader, the brig Success, sloop Delight in Peace, the race horse Eclipse, Black Hawk, Round Nose, and Red Jacket. Proper names were formerly used in reference to certain traits of character or circumstances connected with the place or thing. _Abram_ was changed to _Abraham_, the former signifying _an elevated father_, the latter, _the father of a multitude_. _Isaac_ signified _laughter_, and was given because his mother laughed at the message of the angel. _Jacob_ signified _a supplanter_, because he was to obtain the birthright of his elder brother. A ridiculous rage obtained with our puritan fathers to express scripture sentiments in the names of their children, as may be seen by consulting the records of the Plymouth and Massachusetts colonies. This practice has not wholly gone out of use in our day, for we hear of the names of Hope, Mercy, Patience, Comfort, Experience, Temperance, Faith, Deliverance, Return, and such like, applied usually to females, (being more in character probably,) and sometimes to males. We have also the names of White, Black, Green, Red, Gray, Brown, Olive, Whitefield, Blackwood, Redfield, Woodhouse, Stonehouse, Waterhouse, Woodbridge, Swiftwater, Lowater, Drinkwater, Spring, Brooks, Rivers, Pond, Lake, Fairweather, Merryweather, Weatherhead, Rice, Wheat, Straw, Greatrakes, Bird, Fowle, Crow, Hawks, Eagle, Partridge, Wren, Goslings, Fox, Camel, Zebra, Bear, Wolf, Hogg, Rain, Snow, Haile, Frost, Fogg, Mudd, Clay, Sands, Hills, Valley, Field, Stone, Flint, Silver, Gould, and Diamond. Proper nouns may also become common when used as words of general import; as, _dunces_, corrupted from Duns Scotus, a distinguished theologian, born at Dunstane, Northumberland, an opposer of the doctrines of Thomas Aquinus. He is a real _solomon_, jack tars, judases, antichrist, and so on. Nouns may also be considered in respect to person, number, gender, and positive, or case. There are _three_ persons, _two_ numbers, _two_ genders, and _two_ cases. But the further consideration of these things will be deferred, which, together with Pronouns, will form the subject of our next lecture. LECTURE V. ON NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. Nouns in respect to persons.--Number.--Singular.--Plural.--How formed.--Foreign plurals.--Proper names admit of plurals.--Gender. --No neuter.--In figurative language.--Errors.--Position or case.-- Agents.--Objects.--Possessive case considered.--A definitive word.--Pronouns.--One kind.--Originally nouns.--Specifically applied. We resume the consideration of nouns this evening, in relation to person, number, gender, and position or case. In the use of language there is a speaker, person spoken to, and things spoken of. Those who speak are the _first_ persons, those who hear the _second_, and those who are the subject of conversation the _third_. The first and second persons are generally used in reference to human beings capable of speech and understanding. But we sometimes condesend to hold converse with animals and inanimate matter. The bird trainer talks to his parrots, the coachman to his horses, the sailor to the winds, and the poet to his landscapes, towers, and wild imaginings, to which he gives a "local habitation and a name." By metaphor, language is put into the mouths of animals, particularly in fables. By a still further license, places and things, flowers, trees, forests, brooks, lakes, mountains, towers, castles, stars, &c. are made to speak the most eloquent language, in the first person, in addresses the most pathetic. The propriety of such a use of words I will not stop to question, but simply remark that such figures should never be employed in the instruction of children. As the mind expands, no longer content to grovel amidst mundane things, we mount the pegasus of imagination and soar thro the blissful or terrific scenes of fancy and fiction, and study a language before unknown. But it would be an unrighteous demand upon others, to require them to understand us; and quite as unpardonable to brand them with ignorance because they do not. Most nouns are in the third person. More things are talked about than talk themselves, or are talked to by others. Hence there is little necessity for teaching children to specify except in the first or second person, which is very easily done. In English there are two _numbers_, singular and plural. The singular is confined to one, the plural is extended to any indefinite number. The Greeks, adopted a dual number which they used to express two objects united in pairs, or couples; as, a span of horses, a yoke of oxen, a brace of pistols, a pair of shoes. We express the same idea with more words, using the singular to represent the union of the two. We also extend this use of words and employ what are called _nouns of multitude_; as, a people, an army, a host, a nation. These and similar words are used in the singular referring to many combined in a united whole, or in the plural comprehending a diversity; as, "the armies met," "the nations are at peace." _People_ admits no change on account of number. We say "_many_ people are collected together and form _a_ numerous people." The plural is not always to be understood as expressing an increase of number, but of qualities or sorts of things, as the merchant has a variety of _sugars_, _wines_, _teas_, _drugs_, _medicines_, _paints_ and _dye-woods_. We also speak of _hopes_, _fears_, _loves_, _anxieties_. Some nouns admit of no plural, in fact, or in use; as, chaos, universe, fitness, immortality, immensity, eternity. Others admit of no singular; as, scissors, tongs, vitals, molasses. These words probably once had singulars, but having no use for them they became obsolete. We have long been accustomed to associate the two halves of shears together, so that in speaking of one whole, we say shears, and of apart, half of a shears. But of some words originally, and in fact plural, we have formed a singular; as, "one twin died, and, tho the other one survived its dangerous illness, the mother wept bitterly for her twins." _Twin_ is composed of _two_ and _one_. It is found in old books, spelled _twane_, two-one, or twin. Thus, the _twi_-light is formed by the mingling of two lights, or the division of the rays of light by the approaching or receding darkness. They _twain_ shall be one flesh. Sheep and deer are singular or plural. Most plurals are formed by adding _s_ to the singular, or, when euphony requires it, _es_; as, tree, trees; sun, suns; dish, dishes; box, boxes. Some retain the old plural form; as, ox, oxen; child, children; chick, chicken; kit, kitten. But habit has burst the barrier of old rules, and we now talk of chicks and chickens, kits and kittens. _Oxen_ alone stands as a monument raised to the memory of unaltered saxon plurals. Some nouns form irregular plurals. Those ending in _f_ change that letter to _v_ and then add _es_; as, half, halves; leaf, leaves; wolf, wolves. Those ending in _y_ change that to _i_ and add the _es_; as, cherry, cherries; berry, berries; except when the _y_ is preceded by a vowel, in which case it only adds the _s_; as, day, days; money, moneys (not _ies_); attorney, attorneys. All this is to make the sound more easy and harmonious. _F_ and _v_ were formerly used indiscriminately, in singulars as well as plurals, and, in fact, in the composition of all words where they occurred. The same may be said of _i_ and _y_. "The Fader (Father) Almychty of the heven abuf (above) In the mene tyme, unto Juno his _luf_ (love) Thus spak; and sayd." _Douglas, booke 12, pag. 441._ "They lyued in ioye and in felycite For eche of hem had other lefe and dere." _Chaucer, Monks Tale, fol. 81, p. 1._ "When straite twane beefes he tooke And an the aultar layde." The reason why _y_ is changed into _i_ in the formation of plurals, and in certain other cases, is, I apprehend, accounted for from the fact that words which now end in _y_ formerly ended in _ie_, as may be seen in all old books. The regular plural was then formed by adding _s_. "And upon those members of the _bodie_, which _wee_ thinke most unhonest, put _wee_ more honestie on." "It rejoyceth not in iniquitie--diversitie of gifts--all thinges edifie not." See old bible, 1 Cor., chap. 13 and 14. Other words form their plurals still more differently, for which no other rule than habit can be given; as, man, men; foot, feet; tooth, teeth; die, dice; mouse, mice; penny, pence, and sometimes pennies, when applied to distinct pieces of money, and not to value. Many foreign nouns retain the plural form as used by the nations from whom we have borrowed them; as, cherub, cherubim; seraph, seraphim; radius, radii; memorandum, memoranda; datum, data, &c. We should be pleased to have such words carried home, or, if they are ours by virtue of possession, let them be adopted into our family, and put on the garments of naturalized citizens, and no longer appear as lonely strangers among us. There is great aukwardness in adding the english to the hebrew plural of cherub, as the translators of the common version of the bible have done. They use _cherub_ in the singular and cherub_ims_ in the plural. The _s_ should be omitted and the Hebrew plural retained, or the preferable course adopted, and the final _s_ be added, making cherubs, seraphs, &c. The same might be said of all foreign nouns. It would add much to the regularity, dignity, and beauty, of our vernacular tongue. Proper nouns admit of the plural number; as, there are sixty-four John Smiths in New-York, twenty Arnolds in Providence, and fifteen Davises in Boston. As we are not accustomed to form the plurals of proper names there is not that ease and harmony in the first use of them that we have found in those with which we are more familiar; especially those we have rarely heard pronounced. Habit surmounts the greatest obstacles and makes things the most harsh and unpleasant appear soft and agreeable. Gender is applied to the distinction of the sexes. There are two--masculine and feminine. The former is applied to males, the latter to females. Those words which belong to neither gender, have been called _neuter_, that is, _no gender_. But it is hardly necessary to perplex the minds of learners with _negatives_. Let them distinguish between masculine and feminine genders, and little need be said to them about a _neuter_. There are some nouns of both genders, as student, writer, pupil, person, citizen, resident. _Poet_, _author_, editor, and some other words, have of late been applied to females, instead of poet_ess_, author_ess_, edit_ress_. Fashion will soon preclude the necessity of this former distinction. Some languages determine their genders by the form of the endings of their nouns, and what is thus made masculine in Rome, may be feminine in France. It is owing, no doubt, to this practice, in other nations, that we have attached the idea of gender to inanimate things; as, "the sun, _he_ shines majestically;" while of the moon, it is said, "_she_ sheds a milder radiance." But we can not coincide with the reason assigned by Mr. Murray, for this distinction. His notion is not valid. It does not correspond with facts. While in the south of Europe the sun is called masculine and the moon feminine, the northern nations invariably reverse the distinction, particularly the dialects of the Scandinavian. It was so in our own language in the time of Shakspeare. He calls the sun a "_fair wench_." By figures of rhetoric, genders may be attached to inanimate matter. Where things are personified, we usually speak of them as masculine and feminine; but this practice depends on fancy, and not on any fixed rules. There is, in truth, but two genders, and those confined to animals. When we break these rules, and follow the undirected wanderings of fancy, we can form no rules to regulate our words. We may have as many fanciful ones as we please, but they will not apply in common practice. For example: poets and artists have usually attached female loveliness to angels, and placed them in the feminine gender. But they are invariably used in the masculine thro out the scriptures. There is an apparent absurdity in saying of the ship General Williams, _she_ is beautiful; or, of the steamboat Benjamin Franklin, _she_ is out of date. It were far better to use no gender in such cases. But if people will continue the practice of making distinctions where there are none, they must do it from habit and whim, and not from any reason or propriety. There are three ways in which we usually distinguish the forms of words in reference to gender. 1st. By words which are different; as boy, girl; uncle, aunt; father, mother. 2d. By a different termination of the same word; as instructor, instructress; lion, lioness; poet, poetess. _Ess_ is a contraction from the hebrew _essa_, a female. 3d. By prefixing another word; as, a male child, a female child; a man servant, a maid servant; a he-goat, a she-goat. The last consideration that attaches to nouns, is the _position_ they occupy in written or spoken language, in relation to other words, as being _agents_, or _objects_ of action. This is termed _position_. There are two positions in which nouns stand in reference to their meaning and use. First, as _agents_ of action, as _David_ killed Goliath. Second, as _objects_ on which action terminates; as, _Richard_ conquered _Henry_. These two distinctions should be observed in the use of all nouns. But the propriety of this division will be more evident when we come to treat of verbs, their agents and objects. It will be perceived that we have abandoned the use of the "_possessive case_," a distinction which has been insisted on in our grammars; and also changed the names of the other two. As we would adopt nothing that is new without first being convinced that something is needed which the thing proposed will supply; so we would reject nothing that is old, till we have found it useless and cumbersome. It will be admitted on all hands that the fewer and simpler the rules of grammar, the more readily will they be understood, and the more correctly applied. We should guard, on the one hand, against having so many as to perplex, and on the other, retain enough to apply in the correct use of language. It is on this ground that we have proposed an improvement in the names and number of cases, or positions. The word noun signifies name, and _nominative_ is the adjective derived from noun, and partakes of the same meaning. Hence the _nominative_ or _naming_ case may apply as correctly to the object as the agent. "_John_ strikes _Thomas_, and _Thomas_ strikes _John_." John and Thomas name the boys who strike, but in the first case John is the actor or agent and Thomas the object. In the latter it is changed. To use a _nominative name_ is a redundancy which should be avoided. You will understand my meaning and see the propriety of the change proposed, as the mind of the learner should not be burthened with needless or irrelevant phrases. But our main objection lies against the "possessive case." We regard it as a false and unnecessary distinction. What is the possessive case? Murray defines it as "expressing the relation of property or possession; as, my father's house." His rule of syntax is, "one substantive governs another, signifying a different thing, in the possessive or genitive case; as, my father's house." I desire you to understand the definition and use as here given. Read it over again, and be careful that you know the meaning of _property_, _possession_, and _government_. Now let a scholar parse correctly the example given. "_Father's_" is a common noun, third person, singular number, masculine gender, and _governed_ by house:" Rule, "One noun _governs_ another," &c. Then my father does not govern his own house, but his house him! What must be the conduct and condition of the family, if they have usurped the government of their head? "John Jones, hatter, keeps constantly for sale all kinds of _boy's hats_. Parse boy's. It is a noun, possessive case, _governed_ by hats." What is the possessive case? It "signifies the _relation of property or possession_." Do the hats belong to the boys? Oh no. Are they the _property_ or in the _possession_ of the boys? Certainly not. Then what relation is there of property or possession? None at all. They belong to John Jones, were made by him, are his property, and by him are advertised for sale. He has used the word _boy's_ to distinguish their size, quality, and fitness for boy's use. "The master's slave." Master's is in the possessive case, and _governed_ by slave! If grammars are true there can be no need of abolition societies, unless it is to look after the master and see that he is not abused. The rider's horse; the captain's ship; the general's army; the governor's cat; the king's subject. How false it would be to teach scholars the idea of _property_ and _government_ in such cases. The _teacher's scholars_ should never learn that by virtue of their grammars, or the _apostrophe_ and letter _s_, they have a right to _govern_ their teachers; nor the mother's son, to govern his mother. Our merchants would dislike exceedingly to have the _ladies_ understand them to signify by their advertisements that the "ladies' merino shawls, the ladies's bonnets and lace wrought veils, the ladies' gloves and elegant Thibet, silk and challa dresses, were the _property_ of the ladies; for in that case they might claim or _possess_ themselves of their _property_, and no longer trouble the merchant with the care of it. "Peter's wife's mother lay sick of a fever." "_His_ physician said that _his_ disease would require _his_ utmost skill to defeat _its_ progress in _his_ limbs." Phrases like these are constantly occurring, which can not be explained intelligibly by the existing grammars. In fact, the words said to be nouns in the possessive case, have changed their character, by use, from nouns to adjectives, or definitive words, and should thus be classed. Russia iron, Holland gin, China ware, American people, the Washington tavern, Lafayette house, Astor house, Hudson river, (formerly Hudson's,) Baffin's bay, Van Dieman's land, John street, Harper's ferry, Hill's bridge, a paper book, a bound book, a red book, John's book--one which John is known to use, it may be a borrowed one, but generally known as some way connected with him,--Rev. Mr. Smith's church, St. John's church, Grace church, Murray's grammar; not the property nor in the possession of Lindley Murray, neither does it _govern him_; for he has gone to speak a purer language than he taught on earth. It is mine. I bought it, have possessed it these ten years; but, thank fortune, am little _governed_ by it. But more on this point when we come to the proper place. What I have said, will serve as a hint, which will enable you to see the impropriety of adopting the "possessive case." It may be said that more cases are employed in other languages. That is a poor reason why we should break the barriers of natural language. Beside, I know not how we should decide by that rule, for none of them have a _case_ that will compare with the English possessive. The genitive of the French, Latin, or Greek, will apply in only a few respects. The former has _three_, the latter five, and the Latin six cases, neither of which correspond with the possessive, as explained by Murray and his satellites. We should be slow to adopt into our language an idiom which does not belong to it, and compel learners to make distinctions where none exist. It is an easy matter to tell children that the apostrophe and letter _s_ marks the possessive case; but when they ask the difference in the meaning between the use of the noun and those which all admit are adjectives, it will be no indifferent task to satisfy them. What is the difference in the construction of language or the sense conveyed, between Hudson'_s_ river, and _Hudson_ river? Davis's straits, or Bass straits? St. John's church, or Episcopal church? the sun's beams, or sun shine? In all cases these words are used to define the succeeding noun. They regard "property or possession," only when attending circumstances, altogether foreign from any quality in the form or meaning of the word itself, are so combined as to give it that import. And in such cases, we retain these words as adjectives, long after the property has passed from the hands of the persons who gave it a name. _Field's_ point, _Fuller's_ rocks, _Fisher's_ island, _Fulton's_ invention, will long be retained after those whose names were given to distinguish these things, have slept with their fathers and been forgotten. Blannerhassett's Island, long since ceased to be his property or tranquil possession, by confiscation; but it will retain its specific name, till the inundations of the Ohio's waters shall have washed it away and left not a wreck behind. The distinctions I have made in the positions of nouns, will be clearly understood when we come to the verbs. A few remarks upon pronouns will close the present lecture. PRONOUNS. Pronouns are such as the word indicates. _Pro_ is the latin word _for_; pro-nomen, _for nouns_. They are words, originally nouns, used specifically _for_ other nouns, to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same words; as, Washington was the father of his country; _he_ was a valiant officer. _We_ ought to respect _him_. The word _we_, stands for the speaker and all present, and saves the trouble of naming them; _he_ and _him_, stand for Washington, to avoid the monotony which would be produced by a recurrence of his name. Pronouns are all of one kind, and few in number. I will give you a list of them in their respective positions. _Agents._ _Objects._ { 1st person, I, me, { 2d " thou, thee, _Singular_ { 3d " mas. { he, him, { " fem. { she, her, { it, it. { 1st person, we, us, _Plural_ { 2d " ye, or you, you, { 3d " they, them, who, whom. The two last may be used in either person, number, or gender. The frequent use of these words render them very important, in the elegant and rapid use of language. They are so short, and their sound so soft and easy, that the frequency of their recurrence does not mar the beauty of a sentence, but saves us from the redundancy of other words. They are substituted only when there is little danger of mistaking the nouns for which they stand. They are, however, sometimes used in a very broad sense; as, "_they say_ it is so;" meaning no particular persons, but the general sentiment. _It_ frequently takes the lead of a sentence, and the thing represented by it comes after; as, "It is currently reported, that things were thus and so." Here _it_ represents the single idea which is afterward stated at length. "_It_ is so." "_It_ may be that the nations will be destroyed by wars, earthquakes, and famines." But more of this when we come to speak of the composition of sentences. The words now classed as pronouns were originally _names_ of things, but in this character they have long been obsolete. They are now used only in their secondary character as the representatives of other words. The word _he_, for instance, signified originally _to breathe_. It was applied to the living beings who inhaled air. It occurs with little change in the various languages of Europe, ancient and modern, till at length it is applied to the male agent which lives and acts. The word _her_ means _light_, but is specifically applied to females which are the objects of action. Was it in accordance with the design of these lectures, it would give me pleasure to go into a minute examination of the origin, changes and meaning of these words till they came to be applied as specific words of exceeding limited character. Most of them might be traced thro all the languages of Europe; the Arabic, Persic, Arminian, Chaldean, Hebrew, and, for ought I know, all the languages of Asia. But as they are now admitted a peculiar position in the expression of thought from which they never vary; and as we are contending about philosophic principles rather than verbal criticisms, I shall forbear a further consideration of these words. In the proper place I shall consider those words formerly called "Adjective Pronouns," "Pronoun Adjectives," or "Pronominal Adjectives," to suit the varying whims of those grammar makers, who desired to show off a speck of improvement in their "simplifying" works without ever having a new idea to express. It is a query in some minds whether the seventy-two "simplifiers" and "improvers" of Murray's grammar ever had any distinct notions in their heads which they did not obtain from the very man, who, it would seem by their conduct, was unable to explain his own meaning. LECTURE VI. ON ADJECTIVES. Definition of adjectives.--General character.--Derivation.--How understood.--Defining and describing.--Meaning changes to suit the noun.--Too numerous.--Derived from nouns.--Nouns and verbs made from adjectives.--Foreign adjectives.--A general list.--Difficult to be understood.--An example.--Often superfluous.--Derived from verbs.--Participles.--Some prepositions.--Meaning unknown.--With.-- In.--Out.--Of. The most important sub-division of words is the class called Adjectives, which we propose to notice this evening. _Adjective_ signifies _added_ or _joined to_. We employ the term in grammar to designate that class of words which are _added to nouns to define or describe them_. In doing this, we strictly adhere to the principles we have already advanced, and do not deviate from the laws of nature, as developed in the regulation of speech. In speaking of things, we had occasion to observe that the mind not only conceived ideas of things, but of their properties; as, the hardness of flint; the heat of fire; and that we spoke of one thing in reference to another. We come now to consider this subject more at large. In the use of language the mind first rests on the thing which is present before it, or the word which represents the idea of that thing. Next it observes the changes and attitudes of these things. Thirdly, it conceives ideas of their qualities and relations to other things. The first use of these words is to name things. This we call _nouns_. The second is to express their actions. This we call _verbs_. The last is to define or describe things. This we call _adjectives_. There is a great similarity between the words used to name things and to express their actions; as, builders build buildings; singers sing songs; writers write writings; painters paint paintings. In the popular use of language we vary these words to avoid the monotony and give pleasantness and variety. We say builders _erect_ houses, barns, and other buildings; singers perform pieces of music; musicians play tunes; the choir sing psalm tunes; artists paint pictures. From these two classes a third is derived which partakes somewhat of the nature of both, and yet from its secondary use, it has obtained a distinctive character, and as such is allowed a separate position among the classes of words. It might perhaps appear more in order to pass the consideration of adjectives till we have noticed the character and use of verbs, from which an important portion of them is derived. But as they are used in connexion with nouns, and as the character they borrow from the verb will be readily understood, I have preferred to retain the old arrangement, and consider them in this place. _Adjectives are words added to nouns to define or describe them._ They are derived either, 1st, from nouns; as, _window_ glass, _glass_ window, a stone house, building stone, maple sugar, sugar cane; or, 2d, from verbs; as, a _written_ paper, a _printed_ book, a _painted_ house, a _writing_ desk. In the first case we employ one noun, or the name of one thing, to define another, thus giving it a secondary use. A _glass_ window is one made of glass, and not of any thing else. It is neither a _board_ window, nor a _paper_ window. _Maple_ sugar is not _cane_ sugar, nor _beet_ sugar, nor _molasses_ sugar; but it may be _brown_ sugar, if it has been browned, or _white_ if it has been whit_ed_ or whit_ened_. In this case, you at once perceive the correctness of our second proposition, in the derivation of adjectives from verbs, by which we describe a thing in reference to its condition, in some way affected by the operation of a prior action. A _printed_ book is one on which the action of printing has been performed. A _written_ book differs from the former, in as much as its appearance was produced by writing and not by printing. In the definition or description of things, whatever is best understood is employed as a definitive or descriptive term, and is attached to the object to make known its properties and relations. Speaking of nations, if we desire to distinguish some from others, we choose the words supposed to be best known, and talk of European, African, American, or Indian nations; northern, southern, eastern, or western nations. These last words are used in reference to their relative position, and may be variously understood; for we speak of the northern, eastern, western, and southern nations of Europe, of Africa, and the world. Again, we read of civiliz_ed_, half-civilized, and barbarous nations; learned, unlearned, ignorant, and enlightened; rich, powerful, enterprising, respected, ancient or modern, christian, mahomedan or pagan. In these, and a thousand similar cases, we decide the meaning, not alone from the word employed as an adjective, but from the subject of remark; for, were we to attach the same meaning to the same word, wherever used, we could not receive correct or definite impressions from the language of others--our inferences would be the most monstrous. A _great_ mountain and a _great_ pin, a _great_ continent and a _great_ farm, a _great_ ocean and a _great_ pond, a _great_ grammar and a _great_ scholar, refer to things of very different dimensions and character; or, as Mr. Murray would say, "_qualities_." A mountain is great by comparison with other mountains; and a pin, compared with other pins, may be very large--exceeding great--and yet fall very far short of the size of a very small mountain. A _small_ man may be a _great_ scholar, and a rich neighbor a poor friend. A sweet flower is often very bitter to the taste. A _good_ horse would make a _bad_ dinner, but _false_ grammar can never make _true_ philologists. All words are to be understood according to their use. Their meaning can be determined in no other way. Many words change their forms to express their relations, but fewer in our language than in most others, ancient or modern. Other words remain the same, or nearly so, in every position; noun, adjective, or verb, agent or object, past or present. To determine whether a word is an adjective, first ascertain whether it names a thing, defines or describes it, or expresses its action, and you will never be at a loss to know to what class it belongs. The business of adjectives is twofold, and they may be distinguished by the appellations of _defining_ or _describing_ adjectives. This distinction is in many cases unimportant; in others it is quite essential. The same word in one case may _define_, in others _describe_ the object, and occasionally do both, for we often specify things by their descriptions. The learner has only to ascertain the meaning and use of the adjective to decide whether it defines or describes the subject of remark. If it is employed to distinguish one thing from the general mass, or one class from other classes, it has the former character; but after such thing is pointed out, if it is used to give a description of its character or properties, its character is different, and should be so understood and explained. _Defining adjectives_ are used to _point out_, specify or distinguish certain things from others of their kind, or one sort from other sorts, and answer to the questions _which_, _what_, _how many_, or _how much_. _Describing adjectives_ express the character and qualities of things, and give a more full and distinct knowledge than was before possessed. In a case before mentioned, we spoke of the "Indian nations." The word _Indian_ was chosen to specify or define what nations were alluded to. But all may not decide alike in this case. Some may think we meant the aborigines of America; others, that the southern nations of Asia were referred to. This difficulty originates in a misapprehension of the definitive word chosen. India was early known as the name of the south part of Asia, and the people there, were called Indians. When Columbus discovered the new world, supposing he had reached the country of India, which had long been sought by a voyage round the coast of Africa, he named it India, and the people Indians. But when the mistake was discovered, and the truth fully known, instead of effecting a change in the name already very generally understood, and in common use, another word was chosen to distinguish between countries so opposite and _West_ India became the word to distinguish the newly discovered islands; and as India was little better known in Europe at that time, instead of retaining their old name unaltered, another word was prefixed, and they called it _East_ India. When, therefore, we desire to be definite, we retain these words, and say, East Indians and West Indians. Without this distinction, we should understand the native people of our own country; but in Europe, Asia, and Africa, they would think we alluded to those in Asia. So with all other adjectives which are not understood. _Indian_, as an adjective, may also be employed to _describe_ the character and condition of the aborigines. We talk of an indian temper, indian looks, indian blankets, furs, &c. In writing and conversation we should employ words to explain, to define and describe, which are better understood than those things of which we speak. The pedantry of some modern writers in this respect is ridiculous. Not satisfied to use plain terms which every body can understand, they hunt the dictionaries from alpha to omega, and not unfrequently overleap the "king's english," and ransack other languages to find an unheard of word, or a list of adjectives never before arranged together, in so nice a manner, so that their ideas are lost to the common reader, if not to themselves. This fault may be alleged against too many of our public speakers, as well as the affected gentry of the land. They are like Shakspeare's Gratiano, "who speaks an infinite deal of nothing, more than any man in all Venice; his reasons are as two grains of wheat hid in two bushels of chaff: you shall seek all day ere you find them; and, when you have found them, they are not worth the search." Such sentences remind us of the painting of the young artist who drew the form of an animal, but apprehensive that some might mistake it, wrote under it, "_This is a horse._" In forming our notions of what is signified by an adjective, the mind should pause to determine the meaning of such word when used as a distinct name for some object, in order to determine the import of it in this new capacity. A _tallow_ candle is one made of a substance called tallow, and is employed to distinguish it from wax or spermaceti candles. The adjective in this case, names the article of which the candle is made, and is thus a noun, but, as we are not speaking of tallow, but of candles, we place it in a new relation, and give it a new grammatical character. But you will perceive the correctness of a former assertion, that all words may be reduced to two classes, and that adjectives are derived from nouns or verbs. But you may inquire if there are not some adjectives in use which have no corresponding verb or noun from which they are derived. There are many words in our language which in certain uses have become obsolete, but are retained in others. We now use some words as verbs which originally were known only as nouns, and others as nouns which are unknown as verbs. We also put a new construction upon words and make nouns, verbs and adjectives promiscuously and with little regard to rule or propriety. Words at one time unknown become familiar by use, and others are laid aside for those more new or fashionable. These facts are so obvious that I shall be excused from extending my remarks to any great length. But I will give an example which will serve as a clew to the whole. Take the word _happy_, long known only as an adjective. Instead of following this word _back_ to its primitive use and deriving it directly from its noun, or as a past participle, such as it is in truth, we have gone _forward_ and made from it the noun _happiness_, and, in more modern days, are using the verb _happify_, a word, by the way, in common use, but which has not yet been honored with a place in our dictionaries; altho Mr. Webster has given us, as he says, the _unauthorised_ (un-author-ised) word "_happifying_." Perhaps he had never heard or read some of our greatest savans, who, if not the authors, employ the word _happify_ very frequently in the pulpit and halls of legislation, and at the bar, as well as in common parlance. _Happy_ is the past participle of the verb _to hap_, or, as afterwards used, with a nice shade of change in the meaning, _to happen_. It means _happied_, or made happy by those favorable circumstances which have _happened_ to us. Whoever will read our old writers no further back than Shakspeare, will at once see the use and changes of this word. They will find it in all its forms, simple and compound, as a verb, noun, and adjective. "It may _hap_ that he will come." It happened as I was going that I found my lost child, and was thereby made quite happy. The man desired to _hap_pify himself and family without much labor, so he engaged in speculation; and _hap_pily he was not so _hap_less in his pursuit of _hap_piness as often _hap_pens to such _hap_-hazard fellows, for he soon became very _hap_py with a moderate fortune. But to the question. There are many adjectives in our language which are borrowed from foreign words. Instead of _adjectiving_ our own nouns we go to our neighbors and _adjective_ and anglicise [english-ise] their words, and adopt the pampered urchins into our own family and call them our favorites. It is no wonder that they often appear aukward and unfamiliar, and that our children are slow in forming an intimate acquaintance with them. You are here favored with a short list of these words which will serve as examples, and enable you to comprehend my meaning and apply it in future use. Some of them are regularly used as adjectives, with or without change; others are not. ENGLISH NOUNS. FOREIGN ADJECTIVES. Alone Sole, solitary Alms Eleemosynary Age Primeval Belief Credulous Blame Culpable Breast Pectoral Being Essential Bosom Graminal, sinuous Boy, boyish Puerile Blood, bloody Sanguinary, sanguine Burden Onerous Beginning Initial Boundary Conterminous Brother Fraternal Bowels Visceral Body Corporeal Birth Natal, native Calf Vituline Carcass Cadaverous Cat Feline Cow Vaccine Country Rural, rustic Church Ecclesiastical Death Mortal Dog Canine Day Diurnal, meridian, ephemeral Disease Morbid East Oriental Egg Oval Ear Auricular Eye Ocular Flesh Carnal, carnivorous Father Paternal Field Agrarian Flock Gregarious Foe Hostile Fear Timorous, timid Finger Digital Flattery Adulatory Fire Igneous Faith Fiducial Foot Pedal Groin Inguinal Guardian Tutelar Glass Vitreous Grape Uveous Grief Dolorous Gain Lucrative Help Auxiliary Heart Cordial, cardiac Hire Stipendiary Hurt Noxious Hatred Odious Health Salutary, salubrious Head Capital, chief Ice Glacial Island Insular King Regal, royal Kitchen Culinary Life Vital, vivid, vivarious Lungs Pulmonary Lip Labial Leg Crural, isosceles Light Lucid, luminous Love Amorous Lust Libidinous Law Legal, loyal Mother Maternal Money Pecuniary Mixture Promiscuous, miscellaneous Moon Lunar, sublunary Mouth Oral Marrow Medulary Mind Mental Man Virile, male, human, masculine Milk Lacteal Meal Ferinaceous Nose Nasal Navel Umbilical Night Nocturnal, equinoctial Noise Obstreperous One First Parish Parochial People Popular, populous, public, epidemical, endemical Point Punctual Pride Superb, haughty Plenty Copious Pitch Bituminous Priest Sacerdotal Rival Emulous Root Radical Ring Annular Reason Rational Revenge Vindictive Rule Regular Speech Loquacious, garrulous, eloquent Smell Olfactory Sight Visual, optic, perspicuous, conspicuous Side Lateral, collateral Skin Cutaneous Spittle Salivial Shoulder Humeral Shepherd Pastoral Sea Marine, maritime Share Literal Sun Solar Star Astral, sideral, stellar Sunday Dominical Spring Vernal Summer Estival Seed Seminal Ship Naval, nautical Shell Testaceous Sleep Soporiferous Strength Robust Sweat Sudorific Step Gradual Sole Venal Two Second Treaty Federal Trifle Nugatory Tax Fiscal Time Temporal, chronical Town Oppidan Thanks Gratuitous Theft Furtive Threat Minatory Treachery Insidious Thing Real Throat Jugular, gutteral Taste Insipid Thought Pensive Thigh Femoral Tooth Dental Tear Lachrymal Vessel Vascular World Mundane Wood Sylvan, savage Way Devious, obvious, impervious, trivial Worm Vermicular Whale Cutaceous Wife Uxorious Word Verbal, verbose Weak Hebdomadal Wall Mural Will Voluntary, spontaneous Winter Brumal Wound Vulnerary West Occidental War Martial Women Feminine, female, effeminate Year Annual, anniversary, perennial, triennial Such are some of the adjectives introduced into our language from other nations. The list will enable you to discover that when we have no adjective of our own to correspond with the noun, we borrow from our neighbors an adjective derived from one of their nouns, to which we give an english termination. For example: _English Noun._ _Latin Noun._ _Adjective._ Boy Puer Puerile Grief Dolor Dolorous Thought Pensa Pensive Wife Uxor Uxorious Word Verbum Verbal, verbose Year Annum Annual Body Corpus Corporeal Head Caput Capital Church Ekklesia (_Greek_) Ecclesiastical King Roi (_French_) Royal Law Loi " Loyal It is exceedingly difficult to understand the adjectives of many nouns with which we are familiar, from the fact above stated, that they are derived from other languages, and not our own. The most thoro scholars have found this task no easy affair. Most grammarians have let it pass unobserved; but every person has seen the necessity of some explanation upon this point, to afford a means of ascertaining the etymological derivation and meaning of these words. I would here enter farther into this subject, but I am reminded that I am surpassing the limits set me for this course of lectures. The attention I have bestowed on this part of the present subject, will not be construed into a mere verbal criticism. It has been adopted to show you how, in the definition or description of things, the mind clings to one thing to gain some information concerning another. When we find a thing unlike any thing else we have ever known, in form, in size, in color, in every thing; we should find it a difficult task, if not an impossibility, to describe it to another in a way to give any correct idea of it. Having never seen its like before, we can say little of its character. We may give it a _name_, but that would not be understood. We could say it was as large as--no, it had no size; that it was like--but no, it had no likeness; that it resembled--no, it had no resemblance. How could we describe it? What could we say of it? Nothing at all. What idea could the Pacha of Egypt form of ice, having never seen any till the french chemists succeeded in freezing water in his presence? They told him of ice; that it was _cold_; that it would freeze; that whole streams were often frozen over, so that men and teams could walk over them. He believed no such thing--it was a "christian lie." This idea was confirmed on the first trial of the chemists, which failed of success. But when, on the second attempt, they succeeded, he was all in raptures. A new field was open before him. New ideas were produced in his mind. New qualities were learned; and he could now form some idea of the _ice_ bergs of the north; of _frozen_ regions, which he had never seen; of _icy_ hearts, and storms of _frozen_ rain. We often hear it said, such a man is very _stoical_; another is an _epicurean_; and another is a _bacchanal_, or _bacchanalian_. But what idea should we form of such persons, if we had never read of the Stoics and their philosophy; of Epicurus and his notions of happiness and duty; or of Bacchus, the god of wine and revelry, whose annual feasts, or Dionysia, were celebrated with the most extravagant licentiousness thro out Greece and Rome, till put down by the Senate of the latter. You can not fail to see the importance of the knowledge on which we here insist. The meaning you attach to words is exceedingly diverse; and hence you are not always able to think alike, or understand each other, nor derive the same sentiment from the same language. The contradictory opinions which exist in the world may be accounted for, in a great measure, in this way. Our knowledge of many things of which we speak, is limited, either from lack of means, or disposition to employ them. People always differ and contend most about things of which they know the least. Did we all attach the same meaning to the same words, our opinions would all be the same, as true as the forty-fifth problem of Euclid. How important, then, that children should always be taught the same meaning of words, and learn to use them correctly. Etymology, viewed in this light, is a most important branch of science. Whenever a word is sufficiently understood, no adjective should be connected with it. There is a ridiculous practice among many people, of appending to every noun one or more adjectives, which have no other effect than to expose their own folly. Some writers are so in the habit of annexing adjectives to all nouns, that they dare not use one without. You will not unfrequently see adjectives different in form, added to a noun of very similar meaning; as, sad melancholy, an ominous sign, this mundane earth, pensive thoughts. When words can be obtained, which not only name the object, but also describe its properties, it should be preferred to a noun with an adjective; as _pirate_, for _sea robber_; _savan_, for a _learned_ or _wise man_.[4] In relation to that class of adjectives derived from verbs, we will be brief. They include what have been termed participles, not a distinct "part of speech," but by some included in the verbs. We use them as adjectives to describe things as standing in some relation to other things on the account of the action expressed by the verb from which they are derived. "The man is respected." _Respected_, in this case, describes the man in such a relation to those who have become acquainted with his good qualities, that he now receives their respect. He is respect_able_, (_able_ to command, or worthy of respect,) and of course, respected for his respectability. To avoid repetition, we select different words to assist in the expression of a complex idea. But I indulge in phrases like the above, to show the nice shades of meaning in the common use of words, endeavoring to analyze, as far as possible, our words and thoughts, and show their mutual connexion and dependencies. What has been termed the "present participle" is also an adjective, describing things in their present condition in reference to actions. "The man is writing." Here, _writing_ describes the man in his present employment. But the consideration of this matter more properly belongs to the construction of sentences. * * * * * There is another class or variety of words properly belonging to this division of grammar, which may as well be noticed in this place as any other. I allude to those words generally called "Prepositions." We have not time now to consider them at large, but will give you a brief view of our opinion of them, and reserve the remainder of our remarks till we come to another part of these lectures. Most of the words called prepositions, in books of grammar, are participles, derived from verbs, many of which are still in use, but some are obsolete. They are used in the true character of adjectives, _describing one thing by its relation to another_. But their meaning has not been generally understood. Our dictionaries have afforded no means by which we can trace their etymology. They have been regarded as a kind of cement to stick other words together, having no meaning or importance in themselves.[5] Until their meaning is known, we can not reasonably expect to draw them from their hiding places, and give them a respectable standing in the transmission of thought. Many words, from the frequency of their use, fail to attract our attention as much as those less employed; not because they are less important, but because they are so familiarly known that the operations of thought are not observed in the choice made of them to express ideas. If we use words of which little is known, we ponder well before we adopt them, to determine whether the sense usually attached to them accords exactly with the notions we desire to convey by them. The same can not be said of small words which make up a large proportion of our language, and are, in fact, more necessary than the others, in as much as their meaning is more generally known. Those who employ carriages to convey their bodies, observe little of their construction, unless there is something singular or fine in their appearance. The common parts are unobserved, yet as important as the small words used in the common construction of language, the vehicle of thought. As the apostle says of the body politic, "those members of the body, which seem to be more feeble, are necessary;" so the words least understood by grammarians are most necessary in the correct formation of language. It is an easy matter to get along with the words called prepositions, after they are all learned by rote; but when their meaning and use are inquired into, the best grammarians have little to say of them. A list of prepositions, alphabetically arranged, is found in nearly every grammar, which scholars are required to commit to memory, without knowing any thing of their meaning or use, only that they are prepositions when an objective word comes after them, _because the books say so_; but occasionally the same words occur as adverbs and adjectives. There is, however, no trouble in "parsing" them, unless the list is forgotten. In that case, you will see the pupil, instead of inquiring after the meaning and duty of the word, go to the book and search for it in the lists of prepositions or conjunctions; or to the dictionary, to see if there is a "_prep._" appended to it. What will children ever learn of language in this way? Of what avail is all such grammar teaching? As soon as they leave school it is all forgotten; and you will hear them say, at the very time they should be reaping the harvest of former toil, that they once understood grammar, but it is all gone from them. Poor souls! their memory is very treacherous, else they have never learned language as they ought. There is a fault somewhere. To us it is not difficult to determine where it is. That certain words are prepositions, there can be no doubt, because the books say they are; but _why_ they are so, is quite another matter. All we desire is to have their meaning understood. Little difficulty will then be found in determining their use. I have said they are derived from verbs, many of which are obsolete. Some are still in use, both as verbs and nouns. Take for example the word =with=. This word signifies _joined_ or _united_. It is used to show that two things are some how joined together so that they are spoke of in connexion. It frequently occurs in common conversation, as a verb and noun, but not as frequently in the books as formerly. The farmer says to his _hired_ man, "Go and get a _withe_ and come and _withe_ up the fence;" that is, get some pliant twigs of tough wood, twist them together, and _withe_ or bind them round these posts, so that one may stand firm _with_, or _withed_ to, the other. A book _with_ a cover, is one that has a cover _joined_, bound, or attached to it. "A father _with_ a son, a man _with_ an estate, a nation _with_ a constitution." In all such cases _with_ expresses the relation between the two things mentioned, produced by a _union_ or connexion with each other.[6] =In= is used in the same way. It is still retained as a noun and is suspended on the signs of many public houses. "The traveller's _inn_," is a house where travellers _in_ themselves, or go _in_, for entertainment. It occurs frequently in Shakspeare and in more modern writers, as a verb, and is still used in common conversation as an imperative. "Go, _in_ the crops of grain." "_In_ with you." "_In_ with it." In describes one thing by its relation to another, which is the business of adjectives. It admits of the regular degrees of comparison; as, _in_, _inner_, _innermost_ or _inmost_. It also has its compounds. _In_step, the _inner_ part of the foot, _in_let, _in_vestment, _in_heritance. In this capacity it is extensively used under its different shades of meaning which I cannot stop to notice. =Of= signifies _divided_, _separated_, or _parted_. "The ship is _off_ the coast." "I am bound _off_, and you are bound _out_." "A part _of_ a pencil," is that part which is _separated_ from the rest, implying that the act of _separating_, or _offing_, has taken place. "A branch _of_ the tree." There is the tree; this branch is from it. "Our communication was broken _off_ several years ago." "Sailors record their _off_ings, and parents love their _off_spring," or those children which sprung from them.[7] "We also _are his offspring_;" that is, sprung from God.[8] In all these, and every other case, you will perceive the meaning of the word, and its office will soon appear essential in the expression of thought. Had all the world been a compact whole, nothing ever separated from it, we could never speak of a part _of_ it, for we could never have such an idea. But we look at things, as separated, divided, parted; and speak of one thing as separated from the others. Hence, when we speak of the part of the earth we inhabit, we, in imagination, separate it from some other _part_, or the general whole. We can not use this word in reference to a thing which is indivisible, because we can conceive no idea of a part _of_ an indivisible thing. We do not say, a portion _of_ our mind taken as a whole, but as capable of division. A share _of_ our regards, supposes that the remainder is reserved for something else. =Out=, out_er_ or utter, outer_most_ or utmost, admits of the same remark as _in_. * * * * * In this manner, we might explain a long list of words, called adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions. But I forbear, for the present, the further consideration of this subject, and leave it for another lecture. LECTURE VII. ON ADJECTIVES. Adjectives.--How formed.--The syllable _ly_.--Formed from proper nouns.--The apostrophe and letter _s_.--Derived from pronouns.-- Articles.--_A_ comes from _an_.--_In_definite.--_The_.--Meaning of _a_ and _the_.--Murray's example.--That.--What.--"Pronoun adjectives."--_Mon_, _ma_.--Degrees of comparison.--Secondary adjectives.--Prepositions admit of comparison. We resume the consideration of Adjectives. The importance of this class of words in the expression of our thoughts, is my excuse for bestowing upon it so much labor. Had words always been used according to their primitive meaning, there would be little danger of being misunderstood. But the fact long known, "_Verba mutanter_"--words change--has been the prolific source of much of the diversity of opinion, asperity of feeling, and apparent misconstruction of other's sentiments, which has disturbed society, and disgraced mankind. I have, in a former lecture, alluded to this point, and call it up in this place to prepare your minds to understand what is to be said on the secondary use of words in the character of adjectives. I have already spoken of adjectives in general, as derived from nouns and verbs, and was somewhat particular upon the class sometimes called _prepositions_, which describe one thing by its relation to another, produced by some action which has placed them in such relation. We will now pass to examine a little more minutely into the character and use of certain adjectives, and the manner of their derivation. We commence with those derived from nouns, both common and proper, which are somewhat peculiar in their character. I wish you distinctly to bear in mind the use of adjectives. They are words _added to nouns to define or describe them_. Many words which name things, are used as adjectives, with out change; as, _ox_ beef, _beef_ cattle, _paper_ books, _straw_ hats, _bonnet_ paper. Others admit of change, or addition; as, nation_al_ character, a merci_ful_ (mercy-_ful_) man, a gloom_y_ prospect, a fam_ous_ horse, a gold_en_ ball. The syllables which are added, are parts of words, which are at first compounded with them, till, by frequency of use, they are incorporated into the same word. "A merci_ful_ man" is one who is full of mercy. A gold_en_ ball is one made of gold. This word is sometimes used without change; as, a _gold_ ring. A numerous portion of these words take the syllable _ly_, contracted from _like_, which is still retained in many words; as, Judas-_like_, lady-_like_, gentleman-_like_. These two last words, are of late, occasionally used as other words, lady_ly_, gentleman_ly_; but the last more frequently than the former. She behaved very ladi_ly_, or lady_like_; and his appearance was quite gentleman_ly_. But to say ladi_ly_ appearance, does not yet sound quite soft enough; but it is incorrect only because it is uncommon. God_ly_ and god_like_ are both in use, and equally correct, with a nice shade of difference in meaning. All grammarians have found a difficulty in the word _like_, which they were unable to unravel. They could never account for its use in expressing a relation between two objectives. They forgot that to be like, one thing must be _likened_ to another, and that it was the very meaning of this word to express such like_ness_. John looks _like_ his brother. The looks, the countenance, or appearance of John, are _likened_ to his brother's looks or appearance. "This machine is more like the pattern than any I have seen." Here the adjective _like_ takes the comparative degree, as it is called, to show a nearer resemblance than has been before observed between the things compared. "He has a statesman-_like_ appearance." I _like_ this apple, because it agrees with my taste; it has qualities _like_ my notion of what is palateable." In every situation the word is used to express likeness between two things. It describes one thing by its likeness to another. Many adjectives are formed from proper nouns by adding an apostrophe and the letter _s_, except when the word ends in _s_, in which case the final _s_ is usually omitted for the sake of euphony. This, however, was not generally adopted by old writers. It is not observed in the earliest translations of the Bible into the english language. It is now in common practice. Thus, Montgomery's monument in front of St. Paul's church; Washington's funeral; Shay's rebelion; England's bitterest foes; Hamlet's father's ghost; Peter's wife's mother; Todd's, Walker's, Johnson's dictionary; Winchell's Watts' hymns; Pond's Murray's grammar. No body would suppose that the "relation of property or possession" was expressed in these cases, as our grammar books tell us, but that the terms employed are used to _define_ certain objects, about which we are speaking. They possess the true character and use of adjectives, and as such let them be regarded. It must be as false as frivolous to say that Montgomery, who nobly fell at the siege of Quebec, _owns_ the monument erected over his remains, which were conveyed to New-York many years after his death; or that St. Paul _owns_ or _possesses_ the church beneath which they were deposited; that Hamlet owned his father, and his father his ghost; that Todd owns Walker, and Walker owns Johnson, and Johnson his dictionary which may have had a hundred owners, and never been the property of its author, but printed fifty years after his death. These words, I repeat, are merely _definitive_ terms, and like others serve to point out or specify particular objects which may thus be better known. Words, however, in common use form adjectives the same as other words; as, Russia iron, China ships, India silks, Vermont cheese, Orange county butter, New-York flour, Carolina potatoes. Morocco leather was first manufactured in a city of Africa called by that name, but it is now made in almost every town in our country. The same may be said of Leghorn hats, Russia binding, French shoes, and China ware. Although made in our own country we still retain the words, morocco, leghorn, russia, french, and china, to define the fashion, kind, or quality of articles to which we allude. Much china ware is made in Liverpool, which, to distinguish it from the real, is called liverpool china. Many french shoes are made in Lynn, and many Roxbury russets, Newton pippins, and Rhode-Island greenings, grow in Vermont. It may not be improper here to notice the adjectives derived from pronouns, which retain so much of their character as relates to the persons who employ them. These are _my_, _thy_, _his_, _her_, _its_, _our_, _your_, _their_, _whose_. This is _my_ book, that is _your_ pen, this is _his_ knife, and that is _her_ letter. Some of these, like other words, vary their ending when standing alone; as, two apples are your_s_, three her_s_, six their_s_, five our_s_, and the rest mine. _His_ does not alter in popular use. Hence the reason why you hear it so often, in common conversation, when standing without the noun expressed, pronounced as if written _hisen_. The word _other_, and some others, come under the same remark. When the nouns specified are expressed, they take the regular termination; as, give me these Baldwin apples, and a few others--a few other apples. * * * * * There is a class of small words which from the frequency of their use have, like pronouns, lost their primitive character, and are now preserved only as adjectives. Let us examine a few of them by endeavoring to ferret out their true meaning and application in the expression of ideas. We will begin with the old articles, _a_, _an_, and _the_, by testing the truth and propriety of the duty commonly assigned to them in our grammars. The standard grammar asserts that "an article is a word prefixed to substantives, to point them out, and to show how far their signification extends; as, "a garden, an eagle, the woman." Skepticism in grammar is no crime, so we will not hesitate to call in question the correctness of this "best of all grammars beyond all comparison." Let us consider the very examples given. They were doubtless the best that could be found. Does _a_ "point out" the garden, or "show how far its signification extends?" It does neither of these things. It may name "_any_" garden, and it certainly does not define whether it is a _great_ or a _small_ one. It simply determines that _one_ garden is the subject of remark. All else is to be determined by the word _garden_. We are told there are two articles, the one _in_definite, the other definite--_a_ is the former, and _the_ the latter. I shall leave it with you to reconcile the apparent contradiction of an _indefinite_ article which "is used in a _vague sense, to point out the signification_ of another word." But I challenge teachers to make their pupils comprehend such a jargon, if they can do it themselves. But it is as good sense as we find in many of the popular grammars of the day. Again, Murray says "_a_ becomes _an_ before a vowel or silent _h_;" and so say all his _simplifying_ satellites after him. Is such the fact? Is he right? He is, I most unqualifiedly admit, with this little correction, the addition of a single word--he is right _wrong_! Instead of _a_ becoming _an_, the reverse is the fact. The word is derived directly from the same word which still stands as our first numeral. It was a short time since written _ane_, as any one may see by consulting all old books. By and by it dropped the _e_, and afterwards, for the sake of euphony, in certain cases, the _n_, so that now it stands a single letter. You all have lived long enough to have noticed the changes in the word. Formerly we said _an_ union, _an_ holiday, _an_ universalist, _an_ unitarian, &c., expressions which are now rarely heard. We now say _a_ union, &c. This single instance proves that arbitrary rules of grammar have little to do in the regulation of language. Its barriers are of sand, soon removed. It will not be said that this is an unimportant mistake, for, if an error, it is pernicious, and if a grammarian knows enough to say that _a_ becomes _an_, he ought to know that he tells a falsehood, and that _an_ becomes _a_ under certain circumstances. Mr. Murray gives the following example to illustrate the use of _a_. "Give me _a_ book; that is, _any_ book." How can the learner understand such a rule? How will it apply? Let us try it. "A man has _a_ wife;" that is, _any_ man has _any_ wife. I have a hat; that is, _any_ hat. A farmer has a farm--_any_ farmer has _any_ farm. A merchant in Boston has a beautiful piece of broadcloth--_any_ merchant in Boston has any beautiful piece of broadcloth. A certain king of Europe decreed a protestant to be burned--_any_ king of Europe decreed _any_ protestant to be burned. How ridiculous are the rules we have learned and taught to others, to enable them to "speak and write with propriety." No wonder we never understood grammar, if so at variance with truth and every day's experience. The rules of grammar as usually taught can never be observed in practice. Hence it is called a _dry study_. In every thing else we learn something that we can understand, which will answer some good purpose in the affairs of life. But this branch of science is among the things which have been tediously learned to no purpose. No good account can be given of its advantages. _The_, we are told, "is called the definite article, because it ascertains what _particular_ thing or things are meant." A most unfortunate definition, and quite as erroneous as the former. Let us try it. _The_ stars shine, _the_ lion roars, _the_ camel is a beast of burden, _the_ deer is good for food, _the_ wind blows, _the_ clouds appear, _the_ Indians are abused. What is there in these examples, which "ascertain what _particular_ thing or things are meant?" They are expressions as _in_definite as we can imagine. On the other hand, should I say _a_ star shines, _a_ lion roars, _an_ Indian is abused, _a_ wind blows, _a_ cloud appears, you would understand me to allude very _definitely_ to _one_ "particular" object, as separate and distinguished from others of its kind. But what is the wonderful peculiarity in the meaning and use of these two little words that makes them so unlike every thing else, as to demand a separate "part of speech?" You may be surprised when I tell you that there are other words in our language derived from the same source and possessed of the same meaning; but such is the fact, as will soon appear. Let us ask for the etymology of these important words. _A_ signifies _one_, never more, never less. In this respect it is always _definite_. It is sometimes applied to a single thing, sometimes to a whole class of things, to a [one] man, or to a [one] hundred men. It may be traced thro other languages, ancient and modern, with little modification in spelling; Greek _eis_, ein; Latin _unus_; Armoric _unan_; Spanish and Italian _uno_; Portuguese _hum_; French _un_; German _ein_; Danish _een_, _en_; Dutch _een_; Swedish _en_; Saxon, _an_, _aen_, _one_--from which ours is directly derived--old English _ane_; and more modernly _one_, _an_, _a_. In all languages it defines a thing to be _one_, a united or congregated whole, and the word _one_ may always be substituted without affecting the sense. From it is derived our word _once_, which signifies _oned_, _united_, _joined_, as we shall see when we come to speak of "contractions." In some languages _a_ is styled an article, in others it is not. The Latin, for instance, has no article, and the Greek has no _indefinite_. But all languages have words which are like ours, pure adjectives, employed to specify certain things. The argument drawn from the fact that some other languages have _articles_, and therefore ours should, is fallacious. The Latin, which was surpassed for beauty of style or power in deliverance by few, if any others, never suffered from the lack of articles. Nor is there any reason why we should honor two small adjectives with that high rank to the exclusion of others quite as worthy. _The_ is always used as a definitive word, tho it is the least definite of the defining adjectives. In fact when we desire to "_ascertain particularly_ what thing is meant," we select some more definite word. "Give me _the_ books." Which? "Those with red covers, that in calf, and this in Russia binding." _The_ nations are at peace. What nations? _Those_ which were at war. You perceive how we employ words which are more definite, that is, better understood, to "_point out_" the object of conversation, especially when there is any doubt in the case. What occasion, then, is there to give these [the?] words a separate "part of speech," since in character they do not differ from others in the language? We will notice another frivolous distinction made by Mr. Murray, merely to show how learned men may be mistaken, and the folly of trusting to special rules in the general application of words. He says, "Thou art _a_ man," is a very general and _harmless_ expression; but, thou art _the_ man, (as Nathan said to David,) is an assertion capable of striking terror and remorse into the heart." The distinction in meaning here, on which he insists, attaches to the articles _a_ and _the_. It is a sufficient refutation of this definition to make a counter statement. Suppose we say, "Murray is _the_ best grammarian in the world; or, he is _a_ fool, _a_ knave, and _a_ liar." Which, think you, would be considered the most _harmless_ expression? Suppose it had been said to Aaron Burr, thou art _a_ traitor, or to General William Hull, thou art _a_ coward, would they regard the phrase as "_harmless!_" On the other hand, suppose a beautiful, accomplished, and talented young lady, should observe to one of her suitors, "I have received offers of marriage from several gentlemen besides yourself, but thou art =the= man of my choice;" would it, think you, _strike_ terror and remorse into his heart? I should pity the young student of Murray whose feelings had become so stoical from the false teaching of his author as to be filled with "terror and remorse" under such favorable circumstances, while fair prospects of future happiness were thus rapidly brightening before him. I speak as to the wise, judge ye what I say. The adjective _that_ has obtained a very extensive application in language. However, it may seem to vary in its different positions, it still retains its primitive meaning. It is comprised of _the_ and _it_, thait, theat, thaet (Saxon,) thata (Gothic,) dat (Dutch.) It is the most decided definitive in our language. It is by use applied to things in the singular, or to a multitude of things regarded as a whole. By use, it applies to a collection of ideas expressed in a sentence; as, it was resolved, _that_. What? Then follows _that fact_ which was resolved. "Provided _that_, in case he does" so and so. "It was agreed _that_," _that fact_ was agreed to which is about to be made known. I wish you to understand, all thro these lectures, _that_ I shall honestly endeavor to expose error and establish truth. Wish you to understand _what_? _that fact_, afterwards stated, "I shall endeavor," &c. You can not mistake my meaning: _that_ would be impossible. What would be impossible? Why, to mistake my meaning. You can not fail to observe the true character of this word called by our grammarians "adjective pronoun," "relative pronoun," and "conjunction." They did not think to look for its meaning. Had that (duty) been done, it would have stood forth in its true character, an important defining word. The only difficulty in the explanation of this word, originates in the fact, that it was formerly applied to the plural as well as singular number. It is now applied to the singular only when referring directly to an object; as, _that man_. And it never should be used otherwise. But we often see phrases like this; "These are the men _that_ rebeled." It should be, "these are the men _who_ rebeled." This difficulty can not be overcome in existing grammars on any other ground. In modern writings, such instances are rare. _This_ and _that_ are applied to the singular; _these_ and _those_ to the plural. * * * * * =What= is a compound of two original words, and often retains the meaning of both, when employed as a compound relative, "having in itself both the antecedent and the relative," as our authors tell us. But when it is dissected, it will readily enough be understood to be an adjective, defining things under particular relations. But I shall weary your patience, I fear, if I stay longer in this place to examine the etymology of small words. I intended to have shown the meaning and use of many words included in the list of conjunctions, which are truly adjectives, such as _both_, _as_, _so_, _neither_, _and_, etc.; but I let them pass for the present, to be resumed under the head of contractions. From the view we have given of this class of words, we are saved the tediousness of studying the grammatical distinctions made in the books, where no real distinctions exist. In character these words are like adjectives; their meaning, like the meaning of all other words, is peculiar to themselves. Let that be known, and there will be little difficulty in classing them. We need not confuse the learner with "adjective pronouns, possessive adjective pronouns, distributive adjective pronouns, demonstrative adjective pronouns, _indefinite_ adjective pronouns," nor any other adjective pronouns, which can never be understood nor explained. Children will be slow to apprehend the propriety of a union of _adjectives_ and _pronouns_, when told that the former is always used _with_ a noun, and never _for_ one; and the latter always _for_ a noun, but never _with_ one; and yet, that there is such a strange combination as a "_distributive or indefinite adjective pronoun_,"--"confusion worse confounded." In the french language, the gender of adjectives is varied so as to agree with the nouns to which they belong. "Possessive pronouns," as they are called, come under the same rule, which proves them to be in character, and formation, adjectives; else the person using them must change gender. The father says, _ma_ (feminine) _fille_, my daughter; and the mother, _mon_ (masculine) _fils_, my son; the same as they would say, _bon pere_, good father; _bonne mere_, good mother; or, in Latin, _bonus pater_, or _bona mater_; or, in Spanish, _bueno padre_, _buena madre_. In the two last languages, as well as all others, where the adjectives vary the termination so as to agree with the noun, the same fact may be observed in reference to their "pronouns." If it is a fact that these words are _pronouns_, that is, stand for other _nouns_, then the father is _feminine_, and the mother is _masculine_; and whoever uses them in reference to the opposite sex must change gender to do so. * * * * * Describing adjectives admit of variation to express different degrees of comparison. The regular degrees have been reckoned three; positive, comparative, and superlative. These are usually marked by changing the termination. The _positive_ is determined by a comparison with other things; as, a great house, a small book, compared with others of their kind. This is truly a comparative degree. The _comparative_ adds _er_; as, a great_er_ house, a small_er_ book. The _superlative_, _est_; as, the great_est_ house, the small_est_ book. Several adjectives express a comparison less than the positive, others increase or diminish the regular degrees; as, whit_ish_ white, _very_ white, _pure_ white; whit_er_, _considerable_ whiter, _much_ whiter; whit_est_, the _very_ whitest, _much_ the whitest _beyond all comparison_, so that there can be none _whiter_, nor _so white_. We make an aukward use of the words _great_ and _good_, in the comparison of things; as, a _good deal_, or _great deal_ whiter; a _good_ many men, or a _great_ many men. As we never hear of a _small_ deal, or a _bad_ deal whiter, nor of a _bad many_, nor _little many_, it would be well to avoid such phrases. The words which are added to other adjectives, to increase or diminish the comparison, or assist in their definition, may properly be called _secondary adjectives_, for such is their character. They do not refer to the thing to be _defined_ or _described_, but to the adjective which is affected, in some way, by them. They are easily distinguished from the rest by noticing this fact. Take for example: "A _very dark red_ raw silk lady's dress handkerchief." The resolution of this sentence would stand thus: _A_ ( ) handkerchief. A ( ) _red_ ( ) handkerchief. A ( ) _dark_ red ( ) handkerchief. A _very_ dark red ( ) handkerchief. A very dark red ( ) _silk_ ( ) handkerchief. A very dark red _raw_ silk ( ) handkerchief. A very dark red raw silk ( ) _dress_ handkerchief. A very dark red raw silk _lady's_ dress handkerchief. We might also observe that _hand_ is an adjective, compounded by use with _kerchief_. It is derived from the french word _couvrir_, to cover, and _chef_, the head. It means a head dress, a cloth to cover, a neck cloth, a napkin. By habit we apply it to a single article, and speak of _neck_ handkerchief. The nice shade of meaning, and the appropriate use of adjectives, is more distinctly marked in distinguishing colors than in any thing else, for the simple reason, that there is nothing in nature so closely observed. For instance, take the word _green_, derived from _grain_, because it is grain color, or the color of the fair carpet of nature in spring and summer. But this hue changes from the _deep grass green_, to the light olive, and words are chosen to express the thousand varying tints produced by as many different objects. In the adaptation of language to the expression of ideas, we do not separate these shades of color from the things in which such colors are supposed to reside. Hence we talk of _grass_, _pea_, _olive_, _leek_, _verdigris_, _emerald_, _sea_, and _bottle_ green; also, of _light_, _dark_, _medium_; _very_ light, or dark grass, pea, olive, or _invisible_ green. _Red_, as a word, means _rayed_. It describes the appearance or substance produced when _rayed_, reddened, or radiated by the morning beams of the sun, or any other _radiating_ cause. _Wh_ is used for _qu_, in white, which means _quite_, _quited_, _quitted_, _cleared_, _cleansed_ of all _color_, _spot_, or _stain_. _Blue_ is another spelling for _blew_. Applied to color, it describes something in appearance to the sky, when the clouds and mists are _blown_ away, and the clear _blue ether_ appears. You will be pleased with the following extract from an eloquent writer of the last century,[9] who, tho somewhat extravagant in some of his speculations, was, nevertheless, a close observer of nature, which he studied as it is, without the aid of human theories. The beauty of the style, and the correctness of the sentiment, will be a sufficient apology for its length. "We shall employ a method, not quite so learned, to convey an idea of the generation of colors, and the decomposition of the solar ray. Instead of examining them in a prism of glass, we shall consider them in the heavens, and there we shall behold the five primordial colours _unfold themselves_ in the order which we have indicated. "In a fine summer's night, when the sky is loaded only with some light vapours, sufficient to stop and to refract the rays of the sun, walk out into an open plain, where the first fires of Aurora may be perceptible. You will first observe the horizon _whiten_ at the spot where she is to make her appearance; and this radiance, from its colour, has procured for it, in the French language, the name of _aube_, (the dawn,) from the Latin word _alba_, white. This whiteness insensibly ascends in the heavens, _assuming_ a tint of yellow some degrees above the horizon; the yellow as it rises passes into orange; and this shade of orange rises upward into the lively vermilion, which extends as far as the zenith. From that point you will perceive in the heavens behind you the violet succeeding the vermilion, then the azure, after it the deep blue or indigo colour, and, last of all, the black, quite to the westward. "Though this display of colours presents a multitude of intermediate shades, which rapidly succeed each other, yet at the moment the sun is going to exhibit his disk, the dazzling white is visible in the horizon, the pure yellow at an elevation of forty-five degrees; the fire color in the zenith; the pure blue forty-five degrees under it, toward the west; and in the very west the dark veil of night still lingering on the horizon. I think I have remarked this progression between the tropics, where there is scarcely any horizontal refraction to make the light prematurely encroach on the darkness, as in our climates. "Sometimes the trade-winds, from the north-east or south-east, blow there, card the clouds through each other, then sweep them to the west, crossing and recrossing them over one another, like the osiers interwoven in a transparent basket. They throw over the sides of this chequered work the clouds which are not employed in the contexture, roll them up into enormous masses, as white as snow, draw them out along their extremities in the form of a crupper, and pile them upon each other, moulding them into the shape of mountains, caverns, and rocks; afterwards, as evening approaches, they grow somewhat calm, as if afraid of deranging their own workmanship. When the sun sets behind this magnificent netting, a multitude of luminous rays are transmitted through the interstices, which produce such an effect, that the two sides of the lozenge illuminated by them have the appearance of being girt with gold, and the other two in the shade seem tinged with _ruddy_ orange. Four or five divergent streams of light, emanated from the setting sun up to the zenith, _clothe_ with fringes of gold the undeterminate summits of this celestial barrier, and strike with the reflexes of their fires the pyramids of the collateral aerial mountains, which then appear to consist of _silver_ and _vermilion_. At this moment of the evening are perceptible, amidst their redoubled ridges, a multitude of valleys extending into infinity, and distinguishing themselves at their opening by some shade of flesh or of rose colour. "These celestial valleys present in their different contours inimitable tints of white, melting away into white, or shades lengthening themselves out without mixing over other shades. You see, here and there, issuing from the cavernous sides of those mountains, tides of _light_ precipitating themselves, in ingots of gold and silver, over rocks of coral. Here it is a gloomy rock, pierced through and through, disclosing, beyond the aperture, the pure azure of the firmament; there it is an extensive strand, covered with sands of gold, stretching over the rich ground of heaven; _poppy-coloured_, _scarlet_, and _green_ as the emerald. "The reverberation of those western colours diffuses itself over the sea, whose azure billows it _glazes_ with saffron and purple. The mariners, leaning over the gunwale of the ship, admire in silence those aerial landscapes. Sometimes this sublime spectacle presents itself to them at the hour of prayer, and seems to invite them to lift up their hearts with their voices to the heavens. It changes every instant into forms as variable as the shades, presenting celestial colors and forms which no pencil can pretend to imitate, and no language can describe. "Travellers who have, at various seasons, ascended to the summits of the highest mountains on the globe, never could perceive, in the clouds below them, any thing but a gray and lead-colored surface, similar to that of a lake. The sun, notwithstanding, illuminated them with his whole light; and his rays might there combine all the laws of refraction to which our systems of physics have subjected them. Hence not a single shade of color is employed in vain, through the universe; those celestial decorations being made for the level of the earth, their magnificent point of view taken from the habitation of man. "These admirable concerts of lights and forms, manifest only in the lower region of the clouds the least illuminated by the sun, are produced by laws with which I am totally unacquainted. But the whole are reducible to five colors: yellow, a generation from white; red, a deeper shade of yellow; blue, a strong tint of red; and black, the extreme tint of blue. This progression cannot be doubted, on observing in the morning the expansion of the light in the heavens. You there see those five colors, with their intermediate shades, generating each other nearly in this order: white, sulphur yellow, lemon yellow, yolk of egg yellow, orange, aurora color, poppy red, full red, carmine red, purple, violet, azure, indigo, and black. Each color seems to be only a strong tint of that which precedes it, and a faint tint of that which follows; thus the whole together appear to be only modulations of a progression, of which white is the first term, and black the last. "Indeed trade cannot be carried on to any advantage, with the Negroes, Tartars, Americans, and East-Indians, but through the medium of red cloths. The testimonies of travellers are unanimous respecting the preference universally given to this color. I have indicated the universality of this taste, merely to demonstrate the falsehood of the philosophic axiom, that tastes are arbitrary, or that there are in Nature no laws for beauty, and that our tastes are the effects of prejudice. The direct contrary of this is the truth; prejudice corrupts our natural tastes, otherwise the same over the whole earth. "With red Nature heightens the brilliant parts of the most beautiful flowers. She has given a complete clothing of it to the rose, the queen of the garden: and bestowed this tint on the blood, the principle of life in animals: she invests most of the feathered race, in India, with a plumage of this color, especially in the season of love; and there are few birds without some shades, at least, of this rich hue. Some preserve entirely the gray or brown ground of their plumage, but glazed over with red, as if they had been rolled in carmine; others are besprinkled with red, as if you had blown a scarlet powder over them. "The red (or _rayed_) color, in the midst of the five primordial colors, is the harmonic expression of them by way of excellence; and the result of the union of two contraries, light and darkness. There are, besides, agreeable tints, compounded of the oppositions of extremes. For example, of the second and fourth color, that is, of yellow and blue, is formed green, which constitutes a very beautiful harmony, and ought, perhaps, to possess the second rank in beauty, among colors, as it possesses the second in their generation. Nay, green appears to many, if not the most beautiful tint, at least the most lovely, because it is less dazzling than red, and more congenial to the eye." Many words come under the example previously given to illustrate the secondary character of adjectives, which should be carefully noticed by the learner, to distinguish whether they define or describe things, or are added to increase the distinction made by the adjectives themselves, for both defining and describing adjectives admit of this addition; as, _old_ English coin, New England rebelion; a mounted whip, and a _gold_ mounted sword--not a gold sword; a _very fine_ Latin scholar. Secondary adjectives, also, admit of comparison in various ways; as, _dearly_ beloved, a _more_ beloved, the _best_ beloved, the _very_ best beloved brother. Words formerly called "prepositions," admit of comparison, as I have before observed. "Benhadad fled into an _inner_ chamber." The in_ner_ temple. The in_most_ recesses of the heart. The _out_ fit of a squadron. The out_er_ coating of a vessel, or house. The ut_most_ reach of grammar. The _up_ and _down_ hill side of a field. The up_per_ end of the lot. The upper_most_ seats. A part _of_ the book. Take it _farther off_. The _off_ cast. India _beyond_ the Ganges. Far beyond the boundaries of the nation. I shall go _to_ the city. I am _near to_ the town. _Near_ does not _qualify the verb_, for it has nothing to do with it. I can exist in one place as well as another. It is _below_ the surface; _very far_ below it. It is above the earth--"high above all height." Such expressions frequently occur in the expression of ideas, and are correctly understood; as difficult as it may have been to describe them with the theories learned in the books--sometimes calling them one thing, sometimes another--when their character and meaning was unchanged, or, according to old systems, had "no meaning at all of their own!" But I fear I have gone _far_ beyond your patience, and, perhaps, entered _deeper_ into this subject than was necessary, to enable you to discover my meaning. I desired to make the subject _as_ distinct _as_ possible, that all might see the important improvement suggested. I am apprehensive even now, that some will be compelled to _think_ many _profound thoughts_ before they will see the end of the obscurity under which they have long been shrouded, in reference to the false rules which they have been taught. But we have one consolation--those who are not bewildered by the grammars they have tried in vain to understand, will not be very likely to make a wrong use of adjectives, especially if they have ideas to express; for there is no more danger of mistaking an adjective for a noun, or verb, than there is of mistaking a _horse_ chestnut for a _chestnut_ horse. * * * * * In our next we shall commence the consideration of Verbs, the most important department in the science of language, and particularly so in the system we are defending. I hope you have not been uninterested thus far in the prosecution of the subject of language, and I am confident you will not be in what remains to be said upon it. The science, so long regarded _dry_ and uninteresting, becomes delightful and easy; new and valuable truths burst upon us at each advancing step, and we feel to bless God for the ample means afforded us for obtaining knowledge from, and communicating it to others, on the most important affairs of time and eternity. LECTURE VIII. ON VERBS. Unpleasant to expose error.--Verbs defined.--Every thing acts.-- Actor and object.--Laws.--Man.--Animals.--Vegetables.--Minerals.-- Neutrality degrading.--Nobody can explain a neuter verb.--_One_ kind of verbs.--_You_ must decide.--Importance of teaching children the truth.--Active verbs.--Transitive verbs false.--Samples.--Neuter verbs examined.--Sit.--Sleep.--Stand.--Lie.--Opinion of Mrs. W.--Anecdote. We now come to the consideration of that class of words which in the formation of language are called _Verbs_. You will allow me to bespeak your favorable attention, and to insist most strenuously on the propriety of a free and thoro examination into the nature and use of these words. I shall be under the necessity of performing the thankless task of exposing the errors of honest, wise, and good men, in order to remove difficulties which have long existed in works on language, and clear the way for a more easy and consistent explanation of this interesting and essential department of literature. I regret the necessity for such labors; but no person who wishes the improvement of mankind, or is willing to aid the growth of the human intellect, in its high aspirations after truth, knowledge, and goodness, should shrink from a frank exposition of what he deems to be error, nor refuse his assistance, feeble tho it may be, in the establishment of correct principles. In former lectures we have confined our remarks to things and a description of their characters and relations, so that every entity of which we can conceive a thought, or concerning which we can form an expression, has been defined and described in the use of nouns and adjectives. Every thing in creation, of which we think, material or immaterial, real or imaginary, and to which we give a name, to represent the idea of it, comes under the class of words called nouns. The words which specify or distinguish one thing from another, or describe its properties, character, or relations, are designated as adjectives. There is only one other employment left for words, and that is the expression of the actions, changes, or inherent tendencies of things. This important department of knowledge is, in grammar, classed under the head of =Verbs=. * * * * * _Verb_ is derived from the Latin _verbum_, which signifies a _word_. By specific application it is applied to those _words_ only which express action, correctly understood; the same as Bible, derived from the Greek "_biblos_" means literally _the book_, but, by way of eminence, is applied to the sacred scriptures only. This interesting class of words does not deviate from the correct principles which we have hitherto observed in these lectures. It depends on established laws, exerted in the regulation of matter and thought; and whoever would learn its sublime use must be a close observer of things, and the mode of their existence. The important character it sustains in the production of ideas of the changes and tendencies of things and in the transmission of thought, will be found simple, and obvious to all. Things exist; Nouns name them. Things differ; Adjectives define or describe them. Things act; Verbs express their actions. _All Verbs denote action._ By action, we mean not only perceivable motion, but an inherent tendency to change, or resist action. It matters not whether we speak of animals possessed of the power of locomotion; of vegetables, which _send_ forth their branches, leaves, blossoms, and fruits; or of minerals, which _retain_ their forms, positions, and properties. The same principles are concerned, the same laws exist, and should be observed in all our attempts to understand their operations, or employ them in the promotion of human good. Every thing acts according to the ability it possesses; from the small particle of sand, which _occupies_ its place upon the sea shore, up thro the various gradation of being, to the tall archangel, who _bows_ and _worships_ before the throne of the uncreated Cause of all things and actions which exist thro out his vast dominions. As all actions presuppose an _actor_, so every action must result on some _object_. No effect can exist without an efficient cause to produce it; and no cause can exist without a corresponding effect resulting from it. These mutual relations, helps, and dependencies, are manifest in all creation. Philosophy, religion, the arts, and all science, serve only to develope these primary laws of nature, which unite and strengthen, combine and regulate, preserve and guide the whole. From the Eternal I AM, the uncreated, self-existent, self-sustaining =Cause= of all things, down to the minutest particle of dust, evidences may be traced of the existence and influence of these laws, in themselves irresistible, exceptionless, and immutable. Every thing has a place and a duty assigned it; and harmony, peace, and perfection are the results of a careful and judicious observance of the laws given for its regulation. Any infringement of these laws will produce disorder, confusion, and distraction. Man is made a little lower than the angels, possessed of a mind capable of reason, improvement, and happiness; an intellectual soul inhabiting a mortal body, the connecting link between earth and heaven--the material and spiritual world. As a physical being, he is subject, in common with other things, to the laws which regulate matter: as an intellectual being, he is governed by the laws which regulate mind: as possessed of both a body and mind, a code of moral laws demand his observance in all the social relations and duties of life. Obedience to these laws is the certain source of health of body, and peace of mind. An infringement of them will as certainly be attended with disease and suffering to the one, and sorrow and anguish to the other. Lower grades of animals partake of many qualities in common with man. In some they are deficient; in others they are superior. Some animals are possessed of all but reason, and even in that, the highest of them come very little short of the lowest of the human species. If they have not reason, they possess an instinct which nearly approaches it. These qualities dwindle down gradually thro the various orders and varieties of animated nature, to the lowest grade of animalculæ, a multitude of which may inhabit a single drop of water; or to the zoophytes and lythophytes, which form the connecting link between the animal and vegetable kingdom; as the star-fish, the polypus, and spunges. Then strike off into another kingdom, and observe the laws vegetable life. Mark the tall pine which has grown from a small seed which _sent_ forth its root downwards and its trunk upwards, drawing nourishment from earth, air, and water, till it now waves its top to the passing breeze, a hundred feet above this dirty earth: or the oak or olive, which have _maintained_ their respective positions a dozen centuries despite the operations of wind and weather, and have shed their foliage and their seeds to propagate their species and extend their kinds to different places. While a hundred generations have lived and died, and the country often changed masters, they resist oppression, scorn misrule, and retain rights and privileges which are slowly encroached upon by the inroads of time, which will one day triumph over them, and they fall helpless to the earth, to submit to the chemical operations which shall dissolve their very being and cause them to mingle with the common dust, yielding their strength to give life and power to other vegetables which shall occupy their places.[10] Or mark the living principle in the "sensitive plant," which withers at every touch, and suffers long ere it regains its former vigor. Descend from thence, down thro the various gradations of vegetable life, till you pass the narrow border and enter the mineral world. Here you will see displayed the same sublime principle, tho in a modified degree. Minerals _assume_ different shapes, hues and relations; they increase and diminish, attach and divide under various circumstances, all the while _retaining_ their identity and properties, and exerting their abilities according to the means they possess, till compelled to yield to a superior power, and learn to submit to the laws which operate in every department of this mutable world. _Every_ thing _acts_ according to the ability God has bestowed upon it; and man can do no more. He has authority over all things on earth, and yet he is made to depend upon all. His authority extends no farther than a privilege, under wholesome restrictions, of making the whole subservient to his real good. When he goes beyond this, he usurps a power which belongs not to him, and the destruction of his happiness pays the forfeit of his imprudence. The injured power rises triumphant over the aggressor, and the glory of God's government, in the righteous and immediate execution of his laws, is clearly revealed. So long as man obeys the laws which regulate health, observes temperance in all things, uses the things of this world as not abusing them, he is at rest, he is blessed, he is happy: but no sooner has he violated heaven's law than he becomes the slave, and the servant assumes the master. But I am digressing. I would gladly follow this subject further, but I shall go beyond my limits, and, it may be, your patience. I would insist, however, on the facts to which your attention has been given, for it is impossible, as I have before contended, to use language correctly without a knowledge of the things and ideas it is employed to represent. Grovelling, indeed, must be the mind which will not trace the sublime exhibitions of Divine power and skill in all the operations of nature; and false must be that theory which teaches the young mind to think and speak of neutrality as attached to things which do exist. As low and debasing as the speculations of the schoolmen were, they gave to things which they conceived to be incapable of action, a principle which they called "_vis inertiæ_," or, _power to lie still_. Shall our systems of instruction descend below them, throw an insurmountable barrier in the way of human improvement, and teach the false principles that actions can exist without an effect, or that there is a class of words which "express neither action or passion." Such a theory is at war with the first principles of philosophy, and denies that "like causes produce like effects." The ablest minds have never been able to explain the foundation of a "neuter verb," or to find a single word, with a solitary exception, which does not, in certain conditions, express a positive action, and terminate on a definite object; and that exception we shall see refers to a verb which expresses the highest degree of conceivable action. Still they have insisted on _three_ and some on _four_ kinds of verbs, one expressing action, another passion or suffering, and the third neutrality. We propose to offer a brief review of these distinctions, which have so long perplexed, not only learners, but teachers themselves, and been the fruitful source of much dissention among grammarians. It is to be hoped you will come up to this work with as great candor as you have heretofore manifested, and as fully resolved to take nothing for granted, because it has been said by good or great men, and to reject nothing because it appears new or singular. Let truth be our object and reason our guide to direct us to it. We can not fail of arriving at safe and correct conclusions. Mr. Murray tells us that "verbs are of three kinds, _active_, _passive_, and _neuter_. In a note he admits of "active _transitive_ and intransitive verbs," as a subdivision of his first kind. Most of his "improvers" have adopted this distinction, and regard it as of essential importance. We shall contend, as before expressed, that _all_ verbs are of _one kind_, that they _express action_, for the simple yet sublime reason, that every thing acts, at all times, and under every possible condition; according to the true definition of _action_ as understood and employed by all writers on grammar, and natural and moral science. Here we are at issue. Both, contending for principles so opposite, can not be correct. One or the other, however pure the motives, must be attached to a system wrong in theory, and of course pernicious in practice. You are to be the umpires in the case, and, if you are faithful to your trust, you will not be bribed or influenced in the least by the opinions of others. If divested of all former attachments, if free from all prejudice, there can be no doubt of the safety and correctness of your conclusions. But I am apprehensive I expect too much, if I place the _new_ system of grammar on a footing equally favorable in your minds with those you have been taught to respect, as the only true expositions of language, from your childhood up, and which are recommended to you on the authority of the learned and good of many generations. I have to combat early prejudices, and systems long considered as almost sacred. But I have in my favor the common sense of the world, and a feeling of opposition to existing systems, which has been produced, not so much by a detection of their errors, as by a lack of capacity, as the learner verily thought, to understand their profound mysteries. I am, therefore, willing to risk the final decision with you, if _you_ will decide. But I am not willing to have you made the tools of the opposite party, determined, whether convinced or not, to hold to your old _neuter_ verb systems, right or wrong, merely because others are doing so. All I ask is _your_ adoption of what is proved to be undeniably true, and rejection of whatever is found to be false. Here is where the matter must rest, for it will not be pretended that it is better to teach falsehood because it is ancient and popular, than truth because it is novel. Teachers, in this respect, stand in a most responsible relation to their pupils. They should always insist with an unyielding pertinacity, on the importance of truth, and the evils of error. Every trifling incident, in the course of education, which will serve to show the contrast, should be particularly observed. If an error can be detected in their books, they should be so taught as to be able to correct it; and they should be so inclined as to be willing to do it. They should not be skeptics, however, but close observers, original thinkers, and correct reasoners. It is degrading to the true dignity and independence of man, to submit blindly to any proposition. Freedom of thought is the province of all. Children should be made to breathe the free air of honest inquiry, and to inhale the sweet spirit of truth and charity. They should not study their books as the end of learning, but as a means of knowing. Books should be regarded as lamps, which are set by the way side, not as the objects to be looked at, but the aids by which we may find the object of our search. Knowledge and usefulness constitute the leading motives in all study, and no occasion should be lost, no means neglected, which will lead the young mind to their possession. Your attention is now invited to some critical remarks on the distinctions usually observed in the use of verbs. Let us carefully examine the meaning of these _three kinds_ and see if there is any occasion for such a division; if they have any foundation in truth, or application in the correct use of language. We will follow the arrangements adopted by the most popular grammars. "A _verb active_ expresses an action, and necessarily implies an agent, and an object acted upon; as, to love, I love Penelope." A very excellent definition, indeed! Had grammarians stopped here, their works would have been understood, and proved of some service in the study of language. But when they diverge from this bright spot in the consideration of verbs--this oasis in the midst of a desert--they soon become lost in the surrounding darkness of conjecture, and follow each their own dim light, to hit on a random track, which to follow in the pursuit of their object. We give our most hearty assent to the above definition of a verb. It expresses action, which necessarily implies an _actor_, and an _object_ influenced by the action. In our estimation it matters not whether the object on which the action terminates is expressed or _understood_. If I _love_, I must love some object; either my neighbor, my enemy, my family, _myself_, or something else. In either case the _action_ is the same, tho the objects may be different; and it is regarded, on all hands, as an active verb. Hence when the object on which the action terminates is not expressed, it is necessarily understood. All language is, in this respect, more or less eliptical, which adds much to its richness and brevity. Active verbs, we are told, are divided into _transitive_ and _intransitive_. Mr. Murray does not exactly approve of this distinction, but prefers to class the intransitive and neuter together. Others, aware of the fallacy of attempting to make children conceive any thing like neutrality in the verbs, _run_, _fly_, _walk_, _live_, &c., have preferred to mark the distinction and call them _in_transitive; because, say they, they do not terminate on any object expressed. A _transitive verb_ "expresses an action which passes from the agent to the object; as, Cæsar conquered Pompey." To this definition we can not consent. It attempts a distinction where there is none. It is not true in principle, and can not be adopted in practice. "Cæsar conquered Pompey." Did the act of conquering pass _transitively_ over from _Cæsar_ to Pompey? They might not have seen each other during the whole battle, nor been within many miles of each other. They, each of them, stood at the head of their armies, and alike gave orders to their subordinate officers, and they again to their inferiors, and so down, each man contending valiantly for _victory_, till, at last, the fate of the day sealed the downfall of Pompey, and placed the crown of triumph on the head of Cæsar. The expression is a correct one, but the action expressed by the verb "conquered," is not transitive, as that term is understood. A whole train of causes was put in operation which finally terminated in the defeat of one, and the conquest of the other. "Bonaparte _lost_ the battle of Waterloo." What did _he_ do to _lose_ the battle? He exerted his utmost skill to _gain_ the battle and escape defeat. He did not do a single act, he entertained not a single thought, which lead to such a result; but strove against it with all his power. If the fault was _his_, it was because he failed to act, and not because he labored to _lose_ the battle. He had too much at stake to adopt such a course, and no man but a teacher of grammar, would ever accuse him of _acting_ to _lose_ the battle. "A man was sick; he desired to recover (his health). He took, for medicine, opium by mistake, and _lost_ his life by it." Was he guilty of suicide? Certainly, if our grammars are true. But he _lost_ his life in trying to get well. "A man in America _possesses_ property in Europe, and his children _inherit_ it after his death." What do the children do to _inherit_ this property, of which they know nothing? "The geese, by their gabbling, _saved_ Rome from destruction." How did the geese save the city? They made a noise, which waked the sentinels, who roused the soldiers to arms; they fought, slew many Gauls, and delivered the city. "A man in New-York _transacts_ business in Canton." How does he do it? He has an agent there to whom he sends his orders, and he transacts the business. But how does he get his letters? The clerk writes them, the postman carries them on board the ship, the captain commands the sailors, who work the ropes which unfurl the sails, the wind blows, the vessel is managed by the pilot, and after a weary voyage of several months, the letters are delivered to the agent, who does the business that is required of him. The miser _denies_ himself every comfort, and spends his whole life in hoarding up riches; and yet he dies and _leaves_ his gold to be the possession of others. Christians _suffer_ insults almost every day from the Turks. Windows _admit_ light and _exclude_ cold. Who can discover any thing like _transitive_ action--a passing from the agent to the object--in these cases? What transitive action do the windows perform to _admit the light_; or the christians, to _suffer insults_; or the miser, to _leave his money_? If there is neutrality any where, we would look for it here. The fact is, these words express _relative_ action, as we shall explain when we come to the examination of the true character of the verb. _Neutrality_ signifies (transitive verb!) no action, and _neuter_ verbs _express a state of being_! A class of words which can not act, which apply to things in a quiescent state, _perform_ the transitive action of "_expressing_ a state of being!" Who does not perceive the inconsistency and folly of such distinctions? And who has not found himself perplexed, if not completely bewildered in the dark and intricate labyrinths into which he has been led by the false grammar books! Every attempt he has made to extricate himself, by the dim light of the "simplifiers," has only tended to bewilder him still more, till he is utterly confounded, or else abandons the study altogether. * * * * * An _intransitive_ verb "denotes action which is confined to the actor, and does not pass over to another object; as, I sit, he lives, they sleep." "A verb _neuter_ expresses neither action nor passion, but being, or a state of being; as, I am, I sleep, I sit." These verbs are nearly allied in character; but we will examine them separately and fairly. The examples are the same, with exception of the verb _to be_, which we will notice by itself, and somewhat at large, in another place. Our first object will be to ascertain the _meaning_ and use of the words which have been given as samples of neutrality. It is unfortunate for the neuter systems that they can not define a "neuter verb" without making it express an action which terminates on some object. * * * "The man _sits_ in his chair." _Sits_, we are told, is a neuter verb. What does it mean? The man _places_ himself in a sitting posture in his _seat_. He _keeps_ himself in his chair by muscular energy, assisted by gravitation. The chair _upholds_ him in that condition. Bring a small child and _sit_ it (active verb,) in a chair beside him. Can it _sit_? No; it falls upon the floor and is injured. Why did it fall? It was not able to _keep_ itself from falling. The lady fainted and _fell_ from her _seat_. If there is no action in sitting, why did she not remain as she was? A company of ladies and gentlemen from the boarding school and college, entered the parlor of a teacher of neuter verbs; and he asked them to _sit_ down, or be _seated_. They were neutral. He called them impolite. But they replied, that _sit_ "expresses neither action nor passion," and hence he could not expect them to occupy his seats. "_Sit_ or _set_ it away; _sit_ near me; _sit_ farther along; _sit_ still;" are expressions used by every teacher in addressing his scholars. On the system we are examining, what would they understand by such inactive expressions? Would he not correct them for disobeying his orders? But what did he order them to do? Nothing at all, if _sit_ denotes no action. "I _sat_ me down and wept." "He _sat him_ down by a pillar's base, And drew his hand athwart his face." _Byron._ "Then, having shown his wounds, he'd _sit him_ down, And, all the live long day, discourse of war." _Tragedy of Douglass._ "But wherefore _sits he_ there? Death on my state! _This act_ convinces me That this retiredness of the duke and her, Is plain contempt." _King Lear._ "_Sitting_, the _act of resting_ on a seat. _Session_, the _act of sitting_." _Johnson's Dictionary._ * * * "_I sleep._" Is sleep a neuter verb? So we are gravely told by our authors. Can grammarians follow their own rules? If so, they may spend the "live long night" and "its waking hours," without resorting to "tired nature's sweet restorer, balmy sleep;" for there is no process under heaven whereby they can procure sleep, unless they _sleep_ it. For one, I can never _sleep_ without sleeping _sleep_--sometimes only a short _nap_. It matters not whether the object is expressed or not. The action remains the same. The true object is necessarily understood, and it would be superfluous to name it. Cases, however, often occur where, both in speaking and writing, it becomes indispensable to mention the object. "The stout hearted have _slept_ their sleep." "They shall _sleep_ the _sleep_ of death." "They shall _sleep_ the perpetual _sleep_, and shall not awake." "_Sleep_ on now and _take_ your rest." The child was troublesome and the mother sung it to sleep, and it _slept itself_ quiet. A lady took opium and _slept herself_ to death. "Many persons sleep themselves into a kind of unnatural stupidity." Rip Van Winkle, according to the legend, _slept_ away a large portion of a common life. "Sleep, sleep to-day, tormenting cares." "And _sleep_ dull _cares_ away." Was your sleep refreshing last night? How did you procure it? Let a person who still adheres to his _neuter_ verbs, that sleep expresses no action, and has no object on which it terminates, put his theory in practice; he may as well sleep with his eyes open, sitting up, as to _lie himself_ upon his bed. A man lodged in an open chamber, and while he was _sleeping_ (doing nothing) he _caught_ a severe _cold_ (active transitive verb) and had a long _run_ of the fever. Who does not see, not only the bad, but also the false philosophy of such attempted distinctions? How can you make a child discover any difference in the _act of sleeping_, whether there is an object after it, or not? Is it not the same? And is not the object necessarily implied, whether expressed or not? Can a person _sleep_, without procuring _sleep_? * * * "_I stand._" The man _stands_ firm in his integrity. Another stands in a very precarious condition, and being unable to retain his hold, _falls_ down the precipice and is killed. Who is killed? The man, surely. Why did he fall? Because he could not _stand_. But there is no _action_ in _standing_, say the books. "_Stand_ by thyself, come not near me?" "_Stand_ fast in the liberty wherewith Christ hath made you free, and _be_ not again entangled in the yoke of bondage." "Let him that thinketh he _standeth_, take heed lest he _fall_." If it requires no act to _stand_, there can be no danger of falling. "Two pillars stood together; the rest had fallen to the ground. The one on the right was quite perfect in all its parts. The other _resembled it_ very much, except it had _lost_ its capital, and _suffered_ some other injuries." How could the latter column, while performing no action in _standing_, act _transitively_, according to our grammars, and do something to _resemble_ the other? or, what did it do to _lose_ its capital, and _suffer_ other injury? * * * "To _lie_, or _lay_." It has been admitted that the verbs before considered are often used as active verbs, and that there is, in truth, action expressed by them. But when the man has fallen from his seat and _lies_ upon the floor, it is contended that he no longer acts, and that _lie_ expresses no action. He has ceased from physical, muscular action regulated by his will, and is now subject to the common laws which govern matter. Let us take a strong example. The book _lies_ or _lays_ on the desk. Now you ask, does that book perform any action in laying on the desk? I answer, yes; and I will prove it on the principles of the soundest philosophy, to the satisfaction of every one present. Nor will I deviate from existing grammars to do it, so far as real action is concerned. The book _lies_ on the desk. The desk _supports_ the book. Will you parse _supports_? It is, according to every system, an active transitive verb. It has an objective case after it on which the action terminates. But what does the desk do to _support_ the book? It barely resists the action which the book _performs_ in lying on it. The action of the desk and book is reciprocal. But if the book does not act, neither can the desk act, for that only repels the force of the book in pressing upon it in its tendency towards the earth, in obedience to the law of gravitation. And yet our authors have told us that the desk is _active_ in resisting no action of the book! No wonder people are unable to understand grammar. It violates the first principles of natural science, and frames to itself a code of laws, unequal, false, and exceptionable, which bear no affinity to the rest of the world, and will not apply in the expression of ideas. I was once lecturing on this subject in one of the cities of New-York. Mrs. W., the distinguished teacher of one of the most popular Female Seminaries in our country, attended. At the close of one lecture she remarked that the greatest fault she had discovered in the new system, was the want of a class of words to express neutrality. Children, she said, conceived ideas of things in a quiescent state, and words should be taught them by which to communicate such ideas. I asked her for an example. She gave the rock in the side of the mountain. It had never moved. It could never act. There it had been from the foundation of the earth, and there it would remain unaltered and unchanged till time should be no longer. I remarked, that I would take another small stone and _lay_ it on the great one which could never act, and now we say the great rock _upholds_, _sustains_ or _supports_ the small one--all active transitive verbs with an object expressed. She replied, she would give it up, for it had satisfied her of a new principle which must be observed in the exposition of all language, which accords with _facts as developed in physical and mental science_. I continued, not only does that rock act in resisting the force of the small one which lays upon it, but, by the attraction of gravitation it is able to _maintain_ its _position_ in the side of the mountain; by cohesion it _retains_ its distinct identity and solidity, and repels all foreign bodies. It is also subject to the laws which govern the earth in its diurnal and annual revolutions, and moves in common with other matter at the astonishing rate of a thousand miles in an hour! Who shall teach children, in these days of light and improvement, the grovelling doctrine of neutrality, this relic of the peripatetic philosophy? Will parents send their children to school to learn falsehood? And can teachers be satisfied to remain in ignorance, following with blind reverence the books they have studied, and refuse to examine new principles, fearing they shall be compelled to acknowledge former errors and study new principles? They should remember it is wiser and more honorable to confess a fault and correct it, than it is to remain permanent in error. Let us take another example of the verb "_to lie_." A country pedagogue who has followed his authorities most devotedly, and taught his pupils that _lie_ is a "_neuter verb_, expressing neither action nor passion, but simply being, or a state of being," goes out, during the intermission, into a grove near by, to _exercise himself_. In attempting to roll a log up the hill, he _makes_ a mis-step, and _falls_ (intransitive verb, _nothing_ falls!) to the ground, and the log _rolls_ (_nothing_) on to him, and _lies_ across his legs. In this condition he is observed by his scholars to whom he cries (nothing) for help. "Do (nothing) come (intransitive) and help me." They obey him and remain _neuter_, or at least act _intransitively_, and produce no effects. He cries again for help and his _cries_ are regarded. They _present_ themselves before him. "Do roll this log off; it will break my legs." "Oh no, master; how can that be? The log _lies_ on you, does it not?" "Yes, and it will _press me_ to death." "No, no; that can never be. The log can not act. =Lies= is a _neuter_ verb, signifying neither _action_ nor passion, but simply being or a state of being. You have a _state_ of being, and the log has a state of being. It can not harm you. You must have forgotten the practical application of the truths you have been teaching us." It would be difficult to explain neuter verbs in such a predicament. "Now I _lay_ me down _to sleep_." "She died and they _laid her_ beside her lover under the spreading branches of the willow." "They _laid it_ away so secure that they could never find it." They _laid_ down to _rest themselves_ after the fatigue of a whole day's journey. We have now considered the model verbs of the neuter kind, with the exception of the verb =to be=, which is left for a distinct consideration, being the most active of all verbs. It is unnecessary to spend much time on this point. The errors I have examined have all been discovered by teachers of language, long ago, but few have ventured to correct them. An alleviation of the difficulty has been sought in the adoption of the intransitive verb, which "expresses an action that is confined to the actor or agent." The remarks which have been given in the present lecture will serve as a hint to the course we shall adopt in treating of them, but the more particular examination of their character and uses, together with some general observation on the agents and objects of verbs, will be deferred to our next lecture. LECTURE IX. ON VERBS. Neuter and intransitive.--Agents.--Objects.--No actions as such can be known distinct from the agent.--Imaginary actions.--Actions known by their effects.--Examples.--Signs should guide to things signified.--Principles of action.--=Power=.--Animals.--Vegetables. --Minerals.--All things act.--Magnetic needle.--=Cause=.--Explained. --First Cause.--=Means=.--Illustrated.--Sir I. Newton's example.-- These principles must be known.--=Relative= action.--Anecdote of Gallileo. We resume the consideration of verbs. We closed our last lecture with the examination of _neuter verbs_, as they have been called. It appears to us that evidence strong enough to convince the most skeptical was adduced to prove that _sit_, _sleep_, _stand_ and _lie_, stand in the same relation to language as other verbs, that they do not, in any case, express neutrality, but frequently admit an objective word after them. These are regarded as the most neutral of all the verbs except _to be_, which, by the way, expresses the highest degree of action, as we shall see when we come to inquire into its meaning. Grammarians have long ago discovered the falsity of the books in the use of a large portion of verbs which have been called neuter. To obviate the difficulty, some of them have adopted the distinction of _Intransitive_ verbs, which express action, but terminate on no object; others still use the term _neuter_, but teach their scholars that when the _object_ is _expressed_, it is active. This distinction has only tended to perplex learners, while it afforded only a temporary expedient to teachers, by which to dodge the question at issue. So far as the action is concerned, which it is the business of the verb to express, what is the difference whether "I _run_, or _run_ myself?" "A man started in haste. He _ran_ so fast that he _ran himself_ to death." I strike Thomas, Thomas _strikes David_, Thomas _strikes himself_. Where is the difference in the action? What matters it whether the action passes over to another object, or is confined within itself? "But," says the objector, "you mistake. An intransitive verb is one where the 'effect is confined within the subject, and does not pass over to any object.'" Very well, I think I understand the objection. When Thomas strikes David the effects of the blow _passes over_ to him. And when he strikes himself, it "is confined within the subject," and hence the latter is an _intransitive_ verb. "No, no; there is an object on which the action terminates, in that case, and so we must call it a _transitive_ verb." Will you give me an example of an _intransitive_ verb? "I _run_, he _walks_, birds _fly_, it _rains_, the fire _burns_. No objects are expressed after these words, so the action is confined within themselves." I now get your meaning. When the object is _expressed_ the verb is transitive, when it is not it is intransitive. This distinction is generally observed in teaching, however widely it may differ from the intention of the makers of grammars. And hence children acquire the habit of limiting their inquiries to what they see placed before them by others, and do not think for themselves. When the verb has an objective word after it _expressed_, they are taught to attach action to it; but tho the action may be even greater, if the object is not expressed, they consider the action as widely different in its character, and adopt the false philosophy that a cause can exist without an effect resulting from it. We assume this ground, and we shall labor to maintain it, that every verb necessarily presupposes an _agent_ or _actor_, an _action_, and an _object_ acted upon, or affected by the action. No action, as such, can be known to exist separate from the thing that acts. We can conceive no idea of action, only by keeping our minds fixed on the acting substance, marking its changes, movements, and tendencies. "The book _moves_." In this case the eye rests on the book, and observes its positions and attitudes, alternating one way and the other. You can separate no action from the book, nor conceive any idea of it, as a separate entity. Let the book be taken away. Where now is the action? What can you think or say of it? There is the same space just now occupied by the book, but no action is perceivable. The boy _rolls_ his marble upon the floor. All his ideas of the action performed by it are derived from an observation of the marble. His eye follows it as it moves along the floor. He sees it in that acting condition. When he speaks of the action as a whole, he thinks where it started and where it stopped. It is of no importance, so far as the verb is concerned, whether the marble received an impulse from his hand, or whether the floor was sufficiently inclined to allow it to roll by its own inherent tendency. The action is, in this case, the obvious change of the marble. Our whole knowledge of action depends on an observance of things in a state of motion, or change, or exerting a tendency to change, or to counteract an opposing substance. This will be admitted so far as material things are concerned. The same principle holds good in reference to every thing of which we form ideas, or concerning which we use language. In our definition of nouns we spoke of immaterial and imaginary things to which we gave _names_ and which we consider as agencies capable of exerting an influence in the production of effects, or in resisting actions. It is therefore unimportant whether the action be real or imaginary. It is still inseparably connected with the thing that acts; and we employ it thus in the construction of language to express our thoughts. Thus, lions roar; birds sing; minds reflect; fairies dance; knowledge increases; fancies err; imagination wanders. This fact should be borne in mind in all our attempts to understand or explain language. The mind should remain fixed to the acting substance, to observe its changes and relations at different periods, and in different circumstances. There is no other process by which any knowledge can be gained of actions. The mind contemplates the acting thing in a condition of change and determines the precise action by the _altered condition_ of the thing, and thus learns to judge of actions by their effects. The only method by which we can know whether a _vegetable grows_ or not is by comparing its form to-day with what it was some days ago. We can not decide on the improvement of our children only by observing the same rule. "By their fruits ye shall know them," will apply in physics as well as in morals; for we judge of causes only by their effects. First principles can never be known. We observe things as they _are_, and remember how they _have been_; and from hence deduce our conclusions in reference to the _cause_ of things we do not fully understand, or those consequences which will follow a condition of things as now existing. It is the business of philosophy to mark these effects, and trace them back to the causes which produced them, by observing all the intermediate changes, forms, attitudes, and conditions, in which such things have, at different times, been placed. We say, "_trees grow_." But suppose no change had ever been observed in trees, that they had always been as they now are; in stature as lofty, in foliage as green and beautiful, in location unaltered. Who would then say, "trees grow?" In this single expression a whole train of facts are taken into the account, tho not particularly marked. As a single expression we imply that _trees increase their stature_. But this we all know could never be effected without the influence of other causes. The soil where it stands must contain properties suited to the _growth_ of the tree. A due portion of moisture and heat are also requisite. These facts all exist, and are indispensable to make good the expression that the "tree grows." We might also trace the capabilities of the tree itself, its roots, bark, veins or pores, fibres or grains, its succulent and absorbent powers. But, as in the case of the "man that killed the deer," noticed in a former lecture, the mind here conceives a single idea of a complete whole, which is signified by the single expression, "trees grow." Let the following example serve in further illustration of this point. Take two bricks, the one heated to a high temperature, the other cold. Put them together, and in a short time you will find them of equal temperature. One has grown warm, the other cool. One has _imparted_ heat and _received_ cold, the other has _received_ heat and _imparted_ cold. Yet all this would remain forever unknown, but for the effects which must appear obvious to all. From these effects the causes are to be learned. It must, I think, appear plain to all who are willing to see, that action, as such, can never exist distinct from the thing that acts; that all our notions of action are derived from an observance of _things_ in an acting condition; and hence that no words can be framed to express our ideas of action on any other principle. I hope you will bear these principles in mind. They are vastly important in the construction of language, as will appear when we come to speak of the _agents_ and _objects_ of action. We still adhere to the fact, that no rules of language can be successfully employed, which deviate from the permanent laws which operate in the regulation of matter and mind; a fact which can not be too deeply impressed on your minds. In the consideration of actions as expressed by verbs, we must observe that _power_, _cause_, _means_, _agency_, and _effects_, are indispensable to their existence. Such principles exist _in fact_, and must be observed in obtaining a complete knowledge of language; for words, we have already seen, are the expression of ideas, and ideas are the impression of things. In our attempts at improvement, we should strip away the covering, and come at the reality. Words should be measurably forgotten, while we search diligently for the things expressed by them. _Signs_ should always conduct to the things _signified_. The weary traveller, hungry and faint, would hardly satisfy himself with an examination of the _sign_ before the inn, marking its form, the picture upon it, the nice shades of coloring in the painting. He would go in, and search for the thing signified. It has been the fault in teaching language, that learners have been limited to the mere _forms_ of words, while the important duty of teaching them to look at the thing signified, has been entirely disregarded. Hence they have only obtained book knowledge. They know what the grammars say; but how to _apply_ what they say, or what is in reality meant by it, they have yet to learn. This explains the reason why almost every man who has studied grammar will tell you that "he _used_ to understand it, but it has all gone from him, for he has not looked into a _book_ these many years." Has he lost a knowledge of language? Oh, no, he learned that before he saw a grammar, and will preserve it to the day of his death. What good did his two or three years study of grammar do him? None at all; he has forgotten all that he ever knew of it, and that is not much, for he only learned what some author said, and a few arbitrary rules and technical expressions which he could never understand nor apply in practice, except in special cases. But I wander. I throw in this remark to show you the necessity of bringing your minds to a close observance of things as they do in truth exist; and from them you can draw the principles of speech, and be able to use language correctly. For we still insist on our former opinion, that all language depends on the permanent laws of nature, as exerted in the regulation of matter and mind. * * * To return. I have said that all action denotes _power_, _cause_, _means_, _agency_, and _effects_. * * * _Power_ depends on _physical energy_, or _mental skill_. I have hinted at this fact before. Things act according to the power or energy they possess. Animals walk, birds fly, fishes swim, minerals sink, poisons kill. Or, according to the adopted theories of naturalists: Minerals _grow_. Vegetables _grow_ and _live_. Animals _grow_, and _live_, and _feel_. Every thing acts according to the ability it possesses. Man, possessed of reason, devises means and produces ends. Beasts change locations, devour vegetables, and sometimes other beasts. The lowest grade of animals never change location, but yet eat and live. Vegetables live and grow, but do not change location. They have the power to reproduce their species, and some of them to kill off surrounding objects. "The _carraguata_ of the West Indies, clings round," says Goldsmith, "whatever tree it happens to approach; there it quickly gains the ascendant, and, loading the tree with a verdure not its own, keeps away that nourishment designed to feed the trunk, and at last entirely destroys its supporter." In our country, many gardens and fields present convincing proof of the ability of weeds to kill out the vegetables designed to grow therein. You all have heard of the _Upas_, which has a power sufficient to destroy the lives of animals and vegetables for a large distance around. Its very exhalations are death to whatever approaches it. It serves in metaphor to illustrate the noxious effects of all vice, of slander and deceit, the effects of which are to the moral constitution, what the tree itself is to natural objects, blight and mildew upon whatever comes within its reach. Minerals are possessed of _power_ no less astonishing, which may be observed whenever an opportunity is offered to call it forth. Active poisons, able to slay the most powerful men and beasts, lie hid within their bosoms. They have strong attractive and repelling powers. From the iron is made the strong cable which _holds_ the vessel fast in her moorings, _enabling_ it to outride the collected force of the winds and waves which _threaten_ its destruction. From it also are manufactured the manacles which bind the strong man, or fasten the lion in his cage. Gold _possesses_ a power which _charms_ nearly all men to sacrifice their ease, and too many their moral principles, to pay their blind devotions at its shrine. Who will contend that the power of action is confined to the animal creation alone, and that inanimate matter can not act? That there is a superior power possessed by man, endowed with an immaterial spirit in a corporeal body, none will deny. By the agency of the mind he can accomplish wonders, which mere physical power without the aid of such mental skill, could never perform. But with all his boasted superiority, he is often made the slave of inanimate things. His lofty powers of body and soul bend beneath the weight of accumulated sorrows, produced by the secret _operations_ of contagious disease, which _slays_ his wife, children, and friends, who fall like the ripened harvest before the gatherers scythe. Nay, he often submits to the controlling power of the vine, alcohol, or tobacco, which _gain_ a secret influence over his nobler powers, and _fix_ on him the stamp of disgrace, and _throw_ around him fetters from which he finds it no easy matter to extricate himself. By the illusions of error and vice he is often betrayed, and long endures darkness and suffering, till he _regains_ his native energies, and finds deliverance in the enjoyment of truth and virtue. What is that secret power which lies concealed beyond the reach of human ken, and is transported from land to land unknown, till exposed in conditions suited to its operation, will show its active and resistless force in the destruction of life, and the devastation of whole cities or nations? You may call it plague, or cholera, or small pox, miasma, contagion, particles of matter floating in the air surcharged with disease, or any thing else. It matters not what you call it. It is sufficient to our present purpose to know that it has the ability to put forth a prodigious power in the production of consequences, which the highest skill of man is yet unable to prevent. I might pursue this point to an indefinite length, and trace the secret powers possessed by all created things, as exhibited in the influence they exert in various ways, both as regards themselves and surrounding objects. But you will at once perceive my object, and the truth of the positions I assume. A common power pervades all creation, operating by pure and perfect laws, regulated by the Great First Cause, the Moving Principle, which guides, governs, and controls the whole.[11] Degrading indeed must be those sentiments which limit all action to the animal frame as an organized body, moved by a living principle. Ours is a sublimer duty; to trace the operations of the Divine Wisdom which acts thro out all creation, in the minutest particle of dust which _keeps_ its _position_ secure, till moved by some superior power; or in the _needle_ which points with unerring skill to its fixed point, and _guides_ the vessel, freighted with a hundred lives, safe thro the midnight storm, to its destined haven; tho rocked by the waves and driven by the winds, it remains uninfluenced, and tremblingly alive to the important duties entrusted to its charge, continues its faithful service, and is watched with the most implicit confidence by all on board, as the only guide to safety. The same Wisdom is displayed thro out all creation; in the beauty, order, and harmony of the universe; in the planets which float in the azure vault of heaven; in the glow worm that glitters in the dust; in the fish which cuts the liquid element; in the pearl which sparkles in the bottom of the ocean; in every thing that lives, moves, or has a being; but more distinctly in man, created in the moral image of his Maker, possessed of a heart to feel, and a mind to understand--the third in the rank of intelligent beings. I cannot refuse to favor you with a quotation from that inimitable poem, Pope's Essay on Man. It is rife with sentiment of the purest and most exalted character. It is direct to our purpose. You may have heard it a thousand times; but I am confident you will be pleased to hear it again. Ask for what end the heavenly bodies shine, Earth for whose use? Pride answers, "'Tis for mine: "For me kind nature wakes her genial pow'r, "Suckles each herb, and spreads out every flow'r; "Annual for me, the grape, the rose renew "The juice nectareous, and the balmy dew; "For me, the mine a thousand treasures brings; "For me health gushes from a thousand springs; "Seas roll to waft me, suns to light me rise; "My footstool earth, my canopy the skies." But errs not nature from this gracious end, From burning suns when livid deaths descend, When earthquakes swallow, or when tempests sweep Towns to one grave, whole nations to the deep? "_No_," ('tis replied,) "_the first Almighty Cause Acts not by partial, but by general laws; Th' exceptions few; some change since all began: And what created perfect?_" Why then man? If the great end be human happiness, Then nature deviates--and can man do less? As much that end a constant course requires Of show'rs and sunshine, as of man's desires; As much eternal springs and cloudless skies, As man forever temp'rate, calm, and wise. If plagues or earthquakes break not heaven's design. Why then a Borgia, or a Cataline? Who knows but He whose hand the lightning forms, Who heaves old ocean, and who wings the storms; Pours fierce ambition in a Cæsar's mind; Or turns young Ammon loose to scourge mankind? From pride, from pride our very reas'ning springs; Account for moral as for nat'ral things: Why charge we heaven in those, in these acquit? In both, to reason right, is to submit. Better for us, perhaps, it might appear, Were there all harmony, all virtue here; That never air or ocean felt the wind; That never passion discomposed the mind. But =all= subsists by elemental strife; And passions are the elements of life. The general =order=, since the whole began, Is kept in nature, and is kept in man. * * * * * Look round our world, behold the chain of love. Combining all below and all above; See plastic nature working to this end, The single atoms each to other tend; Attract, attracted to, the next in place Formed and impelled its neighbor to embrace, See matter next, with various life endued, Press to one center still the gen'ral good. See dying vegetables life sustain, See life dissolving, vegetate again; All forms that perish, other forms supply, (By turns we catch the vital breath, and die) Like bubbles on the sea of matter borne, They rise, they break, and to that sea return, Nothing is foreign--parts relate to whole; One all-extending, all-preserving soul Connects each being greatest with the least; Made beast in aid of man, and man of beast; All served, all serving; nothing stands alone; The chain holds on, and where it ends, unknown. But _power_ alone is not sufficient to produce action. There must be a =cause= to call it forth, to set in operation and exhibit its latent energies. It will remain hid in its secret chambers till efficient causes have set in operation the _means_ by which its existence is to be discovered in the production of change, effects, or results. There is, it is said, in every created thing a power sufficient to produce its own destruction, as well as to preserve its being. In the human body, for instance, there is a constant tendency to decay, to waste; which a counteracting power resists, and, with proper assistance, keeps alive. The same may be said of vegetables which are constantly throwing off, or exhaling the waste, offensive, or useless matter, and yet a restoring power, assisted by heat, moisture, and the nourishment of the earth, resists the tendency to decay and preserves it alive and growing. The air, the earth, nay, the ocean itself, philosophers assure us, contain powers sufficient to self-destruction. But I will not enlarge here. Let the necessary _cause_ be exerted which will give vent to this hidden power and actions the most astonishing and destructive would be the effect. These are often witnessed in the tremendous earthquakes which devastate whole cities, states, and empires; in the tornados which pass, like the genius of evil, over the land, levelling whatever is found in its course; or in the waterspouts and maelstroms which prove the grave of all that comes within their grasp. In the attempted destruction of the royal family and parliament of England, by what is usually called the "gunpowder plot," the arrangements were all made; two hogsheads and thirty-six barrels of powder, sufficient to blow up the house of lords and the surrounding buildings, were secreted in a vault beneath it, strown over with faggots. Guy Fawkes, a spanish officer, employed for the purpose, lay at the door, on the 5th of November, 1605, with the matches, or _means_, in his pocket, which should set in operation the prodigious dormant _power_, which would hurl to destruction James I., the royal family, and the protestant parliament, give the ascendancy to the Catholics, and change the whole political condition of the nation. The _project_ was discovered, the _means_ were removed, the _cause_ taken away, and the threatened _effects_ were prevented. The =cause= of action is the immediate subject which precedes or tends to produce the action, without which it would not take place. It may result from volition, inherent tendency, or communicated impulse; and is known to exist from the effects produced by it, in the altered or new condition of the thing on which it operates; which change would not have been effected without it. Causes are to be sought for by tracing back thro the effects which are produced by them. The factory is put in operation, and the cloth is manufactured. The careless observer would enter the building and see the spindles, looms, and wheels operated by the hands, and go away satisfied that he has seen enough, seen all. But the more careful will look farther. He will trace each band and wheel, each cog and shaft, down by the balance power, to the water race and floom; or thro the complicated machinery of the steam engine to the piston, condenser, water, wood, and fire; marking a new, more secret, and yet more efficient cause at each advancing step. But all this curiously wrought machinery is not the product of chance, operated without care. A superior cause must be sought in human skill, in the deep and active ingenuity of man. Every contrivance presupposes a contriver. Hence there must have been a power and means sufficient to combine and regulate the power of the water, or generate and direct the steam. That power is vested in man; and hence, man stands as the cause, in relation to the whole process operated by wheels, bands, spindles, and looms. Yet we may say, with propriety, that the water, or the steam; the water-wheel, or the piston; the shafts, bands, cogs, pullies, spindles, springs, treddles, harnesses, reeds, shuttles, an almost endless concatenation of instruments, are alike the _causes_, which tend to produce the final result; for let one of these intermediate causes be removed, and the whole power will be diverted, and all will go wrong--the effect will not be produced. There must be a =first cause= to set in operation all inferior ones in the production of action; and to that _first_ cause all action, nay, the existence of all other causes, may be traced, directly, or more distant. The intervening causes, in the consecutive order of things, may be as diversified as the links in the chain of variant beings. Yet all these causes are moved by the all-sufficient and ever present agency of the Almighty Father, the =Uncaused Cause= of all things and beings; who spoke into existence the universe with all its various and complicated parts and orders; who set the sun, moon, and stars in the firmament, gave the earth a place, and fixed the sea a bed; throwing around them barriers over which they can never pass. From the height of his eternal throne, his eye pervades all his works; from the tall archangel, that "adores and burns," down to the very hairs of our heads, which are all numbered, his wise, benevolent, and powerful supervision may be traced in legible lines, which may be seen and read of all men. And from effects, the most diminutive in character, may be traced back, from cause to cause, upward in the ascending scale of being, to the same unrivalled Source of all power, splendor, and perfection, the presence of Him, who spake, and it was done; who commanded, and it _stood still_; or, as the poet has it: "Look thro nature up to nature's God." The _means_ of action are those aids which are displayed as the medium thro which existing causes are to exhibit their hidden powers in producing changes or effects. The matches in the pocket of Guy Fawkes were the direct means by which he intended to set in operation a train of causes which should terminate in the destruction of the house of lords and all its inmates. Those matches, set on fire, would convey a spark to the faggots, and thence to the powder, and means after means, and cause after cause, in the rapid succession of events, would ensue, tending to a final, inevitable, and melancholy result. A ball shot from a cannon, receives its first impulse from the powder; but it is borne thro the air by the aid of a principle inherent in itself, which power is finally overcome by the density of the atmosphere which impedes its progress, and the law of gravitation finally attracts it to the earth. These contending principles may be known by observing the curved line in which the ball moves from the cannon's mouth to the spot where it rests. But if there is no power in the ball, why does not the ball of cork discharged from the same gun with the same momentum, travel to the same distance, at the same rate? The action commences in both cases with the same projectile force, the same exterior _means_ are employed, but the results are widely different. The cause of this difference must be sought for in the comparative power of each substance to _continue its own movements_. Every boy who has played at ball has observed these principles. He throws his ball, which, if not _counteracted_, will continue in a straight line, _ad infinitum_--without end. But the air impedes its progress, and gravitation brings it to the ground. When he throws it against a hard substance, its velocity is not only overcome, but it is sent back with great force. But if he takes a ball of wax, of snow, or any strong adhesive substance, it will not bound. How shall we account to him for this difference? He did the same with both balls. The impetus given the one was as great as the other, and the resistance of the intervening substance was as great in one case as the other; and yet, one bounds and rebounds, while the other sticks fast as a friend, to the first object it meets. The cause of this difference is to be sought for in the different capabilities of the respective balls. One possesses a strong elastic and repelling power; in the other, the attraction of cohesion is predominant. Take another example. Let two substances of equal size and form, the one made of lead, the other of cork, be put upon the surface of a cistern of water. The external circumstances are the same, but the effects are widely different--one sinks, the other floats. We must look for the cause of this difference, not in the opposite qualities of surrounding matter, but in the things themselves. If you add to the cork another quality possessed by the lead, and give it the same form, size, and _weight_, it will as readily sink to the bottom. But this last property is possessed in different degrees by the two bodies, and hence, while the one floats upon the water, the other displaces its particles and sinks to the bottom. You may take another substance; say the mountain ebony, which is heavier than water, but lighter than lead, and immerse it in the water; it will not sink with the rapidity of lead, because its inherent _power_ is not so strong. Take still another case. Let two balls, suspended on strings, be equally, or, to use the technical term, _positively_ electrified. Bring them within a certain distance, and they will repel each other. Let the electric fluid be extracted from one, and the other will attract it. Before, they were as enemies; now they embrace as friends. The magnet furnishes the most striking proof in favor of the theory we are laboring to establish. Let one of sufficient power be let down within the proper distance, it will overcome the power of gravitation, and _attract_ the heavy steel to itself. What is the cause of this wonderful fact? Who can account for it? Who can trace out the hidden cause; the "_primum mobile_" of the Ptolmaic philosophy--the secret spring of motion? But who will dare deny that such effects do exist, and that they are produced by an efficient cause? Or who will descend into the still more dark and perplexing mazes of neuter verb grammars, and deny that matter has such a power to act? These instances will suffice to show you what we mean when we say, _every thing acts according to the ability God has given it to act_. I might go into a more minute examination of the properties of matter, affinity, hardness, weight, size, color, form, mobility, &c., which even old grammars will allow it to _possess_; but I shall leave that work for you to perform at your leisure. Whoever has any doubts remaining in reference to the abilities of all things to _produce_, _continue_, or _prevent_ motion, will do well to consult the prince of philosophers, Sir Isaac Newton, who, after Gallileo, has treated largely upon the laws of motion. He asserts as a fact, full in illustration of the principles I am laboring to establish, that in ascending a hill, the trace rope pulls the horse back as much as he draws that forward, only the horse overcomes the resistance of the load, and moves it up the hill. On the old systems, no power would be requisite to move the load, for it could oppose no resistance to the horse; and the small child could move it with as much ease as the strong team. Who has not an acquaintance sufficiently extensive to know these things? I can not believe there is a person present, who does not fully comprehend my meaning, and discover the correctness of the ground I have assumed. And it should be borne in mind, that no collection or arrangement of words can be composed into a sentence, which do not obtain their meaning from a connection of things as they exist and operate in the material and intellectual world, and that it is not in the power of man to frame a sentence, to think or speak, but in conformity with these general and exceptionless laws. This important consideration meets us at every advancing step, as if to admonish us to abandon the vain project of seeking a knowledge of language without an acquaintance with the great principles on which it depends. To look for the leading rules of speech in set forms of expression, or in the capricious customs of any nation, however learned, is as futile as to attempt to gain a knowledge of the world by shutting ourselves up in a room, and looking at paintings and drawings which may be furnished by those who know as little of it as we do. How fallacious would be the attempt, how much worse than time thrown away, for the parent to shut up his child in a lonely room, and undertake to impress upon its mind a knowledge of man, beasts, birds, fish, insects, rivers, mountains, fields, flowers, houses, cities, &c., with no other aid than a few miserable pictures, unlike the reality, and in many respects contradictory to each other. And yet that would be adopting a course very similar to the one long employed as the only means of acquiring a knowledge of language; limited to a set of arbitrary, false, and contradictory rules, which the brightest geniuses could never understand, nor the most erudite employ in the expression of ideas. The grammars, it was thought, must be studied to acquire the use of language, and yet they were forgotten before such knowledge was put in practice. * * * * * A simple remark on the principles of _relative_ action, and we will pass to the consideration of _agents_ and _objects_, or the more immediate _causes_ and _effects_ of action. We go forth at the evening hour and look upon the sun _sinking_ beneath the horizon; we mark the varying hues of light as they appear, and change, and fade away. We see the shades of night _approaching_, with a gradual pace, till the beautiful landscape on which we had been gazing, the hills and the meadows; the farm house and the cultivated fields, the grove, the orchard, and the garden; the tranquil lake and the babbling brook; the dairy returning home, and the lambkins gambolling beside their dams; all _recede_ from our view, and _appear_ to us no longer. All this is _relative_ action. But so far as language and ideas are concerned, it matters not whether the sun actually _sinks_ behind the hills, or the hills interpose between it and us; whether the landscape _recedes_ from our view, or the shades of night intercept so as to obscure our vision. The habit of thought is the same, and the form of expression must agree with it. We say the sun _rises_ and _sets_, in reference to the obvious fact, without stopping to inquire whether it really moves or not. Nor is such an inquiry at all necessary, as to matter of fact, for all we mean by such expressions, is, that by some process, immaterial to the case in hand, the sun stands in a new relation to the earth, its altitude is elevated or depressed, and hence the action is strictly relative. For we should remember that _rising_ and _setting_, _up_ and _down_, _above_ and _below_, in reference to the earth, are only relative terms. We speak and read of the _changes_ of the moon, and we correctly understand each other. But in truth the moon changes no more at one time than at another. The action is purely relative. One day we observe it _before_ the sun, and the next _behind_ it, as we understand these terms. The precise time of the change, when it will appear to us in a different relation to the sun, is computed by astronomers, and set down in our almanacs; but it changes no more at that time than at any other, for like every thing else, it is _always changing_. In a case we mentioned in a former lecture, "John _looks_ like or _resembles_ his brother," we have an example of relative action. So in the case of two men travelling the same way, starting together, but advancing at different rates; one, we say, _falls_ behind the other. In this manner of expression, we follow exactly the principles on which we started, and suit our language to our ideas and habits of thinking. By the law of optics things are reflected upon the retina of the eye inversely, that is, upside down; but they are always seen in a proper relation to each other, and if there is any thing wrong in the case, it is overcome by early habit; and so our language accords with things as they are manifested to our understandings. These examples will serve to illustrate what we mean by relative action, when applied to natural philosophy or the construction of language. I had intended in this lecture to have treated of the agents and objects of verbs, to prove, in accordance with the first and closest principles of philosophy, that every "_cause_ must have an _effect_," or, in other words, that every action must terminate on some object, either expressed or necessarily understood; but I am admonished that I have occupied more than my usual quota of time in this lecture already, and hence I shall leave this work for our next. I will conclude by the relation of an anecdote or two from the life of that wonderful man, Gallileo Gallilei, who was many years professor of mathematics at Padua. Possessed of a strong, reflecting mind, he had early given his attention to the observation of things, their motions, tendencies, and power of resistance, from which he ascended, step by step, to the sublime science of astronomy. Being of an honest and frank, as well as benevolent disposition, he shunned not to state and defend theories at war with the then received opinions. All learning was, at that time, in the hands or under the supervision of the ecclesiastics, who were content to follow blindly the aristotelian philosophy, which, in many respects, was not unlike that still embraced in our _neuter verb systems_ of grammar. There was a sworn hostility against all improvement, or innovation as it was called, in science as well as in theology. The copernican system, to which Gallileo was inclined, if it had not been formally condemned, had been virtually denounced as false, and its advocates heretical. Hence Gallileo never dared openly to defend it, but, piece by piece, under different names, he brought it forth, which, carried out, would establish the heretical system. Dwelling as a light in the midst of surrounding darkness, he cautiously discovered the precious truths revealed to his mind, lest the flood of light should distract and destroy the mental vision, break up the elements of society, let loose the resistless powers of ignorance, prejudice and bigotry, and envelope himself and friends in a common ruin. At length having prepared in a very guarded manner his famous "Dialogues on the Ptolmaic and Copernican Systems," he obtained permission, and ventured to publish it to the world, altho an edict had been promulgated enjoining silence on the subject, and he had been personally instructed "_not to believe or teach the motion of the earth in any manner_." By the false representation of his enemies, suspicions were aroused and busily circulated prejudicial to Gallileo. Pope Urban himself, his former friend, became exasperated towards him, and a sentence against him and his books was fulminated by the Cardinals, prohibiting the "sale and vending of the latter, and condemning him to the formal prison of the Holy Office for a period determined at their pleasure." The sentence of the Inquisition was in part couched in these words--"We pronounce, judge, and declare, that you, the said Gallileo, by reason of these things, which have been detailed in the course of this investigation, and which, as above, you have confessed, have rendered yourself vehemently suspected by this Holy Office, of heresy; that is to say, that you believe and hold the false doctrine, and contrary to the Holy and Divine Scriptures, namely, that the sun is the center of the world, and that it does not _move_ from east to west, and that the earth does _move_, and is not the center of the world; also, that an opinion _can be held_ and _supported_ as _probable_, _after it has been_ declared, and finally decreed contrary to the Holy Scriptures"--by the Holy See!! "From which," they continue, "it is _our_ pleasure that you be absolved, provided that, first, with a _sincere_ heart, and _unfeigned faith_, in our presence, you _abjure_, _curse_, and _detest_ the said errors and heresies, and every other error and heresy contrary to the Catholic and Apostolic Church of Rome, in the form now shown to you." After suffering under this anathema some time, Gallileo, by the advice of his friends, consented to make a public abjuration of his former heresies on the laws of motion. Kneeling before the "Most Eminent and Most Reverend Lords Cardinals, General Inquisitors of the universal Christian republic, against _heretical depravity_, having before his eyes the Holy Gospels," he swears that he always "_believed_, and now _believes_, and with the help of God, _will in future believe_, every article which the Holy Catholic Church of Rome holds, teaches, and preaches"--that he does altogether "abandon the false opinion which maintains that the 'sun is the center of the world, and that the earth is _not_ the center and _movable_,' that with a sincere heart and unfeigned faith, he abjures, curses, and detests the said errors and heresies, and every other error and sect contrary to the said Holy Church, and that he will never more in future, say or assert any thing verbally, or in writing, which may give rise to similar suspicion." As he arose from his knees, it is said, he whispered to a friend standing near him, "_E pur si muove_"--=it does move, tho=. In our times we are not fated to live under the terrors of the Inquisition; but prejudice, if not as strong in power to execute, has the ability to blind as truly as in other ages, and keep us from the knowledge and adoption of practical improvements. And it is the same philosophy now, which _asks_ if _inanimate matter can act_, which _demanded_ of Gallileo if this ponderous globe could fly a thousand miles in a minute, and no body feel the motion; and with Deacon Homespun, in the dialogue, "why, if this world turned upside down, the water did not spill from the mill ponds, and all the people fall headlong to the bottomless pit?" If there are any such peripatetics in these days of light and science, who still cling to the false and degrading systems of neutrality, because they are honorable for age, or sustained by learned and good men, and who will oppose all improvement, reject without examination, or, what is still worse, refuse to adopt, after being convinced of the truth of it, any system, because it is novel, an innovation upon established forms, I can only say of them, in the language of Micanzio, the Venetian friend of Gallileo--"The efforts of such enemies to get these principles prohibited, will occasion no loss either to your reputation, or to the intelligent part of the world. As to posterity, this is just one of the surest ways to hand them down to them. But what a wretched set this must be, to whom every good thing, and _all that is found in nature_, necessarily appears hostile and odious." LECTURE X. ON VERBS. A philosophical axiom.--Manner of expressing action.--Things taken for granted.--Simple facts must be known.--Must never deviate from the truth.--Every _cause_ will have an _effect_.--An example of an intransitive verb.--Objects expressed or implied.--All language eliptical.--Intransitive verbs examined.--I run.--I walk.--To step.--Birds fly.--It rains.--The fire burns.--The sun shines.--To smile.--Eat and drink.--Miscellaneous examples.--Evils of false teaching.--A change is demanded.--These principles apply universally.--Their importance. We have made some general remarks on the power, cause, and means, necessary in the production of action. We now approach nearer to the application of these principles as observed in the immediate _agency_ and _effects_ which precede and follow action, and as connected with the verb. It is an axiom in philosophy which cannot be controverted, that every _effect_ is the product of a prior _cause_, and that every _cause_ will necessarily produce a corresponding _effect_. This fact has always existed and will forever remain unchanged. It applies universally in physical, mental, and moral science; to God or man; to angels or to atoms; in time or thro eternity. No language can be constructed which does not accord with it, for no ideas can be gained but by an observance of its manifestations in the material or spiritual universe. The manner of _expressing_ this cause and effect may differ in different nations or by people of the same nation, but the fact remains unaltered, and so far as understood the idea is the same. In the case of the horse mentioned in a former lecture,[12] the idea was the same, but the manner of expressing it different. Let that horse _walk_, _lay_ down, _roll_ over, _rise_ up, _shake_ himself, _rear_, or _stand_ still, all present will observe the same attitude of the horse, and will form the same ideas of his positions. Some will doubtless inquire more minutely into the _cause_ and _means_ by which these various actions are produced, what muscles are employed, what supports are rendered by the bones; and the whole regulated by the will of the horse, and their conclusions may be quite opposite. But this has nothing to do with the obvious fact expressed by the words above; or, more properly, it is not necessary to enter into a minute detail of these minor considerations, these secret springs of motion, in order to relate the actions of the horse. For were we to do this we should be required to go back, step by step, and find the causes still more numerous, latent, and perplexing. The pursuit of causes would lead us beyond the mere organization of the horse, his muscular energy, and voluntary action; for gravitation has no small service to perform in the accomplishment of these results; as well as other principles. Let gravitation be removed, and how could the horse _lay_ down? He could _roll_ over as well in the air as upon the ground. But the particular notice of these things is unnecessary in the construction of language to express the actions of the horse; for he stands as the obvious _agent_ of the whole, and the _effects_ are seen to follow--the _horse_ is laid down, _his body_ is rolled over, _the fore part_ of it is _reared up_, _himself_ is shaken, and the whole _feat_ is produced by the direction of his master. Allow me to recal an idea we considered in a former lecture. I said no action as such could be known distinct from the thing which acts; that action as such is not perceptible, and that all things act, according to the ability they possess. To illustrate this idea: Take a magnet and lower it down over a piece of iron, till it attracts it to itself and holds it suspended there. If you are not in possession of a magnet you can make one at your pleasure, by the following process. Lay your knife blade on a flat iron, or any hard, smooth surface; let another take the old tongs or other iron which have stood erect for a considerable length of time, and draw it upon the blade for a minute or more. A magnetic power will be conveyed from the tongs to the blade sufficient to take up a common needle. The tongs themselves may be manufactured into a most perfect magnet. Now as the knife _holds_ the needle suspended beneath it you perceive there must be an action, a power, and cause exerted beyond our comprehension. Let the magnetic power be extracted from the blade, and the needle will drop to the floor. A common unmagnetized blade will not _raise_ and _hold_ a needle as this does. How those tongs come in possession of such astonishing power; by what process it is there retained; the power and means of transmission of a part of it to the knife blade, and the reason of the phenomena you now behold--an inanimate blade drawing to itself and there holding this needle suspended--will probably long remain unknown to mortals. But that such are the facts, incontestibly true, none will deny, for the evidence is before us. Now fix your attention on that needle. There is an active and _acting_ principle in that as well as in the magnetized blade; for the blade will not attract a splinter of wood, of whalebone, or piece of glass, tho equal in size and weight. It will have no operation on them. Then it is by a sort of mutual affinity, a reciprocity of attachment, between the blade and needle, that this phenomena is produced. To apply this illustration you have only to reverse the case--turn the knife and needle over--and see all things attracted to the earth by the law of gravitation, a principle abiding in all matter. All that renders the exhibition of the magnet curious or wonderful is that it is an uncommon condition of things, an apparent counteraction of the regular laws of nature. But we should know that the same sublime principle is constantly operating thro out universal nature. Let that be suspended, cease its active operations for a moment, and our own earth will be decomposed into particles; the sun, moon and stars will dissolve and mingle with the common dust; all creation will crumble into atoms, and one vast ocean of darkness and chaos will fill the immensity of space. Are you then prepared to deny the principles for which we are contending? I think you will not; but accede the ground, that such being the fact, true in nature, language, correctly explained, is only the medium by which the ideas of these great truths, may be conveyed from one mind to another, and must correspond therewith. If language is the sign of ideas, and ideas are the impressions of things, it follows of necessity, that no language can be employed unless it corresponds with these natural laws, or first principles. The untutored child cannot talk of these things, nor comprehend our meaning till clearly explained to it. But some people act as tho they thought children must first acquire a knowledge of words, and then begin to learn what such words mean. This is putting the "cart before the horse." Much, in this world, is to be taken for granted. We can not enter into the minutiæ of all we would express, or have understood. We go upon the ground that other people know something as well as we, and that they will exercise that knowledge while listening to our relation of some new and important facts. Hence it is said that "brevity is the soul of wit." But suppose you should talk of surds, simple and quadratic equations, diophantine problems, and logarithms, to a person who knows nothing of proportion or relation, addition or subtraction. What would they know about your words? You might as well give them a description in Arabic or Esquimaux. They must first learn the simple rules on which the whole science of mathematics depends, before they can comprehend a dissertation on the more abstruse principles or distant results. So children must learn to observe things as they are, in their simplest manifestations, in order to understand the more secret and sublime operations of nature. And our language should always be adapted to their capacities; that is, it should agree with their advancement. You may talk to a zealot in politics of religion, the qualities of forbearance, candor, and veracity; to the enthusiast of science and philosophy; to the bigot of liberality and improvement; to the miser of benevolence and suffering; to the profligate of industry and frugality; to the misanthrope of philanthropy and patriotism; to the degraded sinner of virtue, truth, and heaven; but what do they know of your meaning? How are they the wiser for your instruction? You have touched a cord which does not vibrate thro their hearts, or, phrenologically, addressed an organ they do not possess, except in a very moderate degree, at least. Food must be seasoned to the palates of those who use it. Milk is for babes and strong meat for men. Our instruction must be suited to the capacities of those we would benefit, always elevated just far enough above them to attract them along the upward course of improvement. But it should be remembered that evils will only result from a deviation from truth, and that we can never be justified in doing wrong because others have, or for the sake of meeting them half way. And yet this very course is adopted in teaching, and children are learned to adopt certain technical rules in grammar, not because they are _true_, but because they are _convenient_! In fact, it is said by some, that language is an arbitrary affair altogether, and is only to be taught and learned mechanically! But who would teach children that _seven times seven_ are _fifty_, and _nine times nine_ a _hundred_, and assign as a reason for so doing, that _fifty_ and a _hundred_ are more easily remembered than _forty-nine_ and _eighty-one_? Yet there would be as much propriety in adopting such a principle in mathematics, as in teaching for a rule of grammar that when an objective case comes after a verb, it is active; but when there is none expressed, it is intransitive or neuter. The great fault is, grammarians do not allow themselves to _think_ on the subject of language, or if they do, they only think intransitively, that is, produce no _thoughts_ by their cogitations. This brings us to a more direct consideration of the subject before us. All admit the correctness of the axiom that every effect must have a cause, and that every cause will have an effect. It is equally true that "_like causes will produce like effects_," a rule from which nature itself, and thought, and language, can never deviate. It is as plain as that two things mutually equal to each other, are equal to a third. On this immutable principle we base our theory of the activity of all verbs, and contend that they must have an object after them, either expressed or _necessarily understood_. We can not yield this position till it is proved that _causes_ can operate without producing effects, which can never be till the order of creation is reversed! There never was, to our knowledge, such a thing as an intransitive action, with the solitary exception of the burning bush.[13] In that case the laws of nature were suspended, and no effects were produced; for the _bush burned_, but there was nothing burnt; no consequences followed to the bush; it was not consumed. The records of the past present no instance of like character, where effects have failed to follow, direct or more distantly, every cause which has been set in operation. It makes no difference whether the object of the action is expressed or not. It is the same in either case. But where it is not necessarily implied from the nature and fitness of things, it must be expressed, and but for such object or effect the action could not be understood. For example, _I run_; but if there is no effect produced, _nothing_ run, how can it be known whether I run or not. If I write, it is necessarily understood that I write _something_--a _letter_, a _book_, a _piece_ of poetry, a _communication_, or some other _writing_. When such object is not liable to be mistaken, it would be superfluous to express it--it would be a redundancy which should be avoided by all good writers and speakers. All languages are, in this respect, more or less eliptical, which constitutes no small share of their beauty, power, and elegance. This elipsis may be observed not only in regard to the objects of verbs, but in the omission of many nouns after adjectives, which thus assume the character of nouns; as, the Almighty, the Eternal, the Allwise, applied to God, understood. So we say the wise, the learned, the good, the faithful, the wicked, the vile, the base, to which, if nouns, it would sound rather harsh to apply plurals. So we say, take your hat off ( ); put your gloves on ( ); lay your coat off ( ); and pull your boots on ( ); presuming the person so addressed knows enough to fill the elipsis, and not take his hat off his back, pull his gloves on his feet, or his boots on his head. In pursuing this subject farther, let us examine the sample words which are called _intransitive_ verbs, because frequently used without the object expressed after them; such as run, walk, step, fly, rain, snow, burn, roll, shine, smiles, &c. "_I run._" That here is an action of the first kind, none will deny. But it is contended by the old systems that there is no object on which the action terminates. If that be true then there is _nothing_ run, no effect produced, and the first law of nature is outraged, in the very onset; for there is a _cause_, but no _effect_; an _action_, but no _object_. How is the fact? Have you run nothing? conveyed nothing, moved nothing from one place to another? no change, no effect, nothing moved? Look at it and decide. It is said that a neuter or intransitive verb may be known from the fact that it takes after it a preposition. Try it by this rule. "A man run _against_ a post in a dark night, and broke his neck;" that is, he run nothing against a post--no object to run--and yet he broke his neck. Unfortunate man! The fact in relation to this verb is briefly this: It is used to express the action which more usually terminates on the actor, than on any other object. This circumstance being generally known, it would be superfluous to mention the object, except in cases where such is not the fact. But whenever we desire to be definite, or when there is the least liability to mistake the object, it is invariably expressed. Instances of this kind are numerous. "They _ran_ the _boat_ ashore." "The captain _ran_ his _men_ to rescue them from the enemy." "They _ran_ the _gauntlet_." "They _run_ a _stage_ to Boston." "He _ran himself_ into discredit." "One bank _runs_ another." "The man had a hard _run_ of it." "_Run_ the _account_ over, and see if it is right." "They _run forty looms_ and two thousand spindles." "He _runs_ his _mill_ evenings." Such expressions are common and correct, because they convey ideas, and are understood. Two men were engaged in argument. The believer in intransitive verbs set out to _run his opponent_ into an evident absurdity, and, contrary to his expectation, he _ran himself_ into one. Leave out the objects of this verb, run, and the sense is totally changed. He set out to _run_ into an _evident absurdity_, and he ran into one; that is, he did the very absurd thing which he intended to do.[14] "_I walk._" The action expressed by this verb is very similar in character to the former, but rather _slower_ in performance. Writers on health tell us that _to walk_ is a very healthy exercise, and that it would be well for men of sedentary habits _to walk_ several miles every day. But if there is no action in walk, or if it has no _object_ necessarily _walked_, it would be difficult to understand what good could result from it. "Did you have a pleasant _walk_ this morning?" says a teacher to his grammar class. "We did have a very pleasant one. The flowers were _blooming_ on each side of the _walk_, and _sent_ forth their sweetest aroma, _perfuming_ the soft breezes of the morning. Birds were _flitting from_ spray to spray, _carolling_ their hymns of praise to Deity. The tranquil waters of the lake lay _slumbering_ in silence, and _reflected_ the bright _rays_ of the sun, _giving_ a sweet but solemn _aspect_ to the whole scene. _To go_ thro the grove, down by the lake, and up thro the meadow, is the most delightful _walk_ a person can take." "How did you get your _walk_?" "We walked it, to be sure; how did you think we got it?" "Oh, I did not know. _Walk_, your books tell you, is an intransitive verb, terminating on no object; so I supposed, if you followed them, you obtained it some other way; by _riding_, _running_, _sailing_, or, may be, _bought_ it, as you could not have _walked it_! Were you tired on your return?" "We were exceedingly fatigued, for you know it is a very long _walk_, and we _walked it_ in an hour." "But _what_ tired you? If there are no effects produced by walking, I can not conceive why _you_ should be fatigued by such exercise." Who does not perceive what flagrant violations of grammar rules are committed every day, and every hour, and in almost every sentence that is framed to express our knowledge of facts. _To step._ This verb is the same in character with the two just noticed. It expresses the act of _raising_ each foot alternately, and usually implies that the body is, by that means, conveyed from one place to another. But as people _step_ their _feet_ and not their hands, or any thing else, it is entirely useless to mention the object; for generally, that can not be mistaken any more than in the case of the gloves, boots, and hat. But it would be bad philosophy to teach children that there is no objective word after it, because it is not written out and placed before their eyes. They will find such teaching contradicted at every _step_ they take. Let a believer in intransitive verbs _step_ on a red hot iron; he will soon find to his sorrow, that he was mistaken when he thought that he could _step_ without stepping any thing. It would be well for grammar, as well as many other things, to have more practice and less theory. The thief was detected by his steps. Step softly; put your feet down carefully. _Birds fly._ We learned from our primers, that "The eagle's _flight_ Is out of sight," How did the eagle succeed in producing a _flight_? I suppose he _flew_ it. And if birds ever fly, they must produce a flight. Such being the fact, it is needless to supply the object. But the action does not terminate solely on the flight produced, for that is only the name given to the action itself. The expression conveys to the mind the obvious fact, that, by strong muscular energy, by the aid of feathers, and the atmosphere, the bird carries itself thro the air, and changes its being from one place to another. As birds rarely fly a race, or any thing but _themselves_ and a _flight_, it is not necessary to suffix the object. _It rains._ This verb is insisted on as the strongest proof of intransitive action; with what propriety, we will now inquire. It will serve as a clear elucidation of the whole theory of intransitive verbs. What does the expression signify? It simply declares the fact, that _water is shed_ down from the clouds. But is there no object after _rains_? There is none expressed. Is there nothing rained? no effect produced? If not, there can be no water fallen, and our cisterns would be as empty, our streams as low, and fields as parched, after a rain as before it! But who that has common sense, and has never been blinded by the false rules of grammar, does not know that when _it rains_, it never fails to _rain rain_, _water_, or _rain-water_, unless you have one of the paddy's dry rains? When it hails, it hails _hail_, _hail-stones_, or frozen _rain_. When it snows, it _snows snow_, sometimes two feet of it, sometimes less. I should think teachers in our northern countries would find it exceeding difficult to convince their readers that snow is an intransitive verb--that it snows _nothing_. And yet so it is; people will remain wedded to their old systems, and refuse to open their eyes and behold the evidences every where around them. Teachers themselves, the guides of the young--and I blush to say it, for I was long among the number--have, with their scholars, labored all the morning, breaking roads, _shovelling snow_, and clearing paths, to get to the school-house, and then set down and taught them that _to snow_ is an _in_transitive verb. What nonsense; nay, worse, what falsehoods have been instilled into the youthful mind in the name of grammar! Can we be surprised that people have not understood grammar? that it is a dry, cold, and lifeless business? I once lectured in Poughkeepsie, N. Y. In a conversation with Miss B., a distinguished scholar, who had taught a popular female school for twenty years; was remarking upon the subject of intransitive verbs, and the apparent inconsistency of the new system, that all verbs must have an object after them, expressed or understood; she said, "there was the verb _rain_, (it happened to be a rainy day,) the whole action is confined to the agent; it does not pass on to another object; it is purely intransitive." Her aged mother, who had never looked into a grammar book, heard the conversation, and very bluntly remarked, "Why, you fool you, I want to know if you have studied grammar these thirty years, and taught it more than twenty, and have never _larned_ that when it rains it _always_ rains _rain_? If it didn't, do you s'pose you'd need an umbrella to go out now into the storm? I should think you'd know better. I always told you these plaguy grammars were good for nothing, I didn't b'lieve." "Amen," said I, to the good sense of the old lady, "you are right, and have reason to be thankful that you have never been initiated into the intricate windings, nor been perplexed with the false and contradictory rules, which have blasted many bright geniuses in their earliest attempts to gain a true knowledge of the sublime principles of language, on which depends so much of the happiness of human life." The good matron's remark was a poser to the daughter, but it served as a means of her entire deliverance from the thraldom of neuter verbs, and the adoption of the new principles of the exposition of language. The anecdote shows us how the unsophisticated mind will observe facts, and employ words as correctly, if not more so, than those schooled in the high pretensions of science, falsely taught. Who does not know from the commonest experience, that the direct object of _raining_ must follow as the necessary sequence? that it can never fail? And yet our philologists tell us that such is not always the case; and that the exception is to be marked on the singular ground, whether the word is written out or omitted! What a narrow view of the sublime laws of motion! What a limited knowledge of things! or else, what a _mistake_! "Then the Lord said unto Moses, behold, I will _rain_ bread for you from heaven." "Then the _Lord rained_ down, upon Sodom and Gomorrah, _brimstone_ and _fire_, from the Lord out of heaven."--_Bible._ _The fire burns._ The fire _burns_ the wood, the coal, or the peat. The great fire in New-York _burned_ the buildings which covered fifty-two acres of ground. Mr. Experiment _burns_ coal in preference to wood. His new grate _burns it_ very finely. Red ash coal _burns_ the best; it _makes_ the fewest _ashes_, and hence _is_ the most convenient. The cook _burns_ too much fuel. The house took fire and _burned_ up. _Burned what_ up? Burn is an intransitive verb. It would not trouble the unfortunate tenant to know that there must be an _object burned_, or what _it_ was. He would find it far more difficult to rebuild his _house_. Do you suppose fires never burn any thing belonging to neuter verb folks? Then they never need pay away insurance money. With the solitary exception I have mentioned--the burning bush--this verb can not be intransitive. _The sun shines._ This is an intransitive verb if there ever was one, because the object is not often expressed after it. But if the sun _emits_ no _rays_ of light, how shall it be known whether it shines or not? "The _radiance_ of the sun's bright beaming" is produced by the _exhibition_ of _itself_, when it _brightens_ the objects exposed to its _rays_ or _radiance_. We talk of _sun shine_ and moon shine, but if these bodies never produce _effects_ how shall it be known whether such things are real? _Sun shine_ is the direct effect of the sun's _shining_. But clouds sometimes intervene and prevent the rays from extending to the earth; but _then_ we do not say "the sun _shines_." You see at once, that all we know or can know of the fact we state as truth, is derived from a knowledge of the very _effects_ which our grammars tell us do not exist. Strange logic indeed! It is a mark of a wiser man, and a better scholar, not to know the popular grammars, than it is to profess any degree of proficiency in them! _To smile._ The _smiles_ of the morning, the _smiles_ of affection, a _smile_ of kindness, are only produced by the appearance of something that _smiles_ upon us. _Smiles_ are the direct consequence of _smiling_. If a person should _smile_ ever so _sweetly_ and yet present no _smiles_, they might, for aught we could know to the contrary, be _sour_ as vinegar. But this verb frequently has another object after it; as, "to _smile_ the _wrinkles_ from the brow of age," or "_smile_ dull _cares_ away." "A sensible wife would soon _reason_ and _smile him_ into good nature." But I need not multiply examples. When such men as Johnson, Walker, Webster, Murray, Lowthe, and a host of other wise and renowned men, gravely tell us that _eat_ and _drink_, which they define, "to _take food_; _to feed_; _to take a meal_; _to go to meals_; to be maintained in food; _to swallow liquors_; _to quench thirst_; to take any liquid;" are _intransitive_ or _neuter_ verbs, having no objects after them, we must think them insincere, egregiously mistaken, or else possessed of a means of subsistence different from people generally! Did they _eat_ and _drink_, "take food and swallow liquors," _in_transitively; that is, without _eating_ or _drinking_ any thing? Is it possible in the nature of things? Who does not see the absurdity? And yet they were _great_ men, and nobody has a right to question such _high_ authority. And the "_simplifiers_" who have come after, making books and teaching grammar to _earn_ their _bread_, have followed close in their footsteps, and, I suppose, _eaten_ nothing, and thrown their bread away! Was I a believer in neuter verbs and desired to get money, my first step would be to set up a boarding house for all believers in, and _practisers_ of, intransitive verbs. I would board cheap and give good fare. I could afford it, for no provisions would be consumed. Some over cautious minds, who are always second, if not last, in a good cause, ask us why these principles, if so true and clear, were not found out before? Why have not the learned who have studied for many centuries, never seen and adopted them? It is a sufficient answer to such a question, to ask why the copernican system of astronomy was not sooner adopted, why the principles of chemistry, the circulation of the blood, the power and application of steam, nay, why all improvement was not known before. When grammar and dictionary makers, those wise expounders of the principles of speech, have so far forgotten facts as to teach that _eat_ and _drink_, "express neither action nor passion," or are "confined to the agents;" that when a man eats, he eats nothing, or when he drinks, he drinks nothing, we need not stop long to decide why these things were unknown before. The wisest may sometimes mistake; and the proud aspirant for success, frequently passes over, unobserved, the humble means on which all true success depends. Allow me to quote some miscellaneous examples which will serve to show more clearly the importance of supplying the elipses, in order to comprehend the meaning of the writers, or profit by their remarks. You will supply the objects correctly from the attendant circumstances where they are not expressed. "Ask ( ) and ye shall receive ( ); seek ( ) and ye shall find ( ); knock ( ) and _it_ shall be opened unto you." Ask _what_? Seek _what_? Knock _what_? That _it_ may be opened? Our "Grammars Made Easy" would teach us to _ask_ and _seek_ nothing! no objectives after them. What then could we reasonably expect to _receive_ or _find_? The _thing_ we _asked_ for, of course, and that was nothing! Well might the language apply to such, "Ye ask ( ) and _receive not_ (naught) because ye ask ( ) amiss." False teaching is as pernicious to religion and morals as to science. "Charge them that are rich in this world--that they _do good_, that they be rich in good works, ready to _distribute_ ( ), willing to _communicate_ ( )."--_Paul to Timothy._ The hearer is to observe that there is no object after these words--_nothing_ distributed, or communicated! There is too much such charity in the world. "He spoke ( ), and _it_ was done; he commanded ( ), and _it_ stood fast." "_Bless_ ( ), and _curse_ ( ) not."--_Bible._ "_Strike_ ( ) while the iron is hot."--_Proverb._ "I _came_ ( ), I _saw_ ( ), I _conquered_ ( )."--_Cæsar's Letter._ He lives ( ) contented and happy. "The _life_ that I now _live_, in the flesh, I _live_ by the faith of the son of God."--_Paul._ "Let me _die_ the _death_ of the righteous, and let my last _end be_ like his."--_Numbers._ As bodily exercise particularly strengthens ( ), as it invites ( ) to sleep ( ), and secures ( ) against great disorders, it is to be generally encouraged. Gymnastic exercises may be established for all ages and for all classes. The Jews were ordered to _take a walk_ out of the city on the Sabbath day; and here rich and poor, young and old, master and slave, met ( ) and indulged ( ) in innocent mirth or in the pleasures of friendly intercourse.--_Spurzheim on Education._ "Men will wrangle ( ) for religion; write ( ) for it; fight ( ) for it; die ( ) for it; any thing but live ( ) for it."--_Lacon._ "I have addressed this volume to those that think ( ), and some may accuse me of an ostentatious independence, in presuming ( ) to inscribe a book to so small a minority. But a volume addressed to those that think ( ) is in fact addressed to all the world; for altho the proportion of those who _do_ ( ) think ( ) be extremely small, yet every individual _flatters himself_ that he is one of the number."--_Idem._ What is the difference whether a man _thinks_ or not, if he produces no _thoughts_? "He that _thinks himself_ the happiest man, really is so; but he that _thinks himself_ the wisest, is generally the greatest fool."--_Idem._ "A man _has_ many _workmen employed_; some to plough ( ) and sow ( ), others to chop ( ) and split ( ); some to mow ( ) and reap ( ); one to score ( ) and hew ( ); two to frame ( ) and raise ( ). In his factory he has persons to card ( ), spin ( ), reel ( ), spool ( ), warp ( ), and weave ( ), and a clerk to deliver ( ) and charge ( ), to receive ( ) and pay ( ). They eat ( ), and drink ( ), heartily, three times a day; and as they work ( ) hard, and feel ( ) tired at night, they lay ( ) down, sleep ( ) soundly, and dream ( ) pleasantly; they rise ( ) up early to go ( ) to work ( ) again. In the morning the children wash ( ) and dress ( ) and prepare ( ) to go ( ) to school, to learn ( ) to read ( ), write ( ), and cipher ( )." All neuter or intransitive verbs!! "The celebrated horse, Corydon, will perform ( ) on Tuesday evening in the circus. He will leap ( ) over four bars, separately, in imitation of the english hunter. He will lie ( ) down, and rise ( ) up instantly at the _word of command_. He will move ( ) backwards and sideways, rear ( ) and stand ( ) on his hind feet; he will sit ( ) down, like a Turk, on a cushion. To conclude ( ), he will leap ( ), in a surprising manner, over two horses."--_Cardell's Grammar._ The gymnastic is not a mountebank; he palms off no legerdemain upon the public. He will stretch a line across the room, several feet from the floor, over which he will leap ( ) with surprising dexterity. He will stand ( ) on his head, balance, ( ) on one foot, and swing ( ) from side to side of the room; lay ( ) crosswise, and sideways; spring ( ) upon his feet; bound ( ) upon the floor; dance ( ) and keel ( ) over with out touching his hands. He will sing ( ), play ( ), and mimic ( ); look ( ) like a king, and act ( ) like a fool. He will laugh ( ) and cry ( ), as if real; roar ( ) like a lion, and chirp ( ) like a bird. To conclude ( ): He will do all this to an audience of neuter grammarians, without either "_action_ or _passion_," all the while having a "_state of being_," motionless, in the center of the room!! What a lie! say you. _A lie?_ I hope you do not accuse _me_ of lying. If there is any thing false in this matter it all _lies_ in the quotation, at the conclusion, from the standard grammar. If that is false, whose fault is it? Not mine, certainly. But what if I should _lie_ ( ), intransitively? I should tell no falsehoods. But enough of this. If there is any thing irrational or inconsistent, any thing false or ridiculous, in this view of the subject, it should be remembered that it has been long taught, not only in common schools, but in our academies and colleges, as serious, practical truth; as the only means of acquiring a correct knowledge of language, or fitting ourselves for usefulness or respectability in society. You smile at such trash, and well you may; but you must bear in mind that grammar is not the only thing in which we may turn round and _laugh_ ( ) at past follies. But I am disposed to consider this matter of more serious consequence than to deserve our _laughter_. When I see the rising generation spend months and years of the best and most important part of their lives, which should be devoted to the acquisition of that which is true and useful, studying the dark and false theory of language as usually taught, I am far from feeling any desire to laugh at the folly which imposes such a task upon them. I remember too distinctly the years that have just gone by. I have seen too many blighted hopes, too many wearisome hours, too many sad countenances, too many broken resolutions; to say nothing of corporeal chastisements; to think it a small matter that children are erroneously taught the rudiments of language, because sanctioned by age, or great names. A change, an important change, a radical change, in this department of education, is imperiously demanded, and teachers must obey the call, and effect the change. There is a spirit abroad in the land which will not bow tamely and without complaint, to the unwarranted dictation of arbitrary, false, and contradictory rules, merely from respect to age. It demands reason, consistency and plainness; and yields assent only where they are found. And teachers, if they will not lead in the reformation, must be satisfied to follow after; for a reformation is loudly called for, and will be had. None are satisfied with existing grammars, which, in principle, are nearly alike. The seventy-three attempts to improve and simplify Murray, have only acted _intransitively_, and accomplished very little, if any good, save the employment given to printers, paper makers, and booksellers. But I will not enlarge. We have little occasion to wonder at the errors and mistakes of grammar makers, when our lexicographers tell us for sober truth, that =to act=, _to be in action_, _not to rest_, to be in _motion_, to _move_, is _v. n._ a verb neuter, signifying _no action_!! or _v. i._ verb intransitive, producing _no effects_; and that a "_neuter verb_ =expresses= (active transitive verb) _a state of being_!! There are few minds capable of adopting such premises, and drawing therefrom conclusions which are rational or consistent. Truth is rarely elicted from error, beauty from deformity, or order from confusion. While, therefore, we allow the neuter systems to sink into forgetfulness, as they usually do as soon as we leave school and shut our books, let us throw the mantle of charity over those who have thoughtlessly (without _thinking thoughts_) and innocently lead us many months in dark and doleful wanderings, in paths of error and contradiction, mistaken for the road to knowledge and usefulness. But let us resolve to save ourselves and future generations from following the same unpleasant and unprofitable course, and endeavor to _reflect_ the _light_ which may _shine_ upon our minds, to dispel the surrounding darkness, and secure the light and knowledge of truth to those who shall come after us. Many philologists have undertaken to explain our language by the aid of foreign tongues. Because there are genitive cases, different kinds of verbs, six tenses, etc. in the Latin or Greek, the same distinctions should exist in our grammars. But this argument will not apply, admitting that other languages will not allow of the plan of exposition we have adopted, which we very seriously question, tho we have not time to go into that investigation. We believe that the principles we have adopted are capable of universal application; that what is action in England would be action in Greece, Rome, Turkey, and every where else; that "_like causes will produce like effects_" all the world over. It matters not by whom the action is seen, it is the same, and all who gather ideas therefrom will describe it as it appears to them, let them speak what language they may. But if they have no ideas to express, they need no language to speak. Monkeys, for aught I know to the contrary, can speak as well as we; but the reason they do not, is because they have nothing to say. Let Maelzael's automaton chess-player be exhibited to a promiscuous multitude. They would all attempt a description of it, so far as they were able to gain a knowledge of its construction, each in his own language. Some might be unable to trace the _cause_, the moving _power_, thro all the curiously arranged _means_, to the _agent_ who acted as prime mover to the whole affair. Others, less cautious in their conclusions, might think it a perpetual motion. Such would find a _first cause_ short of the Creator, the great original of all things and actions; and thus violate the soundest principles of philosophy. Heaven has never left a vacuum where a new and _self_ sustaining power may be set in operation independent of his ever-present supervision; and hence the long talked of _perpetual motion_ is the vainest chimera which ever occupied the human brain. It may well appear as the opposite extreme of neuter verbs; for, while one would give no action to matter according to the physical laws which regulate the world, the other would make matter act of itself, independent of the Almighty. Be it ours to take a more rational and consistent stand; to view all things and beings as occupying a place duly prescribed by Infinite Wisdom, _acting_ according to their several abilities, and subject to the regulation of the all-pervading laws which guide, preserve, and harmonize the whole. If there is a subject which teaches us beyond controversy the existence of a Supreme Power, a Universal Father, an all-wise and ever-present God, it is found in the order and harmony of all things, produced by the regulation of Divine laws; and man's superiority to the rest of the world is most clearly proved, from the possession of a power to adapt language to the communication of ideas in free and social converse, or in the transmission of thought, drawn from an observation and knowledge of things as presented to his understanding. There is no science so directly important to the growth of intellect and the future happiness of the child, as the knowledge of language. Without it, what is life? Wherein would man be elevated above the brute? And what is language without ideas? A sound without harmony--a shadow without a substance. Let language be taught on the principles of true philosophy, as a science, instead of an arbitrary, mechanical business, a mere art, and you will no longer hear the complaint of a "_dry_, _cold_, uninteresting study." Its rules will be simple, plain, and easy; and at every step the child will increase in the knowledge of more than _words_, in an acquaintance with principles of natural and moral science. And if there is any thing that will carry the mind of the child above the low and grovelling things of earth, and fill the soul with reverence and devotion to the Holy Being who fills immensity with his presence, it is when, from observing the laws which govern matter, he passes to observe the powers and capabilities of the mind, and thence ascends to the Intellectual Source of _light_, _life_, and _being_, and contemplates the perennial and ecstatic joys which flow from the presence of Deity; soul mingling with soul, love absorbed in love, and God all in all. LECTURE XI. ON VERBS. The verb =to be=.--Compounded of different radical words.--=Am=. --Defined.--The name of Deity.--_Ei_.--=Is=.--=Are=.--=Were=, =was=.--=Be=.--A dialogue.--Examples.--Passive Verbs examined.-- Cannot be in the present tense.--The past participle is an adjective. We have gone through the examination of _neuter_ and _intransitive_ verbs, with the exception of the verb =to be=, which we propose to notice in this place. Much more might be said on the subjects I have discussed, and many more examples given to illustrate the nature and operation of actions as expressed by verbs, and also in reference to the _objects_ of action; but I trust the hints I have given will be satisfactory. I am confident, if you will allow your minds to _think_ correct _thoughts_, and not _suffer_ them _to be_ misled by erroneous teaching, you will arrive at the same conclusion that I have, viz. that all verbs depend on a _common principle_ for their explanation; that they are alike active, and necessarily take an object after them, either expressed or understood, in accordance with the immutable law of nature, which teaches that like causes will produce like effects. * * * * * The verb =to be=, as it is called, is conjugated by the aid of six different words, in its various modes and tenses; _am_, _is_, _are_, _was_, _were_, _be_. _Am_ is unchanged, always in the indicative mood, present tense, agreeing with the _first_ person singular. _Is_ is also unchanged, in the same mood and tense, agreeing with the _third_ person singular. _Art_, in the singular, is the same as _are_ in the plural. _Was_ and _wast_, are the same as _were_ and _wert_ in meaning, being derived from the same etymon. _Be_, _being_, and _been_, are changes of the same word. _Be_ was formerly extensively used in the indicative present, but in that condition it is nearly obsolete. _Were_ was also used in the singular as well as plural, especially when coming before the agent; as, "were I to go, I would do your business." But it is now more common to have _was_ correctly used in that case. But, as one extreme often follows another, people have laid _were_ quite too much aside, and often crowd _was_ into its place in common conversation; as "we _was_ (were) there yesterday." "There _was_ (were) five or six men engaged in the business." This error appears to be gaining ground, and should be checked before it goes farther. The combination of these different words was produced by habit, to avoid the monotony which the frequent recurrence of one word, so necessary in the expression of thought, would occasion: the same as the past tense of _go_ is made by the substitution of another word radically different, _went_, the past tense of _wend_ or _wind_. "O'er hills and dales they _wend_ their way." "The lowing herd _wind_ slowly o'er the lea." _Go_ and _wend_ convey to our minds nearly the same ideas. The latter is a little more poetical, because less used. But originally their signification was quite different. So with the parts of the verb =to be=. They were consolidated as a matter of convenience, and now appear in their respective positions to express the idea of being, life, or existence. I have said this verb expresses the highest degree of action. I will now attempt to prove it. I should like to go into a labored and critical examination of the words, and trace their changes thro various languages, was it in accordance with the design of these lectures. But as it is not, I shall content myself with general observations. _I am._ This word is not defined in our dictionaries. It is only said to be "_the first person of to be_." We must look for its meaning some where else. It is a compound of two ancient words, _ah_, _breath_, to _breathe_, life, to _live_, _light_, to _light_; and _ma_, the _hand_, or to _hand_. It signifies to _vivify_, _sustain_, or _support_ one's self in being or existence. In process of time, like other things in this mutable world, its form was changed, but the meaning retained. But as one person could not _vivify_ or _live_ another, _inflate_ another's lungs, or breathe another's breath, it became restricted to the first person. It means, I _breathe breath_, _vivify myself_, _live life_, or _exercise_ the power of _being_ or _living_. It conveys this fact in every instance, for no person incapable of breathing can say _I am_. Let any person pronounce the word _ah-ma_, and they will at once perceive the appropriateness of the meaning here given. It is very similar to the letter _h_, and the pronoun, (originally _noun_,) _he_, or the "_rough breathing_" in the Greek language. _Ma_ is compounded with many words which express action done by the hand; as, _ma_nufacture, _ma_numit. It denoted any action or work done by the hand as the instrument; but, like other words, it gradually changed its import, so as to express any _effective_ operation. Hence the union of the words was natural and easy, and _ahma_ denoted _breathing_, _to live_ or sustain life. _H_ is a precarious letter in all languages that use it, as the pronunciation of it by many who speak the English language, will prove. It was long ago dropt, in this word, and after it the last _a_, so that we now have the plain word _am_. It was formerly used as a noun in our language, and as such may be found in Exodus 3: 13, 14. "And Moses said unto God, Behold when I come unto the children of Israel and shall say unto them, The God of your fathers sent me unto you; and they shall say to me, What is his _name_? what shall I say unto them? And God said unto Moses, I =am= the I AM; and he said, Thus shalt thou say unto the children of Israel, I AM hath sent me unto you." Chap. 6: 3.--"I appeared unto Abraham, unto Isaac, and unto Jacob, by the name of God Almighty; but by my name =Jehovah= (I AM) was I not known unto them." The word _Jehovah_ is the same as _am_. It is the name of the _self-existent_, _self-sustaining_ =Being=, who has not only power to uphold all things, but to perform the still more sublime action of _upholding_ or _sustaining himself_. This is the highest possible degree of action. Let this fail, and all creation will be a wreck. He is the _ever-living_, _uncontrolled_, _unfailing_, _unassisted_, and _never-changing_ God, the Creator, Preserver, Alpha and Omega, the Beginning and End of all things. He is the _First Cause_ of all causes, the _Agent_, original moving Power, and guiding Wisdom, which set in motion the wheels of universal nature, and guides and governs them without "variableness or the shadow of turning." "I AM the first, and I, the last, Thro endless years the same; I AM is my memorial still, And my eternal name." _Watts' Hymn._ Ask the Jews the meaning of this _neuter verb_ in their language. They hold it in the most profound and superstitious reverence. After the captivity of their nation they never dared pronounce the name except once a year when the high priest went into the Holy of Holies, and hence the true pronunciation of it was lost. Unto this day they dare not attempt to utter it. In all their writings it remains in characters untranslated. When their Messiah comes they expect he will restore the pronunciation, and by it they shall be able to accomplish all things.[15] According to Plutarch the Greeks had the letters EI, =thou art=, engraven on the temple of Apollo at Delphi, which is the second person of =Eimi=, _I am_.[16] This motto was doubtless borrowed from the Jews, to whom it was given as the name of the God of Jacob. The same name you may see engraven on monuments, on pictures of the bible, on masonic implements, and in various places, untranslated. Who can suppose that this word "expresses no action," when the very person incapable of it can not utter it, and no one else can speak it for him? It denotes the highest conceivable action applied to Deity or to man, and it is questionable philosophy which dares contradict this fact. The action expressed by it, is not changed, because it does not terminate on a foreign object. It remains the same. It is self-action. _He is._ This word is constructed from an old verb signifying _to stand forth_, _to appear_, _to show one's self_, and may be traced, I think, to the latin _eo_, _to go_, and _exist_, to _exeo_, _to go from_; that is, our _being_ or _existence_, _came_ or _stood forth_ from God. It is certainly a contraction from the old english _to exist_. _Ist_ is the spelling still retained in the german and some other languages. It denotes self-action. One man does not _exist_ another, but himself. He _keeps himself_ in existence. _We are_, _thou are-est_, _arst_, or _art_. Be not surprised when I tell you this is the same word as _air_, for such is the fact. It signifies to inhale air, to _air ourselves_, or _breathe air_. "God _breathed_ into man the _breath of life_, and man became a _living soul_." The new born infant _inhales air_, _inflates its lungs_ with _air_, and begins to live. We all know how essential _air_ is to the preservation of life. No animal can live an instant without it. Drop a squirrel into a receiver from which all _air_ has been extracted, and it can not live. Even vegetables will die where there is no air. _Light_ is also indispensable to _life_ and _health_. _Air_ is _inhaled_ and _exhaled_, and from it life receives support. The fact being common, it is not so distinctly observed by the careless, as tho it was more rare. But did you never see the man dying of a consumption, when the pulmonary or breathing organs were nearly decayed? How he labors for breath! He asks to have the windows thrown open. At length he _suffocates_ and dies. Most persons struggle hard for _breath_ in the hour of dissolving nature. The heaving bosom, the hollow gasp for _air_, tells us that the lamp of life is soon to be extinguished, that the hour of their departure has come. When a person faints, we carry them into the _air_, or blow _air_ upon them, that nature may be restored to its regular course. In certain cases physicians find it necessary to force air into the lungs of infants; they can after that _air_, themselves, _imbibe_ or _drink in air_, or _inspirit_ themselves with air. But I need not enlarge. Whoever has been deprived of air and labored hard for breath in a stifled or unwholesome air, can appreciate what we mean. _We were_; _he was_. I have said before that these words are the same, and are used in certain cases irrespective of number. I have good authority for this opinion, altho some etymologists give them different derivations. _Were_, _wert_; _worth_, _werth_; _word_ and _werde_, are derived from the same etymon and retain a similarity of meaning. They signify _spirit_, _life_, _energy_. "In the beginning was the _word_, and the _word_ was with God." "By the _word_ of his grace." "_They were_," they _inspirited_ themselves, _possessed_ the life, vitality, or _spirit_, the Creator gave them, and having that spirit, life, or energy, under proper regulation, in due degree, they were _worthy_ of the esteem, regard, sympathy, and good _word_ of others. _To be._ This is considered the root of all the words we have considered, and to it all others are referred for a definition. Dictionaries give no definition to _am_, _is_, _are_, _was_, and _were_, all of them as truly principal verbs as _be_, and possessed of as distinct a meaning. It can hardly be possible that they should form so important a part of our language, and yet be incapable of definition. But such is the fact, the most significant words in our language, and those most frequently used, are undefined in the books. Mr. Webster says =to be= signifies, "to exist, to _have_ a real _state_ or _existence_," and so say Walker and Johnson. Now if it is possible to "=have= _a state of being_ without action or passion," then may this word express neutrality. But the very definition requires activity, and an object expressed. It denotes the _act of being_, or living; to _exercise_ the powers of life, to _maintain_ a position or rank in the scale of existent things. The name of the action is _being_, and applies to the Almighty BEING who _exists_ unchanged as the source of all inferior _beings_ and things, whose name is _Jehovah_, I AM, the Being of beings, the Fountain of _light_, _life_, and _wisdom_. _Be_ is used in the imperative and infinitive moods correctly, by every body who employs language. "_Be_ here in ten minutes." "_Be it_ far from thee." "I will _be_ in Boston before noon." If there is any action in going from Providence to Boston at rail-road speed, in two hours, or before noon, it is all expressed by the verb _be_, which we are told expresses _no action_. The teacher says to his scholars when out at play, "I want you _to be_ in your seats in five minutes." What would they understand him to mean? that they should stand still? or that they should _change their state of being_ from play in the yard, to a state of being in their seats? There is no word to denote such change, except the word _to be_. _Be_ off, _be_ gone, _be_ here, _be_ there, are commands frequently given and correctly understood. The master says to a bright little lad, who has well learned his grammar, "_Be_ here in a minute." "Yes, sir, I will _be_ there;" but he does not move. "_Be_ here immediately." "Yes, yes, I will _be_ there." "Don't you understand me? I say, _be_ here instantly." "Oh, yes, I understand you and will obey." The good man is enraged. "You scoundrel," says he, "do you mean to disobey my orders and insult me?" "Insult you and disobey you; I have done neither," replies the honest boy. "Yes you have, and I will chastise you severely for it." "No, master, I have not; I declare, I have not. I have obeyed you as well as I know how, to the very letter and spirit of your command." "Didn't I tell you _to be_ here in a minute, and have not you _remained_ where you were? and didn't you say you would _be_ here?" "Yes, sir; and did not I do just what you told me to?" "Why, no, you blockhead; I told you _to be_ here." "Well, I told you I would _be_ there." "You _was_ not here." "Nor did you expect I would _be_, if you have taught me to _speak_, _write_, and understand correctly." "What do you mean, you saucy boy?" "I mean to mind my master, and do what he tells me to." "Why didn't you do so then?" "I did." "You didn't." "I did." "You lie, you insult me, you contradict me, you saucy fellow. You are not fit to be in school. I will punish you severely." And in a passion he starts for his ferrule, takes the boys hand, and bruises him badly; the honest little fellow all the while pleading innocence of any intended wrong. In a short time they commence _parsing_ this sentence: "It is necessary _to be_ very particular in ascertaining the meaning of words before we use them." The master puts _to be_ to the same boy. He says it is an _active verb_, infinitive mood. "How is that? an _active_ verb?" "Yes, sir." "No, it is not. It is a _neuter_ verb." "Begging your pardon, master, it is not. It is active." "Have I got to punish you again so soon, you impudent fellow. You are not fit to be in school. I will inform your parents of your conduct." "What have I done that is wrong?" "You say _to be_ is an _active_ verb, when _I_ tell you, and the _grammar_ and _dictionary_ tell you, it is _neuter_!" "What is a _neuter_ verb, master?" "It expresses 'neither action nor passion, but being or a state of being.' Have you forgotten it?" "No, sir, I _thought_ that was the case." "What did you ask me for then?" "Because I supposed you had found another meaning for it." "To what do you allude, you troublesome fellow, you? I'll not bear your insults much longer." "For what did you punish me so severely just now?" "For disobeying my orders." "What did you order me to do?" "_To be_ here in a minute." "Well, did not I do what you told me?" "No; you kept your seat, and did not come near me." "Well, I thought and did just what you now tell me; that _to be_ is a _neuter_ verb, expressing no _action_, but _being_. I had a _state_ of _being_, and promised to keep it, and did keep it, and you punished me for doing the very thing you told me to do!!" The master looked down, shut up his book, and began to say that grammar is a "_dry_, _cold_, and _useless_" study, hardly worth the trouble of learning it. * * * * * "_I am_ Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the ending, saith the Lord, who _is_, and who _was_, and who _is_ to come, the Almighty."--_Rev. 1: 8._ If there is any action in maintaining eternal existence, by which all things were created and are upheld, it is expressed in the verbs _am_, _is_, and _was_. God said, "Let there _be_ light, and there _was_ light;" or more properly rendered, "Light =be=, and light =was=." Was there no action in setting the sun, moon and stars in the firmament, and in causing them to _send_ forth the rays of light to _dispel_ the surrounding darkness? If there was, _be_ and _was_ denote that action. "You are commanded =to be= and _appear_ before the court of common pleas," etc. A heavy penalty is imposed upon those who fail to comply with this citation--for neglecting to do what is expressed by the _neuter verb_ to _be_. Such cases might be multiplied without number, where this verb is correctly used by all who employ language, and correctly understood by all who are capable of knowing the meaning of words. But I think you must all be convinced of the truth of our proposition, that all verbs express action, either _real_ or _relative_; and in all cases have an object, expressed or necessarily implied, which stands as the _effect_, and an agent, as the cause of action: and hence that language, as a means for the communication of thought, does not deviate from the soundest principles of philosophy, but in all cases, rightly explained, serves to illustrate them, in the plainest manner. * * * * * A few remarks on the "Passive Verb," and I will conclude this part of our subject, which has already occupied much more of our attention than I expected at the outset. "_A verb passive_ expresses a passion or a suffering, or the receiving of an action; and necessarily implies an object acted upon, and an agent by which it is acted upon; as, to be loved; Penelope is loved by me." In the explanation of this verb, grammarians further tell us that a passive verb is formed by adding the verb _to be_, which is thus made auxiliary, to a past participle; as, Portia _was loved_. Pompey _was conquered_. It is singular how forgetful our great men sometimes are about observing their own rules. Take an instance in Mr. Walker's octavo dictionary. Look for the word _simeter_, a small sword. You will find it spelled _scimitar_. Then turn over, and you will find it _s_im_i_t_a_r, with the same definition, and the remark, "more properly _c_im_e_t_a_r." Then turn back, and find the correct word as he spells it, and there you will find it cimet_e_r. Unsettled as to the true spelling, go to our own honored Webster. Look for "scimiter." He says, see cimit_a_r. Then look for "cimitar;" see cim_e_t_e_r. Then hunt up the true word, be it _ar_ or _er_, and you will find it still another way, cim_i_t_e_r. Here the scholar has seven different ways to spell this word, and neither of his authorities have followed their own examples. I cite this as one of a thousand instances, where our savans have laid down rules for others, and disregarded them themselves. Portia _is loved_ and _happy_. She is _respectable_, _virtuous_, _talented_, and _respected_ by all who know her. She _is seated by the door_. Does the _door_ seat her? What agent, then, causes her _passion_ or _suffering_? The book is printed. Will you parse _is printed_? It is a passive verb, indicative mood, _present tense_. Who _is_ printing it? causing it, in the present tense, to _suffer_ or _receive_ the action? The act of printing _was performed_ a hundred years ago. How can it be present time? Penelope _is loved_ by me. The blow _is received_ by me. It _is given_ by me. Penelope _is seated_ by me. The earthquake _is felt_ by her. The evils _are suffered_ by her. The thunder _is heard_ by her. Does this mean that she is the agent, and the earthquake, evils, and thunder, are the objects which receive the _effects_ which she produces? That would be singular philosophy, indeed. But _to feel_, _to suffer_, and _to hear_, are active, and are constructed into passive verbs. Why is it not as correct to say she _is suffering_ by another's wrongs, _is raging_ by the operation of passion, or _is travelling_ by rail-road, are passive verbs? The fact is, our language can not _be explained_ by set rules or forms of speech. We must regard the sense. The past participle, as it is called, becomes an adjective by use, and describes her as some way affected by a previous action. She is _learned_, _handsome_, _modest_, and, of course, _beloved_ by all who know her. To say "she _is placed_ by the water's edge," is a passive verb, and that the water's edge, as the agent, causes her "passion, suffering, or receiving of the action," is false and ridiculous, for she _placed_ herself there. "We _are seated_ on our seats by the stove." What power is _now_ operating on us to make us suffer or receive the action of being seated on our seats? Does the stove perform this action? This is a passive verb, _present tense_, which requires an "object acted upon, and an _agent_ by which it is acted upon." But we came in and _seated ourselves_ here an hour ago. The man _is acquitted_. He _stands acquitted_ before the public. He _is learned_, wise, and happy, very much _improved_ within a few years. He _is_ always active, studious, and _engaged_ in his own affairs. He _is renowned_, and _valorous_. She _is respected_. She _lives respected_. If there is such a thing as a passive verb, it can never be used in the present tense, for the action expressed by the principal verb which is produced by the agent operating upon the object, is always _past_ tense, and the auxiliary, or helping verb _to be_, is always present. Let this verb be analyzed, and the true meaning of each word understood, little difficulty will be found in giving it an explanation. I will not spend more time in exposing the futility of this attempted distinction. It depends solely on a verbal form, but can never _be explained_ so as _to be understood_ by any scholar. Most grammarians have seen the fallacy of attempting to give the meaning of this verb. They can show its _form_, but _are_ frequently _compelled_, as in the cases above, to sort out the "_passed_ participles" from a host of adjectives, and it will _be found_ exceeding troublesome to make scholars perceive any difference in the use of the words, or in the construction of a sentence. But it may be they have never thought that duty belonged to them; that they have nothing to do but to show them what the book says. Suppose they should teach arithmetic on the same principles, and learn the scholars to set down 144 as the product of 12 times 12. Let them look at the form of the figures, observe just how they appear, and make some more like them, and thus go thro the book. What would the child know of arithmetic? Just as much as they do of grammar, and no more. They would understand nothing of the science of numbers, of proportion, or addition. They would exercise the power of imitation, and make one figure look like another. Beyond that, all would be a _terra incognita_, a land unknown. So in the science of language; children may learn that the verb _to be_, joined with the past participle of an active verb, makes _a passive verb_; but what that passive verb is when made, or how to apply it, especially in the present tense, they have no means of knowing. Their knowledge is all taken on trust, and when thrown upon their own resources, they have none on which to rely. LECTURE XII. ON VERBS. =Mood=.--Indicative.--Imperative.--Infinitive.--Former distinctions. --Subjunctive mood.--=Time=.--Past.--Present.--Future.--The future explained.--How formed.--Mr. Murray's distinction of time.-- Imperfect.--Pluperfect.--Second future.--How many tenses.-- =Auxiliary Verbs=.--Will.--Shall.--May.--Must.--Can.--Do.--Have. We are now come to consider the different relations of action in reference to _manner_ and _time_. We shall endeavor to be as brief as possible upon this subject, keeping in view meanwhile that candor and perspicuity which are indispensable in all our attempts to explain new views. _Mood_ signifies _manner_. Applied to verbs it explains _how_, in _what manner_, by what means, under what circumstances, actions are performed. There are _three_ moods, the _indicative_ or declarative, the _imperative_ or commanding, and the _infinitive_ or unlimited. The indicative mood declares an action to be _done_ or _doing_, _not done_, or _not doing_. It is always in the past or present tense; as, David _killed_ Goliath; scholars _learn_ knowledge; I _spoke not_ a word; they _sing not_. The imperative mood denotes a command given from the first _person_ to the _second_, _to do_ or _not do_ an action. It expresses the wish or desire of the first person to have a certain action performed which depends on the agency of the second. The command is _present_, but the action signified by the word is _future_ to the giving of the command. The second person cannot comply with the will of the first till such will is made known; as, bring me a book; go to the door. The _infinitive_ mood has no direct personal agent, but is produced as a necessary consequence, growing out of a certain condition of things. It is always _future_ to such condition; that is, some prior arrangement must be had before such consequences will follow. It is always _future_; as, they are collecting a force _to besiege_ the city. We study grammar _to acquire_ a knowledge of language. Windows are made _to admit_ light. The act of besieging the city depends on the previous circumstance, the collection of a force _to do_ it. Were there no windows, the light would not be admitted to the room. These distinctions in regard to action must be obvious to every hearer. You all are aware of the fact that action necessarily implies an actor, as every effect must have an efficient cause; and such action clearly or distinctly _indicated_, must have such an agent to produce it. 2d. You are acquainted with the fact that one person can express his will to the second, directing him to do or avoid some thing. 3d. From an established condition of things, it is easy to deduce a consequence which will follow, in the nature of things, as an unavoidable result of such a combination of power, cause, and means. With these principles you are all familiar, whether you have studied grammar or not. They are clearly marked, abundantly simple, and must be obvious to all. They form the only necessary, because the only real, distinction, in the formation and use of the verb to express action. Any minor distinctions are only calculated to perplex and embarrass the learner. But some grammarians have passed these natural barriers, and built to themselves schemes to accord with their own vain fancies. The remarks of Mr. Murray upon this point are very appropos. He says: "Some writers have given our moods a much greater extent than we have assigned to them. They assert that the english language may be said, without any great impropriety, to have as many moods as it has auxiliary verbs; and they allege, in support of their opinion, that the compound expression which they help to form, point out those various dispositions and actions, which, in other languages, are expressed by moods. This would be to multiply the moods without advantage. It is, however, certain, that the conjugation or variation of verbs, in the english language, is effected, almost entirely, by the means of auxiliaries. We must, therefore, accommodate ourselves to this circumstance; and do that by their assistance, which has been done in the learned languages (a few instances to the contrary excepted) in another manner, namely, by varying the form of the verb itself. At the same time, it is necessary to set proper bounds to this business, so as not to occasion obscurity and perplexity, when we mean to be simple and perspicuous. Instead, therefore, of making a separate mood for every auxiliary verb, and introducing moods _interrogative_, _optative_, _promissive_, _hortative_, _precative_, &c., we have exhibited such only as are obviously distinct; and which, whilst they are calculated to unfold and display the subject intelligibly to the learner, seem to be sufficient, and not more than sufficient, to answer all the purposes for which moods were introduced. "From grammarians who form their ideas, and make their decisions, respecting this part of english grammar, on the principles and constructions of languages which, in these points, do not suit the peculiar nature of our own, but differ considerably from it, we may naturally expect grammatical schemes that are not very perspicuous nor perfectly consistent, and which will tend more to perplex than to inform the learner." Had he followed this rule, he would have saved weeks and months to every student in grammar in the community. But his remarks were aimed at Mr. Harris, who was by far the most popular writer on language in England at that time. He has adopted the very rules of Mr. Murray, and carried them out. By a careful observance of the different forms and changes of the verb and its auxiliaries, he makes out quite evidently to his own mind, _fourteen_ moods, which I forbear to name. Most grammarians contend for _five_ moods, two of which, the _potential_ or powerful, and the _subjunctive_, are predicated on the same principles as Mr. Harris' optative, interrogative, etc., which they condemn. It is impossible to explain the character of these moods so as to be understood. _If_, it is said, is the sign of the subjunctive, and _may_ and _can_ of the potential; and yet they are often found together; as, "I will go _if I can_." No scholar can determine in what mood to put this last verb. It of right belongs to both the potential and subjunctive. _If_ I _may_ be allowed to speak my mind, I _should_ say that such distinctions were false. I will not go into an exposure of these useless and false distinctions, which are adopted to help carry out erroneous principles. The only pretence for a subjunctive mood is founded on the fact that _be_ and _were_ were formerly used in a character different from what they are at present. _Be_ was used in the indicative mood, present tense, when doubt or supposition was implied; as, If I _be_ there; if they _be_ wise. _Be_ I a man, and _receive_ such treatment? _Were_ was also used instead of _was_ in the past tense; as, "_Were_ I an American I would fight for liberty. If I _were_ to admit the fact." In this character these words are rapidly becoming obsolete. We now say, "If I _am_ there; am I a man, and _receive_ such abuses? _was_ I an American; if I was to admit," etc. All the round about, perplexing, and tedious affair of conjugating verbs thro the different modes and tenses will appear in its true character, when we come to give you a few brief examples, according to truth and plain sense. But before doing that it will be necessary to make some remarks on time. _Tense_ means _time_. We distinguish time according to certain events which are generally observed. In the use of the verb we express action in reference to periods of time when it is performed. There are three tenses, or divisions of time; _past_, _present_, and _future_. _Past tense_ applies to actions which are accomplished; as, I _wrote_ a book; he _recited_ his lesson. _Present tense_ denotes actions commenced, but not finished, and now in operation; as, he _reads_ his book; we _sit_ on our seats and _hear_ the lecture. _Future tense_ refers to actions, which are _to take_ place hereafter; as, I am _to go_ from the Institute; we desire _to learn_ grammar correctly. Every body can mark three plain distinctions of time, past, present, and future. With the past we have been acquainted. It has ceased to be. Its works are ended. The present is a mere line--, nothing as it were--which is constantly passing unchecked from the past to the future. It is a mere division of the past and future. The Hebrew, which is strictly a philosophic language, admits no present; only a _past_ and _future_. We speak of the present as denoting an action begun and not finished. In the summer, we say the trees grow, and bear fruit. But when the fruit is fallen, and the leaves seared by the frost, we change the expression, and say, it _grew_ and _bore_ fruit. Of the _future_ we can know nothing definitely. Heaven has hung before all human eyes an impenetrable veil which obscures all future events. No man without prophetic vision bestowed by Him who "sees the end from the beginning," can know what is _to be_, and no expression can be made, no words employed which will positively declare a future action. We may see a present condition of things, and from it argue what is _to be_, or take place hereafter; but all that knowledge is drawn from the past and deduced from a review of the present relation and tendencies of things. I hold the paper near the fire and you say it _will_ burn, and you say truly, for it has a _will_, or what is the same, an inherent tendency _to burn_. It is made of combustible matter, like paper which we have seen burn, and hence we argue this has the same tendency to be consumed. But how does your mind arrive at that fact? If you had never seen a substance like it burn, why should you conclude this _will_? Does the child know it _will_ burn? No; for it has not yet learned the quality of the paper. It is not till the child has been burned that it dreads the fire. Suppose I take some asbestus, of the kind called amianthus, which is a mineral, and is formed of slender flexible fibres like flax; and in eastern countries, especially in Savoy and Corsica, is manufactured into cloth, paper, and lamp wicks. It was used in making winding sheets for the dead, in which the bodies were burned, and the ashes, retained in the incombustible sheet, were gathered into an urn, and revered as the manes of the dead. Suppose I take some of this incombustible paper or cloth, and present to you. You say it _will_ burn. Why do you say thus? Because you have seen other materials which appear like this, consume to ashes. Let us put it into the fire. It _will not_ burn. It has no _tendency_ to burn; no quality which will consume. But this is a new idea to you and hence your mistake. You did not know it _would_ burn, nor could you _indicate_ such a fact. You only told your opinion derived from the present appearance of things, and hence you made an assertion in the _indicative_ mood, present tense, and added to it an _infinitive_ mood, in order to deduce the consequence of this future action--it _wills_, or has a _tendency_ to burn. But you were mistaken, because ignorant of the _nature_ of things. This amianthus looks like flax, and to a person unacquainted with it, appears to be as truly combustible; but the mineralogist, and all who know its properties, know very well that it _will_ not--wills nothing, has no inclination, or tendency, to burn. Take another example. Here is a steel needle. I hold it before you. You say, "if I let go of it, it _will_ fall," and you say correctly, for it has such a tendency. But suppose a magnet, as great as that which is said to have drawn the iron coffin of Mohammed to the roof of the temple at Mecca, should be placed in the room above us. The needle, instead of falling to the floor, would be drawn in the nearest direction to that magnet. The _will_ or _tendency_ of the needle, as generally understood, would be overcome, the natural law of gravitation would lose its influence, by the counteracting power of the loadstone. I say, "I will go home in an hour." But does that expression _indicate_ the act of _going_? It is placed in the indicative mood in our grammars; and _go_ is the principal, and _will_ the auxiliary verb. May be I shall fall and die before I reach my home. But the expression is correct; _will_ is _present_, go _future_. I _will_, I now _resolve_, am now inclined _to go_ home. You see the correctness of our position, that we can not positively assert a future active in the indicative mood. Try and form to yourselves a phrase by which it can be done. Should you succeed, you would violate a law of nature. You would penetrate the dark curtain of the future, and claim to yourself what you do not possess, a power to declare future actions. Prophets, by the help of the Almighty, had this power conferred upon them. But in the revelation of the sublime truths they were instructed to make known, they were compelled to adopt human language, and make it agree with our manner of speech. The only method by which we express a future event, is to make an assertion in the indicative mood, present tense, and to that append the natural consequence in the infinitive or unlimited; as, I _am to go_ to Boston. He is preparing _to visit_ New-York. The infinitive mood is always future to the circumstance on which it depends. Mr. Murray says, that "tense, being the distinction of time, might seem to admit of only the present, past, and future; but to mark it more _accurately_, it is made to consist of six variations, viz.: the present, imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, first and second future tenses." This _more accurate mark_, only serves to expose the author's folly, and distract the learner's mind. Before, all was plain. The past, present, and future are distinct, natural divisions, easily understood by all. But what idea can a person form of an _imperfect_ tense in action. If there was ever such an action in the world, it was when _grammarians_ =made= their grammars, which is, if I mistake not, according to their own authority, in the _im-perfect_ tense! I _wrote_ a letter. He _read_ his piece well. The scholar learn_ed_ and recit_ed_ his lesson _perfectly_; and yet _learned_, tho made _perfect_ by the qualification of an _adverb_, is an _imperfect_ action! But this explains the whole mystery in the business of grammar. We can here discover the cause of all the troubles and difficulties we have encountered in the whole affair. When authors _made_ their books, they _did_ it _imperfectly_; when teachers _taught_ them, it was _imperfectly_; and when scholars _learned_ them, it was _imperfectly_!! So at last, we have found the origin of this whole difficulty, in the grammars themselves; it was all imperfectly done. But here, again, _mirabile dictu!_ wonderful to tell, we are presented with a _plu-perfect_ tense; that is,--_plus_ means _more_,--a _more_ than perfect tense! What must that be? If a thing is perfect, we can not easily conceive any thing beyond. That is a _ne plus ultra_ to all advancement--there can be no more beyond. If any change is introduced, it must be by falling from _perfect_ back to _imperfect_. I _have said_, "many of the distinctions in the grammar books _have proved_ mischievous; that they are as false as frivolous;" and this is said _perfectly_, in the perfect tense. If I should say, "they _had been_ of some benefit," that would be _more_ than _perfect_--plu-perfect. But when I say, "they _exhibited_ great depth of research, and _conveyed_ some light on the subject of which they _treated_," it would all be _im_-perfect. Next, we are presented with a _second future_ tense, which attempts a division of time unbounded and unknown. In the greek, they have what is called a "_paulo post future_," which in plain english, means a "_little after the future_;" that is, I suppose, when futurity has come to an end, this tense will commence! At that time we may expect to meet a "_præter plus quam perfectum_"--a more than perfect tense! But till that period shall arrive, we see little need of making such false and unphilosophic distinctions. A teacher once told me that he explained the distinctions of time to his scholars from the clock dial which stood in the school room. Suppose _twelve_ o'clock represents the _present_ tense; _nine_ would signify the _perfect_; any thing between nine and twelve would be _imperfect_; any thing beyond, _pluperfect_. On the other hand, any act, forward of twelve, would be _future_; and at _three_ the _second future_ would commence. I remarked that I thought this a wonderful improvement, especially to those who were able to have clocks by which to teach grammar, but that I could not discover why he did not have _three future_, as well as _three past_ tenses. Why, he said, there were no such tenses marked in the books, and hence there was no occasion to explain them. I asked him why he did not have a tense for every hour, and so he could distinguish with Mr. Webster, _twelve_ tenses, without any trouble whatever; and, by going three times round the dial, he could easily prove the correctness of Dr. Beattie's division; for he says, in his grammar, there are _thirty-six_ tenses, and thinks there can not be less without "introducing confusion in the grammatical _art_." But he thought such a course would serve rather to perplex than enlighten; and so thought I. But he was the teacher of a popular school in the city of ----, and had published a duodecimo grammar of over 300 pages, entitled "Murray's Grammar, _improved_, by ----." I will not give his name; it would be libellous! Mr. Murray thinks because certain things which he asserts, but does not prove, are found in greek and latin, "we may doubtless apply them to the english verb; and extend the principle _as far as convenience_, and the idiom of our language require." He found it to his "convenience" to note _six_ principal, and as many _indefinite_ tenses. Mr. Webster does the same. Dr. Beattie found it "convenient" to have _thirty-six_. In the greek they have _nine_. Mr. Bauzee distinguishes in the french _twenty_ tenses; and the royal academy of Spain present a very learned and elaborate treatise on _seven future tenses_ in that language. The clock dial of my friend would be found quite "_convenient_" in aiding the "convenience" of such distinctions. The fact is, there are only three real divisions of time in any language, because there are only three in nature, and the ideas of all nations must agree in this respect. In framing language it was found impossible to mark any other distinctions, without introducing other words than those which express simple action. These words became compounded in process of time, till they are now used as changes of the same verb. I would here enter into an examination of the formation of the tenses of greek, latin, french, spanish, and german verbs, did I conceive it necessary, and show you how, by compounding two words, they form the various tenses found in the grammars. But it will be more edifying to you to confine my remarks to our own language. Here it will be found impossible to distinguish more than three tenses, or find the verb in any different form, except by the aid of other words, wholly foreign from those that express the action under consideration. It is by the aid of auxiliary verbs that the perfect, pluperfect, or future tenses are formed. But when it is shown you that these are principal verbs, and like many other words, are used before the infinitive mood without the word _to_ prefixed to them, you will perceive the consistency of the plan we propose. That such is the fact we have abundant evidence to show, and with your consent we will introduce it in this place. I repeat, all the words long considered auxiliaries, are _principal_ verbs, declarative of positive action, and as such are in extensive use in our language. We can hardly agree that the words _will_, _shall_, _may_, _must_, _can_, _could_, _would_, _should_, etc. have no meaning, as our grammars and dictionaries would teach us; for you may look in vain for a definition of them, as principal verbs, with a few exceptions. The reason these words are not found in the same relation to other words, with a _to_ after them, is because they are so often used that we are accustomed to drop that word. The same may be said of all small words in frequent use; as, _bid_, _do_, _dare_, _feel_, _hear_, _have_, _let_, _make_, _see_, and sometimes _needs_, _tell_, and a few others. Bid him go. I _dare say_ so. I _feel_ it _move_. We _hear_ him _sing_. _Let_ us _go_. _Make_ him _do_ it. He _must go_ thro Samaria. _Tell_ him _do_ it immediately. It is a singular fact, but in keeping with neuter verb systems, that all the _neuter_ verbs as well as the active, take these auxiliary or _helping_ verbs, which, according to their showing _help them do nothing_--"express neither action or passion." A wonderful _help_ indeed! * * * * * =Will.= This verb signifies to _wish_, to _resolve_, to _exercise volition_, in reference to a certain thing or action. "I will go." I _now resolve_ to perform the act of going. When applied to inanimate things incapable of volition, it signifies what is analogous to it, _inherent tendency_; as, paper _will_ burn; iron _will_ sink; water _will_ run. All these things have an inherent or active tendency to change. Water is composed of minute particles of a round form, piled together. While on a level they do not move; but let a descent be made, and these particles, under the influence of gravitation, _will_ change position, and roll one over another with a rapidity equalled to the condition in which they are placed. The same may be observed in a quantity of shot opened at one side which _will_ run thro the aperture; but the particles being larger, they will not find a level like water. Grain, sand, and any thing composed of small particles, _will_ exhibit the same tendency. Iron, lead, or any mineral, in a state of igneous solution, _will_ run, has the same _inclination_ to run as water, or any other liquid. In oil, tallow, and lard, when expanded by heat, the same tendency is observed; but severely chilled with the cold, it congeals, and _will_ not, has no such _tendency_, to run. You have doubtless observed a cask filled with water and nearly tight, (if it is possible, make it quite so,) and when an aperture is made in the side, it _will_ run but a trifle before it will stop. Open a vent upon the top of the cask and it _will_ run freely. This _will_ or tendency was counteracted by other means which I will not stop here to explain. This is a most important word in science, physical and moral, and may be traced thro various languages where it exerts the same influence in the expression of thought. "To avoid multiplying of words, I would crave leave here, under the word _action_, to comprehend the _forbearance_ too of any action proposed; _sitting still_, or _holding one's peace_, when _walking_ or _speaking_ are proposed, tho mere forbearances, requiring as much the determination of the _will_, and being as often weighty in their consequences as the _contrary actions_, may, on that consideration, well enough pass for actions too. For he that shall turn his thoughts inwards upon what passes in his mind when he _wills_, shall see that the _will_ or power of volition is conversant about nothing."--_Locke's Essay_, b. II. c. 21. § 30. It is correctly applied by writers to _matter_ as well as mind, as may be seen by consulting their works. "Meanwhile as nature _wills_, night bids us rest." _Milton._ The _lupulis_, or common hop, _feels_ for some elevated object which will assist it in its high aspirations, and _will_ climb it by winding from left to right, and _will_ not be obliged to go in an opposite direction; while the _phaseolus_, or kidney bean, takes the opposite direction. Neither _will_ be compelled to change its course. They _will_ have their own way, and grow as they please, or they _will_ die in the contest for liberty. Arsenic has a _tendency_ in itself, a latent power, which only requires an opportunity suited to its objects, when it _will act_ in the most efficacious manner. It _will_ destroy the life of the Emperor, who has _voluntarily_ slain his thousand and tens of thousands. This secret power does not reside in the flour of wheat, for that _will not_, has no tendency, to produce such disastrous consequences. This word is applied in a similar manner to individuals and nations. The man _will_ fall, not of intention, but of accident. He _will_ kill himself. The man _will_ drown, and the boat _will_ swim. The water _will_ hold up the boat, but it _will_ allow the man to sink. The Russians _will_ conquer the Turks. If conquest depended solely on the _will_, the Turks would as soon conquer as the Russians. But I have not time to pursue this topic farther. You can follow out these hints at your leisure. =Shall= signifies to be _bound_, _obligated_, or _required_, from external necessity. Its etymology may be traced back thro various languages. It is derived direct from the saxon _scaelan_ or _scylan_, and is found as a principal verb in that language, as well as in ours. In the church homily they say, "To Him alone we _schall us_ to devote ourselves;" we _bind_ or _obligate_ ourselves. Chaucer, an early english poet, says. "The faith we _shall_ to God." Great difficulty has been found in distinguishing between _shall_ and _will_, and frequent essays have been written, to give arbitrary rules for their use. If the words were well understood, there could be no difficulty in employing them correctly. _Will_ signifies _inherent tendency_, _aptitude_, or _disposition_, and _volition_ in beings capable of using it. _Shall_ implies _external necessity_, or foreign obligation. The parent says, "You _will_ suffer misery if you do evil," for it is in accordance with the nature of things for evil to produce misery. "You _shall_ regard my wishes," for you are under _obligation_, from the relation in which you stand to me, to do so. Let these words be clearly explained, and there will be no difficulty in using them correctly. =May=, past tense _might_. This verb expresses _power_, _strength_, or _ability_ to perform an action. It is a mistake that it means permission or liberty only. It implies more than that, the delegation of a power to perform the contemplated action. Suppose the scholar should faint, would the teacher say to him you _may_ go into the open air? He has no _power_, _might_, or _strength_, communicated by such liberty, and must receive the _might_ or strength of others to carry him out. But to the scholar in health he says you _may_ go out, thereby giving to him a power and liberty sufficient to perform the action. This is done on the same principle that one man gives another a "_power_ of attorney" to transact his business; and that _power_ constitutes his _liberty_ of action. =Must= signifies to be _confined_, _limited_, _bound_, or _restrained_. I _must_, or am bound, to obey; certain obligations require me to obey. The adjective of this word is in common use. The air in the cask is _musty_. It has long been _bound_ or _confined_ there, and prevented from partaking of the purifying qualities of the atmosphere, and hence has become _musty_. =Can.= This word is found as a principal verb and as a noun in our language, especially in the Scotch dialect. "I _ken_ nae where he'd gone." Beyond the _ken_ of mortals. Far from all human _ken_. It signifies to _know_, to perceive, to understand. I knew not where he had gone. Beyond the knowledge of mortals. Far from all human reach. To _con_ or _cun_ is a different spelling of the same word. _Cunning_ is that quick _perception_ of things, which enables a person to use his knowledge adroitly. The child _can_ read; _knows_ how to read. It _can_ walk. Here it seems to imply _power_; but power, in this case, as in most others, is gained only by knowledge, for =knowledge is power=. Many children have strength sufficient to walk, long before they do. The reason why they _can not_ walk, is, they do not _know how_; they have not learned to balance themselves in an erect position, so as to move forward without falling. A vast proportion of human ability is derived from knowledge. There is not a being in creation so entirely incapable of self-support, as the new-born infant; and yet, by the help of knowledge, he becomes the lord of this lower world. Bonaparte was once as helpless as any other child, and yet by dint of _can_, _ken_, _cunning_, or knowledge, he made all Europe tremble. But his knowledge was limited. He became blind to danger, bewildered by success, and he _could_ no longer follow the prudent course of wisdom, but fell a sacrifice to his own unbridled ambition, and blinded folly. An enlightened people _can_ govern themselves; but _power_ of government is gained by a knowledge of the principles of equality, and mutual help and dependency; and whenever the people become ignorant of that fact, they _will_ fall, the degraded victims of their own folly, and the wily influence of some more knowing aspirant for power. This is a most important topic; but I dare not pursue it farther, lest I weary your patience. A few examples _must_ suffice. "Jason, she cried, for aught I _see_ or _can_, This deed," &c. _Chaucer._ A famous man, Of every _witte_ somewhat he _can_, _Out take_ that him lacketh rule, His own estate to guide and rule. _Gower._ =Do= has been called a _helping_ verb; but it needs little observation to discover that it is no more so than a hundred other words. "_Do_ thy diligence to come before winter." "_Do_ the work of an evangelist."--_Paul to Timothy._ I _do_ all in my power _to expose_ the error and wickedness of false teaching. _Do_ afford relief. _Do_ something to afford relief. =Have= has also been reckoned as an auxiliary by the "helping verb grammars," which has no other duty to perform than help conjugate other verbs thro some of their moods and tenses. It is a word in very common use, and of course must possess a very important character, which should be carefully examined and distinctly known by all who desire a knowledge of the construction of our language. The principal difficulty in the explanation of this word, is the peculiar meaning which some have attached to it. It has been defined to denote _possession_ merely. But when we say, a man _has_ much _property destroyed_ by fire, we do not mean that he _gains_ or _possesses_ much property by the fire; nor can we make _has_ auxiliary to _destroyed_, for in that case it would stand thus: a man _has destroyed_ much property by fire, which would be false, for the destruction was produced by an incendiary, or some other means wholly unknown to him. You at once perceive that _to possess_ is not the only meaning which attaches to _have_. It assumes a more important rank. It can be traced, with little change in form, back thro many generations. It is the same word as _heave_, originally, and retains nearly the same meaning. Saxon _habban_, Gothic _haban_, German _haben_, Latin _habeo_, French _avoir_, are all the same word, varied in spelling more than in sound; for _b_ in many languages is sounded very much like _v_, or _bv_. It may mean to _hold_, _possess_, _retain_, _sway_, _control_, _dispose of_, either as a direct or _relative_ action; for a man sustains relations to his actors, duties, family, friends, enemies, and all the world, as well as to his possessions. He _has_ a hard task to perform. He _has_ much pain _to suffer_. He _has_ suffered much unhappiness. I _have written_ a letter. I _have_ a written letter. I _have_ a letter _written_. These expressions differ very little in meaning, but the verb _have_ is the same in each case. By the first expression, I signify that I have _caused_ the letter to be _written_; by the second that I have a letter on which such action has been performed; and by the third, that such written letter stands in such relation to myself. I _have written_ a letter and sent it away. _Written_ is the past participle from _write_; as an adjective it describes the letter in the condition I placed it; so that it will be defined, wherever it is found, as my letter; that is, some way _related_ to me. We can here account for the old _perfect tense_, which is said, "not only to refer to what is _past_, but also _to convey an allusion to the present time_." The verb is in the _present_ tense, the participle is in the _past_, and hence the reason of this allusion. I _have_ no _space allowed_ me to go into a full investigation of this word, in its application to the expression of ideas. But it is necessary to _have_ it well _understood_, as it _has_ an important _service entrusted_ to it; and I hope you will _have_ clear _views presented_ to your minds, strong enough to _have_ former _errors eradicated_ therefrom. If you _have_ leisure _granted_, and patience and disposition equal-_ed_ to the task, you have my consent to go back and read this sentence over again. You will find it _has_ in it embodied much important information in relation to the use of _have_ and the perfect tense. LECTURE XIII. ON VERBS. Person and number in the agent, not in the action.--Similarity of agents, actions, and objects.--Verbs made from nouns.--Irregular verbs.--Some examples.--Regular Verbs.--_Ed_.--_Ing_.--Conjugation of verbs.--To love.--To have.--To be.--The indicative mood varied.--A whole sentence may be agent or object.--Imperative mood.--Infinitive mood.--Is always future. I have said before that action can never be known separate from the actor; that the verb applies to the agent in an _acting_ condition, as that term has been defined and should be understood. Hence Person and Number can never attach to the verb, but to the agent with which, of course, the action must, in every respect, agree; as, "_I write_." In this case the action corresponds with myself. But to say that _write_ is in the "first person, singular number," would be wrong, for no such number or person belongs to the verb, but is confined to myself as the agent of the action. The form of the verb is changed when it agrees with the second or third person singular; more on account of habit, I apprehend, than from any reason, or propriety as to a change of meaning in the word. We say, when using the regular _second_ person singular, "_thou writest_," a form rarely observed except in addresses to Deity, or on solemn occasions. In the _third_ person, an _s_ is added to the regular form; as, "_he writes_." The old form, which was in general use at the time the common version of the Bible was published, was still different, ending in _eth_; as, _he thinketh_, _he writeth_. This style, altho considerably used in the last century, is nearly obsolete. When the verb agrees with the plural number it is usually the same as when it agrees with the first person; as, "_We write_, _you write_, _they write_." There are few exceptions to these rules. Some people have been very tenacious about retaining the old forms of words, and our books were long printed without alteration; but change will break thro every barrier, and book-makers must keep pace with the times, and put on the dress that is catered for them by the public taste; bearing in mind, meanwhile, that great and practical truths are more essential than the garb in which they appear. We should be more careful of our health of body and purity of morals than of the costume we put on. Many genteel coats wrap up corrupt hearts, and fine hats cover silly heads. What is the chaff to the wheat? Even our good friends, the quakers, who have particularly labored to retain old forms--"the plain language,"--have failed in their attempt, and have substituted the _object_ form of the pronoun for the _agent_, and say, "_thee thinks_," for _thou thinkest_. Their mistake is even greater than the substitution of _you_ for _thou_. So far as language depends on the conventional regulation of those who use it, it will be constantly changing; new words will be introduced, and the spelling of old ones altered, so as to agree with modern pronounciation. We have all lived long enough to witness the truth of this remark. The only rule we can give in relation to this matter is, to follow our own judgments, aided by our best writers and speakers. The words which express action, are in many cases very similar to the agents which produce them; and the objects which are the direct results produced by such action, do not differ very materially. I will give you a few examples. _Agent._ _Verb._ _Object._ Actors Act Actions Breathers Breathe Breath Builders Build Buildings Coiners Coin Coins Casters Cast Casts or castings Drinkers Drink Drink Dreamers Dream Dreams Earners Earn Earnings Fishers Fish Fishes Gainers Gain Gain Hewers Hew Hewings Innkeepers Keep Inns Light or lighters Light or shed Lights Miners Mine or dig Mines Pleaders Plead or make Pleas Producers Produce Products Raisers Raise Raisings or houses Runners or racers Run Runs or races Sufferers Suffer Sufferings Speakers Speak Speeches Thinkers Think Thoughts Writers Write Writings Workers Work Works I give you these examples to show you the near alliance between _actors_, ( ,) and _actions_; or agents, _actions_, and objects. Such expressions as the above are inelegant, because they are uncommon; but for no other reason, for we, in numberless cases, employ the same word for agent and verb; as, _painters paint_ buildings, and _artists_ paint paintings; _bookbinders bind books_; _printers print_ books, and other _prints_. A little observation will enable you to carry out these hints, and profit by them. You have observed the disposition in children, and foreigners, who are partially acquainted with our language, to make verbs out of almost every noun, which appears to us very aukward; but was it common, it would be just as correct as the verbs now used. There are very few verbs which have not a noun to correspond with them, for we make verbs, that is, we use words to express action, which are nearly allied to the agent with which such action agrees.[17] From botany we have made _botanize_; from Mr. McAdam, the inventor of a particular kind of road, _macadamize_, which means to make roads as he made them. Words are formed in this way very frequently. The word _church_ is often used as a noun to express a building used for public worship; for the services performed in it; for the whole congregation; for a portion of believers associated together; for the Episcopal order, etc. It is also used as a verb. Mr. Webster defines it, "To perform with any one the office of returning thanks in the church after any signal deliverance." But the word has taken quite a different turn of late. _To church_ a person, instead of receiving him into communion, as that term would seem to imply, signifies to deal with an offending member, to excommunicate, or turn him out. But I will not pursue this point any farther. The brief hints I have thrown out, will enable you to discover how the meaning and forms of words are changed from their original application to suit the notions and improvements of after ages. A field is here presented which needs cultivation. The young should be taught to search for the etymology of words, to trace their changes and meaning as used at different times and by different people, keeping their minds constantly directed to the object signified by such verbal sign. This is the business of philosophy, under whatever name it may be taught; for grammar, rhetoric, logic, and the science of the mind, are intimately blended, and should always be taught in connexion. We have already seen that words without meaning are like shadows without realities. And persons can not employ language "correctly," or "with propriety," till they have acquainted themselves with the import of such language--the ideas of things signified by it. Let this course be adopted in the education of children, and they will not be required to spend months and years in the study of an "_art_" which they can not comprehend, for the simple reason that they can not apply it in practice. Grammar has been taught as a mere _art_, depending on arbitrary rules to be mechanically learned, rather than a science involving the soundest and plainest principles of philosophy, which are to be known only as developed in common practice among men, and in accordance with the permanent laws which govern human thought. Verbs differ in the manner of forming their _past_ tenses, and participles, or adjectives. Those ending in _ed_ are called _regular_; those which take any other termination are _irregular_. There are about two hundred of the latter in our language, which differ in various ways. Some of them have the _past_ tense and the past participle the same; as, Bid Bid Bid Knit Knit Knit Shut Shut Shut Let Let Let Spread Spread Spread, etc. Others have the past tense and participle alike, but different from the present; as, Lend Lent Lent Send Sent Sent Bend Bent Bent Wend Went Went Build Built or builded Built Think Thought Thought, etc. Some have the present and past tense and participle different; as, Blow Blew Blown Grow Grew Grown Begin Began Begun See Saw Seen Write Wrote Written Give Gave Given Speak Spoke Spoken Rise Rose Risen Fall Fell Fallen, etc. There are a few which are made up of different radicals, which have been wedded together by habit, to avoid the frequent and unpleasant recurrence of the same word; as, Am Was Been Go (wend) Went Gone, etc. Some which were formerly irregular, are now generally used with the regular termination, in either the past tense or participle, or both; as, Hang Hung or hanged Hung or hanged Dare Dared or durst Dared Clothe Clad or clothed Clad or clothed Work Worked or wrought Worked Shine Shined or shone Shone or shined Spill Spilled or spilt Spilt or spilled, etc. The syllable _ed_ is a contraction of the past tense of _do_; as, I _loved_, love _did_, _did_ love, or love-_ed_. He learn_ed_, learn did, did learn, or learned. It signifies action, _did_, done, or accomplished. You have all lived long enough to have noticed the change in the pronounciation of this syllable. Old people sound it full and distinct; and so do most others in reading the scriptures; but not so generally as in former times. In poetry it was usually abbreviated so as to avoid the full sound; and hence we may account for the _irregular_ termination of many words, such as _heard_, for _heared_; _past_, for _passed_; _learnt_, for _learned_; _built_, for _builded_. In modern poetry, however, the _e_ is retained, tho sounded no more than formerly. _Ing_ is derived from the verb to _be_, and signifies _being_, _existing_; and, attached to a verb, is used as a noun, or adjective, retaining so much of its former character as to have an object after it which is affected by it; as, "I am _writing_ a lecture." Here _writing_, the present participle of _write_, describes myself in my present employment, and yet retains its action as a verb, and terminates on _lecture_ as the thing written. "The man was taken in the act of _stealing_ some money." In this case _stealing_ names the action which the man was performing when detected, which action thus named, has _money_ for the object on which it terminates. I barely allude to this subject in this place to give you an idea of the method we adopt to explain the meaning and use of participles. It deserves more attention, perhaps, to make it plain to your minds; but as it is not an essential feature in the new system, I shall leave it for consideration in a future work. Whoever is acquainted with the formation of the present participle in other languages, can carry out the suggestions I have made, and fully comprehend my meaning. I will present you with an example of the conjugations of a few verbs which you are requested to compare with the "_might could would should have been loved_" systems, which you were required to learn in former times. You will find the verb in every _form_ or position in which it ever occurs in our language, written or spoken. Conjugation of the regular verb =to love=. INDICATIVE MOOD. _Singular_ _Plural_ I _love_ We _love_ Present tense Thou _lovest_ You _love_ He, she, or it _loves_ They _love_ I _loved_ We _loved_ Past tense Thou _lovedst_ You _loved_ He, she, or it _loved_ They _loved_ IMPERATIVE MOOD. _Love._ INFINITIVE MOOD. _To love._ PARTICIPLES. Present, _Loving_ Past, _Loved_ The irregular verb =to have=, is thus conjugated. INDICATIVE MOOD. I _have_ We _have_ Present tense Thou _hast_ You _have_ He _has_ They _have_ I _had_ We _had_ Past tense Thou _hadst_ You _had_ He _had_ They _had_ IMPERATIVE MOOD. _Have._ INFINITIVE MOOD. _To have._ PARTICIPLES. Present, _Having_ Past, _Had_ The irregular verb =to be=, stands thus: INDICATIVE MOOD. I _am_ We _are_ Present tense Thou _art_ You _are_ He _is_ They _are_ I _was_ We _were_ Past tense Thou _wast_ You _were_ He _was_ They _were_ IMPERATIVE MOOD. _Be._ INFINITIVE MOOD. _To be._ PARTICIPLES. Present, _Being_ Past, _Been_ These examples will suffice to give you an idea of the ease and simplicity of the construction of verbs, and by a comparison with old systems, you can, for yourselves, determine the superiority of the principles we advocate. The above tabular views present every form which the verb assumes, and every position in which it is found. In use, these words are frequently compounded together;[18] but with a knowledge of the above principles, and the _meaning_ of the words--a most essential consideration--you will always be able to analyze any sentence, and parse it correctly. I have not time to enlarge on this point, to show how words are connected together. Nor do I think it necessary to enable you to understand my views. To children such a work would be indispensable, and shall be attended to if we are able to publish a grammar containing the simple principles of language. * * * * * The indicative mood is varied four ways. 1st, affirmatively, _he writes_; 2d, negatively, _he writes not_; 3d, interrogatively, _does_ he write? or _writes_ he? 4th, suppositively, if _he writes_, _suppose he writes_, allow _he writes_. The _first_ is a simple affirmation of a fact, and is easily understood. The _second_ is formed by annexing a term to express negation. _Not_ is a contraction from _nought_ or _naught_, which is a compound of _ne_, negative, and ought or aught, _ne-aught_, meaning _no-thing_. _He writes not_; he writes nothing. He does _not_ write; he does _nothing_ to write. _Neither_ is a compound of _ne_ and _either_, _not either_. He _can not_ read; he _can_, _kens_, _knows nothing_, has no ability _to read_. The third is constructed into a question by placing the verb before the agent, or by prefixing another word before the agent, and then placing the former verb as an infinitive after it; as, _Does_ he write? or _writes_ he? When another verb is prefixed, one is always chosen which will best decide the query. Does he _any thing_ to write? Does he make any motions or show any indications to write? When the _will_ or disposition of a person is concerned, we choose a word accordingly. _Will_ he write? Has he the _will_ or disposition to write? _Can_ he write? Is he able--_knows_ he how to write? A little observation will enable you to understand my meaning. In the fourth place, a supposition is made in the imperative mood, in accordance with which the action is performed. "_If_ ye _love_ me, keep my commandments." _Give_, _grant_, _allow_, _suppose_ this fact--you _love_ me, keep my commandments. I will go if I can. I _resolve_, _will_, or _determine_ to go; _if_, _gif_, _give_, grant, allow this fact, I _can_, _ken_, _know_ how, or _am_ able _to go_. But more on this point when we come to the consideration of contractions. In this mood the verb must have an agent and object, expressed or implied; as, "_farmers_ cultivate the _soil_." But a whole sentence, that is, an idea written out, may perform this duty; as, "The study of grammar, on false principles, is productive of no good." What is productive of no good? What is the agent of _is_? "The _study_," our books and teachers tell us. But does such a construction give the true meaning of the sentence? I think not, for _study_ is indispensable to knowledge and usefulness, and _the study_ of grammar, properly directed, is a most useful branch of literature, which should never be dispensed with. It is the study of grammar _on false principles_, which _is productive of no good_. You discover my meaning, and will not question its correctness. You must also see how erroneous it would be to teach children that "_to study_ is productive of no good." The force of the sentence rests on the "false principles" taught. Hence the whole statement is truly the agent of the verb. The object on which the action terminates is frequently expressed in a similar manner; as, "He wrote to me, that he will adopt the new system of grammar, if he can procure some books to give his scholars to learn." Will you parse _wrote_? Most grammarians will call it an _intransitive_ verb, and make out that "he wrote" _nothing_ to me, because there is no regular objective word after it. Will you parse _that_? It is a "conjunction _copulative_." What does it connect? "_He wrote_" to the following sentence, according to Rule 18 of Mr. Murray; "conjunctions connect the _same_ moods and tenses of verbs and cases of nouns and pronouns." Unluckily you have two different tenses connected in this case. Will you parse _if_? It is a _copulative_ conjunction, connecting the two members of the sentence--_he will adopt_ if _he can procure_: Rule, as above. How exceeding unfortunate! You have _two_ different moods, and too different tenses, connected by a _copulative_ conjunction which the rule says "connects _the same_ moods and tenses! What nonsense! What a falsehood! What a fine thing to be a grammarian! And yet, I venture the opinion, and I judge from what I have seen in myself and others, there is not one teacher in a hundred who will not learn children to parse as above, and apply the same rule to it. "I _will go_ if I _can_." "I _do_ and _will_ contend." "As it _was_ in the beginning, _is_ now, _and_ ever _shall be_." "I _am_ here and _must_ remain." "He _will do_ your business _if_ he _has_ time." "I _am_ resolved _to expose_ the errors of grammar, _and will do_ it thoroly _if_ I _can_." In these examples you have different moods and tenses, indiscriminately, yet correctly coupled together, despite the rules of syntax which teach us to explain language "with propriety." _That_, in the sentence before us, is an adjective, referring to the following sentence, which is the _object_ of _wrote_, or is the thing written. "He wrote to me _that_" fact, sentiment, opinion, determination, or resolution, that writing, letter, or word--"he will adopt the new system of grammar, if he can procure some books." This subject properly belongs to that department of language called syntax; but as I shall not be able to treat of that in this course of lectures, I throw in here these brief remarks to give you some general ideas of the arrangement of words into sentences, according to their true meaning, as obtained from a knowledge of their etymology. You cannot fail to observe this method of constructing language if you will pay a little attention to it when reading; keeping all the time in view the fact that words are only the signs of ideas, derived from an observation of things. You all know that it is not merely the steam that propels the boat, but that it is steam _applied to machinery_. Steam is the more latent cause; and the engine with its complicated parts is the direct means. In the absence of either, the boat would not be propelled. In the formation of language, I may say correctly, "Solomon _built_ the temple;" for he stood in that relation to the matter which supposes it would not have been built without his direction and command. To accomplish such an action, however, he need not raise a hammer or a gavel, or draw a line on the trestle board. His command made known to his ministers was sufficient to _cause_ the work to be done. Hence the whole fact is _indicated_ or declared by the single expression, "Solomon _built_ the temple." The Imperative mood is unchanged in form. I can say to one man, _go_, or to a thousand, _go_. The commander when drilling _one_ soldier, says, _march_; and he bids the whole battalion, _march_. The agent who is _to perform_ the action is understood when not expressed; as, _go_, _go thou_, or _go you_. The agent is generally omitted, because the address is given direct to the person who is expected to obey the instruction, request, or command. This verb always agrees with an agent in the _second_ person. And yet our "grammars made easy" have given us _three persons_ in this mood--"_Let me love_; _love_, _love thou_, or _do_ thou _love_; let him love." In the name of common sense, I ask, what can children learn by such instruction? "_Let me love_," in the conjugation of the verb _to love_! To whom is this command given? To _myself_ of course! I command myself to "_let me love_!" What nonsense! "Let _him_ love." I stand here, you set there, and the _third_ person is in Philadelphia. I utter these words, "Let _him love_." What is my meaning? Why, our books tell us, that the verb to _love_ is _third_ person. Then I command _him_ to _let himself love_! What jargon and falsehood! You all know that we can address the _second_ person only. You would call me insane if I should employ language according to the rules of grammar as laid down in the standard books. In my room alone, no person near me, I cry out, "_let me be quiet_"--imperative mood, first person of _to be_! Do I command myself to _let_ myself _be_ quiet? Most certainly, if _be_ is the principal verb in the first person, and _let_ the auxiliary. The teacher observes one of his pupils take a pencil from a classmate who sets near him. He says, "_let him have it_." To whom is the command given? It is the imperative mood, third person of the verb _to have_. Does he command the third person, the boy who _has_ not the pencil? Such is the resolution of the sentence, according to the authority of standard grammars. But where is there a child five years old who does not know better. Every body knows that he addresses the second person, the boy who has the pencil, to _let_ the other _have_ it. Teachers have learned their scholars the _first_ and _third_ persons of this mood when committing the conjugation of verbs; but not one in ten thousand ever adopted them in parsing. "_Let me love._" _Let_, all parse, Mr. Murray not excepted, in the _second_ person, and _love_ in the infinitive mood after it, without the sign _to_; according to the rule, that "verbs which follow _bid_, _dare_, _feel_, _hear_, _let_, _needs_, _speak_," etc. are in the infinitive mood. It is strange people will not eat their own cooking. There can be no trouble in understanding this mood, as we have explained it, always in the future tense, that is, future to the command or request, agreeing with the _second_ person, and never varied on account of number. The only variation in the infinitive mood is the omission of _to_ in certain cases, which is considered as a part of the verb; tho in truth it is no more so than when used in the character of an old fashioned preposition. In certain cases, as we have before observed, it is not expressed. This is when the infinitive verb follows small words in frequent use; as, shall, will, let, can, must, may, bid, do, have, make, feel, hear, etc. This mood is always in the future tense; that is, it is future to the circumstances or condition of things upon which it depends; as, they are making preparations _to raise_ the building. Here _to raise_ is future to the preparations, for if they make no preparations, the buildings will not be raised. The boy studies his book _to learn_ his lesson. If he does not study, he will not be likely _to learn_ his lesson. The allied powers of Europe combined their forces _to defeat_ Napoleon. In this instance the whole expression is in the past tense; nevertheless, the action expressed in the infinitive mood, _was future_ to the circumstance on which it depended; that is, the _defeat_ was _future_ to the _combination_ of the forces. Abraham raised the knife _to slay_ his son. Not that he did _slay_ him, as that sentence must be explained on the common systems, which teach us that _to slay_ is in the _present tense_; but he raised the fatal knife for that purpose, the fulfilment of which was future; but the angel staid his hand, and averted the blow. The patriots of Poland _made_ a noble attempt _to gain_ their liberty. But they did not _gain it_, as our grammars would teach us. _To gain_ was future to the attempt, and failed because the circumstances _indicated_ by the event, were insufficient to produce so favorable a result. No person of common discernment can fail to observe the absolute falsehood of existing systems in respect to this mood. It is used by our authors of grammar in the _present_ and _past_ tenses, but never in the _future_. Let us give a moment to the consideration of this matter. Take the following example. He _will prepare_ himself next week _to go_ to Europe. Let the school master parse _will prepare_. It is a verb, indicative mood, _first future_ tense. _Next week_ is the point in futurity when the _preparation_ will be _made_. Now parse _to go_. It is a verb, infinitive mood, _present tense_! Then _he_ is already on his way to Europe, when he is not _to prepare_ himself till next week! An army is collected _to fight_ the enemy. Is the fight already commenced? _To fight_ is present tense, say the books. We shall study grammar next year, _to obtain_ a knowledge of the principles and use of language. Is _to obtain_ present tense? If so there is little need of spending time and money to study for a knowledge we _already possess_. "Hope springs eternal in the human breast; Man never _is_, but always =to be= blest." _Pope._ "Who _was_, and who _is_, and who _is_ =to come=."--_Bible._ It is not that a man thinks himself already in possession of a sufficiency, but hopes =to be= qualified, etc. I _am to go_ in an hour. He _is to go_ to-morrow. I _am_ ready _to hear_ you recite your lesson. He _has been waiting_ a long time _to see_ if some new principles will not be introduced. He is prepared _to appear_ before you whenever you shall direct. We _are_ resolved _to employ_ neuter verbs, potential and subjunctive moods, im-perfect, plu-perfect, and second future tenses, no longer. False grammars _are_ only fit-_ted to be_ laid aside. We are in duty bound _to regard_ and _adopt_ truth, and _reject_ error; and we _are_ determined _to do_ it in grammar, and every thing else. We are not surprised that people cannot comprehend grammar, as usually taught, for it is exceedingly difficult to make error appear like truth, or false teaching like sound sentiment. But I will not stop to moralize. The hints I have given must suffice. Much more might be said upon the character and use of verbs; but as these lectures are not designed for _a system_ of grammar _to be taught_, but to expose the errors of existing systems, and prepare the way for a more rational and consistent exposition of language, I shall leave this department of our subject, presuming you will be able to comprehend our views, and appreciate their importance. We have been somewhat critical in a part of our remarks, and more brief than we should have been, had we not found that we were claiming too much of the time of the Institute, which is designed as a means of improvement on general subjects. Enough has been said, I am sure, to convince you, if you were not convinced before, why the study of grammar is so intricate and tedious, that it is to be accounted for from the fact that the theories by which it is taught are false in principle, and can not be adopted in practice; and that something ought to be done to make the study of language easy, interesting, and practical. Such a work is here attempted; but it remains with the public to say whether these plain philosophical principles shall be sustained, matured, perfected, and adopted in schools, or the old roundabout course of useless and ineffectual teaching be still preserved. LECTURE XIV. ON CONTRACTIONS. A temporary expedient.--Words not understood.--All words must have a meaning.--Their formation.--Changes of meaning and form.--Should be observed.--=Adverbs=.--Ending in _ly_.--Examples.--Ago.--Astray. --Awake.--Asleep.--Then, when.--There, where, here.--While, till.--Whether, together.--Ever, never, whenever, etc.--Oft.--Hence. --Perhaps.--Not.--Or.--Nor.--Than.--As.--So.--Distinctions false.--Rule 18.--If.--But.--Tho.--Yet. We have concluded our remarks on the necessary divisions of words. Things _named_, _defined_ and _described_, and their _actions_, _relations_, and _tendencies_, have been considered under the classes of Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs. To these classes all words belong when properly explained; a fact we desire you to bear constantly in mind in all your attempts to understand and employ language. But there are many words in our language as well as most others, which are so altered and disguised that their meaning is not easily comprehended. Of course they are difficult of explanation. These words we have classed under the head of _Contractions_, a term better calculated than any other we have seen adopted to express their character. We do not however lay any stress on the appropriateness of this appellation, but adopt it as a temporary expedient, till these words shall be better understood. They will then be ranked in their proper places among the classes already noticed. Under this head may be considered the words usually known as "adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, and interjections." That the etymology and meaning of these words have not been generally understood will be conceded, I presume, on all hands. In our opinion, that is the only reason why they have been considered under these different heads, for in numberless cases there is nothing in their import to correspond with such distinctions. Why "an adverb expresses some _quality_ or circumstance respecting a verb, adjective, or other adverb;" why "a conjunction is chiefly used to connect sentences, so as out of _two_ to make only _one_ sentence;" or why "prepositions serve to connect words with one another, and show the relation between them," has never been explained. They have been _passed over_ with little difficulty by teachers, having been furnished with lists of words in each "part of speech," which they require their pupils to commit to memory, and "for ever after hold their peace" concerning them. But that these words have been defined or explained in a way to be understood will not be pretended. In justification of such ignorance, it is contended that such explanation is not essential to their proper and elegant use. If such is the fact, we may easily account for the incorrect use of language, and exonerate children from the labor of studying etymology. But these words have meaning, and sustain a most important rank in the expression of ideas. They are, generally, abbreviated, compounded, and so disguised that their origin and formation are not generally known. Horne Tooke calls them "the _wheels_ of language, the _wings_ of Mercury." He says "tho we might be dragged along without them, it would be with much difficulty, very heavily and tediously." But when he undertakes to show that they were _constructed_ for this object, he mistakes their true character; for they were not invented for that purpose, but were originally employed as nouns or verbs, from which they have been corrupted by use. And he seems to admit this fact when he says,[19] "_abbreviation_ and _corruption_ are always busiest with the words which are most frequently in use. Letters, like soldiers, being very apt to desert and drop off in a long march, and especially if their passage happens to lie near the confines of an enemy's country." In the original construction of language a set of literary men did not get together and manufacture a lot of words, finished thro out and exactly adapted to the expression of thought. Had that been the case, language would doubtless have appeared in a much more regular, stiff, and formal dress, and been deprived of many of its beautiful and lofty figures, its richest and boldest expressions. Necessity is the mother of invention. It was not until people had _ideas_ to communicate, that they sought a medium for the transmission of thought from one to another; and then such sounds and signs were adopted as would best answer their purpose. But language was not then framed like a cotton mill, every part completed before it was set in operation. Single expressions, _sign_-ificant of things, or _ideas_ of _things_ and _actions_, were first employed, in the most simple, plain, and easy manner.[20] As the human mind advanced in knowledge, by observing the character, relations, and differences of things, words were changed, altered, compounded, and contracted, so as to keep pace with such advancement; just as many simple parts of a machine, operating on perfect and distinct principles, may be combined together and form a most complicated, curious, and powerful engine, of astonishing power, and great utility. In the adaptation of steam to locomotives, the principles on which stationary engines operated were somewhat modified. Some wheels, shafts, bands, screws, etc., were omitted, others of a different kind were added, till the whole appeared in a new character, and the engine, before fixed to a spot, was seen traversing the road with immense rapidity. The principles of the former engine, so far from being unessential, were indispensable to the construction of the new one, and should be clearly understood by him who would build or _use_ the latter. So, in the formation of language, simple _first_ principles must be observed and traced thro all their ramifications, by those who would obtain a clear and thoro knowledge of it, or "read and write it with propriety." In mathematics, the four simple rules, addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, form the basis on which that interesting science depends. The modifications of these rules, according to their various capabilities, will give a complete knowledge of all that can be known of numbers, relations, and proportions, an acme to which all may aspire, tho none have yet attained it. The principles of language are equally simple, and, if correctly explained, may be as well understood. But the difficulty under which we labor in this department of science, is the paucity of _means_ to trace back to their original form and meaning many words and phrases in common use among us. Language has been employed as the vehicle of thought, for six thousand years, and in that long space has undergone many and strange modifications. At the dispersion from Babel, and the "confusion of tongues" occasioned thereby, people were thrown upon their own resources, and left to pick up by piecemeal such shreds as should afterwards be wove into a system, and adopted by their respective nations. Wars, pestilence, and famine, as well as commerce, enterprize, literature, and religion, brought the different nations into intercourse with each other; and changes were thus produced in the languages of such people. Whoever will take the trouble to compare the idioms of speech adopted by those nations whose affairs, civil, political, and religious, are most intimately allied, will be convinced of the correctness of the sentiment now advanced. In the lapse of ages, words would not only change their form, but in a measure their meaning, so as to correspond with the ideas of those who use them. Some would become obsolete, and others be adopted in their stead. Many words are found in the Bible which are not in common use; and the manner of spelling, as well as some entire words, have been changed in that book, since it was translated and first published in 1610. With these examples you are familiar, and I shall be spared the necessity of quoting them. I have already made some extracts from old writers, and may have occasion to do so again before I close this lecture. The words which we class under the head of Contractions, are so altered and disguised in their appearance, that their etymology and connexion are not generally understood. It may appear like pedantry in me to attempt an investigation into their origin and meaning. But to avoid that charge, I will frankly acknowledge the truth, and own my inability to do justice to this subject, by offering a full explanation of all the words which belong to this class. I will be candid, if I am not successful. But I think most of the words long considered difficult, may be easily explained; enough to convince you of the feasibility of the ground we have assumed, and furnish a sample by which to pursue the subject in all our future inquiries into the etymology of words. But even if I fail in this matter, I shall have one comfort left, that I am not alone in the transgression; for no philologist, with few exceptions, has done any thing like justice to this subject. Our common grammars have not even attempted an inquiry into the _meaning_ of these words, but have treated them as tho they had none. Classes, like pens or reservoirs, are made for them, into which they are thrown, and allowed to rest, only to be named, without being disturbed. Sometimes, however, they are found in one enclosure, sometimes in another, more by mistake, I apprehend, than by intention; for "prepositions" under certain circumstances are parsed as "adverbs," and "adverbs" as "adjectives," and "conjunctions" as either "adverbs" or "prepositions;" and not unfrequently the whole go off together, like the tail of the dragon, drawing other respectable words along with them, under the sweeping cognomen of "adverbial phrases," or "conjunctive expressions;" as, Can you write your lesson? _Not yet quite well enough._ "_But and if_ that evil servant,"[21] etc. Mr. Murray says, "the same word is occasionally used _both as_ a conjunction _and as_ an adverb, and sometimes _as_ a preposition. Let these words be correctly defined, their meaning be ferreted out from the rubbish in which they have been enclosed; or have their dismembered parts restored to them, they will then appear in their true character, and their connexion with other words will be found regular and easy. Until such work is accomplished, they may as well be called contractions, for such they _mostly_ are, as adverbs or any thing else; for that appellation we regard as more appropriate than any other. In the attempts we are about to make, we shall endeavor to be guided by sound philosophic principles and the light of patient investigation; and whatever advances we may make shall be in strict accordance with the true and practical use of these words. Let us begin with _Adverbs_. I have not time to go into a thoro investigation of the mistakes into which grammarians have fallen in their attempts to explain this "part of speech." Mr. Murray says they "seem originally to have been _contrived_ to express compendiously in _one word_, what must _otherwise_ have required two or more; as, "he acted _wisely_." They could have been "_contrived_" for no such purpose, for we have already seen that they are made up of various words combined together, which are used to express relation, to define or describe other things. Take the very example Mr. M. has given. _Wisely_ is made up of two words; _wise_ and _like_. "He acted wisely," wise-like. What did he _act_? _Wisely_, we are taught, expresses the "_manner_ or quality" of the verb _act_. But _act_, in this case, is a neuter or intransitive verb, and _wisely_ expresses the _manner of action_ where there is none! But he must have _acted something_ which was _wise_ like something else. What did he act? If he produced no _actions_, how can it be known that he _acted_ wisely or unwisely? _Action_ or _acts_ is the direct object of to _act_. Hence the sentence fully stated would stand thus: "He acted _acts_ or _actions_ like wise actions or acts." But stated at length, it appears aukward and clumsy, like old fashioned vehicles. We have modified, improved, cut down, and made eliptical, all of our expressions, as we have previously observed, to suit the fashions and customs of the age in which we live; the same as tailors cut our garments to correspond with the latest fashions. "The bird sings _sweetly_." The bird sings _songs_, _notes_, or _tunes_, _like sweet notes_, _tunes,_ or _songs_. The comparison here made, is not in reference to the agent or action, but the _object_ of the action; and this explains the whole theory of those _adverbs_, which are said to "qualify manner" of action. We have already seen that no _action_, as such, can exist, or be conceived to exist, separate(-ed) from the _thing_ or _agent_ which _acts_; and such action can only be determined by the _changed_ or altered condition of something which is the _object_ of such action. How then, can any word, in truth, or in thought, be known to _qualify_ the action, as distinct from the object or agent? And if it does not in _fact_, how can we explain words to children, or to our own minds, so as to understand what is not true? Hence all words of this character are adjectives, describing one thing by its relation or likeness to another, and as such, admit of comparison; as, a likely man, a _very_ likely man, a likelier, and the _likeliest_ man. "He is the _most likely_ pedlar I ever knew." "He is _more liable_ to be deceived." "A _lively_ little fellow." "He is worthless." He is worth less, _less worthy_ of respect and confidence. "He writes very correctly." He writes his letters and words _like very correct_ letters. But I need not enlarge. You have only to bear in mind the fact, that _ly_ is a contraction of _like_, which is often retained in many words; as god_like_, christian_like_, etc., and search for a definition accordingly; and you will find no trouble in disposing of a large portion of this adverb family. It is a curious fact, and should be maturely considered by all who still adhere to the neuter verb theory, that adverbs _qualify neuter_ as well as active verbs, and express the _quality_ or _manner of action_, where there is none! Adverbs express "manner of action" in a neuter verb! When a person starts wrong it is very difficult to go right. The safest course is to return back and start again. Adverbs have been divided into classes, varying from _eleven_ to _seventy-two_, to suit the fancies of those who have only observed the nice shades of form which these words have assumed. But a bonnet is a bonnet, let its shape, form, or fashion, be what it may. You may put on as many trimmings, flowers, bows, and ribbons, as you please; it is a bonnet still; and when we speak of it we will call it a _bonnet_, and talk about its _appendages_. But when it is constructed into something else, then we will give it a new name. Adjectives, we have said, are _derived_ from either nouns or verbs, and we now contend that the words formerly regarded as adverbs are either adjectives, nouns, or verbs. In defence of this sentiment we will adduce a few words in this place for examples. =Ago.= "Three years _ago_, we dwelt in the country." This word is a past participle from the verb _ago_, meaning the same as _gone_ or _agone_, and was so used a few centuries _ago_--_agone_, or _gone by_. "For euer the latter ende of ioye is wo, God wotte, worldly ioye is soone _ago_." _Chaucer._ "For if it erst was well, tho was it bet A thousand folde, this nedeth it not require _Ago_ was euery sorowe and euery fere." _Troylus, boke 3, p. 2._ "Of such examples as I finde Upon this point of tyme _agone_ I thinke for to tellen one." _Gower_, lib. 5, p. 1. "Which is no more than has been done By knights for ladies, long _agone_." _Hudibras._ "Twenty years _agone_." _Tillotson's sermon._ "Are all _the go_." _Knickerbocker._ =Astray.= "They went astray." _Astrayed_, wandered or were scattered, and of course soon became _estranged_ from each other. Farmers all know what it is for cattle to _stray_ from home; and many parents have felt the keen pangs of sorrow when their sons _strayed_ from the paths of virtue. In that condition they are _astray-ed_. "This prest was drank and goth _astrayede_." "Achab to the bottle went. When Benedad for all his shelde Him slough, so that upon the felde His people goth aboute _astraie_." _Gower._ =Awake.= "He is _awake_." "Samson _awaked_ out of his sleep." "That I may _awake_ him out of sleep." "It is high time to _awake_." "As a man that is _wakened_ out of sleep." The Irish hold _a wake_--they do not sleep the night after the loss of friends. =Asleep.= "When that pyte, which longe _on sleep_ doth tary Hath set the fyne of al my heuynesse." _Chaucer, La belle dame, p. 1. c. 1._ "Ful sound _on sleep_ did caucht thare rest be kind." _Douglas_, b. 9, p. 283. "In these provynces the fayth of Chryste was all quenchyd and _in sleepe_."--_Fabian._ A numerous portion of these contractions are nouns, which, from their frequent recurrence, are used without their usual connexion with small words. The letter _a_ is compounded with many of these words, which may have been joined to them by habit, or as a preposition, meaning _on_, _to_, _at_, _in_, as it is used in the french and some other languages. You often hear expressions like these, "he is _a_-going; he is _a_-writing; he began _a_-new," etc. The old adverbs which take this letter, you can easily analyze; as, "The house is _a_-fire"--on fire; "He fell _a_-sleep"--he fell _on_ sleep. "When deep sleep falleth on men."--_Job._ "He stept _a_-side"--on one side. "He came _a_-board"--on board. "They put it _a_-foot"--on foot. "He went _a_-way"--a way, followed some _course_, to a distance. "Blue bonnets are all the _go_ now _a_-days," etc. The following extracts will give you an idea of the etymology of these words: "Turnus seyes the Troianis in grete yre, And al thare schyppis and navy set _in fire_." _Douglas_, b. 9, p. 274. "Now hand in hand the dynt lichtis with _ane_ swak, Now bendis he up his bourdon with _ane_ mynt, _On side_ (a-side) he bradis for to eschew the dynt." _Idem._ "That easter fire and flame aboute Both at mouth and at nase So that thei setten all _on blaze_," (ablaze.) _Gower._ "And tyl a wicked deth him take _Him had_ leuer _asondre_ (a-sunder) shake And let al his lymmes _asondre_ ryue Thane leaue his richesse in his lyue." _Chaucer._ Examples of this kind might be multiplied to an indefinite length. But the above will suffice to give you an idea of the former use of these words, and also, by comparison with the present, of the changes which have taken place in the method of spelling within a few centuries. A large portion of adverbs relate to _time_ and _place_, because many of our ideas, and much of our language, are employed in reference to them; as, _then_, _when_, _where_, _there_, _here_, _hence_, _whence_, _thence_, _while_, _till_, _whether_, etc. These are compound words considerably disguised in their meaning and formation. Let us briefly notice some of them. _Per annum_ is a latin phrase, _for the year_, a _year_; and _the annum_ is _the year_, _round_ or _period_ of time, from which it was corrupted gradually into its present shape. _Thanne_, tha anne, _thane_, _thenne_, _then_, _than_, are different forms of the same word. "We see nowe bi a mirror in darcnesse: thanne forsathe, face to face. Nowe I know of partye; _thanne_ forsathe schal know as I am knowen."--1. Cor. 13: 12. _Translation in 1350._ I have a translation of the same passage in 1586, which stands thus: "For nowe we see through a glasse darkley: but _thene_ face to face: now I know in part: but _then_ shal I know even as I am knowen." Here several words are spelled differently in the same verse. =Then=, _the anne_, that time. =When=, _wha anne_, "_wha-icht-anne_," which, or what _anne_, period of time. _Area_ means an open space, a plat of ground, a spot or place. Arena is from the same etymon, altered in application. =There=, _the area_, the _place_ or _spot_. "If we go _there_," to that place. =Where=, which, or what ("wha-icht area") place. =Here=, _his_ (latin word for _this_,) _area_, this place. These words refer to _place_, _state_, or _condition_. _While_ is another spelling for _wheel_. "To while away our time," is to _pass_, spend, or _wheel_ it away. _While_ applies to the _period_, or space of time, in which something _wheels_, _whirls_, _turns_ round, or transpires; as, "You had better remain here _while_ (during the time) he examines whether it is prudent for you to go." =Till= is _to while_, to the _period_ at which something is expected to follow. "If I will that he tarry _till_ (to the time) I come what is that to thee?" The idea of _time_ and _place_ are often blended together. It is not uncommon to hear lads and professed scholars, in some parts of our country say "down _till_ the bottom, over _till_ the woods." etc. Altho we do not regard such expressions correct, yet they serve to explain the meaning of the word. The only mistake is in applying it to _place_ instead of _time_. =Whether= is _which either_. "Shew _whether_ of these _two_ thou hast chosen."--_Acts 1: 24._ It is more frequently applied in modern times to circumstance and events _than to_ persons and things. "I will let you know _whether_ I _will_ or _will not_ adopt it," one or the other. =Together= signifies two or more united. _Gethered_ is the past participle of _gather_. "As Mailie, an' her lambs _thegither_, Were ae day nibbling on the tether." _Burns._ =Ever= means _time_, _age_, _period_. It originally and essentially signified _life_. _For ever_ is for the age or period. _For ever_ and _ever_, to the ages of ages. _Ever-lasting_ is _age-lasting_. Ever-lasting hills, snows, landmarks, etc. =Never=, _ne-ever_, _not ever_, at no time, age or period. =When-ever.=--At what point or space of _time_ or _age_. =What-ever.=--What thing, fact, circumstance, or event. =Where-ever.=--To, at, or in what place, period, age, or time. =Whither-so-ever=, which-way-so-ever, where-so-ever, never-the-less, etc. need only be analyzed, and their meaning will appear obvious to all. =Oft=, _often_, _oft-times_, often-_times_, can be understood by all, because the noun to which they belong is _oft-en_ retained in practice. =Once=, twice, at one time, two times. =Hence=, _thence_, _whence_, from _this_, _that_, or _what_, place, spot, circumstance, post, or starting place. =Hence-for-ward=, _hence-forth_, in time _to come_, after this period. =Here-after=, after this _era_, or present time. =Hither=, to this spot or place. _Thither_, to that place. _Hither-to_, _hither-ward_, etc. the same as _to you ward_, or to God ward, still retained in our bibles. =Per-haps=, it may hap. _Perchance_, _peradventure_, by chance, by adventure. The latin _per_ means _by_. =Not=, no ought, not any, nothing. It is a compound of _ne_ and _ought_ or _a_ught. =Or= is a contraction from other, and _nor_ from _ne-or_, no-or, no other. =No-wise=, no ways. I will go, or, other-wise, in another way or manner, you must go. =Than=, _the ane_, the one, that one, alluding to a particular object with which a comparison is made; as, This book is larger _than_ that bible. That _one_ bible, this book is larger. It is always used with the comparative degree, to define particularly the object with which the comparison is made. Talent is better than flattery. Than flattery, often bestowed regardless of merit, talent is better. =As= is an adjective, in extensive use. It means the, this, that, these, the same, etc. It is a defining word of the first kind. You practice _as_ you have been taught--_the same duties_ or _principles_ understood. We use language _as_ we have learned it; in _the same_ way or manner. It is often associated with other words to particularly specify the way, manner, or degree, in which something is done or compared. I can go _as well as_ you. In _the same well_, easy, convenient way or manner you can go, I can go in _the same_ way. He was _as_ learned, _as_ pious, _as_ benevolent, _as_ brave, _as_ faithful, _as_ ardent. These are purely adjectives, used to denote the degree of the likeness or similarity between the things compared. Secondary words are often added to this, to aid the distinction or definition; as, (_the same_ illustrated,) He is _just as willing_. I am _quite as well_ pleased without it. _As_, like many other adjectives, often occurs without a noun expressed, in which case it was formerly parsed by Murray himself _as_ (like, or the same) a relative pronoun; as, "And indeed it seldom at any period extends to the tip, _as happens_ in acute diseases."--_Dr. Sweetster._ "The ground I have assumed is tenable, _as will appear_."--_Webster._ "Bonaparte had a special motive in decorating Paris, for 'Paris is France, _as has_ often been observed."--_Channing._ "The words are such _as seem_."--_Murray's Reader! p. 16, intro._ =So= has nearly the same signification as the word last noticed, and is frequently used along with it, to define the other member of the comparison. _As_ far _as_ I can understand, _so_ far I approve. _As_ he directed, _so_ I obeyed. It very often occurs as a secondary adjective; as, "In pious and benevolent offices _so_ simple, _so_ minute, _so_ steady, _so_ habitual, that they will carry," etc. "He pursued a course _so_ unvarying."--_Channing._ These words are the most important of any small ones in our vocabulary, because (_for this cause_, be this the cause, this is the cause) they are the most frequently used; and yet there are no words _so_ little understood, or _so_ much abused by grammarians, _as_ these are. We have barely time to notice the remaining parts of speech. "Conjunctions" are defined to be a "part of speech void of signification, but so formed as to help signification, by making two or more significant sentences to be one significant sentence." Mr. Harris gives about forty "species." Murray admits of only the _dis_-junctive and copulative, and reduces the whole list of words to twenty-four. But what is meant by a _dis_-junctive _con_-junctive word, is left for you to determine. It must be in keeping with _in_definite _defining_ articles, and _post_-positive _pre_-positions. He says, "it joins words, but disjoins the sense."[22] And what is a _word_ with out _sense_," pray tell us? If "words are the signs of ideas," how, in the name of reason, can you give the sign and separate the sense? You can as well separate the shadow from the substance, or a quality from matter. We have already noticed Rule 18, which teaches the use of conjunctions. Under that rule, you may examine these examples. "As it _was_ in the beginning, _is_ now, _and_ ever _shall be_."--_Common Prayer._ "What I _do_, _have done,_ or _may_ hereafter _do_, _has been_, and _will_ always _be_ matter of inclination, the gratifying of which _pays_ itself: and I _have_ no more merit in employing my time and money in the way I _am known_ to do, than another has in other occupations."--_Howard._ The following examples must suffice. =If.= This word is derived from the saxon _gifan_, and was formerly written _giff_, _gyff_, _gif_, _geve_, _give_, _yiff_, _yef_, _yeve_. It signifies _give_, _grant_, _allow_, _suppose_, _admit_, and is always a verb in the imperative mood, having the following sentence or idea for its object. "_If_ a pound of sugar cost ten cents, what will ten pounds cost?" _Give_, grant, allow, suppose, (the fact,) _one pound cost_, etc. In this case the supposition which stands as a predicate--_one pound of sugar cost ten cents_, is the object of _if_--the thing to be allowed, supposed, or granted, and from which the conclusion as to the cost of _ten_ pounds is to be drawn. "He will assist us if he has the means." Allow, admit, (the fact,) he has the means, he will assist us. "_Gif_ luf be vertew, than is it leful thing; _Gif_ it be vice, it is your undoing." _Douglas_ p. 95. "Ne I ne wol non reherce, _yef_ that I may." _Chaucer._ "She was so charitable and so pytous She wolde wepe _yf that_ she sawe a mous Caught in a trappe, _if_ it were deed or bledde." _Prioresse._ "O haste and come to my master dear." "_Gin_ ye be Barbara Allen." _Burns._ =But.= This word has two opposite significations. It is derived from two different radicals. _But_, from the saxon _be_ and _utan_, _out_, means _be out_, _leave out_, _save_, _except_, _omit_, as, "all _but_ one are here." _Leave out_, _except_, _one_, all are here. "Heaven from all creation hides the book of fate All _but_ (_save_, _except_) the page prescribed our present state." "When nought _but_ (_leave out_) the _torrent_ is heard on the hill, And nought _but_ (_save_) the nightingale's _song_ in the grove." "Nothing _but fear_ restrains him." In these cases the direct _objects_ of the verb, the things to be omitted are expressed. _But_ is also derived from _botan_, which signifies _to add_, _superadd_, _join_ or _unite_; as, in the old form of a deed, "it is _butted_ and bounded as follows." Two animals _butt_ their heads together. The _butt_ of a log is that end which was _joined_ to the stump. A _butt_, _butment_ or _a-butment_ is the joined end, where there is a connexion with something else. A _butt_ of ridicule is an object to which ridicule is attached. "Not only saw he all that was, _But (add) much_ that never came to pass." _M'Fingal._ _To button_, _butt-on_, is derived from the same word, to join one side to the other, to fasten together. It was formerly spelled _botan_, _boote_, _bote_, _bot_, _butte_, _bute_, _but_. It is still spelled _boot_ in certain cases as a verb; as, "What _boots it_ thee to fly from pole to pole, Hang o'er the earth, and with the planets roll? What boots ( ) thro space's fartherest bourns to roam, _If_ thou, O man, a stranger art at home?" _Grainger._ "If love had _booted_ care or cost." A man exchanged his house in the city for a farm, and received fifty dollars to _boot_; _to add_ to his property, and make the exchange equal. _Let_ presents the same construction in form and meaning as _but_, for it is derived from two radicals of opposite significations. It means sometimes to _permit_ or _allow_; as, _let_ me go; _let_ me have it; and to _hinder_ or _prevent_; as, "I proposed to come unto you, _but_ (add this fact) I was _let_ hitherto."--_Rom. 1: 13._ "He who now _letteth_, will _let_ until he be taken out of the way."--_2 Thess. 2: 7._ =And= is a past participle signifying _added_, _one-ed_, _joined_. It was formerly placed after the words; as, "James, John, David, _and_, (_united to-_gether_-ed_,) go to school." We now place it _before_ the last word. =Tho=, _altho_, _yet_. "Tho (_admit_, _allow_, _the fact_) he slay me, yet (_get_, _have_, _know_, _the fact_) I will trust in him." _Yes_ is from the same word as _yet_. It means _get_ or _have_ my consent to the question asked. _Nay_ is the opposite of _yes_, _ne_-aye, nay, no. The _ayes_ and _noes_ were called for. I can pursue this matter no farther. The limits assigned me have been overrun already. What light may have been afforded you in relation to these words, will enable you to discover that they have _meaning_ which must be learned before they can be explained correctly; that done, all difficulty is removed. Interjections deserve no attention. They form no part of language, but may be used by beasts and birds as well as by men. They are indistinct utterances of emotions, which come not within the range of human speech. FOOTNOTES: [1] The reader is referred to "The Red Book," by William Bearcroft, revised by Daniel H. Barnes, late of the New-York High School, as a correct system of teaching practical orthography. [2] Gall, Spurzheim, and Combe, have reflected a light upon the science of the mind, which cannot fail of beneficial results. Tho the doctrines of phrenology, as now taught, may prove false--which is quite doubtful--or receive extensive modifications, yet the consequences to the philosophy of the mind will be vastly useful. The very terms employed to express the faculties and affections of the mind, are so definite and clear, that phrenology will long deserve peculiar regard, if for no other reason than for the introduction of a vocabulary, from which may be selected words for the communication of ideas upon intellectual subjects. [3] Metaphysics originally signified the science of the causes and principles of all things. Afterwards it was confined to the philosophy of the mind. In our times it has obtained still another meaning. Metaphysicians became so abstruse, bewildered, and lost, that nobody could understand them; and hence, _metaphysical_ is now applied to whatever is abstruse, doubtful, and unintelligible. If a speaker is not understood, it is because he is too metaphysical. "How did you like the sermon, yesterday?" "Tolerably well; but he was too metaphysical for common hearers." They could not understand him. [4] In this respect, many foreign languages possess a great advantage over ours. They can augment or diminish the same word to increase or lessen the meaning. For instance; in the Spanish, we can say _Hombre_, a man; _Hombron_, a _large_ man; _Hombrecito_, a _young_ man, or youth; _Hombrecillo_, a _miserable little_ man; _Pagaro_, a bird; _Pagarito_, a _pretty little_ bird; _Perro_, a dog; _Perrillo_, an _ugly little_ dog; _Perrazo_, a _large_ dog. The Indian languages admit of diminutives in a similar way. In the Delaware dialect, they are formed by the suffix _tit_, in the class of animate nouns; but by _es_, to the inanimate; as, _Senno_, a man; _Sennotit_, a _little_ man; _Wikwam_, a house; _Wikwames_, a _small_ house.--_Enc. Amer. Art. Indian Languages, vol. 6, p. 586._ [5] Mr. Harris, in his "Hermes," says, "A preposition is a part of speech, _devoid itself of signification_; but so formed as to unite two words that are significant, and that refuse to coalesce or unite themselves." Mr. Murray says, "Prepositions serve to _connect_ words with one another, and show the relation between them." [6] "Me thou shalt use in what thou wilt, and doe that with a slender _twist_, that none can doe with a tough _with_." _Euphues and his England, p. 136._ "They had arms under the straw in the boats, and had cut the _withes_ that held the oars of the town boats, to prevent any pursuit." _Ludlow's Memoirs, p. 435._ "The only furniture belonging to the houses, appears to be an oblong vessel made of bark, by tying up the ends with a _withe_." _Cooke's Description of Botany Bay._ [7] See Galatians, chap. 1, verse 15. "When it pleased God, who _separated_ me," &c. [8] Acts, xvii, 28. [9] St. Pierre's Studies of Nature.--Dr. Hunter's translation, pp. 172-176. [10] It is reported on very good authority that the same olive trees are now standing in the garden of Gethsemane under which the Saviour wept and near which he was betrayed. This is rendered more probable from the fact, that a tax is laid, by the Ottoman Porte, on all olive trees planted since Palestine passed into the possession of the Turks, and that several trees standing in Gethsemane do not pay such tribute, while all others do. [11] We do not assent to the notions of ancient philosophers and poets, who believed the doctrine that the world is animated by a soul, like the human body, which is the spirit of Deity himself; but that by the operation of wise and perfect laws, he exerts a supervision in the creation and preservation of all things animate and inanimate. Virgil stated the opinions of his times, in his �neid, B. VI. l. 724. "Principio coelum, ac terras, camposque liquentes, Lucentemque globum, Lunæ, Titaniaque astra Spiritus intus alit, totamque infusa per artus Mens agitat molem, et magno se corpore miscet." "Know, first, that heaven, and earth's compacted frame, And flowing waters, and the starry flame, And both the radiant lights, _one common soul_ Inspires and feeds--and _animates the whole_. This active mind, infused thro all the space, Unites and mingles with the mighty mass." _Dryden_, b. VI. l. 980. This sentiment, he probably borrowed from Pythagoras and Plato, who argue the same sentiment, and divide this spirit into "_intellectus_, _intelligentia_, et _natura_"--intellectual, intelligent, and natural. Whence, "_Ex hoc Deo, qui est mundi anima: quasi decerptæ particulæ sunt vitæ hominum et pecudum._" Or, "Omnia animalia ex quatuor elementis et _divino spiritu_ constare manifestum est. Trahunt enim a terra carnem, ab aqua humorem, ab ære anhelitum, ab igne fervorem, _a divino spiritu ingenium_."--_Timeus, chap. 24, and Virgil's Geor. b. 4, l. 220, Dryden's trans. l. 322._ Pope alludes to the same opinion in these lines: "All are but parts of one stupendous whole. Whose body nature is, and God the soul." [12] Page 41. [13] Exodus, iii. 2, 3. [14] Cardell's grammar. [15] The Jews long preserved this name in Samaritan letters to keep it from being known to strangers. The modern Jews affirm that by this mysterious name, engraven on his rod, Moses performed the wonders recorded of him; that Jesus stole the name from the temple and put it into his thigh between the flesh and skin, and by its power accomplished the miracles attributed to him. They think if they could pronounce the word correctly, the very heavens and earth would tremble, and angels be filled with terror. [16] Plutarch says, "This title is not only _proper_ but _peculiar to God_, because =He= alone is _being_; for mortals have no participation of _true being_, because that which _begins_ and _ends_, and is constantly _changing_, is never _one_ nor the _same_, nor in the same state. The deity on whose temple this word was inscribed was called =Apollo=, Apollon, from _a_ negative and _pollus_, _many_, because God is =one=, his nature simple, and _uncompounded_."--_Vide, Clark's Com._ [17] The same fact may be observed in other languages, for all people form language alike, in a way to correspond with their ideas. The following hasty examples will illustrate this point. _Agent._ _Verb._ _Object._ _English_ Singers Sing Songs _French_ Les chanteurs Chantent Les chansons _Spanish_ Los cantores Cantan Las cantinelas _Italian_ I cantori Cantano I canti _Latin_ Cantores Canunt Cantus _English_ Givers Give Gifts _French_ Les donneurs Donnent Les dons _Spanish_ Los donadores Dan o donan Los dones _Italian_ I danatori Dano o danano I doni _Latin_ Datores Donant Dona _English_ Fishers Fish Fishes _French_ Les pecheurs Pechent Les poissons _Spanish_ Los pescadores Pescan Los peces _Italian_ I pescatori Pescan I pesci _Latin_ Piscatores Piscantur Pisces _English_ Students Study Studies _French_ Les etudiens Etudient Les etudes _Spanish_ Los estudiantes Estudian Los estudios _Italian_ I studienti Studiano I studii _Latin_ Studiosi Student Studia [18] Mr. Murray says, "These compounds," _have_, _shall_, _will_, _may_, _can_, _must_, _had_, _might_, _could_, _would_, and _should_, which he uses as auxiliaries to _help_ conjugate _other_ verbs, "are, however, to be considered as _different forms_ of the _same_ verb." I should like to know, if these words have any thing to do with the _principal_ verbs; if they only alter the _form_ of the verb which follows them. I _may_, _can_, _must_, _shall_, _will_, or _do love_. Are these only different forms of _love_? or rather, are they not distinct, important, and original verbs, pure and perfect _in_ and _of_ themselves? Ask for their etymons and meaning, and then decide. [19] Diversions of Purley, vol. 1, p. 77. [20] Dr. Edwards observes, in a communication to the Connecticut Society of Arts and Sciences, from personal knowledge, that "the Mohegans (Indians) have _no adjectives_ in all their language. Altho it may at first seem not only singular and curious, but impossible, that a language should exist without adjectives, yet it is an indubitable fact." But it is proved that in later times the Indians employ adjectives, derived from nouns or verbs, as well as other nations. Altho many of their dialects are copious and harmonious, yet they suffered no inconvenience from a want of contracted words and phrases. They added the ideas of definition and description to the things themselves, and expressed them in the _same_ word, in a modified form. [21] Matthew, chap. 24, v. 48. [22] Examples of a _dis_-junctive conjunction. "They came with her, _but_ they went without her."--_Murray._ Murray is _wrong_, _and_ Cardell is _right_. The simplifiers are wrong, _but_ their standard is so likewise. "Me he restored to my office, _and_ him he hanged."--_Pharaoh's Letter._ TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE The following printer's errors have been corrected in this etext. Changes are indicated in brackets. Contents ON NOUNS AMD [AND] PRONOUNS Lecture I process of time as ingle [a single] will not unfrequenly [unfrequently] represent Lecture III German, Danish, Dutch, Sweedish [Swedish] Lecture V _David_ killed Goliah [Goliath] Lecture VI and cosinder [consider] them in this place Lecture VII We are told there are are [are] two articles the mother is _mascu.line_ [masculine] dress handkerchief.["] The resolution Lecture VIII object will be to ascertion [ascertain] ["]But wherefore _sits he_ there? act _transitively_, acording [according] to Lecture IX the pocket of Guy Fawks [Fawkes] For we should rember [remember] _looks_ like or _resembles_ his brother,["] Lecture X A philosophical axiom[.]--Manner And our languge [language] should ["]I have addressed this volume Lecture XI Be not surprized [surprised] when I tell you Lecture XII the qualifification [qualification] of an _adverb_, --"express neither actionn [action] or passion." Lecture XIV trace back to their orignal [original] form ["]He stept _a_-side" ["]As Mailie, an' her lambs ["]Not only saw he all that was, Footnote 22 Murray is _wroug_ [wrong] 
30847	----	TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES--PART VI, NO. 36 COMPOUND WORDS A STUDY OF THE PRINCIPLES OF COMPOUNDING, THE COMPONENTS OF COMPOUNDS, AND THE USE OF THE HYPHEN BY FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, LL. D. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR UNITED TYPOTHETÆ OF AMERICA. PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA 1918 COPYRIGHT, 1918 UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA CHICAGO, ILL. PREFACE The subject of compounds is one of the most difficult of the matters relating to correct literary composition. The difficulty arises from the fact that usage, especially in the matter of the presence or absence of the hyphen, is not clearly settled. Progressive tendencies are at work and there is great difference of usage, even among authorities of the first rank, with regard to many compounds in common use. An attempt is made to show first the general character of the problems involved. Then follows a discussion of the general principles of compounding. The general rules for the formation of compounds are stated and briefly discussed. The various components of compounds are fully analyzed and tabulated. The best modern usage in the matter of the employment of the hyphen is set forth in a series of rules. The whole is concluded by practical advice to the compositor as to the use of the rules in the actual work of the office. CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION 1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES 4 ACCENT IN COMPOUNDING 5 THE FORMATION OF COMPOUNDS 6 COMPONENTS OF COMPOUNDS 7 RULES FOR THE USE OF THE HYPHEN 9 SUPPLEMENTARY READING 16 REVIEW QUESTIONS 17 COMPOUND WORDS INTRODUCTION The English language contains a great many words and phrases which are made up of two or more words combined or related in such a way as to form a new verbal phrase having a distinct meaning of its own and differing in meaning from the sum of the component words taken singly. _Income_ and _outgo_, for example, have quite definite meanings related, it is true, to _come_ and _go_ and to _in_ and _out_, but sharply differentiated from those words in their ordinary and general signification. We use these compound words and phrases so commonly that we never stop to think how numerous they are, or how frequently new ones are coined. Any living language is constantly growing and developing new forms. New objects have to be named, new sensations expressed, new experiences described. Sometimes these words are mere aggregations like _automobile_, _monotype_, _sidewalk_, _policeman_ and the like. Sometimes, indeed very often, they are short cuts. A _hatbox_ is a box for carrying a hat, a _red-haired_ man is a man with red hair. A _bookcase_ is a case to contain books, etc. Sometimes the phrase consists of two or more separate words, such as _well known_ or _nicely kept_. Sometimes it consists of words joined by a hyphen, such as _boarding-house_, _sleeping-car_. Sometimes it consists of a single word formed by amalgamating or running together the components, such as _penholder_, _nevertheless_. In which of these forms shall we write the phrase we speak so easily? How shall we shape the new word we have just coined? Which of these three forms shall we use, and why? Ordinarily we look for the answer to such questions from three sources, historical development, the past of the language; some logical principle of general application; or some recognized standard of authority. Unfortunately we get little help from either of these sources in this special difficulty. The history of the language is a history of constant change. The Anglo-Saxon tongue was full of compounds, but the hyphen was an unknown device to those who spoke it. The English of Chaucer, the period when our new-born English tongue was differentiated from those which contributed to its composition, is full of compounds, and the compounds were generally written with a hyphen. Shakespeare used many compound words and phrases some of which sound strange, if not uncouth, to modern ears, but used the hyphen much less than Chaucer. In modern times the tendency has been and is to drop the hyphen. The more general progression seems to be (1) two words, (2) two words hyphenated, (3) two words run together into one. Sometimes, however, the hyphen drops, leaving two words separated. That there is constant change, and that the change is progressing consistently in the direction of eliminating the hyphen is fairly clear. This, however, does not help us much. At what stage of the process are we with regard to any given word? Which form of the process is operating in any given case? There are no laws or principles of universal application on which we may build a consistent system of practice. Certain general principles have been laid down and will be here set forth. While they are helpful to the understanding of the subject they are not sufficiently universal to serve as practical guides in all cases. In any event they need to be supplemented by careful study of the rules for the use of the hyphen, by careful study of the best usage in particular cases, and by thorough knowledge of the style of each particular office, as will be pointed out later. Authorities and usage differ widely, and it is often difficult to say that a particular form is right or wrong. There is no recognized standard authority. The dictionaries do not agree with each other and are not always consistent with themselves. They may always write a certain word in a certain way but they may write another word to all appearance exactly analogous to the first in another way. For example Worcester has _brickwork_ and _brasswork_, but _wood-work_ and _iron-work_. Webster, on the other hand, has _woodwork_ and _brick-work_. The best that the printer can do is to adopt a set of rules or style of his own and stick to it consistently. Here and there a generally accepted change, like the dropping of the hyphen from _tomorrow_ and _today_ will force itself upon him, but for the most part he may stick to his style. Of course, the author, if he has a marked preference, must be permitted to use his own methods of compounding except in magazine publications and the like. In such cases, when the author's work is to appear in the same volume with that of other writers, the style of the printing office must rule and the individual contributors must bow to it. GENERAL PRINCIPLES Three general principles are laid down by Mr. F. Horace Teall which will be found useful, though they must be supplemented in practice by more specific rules which will be given later. They are as follows: I All words should be separate when used in regular grammatical relations and construction unless they are jointly applied in some arbitrary way. An _iron fence_ means a fence made of iron. The meaning and construction are normal and the words are not compounded. An _iron-saw_ means a saw for cutting iron. The meaning is not the same as _iron saw_ which would mean a saw made of iron. The hyphenated compound indicates the special meaning of the words used in this combination. _Ironwood_ is a specific name applied to a certain kind of very hard wood. Hence, it becomes a single word compounded but without a hyphen. Either of the other forms would be ambiguous or impossible in meaning. II Abnormal associations of words generally indicate unification in sense and hence compounding in form. A _sleeping man_ is a phrase in which the words are associated normally. The man sleeps. A _sleeping-car_ is a phrase in which the words are associated abnormally. The car does not sleep. It is a specially constructed car in which the passengers may sleep comfortably. A _king fisher_ might be a very skilful fisherman. A _kingfisher_ is a kind of bird. Here again we have an abnormal association of words and as the compound word is the name of a specific sort of bird there is no hyphen. A _king-fisher_, if it meant anything, would probably mean one who fished for kings, as a _pearl-diver_ is one who dives for pearls. III Conversely, no expression in the language should ever be changed from two or more words into one (either hyphenated or solid) without change of sense. _Saw trimmer_ is not compounded because there is no change in the commonly accepted sense of either word. _Color work_ is not compounded because the word _color_, by usage common in English, has the force of an adjective, and the words are used in their accepted sense. In other languages it would be differently expressed, for example, in French it would be _oeuvre_, or _imprimerie en couleur_, _work_, or, _printing in color_. _Presswork_ is compounded because it has a special and specific meaning. Good or bad presswork is a good or bad result of work done on a press. Here as everywhere in printing the great purpose is to secure plainness and intelligibility. Print is made to read. Anything which obscures the sense, or makes the passage hard to read is wrong. Anything which clears up the sense and makes the passage easy to read and capable of only one interpretation is right. INFLUENCE OF ACCENT IN COMPOUNDING Some writers lay much stress on the influence of accent in the formation of compounds while others ignore it entirely. Accent undoubtedly has some influence and the theory may be easily and intelligibly expressed. It ought to be understood, but it will not be found an entirely safe guide. Usage has modified the results of compounding in many cases in ways which do not lend themselves to logical explanation and classification. The general principle as stated by Mr. Teall is as follows: When each part of the compound is accented, use the hyphen; _laughter-loving_. When only one part is accented, omit the hyphen; _many sided_. When the accent is changed, print the compound solid; _broadsword_. This follows the general rule of accenting the first syllable in English words. RULES FOR THE FORMATION OF COMPOUNDS I Two nouns used together as a name form a compound noun unless: (_a_) The first is used in a descriptive or attributive sense, that is, is really an adjective, or (_b_) The two are in apposition. Various uses of the noun as an adjective, that is, in some qualifying or attributive sense are when the noun conveys the sense of: 1. "Made of;" _leather belt_, _steel furniture_. 2. "Having the shape, character, or quality of;" _diamond pane_, _iron ration_, _bull calf_. 3. "Pertaining to, suitable for, representing;" _office desk_, _labor union_. 4. "Characterized by;" _motor drive_. 5. "Situated in, and the like;" _ocean current_, _city life_. 6. "Supporting or advocating;" _union man_, _Bryan voter_. 7. "Existing in or coming from;" _Yellowstone geyser_, _California lemon_. 8. "Originated or made by, named for;" _Gordon Press_, _Harvard College_. Placing the two nouns in apposition is much the same as using the first as an adjective. Such compounds are generally written as two words without the hyphen, but see specific rules for use of hyphens. II Every name apparently composed of a plain noun and a noun of agent or verbal noun, but really conveying the sense of a phrase with suffix _er_, _or_, or _ing_, should be treated as a compound; _roller distribution_. III Possessive phrases used as specific names (generally plants) are treated as compounds. They are hyphenated unless very common, in which case they are closed up; _crane's-bill_, _ratsbane_. IV Any phrase used as a specific name in an arbitrary application not strictly figurative is written as a compound; _blueberry_, _red-coat_, _forget-me-not_. V Any pair of words used as one name of which the second is a noun but the first not really an adjective should be written as a compound; _foster-brother_, _down-town_, _after-consideration_. As elsewhere the use of the hyphen depends largely in the familiarity of the phrase; _spoilsport_, _pickpocket_. VI Any two words other than nouns should be treated as a compound, generally solid, when arbitrarily associated as a name; _standpoint_, _outlook_. VII A name or an adjective made by adding a suffix to a proper name compounded of two words should be treated as a compound with a hyphen; _East-Indian_, _New-Yorker_. If the name is not inflected this rule does not apply; _East India Company_, _New York man_. VIII Any pair or series of words arbitrarily associated in a joint sense different from their sense when used separately, should be compounded; _workman-like_, _warlike_. COMPONENTS OF COMPOUNDS Compounds having the force of nouns may be made up in several ways. 1. Two nouns used in other than their natural signification; _claw-hammer_. 2. A noun and an adjective used in other than their natural signification; _great-uncle_, _dry-goods_. 3. A noun and an adverb; _touch-down_, _holder-forth_. 4. A noun and an adverb; _down-draft_, _flare-back_. 5. A noun and a verb; _know-nothing_, _draw-bar_. 6. A noun and a preposition; _between-decks_. 7. Two adjectives; _high-low_, _wide-awake_. 8. Two verbs; _make-believe_. 9. A verb and an adverb; _cut-off_, _break-up_. 10. A verb and a preposition; _to-do_, _go-between_. Compounds having the force of adjectives may be made up in several ways. 1. A group of words compacted into one idea; _never-to-be-forgotten_. 2. Two adjectives; _white-hot_, _ashy-blue_. 3. An adjective and a participle or noun and suffix simulating a participle; _odd-looking_, _foreign-born_, _bow-legged_. 4. An adjective and a noun; _fire-new_, _type-high_. 5. A noun and a participle (or noun and suffix simulating a participle); _hand-printed_, _peace-making_. 6. An adverb and an adjective used together before a noun; _well-bred_, _long-extended_. 7. Two nouns used adjectively before another noun; _cotton-seed oil_, _shoe-sewing machine_, _Sunday-school teacher_. 8. An adjective and a noun used together before a noun; _civil-service examination_, _free-trade literature_, _fresh-water sailor_. 9. A verb and a noun; _John Lack-land_. Four compounds occur with the force of verbs. 1. Two verbs; _balance-reef_. 2. A verb and a noun; _silver-plate_, _house-break_. 3. A verb and an adjective; _cold-press_, _fine-still_. 4. A verb and an adverb; _cross-examine_. Several combinations are used with the force of adverbs. 1. Two adverbs; _upright_, _henceforth_. 2. A noun and an adverb; _brain-sickly_. 3. An adjective and an adverb (or compound adjective with suffix, simulating an adverb); _stout-heartedly_, _ill-naturedly_. 4. An adjective and a verb; _broadcast_. 5. Two nouns; _piecemeal_, _half-mast_. 6. A noun and an adjective; _cost-free_, _pointblank_. 7. A noun and a preposition; _down-stairs_, _above-board_, _offhand_. RULES FOR THE USE OF THE HYPHEN 1. Hyphenate nouns formed by the combination of two nouns standing in objective relation to each other, that is, one of whose components is derived from a transitive verb: _well-wisher_ _wood-turning_ _mind-reader_ _child-study_ _office-holder_ _clay-modeling_ When such compounds are in very common use, and especially when they have a specific or technical meaning, they are printed solid; _typewriter_ _stockholder_ _proofreader_ _copyholder_ _lawgiver_ _dressmaker_ 2. Hyphenate a combination of a present participle with a noun when the meaning of the combination is different from that of the two words taken separately; _boarding-house_, _sleeping-car_, _walking-stick_. 3. Hyphenate a combination of a present participle with a preposition used absolutely (not governing the following noun); _the putting-in or taking-out of a hyphen_. 4. As a rule compounds of _book_, _house_, _will_, _room_, _shop_, and _work_ should be printed solid when the prefixed noun has one syllable; should be hyphenated when it contains two; should be printed in two separate words when it contains three or more; _handbook_, _notebook_, _story-book_, _pocket-book_, _reference book_. _clubhouse_, _storehouse_, _engine-house_, _power-house_, _business-house_. _handmill_, _sawmill_, _water-mill_, _paper-mill_, _chocolate mill_. _classroom_, _lecture-room_, _recitation room_. _tinshop_, _tailor-shop_, _carpenter shop_. _woodwork_, _metal-work_, _filigree work_. Unusual combinations such as _source-book_ and _wheat-mill_ are sometimes hyphenated, and the hyphen is sometimes omitted for the sake of the appearance as in _school work_. 5. Compounds of _maker_, _dealer_, and other words denoting occupation are generally hyphenated; _harness-maker_, _job-printer_. The tendency is to print these words solid when they come into very common use; _dressmaker_. 6. Hyphenate nouns when combined in an adjectival sense before the name of the same person; _the martyr-president Lincoln_, _the poet-artist Rosetti._ 7. Compounds of _store_ are generally hyphenated when the prefix contains one syllable, otherwise not; _drug-store_, _fruit-store_ (but _bookstore_), _provision store_. 8. Compounds of _fellow_ are hyphenated; _fellow-being_, _play-fellow_, but _bedfellow_. 9. Compounds of _father_, _mother_, _brother_, _sister_, _daughter_, _parent_, and _foster_ should be hyphenated when the word in question forms the first part of the compound; _father-love_, _mother-country_, _brother-officer_, _sister-state_, _daughter-cell_, _parent-word_, _foster-brother_, but (by exception) _fatherland_. 10. Hyphenate compounds of _great_ in phrases indicating degrees of descent; _great-grandmother_, _great-great-grandfather_. 11. Hyphenate compounds of _life_ and _world_; _life-history_, _world-influence_, but (by exception) _lifetime_. 12. Compounds of _skin_ with words of one syllable are printed solid, otherwise as two separate words; _calfskin_, _sheepskin_, _alligator skin_. 13. Hyphenate compounds of _master_; _master-builder_, _master-stroke_, but (by exception) _masterpiece_. 14. Hyphenate compounds of _god_ when this word forms the second element; _sun-god_, _war-god_, _godsend_, _godson_. 15. Hyphenate compounds of _half_ and _quarter_; _half-truth_, _quarter-circle_, _half-title_, but on account of difference in meaning of _quarter_, _quartermaster_, _headquarters_. 16. These prefixes _ante_- _infra_- _re_- _anti_- _inter_- _semi_- _bi_- _intra_- _sub_- _co_- _pre_- _super_- _demi_- _post_- _tri_- are ordinarily joined to the word with which they are used without a hyphen, except when followed by the same letter as that with which they terminate or by _w_ or _y_; _antechamber_ _post-temporal_ _antiseptic_ _post-graduate_ _anti-imperialistic_ _prearrange_ _biennial_ _pre-empt_ _bipartisan_ _recast_ _co-equal_ _re-enter_ _co-ordinate_ _semiannual_ _demigod_ _subconscious_ _inframarginal_ _subtitle_ _international_ _superfine_ _intersperse_ _tricolor_ _intramural_ _co-workers_ _intra-atomic_ _co-yield_ Exceptions are (_a_) Combinations with proper names or adjectives derived therefrom, and long or unusual compounds; _ante-bellum_ _sister-university_ _anti-license_ _post-revolutionary_ _anti-security_ _pre-Raphaelite_ _demi-relievo_ _re-tammanize_ (_b_) Words in which the omission of the hyphen would alter the sense; _re-formation_ _reformation_ _re-cover_ _recover_ _re-creation_ _recreation_ 17. The negative prefixes _un_, _in_, _il_, _im_, and _a_ do not take a hyphen except in very rare or artificial combinations; _unmanly_, _invisible_, _illimitable_, _impenetrable_, _asymmetrical_. The negative prefix _non_ calls for a hyphen except in very common words; _non-existent_ _non-combatant_ _non-interference_ _nonsense_ _non-unionist_ _nonessential_ 18. The prefixes _quasi_, _extra_, _supra_, _ultra_, and _pan_ call for a hyphen; _quasi-historical_ _supra-normal_ _quasi-corporation_ _ultra-conservative_ _extra-mural_ _Pan-Germanism_ _Ultramontaine_, probably because a specific party designation, is always printed solid. 19. _Over_ and _under_ do not ordinarily call for a hyphen; _overemphasize_, _underfed_, but _over-careful_, _over-spiritualistic_. 20. Combinations having _self_ and _by_ as the first element of the compound call for a hyphen; _self-evident_, _self-respecting_, _by-law_, _by-product_, but _selfhood_, _selfish_, and _selfsame_. 21. Combinations of _fold_ are printed as one word if the number contains only one syllable but as two if it contains more than one; _twofold_ _fifteen fold_ _tenfold_ _a hundred fold_ 22. Adjectives formed by a noun preceding _like_ do not take a hyphen if the noun is a monosyllable, except when ending in _l_ or a proper noun; if the noun contains more than one syllable a hyphen should be used; _childlike_, _warlike_, _catlike_, _bell-like_, _Napoleon-like_, but (by exception) _Christlike_. 23. _Vice_, _elect_, _ex_, _general_, and _lieutenant_ as parts of titles are connected with the chief noun by a hyphen; _vice-consul_, _ex-president_, _governor-elect_, _postmaster-general_, _lieutenant-colonel_. 24. _Today_, _tonight_, and _tomorrow_ are printed without a hyphen. 25. In fractional numbers spelled out connect the numerator and denominator by a hyphen. "_The day is three-quarters gone_," _four and five-eighths_, _thirty-hundredths_, _ninety-two thousandths_. Do not use the hyphen in an instance as "_One half the business is owned by Mr. Jones, one quarter by Mr. Smith, and one eighth each by Mr. Browne and Mr. Robinson._" 26. Where two or more compound words occur together having one of their components in common, this component is often omitted from all but the last word and the omission indicated by a hyphen; _French-and Spanish-speaking countries_, _wood-iron-and steel-work_, _one-two-three-four and five-cent stamps_. This usage is objected to in some offices as being a Germanized form. It is however, less ambiguous than where the hyphen is omitted and is therefore preferable. 27. Ordinal numbers compounded with nouns take the hyphen in such expressions as _second-hand_, _first-rate_, and the like. 28. Numerals of one syllable take a hyphen in compounds with self-explanatory words such as _four-footed_, _one-eyed_, and the like. 29. Numerals compounded with nouns to form an adjective take the hyphen; _twelve-inch rule_, _three-horse team_, _six-point lead_. 30. The hyphen is used in compounding a noun in the possessive case with another noun; _jew's-harp_, _crow's-nest_. 31. The hyphen is used with most compounds of _tree_; _apple-tree_, _quince-tree_, but not when a particular object, not a tree (vegetable), is meant; _whippletree_, _crosstree_. 32. Use the hyphen in compounding two adjectives generally, especially personal epithets; _asked-for opinion_, _sea-island cotton_, _dry-plate process_, _hard-headed_, _strong-armed_, _broad-shouldered_. 33. The hyphen is not used in points of the compass unless doubly compounded; _northeast_, _southwest_, _north-northeast_, _south-southwest by south_. 34. Compounds ending with _man_ or _woman_ are run solid; _pressman_, _forewoman_. 35. Omit the hyphen in such phrases as _by and by_, _by the bye_, _good morning_ (except when used adjectively, _a good-morning greeting_,) _attorney at law_, _coat of arms_. 36. Compounds ending in _holder_ and _monger_ are run solid; _bondholder_, _cheesemonger_. 37. Compounds beginning with _eye_ are run solid; _eyeglass_, _eyewitness_. 38. Compounds unless very unusual, beginning with _deutero_, _electro_, _pseudo_, _sulpho_, _thermo_, etc., are run solid; _electrotype_, _pseudonym_, _thermostat_. 39. Do not separate _meanwhile_ _anywhere_ _somebody_ _meantime_ _anybody_ _somehow_ _moreover_ _anyhow_ _something_ _forever_ _anything_ _sometime_ _everywhere_ _anyway_ _somewhat_ _somewhere_ In phrases like _in the meantime_ and _forever and ever_ the words are printed separately. _Any one_ and _some one_ are separate words. 40. In compounds of color the hyphen is not used except when a noun is used with an adjective to specify color; _reddish-brown_, _gray-white_, _lemon-yellow_, _olive-green_, _silver-gray_. 41. Following is a list of words of everyday occurrence which should be hyphenated, and which do not fall under any of the above classifications. _after-years_ _food-stuff_ _sea-level_ _bas-relief_ _guinea-pig_ _sense-perception_ _birth-rate_ _horse-power_ _son-in-law_ _blood-relations_ _loan-word_ _subject-matter_ _common-sense_ _man-of-war_ _thought-process_ _cross-examine_ _object-lesson_ _title-page_ _cross-reference_ _page-proof_ _wave-length_ _cross-section_ _pay-roll_ _well-being_ _death-rate_ _poor-law_ _well-nigh_ _folk-song_ _post-office_ _will-power_ _fountain-head_ These rules are the consensus of opinion of a considerable number of good authorities from DeVinne (1901) to Manly and Powell (1913). The great practical difficulty is that authorities differ as to their application. DeVinne uses the dieresis instead of the hyphen in such cases as _co-operate_ or _pre-eminent_, writing _coöperate_, _preëminent_. Many of the rules have exceptions and authorities differ as to the extent of the exceptions. There are many differences in the great number of unclassified compounds. For example, Manly and Powell write _coat-of-arms_, while Orcutt writes _coat of arms_. Common usage omits the hyphen from post office except when used as an adjective, e. g., _post-office accounts_. A strict adherence to the rules given would probably result, not in bad composition, but in a much greater use of hyphens than would be found on the pages of many recent books from the presses of some of the best publishers. This is due partly to the fact that usage has never been strictly uniform and partly to the constant progressive change noted at the beginning of this study. We are gradually discontinuing the use of the hyphen just as we are diminishing our use of capital letters, punctuation marks, and italics. The compositor should ground himself thoroughly in the principles and rules. He should learn the best usage with regard to special words and phrases. He should master the office style. He should follow copy if the author has distinct and definite ideas which are not absolutely wrong and would not introduce inconsistencies in magazines and the like by violating the office style which is followed in other parts of the same publication. If it is clear that the author knows what he wants, the compositor should follow copy. Questions of correctness and conformity to style belong not to him but to the copy editor and proofreader. SUPPLEMENTARY READING English Compound Words and Phrases. By Francis Horace Teall. Funk & Wagnalls, New York. The Compounding of English Words, When and Why Joining or Separation is Preferable. By Francis Horace Teall. J. Ireland, New York. Correct Composition. By Theodore L. De Vinne. The Oswald Publishing Co., New York. A Manual for Writers. By John Matthews Manly and John Arthur Powell. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago. The Writer's Desk Book. By William Dana Orcutt. Frederick A. Stokes Co., New York. QUESTIONS 1. What is meant by a "compound"? 2. What is the purpose of a compound? 3. In what three forms do compounds appear? 4. Where should we expect to find guidance in the choice of these forms? 5. Do we so find it, and why? 6. What tendency is observable in usage regarding compounds? 7. What can the printer do? 8. Give Teall's rules, and show the application of each. 9. What is the influence of accent in compounding? 10. What is the rule about two nouns used together to form a name? 11. What is the rule about names composed of a plain noun and a verbal noun? 12. How are possessive phrases used as specific names treated? 13. What is the rule about phrases used as specific names? 14. How do you write a pair of words used as a name when the second word is a noun and the first not really an adjective? 15. How do you treat two words, not nouns, arbitrarily used as a name? 16. How do you treat a compound consisting of a suffix and a compound proper name? 17. How do you treat words so associated that their joint sense is different from their separate sense? 18. How may compounds having the force of nouns be made up? 19. How may compounds having the force of adjectives be made up? 20. How may compounds having the force of verbs be made up? 21. How may compounds having the force of adverbs be made up? 22. How are compound nouns written when one of the components is derived from a transitive verb? 23. How is a compound of a present participle and a noun written? 24. How is a compound of a present participle and a preposition treated? 25. What is the usage in compounds of _book_, _house_, _will_, _room_, _shop_, and _work_? 26. How are compounds of _maker_ and _dealer_ written? 27. What is done when nouns are combined in a descriptive phrase before a name of a person? 28. How are compounds of _store_ treated? 29. How are compounds of _fellow_ treated? 30. How are compounds of _father_, _mother_, _brother_, _sister_, _daughter_, _parent_, and _foster_ treated? 31. What compounds of _great_ are hyphenated? 32. How are compounds of _life_ and _world_ treated? 33. What is the rule about compounds of _skin_? 34. How are compounds of _master_ treated? 35. What is the rule about compounds of _god_? 36. Give fifteen common prefixes and tell how they are used, stating exceptions. 37. What are the negative prefixes and how are they used? 38. What is the rule about the prefixes _quasi_, _extra_, _supra_, _ultra_, and _pan_? 39. What is the rule about _over_ and _under_? 40. What is the rule about compounds of _self_ and _by_? 41. How are compounds of _fold_ treated? 42. What is the rule about compounds of a noun followed by _like_? 43. How are titles treated when compounded with _vice_, _elect_, _ex_, _general_, and _lieutenant_? 44. How do you write three familiar compounds denoting time? 45. How should you treat fractional numbers spelled out? 46. What is done when two or more compound words with a common component occur in succession? 47. How do you write compounds of ordinal numbers and nouns? 48. What rule is given about numerals of one syllable? 49. What rule is given about numerals compounded with nouns? 50. How do you treat a compound of two nouns one in the possessive case? 51. How are compounds of _tree_ treated? 52. What is the rule about compounds of two adjectives? 53. What is the rule about points of the compass? 54. What should you do with compounds ending in _man_ or _woman_? 55. Give certain common typical phrases which omit the hyphen. 56. How do you treat compounds ending in _holder_ and _monger_? 57. How do you treat compounds beginning with _eye_? 58. What is said of compounds beginning with _deutero_, _electro_, _pseudo_, _sulpho_, _thermo_, and the like? 59. Give some common compounds which are always run solid. 60. How are compounds of color treated? 61. Are these rules universally followed? 62. What is the duty of the compositor in these cases, especially when doubtful? In this volume, as in so many in this section, much depends upon practice drills. The memorizing of rules is difficult and is of very little use unless accompanied by a great deal of practice so that the apprentice will become so thoroughly familiar with them that he will apply them at once without conscious thought. He should no more think of the rule when he writes _fellow-man_, than he thinks of the multiplication table when he says seven times eight are fifty-six. This drill may be given in several ways, by asking the student to explain the use or omission of hyphens in printed matter, by giving written matter purposely incorrect in parts and asking him to set it correctly, or by giving dictations and having the apprentice write out the matter and then set it up. Later, when it will not be too wasteful of time, the apprentice can be given the ordinary run of copy as customers send it in and told to set it in correct form. He will probably find enough errors in it to test his knowledge of compounding and of many other things. TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES The following list of publications, comprising the TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES, has been prepared under the supervision of the Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America for use in trade classes, in course of printing instruction, and by individuals. Each publication has been compiled by a competent author or group of authors, and carefully edited, the purpose being to provide the printers of the United States--employers, journeymen, and apprentices--with a comprehensive series of handy and inexpensive compendiums of reliable, up-to-date information upon the various branches and specialties of the printing craft, all arranged in orderly fashion for progressive study. The publications of the series are of uniform size, 5 x 8 inches. Their general make-up, in typography, illustrations, etc., has been, as far as practicable, kept in harmony throughout. A brief synopsis of the particular contents and other chief features of each volume will be found under each title in the following list. Each topic is treated in a concise manner, the aim being to embody in each publication as completely as possible all the rudimentary information and essential facts necessary to an understanding of the subject. Care has been taken to make all statements accurate and clear, with the purpose of bringing essential information within the understanding of beginners in the different fields of study. Wherever practicable, simple and well-defined drawings and illustrations have been used to assist in giving additional clearness to the text. In order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible help for use in trade-school classes and for self-instruction, each title is accompanied by a list of Review Questions covering essential items of the subject matter. A short Glossary of technical terms belonging to the subject or department treated is also added to many of the books. These are the Official Text-books of the United Typothetae of America. Address all orders and inquiries to COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, U. S. A. PART I--_Types, Tools, Machines, and Materials_ 1. =Type: a Primer of Information= By A. A. Stewart Relating to the mechanical features of printing types; their sizes, font schemes, etc., with a brief description of their manufacture. 44 pp.; illustrated; 74 review questions; glossary. 2. =Compositors' Tools and Materials= By A. A. Stewart A primer of information about composing sticks, galleys, leads, brass rules, cutting and mitering machines, etc. 47 pp.; illustrated; 50 review questions; glossary. 3. =Type Cases, Composing Room Furniture= By A. A. Stewart A primer of information about type cases, work stands, cabinets, case racks, galley racks, standing galleys, etc. 43 pp.; illustrated; 33 review questions; glossary. 4. =Imposing Tables and Lock-up Appliances= By A. A. Stewart Describing the tools and materials used in locking up forms for the press, including some modern utilities for special purposes. 59 pp.; illustrated; 70 review questions; glossary. 5. =Proof Presses= By A. A. Stewart A primer of information about the customary methods and machines for taking printers' proofs. 40 pp.; illustrated; 41 review questions; glossary. 6. =Platen Printing Presses= By Daniel Baker A primer of information regarding the history and mechanical construction of platen printing presses, from the original hand press to the modern job press, to which is added a chapter on automatic presses of small size. 51 pp.; illustrated; 49 review questions; glossary. 7. =Cylinder Printing Presses= By Herbert L. Baker Being a study of the mechanism and operation of the principal types of cylinder printing machines. 64 pp.; illustrated; 47 review questions; glossary. 8. =Mechanical Feeders and Folders= By William E. Spurrier The history and operation of modern feeding and folding machines; with hints on their care and adjustments. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. 9. =Power for Machinery in Printing Houses= By Carl F. Scott A treatise on the methods of applying power to printing presses and allied machinery with particular reference to electric drive. 53 pp.; illustrated; 69 review questions; glossary. 10. =Paper Cutting Machines= By Niel Gray, Jr. A primer of information about paper and card trimmers, hand-lever cutters, power cutters, and other automatic machines for cutting paper. 70 pp.; illustrated; 115 review questions; glossary. 11. =Printers' Rollers= By A. A. Stewart A primer of information about the composition, manufacture, and care of inking rollers. 46 pp.; illustrated; 61 review questions; glossary. 12. =Printing Inks= By Philip Ruxton Their composition, properties and manufacture (reprinted by permission from Circular No. 53, United States Bureau of Standards); together with some helpful suggestions about the everyday use of printing inks by Philip Ruxton. 80 pp.; 100 review questions; glossary. 13. =How Paper is Made= By William Bond Wheelwright A primer of information about the materials and processes of manufacturing paper for printing and writing. 68 pp.; illustrated; 62 review questions; glossary. 14. =Relief Engravings= By Joseph P. Donovan Brief history and non-technical description of modern methods of engraving; woodcut, zinc plate, halftone; kind of copy for reproduction; things to remember when ordering engravings. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. 15. =Electrotyping and Stereotyping= By Harris B. Hatch and A. A. Stewart A primer of information about the processes of electrotyping and stereotyping. 94 pp.; illustrated; 129 review questions; glossaries. PART II--_Hand and Machine Composition_ 16. =Typesetting= By A. A. Stewart A handbook for beginners, giving information about justifying, spacing, correcting, and other matters relating to typesetting. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. 17. =Printers' Proofs= By A. A. Stewart The methods by which they are made, marked, and corrected, with observations on proofreading. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. 18. =First Steps in Job Composition= By Camille DeVéze Suggestions for the apprentice compositor in setting his first jobs, especially about the important little things which go to make good display in typography. 63 pp.; examples; 55 review questions; glossary. 19. =General Job Composition= How the job compositor handles business stationery, programs and miscellaneous work. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. 20. =Book Composition= By J. W. Bothwell Chapters from DeVinne's "Modern Methods of Book Composition," revised and arranged for this series of text-books by J. W. Bothwell of The DeVinne Press, New York. Part I: Composition of pages. Part II: Imposition of pages. 229 pp.; illustrated; 525 review questions; glossary. 21. =Tabular Composition= By Robert Seaver A study of the elementary forms of table composition, with examples of more difficult composition. 36 pp.; examples; 45 review questions. 22. =Applied Arithmetic= By E. E. Sheldon Elementary arithmetic applied to problems of the printing trade, calculation of materials, paper weights and sizes, with standard tables and rules for computation, each subject amplified with examples and exercises. 159 pp. 23. =Typecasting and Composing Machines= A. W. Finlay, Editor Section I--The Linotype By L. A. Hornstein Section II--The Monotype By Joseph Hays Section III--The Intertype By Henry W. Cozzens Section IV--Other Typecasting and Typesetting Machines By Frank H. Smith A brief history of typesetting machines, with descriptions of their mechanical principles and operations. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. PART III--_Imposition and Stonework_ 24. =Locking Forms for the Job Press= By Frank S. Henry Things the apprentice should know about locking up small forms, and about general work on the stone. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. 25. =Preparing Forms for the Cylinder Press= By Frank S. Henry Pamphlet and catalog imposition; margins; fold marks, etc. Methods of handling type forms and electrotype forms. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. PART IV--_Presswork_ 26. =Making Ready on Platen Presses= By T. G. McGrew The essential parts of a press and their functions; distinctive features of commonly used machines. Preparing the tympan, regulating the impression, underlaying and overlaying, setting gauges, and other details explained. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. 27. =Cylinder Presswork= By T. G. McGrew Preparing the press; adjustment of bed and cylinder, form rollers, ink fountain, grippers and delivery systems. Underlaying and overlaying; modern overlay methods. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. 28. =Pressroom Hints and Helps= By Charles L. Dunton Describing some practical methods of pressroom work, with directions and useful information relating to a variety of printing-press problems. 87 pp.; 176 review questions. 29. =Reproductive Processes of the Graphic Arts= By A. W. Elson A primer of information about the distinctive features of the relief, the intaglio, and the planographic processes of printing. 84 pp.; illustrated; 100 review questions; glossary. PART V--_Pamphlet and Book Binding_ 30. =Pamphlet Binding= By Bancroft L. Goodwin A primer of information about the various operations employed in binding pamphlets and other work in the bindery. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. 31. =Book Binding= By John J. Pleger Practical information about the usual operations in binding books; folding; gathering, collating, sewing, forwarding, finishing. Case making and cased-in books. Hand work and machine work. Job and blank-book binding. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. PART VI--_Correct Literary Composition_ 32. =Word Study and English Grammar= By F. W. Hamilton A primer of information about words, their relations, and their uses. 68 pp.; 84 review questions; glossary. 33. =Punctuation= By F. W. Hamilton A primer of information about the marks of punctuation and their use, both grammatically and typographically. 56 pp.; 59 review questions; glossary. 34. =Capitals= By F. W. Hamilton A primer of information about capitalization, with some practical typographic hints as to the use of capitals. 48 pp.; 92 review questions; glossary. 35. =Division of Words= By F. W. Hamilton Rules for the division of words at the ends of lines, with remarks on spelling, syllabication and pronunciation. 42 pp.; 70 review questions. 36. =Compound Words= By F. W. Hamilton A study of the principles of compounding, the components of compounds, and the use of the hyphen. 34 pp.; 62 review questions. 37. =Abbreviations and Signs= By F. W. Hamilton A primer of information about abbreviations and signs, with classified lists of those in most common use. 58 pp.; 32 review questions. 38. =The Uses of Italic= By F. W. Hamilton A primer of information about the history and uses of italic letters. 31 pp.; 37 review questions. 39. =Proofreading= By Arnold Levitas The technical phases of the proofreader's work; reading, marking, revising, etc.; methods of handling proofs and copy. Illustrated by examples. 59 pp.; 69 review questions; glossary. 40. =Preparation of Printers' Copy= By F. W. Hamilton Suggestions for authors, editors, and all who are engaged in preparing copy for the composing room. 36 pp.; 67 review questions. 41. =Printers' Manual of Style= A reference compilation of approved rules, usages, and suggestions relating to uniformity in punctuation, capitalization, abbreviations, numerals, and kindred features of composition. 42. =The Printer's Dictionary= By A. A. Stewart A handbook of definitions and miscellaneous information about various processes of printing, alphabetically arranged. Technical terms explained. Illustrated. PART VII--_Design, Color, and Lettering_ 43. =Applied Design for Printers= By Harry L. Gage A handbook of the principles of arrangement, with brief comment on the periods of design which have most influenced printing. Treats of harmony, balance, proportion, and rhythm; motion; symmetry and variety; ornament, esthetic and symbolic. 37 illustrations; 46 review questions; glossary; bibliography. 44. =Elements of Typographic Design= By Harry L. Gage Applications of the principles of decorative design. Building material of typography: paper, types, ink, decorations and illustrations. Handling of shapes. Design of complete book, treating each part. Design of commercial forms and single units. Illustrations; review questions, glossary; bibliography. 45. =Rudiments of Color in Printing= By Harry L. Gage Use of color: for decoration of black and white, for broad poster effect, in combinations of two, three, or more printings with process engravings. Scientific nature of color, physical and chemical. Terms in which color may be discussed: hue, value, intensity. Diagrams in color, scales and combinations. Color theory of process engraving. Experiments with color. Illustrations in full color, and on various papers. Review questions; glossary; bibliography. 46. =Lettering in Typography= By Harry L. Gage Printer's use of lettering: adaptability and decorative effect. Development of historic writing and lettering and its influence on type design. Classification of general forms in lettering. Application of design to lettering. Drawing for reproduction. Fully illustrated; review questions; glossary; bibliography. 47. =Typographic Design in Advertising= By Harry L. Gage The printer's function in advertising. Precepts upon which advertising is based. Printer's analysis of his copy. Emphasis, legibility, attention, color. Method of studying advertising typography. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; bibliography. 48. =Making Dummies and Layouts= By Harry L. Gage A layout: the architectural plan. A dummy: the imitation of a proposed final effect. Use of dummy in sales work. Use of layout. Function of layout man. Binding schemes for dummies. Dummy envelopes. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; bibliography. PART VIII--_History of Printing_ 49. =Books Before Typography= By F. W. Hamilton A primer of information about the invention of the alphabet and the history of bookmaking up to the invention of movable types. 62 pp.; illustrated; 64 review questions. 50. =The Invention of Typography= By F. W. Hamilton A brief sketch of the invention of printing and how it came about. 64 pp.; 62 review questions. 51. =History of Printing=--Part I By F. W. Hamilton A primer of information about the beginnings of printing, the development of the book, the development of printers' materials, and the work of the great pioneers. 63 pp.; 55 review questions. 52. =History of Printing=--Part II By F. W. Hamilton A brief sketch of the economic conditions of the printing industry from 1450 to 1789, including government regulations, censorship, internal conditions and industrial relations. 94 pp.; 128 review questions. 53. =Printing in England= By F. W. Hamilton A short history of printing in England from Caxton to the present time. 89 pp.; 65 review questions. 54. =Printing in America= By F. W. Hamilton A brief sketch of the development of the newspaper, and some notes on publishers who have especially contributed to printing. 98 pp.; 84 review questions. 55. =Type and Presses in America= By F. W. Hamilton A brief historical sketch of the development of type casting and press building in the United States. 52 pp.; 61 review questions. PART IX--_Cost Finding and Accounting_ 56. =Elements of Cost in Printing= By Henry P. Porter The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. Glossary. 57. =Use of a Cost System= By Henry P. Porter The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. Glossary. 58. =The Printer as a Merchant= By Henry P. Porter The selection and purchase of materials and supplies for printing. The relation of the cost of raw material and the selling price of the finished product. Review questions. Glossary. 59. =Fundamental Principles of Estimating= By Henry P. Porter The estimator and his work; forms to use; general rules for estimating. Review questions. Glossary. 60. =Estimating and Selling= By Henry P. Porter An insight into the methods used in making estimates, and their relation to selling. Review questions. Glossary. 61. =Accounting for Printers= By Henry P. Porter A brief outline of an accounting system for printers; necessary books and accessory records. Review questions. Glossary. PART X--_Miscellaneous_ 62. =Health, Sanitation, and Safety= By Henry P. Porter Hygiene in the printing trade; a study of conditions old and new; practical suggestions for improvement; protective appliances and rules for safety. 63. =Topical Index= By F. W. Hamilton A book of reference covering the topics treated in the Typographic Technical Series, alphabetically arranged. 64. =Courses of Study= By F. W. Hamilton A guidebook for teachers, with outlines and suggestions for classroom and shop work. ACKNOWLEDGMENT This series of Typographic Text-books is the result of the splendid co-operation of a large number of firms and individuals engaged in the printing business and its allied industries in the United States of America. The Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America, under whose auspices the books have been prepared and published, acknowledges its indebtedness for the generous assistance rendered by the many authors, printers, and others identified with this work. While due acknowledgment is made on the title and copyright pages of those contributing to each book, the Committee nevertheless felt that a group list of co-operating firms would be of interest. The following list is not complete, as it includes only those who have co-operated in the production of a portion of the volumes, constituting the first printing. As soon as the entire list of books comprising the Typographic Technical Series has been completed (which the Committee hopes will be at an early date), the full list will be printed in each volume. The Committee also desires to acknowledge its indebtedness to the many subscribers to this Series who have patiently awaited its publication. COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA. HENRY P. PORTER, _Chairman_, E. LAWRENCE FELL, A. M. GLOSSBRENNER, J. CLYDE OSWALD, TOBY RUBOVITS. FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, _Education Director_. CONTRIBUTORS =For Composition and Electrotypes= ISAAC H. BLANCHARD COMPANY, New York, N. Y. S. H. BURBANK & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. J. S. CUSHING & CO., Norwood, Mass. THE DEVINNE PRESS, New York, N. Y. R. R. DONNELLEY & SONS CO., Chicago, Ill. GEO. H. ELLIS CO., Boston, Mass. EVANS-WINTER-HEBB, Detroit, Mich. FRANKLIN PRINTING COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa. GAGE PRINTING CO., LTD., Battle Creek, Mich. F. H. GILSON COMPANY, Boston, Mass. STEPHEN GREENE & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. WILLIAM GREEN, New York, N. Y. W. F. HALL PRINTING CO., Chicago, Ill. FRANK D. JACOBS CO., Philadelphia, Pa. WILSON H. LEE CO., New Haven, Conn. J. B. LIPPINCOTT CO., Philadelphia, Pa. MACCALLA & CO. INC., Philadelphia, Pa. THE PATTESON PRESS, New York. THE PLIMPTON PRESS, Norwood, Mass. POOLE BROS., Chicago, Ill. REMINGTON PRINTING CO., Providence, R. I. EDWARD STERN & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. THE STONE PRINTING & MFG. CO., Roanoke, Va. STATE JOURNAL COMPANY, Lincoln, Neb. THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, Cambridge, Mass. =For Composition= BOSTON TYPOTHETAE SCHOOL OF PRINTING, Boston, Mass. WILLIAM F. FELL CO., Philadelphia, Pa. THE KALKHOFF COMPANY, New York, N. Y. OXFORD-PRINT, Boston, Mass. TOBY RUBOVITS, Chicago, Ill. =Electrotypers= BLOMGREN BROTHERS CO., Chicago, Ill. FLOWER STEEL ELECTROTYPING CO., New York, N. Y. C. J. PETERS & SON CO., Boston, Mass. ROYAL ELECTROTYPE CO., Philadelphia, Pa. H. C. WHITCOMB & CO., Boston, Mass. =For Engravings= AMERICAN TYPE FOUNDERS CO., Boston, Mass. C. B. COTTRELL & SONS CO., Westerly, R. I. GOLDING MANUFACTURING CO., Franklin, Mass. HARVARD UNIVERSITY, Cambridge, Mass. INLAND PRINTER CO., Chicago, Ill. LANSTON MONOTYPE MACHINE COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa. MERGENTHALER LINOTYPE COMPANY, New York, N. Y. GEO. H. MORRILL CO., Norwood, Mass. OSWALD PUBLISHING CO., New York, N. Y. THE PRINTING ART, Cambridge, Mass. B. D. RISING PAPER COMPANY, Housatonic, Mass. THE VANDERCOOK PRESS, Chicago, Ill. =For Book Paper= AMERICAN WRITING PAPER CO., Holyoke, Mass. BRYANT PAPER CO., Kalamazoo, Mich. THE MIAMI PAPER CO., West Carrollton, Ohio. OXFORD PAPER COMPANY, New York, N. Y. WEST VIRGINIA PULP & PAPER CO., Mechanicville, N. Y. =For Book Cloth= INTERLAKEN MILLS, Providence, R. I. Transcriber's Notes: Passages in italics are indicated by _underscore_. Passages in bold are indicated by =bold=. According to the text on page 13, one example for rule 25 and one example for rule 26 appear to be incorrect. These have been left as presented in the original text. 
15170	----	Proofreading Team THE CHILD'S WORLD THIRD READER BY HETTY S. BROWNE Extension worker in rural school practice Winthrop Normal and Industrial College Rock Hill, S.C. SARAH WITHERS Principal Elementary Grades and Critic Teacher Winthrop Normal and Industrial College AND W.K. TATE Professor of Rural Education George Peabody College for Teachers Nashville, Tenn. JOHNSON PUBLISHING COMPANY Richmond, Virginia TEACHERS' AIDS Success with the Child's World Readers is in no wise dependent on the use of the chart, manual, or cards. Modern teachers of reading, however, recognize the saving of time and effort to be accomplished for both their pupils and themselves by the use of cards, chart, and manual, and look to the publisher to provide these accessories in convenient form and at moderate cost. The following aids are therefore offered in the belief that they will make the work of the teacher, trained or untrained, more effective. Child's World Reader Charts......................$6.00 (10 beautiful charts in colors 27x37--20 lessons) Child's World Manual.............................75c (Suggestions and outlines for first 5 grades) Child's World Word Cards........................$1.00 (129 cards--258 words in Primer vocabulary) Child's World Phrase Cards........................75c (48 cards--96 phrases) Child's World Phonic Cards...................80c (80 cards printed both sides) JOHNSON PUBLISHING COMPANY Richmond, Virginia. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS For permission to use copyrighted material the authors and publishers express their indebtedness to _The Independent_ for "Who Loves the Trees Best?" by Alice M. Douglas; to Oliver Herford and the Century Company for "The Elf and the Dormouse"; to the American Folklore Society for "How Brother Rabbit Fooled the Whale and the Elephant," by Alcee Fortier; to the _Outlook_ for "Making the Best of It," by Frances M. Fox, and "Winter Nights," by Mary F. Butts; to Harper Brothers for "The Animals and the Mirror," from _Told by the Sand Man_; to Rand McNally & Company for "Little Hope's Doll," from _Stories of the Pilgrims_, by Margaret Pumphrey; to Daughady & Company for "Squeaky and the Scare Box," from _Christmas Stories_, by Georgene Faulkner; to D.C. Heath & Company for "The Little Cook's Reward," from _Stories of the Old North State_, by Mrs. L.A. McCorkle; to Charles Scribner's Sons for "A Good Play" and "Block City," by Robert Louis Stevenson, "The Glad New Year," from _Rhymes and Jingles_, by Mary Mapes Dodge, "A Christmas Wish" and "Rock-a-by-Lady," by Eugene Field; to Houghton Mifflin Company for permission to adapt selections from _Hiawatha_; to Doubleday, Page & Company for "The Sand Man," by Margaret Vandergrift, from _The Posy Ring_--Wiggin and Smith; to James A. Honey for "The Monkey's Fiddle," from _South African Tales_; to Maud Barnard for "Donal and Conal"; to Maud Barnard and Emilie Yonker for their versions of Epaminondas. Supplementary Historical Reading Life of General Robert E. Lee _For Third and Fourth Grades_ Life of General Thomas J. Jackson _For Third and Fourth Grades_ Life of Washington _For Fourth and Fifth Grades_ Life of General N.B. Forrest _For Fifth Grade_ Life of General J.E.B. Stuart _For Fifth and Sixth Grades_ Soldier Life in the Army of Northern Virginia _For Fifth Grade_ Tennessee History Stories _For Third and Fourth Grades_ North Carolina History Stories _For Fourth and Fifth Grades_ Texas History Stories _For Fifth and Sixth Grades_ Half-Hours in Southern History _For Sixth and Seventh Grades_ The Yemassee (_Complete Edition_) _For Seventh and Eighth Grades_ (Ask for catalog containing list of other supplementary reading) JOHNSON PUBLISHING COMPANY RICHMOND, VA. CONTENTS PHILEMON AND BAUCIS, _Flora J. Cooke_, 9 THE POPLAR TREE, _Flora J. Cooke_, 15 WHO LOVES THE TREES BEST?, _Alice May Douglas_, 18 LEAVES IN AUTUMN, 19 A STORY OF BIRD LIFE, _Henry Ward Beecher_, 20 BOB WHITE, _George Cooper_, 25 HOW MARY GOT A NEW DRESS, 26 THE PLAID DRESS, 30 THE GODDESS OF THE SILKWORM, 34 THE FLAX, _Hans Christian Andersen_, 37 THE WONDERFUL WORLD, _William Brighty Rands_, 41 THE HILLMAN AND THE HOUSEWIFE, _Juliana H. Ewing_, 42 THE ELF AND THE DORMOUSE, _Oliver Herford_, 46 THE BELL OF ATRI, _Italian Tale_, 48 A DUMB WITNESS, _Arabian Tale_, 53 GIVING THANKS, 56 THE HARE AND THE HEDGEHOG, _Grimm_, 58 EPAMINONDAS, _Southern Tale_, 67 HOW BROTHER RABBIT FOOLED THE WHALE AND THE ELEPHANT, _Southern Folk Tale_, 73 A CHRISTMAS WISH, _Eugene Field_, 79 THE CHRISTMAS BELLS, _Old Tale Retold_, 82 GOD BLESS THE MASTER OF THE HOUSE, _Old English Rime_, 89 SQUEAKY AND THE SCARE BOX, _Georgene Faulkner_, 90 THE GLAD NEW YEAR, _Mary Mapes Dodge_, 99 MAKING THE BEST OF IT, _Frances M. Fox_, 100 THE ANIMALS AND THE MIRROR, _F.A. Walker_, 106 THE BARBER OF BAGDAD, _Eastern Tale_, 115 WINTER NIGHTS, _Mary F. Butts_, 122 LITTLE HOPE'S DOLL, _Margaret Pumphrey_, 123 NAHUM PRINCE, 130 THE LITTLE COOK'S REWARD, _Mrs. L.A. McCorkle_, 134 ROCK-A-BY, HUSH-A-BY, LITTLE PAPOOSE, _Charles Myall_, 139 THE TAR WOLF, _The Indian Tar-Baby Story_, 140 THE RABBIT AND THE WOLF, _Southern Indian Tale_, 149 BLOCK CITY, _Robert Louis Stevenson_, 154 A GOOD PLAY, _Robert Louis Stevenson_, 155 THE MONKEY'S FIDDLE, _African Tale_, 156 THE THREE TASKS, _Grimm_, 163 THE WORLD'S MUSIC, _Gabriel Setoun_, 170 THE SLEEPING BEAUTY, _Grimm_, 172 THE UGLY DUCKLING, _Hans Christian Andersen_, 181 THE WHITE BLACKBIRD, _Adapted from Alfred de Musset_, 192 THE BROWN THRUSH, _Lucy Larcom_, 199 THE KING AND THE GOOSEHERD, _Old Tale_, 200 DONAL AND CONAL, _Irish Tale_, 206 WHO TOLD THE NEWS?, 212 THE BIRDS OF KILLINGWORTH, _Adapted from Longfellow_, 213 THE TRAILING ARBUTUS, _Indian Legend_, 218 HIDDEN TREASURE, _Grimm_, 223 THE LITTLE BROWN BROTHER, _Emily Nesbit_, 228 HOW THE FLOWERS GROW, _Gabriel Setoun_, 229 WISE MEN OF GOTHAM, _Old English Story_, 230 THE MILLER'S GUEST, _English Ballad (adapted)_, 233 SADDLE TO RAGS, _English Ballad (adapted)_, 239 THE ROCK-A-BY LADY, _Eugene Field_, 244 THE SAND MAN, _Margaret Vandergrift_, 246 A DICTIONARY, 249 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS, 253 [Illustration: Girl reading a book] Oh, for a nook and a story-book, With tales both new and old; For a jolly good book whereon to look Is better to me than gold. --OLD ENGLISH SONG. [Illustration: Country house] PHILEMON AND BAUCIS I Long ago, on a high hill in Greece, Philemon and Baucis lived. They were poor, but they were never unhappy. They had many hives of bees from which they got honey, and many vines from which they gathered grapes. One old cow gave them all the milk that they could use, and they had a little field in which grain was raised. The old couple had as much as they needed, and were always ready to share whatever they had with any one in want. No stranger was ever turned from their door. At the foot of the hill lay a beautiful village, with pleasant roads and rich pasture lands all around. But it was full of wicked, selfish, people, who had no love in their hearts and thought only of themselves. At the time of this story, the people in the village were very busy. Zeus, who they believed ruled the world, had sent word that he was about to visit them. They were preparing a great feast and making everything beautiful for his coming. One evening, just at dark, two beggars came into the valley. They stopped at every house and asked for food and a place to sleep; but the people were too busy or too tired to attend to their needs. They were thinking only of the coming of Zeus. Footsore and weary, the two beggars at last climbed the hill to the hut of Philemon and Baucis. These good people had eaten very little, for they were saving their best food for Zeus. When they saw the beggars, Philemon said, "Surely these men need food more than Zeus. They look almost starved." "Indeed, they do!" said Baucis, and she ran quickly to prepare supper for the strangers. She spread her best white cloth upon the table, and brought out bacon, herbs, honey, grapes, bread, and milk. She set these upon the table in all the best dishes she had and called the strangers in. Then what do you suppose happened? The dishes that the strangers touched turned to gold. The pitcher was never empty, although they drank glass after glass of milk. The loaf of bread stayed always the same size, although the strangers cut slice after slice. "These are strange travelers," whispered the old couple to each other. "They do wonderful things." II That night Philemon and Baucis slept upon the floor that the strangers might have their one bed. In the morning they went with the travelers to the foot of the hill to see them safely started on their way. "Now, good people," said one of the strangers, "we thank you, and whatever you wish shall be yours." As he said this, his face became like that of the sun. Then Philemon and Baucis knew that Zeus had spoken to them. "Grant, O Zeus, that one of us may not outlive the other," they cried in one voice. "Your wish is granted," said Zeus; "yes, and more. Return to your home and be happy." [Illustration: Philemon and Baucis walking home] Philemon and Baucis turned homeward, and, lo! their hut was changed to a beautiful castle. The old people turned around to thank their guests, but they had disappeared. In this castle Philemon and Baucis lived many years. They still did all they could for others, and were always so happy that they never thought of wishing anything for themselves. As the years passed, the couple grew very old and feeble. One day Baucis said to Philemon, "I wish we might never die, but could always live together." "Ah, that is my wish, too!" sighed old Philemon. The next morning the marble palace was gone; Baucis and Philemon were gone; but there on the hilltop stood two beautiful trees, an oak and a linden. No one knew what became of the good people. After many years, however, a traveler lying under the trees heard them whispering to each other. "Baucis," whispered the oak. "Philemon," replied the linden. There the trees stood through sun and rain, always ready to spread their leafy shade over every tired stranger who passed that way. --FLORA J. COOKE. THE POPLAR TREE Long ago the poplar used to hold out its branches like other trees. It tried to see how far it could spread them. Once at sunset an old man came through the forest where the poplar trees lived. The trees were going to sleep, and it was growing dark. The man held something under his cloak. It was a pot of gold--the very pot of gold that lies at the foot of the rainbow. He had stolen it and was looking for some place to hide it. A poplar tree stood by the path. "This is the very place to hide my treasure," the man said. "The branches spread out straight, and the leaves are large and thick. How lucky that the trees are all asleep!" He placed the pot of gold in the thick branches, and then ran quickly away. The gold belonged to Iris, the beautiful maiden who had a rainbow bridge to the earth. The next morning she missed her precious pot. It always lay at the foot of the rainbow, but it was not there now. Iris hurried away to tell her father, the great Zeus, of her loss. He said that he would find the pot of gold for her. He called a messenger, the swift-footed Mercury, and said, "Go quickly, and do not return until you have found the treasure." Mercury went as fast as the wind down to the earth. He soon came to the forest and awakened the trees. "Iris has lost her precious pot of gold that lies at the foot of the rainbow. Have any of you seen it?" he asked. The trees were very sleepy, but all shook their heads. "We have not seen it," they said. "Hold up your branches," said Mercury. "I must see that the pot of gold is not hidden among them." All of the trees held up their branches. The poplar that stood by the path was the first to hold up his. He was an honest tree and knew he had nothing to hide. [Illustration: Mercury among the trees] Down fell the pot of gold. How surprised the poplar tree was! He dropped his branches in shame. Then he held them high in the air. "Forgive me," he said. "I do not know how it came to be there; but, hereafter, I shall always hold my branches up. Then every one can see that I have nothing hidden." Since then the branches have always grown straight up; and every one knows that the poplar is an honest and upright tree. --FLORA J. COOKE. WHO LOVES THE TREES BEST? Who loves the trees best? "I," said the Spring; "Their leaves so beautiful To them I bring." Who loves the trees best? "I," Summer said; "I give them blossoms, White, yellow, red." Who loves the trees best? "I," said the Fall; "I give luscious fruits, Bright tints to all." Who loves the trees best? "I love them best," Harsh Winter answered; "I give them rest." --ALICE MAY DOUGLAS. LEAVES IN AUTUMN Red and gold, and gold and red, Autumn leaves burned overhead; Hues so splendid Softly blended, Oh, the glory that they shed! Red and gold, and gold and red. Gold and brown, and brown and gold, Of such fun the west wind told That they listened, And they glistened, As they wrestled in the cold; Gold and brown, and brown and gold. Brown and gold, and red and brown, How they hurried, scurried down For a frolic, For a rolic, Through the country and the town, Brown and gold, and red and brown. [Illustration: A bird in a tree] A STORY OF BIRD LIFE I Once there came to our fields a pair of birds. They had never built a nest nor seen a winter. Oh, how beautiful was everything! The fields were full of flowers, the grass was growing tall, and the bees were humming everywhere. One of the birds fell to singing, and the other bird said, "Who told you to sing?" He answered, "The flowers and the bees told me. The blue sky told me, and you told me." "When did I tell you to sing?" asked his mate. "Every time you brought in tender grass for the nest," he replied. "Every time your soft wings fluttered off again for hair and feathers to line it." Then his mate asked, "What are you singing about?" "I am singing about everything," he answered. "I sing because I am happy." By and by five little speckled eggs were in the nest, and the mother bird asked, "Is there anything in all the world as pretty as my eggs?" A week or two afterward, the mother said, "Oh, what do you think has happened? One of my eggs has been peeping and moving." Soon another egg moved, then another, and another, till five eggs were hatched. The little birds were so hungry that it kept the parents busy feeding them. Away they both flew. The moment the little birds heard them coming back, five yellow mouths flew open wide. "Can anybody be happier?" said the father bird to the mother bird. "We will live in this tree always. It is a tree that bears joy." II The very next day one of the birds dropped out of the nest, and in a moment a cat ate it up. Only four remained, and the parent birds were very sad. There was no song all that day, nor the next. Soon the little birds were big enough to fly. The first bird that tried his wings flew from one branch to another. His parents praised him, and the other baby birds wondered how he had done it. The little one was so proud of it that he tried again. He flew and flew and couldn't stop flying. At last he fell plump! down by the kitchen door. A little boy caught him and carried him into the house. Now only three birds were left. The sun no longer seemed bright to the birds, and they did not sing so often. In a little time the other birds learned to use their wings, and they flew away and away. They found their own food and made their own nests. Then the old birds sat silent and looked at each other a long while. At last the mother bird asked, "Why don't you sing?" "I can't sing," the father bird answered. "I only think and think!" "What are you thinking of?" "I am thinking how everything changes. The leaves are falling, and soon there will be no roof over our heads. The flowers are all gone. Last night there was a frost. Almost all the birds have flown away, and I am restless. Something calls me, and I feel that I must fly away, too." [Illustration: Two birds flying over a field] "Let us fly away together!" the mother bird said. Then they rose silently up in the air. They looked to the north; far away they saw the snow coming. They looked to the south; there they saw green leaves. All day they flew. All night they flew and flew, till they found a land where there was no winter. There it was summer all the time; flowers always blossomed and birds always sang. --HENRY WARD BEECHER BOB WHITE There's a plump little chap in a speckled coat, And he sits on the zigzag rails remote, Where he whistles at breezy, bracing morn, When the buckwheat is ripe, and stacked is the corn: "Bob White! Bob White! Bob White!" Is he hailing some comrade as blithe as he? Now I wonder where Robert White can be! O'er the billows of gold and amber grain There is no one in sight--but, hark again: "Bob White! Bob White! Bob White!" Ah! I see why he calls; in the stubble there Hide his plump little wife and babies fair! So contented is he, and so proud of the same, That he wants all the world to know his name: "Bob White! Bob White! Bob White!" --GEORGE COOPER. HOW MARY GOT A NEW DRESS Mary lived a long time ago. She was a little girl when your great-great-grandmother was a little girl. In those days all cloth had to be made at home. Aunt Dinah, Aunt Chloe, and Aunt Dilsey were kept busy spinning and weaving to make clothes for the whole plantation. One day Mary's mother said, "Aunt Dilsey, Mary needs a new dress, and I want you to weave some cloth at once. Can you weave some very fine cloth?" "Yes, ma'am," said Aunt Dilsey. "I have some cotton I've been saving to make her a dress." Aunt Dilsey got out the cards and carded the cotton smooth and fine. Then she fastened a roll of this cotton to the spindle and sent the wheel whirling around with a "Zum-m-m-m--Zum-m-m-m!" Mary stood and watched the old woman. [Illustration: Mary watching Aunt Dilsey at spinning wheel] "Aunt Dilsey," she said, "the spinning wheel sings a song, and I know what it says. Grandmother told me. It says, 'A hum and a whirl, A twist and a twirl, This is for the girl With the golden curl! Zum-m-m-m-m-m! Zum-m-m-m-m-m!'" "And that means you, honey," said Aunt Dilsey. When the yarn was ready, Aunt Dilsey fastened it in the loom and began to weave. The threads went over and under, over and under. As Aunt Dilsey wove, she hummed. Mary stood by and sang this song, "Over and under and over we go, Weaving the cotton as white as the snow, Weaving the cloth for a dress, oh, ho! As over and under and over we go." After the cloth had been woven, Aunt Dilsey took it out of the loom. Then she bleached it until it was as white as snow. Now it was ready to be made into a dress. "Mother, do tell me how you are going to make the dress," said Mary. "Will it have ruffles on it like Sue's? Will it have trimming on it? And how many buttons will you put on it? Sue's dress has twelve; I know, for I counted them." Mother did not answer all these questions; she just smiled as the scissors went snip, snip into the cloth. But she did cut out ruffles, and Aunt Maria began to hem them. [Illustration: Mary with her mother and grandmother] By and by grandmother came into the room. "Mary," she said, "here is some lace I got in England. Mother may put it on your dress." How happy Mary was! She danced for joy. Mother put on the lace, and grandmother worked the buttonholes. How many do you suppose she worked? Why, she worked twelve! When the dress was finished, it was just like Sue's. Only it was a great deal finer, for Mary's dress had three ruffles and Sue's had only two! And, then, there was the lace from England! THE PLAID DRESS "I want a warm plaid dress," said a little girl. "The days are colder, and the frost will soon be here. But how can I get it? Mother says that she cannot buy one for me." The old white sheep in the meadow heard her, and he bleated to the shepherd, "The little girl wants a warm plaid dress. I will give my wool. Who else will help?" The kind shepherd said, "I will." Then he led the old white sheep to the brook and washed its wool. When it was clean and white, he said, "The little girl wants a warm plaid dress. The sheep has given his wool, and I have washed it clean and white. Who else will help?" "We will," said the shearers. "We will bring our shears and cut off the wool." The shearers cut the soft wool from the old sheep, and then they called, "The little girl wants a new dress. The sheep has given his wool. The shepherd has washed it; and we have sheared it. Who else will help?" [Illustration: Shearer shearing the sheep] "We will," cried the carders. "We will comb it out straight and smooth." Soon they held up the wool, carded straight and smooth, and they cried, "The little girl wants a new dress. The sheep has given his wool. The shepherd has washed the wool. The shearers have cut it, and we have carded it. Who else will help?" "We will," said the spinners. "We will spin it into thread." "Whirr, whirr!" How fast the spinning wheels turned, singing all the time. Soon the spinners said, "The little girl wants a new dress. The sheep has given his wool. The shepherd has washed the wool. The shearers have cut it. The carders have carded it, and we have spun it into thread. Who else will help?" "We will," said the dyers. "We will dye it with beautiful colors." Then they dipped the woven threads into bright dye, red and blue and green and brown. As they spread the wool out to dry, the dyers called: "The little girl wants a new dress. The sheep has given his wool. The shepherd has washed the wool. The shearers have cut it. The carders have carded it. The spinners have spun it, and we have dyed it with bright beautiful colors. Who else will help?" "We will," said the weavers. "We will make it into cloth." [Illustration: Weaver at loom] "Clickety-clack! clickety-clack!" went the loom, as the colored thread was woven over and under over and under. Before long it was made into beautiful plaid cloth. Then the little girl's mother cut and made the dress. It was a beautiful plaid dress, and the little girl loved to wear it. Every time she put it on, she thought of her friends who had helped her,--the sheep, the shearers, the carders, the spinners, the dyers, the weavers, and her own dear mother. THE GODDESS OF THE SILKWORM Hoangti was the emperor of China. He had a beautiful wife whose name was Si-ling. The emperor and his wife loved their people and always thought of their happiness. In those days the Chinese people wore clothes made of skins. By and by animals grew scarce, and the people did not know what they should wear. The emperor and empress tried in vain to find some other way of clothing them. One morning Hoangti and his wife were in the beautiful palace garden. They walked up and down, up and down, talking of their people. Suddenly the emperor said, "Look at those worms on the mulberry trees, Si-ling. They seem to be spinning." Si-ling looked, and sure enough, the worms were spinning. A long thread was coming from the mouth of each, and each little worm was winding this thread around its body. Si-ling and the emperor stood still and watched the worms. "How wonderful!" said Si-ling. The next morning Hoangti and the empress walked under the trees again. They found some worms still winding thread. Others had already spun their cocoons and were fast asleep. In a few days all of the worms had spun cocoons. "This is indeed a wonderful, wonderful thing!" said Si-ling. "Why, each worm has a thread on its body long enough to make a house for itself!" Si-ling thought of this day after day. One morning as she and the emperor walked under the trees, she said, "I believe I could find a way to weave those long threads into cloth." "But how could you unwind the threads?" asked the emperor. [Illustration: Hoangti and Si-ling walking among the trees] "I'll find a way," Si-ling said. And she did; but she had to try many, many times. She put the cocoons in a hot place, and the little sleepers soon died. Then the cocoons were thrown into boiling water to make the threads soft. After that the long threads could be easily unwound. Now Si-ling had to think of something else; she had to find a way to weave the threads into cloth. After many trials, she made a loom--the first that was ever made. She taught others to weave, and soon hundreds of people were making cloth from the threads of the silkworm. The people ever afterward called Si-ling "The Goddess of the Silkworm." And whenever the emperor walked with her in the garden, they liked to watch the silkworms spinning threads for the good of their people. THE FLAX I It was spring. The flax was in full bloom, and it had dainty little blue flowers that nodded in the breeze. "People say that I look very well," said the flax. "They say that I am fine and long and that I shall make a beautiful piece of linen. How happy I am! No one in the world can be happier." "Oh, yes," said the fence post, "you may grow and be happy, and you may sing, but you do not know the world as I do. Why, I have knots in me." And it creaked; "Snip, snap, snurre, Basse, lurre, The song is ended." "No, it is not ended," said the flax. "The sun will shine, and the rain will fall, and I shall grow and grow. No, no, the song is not ended." One day some men came with sharp reap hooks. They took the flax by the head and cut it off at the roots. This was very painful, you may be sure. Then the flax was laid in water and was nearly drowned. After that it was put on a fire and nearly roasted. All this was frightful. But the flax only said, "One cannot be happy always. By having bad times as well as good, we become wise." After the flax had been cut and steeped and roasted, it was put on a spinning wheel. "Whir-r-r, whir-rr-r," went the spinning wheel; it went so fast that the flax could hardly think. "I have been very happy in the sunshine and the rain," it said. "If I am in pain now, I must be contented." At last the flax was put in the loom. Soon it became a beautiful piece of white linen. "This is very wonderful," said the flax. "How foolish the fence post was with its song of-- 'Snip, snap, snurre, Basse, lurre, The song is ended.' The song is not ended, I am sure. It has only just begun. "After all that I have suffered, I am at last made into beautiful linen. How strong and fine I am, and how long and white! This is even better than being a plant bearing flowers. I have never been happier than I am now." After some time the linen was cut into pieces and sewed with needles. That was not pleasant; but at last there were twelve pretty white aprons. "See," said the flax, "I have been made into something. Now I shall be of some use in the world. That is the only way to be happy." II Years passed by, and the linen was so worn that it could hardly hold together. "The end must come soon," said the flax. At last the linen did fall into rags and tatters; it was torn into shreds and boiled in water. The flax thought the end had come. But no, the end was not yet. After being made into pulp and dried, the flax became beautiful white paper. "This is a surprise, a glorious surprise," it said. "I am finer than ever, and I shall have fine things written on me. How happy I am!" And sure enough, the most beautiful stories and verses were written upon it. People read the stories and verses, and they were made wiser and better. Their children and their children's children read them, too, and so the song was not ended. --HANS CHRISTIAN ANDERSEN. [Illustration: Girl reading a book] THE WONDERFUL WORLD Great, wide, beautiful, wonderful World, With the wonderful water round you curled, And the wonderful grass upon your breast, World, you are beautifully drest. The wonderful air is over me, And the wonderful wind is shaking the tree-- It walks on the water, and whirls the mills, And talks to itself on the top of the hills. You friendly Earth, how far do you go, With the wheat-fields that nod and the rivers that flow, With cities and gardens, and cliffs and isles, And people upon you for thousands of miles? Ah! you are so great, and I am so small, I hardly can think of you, World, at all; And yet, when I said my prayers to-day, A whisper within me seemed to say, "You are more than the Earth, though you are such a dot! You can love and think, and the Earth cannot!" --William Brighty Rands. [Illustration: The Hillman at the housewife's door] THE HILLMAN AND THE HOUSEWIFE As every one knows, fairies are always just. They are kind to others, and in return they expect others to be kind to them. In some countries across the sea there are fairies called Hillmen. Now, there once lived a certain housewife who liked to make bargains. She gave away only those things for which she had no use, and then expected always to get something in return. One day a Hillman knocked at her door. "Can you lend us a saucepan?" he asked. "There's a wedding on the hill, and all the pots are in use." "Is he to have one?" whispered the servant who opened the door. "Aye, to be sure," answered the housewife; "one must be neighborly. Get the saucepan for him, lass." The maid turned to take a good saucepan from the shelf, but the housewife stopped her. "Not that, not that," she whispered. "Get the old one out of the cupboard. It leaks, but that doesn't matter. The Hillmen are so neat and are such nimble workers that they are sure to mend it before they send it home. I can oblige the fairies and save sixpence in tinkering, too." The maid brought the old saucepan that had been laid by until the tinker's next visit, and gave it to the Hillman. He thanked her and went away. When the saucepan was returned, it had been neatly mended, just as the housewife thought it would be. At night the maid filled the pan with milk and set it on the fire to heat for the children's supper. In a few moments the milk was so smoked and burnt that no one would touch it. Even the pigs refused to drink it. "Ah, you good-for-nothing!" cried the housewife. "There's a quart of milk wasted at once." "And that's twopence," cried a queer little voice that seemed to come from the chimney. The housewife filled the saucepan again and set it over the fire. It had not been there more than two minutes before it boiled over and was burnt and smoked as before. "The pan must be dirty," muttered the woman, who was very much vexed. "Two full quarts of milk have been wasted." "And that's fourpence!" added the queer little voice from the chimney. The saucepan was scoured; then it was filled with milk the third time and set over the fire. Again the milk boiled over and was spoiled. Now the housewife was quite vexed. "I have never had anything like this to happen since I first kept house," she exclaimed. "Three quarts of milk wasted!" "And that's sixpence," cried the queer little voice from the chimney. "You didn't save the tinkering after all, mother!" With that the Hillman himself came tumbling from the chimney and ran off laughing. But from that time, the saucepan was as good as any other. --JULIANA H. EWING. [Illustration: The Hillman running off from the fire] [Illustration: The Elf and the Dormouse under the toadstool] THE ELF AND THE DORMOUSE Under a toad stool Crept a wee Elf, Out of the rain To shelter himself. Under the toad stool Sound asleep, Sat a big Dormouse All in a heap. Trembled the wee Elf Frightened, and yet Fearing to fly away Lest he get wet. To the next shelter-- Maybe a mile! Sudden the wee Elf Smiled a wee smile; Tugged till the toad stool Toppled in two; Holding it over him, Gayly he flew. Soon he was safe home, Dry as could be. Soon woke the Dormouse-- "Good gracious me! "Where is my toad stool?" Loud he lamented. And that's how umbrellas First were invented. --OLIVER HERFORD. [Illustration: The elf flying away with the toadstool as the Dormouse watches] THE BELL OF ATRI I Good King John of Atri loved his people very much and wished to see them happy. He knew, however, that some were not; he knew that many suffered wrongs which were not righted. This made him sad. One day the king thought of a way to help his people. He had a great bell hung in a tower in the market place. He had the rope made so long that a child could reach it. Then the king sent heralds through the streets to tell the people why he had put the bell in the market place. The heralds blew their trumpets long and loud, and the people came from their homes to hear the message. "Know ye," cried a herald, "that whenever a wrong is done to any man, he has but to ring the great bell in the square. A judge will go to the tower to hear the complaint, and he will see that justice is done." "Long live our good king!" shouted the people. "Now our wrongs shall be righted." And so it was. Whenever anyone was wronged, he rang the bell in the tower. The judge put on his rich robes and went there. He listened to the complaint, and the guilty were punished. The people in Atri were now very happy, and the days went swiftly by. The bell hung in its place year after year, and it was rung many times. By and by the rope became so worn that one could scarcely reach it. The king said, "Why, a child could not reach the rope now, and a wrong might not be righted. I must put in a new one." So he ordered a rope from a distant town. In those days it took a long time to travel from one town to another. What should they do if somebody wished to ring the bell before the new rope came? "We must mend the rope in some way," said a man. "Here," said another; "take this piece of grapevine and fasten it to the rope. Then it will be long enough for any one to reach." This was done, and for some time the bell was rung in that way. II One hot summer noon everything was very still. All the people were indoors taking their noonday rest. Suddenly they were awakened by the arousing bell: Some one--hath done--a wrong, Hath done--a wrong! Hath done--a wrong! The judge started from a deep sleep, turned on his couch, and listened. Could it be the bell of justice? Again the sound came: Some one--hath done--a wrong! Hath done--a wrong! Hath done--a wrong! It was the bell of justice. The judge put on his rich robes and, panting, hurried to the market place. There he saw a strange sight: a poor steed, starved and thin, tugging at the vines which were fastened to the bell. A great crowd had gathered around. "Whose horse is this?" the judge asked. "It is the horse of the rich soldier who lives in the castle," said a man. "He has served his master long and well, and has saved his life many times. Now that the horse is too old to work, the master turns him out. He wanders through the lanes and fields, picking up such food as can be found." "His call for justice shall be heard," said the judge. "Bring the soldier to me." The soldier tried to treat the matter as a jest. Then he grew angry and said in an undertone, "One can surely do what he pleases with his own." [Illustration: The judge sees the horse in the market place] "For shame!" cried the judge. "Has the horse not served you for many years? And has he not saved your life? You must build a good shelter for him, and give him the best grain and the best pasture. Take the horse home and be as true to him as he has been to you." The soldier hung his head in shame and led the horse away. The people shouted and applauded. "Great is King John," they cried, "and great the bell of Atri!" --ITALIAN TALE. A DUMB WITNESS One day at noontime a poor man was riding along a road. He was tired and hungry, and wished to stop and rest. Finding a tree with low branches, he tied his horse to one of them. Then he sat down to eat his dinner. Soon a rich man came along and started to tie his horse to the same tree. "Do not fasten your horse to that tree," cried the poor man. "My horse is savage and he may kill yours. Fasten him to another tree." "I shall tie my horse where I wish," the rich man replied; and he tied his horse to the same tree. Then he, too, sat down to eat. Very soon the men heard a great noise. They looked up and saw that their horses were kicking and fighting. Both men rushed to stop them, but it was too late; the rich man's horse was dead. "See what your horse has done!" cried the rich man in an angry voice. "But you shall pay for it! You shall pay for it!" Then he dragged the man before a judge. "Oh, wise judge," he cried, "I have come to you for justice. I had a beautiful, kind, gentle horse which has been killed by this man's savage horse. Make the man pay for the horse or send him to prison." "Not so fast, my friend," the judge said. "There are two sides to every case." He turned to the poor man. "Did your horse kill this man's horse?" he asked. The poor man made no reply. The judge asked in surprise, "Are you dumb? Can you not talk?" But no word came from the poor man's lips. Then the judge turned to the rich man. "What more can I do?" he asked. "You see for yourself this poor man cannot speak." "Oh, but he can," cried the rich man. "He spoke to me." "Indeed!" said the judge. "When?" "He spoke to me when I tied my horse to the tree." "What did he say?" asked the judge. "He said, 'Do not fasten your horse to that tree. My horse is savage and may kill yours.'" "0 ho!" said the judge. "This poor man warned you that his horse was savage, and you tied your horse near his after the warning. This puts a new light on the matter. You are to blame, not he." The judge turned to the poor man and said, "My man, why did you not answer my questions?" "Oh, wise judge," said the poor man, "if I had told you that I warned him not to tie his horse near mine, he would have denied it. Then how could you have told which one of us to believe? I let him tell his own story, and you have learned the truth." This speech pleased the judge. He praised the poor man for his wisdom, and sent the rich man away without a penny. --ARABIAN TALE. [Illustration: Workers leaving a reaped field] GIVING THANKS For the hay and the corn and the wheat that is reaped, For the labor well done, and the barns that are heaped, For the sun and the dew and the sweet honeycomb, For the rose and the song, and the harvest brought home-- Thanksgiving! Thanksgiving! [Illustration: A house] For the trade and the skill and the wealth in our land, For the cunning and strength of the working-man's hand, For the good that our artists and poets have taught, For the friendship that hope and affection have brought-- Thanksgiving! Thanksgiving! For the homes that with purest affection are blest, For the season of plenty and well-deserved rest, For our country extending from sea to sea, The land that is known as "The Land of the Free"-- Thanksgiving! Thanksgiving! THE HARE AND THE HEDGEHOG I PLACE: A farmer's cabbage field. TIME: A fine morning in spring. (The hedgehog is standing by his door looking at the cabbage field which he thinks is his own.) HEDGEHOG: Wife, have you dressed the children yet? WIFE: Just through, my dear. HEDGEHOG: Well, come out here and let us look at our cabbage patch. (Wife comes out.) HEDGEHOG: Fine crop, isn't it? We should be happy. WIFE: The cabbage is fine enough, but I can't see why we should be so happy. [Illustration: The hare and the hedgehog with a cabbage] HEDGEHOG: Why, my dear, there are tears in your voice. What is the matter? WIFE: I suppose I ought not to mind it, but those dreadful hares nearly worry the life out of me. HEDGEHOG: What are they doing now? WIFE: Doing? What are they not doing? Why, yesterday I brought my pretty babies out here to get some cabbage leaves. We were eating as well-behaved hedgehogs always eat, and those horrid hares almost made us cry. HEDGEHOG: What did they do? WIFE: They came to our cabbage patch and they giggled and said, "Oh, see the little duck-legged things! Aren't they funny?" Then one jumped over a cabbage just to hurt our feelings. HEDGEHOG: Well, they are mean, I know, but we won't notice them. I'll get even with them one of these days. Ah, there comes one of them now. WIFE: Yes, and he laughed at me yesterday. He said, "Good-morning, Madam Shortlegs." I won't speak to him. I'll hide till he goes by. (Wife hides behind a cabbage.) HEDGEHOG: Good-morning, sir. HARE: Are you speaking to me? HEDGEHOG: Certainly; do you see any one else around? HARE: How dare you speak to me? HEDGEHOG: Oh, just to be neighborly. HARE: I shall ask you not to speak to me hereafter. I think myself too good to notice hedgehogs. HEDGEHOG: Now, that is strange. HARE: What is strange? HEDGEHOG: Why, I have just said to my wife that we wouldn't notice you. HARE: Wouldn't notice me, indeed, you silly, short-legged, duck-legged thing! HEDGEHOG: Well, my legs are quite as good as yours, sir. HARE: As good as mine! Who ever heard of such a thing? Why, you can do little more than crawl. HEDGEHOG: That may be as you say, but I'll run a race with you any day. HARE: Ha, ha, ha! Ho, ho, ho! A race with a hedgehog! Well, well, well! HEDGEHOG: Are you afraid to run with me? HARE: Of course not. It will be no race at all, but I'll run just to show you how silly you are. HEDGEHOG: Good! You run in that furrow; I will run in this. We shall see who gets to the fence first. Let's start from the far end of the furrow. HARE: I will run to the brook and back while you are getting there. Go ahead. HEDGEHOG: I wouldn't stay too long if I were you. HARE: Oh, I'll be back before you reach the end of the furrow. (The hare runs off to the brook.) II HEDGEHOG: Wife, wife, did you hear what I said to the hare? WIFE: Did I hear? I should say I did. What are you thinking of? Have you lost your senses? HEDGEHOG: You shouldn't speak that way to me. What do you know about a man's business? Come here and let me whisper something to you. (He whispers and then walks to far end of the furrow. His wife laughs.) WIFE: Ha, ha! I see. I see. Nothing wrong with your brains. "Short legs, long wit, Long legs, not a bit," as my grandmother used to say. The hare will find that out today. (She stoops down in the near end of the furrow. The hare returns and takes his place.) HARE: Well, are you ready? HEDGEHOG: Of course I am,--ready and waiting. HARE: One for the money, Two for the show, Three to make ready, And here we go! (The hare runs as swiftly as the wind. The hedgehog starts with him, but stops and stoops low in the furrow. When the hare reaches the other end, the hedgehog's wife puts up her head.) WIFE: Well, here I am. HARE: What does this mean? WIFE: It means what it means. HARE: We'll try again. Are you ready? WIFE: Of course I am. HARE: One for the money, Two for the show, Three to make ready, And here we go! (The hare runs swiftly back again. Wife starts, but stops and stoops low. The hare reaches the other end. The hedgehog puts up his head.) HEDGEHOG: Here I am. HARE: I can't understand this. HEDGEHOG: It is very clear to me. HARE: Well, we'll try again. Are you ready? HEDGEHOG: I'm always ready. HARE: One for the money, Two for the show, Three to make ready, And here we go! (Again the wife puts up her head and the hare is bewildered.) [Illustration: The hare racing as the hedhog looks on] WIFE: You see I am here. HARE: I just can't believe it. WIFE: A perfectly simple thing. HARE: We'll try once more. You can't beat me another time. WIFE: Don't boast. You had better save your breath for the race; you will need it. HARE: One for the money, Two for the show, Three to make ready, And here we go! (When the hare reaches the other end of the field, the hedgehog puts up his head.) HARE: This is very strange. HEDGEHOG: Shall we run again? You seem a little tired, but I am perfectly fresh. HARE (_panting_): No, no! The race is yours. HEDGEHOG: Will you call my wife and children names any more? HARE: No, no! I'll never do that again. HEDGEHOG: Very well. And if you wish a race at any time, friend hare, just call by for me. HARE (_walking off shaking his head_): It's very strange. I hope none of the other hares will hear of this race. WIFE (_as she meets the hedgehog_): I thought I should hurt myself laughing. As my grandmother used to say, "Short legs, long wit, Long legs, not a bit." --GRIMM. EPAMINONDAS Epaminondas had a good kind granny, who cooked at "the big house." Epaminondas liked to go to see her, for she always gave him something to take home with him. One day when Epaminondas went to see granny, she was baking a cake, and she gave Epaminondas a piece to eat. As he was leaving, granny said, "Epaminondas, you may take a slice home to your mammy." Epaminondas took it in his little hands and squeezing it just as tight as he could, ran all the way home. When his mammy saw him, she said, "What's that, Epaminondas?" "Cake, mammy. Granny sent it to you." "Cake!" cried his mammy. "Epaminondas, don't you know that's no way to carry cake? When your granny gives you cake, put it in your hat; then put your hat on your head and come home. You hear me, Epaminondas?" "Yes, mammy." The next time Epaminondas went to see his granny, she was churning, and she gave him a pat of fresh butter to carry to his mammy. Epaminondas said to himself, "What was it mammy said? Oh, yes! I know. She said, 'Put it in your hat and put the hat on your head and come home.' I'll do just what she told me." Epaminondas put the pat of butter in his hat, put his hat on his head, and went home. It was a hot day, and soon the butter began to melt. Drip, drip, drip, it went into his ears. Drip, drip, drip, it went into his eyes. Drip, drip, drip, it went down his back. When Epaminondas reached home, he had no butter in his hat. It was all on him. Looking at him hard, his mammy said, "Epaminondas, what in the world is that dripping from your hat?" "Butter, mammy. Granny sent it to you." "Butter!" cried his mammy. "Oh, Epaminondas! Don't you know how to carry butter? You must wrap it in a cabbage leaf, and take it to the spring. Then you must cool it in the water, and cool it in the water, and cool it in the water. When you have done this, take the butter in your hands and come home. You hear me, Epaminondas?" "Yes, mammy." The next time Epaminondas went to see his granny, she wasn't baking cake and she wasn't churning. She was sitting in a chair knitting. She said, "Epaminondas, look in the woodshed, and you'll see something you like." Epaminondas looked in the woodshed, and there he found four little puppies. He played with them all the afternoon, and when he started home, his granny gave him one. Epaminondas remembered what his mammy had told him. He wrapped the puppy in a big cabbage leaf, and took it to the spring. He cooled it in the water, and cooled it in the water, and cooled it in the water. Then he took it in his hands, and went home. When his mammy saw him, she said, "Epaminondas, what is that in your hands?" "A puppy dog, mammy." "A puppy dog!" cried his mammy. "Oh, Epaminondas! What makes you act so foolish? That's no way to carry a puppy. The way to carry a puppy is to tie a string around his neck and put him on the ground. Then you take the other end of the string in your hand and come along home. You hear me, Epaminondas?" "Yes, mammy." Epaminondas was going to be right the next time; he got a piece of string and put it in his pocket to have it ready. The next day company came to see Epaminondas's mammy, and she had no bread for dinner. She called Epaminondas and said, "Run to 'the big house' and ask your granny to send me a loaf of bread for dinner." "Yes, mammy," said Epaminondas. And off he ran. Granny gave him a loaf just from the oven--a nice, brown, crusty loaf. This time Epaminondas was certainly going to do what mammy had told him. He proudly got out his string and tied it to the loaf. Then he put the loaf on the ground, and taking the other end of the string in his hand, he went along home. When he reached home, his mammy gave one look at the thing tied to the end of the string. "What have you brought, Epaminondas?" she cried. "Bread, mammy. Granny sent it to you." "Oh, Epaminondas! Epaminondas! How could you be so foolish?" cried his mammy. "Now I have no bread for dinner. I'll have to go and get some myself." She went into the house and got her bonnet. When she came out, she said, "Epaminondas, do you see those three mince pies I've put on the doorstep to cool. Well, now, you hear me, Epaminondas. You be careful how you step on those pies!" "Yes, mammy." His mammy went off down the road; Epaminondas went to the door and looked out. "Mammy told me to be careful how I step on those mince pies," he said, "so I must be careful how I do it. I'll step right in the middle of every one." And he did! When his mammy came home, there were no pies for dinner. Now she was angry all over, and something happened. I don't know, and you don't know, but we can guess. Poor Epaminondas!--SOUTHERN TALE. [Illustration: Epaminondas stepping in the pies] HOW BROTHER RABBIT FOOLED THE WHALE AND THE ELEPHANT I One day Brother Rabbit was running along on the sand, lippety, lippety, lippety. He was going to a fine cabbage field. On the way he saw the whale and the elephant talking together. Brother Rabbit said, "I'd like to know what they are talking about." So he crouched down behind some bushes and listened. This is what Brother Rabbit heard the whale say: "You are the biggest thing on the land, Brother Elephant, and I am the biggest thing in the sea. If we work together, we can rule all the animals in the world. We can have our own way about everything." "Very good, very good," trumpeted the elephant. "That suits me. You keep the sea, and I will keep the land." [Illustration: Brother Rabbit listening] "That's a bargain," said the whale, as he swam away. Brother Rabbit laughed to himself. "They won't rule me," he said, as he ran off. Brother Rabbit soon came back with a very long and a very strong rope and his big drum. He hid the drum in some bushes. Then taking one end of the rope, he walked up to the elephant. "Oh, dear Mr. Elephant," he said, "you are big and strong; will you have the kindness to do me a favor?" The elephant was pleased, and he trumpeted, "Certainly, certainly. What is it?" "My cow is stuck in the mud on the shore, and I can't pull her out," said Brother Rabbit. "If you will help me, you will do me a great service. You are so strong, I am sure you can get her out." "Certainly, certainly," trumpeted the elephant. "Thank you," said the rabbit. "Take this rope in your trunk, and I will tie the other end to my cow. Then I will beat my drum to let you know when to pull. You must pull as hard as you can, for the cow is very heavy." "Huh!" trumpeted the elephant, "I'll pull her out, or break the rope." Brother Rabbit tied the rope to the elephant's trunk and ran off, lippety, lippety. II He ran till he came to the shore where the whale was. Making a bow, Brother Rabbit said, "0, mighty and wonderful Whale, will you do me a favor?" "What is it?" asked the whale. "My cow is stuck in the mud on the shore," said Brother Rabbit, "and I cannot pull her out. Of course you can do it. If you will be so kind as to help me, I shall be very much obliged." "Certainly," said the whale, "certainly." "Thank you," said Brother Rabbit, "take hold of this rope, and I will tie the other end to my cow. Then I will beat my big drum to let you know when to pull. You must pull as hard as you can, for my cow is very heavy." "Never fear," said the whale, "I could pull a dozen cows out of the mud." "I am sure you could," said the rabbit politely. "Only be sure to begin gently. Then pull harder and harder till you get her out." The rabbit ran away into the bushes where he had hidden the drum and began to beat it. Then the whale began to pull and the elephant began to pull. In a minute the rope tightened till it was stretched as hard as a bar of iron. "This is a very heavy cow," said the elephant, "but I'll pull her out." Bracing his fore feet in the earth, he gave a tremendous pull. But the whale had no way to brace himself. "Dear me," he said. "That cow must surely be stuck tight." Lashing his tail in the water, he gave a marvelous pull. He pulled harder; the elephant pulled harder. Soon the whale found himself sliding toward the land. He was so provoked with the cow that he went head first, down to the bottom of the sea. That was a pull! The elephant was jerked off his feet, and came slipping and sliding toward the sea. He was very angry. "That cow must be very strong to drag me in this way," he said. "I will brace myself." Kneeling down on the ground, he twisted the rope around his trunk. Then he began to pull his very best, and soon the whale came up out of the water. Then each saw that the other had hold of the rope. "How is this?" cried the whale. "I thought I was pulling Brother Rabbit's cow." "That is what I thought," said the elephant. "Brother Rabbit is making fun of us. He must pay for this. I forbid him to eat a blade of grass on land, because he played a trick on us." "And I will not allow him to drink a drop of water in the sea," said the whale. But Little Rabbit sat in the bushes and laughed, and laughed, and laughed. "Much do I care," he said. "I can get all the green things I want, and I don't like salt water." --SOUTHERN FOLK TALE. [Illustration: A mother with children in winter] A CHRISTMAS WISH I'd like a stocking made for a giant, And a meeting house full of toys; Then I'd go out on a happy hunt For the poor little girls and boys; Up the street and down the street, And across and over the town, I'd search and find them every one, Before the sun went down. One would want a new jack-knife Sharp enough to cut; One would long for a doll with hair, And eyes that open and shut; One would ask for a china set With dishes all to her mind; One would wish a Noah's ark With beasts of every kind. Some would like a doll cook-stove And a little toy wash tub; Some would prefer a little drum, For a noisy rub-a-dub; Some would wish for a story book, And some for a set of blocks; Some would be wild with happiness Over a new tool-box. And some would rather have little shoes, And other things warm to wear, For many children are very poor, And the winter is hard to bear; I'd buy soft flannels for little frocks, And a thousand stockings or so, And the jolliest little coats and cloaks, To keep out the frost and snow. [Illustration: Christmas toys] I'd load a wagon with caramels And candy of every kind, And buy all the almond and pecan nuts And taffy that I could find; And barrels and barrels of oranges I'd scatter right in the way, So the children would find them the very first thing, When they wake on Christmas day. --EUGENE FIELD. [Illustration: The church tower] THE CHRISTMAS BELLS I Long, long ago, in a far away city, there was a large church. The tower of this church was so high that it seamed to touch the clouds, and in the high tower there were three wonderful bells. When they rang, they made sweet music. There was something strange about these bells. They were never heard to ring except on Christmas eve, and no one knew who rang them. Some people thought it was the wind blowing through the tower. Others thought the angels rang them when a gift pleased the Christ Child. Although the people did not know what rang the bells, they loved to hear them. They would come from miles around to listen to the wonderful music. When they had heard the bells, they would go out of the church, silent but happy. Then all would go back to their homes feeling that Christmas had come, indeed. One Christmas eve the people in the church waited and waited, but the bells did not ring. Silently and sadly they went home. Christmas after Christmas came and went. Nearly one hundred years passed by, and in all that time the bells did not ring. People sometimes asked one another, "Do you suppose the bells ever did ring?" "Yes," said one very old man. "I have often heard my father tell how beautifully they rang on Christmas eve. There was more love in the world then." Every Christmas eve the church was filled with people who waited and listened. They hoped that the bells would ring again as they had rung long ago. Though many gifts were laid on the altar, still the bells did not ring. II Christmas was near at hand again, and every one was happy. Not far from the city two little brothers lived on a farm--Pedro and Little Brother. Their father was poor and had no gift to lay on the altar. But Pedro had saved all his earnings, and he had one shining silver piece. His father had promised the little boys that they might go to the church on Christmas eve and take the gift. It was quite dark when the lads started on their way to the city. The snow was falling fast, but they buttoned their little jackets close about them and walked along briskly. They were not far from the church when they heard a low whine of distress. Little Brother, clinging to Pedro in fear, cried, "What is it, Pedro, what is it?" Pedro ran across the street, and there under a small heap of snow, what do you think he found? A little black and white dog, shivering with cold, and nearly starved. Pedro opened his jacket, and put the dog inside to keep it warm. "You will have to go to the church alone, Little Brother," Pedro said. "I must take this little dog back to the farm, and give it food, else it will die." "But I don't want to go alone, Pedro," said Little Brother. "Won't you please go and put my gift on the altar, Little Brother? I wish so much to have it there to-night." "Yes, Pedro, I will," said Little Brother. He took the gift and started toward the church. Pedro turned and went home. When Little Brother came to the great stone church and looked up at the high tower, he felt that he could not go in alone. He stood outside a long time watching the people as they passed in. At last he entered quietly and took a seat in a corner. III When Little Brother went into the church, all the people were seated. They sat quietly hoping that at last the bells would ring again as in the days of old. The organ pealed out a Christmas hymn. The choir and the people arose, and all sang the grand old anthem. Then a solemn voice said, "Bring now your gifts to the altar." The king arose and went forward with stately tread. Bowing before the altar, he laid upon it his golden crown. Then he walked proudly back to his seat. All the people listened, but the bells did not ring. Then the queen arose and with haughty step walked to the front. She took from her neck and wrists her beautiful jewels and laid them upon the altar. All the people listened, but the bells did not ring. Then the soldiers came marching proudly forward. They took their jeweled swords from their belts and laid them upon the altar. All the people listened, but the bells did not ring. Then the rich men came hurrying forward. They counted great sums of gold and laid them in a businesslike way upon the altar. All the people listened, but the bells did not ring. "Can I go all alone to the front of the church and lay this small gift on the altar?" said Little Brother. "Oh, how can I? how can I?" Then he said, "But I told Pedro I would, and I must." So he slipped slowly around by the outer aisle. He crept quietly up to the altar and softly laid the silver piece upon the very edge. And listen! What do you think was heard? The bells, the bells! Oh, how happy the people were! And how happy Little Brother was! He ran out of the church and down the road toward the farm. Pedro had warmed the dog and fed it, and was now on the way to the city. He hoped that he might see the people come out of the church. Down the road Little Brother came running. Throwing himself into Pedro's arms, he cried, "Oh, Pedro, Pedro! The bells, the bells! I wish you could have heard them; and they rang when I laid your gift on the altar." "I did hear them, Little Brother," said Pedro. "Their sound came to me over the snow,--the sweetest music I ever heard." Long years after, when Pedro grew to be a man, he was a great musician. Many, many people came to hear him play. Some one said to him one day, "How can you play so sweetly? I never heard such music before." "Ah," said Pedro, "but you never heard the Christmas bells as I heard them that Christmas night years and years ago." --OLD TALE RETOLD. [Illustration: Family at prayer at the table] GOD BLESS THE MASTER OF THIS HOUSE God bless the master of this house, The mistress, also, And all the little children That round the table go: And all your kin and kinsfolk, That dwell both far and near; I wish you a merry Christmas And a happy new year. --OLD ENGLISH RIME. SQUEAKY AND THE SCARE BOX I Once upon a time a family of mice lived in the pantry wall. There was a father mouse, there was a mother mouse, and there were three little baby mice. One little mouse had sharp bright eyes and could see everything, even in the darkest holes. He was called Sharpeyes. His brother could sniff and smell anything, wherever it might be hidden, and he was called Sniffy. The baby mouse had such a squeaky little voice that he was called Squeaky. He was always singing, "Ee-ee-ee!" Mother mouse was very wise, and she had taught her babies to run and hide when they saw the old cat coming. She had also taught them not to go near a trap. The little mice obeyed their mother, and they were happy in their home in the pantry wall. They had many good times together. I could not tell you about all of these, but I am going to tell you about their Christmas party and what happened to Squeaky. It was the night before Christmas. The stockings hung by the chimney, and the tall tree was standing in the parlor. The children were asleep, and the father and mother had gone upstairs to bed. In the pantry wall, the little mice were all wide-awake. "Ee-ee-ee!" squeaked Squeaky; "why can't we creep into the big room and see the tall Christmas tree? The children have talked about it for days, and we have never seen one. Mother, please let us go and see it." "Yes," said Sniffy, "do let us go. Everything smells so good. The children and the cook made long strings of pop corn to-day. I found a little on the pantry floor, and I want some more." "I peeped out of our hole," said Sharpeyes, "and I saw cake and candy all ready for the children. Oh, I do want a bite of those good things! Please let us have a Christmas party." "Well," said mother mouse, "I will ask your father. If he says it is safe, we will go." When mother mouse asked father mouse, he said, "I will go out first and look all about. If it is safe, I will come back for you." So father mouse crept softly through the pantry, down the long hall, and into the parlor. The cat was nowhere to be seen. Father mouse ran back to the pantry and cried, "The cat is not near; come and see the tree." II Then all the mice came scampering from the hole in the wall. They crept through the pantry, down the long hall, and into the parlor. When they saw the tall Christmas tree, they squeaked again and again in their joy. Then they ran around and around the tree to see what was on it. [Illustration: The mice look at the Christmas tree] On the floor they saw a wonderful doll's house. "How fine it would be to live there!" they squeaked. They ran up and down the stairs, sat on the chairs, and lay down in the beds. Oh, they had a merry time! Then Sniffy said, "I smell that good pop corn again. Let's climb up into the Christmas tree and get some." They climbed up into the tree. They nibbled the pop corn; they nibbled the candy; they nibbled the nuts; and they nibbled the cakes. Soon Sharpeyes cried out, "Come here, I see a mouse! I see a mouse! But he doesn't look like our family at all." "I should say not," sniffed Sniffy; "and how good he smells!" "Why, he is good to eat!" squeaked Squeaky; and they all began to eat the chocolate mouse. Then they found another candy mouse--a pretty pink one. They were so busy eating it that they forgot to watch and listen; then--bang! The door was opened, and the lights were turned on. With a squeak, the mice scampered down from the tree; then they ran along the hall, through the pantry, and back to their home. There was the father mouse, and the mother mouse, and Sharpeyes, and Sniffy. But where was Squeaky? III Now, as Squeaky tried to run down the tree, he fell heels over head. Down, down, down, he fell until he was caught in a funny box. An ugly man with black hair and black whiskers seemed to be hopping out of the box. When Squeaky saw the lights turned on, he hid under the dress of this queer man. He lay very, very still, for he had been taught to be still when danger was near. He heard voices. The father and mother had come back. "Yes," the father was saying; "it would have been a shame to forget this train. I would like it to come right out from under the tree. Help me put the track down, mother." When the train was just where it should be, the mother turned to the beautiful tree. "Why, look at that Jack-in-the-box," she said. "The man is hanging out. That will never do. I will shut the box. Teddy must see the man jump out." The mother pushed the man with the black hair down, down, into the box and shut the lid. Poor Squeaky felt the springs close down on him and squeaked, "Ee-ee-" "That was a fine squeak," said the father. "The toys are wonderful these days." "Yes," said the mother, as she turned off the light. "When I was a child, we did not have such toys." "I am in a trap," said poor Squeaky, "but there isn't even a bit of cheese in it. I wonder what kind of trap it is; nothing seems to hurt me. Well, I am safe for a while, and I hope I shall soon get out." Squeaky lay in the box all night, and wondered what Sniffy and Sharpeyes were doing. The next morning, he heard children calling, "Merry Christmas! Merry Christmas!" And soon the toys were taken down, one by one. Then such a noise was heard--drums beating, horns tooting, children shouting. You should have heard it. [Illustration: The mother is surprised as Squeaky escapes] "See our new doll's house!" cried one child. "See my new train! How fast it goes!" cried another. "And see my beautiful dolly!" cried another. "She can open and shut her eyes." By and by the mother took the box from the tree. "Come here, Teddy," she said. "Here is a scare box. We will have some fun. Watch me open the lid." Teddy stood by his mother and watched closely. "Are you ready?" asked his mother. "Well, let us count. One, two, three!" The lid flew open, and out jumped the man with the black hair and black whiskers. And with a squeak of joy, out jumped the mouse. "Ee-ee-ee!" he cried, as he ran away. "Ee!" said the Jack-in-the-box. "Whee-ee-ee!" cried the boy with delight. "Oh,--a mouse! a mouse!" cried the mother. Then she threw the box on the floor and jumped up on her chair. "Where? where?" cried all the children. But they saw only the tip of Squeaky's tail as he ran across the hall to the pantry. Another moment and he was safe in the hole in the pantry wall. The children's father laughed as he helped their mother climb down from the chair. "Well," he said, "how did _you_ enjoy Teddy's scare box?" --GEORGENE FAULKNER. THE GLAD NEW YEAR It's coming, boys, It's almost here. It's coming, girls, The grand New Year. A year to be glad in, Not to be sad in; A year to live in, To gain and give in. A year for trying, And not for sighing; A year for striving And healthy thriving. It's coming, boys, It's almost here. It's coming, girls, The grand New Year. --MARY MAPES DODGE. [Illustration: The goose and the hen] MAKING THE BEST OF IT "What a dreary day it is!" grumbled the old gray goose to the brown hen. They were standing at the henhouse window watching the falling snow which covered every nook and corner of the farmyard. "Yes, indeed," said the brown hen. "I should almost be willing to be made into a chicken pie on such a day." She had scarcely stopped talking when Pekin duck said fretfully, "I am so hungry that I am almost starved." A little flock of chickens all huddled together wailed in sad tones, "And we are so thirsty!" In fact, all the feathered folk in the henhouse seemed cross and fretful. It is no wonder they felt that way, for they had had nothing to eat or drink since early in the morning. The cold wind howled around their house. Hour after hour went by, but no one came near the henhouse. The handsome white rooster, however, seemed as happy as usual. That is saying a great deal, for a jollier old fellow than he never lived in a farmyard. Sunshine, rain, or snow were all the same to him, and he crowed quite as merrily in stormy weather as in fair. "Well," he said, laughing, as he looked about the henhouse, "you all seem to be having a fit of dumps." Nobody answered the white rooster, but a faint cluck or two came from some of the hens. They immediately put their heads back under their wings, however, as if ashamed of having spoken at all. This was too much for the white rooster. He stood first on one yellow foot and then on the other. Turning his head from side to side, he said, "What's the use of looking so sad? Any one would think that you expected to be eaten by a band of hungry foxes." Just then a brave little white bantam rooster hopped down from his perch. He strutted over to the big rooster and caused quite a flutter in the henhouse by saying: "We're lively enough when our crops are full, but when we are starving, it is a wonder that we can hold our heads up at all. If I ever see that farmer's boy again, I'll--I'll--I'll peck his foot!" "You won't see him until he feeds us," said the white rooster, "and then I guess you will peck his corn." "Oh, oh!" moaned the brown hen. "Don't speak of a peck of corn." "Madam," said the white rooster, bowing very low, "your trouble is my own,--that is, I'm hungry, too. But we might be worse off. We might be in a box on our way to market. It is true that we haven't had anything to eat to-day, but we at least have room enough to stretch our wings." "Why, that is a fact," clucked the brown hen. And all the feathered family--even the smallest chickens--stretched their wings, and looked a little more cheerful. "Now, then," went on the rooster, "suppose we have a little music to cheer us and help pass the hours until roosting time. Let us all crow. There, I beg your pardon, ladies; I am sorry you can't crow. Let us sing a happy song. Will you be kind enough to start a merry tune, Mrs. Brown Hen?" The brown hen shook herself proudly, tossed her head back and began,--"Ca-ca-ca-ca-ca-ca!" In less than two minutes every one in the henhouse had joined her. The white rooster was the loudest of all, and the little bantam rooster stretched his neck and did the best he could. Now, the horses, cows, and sheep were not far away. They heard the happy voices, and they, too, joined in the grand chorus. The pigs did their best to sing louder than all the rest. Higher and higher, stronger and stronger, rose the chorus. Louder and louder quacked the ducks. Shriller and shriller squealed the pigs. They were all so happy that they quite forgot their hunger until the door of the henhouse burst open, and in came three chubby children. Each was carrying a dish of hot chicken food. "Don't stop your music, Mr. Rooster," said the little girl, who was bundled up until you could scarcely see her dear little face. [Illustration: The children arrive with food] "You see, we were so lonesome that we didn't know what to do. We heard you folk singing out here, and we laughed and laughed until we almost cried. Then we went to tell Jack about you. He was lonesome, too, for he's sick with a sore throat, you know. He said, 'Why, those poor hens! They haven't been fed since morning! Go and feed them.' And so we came." "Cock-a-doodle-doo!" said the white rooster. "This comes of making the best of things. Cock-a-doodle-doo!" And nobody asked him to stop crowing. --FRANCES M. FOX. THE ANIMALS AND THE MIRROR I Aunt Susan sent an old-fashioned looking-glass to the barn to be stored in the loft, with other old furniture. The farm boy stood it on the floor of the barn until he should have time to put it away. The mirror was broad and long, and it was set in a dark wooden frame. An old duck wandered into the barn and caught sight of herself in the mirror. "There is another duck," she said. "I wonder who she is." And she walked toward the reflection. "She is rather friendly," the duck went on. "She is walking toward me. What large feet she has, but her feathers are very handsome." Just then she bumped into the mirror. "Goodness!" she cried; "if that duck isn't in a glass case! Why are you in there?" "Well, you needn't answer if you don't want to," she said, walking away. "A glass case is a good place for you." Just then a pig came along, and nosing around, he came in front of the mirror. "What are you doing here?" he asked, thinking he saw another pig. His nose hit the glass, and he stepped back. "So you are in a glass pen," he said. "You are not very handsome, and your nose is not so long as mine; I cannot see why you should have a glass pen." And away he trotted to tell the other pigs about the very plain-looking pig. Kitty came along next and walked in front of the mirror, turning her head and swinging her tail. She had seen a mirror before and knew what it was. The cat wished to look in the mirror, but she saw the dog coming in the door, and she did not want him to think her vain. The dog walked over to the mirror and gazed in it. Then he looked foolish, although he had seen a mirror before, too, but not so often as puss. "Thought it was another dog, didn't you?" she laughed. "Here comes the donkey. Let us hide behind those barrels and see what he does." II The donkey went up to the mirror. "If they haven't another donkey!" he said. "I suppose I should speak first, as I have lived here so long. Why, he is coming to meet me. That is friendly, indeed." Bump! his nose hit the glass. "Well, I had better give up!" he said. "You are in a glass case, but I don't know why you should be. You are a homely creature, and your ears are not so long as mine." And he walked off with a disgusted air. The cat rolled over and over, and the dog buried his head in his paws. "Did you ever see anything so funny?" he said to puss. "Hush!" she replied, "Here is the rooster." [Illustration: The rooster and the mirror] The rooster stopped quite still when he saw himself in the mirror. "Well, where did you come from?" he asked, ruffling up his feathers. He walked straight to the mirror and flew at the other rooster. Bang! He went against the glass. "In a glass case, are you?" he said. He stretched out his neck and looked very fierce. "You should be; you are a sight--your feathers are ruffled, and you are not half so handsome as I am." And off he walked, satisfied that he was handsomer than the other rooster. "Oh, dear!" laughed the cat. "I certainly shall scream. They all think they are handsomer than their reflections. Here comes the turkey gobbler. Let us see what he does." The gobbler walked slowly over to the mirror and looked at his reflection. "Now," he asked, "where in the world did they get you? You are an old, bald-headed creature, and your feathers need oiling. You look like a last year's turkey." And off he strutted. The cat and the dog leaned against the barrels and laughed until the tears ran down their faces. "Keep still," said the dog. "Here comes speckled hen and her chickens." Speckled hen walked around, picking up bits of corn. Suddenly she looked up and saw the mirror. "There is a hen with a brood of chicks, but they are not so handsome as mine," she said, walking toward the looking-glass. "Where do you live? I know you do not belong here." And she looked closer at the other hen. Click! Her bill hit the glass. "Well, if she isn't in a glass coop!" the hen said, stepping back. "If master has bought her and those chicks, there will be trouble. Mercy! One of the chicks is bow-legged, and they are a skinny looking lot." Then she clucked to her chicks and walked out of the barn. "Oh, dear! Oh, dear!" laughed the dog; "they all think the same. They certainly are a conceited lot. Here comes the goose." III The goose waddled over to the mirror. "Well, well! If there isn't a new goose!" she said, "and she is walking toward me. I must be friendly." Snap! Her bill struck the mirror. "Oh, you are in a glass box!" she said. "Have you come to stay?" And she stretched out her neck. "My, but you have a long neck!" she went on, "and your feathers are nice and smooth. I suppose you cannot hear in that box." Then she walked away, nodding good-by. The other goose, of course, nodded also, and goosey went away satisfied. "She is not so much of a goose as the others," the cat remarked. "The peacock is coming," said the dog. "Keep quiet." In walked the peacock. Seeing another bird, as he supposed, he spread his beautiful tail to its full width. He walked about, but never a word did he say. "Now, what do you make out of that?" asked the dog. "Did he know that he was looking in a looking-glass, or wouldn't he speak to another bird?" "I do not know," said the cat, "but here comes the goat. Hide, quick!" Billy was clattering over the boards, when suddenly he saw the other goat. He looked at him a minute. "I'll show him," he said, running at the mirror with head down. [Illustration: The goat crashes into the mirror] Bang! Smash! Crash! and Billy jumped back, a very much astonished goat. "Now you have done it," said the horse, who had been watching all the time from his stall. "All the animals will get out and run away." "What are you talking about?" said the dog, who was laughing so hard he could scarcely talk. "There are no animals in there. That is a looking-glass; you see yourself when you are in front of it." "Do you mean to tell me that those animals have all been looking at themselves and finding fault with their own looks?" asked the horse, with his eyes nearly popping out of his head. "Of course," said the cat. "Can't you see that Billy has smashed the looking-glass?" "Well, that is the best I ever heard," said the horse, laughing, "but I wish I had known that was a looking-glass before Billy broke it. I should very much like to know how I look." "You might not have recognized yourself; the others didn't," said the dog. --F.A. WALKER. THE BARBER OF BAGDAD ACT I PLACE: Ali's barber shop. TIME: Morning. WOODCUTTER: I have a load of wood which I have just brought in on my donkey. Would you like to buy it, good barber? ALI: Well, let me see. Is it good wood? WOODCUTTER: The best in the country. ALI: I'll give you five shekels for all the wood upon the donkey. WOODCUTTER: Agreed. I'll put the wood here by your door. (Lays wood at door.) Now, good sir, give me the silver. ALI: Not so fast, my good friend. I must have your wooden pack saddle, too. That was the bargain. I said, "All the wood upon your donkey." Truly, the saddle is wood. [Illustration: Ali and the woodcutter with the donkey] WOODCUTTER: Who ever heard of such a bargain? Surely you cannot mean what you say? You would not treat a poor woodcutter so. It is impossible. ALI: Give me the saddle, or I'll have you put in prison. And take that--and that--and that! (Ali strikes the woodcutter.) WOODCUTTER: Ah, me, what shall I do? What shall I do? I know. I'll go to the caliph himself. ACT II PLACE: Caliph's Palace. TIME: Hour later. COURTIER: My lord, a good woodcutter is at the door and begs leave to come into your presence. CALIPH: Bid him enter. There is none too poor to be received by me. (Courtier goes out and returns with woodcutter, who kneels and kisses the ground. Then he stands with arms folded.) CALIPH: Tell me, good man, what brought you here? Has any one done you a wrong? WOODCUTTER: Great wrong, my lord. The rich barber Ali did buy a load of wood from me. He offered me five shekels for all the wood on my donkey. When I had put down the load, I asked for my money, but he refused to pay me until I had given him my pack saddle. He said the bargain was "all the wood on the donkey," and that the saddle is wood. He said he would put me in prison if I did not give up the saddle. Then he took it and drove me away with blows. CALIPH: A strange story, truly. The barber has law on his side, and yet you have right on yours. The law must be obeyed, but--come here and let me whisper something to you. (The woodcutter listens smilingly and bowing low, leaves the room.) ACT III PLACE: The barber's shop. TIME: A few days later. ALI: Ah! here comes my stupid friend the woodcutter. I suppose he has come to quarrel about the wood. No, he is smiling. WOODCUTTER: Good day to you, friend Ali. I have come to ask if you will be so kind as to shave me and a companion from the country. ALI: Oh, yes, I suppose so. WOODCUTTER: How much will you charge? ALI: A shekel for the two. (To himself.) The poor fool cannot pay that sum. WOODCUTTER. Very good. Shave me first. (Ali shaves him.) ALI: Now you are shaved. Where is your companion? WOODCUTTER: He is standing outside. He will come in at once. (He goes out and returns leading his donkey.) This is my companion. Shave him. ALI (_in a rage_): Shave him! Shave a donkey, indeed! Is it not enough that I should lower myself by touching you? And then you insult me by asking me to shave your donkey! Away with you! ACT IV PLACE: Caliph's Palace. TIME: Half-hour later. CALIPH: Well, my friend, did you do as I told you? WOODCUTTER: Yes, and Ali refused to shave my donkey. CALIPH (_to Courtier_): Bid Ali come to me at once and bring his razors with him. (Courtier leaves and returns with Ali.) CALIPH: Why did you refuse to shave this man's companion? Was not that your agreement? ALI (_kissing the ground_): It is true, O caliph, such was the agreement, but who ever made a companion of a donkey before? CALIPH: True enough, but who ever thought of saying that a pack saddle is a part of a load of wood? No, no, it is the woodcutter's turn now. Shave his donkey instantly. (Ali lathers the beast and shaves him in the presence of the whole court, and then slips away amid the laughter of the bystanders.) CALIPH: Now, my honest woodcutter, here is a purse of gold for you. Always remember that the caliph gladly listens to the complaints of his people, poor and rich, and will right their wrongs if he can. WOODCUTTER: Long live the Caliph! COURTIERS: Long live the Caliph! --EASTERN TALE. WINTER NIGHT Blow, wind, blow! Drift the flying snow! Send it twirling, twirling overhead. There's a bedroom in a tree Where snug as snug can be, The squirrel nests in his cozy bed. Shriek, wind, shriek! Make the branches creak! Battle with the boughs till break of day! In a snow cave warm and tight Through the icy winter night The rabbit sleeps the peaceful hour away. Scold, wind, scold! So bitter and so bold! Shake the windows with your tap, tap, tap! With half-shut, dreamy eyes The drowsy baby lies Cuddled closely in his mother's lap. --MARY F. BUTTS. HOPE'S DOLL It was Saturday morning. Elizabeth Brown sat by a window in the big kitchen making a pink dress for little Hope's doll. On the chair beside her lay the doll, though you might not have thought of calling it one. It did not have curly hair--nor eyes that open and shut. In those days no child had toys like ours. Hope's doll was made of a corncob; the face was painted on a piece of linen stretched over a ball of wool on the end of the cob. Little Hope was taking her morning nap. When Elizabeth had sewed the last neat stitches, she dressed the doll and laid it on the bed by the little girl. How happy Hope was when she awoke and saw it! She thought it the most beautiful doll in the world. "What will you call your doll, Hope?" asked Elizabeth. "I will name her for mother," said Hope. "I will call her Mary Ellen." [Illustration: Hope and her doll] Hope played all the afternoon with her doll and was very happy. When the sunset gun sounded, she had to stop playing. With the Puritans, the Sabbath began at sunset, and no child could play after the gun was heard. The little maid kissed her baby and went into the bedroom to find a warm place for it to stay until the next evening. There lay father's Sunday coat; what warmer nest could she find for Mary Ellen than its big pocket? After breakfast the next day, every one got ready to go to meeting. Master Brown filled the little tin foot stove with hot coals from the hearth; then he took his gun from its hook. In those days no man went anywhere without his gun--not even to church, for the Indians were likely to come at any time. Sometimes the firing of a gun was the call to worship. More often a big drum, beaten on the steps of the meeting house, told the people it was time to come together. At the sound of the drum, Master Brown and his wife, with Elizabeth and Hope, started to church. From every house in the village came men, women, and children. They were always ready when the drum began to beat, for no one was ever late to meeting in those days. Master Brown led his family to their pew and opened a little door to let them in. The pew was very much like a large box with seats around the sides. The church was cold, for there was no fire. The children warmed their fingers and toes by the queer little foot stove their father had brought from home. When every one was seated, the minister climbed the steps to his high pulpit. The sermon was always very long--three hours at least. The children could not understand what it was all about, and it was very hard for them to sit still and listen quietly. Elizabeth was four years older than Hope, so she felt quite like a little woman. She sat up beside her mother and looked at the minister almost all the time; but sometimes she had to wink hard to keep awake. When she thought she could not let her feet hang down another minute, she would slip down to the footstool to rest. Elizabeth was often ashamed of Hope, who could not sit still ten minutes. She tried to listen to the sermon, but could not. When she began to stir about a little, her mother shook her head at her. She sat still for a few minutes, but was soon restless again. Presently she began to be sleepy and laid her head upon her father's arm for a nap. Just then she felt something in his pocket. A happy smile came over Hope's face; she was wide-awake now. Slipping her hand into the wide pocket, she drew out Mary Ellen and smoothed her wrinkled gown. Master Brown's thoughts were all on the sermon, and even Mistress Brown did not notice Hope for a little time. When she did, what do you suppose she saw? Hope was standing on the seat showing her doll to the little girl in the pew behind her. Oh, how ashamed her mother was! She pulled her little daughter down quickly and whispered, "Do you want the tithingman to come? Well, sit down and listen." Taking Mary Ellen, she slipped the doll into her muff. Little Hope did sit down and listen. She did not even turn around when the kind lady behind them dropped a peppermint over the high-backed pew for her. She was very much afraid of the tithingman, who sat on a high seat. He had a long rod with a hard knob on one end and a squirrel's tail on the other. [Illustration: The tithingman tickling the nodding lady] When he saw a lady nodding during the sermon, he stepped around to her pew and tickled her face with the fur end of the rod. She would waken with a start and be, oh! so ashamed. She would be very glad the pew had such high sides to hide her blushing face. Perhaps you think the boys who sat on the other side of the church had a good time. But there was the tithingman again. When he saw a boy whispering or playing, he rapped him on the head with the knob end of the rod. The whispering would stop at once, for the rod often brought tears and left a headache. Besides keeping the boys from playing and the grown people from going to sleep, the tithingman must turn the hourglass. In those days very few people could afford clocks, but every one had an hourglass. It took the fine sand just one hour to pour from the upper part of the glass into the lower part. When the sand had all run through, the tithingman turned the glass over and the sand began to tell another hour. The glass was always turned three times before the minister closed the service. Then the men picked up their muskets and foot stoves, the women wrapped their long capes closely about them, and all went home. At sunset the Puritan Sabbath ended. The women brought out their knitting and spinning, or prepared for Monday's washing, and the children were free to play until bedtime. --MARGARET PUMPHREY. NAHUM PRINCE More than a hundred years ago, our country was at war with England. George Washington was at the head of our army. As you know, he and his men were fighting for our country's freedom. The English army was larger than our army, and General Washington needed all the men he could get. The regular troops were with him. In one little town in Vermont all the strong, able-bodied men had gone to the front. News came that the English and the Americans were about to meet in battle. The Americans needed more men and called for volunteers. Old men with white hair and long beards volunteered. Young boys with smooth cheeks and unshaven lips volunteered. There wasn't a boy in the village over thirteen years of age who didn't volunteer. Even lame Nahum Prince offered himself. He brought out his grandfather's old gun and got in line with the others. He stood as straight and tall as he could--as a soldier should stand. Soon the captain came along the line to inspect the volunteers. When he saw Nahum, he said, "No, no, Nahum, you cannot go; you know you cannot. Why, you could not walk a mile. Go home, my lad." Just then the good old minister came by. "Yes, Nahum," he said, "you must stay at home. Who knows but that you will find a greater work to do for your country right here?" And lame Nahum dropped out of the line. Then the volunteers marched off, every man and boy in the village except Nahum Prince. Poor Nahum! His heart was heavy. "What can I do for my country in this small village?" he said to himself. "Oh, I wish I could be a soldier!" He walked toward his home slowly and sadly. Just as he passed the blacksmith shop, three horseman galloped up to the door. [Illustration: The horseman speaks to Nahum] "Where is the blacksmith?" asked one. "He and all the men and boys have gone to join the army," said Nahum. "There isn't a man or a boy in town except me. I wouldn't be here if I were not lame." "We cannot have this horse shod," said the rider to the others. "We shall not reach there in time." "Why, I can set a shoe," said Nahum. "Then it is lucky you are left behind," said the man. "Light up the forge and set the shoe." Nahum lighted the fire, blew the coals with the bellows, and soon put on the shoe. "You have done a great deed to-day, my boy," said the rider as he thanked Nahum and rode away. The next week the boys came home and told of a great battle. They told how the Americans were about to lose the fight when Colonel Seth Warner, leading a band of soldiers, rode up just in time to save the day. Nahum said nothing, but he knew that Colonel Warner would not have arrived in time if he had not set that shoe. And it was really Nahum Prince and Colonel Seth Warner who won the victory of Bennington. THE LITTLE COOK'S REWARD Betty lived a long, long time ago on a farm in North Carolina. She knew how to clean up the house, to wash the dishes, to sew, and to cook. She knew how to knit, and to spin and weave, too. One day Betty's father said, "Let us go to town to-morrow. President Washington is passing through the South, and a man told me to-day that he will be in Salisbury to-morrow." "Yes," said Betty's brother Robert, "and our company has been asked to march in the parade. One of the boys is going to make a speech of welcome." "I should like to go," said their mother, "but I can't leave home." "Oh, yes, you can, mother," said Betty. "I have stayed here by myself many times, and I can stay to-morrow. You go with father, and I will take care of things." The next morning every one on the place was up before the sun. Robert was so impatient to start to town that he could scarcely eat any breakfast. Mother was so excited that she forgot to put coffee in the coffee pot. At last every one had left, and Betty was alone. "I wish I could see the President," she said, "and I do wish I could see his great coach. Father says that it is finer than the Governor's. Four men ride in front of it, and four behind it. The servants are dressed in white and gold. How I wish I could see it all!" While Betty was talking to herself, she was not idle. She washed the dishes and she cleaned the house. Then, as it was not time to get dinner, she sat down on the shady porch. "I wonder whether General Washington looks like his picture," she said. "Oh, if I could only see him!" But what sound was that? Betty stood up, and shading her eyes with her hands, looked down the road. Four horsemen came along at a gallop. Then there followed a great white coach, trimmed with gold and drawn by four white horses. There were four horsemen behind the coach, and last of all came several black servants. [Illustration: Betty looking up at the great coach] All stopped at the gate. A tall handsome man stepped from the coach and came up the walk. Betty felt as if she could neither move nor speak. She remembered, however, all that her mother had taught her, and she made a low curtsy as the gentleman reached the steps. "Good morning, my little maid," he said. "I know it is late, but would you give an old man some breakfast?" Betty's cheeks grew as pink as the rose by the porch. She made another curtsy and said, "Indeed, I will. I am the only one at home, for father, mother, and Robert have gone to Salisbury to see the great Washington. But I am sure I can give you some breakfast. Father says that I am a good cook." "I know you are, and that you are as brisk as you are pretty. Just give me a breakfast, and I promise you that you shall see Washington before your father, mother, or brother Robert does." "I will do the best I can, sir," Betty said. The other men came in, and all sat on the porch and talked while Betty worked. Getting her mother's whitest cloth and the silver that came from England, she quickly set the table. She brought out a loaf of new bread and a jar of fresh honey. Then she ran to the spring house and got yellow butter and rich milk. She had some fresh eggs that had been laid by her own hens. These she dropped into boiling water. Last of all she cut thin slices of delicious ham. When everything was ready, Betty went to the porch and invited the strangers in. Her cheeks were now the color of the red rose by the gate. The visitors ate heartily of all the good things Betty had prepared. As the tall, handsome gentleman rose to go, he leaned over and kissed her. "My pretty little cook," he said, "you may tell your brother Robert that you saw Washington before he did, and that he kissed you, too." You may believe that Betty did tell it. She told it to her children, and they told it to their children, and I am telling it to you to-day. --MRS. L.A. McCORKLE. ROCK-A-BY, HUSH-A-BY, LITTLE PAPOOSE Rock-a-by, hush-a-by, little papoose, The stars come into the sky, The whip-poor-will's crying, the daylight is dying, The river runs murmuring by. The pine trees are slumbering, little papoose, The squirrel has gone to his nest, The robins are sleeping, the mother bird's keeping The little ones warm with her breast. The roebuck is dreaming, my little papoose, His mate lies asleep at his side, The breezes are pining, the moonbeams are shining All over the prairie wide. Then hush-a-by, rock-a-by, little papoose, You sail on the river of dreams; Dear Manitou loves you and watches above you Till time when the morning light gleams. --CHARLES MYALL. THE TAR WOLF I Many hundreds of moons ago, there was a great drought. The streams and lakes were drying up. Water was so scarce that the animals held a council to decide what they should do. "I hope it will rain soon and fill the streams and lakes," Great Bear said. "If it does not, all the animals will have to go to a land where there is more water." "I know where there is plenty of water," said Wild Goose. "I do, too," said Wild Duck. Most of the animals did not wish to go away. "It is well enough for the ducks and geese to go," said Wild Cat; "they like to move about. It is well enough for Great Bear to go; he can sleep through the winter in one hollow tree as soundly as in another. But we do not wish to leave our hunting grounds." "If we go to a new country," said Gray Wolf, "we shall have to make new trails." "And we shall have to clear new land," said Big Beaver, who had to cut down the trees when land was cleared. All this time the Rabbit said nothing. "Brother Rabbit," Great Bear asked, "what do you think about this matter?" Brother Rabbit did not answer. His eyes were shut, and he seemed too sleepy to think about anything. Great Bear asked again, "What do you think about it, Brother Rabbit? Shall we go to the place the ducks and geese have found, where there is plenty of water?" "Oh," answered Brother Rabbit, "I do not mind the drought. I drink the dew on the grass in the early morning; I do not need to go where there is more water." And he shut his eyes again. "Well," said Red Deer, "if there is dew enough for Brother Rabbit every morning, there is dew enough for us. We need not go to another country." "Those are wise words, my brother," said Brown Terrapin. All the others said, "Those are wise words, my brother," and the council was over. The animals were happy because they thought they need not go away from their homes. Days passed, and still it did not rain. The animals found that the dew did not keep them from suffering from thirst. They were afraid that, after all, they would have to go to another country. Still the Rabbit looked sleek and fat. He declared that he got all the water he needed from the dew on the grass in the early morning. "You sleep too late," he said. "By the time you get up, the sun has dried the dew." II After that, the animals came out earlier than before, but they could not get water enough from the morning dew. They did not understand why the Rabbit looked so well. One day Gray Wolf said to Wild Cat, "Let us watch the Rabbit and see where he gets so much dew that he is never thirsty." That night they stayed in the woods near Rabbit's wigwam, so as to follow him on the trail. They kept awake all night for fear that they might sleep too late. Very early in the morning, Brother Rabbit came out of his wigwam and ran swiftly down the hill. Wild Cat and Gray Wolf followed as fast and as quietly as they could. The dew was on the grass and leaves, but Brother Rabbit did not stop to get it. Instead, he ran down the hill and pushed away a heap of brush. Wild Cat and Gray Wolf hid behind some bushes and watched him. Brother Rabbit drank from a little spring. Then he filled a jar with clear, fresh water, piled the brush over the spring again, and went up the hill to his wigwam. Ah! now Gray Wolf and Wild Cat knew why Brother Rabbit did not mind the drought; and they made a plan to punish him for being so selfish. They got tar and resin from the pine trees, and out of these they made a great wolf. After placing it close to the spring, they hid again in the bushes, to see what would happen. Early the next morning, Brother Rabbit came running down the hill for more water. He stopped when he saw the tar wolf by his spring. "What are you doing here, Gray Wolf?" he asked. Of course there was no answer. "Has my brother no ears?" asked Brother Rabbit. As the wolf was still silent, Brother Rabbit became angry. "Answer me, Gray Wolf," he cried. But there was no answer. Then Brother Rabbit slapped the tar wolf with his right front paw. It stuck fast, and Brother Rabbit could not pull it away. [Illustration: Brother Rabbit and the wolf] "Let me go," he cried, "or I will slap you with the other paw." He slapped the tar wolf with the left front paw. That too, stuck fast. Now Brother Rabbit was very angry. "Let me go, Gray Wolf," he cried. "Let me go, I say!" As Grey Wolf did not let him go, Brother Rabbit kicked the tar wolf, first with one of his hind paws and then with the other. Both stuck fast, and so he was held by all four paws. Just then Gray Wolf and Wild Cat came from their hiding place. "We have caught you, Brother Rabbit," they said. "Now we are going to take you to the council and tell how you tried to keep all the water for yourself." III They took Brother Rabbit to the council house, and sent for Great Bear and all the other animals. Soon all came, and the council began. Gray Wolf told that he had seen Brother Rabbit go to the spring, uncover it, get water, and cover the spring up again. The animals said that Brother Rabbit must be punished, but how they could not decide. "Burn him alive," said Gray Wolf. "I am quite willing," Brother Rabbit said, smiling. "Fire is my friend and will not hurt me." "We might cut off his head," said Brown Terrapin. "Very well," said the Rabbit, quietly. "Try that. It will not hurt me, for a better head will grow back." He said he was not afraid of each thing that was mentioned. "Is there nothing of which you are afraid?" asked Great Bear, at last. "Is there nothing that can hurt you?" "Of only one thing am I afraid," answered Brother Rabbit, in a low voice. "I am afraid you will turn me loose in the brier patch. Please do not throw me in the brier patch." "Turn him loose in the brier patch!" cried all the animals. How frightened Brother Rabbit looked now! "Oh, Gray Wolf," he begged, "burn me; cut off my head. Do anything else with me, but please don't throw me in the brier patch." The more he begged, the faster Gray Wolf hurried to the brier patch. The other animals followed close behind. They were all talking about the tricks Brother Rabbit had played on them and how they had never before been able to get even with him. When they came to the edge of the brier patch, Brother Rabbit begged harder than ever. "Good Wolf," he cried, "do anything else with me, but don't throw me in the brier patch!" Gray Wolf laughed and threw Brother Rabbit far into the patch. Brother Rabbit landed on his feet, and off he ran through the briers. He called back, "Thank you, good Wolf! You threw me right on my trail! I was born and bred in the brier patch. I was born and bred in the brier patch!" He was running so fast that by the time he said this, he was out of sight. --THE INDIAN TAR-BABY STORY. THE RABBIT AND THE WOLF The rabbit liked to play tricks on the other animals. Best of all, he liked to play tricks on the wolf. At last the wolf grew angry and said that he was going to get even with the rabbit. One day he caught the rabbit coming through a field. "Now," said the wolf, "I am going to pay you for all the tricks you have played on me. I will cut off your ears and use them for spoons to stir my hominy pot. As soon as I sharpen this stone, off your ears go!" While the wolf sharpened the stone, he sang in his harsh voice a song somewhat like this: "Watch me sharpen, Watch me sharpen; Soon I am going to cut off your ears. Sicum, sicum, sicum, sicum, Sicum, se mi su!" When he sang, "Sicum, sicum, sicum, sicum, Sicum, se mi su!" the rabbit could almost feel the sharp stone cutting his ears. But he was a brave little rabbit and said nothing. At last the wolf stopped singing for a moment. Then the rabbit said, "Brother Wolf, I know a new dance. Don't you wish me to teach it to you?" "Yes, when I have cut off your ears," said the wolf. Then he went on singing, "Sicum, sicum, sicum, sicum, Sicum, se mi su!" "After my ears are cut off," said the rabbit, "I can never dance any more." Now the wolf knew that the rabbit could sing and dance better than any other animal, and he wished very much to learn the new dance. He went on sharpening the stone, but he did not sing while he worked. After a while he asked, "Is the new dance as pretty as the Snake Dance?" "Oh, a great deal prettier," answered the rabbit. "Is it as pretty as the Turkey Dance?" "Oh, a great deal prettier than the Turkey Dance." "Is it as pretty as the Eagle Dance?" "Oh, a great deal prettier than the Eagle Dance." The wolf asked if the new dance was as pretty as other dances he had seen, and the rabbit said that it was much prettier. This pleased the wolf, as he wished to have a new dance for the green corn festival. "You may teach me the dance now," he said. "I can cut off your ears afterward." "Very well," said the rabbit; "pat your foot to keep time, and watch me while I dance." [Illustration: The rabbit danced as the wolf shook the rattle] So the wolf stood in the middle of the field, patting his foot and shaking a rattle while the rabbit danced around him and sang, "Watch me dance around the field, Watch me dance around the field, Hi, la, hi, la, hi!" Then the rabbit made a ring in the middle of the field. He said to the wolf, "Now, you dance around this ring, and sing just as I do." He made a larger ring for himself and danced around just beyond the wolf. The wolf thought that this was the finest dance he had ever seen. He and the rabbit danced faster and faster, and sang louder and louder. As the rabbit danced, he moved nearer and nearer to the edge of the field. The wolf was dancing so fast and singing so loud that he did not notice this. The rabbit kept on singing, "Now I dance on the edge of the field, Now I dance on the edge of the field, Hi, la, hi, la, hi!" At last, Brother Rabbit reached the edge of the field; then he jumped into the blackberry bushes and ran away. The wolf tried to give chase, but he was so dizzy that he could not run. And the rabbit got away without having his ears cut off. --SOUTHERN INDIAN TALE. BLOCK CITY What are you able to build with your blocks? Castles and palaces, temples and docks. Rain may keep raining, and others go roam, But I can be happy and building at home. Let the sofa be mountains, the carpet be sea, There I'll establish a city for me: A kirk and a mill and a palace beside, And a harbor as well where my vessels may ride. Great is the palace with pillar and wall, A sort of a tower on the top of it all, And steps coming down in an orderly way To where my toy vessels lie safe in the bay. This one is sailing and that one is moored: Hark to the song of the sailors on board! And see on the steps of my palace, the kings Coming and going with presents and things! Now I have done with it, down let it go. All in a moment the town is laid low, Block upon block lying scattered and free, What is there left of my town by the sea? --ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON. A GOOD PLAY We built a ship upon the stairs All made of the back-bedroom chairs, And filled it full of sofa pillows To go a-sailing on the billows. We took a saw and several nails, And water in the nursery pails; And Tom said, "Let us also take An apple and a slice of cake;"-- Which was enough for Tom and me To go a-sailing on, till tea. We sailed along for days and days, And had the very best of plays; But Tom fell out and hurt his knee, So there was no one left but me. --ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON. THE MONKEY'S FIDDLE I Once upon a time there was a great famine in the land, and Monkey could find no food. There were no bulbs, no beans, no insects, nor anything else to eat. At last Monkey said to himself, "Why should I perish here with hunger? My uncle Orang-outang has enough and to spare; I shall go to him, and he will give me food and shelter." So he set out and soon came to the place where Orang-outang lived. For a long time Monkey was happy in his new home, but by and by he heard that there was no longer a famine in his own land. Then he decided to go back. Before he started, Orang-outang made him a present of a fiddle and of a bow and arrow, "With this bow and arrow you can kill any animal," he said. "With this fiddle you can make anything dance until you bid it stop." Thanking his uncle for the presents, Monkey set out on his homeward journey. On the way he met Brother Wolf. "What news, Brother Wolf?" asked Monkey. When Wolf had told him the news, Monkey asked, "What have you been doing to-day?" "Oh," said Wolf, "I have been following a deer all the morning, but I have been unable to get near enough to kill him. Now I am faint with hunger." "I can help you," said Monkey. "I have a magic bow and arrow. Show me the deer, and I will bring him down." When Wolf showed him the deer, Monkey fitted an arrow to the bow and took aim. Hardly had the arrow left the bow when the deer fell dead. Monkey and Wolf sat down and had a good feast. As Wolf ate, he thought of the magic bow and arrow, and he planned to get them away from Monkey. "First I will ask for them," he said to himself. "If Monkey will not give them to me, I will use force." [Illustration: Wolf demands the bow and arrow] When Wolf had finished eating, he said to Monkey, "Please give me the bow and arrow." "I will not," said Monkey. "They were a present from my dear uncle; why should I give them to you?" "Very well," said Wolf. "I am stronger than you, and I will take them by force." II Wolf was just about to snatch the bow and arrow from Monkey when Jackal came along. Then Wolf thought of a new plan. He called out to Jackal, "Help! help! Monkey has stolen my magic bow and arrow." Jackal came running to them. Wolf told his side of the story, and Monkey told his. "I cannot believe either of you," said Jackal. "Let us lay the question before the court. There Lion, Tiger, and the other animals will hear you both; perhaps they will be able to decide to whom the magic bow and arrow belong. But to keep you two from quarreling, I had better take care of the bow and arrow." Monkey gave them to Jackal, and all three started off to court. When they arrived, there sat Lion on the throne. Seated around were the other animals of the jungle. Monkey told his story first. Standing in front of the throne, he made a low bow and said, "The great famine, my lord, drove me out of my country, and I had to take refuge with my uncle. When I started back home, he gave me this bow and arrow. Finding Wolf almost starving, I shot a deer for him. Instead of being grateful for the food, he tried to rob me of the bow and arrow. I am here to ask that you restore them to me." "He does not tell the truth," cried Wolf. Then Jackal said, "I believe that the bow and arrow belong to Wolf; he and Monkey were quarreling about them when I came along. They agreed to leave the question to you, King Lion. I know you will see that justice is done." Wolf looked very innocent and said nothing. King Lion rose and asked, "What say you? To whom do the bow and arrow belong?" "To Wolf," they all cried. "Stealing is a crime that must be punished," said King Lion. "What shall be done?" "Let Monkey be hanged," they all cried. Monkey still had his magic fiddle. Holding it in his hand, he made a deep bow and said: "Give me leave to play a tune on my fiddle before I hang, O King." Now, the beasts all loved a merry tune, and knowing that Monkey was a master player they called out, "Let him play." III Monkey placed the fiddle under his chin, drew the bow across the strings, and struck up "Cockcrow." This was a favorite tune with the court. At the first notes all nodded their heads in time to the music. As Monkey played on, the entire court began to dance. Round and round they went like a whirlwind. Over and over, quicker and quicker sounded the tune of "Cockcrow." Faster and faster flew the dancers, until one after another fell to the ground worn out. Monkey saw nothing of all this. With eyes closed and his head placed lovingly against the fiddle, he played on and on, keeping time with his foot. Wolf was the first one to cry out, "Please stop, Cousin Monkey. For pity's sake, stop." But Monkey did not seem to hear him. Again and again sounded the magic notes of "Cockcrow." King Lion had gone round and round with his young wife so many times that both were ready to drop. At last, as he passed Monkey, he roared, "Stop, ape! My whole kingdom is yours if you will only stop playing." "I do not want it," said Monkey. "Make Wolf confess that he tried to steal my bow and arrow. Then I will stop playing." "I confess! I confess!" panted Wolf, who was ready to fall to the ground. "Good," cried King Lion, as the music stopped. "Monkey is innocent. Let him have his bow and arrow." "Punish Wolf!" cried the animals. So Wolf was soundly beaten and driven from the court. Then Monkey went off rejoicing, carrying with him his magic gifts. --AFRICAN TALE. THE THREE TASKS I There were once two brothers who set out to seek their fortune. They wasted their time and their money in all sorts of foolish ways, and before long they were nearly penniless. After the two brothers had been gone some time, their younger brother, who had always been thought the simpleton of the family, set out to seek his fortune. One day as he was passing through a village far away from home, he found his two brothers. "Where are you going?" they asked. "I am going to seek my fortune," he replied. "Ha, ha! how foolish you are!" they cried. "With all our wit and wisdom we have been unable to make our fortune. It is silly of you even to try." And they laughed and made fun of him. Nevertheless, the three brothers decided to travel on together. As they journeyed on, they saw a large ant hill by the side of the road. The two elder brothers were about to destroy it, when the simpleton said, "Leave the poor ants alone. I will not let you disturb them." They went on their way until they came to a pond upon which two ducks were swimming. The two older brothers were about to kill them, when the simpleton said, "Leave them alone. I will not let you kill them." Soon the three came to a tree, in the trunk of which was a wild bee's nest. The two older brothers wished to steal the honey. They started to make a fire under the tree and smoke out the bees. The simpleton said, "Leave the poor bees alone. I will not let you rob them." II At last the three brothers came to a castle where everything looked as if it had been turned to stone. There was not a single human being to be seen. They walked along the great wide hall, but still they saw no one. "The castle must be enchanted," the brothers said to one another. After passing through many rooms, they came to a door in which there were three locks. In the middle of the door was a little grating through which they could look into the room beyond. They saw a little man, dressed in gray, seated at a table. Twice they called to him, but he did not answer. They called a third time. Then he rose, opened the three locks, and came out. He said not a word, but led them to a table on which a feast was spread. When they had eaten and drunk as much as they wished, the old man showed each of them to a bedroom. There they rested well all night. The next morning the little gray man came to the eldest brother and beckoned him to follow. He led him to a room in which there was a stone table, and on the table there lay three stone tablets. [Illustration: The little gray man and the tablets] On the table near the tablets was written: "This castle is enchanted. Before the enchantment can be broken, there are three tasks to be performed. The one who performs these three tasks shall marry the youngest and dearest of the three princesses who now lie asleep in the castle." When the eldest brother had read this, the old man gave him the first tablet. On it was written: "In the forest, hidden beneath the thick moss, are the pearls which belonged to the princesses. They are a thousand in number. These must be collected by sunset. If one single pearl is missing, then he who has sought them shall be turned to stone." The eldest brother searched the whole day long, but by sunset he had found only a hundred pearls. So he was turned to stone. The following day the second brother tried his luck, but by sunset he had found but two hundred pearls. So he, too, was turned to stone. Then it came the simpleton's turn. He searched all day amidst the moss, but he fared little better than his brothers. At last he sat down upon a stone and burst into tears. As he sat there, the king of the ants, whose life he had once saved, came with five thousand ants. Before long the little creatures had found every one of the pearls and piled them up in a heap. The little gray man then gave the simpleton the second tablet. Upon it was written the second task: "The key that opens the chamber in which the princesses are sleeping lies in the bottom of the lake. He who has performed the first task must find the key." When the simpleton came to the lake, the ducks which he had saved were swimming upon it. At once they dived down into the depths below and brought up the key. The simpleton showed the key to the little gray man, who then gave him the third tablet. On it was written the third task: "The one who has gathered the pearls and found the key to the chamber may now marry the youngest and dearest princess. He must, however, first tell which is she. The princesses are exactly alike, but there is one difference. Before they went to sleep, the eldest ate sugar, the second ate syrup, and the youngest ate honey." The simpleton laid down the tablet with a sigh. "How can I find out which princess ate the honey?" he asked himself. However, he put the key he had found in the lock and opened the door. In the chamber the three princesses were lying. Ah, which was the youngest? Just then the queen of the bees flew in through the window and tasted the lips of all three. When she came to the lips that had sipped the honey, she remained there. Then the young man knew that this was the youngest and dearest princess. So the enchantment came to an end. The sleepers awoke, and those who had been turned to stone became alive again. The simpleton married the youngest and dearest princess, and was made king after her father's death. His two brothers, who were now sorry for what they had done, married the other two princesses, and lived happily ever after. --GRIMM. [Illustration: A child dancing] THE WORLD'S MUSIC The world's a very happy place, Where every child should dance and sing, And always have a smiling face, And never sulk for anything. I waken when the morning's come, And feel the air and light alive With strange sweet music like the hum Of bees about their busy hive. The linnets play among the leaves At hide-and-seek, and chirp and sing; While, flashing to and from the eaves, The swallows twitter on the wing. From dawn to dark the old mill-wheel Makes music, going round and round; And dusty-white with flour and meal, The miller whistles to its sound. The brook that flows beside the mill, As happy as a brook can be, Goes singing its old song until It learns the singing of the sea. For every wave upon the sands Sings songs you never tire to hear, Of laden ships from sunny lands Where it is summer all the year. The world is such a happy place That children, whether big or small, Should always have a smiling face And never, never sulk at all. --GABRIEL SETOUN. THE SLEEPING BEAUTY I Once upon a time there lived a king and queen who were very unhappy because they had no children. But at last a little daughter was born, and their sorrow was turned to joy. All the bells in the land were rung to tell the glad tidings. The king gave a christening feast so grand that the like of it had never been known. He invited all the fairies he could find in the kingdom--there were seven of them--to come to the christening as godmothers. He hoped that each would give the princess a good gift. When the christening was over, the feast came. Before each of the fairies was placed a plate with a spoon, a knife, and a fork--all pure gold. But alas! as the fairies were about to seat themselves at the table, there came into the hall a very old fairy who had not been invited. She had left the kingdom fifty years before and had not been seen or heard of until this day. The king at once ordered that a plate should be brought for her, but he could not furnish a gold one such as the others had. This made the old fairy angry, and she sat there muttering to herself. Her angry threats were overheard by a young fairy who sat near. This good godmother, fearing the old fairy might give the child an unlucky gift, hid herself behind a curtain. She did this because she wished to speak last and perhaps be able to change the old fairy's gift. At the end of the feast, the youngest fairy stepped forward and said, "The princess shall be the most beautiful woman in the world." The second said, "She shall have a temper as sweet as an angel." The third said, "She shall have a wonderful grace in all she does or says." [Illustration: The old fairy looks at the princess in her cradle] The fourth said, "She shall sing like a nightingale." The fifth said, "She shall dance like a flower in the wind." The sixth said, "She shall play such music as was never heard on earth." Then the old fairy's turn came. Shaking her head spitefully, she said, "When the princess is seventeen years old, she shall prick her finger with a spindle, and--she--shall--die!" At this all the guests trembled, and many of them began to weep. The king and queen wept loudest of all. Just then the wise young fairy came from behind the curtain and said: "Do not grieve, O King and Queen. Your daughter shall not die. I cannot undo what my elder sister has done; the princess shall indeed prick her finger with the spindle, but she shall not die. She shall fall into sleep that will last a hundred years. At the end of that time, a king's son will find her and awaken her." Immediately all the fairies vanished. II The king, hoping to save his child even from this misfortune, commanded that all spindles should be burned. This was done, but it was all in vain. One day when the princess was seventeen years of age, the king and queen left her alone in the castle. She wandered about the palace and at last came to a little room in the top of a tower. There an old woman--so old and deaf that she had never heard of the king's command--sat spinning. "What are you doing, good old woman?" asked the princess. "I am spinning, my pretty child." "Ah," said the princess. "How do you do it? Let me see if I can spin also." She had just taken the spindle in her hand when, in some way, it pricked her finger. The princess dropped down on the floor. The old woman called for help, and people came from all sides, but nothing could be done. When the good young fairy heard the news, she came quickly to the castle. She knew that the princess must sleep a hundred years and would be frightened if she found herself alone when she awoke. So the fairy touched with her magic wand all in the palace except the king and the queen. Ladies, gentlemen, pages, waiting maids, footmen, grooms in the stable, and even the horses--she touched them all. They all went to sleep just where they were when the wand touched them. Some of the gentlemen were bowing to the ladies, the ladies were embroidering, the grooms stood currying their horses, and the cook was slapping the kitchen boy. The king and queen departed from the castle, giving orders that no one was to go near it. This command, however, was not needed. In a little while there sprang around the castle a wood so thick that neither man nor beast could pass through. III A great many changes take place in a hundred years. The king had no other child, and when he died, his throne passed to another royal family. Even the story of the sleeping princess was almost forgotten. One day the son of the king who was then reigning was out hunting, and he saw towers rising above a thick wood. He asked what they were, but no one could answer him. At last an old peasant was found who said, "Your highness, fifty years ago my father told me that there is a castle in the woods where a princess sleeps--the most beautiful princess that ever lived. It was said that she must sleep there a hundred years, when she would be awakened by a king's son." At this the young prince determined to find out the truth for himself. He leaped from his horse and began to force his way through the wood. To his astonishment, the stiff branches gave way, then closed again, allowing none of his companions to follow. A beautiful palace rose before him. In the courtyard the prince saw horses and men who looked as if they were dead. But he was not afraid and boldly entered the palace. There were guards motionless as stone, gentlemen and ladies, pages and footmen, some standing, some sitting, but all like statues. [Illustration: The prince finds the princess] At last the prince came to a chamber of gold, where he saw upon a bed the fairest sight one ever beheld--a princess of about seventeen years who looked as if she had just fallen asleep. Trembling, the prince knelt beside her, and awakened her with a kiss. And now the enchantment was broken. The princess looked at him with wondering eyes and said: "Is it you, my prince? I have waited for you long." So happy were the two that they talked hour after hour. In the meantime all in the palace awaked and each began to do what he was doing when he fell asleep. The gentlemen went on bowing to the ladies, the ladies went on with their embroidery. The grooms went on currying their horses, the cook went on slapping the kitchen boy, and the servants began to serve the supper. Then the chief lady in waiting, who was ready to die of hunger, told the princess aloud that supper was ready. The prince gave the princess his hand, and they all went into the great hall for supper. That very evening the prince and princess were married. The next day the prince took his bride to his father's palace, and there they lived happily ever afterward. --GRIMM. THE UGLY DUCKLING I It was summer. The country was lovely just then. The cornfields were waving yellow, the wheat was golden, the oats were still green, and the hay was stacked in the meadows. Beyond the fields great forests and ponds of water might be seen. In the sunniest spot of all stood an old farmhouse, with deep canals around it. At the water's edge grew great burdocks. It was just as wild there as in the deepest wood, and in this snug place sat a duck upon her nest. She was waiting for her brood to hatch. At last one eggshell after another began to crack. From each little egg came "Cheep! cheep!" and then a little duckling's head. "Quack! quack!" said the duck; and all the babies quacked too. Then they looked all around. The mother let them look as much as they liked, for green is good for the eyes. "How big the world is!" said all the little ducklings. "Do you think this is all the world?" asked the mother. "It stretches a long way on the other side of the garden and on to the parson's field, but I have never been so far as that. I hope you are all out. No, not all; that large egg is still unbroken. I am really tired of sitting so long." Then the duck sat down again. "Well, how goes it?" asked an old duck who had come to pay her a visit. "There is one large egg that is taking a long time to hatch," replied the mother. "But you must look at the ducklings. They are the finest I have ever seen; they are all just like their father." "Let me look at the egg which will not hatch," said the old duck. "You may be sure that it is a turkey's egg. I was once cheated in that way. Oh, you will have a great deal of trouble, for a turkey will not go into the water. Yes, that's a turkey's egg. Leave it alone and teach the other children to swim." "No, I will sit on it a little longer," said the mother duck. "Just as you please," said the old duck, and she went away. At last the large egg cracked. "Cheep! cheep!" said the young one, and tumbled out. How large it was! How ugly it was! "I wonder if it can be a turkey chick," said the mother. "Well, we shall see when we go to the pond. It must go into the water, even if I have to push it in myself." Next day the mother duck and all her little ones went down to the water. Splash! she jumped in, and all the ducklings went in, too. They swam about very easily, and the ugly duckling swam with them. "No, it is not a turkey," said the mother duck. "See how well he can use his legs. He is my own child! And he is not so very ugly either." II Then she took her family into the duck yard. As they went along, she told the ducklings how to act. "Keep close to me, so that no one can step on you," she said. "Come; now, don't turn your toes in. A well-brought-up duck turns its toes out, just like father and mother. Bow your heads before that old duck yonder. She is the grandest duck here. One can tell that by the red rag around her leg. That's a great honor, the greatest honor a duck can have. It shows that the mistress doesn't want to lose her. Now bend your necks and say 'Quack!'" They did so, but the other ducks did not seem glad to see them. "Look!" they cried. "Here comes another brood, as if there were not enough of us already. And oh, dear, how ugly that large one is! We won't stand him." Then one of the ducks flew at the ugly duckling and bit him in the neck. [Illustration: The ugly duckling and the other ducks] "Let him alone," said the mother; "he is doing no harm." "Perhaps not," said the duck who had bitten the poor duckling, "but he is too ugly to stay here. He must be driven out." "Those are pretty children that the mother has," said the old duck with the rag around her leg. "They are all pretty but that one. What a pity!" "Yes," replied the mother duck, "he is not handsome, but he is good-tempered, and he swims as well as any of the others. I think he will grow to be pretty. Perhaps he stayed too long in the egg." "Well, make yourselves at home," said the old duck. "If you find an eel's head, you may bring it to me." And they did make themselves at home--all but the poor ugly duckling. His life was made quite miserable. The ducks bit him, and the hens pecked him. So it went on the first day, and each day it grew worse. The poor duckling was very unhappy. At last he could stand it no longer, and he ran away. As he flew over the fence, he frightened the little birds on the bushes. "That is because I am so ugly," thought the duckling. He flew on until he came to a moor where some wild ducks lived. They laughed at him and swam away from him. Some wild geese came by, and they laughed at the duckling, too. Just then some guns went bang! bang! The hunters were all around. The hunting dogs came splash! into the swamp, and one dashed close to the duckling. The dog looked at him and went on. "Well, I can be thankful for that," sighed he. "I am so ugly that even the dog will not bite me." When all was quiet, the duckling started out again. A storm was raging, and he found shelter in a poor hut. Here lived an old woman with her cat and her hen. The old woman could not see well, and she thought he was a fat duck. She kept him three weeks, hoping that she would get some duck eggs, but the duckling did not lay. After a while the fresh air and sunshine streamed in at the open door, and the duckling longed to be out on the water. The cat and the hen laughed when he told them of his wish. "You must be crazy," said the hen. "I do not wish to swim. The cat does not; and I am sure our mistress does not." "You do not understand me," said the duckling. "I will go out into the wide world." "Yes, do go," said the hen. And the duckling went away. He swam on the water and dived, but still all the animals passed him by because he was so ugly; and the poor duckling was lonesome. III Now the winter came, and soon it was very cold. Snow and sleet fell, and the ugly duckling had a very unhappy time. One evening a whole flock of handsome white birds rose out of the bushes. They were swans. They gave a strange cry, and spreading their great wings, flew away to warmer lands and open lakes. The ugly duckling felt quite strange, and he gave such a loud cry that he frightened himself. He could not forget those beautiful happy birds. He knew not where they had gone, but he wished he could have gone with them. The winter grew cold--very cold. The duckling swam about in the water to keep from freezing, but every night the hole in which he swam became smaller and smaller. At last he was frozen fast in the ice. Early the next morning a farmer found the duckling and took him to the farmhouse. There in a warm room the duckling came to himself again. The children wished to play with him, but he was afraid of them. In his terror he fluttered into the milk pan and splashed the milk about the room. The woman clapped her hands at him, and that frightened him still more. He flew into the butter tub and then into the meal barrel. How he did look then! The children laughed and screamed. The woman chased him with the fire tongs. The door stood open, and the duckling slipped out into the snow. It was a cruel, hard winter, and he nearly froze. At last the warm sun began to shine, and the larks to sing. The duckling flapped his wings and found that they were strong. Away he flew over the meadows and fields. Soon he found himself in a beautiful garden where the apple trees were in full bloom, and the long branches of the willow trees hung over the shores of the lake. Just in front of him he saw three beautiful white swans swimming lightly over the water. "I will fly to those beautiful birds," he said. "They will kill me because I am so ugly; but it is all the same. It is better to be killed by them than to be bitten by the ducks and pecked by the hens." So he flew into the water and swam towards the beautiful birds. They saw the duckling and came sailing down toward him. He bowed his head saying, "Kill me, oh, kill me." But what was this he saw in the clear water? It was his own image, and lo! he was no longer a clumsy dark-gray bird, but a--swan, a beautiful white swan. It matters not if one was born in a duck yard, if one has only lain in a swan's egg. The other swans swam around him to welcome him. [Illustration: The little children see the new swan] Some little children came into the garden with corn and other grains which they threw into the water. The smallest one cried, "Oh, see! there is a new swan, and it is more beautiful than any of the others." The ugly duckling was shy and at first hid his head under his wing. Then he felt so happy that he raised his neck and said, "I never dreamed of so much happiness when I was an ugly duckling." --HANS CHRISTIAN ANDERSEN. THE WHITE BLACKBIRD I I was born a blackbird in a bushy thicket near a meadow. My father took good care of his family and would peck about all day for insects. These he brought home to my mother, holding them by the tail so as not to mash them. He had a sweet voice, too, and every evening sang beautiful songs. I should have been happy, but I was not. I ate little and was weak; and from the first, I was different from my brothers and sisters. They had glossy, black feathers, while mine were dirty gray. These made my father angry whenever he looked at them. When I moulted for the first time, he watched me closely. While the feathers were falling out and while I was naked, he was kind; but my new feathers drove him wild with anger. I did not wonder. I was no longer even gray; I had become snow white. I was a white blackbird! Did such a thing ever happen in a blackbird family before? It made me very sad to see my father so vexed over me. But it is hard to stay sad forever, and one sunshiny spring day I opened my bill and began to sing. At the first note my father flew up into the air like a sky-rocket. "What do I hear?" he cried. "Is that the way a blackbird whistles? Do I whistle that way?" "I whistle the best I can," I replied. "That is not the way we whistle in my family," my father said. "We have whistled for many, many years and know how to do it. It is not enough for you to be white; you must make that horrible noise. The truth is you are not a blackbird." "I will leave home," I answered with a sob. "I will go far away where I can pick up a living on earthworms and spiders." "Do as you please," my father said. "You are not a blackbird." II I flew away early the next morning, and was lucky enough to find shelter under an old gutter. It rained hard that night. I was just about to go to bed, when a very wet bird came in and sat down beside me. His feathers were grayish like mine, but he was much larger than myself. "Who are you?" he asked. "I don't know," I replied. "I pass for a blackbird but I am white." "I am the finest bird in the world," he said. "I am a carrier pigeon and carry messages." Then I saw that a traveling bag hung from his neck. "Maybe I am a pigeon," I said, "since I am not a blackbird." "No," he answered, "a runt like you could not be a pigeon." The next morning the pigeon sprang from the gutter and flew away as fast as the wind. As I was lonely, I followed him. He flew faster and faster, but I kept up for a good while. At last my strength gave out and I fell down into a meadow. I was stunned by the fall. When I came to my senses, two birds stood near by looking at me. One was a dainty little magpie; the other a soft-eyed turtle dove. The magpie kindly offered me some berries she had gathered. "Who are you?" she asked. [Illustration: The three birds meet] "A blackbird or a pigeon," I said sadly. "I don't know which." "Are you joking?" she cried. "You are a magpie." "But magpies are not white," I said. "Russian magpies are," she answered; "perhaps you belong to that family." My joy was great for a moment at finding out what I was. Still I was not sure that I was a magpie and thought I might settle the matter by singing. I burst into song and warbled and whistled, and whistled and warbled. The magpie looked at me in surprise. Then her face grew sad and she backed off from me. At last she flew away without another word. Whatever I might be, I was not a magpie--not even a Russian magpie. I made up my mind not to rest until I found out what bird I was. So I flew off to a place where birds of all kinds met to talk and enjoy themselves. There were robins and sparrows and crows and wrens and martins and every sort of bird. But I was not like any of them and whenever I began to sing, they all laughed. "You are not one of us," they said; "you are a white blackbird. That is what you are." III I had now seen all the birds, but none of them were as fine as the blackbirds. I did not want to be like any of these birds; I longed to be a blackbird, a real blackbird. That was not possible. So I made up my mind to be content with my lot, as I had the heart of a blackbird even if I were not black. A great flock of blackbirds lived on the edge of a cornfield. I went to them and asked them to let me be their helper. "I am only a white blackbird," I said, "but I have the heart of a true blackbird." They let me stay. I waited on them early and late, bringing straw to make nests and tender little worms for the baby blackbirds. The old birds were kind to me, and I began to be happy. Hard work did me good. I soon grew strong, and when the crows tried to drive us away, I led the blackbirds to victory. My sight was keen, and I was the first to find out that the scarecrow was not a man. I caught more worms, too, than any of the blackbirds. By and by a strange thing happened. I saw one day that my white feathers were speckled with brown dots. They grew larger and larger until the dots covered me all over; I was no longer white but brown. And now, little by little, my brown coat turned darker and darker until one morning it was black--a rich, glossy black! I was a blackbird at last. Then the other blackbirds hopped around me with joy, crying, "He is the largest and bravest of the blackbirds. Let him be king! Long live the king of the blackbirds!" --ALFRED DE MUSSET (_Adapted_). THE BROWN THRUSH There's a merry brown thrush sitting up in the tree, He's singing to me! He's singing to me! And what does he say, little girl, little boy? "Oh, the world's running over with joy! Don't you hear? don't you see? Hush! look! in my tree, I'm as happy as happy can be!" And the brown thrush keeps singing, "A nest do you see, And five eggs hid by me in the juniper tree? Don't meddle! don't touch! little girl, little boy, Or the world will lose some of its joy! Now I'm glad! now I'm free! And I always shall be, If you never bring sorrow to me." So the merry brown thrush sings away in the tree, To you and to me, to you and to me. --LUCY LARCOM. THE KING AND THE GOOSEHERD ACT I (King in plain clothes had gone out for a walk in the park. He sat under a tree to read a book and fell asleep. When he waked up he walked on, forgetting his book. He sees a lad looking after a flock of geese and calls him.) KING: Boy, I left a book lying under a tree in the park. Will you please get it for me? If you do, I will give you a gold piece. BOY: Give me a gold piece to go to the park, indeed! You must have a pocketful of gold pieces. Or you must think me more stupid than I am. KING: Stupid! Who thinks you stupid? BOY: Why, who would be so foolish as to give me a gold piece just for running half a mile for a book? No, no, you are joking. You couldn't make me believe that. KING: Well, you know "seeing is believing." Look! here is the gold piece for you. BOY: But it is in _your_ hand. If I saw it in my own hand, that would be a different matter. KING (_laughing_): You are certainly not stupid, my boy; but you may have it in your own hand. Here it is. (Boy stands still, looking worried,) KING: Well, why don't you go? BOY: I only wish I could. But what would become of the geese while I am away? If they strayed into the meadow over yonder, I should have to pay trespass-money--more than the gold piece--and lose my place besides. KING: I'll tell you what we'll do. You go for the book, and I'll herd the geese. BOY (_laughing_): You herd the geese--a pretty gooseherd you would make! You are too fat and too old. KING (_to himself, shaking with laughter_): Well, Well, "fat and old." What next, I wonder! BOY: Why, you couldn't mind the geese. Just look at the "court gander" there--the one with the black head and wings. He is the ringleader whenever there is any mischief. He would lead you a pretty dance. KING: Never mind the geese. I'll answer for them, and I promise to pay all damages if they get away. BOY (_handing the king his whip_): Well, then, be careful. Watch the "court gander." (Boy walks on a few feet, then hurries back.) KING: What's the matter now? BOY: Crack the whip! (King tries but fails.) BOY: Just as I thought. Here, this way! Can't you see? You are stupid! KING: Just let me try once more. (King tries.) BOY: Well, that did pretty well. (Moves off muttering.) He is as big a goose as any in the flock. ACT II KING (_lying on the ground and laughing so that the tears run down his cheeks_): Oh, but this is fine! First I was fat and old. Now I am as big a goose as any in the flock. What would my courtiers say? (Springing up suddenly.) Look at that "court gander"! There he goes with the whole flock. (He dashes wildly after the geese and tries to crack the whip, but cannot.) Now they are in the meadow; what will the boy say? (Boy returns and sees the geese in the meadow; the king looks ashamed.) BOY: Just as I expected. I have found the book, but you have lost the geese. What a time I shall have trying to find them! KING: Never mind; I will help you get them together again. [Illustration: The king and the boy look for the geese] BOY: Humph! Much help you'll be. But go there by that stump and don't let the geese pass you. Wave your arms at them and shout at them. Surely you can do that! KING: I'll try. ACT III Boy: Well, they are back again! Thanks to goodness, but none to you. What can you do? KING: Pray excuse me for not doing any better, but you see, I am not used to work. I am the king. BOY: I was a simpleton to trust you with the geese; but I am not such a simpleton as to believe that you are the king. KING: Just as you will. You are a good lad. Here is another gold coin as a peace offering. Good-day. BOY (_as king walks away_): He is a kind gentleman, whoever he may be; but take my word for it, he will never make a gooseherd. --OLD TALE. DONAL AND CONAL I There was once in old Ireland a very fine lad by the name of Donal. He was not only a very fine lad, but a very gay lad. He would go for miles to a party or a wedding; and he was always welcome, for Donal knew where to wear his smile. He wore it on his face instead of keeping it in his pocket. The dearest wish of Donal's heart no one knew but himself. His soul was full of music, and he longed to have a violin. One night Donal was going home through a dark forest when a storm came up. He found an old hollow tree and got inside of it to keep dry. Soon he fell asleep. After a while Donal was awakened by a strange noise. He peeped out, and he saw a queer sight. The storm had passed, and the moon was shining. Many elves were dancing to strange music played by an old, old elf. [Illustration: Donal sees the fairies dancing] Such queer dancing it was! Donal crept out of the tree and drew nearer and nearer. Suddenly he laughed out loud and said, "Well, that's the worst dancing I have ever seen!" The fairies were astonished and angry, and they all began to talk at the same time. "We have a man among us!" cried one. "Let us hang him!" cried another. "Cut his head off!" cried a third. But the queen stepped out among them and said, "Leave him to me." Then she called Donal to her. Now Donal was a wee bit frightened, but he knew where to wear his smile, you remember. So he went up to the queen, smiling and bowing. "You say our dancing is the worst you have ever seen," she said. "Now, show us that you can do better." Donal smiled again and bowed low. Then he began to dance. Such dancing the elves had never seen! They clapped their hands and made him dance again and again. Finally, Donal was exhausted, and after making a low bow to the queen, sat down on the ground. The fairies crowded around him. "Give him our silver!" cried one. "Make it gold!" cried another. "Diamonds!" cried a third. But the queen said, "Leave it to me." She went up to the old, old elf who had been playing for the dance. Taking his violin from him, she gave it to Donal. You see, the queen knew the dearest wish of his heart. Then Donal was a happy lad, indeed! He thanked the queen and went home playing on his new violin. II There lived near Donal's home a lad named Conal. He was not such a fine lad as Donal, nor such a gay one. He was a greedy lad, and the dearest wish of his heart was to be rich. And he did not know where to wear his smile. If he had one, he kept it in his pocket. When Conal heard what had happened to Donal, he wished to know all about it. So he went to him and said, "Donal, man, how did you get that beautiful violin?" Donal told the story backward and forward, and forward and backward, from beginning to end, until Conal knew it by heart. Then Conal said to himself, "I will go to the hollow tree and dance for the elves; but I shall not be so foolish as Donal. I will take their gold and silver, and their diamonds, too." That night Conal went to the hollow tree and waited until the elves appeared. Then he crept out and watched them dance. And he said, just as Donal had, "Well, that's the worst dancing I have ever seen!" The fairies were astonished and angry again, and again they all began to talk at once. "Another man among us!" cried one. "Let us hang him!" cried another. "Cut off his head!" cried a third. But the queen said, "Leave it to me." Then she called Conal to her. Now Conal did not know where to wear his smile, you remember; he always kept it in his pocket. So he went up to the queen with a very sour face. The queen said to him, as she had to Donal, "You say our dancing is the worst you have ever seen. Now, show us that you can do better." Conal began to dance, and he could dance well. The elves were delighted. They clapped their hands and asked him to dance again, but he said roughly, "No, that is enough. Do you expect me to dance all night?" The elves were silent then, and the queen's face was stern. But she was a just queen, and she said, "You have danced well. Will you have some of our silver?" "Yes," said Conal, without a word of thanks; and he filled his coat pockets. "Will you have gold?" asked the queen. "Yes," said Conal greedily, as he filled the pockets in his trousers. "Will you have some of our diamonds?" the queen asked, and her face was dark with anger. "Yes, yes," cried Conal. "You shall not have them, you greedy lad!" cried the queen; "you shall have nothing." Just then a cloud passed across the moon, and the elves vanished. "Oh, well," said Conal, "I have the gold and silver." He plunged his hands into his pockets and lo! the gold and silver had turned to stones. Then Conal went home a sadder and a wiser lad. --IRISH TALE. [Illustration: A bird singing] WHO TOLD THE NEWS? Oh, the sunshine told the bluebird, And the bluebird told the brook, That the dandelions were peeping From the woodland's sheltered nook. Then the brook was blithe and happy, And it babbled all the way, As it ran to tell the river Of the coming of the May. Soon the river told the meadow, And the meadow told the bee, That the tender buds were swelling On the old horse-chestnut tree. And the bee shook off its torpor, And it spread each gauzy wing, As it flew to tell the flowers Of the coming of the spring. THE BIRDS OF KILLINGWORTH I It was spring. The apple trees and the cherry trees were pink and white with blossoms. They filled the air with fragrance. The maples were red, and on the oak and poplar the buds were swelling. The brooklets were rushing and leaping on toward the sea. It was spring everywhere. The robin and the bluebird were piping sweetly in the blossoming orchard. The sparrows were chirping, and hungry crows were calling loudly for food. The farmers of Killingworth were plowing the fields, and the broken clods, too, told of spring. A farmer heard the cawing of the crows and the song of the birds. He said, "Did one ever see so many birds? Why, when we plant our seeds, these birds will take them all. When the fruit ripens, they will destroy it. I, for one, wish there were no birds, and I say kill them all." Another farmer said, "Yes, let us call a meeting of the people of the village and decide what is to be done with the pests." The meeting was called, and all came: the squire, the preacher, the teacher, and the farmers from the country round about. Up rose the farmer who had said he wished there were no birds. "Friends," he said, "the crows are about to take my field of corn. I put up scarecrows, but the birds fly by them and seem to laugh at them. The robins are as saucy as they can be. Soon they will eat all the cherries we have. I say kill all birds; they are a pest." "So say I," said another farmer. "And I," said another. "And I," "And I," came from voices in every part of the hall. The teacher arose and timidly said: "My friends, you know not what you do. You would put to death the birds that make sweet music for us in our dark hours: the thrush, the oriole, the noisy jay, the bluebird, the meadow lark. "You slay them all, and why? Because they scratch up a little handful of wheat or corn, while searching for worms or weevils. "Do you never think who made them and who taught them their songs of love? Think of your woods and orchards without birds! "And, friends, would you rather have insects in the hay? You call the birds thieves, but they guard your farms. They drive the enemy from your cornfields and from your harvests. "Even the blackest of them, the crow, does good. He crushes the beetle and wages war on the slug and the snail. "And, what is more, how can I teach your children gentleness and mercy when you contradict the very thing I teach?" But the farmers only shook their heads and laughed. "What does the teacher know of such things?" they asked. And they passed a law to have the birds killed. So the dreadful war on birds began. They fell down dead, with bloodstains on their breasts. Some fluttered, wounded, away from the sight of man, while the young died of starvation in the nests. II The summer came, and all the birds were dead. The days were like hot coals. In the orchards hundreds of caterpillars fed. In the fields and gardens hundreds of insects of every kind crawled, finding no foe to check them. At last the whole land was like a desert. From the trees caterpillars dropped down upon the women's bonnets, and they screamed and ran. At every door, the women gathered and talked. "What will become of us?" asked one. "The men were wrong,--something must be done." "The teacher was right," said another. At last, the farmers grew ashamed of having killed the birds. They met and did away with the wicked law, but it was too late. [Illustration: The wagon filled with branches and cages] Harvest time came, but there was no harvest. In many a home there was want and sorrow. The next spring a strange sight was seen--a sight never seen before or since. Through the streets there went a wagon filled with great branches of trees. Upon them were hung cages of birds that were making sweet music. From all the country round these birds had been brought by order of the farmers. The cages were opened, and once more the woods and fields were filled with the beautiful birds, who flew about singing their songs of joy. And again the harvests grew in the fields and filled to overflowing the farmers' barns. --_Adapted from_ LONGFELLOW. THE TRAILING ARBUTUS I Many, many moons ago, in a lodge in a forest, there lived an old man. His hair was white as the snowdrift. All the world was winter; snow and ice were everywhere, and the old man wore heavy furs. The winds went wildly through the forest searching every bush and tree for birds to chill. The old man looked in vain in the deep snow for pieces of wood to keep up the fire in his lodge. Then he sat down by his dull and low fire. Shaking and trembling he sat there, hearing nothing but the tempest as it roared through the forest, seeing nothing but the snowstorm as it whirled and hissed and drifted. All the coals became white with ashes, and the fire was slowly dying. Suddenly the wind blew aside the door of the lodge, and there came in a most beautiful maiden. Her cheeks were like the wild rose, her eyes were soft and glowed like the stars in springtime; and her hair was as brown as October's nuts. Her dress was of ferns and sweet grasses, her moccasins were of white lilies, on her head was a wreath of wild flowers, and in her hands were beautiful blossoms. When she breathed, the air became warm and fragrant. "Ah, my daughter," exclaimed the old man. "Happy are my eyes to see you. Sit here on the mat beside me; sit here by the dying embers. Tell me of your strange adventures, and I will tell you of my deeds of wonder." From his pouch he drew his peace pipe, very old and strangely fashioned. He filled the pipe with bark of willow, and placed a burning coal upon it. Then he said, "I am Manito, the Mighty. When I blow my breath about me, the rivers become motionless and the waters hard as stone." The maiden smiling said, "When I blow my breath about me, flowers spring up over all the meadows. And all the rivers rush onward, singing songs of joy." "When I shake my hoary tresses," said the old man, darkly frowning, "all the ground is covered with snow. All the leaves fade and wither." "When I shake my flowing ringlets," said the maiden, "the warm rains fall over all the land." Then proudly the old man replied, "When I walk through the forest, everything flees before me. The animals hide in their holes. The birds rise from the lakes and the marshes, and fly to distant regions." Softly the maiden answered, "When I walk through the forest, all is bright and joyous. The animals come from their holes. The birds return to the lakes and marshes. The leaves come back to the trees. The plants lift up their heads to kiss the breezes. And where-ever my footsteps wander, all the meadows wave their blossoms, all the woodlands ring with music." II While they talked, the night departed. From his shining lodge of silver came the sun. The air was warm and pleasant; the streams began to murmur; the birds began to sing. And a scent of growing grasses was wafted through the lodge. The old man's face dropped upon his breast, and he slept. Then the maiden saw more clearly the icy face before her--saw the icy face of winter. Slowly she passed her hands above his head. Streams of water ran from his eyes, and his body shrunk and dwindled till it faded into the air--vanished into the earth--and his clothing turned to green leaves. The maiden took from her bosom the most precious flowers. Kneeling upon the ground, she hid them all about among the leaves. [Illustration: The maiden hides the flowers among the leaves] "I give you my most precious flowers and my sweetest breath," she said, "but all who would pluck you must do so upon bended knee." Then the maiden moved away--through the forest and over the waking fields; and wherever she stepped, and nowhere else in all the land, grows the trailing arbutus. --INDIAN LEGEND. HIDDEN TREASURE I Once upon a time there was an old farmer named John Jacobs. He had heard that treasures were found in odd places. He thought and thought about such treasures until he could think of nothing else; and he spent all his time hunting for them. How he wished he could find a pot of gold! One morning he arose with a bright face and said to his wife, "At last, Mary, I've found the treasure." "No, I cannot believe it," she said. "Yes," he answered; "at least it is as good as found. I am only waiting until I have my breakfast. Then I will go out and bring it in." "Oh, how did you find it?" asked the wife. "I was told about it in a dream," said he. "Where is it?" "Under a tree in our orchard," said John. "Oh, John, let us hurry and get it." So they went out together into the orchard. "Which tree is it under?" asked the wife. John scratched his head and looked silly. "I really do not know," he said. "Oh, you foolish man," said the wife. "Why didn't you take the trouble to notice?" "I did notice," said he. "I saw the exact tree in my dream, but there are so many trees, here that I am confused. There is only one thing to do now. I must begin with the first tree and keep on digging until I come to the one with the treasure under it." This made the wife lose all hope. There were eighty apple trees and a score of peach trees. She sighed and said, "I suppose if you must, you must, but be careful not to cut any of the roots." By this time John was in a very bad humor. He went to work saying, "What difference does it make if I cut all the roots? The whole orchard will not bear one bushel of good apples or peaches. I don't know why, for in father's time it bore wagonloads of choice fruit." "Well, John," said his wife, "you know father used to give the trees a great deal of attention." But John grumbled to himself as he went on with his digging. He dug three feet deep around the first tree, but no treasure was there. He went to the next tree, but found nothing; then to the next and the next, until he had dug around every tree in the orchard. He dug and dug, but no pot of gold did he find. II The neighbors thought that John was acting queerly. They told other people, who came to see what he was doing. They would sit on the fence and make sly jokes about digging for hidden treasure. They called the orchard "Jacobs' folly." Soon John did not like to be seen in the orchard. He did not like to meet his neighbors. They would laugh and say, "Well, John, how much money did you get from the holes?" This made John angry. At last he said, "I will sell the place and move away." "Oh, no," said the wife, "this has always been our home, and I cannot think of leaving it. Go and fill the holes; then the neighbors will stop laughing. Perhaps we shall have a little fruit this year, too. The heaps of earth have stood in wind and frost for months, and that will help the trees." John did as his wife told him. He filled the holes with earth and smoothed it over as level as before. By and by everybody forgot "Jacobs' folly." Soon the spring came. April was warm, and the trees burst into bloom. "Mary," said John one bright spring day, "don't you think the blossoms are finer than usual this year?" "Yes, they look as they did when your father was alive," said his wife. [Illustration: John's trees full of fruit] By and by, the blooms fell, leaving a million little green apples and peaches. Summer passed and autumn followed. The branches of the old trees could hardly hold up all the fine fruit on them. Now the neighbors came, not to make fun, but to praise. "How did you do it?" they asked. "The trees were old and needed attention," said John. "By turning the soil and letting in the air, I gave them strength to bear fruit. I have found the treasure after all, and I have learned a lesson. Tilling the soil well is the way to get treasure from it." --GRIMM. THE LITTLE BROWN BROTHER Little brown brother, oh! little brown brother, Are you awake in the dark? Here we lie cozily, close to each other; Hark to the song of the lark-- "Waken!" the lark says, "waken and dress you; Put on your green coats and gay, Blue sky will shine on you, sunshine caress you-- Waken! 'tis morning--'tis May!" Little brown brother, oh! little brown brother, What kind of flower will you be? I'll be a poppy--all white, like my mother; Do be a poppy like me. What! you're a sunflower? How I shall miss you When you're grown golden and high! But I shall send all the bees up to kiss you; Little brown brother, good-by! --EMILY NESBIT. HOW THE FLOWERS GROW This is how the flowers grow; I have watched them and I know: First, above the ground is seen A tiny blade of purest green, Reaching up and peeping forth East and west, and south and north. Then the sunbeams find their way To the sleeping bud and say, "We are children of the sun Sent to wake thee, little one." And the leaflet opening wide Shows the tiny bud inside, Peeping with half-opened eye On the bright and sunny sky. Breezes from the west and south Lay their kisses on its mouth; Till the petals all are grown, And the bud's a flower blown. --GABRIEL SETOUN. WISE MEN OF GOTHAM Once upon a time there were some wise men who lived in Gotham. Listen and you will hear how wise they were. Twelve of these wise men went fishing one day. Some went into the stream and some stayed on dry ground. They caught many fish and had a good time. As they came home, one of the men said, "We have risked much wading in that stream. I pray God no one of us is drowned." "Why, one of us might be! Who knows?" cried another. "Let's see about it. Twelve of us went fishing this morning. We must count and see if twelve are returning." So one man counted, "One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven." And he did not count himself! "Alas! One of us is drowned!" he cried. "Woe be unto us! Let me count," said another. And he did not count himself. "Alas! alas!" he wailed; "truly one of us is drowned!" Then every man counted, and each one failed to count himself. "Alas! alas!" they all cried; "one of us is drowned! Which one is it?" They went back to the shore, and they looked up and down for him that was drowned. All the time they were lamenting loudly. A courtier came riding by. "What are you seeking?" he asked, "and why are you so sorrowful?" "Oh," said they, "this day we came to fish in the stream. There were twelve of us, but one is drowned." "Why," said the courtier, "count yourselves and see how many there be." Again they counted, and again each man failed to count himself. "Well, this is sad," said the courtier, who saw how the mistake had been made. "What will you give me if I find the twelfth man?" "Sir," cried all together, "you may have all the money we own." "Give me the money," said the courtier. Then he began to count. He gave the first man a whack over the shoulders and said, "There is one." He gave the next a whack and said, "There is two." And so he counted until he came to the last man. He gave this one a sounding blow, saying, "And here is the twelfth." "God bless you!" cried all the company. "You have found our neighbor." --OLD ENGLISH STORY. THE MILLER'S GUEST I A hunter who had ridden ahead in the chase was lost. The sun went down, and darkness fell upon the forest. The hunter blew his horn, but no answer came. What should he do? At last he heard the sound of horse's hoofs. Some one was coming. Was it friend or foe? The hunter stood still, and soon a miller rode out into the moonlight. "Pray, good fellow, be so kind as to tell me the way to Nottingham," said the hunter. "Nottingham? Why should you be going to Nottingham? The king and his court are there. It is not a place for the like of you," replied the miller. "Well, well, perhaps you are right, good miller," said the hunter. "And yet who knows? I'll wager that the king is no better man than I am. However, it is getting late, and lodging I must have. Will you give me shelter for the night?" "Nay, nay, not so fast," said the miller. "Stand forth and let me see if you are a true man. Many thieves wear fine clothes these days." The hunter stepped forward. "Well, and what do you think of me?" he asked gayly. "Will you not give a stranger lodging?" "How do I know that you have one penny in your purse?" asked the miller. "You may carry your all on your back, for aught I know. I've heard of lords who are like that." "True, good miller, but I have gold. If it be forty pence, I will pay it," said the hunter. "If you are a true man, and have the pence, then lodging you may have. My good wife may not like it, but we'll see," said the miller. "Good!" cried the hunter. "And here's my hand on it." "Nay, nay, not so fast," replied the miller. "I must know you better before I shake hands. None but an honest man's hand will I take." "Some day, my good miller," replied the hunter, "I hope to have you take my hand in yours. Proud will I be when the day comes." II And so to the miller's house they went. The miller again looked at the stranger and said, "I like his face well. He may stay with us, may he not, good wife?" "Yes, he is a handsome youth, but it's best not to go too fast," said the good wife. "He may be a runaway servant. Let him show his passport, and all shall be well." The hunter bowed low, and said, "I have no passport, good dame, and I never was any man's servant. I am but a poor courtier who has lost his way. Pray give me lodging for the night. Your kindness I will surely repay." Then the wife whispered to the miller, "The youth is of good manners and to turn him out would be sin." "Yea, a well-mannered youth--and one who knows his betters when he sees them," the miller replied. "Let the lad stay." "Well, young man," said the wife, "you are welcome here; and well lodged you shall be, though I do say it myself. You shall have a fresh bed with good brown sheets." "Aye," said the miller, "and you shall sleep with our own son Richard." Then they all sat down to supper--such a supper: pudding, apple pie, and good things of all kinds. Then at a wink from the miller, the wife brought out a venison pasty. "Eat!" said the miller. "This is dainty food." "Faith!" cried the hunter, "I never before ate such meat." "Pshaw!" said Richard. "We eat this every day." "Every day? Where do you buy it?" "Oh, never a penny pay we. In merry Sherwood Forest we find it. Now and then, you see, we make bold with the king's deer." "Then I think that it is venison," said the hunter. "To be sure. Any fool would know that," replied Richard; "but say nothing about it. We would not have the king hear of it." "I'll keep your secret," said the hunter. "Don't fear. The king shall never know more than he knows now." And so the evening passed merrily. It was late when the guest sought his bed, but right soundly did he sleep. The next morning the miller, the good wife, and Richard came out to see the hunter on his way. Just then a party of nobles rode up. "There's the king!" cried one. "Pardon, your majesty!" cried another, and all fell upon their knees before the hunter. The miller stood shaking and quaking, and for once his wife could not speak. The king, with a grave face, drew his sword, but not a word did he say. The terrified miller threw himself at his ruler's feet, crying out for mercy. Again the sword was raised, and down it fell, but lightly, upon the miller's shoulder, and the king said: [Illustration: The king knights the miller] "Your kind courtesy I will repay; so I here dub thee Knight. Rise, Sir John of Mansfield." For many a day the miller and his wife told of the night the king spent with them. And for many a day the king told of the time he was taken for a thief and ate of his own deer in the miller's house. --ENGLISH BALLAD (Adapted). SADDLE TO RAGS I This story I'm going to sing, I hope it will give you content, Concerning a silly old man That was going to pay his rent, With a till-a-dill, till-a-dill-dill, Till-a-dill, dill-a-dill, dee, Sing fol-de-dill, dill-de-dill, dill, Fol-de-dill, dill-de-dill, dee. A silly old man said to his wife one day, "Well, 'tis time I paid my rent. The landlord has been away for a year and a day, but now he is back, and I must pay for twelve months." "Yes, it's twice forty pounds that is due, and it should be paid," said the good wife. "So much money in the house keeps me from sleeping at night." "Well, I'll bridle old Tib, and away we shall go," said the old man. "Right glad I'll be, too, to be rid of the gold." The silly old man bridled old Tib and saddled her too. And away they started. As he was jogging along, a stranger came riding up on a fine horse with fine saddle bags. "Good morning, old man," said the stranger. "Good morning," said the old man. "How far are you going?" "To tell the truth, kind sir, I am going just two miles," said the old man. "And where are you going?" asked the stranger. "I am going to pay my rent, kind sir," said the old man. "I am but a silly old man who farms a piece of ground. My rent for a half year is forty pounds; but my landlord has been away for a year, and now I owe him eighty pounds. Right glad I am to pay it." "Eighty pounds! That is indeed a large sum," cried the stranger, "and you ought not to tell anybody you carry so much. There are many thieves about, and you might be robbed." "Oh, never mind!" said the old man. "I do not fear thieves. My money is safe in my saddle bags, on which I ride." So they rode along most pleasantly. When they came to a thick wood, the stranger pulled out a pistol and said, "Stand still, and give me your money." "Nay," said the old man. "The money is for my landlord. I will not give it to you." "Your money or your life!" "Well, if you will have it, you can go for it," cried the old man, as he threw his old saddle bags over a hedge. The thief dismounted and said, "Stand here and hold my horse while I go over the hedge. You are silly, but surely you can do that." The thief climbed through the hedge. When he was on the other side, the old man got on the thief's horse, and away he galloped. "Stop, stop!" cried the thief. "And half of my share you shall have." "Nay," cried the man. "I think I'll go on. I'd rather have what's in your bag." [Illustration: The old man gallops away] And away he galloped, riding as he never rode before. II The thief thought there must be something in the old man's bags; so with his big rusty knife he chopped them into rags. But no money did he find, for the silly old man was not so silly as he seemed. His money was in his pocket. The old man rode on to his landlord's home and paid his rent. Then he opened the thief's bag, which was glorious to behold. There were five hundred pounds in gold and silver. "Where did you get the silver?" asked the landlord. "And where did you get the gold?" "I met a proud fool on the way," said the old man with a laugh. "I swapped horses with him, and he gave me this to boot." "Well, well! But you're too old to go about with so much money," said the landlord. "Oh, I think no one would harm a silly old man like me," said the farmer, as he rode away. The old man went home by a narrow lane, and there he spied Tib tied to a tree. "The stranger did not like his trade, I fear," said he. "So I think I'll take Tib home." The old man went home much richer than when he left. When she heard the story, the wife danced and sang for glee. "'Tis hard to fool my old man," said she. --ENGLISH BALLAD (_Adapted_). [Illustration: The Rock-a-By Lady walking by] THE ROCK-A-BY LADY The Rock-a-By Lady from Hushaby street Comes stealing; comes creeping; The poppies they hang from her head to her feet, And each hath a dream that is tiny and fleet-- She bringeth her poppies to you, my sweet, When she findeth you sleeping! There is one little dream of a beautiful drum-- "Rub-a-dub!" it goeth; There is one little dream of a big sugar-plum, And lo! thick and fast the other dreams come Of pop-guns that bang, and tin tops that hum, And a trumpet that bloweth! And dollies peep out of those wee little dreams With laughter and singing; And boats go a-floating on silvery streams, And the stars peek-a-boo with their own misty gleams, And up, up, and up, where the Mother Moon beams, The fairies go winging! Would you dream all these dreams that are tiny and fleet? They'll come to you sleeping; So shut the two eyes that are weary, my sweet, For the Rock-a-By Lady from Hushaby street With poppies that hang from her head to her feet, Comes stealing; comes creeping. --EUGENE FIELD. THE SANDMAN The rosy clouds float overhead, The sun is going down; And now the sandman's gentle tread Comes stealing through the town. "White sand, white sand," he softly cries, And as he shakes his hand, Straightway there lies on babies' eyes His gift of shining sand. Blue eyes, gray eyes, black eyes, and brown, As shuts the rose, they softly close, When he goes through the town. From sunny beaches far away-- Yes, in another land-- He gathers up at break of day His store of shining sand. No tempests beat that shore remote, No ships may sail that way; His little boat alone may float Within that lovely bay. Blue eyes, gray eyes, black eyes, and brown, As shuts the rose, they softly close, When he goes through the town. [Illustration: The sandman] He smiles to see the eyelids close Above the happy eyes; And every child right well he knows, Oh, he is very wise! But, if as he goes through the land, A naughty baby cries, His other hand takes dull gray sand To close the wakeful eyes. Blue eyes, gray eyes, black eyes, and brown, As shuts the rose, they softly close, When he goes through the town. So when you hear the sandman's song Sound through the twilight sweet, Be sure you do not keep him long A-waiting on the street. Lie softly down, dear little head, Rest quiet, busy hands, Till, by your bed his good-night said, He strews the shining sands. Blue eyes, gray eyes, black eyes, and brown, As shuts the rose, they softly close, When he goes through the town. --MARGARET VANDERGRIFT. A DICTIONARY To the Children: Below you will find the words in the Third Reader that you may not know the meaning of, or how to pronounce. Some words have more than one meaning. In looking for the meaning of a word, choose the meaning that best fits the sentence in which the word occurs. ad ven ture: a bold undertaking. af fec tion: love. a gree ment: a bargain. al mond: a nut. am ber: of the color of amber-yellow. ap plaud ed: praised. ar bu tus: a trailing plant with small pinkish-white blossoms. A tri (Ah tree): a town in Italy. aught: anything. Bau cis (Bor sis): a Greek woman. bel lows (lus): an instrument for blowing a fire, used by blacksmiths. bil low: a great wave. blithe (bl=ithe): joyous, glad. bred: brought up. bur dock: a coarse plant with bur-like heads. card: an instrument for combing cotton, wool, or flax. chase: hunt; pursuit. chris ten ing: naming a child at baptism. cliff: a high, steep face of rock. com rade (kom rad): a mate, a companion. Con al (C~on' al): an Irish lad. con ceit ed: proud, vain. con fess: to own; to admit. coun cil: a small body called together for a trial, or to decide a matter. court ier (court' yer): an attendant at the court of a prince. crime: a wicked act punishable by law. crouch: to stoop low. dan ger: risk. de li cious: pleasing to the taste. de nied: disowned. depths: deep part of sea. de stroy: break up; kill. dis tress: suffering of mind. dock: a place between piers where vessels may anchor. Don al (D~on' al): an Irish lad. dor mouse (dor mous'): a small animal that looks like a squirrel. drought (drout): want of water. dub: call. dumps: low spirits. eaves: overhanging lower edges of a roof. em bers: smouldering ashes. em per or: ruler of an empire. em press: wife of an emperor; a female ruler. en chant ed: bewitched. en e my: foe. es tab lish: to found. ex act ly: completely. ex haust ed: tired, worn out. ex tend ing: reaching. fam ine: scarcity of food. fes ti val: a time of feasting. flax: a slender plant with blue flowers, used to make thread and cloth. fol ly: foolishness. foot man: a man servant. forge: a place with its furnace where metal is heated and hammered into different shapes. fra grance: sweetness. free dom: independence, liberty. gauz y: like gauze, thin. Got ham (Got am): a village in Old England, commonly called G=o tham. grate ful: thankful. groom: a servant in charge of horses. guard: one that guards; a watch. hail ing: calling. har bor: a protected body of water where vessels may anchor safely. haught y: proud. her ald: a messenger. Ho ang ti (H=o ~ang tee): an emperor of China. hoar y: white. horse-chest nut: a tree. hu man: like men. hu mor: mood, disposition. in no cent: guiltless. in spect: examine. in stant ly: at once. in vent ed: made. jest: joke. ju ni per: an evergreen, tree. jus tice: right treatment. king dom: country belonging to king or queen. kirk: church. knight: a mounted man-at-arms. lad en: loaded. la ment ed: wailed, wept. lin en: thread or cloth made of flax. lodge: dwelling place; wigwam. loom: a machine for weaving threads into cloth. lus cious: delicious. Man i tou (too): a name given by the Indians to the "Great Spirit," or God. marsh es: swamps. mer cy: pity, kindness. min is ter: a pastor, a clergyman. mis for tune: bad fortune. moc ca sin: Indian shoes. moor: to secure in place, as a vessel: a great tract of waste land. moult ed: shed feathers. no bles: lords. nurs er y: play room for children. o blige: do a favor. o rang ou tang: a kind of ape. or der ly: regular; in order. page: a youth training for knighthood. pas try (p=as): article of food made with crust of paste (or dough) as a pie. peas ant (p~es): a tiller of the soil. pe can: a kind of nut. Pe kin duck: a large, creamy white duck. pest: a nuisance. Phi le mon (F=i l=e' mon): a Greek peasant. pil lar: a support. pin ing: drooping; longing. pound: a piece of English money, equal to about $5.00 in United States money. prai rie: an extensive tract of level or rolling land. rag ing: furious, violent. rec og nized: known. re flec tion: image. ref uge: shelter. re fused: declined to do. reign ing (rain): ruling. re mote: distant. rest less: eager for change, discontented; unquiet. re store: to return, to give back. roe buck: male deer. runt: an animal unusually small of its kind. sad dle bags: a pair of pouches attached to a saddle, used to carry small articles. Salis bur y (Sauls): a town in North Carolina. sav age: wild, untamed. scare crow: an object set up to scare crows and other birds away from crops. score: the number twenty. serv ice: benefit, favor. shek el: ancient coin. shreds: strips, fragments. Si ling (Se): a Chinese empress. sim ple ton: a foolish person. six pence: six pennies--about twelve cents in United States money. squire: a justice of the peace. state ly: dignified, majestic. stat ues: likeness of a human being cut out of stone. steeped: soaked. striv ing: laboring, endeavoring. stub ble: stumps of grain left in ground, as after reaping. tab lets: a flat piece on which to write. tasks: work, undertaking. tem pest: storm. tem ple: a kind of church. thriv ing: prospering, succeeding. tid ings: news. till ing: cultivating. tim id ly: shyly. tink er ing: mending. tithing man (t=ith): officer who enforced good behavior. tor por: numbness, dullness. tread: step. tri als: efforts, attempts. troop: an armed force. u su al: ordinary, common. vain: proud, conceited; to no purpose. van ished: disappeared. ven i son (ven' z'n): flesh of deer. vic to ry: triumph. vol un teer: one who offers himself for a service. wa ger (wa jer): bet. wages: carries on. wand: a small stick. width: breadth. wig wam: Indian tent. wis dom: learning, knowledge. yarn: thread. Zeus (Z=us): a Greek god. WORD LIST This list contains the words in the Child's World Third Reader, except those already used in the earlier books of this series, and a few that present no difficulty in spelling, pronunciation or meaning. 9 Greece Philemon Baucis unhappy hives 10 gathered couple Zeus beggars 11 attend footsore herbs although pitcher 13 disappeared homeward 14 feeble linden 15 treasure lucky Iris precious 16 messenger swift-footed Mercury awakened 17 hereafter honest upright 18 blossoms luscious harsh 19 hues frolic glistened wrestled scurried 21 fluttered speckled tender 22 parents moment remained praised 25 zigzag remote comrade blithe amber billows stubble bracing 26 plantation spindle 28 woven loom ruffles 29 England buttonholes 30 shepherd shearers 32 dyers 33 colored plaid 34 Hoangti emperor China Si-ling empress suddenly 35 cocoons 37 dainty linen 38 frightful steeped 39 suffered aprons 40 shreds pulp glorious surprise verses 41 isles thousands prayers 42 Hillmen housewife bargains 43 saucepan aye sixpence tinkering 44 refused muttered vexed chimney 45 scoured spoiled exclaimed 46 shelter Dormouse lest 47 gracious lamented invented 48 Atri heralds ye complaint message 49 guilty 50 arousing justice 51 steed undertone jest 52 applauded 53 savage 54 dragged judge prison 55 denied wisdom 56 labor honeycomb 57 artists extending poets affection well-deserved 59 dreadful worry horrid notice 62 business 65 perfectly breath 67 Epaminondas granny 75 service 76 obliged gently 77 tremendous marvelous 78 forbid allow 81 caramels almond pecan taffy 82 except Christ 84 Pedro altar distress 86 stately haughty 88 musician 90 family scare pantry 94 chocolate 95 whiskers danger 101 huddled wailed usual faint 102 cheerful pardon 104 chorus shriller chubby bundled 106 furniture mirror reflection 108 disgusted 110 satisfied oiling 111 bow-legged conceited 112 remarked width 113 clattering astonished 114 fault recognized 115 shekels 116 impossible caliph 117 courtier presence refused 119 companion 120 razors agreement 121 instantly 122 cozy drowsy 124 Puritans Sabbath 125 Indians worship 126 sermon minister 127 tithingman peppermint 130 freedom regular Vermont able-bodied Americans volunteers 131 inspect 133 victory 134 president Salisbury 135 impatient governor 138 delicious heartily 139 murmuring papoose prairie Manitou 140 drought council 142 declared sleek 144 resin selfish 147 mentioned loose 149 hominy sharpened 154 establish harbor moored orderly 155 nursery scattered 156 famine Orang-outang 157 journey magic 160 refuge grateful restore innocent 161 favorite whirlwind 162 kingdom confess rejoicing 163 penniless simpleton nevertheless 164 destroy human 165 enchanted tablets 166 performs princesses 167 collected pearls 168 depths exactly syrup 172 christening godmothers 174 nightingale spitefully 175 grieve vanished misfortune 177 embroidering departed royal 178 reigning peasant determined guards motionless 179 statues 181 canals burdocks 182 parson cheated 186 miserable moor 189 terror cruel 190 clumsy matters 192 glossy moulted naked 193 horrible sky-rocket 195 strength turtle dove 196 Russian 199 juniper 201 trespass-money 202 mischief damages ringleader 205 gooseherd excuse 206 Ireland 208 exhausted diamonds 211 trousers greedily 212 torpor gauzy 213 fragrance Killing-worth 214 squire timidly 215 oriole weevils enemy contradict 216 starvation caterpillars foe 218 arbutus tempest 219 moccasins embers adventures 220 hoary joyous marshes ringlets 221 shrunk bosom scent 223 treasures 224 confused humor score 225 attention folly 227 million tilling 228 caress 229 leaflet petals 230 Gotham woe 223 Nottingham wager 234 aught lodging 235 passport youth servant 236 venison pasty Sherwood 237 majesty terrified 246 straightway beaches 248 twilight strews 
6158	----	THE TRUE CITIZEN, HOW TO BECOME ONE BY W. F. MARKWICK, D. D. AND W. A. SMITH, A. B. PREFACE. This book, intended as a supplementary reader for pupils in the seventh and eighth grades of school, has been prepared with a view to meeting a real need of the times. While there are a large number of text-books, and several readers, dealing with citizenship from the political point of view, the higher aspects of citizenship--the moral and ethical--have been seriously overlooked. The authors of this work have searched in vain for something which would serve as an aid to the joint development of the natural faculties and the moral instincts, so as to produce a well-rounded manhood, upon which a higher type of citizenship might be built. The development of character appears, to us, to be of far greater importance, in the preparation of the youth for the discharge of the duties of public life, than is mere political instruction; for only by introducing loftier ethical standards can the grade and quality of our citizenship be raised. It is universally conceded that ethics and civics should go hand in hand; and yet pupils pass through our schools by the thousand, without having their attention definitely called to this important subject; and only an honest desire to aid in improving this state of affairs, has led to the preparation of these pages. The plan of the book is simple in the extreme. It consists of thirty-nine chapters,--one for each week of the school year;--to eachof which has been prefixed five memory gems; one for each school day. Especial care has been taken to use only such language as will be perfectly intelligible to the pupils for whom it is intended. The largest possible use has been made of anecdote and incident, so as to quicken the interest and hold the attention to the end. These anecdotes have been selected from every available quarter, and no claim of originality is made concerning them or their use. Into each of those chapters which have to do directly with the development of the natural faculties, or the moral powers, a "special illustration" has been introduced; this being clearly marked off by the insertion of its title in bold-faced type. To these special illustrations a brief bibliography has been added, in order that a fuller study of the character presented may be readily pursued where deemed desirable. It is hoped that these special illustrations will not only serve to increase the general interest; but that, by thus bringing the pupil into direct contact with these greater minds, ambitions and aspirations may be aroused which shall prove helpful in the later life. A careful presentation of each separate theme by the teacher, will not only increase the interest in the work of the schoolroom; but, by developing a higher type of citizenship, will be a real service to our nation. THE AUTHORS. CONTENTS. I. THE CHILD. I. THE EDUCATION OF THE NATURAL FACULTIES II. OBSERVATION III. OBEDIENCE IV. CANDOR V. AFFECTION VI. CHEERFULNESS VII. LOVE OF THE BEAUTIFUL VIII. LOVE OF KNOWLEDGE II. THE YOUTH. IX. THE FIRST TRANSITION PERIOD X. INDUSTRY XI. AMBITION XII. CONCENTRATION XIII. SELF-CONTROL XIV. PERSEVERANCE XV. PROMPTNESS XVI. HONESTY XVII. COURTESY XVIII. SELF-DENIAL XIX. SELF-RESPECT XX. CONSCIENTIOUSNESS XXI. ENTHUSIASM XXII. COURAGE XXIII. SELF-HELP XXIV. HUMILITY XXV. FAITHFULNESS III. THE MAN. XXVI. THE SECOND TRANSITION PERIOD XXVII. ORDER XXVIII. REVERENCE XXIX. SENTIMENT XXX. DUTY XXXI. TEMPERANCE XXXII. PATRIOTISM XXXIII. INDEPENDENCE XXXIV. THE IDEAL MAN IV. THE CITIZEN. XXXV. WHAT CONSTITUTES GOOD CITIZENSHIP? XXXVI. THE CITIZEN AND THE HOME XXXVII. THE CITIZEN AND THE COMMUNITY XXXVIII. THE CITIZEN AND THE NATION XXXIX. THE IDEAL CITIZEN I. EDUCATION OF THE NATURAL FACULTIES. MEMORY GEMS. Every man stamps his value on himself.--Schiller No capital earns such interest as personal culture.--President Eliot The end and aim of all education is the development of character. --Francis W. Parker One of the best effects of thorough intellectual training is a knowledge of our own capacities.--Alexander Bain Education is a growth toward intellectual and moral perfection. --Nicholas Murray Butler Education begins in the home, is continued through the public school and college, and finds inviting and ever-widening opportunities and possibilities throughout the entire course of life. The mere acquisition of knowledge, or the simple development of the intellect alone, may be of little value. Many who have received such imperfect or one-sided education, have proved to be but ciphers in the world; while, again, intellectual giants have sometimes been found to be but intellectual demons. Indeed, some of the worst characters in history have been men of scholarly ability and of rare academic attainments. The true education embraces the symmetrical development of mind, body and heart. An old and wise writer has said, "Cultivate the physical exclusively, and you have an athlete or a savage; the moral only, and you have an enthusiast or a maniac; the intellectual only, and you have a diseased oddity,--it may be a monster. It is only by wisely training all of them together that the complete man may be found." To cultivate anything--be it a plant, an animal, or a mind--is to make it grow. Nothing admits of culture but that which has a principle of life capable of being expanded. He, therefore, who does what he can to unfold all his powers and capacities, especially his nobler ones, so as to become a well-proportioned, vigorous, excellent, happy being, practices self-culture, and secures a true education. It is a commonplace remark that "a man's faculties are strengthened by use, and weakened by disuse." To change the form of statement, they grow when they are fed and nourished, and decay when they are not fed and nourished. Moreover, every faculty demands appropriate food. What nourishes one will not always nourish another. Accordingly, one part of man's nature may grow while another withers; and one part may be fed and strengthened at the expense of another. In Hawthorne's beautiful allegory, the "Great Stone Face," you remember how the man Ernest, by daily and admiring contemplation of the face, its dignity, its serenity, its benevolence, came, all unconsciously to himself, to possess the same qualities, and to be transformed by them, until at last he stood revealed to his neighbors as the long promised one, who should be like the Great Stone Face. So in every human life, the unrealized self is the unseen but all-powerful force that brings into subjection the will, guides the conduct, and determines the character. "The early life of Washington is singularly transparent as to the creation and influence of the ideal. We see how one quality after another was added, until the character became complete. Manly strength, athletic power and skill, appear first; then, courtesy and refined manners; then, careful and exact business habits; then, military qualities; then, devotion to public service." Steadily, but rapidly, the transforming work went on, until the man was complete; the ideal was realized. Henceforth, the character, the man, appears under all the forms of occupation and office. Legislator, commander, president; the man is in them all, though he is none of them. Half the blunders of humanity come from not knowing one's self. If we overrate our abilities, we attempt more than we can accomplish; if we underrate our abilities we fail to accomplish much that we attempt. In both cases the life loses just so much from its sum of power. He who might wield the golden scepter of the pen, never gets beyond the plow; or perhaps he who ought to be a shoemaker attempts the artistic career of an Apelles. When a life-work presents itself we ought to be able from our self-knowledge to say, "I am, or am not, fitted to be useful in that sphere." Sydney Smith represents the various parts in life by holes of different shapes upon a table--some circular, some triangular, some square, some oblong--and the persons acting these parts, by bits of wood of similar shapes, and he says, "we generally find that the triangular person has gotten into the square hole, the oblong into the triangular, and a square fellow has squeezed into the round hole." A fundamental need is to find out the elements of power within us, and how they can be trained to good service and yoked to the chariot of influence. We need to know exactly for what work or sphere we are best fitted, so that when opportunities for service open before us, we may invest our mental capital with success and profit. Self-knowledge must not be confused with self-conceit; for it implies no immodesty or egotism. Even if the faithful study of one's self reveals a high order of natural gifts, it is not needful to imitate the son of the Emerald Isle who always lifted his hat and made an obsequious bow when he spoke of himself or mentioned his own name. George Eliot hits off pompous self-conceit happily when she likens its possessor to "a cock that thinks the sun rises in the morning to hear him crow." Margaret Fuller wrote: "I now know all the people in America worth knowing, and I have found no intellect comparable with my own." Even if she did not overrate herself, such self-estimate implied no little boldness in expression. We also read in Greek history, how, when the commanders of the allied fleets gave in, by request, a list of the names of those who had shown the highest valor and skill at the battle of Salamis, each put his own name first, graciously according to Themistocles, the real hero of the day, the second rank. Not a few come to know themselves only through failures and disappointments. Strangers to their own defects--perhaps also to their own powers--they see how they might have succeeded only when success is finally forfeited. Their eyes open too late. A Southern orator tells of a little colored lad who very much wished to have a kitten from a newborn litter, and whose mistress promised that, as soon as they wer old enough, he should take one. Too impatient to wait, he slyly carried one off to his hut. Its eyes were not open, and, in disgust, he drowned it. But, subsequently finding the kitten lying in the pail dead, but with open eyes, he exclaimed, "Umph! When you's alive, you's blind. Now you's dead, you see!" It will be a real calamity to us if our eyes only open when it is too late to make our life of any use. All true life-power has a basis of high _moral integrity_. Far higher in the scale than any life of impulse, passion, or even opinion, is the life regulated by principle. The end of life is something more than pleasure. Man is not a piece of vitalized sponge, to absorb all into himself. The essentials of happiness are something to love, something to hope for, something to do--affection, aspiration, action. We must also educate our dispositions. Some one has said: "Disposition is a lens through which men and things are seen. A fiery temper, like a red glass, gives to all objects a lurid glare; a melancholic temper, like a blue lens, imparts its own hue; through the green spectacles of jealousy every one else becomes an object of distrust and dislike; and he who looks through the black glass of malice, finds others wearing the aspect of his own malevolence. Only the cheerful and charitable soul sees through a clear and colorless medium, whose transparency shows the world as it is." Disposition has also its concave and convex lenses, which magnify some things and minify others. The self-satisfied man sees every one's faults in giant proportions; and every one's virtues, but his own, dwarfed into insignificance. To the fretful man others seem fretful; to the envious man, envious; and so with the well-disposed, gentle, and generous; sunshine prevails over shadows. The world is different to different observers, largely because they have different media through which they look at it. Cheerful tempers manufacture solace and joy out of very unpromising material. They are the magic alchemists who extract sweet essences out of bitter herbs, like the old colored woman in the smoky hut, who was "glad of anything to make a smoke with," and, though she had but two teeth, thanked God they were "_opposite each other!_" Goodness outranks even uprightness, because the good man aims to do good to others. Uprightness is the beauty of integrity; goodness is the loveliness of benevolence. The good man visits the hut of misery, the hovel of poverty, leaving in a gentle and delicate way, a few comforts for the table or wardrobe, dainties for the fevered palate of the sick, or such other helps as the case may call for, as far as his means and circumstances will allow. A true education should cover all these points, and many others also; but it must never be allowed to destroy the pupil's individuality. It must teach that a person can be himself, and study all the models he pleases. Webster studied the orations of Cicero so thoroughly that he could repeat most of them by heart; but they did not destroy or compromise his individuality, because he did not try to be Cicero. It has been said that Michael Angelo, who was the most original of ancient or modern artists, was more familiar with the model statues and paintings of the world than any other man. He studied the excellences of all the great works of art, not to copy or imitate them, but to develop his powers. "As the food he consumed became bone and muscle by assimilation; so, by mental assimilation, the knowledge he acquired by art-models entered into the very composition of his mind." The more thoroughly a man's nature is developed under the influences of a good education, the more justly does he claim the liberty of thought and action, and a suitable field whereon to think and act. The materials of useful and honorable life--of life aiming at great and noble ends--are within him. He feels it, he knows it to be so; and a denial uttered by ten thousand voices would not check the ardor of his pursuit, or induce him to surrender one atom of his claim. His claim involves a right. He is as conscious of it as of his existence. His mind has acquired the power of observing, reasoning, reflecting, judging, and acting; and he feels that, like a pendulum, the action of his mind is capable of giving activity, force, and value, to a large body of well-compacted machinery, of which he is a part. It is the mind that acts as the universal pendulum; and if its liberty of action be circumscribed, and its vibrations consequently fall short of the mark, then its power will be crippled, and the life, as a whole will be imperfect and incomplete. II. OBSERVATION. MEMORY GEMS. We get out of Nature what we carry to her.--Katherine Hagar Fools learn nothing from wise men, but wise men learn much from fools. --Lavater The non-observant man goes through the forest and sees no firewood. --Russian Proverb Some men will learn more in a country stage-ride than others in a tour of Europe.--Dr. Johnson The world is full of thoughts, and you will find them strewed everywhere in your path.--Elihu Burritt All conscious life begins in observation. We say of a baby, "See how he _notices!_" By this statement we really call attention to the fact that the child is beginning to be interested in things separate from and outside of himself. Up to this time he has _seen_ but not _observed_, for to observe is to "see with attention"; to "notice with care"; to see with the mind as well as with the eye. There are many persons who see almost everything but observe almost nothing. They are forever fluttering over the surface of things, but put forth no real effort to secure and preserve the ideas they ought to gather from the scenes through which they pass. Every boy and girl in the land, possessing a good pair of eyes, has the means for acquiring a vast store of knowledge. As the child, long before he can talk, obtains a pretty good idea of the little world that lies within his vision; so may all bright, active boys and girls obtain, by correct habits of observation, a knowledge that will the better fit them for the active duties of manhood and womanhood. The active, observing eye is the sign of intelligence; while the vacant, listless stare of indifference betokens an empty brain. The eyes are placed in an elevated position that they may better observe all that comes within their range. These highways to the soul should always stand wide open, ready to carry inward all such impressions as will add to our knowledge. No object the eye ever beholds, no sound, however slight, caught by the ear, or anything once passing the turnstile of any of the senses, is ever again let go. The eye is a perpetual camera, imprinting upon the sensitive mental plates, and packing away in the brain for future use, every face, every plant and flower, every scene upon the street, in fact, everything which comes within its range. It should, therefore, be easy to discern that since mere seeing may create false impressions in the mind, and that only by careful observation can we gather for future use such impressions as are thoroughly reliable, we cannot well overestimate the importance of its cultivation. It is beyond question that childhood and early youth are the most favorable periods for the cultivation of this faculty. Not only is the mind then more free from care, and, therefore, more at leisure to observe, but it is also more easy to interest one's self in the common things, which, while they lie nearest to us, make up by far the greater portion of our lives. Experience also proves that a person is not a good observer at the age of twenty, in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred he will never become one. "The student," says Hugh Miller, "should learn to make a right use of his eyes; the commonest things are worth looking at; even the stones and weeds, and the most familiar animals. Then in early manhood he is prepared to study men and things in a way to make success easy and sure." Houdin, the magician, spent a month in cultivating the observing powers of his son. Together they walked rapidly past the window of a large toy store. Then each would write down the things that he had seen. The boy soon became so expert that one glance at a show window would enable him to write down the names of forty different objects. The boy could easily outdo his father. The power of observation in the American Indian would put many an educated white man to shame. Returning home, an Indian discovered that his venison, which had been hanging up to dry, had been stolen. After careful observation he started to track the thief through the woods. Meeting a man on the route, he asked him if he had seen a little, old, white man, with a short gun, and with a small bob-tailed dog. The man told him he had met such a man, but was surprised to find that the Indian had not even seen the one he described. He asked the Indian how he could give such a minute description of a man whom he had never seen. "I knew the thief was a little man," said the Indian, "because he rolled up a stone to stand on in order to reach the venison; I knew he was an old man by his short steps; I knew he was a white man by his turning out his toes in walking, which an Indian never does; I knew he had a short gun by the mark it left on the tree where he had stood it up; I knew the dog was small by his tracks and short steps, and that he had a bob-tail by the mark it left in the dust where he sat." The poet Longfellow has also dwelt upon the power of observation in the early training of Hiawatha. You will perhaps recall the lines: "Then the little Hiawatha Learned of every bird its language, Learned their names and all their secrets, How they built their nests in summer, Where they hid themselves in winter, Talked with them whene'er he met them, Called them 'Hiawatha's Chickens.'" The most noted men of every land and age have acquired their fame by carrying into effect ideas suggested by or obtained from observation. The head of a large commercial firm was once asked why he employed such an ignorant man for a buyer. He replied: "It is true that our buyer cannot spell correctly; but when anything comes within the range of his eyes, he sees all that there is to be seen. He buys over a million dollars' worth a year for us, and I cannot recall any instance when he failed to notice a defect in any line of goods or any feature that would be likely to render them unsalable." This man's highly developed power of observation was certainly of great value. Careful observers become accurate thinkers. These are the men that are needed everywhere and by everybody. By observation the scholar gets more out of his books, the traveler more enjoyment from the beauties of nature, and the young person who is quick to read human character avoids companions that would be likely to lead him into the ways of vice and folly, and perhaps cause his life to become a total wreck. JOHN JAMES AUDUBON. In 1828 a wonderful book, "The Birds of America," by John James Audubon, was issued. It is a good illustration of what has been accomplished by beginning in one's youth to use the powers of observation. Audubon loved and studied birds. Even in his infancy, lying under the orange trees on his father's plantation in Louisiana, he listened to the mocking bird's song, watching and observing every motion as it flitted from bough to bough. When he was older he began to sketch every bird that he saw, and soon showed so much talent that he was taken to France to be educated. He entered cheerfully and earnestly upon his studies, and more than a year was devoted to mathematics; but whenever it was possible he rambled about the country, using his eyes and fingers, collecting more specimens, and sketching with such assiduity that when he left France, only seventeen years old, he had finished two hundred drawings of French birds. At this period he tells us that "it was not the desire of fame which prompted to this devotion; it was simply the enjoyment of nature." A story is told of his lying on his back in the woods with some moss for his pillow, and looking through a telescopic microscope day after day to watch a pair of little birds while they made their nest. Their peculiar grey plumage harmonized with the color of the bark of the tree, so that it was impossible to see the birds except by the most careful observation. After three weeks of such patient labor, he felt that he had been amply rewarded for the toil and sacrifice by the results he had obtained. His power of observation gave him great happiness, from the time he rambled as a boy in the country in search of treasures of natural history, till, in his old age, he rose with the sun and went straightway to the woods near his home, enjoying still the beauties and wonders of Nature. His strength of purpose and unwearied energy, combined with his pure enthusiasm, made him successful in his work as a naturalist; but it was all dependent on the habit formed in his boyhood,--this habit of close and careful observation; and he not only had this habit of using his eyes, but he looked at and studied things worth seeing, worth remembering. This brief sketch of Audubon's boyhood shows the predominant traits of his character,--his power of observation, the training of the eye and hand, that made him in manhood "the most distinguished of American ornithologists," with so much scientific ardor and perseverance that no expedition seemed dangerous, or solitude inaccessible, when he was engaged in his favorite study. He has left behind him, as the result of his labors, his great book on "The Birds of America," in ten volumes; and illustrated with four hundred and forty-eight colored plates of over one thousand species of birds, all drawn by his own hand, and each bird being represented in its natural size; also a "Biography of American Birds," in five large volumes, in which he describes their habits and customs. He was associated with Dr. Bachman of Philadelphia, in the preparation of a work on "The Quadrupeds of America," in six large volumes, the drawings for which were made by his two sons; and, later on, published his "Biography of American Quadrupeds," a work similar to the "Biography of the Birds." He died at what is known as "Audubon Park," on the Hudson, now within the limits of New York city, in 1851, at the age of seventy. [Footnote: For fuller information concerning Audubon, consult "Life and Adventures of John J. Audubon," by Robert Buchanan (New York, 1869); Griswold's "Prose Writers of America" (Philadelphia, 1847); Mrs. Horace St. John's "Audubon the Naturalist" (New York, 1856); Rev. C. C. Adams's "Journal of the Life and Labors of J. J. Audubon" (Boston, 1860), and "Audubon and his Journals," by M. R. Audubon (New York, 1897).] III. OBEDIENCE. MEMORY GEMS. Love makes obedience easy.--T. Watson The education of the will is the object of our existence.--Emerson To learn obeying is the fundamental art of governing.--Carlyle True obedience neither procrastinates nor questions.--Francis Quarles If thou wouldst be obeyed as a father, be obedient as a son. --William Penn By obedience is meant submission to authority, and to proper restraint and control. It is the doing of that which we are told to do; and the refraining from that which is forbidden. At its very best it may be defined as the habit of yielding willingly to command or restraint. As observation forms the first step in the culture of the mind, so obedience forms the first step in the building of the character. It is as important to the life as is the foundation to the house. Thomas Carlyle has well said that "Obedience is our universal duty and destiny, wherein whosoever will not bend must break." It is impossible to escape from it altogether, and it is therefore wise to learn to obey as early in life as possible. It does not take very long for a child to learn that it cannot do everything that it would like to do. The wishes of others must be regarded. These wishes spring from a knowledge of what is best. Children, with their limited experiences, cannot always foresee the consequences of their doings. For their own good they must not be allowed to do anything that would result in harm to themselves or to others. Some one must oversee and direct them until they can act intelligently. Obedience is one of the principal laws of the family. The harmony and peace of the entire household depend upon it. True obedience does not argue nor dispute; neither does it delay nor murmur. It goes directly to work to fulfil the commands laid upon us, or to refrain from doing that which is forbidden. "Sir," said the Duke of Wellington to an officer of engineers, who urged the impossibility of executing his orders, "I did not ask your opinion. I gave you my orders, and I expect them to be obeyed." A story is told of a great captain, who, after a battle, was talking over the events of the day with his officers. He asked them who had done the best that day. Some spoke of one man who had fought very bravely, and some of another. "No," said he, "you are all mistaken. The best man in the field to-day was a soldier, who was just lifting his arm to strike an enemy, but when he heard the trumpet sound a retreat, checked himself, and dropped his arm without striking a blow. That perfect and ready obedience to the will of his general, is the noblest thing that has been done to-day." The instant obedience of the child is as beautiful and as important as that of the soldier. The unhesitating obedience which springs from a loving confidence is beautifully illustrated in the following incident: A switchman in Prussia was stationed at the junction of two lines of railroad. His hand was on the lever for a train that was approaching. The engine was within a few seconds of reaching his signal box when, on turning his head, the switchman saw his little boy playing on the line of rails over which the train was to pass. "Lie down!" he shouted to the child; but, he himself, remained at his post. The train passed safely on its way. The father rushed forward, expecting to take up a corpse; but what was his joy on finding that the boy had obeyed his order so promptly that the whole train had passed over him without injury. The next day the king sent for the man and attached to his breast the medal for civil courage. A cheerful obedience is one of the strongest proofs of love. "Love is to obedience like wings to the bird, or sails to the ship. It is the agency that carries it forward to success. When love cools, obedience slackens; and nothing is worthy of the name of love that leads to disobedience." We remember the anecdote of a Roman commander, who forbade an engagement with the enemy, and the first transgressor was his own son. He accepted the challenge of the leader of the other host, slew and disrobed him, and then in triumph carried the spoils to his father's tent. But the Roman father refused to recognize the instinct which prompted this, as deserving the name of love. Many of the restraints laid upon us result from the love of those in authority. If we were permitted to pursue our own inclinations, our health might be destroyed, our minds run to waste, and we should be apt to grow up slothful and selfish; a trouble to others and burdensome to ourselves. It is far easier to obey our parents and friends when we recall that we have experienced their goodness long enough to know that they wish to make us happy, even when their commands seem most severe. Let us, therefore, show our appreciation of their goodness by doing cheerfully what they require. The will is supported, strengthened, and perfected by obedience. There are many who suppose that real strength of will is secured by giving it free play. But we really weaken it in that way. Obedience to a reasonable law is a source of moral strength and power. Obedience is not weakness bowing to strength, but is rather submission to an authority whose claims are already admitted. If a man is royal when he rules over nature, and yet more royal when he rules his brother man, is he not most royal when he so rules himself as to do the right even when it is distasteful? A man who had declared his aversion for what he called the dry facts of political economy, was found one day knitting his brows over a book on that subject. When a friend expressed surprise, the man replied: "I am playing the schoolmaster with myself. I am reading this because I dislike it." Difficulties are often really helpful. They enlarge our experience and incite us to do our best. "The head of Hercules," says Ruskin, "was always represented as covered with a lion's skin, with the claws joining under the chin, to show that when we had conquered our misfortunes they became a help to us." One of the greatest hindrances to obedience is a false pride. The thought of living under the will and direction of another is exceedingly unpleasant, and where such a pride bears rule in the heart, a cheerful obedience is almost an impossibility. We often fail to obey simply because we are unwilling to acknowledge ourselves in the wrong. Obedience is also hindered by ignorance. One of our commonest errors is that which teaches that authority is always pleasant, and submission always painful. The actual experiences of life prove that the place of command is usually a position of great anxiety, while the place of obedience is generally one of ease and freedom from care. Indolence also opposes obedience. In our selfish love of ease we allow duties to go undone until the habit of disobedience becomes almost unnoticeable; but when we find ourselves compelled to resist it, we then discover that to break away from its power is one of the hardest tasks we can be called upon to perform. THE CHARGE OF THE LIGHT BRIGADE. A very striking example of prompt and unquestioning obedience is furnished us in that famous "Charge of the Light Brigade" at Balaclava, during the Crimean War, of which you have all doubtless heard. A series of engagements between the Russians on the one side, and the English and their allies on the other side, took place near this little town, on October 25, 1854. The Russians were for a time victorious, and at last threatened the English port of Balaclava itself. The attack was diverted by a brilliant charge of the Heavy Brigade, led by General Scarlett. Then, through a misunderstanding of the orders of Lord Raglan, the commander-in-chief, Lord Cardigan was directed to charge the Russian artillery at the northern extremity of the Balaclava valley with the Light Brigade, then under his command. Lord Cardigan was an exceedingly unpopular officer, and greatly disliked by all his men, But no sooner was the order given than, with a battery in front of them, and one on either side, the Light Brigade hewed its way past these deadly engines of war and routed the enemy's cavalry. Of the six hundred and seventy horsemen who made the charge, only one hundred and ninety-eight returned. As an act of war it was madness. In the opinion of the most competent judges there was no good end to be gained by it. But as an act of soldierly obedience it was sublime. The deed has been immortalized by the poet Tennyson in the following verses: I. Half a league, half a league, Half a league onward, All in the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. "Forward, the Light Brigade! Charge for the guns!" he said: Into the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. II. "Forward, the Light Brigade!" Was there a man dismay'd? Not tho' the soldier knew Some one had blunder'd: Theirs not to make reply, Theirs not to reason why, Theirs but to do and die: Into the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. III. Cannon to right of them, Cannon to left of them, Cannon in front of them Volley'd and thunder'd; Storm'd at with shot and shell Boldly they rode and well, Into the jaws of Death, Into the mouth of Hell Rode the six hundred. IV. Flash'd all their sabers bare, Flash'd as they turn'd in air Sabring the gunners there, Charging an army, while All the world wonder'd: Plunged in the battery-smoke, Right thro' the line they broke; Cossack and Russian Reel'd from the saber-stroke Shattered and sunder'd. Then they rode back, but not Not the six hundred. V. Cannon to right of them, Cannon to left of them, Cannon behind them Volley'd and thunder'd; Storm'd at with shot and shell, While horse and hero fell, They that had fought so well Came thro' the jaws of Death Back from the mouth of Hell, All that was left of them, Left of six hundred. VI. When can their glory fade? O the wild charge they made! All the world wonder'd. Honor the charge they made! Honor the Light Brigade, Noble six hundred! [Footnote: For the story of the Crimean War, consult "Encyclopedia Britannica", Vol. VIII., p. 366; also Vol. XVII., pp. 228 and 486.] IV. CANDOR. MEMORY GEMS. Truth lies at the bottom of the well.--Old Proverb Candor looks with equal fairness at both sides of a subject. --Noah Webster Daylight and truth meet us with clear dawn.--Milton Perfect openness is the only principle on which a free people can be governed.--C. B. Yonge There is no fear for any child who is frank with his father and mother.--Buskin Candor and frankness are so closely akin to each other that we may properly study them together. Each of these words has an interesting origin. "Candor" comes from a Latin word meaning "_to be white_"; while "frankness" is derived from the name of the Franks, who were a powerful German tribe honorably distinguished for their love of freedom and their scorn of a lie. A candid man is one who is disposed to think and judge according to truth and justice, and without partiality or prejudice; while the one word _frank_ is used to express anything that is generous, straightforward and free. Candor is a virtue which is everywhere commended, though not quite so prevalent in the world as might be expected. There are doctors who never tell a patient they can make nothing of his case, or that it is one which requires the attention of a specialist. There are lawyers who never assure a client that it is hopeless for him to expect to gain his suit. And so, in all trades and professions, candor is as rare as it is good. The lack of a simple and straightforward statement of such facts as are in our possession, often leads to serious misunderstanding and sometimes to serious loss. Frankness is a combination of truthfulness and courage. Its usefulness depends largely on its association with other qualities and circumstances; but to be frank is simply to dare to be truthful. There are many men who would scorn to tell a lie, who are destitute of frankness because they hesitate to face the consequences of perfect openness of speech or conduct. An Irishman, who had neglected to thatch his cottage, was one day asked by a gentleman with whom he was conversing, "Did it rain yesterday?" Instead of making a direct and candid reply, he sought to hide his fault, which he supposed had been discovered; and the conversation proceeded as follows. "Did it rain yesterday?" asked his friend. "Is it yesterday you mean?" was the reply. "Yes, yesterday." "Please your honor, I wasn't at the bog at all yesterday,--wasn't I after setting my potatoes?" "My good friend, I don't know what you mean about the bog; I only asked you whether it rained yesterday?" "Please your honor, I couldn't get a car and horse any way, to draw home my little straw, or I'd have the house thatched long ago." "Cannot you give me a plain answer to this plain question--Did it rain yesterday?" "Oh sure, I wouldn't go to tell your honor a lie about the matter. Sorrah much it rained yesterday after twelve o'clock, barring a few showers." Of course there will be no difficulty in seeing that such a conversation could not be entirely satisfactory to either party. The virtue we are now recommending is in daily and hourly demand, and of high and priceless value. But here also we must beware of counterfeits. A smooth outward manner, a countenance clothed with perpetual smiles, and an address distinguished by gentleness and insinuation, may be assumed for selfish ends. A truly candid man is neither carried away by ungenerous suspicion, nor by a weak acceptance of the views of others; and the whole constitution of his mind must be entirely changed before he can become capable of deceit. Frankness has often been counterfeited by mere _bluster_. A couple of striking examples of this fact are brought into view in the recently published "Life and Letters of Charles Darwin," in which, speaking of his childhood, Mr. Darwin says: "One little event has fixed itself very firmly in my mind, and I hope it has done so from my conscience having been afterward sorely troubled by it. It is curious as showing that apparently I was interested at this early age in the variability of plants! I told another little boy that I could produce variously colored primroses by watering them with certain colored fluids, which was of course a monstrous fable, and has never been tried by me. I may here also confess that as a little boy I was much given to inventing deliberate falsehoods, and this was always done for the sake of causing excitement. For instance, I once gathered much valuable fruit from my father's trees and hid it in the shrubbery, and then ran in breathless haste to spread the news that I had discovered a hoard of stolen fruit." Mr. Darwin also relates the following incident, as illustrating the lack of truthfulness and candor on the part of another: "I must have been a very simple fellow when I first went to school. A boy of the name of Garnett took me into a cake shop one day, and bought some cakes for which he did not pay, as the shopman trusted him. When we came out I asked him why he did not pay for them, and he instantly answered, 'Why, do you not know that my uncle left a great sum of money to the town on condition that every tradesman should give whatever was wanted without payment to any one who wore his old hat and moved it in a particular manner?' He then showed me how to move the hat, and said, 'Now, if you would like to go yourself into that cake shop, I will lend you my hat, and you can get whatever you like if you move the hat on your head properly.' I gladly accepted the generous offer, and went in and asked for some cakes, moved the old hat, and was walking out of the shop, when the shopman made a rush at me; so I dropped the cakes and ran for dear life, and was astonished by being greeted with shouts of laughter by my false friend Garnett." The same truth is illustrated in the case of an affected young lady who, on being asked, in a large company, if she had read Shakespeare, assumed a look of astonishment and replied: "Read Shakespeare! Of course I have! I read that when it first came out!" Frankness and candor will always win respect and friendship, and will always retain them; and the consciousness of having such a treasure, and of being worthy of it, is more than wealth and honors. A man quickly finds when he is unworthy of public respect or private friendship; and the leaden weight he carries ever in his heart, cannot be lightened by any success or any gratification he may secure. But the man of upright character, and proper self-respect, will never meet with such trials as can deprive him of that higher happiness which rests in his own breast. True candor is manly and leads directly to the development of nobility both of principle and conduct. The late Hon. William P. Fessenden once made a remark which was understood as an insult to Mr. Seward. When informed of it, and seeing such a meaning could be given to his words, he instantly went to Mr. Seward, and said, "Mr. Seward, I have insulted you: I am sorry for it. I did not mean it." This apology, so prompt, frank, and perfect, so delighted Mr. Seward, that, grasping him by the hand, he exclaimed, "God bless you, Fessenden! I wish you would insult me again!" Such an exhibition of real manliness as this may well be cited as worthy of the imitation of the youth of the land. DEAN STANLEY. In "Tom Brown's Schooldays," that charming book, so dear to all wide-awake boys, there is a scene in which little Arthur is introduced in the act of kneeling beside his bed, on his first night at school, for the purpose of saying his prayers according to the custom he had always observed at his home. We are not so much concerned with the fact that he was ridiculed and persecuted by the older boys, as with the further factthat this boy Arthur is said to bear a remarkable resemblance to Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, whose name is everywhere known as the late Dean of Westminster Abbey, the most famous church in England, if not of the world at large. Arthur Stanley was one of the first boys to go to Rugby after the great Dr. Arnold took charge of the school, and an early illustration of his candor and open-mindedness is shown in his immediate and public appreciation of the splendid qualities of his master, at a time when Dr. Arnold was so generally abused, and even branded as an infidel. Dr. Arnold was indeed a noble teacher, and the very man to develop the best faculties in young Arthur Stanley; for one of the doctor's own strongest traits was this same open-mindedness. The frankness and candor, the directness and fearlessness with which Stanley ever gave expression to his views; the purity and "whiteness" of his mind, and the sweetness and tenderness of his disposition,--all these had a part in the building of his fame. But it was chiefly in his power to free himself from prejudice and to look fairly at all sides of the complex questions with which both he and the church to which he belonged were so frequently brought face to face, that gave him his great popular influence, and made him so great a champion of religious liberty. Truth, simplicity and innocence are three jewels which many men barter for worldly honor and success; but Stanley held to these as with a grip of steel; and, through their influence, he succeeded where a score of the great men of his day had already failed. To tell of all that candor and frankness have done for humanity would be to trace the beginnings of the overthrow of almost every wrong. Other qualities are of course essential to all noble reformers--courage and faith and enthusiasm; but open-mindedness, which grows out of candor and frankness, is the one pioneer that recognizes the opportunity of the hour and is willing to walk in the new light. Candor is the sign of a noble mind. It is the pride of the true man, the charm of the noble woman, the defeat and mockery of the hypocrite, and the rarest virtue of society. [Footnote: An admirable sketch of the career of Dean Stanley will be found in Johnson's Universal Cyclopedia, Vol. VII., p. 697. See also "Life of Dean Stanley," by R. E. Prothero (London and New York, 1894).] V. AFFECTION. MEMORY GEMS. Gratitude is the music of the heart.--Robert South. The best way of recognizing a benefit is never to forget it. --J. J. Barthelmey The affection and the reason are both necessary factors in morality. --Fowler True love burns hottest when the weather is coldest.--Swinnock The mind has a thousand eyes, And the heart but one; Yet the light of a whole life dies When love is done.--F. W. Bourdillon One of the most powerful forces in the building of character is affection; and one of the most common forms of its manifestation is gratitude. The exercise of affection makes us tender and loving toward all living persons and creatures about us; while the exercise of gratitude usually results in making them tender and loving toward us. Every boy and girl should endeavor to cultivate this spirit of affectionate consideration for the feelings of others, and should be careful not to speak any word, or do any act, or even give any look which can cause unnecessary pain. And yet there are many young people, who have never been taught better, who take exceeding pleasure in causing annoyance and even suffering to all with whom they have to do. This is done with the simple idea of having a little fun; but it is one of the worst habits we can possibly form, and should be carefully avoided by all who would command the respect and esteem which every young person should desire to possess. Perhaps you have heard the story of the youth who, while walking out with his tutor, saw a pair of shoes that a poor laborer had left under a hedge while he was busied with his work. "What fun it would be," exclaimed the young man, "to hide these shoes, and then to conceal ourselves behind the hedge, and see the man's surprise and excitement when he cannot find them." "I will tell you what would be better sport," said the tutor; "put a piece of money into one of the shoes, and then hide and watch his surprise when he finds it." This the young man did; and the joy and wonder of the poor laborer when he found the money in his shoe was as good fun as he wanted. We all know what the feeling of gratitude is. We have said "Thank you," a great many times; and have often felt really grateful in our hearts for gifts and favors received. But we are too apt to forget that we have any one to thank for the most important benefits of our lives. When we stop to think, we see that all we have done or can do for ourselves is very little indeed in comparison with what has been done for us. How much we owe to our parents! What other creature in the world is so helpless as the human infant? Leave a little baby to take care of itself, and how long do you suppose it would live? How many of us would be alive to-day, if in our earliest years we had not been provided for and watched over with tender care? But the outward benefits for which children have to thank their parents are of less value than the lessons of truth and goodness which are never so well taught as by the lips of a faithful and devoted father and mother. To these lessons the greatest and best men generally look back with the deepest gratitude. A child's affection for his parents ought to make him tender toward them when age or disease has made them irritable or complaining. A love that only accepts, and never gives, is not worthy of the name. Sometimes we hear of old men and women who are left to die alone, whose children have deserted them, and who have no friends in the world. These cases seem pitiful enough, and it breaks our hearts to think of them. But usually the men and women who are left desolate in their old age are those who have been unloving in their youth. "A man that hath friends must show himself friendly," and an aged man or woman who has made friends through life, and been full of love and affection toward others, is tolerably sure to be tenderly cared for in later years. But true affection is never eager for returns. We love because we must love; never because we expect to be loved in return. We do for others because we wish to make them happy; and not because we wish them to do for us. Kindness and generosity have their place in the playground. There may be thoughtfulness for one who is weaker than the rest, or who is a newcomer, or who, for any reason, is neglected by others. There is an opportunity to stand up for those who are ill-used. There is a generous sympathy for those who, in any way, are having a hard time. In all these ways boys and girls, when they are at play, show pretty well what they are going to be in later life. When Napoleon was at a military school, the boys were one day playing at war. One set of them held a fort which the others were trying to capture. The boy, Napoleon, led the attacking party. In the midst of the fight there was a flourish of trumpets, and a party of officers entered, who had come to inspect the school. The boys that held the fort forgot their play, and stood staring at the entering group. Napoleon did not lose his head for a moment. He kept his party up to their work. He took advantage of the interruption, and when the besieged recovered their wits, their fort was captured. He was already the Napoleon who in the real battles of later years knew how to turn so many seemingly adverse circumstances to good account. We always think of Sir Walter Scott as a very affectionate man; but once when he was a boy he saw a dog coming toward him and carelessly threw a stone at him. The stone broke the dog's leg. The poor creature had strength to crawl up to him and lick his feet. This incident, he afterward said, had given him the bitterest remorse. He never forgot it. From that moment he resolved never to be unkind to any animal. We know that he kept that resolution, for he wrote many of his novels with his faithful dogs Maida, Nimrod, and Bran near him. When Maida died he had a sculptured monument of her set up before his door. We all know boys who throw stones at animals from pure thoughtlessness and love of fun. But no boy with a really affectionate nature can bear to make an animal or a human being suffer pain. A boy who begins by being cruel to animals usually ends by being cruel to women and children. A girl who habitually forgets to feed her kitten or her canary birds, will be apt to forget her child later in life. Half a century ago there lived in the state of Massachusetts a very remarkable man named Thoreau. This man became so deeply interested in the animal world that he built a little hut for himself near Walden pond, and he there lived in the closest sympathy with the birds and animals for more than two years. It is said that even the snakes loved him, and would wind round his legs; and on taking a squirrel from a tree the little creature would hide its head in his waistcoat. The fish in the river knew him and would let him lift them out of the water, and the little wood-mice came and nibbled at the cheese he held in his hand. It was Thoreau's love for the little wild creatures which drew them to him, for animals are as responsive to love as are human beings. John Howard gave his life to the work of improving the condition of prisons all over the world, and finally he died alone in Russia of jail fever. He was followed in his labors by Elizabeth Fry in England, and by Dorothea Dix in America. These noble philanthropists were filled with unselfish love toward suffering humanity. They devoted their lives to the neglected and forsaken, including the whole world in their generous hearts; and their names and deeds will never be forgotten. There are two principal ways in which our kindly feelings may be made known: First, _in our words_. It is pleasant to those who do us favors to know that we appreciate their kindness, and we should never fail to tell them so. This is often all the return that they expect or ask; besides, it is good for us. We strengthen our feelings by giving them suitable expression. Loveless at last is the home in which no word of love is ever heard. The grateful feeling to which one gives utterance kindles the same feeling in the hearts of those who hear. Second, _in our deeds_. If we are really grateful we are not satisfied with simply saying, "Thank you," to those who have been kind to us, even when we know this is all they expect. We wish to render them some service in return. In the case of our parents, as long as they are with us, we can best do this by doing cheerfully what they ask us to do, by thoughtfully anticipating their wishes, and by trying to be as pure and good as we know they want us to be. ABRAHAM LINCOLN. Abraham Lincoln was a poor boy. His early life was full of hardships; but many a kind friend helped him in his struggle against poverty. Among these friends of his early youth was one, Jack Armstrong, of New Salem, Illinois, whose kind, good-hearted wife performed for Lincoln many a motherly act of kindness. She made his clothes and "got him something to eat while he rocked the baby." Years passed by. Lincoln became a successful lawyer. Soon after he had entered upon the practice of his profession at Springfield, his old friend, Jack Armstrong died. The baby whom Lincoln had rocked grew into a stout but dissolute young man. He was arrested, charged with the crime of murder. "Aunt Hannah," as Lincoln used to call her, was heartbroken with sorrow for her poor, misguided boy. In her grief she appealed to the "noble, good Abe," who had rocked her son when he was a baby. The appeal brought tears to the eyes of Lincoln. His generous heart was touched. He resolved to discharge the debt of gratitude which neither his great success in life nor the intervening years had erased from his memory. He pledged his services without charge. "Aunt Hannah" believed that her boy was innocent and that others wished to fasten the crime upon him because of his bad reputation. The circumstances of the case were as follows: While Armstrong was in the company of several fast young men, they became intoxicated. A "free fight" ensued in which a young fellow named Metzgar was killed. After hearing the facts, Lincoln was convinced that the young man was not guilty, and resolved to do his best to save him from the gallows. Lincoln secured a postponement of the trial and spent much time in tracing the evidence. He labored as hard to pay his old debt of gratitude as he would have done if he had been offered a five thousand dollar fee. The day for the trial came. Lincoln threw his whole soul into the effort to defend the life of his client. He succeeded in proving his innocence beyond the shadow of a doubt. The closing of his plea was a marvel of eloquence. He depicted the loneliness and sorrow of the widowed mother, whose husband had once welcomed to his humble home a strange and penniless boy. "That boy now stands before you pleading for the life of his benefactor's son." When the jury brought in the verdict, "not guilty," a shout of joy went up from the crowded court room. The aged mother pressed forward through the throng and, with tears streaming from her eyes, attempted to express to Lincoln her gratitude for his noble effort. Some months afterward Lincoln called to see her at her home. She urged him to take pay for his services. "Why, Aunt Hannah," he exclaimed, "I shan't take a cent of yours; never! Anything I can do for you, I will do willingly, and without any charge." True gratitude never forgets. No one can possess too much gratitude any more than he can have too much honesty or truthfulness. It was a "pearl of great price" in Lincoln's heart. He was truer and nobler for it; and it did much to endear him to the American people, by whom he is still remembered as one of the most large-hearted and liberal-minded men our country has produced. [Footnote: See also biographies of Lincoln, by Holland (1865); Arnold (1868); Lamon (1872); Nicolay and Hay (1890); Schurz (1892); and Herndon (1892, revised edition).] VI. CHEERFULNESS. MEMORY GEMS. Cheerfulness is the best promoter of health.--Addison Give us, oh give us, the man who sings at his work.--Carlyle Age without cheerfulness is like a Lapland winter without the sun. --Colton An ounce of cheerfulness is worth a pound of sadness.--Fuller The habit of looking at the bright side of things is better than an income of a thousand a year.--Hume. We all love the company of cheerful people, but we do not think, as much as we ought to, of the nature of cheerfulness itself. Because we find that some people are naturally cheerful, we are apt to forget that cheerfulness is a habit which can be cultivated by all. Whether we do or do not possess a cheerful disposition, depends very largely upon our own efforts; for if we will endeavor, while still in our early years, to form the habit of looking on the bright side of things, and then persist in this course as we grow older, we shall certainly attain to that habitual cheerfulness which makes the lives of those we admire so sunny and so pleasing. Even the smallest matters may aid us in forming this habit. Perhaps you have heard of the little girl who noticed, while eating her dinner, that the golden rays of the sun fell upon her spoon. She put the spoon to her mouth, and then exclaimed, "O mother! I have swallowed a whole spoonful of sunshine." Some children even take a cheerful view of their punishments, as seen in the following incident. "Little Charley had been very naughty, and was imprisoned for an hour in the kitchen wood-box. He speedily began amusing himself with chips and splinters, and was playing quite busily and happily, when a neighbor entered the house by way of the kitchen. 'Charley,' he cried, 'what are you doing there?' 'Nothing,' said Charley, 'nothing; but mamma's just been having one of her bad spells.'" Cheerfulness consists in that happy frame of mind which is best described as the shutting out of all that pertains to the morbid, the gloomy, the fretful, and the discontented. The perfection of cheerfulness is displayed in general good temper united to much kindliness of heart. It arises partly from personal goodness, and partly from belief in the goodness of others. Its face is ever directed toward happiness. It sees "the glory in the grass, the sunshine on the flower." It encourages happy thoughts, and lives in an atmosphere of peace. It costs nothing, and yet is invaluable; for it blesses its possessor, and affords a large measure of enjoyment to others. Cheerfulness bears the same friendly regard to the mind as to the body. It banishes all anxious care and discontent, soothes and composes the passions, and keeps the soul in a perpetual calm. Try for a single day to keep yourself in an easy and cheerful frame of mind; and then compare the day with one which has been marred by discontent, and you will find your heart open to every good motive, and your life so greatly strengthened, that you will wonder at your own improvement, and will feel that you are more than repaid for the effort. Goethe once said, "Give me the man who bears a heavy load lightly, and looks on a grave matter with a blithe and cheerful eye." And Carlyle has pointed out that "One is scarcely sensible of fatigue whilst he marches to music. The very stars are said to make harmony as they revolve in their spheres. Wondrous is the strength of cheerfulness; altogether past calculation its power of endurance. Efforts, to be permanently useful, must be uniformly joyous--a spirit all sunshine, graceful from very gladness, beautiful because bright." This spirit of cheerfulness should be encouraged in our youth if we would wish to have the benefit of it in our old age. Persons who are always innocently cheerful and good-humored are very useful in the world; they maintain peace and happiness, and spread a thankful temper among all who live around them. "A little word in kindness spoken A motion or a tear, Has often healed a heart that's broken, And made a friend sincere." Cheerfulness does not depend upon the measure of our possessions. There is a Persian story to the effect that the great king, being out of spirits, consulted his astrologers, and was told that happiness could be found by wearing the shirt of a perfectly happy man. The court, and the homes of all the prosperous classes were searched in vain; no such man could be found. At last a common laborer was found to fulfill the conditions; he was absolutely happy; but, alas! the remedy was as far off as ever, for the man had no shirt. The same truth may be illustrated by a reference to the life and character of the Roman emperor, Nero. Few persons ever had greater means and opportunities for self-gratification. From the senator to the slave, everybody in the empire crouched in servile subjection before his throne. Enormous revenues from the provinces were poured into his coffers, and no one dared criticise his manner of spending them. He was absolute monarch, holding the destinies of millions at his will. He came to the throne at seventeen; and during the fifteen years of his reign he exhausted every known means of passionate indulgence. He left nothing untried or untouched that could stimulate the palate, or arouse his passions, or administer in any way to his pleasure. After the great fire in Rome, he built his golden palace, and said, "Now at last I am lodged like a man"; but alas! his search for happiness was in vain. During his later years he never knew a really cheerful day; and, at last, he was forced to flee before his outraged people, and took refuge in a miserable hut, trembling like a base coward, where, at his own request, a slave did him the favor to end his miserable life. In one of his famous essays, Addison says, "I have always preferred cheerfulness to mirth. The latter I consider as an act, the former as a habit of the mind. Mirth is like a flash of lightning that breaks through a gloom of clouds, and glitters for a moment; cheerfulness keeps up a kind of daylight in the mind, and fills it with a steady and perpetual serenity." Cheerfulness and good spirits depend in a great degree upon bodily causes; but much may be done for the promotion of this frame of mind. "Persons subject to low spirits should make the room in which they live as cheerful as possible; hanging up pictures or prints, and filling the odd nooks and corners with beautiful ornaments. A bay window looking upon pleasant objects, and, above all, a large fire whenever the weather will permit, are favorable to good spirits, and the tables near should be strewed with books and pamphlets." "To this," says Sydney Smith, "must be added as much eating and drinking as is consistent with health; and some manual employment for men--as gardening, a carpenter's shop, or a turning-lathe. Women have always manual employment enough, and it is a great source of cheerfulness." For children, fresh air, occupation, and outdoor sports are great helps in overcoming depression and gloom. SYDNEY SMITH. There are a few noble natures whose very presence carries sunshine with them wherever they go; a sunshine which means pity for the poor, sympathy for the suffering, help for the unfortunate, and kindness toward all. It is the sunshine, and not the cloud, that colors the flower. There is more virtue in one sunbeam than in a whole hemisphere of cloud and gloom. A man of this stamp is found in Sydney Smith, an English clergyman and writer of great distinction, who was born in 1771, and died in 1845. His was a sunny temperament. Noted for his wit, he was equally famous for his kindness. He hated injustice; he praised virtue; he pierced humbugs; he laughed away trouble; he preached and lived the gospel of Christian cheerfulness. Smith helped to found the _Edinburgh Review_, and he advocated putting on the title-page this truthful, too truthful, sentence: "We cultivate literature on a little oatmeal." Poor but happy, this jest is characteristic of the man. His name became known: his society was sought. Macaulay and he were called "the great talkers." He moved to London, and gave lectures on moral philosophy that drew crowds, so that the carriages of fashion blocked the streets. He was the charm of every circle. His pen was always on the side of progress and good fellowship. At every turn in life he made light of vexations, and never allowed himself or those with him to indulge in morbid ideas, imaginative forebodings, or resentment. This is what he wrote to his daughter: "I am not situated as I should choose; but I am resolved to like it, and to reconcile myself to it; which is more manly than to feign myself above it and send up complaints of being thrown away." One of his favorite expressions was, "Let us glorify the room"; which meant, throw up the shades and let in the sunshine. The following anecdote will help to show his bright and sparkling disposition: At dinner with a large party of famous men and women, a French scientist annoyed all the rest by loudly arguing for atheism, and proclaimed his belief that there is no God. "Very good soup this," struck in Sydney Smith. "Yes, monsieur, it is excellent," replied the atheist. "Pray, sir," continued Smith, "do you believe in a cook?" The ounce of wit was worth a pound of argument. He is one of the very few men whose names have been handed down to us by reason of the possession of this gift, and his career should be more fully studied. [Footnote: See "Wit and Wisdom of Sydney Smith," by Duyckinck (1856); "Memoirs of Sydney Smith" by his daughter, Lady Holland (1855); "Life and Times of Sydney Smith," by Stuart J. Reid (London, 1844).] VII. THE LOVE OF THE BEAUTIFUL. MEMORY GEMS. The beautiful can never die.--Kingsley A thing of beauty is a joy forever.--Keats The love of beauty is an essential part of all healthy human nature. --Ruskin The sense of beauty is its own excuse for being.--Dr. Hedge If eyes were made for seeing, Then beauty is its own excuse for being.--Emerson One of the principal objects of the large amount of "nature study" that, within recent years, has been pursued in our public schools, is to develop in the pupils the love of the beautiful. The beautiful in nature and art is that which gives pleasure to the senses. The question might be asked, "Why do some forms and colors please, and others displease?" Yankee fashion, it might be answered by the question, "Why do we like sugar and dislike wormwood?" It is also a fact that cultivated minds derive more pleasure from nature and art than uncultivated minds. This fact is aptly illustrated by the following remark of a little girl in one of the lower grades of our public schools. Shortly after she had taken up the study of plants and minerals she came to her teacher and said, "Oh! we have a lovely time now when we go up to the reservoir to play. Before we studied about plants and stones, we used to go up there and sit down and look around; but now we find so many beautiful things to look at. We know the plants and stones; and what pleasure it does give us to find a new specimen!" This child's love of the beautiful was being intelligently developed. Natural beauty is an all-pervading presence. It unfolds into the numberless flowers of spring. It waves in the branches of the trees and the green blades of grass. It haunts the depths of the earth and the sea, and gleams from the hues of the shell and the precious stone. And not only these minute objects, but the ocean, the mountains, the clouds, the heavens, the stars, the rising and setting sun--all overflow with beauty. The universe is its temple; and those men who are alive to it cannot lift their eyes without feeling themselves encompassed with it on every side. This beauty is so precious, the enjoyments it gives are so refined and pure, so congenial to our tenderest and noblest feelings, and so akin to worship, that it is painful to think of the multitude of persons living in the midst of it and yet remaining almost as blind to it as if they were tenants of a dungeon. All persons should seek to become sufficiently acquainted with the beautiful in nature to secure to themselves the rich fund of happiness which it is so well able to give. There is not a worm we tread upon, nor a rare leaf that dances merrily as it falls before the autumn winds, but has superior claims upon our study and admiration. The child who plucks a rose to pieces, or crushes the fragile form of a fluttering insect, destroys a work which the highest art could not create, nor man's best skilled hand construct. One of the first forms in which man's idea of the beautiful shaped itself was in architecture. Extremely crude at first, this love for beautiful buildings has been highly developed among civilized nations. Ruskin says, "All good architecture is the expression of national life and character, and is produced by a permanent and eager desire or taste for beauty." A taste for pictures, merely, is not in itself a moral quality; but the taste for _good_ pictures is. A beautiful painting by one of the great artists, a Grecian statue, or a rare coin, or magnificent building, is a good and perfect thing; for it gives constant delight to the beholder. The absence of the love of nature is not an assured ground of condemnation. Its presence is an invariable sign of goodness of heart, though by no means an evidence of moral practice. In proportion to the degree in which it is felt, will probably be the degree in which nobleness and beauty of character will be attained. One of our great artists has said, that good taste is essentially a moral quality. To his mind, the first, last, and closest trial question to any living creature is, What do you like? Tell me what you like, and I will tell you what you are. Let us examine this argument. Suppose you go out into the street and ask the first person you meet what he likes? You happen to accost a man in rags with an unsteady step, who, straightening himself up in a half uncertain way, answers, "A pipe and a quart of beer." You can take a pretty good measure of his character from that answer, can you not? But here comes a little girl, with golden hair and soft, blue eyes. "What do you like, my little girl?" "My canary, and to run among the flowers," is her answer. And you, little boy, with dirty hands and low forehead, "What do you like?" "A chance to hit the sparrows with a stone." When we have secured so much knowledge of their tastes, we really know the character of these persons so well that we do not need to ask any further questions about them. The man who likes what you like must belong to the same class with you. You may give him a different form of work to do, but as long as he likes the things that you like, and dislikes that which you dislike, he will not be content while employed in an inferior position. Hearing a young lady highly praised for her beauty, Gotthold asked, "What kind of beauty do you mean? Merely that of the body, or that also of the mind? I see well that you have been looking no further than the sign which Nature displays outside the house, but have never asked for the host who dwells within. Beauty is an excellent gift of God, but many a pretty girl is like the flower called 'the imperial crown,' which is admired for its showy appearance, and despised for its unpleasant odor. Were her mind as free from pride, selfishness, luxury, and levity, as her countenance is from spots and wrinkles, and could she govern her inward inclinations as she does her external carriage, she would have none to match her." The power to appreciate beauty does not merely increase our sources of happiness,--it enlarges our moral nature too. Beauty calms our restlessness and dispels our cares. Go into the fields or the woods, spend a summer day by the sea or the mountains, and all your little perplexities and anxieties vanish. Listen to sweet music, and your foolish fears and petty jealousies pass away. The beauty of the world helps us to seek and find the beauty of goodness. The love of the beautiful is an unfailing source of happiness. In his brief life, Regnault, the great painter, had more genuine enjoyment than a score of men of duller perceptions. He had cultivated his sense of color and proportion until nothing beautiful escaped his eye. If we are to enjoy the beauty about us, there is need of similar _preparation_. What we get out of communion with the beauty of nature or art, depends largely on what we bring to that communion. We must make ourselves sensitive to beauty, or else the charms of form and color and graceful motion and sweet music will be unheeded or unappreciated. It is also true, as Lowell said: "Thou seest no beauty save thou make it first; Man, woman, nature, each is but a glass In which man sees the image of himself." ALFRED TENNYSON. Alfred Tennyson, England's greatest modern poet, was a devoted lover of the beautiful from the very beginning of his career. The earliest verses he composed, which were written upon his slate when but a child of seven or eight years of age, had for their subject, "The Flowers in the Garden." As a dreamy boy, he loved to throw himself upon the grass and listen to the bird voices in the adjoining thicket, or to the lowing of the cattle as they stood knee-deep in the glittering waters of the river shallows which lay about his home. How close an observer he became, even as a lad, is clearly shown in these lines, written as he lay under a tree, listening to the music of the birds: "The creeping mosses and clambering weeds, And the willow branches hoar and dank, And the wavy swell of the soughing reeds, And the wave-worn horns of the echoing bank, And the silvery marish flowers that throng The desolate creeks and pools among, Were flooded over with eddying song." He became so thoroughly acquainted with the various orders of vegetation with which his native land is clothed, and which mark the progress of the growth and development of plant and flower, that there is scarcely a false note in his music from first to last. His pictures of animal life are drawn in vivid master strokes, and are as notable for their correctness as for their grace. While we cannot speak of him as an astronomer, yet no one can read his verses without admitting that he was a close observer of the starry heavens. We could not rightly give him an equal place with Shelley as a painter of cloud-scenery, yet we know how he loved to lie on his back on the Down of Farringford and watch for hours the swiftly-moving and rapidly-changing panorama of the midday heavens. It was his chiefest joy to dream away his peaceful days among the trees and brooks and flowers. He sometimes spent weeks at a time in the open air wandering for miles in meditative silence along the banks of some sparkling stream, or over the sand and shingle that form the dividing line between the land and sea. His pictures are photographic in their fidelity, and yet, in them all, the outbursting life and movement of nature is carefully preserved. They cover the widest possible field; dealing with the cloud and sunshine, the storm wind and the zephyr, the roaring of the ocean surge and the murmuring of the running brook, the crashing of the thunder peal and the whisper of the pine-trees. The fields and the hedgerows, the flowers and the grasses, the darkness and the dawn; all are exhibited under every possible shade of variation. His studies of the beautiful are as broad and true to life as any that have ever been written. So sensitive was his soul to these outward impressions of beauty that even those acquired in childhood never entirely passed out of his mind. [Footnote: On Tennyson, see Dixon's "Tennyson Primer" (New York, 1896); Van Dyke's "Poetry of Tennyson" (New York, 1894); Tainsh's "A Study of Tennyson" (New York, 1893), and Tennyson's Poems.] VIII. THE LOYE OF KNOWLEDGE. MEMORY GEMS. Knowledge is the eye of the soul.--T. Watson Common sense is knowledge of common things.--M. C. Peters It is noble to seek truth, and it is beautiful to find it. --Sydney Smith It has cost many a man life or fortune for not knowing what he thought he was sure of.--J. Staples White The desire of knowledge, like the thirst of riches, increases ever with the acquisition of it.--Sterne It has been well said that "Nothing is so costly as ignorance. You sow the wrong seed, you plant the wrong field, you build with the wrong timber, you buy the wrong ticket, you take the wrong train, you settle in the wrong locality, or you take the wrong medicine--and no money can make good your mistake." The knowledge attained by any man appears to be a poor thing to boast of, since there is no condition or situation in which he may be placed without feeling or perceiving that there is something or other which he knows little or nothing about. A man can scarcely open his eyes or turn his head without being able to convince himself of this truth. And yet, without a fair working knowledge of the ordinary affairs of life, every man is, in some respects, as helpless as a child. Indeed there is no kind of knowledge which, in the hands of the diligent and skillful, may not be turned to good account. Honey exudes from all flowers, the bitter not excepted, but the bee knows how to extract it, and, by this knowledge, succeeds in providing for all its needs. Learning is like a river. At its first rising the river is small and easily viewed, but as it flows onward it increases in breadth and depth, being fed by a thousand smaller streams flowing into it on either side, until at length it pours its mighty torrent into the ocean. So learning, which seems so small to us at the beginning, is ever increasing in its range and scope, until even the greatest minds are unable to comprehend it as a whole. Sir Isaac Newton felt this when, after his sublime discoveries in science had been accomplished, he said, "I do not know what I may appear to the world; but to myself I seem only like a boy playing upon the seashore, and diverting myself by now and then finding a choice pebble, or a prettier shell than ordinary; while the great ocean of truth lies all undiscovered before me." Strabo was entitled to be called a profound geographer eighteen hundred years ago, but a geographer who had never heard of America would now be laughed at by boys and girls of ten years of age. What would now be thought of the greatest chemist or geologist of 1776? The truth is that, in every science, mankind is constantly advancing. Every generation has its front and its rear rank; but the rear rank of the later generation stands upon the ground which was occupied by the front rank of its predecessor. It is important that our knowledge should be as full and complete as we can make it. Partial knowledge nearly always leads us into error. A traveler, as he passed through a large and thick wood, saw a part of a huge oak which appeared misshapen, and almost seemed to spoil the scenery. "If," said he, "I was the owner of this forest, I would cut down that tree." But when he had ascended the hill, and taken a full view of the forest, this same tree appeared the most beautiful part of the landscape. "How erroneously," said he, "I have judged while I saw only a part!" The full view, the harmony and proportion of things, are all necessary to clear up our judgment. Walter A. Wood, whose keen business ability made him a wealthy man, and sent him to congress as a representative from the great state of New York, is reported to have said, "I would give fifty thousand dollars for a college education." When he came to measure his ability with that of men who had had greater opportunities in an educational line, he realized his loss. Chauncey M. Depew is also reported as having said, "I never saw a self-made man in my life who did not firmly believe that he had been handicapped, no matter how great his success, by deficiency in education, and who was not determined to give his children the advantages of which he felt, not only in business, but in intercourse with his fellow-men, so great a need." There is a difference between knowledge and wisdom and understanding; but without the first the rest cannot be gained, any more than you can have a harvest of wheat without seed and skill of cultivation. Understanding is the right use of facts; facts make knowledge; knowledge is the root of wisdom. Many men know a great deal, but are not wise or capable; many others know less, but are able to use what they have learned. Wisdom is the ripe fruit of knowledge; knowledge is the beginning of character. The love of knowledge has been characteristic of most great men. They not only loved knowledge but they were willing to work hard to attain it. As examples of this: Gibbon was in his study every morning, winter and summer, at six o'clock. Milton is said to have stuck to the study of his books with the regularity of a paid bookkeeper. Raphael, the great artist, lived only to the age of thirty-seven, yet so diligent was his pursuit of knowledge, that he carried his art to such a degree of perfection that it became the model for his successors. When a man like one of these wins success, people say "he is a genius." But the real reason for success, was, as you may see, that the love of knowledge led to the effort to obtain it. Useful knowledge is the knowledge of what is of benefit to ourselves and to others; and that is the most important which is the most useful. It is the belief of those who have spent their lives in the search for it, that knowledge is better than riches, and that its possession brings more comfort to the owner. To be acquainted with the great deeds enacted in past ages; to find out how some nations have grown powerful while others have fallen; or to learn something about the great mysteries of nature, brings with it to the diligent searcher many hours of pleasure. Also the experience of man teaches that the exercise of the mind brings great satisfaction. Even in seemingly little things the same holds true. There is a fountain in London that is opened by a concealed spring. One day the Bishop of London wanted to drink, but no one could tell him how to open it. At last a little dirty bootblack stepped up and touched the spring and the water gushed out. He knew more than the bishop about that one thing, and so was able to render the great man a real service. The power of intellectual knowledge, without the power of moral principle, can only tend to evil. It has been said that education would empty our jails; but the greatest criminals, whether of scientific poisoning, or of fraud and forgery, are well educated. It has been asserted lately that "there is a race between scientific detection and prevention, on the one hand, and scientific roguery on the other." Character is the criterion of knowledge. Not what a man has, but what he is, is the question, after all. The quality of soul is more than the quantity of information. Personal, spiritual substance is the final result. Have that, and your intellectual furnishings and attainments will turn naturally to the loftiest uses. Add obedience to knowledge, and your education will be worth all that it has cost. ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT. We may further illustrate this topic by a brief glance at the life of Alexander Von Humboldt. His brother, Wilhelm, acquired a distinguished name; but the greater renown fell to the younger, who was born at Berlin, Germany, September 14, 1769,--his full name being Friedrich Heinrich Alexander Von Humboldt. In circumstances of life, his lot was easy; his father had the means to educate him well. No very striking outward event occurred in his youth. Tutors prepared him for college; his own aim was not at once seized. "Until I reached the age of sixteen," he says, "I showed little inclination for scientific pursuits. I was of a restless disposition, and wished to be a soldier." But another current was flowing in his mind. "From my earliest youth I had an intense desire to travel in those distant lands which have been but rarely visited by Europeans." And again he says: "The study of maps and the perusal of books of travel exercised a secret fascination over me." These early tastes blended at last with a serious purpose, and became "the incentive to scientific labor, or to undertakings of vast import." To show that Humboldt was not a mere fact-gatherer, we select one incident out of many in his early life. When about twenty-one years of age, he made an extended journey with George Forster over the continent. Forster wrote the following after they had visited the cathedral at Cologne. After describing the glories of the structure he adds: "My attention was arrested by a yet more engrossing object: before me stood a man of lively imagination and refined taste, riveted with admiration to the spot. Oh, it was glorious to see, in his rapt contemplation, the grandeur of the temple repeated as it were by reflection!" In this scene we behold the actual process of knowledge being changed into true learning and ideas; it was always so with Humboldt in his long and varied career. Humboldt studied hard, held official positions, and matured. His mother died in 1796. To her this son owed much, for the father had died when Alexander was only ten years old, and she watched his education with fidelity. She saw the bent of the "little apothecary,"--as Alexander was called because of his passion for collecting and labeling shells, plants, and insects,--and guided it. Her death set Humboldt free to go afar in travels. In June, 1799, he started on a five years' absence, in which time he climbed Teneriffe and the Cordilleras, explored the Orinoco, visited the United States, and gathered a mass of knowledge which afterward won him lasting fame. Often he was in peril, often baffled, often put to dreary discomforts by savage tribes; but through all ran his unconquerable purpose. In his scientific work he often took great risks in order to ascertain facts, as all earnest investigators do. In testing a new lamp for miners, he crept into a "crosscut" of the mine, lamp in hand, and continued there so long and persistently that two men rushed in and drew him out by the feet, the gases having overcome him. We have not space to give details of his splendid career. Humboldt shone with greater light from year to year. Honors were lavished upon him. His works aided science, his life was a constant inspiration. He lived to be ninety years old, dying in 1859,--possessing to the last, a strong memory, and a tireless love of research. [Footnote: On Humboldt, consult Haym's "Biography of Humboldt" (London, 1856); Bruhn's "Biography of Humboldt" (Leipsic, 1872, translated by the Misses Lassell); Klenke's "Alexander Von Humboldt" (1859); "Humboldt's Correspondence with Goethe" (London, 1876).] IX. THE FIRST TRANSITION PERIOD. MEMORY GEMS. The child is father of the man.--Wordsworth Whatever is worth doing at all, is worth doing well.--Chesterfield No one can cheat you out of ultimate success but yourself.--Emerson A man cannot live a broad life if he runs only in one groove. --J. Staples White 'Tis education forms the common mind, Just as the twig is bent the tree's inclined.--Pope As the child grows into the youth the utmost care should be exercised, both by himself and by his friends, to prevent the dwarfing of his prospects by evil influences arising either from within or from without himself. The youthful period of man's life is by far the most important. No subsequent training can entirely obliterate the results of early impressions. They may be greatly modified; the character may be changed; but some, and indeed many, of the impressions of youth will cling to the mind forever. It is in this period that the mind forms the ideas which will govern the will throughout the whole career. Then is the twig bent to the direction in which the tree will grow. The faintest whisperings of counsel are eagerly caught, and the slightest direction instantaneously followed. Then is the seed sown which will bring forth fruit in harvest time. Bishop Vincent, writing about boyhood, says, "If I were a boy? Ah, if I only were! The very thought of it sets my imagination afire. That 'if' is a key to dreamland. First I would want a thorough discipline, early begun and never relaxed, on the great truth of will force as the secret of character. I would want my teacher to put the weight of responsibility upon me; to make me think that I must furnish the materials and do the work of building my own character; to make me think that I am not a stick, or a stone, or a lump of putty, but a person. That what I am in the long run, is what I am to make myself." Boys and girls should early form a taste for good reading. In the choice of books, as in the choice of friends, there is but one rule,--choose the best. A witty gentleman, having received an invitation from a wealthy but not very refined lady, on arriving was ushered into her library, where she was seated surrounded by richly-bound books. "You see, Mr. X.," she said, "I never need to be lonely, for here I sit surrounded by my best friends." Without replying, the gentleman approached a shelf and took down a volume which he perceived to be uncut, and smilingly observed, "I am happy to find, madam, that unlike the majority of people, you do not cut your friends." Macaulay says, "I would rather be a poor man in a garret with plenty of good books to read, than a king who did not love reading." A boy ten years of age was seen to enter Westminster Abbey shortly before evening prayers. Going straight up the main aisle he stopped at the tomb of Charles Dickens. Then, looking to see that he was not observed, he kneeled before the tombstone, and tenderly placed upon it a bunch of violets. The little fellow hovered affectionately round the spot for a few moments and went away with a happy, contented smile upon his face. Curiosity led a gentleman present to examine the child's offering, and this is what he found written in half-formed letters on an envelope attached to the violets:-- "For it is good to be children sometimes, and never better than at Christmas, when its mighty Founder was a child himself.--Christmas Carol." The young person that loves books as this little fellow did, will have friends that will unconsciously transform him into a great, noble-hearted man. It is the thoughts of the boy that shape the future man. Garfleld, when asked as a boy, what he was going to do when he grew up, would answer, "First of all I am going to try to be a man. If I become that I shall be fit for anything." To make the most of one's youth is to qualify one's self to become a real man. Some men, it is true, have been seemingly created by circumstances, and have figured prominently in the world's history. But, as a general rule, the child makes the man; and the foundation of all greatness and usefulness is laid by the impressions of youth. "Alexander the Great would not have been the conqueror of the world had his father not been Philip of Macedon. Hannibal would not have been the scourge of the Romans if Hamilcar had not sworn him to eternal vengeance against his enemies. Napoleon Bonaparte would not have deluged Europe with blood, if he had not been inspired by the genius of war from the pages of Homer." And in our own days, those men whose early impressions were the most favorable have been the most successful, both in their own lives, and in their influence upon the world at large. But it will not be enough to keep children during the season of youth from the reach of improper associates and influences. The seed of right principles must be diligently sown in their minds. Lessons of purity and conscientiousness must be written deep on the tables of the heart. Parental restraint is outward and visible, but the guiding principles of life are inward and invisible. The day will come when the youth must quit the parental roof, and perhaps entirely bid adieu to the influences of home. If he be then destitute of right principles, if his mind be like a ship without a rudder, he will stand in imminent danger of being swept away by the waves of corruption. Care should be taken to keep good company or none. No sensible person will willingly keep bad horses or bad dogs. Should he be less particular in selecting his companions? And yet, at this very point, some of life's most cruel blunders are made. A story is told of two parrots which lived near to each other. The one was accustomed to sing songs, while the other was addicted to swearing. The owner of the latter obtained permission for it to associate with the former, in the hope that its bad habits would be corrected; but the opposite result followed, for both learned to swear alike. This aptly illustrates the usual effect of bad company, and no young man, however strong he may imagine himself to be, can afford to be careless in this matter. In the forming of your friendships, be less anxious about social standing, and more particular about character. Remember that President Garfield used to say that he never passed a ragged boy in the street without feeling that one day he might owe him a salute, No one knows what possibilities of goodness and greatness are buttoned up under a boy's coat. On the tomb of Schubert, the great musician, is written, "He gave much, but promised more"; and it is this immeasurable wealth of promise that makes the lives of our boys and girls so full of beauty and of power. X. INDUSTRY. MEMORY GEMS. Genius is nothing but labor and diligence.--Hogarth. Know something of everything and everything of something. --Lord Brougham The difference between one boy and another lies not so much in talent as in energy.--Dr. Arnold Work wields the weapons of power, wins the palm of success, and wears the crown of victory.--A. T. Pierson. A lazy man is of no more use than a dead man, and he takes up more room.--O. S. Harden. By industry we mean activity that is regular and devoted to the carrying out of some purpose. More definitely, it is activity that is designed to be useful to ourselves or to others. It is thus a _regulated activity_ by which our welfare, or that of others, may be furthered. We are apt to think, or at least to feel, that the necessity of working regularly is a hardship. Because we get tired with our work and look forward with eagerness to the time of rest, we form the opinion that the pleasantest life would be one which should be all rest. Industry might well be urged as a duty. But we would rather now speak of it chiefly as an aid in accomplishing other duties. Few things are more helpful toward right living than industry, and few more conducive to wrong living than idleness. No doubt there are on this subject opposing opinions. Some believe, whether they openly confess it or not, that the glory of the highest success is not within the reach of every honest toiler; that it is, like other legacies, the good fortune to which some are heirs, but which others are denied--the inheritance only of those whom nature has well endowed. These are the advocates of genius. The reader of "Ivanhoe"--that finest romance of Sir Walter Scott--pronounces its author a genius. The fact is, that book is a conspicuous illustration of industry--patient, persevering toil. It has been pointed out that, "for years Scott had made himself familiar with the era of chivalry; plodded over, in imagination, the weary march of the Crusaders; studied the characteristics and contradictions of the Jewish character; searched carefully into the records of the times in which the scenes of his story were laid; and even examined diligently into the strange process whereby the Norman-French and the Anglo-Saxon elements were wrought into a common tongue." Labor is indeed the price set upon everything which is valuable. Nothing can be accomplished without it. The greatest of men have risen to distinction by unwearied industry and patient application. They may have had inborn genius; their natures may have been quick and active; but they could not avoid the necessity of persevering labor. Labor is the great schoolmaster of the race. It is the grand drill in life's army, without which we are confused and powerless when called into action. What a teacher industry is! It teaches patience, perseverance, forbearance, and application. It teaches method and system, by compelling us to crowd the most possible into every day and hour. Industry is a perpetual call upon the judgment and the power of quick decision; it makes ready and practical men. Industry is essential for that usefulness by which each man may fill his place in the world. The lazy, like the wicked, may be made useful. The Spartans used to send a drunken slave through the city that the sight of his folly and degradation might disgust young men with intemperance. He was made useful; he did not make himself useful. From this it will be seen that the necessity of labor is something at which we should rather rejoice than complain, and that habits of industry are the great helpers to virtue, happiness, and usefulness. Industry is now as important to the woman as to the man. Some years ago, in an art store in Boston, a group of girls stood together gazing intently upon a famous piece of statuary. The silence was broken by the remark, "Just to think that a woman did it." "It makes me proud," said another. The famous statue was that of Zenobia, the product of Harriet Hosmer, whose love of knowledge and devotion to art, gave the world a masterpiece. Work is difficult in proportion as the end to be attained is high and noble. The highest price is placed upon the greatest worth. If a man would reach the highest success he must pay the price. He must be self-made, or never made. Our greatest men have not been men of luck and broadcloth, nor of legacy and laziness, but men accustomed to hardship; not afraid of threadbare clothes and honest poverty; men who fought their way to their own loaf. Sir Joshua Reynolds had the passion for work of the true artist. Until he laid aside his pencil from illness, at the age of sixty-six, he was constantly in his painting-room from ten till four, daily, "laboring" as he himself said, "as hard as a mechanic working for his bread." Laziness is said to be one of the greatest dangers that besets the youth of this country. Some young men shirk everything that requires effort or labor. Few people entertain the idea that they are of no use in the world; or that they are ruining themselves by their laziness. Yet lazy persons lose the power of enjoyment. Their lives are all holiday, and they have no interval of leisure for relaxation. The lie-a-beds have never done anything in the world. Events sweep past and leave them slumbering and helpless. Industry is one of the best antidotes to crime. As the old proverb has it, "An idle brain is the devil's workshop," for by doing nothing we learn to do ill. The man who does not work, and thinks himself above it, is to be pitied as well as condemned. Nothing can be worse than active ignorance and indulged luxury. Self-indulgence saps the foundation of morals, destroys the vigor of manhood, and breeds evils that nothing but death can blot out. No one is very anxious about a young man while he is busy in useful work. But where does he eat his lunch at noon? Where does he go when he leaves his boarding-house at night? What does he do after supper? Where does he spend his Sundays and holidays? The way he uses his spare moments reveals his character. The great majority of youth who go to the bad are ruined after supper. Most of those who climb upward to honor and fame devote their evenings to study or work, or to the society of the wise and good. The right use of these leisure hours, we would cordially recommend to every youth. Each evening is a crisis in the career of a young man. Rome was a mighty nation while industry led her people, but when her great conquest of wealth and slaves placed her citizens above the necessity of labor, that moment her glory began to fade; vice and corruption induced by idleness, doomed the proud city to an ignominious overthrow. There can be no doubt that industry has been the backbone of the English character. By it her people have made their island respected all over the habitable globe. By industry our own land has come to be recognized as the workshop of the world. It is a rule in the imperial family of Germany that every young man shall learn a trade, going through a regular apprenticeship till he is able to do good journeywork. This is required because, in the event of unforeseen changes, it is deemed necessary to a manly independence that the heir apparent, or a prince of the blood, should be conscious of ability of making his own way in the world. This is an honorable custom, worthy of universal imitation. The Jews also wisely held the maxim that every youth, whatever his position in life, should learn some trade. Franklin says, "He that hath a trade hath an estate." Work, however looked down upon by people who cannot perform it, is an honorable thing; it may not be very profitable, but honorable it always is, and there is nothing to be ashamed of about it. The man who has reason to be ashamed is the one who does nothing, or is always on the lookout for an easy berth with good pay and no work. Let the young man whose conceit greatly exceeds his brains, be ashamed of his cane and kid gloves; but never let a man who works be ashamed of his hard hands. There is an old proverb which says, "Mere gentility sent to market, won't buy a peck of oats." A keen but well deserved rebuke was once administered to a Southern student at Andover who had bought some wood, and who then went to Professor Stuart to learn whom he could get to saw it. "I am out of a job of that kind," said Mr. Stuart; "I will saw it myself." It is to be hoped that the young man learned the lesson which his teacher thus sought to impress upon his mind. CORNELIUS VANDERBILT. "What is the secret of success in business?" asked a friend of Cornelius Vanderbilt. "Secret! there is no secret about it," replied the commodore; "all you have to do is to attend to your business and go ahead." If you would adopt Vanderbilt's method, know your business, attend to it, and keep down expenses until your fortune is safe from business perils. Note the following incidents in his career: In the year 1806, when about twelve years of age, Cornelius was sent by his father, who was removing the cargo from a vessel stranded near Sandy Hook, with three wagons, six horses, and three men, to carry the cargo across a sandbar to the lighters. When the work was finished, he started, with but a few dollars in his pocket, to travel a long distance home over the Jersey sands, and at length reached South Amboy. He was anxious to get his teams ferried over to Staten Island, and as the money at his disposal was not sufficient for the purpose, he went to an innkeeper, explained the situation and said, "If you will put us across, I'll leave with you one of my horses in pawn, and if I don't send you back six dollars within forty-eight hours you may keep the horse." "I'll do it," said the innkeeper, as he looked into the bright honest eyes of the boy. The horse was soon redeemed. In the spring of 1810, he applied to his mother for a loan of one hundred dollars with which to buy a boat, having imbibed a strong liking for the sea. Her answer was, "My son, on the twenty-seventh of this month you will be sixteen years old. If, by that time, you will plow, harrow, and plant with corn the eight acre lot, I will advance you the money." The field was rough and stony, but the work was done in time, and well done. From this small beginning Cornelius Vanderbilt laid the foundation of a colossal fortune. He would often work all night; and, as he was never absent from his post by day, he soon had the best business in New York harbor. In 1813, when it was expected that New York would be attacked by British ships, all the boatmen, except Cornelius, put in bids to convey provisions to the military posts around New York, naming extremely low rates, as the contractor would be exempted from military duty. "Why don't you send in a bid?" asked his father. "Of what use?" replied young Vanderbilt; "they are offering to do the work at half price. It can't be done at such rates." "Well," said his father, "it can do no harm to try for it." So, to please his father, but with no hope of success, Cornelius made an offer fair to both sides, but did not go to hear the award. When his companions had all returned with long faces, he went to the commissary's office and asked if the contract had been given. "Oh, yes," was the reply; "that business is settled. Cornelius Vanderbilt is the man. What?" he asked, seeing that the youth was apparently thunderstruck, "is it you?" "My name is Cornelius Vanderbilt," said the boatman. "Well," said the commissary, "don't you know why we have given the contract to you? Why, it is because we want this business done, and we know you'll do it." Here we see how character begets confidence, and how character rests upon industry as the house rests upon its foundation. [Footnote: Consult Appleton's Cyclopedia of American Biography, Vol. VII., pp. 240, 241; Crofut's "The Vanderbilts and the Story of their Fortune" (1886); also article in Munsey's Magazine, Vol. VI., p. 34.] XI. AMBITION. MEMORY GEMS. Hope without an object cannot live.--Coleridge Have an aim in life, or your energies will all be wasted. --M. C. Peters Every one should take the helm of his own life, and steer instead of drifting.--C. C. Everett Ambition is to life just what steam is to the locomotive. --J. C. Jaynes No toil, no hardships can restrain ambitious men inur'd to pain.--Horace Ambition is one of the great forces of human life. We may describe it as a strong, fixed desire in the heart to get honor, or to attain the best things. It is a kind of hunger or thirst for success that makes men dare danger and trial to satisfy it. A man is of little use in the world unless he have ambition to set him in motion. Small talent with great ambition often does far more than genius without it. The severest censure that can be passed upon a man is that of the poet, "Everything by turns and nothing long." The words contain a sad revelation of wasted opportunities, wasted powers, wasted life. These words apply, with a painful degree of exactness, to the career of Lord Brougham. Few men have been more richly endowed by nature. Few men have exhibited a greater plasticity of intellect, a greater affluence of mental resources. He was a fine orator, a clear thinker, a ready writer. It is seldom that a man who sways immense audiences by the power of his eloquence attains also to a high position in the ranks of literature. Yet Brougham did this; while, as a lawyer, he gained the most splendid prize of his profession, the Lord Chancellorship of England; and as a scientific investigator, merited and received the applause of scientific men. All this may seem to indicate success; and, to a certain extent, Brougham was successful. Nevertheless, having been everything by turns and nothing long--having given up to many pursuits the powers which should have been reserved for one or two--he was on the whole, a failure. Not only did he fail to make any permanent mark on the history or literature of his country, but he even outlived his own fame. He was almost forgotten before he died. He frittered away his genius on too many objects. It has long been a question of debate whether circumstances make men, or men control circumstances. There are those who believe that men are governed by their environments; that their surroundings determine their lives. The other school of philosophers boldly assert the opposite view. Men may control their surroundings. They are not the sport of the winds of circumstance. Carlyle, who is a member of this school, does not hesitate, in one of his essays, to say that "there have been great crises in the world's history when great men were needed, but they did not appear." This much is certain, we have many instances in which people have risen above their surroundings. Warren Hastings's case is one in point. Macaulay tells the story with his accustomed brilliancy and attractiveness. When Hastings was a mere child, the ancestral estate, through some mismanagement, passed out of the hands of the family. Warren would often go--for the family remained in the neighborhood--and gaze through the bars upon what had once been his home. He registered a mental vow to regain that estate. That became the ambition of his life; the one great purpose to which he devoted all his energies. Many years passed; Hastings went to other climes; but there was ever with him the determination to get that estate; and he succeeded. After all, would it not appear that the true theory is that of a golden mean between these two extremes? Circumstances sometimes control men or, at any rate, some kind of men; men, especially men of strong will power sometimes control their environments. Circumstances give men an opportunity to display their powers. The fuller study of this subject clearly shows the need of some principles of morality that are not dependent upon any chance companionship, and that may belong to the man himself, and not merely to his surroundings. An ambition to get on in the world, the steady struggle to get up, to reach higher, is a constant source of education in foresight, in prudence, in economy, in industry and courage; in fact is the great developer of many of the strongest and noblest qualities of character. The men at the summit fought their way up from the bottom. "John Jacob Astor sold apples on the streets of New York; A. T. Stewart swept out his own store; Cornelius Vanderbilt laid the foundation of his vast fortune with a hundred dollars given him by his mother; Lincoln was a rail splitter; Grant was a tanner; and Garfield was a towboy on a canal." By hard work and unconquerable perseverance you can rise above the low places of poverty. True, you may never shine in the galaxy of the great ones of this earth, but you may fill your lives and homes with blessings, and make the world wiser and better for your having lived in it. Cash cannot take the place of character. It is far better to be a man, than merely to be a millionaire. A man who heard Lincoln speak in Norwich, Connecticut, some time before he was nominated for the presidency, was greatly impressed by the closely-knit logic of the speech. Meeting him next day on a train, he asked him how he acquired his wonderful logical powers and such acuteness in analysis. Lincoln replied: "It was my terrible discouragement which did that for me. When I was a young man I went into an office to study law. I saw that a lawyer's business is largely to prove things. I said to myself, 'Lincoln, when is a thing proved?' That was a poser. What constitutes proof? Not evidence; that was not the point. There may be evidence enough, but wherein consists the proof? I groaned over the question, and finally said to myself, 'Ah! Lincoln, you can't tell.' Then I thought, 'What use is it for me to be in a law office if I can't tell when a thing is proved?' So I gave it up and went back home. "Soon after I returned to the old log cabin, I fell in with a copy of Euclid. I had not the slightest notion what Euclid was, and I thought I would find out. I therefore began, at the beginning, and before spring I had gone through that old Euclid's geometry, and could demonstrate every proposition like a book. Then in the spring, when I had got through with it, I said to myself one day, 'Ah, do you know now when a thing is proved?' And I answered, 'Yes, sir, I do.' 'Then you may go back to the law shop;' and I went." We may be rightly ambitious in various ways. It is right to be ambitious for _fame and honor_. The love of praise is not bad in itself, but it is a very dangerous motive. Why? Because in order to be popular, one may be tempted to be insincere. Never let the world's applause drown the voice of conscience. It is right to be ambitious to excel in whatever you do. Slighted work and half-done tasks are sins. "I am as good as they are"; "I do my work as well as they"; are cowardly maxims. Not what others have done, but perfection, is the only true aim, whether it be in the ball-field or in the graver tasks of life. Many people think that ambition is an evil weed, and ought to be pulled up by the roots. Shakespeare makes Wolsey say,-- "I charge thee, fling away ambition By that sin fell the angels." But the great cardinal had abused ambition, and had changed it into a vice. Ambition is a noble quality in itself, but like any other virtue it may be carried to excess, and thus become an evil. Like fire or water, it must be controlled to be safe and useful. Napoleon, while commanding armies, could not command his own ambition; and so he was caged up like a wild beast at St. Helena. A millionaire may be so ambitious for gain as purposely to wreck the fortunes of others. A politician may sell his manhood to gratify his desire for office. Boys and girls may become so ambitious to win their games, or to get the prizes at school, that they are willing to cheat, or take some mean advantage; and then ambition becomes to them not a blessing but a curse. We ought now and then to stop and test our ambition, just as the engineer tries the steam in the boiler; if we do not, it may in some unexpected moment wreck our lives. There are two ways of finding out whether our ambition is too strong for safety. First, if we discover that ambition is hurting our own character, there is danger. Second, if we find ambition blinding us to the rights of others, it is time to stop. These are the two tests; and so long as your ambition is harming neither your own life nor the lives of others, it is good and wholesome, and will add value and brightness to your life. GENERAL HAVELOCK. Henry Havelock, commonly known as "The Hero of Lucknow," was born in England, 1795, just about the time when Napoleon was beginning his brilliant career, and all Europe was a battlefield. As a boy he was rather serious and thoughtful, so that his school fellows used to call him "Old Phlos," a nickname for Old Philosopher. And yet he loved boyish sports, and never was behind any of his companions in courage and daring. He was not the first scholar in his class, but he was a great reader and took intense delight in stories of war and descriptions of battles. Napoleon was his hero, and he watched all his movements with breathless interest; and soon began to dream of being a soldier, too. Thus was born in the boy's heart that ambition which afterward lifted the man into honor and fame. At the age of sixteen Havelock began to study law, but he soon tired of it, and three years later obtained an appointment in the army. He now gave himself, with all the love and enthusiasm of his nature, to his chosen profession. He was to be a soldier; and he decided that he would be a thorough one, and would understand the art of war completely. He studied very hard, and it is said that it was his habit to draw with a stick upon the ground the plan of some historic battlefield, then, in imagination fight the battle over again, so that he might clearly see what made the one side lose and the other win. After eight years of service in England, he was ordered to go to India. There he became a soldier in earnest. It would take too long to tell of the battles he was in, and of the terrible campaigns through which he served. It is enough to say that he always followed where duty led, and always seemed to know just what to do amid the confusion of the battlefield. It was the dream of his life to become a general, but he was doomed, year after year, to stand still and see untried, beardless men promoted above his head. This certainly was hard to bear, but he never lost heart, never sulked, never neglected any opportunity to serve his government. His ambition was to do his best; and this he did, whether the world saw and applauded or not. Until he reached the age of sixty-two, he was scarcely known outside of India; but then came the occasion that made him famous. All India was in mutiny. The native soldiers, mad with power, were murdering the English in every city. Far up in the interior, at Lucknow, was a garrison of English soldiers, women, and children, hemmed in by thousands of these bloodthirsty Sepoys. To surrender meant a horrible death. To hold the fort meant starvation at last, unless rescue should speedily come. Although, when the news reached him, he was hundreds of miles away, Havelock undertook to save that little garrison. It seemed an impossible task, and yet with a few hundred brave soldiers, in a country swarming with the enemy, through swamps, over swollen rivers, he fought his way to the gates at Lucknow. And then, beneath a hailstorm of bullets from every house-top, he marched up the narrow street, and never paused until he stood within the fortress walls, and heard the shout of welcome from the lips of the starving men and women. It was a wonderful march, and put him among the great soldiers of history; but it was the direct result of that powerful ambition which had influenced his entire career. The world rang with applause of his heroism; but praise came too late; for while the queen was making him a baronet, and Parliament was voting him a princely pension, he was dying of a fever within the very city he had so bravely stormed. But his life-work was fully completed, and his name shines brightly among those of the great military heroes of his native land. [Footnote: See Marshman's "Life of Havelock" (1860); Headley's "Life of Havelock" (1864); Brock's "Life of General Sir Henry Havelock" (1854); Molesworth's "History of England," Vol. III., Chap, ii., and Mitchell's "History of India" (London, 1895).] XII. CONCENTRATION. MEMORY GEMS. Success grows out of struggles to overcome difficulties.--Smiles He who follows two hares is sure to catch neither.--Franklin The important thing in life is to have a great aim and the determination to attain it.--Goethe A healthy definite purpose is a remedy for a thousand ills. --O. S. Marden The evidence of superior genius is the power of intellectual concentration.--B. R. Hayden Concentration begins with the habit of attention. The highest success in learning depends on the power of the learner to command and hold his own attention,--on his ability to concentrate his thought on the subject before him. By the words "habit of attention," we do not mean here the outward, respectful attitude of a docile pupil who listens when his teacher speaks, but something much rarer, much more important, and far more difficult of attainment. We mean that power of the mind by which a person is able to give an intelligent account of what is said, whether in conversation, in lecture, or in sermon; which enables him to grasp at one reading the important points of a problem or a paragraph; and which makes it possible for a student or a reader to so concentrate his attention on what he is doing as to be entirely oblivious, so long as it does not concern him, of what is going on around him. This is the age of concentration or specialization of energy. The problem of the day is to get ten-horse power out of an engine that shall occupy the space of a one-horse power engine, and no more. Just so society demands a ten-man power out of one individual. It crowns the man who knows one thing supremely, and can do it better than anybody else, even if it be only the art of raising turnips. If he raises the best turnips by reason of concentrating all his energy to that end, he is a benefactor to the race, and is recognized as such. The giants of the race have been men of concentration, who have struck all their blows in one place until they have accomplished their purpose. The successful men of today are men of one overmastering idea, one unwavering aim, men of single and intense purpose. "Scatteration" is the curse of American business life. Too many are like Douglas Jerrold's friend, who could converse in twenty-four languages, but had no ideas to express in any one of them. "The weakest living creature," says Carlyle, "by concentrating his powers on a single object, can accomplish something; whereas the strongest, by dispersing his over many, may fail to accomplish anything. The drop, by continually falling, bores its passage through the hardest rock. The hasty torrent rushes over it with hideous uproar and leaves no trace behind." It is interesting to read how, with an immense procession passing up Broadway, the streets lined with people, and the bands playing their loudest, Horace Greeley would sit upon the steps of the Astor House, use the top of his hat for a desk, and write an editorial for the New York _Tribune_ which would be quoted all over the country; and there are many incidents in his career which go to show that his wonderful power of concentration was one of the great secrets of his success. Men who have the right kind of material in them will assert their personality, and rise in spite of a thousand adverse circumstances. You cannot keep them down. Every obstacle seems only to add their ability to get on. The youth Opie earned his bread by sawing wood, but he reached a professorship in the Royal Academy. When but ten years old he showed the material he was made of by a beautiful drawing on a shingle. Antonio Canova was a son of a day laborer; Thorwaldsen's parents were poor; but, like hundreds of others, these men did with their might what their hands found to do, and ennobled their work. They rose by being greater than their calling. It is fashionable to ridicule the man of one idea; but the men who have changed the face of the world have been men of a single aim. No man can make his mark on this age of specialities who is not a man of one idea, one supreme aim, one master passion. The man who would make himself felt on this bustling planet, must play all his guns on one point. A wavering aim, a faltering purpose, will have no place in the twentieth century. "Mental shiftlessness" is the cause of many a failure. The world is full of unsuccessful men who spend their lives letting empty buckets down into empty wells. As opposed to men of the latter class, what a sublime picture of determination and patience was that of Charles Goodyear, of New Haven, buried in poverty and struggling with hardships for eleven long years, to make India rubber of practical use! See him in prison for debt; pawning his clothes and his wife's jewelry to get a little money to buy food for his children, who were obliged to gather sticks in the field for fire. Observe the sublime courage and devotion to his idea, when he had no money to bury a dead child, and when his other five were near starvation; when his neighbors were harshly criticising him for his neglect of his family, and calling him insane. But, behold his vulcanized rubber; the result of that heroic struggle, applied to thousands of uses by over sixty thousand employees. A German knight undertook to make an immense Aeolian harp by stretching wires from tower to tower of his castle. When he finished the harp it was silent; but when the breezes began to blow he heard faint strains like the murmuring of distant music. At last a tempest arose and swept with fury over his castle, and then rich and grand music came from the wires. Ordinary experiences do not seem to touch some lives, to bring out their higher manhood; but when patience and firmness bring forth their fruit it is always of the very finest quality. It is good to know that great people have done great things through concentration; but it is better still to know that concentration belongs to the everyday life of the everyday boy and girl. Only they must not be selfish about it. Understand the work in hand before it is begun. Don't think of anything else while doing it; and don't dream when learning a lesson. Do one thing at a time and do it quickly and thoroughly. "I go at what I am about," said Charles Kingsley, "as if there was nothing else in the world for the time being." That's the secret of the success of all hard-working men. S. T. Coleridge possessed marvelous powers of mind, but he had no definite purpose; he lived in an atmosphere of mental dissipation, which consumed his energy and exhausted his stamina, and his life was in many respects a miserable failure. He lived in dreams and died in reverie. He was continually forming plans and resolutions, but to the day of his death they remained resolutions and plans. He was always just going to do something, but never did it. "Coleridge is dead," wrote Charles Lamb to a friend, "and is said to have left behind him above forty thousand treatises on metaphysics and divinity--not one of them complete!" Commodore MacDonough, on Lake Champlain, concentrated the fire of all his vessels upon the "big ship" of Downie, regardless of the fact that the other British ships were all hurling cannon balls at his little fleet. The guns of the big ship were silenced, and then the others were taken care of easily. By exercising this art of concentration in a higher degree than did his brother generals, Grant was able to bring the Civil War to a speedy termination. This trait was strongly marked in the character of Washington. The same is true in regard to General Armstrong and the Hampton Institute. That stands as a living monument to his power of concentration. He had a great purpose: the education of the Negro and Indian races; and from the close of the Civil War to the day of his death he labored steadily at that one undertaking, and now the whole country is proud of the outcome of his toil. People who have concentration never make excuses. They get more done than others, and have a better time doing it. Excuses are signs of shiftlessness. They do not answer in play any better than in lessons or business. Who ever heard of excuses in football-playing? When we go into all our duties with the same earnestness and devotion, we shall find ourselves rapidly rising into one of those foremost places which most of us so greatly desire. DAVID LIVINGSTONE. Few men in this century have followed a single purpose through their entire lives with greater devotion than the famous missionary and explorer, David Livingstone. He was born in Scotland, March 19, 1813, of poor parents. He loved books as a boy, studied hard to know about rocks and plants, worked in a cotton mill and earned money to go to a medical school. He was honest, helped his mother, and read all the books he could. "My reading in the factory," he said, "was carried on by placing the book on a portion of the spinning-jenny, so that I could catch sentence after sentence as I passed at my work. I thus kept up a pretty constant study, undisturbed by the roar of machinery." Very early Livingstone began to think about being a missionary. He read about travels in Africa, about the work of Henry Martyn, and about the Moravian missions. He heard about China and the need of medical missionaries there; and he says that "from this time my efforts were constantly devoted toward this object without any fluctuation." Livingstone wanted to go to China; but he met Dr. Moffat, who was then home from Africa, and was persuaded to change his plans. Early in 1841 he reached Algoa Bay, at the south end of Africa. Then he went to Dr. Moffat's mission station at Kuruman; but here he found the missionaries did not work well together, that there were more men than work, so he pushed on into regions where no one had been before. "I really am ambitious," he wrote, "to preach beyond other men's lines. I am determined to go on, and do all I can, while able, for the poor, degraded people in the North." This feeling sent him into the great wilderness to find what opportunities it afforded. In 1852 he started on his first great journey, made more discoveries, and crossed Africa from east to west, and then back again to the east coast. It was hard work; many were the difficulties; and his life was often in peril. Yet he saw Africa as no one before had seen it; and when he returned to England in 1857 he found himself famous, honored on every hand, and everybody ready to help on his great and noble work. In 1859 he returned to Africa with men and money to explore further, and to see what could be done for the good of the country. He explored the Zambezi river, on the east coast; and became familiar with that side of Africa,--its people, rivers, lakes, and mountains. He returned home in 1864, but went back the next year to seek out the source of the Nile. In 1865 he started on his longest and last journey, going this time to the northwest. This was the hardest and most perilous of all his journeys; for he was often sick, his men were not faithful, the country was in a state of war, his money gave out; and he was in a very bad condition when Henry M. Stanley found him in 1871. Stanley furnished him with money and men, and he started again for the great interior region to discover the source of the Nile, and then to return home and die. He was now sixty years old, his health had given way, but he persisted in the effort to finish his work. He grew weaker from month to month, but would not turn back. Finally, on May 1, 1873, his men found him on his knees in his tent, dead; but the results of his patient and persevering efforts will never die. [Footnote: Consult Livingstone's "Last Journals" (1874); Blaikie's "Life of Livingstone;" and Stanley's "How I found Livingstone" (1873).] XIII. SELF-CONTROL. MEMORY GEMS. Self-mastery is the essence of heroism.--Emerson He who reigns within himself is more than a king.--Milton I have only one counsel for you--Be master!--Napoleon Self-control is essential to happiness and usefulness.--E. A. Horton He is a fool who cannot be angry; but he is a wise man who will not.--Old Proverb Some one has said "Self-control is only courage under another form"; but we think it is far more than that. It is the master of all the virtues, courage included. If it is not so, how can it so control them as to develop a pure and noble character? The self-control which we commend has its root in true self-respect. The wayward, drifting youth or man cannot respect himself. He knows that there is no decision of character in drifting with the current, no enterprise, spirit, or determination. He must look the world squarely in the face, and say, "I am a man," or he cannot respect himself; and he must stem the current and row up stream to command his destiny. Self-control is at the root of all the virtues. Let a man yield to his impulses and passions, and from that moment he gives up his moral freedom. "Teach self-denial and make its practice pleasurable," says Walter Scott, "and you create for the world a destiny more sublime than ever issued from the brain of the wildest dreamer." This may seem to be a very strong statement, but it is fully sustained by the experience of great men like Dr. Cuyler, who said, not long ago, "I have been watching the careers of young men by the thousand in this busy city of New York for over thirty years, and I find that the chief difference between the successful and the unsuccessful lies in the single element of 'staying-power.'" Think of a man just starting out in life to conquer the world being at the mercy of his own appetites and passions! He cannot stand up and look the world in the face when he is the slave of what should be his own servants. He cannot lead who is led. There is nothing which gives certainty and direction to the life of a man who is not his own master. If he has mastered all but one appetite, passion, or weakness, he isstill a slave; it is the weakest point that measures the strength of character. It was the self-discipline of a man who had never looked upon war until he was forty, that enabled Oliver Cromwell to create an army which never fought without victory, yet which retired into the ranks of industry as soon as the government was established, each soldier being distinguished from his neighbors only by his superior diligence, sobriety, and regularity in the pursuits of peace. Many of the greatest characters in history illustrate this trait. Take, as a single instance, the case of the Duke of Wellington, whose career was marked by a persistent watchfulness over his irritable and explosive nature. How well he conquered himself, let the story of his deeds tell. The field of his great victory, which was Napoleon's overthrow, could not have been won but for this power of subduing himself. In ordinary life the application is the same. He who would lead must first command himself. The time of test is when everybody is excited or angry or dismayed; then the well-balanced mind comes to the front. To say, "No" in the face of glowing temptation is a part of this power. A very striking illustration is recorded in the life of Horace Greeley. Offended by a pungent article, a gentleman called at the _Tribune_ office and inquired for the editor. He was shown into a little seven-by-nine sanctum, where Greeley sat, with his head close down to his paper, scribbling away at a rapid rate. The angry man began by asking if this was Mr. Greeley. "Yes, sir; what do you want?" said the editor, quickly, without once looking up from his paper. The irate visitor then began using his tongue, with no deference to the rules of propriety, good breeding, or reason. Meantime Mr. Greeley continued to write. Page after page was dashed off in the most impetuous style, with no change of features, and without paying the slightest attention to the visitor. Finally, after about twenty minutes of the most impassioned scolding ever poured out in an editor's office, the angry man became disgusted, and abruptly turned to walk out of the room. Then, for the first time, Mr. Greeley looked up, rose from his chair, and slapping the gentleman familiarly on his shoulder, in a pleasant tone of voice said: "Don't go, friend; sit down, sit down, and free your mind; it will do you good, you will feel better for it. Besides, it helps me to think what I am to write about. Don't go." There is a very special demand for the cultivation of this trait and the kindred grace of patience at the present time. "Can't wait" is characteristic of the century, and is written on everything; on commerce, on schools, on societies, on churches. Can't wait for high school seminary or college. The boy can't wait to become a youth, nor the youth a man. Young men rush into business with no great reserve of education or drill; of course they do poor, feverish work, and break down in middle life, and may die of old age at forty, if not before. Everybody is in a hurry; and to be able, amid this universal rush, to hold one's self in check, and to stick to a single object until it is fully accomplished, will carry us a long way toward success. Endurance is a much better test of character than any one act of heroism, however noble. It was many years of drudgery, and reading a thousand volumes, that enabled George Eliot to get fifty thousand dollars for "Daniel Deronda." Edison in describing his repeated efforts to make the phonograph reproduce a sibilant sound, says, "From eighteen to twenty hours a day for the last seven months I have worked on this single word 'specia.' I said into the phonograph 'specia, specia, specia;' but the instrument responded 'pecia, pecia, pecia.' It was enough to drive one mad. But I held firm, and I have succeeded." Years of patient apprenticeship make a man a good mechanic. It takes longer to form the artisan. The trained intellect requires a longer period still. Henry Ward Beecher sent a half-dozen articles to the publishers of a religious paper to pay for his subscription, but they were "respectfully declined." One of the leading magazines ridiculed Tennyson's first poems, and consigned the young poet to oblivion. Only one of Ralph Waldo Emerson's books had a remunerative sale. Washington Irving was nearly seventy years old before the income from his books paid the expenses of his household. Who does not see that if these men had lost their grip upon themselves, the world would have been deprived of many of its rarest literary treasures? A great many rules have been given for securing and increasing this trait. A large number rest on mere policy, and are good only for the surface; they do not go to the center. Others are too radical, and tear up the roots, leaving one without energy or ambition. The aim should be to keep the native force unabated, but to give it wiser guidance. A fair amount of self-examination is good. Self-knowledge is a preface to self-control. The wise commander knows the weak and strong points of his fort. Too much self-inspection leads to morbidness; too little, conducts to careless, hasty action. The average American does not know himself well enough; he proceeds with a boastful confidence, and is always in the right, so he thinks. If we are conscious of a failing we naturally strive against it. There are two chief aims which, if held in view, will surely strengthen our self-control; one is attention to conscience, the other is a spirit of good-will. The lawless nature, not intending to live according to right, is always breaking over proper restraints,--is suspicious and quarrelsome. And he who has not the disposition to love his fellow-men, grows more and more petulant, disagreeable, and unfair. You must also learn to guard your weak point. For example: Have you a hot, passionate temper? If so, a moment's outbreak, like a rat-hole in a dam, may flood all the work of years. One angry word sometimes raises a storm that time itself cannot allay. A single angry word has lost many a friend. The man who would succeed in any great undertaking must hold all his faculties under perfect control; they must be disciplined and drilled, until they quickly and cheerfully obey the will. GEORGE WASHINGTON. For the special illustration of this lesson we select a couple of incidents from the life of George Washington. Washington had great power of wrath, inheriting the high, hasty temper of his mother. Tobias Lear, his intimate friend and private secretary, says that in the winter of 1791, an officer brought a letter telling of General St. Clair's disastrous defeat by the Indians. It must be delivered to the President himself. He left his family and guests at table, glanced over the contents, and, when he rejoined them, seemed as calm as usual. But afterward, when he and Lear were alone, walked the room, silent a while, and then he broke out in great agitation, "It is all over. St. Clair is defeated, routed; the officers nearly all killed, the men by wholesale; the disaster complete; too shocking to think of, and a surprise into the bargain!" He walked about, much agitated, and his wrath became terrible. "Yes!" he burst forth, "here on this very spot, I took leave of him. I wished him success and honor. 'You have your instructions,' I said, 'from the Secretary of War. I had myself a strict eye to them, and will add but one word, BEWARE OF A SURPRISE! You know how the Indians fight!' "He went off with this, as my last solemn warning, thrown into his ears; and yet, to suffer that army to be cut to pieces, hacked, butchered, tomahawked, by a surprise,--the very thing I guarded him against! O God! O God! he is worse than a murderer! How can he answer for it to his country? The blood of the slain is upon him; the curse of widows and orphans; the curse of Heaven!" His emotions were awful. After a while he cooled a little, and sat down, and said: "This must not go beyond this room. General St. Clair shall have justice. I looked through the despatches, saw the whole disaster, but not all the particulars. I will receive him without displeasure; I will hear him without prejudice. He shall have full justice!" The second incident is told as follows: In 1775, at Cambridge, the army was destitute of powder. Washington sent Colonel Glover to Marblehead for a supply of that article, which was said to be there. At night the colonel returned, found Washington in front of his headquarters, pacing up and down. Glover saluted. The general, without returning his salute, asked, roughly: "Have you got the powder?" "No, sir." Washington broke out at first with terrible severity of speech, and then said: "Why did you come back, sir, without it?" "Sir, there is not a kernel of powder in Marblehead." Washington walked up and down a minute or two, in great agitation, and then said: "Colonel Glover, here is my hand, if you will take it and forgive me. The greatness of our danger made me forget what is due to you and to myself." Such victories as these show self-control at its very best; and they ought to make us all see its value and importance. [Footnote: See Seeley's "Story of Washington" (1893), and the excellent article in Appleton's Cyclopedia of American Biography, Vol. VI., pp. 376-382.] XIV. PEKSEVERANCE. MEMORY GEMS. Every noble work is at first impossible.--Carlyle Victory belongs to the most persevering.--Napoleon Our greatest glory is, not in never falling, but in rising every time we fall.--Goldsmith Success in most things depends on knowing how long it takes to succeed. --Montesquieu Perseverance is failing nineteen times and succeeding the twentieth. --Dr J. Anderson Perseverance depends on three things,--purpose, will, enthusiasm. He who has a purpose is always concentrating his forces. By the will, constantly educated, the hope and plan are prevented from evaporating into dreams, and a little gain is all the time being added. Enthusiasm keeps the interest up, and makes the obstacles seem small. Young people often call perseverance plodding, and look with impatience on careful, steady efforts of any kind. It is plodding in a certain sense, but by it the mountain is scaled; whereas the impetuous nature soon tires, or is injured, and the climb is over, half-finished. The founders of New England did not believe in "chances." They did believe in work. The young man who thinks to get on by mere smartness and by idling, meets failure at last. But there is a higher outlook. Life is in a sense a battle; certainly there is an unending struggle within ourselves to make the better part rule the worse. Perseverance is the master impulse of the firmest souls, and holds the key to those treasure-houses of knowledge from which the world has drawn its wealth both of wisdom and of moral worth. Great men never wait for opportunities; they make them. Nor do they wait for facilities or favoring circumstances; they seize upon whatever is at hand, work out their problem, and master the situation. A young man determined and willing, will find a way or make one. Great men have found no royal road to their triumph. It is always the old route, by way of industry and perseverance. Bunyan wrote his "Pilgrim's Progress" on the untwisted papers used to cork the bottles of milk brought for his meals. Gifford wrote his first copy of a mathematical work, when a cobbler's apprentice, on small scraps of leather; and Rittenhouse, the astronomer, first calculated eclipses on his plow handle. "Circumstances," says Milton, "have rarely favored famous men. They have fought their way to triumph through all sorts of opposing obstacles. The greatest thing a man can do in this world is to make the most possible out of the stuff that has been given to him. This is success, and there is no other." Paris was in the hands of a mob; the authorities were panic-stricken, for they did not dare to trust their underlings. In came a man who said, "I know a young officer who has the courage and ability to quell this mob." "Send for him; send for him," said they. Napoleon was sent for, came, subjugated the mob, subjugated the authorities, ruled France, then conquered Europe. One of the first lessons of life is to learn how to get victory out of defeat. It takes courage and stamina, when mortified and embarrassed by humiliating disaster, to seek in the wreck or ruins the elements of future conquest. Yet this measures the difference between those who succeed and those who fail. You cannot measure a man by his failures. You must know what use he makes of them. Always watch with great interest a young man's first failure. It is the index of his life, the measure of his success-power. The mere fact of his failure has interest; but how did he take his defeat? What did he do next? Was he discouraged? Did he slink out of sight? Did he conclude that he had made a mistake in his calling, and dabble in something else? Or was he up and at it again with a determination that knows no defeat? There is something grand and inspiring in a young man who fails squarely after doing his level best, and then enters the contest again and again with undaunted courage and redoubled energy. Have no fears for the youth who is not disheartened at failure. Raleigh failed, but he left a name ever to be linked with brave effort and noble character. Kossuth did not succeed, but his lofty career, his burning words, and his ideal fidelity will move men for good as long as time shall last. O'Connell did not win his cause, but he did achieve enduring fame as an orator, patriot, and apostle of liberty. President Lincoln was asked, "How does Grant impress you as a leading general?" "The greatest thing about him is his persistency of purpose," he replied. "He is not easily excited, and he has the grip of a bulldog. When he once gets his teeth in nothing can shake him off." Chauncey Jerome's education was limited to three months in the district school each year until he was ten, when his father took him into his blacksmith shop at Plymouth, Connecticut, to make nails. Money was a scarce article with young Chauncey. His father died when he was eleven, and his mother was forced to send him out to earn a living on a farm. At fourteen he was apprenticed for seven years to a carpenter, who gave him only board and clothes. One day he heard people talking of Eli Terry, of Plymouth, who had undertaken to make two hundred clocks in one lot. "He'll never live long enough to finish them," said one. "If he should," said another, "he could not possibly sell so many. The very idea is ridiculous." Chauncey pondered long over this rumor, for it had long been his dream to become a great clock-maker. He tried his hand at the first opportunity, and soon learned to make a wooden clock. When he got an order to make twelve at twelve dollars apiece he thought his fortune was made. One night he happened to think that a cheap clock could be made of brass as well as of wood, and would not shrink, swell, or warp appreciably in any climate. He acted on the idea, and became the first great manufacturer of brass clocks. He made millions at the rate of six hundred a day, exporting them to all parts of the globe. A constant struggle, a ceaseless battle to bring success from hard surroundings, is the price of all great achievements. The man who has not fought his way upward, and does not bear the scar of desperate conflict, does not know the highest meaning of success. Columbus was dismissed as a fool from court after court, but he pushed his suit against an unbelieving and ridiculing world. Rebuffed by kings, scorned by queens, he did not swerve a hair's breadth from the overmastering purpose which dominated his soul. The words "New World" were graven upon his heart; and reputation, ease, pleasure, position, life itself, if need be, must be sacrificed. Neither threats, ridicule, storms, leaky vessels, nor mutiny of sailors, could shake his mighty purpose. Lucky for the boy who can say, "In the bright lexicon of youth there is no such word as _fail_." We do not care for the men who change with every wind! Give us men like mountains, who change the winds. You cannot at one dash rise into eminence. You must hammer it out by steady and rugged blows. A man can get what he wants if he pays the price--persistent, plodding perseverance. Never doubt the result; victory will be yours. There may be ways to fortune shorter than the old, dusty highway; but the staunch men in the community all go on this road. If you want to do anything, don't stand back waiting for a better chance to arise, but rush in and seize it; and then cling to it with all the power you possess until you have made it serve the purpose for which you desired it, or yield the good which you believe it to contain. The lack of perseverance is the cause of many a failure. We do not stand by our plans faithfully. Fashion, or criticism, or temporary weariness, or fickleness of taste, leads us off; and we have to begin our work all over. Look at the history of every noted invention; read the lives of musicians who were born with genius, but wrought out triumph by perseverance; and you will find abundant proof that without perseverance nothing valuable can be accomplished. GEORGE STEPHENSON. George Stephenson's struggle for the adoption of his locomotive is another noteworthy case in point. People said "he is crazy"; "his roaring steam engine will set the houses on fire with its sparks"; "the smoke will pollute the air"; "the carriage makers and coachmen will starve for want of work." So intense was the opposition, that for three whole days the matter was debated in the House of Commons; and on that occasion a government inspector said that if a locomotive ever went ten miles an hour, he would undertake to eat a stewed engine for breakfast. "What can be more palpably absurd and ridiculous than the prospect held out of locomotives traveling twice as fast as horses?" asked a writer in the English _Quarterly Review_ for March, 1825. "We trust that Parliament will, in all the railways it may grant, _limit the speed to eight or nine miles an hour_, which we entirely agree, with Mr. Sylvester, is as great as can be ventured upon." This article referred to Stephenson's proposition to use his newly invented locomotive instead of horses on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, then in process of construction. The company referred the matter to two leading English engineers, who reported that steam would be desirable only when used in stationary engines one and a half miles apart, drawing the cars by means of ropes and pulleys. But Stephenson persuaded them to test his idea by offering a prize of about twenty-five hundred dollars for the best locomotive produced at a trial to take place October 6, 1829. On the eventful day, long waited for, thousands of spectators assembled to watch the competition of four engines, the "Novelty," the "Rocket," the "Perseverance," and the "Sanspareil." The "Perseverance" could make but six miles an hour, and so was ruled out, as the conditions called for at least ten. The "Sanspareil" made an average of fourteen miles an hour, but as it burst a water-pipe it lost its chance. The "Novelty" did splendidly, but also burst a pipe, and was crowded out, leaving the "Rocket" to carry off the honors with an average speed of fifteen miles an hour, the highest rate attained being twenty-nine. This was Stephenson's locomotive, and so fully vindicated his theory that the idea of stationary engines on a railroad was completely exploded. He had picked up the fixed engines which the genius of Watt had devised, and set them on wheels to draw men and merchandise, against the most direful predictions of the foremost engineers of his day. [Footnote: See Smiles' "Life of George Stephenson" (new ed., 1874); Jeaffreson and Pole's "Life of Robert Stephenson" (1864), and article in Johnson's Cyclopedia, Vol. VII., p. 740.] XV. PROMPTNESS. MEMORY GEMS. One to-day is worth two to-morrows.--Franklin Whilst we are considering when we are to begin, it is often too late to act.--Quintilian By the street of by and by one arrives at the house of never.--Cervantes When a fool makes up his mind, the market has gone by.--Spanish Proverb The individual who is habitually tardy in meeting an appointment, will never be respected or successful in life.--W. Fisk Promptness and punctuality are among the greatest blessings and comforts of life. For lack of these qualities, some of the greatest men have failed. Most men have abundant opportunities for promoting and securing their own happiness. Time should be made the most of. Stray moments, saved and improved, may yield many brilliant results. It is astonishing how much can be done by using up the odds and ends of time in leisure hours. We must be prompt to catch the minutes as they fly, and make them yield the treasures they contain, or they will be lost to us forever. "In youth the hours are golden, in mature years they are silvern, in old age they are leaden." "The man who at twenty knows nothing, at thirty does nothing, at forty has nothing." Yet the Italian proverb adds, "He who knows nothing is confident in everything." In the most ordinary affairs of life we must take heed of the value of time, keep watch over it, and be punctual to others as well as to ourselves; for without punctuality, men are kept in a perpetual state of worry, trouble, and annoyance. Webster was never late at a recitation in school or college. In court, in congress, in society, he was equally punctual. So, amid the cares and distractions of a singularly busy life, Horace Greeley managed to be on time for every appointment. Many a trenchant paragraph for the _Tribune_ was written while the editor was waiting for men of leisure, tardy at some meeting. John Quincy Adams was never known to be behind time. The Speaker of the House of Representatives knew when to call the House to order by seeing Mr. Adams coming to his seat. On one occasion a member said that it was time to begin. "No," said another, "Mr. Adams is not in his seat." It was found that the clock was three minutes fast, and prompt to the minute, Mr. Adams arrived. Begin with promptness in little things. Be punctual at breakfast, even if you are sleepy. Be punctual at school, even if you have errands to do. Whatever you may have to do, think out the quickest way of doing it, and do it at once. By and by the habit becomes a quality of mind and action. Don't loiter about anything; it takes too much time. We must be careful to remember that promptness is more than punctuality, which is an outward habit, and a very necessary one, if people live together. It is important also for one's own sake, even if he should be a Robinson Crusoe without a man Friday. Promptness has to do with thought. It begins in learning how to think and reason. Behind it lies concentration, which first of all has made one thoroughly understand a subject. Then comes the second point,--what to do instantly in any given case; and the trained judgment ends in instant, wise action. When a boy saves another who has fallen through the ice, he unconsciously thought out long ago what to do when the moment came for him to act. When a girl throws a rug over the dress of her sister, which has caught fire, she knew long before what to do. This knowing what to do, and doing it, is called presence of mind, that is, having common sense all ready for use. Promptness takes the drudgery out of an occupation. Putting off, usually means leaving off; and "going to do" becomes "going undone." Doing a deed is like sowing a seed; if not done at just the right time it will be forever out of season. The summer of eternity will not be long enough to bring to maturity the fruit of a delayed action. Even in the old, slow days of stage-coaches, when it took a month of dangerous travel to accomplish the distance we can now cover in a few hours, unnecessary delay was a crime. One of the greatest gains civilization has made, is in the measuring and utilizing of time. We can do as much in an hour to-day as men could in twenty hours a hundred years ago; and if it was a hanging affair then to lose a few minutes, what should the penalty now be for a like offense? One of the best things about school and college life is that the bell which strikes the hour for rising, for recitations, or for lectures, teaches habits of promptness. Every man should have a watch which is a good timekeeper; one that is "nearly right" encourages bad habits, and is an expensive investment at any price. Wear threadbare clothes, if you must, but never carry an inaccurate watch. Some people are always a little too late, or a little too early, in everything they attempt. John B. Gough used to say "They have three hands apiece,--a right hand, a left hand, and a little behindhand." As boys, they were late at school, and unpunctual in their home duties. That was the way the habit was acquired; and now, when a responsibility claims them, they think that if they had only gone yesterday they would have obtained the situation, or they can probably get one to-morrow. Delays often have dangerous endings. Colonel Rahl, the Hessian commander at Trenton, was playing cards when a messenger brought a letter stating that Washington was crossing the Delaware. He put the letter in his pocket without reading it, until the game was finished. He rallied his men only to die just before his troops were taken prisoners. Only a few minutes' delay, but it resulted in the loss of honor, liberty, and life. Indecision becomes a disease, and procrastination is its forerunner. There is only one known remedy for the victims of indecision, and that is promptness. Otherwise the disease is fatal to all success or achievement. He who hesitates is lost. General Putnam was plowing, with his son Daniel, in eastern Connecticut, when the news of the battle of Lexington reached him. "He loitered not," said Daniel, "but left me, the driver of his team, to unyoke it in the furrow; and, not many days after, to follow him to camp." The man who would forge to the front in this competitive age must be a man of prompt and determined decision. Like Cortes, he must burn his ships behind him, and make retreat forever impossible. When he draws his sword he must throw the scabbard away, lest in a moment of discouragement and irresolution he be tempted to sheath it. He must nail his colors to the mast, as Nelson did in battle, determined to sink with his ship if he cannot conquer. Prompt decision and sublime audacity have carried many a successful man over perilous crises where deliberation would have been ruin. Henry IV, king of France, was another leader of remarkable promptness. His people said of him that "he wore out very little broadcloth, but a great deal of boot-leather," for he was always going from one place to another. In speaking of the Duc de Mayenne, Henry called him a great captain, but added, "I always have five hours the start of him." Getting ahead of time is as good a rule for boys and girls as for generals. In our own country we have had generals who were especially noted for their dispatch. You know the story of "Sheridan's Ride" in the Shenandoah Valley. His men, thoroughly beaten for the moment, were fleeing before the Southerners, when he suddenly appeared, promptly decided to head them right about, and, by the inspiration of his single presence, turned defeat into victory. Sailors must be even more prompt than soldiers, for in danger at sea not an instant can be lost. Not only must a sailor be prompt in action against storm, but he must be prompt with his sails in squally weather; he must be prompt with his helm when approaching land. Among the heroes of the sea, Lord Nelson is conspicuous for his prompt and courageous deeds. He had many faults; but England felt safe while he watched over her maritime affairs; for he was always beforehand, and never allowed himself to be surprised by misfortune. It is so in the voyage of life. Incidents often occur which demand instantaneous action on our part; and these are the events which usually issue in failure or success. Prompt movement, at the right moment, is more valuable than rubies; and its lack often leads to utter ruin. NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. Napoleon changed the art of war quite as much by his promptness as by the concentration of his men in large masses. By his exceeding rapidity of movement he was long able to protect France against the combined powers of Europe. He was always quick to seize the advantages of an emergency. Though he can never be considered as the type of a noble man, he was an extraordinarily great man. Boys who like to read of battles, and trace the maneuvers of a campaign, will find that his military renown was largely due to his promptness. Decision of purpose and rapidity of action enabled him to astonish the world with his marvelous successes. He appeared to be everywhere at once. What he could accomplish in a day, surprised all who knew him. He seemed to electrify everybody about him. His invincible energy thrilled the whole army. He could rouse to immediate and enthusiastic action the dullest troops, and inspire with courage the most stupid men. He would sit up all night, if necessary, after riding thirty or forty leagues, to attend to correspondence, dispatches and details. What a lesson his career affords to the shiftless and half-hearted! There have been many times when a prompt decision, a rapid movement, an energetic action, have changed the very face of history; and, on the other hand, there have been many instances where the indecisions of generals, or the procrastination of subordinates, has cost thousands of precious lives, and the loss of millions of dollars worth of property. Napoleon once invited his marshals to dine with him; but, as they did not arrive at the moment appointed, he began to eat without them. They came in just as he was rising from the table. "Gentlemen," said he, "it is now past dinner, and we will immediately proceed to business." He laid great stress upon that "supreme moment," that "nick of time," which occurs in every battle; to take advantage of which means victory, and to lose in hesitation means disaster. He said that he beat the Austrians because they did not know the value of five minutes; and it has been said that, among the trifles that conspired to defeat him at Waterloo, the loss of a few minutes by himself and Grouchy on that fatal morning, was the most significant. Blucher was on time, and Grouchy was late. That may seem a small matter, but it was enough to bring Napoleon's career to a close, and to send him to St. Helena. [Footnote: On Napoleon, see Seeley's "Short History of Napoleon I."; Ropes's "The First Napoleon," and articles in the current encyclopedias.] XVI. HONESTY. MEMORY GEMS. Truth needs no color, beauty no pencil.--Shakespeare An honest man's the noblest work of God.--Pope The basis of high thinking is perfect honesty.--Strong Nature has written a letter of credit on some men's faces which is honored whenever presented.--Thackeray If there were no honesty, it would be invented as a means of getting wealth.--Mirabeau There are certain virtues and vices which very largely determine the happiness or the misery of every human life. Prominent among these virtues are those of truth and honesty; and to these are opposed the vices of lying and cheating. Society is like a building, which stands firm when its foundations are strong and all its timbers are sound. The man who cannot be trusted is to society what a faulty foundation or a bit of rotten timber is to a house. It is always mean for a man or boy "to go back," as we say, on a friend. It is still worse, if possible, to "go back" on one's self. A brave man or boy will manfully take the consequences of his acts, and if they are bad, will resolve to do better another time. The worst sort of deceit is that by which one lets another bear the blame, or in any way suffer, for what one has one's self done. Such meanness happens sometimes, but it is almost too bad to be spoken of. There are certain kinds of cheating that the law cannot or does not touch. The man who practices this kind of dishonesty is even worse than if he were doing that which the law punishes. He uses the law, which was meant to protect society, as a cover from which he can attack society. Lying is a form of dishonesty, and a very bad form of it. What would become of the world if we could not trust each other's word? A lie is always told for one of two ends; either to get some advantage to which one has no real claim, in which case it is merely a form of cheating; or to defend one's self from the bad consequences of something that one has done, in which case it is cowardly. The Romans arranged the seats in their two temples to Virtue and Honor, so that no one could enter the second without passing through the first. Such is the order of advance,--Virtue, Toil, Honor. The solid and useful virtue of honesty is highly practicable. "Nothing is profitable that is dishonest," is a truthful maxim. "Virtue alone is invincible." "I would give ten thousand dollars for your reputation for uprightness," said a sharper to an upright tradesman, "for I could make a hundred thousand dollars with it." Honesty succeeds, dishonesty fails. The honesty and integrity of A. T. Stewart won for him a great reputation, and the young schoolmaster who began life in New York on less than a dollar a day, amassed nearly forty million dollars, and there was not a smirched dollar in all those millions. We do not count ourselves among those who believe that "every man has his price," and that "an honest man has a lock of hair growing in the palm of his right hand." No! There are in the world of business many more honest men than rogues, and for one trust betrayed there are thousands sacredly kept. As a mere matter of selfishness, "honesty is the best policy." But he who is honest for policy's sake is already a moral bankrupt. Men of policy are honest when they think honesty will pay the better; but when policy will pay better they give honesty the slip. Honesty and policy have nothing in common. When policy is in, honesty is out. It is more honorable for some men to fail than for others to succeed. Part with anything rather than your integrity and conscious rectitude. Capital is not what a man has, but what a man is. Character is capital. For example: A man wishes to succeed in business. His studies and his practical training have fitted him to do this. He seeks out all the methods by which he may reach success. He shrinks from no labor of mind, or, if need be, of body, for this end. In all this he is right. We admire skill, industry, and pluck. There is, however, one kind of means that he may not use. He may not stoop to fraud of any kind. He _may_ desire and seek wealth; he _must_ desire and seek honor and honesty. These are among the ends that morality insists upon, and that should not be sacrificed to anything else. What contempt we have for a man who robs another, who picks his pocket, or knocks him down in some lonely place and strips him of whatever articles of value he may have. But the man who cheats is a thief, just as truly as the pickpocket and the highwayman. There is nothing that improves a boy's character so much as putting him on his honor--trusting to his honor. We have little hope for the boy who is dead to the feeling of honor. The boy who needs to be continually looked after is on the road to ruin. If treating your boy as a gentleman does not make him a gentleman, nothing else will. There are many incidents in Abraham Lincoln's career which illustrate this virtue; and from these we select the following: While tending store, Lincoln once sold to a woman goods to the amount of two dollars, six and a quarter cents. He discovered later that a mistake had been made, and that the store owed the customer the six and a quarter cents. After he had closed the store that night, he walked several miles in the darkness to return the amount. At another time a woman bought a pound of tea. Lincoln discovered the next morning that a smaller weight was on the scales. He at once weighed out the remainder, and walked some distance before breakfast to return it. He was once a postmaster in New Salem; but the office was finally discontinued. Several years after, the agent called at his law office, and presented a claim of about seventeen dollars in the settlement of the New Salem affairs. Mr. Lincoln took out a little trunk, and produced the exact sum, wrapped in a linen rag. It had lain there untouched through years of the greatest hardship and self-denial. He said, "I never use any one's money but my own." Honor lies in doing well whatever we find to do; and the world estimates a man's abilities in accordance with his success in whatever business or profession he may engage. The true gentleman is known by his strict sense of honor; by his sympathy, his gentleness, his forbearance, and his generosity. He is essentially a man of truth, speaking and doing rightly, not merely in the sight of men, but in his secret and private behavior. Truthfulness is moral transparency. Hence the gentleman promises nothing that he has not the means of performing. The Duke of Wellington proudly declared that truth was the characteristic of an English officer, that when he was bound by a parole he would not break his word; for the gentleman scorns to lie, in word or deed; and is ready to brave all consequences rather than debase himself by falsehood. When any one complains, as Diogenes did, that he has to hunt the streets with candles at noonday to find an honest man, we are apt to think that his nearest neighbor would have quite as much difficulty in making such a discovery. If you think there is not a true man living, you had better, for appearance's sake, not say so until you are dead yourself. A few years since, a manly boy about nine years old stepped up to a gentleman in the Grand Central Depot, New York, and asked, "Shine, sir?" "Yes I want my shoes blacked," said the gentleman. "Then I would be glad to shine them, sir," said the boy. "Have I time to catch the Hudson River train?" "No time to lose, sir; but I can give you a good job before it pulls out. Shall I?" "Yes, my boy; but don't let me be left." In two seconds the bootblack was on his knees and hard at work. "The train is going, sir," said the boy, as he gave the last touch. The gentleman gave the boy a half dollar, and started for the train. The boy counted out the change and ran after the gentleman, but was too late, for the train was gone. Two years later the same gentleman, coming to New York, met the bootblack, but had forgotten him. The boy remembered the gentleman, and asked him, "Didn't I shine your shoes once in the Grand Central Depot?" "Some boy did," said the man. "I am the boy, and here is your change, sir." The gentleman was so pleased with the lad's honesty, that he went with him to see his mother, and offered to adopt him, as he needed such a boy. The mother consented, and the honest bootblack had after that a good home. He was given a good education, and, when a man, became a partner in the gentleman's large business. GEORGE PEABODY. At eleven years of age George Peabody had to go out into the world to earn his living. His promptness and honesty won for him the esteem of his employer. At the age of fifteen he was left fatherless, without a dollar in the world. An uncle in Georgetown, D. C., hearing that the boy needed work, sent for him and gave him employment. His genial manner and respectful bearing gained him many friends. He never wounded the feelings of the buyer of goods, never seemed impatient, and was strictly honest in all his dealings. His energy, perseverance, and honesty made him a partner in the business when only nineteen years of age. At the age of thirty-five he became the head of a large and wealthy business, which his own industry had helped to build. He had bent his life to one purpose, to make his business a success. Having visited London several times in matters of trade, he determined to make that city his place of residence. In 1837, there came a great business panic in the United States. Many banks suspended specie payments. Many mercantile houses went to the wall, and thousands more were in great distress. Faith in the credit of the United States was almost lost. Probably not one half dozen men in Europe would have been listened to for a moment in the Bank of England upon the subject of American securities, but George Peabody was one of them. He became a wealthy man, honored at home and abroad. He loved his fellow-men and set himself the task of relieving their wants. He gave ten thousand dollars to help fit out the second expedition for the relief of Sir John Franklin. The same year, his native town of Danvers, Massachusetts, celebrated its centennial. The rich London banker was of course invited. He was too busy to be present but sent a letter. The seal was broken at dinner, and this was the toast it contained: "Education--a debt due from present to future generations." In the same envelope was a check for twenty thousand dollars for a town library and institute. At another banquet given in his honor at Danvers, years afterward, he gave two hundred and fifty thousand dollars to the same institute. Edward Everett, and others, made eloquent addresses, and then the kind-faced, great-hearted man responded. "There is not a youth within the sound of my voice whose early opportunities and advantages are not very much better than were mine. I have achieved nothing that is impossible to the most humble boy among you. Steadfast and undeviating _truth_, fearless and straight forward integrity, and an honor ever unsullied by an unworthy word or action, make their possessor greater than worldly success." [Footnote: See the life of George Peabody, by Phebe A. Hanaford (Boston, 1882), and numerous articles in the cyclopedias and magazines.] XVII. COURTESY. MEMORY GEMS. Conduct is three fourths of life.--Matthew Arnold There is no policy like politeness.--Magoon Life is not so short but there is time enough for courtesy.--Emerson Men, like bullets, go farthest when they are smoothest.--Richter Nothing can constitute good breeding that has not good-nature for its foundation.--Bulwer True courtesy consists in that gentle refinement and grace of manner displayed toward others, which springs not so much from polite culture as from a genuine goodness of heart. It is the honor due to man as man, and especially to woman. It is a grace which is too often unrecognized and undervalued; but, when of the true order, it is a jewel of great price. It is to be found in all lands, and in every grade or order of society, as shown by the following examples: A Chinaman was rudely pushed into the mud by an American. He picked himself up very calmly, shook off some of the mud, bowed very politely, and said in a mild, reproving tone of voice, "You Christian; me heathen; alle samee, good-bye." Courtesy, as a Christian duty, has been sorely neglected by Americans. "If a civil word or two will make a man happy," said a French king, "he must be wretched indeed who will not give them to him." The first Duke of Marlborough "wrote English badly and spelled it worse," yet he swayed the destinies of empires. The charm of his manner was irresistible and influenced all Europe. His fascinating smile and winning speech disarmed the fiercest hatred, and made friends of the bitterest enemies. A habit of courtesy is like a delicate wrapping, preventing one personality from rubbing and chafing against another. It is perhaps most of all proper from the young toward those who are older than themselves. There is too little of this in our day. Boys and girls speak to their elders, perhaps even to their parents, with rude familiarity, such as would be hardly proper among playmates. One should also show courtesy to his companions. Boys, even in their play, should be courteous to one another. One who is always pushing for the best, without regard to others, shows his ill breeding. A "thank you" and a "please" on proper occasions, are not out of place even among the closest companions. Perhaps in the family, courtesy is more important than anywhere else. There people are thrown more closely together; and, thus, nowhere do they need more the protection of courtesy. From all this, it appears that courtesy is simply an expression of thoughtfulness for others; and that rudeness and boorishness, though sometimes they spring from ignorance, are more often the expression of selfishness, which forgets the feelings and the tastes of others. When Edward Everett took a professor's chair at Harvard, after five years of study in Europe, he was almost worshiped by the students. His manner seemed touched by that exquisite grace seldom found except in women of rare culture. His great popularity lay in a courteous and magnetic atmosphere which every one felt, but no one could fully describe, and which never left him throughout his long and useful life. Courtesy, then, may be defined as "good manners." At present we use the word "manners," simply to express the outward relations of life. We speak of "good manners" or "bad manners," meaning by the words that a person conforms more or less perfectly to what are called the "usages of good society." Thus a man may have good morals and bad manners, or he may have good manners and bad morals, or both his manners and his morals may be either good or bad. Etiquette originally meant the ticket or tag tied to a bag to indicate its contents. If a bag had this ticket it was not examined. From this the word passed to cards upon which were printed certain rules to be observed by guests. These rules were "the ticket" or the etiquette. To be "the ticket," or, as it was sometimes expressed, "to act or talk by the card," became the thing with the better classes. A fine manner more than compensates for all the defects of nature. The most fascinating person is always the one of most winning manners, not the one of greatest physical beauty. The Greeks thought beauty was a proof of the peculiar favor of the gods, and considered that beauty only worth adorning and transmitting which was unmarred by outward manifestations of hard and haughty feeling. According to their ideal, beauty must be the expression of attractive qualities within--such as cheerfulness, benignity, contentment, and love. On a certain occasion, Queen Victoria sent for Thomas Carlyle, who was a Scotch peasant, offering him the title of nobleman, which he declined, feeling that he had always been a nobleman in his own right. He understood so little of the manners at court that, when presented to the queen, after speaking to her a few minutes, being tired, he said, "Let us sit down, madam, and talk it over;" whereat the courtiers were ready to faint. But the queen was equal to the occasion and gave a gesture that seated all her attendants in a moment. Courtesy is not, however, always found in high places. Even royal courts furnish many examples of bad manners. At an entertainment given by the Prince of Wales, to which, of course, only the very cream of society was admitted, there was such pushing and struggling to see the Princess, who was then but recently married, that, as she passed through the reception rooms, a bust of the princess Eoyal was thrown from its pedestal and damaged, and the pedestal upset; and the ladies, in their eagerness to see the princess, actually stood upon it. Courtesy does not necessarily conflict with sincerity. It is a great mistake to suppose that righteousness is bound up with bluntness and criticism. Perfect courtesy and perfect honesty are often combined in the same person. We can be amiable without being weak. We are able to criticise errors and wrongs by holding up what is right and true, which is the most forcible way; and still, through it all, our gentleness and courtesy may remain unstained. Where this course is departed from, we are very apt to fall into trouble. A New York lady had just taken her seat in a car on a train bound for Philadelphia, when a somewhat stout man sitting just ahead of her lighted a cigar. She coughed and moved uneasily; but the hints had no effect, so she said tartly: "You probably are a foreigner, and do not know that there is a smoking-car attached to the train. Smoking is not permitted here." The man made no reply, but threw his cigar out of the window. What was her astonishment when the conductor told her, a moment after, that she had entered the private car of General Grant. She withdrew in confusion, but the same line courtesy which led him to give up his cigar, was shown again as he spared her the mortification of even a questioning glance, still less of a look of amusement, although she watched his dumb, immovable figure with apprehension until she reached the door. Let us not be so busy as to forget the gracious acts and delicate courtesies of everyday life. As Dr. Bartol says: "These friendly good-mornings, these ownings of mutual ties, take on, in their mass, a character of the sublime. The young owe respect to their elders. There is a great deal of affection shown in our day, but the expression of reverence is not so common. Good manners are not simply 'a fortune' to a young person; they are more. They constitute the proof of a noble character." RALPH WALDO EMERSON. In selecting Ralph Waldo Emerson as our special example, we are sure of an admirable illustration. He was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 25th of May, 1803, the second of five sons. His father was the Rev. William Emerson, minister of the First Church, in Boston. One of his schoolmates says that as a youth, "it was impossible that there should be any feeling about him but of regard and affection." His course and graduation at Harvard College are remembered by his friends as marked chiefly by amiability, meditation, and faultless conduct. He taught school a short time and "made all the boys love him"; holding perfect control beneath courteous manners. Later on Emerson entered the ministry and became pastor of a church in Boston. He was greatly beloved by all who knew him. The cause of this universal affection was not solely in the books he produced, but in the wonderful courtesy of his character, as it faced toward life in every relation. His son, Edward W. Emerson, says: "My father's honor for humanity, and respect for humble people and for labor, were strong characteristics. To servants, he was kindly and delicately considerate; always fearful lest their feelings might be wounded. He built his own fires, going to the woodpile in the yard in all weather for armfuls of wood as occasion required." He then adds, "Nothing could be better than his manner to children and young people; affectionate, and with a marked respect for their personality." Never patronizing, always appreciative, he touched everybody with courtesy, and was, as Matthew Arnold said, "The friend of those who live in the spirit of high, generous standards." We see in his example what deep, real courtesy is. Courtesy, to him, was sincerity, and fairness, and good-will, all round. He welcomed shy merit, encouraged clumsyyouth, and smiled on good intentions, however poorly expressed. He did all this day after day at the cost of time and patience and strength. As a scholar, he might have secluded himself and simply written great books; but the power he is, and is to be, could not have been obtained that way. [Footnote: See "Ralph Waldo Emerson," by O. W. Holmes (Boston, 1884); "Emerson at Home and Abroad," by H. D. Conway; and F. B. Sanborn's "Homes and Haunts of Emerson."] XVIII. SELF-DENIAL. MEMORY GEMS. Self-denial is the essence of heroism.--Emerson True self-denial involves personal sacrifice for the good of others. --Dr. Momerie To give up interest for duty is the alphabet of morals.--James Hinton A man of self-denial has the true ring which distinguishes the genuine from the counterfeit.--Prof. Seeley The worst education which teaches self-denial is better than the best which teaches everything else, and not that.--John Sterling It is a mistake to imagine that self-sacrifice and self-denial are precisely the same. Many persons seem to think that because self-sacrifice is a noble thing, everything in which self is given up must be noble. Self may sometimes be sacrificed when it ought to be maintained; and sometimes we sacrifice our interest to save ourselves a little trouble, or to get rid of some petty annoyance. We say, "Well, I have a right to do this, but, let it go;" and then we fancy that we have performed a noble deed, whereas, we have really been serving our own selfishness and love of ease. True self-denial is the result of a calm and deliberate attachment to the highest good, and consists in the giving up of everything which stands in the way of its attainment, no matter what it may cost us either in suffering or loss. In our earliest years we must train ourselves to forego little things for the sake of others. If we do so, we shall find it much easier to bear the heavier disappointments of maturer years. It will greatly help us if we try to practice at least one distinct act of self-denial every day; and we must not forget that these acts must be both voluntary and cheerful if they are to be of real benefit either to ourselves or to others. The burdens which boyhood and girlhood must bear in acquiring an education, learning a trade, resisting temptations, and building spotless characters, demand the constant exercise of self-denial. Many people, young and old, know what duty is, but fail to do it for the want of decision. They know very well what labors and self-denials are necessary to obtain an education, master a trade, or attain to excellence in any pursuit; but their ignoble indecision, which is a sort of mental and moral debility, disqualifies them for the undertaking. "The will, which is the central force of character, must be trained to habits of decision; otherwise, it will neither be able to resist evil, nor to follow good." Our subject brings to mind many heroes of all kinds, to whose lives we would gladly refer, if our space permitted. They are found in all stations of life. There have been railway engineers, who, when they saw that a collision could not be avoided, have stood at their place to lighten, if possible, the shock, and have been killed; sea captains, who have remained at their posts till all others had left, and have gone down with their ships; physicians and nurses, and sisters of charity, who have not shrunk from pestilence in order to save life, or to comfort the dying. There was Father Damien, a Catholic priest, who so pitied the lepers that were confined to an island, deprived alike of the comforts of this world and of the consolations of religion, that he went and lived with them. He knew that when he once joined them he would probably take their disease, and, in any case, could never leave them. But he went, shared their lot, lived and died among them; seeking to do them good. Historic illustrations of self-denial, still fresh in the memories of many citizens, are to the point here. General Grant had been for several months in front of Petersburg, apparently accomplishing nothing, while General Sherman had captured Atlanta, and completed his grand "march to the sea." Then arose a strong cry to promote Sherman to Grant's position as lieutenant-general. Hearing of it, Sherman wrote to Grant: "I have written to John Sherman [his brother] to stop it. I would rather have you in command than any one else. I should emphatically decline any commission calculated to bring us into rivalry." General Grant replied: "No one would be more pleased with your advancement than I; and if you should be placed in my position, and I put subordinate, it would not change our relations in the least. I would make the same exertions to support you, that you have done to support me; and I would do all in my power to make our cause win." Two great souls striving to be equally magnanimous! Could anything be more beautiful or noble in public life, where jealousy, and selfishness and double-dealing appear to rule the hour? One or two other illustrations must suffice us. The captain of a ship was absent from it one day, being on board another vessel. While he was gone, a storm arose, which in a short time made an entire wreck of his own ship, to which it had not been possible for him to return. He had left on board two little boys, the one four years old and the other six, under the care of a young colored servant. The people struggled to get out of the sinking ship into a large boat; and the poor servant took the captain's two little children, tied them in a sack, and put them into the boat, which was by this time quite full. He was stepping into it himself, but was told by the officer that there was no room forhim,-- that either he or the children must perish, for the weight of all would sink the boat. The heroic servant did not hesitate a moment. "Very well," said he; "give my love to my master, and tell him I beg pardon for all my faults;" and then he went to the bottom, never to rise again till the sea shall give up its dead. The power and influence of self-denial are well set forth in the following incident: At a time of great scarcity in Germany, a certain rich man invited twenty poor children to his house, and said to them, "In this basket there is a loaf of bread for each of you; take it, and come again every day at this hour until the coming of better times." The children seized upon the basket, wrangled and fought for the bread, as each wished to get the best and largest loaf; and at last they went away without even thanking him. Frances alone, a poor but neatly dressed child, stood modestly at a distance, took the smallest loaf that was left in the basket, thanked the gentleman, and went home in a quiet and orderly manner. On the following day the children were just as ill-behaved; and poor Frances this time received a loaf which was scarcely half the size of the rest; but when she came home, and her mother began to cut the bread, there fell out of it a number of bright new silver coins. Her mother was perplexed and said, "Take back the money this instant; for it has no doubt, got into the bread through some mistake." Frances carried it back. But the benevolent man said, "No, no! it was no mistake. I had the money baked in the smallest loaf in order to reward you, my dear child. Remember that the person who is contented with the smallest loaf, rather than quarrel for the largest one, will find blessings still more valuable than money baked in bread." All these incidents reveal the value of this trait in real life; and also serve to show how it is regarded by others than ourselves. It will more than repay us for its cultivation, both by the increase of our own happiness, and in the large amount of enjoyment it will put into the lives of those about us. CHARLES LAMB. Charles Lamb was a writer of charming essays, full of wit and fancy. He seemed to the world as far as possible from a hero; yet his life washeroic in an unusual degree. He was the son of a clerk in the London Law Courts, and the youngest child in a family of three. He had a brother, John, who was twelve years, and a sister Mary, ten years older than himself. At the age of seventeen he became a clerk in the Accountant's Office of the East India Company. There was a kind of insanity in the family, and in September, 1796, Charles Lamb came home from his office-work to find that his sister had wounded her father in the forehead and had stabbed her mother to the heart. The inquest on the mother, held next day, was closed with a verdict of insanity, and Mary Lamb was placed in a lunatic asylum. John Lamb, the elder brother, offered no aid to the family. Charles loved his sister, and cared for her with a beautiful devotion. The combined earnings of Charles and his father were less than two hundred pounds a year, but Charles so arranged matters that sixty pounds a year was devoted to her support. Others of the family, especially her brother John, opposed Mary's discharge from the asylum; but Charles obtained her release by solemnly promising that he would take care of her. Although he was engaged to be married to a woman whom he tenderly loved, he gave up all for Mary's sake, and literally filled her life with his love. First he placed her in a lodging at Hackney, and spent all his Sundays and holidays with her. Then they lived together; he watching the moods that foreshadowed a mad fit, and taking her when needful, a willing patient, to the Hoxton asylum till the fit was over. It was a sad sight to see the brother and sister walking across the fields to the hospital together, when she felt that the trouble was coming on; but through the long period of forty years his love never once failed, and his devotion increased to the very end. His whole life developed into one of singular kindness and self-sacrifice. He is known to have worn a coat six months longer than he otherwise would have done, in order that he might spare a little money to help some one less fortunate than himself. One of his many friends, speaking of him said, "Of all the men of genius I ever knew, the one most intensely and universally to be loved was Charles Lamb." [Footnote: See Hazlitt's "Mary and Charles Lamb" (1874); "Biography of Charles Lamb," T. N. Talfourd (1840); and "Final Memoirs," T. N. Talfourd (1848).] XIX. SELF-RESPECT. MEMORY GEMS. Above all things reverence yourself.--Pythagoras No one can disgrace us but ourselves.--J. G. Holland Self-distrust is the cause of most of our failures.--Bovee Self-reverence, self-knowledge, self-control, these three alone lead life to sovereign power.--Tennyson To thine own self be true; and it will follow, as night the day, thou canst not then be false to any man.--Shakespeare There is around every man or woman, every boy or girl, a certain atmosphere that keeps him or her separate and distinct from all other persons. We realize the truth of this statement very early in life; and unless we can learn to respect and rely upon our own distinctive self-hood, our lives will never reach their largest possibilities. There is, however, a real difference between self-reliance and self-respect, though each partakes of the nature of the other. Self-respect is the root of which self-reliance is the growth in various acts or plans. It is the general tone and spirit running through our view of life, of our nature, of our friends, of our privileges, of our personal gifts. It is the basis on which we build self-reliant conduct and self-reliant convictions. It is generally the man who thinks well of himself who comes to be thought well of. But it is also true that when a man becomes perfectly satisfied with himself and his worldly surroundings, he has reached the first stage of decline. Self-confidence, backed by good common sense, is one of the most important of human attributes. But we must be careful not to exaggerate ourselves, or rate ourselves too highly. There are dangers attending every virtue. Pushed to excess, even conscience, justice, and earnestness, may become injurious. Self-respect must be guarded by common sense, love of humanity, and the spirit of reverence. But nothing can make good an absence of this quality. Even the Chinese say, "It never pays to respect a man who does not respect himself." If the world sees that you do not honor yourself, it has a right to reject you as an impostor; because you claim to be worthy of the good opinion of others when you have not your own. Self-respect is based upon the same principles as respect for others. The scales of justice hang in every heart, and even the murderer respects the judge who condemns him; for the still small voice within says, "That is right." Self-respect is a great aid to pure living. So long as a youth has true self-respect, vice has little attraction for him. It is when this sterling virtue is sacrificed, and the thoughtless or reckless one ceases to care what is thought of him, that vice claims its victim. He who cares not whether men think well or ill of him, does not possess self-respect; and so he is easily lured into evil, becoming more and more indifferent to the good-will of others, and more thoughtless and abandoned in his daily life. With the loss of self-respect, he is likely to lose all that makes manhood true and noble. The key to John Bunyan's career is found in the self-respect which began to govern his thoughts and acts in maturing youth, and which afterward enabled him to meet persecution victoriously and to develop his peculiar talent. If lie had been turned back by the scorn and contempt heaped upon him on account of his low condition, or if he had listened to critics who laughed at his simple, direct style in "Pilgrim's Progress"; or if he had lost courage because he belonged to a despised religious sect; we should never have had his inspiring example. The main business of life is not to do something great, but to become great in ourselves. Any action has its finest and most enduring fruit in character. Men of character are the conscience of the society to which they belong. They, rather than the police, guarantee the execution of the laws. Their influence is the bulwark of good government. Character gravitates upward, while mere genius, without character, gravitates downward. How often we see, in school or college, young men, who are apparently dull and even stupid, rise gradually and surely above others who are without character, merely because the former have an upward tendency in their lives, a reaching-up principle, which gradually but surely unfolds and elevates them to positions of honor and trust. There is something which everybody admires in an aspiring soul, one whose tendency is upward and onward, in spite of hindrances and in defiance of obstacles. As illustrating the mighty results of character based upon a self-respecting love of honor, we may relate that when General Lee was in conversation with one of his officers in regard to a movement of his army, a plain farmer's boy overheard the general's remark that he had decided to march upon Gettysburg instead of Harrisburg. The boy telegraphed this fact to Governor Curtin. A special engine was sent for the boy. "I would give my right hand," said the governor, "to know if this boy tells the truth." A corporal replied, "Governor, I know that boy; it is impossible for him to lie; there is not a drop of false blood in his veins." In fifteen minutes the Union troops were marching to Gettysburg, where they gained a glorious victory. True self-respect challenges the admiration of others. No man has reason to claim the regard of his fellows unless he first respects himself, for this latter act is the outcome of the only elements of character that can command the sincere esteem of men. A mean man, a dishonest man, a niggardly man, a lazy man, or a conceited man, does not respect himself. Unless he is living under the power of some strong delusion, he knows that he is not worthy of regard. A young man was invited by a friend to attend an entertainment which he thought was objectionable. "I am not entirely clear that it is wrong," he said, "and when I am in doubt, I think the safer course is to decline." "Perhaps you are right," answered the friend; "but I think that people will respect you as much as ever if you go." "Possibly; but I want to respect myself," replied the young man. "I should lose my self-respect by performing a doubtful act. My aim should be higher than that." Samuel Smiles expresses the truth well in this extract from "Character": "It is the great lesson of biography to teach what man can be and can do at his best. It may thus give each man renewed strength and confidence. The humblest, in sight of even the greatest, may admire and hope and take courage. These great brothers of ours in blood and lineage, who live a universal life, still speak to us from their graves, and beckon us on in the paths which they have trod." One of the last things said by Sir Walter Scott, as he lay dying, was this: "I have been, perhaps, the most voluminous author of my day, and it is a comfort to me to think that I have tried to unsettle no man's faith, to corrupt no man's principles, and that I have written nothing which, on my deathbed, I would wish blotted out." To have lived such a life as he lived is more than to have reigned over a kingdom. SIR WALTER SCOTT. We are glad to call special attention to Scott, because of his heroic struggle to maintain his good name. He was born in Edinburgh, August 15, 1771. He was the son of Walter Scott, an attorney at law; and Anne Rutherford, daughter of Dr. John Rutherford, professor of medicine in the University of Edinburgh, and a lineal descendant from the ancient chieftain Walter Scott, traditionally known as "Auld Walt of Harden." As a schoolboy Walter was very popular. He made himself respected for his courage and general ability to take care of himself. He was not considered a very bright scholar, although, even then, he gave evidence of his special delight in history, poetry, fairy tales, and fables. In 1783 he entered the university. He made little progress in the ancient languages, but was more successful in other studies. His time, however, was industriously employed in storing his mind with that great wealth of knowledge which afterward made him famous as a writer. Scott was educated for a lawyer, but all his natural tastes were in the direction of literature. The greater part of his early life was an unconscious preparation for writing. He had been writing prose romances for several years with considerable success, when in January, 1805, he published "The Lay of the Last Minstrel." It at once became extremely popular. It sold more widely than any poem had ever sold before. This led him to decide that literature was to be the main business of his life. "Marmion," which appeared in 1808, and "The Lady of the Lake," in 1810, placed Scott among the greatest living poets. He touched then the highest point of happiness and prosperity. Soon after this he entered into a business partnership with a publishing house, which resulted in his financial ruin. The failure left him partner to a debt of over one hundred thousand pounds. At the age of fifty-five, when all the freshness of youth was gone, he set himself the task of paying this enormous claim and winning back his ancestral estates. He went to work with a dogged determination to pay off his debt of honor. The heaviest blow was to his pride; yet pride alone never enabled any man to struggle so vigorously to meet the obligations he had incurred. It was rather that high feeling of self-respect which nerved his power to meet and try to overcome his great misfortune. His estates were conveyed to trustees for the benefit of his creditors, until such time as he could free them. Between January, 1826, and January, 1828, he earned forty thousand pounds by unremitting toil. Then his health broke down; yet he still struggled on with enfeebled constitution, but with an unbroken will, to discharge, if possible, his obligations, and leave to the world a respected name. [Footnote: See Lockhart's "Life of Sir Walter Scott" (Houghton, Mifflin & Co.); Hutton's "Sir Walter Scott;" and articles in encyclopedias.] XX. CONSCIENTIOUSNESS. MEMORY GEMS. Conscientiousness is the underlying granite of life.--Sir Walter Raleigh When love of praise takes the place of praiseworthiness, the defect is fatal.--S. Baring-Gould When a man is dead to the sense of right, he is lost forever. --James McCrie Insincerity alienates love and rots away authority.--Bulwer The value of conscientiousness is principally seen in the benefits of civilization.--Charles Kingsley "Conscientiousness is a scrupulous regard to the decisions of conscience." When we say a duty was performed "religiously," it is the same as a duty done conscientiously. Conscience does not _teach_ us what is right; we learn that from experience, and in many other ways. It simply tells us to do the best we know, and reproaches us when we do otherwise. Some one has well said: "We can train ourselves to be conscientious, to be responsive to conscience, to obey it; but conscience itself cannot be educated. It is like the sun. We may so arrange our house as to receive the largest amount of sunlight; but the sun itself cannot be changed either for our advantage or disadvantage. As a house with ample windows is illuminated within by the rays of the sun, so is a well-trained life filled with the light of conscience." We may therefore define conscientiousness as the inborn desire to do that which is right and just. Conscientiousness, which is, as we have just seen, another name for justice, is a trait to be cultivated among young people in their sports, in family life, and in school. A boy is unjust who refuses to "play fair"; a girl is unjust who deprives a friend of anything properly hers. Young people may be unjust in their words, in their thoughts, or in their actions; and the greatest watchfulness is needed to prevent us from failing in this important matter. One's sense of justice may be increased by thoughtfulness as to his duty to himself, as well as to others; and by demanding very rigid observance of every law of conduct which commends itself as needful to ideal character. "There is only one real failure possible in life," said Canon Farrar, "and that is, not to be true to the best one knows." "I can remember when you blackened my father's shoes," said one member of the British House of Commons to another in the heat of debate. "True enough," was the prompt reply, "but did I not blacken them well?" The sense of right-doing was sufficient to turn an intended insult into a well-merited compliment, and to increase for him the esteem of his fellow-members. "Whatever is right to do," said an eminent writer, "should be done with our best care, strength, and faithfulness of purpose." Leonardo da Vinci would walk across Milan to change a single tint or the slightest detail in his famous picture of "The Last Supper." Rufus Choate would plead before a shoemaker justice of the peace, in a petty case, with all the fervor and careful attention to detail with which he addressed the United States Supreme Court. "No, I can't do it, it is impossible," said Webster, when pressed to speak on a question soon to come up, toward the close of a Congressional session. "I am so pressed with other duties that I haven't time to prepare myself to speak upon that theme." "Ah, but Mr. Webster, you always speak well upon any subject. You never fail." "But that's the very reason," said the orator, "because I never allow myself to speak upon any subject without first making that subject thoroughly my own. I haven't time to do that in this instance. Hence I must refuse." Among the list of our great reformers, William Lloyd Garrison must always hold a very prominent place. The work he did was that of unselfish devotion to an overmastering sense of justice. He labored for those in bonds, as bound with them. Faithful, as but few others were faithful, he worked in season and out of season for human freedom. After great effort, Mr. Garrison succeeded in establishing an antislavery society, and he was made its agent to lecture for the cause. He was sent to England to solicit funds for starting a manual-labor school for the colored youth. But the whole tone of society was against him. He was at the mercy of that prejudice which, at so many points, was ready to adopt mob violence. The discussion of slavery was taken up in educational institutions where, as in general society, but very few were found who believed in universal freedom. But still he never swerved from what he believed to be right. Justice was his plea; justice was his battle cry; and it came to be said of him that "He was conscience incarnated." A beautiful illustration of justice, and fairness of treatment, occurred at the opening of the great battle of Manila Bay, on May 1, 1898. When the order was given to strip for action, one of the powder boys tore his coat off hurriedly, and it fell from his hands and went over the rail, down into the bay. A few moments before, he had been gazing on his mother's photograph, and just before he took his coat off he had kissed the picture and put it in his inside pocket. When the coat fell overboard he turned to the captain and asked permission to jump over and get it. Naturally the request was refused. The boy then went to the other side of the ship and climbed down the ladder. He swam around to the place where the coat had dropped and succeeded in getting it. When he came back he was put in irons for disobedience. After the battle he was tried by a court-martial for disobedience, and found guilty. Commodore Dewey became interested in the case, for he could not understand why the boy had risked his life and disobeyed orders for a coat. The lad had never told his motives. But when the commodore talked to him in a kindly way, and asked him why he had done such a strange thing for an old coat, he burst into tears and told the commodore that his mother's picture was in the coat. Dewey's eyes filled with tears as he listened to the story. Then he picked up the boy and embraced him. He ordered the little fellow to be instantly released and pardoned. "A boy who loves his mother enough to risk his life for her picture, cannot be kept in irons on this fleet," he said. Examples by the score crowd in upon our minds as we think more deeply into this subject, but space permits of only one more before passing to our special illustration: When troubled with deafness, the Duke of Wellington consulted a celebrated physician, who put strong caustic into his ear, causing an inflammation which threatened his life. The doctor apologized, expressed great regrets, and said that the blunder would ruin him. "No," said Wellington, "I will never mention it." "But will you allow me to attend you, so that the people will not withdraw their confidence?" "No," said the Iron Duke, "that would be lying." Enough has perhaps been said to show that conscientiousness and justice are not simply beautiful traits of character; but that they are absolutely necessary to the fullest advancement of the individual and of the race. We proceed to enforce this truth still more strongly, however, by a closing reference to the career of one of our greatest statesmen. CHARLES SUMNER. In using Mr. Sumner as our special illustration of conscientiousness, it is not because we lack other examples. On the contrary, they are all about us; and doubtless we could all mention excellent cases in our own homes, and among our own acquaintances, where conscientiousness has been vividly illustrated. He was the eldest of nine children, and was born in Boston, on the sixth day of January, 1811. His father was a lawyer, and sheriff of Suffolk County, and was descended from the early colonists of New England. Even in childhood and youth Charles Sumner evinced the quiet, thoughtful, and serious temperament which was characteristic of the Puritans. As a boy he took little interest in games and frolics. He read much, and was reserved and awkward. Society to him, in early life, possessed no attractions; and while he was always studious and patient he never displayed any marked talent. His progress in life was almost entirely due to his conscientious, persistent, untiring application to the acquisition of knowledge and the development of all his powers. He was in the highest sense a cultivated man. His mind became, through conscientious and laborious study, a great storehouse, filled with the richest materials and the power to use them. But he did not seek these treasures of learning and power for the simple end of glorifying himself. His one great object in life was to benefit mankind. He said in an address, delivered just after he had begun the practice of law, speaking of conscience and charity: "They must become a part of us and of our existence, as present, in season and out of season, in all the amenities of life, in those daily offices of conduct and manner which add so much to its charm, as also in those grander duties whose performance evinces an ennobling self-sacrifice." It was his own determined and unfaltering devotion to this lofty ideal, that led directly to the success of his great public career. Charles Sumner was first elected to the Senate in 1851. Throughout his brilliant life his lofty character never forsook him; and if we will carefully examine the measures which he advocated, voted for, or opposed, from time to time, the discovery will be made that his conscience was his inevitable guide. While he dearly loved peace, he was always in the midst of warfare. He constantly incurred the censure which arises from advocating unpopular measures. Childlike in his personal friendships, he often spoke about himself as he would speak of others,--revealing what others would have concealed. Frank, sincere, and pledged from youth to principles, rather than to persons, he was obliged to struggle against great obstacles. To him the slave was a human being with a soul, entitled to every right and privilege accorded to any American citizen. He devoted his energies to the cause of freedom down to the very last, and died in Washington, on March 11, 1874, exclaiming, "Don't let my Civil Rights Bill fail!" [Footnote: See "Memoir and Letters of Charles Sumner," by Edward L. Pierce, (Boston, 1877), and many articles in the magazines, especially noting the sketch in Appleton's Cyclopedia of American Biography, Vol. V., page 744.] XXI. ENTHUSIASM. MEMOBY GEMS. Nothing is so contagious as enthusiasm.--Bulwer Enthusiasm is the fundamental quality of strong souls.--Carlyle The only conclusive evidence of a man's sincerity is that he gives himself for a principle.--Phillips Brooks Enthusiasm is the romance of the boy that becomes the heroism of the man.--A. Bronson Alcott Every great and commanding movement in the annals of the world is the triumph of some enthusiasm.--Emerson In the course of every life there are sure to be obstacles and difficulties to be met. Prudence hesitates and examines them; intelligence usually suggests some ingenious way of getting around them; patience and perseverance deliberately go to work to dig under them; but enthusiasm is the quality that boldly faces and leaps lightly over them. By the power of enthusiasm the most extraordinary undertakings, that seemed impossible of accomplishment, have been successfully carried out. Enthusiasm makes weak men strong, and timid women courageous. Almost all the great works of art have been produced when the artist was intoxicated with a passion for beauty and form, which would not let him rest until his thought was expressed in marble or on canvas. A recent writer has said: "Enthusiasm is life lit up and shining. It is the passion of the spirit pushing forward toward some noble activity. It is one of the most powerful forces that go to the making of a noble and heroic character." In the Gallery of Fine Arts, in Paris, is a beautiful statue conceived by a sculptor who was so poor that he lived and worked in a small garret. When his clay model was nearly done, a heavy frost fell upon the city. He knew that if the water in the interstices of the clay should freeze, the beautiful lines would be distorted. So he wrapped his bedclothes around the clay image to preserve it from destruction. In the morning he was found dead; but his idea was saved, and other hands gave it enduring form in marble. Another instance of rare consecration to a great enterprise is found in the work of the late Francis Parkman. While a student at Harvard, he determined to write the history of the French and English in North America. With a steadiness and devotion seldom equaled, he gave his life, his fortune, his all, to this one great object. Although he had ruined his health while among the Dakota Indians, collecting material for his history, and could not use his eyes more than five minutes at a time for fifty years, he did not swerve a hair's breadth from the high purpose formed in his youth, until he gave to the world the best history upon this subject ever written. What a power there is in an enthusiastic adherence to an ideal! What are hardships, ridicule, persecution, toil, or sickness, to a soul throbbing with an overmastering purpose? Gladstone says that "what is really wanted, is to light up the spirit that is within a boy." In some sense, and in some degree, there is in every boy the material for doing good work in the world; not only in those who are brilliant and quick, but even in those who are stolid and dull. A real enthusiasm makes men happy, keeps them fresh, hopeful, joyous. Life never stagnates with them. They always keep sweet, anticipate a "good time coming," and help to make it come. Enthusiasm has been well called the "lever of the world"; for it sets in motion, if it does not control, the grandest revolutions! Its influence is immense. History bears frequent record of its contagiousness, showing how vast multitudes have been roused into emotion by the enthusiasm of one man; as was the case when the crowd of knights, and squires, and men-at-arms, and quiet peasants, entered, at the bidding of St. Bernard, upon the great Crusade. The simple, innocent Maid of Orleans,--with her sacred sword, her consecrated banner, and her belief in her great mission,--sent a thrill of enthusiasm through the whole French army such as neither king nor statesman could produce. Her zeal carried everything before it. Enthusiasm makes men strong. It wakes them up, brings out their latent powers, keeps up incessant action, impels to tasks requiring strength, and then carries them to completion. Many are born to be giants, yet, from lack of enthusiasm, few grow above common men. They need to be set on fire by some eager impulse, inspired by some grand resolve, and they would then quickly rise head and shoulders above their fellows. Enthusiasm is the element of success in everything. It is the light that leads, and the strength that lifts men on and up in the great struggles of scientific pursuits and of professional labors. It robs endurance of difficulty, and makes a pleasure of duty. Enthusiasm gives to man a power that is irresistible. It is that secret and harmonious spirit which hovers over the production of genius, throwing the reader of a book, or the spectator of a statue, into the presence of those with whom these works have originated. A great work always leaves us in a state of lofty contemplation, if we are in sympathy with it. The most irresistible charm of youth is its bubbling enthusiasm. The youth who comes fully under its control sees no darkness ahead. He forgets that there is such a thing as failure in the world, and believes that mankind has been waiting all these centuries for him to come and be the liberator of truth and energy and beauty. The boy Bach copied whole books of musical studies by moonlight, for want of a candle churlishly denied. Nor was he disheartened when these copies were taken from him. The boy painter West, began his work in a garret, and cut hairs from the tail of the family cat for bristles to make his brushes. Gerster, an unknown Hungarian singer, made fame and fortune sure the first night she appeared in opera. Her enthusiasm almost mesmerized her auditors. In less than a week she had become popular and independent. Her soul was smitten with a passion for growth, and all the powers of heart and mind were devoted to self-improvement. Enthusiasm is purified and ennobled by self-denial. As the traveler, who would ascend a lofty mountain summit, to enjoy the sunset there, leaves the quiet of the lowly vale, and climbs the difficult path, so the true enthusiast, in his aspiration after the highest good, allows himself to be stopped by no wish for wealth and pleasure, and every step he takes forward is connected with self-denial, but is a step nearer to success. THOMAS A. EDISON. If one were to ask what individual best typifies the industrial progress of this nation, it would be easy to answer, Thomas Alva Edison. Looking at him as a newspaper boy, at the age of fifteen, one would hardly have been led to predict that this young fellow would be responsible for the industrial transformation of this continent. At that early age he had already begun to dabble in chemistry, and had fitted up a small traveling laboratory. One day, as he was performing an experiment, the train rounded a curve and the bottles of chemicals were dashed to the floor. There followed a series of unearthly odors and unnatural complications. The conductor, who had suffered long and patiently, now ejected the youthful enthusiast; and, it is said, accompanied the expulsion with a resounding box upon the ear. This did not dampen Edison's ardor, in the least. He passed through one dramatic situation after another, mastering each and all; but his advancement was due to patient, persevering work. Not long ago a reporter asked him if he had regular hours for work. "Oh!" he answered, "I do not work hard now. I come to the laboratory about eight o'clock every day, and go home to tea at six; and then I study and work on some problem until eleven, which is my hour for bed." When it was suggested that fourteen or fifteen hours' work per day could scarcely be called loafing, he replied, "Well, for fifteen years I have worked on an average twenty hours a day." Nothing but a rare devotion to an interesting subject could keep any man so diligently employed. So enthusiastically did he pursue his researches, that, when he had once started to solve a difficult problem, he has been known to work at it for sixty consecutive hours. In describing his Boston experiences, Edison relates that he bought Faraday's works on electricity, and beginning to read them at three o'clock in the morning, continued until his room-mate arose, when they started on their long walk for breakfast. Breakfast, however, was of small account in Edison's mind compared with his love for Faraday; and he suddenly remarked to his friend, "Adams, I have so much to do, and life is so short, that I must hustle;" and with that he started off on a dead run for the boarding-house. Edison has shown that he cares nothing for money, and has no particular enthusiasm for fame. "What makes you work so hard?" asked a friend. "I like it," he answered, after a moment's puzzled expression; and then repeated several times, "I like it. I do not know any other reason. You know how some people like to collect stamps. Anything I have begun is always on my mind, and I am not easy while away from it until it is finished." Electrical science is still in its infancy, but the enthusiasm of Edison has done much for its advancement. The subject indeed is a fascinating one, and Edison's devotion to it, and the discoveries and practical applications he has made in his researches, have placed him in the front rank of America's greatest inventors. [Footnote: See Review of Reviews, Vol. XVIII., and articles in encyclopedias.] XXII. COURAGE. MEMORY GEMS. The best hearts are always the bravest.--Sterne In noble souls, valor does not wait for years.--Corneille Courage is always greatest when blended with meekness.--Earl Stanhope A brave man hazards life, but not his conscience.--Schiller A great deal of talent is lost in the world for want of a little courage.--Sydney Smith The definition of courage given by Webster is, "that quality of mind which enables men to encounter danger and difficulties with firmness or without fear or depression of spirits." We would rather say that courage does not consist in feeling no fear, but in conquering fear. Our meaning will perhaps be best made clear by the following illustrations: Two French officers at Waterloo were advancing to charge a greatly superior force. One, observing that the other showed signs of fear, said "Sir, I believe you are frightened." "Yes, I am," was the reply; "and if you were half as much frightened, you would run away." "That's a brave man," said Wellington, when he saw a soldier turn pale as he marched against a battery; "he knows his danger, and faces it." Genuine courage is based on something more than animal strength; and this holds true always. Cowardly hearts are often encased in giant frames. Slender women often display astounding bravery. The courageous man is a real helper in the work of the world's advancement. His influence is magnetic. He creates an epidemic of nobleness. Men follow him, even to the death. "Our enemies are before us," exclaimed the Spartans at Thermopylae. "And we are before them," was the cool reply of Leonidas. "Deliver your arms," came the message from Xerxes. "Come and take them," was the answer Leonidas sent back. A Persian soldier said: "You will not be able to see the sun for flying javelins and arrows." "Then we will fight in the shade," replied a Lacedaemonian. What wonder that a handful of such men checked the march of the greatest host that ever trod the earth. Don't be like Uriah Heep, begging everybody's pardon for taking the liberty of being in the world. There is nothing attractive in timidity, nothing lovable in fear. Both are deformities, and are repulsive. Manly courage is dignified and graceful. The spirit of courage will transform the whole temper of your life. "The wise and active conquer difficulties by daring to attempt them. The lazy and the foolish shiver and sicken at the sight of trial and hazard, and create the very impossibility they fear." Abraham Lincoln's boyhood was one long struggle with poverty, with little education, and no influential friends. When at last he had begun the practice of law, it required no little daring to cast his fortune with the weaker side in politics, and thus imperil what small reputation he had gained. Only the most sublime moral courage could have sustained him as President to hold his ground against hostile criticism and a long train of disaster, to issue the Emancipation Proclamation, to support Grant and Stanton against the clamor of the politicians and the press, and, through it all, to do what he believed to be right. Did you ever read the fable of the magician and the mouse? It is worth reading in this connection: A mouse that dwelt near the abode of a great magician, was kept in such constant fear of a cat, that the magician, taking pity on it, turned it into a cat itself. Immediately it began to suffer from its fear of a dog, so the magician turned it into a dog. Then it began to suffer from fear of a tiger. The magician therefore turned it into a tiger. Then it began to suffer from fear of hunters, and the magician said in disgust: "Be a mouse again. As you have only the heart of a mouse, it is impossible to help you by giving you the body of a nobler animal." The moral of the story you can gather for yourselves. We have already said that many women have displayed courage of a very high order. Here is a case in point: Charles V. of Spain passed through Thuringia in 1547, on his return to Swabia after the battle of Muehlburg. He wrote to Catherine, Countess Dowager of Schwartzburg, promising that her subjects should not be molested in their persons or property if they would supply the Spanish soldiers with provisions at a reasonable price. On approaching her residence, General Alva and Prince Henry of Brunswick, with his sons, invited themselves, by a messenger sent forward, to breakfast with the Countess, who had no choice but to ratify so delicate a request from the commander of an army. Just as the guests were seated at a generous repast, the Countess was called from the hall and told that the Spaniards were using violence and driving away the cattle of the peasants. Quietly arming all her retinue, she bolted and barred all the gates and doors of the castle, and returned to the banquet to complain of the breach of faith. General Alva told her that such was the custom of war, adding that such trifling disorders were not to be heeded. "That we shall presently see," said Catherine; "my poor subjects must have their own again, or, as God lives, prince's blood for oxen's blood!" The doors were opened, and armed men took the place of the waiters behind the chairs of the guests. Henry changed color; then, as the best way out of a bad scrape, laughed loudly, and ended by praising the splendid acting of his hostess, and promising that Alva should order the cattle restored at once. Not until a courier returned, saying that the order had been obeyed, and all damages settled satisfactorily, did the armed waiters leave. The Countess then thanked her guests for the honor they had done her castle, and they retired with protestations of their distinguished consideration. There is a form of moral courage which bears most directly upon ourselves. It is seen in the career of William H. Seward, who was given a thousand dollars by his father to go to college with, and told that this was all he was to have. The son returned home at the end of his freshman year with extravagant habits and no money. His father refused to give him more, and told him he could not stay at home. When the youth found the props all taken out from under him, and that he must now sink or swim, he left home moneyless, returned to college, graduated at the head of his class, studied law, was elected governor of New York, and became Lincoln's great Secretary of State during the Civil War. Genuine courage is neither rash, vain, nor selfish. It sometimes leadsus to appear cowardly; and cowardice sometimes puts on the guise of boldness. We need to know the individual and the circumstances to judge correctly as to whether courage is of the true order. We should all discourage the tendency to exalt brute force and mere muscle to high admiration; and enforce the power of mind, ideas, and lofty ambition. The noblest phase of courage and heroism is in the submission of this might to the laws of right and helpfulness. RICHARD PEARSON HOBSON. There is no better modern illustration of courage than that thrilling exploit of Lieutenant Hobson in taking the Merrimac into the harbor of Santiago. While the Spanish fleet, under Admiral Cervera, lay blockaded in Santiago Bay, the idea was conceived of making the blockade doubly safe by sinking the coal-ship Merrimac across the narrow channel. To carry out this plan cool-headed, heroic men were needed, who would be willing to take their lives in their hands, for the good of their country's cause. To accomplish the object, the vessel must be taken into a harbor full of mines, under the fire of three shore batteries, supported by a powerful Spanish fleet and two regiments of soldiers. The honor of carrying out this bold scheme was given to young Hobson, by whom the plan had been mainly outlined. He was a young man from Alabama, twenty-seven years of age, a graduate of the Naval Academy in the class of 1889, being the youngest member, and standing at the head of his class. He had already shown himself to be a gentleman, a student, and an adept in practical affairs. Now he was to prove that he was a hero. Here came to him, in the ordinary course of duty, the opportunity for which he had prepared himself; and the courage with which he carried it out made for him a name which will always be remembered in the annals of naval warfare. Out of the hundreds who volunteered to assist him in this perilous undertaking, six men were selected. At an early hour in the morning the gallant crew set out. Every vessel in the American fleet was on the alert: every man's nerves were at the highest tension over the success of the project and the fate of Hobson and his comrades. Thousands of anxious eyes peered through the darkness as they watched the old collier disappear into the harbor. Suddenly the scene changed. Sheets of fire flashed from Morro Castle and the other batteries along the shore. It seemed impossible for human life to exist in that deadly and concentrated fire. In the downpour of shot and shell the Merrimac's rudder was blown away and her stern anchor cut loose. The electric batteries were damaged to such an extent that only part of the torpedoes could be exploded. The result was that instead of sinking where intended, the vessel drifted with the tide past the narrow neck. The Merrimac sank but did not completely block up the channel. The enemy's fire was so incessant and sweeping that it was impossible for the crew to reach the life-raft which they had in tow; so Hobson and his men lay flat on deck and waited for the ship to sink. It was a terrible waiting while every great gun and Mauser rifle was pouring its deadly fire upon the ship. At last the end came. The ship sank beneath the waves, and, through the whirlpool of rushing water, the men rose to the surface and climbed upon their raft. Clinging to this, with their faces only out of water they waited for daylight, and then gave themselves up as prisoners to the Spaniards. In the afternoon, Admiral Cervera sent an officer, under a flag of truce, to Admiral Sampson, telling him of their safety, and adding: "Daring like theirs makes the bitterest enemies proud that their fellow-men can be so brave." [Footnote: See Review of Reviews, Vol. XVIII., and Draper's "The Rescue of Cuba" and other war stories recently published.] XXIII. SELF-HELP. MEMORY GEMS. Our remedies oft in ourselves do lie, which we ascribe to Heaven. --Shakespeare Be sure, my son, and remember that the best men always make themselves. --Patrick Henry. God gives every bird its food, but he does not throw it into the nest. --J. G. Holland Every person has two educations, one which he receives from others, and one, more important, which he gives himself.--Gibbon In battle or business, whatever the game, In law, or in love it is ever the same: In the struggle for power, or the scramble for pelf, Let this be your motto, "Rely on yourself."--J. G. Saxe History and biography unite in teaching that circumstances have rarely favored great men. They have fought their way to triumph over the road of difficulty and through all sorts of opposition. Boys of lowly origin have made many of the greatest discoveries, are presidents of our banks, of our colleges, of our universities. Our poor boys and girls have written many of our greatest books, and have filled the highest places as teachers and journalists. Ask almost any great man in our large cities where he was born, and he will tell you it was on a farm or in a small country village. Nearly all the great capitalists of the city came from the country. Frederick Douglass, America's most representative colored man, was born a slave, reared in bondage, liberated by his own exertions, educated and advanced by sheer pluck and perseverance, to distinguished positions in the service of his country, and to a high place in the respect and esteem of the whole world. Chauncey Jerome, the inventor of machine-made clocks, started with twoothers on a tour through New Jersey, they to sell the clocks, and he to make cases for them. On his way to New York he went through New Haven, Connecticut, in a lumber wagon, eating bread and cheese. He afterward lived in a fine mansion in that city, and stood very high among its people. Men who have been bolstered up all their lives are seldom good for anything in a crisis. When misfortune comes, they look around for somebody to lean upon. If the prop is not there down they go. Once down, they are helpless as capsized turtles. Many a boy has succeeded beyond all his expectations simply because all props were knocked out from under him and he was obliged to stand upon his own feet. "Poverty is uncomfortable, as I can testify," said James A. Garfield; "but nine times out of ten the best thing that can happen to a young man is to be tossed overboard and compelled to sink or swim for himself. In all my acquaintance I have never known a man to be drowned who was worth the saving." What is put into the first of life is put into the whole of life. The great London preacher, Mr. Spurgeon, once said "Out of a church of twenty-seven hundred members, I have never had to exclude a single one who was received while a child;" and in other respects it is equally true that our earliest impressions and habits most powerfully influence our later life. Washington, at thirteen, copied into his commonplace book one hundred and ten maxims of civility and good behavior, and was most careful in the formation of all his habits. Franklin, too, devised a plan of self-improvement and character-building. No doubt the noble characters of these two men, almost superhuman in their excellence, are the natural result of their early care and earnest striving toward perfection. But the opposite truth needs to be quite as fully considered. "Many men of genius have written worse scrawls than I do," said a boy at Eugby, when his teacher remonstrated with him for his bad penmanship; "it is not worth while to worry about so trivial a fault." Ten years later, when he had become an officer in the Crimea, his illegible copy of an order caused the loss of many brave men. The insidious growth of the power of habit is well illustrated by the old fable which says that one of the Fates spun filaments so fine that they were invisible, and then became a victim of her own cunning; for she was bound to the spot by these very threads. There is also a story of a Grecian flute-player who charged double fees for pupils who had been taught by inferior masters, on the ground that it was much harder to undo bad habits than to form good ones. "Conduct," says Matthew Arnold, "is three fourths of life;" but conduct has its source in character. Right conduct in life is to be secured by the formation of right character in youth. The prime element in character, as related to conduct, is the power of self-directions and hence the supreme aim of school discipline is to prepare the young to be self-governing men and women. An easy and luxurious existence does not train men to effort or encounter with difficulty; nor does it awaken that consciousness of power which is so necessary for energetic and effective action in life. Indeed, so far from poverty being a misfortune, it may, by vigorous self-help, be converted into a blessing. A young man stood listlessly watching some anglers on a bridge. He was poor and dejected. At length, approaching a basket filled with fish, he sighed, "If now I had these I would be happy. I could sell them and buy food and lodging." "I will give you just as many and just as good," said the owner, who chanced to overhear his words, "if you will do me a trifling favor." "And what is that?" asked the other. "Only to tend this line till I come back; I wish to go on a short errand." The proposal was gladly accepted. The old man was gone so long that the young man began to get impatient. Meanwhile the fish snapped greedily at the hook, and he lost all his depression in the excitement of pulling them in. When the owner returned he had caught a large number. Counting out from them as many as were in the basket, and presenting them to the youth, the old fisherman said, "I fulfill my promise from the fish you have caught, to teach you whenever you see others earning what you need, to waste no time in foolish wishing, but cast a line for yourself." After a stained-glass window had been constructed for a great European cathedral, an artist picked up the discarded fragments and made one of the most exquisite windows in Europe for another cathedral. So one boy will pick up a splendid education out of the odds and ends of time which others carelessly throw away, or he will gain a fortune by saving what others waste. There is an English fable that is worthy of special attention. The story is as follows: Some larks had a nest in a field of grain. One evening the old larks coming home found the young ones in great terror. "We must leave our nest at once," they cried. Then they related how they had heard the farmer say that he must get his neighbors to come the next day and help him reap his field. "Oh!" cried the old birds, "if that is all, we may rest quietly in our nest." The next evening the young birds were found again in a state of terror. The farmer, it seems, was very angry because his neighbors had not come, and had said that he should get his relatives to come the next day and help him. The old birds took the news easily, and said there was nothing to fear yet. The next evening the young birds were quite cheerful. "Have you heard nothing to-day?" asked the old ones. "Nothing important," answered the young. "It is only that the farmer was angry because his relatives also failed him, and he said to his sons, 'Since neither our neighbors nor our relations will help us, we must take hold to-morrow and do it ourselves!'" The old birds were excited this time. They said, "We must leave our nest to-night. When a man decides to do a thing for himself, and to do it at once, you may be pretty sure that it will be done." If you have anything to do, do it yourself; for that is both the surest and the safest way to permanent success. STEPHEN GIRAD. We present by way of special illustration, a few incidents from thecareer of Stephen Girard. A sloop was seen one morning off the mouth of Delaware Bay, floating the flag of France and a signal of distress. Girard, then quite a young man, was captain of this sloop, and was on his way to a Canadian port with freight from New Orleans. An American skipper, seeing his distress, went to his aid, but told him the American war had broken out, and that the British cruisers were all along the American coast, and would seize his vessel. He told him his only chance was to make a push for Philadelphia. Girard did not know the way, and was short of money. The skipper loaned him five dollars to get the service of a pilot who demanded his money in advance; and his sloop passed into the Delaware just in time to avoid capture by a British war vessel. He sold the sloop and cargo in Philadelphia, and began business on the capital. Being a foreigner, unable to speak English, with a repulsive face, and blind in one eye, it was hard for him to get a start. But he was not the man to give up. There seemed to be nothing he would not do for money. He bought and sold anything, from groceries to old junk. Everything he touched prospered. In 1780, he resumed the New Orleans and San Domingo trade, in which he had been engaged at the breaking out of the War of the Revolution, and in one year cleared nearly fifty thousand dollars. Everybody, especially his jealous brother merchants, attributed his great success to his luck. While, undoubtedly, he was fortunate in happening to be at the right place at the right time, yet he was precision, method, accuracy, energy itself. He left nothing to chance. His plans and schemes were worked out with mathematical care. His letters, written to his captains in foreign ports, laying out their routes and giving detailed instruction from which they were never allowed to deviate under any circumstances, are models of foresight and systematic planning. Girard never lost a ship; and many times, what brought financial ruin to many others, as the War of 1812, only increased his wealth. What seemed luck with him was only good judgment and promptness in seizing opportunities, and the greatest care and zeal in personal attention to all the details of his business and the management of his own affairs. [Footnote: See Simpson's "Life of Stephen Girard" (Phila. 1832), and H. W. Arey's "Girard College and its Founder" (1860).] XXIV. HUMILITY. MEMORY GEMS. Humility is the true cure for many a needless heartache.--A. Montague It is easy to look down on others; to look down on ourselves is the difficulty.--Lord Peterborough Humility is a divine veil which covers our good deeds, and hides them from our eyes.--St. John Climacas Humility is the root, mother, nurse, foundation, and bond of all virtue.--Chrysostom Modest humility is beauty's crown; for the beautiful is a hidden thing, and shrinks from its own power.--Schiller We pass now from the strong and active virtue of self-help, to the gentle and passive virtue of humility. In doing so, we quickly discover that it requires a sound moral judgment to strike the right balance between humility and self-reliance, and between meekness and self-respect. The true man is both meek and self-reliant, humble and yet by no means incapable of self-assertion. The really strong man is the most thoroughly gentle of men, and the genuinely self-confident man is the one who is most truly humble in his regard for the rights and interests of others. We have great need of this particular grace, and we ought to study its relation to our life in general; for we should often have reason to be ashamed of our most brilliant actions if the world could see the motives from which they spring. Humility has been well defined as "a simple and lowly estimation of one's self." When practically thought of, it is mostly looked upon in a negative light, and considered as the absence of, or opposite to, pride. The general line of human thinking rather tends in the opposite direction; but experience teaches that if we wish to be great, we shall do well to begin by being little. If we desire to construct a strong and noble character, we must not forget that the greatest lives have always rested on foundations of humility. The higher your structure is to be, the deeper must be its foundation. Humility does not consist in a disposition falsely to underrate ourselves, "but in being willing to waive our rights, and descend to a lower place than is our due; in being ready to admit our liability to error, and in freely owning our faults when conscious of having been wrong; and, in short, in not being over-careful of our own dignity." This virtue is the friend of intellect instead of its enemy, because humility is both a moral instinct which seeks truth, and a moral instrument for attaining truth. It leads us to base our knowledge on truth; it also leads us truthfully to recognize the real measure of our capacity. All really great men have been humble men in spirit and temper. Such was Lincoln; such was Washington. Izaac Walton relates how George Herbert helped a poor man whose horse had fallen under his load, laying off his coat for that purpose, aiding him to unload, and then again to load his cart. When his friends rebuked Herbert for this service he said that "the thought of what he had done would prove music to him at midnight, for he felt bound, so far as was in his power, to practice that for which he prayed." An instance often cited, but always beautiful, is that of Sir Philip Sidney when mortally wounded at Zutphen as described by an old writer: "Being thirsty with an excess of bleeding, he called for drink, which was presently brought him; but as he was putting the bottle to his mouth, he saw a poor soldier carried along, casting up his eyes at the bottle; which Sir Philip perceiving, took it from his lips before he drank, and delivered it to the poor man with these words: 'Thy necessity is yet greater than mine.'" It mattered nothing to Sir Philip that he was an officer and therefore of higher standing than the poor private. He humbled himself and did a kindly action, and his noble deed will never be forgotten. Humility is not lack of courage; it is not the poverty of spirit which shrinks from encounter. So far from destroying moral force, it protects and strengthens it; it sternly represses the little vanities through which strength of character evaporates and is lost. It is a noble trait in peasant or in prince, in the cottage of the workman or in the mansion of the millionaire. Trajan, the Roman emperor, has set us an example of condescension and affability. He was equal, indeed, to the greatest generals of antiquity; but the sounding titles bestowed upon him by his admirers did not elate him. All the oldest soldiers he knew by name. He conversed with them with the greatest familiarity, and never retired to his tent before he had visited the camps. He refused the statues which the flattery of friends wished to erect to him, and he ridiculed the follies of an enlightened nation that could pay adoration to cold inanimate pieces of marble. His public entry into Rome gained him the hearts of the people; for he appeared on foot, and showed himself an enemy to parade and ostentatious equipage. His wish to listen to the just complaints of his subjects, caused his royal abode to be called "the public palace"; and his people learned to love him as greatly as they admired him. True humility is not cowardly, cringing, or abjectly weak. It is strength putting itself by the side of weakness through sympathy, and not weakness abasing itself in the presence of that which it pretends is greater than itself. The humble man is the man who feels his own imperfection, and therefore does not condemn another. The truly humble say very little about their humility, except in rare moments of emotion, but live and labor in quietness for the promotion of the public good. Sincerity and lowliness of spirit have been often commended, as when the Pythian Apollo rebuked the pompous sacrifice offered at his shrine by a rich Magnesian, and said that he preferred the simple cake and frankincense of a pious Achaean which was offered in humbleness of heart. Do not allow yourselves to be deceived by false appearances, but lay to heart the story of the farmer who went with his son into a wheatfield to see if it was ready for the harvest. "See, father," exclaimed the boy, "how straight these stems hold up their heads! They must be the best ones. These that hang their heads down cannot be good for much." The farmer plucked a stalk of each kind, and said, "See here, foolish child! This stalk that stood so straight is light-headed, and almost good for nothing; while this that hung its head so modestly is full of the most beautiful grain." "Humility is like the violet which grows low, and covers itself with its own leaves, and yet of all flowers, yields the most delicious and fragrant smell." This virtue is not to be confounded with mean-spiritedness, or that abject state of feeling which permits a man to surrender the rights of his character to any one who chooses to infringe upon them. While it thinks little of personal considerations, it thinks the more of character and principle. It is really a powerful aid to progress. When we realize how little we know, we shall earnestly strive to know more; when we feel how imperfect is our character, we shall make earnest efforts after improvement. PHILLIPS BROOKS. Phillips Brooks may certainly be ranked among the greatest men of the present generation. He was physically and mentally strong; possessed of a great personality that compelled him to self-assertion; and was self-reliant in a degree attained by but few men of his time. He followed his own convictions, in the face of much opposition, bravely and unflinchingly. But with all his greatness and self-confidence, he was gentle, tolerant, sympathetic, and thoroughly appreciative of the rights of others. He made himself felt everywhere; yet he never indulged in controversy, and never struck back when criticised. He used his strength for the good of the weak; he asserted himself in a meek and humble spirit. The story of his caring for the children of a poor woman, in the slums of Boston while she went out for needed recreation, shows that in the greatness of his manhood he could stoop to the lowliest tasks; while his unbounded love for children, kept him bright and young down to the very close of his honored career. To understand this side of his character, we recommend you to read his "Letters to Children," of which the following, written to his niece, is an excellent example: "VENICE, August 13, 1882. "DEAR GERTIE:--When the little children in Venice want to take a bath, they just go down to the front steps of the house and jump off and swim about in the street. Yesterday I saw a nurse standing on the front steps, holding one end of a string, and the other end was tied to a little fellow who was swimming up the street. When he went too far, the nurse pulled in the string, and got her baby home again. Then I met another youngster, swimming in the street, whose mother had tied him to a post by the side of the door, so that when he tried to swim away to see another boy who was tied to another door-post up the street, he couldn't, and they had to sing out to one another over the water. Is not this a queer city? You are always in danger of running over some of the people and drowning them, for you go about in a boat instead of a carriage, and use an oar instead of a horse. But it is ever so pretty, and the people, especially the children, are very bright and gay and handsome. "When you are sitting in your room at night, you hear some music under your window, and look out, and there is a boat with a man with a fiddle, and a woman with a voice, and they are serenading you. To be sure, they want some money when they are done, for everybody begs here; but they do it very prettily and are full of fun. "Tell Susie I did not see the queen this time. She was out of town. But ever so many noblemen and princes have sent to know how Toody was, and how she looked, and I have sent them all her love. "There must be lots of pleasant things to do at Andover, and I think you must have had a beautiful summer there. Pretty soon now you will go back to Boston. Do go into my house when you get there and see if the doll and her baby are well and happy, but do not carry them off; and make the music-box play a tune, and remember your affectionate uncle, PHILLIPS." [Footnote: No really good life of Phillips Brooks has yet been published; but consult his "Letters of Travel," and the numerous articles in the best magazines.] XXV. FAITHFULNESS. MEMORY GEMS. Faithfulness is the soul of goodness.--J. S. White That which we love most in men and women is faithfulness.--S. Brooke It is the fidelity in the daily drill which turns the raw recruit into the accomplished soldier.--W. M. Punshon The secret of success in life is for a man to be faithful to all his duties and obligations.--Disraeli The truest test of civilization is not the census, nor the size of cities, nor the crops; but the kind of men the country turns out.--Emerson Faithfulness is just as possible to boys and girls as to men and women. To be faithful is to be true to our own convictions,--never acting without or against them,--and true to our professions,--never breaking promises, or swerving from engagements. Exactly what we mean will readily be seen in the following incident: When Blucher was hastening over bad roads to help Wellington at Waterloo, his troops faltered. "It can't be done," said they. "It _must_ be done," was his reply. "I have promised to be there--_promised_, do you hear? You wouldn't have me break my word!" It was done, as we all know; and the result of his faithfulness was a great victory for Wellington, and the complete overthrow of Napoleon. Faithfulness in the daily routine of school work has laid the foundation of many a noble character. There is no one thing which will sooner wreck a young man, and utterly ruin his future prospects, than the reputation of being lazy and shiftless. Mr. Ruskin, speaking of the importance of faithfulness among the young people of England, said, "Could I give the youth of this country but one word of advice it would be this: _Let no moment pass until you have extracted from it every possibility. Watch every grain in the hourglass._" Sir Walter Scott, writing to his son at school, says: "I cannot too much impress upon your mind that faithfulness is a condition imposed on us in every station of life; there is nothing worth having that can be had without it. As for knowledge, it can no more be planted in the human mind without labor than a field of wheat can be produced without the previous use of the plow. If we neglect our spring, our summer will be useless and contemptible, our harvest will be chaff, and the winter of our old age unrespected and desolate." It will be seen, therefore, that all young persons should endeavor to make each day stand for something. Neither heaven nor earth has any place for the drone; he is a libel on his species. No glamour of wealth or social prestige can hide his essential ugliness. It is better to carry a hod, or wield a shovel, in an honest endeavor to be of some use to humanity, than to be nursed in luxury and be a parasite. The emptiness and misery sometimes found in idle high life is illustrated by the following letter, written by a French countess to the absent count: "DEAR HUSBAND:--Not knowing what else to do I will write to you. Not knowing what to say, I will now close. Wearily yours, COUNTESS DE R." Of course we must admit that there is variety in the distribution of human talents; and yet no one of us is incompletely furnished. Each one has to be faithful only according to the measure of his trust, and is not expected to make disproportionate gains. Some men are especially fortunate both in opportunities and in resources, while to others, chances of advancement come but seldom; but the man of few opportunities may be just as faithful as the man who has many. If you would be accounted faithful, you must do little things as if they were great, and great things as if they were little and easy. That is the true road to success; and your place or station in life has very little to do with it. Calais is a pleasant seaport town of France, situated on the Straits of Dover. Large numbers of travelers from England to France, and from France to England, pass through this beautiful town. Near the center of it is a lighthouse, one hundred and eighteen feet high, on which is placed a revolving light that can be seen by vessels twenty miles out at sea. At one time some gentlemen were visiting the tower upon which the light is placed, when the watchman who has charge of the burners commenced praising their brilliancy. One of the gentlemen then said to him, "What if one of the lights should chance to go out?" "Impossible!" replied the watchman, with amazement at the bare thought of such neglect of duty. "Sir," said he, pointing to the ocean, "yonder, where nothing can be seen, there are ships going to every part of the world. If to-night one of my burners were out, within six months would come a letter--from India, perhaps from the islands of the Pacific Ocean, perhaps from some place I never heard of--saying that on such a night, at such an hour, the light of Calais burned dim; the watchman neglected his post, and vessels were in danger. Ah, sir, sometimes on dark nights, in the stormy weather, I look out at sea, and I feel as if the eyes of the whole world were looking at my light! My light go out! Calais's burners grow dim! No, never!" Exactly the opposite of this is seen in the incident which follows: A few years ago, the keeper of a life-saving station on the Atlantic coast found that his supply of powder had given out. The nearest village was two or three miles distant, and the weather was inclement. He concluded that it "was not worth while to go so far for such a trifle." That night a vessel was wrecked within sight of the station. A line could have been given to the crew if he had been able to use the mortar; but he had no powder. He saw the drowning men perish one by one, knowing that he alone was to blame. A few days afterward he was justly dismissed from the service. Faithfulness must especially take into account the feelings and expectations we have raised in other minds. In this matter we cannot be too careful. It is said of Lord Chatham that he once promised his son that he should be present at the pulling down of a garden wall. The wall was, however, taken down during his absence, through forgetfulness; but, feeling the importance of his word being held sacred, Lord Chatham ordered the workman to rebuild it, that his son might witness its destruction according to his father's promise. Loyalty is also a form of faithfulness. It is patriotism in practice. Only the patriotic citizen is loyal to his country. The absence of this sentiment, in times of national peril, exposes one to indecision and cowardice, if not to treason. Hence its great value and beauty. It is indispensable to good citizenship; indeed there is no true manhood and womanhood without it. It is involved in the American idea of republican institutions. It is loyalty alone which makes it possible for our country to continue on its course from year to year. This form of faithfulness is just now commanding attention throughout our land. The national flag is flung to the breeze over our schoolhouses, that American youth may not forget their allegiance to the government it represents. The stars and stripes floating over the temples of knowledge, wherein our youth are being trained for usefulness and honor, is worth far more to us than we realize; and we should always be ready to hail it with joyous songs and cheers. CYRUS W. FIELD. One of the greatest enterprises of modern times, was the laying of the first Atlantic cable. Cyrus W. Field became impressed with the feasibility of this project. He induced capitalists to put their money into it; and then plunged into the work with all the force of his being. The faithfulness with which he performed his task gained for him the united praise of two continents. By hard work he secured aid for his company from the British government; but in Congress he encountered such bitter opposition from a powerful lobby that his measure had a majority of only one in the senate. The cable was loaded upon the Agamemnon, the flagship of the British fleet at Sebastopol, and upon the Niagara, a magnificent new frigate of the United States navy; but, when five miles of cable had been paid out, it caught in the machinery and parted. On the second trial, when two hundred miles at sea, the electric current was suddenly lost, and men paced the decks nervously and sadly, as if in the presence of death. Just as Mr. Field was about to give the order to cut the cable, the current returned as quickly and mysteriously as it had disappeared. The following night, when the ship was moving but four miles an hour and the cable running out at the rate of six miles, the brakes were applied too suddenly just as the steamer gave a heavy lurch, and the cable broke and sank to the bottom of the sea. Directors were disheartened, the public skeptical, capitalists were shy, and, but for the faith of Mr. Field, who worked day and night, almost without food or sleep, the whole project would have been abandoned. A third attempt also resulted in failure, but not discouraged by all these difficulties, Mr. Field went to work with a will, organized a new company, and made a new cable far superior to anything before used; and, on July 13, 1866, was begun the trial which ended with the following message sent to New York: "HEART'S CONTENT, July 27. "We arrived here at nine o'clock this morning. All well. Thank God! the cable is laid and is in perfect working order. CYRUS W. FIELD." Such, in brief, is the story of the faithful performance of a seemingly impossible task. It was a long, hard struggle, covering nearly thirteen years of anxious watching and ceaseless toil. But the name and fame of Cyrus W. Field will long be cherished and remembered by a grateful people. [Footnote: See Appleton's "Cyclopedia of American Biography," Vol. II., pp. 448, 449, and Johnson's "Universal Cyclopedia," Vol. III., p. 351.] XXVI. THE SECOND TEANSITION PERIOD. MEMORY GEMS. It is the pushing fellows who get well to the front.--William Black The tricky, underhanded individual pays higher for all he gets. --W. M. Thackeray A man ought to be something more than the son of his father. --J. Staples White Honor and shame from no condition rise; Act well your part, there all the honor lies.--Pope The darkest hour in the life of any young man is when he sits down to study how to get money without honestly earning it.--Horace Greeley If we have seen that the first transition period in life is that which marks the passing of the child into the youth, then we may safely speak of the second transition period as that which marks the passing of the youth into the man. Usually there is involved in this change the leaving of the parental home; the selecting of a business or profession; and, sometimes, the establishment of a new home, and the assuming of the cares of family life. It is, therefore, of importance that we should guard all the several interests of this period with more than ordinary care, and especially that we should acquaint ourselves with those facts and principles which have successfully guided others through a similar experience. First of all we must make a careful study of our possibilities. Young men are constantly worrying lest they be failures and nonentities. Every man will count for all he is worth. There is as steady and constant a ratio between what a man is, and what he can accomplish, as there is between what a ton of dynamite is, and what it can accomplish. There is as much a science of success as there is a science of mathematics. A great deal depends on the matter of laying in supplies, accumulating primary stuff. A man is never too young to have that fact put before him, and never too old to have it rehearsed. He will understand and appreciate the truth of it before he gets through life; and it is a great pity for him not to have, at least, a little appreciation of it near the beginning, so as to frame his initial years in accordance with it. Let, therefore, nothing escape your observation--deem nothing below your notice. Dive into all depths, and explore all hidden recesses that will render you a master of every department of any business or profession you may engage in. The man who can render himself generally useful has always a better chance of getting on in the world. Whatever you thoroughly acquire will be a source of satisfaction and profit to you throughout your future life. It will save you many an anxious hour by day, and many a restless one by night. Remember that the whole is made up of parts, and that the parts must be well understood before you can master the whole. You will never be able to manage your business successfully without a thorough knowledge of it in all its details. Resolve, therefore, at the very commencement of your career, to acquire such knowledge. Young people sometimes say, "I shall never get an opportunity of showing what is in me, for every business is now so crowded." Shakespeare has answered this when he said, "There is a tide in the affairs of men, which taken at the flood, leads on to fortune." As a matter of fact opportunities come to all, but all are not ready for them when they come. Successful men are those who prepare themselves for all emergencies, and take advantage of the occasion when the favorable time comes. A good many young men excuse themselves from ever becoming anything, or doing anything, by the fact that they always live where it is low tide. Perhaps that is because it is always low tide where they live. At any rate, the more we learn of the history of the men who have succeeded, the more apparent it becomes that if they were born in low water, they patched up their tattered circumstances, and beat out to sea on a tide of their own making. If you would be a success in the business world, then you must master everything that you lay your hands upon. Bear in mind that this is your own interest, as well as your duty toward your employer. Think nothing below your attention; do not be afraid of drudgery. Investigate all, comprehend all, grasp all, and master all. Business, like an ingenious piece of machinery, is made up of many complicated parts. Analyze it, therefore, thoroughly search all its parts, and know for yourself how they are put together. You may cherish the hope that you will one day be an employer yourself. It would be very desirable if we could repose unlimited confidence in the words and acts of our fellow-men; but, unfortunately, the condition of the world is not as yet sufficiently advanced to enable us to do so. Where you will find one that you can trust, you will find many that need watching. If you should be unacquainted with some of your business details, you must trust to others, and may in consequence be deceived. A few months of careful attention to it at the commencement of your career will secure you against deception throughout the whole of your life as an employer. Then you must also be careful to remember that dividends in life are not paid until the investment of personal effort has been made. Sowing still antedates reaping; and the amount sowed determines pretty closely the size of the harvest. Whether it be young men or wheat fields the interest can be depended upon to keep up with the capital, and empty barns in October are the logical consequence of empty furrows in spring. The young man may as well understand that there are no gratuities in this life, and that success is never reached "across lots." Success means, all the way through to the finish, a victory over difficulties; and if the young aspirant lacks the grit to face and down the difficulty that happens to confront him at the start, there is little reason to expect that his valor will show to any better advantage in his encounter with enemies that get in his way later. Young men are apt to imitate each other. Let your conduct be such as to bear imitation; otherwise you will lead those who are younger than you to form injurious habits, and be the means of leading them away from the path of duty. It is an obligation you owe your seniors. In the discharge of their duties they will have to depend upon you to a certain extent; and if your part is not properly performed, the whole system must unavoidably suffer derangement. If the mind is temperate in feeling, deliberate in choosing, and robust in its willing, character becomes set and enduring. If, on the contrary, feeling is volatile, choice fickle, and the will flabby, one quality after another awakens momentary admiration and impulse; ideals succeed each other as the vanishing visions of a dream; life is passed in a state of perpetual inward contradiction; and failure, both for yourselves and for your imitators, is almost sure to follow. No young man can remain long in this unsettled or transition state; but he must become _something_. You will therefore do well to be careful how you tread this probationary ground; for it is really the one great opportunity of your lives so far as concerns the formation of your general characters. Use it thoughtfully and well, and your manhood will be stronger, richer, and more helpful, all through your later years. XXVII. ORDER. MEMORY GEMS. Accuracy is the twin brother of honesty.--C. Simmons Without method, little can be done to any good purpose.--Macaulay A place for everything, and everything in its place.--Old Proverb Order is the law of all intelligible existence.--Blackie Order is the sanity of the mind, the health of the body, the peace of the city, and the security of the state.--Southey The two words "order" and "method" are so closely akin to each other that it is quite difficult to separate them, even in the mind. "Order is heaven's first law," it is said; also, "Method consists in the right choice of means to an end." Here a distinction is made; but the two words taken together, cover the line of thought we now wish to follow. Children nowadays do not learn to read as they once did. They go to kindergartens; but order is the rule even in such play-schools, and it is the one great reason why they succeed. All schools and colleges depend upon order for successful work. "He who every morning plans the transactions of the day," says Victor Hugo, "and follows out that plan, carries a thread that will guide him through the labyrinth of the most busy life. The orderly arrangement of his time is like a ray of light which darts itself through all his occupations. But where no plan is laid, where the disposal of time is surrendered merely to the chance of incidents, all things lie huddled together in one chaos, which admits of neither distribution nor review." There is no talent like method; and no accomplishment that man can possess, like perseverance. These two powers will usually overcome every obstacle; and there is no position which a young man may not hope to secure, when, guided by these principles, he sets out upon the great highway of life. In after years, the manners and habits of the man are not so readily adapted to any prescribed course to which they have been unaccustomed. But in youth habits of system, method, and industry, are as easily formed as others; and the benefits and enjoyments which result from them, are more than the wealth and honors which they always secure. "Never study on speculation," says Waters; "all such study is vain. Form a plan, have an object; then work for it, learn all you can about it, and you will be sure to succeed. What I mean by studying on speculation, is that aimless learning of things because they may be useful at some time; which is like the conduct of the woman who bought at auction a brass door-plate with the name Thompson on it, thinking it might some day be of service." Orderly boys and girls are fair scholars, firm friends, and good planners; they make few mistakes, and succeed pretty well in all they do. Order does not make a genius; but a genius without order is exasperating when he is a man, and is only pardoned for his want of order when he is a boy because he is expected to do better each day. Begin with orderly _habits_; next day try order in _thought_; and then will follow naturally order in _principles_. "You would be the greatest man of your age, Grattan," said Curran, "if you would buy a few yards of red tape and tie up your bills and papers." Curran realized that methodical people are accurate as a rule, and successful. The celebrated Nathaniel Emmons, whose learning made him famous through all New England, claimed that he could not work at all, unless order reigned about him. For more than fifty years the same chairs stood in the same places in his study; his hat hung on the same hook; the shovel stood on the north side of the open fireplace, and the tongs on the south side; and all his books and papers were so arranged that he claimed to be able to find any information he needed in three or four minutes. The demand for perfection in the make-up of Wendell Phillips was wonderful. Every word must express the exact shade of his thought; every phrase must be of due length and cadence; every sentence must be perfectly balanced before it left his lips. Exact precision characterized his style. He was easily the first legal orator America has produced. The rhythmical fullness and poise of his periods are remarkable. A. T. Stewart was extremely systematic and precise in all his transactions. Method ruled in every department of his store, and for every delinquency a penalty was rigidly enforced. His eye was upon his business in all its various branches; he mastered every detail and worked hard. It has also been repeatedly asserted that Noah Webster never could have prepared his dictionary in thirty-six years, unless the most exacting method had come to the rescue. He himself claimed that his orderly methods saved him ten or twenty years, and a vast amount of anxiety and trouble. Good habits are the first steps in order for children,--punctuality, neatness, a place for everything. Yet, do not let habits master you, so that you never can do anything except in a fixed manner at a fixed time, and cannot give up your way of doing for the sake of something greater. It is true, however, that there is a wonderful force in mere regularity. A writer by the name of Bergh tells of a man beginning business, who opened and shut his store at the same hour every day for weeks, without selling two cents' worth of goods, yet whose application attracted attention and paved the way to fortune. Sir Walter Scott has also said that "When a regiment is under march, the rear is often thrown into confusion because the front does not move steadily and without interruption. It is the same thing with business. If that which is first in hand be not instantly, steadily, and regularly dispatched, other things accumulate behind, till affairs begin to press all at once, and no human brain can stand the confusion." The great enemy of order is laziness. It is too much trouble to do a thing when it ought to be done, instead of doing it when you want to do it. Young people should learn to think, talk, read in an orderly manner. The country, the state, the town, the home, depend upon order. Supposing each person did what he wished, without regard to the welfare of others,--that meals, parties, lessons, came at any time; that caucuses and elections happened when any one desired them; that prisons and hospitals took people or not, just as superintendents felt; that everybody was a self-constituted policeman, yet no one wanted to be looked after himself;--what a hard time all people would have! A very important point still remains to be noticed. It is this: Our principles ought to be strong enough to govern our habits. Habits may make us disagreeable and fussy; principles make us broad, far-seeing, sympathetic, and independent. Success in life depends upon having the _principle_ of order. Always do the _important_ thing _first_; for that is what order means. Some boys and girls are orderly about their rooms, but disorderly in their ways of doing things,--always in a hurry, and always puzzled what to do next. Orderly people make plans, allow a margin of time for carrying them out, so that they shall not overlap one duty with another; and then, if there is any time left, they fill it with some extra employment or enjoyment, which they have kept in the background all ready for use. JOHN WESLEY. If John Wesley had not been such an orderly boy, he never could have been the founder of Methodism. He was born at Epworth, England, in 1703, and had nineteen brothers and sisters, though only ten of them lived long enough to be educated. His brother Charles was his intimate companion. When students at Oxford, they and two other friends formed a small society, which was called the "Holy Club" by those who laughed at it. They had sets of questions, labeled in order for their examination. From the exact regularity of their lives and their methods of study, they came to be called Methodists, in allusion to some ancient physicians who were so termed. The name was so quaint that it became immediately popular. They visited the poor and sick, and had regular lists of inquiries and rules for general use. All the orderly habits of his youth guided him even when he became a man; and the amount of work he accomplished is almost beyond belief. In the last three years of his life, although sick nearly all the time, he preached as many times as ever until a week before his death, in 1791. Always anxious never to lose a moment, and to be methodical in all his habits, he read as he traveled on horseback for forty years. He delivered forty thousand sermons, and wrote many books and essays, and gave away in charity one hundred and fifty thousand dollars, which was a great sum in those days. The secret of John Wesley's success began in his love of order, and culminated in the wonderful, orderly discipline of the immense Methodist denomination. At his death there were nearly eighty thousand members, whose leaders, great and little, had definite duties to perform. Yet, in his love for order, he never lost sight of individual poor and sick people, but remembered to serve each one. [Footnote: See "Lives of Wesley," by Tyerman (1876); Riss (1875); Isaac Taylor's "Wesley and Methodism" (1868); and "Wesley's Journals," in seven volumes.] XXVIII. REVERENCE. MEMORY GEMS. Reverence is the crown of moral manhood.--C. Kingsley No man of sound nature ever makes a mock of reverence.--T. T. Munger True reverence is homage tempered by love.--W. B. Pope In the full glow of the light of our times, only the pure are really revered.--Wilberforce Reverence is alike indispensable to the happiness of individuals, of families, and of nations.--Smiles Reverence is a word by itself. It has no synonyms, nor does any other word in the language exactly fill its place. It is not respect; it is not regard; it is not fear; it is not honor. Perhaps awe comes nearest to it; and yet reverence is more than awe. It is awe softened and refined by gentleness and love. Reverence is a condition of thought and feeling which does not paralyze action, but kindles it; does not deaden sensibility, but quickens it. Even when used in a religious sense, reverence does not stand for religion itself, but as a means or aid to religious thought and life. The presence or absence of a reverent spirit is of real importance; for it adds to, or takes away from, our enjoyment of the world in which we live. One person finds happiness everywhere and in every occasion; carrying his own holiday with him. Another always appears to be returning from a funeral. One sees beauty and harmony wherever he looks, while another is blind to beauty; the lenses of his eyes seem to be made of smoked glass, draping the whole world in mourning. While one man sees only gravel, fodder, and firewood, as he looks into a richly-wooded park; another is ravished with its beauty. One sees in a matchless rose nothing but an ordinary flower; another penetrates its purpose, and reads in the beauty of its blended colors and its wonderful fragrance the very thoughts of God. Only the truly reverent soul can catch the higher music of sentient being, with its joys and hopes; its wealth of earnest, aspiring, struggling souls; tolerant, serious, yet sunny; and read those larger possibilities which lie hidden in the great deeps of the most ordinary human life. While it is true that only the reverent can fully appreciate nature; it is even more true in regard to human nature. To the reverent mind an old man or woman is an object of tender regard; while by the irreverent, the aged are frequently treated with ingratitude, and sometimes even with contempt. One of the lessons most frequently and most strongly impressed upon the Lacedaemonian youth, was to entertain great reverence and respect for old men, and to give them proof of it on all occasions, by saluting them; by making way for them, and giving them place in the streets; by rising up to show them honor in all companies and public assemblies; but, above all, by receiving their advice, and even their reproofs, with docility and submission. On one occasion, when there was a great play at the principal theater in Athens, the seats set apart for strangers were filled with Spartan boys; and other seats, not far distant, were filled with Athenian youth. The theater was crowded, when an old man, infirm, and leaning on a staff, entered. There was no seat for him. The Athenian youth called to the old man to come to them, and with great difficulty he picked his way to their benches; but not a boy rose and offered him a seat. Seeing this, the Spartan boys beckoned to the old man to come to them, and, as he approached their benches, every Spartan boy rose, and, with uncovered head, stood until the old man was seated, and then all quietly resumed their seats. Seeing this, the Athenians broke out in loud applause. The old man rose, and, in a voice that filled the theater, said, "The Athenians know what is right: the Spartans do it." The great German thinker, Goethe, claimed that three kinds of reverence should be taught to youth,--for superiors, for equals, and forinferiors. This was an advance over the old ideas; but, in a republic like ours, reverence is not up and down; it is not measured by class distinctions,--it is a spirit, to be related in sympathetic ways with all human beings as such; and especially with all whose lives are such as to command our respect and esteem. Reverence can be cultivated, and needs to be cultivated in our times. There is too much mere "smartness" abroad. In society and in the world we find a flippant, cynical tone; no doubt much of this is reaction from old-time gloom and severity. But without a reasonable reverence we cannot have good manners, or loyal citizens, or possessors of really beautiful characters. Reverence is developed by looking for the good in others; by avoiding fault-finding; by associating with high-minded acquaintances; by reading worthy literature; by using language unstained by vulgarity; by striving to enter more and more into the spirit of the noblest lives that come under our notice. Reverence, then, is not fear; but wonder, solemnity, and veneration. "It is to cherish a habit of looking upward, and seeing what is noble and good in all things." Its blessings are many. By it we can win a masterly judgment to determine the fitness of behavior and habits; it will keep us from thoughtless words and deeds; it will make us respectful to old age and appreciative of the past; and, in many other ways, it will prove itself of real value to all who cultivate and cherish it. HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW. We select, as our special example, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the best known of our American poets. The great poet, whoever he may be, is always reverential. His stanzas are crowned with a sacred seriousness. He gives to life a "grand, true, harmonic interpretation." Longfellow was born on the 27th of February, 1807, at Portland, Maine. In his earlier years he displayed the same gentle, amiable spirit which filled his after-life with sunshine and goodness. He proved himself to be possessed of a very bright mind even as a boy, and entered Bowdoin College when only fourteen years of age. He afterwards served this same institution as professor of modern languages, and in 1835 was called to fill a similar position in Harvard University. He visited Europe, twice at least, for purposes of study; and, on his return from his second trip, began that illustrious career of instruction and authorship which has been the source of so much honorable pride on the part of his countrymen. Longfellow selected a historic home in Cambridge; it was the house occupied by Washington when he took command of the United States Army in 1776,--a spacious structure, full of welcoming windows, and situated in the midst of old elms. Here he lived till his death; and now the stretch of land, from the estate to the river Charles, has been bought and adorned as a memorial. The writings of Longfellow are household possessions, fully as much in England as in America, and we need not enumerate them. They are famous not so much for originality, as for their calm, spiritual, purifying messages. They are full of good-will, aspiration, trust, and real loftiness of tone. Indeed, Longfellow "loved to make clear his discipleship to him whose ministry was love, whose flock was all humanity, whose kingdom was peace and righteousness." So deep was the impression made by Mr. Longfellow's beauty of character, that it equaled his literary fame. He always responded to callers, and they came by hundreds; he never refused his autograph; children loved him; his charities were manifold; young authors received his encouragement. Modest as to his own writings, he strove to praise the good in others. Every one who met him perceived the source of all this rare grace and fascinating nobility of soul to be a sense of the glory and divineness of all life. His soul stood in a reverential attitude toward existence, and a marvelous light shone through him and his poetry as the result. Down to the last his pen was active. He died on the 24th of March, 1882. Degrees and honors had been freely bestowed on him; but the highest tributes came from his admirers on both sides of the Atlantic; and his reverential spirit still lives in hundreds of those who read his beautiful verses. [Footnote: See "Life of Longfellow," and "Final Memorials" both by his brother; Samuel Longfellow, and articles in all the best magazines.] XXIX. SENTIMENT. MEMORY GEMS. Sentiment is nothing but thought blended with feeling.--J. F. Clarke Sentiment takes part in the shaping of all destinies.--R. Southey A little child is the sweetest and purest thing in the world. --J. S. White Sentiment is the life and soul of poetry and art.--J. Flaxman Sentiment is emotion precipitated in pretty crystals by the fancy. --J. R. Lowell It is quite difficult to define sentiment. This has been done, however, by the use of the following figures. "We may think of it as color, without which nothing in nature or art is complete. A colorless character is as unsatisfactory as a colorless landscape. We may also think of it as cement; for it serves to bind together the ordinary facts and incidents of life. Just as the bricks and stones of a building are useless until held in the places designed for them under some governing plan, so we may say that a selfish and gross character is not bound together by noble sentiments. Or we may say, again, that sentiment is the wing-power of man, whereby he has ability to fly away from the commonplace and unworthy. By it the ordinary citizen becomes a glowing patriot; the drudging youth turns into the devoted statesman; and life is made better in a thousand ways." In one of our memory gems we find it asserted that "sentiment is the life and soul of poetry and art." Perhaps this statement may help us here. Pure poetry is the perfection of prose, or prose idealized. "It is a dream drawn from the infinite, and portrayed to mortal sense." It takes a great mind, a great genius to weave into a gossamer web, complete and perfect in every part, a story, a tale, an idea, which alike charms the mind, enthralls the sense, and enchains the spirit. Poetry is the perfection of language. It is not a mere mechanical contrivance of words, but a glorious picture in which the outward execution is lost in a glory of expression. The poet Holmes was brimful of sentiment. Listen to him as he talks about the flowers. "Do you ever wonder why poets talk so much about flowers? Did you ever hear of a poet who did not talk about them? Don't you think a poem, which, for the sake of being original, should leave them out, would be like those verses where the letter 'a' or 'e' or some other is omitted? No,--they will bloom over and over again in poems as in the summer fields, to the end of time, always old and always new. "Are you tired of my trivial personalities,--those splashes and streaks of sentiment, sometimes perhaps of sentimentality, which you may see when I show you my heart's corolla as if it were a tulip? Pray, do not give yourself the trouble to fancy me an idiot, whose conceit it is to treat himself as an exceptional being. It is because you are just like me that I talk and know that you listen. We are all splashed and streaked with sentiments,--not with precisely the same tints, or in exactly the same patterns, but by the same hand and from the same palette." To say, as some do, that there is no place for sentiment in life, would be almost equal to saying that life is devoid of joy. But who says there are no joys in life? Take, for example a good pure natural laugh. We hear it bubbling, gushing, pealing out, every now and then, from some glad child of nature; and we say, there _is_ joy in life. The gloom of ages has been lightened with laughter and song. There is much to awaken deep and real sentiment in us as we gaze on the tree-tops, the mountains and hillsides, the gurgling waters and sweeping billows; on sunlight, shadow, and storm. Behind the forest-leaf we suddenly discover a songster, the gleam of an oriole's breast in a bed of mantling green. Nature always rejoices. She has been singing and laughing all down the ages. She does her part grandly for the happiness of man; and as we come into closer touch with her, sentiment arises as naturally in our hearts, as does the water in her bubbling springs. We may find a place for sentiment in all life's changeful affairs. Even the stern realities of war do not entirely eradicate from the heart that feeling for suffering humanity, which is the highest expression of sentiment. There were but few who were so thoughtless as not to be stirred with the feeling which possessed the heart of Captain Phillips, and the crew of the battleship Texas, when, as they stood on the deck, with uncovered heads and reverent souls, on the afternoon of the engagement before Santiago, the knightly old sailor said: "I want to make public acknowledgment here that I believe in God. I want all you officers and men to lift your hats, and from your hearts offer silent thanks to the Almighty for the victory he has given us." But it was not the mere victory over a foe that caused this general and thoughtful lifting of heart; it was exultation at the triumph of justice and the progress of freedom. The presence or absence of sentiment in our lives is largely accounted for by the fact that we usually find what we are looking for. The geologist sees design and order in the very stones with which the streets are paved. The botanist reads volumes in the flowers and grasses which most men tread thoughtlessly beneath their feet. The astronomer gazes with rapt soul into the starry heavens, while his fellows seldom glance upward. If we seek for the beautiful and the pure, it will be quickly revealed to us; and the sentiment of loving gratitude will arise within us as the result. Nature takes on our moods; she laughs with those who laugh, and weeps with those who weep. If we rejoice and are glad, the very birds sing more sweetly; the woods and streams murmur our song. But if we are sad and sorrowful, a sudden gloom falls upon nature's face; the sun shines, but not in our hearts; the birds sing, but not to us. The beauty of nature's music is lost to us, and everything seems dull and gray. The lack of sentiment narrows and belittles us; and, for that reason, we cannot afford to be without it. We must always strive to keep in mind how important sentiment is to a happy and useful career, whatever position in life we may happen to occupy. Noble sentiments are the richest possession we can have. They cheer us when we are despondent, they sing to us when we are lonesome, and they help to keep us young. They are like brilliant poets and divine musicians; by whom the true, the good, and the beautiful are kept constantly before our minds. It is this trait of character which has to do greatly with worship, reverence, and aspiration. Morality needs to be touched by sentiment or emotion. Sentiment leads us to love sacred spots, to create commemorative days, and to sing songs of gratitude together. It makes life of far greater worth to us in every way. We must also glance at what is known as public sentiment. Public sentiment is not voluntary or self-creative. It is generally a thing of slow growth, springing from a gradual accumulation and development of evidences, impressions, and circumstances. It is a matter of education, impressed upon the masses by the most intelligent or the most influential forces of a community; and as it is often merely the adoption by the masses of the opinions of a class, clique, or ring, it is as likely to be wrong as right, since it frequently serves to popularize evils, the existence and the continuance of which, minister only to the benefit of a few. But public sentiment, is after all, quite largely a personal matter. We all help in making it; and we should therefore be exceedingly careful as to the sentiments we personally cherish; for these are a very real part of the sentiments of the community as a whole. BEETHOVEN. Perhaps we should be safe in saying that the kingdom of music is especially the realm of sentiment. Music raises us to a loftier plane of thought and feeling. It has been beautifully said that "The composer's world is the world of emotion; full of delicate elations and depressions, which like the hum of minute insects hardly arrest the uncultivated ear." We select as our special illustration Ludwig van Beethoven, who was born at Bonn, Prussia, in the year 1770. His father was a musician, and suffered from two great foes,--a violent temper, and a habit of drink. The family being poor, young Ludwig was made to submit to a severe training on the violin from the time he was four years old, in order to obtain money. By the time he reached the age of nine, he had advanced so far in music that his father could not teach him anything more, and he was passed over to others for further education. When he was fifteen years old he was appointed assistant to the court organist; and, in a description of the various musicians attached to the court, he is described as "of good capacity, young, of good, quiet behavior, and poor." At the court he was an object of admiration, and his popularity was constantly on the increase. Absorbed in meditation, he forgot ordinary affairs. One illustration is as good as a dozen. He loved the sound of flowing water, and frequently would let it run over his hands until, lost in some musical suggestion from the murmur, he would allow the water to pour over the floor of his apartment until it soaked down and astonished the dwellers below. He was very democratic, and desired that all men should enjoy freedom and equal rights before the law. When asked once, in court, to produce the proof of his nobility, he pointed to his head and heart, saying, "My nobility is here, and here." His high-strung nervous system would account for many of his peculiarities. By those who did not understand him he was called "a growling old bear." On the other hand, those who appreciated his genius called him "a cloud-compeller of the world of music." He is in music what Milton is in poetry,--lofty, majestic, stately. Beethoven died on March 26, 1827, during a terrible thunderstorm. His funeral was attended by all the musicians of Vienna. The crowd of people was so enormous that soldiers had to be called in to make a way for the procession; and it took an hour and a half to pass the little distance from the house to the church. Sentiment in music leaves one in an uplifted and wholesome state of mind. Sentimentality in music may give a momentary pleasure, but it is really hostile to strength of character; and this truth applies, with equal force, to every other feature of our lives. [Footnote: See Thayer's "Biography of Beethoven" (1879); Schindler's "Beethoven;" and Grove's "Dictionary of Music and Musicians." Magazine articles on Beethoven are also numerous.] XXX. DUTY. MEMORY GEMS. The path of duty is the way to glory.--Tennyson A sense of duty pursues us ever and everywhere.--Webster The consciousness of duty performed "gives us music at midnight." --George Herbert I slept and dreamed that life was Beauty. I woke and found that life was Duty.--E. S. Hooper Let us have faith that right makes might; and in that faith let us dare to do our duty as we understand it.--A. Lincoln Samuel Smiles, who has written a most excellent book upon this subject, says, "Duty is the end and aim of the highest life; and it alone is true." It is certain that of all the watchwords of life, duty is the highest and best. He who sincerely adopts it lives a true life; he is really the successful man. It pertains to all parts and relations of life. There is no moment, place, or condition where its claims are not imperative. Obedience to the commands of duty, and the ruling desire to be useful, are cardinal elements of success. It is at the trumpet call which duty sounds, that all the nobler attributes of manhood spring into life; and duty is something that must be done without regard to discomfort, sacrifice, or death. It must be done in secret, as well as in public; and according to the measure of our faithfulness in this respect, will be the real measure of our manhood. History and biography are fairly crowded with examples of the faithful performance of duty, and the glorious results which have followed; such as Nelson at Trafalgar, Luther at the Diet of Worms, General Grant in the Civil War; and scores of other instances of note. But equally valuable are the cases of ordinary life. The engineer on the locomotive; the pilot at the helm of the storm-tossed vessel; the mother in her daily routine of work; the merchant upholding laws of trade in honor; the schoolboy plodding through studies in a manly thoroughness; the reformer of slums letting her little candle of service shine in the dark;--all these and similar instances are full of guidance and inspiration. There are two aspects of duty; namely, cheerful duty and drudging duty. One says, "I want to do something;" the other says, "I must." Our New England forefathers were followers of duty, but they found very little joy in it, as we understand that word. We should endeavor to improve upon their methods, but we shall find it difficult to improve upon their faithfulness. The life of Sir Walter Scott affords an interesting illustration of strict obedience to the line of duty. His whole life seems to have been governed by that sense of obligation which caused him, when a young man, to enter a profession which he heartily disliked, out of affection for his father; and, later in life, to set himself to paying off the debt incurred by the publishing house of which he was a silent partner. His sense of duty was expressed in his declaration that, "If he lived and retained his health, no man should lose a penny by him." Just what is meant by faithfulness to duty may be clearly seen in the following incident. During the famous _dark day_ of 1780, in Connecticut, candles were lighted in many houses, and domestic fowls went to their roosts. The people thought the day of judgment had come. The legislature was then in session in Hartford. The house of representatives adjourned. In the council, which corresponds to the modern senate, an adjournment was also proposed. Colonel Davenport objected, saying, "The day of judgment is either approaching, or it is not. If it is not, there is no cause for adjourning; if it is, I choose to be found doing my duty. I wish, therefore, that candles may be brought." Upon the world's great battlefields, this matter of faithfulness to duty has always been deemed of the first importance. Previous to the battle of Lutzen, in which eighty thousand Austrians were defeated by an army of thirty-six thousand Prussians, commanded by Frederick the Great, this monarch ordered all his officers to attend him, and thus addressed them: "To-morrow I intend giving the enemy battle; and, as it will decide who are to be the future masters of Silesia, I expect every one of you, in the strictest manner, to do his duty. If any one of you is a coward, let him step forward before he makes others as cowardly as himself,--let him step forward, I say, and he shall immediately receive his discharge without ceremony or reproach. I see there is none among you who does not possess true heroism, and will not display it in defense of his king, of his country, and of himself. I shall be in the front and in the rear; shall fly from wing to wing; no company will escape my notice; and whoever I then find doing his duty, upon him will I heap honor and favor." Another great military commander was the Duke of Wellington. He once said to a friend: "There is little or nothing in this life worth living for; but we can all of us go straight forward and do our duty." Whether serving at home in his family, or serving his country on the field, his sense of duty was the one high and noble purpose that inspired him. He did not ask, Will this course win fame? Will this battle add to my earthly glory? But always, What is my duty? He did what duty commanded, and followed where it led. It was his firm adherence to what he thought was right, that brought down upon him the violence of a mob in the streets of London, assaulting his person and attacking his house, even while his wife lay dead therein. But the memory of few men is now more greatly honored; and his example is worthy of careful study and close imitation. The foregoing facts show, far better than argument, both the nature and place of duty in the work of life. We see it in practical operation, always timely, honorable, and attractive. It cannot be discounted or even smirched. It stands out in bold relief, supported by a clear conscience and strong will. It demands recognition, and it always secures it. More than sixteen hundred years after an eruption of Vesuvius had buried Pompeii in ashes, explorers laid bare the ruins of the ill-fated city. There the unfortunate inhabitants were found just where they were overtaken by death. Some were discovered in lofty attics and some in deep cellars, whither they had fled before the approaching desolation. Others were found in the streets, through which they were fleeing in wild despair when the tide of volcanic gases and the storm of falling ashes overwhelmed them. But the Roman sentinel was standing at his post, his skeleton-hand still grasping the hilt of his sword, his attitude that of a faithful officer. He was placed there on duty, and death met him at his post. No man has a right to say he can do nothing for the benefit of mankind. We forget that men are less benefited by ambitious projects, than by the sober fulfillment of each man's proper duties. By doing the proper duty, in the proper time and place, a man may make the entire world his debtor, and may accomplish far more of good than in any other way. LORD NELSON. Horatio Nelson was born at Norfolk, England, September 29, 1758. He reached his manhood at a time when the nations of Europe were engaged in deadly strife. A love of adventure and a daring spirit, which developed during his earliest years, inclined him to follow the sea. From his first entrance into this calling, genius and opportunity worked together to make him the leading factor in Great Britain's prominence as a naval power. For several centuries, previous to the time of Nelson, Great Britain had been rapidly advancing her commerce. In the protection of this commerce many a naval hero won renown; but the tide of influence and of power found in Nelson its perfect fulfillment. He was a man of extraordinary genius. He saw clearly; acted vigorously. He felt that it was his business and his duty to watch over England's interests upon the sea; and both men and women felt perfectly safe while Nelson had command. The pure flame of patriotism burned brightly in his heroic soul. He believed, with Lord Sandon, that nothing could be nobler than a first-rate English sailor; and he acted in strict accord with this belief. He attained one victory after another, until the battle of the Nile, one of his most brilliant successes, made the navy of England a terror even to its bravest enemies. The superiority of the English fleet was mainly due to his genius; and the dread his name inspired was one of the principal causes, that, a few years later, kept Napoleon from carrying out his threatened invasion of England. His high sense of duty, and what he expected of those under his command, is well illustrated by his signal to the English fleet, when they were about to engage the French in the great naval battle at Trafalgar. When all were ready for the attack, Nelson said, "I will now amuse the fleet with a signal." Turning to the signal officer he exclaimed, "Send this message,--'England expects every man to do his duty.'" When the signal was comprehended by the men, cheer after cheer rang out upon the air, and under its inspiration they won a glorious and a decisive victory. This message was characteristic of Nelson. Upon his entering into this engagement, which proved to be his last, he is said to have remarked, "I thank God for this great opportunity of doing my duty." While in the thick of the engagement, Nelson was struck down by a cannon ball, and lived but a few hours afterward; but long enough to hear the English shouts of triumph. He had left to the world a type of single-minded self-devotion, that can never perish. [Footnote: See "Life of Nelson," by Southey (1828); "Letters and Dispatches of Lord Nelson," by N. H. Nicols (1860); "Lady Hamilton and Lord Nelson," by J. C. Jeaffreson; and Mahan's "Life of Nelson," recently published.] XXXI. TEMPERANCE. MEMORY GEMS. Rum will brutalize the manliest man in Christendom.-J. B. Gough Rum excites all that is bad, vicious, and criminal in man.-J. S. White There may be some wit in a barrel of beer, but there is more in leaving it alone.-C. Garrett Sobriety is the bridle of the passions of desire, and temperance is the bit and curb of that bridle; a restraint put into a man's mouth; a moderate use of meat and drink.-Jeremy Taylor Temperance is corporeal piety; it is the preservation of divine order in the body.-Theodore Parker Temperance may, in its narrower sense, be defined as the observance of a rational medium with respect to the pleasures of eating and drinking. But it has also a larger meaning. The temperate man desires to hold all his pleasures within the limits of what is honorable, and with a proper reference to the amount of his own pecuniary means. To pursue them more is excess; to pursue them less is defect. There is, however, in estimating excess and defect, a certain tacit reference to the average dispositions of men, and the law of usage or custom of the times. The word temperance has, we repeat, become narrowed and specialized. We mean by it, not exactly temperance, but abstinence. The word does not convey the full force of its older meaning. That signifies, "the right handling of one's self,--that kind of self-control by which a man's nature has a chance to act normally;" and this aspect of our subject must not be overlooked, for it is of great importance. Instead of being the secondary thing which some think it to be, temperance is really a much higher virtue than patience or fortitude. It is the guardian of reason, the bulwark of religion, the sister of prudence, and the sweetener of life. Be temperate; and time will carry you forward on its purest current till it lands you on the continent of a yet purer eternity, as the swelling river rolls its limpid stream into the bosom of the unfathomable deep. But even in the more general meaning now given to the word, temperance is worthy of our most careful study. Consider what it is to gain the mastery over a single passion! And think, also, what it is for the mind to be ruled by an appetite! Look at S. T. Coleridge--a poet who might have sung for all time, a philosopher capable of teaching and molding generations, skulking away from the eye of friends and of servants to drink his bottle of laudanum, and then bewailing his weakness and sin with an agony, the bare recital of which, makes our hearts bleed with pity. Our task is not only to subdue a serpent, to tame a lion,--there is a whole menagerie of evil passions to be kept in subjection, and when the drink habit prevails, we shall soon become too weak for such a task. Temperance is an action; it is the tempering of our words and actions to our circumstances. Sobriety is a state in which one is exempt from every stimulus to deviate from the right course. As a man who is intoxicated with wine, runs into excesses, and loses that power of guiding himself which he has when he is sober or free from all intoxication, so is he who is intoxicated with any passion, led into irregularities which a man in his right senses will not be guilty of. Sobriety is, therefore, the state of being in one's right or sober senses; and sobriety is, with regard to temperance, as a cause to its effect. The evils resulting from intemperance are so numerous and so destructive of human happiness and life, as to command universal attention. Not only does intemperance greatly increase pauperism and crime, but it often leads to sad calamities which might otherwise be quite largely avoided. An old English sea-captain relates the following fact, of which he was an eyewitness:--"A collier brig was stranded on the Yorkshire coast, and I had occasion to assist in the distressing service of rescuing a part of the crew by drawing them up a vertical cliff, two or three hundred feet in altitude, by means of a very small rope, the only material at hand. The first two men who caught hold of the rope were hauled safely up to the top; but the next, after being drawn to a considerable height, slipped his hold and fell; and with the fourth and last who venturedupon this only chance of life, the rope gave way, and he also was plunged into the foaming breakers beneath. Immediately afterward, the vessel broke up, and the remainder of the ill-fated crew perished before our eyes. "What now was the cause of this heart-rending event? Was it stress of weather, or a contrary wind, or unavoidable accident? No such thing! It was the entire want of moral conduct in the crew. Every sailor, to a man, was in a state of intoxication! The helm was intrusted to a boy ignorant of the coast. He ran the vessel upon the rocks at Whitby; and one half of the miserable, dissipated crew were plunged into eternity almost without a knowledge of what was taking place." There are still a few people who openly ridicule both total abstinence and its advocates, and some, who are wicked enough to endeavor to misrepresent those who labor in this cause. These persons do not always succeed, however, as the following incident will show: Horace Greeley was once met at a railway depot by a red-faced individual, who shook him warmly by the hand. "I don't recognize you," said Mr. Greeley. "Why, yes, you must remember how we drank brandy and water together at a certain place." This amused the bystanders, who knew Mr. Greeley's strong temperance principles. "Oh, I see," replied Mr. Greeley, "you drank the brandy, and I drank the water." It will be found that abstinence from intoxicants is by far the best rule of living. There is a large amount of genuine wisdom in the words of a middle-aged German who, some years ago, spoke as follows, at a temperance meeting: "I shall tell you how it vas. I put my hand on my head; there was von big pain. Then I put my hand on my pody; and there vas another big pain. There was very much pains in all my pody. Then I put my hand in my pocket; and there vas noting. Now there is no more pain in my head. The pains in my pody are all gone away. I put mine hand in my pocket, and there ish twenty tollars. So I shall shtay mit de temperance." FATHER MATHEW. Theobald Mathew was an Irish priest. He was born in 1790, in a great house in Tipperary, where his father was the agent of a rich lord. The delight of his childhood was in giving little feasts and entertainments to his friends. As long as he lived he was fond of this pleasure. Indeed, when, at the very last, his physician had forbidden him to receive company, he was found by his brother giving a dinner to a party of poor boys. At twenty-three years of age he was ordained, and was known from that time as "Father Mathew." After a short time in Kilkenny, he went to Cork, which was his home for the rest of his life. He was not thought much of as a scholar, nor at first as a preacher; but he had a warm heart and every one liked him. Thus he passed quietly along until he was forty-seven years old; and it did not seem as if the world would ever hear of "Father Mathew." There was a little band of Quakers in Cork, who had started a total abstinence, or "teetotal society." They interested Father Mathew in their work, and, in 1838, he signed the temperance pledge and enrolled himself as a member. Very soon every one in Cork had heard of what Father Mathew had done. He began at once to preach that men ought not to be drunkards, and that they ought not to use what would make drunkards. The people of Cork had always thought what Father Mathew did was right; and they thought so now. In three months twenty-five thousand persons had taken the pledge. The story of the new movement spread quickly over Ireland, and Father Mathew was wanted everywhere. Wherever he went the people crowded to hear him. There were many pathetic scenes at his meetings; for women came dragging their drunken husbands with them, and almost forcing them to take the pledge. Men knelt in great companies and repeated the words of the pledge together. In Limerick the crowds were so dense that it was impossible to enroll all the names. More than a hundred thousand were thought to have taken the pledge in four days. As a result of his work the saloons were closed in many villages and towns; and, within five years, half the people in Ireland had taken the pledge. The quantity of liquor used fell off more than half, and there was a similar decrease in all kinds of crime. Then came the terrible years of the Irish famine. By the failure of the potato crop, hundreds of thousands died of starvation or of fever. Multitudes had to leave their homes to get government work; and hunger and despair brought a new temptation to drink. Father Mathew's heart was well-nigh broken with seeing the misery of his countrymen. The food was taken from his own table to feed the hungry. Every room in his house would sometimes be filled with poor people clamoring for bread; and, largely as a result of this terrible strain, he was stricken with paralysis. As soon as Father Mathew had partly recovered from his illness he longed to do something for his people across the sea. In the year 1849 he sailed for New York. The mayor of that city made him an address of welcome; and at Washington he was honored by being admitted to the floor of both houses of Congress. In spite of his broken health, he visited twenty-five states, spoke in over three hundred towns and cities, and gave the pledge to five hundred thousand people. He returned home thoroughly exhausted, and soon had another stroke of paralysis. But loving friends cared for him; people still came for his blessing, or to take the pledge in his presence. He died in 1856, and all the people of Cork followed him to his burial. It is said that seven million people took the pledge of total abstinence at Father Mathew's hands; and it is thought that hundreds of thousands never broke it. There is now a new feeling about temperance in the English-speaking world. Drunkenness is now looked upon as a disgrace; total abstinence is becoming the habit of increasing numbers of people from year to year; and in the production of this changed feeling, this simple-hearted, earnest Irish priest did more than any other man. [Footnote: See "Father Mathew, his Life and Times," by F. J. Mathew (Cassell & Co., 1880), and "Biography of Father Mathew," by J. F. Maguire, M. P. (London, 1863).] XXXII. PATRIOTISM. MEMORY GEMS. The noblest motive is the public good.--Virgil The one best omen is to fight for fatherland.--Homer Patriotism is a principle fraught with high impulses and noble thoughts.--Smiles The revolutionist has seldom any other object but to sacrifice his country to himself.--Alison It is impossible that a man who is false to his friends should be true to his country.--Bishop Berkeley Patriotism is defined by Noah Webster as "the passion which aims to serve one's country." As it is natural to love our home, it is natural to love our country also. As the poorest homes are sometimes most tenderly loved, so the poorest and barest country is sometimes held in most affection. There is, perhaps, not a country in the world the inhabitants of which have not, at some time or other, been willing to suffer and die for it. But as we think of our land, we quickly perceive that no body of young people ever had a more valuable inheritance than that which we have received; and we are under the greatest obligations to protect and preserve this land, and transmit it, full of the grandest achievements and most glorious recollections, to posterity. This affection is natural, because the town and the nation in which one has lived, is, like the home, bound up with all the experiences of one's life. The games of childhood, the affection of parents, the love of friends, all the joys, the sorrows, the activities of life, are bound up in the thought of one's native land. It is not merely natural to be patriotic, but it is also reasonable and right. Nearly all that makes life pleasant and desirable, comes to us through the town or the nation to which we belong. Think how many thousands in our country have toiled for us! They have made roads, and they have built churches and schoolhouses. They have established malls and post offices. They have cultivated farms to provide for our needs, and have built ships that cross the ocean to bring to us the good things which we could not produce at home. They have provided protection against wrongdoers; so that if we sleep in peace, and work and study and play in safety, we are indebted for all this to the town and nation. When the bells are ringing, and the cannons are firing, on the Fourth of July, we must not think merely of the noise and fun. We must remember those who on that day agreed that they would risk their lives and everything that was dear to them, that their country might be free. We must also think of those who in times of peril have given themselves for their nation's good; of those who found the land a wilderness, and suffered pain and privation while they made the beginning of a nation. We must think of those who, ever since that time, when ever the liberty or the unity of the nation has been in peril, have sprung to its defense. At the end of the war of the revolution, Washington was at the head of a mighty army, and was the object of the enthusiastic love of the whole people. He might easily have made himself a king or an emperor. It was a marvel to the civilized world when he quietly laid down all his power. He suffered himself to be twice chosen president; and then he became simply a private citizen. This seems to us now the most natural thing in the world; but really it was something very rare, and gave him a fame such as few heroes of the world enjoy. There have been heroes in peace as well as in war, men who have conquered the wilderness, who have upheld justice, and have helped on whatever was good and noble. And there are also many persons among us who are unworthy to live in our country, because they are not willing to suffer the least inconvenience on its account. Then there are many men who are even so unpatriotic as to sell their votes. Think of all the cost of money and of noble lives at which our liberty has been won. Think how, in many parts of the world, men are looking with longing at the liberty which we enjoy; yet there are those to whom this hard-won freedom means so little that they do not strive to further the country's interests in any way. We must never forget, as we think or speak of patriotism, that such private virtues as honesty and industry, are its best helps. Whatever tends to make men wiser and better is a service to the nation. The country will one day be in the hands of those who are now boys and girls; and to you, we say, serve it, guard it, and do all that you can to promote its good. There is a fine field for the exercise of patriotism in trying to improve the condition of affairs in the towns and cities in which we live. We find ourselves in the midst of a conflict between the criminal classes on the one hand, and the people on the other,--a conflict as stern as was ever endured upon the battlefield, amid the glitter of cold steel and the rattle of musketry. The man or woman of the school committee, working conscientiously that the boys and girls shall have the best education to fit them for future life, is a patriot. The teacher who patiently works on with that great end in view, is the same. If greed or bigotry claims from town, city, or country, that which will debase her people, every boy and girl, every man and woman, should instantly frown it down. This is true patriotism, and the influence of every person is needed for the right. Every good man in politics wields a power for good. Every good man not in politics is to blame for political corruption, because by neglecting his plain duty he adds to the strength of the enemy. Let it be known that, with you, principle amounts to something; that character counts; that questionable party service cannot count upon your suffrage. JOHN ADAMS. But little has been written of the child-life of John Adams, the second president of the United States; a man of unflinching honesty, and a patriot of the noblest order. The Adamses were an honest, faithful people. They were not rich, neither were they poor; but being thrifty and economical, they lived with comfort. Stern integrity was the predominant quality of the farmer's home into which John Adams was born in 1735. It must be remembered, throughout his life it was the sturdy qualities of his ancestors that made him the statesman and patriot whom we know. The boy did not show much fondness for books. He preferred life out of doors among the birds and the squirrels, roaming the woods,--living just the life a wide-awake boy on a farm would lead nowadays. His father gave him the opportunity of a liberal education, and he entered Harvard College when he was sixteen years old. It is curious to note that the students were all enrolled according to social position, and John Adams was the fourteenth in his class. In college he was noted for integrity and energy as well as for ability,--those qualities which the sturdy line of farmers had handed down to their children. The year he graduated, then twenty years of age, he became teacher of the grammar school in Worcester, Massachusetts. There he earned the money to aid him in studying his profession, and the training was excellent for the young man. He decided that he would be a lawyer, and he wrote: "But I set out with firm resolutions, never to commit any meanness or injustice in the practice of law." There were stirring times in the colonies when John Adams was thirty years old. The British government imposed taxes and searched for goods which had evaded their officers. The matter was brought before the Superior Court. James Otis argued the cause of the merchants; and John Adams listened intently to all this great man said. He afterwards wrote: "Otis was a flame of fire.... American independence was then and there born. Every man appeared to be ready to get away and to take up arms." Then the Stamp Act was issued. John Adams's whole soul was fired with indignation at the injustice. He drew up a set of resolutions, remonstrating against it. These were adopted, not only by the citizens of Braintree, but by those of more than forty other towns in Massachusetts; and the landing of the Stamp Act paper was prevented. Courts were closed, and the excitement was intense. John Adams boldly said that the Stamp Act was an assumption of arbitrary power, violating both the English constitution and the charter of the province. In connection with what is known as "The Boston Tea Party," came the closing of Boston's ports, because the tea had been thrown overboard, and the city would not submit to the tax. A Congress was convened in Philadelphia, and John Adams was one of the five delegates sent from Boston. He knew the grave responsibility of the time. With intense feeling he exclaimed: "God grant us wisdom and fortitude! Should this country submit, what infamy and ruin! Death in any form is less terrible!" Jefferson and Adams were appointed to draw up the Declaration of Independence. Mr. Adams insisted that Jefferson should prepare it, and he with forty-four others signed it. Mr. Jefferson wrote: "The great pillar of support to the Declaration of Independence, and its ablest advocate and champion on the floor of the House, was John Adams. He was our Colossus." In various ways, John Adams served his country with unswerving loyalty. When Washington was chosen president, Adams was chosen vice-president for both terms, and was then elected president. To the very last he was always ready to give his word--strong, convincing, powerful as of old--in the defense of the right, even if he had to stand entirely alone. And the story of his manly independence will always add to the dignity of the early history of our nation. [Footnote: See "Life and Works of John Adams," by C. F. Adams (10 vols.); "Life of John Adams," by J. T. Morse; and article in Appleton's Cyclopedia of American Biography, Vol. I., pp. 15-23.] XXXIII. INDEPENDENCE. MEMORY GEMS. Keep out of the crowd, if you have to get above it.--M. C Peters The freedom of the mind is the highest form of independence.--G. B. Fisk A country cannot subsist without liberty, nor liberty without virtue. --Rousseau The spirit of independence is not merely a jealousy of our own particular rights, but a respect for the rights of others. --S. Baring-Gould The love of independence is not only instinctive in man, but its possession is essential to his moral development.--George Eliot A great many persons carry in their minds a very mistaken idea as to what constitutes a truly noble life. To live is not merely to exist; it is to live unbiased and uninfluenced by low and belittling human influences. It is to give breadth and expansion to the soul; first through a clear discrimination between right and wrong; and then in living up to the right. Full manhood, the full realization and fruition of all that is best and greatest in man, depends upon freedom of thought and independence of action. Some countries have given especial attention to the cultivation of this trait. For example: It has been pointed out that "among the bestproducts of Scotland has been her love of independence. A ruggedness of spirit has marked her children. Strength stamps her heroes. The gentle Burns was as strong as Knox,--not in character, but in the assertion of 'A man's a man for a' that;' and a great many of Scotland's noblest sons have been brought into public notice through the manifestation of their strong personality." Vast numbers of men and women ruin their lives by failing to assert themselves. They sink into the grave with scarcely a trace to indicate that they ever lived. They live and they die. Cradle and grave are brought close together; there is nothing between them. There have been hundreds who could have rivaled the patriotism of a Washington, or the humanity of a Howard, or the eloquence of a Demosthenes, and who have left behind them no one memorial of their existence, because of lack of lofty courage, sublime moral heroism, and the assertion of their individuality. The world's greatest things have been accomplished by individuals. Vast social reformations have originated in individual souls. Truths that now sway the world were first proclaimed by individual lips. Great thoughts that are now the axioms of humanity sprang from the center of individual hearts. Do not suffer others to shape your lives for you; but do all you can to shape them for yourselves. Sydney Smith insisted upon this quality of manhood and womanhood as indispensable. He said: "There is one circumstance I would preach up morning, noon, and night, to young persons for the management of their understanding: Whatever you are by nature, keep to it; never desert your own line of talent. Be what Nature intended you for, and you will succeed; be anything else, and you will be ten thousand times worse than nothing." It is a good thing for a boy to wait upon himself as much as possible. The more he has to depend upon his own exertions, the more manly a fellow will he become. Self-dependence will call out his energies, and bring into exercise his talents. It is not in the hothouse, but on the rugged Alpine cliffs, where the storms beat most violently, that the toughest plants grow. So it is with man. The wisest charity is to help a boy to help himself. Let him never hear any language but this: You have your own way to make, and it depends on your own exertion whether you succeed or fail. Sherman once wrote to General Grant, "You are now Washington's legitimate successor, and occupy a position of almost dangerous elevation; but if you continue, as heretofore, _to be yourself_,-- simple, honest, and unpretending,--you will enjoy through life the respect and love of friends, and the homage of millions of human beings." Of course we must guard against the error of carrying our sense of independence too far. Wordsworth hit the truth when he said: "These two things, contradictory as they may seem, must go together,--manly dependence and manly independence,--manly reliance and manly self-reliance." Still, after all is said, we do need more healthy independence. Looking out upon society, we see how slavish men and women are to fashion and frivolity. Society life is largely a surface life, spoiled by fear of gossip. Young people need to take clearer views of this matter, and to stand by their own convictions at any cost. The question to be settled by most of us is, Shall I steer or drift? Our advice is, by all means have a lofty purpose before you, and then remain loyal to it. Some boys think independence consists in doing whatever they please. They think it is smart to be "tough." A story told by Admiral Farragut about his early boyhood, aptly illustrates this phase of young America's independence. He says: "When I was a boy, ten years of age, I was with my father on board of a man-of-war. I had some qualities that I thought made a man of me. I could swear like an old salt; could drink as stiff a glass of grog as if I had doubled Cape Horn; and could smoke like a locomotive. I was great at cards; and fond of gaming in any shape. At the close of dinner one day my father turned everybody out of the cabin, locked the door, and said to me: 'David, what do you mean to be?' 'I mean to follow the sea.' 'Follow the sea! yes, to be a poor, miserable, drunken sailor before the mast; be kicked and cuffed about the world; and die in some fever hospital in a foreign clime.' 'No,' said I, 'I'll tread the quarter-deck, and command as you do.' 'No, David; no boy ever trod the quarter-deck with such principles as you have. You'll have to change your whole course of life if you ever become a man.' "My father left me and went on deck. I was stunned by the rebuke, and overwhelmed with mortification. 'A poor, miserable, drunken sailor before the mast!' That's my fate, is it! I'll change my life, and change it at once! I will never utter another oath; I will never drink another drop of intoxicating liquor; I will never gamble! I have kept these three vows to this very hour. That was the turning point in my destiny." A great many men begin to lose their individuality of conviction the moment they begin life's business. Many a young man has sacrificed his individuality on the altar that a profligate companion has built for him. Many a young man who knew right, has allowed some empty-headed street-corner loafer to lower his own high moral tone lest he should seem singular in the little world of society surrounding him. And many a lad whose life promised well at the beginning, has gone to the bad, or lost his chance in life, because he never learned to say "No!" In the Revolutionary War, after the surrender of General Lincoln, at Charleston, the whole of South Carolina was overrun by the British army. Among those captured by the redcoats was a small boy, thirteen years of age. He was carried as a prisoner of war to Camden. While there, a British officer, in a very imperious tone, ordered the boy to clean his boots, which were covered with mud. "Here, boy! You young rebel, what are you doing there? Take these boots and clean them; and be quick about it, too!" The boy looked up at him and said: "Sir, I won't do it. I am a prisoner of war, and expect proper treatment from you, sir." This boy was Andrew Jackson, who afterward became president of the United States. Boys with such a spirit make noble men. Exaggerated individuality makes a man impracticable. But the danger of our times is to copy after others, and thus destroy our force and effectiveness. Live, then, like an individual. Take life like a man--as though the world had waited for your coming. Don't take your cue from the weak, the prejudiced, the trimmers, the cowards;--but rather from the illustrious ones of earth. Dare to take the side that seems wrong to others, if it seems right to you; and you will attain to an order of life the most noble and complete. THOMAS JEFFERSON. For the last one hundred years, one of the first historical facts taught the youth of American birth, is that Thomas Jefferson wrote our famous Declaration of Independence. His bold, free, independent nature, admirably fitted him for the writing of this remarkable document. To him was given the task of embodying, in written language, the sentiments and the principles for which, at that moment, a liberty-loving people were battling with their lives. He succeeded, because he wrote the Declaration while his heart burned with that same patriotic fire which Patrick Henry so eloquently expressed when he said: "I care not what others may do, but as for me, give me liberty or give me death." In all nations men have sacrificed everything they held dear for religious and political freedom. Their names are justly written in the book of fame; but in the front rank of them all, we place the brave signers of the Declaration of Independence, with Jefferson in the lead. The acceptance and the signing of this document by the members of the Continental Congress was a dramatic scene, seldom, if ever, surpassed in the annals of history. As John Hancock placed his great familiar signature upon it, he jestingly remarked, that John Bull could read that without spectacles; and then, becoming more serious, he began to impress upon his comrades the necessity of all hanging together in this matter. "Yes, indeed," interrupted Franklin, "we must all hang together, or assuredly we shall all hang separately." The Declaration of Independence placed the American colonies squarely upon the issue of political freedom. Its composition was a master-stroke which will continue as a lasting memorial to the head and heart of its author. [Footnote: See "Thomas Jefferson," by J. T. Morse, Jr. (in American Statesmen Series), and "Domestic Life of Thomas Jefferson," by Sarah N. Randolph, his great-granddaughter.] XXXIV. THE IDEAL MAN. MEMORY GEMS. From the lowest depth there is a path to the highest height.--Carlyle. A man seldom loses the respect of others until he has lost his own. --F. W. Robertson There are certain things we feel to be beautiful and good, and we must hunger after them.--George Eliot The man who thinks himself inferior to his fellows, deserves to be, and generally is.--William Black It is characteristic of small men to avoid emergencies; of great men to meet them.--Charles Kingsley Every man has characteristics which make him a distinct personality; a different individual from every other individual. It is an interesting fact that a man cannot change his nature, though he may conceal it; while no art or application will teach him to know himself, as he really is, or as others see him. If the idea of humanity carry with it the corresponding idea of a physical, intellectual, and moral nature--if it be this trinity of being which constitutes the man,--then let us think of the first or the second elements as we may, it is the third which completes our conception. Let us praise the mechanism of the body to the utmost; let it be granted that the height and force of our intellect bespeaks a glorious intelligence; still our distinctive excellence and preeminence lies in moral and spiritual perfection. There are those who think and speak as if manhood consisted in birth or titles, or in extent of power and authority. They are satisfied if they can only reckon among their ancestors some of the great and illustrious, or if noble blood but flow in their veins. But if they have no other glory than that of their ancestors; if all their greatness lies in a name; if their titles are their only virtues; if it be necessary to call up past ages to find something worthy of our homage,--then their birth rather disparages and dishonors them. That these creatures lay claim to the name and the attributes of man, is a desecration. Man is a _noble_ being. There may be rank, and title, and ancestry, and deeds of renown, where there is no intellectual power. Nor would we unduly exalt reason. There may be mental greatness in no common degree, and yet be a total absence of those higher moral elements which bring our manhood more clearly into view. It is the combination of intellectual power and moral excellence which goes to make the perfect man. The world wants a man who is educated all over; whose nerves are brought to their acutest sensibility; whose brain is cultured, keen, and penetrating; whose hands are deft; whose eyes are alert, sensitive, microscopic; whose heart is tender, broad, magnanimous, true. Indeed, the only man who can satisfy the demands of an age like this, is the man who has been rounded into perfectness by being cultured along all the lines we have indicated in the foregoing pages. This education must commence with the very first opening of the infant mind. Our lessons will multiply and be of a still higher character with the progress of our years. Truth may succeed truth, according to the mental power and capacity; nor must our instruction cease till the probationary state shall close. Our education can finish only with the termination of life. Every one is conscious of a most peculiar feeling when he looks at anything whose formation or development is imperfect. Let him take up an imperfectly-formed crystal, or an imperfectly-developed flower, and he can scarcely describe his feelings. The same holds true as to the organization and structure of the human body. Who ever contemplates stunted growth, or any kind of visible deformity, with complacency and satisfaction? And why should we not look for full mental development, and for the most perfect moral maturity? If what is imperfect constitutes the exception in the physical world, why should it be otherwise in the world of mind and of morals? Is it a thing to be preferred, to be stunted, and little, and dwarfish, in our intellectual and moral stature? Or do we prefer a state of childhood to that of a perfect man? If the mind is the measure of the man, and if uprightness constitutes the noblest aspect of life, then our advancement in knowledge and in righteousness should appear unto all men. There is a god in the meanest man; there is a philanthropist in the stingiest miser; there is a hero in the biggest coward,--which an emergency great enough will call out. The blighting greed of gain, the chilling usages and cold laws of trade, encase many a noble heart in crusts of selfishness; but great emergencies break open the prison doors, and the whole heart pours itself forth in deeds of charity and mercy. The poor and unfortunate are our opportunity, our character-builders, the great schoolmasters of our moral and Christian growth. Every kind and noble deed performed for others, is transmuted into food which nourishes the motive promoting its performance, and strengthens the muscles of habit. Gladstone, in the midst of pressing duties, found time to visit a poor sick boy whom he had seen sweeping the street crossings. He endeared himself to the heart of the English people by this action more than by almost any other single event of his life; and this incident is more talked about to-day than almost any of his so-called greater deeds. Not what men do, but what their lives promise and prophesy, gives hope to the race. To keep us from discouragement, Nature now and then sends us a Washington, a Lincoln, a Kossuth, a Gladstone, towering above his fellows, to show us she has not lost her ideal. We call a man like Shakespeare a genius, not because he makes new discoveries, but because he shows us to ourselves,--shows us the great reserve in us, which, like the oil-fields, awaited a discoverer,--and because he says that which we had thought or felt, but could not express. Genius merely holds the glass up to nature. We can never see in the world what we do not first have in ourselves. "Every man," says Theodore Parker, "has at times in his mind the ideal of what he should be, but is not. In all men that seek to improve, it is better than the actual character. No one is so satisfied with himself that he never wishes to be wiser, better, and more perfect." The ideal is the continual image that is cast upon the brain; and these images are as various as the stars; and, like them, differ one from another in magnitude. It is the quality of the aspiration that determines the true success or failure of a life. A man may aspire to be the best billiard-player, the best coachman, the best wardroom politician, the best gambler, or the most cunning cheat. He may rise to be eminent in his calling; but, compared with other men, his greatest height will be below the level of the failure of him who chooses an honest profession. No jugglery of thought, no gorgeousness of trappings, can make the low high, the dishonest honest, the vile pure. As is a man's ideal or aspiration, so shall his life be. But when all this has been said, it still remains true that much of the difference between man and man arises from the variety of occupations and practices,--a certain special training which develops thought and intelligence in special directions. All men meet, however, on the common level of common sense. A man's thought is indicated by his talk, by verbal expression. Mental action and expression is affected by the senses, passions, and appetites. Whatever great thing in life a man does, he never would have done in that precise way except for the peculiar training and experience which developed him; and no single incident in his life, however trifling, may be excepted in the work of rounding him out to the exact character he becomes. The poet is really calling for what we regard as the ideal man, when he says: "God give us men. A time like this demands Strong minds, great hearts, true faith and ready hands: Men whom the lust of office does not kill; Men whom the spoils of office cannot buy; Men who possess opinions and a will; Men who have honor--men who will not lie; Men who can stand before a demagogue And scorn his treacherous flatteries without winking; Tall men, sun-crowned, who live above the fog In public duty, and in private thinking." XXXV. WHAT CONSTITUTES GOOD CITIZENSHIP. MEMORY GEMS. A great nation is made only by worthy citizens.--Charles Dudley Warner Nothing is politically right that is morally wrong.--O'Connor The noblest principle in education is to teach how best to live for one's country.--G. T. Balch The good citizen will never consent that his voice and vote shall sanction a public wrong.--A. M. Gow Let our object be, our country, our whole country, and nothing but our country.--D. Webster An old English picture represents a king, with the motto beneath, "I govern all;" a bishop, with this sentence, "I pray for all;" a soldier, with the inscription, "I fight for all;" and a farmer, who reluctantly draws forth his purse, and exclaims with rueful countenance, "I pay for all." The American citizen combines in himself the functions of these four. He is king, prophet, warrior, and laborer. He governs, prays, and fights for himself, and pays all expenses. It is neither desirable nor possible, however, for men to be wholly independent of one another. Their very nature reveals the fact that they are intended to be associated in the bonds of mutual intercourse and affection; and such forms of associated life we see all about us, in the life of the family, the community, and the nation. For a body of human beings to attempt to live together without regard for each other's interests, would be certain to lead to confusion, if not to disaster. There would be no security for life or property; no recognized standard of values; no ready and certain means of communication; nor any of the higher conveniences which mark the life of our own land and age. That which is needed to insure these necessary benefits, is some common understanding, or some such generally accepted agreement, as finds expression in those forms of government which have, for these very reasons, become common to all civilized lands. It is in this idea of associated life that citizenship finds its real beginning. But between the formulation of the idea, and such citizenship as we now enjoy, there have been long centuries of slow growth and steady development. Each of these succeeding centuries has marked a decided improvement in the condition of mankind; and the outlook for the future of the race is more hopeful at the present than in any period of the past. Men like to praise old times. They are fond of telling about "the good old days," when there was simplicity, and a rude but rugged virtue, and men were gay and happy. But if you were to take these men up, and carry them back there, and let them sleep where men slept then, and let them eat what men ate then, and let them do what men had to do then, and take from them what men did not have then,--you would hear the most piteous whining and complaining that ever afflicted your ears. Do not be misled by such of our empty-headed reformers as would tell you that the workman's lot is harder at the present than in the far-away centuries of the past; for their statements cannot be verified, but are untruthful and pernicious in the highest degree. The sober, industrious, self-respecting artisan of to-day has the privilege of entrance to many places and families which were closed against the merchants and manufacturers of one hundred years ago; and he stands possessed of opportunities such as were not possible even to the men of the last generation. Citizenship stands inseparably connected with the family. The family is practically a little state in itself, embodying on a smaller scale, all those vital and fundamental principles which make up the larger life of the nation. It is in the family that we first come under government. Our earliest lessons in obedience are those which arise from the authority of our parents and guardians. It is in the home that we discover that we cannot do altogether as we please, but that others, as well as ourselves, must be regarded. And it will not be difficult to discern that, in the various phases of home life, we have represented almost all the forms of government which have become embodied in the various kinds of national administration now prevailing in the various parts of the earth. In a well-ordered home, the authority would be such that every one could have the largest freedom of action consistent with the general good. When the freedom of any one made itself a cause of annoyance to the rest, it would have to be curtailed. As fast as the children grew to deserve more liberty, it would be given them; but always on condition that they prove themselves worthy to be entrusted with this larger life. But with this increase of freedom and privilege, comes the increase of responsibility. Every member of the family who is old enough to appreciate its privileges, is old enough to share its burdens. Some specific duties should be assigned to each, however simple these may be; and for the performance of these duties, each should be held to be personally responsible. Precisely this is needed in the larger sphere of the state; and when this can be attained and maintained, the good of the state will be both effectually and permanently assured. A true lover of his country will have, as his ruling idea, that the state is for the people, and that America has been made to make and sustain happy Americans. No nation is in a satisfactory condition when large portions of its population are discontented and miserable. The comfortable classes will generally take care of themselves; but they need to know that their own prosperity is bound up with the condition of the uncomfortable classes. And even if it were not so, it would be their duty to advocate such social reforms as would tend to raise men intellectually, morally, and circumstantially. The carrying into effect of all this opens up a vast realm of service for the public good; and the proper performance of this service, in all its several branches, constitutes good citizenship. Speaking in general terms, we may say that a citizen of a country is one born in that country. If you were born in the United States, then you are a citizen of the United States. This one simple fact endows you with all the privileges of our great nation, and, at the same time, lays upon you a measure of responsibility for the nation's welfare. In addition to those who are trained for American citizenship in American homes, we have among us a large body of men who are "citizens by adoption." Millions of people have emigrated to America; and to these it has become the country of their own free choice. We are sorry to observe, in certain quarters, a growing disposition to regard all immigrants as "a bad lot"; for while we concede that many of those who come here, might certainly be much better than they are, we would yet remind you that these "citizens by adoption" have repeatedly proved their loyalty to our national institutions, and their willingness to die in following our national flag. Every good citizen will give attention to public affairs. He will not only vote for good men and good measures, but he will use his personal influence to have others do the same. Ours is a government of the people, and is neither better nor worse than the people make it. We should study the needs of our country, and keep ourselves well informed on all the current questions of the day, and then, by an honest and intelligent exercise of the privileges which the nation grants us, prove ourselves citizens of the very highest type. XXXVI. THE CITIZEN AND THE HOME. MEMORY GEMS. The hand that rocks the cradle rules the world.--Anon The fireside is the seminary of the nation.--Goodrich Early home associations have a potent influence upon the life of the State.--Child Nothing proves more ruinous to the State than the defective education of the women.--Aristotle. The sorest spot in our municipal and national condition, is the decadence of the home idea.--G. H. Parkhurst The fact that children are so long in growing up, and pass so many years together under the care of their father and mother, is most important in the history of the race. During this long period of growth in the home they become fitted, as they could not in any other way, to take their places in the larger world of men and women. If children remained with their parents as short a time as the young of animals do, it is probable that men would never have risen above the state of barbarism. The home has been the great civilizer of the world. The home is more than the family dwelling; it is the seat of the family life; and the family life stands to the life of the nation in the same relation as the index to the volume, or the expression of the countenance to the feeling of the heart. Our Saxon race has been distinguished from its historic beginnings for its love of personal liberty, and is the only race that has ever been able perfectly to realize this blessing in its highest and noblest form. If the word home could be squeezed into the language of the savage, it could have no such meaning for him as it possesses for us. The hut of the savage is simply a place to eat in and sleep in. He selects no spot on which to plant, and build, and educate. He claims to occupy so much territory as will furnish him with subsistence, but his "home," if he really has one, is in the forest, like the game he hunts. It is a fact beyond dispute, that all migratory people are low down in the scale of civilized life. The homes of any people are the very beginnings of its progress, the very centers of its law and order, and of its social and political prosperity. They are the central points around which the crystallizing and solidifying processes of national life and growth can alone be carried forward. We do not give sufficient prominence to this fact, in our estimate of the forces which build up our national life. We recognize art and science, agriculture and industry, politics and morality; but do we realize, as we should, that, beneath all these, as the great foundation rock upon which they all must rest, lies the home. Or, to change the figure, the homes of our people are the springs out of which flow our national life and character. They are the schools in which our people are trained for citizenship; for when a young man leaves the paternal roof, his grade and quality as a citizen is, as a rule, fully determined. The training of a good citizen must begin at the cradle, and be continued through the plastic period of boyhood and carried forward by his parents, until the youth crosses his native threshold to act his part and assume his responsibilities in the broader field of his own independent life. The home life of New England has been the most potent force, in the building of this great nation. The homes of our Puritan ancestors were really the birthplaces of these United States. What then was the character of these homes? They were simple and even rude, as considered externally--and especially when contrasted with the homes of the New Englanders of to-day. But within, there was love and loyalty, reverence and faith. In the early homes of New England there were so many strong fibers running from heart to heart, and knitting all together,--and so many solid virtues woven into the daily life,--that their influence has done much to make our nation what it is. A young man trained in such a home, will usually become an example of sobriety, industry, honesty, and fidelity to principle. He will be felt to be part of the solid framework which girds society and helps to keep it healthy,--a kind of human bank, on which the community may draw to sustain its best interests, and to promote its noblest forms of life. The home is the birthplace of true patriotism; and a true patriotism is one of the first and most important characteristics in the upbuilding of any nation. It is not the wild plebeian instinct that goes for our country right or wrong, which forms the real element of our strength. Love of country, to be a real help and safeguard, must be a sentiment great enough to be moral in its range and quality. Neither the power of numbers, nor mere oaths of allegiance, will suffice. Patriotism always falls back upon the home life and the home interests for its inspiration and its power. Whatever crosses the threshold to desolate the hearth, touches to the quick one of the strongest sentiments of our nature. The old Latin battle cry, "For our altars and our firesides," is still the most potent word which can be given to our soldiers, as they advance upon the foe; and the man who will not go forward, even to the death, for these, is rightly counted as little better than a slave. If you want a man upon whom you can rely in the hour of the nation's peril, select the man who loves his home; for in proportion as he loves his home, will he love his country which has protected it. We therefore repeat that the homes of the people are the secret of our country's greatness. Acres do not make a nation great. Wealth cannot purchase grandeur and renown. Resources, however great and wonderful, cannot crown us with national honor and celebrity. The strength and prowess of any land lies in the character of its citizens; and their character depends largely upon the character of their homes. XXXVII. THE CITIZEN AND THE COMMUNITY. MEMORY GEMS. Municipal government should be entirely divorced from party politics. --C. H. Parkhurst Too many of our citizens fail to realize that local government is a worthy study.--John Fiske Every citizen should be ready to do his full part in the service of the community in which he lives.--E. O. Mann Each separate township needs men who will inspire respect and command confidence.--W. A. Mowry Let the man who, without good excuse, fails to vote, be deprived of the right to vote.--W. H. H. Miller Whenever men live in a community, they are placed under certain mutual obligations. Unless these obligations are carefully regarded the community life will be sure to prove a failure. Man is selfish as well as social. The weak must, therefore, be protected from the strong; and in this important work there are common interests which require united action. This united action may be for the common defense of the community, or for the general welfare of all. The unit of government is generally the town, or as it is called in many parts of our country, the township. A town includes the people who are permanent residents within a certain limited and prescribed territory, usually occupying but a few square miles. The government of a town, or township, is in the hands of the people permanently residing within the limits of that township. These people combine together for the protection and mutual good of all. This is the fundamental principle of government. To carry on this government and make the necessary provisions for the mutual good of the inhabitants of the town, taxation is resorted to. The people, therefore, come in contact with the government first of all at this point. Taxes are levied by a majority vote of the citizens assembled in town meeting, such meetings being usually held once a year, in order that the moneys necessary to be raised, and the business to be done for the welfare of the people, may receive regular and careful attention. Where the population is dense and houses are placed close together, so that within a small area there is a large body of inhabitants, thegovernment is generally under the form of a city. Our republican government, which, after making all due allowances, seems to work remarkably well in rural districts, in the state, and in the nation, has certainly been far less successful as applied to cities. Accordingly our cities have come to furnish topics for reflection to which writers and orators fond of boasting the unapproachable excellence of American institutions do not like to allude. Fifty years ago we were accustomed to speak of civil government in the United States as if it had dropped from heaven, or had been specially created by some kind of miracle upon American soil; and we were apt to think that in mere republican forms there was some kind of mystic virtue which made them a cure for all political evils. Our later experience with cities has rudely disturbed this too confident frame of mind. It has furnished facts which do not seem to fit our theory, so that now, our writers and speakers are inclined to regard our misgoverned cities with contempt. It will best serve our purpose here, to outline the relation of the citizen to the township rather than to the city, because its management is less complex and, in most cases, is more complete and perfect. Money is ordinarily raised by taxation for the following purposes, namely: the support of the public schools; making and repairing highways; the care of the poor; maintaining the fire department; paying the salaries of the town officers; paying for the detection and punishment of offenders against the law; maintaining burial grounds; planting shade trees; providing for disabled soldiers and sailors and their families; and, in general, for all other necessary expenses. To carry on the work of a town, several officers are usually appointed. A town clerk keeps accurate records of all business transacted; records all births, marriages and deaths; makes the necessary returns to the county and the state, and serves as the agent of the town in its relation to the country at large. Officers usually known as selectmen or supervisors, attend to the general business of the town. The town treasurer receives and pays out all moneys raised for the carrying on of the town's affairs. A school committee, or board of education, is also needed to superintend all matters relating to our public schools. A surveyor of highways must be provided, in order that the streets and highways belonging to the town may be kept in proper condition; and an assessor and collector of taxes, to attend to the raising of supplies. A board of overseers of the poor is also needed, their duties being to provide for the support of paupers and the relief of the needy poor. We do not profess to have fully covered the ground in this brief statement; but only to show that life, even in the smallest communities, must necessarily make heavy drafts upon the time and attention of a large number of individual citizens. But we desire to emphasize the fact, that each of these several offices furnishes opportunity for the employment either of a competent or an incompetent official, according to the care with which the selection is made. It therefore becomes the duty of every citizen to give personal attention to such matters, for if these places are filled by corrupt or even careless men, the interests of the community will be seriously imperiled, while if they are filled by honest and patriotic men, the success of the town and its affairs is practically assured. Our one supreme object should be to raise the tone of our citizenship. The town or city will not become permanently better except as we who live in it become better. There are large sections in all our towns that yield to the guidance of corrupt and designing men for the reason that they are unreached by influences of a finer and more generous kind. Plans must be formulated by which we can come into touch with these lower quarters, and raise them quickly and surely to a higher level. We all need to become better acquainted with the machinery of our local governments and with certain principles and statutes by which the motion of that machinery requires to be regulated. We cannot properly regulate the doings of our public servants except as we are familiar with the laws to which they are subject. This question of obedience to law, can only be efficiently controlled by the continued watchfulness of the law-abiding portion of the community; and the situation in this respect is far more grave than most people imagine. A recent writer speaking of the lack of a proper enforcement of the law says: "I was in a considerable Western city, with a population of seventy thousand, some years ago, when the leading newspaper of the place, commenting on one of the train robberies that had been frequent in the state, observed that so long as the brigands had confined themselves to robbing the railway companies and the express companies of property for whose loss the companies must answer, no one had greatly cared, seeing that these companies themselves robbed the public; but now that private citizens seemed in danger of losing their personal baggage and money, the prosperity of the city might be compromised, and something ought to be done,"--a sentiment delivered with all gravity, as the rest of the article showed. This makes plausible the story of the Texas judge who is said to have allowed murderers to escape on points of law, till he found the value of real estate declining; then he carefully saw to it that the next few offenders were hanged. We must not take too narrow a view of public life. All civilized governments consider themselves bound to perform other duties of an entirely different character from those which pertain to peace and justice. When our fathers framed the constitution of the United States, they gave in the preamble to that instrument an admirable definition of the province of government. This preamble reads as follows: "We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this constitution for the United States of America." The motto of every good citizen should be, "the best means to promote the greatest good to the greatest number." The ends to be sought are the most healthy development, the highest and largest happiness to the whole people; for only in this manner can we accomplish our full duty. XXXVIII. THE CITIZEN AND THE NATION. MEMORY GEMS. Love your country and obey its laws.--Noah Porter The sum of individual character makes national character.--E. C. Mann The true defense of a nation lies in the moral qualities of its people.--Edwin C. Mason Everything learned should be flavored with a genuine love of country.--E. Edwards Noble ideas of citizenship and its duties strengthen the will of all patriots.--Merrill E. Gates We are accustomed to say that our American government is "a government of the people, by the people, for the people." It is largely in this, its broad, comprehensive, and democratic character, that we so often venture to hold it up to view as a model which might be copied by the surrounding nations to their very great advantage. And certainly no thinking person will deny that we have much to be justly proud of in this respect; for our nation has neither parallel nor equal upon the face of the green earth. But in a land like this, where the government is formed by its citizens, it can only be maintained by its citizens. Offices thus created must be filled, and the ship of state must be manned, and manned with a careful, honest, and patriotic crew, or it will be in danger of total wreck. In our times of peril we have been quick to see and to acknowledge this; and, more than once or twice, the nation has been saved by the prompt and patriotic action of the people. But it is not so easy a matter to keep our patriotism up to its noblest and its best when there is an absence of unusual or exciting causes to call it into play. We must therefore glance briefly at both these aspects of the case. It is a requirement of long standing that, in case of war, every able-bodied citizen must go forth as a soldier, if the government shall so demand. He must, if really needful, help to save the state, even at the risk, or at the positive loss, of his own life. Such calls have been made by our government; and the manner in which our people have responded has been the glory of our nation and the wonder of the world. The citizen must share the risks of his country, as well as its benefits. He must be willing to give protection to the rights and interests of his fellows, or he cannot rightly expect protection for his own. In this we are all so far agreed as to render anything like an argument entirely unnecessary; and we do not hesitate to brand all who fail us, under such circumstances, as unpatriotic and unworthy of the sympathy and esteem to which faithful citizenship entitles men. Now look at the other aspect of the case. The public service is not only for times of war and tumult, but also for times of prosperity and peace; and the claims of the nation are no more to be slighted or shirked in the latter case than in the former. The ship of state must be manned, we say, and the public offices necessary to prosperity and progress must be filled. Many of these suffer unless filled by able and patriotic men; and the interests, for the preservation and forwarding of which these offices have been created, cannot be properly served. The crying need of to-day is for men of public spirit; for men who will seek the highest welfare of their fellow-citizens in general; men of broad and generous views; men who look out upon life with an absence of that littleness and near-sightedness which cannot distinguish between public good and private interest. Those men who will take no position in the service of their country, unless it is accompanied with a monetary compensation, are after all, very closely akin to the men who waited until bounties were offered before they would take service in connection with the Civil War; while, on the other hand, the men who are truly public-spirited, take pleasure in serving the public and are liberal beyond the requirement of the law. It has been well said that "A public office is a sacred trust." Whoever engages in any duties of a public nature, is under the most solemn obligation to do those duties honestly and well. There are some public officials who, because they aid in the making of the laws, appear to think themselves higher than the law, and therefore at liberty to obey or to neglect its requirements, according as their personal inclinations shall direct. But this is not so; and it should be made clear to all such persons that they are in error. The legislator is but a citizen, after all; and, as a citizen, he stands in precisely the same relation to the law as does his brother of the rank and file. Of all men, he should be obedient, and should labor to surround the law with every possible safeguard; for it is among the most precious and sacred of our earthly possessions. It is the charter of all true freedom. It is a power before whose awful majesty every man must bow, irrespective of outward position or personal influence. It must be reverenced, honored, and obeyed by all. Now the facts show that there is a strange ignorance, or else a strange lack of conscience, in this matter, and that this is so wide-spread as to be almost universal. It seems to be a common opinion that there is no particular harm in cheating the government. If a politician secures a high government position, or a business man is fortunate enough to secure a large government contract, it seems to be expected that he will secure from these sources larger profits than would be possible anywhere else. In other words, it seems to be expected that the government will pay more for any service than can be obtained from an individual or from a private corporation, and that men will charge prices, and use deception and fraud when they work for the country, which if practiced upon private parties, would send them to prison and brand them with lifelong disgrace. Respecting that purification and elevation of the ballot-box, for which so many of our thoughtful citizens are now pleading with more than usual earnestness, our own thought is that it can best be accomplished by the establishment and strict enforcement of an educational qualification for voters, and by a residence in the United States of at least ten years, before the voting privilege shall be bestowed. No man should be allowed to vote until he can read and write. No man should be allowed to put his hand upon the management of our public affairs until he can read and understand our Constitution in the language in which it is written. One of the most ominous signs of the times is, that good men stand aloof from politics. They do this either because they do not fully appreciate the importance of their influence, or from the false conviction that their votes will do no good, or, in many other instances, because they consider their private business to be of more importance than the matters of the state. But, in point of fact, the uplifting of the moral tone of our country is a service of the most importance; and, even if we consider ourselves alone, it is still true that we cannot afford to pass it lightly by. As citizens of the United States we stand possessed of a most wondrous heritage; and what the civil authorities require of us, within their own proper sphere, should be considered in the light of a binding duty. As Professor Dole has pointed out, "We have seen magnificent cities rising on the borders of the streams, and pleasant villages dotting the hills; a flourishing commerce whitens the ripples of the lakes; the laugh of happy children comes up to us from the cornfields; and as the glow of the evening sun tinges the distant plains, a radiant and kindling vision floats upon its beams, of myriads of men escaped from the tyrannies of the Old World and gathered here in worshiping circles to pour out their grateful hearts to God for a redeemed and teeming earth." Surely all that is worth preserving. Surely we will not allow so rich a heritage to run waste. Surely we will support a nation whose past is bright with glorious achievements, and whose future glows with the light of a promise so radiantly beautiful. We need only remind you, therefore, that the truest and most useful citizens of our country are those who invigorate and elevate their nation by doing their duty truthfully and manfully; who live honest, sober, and upright lives, making the best of the opportunities for improvement that our land affords; who cherish the memory and example of the fathers of our country, and strive to make and keep it just what they intended it to be. XXXIX. THE IDEAL CITIZEN. MEMORY GEMS. Voters are the uncrowned kings who rule the nation.--Morgan A second-rate man can never make a first-rate citizen.--J. S. White Every good man in politics wields a power for good.--M. C. Peters If you want a clean city, vote to place the government in clean hands.--Dr. Mc Glynn The ideal citizen is the man who believes that all men are brothers, and that the nation is merely an extension of his family.--Habberton We may now proceed to bring our studies to a close. All that has been said, from the beginning, has been gradually but surely focusing itself upon a single point; for the development of all these several faculties and powers leads directly to the forming of a well-rounded and fully-developed manhood. A fully-developed manhood is the highest possible human achievement, and includes within itself all that can be desired; and for this higher manhood we now make our final and most urgent plea. The real man is discovered in the sum total of his ideas; for it is in these that his life takes shape and character, it is in these that his true self comes into view. The real power of the true man lies in his being able to turn his thoughts inward upon himself; to so gauge and measure his own powers as to put them to the best uses; and to stand aloof from those positions and practices for which he finds himself to be unfitted. The simple application of this rule to the practical affairs of to-day, would diminish the number of our machine politicians by about four fifths. We are loaded down, almost to the breaking point, with politicians who do not understand politics, and who advocate measures which are not for the public good, because the public good is not the end for which they strive. But the fault is in the men themselves, rather than in our political system. They must first be made manly, before they can be made truly useful. They must first learn to govern themselves, before they can successfully carry forward the work of governing the nation. They must be taught that bluster is not argument, and that to go through the motions of political service does not in the least aid in the promotion of the public welfare. A single service rendered from the heart is often of more value than a whole life of noisy and showy pretense; but again we say that such service is almost always the result of a thoughtful and considerate manliness. All this applies with equal force to the private citizen. A sturdy but quiet independence; a genuine love of righteousness and truth; a life of uprightness and integrity, of honesty and fair dealing; an absence of cringing and paltering, and of that miserable and contemptible fawning upon the rich, and that silly and despicable worship of those in place and power, which is too frequently to be observed;--all these things, and others, must receive care and attention before the ideal stage of manhood can be reached. The manly man is a thinking being. By this we do not mean to say that he imagines that he is running the universe, and that no one but himself is acquainted with the secrets of its mechanism; but that he has a right to weigh all questions in the scales of his own reason, and to draw his own conclusions from the facts presented to his mind. If he be truly a man, he will hold to that which he feels to be true against all opposition, but will, with equal readiness, yield in all points where he discovers himself to be in the wrong. Instead of going through life in political leading-strings, bending to the will of one man, and gulping down the opinions of another, he will stand upon his own feet, put his own vertebral column to its legitimate use of sustaining his body, and his own mind to its legitimate use of directing the issues of his life. The ideal citizen will also be a gentleman. By this term, we do not mean the milk-and-water, kid-gloved creature, who so often attempts to pass muster in this connection. All that we have asked for in the man, we insist on in the gentleman. Sturdy independence, vigorous thought, mental and moral uprightness, and a backbone as strong as a bar of steel,--but all tempered with a gentleness of disposition and a courtesy of manner which brings every natural faculty and power beneath its sway, and yet leaves principle and righteousness entirely undisturbed. The real gentleman is, above all else, courteous and considerate. He is master of himself, and that at all points,--in his carriage, his temper, his aims, and his desires. Calm, quiet, and temperate, he will not allow himself to be hasty in judgment, or exorbitant in ambition; nor will he suffer himself to be overbearing or grasping, arrogant or oppressive. The ideal citizen will also be, in the better sense of the word, a politician. Be careful to note here that we say, a politician _in the better sense_. We would have you distinguish, with the utmost clearness, between a politician and a partisan. The true politician, looking ever to the highest interests of the state, is a public benefactor; while it very frequently happens that the mere political partisan is a public nuisance, if not a public disgrace. The man who sinks his country's interests in his own, and the man who sacrifices his personal advantages for the sake of his country's good, stand at the very opposite poles of human society. The man who swears by party watchwords, and moves amid the burning animosities of party strife, is centering his life in interests which may vanish like an evening cloud. Not in the loud clamors of partisan struggle, are we to find the secret highways which lead to national prosperity and progress, but in that quiet, thoughtful, careful study of the interests and events in which the national life is taking shape and color, and in the application to these of the great principles of righteousness and common sense. This is about equal to saying that the ideal citizen will be a patriot. We have so mixed in our minds the two distinct ideas of patriotism and heroism, that we have need to pause for a moment, that we may disentangle ourselves from the meshes of this net of misconception, before we venture to proceed. If we call for an illustration of patriotism, you point us to some Horatius or Leonidas of the olden times; or to some William Tell, or Ulysses Grant, of these more modern days. We do not say that these men were not patriots, and patriots of a high order too. But their circumstances were exceptional, and under these exceptional circumstances their patriotism made them heroes. But if you will enter into a careful study of the matter, you will find that it is the heroism, quite as much as the patriotism of their lives, which takes so strong a hold upon your hearts. We therefore desire to place by the side of our beloved Grant, the man who, in the midst of a bitter struggle for bread, can barely manage by the closest possible economy to keep his family from want and shame, but who still sacrifices an hour's wages that he may go to the polls and vote the expression of his will, and thus support the measures which he honestly believes to be for the public good; and we desire to say that, on the ground of a true patriotism, we consider that the one is fully the equal of the other, and that there is a sense in which the man of smaller opportunities is the greater hero of the two. There may be a thousand definitions of heroism, but the patriot is simply "a man who places his country's interests before his own." He is a patriot who fills well his station in life whether public or private, who loves peace and promotes order, who labors to uphold the good and to put down the bad. He is a patriot who uses all his advantages of friendship, acquaintance, business connection, social position and the like, in such a manner as to make these helps and not hindrances to his country's progress. He is a patriot who seeks to aid in all movements that look to the instruction, elevation, and permanent betterment of his fellow-citizens, and to put down all such movements or institutions as tend to demoralize and degrade them. Such is the patriotism we plead for; and such patriotism and ideal citizenship are, in our minds, just one and the same thing. 
14403	----	Transcriber's Note: Phonetic characters are represented by the following symbols: [xT] = any letter "x" with inferior inverted "T" [=x] = any letter "x" with superior macron [x=] = any letter "x" with inferior macron [=oo] = "oo" with superior macron [)x] = any letter "x" with superior breve [)oo] = "oo" with superior breve [.x] = any letter "x" with superior dot (semi-dieresis) [x.] = any letter "x" with inferior dot (semi-dieresis) [x:] = any letter "x" with inferior double-dot (dieresis) 1001 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON ORTHOGRAPHY AND READING. BY B.A. HATHAWAY, _AUTHOR OF THE "1001 QUESTION AND ANSWER BOOK SERIES._ THE BURROWS BROTHERS COMPANY, CLEVELAND, OHIO. * * * * * IN THE SAME SERIES. 1001 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON U.S. HISTORY, (Including the Federal Constitution and Amendments.) 1001 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON GEOGRAPHY. (Embracing Descriptive, Physical, and Mathematical Geography.) 1001 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON GRAMMAR. (With copious Illustrations, Parsing and Analysis.) 1001 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON ARITHMETIC. (Including nearly 300 Test Examples, with Solutions.) 1001 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. (The latest and most exhaustive Book on this subject ever published.) 1001 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. (Containing a separate and exhaustive Chapter on the Physiological effects of Alcohol and Narcotics.) 1001 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON ORTHOGRAPHY AND READING. 1001 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON GENERAL HISTORY. 1001 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON BOTANY. 1001 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON TEST EXAMPLES IN ARITHMETIC. EXTRA CLOTH, PRICE 50c. Each. Postage prepaid. ANY 6 ASSORTED FOR $2.50, POSTPAID. ANY 8 ASSORTED FOR $3.25, POSTPAID. THE 10 ASSORTED $4.00 POSTPAID. PUBLISHED BY THE BURROWS BROS. COMPANY, CLEVELAND, OHIO. * * * * * Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1888, BY B.A. HATHAWAY, In the office of the librarian of Congress at Washington, D.C. * * * * * PREFATORY NOTE. _In presenting this, the seventh book of the "1001 Question and Answer Series," we feel that a great want is partially met. It is evident, from the number of inquiries made for such a book, that the works devoted to the subject of Orthography are very limited._ _We are also aware that the Authors of the different Grammars devote such a limited space to the subject of Orthoepy and technical Orthography, that both Teacher and Pupil turn away from the subject in disgust._ _In preparing this list of questions and answers we have consulted the best authority of the present day, and believe we have gone over the ground in such a way that it will meet the approval of all interested._ _The questions and answers on Reading we trust will add to the interest of the book, and only hope that it will be received with as gracious a welcome and hearty approval as the rest of the series._ B.A.H. APRIL, 1888. * * * * * CONTENTS. PAGE. Letters, 5 Orthoepy, 13 Substitutes, 17 Definitions and Words, 20 Rules and Terms, 25 Numerical Values of the Letters, 32 Capitals and Italics, 35 Abbreviations, 38 Accent and Punctuation, 40 Diacritical Marks, 44 Prefixes and Suffixes, 46 Promiscuous Questions, 56 Reading and Elocution, 60 Miscellaneous Exercises, 80 * * * * * LETTERS. 1. _What is Orthography?_ The science and art of the Letters of a language. 2. _Of what does Orthography treat?_ The nature and power of letters, and correct spelling. 3. _From what is the word Orthography derived?_ Two Greek words, signifying "To write right." 4. _What is a Letter?_ A character used to represent an elementary sound, or combination of sounds. 5. _What is an Alphabet of a Language?_ A complete list of its letters. 6. _What is the origin of the word Alphabet?_ It is derived from the first two letters of the Greek Alphabet: Alpha and Beta. 7. _Where did the Alphabet originate?_ The English comes from the Greek, which was brought by Cadmus from Phoenicia, about the year 1490 B.C. 8. _What was the first Alphabet ever used?_ The Hebrew. 9 _How many letters were in the original Alphabet?_ Sixteen. 10. _Where did the other letters originate?_ They have been added since the time of Cadmus, as their use became necessary. 11. _What was the last letter added to the English Alphabet?_ W. 12. _Why was it called W?_ On account of it being composed of two u's, or a double u. 13. _How many letters in the English Alphabet?_ Twenty-six. 14. _How many in the Latin Alphabet?_ Twenty-five. 15. _What is the difference between the Latin Alphabet and the English?_ The Latin omits the letter W. 16. _What Alphabet has the greatest number of letters?_ The Chinese. 17. _How many letters in the Chinese Alphabet?_ Over two hundred. 18. _What is a Perfect Alphabet?_ One which contains the same number of letters that it has elementary sounds. 19. _Is the English a perfect Alphabet?_ It is not. 20. _How many Elementary sounds in the English Language?_ About forty-three. 21. _What is an Imperfect Alphabet?_ One in which the number of sounds exceeds the number of letters. 22. _What is an Equivocal Alphabet?_ An Imperfect one. 23. _What is an Unequivocal Alphabet?_ Same as Perfect. 24. _Is the English Alphabet Equivocal or Unequivocal?_ Equivocal. 25. _What is a Univocal Alphabet?_ One that has a separate character for each elementary sound. 26. _What is an Alphabetic Language?_ A language in which the characters represent separate articulate sounds. 27. _What is a Phonetic Alphabet?_ One in which there is a separate character for each elementary sound. 28. _Is there any Phonetic Alphabet of the English Language?_ There have been several published, but they are not in general use. 29. _How many letters in the English Phonetic Alphabet?_ Forty-three. 30. _What is the name of a Letter?_ The appellation by which it is known. 31. _What is the difference between a Letter and its Name?_ The letter is the character, and the name is its appellation. 32. _What Letters name themselves?_ The vowels A, E, I, O, and U. 33. _How are the Letters divided?_ Into Vowels and Consonants. 34. _What are Vowels?_ Those letters which represent only pure tones. 35. _Name all the Vowels._ A, E, I, O, U, and in some situations W and Y. 36. _What is a Consonant?_ A letter that represents an interruption of sound or breath. 37. _Why called Consonants?_ Because they cannot be used alone in a word, but must be connected with a Vowel. 38. _How many kinds of Consonants are there?_ Two; single Letters and Combinations. 39. _Name the Consonant letters._ B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, X, Y, and Z. 40. _Name the Consonant Combinations._ Th, Sh, Ch, Zh, Wh, and Ng. 41. _Name the two Orders of the Consonants._ Mutes and Semi-vowels. 42. _What are Mutes?_ Those letters which admit of no escape of breath while the organs of speech are in contact. 43. _Name the Mutes._ B, D, K, P, T, and C and G hard. 44. _What other term is often applied to the Mutes?_ Close Consonant. 45. _What are Semi-vowels?_ Those letters that admit of an escape of breath while the organs of speech are in contact. 46. _Name the Semi-vowels._ F, H, J, L, M, N, R, S, V, W, X, Y, Z, and C and G soft. 47. _Are the Combinations Mutes or Semi-vowels?_ They are all Semi-vowels. 48. _What letters are called Nasals?_ M, N, and Ng. 49. _What other term is often applied to the Semi-vowels?_ Loose Consonant. 50. _What letters are called Liquids?_ L, M, N, and R. 51. _Why are the Liquids so called?_ Because of their flowing sound, which readily unites with the sound of other letters. 52. _What are Sibilants?_ Letters which have a hissing sound; as, S and Z. 53. _What letter is called the Mute Sibilant?_ The letter X. 54. _What letters represent no sound of their own?_ C, Q, and X. 55. _What are these letters called?_ Redundant letters. 56. _Why are they so named?_ Because they are not necessary for the completion of the Alphabet. 57. _By what letters are the sounds of C represented?_ K and S. 58. _What letters represent the sound of Q?_ Kw. 59. _What letters represent the sound X?_ Ks. 60. _What letters of themselves form words?_ A, I, and O. 61. _Spell all of the Consonants._ Bee, Cee, Dee, Eff, Gee, Aitch, Jay, Kay, Ell, Em, En, Pee, Kw, Ar, Ess, Tee, Vee, Double-u, Ex, Wy, and Zee.--_Goold Brown_. 62. _What letters are called the Twins?_ Q and U. 63. _Why so called?_ Because Q is always followed by U in English spelling. 64. _Is there any exception to this rule?_ The word LEECLERCQ is sometimes given as an example, but in English it is spelled LEECLERC. 65. _What is meant by style of letters?_ Different type; as, Roman, Script, Italics, etc. 66. _How many forms have letters?_ Two. 67. _What are they?_ Small letters and Capitals. 68. _What are the Natural Divisions of Consonants?_ Subvocals and Aspirates. 69. _What are Subvocals?_ Those Consonants which produce an undertone of voice when their sounds are uttered. 70. _Name the Subvocals._ B, D, G hard; J and G soft; L, M, N, R, V, W, Y, Z, Zh, and Ng. 71. _What are Aspirates?_ Mere whispers made by the organs of speech and breath. 72. _Name the Aspirates._ C, F, H, K, P, Q, S, T, X, Ch, Sh, and Wh. 73. _What Combination is both Aspirate and Subvocal?_ Th. 74. _What are Cognate letters?_ Those which are produced by the same organs of speech in a similar position. 75. _Give an example of a Cognate letter._ D is a cognate of T. 76. _What are Quiescent letters?_ Those that are silent. 77. _How many uses have Silent letters?_ Five. 78. _What are they?_ To modify vowels; to modify consonants; to determine signification; to determine origin; and to distinguish words of like signification. 79. _What are Explodents?_ Those letters whose sound cannot be prolonged. 80. _Name the Explodents._ B, D, G, J, P, Q, T, and K. 81. _What are the principle organs of speech?_ Lips, teeth, tongue, and palate. 82. _What is meant by Organical division of the consonants?_ Pertaining to those particular organs used in their pronunciation. 83. _Name the Organical divisions._ Labials, Dentals, Linguals, and Palatals. 84. _What are Labials?_ Those letters whose sounds are modified by the lips. 85. _Name them._ B, F, M, P, V, W, and Wh. 86. _What are Dentals?_ Those letters whose sounds are modified by the teeth. 87. _Name them._ J, S, Z, Ch, Sh, Zh, C and G soft. 88. _What are Linguals?_ Those letters whose sounds are modified by the tongue. 89. _Name them._ D, L, N, R, T, Y, and Th. 90. _What are Palatals?_ Those letters whose sounds are modified by the palate. 91. _Name them._ K, Q, X, Ng, C and G hard. 92. _What letters have no Organical classification?_ H, and all the vowels. 93. _What is an Aphthong?_ A silent letter or combination. 94. _How many kinds of Aphthongs?_ Three. 95. _What are they?_ Vowels, Consonants, and Combinations. 96. _What letters are never silent?_ F, J, Q, R, and X. 97. _In what words is V silent?_ Sevennight and twelvemonth. 98. _In what word is Z silent?_ Rendezvous. 99. _What letters are never doubled?_ X and H. 100. _How many words contain all the vowels in regular order?_ Two. 101. _What are they?_ Abstemious and Facetious. 102. _What is a Diphthong?_ Two vowels sounded together in the same syllable. 103. _Name the Diphthongs._ Ou, Ow, Oi, and Oy. 104. _How many sounds do they represent?_ Two. 105. _What are the sounds called?_ Diphthongal sounds. 106. _How many kinds of Diphthongs are there?_ Two. 107. _What are they?_ Separable and Inseparable. 108. _Which ones are Separable?_ Oi and Oy. 109. _What is an Improper Diphthong?_ The union of two vowels in a syllable, one of which is silent. 110. _By what other name are they known?_ Digraph. 111. _How many Digraphs are there?_ Twenty-five. 112. _Name them._ Aa, Ae, Ai, Ao, Au, Aw, Ay, Ea, Ee, Ei, Eo, Eu, Ew, Ey, Ie, Oa, Oe, Oi, Oo, Ou, Ow, Ua, Ue, Ui, and Uy. 113. _What is a Trigraph?_ A union of three vowels in one syllable, two of which are silent, or all three representing one sound. 114. _How many Trigraphs are there?_ Eight. 115. _Name them._ Awe, Aye, Eau, Eou, Eye, Ieu, Iew, and Uoi. 116. _What is a Tetragraph?_ Union of four vowels in one syllable. 117. _How many Tetragraphs are there?_ One. 118. _What is it?_ Ueue in the word Queue. 119. _May the terms Digraph, etc., be used with the Consonants?_ They may. 120. _Give example of Consonant Digraph._ Gh, in the word laugh. 121. _Give example of Consonant Trigraph._ Thr, in the word throw. 122. _Give example of Consonant Tetragraph._ Phth, in the word phthisic. 123. _What is a regular Triphthong?_ A vowel trigraph in which all three of the vowels are sounded. 124. _Give an example._ Quoit. ORTHOEPY. 1. _What is Orthoepy?_ That science which treats of the elementary sounds and the pronunciation of words. 2. _What is Phonology?_ The science of the elementary sounds uttered by the human voice in speech. 3. _What is an Elementary sound?_ One that cannot be divided so as to be represented by two or more letters. 4. _What is Sound?_ A sensation produced on the auditory nerve by the rapid vibratory motion of any elastic substance. 5. _What is the least number of vibrations that will produce an audible sound?_ Sixteen per second. 6. _What is the greatest number that can be heard?_ About forty thousand per second. 7. _What is Voice?_ Sound produced by the vocal chords. 8. _What is an Articulate sound?_ One made by the organs of speech and used in language. 9. _What is a Vocal sound?_ One that is modified but not obstructed by the articulatory organs. 10. _What is a simple Vocal sound?_ One made without any change in the position of the articulatory organs during its emission. 11. _What is a Coalescent?_ An articulate sound that always precedes and unites with a vocal. 12. _What is a Guttural sound?_ One that is modified by the soft palate. 13. _What are Unarticulate sounds?_ The sounds of the vowels. 14. _How many Elementary sounds do the vowels represent?_ Fifteen. 15. _How many do the Consonants represent?_ Eighteen. 16. _How many do the Combinations represent?_ Seven. 17. _How many do the Diphthongs represent?_ Only one, as oi and oy only repeat sounds already represented by a and i. 18. _How many sounds has A?_ Five. 19. _What are they?_ Long, Short, Medial, Flat, and Broad. 20. _How many sounds has E?_ Two. 21. _What are they?_ Long and Short. 22. _How many sounds has I?_ Two. 23. _What are they?_ Long and Short. 24. _How many sounds has O?_ Three. 25. _What are they?_ Long, Short, and Slender. 26. _How many sounds has U?_ Three. 27. _What are they?_ Long, Short, and Medial. 28. _How many sounds has B?_ One; as heard in the word babe. 29. _How many sounds has C?_ None that may be properly called its own. 30. _How many sounds has D?_ One; as heard in the word did. 31. _How many sounds has F?_ One; as heard in the word flew. 32. _How many sounds has G?_ Two; as heard in the words go and age. 33. _How many sounds has H?_ One; as heard in the word high. 34. _How many sounds has J?_ None of its own, but represents one; the sound of G. 35. _How many sounds has K?_ One; as heard in the word key. 36. _How many sounds has L?_ One; as heard in the word lily. 37. _How many sounds has M?_ One; as heard in the word money. 38. _How many sounds has N?_ One; as heard in the word nat. 39. _How many sounds has P?_ One; as heard in the word pie. 40. _How many sounds has R?_ One; as heard in the word roar. (REM.--Some authors give r three sounds.) 41. _How many sounds has S?_ One; as heard in the word same. 42. _How many sounds has T?_ One; as heard in the word tight. 43. _How many sounds has V?_ One; as heard in the word view. 44. _How many sounds has W?_ One; as heard in the word we. 45. _How many sounds has X?_ None of its own, as it is a redundant letter. 46. _How many sounds has Z?_ One; as heard in the word ooze. 47. _How many sounds has Th?_ Two; as heard in the words thigh and the. 48. _How many sounds has Ch?_ One; as heard in the word church. 49. _How many sounds has Sh?_ One; as heard in the word ash. 50. _How many sounds has Zh?_ One obscurely; represented by _si_ in such words as fusion, _zi_ in glazier. 51. _How many sounds has Wh?_ One; as heard in the word what. 52. _How many sounds has Ng?_ One; as heard in the word sing. 53. _What are regular sounds?_ The long sounds of the letters. SUBSTITUTES. 1. _What is a Substitute?_ A letter representing a sound usually represented by another. 2. _What are Equivalent letters?_ Letters representing the same sound. 3. _What properties do Substitutes assume?_ The properties of the letter whose sound it represents. 4. _How many Substitutes has a long?_ Four. 5. _What are they?_ _E_ in tete; _ei_ in feint; _ey_ in they; and _ao_ in gaol. 6. _How many Substitutes has a middle?_ Two. 7. _What are they?_ _E_ in there; and _ei_ in heir. 8. _How many Substitutes has a broad?_ Two. 9. _What are they?_ _O_ in cord; and _ou_ in sought. 10. _How many Substitutes has e long?_ Three. 11. _What are they?_ _I_ in marine; _ie_ in fiend; and _ay_ in quay. 12. _How many Substitutes has e short?_ Two. 13. _What are they?_ _A_ in says; and _u_ in bury. 14. _How many Substitutes has i long?_ Two. 15. _What are they?_ _Y_ in chyme; and _oi_ in choir. 16. _How many Substitutes has i short?_ Six. 17. _What are they?_ _Y_ in hymn; _e_ in England; _u_ in busy; _o_ in women; _ee_ in been; and _ai_ in captain. 18. _How many Substitutes has o long?_ Two. 19. _What are they?_ _Eau_ in beau; and _ew_ in sew. 20. _How many Substitutes has o short?_ One. 21. _What is it?_ _A_ in what. 22. _How many Substitutes has u long?_ One. 23. _What is it?_ _Ew_ in new. 24. _How many Substitutes has u short?_ Three. 25. _What are they?_ _E_ in her; _i_ in sir; and _o_ in son. 26. _How many Substitutes has u medial?_ One. 27. _What is it?_ _O_ in wolf. 28. _How many Substitutes has F?_ Two. 29. _What are they?_ _Gh_ in laugh; and _ph_ in philosophy. 30. _How many Substitutes has J?_ Three. 31. _What are they?_ _G_ in rage; _di_ in soldier; and _d_ in verdure. 32. _How many Substitutes has S?_ Two. 33. _What are they?_ _C_ soft, as in central; and _z_ in quartz. 34. _How many Substitutes has T?_ One. 35. _What is it?_ _Ed_ final, after any aspirate except t. 36. _How many Substitutes has V?_ One. 37. _What is it?_ _F_ in of. 38. _How many Substitutes has W?_ One. 39. _What is it?_ _U_ in quick. 40. _How many Substitutes has X?_ One. 41. _What is it?_ _Ks_ in exist. 42. _How many Substitutes has Y?_ One. 43. _What is it?_ _I_ in alien. 44. _How many Substitutes has Z?_ Three. 45. _What are they?_ _S_ in was; _c_ in suffice; and _x_ in xebec. 46. _How many Substitutes has Ch?_ Two. 47. _What are they?_ _Ti_ in question; and _t_ in nature. 48. _How many Substitutes has Sh?_ Six. 49. _What are they?_ _Ce_ in ocean; _ci_ in social; _si_ in mansion; _ti_ in motion; _ch_ in chaise; and _s_ in sugar. 50. _How many Substitutes has Zh?_ Four. 51. _What are they?_ _Si_ in fusion; _zi_ in brazier; _z_ in azure; and _s_ in rasure. 52. _How many substitutes has Ng?_ One. 53. _What is it?_ N generally before palate sounds; as, conquer, etc. 54. _What letters have no Substitutes?_ B, D, G, H, L, M, N, P, and R. 55. _What combinations have no Substitutes?_ Th and Wh. 56. _Why is X never doubled?_ It already represents the sounds of K and S. 57. _What letter ends no English word?_ J. DEFINITIONS AND WORDS. 1. _What is Language?_ Any method for the communication of thought and feeling. 2. _What is Natural Language?_ Instinctive methods of communicating thought or feeling. 3. _What is Artificial Language?_ That which must be learned before it can be used. 4. _Is the English Language natural or artificial?_ Artificial. 5. _How many kinds of Artificial Language?_ Two. 6. _What are they._ Spoken and written. 7. _What is Spoken Language?_ That produced by the vocal organs. 8. _What is Written Language?_ Any method of communicating thought or feeling by the use of written or printed characters. 9. _What are the messengers of thought?_ Sentences. 10. _What is a Sentence?_ An assemblage of words conveying a thought. 11. _What is a Word?_ A sign of an idea. 12. _What is Lexicology?_ That science which treats of the meaning of words. 13. _What is Etymology?_ That science which treats of the origin and derivation of words. 14. _What is Orthogeny?_ That science which treats of the classification of words into parts of speech. 15. _What is Syntax?_ That science which treats of the relation and connection of words in the construction of a sentence. 16. _What is Prosody?_ That science which treats of punctuation and the laws of versification. 17. _Of what is a word composed?_ A syllable or combination of syllables. 18. _What is a Syllable?_ A letter or letters uttered by a single impulse of the voice. 19. _What is the essential part of a syllable?_ A vowel. 20. _Can there be a syllable without it containing a vowel sound?_ There cannot. 21. _What is Syllabication?_ That branch of etymology which treats of the division of words into syllables. 22. _How many methods of Syllabication are there?_ Two. 23. _What are they?_ English and American. 24. _What is the object of the English method?_ To separate words into their elementary parts without regard to pronunciation; as, a-tom. 25. _What is the object of the American method?_ To indicate the proper pronunciation by separating affixes from the roots. 26. _What is a word of one syllable called?_ A monosyllable. 27. _What is a word of two syllables called?_ A dissyllable. 28. _What is a word of three syllables called?_ A trisyllable. 29. _What is a word of more than three syllables called?_ A polysyllable. 30. _What is the Ultimate syllable of a word?_ The last syllable. 31. _What is the Penultimate syllable?_ Next to the last syllable in a word. 32. _What is the Antepenultimate syllable?_ The last syllable but two in a word. 33. _What is the Preantepenultimate syllable?_ The last syllable but three in a word. 34. _What other way may the syllables be described?_ In their numerical order; as, first, second, etc. 35. _How many syllables can a word have?_ As many as it has vowels or diphthongs sounded. 36. _How many words in the English language?_ About one hundred and twenty thousand. 37. _How are words divided in reference to form?_ Into simple and compound. 38. _How are they divided in reference to origin?_ Into primitive and derivative. 39. _What is a Simple word?_ One that is not composed of two or more whole words. 40. _What is a Compound word?_ One that is composed of two or more distinct words. 41. _What is a Primitive word?_ One in no way derived from another in the same language. 42. _What is a Radical word?_ Same as primitive. 43. _What is a Derivative word?_ One formed by joining to a primitive some letter or letters to modify its meaning. 44. _What is Analysis?_ Separating a word or syllable into its elements or parts. 45. _What is Synthesis?_ The process of combining elements to form syllables and words. 46. _What is the Base of a Compound word?_ That word representing the fundamental idea. 47. _What is the Modifier in a Compound word?_ That word which describes the other. 48. _What is the Base of a Derivative word?_ The primitive from which it is derived. 49. _What is the Modifier in a Derivative word?_ The affix. 50. _What is an Affix?_ That part of a derivative word attached to the root. 51. _How many Root words in the English language?_ Over one thousand. 52. _What is a Prefix?_ That part of a derivative word placed before the root. 53. _What is a Postfix?_ That part of a derivative word placed after the root. 54. _What is a Suffix?_ Same as a postfix. 55. _What are Affixes?_ Prefixes and postfixes together are called affixes. 56. _How many kinds of Derivatives are there?_ Two. 57. _What are they?_ Regular and irregular. 58. _What is a Regular derivative?_ One that is formed by the addition of affixes without changing the letters in the primitive part (except final _e_ silent). 59. _What is an Irregular derivative?_ One in which the letters of the primitive part are changed. 60. _In using Affixes, what rule should be observed?_ The affix and root should be from the same language. 61. _Is the same rule to be observed in forming Compound words?_ It is. 62. _What is a Mongrel compound word?_ One formed contrary to the rule. 63. _Give an example._ Cable-graph and cable-gram. 64. _What are Barbarisms?_ Same as mongrel. 65. _When use the hyphen in Compound words?_ When they are not permanently compounded. 66. _What is an Obsolete word?_ One gone out of date. RULES AND TERMS. 1. _What is Spelling?_ A distinct expression of the letters or sounds of a word in their proper order. 2. _How many kinds of Spelling?_ Two. 3. _What are they?_ Orthographic and Phonic. 4. _What is Orthographic spelling?_ An expression of the letters of a written or printed word in their proper order. 5. _What is Phonic spelling?_ An expression of the elementary sounds of a word in their proper order, according to established usage. 6. _What is meant by good usage?_ The usage, or custom, of the best speakers and writers of the times. 7. _How do we know when we have spelled a word correctly?_ By reference to the Dictionary? 8. _What is a Lexicographer?_ An author of a dictionary. 9. _Can we spell by Rules?_ We cannot. 10. _Why?_ Because there are too many exceptions. 11. _What makes a rule in Orthography?_ Whenever a letter is silent, or usually so, a rule is formed. 12. _Why is c placed before r in acre, massacre, etc.?_ To preserve the hard sound of c. 13. _What is the rule for Digraphs?_ A digraph must have one vowel silent. 14. _Give rule for E final._ E final is silent when another vowel precedes it in the same syllable. 15. _What effect does final E have on the preceding vowel?_ It usually preserves its long sound. 16. _When is B silent?_ Before _t_, or after _m_, in the same syllable. 17. _When is C silent?_ Before _k_ in the same syllable; also, before _z_, _l_, or _t_, in a few words. 18. _When is D silent?_ Before _g_ in the same syllable. 19. _When is G silent?_ Before _m_ or _n_ in the same syllable. 20. _When is H silent?_ After _g_ or _r_ in the same syllable; and _h_ final after a vowel is always silent; also, in a few words after _t_, and initial in a few words. 21. _When is L silent?_ After _a_ when followed by _f_, _m_, _k_, or _v_, except in the word valve; also, before _d_ in could, etc. 22. _When is M silent?_ Before _n_ in a few words. 23. _When is N silent?_ Final after _l_ or _m_. 24. _When is P silent?_ Initial before _n_, _s_, or _t_. 25. _When is S silent?_ In a few irregular words; as, _isle_, _puisne_, _viscount_, _corps_, etc. 26. _When is T silent?_ Before _ch_ in the same syllable; also, in _Christmas_, _eclat_, _mortgage_, etc. 27. _When is V silent?_ In two words only--_Sevennight_ and _Twelvemonth_. 28. _When is W silent?_ Before _r_ in the same syllable also, in _whoop_, _sword_, _two_, etc. 29. _When is Gh silent?_ After _i_ in the same syllable; also, after _au_ and _ou_ in some words. 30. _When is Ch silent?_ In a few words; as, _drachm_, _yacht_, etc. 31. _When is Z silent?_ In one word only--_Rendezvous_. 32. _What letters are never silent?_ F, J, Q, and R. 33. _What is meant by Antecedent part of a syllable?_ That part before the vowel. 34. _What is the Consequent part of a syllable?_ That part which follows the vowel. 35. _How many words end in Ceed?_ Three. 36. _What are they?_ Exceed, proceed, and succeed. 37. _How many of the English words are derived from the Latin?_ About, three-fourths. 38. _What Language is called "Our mother tongue?"_ Anglo-Saxon. 39. _From what language do we get most of our Scientific terms?_ The Greek. 40. _How many English words begin with_ IN _as a prefix?_ Two hundred and fifty. 41. _How many begin with im?_ Seventy-five. 42. _How many begin with un?_ About two thousand. 43. _Were final E not silent, what would be the result?_ Another syllable would be formed. 44. _When is final E dropped in spelling?_ Before vowel terminations mostly. 45. _Why is the final E retained in such words as changeable and traceable?_ To preserve the soft sound of the c or g. 46. _In the words fleeing, seeing, etc., why retain both Es?_ To determine the proper meaning of the word. 47 _What is a Figure of orthography?_ Any departure from the ordinary spelling of a word. 48. _How many Figures are there?_ Two. 49 _What are they?_ Archaism and Mimesis. 50. _What is Archaism?_ The spelling of a word according to ancient usage. 51. _What is Mimesis?_ The spelling of a word in imitation of a false pronunciation. 52. _When is i used as a consonant?_ When followed by a vowel in the same syllable; as in alien, etc. 53. _When is y final changed to e?_ Before the suffix ous; as in beauteous. 54. _When is y final changed to i?_ Before the suffix ful; as in beautiful. 55. _What is a Redundant prefix?_ One that does not change the signification of the root; as, _a_ in the word adry. 56. _When is ie changed to y?_ Before the ending _ing_. 57. _When use the digraph ei in spelling?_ Ei follows c soft, and begins words. 58. _When use ie in spelling?_ Ie follows consonants (except c soft), and ends words. 59. _In changing the word hoe to hoeing, why retain the e?_ To preserve its signification. 60. _What is the origin of the suffix less?_ Anglo-Saxon. 61. _What is the origin of the word English?_ It is derived from the word Angles. 62. _Who were the Angles?_ They were a tribe of people who came from the land of the Low Germans and settled in Britain in the fifth century. 63. _What does the word England mean?_ "The land of the Angles." 64. _Why is our language sometimes called the "Teutonic language"?_ Because it is derived from the ancient Germans, who were called Teutons. 65. _What kind of words end in ize?_ Verbs derived from the Greek. 66. _What kind of words end in ise?_ Most words derived from the French. 67. _Why is the English called a Composite Language?_ Because it is derived from so many different sources. 68. _Does adding a single consonant to a word ever make an additional syllable?_ It does. 69. _Give examples._ Grade, grad-ed; confide, con-fi-ded. 70. _Can a word be compound and derivative at the same time?_ It can; as, ball-player. 71. _How distinguish between an affix and a part of a compound word?_ If all the parts retain their literal signification they form a compound; if not, the part which loses its signification becomes an affix in a derivative. 72. _Is the word outside compound or derivative?_ It is compound. 73. _Is the word outrun compound or derivative?_ It is derivative. 74. _What is Derivation?_ That branch of etymology which treats of the sources of the words of a language. 75. _How many kinds of Derivation?_ Two. 76. _What are they?_ Paronymous and Historical. 77. _What is Paronymous derivation?_ That part of etymology which treats of present sources of English words. 78. _Give examples of Paronymous derivation._ Kingdom, from king; Manly, from man, etc. 79. _What is Historical derivation?_ That part of etymology which treats of the foreign sources of the English language. 80. _Give examples of Historical derivation._ Book, from boc; Moon, from mona, etc. 81. _When use a, and when an, in a sentence?_ Use a before all words beginning with a consonant sound, and use an before words beginning with a vowel sound, _h_ mute, or _h_ initial, if the accent is on any other syllable than the first. 82. _Why do words in the English language become obsolete?_ Because it is a living language. 83. _What is a new word?_ One that has recently come into use. 84. _Name some new words._ Outsider, intensify, repudiate, and idiom. 85. _What is meant by suspended animation of a word?_ A word that passes out of use for a while and then resumes its place in literature. 86. _Give examples of suspended words._ The words reckless, abate, and abandon, fell into disuse in the seventeenth century, but have since been revived. 87. _What letters are called the pivots?_ Y and w. 88. _Why are they so called?_ Because of their peculiar sounds in changing from vowels to consonants. 89. _What kind of new words should be avoided?_ Any word formed contrary to the genius of the language. 90. _What is meant by idiom?_ A peculiar mode of expression. 91. _What is diction?_ Diction treats of the selection and right use of words. 92. _When is our diction pure?_ When we use only such words as belong to the idiom of our language. 93. _What are Synonyms?_ Words having a similar signification. 94. _What is a Synonymicon?_ A dictionary of synonymous words. 95. _What is meant by a reputable word?_ One that is used by educated people. 96. _What is an Anacoluthic word?_ One that is unnecessary to the completion of a sentence. 97. _What is an Idiomatic word?_ A word belonging to an individual language. 98. _What is an Ideographical language?_ One in which the characters represent ideas rather than sounds. 99. _Can there be a derivative word without an affix?_ There can; as, brought from bring. 100. _What is Dactylology?_ The art of spelling words with the fingers. 101. _What is the Pythagorean letter?_ Y.--_Am. Cyclopedia_. 102. _Why so called?_ Because its Greek original represents the sacred triad used to designate the diverging paths of virtue and vice. NUMERICAL VALUES OF THE LETTERS. 1. _What is meant by the Numerical value of letters?_ Its value as a numeral used in the notation of different languages. 2. _Have all the letters Numerical value?_ All except J, U, W, and Y. 3. _What is the Numerical value of A?_ 500. 4. _By whom used?_ The ancient European Nations. 5. _What is the Numerical value of B?_ 300. 6. _By whom used?_ The Romans. 7. _What is the Numerical value of C?_ 100 in the Roman notation. 8. _What is the Numerical value of D?_ 500 in the Roman notation. 9. _What is the Numerical value of E?_ 5. 10. _By whom used?_ The ancient Greeks. 11. _What is the Numerical value of F?_ 40 in some of the Ancient notations; 80 in the Arabian; and 10,000 in the Armenian. 12. _What is the Numerical value of G?_ 400. 13. _By whom used?_ The Latins. 14. _What is the Numerical value of H?_ 100 in the Greek notation; and 200 in the Latin. 15. _What is the Numerical value of I?_ 1 in the Roman notation; and 100 in some of the Ancient notations. 16. _What is the Numerical value of K?_ 20 in the Greek notation; and 60 in the Semitic. 17. _Give the Numerical values of L._ 50 in Roman, and 30 in Semitic notation. 18. _What are the Numerical values of M?_ As a Roman numeral, 1,000; Greek and Hebrew, 40. 19. _What is the value of N as a Numeral?_ In the Greek notation, 50; Roman, 90; and by some other, 900. 20. _What is the Numerical value of O?_ 70 in the Greek; and 11 in the Ancient Latins. 21. _What is the Numerical value of P?_ In the Greek notation, 5; in the Latin, 80; and in the Roman, by some authors, 7, by one, 100, and by still another, 400. 22. _As a Numeral, what is the value of Q?_ 500. 23. _By whom used?_ Several of the Ancient Nations of Europe. 24. _What is the Numerical value of R?_ 80 25. _By whom used?_ The ancient Romans. 26. _What is the Numerical value of S?_ 7 27. _By whom used?_ The Ancients. 28. _Give the values of T as a Numeral._ 300 in the Greek notation; in the Latin, 160. 29. _What is the Numerical value of V?_ 5 in the Roman notation. 30. _What are the values of X as a Numeral?_ In the Roman, 10; in the Greek, 60. 31. _What are the Numerical values of Z?_ 7 in the Greek notation; and 2,000 in the Roman. 32. _Why have J, U, W, and Y no Numerical values?_ Because they have been introduced into the Alphabet since the Science of Arithmetical Notation was invented. 33. _What effect does it have on the value of a letter to draw a line above it?_ In most cases it increases its value a thousand times. 34. _Is a line ever drawn beneath a letter for the same purpose?_ In some instances it is. 35. _What effect does it have on a letter as a numeral to repeat it?_ Repeats its value as often as it is repeated. CAPITALS AND ITALICS. 1. _What is a Capital letter?_ A large letter. 2. _What is an Italic letter?_ A form of oblique letters derived from the Italians. 3. _What is Rule 1 for the use of Capitals?_ Title pages and headings of chapters should be entirely in capitals. 4. _Give Rule 2._ The first word of every book, tract, essay, letter, etc., should begin with a capital. 5. _Give Rule 3._ The first word of every sentence should begin with a capital. 6. _Give Rule 4._ Clauses separately numbered should begin with a capital. 7. _Give Rule 5._ The first word after an interrogation point should usually begin with a capital. 8. _Give Rule 6._ The first word of a clause, or sentence, given as an example, should begin with a capital. 9. _Give Rule 7._ In quoting a title of a book, each important word of the title should begin with a capital. 10. _Give Rule 8._ First word of a direct question should begin with a capital. 11. _Give Rule 9._ The first word of a direct quotation should begin with a capital. 12. _Give Rule 10._ All letters used as numerals should be written or printed in capitals. 13. _Give Rule 11._ The pronoun I should always be a capital. 14. _Give Rule 12._ The vocative particle O should always be a capital. 15. _Give Rule 13._ The first word of every line of poetry should begin with a capital. 16. _Give one exception to Rule 13._ In humorous poetry, when a word is divided at the end of a line, the detached syllable at the beginning of the next line should begin with a small letter. 17. _Give Rule 14._ All names and titles of the Deity should begin with a capital. 18. _Give Rule 15._ All proper names should begin with a capital. 19. _Give Rule 16._ All words derived from proper nouns should begin with a capital. 20. _Give Rule 17._ Titles of honor and distinction should begin with capitals. 21. _Give Rule 18._ The words father, mother, sister, brother, aunt, etc., when followed by a proper noun, should always begin with a capital. 22. _Give Rule 19._ All words referring to the Bible should begin with a capital. 23. _Give Rule 20._ All proper adjectives should begin with a capital. 24. _Give Rule 21._ The names of famous events, historical eras, noted documents, etc., should begin with a capital. 25. _What establishes a rule for Capitals?_ Good usage, or custom. 26. _Give Rule 1 for the use of Italics._ Words for emphasis should be printed in italics. 27. _Give Rule 2._ Names of books, poems, etc., are usually printed in italics. 28. _Give Rule 3._ Words from foreign languages are printed in italics. 29. _Give Rule 4._ Words in the Bible supplied by the translators are printed in italics. 30. _How are written words marked that are to be printed in Capitals?_ By underscoring the words with two lines. 31. _How are written words marked that are to be printed in Italics?_ By underscoring the words with one line. 32. _When use the Interjection O?_ The letter O is a vocative particle, and should always be used before nouns or pronouns in the absolute case by direct address.--[_Ridpath._] 33. _When use Oh?_ In all cases where it is not followed by nouns, or pronouns, in the vocative case.--[_Ridpath._] ABBREVIATIONS. 1. _What is an abbreviation?_ One or more of the letters of a word standing for the whole word. 2. _What is the signification of A.C.S.?_ American Colonization Society. 3. _Give meaning A.B.C.F.M._ American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. 4. _What is the signification AAA.?_ Amalgamation. 5. _What is the signification of Ang.-Sax.?_ Anglo-Saxon. 6. _Give signification of A.T._ Arch-Treasurer. 7. _What is the signification of C.A.S.?_ Fellow of the Connecticut Academy. 8. _What is the signification of C.C.?_ County Court, or County Commissioner. 9. _What is the meaning of D.C.L.?_ Doctor of Civil Law. 10. _What is the signification of D.M.?_ Doctor of Music. 11. _What is the signification of A.U.C.?_ In the year of the city. 12. _What is the meaning of F.E.S.?_ Fellow of the Entomological Society. 13. _What is the signification of H.R.I.P.?_ Here rests in peace. 14. _What is the signification of L.C.J.?_ Lord Chief Justice. 15. _What is the signification of N.u.?_ Name unknown. 16. _What is the signification of P.a.?_ Participial adjective. 17. _What is the signification of P.v.?_ Post village. 18. _What is the signification of Qy.?_ Query. 19. _What is the signification of Ro.?_ Righthand page. 20. _What is the signification S.C.L.?_ Student of the Civil Law. 21. _What is the signification of S.R.I.?_ Holy Roman Empire. 22. _What is the signification of S.J.C.?_ Supreme Judicial Court. 23. _What is the signification of U.S.S.?_ United States Ship. 24. _What does U.K. signify?_ United Kingdom. 25. _What does V.R. signify?_ Queen Victoria. 26. _What does V.G. signify?_ For example. 27. _What does Xt. signify?_ Christ. 28. _What does Xmas. signify?_ Christmas. 29. _What is the signification of Y.B.?_ Year Book. 30. _What is the signification of Zoöl.?_ Zoölogy. 31. _What does Yt. signify?_ That. 32. _What is the signification of S.T.P.?_ Doctor of Divinity. ACCENT AND PUNCTUATION. 1. _Why is a word divided into syllables?_ For the purpose of showing their proper pronunciation and etymological composition. 2. _What is Accent?_ A greater stress of voice placed on one syllable of a word than the others. 3. _What kind of words have no accent?_ Monosyllables. 4. _Why?_ Accent implies comparison, and there can be no comparison with one syllable. 5. _How many kinds of accent?_ Common, Emphatic, and Discriminating. 6. _What is common accent?_ Ordinary accent of spelling. 7. _How many kinds of common accent?_ Two. 8. _What are they?_ Primary and secondary. 9. _What is primary accent?_ The principal accent. 10. _What is secondary accent?_ The partial accent. 11. _What kind of accent is essential to every word of more than one syllable?_ Primary. 12. _How close can primary and secondary accent come together?_ Not closer than two syllables. 13. _How many primary accents can one word have?_ Only one. 14. _How many secondary accents can a word have?_ Two. 15. _In case of two secondary accents, where are they placed?_ On the first and third. 16. _In case of two secondary, where is the primary accent?_ On the last but two. 17. _Do the primary and secondary ever change places?_ They do. 18. _In words of two syllables, where is the accent?_ Usually on the first. 19. _In trisyllables, what syllable is accented?_ Usually the first. 20. _Are there any exceptions?_ There are. 21. _In polysyllables, where is the accent?_ On the antepenult usually. 22. _In all words ending in ation, where is the accent?_ On the syllable next to the last. 23. _What is Emphatic accent?_ Accent used for emphatic distinction. 24. _Have monosyllables any accent?_ They have sometimes an emphatic, or poetic. 25. _What is Discriminating accent?_ That used to determine parts of speech. 26, _Give some examples._ Au'gust, Au-gust'; Reb'el, Re-bel'. 27, _What is Punctuation?_ The use of certain characters to aid the reader in determining the thought of the writer. 28. _How many kinds of punctuation are there?_ Four. 29. _What are they?_ Rhetorical, Etymological, for Reference, and for the Printer. 30. _What is Rhetorical punctuation?_ That used for rhetorical effect. 31. _What is Etymological punctuation?_ That used in Orthography and Orthoepy. 32. _What is Reference punctuation?_ That used to refer the reader to the margin of the page. 33. _What is punctuation for the Printer?_ That used by the writer to inform the printer the kind of type to use. 34. _What are the principal Etymological points?_ Apostrophe, Caret, Dieresis, Macron, Breve, Tilde, Grave Accent, Acute Accent, Circumflex Accent, Hyphen, and Period. 35. _What is the use of the Apostrophe?_ To indicate the omission of a letter, or letters, of a word. 36. _What letter is omitted in the word o'clock?_ The letter f. 37. _What is the use of the Caret?_ To correct an error of omission. 38. _Is the Caret used in printed copy or manuscript?_ In manuscript. 39. _For what is the Dieresis used?_ To separate two vowels which would otherwise form a diphthong. 40. _Give an example of the use of the Dieresis._ Zoölogy, and Diëresis. 41. _What is the use of the Macron?_ To mark the long quantity of syllables. 42. _What is a long syllable?_ One in which the vowel has the long sound. 43. _What is the use of the Breve?_ To mark the short quantity of syllables. 44. _What is a short syllable?_ One in which the vowel has the short sound. 45. _What kind of a mark is the Tilde?_ A Spanish mark. 46. _How many uses has the Tilde?_ Two. 47. _What are they?_ Placed over _n_ it gives the sound of _ny_ as, in cañon. In English it indicates certain sounds of the vowels. 48. _How many accent marks are there?_ Three. 49. _What are they?_ Grave, Acute, and Circumflex. 50. _What is the use of the Grave accent?_ To mark the falling inflection. 51. _What is the use of the Acute accent?_ To mark the primary accent, and the rising inflection. 52. _What is the use of the Circumflex?_ To mark the peculiar inflection of the voice in the pronunciation of a word. 53. _How many uses has the Hyphen?_ Three. 54. _What are they?_ To separate the parts of a compound word; to separate a word into syllables; and to divide a word at the end of a line. 55. _When should the Hyphen be used in a compound word?_ When the word has not become permanently compounded. 56. _When use the Dieresis instead of the Hyphen?_ When the syllables are divided by the hyphen, there is no hyphen used between the vowels of the digraph. 57. _What is the use of the Period?_ To denote an abbreviation. 58. _Are there any other uses of the Period?_ There are. 59. _Where else is the Period used?_ In Rhetorical punctuation. 60. _Name the points used in Reference punctuation._ Asterisk, Obelisk, Parallels, Section, Paragraph, and Index. 61. _Are these marks ever doubled?_ They are. 62. _Are Letters ever used for reference?_ They are. DIACRITICAL MARKS. 1. _What are Diacritical Marks?_ Characters indicating the different sounds of letters. 2. _Name the Diacritical Marks._ Macron, Breve, Dieresis, Semi-Dieresis, Caret, Tilde, Cedilla, and the inverted T. 3. _Make the Diacritical Marks in the order named:_ (¯); ([breve]); (¨); (·); ([caret]); (~); (¸); ([T]). 4. _What does the Macron indicate?_ Over a vowel, its long sound; under e, the sound of a, long; across c, the sound of k; over g, the hard sound; across th, the subvocal sound, and over oo, the long sound. 5. _What are the uses of the Breve?_ Over vowels, it indicates their short sound, and over oo, its short sound. 6. _What does the Dieresis indicate?_ Over a, its Italian sound; under a, its broad sound; over i, the sound of e, long; under u, when preceded by r, makes it equivalent to o, Italian. 7. _What is the use of the Semi-Dieresis?_ Over a, gives it the medium sound; under a, the sound of o, short; over o, the sound of u, short; under o, the sound; over g, the soft sound; and under u, the sound of Italian o. 8. _Where is the Cedilla used?_ Under c, to give it the sound of s. 9. _What is the use of the Caret as a Diacritical Mark?_ Over a, it indicates the flat sound; over e, the sound of a, flat; over u, the sound of e, in her. 10. _Where is the Tilde used?_ Over n in Spanish words it indicates that the sound of y immediately follows. It is also used over e in such words as her, and over i in sir, etc. 11. _What is the use of the inverted [T]?_ Under s, it gives it the sound of z; under x, it gives the sound of gz. 12. _Give some words illustrating the use of the Macron._ M[=a]te, b[=e]am, f[=i]ne, b[=o]at, t[=u]be, r[=oo]d, [=g]o, and pr[e=]y. 13. _Give words showing the use of the Breve._ M[)a]t, s[)e]t, l[)o]t, t[)u]b, and f[)oo]t. 14. _Illustrate the use of the Dieresis._ Cär, polïce, f[a:]lling, and tr[u:]e. 15. _Give words showing the use of the Semi-Dieresis._ M[.a]sk, wh[a.]t, m[.o]ney, [.g]in, w[o.]lf, and b[u.]sh. 16. _Illustrate the use of the Caret._ Fâir, thêre, sûrge, and sometimes over o as in stôrm. 17. _Give words showing the use of the Tilde._ M[~e]rge and cañon. 18. _Illustrate the use of the Cedilla._ �ell and çhaise. 19. _Give some words showing the use of the inverted t._ Wa[sT] and e[xT]ist. 20. _Are there any other names for the inverted t?_ It has been given different names by different authors. 21. _What are they?_ "The Perpendicular," "Suspended Macron," etc. 22. _Is the letter y ever marked by Diacritical Marks?_ It is, sometimes. 23. _What marks are used for y?_ Macron and Breve. 24. _Give examples where y is marked with the Macron._ Sp[=y], sl[=y], st[=y], etc. 25. _Give example where y is marked with the Breve._ H[)y]mn. 26. _What mark is used to cancel silent letters?_ Short bar, similar to the Macron. PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES. 1. _What is the signification of A as a Prefix?_ On, in, at, to, or towards. 2. _Is A as a prefix ever redundant?_ It is. 3. _Give examples._ Adry and ameliorate. 4. _What does the prefix Ab signify?_ From. 5. _What does Ab signify?_ Away from. 6. _What is the signification of Ante?_ Before. 7. _Name all the prefixes meaning To._ Ad, ac, af, ag, al, an, ap, ar, and at. 8. _What does Anti signify?_ Against. 9. _What does Bis signify?_ Twice. 10. _What other prefix means the same?_ Dis, from the Greek. 11. _What does Be signify?_ Upon. 12. _What does Circum signify?_ Around, as circumscribe. 13. _What is the meaning of Cis?_ On this side, as cisalpine. 14. _What prefixes signify With?_ Con, com, co, col, and cor. 15. _What prefixes signify Against?_ Contra and counter. 16. _What does Di signify?_ Two, as ditone. 17. _What prefixes signify Out of, or From?_ E, and ex. 18. _What does Dys signify?_ Ill, or difficult, as dysentery and dyspepsia. 19. _What does Enter signify?_ Between or among. 20. _What does Epi signify?_ On, as epitaph; during, as ephemeral. 21. _What prefix signifies Equal?_ Equi, as equidistant. 22. _What does Extra signify?_ Beyond, as extraordinary. 23. _What is the signification of Eu?_ Well, or agreeable, as euphony. 24. _What does Gain signify?_ Against, as gainsay. 25. _What is the signification of Hex?_ Six, as Hexagon. 26. _What does Hyper signify?_ Over, as hypercriticism. 27. _What does Hypo signify?_ Under, or beneath, as hypotenuse and hypocrite. 28. _What prefixes signify Not or In?_ In, im, il, and ir. 29. _What is the signification of Inter?_ In the midst of, or between, as intellect and intermarry. 30. _What does Intra signify?_ Within, or on the inside of. 31. _What other prefix means the same as Intra?_ Intro. 32. _What is the signification of Juxta?_ Joined to, or next, as juxtaposition. 33. _What does Mal signify?_ Bad, as malpractice and maladministration. 34. _What is the signification of Meta?_ In the middle, after, and with. 35. _What does Mis signify?_ Amiss, or wrong, as misapply and mishap. 36. _What is the signification of Mono?_ One, as monotheistic. 37. _What prefixes signify Many?_ Multi and poly, as multiform and polysyllable. 38. _What does Non signify?_ Not, as nonsense, nonessential, etc. 39. _What other prefixes signify Not?_ Neg, as in negative, and ne, as in nefarious. 40. _What does Ob signify?_ In the way of, as obstruct. 41. _What does Oct signify?_ Eight, as octagon. 42. _What does Omni signify?_ All, or complete, as omnipresent. 43. _What is the signification of Out?_ Beyond, as outlaw, outbid, outbalance, etc. 44. _What does Over signify?_ Above, as overseer, overreach, etc. 45. _What does Ovi signify?_ An egg, as oviform. 46. _What does Para signify?_ Beside, as parallel, paragraph, etc. 47. _What is the signification of Pene?_ Almost, as peninsula--almost an island. 48. _What does Per signify?_ Through, or by, as permit, perchance, etc. 49. _What does Peri signify?_ Around, as perimeter, periosteum. 50. _What does Pleni signify?_ Completeness, or full, as plenitude, etc. 51. _What does Post signify?_ After, or backwards, as postfix, and postpone. 52. _What does Pre signify?_ Before, as prefer, prefix, etc. 53. _What is the signification of Preter?_ Beyond, as preternatural. 54. _What is the signification of Pro?_ Before, forth, and for. 55. _What does Pros signify?_ To, as proselyte. 56. _What is the signification of Proto?_ First, as protocol, protoplasm, etc. 57. _What does Quad signify?_ Four, as quadrangle, etc. 58. _What does Re signify?_ Back, or again, as react, recollect, etc. 59. _What prefixes signify Right?_ Rect and Recti. 60. _What does Retro signify?_ Backwards, as retrospect and retrograde. 61. _What does Se signify?_ By itself, as separate, seclude, etc. 62. _What prefixes signify Half?_ Semi, demi, and hemi, as semicircle, demitone, and hemisphere. 63. _What does Sine signify?_ Without, as sinecure. 64. _What does Stereo signify?_ Solid, as stereotype. 65. _What does Sub signify?_ Under, or inferior, as subterranean and subordinate. 66. _What does Super signify?_ Over, above, or beyond, as supernatural, etc. 67. _What does Suf signify?_ Less or after, as suffix, etc. 68. _What does Supra signify?_ Same as Super. 69. _What does Sur signify?_ More than, as surcharge. 70. _What prefixes signify Together?_ Syn, sy, syl, and sym, as in syntax, system, syllable, and symbol. 71. _What does Trans signify?_ Beyond, across, and again, as transalpine, transatlantic, and transform. 72. _What does Tra signify?_ Across, as traverse. 73. _What is the signification of Tri?_ Three, as trisyllable, triangle, etc. 74. _What does Ultra signify?_ Beyond, as ultramarine. 75. _What does Un signify?_ Not, as unhappy, unable, etc. 76. _What is the signification of Under?_ Below, as undercurrent, underrate, etc. 77. _What does Ve signify?_ No or not, as vehement. 78. _What does Vice signify?_ Instead of, as Vice-President. 79. _What does With signify?_ Against or back, as withstand, withdraw. 80. _What other signification has With in some words?_ Near, as within; together, as withal, etc. 81. _What suffixes signify "able to be"?_ Able, ible, and ile, as curable, audible, and visible. 82. _What suffixes signify rank, or office?_ Acy, ate, ric; dom, and ship, as in curacy, pontificate, bishopric, kingdom, and clerkship. 83. _What is the signification of Age?_ Act of, as marriage, passage, etc. 84. _Has the suffix Age any other signification?_ From the Latin ago, it means collection. 85. _What does An signify?_ One who, or the person who acts, as equestrian, pedestrian, etc. 86. _What does Ana signify?_ A collection of memorable sayings, as Franklinana--the sayings of Franklin. 87. _What does Ant signify?_ Being, and has the force of ing, as dominant, verdant, etc. 88. _What is the signification of the suffix Art?_ One who, as braggart. 89. _What does Ary signify?_ Place where, or place which, as library, aviary, etc. 90. _What does Ate signify?_ Full of, or abundance, as desolate, passionate, etc. 91. _What is the signification of Celli?_ Little, as vermicelli, etc. 92. _What other suffixes also signify Little?_ Cle, cule, el, en, kin, let, ot, ling, ock, and ie. 93. _What does Ene signify?_ Belonging to, as terrene, etc. 94. _What is the signification of Eous?_ Full of, as beauteous, etc. 95. _What does Ed signify?_ When added to a verb it signifies did, as played; but to a participle, was, as completed. 96. _What is the signification of Er?_ More or often, as brighter, glimmer, etc. 97. _What does Erly signify?_ Direction of, as northerly. 98. _What does Es signify?_ More than one, as foxes, etc. 99. _What does Escent signify?_ Growing or becoming, as convalescent. 100. _What does Esque signify?_ Belonging to, or like, as picturesque, etc. 101. _What does Ess signify?_ Feminine when added to nouns, as tigress. 102. _What does Est signify?_ Greatest or least, as largest, smallest, etc. 103. _What does Head signify?_ State or nature, as Godhead. 104. _What does Ics signify?_ Things relating to, as optics, etc. 105. _What does Ides signify?_ Resemblance, as alkaloides, etc. 106. _What is the signification of Im?_ More than one, as cherubim. 107. _What does Ina signify?_ Feminine, as Czarina. 108. _What does Ing signify?_ Continuing, as singing, etc. 109. _What is the signification of Ior?_ More, as superior. 110. _What does Ique signify?_ Belonging to, as antique. 111. _What is the signification of Ish?_ Like, as boyish, girlish, etc. 112. _What does Isk signify?_ Little, as asterisk, etc. 113. _What does Ite signify?_ That which, as appetite. 114. _What does Ive signify?_ Able to do, as adhesive, etc. 115. _What does Ion signify?_ State or act, as location. 116. _What does Ism signify?_ Doctrine, as Calvinism, etc. 117. _What does Ix signify?_ Feminine of nouns, as testatrix. 118. _What does Kin signify?_ A son of, or little, as lambkin. 119. _What does Kind signify?_ Race, as mankind. 120. _What does Less signify?_ Without, as guiltless, breathless, etc. 121. _What does Ling signify?_ Young, as duckling, etc. 122. _What does Ly signify?_ Like, or in a manner, as manly, calmly, etc. 123. _What does Most signify?_ Greatest or furthest, as hindmost. 124. _What does Ment signify?_ State or act, as settlement, judgment, etc. 125. _What does Ness signify?_ The quality of, or state of, as whiteness, etc. 126. _What does Ock signify?_ Small or young, as hillock, bullock, etc. 127. _What does Oid signify?_ Likeness, as spheroid, etc. 128. _What does Or signify?_ One who, as actor, director, etc. 129. _What does Ory signify?_ Having the quality of, as vibratory, etc. 130. _What does On signify?_ Large, as million, etc. 131. _What does Ous signify?_ Having the quality of, as solicitous. 132. _What does Ot signify?_ Little, as idiot. 133. _What does Re signify?_ Same as _Er_, as it is another form of it. 134. _What does Red signify?_ Those who, as kindred, etc. 135. _What is the signification of Ress?_ Feminine of nouns, as instructress. 136. _What does Ric signify?_ Office of, as bishopric. 137. _What does Ry signify?_ Place where, or things collectively. 138. _What does Se signify?_ To make, as cleanse. 139. _What does San signify?_ The person who, as partisan, etc. 140. _What does Ship signify?_ The condition, as professorship. 141. _What does Some signify?_ Full, as quarrelsome. 142. _What does Ster signify?_ The person who, as teamster. 143. _What does Teen signify?_ Ten to be added, as fourteen. 144. _What is the signification of Tude?_ The state of being, as similitude. 145. _What does Ty signify?_ To multiply into, as seventy, forty, etc. 146. _What does Ude signify?_ Same as _Tude_, the state of being. 147. _What does Ule signify?_ Little, as globule. 148. _What does Ward signify?_ Direction of, as eastward, etc. 149. _What does Ways signify?_ Manner, as crossways, lengthways, etc. 150. _What does the suffix Y signify?_ Plenty, as smoky; also abounding in, as wealthy. 151. _Are there any exceptions to the meaning of the foregoing Prefixes and Postfixes?_ There are some, and therefore great judgment must be exercised in applying them to the analysis of words. 152. _What is meant by the term "Good Bye"?_ God be with you. 153. _What does the suffix Ster signify?_ Feminine, as spinster. PROMISCUOUS QUESTIONS. 1. _Is A the first letter of all written alphabets?_ All but one, the Abyssinian. 2. _What number is A in the Abyssinian alphabet?_ The thirteenth. 3. _Is double A ever written together as a word?_ It is, as a proper noun. 4. _What is Aa the name of?_ About forty small rivers in Europe.--_Cyclopedia._ 5. _Is B the second letter of all alphabets?_ All except the Ethiopic. 6. _What number is B in the Ethiopic?_ Ninth. 7. _Give a word in which P has the sound of B._ Cupboard. 8. _What letter is the Sonorous counterpart of T?_ The letter D.--_Cyclopedia._ 9. _Give the Periodic changes of the English language._ Saxon, Semi-Saxon, Old English, Middle English, and Modern English. 10. _Give date of "Saxon period."_ Previous to 1150 A.D. 11. _Give date of "Semi-Saxon period."_ 1150 to 1250. 12. _Give date of "Old English period."_ 1250 to 1350. 13. _Give date of "Middle English period."_ 1350 to 1550. 14. _Give date of "Modern English period."_ Time since 1550. 15. _What constitutes a Period in Language?_ Any great change in the Literature of a People. 16. _What causes these changes?_ Mostly national invasion. 17. _What is assimilation of Consonants?_ When an aspirate and subvocal comes together, it is necessary to change the sound of one or the other, to make the combination pronounceable. 18. _What is meant by an Element of Speech?_ An indivisible portion of language. 19. _What is a Sonant sound?_ One uttered with intonated or resonant breath. 20. _In changing the word traffic to trafficked, why supply the letter k?_ To preserve the proper sound of c. 21. _Under what condition is a consonant never doubled at the end of a word?_ When immediately following a diphthong.--_Webster._ 22. _When is C followed by K in spelling?_ Words ending with the sound of k, and in which c follows the vowel. 23. _Give some examples._ Back, black, fleck, etc. 24. _Are there any exceptions?_ There are, as sac, arc, etc. 25. _Why is the word Humbugged spelt with two g's?_ To prevent sounding the g like j. 26. _Give some words spelled differently in the U.S. and in England._ Woolen--woollen, honor--honour, etc. 27. _When do words, ending in double e, drop one e on taking an additional syllable?_ When the suffix begins with e. 28. _Why?_ To prevent three e's coming together. 29. _Does pluralizing a word ever change the accent?_ Sometimes it does. 30. _Give an example._ An'tipode--Antip'odes. 31. _In such words as Defense, which is correct, se or ce for the termination?_ Se, because the s belongs to the words from which they are derived.--_Webster._ 32. _Should words of English origin end in ise or ize?_ Ize; same as those from the Greek. 33. _Are there any exceptions to these rules?_ There are; as advertise, from English, etc. 34. _Are the words ox, calf, sheep, and pig of French or Saxon origin?_ Saxon. 35. _From what language do the words beef, veal, mutton, and pork come?_ The Norman-French. 36. _What is a Lexicon?_ A Dictionary. 37. _What is an irregular sound?_ Sound of a Redundant letter. 38. _How are words divided as regards Specie?_ Primitive and Derivative. 39. _How may the meaning of a word be changed?_ By accent; as Aug'ust, August'. 40. _What is an irregular derivative?_ One in which the letters of the root are changed in forming the derivative. 41. _What is Pronunciation?_ The distinct utterance of the sounds of a word. 42. _What are the significant parts of a word?_ Root, prefix, and suffix. 43. _How are words divided as to variety?_ Italic, Roman, Old English, etc. 44. _Name some compound word in which both parts retain their own accent._ Writ'ing-mas'ter. 45. _Name some word in which one part loses its accent._ Gentle-manly. 46. _Can all the vowels form syllables themselves?_ All except W. 47. _When has R a rough sound?_ When it begins a word. 48. _How are words distinguished?_ By their forms and uses. 49. _Why do Consonants ever unite?_ To form complex sounds: as rr in Burr. 50. _From what language are most words derived that end in less?_ Anglo-Saxon. 51. _Is Z the last letter of all alphabets?_ All except the Greek, and Hebrew. 52. _What is its place in the Greek alphabet?_ Sixth. 53. _What is its place in the Hebrew?_ Seventh. 54. _What letter is the sonorous counterpart of S?_ The letter Z.--_Cyclopedia._ 55. _What is spelling of Z in England?_ Zed, and also Izzard. 56. _What language has two letters representing the sound of Z?_ The Russian. 57. _When was the letter W first used?_ About the end of the Seventh Century. 58. _What changes the sound of a vowel from long to short?_ The absence of the accent. 59. _In what situation is gh always silent?_ After i in the same syllable. 60. _How many words of two syllables are changed from nouns to verbs by accent?_ About eighty. 61. _What word contains a consonant Tetragraph?_ Phthisic. 62. _What is Philology?_ The science of language. 63. _When is ue final, silent?_ After g and q; as fatigue and oblique. 64. _What are the elements of spoken language?_ Vocal and articulate sounds. 65. _What are Hybrid words?_ Mongrel compounds. 66. _What is Terminology?_ A treatise on technicalities. READING AND ELOCUTION. 1. _What is Reading?_ Silent perusal or distinct utterance of thought and feeling, as seen expressed in written language. 2. _How many kinds of Reading are there?_ Two. 3. _What are they?_ Silent and Audible. 4. _What is Silent Reading?_ The perusal of Language without utterance. 5. _What is Audible Reading?_ The utterance of thought and feeling, as seen expressed in written Language. 6. _What is Elocution?_ The science and art of the delivery of composition. 7. _How many kinds of Delivery are there?_ Three. 8. _What are they?_ Speaking, Declamation, and Oratory. 9. _What is Speaking?_ The utterance of thought and feeling without reference to the written page. 10. _What is Declamation?_ The delivery of another's composition. 11. _What is Oratory?_ The delivery of one's own composition. 12. _How many kinds of Oratory are there?_ Two. 13. _What are they?_ Prepared and Extempore. 14. _What is Prepared oratory?_ That which has been studied previous to delivery. 15. _What is Extempore oratory?_ That which is accomplished simultaneously with the delivery. 16. _What is Vocal Culture?_ The training of the organs of speech for effective delivery. 17. _What should be the primary object in Audible reading?_ To convey to the hearer the ideas and sentiments of the writer. 18. _In order to accomplish this, what should the Reader do?_ Endeavor to make the feelings and sentiments of the writer his own. 19. _What are some of the essential qualities of a good Reader?_ To read slowly, observe the pauses, give proper inflections, read distinctly, and with expression. 20. _What is Enunciation?_ The utterance of words. 21. _Under how many Divisions should the subject of reading be treated?_ Six. 22. _What are they?_ Articulation, Inflection, Accent, Emphasis, the Voice, and Gesture. 23. _What is Articulation?_ Distinct utterance of the elementary sounds, and of the combinations. 24. _Name four common faults in Articulation._ Omitting an unaccented vocal, dropping the final sound, sounding incorrectly an unaccented vowel, and omitting syllables. 25. _What is Inflection?_ Sliding of the voice upward or downward. 26. _How many kinds of Inflection are there?_ Two. 27. _What are they?_ Rising and falling. 28. _What is the Rising inflection?_ An upward slide of the voice. 29. _What is the Falling inflection?_ A downward slide of the voice. 30. _Are the rising and falling inflections both ever given to the same sound?_ They are. 31. _How is such inflection marked?_ By the Circumflex. 32. _How many kinds of Circumflex?_ Two. 33. _What are they?_ Rising and falling. 34. _What is the Rising Circumflex?_ The sliding of the voice downward and then upward on the same sound. 35. _What is the Falling Circumflex?_ The sliding of the voice upward and then downward on the same sound. 36. _What is a Monotone?_ Reading without sliding the voice either upward or downward. 37. _Give Rule 1 for falling inflection._ Propositions which make complete sense require the falling inflection. 38. _Does Emphasis ever reverse this rule?_ It does sometimes. 39. _Give Rule 2._ Emphasis generally requires the falling inflection. 40. _Where the sense is dependent, what inflection is generally used?_ The rising. 41. _Does Emphasis ever affect this rule?_ Relative emphasis sometimes reverses it. 42. _What kind of inflection should be used at the end of an interrogative sentence?_ Falling, if it cannot be answered by yes or no. 43. _Negative sentences require what kind of inflection?_ Rising. 44. _Does Emphasis ever affect this rule?_ It does; often reversing it. 45. _Imperative sentences have what inflection?_ Usually the falling. 46. _What kind of words require opposite inflection?_ Words or members expressing antithesis or contrast. 47. _What is a Series?_ A number of particulars following one another in the same construction. 48. _How many kinds of Series?_ Two. 49. _What are they?_ Commencing and Concluding. 50. _What is a Commencing Series?_ One that commences a sentence. 51. _What is a Concluding Series?_ One that concludes a sentence. 52. _What inflection is given to the members of a commencing series?_ The rising. 53. _What inflection is given to the members of a concluding series?_ The falling. 54. _Are there any exceptions to these rules?_ There are. 55. _What causes the exceptions?_ Emphasis. 56. _What is a Parenthesis in reading?_ A sentence, or clause, set off by curves from the context. 57. _How should the Parenthesis be read?_ In a lower tone and more rapidly. 58. _What is the use of the Circumflex?_ To express irony, or sarcasm. 59. _What meaning is always suggested by the Circumflex?_ Doubtful or double meaning. 60. _What is the use of the Monotones?_ To produce an effect in grave and solemn subjects. 61. _What is Accent in reading?_ Increase of force on certain syllables of a word. 62. _Give an example of Emphatic accent._ This corrup'tion must put on in'terruption. 63. _What does Pitch signify?_ The place in the musical scale on which an element is sounded. 64. _What is Force?_ That property of the voice which relates to loudness of sound. 65. _How many different kinds of Force?_ Five. 66. _What are they?_ Suppressed, subdued, ordinary, energetic, and vehement. 67. _To what does Stress relate?_ Different modes of applying force. 68. _How many kinds of Stress?_ Three. 69. _What are they?_ Expulsive, Explosive, and Vanishing. 70. _What is meant by Quantity?_ Length of time the voice dwells on a word. 71. _What is Quality?_ That property which relates to the kind of voice. 72. _What is Movement?_ The degree of rapidity with which the voice moves from one word to another. 73. _How many kinds of Movement?_ Six. 74. _What are they?_ Very slow, slow, moderate, lively, rapid, and very rapid. 75. _What does Expression comprehend?_ The practical application of all the principles of reading and elocution. 76. _What is Cadence?_ The natural dropping of the voice at the end of a sentence, denoting completeness of thought. 77. _What is a Rhetorical pause?_ A suspension of the voice for rhetorical effect. 78. _What is Emphasis?_ Giving force and energy to certain words. 79. _How many kinds of Emphasis?_ Two. 80. _What are they?_ Absolute and relative. 81. _What is Absolute emphasis?_ Emphasis made without any contrast with other words. 82. _What is Relative emphasis?_ Emphasis used where there is antithesis either expressed or implied. 83. _Is a whole Phrase ever made emphatic?_ It is often. 84. _For what purpose?_ To give it great force. 85. _What is the Emphatic pause?_ Pause made for emphasis. 86. _What is Antithesis?_ Two or more words opposed to each other in meaning. 87. _What is a Climax?_ A series of particulars increasing in importance to the last. 88. _What is Anti-climax?_ A series of particulars decreasing in importance to the last. 89. _What is meant by Transition?_ Any sudden change in reading. 90. _What is Emphatic repetition?_ Words repeated for emphasis. 91. _What is an Interrogation?_ A statement, or assertion, put in the form of a question. 92. _What is an Exclamation?_ A statement denoting strong emotions. 93. _What is Personation?_ One person imitating the actions and manners of some other person or persons. 94. _How many kinds of style in reading?_ Five. 95. _What are they?_ Description, Argument, Narration, Persuasion, Exhortation. 96. _What should be characteristic of the Descriptive style?_ The Speaker should use the same manner that he would if he were actually describing the thing spoken of. 97. _What should be characteristic of the Argumentative style?_ Directness and earnestness. 98. _What should characterize the Narrative?_ The Reader should proceed as though relating his own experience. 99. _What the Persuasive?_ Those tones, looks, and gestures which bring conviction to the hearer. 100. _What should characterize the Exhortative?_ The performer should appeal, beseech, and implore, as the case may require. 101. _What is the Slur?_ The smooth gliding of the voice in parenthetic clauses, etc. 102. _How are Emphatic words distinguished?_ By different styles of printing. 103. _How many kinds of letters are used to denote emphasis?_ Three usually. 104. _What are they?_ Italics, small capitals, and capitals. 105. _What is Antithetic emphasis?_ Same as Relative. 106. _What is Modulation?_ Variation of the voice in speaking and reading. 107. _What is Pure tone?_ A clear, flowing sound, with moderate pitch. 108. _What is the Orotund?_ Pure tone intensified. 109. _For what is it adapted?_ To express sublime and pathetic emotions. 110. _What is the Aspirated tone?_ An expulsion of breath, the words being spoken in a whisper. 111. _What is the Guttural quality?_ Deep undertone. 112. _What does it express?_ Hatred, contempt, loathing, etc. 113. _What is the Trembling tone?_ A constant waver of the voice. 114. _What does it express?_ An intense degree of suppressed excitement, or personates old age. 115. _What are Pauses?_ Suspensions of the voice in reading or speaking. 116. _How many kinds of pauses are there?_ Two. 117. _What are they?_ Grammatical and Rhetorical. 118. _What is Suspensive quantity?_ Prolongation of the voice at the end of a word without making an actual pause. 119. _What does Quantity embrace?_ Force and rate. 120. _What quality of voice is mostly used in speaking and reading?_ Pure tone. 121. _What is meant by Prose?_ All composition which is not written in verse. 122. _What are some of the varieties of Prose?_ Letters, Essays, Travels, History, and Discourses. 123. _What is a Letter as a variety of prose?_ A written communication addressed by the writer to some other person. 124. _What is an Essay?_ A written discourse on some special subject. 125. _What are Travels?_ Records of journeys. 126. _What is History?_ A record of past events. 127. _What is a Discourse?_ A performance read or spoken to an audience. 128. _Should the voice agree in style with the different varieties of prose?_ It should, and the performer should endeavor to produce the exact sentiments of the writer. 129. _What is Poetry?_ A discourse written in verse and metrical language. 130. _What is a Verse?_ A single line of metrical language. 131. _Is it correct to use the term verse in speaking of a division of prose?_ It is not. 132. _What should we call such division?_ Paragraph or Division. 133. _What is a Stanza?_ A number of metrical lines, or verses, combined according to a regular system. 134. _How many kinds of metrical language?_ Two. 135. _What are they?_ Rhyme and Blank Verse. 136. _What is Rhyme?_ That language in which the concluding syllables of the verses have a similarity of sound. 137. _How many kinds of Rhyme?_ Two. 138. _What are they?_ Perfect and imperfect. 139. _What is a Perfect rhyme?_ Where the vowels have the same sound. 140. _What is an Imperfect rhyme?_ Where the vowels have a different sound. 141. _What is Blank Verse?_ A kind of metrical language in which there is no similarity of sound. 142. _What is the Cæsura pause?_ A rhythmic pause occurring in a verse. 143. _How many rules should be observed in the use of the Cæsura?_ Three. 144. _Give Rule 1._ The pause should be near the middle of the verse. 145. _Give Rule 2._ It should never divide a word. 146. _Give Rule 3._ Should not separate words from their modifiers, as adjectives from nouns, adverbs from verbs, etc. 147. _Do all verses have the Cæsura pause?_ They do if over three feet in length. 148. _What is meant by a Foot in verse?_ A certain portion of a line divided according to accent. 149. _When melody comes in contact with accent, which should yield?_ Accent. 150. _Is there any other rhythmic pause than the Cæsura?_ There is; the demi-cæsura is sometimes used. 151. _How many kinds of Poetry are there?_ Seven. 152. _What are they?_ Epic, Dramatic, Lyric, Elegiac, Didactic, Satiric and Pastoral. 153. _What is an Epic poem?_ A poetical recital of some great and heroic enterprise. 154. _Are there many Epic poems?_ There are not; most nations have one. 155. _Name the three Epics of greatest note._ Homer's Iliad, Virgil's �neid, and Milton's Paradise Lost. 156. _What language were these poems written in?_ The Iliad in Greek, �neid in Latin, and Paradise Lost in English. 157. _What does the Iliad describe or narrate?_ The downfall of Troy, which was the most memorable event in the early history of the Trojans and Greeks. 158. _What does the �neid narrate?_ The perils and labors of �neas, who was the reputed founder of the Roman race. 159. _What does Paradise Lost describe?_ The downfall of not only the Human but of the Angelic host. 160. _What is a Dramatic poem?_ One similar in many respects to an Epic. 161. _Name some point of difference._ Epic relates past events; the Drama represents events as taking place at the present time. 162. _Name the greatest Dramatic writer of the English._ Shakespeare. 163. _What is a Drama called that is set to music?_ An opera. 164. _What is a Melodrama?_ A dramatic poem some parts of which are spoken and some are sung. 165. _What is Lyric Poetry?_ It is the oldest kind of poetry, and was originally intended to be sung to the accompaniment of the lyre. 166. _What are Sonnets?_ A kind of Lyric Poems. 167. _What is an Elegy?_ A poem of a mournful kind, usually celebrating the virtues of some person deceased. 168. _What is an Epitaph?_ A short Elegy inscribed on a monument, or written in praise of any one. 169. _What is a Pastoral poem?_ One that describes country life. 170. _What is a Didactic poem?_ One the aim of which is to give instruction. 171. _What is Meditative Poetry?_ A kind of Didactic poetry. 172. _Name two noted Didactic poems._ Bryant's "Thanatopsis," and Campbell's "Pleasures of Hope." 173. _What is a Satire?_ One that holds up the follies of men to ridicule. 174. _Is a Satire personal?_ It is not. 175. _What is a Lampoon?_ A poem that attacks individuals. 176. _What is Gesture?_ Expression given to language by movements of the body, limbs, etc. 177. _What kind of Gesture is most appropriate?_ That which is natural. 178. _What attitude should be used in reading and speaking?_ Standing. 179. _Which hand should hold the book?_ The left, if possible. 180. _Should a Reader keep his eyes on the book constantly?_ He should not; but cast the eyes away from the page as often as possible. 181. _Should a gesture be made while the eyes are looking on the book?_ It should not. 182. _In what kind of language are gestures inappropriate?_ Didactic or unimpassioned discourse. 183. _Should a Speaker begin to gesticulate as soon as he begins his discourse?_ Very seldom, before he has entered fully into the discourse. 184. _How many positions are recognized for the hand when not used in gesticulating?_ Three. 185. _What are they?_ Hanging naturally at the side; resting upon the hip with the elbow thrown backward; and resting on your bosom. 186. _What are Descriptive gestures?_ Those used in describing objects. 187. _What are Significant gestures?_ Those which have special signification. 188. _Name some Significant gestures of the head._ It drops in grief and shame, and nods in assent; shakes in dissent, and leans forward in attention. 189. _Name some Significant gestures of the eyes._ Raised in prayer, weep in sorrow, burn in anger, and are cast on vacancy in thought. 190. _Name some of the passions of the mind._ Love, anger, joy, sorrow, fear, and courage. 191. _What tone of voice should be used in the expression of Love?_ Soft, smooth, and languishing voice. 192. _What tone of voice should be used to express Anger?_ Strong, vehement, and elevated voice. 193. _Where is the best place to practice elocution and reading?_ In the open air, or in a well ventilated room. 194. _Should a Reader or Speaker pay strict attention to the rules of elocution?_ He should not, but study nature rather. 195. _What is the Soul of Oratory?_ Emotion. 196. _What is meant by the Compass of the voice?_ The range in which it can be properly controlled. 197. _How may the Compass of the voice be increased?_ By continued practice on a very low and very high key. 198. _Should a Reader or Speaker drink any liquid while exercising the voice?_ He should not, for it is injurious to the vocal chords. 199. _What effect does Tobacco have on the voice?_ It enfeebles the nervous system and breathing organs, and makes the voice dry, harsh, and ungovernable. 200. _What effect do Stimulants have on the voice?_ Irritate and inflame the vocal organs, which results in hoarseness and produces too high a key, which terminates in a squeaking tone. 201. _In faulty articulation what sounds are usually mispronounced?_ The vowel sounds of the unaccented syllables. 202. _What Consonants are often incorrectly dropped?_ The final consonants. 203. _How may distinct Articulation be acquired?_ By continued practice of the elementary sounds. 204. _What are the most prominent Elements of all words?_ The vowels. 205. _Which sounds should be practiced first?_ The vowels; as they are the most easily uttered. 206. _Can the sounds of the Consonants be given alone?_ They can by practice. 207. _What is the source of the greatest defect in Articulation?_ Improper sounding of the consonants. 208. _What kind of Inflection is generally given to words of great emphasis?_ The falling; unless the sentiment requires the rising. 209. _When is the Inflection of a question changed from the falling to the rising?_ When it is repeated or made emphatic. 210. _In the introductory part of a sentence, where the sense is incomplete, what inflection is used?_ Unless great emphasis is required, the rising should be used. 211. _The names of persons addressed in formal speech require what inflection?_ The falling should always be used in such cases. 212. _General statements require what inflection?_ The falling. 213. _For the sake of harmony, what principle should govern the reader?_ When a sentence ends with the falling inflection, the rising should precede it. 214. _When sentences commence with verbs, what inflection is required?_ Mostly the rising. 215. _What is meant by an Echo in reading?_ Interrogative exclamations, where the question is repeated. 216. _Give an example of Echo._ What's the trouble? What's the trouble? trouble enough. 217. _What inflection should be given to members of sentences connected disjunctively?_ First member, the rising; second member, the falling. 218. _When several Emphatic words or members come together, how should they be inflected?_ The most emphatic, the falling; and the others the rising. 219. _What is a Simple Series in reading?_ A series of particulars that is composed of single words. 220. _What is meant by a Compound Series?_ One that is composed of clauses is called compound. 221. _What determines Accent?_ The usage of our best speakers and writers of the present. 222. _To whom does it belong to determine and record such usage?_ The Lexicographers. 223. _Are there any cases in which we can trace the reason for the accent?_ There are; in discriminating accent where it is used to determine the parts of speech. 224. _Do we ever have two sets of Antitheses in the same sentence?_ We do; as each member may contain an antithesis. 225. _Give an example._ John was hurt; William escaped. 226. _How many sets of Antitheses may be used in one sentence?_ Often three; but seldom more. 227. _Should there be any difference in the tone of voice used in reading verse and prose?_ There should be a difference. 228. _What different style ought to be used?_ The monotone and rising inflection are more frequently used in verse than in prose. 229. _What is the greatest difficulty met with in reading or declaiming poetic selections?_ In giving it that measured flow which distinguishes it from prose, without falling into a continued monotone. 230. _What is a good method to break up this habit?_ Reduce the selection to prose, and deliver it in an earnest, conversational style. 231. _Why should there be a short pause at the end of each line of poetry, even where the sense does not require it?_ In order that the measure of the poem may be more perceptible to the ear. 232. _What is it that constitutes the melody of a poem?_ The pauses and accents chiefly. 233. _What rule should govern the reader in the use of pauses and accents?_ Use variety, and not make them too prominent. 234. _What tone of voice should be used in reading a Simile in poetry?_ The simile should be read in a lower tone than the rest of the passage. 235. _What, with regard to the voice, is an important object to every speaker and reader?_ The important object is to have a full, even tone of voice. 236. _What key of the voice should be most diligently improved?_ The natural key, or that which is used most. 237. _What is meant by the natural key or pitch?_ That which is peculiar to the individual, and in which he can use most easily to himself, and most agreeably to others. 238. _How can the natural tone of voice be strengthened?_ By reading and speaking as loud as possible, without suffering the voice to rise into a higher key. 239. _What is the best method of strengthening the natural key?_ By speaking and reading strong, animated passages in a small room. 240. _How may low tones be acquired?_ By continued practice in a lower key than the natural. 241. _How may a high key be acquired?_ In the same manner as a low key; by pitching the voice first a little higher than the natural, and mastering that thoroughly, then still higher and higher. 242. _What is meant by Rotundity of the voice?_ That peculiar form of tone which the Romans called "Ore rotundo," which signifies "Round mouth." 243. _In what kind of sentences is the Rotundity of the voice exemplified?_ In the hailing of vessels, and is used especially by sailors and officers. 244. _Which is the most difficult: to raise the voice to a higher pitch, or to bring it to a lower?_ The lowering of the voice is more difficult, and requires great care and practice. 245. _What is a common fault with most public speakers?_ To run the voice into too high a key, and thus weary the hearers. 246. _What is a good rule by which to govern the voice?_ To start on a key lower than the natural, and thus avoid running too high. 247. _What are the principal styles of different reading selections?_ Descriptive, Narrative, Senatorial, Moral, Didactic, Dramatic, and Amusing. 248. _What tone of voice should be used in reading a Descriptive selection?_ The ordinary, natural tone, with a careful use of emphasis. 249. _What tone of voice is best adapted to the reading of a Narration?_ The conversational tone, with as little reference to the printed page as possible. 250. _What style is the best adapted to Senatorial reading?_ An imitative style and tone, being careful in the use of the emphatic pause. 251. _What tone is best adapted to the reading of Moral and Religious selections?_ Low and moderate tone, expressing feeling and sentiment, being careful not to read too fast. 252. _What style is best adapted to Didactic reading?_ That peculiar style which is best adapted to impart instruction, laying special stress on the important idea. 253. _What style and tone are best adapted to the reading of Dramatic selections?_ A style and tone which are entirely imitative in character. 254. _What tone or character of voice is best suited to the rendering of Amusing selections?_ That which will bring out the mirthful sentiment, to the exclusion of all rules for accent, emphasis, etc. 255. _Should all persons use the same tones of voice and style in reading selections?_ They should not; as individuals are differently constituted, so they have different ways of expressing their ideas and sentiments. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. SPELLING ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED. 1. Abaissement. 2. Abductor. 3. Abelmoschus. 4. Aberration. 5. Abies. 6. Ablepsy. 7. Abnormal. 8. Abouchement. 9. Abscess. 10. Abscission. 11. Absinthium. 12. Abstergent. 13. Abominable. 14. Aborigines. 15. Abridgment. 16. Absinthe. 17. Abstemious. 18. Abstrusely. 19. Abysmal. 20. Acacia. 21. Academician. 22. Acanthus. 23. Acarpous. 24. Acaulous. 25. Accede. 26. Accelerate. 27. Accessible. 28. Accessory. 29. Accomplice. 30. Accostable. 31. Accoutre. 32. Acephalous. 33. Acerbity. 34. Acescent. 35. Acetify. 36. Acetometer. 37. Ache. 38. Achievable. 39. Achromatic. 40. Acicular. 41. Acolyte. 42. Acoustic. 43. Acquiesce. 44. Acquittal. 45. Acreage. 46. Acrobat. 47. Acropolis. 48. Acrostic. 49. Actualize. 50. Aculeate. 51. Baa. 52. Bacchanal. 53. Backsheesh. 54. Baconian. 55. Bagatelle. 56. Balk. 57. Bandelet. 58. Barbican. 59. Baryta. 60. Barru. 61. Basalt. 62. Basic. 63. Basilica. 64. Basilisk. 65. Bastile. 66. Baccae. 67. Caboodle. 68. Cacoethes. 69. Cacophony. 70. Cadaverous. 71. Cadenza. 72. Caducus. 73. Caduceus. 74. Caique. 75. Caisson. 76. Cæcal. 77. Calaboose. 78. Calciferous. 79. Caffeine. 80. Calcined. 81. Caldarium. 82. Caligo. 83. Calorimeter. 84. Caltha. 85. Calx. 86. Catechu. 87. Cellular. 88. Chemosis. 89. Chiastre. 90. Chilblain. 91. Chymification. 92. Cilium. 93. Clematis. 94. Cochineal. 95. Codeia. 96. Contagious. 97. Coronoid. 98. Dacryoma. 99. Dahline. 100. Daphne. 101. Datura. 102. Deciduous. 103. Decollation. 104. Dactylology. 105. Dahlia. 106. Decumbent. 107. Degmus. 108. Dawdle. 109. Dengue. 110. Deltoid. 111. Debut. 112. Decastyle. 113. Deliquium. 114. Decennial. 115. Dentatus. 116. Dentagra. 117. Demesne. 118. Diaphysis. 119. Diastole. 120. Didym. 121. Desuetude. 122. Echinus. 123. Echinops. 124. Ecarte. 125. Ebullition. 126. Eclat. 127. Edacious. 128. Eclysis. 129. Ecphlysis. 130. Eider. 131. Eke. 132. Effete. 133. Elysian. 134. Egophony. 135. Empiric. 136. Empyrean. 137. Encaustic. 138. Enceinte. 139. Elaine. 140. Encore. 141. Encyclical. 142. Encysted. 143. Elephas. 144. Enmity. 145. Ensconce. 146. Facet. 147. Facetious. 148. Facial. 149. Factitious. 150. Falderals. 151. Falsetto. 152. Fantasia. 153. Fascicle. 154. Fauces. 155. Fauna. 156. Febrile. 157. Felly. 158. Felloe. 159. Fuzz. 160. Gala. 161. Gamboge. 162. Gamut. 163. Ganoid. 164. Gaol. 165. Garrote. 166. Gawk. 167. Gelatine. 168. Gelid. 169. Gemini. 170. Genial. 171. Geode. 172. Geognosy. 173. Geodesy. 174. Georama. 175. Hegira. 176. Heifer. 177. Helix. 178. Helve. 179. Hernia. 180. Hexahedron. 181. Hexastyle. 182. Hockle. 183. Hone. 184. Hookah. 185. Horologe. 186. Icarian. 187. Ibis. 188. Ibex. 189. Ichor. 190. Ichneumon. 191. Ichthyolite. 192. Ides 193. Idiom. 194. Idyl. 195. Ignescent. 196. Iguana. 197. Ileum. 198. Impede. 199. Impennate. 200. Indocile. 201. Inebriate. 202. Insidious. 203. Jabber. 204. Jacinth. 205. Jackal. 206. Jaconet. 207. Jalap. 208. Jaguar. 209. Janitor. 210. Jeer. 211. Jejune. 212. Jujube. 213. Junket. 214. Juno. 215. Kale. 216. Katydid. 217. Kistvaen. 218. Kyanize. 219. Lac. 220. Labyrinth. 221. Lachrymal. 222. Landwehr. 223. Limbo. 224. Llama. 225. Loo. 226. Mab. 227. Macaw. 228. Machinate. 229. Madrigal. 230. Magenta. 231. Monolith. 232. Nard. 233. Naphtha. 234. Nadir. 235. Naiad. 236. Niggard. 237. Nympha. 238. Obesity. 239. Obloquy. 240. Obverse. 241. Occiput. 242. Ochre. 243. Pabulum. 244. Palanquin. 245. Paletot. 246. Replevin. 247. Resuscitate. 248. Sabaoth. 249. Sacerdotal. 250. Sacrum. 251. Sadducee. PROPER NOUNS TO SPELL. 1. Aaron. 2. Abdiel. 3. Abiezer. 4. Adolphus. 5. Albion. 6. Alexander. 7. Alonzo. 8. Alpheus. 9. Alvah. 10. Alwin. 11. Ammi. 12. Amos. 13. Andronicus. 14. Antony. 15. Apollos. 16. Aristarchus. 17. Artemas. 18. Azariah. 19. Augustus. 20. Asher. 21. Baldwin. 22. Barnabas. 23. Barnaby. 24. Bartholomew. 25. Basil. 26. Benedict. 27. Benoni. 28. Barnard. 29. Bertram. 30. Brian. 31. Bruno. 32. Cæsar. 33. Caleb. 34. Calvin. 35. Cephas. 36. Clarence. 37. Claudius. 38. Clement. 39. Cornelius. 40. Crispus. 41. Cyril. 42. Cyrus. 43. Daniel. 44. Darius. 45. Demetrius. 46. Denis. 47. Dionysius. 48. Donald. 49. Duncan. 50. Ebenezer. 51. Edgar. 52. Edwin. 53. Elbert. 54. Eleazer. 55. Elias. 56. Elisha. 57. Ellis. 58. Elnathan. 59. Eneas. 60. Enoch. 61. Enoz. 62. Erasmus. 63. Erie. 64. Esau. 65. Everard. 66. Erwin. 67. Fernando. 68. Festus. 69. Frederic. 70. Gamaliel. 71. Germanie. 72. Gershon. 73. Godfrey. 74. Gregory. 75. Guy. 76. Hannibal. 77. Heman. 78. Hercules. 79. Herbert. 80. Hezekiah. 81. Hillel. 82. Homer. 83. Hubert. 84. Hugo. 85. Immanuel. 86. Ingram. 87. Ivan. 88. Jabez. 89. Jairus. 90. Japheth. 91. Jason. 92. Jeremy. 93. Jerome. 94. Jess. 95. Joel. 96. Jonah. 97. Josiah. 98. Jotham. 99. Judah. 100. Julius. 101. Justus. 102. Justun. 103. Jonathan. 104. Kennett. 105. Marion. 106. Philip. 107. Philander. WORDS TO SPELL AND DEFINE, ARRANGED PROMISCUOUSLY. 1. Sirup. 2. Skyey. 3. Proxy. 4. Piquant. 5. Pibroch. 6. Monkery. 7. Irascible. 8. Conceit. 9. Controllable. 10. Coquet (Verb). 11. Coquette (Noun). 12. Cyclopedia. 13. Fascine. 14. Steelyard. 15. Precious. 16. Seize. 17. Beeves. 18. Civilize. 19. Resuscitate. 20. Heinous. 21. Contemptible. 22. Transitory. 23. Conspiracy. 24. Feminine. 25. Petite. 26. Police. 27. Valise. 28. Verdigris. 29. Routine. 30. Douche. 31. Whorl. 32. Truffle. 33. Debut. 34. Cæsura. 35. Connoisseur. 36. Sumac. 37. Hymeneal. 38. Keelson. 39. Coterie. 40. Recipe. 41. Sapphire. 42. Cognac. 43. Restaurant. 44. Homicide. 45. Patricide. 46. Fratricide. 47. Regicide. 48. Suicide. 49. Matricide. 50. Infanticide. WORDS TO BE MARKED DIACRITICALLY. 1. Sice. 2. Says. 3. Phthisic. 4. Ennui. 5. Vignette. 6. Cortege. 7. Myrrh. 8. Chamois. 9. Sergeant. 10. Boudoir. 11. Hiccough. 12. Bureau. 13. Again. 14. Discern. 15. Bijou. 16. Flambeau. 17. Said. 18. Croquet. 19. Salon. 20. Suave. 21. Shew. 22. Strew. 23. Bouffe. 24. Enough. 25. Suffice. 26. Squirrel. 27. Busy. 28. Cough. 29. Buoy. 30. Many. 31. Pretty. 32. Canon. 33. Chapeau. 34. Menage. 35. Once. 36. Cafe. 37. Colonel. 38. Cuirass. 39. Gunwale. 40. Dahlia. 41. Soiree. 42. Sapphire. 43. Cognac. 44. Sacrifice. 45. Escritoire. 46. Barege. 47. Soldier. 48. Fortune. 49. Nephew. 50. Lettuce. 51. Entree. 52. Regime. 53. Physique. 54. Protege. 55. Sleuth. 56. Blonde. 57. Coiffure. 58. Afghan. 59. Glebe. 60. Chenille. 61. Chasseur 62. Gyves. 63. Guy. 64. Banyan. 65. Lapel. 66. Kerchief. 67. Gnostic. 68. Corymb. 69. Chevron. 70. Eleve. 71. Touch. 72. Chintz. 73. Meerschaum. 74. Buhr-stone. 75. Camphene. 76. Cigar. 77. Deleble. 78. Polyglot. 79. Diamond. 80. Courier. 81. Sorcery. 82. Extirpate. 83. Gaseous. 84. Docible. 85. Alias. 86. Potpourri. 87. Soprano. 88. Apparel. 89. Palaver. 90. Anchovy. 91. Hygiene. 92. Alchemy. 93. Ascendant. 94. Syzygy. 95. Barbecue. 96. Proboscis. 97. Carbine. 98. Disown. 99. Forbade. 100. Farewell. 101. Resource. 102. Extol. 103. Diverge. 104. Contour. 105. Bourgeois. 106. Disarm. 107. Whither. 108. Water. 109. Larynx. 110. Soul. 111. Crypt. 112. Fleche. 113. Weevil. 114. Lacquer. 115. Phenix. 116. Roguish. 117. Wheyey. 118. Sachel. 119. Rhymer. 120. Psychic. 121. Ptisan. 122. Calker. 123. Depot. 124. Catarrh. 125. Condemn. 126. Bristle. 127. Wriggle. 128. Christen. 129. Naphtha. 130. Chalky. 131. Gherkin. 132. Fraught. 133. Qualm. 134. Vault. 135. Knob. 136. Papaw. 137. Gauging. 138. Cologne. 139. Quadrille. 140. Skyish. 141. Sorghum. 142. Survey. 143. Victuals. 144. Scissors. 145. Gnomon. 146. Ghastly. 147. Phlegm. 148. Gnarl. 149. Gnash. 150. Tertian. 151. Phantom. 152. Livre. 153. Lyrist. 154. Nuisance. 155. Scheme. 156. Chief. 157. Siege. 158. Keyed. 159. Caucus. 160. College. 161. Leather. 162. Caught. 163. Skein. 164. Coerce. 165. Policy. 166. Legacy. 167. Codicil. 168. Domicile. 169. Hypocrite. 170. Tortoise. 171. Mortise. 172. Porridge. 173. Eagle. 174. Greasy. 175. Pardon. 176. Poleax. 177. Deanery. 178. Mechanics 179. Dialogue. 180. Inveigher. 181. Solstitial. 182. Official. 183. Reprieve. 184. Barter. 185. Succeed. 186. Accede. 187. Salmon. 188. Verger. 189. Wooed. 190. Sausage. 191. Pigeon. 192. Chloral. 193. Balance. 194. Silence. 195. Fallible. 196. Prelacy. 197. Foretell. 198. Going. 199. Chyle. 200. Fascinate. 201. Secrecy. 202. Vacillate. 203. Paralyze. 204. Advertise. 205. Ecstasy. 206. Exertion. 207. Cynical. 208. Article. 209. City. 210. Busily. 211. Guttural. 212. Scholar. 213. Sibyl. 214. Abscess. 215. Guinea. 216. Voracity. WORDS TO BE DEFINED. 1. Acts. 1. Ax. 2. Poll. 2. Pole. 3. Roe. 3. Row. 4. Gate 4. Gait. 5. Main. 5. Mane. 6. Bough. 6. Bow. 7. Hue. 7. Hugh. 8. Bear. 8. Beech. 9. Dear. 9. Deer. 10. Wright. 10. Write. 11. Right. 11. Rite. 12. All. 12. Awl. 13. Bay. 13. Bey. 14. Ark. 14. Arch. 15. Colonel. 15. Kernel. 16. Ruff. 16. Rough. 17. Might. 17. Mite. 18. Rode. 18. Road. 19. Seen. 19. Scene. 20. Corps. 20. Core. 21. Mold. 21. Mould. 22. Great. 22. Grate. 23. Sun. 23. Son. 24. Break. 24. Brake. 25. Dough. 25. Doe. 26. Night. 26. Knight. 27. Sweet. 27. Suite. 28. Four. 28. Fore. 29. Bier. 29. Beer. 30. Beat. 30. Beet. 31. Currant. 31. Current. 32. Viol. 32. Vile. 33. Sent. 33. Scent. 34. Sear. 34. Seer. 35. Lane. 35. Lain. 36. Able. 36. Abel. 37. Knot. 37. Not. 38. Raise. 38. Raze. 39. Hoard. 39. Horde. 40. Lyre. 40. Liar. 41. Symbol. 41. Cymbal. 42. Hawk. 42. Hough. 43. Sine. 43. Sign. 44. Rain. 44. Rein. 45. Lo. 45. Low. 46. Hie. 46. High. 47. Assent. 47. Ascent. 48. Lute. 48. Loot. 49. Lore. 49. Lower. 50. Sell. 50. Cell. 51. Sail. 51. Sale. 52. Lode. 52. Load. 53. Loan. 53. Lone. 54. Fete. 54. Fate. 55. Lien. 55. Lean. 56. Layer. 56. Lair. 57. Hay. 57. Hey. 58. Idle. 58. Idyl. 59. Hart. 59. Heart. 60. Bass. 60. Base. 61. Bale. 61. Bail. 62. Heel. 62. Heal. 63. Sight. 63. Cite. 64. Haul. 64. Hall. 65. Hale. 65. Hail. 66. Lac. 66. Lack. 67. Nay. 67. Neigh. 68. Altar. 68. Alter. 69. Day. 69. Dey. 70. Hair. 70. Hare. 71. Lye. 71. Lie. 72. Council. 72. Counsel. 73. Mean. 73. Mien. 74. Ate. 74. Eight. 75. Aught. 75. Ought. 76. Wrack. 76. Rack. 77. Reek. 77. Wreak. 78. Wreck. 78. Reck. 79. Rime. 79. Rhyme. 80. Ring. 80. Wring. 81. Wrote. 81. Rote. 82. Rest. 82. Wrest. 83. Hole. 83. Whole. 84. Leek. 84. Leak. 85. Wave. 85. Waive. 86. Week. 86. Weak. 87. Fort. 87. Forte. 88. Soul. 88. Sole. 89. Strait. 89. Straight. 90. Seed. 90. Cede. 91. Seen. 91. Seine. 92. Seize. 92. Cease. 93. See. 93. Sea. 94. Cole. 94. Coal. 95. Bourne. 95. Born. 96. Bite. 96. Bight. 97. Floe. 97. Flow. 98. Bell. 98. Belle. SELECT READING. 1. The most skillful gauger I ever knew was a maligned cobbler, armed with a poniard, who drove a peddler's wagon, using a mullein stalk as an instrument of coercion to tyrannize over his pony shod with calks. He was a Galilean Sadducee, and he had a phthisicky catarrh, diphtheria, and the bilious intermittent erysipelas. 2. A certain sibyl, with the sobriquet of "Gypsy," went into ecstasies of cachinnation at seeing him measure a bushel of peas and separate saccharine tomatoes from a heap of peeled potatoes, without dyeing or singeing the ignitible queue which he wore, or becoming paralyzed with hemorrhage. 3. Lifting her eyes to the ceiling of the cupola of the capitol to conceal her unparalleled embarrassment, making him a rough courtesy, and not harrassing him with mystifying, rarefying, and stupefying innuendoes, she gave him a couch, a bouquet of lilies, mignonette, and fuchsias, a treatise on mnemonics, a copy of the Apocrypha in hieroglyphics, daguerreotypes of Mendelssohn and Kosciusko, a kaleidoscope, a dram-phial of ipecacuanha, a teaspoonful of naphtha for deleble purposes, a ferrule, a clarionet, some licorice, a surcingle, a carnelian of symmetrical proportions, a chronometer with a movable balance-wheel, a box of dominoes, and a catechism. 4. The gauger, who was also a trafficking rectifier and a parishioner of mine, preferring a woolen surtout (his choice was referrible to a vacillating, occasionally occurring idiosyncrasy), wofully uttered this apothegm: "Life is checkered; but schism, apostasy, heresy and villainy shall be punished." The sibyl apologizingly answered: "There is a ratable and allegeable difference between a conferrable ellipsis and a trisyllabic diæresis." We replied in trochees, not impugning her suspicion. SELECT READING. 1. One enervating morning, just after the rise of the sun, a youth bearing the cognomen of Galileo glided into his gondola over the legendary waters of the lethean Thames. He was accompanied by his allies and coadjutors, the dolorous Pepys and the erudite Cholmondeley, the most combative aristocrat extant, and an epicurean who, for learned vagaries and revolting discrepancies of character, would take precedence of the most erudite of all Areopagite literati. 2. These sacrilegious _dramatis personæ_ were discussing in detail a suggestive and exhaustive address, delivered from the proscenium box of the Calisthenic Lyceum by a notable financier on obligatory hydropathy, as accessory to the irrevocable and irreparable doctrine of evolution, which had been vehemently panegyrized by a splenetic professor of acoustics, and simultaneously denounced by a complaisant opponent as an undemonstrated romance of the last decade, amenable to no reasoning, however allopathic, outside of its own lamentable environs. 3. These peremptory tripartite brethren arrived at Greenwich, wishing to aggrandize themselves by indulging in exemplary relaxation, indicatory of implacable detestation of integral tergiversation and exoteric intrigue. They fraternized with a phrenological harlequin who was a connoisseur in mezzotint and falconry. The piquant person was heaping contumely and scathing raillery on an amateur in jugular recitative, who held that the Pharaohs of Asia were conversant with his theory that morphine and quinine were exorcists of bronchitis. 4. Meanwhile, the leisurely Augustine of Cockburn drank from a tortoise-shell wassail cup to the health of an apotheosized recusant, who was his supererogatory patron, and an assistant recognizance in the immobile nomenclature of interstitial molecular phonics. The contents of the vase proving soporific, a stolid plebeian took from its cerements a heraldic violoncello, and, assisted by a plethoric diocesan from Pall Mall, who performed on a sonorous piano-forte, proceeded to wake the clangorous echoes of the Empyrean. They bade the prolyx Caucasian gentlemen not to misconstrue their inexorable demands, while they dined on acclimated anchovies and apricot truffles, and had for dessert a wiseacre's pharmacopoeia. Thus the truculent Pythagoreans had a novel repast fit for the gods. 5. On the subsidence of the feast they alternated between soft languors and isolated scenes of squalor, which followed a mechanist's reconnaissance of the imagery of Uranus, the legend of whose incognito related to a poniard wound in the abdomen received while cutting a swath in the interests of telegraphy and posthumous photography. Meantime an unctuous orthoepist applied a homeopathic restorative to the retina of an objurgatory spaniel (named Daniel) and tried to perfect the construction of a behemoth which had got mired in pygmean slough, while listening to the elegiac soughing of the prehistoric wind. SELECT READING. 1. Geoffrey, surnamed Winthrop, sat in the depot at Chicago, waiting for his train and reading the Tribune, when a squadron of street Arabs (incomparable for squalor) thronged from a neighboring alley, uttering hideous cries, accompanied by inimitable gestures of heinous exultation, as they tortured a humble black-and-tan dog. 2. "You little blackguards!" cried Winthrop, stepping outside and confronting them, adding the inquiry, "Whose dog is that?" 3. "That audacious Caucasian has the bravado to interfere with our clique," tauntingly shrieked the indisputable little ruffian, exhibiting combativeness. 4. "What will you take for him?" asked the lenient Geoffrey, ignoring the venial tirade. 5. "Twenty-seven cents," piquantly answered the ribald urchin, grabbing the crouching dog by the nape. 6. "You can buy licorice and share with the indecorous coadjutors of your condemnable cruelty," said Winthrop, paying the price and taking the dog from the child. Then catching up his valise and umbrella he hastened to his train. Winthrop satisfied himself that his sleek protege was not wounded, and then cleaned the cement from the pretty collar, and read these words; "Leicester. Licensed, No. 1880." 7. Hearing the pronunciation of his name, the docile canine expressed gratitude and pleasure, and then sank exhausted at his new patron's feet and slept. 8. Among the other passengers was a magazine contributor, writing vagaries of Indian literature, also two physicians, a somber, irrevocable, irrefragable allopathist, and a genial homeopathist, who made a specialty of bronchitis. Two peremptory attorneys from the Legislature of Iowa were discussing the politics of the epoch and the details of national finance, while a wan, dolorous person, wearing concave glasses, alternately ate troches and almonds for a sedative, and sought condolence in a high, lamentable treble from a lethargic and somewhat deaf and enervate comrade not yet acclimated. 9. Near three exemplary brethren (probably sinecurists) sat a group of humorous youths; and a jocose sailor (lately from Asia) in a blouse waist and tarpaulin hat was amusing his patriotic, juvenile listeners by relating a series of the most extraordinary legends extant, suggested by the contents of the knapsack which he was calmly and leisurely arranging in a pyramidal form on a three-legged stool. Above swung figured placards, with museum and lyceum advertisements, too verbose to be misconstrued. 10. A mature matron of medium height, and her comely daughter, soon entered the car, and took seats in front of Winthrop (who recalled having seen them on Tuesday, in February, in the parquet of a theater). The young lady had recently made her debut into society at a musical soiree at her aunt's. She had an exquisite bouquet of flowers that exhaled sweet perfume. She said to her parent, "Mamma, shall we ever find my lost Leicester?" 11. Geoffrey immediately addressed her, saying, as he presented his card-- "Pardon my apparent intrusiveness; but, prithee, have you lost a pet dog?" 12. The explanation that he had been stolen was scarcely necessary, for Leicester, just awakening, vehemently expressed his inexplicable joy by buoyantly vibrating between the two like the sounding lever used in telegraphy (for to neither of them would he show partiality), till, succumbing to ennui, he purported to take a recess, and sat on his haunches, complaisantly contemplating his friends. It was truly an interesting picture. 13. They reached their destination ere the sun was beneath the horizon. Often during the summer Winthrop gallantly rowed from the quay, with the naive and blithe Beatrice in her jaunty yachting suit, but no coquetry shone from the depths of her azure eyes. Little Less, their jocund confidante and courier (and who was as sagacious as a spaniel), always attended them on these occasions, and whene'er they rambled through the woodland paths. While the band played strains from Beethoven Mendelssohn, Bach and others, they promenaded the long corridors of the hotel. And one evening, as Beatrice lighted the gas by the etagere in her charming boudoir in their suite of rooms, there glistened brilliantly a valuable solitaire diamond on her finger. 14. Let us look into the future for the sequel to perfect this romance, and around a cheerful hearth we see again Geoffrey and Beatrice, who are paying due homage to their tiny friend Leicester. SELECT READING. 1. A sacrilegious son of Belial, who suffered from bronchitis and diphtheria, and had taken much morphine and quinine, having exhausted his finances, in order to make good the deficit, resolved to ally himself to a complaisant, lenient, docile, young woman of the Caucasian race. Buying a calliope, a coral necklace, an illustrated magazine, and a falcon from Asia, he took a suite of rooms, whose acoustic properties were excellent, and engaged a Malay as his coadjutor. 2. Being of an epicurean disposition, he threw the culinary department of his hotel into confusion by ordering for his dinner vermicelli soup, a bologna sausage, anchovies, calf's brains fried, and half a gooseberry pie. For the resulting dyspepsia he took acetic and tartaric acid, according to allopathy, and when his aunt, a fair matron of six decades, called, he was tyrannic and combative, and laughed like a brigand until she was obliged to succumb to his contumacy. 3. Etiquette being thus annihilated, he became amenable to tenderer passions. He sent a letter, inviting his inamorata to a matinee, together with an eighteen-carat gold ring. She revolted at the idea of accompanying him, and sent a note full of piquant raillery, which led her suitor to procure a carbine and a sword, with some apparatus, and to declare that he would not forge hymeneal chains upon any one. 4. So proceeding to an isolated spot, without comrades, he severed his jugular vein, and discharged the carbine into his abdomen. When inquiry was made, he was found dead, and the coroner sat on the debris and did his exact duty, though it was no couch of eider he occupied. 5. Had the misguided youth read Ovid less often, and given precedence to Hemans and Ingelow, his fate might have been different. True, he might have hung on a greasy gallows like a highwayman, in squalor, and been the sport of canines for aye; while now, disarmed by death, he lies in a splendid mausoleum, far from the wharves and haunts of men, and can't accent his antepenults, and afford the greatest discrepancies extant in pronunciation. SELECT READING--THE BLACKBOARD AND CHALK. 1. Learned sages may reason, the fluent may talk, But they ne'er can compute what we owe to the chalk. From the embryo mind of the infant of four, To the graduate, wise in collegiate lore; From the old district school-house to Harvard's proud hall, The chalk rules with absolute sway over all. 2. Go, enter the school-room of primary grade, And see how conspicuous the blackboard is made. The teacher makes letters and calls them by name, And says to the children, "Now all do the same;" Mere infants you see, scarcely able to walk, But none are too feeble to handle the chalk. 3. We visit the school of much higher pretension, The blackboard here claims undivided attention; The walls, dark as Erebus, first greet the eye, Before them bright misses and lads we espy; And the sound of the crayon's irregular tappings Reminds us of spirits' mysterious rappings. 4. One has pictured a vessel, with streamers unfurled, Another is making a map of the world; A third has a problem in fractions to solve, A fourth is explaining how planets revolve; While a young physiologist, skilled in the art, Is sketching the muscles, the lungs, and the heart. 5. In the midst of this bustle the school-master stands, And, lo! he's a crayon in each of his hands; And the chalk in _his_ hand has a magical power: A teacher might reason and talk by the hour, But naught would avail all his reason and talk-- The truth is made plain by the use of the chalk. 6. And the teacher of music the blackboard employs, The chalk must be used e'en in training the voice; Be it rhythm or melody, accent or force, He always insists on the regular course; Declaring the secret of musical skill Is found in the blackboard, the chalk, and the drill. 7. See the chalk in the hand of the artist. Behold What beauteous forms as by magic unfold! The store-house of Nature he swiftly displays, Till the dazzled beholder is lost in the maze; Designs without number appear to the view, And show what the chalk and the blackboard can do. 8. O wise PESTALOZZI! we place on thy brow A coronet, bright and unfading; for thou A legacy rich hast bequeathed unto men: Our _one_ feeble talent by thee is made _ten_; We prize thy rare gift, but we never may know How much to thy matchless invention we owe. 9. O chalk! What a powerful monarch thou art! In this age of reform how important thy part; Those minds that are swaying the world unrestrained In childhood and youth in thy empire were trained. Of the wonderful power of the press we may talk-- It never can vie with the blackboard and chalk. 10. An engine so powerful, so mighty to aid, So simple in structure, so readily made, A helper so potent in training the young-- 'Tis meet that thy praise by the muse should be sung; For though sages may reason, and orators talk, They can ne'er make their mark without blackboard and chalk. * * * * * THE BURROWS BROTHERS COMPANY, CLEVELAND, OHIO. * * * * * CHRISTIAN SCIENCE. ITS TRUTHS AND ITS ERRORS. BY THE REV. H. MELVILLE TENNEY. Neatly bound in paper-cloth. Price TWENTY-FIVE cents. Send for circulars giving testimonials. * * * * * SHAKESPEARE VERSUS INGERSOLL. BY J.G. HALL. Neatly bound in paper. Price TWENTY-FIVE cents. The cover is very odd and attractive. The contents of the book will be found of the utmost interest to all Shakespearian scholars, as well as to all religious teachers. * * * * * AVERY'S ANCESTRAL TABLETS. In Stout Manilla Portfolio. Price FIFTY cents. 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5430	----	PREFACE TO A DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE By Samuel Johnson It is the fate of those who toil at the lower employments of life, to be rather driven by the fear of evil, than attracted by the prospect of good; to be exposed to censure, without hope of praise; to be disgraced by miscarriage, or punished for neglect, where success would have been without applause, and diligence without reward. Among these unhappy mortals is the writer of dictionaries; whom mankind have considered, not as the pupil, but the slave of science, the pionier of literature, doomed only to remove rubbish and clear obstructions from the paths through which Learning and Genius press forward to conquest and glory, without bestowing a smile on the humble drudge that facilitates their progress. Every other authour may aspire to praise; the lexicographer can only hope to escape reproach, and even this negative recompense has been yet granted to very few. I have, notwithstanding this discouragement, attempted a dictionary of the English language, which, while it was employed in the cultivation of every species of literature, has itself been hitherto neglected; suffered to spread, under the direction of chance, into wild exuberance; resigned to the tyranny of time and fashion; and exposed to the corruptions of ignorance, and caprices of innovation. When I took the first survey of my undertaking, I found our speech copious without order, and energetick without rules: wherever I turned my view, there was perplexity to be disentangled, and confusion to be regulated; choice was to be made out of boundless variety, without any established principle of selection; adulterations were to be detected, without a settled test of purity; and modes of expression to be rejected or received, without the suffrages of any writers of classical reputation or acknowledged authority. Having therefore no assistance but from general grammar, I applied myself to the perusal of our writers; and noting whatever might be of use to ascertain or illustrate any word or phrase, accumulated in time the materials of a dictionary, which, by degrees, I reduced to method, establishing to myself, in the progress of the work, such rules as experience and analogy suggested to me; experience, which practice and observation were continually increasing; and analogy, which, though in some words obscure, was evident in others. In adjusting the ORTHOGRAPHY, which has been to this time unsettled and fortuitous, I found it necessary to distinguish those irregularities that are inherent in our tongue, and perhaps coeval with it, from others which the ignorance or negligence of later writers has produced. Every language has its anomalies, which, though inconvenient, and in themselves once unnecessary, must be tolerated among the imperfections of human things, and which require only to be registered, that they may not be increased, and ascertained, that they may not be confounded: but every language has likewise its improprieties and absurdities, which it is the duty of the lexicographer to correct or proscribe. As language was at its beginning merely oral, all words of necessary or common use were spoken before they were written; and while they were unfixed by any visible signs, must have been spoken with great diversity, as we now observe those who cannot read catch sounds imperfectly, and utter them negligently. When this wild and barbarous jargon was first reduced to an alphabet, every penman endeavoured to express, as he could, the sounds which he was accustomed to pronounce or to receive, and vitiated in writing such words as were already vitiated in speech. The powers of the letters, when they were applied to a new language, must have been vague and unsettled, and therefore different hands would exhibit the same sound by different combinations. From this uncertain pronunciation arise in a great part the various dialects of the same country, which will always be observed to grow fewer, and less different, as books are multiplied; and from this arbitrary representation of sounds by letters, proceeds that diversity of spelling observable in the Saxon remains, and I suppose in the first books of every nation, which perplexes or destroys analogy, and produces anomalous formations, that, being once incorporated, can never be afterward dismissed or reformed. Of this kind are the derivatives length from long, strength from strong, darling from dear, breadth from broad, from dry, drought, and from high, height, which Milton, in zeal for analogy, writes highth; Quid te exempta juvat spinis de pluribus una [Horace, Epistles, II. ii. 212]; to change all would be too much, and to change one is nothing. This uncertainty is most frequent in the vowels, which are so capriciously pronounced, and so differently modified, by accident or affectation, not only in every province, but in every mouth, that to them, as is well known to etymologists, little regard is to be shewn in the deduction of one language from another. Such defects are not errours in orthography, but spots of barbarity impressed so deep in the English language, that criticism can never wash them away: these, therefore, must be permitted to remain untouched; but many words have likewise been altered by accident, or depraved by ignorance, as the pronunciation of the vulgar has been weakly followed; and some still continue to be variously written, as authours differ in their care or skill: of these it was proper to enquire the true orthography, which I have always considered as depending on their derivation, and have therefore referred them to their original languages: thus I write enchant, enchantment, enchanter, after the French and incantation after the Latin; thus entire is chosen rather than intire, because it passed to us not from the Latin integer, but from the French entier. Of many words it is difficult to say whether they were immediately received from the Latin or the French, since at the time when we had dominions in France, we had Latin service in our churches. It is, however, my opinion, that the French generally supplied us; for we have few Latin words, among the terms of domestick use, which are not French; but many French, which are very remote from Latin. Even in words of which the derivation is apparent, I have been often obliged to sacrifice uniformity to custom; thus I write, in compliance with a numberless majority, convey and inveigh, deceit and receipt, fancy and phantom; sometimes the derivative varies from the primitive, as explain and explanation, repeat and repetition. Some combinations of letters having the same power are used indifferently without any discoverable reason of choice, as in choak, choke; soap, sope; jewel, fuel, and many others; which I have sometimes inserted twice, that those who search for them under either form, may not search in vain. In examining the orthography of any doubtful word, the mode of spelling by which it is inserted in the series of the dictionary, is to be considered as that to which I give, perhaps not often rashly, the preference. I have left, in the examples, to every authour his own practice unmolested, that the reader may balance suffrages, and judge between us: but this question is not always to be determined by reputed or by real learning; some men, intent upon greater things, have thought little on sounds and derivations; some, knowing in the ancient tongues, have neglected those in which our words are commonly to be sought. Thus Hammond writes fecibleness for feasibleness, because I suppose he imagined it derived immediately from the Latin; and some words, such as dependant, dependent, dependance, dependence, vary their final syllable, as one or another language is present to the writer. In this part of the work, where caprice has long wantoned without controul, and vanity sought praise by petty reformation, I have endeavoured to proceed with a scholar's reverence for antiquity, and a grammarian's regard to the genius of our tongue. I have attempted few alterations, and among those few, perhaps the greater part is from the modern to the ancient practice; and I hope I may be allowed to recommend to those, whose thoughts have been perhaps employed too anxiously on verbal singularities, not to disturb, upon narrow views, or for minute propriety, the orthography of their fathers. It has been asserted, that for the law to be KNOWN, is of more importance than to be RIGHT. Change, says Hooker, is not made without inconvenience, even from worse to better. There is in constancy and stability a general and lasting advantage, which will always overbalance the slow improvements of gradual correction. Much less ought our written language to comply with the corruptions of oral utterance, or copy that which every variation of time or place makes different from itself, and imitate those changes, which will again be changed, while imitation is employed in observing them. This recommendation of steadiness and uniformity does not proceed from an opinion, that particular combinations of letters have much influence on human happiness; or that truth may not be successfully taught by modes of spelling fanciful And erroneous: I am not yet so lost in lexicography, as to I forget that WORDS ARE THE DAUGHTERS OF EARTH, AND THAT THINGS ARE THE SONS OF HEAVEN. Language is only the instrument of science, and words are but the signs of ideas: I wish, however, that the instrument might be less apt to decay, and that signs might be permanent, like the things which they denote. In settling the orthography, I have not wholly neglected the pronunciation, which I have directed, by printing an accent upon the acute or elevated syllable. It will sometimes be found, that the accent is placed by the authour quoted, on a different syllable from that marked in the alphabetical series; it is then to be understood, that custom has varied, or that the authour has, in my opinion, pronounced wrong. Short directions are sometimes given where the sound of letters is irregular; and if they are sometimes omitted, defect in such minute observations will be more easily excused, than superfluity. In the investigation both of the orthography and signification of words, their ETYMOLOGY was necessarily to be considered, and they were therefore to be divided into primitives and derivatives. A primitive word, is that which can be traced no further to any English root; thus circumspect, circumvent, circumstance, delude, concave and complicate, though compounds in the Latin, are to us primitives. Derivatives are all those that can be referred to any word in English of greater simplicity. The derivatives I have referred to their primitives, with an accuracy sometimes needless; for who does not see that remoteness comes from remote, lovely from love, concavity from concave, and demonstrative from demonstrate? but this grammatical exuberance the scheme of my work did not allow me to repress. It is of great importance in examining the general fabrick of a language, to trace one word from another, by noting the usual modes of derivation and inflection; and uniformity must be preserved in systematical works, though sometimes at the expence of particular propriety. Among other derivatives I have been careful to insert and elucidate the anomalous plurals of nouns and preterites of verbs, which in the Teutonick dialects are very frequent, and though familiar to those who have always used them, interrupt and embarrass the learners of our language. The two languages from which our primitives have been derived are the Roman and Teutonick: under the Roman I comprehend the French and provincial tongues; and under the Teutonick range the Saxon, German, and all their kindred dialects. Most of our polysyllables are Roman, and our words of one syllable are very often Teutonick. In assigning the Roman original, it has perhaps sometimes happened that I have mentioned only the Latin, when the word was borrowed from the French, and considering myself as employed only in the illustration of my own language, I have not been very careful to observe whether the Latin word be pure or barbarous, or the French elegant or obsolete. For the Teutonick etymologies, I am commonly indebted to Junius and Skinner, the only names which I have forborn to quote when I copied their books; not that I might appropriate their labours or usurp their honours, but that I might spare a perpetual repetition by one general acknowledgment. Of these, whom I ought not to mention but with the reverence due to instructors and benefactors, Junius appears to have excelled in extent of learning, and Skinner in rectitude of understanding. Junius was accurately skilled in all the northern languages. Skinner probably examined the ancient and remoter dialects only by occasional inspection into dictionaries; but the learning of Junius is often of no other use than to show him a track by which he may deviate from his purpose, to which Skinner always presses forward by the shortest way. Skinner is often ignorant, but never ridiculous: Junius is always full of knowledge; but his variety distracts his judgment, and his learning is very frequently disgraced by his absurdities. The votaries of the northern muses will not perhaps easily restrain their indignation, when they find the name of Junius thus degraded by a disadvantageous comparison; but whatever reverence is due to his diligence, or his attainments, it can be no criminal degree of censoriousness to charge that etymologist with want of judgment, who can seriously derive dream from drama, because life is a drama, and a drama is a dream? and who declares with a tone of defiance, that no man can fail to derive moan from [in greek], monos, single or solitary, who considers that grief naturally loves to be alone. [Footnote: That I may not appear to have spoken too irreverently of Junius, I have here subjoined a few Specimens of his etymological extravagance. BANISH. religare, ex banno vel territorio exigere, in exilium agere. G. bannir. It. bandire, bandeggiare. H. bandir. B. bannen. AEvi medii s criptores bannire dicebant. V. Spelm. in Bannum & in Banleuga. Quoniam vero regionum urbiumq; limites arduis plerumq; montibus, altis fluminibus, longis deniq; flexuosisq; angustissimarum viarum anfractibus includebantur, fieri potest id genus limites ban did ab eo quod [word in Greek] & [word in Greek] Tarentinis olim, sicuti tradit Hesychius, vocabantur [words in Greek], "obliquae ac minime in rectum tendentes viae." Ac fortasse quoque huc facit quod [word in Greek], eodem Hesychio teste, dicebant [words in greek] montes arduos. EMPTY, emtie, vacuus, inanis. A. S. AEmtiz. Nescio an sint ab [word in Greek] vel [word in Greek]. Vomo, evomo, vomitu evacuo. Videtur interim etymologiam hanc non obscure firmare codex Rush. Mat. xii. 22. ubi antique scriptum invenimus [unknown language]. "Invenit cam vacantem." HILL, mons, collis. A. S. hyll. Quod videri potest abscissum ex [word in Greek] vel [word in Greek]. Collis, tumulus, locus in plano editior. Hom. II. b. v. 811, [words in Greek]. Ubi authori brevium scholiorum [ words in Greek]. NAP, to take a nap. Dormire, condormiscere. Cym. heppian. A. S. hnaeppan. Quod postremum videri potest desumptum ex [word in Greek], obscuritas, tenebrae: nihil enim aeque solet conciliare somnum, quam caliginosa profundae noctis obscuritas. STAMMERER, Balbus, blaesus. Goth. STAMMS. A. S. stamer, stamur. D. stam. B. stameler. Su. stamma. Isl. stamr. Sunt a [word in Greek] vel [word in Greek] nimia loquacitate alios offendere; quod impedite loquentes libentissime garrire soleant; vel quod aliis nimii semper videantur, etiam parcissime loquentes.] Our knowledge of the northern literature is so scanty, that of words undoubtedly Teutonick the original is not always to be found in any ancient language; and I have therefore inserted Dutch or German substitutes, which I consider not as radical but parallel, not as the parents, but sisters of the English. The words which are represented as thus related by descent or cognation, do not always agree in sense; for it is incident to words, as to their authours, to degenerate from their ancestors, and to change their manners when they change their country. It is sufficient, in etymological enquiries, if the senses of kindred words be found such as may easily pass into each other, or such as may both be referred to one general idea. The etymology, so far as it is yet known, was easily found in the volumes where it is particularly and professedly delivered; and, by proper attention to the rules of derivation, the orthography was soon adjusted. But to COLLECT the WORDS of our language was a task of greater difficulty: the deficiency of dictionaries was immediately apparent; and when they were exhausted, what was yet wanting must be sought by fortuitous and unguided excursions into books, and gleaned as industry should find, or chance should offer it, in the boundless chaos of a living speech. My search, however, has been either skilful or lucky; for I have much augmented the vocabulary. As my design was a dictionary, common or appellative, I have omitted all words which have relation to proper names; such as Arian, Socinian, Calvinist, Benedictine, Mahometan; but have retained those of a more general nature, as Heathen, Pagan. Of the terms of art I have received such as could be found either in books of science or technical dictionaries; and have often inserted, from philosophical writers, words which are supported perhaps only by a single authority, and which being not admitted into general use, stand yet as candidates or probationers, and must depend for their adoption on the suffrage of futurity. The words which our authours have introduced by their knowledge of foreign languages, or ignorance of their own, by vanity or wantonness, by compliance with fashion or lust of innovation, I have registred as they occurred, though commonly only to censure them, and warn others against the folly of naturalizing useless foreigners to the injury of the natives. I have not rejected any by design, merely because they were unnecessary or exuberant; but have received those which by different writers have been differently formed, as viscid, and viscidity, viscous, and viscosity. Compounded or double words I have seldom noted, except when they obtain a signification different from that which the components have in their simple state. Thus highwayman, woodman, and horsecourser, require an explanation; but of thieflike or coachdriver no notice was needed, because the primitives contain the meaning of the compounds. Words arbitrarily formed by a constant and settled analogy, like diminutive adjectives in ish, as greenish, bluish, adverbs in ly, as dully, openly, substantives in ness, as vileness, faultiness, were less diligently sought, and sometimes have been omitted, when I had no authority that invited me to insert them; not that they are not genuine and regular offsprings of English roots, but because their relation to the primitive being always the same, their signification cannot be mistaken. The verbal nouns in ing, such as the keeping of the castle, the leading of the army, are always neglected, or placed only to illustrate the sense of the verb, except when they signify things as well as actions, and have therefore a plural number, as dwelling, living; or have an absolute and abstract signification, as colouring, painting, learning. The participles are likewise omitted, unless, by signifying rather habit or quality than action, they take the nature of adjectives; as a thinking man, a man of prudence; a pacing horse, a horse that can pace: these I have ventured to call participial adjectives. But neither are these always inserted, because they are commonly to be understood, without any danger of mistake, by consulting the verb. Obsolete words are admitted, when they are found in authours not obsolete, or when they have any force or beauty that may deserve revival. As composition is one of the chief characteristicks of a language, I have endeavoured to make some reparation for the universal negligence of my predecessors, by inserting great numbers of compounded words, as may be found under after, fore, new, night, fair, and many more. These, numerous as they are, might be multiplied, but that use and curiosity are here satisfied, and the frame of our language and modes of our combination amply discovered. Of some forms of composition, such as that by which re is prefixed to note repetition, and un to signify contrariety or privation, all the examples cannot be accumulated, because the use of these particles, if not wholly arbitrary, is so little limited, that they are hourly affixed to new words as occasion requires, or is imagined to require them. There is another kind of composition more frequent in our language than perhaps in any other, from which arises to foreigners the greatest difficulty. We modify the signification of many verbs by a particle subjoined; as to come off, to escape by a fetch; to fall on, to attack; to fall off, to apostatize; to break off, to stop abruptly; to bear out, to justify; to fall in, to comply; to give over, to cease; to set off, to embellish; to set in, to begin a continual tenour; to set out, to begin a course or journey; to take off, to copy; with innumerable expressions of the same kind, of which some appear wildly irregular, being so far distant from the sense of the simple words, that no sagacity will be able to trace the steps by which they arrived at the present use. These I have noted with great care; and though I cannot flatter myself that the collection is complete, I believe I have so far assisted the students of our language, that this kind of phraseology will be no longer insuperable; and the combinations of verbs and particles, by chance omitted, will be easily explained by comparison with those that may be found. Many words yet stand supported only by the name of Bailey, Ainsworth, Philips, or the contracted Dict. for Dictionaries subjoined; of these I am not always certain that they are read in any book but the works of lexicographers. Of such I have omitted many, because I had never read them; and many I have inserted, because they may perhaps exist, though they have escaped my notice: they are, however, to be yet considered as resting only upon the credit of former dictionaries. Others, which I considered as useful, or know to be proper, though I could not at present support them by authorities, I have suffered to stand upon my own attestation, claiming the same privilege with my predecessors of being sometimes credited without proof. The words, thus selected and disposed, are grammatically considered; they are referred to the different parts of speech; traced, when they are irregularly inflected, through their various terminations; and illustrated by observations, not indeed of great or striking importance, separately considered, but necessary to the elucidation of our language, and hitherto neglected or forgotten by English grammarians. That part of my work on which I expect malignity most frequently to fasten, is the explanation; in which I cannot hope to satisfy those, who are perhaps not inclined to be pleased, since I have not always been able to satisfy myself. To interpret a language by itself is very difficult; many words cannot be explained by synonimes, because the idea signified by them has not more than one appellation; nor by paraphrase, because simple ideas cannot be described. When the nature of things is unknown, or the notion unsettled and indefinite, and various in various minds, the words by which such notions are conveyed, or such things denoted, will be ambiguous and perplexed. And such is the fate of hapless lexicography, that not only darkness, but light, impedes and distresses it; things may be not only too little, but too much known, to be happily illustrated. To explain, requires the use of terms less abstruse than that which is to be explained, and such terms cannot always be found; for as nothing can be proved but by supposing something intuitively known, and evident without proof, so nothing can be defined but by the use of words too plain to admit a definition. Other words there are, of which the sense is too subtle and evanescent to be fixed in a paraphrase; such are all those which are by the grammarians termed expletives, and, in dead languages, are suffered to pass for empty sounds, of no other use than to fill a verse, or to modulate a period, but which are easily perceived in living tongues to have power and emphasis, though it be sometimes such as no other form of expression can convey. My labour has likewise been much increased by a class of verbs too frequent in the English language, of which the signification is so loose and general, the use so vague and indeterminate, and the senses detorted so widely from the first idea, that it is hard to trace them through the maze of variation, to catch them on the brink of utter inanity, to circumscribe them by any limitations, or interpret them by any words of distinct and settled meaning; such are bear, break, come, cast, full, get, give, do, put, set, go, run, make, take, turn, throw. If of these the whole power is not accurately delivered, it must be remembered, that while our language is yet living, and variable by the caprice of every one that speaks it, these words are hourly shifting their relations, and can no more be ascertained in a dictionary, than a grove, in the agitation of a storm, can be accurately delineated from its picture in the water. The particles are among all nations applied with so great latitude, that they are not easily reducible under any regular scheme of explication: this difficulty is not less, nor perhaps greater, in English, than in other languages. I have laboured them with diligence, I hope with success; such at least as can be expected in a task, which no man, however learned or sagacious, has yet been able to perform. Some words there are which I cannot explain, because I do not understand them; these might have been omitted very often with little inconvenience, but I would not so far indulge my vanity as to decline this confession: for when Tully owns himself ignorant whether lessus, in the twelve tables, means a funeral song, or mourning garment; and Aristotle doubts whether [word in Greek] in the Iliad, signifies a mule, or muleteer, I may surely, without shame, leave some obscurities to happier industry, or future information. The rigour of interpretative lexicography requires that the explanation, and the word explained, should always be reciprocal; this I have always endeavoured, but could not always attain. Words are seldom exactly synonimous; a new term was not introduced, but because the former was thought inadequate: names, therefore, have often many ideas, but few ideas have many names. It was then necessary to use the proximate word, for the deficiency of single terms can very seldom be supplied by circumlocution; nor is the inconvenience great of such mutilated interpretations, because the sense may easily be collected entire from the examples. In every word of extensive use, it was requisite to mark the progress of its meaning, and show by what gradations of intermediate sense it has passed from its primitive to its remote and accidental signification; so that every foregoing explanation should tend to that which follows, and the series be regularly concatenated from the first notion to the last. This is specious, but not always practicable; kindred senses may be so interwoven, that the perplexity cannot be disentangled, nor any reason be assigned why one should be ranged before the other. When the radical idea branches out into parallel ramifications, how can a consecutive series be formed of senses in their nature collateral? The shades of meaning sometimes pass imperceptibly into each other; so that though on one side they apparently differ, yet it is impossible to mark the point of contact. Ideas of the same race, though not exactly alike, are sometimes so little different, that no words can express the dissimilitude, though the mind easily perceives it, when they are exhibited together; and sometimes there is such a confusion of acceptations, that discernment is wearied, and distinction puzzled, and perseverance herself hurries to an end, by crouding together what she cannot separate. These complaints of difficulty will, by those that have never considered words beyond their popular use, be thought only the jargon of a man willing to magnify his labours, and procure veneration to his studies by involution and obscurity. But every art is obscure to those that have not learned it: this uncertainty of terms, and commixture of ideas, is well known to those who have joined philosophy with grammar; and if I have not expressed them very clearly, it must be remembered that I am speaking of that which words are insufficient to explain. The original sense of words is often driven out of use by their metaphorical acceptations, yet must be inserted for the sake of a regular origination. Thus I know not whether ardour is used for material heat, or whether flagrant, in English, ever signifies the same with burning; yet such are the primitive ideas of these words, which are therefore set first, though without examples, that the figurative senses may be commodiously deduced. Such is the exuberance of signification which many words have obtained, that it was scarcely possible to collect all their senses; sometimes the meaning of derivatives must be sought in the mother term, and sometimes deficient explanations of the primitive may be supplied in the train of derivation. In any case of doubt or difficulty, it will be always proper to examine all the words of the same race; for some words are slightly passed over to avoid repetition, some admitted easier and clearer explanation than others, and all will be better understood, as they are considered in greater variety of structures and relations. All the interpretations of words are not written with the same skill, or the same happiness: things equally easy in themselves, are not all equally easy to any single mind. Every writer of a long work commits errours, where there appears neither ambiguity to mislead, nor obscurity to confound him; and in a search like this, many felicities of expression will be casually overlooked, many convenient parallels will be forgotten, and many particulars will admit improvement from a mind utterly unequal to the whole performance. But many seeming faults are to be imputed rather to the nature of the undertaking, than the negligence of the performer. Thus some explanations are unavoidably reciprocal or circular, as hind, the female of the stag; stag, the male of the hind: sometimes easier words are changed into harder, as burial into sepulture or interment, drier into desiccative, dryness into siccity or aridity, fit into paroxysm; for the easiest word, whatever it be, can never be translated into one more easy. But easiness and difficulty are merely relative, and if the present prevalence of our language should invite foreigners to this dictionary, many will be assisted by those words which now seem only to increase or produce obscurity. For this reason I have endeavoured frequently to join a Teutonick and Roman interpretation, as to cheer, to gladden, or exhilarate, that every learner of English may be assisted by his own tongue. The solution of all difficulties, and the supply of all defects, must be sought in the examples, subjoined to the various senses of each word, and ranged according to the time of their authours. When first I collected these authorities, I was desirous that every quotation should be useful to some other end than the illustration of a word; I therefore extracted from philosophers principles of science; from historians remarkable facts; from chymists complete processes; from divines striking exhortations; and from poets beautiful descriptions. Such is design, while it is yet at a distance from execution. When the time called upon me to range this accumulation of elegance and wisdom into an alphabetical series, I soon discovered that the bulk of my volumes would fright away the student, and was forced to depart from my scheme of including all that was pleasing or useful in English literature, and reduce my transcripts very often to clusters of words, in which scarcely any meaning is retained; thus to the weariness of copying, I was condemned to add the vexation of expunging. Some passages I have yet spared, which may relieve the labour of verbal searches, and intersperse with verdure and flowers the dusty desarts of barren philology. The examples, thus mutilated, are no longer to be considered as conveying the sentiments or doctrine of their authours; the word for the sake of which they are inserted, with all its appendant clauses, has been carefully preserved; but it may sometimes happen, by hasty detruncation, that the general tendency of the sentence may be changed: the divine may desert his tenets, or the philosopher his system. Some of the examples have been taken from writers who were never mentioned as masters of elegance or models of stile; but words must be sought where they are used; and in what pages, eminent for purity, can terms of manufacture or agriculture be found? Many quotations serve no other purpose, than that of proving the bare existence of words, and are therefore selected with less scrupulousness than those which are to teach their structures and relations. My purpose was to admit no testimony of living authours, that I might not be misled by partiality, and that none of my cotemporaries might have reason to complain; nor have I departed from this resolution, but when some performance of uncommon excellence excited my veneration, when my memory supplied me, from late books, with an example that was wanting, or when my heart, in the tenderness of friendship, solicited admission for a favourite name. So far have I been from any care to grace my pages with modern decorations, that I have studiously endeavoured to collect examples and authorities from the writers before the restoration, whose works I regard as the wells of English undefiled, as the pure sources of genuine diction. Our language, for almost a century, has, by the concurrence of many causes, been gradually departing from its original Teutonick character, and deviating towards a Gallick structure and phraseology, from which it ought to be our endeavour to recal it, by making our ancient volumes the ground-work of stile, admitting among the additions of later times, only such as may supply real deficiencies, such as are readily adopted by the genius of our tongue, and incorporate easily with our native idioms. But as every language has a time of rudeness antecedent to perfection, as well as of false refinement and declension, I have been cautious lest my zeal for antiquity might drive me into times too remote, and croud my book with words now no longer understood. I have fixed Sidney's work for the boundary, beyond which I make few excursions. From the authours which rose in the time of Elizabeth, a speech might be formed adequate to all the purposes of use and elegance. If the language of theology were extracted from Hooker and the translation of the Bible; the terms of natural knowledge from Bacon; the phrases of policy, war, and navigation from Raleigh; the dialect of poetry and fiction from Spenser and Sidney; and the diction of common life from Shakespeare, few ideas would be lost to mankind, for want of English words, in which they might be expressed. It is not sufficient that a word is found, unless it be so combined as that its meaning is apparently determined by the tract and tenour of the sentence; such passages I have therefore chosen, and when it happened that any authour gave a definition of a term, or such an explanation as is equivalent to a definition, I have placed his authority as a supplement to my own, without regard to the chronological order, that is otherwise observed. Some words, indeed, stand unsupported by any authority, but they are commonly derivative nouns or adverbs, formed from their primitives by regular and constant analogy, or names of things seldom occurring in books, or words of which I have reason to doubt the existence. There is more danger of censure from the multiplicity than paucity of examples; authorities will sometimes seem to have been accumulated without necessity or use, and perhaps some will be found, which might, without loss, have been omitted. But a work of this kind is not hastily to be charged with superfluities: those quotations, which to careless or unskilful perusers appear only to repeat the same sense, will often exhibit, to a more accurate examiner, diversities of signification, or, at least, afford different shades of the same meaning: one will shew the word applied to persons, another to things; one will express an ill, another a good, and a third a neutral sense; one will prove the expression genuine from an ancient authour; another will shew it elegant from a modern: a doubtful authority is corroborated by another of more credit; an ambiguous sentence is ascertained by a passage clear and determinate; the word, how often soever repeated, appears with new associates and in different combinations, and every quotation contributes something to the stability or enlargement of the language. When words are used equivocally, I receive them in either sense; when they are metaphorical, I adopt them in their primitive acceptation. I have sometimes, though rarely, yielded to the temptation of exhibiting a genealogy of sentiments, by shewing how one authour copied the thoughts and diction of another: such quotations are indeed little more than repetitions, which might justly be censured, did they not gratify the mind, by affording a kind of intellectual history. The various syntactical structures occurring in the examples have been carefully noted; the licence or negligence with which many words have been hitherto used, has made our stile capricious and indeterminate; when the different combinations of the same word are exhibited together, the preference is readily given to propriety, and I have often endeavoured to direct the choice. Thus have I laboured by settling the orthography, displaying the analogy, regulating the structures, and ascertaining the signification of English words, to perform all the parts of a faithful lexicographer: but I have not always executed my own scheme, or satisfied my own expectations. The work, whatever proofs of diligence and attention it may exhibit, is yet capable of many improvements: the orthography which I recommend is still controvertible, the etymology which I adopt is uncertain, and perhaps frequently erroneous; the explanations are sometimes too much contracted, and sometimes too much diffused, the significations are distinguished rather with subtilty than skill, and the attention is harrassed with unnecessary minuteness. The examples are too often injudiciously truncated, and perhaps sometimes, I hope very rarely, alleged in a mistaken sense; for in making this collection I trusted more to memory, than, in a state of disquiet and embarrassment, memory can contain, and purposed to supply at the review what was left incomplete in the first transcription. Many terms appropriated to particular occupations, though necessary and significant, are undoubtedly omitted; and of the words most studiously considered and exemplified, many senses have escaped observation. Yet these failures, however frequent, may admit extenuation and apology. To have attempted much is always laudable, even when the enterprize is above the strength that undertakes it: To rest below his own aim is incident to every one whose fancy is active, and whose views are comprehensive; nor is any man satisfied with himself because he has done much, but because he can conceive little. When first I engaged in this work, I resolved to leave neither words nor things unexamined, and pleased myself with a prospect of the hours which I should revel away in feasts of literature, with the obscure recesses of northern learning, which I should enter and ransack; the treasures with which I expected every search into those neglected mines to reward my labour, and the triumph with which I should display my acquisitions to mankind. When I had thus enquired into the original of words, I resolved to show likewise my attention to things; to pierce deep into every science, to enquire the nature of every substance of which I inserted the name, to limit every idea by a definition strictly logical, and exhibit every production of art or nature in an accurate description, that my book might be in place of all other dictionaries whether appellative or technical. But these were the dreams of a poet doomed at last to wake a lexicographer. I soon found that it is too late to look for instruments, when the work calls for execution, and that whatever abilities I had brought to my task, with those I must finally perform it. To deliberate whenever I doubted, to enquire whenever I was ignorant, would have protracted the undertaking without end, and, perhaps, without much improvement; for I did not find by my first experiments, that that I had not of my own was easily to be obtained: I saw that one enquiry only gave occasion to another, that book referred to book, that to search was not always to find, and to find was not always to be informed; and that thus to persue perfection, was, like the first inhabitants of Arcadia, to chace the sun, which, when they had reached the hill where he seemed to rest, was still beheld at the same distance from them. I then contracted my design, determining to confide in myself, and no longer to solicit auxiliaries, which produced more incumbrance than assistance: by this I obtained at least one advantage, that I set limits to my work, which would in time be ended, though not completed. Despondency has never so far prevailed as to depress me to negligence; some faults will at last appear to be the effects of anxious diligence and persevering activity. The nice and subtle ramifications of meaning were not easily avoided by a mind intent upon accuracy, and convinced of the necessity of disentangling combinations, and separating similitudes. Many of the distinctions which to common readers appear useless and idle, will be found real and important by men versed in the school philosophy, without which no dictionary shall ever be accurately compiled, or skilfully examined. Some senses however there are, which, though not the same, are yet so nearly allied, that they are often confounded. Most men think indistinctly, and therefore cannot speak with exactness; and consequently some examples might be indifferently put to either signification: this uncertainty is not to be imputed to me, who do not form, but register the language; who do not teach men how they should think, but relate how they have hitherto expressed their thoughts. The imperfect sense of some examples I lamented, but could not remedy, and hope they will be compensated by innumerable passages selected with propriety, and preserved with exactness; some shining with sparks of imagination, and some replete with treasures of wisdom. The orthography and etymology, though imperfect, are not imperfect for want of care, but because care will not always be successful, and recollection or information come too late for use. That many terms of art and manufacture are omitted, must be frankly acknowledged; but for this defect I may boldly allege that it was unavoidable: I could not visit caverns to learn the miner's language, nor take a voyage to perfect my skill in the dialect of navigation, nor visit the warehouses of merchants, and shops of artificers, to gain the names of wares, tools and operations, of which no mention is found in books; what favourable accident, or easy enquiry brought within my reach, has not been neglected; but it had been a hopeless labour to glean up words, by courting living information, and contesting with the sullenness of one, and the roughness of another. To furnish the academicians della Crusca with words of this kind, a series of comedies called la Fiera, or the Fair, was professedly written by Buonaroti; but I had no such assistant, and therefore was content to want what they must have wanted likewise, had they not luckily been so supplied. Nor are all words which are not found in the vocabulary, to be lamented as omissions. Of the laborious and mercantile part of the people, the diction is in a great measure casual and mutable; many of their terms are formed for some temporary or local convenience, and though current at certain times and places, are in others utterly unknown. This fugitive cant, which is always in a state of increase or decay, cannot be regarded as any part of the durable materials of a language, and therefore must be suffered to perish with other things unworthy of preservation. Care will sometimes betray to the appearance of negligence. He that is catching opportunities which seldom occur, will suffer those to pass by unregarded, which he expects hourly to return; he that is searching for rare and remote things, will neglect those that are obvious and familiar: thus many of the most common and cursory words have been inserted with little illustration, because in gathering the authorities, I forbore to copy those which I thought likely to occur whenever they were wanted. It is remarkable that, in reviewing my collection, I found the word sea unexemplified. Thus it happens, that in things difficult there is danger from ignorance, and in things easy from confidence; the mind, afraid of greatness, and disdainful of littleness, hastily withdraws herself from painful searches, and passes with scornful rapidity over tasks not adequate to her powers, sometimes too secure for caution, and again too anxious for vigorous effort; sometimes idle in a plain path, and sometimes distracted in labyrinths, and dissipated by different intentions. A large work is difficult because it is large, even though all its parts might singly be performed with facility; where there are many things to be done, each must be allowed its share of time and labour, in the proportion only which it bears to the whole; nor can it be expected, that the stones which form the dome of a temple, should be squared and polished like the diamond of a ring. Of the event of this work, for which, having laboured it with so much application, I cannot but have some degree of parental fondness, it is natural to form conjectures. Those who have been persuaded to think well of my design, will require that it should fix our language, and put a stop to those alterations which time and chance have hitherto been suffered to make in it without opposition. With this consequence I will confess that I flattered myself for a while; but now begin to fear that I have indulged expectation which neither reason nor experience can justify. When we see men grow old and die at a certain time one after another, from century to century, we laugh at the elixir that promises to prolong life to a thousand years; and with equal justice may the lexicographer be derided, who being able to produce no example of a nation that has preserved their words and phrases from mutability, shall imagine that his dictionary can embalm his language, and secure it from corruption and decay, that it is in his power to change sublunary nature, and clear the world at once from folly, vanity, and affectation. With this hope, however, academies have been instituted, to guard the avenues of their languages, to retain fugitives, and repulse intruders; but their vigilance and activity have hitherto been vain; sounds are too volatile and subtile for legal restraints; to enchain syllables, and to lash the wind, are equally the undertakings of pride, unwilling to measure its desires by its strength. The French language has visibly changed under the inspection of the academy; the stile of Amelot's translation of Father Paul is observed by Le Courayer to be un peu passe; and no Italian will maintain that the diction of any modern writer is not perceptibly different from that of Boccace, Machiavel, or Caro. Total and sudden transformations of a language seldom happen; conquests and migrations are now very rare: but there are other causes of change, which, though slow in their operation, and invisible in their progress, are perhaps as much superiour to human resistance, as the revolutions of the sky, or intumescence of the tide. Commerce, however necessary, however lucrative, as it depraves the manners, corrupts the language; they that have frequent intercourse with strangers, to whom they endeavour to accommodate themselves, must in time learn a mingled dialect, like the jargon which serves the traffickers on the Mediterranean and Indian coasts. This will not always be confined to the exchange, the warehouse, or the port, but will be communicated by degrees to other ranks of the people, and be at last incorporated with the current speech. There are likewise internal causes equally forcible. The language most likely to continue long without alteration, would be that of a nation raised a little, and but a little above barbarity, secluded from strangers, and totally employed in procuring the conveniencies of life; either without books, or, like some of the Mahometan countries, with very few: men thus busied and unlearned, having only such words as common use requires, would perhaps long continue to express the same notions by the same signs. But no such constancy can be expected in a people polished by arts, and classed by subordination, where one part of the community is sustained and accommodated by the labour of the other. Those who have much leisure to think, will always be enlarging the stock of ideas, and every increase of knowledge, whether real or fancied, will produce new words, or combinations of words. When the mind is unchained from necessity, it will range after convenience; when it is left at large in the fields of speculation, it will shift opinions; as any custom is disused, the words that expressed it must perish with it; as any opinion grows popular, it will innovate speech in the same proportion as it alters practice. As by the cultivation of various sciences, a language is amplified, it will be more furnished with words deflected from original sense; the geometrician will talk of a courtier's zenith, or the excentrick virtue of a wild hero, and the physician of sanguine expectations and phlegmatick delays. Copiousness of speech will give opportunities to capricious choice, by which some words will be preferred, and others degraded; vicissitudes of fashion will enforce the use of new, or extend the signification of known terms. The tropes of poetry will make hourly encroachments, and the metaphorical will become the current sense: pronunciation will be varied by levity or ignorance, and the pen must at length comply with the tongue; illiterate writers will at one time or other, by publick infatuation, rise into renown, who, not knowing the original import of words, will use them with colloquial licentiousness, confound distinction, and forget propriety. As politeness increases, some expressions will be considered as too gross and vulgar for the delicate, others as too formal and ceremonious for the gay and airy; new phrases are therefore adopted, which must, for the same reasons, be in time dismissed. Swift, in his petty treatise on the English language, allows that new words must sometimes be introduced, but proposes that none should be suffered to become obsolete. But what makes a word obsolete, more than general agreement to forbear it? and how shall it be continued, when it conveys an offensive idea, or recalled again into the mouths of mankind, when it has once become unfamiliar by disuse, and unpleasing by unfamiliarity? There is another cause of alteration more prevalent than any other, which yet in the present state of the world cannot be obviated. A mixture of two languages will produce a third distinct from both, and they will always be mixed, where the chief part of education, and the most conspicuous accomplishment, is skill in ancient or in foreign tongues. He that has long cultivated another language, will find its words and combinations croud upon his memory; and haste and negligence, refinement and affectation, will obtrude borrowed terms and exotick expressions. The great pest of speech is frequency of translation. No book was ever turned from one language into another, without imparting something of its native idiom; this is the most mischievous and comprehensive innovation; single words may enter by thousands, and the fabrick of the tongue continue the same, but new phraseology changes much at once; it alters not the single stones of the building, but the order of the columns. If an academy should be established for the cultivation of our stile, which I, who can never wish to see dependance multiplied, hope the spirit of English liberty will hinder or destroy, let them, instead of compiling grammars and dictionaries, endeavour, with all their influence, to stop the licence of translatours, whose idleness and ignorance, if it be suffered to proceed, will reduce us to babble a dialect of France. If the changes that we fear be thus irresistible, what remains but to acquiesce with silence, as in the other insurmountable distresses of humanity? It remains that we retard what we cannot repel, that we palliate what we cannot cure. Life may be lengthened by care, though death cannot be ultimately defeated: tongues, like governments, have a natural tendency to degeneration; we have long preserved our constitution, let us make some struggles for our language. In hope of giving longevity to that which its own nature forbids to be immortal, I have devoted this book, the labour of years, to the honour of my country, that we may no longer yield the palm of philology, without a contest, to the nations of the continent. The chief glory of every people arises from its authours: whether I shall add any thing by my own writings to the reputation of English literature, must be left to time: much of my life has been lost under the pressures of disease; much has been trifled away; and much has always been spent in provision for the day that was passing over me; but I shall not think my employment useless or ignoble, if by my assistance foreign nations, and distant ages, gain access to the propagators of knowledge, and understand the teachers of truth; if my labours afford light to the repositories of science, and add celebrity to Bacon, to Hooker, to Milton, and to Boyle. When I am animated by this wish, I look with pleasure on my book, however defective, and deliver it to the world with the spirit of a man that has endeavoured well. That it will immediately become popular I have not promised to myself: a few wild blunders, and risible absurdities, from which no work of such multiplicity was ever free, may for a time furnish folly with laughter, and harden ignorance in contempt; but useful diligence will at last prevail, and there never can be wanting some who distinguish desert; who will consider that no dictionary of a living tongue ever can be perfect, since while it is hastening to publication, some words are budding, and some falling away; that a whole life cannot be spent upon syntax and etymology, and that even a whole life would not be sufficient; that he, whose design includes whatever language can express, must often speak of what he does not understand; that a writer will sometimes be hurried by eagerness to the end, and sometimes faint with weariness under a task, which Scaliger compares to the labours of the anvil and the mine; that what is obvious is not always known, and what is known is not always present; that sudden fits of inadvertency will surprize vigilance, slight avocations will seduce attention, and casual eclipses of the mind will darken learning; and that the writer shall often in vain trace his memory at the moment of need, for that which yesterday he knew with intuitive readiness, and which will come uncalled into his thoughts tomorrow. In this work, when it shall be found that much is omitted, let it not be forgotten that much likewise is performed; and though no book was ever spared out of tenderness to the authour, and the world is little solicitous to know whence proceeded the faults of that which it condemns; yet it may gratify curiosity to inform it, that the English Dictionary was written with little assistance of the learned, and without any patronage of the great; not in the soft obscurities of retirement, or under the shelter of academick bowers, but amidst inconvenience and distraction, in sickness and in sorrow. It may repress the triumph of malignant criticism to observe, that if our language is not here fully displayed, I have only failed in an attempt which no human powers have hitherto completed. If the lexicons of ancient tongues, now immutably fixed, and comprised in a few volumes, be yet, after the toil of successive ages, inadequate and delusive; if the aggregated knowledge, and co-operating diligence of the Italian academicians, did not secure them from the censure of Beni; if the embodied criticks of France, when fifty years had been spent upon their work, were obliged to change its oeconomy, and give their second edition another form, I may surely be contented without the praise of perfection, which, if I could obtain, in this gloom of solitude, what would it avail me? I have protracted my work till most of those whom I wished to please have sunk into the grave, and success and miscarriage are empty sounds: I therefore dismiss it with frigid tranquillity, having little to fear or hope from censure or from praise. THE END 
7188	----	** Transcriber's Notes ** Underscores mark italics; words enclosed in +pluses+ represent boldface; Vowels followed by a colon represent a long vowel (printed with a macron in the original text). To represent the sentence diagrams in ASCII, the following conventions are used: - The heavy horizontal line (for the main clause) is formed with equals signs (==). - Other solid vertical lines are formed with minus signs (--). - Diagonal lines are formed with backslashes (\). - Words printed on a diagonal line are preceded by a backslash, with no horizontal line under them. - Dotted horizontal lines are formed with periods (..) - Dotted vertical lines are formed with straight apostrophes (') - Dotted diagonal lines are formed with slanted apostrophes (`) - Words printed over a horizontally broken line are shown like this: ----, helping '--------- - Words printed bending around a diagonal-horizontal line are broken like this: \wai \ ting --------- ** End Transcriber's Notes ** HIGHER LESSONS IN ENGLISH. A WORK ON ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION, IN WHICH THE SCIENCE OF THE LANGUAGE IS MADE TRIBUTARY TO THE ART OF EXPRESSION. A COURSE OF PRACTICAL LESSONS CAREFULLY GRADED, AND ADAPTED TO EVERY-DAY USE IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. BY ALONZO REED, A.M., FORMERLY INSTRUCTOR IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN THE POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN, AND BRAINERD KELLOGG, LL.D., PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN THE POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN. Revised Edition, 1896. PREFACE. The plan of "Higher Lessons" will perhaps be better understood if we first speak of two classes of text-books with which this work is brought into competition. +Method of One Class of Text-books+.--In one class are those that aim chiefly to present a course of technical grammar in the order of Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. These books give large space to grammatical Etymology, and demand much memorizing of definitions, rules, declensions, and conjugations, and much formal word parsing,--work of which a considerable portion is merely the invention of grammarians, and has little value in determining the pupil's use of language or in developing his reasoning faculties. This is a revival of the long-endured, unfruitful, old-time method. +Method of Another Class of Text-books.+--In another class are those that present a miscellaneous collection of lessons in Composition, Spelling, Pronunciation, Sentence-analysis, Technical Grammar, and General Information, without unity or continuity. The pupil who completes these books will have gained something by practice and will have picked up some scraps of knowledge; but his information will be vague and disconnected, and he will have missed that mental training which it is the aim of a good text-book to afford. A text-book is of value just so far as it presents a clear, logical development of its subject. It must present its science or its art as a natural growth, otherwise there is no apology for its being. +The Study of the Sentence for the Proper Use of Words.+--It is the plan of _this_ book to trace with easy steps the natural development of the sentence, to consider the leading facts first and then to descend to the details. To begin with the parts of speech is to begin with details and to disregard the higher unities, without which the details are scarcely intelligible. The part of speech to which a word belongs is determined only by its function in the sentence, and inflections simply mark the offices and relations of words. Unless the pupil has been systematically trained to discover the functions and relations of words as elements of an organic whole, his knowledge of the parts of speech is of little value. It is not because he cannot conjugate the verb or decline the pronoun that he falls into such errors as "How many sounds _have_ each of the vowels?" "Five years' interest _are_ due." "She is older than _me_." He probably would not say "each _have_," "interest _are_," "_me_ am." One thoroughly familiar with the structure of the sentence will find little trouble in using correctly the few inflectional forms in English. +The Study of the Sentence for the Laws of Discourse.+--Through the study of the sentence we not only arrive at an intelligent knowledge of the parts of speech and a correct use of grammatical forms, but we discover the laws of discourse in general. In the sentence the student should find the law of unity, of continuity, of proportion, of order. All good writing consists of good sentences properly joined. Since the sentence is the foundation or unit of discourse, it is all-important that the pupil should know the sentence. He should be able to put the principal and the subordinate parts in their proper relation; he should know the exact function of every element, its relation to other elements and its relation to the whole. He should know the sentence as the skillful engineer knows his engine, that, when there is a disorganization of parts, he may at once find the difficulty and the remedy for it. +The Study of the Sentence for the Sake of Translation.+--The laws of thought being the same for all nations, the logical analysis of the sentence is the same for all languages. When a student who has acquired a knowledge of the English sentence comes to the translation of a foreign language, he finds his work greatly simplified. If in a sentence of his own language he sees only a mass of unorganized words, how much greater must be his confusion when this mass of words is in a foreign tongue! A study of the parts of speech is a far less important preparation for translation, since the declensions and conjugations in English do not conform to those of other languages. Teachers of the classics and of modern languages are beginning to appreciate these facts. +The Study of the Sentence for Discipline+.--As a means of discipline nothing can compare with a training in the logical analysis of the sentence. To study thought through its outward form, the sentence, and to discover the fitness of the different parts of the expression to the parts of the thought, is to learn to think. It has been noticed that pupils thoroughly trained in the analysis and the construction of sentences come to their other studies with a decided advantage in mental power. These results can be obtained only by systematic and persistent work. Experienced teachers understand that a few weak lessons on the sentence at the beginning of a course and a few at the end can afford little discipline and little knowledge that will endure, nor can a knowledge of the sentence be gained by memorizing complicated rules and labored forms of analysis. To compel a pupil to wade through a page or two of such bewildering terms as "complex adverbial element of the second class" and "compound prepositional adjective phrase," in order to comprehend a few simple functions, is grossly unjust; it is a substitution of form for content, of words for ideas. +Subdivisions and Modifications after the Sentence.+--Teachers familiar with text-books that group all grammatical instruction around the eight parts of speech, making eight independent units, will not, in the following lessons, find everything in its accustomed place. But, when it is remembered that the thread of connection unifying this work is the sentence, it will be seen that the lessons fall into their natural order of sequence. When, through the development of the sentence, all the offices of the different parts of speech are mastered, the most natural thing is to continue the work of classification and subdivide the parts of speech. The inflection of words, being distinct from their classification, makes a separate division of the work. If the chief end of grammar were to enable one to parse, we should not here depart from long-established precedent. +Sentences in Groups--Paragraphs+.--In tracing the growth of the sentence from the simplest to the most complex form, each element, as it is introduced, is illustrated by a large number of detached sentences, chosen with the utmost care as to thought and expression. These compel the pupil to confine his attention to one thing till he gets it well in hand. Paragraphs from literature are then selected to be used at intervals, with questions and suggestions to enforce principles already presented, and to prepare the way informally for the regular lessons that follow. The lessons on these selections are, however, made to take a much wider scope. They lead the pupil to discover how and why sentences are grouped into paragraphs, and how paragraphs are related to each other; they also lead him on to discover whatever is most worthy of imitation in the style of the several models presented. +The Use of the Diagram+.--In written analysis, the simple map, or diagram, found in the following lessons, will enable the pupil to present directly and vividly to the eye the exact function of every clause in the sentence, of every phrase in the clause, and of every word in the phrase--to picture the complete analysis of the sentence, with principal and subordinate parts in their proper relations. It is only by the aid of such a map, or picture, that the pupil can, at a single view, see the sentence as an organic whole made up of many parts performing various functions and standing in various relations. Without such map he must labor under the disadvantage of seeing all these things by piecemeal or in succession. But if for any reason the teacher prefers not to use these diagrams, they may be omitted without causing the slightest break in the work. The plan of this book is in no way dependent on the use of the diagrams. +The Objections to the Diagram+.--The fact that the pictorial diagram groups the parts of a sentence according to their offices and relations, and not in the order of speech, has been spoken of as a fault. It is, on the contrary, a merit, for it teaches the pupil to look through the literary order and discover the logical order. He thus learns what the literary order really is, and sees that this may be varied indefinitely, so long as the logical relations are kept clear. The assertion that correct diagrams can be made mechanically is not borne out by the facts. It is easier to avoid precision in oral analysis than in written. The diagram drives the pupil to a most searching examination of the sentence, brings him face to face with every difficulty, and compels a decision on every point. +The Abuse of the Diagram+.--Analysis by diagram often becomes so interesting and so helpful that, like other good things, it is liable to be overdone. There is danger of requiring too much written analysis. When the ordinary constructions have been made clear, diagrams should be used only for the more difficult sentences, or, if the sentences are long, only for the more difficult parts of them. In both oral and written analysis there is danger of repeating what needs no repetition. When the diagram has served its purpose, it should be dropped. AUTHORS' NOTE TO REVISED EDITION. During the years in which "Higher Lessons" has been in existence, we have ourselves had an instructive experience with it in the classroom. We have considered hundreds of suggestive letters written us by intelligent teachers using the book. We have examined the best works on grammar that have been published recently here and in England. And we have done more. We have gone to the original source of all valid authority in our language-- the best writers and speakers of it. That we might ascertain what present linguistic usage is, we chose fifty authors, now alive or living till recently, and have carefully read three hundred pages of each. We have minutely noted and recorded what these men by habitual use declare to be good English. Among the fifty are such men as Ruskin, Froude, Hamerton, Matthew Arnold, Macaulay, De Quincey, Thackeray, Bagehot, John Morley, James Martineau, Cardinal Newman, J. R. Green, and Lecky in England; and Hawthorne, Curtis, Prof. W. D. Whitney, George P. Marsh, Prescott, Emerson, Motley, Prof. Austin Phelps, Holmes, Edward Everett, Irving, and Lowell in America. When in the pages following we anywhere quote usage, it is to the authority of such men that we appeal. Upon these four sources of help we have drawn in the Revision of "Higher Lessons" that we now offer to the public. In this revised work we have given additional reasons for the opinions we hold, and have advanced to some new positions; have explained more fully what some teachers have thought obscure; have qualified what we think was put too positively in former editions; have given the history of constructions where this would deepen interest or aid in composition; have quoted the verdicts of usage on many locutions condemned by purists; have tried to work into the pupil's style the felicities of expression found in the lesson sentences; have taught the pupil earlier in the work, and more thoroughly, the structure and the function of paragraphs; and have led him on from the composition of single sentences of all kinds to the composition of these great groups of sentences. But the distinctive features of "Higher Lessons" that have made the work so useful and so popular stand as they have stood--the Study of Words from their Offices in the Sentence, Analysis for the sake of subsequent Synthesis, Easy Gradation, the Subdivisions and Modifications of the Parts of Speech after the treatment of these in the Sentence, etc., etc. We confess to some surprise that so little of what was thought good in matter and method years ago has been seriously affected by criticism since. The additions made to "Higher Lessons"--additions that bring the work up to the latest requirements--are generally in foot-notes to pages, and sometimes are incorporated into the body of the Lessons, which in number and numbering remain as they were. The books of former editions and those of this revised edition can, therefore, be used in the same class without any inconvenience. Of the teachers who have given us invaluable assistance in this Revision, we wish specially to name Prof. Henry M. Worrell, of the Polytechnic Institute; and in this edition of the work, as in the preceding, we take pleasure in acknowledging our great indebtedness to our critic, the distinguished Prof. Francis A. March, of Lafayette College. * * * * * LESSON 1. A TALK ON LANGUAGE. Let us talk to-day about a language that we never learn from a grammar or from a book of any kind--a language that we come by naturally, and use without thinking of it. It is a universal language, and consequently needs no interpreter. People of all lands and of all degrees of culture use it; even the brute animals in some measure understand it. This Natural language is the language of cries, laughter, and tones, the language of the eyes, the nose, the mouth, the whole face; the language of gestures and postures. The child's cry tells of its wants; its sob, of grief; its scream, of pain; its laugh, of delight. The boy raises his eyebrows in surprise and his nose in disgust, leans forward in expectation, draws back in fear, makes a fist in anger, and calls or drives away his dog simply by the tone in which he speaks. But feelings and desires are not the only things we wish to communicate. Early in life we begin to acquire knowledge and learn to think, and then we feel the need of a better language. Suppose, for instance, you have formed an idea of a day; could you express this by a tone, a look, or a gesture? If you wish to tell me the fact that _yesterday was cloudy_, or that _the days are shorter in winter than in summer_, you find it wholly impossible to do this by means of Natural language. To communicate, then, your thoughts, or even the mental pictures we have called ideas, you need a language more nearly perfect. This language is made up of words. These words you learn from your mothers, and so Word language is your mother-tongue. You learn them, also, from your friends and teachers, your playmates and companions, and you learn them by reading; for words, as you know, may be written as well as spoken. This Word language we may, from its superiority, call +Language Proper+. Natural language, as was said, precedes this Word language, but gives way as Word language comes in and takes its place; yet Natural language may be used, and always should be used, to assist and strengthen Word language. In earnest conversation we enforce what we say in words, by the tone in which we utter them, by the varying expression of the face, and by the movements of the different parts of the body. The look or the gesture may even dart ahead of the word, or it may contradict it, and thus convict the speaker of ignorance or deception. The happy union of the two kinds of language is the charm of all good reading and speaking. The teacher of elocution is ever trying to recall the pupil to the tones, the facial expression, and the action, so natural to him in childhood and in animated conversation. +DEFINITION.--_Language Proper_ consists of the spoken and the written words used to communicate ideas and thoughts+. +DEFINITION.--_English Grammar_ is the science which teaches the forms, uses, and relations of the words of the English language.+ * * * * * LESSON 2. A TALK ON THOUGHTS AND SENTENCES. To express a thought we use more than a single word, and the words arranged to express a thought we call a sentence. But there was a time when, through lack of words, we compressed our thought into a single word. The child says to his father, _up_, meaning, _Take me up into your lap_; or, _book_, meaning, _This thing in my hand is a book_. These first words always deal with the things that can be learned by the senses; they express the child's ideas of these things. We have spoken of thoughts and sentences; let us see now whether we can find out what a thought is, and what a sentence is. A sentence is a group of words expressing a thought; it is a body of which a thought is the soul. It is something that can be seen or heard, while a thought cannot be. Let us see whether, in studying a sentence, we may not learn what a thought is. In any such sentence as this, _Spiders spin_, something is said, or asserted, about something. Here it is said, or asserted, of the animals, spiders, that they spin. The sentence, then, consists of two parts,--the name of that of which something is said, and that which is said of it. The first of these parts we call the +Subject+ of the sentence; the second, the +Predicate+. Now, if the sentence, composed of two parts, expresses the thought, there must be in the thought two parts to be expressed. And there are two: viz., something of which we think, and that which we think of it. In the thought expressed by _Spiders spin_, the animals, spiders, are the something of which we think, and their spinning is what we think of them. In the sentence expressing this thought, the word _spiders_ names that of which we think, and the word _spin_ tells what we think of spiders. Not every group of words is necessarily a sentence, because it may not be the expression of a thought. _Spiders spinning_ is not a sentence. There is nothing in this expression to show that we have formed a judgment, _i.e._, that we have really made up our minds that spiders do spin. The spinning is not asserted of the spiders. _Soft feathers_, _The shining sun_ are not sentences, and for similar reasons. _Feathers are soft_, _The sun shines_ are sentences. Here the asserting word is supplied, and something is said of something else. _The shines sun_ is not a sentence; for, though it contains the asserting word _shines_, the arrangement is such that no assertion is made, and no thought is expressed. * * * * * LESSON 3. A TALK ON SOUNDS AND LETTERS. We have already told you that in expressing our ideas and thoughts we use two kinds of words, spoken words and written words. We learned the spoken words first. Mankind spoke long before they wrote. Not until people wished to communicate with those at a distance, or had thought out something worth handing down to aftertimes, did they need to write. But speaking was easy. The air, the lungs, and the organs of the throat and mouth were at hand. The first cry was a suggestion. Sounds and noises were heard on every side, provoking imitation, and the need of speech for the purposes of communication was imperative. Spoken words are made up of sounds. There are over forty sounds in the English language. The different combinations of these give us all the words of our spoken tongue. That you may clearly understand these sounds, we will tell you something about the human voice. In talking, the air driven out from your lungs beats against two flat muscles, stretched, like bands, across the top of the windpipe, and causes them to vibrate up and down. This vibration makes sound. Take a thread, put one end between your teeth, hold the other with thumb and finger, draw it tight and strike it, and you will understand how voice is made. The shorter the string, or the tighter it is drawn, the faster will it vibrate, and the higher will be the pitch of the sound. The more violent the blow, the farther will the string vibrate, and the louder will be the sound. Just so with these vocal bands or cords. The varying force with which the breath strikes them and their different tensions and lengths at different times, explain the different degrees of loudness and the varying pitch of the voice. If the voice thus produced comes out through the mouth held well open, a class of sounds is formed which we call vowel sounds. But if the voice is held back or obstructed by the palate, tongue, teeth, or lips, one kind of the sounds called consonant sounds is made. If the breath is driven out without voice, and is held back by these same parts of the mouth, the other kind of consonant sounds is formed. The written word is made up of characters, or letters, which represent to the eye these sounds that address the ear. You are now prepared to understand us when we say that +vowels+ are the +letters+ that stand for the +open sounds+ of the +voice+, and that +consonants+ are the +letters+ that stand for the sounds made by the +obstructed voice+ and the +obstructed breath+. The alphabet of a language is a complete list of its letters. A perfect alphabet would have one letter for each sound, and only one. Our alphabet is imperfect in at least these three ways:-- 1. Some of the letters are superfluous; _c_ stands for the sound of _s_ or of _k_, as in _city_ and _can_; _q_ has the sound of _k_, as in _quit_; and _x_ that of _ks_, _gz_, or _z_, as in _expel_, _exist_, and _Xenophon_. 2. Combinations of letters sometimes represent single sounds; as, _th_ in thine, _th_ in _thin_, _ng_ in _sing_, and _sh_ in _shut_. 3. Some letters stand each for many sounds. Twenty-three letters represent over forty sounds. Every vowel does more than single duty; _e_ stands for two sounds, as in _mete_ and _met_; _i_ for two, as in _pine_ and _pin_; _o_ for three, as in _note, not_, and _move_; _u_ for four, as in _tube, tub, full_, and _fur_; _a_ for six, as in _fate, fat, far, fall, fast_, and _fare_. _W_ is a vowel when it unites with a preceding vowel to represent a vowel sound, and _y_ is a vowel when it has the sound of _i_, as in _now, by, boy, newly_. _W_ and _y_ are consonants at the beginning of a word or syllable. The various sounds of the several vowels and even of the same vowel are caused by the different shapes which the mouth assumes. These changes in its cavity produce, also, the two sounds that unite in each of the compounds, _ou_, _oi_, _ew_, and in the alphabetic _i_ and _o_. 1. 2. _Vocal Consonants_. _Aspirates_. b..................p d..................t g..................k -------------------h j..................ch l------------------ m------------------ n------------------ r------------------ th.................th (in _thine_) (in _thin_) v..................f w------------------ y------------------ z (in _zone_)......s z (in _azure_).....sh The consonants in column 1 represent the sounds made by the obstructed voice; those in column 2, except _h_ (which represents a mere forcible breathing), represent those made by the obstructed breath. The letters are mostly in pairs. Now note that the tongue, teeth, lips, and palate are placed in the same relative position to make the sounds of both letters in any pair. The difference in the sounds of the letters of any pair is simply this: there is voice in the sounds of the letters in column 1, and only whisper in those of column 2. Give the sound of any letter in column 1, as _b, g, v_, and the last or vanishing part of it is the sound of the other letter of the pair. TO THE TEACHER.--Write these letters on the board, as above, and drill the pupils on the sounds till they can see and make these distinctions. Drill them on the vowels also. In closing this talk with you, we wish to emphasize one point brought before you. Here is a pencil, a real thing; we carry in memory a picture of the pencil, which we call an idea; and there are the two words naming this idea, the spoken and the written. Learn to distinguish clearly these four things. TO THE TEACHER.--In reviewing these three Lessons, put particular emphasis on Lesson 2. * * * * * LESSON 4. ANALYSIS AND THE DIAGRAM. TO THE TEACHER.--If the pupils have been through "Graded Lessons" or its equivalent, some of the following Lessons may be passed over rapidly. +DEFINITION.--A _Sentence_ is the expression of a thought in words+. +Direction+.--_Analyze the following sentences_:-- +Model+.--_Spiders spin_. Why is this a sentence? Ans.--Because it expresses a thought. Of what is something thought? Ans.--Spiders. Which word tells what is thought? Ans.--_Spin_. [Footnote: The word _spiders_, standing in Roman, names our idea of the real thing; _spin_, used merely as a word, is in Italics. This use of Italics the teacher and the pupil will please note here and elsewhere.] 1. Tides ebb. 2. Liquids flow. 3. Steam expands. 4. Carbon burns. 5. Iron melts. 6. Powder explodes. 7. Leaves tremble. 8. Worms crawl. 9. Hares leap. In each of these sentences there are, as you have learned, two parts--the +Subject+ and the +Predicate+. +DEFINITION.--The _Subject of a sentence_ names that of which something is thought.+ +DEFINITION.--The _Predicate of a sentence_ tells what is thought.+ +DEFINITION.--The _Analysis of a sentence_ is the separation of it into its parts.+ +Direction+.--_Analyze these sentences_:-- +Model+.--_Beavers build_. This is a sentence because it expresses a thought. _Beavers_ is the subject because it names that of which something is thought; _build_ is the predicate because it tells what is thought. [Footnote: When pupils are familiar with the definitions, let the form of analysis be varied. The reasons may be made more specific. Here and elsewhere avoid mechanical repetition.] 1. Squirrels climb. 2. Blood circulates. 3. Muscles tire. 4. Heralds proclaim. 5. Apes chatter. 6. Branches wave. 7. Corn ripens. 8. Birds twitter. 9. Hearts throb. +Explanation+.--Draw a heavy line and divide it into two parts. Let the first part represent the subject of a sentence; the second, the predicate. If you write a word over the first part, you will understand that this word is the subject of a sentence. If you write a word over the second part, you will understand that this word is the predicate of a sentence. Love | conquers ========|============ | You see, by looking at this figure, that _Love conquers_ is a sentence; that _love_ is the subject, and _conquers_ the predicate. Such figures, made up of straight lines, we call _Diagrams_. +DEFINITION.--A _Diagram_ is a picture of the offices and the relations of the different parts of a sentence.+ +Direction+.--_Analyze these sentences_:-- 1. Frogs croak. 2. Hens sit. 3. Sheep bleat. 4. Cows low. 5. Flies buzz. 6. Sap ascends. 7. Study pays. 8. Buds swell. 9. Books aid. 10. Noise disturbs. 11. Hope strengthens. 12. Cocks crow. * * * * * LESSON 5. COMPOSITION--SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. +CAPITAL LETTER--RULE.--The first word of every sentence must begin with a _capital letter_+. +PERIOD--RULE.--A _period_ must be placed after every sentence that simply affirms, denies, or commands.+ +Direction+.--_Construct sentences by supplying a subject to each of the following predicates_:-- Ask yourselves the questions, What tarnishes? Who sailed, conquered, etc.? 1. ----- tarnishes. 2. ----- capsize. 3. ----- radiates. 4. ----- sentence. 5. ----- careen. 6. ----- sailed. 7. ----- descends. 8. ----- glisten. 9. ----- absorb. 10. ----- corrode. 11. ----- conquered. 12. ----- surrendered. 13. ----- refines. 14. ----- gurgle. 15. ----- murmur. +Direction+.--_Construct sentences by supplying a predicate to each of the following subjects_:-- Ask yourselves the question, Glycerine does what? 1. Glycerine -----. 2. Yankees -----. 3. Tyrants -----. 4. Pendulums -----. 5. Caesar -----. 6. Labor -----. 7. Chalk -----. 8. Nature -----. 9. Tempests -----. 10. Seeds -----. 11. Heat -----. 12. Philosophers -----. 13. Bubbles -----. 14. Darkness -----. 15. Wax -----. 16. Reptiles -----. 17. Merchants -----. 18. Meteors -----. 19. Conscience -----. 20. Congress -----. 21. Life -----. 22. Vapors -----. 23. Music -----. 24. Pitch -----. TO THE TEACHER.--This exercise may profitably be extended by supplying several subjects to each predicate, and several predicates to each subject. * * * * * LESSON 6. ANALYSIS. The predicate sometimes contains more than one word. +Direction+.--_Analyze as in Lesson 4_. 1. Moisture is exhaled. 2. Conclusions are drawn. 3. Industry will enrich. 4. Stars have disappeared. 5. Twilight is falling. 6. Leaves are turning. 7. Sirius has appeared. 8. Constantinople had been captured. 9. Electricity has been harnessed. 10. Tempests have been raging. 11. Nuisances should be abated. 12. Jerusalem was destroyed. 13. Light can be reflected. 14. Rain must have fallen. 15. Planets have been discovered. 16. Palaces shall crumble. 17. Storms may be gathering. 18. Essex might have been saved. 19. Caesar could have been crowned, 20. Inventors may be encouraged. +Direction+.--_Point out the subject and the predicate of each sentence in Lessons 12 and 17_. Look first for the word that asserts, and then, by putting _who_ or _what_ before this predicate, the subject may easily be found. TO THE TEACHER.--Let this exercise be continued till the pupils can readily point out the subject and the predicate in ordinary simple sentences. When this can be done promptly, the first and most important step in analysis will have been taken. * * * * * LESSON 7. COMPOSITION--SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. +Direction+.--_Make at least ten good sentences out of the words in the three columns following_:-- The helping words in column 2 must be prefixed to words in column 3 in order to make complete predicates. Analyze your sentences. 1 2 3 Arts is progressing. Allen was tested. Life are command. Theories will prolonged. Science would released. Truth were falling. Shadows may be burned. Moscow has been measured. Raleigh have been prevail. Quantity should have been lost. Review Questions. What is language proper? What is English grammar? What is a sentence? What are its two parts? What is the subject of a sentence? The predicate of a sentence? The analysis of a sentence? What is a diagram? What rule has been given for the use of capital letters? For the period? May the predicate contain more than one word? Illustrate. TO THE TEACHER.--Introduce the class to the Parts of Speech before the close of this recitation. See "Introductory Hints" below. * * * * * LESSON 8. CLASSES OF WORDS. NOUNS. +Introductory Hints+.--We have now reached the point where we must classify the words of our language. But we are appalled by their number. If we must learn all about the forms and the uses of a hundred thousand words by studying these words one by one, we shall die ignorant of English grammar. But may we not deal with words as we do with plants? If we had to study and name each leaf and stem and flower, taken singly, we should never master the botany even of our garden-plants. But God has made things to resemble one another and to differ from one another; and, as he has given us the power to detect resemblances and differences, we are able to group things that have like qualities. From certain likenesses in form and in structure, we put certain flowers together and call them roses; from other likenesses, we get another class called lilies; from others still, violets. Just so we classify trees and get the oak, the elm, the maple, etc. The myriad objects of nature fall into comparatively few classes. Studying each class, we learn all we need to know of every object in it. From their likenesses, though not in form, we classify words. We group them according to their similarities in use, or office, in the sentence. Sorting them thus, we find that they all fall into eight classes, which we call Parts of Speech. We find that many words name things--are the names of things of which we can think and speak. These we place in one class and call them +Nouns+ (Latin _nomen_, a name, a noun). PRONOUNS. Without the little words which we shall italicize, it would be difficult for one stranger to ask another, "Can _you_ tell _me who_ is the postmaster at B?" The one would not know what name to use instead of _you_, the other would not recognize the name in the place of _me_, and both would be puzzled to find a substitute for _who_. _I, you, my, me, what, we, it, he, who, him, she, them,_ and other words are used in place of nouns, and are, therefore, called +Pronouns+ (Lat. _pro_, for, and _nomen_, a noun). By means of these handy little words we can represent any or every object in existence. We could hardly speak or write without them now, they so frequently shorten the expression and prevent confusion and repetition. +DEFINITION.--A _Noun_ is the name of anything.+ +DEFINITION.--A _Pronoun_ is a word used for a noun.+ The principal office of nouns is to name the things of which we say, or assert, something in the sentence. +Direction+.---_Write, according to the model, the names of things that can burn, grow, melt, love, roar, or revolve._ +Model.+-- _Nouns._ Wood | Paper | Oil | Houses + burn or burns. Coal | Leaves | Matches | Clothes | +Remark.+--Notice that, when the subject adds _s_ or _es_ to denote more than one, the predicate does not take _s_. Note how it would sound if both should add _s_. +Every subject+ of a sentence is a +noun+, or some word or words used as a noun. But not every noun in a sentence is a subject. +Direction.+--_Select and write all the nouns and pronouns, whether subjects or not, in the sentences given in Lesson_ 18. _In writing them observe the following rules_:-- +CAPITAL LETTER--RULE.--_Proper,_ or _individual, names_ and _words derived from them_ begin with capital letters.+ +PERIOD and CAPITAL LETTER--RULE.--_Abbreviations_ generally begin with capital letters and are always followed by the period.+ * * * * * LESSON 9. CAPITAL LETTERS. +Direction.+--_From the following words select and write in one column those names that distinguish individual things from others of the same class, and in another column those words that are derived from individual names_:-- Observe Rule 1, Lesson 8. ohio, state, chicago, france, bostonian, country, england, boston, milton, river, girl, mary, hudson, william, britain, miltonic, city, englishman, messiah, platonic, american, deity, bible, book, plato, christian, broadway, america, jehovah, british, easter, europe, man, scriptures, god. +Direction.+--_Write the names of the days of the week and the months of the year, beginning each with a capital letter; and write the names of the seasons without capital letters._ +Remember+ that, when a class name and a distinguishing word combine to make one individual name, each word begins with a capital letter; as, _Jersey City_. [Footnote: _Dead Sea_ is composed of the class name _sea_, which applies to all seas, and the word _Dead_, which distinguishes one sea from all others.] But, when the distinguishing word can by itself be regarded as a complete name, the class name begins with a small letter; as, _river Rhine_. +Examples+.--Long Island, Good Friday, Mount Vernon, Suspension Bridge, New York city, Harper's Ferry, Cape May, Bunker Hill, Red River, Lake Erie, General Jackson, White Mountains, river Thames, Astor House, steamer Drew, North Pole. +Direction+.--_Write these words, using capital letters when needed_:-- ohio river, professor huxley, president adams, doctor brown, clinton county, westchester county, colonel burr, secretary stanton, lake george, green mountains, white sea, cape cod, delaware bay, atlantic ocean, united states, rhode island. +Remember+ that, when an individual name is made up of a class name, the word _of_, and a distinguishing word, the class name and the distinguishing word should each begin with a capital letter; as, _Gulf of Mexico_. But, when the distinguishing word can by itself be regarded as a complete name, the class name should begin with a small letter; as, _city of London_. [Footnote: The need of some definite instruction to save the young writer from hesitation and confusion in the use of capitals is evident from the following variety of forms now in use: _City_ of New York, _city_ of New York, New York _City_, New York _city_, New York _State_, New York _state_, Fourth _Avenue_, Fourth _avenue_, Grand _Street_, Grand _street_, Grand _st._, Atlantic _Ocean_, Atlantic _ocean_, Mediterranean _Sea_, Mediterranean _sea_, Kings _County_, Kings _county_, etc. The usage of newspapers and of text-books on geography would probably favor the writing of the class names in the examples above with initial capitals; but we find in the most carefully printed books and periodicals a tendency to favor small letters in such cases. In the superscription of letters, such words as _street_, _city_, and _county_ begin with capitals. Usage certainly favors small initials for the following italicized words: _river_ Rhine, Catskill _village_, the Ohio and Mississippi _rivers_. If _river_ and _village_, in the preceding examples, are not essential parts of the individual names, why should _river_, _ocean_, and _county_, in Hudson _river_, Pacific _ocean_, Queens _county_, be treated differently? We often say the _Hudson_, the _Pacific_, _Queens_, without adding the explanatory class name. The principle we suggest may be in advance of common usage; but it is in the line of progress, and it tends to uniformity of practice and to an improved appearance of the page. About a century ago every noun began with a capital letter. The American Cyclopedia takes a position still further in advance, as illustrated in the following: Bed _river_, Black _sea_, _gulf_ of Mexico, Rocky _mountains_. In the Encyclopaedia Britannica (Little, Brown, & Co., 9th ed.) we find Connecticut _river_, Madison _county_, etc., quite uniformly; but we find _Gulf_ of Mexico, Pacific _Ocean_, etc.] +Direction+.--_Write these words, using capital letters when needed:_-- city of atlanta, isle of man, straits of dover, state of Vermont, isthmus of darien, sea of galilee, queen of england, bay of naples, empire of china. +Remember+ that, when a compound name is made up of two or more distinguishing words, as, Henry Clay, John Stuart Mill, each word begins with a capital letter. +Direction+.--_Write these words, using capital letters when needed_:-- great britain, lower california, south carolina, daniel webster, new england, oliver wendell holmes, north america, new orleans, james russell lowell, british america. +Remember+ that, in writing the titles of books, essays, poems, plays, etc., and the names of the Deity, only the chief words begin with capital letters; as, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Supreme Being, Paradise Lost, the Holy One of Israel. +Direction+.--_Write these words, using capital letters when needed_:-- declaration of independence, clarendon's history of the great rebellion, webster's reply to hayne, pilgrim's progress, johnson's lives of the poets, son of man, the most high, dombey and son, tent on the beach, bancroft's history of the united states. +Direction+.--_Write these miscellaneous names, using capital letters when needed_:-- erie canal, governor tilden, napoleon bonaparte, cape of good hope, pope's essay on criticism, massachusetts bay, city of boston, continent of america, new testament, goldsmith's she stoops to conquer, milton's hymn on the nativity, indian ocean, cape cod bay, plymouth rock, anderson's history of the united states, mount washington, english channel, the holy spirit, new york central railroad, old world, long island sound, flatbush village. * * * * * LESSON 10. ABBREVIATIONS. +Direction+.--_Some words occur frequently, and for convenience may he abbreviated in writing. Observing Rule 2, Lesson 8, abbreviate these words by writing the first five letters_:-- Thursday and lieutenant. _These by writing the first four letters_:-- Connecticut, captain, Colorado, Kansas, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Nebraska, Oregon, professor, president, Tennessee, and Tuesday. _These by writing the first three letters_:-- Alabama, answer, Arkansas, California, colonel, Delaware, England, esquire, Friday, general, George, governor, honorable, Illinois, Indiana, major, Monday, Nevada, reverend, Saturday, secretary, Sunday, Texas, Wednesday, Wisconsin, and the names of the months except May, June, and July. _These by writing the first two letters_:-- Company, county, credit, example, and idem (the same). _These by writing the first letter_:-- East, north, south, and west. [Footnote: When these words refer to sections of the country, they should begin with capitals.] _These by writing the first and the last letter_:-- Doctor, debtor, Georgia, junior, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Master, Mister, numero (number), Pennsylvania, saint, street, Vermont, and Virginia. _These by writing the first letter of each word of the compound with a period after each letter_:-- Artium baccalaureus (bachelor of arts), anno Domini (in the year of our Lord), artium magister (master of arts), ante meridiem (before noon), before Christ, collect on delivery, District (of) Columbia, divinitatis doctor (doctor of divinity), member (of) Congress, medicinae doctor (doctor of medicine), member (of) Parliament, North America, North Carolina, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, postmaster, post meridiem (afternoon), post-office, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and United States. +Direction.+--_The following abbreviations and those you have made should be committed to memory_:-- Acct. _or_ acct., account. Bbl. _or_ bbl., barrel. Chas., Charles. Fla., Florida. LL. D., legum doctor (doctor of laws).[Footnote: The doubling of the _l_ to _ll_ and in _LL. D.,_ and of _p_ in _pp.,_ with no period between the letters, comes from pluralizing the nouns _line, lean_, and _page_.] Messrs., messieurs (gentlemen). Mme., madame. Mo., Missouri. Mrs., (pronounced missis) mistress. Mts., mountains. Ph.D., philosophiae doctor (doctor of philosophy). Recd., received. Robt., Robert. Supt., superintendent. Thos., Thomas. bu., bushel. do., ditto (the same) doz., dozen. e.g., exempli gratia (for example) etc., et caetera (and others). ft., foot, feet. hhd., hogshead. hdkf., handkerchief. i.e., id est (that is). l., line. ll., lines. lb., libra (pound). oz., ounce. p., page. pp., pages. qt., quart. vs., versus (against). viz., videlicet (namely). yd., yard. +Remark.+--In this Lesson we have given the abbreviations of the states as now regulated by the "U. S. Official Postal Guide." In the "Guide" _Iowa_ and _Ohio_ are not abbreviated. They are, however, frequently abbreviated thus: _Iowa, Ia._ or _Io.; Ohio, 0._ The similarity, when hurriedly written, of the abbreviations _Cal., Col.; Ia., Io.; Neb., Nev.; Penn., Tenn.,_ etc., has led to much confusion. * * * * * LESSON 11. VERBS. +Introductory Hints+.--We told you in Lesson 8 how, by noticing the essential likenesses in things and grouping the things thus alike, we could throw the countless objects around us into comparatively few classes. We began to classify words according to their use, or office, in the sentence; we found one class of words that name things, and we called them _nouns_. But in all the sentences given you, we have had to use another class of words. These words, you notice, tell what the things do, or assert that they are, or exist. When we say _Clocks tick_, _tick_ is not the name of anything; it tells what clocks do: it asserts action. When we say _Clocks are_, or _There are clocks_, _are_ is not the name of. anything, nor does it tell what clocks do; it simply asserts existence, or being. When we say _Clocks hang, stand, last, lie_, or _remain_, these words _hang, stand, last_, etc., do not name anything, nor do they tell that clocks act or simply exist; they tell the condition, or state, in which clocks are, or exist; that is, they assert state of being. All words that assert action, being, or state of being, we call +Verbs+ (+Lat+. _verbum_, a word). The name was given to this class because it was thought that they were the most important words in the sentence. Give several verbs that assert action. Give some that assert being, and some that assert state of being. +DEFINITION+.--+A _Verb_ is a word that asserts action, being-, or state of being+. There are, however, two forms of the verb, the participle and the infinitive (see Lessons 37 and 40), that express action, being, or state of being, without asserting it. +Direction.+--_Write after each of the following nouns as many appropriate verbs as you can think of_:-- Let some express being and some express state of being. +Model.--_Noun._ | burns. | melt. | scorches. Fire | keep. (or) + spreads. Fires | glow. | rages. | heat. | exists. +Remark.+--Notice that the simple form of the verb, as, _burn, melt, scorch_, adds _s_ or _es_ when its subject noun names but one thing. Lawyers, mills, horses, books, education, birds, mind. A verb may consist of two, three, or even four words; as, _is learning, may be learned, could have been learned_. [Footnote: Such groups of words are sometimes called _verb-phrases_. For definition of _phrase_, see Lesson 17.] +Direction.+--_Unite the words in columns_ 2 _and_ 3 _below, and append the verbs thus formed to the nouns and pronouns in column_ 1 _so as to make good sentences_:-- +Remark.+--Notice that _is, was_, and _has_ are used with nouns naming one thing, and with the pronouns _he, she_, and _it_; and that _are, were_, and _have_ are used with nouns naming more than one thing, and with the pronouns _we, you_, and _they_. _I_ may be used with _am, was_, and _have_. 1 2 3 Words am confused. Cotton is exported. Sugar are refined. Air coined. Teas was delivered. Speeches were weighed. I, we, you has been imported. He, she, it, they have been transferred. As verbs are the only words that assert, +every predicate+ must be a verb, or must contain a verb. +Naming the class+ to which a word belongs is the +first step in parsing.+ +Direction+.--_Parse five of the sentences you have written_. +Model+.--_Poland was dismembered_. +Parsing+.--_Poland_ is a noun because ----; _was dismembered_ is a verb because it asserts action. * * * * * LESSON 12. MODIFIED SUBJECT. ADJECTIVES. +Introductory Hints+.--The subject noun and the predicate verb are not always or often the whole of the structure that we call the sentence, though they are the underlying timbers that support the rest of the verbal bridge. Other words may be built upon them. We learned in Lesson 8 that things resemble one another and differ from one another. They resemble and they differ in what we call their qualities. Things are alike whose qualities are the same, as, two oranges having the same color, taste, and odor. Things are unlike, as an orange and an apple, whose qualities are different. It is by their qualities, then, that we know things and group them. _Ripe apples are healthful. Unripe apples are hurtful._ In these two sentences we have the same word apples to name the same general class of things; but the prefixed words ripe and unripe, marking opposite qualities in the apples, separate the apples into two kinds--the ripe ones and the unripe ones. These prefixed words _ripe_ and _unripe_, then, limit the word _apples_ in its scope; _ripe apples_ or _unripe apples_ applies to fewer things than _apples_ alone applies to. If we say _the, this, that_ apple, or _an, no_ apple, or _some, many, eight_ apples, we do not mark any quality of the fruit; but _the, this,_ or _that_ points out a particular apple, and limits the word _apple_ to the one pointed out; and _an, no, some, many_, or _eight_ limits the word in respect to the number of apples that it denotes. These and all such words as by marking quality, by pointing out, or by specifying number or quantity limit the scope or add to the meaning of the noun, +modify+ it, and are called +Modifiers+. In the sentence above, _apples_ is the +Simple Subject+ and _ripe apples_ is the +Modified Subject+. Words that modify nouns and pronouns are called +Adjectives+ (Lat. _ad_, to, and _jacere_, to throw). +DEFINITION.--A _Modifier_ is a word or a group of words joined to some part of the sentence to qualify or limit the meaning+. The +Subject+ with its +Modifiers+ is called the +Modified Subject+, or _Logical Subject_. +DEFINITION.--An _Adjective_ is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun+. Analysis and Parsing. 1. The cold November rain is falling. rain | is falling =========================|============== \The \cold \November | +Explanation.+--The two lines shaded alike and placed uppermost stand for the subject and the predicate, and show that these are of the same rank, and are the principal parts of the sentence. The lighter lines, placed under and joined to the subject line, stand for the less important parts, the modifiers, and show what is modified. [Footnote: TO THE TEACHER.--When several adjectives are joined to one noun, each adjective does not always modify the unlimited noun. _That old wooden house was burned._ Here _wooden_ modifies _house_, _old_ modifies _house_ limited by _wooden_, and _that_ modifies _house_ limited by _old_ and _wooden_. This may be illustrated in the diagram by numbering the modifiers in the order of their rank, thus:-- | ==================|======= \3 \2 \1 | Adverbs, and both phrase and clause modifiers often differ in rank in the same way. If the pupils are able to see these distinctions, it will be well to have them made in the analysis, as they often determine the punctuation and the arrangement. See Lessons 13 and 21.] +TO THE TEACHER.+--While we, from experience, are clear in the belief that diagrams are very helpful in the analysis of sentences, we wish to say that the work required in this book can all be done without resorting to these figures. If some other form, or no form, of written analysis is preferred, our diagrams can be omitted without break or confusion. When diagrams are used, only the teacher can determine how many shall be required in any one Lesson, and how soon the pupil may dispense with their aid altogether. +Oral Analysis.+--(Here and hereafter we shall omit from the oral analysis and parsing whatever has been provided for in previous Lessons.) _The, cold,_ and _November_ are modifiers of the subject. _The cold November rain_ is the modified subject. TO THE TEACHER.--While in these "models" we wish to avoid repetition, we should require of the pupils full forms of oral analysis for at least some of the sentences in every Lesson. +Parsing.+--_The, cold,_ and _November_ are adjectives modifying _rain_--_cold_ and _November_ expressing quality, and _the_ pointing out. 2. The great Spanish Armada was destroyed. 3. A free people should be educated. 4. The old Liberty Bell was rung. 5. The famous Alexandrian library was burned. 6. The odious Stamp Act was repealed. 7. Every intelligent American citizen should vote. 8. The long Hoosac Tunnel is completed. 9. I alone should suffer. 10. All nature rejoices. 11. Five large, ripe, luscious, mellow apples were picked. 12. The melancholy autumn days have come. 13. A poor old wounded soldier returned. 14. The oppressed Russian serfs have been freed. 15. Immense suspension bridges have been built. * * * * * LESSON 13. COMPOSITION--ADJECTIVES. +Caution.+--When two or more adjectives are used with a noun, care must be taken in their arrangement. If they differ in rank, place nearest the noun the one most closely modifying it. If of the same rank, place them where they will sound best--generally in the order of length, the shortest first. +Explanation.+--_Two honest young men were chosen, A tall, straight, dignified person entered._ _Young_ tells the kind of men, _honest_ tells the kind of young men, and _two_ tells the number of honest young men; hence these adjectives are not of the same rank. _Tall_, _straight_, and _dignified_ modify _person_ independently--the person is tall and straight and dignified; hence these adjectives are of the same rank. Notice the comma after _tall_ and _straight_; _and_ may be supplied; in the first sentence _and_ cannot be supplied. See Lesson 21. +Direction.+--_Arrange the adjectives below, and give your reasons:_-- 1. A Newfoundland pet handsome large dog. 2. Level low five the fields. 3. A wooden rickety large building. 4. Blind white beautiful three mice. 5. An energetic restless brave people. 6. An enlightened civilized nation. +Direction.+--_Form sentences by prefixing modified subjects to these predicates:_-- 1. ------ have been invented. 2. ------ were destroyed. 3. ------ are cultivated. 4. ------ may be abused. 5. ------ was mutilated. 6. ------ were carved. 7. ------ have been discovered. 8. ------ have fallen. 9. ------ will be respected. 10. ------ have been built. +Direction.+--_Construct ten sentences, each of which shall contain a subject modified by three adjectives--one from each of these columns:_-- Let the adjectives be appropriate. For punctuation, see Lesson 21. The dark sunny That bright wearisome This dingy commercial Those short blue These soft adventurous Five brave fleecy Some tiny parallel Several important cheerless Many long golden A warm turbid +Direction+.--_Prefix to each of these nouns several appropriate adjectives:_-- River, frost, grain, ships, air, men. +Direction+.--_Couple those adjectives and nouns below that most appropriately go together:_-- Modest, lovely, flaunting, meek, patient, faithful, saucy, spirited, violet, dahlia, sheep, pansy, ox, dog, horse, rose, gentle, duck, sly, waddling, cooing, chattering, homely, chirping, puss, robin, dove, sparrow, blackbird, cow, hen, cackling. * * * * * LESSON 14. MODIFIED PREDICATE. ADVERBS. +Introductory Hints+.--You have learned that the subject may be modified; let us see whether the predicate may be. If we say, _The leaves fall_, we express a fact in a general way. But, if we wish to speak of the time of their falling, we can add a word and say, The leaves fall _early_; of the place of their falling, The leaves fall _here_; of the manner, The leaves fall _quietly_; of the cause, _Why_ do the leaves fall? We may join a word to one of these modifiers and say, The leaves fall _very_ quietly. Here _very_ modifies _quietly_ by telling the degree. _Very quietly_ is a group of words modifying the predicate. The predicate with its modifiers is called the +Modified Predicate+. Such words as _very, here_, and _quietly_ form another part of speech, and are called +Adverbs+ (Lat. _ad_, to, and _verbum_, a word, or verb). Adverbs may modify adjectives; as, _Very ripe_ apples are healthful. Adverbs modify verbs just as adjectives modify nouns--by limiting them. The horse has a _proud step_ = The horse _steps proudly_. The +Predicate+ with its +Modifiers+ is called the +Modified +Predicate, or _Logical Predicate_. +DEFINITION.--An _Adverb_ is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.+ [Footnote: See Lesson 92 and foot-note.] Analysis and Parsing. 1. The leaves fall very quietly. leaves | fall ========|====== \The | \quietly \very +Oral Analysis+.--_Very quietly_ is a modifier of the predicate; _quietly_ is the principal word of the group; _very_ modifies _quietly_; _the leaves_ is the modified subject; _fall very quietly_ is the modified predicate. +Parsing+.--_Quietly_ is an adverb modifying _fall_, telling the manner; _very_ is an adverb modifying _quietly_, telling the degree. 2. The old, historic Charter Oak was blown down. 3. The stern, rigid Puritans often worshiped there. 4. Bright-eyed daisies peep up everywhere. 5. The precious morning hours should not be wasted. 6. The timely suggestion was very kindly received. 7. We turned rather abruptly. 8. A highly enjoyable entertainment was provided. 9. The entertainment was highly enjoyed. 10. Why will people exaggerate so! 11. A somewhat dangerous pass had been reached quite unexpectedly. 12. We now travel still more rapidly. 13. Therefore he spoke excitedly. 14. You will undoubtedly be very cordially welcomed. 15. A furious equinoctial gale has just swept by. 16. The Hell Gate reef was slowly drilled away. * * * * * LESSON 15. COMPOSITION--ADVERBS. +Caution+.--So place adverbs that there can be no doubt as to what you intend them to modify. Have regard to the sound also. +Direction+.--_Place the, italicized words below in different positions, and note the effect on the sound and the sense_:-- 1. I _immediately_ ran out. 2. _Only_ one was left there. 3. She looked down _proudly_. 4. _Unfortunately_, this assistance came too late. +Direction+.--_Construct on each of these subjects three sentences having modified subjects and modified predicates_:--- For punctuation, see Lesson 21. +Model+. ---- _clouds_ ----. 1. _Dark, heavy, threatening clouds are slowly gathering above_. 2. _Those, brilliant, crimson clouds will very soon dissolve_. 3. _Thin, fleecy clouds are scudding over_. l. ---- ocean ----. 2. ---- breeze ----. 3. ---- shadows ----. 4. ---- rock ----. 5. ---- leaves ----. +Direction+.--_Compose sentences in which these adverbs shall modify verbs_:-- Heretofore, hereafter, annually, tenderly, inaudibly, legibly, evasively, everywhere, aloof, forth. +Direction+.--_Compose sentences in which five of these adverbs shall modify adjectives, and five shall modify adverbs_:-- Far, unusually, quite, altogether, slightly, somewhat, much, almost, too, rather. * * * * * LESSON 16. REVIEW. TO THE TEACHER.--In all school work, but especially here, where the philosophy of the sentence and the principles of construction are developed in progressive steps, success depends largely on the character of the reviews. Let reviews be, so far as possible, topical. Require frequent outlines of the work passed over, especially of what is taught in the "Introductory Hints." The language, except that of Rules and Definitions, should be the pupil's own, and the illustrative sentences should be original. +Direction+.--_Review from Lesson 8 to Lesson 15, inclusive_. Give the substance of the "Introductory Hints" (tell, for example, what three things such words as _tick, are,_ and _remain_ do in the sentence, what office they have in common, what such words are called, and why; what common office such words as _ripe, the,_ and _eight_ have, in what three ways they perform it, what such words are called, and why, etc.). Repeat and illustrate definitions and rules; illustrate what is taught of the capitalization and the abbreviation of names, and of the position of adjectives and adverbs. Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. (SEE PAGES 150-153.) TO THE TEACHER.--After the pupil has learned a few principles of analysis and construction through the aid of short detached sentences that exclude everything unfamiliar, he may be led to recognize these same principles in longer related sentences grouped into paragraphs. The study of paragraphs selected for this purpose may well be extended as an informal preparation for what is afterwards formally presented in the regular lessons of the text-book. These "Exercises" are offered only as suggestions. The teacher must, of course, determine where and how often this composition should be introduced. We invite special attention to the study of the paragraph. * * * * * LESSON 17. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES AND PREPOSITIONS. +Introductory Hints+.--To express our thoughts with greater exactness we may need to expand a word modifier into several words; as, A _long_ ride brought us _there_ = A ride _of one hundred miles_ brought us _to Chicago_. These groups of words, _of one hundred miles_ and _to Chicago_--the one substituted for the adjective _long_, the other for the adverb _there_--we call +Phrases+. A phrase that does the work of an adjective is called an +Adjective Phrase+. A phrase that does the work of an adverb is called an +Adverb Phrase+. As adverbs modify adjectives and adverbs, they may modify their equivalent phrases; as, The train stops _only at the station_. They sometimes modify only the introductory word of the phrase--this introductory word being adverbial in its nature; as, He sailed _nearly around_ the globe. That we may learn the office of such words as _of, to_, and _at_, used to introduce these phrases, let us see how the relation of one idea to another may be expressed. _Wealthy men_. These two words express two ideas as related. We have learned to know this relation by the form and position of the words. Change these, and the relation is lost--_men wealth_. But by using _of_ before _wealth_ the relation is restored---_men of wealth_. The word _of_, then, shows the relation between the ideas expressed by the words _men_ and _wealth_. All such relation words are called +Prepositions+ (Lat. _prae_, before, and _positus_, placed--their usual position being before the noun with which they form a phrase). A phrase introduced by a preposition is called a +Prepositional Phrase+. This, however, is not the only kind of phrase. +DEFINITION.--A _Phrase_ is a group of words denoting related ideas, and having a distinct office, but not expressing a thought+. +DEFINITION.--A _Preposition_ is a word that introduces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the word modified.+ Analysis and Parsing. 1. The pitch of the musical note depends upon the rapidity of vibration. TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions in Lesson 12, concerning the use of diagrams. pitch depends ==========|================= \The \of \upon \ \ \ note \ rapidity \-------- \------------ \the \musical \the \of \ \vibration \--------- +Explanation+.--The diagram of the phrase is made up of a slanting line standing for the introductory word, and a horizontal line representing the principal word. Under the latter are drawn the lines which represent the modifiers of the principal word. +Oral Analysis+.---_The_ and the adjective phrase _of the musical note_ are modifiers of the subject; the adverb phrase _upon the rapidity of vibration_ is a modifier of the predicate. _Of_ introduces the first phrase, and _note_ is the principal word; _the_ and _musical_ are modifiers of _note_; _upon_ introduces the second phrase, and _rapidity_ is the principal word; _the_ and the adjective phrase _of vibration_ are modifiers of _rapidity_; _of_ introduces this phrase, and _vibration_ is the principal word. TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions in Lesson 12, concerning oral analysis. +Parsing+.--_Of_ is a preposition showing the relation, in sense, of _note_ to _pitch_; etc., etc. TO THE TEACHER.--Insist that, in parsing, the pupils shall give specific reasons instead of general definitions. 2. The Gulf Stream can be traced along the shores of the United States by the blueness of the water. 3. The North Pole has been approached in three principal directions. 4. In 1607, Hudson penetrated within six hundred miles of the North Pole. [Footnote: "1607" may be treated as a noun, and "six hundred" as one adjective.] 5. The breezy morning died into silent noon. 6. The Delta of the Mississippi was once at St. Louis. 7. Coal of all kinds has originated from the decay of plants. 8. Genius can breathe freely only in the atmosphere of freedom. \in \ \ _____\below \atmosphere \just \ \___________ \Falls \ \______ \only \ \the +Explanation+.----_Only_ modifies the whole phrase, and _just_ modifies the preposition. 9. The Suspension Bridge is stretched across the Niagara river just below the Falls. 10. In Mother Goose the cow jumps clear over the moon. 11. The first standing army was formed in the middle of the fifteenth century. 12. The first astronomical observatory in Europe was erected at Seville by the Saracens. 13. The tails of some comets stretch to the distance of 100,000,000 miles. 14. The body of the great Napoleon was carried back from St. Helena to France. * * * * * LESSON 18. COMPOSITION-PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. +COMMA-RULE.--Phrases that are placed out of their usual order [Footnote: For the usual order of words and phrases, see Lesson 51.] and made emphatic, or that are loosely connected with the rest of the sentence, should be set off by the comma.+ [Footnote: An expression in the body of a sentence is set off by two commas; at the beginning or at the end, by one comma.] +Remark.+--This rule must be applied with caution. Unless it is desired to make the phrase emphatic, or to break the continuity of the thought, the growing usage among writers is not to set it off. +Direction.+--_Tell why the comma is, or is not, used in these sentences_:-- 1. Between the two mountains lies a fertile valley. 2. Of the scenery along the Rhine, many travelers speak with enthusiasm. 3. He went, at the urgent request of the stranger, for the doctor. 4. He went from New York to Philadelphia on Monday. 5. In the dead of night, with a chosen band, under the cover of a truce, he approached. +Direction+.--_Punctuate such of these sentences as need punctuation_:-- 1. England in the eleventh century was conquered by the Normans. 2. Amid the angry yells of the spectators he died. 3. For the sake of emphasis a word or a phrase may be placed out of its natural order. 4. In the Pickwick Papers the conversation of Sam Weller is spiced with wit. 5. New York on the contrary abounds in men of wealth. 6. It has come down by uninterrupted tradition from the earliest times to the present day. +Direction+.--_See in how many places the phrases in the sentences above may stand without obscuring the thought._ +Caution+.--So place phrase modifiers that there can be no doubt as to what yon intend them to modify. Have regard to the sound also. +Direction+.--_Correct these errors in position, and use the comma when needed_:-- 1. The honorable member was reproved for being intoxicated by the president. 2. That small man is speaking with red whiskers. 3. A message was read from the President in the Senate. 4. With his gun toward the woods he started in the morning. 5. On Monday evening on temperance by Mr. Gough a lecture at the old brick church was delivered. +Direction+.--_Form a sentence out of each of these groups of words_:-- (Look sharply to the arrangement and the punctuation.) 1. Of mind of splendor under the garb often is concealed poverty. 2. Of affectation of the young fop in the face impertinent an was seen smile. 3. Has been scattered Bible English the of millions by hundreds of the earth over the face. 4. To the end with no small difficulty of the journey at last through deep roads we after much fatigue came. 5. At the distance a flood of flame from the line from thirty iron mouths of twelve hundred yards of the enemy poured forth. +Direction+.--_See into how many good, clear sentences you can convert these by transposing the phrases_:-- 1. He went over the mountains on a certain day in early boyhood. 2. Ticonderoga was taken from the British by Ethan Allen on the tenth of May in 1775. * * * * * LESSON 19. COMPOSITION--PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. +Direction+.--_Rewrite these sentences, changing the italicized words into equivalent phrases_:-- +Model+.--The sentence was _carefully_ written. The sentence was written _with_ care. 1. A _brazen_ image was _then_ set up. 2. Those _homeless_ children were _kindly_ treated. 3. Much has been said about the _Swiss_ scenery. 4. An _aerial_ trip to Europe was _rashly_ planned. 5. The _American_ Continent was _probably_ discovered by Cabot. +Direction+.--_Change these adjectives and adverbs into equivalent phrases; and then, attending carefully to the punctuation, use these phrases in sentences of your own_:-- 1. Bostonian 2. why 3. incautiously 4. nowhere 5. there 6. hence 7. northerly 8. national 9. whence 10. here 11. Arabian 12. lengthy 13. historical 14. lucidly 15. earthward +Direction+.--_Compose sentences, using these phrases as modifiers_:-- Of copper; in Pennsylvania; from the West Indies; around the world; between the tropics; toward the Pacific; on the 22d of February; during the reign of Elizabeth; before the application of steam to machinery; at the Centennial Exposition of 1876. * * * * * LESSON 20. COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND PREDICATE. CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS. +Introductory Hints.+--_Edward, Mary, and Elizabeth reigned in England._ The three words _Edward, Mary,_ and _Elizabeth_ have the same predicate--the same act being asserted of the king and the two queens. _Edward, Mary_, and _Elizabeth_ are connected by _and_, _and_ being understood between Edward and Mary. Connected subjects having the same predicate form a +Compound Subject+. _Charles I. was seized, was tried, and was beheaded._ The three predicates _was seized, was tried_, and _was beheaded_ have the same subject--the three acts being asserted of the same king. Connected predicates having the same subject form a +Compound Predicate.+ A sentence may have both a compound subject and a compound predicate; as, _Mary_ and _Elizabeth lived_ and _reigned_ in England. The words connecting the parts of a compound subject or of a compound predicate are called +Conjunctions+ (Lat. _con_, or _cum_, together, and _jungere_, to join). A conjunction may connect other parts of the sentence, as two word modifiers--A dark _and_ rainy night follows; Some men sin deliberately _and_ presumptuously. It may connect two phrases; as, The equinox occurs in March _and_ in September. It may connect two clauses, that is, expressions that, standing alone, would be sentences; as, The leaves of the pine fall in spring, _but_ the leaves of the maple drop in autumn. +Interjections+ (Lat. _inter_, between, and _jacere_, to throw) are the eighth and last part of speech. _Oh! ah! pooh! pshaw!_ etc., express bursts of feeling too sudden and violent for deliberate sentences. _Hail! fudge! indeed! amen! _etc., express condensed thought as well as feeling. Any part of speech may be wrenched from its construction with other words, and may lapse into an interjection; _as, behold! shame! what!_ Professor Sweet calls interjections _sentence-words_. Two or more connected subjects having the same predicate form a +Compound Subject+. Two or more connected predicates having the same subject form a +Compound Predicate+. +DEFINITION.--A _Conjunction_ is a word used to connect words, phrases, or clauses.+ +DEFINITION.--An _Interjection_ is a word used to express strong or sudden feeling.+ Analysis and Parsing. 1. Ah! anxious wives, sisters, and mothers wait for the news. Ah ---- wives ========\ '\ ' \ | wait sisters 'x \=====|=========== ========' \ \anxious \for 'and/ \ ' / \news mothers ' / ----- ========'/ \the +Explanation+.--The three short horizontal lines represent each a part of the compound subject. They are connected by dotted lines, which stand for the connecting word. The x shows that a conjunction is understood. The line standing for the word modifier is joined to that part of the subject line which represents the entire subject. Turn this diagram about, and the connected horizontal lines will stand for the parts of a compound predicate. +Oral Analysis+.---_Wives, sisters_, and _mothers_ form the compound subject; _anxious_ is a modifier of the compound subject; _and_ connects _sisters_ and _mothers_. +Parsing+.--_And_ is a conjunction connecting _sisters_ and _mothers_; _ah_ is an interjection, expressing a sudden burst of feeling. 2. In a letter we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss. (For diagram see the last sentence of the "Explanation" above.) 3. The mental, moral, and muscular powers are improved by use. powers came ================= ========= \The \ X \ and \ \ and \of \...\.....\ \.......\ parentage \ \ \muscular \ \----------- \ \moral \from \mental \ land \--------- 4. The hero of the Book of Job came from a strange land and of a strange parentage. 5. The optic nerve passes from the brain to the back of the eyeball, and there spreads out. 6. Between the mind of man and the outer world are interposed the nerves of the human body. 7. All forms of the lever and all the principal kinds of hinges are found in the body. 8. By perfection is meant the full and harmonious development of all the faculties. 9. Ugh! I look forward with dread to to-morrow. 10. From the Mount of Olives, the Dead Sea, dark and misty and solemn, is seen. 11. Tush! tush! 't will not again appear. 12. A sort of gunpowder was used at an early period in China and in other parts of Asia. 13. Some men sin deliberately and presumptuously. 14. Feudalism did not and could not exist before the tenth century. 15. The opinions of the New York press are quoted in every port and in every capital. 16. Both friend and foe applauded. friend -------------------\ ' \ ' \ | applauded 'and.... Both >===|=========== ' / foe ' / --------'----------/ +Explanation+.--The conjunction _both_ is used to strengthen the real connective _and_. _Either_ and _neither_ do the same for _or_ and _nor_ in _either--or_, _neither--nor_. +Remark.+--A phrase that contains another phrase as a modifier is called a +Complex Phrase+. Two or more phrases connected by a conjunction form a +Compound Phrase+. +Direction.+--_Pick out the simple, the complex, and the compound phrases in the sentences above._ * * * * * LESSON 21. COMPOSITION---CONNECTED TERMS AND INTERJECTIONS. +COMMA--RULE.--Words or phrases connected by conjunctions are separated from each other by the comma unless all the conjunctions are expressed.+ +Remark+.--When words and phrases stand in pairs, the pairs are separated according to the Rule, but the words of each pair are not. When one of two terms has a modifier that without the comma might be referred to both, or, when the parts of compound predicates and of other phrases are long or differently modified, these terms or parts are separated by the comma though no conjunction is omitted. When two terms connected by or have the same meaning, the second is logically explanatory of the first, and is set off by the comma, _i. e._, when it occurs in the body of a sentence, a comma is placed after the explanatory word, as well as before the _or_. +Direction.+--_Justify the punctuation of these sentences:_-- 1. Long, pious pilgrimages are made to Mecca. 2. Empires rise, flourish, and decay. 3. Cotton is raised in Egypt, in India, and in the United States. 4. The brain is protected by the skull, or cranium. 5. Nature and art and science were laid under tribute. 6. The room was furnished with a table, and a chair without legs. 7. The old oaken bucket hangs in the well. +Explanation.+--No comma here, for no conjunction is omitted. _Oaken_ limits _bucket_, _old_ limits _bucket_ modified by _oaken_, and _the_ limits _bucket_ modified by _old_ and _oaken_. See Lesson 13. 8. A Christian spirit should be shown to Jew or Greek, male or female, friend or foe. 9. We climbed up a mountain for a view. +Explanation+.--No comma. _Up a mountain_ tells where we climbed, and _for a view_ tells why we climbed up a mountain. 10. The boy hurries away from home, and enters upon a career of business or of pleasure. 11. The long procession was closed by the great dignitaries of the realm, and the brothers and sons of the king. +Direction+.--_Punctuate such of these sentences as need punctuation, and give your reasons_:-- 1. Men and women and children stare cry out and run. 2. Bright healthful and vigorous poetry was written by Milton. 3. Few honest industrious men fail of success in life. (Where is the conjunction omitted?) 4. Ireland or the Emerald Isle lies to the west of England. 5. That relates to the names of animals or of things without sex. 6. The Hebrew is closely allied to the Arabic the Phoenician the Syriac and the Chaldee. 7. We sailed down the river and along the coast and into a little inlet. 8. The horses and the cattle were fastened in the same stables and were fed with abundance of hay and grain. 9. Spring and summer autumn and winter rush by in quick succession. 10. A few dilapidated old buildings still stand in the deserted village. +EXCLAMATION POINT--RULE.--All _Exclamatory Expressions_ must be followed by the exclamation point.+ +Remark+.--Sometimes an interjection alone and sometimes an interjection and the words following it form the exclamatory expression; as, _Oh! it hurts. Oh, the beautiful snow!_ _O_ is used in direct address; as, _O father, listen to me. Oh_ is used as a cry of pain, surprise, delight, fear, or appeal. This distinction, however desirable, is not strictly observed, _O_ being frequently used in place of _Oh_. +CAPITAL LETTERS--RULE.--The words _I_ and _O_ should be written in capital letters.+ +Direction.+--_Correct these violations of the two rules given above:_-- 1. o noble judge o excellent young man. 2. Out of the depths have i cried unto thee. 3. Hurrah the field is won. 4. Pshaw how foolish. 5. Oh oh oh i shall be killed. 6. o life how uncertain o death how inevitable. * * * * * LESSON 22. ANALYSIS AND PARSING. +Direction+.--_Beginning with the 8th sentence of the first group of exercises in Lesson_ 21, _analyze thirteen sentences, omitting the_ 4_th of the second group._ +Model+.--_A Christian spirit should be shown to Jew or Greek, male or female, friend or foe._ spirit |should be shown / Jew ===============|================ __/'-------- \A \Christian | \ /' \' Greek \ / ' \-------- \ / ' \to / x ' / male \--/ '_/'-------- \ ' \' female \ x ' \-------- \ ' \ ' / friend \__/'--------- \' foe \--------- * * * * * LESSON 23. COMPOSITION--CONNECTED TERMS. Direction.+--_Using the nouns below, compose sentences with compound subjects; compose others in which the verbs shall form compound predicates; and others in which the adjectives, the adverbs, and the phrases shall form compound modifiers:_-- In some let there be three or more connected terms. Observe Rule, Lesson 21, for punctuation. Let your sentences mean something. NOUNS. Washington, beauty, grace, Jefferson, symmetry, lightning, Lincoln, electricity, copper, silver, flowers, gold, rose, lily. VERBS. Examine, sing, pull, push, report, shout, love, hate, like, scream, loathe, approve, fear, obey, refine, hop, elevate, skip, disapprove. ADJECTIVES. +Direction.+--_See Caution, Lesson_ 13. Bright, acute, patient, careful, apt, forcible, simple, homely, happy, short, pithy, deep, jolly, mercurial, precipitous. ADVERBS. +Direction.+--_See Caution, Lesson 15._ Neatly, slowly, carefully, sadly, now, here, never, hereafter. PHRASES. On sea; in the city; by day; on land; by night; in the country; by hook; across the ocean; by crook; over the lands; along the level road; up the mountains. * * * * * LESSON 24. REVIEW. CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION. Direction.+--_Give the reason for every capital letter and for every mark of punctuation used below:_-- 1. The sensitive parts of the body are covered by the cuticle, or skin. 2. The degrees of A.B., A.M., D.D., and LL.D. are conferred by the colleges and the universities of the country. 3. Oh, I am so happy! 4. Fathers and mothers, sons and daughters rejoice at the news. 5. Plants are nourished by the earth, and the carbon of the air. 6. A tide of American travelers is constantly flooding Europe. 7. The tireless, sleepless sun rises above the horizon, and climbs slowly and steadily to the zenith. 8. He retired to private life on half pay, and on the income of a large estate in the South. +Direction.+--_Write these expressions, using capital letters and marks of punctuation where they belong:_-- 1. a fresh ruddy and beardless french youth replied 2. maj, cal, bu, p m, rev, no, hon, ft, w, e, oz, mr, n y, a b, mon, bbl, st 3. o father o father i cannot breathe here 4. ha ha that sounds well 5. the edict of nantes was established by henry the great of france 6. mrs, vs, co, esq, yd, pres, u s, prof, o, do, dr 7. hurrah good news good news 8. the largest fortunes grow by the saving of cents and dimes and dollars 9. the baltic sea lies between sweden and russia 10. the mississippi river pours into the gulf of mexico 11. supt, capt, qt, ph d, p, cr, i e, doz 12. benjamin franklin was born in boston in 1706 and died in 1790 +Direction.+--_Correct all these errors in capitalization and punctuation, and give your reasons:_-- 1 Oliver cromwell ruled, over the english People, 2. halloo. I must speak to You! 3. john Milton, went abroad in Early Life, and, stayed, for some time, with the Scholars of Italy, 4. Most Fuel consists of Coal and Wood from the Forests 5. books are read for Pleasure and the Instruction and improvement of the Intellect, 6. In rainy weather the feet should be protected by overshoes or galoches 7. hark they are coming! 8. A, neat, simple and manly style is pleasing to Us. 9. alas poor thing alas, 10. i fished on a, dark, and cool, and mossy, trout stream. * * * * * LESSON 25. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW. ANALYSIS. 1. By the streets of By-and-by, one arrives at the house of Never.--_Spanish Proverb_ [Footnote: By-and-by has no real streets, the London journals do not actually thunder, nor were the cheeks of William the Testy literally scorched by his fiery gray eyes. _Streets, house, colored, thunder_, and _scorched_ are not, then, used here in their first and ordinary meaning, but in a secondary and figurative sense. These words we call +Metaphors+. By what they denote and by what they only suggest they lend clearness, vividness, and force to the thought they help to convey, and add beauty to the expression. For further treatment of metaphors and other figures of speech, see pages 87, 136, 155, 156, 165, and Lesson 150.] 2. The winds and waves are always on the side of the ablest navigators.--_Gibbon_. 3. The axis of the earth sticks out visibly through the center of each and every town or city.--_Holmes_. 4. The arrogant Spartan, with a French-like glorification, boasted forever of little Thermopylae.--_De Quincey_. 5. The purest act of knowledge is always colored by some feeling of pleasure or pain.--_Hamilton_. 6. The thunder of the great London journals reverberates through every clime.--_Marsh_. 7. The cheeks of William the Testy were scorched into a dusky red by two fiery little gray eyes.--_Irving_. 8. The study of natural science goes hand in hand with the culture of the imagination.--_Tyndall_. [Footnote: _Hand in hand_ may be treated as one adverb, or _with_ may be supplied.] 9. The whole substance of the winds is drenched and bathed and washed and winnowed and sifted through and through by this baptism in the sea.--_Swain_. 10. The Arabian Empire stretched from the Atlantic to the Chinese Wall, and from the shores of the Caspian Sea to those of the Indian Ocean.--_Draper_. 11. One half of all known materials consists of oxygen.--_Cooke_. 12. The range of thirty pyramids, even in the time of Abraham, looked down on the plain of Memphis.--_Stanley_. * * * * * LESSON 26. WRITTEN PARSING. +Direction+.--_Parse the sentences of Lesson 25 according to this +Model for Written Parsing_. | Nouns. | Pron. | Verbs. | Adj. | Adv. | Prep. | Conj.| Int.| |--------|-------|--------|--------|------|-------|------|-----| 1st |streets,| | |the,the.| |By,of, | | | sentence|By-and- | one. |arrives.| | |at,of | | | | by, | | | | | | | | |house, | | | | | | | | |Never. | | | | | | | | --------|--------|-------|--------|--------|------|-------|------|-----| | | | | | | | | | 2d | | | | | | | | | sentence| | | | | | | | | TO THE TEACHER.--Until the +Subdivisions+ and +Modifications+ of parts of speech are reached, +Oral and Written Parsing+ can be only a classification of the words in the sentence. You must judge how frequently a lesson like this is needed, and how much parsing should be done orally day by day. In their +Oral Analysis+ let the pupils give at first the reasons for every statement, but guard against their doing this mechanically and in set terms; and, when you think it can safely be done, let them drop it. But ask now and then, whenever you think they have grown careless or are guessing, for the reason of this, that, or the other step taken. Here it may be well to emphasize the fact that the part of speech to which any word belongs is determined by the use of the word, and not from its form. Such exercises as the following are suggested:-- Use _right_ words. Act _right_. _Right_ the wrong. You are in the _right_. Pupils will be interested in finding sentences that illustrate the different uses of the same word. It is hardly necessary for us to make lists of words that have different uses. Any dictionary will furnish abundant examples. It is an excellent practice to point out such words in the regular exercises for analysis. * * * * * LESSON 27. REVIEW. TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions, Lesson 16. +Direction+.--_Review from Lesson_ 17 _to Lesson_ 21, _inclusive_. Give the substance of the "Introductory Hints" (tell, for example, what such words as _long_ and _there_ may be expanded into, how these expanded forms may be modified, how introduced, what the introductory words are called, and why, etc.). Repeat and illustrate definitions and rules; illustrate fully what is taught of the position of phrases, and of the punctuation of phrases, connected terms, and exclamatory expressions. How many parts of speech are there? Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. (SEE PAGES 153-156.) TO THE TEACHER.--See notes to the teacher, pages 30, 150. * * * * * LESSON 28. NOUNS AS OBJECT COMPLEMENTS. Introductory Hints.+--In saying _Washington captured_, we do not fully express the act performed by Washington. If we add a noun and say, _Washington captured Cornwallis_, we complete the predicate by naming that which receives the act. Whatever fills out, or completes, is a +Complement+. As _Cornwallis_ completes the expression of the act by naming the thing acted upon--the object--we call it the +Object Complement+. Connected objects completing the same verb form a +Compound Object Complement+; as, Washington captured _Cornwallis_ and his _army_. +DEFINITION.--The _Object Complement of a Sentence_ completes the predicate, and names that which receives the act.+ The complement with all its modifiers is called the +Modified Complement.+ +Analysis.+ 1. Clear thinking makes clear writing. thinking | makes | writing ============|===================== \ clear | \clear +Oral Analysis+.---_Writing_ is the object complement; _clear writing_ is the modified complement, and _makes clear writing_ is the entire predicate. 2. Austerlitz killed Pitt. 3. The invention of gunpowder destroyed feudalism. 4. Liars should have good memories. 5. We find the first surnames in the tenth century. 6. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb. 7. Benjamin Franklin invented the lightning-rod. 8. At the opening of the thirteenth century, Oxford took and held rank with the greatest schools of Europe. took /---------\ Oxford | / ' \ | rank ========|=and' ========== | \ ' / \ ' held / \-------/ revolves /------------ moon | / ' ======|== and' | \ ' \ ' keeps | side \--------------- 9. The moon revolves, and keeps the same side toward us. 10. Hunger rings the bell, and orders up coals in the shape of bread and butter, beef and bacon, pies and puddings. 11. The history of the Trojan war rests on the authority of Homer, and forms the subject of the noblest poem of antiquity. 12. Every stalk, bud, flower, and seed displays a figure, a proportion, a harmony, beyond the reach of art. 13. The natives of Ceylon build houses of the trunk, and thatch roofs with the leaves, of the cocoa-nut palm. 14. Richelieu exiled the mother, oppressed the wife, degraded the brother, and banished the confessor, of the king. 15. James and John study and recite grammar and arithmetic. James study grammar =========\ /===========\ /=============== ' \ | / ' \ | / ' 'and ==|== and' ===== and' John ' / | \ ' recite / \ ' arithmetic =========/ \===========/ \=============== * * * * * LESSON 29. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES AS ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENTS. +Introductory Hints+.--The subject presents one idea; the predicate presents another, and asserts it of the first. _Corn is growing_ presents the idea of the thing, corn, and the idea of the act, growing, and asserts the act of the thing. _Corn growing_ lacks the asserting word, and _Corn_ is lacks the word denoting the idea to be asserted. In logic, the asserting word is called the _copula_--it shows that the two ideas are coupled into a thought--and the word expressing the idea asserted is called the predicate. But, as one word often performs both offices, e. g., Corn _grows_, and, as it is disputed whether any word can assert without expressing something of the idea asserted, we pass this distinction by as not essential in grammar, and call both that which asserts and that which expresses the idea asserted, by one name--the predicate. [Footnote: We may call the verb the predicate; but, when it is followed by a complement, it is an incomplete predicate.] The _maple leaves become_. The verb become does not make a complete predicate; it does not fully express the idea to be asserted. The idea may be completely expressed by adding the adjective _red_, denoting the quality we wish to assert of leaves, or attribute to them--_The maple leaves become red_. _Lizards are reptiles_. The noun _reptiles_, naming the class of the animals called lizards, performs a like office for the asserting word are. _Rolfe's wife was Pocahontas_. _Pocahontas_ completes the predicate by presenting a second idea, which _was_ asserts to be identical with that of the subject. When the completing word expressing the idea to be attributed does not unite with the asserting word to make a single verb, we distinguish it as the +Attribute Complement.+ [Footnote: _Subjective Complement_ may, if preferred, be used instead of Attribute Complement.] Connected attribute complements of the same verb form a +Compound Attribute Complement+. Most grammarians call the adjective and the noun, when so used, the +Predicate Adjective+ and the +Predicate Noun+. +DEFINITION.--The _Attribute Complement_ of a Sentence completes the predicate and belongs to the subject.+ Analysis. 1. Slang is vulgar. Slang | is \ vulgar ==========|================= | +Explanation+.--The line standing for the attribute complement is, like the object line, a continuation of the predicate line; but notice that the line which separates the incomplete predicate from the complement slants toward the subject to show that the complement is an attribute of it. +Oral Analysis+.--_Vulgar_ is the attribute complement, completing the predicate and expressing a quality of slang; _is vulgar_ is the entire predicate. 2. The sea is fascinating and treacherous. 3. The mountains are grand, tranquil, and lovable. 4. The Saxon words in English are simple, homely, and substantial. 5. The French and the Latin words in English are elegant, dignified, and artificial. [Footnote: The assertion in this sentence is true only in the main.] 6. The ear is the ever-open gateway of the soul. 7. The verb is the life of the sentence. 8. Good-breeding is surface-Christianity. 9. A dainty plant is the ivy green. +Explanation+.--The subject names that of which the speaker says something. The terms in which he says it,--the predicate,--he, of course, assumes that the hearer already understands. Settle, then, which--plant or ivy--Dickens supposed the reader to know least about, and which, therefore, Dickens was telling him about; and you settle which word--_plant_ or _ivy_--is the subject. (Is it not the writer's poetical conception of "the green ivy" that the reader is supposed not to possess?) 10. The highest outcome of culture is simplicity. 11. Stillness of person and steadiness of features are signal marks of good-breeding. 12. The north wind is full of courage, and puts the stamina of endurance into a man. 13. The west wind is hopeful, and has promise and adventure in it. 14. The east wind is peevishness and mental rheumatism and grumbling, and curls one up in the chimney-corner. 15. The south wind is full of longing and unrest and effeminate suggestions of luxurious ease. * * * * * LESSON 30. ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENTS--CONTINUED. Analysis. 1. He went out as mate and came back captain. as --- ' went \ ' mate /======================= He | / ' \out ====|=and ' | \ ' came \ captain \======================= \back +Explanation+.--_Mate_, like _captain_, is an attribute complement. Some would say that the conjunction _as_ connects _mate_ to _he_; but we think this connection is made through the verb _went_, and that _as_ is simply introductory. This is indicated in the diagram. 2. The sun shines bright and hot at midday. 3. Velvet feels smooth, and looks rich and glossy. 4. She grew tall, queenly, and beautiful. 5. Plato and Aristotle are called the two head-springs of all philosophy. 6. Under the Roman law, every son was regarded as a slave. 7. He came a foe and returned a friend. 8. I am here. I am present. +Explanation+.--The office of an adverb sometimes seems to fade into that of an adjective attribute and is not easily distinguished from it. _Here_, like an adjective, seems to complete _am_, and, like an adverb to modify it. From their form and usual function, _here,_ in this example, should be called an adverb, and _present_ an adjective. 9. This book is presented to you as a token of esteem and gratitude. 10. The warrior fell back upon the bed a lifeless corpse. 11. The apple tastes and smells delicious. 12. Lord Darnley turned out a dissolute and insolent husband. 13. In the fable of the Discontented Pendulum, the weights hung speechless. 14. The brightness and freedom of the New Learning seemed incarnate in the young and scholarly Sir Thomas More. 15. Sir Philip Sidney lived and died the darling of the Court, and the gentleman and idol of the time. * * * * * LESSON 31. OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS. +Introductory Hints+.--_He made the wall white._ Here _made_ does not fully express the act performed upon the wall. We do not mean to say, He _made_ the white _wall_, but, He _made-white_ (_whitened_) the wall. _White_ helps _made_ to express the act, and at the same time it denotes the quality attributed to the wall as the result of the act. _They made Victoria queen_. Here _made_ does not fully express the act performed upon Victoria. They did not _make_ Victoria, but _made-queen_ (_crowned_) Victoria. _Queen_ helps _made_ to express the act, and at the same time denotes the office to which the act raised Victoria. A word that, like the adjective _white_ or the noun _queen_, helps to complete the predicate and at the same time belongs to the object complement, differs from an attribute complement by belonging not to the subject but to the object complement, and so is called an +Objective Complement+. As the objective complement generally denotes what the receiver of the act is made to be, in fact or in thought, it is sometimes called the _factitive complement_ or the _factitive object_ (Lat. _facere_, to make). [Footnote: See Lesson 37, last foot-note.] Some of the other verbs which are thus completed are _call_, _think_, _choose_, and _name_. +DEFINITION.--The _Objective Complement_ completes the predicate and belongs to the object complement.+ Analysis. 1. They made Victoria queen. They | made / queen | Victoria ======|========================= | +Explanation+.--The line that separates _made_ from _queen_ slants toward the object complement to show that _queen_ belongs to the object. +Oral Analysis+.--_Queen_ is an objective complement completing _made_ and belonging to _Victoria_; _made Victoria queen_ is the complete predicate. 2. Some one has called the eye the window of the soul. 3. Destiny had made Mr. Churchill a schoolmaster. 4. President Hayes chose the Hon. Wm. M. Evarts Secretary of State. 5. After a break of sixty years in the ducal line of the English nobility, James I. created the worthless Villiers Duke of Buckingham. 6. We should consider time as a sacred trust. +Explanation+.--_As_ may be used simply to introduce an objective complement. 7. Ophelia and Polonius thought Hamlet really insane. 8. The President and the Senate appoint certain men ministers to foreign courts. 9. Shylock would have struck Jessica dead beside him. 10. Custom renders the feelings blunt and callous. 11. Socrates styled beauty a short-lived tyranny. 12. Madame de Stael calls beautiful architecture frozen music. 13. They named the state New York from the Duke of York. 14. Henry the Great consecrated the Edict of Nantes as the very ark of the constitution. * * * * * LESSON 32. COMPOSITION--COMPLEMENTS. +Caution.+--Be careful to distinguish an adjective complement from an adverb modifier. +Explanation.+--Mary arrived _safe_. We here wish to tell the condition of Mary on her arrival, and not the manner of her arriving. My head feels _bad_ (is in a bad condition, as perceived by the sense of feeling). The sun shines _bright_ (is bright, as perceived by its shining). When the idea of being is prominent in the verb, as in the examples above, you see that the adjective, and not the adverb, follows. +Direction.+--_Justify the use of these adjectives and adverbs_:-- 1. The boy is running wild. 2. The boy is running wildly about. 3. They all arrived safe and sound. 4. The day opened bright. 5. He felt awkward in the presence of ladies. 6. He felt around awkwardly for his chair. 7. The sun shines bright. 8. The sun shines brightly on the tree-tops. 9. He appeared prompt and willing. 10. He appeared promptly and willingly. +Direction+.--_Correct these errors and give your reasons_:-- 1. My head pains me very bad. 2. My friend has acted very strange in the matter. 3. Don't speak harsh. 4. It can be bought very cheaply. 5. I feel tolerable well. 6. She looks beautifully. +Direction+.--_Join to each of the nouns below three appropriate adjectives expressing the qualities as assumed, and then make complete sentences by asserting these qualities_:-- +Model.+ Hard | brittle + glass. transparent | Glass is hard, brittle, and transparent. Coal, iron, Niagara Falls, flowers, war, ships. +Direction+.--_Compose sentences containing these nouns as attribute complements_:-- Emperor, mathematician, Longfellow, Richmond. +Direction+.--_Compose sentences, using these verbs as predicates, and these pronouns as attribute complements_:-- Is, was, might have been; I, we, he, she, they. +Remark+.--Notice that these forms of the pronouns--_I, we, thou, he, she, ye, they_, and _who_--are never used as object complements or as principal words in prepositional phrases; and that _me, us, thee, him, her, them_, and _whom_ are never used as subjects or as attribute complements of sentences. +Direction+.--_Compose sentences in which each of the following verbs shall have two complements--the one an object complement, the other an objective complement:_-- Let some object complements be pronouns, and let some objective complements be introduced by _as_. +Model+.--They call _me chief_. We regard composition _as_ very _important_. Make, appoint, consider, choose, call. * * * * * LESSON 33. NOUNS AS ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS. +Introductory Hints+.--_Solomon's temple was destroyed. Solomon's_ limits _temple_ by telling what or whose temple is spoken of, and is therefore a modifier of _temple_. The relation of Solomon to the temple is expressed by the apostrophe and _s_ ('_s_) added to the noun _Solomon_. When _s_ has been added to the noun to denote more than one, this relation of possession is expressed by the apostrophe alone ('); as, _boys'_ hats. This same relation of possession may be expressed by the preposition _of_; _Solomon's_ temple = the temple _of Solomon_. _Dom Pedro, the emperor, was welcomed by the Americans_. The noun _emperor_ modifies _Dom Pedro_ by telling what Dom Pedro is meant. Both words name the same person. _Solomon's_ and _emperor_, like adjectives, modify nouns; but they are names of things, and are modified by adjectives and not by adverbs; as, _the wise_ Solomon's temple; Dom Pedro, _the Brazilian_ emperor. These are conclusive reasons for calling such words nouns. They represent two kinds of +Noun Modifiers+--the +Possessive+ and the +Explanatory+. The Explanatory Modifier is often called an +Appositive+. It identifies or explains by adding another name of the same thing. Analysis. 1. Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh, was beheaded by James I. favorite (Raleigh) | was beheaded ====================|============== \Elizabeth's | \by \ James I \----------- +Oral Analysts+.--_Elizabeth's_ and _Raleigh_ are modifiers of the subject; the first word telling whose favorite is meant, the second what favorite. _Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh_ is the modified subject. 2. The best features of King James's translation of the Bible are derived from Tyndale's version. 3. St. Paul, the apostle, was beheaded in the reign of Nero. 4. A fool's bolt is soon shot. 5. The tadpole, or polliwog, becomes a frog. 6. An idle brain is the devil's workshop. 7. Mahomet, or Mohammed, was born in the year 569 and died in 632. 8. They scaled Mount Blanc--a daring feat. They | scaled | Mount Blanc ( feat ) ======|===================== ======= | \a \daring +Explanation+.--_Feat_ is explanatory of the sentence, _They scaled Mount Blanc_, and in the diagram it stands, enclosed in curves, on a short line placed after the sentence line. 9. Bees communicate to each other the death of the queen, by a rapid interlacing of the antennae. [Footnote: For uses of _each other_ and _one another_, see Lesson 124.] +Explanation+.--_Each other_ may be treated as one term, or _each_ may be made explanatory of _bees_. 10. The lamp of a man's life has three wicks--brain, blood, and breath. +Explanation.+--Several words may together be explanatory of one. 11. The turtle's back-bone and breast-bone--its shell and coat of armor--are on the outside of its body. back-bone shell =============\ ========\ '\ /' \ | are and' \==========(======/ 'and \=)=|======= ' / \turtle's \its \ ' / | breast-bone '/ \The \' coat / =============/ ========/ 12. Cromwell's rule as Protector began in the year 1653 and ended in 1658. +Explanation+.--_As, namely, to wit, viz., i.e., e.g.,_ and _that is_ may introduce explanatory modifiers, but they do not seem to connect them to the words modified. In the diagram they stand like _as_ in Lesson 30. _Protector_ is explanatory of _Cromwell's_. 13. In the latter half of the eighteenth century, three powerful nations, namely, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, united for the dismemberment of Poland. 14. John, the beloved disciple, lay on his Master's breast. 15. The petals of the daisy, _day's-eye_, close at night and in rainy weather. * * * * * LESSON 34. COMPOSITION--NOUNS AS ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS. +COMMA--RULE.--An _Explanatory Modifier_, when it does not restrict the modified term or combine closely with it, is set off by the comma.+ [Footnote: See foot-note, Lesson 18] +Explanation+.--_The words I and O should be written in capital_ _letters_. The phrase _I and O_ restricts _words_, that is, limits its application, and no comma is needed. _Jacob's favorite sons, Joseph and Benjamin, were Rachel's children_. The phrase _Joseph and Benjamin_ explains sons without restricting, and therefore should be set off by the comma. In each of these expressions, _I myself, we boys, William the Conqueror_, the explanatory term combines closely with the word explained, and no comma is needed. +Direction+.--_Give the reasons for the insertion or the omission of commas in these sentences_:-- 1. My brother Henry and my brother George belong to a boat-club. 2. The author of Pilgrim's Progress, John Bunyan, was the son of a tinker. 3. Shakespeare, the great dramatist, was careless of his literary reputation. 4. The conqueror of Mexico, Cortez, was cruel in his treatment of Montezuma. 5. Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru, was a Spaniard. 6. The Emperors Napoleon and Alexander met and became fast friends on a raft at Tilsit. +Direction+.--_Insert commas below, where they are needed, and give your reasons_:-- 1. The Franks a warlike people of Germany gave their name to France. 2. My son Joseph has entered college. 3. You blocks! You stones! 0 you hard hearts! 4. Mecca a city in Arabia is sacred in the eyes of Mohammedans. 5. He himself could not go. 6. The poet Spenser lived in the reign of Elizabeth. 7. Elizabeth Queen of England ruled from 1558 to 1603. +Direction.+--_Compose sentences containing these expressions as explanatory modifiers_:-- The most useful metal; the capital of Turkey; the Imperial City; the great English poets; the hermit; a distinguished American statesman. +Direction.+--_Punctuate these expressions, and employ each of them in a sentence_:-- See Remark, Lesson 21. Omit _or_, and note the effect. 1. Palestine or the Holy Land ----. 2. New York or the Empire State ----. 3. New Orleans or the Crescent City ----. 4. The five Books of Moses or the Pentateuch ----. +Remember+ that (_'s_) and (_'_) are the possessive signs--(_'_) being used when _s_ has been added to denote more than one, and (_'s_) in other cases. +Direction.+--_Copy the following, and note the use of the possessive sign_:-- The lady's fan; the girl's bonnet; a dollar's worth; Burns's poems; Brown & Co.'s business; a day's work; men's clothing; children's toys; those girls' dresses; ladies' calls; three years' interest; five dollars' worth. +Direction.+--_Make possessive modifiers of the following words, and join them to appropriate nouns_:-- Woman, women; mouse, mice; buffalo, buffaloes; fairy, fairies; hero, heroes; baby, babies; calf, calves. +Caution.+--Do not use (_'s_) or (_'_) with the pronouns _its, his, ours, yours, hers, theirs_. * * * * * LESSON 35. NOUNS AS ADVERB MODIFIERS. +Introductory Hints.+--_He gave me a book_. Here we have what many grammarians call a _double object_. _Book_, naming the thing acted upon, they call the _direct_ object; and _me_, naming the person toward whom the act is directed, they call the +indirect+, or _dative_, +object+. You see that _me_ and _book_ do not, like _Cornwallis_ and _army_, in _Washington captured Cornwallis and his army_, form a compound object complement; they cannot be connected by a conjunction, for they do not stand in the same relation to the verb _gave_. The meaning is not, He gave me _and_ the book. We treat these indirect objects, which generally denote the person to or for whom something is done, as equivalent to phrase modifiers. If we change the order of the words, a preposition must be supplied; as, He gave a book _to me_. He bought _me_ a _book_; He bought a book _for me_. He asked _me_ a _question_; He asked a _question of me_. When the indirect object precedes the direct, no preposition is expressed or understood. _Teach, tell, send, promise, permit_, and _lend_ are other examples of verbs that take indirect objects. Besides these indirect objects, +nouns denoting measure+, quantity, weight, time, value, distance, or direction are often used adverbially, being equivalent to phrase modifiers. We walked four _miles_ an _hour_; It weighs one _pound_; It is worth a _dollar_ a _yard_; I went _home_ that _way_; The wall is ten _feet_ six _inches_ high. The idiom of the language does not often admit a preposition before nouns denoting measure, direction, etc. In your analysis you need not supply one. +Analysis.+ 1. They offered Caesar the crown three times. They | offered | crown ========|========================== | \ \ times \the \ ------- \ \three \ \ Caesar ----------- +Oral Analysis.+--_Caesar_ and _times_ are nouns used adverbially, being equivalent to adverb phrases modifying the predicate _offered_. 2. We pay the President of the United States $50,000 a year. 3. He sent his daughter home that way. 4. I gave him a dollar a bushel for his wheat, and ten cents a pound for his sugar. 5. Shakespeare was fifty-two years old the very day of his death. 6. Serpents cast their skin once a year. 7. The famous Charter Oak of Hartford, Conn., fell Aug. 21, 1856. 8. Good land should yield its owner seventy-five bushels of corn an acre. 9. On the fatal field of Zutphen, Sept. 22, 1586, his attendants brought the wounded Sir Philip Sidney a cup of cold water. 10. He magnanimously gave a dying soldier the water. 11. The frog lives several weeks as a fish, and breathes by means of gills. 12. Queen Esther asked King Ahasuerus a favor. 13. Aristotle taught Alexander the Great philosophy. 14. The pure attar of roses is worth twenty or thirty dollars an ounce. 15. Puff-balls have grown six inches in diameter in a single night. * * * * * LESSON 36. REVIEW. TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions, Lesson 16. +Direction.+--_Review from Lesson 28 to Lesson 35, inclusive_. Give the substance of the "Introductory Hints" (for example, show clearly what two things are essential to a complete predicate; explain what is meant by a complement; distinguish clearly the three kinds of complements; show what parts of speech may be employed for each, and tell what general idea--action, quality, class, or identity--is expressed by each attribute complement or objective complement in your illustrations, etc.). Repeat and illustrate definitions and rules; explain and illustrate fully the distinction between an adjective complement and an adverb modifier; illustrate what is taught of the forms _I, we,_ etc., _me, us,_ etc.; explain and illustrate the use of the possessive sign. Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. (SEE PAGES 156-159.) TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions to the teacher, pages 30, 150. * * * * * LESSON 37. VERBS AS ADJECTIVES AND AS NOUNS--PARTICIPLES. +Introductory Hints.+--_Corn grows; Corn growing._ Here _growing_ differs from _grows_ in lacking the power to assert. _Growing_ is a form of the verb that cannot, like _grows_, make a complete predicate because it only assumes or implies that the corn does the act. _Corn_ may be called the assumed subject of _growing_. _Birds, singing, delight us._ Here _singing_ does duty (1) as an adjective, describing birds by assuming or implying an act, and (2) as a verb by expressing the act of singing as going on at the time birds delight us. _By singing their songs birds delight us._ Here _singing_ has the nature of a verb and that of a noun. As a verb it has an object complement, _songs_; and as a noun it names the act, and stands as the principal word in a prepositional phrase. _Their singing so sweetly delights us_. Here, also, _singing_ has the nature of a verb and that of a noun. As a verb it has an adverb modifier, _sweetly_, and as a noun it names an act and takes a possessive modifier. This form of the verb is called the +Participle+ (Lat. _pars_, a part, and _capere_, to take) because it partakes of two natures and performs two offices--those of a verb and an adjective, or those of a verb and a noun. (For definition see Lesson 131.) _Singing birds delight us_. Here _singing_ has lost its verbal nature, and expresses a permanent quality of birds--telling what kind of birds,--and consequently is a mere adjective. _The singing of the birds delights us_. Here _singing_ is simply a noun, naming the act and taking adjective modifiers. There are two kinds of participles; [Footnote: Grammarians are not agreed as to what these words that have the nature of the verb and that of the noun should be called. Some would call the simple forms _doing_, _writing_, and _injuring_, in sentences (1), (6), and (7), Lesson 38, _Infinitives_. They would also call by the same name such compound forms as _being accepted_, _having been shown_, and _having said_ in these expressions: "for the purpose of being accepted;" "is the having been shown over a place;" "I recollect his having said that." But does it not tax even credulity to believe that a simple Anglo-Saxon infinitive in _-an_, only one form of which followed a preposition, and that always _to_, could have developed into many compound forms, used in both voices, following almost any preposition, and modified by _the_ and by nouns and pronouns in the possessive? No wonder the grammarian Mason says, "An infinitive in _-ing_, set down by some as a modification of the simple infinitive in _-an_ or _-en_, is a perfectly unwarranted invention." Others call these words modernized forms of the Anglo-Saxon _Verbal Nouns_ in _-ung_, _-ing_. But this derivation of them encounters the stubborn fact that those verbal nouns never were compound, and never were or could be followed by objects. These words, on the contrary, are compound, as we have seen, and have objects. That they are from nouns in _-ung_ is otherwise, and almost for the same reasons, as incredible as that they are from infinitives in _-an_. Others call these words _Gerunds_. A gerund in Latin is a simple form of the verb in the active voice, never found in the nominative, and never in the accusative (objective) after a verb. A gerund in Anglo-Saxon is a simple form of the verb in the active voice--the dative case of the infinitive merely--used mainly to indicate purpose, and always preceded by the preposition _to_. To call these words in question gerunds is to stretch the term _gerund_ immensely beyond its meaning in Anglo-Saxon, and make it cover words which sometimes (1) are highly compounded; sometimes (2) are used in the passive voice; sometimes (3) follow other prepositions than _to_; sometimes (4) do not follow any preposition; sometimes (5) are objects of verbs; sometimes (6) are subjects of verbs; sometimes (7) are modified by _the_; sometimes (8) are modified by a noun or pronoun in the possessive; and generally (9) do not indicate purpose. We submit that the extension of a class term so as to include words having these relations that the Anglo-Saxon gerund never had, is not warranted by any precedent except that furnished above in the extension of the term _infinitive_ or of the term _verbal noun_! Still others call some of these words _Infinitives_; some of them _Verbal Nouns_; and some of them _Gerunds_. The forms in question--_seeing, having seen, being seen, having been seen_, and _having been seeing_, for instance--are now made from the verb in precisely the same way when partaking the nature of the noun as when partaking the nature of the adjective. What can they possibly be but the forms that all grammarians call _participles_ extended to new uses? If the uses of the original participles have been extended, why may we not carry over the name? The name _participle_ is as true to its etymology when applied to the nounal use of the verb as when applied to the adjectival use. For convenience of classification we call these disputed forms _participles_, as good grammarians long ago called them and still call them, though some of them may be traced back to the Saxon verbal noun or to the infinitive, and though the Saxon participle was adjectival. The name _participle_ neither confounds terms nor misleads the student. The nounal and the adjectival uses of participial forms we distinguish very sharply.] one sharing the nature of the verb and that of the adjective; the other, the nature of the verb and that of the noun. Participles commonly end in _ing_, _ed_, or _en_. The participle, like other forms of the verb, may be followed by an object complement or an attribute complement. Analysis and Parsing. The +participle+ may be used as an +adjective modifier+. 1. Hearing a step, I turned. I | turned ===|========= \ | \ hea \ ring | step --------|------ \a +Explanation+.--The line standing for the participle is broken; one part slants to represent the adjective nature of the participle, and the other is horizontal to represent its verbal nature. +Oral Analysis+.--The phrase _hearing a step_ is a modifier of the subject; [Footnote: Logically, or in sense, _hearing a step_ modifies the predicate also. I _turned when_ or _because_ I heard a step. See Lesson 79.] the principal word is _hearing_, which is completed by the noun _step_; _step_ is modified by _a_. +Parsing+.--_Hearing_ is a form of the verb called participle because the act expressed by it is merely assumed, and it shares the nature of an adjective and that of a verb. 2. The fat of the body is fuel laid away for use. +Explanation+.--The complement is here modified by a participle phrase. 3. The spinal marrow, proceeding from the brain, extends down-ward through the back-bone. 4. Van Twiller sat in a huge chair of solid oak, hewn in the celebrated forest of the Hague. +Explanation+.--The principal word of a prepositional phrase is here modified by a participle phrase. 5. Lentulus, returning with victorious legions, had amused the populace with the sports of the amphitheater. The +participle+ may be used as an +attribute complement+. 6. The natives came crowding around. +Explanation+.--_Crowding_ here completes the predicate _came_, and belongs to the subject _natives_. The natives are represented as performing the act of coming and the accompanying act of crowding. The assertive force of the predicate _came_ seems to extend over both verbs. [Footnote: Some grammarians prefer to treat the participle in such constructions as adverbial. But is _crowding_ any more adverbial here than are _pale_ and _trembling_ in "The natives came _pale_ and _trembling_"?] 7. The city lies sleeping. 8. They stood terrified. 9. The philosopher sat buried in thought. \and \and \ \....\....\ \ \ \star \ \ \ ving \ \sav \------- \ \ ing \gru \---------- \ bbing \------------- | miser | kept \ / \ ======|====================== | 10. The old miser kept grubbing and saving and starving. The +participle+ may be used as an +objective complement+. 11. He kept me waiting. +Explanation+.--_Waiting_ completes _kept_ and relates to the object complement _me_. _Kept-waiting_ expresses the complete act performed upon me. _He kept-waiting me_=_He detained me_. The relation of _waiting_ to _me_ may be seen by changing the form of the verb; as, I _was kept waiting_. See Lesson 31. 12. I found my book growing dull. [Footnote: It will be seen by this and following examples that we extend the application of the term _objective complement_ beyond its primary, or factitive, sense. In "I struck the man _dead_," the condition expressed by _dead_ is the result of the act expressed by _struck_. In "I found the man _dead_," the condition is not the result of the act, and so grammarians say that in this second example _dead_ should be treated simply as an "appositive" adjective modifying _man_. While _dead_ does not belong to _man_ as expressing the result of the act, it is made to belong to _man_ through the asserting force of the verb, and therefore is not a mere modifier of _man_. _Dead_ helps _found_ to express the act. Not _found_, but _found-dead_ tells what was done to the man. If we put the sentence in the passive form, "The man was found _dead_," it will be seen that _dead_ is more than a mere modifier; it belongs to _man_ through the assertive force of _was found_. If _dead_ is here merely an "appositive" adjective, "I found the man dead" must equal "I found the man, who was dead" (or, "and he was dead"). The two sentences obviously are not equal. "I caught him asleep" does not mean, "I caught him, and he was asleep." If, in the construction discussed above, _dead_ is an objective complement, _quiet_, _stirring_, and (to) _stir_ in the following sentences are objective complements:-- I saw the leaves quiet. I saw the leaves stirring. I saw the leaves stir. The adjective, the participle, and the infinitive do not here seem to differ essentially in office. See Lesson 31 and page 78.] \grow \ wing \ dull \--------------- | I | found / / \ | book =====|============================== | \my +Explanation+.--The diagram representing the phrase complement is drawn above the complement line, on which it is made to rest by means of a support. All that stands on the complement line is regarded as the complement. Notice that the little mark before the phrase points toward the object complement. The adjective _dull_ completes _growing_ and belongs to _book_, the assumed subject of _growing_. 13. He owned himself defeated. 14. No one ever saw fat men heading a riot or herding together in turbulent mobs. 15. I felt my heart beating faster. 16. You may imagine me sitting there. 17. Saul, seeking his father's asses, found himself suddenly turned into a king. * * * * * LESSON 38. PARTICIPLES--CONTINUED. Analysis and Parsing. The +participle+ may be used as +principal word+ in a +prepositional phrase+. 1. We receive good by doing good. We | receive | good =====|==================== | \by \-----,doing | good -------------- +Explanation+.--The line representing the participle here is broken; the first part represents the participle as a noun, and the other as a verb. +Oral Analysis+.--The phrase _by doing good_ is a modifier of the predicate; _by_ introduces the phrase; the principal word is _doing_, which is completed by the noun _good_. +Passing+.--_Doing_ is a participle; like a noun, it follows the preposition _by_, and, like a verb, it takes an object complement. 2. Portions of the brain may be cut off without producing any pain. 3. The Coliseum was once capable of seating ninety thousand persons. 4. Success generally depends on acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously. 5. You cannot fully sympathize with suffering without having suffered. (_Suffering_ is here a noun.) The +participle+ may be the +principal word+ in a phrase used as a +subject+ or as an +object complement+. 6. Your writing that letter so neatly secured the position. ---, writing | letter '------------------------ \Your | \neatly \that | \so | / \ | secured | position =========|========='=========== | \the +Explanation+.--The diagram of the subject phrase is drawn above the subject line. All that rests on the subject line is regarded as the subject. +Oral Analysis+.--The phrase _your writing that letter so neatly_ is the subject; the principal word of it is _writing_, which is completed by _letter; writing_, as a noun, is modified by _your_, and, as a verb, by the adverb phrase _so neatly_. 7. We should avoid injuring the feelings of others. 8. My going there will depend upon my father's giving his consent. 9. Good reading aloud is a rare accomplishment. The +participial form+ may be used as a +mere noun+ or a +mere adjective+. 10. The cackling of geese saved Rome. 11. Such was the exciting campaign, celebrated in many a long-forgotten song. [Footnote: "_Manig man_ in Anglo-Saxon was used like German _mancher mann_, Latin _multus vir_, and the like, until the thirteenth century; when the article was inserted to emphasize the distribution before indicated by the singular number."--_Prof. F. A. March._] +Explanation+.--_Many_ modifies _song_ after _song_ has been limited by _a_ and _long-forgotten_. 12. All silencing of discussion is an assumption of infallibility. 13. He was a squeezing, grasping, hardened old sinner. The +participle+ may be used in +independent+ or +absolute phrases+. 14. The bridge at Ashtabula giving way, the train fell into the river. +Explanation+.--The diagram of the absolute phrase, which consists of a noun used independently with a participle, stands by itself. See lesson 44. 15. Talking of exercise, you have heard, of course, of Dickens's "constitutionals." * * * * * LESSON 39. COMPOSITION--PARTICIPLES. +COMMA--RULE.--The Participle used as an adjective modifier, with the words belonging to it, is set off+ [Footnote: An expression in the body of a sentence is set off by two commas; at the beginning or at the end, by one comma.] +by the comma unless restrictive+. +Explanation+.--_A bird, lighting near my window, greeted me with a song. The bird sitting on the wall is a wren. Lighting_ describes without restricting; _sitting_ restricts--limits the application of _bird_ to a particular bird. +Direction+.--_Justify the punctuation of the participle phrases in Lesson_ 37. +Caution+.--In using a participle, be careful to leave no doubt as to what you intend it to modify. +Direction+.--_Correct these errors in arrangement, and punctuate, giving your reasons:--_ 1. A gentleman will let his house going abroad for the summer to a small family containing all the improvements. 2. The town contains fifty houses and one hundred inhabitants built of brick. 3. Suits ready made of material cut by an experienced tailor handsomely trimmed and bought at a bargain are offered cheap. 4. Seated on the topmost branch of a tall tree busily engaged in gnawing an acorn we espied a squirrel. 5. A poor child was found in the streets by a wealthy and benevolent gentleman suffering from cold and hunger. +Direction+.--_Recast these sentences, making the reference of the participle clear, and punctuating correctly_:-- +Model+.--_Climbing to the top of the hill the Atlantic ocean was seen._ Incorrect because it appears that the ocean did the climbing. _Climbing to the top of the hill, we saw the Atlantic ocean_. 1. Entering the next room was seen a marble statue of Apollo. 2. By giving him a few hints he was prepared to do the work well. 3. Desiring an early start the horse was saddled by five o'clock. +Direction+.--_Compose sentences in which each of these three participles shall be used as an adjective modifier, as the principal word in a prepositional phrase, as the principal word in a phrase used as a subject or as an object complement, as a mere adjective, as a mere noun, and in an absolute phrase_:-- Buzzing, leaping, waving. * * * * * LESSON 40. VERBS AS NOUNS--INFINITIVES. +Introductory Hints+.--_I came to see you_. Here the verb _see_, like the participle, lacks asserting power--_I to see_ asserts nothing. _See_, following the preposition _to_, [Footnote: For the discussion of _to_ with the infinitive, see Lesson 134.] names the act and is completed by _you_, and so does duty as a noun and as a verb. In office it is like the second kind of participles, described in Lesson 37, and from many grammarians has received the same name--some calling both _gerunds_, and others calling both _infinitives_. It differs from this participle in form, and in following only the preposition _to_. Came _to see_=came _for seeing_. This form of the verb is frequently the principal word of a phrase used as a subject or as an object, complement; as, _To read good books_ is profitable; I like _to read good books_. Here also the form with _to_ is equivalent to the participle form _reading_. _Reading good books_ is profitable. As this form of the verb names the action in an indefinite way, without limiting it to a subject, we call it the +Infinitive+ (Lat. _infinitus_, without limit). For definition, see Lesson 131. The infinitive, like the participle, may have what is called an _assumed subject_. The _assumed subject_ denotes that to which the action or being expressed by the participle or the infinitive belongs. Frequently the infinitive phrase expresses purpose, as in the first example given above, and in such cases _to_ expresses relation, and performs its full function as a preposition; but, when the infinitive phrase is used as subject or as object complement, the _to_ expresses no relation. It serves only to introduce the phrase, and in no way affects the meaning of the verb. The infinitive, like other forms of the verb, may be followed by the different complements. Analysis and Parsing. The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as an +adjective modifier+ or an +adverb modifier+. 1. The hot-house is a trap to catch sunbeams. hot-house | is \ trap ============|================ \The | \a \to \ catch | sunbeams \-------'---------- +Oral Analysis+.--_To_ introduces the phrase; _catch_ is the principal word, and _sunbeams_ completes it. +Parsing+.--_To_ is a preposition, introducing the phrase and showing the relation, in sense, of the principal word to _trap; catch_ is a form of the verb called _infinitive_; like a noun, it follows the preposition _to_ and names the action, and, like a verb, it is completed by _sunbeams_. 2. Richelieu's title to command rested on sublime force of will and decision of character. 3. Many of the attempts to assassinate William the Silent were defeated. 4. We will strive to please you. +Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify the predicate. 5. Ingenious Art steps forth to fashion and refine the race. 6. These harmless delusions tend to make us happy. +Explanation+.--_Happy_ completes _make_ and relates to _us_. 7. Wounds made by words are hard to heal. +Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify the adjective _hard_. _To heal = to be healed_. 8. The representative Yankee, selling his farm, wanders away to seek new lands, to clear new cornfields, to build another shingle palace, and again to sell off and wander. 9. These apples are not ripe enough to eat. +Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify the adverb _enough_. _To eat = to be eaten_. The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as +subject+ or +complement.+ 10. To be good is to be great. \To \to \ be \good \ be \ great \----------------------- | | / \ | is \ / \ ========|================== | Explanation.--_To_, in each of these phrases, shows no relation--it serves merely to introduce. The complements _good_ and _great_ are adjectives used abstractly, having no noun to relate to. 11. To bear our fate is to conquer it. 12. To be entirely just in our estimate of others is impossible. 13. The noblest vengeance is to forgive. 14. He seemed to be innocent. +Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase here performs the office of an adjective. _To be innocent = innocent_. 15. The blind men's dogs appeared to know him. 16. We should learn to govern ourselves. +Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase is here used as an object complement. 17. Each hill attempts to ape her voice. * * * * * LESSON 41. INFINITIVES--CONTINUED. Analysis. The +infinitive phrase+ may be used +after a preposition+ as the +principal term+ of another phrase. 1. My friend is about to leave me. \to \ leave | me \-------'---- \ about | \ / \ \----------------- | friend | is \ / \ ========|===================== \My | +Explanation+.--The preposition _about_ introduces the phrase used as attribute complement; the principal part is the infinitive phrase _to leave me_. 2. Paul was now about to open his mouth. 3. No way remains but to go on. +Explanation+.--_But_ is here a preposition. The +infinitive+ and its +assumed subject+ may form the +principal term+ in a phrase introduced by the preposition +for+. 4. For us to know our faults is profitable. us ------- | \to \ | \ know | faults \For | \------'-------- \ / \ \our \------- | / \ | is \ profitable =============|====================== | +Explanation+.--_For_ introduces the subject phrase; the principal part of the entire phrase is _us to know our faults;_ the principal word is _us_, which is modified by the phrase _to know our faults_. 5. God never made his work for man to mend. +Explanation+.---The principal term of the phrase _for man to mend_ is not _man_, but _man to mend_. 6. For a man to be proud of his learning is the greatest ignorance. The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as an +explanatory modifier.+ 7. It is easy to find fault. \to \ find | fault \-----'------ | It (/ \) | is \ easy =========|=========== | +Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase _to find fault_ explains the subject _it_. Read the sentence without _it_, and you will see the real nature of the phrase. This use of _it_ as a substitute for the real subject is a very common idiom of our language. It allows the real subject to follow the verb, and thus gives the sentence balance of parts. 8. It is not the way to argue down a vice to tell lies about it. 9. It is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope. 10. It is not all of life to live. 11. This task, to teach the young, may become delightful. The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as +objective complement.+ 12. He made me wait. +Explanation+.--The infinitive _wait_ (here used without _to_) completes _made_ and relates to _me_. _He made-wait me = He detained me_. See "Introductory Hints," Lesson 31, and participles used as objective complements, Lesson 37. Compare _I saw him do it_ with _I saw him doing it_. Compare also _He made the stick bend_--equaling _He made-bend _(= bent) _the stick_--with _He made the stick straight_--equaling _He made-straight _(= straightened) _the stick_. The relation of these objective complements to _me, him_, and _stick_ may be more clearly seen by changing the form of the verb, thus: I was made _to wait_; He was seen _to do it_, He was seen _doing it_; The stick was made _to bend_; The stick was made _straight_. 13.We found the report to be true. [Footnote: Some prefer to treat _the report to be true_ as an object clause because it is equivalent to the clause _that the report is true_. But many expressions logically equivalent are entirely different in grammatical construction; as, I desire _his promotion_; I desire _him to be promoted_; I desire _that he should be promoted_. Besides, to teach that _him_ is the subject, and _to be promoted_ the predicate, of a clause would certainly be confusing.] \to \ be \ true \-------------- | We | found / / \ | report ===|========================== | 14. He commanded the bridge to be lowered. [Footnote: Notice the difference in construction between this sentence and the sentence _He commanded him to lower the bridge_. _Him_ represents the one to whom the command is given, and _to lower the bridge_ is the object complement. This last sentence = He commanded _him that he should lower the bridge_. Compare _He told me to go_ with _He told (to) me a story_; also _He taught me to read_ with _He taught (to) me reading._ In such sentences as (13) and (14) it may not always be expedient to demand that the pupil shall trace the exact relations of the infinitive phrase to the preceding noun and to the predicate verb. If preferred, in such cases, the infinitive and its assumed subject may be treated as a kind of phrase object, equivalent to a clause. This construction is similar to the Latin "accusative with the infinitive."] 15. I saw the leaves stir. [Footnote: See pages 68 and 69, foot-note.] +Explanation+.--_Stir_ is an infinitive without the _to_. 16. Being persuaded by Poppaesa, Hero caused his mother, Agrippina, to be assassinated. * * * * * LESSON 42. INFINITIVES--CONTINUED. Analysis. The +infinitive phrase+ may be used +independently+. [Footnote: These infinitive phrases can be expanded into dependent clauses. See Lesson 79. For the infinitive after _as, than_, etc., see Lesson 63. Participles and infinitives unite with other verbs to make compound forms; as, have _walked_, shall _walk_.] +Explanation+.--In the diagram the independent element must stand by itself. 1. England's debt, to put it in round numbers, is $4,000,000,000. 2. Every object has several faces, so to speak. 3. To make a long story short, Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette were executed. Infinitives and Participles. MISCELLANEOUS. 4. It is a good thing to give thanks unto the Lord. 5. We require clothing in the summer to protect the body from the heat of the sun. 6. Rip Van Winkle could not account for everything's having changed so. 7. This sentence is not too difficult for me to analyze. 8. The fog came pouring in at every chink and keyhole, 9. Conscience, her first law broken, wounded lies. 10. To be, or not to be,--that is the question. 11. I supposed him to be a gentleman. 12. Food, keeping the body in health by making it warm and repairing its waste, is a necessity. 13. I will teach you the trick to prevent your being cheated another time. 14. She threatened to go beyond the sea, to throw herself out of the window, to drown herself. 15. Busied with public affairs, the council would sit for hours smoking and watching the smoke curl from their pipes to the ceiling. * * * * * LESSON 43. COMPOSITION--THE INFINITIVE. +Direction+.--_Change the infinitives in these sentences into participles, and the participles into infinitives_:-- Notice that _to_, the only preposition used with the infinitive, is changed to _toward, for, of, at, in,_ or _on_, when the infinitive is changed to a participle. 1. I am inclined to believe it. 2. I am ashamed to be seen there. 3. She will be grieved to hear it. 4. They trembled to hear such words. 5. It will serve for amusing the children. 6. There is a time to laugh. 7. I rejoice to hear it. 8. You are prompt to obey. 9. They delight to do it. 10. I am surprised at seeing you. 11. Stones are used in ballasting vessels. +Direction+.--_Improve these sentences by changing the participles into infinitives, and the infinitives into participles_:-- 1. We began ascending the mountain. 2. He did not recollect to have paid it. 3. I commenced to write a letter. 4. It is inconvenient being poor. 5. It is not wise complaining. +Direction+.--_Vary these sentences as in the model_:-- +Model+.--_Rising early_ is healthful; _To rise_ early is healthful; _It_ is healthful _to rise_ early; _For one to rise_ early is healthful. (Notice that the explanatory phrase after _it_ is not set off by the comma.) 1. Reading good books is profitable. 2. Equivocating is disgraceful. 3. Slandering is base. 4. Indorsing another's paper is dangerous. 5. Swearing is sinful. +Direction.+--_Write nine sentences, in three of which the infinitive phrase shall be used as an adjective, in three as an adverb, and in three as a noun_. +Direction.+--_Write eight sentences in which these verbs shall be followed by an infinitive without the to_:-- +Model.+--We _saw_ the sun _sink_ behind the mountain. Bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, and see. * * * * * LESSON 44. WORDS AND PHRASES USED INDEPENDENTLY. +Introductory Hints.+--In this Lesson we wish to notice words and phrases that in certain uses have no grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence. _The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars. Dear Brutus_ serves only to arrest attention, and is independent by address. _Poor man! he never came back again. Poor man_ is independent by exclamation. _Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me_. _Rod_ and _staff_ simply call attention to the objects before anything is said of them, and are independent by pleonasm--a construction used sometimes for rhetorical effect, but out of place in ordinary speech. _His master being absent, the business was neglected. His master being absent_ logically modifies the verb _was neglected_ by assigning the cause, but the phrase has no connective expressed or understood, and is therefore grammatically independent. This is called the _absolute phrase_. An _absolute phrase_ consists of a noun or a pronoun used independently with a modifying participle. _His conduct, generally speaking, was honorable. Speaking_ is a participle without connection, and with the adverb _generally_ forms an independent phrase. _To confess the truth, I was wrong._ The infinitive phrase is independent. The adverbs _well, now, why, there_ are sometimes independent; as, _Well_, life is an enigma; _Now_, that is strange; _Why_, it is already noon; _There_ are pitch-pine Yankees and white-pine Yankees. Interjections are without grammatical connection, as you have learned, and hence are independent. Whatever is enclosed within marks of parenthesis is also independent of the rest of the sentence; as, I stake my fame (_and I had fame_), my heart, my hope, my soul, upon this cast. +Analysis+. 1. The loveliest things in life, Tom, are but shadows. +Explanation.+--_Tom_ is independent by address. _But_ is an adjective modifying _shadows_. 2. There are one-story intellects, two-story intellects, and three-story intellects with skylights. +Explanation+.--Often, as in this sentence, _there_ is used idiomatically, merely to throw the subject after the verb, the idea of place having faded out of the word. To express place, another _there_ may follow the predicate; as, _There_ is gold _there_. 3. Ah! then and there was hurrying to and fro. 4. Hope lost, all is lost. 5. The smith, a mighty man is he. 6. Why, this is not revenge. 7. Well, this is the forest of Arden. 8. Now, there is at Jerusalem, by the sheep-market, a pool. 9. To speak plainly, your habits are your worst enemies. 10. No accident occurring, we shall arrive to-morrow. 11. The teacher being sick, there was no school Friday. 12. Mr. President, I shall enter on no encomium upon Massachusetts. 13. Properly speaking, there can be no chance in our affairs. 14. But the enemies of tyranny--their path leads to the scaffold. 15. She (oh, the artfulness of the woman!) managed the matter extremely well. retreat | began =========|======= \later \---\ \ day \------- \A 16. A day later (Oct. 19, 1812) began the fatal retreat of the Grand Army, from Moscow. See Lesson 35. * * * * * LESSON 45. COMPOSITION--INDEPENDENT WORDS AND PHRASES. +COMMA--RULE.--Words and phrases independent or nearly so are set off by the comma.+ +Remark+.--Interjections, as you have seen, are usually followed by the exclamation point; and _there_, used merely to introduce, is never set off by the comma. When the break after pleonastic expressions is slight, as in (5), Lesson 44, the comma is used; but, if it is more abrupt, as in (14), the dash is required. If the independent expression can be omitted without affecting the sense, it may be enclosed within marks of parenthesis, as in (15) and (16). (For the uses of the dash and the marks of parenthesis, see Lesson 148.) Words and phrases nearly independent are those which, like _however, of course, indeed, in short, by the bye, for instance_, and _accordingly_, do not modify a word or a phrase alone, but rather the sentence as a whole; as, Lee did not, _however_, follow Washington's orders. +Direction.+--_Write sentences illustrating the several kinds of independent expressions, and punctuate according to the Rule as explained_. +Direction.+--_Write short sentences in which these words and phrases, used in a manner nearly independent, shall occur, and punctuate them properly_:-- In short, indeed, now and then, for instance, accordingly, moreover, however, at least, in general, no doubt, by the bye, by the way, then, too, of course, in fine, namely, above all, therefore. +Direction.+--_Write short sentences in which these words shall modify same particular word or phrase so closely as not to be set off by the comma_:-- Indeed, surely, too, then, now, further, why, again, still. +Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.+ (SEE PAGES 160-162.) TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions to the teacher, pages 30,150. * * * * * LESSON 46. SENTENCES CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO MEANING. +Introductory Hints+.--In the previous Lessons we have considered the sentence with respect to the words and phrases composing it. Let us now look at it as a whole. _The mountains lift up their heads_. This sentence is used simply to affirm, or to declare a fact, and is called a +Declarative Sentence.+ _Do the mountains lift up their heads?_ This sentence expresses a question, and is called an +Interrogative Sentence.+ _Lift up your heads_. This sentence expresses a command, and is called an +Imperative Sentence+. Such expressions as _You must go_, _You shall go_ are equivalent to imperative sentences, though they have not the imperative form. _How the mountains lift up their heads!_ In this sentence the thought is expressed with strong emotion. It is called an +Exclamatory Sentence+. _How_ and _what_ usually introduce such sentences; but a declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence may become exclamatory when the speaker uses it mainly to give vent to his feelings; as, _It is impossible! How can I endure it! Talk of hypocrisy after this!_ +DEFINITION.--A _Declarative Sentence_ is one that is used to affirm or to deny.+ +DEFINITION.--An _Interrogative Sentence_ is one that expresses a question.+ +DEFINITION.--An _Imperative Sentence_ is one that expresses a command or an entreaty.+ +DEFINITION.--An _Exclamatory Sentence_ is one that expresses sudden thought or strong feeling.+ [Footnote: For punctuation, see page 42.] +INTERROGATION POINT--RULE.--Every direct interrogative sentence should be followed by an interrogation point.+ +Remark.+--When an interrogative sentence is made a part of another sentence, it may be direct; as, He asked, "_What is the trouble?_" or indirect; as, He asked _what the trouble was_. (See Lesson 74.) Analysis. +Direction.+--_Before analyzing these sentences, classify them, and justify the terminal marks of punctuation:_-- 1. There are no accidents in the providence of God. 2. Why does the very murderer, his victim sleeping before him, and his glaring eye taking the measure of the blow, strike wide of the mortal part? 3. Suffer not yourselves to be betrayed with a kiss. (The subject is _you_ understood.) 4. How wonderful is the advent of spring! 5. Oh! a dainty plant is the ivy green! 6. Six days shalt thou labor and do all thy work. 7. Alexander the Great died at Babylon in the thirty-third year of his age. 8. How sickness enlarges the dimensions of a man's self to himself! 9. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain. 10. Lend me your ears. 11. What brilliant rings the planet Saturn has! 12. What power shall blanch the sullied snow of character? 13. The laws of nature are the thoughts of God. 14. How beautiful was the snow, falling all day long, all night long, on the roofs of the living, on the graves of the dead! 15. Who, in the darkest days of our Revolution, carried your flag into the very chops of the British Channel, bearded the lion in his den, and woke the echoes of old Albion's hills by the thunders of his cannon and the shouts of his triumph? * * * * * LESSON 47. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW Analysis. 1. Poetry is only the eloquence and enthusiasm of religion.--_Wordsworth_. 2. Refusing to bare his head to any earthly potentate, Richelieu would permit no eminent author to stand bareheaded in his presence. --_Stephen_. 3. The Queen of England is simply a piece of historic heraldry; a flag, floating grandly over a Liberal ministry yesterday, over a Tory ministry to-day.--_Conway_. 4. The vulgar intellectual palate hankers after the titillation of foaming phrase.--_Lowell_. 5. Two mighty vortices, Pericles and Alexander the Great, drew into strong eddies about themselves all the glory and the pomp of Greek literature, Greek eloquence, Greek wisdom, Greek art.--_De Quincey_. 6. Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, lie in three words-- health, peace, and competence.--_Pope_. 7. Extreme admiration puts out the critic's eye.--_Tyler_. [Footnote: Weighty thoughts tersely expressed, like (7), (8), and (10) in this Lesson, are called Epigrams. What quality do you think they impart to one's style?] 8. The setting of a great hope is like the setting of the sun.-- _Longfellow_. 9. Things mean, the Thistle, the Leek, the Broom of the Plantagenets, become noble by association.--_F. W. Robertson_. 10. Prayer is the key of the morning and the bolt of the night.-- _Beecher_. 11. In that calm Syrian afternoon, memory, a pensive Ruth, went gleaning the silent fields of childhood, and found the scattered grain still golden, and the morning sunlight fresh and fair.--_Curtis_. [Footnote: In _Ruth_ of this sentence, we have a type of the metaphor called +Personification+--a figure in which things are raised above their proper plane, taken up toward or to that of persons. Things take on dignity and importance as they rise in the scale of being. Note, moreover, that in this instance of the figure we have an +Allusion+. All the interest that the Ruth of the Bible awakens in us this allusion gathers about so common a thing as memory.] * * * * * LESSON 48. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW. Analysis. 1. By means of steam man realizes the fable of Aeolus's bag, and carries the two-and-thirty winds in the boiler of his boat.--_Emerson_. 2. The Angel of Life winds our brains up once for all, then closes the case, and gives the key into the hands of the Angel of Resurrection.--_Holmes_. 3. I called the New World into existence to redress the balance of the Old.--_Canning_. 4. The prominent nose of the New Englander is evidence of the constant linguistic exercise of that organ.--_Warner_. 5. Every Latin word has its function as noun or verb or adverb ticketed upon it.--_Earle_. 6. The Alps, piled in cold and still sublimity, are an image of despotism.--_Phillips_. 7. I want my husband to be submissive without looking so.--_Gail Hamilton_. 8. I love to lose myself in other men's minds.--_Lamb_. 9. Cheerfulness banishes all anxious care and discontent, soothes and composes the passions, and keeps the soul in a perpetual calm.--_Addison_. 10. To discover the true nature of comets has hitherto proved beyond the power of science. +Explanation+.--_Beyond the power of science = impossible_, and is therefore an attribute complement. The preposition _beyond_ shows the relation, in sense, of _power_ to the subject phrase. 11. Authors must not, like Chinese soldiers, expect to win victories by turning somersets in the air.--_Longfellow_. * * * * * LESSON 49. REVIEW OF PUNCTUATION. +Direction+.--_Give the reasons, so far as you have been taught, for the marks of punctuation used in Lessons_ 44, 46, 47, _and_ 48. * * * * * LESSON 50. REVIEW. TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions, Lesson 16. +Direction+.--_Review from Lesson_ 37 _to Lesson_ 46, _inclusive_. Give, in some such way as we have outlined in preceding Review Lessons, the substance of the "Introductory Hints;" repeat and illustrate definitions and rules; illustrate the different uses of the participle and the infinitive, and illustrate the Caution regarding the use of the participle; illustrate the different ways in which words and phrases may be grammatically independent, and the punctuation of these independent elements. * * * * * LESSON 51. ARRANGEMENT--USUAL ORDER. TO THE TEACHER.--If, from lack of time or from the necessity of conforming to a prescribed course of study, it is found desirable to abridge these Lessons on Arrangement and Contraction, the exercises to be written may be omitted, and the pupil may be required to illustrate the positions of the different parts, in both the Usual and the Transposed order, and then to read the examples given, making the required changes orally. The eight following Lessons may thus be reduced to two or three. Let us recall the +Usual Order+ of words and phrases in a simple declarative sentence. The verb follows the subject, and the object complement follows the verb. +Example+.--_Drake circumnavigated the globe_. +Direction+.--_Observing this order, write three sentences each with an object complement._ An adjective or a possessive modifier precedes its noun, and an explanatory modifier follows it. +Examples+.--_Man's life is a brief span. Moses, the lawgiver_, came down from the Mount. +Direction+.--_Observing this order, write four sentences, two with possessive modifiers and two with explanatory, each sentence containing an adjective._ The attribute complement, whether noun or adjective, follows the verb, the objective complement follows the object complement, and the indirect object precedes the direct. +Examples+.--Egypt _is the valley_ of the Nile. Eastern life _is dreamy_. They made _Bonaparte consul_. They offered _Caesar a crown_. +Direction+.--_Observing this order, write four sentences illustrating the positions of the noun and of the adjective when they perform these offices_. If adjectives are of unequal rank, the one most closely modifying the noun stands nearest to it; if of the same rank, they stand in the order of their length--the shortest first. +Examples+.--_Two honest young_ men enlisted. Cassino has a _lean_ and _hungry_ look. A rock, _huge_ and _precipitous_, stood in our path. +Direction+.--_Observing this order, write three sentences illustrating the relative position of adjectives before and after the noun_. An adverb precedes the adjective, the adverb, or the phrase which it modifies; precedes or follows (more frequently follows) the simple verb or the verb with its complement; and follows one or more words of the verb if the verb is compound. +Examples+.--The light _far in the distance_ is _so very bright_. I _soon found him_. I _hurt him badly_. He _had often been there_. +Direction+.--_Observing this order, write sentences illustrating these several positions of the adverb_. Phrases follow the words they modify; if a word has two or more phrases, those most closely modifying it stand nearest to it. +Examples+.--_Facts once established_ are facts forever. He _sailed for Liverpool on Monday_. +Direction+.--_Observing this order, write sentences illustrating the positions of participle and prepositional phrases_. * * * * * LESSON 52. ARRANGEMENT--TRANSPOSED ORDER. +Introductory Hints+.--The usual order of words, spoken of in the preceding Lesson, is not the only order admissible in an English sentence; on the contrary, great freedom in the placing of words and phrases is sometimes allowable. Let the relation of the words be kept obvious and, consequently, the thought clear, and in poetry, in impassioned oratory, in excited speech of any kind, one may deviate widely from this order. A writer's meaning is never distributed evenly among his words; more of it lies in some words than in others. Under the influence of strong feeling, one may move words out of their accustomed place, and, by thus attracting attention to them, give them additional importance to the reader or hearer. When any word or phrase in the predicate stands out of its usual place, appearing either at the front of the sentence or at the end, we have what we may call the +Transposed Order+. _I dare not venture to go down into the cabin--Venture to go down into the cabin I dare not. You shall die--Die you shall. Their names will forever live on the lips of the people--Their names will, on the lips of the people, forever live_. When the word or phrase moved to the front carries the verb, or the principal word of it, before the subject, we have the extreme example of the transposed order; as, _A yeoman had he. Strange is the magic of a turban._ The whole of a verb is not placed at the beginning of a declarative sentence except in poetry; as, _Flashed all their sabers bare_. TO THE TEACHER.----Where, in our directions in these Lessons on Arrangement and Contraction, we say _change, transpose_, or _restore_, the pupils need not write the sentences. They should study them and be able to read them. Require them to show what the sentence has lost or gained in the change. +Direction+.--_Change these sentences from the usual to the transposed order by moving words or phrases to the front, and explain the effect_:-- 1. He could not avoid it. 2. They were pretty lads. 3. The great Queen died in the year 1603. 4. He would not escape. 5. I must go. 6. She seemed young and sad. 7. He cried, "My son, my son!" 8. He ended his tale here. 9. The moon shone bright. 10. A frozen continent lies beyond the sea. 11. He was a contentious man. 12. It was quoted so. 13. Monmouth had never been accused of cowardice. +Direction+.--_Change these sentences from the transposed order to the usual, and explain the effect_:-- 1. Him, the Almighty Power hurled headlong. 2. Volatile he was. 3. Victories, indeed, they were. 4. Of noble race the lady came. 5. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 6. Once again we'll sleep secure. 7. This double office the participle performs. 8. That gale I well remember. 9. Churlish he often seemed. 10. One strong thing I find here below. 11. Overhead I heard a murmur. 12. To their will we must succumb. 13. Him they hanged. 14. Freely ye have received. +Direction+.--_Write five sentences, each with one of the following nouns or adjectives as a complement; and five, each with one of the adverbs or phrases as predicate modifier; then transpose the ten with these same words moved to the front, and explain the effect_:-- Giant, character, happy, him, serene, often, in the market, long and deeply, then, under foot. +Direction+.--_Transpose these sentences by placing the italicized words last, and note the effect_:-- 1. The clouds lowering upon our house are _buried_ in the deep bosom of the ocean. 2. Aeneas did _bear_ from the flames of Troy upon his shoulder the old Anchises. 3. Such a heart _beats_ in the breast of my people. 4. The great fire _roared_ up the deep and wide chimney. +Direction+.--_Change these to the usual order_:-- 1. No woman was ever in this wild humor wooed and won. 2. Let a shroud, stripped from some privileged corpse, be, for its proper price, displayed. 3. An old clock, early one summer's morning, before the stirring of the family, suddenly stopped. 4. Treasures of gold and of silver are, in the deep bosom of the earth, concealed. 5. Ease and grace in writing are, of all the acquisitions made in school, the most difficult and valuable. +Direction+.--_Write three sentences, each with the following noun or adjective or phrase in its usual place in the predicate, and then transpose, placing these words wherever they can properly go_:-- Mountains, glad, by and by. * * * * * LESSON 53. ARRANGEMENT--TRANSPOSED ORDER. +Direction+.--_Restore these sentences to their usual order by moving the object complement and the verb to their customary places, and tell what is lost by the change_:-- 1. Thorns and thistles shall the earth bring forth. 2. "Exactly so," replied the pendulum. 3. Me restored he to mine office. 4. A changed France have we. 5. These evils hath sin wrought. +Direction+.--_Transpose these sentences by moving the object complement and the verb, and tell what is gained by the change_:-- 1. The dial-plate exclaimed, "Lazy wire!" 2. The maiden has such charms. 3. The English character has faults and plenty of them. 4. I will make one effort more to save you. 5. The king does possess great power. 6. You have learned much in this short journey. +Direction+.--_Write six transposed sentences with these nouns as object complements, and then restore them to their usual order_:-- Pause, cry, peace, horse, words, gift. +Direction+.--_Restore these sentences to their usual order by moving the attribute complement and the verb to their usual places, and tell what is lost by the change_:-- 1. A dainty plant is the ivy green. 2. Feet was I to the lame. 3. A mighty man is he. 4. As a mark of respect was the present given. 5. A giant towered he among men. +Direction+.--_Transpose these sentences by moving the attribute complement and the verb, and tell what is gained by the change_:-- 1. We are merry brides. 2. Washington is styled the "Father of his Country." 3. He was a stark mosstrooping Scot. 4. The man seemed an incarnate demon. 5. Henry VIII. had become a despot. +Direction+.--_Using these nouns as attribute complements, write three sentences in the usual order, and then transpose them_:-- Rock, desert, fortress. +Direction+.--_Restore these sentences to their usual order by moving the adjective complement and the verb to their customary places_:-- 1. Happy are we to-night, boys. 2. Good and upright is the Lord. 3. Hotter grew the air. 4. Pale looks your Grace. 5. Dark rolled the waves. 6. Louder waxed the applause. 7. Blood-red became the sun. 8. Doubtful seemed the battle. 9. Wise are all his ways. 10. Wide open stood the doors. 11. Weary had he grown. 12. Faithful proved he to the last. +Direction+.--_Transpose these sentences by moving the adjective complement and the verb_:-- 1. My regrets were bitter and unavailing. 2. The anger of the righteous is weighty. 3. The air seemed deep and dark. 4. She had grown tall and queenly. 5. The peacemakers are blessed. 6. I came into the world helpless. 7. The untrodden snow lay bloodless. 8. The fall of that house was great. 9. The uproar became intolerable. 10. The secretary stood alone. +Direction+.--_Write five transposed sentences, each with one of these adjectives as attribute complement, and then restore the sentences to the usual order_:-- Tempestuous, huge, glorious, lively, fierce. * * * * * LESSON 54. ARRANGEMENT--TRANSPOSED ORDER. +Direction+.--_Restore these sentences to the usual order by moving the adverb and the verb to their customary places, and note the loss_:-- 1. Then burst his mighty heart. 2. Here stands the man. 3. Crack! went the ropes. 4. Down came the masts. 5. So died the great Columbus of the skies. 6. Tictac! tictac! go the wheels of thought. 7. Away went Gilpin. 8. Off went his bonnet. 9. Well have ye judged. 10. On swept the lines. 11. There dozed the donkeys. 12. Boom! boom! went the guns. 13. Thus waned the afternoon. 14. There thunders the cataract age after age. +Direction+.--_Transpose these sentences by moving the adverb and the verb_:-- 1. I will never desert Mr. Micawber. 2. The great event occurred soon after. 3. The boy stood there with dizzy brain. 4. The Spaniard's shot went whing! whing! 5. Catiline shall no longer plot her ruin. 6. A sincere word was never utterly lost. 7. It stands written so. 8. Venus was yet the morning star. 9. You must speak thus. 10. Lady Impudence goes up to the maid. 11. Thy proud waves shall be stayed here. +Direction+.--_Write ten sentences in the transposed order, using these adverbs_:-- Still, here, now, so, seldom, there, out, yet, thus, never. +Direction+.--_Restore these sentences to the usual order by moving the phrase and the verb to their customary places, and note the loss_:-- 1. Behind her rode Lalla Rookh. 2. Seven years after the Restoration appeared Paradise Lost. 3. Into the valley of death rode the six hundred. 4. To such straits is a kaiser driven. 5. Upon such a grating hinge opened the door of his daily life. 6. Between them lay a mountain ridge. 7. In purple was she robed. 8. Near the surface are found the implements of bronze. 9. Through the narrow bazaar pressed the demure donkeys. 10. In those days came John the Baptist. 11. On the 17th of June, 1775, was fought the battle of Bunker Hill. 12. Three times were the Romans driven back. +Direction+.--_Transpose these sentences by moving the phrase and the verb_:-- 1. The disciples came at the same time. 2. The dreamy murmur of insects was heard over our heads. 3. An ancient and stately hall stood near the village. 4. His trusty sword lay by his side. 5. Pepin eventually succeeded to Charles Martel. 6. The house stands somewhat back from the street. 7. Our sphere turns on its axis. 8. The bridle is red with the sign of despair. 9. I have served in twenty campaigns. 10. Touch proper lies in the finger-tips and in the lips. +Direction+.--_Write ten sentences in the usual order, using these prepositions to introduce phrases, and then transpose the sentences, and compare the two orders_:-- Beyond, upon, toward, of, by, into, between, in, at, to. +Direction+.--_Write six sentences in the transposed order, beginning them with these words_:-- There (independent), nor, neither. * * * * * LESSON 55. ARRANGEMENT--INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. If the interrogative word is subject or a modifier of it, the order is usual. +Examples+.--_Who_ came last evening? _What star_ shines brightest? +Direction+.--_Write five interrogative sentences, using the first word below as a subject; the second as a subject and then as a modifier of the subject; the third as a subject and then as a modifier of the subject_:-- Who, which, what. If the interrogative word is object complement or attribute complement or a modifier of either, the order is transposed. +Examples+.--_Whom_ did you see? _What_ are personal consequences? _Which course_ will you choose? +Direction+.--_Write an interrogative sentence with the first word below as object complement, and another with the second word as attribute complement. Write four with the third and the fourth as_ _complements, and four with the third and the fourth as modifiers of the complement_:-- Whom, who, which, what. If the interrogative word is an adverb, the order is transposed. +Examples+.--_Why_ is the forum crowded? _Where_ are the flowers, the fair young flowers? +Direction+.--_Write five interrogative sentences, using these adverbs_:-- How, when, where, whither, why. If there is no interrogative word, the subject stands after the verb when this is simple; after the first word of it when it is compound. +Examples+.--_Have you_ your lesson? _Has the gentleman_ finished? +Direction+.--_Write six interrogative sentences, using these words_:-- Is, has, can learn, might have gone, could have been found, must see. +Direction+.--_Change the sentences you have written in this Lesson into declarative sentences_. * * * * * LESSON 56. ARRANGEMENT--IMPERATIVE AND EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES. The subject is usually omitted in the imperative sentence; but, when it is expressed, the sentence is in the transposed order. +Examples+.--_Praise ye_ the Lord. _Give_ (_thou_) me three grains of corn. +Direction+.--_Using these verbs, write ten sentences, in five of which the subject shall be omitted; and in five, expressed_:-- Remember, listen, lend, love, live, choose, use, obey, strive, devote. Although any sentence may without change of order become exclamatory (Lesson 46), yet exclamatory sentences ordinarily begin with _how_ or _what_, and are usually in the transposed order. +Examples+.--_How quietly_ the child sleeps! _How excellent_ is thy loving-kindness! _What visions_ have I seen! _What a life_ his was! +Direction+.--_Write six exclamatory sentences with the word how modifying (1) an adjective, (2) a verb, and (3) an adverb--in three sentences let the verb follow, and in three precede, the subject. Write four sentences with the word what modifying (1) an object complement and (2) an attribute complement--in two sentences let the verb follow, and in two precede, the subject_. * * * * * LESSON 57. CONTRACTION OF SENTENCES. +Direction+.--_Contract these sentences by omitting the repeated modifiers and prepositions, and all the conjunctions except the last_:-- 1. Webster was a great lawyer, a great statesman, a great debater, and a great writer. 2. By their valor, by their policy, and by their matrimonial alliances, they became powerful. 3. Samuel Adams's habits were simple and frugal and unostentatious. 4. Flowers are so fragile, so delicate, and so ornamental! 5. They are truly prosperous and truly happy. 6. The means used were persuasions and petitions and remonstrances and resolutions and defiance. 7. Carthage was the mistress of oceans, of kingdoms, and of nations. +Direction+.--_Expand these by repeating the adjective, the adverb, the preposition, and the conjunction_:-- 1. He was a good son, father, brother, friend. 2. The tourist traveled in Spain, Greece, Egypt, and Palestine. 3. Bayard was very brave, truthful, and chivalrous. 4. Honor, revenge, shame, and contempt inflamed his heart. +Direction+.--_Write six sentences, each with one of these words used four times; and then contract them as above, and note the effect of the repetition and of the omission_:-- Poor, how, with, through, or, and. +Direction+.--Expand these sentences by supplying subjects:-- 1. Give us this day our daily bread. 2. Why dost stare so? 3. Thank you, sir. 4. Hear me for my cause. 5. Where hast been these six months? 6. Bless me! 7. Save us. +Direction+.--_Expand these by supplying the verb or some part of it_:-- 1. Nobody there. 2. Death to the tyrant. 3. All aboard! 4. All hands to the pumps! 5. What to me fame? 6. Short, indeed, his career. 7. When Adam thus to Eve. 8. I must after him. 9. Thou shalt back to France. 10. Whose footsteps these? +Direction+.--_Expand these by supplying both subject and verb, and note the loss in vivacity_:-- 1. Upon them with the lance. 2. At your service, sir. 3. Why so unkind? 4. Forward, the light brigade! 5. Half-past nine. 6. Off with you. 7. My kingdom for a horse! 8. Hence, you idle creatures! 9. Coffee for two. 10. Shine, sir? 11. Back to thy punishment, false fugitive. 12. On with the dance. 13. Strange, strange! 14. Once more unto the breach. 15. Away, away! 16. Impossible! +Direction+.--_Contract these by omitting the subject or the verb_:-- 1. Art thou gone? 2. Will you take your chance? 3. His career was ably run. 4. Are you a captain? 5. May long life be to the republic. 6. How great is the mystery! 7. Canst thou wonder? 8. May a prosperous voyage be to you. 9. Are you here? +Direction+.--_Contract these by omitting both subject and verb, and note the gain in force and animation_:-- 1. I offer a world for sale. 2. Now, then, go you to breakfast. 3. Sit you down, soothless insulter. 4. I want a word with you, wife. 5. Those are my sentiments, madam. 6. Bring ye lights there. 7. It is true, sir. 8. We will drink a health to Preciosa. 9. I offer a penny for your thoughts. 10. Whither are you going so early? +Direction+.--_Construct ten full sentences, using in each, one of these adverbs or phrases or nouns, and then contract the sentences by omitting both subject and verb_:-- Why, hence, to arms, silence, out, to your tents, peaches, room, for the guns, water. * * * * * LESSON 58. REVIEW. TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions, Lesson 16. +Direction+.--_Review from Lesson_ 51 _to Lesson_ 57, _inclusive_. Illustrate the different positions--Usual and Transposed--that the words and phrases of a declarative sentence may take; illustrate the different positions of the parts of an interrogative, of an imperative, and of an exclamatory sentence; illustrate the different ways of contracting sentences. Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. (SEE PAGES 162-165.) TO THE TEACHER.--See notes to the teacher, pages 30, 150. * * * * * LESSON 59. COMPLEX SENTENCE--ADJECTIVE CLAUSE. +Introductory Hints+.--The sentences given for analysis in the preceding Lessons contain each but one subject and one predicate. They are called +Simple Sentences+. _A discreet youth makes friends_. In Lesson 17 you learned that you could expand the adjective _discreet_ into a phrase, and say, A youth of discretion makes friends. You are now to learn that you can expand it into an expression that asserts, and say, A youth _that is discreet_ makes friends. This part of the sentence and the other part, _A youth makes friends_, containing each a subject and a predicate, we call +Clauses+. The adjective clause _that is discreet_, performing the office of a single word, we call a +Dependent Clause+; _A youth makes friends_, not performing such office, we call an +Independent Clause+. The whole sentence, composed of an independent and a dependent clause, we call a +Complex Sentence+. A dependent clause that does the work of an adjective is called an +Adjective Clause+. Analysis. 1. They that touch pitch will be defiled. They | will be defiled =======|===================== ` | ` ` that ` | touch | pitch --------|--------'------- | +Explanation+.--The relative importance of the two clauses is shown by their position, by their connection, and by the difference in the shading of the lines. The pronoun _that_ is written on the subject line of the dependent clause. _That_ performs the office of a conjunction also. This office is shown by the dotted line. As modifiers are joined by slanting lines to the words they modify, you learn from this diagram that _that touch pitch_ is a modifier of _they_. +Oral Analysis+.--This is a complex sentence because it consists of an independent clause and a dependent clause. _They will be defiled_ is the independent clause, and _that touch pitch_ is the dependent. _That touch pitch_ is a modifier of _they_ because it limits the meaning of _they_; the dependent clause is connected by its subject _that_ to _they_. TO THE TEACHER.--Illustrate the connecting force of _who, which_, and _that_ by substituting for them the words for which they stand, and noting the loss of connection. 2. The lever which moves the world of mind is the printing-press. 3. Wine makes the face of him who drinks it to excess blush for his habits. +Explanation+.--The adjective clause does not always modify the subject. 4. Photography is the art which enables commonplace mediocrity to look like genius. 5. In 1685 Louis XIV. signed the ordinance that revoked the Edict of Nantes. 6. The thirteen colonies were welded together by the measures which Samuel Adams framed. +Explanation+.--The pronoun connecting an adjective clause is not always a subject. 7. The guilt of the slave-trade, [Footnote: See Lesson 61, foot-note.] which sprang out of the traffic with Guinea, rests with John Hawkins. 8. I found the place to which you referred. I | found | place ====|================== | \the ` ` you | referred ` ------|---------- ` | \to ` \ which ` \------- 9. The spirit in which we act is the highest matter. 10. It was the same book that I referred to. +Explanation+.--The phrase _to that_ modifies _referred_. _That_ connects the adjective clause. When the pronoun _that_ connects an adjective clause, the preposition never precedes. The diagram is similar to that of (8). 11. She that I spoke to was blind. 12. Grouchy did not arrive at the time that Napoleon most needed him. +Explanation+.--A preposition is wanting. _That = in which_. (Can you find a word that would here sound better than _that_?) 13. Attention is the stuff that memory is made of. 14. It is to you that I speak. +Explanation+.--Here the preposition, which usually would stand last in the sentence, is found before the complement of the independent clause. In analysis restore the preposition to its usual place--It is you that I speak _to_. _That I speak to_ modifies the subject. 15. It was from me that he received the information. (_Me_ must be changed to _I_ when _from_ is restored to its usual position.) 16. Islands are the tops of mountains whose base is in the bed of the ocean. mountains ----------- ` ` base | is ` ------|----- ` \ `.....\whose +Explanation+.--The connecting pronoun is here a possessive modifier of _base_. 17. Unhappy is the man whose mother does not make all mothers interesting. * * * * * LESSON 60. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES--CONTINUED. Analysis. 1. Trillions of waves of ether enter the eye and hit the retina in the time you take to breathe. +Explanation+.--The connecting pronoun _that_ [Footnote: When _whom_, _which_, and _that_ would, if used, be object complements, they are often omitted. Macaulay is the only writer we have found who seldom or never omits them.] is omitted. 2. The smith takes his name from his smoothing the metals he works on. 3. Socrates was one of the greatest sages the world ever saw. 4. Whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth. +Explanation+.--The adjective clause modifies the omitted antecedent of _whom_. Supply _him_. 5. He did what was right. He | did | x ====|====================== | ` ` what ` | was \ right ---------|------------- +Explanation+.--The adjective clause modifies the omitted word _thing_, or some word whose meaning is general or indefinite. [Footnote: Many grammarians prefer to treat _what was right_ as a noun clause (see Lesson 71), the object of _did_. They would treat in the same way clauses introduced by _whoever_, _whatever_, _whichever_. "_What_ was originally an interrogative and introduced substantive clauses. Its use as a compound relative is an extension of its use as an indirect interrogative; it is confined to clauses which may be parsed as substantives, and before which no antecedent is needed, or permitted to be expressed. Its possessive _whose_ has, however, attained the full construction of a relative."--_Prof. F. A. March_.] 6. What is false in this world below betrays itself in a love of show. 7. The swan achieved what the goose conceived. 8. What men he had were true. The relative pronoun _what_ here precedes its noun like an adjective. Analyze as if arranged thus: The men _what_ (= _that_ or _whom_) _he had_ were true. 9. Whoever does a good deed is instantly ennobled. +Explanation+.--The adjective clause modifies the omitted subject (_man_ or _he_) of the independent clause. 10. I told him to bring whichever was the lightest. 11. Whatever crushes individuality is despotism. 12. A depot is a place where stores are deposited. depot | is \ place =======|============== \A | \a ` \where stores | ` are deposited -------|--------------------- | +Explanation+.--The line representing _where_ is made up of two parts. The upper part represents _where_ as a conjunction connecting the adjective clause to _place_, and the lower part represents it as an adverb modifying _are deposited_. As _where_ performs these two offices, it may be called a _conjunctive adverb_. By changing _where_ to the equivalent phrase _in which_, and using a diagram similar to (8), Lesson 59, the double nature of the conjunctive adverb will be seen. 13. He raised the maid from where she knelt. (Supply _the place_ before _where_.) 14. Youth is the time when the seeds of character are sown. 15. Shylock would give the duke no reason why he followed a losing suit against Antonio. 16. Mark the majestic simplicity of those laws whereby the operations of the universe are conducted. * * * * * LESSON 61. COMPOSITION--ADJECTIVE CLAUSE. +COMMA--RULE.--The _Adjective Clause_, when not restrictive, is set off by the comma.+ +Explanation+.--I picked the apple _that was ripe_. I picked the apple, _which was ripe_. In the first sentence the adjective clause restricts or limits _apple_, telling which one was picked; in the second the adjective clause is added merely to describe the apple picked, the sentence being nearly equivalent to, I picked the apple, _and it_ was ripe. This difference in meaning is shown by the punctuation.[Footnote: There are other constructions in which the relative is more nearly equivalent to _and he_ or _and it_; as, I gave the letter to my friend, _who will return it to you_. Those who prefer to let their classification be governed by the logical relation rather than by the grammatical construction call such a sentence compound, making the relative clause independent, or co-ordinate with its antecedent clause. Such classification will often require very careful discrimination; as, for instance, between the preceding sentence and the following: I gave the letter to my friend, _who can be trusted_. But we know of no author who, in every case, governs his classification of phrases and clauses strictly by their logical relations. Let us examine the following sentences:-- John, _who did not know the law_, is innocent. John is innocent; _he did not know the law_. John is innocent _because he did not know the law_. No grammarian, we think, would class each of these three italicized clauses as an adverb clause of cause. Do they differ in logical force? The student should carefully note all those constructions in which the grammatical form and the logical force differ. (See pages 119, 121, 138, 139, 142, 143.)] +Caution+.--The adjective clause should be placed as near as possible to the word it modifies. +Direction+.--_Correct the following errors of position, and insert the comma when needed_:-- 1. The Knights of the Round Table flourished in the reign of King Arthur who vied with their chief in chivalrous exploits. 2. Solomon was the son of David who built the Temple. 3. My brother caught the fish on a small hook baited with a worm which we had for breakfast. 4. I have no right to decide who am interested. +Direction+.--_Construct five complex sentences, each containing an adjective clause equivalent to one of the following adjectives_:-- Ambitious, respectful, quick-witted, talkative, lovable. +Direction+.--_Change the following simple sentences to complex sentences by expanding the participle phrases into adjective clauses_:-- 1. Those fighting custom with grammar are foolish. 2. The Constitution framed by our fathers is the sheet-anchor of our liberties. 3. I am thy father's spirit, doomed for a certain term to walk the night. 4. Some people, having lived abroad, undervalue the advantages of their native land. 5. A wife and children, threatened with widowhood and orphanage, have knelt at your feet on the very threshold of the Senate Chamber. +Direction+.--_Change these simple sentences to complex sentences by expanding the infinitive phrases into adjective clauses_:-- 1. I have many things to tell you. 2. There were none to deliver. 3. He had an ax to grind. 4. It was a sight to gladden the heart. 5. It was a din to fright a monster's ear. +Direction+.--_Form complex sentences in which these pronouns and conjunctive adverbs shall be used to connect adjective clauses_:-- Who, which, that, what, whoever, and whatever. When, where, and why. +Direction+.--_Change "that which", in the following sentences to "what", and "what" to "that which"; "whoever" to "he who", and "whatever" to "anything" or "everything which"; "where" and "when" to "at", "on", or "in which"; "wherein" to "in which"; and "whereby" to "by which"_:-- 1. _That which_ is seen is temporal. 2. _What_ God hath joined together let not man put asunder. 3. _Whoever_ lives a pious life blesses his race. 4. _Whatever_ we do has an influence. 5. Scholars have grown old and blind, striving to put their hands on the very spot _where_ brave men died. 6. The year _when_ Chaucer was born is uncertain. 7. The play's the thing _wherein_ I'll catch the conscience of the king. 8. You take my life in taking the means _whereby_ I live. +Direction+.--_Expand these possessive and explanatory modifiers into adjective clauses_:-- 1. A man's heart deviseth _his_ way. 2. _Reason's_ whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, Lie in three words--_health, peace_, and _competence_. * * * * * LESSON 62. +Direction+.--_Analyze the first nine sentences in the preceding Lesson, and write illustrative sentences as here directed_:-- Give an example of an adjective clause modifying a subject; one modifying a complement; one modifying the principal word of a phrase; one modifying some word omitted; one whose connective is a subject; one whose connective is a complement; one whose connective is the principal word of a phrase; one whose connective is a possessive modifier; one whose connective is omitted; one whose connective is an adverb. * * * * * LESSON 63. COMPLEX SENTENCE--ADVERB CLAUSE. +Introductory Hints+.--_He arrived late_. You have learned that you can expand the adverb _late_ into a phrase, and say, He arrived _at midnight_. You are now to learn that you can expand it into a clause of +Time+, and say, He arrived _when the clock struck twelve_. _He stood where I am_. The clause introduced by _where_ expresses +Place+, and is equivalent to the adverb _here_ or to the phrase _in this place_. _This exercise is as profitable as it is pleasant_. The clause introduced by _as ... as_ modifies _profitable_, telling the +Degree+ of the quality expressed by it. A clause that does the work of an adverb is an +Adverb Clause+. Analysis. The +adverb clause+ may express +time+. 1. When pleasure calls, we listen. we | listen ===|========= | \ `When ` pleasure | \ calls ---------|---\------- | +Explanation+.--_When_ modifies both _listen_ and _calls_, denoting that the two acts take place at the same time. It also connects _pleasure calls_, as an adverb modifier, to _listen_. The offices of the conjunctive adverb _when_ may be better understood by expanding it into two phrases thus: We listen _at the time at which_ pleasure calls. _At the time_ modifies _listen_, _at which_ modifies _calls_, and _which_ connects. The line representing _when_ is made up of three parts to picture these three offices. The part representing _when_ as a modifier of _calls_ is, for convenience, placed above its principal line instead of below it. 2. While Louis XIV. reigned, Europe was at war. 3. When my father and my mother forsake me, then ths Lord will take me up. Lord | will take | me ======|===================== \The | \up \ ..\ then ` \ ` `When father \ ------------'\ \ \my ' \ \ ' \ \ ' \ | \ forsake | me 'and \----|--------------------- ' / | ' / mother ' / ------------'/ \my +Explanation+.--By changing _then_ into _at the time_, and _when_ into _at which_, the offices of these two words will be clearly seen. For explanation of the line representing _when_, see Lesson 14 and (1) above. 4. Cato, before he durst give himself the fatal stroke, spent the night in reading Plato's "Immortality." [Footnote: Some prefer, in constructions like this, to treat _before_, _ere_, _after_, _till_, _until_, and _since_ as prepositions followed by noun clauses.] 5. Many a year is in its grave since I crossed this restless wave. [Footnote: See (11), Lesson 38, and foot-note.] +Explanation+.--_Many_ here modifies _year_, or, rather, _year_ as modified by _a_. 6. Blucher arrived on the field of Waterloo just as Wellington was meeting the last onslaught of Napoleon. Blucher | arrived ===========|=========== | \ \------\ \ `as \ just ` \ ` \ Wellington | \ was meeting | onslaught --------------|-----\------------------------ | +Explanation+.--_Just_ may be treated as a modifier of the dependent clause. A closer analysis, however would make it a modifier of _as_. _Just as_=_just at the time at which_. _Just_ here modifies _at the time_. _At the time_ is represented in the diagram by the first element of the _as_ line. The +adverb clause+ may express +place+. 7. Where the snow falls, there is freedom. 8. Pope skimmed the cream of good sense and expression wherever he could find it. 9. The wind bloweth where it listeth. The +adverb clause+ may express +degree+. 10. Washington was as good as he was great. +Explanation+.--The adverb clause _as he was great_ modifies the first _as_, which is an adverb modifying _good_. The first _as_, modified by the adverb clause, answers the question, Good to what extent or degree? The second _as_ modifies _great_ and performs the office of a conjunction, and is therefore a conjunctive adverb. Transposing, and expanding _as ... as_ into two phrases, we have, Washington was good _in the degree in which_ he was great. See diagram of (3) and of (20). 11. The wiser he grew, the humbler he became. [Footnote: _The_, here, is not the ordinary adjective _the_. It is the Anglo-Saxon demonstrative pronoun used in an instrumental sense. It is here an adverb. The first _the_ = _by how much_, and modifies _wiser_; the second _the_ = _by so much_, and modifies _humbler_.] +Explanation+.--The words _the ... the_ are similar in office to _as ... as_--He became humbler _in that degree in which_ he became wiser. 12. Gold is heavier than iron. Gold | is \ heavier =======|============== | \ ` than ` iron | x \ \ x -------|--------------- +Explanation+.--_Heavier_ = _heavy beyond the degree_, and _than_ = _in which_. The sentence = _Gold is heavy beyond the degree in which iron is heavy_. _Is_ and _heavy_ are omitted. Frequently words are omitted after _than_ and _as_. _Than_ modifies _heavy_ (understood) and connects the clause expressing degree to _heavier_, and is therefore a conjunctive adverb. 13. To be right is better than to be president. +Explanation+.--To be right is better (good in a greater degree) than to be president (would be good). 14. It was so cold that the mercury froze. [Footnote: In this sentence, also in (15) and (17), the dependent clause is sometimes termed a clause of Result or Consequence. Clauses of Result express different logical relations, and cannot always be classed under Degree.] +Explanation+.--The degree of the cold is here shown by the effect it produced. The adverb _so_, modified by the adverb clause _that the mercury froze_, answers the question, Cold to what degree? The sentence = It was cold _to that degree in which_ the mercury froze. _That_, as you see, modifies _froze_ and connects the clauses; it is therefore a conjunctive adverb. 15. It was so cold as to freeze the mercury. +Explanation+.--It was so cold as to freeze the mercury (would indicate or require). 16. Dying for a principle is a higher degree of virtue than scolding for it. 17. He called so loud that all the hollow deep of hell resounded. 18. To preach is easier than to practice. 19. One's breeding shows itself nowhere more than in his religion. [Footnote: For the use of _he_ instead of the indefinite pronoun _one_ repeated, see Lesson 124.] 20. The oftener I see it, the better I like it. I | like | it =====|=========== | \ \----\ better \the \ ...\ ` \ ` I | ` see | it ----|--`-------------- ` \ `The \ `.....\oftener \ * * * * * LESSON 64. ADVERB CLAUSE-CONTINUED. +Introductory Hints+.--_He lived as the fool lives_. The adverb clause, introduced by _as_, is a clause of +Manner+, and is equivalent to the adverb _foolishly_ or to the phrase _in a foolish manner_. _The ground is wet because it has rained_. The adverb clause, introduced by _because_, assigns the +Real Cause+ of the ground's being wet. _It has rained, for the ground is wet_. The adverb clause, introduced by _for_, does not assign the cause of the raining, but the cause of our believing that it has rained; it gives the +Evidence+ of what is asserted. [Footnote: Evidence should be carefully distinguished from Cause. Cause produces an effect; Evidence produces knowledge of an effect. Clauses of Evidence are sometimes treated as independent.] Analysis. The +adverb clause+ may express +manner+. 1. He died as he lived. +Explanation+.--He died _in the manner in which_ he lived. For diagram, see (1), Lesson 63. 2. The upright man speaks as he thinks. 3. As the upright man thinks so he speaks. (For diagram of _as_ ... _so_, see _when_ ... _then_ (3), Lesson 63.) 4. As is the boy so will be the man. 5. The waves of conversation roll and shape our thoughts as the surf rolls and shapes the pebbles on the shore. The +adverb clause+ may express +real cause+. 6. The ground is wet because it has rained. ground | is \ wet ==========|============= \The | ` ` ` because ` it | ` has rained ----|--------------- +Explanation+.--_Because_, being a mere conjunction, stands on a line wholly dotted. 7. Slang is always vulgar, as it is an affected way of talking. 8. We keep the pores of the skin open, for through them the blood throws off its impurities. 9. Since the breath contains poisonous carbonic acid, wise people ventilate their sleeping rooms. 10. Sea-bathing is the most healthful kind of washing, as it combines fresh air and vigorous exercise with its other benefits. 11. Wheat is the most valuable of grains because bread is made from its flour. The +adverb clause+ may express +evidence+. 12. God was angry with the children of Israel, for he overthrew them in the wilderness. 13. Tobacco and the potato are American products, since Raleigh found them here. 14. It rained last night, because the ground is wet this morning. 15. We Americans must all be cuckoos, for we build our homes in the nests of other birds. * * * * * LESSON 65. ADVERB CLAUSE-CONTINUED. +Introductory Hints+.--_If it rains, the ground will be wet_. The adverb clause, introduced by _if_, assigns what, if it occurs, will be the cause of the ground's being wet, but, as here expressed, is only a +Condition+ ready to become a cause. _He takes exercise that he may get well_. The adverb clause, introduced by _that_, assigns the cause or the motive or the +Purpose+ of his exercising. _The ground is dry, although it has rained_. The adverb clause, introduced by _although_, expresses a +Concession+. It is conceded that a cause for the ground's not being dry exists; but, in spite of this opposing cause, it is asserted that the ground is dry. All these dependent clauses of real cause, evidence, condition, purpose, and concession come, as you see, under the general head of +Cause+, although only the first kind assigns the cause proper. Analysis. The +adverb clause+ may express +condition+. 1. If the air is quickly compressed, enough heat is evolved to produce combustion. 2. Unless your thought packs easily and neatly in verse, always use prose. (_Unless_ = _if not_.) 3. If ever you saw a crow with a king-bird after him, you have an image of a dull speaker and a lively listener. 4. Were it not for the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, the harbors and the rivers of Britain would be blocked up with ice for a great part of the year. +Explanation+.--The relative position of the subject and the verb renders the _if_ unnecessary. This omission of _if_ is a common idiom. 5. Should the calls of hunger be neglected, the fat of the body is thrown into the grate to keep the furnace in play. The +adverb clause+ may express +purpose+. 6. Language was given us that we might say pleasant things to each other. +Explanation+.--_That_, introducing a clause of purpose, is a mere conjunction. 7. Spiders have many eyes in order that they may see in many directions at one time. +Explanation+.--The phrases _in order that_, _so that_ = _that_. 8. The ship-canal across the Isthmus of Suez was dug so that European vessels need not sail around the Cape of Good Hope to reach the Orient. 9. The air draws up vapors from the sea and the land, and retains them dissolved in itself or suspended in cisterns of clouds, that it may drop them as rain or dew upon the thirsty earth. The +adverb clause+ may express +concession+. 10. Although the brain is only one-fortieth of the body, about one-sixth of the blood is sent to it. 11. Though the atmosphere presses on us with a load of fifteen pounds on every square inch of surface, still we do not feel its weight. 12. Though thou shouldst bray a fool in a mortar, yet will not his foolishness depart from him. 13. If the War of the Roses did not utterly destroy English freedom, it arrested its progress for a hundred years. +Explanation+.--_If_ here = _even if_ = _though_. 14. Though many rivers flow into the Mediterranean, they are not sufficient to make up the loss caused by evaporation. * * * * * LESSON 66. COMPOSITION-ADVERB CLAUSES. +COMMA--RULE.--An _Adverb Clause_ is set off by the comma unless it closely follows and restricts the word it modifies+. +Explanation+.--I met him in Paris, _when I was last abroad_. I will not call him villain, _because it would be unparliamentary_. Paper was invented in China, _if the Chinese tell the truth_. In these sentences the adverb clauses are not restrictive, but are supplementary, and are added almost as afterthoughts. Glass bends easily _when it is red-hot_. Leaves do not turn red _because the frost colors them_. It will break _if you touch it_. Here the adverb clauses are restrictive; each is very closely related in thought to the independent clause, and may almost be said to be the essential part of the sentence. When the adverb clause precedes, it is set off. +Direction+.---_Tell why the adverb clauses are or are not set off in Lessons_ 63 _and_ 64. +Direction+.---_Write, after these independent clauses, adverb clauses of time, place, degree, etc. (for connectives, see Lesson _100_), and punctuate according to the Rule_:-- 1. The leaves of the water-maple turn red--_time_. 2. Our eyes cannot bear the light--_time_. 3. Millions of soldiers sleep--_place_. 4. The Bunker Hill Monument stands--_place_. 5. Every spire of grass was so edged and tipped with dew--_degree_. 6. Vesuvius threw its lava so far--_degree_. 7. The tree is inclined--_manner_. 8. The lion springs upon his prey--_manner_. 9. Many persons died in the Black Hole of Calcutta--_cause_. 10. Dew does not form in a cloudy night--_cause_. 11. That thunderbolt fell a mile away--_evidence_. 12. We dream in our sleep--_evidence_. 13. Peter the Great worked in Holland in disguise--_purpose_. 14. We put salt into butter and upon meat--_purpose_. 15. Iron bends and molds easily--_condition_. 16. Apples would not fall to the ground--_condition_. 17. Europe conquered Napoleon at last--_concession_. 18. Punishment follows every violation of nature's laws--_concession_. * * * * * LESSON 67. +COMPOSITION-ADVERB CLASSES+. ARRANGEMENT. The adverb clause may stand before the independent clause, between the parts of it, or after it. +Direction+.---_Think, if you can, of another adverb clause to follow each independent clause in the preceding Lesson, and by means of a caret (^) indicate where this adverb clause may properly stand in the sentence. Note its force in its several positions, and attend to the punctuation. Some of these adverb clauses can stand only at the end_. * * * * * LESSON 68. COMPOSITION--ADVERB CLAUSES. An adverb clause may be contracted into a participle or a participle phrase. +Example+.--_When he saw me_, he stopped = _Seeing me_, he stopped. +Direction+.--_Contract these complex sentences to simple ones_:-- 1. Coral animals, when they die, form vast islands with their bodies. 2. The water will freeze, for it has cooled to 32 deg. 3. Truth, though she may be crushed to earth, will rise again. 4. Error, if he is wounded, writhes with pain, and dies among his worshipers. 5. Black clothes are too warm in summer, because they absorb heat. An adverb clause may be contracted to an absolute phrase. +Example+.--_When night came_ on, we gave up the chase = _Night coming_ on, we gave up the chase. +Direction+.--_Contract these complex sentences to simple ones_:-- 1. When oxygen and carbon unite in the minute blood-vessels, heat is produced. 2. It will rain to-morrow, for "Probabilities" predicts it. 3. Washington retreated from Long Island because his army was outnumbered. 4. If Chaucer is called the father of our later English poetry, Wycliffe should be called the father of our later English prose. An adverb clause may be contracted to a prepositional phrase having for its principal word (1) a participle, (2) an infinitive, or (3) a noun. +Direction+.--_Contract each of these adverb clauses to a prepositional phrase having a participle for its principal word_:-- +Model+.--They will call _before they leave_ the city = They will call _before leaving_ the city. 1. The Gulf Stream reaches Newfoundland before it crosses the Atlantic. 2. If we use household words, we shall be better understood. 3. He grew rich because he attended to his business. 4. Though they persecuted the Christians, they did not exterminate them. +Direction+.--_Contract each of these adverb clauses to an infinitive phrase_:-- +Model+.--She stoops _that she may conquer_ = She stoops _to conquer_. 1. The pine tree is so tall that it overlooks all its neighbors. 2. Philip II. built the Armada that he might conquer England. 3. He is foolish, because he leaves school so early in life. 4. What would I not give if I could see you happy! 5. We are pained when we hear God's name used irreverently. +Direction+.--_Contract each of these adverb clauses to a prepositional phrase having a noun for its principal word_:-- +Model+.--He fought _that he might obtain glory_ = He fought _for glory_. 1. Luther died where he was born. 2. A fish breathes, though it has no lungs. 3. The general marched as he was ordered. 4. Criminals are punished that society may be safe. 5. If you are free from vices, you may expect a happy old age. An adverb clause may be contracted by simply omitting such words as may easily be supplied. +Example+.--_When you are right_, go ahead = _When right_, go ahead. +Direction+.--_Contract these adverb clauses_:-- 1. Chevalier Bayard was killed while he was fighting for Francis I. 2. Error must yield, however strongly it may be defended. +Explanation+.--_However_ modifies _strongly_, and connects a concessive clause. 3. Much wealth is corpulence, if it is not disease. 4. No other English author has uttered so many pithy sayings as Shakespeare has uttered. (Frequently, clauses introduced by _as_ and _than_ are contracted.) 5. The sun is many times larger than the earth is large. (Sentences like this never appear in the full form.) 6. This is a prose era rather than it is a poetic era. An adverb clause may sometimes be changed to an adjective clause or phrase. +Example+.--This man is to be pitied, _because he has no friends_ = This man, _who has no friends_, is to be pitied = This man, _having no friends_, is to be pitied = This man, _without friends_, is to be pitied. +Direction+.--_Change each of the following adverb clauses first to an adjective clause and then to an adjective phrase_:-- 1. A man is to be pitied if he does not care for music. 2. When a man lacks health, wealth, and friends, he lacks three good things. * * * * * LESSON 69. ANALYSIS. +Direction.+--_Tell the kind of adverb clause in each of the sentences in Lesson 68, and note the different positions in which these clauses stand. Select two sentences containing time clauses; one, a place clause; two, degree; one, manner; two, real cause; two, evidence; two, purpose; two, condition; and two, concession, and analyze them_. * * * * * LESSON 70. REVIEW. +Direction.+--_Compose sentences illustrating the different kinds of adverb clauses named in Lessons 63, 64, 65, and explain fully the office of each. For connectives, see Lesson 100. Tell why the adverb clauses in Lesson 68 are or are not set off by the comma. Compose sentences illustrating the different ways of contracting adverb clauses_. +Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.+ (SEE PAGES 165-168.) TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions to the teacher, pages 30, 150. * * * * * LESSON 71. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE-NOUN CLAUSE. +Introductory Hints.+--In Lessons 40 and 41 you learned that an infinitive phrase may perform many of the offices of a noun. You are now to learn that a clause may do the same. _Obedience_ is better than sacrifice = _To obey_ is better than sacrifice = _That men should obey_ is better than sacrifice. The dependent clause _that men should obey_ is equivalent to a noun, and is the +Subject+ of _is_. _Many people believe that the beech tree is never struck by lightning_. The dependent clause, introduced by _that_, is equivalent to a noun, and is the +Object Complement+ of _believe_. _The fact that mold, mildew, and yeast are plants is wonderful_. The clause introduced by _that_ is equivalent to a noun, and is +Explanatory+ of _fact_. _A peculiarity of English is, that it has so many borrowed words_. The clause introduced by _that_ is equivalent to a noun, and is an +Attribute Complement+ relating to _peculiarity_. _Your future depends very much on who your companions are_. The clause _who your companions are_ is equivalent to a noun, and is the +Principal Term+ of a +Phrase+ introduced by the preposition _on_. A clause that does the work of a noun is a +Noun Clause+. Analysis. The +noun clause+ may be used as +subject+. 1. That the earth is round has been proved. That -------- ' earth | is ' \ round -------|-------------- \the | | | / \ | has been proved =============|================= | +Explanation+.--The clause _that the earth is round_ is used like a noun as the subject of _has been proved_. The conjunction _that_ [Footnote: "_That_ was originally the neuter demonstrative pronoun, used to point to the fact stated in an independent sentence; as, It was good; he saw _that_. By an inversion of the order this became, He saw _that_ (namely) it was good, and so passed into the form _He saw that it was good_, where _that_ has been transferred to the accessory clause, and has become a mere sign of grammatical subordination."--_C. P. Mason._] introduces the noun clause. This is a peculiar kind of complex sentence. Strictly speaking, there is here no principal clause, for the whole sentence cannot be called a clause, _i.e._, a part of a sentence. We may say that it is a complex sentence in which the whole sentence takes the place of a principal clause. 2. That the same word is used for the soul of man and for a glass of gin is singular. 3. "What have I done?" is asked by the knave and the thief. 4. Who was the discoverer of America is not yet fully determined by historians. +Explanation+.--The subject clause is here an indirect question. See Lesson 74. 5. When letters were first used is not certainly known. 6. "Where is Abel, thy brother?" smote the ears of the guilty Cain. 7. When to quit business and enjoy their wealth is a problem never solved by some. +Explanation+.--_When to quit business and enjoy their wealth_ is an indirect question. _When to quit business = When they are to quit business_, or _When they ought to quit business_. Such constructions may be expanded into clauses, or they may be treated as phrases equivalent to clauses. The +noun clause+ may be used as +object complement+. 8. Galileo taught that the earth moves. that ------- ' earth | ' moves ------|------- \the | | Galileo | taught | / \ =========|============== | +Explanation+.--Here the clause introduced by _that_ is used like a noun as the object complement of _taught_. 9. The Esquimau feels intuitively that bear's grease and blubber are the dishes for his table. 10. The world will not anxiously inquire who you are. 11. It will ask of you, "What can you do?" 12. The peacock struts about, saying, "What a fine tail I have!" 13. He does not know which to choose. (See explanation of (7), above.) 14. No one can tell how or when or where he will die. 15. Philosophers are still debating whether the will has any control over the current of thought in our dreams. * * * * * LESSON 72. NOUN CLAUSE--CONTINUED. Analysis. The +noun clause+ may be used as +attribute complement+. 1. A peculiarity of English is, that it has so many borrowed words. 2. Tweed's defiant question was, "What are you going to do about it?" 3. The question ever asked and never answered is, "Where and how am I to exist in the Hereafter?" 4. Hamlet's exclamation was, "What a piece of work is man!" 5. The myth concerning Achilles is, that he was invulnerable in every part except the heel. The +noun clause+ may be used as +explanatory modifier+. 6. It has been proved that the earth is round. that ------- ' earth | is ' \ round ------|-------------- \the | | It (/ \) | has been proved ==========|================== | +Explanation+.--The grammatical subject _it_ has no meaning till explained by the noun clause. 7. It is believed that sleep is caused by a diminution in the supply of blood to the brain. 8. The fact that mold, mildew, and yeast are plants is wonderful. 9. Napoleon turned his Simplon road aside in order that he might save a tree mentioned by Caesar. +Explanation+.--Unless _in order that_ is taken as a conjunction connecting an adverb clause of purpose (see (7), Lesson 65), the clause introduced by _that_ is a noun clause explanatory of _order_. [Footnote: A similar explanation may be made of _on condition that, in case that_, introducing adverb clauses expressing condition.] 10. Shakespeare's metaphor, "Night's candles are burnt out," is one of the finest in literature. 11. The advice that St. Ambrose gave St. Augustine in regard to conformity to local custom was in substance this: "When in Rome, do as the Romans do." 12. This we know, that our future depends on our present. The +noun clause+ may be used as +principal term+ of a +prepositional phrase+. 13. Have birds any sense of why they sing? birds | Have | sense =======|================ they | sing | \any \ -----|------ \ of | \why \ / \ \------------- +Explanation+.--_Why they sing_ is an indirect question, here used as the principal term of a prepositional phrase. 14. There has been some dispute about who wrote "Shakespeare's Plays." 15. We are not certain that an open sea surrounds the Pole. +Explanation+.--By supposing _of_ to stand before _that_, the noun clause may be treated as the principal term of a prepositional phrase modifying the adjective _certain_. By supplying _of the fact_, the noun clause will become explanatory. 16. We are all anxious that the future shall bring us success and triumph. 17. The Sandwich Islander is confident that the strength and valor of his slain enemy pass into himself. * * * * * LESSON 73. COMPOSITION--NOUN CLAUSE. +COMMA--RULE.--The _Noun Clause_ used as attribute complement is generally set off by the comma.+ +Remarks+.--Present usage seems to favor the omission of the comma with the clause used as subject or as object complement, except where the comma would contribute to clearness. The punctuation of the explanatory clause is like that of other explanatory modifiers. See Lesson 34. But the real subject made explanatory of _it_ is seldom set off. See next Lesson for the punctuation of noun clauses that are questions or quotations. +Direction+.--_Give the reasons for the use or the omission of the comma with the noun clauses in the preceding Lesson_. By using _it_ as a substitute for the subject clause, this clause may be placed last. +Example+.--_That the story of William Tell is a myth_ is now believed = _It_ is now believed _that the story of William Tell is a myth_. +Direction+.--_By the aid of the expletive it, transpose five subject clauses in Lesson 71_. Often the clause used as object complement may be placed first. +Direction+.--_Transpose such of the clauses used as object complements, in the preceding Lessons, as admit transposition. Punctuate them if they need punctuation_. The noun clause may be made prominent by separating it and inserting the independent clause between its parts, +Example+.--The story of William Tell, _it is now believed_, is a myth. (Notice that the principal clause, used parenthetically, is set off by the comma.) +Direction+.--_Write the following sentences, using the independent clauses parenthetically_:-- 1. We believe that the first printing-press in America was set up in Mexico in 1536. 2. I am aware that refinement of mind and clearness of thinking usually result from grammatical studies. 3. It is true that the glorious sun pours down his golden flood as cheerily on the poor man's cottage as on the rich man's palace. +Direction+.--_Vary the following sentence so as to illustrate five different kinds of noun clauses_:-- +Model+.-- 1. _That stars are suns_ is the belief of astronomers. 2. Astronomers believe _that stars are suns_. 3. The belief of astronomers is, _that stars are suns_. 4. The belief _that stars are suns_ is held by astronomers. 5. Astronomers are confident _that stars are suns_. 1. Our conclusion is, that different forms of government suit different stages of civilization. The noun clause may be contracted by changing the predicate to a participle, and the subject to a possessive. +Example+.--_That he was brave_ cannot be doubted = _His being brave_ cannot be doubted. +Direction+.--_Make the following complex sentences simple by changing the noun clauses to phrases_:-- 1. That the caterpillar changes to a butterfly is a curious fact. 2. Everybody admits that Cromwell was a great leader. 3. A man's chief objection to a woman is, that she has no respect for the newspaper. 4. The thought that we are spinning around the sun at the rate of twenty miles a second makes us dizzy. 5. She was aware that I appreciated her situation. The noun clause may be contracted by making the predicate, when changed to an infinitive phrase, the objective complement, and the subject the object complement. +Direction+.--_Make the following complex sentences simple by changing the predicates of the noun clauses to objective complements, and the subjects to object complements_:-- +Model+.--King Ahasuerus commanded that _Haman should be hanged_ = King Ahasuerus commanded _Haman to be hanged_. 1. I believe that he is a foreigner. 2. The Governor ordered that the prisoner should be set free. 3. Many people believe that Webster was the greatest of American statesmen. 4. How wide do you think that the Atlantic ocean is? 5. They hold that taxation without representation is unjust. +Direction+.--_Expand into complex sentences such of the sentences in Lesson_ 41 _as contain an objective complement and an object complement that together are equivalent to a clause_. A noun clause may be contracted to an infinitive phrase. +Example+.--_That he should vote_ is the duty of every American citizen = _To vote_ is the duty of every American citizen. +Direction+.--_Contract these noun clauses to infinitive phrases_:-- 1. That we guard our liberty with vigilance is a sacred duty. 2. Every one desires that he may live long and happily. 3. The effect of looking upon the sun is, that the eye is blinded. 4. Caesar Augustus issued a decree that all the world should be taxed. 5. We are all anxious that we may make a good impression. 6. He does not know whom he should send. 7. He cannot find out how he is to go there. * * * * * LESSON 74. COMPOSITION--NOUN CLAUSE--CONTINUED. +QUOTATION MARKS--RULE.--Quotation marks ("") inclose a copied word or passage+. +Remarks+.--Single marks (' ') inclose a quotation within a quotation. If, within the quotation having single marks, still another quotation is made, the double marks are again used; as, "The incorrectness of the dispatches led Bismarck to declare, 'It will soon come to be said, "He lies like the telegraph."'" This introduction of a third quotation should generally be avoided, especially where the three marks come at the end, as above. When a quotation is divided by a parenthetical expression, each part of the quotation is inclosed; as, "I would rather be right," said Clay, "than be president." In quoting a question, the interrogation point must stand within the quotation marks; as, He asked, "What are you living for?" but, when a question contains a quotation, this order is reversed; as, May we not find "sermons in stones"? So also with the exclamation point. +CAPITAL LETTER--RULE.--The first word of a direct quotation making complete sense or of a direct question introduced into a sentence should begin with a capital letter+. +Remarks+.--A +direct quotation+ is one whose exact words, as well as thought, are copied; as, Nathan said to David, "_Thou art the man_." An +indirect quotation+ is one whose thought, but not whose exact words, is copied; as, Nathan told David _that he was the man_. The reference here of the pronoun _he_ is somewhat ambiguous. Guard against this, especially in indirect quotations. The direct quotation is set off by the comma, begins with a capital letter, and is inclosed within quotation marks--though these may be omitted. The indirect quotation is not generally set off by the comma, does not necessarily begin with a capital letter, and is not inclosed within quotation marks. A +direct question+ introduced into a sentence is one in which the exact words and their order in an interrogative sentence (see Lesson 55) are preserved, and which is followed by an interrogation point; as, Cain asked, "_Am I my brother's keeper_?" An +indirect question+ is one which is referred to as a question, but not directly asked or quoted as such, and which is not followed by an interrogation point; as, Cain asked _whether he was his brother's keeper_. The direct question introduced into a sentence is set off by the comma (but no comma is used after the interrogation point), begins with a capital letter, and is inclosed within quotation marks--though these may be omitted. An indirect question is not generally set off by a comma, does not necessarily begin with a capital letter, and is not inclosed within quotation marks. If the direct quotation, whether a question or not, is formally introduced (see Lesson 147), it is preceded by the colon; as, Nathan's words to David were these: "_Thou art the man_." He put the question thus: "_Can you do it_?" +Direction+.--_Point out the direct and the indirect quotations and questions in the sentences of Lesson_ 71, _tell why they do or do not begin with capital letters, and justify the use or the omission of the comma, the interrogation point, and the quotation marks_. +Direction+.--_Rewrite these same sentences, changing the direct quotations and questions to indirect, and the indirect to direct_. +Direction+.--_Write five sentences containing direct quotations, some of which shall be formally introduced, and some of which shall be questions occurring at the beginning or in the middle of the sentence. Change these to the indirect form, and look carefully to the punctuation and the capitalization._ +Direction+.--_Write sentences illustrating the last paragraph of the Remarks under the Rule for Quotation Marks_. * * * * * LESSON 75. ANALYSIS. +Direction+.--_Analyze the sentences given for arrangement and contraction in Lesson_ 73. * * * * * LESSON 76. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. +Introductory Hints+.--_Cromwell made one revolution, and Monk made another_. The two clauses are independent of each other. The second clause, added by the conjunction _and_ to the first, continues the line of thought begun by the first. _Man has his will, but woman has her way_. Here the conjunction connects independent clauses whose thoughts stand in contrast with each other. _The Tudors were despotic, or history belies them_. The independent clauses, connected by _or_, present thoughts between which you may choose, but either, accepted, excludes the other. _The ground is wet, therefore it has rained_. Here the inferred fact, the raining, really stands to the other fact, the wetness of the ground, as cause to effect--the raining made the ground wet. _It has rained_, _hence the ground is wet_. Here the inferred fact, the wetness of the ground, really stands to the other fact, the raining, as effect to cause--the ground is made wet by the raining. But this the real, or logical relation between the facts in either sentence is expressed in a sentence of the compound form--an _and_ may be placed before _therefore_ and _hence_. Unless the connecting word expresses the dependence of one of the clauses, the grammarian regards them both as independent. _Temperance promotes health, intemperance destroys it_. Here the independent clauses are joined to each other by their very position in the sentence--connected without any conjunction. This kind of connection is common. Sentences made up of independent clauses we call +Compound Sentences. +DEFINITION.--A _Clause_ is a part of a sentence containing' a subject and its predicate.+ +DEFINITION.--A _Dependent Clause_ is one used as an adjective, an adverb, or a noun.+ +DEFINITION.--An _Independent Clause_ is one not dependent on another clause.+ SENTENCES CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO FORM. +DEFINITION.--A _Simple Sentence_ is a sentence that contains but one subject and one predicate, either or both of which may be compound.+ +DEFINITION.--A _Complex Sentence_ is a sentence composed of an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.+ +DEFINITION.--A _Compound Sentence_ is a sentence composed of two or more independent clauses.+ Analysis. +Independent Clauses+ in the +same line+ of thought. 1. Light has spread, and bayonets think. Light | has spread =======|============= | ' ' ' and ....... ' ' bayonets | ' think ===========|========== | +Explanation+.--The clauses are of equal rank, and so the lines on which they stand are shaded alike, and the line connecting them is not slanting. As one entire clause is connected with the other, the connecting line is drawn between the predicates merely for convenience. +Oral Analysis+.--This is a compound sentence because it is made up of independent clauses. 2. Hamilton smote the rock of the national resources, and abundant streams of revenue gushed forth. 3. Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have greatness thrust upon them. +Independent Clauses+ expressing thoughts in +contrast.+ 4. The man dies, but his memory lives. 5. Put not your trust in money, but put your money in trust. 6. Ready writing makes not good writing, but good writing brings on ready writing. +Independent Clauses+ expressing thoughts in +alternation+. 7. Be temperate in youth, or you will have to be abstinent in old age. 8. Places near the sea are not extremely cold in winter, nor are they extremely warm in summer. (Here a choice is denied.) 9. Either Hamlet was mad, or he feigned madness admirably. (See (16), Lesson 20.) +Independent Clauses+ expressing thoughts one of which is an +inference+ from the other. 10. People in the streets are carrying umbrellas, hence it must be raining. 11. I have seen, therefore I believe. I | have seen ===|=========== | ' ' I | ' believe ===|='========= |\' \therefore +Explanation+.--In such constructions _and_ may be supplied, or the adverb may be regarded as the connective. The diagram illustrates _therefore_ as connective. +Independent Clauses+ joined in the sentence +without a conjunction+. 12. The camel is the ship of the ocean of sand; the reindeer is the camel of the desert of snow. 13. Of thy unspoken word thou art master; thy spoken word is master of thee. 14. The ship leaps, as it were, from billow to billow. +Explanation+.--_As it were_ is an independent clause used parenthetically. _As_ simply introduces it. 15. Religion--who can doubt it?--is the noblest of themes for the exercise of intellect. 16. What grave (these are the words of Wellesley, speaking of the two Pitts) contains such a father and such a son! * * * * * LESSON 77. COMPOSITION--COMPOUND SENTENCE. +COMMA and SEMICOLON--RULE.--_Independent Clauses_, when short and closely connected, are separated by the+ +comma; but, when the clauses are slightly connected, or when they are themselves divided into parts by the comma, the semi-colon is used+. +Remark+.--A parenthetical clause may be set oil by the comma or by the dash, or it may be inclosed within marks of parenthesis--the marks of parenthesis showing the least degree of connection in sense. See the last three sentences in the preceding Lesson. +Examples+.-- 1. We must conquer our passions, or our passions will conquer us. 2. The prodigal robs his heirs; the miser robs himself. 3. There is a fierce conflict between good and evil; but good is in the ascendant, and must triumph at last. (The rule above is another example.) +Direction+.--_Punctuate the following sentences, and give your reasons_:-- 1. The wind and the rain are over the clouds are divided in heaven over the green hill flies the inconstant sun. 2. The epic poem recites the exploits of a hero tragedy represents a disastrous event comedy ridicules the vices and follies of mankind pastoral poetry describes rural life and elegy displays the tender emotions of the heart. 3. Wealth may seek us but wisdom must be sought. 4. The race is not to the swift nor the battle to the strong. 5. Occidental manhood springs from self-respect Oriental manhood finds its greatest satisfaction in self-abasement. [Footnote: In this sentence we have a figure of speech called +Antithesis+, in which things unlike in some particular are set over against each other. Each part shines with its own light and with the light reflected from the other part. Antithesis gives great force to the thought expressed by it. Sentences containing it furnish us our best examples of +Balanced Sentences+. You will find other antitheses in this Lesson and in the preceding.] 6. The more discussion the better if passion and personality be avoided and discussion even if stormy often winnows truth from error. +Direction+.--_Assign reasons for the punctuation of the independent clauses in the preceding Lesson_. +Direction+.--_Using the copulative and, the adversative but, and the alternative or or nor, form compound sentences out of the following simple sentences, and give the reasons for your choice of connectives_:-- Read not that you may find material for argument and conversation. The rain descended. Read that you may weigh and consider the thoughts of others. Can the Ethiopian change his skin? Righteousness exalteth a nation. The floods came. Great was the fall of it. Language is not the dress of thought. Can the leopard change his spots? The winds blew and beat upon that house. Sin is a reproach to any people. It is not simply its vehicle. It fell. Compound sentences may be contracted by using but once the parts common to all the clauses, and compounding the remaining parts. +Example+.--_Time_ waits for no man, and _tide waits for no man_ = _Time_ and _tide wait for no man_. +Direction+.--_Contract these compound sentences, attending carefully to the punctuation_:-- 1. Lafayette fought for American independence, and Baron Steuben fought for American independence. 2. The sweet but fading graces of inspiring autumn open the mind to benevolence, and the sweet but fading graces of inspiring autumn dispose the mind for contemplation. 3. The spirit of the Almighty is within us, the spirit of the Almighty is around us, and the spirit of the Almighty is above us. A compound sentence may be contracted by simply omitting from one clause such words as may readily be supplied from the other. _Example_.--He is witty, _but he is vulgar_ = He is witty _but vulgar_. +Direction+.--_Contract these sentences_:-- 1. Mirth should be the embroidery of conversation, but it should not be the web. 2. It is called so, but it is improperly called so. 3. Was Cabot the discoverer of America, or was he not the discoverer of America? 4. William the Silent has been likened to Washington, and he has justly been likened to him. 5. It was his address that pleased me, and it was not his dress that pleased me. A compound sentence may sometimes be changed to a complex sentence without materially changing the sense. +Example+.--_Take care of the minutes_, and the hours will take care of themselves = _If you take care of the minutes_, the hours will take care of themselves. (Notice that the imperative form adds force.) +Direction+.--_Change these compound sentences to complex sentences_:-- 1. Resist the devil, and he will flee from you. 2. Govern your passions, or they will govern you. 3. I heard that you wished to see me, and I lost no time in coming. 4. He converses, and at the same time he plays a difficult piece of music. 5. He was faithful, and he was rewarded. +Direction+.--_Change one of the independent clauses in each of these sentences to a dependent clause, and then change the dependent clause to a participle phrase_:-- +Model+.--The house was built upon a rock, _and therefore_ it did not fall = The house did not fall, _because_ it was built upon a rock = The house, _being built_ upon a rock, did not fall. 1. He found that he could not escape, and so he surrendered. 2. Our friends heard of our coming, and they hastened to meet us. +Direction+.--_Using and, but, and or as connectives, compose three compound sentences, each containing three independent clauses_. * * * * * LESSON 78. COMPLEX AND COMPOUND CLAUSES. +Introductory Hints+.--_Sun and moon and stars_ obey. Peter the Great went _to Holland, to England_, and _to France_. _I came, I saw, I conquered_. Here we have co-ordinate words, co-ordinate phrases, and co-ordinate clauses, that is, words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank, or order. Leaves fall _so very quietly_. They ate _of the fruit from the tree in the garden_. Regulus would have paused _if he had been the man that he was before captivity had unstrung his sinews_. Here just as the word modifier _quietly_ is itself modified by _very_, and _very_ by _so_; and just as _fruit_, the principal word in a modifying phrase, is modified by another phrase, and the principal word of that by another: so _man_, in the adverb clause which modifies _would have paused_, is itself modified by the adjective clause _that he was_, and _was_ by the adverb clause _before captivity had unstrung his sinews_. These three dependent clauses in the complex clause modifier, like the three words and the three phrases in the complex word modifier and the complex phrase modifier, are not co-ordinate, or of equal rank. _Mary married Philip; but Elizabeth would not marry, although Parliament frequently urged it, and the peace of England demanded it_. This is a compound sentence, composed of the simple clause which precedes _but_ and the complex clause which follows it--the complex clause being composed of an independent clause and two dependent clauses, one co-ordinate with the other, and the two connected by _and_. Analysis. The +clauses+ of +complex+ and +compound+ sentences may themselves be +complex+ or +compound+. insects ---------- ` ` ` ` ` `which | are admired ` ` `=====|============= ` ` | ' ` ` ' x ` ` ..... ` ` ' ` `which | are decorated ` ======|=============== ` | ' ` 'and ` ........ ` ' ` which | soar ' `======|======= | hour | had passed =========|============= \The |` ' ` ' and ` ....... ` ' opportunity | ` had escaped ============|==`============ \the | ` \ ` ' ` ' `' ` `while ` he | ` tarried ----|------------- | that ----- ' earth | ' is \ round =========|======'======== | ' that ' and ----- ...... ' ' it | ' revolves ' ===|='============'= | He | proved | / \ ====|============= | +Explanation+.--The first diagram illustrates the analysis of the compound adjective clause in (3) below. Each adjective clause is connected to _insects_ by _which_. _And_ connects the co-ordinate clauses. The second diagram shows that the clause _while he tarried_ modifies both predicates of the independent clauses. _While_ modifies _had passed, had escaped_, and _tarried_, as illustrated by the short lines under the first two verbs and the line over _tarried_. The office of _while_ as connective is shown by the dotted lines. The third diagram illustrates the analysis of a complex sentence containing a compound noun clause. 1. Sin has a great many tools, but a lie is a handle which fits them all. 2. Some one has said that the milkman's favorite song should be, "Shall we gather at the river?" 3. Some of the insects which are most admired, which are decorated with the most brilliant colors, and which soar on the most ethereal wings, have passed the greater portion of their lives in the bowels of the earth. 4. Still the wonder grew, that one small head could carry all he knew. 5. When a man becomes overheated by working, running, rowing, or making furious speeches, the six or seven millions of perspiration tubes pour out their fluid, and the whole body is bathed and cooled. 6. Milton said that he did not educate his daughters in the languages, because one tongue was enough for a woman. [Footnote: In _tongue_, as here used, we have a +Pun+--a witty expression in which a word agreeing in sound with another word, but differing in meaning from it, is used in place of that other.] 7. Glaciers, flowing down mountain gorges, obey the law of rivers; the upper surface flows faster than the lower, and the center faster than the adjacent sides. 8. Not to wear one's best things every day is a maxim of New England thrift, which is as little disputed as any verse in the catechism. 9. In Holland the stork is protected by law, because it eats the frogs and worms that would injure the dikes. 10. It is one of the most marvelous facts in the natural world that, though hydrogen is highly inflammable, and oxygen is a supporter of combustion, both, combined, form an element, water, which is destructive to fire. 11. In your war of 1812, when your arms on shore were covered by disaster, when Winchester had been defeated, when the Army of the Northwest had surrendered, and when the gloom of despondency hung, like a cloud, over the land, who first relit the fires of national glory, and made the welkin ring with the shouts of victory? [Footnote: The _when_ clauses in (11), as the _which_ clauses in (3), are formed on the same plan, have their words in the same order. This principle of +Parallel Construction+, requiring like ideas to be expressed alike, holds also in phrases, as in (10) and (14), Lesson 28, and in (14) and (15), Lesson 46, and holds supremely with sentences in the paragraph, as is explained on page 168. Parallel construction contributes to the clearness, and consequently to the force, of expression.] * * * * * LESSON 79. EXPANSION. +Participles+ may be expanded into different kinds of +clauses+. +Direction+.--_Expand the participles in these sentences into the clauses indicated_:-- 1. Simon Peter, having a sword, drew it. (Adjective clause.) 2. Desiring to live long, no one would be old. (Concession.) 3. They went to the temple, suing for pardon. (Purpose.) 4. White garments, reflecting the rays of the sun, are cool in summer. (Cause.) 5. Loved by all, he must have a genial disposition. (Evidence.) 6. Writing carefully, you will learn to write well. (Condition.) 7. Sitting there, I heard the cry of "Fire!" (Time.) 8. She regrets not having read it. (Noun clause.) 9. The icebergs floated down, cooling the air for miles around, (Independent clause.) +Absolute phrases+ may be expanded into different kinds of +clauses+. +Direction+.--_Expand these absolute phrases into the clauses indicated_:-- 1. Troy being taken by the Greeks, Aeneas came into Italy. (Time.) 2. The bridges having been swept away, we returned. (Cause.) 3. A cause not preceding, no effect is produced. (Condition.) 4. All things else being destroyed, virtue could sustain itself. (Concession.) 5. There being no dew this morning, it must have been cloudy or windy last night. (Evidence.) 6. The infantry advanced, the cavalry remaining in the rear. (Independent clause.) +Infinitive+ phrases may be expanded into different kinds of +clauses+. +Direction+.--_Expand these infinitive phrases into the clauses indicated_:-- 1. They have nothing to wear. (Adjective clause.) 2. The weather is so warm as to dissolve the snow. (Degree.) 3. Herod will seek the young child to destroy it. (Purpose.) 4. The adversative sentence faces, so to speak, half way about on _but_. (Condition.) 5. He is a fool to waste his time so. (Cause.) 6. I shall be happy to hear of your safe arrival. (Time.) 7. He does not know where to go. (Noun clause.) +Direction+.--_Complete these elliptical expressions_:-- 1. And so shall Regulus, though dead, fight as he never fought before. 2. Oh, that I might have one more day! 3. He is braver than wise. 4. What if he is poor? 5. He handles it as if it were glass. 6. I regard him more as a historian than as a poet. 7. He is not an Englishman, but a Frenchman. 8. Much as he loved his wealth, he loved his children better. 9. I will go whether you go or not. 10. It happens with books as with mere acquaintances. 11. No examples, however awful, sink into the heart. * * * * * LESSON 80. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW. Analysis. 1. Whenever the wandering demon of Drunkenness finds a ship adrift, he steps on board, takes the helm, and steers straight for the Maelstrom.--_Holmes_. 2. The energy which drives our locomotives and forces our steamships through the waves comes from the sun.--_Cooke_. 3. No scene is continually loved but one rich by joyful human labor, smooth in field, fair in garden, full in orchard.--_Ruskin_. 4. What is bolder than a miller's neck-cloth, which takes a thief by the throat every morning?--_German Proverb_. 5. The setting sun stretched his celestial rods of light across the level landscape, and smote the rivers and the brooks and the ponds, and they became as blood.--_Longfellow_. 6. Were the happiness of the next world as closely apprehended as the felicities of this, it were a martyrdom to live.--_Sir T. Browne_. 7. There is a good deal of oratory in me, but I don't do as well as I can, in any one place, out of respect to the memory of Patrick Henry.--_Nasby_. 8. Van Twiller's full-fed cheeks, which seemed to have taken toll of everything that went into his mouth, were curiously mottled and streaked with dusky red, like a spitzenburg apple.--_Irving_. 9. The evil of silencing the expression of an opinion is, that it is robbing the human race.--_Mill_. 10. There is no getting along with Johnson; if his pistol misses fire, he knocks you down with the butt of it.--_Goldsmith_. 11. We think in words; and, when we lack fit words, we lack fit thoughts.--_White_. 12. To speak perfectly well one must feel that he has got to the bottom of his subject.--_Whately_. 13. Office confers no honor upon a man who is worthy of it, and it will disgrace every man who is not.--_Holland_. 14. The men whom men respect, the women whom women approve, are the men and women who bless their species.--_Parton_. * * * * * LESSON 81. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW. Analysis. 1. A ruler who appoints any man to an office when there is in his dominions another man better qualified for it sins against God and against the state.--_Koran_. 2. We wondered whether the saltness of the Dead Sea was not Lot's wife in solution.--_Curtis_. 3. There is a class among us so conservative that they are afraid the roof will come down if you sweep off the cobwebs.--_Phillips_. 4. Kind hearts are more than coronets; and simple faith, than Norman blood.--_Tennyson_. 5. All those things for which men plow, build, or sail obey virtue.--_Sallust_. 6. The sea licks your feet, its huge flanks purr very pleasantly for you; but it will crack your bones and eat you for all that.--_Holmes_. 7. Of all sad words of tongue or pen the saddest are these: "It might have been."--_Whittier_. 8. I fear three newspapers more than a hundred thousand bayonets. --_Napoleon_. 9. He that allows himself to be a worm must not complain if he is trodden on.--_Kant_. 10. It is better to write one word upon the rock than a thousand on the water or the sand.--_Gladstone_. 11. A breath of New England's air is better than a sup of Old England's ale.--_Higginson_. 12. We are as near to heaven by sea as by land.--_Sir H. Gilbert_. 13. No language that cannot suck up the feeding juices secreted for it in the rich mother-earth of common folk can bring forth a sound and lusty book.--_Lowell_. 14. Commend me to the preacher who has learned by experience what are human ills and what is human wrong.--_Boyd_. 15. He prayeth best who loveth best all things both [Footnote: See Lesson 20.] great and small; for the dear God, who loveth us, he made and loveth all.--_Coleridge_. * * * * * LESSON 82. REVIEW. Show that an adjective may be expanded into an equivalent phrase or clause. Give examples of adjective clauses connected by _who, whose, which, what, that, whichever, when, where, why_, and show that each connective performs also the office of a pronoun or that of an adverb. Give and illustrate fully the Rule for punctuating the adjective clause, and the Caution regarding the position of the adjective clause. Show that an adjective clause may be equivalent to an Infinitive phrase or a participle phrase. Show that an adverb may be expanded into an equivalent phrase or clause. Illustrate the different kinds of adverb clauses, and explain the office of each and the fitness of the name. Give and explain fully the Rule for the punctuation of adverb clauses. Illustrate the different positions of adverb clauses. Illustrate the different ways of contracting adverb clauses. * * * * * LESSON 83. REVIEW. Illustrate five different offices of a noun clause. Explain the two different ways of treating clauses introduced by _in order that_, etc. Explain the office of the expletive _it_. Illustrate the different positions of a noun clause used as object complement. Show how the noun clause may be made prominent. Illustrate the different ways of contracting noun clauses. Give and illustrate fully the Rule for quotation marks. Illustrate and explain fully the distinction between direct and indirect quotations, and the distinction between direct and indirect questions introduced into a sentence. Tell all about their capitalization and punctuation. * * * * * LESSON 84. REVIEW. Illustrate and explain the distinction between a dependent and an independent clause. Illustrate and explain the different ways in which independent clauses connected by _and, but, or_, and _hence_ are related in sense. Show how independent clauses may be joined in sense without a connecting word. Define a clause. Define the different kinds of clauses. Define the different classes of sentences with regard to form. Give the Rule for the punctuation of independent clauses, and illustrate fully. Illustrate the different ways of contracting independent clauses. Illustrate and explain the difference between compound and complex word modifiers; between compound and complex phrases; between compound and complex clauses. Give participle phrases, absolute phrases, and infinitive phrases, and expand them into different kinds of clauses. What three parts of speech may connect clauses? GENERAL REVIEW. TO THE TEACHER.--This scheme will be found very helpful in a general review. The pupils should be able to reproduce it except the Lesson numbers. Scheme for the Sentence. (_The numbers refer to Lessons_.) +PARTS.+ +Subject.+ Noun or Pronoun (8). Phrase (38, 40). Clause (71). +Predicate.+ Verb (11). +Complements.+ +Object.+ Noun or Pronoun (28). Phrase (38, 40). Clause (71). +Attribute.+ Adjective (29, 30). Participle (37). Noun or Pronoun (29, 30). Phrase (37, 40). Clause (72). +Objective.+ Adjective (31). Participle (37). Noun (or Pronoun) (31). Phrase (37, 41). +Modifiers.+ Adjectives (12). Adverbs (14). Participles (37). Nouns and Pronouns (33, 35). Phrases (17, 37, 38, 40, 41). Clauses (59, 60, 63, 64, 65). +Connectives.+ Conjunctions (20, 64, 65, 71, 76). Pronouns (59, 60). Adverbs (60, 63, 64). +Independent Parts+ (44). +Classes.+ +Meaning.+ Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, Exclamatory (46). +Form.+ Simple, Complex, Compound (76). Additional Selections. TO THE TEACHER.--We believe that you will find the preceding pages unusually full and rich in illustrative selections; but, should additional work be needed for reviews or for maturer classes, the following selections will afford profitable study. Let the pupils discuss the thought and the poetic form, as well as the logical construction of these passages. We do not advise putting them in diagram. Speak clearly, if you speak at all; Carve every word before you let it fall.--_Holmes_. The robin and the blue-bird, piping loud, Filled all the blossoming orchards with their glee; The sparrows chirped as if they still were proud Their race in Holy Writ should mentioned be; And hungry crows, assembled in a crowd, Clamored their piteous prayer incessantly, Knowing who hears the ravens cry, and said, "Give us, O Lord, this day, our daily bread!" --_Longfellow_, Better to stem with heart and hand The roaring tide of life than lie, Unmindful, on its flowery strand, Of God's occasions drifting by. Better with naked nerve to bear The needles of this goading air Than, in the lap of sensual ease, forego The godlike power to do, the godlike aim to know. --_Whittier_. Then to side with Truth is noble when we share her wretched crust, Ere her cause bring fame and profit, and 't is prosperous to be just; Then it is the brave man chooses, while the coward stands aside, Doubting in his abject spirit, till his Lord is crucified.--_Lowell_. Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. TO THE TEACHER.--These and similar "Exercises" are entirely outside of the regular lessons. They are offered to those teachers who may not, from lack of time or of material, find it convenient to prepare extra or miscellaneous work better suited to their own needs. The questions appended to the following sentences are made easy of answer, but in continuing such exercises the teacher will, of course, so frame the questions as more and more to throw responsibility on the pupil. It will be evident that this work aims not only to enforce instruction given before Lesson 17, but, by an easy and familiar examination of words and groups of words, to prepare the way for what is afterwards presented more formally and scientifically. ADAPTED FROM IRVING'S "SKETCH BOOK." 1. From this piazza the wondering Ichabod entered the hall. 2. This hall formed the center of the mansion and the place of usual residence. 3. Here, rows of resplendent pewter, ranged on a long dresser, dazzled his eyes. 4. In one corner stood a huge bag of wool ready to be spun. 5. In another corner stood a quantity of linsey-woolsey just from the loom. 6. Ears of Indian corn and strings of dried apples and peaches hung in gay festoons along the walls. 7. These were mingled with the gaud of red peppers. 8. A door left ajar gave him a peep into the best parlor. 9. In this parlor claw-footed chairs and dark mahogany tables shone like mirrors. 10. Andirons, with their accompanying shovel and tongs, glistened from their covert of asparagus tops. [Footnote: _Asparagus tops_ were commonly used to ornament the old-fashioned fireplace in summer.] 11. Mock-oranges and conch-shells decorated the mantelpiece. 12. Strings of various-colored birds' eggs were suspended above it. 13. A corner-cupboard, knowingly left open, displayed immense treasures of old silver and well-mended china. +The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--Find the two chief words in each of the first three sentences. As a part of the sentence what is each of these words called? To what class of words, or part of speech, does each belong? Notice that in the fourth and the fifth sentence the subject is put after the predicate. Change the order of words and read these sentences. Read in their regular order the two chief words of each. In the sixth sentence what word says, or asserts, something about both ears and strings? In the ninth sentence put _what_ before the predicate _shone_ and find two nouns that answer the question. In the eleventh sentence what two things does _decorated_ tell something about? In the seventh sentence _these_ stands for what two nouns, or names, found in the preceding sentence? Find the subject and the predicate of each sentence from the sixth to the thirteenth inclusive. To what class of words does each of these chief parts belong? Find in these sentences nouns that are not subjects. Find several compound nouns the parts of which are joined with the hyphen. _The_ and _wondering_ in the first sentence go with what noun? The group of words _from this piazza_ goes with what word? In the second sentence put _what_ before, and then after, _formed_, and find the names that answer these questions. What does _of the mansion_ go with? What does _of usual residence_ describe? In the third sentence what word tells where the dazzling occurred? Find a group of three words telling what the rows were composed of. What group of words tells the position of the rows? In the fourth sentence what group of words shows where the bag stood? _Of wool ready to be spun_ describes what? _A_ and _huge_ are attached to what? TO THE TEACHER.--We have here suggested some of the devices by which pupils may be led to see the functions of words and phrases. We recommend that this work be varied and continued through the selection above and through others that may easily be made. Such exercises, together with the more formal and searching work of the regular lessons, will be found of incalculable value to the pupil. They will not only afford the best mental discipline but will aid greatly in getting thought and in expressing thought. +The Force and the Beauty of the Description above.--+ Can you find any reason why we are invited to see this picture through the eyes of the interested and wondering Ichabod? Do you think the word _wondering_ well chosen and suggestive? Look through this picture carefully and tell what there is that indicates thrift, industry, and prosperity. Find more common expressions for _center of the mansion_ and _place of usual residence_. Notice in the third sentence the effect of _resplendent_ and _dazzled_. How is a similar effect produced in the ninth and the tenth sentence? You see that this great artist in words does not here need to repeat his language. We can easily imagine that he could produce the same effect in a great variety of ways. In the fourth sentence does the expression _ready to be spun_ tell what is actually seen, or what is only suggested? What is gained by this expression and by _just from the loom_ in the next sentence? Do you think an unskillful artist would have used _in gay festoons?_ Read the seventh and make it more common but less quaint. Do you think the picture gains, or loses, by representing the door as "ajar" instead of wide open? Why? Can you see any similar effect from introducing _their covert_ in the tenth sentence? What does the expression _knowingly left open_ suggest to you? This selection from Irving illustrates the +Descriptive+ style of writing. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITION WORK. In the description above we have taken some liberties with the original, for we have broken it up into single sentences. The parts of this picture as made by Irving were smoothly and delicately blended together. You may rewrite this description; and, where it can be done to advantage, you may join the sentences neatly together. Perhaps some of these sentences may be changed to become parts of other sentences, TO THE TEACHER.--It will be found profitable for pupils to break up for themselves into short sentences model selections from classic English, and, after examining the structure and style as suggested above, to note and, so far as possible, explain how these were blended together in the original. A written reproduction of the selection may then be made from memory. This study of the thought, the structure, and the style of the great masters in language must lead to a discriminating taste for literature; and the effect upon the pupil's own habits of thought and expression will necessarily be to lift him above the insipid, commonplace matter and language that characterize much of the so-called "original" composition work. In the study of these selections, especially in the work of copying, the rules for punctuation, and other rules, formally stated further on, may easily be anticipated informally. For composition work more nearly original the class might read together or discuss, descriptions of home scenes; then, drawing from imagination or experience, they might make descriptions of their own. In these descriptions different persons might be introduced, with their attitudes, employments, and acts of hospitality. For exercises in narration pupils might write about trips to these homes, telling about the preparation, the start, the journey, and the reception. (For studies on narrative style, see pages 157-162.) To insure thoroughness, all such compositions should he short. Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. ADAPTED FROM IRVING'S "SKETCH BOOK." 1. Every window and crevice of the vast barn seemed bursting forth with the treasures of the farm. 2. The flail was busily resounding within from morning till night. 3. Swallows and martins skimmed twittering about the eaves. 4. Rows of pigeons were enjoying the sunshine on the roof. 5. Some sat with one eye turned up as if watching the weather. 6. Some sat with their heads under their wings or buried in their bosoms. 7. Others were swelling and cooing and bowing about their dames. 8. Sleek, unwieldy porkers were grunting in the repose and abundance of their pens. 9. From these pens sallied forth, now and then, troops of sucking pigs, as if to snuff the air. 10. A stately squadron of snowy geese was riding in an adjoining pond, convoying whole fleets of ducks. 11. Regiments of turkeys were gobbling through the farmyard. 12. Guinea fowls fretted about, like ill-tempered housewives, with their peevish, discontented cry. 13. Before the barn-door strutted the gallant cock, clapping his burnished wings, and crowing in the pride and gladness of his heart--sometimes tearing up the earth with his feet, and then generously calling his ever-hungry family of wives and children to enjoy the rich morsel which he had discovered. +The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--In the first sentence _seemed_ asserts something about what two things? _Every_ goes with what word or words? What word or words does the phrase _of the vast barn_ make more definite in meaning? The two words _window_ and _crevice_ are joined together by what word? The group of words _bursting forth with the treasures of the farm_ describes what? Notice that _bursting_ also helps _seemed_ to say something about window and crevice. _Seemed_ does not make sense, but _seemed bursting_ does. What does _forth_ modify? What does _with the treasures of the farm_ modify? In the third sentence what two nouns form the subject of _skimmed?_ What connects these two nouns? In the fourth what word tells what the rows were enjoying? In the fifth _turned up as if watching the weather_ describes what? _As if watching the weather_ goes with what? The expression introduced by _as if_ is a shortened form. Putting in some of the words omitted, we have _as if they were watching the weather. They were watching the weather_, if standing by itself, would make a complete sentence. You see that one sentence may be made a part of another sentence. What does each of the two phrases _under their wings_ and _buried in their bosoms_ describe? What connects these two phrases? In the seventh sentence _were_ is understood before _cooing_ and before _bowing_. How many predicate verbs do you find, each asserting something about the pigeons represented by _others_? Why are these verbs not separated by commas? What two nouns form the principal part of the phrase in the eighth sentence? What connects these two nouns? Read the ninth sentence and put the subject before the predicate. You may now explain _as if to snuff the air_, remembering that a similar expression in the fifth sentence was explained. In the tenth sentence _convoying whole fleets of ducks_ describes what? Does _convoying_ assert anything about the squadron? Change it into a predicate verb. In the twelfth sentence find one word and two phrases joined to _fretted_. _Clapping, crowing, tearing_, and _calling_, in the thirteenth, all describe what? Notice that all the other words following the subject go with these four. Find the three words that answer the questions made by putting _what_ after _clapping, tearing, calling_. What phrase tells the cause of crowing? The phrase _to enjoy the rich morsel which he had discovered_ tells the purpose of what? _Which he had discovered_ limits the meaning of what? The pronoun _which_ here stands for _morsel_. _Which he had discovered_ = _He had discovered morsel_. Here you will see a sentence has again been made a part of another sentence. Notice that without _which_ there would be no connection. TO THE TEACHER.--It may be well to let the pupils complete the examination of the structure of the sentences above and point out nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs. It will be noticed that in the questions above we especially anticipate the regular lessons that follow Lesson 27. This we do in all such "Exercises." +The Beauty and the Force of the Description above+.--Why may we say that this farmyard scene is surrounded by an atmosphere of plenty, happiness, and content? Which do you prefer, the first sentence above, or this substitute for it: "The large barn was entirely full of the products of the farm"? Give every reason that you can find for your preference. We often speak of a barn or storehouse as "bursting with plenty," or of a table as "groaning with a load of good things," when there is really no bursting nor groaning. Such expressions are called +Figures of Speech+. Examine the second sentence and compare it with the following: "The men were busy all day pounding out the grain with flails." Do the words _busily resounding_ joined to _flail_ bring into our imagination men, grain, pounding, sound, and perhaps other things? A good description mentions such things and uses such words as will help us to see in imagination many things not mentioned. In the third sentence would you prefer _skimmed_ to _flew_? Why? Compare the eighth sentence with this: "Large fat hogs were grunting in their pens and reposing quietly with an abundant supply of food." _Sleek, unwieldy porkers_ would be too high-sounding an expression for you to use ordinarily, but it is in tone with the rest of the description. _In the repose and abundance of their pens_ is much better than the words substituted above. It is shorter and stronger. It uses instead of the verb _reposing_ and the adjective _abundant_ the nouns _repose_ and _abundance_, and makes these the principal words in the phrase. Repose and abundance are thus made the striking features of the pen. Arrange the ninth sentence in as many ways as possible and tell which way you prefer. Is a real squadron referred to in the tenth sentence? and were the geese actually convoying fleets? These are figurative uses of words. What can you say of _regiments_ in the eleventh? In the twelfth Guinea fowls are compared to housewives. Except in this one fancied resemblance the two are wholly unlike. Such comparisons frequently made by _as_ and _like_ are called +Similes+. If we leave out _like_ and say, "Guinea fowls are fretting housewives," we have a figure of speech called +Metaphor+. This figure is used above when flocks are called "squadrons" and "fleets." In the thirteenth sentence notice how well chosen and forceful are the words _strutted, gallant, burnished, generously, ever-hungry, rich morsel_. See whether you can find substitutes for these italicized words. Were the wings actually burnished? What can you say of this use of _burnished_? SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITION WORK. The sentences in the description above, when read together, have a somewhat broken or jerky effect. You may unite smoothly such as should be joined. The fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh can all be put into one. There is danger of making your sentences too long. Young writers find it difficult to make very long sentences perfectly clear in meaning. TO THE TEACHER.--While the pupils' thoughts and style are somewhat toned up by the preceding exercises, it may he well to let them write similar descriptions drawn from their reading, their observation, or their imagination. If the compositions contain more than two or three short paragraphs each, it will be almost impossible to secure good work. Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. FROM FRANKLIN'S "AUTOBIOGRAPHY." 1. I was dirty from my journey, my pockets were stuffed out with shirts and stockings, and I knew no soul nor where to look for lodging. 2. I was fatigued with traveling, rowing, and want of rest; I was very hungry; and my whole stock of cash consisted of a Dutch dollar and about a shilling in copper. 3. The latter I gave the people of the boat for my passage, who at first refused it on account of my rowing; but I insisted on their taking it. 1. Then I walked up the street, gazing about, till near the markethouse I met a boy with bread. 2. I had made many a meal on bread, and, inquiring where he got it, I went immediately to the baker's he directed me to, in Second Street, and asked for biscuit, intending such as we had in Boston; but they, it seems, were not made in Philadelphia. 3. Then I asked for a three-penny loaf, and was told they had none such. 4. So not considering or knowing the difference of money, or the greater cheapness and the names of his bread, I bade him give me three-penny worth of any sort. 5. He gave me, accordingly, three great puffy rolls. 6. I was surprised at the quantity, but took it; and, having no room in my pockets, walked off with a roll under each arm, and eating the other. * * * * * +The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--Break up sentence 1, paragraph 1, into three distinct sentences, and tell what changes this will make in capitals and punctuation. Do the same for 2. Which read more closely together, and are more closely connected, the parts of 2, or of 1? How is this shown to the eye? Analyze the first two sentences you made from 1. Find two object complements of _knew_, one a noun and the other a group of five words. Find in 2 a phrase whose principal part is made up of three nouns. What have you learned about the commas used with these nouns? In making separate sentences of 3 what words do you change or drop? Are these the words that bind the parts of 3 together? What noun is used adverbially after _gave_? Supply a preposition and then tell what phrases modify _gave_. Find the object complement of _gave_. What modifies _refused_ by telling when? What, by telling _why_? In 1, paragraph 2, who is described as gazing about? What does _gazing about_ modify? Read the group of words that tells how far or how long Franklin walked up the street. Notice that this whole group is used like an adverb. Find in it a subject, a predicate, and an object complement. Drop _till_ and see whether the parts of 1 make separate sentences. What word, then, binds these two sentences into one? Read 2 and make of it three distinct sentences by omitting the first _and_ and the word _but_. The second of these three sentences just made contains several sentences which are not so easily separated, as some are used like single words to make up the main, or principal, sentence. In this second part of 2 find the leading subject and its two predicates. Find a phrase belonging to _I_ and representing Franklin as doing something. Put _what_ after _inquiring_ and find the object complement. What phrase belongs to _went_, telling where? _He directed me to (whom)_ belongs to what? Who is represented as intending? _Intending such as we had in Boston_ belongs to what? _As we had in Boston_ goes with what? Notice that _it seems_ is a sentence thrown in loosely between the parts of another sentence. Such expressions are said to be parenthetical. Notice the punctuation. Notice that _gazing, inquiring, intending, considering, knowing_, and _having_ are all modifiers of _I_ found in the different sentences of paragraph 2. Put _I_ before any one of these words, and you will see that no assertion is made. These words illustrate one form of the verb (the participle), and _look_ in 1, paragraph 1, illustrates the other form (the infinitive), spoken of in Lesson 11 as not asserting. Change each of these participles to a predicate, or asserting form, and then read the sentences in which these predicates are found. You will notice that giving these words the asserting form makes them more prominent and forcible--brings them up to a level with the other predicate verbs. Participles are very useful in slurring over the less important actions that the more important may have prominence. Show that they are so used in Franklin's narrative. Examine the phrase _with a roll under each arm, and eating the other_, and see if you do not find an illustration of the fact that even great men sometimes make slips. Does _other_ properly mean one of three things? Try to improve this expression. +The Grouping of Sentences into Paragraphs+.--The sentences above, as you see, stand in two groups. Those of each group are more closely related to one another than they are to the sentences of the other group. Do you see how? In studying this short selection you may find the general topic, or heading, to be something like this: _My First Experiences in Philadelphia_. Now examine the first group of sentences and see whether its topic might not be put thus: _My Condition on Reaching Philadelphia_. Then examine the sentences of the second group and see whether all will not come under this heading: _How I Found Something to Eat_. You see that even a short composition like this has a general topic with topics under it. As _sub_ means _under_, we will call these under topics _sub-topics_. There are two groups of sentences in this selection because there are two distinct sub-topics developed. The sentences of each group stand together because they jointly develop one sub-topic. A group of sentences related and held together by a common thought we call a +Paragraph+. How is the paragraph indicated to the eye? What help is it to the reader to have a composition paragraphed? What, to the writer to know that he must write in paragraphs? +The Style of the Author+.--This selection is mainly +Narrative+. The matter is somewhat tame, and the expression is commonplace. The words are ordinary, and they stand in their usual place. Figures of speech are not used. Yet the piece has a charm. The thoughts are homely; the expression is in perfect keeping; the style is clear, simple, direct, and natural. The closing sentence is slightly humorous. Benjamin Franklin trudging along the street, hugging a great roll of bread under each arm, and eating a third roll, must have been a laughable sight. Have you ever known boys and girls in writing school compositions, or reporters in writing for the newspapers, to use large words for small ideas, and long, high-sounding phrases and sentences for plain, simple thoughts? Have you ever seen what could be neatly said in three or four lines "padded out" to fill a page of composition paper or a column in a newspaper? When Franklin said. "My pockets were stuffed out with shirts and stockings," he said a homely thing in a homely way; that is, he fitted the language to the thought. To fit the expression to the thought on every occasion is the perfection of style. If Franklin had been a weak, foolish writer, his sentence might have taken this form:-- "Not having been previously provided with a satchel or other receptacle for my personal effects, my pockets, which were employed as a substitute, were protruding conspicuously with extra underclothing." Compare this sentence with Franklin's and point out the faults you see in the substitute. Can you find anything in the meaning of _provided_ that makes previously unnecessary? Do you now understand what Lowell meant when, in praise of Dryden, he said, "His phrase is always a short cut to his sense"? TO THE TEACHER.--What is here taught of the paragraph and of style will probably not be mastered at one reading. It will be found necessary to return to it occasionally, and to refer pupils to it for aid in their composition work. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITION WORK. TO THE TEACHER.--We suggest that the pupils reproduce from memory the extract above, and that other selections of narrative be found in the Readers or elsewhere and studied as above. The pupils may be able to note to what extent the narrative follows the order of time and to what extent it is topical. They may also note the amount of description it contains. They should, so far as possible, find the topic for each paragraph, thus making an outline for a composition to be completed from reproduction. It will now require little effort to write simple original narratives of real or imagined experiences. * * * * * Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. FROM C. D. WARNER'S "MY SUMMER IN A GARDEN." 1. In the driest days, my fountain became disabled; the pipe was stopped up. 2. A couple of plumbers, with the implements of their craft, came out to view the situation. 3. There was a good deal of difference of opinion about where the stoppage was. 4. I found the plumbers perfectly willing to sit down and talk about it--talk by the hour. 5. Some of their guesses and remarks were exceedingly ingenious; and their general observations on other subjects were excellent in their way, and could hardly have been better if they had been made by the job. 6. The work dragged a little--as it is apt to do by the hour. 1. The plumbers had occasion to make me several visits. 2. Sometimes they would find, upon arrival, that they had forgotten some indispensable tool; and one would go back to the shop, a mile and a half, after it; and his comrade would await his return with the most exemplary patience, and sit down and talk--always by the hour. 3. I do not know but it is a habit to have something wanted at the shop. 4. They seemed to me very good workmen, and always willing to stop, and talk about the job or anything else, when I went near them. 5. Nor had they any of that impetuous hurry that is said to be the bane of our American civilization. 6. To their credit be it said that I never observed anything of it in them. 7. They can afford to wait. 8. Two of them will sometimes wait nearly half a day, while a comrade goes for a tool. 9. They are patient and philosophical. 10. It is a great pleasure to meet such men. 11. One only wishes there was some work he could do for them by the hour. +The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--How can you make the last part of 1 express more directly the cause of becoming disabled? Would you use a semicolon to separate the sentences thus joined, or would you use a comma? Give a reason for the comma after _days_, Find in 2 an adverb phrase that expresses purpose. Use an equivalent adjective in place of _a couple of_. Explain the use of _there_ in 3. What adjective may be used in place of _good_ in _a good deal_? What long complex phrase modifies _deal_? Put _what_ after the preposition _about_ and find a group of words that takes the place of a noun. Find in this group a subject and a predicate. Find in 4 an objective complement. Find a compound infinitive phrase and tell what it modifies. Notice that the dash helps to show the break made by repeating _talk_. When 5 is divided into two sentences, what word is dropped? This, then, must be the word that connected the two sentences. Notice that the two main parts of 5 are separated by a semicolon. This enables the writer to show that the two main divisions of 5 are more widely separated in meaning than are the parts of the second division where the comma is used. Give the three leading predicate verbs in 5 and their complements. _If they had been made by the job_ is joined like an adverb to what verb? What is the predicate of this modifying group? The infinitive phrase in 1, paragraph 2, modifies what? Is _me_, or _visits_, the object complement of _make_? Put _what_ after _would find_ in 2 and get the object complement. Can you make a sentence of this group? What are its principal parts? Does the writer make an unexpected turn after _talk_? How is this shown to the eye? Put _what_ after _do know_ in 3 and find the object complement. Can you make a sentence of this object complement? What phrase can you put in place of the pronoun _it_ without changing the sense? By using the word _it_, a better arrangement can be made. What group of words in 5 is used like an adjective to modify _hurry_? Change the pronoun _that_ to _hurry_ and make a separate sentence of this group. What word, then, must have made an adjective of this sentence and joined it to _hurry_? What is the object complement of _can afford_ in 7? Supply a preposition after _will wait_ in 8, and then find two groups of words that tell the time of waiting. Find a subject and a predicate in the second group. What explains _it_ in 10? Find the object complement of _wishes_ in 11. What is the subject of _was_? The office of _there_? After _work_ supply the pronoun _that_ and tell the office of the group it introduces. What is the object complement of _could do_? What connects this group to _work_? +The Grouping of Sentences into Paragraphs+.--There are two distinct sets of sentences in this selection--distinct because developing two distinct sub-topics. Accordingly, there are two paragraphs. Let us take for the general topic _The Visits of the Plumbers_. Let us see whether all the sentences of the first paragraph will not come under the sub-topic _First Visit_, and those of the second under the sub-topic _Subsequent Visits_. The sentences of each paragraph should be closely related to one another and to the sub-topic. They should stand in their proper order. Do the paragraphs above stand such tests? If they do, they possess the prime quality of +Unity+. +The Author's Style+.--This selection we may call +Narrative+, though there are descriptive touches in it. It is a story of what? Is the story clearly told throughout? If not, where is it obscure? Is it made interesting and entertaining? Is Mr. Warner here giving us a bit of his own experience? Or do you think he is drawing upon his imagination? Would you call the style plain, or does it abound with metaphors, similes, or other figures of speech? Are the sentences generally long, or generally short? What are the faults or foibles of these real or fancied plumbers? Does the author speak of them in a genial and lenient way? or is he hostile, and does he hold up their foibles to scorn and derision? Does he make us laugh with, or does he make us laugh at, the plumbers? If the former, the style is humorous; if the latter, the style is satirical or sarcastic. Would you call Mr. Warner's quality of style +Humor+? or that +form of wit+ known as +Satire+? Is our author's use of it delicate and refined? or is it gross and coarse? Does it stop short of making its object grotesque, or not? Can you name any writers whose humor or satire is coarse? SUGGESTIONS FOB COMPOSITION WORK. TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions, pages 159, 160. Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. FROM BEECHER'S "LECTURES TO YOUNG MEN." 1. Indolence inclines a man to rely upon others and not upon himself, to eat their bread and not his own. 2. His carelessness is somebody's loss; his neglect is somebody's downfall. 3. If he borrows, the article remains borrowed; if he begs and gets, it is as the letting out of waters--no one knows where it will stop. 4. He spoils your work, disappoints your expectations, exhausts your patience, eats up your substance, abuses your confidence, and hangs a dead weight upon all your plans; and the very best thing an honest man can do with a lazy man is to get rid of him. 1. Indolence promises without redeeming the pledge; a mist of forgetfulness rises up and obscures the memory of vows and oaths. 2. The negligence of laziness breeds more falsehoods than the cunning of the sharper. 3. As poverty waits upon the steps of indolence, so upon such poverty brood equivocations, subterfuges, lying denials. 4. Falsehood becomes the instrument of every plan. 5. Negligence of truth, next occasional falsehood, then wanton mendacity--these three strides traverse the whole road of lies. 1. Indolence as surely runs to dishonesty as to lying. 2. Indeed, they are but different parts of the same road, and not far apart. 3. In directing the conduct of the Ephesian converts, Paul says, "Let him that stole steal no more; but rather let him labor, working with his hands the thing which is good." 4. The men who were thieves were those who had ceased to work. 5. Industry was the road back to honesty. 6. When stores are broken open, the idle are first suspected. * * * * * +The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--Find in 1 two compound infinitive phrases and tell their use. Supply the words omitted from the last part of each compound. What shows that the parts of 2 are not closely connected? Would a conjunction bring them more closely together? If a conjunction is used, would you change the punctuation? A sentence that unites with another to make one greater sentence we call a _clause_. Read the first part of 2 and change _somebody's_ first to a phrase and then to a clause used like an adjective. What distinction can you make between the use of the semicolon and the use of the comma in 3? The clause _if he borrows_ is joined like an adverb to what verb? _If he begs and gets_? What pronoun more indefinite than _your_ might take its place in 4? What noun? Explain the use of the semicolon and the comma in 4. Supply _that_ after _thing_ and tell what clause is here used like an adjective. Find the office of _that_ by placing it after _do_. Find in 4 an infinitive phrase used as attribute complement. Change the phrase in 1, paragraph 2, to a clause. Find in 2 the omitted predicate of the clause introduced by _than_. Find a compound subject in 3. Are _negligence_, _falsehood_, and _mendacity_, in 5, used as subjects? Explain their use and punctuation. (See Remark, Lesson 45.) In 3, paragraph 3, how are the words borrowed from Paul marked? Change the quotation from Paul so as to give his thought but not his exact words. Are the quotation marks now needed? In 3 and 4 find clauses introduced by _that_, _which_, and _who_, and used like adjectives. +The Grouping of Sentences into Paragraphs+.--You can easily learn the sub-topic, or thought, each of these paragraphs develops. See whether you can find it in the first sentence of each. Give the three sub-topics. Put together the three thoughts established in these paragraphs and tell what they prove. What they prove is that for which Mr. Beecher is contending; it may be written at the head of the extract as the general topic. What merits of the paragraph, already treated, are admirably illustrated in this extract? +The Style of the Author+.--This selection is neither descriptive nor narrative; it is +Argumentative+. Mr. Beecher is trying to establish a certain proposition, and in the three paragraphs is giving three reasons, or arguments, to prove its truth. But the argument is not all thought, is not purely intellectual. It is suffused with feeling, is impassioned. Mr. Beecher's heart is in his work. This feeling warms and colors his style, and stimulates his fancy. As a consequence, figures of speech abound. Notice that in 1, paragraph 1, the thought is repeated by means of the infinitive phrases. Read the words _Indolence inclines a man_ with each of the four infinitive phrases that follow. You will see that the thought is repeated. It is first expressed in a general way; by the aid of the second phrase we see the same thought from the negative side; the third phrase makes the statement more specific; the fourth puts the specific statement negatively. The needless repetition of the same thought in different words is one of the worst faults in writing. But Mr. Beecher's repetition is not needless. By every repetition here, Mr. Beecher makes his thought clearer and stronger. Examine the other sentences of this paragraph and see whether they enforce the leading thought by illustration, example, or consequence. In what sentence is the style made +energetic+ by the aid of short predicates? How does the alternation of short sentences with long throughout the extract affect you? The alternation of plain with figurative sentences? Can you show that the author's style has +Variety+? Pick out the metaphors in 1, 2, 3, and 5, paragraph 2; and in 1 and 2, paragraph 3. Pick out the comparisons, or similes, in 3, paragraph 1, and in 3, paragraph 2. Figures of speech should add clearness and force. If you think these do, tell how. _Indolence_ in 1 and 3, paragraph 2, and _laziness_ in 2, introduce us to another figure. Something belonging to the men, a quality, is made to represent the men themselves. Such a figure is called +Metonymy+. SUGGESTIONS FOB COMPOSITION WORK. TO THE TEACHER.--Exercises in argumentative writing may be continued by making selections from the discussion of easy topics. For original work we suggest debates on current topics. Compositions should be short. Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. EXTRACT FROM DANIEL WEBSTER. 1. The assassin enters, through the window already prepared, into an unoccupied apartment. 2. With noiseless foot he paces the lonely hall, half lighted by the moon; he winds up the ascent of the stairs and reaches the door of the chamber. 3. Of this he moves the lock, by soft and continued pressure, till it turns on its hinges without noise; and he enters, and beholds his victim before him. 1. The face of the innocent sleeper is turned from the murderer, and the beams of the moon, resting on the gray locks of his aged temple, show him where to strike. 2. The fatal blow is given! and the victim passes, without a struggle or a motion, from the repose of sleep to the repose of death. 3. It is the assassin's purpose to make sure work; and he plies the dagger, though it is obvious that life has been destroyed by the blow of the bludgeon. 4. He even raises the aged arm that he may not fail in his aim at the heart, and places it again over the wounds of the poniard. 5. To finish the picture, he explores the wrist for the pulse. 6. He feels for it, and ascertains that it beats no longer. 7. It is accomplished. 8. The deed is done. 1. He retreats, retraces his steps to the window, passes out through it as he came in, and escapes. 2. He has done the murder. No eye has seen him, no ear has heard him. 3. The secret is his own, and it is safe. 1. Ah! gentlemen, that was a dreadful mistake. 2. Such a secret can be safe nowhere. 3. The whole creation of God has neither nook nor corner where the guilty can bestow it, and say it is safe. 4. Not to speak of that eye which pierces through all disguises and beholds everything as in the splendor of noon, such secrets of guilt are never safe from detection even by men. 5. True it is, generally speaking, that "Murder will out." 6. True it is that Providence hath so ordained, and doth so govern things, that those who break the great law of heaven by shedding man's blood seldom succeed in avoiding discovery. * * * * * +The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--Do the phrases in 1, paragraph 1, stand in their usual order, or are they transposed? In what different places may they stand? Does either phrase need to be transposed for emphasis or for clearness? Explain the punctuation. Begin 2 with _the lonely hall_, and notice that the sentence is thrown out of harmony with the other sentences, and that the assassin is for the moment lost sight of. Can you tell why? Notice that in the latter part of 2 the door is mentioned, and that 3 begins with _of this_, referring to the door. Can you find any other arrangement by which 3 will follow 2 so naturally? Can you change 3 so as to make the reference of _it_ clearer? What is the office of the _till_ clause? Does the clause following the semicolon modify anything? Would you call such a clause _dependent_, or would you call it _independent_? Explain the punctuation of 3. Give the effect of changing _resting_ in 1, paragraph 2, to the assertive form. Find in 1 a pronoun used adverbially and a phrase used as object complement. Expand the phrase into a clause. Give the modifiers of _passes_ in 2. Read the first part of 3 and put the explanatory phrase in place of _it_. What is the office of the _though_ clause? Find in this a clause doing the work of a noun and tell its office. In 4 would _his_ in place of _the_ before _aged_ and before _heart_ be ambiguous? If so, why? Find in this paragraph an infinitive phrase used independently. Find the object complement of _ascertains_ in 6. Are 7 and 8 identical in meaning? Give the modifiers of _passes_ in paragraph 3. Explain the _as_ clause. What does _that_ in 1, paragraph 4, stand for? What kind of clause is introduced by _where_ in 3? By _which_ in 4? Expand the _as_ clause in 4 and tell its office. Find in 4 and 5 an infinitive phrase and a participle phrase used independently. Tell the office of the _that_ clauses in 5 and 6, and of the _who_ clause in 6. +The Grouping of Sentences into Paragraphs+.--Look (1) at the order of the sentences in each paragraph, and (2) at the order of the paragraphs themselves. Neither order could be changed without making the stream of events run up hill, for each order is the order in which the events happened. Look (3) at the unity of each paragraph, and (4) at the larger unity of the four paragraphs--that of each paragraph determined by the relation of each sentence to the sub-topic of the paragraph, and that of the four paragraphs determined by their relation to the general topic of the extract. We add that the obvious reference of the repeated _he_ to the same person, and of _that_ and _secret_ in paragraph 4 demonstrates both unities. Look (5), and lastly, at the fact that the sub-topic of each paragraph is found in the first line of each paragraph. Could Webster have done more to make his thought seen and felt? +The Style of the Author.+--This selection is largely +Narrative.+ Its leading facts were doubtless supplied by the testimony given in the case; but much of the matter must have come from the imagination of Mr. Webster. Everything is so skillfully and vividly put that the story, touched with description, has all the effect of an argument. One quality of it is its clearness, its perspicuity. It is noticeable also that very little imagery is used, that the language is plain language. But it is impossible to read these paragraphs without being most profoundly impressed with their energy, their force. The style is forcible because (1) the +subject-matter+ is +easily grasped+; (2) because +simple words+ are +used+, words understood even by children; because (3) these +words+ are +specific+ and +individual+, not generic; because (4) of the grateful +variety of sentences+; (5) because of the +prevalence of short sentences+; because (6) of the +repetition of the thought+ in successive sentences; because (7), though the murder took place some time before, Webster speaks as if it were +now taking place+ in our very sight. Find proof of what we have just said--proof of (2), in paragraphs 1 and 3; proof of (3), in sentences 3, 4, and 5, paragraph 2; proof of (4), throughout; of (5) and (6), in paragraphs 3 and 4; and of (7), in the first three paragraphs. In paragraph 3, a remarkable sameness prevails. The sentences here are framed largely on one plan. They are mostly of the same length. The order of the words in them is the same; often the words are the same; and, even when they are not, those in one clause or sentence seem to suggest those in the next. This sameness is not accidental. The more real the murderer's fancied security is made in this paragraph to appear, the more startling in the next paragraph will be the revelation of his mistake. Hence no novelty in the words or in their arrangement is allowed to distract our attention from the dominant thought. The sentences are made to look and sound alike and to be alike that their effect may be cumulative. The principle of +Parallel Construction+, the principle that sentences similar in thought should be similar in form, is here allowed free play. TO THE TEACHER.--Do not be discouraged should your pupils fail to grasp at first all that is here taught. They probably will not fully comprehend it till they have returned to it several times. It will, however, be impossible for them to study it without profit. The meaning will grow upon them. In studying our questions and suggestions the pupils should have the "Extract" before them, and should try to verify in it all that is taught concerning it. * * * * * PARTS OF SPEECH SUBDIVIDED LESSON 85. CLASSES OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. +Introductory Hints+.--You have now reached a point where it becomes necessary to divide the eight great classes of words into subclasses. You have learned that nouns are the names of things; as, _girl_, _Sarah_. The name _girl_ is held in common by all girls, and hence does not distinguish one girl from another. The name _Sarah_ is not thus held in common; it does distinguish one girl from other girls. Any name which belongs in common to all things of a class we call a +Common Noun+; and any particular name of an individual, distinguishing this individual from others of its class, we call a +Proper Noun+. The "proper, or individual, names" which in Rule 1, Lesson 8, you were told to begin with capital letters are proper nouns. Such a word as _wheat_, _music_, or _architecture_ does not distinguish one thing from others of its class; there is but one thing in the class denoted by each, each thing forms a class by itself; and so we call these words common nouns. In Lesson 8 you learned that pronouns are not names, but words used instead of names. Any one speaking of himself may use _I_, _my_, etc., instead of his own name; speaking to one, he may use _you_, _thou_, _your_, _thy_, etc., instead of that person's name; speaking of one, he may use _he_, _she_, _it_, _him_, _her_, etc., instead of that one's name. These little words that by their form denote the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of are called +Personal Pronouns+. By adding _self_ to _my_, _thy_, _your_, _him_, _her_, and _it_, and _selves_ to _our_, _your_, and _them_, we form what are called +Compound Personal Pronouns+, used either for emphasis or to reflect the action of the verb back upon the actor; as, _Xerxes himself_ was the last to cross the Hellespont; The _mind_ cannot see _itself_. If a noun, or some word or words used like a noun, is to be modified by a clause, the clause is introduced by _who_, _which_, _what_, or _that_; as, I know the man _that_ did that. These words, relating to words in another clause, and binding the clauses together, are called +Relative Pronouns+. By adding _ever_ and _soever_ to _who_, _which_, and _what_, we form what are called the +Compound Relative Pronouns+ _whoever_, _whosoever_, _whichever_, _whatever_, etc., used in a general way, and without any word expressed to which they relate. If the speaker is ignorant of the name of a person or a thing and asks for it, he uses _who_, _which_, or _what_; as, _Who_ did that? These pronouns, used in asking questions, are called +Interrogative Pronouns+. Instead of naming things a speaker may indicate them by words pointing them out as near or remote; as, Is _that_ a man? What is _this_? or by words telling something of their number, order, or quantity; as, _None_ are perfect; The _latter_ will do; _Much_ has been done. Such words we call +Adjective Pronouns+. DEFINITIONS. +A _Noun_ is the name of anything+. [Footnote: Most common nouns are derived from roots that denote qualities. The root does not necessarily denote the most essential quality of the thing, only its most obtrusive quality. The sky, a shower, and scum, for instance, have this most noticeable feature; they are a cover, they hide, conceal. This the root +sku+ signifies, and _sku_ is the main element in the words _sky_, _shower_ (Saxon _scu:r_), and _scum_ that name these objects, and in the adjective _obscure_. A noun denoting at first only a single quality of its object comes gradually, by the association of this quality with the rest, to denote them all. Herein proper nouns differ from common. However derived, as _Smith_ is from the man's office of smoothing, or _White_ from his color, the name soon ceases to denote quality, and becomes really meaningless.] +A _Common Noun_ is a name which belongs to all things of a class+. +A _Proper Noun_ is the particular name of an individual+. +Remark+.--It may be well to note two classes of common nouns--_collective_ and _abstract_. A +Collective Noun+ is the name of a number of things taken together; as, _army_, _flock_, _mob_, _jury_. An +Abstract Noun+ is the name of a quality, an action, a being, or a state; as, _whiteness_, _beauty_, _wisdom_, (the) _singing_, _existence_, (the) _sleep_. +A _Pronoun_ is a word used for a noun+. [Footnote: In our definition and general treatment of the pronoun, we have conformed to the traditional views of grammarians; but it may be well for the student to note that pronouns are something more than mere substitutes for nouns, and that their primary function is not to prevent the repetition of nouns. 1. Pronouns are not the names of things. They do not, like nouns, lay hold of qualities and name things by them. They seize upon relations that objects sustain to each other and denote the objects by these relations. _I_, _you_, and _he_ denote their objects by the relations these objects sustain to the act of speaking; _I_ denotes the speaker; _you_, the one spoken to; and _he_ or _she_ or _it_, the one spoken of. _This_ and _that_ denote their objects by the relative distance of these from the speaker; _some_ and _few_ and _others_ indicate parts separated from the rest. Gestures could express all that many pronouns express. 2. It follows that pronouns are more general than nouns. Any person, or even an animal or a thing personified, may use _I_ when referring to himself, _you_ when referring to the one addressed, and _he_, _she_, _it_, and _they_ when referring to the person or persons, the thing or things, spoken of--and all creatures and things, except the speaker and the one spoken to, fall into the last list. Some pronouns are so general, and hence so vague, in their denotement that they show the speaker's complete ignorance of the objects they denote. In, _Who_ did it? _Which_ of them did you see? the questioner is trying to find out the one for whom _Who_ stands, and the person or thing that _Which_ denotes. To what does _it_ refer in, _it_ rains; How is _it_ with you? 3. Some pronouns stand for a phrase, a clause, or a sentence, going before or coming after. _To be_ or _not to be_--_that_ is the question. _It_ is doubtful _whether the North Pole will ever be reached_. _The sails turned, the corn was ground_, after _which_ the wind ceased. _Ought you to go_? I cannot answer _that_. In the first of these sentences, _that_ stands for a phrase; in the last, for a sentence. _It_ and _which_ in the second and third sentences stand for clauses. 4. _Which_, retaining its office as connective, may as an adjective accompany its noun; as, I craved his forbearance a little longer, _which forbearance_ he allowed me.] +A _Personal Pronoun_ is a pronoun that by its form denotes the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of+. +A _Relative Pronoun_ is one that relates to some preceding word or words and connects clauses+. +An _Interrogative Pronoun_ is one with which a question is asked+. +An _Adjective Pronoun_ is one that performs the offices of both an adjective and a noun+. The simple personal pronouns are:--_I, thou, you, he, she, and it_. The compound personal pronouns are:--_Myself, thyself, yourself, himself, herself, and itself_. The simple relative pronouns are:--_Who, which, that_, and _what_. [Footnote: _As_, in such sentences as this: Give such things _as_ you can spare, may be treated as a relative pronoun. But by expanding the sentence _as_ is seen to be a conjunctive adverb--Give such things _as those are which_ you can spare. _But_ used after a negative is sometimes called a "negative relative" = _that not_; as, There is not a man here _but_ would die for such a cause. When the sentence is expanded, _but_ is found to be a preposition--There is not a man here _but_ (= _except_) the one who would die, etc.] The compound relative pronouns are:-- _Whoever or whosoever, whichever_ or _whichsoever_, _whatever_ or _whatsoever_. The interrogative pronouns are:-- _Who, which_, and _what_. Some of the more common adjective pronouns are:-- All, another, any, both, each, either, enough, few, former, latter, little, many, much, neither, none, one, other, same, several, such, that, these, this, those, whole, etc. [Footnote: The adjective pronouns _this, that, these_, and _those_ are called +Demonstrative+ pronouns. _All, any, both, each, either, many, one, other_, etc. are called +Indefinite+ pronouns because they do not point out and particularize like the demonstratives. _Each, either_, and _neither_ are also called +Distributives+. But for the fact that such words as _brave, good_, etc. in the phrases _the brave_, _the good_, etc. describe--which pronouns never do--we might call them adjective pronouns. They may be treated as nouns, or as adjectives modifying nouns to be supplied. Some adjectives preceded by _the_ are abstract nouns; as, the _grand_, the _sublime_, the _beautiful_.] The word, phrase, or clause in the place of which a pronoun is used is called an +Antecedent+. +Direction+.--_Point out the pronouns and their antecedents in these sentences_:-- Jack was rude to Tom, and always knocked off his hat when he met him. To lie is cowardly, and every boy should know it. Daniel and his companions were fed on pulse, which was to their advantage. To lie is to be a coward, which one should scorn to be. To sleep soundly, which is a blessing, is to repair and renew the body. +Remark+.--When the interrogatives _who_, _which_, and what introduce indirect questions, it is not always easy to distinguish them from relatives whose antecedents are omitted. For example--I found _who_ called and _what_ he wanted; I saw _what_ was done. The first sentence does not mean, I found the _person who_ called and the _thing that_ he wanted. "_Who_ called" and "_what_ he wanted" here suggest questions--questions referred to but not directly asked. I saw _what_ was done = I saw the _thing that_ was done. No question is suggested. It should be remembered that _which_ and _what_ may also be interrogative adjectives; as, _Which_ side won? _What_ news have you? +Direction+.--_Analyze these sentences, and parse all the pronouns_:-- 1. Who steals my purse steals trash. 2. I myself know who stole my purse. 3. They knew whose house was robbed. 4. He heard what was said. 5. You have guessed which belongs to me. 6. Whom the gods would destroy they first make mad. 7. What was said, and who said it? 8. It is not known to whom the honor belongs. 9. She saw one of them, but she cannot positively tell which. 10. Whatever is done must be done quickly. * * * * * LESSON 86. CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS. TO THE TEACHER.--In the recitation of all Lessons containing errors for correction, the pupils' books should be closed, and the examples should be read by you. To insure care in preparation, and close attention in the class, read some of the examples in their correct form. Require specific reasons. +Caution+.--Avoid _he_, _it_, _they_, or any other pronoun when its reference to an antecedent would not be clear. Repeat the noun instead, quote the speaker's exact words, or recast the sentence. +Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and relieve these sentences of their ambiguity_:-- +Model+.--The lad cannot leave his father; for, if he should leave _him_, _he_ would die = The lad cannot leave his father; for, if he should leave _his father, his father_ would die. Lysias promised his father never to abandon _his_ friends = Lysias gave his father this promise: "I will never abandon _your_ (or _my_) friends." 1. Dr. Prideaux says that, when he took his commentary to the bookseller, he told him it was a dry subject. 2. He said to his friend that, if he did not feel better soon, he thought he had better go home. (This sentence may have four meanings. Give them all, using what you may suppose were the speaker's words.) 3. A tried to see B in the crowd, but could not because he was so short. 4. Charles's duplicity was fully made known to Cromwell by a letter of his to his wife, which he intercepted. 5. The farmer told the lawyer that his bull had gored his ox, and that it was but fair that he should pay him for his loss. +Caution+.--Do not use pronouns needlessly. +Direction+.--_Write, these sentences, omitting needless pronouns_:-- 1. It isn't true what he said. 2. The father he died, the mother she followed, and the children they were taken sick. 3. The cat it mewed, and the dogs they barked, and the man he shouted. 4. Let every one turn from his or her evil ways. 5. Napoleon, Waterloo having been lost, he gave himself up to the English. +Caution+.--In addressing a person, do not, in the same sentence, use the two styles of the pronoun. +Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:-- 1. Thou art sad, have you heard bad news? 2. You cannot always have thy way. 3. Bestow thou upon us your blessing. 4. Love thyself last, and others will love you. +Caution+.--The pronoun _them_ should not be used for the adjective _those_, nor the pronoun _what_ for the conjunction _that_. [Footnote: _What_ properly introduces a noun clause expressing a direct or an indirect question, but a declarative noun clause is introduced by the conjunction _that_. _But_ may be placed before this conjunction to give a negative force to the noun clause. This use of _but_ requires careful discrimination. For example--"I have no fear _that_ he will do it"; "I have no fear _but that_ he will do it." The former indicates certainty that he will not do it, and the latter certainty that he will do it. "No one doubts but that he will do it" is incorrect, for it contains three negatives--_no_, _doubts_, and _but_. Two negatives may be used to affirm, but not three. The intended meaning is, "_No_ one _doubts_ that he will do it," or "_No_ one believes _but_ that he will do it," or "Every one _believes_ that he will do it." _But what_, for _but that_ or _but_, is also incorrectly used to connect an adverb clause; as, "He is not so bad _but what_ he might be worse." For this office of _but_ or _but that_ in an adverb clause, see Lesson 109, fourth "Example" of the uses of _but_.] +Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:-- 1. Hand me them things. 2. Who knows but what we may fail? 3. I cannot believe but what I shall see them men again. 4. We ought to have a great regard for them that are wise and good. +Caution+.--The relative _who_ should always represent persons; _which_, brute animals and inanimate things; _that_, persons, animals, and things; and _what_, things. The antecedent of _what_ should not be expressed. +Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:-- 1. Those which say so are mistaken. 2. He has some friends which I know. 3. He told that what he knew. 4. The dog who was called Fido went mad. 5. The lion whom they were exhibiting broke loose. 6. All what he saw he described. 7. The horse whom Alexander rode was named Bucephalus. +Direction+.--_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these five Cautions_. LESSON 87. CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS--CONTINUED. +Caution+.--Several connected relative clauses relating to the same antecedent require the same relative pronoun. +Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:-- 1. It was Joseph that was sold into Egypt, who became governor of the land, and which saved his father and brothers from famine. 2. He who lives, that moves, and who has his being in God should not forget him. 3. This is the horse which started first, and that reached the stand last. 4. The man that fell overboard, and who was drowned was the first mate. +Caution+.--When the relative clause is not restrictive, [Footnote: See Lesson 61.] _who_ or _which_, and not _that_, is generally used. +Example+.--Water, _which_ is composed of hydrogen and oxygen, covers three-fourths of the earth's surface. +Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:-- 1. The earth is enveloped by an ocean of air, that is a compound of oxygen. and nitrogen. 2. Longfellow, that is the most popular American poet, has written beautiful prose. 3. Time, that is a precious gift, should not be wasted. 4. Man, that is born of woman, is of few days and full of trouble. +Caution+.--The relative _that_ [Footnote: _That_ is almost always restrictive. However desirable it may seem to confine _who_ and _which_ to unrestrictive clauses, they are not confined to them in actual practice. The wide use of _who_ and _which_ in restrictive clauses is not accounted for by saying that they occur after _this_, _these_, _those_, and _that_, and hence are used to avoid disagreeable repetitions of sounds. This may frequently be the reason for employing _who_ and _which_ in restrictive clauses; but usage authorizes us to affirm (1) that _who_ and _which_ stand in such clauses oftener without, than with, _this_, _these_, _those_, or _that_ preceding them, and (2) that they so stand oftener than _that_ itself does. Especially may this be said of _which_.] should be used instead of _who_ or _which_ (1) when the antecedent names both persons and things; (2) when _that_ would prevent ambiguity; and (3) when it would sound better than _who_ or _which_, _e. g._, after _that_, _same_, _very_, _all_, the interrogative _who_, the indefinite _it_, and adjectives expressing quality in the highest degree. +Example+.--He lived near a _pond that_ was a nuisance. (_That_ relates to _pond_--the pond was a nuisance. _Which_ might have, for its antecedent, _pond_, or the whole clause _He lived near a pond_; and so its use here would be ambiguous.) +Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:-- 1. The wisest men who ever lived made mistakes. 2. The chief material which is used now in building is brick. 3. Who who saw him did not pity him? 4. He is the very man whom we want. 5. He is the same who he has ever been. 6. He sent his boy to a school which did him good. 7. All who knew him respected him. 8. It was not I who did it. 9. That man that you just met is my friend. +Caution+.--The relative clause should be placed as near as possible to the word which it modifies. +Direction+.--_Correct these errors_:-- 1. The pupil will receive a reward from his teacher who is diligent. 2. Her hair hung in ringlets, which was dark and glossy. 3. A dog was found in the street that wore a brass collar. 4. A purse was picked up by a boy that was made of leather. 5. Claudius was canonized among the gods, who scarcely deserved the name of man. 6. He should not keep a horse that cannot ride. +Caution+.--When _this_ and _that_, _these_ and _those_, _the one_ and _the other_ refer to things previously mentioned, _this_ and _these_ refer to the last mentioned, and _that_ and _those_ to the first mentioned; _the one_ refers to the first mentioned, and _the other_ to the last mentioned. When there is danger of obscurity, repeat the nouns. +Examples+.--_High_ and _tall_ are synonyms: _this_ may be used in speaking of what grows--a tree; _that_, in speaking of what does not grow--a mountain. Homer was a genius; Virgil, an artist: in _the one_ we most admire the man; in _the other_, the work. +Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:-- 1. Talent speaks learnedly at the bar; tact, triumphantly: this is complimented by the bench; that gets the fees. 2. Charles XII. and Peter the Great were sovereigns: the one was loved by his people; the other was hated. 3. The selfish and the benevolent are found in every community; these are shunned, while those are sought after. +Direction+.--_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these five Cautions_. * * * * * LESSON 88. CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS--CONTINUED. Miscellaneous Errors. +Direction+.--_Give the Cautions which these sentences violate, and correct the errors_:-- 1. He who does all which he can does enough. 2. John's father died before he was born. 3. Whales are the largest animals which swim. 4. Boys who study hard, and that study wisely make progress. 5. There are miners that live below ground, and who seldom see the light. 6. He did that what was right. 7. General Lee, that served under Washington, had been a British officer. 8. A man should sit down and count the cost who is about to build a house. 9. They need no spectacles that are blind. 10. They buy no books who are not able to read. 11. Cotton, that is a plant, is woven into cloth. 12. Do you know that gentleman that is speaking? 13. There is no book which, when we look through it sharply, we cannot find mistakes in it. 14. The reporter which said that was deceived. 15. The diamond, that is pure carbon, is a brilliant gem. 16. The brakemen and the cattle which were on the train were killed. 17. _Reputation_ and _character_ do not mean the same thing: the one denotes what we are; the other, what we are thought to be. 18. Kosciusko having come to this country, he aided us in our Revolutionary struggle. 19. What pleased me much, and which was spoken of by others, was the general appearance of the class. 20. There are many boys whose fathers and mothers died when they were infants. 21. Witness said that his wife's father came to his house, and he ordered him out, but he refused to go. 22. Shall you be able to sell them boots? 23. I don't know but what I may. 24. Beer and wine are favorite drinks abroad: the one is made from grapes; the other, from barley. 25. There is one marked difference between shiners and trout; these have scales, and those have not. 26. They know little of men, who reason thus. 27. Help thyself, and Heaven will help you. * * * * * LESSON 89. CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. +Introductory Hints+.--You learned in Lesson 12 that, in the sentences _Ripe apples are healthful, Unripe apples are hurtful_, the adjectives _ripe_ and _unripe_ limit, or narrow, the application of _apples_ by describing, or by expressing certain qualities of the fruit. You learned also that _the_, _this_, _an_, _no_, _some_, and _many_ limit, or narrow, the application of any noun which they modify, as _apple_ or _apples_, by pointing out the particular fruit, by numbering it, or by denoting the quantity of it. Adjectives which limit by expressing quality are called +Descriptive Adjectives+; and those which limit by pointing out, numbering, or denoting quantity are called +Definitive Adjectives+. Adjectives modifying a noun do not limit, or narrow, its application (1) when they denote qualities that always belong to the thing named; as, _yellow_ gold, the _good_ God, the _blue_ sky; or (2) when they are attribute complements, denoting qualities asserted by the verb; as, The fields were _green_; The ground was _dry_ and _hard_. +DEFINITIONS+. +An _Adjective_ is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun+.[Footnote: Pronouns, like nouns, are often modified by an "appositive" adjective, that is, an adjective joined loosely without restricting: thus--_Faint_ and _weary_, _he_ struggled on or, _He_, _faint_ and _weary_, struggled on. Adjectives that complete the predicate belong as freely to pronouns as to nouns.] +A _Descriptive Adjective_ is one that modifies by expressing quality+. +A _Definitive Adjective_ is one that modifies by pointing out, numbering, or denoting quantity+.[Footnote: The definitive adjectives _one_, _two_, _three_, etc.; _first_, _second_, _third_, etc. are called +Numeral+ adjectives. _One_, _two_, _three_, etc. are called +Cardinal+ numerals; and _first_, _second_, _third_--etc. are called +Ordinal+ numerals] The definitive adjectives _an_ or _a_ and _the_ are commonly called +Articles+. _An_ or _a_ is called the _Indefinite Article_, and _the_ is called the _Definite Article_. A noun may take the place of an adjective. +Examples+.--_London_ journals, the _New York_ press, _silver_ spoons, _diamond_ pin, _state_ papers, _gold_ bracelet. +Direction+.--_Point out the descriptive and the definitive adjectives below, and name such as do not limit_:-- Able statesmen, much rain, ten mice, brass kettle, small grains, Mansard roof, some feeling, all men, hundredth anniversary, the Pitt diamond, the patient Hannibal, little thread, crushing argument, moving spectacle, the martyr president, tin pans, few people, less trouble, this toy, any book, brave Washington, Washington market, three cats, slender cord, that libel, happy children, the broad Atlantic, The huge clouds were dark and threatening, Eyes are bright, What name was given? Which book is wanted? +Direction+.--_Point out the descriptive and the definitive adjectives in Lessons 80 and 81, and tell whether they denote color, motion, shape, position, size, moral qualities, or whether they modify in some other way_. * * * * * LESSON 90. CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES. +Caution+.--_An_ and _a_ are different forms of _one_. _An_ is used before vowel sounds. For the sake of euphony, _an_ drops _n_ and becomes _a_ before consonant sounds.[Footnote: Some writers still use _an_ before words beginning with unaccented _h_; as, _an historian_.] +Examples+.--_An_ inkstand, _a_ bag, _a_ historian, _a_ humble petition, _an_ hour (_h_ is silent), _a_ unit (_unit_ begins with the consonant sound of _y_), such _a_ one (_one_ begins with the consonant sound of _w_). +Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:-- A heir, a inheritance, an hook, an ewer, an usurper, a account, an uniform, an hundred, a umpire, an hard apple, an hero. +Caution.+--_An_ or _a_ is used to limit a noun to one thing of a class--to any one. _The_ is used to distinguish (1) one thing or several things from others, and (2) one class of things from other classes. +Explanation.+--We can say _a horse_, meaning _any one horse_; but we cannot say, _A gold_ is heavy, This is a poor kind of a _gas_, William Pitt received the title of _an earl_ because _gold, gas,_ and _earl_ are here meant to denote each the whole of a class, and a limits its noun to one thing of a class. _The horse_ or _the horses_ must be turned into _the lot_. Here _the_ before _horse_ distinguishes a certain animal, and the before horses distinguishes certain animals, from others of the same class; and _the_ before _lot_ distinguishes the field from the yard or the stable--things in other classes. _The horse_ is a noble animal. Here _the_ distinguishes _this class_ of animals from other classes. But we cannot say, _The man_ (meaning the race) is mortal, _The anger_ is a short madness, _The truth_ is eternal, _The poetry_ and _the painting_ are fine arts, because _man, anger, truth, poetry,_ and _painting_ are used in their widest sense, and name things that are sufficiently distinguished without _the_. +Direction.+--_Study the Caution as explained, and correct these errors_:-- 1. This is another kind of a sentence. 2. Churchill received the title of a duke. 3. A _hill_ is from the same root as _column_. 4. Dog is a quadruped. 5. I expected some such an offer. 6. The woman is the equal of man. 7. The sculpture is a fine art. 8. Unicorn is kind of a rhinoceros. 9. Oak is harder than the maple. +Caution.+--Use _an_, _a_, or _the_ before _each_ of two or more connected adjectives, when these adjectives modify different nouns, expressed or understood; but, when they modify the same noun, the article should not be repeated. +Explanation+.--_A cotton and a silk umbrella_ means two umbrellas--one cotton and the other silk; the word umbrella is understood after _cotton_. _A cotton and silk umbrella_ means one umbrella partly cotton and partly silk; _cotton_ and _silk_ modify the same noun--_umbrella_. _The wise and the good_ means two classes; _the wise and good_ means one class. +Direction+.--_Study the Caution as explained, and correct these errors_:-- 1. The Northern and Southern Hemisphere. 2. The Northern and the Southern Hemispheres. 3. The right and left hand. 4. A Pullman and Wagner sleeping-coach. 5. The fourth and the fifth verses. 6. The fourth and fifth verse. 7. A Webster's and Worcester's dictionary. +Caution+.--Use _an_, _a_, or _the_ before each of two or more connected nouns denoting things that are to be distinguished from each other or emphasized. +Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:-- 1. There is a difference between the sin and sinner. 2. We criticise not the dress but address of the speaker. 3. A noun and pronoun are alike in office. 4. Distinguish carefully between an adjective and adverb. 5. The lion, as well as tiger, belongs to the cat tribe. 6. Neither the North Pole nor South Pole has yet been reached. 7. The secretary and treasurer were both absent. (_The secretary and treasurer was absent_--referring to one person--is correct.) +Caution+.--_A few_ and _a little_ mean _some_ as opposed to _none_; _few_ means _not many_, and _little_ means _not much_. +Examples+.--He saved _a few_ things and _a little_ money from the wreck. _Few_ shall part where many meet. _Little_ was said or done about it. +Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:-- 1. There are a few pleasant days in March, because it is a stormy month. 2. He saved a little from the fire, as it broke out in the night. 3. Few men live to be & hundred years old, but not many. 4. Little can be done, but not much. +Direction+.--_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these Cautions_. * * * * * LESSON 91. CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES--CONTINUED. +Caution+.--Choose apt adjectives, but do not use them needlessly; avoid such as repeat the idea or exaggerate it. +Remark+.--The following adjectives are obviously needless: _Good_ virtues, _verdant_ green, _painful_ toothache, _umbrageous_ shade. +Direction+.--_Study the Caution carefully, and correct these errors_:-- 1. It was splendid fun. 2. It was a tremendous dew. 3. He used less words than the other speaker. 4. The lad was neither docile nor teachable. 5. The belief in immortality is common and universal. 6. It was a gorgeous apple. 7. The arm-chair was roomy and capacious. 8. It was a lovely bun, but I paid a frightful price for it. +Caution+.--So place adjectives that there can be no doubt as to what you intend them to modify. If those forming a series are of different rank, place nearest the noun the one most closely modifying it. If they are of the same rank, place them where they will sound best--generally in the order of length, the shortest first. +Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:-- 1. A new bottle of wine. 2. The house was comfortable and large. 3. A salt barrel of pork. 4. It was a blue soft beautiful sky. 5. A fried dish of bacon. 6. We saw in the distance a precipitous, barren, towering mountain. 7. Two gray fiery little eyes. 8. A docile and mild pupil. 9. A pupil, docile and mild. +Direction+.--_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these two Cautions_. Miscellaneous Errors. +Direction+.--_Give the Cautions which these expressions violate, and correct the errors_:-- 1. I can bear the heat of summer, but not cold of winter. 2. The North and South Pole. 3. The eldest son of a duke is called _a marquis_. 4. He had deceived me, and so I had a little faith in him. 5. An old and young man. 6. A prodigious snowball hit my cheek. 7. The evil is intolerable and not to be borne. 8. The fat, two lazy men. 9. His penmanship is fearful. 10. A white and red flag were flying. 11. His unusual, unexpected, and extraordinary success surprised him. 12. He wanted a apple, an hard apple. 13. A dried box of herrings. 14. He received a honor. 15. Such an use! 16. The day was delightful and warm. 17. Samuel Adams's habits were unostentatious, frugal, and simple. 18. The victory was complete, though a few of the enemy were killed or captured. 19. The truth is mighty and will prevail. 20. The scepter, the miter, and coronet seem to me poor things for great men to contend for. 21. A few can swim across the Straits of Dover, for the width is great and the current strong. 22. I have a contemptible opinion of you. 23. She has less friends than I. LESSON 92. CLASSES OF VERBS AND ADVERBS. +Introductory Hints+.--You learned in Lesson 28 that in saying _Washington captured_ we do not fully express the act performed. Adding _Cornwallis_, we complete the predicate by naming the one that receives the act that passes over from the doer. _Transitive_ means _passing over_, and so all verbs that represent an act as passing over from a doer to a receiver are called +Transitive Verbs+. If we say _Cornwallis was captured by Washington_, the verb is still transitive; but the object, _Cornwallis_, which names the receiver, is here the subject of the sentence, and not, as before, the object complement. You see that the object, the word that names the receiver of the act, may be the subject, or it may be the object complement. All verbs that, like _fall_ in _Leaves fall_, do not represent the act as passing over to a receiver, and all that express mere being or state of being are called +Intransitive Verbs+. A verb transitive in one sentence; as, He _writes_ good English, may be intransitive in another; as, He _writes_ well--meaning simply He _is_ a good _writer_. A verb is transitive only when an object is expressed or obviously understood. _Washington captured Cornwallis_. Here _captured_ represents the act as having taken place in past time. _Tense_ means _time_, and hence this verb is in the past tense. _Cornwallis captured, the war speedily closed_. Here _captured_ is, as you have learned, a participle; and, representing the act as past at the time indicated by _closed_, it is a past participle. Notice that _ed_ is added to _capture_ (final _e_ is always dropped when _ed_ is added) to form its past tense and its past participle. All verbs that form the past tense and the past participle by adding _ed_ to the present are called +Regular Verbs+. All verbs that do not form the past tense and the past participle by adding _ed_ to the present; as, _fall, fell, fallen; go, went, gone_, are called +Irregular Verbs+. _Early, hereafter, now, often, soon, presently_, etc., used to modify any verb--as, _will go_ in, I _will go soon_--by expressing time, are called +Adverbs of Time+. _Away, back, elsewhere, hence, out, within_, etc., used to modify any verb--as, _will go_ in, I _will go away_--by expressing direction or place, are called +Adverbs of Place+. _Exceedingly, hardly, quite, sufficiently, too, very_, etc., used to modify a word--as the adjective _hot_ in, The tea is _very hot_--by expressing degree, are called +Adverbs of Degree+. _Plainly, so, thus, well, not_, [Footnote: It may be worth remarking that while there are many negative nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and conjunctions in oar language, negation is more frequently expressed in English by the adverb than by any other part of speech--than by all other parts of speech. A very large per cent of these adverbs modify the verb. That is to say, it is largely through the adverb that what the predicate expresses is declared not to be true of the thing named by the subject. It is very suggestive that much of what is said consists of denial--is taken up in telling not what is true of things but what is not true of them. "The negative particle in our language is simply the consonant +n+. In Saxon it existed as a word +ne+; but we have lost that word, and it is now a letter only, which, enters into many words, as into _no, not, nought, none, neither, nor, never_."--_Earle_. _No_ and _yes_ (_nay_ and _yea_), when used to answer Questions, show how the thought presented is regarded, and may therefore be classed with adverbs of manner. They are sometimes called _independent adverbs_. They seem to modify words omitted in the answer but contained in the question; as, Did you see him? _No_ = I did _no_ (_not_) see him; Will you go? _Yes_. The force of _yes_ may be illustrated by substituting _certainly_--Will you go? _Certainly_. _Certainly_ I will go, or I will _certainly_ go. As _no_ and _yes_ represent or suggest complete answers, they may be called +sentence-words+.] etc., used to modify a word--as, _spoke_ in, He _spoke plainly_--by expressing manner, are called +Adverbs of Manner+. _Hence, therefore, why_, etc., used in making an inference or in expressing cause--as, It is dark, _hence_, or _therefore_, the sun is down; _Why_ is it dark?--are called +Adverbs of Cause+. Some adverbs fall into more than one class; as, _so_ and _as_. Some adverbs, as you have learned, connect clauses, and are therefore called +Conjunctive Adverbs+. DEFINITIONS. +A _Verb_ is a word that asserts action, being, or state of being+. CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO MEANING. +A _Transitive Verb_ is one that requires an object+. [Footnote: The +object+ of a transitive verb, that is, the name of the receiver of the action, may be the +object complement+, or it may be the +subject+; as, Brutus stabbed _Caesar_; _Caesar_ was stabbed by Brutus. See page 187.] +An _Intransitive Verb_ is one that does not require an object+. CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO FORM. +A _Regular Verb_ is one that forms its past tense and past participle by adding _ed_ to the present+. +An _Irregular Verb_ is one that does not form its past tense and past participle by adding _ed_ to the present+. +An _Adverb_ is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. [Footnote: Adverbs have several exceptional uses. They may be used independently; as, _Now, there_ must be an error here. They may modify a phrase or a preposition; as, He came _just_ in time; It went _far_ beyond the mark. They may modify a clause or a sentence; as, He let go _simply_ because he was exhausted; _Certainly_ you may go. It may also be noted here that adverbs are used interrogatively; as, _How, when_, and _where_ is this to be done? and that they may add to the office of the adverb that of the conjunction; as, I go _where_ I am sent.] CLASSES OF ADVERBS. +_Adverbs of Time_ are those that generally answer the question+, _When?_ +_Adverbs of Place_ are those that generally answer the question+, _Where?_ +_Adverbs of Degree_ are those that generally answer the question+, _To what extent?_ +_Adverbs of Manner_ are those that generally answer the question+, _In what way?_ +_Adverbs of Cause_ are those that generally answer the question+, _Why?_ +Direction+.--_Point out the transitive and the intransitive, the regular and the irregular verbs in Lesson_ 14, _and classify the adverbs_. * * * * * LESSON 93. CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. +Caution+.--Choose apt adverbs, but do not use them needlessly or instead of other forms of expression; avoid such as repeat the idea or exaggerate it. +Examples+.--I could _ill_ (not _illy_) afford the time. Do _as_ (not _like_) I do. A diphthong is _the union of_ two vowels (not _where_ or _when_ two vowels unite) in the same syllable. _This_ (not _this here_ or _this 'ere_) sentence is correct. He wrote _that_ (not _how that_) he had been sick. The belief in immortality is _universally_ held (not _universally_ held _everywhere_). His nose was _very_ (not _terribly_ or _frightfully_) red, +Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors_.-- 1. I returned back here yesterday. 2. He had not hardly a minute to spare. 3. The affair was settled amicably, peaceably, and peacefully. 4. It was awfully amusing. 5. This 'ere knife is dull. 6. That 'ere horse has the heaves. 7. A direct quotation is when the exact words of another are copied. 8. I do not like too much sugar in my tea. 9. He seldom or ever went home sober. 10. The belief in immortality is universally held by all. 11. I am dreadfully glad to hear that. 12. This is a fearfully long lesson. 13. He said how that he would go. +Caution+.--So place adverbs that there can be no doubt as to what you intend them to modify. Have regard to the sound also. They seldom stand between _to_ and the infinitive. [Footnote: Instances of the "cleft, or split, infinitive"--the infinitive separated from its _to_ by an intervening adverb--are found in Early English and in English all the way down, Fitzedward Hall and others have shown this. But there can be no question that usage is overwhelmingly against an adverb's standing between _to_ and the infinitive. Few writers ever place an adverb there at all; and these few, only an occasional adverb, and that adverb only occasionally. Whether the adverb should be placed before the _to_ or after the infinitive is often a nice question, sometimes to be determined by the ear alone. It should never stand, however, where it would leave the meaning ambiguous or in any way obscure.] +Examples+.--_I only_ rowed across the river = _I only_ (= _alone_, an adjective), and no one else, rowed etc., or = I _only rowed_ etc., +but+ did not _swim_ or _wade_. I rowed _only across_ the river = _across_, not _up_ or _down_ etc. I rowed across the _river only_ = the _river only_, not the _bay_ etc. _Merely to see_ (not _to merely see_) her was sufficient. _Not every collegian_ is a scholar (not _Every collegian_ is _not_ a scholar). +Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors_:-- 1. I have thought of marrying often. 2. We only eat three meals a day. 3. He hopes to rapidly recruit. 4. All is not gold that glitters. 5. He tries to distinctly speak. 6. He tries distinctly to speak. 7. All that glitters is not gold. 8. His sagacity almost appears miraculous. +Caution+.--Unless you wish to affirm, do not use two negative words so that they shall contradict each other. [Footnote: _Not in_frequently we use two negatives to make an affirmation; as, He is _not un_just; _No_ man can do _nothing_.] +Examples+.--No one _has_ (not _hasn't_) yet reached the North Pole. _No un_pleasant circumstance happened (proper, because it is intended to affirm). +Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors_:-- 1. No other reason can never be given. 2. He doesn't do nothing. 3. He isn't improving much, I don't think. 4. There must be something wrong when children do not love neither father nor mother. 5. He isn't no sneak. 6. Charlie Ross can't nowhere be found. +Caution+.--Do not use adverbs for adjectives or adjectives for adverbs. +Examples+.--The moon looks _calm_ and _peaceful_ (not _calmly_ and _peacefully_, as the words are intended to describe the moon). The moon looks down _calmly_ and _peacefully_ on the battlefield (not _calm_ and _peaceful_, as the words are intended to tell how she performs the act). I slept _soundly_ (not _good_ or _sound_). +Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors_:-- 1. It was a softly blue sky. 2. The river runs rapid. 3. You must read more distinct. 4. It was an uncommon good harvest. 5. She is most sixteen. 6. The discussion waxed warmly. 7. The prima donna sings sweet. 8. She is miserable poor. 9. My head feels badly. 10. He spoke up prompt. 11. He went most there. 12. He behaved very bad. 13. This is a mighty cold day. +Direction+.--_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these four Cautions_. * * * * * LESSON 94. CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS-CONTINUED. Miscellaneous Errors. +Direction+.--_Give the Cautions which these sentences violate, and correct the errors_:-- 1. Begin it over again. 2. This can be done easier. 3. The house is extra warm. 4. Most every one goes there. 5. I have a pencil that long. 6. He hasn't his lesson, I don't believe. 7. A circle can't in no way be squared. 8. This is a remarkable cold winter. 9. The one is as equally deserving as the other. 10. Feathers feel softly. 11. It is pretty near finished. 12. Verbosity is when too many words are used. 13. It is a wonderful fine day. 14. He is some better just now. 15. Generally every morning we went to the spring. 16. I wish to simply state this point. 17. He tried to not only injure but to also ruin the man. 18. The lesson was prodigiously long. 19. The cars will not stop at this station only when the bell rings. 20. He can do it as good as any one can. 21. Most everybody talks so. 22. He hasn't yet gone, I don't believe. 23. He behaved thoughtlessly, recklessly, and carelessly. 24. That 'ere book is readable. 25. I will not go but once. 26. I can't find out neither where the lesson begins nor where it ends. 27. They were nearly dressed alike. 28. The tortured man begged that they would kill him again and again. 29. The fortune was lavishly, profusely, and prodigally spent. 30. I am real glad to see you. 31. We publish all the information, official and otherwise. LESSON 95. PREPOSITIONS. +DEFINITION.--A _Preposition_ is a word that introduces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the word modified.+ Composition. +Direction+.--_We give below a list of the prepositions in common use. Make short sentences in which each of these shall be aptly used. Use two or three of them in a single sentence if you wish_:-- Aboard, about, above, across, after, against, along, amid, amidst, among, amongst, around, at, athwart, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, betwixt, beyond, but, by, down, ere, for, from, in, into, of, on, over, past, round, since, through, throughout, till, to, toward, towards, under, underneath, until, unto, up, upon, with, within, without. +Remarks+.--_Bating_, _concerning_, _during_, _excepting_, _notwithstanding_, _pending_, _regarding_, _respecting_, _saving_, and _touching_ are still participles in form and sometimes are such in use. But in most cases the participial meaning has faded out of them, and they express mere relations. _But_, _except_, and _save_, in such a sentence as, All _but_ or _except_ or _save him_ were lost, are usually classed with prepositions. The phrases _aboard of_, _according to_, _along with_, _as to_, _because of_ (by cause of), _from among_, _from between_, _from under_, _instead of_ (in stead of), _out of_, _over against_, and _round about_ may be called compound prepositions. But _from_ in these compounds; as, He crawled _from under the ruins_, really introduces a phrase, the principal term of which is the phrase that follows _from_. Many prepositions become adverbs when the noun which ordinarily follows them is omitted; as, He rode _past_; He stands _above_. * * * * * LESSON 96. CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS. +To the Teacher+.--Most prepositions express relations so diverse, and so delicate in their shades of distinction that a definition of them based upon etymology would mislead. A happy and discriminating use of prepositions can be acquired only by an extended study of good authors. We do below all that we think it prudent or profitable to do with them. He should he a man of wide and careful reading who assumes to teach pupils that such prepositions, and such only, should be used with certain words. Nowhere in grammar is dogmatism more dangerous than here. That grammarian exceeds his commission who marks out for the pupils' feet a path narrower than the highway which the usage of the best writers and speakers has cast up. [Footnote: Take a single illustration. Grammarians, in general, teach that _between_ and _betwixt_ "refer to two," are used "only when two things or sets of things are referred to." Ordinarily, and while clinging to their derivation, they are so used, but are they always, and must they be? "There was a hunting match agreed upon betwixt a lion, an ass, and a fox."-- _L'Estrange_. "A Triple Alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden."-- _J. B. Green_. "In the vacant space between Persia, Syria, Egypt, and Ethiopia."--_Gibbon_. "His flight between the several worlds."--_Addison_. "The identity of form between the nominative, accusative, and vocative cases in the neuter." --_G. P. Marsh_. "The distinction between these three orders has been well expressed by Prof. Max Mueller."--_W. D. Whitney_. "Between such dictionaries as Worcester's, The Imperial, and Webster's."-- _B. G. White_. "Betwixt the slender boughs came glimpses of her ivory neck."--_Bryant_. With what clumsy circumlocutions would our speech be filled if prepositions could never slip the leash of their etymology! What simple and graceful substitute could be found for the last phrase in this sentence, for instance: There were forty desks in the room with ample space _between them_? "We observe that _between_ is not restricted to two."--_Imperial Dictionary_. "In all senses _between_ has been, from its earliest appearance, extended to more than two. It is still the only word available to express the relation of a thing to many surrounding things severally and individually--_among_ expressing a relation to them collectively and vaguely: we should not say, 'The choice lies among the three candidates,' or 'to insert a needle among the closed petals of a flower.'"--_The New English Dictionary_. We have collected hundreds of instances of _between_ used by good writers with three or more. Guard against such expressions as _between each_ page; a choice _between one_ of several.] +Direction+.--_We give below a few words with the prepositions which usually accompany them. Form short sentences containing these words combined with each of the prepositions which follow them, and note carefully the different relations expressed by the different prepositions_:-- (Consult the dictionary for both the preposition and the accompanying word.) Abide _at, by, with_; accommodate _to, with_; advantage _of, over_; agree _to, with_; angry _at, with_; anxious _about, for_; argue _against, with_; arrive _at, in_; attend _on_ or _upon, to_; careless _about, in, of_; communicate _to, with_; compare _to, with_; consists _in, of_; defend _against, from_; die _by, for, of_; different _from_; disappointed _in, of_; distinguish _by, from_; familiar _to, with_; impatient _for, of_; indulge _in, with_; influence _on, over, with_; insensible _of, to_; sat _beside_; many _besides_. * * * * * LESSON 97. CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS--CONTINUED. +Direction+.--_Do with the following words as with those above_:-- Inquire _after, for, into, of_; intrude _into, upon_; joined _to, with_; liberal _of, to_; live _at, in, on_; look _after, for, on_; need _of_; obliged _for, to_; part _from, with_; placed _in, on_; reconcile _to, with_; regard _for, to_; remonstrate _against, with_; sank _beneath, in, into_; share _in, of, with_; sit _in, on_ or _upon_; smile _at, on_; solicitous _about, for_; strive _for, with, against_; taste _for, of_; touch _at, on_ or _upon_; useful _for, in, to_; weary _of, in, with_; yearn _for, towards_. * * * * * LESSON 98. CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS--CONTINUED. +Caution+.--Great care must be used in the choice of prepositions. +Direction+.--_Correct these errors_:-- 1. This book is different to that. 2. He stays to home. 3. They two quarreled among each other. 4. He is in want for money. 5. I was followed with a crowd. 6. He fell from the bridge in the water. [Footnote: _In_ denotes motion or rest in a condition or place; _into_, change from one condition or place into another. "When one is outside of a place, he may be able to get _into_ it; but he cannot do anything _in_ it until he has got _into_ it."] 7. He fought into the Revolution. [See previous footnote] 8. He bears a close resemblance of his father. 9. He entered in the plot. 10. He lives at London. 11. He lives in the turn of the road. 12. I have need for a vacation. 13. The child died with the croup. 14. He took a walk, but was disappointed of it. 15. He did not take a walk; he was disappointed in it. 16. He was accused with felony. 17. School keeps upon Monday. 18. Place a mark between each leaf. 19. He is angry at his father. 20. He placed a letter into my hands. 21. She is angry with your conduct. 22. What is the matter of him? 23. I saw him over to the house. 24. These plants differ with each other. 25. He boards to the hotel. 26. I board in the hotel. 27. She stays at the North. 28. I have other reasons beside these. [Footnote: Beside = _by the side of_; besides = _in addition to_.] 29. You make no use with your talents. 30. He threw himself onto the bed. 31. The boys are hard to work. 32. He distributed the apples between his four brothers. 33. He went in the park. 34. You can confide on him. 35. He arrived to Toronto. 36. I agree with that plan. 37. The evening was spent by reading. 38. Can you accommodate me in one of those? 39. What a change a century has produced upon our country! 40. He stays to school late. 41. The year of the Restoration plunged Milton in bitter poverty. 42. The Colonies declared themselves independent from England. 43. I spent my Saturdays by going in the country, and enjoying myself by fishing. * * * * * LESSON 99. CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS--CONTINUED.[Footnote: "A preposition is a feeble word to end a sentence _with_," we are told. Sentences (10) and (13), Lesson 59, (2), Lesson 60, and many in succeeding Lessons violate the rule so carelessly expressed. Of this rule, laid down without regard to usage and thoughtlessly repeated, Prof. Austin Phelps says, "A preposition as such is by no means a feeble word;" and he quotes a burst of feeling from Rufus Choate which ends thus: "Never, so long as there is left of Plymouth Rock a piece large enough to make a gunflint _of_!" "This," Professor Phelps says, "is purest idiomatic English." He adds, "The old Scotch interrogative, 'What _for_?' is as pure English in written as in colloquial speech." Sentences containing two prepositions before a noun are exceedingly common in English--"The language itself is inseparable _from_, or essentially a part _of_, the _thoughts_." Such sentences have been condemned, but the worst that can be urged against them is, that they lack smoothness. But smoothness is not always desirable. Sentences containing a transitive verb and a preposition before a noun are very common--"Powerless to _affect_, or to be affected _by_, the _times_."] CAUTION.--Do not use prepositions needlessly. DIRECTION.--_Correct these errors_:-- 1. I went there at about noon. 2. In what latitude is Boston in? 3. He came in for to have a talk. 4. I started a week ago from last Saturday. 5. He was born August 15, in 1834. 6. A good place to see a play is at Wallack's. 7. He went to home. 8. I was leading of a horse about. 9. By what states is Kentucky bounded by? 10. His servants ye are to whom ye obey. 11. Where are you going to? 12. They admitted of the fact. 13. Raise your book off of the table. 14. He took the poker from out of the fire. 15. Of what is the air composed of? 16. You can tell by trying of it. 17. Where have you been to? 18. The boy is like to his father. 19. They offered to him a chair. 20. This is the subject of which I intend to write about. 21. Butter brings twenty cents for a pound. 22. Give to me a knife. 23. I have a brother of five years old. 24. To what may Italy be likened to? 25. In about April the farmer puts in his seed. 26. Jack's favorite sport was in robbing orchards. 27. Before answering of you, I must think. 28. He lives near to the river. 29. Keep off of the grass. +Caution+.--Do not omit prepositions when they are needed. +Direction+.--_Correct these errors_:-- 1. There is no use going there. 2. He is worthy our help. 3. I was prevented going. 4. He was banished the country. 5. He is unworthy our charity. 6. What use is this to him? 7. He was born on the 15th August, 1834. 8. Adam and Eve were expelled the garden. 9. It was the size of a pea. 10. Egypt is the west side of the Red Sea. 11. His efforts were not for the great, but the lowly. 12. He received dispatches from England and Russia. +Direction+.--_Point out the prepositions in Lessons_ 80 _and_ 81, _and name the words between which, in sense, they show the relation_. * * * * * LESSON 100. CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS AND OTHER CONNECTIVES. +Introductory Hints+.--The stars look down upon the roofs of the living _and_ upon the graves of the dead, _but neither_ the living _nor_ the dead are conscious of their gaze. Here _and_, _but_, _neither_, and _nor_ connect words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank, or order, and so are called +Co-ordinate Conjunctions+. Both clauses may be independent, or both dependent but of equal rank. At the burning of Moscow, it seemed _as_ [it would seem] _if_ the heavens were lighted up _that_ the nations might behold the scene. Here _as_, _if_, and _that_ connect each a lower, or subordinate, clause to a clause of higher rank, and hence are called +Subordinate Conjunctions+. One clause may be independent and the other dependent, or both dependent but of unequal rank. +DEFINITIONS.+ +A _Conjunction_ is a word used to connect words, phrases, or clauses+. [Footnote: Some of the co-ordinate conjunctions, as _and_ and _but_, connect, in thought, sentences separated by the period, and even connect paragraphs. In analysis and parsing, we regard only the individual sentence and treat such connectives as introductory.] +_Co-ordinate Conjunctions_ are such as connect words, phrases, or clauses of the same rank+. +_Subordinate Conjunctions_ are such as connect clauses of different rank+. +Remark+.--Some of the connectives below are conjunctions proper; some are relative pronouns; and some are adverbs or adverb phrases, which, in addition to their office as modifiers, may, in the absence of the conjunction, take its office upon themselves and connect the clauses. To THE TEACHER.--We do not advise the memorizing of these lists. The pupils should he able to name the different groups, and some of the most common connectives of each group. +Co-ordinate Connectives.+ [Footnote: +Copulative+ conjunctions join parts in the same line of thought; +Adversative+ conjunctions join parts contrasted or opposed in meaning; +Alternative+ conjunctions join parts so as to offer a choice or a denial. See Lesson 76.] +Copulative+.--_And_, _both_ ... _and_, _as well as_ [Footnote: The _as well as_ in, _He, as well as I, went_; and not that in, _He is as well as I am_.] are conjunctions proper. _Accordingly_, _also_, _besides_, _consequently_, _furthermore_, _hence_, _likewise_, _moreover_, _now_, _so_, _then_, and _therefore_ are conjunctive adverbs. +Adversative+.--_But_ and _whereas_ are conjunctions proper. _However_, _nevertheless_, _notwithstanding_, _on the contrary_, _on the other hand_, _still_, and _yet_ are conjunctive adverbs. +Alternative+.--_Neither_, _nor_, _or_, _either_ ... _or_, and _neither_ ... _nor_ are conjunctions proper. _Else_ and _otherwise_ are conjunctive adverbs. +Subordinate Connectives.+ CONNECTIVES OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. _That_, _what_, _whatever_, _which_, _whichever_, _who_, and _whoever_ are relative pronouns. _When_, _where_, _whereby_, _wherein_, and _why_ are conjunctive adverbs. CONNECTIVES OF ADVERB CLAUSES. _Time_.--_After_, _as_, _before_, _ere_, _since_, _till_, _until_, _when_, _whenever_, _while_, and _whilst_ are conjunctive adverbs. _Place_.--_Whence_, _where_, and _wherever _are conjunctive adverbs. _Degree_.--_As_, _than_, _that_, and _the_ are conjunctive adverbs, correlative with adjectives or adverbs. _Manner_.--_As_ is a conjunctive adverb, correlative, often, with an adjective or an adverb. _Real Cause_.--_As_, _because_, _for_, _since_, and _whereas_ are conjunctions proper. _Evidence_.--_Because_, _for_, and _since_ are conjunctions proper. _Purpose_.--_In order that_, _lest_ (= _that not_), _that_, and _so that_ are conjunctions proper. Condition.--Except, if, in case that, on condition that, provided, provided that, and unless are conjunctions proper. _Concession_.--_Although_, _if_ (= _even if_), _notwithstanding_, _though_, and _whether_ are conjunctions proper. _However_ is a conjunctive adverb. _Whatever_, _whichever_, and _whoever_ are relative pronouns used indefinitely. CONNECTIVES OF NOUN CLAUSES. _If_, _lest_, _that_, and _whether_ [Footnote: Etymologically, _whether_ is restricted to two; but it has burst the bonds of its etymology and is very freely used with three or more. The repetition of _whether_, like the use of it with three or more things, has been condemned, but usage allows us to repeat it. _Whether or no_ is also allowed.] are conjunctions proper. _What_, _which_, and _who_ are pronouns introducing questions; and _how_, _when_, _whence_, _where_, and _why_ are conjunctive adverbs introducing questions. +Direction+.--_Study the lists above_, _and point out all the connectives in Lessons_ 80 and 81, _telling which are relative pronouns_, _which are conjunctions proper_, _and which are conjunctive adverbs_. +TO THE TEACHER+.--If the pupils lack maturity, or if it is found necessary to abridge this work in order to conform to a prescribed course of study, the six following Lessons may be omitted. The authors consider these exercises very profitable, but their omission will occasion no break in the course. * * * * * LESSON 101. COMPOSITION--CONNECTIVES. +Direction+.--_Write twenty compound sentences whose clauses shall be joined by connectives named in the three subdivisions of co-ordinate connectives_. * * * * * LESSON 102. COMPOSITION--CONNECTIVES--CONTINUED. +Direction+.--_Write twenty complex sentences whose clauses shall be joined by connectives of adjective clauses, and by connectives of adverb clauses of time, place, degree, and manner_. * * * * * LESSON 103. COMPOSITION--CONNECTIVES--CONTINUED. +Direction+.--_Write twenty complex sentences whose clauses shall be joined by connectives of adverb clauses of real cause, evidence, purpose, condition, and concession, and by connectives of noun clauses_. * * * * * LESSON 104. CONNECTIVES. Analysis. +Direction+.--_Tell what kinds of clauses follow the connectives below, and what are the usual connectives of such clauses, and then analyze the sentences_:-- +As+ may connect a clause expressing +manner+, +time+, +degree+, +cause+, or +evidence+. 1. Mount Marcy is not so high as Mount Washington. 2. As I passed by, I found an altar with this inscription. 3. It must be raining, as men are carrying umbrellas. 4. Ice floats, as water expands in freezing. 5. Half-learned lessons slip from the memory, as an icicle from the hand. +If+ may connect a clause expressing +condition+, +time+, or +concession+, or it may introduce a +noun+ clause. 6. If a slave's lungs breathe our air, that moment he is free. 7. If wishes were horses, all beggars might ride. 8. Who knows if one of the Pleiads is really missing? [Footnote: Many grammarians say that _if_ here is improperly used for _whether_. But this use of _if_ is common with good authors in early and in modern English.] 9. If the flights of Dryden are higher, Pope continues longer on the wing. +Lest+ may connect a clause expressing +purpose+, or it may introduce a +noun+ clause. 10. England fears lest Russia may endanger British rule in India. 11. Watch and pray lest ye enter into temptation. +Since+ may connect a clause expressing +time+, +cause+, or +evidence+. 12. It must be raining, since men are carrying umbrellas. 13. Many thousand years have gone by since the Pyramids were built. 14. Since the Puritans could not be convinced, they were persecuted. * * * * * LESSON 105. CONNECTIVES--CONTINUED. Analysis. +Direction+.--_Tell what kinds of clauses follow the connectives below, and what are the usual connectives of such clauses, and then analyze the sentences_:-- +That+ may connect a +noun+ clause, an +adjective+ clause, or a clause expressing +degree+, +cause+, or +purpose+. 1. The Pharisee thanked God that he was not like other men. 2. Vesuvius threw its lava so far that Herculaneum and Pompeii were buried. 3. The smith plunges his red-hot iron into water that he may harden the metal. 4. Socrates said that he who might be better employed was idle. 5. We never tell our secrets to people that pump for them. +When+ may connect a clause expressing +time+, +cause+, or +condition+, an +adjective+ clause or a +noun+ clause, or it may connect +co-ordinate+ clauses. 6. The Aztecs were astonished when they saw the Spanish horses. 7. November is the month when the deer sheds its horns. 8. When the future is uncertain, make the most of the present. 9. When the five great European races left Asia is a question. 10. When judges accept bribes, what may we expect from common people? 11. The dial instituted a formal inquiry, when hands, wheels, and weights protested their innocence. +Where+ may connect a clause expressing +place+, an +adjective+ clause, or a +noun+ clause. 12. No one knows the place where Moses was buried. 13. Where Moses was buried is still a question. 14. No one has been where Moses was buried. +While+ may connect a clause expressing +time+ or +concession+, or it may connect +co-ordinate+ clauses. 15. Napoleon was a genius, while Wellington was a man of talents. 16. While we sleep, the body is rebuilt. 17. While Charles I. had many excellent traits, he was a bad king. * * * * * LESSON 106. CONNECTIVES--CONTINUED. Analysis. +Direction+.--_Use the appropriate connectives, and change these compound sentences to complex without changing the meaning, and then analyze them_:-- (Let one dependent clause be an adjective clause; let three express cause; five, condition; and two, concession.) 1. Caesar put the proffered crown aside, but he would fain have had it. 2. Take away honor and imagination and poetry from war, and it becomes carnage. 3. His crime has been discovered, and he must flee. 4. You must eat, or you will die. 5. Wisdom is the principal thing, therefore get wisdom. 6. Let but the commons hear this testament, and they would go and kiss dead Caesar's wounds. 7. Men are carrying umbrellas; it is raining. 8. Have ye brave sons? look in the next fierce brawl to see them die. 9. The Senate knows this, the Consul sees it, and yet the traitor lives. 10. Take away the grandeur of his cause, and Washington is a rebel instead of the purest of patriots. 11. The diamond is a sparkling gem, and it is pure carbon. +Direction+.--_Two of the dependent clauses below express condition, and three express concession. Place an appropriate conjunction before each, and then analyze the sentences_:-- 12. Should we fail, it can be no worse for us. 13. Had the Plantagenets succeeded in France, there would never have been an England. 14. Were he my brother, I could do no more for him. 15. Were I so disposed, I could not gratify the reader. 16. Were I [Admiral Nelson] to die this moment, _more frigates_ would be found written on my heart. * * * * * LESSON 107. CONSTRUCTION OF CONNECTIVES. +Caution+.--Some conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs may stand in correlation with other words. _And_ may be accompanied by _both_; _as_, by _as_, by _so_, or by _such_; _but_ (_but also_ and _but likewise_), by _not only_; _if_, by _then_; _nor_, by _neither_; _or_, by _either_ or by _whether_; _that_, by _so_; _the_, by _the_; _though_, by _yet_; _when_, by _then_; and _where_, by _there_. Be careful that the right words stand in correlation, and stand where they belong. +Examples+.--Give me neither riches _nor_ (not _or_) poverty. I cannot find either my book _or_ (not _nor_) my hat. Dogs not only bark (not _not only dogs_ bark) but also bite. _Not only dogs_ (not _dogs not only_) bark but wolves also. He _was neither_ (not _neither was_) rich nor poor. +Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:-- 1. He not only gave me advice but also money. 2. A theatrical part may either imply some peculiarity of gesture or a dissimulation of my real sentiments. 3. She not only dressed richly but tastefully. 4. Neither Massachusetts or Pennsylvania has the population of New York. 5. Thales was not only famous for his knowledge of nature but also for his moral wisdom. 6. Not only he is successful but he deserves to succeed. 7. There was nothing either strange nor interesting. +Caution+.--Choose apt connectives, but do not use them needlessly or instead of other parts of speech. +Examples+.--Seldom, _if_ (not _or_) ever, should an adverb stand between _to_ and the infinitive. I will try _to_ (not _and_) do better next time. No one can deny _that_ (not _but_) he has money. [Footnote: See foot-note, page 176.] A harrow is drawn over the ground, _which_ (not _and which_) covers the seed. Who doubts _that_ (not _but that_ or _but what_) Napoleon lived [Footnote: See foot-note, page 176.] The doctor had scarcely left _when_ (not _but_) a patient called. He has no love for his father _or_ (not _nor_) for his mother (the negative _no_ is felt throughout the sentence, and need not be repeated by _nor_). He was not well, _nor_ (not _or_) was he sick (_not_ is expended in the first clause; _nor_ is needed to make the second clause negative). +Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors_:-- 1. The excellence of Virgil, and which he possesses beyond other poets, is tenderness. 2. Try and recite the lesson perfectly to-morrow. 3. Who can doubt but that there is a God? 4. No one can eat nor drink while he is talking. 5. He seldom or ever went to church. 6. No one can deny but that the summer is the hottest season. 7. I do not know as I shall like it. 8. He said that, after he had asked the advice of all his friends, that he was more puzzled than before. +Caution+.--_Else_, _other_, _otherwise_, _rather_, and adjectives and adverbs expressing a comparison are usually followed by _than_. But _else_, _other_, and _more_, implying something additional, but not different in kind, may be followed by _but_ or _besides_. +Examples+.--A diamond is nothing _else than_ carbon. Junius was no _other than_ Sir Philip Francis. The cripple cannot walk _otherwise than_ on crutches. Americans would _rather_ travel _than_ stay at home. I rose _earlier than_ I intended. He can converse on _other_ topics _besides_ politics. +Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors_:-- 1. Battles are fought with other weapons besides pop-guns. 2. The moon is something else but green cheese. 3. Cornwallis could not do otherwise but surrender. 4. It was no other but the President. 5. He no sooner saw the enemy but he turned and ran. +Caution+.--Two or more connected words or phrases referring to another word or phrase should each make good sense with it. +Examples+.--I have always (add _said_) and still do say that labor is honorable. Shakespeare was greater than any other poet that has (add _lived_) or is now alive. The boy is stronger than his sister, but not so tall (not The boy is _stronger_, but not _so tall, as_ his sister). +Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors_:-- 1. Gold is heavier, but not so useful, as iron. 2. Gold is not so useful, but heavier, than iron. 3. This is as valuable, if not more so, than that. 4. Faithful boys have always and always will learn their lessons. 5. Bread is more nutritious, but not so cheap, as potatoes. 6. This dedication may serve for almost any book that has, is, or may be published. * * * * * LESSON 108. MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS. +Direction+.--_Correct these errors, telling what Caution each violates_:-- 1. Carthage and Rome were rival powers: this city in Africa, and that in Europe; the one on the northern coast of the Mediterranean, the other on the southern. 2. The right and left lung were diseased. 3. The right and the left lungs were diseased. 4. My friend has sailed for Europe, who was here yesterday. 5. There are some men which are always young. 6. I cannot think but what God is good. 7. Thimbles, that are worn on the finger, are used in pushing the needle. 8. A told B that he was his best friend. 9. Them scissors are very dull. 10. Ethan Allen, being a rash man, he tried to capture Canada. 11. The lady that was thrown from the carriage, and who was picked up insensible, died. 12. The eye and ear have different offices. 13. I only laugh when I feel like it. 14. This is the same man who called yesterday. 15. He was an humble man. 16. He was thrown forward onto his face. 17. A knows more, but does not talk so well, as B. 18. The book cost a dollar, and which is a great price. 19. At what wharf does the boat stop at? 20. The music sounded harshly. 21. He would neither go himself or send anybody. 22. It isn't but a short distance. 23. The butter is splendid. 24. The boy was graceful and tall. 25. He hasn't, I don't suppose, laid by much. 26. One would rather have few friends than a few friends. 27. He is outrageously proud. 28. Not only the boy skated but he enjoyed it. 29. He has gone way out West. 30. Who doubts but what two and two are four? 31. Some people never have and never will bathe in salt water. 32. The problem was difficult to exactly understand. 33. It was the length of your finger. 34. He bought a condensed can of milk. 35. The fish breathes with other organs besides lungs. 36. The death is inevitable. 37. She wore a peculiar kind of a dress. 38. When shall we meet together? 39. He talks like you do. [Footnote: The use of the verb _do_ as a substitute for a preceding verb is one of the most remarkable idioms in the language. In its several forms it stands for the finite forms and for the infinitive and the participle of verbs, transitive and intransitive, regular and irregular. It prevents repetition, and hence is euphonic; it abbreviates expression, and therefore is energetic.] 40. This word has a different source than that. 41. No sooner did I arrive when he called. * * * * * LESSON 109. VARIOUS USES OF WHAT, THAT, AND BUT. +What+ may be used as a +relative pronoun+, an +interrogative pronoun+, a +definitive adjective+, an +adverb+, and an +interjection+. +Examples+.--He did _what_ was right. _What_ did he say? _What_ man is happy with the toothache? _What_ with confinement and _what_ with bad diet, the prisoner found himself reduced to a skeleton (here _what_ = _partly_, and modifies the phrase following it). _What_! you a lion? +That+ may be used as a +relative pronoun+, an +adjective+ +pronoun+, a +definitive adjective+, a +conjunction+, and a +conjunctive adverb+. +Examples+.--He _that_ does a good deed is instantly ennobled. _That_ is heroism. _That_ man is a hero. We eat _that_ we may live. It was so cold _that_ the mercury froze. +But+ may be used as a +conjunction+, an +adverb+, an +adjective+, and a +preposition+. +Examples+.--The ostrich is a bird, _but_ (adversative conjunction) it cannot fly. Not a sparrow falls _but_ (= unless--subordinate conjunction) God wills it. He was all _but_ (conjunction or preposition) dead = He was all dead, _but_ he was not dead, or He was all (anything in that line) _except_ (the climax) dead. No man is so wicked _but_ (conjunctive adverb) he loves virtue = No man is wicked _to that degree in which_ he loves _not_ virtue (_so_ = _to that degree_, _but_ = _in which not_). We meet _but_ (adverb = _only_) to part. Life is _but_ (adjective = _only_) a dream. All _but_ (preposition = _except_) him had fled. The tears of love were hopeless _but_ (preposition = _except_) for thee. I cannot _but_ remember = I cannot do anything _but_ (preposition = _except_) remember. There is no fireside _but_ (preposition) has one vacant chair (_except the one which_ has); or, regarding _but_ as a negative relative = _that not_, the sentence = There is no fireside _that_ has _not_ one vacant chair. +Direction+.--_Study the examples given above, point out the exact use of what, that, and but in these sentences, and then analyze the sentences_:-- 1. He did nothing but laugh. 2. It was once supposed that crystal is ice frozen so hard that it cannot be thawed. 3. What love equals a mother's? 4. There is nobody here but me. 5. The fine arts were all but proscribed. 6. There's not a breeze but whispers of thy name. 7. The longest life is but a day. 8. What if the bee love not these barren boughs? 9. That life is long which answers life's great end. 10. What! I the weaker vessel? 11. Whom should I obey but thee? 12 What by industry and what by economy, he had amassed a fortune. 13. I long ago found that out. 14. One should not always eat what he likes. 15. There's not a white hair on your face but should have its effect of gravity. 16. It was a look that, but for its quiet, would have seemed disdain. 17. He came but to return. * * * * * LESSON 110. REVIEW QUESTIONS. _Lesson_ 85.--Define a noun. What is the distinction between a common and a proper noun? Why is _music_ a common noun? What is a collective noun? An abstract noun? Define a pronoun. What are the classes of pronouns? Define them. What is an antecedent? _Lesson_ 86.--Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting _he_, _it_, and _they_; the needless use of pronouns; the two styles of the pronoun; the use of _them_ for _those_, and of _what_ for _that_; and the use of _who_, _which_, _that_, and _what_. _Lesson_ 87.--Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting connected relative clauses; the relative in clauses not restrictive; the use of _that_ instead of _who_ or _which_; the position of the relative clause; and the use of _this_ and _that_, _the one_ and _the other_. _Lesson_ 89.--Define an adjective. What two classes are there? Define them. What adjectives do not limit? Illustrate. _Lesson_ 90.--Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting the use of the adjectives _an_, _a_, and _the_; and the use of _a few_ and _few_, _a little_ and _little_. _Lesson_ 91.--Give and illustrate the Cautious respecting the choice and the position of adjectives. Lesson_ 93.--Define a verb. What are transitive verbs? Intransitive? _Illustrate. What distinction is made between the object and the object complement? What are regular verbs? Irregular? Illustrate. What are the several classes of adverbs? Define them. What is a conjunctive adverb? _Lesson_ 93.--Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting the choice and the position of adverbs, the use of double negatives, and the use of adverbs for adjectives and of adjectives for adverbs. * * * * * LESSON 111. REVIEW QUESTIONS--CONTINUED. _Lesson_ 95.--Define a preposition. Name some of the common prepositions. What is said of some prepositions ending in _ing_? Of _but_, _except_, and _save_? Of certain compound prepositions? When do prepositions become adverbs? _Lesson_ 98.--Give and illustrate the Caution as to the choice of prepositions. What, in general, is the difference between _in_ and _into_? _Lesson_ 99.--Give and illustrate the two Cautions relating to the use of prepositions. _Lesson_ 100.--Define a conjunction. What are the two great classes of conjunctions, and what is their difference? What other parts of speech besides conjunctions connect? What are adverbs that connect called? Into what three classes are co-ordinate connectives subdivided? Give some of the conjunctions and the conjunctive adverbs of each class. What three kinds of clauses are connected by subordinate connectives? The connectives of adverb clauses are subdivided into what classes? Give a leading connective of each class. _Lessons_ 104, 105.--Illustrate two or more offices of each of the connectives _as_, _if_, _lest_, _since_, _that_, _when_, _where_, and _while_. _Lesson_ 107.--Give and illustrate the four Cautions relating to the construction of connectives. _Lesson_ 109.--Illustrate the offices of _what_, _that_, and _but_. * * * * * GENERAL REVIEW. Schemes for the Conjunction, Preposition, and Interjection. (_The numbers refer to Lessons_.) | Co-Ordinate. | THE CONJUNCTION. +Classes+. + Subordinate + 106-107. | | THE PREPOSITION. No Classes (95, 98, 99). THE INTERJECTION. No Classes (20, 21). MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. * * * * * LESSON 112. +Introductory Hints+.--You have learned that two words may express a thought, and that the thought may be varied by adding modifying words. You are now to learn that the meaning or use of a word may be changed by simply changing its form. The English language has lost most of its inflections, or forms, so that many of the changes in the meaning and the use of words are not now marked by changes in form. These changes in the form, the meaning, and the use of the parts of speech we call their +Modifications+. [Footnote: Those grammarians that attempt to restrict number, case, mode, etc.--what we here call _Modifications_--to form, find themselves within bounds which they continually overleap. They define number, for instance, as a form, or inflection, and yet speak of nouns "plural in form but singular in sense," or "singular in form but plural in sense;" that is, if you construe them rigorously, plural or singular in form but singular or plural form in sense. They tell you that case is a form, and yet insist that nouns have three cases, though only two forms; and speak of the nominative and the objective case of the noun, "although in fact the two cases are always the same in form"--the two forms always the same in form! On the other hand, those that make what we call _Modifications_ denote only relations or conditions of words cannot cling to these abstract terms. For instance, they ask the pupil to "pronounce and write the possessive of nouns," hardly expecting, we suppose, that the "condition" of a noun will be sounded or written; and they speak of "a noun in the singular with a plural application," in which expression _singular_ must be taken to mean _singular form_ to save it from sheer nonsense. We know no way to steer clear of Scylla and keep out of Charybdis but to do what by the common use of the word we are allowed; viz., to take _Modifications_ with such breadth of signification that it will apply to meaning and to use, as well as to form. Primarily, of course, it meant inflections, used to mark changes in the meaning and use of words. But we shall use _Modifications_ to indicate changes in meaning and use when the form in the particular instance is wanting, nowhere, however, recognizing that as a modification which is not somewhere marked by form.] Modifications of Nouns and Pronouns. NUMBER. _The boy shouts_. _The boys shout_. The form of the subject _boy_ is changed by adding an _s_ to it. The meaning has changed. _Boy_ denotes one lad; boys, two or more lads. This change in the form and the meaning of nouns is called +Number+; the word _boy_, denoting one thing, is in the +Singular Number+; and _boys_, denoting more than one thing, is in the +Plural Number+. Number expresses only the distinction of one from more than one; to express more precisely how many, we use adjectives, and say _two boys_, _four boys_, _many_ or _several boys_. +DEFINITIONS+. +_Modifications of the Parts of Speech_ are changes in their form, meaning, and use+. +_Number_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes one thing or more than one.+ +The _Singular Number_ denotes one thing+. +The _Plural Number_ denotes more than one thing+. NUMBER FORMS. +RULE.--The _plural_ of nouns is regularly formed by adding _s_ to the singular+. To this rule there are some exceptions. When the singular ends in a sound that cannot unite with that of _s_, _es_ is added and forms another syllable.[Footnote: In Anglo-Saxon, _as_ was the plural termination for a certain class of nouns. In later English, _as_ was changed to _es_, which became the regular plural ending; as, _bird-es_, _cloud-es_. In modern English, _e_ is dropped, and _s_ is joined to the singular without increase of syllables. But, when the singular ends in an _s_-sound, the original syllable _es_ is retained, as two hissing sounds will not unite.] +Remark+.--Such words as _horse_, _niche_, and _cage_ drop the final _e_ when _es_ is added. See Rule 1, Lesson 137. +Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns, and note what letters represent sounds that cannot unite with the sound of +s+_:-- Ax _or_ axe, arch, adz _or_ adze, box, brush, cage, chaise, cross, ditch, face, gas, glass, hedge, horse, lash, lens, niche, prize, race, topaz. The following nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a consonant add _es_ without increase of syllables. +Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:-- Buffalo, calico, cargo, echo, embargo, grotto, hero, innuendo, motto, mosquito, mulatto, negro, portico (_oes_ or _os_), potato, tornado, torpedo, veto, volcano. The following nouns in _o_ preceded by a consonant add _s_ only. +Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:-- Canto, domino (_os_ or _oes_), duodecimo, halo, junto, lasso, memento, octavo, piano, proviso, quarto, salvo, solo, two, tyro, zero (_os_ or _oes_). Nouns in _o_ preceded by a vowel add _s_. Bamboo, cameo, cuckoo, embryo, folio, portfolio, seraglio, trio. Common nouns [Footnote: See Rule 2, Lesson 127. In old English, such words as _lady_ and _fancy_ were spelled _ladie_, _fancie_. The modern plural simply retains the old spelling and adds _s_,] in _y_ after a consonant change _y_ into _i_ and add _es_ without increase of syllables. Nouns in _y_ after a vowel add _s_. +Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:-- Alley, ally, attorney, chimney, city, colloquy, [Footnote: _U_ after _q_ is a consonant] daisy, essay, fairy, fancy, kidney, lady, lily, money, monkey, mystery, soliloquy, turkey, valley, vanity. The following nouns change _f_ or _fe_ into _ves_. +Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:-- Beef, calf, elf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, staff, [Footnote: _Staff_ (a stick or support), _staves_ or _staffs_; _staff_ (a body of officers), _staffs_. The compounds of _staff_ are regular; as, _flagstaffs_.] thief, wharf, [Footnote: In England, generally _wharfs_.] wife, wolf. The following nouns in _f_ and _fe_ are regular. +Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:-- Belief, brief, chief, dwarf, fife, grief, gulf, hoof, kerchief, proof, reef, roof, safe, scarf, strife, waif. (Nouns in _ff_, except _staff_, are regular; as, _cuff_, _cuffs_.) The following plurals are still more irregular. +Direction+.--_Learn to form the following plurals_:-- Child, children; foot, feet; goose, geese; louse, lice; man, men; mouse, mice; Mr., Messrs.; ox, oxen; tooth, teeth; woman, women. (For the plurals of pronouns, see Lesson 124.) * * * * * LESSON 113. NUMBER FORMS--CONTINUED. Some nouns adopted from foreign languages still retain their original plural forms. Some of these take the English plural also. +Direction+.--_Learn to form the following plurals_:-- Analysis, analyses; antithesis, antitheses; appendix, appendices _or_ appendixes; automaton, automata _or_ automatons; axis, axes; bandit, banditti _or_ bandits; basis, bases; beau, beaux _or_ beaus; cherub, cherubim _or_ cherubs; crisis, crises; datum, data; ellipsis, ellipses; erratum, errata; focus, foci: fungus, fungi _or_ funguses; genus, genera; hypothesis, hypotheses; ignis fatuus, ignes fatui; madame, mesdames; magus, magi; memorandum, memoranda _or_ memorandums; monsieur, messieurs; nebula, nebulae; oasis, oases; parenthesis, parentheses; phenomenon, phenomena; radius, radii _or_ radiuses; seraph, seraphim _or_ seraphs; stratum, strata; synopsis, synopses; terminus, termini; vertebra, vertebrae; vortex, vortices _or_ vortexes. The following compound nouns, in which the principal word stands first, vary the first word; as, _sons_-in-law. +Direction+.--_Form the plural of the following words_:-- Aid-de-camp, attorney-at-law, billet-doux, [Footnote: Plural, billets-doux, pronounced _bil'-la:-doo:z_ ] commander-in-chief, court-martial, cousin-german, father-in-law, hanger-on, man-of-war. The following, and most compounds, vary the last word; as, pailfuls, gentle_men_. [Footnote: _Pails full_ is not a compound. This expression denotes a number of pails, each full.] +Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:-- Courtyard, dormouse, Englishman, fellow-servant, fisherman, Frenchman, forget-me-not, goose-quill, handful, maid-servant, man-trap, mouthful, pianoforte, portemonnaie, spoonful, stepson, tete-a-tete, tooth-brush. The following nouns (except _Norman_) are not compounds of _man_--add _s_ to all. Brahman, German, Mussulman, Norman, Ottoman, talisman. The following compounds vary both parts; as, _man-singer_, _men-singers_. +Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:-- Man-child, man-servant, woman-servant, woman-singer. Compounds consisting of a proper name preceded by a title form the plural by varying either the title or the name; as, the Miss _Clarks_ or the _Misses_ Clark; but, when the title _Mrs._ is used, the name is usually varied; as, the Mrs. _Clarks_. [Footnote: Of the two forms, the _Miss Clarks_ and the _Misses Clark_, we believe that the former is most used by the best authors. The latter, except in formal notes or when the title is to be emphasized, is rather stiff if not pedantic. Some authorities say that, when a numeral precedes the title, the name should always be varied; as, the _two Miss Clarks_. The forms, the _Misses Clarks_ and the _two Mrs. Clark_, have little authority.] +Direction+.--_Form the plural of the following compounds_:-- Miss Jones, Mr. Jones, General Lee, Dr. Brown, Master Green. A title used with two or more different names is made plural; as, _Drs_. Grimes and Steele, _Messrs_. Clark and Maynard. +Direction+.--_Put each of the following expressions in its proper form_:-- General Lee and Jackson; Miss Mary, Julia, and Anna Scott; Mr, Green, Stacy, & Co. Letters, figures, and other characters add the apostrophe and _s_ to form the plural; [Footnote: Some good writers form the plural of words named merely as words, in the same way; as, the _if's_ and _and's_; but the (') is here unnecessary.] as, _a's, 2's, ----'s_. +Direction.+--_Form the plural of each of the following characters_:--S, i, t, +, x, [Dagger], 9, 1, 1/4, [Yough], [Cyrillic: E]. * * * * * LESSON 114. NUMBER FORMS--CONTINUED. Some nouns have two plurals differing in meaning. +Direction.+--_Learn these plurals and their meanings:_-- Brother, brothers (by blood), brethren (of the same society). Cannon, cannons (individuals), cannon (in a collective sense). Die, dies (stamps for coining), dice (cubes for gaming). Fish, fishes (individuals), fish (collection). [Footnote: The names of several sorts of fish, as, _herring, shad, trout_, etc. are used in the same way. The compounds of _fish_, as _codfish_, have the same form in both numbers.] Foot, feet (parts of the body), foot (foot-soldiers). Genius, geniuses (men of genius), genii (spirits). Head, heads (parts of the body), head (of cattle). Horse, horses (animals), horse (horse-soldiers). Index, indexes (tables of reference), indices (signs in algebra). Penny, pennies (distinct coins), pence (quantity in value). Sail, sails (pieces of canvas), sail (vessels). Shot, shots (number of times fired), shot (number of balls). The following nouns and pronouns have the same form in both numbers. +Direction.+--_Study the following list:_-- Bellows, corps, [Footnote: The singular is pronounced _ko:r_, the plural _ko:rz_.] deer, gross, grouse, hose, means, odds, pains (care), series, sheep, species, swine, vermin, who, which, that (relative), what, any, none. (The following have two forms in the plural). Apparatus, apparatus _or_ apparatuses; heathen, heathen _or_ heathens. (The following nouns have the same form in both numbers when used with numerals; they add _s_ in other cases; as, _four score, by scores_.) Dozen, score, yoke, hundred, thousand. The following nouns have no plural. (These are generally names of materials, qualities, or sciences.) Names of materials when taken in their full or strict sense can have no plural, but they may be plural when kinds of the material or things made of it are referred to; as, _cottons, coffees, tins, coppers_. +Direction.+--_Study the following list of words:_-- Bread, coffee, copper, flour, gold, goodness, grammar (science, not a book), grass, hay, honesty, iron, lead, marble, meekness, milk, molasses, music, peace, physiology, pride, tin, water. The following plural forms are commonly used in the singular. Acoustics, ethics, mathematics, politics (and other names of sciences in _ics_), amends, measles, news. The following words are always plural. (Such words are generally names of things double or multiform in their character.) +Direction+.--_Study the following list_:-- Aborigines, annals, ashes, assets, clothes, fireworks, hysterics, literati, mumps, nippers, oats, pincers, rickets, scissors, shears, snuffers, suds, thanks, tongs, tidings, trousers, victuals, vitals. The following were originally singular forms, but they are now treated as plural. Alms (Anglo-Saxon _aelmaesse_), eaves (A. S. _efese_), riches (Norman French _richesse_). The following have no singular corresponding in meaning. Colors (flag), compasses (dividers), goods (property), grounds (dregs), letters (literature), manners (behavior), matins (morning service); morals (character), remains (dead body), spectacles (glasses), stays (corsets), vespers (evening service). (The singular form is sometimes an adjective.) Bitters, greens, narrows, sweets, valuables, etc. Collective nouns are treated as plural when the individuals in the collection are thought of, and as singular when the collection as a whole is thought of. +Examples+.--The _committee were_ unable to agree, and _they_ asked to be discharged. A _committee was_ appointed, and _its_ report will soon be made. (Collective nouns have plural forms; as, _committees, armies_.) * * * * * LESSON 115. REVIEW IN NUMBER. +Direction+.--_Write the plural of the singular nouns and pronouns in the following list, and the singular of those that are plural; give the Rule or the Remark that applies to each; and note those that have no plural, and those that have no singular:_-- Hope, age, bench, bush, house, loss, tax, waltz, potato, shoe, colony, piano, kangaroo, pulley, wharf, staff, fife, loaf, flagstaff, handkerchief, Mr., child, ox, beaux, cherubim, mesdames, termini, genus, genius, bagnio, theory, galley, muff, mystery, colloquy, son-in-law, man-of-war, spoonful, maid-servant, Frenchman, German, man-servant, Dr. Smith, Messrs. Brown and Smith, x, 1/2, deer, series, bellows, molasses, pride, politics, news, sunfish, clothes, alms, goods, grounds, greens, who, that. +Direction.+--_Give five words that have no plural, five that have no singular, and five that have the same form in both numbers._ +Direction.+--_Correct the following plurals, and give the Remark that applies to each:_-- Stagees, foxs, mosquitos, calicos, heros, soloes, babys, trioes, chimnies, storys, elfs, beefs, scarves, oxes, phenomenons, axises, terminuses, genuses, mother-in-laws, aldermans, Mussulmen, teeth-brushes, mouthsful, attorney-at-laws, man-childs, geese-quills, 2s, ms. swines. * * * * * LESSON 116. NUMBER FORMS IN CONSTRUCTION. The number of a noun may be determined not only by its form but also by the verb, the adjective, and the pronoun used in connection with it. +Remark.+--_These scissors are_ so dull that I cannot use _them_. The plurality of _scissors_ is here made known in four ways. In the following sentence _this, is_, and _it_ are incorrectly used: _This_ scissors _is_ so dull that I cannot use _it_. +Direction+.--_Construct sentences in which the number of each of the following nouns shall be indicated by the form of the verb, by the adjective, and by the pronoun used in connection with it_:-- (With the singular nouns use the verbs _is, was_, and _has been_; the adjectives _an, one, this_, and _that_; the pronouns _he, his, him, she, her, it_, and _its_.) (With the plural nouns use the verbs _are, were_, and _have been_; the adjectives _these, those_, and _two_; the pronouns _they, their_, and _them_.) Bellows, deer, fish, gross, means, series, species, heathen, trout, iron, irons, news, eaves, riches, oats, vermin, molasses, Misses, brethren, dice, head (of cattle), pennies, child, parent, family, crowd, meeting. +Direction+.--_Compose sentences in which the first three of the following adjective pronouns shall be used as singular subjects, the fourth as a plural subject, and the remainder both as singular and as plural subjects_:-- Each, either, neither, both, former, none, all, any. * * * * * LESSON 117. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS--GENDER. +Introductory Hints+.--_The lion was caged. The lioness was caged_. In the first sentence something is said about a male lion, and in the second something is said about a female lion. The modification of the noun to denote the sex of the thing which it names is called +Gender+. _Lion_, denoting a male animal, is in the +Masculine Gender; and _lioness_, denoting a female animal, is in the +Feminine Gender+. Names of things that are without sex are said to be in the +Neuter Gender+. Such nouns as _cousin, child, friend, neighbor_ are either masculine or feminine. Such words are sometimes said to be in the _Common Gender_. Sex belongs to the thing; and gender, to the noun that names the thing. Knowing the sex of the thing or its lack of sex, you know the gender of the noun in English that names it; for in our language gender follows the sex. But in such modern languages as the French and the German, and in Latin and Greek, the gender of nouns naming things without reference to sex is determined by the likeness of their endings in sound to the endings of words denoting things with sex. The German for table is a masculine noun, the French is feminine, and the English, of course, is neuter. [Footnote: In Anglo-Saxon, the mother-tongue of our language, gender was grammatical, as in the French and the German; but, since the union of the Norman-French with the Anglo-Saxon to form the English, gender has followed sex.] * * * * * +DEFINITIONS+. +_Gender_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes sex+. +The _Masculine Gender_ denotes the male sex+. +The _Feminine Gender_ denotes the female sex+. +The _Neuter Gender_ denotes want of sex+. Gender Forms. No English nouns have distinctive neuter forms, but a lew have different forms to distinguish the masculine from the feminine. The masculine is distinguished from the feminine in three ways:-- 1st. By a difference in the ending of the words. 2d. By different words in the compound names. 3d. By using words wholly or radically different. _Ess_ is the most common ending for feminine nouns. [Footnote: The suffix _ess_ came into the English language from the Norman-French. It displaced the feminine termination of the mother-tongue (A. S. _estre_, old English _ster_). The original meaning of _ster_ is preserved in _spinster_. _Er_ (A. S. _ere_) was originally a masculine suffix; but it now generally denotes an agent without reference to sex; as, _read-er, speak-er._] +Direction+.--_Form the feminine of each of the following masculine nouns by adding e s s :--_ Author, baron, count, deacon, giant, god (see Rule 3, Lesson 127), heir, host, Jew, lion, patron, poet, prince (see Rule 1, Lesson 127), prior, prophet, shepherd, tailor, tutor. (Drop the vowel _e_ or _o_ in the ending of the masculine, and add _ess_.) Actor, ambassador, arbiter, benefactor, conductor, director, editor, enchanter, hunter, idolater, instructor, preceptor, tiger, waiter. (Drop the masculine _er_ or _or_, and add the feminine _ess_.) Adventurer, caterer, governor, murderer, sorcerer. (The following are somewhat irregular.) +Direction+.--_Learn these forms:_-- Abbot, abbess; duke, duchess; emperor, empress; lad, lass; marquis, marchioness; master, mistress; negro, negress. _Ess_ was formerly more common than now. Such words as _editor_ and _author_ are now frequently used to denote persons of either sex. +Direction+.--_Give five nouns ending in e r or o r that may be applied to either sex._ Some words, mostly foreign, have various endings in the feminine. +Direction+.--Learn the following forms:-- Administrator, administratrix; Augustus, Augusta; beau, belle; Charles, Charlotte; Cornelius, Cornelia; czar, czarina; don, donna; equestrian, equestrienne; executor, executrix; Francis, Frances; George, Georgiana; Henry, Henrietta; hero, heroine; infante, infanta; Jesse, Jessie; Joseph, Josephine; Julius, Julia _or_ Juliet; landgrave, landgravine; Louis, Louisa _or_ Louise; Paul, Pauline; signore _or_ signor, siguora; sultan, sultana; testator, testatrix; widower, widow. In some compounds distinguishing words are prefixed or affixed. +Direction+.--_Learn the following forms_:-- Billy-goat, nanny-goat; buck-rabbit, doe-rabbit; cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow; Englishman, Englishwoman; gentleman, gentlewoman; grandfather, grandmother; he-bear, she-bear; landlord, landlady; man-servant, maid-servant; merman, mermaid; Mr. Jones, Mrs. or Miss Jones; peacock, peahen. Words wholly or radically different are used to distinguish the masculine from the feminine. (This is a matter pertaining to the dictionary rather than to grammar.) +Direction+.--_Learn the following forms_:-- Bachelor, maid; buck, doe; drake, duck; earl, countess; friar _or_ monk, nun; gander, goose; hart, roe; lord, lady; nephew, niece; sir, madam; stag, hind; steer, heifer; wizard, witch; youth, damsel _or_ maiden. The pronoun has three gender forms:--Masculine _he_, feminine _she_, and neuter _it_. [Footnote: _It_, although a neuter form, is used idiomatically to refer to a male or a female as, _It_ was _John_; _It_ was _Mary_.] +Direction+.--_Give five examples of each of the three ways of distinguishing the masculine from the feminine._ * * * * * LESSON 118. GENDER FORMS IN CONSTRUCTION. Gender as a matter of orthography is of some importance, but in grammar it is chiefly important as involving the correct use of the pronouns _he_, _she_, and _it_. When a singular noun is used so as to imply persons of both sexes, it is commonly represented by a masculine pronoun. [Footnote: When it is necessary to distinguish the sexes, both the masculine and the feminine pronoun should be used; as, _Each person was required to name his or her favorite flower._] +Example+.--Every _person_ has _his_ faults. The names of animals are often considered as masculine or feminine without regard to the real sex. +Examples+.--The _grizzly bear_ is the most savage of _his_ race. The _cat_ steals upon _her_ prey. +Remark+.--The writer employs _he_ or _she_ according as he fancies the animal to possess masculine or feminine characteristics. _He_ is more frequently employed than _she_. The neuter pronoun _it_ is often used with reference to animals and very young children, the sex being disregarded. +Examples+.--When the _deer_ is alarmed, _it_ gives two or three graceful springs. The little _child_ reached out _its_ hand to catch the sunbeam. +Remark+.--_It_ is quite generally used instead of _he_ or _she_, in referring to an animal, unless some masculine or feminine quality seems to predominate. Inanimate things are often represented as living beings, that is, they are personified, and are referred to by the pronoun _he_ or _she_. +Example+.--The _oak_ shall send _his_ roots abroad and pierce thy mold. +Remark+.--The names of objects distinguished for size, power, or sublimity are regarded as masculine; and the names of those distinguished for grace, beauty, gentleness, or productiveness are considered as feminine. Personification adds beauty and animation to style. +Direction+.--_Study what is said above, and then fill each of the blanks in the following sentences with a masculine, a feminine, or a neuter pronoun, and in each case give the reason for your selection_:-- 1. No one else is so much alone in the universe as ---- who denies God. 2. A person's manners not unfrequently indicate ---- morals, 3. Everybody should think for ----. 4. The forest's leaping panther shall yield ---- spotted hide. 5. The catamount lies in the boughs to watch ---- prey. 6. The mocking-bird poured from ---- little throat floods of delirious music. 7. The wild beast from ---- cavern sprang, the wild bird from ---- grove. 8. The night-sparrow trills ---- song. 9. The elephant is distinguished for ---- strength and sagacity. 10. The bat is nocturnal in ---- habits. 11. The dog is faithful to ---- master. 12. The child was unconscious of ---- danger. 13. The fox is noted for ---- cunning. 14. Belgium's capital had gathered then ---- beauty and ---- chivalry. 15. Despair extends ---- raven wing. 16. Life mocks the idle hate of ---- arch-enemy, Death. 17. Spring comes forth ---- work of gladness to contrive. 18. Truth is fearless, yet ---- is meek and modest. +Direction+.--_Write sentences in which the things named below shall be personified by means of masculine pronouns_:-- Death, time, winter, war, sun, river, wind. +Direction+.--Write sentences in which the things named below shall be personified by means of feminine pronouns:-- Ship, moon, earth, spring, virtue, nature, night, England. +Caution+.--Avoid changing the gender of the pronoun when referring to the same antecedent. +Direction+.--_Correct these errors_:-- 1. The polar bear is comparatively rare in menageries, as it suffers so much from the heat that he is not easily preserved in confinement. 2. The cat, when it comes to the light, contracts and elongates the pupil of her eye. 3. Summer clothes herself in green, and decks itself with flowers. 4. War leaves his victim on the field, and homes desolated by it mourn over her cruelty. * * * * * LESSON 119. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS--PERSON AND CASE. +Introductory Hints+.--Number and gender, as you have learned, are modifications affecting the meaning of nouns and pronouns--number being almost always indicated by form, or inflection; gender, sometimes. There are two modifications which do not refer to changes in the meaning of nouns and pronouns but to their different uses and relations. These uses and relations are not generally indicated by form, or inflection. _I, Paul_, have written. _Paul, thou_ art beside thyself. _He_ brought _Paul_ before Agrippa. In these three sentences the word _Paul_ has three different uses, though, as you see, its form is not changed. In the first it is used to name the speaker; in the second, to name the one spoken to; in the third, to name the one spoken of. These different uses of nouns and pronouns and the forms used to mark these uses constitute the modification called +Person+. _I, thou, and he_ are personal pronouns, and, as you see, distinguish person by their form. _I_, denoting the speaker, is in the +First Person+; _thou_, denoting the one spoken to, is in the +Second Person+; and _he_, denoting the one spoken of, is in the +Third Person+. Instead of _I_ a writer or speaker may use the plural _we_; and through courtesy it came to be customary, except among the Friends, or in the language of prayer and poetry, to use the plural _you_ instead of _thou_. _The bear killed the man_. _The man killed the bear_. _The bear's grease was made into hair oil_. In the first sentence the bear is represented as performing an act; in the second, as receiving an act; in the third, as possessing something. These different uses of nouns and pronouns and the forms used to mark these uses constitute the modification called +Case+. A noun used as subject is in the +Nominative Case+; used as object complement it is in the +Objective Case+; and used to denote possession it is in the +Possessive Case+. Some of the pronouns have a special form for each case; but of nouns the possessive case is the only one that is now marked by a peculiar form. We inflect below a noun from the Anglo-Saxon, [Footnote: The Anglo-Saxon cases are nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative; the Latin are nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, and ablative; the English are nominative, possessive (genitive), and objective. ANGLO-SAXON. Hlaford, _lord_. Singular. Plural. Nom. hlaford, hlaford-_as_. Gen. hlaford-_es_, hlaford-_a_. Dat. hlaford-_e_, hlaford-_um_. Acc. hlaford, hlaford-_as_. Voc. hlaford, hlaford-_as_. LATIN. Dominus, _lord_. Singular. Plural. Nom. domin-_us_, domin-_i_. Gen. domin-_i_, domin-_orum_. Dat. domin-_o_, domin-_is_. Acc. domin-_um_, domin-_os_. Voc. domin-_e_, domin-_i_. Ab. domin-_o_, domin-_is_. ENGLISH. Lord. Singular. Nom. lord, Pos. lord-_'s_, Obj. lord; Plural. Nom. lord-_s_, Pos. lord-_s'_, Obj. lord-_s_.] and one from the Latin, the parent of the Norman-French, in order that you may see how cases and the inflections to mark them have been dropped in English. In English, prepositions have largely taken the place of case forms, and it is thought that by them our language can express the many relations of nouns to other words in the sentence better than other languages can by their cumbrous machinery of inflection. +DEFINITIONS+. +_Person_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of+. +The _First Person_ denotes the one speaking+. +The _Second Person_ denotes the one spoken to+. +The _Third Person_ denotes the one spoken of+. A noun is said to be of the first person when joined as an explanatory modifier to a pronoun of the first person; as, _I, John_, saw these things; _We Americans_ are always in a hurry. [Footnote: It is doubtful whether a noun is ever of the first person. It may be said that, in the sentence _I, John, saw these things_, John speaks of his own name, the expression meaning, _I_, _and my name is John_, etc.] A noun is of the second person when used as explanatory of a pronoun of the second person, or when used independently as a term of address; as, _Ye crags_ and _peaks_; Idle time, _John_, is ruinous. +Direction+.--_Compose sentences in which there shall be two examples of nouns and two of pronouns used in each of the three persons_. +Person Forms+. Personal pronouns and verbs are the only classes of words that have distinctive person forms. +Direction+.--_From the forms of the pronouns given in Lesson 124, select and write in one list all the first person forms; in another list, all the second person forms; and in another, all the third person forms._ Person is regarded in grammar because the verb sometimes varies its form to agree with the person of its subject; as, _I see_; _Thou seest_; _He sees_. +DEFINITIONS+. +_Case_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes its office in the sentence+. +The _Nominative Case of a noun or pronoun_ denotes its office as subject or as attribute complement+. +The _Possessive Case of a noun or pronoun_ denotes its office as possessive modifier+. +The _Objective Case of a noun or pronoun_ denotes its office as object complement, or as principal word in a prepositional phrase+. A noun or pronoun used independently is said to be in the nominative case. +Examples+.--I am, _dear madam_, your friend. Alas, _poor Yorick_! _He being dead_, we shall live. _Liberty_, it has fled! (See Lesson 44.) A noun or pronoun used as explanatory modifier is in the same case as the word explained--"is put by apposition in the same case." +Examples+.--The first colonial _Congress_, _that_ of 1774, addressed the _King_, _George III_. He buys is goods at _Stewart's_, the dry-goods _merchant_. A noun or pronoun used as objective complement is in the objective case. +Examples+.--They made him _speaker_. He made it _all_ it is. A noun or pronoun used as attribute complement of a participle or an infinitive is in the same case (_Nom._ or _Obj._) as the word to which it relates as attribute. +Examples+.--Being an _artist_, _he_ appreciated it. I proved _it_ to be _him_. +Remark+.--When the assumed subject of the participle or the infinitive is a possessive, the attribute complement is said to be in the nominative case; as, Its _being he_ [Footnote: The case of _he_ in these examples is rather doubtful. The nominative and the objective forms of the pronoun occur so rarely in such constructions that it seems impossible to determine the usage. It is therefore a matter of no great practical importance. Some, reasoning from the analogy of the Latin, would put the attribute complement of the abstract infinitive in the objective, supposing _for_ and some other word to be understood; as, _For one to be him_, etc. Others, reasoning from the German, to which our language is closely allied, would put this complement in the nominative. The assumed subject of the infinitive being omitted when it is the same in sense as the principal subject, _him_, in the sentence _I wish_ (_me_ or _myself_) _to be him_, is the proper form, being in the same case as _me_.] should make no difference. When the participle or the infinitive is used abstractly, without an assumed subject, its attribute complement is also said to be in the nominative case; as, To _be he_ [Footnote: See footnote above.] is to be a scholar; _Being_ a _scholar_ is not _being_ an _idler_. +Direction+.--_Study carefully the Definitions and the Remark above, and then compose sentences in which a noun or a pronoun shall be put in the nominative case in four ways; in the objective in five ways; in the possessive in two ways_. * * * * * LESSON 120. ANALYSIS AND PARSING. +Direction.+--_Analyze the following sentences, and give the case of each noun and pronoun:_-- 1. Not to know what happened before we were born is to be always a child. 2. His being a Roman saved him from being made a prisoner. 3. I am this day weak, though anointed king. +Explanation.+--Nouns used adverbially are in the objective case because equivalent to the principal word of a prepositional phrase. (See Lesson 35.) 4. What made Cromwell a great man was his unshaken reliance on God. 5. Amos, the herdsman of Tekoa, was not a prophet's son. 6. Arnold's success as teacher was remarkable. +Explanation.+--_Teacher_, introduced by _as_ and used without a possessive sign, is explanatory of _Arnold's_. 7. Worship thy Creator, God; and obey his Son, the Master, King, and Saviour of men. 8. Bear ye one another's [Footnote: For the use of _one another_, see Lesson 124.] burdens. +Explanation.+--The singular _one_ is explanatory of the plural _ye_, or _one another's_ may be treated as a compound. 9. What art thou, execrable shape, that darest advance? 10. O you hard hearts! you cruel men of Rome! 11. Everybody acknowledges Shakespeare to be the greatest of dramatists. 12. Think'st thou this heart could feel a moment's joy, thou being absent? 13. Our great forefathers had left him naught to conquer but his country. (For the case of _him_ see explanation of (3) above.) 14. I will attend to it myself. +Explanation+.--_Myself_ may be treated as explanatory of _I_. 15. This news of papa's puts me all in a flutter. [Footnote: See second foot-note, page 247.] 16. What means that hand upon that breast of thine? [Footnote: See second foot-note, page 247.] * * * * * LESSON 121. PARSING. +TO THE TEACHER+.--We do not believe that the chief end of the study of grammar Is to be able to parse well, or even to analyze well, though without question analysis reveals more clearly than parsing the structure of the sentence, and is immeasurably superior to it as intellectual gymnastics. We would not do away with parsing altogether, but would give it a subordinate place. But we must be allowed an emphatic protest against the needless and mechanical quoting, in parsing, of "Rules of Syntax." When a pupil has said that such a noun is in the nominative case, subject of such a verb, what is gained by a repetition of the definition in the Rule: "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case"? Let the reasons for the disposition of words, when given at all, be specific. +Parsing+--a word is giving its classification, its modifications, and its syntax, _i.e._, its relation to other words. +Direction+.--_Select and parse in full all the nouns and pronouns found in the first ten sentences of Lesson_ 120. _For the agreement of pronouns, see Lesson_ 142. +Model for Written Parsing+.--_Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh, was beheaded by James I_. CLASSIFICATION. | MODIFICATIONS. | SYNTAX. -----------------|-----------------------|------------------------------ |_Per- Num- Gen-_ | _Nouns. Kind_.|_son. ber. der. Case_.| -----------------|-----------------------|------------------------------ Elizabeth's Prop.| 3d Sing. Fem. Pos. | Mod. of _favorite_. favorite Com. | 3d Sing. Mas. Nom. | Sub. of _was beheaded_. Raleigh Prop.| 3d Sing. Mas. Nom. | Expl. Mod. of _favorite_. James I. Prop.| 3d Sing. Mas. Obj. | Prin. word of Prep. phrase. TO THE TEACHER.--For exercises in parsing nouns and pronouns, see Lessons 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 44, 46, 59, 60, 71, 73, 78, 80, and 81. Other exercises may be selected from examples previously given for analysis, and parsing continued as long as you think it profitable. * * * * * LESSON 122. CASE FORMS--NOUNS. Nouns have two case forms, the simple form, common to the nominative and the objective case, and the possessive form. +RULE.--The _Possessive Case_ of nouns is formed in the singular by adding to the nominative the apostrophe and the letter _s_ (_'s_); in the plural by adding (_'_) only. If the plural does not end in _s_, (_'s_) are both added. [Footnote: In Anglo-Saxon, _es_ was a genitive (possessive) ending of the singular; as, _sta:n_, genitive _sta:n-es_. In old English, _es_ and _is_ were both used. In modern English, the vowel is generally dropped, and (') stands in its place. The use of the apostrophe has been extended to distinguish the possessive from other forms of the plural. Some have said that our possessive ending is a remnant of the pronoun _his_. Phrases like, "Mars _his_ sword," "The Prince _his_ Players," "King Lewis _his_ satisfaction" are abundant in Early, and in Middle, English. But it has been proved that the _his_ in such expressions is an error that gained its wide currency largely through the confusion of early English orthography. Professor Hadley has clearly shown that the Saxon termination has never dropped out of the language, but exists in the English possessive ending to-day.] +Examples+.--_Boy's, boys', men's_. +Remark+.--To avoid an unpleasant succession of hissing sounds, the _s_ in the possessive singular is sometimes omitted; as, _conscience' sake_, _goodness' sake_, _Achilles' sword_, _Archimedes' screw_ (the _s_ in the words following the possessive here having its influence). In prose this omission of the _s_ should seldom occur. The weight of usage inclines to the use of _s_ in such names as _Miss Rounds's_, _Mrs. Hemans's_, _King James's_, _witness's_, _prince's_. Without the _s_ there would be no distinction, in spoken language, between _Miss Round's_ and _Miss Rounds'_, _Mrs. Heman's_ and _Mrs. Hemans'_. +Remark+.--Pronounce the ('_s_) as a separate syllable (= _es_) when the sound of _s_ will not unite with the last sound of the nominative. +Remark+.--When the singular and the plural are alike in the nominative, some place the apostrophe after the _s_ in the plural to distinguish it from the possessive singular; as, singular, _sheep's_; plural, _sheeps'_. +Direction+.--_Study the Rule and the Remarks given above, and then write the possessive singular and the possessive plural of each of the following nouns_:-- Actor, elephant, farmer, king, lion, genius, horse, princess, buffalo, hero, mosquito, negro, volcano, junto, tyro, cuckoo, ally, attorney, fairy, lady, monkey, calf, elf, thief, wife, wolf, chief, dwarf, waif, child, goose, mouse, ox, woman, beau, seraph, fish, deer, sheep, swine. Compound names and groups of words that may be treated as compound names add the possessive sign to the last word; as, a _man-of-war's_ rigging, the _queen of England's_ palace,[Footnote: In parsing the words _queen_ and _England_ separately, the ('_s_) must be regarded as belonging to _queen_; but the whole phrase _queen of England's_ may be treated as one noun in the possessive case.] _Frederick the Great's_ verses. +Remark+.--The possessive plural of such terms is not used. The preposition _of_ with the objective is often used instead of the possessive case form--_David's_ Psalms = Psalms _of David_. +Remarks+.--To denote the source from which a thing proceeds, or the idea of belonging to, _of_ is used more frequently than ('_s_). The possessive sign (_'s_) is confined chiefly to the names of persons, and of animals and things personified. We do not say the _tree's_ leaves, but the leaves _of the tree_. The possessive sign however is often added to names of things which we frequently hear personified, or which we wish to dignify, and to names of periods of time, and to words denoting value; as, the _earth's_ surface, _fortune's_ smile, _eternity's_ stillness, a _year's_ interest, a _day's_ work, a _dollar's_ worth, _two cents'_ worth. By the use of _of_, such expressions as _witness's statement_, _mothers-in-law's faults_ may be avoided. +Direction+.--_Study carefully the principles and Remarks given above, and then make each of the following terms indicate possession, using either the possessive sign or the preposition of, as may seem most appropriate, and join an appropriate name denoting the thing possessed_:-- Father-in-law, William the Conqueror, king of Great Britain, aid-de-camp, Henry the Eighth, attorney-at-law, somebody else,[Footnote: In such expressions as _everybody else's business_, the possessive sign is removed from the noun and attached to the adjective. (See Lesson lai.) The possessive sign should generally be placed immediately before the name of the thing possessed.] Jefferson, enemy, eagle, gunpowder, book, house, chair, torrent, sun, ocean, mountain, summer, year, day, hour, princess, Socrates. * * * * * LESSON 123. CONSTRUCTION OF POSSESSIVE FORMS. As the possessive is the only case of nouns that has a distinctive inflection, it is only with this case that mistakes can occur in construction. +Caution+.--When several possessive nouns modify the same word and imply common possession, the possessive sign is added to the last only. If they modify different words, expressed or understood, the sign is added to each. +Explanation+.--_William_ and _Henry's_ boat; _William's_ and _Henry's_ boat. In the first example, William and Henry are represented as jointly owning a boat; in the second, each is represented as owning a separate boat--_boat_ is understood after _William's_. +Remark+.--When the different possessors are thought of as separate or opposed, the sign may be repeated although joint possession is implied; as, He was his _father's_, _mother's_, and _sister's_ favorite; He was the _King's_, as well as the _people's_, favorite. +Direction+.--_Correct these errors, and give your reasons_:-- 1. The Bank of England was established in William's and Mary's reign. 2. Messrs. Leggett's, Stacy's, Green's, & Co.'s business prospers. 3. This was James's, Charles's, and Robert's estate. 4. America was discovered during Ferdinand's and Isabella's reign. 5. We were comparing Caesar and Napoleon's victories. 6. This was the sage and the poet's theme. +Explanation+.--If an article precedes the possessive, the sign is repeated. 7. It was the king, not the people's, choice. 8. They are Thomas, as well as James's, books. +Caution+.--When a possessive noun is followed by an explanatory word, the possessive sign is added to the explanatory word only. But, if the explanatory word has several modifiers, or if there are more explanatory words than one, only the principal word takes the sign. +Remarks+.--When a common noun is explanatory of a proper noun, and the name of the thing possessed is omitted, the possessive sign may be added either to the modifying or to the principal word; as, We stopped at Tiffany, the _jeweler's_, or We stopped at _Tiffany's_, the jeweler. If the name of the thing possessed is given, the noun immediately before it takes the sign. +Direction+.--_Correct these errors_:-- 1. This is Tennyson's, the poet's, home. 2. I took tea at Brown's, my old friend and schoolmate's. 3. This belongs to Victoria's, queen of England's, dominion. 4. This province is Victoria's, queen of England's. 5. That language is Homer's, the greatest poet of antiquity's. 6. This was Franklin's motto, the distinguished philosopher's statesman's. 7. Wolsey's, the cardinal's, career ended in disgrace. +Direction+.---Tell which of the sentences above may be improved by using other forms to denote possession. (See the following Caution.) +Caution+.--The relation of possession may be expressed not only by (_'s_) and by _of_ but by the use of such phrases as _belonging to_, _property of_, etc. In constructing sentences be careful to secure smoothness and clearness and variety by taking advantage of these different forms. +Direction+.--_Improve the following sentences_:-- 1. This is my wife's father's opinion. +Correction+.--This is the opinion _of my wife's father_, or _held by my wife's father_. 2. This is my wife's father's farm. 3. France's and England's interest differs widely. 4. Frederick the Great was the son of the daughter of George I. of England. 5. My brother's wife's sister's drawings have been much admired. 6. The drawings of the sister of the wife of my brother have been much admired. _Of_ is not always equivalent to the (_'s_), +Explanation+.--_The president's reception_ means the reception given by the president, but _the reception of the president_ means the reception given to the president. +Direction+.--_Construct sentences illustrating the meaning of the following expressions_:-- A mother's love, the love of a mother; a father's care, the care of a father; my friend's picture, a picture of my friend. +Caution+.--Often ambiguity may be prevented by changing the assumed subject of a participle from a nominative or an objective to a possessive. +Direction+.--_Correct these errors_:-- 1. The writer being a scholar is not doubted. +Correction+.--This is ambiguous, as it may mean either that the writer is not doubted because he is a scholar, or that the writer's scholarship is not doubted. It should be, _The writer's being_ [Footnote: The participle may be modified not only, as here, by a noun in the possessive but by the articles _a_ and _the_---as said in Lesson 37. Whether it be _the imposing a tax_ or _the issuing a paper currency.--Bagehot_. Not _a making war_ on them, not _a leaving them_ out of mind, but _the putting_ a new _construction_ upon them, _the taking them_ from under the old conventional point of view.--_Matthew Arnold_. Poltroonery is _the acknowledging_ an _infirmity_ to be incurable.--_Emerson_. _The giving_ away a man's _money_.--_Burke_. It is not _the finding of a thing_ but _the making something_ out of it, after it is found, that is of consequence.--_Lowell_. As seen in this last quotation, the participle may be followed by a preposition and so become a pure noun (Lesson 38).] _a scholar_ is not doubted, or _That the writer is a scholar_ is not doubted. 2. I have no doubt of the writer being a scholar. 3. No one ever heard of that man running for office. 4. Brown being a politician prevented his election. 5. I do not doubt him being sincere. 6. Grouchy being behind time decided the fate of Waterloo. * * * * * LESSON 124. NUMBER AND CASE FORMS. Declension. +DEFINITION.--_Declension_ is the arrangement of the cases of nouns and pronouns in the two numbers+. +Direction+.--_Learn the following declensions_:-- Declension of Nouns. LADY. BOY. MAN. _Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural_. Nom. lady, ladies, boy, boys, man, men, Pos. lady's, ladies', boy's, boys', man's, men's, Obj. lady; ladies. boy; boys. man; men. Declension of Pronouns. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. FIRST PERSON. SECOND PERSON-- SECOND PERSON-- _common form_ _old form_. _Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Nom. I, we,* you, you, thou, ye(++) _or_ you Pos. my _or_ our _or_ your _or_ your _or_ thy _or_ ye(++) _or_ you mine,+ ours, yours, yours, thine, yours, Obj. me; us. you; you. thee; you. [Footnote *: Strictly speaking, _we_ can hardly be the plural of _I_, says Professor Sweet, for _I_ does not admit of plurality. _We_ means _I_ and _you_, _I_ and _he_, _I_ and _she_, or _I_ and _they_, etc.] [Footnote +: The forms _mine_, _ours_, _yours_, _thine_, _hers_, and _theirs_ are used only when the name of the thing possessed is omitted; as, _Yours_ is old, _mine_ is new = _Your book_ is old, etc. _Mine_ and _thine_ were formerly used before words beginning with a vowel sound; as, _thine enemy_, _mine honor_. The expression _a friend of mine_ presents a peculiar construction. The explanation generally given is, that _of_ is partitive, and that the expression is equivalent to _one friend of my friends_. It is said that this construction can be used only when more than one thing is possessed such expressions as _This heart of mine_, _That temper of yours_ are good, idiomatic English. This naughty world _of ours.--Byron_. This moral life _of mine.--Sheridan Knowles_. Dim are those heads _of theirs.---Carlyle_. Some suggest that the word possessing or owning is understood after these possessives; as, This _temper of yours_ (your possessing); others say that _of_ simply marks identity, as does of in _city of_ (=viz.) _New York_ (see Lesson 34). They would make the expression = _This temper, your temper_. The _s_ in _ours, yours, hers_, and _theirs_ is the _s_ of _his_ and _its_ extended by analogy to _our, your, her_, and _their_, forms already possessive. _Ours, yours, hers_, and _theirs_ are consequently double possessives.] [Footnote ++: _Ye_ is used in Chaucer and in the King James version of the Bible exclusively in the nominative, as was its original _ge__ in the Saxon. Shakespeare uses _you_ in the nominative. _You_ (the Saxon accusative _eow_) has now taken the place of _ye_, and is both nominative and objective. THIRD PERSON--_Mas_. THIRD PERSON--_Fem_. THIRD PERSON--_Neut_. _Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural_. Nom. he, they, she, they, it, they, Pos. his, their _or_ her or their _or_ its,* their _or_ theirs, hers, theirs, theirs, Obj. him; them. her; them. it; them. [Footnote *: The possessive _its_ is our only personal pronoun form not found in Saxon. _His_, the possessive of the masculine _he_, was there the possessive (genitive) of the neuter _hit_ also--our _it_. But it came to be thought improper to employ _his_ to denote inanimate things as well as animate. The literature of the 16th and 17th centuries shows a growing sense of this impropriety, and abounds with _of it_, _thereof_, _her_, _it_, _the_, and _it own_ in place of _his_ as the possessive of _it_. The first appearance of the new coinage _its_ is placed in 1598. Long after its introduction many looked askance at _its_, because of the grammatical blunder it contains--the_ t_ in _its_ being a nominative neuter ending, and the _s_ a possessive ending. But no one thinks now of shunning what was then regarded as a grammatical monstrosity.] COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. _Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. _ _Nom. and Nom. and Nom. and Nom. and Nom. and Nom. and_ _Obj. Obj. Obj. Obj. Obj. Obj._ myself* thyself himself; _or_ ourselves. _or_ yourselves. herself; themselves. ourself; yourself; itself; [Footnote *: The compound personal pronouns are used (1) for emphasis; as, _I myself_ saw it: and (2) as reflexives, to turn the action of the verb back upon the actor; as, _He_ found _himself_ deserted by his friends. They are not the only words used in this last relation; where no obscurity would arise, we may use the simple personal pronouns instead. And _millions_ in those solitudes ... have laid _them_ down in their last sleep.--_Bryant_. My uncle stopped a minute to look about _him_.--_Dickens_. The compound personal pronouns should not be used as subjects.] +Remark+.--The possessive of these pronouns is wanting. _Ourself_ and _we_ are used by rulers, editors, and others to hide their individuality, and give authority to what they say. +Relative Pronouns+. _Sing. and Plu. Sing. and Plu. Sing. and Plu. Sing. and Plu._ _Nom_. who, which, that, what, _Pos_. whose, whose, ------, ------, _Obj_. whom. which. that. what. +Remark+.--From the composition of _which_--_hwa:_-lic, or _hwaet-lic_ = _who-like_, or _what-like_, it is evident that _whose_ is not formed from _which_. It is, in fact, the possessive of _what_ transferred to _which_. Much has been said against this _whose_, but it is in general use. Those who regard usage as the final arbiter in speech need not avoid this form of the pronoun. +Interrogative Pronouns+. The interrogative pronouns _who, which_, and _what_ are declined like the relatives _who, which_, and _what_. +Compound Relative Pronouns+. _Singular and Plural_. _Singular and Plural_. _Nom_. whoever, whosoever, _Pos_. whosever, whosesoever, _Obj_. whomever. whomsoever. _Whichever, whichsoever, whatever_, and _whatsoever_ do not change their form. +Adjective Pronouns+. _This_ and _that_ with their plurals, _these_ and _those_, have no possessive form, and are alike in the nominative and the objective. _One_ and _other_ are declined like nouns; and _another_, declined like _other_ in the singular, has no plural. _Either, neither, former_, and _latter_ sometimes take the apostrophe and _s_ ('_s_) in the singular. _Each_, _either_, and _neither_ are always singular; _both_ is always plural; and _all, any, farmery latter, none, same, some_, and _such_ are either singular or plural. [Footnote: On the pages immediately preceding Lesson 1, we said that +usage+, as determined by the majority of the best writers and speakers of the generation, is the only authority in language; and we there explained how we are able to appeal to usage as we all along have done. In treating of the adjective pronouns we now appeal to it again. In the first twelve paragraphs below we give alternative expressions. Only the second of these alternative locutions in each paragraph is allowed by many grammarians; they utterly condemn the first. On the warrant of usage we say that both expressions are correct. 1. We may use +each other+ with more than two; we may use _one another_ in such a case. We may say, "_Several_ able _men_ were in correspondence with _each other_," or "with _one another_." 2. We may use +one another+ with only two; we may use _each other_ in such a case. We may say, "The _two countries_ agreed to stand by _one another_," or "by _each other_." 3. We may use +all, both+, and +whole+ with a preposition and a noun following; we may use these words as adjectives qualifying the noun. We may say, "_All of_ the _people_," "_Both of_ the _trees_," "The _whole of_ the farm," or "_All_ the _people_," "_Both trees_," "The _whole farm_." 4. We may use the pronouns +either+ and +neither+, as we do the conjunctions _either_ and _neither_, with more than two; we may use _any one_ and _none_ in such cases. We may say, "Here are _three candidates_; you may vote for _either_ or for _neither_ of them," or "for _any one_ or for _none_ of them." 5. We may use +he+ or some other personal pronoun after the indefinite one; we may repeat the _one_ in such a case. We may say, "The home _one_ must quit, yet taking much of its life along with _him_," or "along with _one_." 6. We may use +such+ before an adjective and its noun; we may use _so_ with the adjective in such a case. We may say, "_Such a strong argument_," "_Such admirable talent_," or "_So strong an argument_," "_Talent so admirable_." 7. We may use the plural +ones+; we may use the noun for which _ones_ stands. We may say, "You have red roses, I have white _ones_," or "white _roses_." 8. We may apply +the other two+ to those that remain when one of three things has been taken from the rest; we may use _the two others_ in such a case. We may say, "One of them kept his ground; _the other two_ ran away," or "_the two others_ ran away." 9. We may use +a+ before a noun in the singular and +or two+ after it; we may use _one or two_ before the noun in the plural. We may say, "I will go in _a day or two_," or "in _one or two days_." 10. We may use +either+ in the sense of _each_; we may use _each_ instead. We may say, "He wrested the land on _either_ side of the Seine," or "on _each_ side of the Seine." 11. We may insert a noun, or a noun and other words, between +other+ and +than+; we may place the _than_ immediately after _other_. We may say, "We must look for somee _other reasons for it than_ those suggested," or "for some _reasons for it other than_ those suggested." 12. We may use +none+ in the plural; we may use _none_ in the singular. We may say, "_None hear_ thy voice," or "_None hears_ thy voice." The paragraphs below contain noteworthy uses of adjective pronouns but no really alternative expressions. 13. Usage is overwhelmingly in favor of +any one else's, no one else's, somebody else's, nobody else's+, instead of _any one's else_, etc. There is scarcely any authority for placing the (_'s_) upon _one_ or _body_. "Written by Dickens for his own or _any one else's_ children." This form is common and convenient. We are advised to shun it, but we need not. 14. Usage is also decidedly in favor of +first two, last three+, etc., instead of _two first, three last_, etc.] Descriptive adjectives used as nouns are plural, and are not declined. Such expressions as "the _wretched's_ only plea" and "the _wicked's_ den" are exceptional. * * * * * LESSON 125. CASE FORMS--PRONOUNS. The pronouns _I_, _thou_, _he_, _she_, and _who_ are the only words in the language that have each three different case forms. +Direction+.--_Study the Declensions, and correct these errors_:-- Our's, your's, hi's, her's, it's, their's, yourn, hisn, hern, theirn. Construction of Case Forms--Pronouns. +Caution.--I, we, thou, ye, he, she, they,+ and +who+ are +nominative+ forms, and must not be used in the objective case. +Me, us, thee, him, her, [Footnote: _Her_ is also a possessive.] them,+ and +whom+ are objective forms, and must not be used in the nominative case. Remark.--The eight nominative forms and the seven objective forms here given are the only distinctive nominative and objective forms in the language. All the rules of syntax given in the grammars to guide in the use of the nominative and the objective case apply, practically, only to these fifteen words. +Direction.+--_Study carefully the Definitions and principles given under the head of case, Lesson 119, and then correct these errors, giving your reasons in every instance:--_ 1. It is not me you are in love with. [Footnote: Dr. Latham defends _It is me,_ but condemns _It is him,_ and _It is her_. Dean Alford regards as correct the forms condemned by Latham, and asserts that _thee_ and _me_ are correct in, "The nations not so blest as _thee_" "Such weak minister as me may the oppressor bruise." Professor Bain justifies _If I were him, It was her, He is better than me,_ and even defends the use of _who_ as an objective form by quoting from Shakespeare, "_Who_ servest thou under?" and from Steele, "_Who_ should I meet?" They justify such expressions as _It is me_ from the analogy of the French _c'est moi_, and on the ground that they are "more frequently heard than the prescribed form." But such analogy would justify _It are them (ce sont eux)_; and, if the argument from the speech of the uneducated is to have weight, we have good authority for _"Her ain't a calling we: us don't belong to she."_ A course of reading will satisfy one that the best writers and speakers in England are not in the habit of using such expressions as _It is me_, and that these are almost, if not quite unknown in American literature. No one has freed himself from the influence of early associations that are in a careless moment some vicious colloquialism may not creep into his discourse. A Violation of every principle of grammar may be defended, if such inadvertencies are to be erected into authority. To whatever is the prevailing, the habitual, usage of a majority of the best writers and speakers the grammarian should bow without question; but not to the accidental slips of even the greatest writers, or to the common usage of the unreflecting and the uncultivated.] 2. She was neither better bred nor wiser than you or me. [See previous Footnote.] 3. Who servest thou under? [See previous footnote.] 4. It was not them, it was her. 5. Its being me should make no difference. 6. Him and me are of the same age. 7. Them that study grammar talk no better than me. 8. I am not so old as her; she is older than me by ten years. 9. He was angry, and me too. 10. Who will go? Me. 11. It isn't for such as us to sit with the rulers of the land. 12. Not one in a thousand could have done it as well as him. 13. Him being a stranger, they easily misled him. 14. Oh, happy us! surrounded thus with blessings. 15. It was Joseph, him whom Pharaoh promoted. 16. I referred to my old friend, he of whom I so often speak. 17. You have seen Cassio and she together. 18. Between you and I, I believe that he is losing his mind. 19. Who should I meet the other day but my old friend? 20. Who did he refer to, he or I? 21. Who did he choose? Did he choose you and I? 22. He that is idle and mischievous reprove. 23. We will refer it to whoever you may choose. 24. Whosoever the court favors is safe. 25. They that are diligent I will reward. 20. Scotland and thee did in each other live. 27. My hour is come, but not to render up my soul to such as thee. 28. I knew that it was him. 29. I knew it to be he. 30. Who did you suppose it to be? 31. Whom did you suppose it was? 32. I took that tall man to be he. 33. I thought that tall man was him. Although _than_ is not a preposition, it is sometimes followed by _whom,_ as in the familiar passage from Milton: "Beelzebub... _than whom,_ Satan except, none higher sat." _Than whom_ is an irregularity justified only on the basis of good usage. _Whom_ here may be parsed as an objective case form used idiomatically in place of _who_. * * * * * LESSON 126. CONSTRUCTION OF CASE FORMS. MISCELLANEOUS--REVIEW. Direction.--_Correct these errors, and give your reasons:--_ 1. Who was Joseph's and Benjamin's mother? 2. It did not occur during Washington, Jefferson, or Adams's administration. 3. I consulted Webster, Worcester, and Walker's dictionary. 4. This state was south of Mason's and Dixon's line. 5. These are neither George nor Fanny's books. 6. Howard's, the philanthropist's, life was a noble one. 7. It is Othello's pleasure, our noble and valiant general's. 8. He visited his sons-in-law's homes. +Explanation.+--If the possessive plural of such nouns were used, this would be correct; but it is better to avoid these awkward forms. 9. A valuable horse of my friend William's father's was killed. 10. For Herodias's sake, his brother Philip's wife. 11. For the queen's sake, his sister's. 12. Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation was that of fishermen. 13. He spoke of you studying Latin. 14. It being difficult did not deter him. 15. What need is there of the man swearing? 16. I am opposed to the gentleman speaking again. 17. He thought it was us. 18. We shall shortly see which is the fittest object of scorn, you or me. 19. I shall not learn my duty from such as thee. 20. A lady entered, whom I afterwards found was Miss B. 21. A lady entered, who I afterwards found to be Miss B. 22. Ask somebody's else opinion. 23. Let him be whom he may. 24. I am sure it could not have been them. 25. I understood it to be they. 26. It is not him whom you thought it was. 27. Let you and I try it. 28. All enjoyed themselves, us excepted. 29. Us boys enjoy the holidays. 30. It was Virgil, him who wrote the "Aeneid." 31. He asked help of men whom he knew could not help him. TO THE TEACHER.--These schemes and questions under the head of General Review are especially designed to aid in securing an outline of technical grammar. The questions given below may be made to call for minute details or only for outlines. In some cases a single question may suffice for a whole lesson. Scheme for the Noun. (_The numbers refer to Lessons_.) NOUN. Uses. Subject (4, 8). Object Complement (28). Attribute Complement (29, 30). Objective Complement (31). Adjective Modifier (33). Adverb Modifier (35). Principal word in Prep. Phrase (17). Independent (44). Classes. Common (85). (Abstract and Collective.) Proper (85). Modifications. Number. Singular (112-116). Plural (112-116). Gender. Masculine (117, 118). Feminine (117, 118). Neuter (117, 118). Person. First (119). Second (119). Third (119). Case. Nominative (119). Possessive (119, 122, 123). Objective (119). Questions on the Noun. 1. Define the noun and its classes.--Lesson 85. 2. Name and define the modifications of the noun.--Lessons 112, 117, 119. 3. Name and define the several numbers, genders, persons, and cases.--Lessons 112, 117, 119. 4. Give and illustrate the several ways of forming the plural.--Lessons 112, 113, 114. 5. Give and illustrate the several ways of distinguishing the genders.--Lesson 117. 6. How is the possessive case formed?--Lesson 122. 7. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of the possessive forms.--Lesson 128. +Scheme for the Pronoun.+ PRONOUN. +Uses+.--Same as those of the Noun. +Classes+. Personal (85, 86, 87). Relative (85, 86, 87). Interrogative (85). Adjective (85, 87). +Modifications+.--Same as those of the Noun (112, 117, 118, 119, 124, 125, 142). Questions on the Pronoun. 1. Define the pronoun and its classes, and give the lists.--Lesson 85. 2. Decline the several pronouns.--Lesson 124. 3. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of the different pronouns.--Lessons 86, 87. 4. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of the number forms, the gender forms, and the case forms.--Lessons 118, 125, 142. * * * * * LESSON 127. COMPARISON. +Introductory Hints.+--_That apple is sweet, that other is sweeter, but this one is the sweetest._ The adjective _sweet_, expressing a quality of the three apples, is, as you see, inflected by adding _er_ and _est_. Adjectives, then, have one modification, and this is marked by form, or inflection. This modification is called +Comparison+, because it is used when things are compared with one another in respect to some quality common to them all, but possessed by them in different degrees. The form of the adjective which expresses the simple quality, as _sweet_, is of the +Positive Degree+; that which expresses the quality in a greater or a less degree, as _sweeter_, _less sweet_, is of the +Comparative Degree+; and that which expresses the quality in the greatest or the least degree, as _sweetest_, _least sweet_, is of the +Superlative Degree+. But even the positive implies a comparison; we should not say, This _apple_ is _sweet_, unless this particular fruit had more of the quality than ordinary apples possess. Notice, too, that the adjective in the comparative and superlative degrees always expresses the quality relatively. When we say, This _apple_ is _sweeter than that_, or, This _apple_ is the _sweetest of the three_, we do not mean that any one of the apples is very sweet, but only that one apple is sweeter than the other, or the sweetest of those compared. The several degrees of the quality expressed by the adjective may be increased or diminished by adverbs modifying the adjective. We can say _very_, _exceedingly_, _rather_, or _somewhat_ sweet; _far_, _still_, or _much_, sweeter; _by far_ or _much_ the sweetest. Some adverbs, as well as adjectives, are compared. Adjectives have one modification; viz., +Comparison+. [Footnote: Two adjectives, _this_ and _that_, have number forms--_this_, _these_; _that_, _those_. In Anglo-Saxon and Latin, adjectives have forms to indicate gender, number, and case.] +DEFINITIONS+. +_Comparison_ is a modification of the adjective (or the adverb) to express the relative degree of the quality in the things compared.+ [Footnote: Different degrees of quantity, also, may sometimes be expressed by comparison.] +The _Positive Degree_ expresses the simple quality.+ +The _Comparative Degree_ expresses a greater or a less degree of the quality. +The _Superlative Degree_ expresses the greatest or the least degree of the quality+. +RULE.--Adjectives are regularly compared by adding _er_ to the positive to form the comparative, and _est_ to the positive to form the superlative+. RULES FOR SPELLING. +RULE I.--Final e is dropped before a suffix beginning with a vowel; as+, _fine, finer; love, loving._ +Exceptions.+--The _e_ is retained (1) after _c_ and _g_ when the suffix begins with _a_ or _o_; as, _peaceable, changeable;_ (2) after _o;_ as, _hoeing;_ and (3) when it is needed to preserve the identity of the word; as, _singeing, dyeing._ +RULE II.---Y after a consonant becomes _i_ before a suffix net beginning with _i;_ as,+ _witty, wittier; dry, dried._ Exceptions.---Y does not change before 's, nor in forming the plural of proper nouns; as, _lady's,_ the _Marys,_ the _Henrys._ +RULE III.--In monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, a final consonant after a single vowel doubles before a suffix beginning with a vowel; as+, _hot, hotter; begin, beginning._ Exceptions.--_X, k,_ and _v_ are never doubled, and _gas_ has _gases_ in the plural. Adjectives of more than two syllables are generally compared by prefixing _more_ and _most._ This method is often used with adjectives of two syllables and sometimes with those of one. +Remark+.--_More beautiful, most beautiful_, etc. can hardly be called degree forms of the adjective. The adverbs _more_ and _most_ have the degree forms, and in parsing they may be regarded as separate words. The adjective, however, is varied in sense the same as when the inflections _er_ and _est_ are added. Degrees of diminution are expressed by prefixing _less_ and _least_[Footnote: This use of an adverb to form the comparison was borrowed from the Norman-French. But note how the adverb is compared, The Saxon superlative ending +st+ is in _most_ and _least_; and the Saxon comparative ending +s+, unchanged to +r+, is the last letter in _less_--changed to +r+, as it regularly was, in coming into English, it is the _r_ in _more_. When it was forgotten that _less_ is a comparative, _er_ was added, and we have the double comparative _lesser_--in use to-day. After the French method of comparing was introduced into English, both methods were often used with the same adjective; and, for a time, double comparatives and double superlatives were common; as, _worser_, _most boldest_. In "King Lear" Shakespeare uses the double comparative a dozen times.]; as, _valuable_, _less valuable_, _least valuable_. Most definitive and many descriptive adjectives cannot be compared, as their meaning will not admit of different degrees. Direction.--_From this list of adjectives select those that cannot be compared, and compare those that remain:--_ Observe the Rules for Spelling given above. Wooden, English, unwelcome, physical, one, that, common, handsome, happy, able, polite, hot, sweet, vertical, two-wheeled, infinite, witty, humble, any, thin, intemperate, undeviating, nimble, holy, lunar, superior. Of the two forms of comparison, that which is more easily pronounced and more agreeable to the ear is to be preferred. +Direction+.--_Correct the following_:-- Famousest, virtuousest, eloquenter, comfortabler, amusingest. Some +adverbs+ are compared by adding _er_ and _est_, and some by prefixing _more_ and _most_. +Direction+.--_Compare the following_:-- Early, easily, fast, firmly, foolishly, late, long, often, soon, wisely. Some adjectives and adverbs are irregular in their comparison. +Direction+.--_Learn to compare the following adjectives and adverbs_:-- Adjectives Irregularly Compared. _Pos. Comp. Superlative_. (Aft),* after, aftmost _or_ aftermost. Bad, | Evil, + worse, worst. Ill | Far, farther, fartherest _or_ fathermost Fore, former, foremost _or_ first. (Forth), further, furtherest _or_ furthermost. Good, better, best. Hind, hinder, hindmost _or_ hindermost. (In), inner, inmost _or_ innermost. Late, later _or_ latest _or_ latter last. Little,+ less _or_ least. lesser, Many _or_ more, most. Much, Near, nearer nearest _or_ next. Old, older _or_ oldest _or_ elder, eldest. (Out), outer _or_ outmost _or_ utter, outermost; utmost _or_ uttermost. Under, ----, undermost. (Up), upper, upmost _or_ uppermost. Top, ----, topmost. [Footnote *: The words inclosed in curves are adverbs--the adjectives following having no positive form.] [Footnote +: For the comparative and the superlative of _little_, in the sense of small in size, _smaller_ and _smallest_ are substituted; as, _little_ boy, _smaller_ boy, _smallest_ boy.] Adverbs Irregularly Compared. _Pos. Comp. Superlative._ Badly,| worse, worst. Ill, | Far, farther, farthest, Forth, further, furthest. Little, less, least, Much, more, most. Well, better, best. TO THE TEACHER.--We give below a model for writing the parsing of adjectives. A similar form may be used for adverbs. Exercises for the parsing of adjectives and adverbs may be selected from Lessons 12, 14, 29, 30, 31, 44, 46, 47, 48, 60, 63, 64, 65. Model for Written Parsing.--_All the dewy glades are still_. CLASSIFICATION. | MODIFICATION. |SYNTAX -------------------|---------------|---------------------------------- Adjectives.| Kind. | Deg. of Comp. | All | Def. | ------ | Modifier of _glades_. the | " | ------ | " " " dewy | Des. | Pos. | " " " still | " | " | Completes _are_ and modifies _glades_. * * * * * LESSON 128. CONSTRUCTION OF COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES. +Caution+.--In stating a comparison avoid comparing a thing with itself. [Footnote: A thing may, of course, be compared with itself as existing under different conditions; as, The _star_ is _brighter to-night_; The _grass_ is _greener to-day_.] +Remark+.--The comparative degree refers to two things (or sets of things) as distinct from each other, and implies that one has more of the quality than the other. The comparative degree is generally followed by _than_. [Footnote: The comparative is generally used with reference to two things only, but it may be used to compare one thing with a number of things taken separately or together as, _He_ is no _better_ than _other men_; _It_ contains _more_ than _all_ the _others_ combined.] +Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Remark, and correct these errors:_-- 1. London is larger than any city in Europe. +Correction+.--The second term of comparison, _any city in Europe_, includes London, and so London is represented as being larger than itself. It should be, _London_ is _larger_ _than any other city in Europe_, or, _London_ is the _largest city in Europe_. 2. China has a greater population than any nation on the globe. 3. I like this book better than any book I have seen. 4. There is no metal so useful as iron. (A comparison is here stated, although no degree form is employed.) 5. All the metals are less useful than iron. 6. Time ought, above all kinds of property, to be free from invasion. +Caution+.--In using the superlative degree be careful to make the latter term of the comparison, or the term introduced by _of_, include the former. +Remarks+.--The superlative degree refers to one thing (or set of things) as belonging to a group or class, and as having more of the quality than any of the rest. The superlative is generally followed by _of_. Good writers sometimes use the superlative in comparing two things; as, This is the _best of the two_. But in such cases usage largely favors the comparative; as, This is the _better of the two_. +Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Remarks, and correct these errors:_-- 1. Solomon was the wisest of all the other Hebrew kings. +Correction+.--_Of_ (= _belonging to_) represents Solomon as belonging to a group of kings, and _other_ excludes him from this group--a contradiction in terms. It should be, _Solomon_ was the _wisest of Hebrew kings_, or _Solomon_ was _wiser_ than _any other Hebrew king_. 2. Of all the other books I have examined, this is the most satisfactory. 3. Profane swearing is, of all other vices, the most inexcusable. 4. He was the most active of all his companions. (He was not one of his own companions.) 5. This was the most satisfactory of any preceding effort. 6. John is the oldest of any boy in his class. +Caution+.--Avoid double comparatives and double superlatives, and the comparison of adjectives whose meaning will not admit of different degrees.[Footnote: Many words which grammarians have considered incapable of comparison are used in a sense short of their literal meaning, and are compared by good writers; as, My _chiefest_ entertainment.--_Sheridan_. The _chiefest_ prize.--_Byron_. _Divinest_ Melan- choly.--_Milton_. _Extremest_ hell.--_Whittier_. _Most perfect_ harmony--_Longfellow_. _Less perfect_ imitations.--_Macaulay_. The extension of these exceptional forms should not be encouraged.] +Direction+.--_Correct these errors:_-- 1. A more beautifuler location cannot be found. 2. He took the longest, but the most pleasantest, route. 3. Draw that line more perpendicular. +Correction+.--Draw that line _perpendicular_, or more nearly _perpendicular_. 4. The opinion is becoming more universal. 5. A worser evil awaits us. 6. The most principal point was entirely overlooked. 7. That form of expression is more preferable. +Caution+.--When an adjective denoting one, or an adjective denoting more than one, is joined to a noun, the adjective and the noun must agree in number. +Remark+.--A numeral denoting more than one may be prefixed to a singular noun to form a compound adjective; as, a _ten-foot_ pole (not a _ten-feet_ pole), a _three-cent_ stamp. +Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Remark, and correct these errors:_-- 1. These kind of people will never be satisfied. 2. The room is fifteen foot square; I measured it with a two-feet rule. 3. The farmer exchanged five barrel of potatoes for fifty pound of sugar. 4. These sort of expressions should be avoided. 5. We were traveling at the rate of forty mile an hour. 6. Remove this ashes and put away that tongs. Miscellaneous. 1. He was more active than any other of his companions. +Correction+.--As he is not one of his companions, _other_ is unnecessary. 2. He did more to accomplish this result than any other man that preceded or followed him. 3. The younger of the three sisters is the prettier. (This is the construction which requires the superlative. See the second Remark in this Lesson.) 4. This result, of all others, is most to be dreaded. 5. She was willing to take a more humbler part. 6. Solomon was wiser than any of the ancient kings. 7. I don't like those sort of people. 8. I have the most entire confidence in him. 9. This is the more preferable form. 10. Which are the two more important ranges of mountains in North America? 11. He writes better than any boy in his class. GENERAL REVIEW. TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions to the teacher, page 255. Scheme for the Adjective. (_The numbers refer to Lessons_.) ADJECTIVE. Uses. Modifier (12). Attribute Complement (29, 30). Objective Complement (31). Classes. Descriptive (89-91). Definitive (89-91). Modification.--Comparison. Pos. Deg. | Comp. " + 127, 128. Sup. " | Questions on the Adjective. 1. Define the adjective and its classes.--Lesson 89. 2. Define comparison and the degrees of comparison.--Lesson 127. 3. Give and illustrate the regular method and the irregular methods of comparison.--Lesson 127. 4. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of adjectives.--Lessons 90, 91. 5. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of comparative and superlative forms.--Lesson 128. Scheme for the Adverb. ADVERB. Classes. Time. | Place. | Degree. + 92-94. Manner. | Cause. | Modification.--Comparison. Pos. Deg. | Comp. " + 127, 128. Sup. " | Questions on the Adverb. 1. Define the adverb and its classes.--Lesson 92. 2. Illustrate the regular method and the irregular methods of comparison. --Lesson 127. 3. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of adverbs. --Lesson 93. * * * * * LESSON 129. MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB. VOICE. +Introductory Hints+.--_He picked a rose. A rose was picked by him._ The same thing is here told in two ways. The first verb, _picked_, shows that the subject names the actor; the second verb, _was picked_, shows that the subject names the thing acted upon. These different forms and uses of the verb constitute the modification called +Voice+. The first form is in the +Active Voice+; the second is in the +Passive Voice+. The active voice is used when the agent, or actor, is to be made prominent; the passive, when the thing acted upon is to be made prominent. The passive voice may be used when the agent is unknown, or when, for any reason, we do not care to name the agent; as, The _ship was wrecked; Money is coined_. DEFINITIONS. +_Voice_ is that modification of the transitive verb which shows whether the subject names the _actor_ or the thing _acted upon_+. +The _Active Voice_ shows that the subject names the actor+. +The _Passive Voice_ shows that the subject names the thing acted upon.+ The passive form is compound, and may be resolved into an asserting word (some form of the verb _be_) and an attribute complement (a past participle of a transitive verb). An expression consisting of an asserting word followed by an adjective complement or by a participle used adjectively may be mistaken for a verb in the passive voice. +Examples.+--The coat _was_ sometimes _worn_ by Joseph (_was worn_-- passive voice). The coat _was_ badly _worn_ (_was_--incomplete predicate, _worn_--adjective complement). +Remark.+--To test the passive voice note whether the one named by the subject is acted upon, and whether the verb may be followed by _by_ before the name of the agent without changing the sense. +Direction.+---_Tell which of the following completed predicates may be treated as single verbs, and which should not be so treated:--_ 1. The lady is accomplished. 2. This task was not accomplished in a day. 3. Are you prepared to recite? 4. Dinner was soon prepared. 5. A shadow was mistaken for a foot-bridge. 6. You are mistaken. 7. The man was drunk before the wine was drunk. 8. The house is situated on the bank of the river. 9. I am obliged to you. 10. I am obliged to do this. 11. The horse is tired. 12. A fool and his money are soon parted. 13. The tower is inclined. 14. My body is inclined by years. +Direction.+--_Name all the transitive verbs in Lesson 78, and give their voice._ * * * * * LESSON 130. COMPOSITION--VOICE. The +object complement+ of a verb in the +active voice+ becomes the +subject+ when the verb is changed to the +passive voice.+ +Example.+--The Danes invaded _England = England_ was invaded by the Danes. +Remark.+--You will notice that in the first sentence the agent is made prominent; in the second sentence, the receiver. +Direction.+--_In each of these sentences change the voice of the transitive verb without altering the meaning of the sentence, and note the other changes that occur:--_ 1. Mercury, the messenger of the gods, wore a winged cap and winged shoes. 2. When the Saxons subdued the Britons, they introduced into England their own language, which was a dialect of the Teutonic, or Gothic. 3. My wife was chosen as her wedding dress was chosen, not for a fine, glossy surface, but for such qualities as would wear well. 4. Bacchus, the god of wine, was worshiped in many parts of Greece and Rome. 5. The minds of children are dressed by their parents as their bodies are dressed--in the prevailing fashion. 6. Harvey, an English physician, discovered that blood circulates. 7. The luxury of Capua, more powerful than the Roman legions, vanquished the victorious Carthaginians. 8. His eloquence had struck them dumb. +Remark.+--Notice that the objective complement becomes the attribute complement when the verb is changed from the active to the passive voice. 9. That tribunal pronounced Charles a tyrant. 10. The town had nicknamed him Beau Seymour. 11. Even silent night proclaims my soul immortal. 12. We saw the storm approaching. (Notice that the objective complement is here a participle.) 13. He kept his mother waiting. 14. We found him lying dead on the field. 15. We all believe him to be an honest man. (Notice that the objective complement is here an infinitive phrase.) 16. Some, sunk to beasts, find pleasure end in pain. 17. Everybody acknowledged him to be a genius. The +indirect,+ or _dative,_ +object+ is sometimes made the +subject+ of a verb in the passive voice, while the object complement is retained after the verb. [Footnote: Some grammarians condemn this construction. It is true that it is a violation of the general analogies, or laws, of language; but that it is an idiom of our language, established by good usage, is beyond controversy. Concerning the parsing of the noun following this passive, there is difference of opinion. Some call it an adverbial modifier, some call it a "retained object," and some say that it is a noun without grammatical construction. In "I offered him money," _him_ represents the one to whom the act was directed, and _money_ names the thing directly acted upon. In "He was offered money," the relation of the act to the person and to the thing is not changed; _money_ still names the thing directly acted upon.] +Example.+--The porter refused _him_ admittance = _He_ was refused _admittance_ by the porter. +Direction.+--_Change the voice of the transitive verbs in these sentences, and note the other changes that occur:--_ 18. They were refused the protection of the law. 19. He was offered a pension by the government. 20. I was asked that question yesterday. 21. He told me to leave the room. +Explanation.+--Here the infinitive phrase is the object complement, and _(to) me_ is used adverbially. _To leave the room = that I should leave the room._ 22. I taught the child to read. 23. I taught the child reading. 24. They told me that your name was Fontibell. +Direction.+--_Change the following transitive verbs to the passive form, using first the regular and then the idiomatic construction_:-- +Model.+--_He promised me a present = A present was promised me_ (regular) = _I was promised a present_ (idiomatic). 25. They must allow us the privilege of thinking for ourselves. 26. He offered them their lives if they would abjure their religion. An intransitive verb is sometimes made transitive by the aid of a preposition. +Example.+--All his friends _laughed_ at him = He _was laughed at_ (ridiculed) by all his friends. +Remark.+---_Was laughed at_ may be treated as one verb. Some grammarians, however, would call _at_ an adverb. The intransitive verb and preposition are together equivalent to a transitive verb in the passive voice. +Direction.+--_Change the voice of the following verbs:--_ 27. This artful fellow has imposed upon us all. 28. The speaker did not even touch upon this topic. 29. He dropped the matter there, and did not refer to it afterward. +Remark.+--The following sentences present a peculiar idiomatic construction. A transitive verb which, in the active voice, is followed by an object complement and a prepositional phrase, takes, in the passive, the principal word of the phrase for its subject, retaining the complement and the preposition to complete its meaning; as, They _took care of it, It was taken care of._ +Direction.+--_Put the following sentences into several different forms, and determine which is the best:--_ 30. His original purpose was lost sight of (forgotten). [Footnote: Some would parse _of_ as an adverb relating to _was lost,_ and _sight_ as a noun used adverbially to modify _was lost;_ others would treat _sight_ as an object [complement] of _was lost;_ others would call _was lost sight of_ a compound verb; and others, believing that the logical relation of these words is not lost by a change of position, analyze the expression as if arranged thus: _Sight of his original purpose was lost._] 31. Such talents should be made much of. 32. He was taken care of by his friends. 33. Some of his characters have been found fault with as insipid. * * * * * LESSON 131. MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB--CONTINUED. MODE, TENSE, NUMBER, AND PERSON. +Introductory Hints.+--_James walks_. Here the walking is asserted as an actual fact. _James may walk._ Here the walking is asserted not as an actual, but as a possible, fact. _If James walk out, he will improve._ Here the walking is asserted only as thought of, without regard to its being or becoming either an actual or a possible fact. _James, walk out._ Here the walking is not asserted as a fact, but as a command--James is ordered to make it a fact. These different uses and forms of the verb constitute the modification which we call +Mode.+ The first verb is in the +Indicative Mode;+ the second in the +Potential Mode;+ the third in the +Subjunctive Mode;+ the fourth in the +Imperative Mode.+ For the two forms of the verb called the +Participle+ and the +Infinitive,+ see Lessons 37 and 40. _I walk. I walked. I shall walk._ In these three sentences the manner of asserting the action is the same, but the time in which the action takes place is different. _Walk_ asserts the action as going on in present time, and, as +Tense+ means time, is in the +Present Tense.+ _Walked_ asserts the action as past, and is in the +Past Tense.+ _Shall walk_ asserts the action as future, and is in the +Future Tense.+ _I have walked out to-day. I had walked out when he called. I shall have walked out by to-morrow._ Have walked asserts the action as completed at the present, and is in the +Present Perfect Tense.+ _Had walked_ asserts the action as completed in the past, and is in the +Past Perfect Tense.+ _Shall have walked_ asserts action to be completed in the future, and is in the +Future Perfect Tense.+ _I walk. Thou walkest. He walks. They walk._ In the second sentence _walk_ is changed by adding +est+; in the third sentence, by adding +s.+ Verbs are said to agree in +Person+ and +Number+ with their subjects. But this agreement is not generally marked by a change in the form of the verb. +DEFINITIONS+. +_Mode_ is that modification of the verb which denotes the manner of asserting the action or being+. +The _Indicative Mode_ asserts the action or being as a fact+. [Footnote: In "Are you going?" or "You are going?" a fact is referred to the hearer for his admission or denial. In "Who did it?" the fact that some person did it is asserted, and the hearer is requested to name the person. It will be seen that the Indicative Mode may be used in asking a question.] +The _Potential Mode_ asserts the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity of acting or being+. +The _Subjunctive Mode_ asserts the action or being as a mere condition, supposition, or wish+. +The _Imperative Mode_ asserts the action or being as a command or an entreaty+. +The _Infinitive_ is a form of the verb which names the action or being in a general way, without asserting it of anything+. +The _Participle_ is a form of the verb partaking of the nature of an adjective or of a noun, and expressing the action or being as assumed+. +The _Present Participle_ denotes action or being as continuing at the time indicated by the predicate+. +The _Past Participle_ denotes action or being as past or completed at the time indicated by the predicate+. +The _Past Perfect Participle_ denotes action or being as completed at a time previous to that indicated by the predicate+. +_Tense_ is that modification of the verb which expresses the time of the action or being+. +The _Present Tense_ expresses action or being as present+. +The _Past Tense_ expresses action or being as past+. +The _Future Tense_ expresses action or being as yet to come+. +The _Present Perfect Tense_ expresses action or being as completed at the present time+. +The _Past Perfect Tense_ expresses action or being as completed at some past time+. +The _Future Perfect Tense _expresses action or being to be completed at some future time+. +_Number _and _Person _of a verb are those modifications that show its agreement with the number and person of its subject+. * * * * * LESSON 132. FORMS OF THE VERB. CONJUGATION. +DEFINITIONS+. +_Conjugation_ is the regular arrangement of all the forms of the verb+. +_Synopsis _is the regular arrangement of the forms of one number and person in all the modes and tenses+. +_Auxiliary Verbs _are those that help in the conjugation of other verbs.+ The auxiliaries are _do, did, have, had, shall, should, will, would, may, might, can, could, must,_ and _be_ (with all its variations, see Lesson 135). +The _Principal Parts_ of a verb, or those from which the other parts are derived, are the present indicative or the present infinitive, the past indicative, and the past participle.+ List of Irregular Verbs. [Footnote: Grammarians have classed verbs on the basis of their form or history as Strong (or Old) and Weak (or New). Strong verbs form their past tense by changing the vowel of the present without adding anything; weak verbs form their past tense by adding _ed, d,_ or _t._ Some weak verbs change the vowel of the present; as, _tell, told; teach, taught._ These are weak because they add _d_ or _t._ Some weak verbs shorten the vowel of the present without adding anything; as, _feed, fed; lead, led;_ and some have the present and the past alike; as, _set, set; rid, rid._ They have dropped the past tense ending. The past participle of all strong verbs once ended in _en_ or _n,_ but in many verbs this ending is now lost. Since most verbs form their past tense and past participle by adding _ed,_ we call such Regular, and all others Irregular. Our irregular verbs include all strong verbs and those that may be called "irregular weak" verbs. Of the _ed_ added to form the past tense of regular verbs, _d_ is what remains of _did;_ _we did love,_ for instance, being written _love-did-we._ This derivation of _d_ in _ed_ is questioned. The _d_ of the participle is not from _did_ but is from an old participle suffix. The _e_ in the _ea_ of both these forms is the old connecting vowel.] TO THE TEACHER.--It would be well to require the pupils, in studying and in reciting these lists of irregular verbs, to frame short sentences illustrating the proper use of the past tense and the past participle, _e.g._ I _began_ yesterday; He has _begun_ to do better. In this way the pupils will be saved the mechanical labor of memorizing forms which they already know how to use, and they will be led to correct what has been faulty in their use of other forms. +Remarks.+--Verbs that have both a regular and an irregular form are called +Redundant.+ Verbs that are wanting in any of their parts, as _can_ and _may,_ are called +Defective.+ The present participle is not here given as a principal part. It may always be formed from the present tense by adding _ing._ In adding _ing_ and other terminations, the Rules for Spelling (see Lesson 127) should be observed. The forms below in Italics are regular; and those in smaller type are obsolete, and need not be committed to memory. _Present. Past. Past Par._ Abide, abode, abode. Awake, awoke, _awaked. awaked._ Be _or_ am, was, been. Bear, bore, born, (_bring forth_) bare, borne. Bear, bore, borne. (_carry_) bare, Beat, beat, beaten, beat. Begin, began, begun. Bend, bent, bent, _bended, bended._ Bereave, bereft, bereft, _bereaved, bereaved._ Beseech, besought, besought. Bet, bet, bet, _betted, betted._ Bid, bade, bid, bidden, bid. Bind, bound, bound. Bite, bit, bitten, bit. Bleed, bled, bled. Blend, blent, blent, _blended, blended._ Bless, blest, blest, blessed, blessed. Blow, blew, blown. Break, broke, broken. brake, Breed, bred, bred. Bring, brought, brought. Build, built, built. Burn burnt, burnt, burned, burned. Burst, burst, burst. Buy, bought, bought. Can,[1] could, -----. Cast, cast, cast. Catch, caught, caught. Chide, chid, chidden, chid. Choose, chose, chosen. Cleave, _cleaved, cleaved._ (_adhere_) clave, Cleave cleft, cleft, (_split_) clove, cloven, clave, _cleaved._ Cling, clung, clung. Clothe, clad, clad, _clothed clothed._ (Be)Come, came, come. Cost, cost, cost. Creep, crept, crept. Crow crew, _crowed._ _crowed_, Cut, cut, cut. Dare, durst, _dared_. (_venture_) _dared_, Deal, dealt, dealt. Dig, dug, dug, _digged_, _digged._ Do, did, done. Draw, drew, drawn. Dream, dreamt, dreamt, _dreamed, dreamed._ Dress drest, drest, _dressed, dressed._ Drink, drank, drunk. Drive, drove, driven. Dwell dwelt, dwelt, _dwelled, dwelled._ Eat, ate, eaten. (Be) Fall, fell, fallen. Feed, fed, fed. Feel, felt, felt. Fight, fought, fought. Find, found, found. Flee, fled, fled. Fling, flung, flung. Fly, flew, flown. Forsake, forsook, forsaken. Forbear, forbore, forborne. Freeze, froze, frozen. (For)Get, got, got, gotten.[2] Gild, gilt, gilt, _gilded, gilded._ Gird, girt, girt, _girded, girded._ (For)Give, gave, given. Go, went,[3] gone. (En)Grave _graved, graved,_ graven. Grind, ground, ground. Grow, grew, grown. Hang, hung, hung, _hanged, hanged_.[4] Have, had, had. Hear, heard heard. Heave hove, hove,[5] _heaved, heaved._ Hew, _hewed, hewed,_ hewn. Hide, hid, hidden, hid. Hit, hit, hit. (Be)Hold, held, held, holden. Hurt, hurt, hurt. Keep, kept, kept. Kneel knelt, knelt, _kneeled, kneeled._ Knit knit, knit, _knitted, knitted._ Know, knew, known. Lade, _laded, laded,_ (load) laden. Lay, laid, laid. Lead, led, led. [Footnote 1: Can, may, shall, will, must, and ought were originally past forms. This accounts for their having no change in the third person.] [Footnote 2: Gotten is obsolescent except in forgotten.] [Footnote 3: _Went_ is the past of _wend,_ to _go_.] [Footnote 4: _Hang,_ to execute by hanging, is regular.] [Footnote 5: _Hove_ is used in sea language.] * * * * * LESSON 133. LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS--CONTINUED. _Present. Past. Past Par._ Lean, leant, leant, _leaned, leaned_. Leap, leapt, leapt, _leaped, leaped_. Learn, learnt, learnt, _learned, learned_. Leave, left, left. Lend, lent, lent. Let, let, let. Lie, lay, lain. (_recline_) Light, _lighted, lighted_, lit, lit.[1] Lose, lost, lost. Make, made, made. May, might, ----. Mean, meant, meant. Meet, met, met. Mow, _mowed, mowed_, mown. Must, ----, ----. Ought, ----, ----. Pay, paid, paid. Pen, pent, pent, (_inclose_) _penned, penned_. Put, put, put. Quit, quit, quit, _quitted, quitted_. ----, quoth,[2] ----. Rap, rapt, rapt, _rapped, rapped_. Read, read, read. Rend, rent, rent. Rid, rid, rid. Ride, rode, ridden. Ring, rang, rung, _rung_, (A)Rise, rose, risen. Rive, _rived_, riven, _rived_. Run, ran, run. Saw, _sawed, sawed_, sawn. Say, said, said. See, saw, seen. Seek, sought, sought. Seethe, _seethed, seethed_, sod, sodden. Sell, sold, sold. Send, sent, sent. (Be)Set, set, set. Shake, shook, shaken. Shall, should, ------. Shape, _shaped, shaped_, shapen Shave, _shaved, shaved_, shaven. Shear, _sheared, sheared_, shore, shorn. Shed, shed, shed. Shine, shone, shone. Shoe, shod, shod. Shoot, shot, shot. Show, _showed_, shown, _showed_. Shred, shred, shred. Shrink, shrank, shrunk, shrunk, shrunken. Shut, shut, shut. Sing, sang, sung. sung, Sink, sank, sunk, sunk, sunken. Sit, sat, sat. Slay, slew, slain. Sleep, slept, slept. Slide, slid, slidden, slid. Sling, slung, slung. slang Slink, slunk, slunk. Slit, slit, slit, _slitted, slitted_. Smell, smelt, smelt, _smelled, smelled_. Smite, smote, smitten, smit. Sow, _sowed_, sown, _sowed_. Speak, spoke, spoken. spake, Speed, sped, sped. Spell, spelt, spelt, _spelled, spelled_. Spend, spent, spent. Spill, spilt, spilt, _spilled, spilled_. Spin, spun, spun. span, Spit, spit, spit, spat, spitten. Split, split, split. Spoil, spoilt, spoilt, _spoiled, spoiled_. Spread, spread, spread. Spring, sprang, sprung. sprung, Stand, stood, stood. Stave, stove, stove, _staved, staved_. Stay, staid, staid, _stayed, stayed_. Steal, stole, stolen. Stick, stuck, stuck. Sting, stung, stung. Stink, stunk, stunk. stank, Strew, _strewed_, strewn, _strewed_. Stride, strode, stridden. Strike, struck, struck, stricken. String, strung, strung, Strive, strove, striven. Strow, _strowed_, strown, _strowed_. Swear, swore, sworn sware, Sweat, sweat, sweat, _sweated, sweated_. Sweep, swept, swept. Swell, _swelled_, _swelled_, swollen. Swim, swam, swum. swum, Swing, swung, swung. Take, took, taken, Teach, taught, taught. Tear, tore, torn. tare, Tell, told, told. Think, thought, thought. Thrive, throve, thriven, _thrived_, _thrived_. Throw, threw, thrown. Thrust, thrust, thrust. Tread, trod, trodden, trod. Wake, _waked_, _waked_, woke, woke. Wax, _waxed_, _waxed_, waxen. Wear, wore, worn. Weave, wove, woven. Weep, wept, wept. Wet, wet, wet. Will, would, ----. Win, won, won. Wind, wound, wound. Work, wrought, wrought, _worked_, _worked_. (to)wit, wot, wist, ----. Wring, wrung, wrung. Write, wrote, written. [Footnote 1: _Lighted_ Is preferred to _lit_.] [Footnote 2: _Quoth_, now nearly obsolete, is used only in the first and the third person of the past tense. _Quoth_ I = _said_ I. Other forms nearly obsolete are sometimes met in literature; as, "_Methinks_ I scent the morning air"; "Woe _worth_ the day." _Methinks_ (A. S. _thincan_, to seem, not _thencan_, to think) = _seems to me_. In the sentence above, _I scent the morning air_ is the subject, _thinks_ is the predicate, and _me_ is a "dative," or a pronoun used adverbially. Woe _worth_ (A. S. _weorthan_, to _be_ or _become_) the day = Woe _be_ to the day, or _Let_ woe _be_ to the day, or _May_ woe _be_ to the day.] NOTE.--Professor Lounsbury says, "Modern English has lost not a single one [irregular, or strong, verb] since the reign of Queen Elizabeth"; and adds, "The present disposition of the language is not only to hold firmly to the strong verbs it already possesses but ... even to extend their number whenever possible." And he instances a few which since 1600 have deserted from the regular conjugation to the irregular. But it should be said that new English verbs, from whatever source derived, form their past tense and participle in _ed_. So that while the regular verbs are not increasing by desertions from the irregular, the regular verbs are slowly gaining in number. * * * * * LESSON 134. FORMS OF THE VERB--CONTINUED. CONJUGATION [Footnote: We give the conjugation of the verb in the simplest form consistent with what is now demanded of a text-book. Much of this scheme might well be omitted. Those who wish to reject the Potential Mode, and who prefer a more elaborate and technical classification of the mode and tense forms, are referred to pages 373, 374. ]--SIMPLEST FORM. REMARK.--English verbs have few inflections compared with those of other languages. Some irregular verbs have seven forms--+see+, +saw+, +seeing+, +seen+, +sees+, +seest+, +sawest+; regular verbs have six--+walk+, +walked+, +walking+, +walks+, +walkest+, +walkedst+. As a substitute for other inflections we prefix auxiliary verbs, and make what are called _compound_, or _periphrastic_, forms. +Direction+.--_Fill out the following forms, using the principal parts of the verb walk--present +walk+; past +walked+; past participle +walked+:_-- INDICATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. (I) /Pres./, 1. (We) /Pres./, 2. (You) /Pres./, 2. (You) /Pres./, (Thou) /Pres./+est,[1], 3. (He) /Pres./+s;[1] 3. (They) /Pres./. PAST TENSE. 1. (I) /Past/, 1. (We) /Past/, 2. (You) /Past/, 2. (You) /Past/, (Thou) /Past/+st+, 3. (He) /Past/; 3. (They) /Past/. FUTURE TENSE. 1. (I) shall /Pres./, 1. (We) shall /Pres./, 2. (You) will /Pres./, 2. (You) will /Pres./, (Thou) wil-+t+ /Pres./, 3. (He) will /Pres./; 3. (They) will /Pres./. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 1. (I) have /Past Par./, 1. (We) have /Past Par./, 2. (You) have /Past Par./, 2. (You) have /Past Par./, (Thou) ha-+st+ /Past Par./, 3. (He) ha-+s+ /Past Par./; 3. (They) have /Past Par./. PAST PERFECT TENSE. 1. (I) had /Past Par./, 1. (We) had /Past Par./ 2. (You) had /Past Par./, 2. (You) had /Past Par./ (Thou) had-+st+ /Past Par./, 3. (He) had /Past Par./; 3. (They) had /Past Par./ FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 1. (I) shall have /Past Par./, 1. (We) shall have /Past Par./, 2. (You) will have /Past Par./, 2. (You) will have /Past Par./, (Thou) wil-+t+ have /Past Par./, 3. (He)...will have..../Past Par./; 3. (They) will have /Past Par./. [Footnote 1: In the indicative present, second, singular, old style, _st_ is sometimes added in stead of _est_; and in the third person, common style, _es_ is added when _s_ will not unite. In the third person, old style, _eth_ is added.] POTENTIAL MODE.[2] PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. (I) may /Pres./, 1. (We) may /Pres./, 2. (You) may /Pres./, 2. (You) may /Pres./, (Thou) may-+st+ /Pres./, 3. (He) may /Pres./; 3. (They) may /Pres./. PAST TENSE. 1. (I) might /Pres./, 1. (We) might /Pres./, 2. (You) might /Pres./, 2. (You) might /Pres./, (Thou) might-+st+ /Pres./, 3. (He) might /Pres./; 3. (They) might /Pres./. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 1. (I) may have /Past Par./, 1. (We) may have /Past Par./, 2. (You) may have /Past Par./, 2. (You) may have /Past Par./, (Thou) may-+st+ have /Past Par./, 3. (He) may have /Past Par./. 3. (They) may have /Past Par./. PAST PERFECT TENSE. 1. (I) might have /Past Par./, 1. (We) might have /Past Par./, 2. (You) might have /Past Par./, 2. (You) might have /Past Par./, (Thou) might-+st+ have /Past Par./, 3. (He) might have /Past Par./. 3. (They) might have /Past Par./. Singular. [Footnote 2: Those who do not wish to recognize a Potential Mode, but prefer the unsatisfactory task of determining when _may, can, must, might, could, would, and should_ are independent verbs in the indicative, and when auxiliaries in the subjunctive, are referred to pages 370-374.] SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.[3] PRESENT TENSE. Singular. 2. (If thou) /Pres./ 3. (If he) /Pres./ [Footnote 3: The subjunctive as a form of the verb is fading out of the language. The only distinctive forms remaining (except for the verb _be_) are the second and the third person singular of the present, and even these ate giving way to the indicative. Such forms as If he _have loved_, etc. are exceptional. It is true that other forms, as, If he _had known, Had_ he _been_, _Should_ he _fall_, may be used in a true subjunctive sense, to assert what is a mere conception of the mind, i. e., what is merely thought of, without regard to its being or becoming a fact; but in these cases it is not the form of the verb but the connective or something in the construction of the sentence that determines the manner of assertion. In parsing, the verbs in such constructions may be treated as indicative or potential, with a subjunctive meaning. The offices of the different mode and tense forms are constantly interchanging; a classification based strictly on meaning would be very difficult, and would confuse the learner.] IMPERATIVE MODE.[4] PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 2. /Pres./ (you or thou); 2. /Pres./ (you or ye). [Footnote 4: From such forms as _Let us sing, Let them talk_, some grammarians make a first and a third person imperative. But _us_ is not the subject of the verb-phrase _let-sing_, and _let_ is not of the first person. _Us_ is the object complement of _let_, and the infinitive _sing_ is the objective complement, having us for its assumed subject. Some would find a first and a third person imperative in such sentences as "Now tread _we_ a measure"; "_Perish_ the _thought_." But these verbs express strong wish or desire and by some grammarians are called "optative subjunctives." "Perish the thought" = "May the thought perish," or "I desire that the thought may perish," or "Let the thought perish."] INFINITIVES. PRESENT TENSE. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. (To)[5] /Pres./ (To) have /Past Par./ [Footnote 5: _To_, as indicated by the (), is not treated as a part of the verb. Writers on language are generally agreed that when _to_ introduces an infinitive phrase used as an adjective or an adverb, it performs its proper function as a preposition, meaning _toward_, _for_, etc.; as, I am inclined _to_ believe; I came _to_ hear. When the infinitive phrase is used as a noun, the _to_ expresses no relation; it seems merely to introduce the phrase. When a word loses its proper function without taking on the function of some other part of speech, we do not see why it should change its name. In the expressions, _For_ me to do this would be wrong; _Over_ the fence is out of danger, few grammarians would hesitate to call _for_ and _over_ prepositions, though they have no antecedent term of relation. We cannot see that _to_ is a part of the verb, for it in no way affects the meaning, as does an auxiliary, or as does the to in He was spoken to. Those who call it a part of the verb confuse the learner by speaking of it as the "preposition _to_" (which, as they have said, is not a preposition) "placed before the infinitive," _i.e._, placed before that of which it forms a part --placed before itself. In the Anglo-Saxon, _to_ was used with the infinitive only in the dative case, where it had its proper function as a preposition; as, nominative _etan_ (to eat); dative _to etanne_; accusative _e:tan_. When the dative ending _ne_ was dropped, making the three forms alike, the _to_ came to be used before the nominative and the accusative, but without expressing relation. This dative of the infinitive, with _to_, was used mainly to indicate purpose. When, after the dropping of the _ne_ ending, the idea of purpose had to be conveyed by the infinitive, it became usual in Elizabethan literature to place _for_ before the _to_, "And _for to_ deck heaven's battlements."-_Greene_. "What went ye out _for to_ see?"-_Bible_. "Shut the gates _for to_ preserve the town."--_K. Hen. VI., Part III_.] PARTICIPLES PRESENT PAST PAST PERFECT. /Pres./+ing+. /Past Par./ Having /Past Par./ +May+, +can+, and +must+ are potential auxiliaries in the present and the present perfect tense; +might+, +could+, +would+, and +should+, in the past and the past perfect. The +emphatic+ form of the present and the past tense indicative is made by prefixing +do+ and +did+ to the present. _Do_ is prefixed to the imperative also. TO THE TEACHES.--Require the pupils to fill out these forma with other verbs, regular and irregular, using the auxiliaries named above. * * * * * LESSON 135. FORMS OF THE VERB-CONTINUED. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB +BE+. [Footnote: The conjugation of _be_ contains three distinct roots--_as, be, was_. _Am, art, is, are_ are from _as_. _Am_ = _as-m_ (_m_ is the _m_ in _me_). _Art_ = _as-t_ (_t_ is the _th_ in _thou_). Be was formerly conjugated, I _be_, Thou _beest_, He _beth_ or _bes_; _We be_, _Ye be_, _They be_.] +Direction+.--Learn the following forms, paying no attention to the line at the right of each verb:-- INDICATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. _Singular. Plural._ 1. (I) am ----, 1. (We) are ----, 2. (You) are ---- _or_ 2. (You) are ----, (Thou) art ----, 3. (He) is ----; 3. (They) are ----. PAST TENSE. 1. (I) was ----, 1. (We) were ----, 2. (You) were ---- _or_ 2. (You) were ----, (Thou) wast ----, 3. (He) was ----; 3. (They) were ----. FUTURE TENSE. 1. (I) shall be ----, 1. (We) shall be ----, 2. (You) will be ---- _or_ 2. (You) will be ----, (Thou) wilt be ----, 3. (He) will be ----; 3. (They) will be ----. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 1. (I) have been ----, 1. (We) have been ----, 2. (You) have been ---- _or_ 2. (You) have been ----, (Thou) hast been ----, 3. (He) has been ----; 3. (They) have been ----. PAST PERFECT 1. (I) had been ----, 1. (We) had been ----, 2. (You) had been ---- _or_ 2. (You) had been ----, (Thou) hadst been ----, 3. (He) had been ----; 3. (They) had been ----. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 1. (I) shall have been ----, 1. (We) shall have been ----, 2. (You) will have been ---- _or_ 2. (You) will have been ----, (Thou) wilt have been ----, 3. (He) will have been ----; 3. (They) will have been ----. POTENTIAL MODE. PRESENT TENSE. _Singular. Plural._ 1. (I) may be ----, 1. (We) may be ----, 2. (You) may be ---- _or_ 2. (You) may be ----, (Thou) mayst be ----, 3. (He) may be ----; 3. (They) may be ----. PAST TENSE. 1. (I) might be ----, 1. (We) might be ----, 2. (You) might be ---- _or_ 2. (You) might be ----, (Thou) mightst be ----, 3. (He) might be ----; 3. (They) might be ----. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 1. (I) may have been ----, 1. (We) may have been ----, 2. (You) may have been ---- _or_ 2. (You) may have been ----, (Thou) mayst have been ----, 3. (He) may have been ----; 3. (They) may have been ----. PAST PERFECT TENSE, 1. (I) might have been ----, 1. (We) might have been ----, 2. (You) might have been ---- _or_ 2. (You) might have been ----, (Thou) mightst have been ----, 3. (He) might have been ----; 3. (They) might have been ----. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. PBESENT TENSE. _Singular. Plural._ 1. (If I) may have been ----, 1. (If we) may have been ----, 2. (If you) may have been ---- _or_ 2. (If you) may have been ----, (If thou) mayst have been ----, 3. (If he) may have been ----; 3. (If they) may have been ----. PAST TENSE. _Singular._ 1. (If I) were -----, 2. (If you) were ----, _or_ (If thou) wert ----, 3. (If he) were ----; IMPERATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. _Singular. Plural._ 2. Be (you or thou) ----; 2. Be (you or ye) ----. INFINITIVES. PRESENT TENSE. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. (To) be ----. (To) have been ----. PARTICIPLES. PRESENT. PAST. PAST PERFECT. Being ----. Been. Having been ----. * * * * * LESSON 136. FORMS OF THE VERB--CONTINUED. CONJUGATION--PROGRESSIVE AND PASSIVE FORMS. A verb is conjugated in the +progressive form+ by joining its present participle to the different forms of the verb _be_. A transitive verb is conjugated in the +passive voice+ by joining its past participle to the different forms of the verb _be_. +Remark+.--The progressive form denotes a continuance of the action or being; as, The birds _are singing_. Verbs that in their simple form denote continuance--such as _love_, _respect_, _know_--should not be conjugated in the progressive form. We say, I _love_ the child--not I _am loving_ the child. +Remarks+.--The progressive form is sometimes used with a passive meaning; as, The house _is building_. In such cases the word in _ing_ was once a verbal noun preceded by the preposition _a_, a contraction from _on_ or _in_; as, While the ark _was a preparing_; While the flesh _was in seething_. In modern language the preposition is dropped, and the word in _ing_ is treated adjectively. Another passive progressive form, consisting of the verb _be_ completed by the present passive participle, has recently appeared in our language--The house _is being built_, or _was being built_. Although condemned by many linguists as awkward and otherwise objectionable, it has grown rapidly into good use, especially in England, Such a form seems to be needed when the simpler form would be ambiguous, _i.e._, when its subject might be taken to name either the actor or the receiver; as, The child _is whipping_; The prisoner _is trying_. Introduced only to prevent ambiguity, the so-called neologism has pushed its way, and is found where the old form would not be ambiguous. As now used, the new form stands to the old in about the ratio of three to one. +Direction+.--_Conjugate the verb choose in the progressive form by filling all the blanks left after the different forms of the verb be, in the preceding Lesson, with the present participle choosing; and then in the passive form by filling these blanks with the past participle chosen_. Notice that after the past participle of the verb _be_ no blank is left. The past participle of the passive is not formed by the aid of _be_; it is never compound. The past participle of a transitive verb is always passive except in such forms as _have chosen, had chosen_. (See _have written_, Lesson 138.) In the progressive, the past participle is wanting. All the participles of the verb _choose_ are arranged in order below. _Present. Past. Past Perfect_. _Simplest form_. Choosing, chosen, having chosen. _Progressive form_. Being choosing,* ------, having been choosing. _Passive form_. Being chosen, chosen, having been chosen. [Footnote *: This form is not commonly used.] +Direction+.--_Write and arrange as above all the participles of the verbs break, drive, read, lift_. TO THE TEACHER.--Select other verbs, and require the pupils to conjugate them in the progressive and in the passive form. Require them to give synopses of all the forms. Require them in some of their synopses to use _it_ or some noun for the subject in the third person. * * * * * LESSON 137. CONJUGATION--CONTINUED. INTERROGATIVE AND NEGATIVE FORMS. A verb may be conjugated +interrogatively+ in the indicative and potential modes by placing the subject after the first auxiliary; as, _Does he sing?_ A verb may be conjugated +negatively+ by placing _not_ after the first auxiliary; as, He _does not sing_. _Not_ is placed before the infinitive and the participles; as, _not to sing, not singing_. A question with negation is expressed in the indicative and potential modes by placing the subject and _not_ after the first auxiliary; as, _Does he not sing?_ +Remark+.--Formerly, it was common to use the simple form of the present and past tenses interrogatively and negatively thus: _Loves he? I know not_. Such forms are still common in poetry, but in prose they are now scarcely used. We say, _Does he love?_ _I do not know_. The verbs _be_ and _have_ are exceptions, as they do not take the auxiliary _do_. We say, _Is it right? Have you another?_ +Direction+.--_Write a synopsis in the third person, singular, of the verb walk conjugated_ (1) _interrogatively_, (2) _negatively, and _(3) _so as to express a question with negation. Remember that the indicative and the potential are the only modes that can be used interrogatively._ To THE TEACHER.--Select other verbs, and require the pupils to conjugate them negatively and interrogatively in the progressive and in the passive form. Require the pupils to give synopses of all the forms. * * * * * LESSON 138. MODE AND TENSE FORMS. COMPOUND FORMS--ANALYSIS. The +compound+, or +periphrastic, forms+ of the verb consisting of two words may each be resolved into an +asserting word and a participle+ or an +infinitive+. If we look at the original meaning of the forms +I do write, I shall write, I will write+, we shall find that the so-called auxiliary is the real verb, and that _write_ is an infinitive used as object complement. +I do write = I do+ or +perform+ the action (_to_) write. +I shall write = I owe+ (_to_) +write. I will write = I determine+ (_to_) +write+. +May write, can write, must write, might write, could write, would write+, and +should write+ may each be resolved into an asserting word and an infinitive. The forms +is writing, was written+, etc. consist each of an asserting word (the verb _be_), and a participle used as attribute complement. The forms +have written+ and +had written+ are so far removed from their original meaning that their analysis cannot be made to correspond with their history. They originated from such expressions as _I have a letter written_, in which _have_ ( = _possess_) is a transitive verb taking _letter_ for its object complement, and _written_ is a passive participle modifying _letter_. The idea of possession has faded out of _have_, and the participle has lost its passive meaning. The use of this form has been extended to intransitive verbs--Spring _has come_, Birds _have flown_, etc. being now regularly used instead of the more logical perfect tense forms, Spring _is come_, Birds _are flown_. (_Is come, are flown_, etc. must not be mistaken for transitive verbs in the passive voice.) [Footnote: A peculiar use of _had_ is found in the expressions _had rather go_ and _had better go_, condemned by many grammarians who suppose _had_ to be here used incorrectly for _would_ or _should_. Of these expressions the "Standard Dictionary," an authority worthy of our attention, says:-- "Forms disputed by certain grammatical critics from the days of Samuel Johnson, the critics insisting upon the substitution of _would_ or _should_, as the case may demand, for _had_; but _had rather_ and _had better_ are thoroughly established English, idioms having the almost universal popular and literary sanction of centuries. 'I _would rather_ not go' is undoubtedly correct when the purpose is to emphasize the element of choice, or will, in the matter; but in all ordinary cases 'I _had rather_ not go' has the merit of being idiomatic and easily and universally understood. "If for 'You _had better_ stay at home' we substitute 'You _should better_ stay at home,' an entirely different meaning is expressed, the idea of expediency giving place to that of obligation." In the analysis of "_I had rather go_," _had_ is the predicate verb, the infinitive _go_ is the object complement, and the adjective _rather_ completes _had_ and belongs to _go_, i.e., is objective complement. _Had_ (= _should hold_ or _regard_) is treated as a past subjunctive. _Rather_ is the comparative of the old adjective _rathe_ = _early_, from which comes the idea of preference. The expression means, "I should hold going preferable." The expressions "You _had better_ stay," "I _had as lief_ not be," are similar in construction to "I _had rather_ go." "I _had sooner_ go" is condemned by grammarians because _sooner_ is never an adjective. If _sooner_ is here allowed as an idiom, it is a modifier of _had_. The expression equals, "I should more willingly have going."] Compounds of more than two words may be analyzed thus: +May have been written+ is composed of the compound auxiliary +may have been+ and the participle +written; may have been+ is composed of the compound auxiliary +may have+ and the participle +been+; and +may have+ is composed of the auxiliary +may+ and the infinitive +have+. _May_ is the asserting word--the first auxiliary is always the asserting word. +Direction+.--_Study what has been said above and analyze the following verbal forms, distinguishing carefully between participles that may be considered as part of the verb and words that must be treated as attribute complements_:-- 1. I may be mistaken. 2. The farm was sold. 3. I shall be contented. 4. Has it been decided? 5. You should have been working. 6. The danger might have been avoided. 7. He may have been tired and sleepy. 8. She is singing. 9. I shall be satisfied. 10. The rule has not been observed. 11. Stars have disappeared. 12. Times will surely change. TENSE FORMS--MEANING. The +Present Tense+ is used to express (1) what is actually present, (2) what is true at all times, (3) what frequently or habitually takes place, (4) what is to take place in the future, and it is used (5) in describing past or future events as if occurring at the time of the speaking. +Examples+.--I _hear_ a voice (action as present). The sun _gives_ light (true at all times). He _writes_ for the newspapers (habitual). Phillips _speaks_ in Boston to-morrow night (future). He _mounts_ the scaffold; the executioners _approach_ to bind him; he _struggles, resists_, etc. (past events pictured to the imagination as present). The clans of Culloden _are_ scattered in fight; they _rally_, they _bleed_, etc. (future events now seen in vision). The +Past Tense+ may express (1) simply past action or being, (2) a past habit or custom, (3) a future event, and (4) it may refer to present time. +Examples+.--The birds _sang_ (simply past action). He _wrote_ for the newspapers (past habit). If I _should go_, you _would miss_ me (future events). If he _were_ here, he _would enjoy_ this (refers to present time). The +Future Tense+ may express (1) simply future action or being, (2) a habit or custom as future or as indefinite in time. +Examples+.--I _shall write_ soon (simply future action). He _will sit_ there by the hour (indefinite in time). The +Present Perfect Tense+ expresses (1) action or being as completed in present time (_i.e._, a period of time--an hour, a year, an age--of which the present forms a part), and (2) action or being to be completed in a future period. +Examples+.--Homer _has written_ poems (the period of time affected by this completed action embraces the present). When I _have finished_ this, you _shall have_ it (action to be completed in a future period). The +Past Perfect Tense+ expresses (1) action or being as completed at some specified past time, and (2) in a conditional or hypothetical clause it may express past time. +Examples+.--I _had seen_ him when I met you (action completed at a specified past time). If I _had had_ time, I _should have written_ (I _had_ not time--I _did_ not _write_.) The +Future Perfect Tense+ expresses action to be completed at some specified future time. +Example+.--I _shall have seen_ him by to-morrow noon. +Direction+.--_Study what has been said above about the meaning of the tense forms, and describe carefully the time expressed by each of the following verbs_:-- 1. I go to the city to-morrow. 2. The village master taught his little school. 3. Plato reasons well. 4. A triangle has three sides. 5. To-morrow is the day appointed. 6. Moses has told many important facts. 7. The ship sails next week. 8. She sings well. 9. Cicero has written orations. 10. He would sit for hours and watch the smoke curl from his pipe. 11. You may hear when the next mail arrives, 12. Had I known this before, I could have saved you much trouble. 13. He will occasionally lose his temper. 14. At the end of this week I shall have been in school four years. 15. If I were you, I would try that. 16. He will become discouraged before he has thoroughly tried it. 17. She starts, she moves, she seems to feel the thrill of life along her keel. +Model for Written Parsing adapted to all Parts of Speech+. _Oh! it has a voice for those who on their sick beds lie and waste away._ [Transcriber's Note: The following two tables have been split to fit within Project Gutenberg line-width requirements. The first column of each table has been repeated for easier reference.] |CLASSIFICATION. | MODIFICATIONS. ---------|-----------------|---------------------------------------------| Sentence.|Class. |Sub-C. |Voice.|Mode.|Tense.|Num. |Per.| Gen. |Case.| | | | | | | | | | | Oh! |Int. | | | | | | | | | it |Pro. |Per. | | | |Sing.| ad.| Neut. |Nom. | has |Vb. |Ir., Tr. | Act. | Ind.|Pres. | " | " | | | a |Adj. |Def. | | | | | | | | voice |N. |Com. | | | | " | " | " |Obj. | for |Prep. | | | | | | | | | those |Pro. |Adj. | | | |Plu. | " |M. or F.| " | who |Pro. |Rel. | | | | " | " | " |Nom. | on |Prep. | | | | | | | | | their |Pro. |Per. | | | | " | " | " |Pos. | sick |Adj. |Des. | | | | | | | | beds |N. |Com. | | | | " | " | Neut. |Obj. | lie |Vb. |Ir.,Int. | -- | Ind.|Pres. | " | " | | | and |Conj. |Co-or. | | | | | | | | waste |Vb. |Reg.,Int.| -- | " | " | " | " | | | away. |Adv. |Place. | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | SYNTAX. ---------|-------|----------------------------------- Sentence.|Deg. of| | Comp.| Oh! | |Independent. it | |Subject of _has_. has | |Predicate of _it_. a | -- |Modifier of _voice_. voice | |Object comp of _has_. for | |Shows Rel. of _has_ to _those_. those | |Prin. word in Prep. phrase. who | |Subject of _lie_ and _waste_. on | |Shows Rel. of _lie_ to _beds_. their | |Possessive Mod. of _beds_. sick | Pos. |Modifier of _beds_. beds | |Prin. word in Prep. phrase. lie | |Predicate of _who_. and | |Connects _lie_ and _waste_. waste | |Predicate of _who_. away. | -- |Modifier of _waste_. ----------------------------------------------------- TO THE TEACHER.--For further exercises in parsing the verb and for exercises in general parsing, select from the preceding Lessons on Analysis. * * * * * LESSON 139 PARSING. +Direction+.--_Select and parse, according to the Model below, the verbs in the sentences of Lesson_ 42. _For the agreement of verbs, see Lesson_ 142. +Model for Written Parsing--_Verbs_+.--_The Yankee, selling his farm, wanders away to seek new lands_. CLASSIFICATION. | MODIFICATIONS. ---------------------------|------------------------------| Verbs. | Kind. |Voice.|Mode.|Tense.|Num. |Per.| *selling|Pr. Par., Ir., Tr.| Act. | -- | -- | -- | -- | wanders |Reg., Int. | -- |Ind. |Pres. |Sing.| 3d.| *seek |Inf., Ir., Tr. | Act. | -- | " | -- | | | | | | | | | | SYNTAX --------|--------- Verbs. | selling |Mod. of _Yankee_. wanders |Pred. of _Yankee_. seek |Prin. word in phrase | Mod. of _wanders_. [Footnote: Participles and infinitives have neither person nor number.] (See Model for Written Parsing on opposite page.) * * * * * LESSON 140. CONSTRUCTION OF MODE AND TENSE FORMS. +Caution+.--Be careful to give every verb its proper form and meaning. +Direction+.--_Correct the following errors, and give your reasons_:-- 1. I done it myself. 2. He throwed it into the river, for I seen him when he done it. 3. She sets by the open window enjoying the scene that lays before her. +Explanation+.--_Lay_ (to place) is transitive, _lie_ (to rest) is intransitive; _set_ (to place) is transitive, _sit_ (to rest) is intransitive. _Set_ in some of its meanings is intransitive. 4. The tide sits in. 5. Go and lay down. 6. The sun sits in the west. 7. I remember when the corner stone was lain. 8. Sit the plates on the table. 9. He sat out for London yesterday. 10. Your dress sets well. 11. The bird is setting on its eggs. 12. I laid there an hour. 13. Set down and talk a little while. 14. He has laid there an hour. 15. I am setting by the river. 16. He has went and done it without my permission. 17. He flew from justice. 18. Some valuable land was overflown. 19. She come just after you left. 20. They sung a new tune which they had not sang before. 21. The water I drunk there was better than any that I had drank before. 22. The leaves had fell. 23. I had rode a short distance when the storm begun to gather. 24. I found the water froze. 25. He raised up. 26. He run till he became so weary that he was forced to lay down. 27. I knowed that it was so, for I seen him when he done it. 28. I had began to think that you had forsook us. 29. I am afraid that I cannot learn him to do it. 30. I guess that I will stop. 31. I expect that he has gone to Boston. 32. There ain't any use of trying. 33. I have got no mother. 34. Can I speak to you? 35. He had ought to see him. +Explanation+.--As _ought_ is never a participle, it cannot be used after _had_ to form a compound tense. +Caution+.--A conditional or a concessive clause takes a verb in the indicative mode when the action or being is assumed as a fact, or when the uncertainty lies merely in the speaker's knowledge of the fact. But when the action or being in such a clause is merely thought of as a contingency, or in such a clause the speaker prefers to put hypothetically something of whose truth or untruth he has no doubt, the subjunctive is used. The subjunctive is frequently used in indirect questions, in expressing a wish for that which it is impossible to attain at once or at all, and instead of the potential mode in independent clauses. +Examples+.-- 1. If (= _since_) it rains, why do you go? 2. If it _rains_ (now), I cannot go out. 3. If it _rain_, the work will be delayed. 4. Though it _rain_ to-morrow, we must march. 5. If there _be_ mountains, there must be valleys between. 6. Though honey _be_ sweet, one can't make a meal of it. 7. If my friend _were_ here, he would enjoy this. 8. Though immortality _were_ improbable, we should still believe in it. 9. One may doubt whether the best men _be known_. 10. I wish the lad _were_ taller. 11. Oh! that I _were_ a Samson in strength. 12. It _were_ better for him that a millstone were hanged about his neck. +Explanation+.--In (1) the raining is assumed as a fact. In (2) the speaker is uncertain of the fact. In the conditional clause of (3) and in the concessive clause of (4) the raining is thought of as a mere contingency. The speaker is certain of the truth of what is hypothetically expressed in the conditional clause of (5) and in the concessive clause of (6), and is certain of the untruth of what is hypothetically expressed in the conditional clause of (7) and in the concessive clause of (8). There is an indirect question in (9), a wish in (10) for something not at once attainable and in (11) for something forever unattainable, and in (12) the subjunctive mode is used in place of the potential. +Remarks+.--When there is doubt as to whether the indicative or the subjunctive mode is required, use the indicative. The present subjunctive forms may be treated as infinitives used to complete omitted auxiliaries; as, If it (_should_) _rain_, the work will be delayed; Till one greater man (_shall_) _restore_ us, etc. This will often serve as a guide in distinguishing the indicative from the subjunctive mode. _If, though, lest, unless_, etc. are usually spoken of as signs of the subjunctive mode, but these words are now more frequently followed by the indicative than by the subjunctive. +Direction+.--_Justify the mode of the italicized verbs in the following sentences_:-- 1. If this _were_ so, the difficulty would vanish. 2. If he _was_ there, I did not see him. 3. If to-morrow _be_ fine, I will walk with you. 4. Though this _seems_ improbable, it is true. 5. If my friend _is_ in town, he will call this evening. 6. If he ever _comes_, we shall know it. +Explanation+.--In (6) and (7) the coming is referred to as a fact to be decided in future time. 7. If he _comes_ by noon, let me know. 8. The ship leaps, as it _were_, from billow to billow. 9. Take heed that thou _speak_ not to Jacob. 10. If a pendulum _is drawn _to one side, it will swing to the other. +Explanation+.--_Be_ is often employed in making scientific statements like the preceding, and may therefore be allowed, _If a pendulum is drawn = Whenever a pendulum is drawn_. 11. I wish that I _were_ a musician. 12. _Were_ I so disposed, I could not gratify you. 13. This sword shall end thee unless thou _yield_. 14. Govern well thy appetite, lest sin _surprise_ thee. 15. I know not whether it _is_ so or not. 16. Would he _were_ fatter! 17. If there _were_ no light, there would be no colors. 18. Oh, that he _were_ a son of mine! 19. Though it _be_ cloudy to-night, it will be cold. 20. Though the whole _exceed_ a part, we sometimes prefer a part to the whole. 21. Whether he _go_ or not, I must be there. 22. Though an angel from heaven _command_ it, we should not steal. 23. If there _be_ an eye, it was made to see. 24. It _were_ well it _were done_ quickly. +Direction+.--_Supply in each of the following sentences a verb in the indicative or the subjunctive mode, and give a reason for your choice_:-- 1. I wish it ---- in my power to help you. 2. I tremble lest he ----. 3. If he ---- guilty, the evidence does not show it. 4. He deserves our pity, unless his tale ---- a false one. 5. Though he ---- there, I did not see him. 6. If he ---- but discreet, he will succeed. 7. If I ---- he, I would do differently. 8. If ye ---- men, fight. * * * * * LESSON 141. CONSTRUCTION OF MODE AND TENSE FORMS--CONTINUED. +Caution+.--Be careful to employ the tense forms of the different modes in accordance with their meaning, and in such a way as to preserve the proper order of time. +Direction+.--_Correct the following errors, and give your reasons_:-- 1. That custom has been formerly quite popular. 2. Neither will they be persuaded, though one rose from the dead. 3. He that was dead sat up and began to speak. 4. A man bought a horse for one hundred dollars; and, after keeping it three months, at an expense of ten dollars a month, he sells it for two hundred dollars. What per cent does he gain? 5. I should say that it was an hour's ride. 6. If I had have seen him, I should have known him. 7. I wish I was in Dixie. 8. We should be obliged if you will favor us with a song. 9. I intended to have called. +Explanation+.--This is incorrect; it should be, _I intended to call_. The act of calling was not completed at the time indicated by _intended_. +Remark+.--Verbs of commanding, desiring, expecting, hoping, intending, permitting, etc. are followed by verbs denoting present or future time. [Footnote: The "Standard Dictionary" makes this restriction: "The doubling of the past tenses in connection with the use of _have_ with a past participle is proper and necessary when the completion of the future act was intended before the occurrence of something else mentioned or thought of. Attention to this qualification, which has been overlooked in the criticism of tense-formation and connection, is especially important and imperative. If one says, 'I meant _to have visited_ Paris and _to have returned_ to London before my father _arrived_ from America,' the past [present perfect] infinitive ... is necessary for the expression of the completion of the acts purposed. 'I meant _to visit_ Paris and _to return_ to London before my father _arrived_ from America,' may convey suggestively the thought intended, but does not express it."] The present infinitive expresses an action as present or future, and the present perfect expresses it as completed, at the time indicated by the principal verb. I _am glad to have met you_ is correct, because the meeting took place before the time of being glad. I _ought to have gone_ is exceptional. _Ought_ has no past tense form, and so the present perfect infinitive is used to make the expression refer to past time. 10. We hoped to have seen you often. 11. I should not have let you eaten it. 12. I should have liked to have seen it. 13. He would not have dared done that. 14. You ought to have helped me to have done it. 15. We expected that he would have arrived last night. 16. The experiment proved that air had weight. +Remark+.--What is true or false at all times is generally expressed in the present tense, whatever tense precedes. There seems to be danger of applying this rule too rigidly. When a speaker does not wish to vouch for the truth of the general proposition, he may use the past tense, giving it the form of an indirect quotation; as, He said that iron _was_ the most valuable of metals. The tense of the dependent verb is sometimes attracted into that of the principal verb; as, I _knew_ where the place _was_. 17. I had never known before how short life really was. 18. We then fell into a discussion whether there is any beauty independent of utility. The General maintained that there was not; Dr. Johnson maintained that there was. 19. I have already told you that I was a gentleman. 20. Our fathers held that all men were created equal. +Caution+.--Use _will_ and _would_ to imply that the subject names the one whose will controls the action; use _shall_ and _should_ to imply that the one named by the subject is under the control of external influence. +Remark+.--The original meaning of _shall_ (to _owe_, to _be obliged_) and _will_ (to _determine_) gives us the real key to their proper use. The only case in which some trace of the original meaning of these auxiliaries cannot be found is the one in which the subject of _will_ names something incapable of volition; as, The _wind will blow_. Even this may be a kind of personification. +Examples+.--I _shall go_; You _will go_; He _will go_. These are the proper forms to express mere futurity, but even here we can trace the original meaning of _shall_ and _will_. In the first person the speaker avoids egotism by referring to the act as an obligation or duty rather than as something under the control of his own will. In the second and third persons it is more courteous to refer to the will of others than to their duty. I _will go_. Here the action is under the control of the speaker's will. He either promises or determines to go. You _shall go_; He _shall go_. Here the speaker either promises the going or determines to compel these persons to go; in either case the one who goes is under some external influence. _Shall_ I _go?_ Here the speaker puts himself under the control of some external influence--the will of another. _Will_ I _go?_--_i. e_., Is it my will to go?--is not used except to repeat another's question. It would be absurd for one to ask what his own will is. _Shall_ you _go_? Ans. I _shall_. _Will_ you _go_? Ans. I _will_. _Shall_ he _go?_ Ans. He _shall_. _Will_ he _go?_ Ans. He _will_. The same auxiliary is used in the question that is used in the answer. No difficulty _shall hinder_ me. The difficulty that might do the hindering is not to be left to itself, but is to be kept under the control of the speaker. He says that he _shall go_; He says that he _will go_. Change the indirect quotations introduced by _that_ to direct quotations, and the application of the Caution will be apparent. You _will see_ that my horse is at the door by nine o'clock. This is only an apparent exception to the rule. A superior may courteously avoid the appearance of compulsion, and refer to his subordinate's willingness to obey. They knew that I _should be_ there, and that he _would be_ there. The same principles apply to _should_ and _would_ that apply to _shall_ and _will_. In this example the events are future as to past time; making them future as to present time, we have, They know that I _shall be_ there, and that he _will be_ there. My friend said that he _should_ not _set_ out to-morrow. Change the indirect to a direct quotation, and the force of _should_ will be seen. +Direction+.--_Assign a reason for the use of shall or will in each of the following sentences_:-- 1. Hear me, for I will speak. 2. If you will call, I shall be happy to accompany you. 3. Shall you be at liberty to-day? 4. I shall never see him again. 5. I will never see him again. 6. I said that he should be rewarded. 7. Thou shalt surely die. 8. Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again. 9. Though I should die, yet will I not deny thee. 10. Though I should receive a thousand shekels of silver in mine hand, yet would I not put forth my hand against the king's son. +Direction+.--_Fill each of the following blanks with shall, will, should, or would, and give the reasons for your choice_:-- 1. He knew who ---- betray him. 2. I ---- be fatigued if I had walked so far. 3. You did better than I ---- have done. 4. If he ---- come by noon, ---- you be ready? 5. They do me wrong, and I ---- not endure it. 6. I ---- be greatly obliged if you ---- do me the favor. 7. If I ---- say so, I ---- be guilty of falsehood. 8. You ---- be disappointed if you ---- see it. 9. ---- he be allowed to go on? 10. ---- you be unhappy, if I do not come? +Direction+.--_Correct the following errors, and give your reasons_:-- 1. Where will I leave you? 2. Will I be in time? 3. It was requested that no person would leave his seat. 4. They requested that the appointment would be given to a man who should be known to his party. 5. When will we get through this tedious controversy? 6. I think we will have rain. * * * * * LESSON 142. CONSTRUCTION OF NUMBER AND PERSON FORMS. AGREEMENT.--VERBS--PRONOUNS. +Caution+.--A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. +Remarks+.--Practically, this rule applies to but few forms. +Are+ and +were+ are the only plural forms retained by the English verb. In the common style, most verbs have one person form, made by adding +s+ or +es+ (_has_, in the present perfect tense, is a contraction of the indicative present--_ha_(_ve_)_s_). The verb _be_ has +am+ (first person) and +is+ (third person). In the solemn style, the second person singular takes the ending +est+, +st+, or +t+, and, in the indicative present, the third person singular adds +eth+. (See Lessons 134 and 135.) _Need_ and _dare_, when followed by an infinitive without _to_, are generally used instead of _needs_ and _dares_; as, He _need_ not do it; He _dare_ not do it. +Caution+.--A collective noun requires a verb in the plural when the individuals in the collection are thought of; but, when the collection as a whole is thought of, the verb should be singular. +Examples+.-- l. The _multitude were_ of one mind. 2. The _multitude was_ too large to number. 3. A _number were_ inclined to turn back, 4. The _number_ present _was_ not ascertained. +Caution+.--When a verb has two or more subjects connected by _and_, it must agree with them in the plural. +Exceptions+.--l. When the connected subjects are different names of the same thing, or when they name several things taken as one whole, the verb must be singular; as, My old _friend and schoolmate is_ in town. _Bread and milk is_ excellent food. 2. When the connected subjects are preceded by _each, every, many a_, or _no_, they are taken separately, and the verb agrees with the nearest; as, _Every man, woman, and child was_ lost. 3. When the subjects are emphatically distinguished, the verb agrees with the first and is understood with the second; as, _Time, and patience also, is_ needed. (The same is true of subjects connected by _as well as_; as, _Time, as well as patience, is_ needed.) 4. When one of the subjects is affirmative and the other negative, the verb agrees with the affirmative; as, _Books, and not pleasure_, occupy his time. 5. When several subjects follow the verb, each subject may be emphasized by making the verb agree with that which stands nearest; as, Thine _is_ the _kingdom and_ the _power_ _and_ the _glory_. +Remark+.--When one of two or more subjects connected by _and_ is of the first person, the verb is in the first person; when one of the subjects is of the second person, and none of the first, the verb is in the second person. _I, you, and he_ = _we_; _you and he_ = _you_. We say, _Mary and I shall_ (not _will_) be busy to-morrow. +Caution+.--When two or more subjects are connected by _or_ or _nor_, the verb agrees in person and number with the nearest; as, Neither _poverty nor wealth was_ desired; Neither _he nor they were_ satisfied. When the subjects require different forms of the verb, it is generally better to express the verb with each subject or to recast the sentence. +Remarks+.--When a singular and a plural subject are used, the plural subject is generally placed next to the verb. In using pronouns of different persons, it is generally more polite for the speaker to mention the one addressed first, and himself last, except when he confesses a fault. +Caution+.--A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number, gender, and person; as, _Thou who writest_; _He who writes_; _They who write_, etc. The three special Cautions given above for the agreement of the verb will also aid in determining the agreement of the pronoun with its antecedent. +Remarks+.--The pronoun and the verb of an adjective clause relating to the indefinite subject _it_ take, by attraction, the person and number of the complement when this complement immediately precedes the adjective clause; as, It is I _that am_ in the wrong; It is thou _that liftest_ me up; It is the dews and showers _that make_ the grass grow. The pronoun _you_, even when singular, requires a plural verb. +Direction+.--_Justify the use of the following italicized verbs and pronouns_:-- 1. _Books is_ a noun. 2. The good _are_ great. 3. The committee _were_ unable to agree, and _they_ asked to be discharged. 4. The House _has_ decided not to allow _its_ members the privilege. 5. Three times four _is_ twelve. [Footnote: "Three times four _is_ twelve" and "Three times four _are_ twelve" are both used, and both are defended. The question is (see Caution for collective nouns), Is the number four thought of as a whole, or are the individual units composing it thought of? The expression = Four taken three times is twelve. _Times_ is a noun used adverbially.] 6. Five dollars _is_ not too much. 7. Twice as much _is_ too much. 8. Two hours _is_ a long time to wait. 9. To relieve the wretched _was_ his pride. 10. To profess and to possess _are_ two different things. 11. Talking and eloquence _are_ not the same. 12. The tongs _are_ not in _their_ place. 13. Every one _is_ accountable for _his_ own acts. 14. Every book and every paper _was_ found in _its_ place. 15. Not a loud voice, but strong proofs _bring_ conviction. 16. This orator and statesman _has_ gone to _his_ rest. 17. Young's "Night Thoughts" _is his_ most celebrated poetical work. 18. Flesh and blood _hath_ not revealed it. 19. The hue and cry of the country _pursues_ him. 20. The second and the third Epistle of John _contain_ each a single chapter. 21. _Man is_ masculine because _it_ denotes a male. 22. Therein _consists_ the force and use and nature of language. 23. Neither wealth nor wisdom _is_ the chief thing. 24. Either you or I _am_ right. 25. Neither you nor he _is_ to blame. 26. John, and his sister also, _is_ going. 27. The lowest mechanic, as well as the richest citizen, _is_ here protected in _his_ right. 28. There _are_ one or two reasons. [Footnote: When two adjectives differing in number are connected without a repetition of the noun, the tendency is to make the verb agree with the noun expressed.] 29. Nine o'clock and forty-five minutes _is_ fifteen minutes of ten. 30. Mexican figures, or picture-writing, _represent_ things, not words. [Footnote: The verb here agrees with _figures_, as _picture-writing_ is logically explanatory of _figures_.] 31. Many a kind word and many a kind act _has_ been put to his credit. +Direction+.--_Correct the following errors, and give your reasons_:-- 1. _Victuals_ are always plural. 2. Plutarch's "Parallel Lives" are his great work. 3. What sounds have each of the vowels? 4. "No, no," says I. 5. "We agree," says they. 6. Where was you? 7. Every one of these are good in their place. 8. Neither of them have recited their lesson. 9. There comes the boys. 10. Each of these expressions denote action. 11. One of you are mistaken. 12. There is several reasons for this. 13. The assembly was divided in its opinion. 14. The public is invited to attend. 15. The committee were full when this point was decided. 16. The nation are prosperous. 17. Money, as well as men, were needed. 18. Now, boys, I want every one of you to decide for themselves. 19. Neither the intellect nor the heart are capable of being driven. 20. She fell to laughing like one out of their right mind. 21. Five years' interest are due. 22. Three quarters of the men was discharged. 23. Nine-tenths of every man's happiness depend upon this. 24. No time, no money, no labor, were spared. 25. One or the other have erred in their statement. 26. Why are dust and ashes proud? 27. Either the master or his servants is to blame. 28. Neither the servants nor their master are to blame. 29. Our welfare and security consists in unity. 30. The mind, and not the body, sin. 31. He don't like it. 32. Many a heart and home have been desolated by drink. GENERAL REVIEW. TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions to the teacher, page 255*. +Scheme for the Verb.+ (_The numbers refer to Lessons_.) VERB. Uses. To assert action, being, or state.--Predicate (4, 11) To assume action, being, or state. Participles (37) Infinitives (40) Classes. Form. Regular (92). Irregular (92, 132, 133). (Redundant and Defective) Meaning. Transitive (92). Intransitive (92). Modifications. Voice. Active (129, 130). Passive (129, 130). Mode. Indicative (131, 134-137). Potential (131, 134-137). Subjunctive (131, 134-137, 140). Imperative (131, 134-137). Tense. Present. | Past. | Future. + 131, 134-138, Present Perfect.| 140, 141. Past Perfect. | Future Perfect. | Number. Singular. + 131, 134, 135. Plural. | Person. First. | Second. + 131, 134, 135. Third. | Participles.--Classes. Present. | Past. + 131, 134, 136. Past Perfect. | Infinitives.-- Present. | Present Perfect.| 131, 134, 135. +Questions on the Verb+. 1. Define the verb and its classes.--Lessons 92, 132. 2. Define the modifications of the verb.--Lessons 129, 131. 3. Define the several voices, modes, and tenses.--Lessons 129, 131. 4. Define the participle and its classes.--Lesson 131. 5. Define the infinitive.--Lesson 131. 6. Give a synopsis of a regular and of an irregular verb in all the different forms.--Lessons 134, 135, 136, 137. 7. Analyze the different mode and tense forms, and give the functions of the different tenses.--Lesson 138. 8. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of the mode and tense forms, and of the person and number forms.--Lessons 140, 141, 142. * * * * * LESSON 143. REVIEW QUESTIONS. _Lesson_ 112.--What are Modifications? Have English words many inflections? Have they lost any? What is Number? Define the singular and the plural number. How is the plural of nouns regularly formed? In what ways may the plural be formed irregularly? Illustrate. _Lesson_ 113.--Give the plural of some nouns adopted from other languages. How do compounds form the plural? Illustrate the several ways. How do letters, figures, etc. form the plural? Illustrate. _Lesson_ 114.--Give examples of nouns having each two plurals differing in meaning. Some which have the same form in both numbers. Some which have no plural. Some which are always plural. What is said of the number of collective nouns? _Lesson_ 116.--In what four ways may the number of nouns be determined? Illustrate. _Lesson_ 117.--What is Gender? Define the different genders. What is the difference between sex and gender? The gender of English nouns follows what? Have English nouns a neuter form? Have all English nouns a masculine and a feminine form? In what three ways may the masculine of nouns be distinguished from the feminine? Illustrate. Give the three gender forms of the pronoun. _Lesson_ 118.--How is gender in grammar important? When is the pronoun of the masculine gender used? When is the neuter pronoun _it_ used? By the aid of what pronouns are inanimate things personified? In personification, when is the masculine pronoun used, and when is the feminine? Illustrate. What is the Caution relating to gender? _Lesson_ 119.--What is Person? Is the person of nouns marked by form? Define the three persons. When is a noun in the first person? In the second person? What classes of words have distinctive person forms? Why is person regarded in grammar? What is Case? Define the three cases. What is the case of a noun used independently? Of an explanatory modifier? Of an objective complement? Of a noun or pronoun used as attribute complement? Illustrate all these. _Lesson_ 121.--What is Parsing? Illustrate the parsing of nouns. * * * * * LESSON 144. REVIEW QUESTIONS. _Lesson_ 122.--How many case forms have nouns, and what are they? How is the possessive of nouns in the singular formed? Of nouns in the plural? Illustrate. What is the possessive sign? To which word of compound names or of groups of words treated as such is the sign added? Illustrate. Instead of the possessive form, what may be used? Illustrate. _Lesson_ 123.--In what case alone can mistakes in the construction of nouns occur? Illustrate the Cautions relating to possessive forms. _Lesson_ 124.--What is Declension? Decline _girl_ and _tooth_. Decline the several personal pronouns, the relative and the interrogative. What adjective pronouns are declined wholly or in part? Illustrate. _Lesson_ 125.--What words in the language have each three different case forms? What are the nominative, and what the objective, forms of the pronouns? _Lesson_ 127.--What one modification have adjectives? What is Comparison? Define the three degrees. How are adjectives regularly compared? What are the Rules for Spelling? Illustrate them. How are adjectives of more than one syllable generally compared? How are degrees of diminution expressed? Can all adjectives be compared? Illustrate. How are some adverbs compared? Illustrate the irregular comparison of adjectives and adverbs. _Lesson_ 128.--To how many things does the comparative degree refer? What does it imply? Explain the office of the superlative. What word usually follows the comparative, and what the superlative? Give the Cautions relating to the use of comparatives and superlatives, and illustrate them fully. _Lesson_ 129.--What is Voice? Of what class of verbs is it a modification? Name and define the two voices. When is the one voice used, and when the other? Into what may the passive form be resolved? Illustrate. What may be mistaken for a verb in the passive voice? Illustrate. _Lesson_ 130.--In changing a verb from the active to the passive, what does the object complement become? How may an intransitive verb sometimes be made transitive? Illustrate. * * * * * LESSON 145. REVIEW QUESTIONS. _Lesson_ 131.--What is Mode? Define the four modes. What is Tense? Define the six tenses. Define the infinitive. Define the participle. Define the classes of participles. What are the number and person of a verb? _Lesson_ 132.--What is Conjugation? Synopsis? What are auxiliary verbs? Name them. What are the principal parts of a verb? What are redundant and what are defective verbs? _Lesson_ 134.--How many inflectional forms may irregular verbs have? How many have regular verbs? What is said of the subjunctive mode? Of _to_ with the infinitive? How is a verb conjugated in the emphatic form? _Lesson_ 136.--How is a verb conjugated in the progressive form? How is a transitive verb conjugated in the passive voice? Give an example of a verb in the progressive form with a passive meaning. What does the progressive form denote? Can all verbs be conjugated in this form? Why? Give all the participles of the verbs _choose_, _break_, _drive_, _read_, _lift_. _Lesson_ 137.--How may a verb be conjugated interrogatively? Negatively? Illustrate. How may a question with negation be expressed in the indicative and potential modes? _Lesson_ 138.--Into what may the compound, or periphrastic, forms of the verb be resolved? Illustrate fully. What is said of the participle in _have written_, _had written_, etc.? Give and illustrate the several uses of the six tenses. _Lesson_ 140.--Show how the general Caution for the use of the verb is frequently violated. When does a conditional or a concessive clause require the verb to be in the indicative? Illustrate. When is the subjunctive used? Illustrate the many uses of the subjunctive. _Lesson_ 141.--Give and illustrate the general Caution relating to mode and tense forms. Give and illustrate the Caution in regard to _will_ and _would_, _shall_ and _should_. _Lesson_ 142.--Give and illustrate the Cautions relating to the agreement of verbs and pronouns. Illustrate the exceptions and the Remarks. * * * * * ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS. +Suggestions for the Study of the following Selections.+ +TO THE TEACHER+.--The pupil has now reached a point where he can afford to drop the diagram--its mission for him is fulfilled. For him to continue its use with these "Additional Examples," unless it be to outline the relations of clauses or illustrate peculiar constructions, is needless; he will merely be repeating that with which he is already familiar. These extracts are not given for full analysis or parsing. This, also, the pupil would find profitless, and for the same reason. One gains nothing in doing what he already does well enough--progress is not made in climbing the wheel of a treadmill. But the pupil may here review what has been taught him of the uses of adjective pronouns, of the relatives in restrictive and in unrestrictive clauses, of certain idioms, of double negatives, of the split infinitive, of the subjunctive mode, of the distinctions in meaning between allied verbs, as _lie_ and _lay_, of certain prepositions, of punctuation, etc. He should study the general character of each sentence, its divisions and subdivisions, the relations of the independent and the dependent parts, and their connection, order, etc. He should note the +periodic structure+ of some of these sentences--of (4) or (19), for instance--the meaning of which remains in suspense till near or at the close. He should note in contrast the +loose structure+ of others--for example, the last sentence in (20)--a sentence that has several points at any one of which a complete thought has been expressed, but the part of the sentence following does not, by itself, make complete sense. Let him try to see which structure is the more natural, and which is the more forcible, and why; and what style gains by a judicious blending of the two. Especially should the pupil look at the thought in these prose extracts and at the manner in which it is expressed. This will lead him to take a step or two over into the field of literature. If the attempt is made, one condition seems imperative--the pupil should thoroughly understand what the author says. We know no better way to secure this than to exact of him a careful reproduction in his own words of the author's thought. This will reveal to him the differences between his work and the original; and bring into relief the peculiarity of each author's style--the stateliness of De Quincey's, for instance, the vividness of Webster's, the oratorical character of Macaulay's, the ruggedness of Carlyle's, the poetical beauty of Emerson's, the humor of Irving's, and the brilliancy of Holmes's--the last lines from whom are purposely stilted, as we learn from the context. The pupil may see how ellipses and transpositions and imagery abound in poetry, and how, in the use of these particulars, poets differ from each other. He may note that poems are not pitched in the same key--that the extracts from Wordsworth and Goldsmith and Cowper, for example, deal with common facts and in a homely way, that the one from Lowell is in a higher key, while that from Shelley is all imagination, and is crowded with audacious imagery, all exquisite except in the first line, where the moon, converted by metaphor into a maiden, has that said of her that is inconsistent with her in her new character. 1. It is thought by some people that all those stars which you see glittering so restlessly on a keen, frosty night in a high latitude, and which seem to have been sown broadcast with as much carelessness as grain lies on a threshing-floor, here showing vast zaarahs of desert blue sky, there again lying close, and to some eyes presenting "The beauteous semblance of a flock at rest," are, in fact, gathered into zones or _strata_; that our own wicked little earth, with the whole of our peculiar solar system, is a part of such a zone; and that all this perfect geometry of the heavens, these _radii_ in the mighty wheel, would become apparent, if we, the spectators, could but survey it from the true center; which center may be far too distant for any vision of man, naked or armed, to reach.--_De Quincey_ 2. On this question of principle, while actual suffering was yet afar off, they [our fathers] raised their flag against a power to which, for purposes of foreign conquest and subjugation, Rome, in the height of her glory, is not to be compared--a power which has dotted over the surface of the whole globe with her possessions and military posts; whose morning drum-beat, following the sun and keeping company with the hours, circles the earth with one continuous and unbroken strain of the martial airs of England.--_Webster_. 3. In some far-away and yet undreamt-of hour, I can even imagine that England may cast all thoughts of possessive wealth back to the barbaric nations among whom they first arose; and that, while the sands of the Indus and adamant of Golconda may yet stiffen the housings of the charger and flash from the turban of the slave, she, as a Christian mother, may at last attain to the virtues and the treasures of a Heathen one, and be able to lead forth her Sons, saying, "These are my Jewels."--_Ruskin_. 4. And, when those who have rivaled her [Athens's] greatness shall have shared her fate; when civilization and knowledge shall have fixed their abode in distant continents; when the scepter shall have passed away from England; when, perhaps, travelers from distant regions shall in vain labor to decipher on some moldering pedestal the name of our proudest chief, shall hear savage hymns chanted to some misshapen idol over the ruined dome of our proudest temple, and shall see a single naked fisherman wash his nets in the river of the ten thousand masts,--her influence and her glory will still survive, fresh in eternal youth, exempt from mutability and decay, immortal as the intellectual principle from which they derived their origin, and over which they exercise their control.--_Macaulay_. 5. To him who in the love of Nature holds Communion with her visible forms, she speaks A various language; for his gayer hours She has a voice of gladness and a smile And eloquence of beauty, and she glides Into his darker musings with a mild And healing sympathy, that steals away Their sharpness ere he is aware. When thoughts Of the last, bitter hour come like a blight Over thy spirit, and sad images Of the stern agony and shroud and pall And breathless darkness and the narrow house Make thee to shudder and grow sick at heart,-- Go forth under the open sky, and list To Nature's teachings, while from all around-- Earth and her waters and the depths of air-- Comes a still voice.--_Bryant_. 6. Pleasant it was, when woods were green, And winds were soft and low, To lie amid some sylvan scene, Where, the long drooping boughs between, Shadows dark and sunlight sheen Alternate come and go; Or where the denser grove receives No sunlight from above, But the dark foliage interweaves In one unbroken roof of leaves, Underneath whose sloping eaves The shadows hardly move.--_Longfellow_. 7. I like the lad who, when his father thought To clip his morning nap by hackneyed praise Of vagrant worm by early songster caught, Cried, "Served him right! 'tis not at all surprising; The worm was punished, sir, for early rising."--_Saxe_. 8. There were communities, scarce known by name In these degenerate days, but once far-famed, Where liberty and justice, hand in hand, Ordered the common weal; where great men grew Up to their natural eminence, and none Saving the wise, just, eloquent, were great; Where power was of God's gift to whom he gave Supremacy of merit--the sole means And broad highway to power, that ever then Was meritoriously administered, Whilst all its instruments, from first to last, The tools of state for service high or low, Were chosen for their aptness to those ends Which virtue meditates.--_Henry Taylor_. 9. Stranger, these gloomy boughs Had charms for him; and here he loved to sit, His only visitant a straggling sheep, The stone-chat, or the glancing sand-piper; And on these barren rocks, with fern and heath And juniper and thistle sprinkled o'er, Fixing his downcast eye, he many an hour A morbid pleasure nourished, tracing here An emblem of his own unfruitful life; And, lifting up his head, he then would gaze On the more distant scene,--how lovely 't is Thou seest,--and he would gaze till it became Far lovelier, and his heart could not sustain The beauty, still more beauteous.--_Wordsworth_. 10. But, when the next sun brake from underground, Then, those two brethren slowly with bent brows Accompanying, the sad chariot-bier Past like a shadow thro' the field, that shone Full-summer, to that stream whereon the barge, Pall'd all its length in blackest samite, lay. There sat the life-long creature of the house, Loyal, the dumb old servitor, on deck, Winking his eyes, and twisted all his face. So those two brethren from the chariot took And on the black decks laid her in her bed, Set in her hand a lily, o'er her hung The silken case with braided blazonings, And kiss'd her quiet brows, and, saying to her, "Sister, farewell forever," and again, "Farewell, sweet sister," parted all in tears.--_Tennyson_ 11. Good name in man and woman, dear my lord, Is the immediate jewel of their souls. Who steals my purse steals trash; 't is something, nothing; 'T was mine, 't is his, and has been slave to thousands; But he that filches from me my good name Robs me of that which not enriches him, And makes me poor indeed.--_Shakespeare_. 12. When I consider how my light is spent Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide, And that one talent, which is death to hide, Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent To serve therewith my Maker, and present My true account, lest he, returning, chide,-- "Doth God exact day-labor, light denied?" I fondly ask: but Patience, to prevent That murmur, soon replies, "God doth not need Either man's work or his own gifts; who best Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best: his state Is kingly; thousands at his bidding speed, And post o'er land and ocean without rest; They also serve who only stand and wait." --_Milton_.--_Sonnet on his Blindness_. 13. Ah! on Thanksgiving Day, when from East and from West, From North and from South come the pilgrim and guest; When the gray-haired New-Englander sees round his board The old broken links of affection restored; When the care-wearied man seeks his mother once more, And the worn matron smiles where the girl smiled before,-- What moistens the lip, and what brightens the eye? What calls back the past like the rich pumpkin-pie? --_Whittier_. 14. That orbed maiden with white fire laden, Whom mortals call the moon, Glides glimmering o'er my fleece-like floor, By the midnight breezes strewn; And wherever the beat of her unseen feet, Which only the angels hear, May have broken the woof of my tent's thin roof, The stars peep behind her and peer; And I laugh to see them whirl and flee Like a swarm of golden bees, When I widen the rent in my wind-built tent, Till the calm rivers, lakes, and seas, Like strips of the sky fallen through me on high, Are each paved with the moon and these. --_Shelley.--The Cloud_. 15. Sweet was the sound, when oft, at evening's close, Up yonder hill the village murmur rose. There, as I passed with careless steps and slow, The mingling notes came softened from below; The swain responsive as the milk-maid sung, The sober herd that lowed to meet their young, The noisy geese that gabbled o'er the pool, The playful children just let loose from school, The watch-dog's voice that bayed the whispering wind, And the loud laugh that spoke the vacant mind,-- These all in sweet confusion sought the shade, And filled each pause the nightingale had made. --_Goldsmith_. 16. To sit on rocks, to muse o'er flood and fell, To slowly trace the forest's shady scene, Where things that own not man's dominion dwell, And mortal foot hath ne'er or rarely been; To climb the trackless mountain all unseen, With the wild flock that never needs a fold; Alone o'er steeps and foaming falls to lean;-- This is not solitude; 't is but to hold Converse with nature's charms, and view her stores unrolled. --_Byron_. 17. The drawbridge dropped with a surly clang, And through the dark arch a charger sprang, Bearing Sir Launfal, the maiden knight, In his gilded mail, that flamed so bright It seemed the dark castle had gathered all Those shafts the fierce sun had shot over its wall In his siege of three hundred summers long, And, binding them all in one blazing sheaf, Had cast them forth; so, young and strong And lightsome as a locust leaf, Sir Launfal flashed forth in his maiden mail To seek in all climes for the Holy Grail.--_Lowell_. 18. Be it a weakness, it deserves some praise,-- We love the play-place of our early days; The scene is touching, and the heart is stone That feels not at the sight, and feels at none. The wall on which we tried our graving skill, The very name we carved subsisting still; The bench on which we sat while deep employed, Tho' mangled, hacked, and hewed, not yet destroyed; The little ones, unbuttoned, glowing hot, Playing our games, and on the very spot, As happy as we once, to kneel and draw The chalky ring and knuckle down at taw, To pitch the ball into the grounded hat, Or drive it devious with a dexterous pat;-- The pleasing spectacle at once excites Such recollection of our own delights That, viewing it, we seem almost t' obtain Our innocent, sweet, simple years again.--_Cowper_. 19. Considering our present advanced state of culture, and how the torch of science has now been brandished and borne about, with more or less effect, for five thousand years and upwards; how, in these times especially, not only the torch still burns, and perhaps more fiercely than ever, but innumerable rush-lights and sulphur-matches, kindled thereat, are also glancing in every direction, so that not the smallest cranny or doghole in nature or art can remain unilluminated,--it might strike the reflective mind with some surprise that hitherto little or nothing of a fundamental character, whether in the way of philosophy or history, has been written on the subject of Clothes.--_Carlyle_. 20. When we see one word of a frail man on the throne of France tearing a hundred thousand sons from their homes, breaking asunder the sacred ties of domestic life, sentencing myriads of the young to make murder their calling and rapacity their means of support, and extorting from nations their treasures to extend this ruinous sway, we are ready to ask ourselves, Is not this a dream? and, when the sad reality comes home to us, we blush for a race which can stoop to such an abject lot. At length, indeed, we see the tyrant humbled, stripped of power, but stripped by those who, in the main, are not unwilling to play the despot on a narrower scale, and to break down the spirit of nations under the same iron sway.--_Channing_. 21. There are days which occur in this climate, at almost any season of the year, wherein the world reaches its perfection; when the air, the heavenly bodies, and the earth make a harmony, as if Nature would indulge her offspring; when, in these bleak upper sides of the planet, nothing is to desire that we have heard of the happiest latitudes, and we bask in the shining hours of Florida and Cuba; when everything that has life gives sign of satisfaction, and the cattle that lie on the ground seem to have great and tranquil thoughts.---_Emerson_. 22. Did you never, in walking in the fields, come across a large flat stone, which had lain, nobody knows how long, just where you found it, with the grass forming a little hedge, as it were, all round it, close to its edges; and have you not, in obedience to a kind of feeling that told you it had been lying there long enough, insinuated your stick or your foot or your fingers under its edge, and turned it over as a housewife turns a cake, when she says to herself, "It's done brown enough by this time"? But no sooner is the stone turned and the wholesome light of day let upon this compressed and blinded community of creeping things than all of them which enjoy the luxury of legs--and some of them have a good many--rush round wildly, butting each other and everything in their way, and end in a general stampede for underground retreats from the region poisoned by sunshine. Next year you will find the grass growing tall and green where the stone lay; the ground-bird builds her nest where the beetle had his hole; the dandelion and the buttercup are growing there, and the broad fans of insect-angels open and shut over their golden disks, as the rhythmic waves of blissful consciousness pulsate through their glorified being.--_Holmes_. 23. There is a different and sterner path;--I know not whether there be any now qualified to tread it; I am not sure that even one has ever followed it implicitly, in view of the certain meagerness of its temporal rewards, and the haste wherewith any fame acquired in a sphere so thoroughly ephemeral as the Editor's must be shrouded by the dark waters of oblivion. This path demands an ear ever open to the plaints of the wronged and the suffering, though they can never repay advocacy, and those who mainly support newspapers will be annoyed and often exposed by it; a heart as sensitive to oppression and degradation in the next street as if they were practiced in Brazil or Japan; a pen as ready to expose and reprove the crimes whereby wealth is amassed and luxury enjoyed in our own country at this hour as if they had been committed only by Turks or pagans in Asia some centuries ago.--_Greeley_. 24. To sweeten the beverage, a lump of sugar was laid beside each cup, and the company alternately nibbled and sipped with great decorum, until an improvement was introduced by a shrewd and economical old lady, which was to suspend a large lump directly over the tea-table, by a string from the ceiling, so that it could be swung from mouth to mouth--an ingenious expedient, which is still kept up by some families in Albany, but which prevails without exception in Communipaw, Bergen, Platbush, and all our uncontaminated Dutch villages.--_Irving_. * * * * * COMPOSITION. LESSON 146. SUMMARY OF RULES FOR CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION. CAPITAL LETTERS, TERMINAL MARKS, AND THE COMMA. +Capital Letters+.--The first word of (1) a sentence, (2) a line of poetry, (3) a direct quotation making complete sense or a direct question introduced into a sentence, and (4) phrases or clauses separately numbered or paragraphed should begin with a capital letter. Begin with a capital letter (5) proper names (including all names of the Deity), and words derived from them, (6) names of things vividly personified, and (7) most abbreviations. Write in capital letters (8) the words I and 0, and (9) numbers in the Roman notation. [Footnote: Small letters are often used in referring to sections, chapters, etc.] +Period+.--Place a period after (1) a declarative or an imperative sentence, (2) an abbreviation, (3) a number written in the Roman notation, and (4) Arabic figures used to enumerate. +Interrogation Point+.--Every direct interrogative sentence or clause should be followed by an interrogation point. +Exclamation Point+.--All exclamatory expressions must be followed by the exclamation point. +Comma+.--Set off by the comma (1) an explanatory modifier which does not restrict the modified term or combine closely with it; (2) a participle used as an adjective modifier, with the words belonging to it, unless restrictive; (3) the adjective clause when not restrictive; (4) the adverb clause, unless it closely follows and restricts the word it modifies; (5) a phrase out of its usual order or not closely connected with the word it modifies; (6) a word or phrase independent or nearly so; (7) a direct quotation introduced into a sentence, unless formally introduced; (8) a noun clause used as an attribute complement; and (9) a term connected to another by _or_ and having the same meaning. Separate by the comma (10) connected words and phrases, unless all the conjunctions are expressed; (11) co-ordinate clauses when short and closely connected; and (12) the parts of a compound predicate, and other phrases, when long or differently modified. Use the comma (13) to denote an omission of words; (14) after _as_, _namely_, etc., introducing illustrations; and (15) when it is needed to prevent ambiguity. +Direction+.--_Give the Rule for each capital letter and each mark of punctuation in these sentences, except the colon, the semicolon, and the quotation marks_:-- 1. Francis II., Charles IX., and Henry III., three sons of Catherine de Medici and Henry II., sat upon the French throne. 2. The pupil asked, "When shall I use _O_, and when shall I use _oh?_" 3. Purity of style forbids us to use: 1. Foreign words; 2. Obsolete words; 3. Low words, or slang. 4. It is easy, Mistress Dial, for you, who have always, as everybody knows, set yourself up above me, to accuse me of laziness. 5. He rushed into the field, and, foremost fighting, fell. 6. The Holy Land was, indeed, among the early conquests of the Saracens, Caliph Omar having, in 637 A. D., taken Jerusalem. 7. He who teaches, often learns himself. 8. San Salvador, Oct. 12, 1492. 9. Some letters are superfluous; as, _c_ and _q_. 10. No sleep till morn, when Youth and Pleasure meet To chase the glowing hours with flying feet! Direction.--_Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctuation in these sentences, and give your reasons:_-- 1. and lo from the assembled crowd there rose a shout prolonged and loud that to the ocean seemed to say take her o bridegroom old and gray 2. a large rough mantle of sheepskin fastened around the loins by a girdle or belt of hide was the only covering of that strange solitary man elijah the tishbite 3. The result however of the three years' reign or tyranny of jas ii was that wm of orange came over from holland and without shedding a drop of blood became a d 1688 wm in of england 4. _o_ has three sounds: 1. that in _not_; 2. that in _note_; 3. that in _move_ 5. lowell asks and what is so rare as a day in June 6. spring is a fickle mistress but summer is more staid 7. if i may judge by his gorgeous colors and the exquisite sweetness and variety of his music autumn is i should say the poet of the family 8. new york apr 30 1789 9. some letters stand each for many sounds; as _a_ and _o_ * * * * * LESSON 147. SUMMARY OF RULES--CONTINUED. SEMICOLON AND COLON. +Semicolon+.--Co-ordinate clauses, (1) when slightly connected, or (2) when themselves divided by the comma, must be separated by the semicolon. Use the semicolon (3) between serial phrases or clauses having a common dependence on something which precedes or follows; and (4) before _as_, _to wit_, _namely_, _i_. _e_., and _that is_, when they introduce examples or illustrations. +Direction+.--_Justify each capital letter and each mark of punctuation (except the colon) in these sentences_:-- 1. It may cost treasure, and it may cost blood; but it will stand, and it will richly compensate for both. 2. Some words are delightful to the ear; as, _Ontario_, _golden_, _oriole_. 3. The shouts of revelry had died away; the roar of the lion had ceased; the last loiterer had retired from the banquet; and the lights in the palace of the victor were extinguished. 4. Send it to the public halls; proclaim it there; let them hear it who heard the first roar of the enemy's cannon; let them see it who saw their brothers and their sons fall on the field of Bunker Hill: and the very walls will cry out in its support. +Direction+.---_Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctuation in these sentences, and give your reasons_:-- 1. all parts of a plant reduce to three namely root stem and leaf 2. when the world is dark with tempests when thunder rolls and lightning flies thou lookest in thy beauty from the clouds and laughest at the storm 3. the oaks of the mountains fall the mountains themselves decay with years the ocean shrinks and grows again the moon herself is lost in heaven 4. kennedy taking from her a handkerchief edged with gold pinned it over her eyes the executioners holding her by the arms led her to the block and the queen kneeling down said repeatedly with a firm voice into thy hands o lord i commend my spirit +Colon+.--Use the colon (1) between the parts of a sentence when these parts are themselves divided by the semicolon, and (2) before a quotation or an enumeration of particulars when formally introduced. +Direction+.--_Justify each capital letter and each mark of punctuation in these sentences_:-- 1. You may swell every expense, and strain every effort, still more extravagantly; accumulate every assistance you can beg and borrow; traffic and barter with every little, pitiful German prince that sells and sends his subjects to the shambles of a foreign country: your efforts are forever vain and impotent. 2. This is a precept of Socrates: "Know thyself." +Direction+.--_Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctuation in these sentences, and give your reasons_:-- 1. the advice given ran thus take care of the minutes and the hours will take care of themselves 2. we may abound in meetings and movements enthusiastic gatherings in the field and forest may kindle all minds with a common sentiment but it is all in vain if men do not retire from the tumult to the silent culture of every right disposition +Direction+.---_Write sentences illustrating the several uses of the semicolon, the colon, and the comma_. * * * * * LESSON 148. SUMMARY OF RULES--CONTINUED. THE DASH, MARKS OF PARENTHESIS, APOSTROPHE, HYPHEN, QUOTATION MARKS, AND BRACKETS. +Dash+.--Use the dash where there is an omission (1) of letters or figures, and (2) of such words as _as_, _namely_, or _that is_, introducing illustrations or equivalent expressions. Use the dash (3) where the sentence breaks off abruptly, and the same thought is resumed after a slight suspension, or another takes its place; and (4) before a word or phrase repeated at intervals for emphasis. The dash may be used (5) instead of marks of parenthesis, and may (6) follow other marks, adding to their force. +Direction+.--_Justify each capital letter and each mark of punctuation in these sentences:--_ 1. The most noted kings of Israel were the first three--Saul; David, and Solomon. 2. When Mrs. B---- heard of her son's disgrace, she fainted away. 3. And--"This to me?" he said. 4. Assyria, Greece, Rome, Carthage--what are they? 5. I do not rise to supplicate you to be merciful toward the nation to which I belong,--toward a nation which, though subject to England, yet is distinct from it. 6. We know the uses--and sweet they are--of adversity. 7. His place business is 225--229 High street. +Direction+.---_Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctuation in these sentences, and give your reasons_:-- 1. the human species is composed of two distinct races those who borrow and those who lend 2. this bill this infamous bill the way it has been received by the house the manner in which its opponents have been treated the personalities to which they have been subjected all these things dissipate my doubts 3. the account of a _____'s shame fills pp 1 19 4. lord marmion turned well was his need and dashed the rowels in his steed +Marks of Parenthesis+.--Marks of parenthesis may be used to inclose what has no essential connection with the rest of the sentence. +Apostrophe+.--Use the apostrophe (1) to mark the omission of letters, (2) in the pluralizing of letters, figures, and characters, and (3) to distinguish the possessive from other cases. +Hyphen+.--Use the hyphen (-) (1) to join the parts of compound words, and (2) between syllables when a word is divided. +Quotation Marks+.--Use quotation marks to inclose a copied word or passage. If the quotation contains a quotation, the latter is inclosed within single marks. (See Lesson 74.) +Brackets+.--Use brackets [ ] to inclose what, in quoting another's words, you insert by way of explanation or correction. +Direction+.--_Justify the marks of punctuation used in these sentences_:-- 1. Luke says, Acts xxi. 15, "We took up our carriages [luggage], and went up to Jerusalem." 2. The last sentence of the composition was, "I close in the words of Patrick Henry, 'Give me liberty, or give me death.'" 3. _Red-hot_ is a compound adjective. 4. _Telegraph_ is divided thus: _tel_-_e_-_graph_. 5. The profound learning of Sir William Jones (he was master of twenty-eight languages) was the wonder of his contemporaries. 6. By means of the apostrophe you know that _love_ in _mother's love_ is a noun, and that i's isn't a verb. +Direction+.---_Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctuation in these sentences, and give your reasons_:-- 1. next to a conscience void of offense without which by the bye life isnt worth the living is the enjoyment of the social feelings 2. man the life boat 3. don't neglect in writing to dot your _is_ cross your _ts_ and make your 7_s_ unlike your 9_s_ and don't in speaking omit the _hs_ from such words as _which_ _when_ and _why_ or insert _rs_ in _law_ _saw_ and _raw_ 4. the scriptures tell us take no thought anxiety for the morrow 5. The speaker said american oratory rose to its high water mark in that great speech ending liberty and union now and forever one and inseparable * * * * * LESSON 149. CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION--REVIEW. +Direction+.--_Give the reason for each capital letter and each mark of punctuation in these sentences_:-- 1. A bigot's mind is like the pupil of the eye; the more light you pour upon it, the more it contracts. 2. This is the motto of the University of Oxford: "The Lord is my light." 3. The only fault ever found with him is, that he sometimes fights ahead of his orders. 4. The land flowing with "milk and honey" (see Numbers xiv. 8) was a long, narrow strip, lying along the eastern edge, or coast, of the Mediterranean, and consisted of three divisions; namely, 1. On the north, Galilee; 2. On the south, Judea; 3, In the middle, Samaria. 5. "What a lesson," Trench well says, "the word 'diligence' contains!" 6. An honest man, my neighbor,--there he stands-- Was struck--struck like a dog, by one who wore The badge of Ursini. 7. Thou, too, sail on, 0 Ship of State; Sail on, 0 Union, strong and great. 8. O'Connell asks, "The clause which does away with trial by jury--what, in the name of H----n, is it, if it is not the establishment of a revolutionary tribunal?" 9. There are only three departments of the mind--the intellect, the feelings, and the will. 10. This--trial! 11. American nationality has made the desert to bud and blossom as the rose; it has quickened to life the giant brood of useful arts; it has whitened lake and ocean with the sails of a daring, new, and lawful trade; it has extended to exiles, flying as clouds, the asylum of our better liberty. 12. As I saw him [Weoster, the day before his great reply to Col. Hayne of South Carolina] in the evening, (if I may borrow an illustration from his favorite amusement) he was as unconcerned and as free of spirit as some here present have seen him while floating in his fishing-boat along a hazy shore, gently rocking on the tranquil tide, dropping his line here and there, with the varying fortune of the sport. The next morning he was like some mighty admiral, dark and terrible, casting the long shadow of his frowning tiers far over the sea, that seemed to sink beneath him; his broad pendant [pennant] streaming at the main, the stars and the stripes at the fore, the mizzen, and the peak; and bearing down like a tempest upon his antagonist, with all his canvas strained to the wind, and all his thunders roaring from his broadsides. 13. The "beatitudes" are found in Matt. v. 3--11. TO THE TEACHER.--If further work in punctuation is needed, require the pupils to justify the punctuation of the sentences beginning page 314. * * * * * LESSON 150. QUALITIES OF STYLE. +Style+ is the manner in which one expresses himself. Styles differ as men differ. But there are some cardinal qualities that all good style must possess. I. +Perspicuity.+--Perspicuity is opposed to obscurity of all kinds; it means clearness of expression. It demands that the thought in the sentence shall be plainly seen through the words of the sentence. Perspicuity is an indispensable quality of style; if the thought is not understood, or it is misunderstood, its expression might better have been left unattempted. Perspicuity depends mainly upon these few things:-- 1. +One's Clear Understanding of What One Attempts to Say.+--You cannot express to others more than you thoroughly know, or make your thought clearer to them than it is to yourself. 2. +The Unity of the Sentence.+--Many thoughts, or thoughts having no natural and close connection with each other, should not be crowded into one sentence. 3. +The Use of the Right Words.+--Use such words as convey your thought--each word expressing exactly your idea, no more, no less, no other. Use words in the senses recognized by the best authority. Do not omit words when they are needed, and do not use a superfluity of them. Be cautious in the use of _he_, _she_, _it_, and _they_. Use simple words--words which those who are addressed can readily understand. Avoid what are called bookish, inkhorn, terms; shun words that have passed out of use, and those that have no footing in the language--foreign words, words newly coined, and slang. 4. +A Happy Arrangement.+--The relations of single words to each other, of phrases to the words they modify, and of clauses to one another should be obvious at a glance. The sentence should not need rearrangement in order to disclose the meaning. Sentences should stand in the paragraph so that the beginning of each shall tally exactly in thought with the sentence that precedes; and the ending of each, with the sentence that follows. Every paragraph should be a unit in thought, distinct from other paragraphs, holding to them the relation that its own sentences hold to one another, the relation that the several parts of each sentence hold to one another. II. +Energy+.--By energy we mean force, vigor, of expression. In ordinary discourse, it is not often sought, and in no discourse is it constantly sought. We use energy when we wish to convince the intellect, arouse the feelings, and capture the will--lead one to do something. When energetic, we select words and images for strength and not for beauty; choose specific, and not general, terms; prefer the concrete to the abstract; use few words and crowd these with meaning; place subordinate clauses before the independent; and put the strongest word in the clause, the strongest clause in the sentence, the strongest sentence in the paragraph, and the strongest paragraph in the discourse, last. Energetic thought seeks variety of expression, is usually charged with intense feeling, and requires impassioned delivery. III. +Imagery--Figures of Speech+.--Things stand in many relations to each other. Some +things are (1) like each other+ in some particular; other +things are (2) unlike each other+ in some particular; and still other +things stand to each other (3)+ in some +other+ noteworthy +relation than+ that of +likeness+ or +unlikeness+. Things long seen and associated by us in any of these relations come at last readily to suggest each other. +Figures of Speech+ are those expressions in which, departing from our ordinary manner in speaking of things, we assert or assume any of these notable relations. The first and great service of imagery is to the thought--it makes the thought clearer and stronger. Imagery adds beauty to style--a diamond brooch may adorn as well as do duty to the dress. A +Simile+, or +Comparison+, is a figure of speech in which we point out or assert a likeness between things otherwise unlike; as, The gloom of despondency _hung like a cloud_ over the land. A +Metaphor+ is a figure of speech in which, assuming the likeness between two things, we bring over and apply to one of them the term that denotes the other; as, A stately _squadron of snowy_ geese were _riding_ in an adjoining pond. A +Personification+ is a figure of speech in which things are raised to a plane of being above their own--to or toward that of persons. It +raises+ (1) +mere things to+ the plane of +animals+; as, The _sea licks_ your feet, its huge _flanks purr_ pleasantly for you. It raises (2) +mere animals to+ the plane of +persons+; as, So _talked_ the spirited, sly _Snake_. It +raises+ (3) +mere things to+ the plane of +persons+; as, _Earth_ fills her _lap_ with pleasures of _her_ own. An +Antithesis+ is a figure of speech in which things mutually opposed in some particular are set over against each other; as, The _mountains give_ their lost children _berries_ and _water_; the _sea mocks_ their _thirst_ and _lets_ them _die_. A +Metonymy+ is a figure of speech in which the name of one thing connected to another by a relation other than likeness or unlikeness is brought over and applied to that other. The most important of these relations are (1) that of the +sign+ to the +thing signified+; (2) that of +cause+ to +effect+; (3) that of +instrument+ to the +user+ of it; (4) that of +container+ to the +thing contained+; (5) that of +material+ to the +thing made out of it+; (6) that of +contiguity+; (7) that of the +abstract+ to the +concrete+; and (8) that of +part+ to the +whole+ or of +whole+ to the +part+. This last relation has been thought so important that the metonymy based upon it has received a distinct name--+Synecdoche+. +IV. Variety+.--Variety is a quality of style opposed to monotonous uniformity. Nothing in discourse pleases us more than light and shade. In discourse properly varied, the same word does not appear with offensive frequency; long words alternate with short; the usual order now and then yields to the transposed; the verb in the assertive form frequently gives way to the participle and the infinitive, which assume; figures of speech sparkle here and there in a setting of plain language; the full method of statement is followed by the contracted; impassioned language is succeeded by the unemotional; long sentences stand side by side with short, and loose sentences with periods; declarative sentences are relieved by interrogative and exclamatory, and simple sentences by compound and complex; clauses have no rigidly fixed position; and sentences heavy with meaning and moving slowly are elbow to elbow with the light and tripping. In a word, no one form or method or matter is continued so long as to weary, and the reader is kept fresh and interested throughout. Variety is restful to the reader or hearer and therefore adds greatly to the clearness and to the force of what is addressed to him. TO THE TEACHER.--Question the pupils upon every point taken up in this Lesson and require them to give illustrations where it is possible for them to do so. * * * * * LESSON 151. PERSPICUITY--CRITICISM. +General Direction+.--_In all your work in Composition attend carefully to the punctuation_. +Direction+.--_Point out the faults, and recast these sentences, making them clear_:-- [Footnote: These four sentences and others in these Lessons, given just as we found them, have been culled from school compositions.] 1. He was locked in and so he sat still till the guard came and let him out, as soon as he stepped out on the ground, he saw the dead and dying laying about everywhere. 2. They used to ring a large bell at six o'clock in the morning for us to get up, then we had half an hour to dress in, after which we would go to Chapel exercises, then breakfast, school would commence at nine o'clock and closed at four in the afternoon allowing an hour for dinner from one until two then we would resume our studies until four in the afternoon. 3. Jewelry was worn in the time of King Pharaoh which is many thousand years before Christ in the time when the Israelites left they borrowed all the jewels of the Egyptians which were made of gold and silver. 4. When it is made of gold they can not of pure gold but has to be mixed with some other metal which is generally copper which turns it a reddish hue in some countries they use silver which gives it a whitish hue but in the United States and England they use both silver and copper but the English coins are the finest. +Direction+.--_Point out the faults, and recast these sentences, making them clear_:-- (If any one of the sentences has several meanings, give these.) 1. James's son, Charles I., before the breath was out of his body was proclaimed king in his stead. 2. He told the coachman that he would be the death of him, if he did not take care what he was about, and mind what he said. 3. Richelieu said to the king that Mazarin would carry out his policy. 4. He was overjoyed to see him, and he sent for one of his workmen, and told him to consider himself at his service. 5. Blake answered the Spanish priest that if he had sent in a complaint, he would have punished the sailors severely; but he took it ill that he set the Spaniards on to punish them. +Direction+.--_So place these subordinate clauses that they will remove the obscurity, and then see in how many ways each sentence can be arranged_:-- 1. The moon cast a pale light on the graves that were scattered around, as it peered above the horizon. 2. A large number of seats were occupied by pupils that had no backs. 3. Crusoe was surprised at seeing five canoes on the shore in which there were savages. 4. This tendency will be headed off by approximations which will be made from time to time of the written word to the spoken. 5. People had to travel on horseback and in wagons, which was a very slow way, if they traveled at all. 6. How can brethren partake of their Father's blessing that curse each other? 7. Two men will be tried for crimes in this town which are punishable with death, if a full court should attend. Direction.--_Each of these sentences may have two meanings, supply the two ellipses in each sentence, and remove the ambiguity:_-- 1. Let us trust no strength less than thine. 2. Study had more attraction for him than his friend. 3. He did not like the new teacher so well as his playmates. 4. He aimed at nothing less than the crown. 5. Lovest thou me more than these? * * * * * LESSON 152. PERSPICUITY--CRITICISM. Direction.--_So place these italicized phrases that they will remove the obscurity, and then see in how many ways each sentence can be arranged:_-- 1. These designs any man who is a Briton _in any situation_ ought to disavow. 2. The chief priests, mocking, said among themselves _with the scribes_, "He saved," etc. 3. Hay is given to horses _as well as corn_ to distend the stomach. 4. Boston has forty first class grammar-schools, _exclusive of Dorchester_. 5. He rode to town, and drove twelve cows _on horseback_. 6. He could not face an enraged father _in spite of his effrontery_. 7. Two owls sat upon a tree which grew near an old wall _out of a heap of rubbish_. 8. I spent most _on the river and in the river_ of the time I stayed there. 9. He wanted to go to sea, although it was contrary to the wishes of his parents, _at the age of eighteen_. 10. I have a wife and six children, and I have never seen _one of them._ +Direction.+--_So place the italicized words and phrases in each sentence that they will help to convey what you think is the author's thought, and then see in how many ways each sentence can be arranged:_-- 1. In Paris, every lady _in full dress_ rides. 2. I saw my friend when I was in Boston _walking down Tremont street_. 3. The Prince of Wales was forbidden to become king _or any other man_. 4. What is his coming or going _to you_? 5. We do those things _frequently_ which we repent of afterwards. 6. I rushed out leaving the wretch with his tale half told, _horror-stricken at his crime_. 7. Exclamation points are scattered up and down the page by compositors _without any mercy._ 8. I want to make a present to one who is fond of chickens _for a Christmas gift_. +Direction.+--_Make these sentences clear by using simpler words and phrases:_-- 1. _A devastating conflagration raged_. 2. He _conducted_ her to the _altar of Hymen_. 3. A donkey has an _abnormal elongation of auricular appendages_. 4. Are you _excavating a subterranean canal?_ 5. He had no _capillary substance_ on the _summit_ of his head. 6. He made a sad _faux pas_. 7. A network is anything _reticulated or decussated, with interstices at equal distances between the intersections_. 8. Diligence is the _sine qua non_ of success. 9. She has _donned the habiliments of woe_. 10. The _deceased_ was to-day _deposited in his last resting-place_. 11. The _inmates proceeded to the sanctuary_. 12. I have _partaken of my morning repast_. 13. He _took the initiative in inaugurating the ceremony_. * * * * * LESSON 153. ENERGY--CRITICISM. +Direction+.--_Expand these brief expressions into sentences full of long words, and note the loss of energy_:-- 1. To your tents, 0 Israel! 2. Up, boys, and at them! 3. Indeed! 4. Bah! 5. Don't give up the ship! 6. Murder will out. 7. Oh! 8. Silence there! 9. Hurrah! 10. Death or free speech! 11. Rascal! 12. No matter. 13. Least said, soonest mended. 14. Death to the tyrant! 15. I'll none of it. 16. Help, ho! 17. Shame on you! 18. First come, first served. +Direction+.--_Condense each of these italicized expressions into one or two words, and note the gain_:-- 1. He _shuffled off this mortal coil_ yesterday. 2. The author surpassed all _those who were living at the same time with him_. 3. To say that revelation is _a thing which there is no need of_ is to talk wildly. 4. He _departed this life_. 5. Some say that ever _'gainst that season comes wherein our Saviour's birth is celebrated_ this _bird of dawning_ singeth all night long. +Direction+.--_Change these specific words to general terms, and note the loss in energy_:--- 1. Don't _fire_ till _you see the whites of their eyes_. 2. _Break down_ the _dikes_, give Holland back to _ocean_. 3. _Three hundred men_ held the hosts of _Xerxes_ at bay. 4. I _sat_ at her _cradle_, I _followed_ her _hearse_. 5. Their _daggers_ have _stabbed_ Caesar. 6. When I'm _mad_, I _weigh a ton_. 7. _Burn_ Moscow, _starve back_ the _invaders_. 8. There's no use in _crying over spilt milk_. 9. In proportion as men delight in _battles_ and _bull-fights_ will they punish by _hanging, burning_, and the _rack_. +Direction+.--_Change these general terms to specific words, and note the gain in energy_:-- 1. Anne Boleyn was _executed_. 2. It were better for him that a _heavy weight were fastened to him_ and that he were _submerged_ in _the waste of waters_. 3. _The capital of the chosen people_ was _destroyed_ by _a Roman general_. 4. Consider the _flowers_ how they _increase in size_. 5. Caesar was _slain_ by _the conspirators_. 6. The _cities of the plain_ were _annihilated_. +Direction+.--_Arrange these words, phrases, and clauses in the order of their strength, placing the strongest last, and note the gain in energy_:-- 1. The nations of the earth repelled, surrounded, pursued, and resisted him. 2. He was no longer consul nor citizen nor general nor even an emperor, but a prisoner and an exile. 3. I shall die an American; I live an American; I was born an American. 4. All that I am, all that I hope to be, and all that I have in this life, I am now ready here to stake upon it. 5. I shall defend it without this House, in all places, and within this House; at all times, in time of peace and in time of war. 6. We must fight if we wish to be free, if we mean to preserve inviolate our rights, if we do not mean to abandon the struggle. * * * * * LESSON 154. FIGURES OF SPEECH--CRITICISM. +Direction+.--_Name the figures of speech, and then recast a few sentences, using plain language, and note the loss of beauty and force_:-- 1. Lend me your _ears_. 2. Please address the _chair_. 3. The robin knows when your grapes have _cooked_ long enough in the sun. 4. A day will come when _bullets_ and _bombs_ shall be replaced by _ballots_. 5. _Genius creates; taste appreciates what is created_. 6. Caesar were no _lion_ were not Romans _hinds_. 7. The soul of Jonathan was _knit_ to that of David. 8. _Traffic_ has _lain down_ to rest. 9. Borrowing _dulls_ _the edge_ of husbandry. 10. He will bring down my _gray hairs_ with sorrow to the grave. 11. Have you _read Froude_ or _Freeman?_ 12. The _pen_ is mightier than the _sword_. 13. If I can _catch him once upon the hip_, I will _feed fat_ the ancient grudge I bear him. 14. The destinies of mankind were _trembling in the balance_, while _death fell_ in showers. 15. The _threaded steel_ flies swiftly. 16. O Cassius, you are _yoked with a lamb_ that _carries anger as the flint bears fire_. 17. I called the _New World_ into existence to redress the balance of the Old_. 18. Nations shall _beat their swords into plowshares_, and _their spears into pruning-hooks_. 19. The _Morn_ in _russet mantle clad walks o'er the dew_ of yon high eastern hill. 20. _Homer_, like the _Nile_, pours out his riches with a _sudden overflow; Virgil_, like a _river in its banks_, with a _constant stream_. 21. The air _bites_ shrewdly. 22. He doth _bestride_ the narrow world _like a Colossus_. 23. My _heart_ is in the coffin there with Caesar. 24. All _hands_ to the pumps! 25. The _gray-eyed Morn smiles_ on the _frowning Night_. 26. The good is often buried with men's _bones_. 27. Beware of the _bottle_. 28. All nations respect our _flag_. 29. The _marble_ speaks. 30. I have no _spur to prick the sides_ of my intent. 31. I _am as constant as the northern star_. 32. Then _burst_ his mighty _heart_. 33. The ice is covered with _health_ and _beauty_ on skates. 34. Lentulus returned with _victorious eagles_. 35. _Death_ hath _sucked_ the honey of thy breath. 36. Our _chains are forged_. 37. I have _bought golden_ opinions. 38. The _hearth blazed_ high. 39. His words _fell softer than snows on the brine_. 40. _Night's candles are burnt out_, and _jocund Day stands tiptoe_ on the misty mountain top. +Direction+.--_In the first four sentences, use similes; in the second four, metaphors; in the third four, personifications; in the last eight, metonymies:--_ 1. He _flew with the swiftness of an arrow_. 2. In battle some men _are brave_, others _are cowardly_. 3. His head is as full of plans _as it can hold_. 4. I heard a _loud_ noise. 5. Boston is the _place where_ American liberty _began_. 6. Our dispositions should grow _mild_ as we _grow old_. 7. _The stars can no longer be seen_. 8. In battle some men are _brave_, others are _cowardly_. 9. The cock tears up the ground for his family of _hens_ and _chickens_. 10. The waves _were still_. 11. The oak stretches out _its_ strong _branches_. 12. The flowers are the sweet and pretty _growths_ of the earth and sun. 13. English _vessels_ plow the seas of the two _hemispheres_. 14. Have you read _Lamb's Essays_? 15. The _water_ is boiling. 16. We have prostrated ourselves before the _king_. 17. _Wretched people_ shiver in _their_ lair of straw. 18. The _soldier_ is giving way to the _husbandman_. 19. _Swords_ flashed, and _bullets_ fell. 20. His banner led the _spearmen_ no more. +Remark+.--If what is begun as a metaphor is not completed as begun, but is completed by a part of another metaphor or by plain language, we have what, is called a _mixed metaphor_. It requires great care to avoid this very common error. +Direction+.--_Correct these errors_:-- 1. The _devouring_ fire _uprooted_ the stubble. 2. The _brittle_ thread of life may be _cut_ asunder. 3. All the _ripe fruit_ of three-score years was _blighted_ in a day. 4. _Unravel_ the _obscurities_ of this _knotty_ question. 5. We must apply the _axe_ to the _fountain_ of this evil. 6. The man _stalks_ into court like a _motionless_ statue, with the _cloak_ of hypocrisy in his _mouth_. 7. The thin _mantle_ of snow _dissolved_. 8. I smell a _rat_, I see him _brewing_ in the air, but I shall yet _nip him in the bud_. * * * * * LESSON 155. VARIETY IN EXPRESSION. +Remark+.--You learned in Lessons 52, 53, 54 that the usual order may give way to the transposed; in 55, 56, that one kind of simple sentence may be changed to another; in 57, that simple sentences may be contracted; in 61, that adjectives may be expanded into clauses; in 67, that an adverb clause may stand before, between the parts of, and after, the independent clause; in 68, that an adverb clause may be contracted to a participle, a participle phrase, an absolute phrase, a prepositional phrase, that it may be contracted by the omission of words, and may be changed to an adjective clause or phrase; in 73, that a noun clause as subject may stand last, and as object complement may stand first, that it may be made prominent, and may be contracted; in 74, that direct quotations and questions may be changed to indirect, and indirect to direct; in 77, that compound sentences may be formed out of simple sentences, may be contracted to simple sentences, and may be changed to complex sentences; in 79, that participles, absolute phrases, and infinitives may be expanded into different kinds of clauses; and, in 130, that a verb may change its voice. +Direction+.--_Illustrate all these changes_. +Direction+.--_Recast these sentences, avoiding offensive repetitions of the same word or the same sounds_:-- 1. We have to have money to have a horse. 2. We sailed across a bay and sailed up a creek and sailed back and sailed in all about fourteen miles. 3. It is then put into stacks, or it is put into barns either to use it to feed it to the stock or to sell it. 4. This day we undertake to render an account to the widows and orphans whom our decision will make; to the wretches that will be roasted at the stake. 5. The news of the battle of Bunker Hill, fought on the 17th of June in the year of our Lord 1775, roused the patriotism of the people to a high pitch of enthusiasm. +Direction+.---_Using other words wholly or in part, see in how many ways you can express the thoughts contained in these sentences_:-- 1. In the profusion and recklessness of her lies, Elizabeth had no peer in England. 2. Henry IV. said that James I. was the wisest fool in Christendom. 3. Cowper's letters are charming because they are simple and natural. 4. George IV., though he was pronounced the first gentleman in Europe, was, nevertheless, a snob. * * * * * LESSON 156. THE PARAGRAPH. +The Paragraph+.--The clauses of complex sentences are so closely united in meaning that frequently they are not to be separated from each other even by the comma. The clauses of compound sentences are less closely united--a comma, a semicolon, or a colon is needed to divide them. Between sentences there exists a wider separation in meaning, marked by a period or other terminal point. But even sentences may be connected, the bond which unites them being their common relation to the thought which jointly they develop. Sentences thus related are grouped together and form, as you have already learned, what we call a Paragraph, marked by beginning the first word a little to the right of the marginal line. +Direction+.--_Notice the facts which this paragraph contains, and the relation to each other of the clauses and the sentences expressing these facts_:-- After a breeze of some sixty hours from the north and northwest, the wind died away about four o'clock yesterday afternoon. The calm continued till about nine in the evening. The mercury in the barometer fell, in the meantime, at an extraordinary rate; and the captain predicted that we should encounter a gale from the southeast. The gale came on about eleven o'clock; not violent at first, but increasing every moment. 1. A breeze from the north and northwest. 2. The wind died away. 3. A calm. 4. Barometer fell. 5. The captain predicted a gale. 6. It came on. 7. It increased in violence. +Direction+.--Give and number the facts contained in the paragraph below:-- I awoke with a confused recollection of a good deal of rolling and thumping in the night, occasioned by the dashing of the waves against the ship. Hurrying on my clothes, I found such of the passengers as could stand, at the doors of the hurricane-house, holding on, and looking out in the utmost consternation. It was still quite dark. Four of the sails were already in ribbons: the winds whistling through the cordage; the rain dashing furiously and in torrents; the noise and spray scarcely less than I found them under the great sheet at Niagara. +Direction+.---_Weave the facts below into a paragraph, supplying all you need to make the narrative smooth_:-- Rip's beard was grizzled. Fowling-piece rusty. Dress uncouth. Women and children at his heels. Attracted attention. Was eyed from head to foot. Was asked on which side he voted. Whether he was Federal or Democrat. Rip was dazed by the question. Stared in stupidity. +Direction+.---_Weave the facts below into two paragraphs, supplying what you need, and tell what each paragraph is about_:-- In place of the old tree there was a pole. This was tall and naked. A flag was fluttering from it. The flag had on it the stars and stripes. This was strange to Rip. But Rip saw something he remembered. The tavern sign. He recognized on it the face of King George. Still the picture was changed. The red coat gone. One of blue and buff in its place. A sword, and not a scepter, in the hand. Wore a cocked hat. Underneath was painted--"General Washington." * * * * * LESSON 157. THE PARAGRAPH. +Direction+.---_Weave the facts below into three paragraphs, and write on the margin what each is about_:-- The Nile rises in great lakes. Runs north. Sources two thousand miles from Alexandria. Receives two branches only. Runs through an alluvial valley. Course through the valley is 1,500 miles. Plows into the Mediterranean. Two principal channels. Minor outlets. Nile overflows its banks. Overflow caused by rains at the sources. The melting of the mountain snows. Begins at the end of June. Rises four inches daily. Rises till the close of September. Subsides. Whole valley an inland sea. Only villages above the surface. The valley very fertile. The deposit. The fertile strip is from five to one hundred and fifty miles wide. Renowned for fruitfulness. Egypt long the granary of the world. Three crops from December to June. Productions--grain, cotton, and indigo. Direction.---_Weave these facts into four paragraphs, writing the margin of each the main thought_:-- The robin is thought by some to be migratory. But he stays with us all winter. Cheerful. Noisy. Poor soloist. A spice of vulgarity in him. Dash of prose in his song. Appetite extraordinary. Eats his own weight in a short time. Taste for fruit. Eats with a relishing gulp, like Dr. Johnson's. Fond of cherries. Earliest mess of peas. Mulberries. Lion's share of the raspberries. Angleworms his delight. A few years ago I had a grapevine. A foreigner. Shy of bearing. This summer bore a score of bunches. They secreted sugar from the sunbeams. One morning, went to pick them. The robins beforehand with me. Bustled out from the leaves. Made shrill, unhandsome remarks about me. Had sacked the vine. Remnant of a single bunch. How it looked at the bottom of my basket! A humming-bird's egg in an eagle's nest. Laughed. Robins joined in the merriment. * * * * * LESSON 158. PARAGRAPHS AND THE THEME. +Direction+.--_Weave these facts into four paragraphs_:-- Note that the several paragraphs form a composition, or +Theme+, the general subject of which is WOUTER VAN TWILLER (according to Diedrich Knickerbocker). I. +Who he was+.--Van Twiller was a Dutchman. Born at Rotterdam. Descended from burgomasters. In 1629 appointed governor of Nieuw Nederlandts. Arrived in June at New Amsterdam--New York city. II. +Person+.--Was five feet six inches high, six feet five in circumference. Head spherical, and too large for any neck. Nature set it on the back-bone. Body capacious. Legs short and sturdy. A beer-barrel on skids. Face a vast, unfurrowed expanse. No lines of thought. Two small, gray eyes. Cheeks had taken toll of all that had entered his mouth. Mottled and streaked with dusky red. III. +Habits+.--Regular. Four meals daily, each an hour long. Smoked and doubted eight hours. Slept twelve. As self-contained as an oyster. Rarely spoke save in monosyllables. But never said a foolish thing. Never laughed. Perplexed by a joke. Conceived everything on a grand scale. When a question was asked, would put on a mysterious look. Shake his head. Smoke in silence. Observe, at length, he had doubts. Presided at the council, in state. Swayed a Turkish pipe instead of a scepter. Known to sit with eyes closed two hours. Internal commotion shown by guttural sounds. Noises of contending doubts, admirers said. IV. +Exploits.+--Settled a dispute about accounts thus: sent for the parties; each produced his account-book; Van T. weighed the books; counted the leaves; equally heavy; equally thick; made each give the other a receipt; and the constable pay the costs. Demanded why Van Rensselaer seized Bear's Island. Battled with doubts regarding the Yankees. Smoked and breathed his last together. +Direction.+---_Weave these facts into four paragraphs, write on the margin the special topic of each, and over the whole what you think it the general subject of the theme:--_ The prophets of Baal accept Elijah's challenge. They dress a bullock. Call on Baal. Are mocked by Elijah. Leap upon the altar. Cut themselves. Blood. Cry till the time of the evening sacrifice. No answer by fire. Elijah commands the people to come near. Repairs an old altar with twelve stones, one for each tribe. Digs a trench. Sacrifices. Pours water three times upon it. Prays. Fire falls, consumes flesh, wood, stones, dust, licks up water. People see it. Fall on their faces. Cry out twice, "The Lord, he is the God." Take the prophets to the brook Kishon, where they are slain. Elijah ascends Mount Carrael. Bows in prayer. "Go up now, look toward the sea." Servant reports, "There is nothing." "Go again seven times." "Behold there ariseth a little cloud out of the sea, like a man's hand." Orders Ahab to prepare his chariot. Girding up his loins, he runs before Ahab to Jezreel. * * * * * LESSON 159. PARAGRAPHS AND THE THEME. +Direction.+--_Weave these facts into as many paragraphs as you think there should be, using the variety of expression insisted on in Lesson 150, and write on the margin of each paragraph the special topic, and over the whole the general subject of the theme:--_ Fort Ticonderoga on a peninsula. Formed by the outlet of Lake George and by Lake Champlain. Fronts south; water on three sides. Separated by Lake Champlain from Mount Independence, and by the outlet, from Mount Defiance. Fort one hundred feet above the water. May 7, 1775, two hundred and seventy men meet at Castleton, Vermont. All but forty-six, Green Mountain boys. Meet to plan and execute an attack upon Fort T. Allen and Arnold there. Each claims the command. Question left to the officers. Allen chosen. On evening of the 9th, they reach the lake. Difficulty in crossing. Send for a scow. Seize a boat at anchor. Search, and find small row boats. Only eighty-three able to cross. Day is dawning when these reach the shore. Not prudent to wait. Allen orders all who will follow him to poise their firelocks. Every man responds. Nathan Beman, a lad, guides them to the fort. Sentinel snaps his gun at A. Misses fire. Sentinel retreats. They follow. Rush upon the parade ground. Form. Loud cheer. A. climbs the stairs. Orders La Place, it is said, in the name of the great Jehovah and the Continental Congress, to surrender. Capture forty-eight men. One hundred and twenty cannon. Used next winter at the siege of Boston. Several swords and howitzers, small arms, and ammunition. +Direction+.--_These facts are thrown together promiscuously. Classify them as they seem to you to be related. Determine the number of paragraphs and their order, and then do as directed above_:-- Joseph was Jacob's favorite. Wore fine garments. One day was sent to inquire after the other sons. They were at a distance, tending the flocks. Joseph used to dream. They saw him coming. Plotted to kill him. In one dream his brothers' sheaves bowed to his. In another the sun, moon, and stars bowed to him. Plotted to throw his body into a pit. Agreed to report to their father that some beast had devoured Joseph. Joseph foolishly told these to his brothers. Hated him because of the dreams and their father's partiality. While the brothers were eating, Ishmaelites approached. They sat down to eat. Were going down into Egypt. Camels loaded with spices. At the intercession of Reuben they did not kill Joseph. Threw him alive into a pit. Ishmaelites took him down into Egypt. Sold him to Potiphar. Judah advised that he be raised from the pit. Jacob recognized the coat. Refused comfort. Rent his clothes and put on sackcloth. They took his coat. Killed a kid and dipped the coat in its blood. Brought it to Jacob. "This have we found; know now whether it be thy son's coat or no." * * * * * LESSON 160. PARAGRAPHS AND THE THEME. +Direction+.--_Classify these promiscuous facts, determine carefully the number and the order of the paragraphs, and then do as directed above_:-- Trafalgar a Spanish promontory. Near the Straits of Gibraltar. Off Trafalgar, fleets of Spain and France, October 21, 1805. Nelson in command of the English fleet. The combined fleets in close line of battle. Collingwood second in command. Had more and larger cannon than the English. English fleet twenty-seven sail of the line and four frigates. Thirty-three sail of the line and seven frigates. He signaled those memorable words: "England expects every man to do his duty." Enemy had four thousand troops. Signal received with a shout. They bore down. The best riflemen in the enemy's boats. C. steered for the center. C. in the _Royal Sovereign_ led the lee line of thirteen ships. A raking fire opened upon the _Victory_. N. in the _Victory_ led the weather line. C. engaged the _Santa Anna_. Delighted at being the first in the fire. At 1.15 N. shot through the shoulder and back. At 12 the _Victory_ opened fire. N.'s secretary the first to fall. Fifty fell before a shot was returned. "They have done for me at last, Hardy," said N. They bore him below. At 2.25 ten of the enemy had struck. The wound was mortal. At 4 fifteen had struck. The victory that cost the British 1,587 men won. These were his last words. At 4.30 he expired. "How goes the day with us?" he asked Hardy. "I hope none of our ships have struck." N.'s death was more than a public calamity. "I am a dead man, Hardy," he said. Englishmen turned pale at the news. Most triumphant death that of a martyr. He shook hands with Hardy. "Kiss me, Hardy." They mourned as for a dear friend. Kissed him on the cheek. Most awful death that of the martyr patriot. The loss seemed a personal one. Knelt down again and kissed his forehead. His articulation difficult. Heard to say, "Thank God, I have done my duty." Seemed as if they had not known how deeply they loved him. Most splendid death that of the hero in the hour of victory. Has left a name which is our pride. An example which is our shield and strength. Buried him in St. Paul's. Thus the spirits of the great and the wise live after them. TO THE TEACHER--Continue this work as long as it is needed. Take any book, and read to the class items of facts. Require them to use the imagination and whatever graces of style are at their command, in weaving these facts together. * * * * * LESSON 161. ANALYSIS OF THE SUBJECT OF THE THEME. +Analysis of the Subject+.--A Theme is made up of groups of sentences called Paragraphs. The sentences of each paragraph are related to each other, because they jointly develop a single point, or thought. And the paragraphs are related to each other, because these points which they develop are divisions of the one general subject of the Theme. After the subject has been chosen, and before writing upon it, it must be resolved into the main thoughts which compose it. Upon the thoroughness of this analysis and the natural arrangement of the thoughts thus derived, depends largely the worth of the theme. These points form, when arranged, the +Framework+ of the theme. Suppose you had taken _The Armada_ as your subject. Perhaps you could say under these heads all you wish: 1. _What the Armada was_. 2. _When and by whom equipped_. 3. _Its purpose_. 4. _Its sail over the Bay of Biscay and entrance into the English Channel_. 5. _The attack upon it by Admiral Howard and his great Captains--Drake and Hawkins_. 6. _Its dispersion and partial destruction by the storm_. 7. _The return to Spain of the surviving ships and men_. 8. _The consequences to England and to Spain_. Perhaps the 1st point could include the 2d and the 3d. Be careful not to split your general subject up into very many parts. See, too, that no point is repeated, that no point foreign to the subject is introduced, and that all the points together exhaust the subject as nearly as may be. Look to the arrangement of the points. There is a natural order; (6) could not precede (5); nor (5), (4); nor (4), (1). TO THE TEACHER.--Question the pupils carefully upon every point taken up in this Lesson. +Direction+.--_Prepare the framework of a theme on each of these subjects_:-- 1. The Arrest of Major Andre. 2. A Winter in the Arctic Region. * * * * * LESSON 162. ANALYSIS OF SUBJECTS. +Direction+.--_Prepare the framework of a theme on each of these subjects_:-- 1. Battle of Plattsburg. 2. A Day's Nutting. 3. What Does a Proper Care for One's Health Demand? * * * * * LESSON 163. ANALYSIS OF SUBJECTS. +Direction+.--_Prepare the framework of a theme on each of these subjects_:-- 1. A Visit to the Moon. 2. Reasons why one Should Not Smoke, 3. What Does a Proper Observance of Sunday Require of One? * * * * * LESSON 164. ANALYSIS OF SUBJECTS. +Direction+.--_Prepare the framework of a theme on each of these subjects_:-- 1. The Gulf Stream. 2. A Descent into a Whirlpool. 3. What are Books Good for? * * * * * LESSON 165. HOW TO WRITE A THEME. +I. Choose a Subject+.--Choose your subject long before you are to write. Avoid a full, round term like _Patriotism_ or _Duty_; take a fragment of it; as, _How can a Boy be Patriotic?_ or _Duties which we Schoolmates owe Each Other_. The subject should be on your level, should be interesting and suggestive to you, and should instantly start in your mind many trains of thought. +II. Accumulate the Material+.--Begin to think about your subject. Turn it over in your mind in leisure moments, and, as thoughts flash upon you, jot them down in your blank-book. If any of these seem broad enough for the main points, or heads, indicate this. Talk with no one on the subject, and read nothing on it, till you have thought yourself empty; and even then you should note down what the conversation or reading suggests, rather than what you have heard or read. +III. Construct a Framework+.--Before writing hunt through your material for the main points, or heads. See to what general truths or thoughts these jottings and those jottings point. Perhaps this or that thought, as it stands, includes enough to serve as a head. Be sure, at any rate, that by brooding over your material, and by further thinking upon the subject, you get at all the general thoughts into which, as it seems to you, the subject should be analyzed. Study these points carefully. See that no two overlap each other, that no one appears twice, that no one has been raised to the dignity of a head which should stand under some head, and that no one is irrelevant. Study now to find the natural order in which these points should stand. Let no point, to the clear understanding of which some other point is necessary, precede that other. If developing all the points would make your theme too long, study to see what points you can omit without abrupt break or essential loss. +IV. Write+.--Give your whole attention to your work as you write, and other thoughts will occur to you, and better ways of putting the thoughts already noted down. In expanding the main points into paragraphs, be sure that everything falls under its appropriate head. Cast out irrelevant matter. Do not strain after effect or strive to seem wiser than you are. Use familiar words, and place these, your phrases, and your clauses, where they will make your thought the clearest. As occasion calls, change from the usual order to the transposed, and let sentences, simple, complex, and compound, long and short, stand shoulder to shoulder in the paragraph. Express yourself easily--only now and then putting your thought forcibly and with feeling. Let a fresh image here and there relieve the uniformity of plain language. One sentence should follow another without abrupt break; and, if continuative of it, adversative to it, or an inference from it, and the hearer needs to be advised of this, let it swing into position on the hinge of a fitting connective. Of course, your sentences must pass rigid muster in syntax; and you must look sharply to the spelling, to the use of capital letters, and to punctuation. +V. Attend to the Mechanical Execution+.--Keep your pages clean, and let your handwriting be clear. On the left of the page leave a margin of an inch for corrections. Do not write on the fourth page; if you exceed three pages, use another sheet. When the writing is done, double the lower half of the sheet over the upper, and fold through the middle; then bring the top down to the middle and fold again. Bring the right-hand end toward you, and across the top write your name and the date. This superscription will be at the top of the fourth page, at the right-hand corner, and at right angles to the ruled lines. TO THE TEACHER.--Question the pupils closely upon every point in this Lesson. Additional Subjects for Themes. 1. Apples and Nuts. 2. A Pleasant Evening. 3. My Walk to School. 4. Pluck. 5. School Friendships. 6. When my Ship Comes In. 7. Ancient and Modern Warfare. 8. The View from my Window. 9. Homes without Hands. 10. I Can. 11. My Friend Jack. 12. John Chinaman. 13. Irish Characters. 14. Robin Hood. 15. A Visit to Olympus. 16. Monday Morning. 17. My Native Town. 18. Over the Sea. 19. Up in a Balloon. 20. Queer People. 21. Our Minister. 22. A Plea for Puss. 23. Castles in Spain. 24. Young America. 25. Black Diamonds. 26. Mosquitoes. 27. A Day in the Woods. 28. A Boy's Trials. 29. The Yankee. 30. Robinson Crusoe. 31. Street Arabs. 32. Legerdemain. 33. Our Neighborhood. 34. Examinations. 35. Theatre-going. 36. Donkeys. 37. The Southern Negro. 38. A Rainy Saturday. 39. The Early Bird Catches the Worm. 40. Spring Sports 41. How Horatius Kept the Bridge. 42. Jack Frost 43. My First Sea Voyage. 44. Monkeys. 45. Grandmothers. 46. The Boy of the Story Book. 47. Famous Streets. 48. Pigeons. 49. Jack and Gill. 50. Make Haste Slowly. 51. Commerce. 52. The Ship of the Desert. 53. Winter Sports. 54. A Visit to Neptune. 55. Whiskers. 56. Gypsies. 57. Cities of the Dead. 58. Street Cries. 59. The World Owes me A Living. 60. Politeness. 61. Cleanliness Akin to Godliness. 62. Fighting Windmills. 63. Along the Docks. 64. Maple Sugar. 65. Umbrellas. 66. A Girl's Trials. 67. A Spider's Web. 68. The Story of Ruth. 69. Clouds. 70. A Country Store. 71. Timepieces. 72. Bulls and Bears. 73. Bore. 74. Our Sunday School. 75. The Making of Beer. 76. Autumn's Colors. 77. The Watched Pot Never Boils. 78. The Mission of Birds. 79. Parasites. 80. Well-begun is Half-done. 81. The Tides. 82. The Schoolmaster in "The Deserted Village." 83. A Day on a Trout Stream. 84. A Stitch in Time Saves Nine. 85. Of What Use are Flowers? 86. A Descent in a Diving Bell. * * * * * LESSON 166. LETTER-WRITING. Letters need special treatment. In writing a letter there are five things to consider--The Heading, The Introduction, The Body of the Letter, The Conclusion, and The Superscription. THE HEADING. +Parts+.--The Heading consists of the name of the +Place+ at which the letter is written, and the +Date+. If you write from a city, give the door-number, the name of the street, the name of the city, and the name of the state. If you are at a Hotel or a School or any other well-known Institution, its name may take the place of the door-number and the name of the street; as may also the number of your post-office box. If you write from a village or other country place, give your post-office address, the name of the county, and that of the state. The Date consists of the month, the day of the month, and the year. +How Written+.--Begin the Heading about an inch and a half from the top of the page--on the first ruled line of commercial note. If the letter occupies but a few lines of a single page, you may begin the Heading lower down. Begin the first line of the Heading a little to the left of the middle of the page. If it occupies more than one line, the second line should begin farther to the right than the first, and the third farther to the right than the second. The door-number, the day of month, and the year are written in figures; the rest, in words. Bach important word begins with a capital letter, each item is set off by the comma, and the whole closes with a period. +Direction+.--_Study what has teen said, and write the following headings according to these models:_-- 1. Ripton, Addison Co., Vt., July 10, 1895. 2. 250 Broadway, N. T., June 6, 1890. 3. Saco, Me., Feb. 25, 1887. 4. Polytechnic Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y., May 3, 1888. 1. ann arbor 5 July 1820 michigan 2. champlain co clinton n y jan 14 1800 3. p o box 2678 1860 oct 19 chicago 4. philadelphia 670 1858 chestnut st 16 apr 5. saint nicholas new york 1 hotel nov 1855 THE INTRODUCTION. +Parts+.--The Introduction consists of the +Address+--the Name, the Title, and the Place of Business or Residence of the one addressed--and the +Salutation+. Titles of respect and courtesy should appear in the Address. Prefix _Mr._ to a man's name, _Messrs._ to the names of several gentlemen; _Master_ to the name of a young lad; _Miss_ to that of an unmarried lady; _Mrs._ to that of a married lady; _Misses_ to the names of several young ladies; and _Mesdames_ to those of several married or elderly ladies. Prefix _Dr._ to the name of a physician (but never _Mr. Dr._), or write _M.D._ after it. Prefix _Rev._ to the name of a clergyman, or _Rev. Mr._ if you do not know his Christian name; _Rev. Dr._ if he is a Doctor of Divinity, or write _Rev._ before the name and _D.D._ after it. Prefix _His Excellency_ to the name of the President, [Footnote: The preferred form of addressing the President is, _To the President, Executive Mansion, Washington, D. C._; the Salutation is simply, _Mr. President._ ] and to that of a Governor or of an Ambassador; _Hon._ to the name of a Cabinet Officer, a Member of Congress, a State Senator, a Law Judge, or a Mayor. If two literary or professional titles are added to a name, let them stand in the order in which they were conferred--this is the order of a few common ones: _A.M., Ph.D., D.D., LL.D._ Guard against an excessive use of titles-- the higher implies the lower. Salutations vary with the station of the one addressed, or the writer's degree of intimacy with him. Strangers may be addressed as _Sir, Dear Sir, Rev. Sir, General, Madam_, etc.; acquaintances as _Dear Sir, Dear Madam_, etc.; friends as _My dear Sir, My dear Madam, My dear Jones_, etc.; and near relatives and other dear friends as _My dear Wife, My dear Boy, Dearest Ellen_, etc. +How Written+.--The Address may follow the Heading, beginning on the next line, and standing on the left side of the page; or it may stand in corresponding position after the Body of the Letter and the Conclusion. If the letter is of an official character or is written to an intimate friend, the Address may appropriately be placed at the bottom of the letter; but in ordinary business letters, it should be placed at the top and as directed above. Never omit it from the letter except when the letter is written in the third person. There should be a narrow margin on the left side of the page, and the Address should begin on the marginal line. If the Address occupies more than one line, the initial words of these lines should slope to the right. Begin the Salutation on the marginal line or a little to the right of it when the Address occupies three lines; on the marginal line or farther to the right or to the left than the second line of the Address when this occupies two lines; a little to the right of the marginal line when the Address occupies one line; on the marginal line when the Address stands below. Every important word in the Address should begin with a capital letter. All the items of it should be set off by the comma; and, as it is an abbreviated sentence, it should close with a period. Every important word in the Salutation should begin with a capital letter, and the whole should be followed by a comma, or by a comma and a dash. +Direction+.--Write these introductions according to the models:-- 1. Prof. March, Easton, Pa. My dear Sir, 2. Messrs. Smith & Jones, 771 Broadway, New York City. Gentlemen, 3. My dear Mother, When, etc. 4. Messrs. Vallette & Co., Middlebury, Vt. Dear Sirs, 1. mr george platt burlington iowa sir 2. mass Cambridge prof James r lowell my dear friend 3. messrs ivison blakeman taylor & co gentlemen new york 4. rev brown dr the arlington Washington dear friend d c 5. col John smith dear colonel n y auburn * * * * * LESSON 167. LETTER-WRITING--CONTINUED. THE BODY OF THE LETTER. +The Beginning+.--Begin the Body of the Letter at the end of the Salutation, and on the same line if the Introduction is long--in which case the comma after the Salutation should be followed by a dash,--on the line below if the Introduction is short. +Style+.--Be perspicuous. Paragraph and punctuate as in other kinds of writing. Avoid blots, erasures, interlineations, cross lines, and all other offenses against epistolary propriety. The letter "bespeaks the man." Letters of friendship should be colloquial, chatty, and familiar. Whatever is interesting to you will be interesting to your friends, however trivial it may seem to a stranger. Business letters should be brief, and the sentences short, concise, and to the point. Repeat nothing, and omit nothing needful. Official letters and formal notes should be more stately and ceremonious. In formal notes the third person is generally used instead of the first and the second; there is no Introduction, no Conclusion, no Signature, only the name of the Place and the Date at the bottom, on the left side of the page, thus:-- _Mr. & Mrs. A. request the pleasure of Mr. B.'s company at a social gathering, on Tuesday evening, Nov. 15th, at eight o'clock. 32 Fifth Ave., Nov. 5_. _Mr. B. accepts_ [Footnote: Or regrets that a previous engagement (or illness, or an unfortunate event) prevents the acceptance of ----; or regrets that on account of ---- he is unable to accept ----.] _with pleasure Mr. & Mrs. A.'s kind invitation for Tuesday evening, Nov. 15th._ _Wednesday morning, Nov. 9th_. THE CONCLUSION. +Parts+.--The Conclusion consists of the +Complimentary Close+ and the +Signature+. The forms of the Complimentary Close are many, and are determined by the relations of the writer to the one addressed. In letters of friendship you may use, _Your sincere, friend; Yours affectionately; Your loving son_ or _daughter_, etc. In business letters you may use, _Yours; Yours truly; Truly yours; Yours respectfully; Very respectfully yours_, etc. In official letters you should be more deferential. Use, _I have the honor to be, Sir, your obedient servant; Very respectfully, your most obedient servant_; etc., etc. The Signature consists of your Christian name and your surname. In addressing a stranger write your Christian name in full. A lady addressing a stranger should prefix to her signature her title, _Mrs._ or _Miss_ (placing it within marks of parenthesis), unless in the letter she has indicated which of these titles her correspondent is to use in reply. +How Written+.--The Conclusion should begin near the middle of the first line below the Body of the Letter, and, if occupying two or more lines, should slope to the right like the Heading and the Address. Begin each line of it with a capital letter, and punctuate as in other writing, following the whole with a period. The Signature should be very plain. +Direction+.--_Write two formal notes--one inviting a friend to a social party, and one declining the invitation._ +Direction+.--_Write the Conclusion of a letter of friendship, of a letter of business, and of an official letter, carefully observing all that has been said above._ +Direction+.--_Write a letter of two or three lines to your father or your mother, and another to your minister, talcing care to give properly the Heading in its two parts, the Introduction in its two parts, and the Conclusion in its two parts. Let the Address in the letter to your father or your mother stand at the bottom._ * * * * * LESSON 168. LETTER-WRITING--CONTINUED. THE SUPERSCRIPTION. +Parts+.--The Superscription is what is written on the outside of the envelope. It is the same as the Address, consisting of the Name, the Title, and the full Directions of the one addressed. +How Written+.--The Superscription should begin just below the middle of the envelope and near the left edge--the envelope lying with its closed side toward you--and should occupy three or four lines. These lines should slope to the right as in the Heading and the Address, the spaces between the lines should be the same, and the last line should end near the lower right-hand corner. On the first line the Name and the Title should stand. If the one addressed is in a city, the door-number and name of the street should be on the second line, the name of the city on the third, and the name of the state on the fourth. If he is in the country, the name of the post-office should be on the second line, the name of the county on the third, the name of the state on the fourth. The number of the post office box may take the place of the door-number and the name of the street, or, to avoid crowding, the number of the box or the name of the county may stand at the lower left-hand corner. The titles following the name should be separated from it and from each other by the comma, and every line should end with a comma except the last, which should be followed by a period. [Footnote: Some omit punctuation after the parts of the Superscription. ] The lines should be straight, and every part of the Superscription should be legible. Place the stamp at the upper right-hand corner. +Direction+.--_Write six Superscriptions to real or imaginary friends or acquaintances in different cities, carefully observing all that has been said above._ +Direction+.--_Write two snort letters--one to a friend at the Astor House, New York, and one to a stranger in the country._ [Illustration: Envelope with stamp in upper-right corner. Addressed to Master H. Buckman, Andover, Mass.] [Cursive Text: Ithaca, N. Y, June 15, '96. My dear Friend, You tell me that you begin the study of English Literature next term. Let me assume the relation of an older brother, and tender you a word of counsel. Study literature, primarily, for the thoughts it contains. Attend to these thoughts until you understand them and see their connection one with another. Accept only such as seem to you just and true, and accept these at their proper value. Notice carefully the words each author uses, see how he arranges them, whether he puts his thought clearly, what imagery he employs, what allusions he makes, what acquaintance with men, with books, and with nature he shows, and in what spirit he writes. Your study of the author should put you in possession of his thought and his style, and should introduce you to the man himself. Pardon me these words of unsought advice, and believe me. Your true friend, John Schuyler. Master H. Buckman, Andover, Mass.] A SUMMARY OF THE RULES OF SYNTAX. We here append a Summary of the so-called Rules of Syntax, with references to the Lessons which treat of Construction. I. A noun or pronoun used as subject or as attribute complement of a predicate verb, or used independently, is in the nominative case. II. The attribute complement of a participle or an infinitive is in the same case (Nom. or Obj.) as the word to which it relates. III. A noun or pronoun used as possessive modifier is in the possessive case. IV. A noun or pronoun used as object complement, as objective complement, as the principal word in a prepositional phrase, or used adverbially [Footnote: See Lesson 35.] is in the objective case. V. A noun or pronoun used as explanatory modifier is in the same case as the word explained. +For Cautions, Principles, and Examples respecting the cases of nouns and pronouns, see Lessons 119, 122, 123, 123. For Cautions and Examples to guide in the use of the different pronouns, see Lessons 86, 87.+ VI. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, number, and gender. +For Cautions, Principles, and Examples, see Lessons 118,142.+ VII. A verb agrees with its subject in person and number. +For Cautions, Examples, and Exceptions, see Lesson 142.+ VIII. A participle assumes the action or being, and is used like an adjective or a noun. +For Uses of the Participle, see Lessons 37, 38, 39.+ IX. An infinitive is generally introduced by _to_, and with it forms a phrase used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. +For Uses of the Infinitive, see Lessons 40, 41, 42.+ X. Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns. +For Cautions and Examples respecting the use of adjectives and of comparative and superlative forms, see Lessons 90, 91, 128.+ XI. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. +For Cautions and Examples, see Lesson 93.+ XII. A preposition introduces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the word modified. +For Cautions, see Lessons 98, 99.+ XIII. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses. +For Cautions and Examples, see Lessons 100, 107.+ XIV. Interjections are used independently. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. +Remarks+.--The scheme of conjugation presented below is from English text-books. In some of these books the forms introduced by _should_ are classed, not as Future, but as Secondary Past Tense forms of the Subjunctive. If we substitute this scheme of conjugation for the simpler one given in the preceding pages, we still fail to get a classification in which every form corresponds in use to its name. The following examples will illustrate:-- He _returns_ to-morrow. (Present = Future.) When I _have performed_ this, I will come to you. (Present Perfect = Future Perfect.) If any member _absents_ himself, he shall pay a fine. (Indicative = Subjunctive.) You _shall_ go. (Indicative = Imperative.) After memorizing all the terms and forms belonging to the conjugation here outlined, the student will find that he has gained little to aid him in the use of language. For instance, in this synopsis of the Subjunctive are found nineteen forms. As there are three persons in the singular and three in the plural, we have one hundred and fourteen subjunctive forms! How confusing all this must be to the student, who, in his use of the subjunctive, needs to distinguish only such as these: If he _be_, If he _were_, If he _teach_! Beyond these, the subjunctive manner of assertion is discovered from the structure of the sentence or the relation of clauses, not from the conjugation of the verb. Those English authors and their American copyists who eliminate the Potential Mode from their scheme of conjugation tell us that the so-called potential auxiliaries are either independent verbs in the indicative or are subjunctive auxiliaries. With the meager instruction given by any one or by all of these authors, the student will find it exceedingly difficult to determine when these auxiliaries are true subjunctives. To illustrate:-- 1. _May_ you be happy. 2. I learn that I _may_ be able to teach. 3. He _might_ have done it if he had liked. 4. If he _should_ try, he _would_ succeed. 5. I _would_ not tell you if I _could_. 6. I _could_ not do this if I were to try. The forms italicized above are said to be subjunctive auxiliaries; those below are said to be independent verbs in the indicative. 7. He _may_ be there. 8. He _might_ ask you to go. 9. You _should_ not have done that. 10. He _would_ not come when called. 11. I _could_ do this at one time. We are told that _can_ and _must_ are always independent verbs in the indicative, and that _may, might, could, would_, and _should_ are either subjunctive auxiliaries or independent verbs parsed in the indicative, separately from the infinitives with which they seem to combine. But in parsing these words as separate verbs the student is left in doubt as to whether they are transitive or intransitive, and as to the office of the infinitives that follow. _Shall_ (to owe) and _will_ (to determine) are, in their original meaning, transitive. _May, can_, and _must_ denote power (hence potential); and, as the infinitive with which they combine names the act on which this power is exercised, some philologists regard them as originally transitive. Among these is our distinguished critic, Prof. Francis A. March. _May_ denotes power from without coming from a removal of all hindrance,--hence permission or possibility. _Can_ denotes power from within,--hence ability. _Must_ denotes power from without coming from circumstances or the nature of things,--hence necessity or obligation. _Should, would, might_, and _could_ are past forms of _shall, will, may_, and _can_. The auxiliaries take different shades of meaning. In some constructions the meaning is fainter or less emphatic than in others. To say just how little of its common or original meaning _may, can, must, shall_, or _will_ must have to be an auxiliary, and how much to be a "notional," or independent, verb would be extremely venturesome For instance, _could_ in (6) above expresses power or ability to do, as does _could_ in (11), yet we are told that the former _could_ is a mere auxiliary, while the latter is an independent verb. _May_ in (1) denotes a desired removal of all hindrance; _may_ in (7) denotes a possible removal of hindrance. It is hard to see why the former _may_ is necessarily a mere auxiliary, and the latter a "notional," or independent, verb. These are some of the difficulties--not to say inconsistencies--met by the student who is taught that there is no Potential Mode. In a scholarly work revised by Skeat, Wrightson, speaking of _I may, can, shall, or will love_, says, "These auxiliary verbs had at some time such a clear and definite meaning that it would have been tolerably easy to determine the case function discharged by the infinitive; but these verbs, after passing through various shades of meaning, have at last become little more than conventional symbols, so that it would be worse than useless to attempt to analyze these periphrastic tenses of our moods." A CONJUGATION OF TEACH. Active Voice. INDICATIVE MODE. Present Indefinite............He teaches. Present Imperfect.............He is teaching. Present Perfect...............He has taught. Present Perfect Continuous....He has been teaching. Past Indefinite...............He taught. Past Imperfect................He was teaching. Past Perfect..................He had taught. Past Perfect Continuous.......He had been teaching. Future Indefinite.............He will teach. Future Imperfect..............He will be teaching. Future Perfect................He will have taught. Future Perfect Continuous.....He will have been teaching. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present Indefinite............(If) he teach. Present Imperfect.............(If) he be teaching. Present Perfect...............(If) he have taught. Present Perfect Continuous....(If) he have been teaching. Past Indefinite...............(If) he taught. Past Imperfect................(If) he were teaching. Past Perfect..................(If) he had taught. Past Perfect Continuous.......(If) he had been teaching. Future Indefinite.............(If) he should teach. Future Imperfect..............(If) he should be teaching. Future Perfect................(If) he should have taught. Future Perfect Continuous.....(If) he should have been teaching. IMPERATIVE MODE. Present.......................Teach [thou]. INFINITIVE MODE. Present Indefinite............(To) teach. Present Imperfect.............(To) be teaching. Present Perfect...............(To) have taught. Present Perfect Continuous....(To) have been teaching. PARTICIPLES. Imperfect.....................Teaching. Perfect.......................Having taught. Perfect Continuous............Having been teaching. Passive Voice. INDICATIVE MODE. Present Indefinite............He is taught. Present Imperfect.............He is being taught. Present Perfect...............He has been taught. Past Indefinite...............He was taught. Past Imperfect................He was being taught. Past Perfect..................He had been taught. Future Indefinite.............He will be taught. Future Imperfect..............------------------------ Future Perfect................He will have been taught. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present Indefinite............(If) he be taught. Present Imperfect.............------------------------ Present Perfect...............(If) he have been taught. Past Indefinite...............(If) he were taught. Past Imperfect................(If) he were being taught. Past Perfect..................(If) he had been taught. Future Indefinite.............(If) he should be taught. Future Imperfect..............------------------------ Future Perfect................(If) he should have been taught. IMPERATIVE MODE. Present.......................Be [thou] taught. INFINITIVE MODE. Present Indefinite............(To) be taught. Present Perfect...............(To) have been taught. PARTICIPLES. Imperfect.....................Being taught. Perfect.......................Taught. Compound Perfect..............Having been taught. INDEX. _A_, or _an_, uses of _A_ and _the_ uses of distinguished _A_ (day) _or two_, or _one or two_ (days) +Abbreviations+ common ones how made and written of names of states +Absolute Phrases+ definition of diagram of expansion of +Adjective+ an, definition of +Adjectives+ apt ones to be used +classes+ definitive (numeral) descriptive +comparison+ adjectives not compared adjectives irregularly compared form preferred in _er_ and _est_ with adverb descriptive, used as nouns errors in use of having number forms needless ones avoided not always limiting not used for adverbs numeral cardinal ordinal proper order of scheme for general review used as abstract nouns +Adjective Clauses+ connectives of definition of = adjectives = explanatory modifiers = independent clauses = infinitive phrases = participle phrases = possessives modifying omitted words position of restrictive and unrestrictive unrestrictive, punctuation +Adjective Complement+ distinguished from adverb modifier +Adjective Modifiers+ analysis of nouns as +Adverb+ an definition of +Adverbs+ apt ones to be used classes of comparison of errors in use of expressing negation irregular comparison of modifying clauses phrases prepositions sentences not used for adjectives not used needlessly position of scheme for general review sometimes like adjective attributes +used+ independently (note) interrogatively (note) with connective force (note) +Adverb Clause+, definition of +Adverb Clauses+ +classes+ cause, real concession condition degree (result) evidence manner place purpose time +contracted+ by omitting words to absolute phrases to participles and participle phrases to prepositional phrases = adjective clauses and phrases (note) = adverbs = independent clauses (note) position of punctuation of +Adverbial Modifiers+ analysis of nouns as parsing of +Adversative Connectives+, list +Adversative+, meaning of (note) _A few, a little_, vs. _few_ and _little_ +Agreement+ of parts of a metaphor of pronoun with its antecedent of verb with the subject +Allusion+ (note) +Alphabet+ definition of perfect one what the English imperfect how +Alternative+, meaning of (note) +Alternative Connectives+, list +Ambiguity+ of pronouns, how avoided +Analysis+ examples for, additional of a sentence of subjects of themes +Antecedent+, a clause, phrase, or word (note) +Antithesis+ (note) _Any body_ (or _one_) _else's_ (note) +Apostrophe+ the +Appositives+ +Argumentative Style+ +Arrangement+ +Articles+ +classes+ definite indefinite errors in use of repeated when uses of _a_, or _an_, and _the_ _As_ introductory conjunction relative pronoun (note) with clauses of degree, manner, and time with variety of clauses _As ... as_, construction of _As it were_, construction of +Aspirates+ +Assumed Subject+, what +Attribute Complement+ definition of diagram of +Auxiliary Verbs+ _Be_, conjugation of derivation of (note) _Beside_ and _besides_ distinguished (note) _Best of the two_ _Between_ with three or more (note) +Brackets+, use of _But_ adversative conjunction a preposition various uses of with or without _that_ with _what_ incorrect for _but that_ or _but_ _Can_ +Capital Letters+ in abbreviations in beginning sentences in class names in compound names in names of the Deity in proper names in titles rule for _I_ and _O_ summary of rules for +Case+ defined of attribute complement of explanatory modifier of noun or pronoun independent of noun or pronoun used adverbially of objective complement +Cases+ definitions of in Anglo-Saxon and in Latin +Case Forms+ errors in use of five pronouns have three nouns have two only eight nominative only seven objective +Cause+, adverbs of +Cause Clauses+, divisible +Classification+ necessity of not governed by logical relation +Clauses+ classes dependent independent complex and compound +dependent+ adjective adverb noun +independent+ (the thought) in alternation in contrast in same line inferred +Collective Nouns+ form of verb with of what number +Colon+ +Comma+, rules for +Comparison+ adjectives without it cautions to guide in definition of degree used with two degrees of, defined...257. 268 double, origin of double, to be shunned errors in use of forms of irregular when adverb used which form preferred +Complement+ is what the modified is what +Complements+ attribute (subjective) object objective +Complex Sentences+ definition treatment of +Compound Attribute Complement+ +Compound Object Complement+ +Compound Personal Pronouns+ +Compound Predicate+, defined +Compound Relative Pronouns+ +Compound Sentence+ changed to complex contracted defined treatment of +Compound Subject+, defined +Condition Clauses without conjunction+ +Conjugation+ definition of forms of more elaborate form +Conjunction a, definition of+ +Conjunctions+ +classes+ co-ordinate subordinate +co-ordinate+ adversative alternative +Conjunctions+ (cont.) +co-ordinate+ copulative co-ordinate connect sentences and paragraphs scheme for review +Conjunctive Adverbs+ are what offices of +Connectives+ apt ones to be chosen +co-ordinate+ adversative alternative copulative errors in use of in correlation introductory +subordinate+ of adjective clauses of adverb clauses of noun clauses +Consonants+, classes of +Contraction+ of +Sentences+ +Co-ordinate Conjunctions+ +Copulative+, meaning of +Copula+, what +Correlatives+, errors in use of _D_ of the _ed_ of verbs in past tense _D_ of the _ed_ of past participles _Dare_, without _s_ form +Dash+ the +Declarative Sentence+, defined +Declension+ defined of interrogative pronouns of nouns of personal pronouns of relative pronouns +Degree+, adverbs of +Descriptive Style+ +Diminution+, degrees of +Diagram+ a, what may be omitted _Do,_ idiomatic use of _Each other_ construction of with two or more _Ed_ of past tense and participle _Either_ and _neither_, pronouns and conjunctions, with two or more _Either_ may be used for _each_ +Elocution+, object of +Energy+ defined exercises in secured how +English Grammar+, definition of +Epigrams+ are what +Evidence+ distinguished from +Cause+ +Exclamatory Sentences+ definition of order of words in +Expansion+ of absolute phrases of infinitive phrases of participles of sentences +Explanatory Modifier+ definition of punctuation of +Figures of Speech+ basis of definition illustrations of names of uses of _First two_, etc. +Force+ (see +Energy+) _For to_ +Gender+ defined distinguished from sex of names of animals of what importance of pronouns, errors in used in personification +Gender Forms+ +Genders+, the three defined _Had better, rather, sooner_ _Hand in hand_, construction of _Have written_, history of _He_ or _one_ after the indefinite _one_ +Humor+, in style +Hyphen+, use of +Idea+ distinguished from object _If_ for even if, although for whether omission of variety of uses +Imagery+, discussion of +Imperative Sentence+ definition of order of words in _In_ and _Into_ distinguished _In case that_, construction of +Independent Clauses+ definition of joined without conjunction punctuated +Independent Expressions+, punctuated +Indirect+, or +Dative+, Object +Inference+, expressed by an independent clause +Infinitive+ (the), and assumed subject after _for_ definition of double nature of old dative of use of present perfect after past indicative why called infinitive +Infinitive Phrase+ after a preposition as adjective as adjective modifier as adverb modifier as attribute complement as explanatory modifier as object complement as objective complement as subject cleft or split does not with the noun form a clause expansion into clauses independent _In order that_, construction of +Interjections+ +Interrogation Point+, use of +Interrogative Pronouns+ declension definition list +Interrogative Sentences+ definition of order of words in +Intransitive Verbs+, definition +Introductory Words+ +Invitations+, form of +Irregular Verbs+ definition of inflections of list of persistence of _It_ for a clause idiomatic use of use for animals and children vague _It is me_, _him_, etc. _Just as_, construction of +Language+ definition of made up of words natural word _Last two_, etc. _Lay_ and _lie_ _Less_, the final _s_ of, and _lesser_ _Lest_ equaling that not various uses of with noun clause +Letters+, the alphabet +Letters+ body of conclusion of heading of illustration of introduction of parts of superscription of +Letter-Writing+ +Loose Sentence+ _Many a_, explanation of +Manner+, adverbs of +Masculine Gender+ distinguished +Masculine Pronoun+, use of _May_ +Metaphor+ definition of exercises in use of _Methinks_ +Metonymy+ definition of exercises in use of _Mine, thine, of mine_, etc +Mode+ is what +Modes+ +classes+, imperative indicative potential subjunctive definitions of imperative, no 2d and 3d persons indicative, uses of potential omitted subjunctive +Modifications+, definition +Modified Complement+ +Modifiers+, definition different rank explanatory, punctuation _Must_ _Myself_, explanatory +N+, Saxon _ne_, the negative particle +Narrative Style+ +Natural Language+ _Need_, without _s_ form +Negation+ by adverbs +Negatives+, double _No_ and _yes_, sentence-words _No body_ (or _one_) _else's_ +Nominative Forms+, eight +Noun+ a, definition of +Nouns+ abstract as adjective modifiers as adverb modifiers cases of classes of collective common and proper declension gender of number, kinds of person of roots of scheme for general review +Noun Clauses+ as attribute complement as explanatory modifier as object complement as principal term of prepositional phrase as subject connectives of contraction of definition of position of punctuation of +Noun Modifier+ explanatory (appositive) explanatory of a sentence possessive +Number+ definition of kinds of of noun agreeing with adjective of nouns determined of verbs shows what _0_ and _oh_ distinguished +Object+ and +Object Complement+ distinguished +Object+, indirect +Object+, indirect, made subject +Object Complement+ becoming subject compound definition of retained after verb in passive +Objective Forms+, seven +Objective Complement+ an infinitive phrase a participle becoming an attribute complement definition of extended beyond its factitive sense _Of_ in place of possessive sign not always indicating possession _Of mine_, etc _On condition that_ _One another_ syntax of with two or more _Only_, position of syntax of +Order+ (words and phrases) transposed usual _Other_, misuse of _Ought_ +Paragraph+ (the) composition of definition of topics and subtopics of unity of +Paragraphing+, exercises in +Parallel Construction+ +Parenthesis+, marks of +Parenthetical Classes+, punctuation +Parsing+ definition of first step in models for written +Participles+ adjectival as adjective modifiers as attribute complements as mere adjectives as mere nouns as objective complements as prepositions as principal word in a phrase definition of expansion of forms of in independent phrases misuse of modified by _a_ and _the_ modified by a possessive nounal, called _gerunds, infinitives, verbal nouns_ place of punctuation of used in slurring +Passive Voice+, idiomatic constructions +Period+, use of +Periodic Sentence+ +Person+ forms of a noun or pronoun of a verb why regarded in the grammar +Personification+, the figure +Persons+, the three defined +Perspicuity+ definition of exercises in +Phrases+ absolute adjective and adverb as prepositions complex and compound definition of infinitive interchange with clauses interchange with words participial position of prepositional punctuation of used independently verb +Place+, adverbs of +Plural Number+ +Plural+ ending, origin foreign forms of formed irregularly formed regularly form same as singular forms treated as singular no form for of compound words of letters, figures, etc. of proper names some originally singular some words always two forms with different meaning without singular of like meaning +Possessive Ending+ added to explanatory word ambiguity avoided by attached to the adjective confined to what error respecting errors in use of _of_ for of compound names origin of when omitted when pronounced _es_ +Predicate+ adjective defined a verb or contains one compound definition of modified noun defined of two or more words +Preposition+ a, defined +Prepositions+ becoming adverbs ending a sentence ending in _ing_ errors in use of list of two before a noun where sometimes found with verb before a noun +Pronoun+ a, defined +Pronouns+ agreement Nom. and Obj. forms +classes+ adjective interrogative personal relative declension of denote relations errors in use of need of number scheme for review vagueness of +Pronouns (Adjective)+ _a_ (day) _or two_ _all, both_, and _whole_ before _of_ _any body_ (or _one_) _else's_, etc. declension of definition of demonstrative distributive _each other_, with two or more _either, neither_, with two or more _either_ for _each_ _first two, last three_, etc., _he_, etc. after indefinite _one_ indefinite _none in both numbers_ _ones_, plural _other_ and _than_, words between _other two_, when one of three is taken partial list of _such_ or _so_ with adjectives +Pronouns (Interrogative)+ declension definition list +Pronouns (Personal)+ avoided when compound consistent use of declension definition _its_, history of misuse of _them_ for _those_ _my_ and _mine_, etc. order of _ours, yours_, etc., double possessives +Pronouns (Personal)+ (cont.) use of compound used needlessly _we_ hardly plural of _I_ _we_ instead of _I_ _ye_ has given way to _you_ +Pronouns (Relative)+ agreement of compound declension definition discriminated in use omitted when same with same antecedent _that_ in restrictive clauses _that_ instead of _who_ and _which_ _what_ misused for _that_ _who_ and _which_ restrictive and unrestrictive with omitted antecedents +Pun+, a +Punctuation Marks+ exercises in summary of rules for +Qualities of Style+ +Question+, direct and indirect +Quotation Marks+, use of +Quotations+ capitalization of definition of direct indirect punctuation of _Quoth_ +Regular Verbs+ definition increasing inflections of +Relative Clauses+, position +Result+, clauses of +Review Questions+ +Review+ of +Sentence+, scheme for +Satire+ +Semicolon+, rules for +Sentence+ (the) balanced contracted defined expanded loose period +Sentences+ (classed) +form+ complex compound simple +meaning+ declarative exclamatory imperative interrogative _Set_ and _sit_ _Shall_ and _will_ _Should_ and _would_ +Simile+, definition and exercises in +Simple Sentences+ definition of treatment of _Since_, various uses of +Singular Number+ _So ... as_, construction of _Some body_ (or _one_) _else's_ +Sounds+ and +Letters+ +Speech+ figures of mechanism of +Spelling+, rules for +Style+ argumentative definition of descriptive illustrations narrative qualities of +Subject+ assumed, what assumed, changed to prevent ambiguity compound defined determined how +Subject+ (_cont_.), modified, or logical +Subjunctive Mode+ definition of disappearing uses of +Subordinate Conjunctions+ +Subordinate Connectives+ +Synecdoche+ +Synopsis+ is what +Syntax+, rules for +Tense+ defined future, how used future perfect, how used past, how used past perfect, how used present, how used present perfect, how used +Tenses+ defined emphatic form of errors in use of conjunctive adverb _Than_ errors in use of followed by adjective replaced by _but_, etc. use after comparatives with _me_ after it _Than whom_ _That_ and _this_, adjectives, plurals _That_ and _this_ (Adj. Pro.) declension reference _That_ (Conj.) with cause clause with noun clause with purpose clause _That_, Conj. Adv., degree clause _That_ (Rel. Pr.) distinguished from _who_ and _which_ for _who_ and _which_ generally restrictive preposition follows _The_, uses of _The ... the_ construction of explanation of +Themes+ framework of how to write them subjects for _The one, the other_ _This_ +Thought+, how expressed _Three times_ four _is_ twelve _To_ with infinitive construction of expressing relation extension of no part of not expressed position of without relation +Transitive Verbs+ definition of conjugated passively +Unity+ of paragraphs _Unless_ (= _if not_) +Usage+ +Variety+ how secured illustrations of want of +Verb+ a, defined +Verb+ _Be_ an auxiliary conjugation of derivation of +Verb-Phrases+ +Verbs+ (classes) +form+ irregular regular +meaning+ intransitive transitive +Verbs+ a modern passive progressive form analysis of compound tense forms as nouns auxiliary changing their voice conjugated in progressive form conjugated interrogatively conjugated negatively conjugation of +Verbs+ (_cont._) defective forms not asserting improper forms used indicative and potential with subjunctive meaning inflections of +intransitive+ definition of made transitive +irregular+ definition of list of persistence of principal parts of mode, defined model for written parsing number forms number of defined passive form compound periphrastic forms resolved, person forms person of potential auxiliaries principal parts redundant +regular+ definition of increasing scheme for gen. review Strong (or Old), Weak (or New) subjunctive form fading tense the _e_ and the _d_ of past tense, the _e_ and the _d_ of past participle +transitive+, definition of conjugated passively voice +Verbs+ (agreement of) attracted errors in with and in what with collective noun with subjects connected by _and_ with subjects connected by _or_ or _nor_ with subjects emphatically distinguished with subjects naming same thing with subjects one affirmative and one negative with subjects following with subjects preceded by _each_, _every_, etc. with subjects varying in person +Vocal Consonants+ +Voice+, the voices defined +Voices+ changed +Vowels+ _What_ equal to _that_ or _whom_ in origin misuse for _that_ various uses of without antecedent _When_ conjunctive adverb connecting various clauses in adjective clauses interrogative adverb _Where_ conjunctive adverb connecting various clauses in adjective clauses interrogative adverb _Whether_ repeated with more than two _Whether or no_ _Which_ an adjective an interrogative pronoun a relative pronoun clause as antecedent composition of declension _Which_ and _Who_ in restrictive clauses in unrestrictive clauses _that_ used for _While_, connecting various clauses _Will_ and _would_ +Words+ great number of in Eng. spoken words what transposed order of use of determining the class of usual order of written words what +Words+ and +Phrases+ (_cont_.) connected, each making good sense with context independent independent nearly in pairs, punctuation interchangeable made prominent modifying sentences _Worth_, a verb _Ye_ _Yes_ and _No_ _You_, verb form with 
16751	----	[Transcriber's Notes: Welcome to the schoolroom of 1900. The moral tone is plain. "She is kind to the old blind man." The exercises are still suitable, and perhaps more helpful than some contemporary alternatives. Much is left to the teacher. Explanations given in the text are enough to get started teaching a child to read and write. Counting in Roman numerals is included as a bonus in the form of lesson numbers. The form of contractions includes a space. The contemporary word "don't" was rendered as "do n't". The author, not listed in the text, is William Holmes McGuffey. Passages using non-ASCI characters are approximately rendered in this text version. See the PDF or DOC versions for the original images. The section numbers are decimal in the Table of Contents but are in Roman Numerals in the body. Page headings are removed, but section titles are followed by the page on which they appear. Many items include a preceding biography of the author. This is ended with three pound symbols. ### Don Kostuch end transcriber's notes] [Illustration: Picture of a young woman and a trunk.] She sits, inclining forward as to speak, Her lips half-open, and her finger up, As though she said, "Beware!" (Item XCV. Ginevra) ECLECTIC EDUCATIONAL SERIES. McGUFFEY'S SIXTH ECLECTIC READER. REVISED EDITION. McGuffey Editions and Colophon are Trademarks of JOHN WILEY & SONS. INC. NEW YORK-CHICHESTER-BRISBANE-SINGAPORE-TORONTO SUPPLEMENTARY READING FOR GRAMMAR AND HIGH SCHOOL GRADES ECLECTIC ENGLISH CLASSICS. Arnold's (Matthew) Sohrab and Rustum Burke's Conciliation with the American Colonies Carlyle's Essay on Burns Coleridge's Rime of the Ancient Mariner Defoe's History of the Plague in London De Quincey's Revolt of the Tartars Emerson's The American Scholar, Self-Reliance and Compensation Franklin's Autobiography "George Eliot's" Silas Marner Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield Irving's Sketch Book (Ten Selections) Irving's Tales of a Traveler Macaulay's Second Essay on Chatham Macaulay's Essay on Milton Macaulay's Essay on Addison Macaulay's Life of Johnson Milton's L'Allegro, Il Penseroso, Comus Lycidas, Milton's Paradise Lost, Books I and. II Pope's Homer's Iliad, Books I, VI, XXII, XXIV, Scott's Ivanhoe Scott's Marmion Scott's Lady of the Lake Scott's The Abbot Scott's Woodstock. Shakespeare's Julius Caesar Shakespeare's Twelfth Night Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice Shakespeare's Midsummer-Night's Dream Shakespeare's As You Like It Shakespeare's Macbeth Shakespeare's Hamlet, Sir Roger de Coverley Papers (The Spectator), Southey's Life of Nelson Tennyson's The Princess, Webster's (Daniel) Bunker Hill Orations, ----- Sent, postpaid on receipt of price. COPYRIGHT, 1879, BY VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG & COMPANY COPYRIGHT, 1896, BY AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY. COPYRIGHT, 1907 AND 1921, BY HENRY H. VAIL. M'G REV. 6TH EC. EP 118 Preface (3) In the SIXTH READER, the general plan of the revision of McGUFFEY'S SERIES has been carefully carried out to completion. That plan has been to retain, throughout, those characteristic features of McGUFFEY'S READERS, which have made the series so popular, and caused their widespread use throughout the schools of the country. At the same time, the books have been enlarged; old pieces have been exchanged for new wherever the advantage was manifest; and several new features have been incorporated, which it is thought will add largely to the value of the series. In the revision of the SIXTH READER, the introductory matter has been retained with but little change, and it will he found very valuable for elocutionary drill. In the preparation of this portion of the work, free use was made of the writings of standard authors upon Elocution, such as Walker, McCulloch, Sheridan Knowles, Ewing, Pinnock, Scott, Bell, Graham, Mylins, Wood, Rush, and many others. In making up the Selections for Reading, great care and deliberation have been exercised. The best pieces of the old book are retained in the REVISED SIXTH, and to the these been added a long list of selections from the best English and American literature. Upwards of one hundred leading authors are represented (see "Alphabetical List. of Authors," page ix), and thus a wide range of specimens of the best style has been secured. Close scrutiny revealed the fact that many popular selections common to several series of Readers, had been largely adapted, but in McGUFFEY'S REVISED READERS, wherever it was possible to do so, the selections have been compared, and made to conform strictly with the originals as they appear in the latest editions authorized by the several writers. The character of the selections, aside from their elocutionary value, has also been duly considered. It will be found, upon examination, that they present the same instructive merit and healthful moral tone which gave the preceding edition its high reputation. Two new features of the REVISED SIXTH deserve especial attention--the explanatory notes, and the biographical notices of authors. The first, in the absence of a large number of books of reference, are absolutely necessary, in some cases, for the intelligent reading of the piece; and it is believed that in all cases they will add largely to the interest and usefulness of the lessons. The biographical notices, if properly used, are hardly of less value than the lessons themselves. They have been carefully prepared, and are intended not only to add to the interest of the pieces, but to supply information usually obtained only by the separate study of English and American literature. The illustrations of the REVISED SIXTH READER are presented as specimens of fine art. They are the work of the best artists and engravers that could be secured for the purpose in this country. The names of these gentlemen may be found on page ten. The publishers would here repeat their acknowledgments to the numerous friends and critics who have kindly assisted in the work of revision, and would mention particularly President EDWIN C. HEWETT, of the State Normal University, Normal, Illinois, and the HON. THOMAS W. HARVEY, of Painesville, Ohio, who have had the revision of the SIXTH READER under their direct advice. Especial acknowledgment is due to Messrs. Houghton, Osgood & Co., for their permission to make liberal selections from their copyright editions of many of the foremost American authors whose works they publish. January, 1880. CONTENTS (5) INTRODUCTION. SUBJECT. PAGE I. ARTICULATION 11 II. INFLECTION 18 III. ACCENT AND EMPHASIS 33 IV. INSTRUCTIONS FOR READING VERSE 39 V. THE VOICE 40 VI. GESTURE 55 SELECTIONS FOR READING. (5) TITLE. AUTHOR. PAGE. 1. Anecdote of the Duke of Newcastle Blackwood's Magazine. 63 2. The Needle Samuel Woodworth. 67 3. Dawn Edward Everett. 68 4. Description of a Storm Benjamin Disraeli. 70 5. After the Thunderstorm James Thomson. 72 6. House Cleaning Francis Hopkinson. 73 7. Schemes of Life often Illusory Samuel Johnson. 78 8. The Brave Old Oak Henry Fothergill Chorley. 81 9. The Artist Surprised 82 10. Pictures of Memory Alice Cary. 88 11. The Morning Oratorio Wilson Flagg. 90 12. Short Selections in Poetry: I. The Cloud John Wilson. 94 II. My Mind William Byrd. 94 III. A Good Name William Shakespeare. 95 V. Sunrise James Thomson. 95 V. Old Age and Death Edmund Waller. 95 VI. Milton John Dryden. 96 13. Death of Little Nell Charles Dickens. 96 14. Vanity of Life Johann Gottfried von Herder. 100 15. A Political Pause Charles James Fox 102 16. My Experience in Elocution John Neal. 104 17. Elegy in a Country Churchyard Thomas Gray. 108 18. Tact and Talent 113 19. Speech before the Virginia Convention Patrick Henry. 115 20. The American Flag Joseph Rodman Drake. 119 21. Ironical Eulogy on Debt 121 22. The Three Warnings Hester Lynch Thrale. 124 23. The Memory of Our Fathers Lyman Beecher. 128 24. Short Selections in Prose: I. Dryden and Pope Samuel Johnson. 130 II. Las Casas Dissuading from Battle R.B. Sheridan. 130 III. Action and Repose John Ruskin. 131 IV. Time and Change Sir Humphry Davy. 131 V. The Poet William Ellery Channing. 132 VI. Mountains William Howitt. 132 25. The Jolly Old Pedagogue George Arnold. 133 26. The Teacher and Sick Scholar. Charles Dickens. 135 27. The Snow Shower William Cullen Bryant. 141 28. Character of Napoleon Bonaparte Charles Phillips. 143 29. Napoleon at Rest John Pierpont. 146 30. War Charles Sumner. 148 31. Speech of Walpole in Reproof of Mr. Pitt Sir R. Walpole. 151 32. Pitt's Reply to Sir Robert Walpole William Pitt. 152 33. Character of Mr. Pitt Henry Grattan. 154 34. The Soldier's Rest Sir Walter Scott. 156 35. Henry V. to his Troops William Shakespeare. 158 36. Speech of Paul on Mars' Hill Bible. 160 37. God is Everywhere Joseph Hutton. 161 38. Lafayette and Robert Raikes Thomas S. Grimke'. 163 39. Fall of Cardinal Wolsey William Shakespeare. 167 40. The Philosopher John P. Kennedy. 171 41. Marmion and Douglas Sir Walter Scott. 176 42. The Present Adelaide Anne Procter. 178 43. The Baptism John Wilson. 180 44. Sparrows Adeline D. Train Whitney. 185 45. Observance of the Sabbath Gardiner Spring. 186 46. God's Goodness to Such as Fear Him Bible. 189 47. Character of Columbus Washington Irving. 192 48. "He Giveth His Beloved Sleep." Elizabeth B. Browning. 195 49. Description of a Siege Sir Walter Scott 197 50. Marco Bozzaris Fitz-Greene Halleck. 202 51. Song of the Greek Bard Lord George Gordon Byron. 205 52. North American Indians Charles Sprague. 209 53. Lochiel's Warning Thomas Campbell. 211 54. On Happiness of Temper Oliver Goldsmith. 215 55. The Fortune Teller Henry Mackenzie. 218 56. Renzi's Address to the Romans Mary Russell Mitford. 221 57. The Puritan Fathers of New England F. W. P. Greenwood. 223 58. Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers Felicia Dorothea Hemans. 226 59. Necessity of Education Lyman Beecher. 228 60. Riding on a Snowplow Benjamin Franklin Taylor. 231 61. The Quarrel of Brutus and Cassius William Shakespeare. 284 62. The Quack John Tobin. 238 63. Rip Van Winkle Washington Irving. 242 64. Bill and Joe Oliver Wendell Holmes. 240 65. Sorrow for the Dead Washington Irving. 249 66. The Eagle James Gates Percival. 251 67. Political Toleration Thomas Jefferson. 253 68. What Constitutes a State? Sir William Jones. 255 69. The Brave at Home Thomas Buchanan Read. 256 70. South Carolina Robert Young Hayne. 257 71. Massachusetts and South Carolina Daniel Webster. 259 72. The Church Scene from Evangeline H. W. Longfellow. 262 73. Song of the Shirt Thomas Hood. 266 74. Diamond cut Diamond. E'douard Rene' Lefebvre-Laboulaye. 269 75. Thanatopsis William Cullen Bryant. 275 76. Indian Jugglers William Hazlitt. 278 77. Antony over Caesar's Dead Body William Shakespeare. 281 78. The English Character William Hickling Prescott. 286 79. The Song of the Potter. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.290 80. A Hot Day in New York William Dean Howells. 292 81. Discontent.--An Allegory Joseph Addison. 295 82. Jupiter and Ten. James T. Fields. 301 83. Scene from "The Poor Gentleman" George Colman. 303 84. My Mother's Picture William Cowper. 310 85. Death of Samson John Milton. 312 86. An Evening Adventure 315 87. The Barefoot Boy John Greenleaf Wittier. 317 88. The Glove and the Lions James Henry Leigh Hunt. 321 89. The Folly of Intoxication William Shakespeare. 322 90. Starved Rock Francis Parkman. 325 91. Prince Henry and Falstaff. William Shakespeare. 327 92. Studies. Sir Francis Bacon. 332 93. Surrender of Granada. Sir Edward George Bulwer-Lytton. 334 94. Hamlet's Soliloquy. William Shakespeare. 339 95. Ginevra Samuel Rogers. 340 96. Inventions and Discoveries John Caldwell Calhoun. 344 97. Enoch Arden at the Window Alfred Tennyson. 347 98. Lochinvar Sir Walter Scott. 350 99. Speech on the Trial of a Murderer Daniel Webster. 352 100. The Closing Year George Denison Prentice. 355 101. A New City in Colorado Helen Hunt Jackson. 358 102. Importance of the Union Daniel Webster. 362 103. The Influences of the Sun John Tyndall. 364 104. Colloquial Powers of Franklin William Wirt. 366 105. The Dream of Clarence William Shakespeare. 368 106. Homeward Bound Richard H. Dana, Jr. 371 107. Impeachment of Warren Hastings T. B. Macaulay. 375 108. Destruction of the Carnatic Edmund Burke. 379 109. The Raven Edgar Allan Poe. 382 110. A View of the Colosseum Orville Dewey. 389 111. The Bridge Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.392 112. Objects and Limits of Science Robert Charles Winthrop. 394 113. The Downfall of Poland. Thomas Campbell. 396 114. Labor Horace Greeley. 398 115. The Last Days of Herculaneum Edwin Atherstone. 401 116. How Men Reason Oliver Wendell Holmes. 405 117. Thunderstorm on the Alps Lord Byron. 408 118. Origin of Property Sir William Blackstone. 410 119. Battle of Waterloo Lord Byron. 415 120. "With Brains, Sir" John Brown. 417 121. The New England Pastor Timothy Dwight. 410 122. Death of Absalom Bible. 420 123. Abraham Davenport John Greenleaf Whittier. 424 124. The Falls of the Yosemite Thomas Starr King. 426 125. A Psalm of Life Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.429 126. Franklin's Entry into Philadelphia. Benjamin Franklin. 431 127. Lines to a Waterfowl William Cullen Bryant. 434 128. Goldsmith and Addison William Makepeace Thackeray. 435 129. Immortality of the Soul Joseph Addison. 438 130. Character of Washington Jared Sparks. 440 131. Eulogy on Washington Henry Lee. 444 132. The Solitary Reaper William Wordsworth. 446 133. Value of the Present Ralph Waldo Emerson. 447 134. Happiness Alexander Pope. 451 135. Marion William Gilmore Simms. 453 136. A Common Thought Henry Timrod. 456 137. A Definite Aim in Reading Noah Porter. 457 138. Ode to Mt. Blanc Samuel Taylor Coleridge. 462 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF AUTHORS. (9) NAME PAGE NAME PAGE 1. ADDISON, JOSEPH 295, 438 38. GOLDSMITH 215 2. ARNOLD. GEORGE 133 39. GRATTAN. HENRY 154 3. ATHERSTONE. EDWIN 401 40. GRAY, THOMAS 108 4. BACON, SIR FRANCIS 332 41. GREELEY, HORACE 398 5. BEECHER, LYMAN 128, 228 42. GREENWOOD, F. W. P. 223 6. BIBLE, THE 160, 189, 420 43. GRIMKE. THOMAS S. 163 7. BLACKSTONE, SIR WILLIAM 410 44. HALLECK. FITZ-GREEN 202 8. BLACKWOOD'S MAGAZINE 63 45. HAYNE, ROBERT YOUNG 257 9. BROWN, JOHN 417 46. HAZLITT, WILLIAM 278 10. BROWNING, ELIZABETH B. 195 47. HEMANS, FALICIA D. 226 11. BRYANT 141, 275, 434 48. HENRY, PATRICK 115 12. BULWER-LYTTON 334 19. HOLMES 246, 405 13. BURKE, EDMUND 379 50. HOOD, THOMAS 266 14. BYRD, WILLIAM 94 51. HOPKINSON, FRANCIS 73 15. BYRON 205, 408, 415 52. HOWELLS. W. D. 292 16. CALHOUN, JOHN C. 344 53. HOWITT, WILLIAM 132 17. CAMPBELL, THOMAS 211, 396 54. HUNT, LEIGH 321 18. CARY, ALICE 88 55. HUTTON, JOSEPH 161 19. CHANNING, WILLLIAM ELLERY 132 56. IRVING 192, 212, 249 20. CHORLEY, H. F. 81 57. JACKSON, HELEN HUNT 358 21. COLRIDGE. 462 58. JEFFERSON, THOMAS 253 22. COLMAN, GEORGE 303 59. JOHNSON, SAMUEL 78, 130 23. COWPER 310 60. JONES, SIR WILLIAM 255 24. DANA, RICHARD H. JR. 371 61. KENNEDY, JOHN P. 171 25. DAVY, SIR HUMPHRY 131 62. KING, THOMAS STARR 426 26. DEWEY, ORVILLE 389 63. LEE, HENRY 444 27. DICKENS 96, 135 64. LEFEBVRE-LABOULAYE 269 28. DISRAELI, BENJAMIN 70 65. LONGFELLOW 262,290,392,429 29. DRAKE, JOSEPH RODMAN 119 66. MACAULAY 375 30. DRYDEN 96 67. MACKENZIE. HENRY 218 31. DWIGHT, TIMOTHY 419 68. MILTON 312 32. EMERSON 447 69. MITFORD, MARY RUSSELL 221 33. EVERETT 68 70. NEAL, JOHN 104 34. FIELDS. JAMES T. 301 71. PARKMAN. FRANCIS 325 35. FLAGG, WILSON 90 72. PERCIVAL, J. G 251 36. FOX, CHARLES JAMES 102 73. PHILLIPS. CHARLES 143 37. FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN 431 74. PIERPONT, JOHN 146 NAME PAGE NAME PAGE 75. PITT 152 93. TAYLOR, B. F, 231 76. POE, EDGAR ALLAN 382 94. TENNYSON 347 77. POPE 451 95. THACKERAY 435 78, PORTER, NOAH 457 96. THOMSON, JAMES 72, 95 79. PRENTICE, GEO. D. 355 97. THRALE. HESTER LYNCH 124 80. PRESCOTT 286 98. TIMROD, HENRY 456 81. PROCTER, ADELAIDE ANNE l78 99. TOBIN, JOHN 238 82. READ, T. B. 256 100. TYNDALL 364 83. ROGERS, SAMUEL 340 101. VON HERDER. J. G. 100 84. RUSKIN, JOHN 131 102. WALLER, EDMUND 95 85. SCOTT 156,176,197,350 103. WALPOLE 151 86. SHAKESPEARE. 95, 158, 167 104. WEBSTER 259, 352, 362 234, 281, 322, 327, 339, 368 105. WHITNEY, ADELINE D. T. 185 87. SHERMAN, R. B. 130 106. WHITTIER 317, 424 88. SIMMS, WILLIAM GILMORE 453 107. WILSON, JOHN 94, 180 89. SPARKS, JARED 440 108. WINTHROP, R.C. 394 90. SPRAGUE, CHARLES 209 109. WIRT, WILLIAM 366 91. SPRING, GARDINER 186 110. WOODWORTH, SAMUEL 67 92. SUMNER 148 111. WORDSWORTH 440 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. (10) Page Drawn by Engraved by GINEVRA Frontspiece H. F. Farney. Timothy Cole. DUKE OF NEWCASTLE 65 H. F. Farney. F.Juengling GRAY'S ELEGY 112 Thomas Moran. Henry Bogert. MARMION 177 C. S. Reinhart. J. G. Smithwick. THE QUACK 240 Howard Pyle. J. P. Davis. DIAMOND CUT DIAMOND 272 Alfred Kappes. Timothy Cole. THE GLOVE AND THE LIONS 321 H. F. Farney. Smithwick and French. HERCULANEUM 401 Charles D. Sauerwein. Francis S. King. INTRODUCTION. (11) The subject of Elocution, so far as it is deemed applicable to a work of this kind, will be considered under the following heads, viz: 1. ARTICULATION. 4. READING VERSE. 2. INFLECTION. 5. THE VOICE. 3. ACCENT AND EMPHASIS. 6. GESTURE. I. ARTICULATION. (11) Articulation is the utterance of the elementary sounds of a language, and of their combinations. As words consist of one or more elementary sounds, the first object of the student should he to acquire the power of uttering those sounds with distinctness, smoothness, and force. This result can be secured only by careful practice, which must be persevered in until the learner has acquired a perfect control of his organs of speech. ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. (12) An Elementary Sound is a simple, distinct sound made by the organs of speech. The Elementary Sounds of the English language are divided into Vocals, Subvocals, and Aspirates. VOCALS. (12) Vocals are sounds which consist of pure tone only. They are the most prominent elements of all words, and it is proper that they should first receive attention. A vocal may be represented by one letter, as in the word hat, or by two or more letters, as in heat, beauty. A diphthong is a union of two vocals, commencing with one and ending with the other. It is usually represented by two letters, as in the words oil, boy, out, now. Each of these can he uttered with great force, so as to give a distinct expression of its sound, although the voice be suddenly suspended, the moment the sound is produced. This is done by putting the lips, teeth, tongue, and palate in their proper position, and then expelling each sound from the throat in the same manner that the syllable "ah!" is uttered in endeavoring to deter a child from something it is about to do; thus, a'--a'--a'--. Let the pupil he required to utter every one of the elements in the Table with all possible suddenness and percussive force, until he is able to do it with ease and accuracy. This must not he considered as accomplished until he can give each sound with entire clearness, and with all the suddenness of the crack of a rifle. Care must be taken that the vocal alone be heard; there must be no consonantal sound, and no vocal sound other than the one intended. At first, the elementary sounds may be repeated by the class in concert; then separately. TABLE OF VOCALS. (13) Long Sounds. Sound as in a hate e err a hare i pine a pass o no a far oo cool a fall u tube e eve u burn Short Sounds. Sound as in a mat o hot e met oo book i it u us Diphthongs. oi, oy, as in oil, boy. ou, ow, as in out, now. REMARK I.--In this table, the short sounds are nearly or quite the same, in quantity, as the long sounds. The difference consists chiefly in quality. Let the pupil determine this fact by experiment. REMARK II.--The vocals are often represented by other letters or combinations of letters than those used in the table: for instance, a is represented by ai as in hail, by ea as in steak, etc. REMARK III.--As a general rule, the long vocals and the diphthongs should be articulated with full, clear utterance; but the short vocals have a sharp, distinct, and almost explosive utterance. Weakness of speech follows a failure to observe the first point, while drawling results from carelessness with respect to the second. SUBVOCALS AND ASPIRATES (13) Subvocals are those sounds in which the vocalized breath is more or less obstructed. Aspirates consist of breath only, modified by the vocal organs. Words ending with subvocal sounds may be selected for practice on the subvocals; words beginning or ending with aspirate sounds may be used for practice on aspirates. Pronounce these words forcibly and distinctly, several times in succession; then drop the other sounds, and repeat the subvocals and aspirates alone. Let the class repeat the words and elements, at first, in concert; then separately. TABLE OF SUBVOCALS AND ASPIRATES. (14) Subvocals. as in b babe d bad g nag j judge v move th with z buzz z azure (azh-) w wine Aspirates. as in p rap t at k book ch rich f life th smith s hiss sh rush wh what REMARK.--These eighteen sounds make nine pairs of cognates. In articulating the aspirates, the vocal organs are put in the position required in the articulation of the corresponding subvocals; but the breath is expelled with some force, without the utterance of any vocal sound. The pupil should first verify this by experiment, and then practice on these cognates. The following subvocals and aspirate have no cognates: SUBVOCAL as in l mill ng sing m rim r rule n run y yet ASPIRATE. h, as in hat. SUBSTITUTES. (14) Substitutes are characters used to represent sounds ordinarily represented by other characters. TABLE OF SUBSTITUTES. Sub for as in a o what y i hymn e a there c s cite e a freight c k cap i e police ch sh machine i e sir ch k chord o u son g j cage o oo to n ng rink o oo would s z rose o a corn s sh sugar o u worm x gz examine u oo pull gh f laugh u oo rude ph f sylph y i my qu k pique qu kw quick FAULTS TO BE REMEDIED. (15) The most common faults of articulation are dropping an unaccented vowel, sounding incorrectly an unaccented vowel, suppressing final consonants, omitting or mispronouncing syllables, and blending words. 1. Dropping an unaccented vocal. EXAMPLES. CORRECT INCORRECT gran'a-ry gran'ry a-ban'don a-ban-d'n im-mor'tal im-mor-t'l reg'u-lar reg'lar in-clem'ent in-clem'nt par-tic'u-lar par-tic'lar des'ti-ny des-t'ny cal-cu-la'tian cal-cl'a-sh'n un-cer'tain un-cer-t'n oc-ca'sion oc-ca-sh'n em'i-nent em'nent ef'i-gy ef'gy ag'o-ny ag'ny man'i-fold man'fold rev'er-ent rev'rent cul'ti-vate cult'vate 2. Sounding incorrectly an unaccented vowel. EXAMPLES. CORRECT INCORRECT lam-en-ta'-tion lam-un-ta-tion ter'ri-ble ter-rub-ble e-ter'nal e-ter-nul fel'on-y fel-er-ny ob'sti-nate ob-stun-it fel'low-ship fel-ler-ship e-vent' uv-ent cal'cu-late cal-ker-late ef'fort uf-fort reg'u-lar reg-gy-lur EXERCISES. (16) The vocals most likely to be dropped or incorrectly sounded are italicized. He attended divine service regularly. This is my particular request. She is universally esteemed. George is sensible of his fault. This calculation is incorrect. What a terrible calamity. His eye through vast immensity can pierce. Observe these nice dependencies. He is a formidable adversary. He is generous to his friends. A tempest desolated the land. He preferred death to servitude. God is the author of all things visible and invisible. 3. Suppressing the final subvocals or aspirates. EXAMPLE (16) John an' James are frien's o' my father. Gi' me some bread. The want o' men is occasioned by the want o' money. We seldom fine' men o' principle to ac' thus. Beas' an' creepin' things were foun' there. EXERCISES. (17) He learned to write. The masts of the ship were cast down. He entered the lists at the head of his troops. He is the merriest fellow in existence. I regard not the world's opinion. He has three assistants. The depths of the sea. She trusts too much to servants. His attempts were fruitless. He chanced to see a bee hovering over a flower. 4. Omitting or mispronouncing whole syllables. EXAMPLES. Correct is improperly pronounced Lit'er-ar-ry lit-rer-ry co-tem'po-ra-ry co-tem-po-ry het-er-o-ge'ne-ous het-ro-ge-nous in-quis-i-to'ri-al in-quis-i-to-ral mis'er-a-ble mis-rer-ble ac-com'pa-ni-ment ac-comp-ner-ment EXERCISE He devoted his attention chiefly to literary pursuits. He is a miserable creature. His faults were owing to the degeneracy of the times. The manuscript was undecipherable. His spirit was unconquerable. Great industry was necessary for the performance of the task. 5. Blending the end of one word with the beginning of the next. EXAMPLES I court thy gif sno more. The grove swere God sfir stemples. My hear twas a mirror, that show' devery treasure. It reflecte deach beautiful blosso mof pleasure. Han d'me the slate. This worl dis all a fleeting show, For man' sillusion given. EXERCISES. (18) The magistrates ought to arrest the rogues speedily. The whirlwinds sweep the plain. Linked to thy side, through every chance I go. But had he seen an actor in our days enacting Shakespeare. What awful sounds assail my ears? We caught a glimpse of her. Old age has on their temples shed her silver frost. Our eagle shall rise mid the whirlwinds of war, And dart through the dun cloud of battle his eye. Then honor shall weave of the laurel a crown, That beauty shall bind on the brow of the brave. II. INFLECTION. (18) Inflection is a bending or sliding of the voice either upward or downward. The upward or rising inflection is an upward slide of the voice, and is marked by the acute accent, thus, ('); as, Did you call'? Is he sick'? The downward or falling inflection is a downward slide of the voice, and is marked by the grave accent, thus, ('); as, Where is London'? Where have you been'? Sometimes both the rising and falling inflections are given to the same sound. Such sounds are designated by the circumflex, thus, (v) or thus, (^). The former is called the rising circumflex; the latter, the falling circumflex; as, But nobody can bear the death of Clodius. When several successive syllables are uttered without either the upward or downward slide, they are said to be uttered in a monotone, which is marked thus, (--); as, Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean--roll EXAMPLES. (19) Does he read correctly' or incorrectly'? In reading this sentence, the voice should slide somewhat as represented in the following diagram: Does he read cor-rectly or incorrect-ly? If you said vinegar, I said sugar, To be read thus: If you said vinegar, I said sugar, If you said yes, I said no. To be read thus: If you said yes, I said no. What! did he say no? To be read thus: What! did he say no? He did'; he said no', To be read thus; He did; he said no. Did he do it voluntarily', or involuntarily'? To be read thus: Did he do it voluntarily, or involuntarily? He did it voluntarily', not involuntarily', To be read thus: He did it voluntarily, not involuntarily. EXERCISES. (20) Do they act prudently', or imprudently'? Are they at home', or abroad'? Did you say Europe', or Asia'? Is he rich', or poor'? He said pain', not pain'. Are you engaged', or at leisure'? Shall I say plain', or pain'? He went home' not abroad'. Does he say able', or table'? He said hazy' not lazy'? Must I say flat', or flat'? You should say flat' not flat'. My father', must I stay'? Oh! but he paused upon the brink. It shall go hard with me, but I shall use the weapon. Heard ye those loud contending waves, That shook Cecropia's pillar'd state'? Saw ye the mighty from their graves Look up', and tremble at your fate'? First' Fear', his hand, its skill to try', Amid the chords bewildered laid'; And back recoiled', he knew not why' E'en at the sound himself had made'. Where be your gibes' now? your gambols'? your songs'? your flashes of merriment, that were wont to set the table on a roar'? Thus saith the high and lofty One that inhabiteth eternity, whose name is Holy; "I dwell in the high and holy place." FALLING INFLECTION. (21) RULE I.--Sentences, and parts of sentences which make complete sense in themselves, require the falling inflection. EXAMPLES. (21) 1. By virtue we secure happiness'. 2. For thou hast said in thine heart, I will ascend into heaven': I will exalt my throne above the stars of God': I will sit, also, upon the mount of the congregation, in the sides of the north'. 3. The wind and the rain are over'; calm is the noon of the day\: the clouds are divided in heaven'; over the green hills flies the inconstant sun'; red through the stormy vale comes down the stream'. 4. This proposition was, however, rejected,' and not merely rejected, but rejected with insult'. Exception.--Emphasis sometimes reverses this rule, and requires the rising inflection, apparently for the purpose of calling attention to the idea of an unusual manner of expressing it. EXAMPLES. (21) 1. I should not like to ride in that car'. 2. Look out! A man was drowned there yesterday'. 3. Presumptuous man! the gods' take care of Cato', RULE II.--The language of emphasis generally requires the falling inflection. EXAMPLES. (22) 1. Charge', Chester, charge'; on', Stanley, on'. 2. Were I an American, as I am an Englishman, while a single' foreign troop' remained' in my country, I would never' lay down my arms'--never', never', never.' 3. Does anyone suppose that the payment of twenty shillings, would have ruined Mr. Hampden's fortune? No'. But the payment of half twenty shillings, on the principle' it was demanded, would have made him a slave'. 4. I insist' upon this point': I urge' you to it; I press' it, demand' it. 5. All that I have', all that I am', and all that I hope' in this life, I am now ready', here, to stake' upon it. RULE III.--Interrogative sentences and members of sentences, which can not be answered by yes or no, generally require the falling inflection. EXAMPLE. (22) 1. How many books did he purchase'? 2. Why reason ye these things in your hearts'? 3. What see' you, that you frown so heavily to-day'? 4. Ah! what is that flame which now bursts on his eye'? 5. Whence this pleasing hope', this fond desire', This longing after immortality'? Exception.--When questions usually requiring the falling inflection are emphatic or repeated, they take the rising inflection. EXAMPLES. (22) 1. Where did you say he had gone'? 2. To whom did you say the blame was to be imputed'? 3. What is' he? A knave. What' is he? A knave, I say. RISING INFLECTION. (23) RULE IV.--The rising inflection is generally used where the sense is dependent or incomplete. REMARK.--This inflection is generally very slight, requiring an acute and educated ear to discern it, and it is difficult to teach pupils to distinguish it, though they constantly use it. Care should be taken not to exaggerate it. EXAMPLES. (23) 1. Nature being exhausted', he quietly resigned himself to his fate. 2. A chieftain to the Highlands bound', Cries', "Boatman, do not tarry!" 3. As he spoke without fear of consequences', so his actions were marked with the most unbending resolution, 4. Speaking in the open air', at the top of the voice', is an admirable exercise. 5. If then, his Providence' out of our evil, seek to bring forth good', our labor must be to prevent that end. 6. He', born for the universe', narrowed his mind, And to party gave up what was meant for mankind. REMARK.--The names of persons or things addressed, when not used emphatically, are included in this rule. 7. Brother', give me thy hand; and, gentle Warwick!, Let me embrace thee in my weary arms. 8. O Lancaster', I fear thy overthrow. 9. Ye crags' and peaks', I'm with you once again. Exception 1.--Relative emphasis often reverses this and the first rule, because emphasis is here expressed in part by changing the usual inflections. EXAMPLES. (23) 1. If you care not for your property', you surely value your life'. 2. If you will not labor for your own' advancement, you should regard that of your children'. 3. It is your place to obey', not to command'. 4. Though by that course he should not destroy his reputation', he will lose all self-respect'. Exception 2.--The names of persons addressed in a formal speech, or when used emphatically, have the falling inflection. EXAMPLES. (24) 1. Romans, countrymen, and lovers', hear me for my cause, etc. 2. Gentlemen of the jury', I solicit your attention, etc. 3. O Hubert', Hubert', save me from these men. RULE V.--Negative sentences and parts of sentences, usually require the rising inflection. EXAMPLES. (24) 1. It is not by starts of application that eminence can be attained'. 2. It was not an eclipse that caused the darkness at the crucifixion of our Lord'; for the sun and moon were not relatively in a position' to produce an eclipse'. 3. They are not fighting': do not disturb' them: this man is not expiring with agony': that man is not dead': they are only pausing'. 4. My Lord, we could not have had such designs'. 5. You are not left alone to climb the steep ascent': God is with you, who never suffers the spirit that rests on him to fail. Exception 1.--Emphasis may reverse this rule. EXAMPLE. (24) We repeat it, we do not' desire to produce discord; we do not' wish to kindle the flames of a civil war. Exception 2.--General propositions and commands usually have the falling inflection. EXAMPLES. (25) God is not the author of sin'. Thou shalt not kill. RULE VI.--Interrogative sentences, and members of sentences which can be answered by yes or no generally require the rising inflection. EXAMPLES. (25) 1. Are fleets and armies necessary to a work of love and reconciliation'? 2. Does the gentleman suppose it is in his power', to exhibit in Carolina a name so bright' as to produce envy' in my bosom? 3. If it be admitted, that strict integrity is not the shortest way to success, is it not the surest', the happiest', the best'? 4. Is there not rain enough in the sweet heavens, To wash this crimson hand as white as snow'? Exception.--Emphasis may reverse this rule. EXAMPLES. (25) 1, Can' you be so blind to your interest? Will' you rush headlong to destruction? 2. I ask again, is' there no hope of reconciliation? Must' we abandon all our fond anticipations? 3. Will you deny' it? Will you deny' it? 4. Am I Dromio'? Am I your man'? Am I myself'? RULE VII.--Interrogative exclamations, and words repeated as a kind of echo to the thought, require the rising inflection. EXAMPLES. (25) 1. Where grows', where grows it not'? 2. What'! Might Rome have been taken'? Rome taken when I was consul'? 3. Banished from Rome'! Tried and convicted traitor'! 4. Prince Henry. What's the matter'? Falstaff. What's the matter'? Here be four of us have taken a thousand pounds this morning. Prince H. Where is' it, Jack, where is' it? Fal. Where is' it? Taken from us, it is. 5. Ha'! laughest thou, Lochiel, my vision to scorn? 6. And this man is called a statesman. A statesman'? Why, he never invented a decent humbug. 7. I can not say, sir, which of these motives influence the advocates of the bill before us; a bill', in which such cruelties are proposed as are yet unknown among the most savage nations. RISING AND FALLING INFLECTIONS. (26) RULE VIII.--Words and members of a sentence expressing antithesis or contrast, require opposite inflections. EXAMPLES. (26) 1. By honor' and dishonor'; by evil' report and good' report; as deceivers' and yet true'. 2. What they know by reading', I know by experience'. 3. I could honor thy courage', but I detest thy crimes'. 4. It is easier to forgive the weak', who have injured us', than the powerful' whom we' have injured. 5. Homer was the greater genius', Virgil the better artist'. 6. The style of Dryden is capricious and varied'; that of Pope is cautious and uniform'. Dryden obeys the emotions of his own mind'; Pope constrains his mind to his own rules of composition.' Dryden is sometimes vehement and rapid'; Pope is always smooth, uniform, and gentle'. Dryden's page is a natural field, rising into inequalities, varied by exuberant vegetation'; Pope's is a velvet lawn, shaven by the scythe and leveled by the roller'. 7. If the flights of Dryden are higher', Pope continues longer on the wing'. If the blaze of Dryden's fire is brighter', the heat of Pope's is more regular and constant'. Dryden often surpasses' expectation, and Pope never falls below' it. REMARK l.--Words and members connected by or used disjunctively, generally express contrast or antithesis, and always receive opposite inflection. EXAMPLES. (27) 1. Shall we advance', or retreat'? 2. Do you seek wealth', or power'? 3. Is the great chain upheld by God', or thee'? 4. Shall we return to our allegiance while we may do so with safety and honor', or shall we wait until the ax of the executioner is at our throats'? 5. Shall we crown' the author of these public calamities with garlands', or shall we wrest' from him his ill-deserved authority' ? REMARK 2.--When the antithesis is between affirmation and negation, the latter usually has the rising inflection, according to Rule V. EXAMPLES. (27) 1. You were paid to fight' against Philip, not to rail' at him. 2. I said rationally', not irrationally'. 3. I did not say rationally', but irrationally'. 4. I said an elder' soldier, not a better'. 5. Let us retract while we can', not when we must'. REMARK 3.--The more emphatic member generally receives the falling inflection. EXAMPLES. (27) 1. A countenance more in sorrow', than anger'. 2. A countenance less in anger', than sorrow'. 3. You should show your courage by deeds', rather than by words. 4. If we can not remove' pain, we may alleviate' it. OF SERIES. (28) A series is a number of particulars immediately following one another in the same grammatical construction. A commencing series is one which commences a sentence or clause. EXAMPLE. (28) Faith, hope, love, joy, are the fruits of the spirit. A concluding series is one which concludes a sentence or a clause. EXAMPLE. (28) The fruits of the spirit are faith, hope, love, and joy. RULE IX.--All the members of a commencing series, when not emphatic, usually require the rising inflection. EXAMPLES. (28) 1. War', famine', pestilence', storm', and fire' besiege mankind. 2. The knowledge', the power', the wisdom', the goodness' of God, must all be unbounded. 3. To advise the ignorant', to relieve the needy', and to comfort the afflicted' are the duties that fall in our way almost every day of our lives. 4. No state chicanery', no narrow system of vicious politics', no idle contest for ministerial victories', sank him to the vulgar level of the great. 5. For solidity of reasoning', force of sagacity', and wisdom of conclusion', no nation or body of men can compare with the Congress at Philadelphia. 6. The wise and the foolish', the virtuous and the evil', the learned and the ignorant', the temperate and the profligate', must often be blended together. 7. Absalom's beauty', Jonathan's love', David's valor', Solomon's wisdom', the patience of Job, the prudence of Augustus', and the eloquence of Cicero' are found in perfection in the Creator. REMARK.--Some elocutionists prefer to give the falling inflection to the last member of a commencing series. Exception.--In a commencing series, forming a climax, the last term usually requires the falling inflection. EXAMPLES. (29) 1. Days', months', years', and ages', shall circle away, And still the vast waters above thee shall roll. 2. Property', character', reputation', everything', was sacrificed. 3. Toils', sufferings', wounds', and death' was the price of our liberty. RULE X.--All the members of a concluding series, when not at all emphatic, usually require the falling inflection. EXAMPLES. (29) 1. It is our duty to pity', to support', to defend', and to relieve' the oppressed. 2. At the sacred call of country, they sacrifice property', ease', health', applause' and even life'. 3. I protest against this measure as cruel', oppressive', tyrannous', and vindictive'. 4. God was manifest in the flesh', justified in the Spirit', seen of angels', preached unto the Gentiles', believed on in the world', received up into glory'. 5. Charity vaunteth not itself', is not puffed up', doth not behave itself unseemly', seeketh not her own', is not easily provoked', thinketh no evil'; beareth' all things, believeth' all things, hopeth' all things, endureth' all things. REMARK.--Some authors give the following rule for the reading of a concluding series: "All the particulars of a concluding series, except the last but one, require the falling inflection." Exception l.--When the particulars enumerated in a concluding series are not at all emphatic, all except the last require the rising inflection. EXAMPLES (30) He was esteemed for his kindness', his intelligence', his self-denial', and his active benevolence'. Exception 2.--When all the terms of a concluding series are strongly emphatic, they all receive the falling inflection. EXAMPLES. (30) 1. They saw not one man', not one woman', not one child', not one four-footed beast'. 2. His hopes', his happiness', his life', hung upon the words that fell from those lips, 3. They fought', they bled', they died', for freedom. PARENTHESIS. (30) RULE XI.--A parenthesis should be read more rapidly and in a lower key than the rest of the sentence, and should terminate with the same inflection that next precedes it. If, however, it is complicated, or emphatic, or disconnected from the main subject, the inflections must be governed by the same rules as in the other cases. REMARK.--A smooth and expressive reading of a parenthesis is difficult of acquisition, and can be secured only by careful and persistent training. EXAMPLES. (30) 1. God is my witness' (whom I serve with my spirit, in the gospel of his Son'), that, without ceasing, I make mention of you always in my prayers; making request' (if, by any means, now at length, I might have a prosperous journey by the will of God'), to come unto you. 2. When he had entered the room three paces, he stood still; and laying his left hand upon his breast' (a slender, white staff with which he journeyed being in his right'), he introduced himself with a little story of his convent. 3. If you, AEschines, in particular, were persuaded' (and it was no particular affection for me, that prompted you to give up the hopes, the appliances, the honors, which attended the course I then advised; but the superior force of truth, and your utter inability to point any course more eligible') if this was the case, I say, is it not highly cruel and unjust to arraign these measures now, when you could not then propose a better? 4. As the hour of conflict drew near' (and this was a conflict to be dreaded even by him'), he began to waver, and to abate much of his boasting. CIRCUMFLEX. (31) RULE XII.--The circumflex is used to express irony, sarcasm, hypothesis, or contrast. NOTE.--For the reason that the circumflex always suggests a double or doubtful meaning, it is appropriate for the purposes expressed in the rule. It is, also, frequently used in sportive language; jokes and puns are commonly given with this inflection. EXAMPLES. (31) 1. Man never is, but always to be, blest. 2. They follow an adventurer whom they fear; we serve a monarch whom we love. They boast, they come but to improve our state, enlarge our thoughts, and free us from the yoke of error. Yes, they will give enlightened freedom to our minds, who are themselves the slaves of passion, avarice, and pride. They offer us their protection: yes, such protection as vultures give to lambs, covering and devouring them. MONOTONE. (32) RULE XIII.--The use of the monotone is confined chiefly to grave and solemn subjects. When carefully and properly employed, it gives great dignity to delivery. EXAMPLES. (32) 1. The unbeliever! one who can gaze upon the sun, and moon, and stars, and upon the unfading and imperishable sky, spread out so magnificently above him, and say, "All this is the work of chance!" 2. God walketh upon the ocean. Brilliantly The glassy waters mirror back his smiles; The surging billows, and the gamboling storms Come crouching to his feet. 3. I hail thee, as in gorgeous robes, Blooming thou leav'st the chambers of the east, Crowned with a gemmed tiara thick embossed With studs of living light. 4. High on a throne of royal state, which far Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind, Or where the gorgeous east, with richest hand Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold, Satan exalted sat. 5. His broad expanded wings Lay calm and motionless upon the air, As if he floated there without their aid, By the sole act of his unlorded will. 6. In dim eclipse, disastrous twilight sheds On half the nations, and with fear of change Perplexes monarchs. III. ACCENT AND EMPHASIS. (33) ACCENT. That syllable in a word which is uttered more forcibly than the others, is said to be accented, and is marked thus, ('); as the italicized syllables in the following words: morn'ing. pos'si-ble. ty'rant. re-cum'bent. pro-cure'. ex-or'bi-tant, de-bate'. com-pre-hen'sive. Common usage alone determines upon what syllable the accent should be placed, and to the lexicographer it belongs, to ascertain and record its decision on this point. In some few cases, we can trace the reasons for common usage in this respect. In words which are used as different parts of speech, or which have different meanings, the distinction is sometimes denoted by changing the accent. EXAMPLES. (33) sub'ject sub-ject' pres'ent pre-sent' ab'sent ab-sent' cem'ent ce-ment' con'jure con-jure' There is another case, in which we discover the reason for changing the accent, and that is, when it is required by emphasis, as in the following: EXAMPLES. (33) 1. His abil'ity or in'ability to perform the act materially varies the case. 2. This corrup'tion must put on in'corruption. SECONDARY ACCENT. (34) In words of more than two syllables, there is often a second accent given, but more slight than the principal one, and this is called the secondary accent; as, em"igra'tion, rep"artee', where the principal accent is marked ('), and the secondary, ("); so, also, this accent is obvious, in nav"iga'tion, com"prehen'sion, plau"sibil'ity, etc. The whole subject, however, properly belongs to dictionaries and spelling books. EMPHASIS. (34) Emphasis consists in uttering a word or phrase in such a manner as to give it force and energy, and to draw the attention of the hearer particularly to the idea expressed. This is most frequently accomplished by an increased stress of voice laid upon the word or phrase. Sometimes, though more rarely, the same object is effected by an unusual lowering of the voice, even to a whisper, and not unfrequently by a pause before the emphatic word. The inflections are often made subsidiary to this object. To give emphasis to a word, the inflection is changed or increased in force or extent. When the rising inflection is ordinarily used, the word, when emphatic, frequently takes the falling inflection; and sometimes, also, the falling inflection is changed into the rising inflection, for the same purpose. Emphatic words are often denoted by being written in italics, in SMALL CAPITALS, or in CAPITALS. Much care is necessary to train the pupil to give clear and expressive emphasis, and at the same time to avoid an unpleasant "jerky" movement of the voice. ABSOLUTE EMPHASIS. (35) Where the emphasis is independent of any contrast or comparison with other words or ideas, it is called absolute emphasis. EXAMPLES. (35) 1. We praise thee, O God; we acknowledge thee to be the Lord. 2. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean--roll! 3. Arm, warriors, arm! 4. You know that you are Brutus, that speak this, Or, by the gods, this speech were else your last. 5. Hamlet. Saw, who? Horatio. The king, your father. Hamlet. The king, my father? 6. Strike--till the last armed foe expires; Strike--for your altars and your fires; Strike--for the green graves of your sites; God, and your native land! RELATIVE EMPHASIS. (35) Where there is antithesis, either expressed or implied, the emphasis is called relative. EXAMPLES. (35) 1. We can do nothing against the truth, but for the truth. 2. But I am describing your condition, rather than my own. 3. I fear not death, and shall I then fear thee? 4. Hunting men, and not beasts, shall be his game. 5. He is the propitiation for our sins; and not for ours only, but for the sins of the whole world. 6. It may moderate and restrain, but it was not designed to banish gladness from the heart of man. In the following examples, there are two sets of antitheses in the same sentence. 7. To err is human, to forgive, divine. 8. John was punished; William, rewarded. 9. Without were fightings, within were fears. 10. Business sweetens pleasure, as labor sweetens rest. 11. Justice appropriates rewards to merit, and punishments to crime. 12. On the one side, all was alacrity and courage; on the other, all was timidity and indecision. 13. The wise man is happy when he gains his own approbation; the fool, when he gains the applause of others. 14. His care was to polish the country by art, as he had protected it by arms. In the following examples, the relative emphasis is applied to three sets of antithetic words. 15. The difference between a madman and a fool is, that the former reasons justly from false data; and the latter, erroneously from just data. 16. He raised a mortal to the skies, She drew an angel down. Sometimes the antithesis is implied, as in the following instances. 17. The spirit of the white man's heaven, Forbids not thee to weep. 18. I shall enter on no encomiums upon Massachusetts. EMPHASIS AND ACCENT. (37) When words, which are the same in part of their formation, are contrasted, the emphasis is expressed by accenting the syllables in which they differ. See Accent, page 33. EXAMPLES. (37) 1. What is the difference between probability and possibility? 2. Learn to unlearn what you have learned amiss. 3. John attends regularly. William, irregularly. 4. There is a great difference between giving and forgiving. 5. The conduct of Antoninus was characterized by justice and humanity; that of Nero, by injustice and inhumanity. 6. The conduct of the former is deserving of approbation, while that of the latter merits the severest reprobation. EMPHASIS AND INFLECTION. (37) Emphasis sometimes changes the inflection from the rising to the falling, or from the falling to the rising. For instances of the former change, see Rule II, and Exception 1 to Rule IV. In the first three following examples, the inflection is changed from the rising to the falling inflection; in the last three, it is changed from the falling to the rising, by the influence of emphasis. EXAMPLES. (37) 1. If we have no regard for religion in youth', we ought to have respect for it in age. 2. If we have no regard for our own' character, we ought to regard the character of others. 3. If content can not remove' the disquietudes of life, it will, at least, alleviate them. 4. The sweetest melody and the most perfect harmony fall powerless upon the ear of one who is deaf', 5. It is useless to expatiate upon the beauties of nature to one who is blind', 6. And they that have believing masters, let them not despise them, because they are brethren'; but rather let them do them service. EMPHATIC PHRASE. (38) When it is desired to give to a phrase great force of expression, each word, and even the parts of a compound word, are independently emphasized. EXAMPLES. (38) 1. Cassius. Must I endure all this? Brutus. All this!--Ay,--more. Fret, till your proud--heart--break. 2. What! weep you when you but behold Our Caesar's vesture wounded? Look ye here, Here is himself, marred, as you see, by traitors. 3. There was a time, my fellow-citizens, when the Lacedaemonians were sovereign masters, both by sea and by land; while this state had not one ship--no, NOT--ONE--WALL. 4. Shall I, the conqueror of Spain and Gaul; and not only of the Alpine nations, but of the Alps themselves; shall I compare myself with this HALF--YEAR--CAPTAIN? 5. You call me misbeliever--cutthroat--dog. Hath a dog--money? Is it possible-- A cur can lend three--thousand--ducats? EMPHATIC PAUSE. (39) A short pause is often made before or after, and sometimes both before and after, an emphatic word or phrase,--thus very much increasing the emphatic expression of the thought. EXAMPLES. (39) 1. May one be pardoned, and retain--the offense? In the corrupted currents of this world, Offense's gilded hand may shove by--justice; And oft 'tis seen, the wicked prize itself Buys out the law: but 't is not so--above: There--is no shuffling: there--the action lies In its true nature. 2. He woke to hear his sentries shriek, "To arms! they come! the Greek! the Greek! He woke--to die--midst flame and smoke." 3. This--is no flattery: These--are counselors That feelingly persuade me what I am. 4. And this--our life, exempt from public haunt, Finds tongues--in tree, books--in the running brooks, Sermons--in stones, and--good in everything. 5. Heaven gave this Lyre, and thus decreed, Be thou a bruised--but not a broken--reed. IV. INSTRUCTIONS FOR READING VERSE. (39) INFLECTIONS. In reading verse, the inflections should be nearly the same as in reading prose; the chief difference is, that in poetry, the monotone and rising inflection are more frequently used than in prose. The greatest difficulty in reading this species of composition, consists in giving it that measured flow which distinguishes it from prose, without falling into a chanting pronunciation. If, at any time, the reader is in doubt as to the proper inflection, let him reduce the passage to earnest conversation, and pronounce it in the most familiar and prosaic manner, and thus he will generally use the proper inflection. EXERCISES IN INFLECTION. (40) 1. Meanwhile the south wind rose, and with black wings Wide hovering', all the clouds together drove From under heaven': the hills to their supply', Vapor and exhalation dusk and moist Sent up amain': and now, the thickened sky Like a dark ceiling stood': down rushed the rain Impetuous', and continued till the earth No more was seen': the floating vessel swam Uplifted', and, secure with beake'd prow', Rode tilting o'er the waves'. 2. My friend', adown life's valley', hand in hand', With grateful change of grave and merry speech Or song', our hearts unlocking each to each', We'll journey onward to the silent land'; And when stern death shall loose that loving band, Taking in his cold hand, a hand of ours', The one shall strew the other's grave with flowers', Nor shall his heart a moment be unmanned'. My friend and brother'! if thou goest first', Wilt thou no more revisit me below'? Yea, when my heart seems happy causelessly', And swells', not dreaming why', my soul shall know That thou', unseen', art bending over me'. 3. Here rests his head upon the lap of earth', A youth, to fortune and to fame unknown'; Fair Science frowned not on his humble birth', And Melancholy marked him for her own'. 4. Large was his bounty', and his soul sincere', Heaven did a recompense as largely send'; He gave to misery (all he had) a tear', He gained from heaven' ('t was all he wished') a friend'. 5. No further seek his merits to disclose', Or draw his frailties from their dread abode'; (There they alike' in trembling hope repose',) The bosom of his Father, and his God'. ACCENT AND EMPHASIS. (41) In reading verse, every syllable must have the same accent, and every word the same emphasis as in prose; and whenever the melody or music of the verse would lead to an incorrect accent or emphasis, this must be disregarded. If a poet has made his verse deficient in melody, this must not be remedied by the reader, at the expense of sense or the established rules of accent and quantity. Take the following: EXAMPLE. (41) O'er shields, and helms, and helme'd heads he rode, Of thrones, and mighty Seraphim prostrate According to the metrical accent, the last word must be pronounced "pros-trate'." But according to the authorized pronunciation it is "pros'trate. Which shall yield, the poet or established usage? Certainly not the latter. Some writers advise a compromise of the matter, and that the word should he pronounced without accenting either syllable. Sometimes this may be done, but where it is not practiced, the prosaic reading should be preserved. In the following examples, the words and syllables which are improperly accented or emphasized in the poetry, are marked in italics. According to the principle stated above, the reader should avoid giving them that pronunciation which the correct rending of the poetry would require, but should read them as prose, except where he can throw off all accent and thus compromise the conflict between the poetic reading and the correct reading. That is, he must read the poetry wrong, in order to read the language right. EXAMPLES. (42) 1. Ask of thy mother earth why oaks are made Taller and stronger than the weeds they shade. 2. Their praise is still, "the style is excellent," The sense they humbly take upon content. 3. False eloquence, like the prismatic glass, Its fairy colors spreads on every place. 4. To do aught good, never will be our task, But ever to do ill is our sole delight. 5. Of all the causes which combine to blind Man's erring judgment, and mislead the mind, What the weak head with strongest bias rules Is pride, the never-failing vice of fools. 6. Eye Nature's walks, shoot folly as it flies, And catch the manners living as they rise. 7. To whom then, first incensed, Adam replied, "Is this thy love, is this the recompense Of mine to thee, ungrateful Eve?" 8. We may, with more successful hope, resolve To wage, by force or guile, successful war, Irreconcilable to our grand foe, Who now triumphs, and in excess of joy Sole reigning holds the tyranny of Heaven. 9. Which, when Beelzebub perceived (than whom, Satan except, none higher sat), with grave Aspect, he rose, and in his rising seemed A pillar of state. 10. Thee, Sion, and the flowery brooks beneath, That wash thy hallowed feet, and warbling flow, Nightly I visit: nor sometimes forget, Those other two equaled with me in fate. NOTE.--Although it would be necessary, in these examples, to violate the laws of accent or emphasis, to give perfect rhythm, yet a careful and well-trained reader will be able to observe these laws and still give the rhythm in such a manner that the defect will scarcely be noticed. POETIC PAUSES. (43) In order to make the measure of poetry perceptible to the ear, there should generally be a slight pause at the end of each line, even where the sense does not require it. There is, also, in almost every line of poetry, a pause at or near its middle, which is called the caesura. This should, however, never be so placed as to injure the sense of the passage. It is indeed reckoned a great beauty, where it naturally coincides with the pause required by the sense. The caesura, though generally placed near the middle, may be placed at other intervals. There are sometimes, also, two additional pauses in each line, called demi-caesuras. The caesura is marked (||), and the demi-caesura thus, (|), in the examples given. There should be a marked accent upon the long syllable next preceding the caesura, and a slighter one upon that next before each of the demi-caesuras. When made too prominent, these pauses lead to a singsong style, which should be carefully avoided. In the following examples, the caesura is marked in each line; the demi-caesura is not marked in every case. EXAMPLES. (44) 1. Nature | to all things || fixed | the limits fit, And wisely | curbed || proud man's | pretending wit. 2. Then from his closing eyes || thy form shall part, And the last pang || shall tear thee from his heart. 3. Warms in the sun, || refreshes in the breeze, Glows in the stars, || and blossoms in the trees. 4. There is a land || of every land the pride, Beloved by Heaven || o'er all the world beside, Where brighter suns || dispense serener light, And milder moons || imparadise the night; Oh, thou shalt find, || howe'er thy footsteps roam, That land--thy country, || and that spot--thy home. 5. In slumbers | of midnight || the sailor | boy lay; His hammock | swung loose || at the sport | of the wind; But, watch-worn | and weary, || his cares | flew away, And visions | of happiness || danced | o'er his mind. 6. She said, | and struck; || deep entered | in her side The piercing steel, || with reeking purple dyed: Clogged | in the wound || the cruel | weapon stands, The spouting blood || came streaming o'er her hands. Her sad attendants || saw the deadly stroke, And with loud cries || the sounding palace shook. SIMILE. (44) Simile is the likening of anything to another object of a different class; it is a poetical or imaginative comparison. A simile, in poetry, should usually he read in a lower key and more rapidly than other parts of the passage--somewhat as a parenthesis is read. EXAMPLES. (45) 1. Part curb their fiery steeds, or shun the goal With rapid wheels, or fronted brigades form. As when, to warn proud cities, war appears, Waged in the troubled sky, and armies rush To battle in the clouds. Others with vast Typhoean rage more fell, Rend up both rocks and hills, and ride the air In whirlwind. Hell scarce holds the wild uproar. As when Alcides felt the envenomed robe, and tore, Through pain, up by the roots, Thessialian pines, And Lichas from the top of Oeta threw Into the Euboic sea. 2. Each at the head, Leveled his deadly aim; their fatal hands No second stroke intend; and such a frown Each cast at th' other, as when two black clouds, With heaven's artillery fraught, came rolling on Over the Caspian, there stand front to front, Hovering a space, till winds the signal blow To join the dark encounter, in mid-air: So frowned the mighty combatants. 3. Then pleased and thankful from the porch they go And, but the landlord, none had cause of woe: His cup was vanished; for, in secret guise, The younger guest purloined the glittering prize. As one who spies a serpent in his way, Glistening and basking in the summer ray, Disordered, stops to shun the danger near, Then walks with faintness on, and looks with fear,-- So seemed the sire, when, far upon the road, The shining spoil his wily partner showed. V. THE VOICE. (46) PITCH AND COMPASS. The natural pitch of the voice is its keynote, or governing note. It is that on which the voice usually dwells, and to which it most frequently returns when wearied. It is also the pitch used in conversation, and the one which a reader or speaker naturally adopts--when he reads or speaks-- most easily and agreeably. The compass of the voice is its range above and below this pitch. To avoid monotony in reading or speaking, the voice should rise above or fall below this keynote, but always with reference to the sense or character of that which is read or spoken. The proper natural pitch is that above and below which there is most room for variation. To strengthen the voice and increase its compass, select a short sentence, repeat it several times in succession in as low a key as the voice can sound naturally; then rise one note higher, and practice on that key, then another, and so on, until the highest pitch of the voice has been reached. Next, reverse the process, until the lowest pitch has been reached. EXAMPLES IN PITCH (46) High Pitch. NOTE.--Be careful to distinguish pitch from power in the following exercise. Speaking in the open air, at the very top of the voice, is an exercise admirably adapted to strengthen the voice and give it compass, and should be frequently practiced. 1. Charge'! Chester" charge'! On'! Stanley, on'! 2. A horse'! a horse'! my kingdom' for a horse'! 3. Jump far out', boy' into the wave'! Jump', or I fire'! 4. Run'! run'! run for your lives! 5. Fire'! fire'! fire'! Ring the bell'! 6. Gentlemen may cry peace'! peace'! but there is no peace! 7. Rouse' ye Romans! rouse' ye slaves'! Have ye brave sons'? Look in the next fierce brawl To see them die'. Have ye fair daughters'? Look To see them live, torn from your arms', distained', Dishonored', and if ye dare call for justice', Be answered by the lash'! Medium Pitch. (47) NOTE.--This is the pitch in which we converse. To strengthen it, we should read or speak in it as loud as possible, without rising to a higher key. To do this requires long-continued practice. 1. Under a spreading chestnut tree, The village smithy stands'; The smith, a mighty man is he, With large and sinewy hands'; And the muscles of his brawny arms Are strong as iron bands. 2. There is something in the thunder's voice that makes me tremble like a child. I have tried to conquer' this unmanly weakness'. I have called pride' to my aid'; I have sought for moral courage in the lessons of philosophy', but it avails me nothing'. At the first moaning of the distant cloud, my heart shrinks and dies within me. 3. He taught the scholars the Rule of Three', Reading, and writing, and history', too'; He took the little ones on his knee', For a kind old heart in his breast had he', And the wants of the littlest child he knew'. "Learn while you're young'," he often said', "There is much to enjoy down here below'; Life for the living', and rest for the dead'," Said the jolly old pedagogue' long ago'. Low Pitch. (48) 1. O, proper stuff! This is the very painting of your fear: This is the air-drawn dagger which, you said, Led you to Duncan. O, these flaws and starts, Impostors to true fear, would well become A woman's story at a winter's fire. Authorized by her grandam. 2. Thou slave! thou wretch! thou coward! Thou little valiant, great in villainy! Thou ever strong upon the stronger side! Thou fortune's champion, thou dost never fight But when her humorous ladyship is by To teach thee safety! Thou art perjured too, And sooth'st up greatness. What a fool art thou, A ramping fool; to brag, and stamp, and sweat, Upon my party! thou cold-blooded slave! 3. God! thou art mighty! At thy footstool bound, Lie, gazing to thee, Chance, and Life, and Death; Nor in the angel circle flaming round, Nor in the million worlds that blaze beneath, Is one that can withstand thy wrath's hot breath. Woe, in thy frown: in thy smile, victory: Hear my last prayer! I ask no mortal wreath; Let but these eyes my rescued country see, Then take my spirit, all Omnipotent, to thee. 4. O Thou eternal One! whose presence bright All space doth occupy, all motion guide, Unchanged through time's all-devastating blight! Thou only God, there is no god beside! Being above all things, mighty One, Whom none can comprehend and none explore; Who fill'st existence with thyself alone,-- Embracing all, supporting, ruling o'er,-- Being whom we call God, and know no more! QUANTITY AND QUALITY. (49) Quantity, in reading and speaking, means the length of time occupied in uttering a syllable or a word. Sounds and syllables vary greatly in quantity. Some are long, some short, and others intermediate between those which are long or short. Some sounds, also, may be prolonged or shortened in utterance to any desired extent. Quantity may be classified as Long, Medium, or Short. DIRECTIONS FOR PRACTICE ON LONG QUANTITY.--Select some word of one syllable ending with a long vocal or a subvocal sound; pronounce it many times in succession, increasing the quantity at each repetition, until you can dwell upon it any desired length of time, without drawling, and in a natural tone. REMARK.--Practice in accordance with this direction will enable the pupil to secure that fullness and roundness of voice which is exemplified in the hailing of a ship, "ship aho--y;" in the reply of the sailor, when, in the roar of the storm, he answers his captain, "ay--e. ay--e;" and in the command of the officer to his troops, when, amid the thunder of artillery, he gives the order, "ma--rch," or "ha--lt." This fullness or roundness of tone is secured, by dwelling on the vocal sound, and indefinitely protracting it, The mouth should be opened wide, the tongue kept down, and the aperture left as round and as free for the voice as possible. It is this artificial rotundity which, in connection with a distinct articulation, enables one who speaks in the open air, or in a very large apartment, to send his voice to the most distant point. It is a certain degree of this quality, which distinguishes declamatory or public speaking or reading from private conversation, and no one can accomplish much, as a public speaker, without cultivating it. It must be carefully distinguished from the "high tone," which is an elevation of pitch, and from "loudness." or "strength" of voice. It will be observed that clearness and distinctness of utterance are secured by a proper use of the subvocals and aspirates--these sounds giving to words their shape, as it were; but a clear, full, and well-modulated utterance of the vocals gives to words their fullness. LONG QUANTITY. (49) 1. Liberty! Freedom! Tyranny is dead! 2. Woe, woe, to the inhabitants of Jerusalem! 3. O righteous Heaven! ere Freedom found a grave, Why slept the sword, omnipotent to save? Where was thine arm, O Vengeance! where thy rod, That smote the foes of Zion and of God? 4. O sailor boy! sailor boy! never again Shall home, love, or kindred thy wishes repay; Unblessed and unhonored, down deep in the main, Full many a fathom, thy frame shall decay. 5. O Lord, our Lord, how excellent is thy name in all the earth! who hast set thy glory above the heavens! When I consider thy heavens, the work of thy fingers; the moon and the stars, which thou hast ordained; what is man, that thou art mindful of him? and the son of man, that thou visitest him? For thou hast made him a little lower than the angels, and hast crowned him with glory and honor. Thou madest him to have dominion over the work of thy hands; thou hast put all things under his feet. O Lord, our Lord, how excellent is thy name in all the earth! MEDIUM QUANTITY. (50) 1. Between Nose and Eyes a strange contest arose; The spectacles set them, unhappily, wrong; The point in dispute was, as all the world knows, To which the said spectacles ought to belong. 2. Bird of the broad and sweeping wing! Thy home is high in heaven, Where the wide storms their banners fling, And the tempest clouds are driven. 3. At midnight, in his guarded tent, The Turk lay dreaming of the hour When Greece, her knee in suppliance bent, Should tremble at his power. 4. On New Year's night, an old man stood at his window, and looked, with a glance of fearful despair, up the immovable, unfading heaven, and down upon the still, pure, white earth, on which no one was now so joyless and sleepless as he. SHORT QUANTITY. (51) 1. Quick! or he faints! stand with the cordial near! 2. Back to thy punishment, false fugitive! 3. Fret till your proud heart breaks! Must I observe you? Must I crouch beneath your testy humor? 4. Up drawbridge, grooms! what, warder, ho! Let the portcullis fall! 5. Quick, man the lifeboat! see yon bark, That drives before the blast! There's a rock ahead, the fog is dark, And the storm comes thick and fast. 6. I am at liberty, like every other man, to use my own language; and though, perhaps, I may have some ambition to please this gentleman, I shall not by myself under any restraint, nor very solicitously copy his diction, or his mien, however matured by age or modeled by experience. MOVEMENT. (51) Movement is the rapidity with which the voice moves in reading and speaking. It varies with the nature of the thought or sentiment to be expressed, and should be increased or diminished as good taste may determine. With pupils generally, the tendency is to read too fast. The result is, reading or speaking in too high a key and an unnatural style of delivery--both of which faults are difficult to be corrected when once formed. The kinds of movement are Slow, Moderate, and Quick. DIRECTIONS.--Read a selection as slowly us possible, without drawling. Read it again and again, increasing the rate of movement at each reading, until it can be read no faster without the utterance becoming indistinct. Reverse this process, reading more and more slowly at each repetition, until the slowest movement is obtained. SLOW MOVEMENT. (52) 1. Oh that those lips had language! Life has passed With me but roughly, since I heard them last. 2. A tremulous sigh from the gentle night wind Through the forest leaves slowly is creeping, While stars up above, with their glittering eyes, Keep guard; for the army is sleeping. 3. O Lord'! have mercy upon us, miserable offenders'! 4. So live, that when thy summons comes to join The innumerable caravan that moves To the pale realms of shade, where each shall take His chamber in the silent halls of death, Thou go not, like the quarry slave at night, Scourged to his dungeon, but, sustained and soothed By an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams. MODERATE MOVEMENT. (52) 1. The good', the brave', the beautiful', How dreamless' is their sleep, Where rolls the dirge-like music' Of the over-tossing deep'! Or where the surging night winds Pale Winter's robes have spread Above the narrow palaces, In the cities of the dead'! 2. Lives of great men all remind us We can make our lives sublime, And, departing, leave behind us Footprints on the sands of time. 3. Cast your eyes over this extensive country. Observe the salubrity of your climate, the variety and fertility of your soil; and see that soil intersected in every quarter by bold, navigable streams, flowing to the east and to the west, as if the finger of heaven were marking out the course of your settlements, inviting you to enterprise, and pointing the way to wealth. QUICK MOVEMENT. (53) 1. Awake'! arise'! or be forever fallen. 2. Merrily swinging on brier and weed, Near to the nest of his little dame, Over the mountain side or mead, Robert of Lincoln is telling his name. 3. Not a word to each other; we kept the great pace-- Neck by neck, stride by stride, never changing our place; I turned in my saddle and made its girths tight, Then shortened each stirrup and set the pique right, Rebuckled the check strap, chained slacker the bit, Nor galloped less steadily Roland a whit. 4. Oh my dear uncle, you don't know the effect of a fine spring morning upon a fellow just arrived from Russia. The day looked bright, trees budding, birds singing, the park so gay, that I took a leap out of your balcony, made your deer fly before me like the wind, and chased them all around the park to get an appetite for breakfast, while you were snoring in bed, uncle. Quality.--We notice a difference between the soft, insinuating tones of persuasion; the full, strong voice of command and decision; the harsh, irregular, and sometimes grating explosion of the sounds of passion; the plaintive notes of sorrow and pity; and the equable and unimpassioned flow of words in argumentative style. This difference consists in a variation in the quality of the voice by which it is adapted to the character of the thought or sentiment read or spoken. In our attempts to imitate nature, however, it is important that all affectation be avoided, for perfect monotony is preferable to this fault. The tones of the voice should be made to correspond with the nature of the subject, without apparent effort. EXAMPLES. (54) Passion and Grief "Come back! come back!" he cried, in grief, "Across this stormy water; And I'll forgive your Highland chief, My daughter! O, my daughter!" Plaintive I have lived long enough: my way of life Is fallen into the sear, the yellow leaf: And that which should accompany old age, As honor, love, obedience, troops of friends, I must not look to have. Calm A very great portion of this globe is covered with water, which is called sea, and is very distinct from rivers and lakes. Fierce Anger Burned Marmion's swarthy cheek like fire, And shook his very frame for ire; And--"This to me!" he said,-- "An 't were not for thy hoary beard, Such hand as Marmion's had not spared To cleave the Douglas' head! Loud and Explosive "Even in thy pitch of pride, Here, in thy hold, thy vassals near, I tell thee, thou 'rt defied! And if thou said'st I am not peer To any lord in Scotland here, Lowland or Highland, far or near, Lord Angus, thou hast lied!" VI. GESTURE. (55) Gesture is that part of the speaker's manner which pertains to his attitude, to the use and carriage of his person, and the movement of his limbs in delivery. Every person, in beginning to speak, feels the natural embarrassment resulting from his new position. The novelty of the situation destroys his self-possession, and, with the loss of that, he becomes awkward, his arms and hands hang clumsily, and now, for the first time, seem to him worse than superfluous members. This embarrassment will be overcome gradually, as the speaker becomes familiar with his position; and it is sometimes overcome at once, by a powerful exercise of the attention upon the matter of the speech. When that fills and possesses the mind, the orator is likely to take the attitude which is becoming, and, at least, easy and natural, if not graceful. 1st. The first general direction that should be given to the speaker is, that he should stand erect and firm, and in that posture which gives an expanded chest and full play to the organs of respiration and utterance. 2d. Let the attitude be such that it can be shifted easily and gracefully. The student will find, by trial, that no attitude is so favorable to this end as that in which the weight of the body is thrown upon one leg, leaving the other free to be advanced or thrown back, as fatigue or the proper action of delivery may require. The student who has any regard to grace or elegance, will of course avoid all the gross faults which are so common among public speakers, such as resting one foot upon a stool or bench, or throwing the body forward upon the support of the rostrum. 3d. Next to attitude, come the movements of the person and limbs. In these, two objects are to be observed, and, if possible, combined, viz., propriety and grace. There is expression in the extended arm, the clinched hand, the open palm, and the smiting of the breast. But let no gesture be made that is not in harmony with the thought or sentiment uttered; for it is this harmony which constitutes propriety. As far as possible, let there be a correspondence between the style of action and the train of thought. Where the thought flows on calmly, let there be grace and ease in gesture and action. Where the style is sharp and abrupt, there is propriety in quick, short, and abrupt gesticulation. Especially avoid that ungraceful sawing of the air with the arms, into which all ill-regulated fervor betrays many young speakers. What is called graceful manner, can only be attained by those who have some natural advantages of person. So far as it is in the reach of study or practice, it seems to depend chiefly upon the general cultivation of manners, implying freedom from all embarrassments, and entire self-possession. The secret of acquiring a graceful style of gesture, we apprehend, lies in the habitual practice, not only when speaking but at all times, of free and graceful movements of the limbs. There is no limb nor feature which the accomplished speaker will not employ with effect, in the course of a various and animated delivery. The arms, however, are the chief reliance of the orator in gesture; and it will not be amiss to give a hint or two in reference to their proper use. First--It is not an uncommon fault to use one arm exclusively, and to give that a uniform movement. Such movement may, sometimes, have become habitual from one's profession or employment; but in learners, also, there is often a predisposition to this fault. Second--It is not unusual to see a speaker use only the lower half of his arm. This always gives a stiff and constrained manner to delivery. Let the whole arm move, and let the movement be free and flowing. Third--As a general rule, let the hand be open, with the fingers slightly curved. It then seems liberal, communicative, and candid; and, in some degree, gives that expression to the style of delivery. Of course there are passages which require the clinched hand, the pointed finger, etc., etc.; but these are used to give a particular expression. Fourth--In the movements of the arm, study variety and the grace of curved lines. When a gesture is made with one arm only, the eye should be cast in the direction of that arm; not at it, but over it. All speakers employ, more or less, the motions of the head. In reference to that member, we make but one observation. Avoid the continuous shaking and bobbing of the head, which is so conspicuous in the action of many ambitious public speakers. The beauty and force of all gesture consist in its timely, judicious, and natural employment, when it can serve to illustrate the meaning or give emphasis to the force of an important passage. The usual fault of young speakers is too much action. To emphasize all parts alike, is equivalent to no emphasis; and by employing forcible gestures on unimportant passages, we diminish our power to render other parts impressive. ELOCUTION AND READING. (57) The business of training youth in elocution, must be commenced in childhood. The first school is the nursery. There, at least, may be formed a distinct articulation, which is the first requisite for good speaking. How rarely is it found in perfection among our orators. "Words," says one, referring to articulation, should "be delivered out from the lips, as beautiful coins, newly issued from the mint; deeply and accurately impressed, perfectly finished; neatly struck by the proper organs, distinct, in due succession, and of due weight." How rarely do we hear a speaker whose tongue, teeth, and lips, do their office so perfectly as to answer to this beautiful description! And the common faults in articulation, it should be remembered, take their rise from the very nursery. Grace in eloquence, in the pulpit, at the bar, can not be separated from grace in the ordinary manners, in private life, in the social circle, in the family. It can not well be superinduced upon all the other acquisitions of youth, any more than that nameless, but invaluable, quality called good breeding. Begin, therefore, the work of forming the orator with the child; not merely by teaching him to declaim, but what is of more consequence, by observing and correcting his daily manners, motions, and attitudes. You can say, when he comes into your apartment, or presents you with something, a book or letter, in an awkward and blundering manner, "Return, and enter this room again," or, "Present me that book in a different manner," or, "Put yourself in a different attitude." You can explain to him the difference between thrusting or pushing out his hand and arm, in straight lines and at acute angles, and moving them in flowing circular lines, and easy graceful action. He will readily understand you. Nothing is more true than that the motions of children are originally graceful; it is by suffering them to be perverted, that we lay the foundation of invincible awkwardness in later life. In schools for children, it ought to be a leading object to teach the art of reading. It ought to occupy threefold more time than it does. The teachers of these schools should labor to improve themselves. They should feel that to them, for a time, are committed the future orators of the land. It is better that a girl should return from school a first-rate reader, than a first-rate performer on the pianoforte. The accomplishment, in its perfection, would give more pleasure. The voice of song is not sweeter than the voice of eloquence; and there may be eloquent readers, as well as eloquent speakers. We speak of perfection in this art: and it is something, we must say in defense of our preference, which we have never yet seen. Let the same pains be devoted to reading, as are required to form an accomplished performer on an instrument; let us have, as the ancients had, the formers of the voice, the music masters of the reading voice; let us see years devoted to this accomplishment, and then we should be prepared to stand the comparison. Reading is indeed, a most intellectual accomplishment. So is music, too, in its perfection. We do by no means undervalue this noble and most delightful art, to which Socrates applied himself even in his old age. But one recommendation of the art of reading is, that it requires a constant exercise of mind. It involves, in its perfection, the whole art of criticism on language. A man may possess a fine genius without being a perfect reader; but he can not be a perfect reader without genius. ON MODULATION. (59) FROM LLOYD. 'T is not enough the voice' be sound and clear', 'T is modulation' that must charm the ear. When desperate heroes grieve with tedious moan, And whine their sorrows in a seesaw tone, The same soft sounds of unimpassioned woes, Can only make the yawning hearers doze. The voice all modes of passion can express That marks the proper word with proper stress: But none emphatic can that speaker call, Who lays an equal emphasis on all. Some o'er the tongue the labored measure roll, Slow and deliberate as the parting toll; Point every stop, mark every pause so strong, Their words like stage processions stalk along. All affectation but creates disgust; And e'en in speaking, we may seem too just. In vain for them' the pleasing measure flows, Whose recitation runs it all to prose: Repeating what the poet sets not down, The verb disjointing from its favorite noun, While pause, and break, and repetition join To make it discord in each tuneful line'. Some' placid natures fill the allotted scene With lifeless drawls, insipid and serene; While others' thunder every couplet o'er, And almost crack your ears with rant and roar; More nature oft, and finer strokes are shown In the low whisper than tempestuous tone; And Hamlet's hollow voice and fixed amaze, More powerful terror to the mind conveys Than he, who, swollen with impetuous rage, Bullies the bulky phantom of the stage. He who, in earnest studies o'er his part, Will find true nature cling about his heart. The modes of grief are not included all In the white handkerchief and mournful drawl: A single look' more marks the internal woe, Than all the windings of the lengthened Oh'! MCGUFFEY'S SIXTH READER. (61) MCGUFFEY'S SIXTH READER. (63) SELECTIONS FOR READING. I. ANECDOTE OF THE DUKE OF NEWCASTLE. A laughable story was circulated during the administration of the old Duke of Newcastle, and retailed to the public in various forms. This nobleman, with many good points, was remarkable for being profuse of his promises on all occasions, and valued himself particularly on being able to anticipate the words or the wants of the various persons who attended his levees, before they uttered a word. This sometimes led him into ridiculous embarrassment; and it was this proneness to lavish promises, which gave occasion for the following anecdote: At the election of a certain borough in Cornwall, where the opposite interests were almost equally poised, a single vote was of the highest importance. This object the Duke, by well applied argument and personal application, at length attained; and the gentleman he recommended, gained the election. In the warmth of gratitude, his grace poured forth acknowledgments and promises without ceasing, on the fortunate possessor of the casting vote; called him his best and dearest friend; protested, that he should consider himself as forever indebted to him; and that he would serve him by night or by day. The Cornish voter, who was an honest fellow, and would not have thought himself entitled to any reward, but for such a torrent of acknowledgments, thanked the Duke for his kindness, and told him the supervisor of excise was old and infirm, and, if he would have the goodness to recommend his son-in-law to the commissioners, in case of the old man's death, he should think himself and his family bound to render his grace every assistance in their power, on any future occasion. "My dear friend, why do you ask for such a trifling employment?" exclaimed his grace; "your relative shall have it the moment the place is vacant, if you will but call my attention to it." "But how shall I get admitted to you, my lord? For in London, I understand, it is a very difficult business to get a sight of you great folks, though you are so kind and complaisant to us in the country." "The instant the man dies," replied the Duke, "set out posthaste for London; drive directly to my house, and, be it by night or by day, thunder at the door; I will leave word with my porter to show you upstairs directly; and the employment shall be disposed of according to your wishes." The parties separated; the Duke drove to a friend's house in the neighborhood, without a wish or desire to see his new acquaintance till that day seven years; but the memory of the Cornish elector, not being burdened with such a variety of objects, was more retentive. The supervisor died a few months after, and the Duke's humble friend, relying on the word of a peer, was conveyed to London posthaste, and ascended with alacrity the steps of that nobleman's palace. The reader should be informed, that just at this time, no less a person than the King of Spain was expected hourly to depart this life, an event in which the minister of Great Britain was particularly concerned; and the Duke of Newcastle, on the very night that the proprietor of the decisive vote arrived at his door, had sat up anxiously expecting dispatches from Madrid. Wearied by official business and agitated spirits, he retired to rest, having previously given particular instructions to his porter not to go to bed, as he expected every minute a messenger with advices of the greatest importance, and desired that he might be shown upstairs, the moment of his arrival. His grace was sound asleep; and the porter, settled for the night in his armchair, had already commenced a sonorous nap, when the vigorous arm of the Cornish voter roused him from his slumbers. To his first question, "Is the Duke at home?" the porter replied, "Yes, and in bed; but has left particular orders that, come when you will, you are to go up to him directly." "Bless him, for a worthy and honest gentleman," cried our applicant for the vacant post, smiling and nodding with approbation at the prime minister's kindness, "how punctual his grace is; I knew he would not deceive me; let me hear no more of lords and dukes not keeping their words; I verily believe they are as honest, and mean as well as any other folks." Having ascended the stairs as he was speaking, he was ushered into the Duke's bedchamber. "Is he dead?" exclaimed his grace, rubbing his eyes, and scarcely awakened from dreaming of the King of Spain, "Is he dead?" "Yes, my lord," replied the eager expectant, delighted to find the election promise, with all its circumstances, so fresh in the nobleman's memory. "When did he die?" "The day before yesterday, exactly at half past one o'clock, after being confined three weeks to his bed, and taking a power of doctor's stuff; and I hope your grace will be as good as your word, and let my son-in-law succeed him." The Duke, by this time perfectly awake, was staggered at the impossibility of receiving intelligence from Madrid in so short a space of time; and perplexed at the absurdity of a king's messenger applying for his son-in-law to succeed the King of Spain: "Is the man drunk, or mad? Where are your dispatches?" exclaimed his grace, hastily drawing back his curtain; where, instead of a royal courier, he recognized at the bedside, the fat, good-humored countenance of his friend from Cornwall, making low bows, with hat in hand, and "hoping my lord would not forget the gracious promise he was so good as to make, in favor of his son-in-law, at the last election." Vexed at so untimely a disturbance, and disappointed of news from Spain, the Duke frowned for a moment; but chagrin soon gave way to mirth, at so singular and ridiculous a combination of circumstances, and, yielding to the impulse, he sunk upon the bed in a violent fit of laughter, which was communicated in a moment to the attendants. The relater of this little narrative, concludes, with observing, "Although the Duke of Newcastle could not place the relative of his old acquaintance on the throne of His Catholic Majesty, he advanced him to a post not less honorable--he made him an exciseman." --Blackwood's Magazine. [Illustration: Bedroom: The Duke is startled awake, sitting up in bed with distressed look on his face. A servant is holding a candlestick. A third man is slightly bowed and holding his hat in his hands. The duke's sword rests against a chair at the foot of the bed.] Notes.--Duke of Newcastle.--Thomas Holles Pelham (b. 1693, d. 1768), one of the chief ministers of state in the reign of George II. of England. Cornwall.--A county forming the extreme southwestern part of England. King of Spain.--Ferdinand VI. was then the king of Spain. He died in 1759. His Catholic Majesty, a title applied to the kings of Spain; first given to Alfonso I. by Pope Gregory III. in 739. II. THE NEEDLE. (67) The gay belles of fashion may boast of excelling In waltz or cotillon, at whist or quadrille; And seek admiration by vauntingly telling Of drawing, and painting, and musical skill: But give me the fair one, in country or city, Whose home and its duties are dear to her heart, Who cheerfully warbles some rustical ditty, While plying the needle with exquisite art: The bright little needle, the swift-flying needle, The needle directed by beauty and art. If Love have a potent, a magical token, A talisman, ever resistless and true, A charm that is never evaded or broken, A witchery certain the heart to subdue, 'T is this; and his armory never has furnished So keen and unerring, or polished a dart; Let beauty direct it, so polished and burnished, And oh! it is certain of touching the heart: The bright little needle, the swift-flying needle, The needle directed by beauty and art. Be wise, then, ye maidens, nor seek admiration, By dressing for conquest, and flirting with all; You never, whate'er be your fortune or station, Appear half so lovely at rout or at ball, As gayly convened at the work-covered table, Each cheerfully active, playing her part, Beguiling the task with a song or a fable, And plying the needle with exquisite art: The bright little needle, the swift-flying needle, The needle directed by beauty and art. --Samuel Woodworth. III. DAWN. (68) Edward Everett, 1794-1865. He was born at Dorchester, Mass., now a part of Boston, and graduated from Harvard College with the highest honors of his class, at the age of seventeen. While yet in college, he had quite a reputation as a brilliant writer. Before he was twenty years of age, he was settled as pastor over the Brattle Street Church, in Boston, and at once became famous as an eloquent preacher. In 1814, he was elected Professor of Greek Literature in his Alma Mater; and, in order to prepare himself for the duties of his office, he entered on an extended course of travel in Europe. He edited the "North American Review," in addition to the labors of his professorship, after he returned to America. In 1825, Mr. Everett was elected to Congress, and held his seat in the House for ten years. He was Governor of his native state from 1835 to 1839. In 1841, he was appointed Minister to England. On his return, in 1846, he was chosen President of Harvard University, and held the office for three years. In 1852, he was appointed Secretary of State. February 22, 1856, he delivered, in Boston, his celebrated lecture on Washington. This lecture was afterwards delivered in most of the principal cities and towns in the United States. The proceeds were devoted to the purchase of Mt. Vernon. In 1860, he was a candidate for the Vice Presidency of the United States, He is celebrated as an elegant and forcible writer, and a chaste orator. This extract, a wonderful piece of word painting, is a portion of an address on the "Uses of Astronomy," delivered at the inauguration of the Dudley Observatory, at Albany, N, Y, Note the careful use of words, and the strong figures in the third and fourth paragraphs. ### I had occasion, a few weeks since, to take the early train from Providence to Boston; and for this purpose rose at two o'clock in the morning. Everything around was wrapped in darkness and hushed in silence, broken only by what seemed at that hour the unearthly clank and rush of the train. It was a mild, serene, midsummer's night,--the sky was without a cloud, the winds were whist. The moon, then in the last quarter, had just risen, and the stars shone with a spectral luster but little affected by her presence. Jupiter, two hours high, was the herald of the day; the Pleiades, just above the horizon, shed their sweet influence in the east; Lyra sparkled near the zenith; Andromeda veiled her newly-discovered glories from the naked eye in the south; the steady Pointers, far beneath the pole, looked meekly up from the depths of the north to their sovereign. Such was the glorious spectacle as I entered the train. As we proceeded, the timid approach of twilight became more perceptible; the intense blue of the sky began to soften; the smaller stars, like little children, went first to rest; the sister beams of the Pleiades soon melted together; but the bright constellations of the west and north remained unchanged. Steadily the wondrous transfiguration went on. Hands of angels, hidden from mortal eyes, shifted the scenery of the heavens; the glories of night dissolved into the glories of the dawn. The blue sky now turned more softly gray; the great watch stars shut up their holy eyes; the east began to kindle. Faint streaks of purple soon blushed along the sky; the whole celestial concave was filled with the inflowing tides of the morning light, which came pouring down from above in one great ocean of radiance; till at length, as we reached the Blue Hills, a flash of purple fire blazed out from above the horizon, and turned the dewy teardrops of flower and leaf into rubies and diamonds. In a few seconds, the everlasting gates of the morning were thrown wide open, and the lord of day, arrayed in glories too severe for the gaze of man, began his state. I do not wonder at the superstition of the ancient Magians, who, in the morning of the world, went up to the hilltops of Central Asia, and, ignorant of the true God, adored the most glorious work of his hand. But I am filled with amazement, when I am told, that, in this enlightened age and in the heart of the Christian world, there are persons who can witness this daily manifestation of the power and wisdom of the Creator, and yet say in their hearts, "There is no God." Notes.--Jupiter, the largest planet of the solar system, and, next to Venus, the brightest. Pleiades (pro. ple'ya-dez), a group of seven small stars in the constellation of Taurus. Lyra, Androm'eda, two brilliant constellations in the northern part of the heavens. Pointers, two stars of the group called the Dipper, in the Great Bear. These stars and the Polar Star are nearly in the same straight line. Blue Hills, hills about seven hundred feet high, southwest of Boston, Massachusetts. Magians, Persian worshipers of fire and the sun, as representatives of the Supreme Being. IV. DESCRIPTION OF A STORM. (70) Benjamin Disraeli. 1805-1881, was of Jewish descent. His ancestors were driven out of Spain by the Inquisition, and went to Venice. In 1748, his grandfather came to England. His father was Isaac Disraeli, well known as a literary man. Benjamin was born in London, and received his early education under his father. He afterwards studied for a lawyer, but soon gave up his profession for literature. His first novel, "Vivian Grey," appeared when the author was twenty-one years of age; it received much attention. After several defeats he succeeded in an election to Parliament, and took his seat in that body, in the first year of Victoria's reign. On his first attempt to speak in Parliament, the House refused to hear him. It is said that, as he sat down, he remarked that the time would come when they would hear him. In 1849, he became the leader of the Conservative party in the House. During the administration of W. E. Gladstone, Mr. Disraeli was leader of the opposition. In 1868, he became prime minister, holding the office for a short time. In 1874, he was again appointed to the same office, where he remained until 1880. His wife was made Viscountess of Beaconsfield in 1868. After her death, the title of Earl of Beaconsfield was conferred on Disraeli. He ranked among the most eminent, statesmen of the age, but always devoted a portion of his time to literature. "Lothair," a novel, was published in 1870. ### * * * They looked round on every side, and hope gave way before the scene of desolation. Immense branches were shivered from the largest trees; small ones were entirely stripped of their leaves; the long grass was bowed to the earth; the waters were whirled in eddies out of the little rivulets; birds, leaving their nests to seek shelter in the crevices of the rocks, unable to stem the driving air, flapped their wings and fell upon the earth; the frightened animals of the plain, almost suffocated by the impetuosity of the wind, sought safety and found destruction; some of the largest trees were torn up by the roots; the sluices of the mountains were filled, and innumerable torrents rushed down the before empty gullies. The heavens now open, and the lightning and thunder contend with the horrors of the wind. In a moment, all was again hushed. Dead silence succeeded the bellow of the thunder, the roar of the wind, the rush of the waters, the moaning of the beasts, the screaming of the birds. Nothing was heard save the plash of the agitated lake, as it beat up against the black rocks which girt it in. Again, greater darkness enveloped the trembling earth. Anon, the heavens were rent with lightning, which nothing could have quenched but the descending deluge. Cataracts poured down from the lowering firmament. For an instant, the horses dashed madly forward; beast and rider blinded and stifled by the gushing rain, and gasping for breath. Shelter was nowhere. The quivering beasts reared, and snorted, and sank upon their knees, dismounting their riders. He had scarcely spoken, when there burst forth a terrific noise, they knew not what; a rush, they could not understand; a vibration which shook them on their horses. Every terror sank before the roar of the cataract. It seemed that the mighty mountain, unable to support its weight of waters, shook to the foundation. A lake had burst upon its summit, and the cataract became a falling ocean. The source of the great deep appeared to be discharging itself over the range of mountains; the great gray peak tottered on its foundation!--It shook!--it fell! and buried in its ruins the castle, the village, and the bridge! V. AFTER THE THUNDERSTORM. (72) James Thomson, 1700-1748, the son of a clergyman, was born in Scotland. He studied at the University of Edinburgh, and intended to follow the profession of his father, but never entered upon the duties of the sacred office. In 1724 he went to London, where he spent most of his subsequent life. He had shown some poetical talent when it boy; and, in 1826, he published "Winter," a part of a longer poem, entitled "The Seasons," the best known of all his works. He also wrote several plays for the stage; none of them, however, achieved any great success. In the last year of his life, he published his "Castle of Indolence," the most famous of his works excepting "The Seasons." Thomson was heavy and dull in his personal appearance, and was indolent in his habits. The moral tone of his writings is always good. This extract is from "The Seasons." ### As from the face of heaven the shattered clouds Tumultuous rove, the interminable sky Sublimer swells, and o'er the world expands A purer azure. Through the lightened air A higher luster and a clearer calm, Diffusive, tremble; while, as if in sign Of danger past, a glittering robe of joy, Set off abundant by the yellow ray, Invests the fields; and nature smiles revived. 'T is beauty all, and grateful song around, Joined to the low of kine, and numerous bleat Of flocks thick-nibbling through the clovered vale: And shall the hymn be marred by thankless man, Most favored; who, with voice articulate, Should lead the chorus of this lower world? Shall man, so soon forgetful of the Hand That hushed the thunder, and serenes the sky, Extinguished fed that spark the tempest waked, That sense of powers exceeding far his own, Ere yet his feeble heart has lost its fears? VI. HOUSE CLEANING. (73) Francis Hopkinson, 1737-1791. He was the son of an Englishman; born in Philadelphia, and was educated at the college of that city, now the University of Pennsylvania. He represented New Jersey in the Congress of 1776, and was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. He was one of the most sensible and elegant writers of his time, and distinguished himself both in prose and verse. His lighter writings abound in humor and keen satire; his more solid writings are marked by clearness and good sense. His pen did much to forward the cause of American independence. His "Essay on Whitewashing," from which the following extract is taken, was mistaken for the composition of Dr. Franklin, and published among his writings, It was originally in the form of "A Letter from a Gentleman in America to his Friend in Europe, on Whitewashing." ### There is no season of the year in which the lady may not, if she pleases, claim her privilege; but the latter end of May is generally fixed upon for the purpose. The attentive husband may judge, by certain prognostics, when the storm is at hand. If the lady grows uncommonly fretful, finds fault with the servants, is discontented with the children, and complains much of the nastiness of everything about her, these are symptoms which ought not to be neglected, yet they sometimes go off without any further effect. But if, when the husband rises in the morning, he should observe in the yard a wheelbarrow with a quantity of lime in it, or should see certain buckets filled with a solution of lime in water, there is no time for hesitation. He immediately locks up the apartment or closet where his papers and private property are kept, and, putting the key into his pocket, betakes himself to flight. A husband, however beloved, becomes a perfect nuisance during this season of female rage. His authority is superseded, his commission suspended, and the very scullion who cleans the brasses in the kitchen becomes of more importance than he. He has nothing for it but to abdicate for a time, and run from an evil which he can neither prevent nor mollify. The husband gone, the ceremony begins. The walls are stripped of their furniture--paintings, prints, and looking-glasses lie huddled in heaps about the floors; the curtains are torn from their testers, the beds crammed into windows, chairs and tables, bedsteads and cradles, crowd the yard, and the garden fence bends beneath the weight of carpets, blankets, cloth cloaks, old coats, under petticoats, and ragged breeches. Here may be seen the lumber of the kitchen, forming a dark and confused mass for the foreground of the picture; gridirons and frying pans, rusty shovels and broken tongs, joint stools, and the fractured remains of rush-bottomed chairs. There a closet has disgorged its bowels--riveted plates and dishes, halves of china bowls, cracked tumblers, broken wineglasses, phials of forgotten physic, papers of unknown powders, seeds and dried herbs, tops of teapots, and stoppers of departed decanters--from the rag hole in the garret, to the rat hole in the cellar, no place escapes unrummaged. It would seem as if the day of general doom had come, and the utensils of the house were dragged forth to judgment. In this tempest, the words of King Lear unavoidably present themselves, and might, with little alteration, be made strictly applicable. "Let the great gods, That keep this dreadful pother o'er our heads, Find out their enemies now. Tremble, thou wretch, That hast within thee undivulged crimes Unwhipp'd of justice. Close pent-up guilts, Rive your concealing continents, and cry These dreadful summoners grace." This ceremony completed, and the house thoroughly evacuated, the next operation is to smear the walls and ceilings with brushes dipped into a solution of lime, called whitewash; to pour buckets of water over every floor; and scratch all the partitions and wainscots with hard brushes, charged with soft soap and stonecutters' sand. The windows by no means escape the general deluge. A servant scrambles out upon the penthouse, at the risk of her neck, and, with a mug in her hand and a bucket within reach, dashes innumerable gallons of water against the glass panes, to the great annoyance of passengers in the street. I have been told that an action at law was once brought against one of these water nymphs, by a person who had a new suit of clothes spoiled by this operation: but after long argument, it was determined that no damages could be awarded; inasmuch as the defendant was in the exercise of a legal right, and not answerable for the consequences. And so the poor gentleman was doubly non-suited; for he lost both his suit of clothes and his suit at law. These smearings and scratchings, these washings and dashings, being duly performed, the next ceremonial is to cleanse and replace the distracted furniture. You may have seen a house raising, or a ship launch-- recollect, if you can, the hurry, bustle, confusion, and noise of such a scene, and you will have some idea of this cleansing match. The misfortune is, that the sole object is to make things clean. It matters not how many useful, ornamental, or valuable articles suffer mutilation or death under the operation. A mahogany chair and a carved frame undergo the same discipline; they are to be made clean at all events; but their preservation is not worthy of attention. For instance: a fine large engraving is laid flat upon the floor; a number of smaller prints are piled upon it, until the superincumbent weight cracks the lower glass--but this is of no importance. A valuable picture is placed leaning against the sharp corner of a table; others are made to lean against that, till the pressure of the whole forces the corner of the table through the canvas of the first. The frame and glass of a fine print are to be cleaned; the spirit and oil used on this occasion are suffered to leak through and deface the engraving--no matter. If the glass is clean and the frame shines, it is sufficient--the rest is not worthy of consideration. An able arithmetician hath made a calculation, founded on long experience, and proved that the losses and destruction incident to two white washings are equal to one removal, and three removals equal to one fire. This cleansing frolic over, matters begin to resume their pristine appearance: the storm abates, and all would be well again; but it is impossible that so great a convulsion in so small a community should pass over without producing some consequences. For two or three weeks after the operation, the family are usually afflicted with sore eyes, sore throats, or severe colds, occasioned by exhalations from wet floors and damp walls. I know a gentleman here who is fond of accounting for everything in a philosophical way. He considers this, what I call a custom, as a real periodical disease peculiar to the climate. His train of reasoning is whimsical and ingenious, but I am not at leisure to give you the detail. The result was, that he found the distemper to be incurable; but after much study, he thought he had discovered a method to divert the evil he could not subdue. For this purpose, he caused a small building, about twelve feet square, to be erected in his garden, and furnished with some ordinary chairs and tables, and a few prints of the cheapest sort. His hope was, that when the whitewashing frenzy seized the females of his family, they might repair to this apartment, and scrub, and scour, and smear to their hearts' content; and so spend the violence of the disease in this outpost, whilst he enjoyed himself in quiet at headquarters. But the experiment did not answer his expectation. It was impossible it should, since a principal part of the gratification consists in the lady's having an uncontrolled right to torment her husband at least once in every year; to turn him out of doors, and take the reins of government into her own hands. There is a much better contrivance than this of the philosopher's; which is, to cover the walls of the house with paper. This is generally done. And though it does not abolish, it at least shortens the period of female dominion. This paper is decorated with various fancies; and made so ornamental that the women have admitted the fashion without perceiving the design. There is also another alleviation to the husband's distress. He generally has the sole use of a small room or closet for his books and papers, the key of which he is allowed to keep. This is considered as a privileged place, even in the whitewashing season, and stands like the land of Goshen amidst the plagues of Egypt. But then he must be extremely cautious, and ever upon his guard; for, should he inadvertently go abroad and leave the key in his door, the housemaid, who is always on the watch for such an opportunity, immediately enters in triumph with buckets, brooms, and brushes--takes possession of the premises, and forthwith puts an his books and papers "to rights," to his utter confusion, and sometimes serious detriment. Notes.--Lear.--The reference is to Shakespeare's tragedy, Act III, Scene 2. Goshen.--The portion of Egypt settled by Jacob and his family. In the Bible, Exodus viii, 22, Goshen was exempted from the plague of the flies. The teacher should ascertain that the pupils note the satire and humor of this selection. This letter was written about a hundred years ago. What word in the first paragraph that would probably not be used by an elegant writer of the present day? Note the words that indicate changes in domestic customs; such as testers, joint stools, wainscots, house raising. VII. SCHEMES OF LIFE OFTEN ILLUSORY. (78) Samuel Johnson, 1700-1784. This truly remarkable man was the son of a bookseller and stationer; he was born in Lichfield, Staffordshire, England. He entered Pembroke College, Oxford, in 1728; but, at the end of three years, his poverty compelled him to leave without taking his degree. In 1736, he married Mrs. Porter, a widow of little culture, much older than himself, but possessed of some property. The marriage seems to have been a happy one, nevertheless; and, on the death of his wife, in 1752, Johnson mourned for her, most sincerely. Soon after his marriage, he opened a private school, but, obtained only three pupils, one of whom was David Garrick, afterward the celebrated actor. In 1737, he removed to London, where he lived for most of the remainder of his life. Here he entered upon literary work, in which he continued, and from which he derived his chief support, although at times it was but a meager one, His "Vanity of Human Wishes" was sold for ten guineas. His great Dictionary, the first one of the English language worthy of mention, brought him 1575 Pounds, and occupied his time for seven years. Most of the money he received for the work went to pay his six amanuenses. The other most famous of his numerous literary works are "The Rambler," "Rasselas," "The Lives of the English Poets," and his edition of Shakespeare. In person, Johnson was heavy and awkward; he was the victim of scrofula in his youth, and of dropsy in his old age. In manner, he was boorish and overbearing; but his great powers and his wisdom caused his company to be sought by many eminent men of his time. ### Omar, the son of Hassan, had passed seventy-five years in honor and prosperity. The favor of three successive caliphs had filled his house with gold and silver; and whenever he appeared, the benedictions of the people proclaimed his passage. Terrestrial happiness is of short continuance, The brightness of the flame is wasting its fuel; the fragrant flower is passing away in its own odors. The vigor of Omar began to fail; the curls of beauty fell from his head; strength departed from his hands, and agility from his feet. He gave back to the caliph the keys of trust, and the seals of secrecy; and sought no other pleasure for the remainder of life than the converse of the wise and the gratitude of the good. The powers of his mind were yet unimpaired. His chamber was filled by visitants, eager to catch the dictates of experience, and officious to pay the tribute of admiration. Caleb, the son of the viceroy of Egypt, entered every day early, and retired late. He was beautiful and eloquent; Omar admired his wit, and loved his docility. "Tell me," said Caleb, "thou to whose voice nations have listened, and whose wisdom is known to the extremities of Asia, tell me, how I may resemble Omar the prudent? The arts by which thou hast gained power and preserved it, are to thee no longer necessary or useful; impart to me the secret of thy conduct, and teach me the plan upon which thy wisdom has built thy fortune." "Young man," said Omar, "it is of little use to form plans of life. When I took my first survey of the world, in my twentieth year, having considered the various conditions of mankind, in the hour of solitude I said thus to myself, leaning against a cedar which spread its branches over my head: 'Seventy years are allowed to man; I have yet fifty remaining. " 'Ten years I will allot to the attainment of knowledge, and ten I will pass in foreign countries; I shall be learned, and therefore I shall be honored; every city will shout at my arrival, and every student will solicit my friendship. Twenty years thus passed will store my mind with images which I shall be busy through the rest of my life in combining and comparing. I shall revel in inexhaustible accumulations of intellectual riches; I shall find new pleasures for every moment, and shall never more be weary of myself. " 'I will not, however, deviate too far from the beaten track of life; but will try what can be found in female delicacy. I will marry a wife as beautiful as the houries, and wise as Zobeide; and with her I will live twenty years within the suburbs of Bagdad, in every pleasure that wealth can purchase, and fancy can invent. " 'I will then retire to a rural dwelling, pass my days in obscurity and contemplation; and lie silently down on the bed of death. Through my life it shall be my settled resolution, that I will never depend on the smile of princes; that I will never stand exposed to the artifices of courts; I will never pant for public honors, nor disturb my quiet with the affairs of state.' Such was my scheme of life, which I impressed indelibly upon my memory. "The first part of my ensuing time was to be spent in search of knowledge, and I know not how I was diverted from my design. I had no visible impediments without, nor any ungovernable passion within. I regarded knowledge as the highest honor, and the most engaging pleasure; yet day stole upon day, and month glided after month, till I found that seven years of the first ten had vanished, and left nothing behind them. "I now postponed my purpose of traveling; for why should I go abroad, while so much remained to be learned at home? I immured myself for four years, and studied the laws of the empire. The fame of my skill reached the judges: I was found able to speak upon doubtful questions, and I was commanded to stand at the footstool of the caliph. I was heard with attention; I was consulted with confidence, and the love of praise fastened on my heart. "I still wished to see distant countries; listened with rapture to the relations of travelers, and resolved some time to ask my dismission, that I might feast my soul with novelty; but my presence was always necessary, and the stream of business hurried me along. Sometimes, I was afraid lest I should be charged with ingratitude; but I still proposed to travel, and therefore would not confine myself by marriage. "In my fiftieth year, I began to suspect that the time of my traveling was past; and thought it best to lay hold on the felicity yet in my power, and indulge myself in domestic pleasures. But, at fifty, no man easily finds a woman beautiful as the houries, and wise as Zobeide. I inquired and rejected, consulted and deliberated, till the sixty-second year made me ashamed of wishing to marry. I had now nothing left but retirement; and for retirement I never found a time, till disease forced me from public employment. "Such was my scheme, and such has been its consequence. With an insatiable thirst for knowledge, I trifled away the years of improvement; with a restless desire of seeing different countries, I have always resided in the same city; with the highest expectation of connubial felicity, I have lived unmarried; and with an unalterable resolution of contemplative retirement, I am going to die within the walls of Bagdad." Notes.--Bag dad'--A large city of Asiatic Turkey, on the river Tigris. In the ninth century, it was the greatest center of Moslem power and learning. Zobeide (Zo-bad').--A lady of Bagdad, whose story is given in the "Three Calendars" of the "Arabian Nights." In this selection the form of an allegory is used to express a general truth. VIII. THE BRAVE OLD OAK. (81) Henry Fothergill Chorley, 1808-1872. He is known chiefly as a musical critic and author; for thirty-eight years he was connected with the "London Athenaeum." His books are mostly novels. ### A song to the oak, the brave old oak, Who hath ruled in the greenwood long; Here's health and renown to his broad green crown, And his fifty arms so strong. There's fear in his frown, when the sun goes down, And the fire in the west fades out; And he showeth his might on a wild midnight, When the storms through his branches shout. In the days of old, when the spring with cold Had brightened his branches gray, Through the grass at his feet, crept maidens sweet, To gather the dews of May. And on that day, to the rebec gay They frolicked with lovesome swains; They are gone, they are dead, in the churchyard laid, But the tree--it still remains. He saw rare times when the Christmas chimes Were a merry sound to hear, When the Squire's wide hall and the cottage small Were filled with good English cheer. Now gold hath the sway we all obey, And a ruthless king is he; But he never shall send our ancient friend To be tossed on the stormy sea. Then here's to the oak, the brave old oak, Who stands in his pride alone; And still flourish he, a hale green tree, When a hundred years are gone. IX. THE ARTIST SURPRISED. (82) It may not be known to all the admirers of the genius of Albert Durer, that that famous engraver was endowed with a "better half," so peevish in temper, that she was the torment not only of his own life, but also of his pupils and domestics. Some of the former were cunning enough to purchase peace for themselves by conciliating the common tyrant, but woe to those unwilling or unable to offer aught in propitiation. Even the wiser ones were spared only by having their offenses visited upon a scapegoat. This unfortunate individual was Samuel Duhobret, a disciple whom Durer had admitted into his school out of charity. He was employed in painting signs and the coarser tapestry then used in Germany. He was about forty years of age, little, ugly, and humpbacked; he was the butt of every ill joke among his fellow disciples, and was picked out as an object of especial dislike by Madame Durer. But he bore all with patience, and ate, without complaint, the scanty crusts given him every day for dinner, while his companions often fared sumptuously. Poor Samuel had not a spice of envy or malice in his heart. He would, at any time, have toiled half the night to assist or serve those who were wont oftenest to laugh at him, or abuse him loudest for his stupidity. True, he had not the qualities of social humor or wit, but he was an example of indefatigable industry. He came to his studies every morning at daybreak, and remained at work until sunset. Then he retired into his lonely chamber, and wrought for his own amusement. Duhobret labored three years in this way, giving himself no time for exercise or recreation. He said nothing to a single human being of the paintings he had produced in the solitude of his cell, by the light of his lamp. But his bodily energies wasted and declined under incessant toil. There was none sufficiently interested in the poor artist, to mark the feverish hue of his wrinkled cheek, or the increasing attenuation of his misshapen frame. None observed that the uninviting pittance set aside for his midday repast, remained for several days untouched. Samuel made his appearance regularly as ever, and bore with the same meekness the gibes of his fellow-pupils, or the taunts of Madame Durer, and worked with the same untiring assiduity, though his hands would sometimes tremble, and his eyes become suffused, a weakness probably owing to the excessive use he had made of them. One morning Duhobret was missing at the scene of his daily labors. His absence created much remark, and many were the jokes passed upon the occasion. One surmised this, and another that, as the cause of the phenomenon; and it was finally agreed that the poor fellow must have worked himself into an absolute skeleton, and taken his final stand in the glass frame of some apothecary, or been blown away by a puff of wind, while his door happened to stand open. No on thought of going to his lodgings to look after him or his remains. Meanwhile, the object of their mirth was tossing on a bed of sickness. Disease, which had been slowly sapping the foundations of his strength, burned in every vein; his eyes rolled and flashed in delirium; his lips, usually so silent, muttered wild and incoherent words. In his days of health, poor Duhobret had his dreams, as all artists, rich or poor, will sometimes have. He had thought that the fruit of many years' labor, disposed of to advantage, might procure him enough to live, in an economical way, for the rest of his life. He never anticipated fame or fortune; the height of his ambition or hope was, to possess a tenement large enough to shelter him from the inclemencies of the weather, with means enough to purchase one comfortable meal per day. Now, alas! however, even that one hope had deserted him. He thought himself dying, and thought it hard to die without one to look kindly upon him, without the words of comfort that might soothe his passage to another world. He fancied his bed surrounded by fiendish faces, grinning at his sufferings, and taunting his inability to summon power to disperse them. At length the apparition faded away, and the patient sunk into an exhausted slumber. He awoke unrefreshed; it was the fifth day he had lain there neglected. His mouth was parched; he turned over, and feebly stretched out his hand toward the earthen pitcher, from which, since the first day of his illness he had quenched his thirst. Alas! it was empty! Samuel lay for a few moments thinking what he should do. He knew he must die of want if he remained there alone; but to whom could he apply for aid? An idea seemed, at last, to strike him. He arose slowly, and with difficulty, from the bed, went to the other side of the room, and took up the picture he had painted last. He resolved to carry it to the shop of a salesman, and hoped to obtain for it sufficient to furnish him with the necessaries of life for a week longer. Despair lent him strength to walk, and to carry his burden. On his way, he passed a house, about which there was a crowd. He drew nigh, asked what was going on, and received for an answer, that there was to be a sale of many specimens of art, collected by an amateur in the course of thirty years. It has often happened that collections made with infinite pains by the proprietor, have been sold without mercy or discrimination after his death. Something whispered to the weary Duhobret, that here would be the market for his picture. It was a long way yet to the house of the picture dealer, and he made up his mind at once. He worked his way through the crowd, dragged himself up the steps, and, after many inquiries, found the auctioneer. That personage was a busy man, with a handful of papers; he was inclined to notice somewhat roughly the interruption of the lean, sallow hunchback, imploring as were his gesture and language. "What do you call your picture?" at length, said he, carefully looking at it. "It is a view of the Abbey of Newburg, with its village and the surrounding landscape," replied the eager and trembling artist. The auctioneer again scanned it contemptuously, and asked what it was worth. "Oh, that is what you please; whatever it will bring," answered Duhobret. "Hem! it is too odd to please, I should think; I can promise you no more than three thalers." Poor Samuel sighed deeply. He had spent on that piece the nights of many months. But he was starving now; and the pitiful sum offered would give bread for a few days. He nodded his head to the auctioneer, and retiring took his seat in a corner. The sale began. After some paintings and engravings had been disposed of, Samuel's was exhibited. "Who bids at three thalers? Who bids?" was the cry. Duhobret listened eagerly, but none answered. "Will it find a purchaser?" said he despondingly, to himself. Still there was a dead silence. He dared not look up; for it seemed to him that all the people were laughing at the folly of the artist, who could be insane enough to offer so worthless a piece at a public sale. "What will become of me?" was his mental inquiry. "That work is certainly my best;" and he ventured to steal another glance. "Does it not seem that the wind actually stirs those boughs and moves those leaves! How transparent is the water! What life breathes in the animals that quench their thirst at that spring! How that steeple shines! How beautiful are those clustering trees!" This was the last expiring throb of an artist's vanity. The ominous silence continued, and Samuel, sick at heart, buried his face in his hands. "Twenty-one thalers!" murmured a faint voice, just as the auctioneer was about to knock down the picture. The stupefied painter gave a start of joy. He raised his head and looked to see from whose lips those blessed words had come. It was the picture dealer, to whom he had first thought of applying. "Fifty thalers," cried a sonorous voice. This time a tall man in black was the speaker. There was a silence of hushed expectation. "One hundred thalers," at length thundered the picture dealer. "Three hundred!" "Five hundred!" "One thousand!" Another profound silence, and the crowd pressed around the two opponents, who stood opposite each other with eager and angry looks. "Two thousand thalers!" cried the picture dealer, and glanced around him triumphantly, when he saw his adversary hesitate. "Ten thousand!" vociferated the tall man, his face crimson with rage, and his hands clinched convulsively. The dealer grew paler; his frame shook with agitation; he made two or three efforts, and at last cried out "Twenty thousand!" His tall opponent was not to be vanquished. He bid forty thousand. The dealer stopped; the other laughed a low laugh of insolent triumph, and a murmur of admiration was heard in the crowd. It was too much for the dealer; he felt his peace was at stake. "Fifty thousand!" exclaimed he in desperation. It was the tall man's turn to hesitate. Again the whole crowd were breathless. At length, tossing his arms in defiance, he shouted "One hundred thousand!" The crestfallen picture dealer withdrew; the tall man victoriously bore away the prize. How was it, meanwhile, with Duhobret, while this exciting scene was going on? He was hardly master of his senses. He rubbed his eyes repeatedly, and murmured to himself, "After such a dream, my misery will seem more cruel!" When the contest ceased, he rose up bewildered, and went about asking first one, then another, the price of the picture just sold. It seemed that his apprehension could not at once be enlarged to so vast a conception. The possessor was proceeding homeward, when a decrepit, lame, and humpbacked invalid, tottering along by the aid of a stick, presented himself before him. He threw him a piece of money, and waved his hand as dispensing with his thanks. "May it please your honor," said the supposed beggar, "I am the painter of that picture!" and again he rubbed his eyes. The tall mall was Count Dunkelsback, one of the richest noblemen in Germany. He stopped, took out his pocketbook, took out a leaf, and wrote on it a few lines. "Take it, friend," said he; "it is a check for your money. Adieu." Duhobret finally persuaded himself that it was not a dream. He became the master of a castle, sold it, and resolved to live luxuriously for the rest of his life, and to cultivate painting as a pastime. But, alas, for the vanity of human expectation! He had borne privation and toil; prosperity was too much for him, as was proved soon after, when an indigestion carried him off. His picture remained long in the cabinet of Count Dunkelsback, and afterward passed into the possession of the King of Bavaria. Notes.--Albert Durer (b. 1471, d. 1528) lived at Nuremburg, Germany. He was eminent as a painter, and as an engraver on copper and wood. He was one of the first artists who studied anatomy and perspective. His influence on art is clearly felt even at the present day. Newburg, or Neuburg, is on the Danube, fifty miles south of Nuremburg. Bergen Abbey was north of the village. X. PICTURES OF MEMORY. (88) Alice Cary, 1820-1871, was born near Cincinnati. One of her ancestors was among the "Pilgrim Fathers," and the first instructor of Latin at Plymouth, Mass. Miss Cary commenced her literary career at her western home, and, in 1849, published a volume of poems, the joint work of her younger sister, Phoebe, and herself. In 1850, she moved to New York. Two of her sisters joined her there, and they supported themselves by their literary labor. Their home became a noted resort for their literary and artistic friends. Miss Cary was the author of eleven volumes, besides many articles contributed to periodicals. Her poetry is marked with great sweetness and pathos. Some of her prose works are much admired, especially her "Clovernook Children." ### Among the beautiful pictures That hang on Memory's wall, Is one of a dim old forest, That seemeth best of all; Not for its gnarled oaks olden, Dark with the mistletoe; Not for the violets golden, That sprinkle the vale below; Not for the milk-white lilies, That lean from the fragrant hedge, Coquetting all day with the sunbeams, And stealing their golden edge; Not for the vines on the upland, Where the bright red berries rest, Nor the pinks, nor the pale, sweet cowslip, It seemeth to me the best. I once had a little brother, With eyes that were dark and deep; In the lap of that dim old forest, He lieth in peace asleep: Light as the down of the thistle, Free as the winds that blow, We roved there the beautiful summers, The summers of long ago; But his feet on the hills grew weary, And, one of the autumn eves, I made for my little brother, A bed of the yellow leaves. Sweetly his pale arms folded My neck in a meek embrace, As the light of immortal beauty Silently covered his face; And when the arrows of sunset Lodged in the tree tops bright, He fell, in his saintlike beauty, Asleep by the gates of light. Therefore, of all the pictures That hang on Memory's wall, The one of the dim old forest Seemeth the best of all. XI. THE MORNING ORATORIO. (90) Wilson Flagg, 1806-1884, was born in Beverly, Mass. He pursued his academical course in Andover, at Phillips Academy, and entered Harvard College, but did not graduate. His chief Works are: "Studies in the Field and Forest," "The Woods and Byways of New England," and "The Birds and Seasons of New England." ### Nature, for the delight of waking eyes, has arrayed the morning heavens in the loveliest hues of beauty. Fearing to dazzle by an excess of delight, she first announces day by a faint and glimmering twilight, then sheds a purple tint over the brows of the rising morn, and infuses a transparent ruddiness throughout the atmosphere. As daylight widens, successive groups of mottled and rosy-bosomed clouds assemble on the gilded sphere, and, crowned with wreaths of fickle rainbows, spread a mirrored flush over hill, grove, and lake, and every village spire is burnished with their splendor. At length, through crimsoned vapors, we behold the sun's broad disk, rising with a countenance so serene that every eye may view him ere he arrays himself in his meridian brightness. Not many people who live in towns are aware of the pleasure attending a ramble near the woods and orchards at daybreak in the early part of summer. The drowsiness we feel on rising from our beds is gradually dispelled by the clear and healthful breezes of early day, and we soon experience an unusual amount of vigor and elasticity. During the night, the stillness of all things is the circumstance that most powerfully attracts our notice, rendering us peculiarly sensitive to every accidental sound that meets the ear. In the morning, at this time of year, on the contrary, we are overpowered by the vocal and multitudinous chorus of the feathered tribe. If you would hear the commencement of this grand anthem of nature, you must rise at the very first appearance of dawn, before the twilight has formed a complete semicircle above the eastern porch of heaven. The first note that proceeds from the little warbling host, is the shrill chirp of the hairbird,--occasionally vocal at an hours on a warm summer night. This strain, which is a continued trilling sound, is repeated with diminishing intervals, until it becomes almost incessant. But ere the hairbird has uttered many notes, a single robin begins to warble from a neighboring orchard, soon followed by others, increasing in numbers until, by the time the eastern sky is flushed with crimson, every male, robin in the country round is singing with fervor. It would be difficult to note the exact order in which the different birds successively begin their parts in this performance; but the bluebird, whose song is only a short, mellow warble, is heard nearly at the same time with the robin, and the song sparrow joins them soon after with his brief but finely modulated strain. The different species follow rapidly, one after another, in the chorus, until the whole welkin rings with their matin hymn of gladness. I have often wondered that the almost simultaneous utterance of so many different notes should produce no discords, and that they should result in such complete harmony. In this multitudinous confusion of voices, no two notes are confounded, and none has sufficient duration to grate harshly with a dissimilar sound. Though each performer sings only a few strains and then makes a pause, the whole multitude succeed one another with such rapidity that we hear an uninterrupted flow of music until the broad light of day invites them to other employments. When there is just light enough to distinguish the birds, we may observe, here and there, a single swallow perched on the roof of a barn or shed, repeating two twittering notes incessantly, with a quick turn and a hop at every note he utters. It would seem to be the design of the bird to attract the attention of his mate, and this motion seems to be made to assist her in discovering his position. As soon as the light has tempted him to fly abroad, this twittering strain is uttered more like a continued song, as he flits rapidly through the air. But at this later moment the purple martins have commenced their more melodious chattering, so loud as to attract for a while the most of our attention. There is not a sound in nature so cheering and animating as the song of the purple martin, and none so well calculated to drive away melancholy. Though not one of the earliest voices to be heard, the chorus is perceptibly more loud and effective when this bird has united with the choir. When the flush of the morning has brightened into vermilion, and the place from which the sun is soon to emerge has attained a dazzling brilliancy, the robins are already less tuneful. They are now becoming busy in collecting food for their morning repast, and one by one they leave the trees, and may be seen hopping upon the tilled ground, in quest of the worms and insects that, have crept out during the night from their subterranean retreats. But as the robins grow silent, the bobolinks begin their vocal revelries; and to a fanciful mind it might seem that the robins had gradually resigned their part in the performance to the bobolinks, not one of which is heard until some of the former have concluded their songs. The little hairbird still continues his almost incessant chirping, the first to begin and the last to quit the performance. Though the voice of this bird is not very sweetly modulated, it blends harmoniously with the notes of other birds, and greatly increases the charming effect of the combination. It would be tedious to name all the birds that take part in this chorus; but we must not omit the pewee, with his melancholy ditty, occasionally heard like a short minor strain in an oratorio; nor the oriole, who is really one of the chief performers, and who, as his bright plumage flashes upon the sight, warbles forth a few notes so clear and mellow as to be beard above every other sound. Adding a pleasing variety to all this harmony, the lisping notes of the meadowlark, uttered in a shrill tone, and with a peculiar pensive modulation, are plainly audible, with short rests between each repetition. There is a little brown sparrow, resembling the hairbird, save a general tint of russet in his plumage, that may be heard distinctly among the warbling host. He is rarely seen in cultivated grounds, but frequents the wild pastures, and is the bird that warbles so sweetly at midsummer, when the whortleberries are ripe, and the fields are beautifully spangled with red lilies. There is no confusion in the notes of his song, which consists of one syllable rapidly repeated, but increasing in rapidity and rising to a higher key towards the conclusion. He sometimes prolongs his strain, when his notes are observed to rise and fall in succession. These plaintive and expressive notes are very loud and constantly uttered, during the hour that precedes the rising of the sun. A dozen warblers of this species, singing in concert, and distributed in different parts of the field, form, perhaps, the most delightful part of the woodland oratorio to which we have listened. At sunrise hardly a robin can be beard in the whole neighborhood, and the character of the performance has completely changed during the last half hour. The first part was more melodious and tranquilizing, the last is more brilliant and animating. The grass finches, the vireos, the wrens, and the linnets have joined their voices to the chorus, and the bobolinks are loudest in their song. But the notes of the birds in general are not so incessant as before sunrise. One by one they discontinue their lays, until at high noon the bobolink and the warbling flycatcher are almost the only vocalists to be heard in the fields. XII. SHORT SELECTIONS IN POETRY. (94) 1. THE CLOUD. A cloud lay cradled near the setting sun, A gleam of crimson tinged its braided snow; Long had I watched the glory moving on, O'er the still radiance of the lake below: Tranquil its spirit seemed, and floated slow, E'en in its very motion there was rest, While every breath of eve that chanced to blow, Wafted the traveler to the beauteous west. Emblem, methought, of the departed soul, To whose white robe the gleam of bliss is given, And by the breath of mercy made to roll Right onward to the golden gate of heaven, While to the eye of faith it peaceful lies, And tells to man his glorious destinies. --John Wilson II. MY MIND. My mind to me a kingdom is; Such perfect joy therein I find, As far exceeds all earthly bliss That God or nature hath assigned; Though much I want that most would have, Yet still my mind forbids to crave. NOTE.--This is the first stanza of a poem by William Byrd (b, 1543, d. 1623), an English composer of music. III. A GOOD NAME. (95) Good name, in man or woman, dear my lord, Is the immediate jewel of their souls. Who steals my purse, steals trash; 'tis something, nothing; 'Twas mine, 'tis his, and has been slave to thousands; But he that filches from me my good name, Robs me of that which not enriches him, And makes me poor indeed. Shakespeare.--Othello, Act III, Scene III. IV. SUNRISE. But yonder comes the powerful king of day, Rejoicing in the east. The lessening cloud, The kindling azure, and the mountain's brow Illumed with liquid gold, his near approach Betoken glad. Lo! now apparent all, Aslant the dew-bright earth and colored air He looks in boundless majesty abroad, And sheds the shining day that, burnished, plays On rocks, and hills, and towers, and wandering streams, High gleaming from afar. Thomson. V. OLD AGE AND DEATH. (95) Edmund Waller, 1605-1687, an English poet, was a cousin of John Hampden, and related to Oliver Cromwell. He was educated at Eton and Cambridge. Waller was for many years a member of Parliament. He took part in the civil war, and was detected in a treasonable plot. Several years of his life were spent in exile in France. After the Restoration he came into favor at court. His poetry is celebrated for smoothness and sweetness, but is disfigured by affected conceits. ### The seas are quiet when the winds give o'er; So calm are we when passions are no more. For then we know how vain it was to boast Of fleeting things, too certain to be lost. Clouds of affection from our younger eyes Conceal that emptiness which age descries. The soul's dark cottage, battered and decayed, Lets in new light through chinks that time has made: Stronger by weakness, wiser men become, As they draw near to their eternal home. Leaving the old, both worlds at once they view, That stand upon the threshold of the new. VI. MILTON. (96) John Dryden, 1631-1703, was a noted English writer, who was made poet laureate by James II. On the expulsion of James, and the accession of William and Mary, Dryden lost his offices and pension, and was compelled to earn his bread by literary work. It was during these last years of his life that his best work was done. His "Ode for St. Cecilia's Day" is one of his most, celebrated poems. His prose writings are specimens of good, strong English. ### Three poets, in three distant ages born, Greece, Italy, and England did adorn; The first in loftiness of thought surpassed, The next in majesty, in both the last. The force of nature could no further go; To make a third she joined the other two. Note.--The two poets referred to, other than Milton, are Homer and Dante. XIII. DEATH OF LITTLE NELL. (96) Charles Dickens. 1812-1870, one of the greatest novelists of modern, times, was born in Portsmouth, but spent nearly all his life in London. His father was a conscientious man, but lacked capacity for getting a livelihood. In consequence, the boy's youth was much darkened by poverty. It has been supposed that he pictured his father in the character of "Micawber." He began his active life as a lawyer's apprentice; but soon left this employment to become a reporter. This occupation he followed from 1831 to 1836. His first book was entitled "Sketches of London Society, by Boz." This was followed, in 1837, by the "Pickwick Papers," a work which suddenly brought much fame to the author. His other works followed with great rapidity, and his last was unfinished at the time of his death. He was buried in Westminster Abbey. Mr. Dickens visited America in 1842, and again in 1867. During his last visit, he read his works in public, in the principal cities of the United States. The resources of Dickens's genius seemed exhaustless. He copied no author, imitated none, but relied entirely on his own powers. He excelled especially in humor and pathos. He gathered materials for his works by the most careful and faithful observation. And he painted his characters with a fidelity so true to their different individualities that, although they sometimes have a quaint grotesqueness bordering on caricature, they stand before the memory as living realities. He was particularly successful in the delineation of the joys and griefs of childhood. "Little Nell" and little "Paul Dombey" are known, and have been loved and wept over, in almost every household where the English language is read. His writings present very vividly the wants and sufferings of the poor, and have a tendency to prompt to kindness and benevolence. His works have not escaped criticism. It has been said that "his good characters act from impulse, not from principle," and that he shows "a tricksy spirit of fantastic exaggeration." It has also been said that his novels sometimes lack skillful plot, and that he seems to speak approvingly of conviviality and dissipation. "The Old Curiosity Shop," from which the following extract is taken, was published in 1840. ### She was dead. No sleep so beautiful and calm, so free from trace of pain, so fair to look upon. She seemed a creature fresh from the hand of God, and waiting for the breath of life; not one who had lived, and suffered death. Her couch was dressed with here and there some winter berries and green leaves, gathered in a spot she had been used to favor. "When I die, put near me something that has loved the light, and had the sky above it always." These were her words. She was dead. Dear, gentle, patient, noble Nell was dead. Her little bird, a poor, slight thing the pressure of a finger would have crushed, was stirring nimbly in its cage, and the strong heart of its child mistress was mute and motionless forever! Where were the traces of her early cares, her sufferings, and fatigues? All gone. Sorrow was dead, indeed, in her; but peace and perfect happiness were born, imaged in her tranquil beauty and profound repose. And still her former self lay there, unaltered in this change. Yes! the old fireside had smiled upon that same sweet face; it had passed, like a dream, through haunts of misery and care; at the door of the poor schoolmaster on the summer evening, before the furnace fire upon the cold wet night, at the still bedside of the dying boy, there had been the same mild and lovely look. So shall we know the angels, in their majesty, after death. The old man held one languid arm in his, and had the small hand tight folded to his breast for warmth. It was the hand she had stretched out to him with her last smile; the hand that had led him on through all their wanderings. Ever and anon he pressed it to his lips; then hugged it to his breast again, murmuring that it was warmer now, and, as he said it, he looked in agony to those who stood around, as if imploring them to help her. She was dead, and past all help, or need of help. The ancient rooms she had seemed to fill with life, even while her own was waning fast, the garden she had tended, the eyes she had gladdened, the noiseless haunts of many a thoughtful hour, the paths she had trodden, as it were, but yesterday, could know her no more. "It is not," said the schoolmaster, as he bent down to kiss her on the cheek, and gave his tears free vent, "it is not in this world that heaven's justice ends. Think what earth is, compared with the world to which her young spirit has winged its early flight, and say, if one deliberate wish, expressed in solemn tones above this bed, could call her back to life, which of us would utter it?" She had been dead two days. They were all about her at the time, knowing that the end was drawing on. She died soon after daybreak. They had read and talked to her in the earlier portion of the night; but, as the hours crept on, she sank to sleep. They could tell by what she faintly uttered in her dreams, that they were of her journeyings with the old man; they were of no painful scenes, but of people who had helped them, and used them kindly; for she often said "God bless you!" with great fervor. Waking, she never wandered in her mind but once, and that was at beautiful music, which, she said, was in the air. God knows. It may have been. Opening her eyes, at last, from a very quiet sleep, she begged that they would kiss her once again. That done, she turned to the old man, with a lovely smile upon her face, such, they said, as they had never seen, and could never forget, and clung, with both her arms, about his neck. She had never murmured or complained; but, with a quiet mind, and manner quite unaltered, save that she every day became more earnest and more grateful to them, faded like the light upon the summer's evening. The child who had been her little friend, came there, almost as soon as it was day, with an offering of dried flowers, which he begged them to lay upon her breast. He told them of his dream again, and that it was of her being restored to them, just as she used to be. He begged hard to see her: saying, that he would be very quiet, and that they need not fear his being alarmed, for he had sat alone by his young brother all day long, when he was dead, and had felt glad to be so near him. They let him have his wish; and, indeed, he kept his word, and was, in his childish way, a lesson to them all. Up to that time, the old man had not spoken once, except to her, or stirred from the bedside. But, when he saw her little favorite, he was moved as they had not seen him yet, and made as though he would have him come nearer. Then, pointing to the bed, he burst into tears for the first time, and they who stood by, knowing that the sight of this child had done him good, left them alone together. Soothing him with his artless talk of her, the child persuaded him to take some rest, to walk abroad, to do almost as he desired him. And, when the day came, on which they must remove her, in her earthly shape, from earthly eyes forever, he led him away, that he might not know when she was taken from him. They were to gather fresh leaves and berries for her bed. And now the bell, the bell she had so often heard by night and day, and listened to with solemn pleasure, almost as a living voice, rung its remorseless toll for her, so young, so beautiful, so good. Decrepit age, and vigorous life, and blooming youth, and helpless infancy,--on crutches, in the pride of health and strength, in the full blush of promise, in the mere dawn of life, gathered round her. Old men were there, whose eyes were dim and senses failing, grandmothers, who might have died ten years ago, and still been old, the deaf, the blind, the lame, the palsied, the living dead, in many shapes and forms, to see the closing of that early grave. Along the crowded path they bore her now, pure as the newly fallen snow that covered it, whose day on earth had been as fleeting. Under that porch, where she had sat when heaven, in its mercy, brought her to that peaceful spot, she passed again, and the old church received her in its quiet shade. XIV. VANITY OF LIFE. (100) Johann Gottfried von Herder, 1744-1803, an eminent German poet, preacher, and philosopher, was born in Mohrungen, and died in Weimar. His published works comprise sixty volumes. This selection is from his "Hebrew Poetry." ### Man, born of woman, Is of a few days, And full of trouble; He cometh forth as a flower, and is cut down; He fleeth also as a shadow, And continueth not. Upon such dost thou open thine eye, And bring me unto judgment with thee? Among the impure is there none pure? Not one. Are his days so determined? Hast thou numbered his months, And set fast his bounds for him Which he can never pass? Turn then from him that he may rest, And enjoy, as an hireling, his day. The tree hath hope, if it be cut down, It becometh green again, And new shoots are put forth. If even the root is old in the earth, And its stock die in the ground, From vapor of water it will bud, And bring forth boughs as a young plant. But man dieth, and his power is gone; He is taken away, and where is he? Till the waters waste from the sea, Till the river faileth and is dry land, Man lieth low, and riseth not again. Till the heavens are old, he shall not awake, Nor be aroused from his sleep. Oh, that thou wouldest conceal me In the realm of departed souls! Hide me in secret, till thy wrath be past; Appoint me then a new term, And remember me again. But alas! if a man die Shall he live again? So long, then, as my toil endureth, Will I wait till a change come to me. Thou wilt call me, and I shall answer; Thou wilt pity the work of thy hands. Though now thou numberest my steps, Thou shalt then not watch for my sin. My transgression will be sealed in a bag, Thou wilt bind up and remove my iniquity. Yet alas! the mountain falleth and is swallowed up, The rock is removed out of its place, The waters hollow out the stones, The floods overflow the dust of the earth, And thus, thou destroyest the hope of man. Thou contendest with him, till he faileth, Thou changest his countenance, and sendeth him away. Though his sons become great and happy, Yet he knoweth it not; If they come to shame and dishonor, He perceiveth it not. Note.--Compare with the translation of the same as given in the ordinary version of the Bible. Job xiv. XV. A POLITICAL PAUSE. (102) Charles James Fox, 1749-1806, a famous English orator and statesman, was the son of Hon. Henry Fox, afterward Lord Holland; he was also a lineal descendant of Charles II. of England and of Henry IV, of France. He received his education at Westminster, Eton, and Oxford, but left the University without graduating. He was first elected to Parliament before he was twenty years old. During the American Revolution, he favored the colonies; later, he was a friend and fellow-partisan both with Burke and Wilberforce. Burke said of him, "He is the most brilliant and successful debater the world ever saw." In his later years, Mr. Fox was as remarkable for carelessness in dress and personal appearance, as he had been for the opposite in his youth. He possessed many pleasing traits of character, but his morals were not commendable; he was a gambler and a spendthrift. Yet he exercised a powerful influence on the politics of his times. This extract is from a speech delivered during a truce in the long war between England and France. ### "But we must pause," says the honorable gentleman. What! must the bowels of Great Britain be torn out, her best blood spilt, her treasures wasted, that you may make an experiment? Put yourselves--Oh! that you would put yourselves on the field of battle, and learn to judge of the sort of horrors you excite. In former wars, a man might at least have some feeling, some interest, that served to balance in his mind the impressions which a scene of carnage and death must inflict. But if a man were present now at the field of slaughter, and were to inquire for what they were fighting--"Fighting!", would be the answer; "they are not fighting; they are pausing." "Why is that man expiring? Why is that other writhing with agony? What means this implacable fury?" The answer must be, "You are quite wrong, sir, you deceive yourself,--they are not fighting,--do not disturb them,--they are merely pausing! This man is not expiring with agony,--that man is not dead,--he is only pausing! Bless you, sir, they are not angry with one another; they have now no cause of quarrel; but their country thinks that there should be a pause. All that you see is nothing like fighting,--there is no harm, nor cruelty, nor bloodshed in it; it is nothing more than a political pause. It is merely to try an experiment--to see whether Bonaparte will not behave himself better than heretofore; and, in the meantime, we have agreed to a pause, in pure friendship!" And is this the way that you are to show yourselves the advocates of order? You take up a system calculated to uncivilize the world, to destroy order, to trample on religion, to stifle in the heart not merely the generosity of noble sentiment, but the affections of social nature; and in the prosecution of this system, you spread terror and devastation all around you. Note.--In this lesson, the influence of a negative in determining the rising inflection, is noticeable. See Rule V, p. 24. XVI. MY EXPERIENCE IN ELOCUTION. (104) John Neal. 1793-1876, a brilliant but eccentric American writer, was born in Portland, Maine. He went into business, when quite young, in company with John Pierpont, the well-known poet. They soon failed, and Mr. Neal then turned his attention to the study of law. He practiced his profession somewhat, but devoted most of his time to literature. For a time he resided in England, where he wrote for "Blackwood's Magazine" and other periodicals. His writings were produced with great rapidity, and with a purposed disregard of what is known as "classical English." ### In the academy I attended, elocution was taught in a way I shall never forget--never! We had a yearly exhibition, and the favorites of the preceptor were allowed to speak a piece; and a pretty time they had of it. Somehow I was never a favorite with any of my teachers after the first two or three days; and, as I went barefooted, I dare say it was thought unseemly, or perhaps cruel, to expose me upon the platform. And then, as I had no particular aptitude for public speaking, and no relish for what was called oratory, it was never my luck to be called up. Among my schoolmates, however, was one--a very amiable, shy boy--to whom was assigned, at the first exhibition I attended, that passage in Pope's Homer beginning with, "Aurora, now, fair daughter of the dawn!" This the poor boy gave with so much emphasis and discretion, that, to me, it sounded like "O roarer!" and I was wicked enough, out of sheer envy, I dare say, to call him "O roarer!"--a nickname which clung to him for a long while, though no human being ever deserved it less; for in speech and action both, he was quiet, reserved, and sensitive. My next experience in elocution was still more disheartening, so that I never had a chance of showing what I was capable of in that way till I set up for myself. Master Moody, my next instructor, was thought to have uncommon qualifications for teaching oratory. He was a large, handsome, heavy man, over six feet high; and having understood that the first, second, and third prerequisite in oratory was action, the boys he put in training were encouraged to most vehement and obstreperous manifestations. Let me give an example, and one that weighed heavily on my conscience for many years after the poor man passed away. Among his pupils were two boys, brothers, who were thought highly gifted in elocution. The master, who was evidently of that opinion, had a habit of parading them on all occasions before visitors and strangers; though one bad lost his upper front teeth and lisped badly, and the other had the voice of a penny trumpet. Week after week these boys went through the quarrel of Brutus and Cassius, for the benefit of myself and others, to see if their example would not provoke us to a generous competition for all the honors. How it operated on the other boys in after life I can not say; but the effect on me was decidedly unwholesome--discouraging, indeed,--until I was old enough to judge for myself, and to carry into operation a system of my own. On coming to the passage,-- "Be ready, gods, with all your thunderbolts; Dash him to pieces!"-- the elder of the boys gave it after the following fashion: "Be ready, godths, with all your thunderbolths,--dath him in pietheth!"--bringing his right fist down into his left palm with all his strength, and his lifted foot upon the platform, which was built like a sounding-board, so that the master himself, who had suggested the action and obliged the poor boy to rehearse it over and over again, appeared to be utterly carried away by the magnificent demonstration; while to me--so deficient was I in rhetorical taste--it sounded like a crash of broken crockery, intermingled with chicken peeps. I never got over it; and to this day can not endure stamping, nor even tapping of the foot, nor clapping the hands together, nor thumping the table for illustration; having an idea that such noises are not oratory, and that untranslatable sounds are not language. My next essay was of a somewhat different kind. I took the field in person, being in my nineteenth year, well proportioned, and already beginning to have a sincere relish for poetry, if not for declamation. I had always been a great reader; and in the course of my foraging depredations I had met with "The Mariner's Dream" and "The Lake of the Dismal Swamp," both of which I had committed to memory before I knew it. And one day, happening to be alone with my sister, and newly rigged out in a student's gown, such as the lads at Brunswick sported when they came to show off among their old companions, I proposed to astonish her by rehearsing these two poems in appropriate costume. Being very proud of her brother, and very obliging, she consented at once,--upon condition that our dear mother, who had never seen anything of the sort, should be invited to make one of the audience. On the whole, I rather think that I succeeded in astonishing both. I well remember their looks of amazement--for they had never seen anything better or worse in all their lives, and were no judges of acting--as I swept to and fro in that magnificent robe, with outstretched arms and uplifted eyes, when I came to passages like the following, where an apostrophe was called for: "And near him the she wolf stirred the brake, And the copper snake breathed in his ear, Till he, starting, cried, from his dream awake, 'Oh, when shall I see the dusky lake, And the white canoe of my dear'!'" Or like this: "On beds of green sea flowers thy limbs shall be laid; Around thy white bones the red coral shall grow, Of thy fair yellow locks, threads of amber be made, And every part suit to thy mansion below;"-- throwing up my arms, and throwing them out in every possible direction as the spirit moved me, or the sentiment prompted; for I always encouraged my limbs and features to think for themselves, and to act for themselves, and never predetermined, never forethought, a gesture nor an intonation in my life; and should as soon think of counterfeiting another's look or step or voice, or of modulating my own by a pitch pipe (as the ancient orators did, with whom oratory was acting elocution, a branch of the dramatic art), as of adopting or imitating the gestures and tones of the most celebrated rhetorician I ever saw. The result was rather encouraging. My mother and sister were both satisfied. At any rate, they said nothing to the contrary. Being only in my nineteenth year, what might I not be able to accomplish after a little more experience! How little did I think, while rehearsing before my mother and sister, that anything serious would ever come of it, or that I was laying the foundations of character for life, or that I was beginning what I should not be able to finish within the next forty or fifty years following. Yet so it was. I had broken the ice without knowing it. These things were but the foreshadowing of what happened long afterward. Notes.--Brunswick, Maine, is the seat of Bowdoin College. "The Mariner's Dream" is a poem by 'William Dimond. "The Lake of the Dismal Swamp" is by Thomas Moore. XVII. ELEGY IN A COUNTRY CHURCHYARD. (108) Thomas Gray, 1716-1771, is often spoken of as "the author of the Elegy,"--this simple yet highly finished and beautiful poem being by far the best known of an his writings. It was finished in 1749,--seven years from the time it was commenced. Probably no short poem in the language ever deserved or received more praise. Gray was born in London; his father possessed property, but was indolent and selfish; his mother was a successful woman of business, and supported her son in college from her own earnings. The poet was educated at Eton and Cambridge; at the latter place, he resided for several years after his return from a continental tour, begun in 1739. He was small and delicate in person, refined and precise in dress and manners, and shy and retiring in disposition. He was an accomplished scholar in many fields of learning, but left comparatively little finished work in any department. He declined the honor of poet laureate; but, in 1769, was appointed Professor of History at Cambridge. ### The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea, The plowman homeward plods his weary way, And leaves the world to darkness and to me. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight, And all the air a solemn stillness holds, Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight, And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds: Save that from yonder ivy-mantled tower, The moping owl does to the moon complain Of such as, wandering near her secret bower, Molest her ancient solitary reign. Beneath those rugged elms, that yew tree's shade, Where heaves the turf in many a moldering heap, Each in his narrow cell forever laid, The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. The breezy call of incense-breathing morn, The swallow twittering from the straw-built shed, The cock's shrill clarion, or the echoing horn, No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed. For them no more the blazing hearth shall burn, Or busy housewife ply her evening care; No children run to lisp their sire's return, Or climb his knees the envied kiss to share. Oft did the harvest to their sickle yield, Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke: How jocund did they drive their team afield! How bowed the woods beneath their sturdy stroke! Let not Ambition mock their useful toil, Their homely joys, and destiny obscure; Nor Grandeur hear with a disdainful smile The short and simple annals of the poor. The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, Await alike, the inevitable hour: The paths of glory lead but to the grave. Nor you, ye proud, impute to these the fault, If Memory o'er their tomb no trophies raise; Where, through the long-drawn aisle and fretted vault, The pealing anthem swells the note of praise. Can storied urn, or animated bust, Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath? Can Honor's voice provoke the silent dust, Or Flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of Death? Perhaps, in this neglected spot is laid Some heart once pregnant with celestial fire; Hands, that the rod of empire might have swayed, Or waked to ecstasy the living lyre: But Knowledge to their eyes her ample page, Rich with the spoils of time, did ne'er unroll; Chill Penury repressed their noble rage, And froze the genial current of the soul. Full many a gem of purest ray serene, The dark, unfathomed caves of ocean bear: Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, And waste its sweetness on the desert air. Some village Hampden, that, with dauntless breast, The little tyrant of his fields withstood, Some mute, inglorious Milton here may rest, Some Cromwell, guiltless of his country's blood. The applause of listening senates to command, The threats of pain and ruin to despise, To scatter plenty o'er a smiling land, And read their history in a nation's eyes, Their lot forbade: nor, circumscribed alone Their growing virtues, but their crimes confined; Forbade to wade through slaughter to a throne. And shut the gates of mercy on mankind, The struggling pangs of conscious truth to hide, To quench the blushes of ingenuous shame, Or heap the shrine of luxury and pride, With incense kindled at the Muse's flame. Far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife, Their sober wishes never learned to stray; Along the cool, sequestered vale of life, They kept the noiseless tenor of their way. Yet even these bones, from insult to protect, Some frail memorial still, erected nigh, With uncouth rhymes and shapeless sculpture decked, Implores the passing tribute of a sigh. Their name, their years, spelt by the unlettered Muse, The place of fame and elegy supply; And many a holy text around she strews, That teach the rustic moralist to die. For who, to dumb forgetfulness a prey, This pleasing, anxious being e'er resigned, Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day, Nor cast one longing, lingering look behind? On some fond breast the parting soul relies, Some pious drops the closing eye requires; E'en from the tomb the voice of Nature cries, E'en in our ashes live their wonted fires. For thee, who, mindful of the unhonored dead, Dost in these lines their artless tale relate, If chance, by lonely contemplation led, Some kindred spirit shall inquire thy fate,-- Haply some hoary-headed swain may say, "Oft have we seen him at the peep of dawn Brushing, with hasty step, the dews away, To meet the sun upon the upland lawn: "There, at the foot of yonder nodding beech, That wreathes its old, fantastic roots so high, His listless length at noontide would he stretch, And pore upon the brook that babbles by. "Hard by yon wood, now smiling as in scorn, Muttering his wayward fancies, he would rove; Now, drooping, woeful-wan, like one forlorn, Or crazed with care, or crossed in hopeless love. "One morn, I missed him on the customed hill, Along the heath, and near his favorite tree: Another came; nor yet beside the rill, Nor up the lawn, nor at the wood was he: "The next, with dirges due, in sad array Slow through the church-way path we saw him borne:-- Approach and read (for thou canst read) the lay 'Graved on the stone beneath yon aged thorn." THE EPITAPH. Here rests his head upon the lap of Earth, A youth, to Fortune and to Fame unknown: Fair Science frowned not on his humble birth, And Melancholy marked him for her own. Large was his bounty and his soul sincere, Heaven did a recompense as largely send: He gave to Misery (all he had) a tear; He gained from Heaven ('t was all he wished) a friend. No farther seek his merits to disclose, Or draw his frailties from their dread abode (There they alike in trembling hope repose), The bosom of his Father, and his God. [Illustration: Man on horseback riding past a church-yard (graveyard). The sky is cloudy; the church steeple stands in the background.] Notes.--John Hampden (b. 1594, d. 1643) was noted for his resolute resistance to the forced loans and unjust taxes imposed by Charles I. on England. He took part in the contest between King and Parliament, and was killed in a skirmish. John Milton. See biographical notice, page 312. Oliver Cromwell (b. 1599, d. 1658) was the leading character in the Great Rebellion in England. He was Lord Protector the last five years of his life, and in many respects the ablest ruler that England ever had. XVIII. TACT AND TALENT. (113) Talent is something, but tact is everything. Talent is serious, sober, grave, and respectable: tact is all that, and more too. It is not a sixth sense, but it is the life of all the five. It is the open eye, the quick ear, the judging taste, the keen smell, and the lively touch; it is the interpreter of all riddles, the surmounter of all difficulties, the remover of all obstacles. It is useful in all places, and at all times; it is useful in solitude, for it shows a man into the world; it is useful in society, for it shows him his way through the world. Talent is power, tact is skill; talent is weight, tact is momentum; talent knows what to do, tact knows how to do it; talent makes a man respectable, tact will make him respected; talent is wealth, tact is ready money. For all the practical purposes, tact carries it against talent ten to one. Take them to the theater, and put them against each other on the stage, and talent shall produce you a tragedy that shall scarcely live long enough to be condemned, while tact keeps the house in a roar, night after night, with its successful farces. There is no want of dramatic talent, there is no want of dramatic tact; but they are seldom together: so we have successful pieces which are not respectable, and respectable pieces which are not successful. Take them to the bar, and let them shake their learned curls at each other in legal rivalry; talent sees its way clearly, but tact is first at its journey's end. Talent has many a compliment from the bench, but tact touches fees. Talent makes the world wonder that it gets on no faster, tact arouses astonishment that it gets on so fast. And the secret is, that it has no weight to carry; it makes no false steps; it hits the right nail on the head; it loses no time; it takes all hints; and, by keeping its eye on the weathercock, is ready to take advantage of every wind that blows. Take them into the church: talent has always something worth hearing, tact is sure of abundance of hearers; talent may obtain a living, tact will make one; talent gets a good name, tact a great one; talent convinces, tact converts; talent is an honor to the profession, tact gains honor from the profession. Take them to court: talent feels its weight, tact finds its way; talent commands, tact is obeyed; talent is honored with approbation, and tact is blessed by preferment. Place them in the senate: talent has the ear of the house, but tact wins its heart, and has its votes; talent is fit for employment, but tact is fitted for it. It has a knack of slipping into place with a sweet silence and glibness of movement, as a billiard ball insinuates itself into the pocket. It seems to know everything, without learning anything. It has served an extemporary apprenticeship; it wants no drilling; it never ranks in the awkward squad; it has no left hand, no deaf ear, no blind side. It puts on no look of wondrous wisdom, it has no air of profundity, but plays with the details of place as dexterously as a well-taught hand flourishes over the keys of the pianoforte. It has all the air of commonplace, and all the force and power of genius. XIX. SPEECH BEFORE THE VIRGINIA CONVENTION. (115) Patrick Henry, 1730-1799, was born in Hanover County, Virginia, He received instruction in Latin and mathematics from his father, but seemed to develop a greater fondness for hunting, fishing, and playing the fiddle than for study. Twice he was set up in business, and twice failed before he was twenty-four. He was then admitted to the bar after six weeks' study of the law. He got no business at first in his profession, but lived with his father-in-law. His wonderful powers of oratory first showed themselves in a celebrated case which he argued in Hanover Courthouse, his own father being the presiding magistrate. He began very awkwardly, but soon rose to a surprising height of eloquence, won his case against great odds, and was carried off in triumph by the delighted spectators. His fame was now established; business flowed in, and he was soon elected to the Virginia Legislature. He was a delegate to the Congress of 1774, and in 1775 made the prophetic speech of which the following selection is a portion. It was his own motion that the "colony be immediately put in a state of defense." During the Revolution he was, for several years, Governor of Virginia. In 1788 he earnestly opposed the adoption of the Federal Constitution. When he died, he left a large family and an ample fortune. In person, Mr. Henry was tall and rather awkward, with a face stern and grave. When he spoke on great occasions, his awkwardness forsook him, his face lighted up, and his eyes flashed with a wonderful fire. In his life, he was good-humored, honest, and temperate. His patriotism was of the noblest type; and few men in those stormy times did better service for their country than he. ### It is natural for man to indulge in the illusions of hope. We are apt to shut our eyes against a painful truth, and listen to the song of that siren till she transforms us into beasts. Is this the part of wise men, engaged in a great and arduous struggle for liberty? Are we disposed to be of the number of those, who, having eyes, see not, and having ears, hear not the things which so nearly concern their temporal salvation? For my part, whatever anguish of spirit it may cost, I am willing to know the whole truth; to know the worst, and to provide for it. I have but one lamp by which my feet are guided; and that is the lamp of experience. I know of no way of judging of the future but by the past; and, judging by the past, I wish to know what there has been in the conduct of the British ministry for the last ten years to justify those hopes with which gentlemen have been pleased to solace themselves and the house? Is it that insidious smile with which our petition has been lately received? Trust it not: it will prove a snare to your feet. Suffer not yourselves to be betrayed with a kiss. Ask yourselves, how this gracious reception of our petition comports with those warlike preparations which cover our waters and darken our land. Are fleets and armies necessary to a work of love and reconciliation? Have we shown ourselves so unwilling to be reconciled that force must be called in to win back our love? Let us not deceive ourselves. These are the implements of war and subjugation,-- the last arguments to which kings resort. I ask, gentlemen, what means this martial array, if its purpose be not to force us into submission? Can gentlemen assign any other possible motive for it? Has Great Britain any enemy in this quarter of the world, to call for all this accumulation of navies and armies? No, she has none. They are meant for us: they can be meant for no other. They are sent over to bind and rivet upon us those chains which the British ministry have been so long forging. And what have we to oppose to them? Shall we try argument? We have been trying that for the last ten years. Have we anything new to offer upon the subject? Nothing. We have held the subject up in every light in which it was capable; but it has been all in vain. Shall we resort to entreaty and humble supplication? What terms shall we find which have not been already exhausted? Let us not, I beseech you, deceive ourselves longer. We have done everything that could be done, to avert the storm which is now coming on. We have petitioned; we have remonstrated; we have supplicated; we have prostrated ourselves at the foot of the throne, and implored its interposition to arrest the tyrannical bands of the ministry and parliament. Our petitions have been slighted; our remonstrances have produced additional violence and insult; our supplications disregarded; and we have been spurned with contempt from the foot of the throne. In vain, after these things, may we indulge the fond hope of peace and reconciliation. There is no longer any room for hope. If we wish to be free; if we mean to preserve inviolate those inestimable privileges for which we have been so long contending; if we mean not basely to abandon the noble struggle in which we have been so long engaged, and which we have pledged ourselves never to abandon until the glorious object of our contest shall be obtained--we must fight! I repeat it, we must fight! An appeal to arms and the God of Hosts, is all that is left us. They tell us that we are weak; unable to cope with so formidable an adversary. But when shall we be stronger? Will it be the next week, or the next year? Will it be when we are totally disarmed, and when a British guard shall be stationed in every house? Shall we gather strength by irresolution and inaction? Shall we acquire the means of effectual resistance by lying supinely on our backs, and hugging the delusive phantom of hope, until our enemies shall have bound us hand and foot? We are not weak, if we make a proper use of those means which the God of nature hath placed in our power. Three millions of people, armed in the holy cause of liberty, and in such a country as that which we possess, are invincible by any force which our enemy can send against us. Besides, we shall not fight our battles alone. There is a just God who presides over the destinies of nations; and who will raise up friends to fight our battles for us. The battle is not to the strong alone; it is to the vigilant, the active, the brave. Besides, we have no election. If we were base enough to desire it, it is now too late to retire from the contest. There is no retreat but in submission and slavery! Our chains are forged. Their clanking may be heard on the plains of Boston! The war is inevitable; and; let it come! I repeat it, let it come! It is in vain to extenuate the matter. Gentlemen may cry peace, peace; but there is no peace. The war is actually begun. The next gale that sweeps from the north, will bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms! Our brethren are already in the field! Why stand we here idle? What is it that gentlemen wish? What would they have? Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what course others may take; but as for me, give me liberty, or give me death. Notes.--Observe, in this lesson, the all-controlling power of emphasis in determining the falling inflection. The words "see," "hear," and "my," in the first paragraph, the word "that" in the second, and "spurned" and "contempt" in the fourth paragraph, are examples of this. Let the reader remember that a high degree of emphasis is sometimes expressed by a whisper; also, that emphasis is often expressed by a pause. It will be well to read in this connection some good history of the opening scenes of the Revolution. XX: THE AMERICAN FLAG. (119) Joseph Rodman Drake. 1795-1820, was born in New York City. His father died when he was very young, and his early life was a struggle with poverty. He studied medicine, and took his degree when he was about twenty years old. From a child, he showed remarkable poetical powers, having made rhymes at the early age of five. Most of his published writings were produced during a period of less than two years. "The Culprit Fay" and the "American Flag" are best known. In disposition, Mr. Drake was gentle and kindly; and, on the occasion of his death, his intimate friend, Fitz-Greene Halleck, expressed his character in the well-known couplet: "None knew thee but to love thee, Nor named thee but to praise." ### When Freedom, from her mountain height, Unfurled her standard to the air, She tore the azure robe of night, And set the stars of glory there: She mingled with its gorgeous dyes The milky baldric of the skies, And striped its pure, celestial white With streakings of the morning light; Then, from his mansion in the sun, She called her eagle bearer down, And gave into his mighty hand The symbol of her chosen land. Majestic monarch of the cloud! Who rear'st aloft thy regal form, To hear the tempest trumpings loud, And see the lightning lances driven, When strive the warriors of the storm, And rolls the thunder drum of heaven;-- Child of the sun! to thee 't is given To guard the banner of the free, To hover in the sulphur smoke, To ward away the battle stroke, And bid its blendings shine afar, Like rainbows on the cloud of war, The harbingers of victory! Flag of the brave! thy folds shall fly, The sign of hope and triumph high! When speaks the signal trumpet tone, And the long line comes gleaming on, Ere yet the lifeblood, warm and wet, Has dimmed the glistening bayonet, Each soldier's eye shall brightly turn To where thy sky-born glories burn, And, as his springing steps advance, Catch war and vengeance from the glance. And when the cannon mouthings loud Heave in wild wreaths the battle shroud, And gory sabers rise and fall, Like shoots of flame on midnight's pall, Then shall thy meteor glances glow, And cowering foes shall sink beneath Each gallant arm, that strikes below That lovely messenger of death. Flag of the seas! on ocean's wave Thy stars shall glitter o'er the brave; When death careering on the gale, Sweeps darkly round the bellied sail, And frighted waves rush wildly back, Before the broadside's reeling rack, Each dying wanderer of the sea Shall look at once to heaven and thee, And smile to see thy splendors fly In triumph o'er his closing eye. Flag of the free heart's hope and home, By angel hands to valor given, Thy stars have lit the welkin dome, And all thy hues were born in heaven. Forever float that standard sheet! Where breathes the foe but falls before us, With Freedom's soil beneath our feet, And Freedom's banner streaming o'er us? XXI. IRONICAL EULOGY ON DEBT. (121) Debt is of the very highest antiquity. The first debt in the history of man is the debt of nature, and the first instinct is to put off the payment of it to the last moment. Many persons, it will be observed, following the natural procedure, would die before they would pay their debts. Society is composed of two classes, debtors and creditors. The creditor class has been erroneously supposed the more enviable. Never was there a greater misconception; and the hold it yet maintains upon opinion is a remarkable example of the obstinacy of error, notwithstanding the plainest lessons of experience. The debtor has the sympathies of mankind. He is seldom spoken of but with expressions of tenderness and compassion--"the poor debtor!"--and "the unfortunate debtor!" On the other hand, "harsh" and "hard-hearted" are the epithets allotted to the creditor. Who ever heard the "poor creditor," the "unfortunate creditor" spoken of? No, the creditor never becomes the object of pity, unless he passes into the debtor class. A creditor may be ruined by the poor debtor, but it is not until he becomes unable to pay his own debts, that he begins to be compassionated. A debtor is a man of mark. Many eyes are fixed upon him; many have interest in his well-being; his movements are of concern; he can not disappear unheeded; his name is in many mouths; his name is upon many books; he is a man of note--of promissory note; he fills the speculation of many minds; men conjecture about him, wonder about him,--wonder and conjecture whether he will pay. He is a man of consequence, for many are running after him. His door is thronged with duns. He is inquired after every hour of the day. Judges hear of him and know him. Every meal he swallows, every coat he puts upon his back, every dollar he borrows, appears before the country in some formal document. Compare his notoriety with the obscure lot of the creditor,--of the man who has nothing but claims on the world; a landlord, or fundholder, or some such disagreeable, hard character. The man who pays his way is unknown in his neighborhood. You ask the milkman at his door, and he can not tell his name. You ask the butcher where Mr. Payall lives, and he tells you he knows no such name, for it is not in his books. You shall ask the baker, and he will tell you there is no such person in the neighborhood. People that have his money fast in their pockets, have no thought of his person or appellation. His house only is known. No. 31 is good pay. No. 31 is ready money. Not a scrap of paper is ever made out for No. 31. It is an anonymous house; its owner pays his way to obscurity. No one knows anything about him, or heeds his movements. If a carriage be seen at his door, the neighborhood is not full of concern lest he be going to run away. If a package be removed from his house, a score of boys are not employed to watch whether it be carried to the pawnbroker. Mr. Payall fills no place in the public mind; no one has any hopes or fears about him. The creditor always figures in the fancy as a sour, single man, with grizzled hair, a scowling countenance, and a peremptory air, who lives in a dark apartment, with musty deeds about him, and an iron safe, as impenetrable as his heart, grabbing together what he does not enjoy, and what there is no one about him to enjoy. The debtor, on the other hand, is always pictured with a wife and six fair-haired daughters, bound together in affection and misery, full of sensibility, and suffering without a fault. The creditor, it is never doubted, thrives without a merit. He has no wife and children to pity. No one ever thinks it desirable that he should have the means of living. He is a brute for insisting that he must receive, in order to pay. It is not in the imagination of man to conceive that his creditor has demands upon him which must be satisfied, and that he must do to others as others must do to him. A creditor is a personification of exaction. He is supposed to be always taking in, and never giving out. People idly fancy that the possession of riches is desirable. What blindness! Spend and regale. Save a shilling and you lay it by for a thief. The prudent men are the men that live beyond their means. Happen what may, they are safe. They have taken time by the forelock. They have anticipated fortune. "The wealthy fool, with gold in store," has only denied himself so much enjoyment, which another will seize at his expense. Look at these people in a panic. See who are the fools then. You know them by their long faces. You may say, as one of them goes by in an agony of apprehension, "There is a stupid fellow who fancied himself rich, because he had fifty thousand dollars in bank." The history of the last ten years has taught the moral, "spend and regale." Whatever is laid up beyond the present hour, is put in jeopardy. There is no certainty but in instant enjoyment. Look at schoolboys sharing a plum cake. The knowing ones eat, as for a race; but a stupid fellow saves his portion; just nibbles a bit, and "keeps the rest for another time." Most provident blockhead! The others, when they have gobbled up their shares, set upon him, plunder him, and thrash him for crying out. Before the terms "depreciation," "suspension," and "going into liquidation," were heard, there might have been some reason in the practice of "laying up;" but now it denotes the darkest blindness. The prudent men of the present time, are the men in debt. The tendency being to sacrifice creditors to debtors, and the debtor party acquiring daily new strength, everyone is in haste to get into the favored class. In any case, the debtor is safe. He has put his enjoyments behind him; they are safe; no turns of fortune can disturb them. The substance he has eaten up, is irrecoverable. The future can not trouble his past. He has nothing to apprehend. He has anticipated more than fortune would ever have granted him. He has tricked fortune; and his creditors--bah! who feels for creditors? What are creditors? Landlords; a pitiless and unpitiable tribe; all griping extortioners! What would become of the world of debtors, if it did not steal a march upon this rapacious class? XXII. THE THREE WARNINGS. (124) Hester Lynch Thrale. 1739--1821, owes her celebrity almost wholly to her long intimacy with Dr. Samuel Johnson. This continued for twenty years, during which Johnson spent much time in her family. She was born in Caernarvonshire, Wales; her first husband was a wealthy brewer, by whom she had several children. In 1784, she married an Italian teacher of music named Piozzi. Her writings are quite numerous; the best known of her books is the "Anecdotes of Dr. Johnson;" but nothing she ever wrote is so well known as the "Three Warnings." ### The tree of deepest root is found Least willing still to quit the ground; 'T was therefore said by ancient sages, That love of life increased with years So much, that in our latter stages, When pains grow sharp, and sickness rages, The greatest love of life appears. This great affection to believe, Which all confess, but few perceive, If old assertions can't prevail, Be pleased to hear a modern tale. When sports went round, and all were gay, On neighbor Dodson's wedding day, Death called aside the jocund groom With him into another room; And looking grave, "You must," says he, "Quit your sweet bride, and come with me." "With you! and quit my Susan's side? With you!" the hapless bridegroom cried: "Young as I am, 't is monstrous hard! Besides, in truth, I'm not prepared." What more he urged, I have not heard; His reasons could not well be stronger: So Death the poor delinquent spared, And left to live a little longer. Yet, calling up a serious look, His hourglass trembled while he spoke: "Neighbor," he said, "farewell! no more Shall Death disturb your mirthful hour; And further, to avoid all blame Of cruelty upon my name, To give you time for preparation, And fit you for your future station, Three several warnings you shall have Before you're summoned to the grave; Willing for once I'll quit my prey, And grant a kind reprieve; In hopes you'll have no more to say, But, when I call again this way, Well pleased the world will leave." To these conditions both consented, And parted perfectly contented. What next the hero of our tale befell, How long he lived, how wisely, and how well, It boots not that the Muse should tell; He plowed, he sowed, he bought, he sold, Nor once perceived his growing old, Nor thought of Death as near; His friends not false, his wife no shrew, Many his gains, his children few, He passed his hours in peace. But, while he viewed his wealth increase, While thus along life's dusty road, The beaten track, content he trod, Old Time, whose haste no mortal spares, Uncalled, unheeded, unawares, Brought on his eightieth year. And now, one night, in musing mood, As all alone he sate, The unwelcome messenger of Fate Once more before him stood. Half-killed with wonder and surprise, "So soon returned!" old Dodson cries. "So soon d' ye call it?" Death replies: "Surely! my friend, you're but in jest; Since I was here before, 'T is six and thirty years at least, And you are now fourscore." "So much the worse!" the clown rejoined; "To spare the aged would be kind: Besides, you promised me three warnings, Which I have looked for nights and mornings!" "I know," cries Death, "that at the best, I seldom am a welcome guest; But do n't be captious, friend; at least, I little thought that you'd be able To stump about your farm and stable; Your years have run to a great length, Yet still you seem to have your strength." "Hold!" says the farmer, "not so fast! I have been lame, these four years past." "And no great wonder," Death replies, "However, you still keep your eyes; And surely, sir, to see one's friends, For legs and arms would make amends." "Perhaps," says Dodson, "so it might, But latterly I've lost my sight." "This is a shocking story, faith; But there's some comfort still," says Death; "Each strives your sadness to amuse; I warrant you hear all the news." "There's none," cries he, "and if there were, I've grown so deaf, I could not hear." "Nay, then," the specter stern rejoined, "These are unpardonable yearnings; If you are lame, and deaf, and blind, You've had your three sufficient warnings, So, come along; no more we'll part." He said, and touched him with his dart: And now old Dodson, turning pale, Yields to his fate--so ends my tale. XXIII. THE MEMORY OF OUR FATHERS. (128) Lyman Beecher, 1775-1863, a famous congregational minister of New England, was born in New Haven, graduated from Yale College in 1797, and studied theology with Dr. Timothy Dwight. His first settlement was at East Hampton, L. I., at a salary of three hundred dollars per year. He was pastor of the church in Litchfield, Ct., from 1810 till 1826, when he removed to Boston, and took charge of the Hanover Street Church. In the religious controversies of the time, Dr. Beecher was one of the most prominent characters. From 1832 to 1842, he was President of Lane Theological Seminary, in the suburbs of Cincinnati. He then returned to Boston, where he spent most of the closing years of his long and active life. His death occurred in Brooklyn, N. Y. As a theologian, preacher, and advocate of education, temperance, and missions, Dr. Beecher occupied a very prominent place for nearly half a century. He left a large family of sons and two daughters, who are well known as among the most eminent preachers and authors in America. ### We are called upon to cherish with high veneration and grateful recollections, the memory of our fathers. Both the ties of nature and the dictates of policy demand this. And surely no nation had ever less occasion to be ashamed of its ancestry, or more occasion for gratulation in that respect; for while most nations trace their origin to barbarians, the foundations of our nation were laid by civilized men, by Christians. Many of them were men of distinguished families, of powerful talents, of great learning and of preeminent wisdom, of decision of character, and of most inflexible integrity. And yet not unfrequently they have been treated as if they had no virtues; while their sins and follies have been sedulously immortalized in satirical anecdote. The influence of such treatment of our fathers is too manifest. It creates and lets loose upon their institutions, the vandal spirit of innovation and overthrow; for after the memory of our father shall have been rendered contemptible, who will appreciate and sustain their institutions? "The memory of our fathers" should be the watchword of liberty throughout the land; for, imperfect as they were, the world before had not seen their like, nor will it soon, we fear, behold their like again. Such models of moral excellence, such apostles of civil and religious liberty, such shades of the illustrious dead looking down upon their descendants with approbation or reproof, according as they follow or depart from the good way, constitute a censorship inferior only to the eye of God; and to ridicule them is national suicide. The doctrines of our fathers have been represented as gloomy, superstitious, severe, irrational, and of a licentious tendency. But when other systems shall have produced a piety as devoted, a morality as pure, a patriotism as disinterested, and a state of society as happy, as have prevailed where their doctrines have been most prevalent, it may be in season to seek an answer to this objection. The persecutions instituted by our fathers have been the occasion of ceaseless obloquy upon their fair fame. And truly, it was a fault of no ordinary magnitude, that sometimes they did persecute. But let him whose ancestors were not ten times more guilty, cast the first stone, and the ashes of our fathers will no more be disturbed. Theirs was the fault of the age, and it will be easy to show that no class of men had, at that time, approximated so nearly to just apprehensions of religious liberty; and that it is to them that the world is now indebted for the more just and definite views which now prevail. The superstition and bigotry of our fathers are themes on which some of their descendants, themselves far enough from superstition, if not from bigotry, have delighted to dwell. But when we look abroad, and behold the condition of the world, compared with the condition of New England, we may justly exclaim, "Would to God that the ancestors of all the nations had been not only almost, but altogether such bigots as our fathers were." XXIV. SHORT SELECTIONS IN PROSE. (130) I. DRYDEN AND POPE. Dryden knew more of man in his general nature, and Pope in his local manners. The notions of Dryden were formed by comprehensive speculation, those of Pope by minute attention. There is more dignity in the knowledge of Dryden, more certainty in that of Pope. The style of Dryden is capricious and varied, that of Pope cautious and uniform. Dryden obeys the motions of his own mind; Pope constrains his mind to his own rules of composition. Dryden's page is a natural field, rising into inequalities, and diversified by the varied exuberance of abundant vegetation; Pope's is the velvet lawn, shaven by the scythe, and leveled by the roller. If the flights of Dryden are higher, Pope continues longer on the wing. If, of Dryden's fire, the blaze is brighter, of Pope's the heat is more regular and constant. Dryden often surpasses expectation, and Pope never falls below it. Dryden is read with frequent astonishment, and Pope with perpetual delight. --Samuel Johnson. Note.--A fine example of antithesis. See p. 26. II. LAS CASAS DISSUADING FROM BATTLE. (130) Is then the dreadful measure of your cruelty not yet complete? Battle! against whom? Against a king, in whose mild bosom your atrocious injuries, even yet, have not excited hate; but who, insulted or victorious, still sues for peace. Against a people, who never wronged the living being their Creator formed; a people, who received you as cherished guests, with eager hospitality and confiding kindness. Generously and freely did they share with you their comforts, their treasures, and their homes; you repaid them by fraud, oppression, and dishonor. Pizarro, hear me! Hear me, chieftains! And thou, All-powerful! whose thunder can shiver into sand the adamantine rock, whose lightnings can pierce the core of the riven and quaking earth, oh let thy power give effect to thy servant's words, as thy Spirit gives courage to his will! Do not, I implore you, chieftains,--do not, I implore, you, renew the foul barbarities your insatiate avarice has inflicted on this wretched, unoffending race. But hush, my sighs! fall not, ye drops of useless sorrow! heart-breaking anguish, choke not my utterance. --E. B. Sheridan. Note.--Examples of series. See p. 28. III. ACTION AND REPOSE. (131) John Ruskin, 1819 ---, is a distinguished English art critic and author. From 1869 to 1884, he was Professor of the Fine Arts at Oxford University. His writings are very numerous, and are noted for their eloquent and brilliant style. ### About the river of human life there is a wintry wind, though a heavenly sunshine; the iris colors its agitation, the frost fixes upon its repose. Let us beware that our rest become not the rest of stones, which, so long as they are tempest-tossed and thunderstricken, maintain their majesty; but when the stream is silent and the storm passed, suffer the grass to cover them, and are plowed into the dust. IV. TIME AND CHANGE. (131) Sir Humphry Davy, 1778-1829, was an eminent chemist of England. He made many important chemical discoveries, and was the inventor of the miner's safety lamp. ### Time is almost a human word, and Change entirely a human idea; in the system of nature, we should rather say progress than change. The sun appears to sink in the ocean in darkness, but it rises in another hemisphere; the ruins of a city fall, but they are often used to form more magnificent structures: even when they are destroyed so as to produce only dust, Nature asserts her empire over them; and the vegetable world rises in constant youth, in a period of annual successions, by the labors of man--providing food, vitality, and beauty--upon the wrecks of monuments which were raised for the purposes of glory, but which are now applied to objects of utility. V. THE POET. (132) William Ellery Channing, 1780-1842, was a distinguished clergyman and orator. He took a leading part in the public affairs of his day, and wrote and lectured eloquently on several topics. ### It is not true that the poet paints a life which does not exist. He only extracts and concentrates, as it were, life's ethereal essence, arrests and condenses its volatile fragrance, brings together its scattered beauties, and prolongs its more refined but evanescent joys; and in this he does well, for it is good to feel that life is not wholly usurped by cares for subsistence and physical gratifications, but admits, in measures which may be indefinitely enlarged, sentiments and delights worthy of a higher being. VI. MOUNTAINS. (132) William Howitt, 1795-1879, was an English author. He published many books, and was associated with his wife, Mary Howitt, in the publication of many others. ### There is a charm connected with mountains, so powerful that the merest mention of them, the merest sketch of their magnificent features, kindles the imagination, and carries the spirit at once into the bosom of their enchanted regions. How the mind is filled with their vast solitude! How the inward eye is fixed on their silent, their sublime, their everlasting peaks! How our hearts bound to the music of their solitary cries, to the tinkle of their gushing rills, to the sound of their cataracts! How inspiriting are the odors that breathe from the upland turf, from the rock-hung flower, from the hoary and solemn pine! How beautiful are those lights and shadows thrown abroad, and that fine, transparent haze which is diffused over the valleys and lower slopes, as over a vast, inimitable picture! XXV. THE JOLLY OLD PEDAGOGUE. (133) George Arnold, 1834--1865, was born in New York City. He never attended school, but was educated at home, by his parents. His literary career occupied a period of about twelve years. In this time he wrote stories, essays, criticisms in art and literature, poems, sketches, etc., for several periodicals. Two volumes of his poems have been published since his death. ### 'T was a jolly old pedagogue, long ago, Tall, and slender, and sallow, and dry; His form was bent, and his gait was slow, And his long, thin hair was white as snow, But a wonderful twinkle shone in his eye: And he sang every night as he went to bed, "Let us be happy down here below; The living should live, though the dead be dead," Said the jolly old pedagogue, long ago. He taught the scholars the Rule of Three, Reading, and writing, and history too; He took the little ones on his knee, For a kind old heart in his breast had he, And the wants of the littlest child he knew. "Learn while you're young," he often said, "There is much to enjoy down here below; Life for the living, and rest for the dead!" Said the jolly old pedagogue, long ago. With the stupidest boys, he was kind and cool, Speaking only in gentlest tones; The rod was scarcely known in his school-- Whipping to him was a barbarous rule, And too hard work for his poor old bones; Besides it was painful, he sometimes said: "We should make life pleasant down here below-- The living need charity more than the dead," Said the jolly old pedagogue, long ago. He lived in the house by the hawthorn lane, With roses and woodbine over the door; His rooms were quiet, and neat, and plain, But a spirit of comfort there held reign, And made him forget he was old and poor. "I need so little," he often said; "And my friends and relatives here below Won't litigate over me when I am dead," Said the jolly old pedagogue, long ago. But the pleasantest times he had of all, Were the sociable hours he used to pass, With his chair tipped back to a neighbor's wall, Making an unceremonious call, Over a pipe and a friendly glass: This was the finest pleasure, he said, Of the many he tasted here below: "Who has no cronies had better be dead," Said the jolly old pedagogue, long ago. The jolly old pedagogue's wrinkled face Melted all over in sunshiny smiles; He stirred his glass with an old-school grace, Chuckled, and sipped, and prattled apace, Till the house grew merry from cellar to tiles. "I'm a pretty old man," he gently said, "I've lingered a long time here below; But my heart is fresh, if my youth is fled!" Said the jolly old pedagogue, long ago. He smoked his pipe in the balmy air Every night, when the sun went down; And the soft wind played in his silvery hair, Leaving its tenderest kisses there, On the jolly old pedagogue's jolly old crown; And feeling the kisses, he smiled, and said: " 'T is it glorious world down here below; Why wait for happiness till we are dead?" Said this jolly old pedagogue, long ago. He sat at his door one midsummer night, After the sun had sunk in the west, And the lingering beams of golden light Made his kindly old face look warm and bright, While the odorous night winds whispered, "Rest!" Gently, gently, he bowed his head; There were angels waiting for him, I know; He was sure of his happiness, living or dead, This jolly old pedagogue, long ago! XXVI. THE TEACHER AND SICK SCHOLAR. (135) Shortly after the schoolmaster had arranged the forms and taken his seat behind his desk, a small white-headed boy with a sunburnt face appeared at the door, and, stopping there to make a rustic bow, came in and took his seat upon one of the forms. He then put an open book, astonishingly dog's-eared, upon his knees, and, thrusting his hands into his pockets, began counting the marbles with which they were filled; displaying, in the expression of his face, a remarkable capacity of totally abstracting his mind from the spelling on which his eyes were fixed. Soon afterward, another white-headed little boy came straggling in, and after him, a red-headed lad, and then one with a flaxen poll, until the forms were occupied by a dozen boys, or thereabouts, with heads of every color but gray, and ranging in their ages from four years old to fourteen years or more; for the legs of the youngest were a long way from the floor, when he sat upon the form; and the eldest was a heavy, good-tempered fellow, about half a head taller than the schoolmaster. At the top of the first form--the post of honor in the school--was the vacant place of the little sick scholar; and, at the head of the row of pegs, on which those who wore hats or caps were wont to hang them, one was empty. No boy attempted to violate the sanctity of seat or peg, but many a one looked from the empty spaces to the schoolmaster, and whispered to his idle neighbor, behind his hand. Then began the hum of conning over lessons and getting them by heart, the whispered jest and stealthy game, and all the noise and drawl of school; and in the midst of the din, sat the poor schoolmaster, vainly attempting to fix his mind upon the duties of the day, and to forget his little sick friend. But the tedium of his office reminded him more strongly of the willing scholar, and his thoughts were rambling from his pupils--it was plain. None knew this better than the idlest boys, who, growing bolder with impunity, waxed louder and more daring; playing "odd or even" under the master's eye; eating apples openly and without rebuke; pinching each other in sport or malice, without the least reserve; and cutting their initials in the very legs of his desk. The puzzled dunce, who stood beside it to say his lesson "off the book," looked no longer at the ceiling for forgotten words, but drew closer to the master's elbow, and boldly cast his eye upon the page; the wag of the little troop squinted and made grimaces (at the smallest boy, of course), holding no book before his face, and his approving companions knew no constraint in their delight. If the master did chance to rouse himself, and seem alive to what was going on, the noise subsided for a moment, and no eye met his but wore a studious and deeply humble look; but the instant he relapsed again, it broke out afresh, and ten times louder than before. Oh! how some of those idle fellows longed to be outside, and how they looked at the open door and window, as if they half meditated rushing violently out, plunging into the woods, and being wild boys and savages from that time forth. What rebellious thoughts of the cool river, and some shady bathing place, beneath willow trees with branches dipping in the water, kept tempting and urging that sturdy boy, who, with his shirt collar unbuttoned, and flung back as far as it could go, sat fanning his flushed face with a spelling book, wishing himself a whale, or a minnow, or a fly, or anything but a boy at school, on that hot, broiling day. Heat! ask that other boy, whose seat being nearest to the door, gave him opportunities of gliding out into the garden, and driving his companions to madness, by dipping his face into the bucket of the well, and then rolling on the grass,--ask him if there was ever such a day as that, when even the bees were diving deep down into the cups of the flowers, and stopping there, as if they had made up their minds to retire from business, and be manufacturers of honey no more. The day was made for laziness, and lying on one's back in green places, and staring at the sky, till its brightness forced the gazer to shut his eyes and go to sleep. And was this a time to be poring over musty books in a dark room, slighted by the very sun itself? Monstrous! The lessons over, writing time began. This was a more quiet time; for the master would come and look over the writer's shoulder, and mildly tell him to observe how such a letter was turned up, in such a copy on the wall, which had been written by their sick companion, and bid him take it as a model. Then he would stop and tell them what the sick child had said last night, and how he had longed to be among them once again; and such was the poor schoolmaster's gentle and affectionate manner, that the boys seemed quite remorseful that they had worried him so much, and were absolutely quiet; eating no apples, cutting no names, and making no grimaces for full two minutes afterward. "I think, boys," said the schoolmaster, when the clock struck twelve, "that I shall give you an extra half holiday this afternoon." At this intelligence, the boys, led on and headed by the tall boy, raised a great shout, in the midst of which the master was seen to speak, but could not be heard. As he held up his hand, however, in token of his wish that they should be silent, they were considerate enough to leave off, as soon as the longest-winded among them were quite out of breath. "You must promise me, first," said the schoolmaster, "that you'll not be noisy, or at least, if you are, that you'll go away first, out of the village, I mean. I'm sure you would n't disturb your old playmate and companion." There was a general murmur (and perhaps a very sincere one, for they were but boys) in the negative; and the tall boy, perhaps as sincerely as any of them, called those about him to witness, that he had only shouted in a whisper. "Then pray do n't forget, there's my dear scholars," said the schoolmaster, "what I have asked you, and do it as a favor to me. Be as happy as you can, and do n't be unmindful that you are blessed with health. Good-by, all." "Thank 'ee, sir," and "Good-by, sir," were said a great many times in a great variety of voices, and the boys went out very slowly and softly. But there was the sun shining and there were birds singing, as the sun only shines and the birds only sing on holidays and half holidays; there were the trees waving to all free boys to climb, and nestle among their leafy branches; the hay, entreating them to come and scatter it to the pure air; the green corn, gently beckoning toward wood and stream; the smooth ground, rendered smoother still by blending lights and shadows, inviting to runs and leaps, and long walks, nobody knows whither. It was more than boy could bear, and with a joyous whoop, the whole cluster took to their heels, and spread themselves about, shouting and laughing as they went. " 'T is natural, thank Heaven!" said the poor schoolmaster, looking after them, "I am very glad they did n't mind me." Toward night, the schoolmaster walked over to the cottage where his little friend lay sick. Knocking gently at the cottage door, it was opened without loss of time. He entered a room where a group of women were gathered about one who was wringing her hands and crying bitterly. "O dame!" said the schoolmaster, drawing near her chair, "is it so bad as this?" Without replying, she pointed to another room, which the schoolmaster immediately entered; and there lay his little friend, half-dressed, stretched upon a bed. He was a very young boy; quite a little child. His hair still hung in curls about his face, and his eyes were very bright; but their light was of heaven, not of earth. The schoolmaster took a seat beside him, and, stooping over the pillow whispered his name. The boy sprung up, stroked his face with his hand, and threw his wasted arms around his neck, crying, that he was his dear, kind friend. "I hope I always was. I meant to be, God knows," said the poor schoolmaster. "You remember my garden, Henry?" whispered the old man, anxious to rouse him, for dullness seemed gathering upon the child, "and how pleasant it used to be in the evening time? You must make haste to visit it again, for I think the very flowers have missed you, and are less gay than they used to be. You will come soon, very soon now, won't you?" The boy smiled faintly--so very, very faintly--and put his hand upon his friend's gray head. He moved his lips too, but no voice came from them,-- no, not a sound. In the silence that ensued, the hum of distant voices, borne upon the evening air, came floating through the open window. "What's that?" said the sick child, opening his eyes. "The boys at play, upon the green." He took a handkerchief from his pillow, and tried to wave it above his head. But the feeble arm dropped powerless down. "Shall I do it?" said the schoolmaster. "Please wave it at the window," was the faint reply. "Tie it to the lattice. Some of them may see it there. Perhaps they'll think of me, and look this way." He raised his head and glanced from the fluttering signal to his idle bat, that lay, with slate, and book, and other boyish property, upon the table in the room. And then he laid him softly down once more, and again clasped his little arms around the old man's neck. The two old friends and companions--for such they were, though they were man and child--held each other in a long embrace, and then the little scholar turned his face to the wall and fell asleep. * * * * * * * * * The poor schoolmaster sat in the same place, holding the small, cold hand in his, and chafing it. It was but the hand of a dead child. He felt that; and yet he chafed it still, and could not lay it down. From "The Old Curiosity Shop," by Dickens. XXVII. THE SNOW SHOWER. (141) William Cullen Bryant, 1794-1878, was the son of Peter Bryant, a physician of Cummington, Massachusetts. Amid the beautiful scenery of this remote country town, the poet was born; and here he passed his early youth. At the age of sixteen, Bryant entered Williams College, but was honorably dismissed at the end of two years. He then entered on the study of law, and was admitted to the bar at the age of twenty-one. He practiced his profession, with much success, for about nine years. In 1826, he removed to New York, and became connected with the "Evening Post," a connection which continued to the time of his death. For more than thirty of the last years of his life, Mr. Bryant made his home near Roslyn, Long Island, where he occupied an "old-time mansion," which he bought, fitted up, and surrounded in accordance with his excellent rural taste. A poem of his, written at the age of ten years, was published in the "County Gazette," and two poems of considerable length were published in book form, when the author was only fourteen. "Thanatopsis," perhaps the best known of all his poems, was written when he was but nineteen. But, notwithstanding his precocity, his powers continued to a remarkable age. His, excellent translations of the "Iliad" and the "Odyssey," together with some of his best poems, were accomplished after the poet, had passed the age of seventy. Mr. Bryant visited Europe several times; and, in 1849, he continued his travels into Egypt and Syria. Abroad, he was received with many marks of distinction; and he added much to his extensive knowledge by studying the literature of the countries he visited. All his poems exhibit a peculiar love, and a careful study, of nature; and his language, both in prose and poetry, is always chaste, elegant, and correct. His mind was well-balanced; and his personal character was one to be admired, loved, and imitated. ### Stand here by my side and turn, I pray, On the lake below thy gentle eyes; The clouds hang over it, heavy and gray, And dark and silent the water lies; And out of that frozen mist the snow In wavering flakes begins to flow; Flake after flake They sink in the dark and silent lake. See how in a living swarm they come From the chambers beyond that misty veil; Some hover in air awhile, and some Rush prone from the sky like summer hail. All, dropping swiftly, or settling slow, Meet, and are still in the depths below; Flake after flake Dissolved in the dark and silent lake. Here delicate snow stars, out of the cloud, Come floating downward in airy play, Like spangles dropped from the glistening crowd That whiten by night the Milky Way; There broader and burlier masses fall; The sullen water buries them all,-- Flake after flake,-- All drowned in the dark and silent lake. And some, as on tender wings they glide From their chilly birth cloud, dim and gray. Are joined in their fall, and, side by side, Come clinging along their unsteady way; As friend with friend, or husband with wife, Makes hand in hand the passage of life; Each mated flake Soon sinks in the dark and silent lake. Lo! while we are gazing, in swifter haste Stream down the snows, till the air is white, As, myriads by myriads madly chased, They fling themselves from their shadowy height. The fair, frail creatures of middle sky, What speed they make, with their grave so nigh; Flake after flake To lie in the dark and silent lake. I see in thy gentle eyes a tear; They turn to me in sorrowful thought; Thou thinkest of friends, the good and dear, Who were for a time, and now are not; Like these fair children of cloud and frost, That glisten a moment an then are lost, Flake after flake,-- All lost in the dark and silent lake. Yet look again, for the clouds divide; A gleam of blue on the water lies; And far away, on the mountain side, A sunbeam falls from the opening skies. But the hurrying host that flew between The cloud and the water no more is seen; Flake after flake At rest in the dark and silent lake. XXVIII. CHARACTER OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. (143) Charles Phillips, 1787-1859, an eminent barrister and orator, was born in Sligo, Ireland, and died in London. He gained much of his reputation as an advocate in criminal cases. In his youth he published some verses; later in life he became the author of several works, chiefly of biography. ### He is fallen! We may now pause before that splendid prodigy, which towered among us like some ancient ruin, whose power terrified the glance its magnificence attracted. Grand, gloomy, and peculiar, he sat upon the throne a sceptered hermit, wrapt in the solitude of his own originality. A mind, bold, independent, and decisive; a will, despotic in its dictates; an energy that distanced expedition; and a conscience, pliable to every touch of interest, marked the outlines of this extraordinary character--the most extraordinary, perhaps, that in the annals of this world ever rose, or reigned, or fell. Flung into life in the midst of a revolution that quickened every energy of a people who acknowledged no superior, he commenced his course, a stranger by birth, and a scholar by charity. With no friend but his sword, and no fortune but his talents, he rushed into the lists where rank, and wealth, and genius had arrayed themselves, and competition fled from him, as from the glance of destiny. He knew no motive but interest; acknowledged no criterion but success; he worshiped no God but ambition; and, with an eastern devotion, he knelt at the shrine of his idolatry. Subsidiary to this, there was no creed that he did not profess, there was no opinion that he did not promulgate: in the hope of a dynasty, he upheld the crescent; for the sake of a divorce, he bowed before the cross; the orphan of St. Louis, he became the adopted child of the Republic; and, with a parricidal ingratitude, on the ruins both of the throne and the tribune, he reared the throne of his despotism. A professed Catholic, he imprisoned the Pope; a pretended patriot, he impoverished the country; and in the name of Brutus, he grasped without remorse, and wore without shame, the diadem of the Caesars. The whole continent trembled at beholding the audacity of his designs, and the miracle of their execution. Skepticism bowed to the prodigies of his performance; romance assumed the air of history; nor was there aught too incredible for belief, or too fanciful for expectation, when the world saw a subaltern of Corsica waving his imperial flag over her most ancient capitals. All the visions of antiquity became commonplace in his contemplation: kings were his people; nations were his outposts; and he disposed of courts, and crowns, and camps, and churches, and cabinets, as if they were the titular dignitaries of the chessboard! Amid all these changes, he stood immutable as adamant. It mattered little whether in the field, or in the drawing-room; with the mob, or the levee; wearing the Jacobin bonnet, or the iron crown; banishing a Braganza, or espousing a Hapsburg; dictating peace on a raft to the Czar of Russia, or contemplating defeat at the gallows of Leipsic he was still the same military despot. In this wonderful combination, his affectations of literature must not be omitted. The jailer of the press, he affected the patronage of letters; the proscriber of books, he encouraged philosophy; the persecutor of authors, and the murderer of printers, he yet pretended to the protection of learning; the assassin of Palm, the silencer of De Stael, and the denouncer of Kotzebue, he was the friend of David, the benefactor of De Lille, and sent his academic prize to the philosopher of England. Such a medley of contradictions, and, at the same time, such an individual consistency, were never united in the same character. A royalist, a republican, and an emperor; a Mohammedan, a Catholic, and a patron of the synagogue; a subaltern and a sovereign; a traitor and a tyrant; a Christian and an infidel; he was, through all his vicissitudes, the same stern, impatient, inflexible original; the same mysterious, incomprehensible self; the man without a model, and without a shadow. NOTES.--St. Louis (b. 1215, d. 1270), a wise and pious king of France, known as Louis IX. Napoleon was appointed to the Military School at Brienne, by Louis XVI. Brutus, Lucius Junius, abolished the royal office at Rome (509 B. C.), and ruled as consul for two years. Jacobin Bonnet.--The Jacobins were a powerful political club during the first French Revolution. A peculiar bonnet or hat was their badge. Braganza, the name of the royal family of Portugal. Maria of Portugal, and her father, Charles IV. of Spain, were both expelled by Napoleon. Hapsburg, the name of the royal family of Austria. Napoleon's second wife was Maria Louisa, the daughter of the Emperor. Czar.--The treaty of Tilsit was agreed to between Bonaparte and the Czar Alexander on the river Memel. Leipsic.--Napoleon was defeated by the allied forces, in October, 1813, at this city. Palm, a German publisher, shot, in 1806, by order of Napoleon, for publishing a pamphlet against him. De Stael (pro. De Stal), a celebrated French authoress, banished from Paris, in 1802, by Napoleon. Kotzebue, an eminent German dramatist. David, the leading historical painter of his times in France. De Lille, an eminent French poet and professor. XXIX. NAPOLEON AT REST. (146) John Pierpont, 1785-1866, was born in Litchfield, Connecticut, and graduated from Yale College in 1804. The next four years he spent as a private tutor in the family of Col. William Allston, of South Carolina. On his return, he studied law in the law school of his native town. He entered upon practice, but soon left the law for mercantile pursuits, in which he was unsuccessful. Having studied theology at Cambridge, in 1819 he was ordained pastor of the Hollis Street Unitarian Church, in Boston, where he continued nearly twenty years. He afterwards preached four years for a church in Troy, New York, and then removed to Medford, Massachusetts. At the age of seventy-six, he became chaplain of a Massachusetts regiment; but, on account of infirmity, war soon obliged to give up the position. Mr. Pierpont published a series of school readers, which enjoyed a well-deserved popularity for many years. His poetry is smooth, musical, and vigorous. Most of his pieces were written for special occasions. ### His falchion flashed along the Nile; His hosts he led through Alpine snows; O'er Moscow's towers, that blazed the while, His eagle flag unrolled,--and froze. Here sleeps he now, alone! Not one Of all the kings, whose crowns he gave, Bends o'er his dust;--nor wife nor son Has ever seen or sought his grave. Behind this seagirt rock! the star, That led him on from crown to crown, Has sunk; and nations from afar Gazed as it faded and went down. High is his couch;--the ocean flood, Far, far below, by storms is curled; As round him heaved, while high he stood, A stormy and unstable world. Alone he sleeps! The mountain cloud, That night hangs round him, and the breath Of morning scatters, is the shroud That wraps the conqueror's clay in death. Pause here! The far-off world, at last, Breathes free; the hand that shook its thrones, And to the earth its miters cast, Lies powerless now beneath these stones. Hark! comes there from the pyramids, And from Siberian wastes of snow, And Europe's hills, a voice that bids The world he awed to mourn him? No: The only, the perpetual dirge That's heard there is the sea bird's cry,-- The mournful murmur of the surge,-- The cloud's deep voice, the wind's low sigh. NOTE.--Seagirt rock, the island of St. Helena, is in the Atlantic Ocean, nearly midway between Africa and South America. Napoleon was confined on this island six years; until 1821, when he died and was buried there. In 1841, his remains were removed to Paris. XXX. WAR. (148) Charles Sumner. 1811-1874, was born in Boston. He studied at the Latin school in his native city, graduated from Harvard University at the age of nineteen, studied law at the same institution, and was admitted to practice in 1834. He at once took a prominent position in his profession, lectured to the law classes at Cambridge for several successive years, wrote and edited several standard law books, and might have had a professorship in the law school, had he desired it. In his famous address on "The True Grandeur of Nations," delivered July 4, 1815, before the municipal authorities of Boston, he took strong grounds against war among nations. In 1851 he was elected to the United States Senate and continued in that position till his death. As a jurist, as a statesman, as an orator, and as a profound and scholarly writer, Mr. Sumner stands high in the estimation of his countrymen. In physical appearance, Mr. Sumner was grand and imposing; men often turned to gaze after him, as he passed along the streets of his native city. ### I need not dwell now on the waste and cruelty of war. These stare us wildly in the face, like lurid meteor lights, as we travel the page of history. We see the desolation and death that pursue its demoniac footsteps. We look upon sacked towns, upon ravaged territories, upon violated homes; we behold all the sweet charities of life changed to wormwood and gall. Our soul is penetrated by the sharp moan of mothers, sisters, and daughters--of fathers, brothers, and sons, who, in the bitterness of their bereavement, refuse to be comforted. Our eyes rest at last upon one of these fair fields, where Nature, in her abundance, spreads her cloth of gold, spacious and apt for the entertainment of mighty multitudes--or perhaps, from the curious subtlety of its position, like the carpet in the Arabian tale, seeming to contract so as to be covered by a few only, or to dilate so as to receive an innumerable host. Here, under a bright sun, such as shone at Austerlitz or Buena Vista--amidst the peaceful harmonies of nature--on the Sabbath of peace--we behold bands of brothers, children of a common Father, heirs to a common happiness, struggling together in the deadly fight, with the madness of fallen spirits, seeking with murderous weapons the lives of brothers who have never injured them or their kindred. The havoc rages. The ground is soaked with their commingling blood. The air is rent by their commingling cries. Horse and rider are stretched together on the earth. More revolting than the mangled victims, than the gashed limbs, than the lifeless trunks, than the spattering brains, are the lawless passions which sweep, tempest-like, through the fiendish tumult. Horror-struck, we ask, wherefore this hateful contest? The melancholy, but truthful answer comes, that this is the established method of determining justice between nations! The scene changes. Far away on the distant pathway of the ocean two ships approach each other, with white canvas broadly spread to receive the flying gales. They are proudly built. All of human art has been lavished in their graceful proportions, and in their well compacted sides, while they look in their dimensions like floating happy islands on the sea. A numerous crew, with costly appliances of comfort, hives in their secure shelter. Surely these two travelers shall meet in joy and friendship; the flag at the masthead shall give the signal of friendship; the happy sailors shall cluster in the rigging, and even on the yardarms, to look each other in the face, while the exhilarating voices of both crews shall mingle in accents of gladness uncontrollable. It is not so. Not as brothers, not as friends, not as wayfarers of the common ocean, do they come together; but as enemies. The gentle vessels now bristle fiercely with death-dealing instruments. On their spacious decks, aloft on all their masts, flashes the deadly musketry. From their sides spout cataracts of flame, amidst the pealing thunders of a fatal artillery. They, who had escaped "the dreadful touch of merchant-marring rocks"--who had sped on their long and solitary way unharmed by wind or wave--whom the hurricane had spared--in whose favor storms and seas had intermitted their immitigable war--now at last fall by the hand of each other. The same spectacle of horror greets us from both ships. On their decks, reddened with blood, the murderers of St. Bartholomew and of the Sicilian Vespers, with the fires of Smithfield, seem to break forth anew, and to concentrate their rage. Each has now become a swimming Golgotha. At length, these vessels--such pageants of the sea--once so stately--so proudly built--but now rudely shattered by cannon balls--with shivered mast's and ragged sails--exist only as unmanageable wrecks, weltering on the uncertain waves, whose temporary lull of peace is now their only safety. In amazement at this strange, unnatural contest--away from country and home--where there is no country or home to defend--we ask again, wherefore this dismal duel? Again the melancholy but truthful answer promptly comes, that this is the established method of determining justice between nations. NOTES.--Austerlitz, a small town in Austria, seventy miles north from Vienna. It is noted as the site of a battle, in December, 1805, between the allied Austrian and Russian armies, and the French under Napoleon. The latter were victorious. Buena Vista, a small hamlet in eastern Mexico, where, in 1847, five thousand Americans, under Gen. Taylor, defeated twenty thousand Mexicans, under Gen. Santa Anna. Dreadful touch.--Quoted from Merchant of Venice, Act III, Scene II. St. Bartholomew.--A terrible massacre took place in France, on St. Bartholomew's day, August 24, 1572. It has been estimated that twenty thousand persons perished. Sicilian Vespers, a revolt and uprising against the French in Sicily, March 30, 1282, at the hour of vespers. Smithfield, a portion of London noted as a place for execution during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. XXXI. SPEECH OF WALPOLE IN REPROOF OF MR. PITT. (151) Sir Robert Walpole, 1676-1745, was educated at Eton and Cambridge. He entered Parliament in 1700, and soon became a good debater and skillful tactician. He was prime minister of Great Britain from 1721 to 1742, in the reigns of George I. and George II. He was an able statesman; but has been accused of employing corruption or bribery on a large scale, to control Parliament and accomplish his purposes. ### I was unwilling to interrupt the course of this debate, while it was carried on with calmness and decency, by men who do not suffer the ardor of opposition to cloud their reason, or transport them to such expressions as the dignity of this assembly does not admit. I have hitherto deferred answering the gentleman, who declaimed against the bill with such fluency and rhetoric, and such vehemence of gesture; who charged the advocates for the expedients now proposed, with having no regard to any interests but their own, and with making laws only to consume paper, and threatened them with the defection of their adherents, and the loss of their influence, upon this new discovery of their folly and ignorance. Nor, do I now answer him for any other purpose than to remind him how little the clamor of rage and petulancy of invective contribute to the end for which this assembly is called together; how little the discovery of truth is promoted, and the security of the nation established, by pompous diction and theatrical emotion. Formidable sounds and furious declamation, confident assertions and lofty periods, may affect the young and inexperienced; and perhaps the gentleman may have contracted his habits of oratory by conversing more with those of his own age than with such as have more opportunities of acquiring knowledge, and more successful methods of communicating their sentiments. If the heat of temper would permit him to attend to those whose age and long acquaintance with business give them an indisputable right to deference and superiority, he would learn in time to reason, rather than declaim; and to prefer justness of argument and an accurate knowledge of facts, to sounding epithets and splendid superlatives, which may disturb the imagination for a moment, but leave no lasting impression upon the mind. He would learn, that to accuse and prove are very different; and that reproaches, unsupported by evidence, affect only the character of him that utters them. Excursions of fancy and flights of oratory are indeed pardonable in young men, but in no other; and it would surely contribute more, even to the purpose for which some gentlemen appear to speak (that of depreciating the conduct of the administration), to prove the inconveniences and injustice of this bill, than barely to assert them, with whatever magnificence of language, or appearance of zeal, honesty, or compassion. XXXII. PITT'S REPLY TO SIR ROBERT WALPOLE. (152) William Pitt, 1708--1778, one of the ablest statesmen and orators of his time, was born in Cornwall, and educated at Eton and Oxford. He entered Parliament in 1735, and became a formidable opponent of the ministry of Sir Robert Walpole. He gained great reputation by his wise and vigorous management of military affairs in the last years of the reign of George II. He opposed the "Stamp Act" with great earnestness, as well as the course of the ministry in the early years of the American Revolution. In 1778, he rose from a sick bed to make his celebrated speech, in the House of Lords, in opposition to a motion to acknowledge the independence of America. At its close, he fell in an apoplectic fit, and was borne home to die in a few weeks afterward. He was buried in Westminster Abbey. Mr. Pitt possessed a fine personal presence and a powerful voice; he was very popular with the people, and is often called the "Great Commoner." He was created "Earl of Chatham" in 1766. ### The atrocious crime of being a young man, which the honorable gentleman has, with such spirit and decency, charged upon me, I shall neither attempt to palliate nor deny; but content myself with hoping that I may be one of those whose follies cease with their youth, and not of that number who are ignorant in spite of experience. Whether youth can be imputed to a man as a reproach, I will not assume the province of determining; but surely age may become justly contemptible, if the opportunities which it brings have passed away without improvement, and vice appears to prevail when the passions have subsided. The wretch, who, after having seen the consequences of a thousand errors, continues still to blunder, and whose age has only added obstinacy to stupidity, is surely the object either of abhorrence or contempt, and deserves not that his gray hairs should secure him from insult. Much more is he to be abhorred, who, as he has advanced in age, has receded from virtue, and become more wicked--with less temptation; who prostitutes himself for money which he can not enjoy, and spends the remains of his life in the ruin of his country. But youth is not my only crime; I am accused of acting a theatrical part. A theatrical part may either imply some peculiarity of gesture, or a dissimulation of my real sentiments, and an adoption of the opinions and language of another man. In the first sense, the charge is too trifling to be confuted, and deserves only to be mentioned that it may be despised. I am at liberty, like every other man, to use my own language; and though, perhaps, I may have some ambition to please this gentleman, I shall not lay myself under any restraint, nor very solicitously copy his diction or his mien, however matured by age, or modeled by experience. But, if any man shall, by charging me with theatrical behavior, imply that I utter any sentiments but my own, I shall treat him as a calumniator and a villain; nor shall any protection shelter him from the treatment he deserves. I shall, on such an occasion, without scruple, trample upon all those forms with which wealth and dignity intrench themselves, nor shall anything but age restrain my resentment; age,--which always brings one privilege, that of being insolent and supercilious, without punishment! But, with regard to those whom I have offended, I am of opinion that, if I had acted a borrowed part, I should have avoided their censure: the heat that offended them was the ardor of conviction, and that zeal for the service of my country which neither hope nor fear shall influence me to suppress. I will not sit unconcerned while my liberty is invaded, nor look in silence upon public robbery. I will exert my endeavors, at whatever hazard, to repel the aggressor, and drag the thief to justice, whoever may protect him in his villainies, and whoever may partake of his plunder. XXXIII. CHARACTER OF MR. PITT. (154) Henry Grattan, 1750-1820, an Irish orator and statesman, was born at Dublin, and graduated from Trinity College, in his native city. By his admiration of Mr. Pitt, the first Earl of Chatham, he was led to turn his attention to oratory. In personal appearance, he was unprepossessing; but his private character was without a blemish. ### The secretary stood alone. Modern degeneracy had not reached him. Original and unaccommodating, the features of his character had the hardihood of antiquity. His august mind overawed majesty itself. No state chicanery, no narrow system of vicious politics, no idle contest for ministerial victories, sank him to the vulgar level of the great; but overbearing, persuasive, and impracticable, his object was England, his ambition was fame. Without dividing, he destroyed party; without corrupting, he made a venal age unanimous. France sunk beneath him. With one hand he smote the house of Bourbon, and wielded in the other the democracy of England. The sight of his mind was infinite; and his schemes were to effect, not England, not the present age only, but Europe and posterity. Wonderful were the means by which those schemes were accomplished; always seasonable, always adequate, the suggestion of an understanding animated by ardor and enlightened by prophecy. The ordinary feelings which make life amiable and indolent, were unknown to him. No domestic difficulties, no domestic weakness, reached him; but, aloof from the sordid occurrences of life, and unsullied by its intercourse, he came occasionally into our system, to counsel and decide. A character so exalted, so strenuous, so various, so authoritative, astonished a corrupt age, and the treasury trembled at the name of Pitt, through all classes of venality. Corruption imagined, indeed, that she had found defects in this statesman, and talked much of the inconsistency of his glory, and much of the ruin of his victories; but the history of his country, and the calamities of the enemy, answered and refuted her. Nor were his political his only talents. His eloquence was an era in the senate; peculiar and spontaneous; familiarly expressing gigantic sentiments and instructive wisdom; not like the torrent of Demosthenes, or the splendid conflagration of Tully; it resembled sometimes the thunder, and sometimes the music of the spheres. He did not conduct the understanding through the painful subtilty of argumentation, nor was he ever on the rack of exertion; but rather lightened upon the subject, and reached the point by the flashings of the mind, which, like those of the eye, were felt, but could not be followed. Upon the whole, there was in this man something that could create, subvert, or reform; an understanding, a spirit, and an eloquence, to summon mankind to society, or to break the bonds of slavery asunder, and to rule the wildness of free minds with unbounded authority; something that could establish or overwhelm empires, and strike a blow in the world that should resound through the universe. NOTES.--Demosthenes (b. 385, d. 322, B. C.) was the son of a cutler at Athens, Greece. By diligent study and unremitting toil, he became the greatest orator that ever lived. Tully, Marcus Tullius Cicero (b. 106, d. 43, B. C.), was the most remarkable of Roman orators. He held the highest office of the Republic. XXXIV. THE SOLDIER'S REST. (156) Sir Walter Scott, 1771-1832, the great Scotch poet and novelist, was born in Edinburgh. Being a feeble child, he was sent to reside on his grandfather's estate in the south of Scotland. Here he spent several years, and gained much knowledge of the traditions of border warfare, as well as of the tales and ballads pertaining to it. He was also a great reader of romances in his youth. In 1779 be returned to Edinburgh, and became a pupil in the high school. Four years later, he entered the university; but in neither school nor college, was he distinguished for scholarship. In 1797 he was admitted to the practice of law,--a profession which he soon forsook for literature. His first poems appeared in 1802. The "Lay of the Last Minstrel" was published in 1805, "Marmion" in 1808, and "The Lady of the Lake" in 1810. Several poems of less power followed. In 1814 "Waverley," his first novel, made its appearance, but the author was unknown for some time. Numerous other novels followed with great rapidity, the author reaping a rich harvest both in fame and money. In 1811 he purchased an estate near the Tweed, to which he gave the name of Abbotsford. In enlarging his estate and building a costly house, he spent vast sums of money. This, together with the failure of his publishers in 1826, involved him very heavily in debt. But he set to work with almost superhuman effort to pay his debts by the labors of his pen. In about four years, he had paid more than $300,000; but the effort was too much for his strength, and hastened his death. In person, Scott was tall, and apparently robust, except a slight lameness with which he was affected from childhood. He was kindly in disposition, hospitable in manner, fond of outdoor pursuits and of animals, especially dogs. He wrote with astonishing rapidity, and always in the early morning. At his death, he left two sons and two daughters. A magnificent monument to his memory has been erected in the city of his birth. The following selection is from "The Lady of the Lake." ### Soldier, rest! thy warfare o'er, Sleep the sleep that knows not breaking; Dream of battlefields no more, Days of danger, nights of waking. In our isle's enchanted hall, Hands unseen thy couch are strewing, Fairy strains of music fall, Every sense in slumber dewing. Soldier, rest! thy warfare o'er, Dream of battlefields no more; Sleep the sleep that knows not breaking, Morn of toil, nor night of waking. No rude sound shall reach thine ear, Armor's clang, or war steed champing, Trump nor pibroch summon here Mustering clan, or squadron tramping. Yet the lark's shrill fife may come, At the daybreak from the fallow, And the bittern sound his drum, Booming from the sedgy shallow. Ruder sounds shall none be near, Guards nor warders challenge here, Here's no war steed's neigh and champing, Shouting clans or squadrons stamping. Huntsman, rest! thy chase is done; While our slumb'rous spells assail ye, Dream not, with the rising sun, Bugles here shall sound reveille. Sleep! the deer is in his den; Sleep! thy hounds are by thee lying; Sleep! nor dream in yonder glen, How thy gallant steed lay dying. Huntsman, rest; thy chase is done, Think not of the rising sun, For at dawning to assail ye, Here no bugle sounds reveille. NOTES.--Pibroch (pro. pe'brok). This is a wild, irregular species of music, peculiar to the Highlands of Scotland. It is performed on a bagpipe, and adapted to excite or assuage passion, and particularly to rouse a martial spirit among troops going to battle. Reveille (pro. re-val'ya) is an awakening call at daybreak. In the army it is usually sounded on the drum. XXXV. HENRY V. TO HIS TROOPS. (158) William Shakespeare. 1564-1616, was born at Stratford-upon-Avon. By many (perhaps most) critics, Shakespeare is regarded as the greatest poet the world has ever produced; one calls him, "The most illustrious of the sons of men." And yet it is a curious fact that less is really known of his life and personal characteristics than is known of almost any other famous name in history. Over one hundred years ago, a writer said, "All that is known with any degree of certainty concerning Shakespeare is--that he was born at Stratford-upon-Avon--married and had children there--went to London, where he commenced acting, and wrote poems and plays--returned to Stratford, made his will, died, and was buried." All the research of the last one hundred years has added but very little to this meager record. He was married, very young, to Anne Hathaway, a woman eight years his senior; was joint proprietor of Blackfriar's Theater in 1589, and seems to have accumulated property, and retired three or four years before his death. He was buried in Stratford Church, where a monument has been erected to his memory; he also has a monument, in "Poet's Corner" of Westminster Abbey. His family soon became extinct. From all we can learn, he seems to have been highly respected and esteemed by his cotemporaries. His works consist chiefly of plays and sonnets. His writings show an astonishing knowledge of human nature, expressed in language wonderful for its point and beauty. His style is chaste and pure, judged by the standard of his times, although expressions may sometimes be found that would not be considered proper in a modern writer. It has been argued by some that Shakespeare did not write the works imputed to him; but this theory seems to have little to support it. This extract is from King Henry V., Act III, Scene I. ### Once more unto the breach, dear friends, once more; Or close the wall up with our English dead. In peace there 's nothing so becomes a man As modest stillness and humility: But when the blast of war blows in our ears, Then imitate the action of the tiger; Stiffen the sinews, summon up the blood, Disguise fair nature with hard-favored rage; Then lend the eye a terrible aspect; Let it pry through the portage of the head Like the brass cannon; let the brow o'erwhelm it As fearfully as doth a galled rock O'er hang and jutty his confounded base, Swilled with the wild and wasteful ocean. Now set the teeth, and stretch the nostril wide, Hold hard the breath, and bend up every spirit To its full height! On, on, you noblest English, Whose blood is fet from fathers of war proof! Fathers, that, like so many Alexanders, Have, in these parts, from morn till even, fought, And sheathed their swords for lack of argument; Be copy now to men of grosser blood, And teach them how to war. And you, good yeomen, Whose limbs were made in England, show us here The mettle of your pasture; let us swear That you are worth your breeding, which I doubt not; For there is none of you so mean and base, That hath not noble luster in your eyes. I see you stand like greyhounds in the slips, Straining upon the start. The game's afoot; Follow your spirit: and, upon this charge, Cry--"God for Harry, England, and St. George!" NOTES.--Henry V. (1388-1422) was king of England for nine years. During this reign almost continuous war raged in France, to the throne of which Henry laid claim. The battle of Agincourt took place in his reign. Fet is the old form of fetched. Alexanders.--Alexander the Great (356-323 B. G) was king of Macedonia, and the celebrated conqueror of Persia, India, and the greater part of the world as then known. XXXVI. SPEECH OF PAUL ON MARS HILL. (160) Then Paul stood in the midst of Mars Hill, and said, Ye men of Athens! I perceive that in all things ye are too superstitious. For as I passed by, and beheld your devotions, I found an altar with this inscription, To THE UNKNOWN GOD. Whom therefore ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you. God that made the world and all things therein (seeing that he is Lord of heaven and earth) dwelleth not in temples made with hands; neither is worshiped with men's hands, as though he needed anything, seeing he giveth to all life, and breath, and all things; and hath made of one blood all nations of men for to dwell on all the face of the earth, and hath determined the times before appointed, and the bounds of their habitation; that they should seek the Lord, if haply they might feel after him, and find him, though he be not far from everyone of us: for in him we live, and move, and have our being; as certain also of your own poets have said, For we are also his offspring. Forasmuch then as we are the offspring of God, we ought not to think that the Godhead is like unto gold, or silver, or stone, graven by art and man's device. And the times of this ignorance God winked at; but now commandeth all men everywhere to repent: because he hath appointed a day, in the which he will judge the world in righteousness by that Man whom he hath ordained; whereof he hath given assurance unto all men, in that he hath raised him from the dead. And when they heard of the resurrection of the dead, some mocked: and others said, We will hear thee again of this matter. So Paul departed from among them. Howbeit certain men clave unto him, and believed; among the which was Dionysius the Areopagite, and a woman named Damaris, and others with them. --Bible. NOTES.--At the time this oration was delivered (50 A. D.), Athens still held the place she had occupied for centuries, as the center of the enlightened and refined world. Mars Hill, or the Areopagus, was an eminence in the city made famous as the place where the court, also called Areopagus, held its sittings, Dionysius, surnamed Areopageita, from being a member of this court, was an eminent Greek scholar, who, after his conversion to Christianity by St. Paul, was installed, by the latter, as the first bishop of Athens, He afterwards suffered martyrdom. XXXVII. GOD IS EVERYWHERE. (161) Oh! show me where is He, The high and holy One, To whom thou bend'st the knee, And prayest, "Thy will be done!" I hear thy song of praise, And lo! no form is near: Thine eyes I see thee raise, But where doth God appear? Oh! teach me who is God, and where his glories shine, That I may kneel and pray, and call thy Father mine. "Gaze on that arch above: The glittering vault admire. Who taught those orbs to move? Who lit their ceaseless fire? Who guides the moon to run In silence through the skies? Who bids that dawning sun In strength and beauty rise? There view immensity! behold! my God is there: The sun, the moon, the stars, his majesty declare. "See where the mountains rise: Where thundering torrents foam; Where, veiled in towering skies, The eagle makes his home: Where savage nature dwells, My God is present, too: Through all her wildest dells His footsteps I pursue: He reared those giant cliffs, supplies that dashing stream, Provides the daily food which stills the wild bird's scream. "Look on that world of waves, Where finny nations glide; Within whose deep, dark caves The ocean monsters hide: His power is sovereign there, To raise, to quell the storm; The depths his bounty share, Where sport the scaly swarm: Tempests and calms obey the same almighty voice, Which rules the earth and skies, and bids far worlds rejoice." --Joseph Hutton. XXXVIII. LAFAYETTE AND ROBERT RAIKES. (163) Thomas S. Grimke', 1786-1834, an eminent lawyer and scholar, was born in Charleston, South Carolina, graduated at Yale in 1807, and died of cholera near Columbus, Ohio. He descended from a Huguenot family that was exiled from France by the revocation of the edict of Nantes. He gained considerable reputation as a politician, but is best known as an advocate of peace, Sunday Schools, and the Bible. He was a man of deep feeling, earnest purpose, and pure life. Some of his views were very radical and very peculiar. He proposed sweeping reforms in English orthography[1], and disapproved of the classics and of pure mathematics in any scheme of general education. The following is an extract from an address delivered at a Sunday-school celebration. ### [Transcriber's Footnote 1: Orthography: Spelling using established usage.] It is but a few years since we beheld the most singular and memorable pageant in the annals of time. It was a pageant more sublime and affecting than the progress of Elizabeth through England after the defeat of the Armada; than the return of Francis I. from a Spanish prison to his own beautiful France; than the daring and rapid march of the conqueror at Austerlitz from Frejus to Paris. It was a pageant, indeed, rivaled only in the elements of the grand and the pathetic, by the journey of our own Washington through the different states. Need I say that I allude to the visit of Lafayette to America? But Lafayette returned to the land of the dead, rather than of the living. How many who had fought with him in the war of '76, had died in arms, and lay buried in the grave of the soldier or the sailor! How many who had survived the perils of battle, on the land and the ocean, had expired on the deathbed of peace, in the arms of mother, sister, daughter, wife! Those. who survived to celebrate with him the jubilee of 1825, were stricken in years, and hoary-headed; many of them infirm in health; many the victims of poverty, or misfortune, or affliction. And, how venerable that patriotic company; how sublime their gathering through all the land; how joyful their welcome, how affecting their farewell to that beloved stranger! But the pageant has fled, and the very materials that gave it such depths of interest are rapidly perishing: and a humble, perhaps a nameless grave, shall hold the last soldier of the Revolution. And shall they ever meet again? Shall the patriots and soldiers of '76, the "Immortal Band," as history styles them, meet again in the amaranthine bowers of spotless purity, of perfect bliss, of eternal glory? Shall theirs be the Christian's heaven, the kingdom of the Redeemer? The heathen points to his fabulous Elysium as the paradise of the soldier and the sage. But the Christian bows down with tears and sighs, for he knows that not many of the patriots, and statesmen, and warriors of Christian lands are the disciples of Jesus. But we turn from Lafayette, the favorite of the old and the new world, to the peaceful benevolence, the unambitious achievements of Robert Raikes. Let us imagine him to have been still alive, and to have visited our land, to celebrate this day with us. No national ships would have been offered to bear him, a nation's guest, in the pride of the star-spangled banner, from the bright shores of the rising, to the brighter shores of the setting sun. No cannon would have hailed him in the stern language of the battlefield, the fortunate champion of Freedom, in Europe and America. No martial music would have welcomed him in notes of rapture, as they rolled along the Atlantic, and echoed through the valley of the Mississippi. No military procession would have heralded his way through crowded streets, thickset with the banner and the plume, the glittering saber and the polished bayonet. No cities would have called forth beauty and fashion, wealth and rank, to honor him in the ballroom and theater. No states would have escorted him from boundary to boundary, nor have sent their chief magistrate to do him homage. No national liberality would have allotted to him a nobleman's domain and princely treasure. No national gratitude would have hailed him in the capitol itself, the nation's guest, because the nation's benefactor; and have consecrated a battle ship, in memory of his wounds and his gallantry. Not such would have been the reception of Robert Raikes, in the land of the Pilgrims and of Penn, of the Catholic, the Cavalier, and the Huguenot. And who does not rejoice that it would be impossible thus to welcome this primitive Christian, the founder of Sunday schools? His heralds would be the preachers of the Gospel, and the eminent in piety, benevolence, and zeal. His procession would number in its ranks the messengers of the Cross and the disciples of the Savior, Sunday-school teachers and white-robed scholars. The temples of the Most High would be the scenes of his triumph. Homage and gratitude to him, would be anthems of praise and thanksgiving to God. Parents would honor him as more than a brother; children would reverence him as more than a father. The faltering words of age, the firm and sober voice of manhood, the silvery notes of youth, would bless him as a Christian patron. The wise and the good would acknowledge him everywhere as a national benefactor, as a patriot even to a land of strangers. He would have come a messenger of peace to a land of peace. No images of camps, and sieges, and battles; no agonies of the dying and the wounded; no shouts of victory, or processions of triumph, would mingle with the recollections of the multitude who welcomed him. They would mourn over no common dangers, trials, and calamities; for the road of duty has been to them the path of pleasantness, the way of peace. Their memory of the past would be rich in gratitude to God, and love to man; their enjoyment of the present would be a prelude to heavenly bliss; their prospects of the future, bright and glorious as faith and hope. * * * Such was the reception of Lafayette, the warrior; such would be that of Robert Raikes, the Howard of the Christian church. And which is the nobler benefactor, patriot, and philanthropist? Mankind may admire and extol Lafayette more than the founder of the Sunday schools; but religion, philanthropy, and enlightened common sense must ever esteem Robert Raikes the superior of Lafayette. His are the virtues, the services, the sacrifices of a more enduring and exalted order of being. His counsels and triumphs belong less to time than to eternity. The fame of Lafayette is of this world; the glory of Robert Raikes is of the Redeemer's everlasting kingdom. Lafayette lived chiefly for his own age, and chiefly for his and our country; but Robert Raikes has lived for all ages and all countries. Perhaps the historian and biographer may never interweave his name in the tapestry of national or individual renown. But the records of every single church honor him as a patron; the records of the universal Church, on earth as in heaven, bless him as a benefactor. The time may come when the name of Lafayette will be forgotten; or when the star of his fame, no longer glittering in the zenith, shall be seen, pale and glimmering, on the verge of the horizon. But the name of Robert Raikes shall never be forgotten; and the lambent flame of his glory is that eternal fire which rushed down from heaven to devour the sacrifice of Elijah. Let mortals then admire and imitate Lafayette more than Robert Raikes. But the just made perfect, and the ministering spirits around the throne of God, have welcomed him as a fellow-servant of the same Lord; as a fellow-laborer in the same glorious cause of man's redemption; as a coheir of the same precious promises and eternal rewards. NOTES.--Armada, the great fleet sent out in 1588, by Philip II. of Spain, for the conquest of England, was defeated in the Channel by the English and Dutch fleets. After the victory, Queen Elizabeth made a triumphal journey through the kingdom. Francis I. (b. 1494, d. 1547), King of France, was taken prisoner at the battle of Pavia, and confined at Madrid, Spain, nearly a year. Austerlitz.--See Note on p. 150. Lafayette (b. 1757, d. 1834), a French marquis, who served as major general in the Revolutionary War in America, which terminated in 1783. Lafayette revisited this country in 1824, and was received throughout the land with the greatest enthusiasm. Robert Raikes (b. 1735, d. 1811), an English printer and philanthropist, noted as the founder of Sunday schools. Howard, John (b. 1726, d. 1790), a celebrated English philanthropist, who spent much of his life in the endeavor to reform the condition of prisons in Europe. XXXIX. FALL OF CARDINAL WOLSEY. (167) Wolsey. Farewell! a long farewell, to all my greatness! This is the state of man: to-day he puts forth The tender leaves of hopes; to-morrow blossoms, And bears his blushing honors thick upon him; The third day comes a frost, a killing frost, And, when he thinks, good, easy man, full surely His greatness is a-ripening, nips his root, And then he falls, as I do. I have ventured, Like little, wanton boys that swim on bladders, This many summers in a sea of glory, But far beyond my depth: my high-blown pride At length broke under me, and now has left me, Weary and old with service, to the mercy Of a rude stream, that must forever hide me. Vain pomp and glory of this world, I hate ye: I feel my heart new open'd. Oh, how wretched Is that poor man that hangs on princes' favors! There is, betwixt that smile we would aspire to, That sweet aspect of princes, and their ruin, More pangs and fears than wars or women have: And when he falls, he falls like Lucifer, Never to hope again. Enter CROMWELL, and stands amazed. Why, how now, Cromwell! Crom. I have no power to speak, sir. Wol. What, amazed At my misfortunes? Can thy spirit wonder, A great man should decline? Nay, an you weep, I am fall'n indeed. Crom. How does your grace? Wol. Why, well; Never so truly happy, my good Cromwell. I know myself now; and I fed within me A peace above all earthly dignities, A still and quiet conscience. The king has cured me, I humbly thank his grace; and from these shoulders, These ruin'd pillars, out of pity, taken A load would sink a navy!--too much honor: Oh, 't is a burthen, Cromwell, 'tis a burthen, Too heavy for a man that hopes for heaven! Crom. I am glad your grace has made that right use of it. Wol. I hope I have: I am able now, methinks, Out of a fortitude of soul I feel, To endure more miseries, and greater far, Than my weak-hearted enemies dare offer. What news abroad? Crom. The heaviest, and the worst, Is your displeasure with the king. Wol. God bless him! Crom. The next is, that Sir Thomas More is chosen Lord chancellor in your place. Wol. That's somewhat sudden: But he's a learned man. May he continue Long in his highness' favor, and do justice For truth's sake and his conscience; that his bones, When he has run his course, and sleeps in blessings, May have a tomb of orphans' tears wept on 'em! What more? Crom. That Cranmer is return'd with welcome, Install'd lord archbishop of Canterbury. Wol. That's news indeed! Crom. Last, that the Lady Anne, Whom the king hath in secrecy long married, This day was viewed in open as his queen, Going to chapel; and the voice is now Only about her coronation. Wol. There was the weight that pull'd me down. O Cromwell, The king has gone beyond me: all my glories In that one woman I have lost forever: No sun shall ever usher forth mine honors, Or gild again the noble troops that waited Upon my smiles. Go! get thee from me! Cromwell; I am a poor, fall'n man, unworthy now To be thy lord and master: seek the king; That sun, I pray, may never set! I have told him What and how true thou art: he will advance thee; Some little memory of me will stir him-- I know his noble nature--not to let Thy hopeful service perish, too: good Cromwell, Neglect him not; make use now, and provide For thine own future safety. Crom. O my lord, Must I, then, leave you? Must I needs forego So good, so noble, and so true a master? Bear witness, all that have not hearts of iron, With what a sorrow Cromwell leaves his lord. The king shall have my service; but my prayers Forever and forever shall be yours. Wol. Cromwell, I did not think to shed a tear In all my miseries; but thou hast forced me, Out of thy honest truth, to play the woman. Let's dry our eyes: and thus far hear me, Cromwell; And, when I am forgotten, as I shall be, And sleep in dull, cold marble, where no mention Of me more must be heard of, say, I taught thee; Say, Wolsey, that once trod the ways of glory, And sounded all the depths and shoals of honor, Found thee a way, out of his wreck, to rise in; A sure and safe one, though thy master missed it. Mark but my fall, and that that ruin'd me. Cromwell, I charge thee, fling away ambition: By that sin fell the angels; how can man, then, The image of his Maker, hope to win by it? Love thyself last: cherish those hearts that hate thee; Corruption wins not more than honesty. Still in thy right hand carry gentle peace, To silence envious tongues. Be just, and fear not: Let all the ends thou aim'st at be thy country's, Thy God's, and truth's; then, if thou fall'st, O Cromwell, Thou fall'st, a blessed martyr! Serve the king; And,--prithee, lead me in: There, take an inventory of all I have, To the last penny; 't is the king's: my robe, And my integrity to Heaven, is all I dare now call mine own. O Cromwell, Cromwell! Had I but served my God with half the zeal I served my king, He would not in mine age Have left me naked to mine enemies. Crom. Good sir, have patience. Wol. So I have. Farewell The hopes of court! my hopes in Heaven do dwell. Shakespeare.--Henry VIII, Act iii, Scene ii. NOTES.--Wolsey, Cardinal Thomas (b. 1471, d. 1530), was for several years the favored minister or Henry VIII. of England. He acquired great wealth and power. In 1522, he was one of the candidates for the Papal Throne. In 1529, he was disgraced at the English court and arrested. Cromwell, Thomas (b. 1490, d. 1540), was Wolsey's servant, After Wolsey's death, he became secretary to Henry VIII., and towards the close of his life was made Earl of Essex. XL. THE PHILOSOPHER. (171) John P. Kennedy, 1796-1870. This gentleman, eminent in American politics and literature, was born in Baltimore, graduated at the College of Baltimore, and died in the same city. He served several years in the Legislature of his native state, and three terms in the United States House of Representatives. He was Secretary of the Navy during a part of President Fillmore's administration, and was active in sending out the famous Japan expedition, and Dr. Kane's expedition in search of Sir John Franklin. Mr. Kennedy wrote several novels, as well as political and other papers. His writings are marked by ease and freshness, The following extract is from "Swallow Barn," a series of sketches of early Virginia. ### From the house at Swallow Barn there is to be seen, at no great distance, a clump of trees, and in the midst of these a humble building is discernible, that seems to court the shade in which it is modestly embowered. It is an old structure built of logs. Its figure is a cube, with a roof rising from all sides to a point, and surmounted by a wooden weathercock, which somewhat resembles a fish and somewhat a fowl. This little edifice is a rustic shrine devoted to Cadmus, and is under the dominion of parson Chub. He is a plump, rosy old gentleman, rather short and thickset, with the blood vessels meandering over his face like rivulets,--a pair of prominent blue eyes, and a head of silky hair not unlike the covering of a white spaniel. He may be said to be a man of jolly dimensions, with an evident taste for good living, sometimes sloven in his attire, for his coat--which is not of the newest--is decorated with sundry spots that are scattered over it in constellations. Besides this, he wears an immense cravat, which, as it is wreathed around his short neck, forms a bowl beneath his chin, and--as Ned says--gives the parson's head the appearance of that of John the Baptist upon a charger, as it is sometimes represented in the children's picture books. His beard is grizzled with silver stubble, which the parson reaps about twice a week--if the weather be fair. Mr. Chub is a philosopher after the order of Socrates. He was an emigrant from the Emerald Isle, where he suffered much tribulation in the disturbances, as they are mildly called, of his much-enduring country. But the old gentleman has weathered the storm without losing a jot of that broad, healthy benevolence with which Nature has enveloped his heart, and whose ensign she has hoisted in his face. The early part of his life had been easy and prosperous, until the rebellion of 1798 stimulated his republicanism into a fever, and drove the full-blooded hero headlong into a quarrel, and put him, in spite of his peaceful profession, to standing by his pike in behalf of his principles. By this unhappy boiling over of the caldron of his valor, he fell under the ban of the ministers, and tested his share of government mercy. His house was burnt over his head, his horses and hounds (for, by all accounts, he was a perfect Actaeon) were "confiscate to the state," and he was forced to fly. This brought him to America in no very compromising mood with royalty. Here his fortunes appear to have been various, and he was tossed to and fro by the battledoor of fate, until he found a snug harbor at Swallow Barn; where, some years ago, he sat down in that quiet repose which a worried and badgered patriot is best fitted to enjoy. He is a good scholar, and, having confined his readings entirely to the learning of the ancients, his republicanism is somewhat after the Grecian mold. He has never read any politics of later date than the time of the Emperor Constantine, not even a newspaper,--so that he may be said to have been contemporary with AEschines rather than Lord Castlereagh--until that eventful epoch of his life when his blazing rooftree awakened him from his anachronistical dream. This notable interruption, however, gave him but a feeble insight into the moderns, and he soon relapsed to Thucydides and Livy, with some such glimmerings of the American Revolution upon his remembrance as most readers have of the exploits of the first Brutus. The old gentleman had a learned passion for folios. He had been a long time urging Meriwether to make some additions to his collections of literature, and descanted upon the value of some of the ancient authors as foundations, both moral and physical, to the library. Frank gave way to the argument, partly to gratify the parson, and partly from the proposition itself having a smack that touched his fancy. The matter was therefore committed entirely to Mr. Chub, who forthwith set out on a voyage of exploration to the north. I believe he got as far as Boston. He certainly contrived to execute his commission with a curious felicity. Some famous Elzevirs were picked up, and many other antiques that nobody but Mr. Chub would ever think of opening. The cargo arrived at Swallow Burn in the dead of winter. During the interval between the parson's return from his expedition and the coming of the books, the reverend little schoolmaster was in a remarkably unquiet state of body, which almost prevented him from sleeping: and it is said that the sight of the long-expected treasures had the happiest effect upon him. There was ample accommodation for this new acquisition of ancient wisdom provided before its arrival, and Mr. Chub now spent a whole week in arranging the volumes on their proper shelves, having, as report affirms, altered the arrangement at least seven times during that period. Everybody wondered what the old gentleman was at, all this time; but it was discovered afterwards, that he was endeavoring to effect a distribution of the works according to a minute division of human science, which entirely failed, owing to the unlucky accident of several of his departments being without any volumes. After this matter was settled, he regularly spent his evenings in the library. Frank Meriwether was hardly behind the parson in this fancy, and took, for a short time, to abstruse reading. They both consequently deserted the little family circle every evening after tea, and might have continued to do so all the winter but for a discovery made by Hazard. Ned had seldom joined the two votaries of science in their philosophical retirement, and it was whispered in the family that the parson was giving Frank a quiet course of lectures in the ancient philosophy, for Meriwether was known to talk a great deal, about that time, of the old and new Academicians. But it happened upon one dreary winter night, during a tremendous snowstorm, which was banging the shutters and doors of the house so as to keep up a continual uproar, that Ned, having waited in the parlor for the philosophers until midnight, set out to invade their retreat--not doubting that he should find them deep in study. When he entered the library, both candles were burning in their sockets, with long, untrimmed wicks; the fire was reduced to its last embers, and, in an armchair on one side of the table, the parson was discovered in a sound sleep over Jeremy Taylor's "Ductor Dubitantium," whilst Frank, in another chair on the opposite side, was snoring over a folio edition of Montaigne. And upon the table stood a small stone pitcher, containing a residuum of whisky punch, now grown cold. Frank started up in great consternation upon hearing Ned's footstep beside him, and, from that time, almost entirely deserted the library. Mr. Chub, however, was not so easily drawn away from the career of his humor, and still shows his hankering after his leather-coated friends. NOTES.--Cadmus is said to have taught the Greeks the use of the alphabet. Socrates (b. 469, d. 399 B. C.), a noted Athenian philosopher. Rebellion.--In 1798, the Irish organized and rose against the English rule. The rebellion was suppressed. Actaeon [Ak-te'on], a fabled Greek hunter, who was changed into a stag. Constantine, the Great (b. 272, d, 337), the first Christian emperor of Rome. He was an able general and wise legislator, In 328, he removed his capital to Byzantium, which he named Constantinople. AEschines [es'ke-nez] (b. 389, d. 314 B. C.), an Athenian orator, the rival of Demosthenes. Castlereagh, Lord (b. 1769, d. 1822), a British statesman. He was in power, and prominent in the suppression of the Rebellion. Brutus, see p. 145. Elzevirs [el'ze-virs], the name of a family of Dutch printers noted for the beauty of their workmanship. They lived from 1540 to 1680. Academicians.-The Old Academy was founded by Plato, at Athens, about 380 B. C. The New, by Carneades, about two hundred years later. Jeremy Taylor (b. 1613, d. 1667), an English bishop and writer. His Ductor Dubitantium, or "Rule of Conscience," was one of his chief works. Montaigne, Michel (b. 1533, d. 1592), was a celebrated French writer of peculiar characteristics. He owes his reputation entirely to his "Essais." XLI. MARMION AND DOUGLAS. (176) Not far advanced was morning day, When Marmion did his troop array To Surrey's camp to ride; He had safe conduct for his band, Beneath the royal seal and hand, And Douglas gave a guide. The train from out the castle drew, But Marmion stopped to bid adieu: "Though something I might plain," he said, "Of cold respect to stranger guest, Sent hither by your king's behest, While in Tantallon's towers I staid, Part we in friendship from your land, And, noble Earl, receive my hand." But Douglas round him drew his cloak, Folded his arms, and thus he spoke: "My manors, halls, and bowers shall still Be open, at my sovereign's will, To each one whom he lists, howe'er Unmeet to be the owner's peer. My castles are my king's alone, From turret to foundation stone; The hand of Douglas is his own; And never shall, in friendly grasp, The hand of such as Marmion clasp." Burned Marmion's swarthy cheek like fire, And shook his very frame for ire; And--"This to me!" he said,-- "An 't were not for thy hoary beard, Such hand as Marmion's had not spared To cleave the Douglas' head! And, first, I tell thee, haughty peer, He who does England's message here, Although the meanest in her state, May well, proud Angus, be thy mate: And, Douglas, more, I tell thee here, Even in thy pitch of pride, Here, in thy hold, thy vassals near, I tell thee, thou'rt defied! And if thou said'st I am not peer To any lord in Scotland here, Lowland or Highland, far or near, Lord Angus, thou hast lied!" On the Earl's cheek the flush of rage O'ercame the ashen hue of age. Fierce he broke forth,--"And dar'st thou then To beard the lion in his den, The Douglas in his hall? And hop'st thou hence unscathed to go? No, by Saint Bride of Bothwell, no! Up drawbridge, grooms,--what, warder, ho! Let the portcullis fall." Lord Marmion turned,--well was his need,-- And dashed the rowels in his steed, Like arrow through the archway sprung; The ponderous gate behind him rung: To pass there was such scanty room, The bars, descending, razed his plume. The steed along the drawbridge flies, Just as it trembled on the rise; Nor lighter does the swallow skim Along the smooth lake's level brim: And when Lord Marmion reached his band He halts, and turns with clenched hand, [1] And shout of loud defiance pours, And shook his gauntlet at the towers. [Transcriber's Note 1: clenched, pronounced "clench-ed".] "Horse! horse!" the Douglas cried, "and chase!" But soon he reined his fury's pace: "A royal messenger he came, Though most unworthy of the name. Saint Mary mend my fiery mood! Old age ne'er cools the Douglas' blood; I thought to slay him where he stood. 'Tis pity of him, too," he cried; "Bold he can speak, and fairly ride; I warrant him a warrior tried." With this his mandate he recalls, And slowly seeks his castle halls. --Walter Scott. [Illustration: A man in armor on a galloping horse; he is waving a clenched fist at a group behind a closed iron gate to a castle.] NOTES:--In the poem from which this extract is taken, Marmion is represented as an embassador sent by Henry VIII., king of England, to James IV., king of Scotland, with whom he was at war. Having finished his mission to James, Marmion was intrusted to the protection and hospitality of Douglas, one of the Scottish nobles. Douglas entertained him, treated him with the respect due to his office and to the honor of his sovereign, yet he despised his private character. Marmion perceived this, and took umbrage at it, though he attempted to repress his resentment, and desired to part in peace. Under these circumstances the scene, as described in this sketch, takes place. Tantallon is the name of the Douglas castle at Bothwell, Scotland. XLII. THE PRESENT. (178) Adelaide Anne Procter, 1825-1864, was the daughter of Bryan Waller Procter, known in literature as "Barry Cornwall." She is the author of several volumes of poetry, and was a contributor to "Good Words," "All the Year Round," and other London periodicals. Her works have been republished in America. ### Do not crouch to-day, and worship The dead Past, whose life is fled Hush your voice in tender reverence; Crowned he lies, but cold and dead: For the Present reigns, our monarch, With an added weight of hours; Honor her, for she is mighty! Honor her, for she is ours! See the shadows of his heroes Girt around her cloudy throne; Every day the ranks are strengthened By great hearts to him unknown; Noble things the great Past promised, Holy dreams, both strange and new; But the Present shall fulfill them; What he promised, she shall do. She inherits all his treasures, She is heir to all his fame, And the light that lightens round her Is the luster of his name; She is wise with all his wisdom, Living on his grave she stands, On her brow she bears his laurels, And his harvest in her hands. Coward, can she reign and conquer If we thus her glory dim? Let us fight for her as nobly As our fathers fought for him. God, who crowns the dying ages, Bids her rule, and us obey, Bids us cast our lives before her, Bids us serve the great To-day. XLIII. THE BAPTISM. (180) John Wilson, 1785-1854, a distinguished Scottish author, was born at Paisley. When fifteen years of age, he entered the University of Glasgow; but, three years later, he became a member of Magdalen College, Oxford. Here he attained eminence both as a student, and as a proficient in gymnastic games and exercises. Soon after graduating, he purchased an estate near Lake Windermere, and became a companion of Wordsworth and Southey; but he soon left his estate to reside in Edinburgh. In 1817, when "Blackwood's Magazine" was established in opposition to the "Edinburgh Review," he became chief contributor to that famous periodical. In its pages, he won his chief fame as a writer. In 1820, he succeeded Dr. Thomas Brown as Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh; this position he held for thirty years. His "Lights and Shadows of Scottish Life" was published in 1822. This is a collection of pathetic and beautiful tales of domestic life in Scotland. His contributions to Blackwood appeared over the pseudonym of "Christopher North," or more familiarly, "Kit North." Professor Wilson was a man of great physical power and of striking appearance. In character, he was vehement and impulsive; but his writings show that he possessed feelings of deep tenderness. ### The rite of baptism had not been performed for several months in the kirk of Lanark. It was now the hottest time of persecution; and the inhabitants of that parish found other places in which to worship God, and celebrate the ordinances of religion. It was now the Sabbath day, and a small congregation of about a hundred souls had met for divine service, in a place more magnificent than any temple that human hands had ever built to Deity. The congregation had not assembled to the toll of the bell, but each heart knew the hour and observed it; for there are a hundred sundials among the hills, woods, moors, and fields; and the shepherd and the peasant see the hours passing by them in sunshine and shadow. The church in which they were assembled, was hewn by God's hand out of the eternal rock. A river rolled its way through a mighty chasm of cliffs, several hundred feet high, of which the one side presented enormous masses, and the other corresponding recesses, as if the great stone girdle had been rent by a convulsion. The channel was overspread with prodigious fragments of rocks or large loose stones, some of them smooth and bare, others containing soil and verdure in their rents and fissures, and here and there crowned with shrubs and trees. The eye could at once command a long-stretching vista, seemingly closed and shut up at both extremities by the coalescing cliffs. This majestic reach of river contained pools, streams, and waterfalls innumerable; and when the water was low--which was now the case, in the common drought--it was easy to walk up this scene with the calm, blue sky overhead, an utter and sublime solitude. On looking up, the soul was bowed down by the feeling of that prodigious height of unscalable, and often overhanging, cliff. Between the channel and the summit of the far extended precipices, were perpetually flying rooks and wood pigeons, and now and then a hawk, filling the profound abyss with their wild cawing, deep murmur, or shrilly shriek. Sometimes a heron would stand erect and still, on some little stone island, or rise up like a white cloud along the black walls of the chasm, and disappear. Winged creatures alone could inhabit this region. The fox and wild cat chose more accessible haunts. Yet, here came the persecuted Christians and worshiped God, whose hand hung over their head those magnificent pillars and arches, scooped out those galleries from the solid rock, and laid at their feet the calm water, in its transparent beauty, in which they could see themselves sitting, in reflected groups, with their Bibles in their hands. Here, upon a semicircular ledge of rocks, over a narrow chasm, of which the tiny stream played in a murmuring waterfall, and divided the congregation into two equal parts, sat about a hundred persons, all devoutly listening to their minister, who stood before them on what might he called a small, natural pulpit of living stone. Up to it there led a short flight of steps, and over it waved the canopy of a tall, graceful birch tree. The pulpit stood in the middle of the channel, directly facing the congregation, and separated from them by the clear, deep, sparkling pool, into which the scarce-heard water poured over the blackened rock. The water, as it left the pool, separated into two streams, and flowed on each side of that altar, thus placing it in an island, whose large, mossy stones were richly embowered under the golden blossoms and green tresses of the broom. At the close of divine service, a row of maidens, all clothed in purest white, came gliding off from the congregation, and, crossing the murmuring stream on stepping stones, arranged themselves at the foot of the pulpit with those who were about to be baptized. Their devout fathers, just as though they had been in their own kirk, had been sitting there during worship, and now stood up before the minister. The baptismal water, taken from that pellucid pool, was lying, consecrated, in an appropriate receptacle, formed by the upright stones that composed one side of the pulpit, and the holy rite proceeded. Some of the younger ones in that semicircle kept gazing down into the pool, in which the whole scene was reflected; and now and then, in spite of the grave looks and admonishing whispers of their elders, letting fall a pebble into the water, that they might judge of its depth, from the length of time that elapsed before the clear air bells lay sparkling on the agitated surface. The rite was over, and the religious service of the day closed by a psalm. The mighty rocks hemmed in the holy sound, and sent it in a more compact volume, clear, sweet, and strong, up to heaven. When the psalm ceased, an echo, like a spirit's voice, was heard dying away, high up among the magnificent architecture of the cliffs; and once more might be noticed in the silence, the reviving voice of the waterfall. Just then, a large stone fell from the top of the cliff into the pool, a loud voice was heard, and a plaid was hung over on the point of a shepherd's staff. Their wakeful sentinel had descried danger, and this was his warning. Forthwith, the congregation rose. There were paths, dangerous to unpracticed feet, along the ledges of the rocks, leading up to several caves and places of concealment. The more active and young assisted the elder, more especially the old pastor, and the women with the infants; and many minutes had not elapsed, till not a living creature was visible in the channel of the stream, but all of them were hidden, or nearly so, in the clefts and caverns. The shepherd who had given the alarm, had lain down again instantly in his plaid on the greensward, upon the summit of these precipices. A party of soldiers was immediately upon him, and demanded what signals he had been making, and to whom; when one of them, looking over the edge of the cliff, exclaimed, "See, see! Humphrey, We have caught the whole tabernacle of the Lord in a net at last. There they are, praising God among the stones of the river Mouse. These are the Cartland Craigs. A noble cathedral!" "Fling the lying sentinel over the cliffs. Here is a canting Covenanter for you, deceiving honest soldiers on the very Sabbath day. Over with him, over with him; out of the gallery into the pit." But the shepherd had vanished like a shadow, and, mixing with the tall, green broom and bushes, was making his unseen way toward a wood. "Satan has saved his servant; but come, my lads, follow me. I know the way down into the bed of the stream, and the steps up to Wallace's Cave. They are called, 'kittle nine stanes;' The hunt's up. We'll all be in at the death. Halloo! my boys, halloo!" The soldiers dashed down a less precipitous part of the wooded banks, a little below the "craigs," and hurried up the channel. But when they reached the altar where the old, gray-haired minister had been seen standing, and the rocks that had been covered with people, all was silent and solitary; not a creature to be seen. "Here is a Bible, dropped by some of them," cried a soldier, and, with his foot, he spun it away into the pool. "A bonnet, a bonnet," cried another; "now for the pretty, sanctified face, that rolled its demure eyes below it." But after a few jests and oaths, the soldiers stood still, eying with a kind of mysterious dread the black and silent walls of the rocks that hemmed them in, and hearing only the small voice of the stream that sent a profounder stillness through the heart of that majestic solitude. "What if these cowardly Covenanters should tumble down upon our heads pieces of rock, from their hiding places! Advance, or retreat?" There was no reply; for a slight fear was upon every man. Musket or bayonet could be of little use to men obliged to clamber up rocks, along slender paths, leading they know not where. And they were aware that armed men nowadays worshiped God; men of iron hearts, who feared not the glitter of the soldier's arms, neither barrel nor bayonet; men of long stride, firm step, and broad breast, who, on the open field, would have overthrown the marshaled line, and gone first and foremost, if a city had to be taken by storm. As the soldiers were standing together irresolute, a noise came upon their ears like distant thunder, but even more appalling; and a slight current of air, as if propelled by it, passed whispering along the sweetbriers, and the broom, and the tresses of the birch trees. It came deepening, and rolling, and roaring on; and the very Cartland Craigs shook to their foundation, as if in an earthquake. "The Lord have mercy upon us! What is this?" And down fell many of the miserable wretches on their knees, and some on their faces, upon the sharp-pointed rocks. Now, it was like the sound of many myriads of chariots rolling on their iron axles down the strong channel of the torrent. The old, gray-haired minister issued from the mouth of Wallace's Cave, and said, in a loud voice, "The Lord God terrible reigneth!" A waterspout had burst up among the moorlands, and the river, in its power, was at hand. There it came, tumbling along into that long reach of cliffs, and, in a moment, filled it with one mass of waves. Huge, agitated clouds of foam rode on the surface of a blood-red torrent. An army must have been swept off by that flood. The soldiers perished in a moment; but high up in the cliffs, above the sweep of destruction, were the Covenanters, men, women, and children, uttering prayers to God, unheard by themselves, in the raging thunder. NOTES.--Lanark is a small town in the valley of the Clyde, in Scotland. It is thirty miles southwest from Edinburgh. Mouse River flows to the Clyde from the hills north of Larmrk. Covenanter.--Under Charles I., the Scotch were so oppressed that they organized in resistance. The covenant was a famous paper, largely signed, in which they agreed to continue in the profession of their faith, and resist all errors. Wallace's Cave.--William Wallace (b. 1270, d. 1305) was the foremost Scot of his times. He was declared, in the absence of the king, guardian of the kingdom. More than once was he outlawed and obliged to seek safety by concealment in the woods and caves. XLIV. SPARROWS. (185) Adeline D. Train Whitney, 1824--, was born in Boston, and was educated in the school of Dr. George B. Emerson. Her father was Enoch Train, a well-known merchant of that city. At the age of nineteen, she became the wife of Mr. Seth D. Whitney. Her literary career began about 1856, since which time she has written several novels and poems; a number of them first appeared in the "Atlantic Monthly." Her writings are marked by grace and sprightliness. ### Little birds sit on the telegraph wires, And chitter, and flitter, and fold their wings; Maybe they think that, for them and their sires, Stretched always, on purpose, those wonderful strings: And, perhaps, the Thought that the world inspires, Did plan for the birds, among other things. Little birds sit on the slender lines, And the news of the world runs under their feet,-- How value rises, and how declines, How kings with their armies in battle meet,-- And, all the while, 'mid the soundless signs, They chirp their small gossipings, foolish sweet. Little things light on the lines of our lives,-- Hopes, and joys, and acts of to-day,-- And we think that for these the Lord contrives, Nor catch what the hidden lightnings say. Yet, from end to end, His meaning arrives, And His word runs underneath, all the way. Is life only wires and lightning, then, Apart from that which about it clings? Are the thoughts, and the works, and the prayers of men Only sparrows that light on God's telegraph strings, Holding a moment, and gone again? Nay; He planned for the birds, with the larger things. XLV. OBSERVANCE OF THE SABBATH. (186) Gardiner Spring, 1785-1873, was the son of Samuel Spring, D.D., who was pastor of a Congregational church in Newburyport, Massachusetts, for more than forty years. The son entered Yale College, and was valedictorian of his class in 1805. He studied law for a time; then went to Bermuda, where he taught nearly two years. On his return he completed his law studies, and practiced his profession for more than a year. In 1810, having studied theology at Andover, he was ordained as pastor of the "Brick Church" in New York City. Here he remained till his death. He was elected president of Dartmouth College, and also of Hamilton, but declined both positions. His works, embracing about twenty octavo volumes, have passed through several editions; some have been translated into foreign languages, and reprinted in Europe. As a preacher, Dr. Spring was eloquent and energetic. ### The Sabbath lies at the foundation of all true morality. Morality flows from principle. Let the principles of moral obligation become relaxed, and the practice of morality will not long survive the overthrow. No man can preserve his own morals, no parent can preserve the morals of his children, without the impressions of religious obligation. If you can induce a community to doubt the genuineness and authenticity of the Scriptures; to question the reality and obligations of religion; to hesitate, undeciding, whether there be any such thing as virtue or vice; whether there be an eternal state of retribution beyond the grave; or whether there exists any such being as God, you have broken down the barriers of moral virtue, and hoisted the flood gates of immorality and crime. I need not say that when a people have once done this, they can no longer exist as a tranquil and happy people. Every bond that holds society together would be ruptured; fraud and treachery would take the place of confidence between man and man; the tribunals of justice would be scenes of bribery and injustice; avarice, perjury, ambition, and revenge would walk through the land, and render it more like the dwelling of savage beasts than the tranquil abode of civilized and Christianized men. If there is an institution which opposes itself to this progress of human degeneracy, and throws a shield before the interests of moral virtue in our thoughtless and wayward world, it is the Sabbath. In the fearful struggle between virtue and vice, notwithstanding the powerful auxiliaries which wickedness finds in the bosoms of men, and in the seductions and influence of popular example, wherever the Sabbath has been suffered to live, the trembling interests of moral virtue have always been revered and sustained. One of the principal occupations of this day is to illustrate and enforce the great principles of sound morality. Where this sacred trust is preserved inviolate, you behold a nation convened one day in seven for the purpose of acquainting themselves with the best moral principles and precepts; and it can not be otherwise than that the authority of moral virtue, under such auspices, should be acknowledged and felt. We may not, at once, perceive the effects which this weekly observance produces. Like most moral causes, it operates slowly; but it operates surely, and gradually weakens the power and breaks the yoke of profligacy and sin. No villain regards the Sabbath. No vicious family regards the Sabbath. No immoral community regards the Sabbath. The holy rest of this ever-memorable day is a barrier which is always broken down before men become giants in sin. Blackstone, in his Commentaries on the Laws of England, remarks that "a corruption of morals usually follows a profanation of the Sabbath." It is an observation of Lord Chief Justice Hale, that "of all the persons who were convicted of capital crimes, while he was on the bench, he found a few only who would not confess that they began their career of wickedness by a neglect of the duties of the Sabbath and vicious conduct on that day." The prisons in our own land could probably tell us that they have scarcely a solitary tenant who had not broken over the restraints of the Sabbath before he was abandoned to crime. You may enact laws for the suppression of immorality, but the secret and silent power of the Sabbath constitutes a stronger shield to the vital interest of the community than any code of penal statutes that ever was enacted. The Sabbath is the keystone of the arch which sustains the temple of virtue, which, however defaced, will survive many a rude shock so long as the foundation remains firm. The observance of the Sabbath is also most influential in securing national prosperity. The God of Heaven has said, "Them that honor me I will honor," You will not often find a notorious Sabbath breaker a permanently prosperous man; and a Sabbath-breaking community is never a happy or prosperous community. There is a multitude of unobserved influences which the Sabbath exerts upon the temporal welfare of men. It promotes the spirit of good order and harmony; it elevates the poor from want; it transforms squalid wretchedness; it imparts self-respect and elevation of character; it promotes softness and civility of manners; it brings together the rich and the poor upon one common level in the house of prayer; it purifies and strengthens the social affections, and makes the family circle the center of allurement and the source of instruction, comfort, and happiness. Like its own divine religion, "it has the promise of the life that now is and that which is to come," for men can not put themselves beyond the reach of hope and heaven so long as they treasure up this one command, "Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy." NOTES.--Sir William Blackstone (b. 1723, d. 1780) was the son of a London silk mercer. He is celebrated as the author of the "Commentaries on the Laws of England," now universally used by law students both in England and America. He once retired from the law through failure to secure a practice, but afterwards attained the highest honors in his profession. See biographical notice on page 410. Sir Matthew Hale (b. 1609, d. 1676), was Lord Chief Justice of England from 1671 to 1676. XLVI. GOD'S GOODNESS TO SUCH AS FEAR HIM. (189) Fret not thyself because of evil doers, Neither be thou envious against the workers of iniquity; For they shall soon be cut down like the grass, And wither as the green herb. Trust in the Lord, and do good; So shalt thou dwell in the land, and verily thou shalt be fed. Delight thyself also in the Lord, And he shall give thee the desires of thine heart. Commit thy way unto the Lord; Trust also in him, and he shall bring it to pass. And he shall bring forth thy righteousness as the light, And thy judgment as the noonday. Rest in the Lord, and wait patiently for him. Fret not thyself because of him who prospereth in his way, Because of the man who bringeth wicked devices to pass. Cease from anger, and forsake wrath: Fret not thyself in any wise to do evil, For evil doers shall be cut off: But those that wait upon the Lord, they shall inherit the earth. For yet a little while, and the wicked shall not be; Yea, thou shalt diligently consider his place, and it shall not be. But the meek shall inherit the earth, And shall delight themselves in the abundance of peace. A little that a righteous man hath Is better than the riches of many wicked; For the arms of the wicked shall be broken, But the Lord upholdeth the righteous. The Lord knoweth the days of the upright, And their inheritance shall be forever; They shall not be ashamed in the evil time, And in the days of famine they shall be satisfied. But the wicked shall perish, And the enemies of the Lord shall be as the fat of lambs; They shall consume; into smoke shall they consume away. The wicked borroweth, and payeth not again; But the righteous sheweth mercy and giveth. For such as be blessed of him shall inherit the earth. The steps of a good man are ordered by the Lord, And he delighteth in his way; Though he fall, he shall not be utterly cast down; For the Lord upholdeth him with his hand. I have been young, and now am old, Yet have I not seen the righteous forsaken, Nor his seed begging bread. He is ever merciful, and lendeth, And his seed is blessed. Depart from evil, and do good, And dwell for evermore; For the Lord loveth judgment, And forsaketh not his saints; They are preserved forever: But the seed of the wicked shall be cut off. The righteous shall inherit the land, And dwell therein forever. The mouth of the righteous speaketh wisdom, And his tongue talketh of judgment; The law of his God is in his heart; None of his steps shall slide. The wicked watcheth the righteous, And seeketh to slay him. The Lord will not leave him in his hand, Nor condemn him when he is judged. Wait on the Lord, and keep his way, And he shall exalt thee to inherit the land; When the wicked are cut off, thou shalt see it. I have seen the wicked in great power, And spreading himself like a green bay tree; Yet he passed away, and, lo, he was not; Yea, I sought him, but he could not be found. --From the Thirty-seventh Psalm. XLVII. CHARACTER OF COLUMBUS. (192) Washington Irving, 1783-1859. Among those whose works have enriched American literature, and have given it a place in the estimation of foreigners, no name stands higher than that of Washington Irving. He was born in the city of New York; his father was a native of Scotland, and his mother was English. He had an ordinary school education, and at the age of sixteen began the study of law. Two of his older brothers were interested in literary pursuits; and in his youth he studied the old English authors. He was also passionately fond of books of travel. At the age of nineteen, he began his literary career by writing for a paper published by his brother. In 1804 be made a voyage to the south of Europe. On his return he completed his studies in law, but never practiced his profession. "Salmagundi," his first book (partly written by others), was published in 1807. This was followed, two years later, by "Knickerbocker's History of New York." Soon after, he entered into mercantile pursuits in company with two brothers. At the close at the war with England he sailed again for Europe, and remained abroad seventeen years. During his absence he formed the acquaintance of the most eminent literary men of his time, and wrote several of his works; among them were: "The Sketch Book," "Bracebridge Hall," "Tales of a Traveler," "Life and Voyages of Columbus," and the "Conquest of Granada." On his return he made a journey west of the Mississippi, and gathered materials for several other books. From 1842 to 1846 he was Minister to Spain. On his return to America he established his residence at "Sunnyside," near Tarrytown, on the Hudson, where he passed the last years of his life. A young lady to whom he was attached having died in early life, Mr. Irving never married. His works are marked by humor, just sentiment, and elegance and correctness of expression. They were popular both at home and abroad from the first, and their sale brought him a handsome fortune. The "Life of Washington," his last work, was completed in the same year in which he died. ### [Transcriber's Note: See "The Life of Columbus" by Sir Arthur Helps,] Columbus was a man of great and inventive genius. The operations of his mind were energetic, but irregular; bursting forth, at times, with that irresistible force which characterizes intellect of such an order. His ambition was lofty and noble, inspiring him with high thoughts and an anxiety to distinguish himself by great achievements. He aimed at dignity and wealth in the same elevated spirit with which he sought renown; they were to rise from the territories he should discover, and be commensurate in importance. His conduct was characterized by the grandeur of his views and the magnanimity of his spirit. Instead of ravaging the newly-found countries, like many of his cotemporary discoverers, who were intent only on immediate gain, he regarded them with the eyes of a legislator; he sought to colonize and cultivate them, to civilize the natives, to build cities, introduce the useful arts, subject everything to the control of law, order, and religion, and thus to found regular and prosperous empires. That he failed in this was the fault of the dissolute rabble which it was his misfortune to command, with whom all law was tyranny and all order oppression. He was naturally irascible and impetuous, and keenly sensible to injury and injustice; yet the quickness of his temper was counteracted by the generosity and benevolence of his heart. The magnanimity of his nature shone forth through all the troubles of his stormy career. Though continually outraged in his dignity, braved in his authority, foiled in his plans, and endangered in his person by the seditions of turbulent and worthless men, and that, too, at times when suffering under anguish of body and anxiety of mind enough to exasperate the most patient, yet he restrained his valiant and indignant spirit, and brought himself to forbear, and reason, and even to supplicate. Nor can the reader of the story of his eventful life fail to notice how free he was from all feeling of revenge, how ready to forgive and forget on the least sign of repentance and atonement. He has been exalted for his skill in controlling others, but far greater praise is due to him for the firmness he displayed in governing himself. His piety was genuine and fervent. Religion mingled with the whole course of his thoughts and actions, and shone forth in his most private and unstudied writings. Whenever he made any great discovery he devoutly returned thanks to God. The voice of prayer and the melody of praise rose from his ships on discovering the new world, and his first action on landing was to prostrate himself upon the earth and offer up thanksgiving. All his great enterprises were undertaken in the name of the Holy Trinity, and he partook of the holy sacrament previous to embarkation. He observed the festivals of the church in the wildest situations. The Sabbath was to him a day of sacred rest, on which he would never sail from a port unless in case of extreme necessity. The religion thus deeply seated in his soul diffused a sober dignity and a benign composure over his whole deportment; his very language was pure and guarded, and free from all gross or irreverent expressions. A peculiar trait in his rich and varied character remains to be noticed; namely, that ardent and enthusiastic imagination which threw a magnificence over his whole course of thought. A poetical temperament is discernible throughout all his writings and in all his actions. We see it in all his descriptions of the beauties of the wild land he was discovering, in the enthusiasm with which he extolled the blandness of the temperature, the purity of the atmosphere, the fragrance of the air, "full of dew and sweetness," the verdure of the forests, the grandeur of the mountains, and the crystal purity of the running streams. It spread a glorious and golden world around him, and tinged everything with its own gorgeous colors. With all the visionary fervor of his imagination, its fondest dreams fell short of the reality. He died in ignorance of the real grandeur of his discovery. Until his last breath, he entertained the idea that he had merely opened a new way to the old resorts of opulent commerce, and had discovered some of the wild regions of the East. What visions of glory would have broken upon his mind could he have known that he had indeed discovered a new continent equal to the old world in magnitude, and separated by two vast oceans from all the earth hitherto known by civilized man! How would his magnanimous spirit have been consoled amid the afflictions of age and the cares of penury, the neglect of a fickle public and the injustice of an ungrateful king, could he have anticipated the splendid empires which would arise in the beautiful world he had discovered, and the nations, and tongues, and languages which were to fill its land with his renown, and to revere and bless his name to the latest posterity! NOTE.--Christopher Columbus (b. 1436, d. 1506) was the son of a wool comber of Genoa. At the age of fifteen he became a sailor, and in his voyages visited England, Iceland, the Guinea coast, and the Greek Isles. He was an earnest student of navigation, of cosmography, and of books of travel; thus he thoroughly prepared himself for the great undertaking which led to the discovery of America. He struggled against every discouragement for almost ten years before he could persuade a sovereign to authorize and equip his expedition. XLVIII. "HE GIVETH HIS BELOVED SLEEP." (195) Elizabeth Barrett Browning, 1809-1861, was born in London, married the poet Robert Browning in 1846, and afterwards resided in Italy most of the time till her death, which occurred at Florence. She was thoroughly educated in severe and masculine studies, and began to write at a very early age. Her "Essay on Mind," a metaphysical and reflective poem, was written at the age of sixteen. She wrote very rapidly, and her friend, Miss Mitford, tells us that "Lady Geraldine's Courtship," containing ninety- three stanzas, was composed in twelve hours! She published several other long poems, "Aurora Leigh" being one of the most highly finished. Mrs. Browning is regarded as one of the most able female poets of modern times; but her writings are often obscure, and some have doubted whether she always clearly conceived what she meant to express. She had a warm sympathy with all forms of suffering and distress. "He Giveth his Beloved Sleep" is one of the most beautiful of her minor poems. The thought is an amplification of verse 2d of Psalm cxxvii. ### Of all the thoughts of God that are Borne inward unto souls afar, Along the Psalmist's music deep, Now tell me if that any is, For gift or grace, surpassing this,-- "He giveth his beloved, sleep!" What would we give to our beloved? The hero's heart to be unmoved, The poet's star-tuned harp, to sweep, The patriot's voice, to teach and rouse, The monarch's crown, to light the brows?-- "He giveth his beloved, sleep." What do we give to our beloved? A little faith all undisproved, A little dust to overweep, And bitter memories to make The whole earth blasted for our sake,-- "He giveth his beloved, sleep." "Sleep soft, beloved!" we sometimes say, But have no tune to charm away Sad dreams that through the eyelids creep. But never doleful dream again Shall break his happy slumber when "He giveth his beloved, sleep." O earth, so full of dreary noises! O men, with wailing in your voices! O delve'd gold, the wailers heap! O strife, O curse, that o'er it fall! God strikes a silence through you all, And "giveth his beloved, sleep." His dews drop mutely on the hill; His cloud above it saileth still, Though on its slope men sow and reap. More softly than the dew is shed, Or cloud is floated overhead, "He giveth his beloved, sleep." Ay, men may wonder while they scan A living, thinking, feeing man, Confirmed in such a rest to keep; But angels say--and through the word I think their happy smile is heard-- "He giveth his beloved, sleep." For me my heart, that erst did go Most like a tired child at a show, That sees through tears the mummers leap, Would now its wearied vision close, Would childlike on his love repose Who "giveth his beloved, sleep." And friends, dear friends,--when it shall be That this low breath is gone from me, And round my bier ye come to weep, Let one most loving of you all Say, "Not a tear must o'er her fall; 'He giveth his beloved, sleep.' " XLIX. DESCRIPTION OF A SIEGE. (197) "The skirts of the wood seem lined with archers, although only a few are advanced from its dark shadow." "Under what banner?" asked Ivanhoe. "Under no ensign which I can observe," answered Rebecca. "A singular novelty," muttered the knight, "to advance to storm such a castle without pennon or banner displayed. Seest thou who they be that act as leaders?" "A knight clad in sable armor is the most conspicuous," said the Jewess: "he alone is armed from head to heel, and seems to assume the direction of all around him." "Seem there no other leaders?" exclaimed the anxious inquirer. "None of mark and distinction that I can behold from this station," said Rebecca, "but doubtless the other side of the castle is also assailed. They seem, even now, preparing to advance. God of Zion protect us! What a dreadful sight! Those who advance first bear huge shields and defenses made of plank: the others follow, bending their bows as they come on. They raise their bows! God of Moses, forgive the creatures thou hast made!" Her description was here suddenly interrupted by the signal for assault, which was given by the blast of a shrill bugle, and at once answered by a flourish of the Norman trumpets from the battlements, which, mingled with the deep and hollow clang of the kettledrums, retorted in notes of defiance the challenge of the enemy. The shouts of both parties augmented the fearful din, the assailants crying, "Saint George, for merry England!" and the Normans answering them with loud cries of "Onward, De Bracy! Front de Boeuf, to the rescue!" "And I must lie here like a bedridden monk," exclaimed Ivanhoe, "while the game that gives me freedom or death is played out by the hand of others! Look from the window once again, kind maiden, and tell me if they yet advance to the storm." With patient courage, strengthened by the interval which she had employed in mental devotion, Rebecca again took post at the lattice, sheltering herself, however, so as not to be exposed to the arrows of the archers. "What dost thou see, Rebecca?" again demanded the wounded knight. "Nothing but the cloud of arrows flying so thick as to dazzle mine eyes, and to hide the bowmen who shoot them." "That can not endure," said Ivanhoe. "If they press not right on, to carry the castle by force of arms, the archery may avail but little against stone walls and bulwarks. Look for the knight in dark armor, fair Rebecca, and see how he bears himself; for as the leader is, so will his followers be." "I see him not," said Rebecca. "Foul craven!" exclaimed Ivanhoe; "does he blench from the helm when the wind blows highest?" "He blenches not! he blenches not!" said Rebecca; "I see him now: he leads a body of men close under the outer barrier of the barbacan. They pull down the piles and palisades; they hew down the barriers with axes. His high black plume floats abroad over the throng like a raven over the field of the slain. They have made a breach in the barriers, they rush in, they are thrust back! Front de Boeuf heads the defenders. I see his gigantic form above the press. They throng again to the breach, and the pass is disputed, hand to hand, and man to man. God of Jacob! it is the meeting of two fierce tides, the conflict of two oceans moved by adverse winds;" and she turned her head from the window as if unable longer to endure a sight so terrible. Speedily recovering her self-control, Rebecca again looked forth, and almost immediately exclaimed, "Holy prophets of the law! Front de Boeuf and the Black Knight fight hand to hand on the breach, amid the roar of their followers, who watch the progress of the strife. Heaven strike with the cause of the oppressed and of the captive!" She then uttered a loud shriek, and exclaimed, "He is down! he is down!" "Who is down!" cried Ivanhoe; "for our dear Lady's sake, tell me which has fallen!" "The Black Knight," answered Rebecca, faintly; then instantly again shouted with joyful eagerness--"But no! but no! the name of the Lord of Hosts be blessed! he is on foot again, and fights as if there were twenty men's strength in his single arm--his sword is broken--he snatches an ax from a yeoman--he presses Front de Boeuf, blow on blow--the giant stoops and totters like an oak under the steel of the woodman--he falls-he falls!" "Front de Boeuf?" exclaimed Ivanhoe. "Front de Boeuf," answered the Jewess; "his men rush to the rescue, headed by the haughty Templar, --their united force compels the champion to pause--they drag Front de Boeuf within the walls." "The assailants have won the barriers, have they not?" said Ivanhoe. "They have--they have--and they press the besieged hard upon the outer wall; some plant ladders, some swarm like bees, and endeavor to ascend upon the shoulders of each other; down go stones, beams, and trunks of trees upon their heads, and as fast as they bear the wounded to the rear, fresh men supply their places in the assault. Great God! hast thou given men thine own image that it should be thus cruelly defaced by the hands of their brethren!" "Think not of that," replied Ivanhoe; "this is no time for such thoughts. Who yield? Who push their way?" "The ladders are thrown down," replied Rebecca, shuddering; "the soldiers lie groveling under them like crushed reptiles; the besieged have the better." "Saint George strike for us!" said the knight; "do the false yeomen give way?" "No," exclaimed Rebecca, "they bear themselves right yeomanly; the Black Knight approaches the postern with his huge ax; the thundering blows which he deals, you may hear them above all the din and shouts of the battle; stones and beams are hailed down on the brave champion; he regards them no more than if they were thistle down and feathers." "Saint John of Acre!" said Ivanhoe, raising himself joyfully on his couch, "methought there was but one man in England that might do such a deed." "The postern gate shakes," continued Rebecca; "it crashes--it is splintered by his powerful blows--they rush in--the outwork is won! O God! they hurry the defenders from the battlements--they throw them into the moat! O men, if ye be indeed men, spare them that can resist no longer!" "The bridge--the bridge which communicates with the castle--have they won that pass?" exclaimed Ivanhoe. "No," replied Rebecca; "the Templar has destroyed the plank on which they crossed--few of the defenders escaped with him into the castle--the shrieks and cries which you hear, tell the fate of the others. Alas! I see that it is still more difficult to look upon victory than upon battle." "What do they now, maiden?" said Ivanhoe; "look forth yet again--this is no time to faint at bloodshed." "It is over, for a time," said Rebecca; "our friends strengthen themselves within the outwork which they have mastered." "Our friends," said Ivanhoe, "will surely not abandon an enterprise so gloriously begun, and so happily attained; Oh no! I will put my faith in the good knight whose ax has rent heart of oak and bars of iron. Singular," he again muttered to himself, "if there can be two who are capable of such achievements. It is,--it must be Richard Coeur de Lion." "Seest thou nothing else. Rebecca, by which the Black Knight may be distinguished?" "Nothing," said the Jewess, "all about him is as black as the wing of the night raven. Nothing can I spy that can mark him further; but having once seen him put forth his strength in battle, methinks I could know him again among a thousand warriors. He rushes to the fray as if he were summoned to a banquet. There is more than mere strength; it seems as if the whole soul and spirit of the champion were given to every blow which he deals upon his enemies. God forgive him the sin of bloodshed! it is fearful, yet magnificent, to behold how the arm and heart of one man can triumph over hundreds." -- Walter Scott. NOTES.--Ivanhoe, a wounded knight, and Rebecca, a Jewess, had been imprisoned in the castle of Reginald Front de Boeuf. The friends of the prisoners undertake their rescue. At the request of Ivanhoe, who is unable to leave his couch, Rebecca takes her stand near a window overlooking the approach to the castle, and details to the knight the incidents of the contest as they take place. Front de Boeuf and his garrison were Normans; the besiegers, Saxons. The castles of this time (twelfth century) usually consisted of a keep, or castle proper, surrounded at some distance by two walls, one within the other. Each wall was encircled on its outer side by a moat, or ditch, which was filled with water, and was crossed by means of a drawbridge. Before the main entrance of the outer wall was an outwork called the barbacan, which was a high wall surmounted by battlements and turrets, built to defend the gate and drawbridge. Here, also, were placed barriers of palisades, etc., to impede the advance of an attacking force. The postern gate was small, and was usually some distance from the ground; it was used for the egress of messengers during a siege; L. MARCO BOZZARIS. (202) Fitz-Greene Halleck, 1790--1867, was born in Guilford, Connecticut. At the age of eighteen he entered a banking house in New York, where he remained a long time. For many years he was bookkeeper and assistant in business for John Jacob Astor. Nearly all his poems were written before he was forty years old, several of them in connection with his friend Joseph Rodman Drake. His "Young America," however, was written but a few years before his death. Mr. Halleck's poetry is carefully finished and musical; much of it is sportive, and some satirical. No one of his poems is better known than "Marco Bozzaris." ### At midnight, in his guarded tent, The Turk was dreaming of the hour When Greece, her knee in suppliance bent, Should tremble at his power. In dreams, through camp and court he bore The trophies of a conqueror; In dreams, his song of triumph heard; Then wore his monarch's signet ring; Then pressed that monarch's throne--a king: As wild his thoughts, and gay of wing, As Eden's garden bird. At midnight, in the forest shades, Bozzaris ranged his Suliote band, True as the steel of their tried blades, Heroes in heart and hand. There had the Persian's thousands stood, There had the glad earth drunk their blood, On old Plataea's day: And now there breathed that haunted air, The sons of sires who conquered there, With arms to strike, and soul to dare, As quick, as far as they. An hour passed on--the Turk awoke; That bright dream was his last: He woke--to hear his sentries shriek, "To arms! they come! the Greek! the Greek!" He woke--to die mid flame and smoke, And shout, and groan, and saber stroke, And death shots falling thick and fast As lightnings from the mountain cloud; And heard, with voice as trumpet loud, Bozzaris cheer his band: "Strike--till the last armed foe expires; Strike--for your altars and your fires; Strike--for the green graves of your sires; God--and your native land!" They fought--like brave men, long and well; They piled that ground with Moslem slain; They conquered--but Bozzaris fell, Bleeding at every vein. His few surviving comrades saw His smile, when rang their proud hurrah, And the red field was won: Then saw in death his eyelids close Calmly, as to a night's repose, Like flowers at set of sun. Come to the bridal chamber, Death! Come to the mother, when she feels For the first time her firstborn's breath; Come when the blessed seals That close the pestilence are broke, And crowded cities wail its stroke; Come in consumption's ghastly form, The earthquake's shock, the ocean storm; Come when the heart beats high and warm With banquet song, and dance, and wine: And thou art terrible--the tear, The groan, the knell, the pall, the bier, And all we know, or dream, or fear Of agony, are thine. But to the hero, when his sword Has won the battle for the free, Thy voice sounds like a prophet's word; And in its hollow tones are heard The thanks of millions yet to be. Bozzaris! with the storied brave Greece nurtured in her glory's time, Rest thee--there is no prouder grave Even in her own proud clime. We tell thy doom without a sigh, For thou art Freedom's, now, and Fame's. One of the few, the immortal names, That were not born to die. NOTES.--Marco Bozzaris (b. about 1790, d. 1823) was a famous Greek patriot. His family were Suliotes, a people inhabiting the Suli Mountains, and bitter enemies of the Turks. Bozzaris was engaged in war against the latter nearly all his life, and finally fell in a night attack upon their camp near Carpenisi. This poem, a fitting tribute to his memory, has been translated into modern Greek. Plataea was the scene of a great victory of the Greeks over the Persians in the year 479 B. C. Moslem--The followers of Mohammed are called Moslems. LI. SONG OF THE GREEK BARD. (205) George Gordon Byron, Lord Byron, 1788-1824. This gifted poet was the son of a profligate father and of a fickle and passionate mother. He was afflicted with lameness from his birth; and, although he succeeded to his great-uncle's title at ten years of age, he inherited financial embarrassment with it. These may be some of the reasons for the morbid and wayward character of the youthful genius. It is certain that he was not lacking in affection, nor in generosity. In his college days, at Cambridge, he was willful and careless of his studies. "Hours of Idleness," his first book, appeared in 1807. It was severely treated by the "Edinburgh Review," which called forth his "English Bards and Scotch Reviewers," in 1809. Soon after, he went abroad for two years; and, on his return, published the first two cantos of "Childe Harold's Pligrimage," a work that made him suddenly famous. He married in 1815, but separated from his wife after one year. Soured and bitter, he now left England, purposing never to return. He spent most of the next seven years in Italy, where most of his poems were written. The last year of his life was spent in Greece, aiding in her struggle for liberty against the Turks. He died at Missolonghi. As a man, Byron was impetuous, morbid and passionate. He was undoubtedly dissipated and immoral, but perhaps to a less degree than has sometimes been asserted. As a poet, he possessed noble powers, and he has written much that will last; in general, however, his poetry is not wholesome, and his fame is less than it once was. ### The isles of Greece! the isles of Greece! Where burning Sappho loved and sung, Where grew the arts of war and peace,-- Where Delos rose, and Phoebus sprung! Eternal summer gilds them yet, But all, except their sun, is set. The Scian and the Teian muse, The hero's harp, the lover's lute, Have found the fame your shores refuse; Their place of birth alone is mute To sounds which echo further west Than your sires' "Islands of the Blest." The mountains look on Marathon, And Marathon looks on the sea; And musing there an hour alone, I dreamed that Greece might still be free; For, standing on the Persian's grave, I could not deem myself a slave. A king sat on the rocky brow Which looks o'er sea-born Salamis; And ships, by thousands, lay below, And men in nations,--all were his! He counted them at break of day,-- And when the sun set, where were they? And where are they? And where art thou, My country? On thy voiceless shore The heroic lay is tuneless now,-- The heroic bosom beats no more! And must thy lyre, so long divine, Degenerate into hands like mine? Must we but weep o'er days more blest? Must we but blush? Our fathers bled. Earth! render back from out thy breast A remnant of our Spartan dead! Of the three hundred, grant but three, To make a new Thermopylae! What! silent still and silent all? Ah! no;--the voices of the dead Sound like a distant torrent's fall, And answer, "Let one living head, But one, arise,--we come, we come!" 'Tis but the living who are dumb! In vain--in vain!--strike other chords; Fill high the cup with Samian wine! Leave battles to the Turkish hordes, And shed the blood of Scio's vine! Hark! rising to the ignoble call, How answers each bold Bacchanal! You have the Pyrrhic dance as yet; Where is the Pyrrhic phalanx gone? Of two such lessons, why forget The nobler and the manlier one? You have the letters Cadmus gave; Think ye he meant them for a slave? Fill high the howl with Samian wine! We will not think of themes like these! It made Anacreon's song divine: He served, but served Polycrates, A tyrant; but our masters then Were still, at least, Our countrymen. The tyrant of the Chersonese Was freedom's best and bravest friend; That tyrant was Miltiades! Oh that the present hour would lend Another despot of the kind! Such chains as his were sure to bind. Fill high the bowl with Samian wine! Our virgins dance beneath the shade; I see their glorious, black eyes shine; But gazing on each glowing maid, My own the burning tear-drop laves, To think such breasts must suckle slaves. Place me on Sunium's marbled steep, Where nothing save the waves and I May hear our mutual murmurs sweep; There, swanlike, let me sing and die: A land of slaves shall ne'er be mine,-- Dash down yon cup of Samian wine! NOTES.--Sappho was a Greek poetess living on the island of Lesbos, about 600 B. C. Delos is one of the Grecian Archipelago, and is of volcanic origin. The ancient Greeks believed that it rose from the sea at a stroke from Neptune's trident, and was moored fast to the bottom by Jupiter. It was the supposed birthplace of Phoebus, or Apollo. The island of Chios, or Scios, is one of the places which claim to be the birthplace of Homer. Teios, or Teos, a city in Ionia, is the birthplace of the Greek poet Anacreon. The Islands of the Blest, mentioned in ancient poetry, were imaginary islands in the west, where, it was believed, the favorites of the gods were conveyed without dying. At Marathon. (490 B. C.), on the east coast, of Greece, 11,000 Greeks, under the generalship of Miltiades, routed 110,000 Persians. The island of Salamis lies very near the Greek coast: in the narrow channel between, the Greek fleet almost destroyed (480 B.C.) that of Xerxes, the Persian king, who witnessed the contest from a throne on the mountain side. Thermopylae is a narrow mountain pass in Greece, where Leonidas, with 300 Spartans and about 1,100 other Greeks, held the entire Persian army in check until every Spartan, except one, was slain. Samos is one of the Grecian Archipelago, noted for its cultivation of the vine and olive. A Bacchanal was a disciple of Bacchus, the god of wine. Pyrrhus was a Greek, and one of the greatest generals of the world. The phalanx was an almost invincible arrangement of troops, massed in close array, with their shields overlapping one another, and their spears projecting; this form of military tactics was peculiar to the Greeks. Polycrates seized the island of Samos, and made himself tyrant: he was entrapped and crucified in 522 B. C. Chersonese is the ancient name for a peninsula. Sunium is the name of a promontory southeast of Athens. LII. NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. (209) Charles Sprague, 1791-1875, was born in Boston, and received his education in the public schools of that city. For sixteen years he was engaged in mercantile pursuits, as clerk and partner. In 1820 he became teller in a bank; and, from 1825, he filled the office of cashier of the Globe Bank for about forty years. In 1829 be gave his most famous poem, "Curiosity," before the Phi Beta Kappa society, in Cambridge. An active man of business all his days, he has written but little either in prose or poetry, but that little is excellent in quality, graceful, and pleasing. The address from which this extract is taken, was delivered before the citizens of Boston, July 4th, 1825. ### Not many generations ago, where you now sit, encircled with all that exalts and embellishes civilized life, the rank thistle nodded in the wind and the wild fox dug his hole unscared. Here lived and loved another race of beings. Beneath the same sun that rolls over your head, the Indian hunter pursued the panting deer; gazing on the same moon that smiles for you, the Indian lover wooed his dusky mate. Here the wigwam blaze beamed on the tender and helpless, and the council fire glared on the wise and daring. Now they dipped their noble limbs in your sedgy lakes, and now they paddled the light canoe along your rocky shores. Here they warred; the echoing whoop, the bloody grapple, the defying death song, all were here; and when the tiger strife was over, here curled the smoke of peace. Here, too, they worshiped; and from many a dark bosom went up a fervent prayer to the Great Spirit. He had not written his laws for them on tables of stone, but he had traced them on the tables of their hearts. The poor child of nature knew not the God of Revelation, but the God of the universe he acknowledged in everything around. He beheld him in the star that sank in beauty behind his lonely dwelling; in the sacred orb that flamed on him from his midday throne; in the flower that snapped in the morning breeze; in the lofty pine that defied a thousand whirlwinds; in the timid warbler that never left its native grove; in the fearless eagle, whose untired pinion was wet in clouds; in the worm that crawled at his feet; and in his own matchless form, glowing with a spark of that light, to whose mysterious source he bent in humble though blind adoration. And all this has passed away. Across the ocean came a pilgrim bark, bearing the seeds of life and death. The former were sown for you; the latter sprang up in the path of the simple native. Two hundred years have changed the character of a great continent, and blotted forever from its face a whole, peculiar people. Art has usurped the bowers of nature, and the anointed children of education have been too powerful for the tribes of the ignorant. Here and there a stricken few remain; but how unlike their bold, untamable progenitors. The Indian of falcon glance and lion bearing, the theme of the touching ballad, the hero of the pathetic tale is gone, and his degraded offspring crawls upon the soil where he walked in majesty, to remind us how miserable is man when the foot of the conqueror is on his neck. As a race they have withered from the land. Their arrows are broken, their springs are dried up, their cabins are in the dust. Their council fire has long since gone out on the shore, and their war cry is fast fading to the untrodden west. Slowly and sadly they climb the distant mountains, and read their doom in the setting sun. They are shrinking before the mighty tide which is pressing them away; they must soon hear the roar of the last wave which will settle over them forever. Ages hence, the inquisitive white man, as he stands by some growing city, will ponder on the structure of their disturbed remains, and wonder to what manner of persons they belonged. They will live only in the songs and chronicles of their exterminators. Let these be faithful to their rude virtues as men, and pay due tribute to their unhappy fate as a people. LIII. LOCHIEL'S WARNING. (211) Thomas Campbell, 1777-1844, was a descendant of the famous clan of Campbells, in Kirnan, Scotland, and was born at Glasgow. At the age of thirteen he entered the university in that city, from which he graduated with distinction, especially as a Greek scholar; his translations of Greek tragedy were considered without parallel in the history of the university. During the first year after graduation, he wrote several poems of minor importance. He then removed to Edinburgh and adopted literature as his profession; here his "Pleasures of Hope" was published in 1799, and achieved immediate success. He traveled extensively on the continent, and during his absence wrote "Lochiel's Warning," "Hohenlinden," and other minor poems. In 1809 he published "Gertrude of Wyoming;" from 1820 to 1830 he edited the "New Monthly Magazine." In 1826 he was chosen lord rector of the University of Glasgow, to which office he was twice reelected. He was active in founding the University of London. During the last years of his life he produced but little of note. He died at Boulogne, in France. During most of his life he was in straitened pecuniary circumstances, and ill-health and family afflictions cast a melancholy over his later years. His poems were written with much care, and are uniformly smooth and musical. ### Seer. Lochiel! Lochiel! beware of the day When the Lowlands shall meet thee in battle array! For a field of the dead rushes red on my sight, And the clans of Culloden are scattered in fight. They rally, they bleed, for their kingdom and crown; Woe, woe to the riders that trample them down! Proud Cumberland prances, insulting the slain, And their hoof-beaten bosoms are trod to the plain. But hark! through the fast-flashing lightning of war, What steed to the desert flies frantic and far? 'T is thine, O Glenullin! whose bride shall await Like a love-lighted watch fire all night at the gate. A steed comes at morning,--no rider is there, But its bridle is red with the sign of despair. Weep, Albin! to death and captivity led! Oh, weep! but thy tears can not number the dead: For a merciless sword on Culloden shall wave,-- Culloden! that reeks with the blood of the brave. Loch. Go preach to the coward, thou death-telling seer! Or, if gory Culloden so dreadful appear, Draw, dotard, around thy old wavering sight, This mantle, to cover the phantoms of fright. Seer. Ha! laugh'st thou, Lochiel, my vision to scorn? Proud bird of the mountain thy plume shall be torn! Say, rushed the bold eagle exultingly forth From his home in the dark-rolling clouds of the north? Lo! the death shot of foemen outspeeding, he rode Companionless, bearing destruction abroad; But down let him stoop from his havoc on high! Ah! home let him speed, for the spoiler is nigh. Why flames the far summit? Why shoot to the blast Those embers, like stars from the firmament cast? 'T is the fire shower of ruin, all dreadfully driven From his eyrie that beacons the darkness of heaven, O crested Lochiel! the peerless in might, Whose banners arise on the battlements' height, Heaven's fire is around thee, to blast and to burn; Return to thy dwelling! all lonely return! For the blackness of ashes shall mark where it stood, And a wild mother scream o'er her famishing brood. Loch. False wizard, avaunt! I have marshaled my clan, Their swords are a thousand, their bosoms are one! They are true to the last of their blood and their breath, And like reapers descend to the harvest of death. Then welcome be Cumberland's steed to the shock! Let him dash his proud foam like a wave on the rock! But woe to his kindred, and woe to his cause, When Albin her claymore indignantly draws; When her bonneted chieftains to victory crowd, Clanronald the dauntless, and Moray the proud, All plaided and plumed in their tartan array-- Seer. --Lochiel, Lochiel, beware of the day! For, dark and despairing, my sight I may seal, But man can not cover what God would reveal: 'T is the sunset of life gives me mystical lore, And coming events cast their shadows before. I tell thee, Culloden's dread echoes shall ring With the bloodhounds that bark for thy fugitive king. Lo! anointed by heaven with the vials of wrath, Behold where he flies on his desolate path! Now, in darkness and billows, he sweeps from my sight: Rise, rise! ye wild tempests, and cover his flight! 'Tis finished. Their thunders are hushed on the moors; Culloden is lost, and my country deplores. But where is the ironbound prisoner? Where? For the red eye of battle is shut in despair. Say, mounts he the ocean wave, banished, forlorn, Like a limb from his country, cast bleeding and torn? Ah no! for a darker departure is near; The war drum is muffled, and black is the bier; His death bell is tolling; O mercy, dispel Yon sight that it freezes my spirit to tell! Life flutters convulsed in his quivering limbs, And his blood-streaming nostril in agony swims. Accursed be the fagots that blaze at his feet, Where his heart shall be thrown ere it ceases to beat, With the smoke of its ashes to poison the gale-- Loch. Down, soothless insulter! I trust not the tale: For never shall Albin a destiny meet So black with dishonor, so foul with retreat. Though my perishing ranks should be strewed in their gore, Like ocean weeds heaped on the surf-beaten shore, Lochiel, untainted by flight or by chains, While the kindling of life in his bosom remains, Shall victor exult, or in death be laid low, With his back to the field and his feet to the foe! And leaving in battle no blot on his name, Look proudly to heaven from the deathbed of fame. NOTES.--Lochiel was a brave and influential Highland chieftain. He espoused the cause of Charles Stuart, called the Pretender, who claimed the British throne. In the preceding piece, he is supposed to be marching with the warriors of his clan to join Charles's army. On his way he is met by a Seer, who having, according to the popular superstition, the gift of second-sight, or prophecy, forewarns him of the disastrous event of the enterprise, and exhorts him to return home and avoid the destruction which certainly awaits him, and which afterward fell upon him at the battle of Culloden, in 1746. In this battle the Highlanders were commanded by Charles in person, and the English by the Duke of Cumberland. The Highlanders wore completely routed, and the Pretender's rebellion brought to a close. He himself shortly afterward made a narrow escape by water from the west of Scotland; hence the reference to the fugitive king. Albin is the poetic name of Scotland, more particularly the Highlands. The ironbound prisoner refers to Lochiel. LIV. ON HAPPINESS OF TEMPER. (215) Oliver Goldsmith, 1728-1774. This eccentric son of genius was an Irishman; his father was a poor curate. Goldsmith received his education at several preparatory schools, at Trinity College, Dublin, at Edinburgh, and at Leyden. He was indolent and unruly as a student, often in disgrace with his teachers; but his generosity, recklessness, and love of athletic sports made him a favorite with his fellow-students. He spent some time in wandering over the continent, often in poverty and want. In 1756 he returned to England, and soon took up his abode in London. Here he made the acquaintance and friendship of several notable men, among whom were Johnson and Sir Joshua Reynolds. "The Traveler" was published in 1764, and was soon followed by the "Vicar of Wakefield." He wrote in nearly all departments of literature, and always with purity, grace, and fluency. His fame as a poet is secured by the "Traveler" and the "Deserted Village;" as a dramatist, by "She Stoops to Conquer;" as a satirist, by the "Citizen of the World;" and as a novelist by the "Vicar of Wakefield." In his later years his writings were the source of a large income, but his gambling, careless generosity, and reckless extravagance always kept him in financial difficulty, and he died heavily in debt. His monument is in Westminster Abbey. ## Writers of every age have endeavored to show that pleasure is in us, and not in the objects offered for our amusement. If the soul be happily disposed, everything becomes capable of affording entertainment, and distress will almost want a name. Every occurrence passes in review, like the figures of a procession; some may be awkward, others ill-dressed, but none but a fool is on that account enraged with the master of ceremonies. I remember to have once seen a slave, in a fortification in Flanders, who appeared no way touched with his situation. He was maimed, deformed, and chained; obliged to toil from the appearance of day till nightfall, and condemned to this for life; yet, with all these circumstances of apparent wretchedness, he sang, would have danced, but that he wanted a leg, and appeared the merriest, happiest man of all the garrison. What a practical philosopher was here! A happy constitution supplied philosophy, and though seemingly destitute of wisdom he was really wise. No reading or study had contributed to disenchant the fairyland around him. Everything furnished him with an opportunity of mirth; and though some thought him, from his insensibility, a fool, he was such an idiot as philosophers should wish to imitate. They who, like that slave, can place themselves all that side of the world in which everything appears in a pleasant light, will find something in every occurrence to excite their good humor. The most calamitous events, either to themselves or others, can bring no new affliction; the world is to them a theater, in which only comedies are acted. All the bustle of heroism, or the aspirations of ambition, seem only to heighten the absurdity of the scene, and make the humor more poignant. They feel, in short, as little anguish at their own distress, or the complaints of others, as the undertaker, though dressed in black, feels sorrow at a funeral. Of all the men I ever read of, the famous Cardinal de Retz possessed this happiness in the highest degree. When fortune wore her angriest look, and he fell into the power of Cardinal Mazarin, his most deadly enemy, (being confined a close prisoner in the castle of Valenciennes,) he never attempted to support his distress by wisdom or philosophy, for he pretended to neither. He only laughed at himself' and his persecutor, and seemed infinitely pleased at his new situation. In this mansion of distress, though denied all amusements, and even the conveniences of life, and entirely cut off from all intercourse with his friends, he still retained his good humor, laughed at the little spite of his enemies, and carried the jest so far as to write the life of his jailer. All that the wisdom of the proud can teach, is to be stubborn or sullen under misfortunes. The Cardinal's example will teach us to be good- humored in circumstances of the highest affliction. It matters not whether our good humor be construed by others into insensibility or idiotism,--it is happiness to ourselves; and none but a fool could measure his satisfaction by what the world thinks of it. The happiest fellow I ever knew, was of the number of those good-natured creatures that are said to do no harm to anybody but themselves. Whenever he fell into any misery, he called it "seeing life," If his head was broken by a chairman, or his pocket picked by a sharper, he comforted himself by imitating the Hibernian dialect of the one, or the more fashionable cant of the other. Nothing came amiss to him. His inattention to money matters had concerned his father to such a degree that all intercession of friends was fruitless. The old gentleman was on his deathbed. The whole family (and Dick among the number) gathered around him. "I leave my second son, Andrew," said the expiring miser, "my whole estate, and desire him to be frugal." Andrew, in a sorrowful tone (as is usual on such occasions), prayed heaven to prolong his life and health to enjoy it himself. "I recommend Simon, my third son, to the care of his elder brother, and leave him, besides, four thousand pounds." "Ah, father!" cried Simon (in great affliction, to be sure), "may heaven give you life and health to enjoy it yourself!" At last, turning to poor Dick: "As for you, you have always been a sad dog; you'll never come to good; you'll never be rich; I leave you a shilling to buy a halter." "Ah, father!" cries Dick, without any emotion, "may heaven give you life and health to enjoy it yourself!" NOTES.--Cardinal de Retz, Jean Francois Paul de Gondi (b. 1614, d. 1679), was leader of the revolt against Jules Mazarin (b. 1602, d. 1661), the prime minister of France during the minority of Louis XIV. This led to a war which lasted four or five years. After peace had been concluded, and Louis XIV. established on the throne, Mazarin was reinstated in power, and Cardinal de Retz was imprisoned. Flanders, formerly part of the Netherlands, is now included in Belgium, Holland and France. LV. THE FORTUNE TELLER. (218) Henry Mackenzie, 1745-1831, was born in Edinburgh, educated at the university there, and died in the same city. He was an attorney by profession, and was the associate of many famous literary men residing at that time in Edinburgh. His fame as a writer rests chiefly on two novels, "The Man of Feeling" and "The Man of the World;" both were published before the author was forty years old. ### Harley sat down on a large stone by the wayside, to take a pebble from his shoe, when he saw, at some distance, a beggar approaching him. He had on a loose sort of coat, mended with different-colored rags, among which the blue and russet were predominant. He had a short, knotty stick in his hand, and on the top of it was stuck a ram's horn; he wore no shoes, and his stockings had entirely lost that part of them which would have covered his feet and ankles; in his face, however, was the plump appearance of good humor; he walked a good, round pace, and a crook-legged dog trotted at his heels. "Our delicacies," said Harley to himself, "are fantastic; they are not in nature! That beggar walks over the sharpest of these stones barefooted, whilst I have lost the most delightful dream in the world from the smallest of them happening to get into my shoe." The beggar had by this time come up, and, pulling off a piece of a hat, asked charity of Harley. The dog began to beg, too. It was impossible to resist both; and, in truth, the want of shoes and stockings had made both unnecessary, for Harley had destined sixpence for him before. The beggar, on receiving it, poured forth blessings without number; and, with a sort of smile on his countenance, said to Harley that if he wanted to have his fortune told--Harley turned his eye briskly upon the beggar; it was an unpromising look for the subject of a prediction, and silenced the prophet immediately. "I would much rather learn" said Harley, "what it is in your power to tell me. Your trade must be an entertaining one; sit down on this stone, and let me know something of your profession; I have often thought of turning fortune teller for a week or two, myself." "Master," replied the beggar, "I like your frankness much, for I had the humor of plain dealing in me from a child; but there is no doing with it in this world,--we must do as we can; and lying is, as you call it, my profession. But I was in some sort forced to the trade, for I once dealt in telling the truth. I was a laborer, sir, and gained as much as to make me live. I never laid by, indeed, for I was reckoned a piece of a wag, and your wags, I take it, are seldom rich, Mr. Harley." "So," said Harley, "you seem to know me." "Ay, there are few folks in the country that I do n't know something of. How should I tell fortunes else?" "True,--but go on with your story; you were a laborer, you say, and a wag; your industry, I suppose, you left with your old trade; but your humor you preserved to be of use to you in your new." "What signifies sadness, sir? A man grows lean on 't. But I was brought to my idleness by degrees; sickness first disabled me, and it went against my stomach to work, ever after. But, in truth, I was for a long time so weak that I spit blood whenever I attempted to work. I had no relation living, and I never kept a friend above a week when I was able to joke. Thus I was forced to beg my bread, and a sorry trade I have found it, Mr. Harley. I told all my misfortunes truly, but they were seldom believed; and the few who gave me a half-penny as they passed, did it with a shake of the head, and an injunction not to trouble them with a long story. In short, I found that people do n't care to give alms without some security for their money,--such as a wooden leg, or a withered arm, for example. So I changed my plan, and instead of telling my own misfortunes, began to prophesy happiness to others. "This I found by much the better way. Folks will always listen when the tale is their own, and of many who say they do not believe in fortune telling, I have known few on whom it had not a very sensible effect. I pick up the names of their acquaintance; amours and little squabbles are easily gleaned from among servants and neighbors; and, indeed, people themselves are the best intelligencers in the world for our purpose. They dare not puzzle us for their own sakes, for everyone is anxious to hear what he wishes to believe; and they who repeat it, to laugh at it when they have done, are generally more serious than their hearers are apt to imagine. With a tolerably good memory, and some share of cunning, I succeed reasonably well as a fortune teller. With this, and showing the tricks of that dog, I make shift to pick up a livelihood. "My trade is none of the most honest, yet people are not much cheated after all, who give a few half-pence for a prospect of happiness, which I have heard some persons say, is all a man can arrive at in this world. But I must bid you good day, sir; for I have three miles to walk before noon, to inform some boarding-school young ladies whether their husbands are to be peers of the realm or captains in the army; a question which I promised to answer them by that time." Harley had drawn a shilling from his pocket; but Virtue bade him to consider on whom he was going to bestow it. Virtue held back his arm; but a milder form, a younger sister of Virtue's, not so severe as Virtue, nor so serious as Pity, smiled upon him; his fingers lost their compression; nor did Virtue appear to catch the money as it fell. It had no sooner reached the ground than the watchful cur (a trick he had been taught) snapped it up; and, contrary to the most approved method of stewardship, delivered it immediately into the hands of his master. LVI. RIENZI'S ADDRESS TO THE ROMANS. (221) Mary Russell Mitford, 1786-1855. She was the daughter of a physician, and was born in Hampshire, England. At twenty years of age, she published three volumes of poems; and soon after entered upon literature as a lifelong occupation. She wrote tales, sketches, poems, and dramas. "Our Village" is the best known of her prose works; the book describes the daily life of a rural people, is simple but finished in style, and is marked by mingled humor and pathos. Her most noted drama is "Rienzi." Miss Mitford passed the last forty years of her life in a little cottage in Berkshire, among a simple, country people, to whom she was greatly endeared by her kindness and social virtues. ### I come not here to talk. You know too well The story of our thraldom. We are slaves! The bright sun rises to his course, and lights A race of slaves! He sets, and his last beams Fall on a slave; not such as, swept along By the full tide of power, the conqueror led To crimson glory and undying fame; But base, ignoble slaves; slaves to a horde Of petty tyrants, feudal despots, lords, Rich in some dozen paltry villages; Strong in some hundred spearmen; only great In that strange spell,--a name. Each hour, dark fraud, Or open rapine, or protected murder, Cries out against them. But this very day, An honest man, my neighbor,--there he stands,-- Was struck--struck like a dog, by one who wore The badge of Ursini; because, forsooth, He tossed not high his ready cap in air, Nor lifted up his voice in servile shouts, At sight of that great ruffian! Be we men, And suffer such dishonor? men, and wash not The stain away in blood? Such shames are common. I have known deeper wrongs; I that speak to ye, I had a brother once--a gracious boy, Full of all gentleness, of calmest hope, Of sweet and quiet joy,--there was the look Of heaven upon his face, which limners give To the beloved disciple. How I loved That gracious boy! Younger by fifteen years, Brother at once, and son! He left my side, A summer bloom on his fair cheek; a smile Parting his innocent lips. In one short hour, That pretty, harmless boy was slain! I saw The corse, the mangled corse, and then I cried For vengeance! Rouse, ye Romans! rouse, ye slaves! Have ye brave sons? Look in the next fierce brawl To see them die. Have ye fair daughters? Look To see them live, torn from your arms, distained, Dishonored; and if ye dare call for justice, Be answered by the lash. Yet this is Rome, That sat on her seven hills, and from her throne Of beauty ruled the world! and we are Romans. Why, in that elder day, to be a Roman Was greater than a king! And once again,-- Hear me, ye walls that echoed to the tread Of either Brutus! Once again, I swear, The eternal city shall be free. NOTES.--Rienzi (b. about 1312, d. 1354) was the last of the Roman tribunes. In 1347 he led a successful revolt against the nobles, who by their contentions kept Rome in constant turmoil. He then assumed the title of tribune, but, after indulging in a life of reckless extravagance and pomp for a few months, he was compelled to abdicate, and fly for his life. In 1354 he was reinstated in power, but his tyranny caused his assassination the same year. The Ursini wore one of the noble families of Rome. This lesson is especially adapted for drill on inflection, emphasis, and modulation. LVll. CHARACTER OF THE PURITAN FATHERS OF NEW ENGLAND. (223) One of the most prominent features which distinguished our forefathers, was their determined resistance to oppression. They seemed born and brought up for the high and special purpose of showing to the world that the civil and religious rights of man--the rights of self-government, of conscience, and independent thought--are not merely things to be talked of and woven into theories, but to be adopted with the whole strength and ardor of the mind, and felt in the profoundest recesses of the heart, and carried out into the general life, and made the foundation of practical usefulness, and visible beauty, and true nobility. Liberty, with them, was an object of too serious desire and stern resolve to be personified, allegorized, and enshrined. They made no goddess of it, as the ancients did; they had no time nor inclination for such trifling; they felt that liberty was the simple birthright of every human creature; they called it so; they claimed it as such; they reverenced and held it fast as the unalienable gift of the Creator, which was not to be surrendered to power, nor sold for wages. It was theirs, as men; without it, they did not esteem themselves men; more than any other privilege or possession, it was essential to their happiness, for it was essential to their original nature; and therefore they preferred it above wealth, and ease, and country; and, that they might enjoy and exercise it fully, they forsook houses, and lands, and kindred, their homes, their native soil, and their fathers' graves. They left all these; they left England, which, whatever it might have been called, was not to them a land of freedom; they launched forth on the pathless ocean, the wide, fathomless ocean, soiled not by the earth beneath, and bounded, all round and above, only by heaven; and it seemed to them like that better and sublimer freedom, which their country knew not, but of which they had the conception and image in their hearts; and, after a toilsome and painful voyage, they came to a hard and wintry coast, unfruitful and desolate, but unguarded and boundless; its calm silence interrupted not the ascent of their prayers; it had no eyes to watch, no ears to hearken, no tongues to report of them; here, again, there was an answer to their soul's desire, and they were satisfied, and gave thanks; they saw that they were free, and the desert smiled. I am telling an old tale; but it is one which must be told when we speak of those men. It is to be added, that they transmitted their principles to their children, and that, peopled by such a race, our country was always free. So long as its inhabitants were unmolested by the mother country in the exercise of their important rights, they submitted to the form of English government; but when those rights were invaded, they spurned even the form away. This act was the Revolution, which came of course and spontaneously, and had nothing in it of the wonderful or unforeseen. The wonder would have been if it had not occurred. It was, indeed, a happy and glorious event, but by no means unnatural; and I intend no slight to the revered actors in the Revolution when I assert that their fathers before them were as free as they--every whit as free. The principles of the Revolution were not the suddenly acquired property of a few bosoms: they were abroad in the land in the ages before; they had always been taught, like the truths of the Bible; they had descended from father to son, down from those primitive days, when the Pilgrim, established in his simple dwelling, and seated at his blazing fire, piled high from the forest which shaded his door, repeated to his listening children the story of his wrongs and his resistance, and bade them rejoice, though the wild winds and the wild beasts were howling without, that they had nothing to fear from great men's oppression. Here are the beginnings of the Revolution. Every settler's hearth was a school of independence; the scholars were apt, and the lessons sunk deeply; and thus it came that our country was always free; it could not be other than free. As deeply seated as was the principle of liberty and resistance to arbitrary power in the breasts of the Puritans, it was not more so than their piety and sense of religious obligation. They were emphatically a people whose God was the Lord. Their form of government was as strictly theocratical, if direct communication be excepted, as was that of the Jews; insomuch that it would be difficult to say where there was any civil authority among them entirely distinct from ecclesiastical jurisdiction. Whenever a few of them settled a town, they immediately gathered themselves into a church; and their elders were magistrates, and their code of laws was the Pentateuch. These were forms, it is true, but forms which faithfully indicated principles and feelings; for no people could have adopted such forms, who were not thoroughly imbued with the spirit, and bent on the practice, of religion. God was their King; and they regarded him as truly and literally so, as if he had dwelt in a visible palace in the midst of their state. They were his devoted, resolute, humble subjects; they undertook nothing which they did not beg of him to prosper; they accomplished nothing without rendering to him the praise; they suffered nothing without carrying their sorrows to his throne; they ate nothing which they did not implore him to bless. Their piety was not merely external; it was sincere; it had the proof of a good tree in bearing good fruit; it produced and sustained a strict morality. Their tenacious purity of manners and speech obtained for them, in the mother country, their name of Puritans, which, though given in derision, was as honorable an appellation as was ever bestowed by man on man. That there were hypocrites among them, is not to be doubted; but they were rare. The men who voluntarily exiled themselves to an unknown coast, and endured there every toil and hardship for conscience' sake, and that they might serve God in their own manner, were not likely to set conscience at defiance, and make the service of God a mockery; they were not likely to be, neither were they, hypocrites. I do not know that it would be arrogating too much for them to say, that, on the extended surface of the globe, there was not a single community of men to be compared with them, in the respects of deep religious impressions and an exact performance of moral duty. F. W. P. Greenwood. NOTE.--The Pentateuch is the first five books of the Old Testament. The word is derived from two Greek words, (pente), five, and (tenchos), book. LVIII. LANDING OF THE PILGRIM FATHERS. (226) Felicia Dorothea Hemans, 1794-1835, was born in Liverpool. Her father, whose name was Browne, was an Irish merchant. She spent her childhood in Wales, began to write poetry at a very early age, and was married when about eighteen to Captain Hemans. By this marriage, she became the mother of five sons; but, owing to differences of taste and disposition, her husband left her at the end of six years; and by mutual agreement they never again lived together. Mrs. Hemans now made literature a profession, and wrote much and well. In 1826 Prof. Andrews Norton brought out an edition of her poems in America, where they became popular, and have remained so. Mrs. Hemans's poetry is smooth and graceful, frequently tinged with a shade of melancholy, but never despairing, cynical, or misanthropic. It never deals with the highest themes, nor rises to sublimity, but its influence is calculated to make the reader truer, nobler, and purer. ### The breaking waves dashed high On a stern and rock-bound coast, And the woods against a stormy sky Their giant branches tossed; And the heavy night hung dark, The hills and waters o'er, When a band of exiles moored their bark On the wild New England shore. Not as the conqueror comes, They, the true-hearted, came; Not with the roll of the stirring drums. And the trumpet that sings of fame. Not as the flying come, In silence, and in fear;-- They shook the depths of the desert gloom With their hymns of lofty cheer. Amidst the storm they sang, And the stars heard, and the sea; And the sounding aisles of the dim woods rang To the anthem of the free! The ocean eagle soared From his nest by the white wave's foam; And the rocking pines of the forest roared,-- This was their welcome home. There were men with hoary hair Amidst that pilgrim band: Why had they come to wither there, Away from their childhood's land? There was woman's fearless eye, Lit by her deep love's truth; There was manhood's brow, serenely high, And the fiery heart of youth. What sought they thus afar? Bright jewels of the mine? The wealth of seas, the spoils of war? They sought a faith's pure shrine! Ay, call it holy ground, The soil where first they trod: They have left unstained what there they found,-- Freedom to worship God. NOTE.--The Pilgrim Fathers landed at Plymouth, Mass, Dec. 11th (Old Style), 1620. The rock on which they first stepped, is in Water Street of the village, and is covered by a handsome granite canopy, surmounted by a colossal statue of Faith. LIX. NECESSITY OF EDUCATION. (228) We must educate! We must educate! or we must perish by our own prosperity. If we do not, short will be our race from the cradle to the grave. If, in our haste to be rich and mighty, we outrun our literary and religious institutions, they will never overtake us; or only come up after the battle of liberty is fought and lost, as spoils to grace the victory, and as resources of inexorable despotism for the perpetuity of our bondage. But what will become of the West if her prosperity rushes up to such a majesty of power, while those great institutions linger which are necessary to form the mind, and the conscience, and the heart of the vast world? It must not be permitted. And yet what is done must be done quickly; for population will not wait, and commerce will not cast anchor, and manufactures will not shut off the steam, nor shut down the gate, and agriculture, pushed by millions of freemen on their fertile soil, will not withhold her corrupting abundance. And let no man at the East quiet himself, and dream of liberty, whatever may become of the West. Our alliance of blood, and political institutions, and common interests, is such, that we can not stand aloof in the hour of her calamity, should it ever come. Her destiny is our destiny; and the day that her gallant ship goes down, our little boat sinks in the vortex! The great experiment is now making, and from its extent and rapid filling up, is making in the West, whether the perpetuity of our republican institutions can be reconciled with universal suffrage. Without the education of the head and heart of the nation, they can not be; and the question to be decided is, can the nation, or the vast balance power of it, be so imbued with intelligence and virtue as to bring out, in laws and their administration, a perpetual self-preserving energy. We know that the work is a vast one, and of great difficulty; and yet we believe it can be done. I am aware that our ablest patriots are looking out on the deep, vexed with storms, with great forebodings and failings of heart, for fear of the things that are coming upon us; and I perceive a spirit of impatience rising, and distrust in respect to the perpetuity of our republic; and I am sure that these fears are well founded, and am glad that they exist. It is the star of hope in our dark horizon. Fear is what we need, as the ship needs wind on a rocking sea, after a storm, to prevent foundering. But when our fear and our efforts shall correspond with our danger, the danger is past. For it is not the impossibility of self-preservation which threatens us; nor is it the unwillingness of the nation to pay the price of the preservation, as she has paid the price of the purchase of our liberties. It is inattention and inconsideration, protracted till the crisis is past, and the things which belong to our peace are hid from our eyes. And blessed be God, that the tokens of a national waking up, the harbinger of God's mercy, are multiplying upon us! We did not, in the darkest hour, believe that God had brought our fathers to this goodly land to lay the foundation of religious liberty, and wrought such wonders in their preservation, and raised their descendants to such heights of civil and religious liberty, only to reverse the analogy of his providence, and abandon his work. And though there now be clouds, and the sea roaring, and men's hearts failing, we believe there is light behind the cloud, and that the imminence of our danger is intended, under the guidance of Heaven, to call forth and apply a holy, fraternal fellowship between the East and the West, which shall secure our preservation, and make the prosperity of our nation durable as time, and as abundant as the waves of the sea. I would add, as a motive to immediate action, that if we do fail in our great experiment of self-government, our destruction will be as signal as the birthright abandoned, the mercies abused, and the provocation offered to beneficent Heaven. The descent of desolation will correspond with the past elevation. No punishments of Heaven are so severe as those for mercies abused; and no instrumentality employed in their infliction is so dreadful as the wrath of man. No spasms are like the spasms of expiring liberty, and no wailing such as her convulsions extort. It took Rome three hundred years to die; and our death, if we perish, will be as much more terrific as our intelligence and free institutions have given us more bone, sinew, and vitality. May God hide from me the day when the dying agonies of my country shall begin! O thou beloved land, bound together by the ties of brotherhood, and common interest, and perils! live forever--one and undivided! --Lyman Beecher. LX. RIDING ON A SNOWPLOW. (231) Benjamin Franklin Taylor, 1822-1887, was born at Lowville, New York, and graduated at Madison University, of which his father was president. Here he remained as resident graduate for about five years. His "Attractions of Language" was published in 1845. For many years Mr. Taylor was literary editor of the "Chicago Journal." He wrote considerably for the magazines, and was the author of many well-known fugitive pieces, both in prose and verse. He also published several books, of which "January and June," "Pictures in Camp and Field," "The World on Wheels," "Old-time Pictures and Sheaves of Rhyme," "Between the Gates," and "Songs of Yesterday," are the best known. In his later years, Mr. Taylor achieved some reputation as a lecturer. His writings are marked by an exuberant fancy. ### Did you ever ride on a snowplow? Not the pet and pony of a thing that is attached to the front of an engine, sometimes, like a pilot; but a great two-storied monster of strong timbers, that runs upon wheels of its own, and that boys run after and stare at as they would after and at an elephant. You are snow-bound at Buffalo. The Lake Shore Line is piled with drifts like a surf. Two passenger trains have been half-buried for twelve hours somewhere in snowy Chautauqua. The storm howls like a congregation of Arctic bears. But the superintendent at Buffalo is determined to release his castaways, and clear the road to Erie. He permits you to be a passenger on the great snowplow; and there it is, all ready to drive. Harnessed behind it, is a tandem team of three engines. It does not occur to you that you are going to ride on a steam drill, and so you get aboard. It is a spacious and timbered room, with one large bull's eye window,--an overgrown lens. The thing is a sort of Cyclops. There are ropes, and chains, and a windlass. There is a bell by which the engineer of the first engine can signal the plowman, and a cord whereby the plowman can talk back. There are two sweeps, or arms, worked by machinery, on the sides. You ask their use, and the superintendent replies, "When, in a violent shock, there is danger of the monster's upsetting, an arm is put out, on one side or the other, to keep the thing from turning a complete somersault." You get one idea, and an inkling of another. So you take out your Accident Policy for three thousand dollars, and examine it. It never mentions battles, nor duels, nor snowplows. It names "public conveyances." Is a snowplow a public conveyance? You are inclined to think it is neither that nor any other kind that you should trust yourself to, but it is too late for consideration. You roll out of Buffalo in the teeth of the wind, and the world is turned to snow. All goes merrily. The machine strikes little drifts, and they scurry away in a cloud. The three engines breathe easily; but by and by the earth seems broken into great billows of dazzling white. The sun comes out of a cloud, and touches it up till it out-silvers Potosi. Houses lie in the trough of the sea everywhere, and it requires little imagination to think they are pitching and tossing before your eyes. A great breaker rises right in the way. The monster, with you in it, works its way up and feels of it. It is packed like a ledge of marble. Three whistles! The machine backs away and keeps backing, as a gymnast runs astern to get sea room and momentum for a big jump; as a giant swings aloft a heavy sledge, that it may come down with a heavy blow. One whistle! You have come to a halt. Three pairs of whistles one after the other! and then, putting on all steam, you make for the drift. The superintendent locks the door, you do not quite understand why, and in a second the battle begins. The machine rocks and creaks in all its joints. There comes a tremendous shock. The cabin is as dark as midnight. The clouds of flying snow put out the day. The labored breathing of the locomotives behind you, the clouds of smoke and steam that wrap you up as in a mantle, the noonday eclipse of the sun, the surging of the ship, the rattling of chains, the creak of timbers as if the craft were aground and the sea getting out of its bed to whelm you altogether, the doubt as to what will come,--all combine to make a scene of strange excitement for a landlubber. You have made some impression on the breaker, and again the machine backs for a fair start, and then another plunge, and shock, and twilight. And so, from deep cut to deep cut, as if the season had packed all his winter clothes upon the track, until the stalled trains are reached and passed; and then, with alternate storm and calm, and halt and shock, till the way is cleared to Erie. It is Sunday afternoon, and Erie--"Mad Anthony Wayne's" old headquarters--has donned its Sunday clothes, and turned out by hundreds to see the great plow come in,--its first voyage over the line. The locomotives set up a crazy scream, and you draw slowly into the depot. The door opened at last, you clamber down, and gaze up at the uneasy house in which you have been living. It looks as if an avalanche had tumbled down upon it,--white as an Alpine shoulder. Your first thought is gratitude that you have made a landing alive. Your second, a resolution that, if again you ride a hammer, it will not be when three engines have hold of the handle! NOTES.--Chautauqua is the most western county in the state of New York; it borders on Lake Erie. The Cyclops are described in Grecian mythology as giants having only one eye, which was circular, and placed in the middle of the forehead. Cerro de Potosi is a mountain in Bolivia, South America, celebrated for its mineral wealth. More than five thousand mines have been opened in it; the product is chiefly silver. "Mad Anthony Wayne" (b. 1745, d. 1796), so called from his bravery and apparent recklessness, was a famous American officer during the Revolution. In 1794 be conducted a successful campaign against the Indians of the Northwest, making his headquarters at Erie, Pa. LXI. THE QUARREL OF BRUTUS AND CASSIUS. (234) Cas. That you have wronged me doth appear in this: You have condemned and noted Lucius Pella For taking bribes here of the Sardians; Wherein my letters, praying on his side, Because I knew the man, were slighted off. Bru. You wronged yourself to write in such a case. Cas. In such a time as this, it is not meet That every nice offense should bear his comment. Bru. Yet let me tell you, Cassius, you yourself Are much condemned to have an itching palm, To sell and mart your offices for gold To undeservers. Cas. I an itching palm! You know that you are Brutus that speak this, Or, by the gods, this speech were else your last. Bru. The name of Cassius honors this corruption, And chastisement doth therefore hide his head. Cas. Chastisement! Bru. Remember March, the ides of March remember! Did not great Julius bleed for justice' sake? What villain touched his body, that did stab, And not for justice? What! shall one of us, That struck the foremost man of all this world But for supporting robbers; shall we now Contaminate our fingers with base bribes, And sell the mighty space of our large honors For so much trash as may be graspe'd thus? I had rather be a dog, and bay the moon, Than such a Roman. Cas. Brutus, bay not me; I'll not endure it: you forget yourself, To hedge me in; I am a soldier, I, Older in practice, abler than yourself To make conditions. Bru. Go to; you are not, Cassius. Cas. I am. Bru. I say you are not. Cas. Urge me no more, I shall forget myself: Have mind upon your health; tempt me no further. Bru. Away, slight man! Cas. Is't possible? Bru. Hear me, for I will speak. Must I give way and room to your rash choler? Shall I be frighted when a madman stares? Cas. O ye gods! ye gods! must I endure all this? Bru. All this! Ay, more: fret till your proud heart break; Go, show your slaves how choleric you are, And make your bondmen tremble. Must I budge? Must I observe you? Must I stand and crouch Under your testy humor? By the gods, You shall digest the venom of your spleen, Though it do split you; for, from this day forth, I'll use you for my mirth, yea for my laughter, When you are waspish. Cas. Is it come to this? Bru. You say you are a better soldier; Let it appear so; make your vaunting true, And it shall please me well: for mine own part, I shall be glad to learn of noble men. Cas. You wrong me every way; you wrong me, Brutus; I said, an elder soldier, not a better: Did I say "better"? Bru. If you did, I care not. Cas. When Caesar lived, he durst not thus have moved me. Bru. Peace, peace! you durst not so have tempted him. Cas. I durst not? Bru. No. Cas. What! durst not tempt him? Bru. For your life, you durst not. Cas. Do not presume too much upon my love; I may do that I shall be sorry for. Bru. You have done that you should be sorry for. There is no terror, Cassius, in your threats; For I am armed so strong in honesty That they pass by me as the idle wind, Which I respect not. I did send to you For certain sums of gold, which you denied me;-- For I can raise no money by vile means: By heaven! I had rather coin my heart, And drop my blood for drachmas, than to wring From the hard hands of peasants their vile trash By any indirection.--I did send To you for gold to pay my legions, Which you denied me: was that done like Cassius? Should I have answered Caius Cassius so? When Marcus Brutus grows so covetous, To lock such rascal counters from his friends, Be ready, gods, with an your thunderbolts; Dash him to pieces! Cas. I denied you not. Bru. You did. Cas. I did not: he was but a fool that brought My answer back. Brutus hath rived my heart: A friend should bear his friend's infirmities, But Brutus makes mine greater than they are. Bru. I do not, till you practice them on me. Cas. You love me not. Bru. I do not like your faults. Cas. A friendly eye could never see such faults. Bru. A flatterer's would not, though they do appear As huge as high Olympus. Cas. Come, Antony, and young Octavius, come, Revenge yourselves alone on Cassius, For Cassius is aweary of the world; Hated by one he loves; braved by his brother; Checked like a bondman; all his faults observed, Set in a notebook, learned, and conned by rate, To cast into my teeth. Oh, I could weep My spirit from mine eyes! There is my dagger, And here my naked breast; within, a heart Dearer than Plutus' mine, richer than gold: If that thou be'st a Roman, take it forth: I, that denied thee gold, will give my heart: Strike, as thou didst at Caesar; for, I know, When thou didst hate him worst, thou lovedst him better Than ever thou lovedst Cassius. Bru. Sheathe your dagger: Be angry when you will, it shall have scope; Do what you will, dishonor shall be humor. O Cassius, you are yoked with a lamb That carries anger as the flint bears fire; Who, much enforced, shows a hasty spark, And straight is cold again. Cas. Hath Cassius lived To be but mirth and laughter to his Brutus, When grief, and blood ill-tempered, vexeth him? Bru. When I spoke that, I was ill-tempered, too. Cas. Do you confess so much? Give me your hand. 238 ECLECTIC SERIES. Bru. And my heart, too. Cas. O Brutus! Bru. What's the matter? Cas. Have you not love enough to bear with me, When that rash humor which my mother gave me Makes me forgetful? Bru. Yes, Cassius; and, from henceforth, When you are over earnest with your Brutus, He'll think your mother chides, and leave you so. Shakespeare.--Julius Caesar, Act iv, Scene iii. NOTES.--Ides (pro. idz) was a term used in the Roman calendar. It fell on the fifteenth day of March, May, July, and October, and on the thirteenth of other months. On the ides of March, 44 B. C., Julius Caesar was murdered by Brutus, Cassius, and other conspirators. The populace were aroused to indignation, and the conspirators were compelled to fly. Indirection; i. e., dishonest means. Antony and Octavius, who, with Lepidus, formed the triumvirate now governing Rome, were at this time marching against the forces of Brutus and Cassius. Plutus, in ancient mythology, the god of wealth. LXII. THE QUACK. (238) John Tobin, 1770-1804, a solicitor, was born at Salisbury, England, and died on shipboard near Cork. He wrote several comedies, the most popular being "The Honeymoon," from which this extract is taken; it was published in 1805. ### SCENE--The Inn. Enter HOSTESS followed by LAMPEDO, a Quack Doctor. Host. Nay, nay; another fortnight. Lamp. It can't be. The man's as well as I am: have some mercy! He hath been here almost three weeks already. Host. Well, then, a week. Lamp. We may detain him a week. (Enter BALTHAZAR, the patient, from behind, in his nightgown, with a drawn sword.) You talk now like a reasonable hostess, That sometimes has a reckoning with her conscience. Host. He still believes he has an inward bruise. Lamp. I would to heaven he had! or that he'd slipped His shoulder blade, or broke a leg or two, (Not that I bear his person any malice,) Or luxed an arm, or even sprained his ankle! Host. Ay, broken anything except his neck. Lamp. However, for a week I'll manage him, Though he had the constitution of a horse-- A farrier should prescribe for him. Balth. A farrier! (Aside. ) Lamp. To-morrow, we phlebotomize again; Next day, my new-invented patent draught; Then, I have some pills prepared; On Thursday, we throw in the bark; on Friday-- Balth. (Coming forward.) Well, sir, on Friday--what, on Friday? Come, Proceed. Lamp. Discovered! They (Host.,Lamp.) fall on their knees. Host. Mercy, noble sir! Lamp. We crave your mercy! Balth. On your knees? 'tis well! Pray! for your time is short. Host. Nay, do not kill us. Balth. You have been tried, condemned, and only wait For execution. Which shall I begin with? Lamp. The lady, by all means, sir. Balth. Come, prepare. (To the hostess.) Host. Have pity by the weakness of my sex! Balth. Tell me, thou quaking mountain of gross flesh, Tell me, and in a breath, how many poisons-- If you attempt it--(To LAMPEDO, who is making off) you have cooked up for me? Host. None, as I hope for mercy! Balth. Is not thy wine a poison? Host. No indeed, sir; 'T is not, I own, of the first quality; But-- Balth. What? Host. I always give short measure, sir, And ease my conscience that way. Balth. Ease your conscience! I'll ease your conscience for you. Host. Mercy, sir! Balth. Rise, if thou canst, and hear me. Host. Your commands, sir? Balth. If, in five minutes, all things are prepared For my departure, you may yet survive. Host. It shall be done in less. Balth. Away, thou lumpfish. (Exit hostess.) Lamp. So! now comes my turn! 't is all over with me! There's dagger, rope, and ratsbane in his looks! Baith. And now, thou sketch and outline of a man! Thou thing that hast no shadow in the sun! Thou eel in a consumption, eldest born Of Death and Famine! thou anatomy Of a starved pilchard! Lamp. I do confess my leanness. I am spare, And, therefore, spare me. Balth. Why wouldst thou have made me A thoroughfare, for thy whole shop to pass through? Lamp. Man, you know, must live. Balth. Yes: he must die, too. Lamp. For my patients' sake! Balth. I'll send you to the major part of them-- The window, sir, is open;-come, prepare. Lamp. Pray consider! I may hurt some one in the street. [Illustration: Lampedo and Hostess kneeling, with hands folded, pleading with Balthazar, who is standing over them, holding a sword. Several small glass bottles are on the table by the wall and scattered on the floor.] Balth. Why, then, I'll rattle thee to pieces in a dicebox, Or grind thee in a coffee mill to powder, For thou must sup with Pluto:--so, make ready! Whilst I, with this good smallsword for a lancet, Let thy starved spirit out (for blood thou hast none), And nail thee to the wall, where thou shalt look Like a dried beetle with a pin stuck through him. Lamp. Consider my poor wife. Balth. Thy wife! Lamp. My wife, sir. Balth. Hast thou dared think of matrimony, too? Thou shadow of a man, and base as lean! Lamp. O spare me for her sake! I have a wife, and three angelic babes, Who, by those looks, are well nigh fatherless. Balth. Well, well! your wife and children shall plead for you. Come, come; the pills! where are the pills? Produce them. Lamp. Here is the box. Balth. Were it Pandora's, and each single pill Had ten diseases in it, you should take them. Lamp. What, all? Balth. Ay, all; and quickly, too. Come, sir, begin-- (LAMPEDO takes one.) That's well!--Another. Lamp. One's a dose. Balth. Proceed, sir. Lamp. What will become of me? Let me go home, and set my shop to rights, And, like immortal Caesar, die with decency. Balth. Away! and thank thy lucky star I have not Brayed thee in thine own mortar, or exposed thee For a large specimen of the lizard genus. Lamp. Would I were one!--for they can feed on air. Balth. Home, sir! and be more honest. Lump. If I am not, I'll be more wise, at least. NOTEs.--Pluto, in ancient mythology, the god of the lower world. Pandora is described in the Greek legends as the first created woman. She was sent by Jupiter to Epimetheus as a punishment, because the latter's brother, Prometheus, had stolen fire from heaven. When she arrived among men, she opened a box in which were all the evils of mankind, and everything escaped except Hope. LXIII. RIP VAN WINKLE. (242) The appearance of Rip, with his long, grizzled beard, his rusty fowling piece, his uncouth dress, and an army of women and children at his heels, soon attracted the attention of the tavern politicians. They crowded around him, eying him from head to foot with great curiosity. The orator bustled up to him, and, drawing him partly aside, inquired on which side he voted. Rip stared in vacant stupidity. Another short but busy little fellow pulled him by the arm, and, rising on tiptoe, inquired in his ear "whether he was Federal or Democrat." Rip was equally at a loss to comprehend the question; when a knowing, self-important old gentleman, in a sharp cocked hat, made his way through the crowd, putting them to the right and left with his elbows as he passed, and planting himself before Van Winkle, with one arm akimbo, the other resting on his cane, his keen eyes and sharp hat, penetrating, as it were, into his very soul, demanded, in an austere tone, what brought him to the election with a gun on his shoulder, and a mob at his heels, and whether he meant to breed a riot in the village. "Alas! gentlemen," cried Rip, somewhat dismayed, "I am a poor, quiet man, a native of the place, and a loyal subject of the king, God bless him!" Here a general shout burst from the bystanders.--"A tory! a tory! a spy! a refugee! hustle him! away with him!" It was with great difficulty that the self-important man in the cocked hat restored order; and, having a tenfold austerity of brow, demanded again of the unknown culprit, what he came there for, and whom he was seeking. The poor man humbly assured him that he meant no harm, but merely came there in search of some of his neighbors, who used to keep about the tavern. "Well, who are they? name them." Rip bethought himself a moment, and inquired, "Where's Nicholas Vedder?" There was a silence for a little while, when an old man replied, in a thin, piping voice, "Nicholas Vedder! why he is dead and gone these eighteen years! There was a wooden tombstone in the churchyard that used to tell all about him, but that's rotten and gone too." "Where's Brom Dutcher?" "Oh, he went off to the army in the beginning of the war. Some say he was killed at the storming of Stony Point; others say he was drowned in a squall at the foot of Anthony's Nose. I don't know; he never came back again." "Where's Van Bummel, the schoolmaster?" "He went off to the wars, too; was a great militia general, and is now in Congress." Rip's heart died away at hearing of these sad changes in his home and friends, and finding himself thus alone in the world. Every answer puzzled him, too, by treating of such enormous lapses of time, and of matters which he could not understand--war, Congress, Stony Point. He had no courage to ask after any more friends, but cried out in despair, "Does nobody here know Rip Van Winkle?" "Oh, Rip Van Winkle!" exclaimed two or three. "Oh, to be sure! That's Rip Van Winkle yonder, leaning against the tree." Rip looked, and beheld a precise counterpart of himself as he went up the mountain; apparently as lazy, and certainly as ragged. The poor fellow was now completely confounded; he doubted his own identity, and whether he was himself or another man. In the midst of his bewilderment, the man in the cocked hat demanded who he was, and what was his name. "God knows!" exclaimed he, at his wit's end. "I'm not myself; I'm somebody else; that's me yonder; no, that's somebody else got into my shoes. I was myself last night; but I fell asleep on the mountain, and they've changed my gun, and everything's changed, and I'm changed, and I can't tell what's my name or who I am!" The bystanders began now to look at each other, nod, wink significantly, and tap their fingers against their foreheads. There was a whisper, also, about securing the gun, and keeping the old fellow from doing mischief, at the very suggestion of which the self-important man in the cocked hat retired with some precipitation. At this critical moment, a fresh, comely woman pressed through the throng to get a peep at the gray-bearded man. She had a chubby child in her arms, which, frightened at his looks, began to cry. "Hush, Rip!" cried she, "hush, you little fool! the old man won't hurt you." The name of the child, the air of the mother, the tone of her voice, all awakened a train of recollections in his mind. "What is your name, my good woman?" asked he. "Judith Gardenier." "And your father's name?" "Ah, poor man! Rip Van Winkle was his name; but it's twenty years since he went away from home with his gun, and never has been heard of since; his dog came home without him; but whether he shot himself, or was carried away by the Indians, nobody can tell. I was then but a little girl." Rip had but one question more to ask; but he put it with a faltering voice: "Where's your mother?" "Oh, she, too, died but a short time since; she broke a blood vessel in a fit of passion at a New England peddler." There was a drop of comfort, at least, in this intelligence. The honest man could contain himself no longer. He caught his daughter and her child in his arms. "I am your father!" cried he. "Young Rip Van Winkle once, old Rip Van Winkle now! Does nobody know poor Rip Van Winkle?" All stood amazed, until an old woman, tottering out from among the crowd, put her hand to her brow, and, peering under it in his face for a moment, exclaimed, "Sure enough! it is Rip Van Winkle! it is himself! Welcome home again, old neighbor! Why, where have you been these twenty long years?" Rip's story was soon told, for the whole twenty years had been to him but as one night. To make a long story short, the company broke up and returned to the more important concerns of the election. Rip's daughter took him home to live with her. She had a snug, well-furnished house, and a stout, cheery farmer for a husband, whom Rip recollected for one of the urchins that used to climb upon his back. Rip now resumed his old walks and habits. He soon found many of his former cronies, though all rather the worse for the wear and tear of time, and preferred making friends among the rising generation, with whom he soon grew into great favor. --Irving. NOTES.--Rip Van Winkle, according to Irving's story in "The Sketch Book," was a great drunkard, and was driven from his home in the Catskill Mountains, one night, by his wife. Wandering among the mountains, he fell in with the ghosts of Hendrick Hudson and his crew, with whom he played a game of ninepins. Upon drinking the liquor which they offered him, however, he immediately fell into a deep sleep which lasted for twenty years. The above lesson recounts the events that befell him when he returned to his native village. In the meantime the Revolution of 1776 had taken place. The Federals and the Democrats formed the two leading political parties of that time. Stony Point is a promontory on the Hudson, at the entrance of the Highlands, forty-two miles from New York. It was a fortified post during the Revolution, captured by the British, and again retaken by the Americans under Wayne. Anthony's Nose is also a promontory on the Hudson, about fifteen miles above Stony Point. LXIV. BILL AND JOE. (246) Oliver Wendell Holmes, 1809-1894, was the son of Abiel Holmes, D.D. He was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and graduated at Harvard in 1829, having for classmates several men who have since become distinguished. After graduating, he studied law for about one year, and then turned his attention to medicine. He studied his profession in Paris, and elsewhere in Europe, and took his degree at Cambridge in 1836. In 1838 he was appointed Professor of Anatomy and Physiology in Dartmouth College. He remained here but a short time, and then returned to Boston and entered on the practice of medicine. In 1847 he was appointed professor at Harvard, filling a similar position to the one held at Dartmouth. He discharged the duties of his professorship for more than thirty years, with great success. Literature was never his profession; yet few American authors attained higher success, both as a poet and as a prose writer. His poems are lively and sparkling, abound in wit and humor, but are not wanting in genuine pathos. Many of them were composed for special occasions. His prose writings include works on medicine, essays, and novels; several appeared first as contributions to the "Atlantic Monthly." He gained reputation, also, as it popular lecturer. In person, Dr. Holmes was small and active, with a face expressive of thought and vivacity. ### Come, dear old comrade, you and I Will steal an hour from days gone by-- The shining days when life was new, And all was bright as morning dew, The lusty days of long ago, When you were Bill and I was Joe. Your name may flaunt a titled trail Proud as a cockerel's rainbow tail, And mine as brief appendix wear As Tam O'Shanter's luckless mare; To-day, old friend, remember still That I am Joe and you are Bill. You've won the great world's envied prize, And grand you look in people's eyes, With HON. and LL. D., In big, brave letters fair to see,-- Your fist, old fellow! Off they go!-- How are you, Bill? How are you, Joe? You've worn the judge's ermined robe; You've taught your name to half the globe; You've sung mankind a deathless strain; You've made the dead past live again: The world may call you what it will, But you and I are Joe and Bill. The chaffing young folks stare and say, "See those old buffers, bent and gray; They talk like fellows in their teens; Mad, poor old boys! That's what it means" And shake their heads; they little know The throbbing hearts of Bill and Joe-- How Bill forgets his hour of pride, While Joe sits smiling at his side; How Joe, in spite of time's disguise, Finds the old schoolmate in his eyes,-- Those calm, stern eyes, that melt and fill, As Joe looks fondly up to Bill. Ah! pensive scholar, what is fame? A fitful tongue of leaping flame; A giddy whirlwind's fickle gust, That lifts a pinch of mortal dust; A few swift years, and who can show Which dust was Bill, and which was Joe. The weary idol takes his stand, Holds out his bruised and aching hand, While gaping thousands come and go-- How vain it seems, this empty show!-- Till all at once his pulses thrill: 'T is poor old Joe's, "God bless you, Bill!" And shall we breathe in happier spheres The names that pleased our mortal ears; In some sweet lull of heart and song For earth born spirits none too long, Just whispering of the world below When this was Bill, and that was Joe? No matter; while our home is here, No sounding name is half so dear; When fades at length our lingering day, Who cares what pompous tombstones say? Read on the hearts that love us still, Hic jacet Joe. Hic jacet Bill. NOTE.--Hic jacet (pro. hic ja'cet) is a Latin phrase, meaning here lies. It is frequently used in epitaphs. LXV. SORROW FOR THE DEAD. (249) The sorrow for the dead is the only sorrow from which we refuse to be divorced. Every other wound we seek to heal; every other affliction, to forget; but this wound we consider it a duty to keep open. This affliction we cherish, and brood over in solitude. Where is the mother who would willingly forget the infant that has perished like a blossom from her arms, though every recollection is a pang? Where is the child that would willingly forget a tender parent, though to remember be but to lament? Who, even in the hour of agony, would forget the friend over whom he mourns? No, the love which survives the tomb is one of the noblest attributes of the soul. If it has its woes, it has likewise its delights: and when the overwhelming burst of grief is calmed into the gentle tear of recollection; when the sudden anguish and the convulsive agony over the present ruins of all that we most loved, is softened away into pensive meditation on all that it was in the days of its loveliness, who would root out such a sorrow from the heart? Though it may, sometimes, throw a passing cloud over the bright hour of gayety, or spread a deeper sadness over the hour of gloom; yet, who would exchange it even for the song of pleasure, or the burst of revelry? No, there is a voice from the tomb sweeter than song. There is a remembrance of the dead, to which we turn even from the charms of the living. Oh, the grave! the grave! It buries every error, covers every defect, extinguishes every resentment! From its peaceful bosom spring none but fond regrets and tender recollections. Who can look down upon the grave even of an enemy, and not feel a compunctious throb, that he should have warred with the poor handful of earth that lies moldering before him? But the grave of those we loved--what a place for meditation! There it is that we call up, in long review, the whole history of virtue and gentleness, and the thousand endearments lavished upon us, almost unheeded in the daily intercourse of intimacy; there it is that we dwell upon the tenderness, the solemn, awful tenderness of the parting scene; the bed of death, with all its stifled griefs, its noiseless attendance, its mute, watchful assiduities! the last testimonies of expiring love! the feeble, fluttering, thrilling,--oh! how thrilling!--pressure of the hand! the last fond look of the glazing eye turning upon us, even from the threshold of existence! the faint, faltering accents, struggling in death to give one more assurance of affection! Ay, go to the grave of buried love, and meditate! There settle the account with thy conscience for every past benefit unrequited; every past endearment unregarded, of that departed being, who can never--never-- never return to be soothed by thy contrition! If thou art a child, and hast ever added a sorrow to the soul, or a furrow to the silvered brow of an affectionate parent; if thou art a husband, and hast ever caused the fond bosom that ventured its whole happiness in thy arms to doubt one moment of thy kindness or thy truth; if thou art a friend, and hast ever wronged, in thought, or word, or deed, the spirit that generously confided in thee; if thou hast given one unmerited pang to that true heart, which now lies cold and still beneath thy feet; then be sure that every unkind look, every ungracious word, every ungentle action, will come thronging back upon thy memory, and knocking dolefully at thy soul; then be sure that thou wilt lie down sorrowing and repentant on the grave, and utter the unheard groan, and pour the unavailing tear; more deep, more bitter, because unheard and unavailing. Then weave thy chaplet of flowers, and strew the beauties of nature about the grave; console thy broken spirit, if thou canst, with these tender, yet futile, tributes of regret: but take warning by the bitterness of this, thy contrite affliction over the dead, and henceforth be more faithful and affectionate in the discharge of thy duties to the living. --Irving. LXVI. THE EAGLE. (251) James Gates Percival, 1795-1856, was born at Berlin, Connecticut, and graduated at Yale College in 1815, at the head of his class. He was admitted to the practice of medicine in 1820, and went to Charleston, South Carolina. In 1824 he was appointed Professor of Chemistry at West Point, a position which he held but a few months. In 1854 he was appointed State Geologist of Wisconsin, and died at Hazel Green, in that state. Dr. Percival was eminent as a geographer, geologist, and linguist. He began to write poetry at an early age, and his fame rests chiefly upon his writings in this department. In his private life, Percival was always shy, modest, and somewhat given to melancholy. Financially, his life was one of struggle, and he was often greatly straitened for money. ### Bird of the broad and sweeping wing! Thy home is high in heaven, Where the wide storms their banners fling, And the tempest clouds are driven. Thy throne is on the mountain top; Thy fields, the boundless air; And hoary peaks, that proudly prop The skies, thy dwellings are. Thou art perched aloft on the beetling crag, And the waves are white below, And on, with a haste that can not lag, They rush in an endless flow. Again thou hast plumed thy wing for flight To lands beyond the sea, And away, like a spirit wreathed in light, Thou hurriest, wild and free. Lord of the boundless realm of air! In thy imperial name, The hearts of the bold and ardent dare The dangerous path of fame, Beneath the shade of thy golden wings, The Roman legions bore, From the river of Egypt's cloudy springs, Their pride, to the polar shore. For thee they fought, for thee they fell, And their oath on thee was laid; To thee the clarions raised their swell, And the dying warrior prayed. Thou wert, through an age of death and fears, The image of pride and power, Till the gathered rage of a thousand years, Burst forth in one awful hour. And then, a deluge of wrath, it came, And the nations shook with dread; And it swept the earth, till its fields were flame, And piled with the mingled dead. Kings were rolled in the wasteful flood, With the low and crouching slave; And together lay, in a shroud of blood, The coward and the brave. NOTES.--Roman legions. The Roman standard was the image of an eagle. The soldiers swore by it, and the loss of it was considered a disgrace. One awful hour. Alluding to the destruction of Rome by the northern barbarians. LXVII. POLITICAL TOLERATION. (253) Thomas Jefferson, 1743-1826, the third President of the United States, and the author of the Declaration of Independence, was born in Albemarle County, Virginia. He received most of his early education under private tutors, and at the age of seventeen entered William and Mary College, where he remained two years. At college, where he studied industriously, he formed the acquaintance of several distinguished men, among them was George Wythe, with whom he entered on the study of law. At the age of twenty-four he was admitted to the bar, and soon rose to high standing in his profession. In 1775 he entered the Colonial Congress, having previously served ably in the legislature of his native state. Although one of the youngest men in Congress, he soon took a foremost place in that body. He left Congress in the fall of 1776, and, as a member of the legislature, and later as Governor of Virginia, he was chiefly instrumental in effecting several important reforms in the laws of that state,--the most notable were the abolition of the law of primogeniture, and the passage of a law making all religious denominations equal. From 1785 to 1789 he was Minister to France. On his return to America he was made Secretary of State, in the first Cabinet. While in this office, he became the leader of the Republican or Anti-Federalist party, in opposition to the Federalist party led by Alexander Hamilton. From 1801 to 1809 he was President. On leaving his high office, he retired to his estate at "Monticello," where he passed the closing years of his life, and died on the 4th of July, just fifty years after the passage of his famous Declaration. His compatriot, and sometimes bitter political opponent, John Adams, died on the same day. Mr. Jefferson, who was never a ready public speaker, was a remarkably clear and forcible writer; his works fill several large volumes. In personal character, he was pure and simple, cheerful, and disposed to look on the bright side. His knowledge of life rendered his conversation highly attractive. The chief enterprise of his later years was the founding of the University of Virginia, at Charlottesville. ### During the contest of opinion through which we have passed, the animation of discussions and of exertions has sometimes worn an aspect which might impose on strangers, unused to think freely and to speak and to write what they think; but this being now decided by the voice of the nation, announced according to the rules of the constitution, all will, of course, arrange themselves under the will of the law, and unite in common efforts for the common good. All, too, will bear in mind this sacred principle, that, though the will of the majority is, in all cases, to prevail, that will, to be rightful, must be reasonable; that the minority possess their equal rights, which equal laws must protect, and to violate which would be oppression. Let us then, fellow-citizens, unite with one heart and one mind. Let us restore to social intercourse that harmony and affection, without which liberty, and even life itself, are but dreary things; and let us reflect, that, having banished from our land that religious intolerance under which mankind so long bled and suffered, we have gained little if we countenance a political intolerance as despotic, as wicked, and capable of as bitter and bloody persecutions. During the throes and convulsions of the ancient world; during the agonizing spasms of infuriated man, seeking, through blood and slaughter, his long-lost liberty; it was not wonderful that the agitation of the billows should reach even this distant and peaceful shore; that this should be more felt and feared by some, and less by others, and should divide opinions as to measures of safety. But every difference of opinion is not a difference of principle. We have called by different names brethren of the same principle. We are all Republicans; we are all Federalists. If there be any among us who would wish to dissolve this Union, or to change its republican form, let them stand undisturbed as monuments of the safety with which error of opinion may be tolerated when reason is left free to combat it. I know, indeed, that some honest men fear that a republican government can not be strong; that this government is not strong enough. But would the honest patriot, in the full tide of successful experiment, abandon a government which has so far kept us free and firm, on the theoretic and visionary fear that this government, the world's best hope, may, by possibility, want energy to preserve itself? I trust not; I believe this, on the contrary, the strongest government on earth. I believe it to be the only one where every man, at the call of the law, would fly to the standard of the law, and would meet invasions of the public order as his own personal concern. Sometimes it is said that man can not be trusted with the government of himself. Can he, then, be trusted with the government of others, or have we found angels, in the form of kings, to govern him? Let history answer this question. Let us, then, with courage and confidence, pursue our own federal and republican principles; our attachment to union and representative government. NOTE.--At the time of Jefferson's election, party spirit ran very high. He had been defeated by John Adams at the previous presidential election, but the Federal party, to which Adams belonged, became weakened by their management during difficulties with France; and now Jefferson had been elected president over his formerly successful rival. The above selection is from his inaugural address. LXVIII. WHAT CONSTITUTES A STATE? (255) Sir William Jones, 1746-1794, was the son of an eminent mathematician; he early distinguished himself by his ability as a student. He graduated at Oxford, became well versed in Oriental literature, studied law, and wrote many able books. In 1783 he was appointed Judge of the Supreme Court of Judicature in Bengal. He was a man of astonishing learning, upright life, and Christian principles. ### What constitutes a state? Not high-raised battlement or labored mound, Thick wall or moated gate; Not cities proud with spires and turrets crowned; Not bays and broad-armed ports, Where, laughing at the storm, rich navies ride; Not starred and spangled courts, Where low-browed baseness wafts perfume to pride. No:--men, high-minded men, With powers as far above dull brutes endued In forest, brake, or den, As beasts excel cold rocks and brambles rude,-- Men who their duties know, But know their rights, and, knowing, dare maintain, Prevent the long-aimed blow, And crush the tyrant while they rend the chain: These constitute a state; And sovereign Law, that state's collected will, O'er thrones and globes elate, Sits empress, crowning good, repressing ill. LXIX. THE BRAVE AT HOME. (256) Thomas Buchanan Read, 1822-1872, an American poet and painter, was born in Chester County, Pennsylvania. At the age of seventeen he entered a sculptor's studio in Cincinnati. Here he gained reputation as a painter of portraits. From this city he went to New York, Boston, and Philadelphia, and soon after to Florence, Italy. In the later years of his life, he divided his time between Cincinnati, Philadelphia, and Rome. His complete poetical works fill three volumes. Several of his most stirring poems relate to the Revolutionary War, and to the late Civil War in America. Many of his poems are marked by vigor and a ringing power, while smoothness and delicacy distinguish others, no less. ### The maid who binds her warrior's sash, And, smiling, all her pain dissembles, The while beneath the drooping lash, One starry tear-drop hangs and trembles; Though Heaven alone records the tear, And fame shall never know her story, Her heart has shed a drop as dear As ever dewed the field of glory! The wife who girds her husband's sword, 'Mid little ones who weep and wonder, And bravely speaks the cheering word, What though her heart be rent asunder;-- Doomed nightly in her dreams to hear The bolts of war around him rattle,-- Has shed as sacred blood as e'er Was poured upon the field of battle! The mother who conceals her grief, While to her breast her son she presses, Then breathes a few brave words and brief, Kissing the patriot brow she blesses; With no one but her loving God, To know the pain that weighs upon her, Sheds holy blood as e'er the sod Received on Freedom's field of honor! NOTE.--The above selection is from the poem entitled "The Wagoner of the Alleghanies." LXX. SOUTH CAROLINA. (257) Robert Young Hayne, 1791-1840, was born in Colleton District, South Carolina, and studied and practiced law at Charleston. He was early elected to the State Legislature, and became Speaker of the House and Attorney-general of the state. He entered the Senate of the United States at the age of thirty-one. He was Governor of South Carolina during the "Nullification" troubles in 1832 and 1833. Mr. Hayne was a clear and able debater, and a stanch advocate of the extreme doctrine of "State Rights." In the Senate he opposed the Tariff Bill of 1828; and, out of this struggle, grew his famous debate with Daniel Webster in 1830. The following selection is an extract from Mr. Hayne's speech on that memorable occasion. ### If there be one state in the Union, Mr. President, that may challenge comparison with any other, for a uniform, zealous, ardent, and uncalculating devotion to the Union, that state is South Carolina. Sir, from the very commencement of the Revolution, up to this hour, there is no sacrifice, however great, she has not cheerfully made; no service she has ever hesitated to perform. She has adhered to you in your prosperity; but in your adversity she has clung to you with more than filial affection. No matter what was the condition of her domestic affairs; though deprived of her resources, divided by parties, or surrounded by difficulties, the call of the country has been to her as the voice of God. Domestic discord ceased at the sound; every man became at once reconciled to his brethren, and the sons of Carolina were all seen, crowding to the temple, bringing their gifts to the altar of their common country. What, sir, was the conduct of the South, during the Revolution? Sir, I honor New England for her conduct in that glorious struggle. But great as is the praise which belongs to her, I think at least equal honor is due to the South. Never were there exhibited, in the history of the world, higher examples of noble daring, dreadful suffering, and heroic endurance, than by the whigs of Carolina, during the Revolution. The whole state, from the mountains to the sea, was overrun by an overwhelming force of the enemy. The fruits of industry perished on the spot where they were produced, or were consumed by the foe. The plains of Carolina drank up the most precious blood of her citizens. Black, smoking ruins marked the places which had been the habitation of her children. Driven from their homes into the gloomy and almost impenetrable swamps, even there the spirit of liberty survived, and South Carolina, sustained by the example of her Sumters and her Marions, proved, by her conduct, that though her soil might be overrun, the spirit of her people was invincible. NOTES.--Thomas Sumter (b. 1734, d. 1832) was by birth a Virginian, but during the Revolution commanded South Carolina troops. He was one of the most active and able of the Southern generals, and, after the war, was prominent in politics. He was the last surviving general of the Revolution. Francis Marion (b. 1732, d. 1795), known as the "Swamp Fox," was a native South Carolinian, of French descent. Marion's brigade became noted during the Revolution for its daring and surprising attacks. See Lesson CXXXV. LXXI. MASSACHUSETTS AND SOUTH CAROLINA. (259) Daniel Webster, 1782-1852. This celebrated American statesman and orator was born in Salisbury, New Hampshire. His father, Ebenezer Webster, was a pioneer settler, a soldier in the Old French War and the Revolution, and a man of ability and strict integrity, Daniel attended the common school in his youth, and fitted for college under Rev. Samuel Wood, of Boseawen, graduating at Dartmouth in 1801. He spent a few months of his boyhood at "Phillips Academy," Exeter, where he attained distinction as a student, but was so diffident that he could never give a declamation before his class. During his college course, and later, he taught school several terms in order to increase his slender finances. He was admitted to the bar in Boston in 1805. For the next eleven years, he practiced his profession in his native state. In 1812 he was elected to the United States House of Representatives, and at once took his place as one of the most prominent men of that body. In 1816 he removed to Boston; and in 1827 he was elected to the United States Senate, where he continued for twelve years. In 1841 he was made Secretary of State, and soon after negotiated the famous "Ashburton Treaty" with England, settling the northern boundary of the United States. In 1845 he returned to the Senate; and in 1850 he was re-appointed Secretary of State, and continued in office till his death. He died at his country residence in Marshfield, Massachusetts. Mr. Webster's fame rests chiefly on his state papers and his speeches in Congress; but he took a prominent part in some of the most famous law cases of the present century. Several of his public addresses on occasional themes are well known, also. As a speaker, he was dignified and stately, using clear, straightforward, pure English. He had none of the tricks of oratory. He was large of person, with a massive head, a swarthy complexion, and deep-set, keen, and lustrous eyes. His grand presence added much to his power as a speaker. ### The eulogium pronounced on the character of the State of South Carolina by the honorable gentleman, for her Revolutionary and other merits, meets my hearty concurrence. I shall not acknowledge that the honorable member goes before me, in regard for whatever of distinguished talent or distinguished character South Carolina has produced. I claim part of the honor; I partake in the pride of her great names. I claim them for countrymen, one and all--the Laurenses, the Rutledges, the Pinckneys, the Sumters, the Marions--Americans all--whose fame is no more to be hemmed in by state lines than their talents and patriotism were capable of being circumscribed within the same narrow limits. In their day and generation, they served and honored the country, and the whole country, and their renown is of the treasures of the whole country. Him whose honored name the gentleman himself bears,--does he suppose me less capable of gratitude for his patriotism, or sympathy for his suffering, than if his eyes had first opened upon the light in Massachusetts, instead of South Carolina? Sir, does he suppose it in his power to exhibit in Carolina a name so bright as to produce envy in my bosom? No, sir,--increased gratification and delight rather. Sir, I thank God that, if I am gifted with little of the spirit which is said to be able to raise mortals to the skies, I have yet none, as I trust, of that other spirit which would drag angels down. When I shall be found, sir, in my place here in the Senate, or elsewhere, to sneer at public merit because it happened to spring up beyond the little limits of my own state or neighborhood; when I refuse for any such cause, or for any cause, the homage due to American talent, to elevated patriotism, to sincere devotion to liberty and the country; or if I see an uncommon endowment of Heaven; if I see extraordinary capacity or virtue in any son of the South; and if, moved by local prejudice, or gangrened by state jealousy, I get up here to abate a tithe of a hair from his just character and just fame, may my tongue cleave to the roof of my mouth! Mr. President, I shall enter on no encomium upon Massachusetts. She needs none. There she is; behold her, and judge for yourselves. There is her history; the world knows it by heart. The past, at least, is secure. There is Boston, and Concord, and Lexington, and Bunker Hill; and there they will remain forever. And, sir, where American Liberty raised its first voice, and where its youth was nurtured and sustained, there it still lives, in the strength of its manhood, and full of its original spirit. If discord and disunion shall wound it; if party strife and blind ambition shall hawk at and tear it; if folly and madness, if uneasiness under salutary restraint, shall succeed to separate it from that Union, by which alone its existence is made sure, it will stand, in the end, by the side of that cradle in which its infancy was rocked; it will stretch forth its arm, with whatever of vigor it may still retain, over the friends who gathered around it; and it will fall at last, if fall it must, amid the proudest monuments of its glory and on the very spot of its origin. NOTES.--The Laurenses were of French descent. Henry Laurens was appointed on the commission with Franklin and Jay to negotiate the treaty of peace at Paris at the close of the Revolution. His son, John Laurens, was an aid and secretary of Washington, who was greatly attached to him. The Rutledges were of Irish descent. John Rutledge was a celebrated statesman and lawyer. He was appointed Chief Justice of the United States, but the Senate, for political reasons, refused to confirm his appointment. Edward Rutledge, brother of the preceding, was Governor of South Carolina during the last two years of his life. The Pinckneys were an old English family who emigrated to Charleston in 1687. Charles Cotesworth Pinckney and his brother Thomas were both active participants in the Revolution. The former was an unsuccessful candidate for the presidency of the United States, in 1800. Thomas was elected governor of South Carolina in 1789. In the war of 1812 he served as major-general. Charles Pinckney, a second cousin of the two already mentioned, was four times elected governor of his state. LXXII. THE CHURCH SCENE FROM EVANGELINE. (262) Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, 1807-1882, the son of Hon. Stephen Longfellow, an eminent lawyer of Portland, Maine, was born in that city. He graduated, at the age of eighteen, at Bowdoin College. He was soon appointed to the chair of Modern Languages and Literature in that institution, and, to fit himself further for his work, he went abroad and spent four years in Europe. He remained at Bowdoin till 1835, when he was appointed to the chair of Modern Languages and Belles-lettres in Harvard University. On receiving this appointment, he again went to Europe and remained two years. He resigned his professorship in 1854, and after that time resided in Cambridge, pursuing his literary labors and giving to the public, from time to time, the fruits of his pen. In 1868 he made a voyage to England, where he was received with extraordinary marks of honor and esteem. In addition to Mr. Longfellow's original works, both in poetry and in prose, he distinguished himself by several translations; the most famous is that of the works of Dante. Mr. Longfellow's poetry is always elegant and chaste, showing in every line traces of his careful scholarship. Yet it is not above the popular taste or comprehension, as is shown by the numerous and varied editions of his poems. Many of his poems treat of historical themes; "Evangeline," from which the following selection is taken, is esteemed by many as the most beautiful of all his longer poems; it was first published in 1847. ### So passed the morning away. And lo! with a summons sonorous Sounded the bell from its tower, and over the meadows a drumbeat. Thronged erelong was the church with men. Without, in the churchyard, Awaited the women. They stood by the graves, and hung on the headstones Garlands of autumn leaves and evergreens fresh from the forest. Then came the guard from the ships, and marching proudly among them Entered the sacred portal. With loud and dissonant clangor Echoed the sound of their brazen drums from ceiling and casement,-- Echoed a moment only, and slowly the ponderous portal Closed, and in silence the crowd awaited the will of the soldiers. Then uprose their commander, and spake from the steps of the altar, Holding aloft in his hands, with its seals, the royal commission. "You have convened this day," he said, "by his Majesty's orders. Clement and kind has he been; but how you have answered his kindness, Let your own hearts reply! To my natural make and my temper Painful the task is I do, which to you I know must be grievous. Yet must I bow and obey, and deliver the will of our monarch; Namely, that all your lands, and dwellings, and cattle of all kinds Forfeited be to the crown; and that you yourselves from this province Be transported to other lands. God grant you may dwell there Ever as faithful subjects, a happy and peaceable people! Prisoners now I declare you; for such is his Majesty's pleasure!" As, when the air is serene in the sultry solstice of summer, Suddenly gathers a storm, and the deadly sling of the hailstones Beats down the farmer's corn in the field and shatters his windows, Hiding the sun, and strewing the ground with thatch from the house roofs, Bellowing fly the herds, and seek to break their inclosure; So on the hearts of the people descended the words of the speaker. Silent a moment they stood in speechless wonder, and then rose Louder and ever louder a wail of sorrow and anger, And, by one impulse moved, they madly rushed to the doorway. Vain was the hope of escape; and cries and fierce imprecations Rang through the house of prayer; and high o'er the heads of the others Rose, with his arms uplifted, the figure of Basil the blacksmith, As, on a stormy sea, a spar is tossed by the billows. Flushed was his face and distorted with passion; and wildly he shouted,-- "Down with the tyrants of England! we never have sworn them allegiance! Death to these foreign soldiers, who seize on our homes and our harvests!" More he fain would have said, but the merciless hand of a soldier Smote him upon the mouth, and dragged him down to the pavement. In the midst of the strife and tumult of angry contention, Lo! the door of the chancel opened, and Father Felician Entered, with serious mien, and ascended the steps of the alter. Raising his reverend hand, with a gesture he awed into silence All that clamorous throng; and thus he spake to his people; Deep were his tones and solemn; in accents measured and mournful Spake he, as, after the tocsin's alarum, distinctly the clock strikes. "What is this that ye do, my children? what madness has seized you? Forty years of my life have I labored among you, and taught you, Not in word alone, but in deed, to love one another! Is this the fruit of my toils, of my vigils and prayers and privations? Have you so soon forgotten all the lessons of love and forgiveness? This is the house of the Prince of Peace, and would you profane it Thus with violent deeds and hearts overflowing with hatred? Lo! where the crucified Christ from his cross is gazing upon you! See! in those sorrowful eyes what meekness and holy compassion! Hark! how those lips still repeat the prayer, 'O Father, forgive them!' Let us repeat that prayer in the hour when the wicked assail us, Let us repeat it now, and say, 'O Father, forgive them.' " Few were his words of rebuke, but deep in the hearts of his people Sank they, and sobs of contrition succeeded the passionate outbreak, While they repeated his prayer, and said, "O Father, forgive them!" NOTE.--Nova Scotia was first settled by the French, but, in 1713, was ceded to the English. The inhabitants refusing either to take the oath of allegiance or to bear arms against their fellow-countrymen in the French and Indian War, it was decided to remove the whole people, and distribute them among the other British provinces. This was accordingly done in 1755. The villages were burned to the ground, and the people hurried on board the ships in such a way that but a few families remained undivided. Longfellow's poem of "Evangeline" is founded on this incident, and the above selection describes the scene where the male inhabitants of Grand-Pre' are assembled in the church, and the order for their banishment is first made known to them. LXXIII. SONG OF THE SHIRT. (266) Thomas Hood, 1798-1845, the son of a London bookseller, was born in that city. He undertook, after leaving school, to learn the art of an engraver, but soon gave up the business, and turned his attention to literature. His lighter pieces, exhibiting his skill as a wit and punster, soon became well known and popular. In 1821 he became subeditor of the "London Magazine," and formed the acquaintance of the literary men of the metropolis. The last years of his life were clouded by poverty and ill health. Some of his most humorous pieces were written on a sick bed. Hood is best known as a joker--a writer of "whims and oddities"--but he was no mere joker. Some of his pieces are filled with the tenderest pathos; and a gentle spirit, in love with justice and humanity, pervades even his lighter compositions. His "Song of the Shirt" first appeared in the "London Punch." ### With fingers weary and worn, With eyelids heavy and red, A woman sat, in unwomanly rags, Plying her needle and thread: Stitch! stitch! stitch! In poverty, hunger, and dirt, And still with a voice of dolorous pitch, She sang the "Song of the Shirt!" "Work! work! work! While the cock is crowing aloof! And work! work! work! Till the stars shine through the roof! It is oh to be a slave Along with the barbarous Turk, Where woman has never a soul to save, If this is Christian work! "Work! work! work! Till the brain begins to swim; Work! work! work! Till the eyes are heavy and dim! Seam, and gusset, and band, Band, and gusset, and seam, Till over the buttons I fall asleep, And sew them on in a dream! "O men, with sisters dear! O men, with mothers and wives! It is not linen you're wearing out, But human creatures' lives! Stitch! stitch! stitch! In poverty, hunger, and dirt,-- Sewing at once, with a double thread, A shroud as well as a shirt. "But why do I talk of Death? That Phantom of grisly bone, I hardly fear his terrible shape, It seems so like my own; It seems so like my own, Because of the fasts I keep; O God! that bread should be so dear, And flesh and blood so cheap! "Work! work! work! My labor never flags; And what are its wages? A bed of straw, A crust of bread--and rags, That shattered roof--and this naked floor-- A table--a broken chair-- And a wall so blank, my shadow I thank For sometimes falling there. "Work! work! work! From weary chime to chime! Work! work! work! As prisoners work for crime! Band, and gusset, and seam, Seam, and gusset, and band, Till the heart is sick, and the brain benumbed, As well as the weary hand. "Work! work! work! In the dull December light, And work! work! work! When the weather is warm and bright; While underneath the eaves The brooding swallows cling, As if to show me their sunny backs, And twit me with the spring. "Oh but to breathe the breath Of the cowslip and primrose sweet! With the sky above my head, And the grass beneath my feet! For only one short hour To feel as I used to feel, Before I knew the woes of want, And the walk that costs a meal! "Oh but for one short hour,-- A respite, however brief! No blessed leisure for love or hope, But only time for grief! A little weeping would ease my heart, But in their briny bed My tears must stop, for every drop Hinders needle and thread." With fingers weary and worn, With eyelids heavy and red, A woman sat, in unwomanly rags, Plying her needle and thread: Stitch! stitch! stitch! In poverty, hunger, and dirt, And still with a voice of dolorous pitch-- Would that its tone could reach the rich! She sang this "Song of the Shirt." LXXIV. DIAMOND CUT DIAMOND. (269) Edouard Rene Lefebvre-Laboulaye, 1811-1883, was a French writer of note. Most of his works involve questions of law and politics, and are considered high authority on the questions discussed. A few works, such as "Abdallah," from which the following extract is adapted, were written as a mere recreation in the midst of law studies; they show great imaginative power. Laboulaye took great interest in the United States, her people, and her literature; and many of his works are devoted to American questions. He translated the works of Dr. William E. Channing into French. ### Mansour, the Egyptian merchant, one day repaired to the cadi on account of a suit, the issue of which troubled him but little. A private conversation with the judge had given him hopes of the justice of his cause. The old man asked his son Omar to accompany him in order to accustom him early to deal with the law. The cadi was seated in the courtyard of the mosque. He was a fat, good-looking man, who never thought, and talked little, which, added to his large turban and his air of perpetual astonishment, gave him a great reputation for justice and gravity. The spectators were numerous; the principal merchants were seated on the ground on carpets, forming a semicircle around the magistrate. Mansour took his seat a little way from the sheik, and Omar placed himself between the two, his curiosity strongly excited to see how the law was obeyed, and how it was trifled with in case of need. The first case called was that of a young Banian, as yellow as an orange, with loose flowing robes and an effeminate air, who had lately landed from India, and who complained of having been cheated by one of Mansour's rivals. "Having found a casket of diamonds among the effects left by my father," said he, "I set out for Egypt, to live there on the proceeds of their sale. I was obliged by bad weather to put into Jidda, where I soon found myself in want of money. I went to the bazaar, and inquired for a dealer in precious stones. The richest, I was told, was Mansour; the most honest, Ali, the jeweler. I applied to Ali. "He welcomed me as a son, as soon as he learned that I had diamonds to sell, and carried me home with him. He gained my confidence by every kind of attention, and advanced me all the money I needed. One day, after dinner, at which wine was not wanting, he examined the diamonds, one by one, and said, 'My child, these diamonds are of little value; my coffers are full of such stones. The rocks of the desert furnish them by thousands.' "To prove the truth of what he said, he opened a box, and, taking therefrom a diamond thrice as large as any of mine, gave it to the slave that was with me. 'What will become of me?' I cried; 'I thought myself rich, and here I am, poor, and a stranger.' "'My child,' replied Ali, 'Leave this casket with me, and I will give you a price for it such as no one else would offer. Choose whatever you wish in Jidda, and in two hours I will give you an equal weight of what you have chosen in exchange for your Indian stones.' "On returning home, night brought reflection. I learned that Ali had been deceiving me. What he had given to the slave was nothing but a bit of crystal. I demanded my casket. Ali refused to restore it. Venerable magistrate, my sole hope is in your justice." It was now Ali's turn to speak. "Illustrious cadi," said he, "It is true that we made a bargain, which I am ready to keep, The rest of the young man's story is false. What matters it what I gave the slave? Did I force the stranger to leave the casket in my hands? Why does he accuse me of treachery? Have I broken my word, and has he kept his?" "Young man," said the cadi to the Banian, "have you witnesses to prove that Ali deceived you? If not, I shall put the accused on his oath, as the law decrees." A Koran was brought. Ali placed his hand on it, and swore three times that he had not deceived the stranger. "Wretch," said the Banian, "thou art among those whose feet go down to destruction. Thou hast thrown away thy soul." Omar smiled, and while Ali was enjoying the success of his ruse, he approached the stranger, and asked, "Do you wish me to help you gain the suit?" "Yes," was the reply; "but you are only a child--you can do nothing." "Have confidence in me a few moments," said Omar; "accept Ali's bargain; let me choose in your stead, and fear nothing." The stranger bowed his head, and murmured, "What can I fear after having lost all?" Then, turning to the cadi, and bowing respectfully, "Let the bargain be consummated," said he, "since the law decrees it, and let this young man choose in my stead what I shall receive in payment." A profound silence ensued. Omar rose, and, bowing to the cadi, "Ali," said he to the jeweler, "you have doubtless brought the casket, and can tell us the weight thereof." "Here it is," said Ali; "it weighs twenty pounds. Choose what you will; if the thing asked for is in Jidda, you shall have it within two hours, otherwise the bargain is null and void." "What we desire," said Omar, raising his voice, "is ants' wings, half male and half female. You have two hours in which to furnish the twenty pounds you have promised us." "This is absurd," cried the jeweler; "it is impossible. I should need half a score of persons and six months labor to satisfy so foolish a demand." "Are there any winged ants in Jidda?" asked the cadi. "Of course," answered the merchants, laughing; "they are one of the plagues of Egypt. Our houses are full of them, and it would be doing us a great service to rid us of them." "Then Ali must keep his promise or give back the casket," said the cadi. "This young man was mad to sell his diamonds weight for weight; he is mad to exact such payment. So much the better for Ali the first time: so much the worse for him the second. Justice has not two weights and measures. Every bargain holds good before the law. Either furnish twenty pounds of ants' wings, or restore the casket to the Banian." "A righteous judgment," shouted the spectators, wonder-struck at such equity. [Illustration: In front of a middle-eastern building; a man seated with a sword and water-pipe, facing a crowd. A small boy with his left arm outstreached, is speaking to the man. A taller young man stands to the right of the small boy; an older man stands further to the right.] The stranger, beside himself with joy, took from the casket three diamonds of the finest water; he forced them on Omar, who put them in his girdle, and seated himself by his father, his gravity unmoved by the gaze of the assembly. "Well done," said Mansour; "but it is my turn now; mark me well, and profit by the lesson I shall give you. Stop, young man!" he cried to the Banian, "we have an account to settle." "The day before yesterday," continued he, "this young man entered my shop, and, bursting into tears, kissed my hand and entreated me to sell him a necklace which I had already sold to the Pasha of Egypt, saying that his life and that of a lady depended upon it. 'Ask of me what you will, my father,' said he, 'but I must have these gems or die.' "I have a weakness for young men, and, though I knew the danger of disappointing my master the pasha, I was unable to resist his supplications. 'Take the necklace,' said I to him, 'but promise to give whatever I may ask in exchange.' 'My head itself, if you will,' he replied, 'for you have saved my life,' We were without witnesses, but," added Mansour, turning to the Banian, "is not my story true?" "Yes," said the young man, "and I beg your pardon for not having satisfied you sooner: you know the cause. Ask of me what you desire." "What I desire," said Mansour, "is the casket with all its contents. Illustrious magistrate, you have declared that all bargains hold good before the law; this young man has promised to give me what I please; now I declare that nothing pleases me but these diamonds." The cadi raised his head and looked about the assembly, as if to interrogate the faces, then stroked his beard, and relapsed into his meditations. "Ali is defeated," said the sheik to Omar, with a smile, "The fox is not yet born more cunning than the worthy Mansour." "I am lost!" cried the Banian. "O Omar, have you saved me only to cast me down from the highest pinnacle of joy to the depths of despair? Persuade your father to spare me, that I may owe my life to you a second time." "Well, my son," said Mansour, "doubtless you are shrewd, but this will teach you that your father knows rather more than you do. The cadi is about to decide: try whether you can dictate his decree." "It is mere child's play," answered Omar, shrugging his shoulders; "but since you desire it, my father, you shall lose your suit." He rose, and taking a piaster from his girdle, put it into the hand of the Banian, who laid it before the judge. "Illustrious cadi," said Omar, "this young man is ready to fulfill his engagement. This is what he offers Mansour--piaster. In itself this coin is of little value; but examine it closely, and you will see that it is stamped with the likeness of the sultan, our glorious master. May God destroy and confound all who disobey his highness! "It is this precious likeness that we offer you," added he, turning to Mansour; "if it pleases you, you are paid; to say that it displeases you is an insult to the pasha, a crime punishable by death; and I am sure that our worthy cadi will not become your accomplice--he who has always been and always will be the faithful servant of an the sultans." When Omar had finished speaking, all eyes turned toward the cadi, who, more impenetrable than ever, stroked his face and waited for the old man to come to his aid. Mansour was agitated and embarrassed. The silence of the cadi and the assembly terrified him, and he cast a supplicating glance toward his son. "My father," said Omar, "permit this young man to thank you for the lesson of prudence which you have given him by frightening him a little. He knows well that it was you who sent me to his aid, and that all this is a farce. No one is deceived by hearing the son oppose the Father, and who has ever doubted Mansour's experience and generosity?" "No one," interrupted the cadi, starting up like a man suddenly awakened from a dream, "and I least of all; and this is why I have permitted you to speak, my young Solomon. I wished to honor in you the wisdom of your father; but another time avoid meddling with his highness's name; it is not safe to sport with the lion's paws. The matter is settled. The necklace is worth a hundred thousand piasters, is it not, Mansour? This madcap, shall give you, therefore, a hundred thousand piasters, and all parties will be satisfied." NOTES--A cadi in the Mohammedan countries corresponds to our magistrate. A sheik among the Arabs and Moors, may mean simply an old man, or, as in this case, a man of eminence. A Banian is a Hindoo merchant, particularly one who visits foreign countries on business. Jidda is a city in Arabia, on the Red Sea A pasha is the governor of a Turkish province. The Turkish piaster was formerly worth twenty-five cents: it is now worth only about eight cents. LXXV. THANATOPSIS. (275) To him who in the love of Nature holds Communion with her visible forms, she speaks A various language: for his gayer hours She has a voice of gladness, and a smile And eloquence of beauty; and she glides Into his darker musings, with a mild And healing sympathy, that steals away Their sharpness, ere he is aware. When thoughts Of the last hitter hour come like a blight Over thy spirit, and sad images Of the stern agony, and shroud, and pall, And breathless darkness, and the narrow house, Make thee to shudder, and grow sick at heart;-- Go forth, under the open sky, and list To Nature's teachings, while from all around-- Earth and her waters, and the depths of air-- Comes a still voice,-- Yet a few days, and thee The all-beholding sun shall see no more In all his course; nor yet in the cold ground, Where thy pale form was laid, with many tears, Nor in the embrace of ocean, shall exist Thy image. Earth, that nourished thee, shall claim Thy growth, to be resolved to earth again; And, lost each human trace, surrendering up Thine individual being, shalt thou go To mix forever with the elements; To be a brother to the insensible rock And to the sluggish clod, which the rude swain Turns with his share, and treads upon. The oak Shall send his roots abroad, and pierce thy mold. Yet not to thine eternal resting place Shalt thou retire alone, nor couldst thou wish Couch more magnificent. Thou shalt lie down With patriarchs of the infant world,--with kings, The powerful of the earth,--the wise, the good, Fair forms, and hoary seers of ages past,-- All in one mighty sepulcher. The hills, Rock-ribbed, and ancient as the sun; the vales Stretching in pensive quietness between; The venerable woods; rivers that move In majesty, and the complaining brooks, That make the meadows green; and, poured round all, Old Ocean's gray and melancholy waste,-- Are but the solemn decorations all Of the great tomb of man. The golden sun, The planets, all the infinite host of heaven, Are shining on the sad abodes of death, Through the still lapse of ages. All that tread The globe are but a handful to the tribes That slumber in its bosom. Take the wings Of morning, pierce the Barcan wilderness, Or lose thyself in the continuous woods Where rolls the Oregon, and hears no sound Save his own dashings,--yet the dead are there: And millions in those solitudes, since first The flight of years began, have laid them down In their last sleep,--the dead reign there alone. So shalt thou rest; and what if thou withdraw In silence from the living, and no friend Take note of thy departure? All that breathe Will share thy destiny. The gay will laugh When thou art gone, the solemn brood of care Plod on, and each one as before will chase His favorite phantom; yet all these shall leave Their mirth and their employments, and shall come And make their bed with thee. As the long train Of ages glide away, the sons of men-- The youth in life's green spring, and he who goes In the full strength of years, matron and maid, The speechless babe, and the gray-headed man Shall one by one be gathered to thy side By those who in their turn shall follow them. So live, that when thy summons comes to join The innumerable caravan, which moves To that mysterious realm, where each shall take His chamber in the silent halls of death, Thou go not, like the quarry slave at night, Scourged to his dungeon, but, sustained and soothed By an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave, Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams. --Bryant. NOTES.--Thanatopsis is composed of two Greek words, thanatos, meaning death, and opsis, a view. The word, therefore, signifies a view of death, or reflections on death. Barca is in the northeastern part of Africa: the southern and eastern portions of the country are a barren desert. The Oregon (or Columbia) River is the most important river of the United States emptying into the Pacific. The Lewis and Clark Expedition (1803-1806) had first explored the country through which it flows only five years before the poem was written. LXXVI. INDIAN JUGGLERS. (278) William Hazlitt, 1778-1830, was born in Maidstone, England. His father was a Unitarian clergyman, and he was sent to a college of that denomination to be educated for the ministry; but having a greater taste for art than theology, he resolved, on leaving school, to devote himself to painting. He succeeded so well in his efforts as to meet the warmest commendation of his friends, but did not succeed in satisfying his own fastidious taste. On this account he threw away his pencil and took up his pen. His works, though numerous, are, with the exception of a life of Napoleon, chiefly criticisms on literature and art. Hazlitt is thought to have treated his contemporaries with an unjust severity; but his genial appreciation of the English classics, and the thorough and loving manner in which he discusses their merits, make his essays the delight of every lover of those perpetual wellsprings of intellectual pleasure. His "Table Talk," "Characters of Shakespeare's Plays," "Lectures on the English Poets," and "Lectures on the Literature of the Elizabethan Age," are the works that exhibit his style and general merits in their most favorable light. ### Coming forward and seating himself on the ground, in his white dress and tightened turban, the chief of the Indian jugglers begins with tossing up two brass balls, which is what any of us could do, and concludes by keeping up four at the same time, which is what none of us could do to save our lives, not if we were to take our whole lives to do it in. Is it then a trifling power we see at work, or is it not something next to miraculous? It is the utmost stretch of human ingenuity, which nothing but the bending the faculties of body and mind to it from the tenderest infancy with incessant, ever-anxious application up to manhood, can accomplish or make even a slight approach to. Man, thou art a wonderful animal, and thy ways past finding out! Thou canst do strange things, but thou turnest them to small account! To conceive of this extraordinary dexterity, distracts the imagination and makes admiration breathless. Yet it costs nothing to the performer, any more than if it were a mere mechanical deception with which he had nothing to do, but to watch and laugh at the astonishment of the spectators. A single error of a hair's breadth, of the smallest conceivable portion of time, would be fatal; the precision of the movements must be like a mathematical truth; their rapidity is like lightning. To catch four balls in succession, in less than a second of time, and deliver them back so as to return with seeming consciousness to the hand again; to make them revolve around him at certain intervals, like the planets in their spheres; to make them chase each other like sparkles of fire, or shoot up like flowers or meteors; to throw them behind his back, and twine them round his neck like ribbons, or like serpents; to do what appears an impossibility, and to do it with all the ease, the grace, the carelessness imaginable; to laugh at, to play with the glittering mockeries, to follow them with his eye as if he could fascinate them with its lambent fire, or as if he had only to see that they kept time with the music on the stage--there is something in all this which he who does not admire may be quite sure he never really admired anything in the whole course of his life. It is skill surmounting difficulty, and beauty triumphing over skill. It seems as if the difficulty, once mastered, naturally resolved itself into ease and grace, and as if, to be overcome at all, it must be overcome without an effort. The smallest awkwardness or want of pliancy or self-possession would stop the whole process. It is the work of witchcraft, and yet sport for children. Some of the other feats are quite as curious and wonderful--such as the balancing the artificial tree, and shooting a bird from each branch through a quill--though none of them have the elegance or facility of the keeping up of the brass balls. You are in pain for the result, and glad when the experiment is over; they are not accompanied with the same unmixed, unchecked delight as the former; and I would not give much to be merely astonished without being pleased at the same time. As to the swallowing of the sword, the police ought to interfere to prevent it. When I saw the Indian juggler do the same things before, his feet were bare, and he had large rings on his toes, which he kept turning round all the time of the performance, as if they moved of themselves. The hearing a speech in Parliament drawled or stammered out by the honorable member or the noble lord, the ringing the changes on their commonplaces, which anyone could repeat after them as well as they, stirs me not a jot,--shakes not my good opinion of myself. I ask what there is that I can do as well as this. Nothing. What have I been doing all my life? Have I been idle, or have I nothing to show for all my labor and pains? Or have I passed my time in pouring words like water into empty sieves, rolling a stone up a hill and then down again, trying to prove an argument in the teeth of facts, and looking for causes in the dark, and not finding them? Is there no one thing in which I can challenge competition, that I can bring as an instance of exact perfection, in which others can not find a flaw? The utmost I can pretend to is to write a description of what this fellow can do. I can write a book: so can many others who have not even learned to spell. What abortions are these essays! What errors, what ill-pieced transitions, what crooked reasons, what lame conclusions! How little is made out, and that little how ill! Yet they are the best I can do. I endeavor to recollect all I have ever heard or thought upon a subject, and to express it as neatly as I can. Instead of writing on four subjects at a time, it is as much as I can manage, to keep the thread of one discourse clear and unentangled. I have also time on my hands to correct my opinions and polish my periods; but the one I can not, and the other I will not, do. I am fond of arguing; yet, with a good deal of pains and practice, it is often much as I can do to beat my man, though he may be a very indifferent hand. A common fencer would disarm his adversary in the twinkling of an eye, unless he were a professor like himself. A stroke of wit will sometimes produce this effect, but there is no such power or superiority in sense or reasoning. There is no complete mastery of execution to be shown there; and you hardly know the professor from the impudent pretender or the mere clown. LXXVII. ANTONY OVER CAESAR'S DEAD BODY. (281) Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears: I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him. The evil that men do lives after them; The good is oft interred with their bones; So let it be with Caesar. The noble Brutus Hath told you Caesar was ambitious: If it were so, it was a grievous fault, And grievously hath Caesar answered it. Here, under leave of Brutus and the rest-- For Brutus is an honorable man; So are they all, all honorable men-- Come I to speak in Caesar's funeral. He was my, friend, faithful and just to me: But Brutus says he was ambitious; And Brutus is an honorable man. He hath brought many captives home to Rome, Whose ransoms did the general coffers fill: Did this in Caesar seem ambitious? When that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept: Ambition should be made of sterner stuff: Yet Brutus says he was ambitious; And Brutus is an honorable man. You all did see, that on the Lupercal, I thrice presented him a kingly crown, Which he did thrice refuse. Was this ambition? Yet Brutus says he was ambitious; And, sure, he is an honorable man. I speak not to disprove what Brutus spoke, But here I am to speak what I do know. You all did love him once, not without cause; What cause withholds you, then, to mourn for him? O judgment! thou art fled to brutish beasts, And men have lost their reason. Bear with me; My heart is in the coffin there with Caesar, And I must pause till it come back to me. But yesterday the word of Caesar might Have stood against the world; now lies he there, And none so poor to do him reverence. O masters! if I were disposed to stir Your hearts and minds to mutiny and rage, I should do Brutus wrong, and Cassius wrong, Who, you all know, are honorable men. I will not do them wrong; I rather choose To wrong the dead, to wrong myself and you, Than I will wrong such honorable men. But here's a parchment with the seal of Caesar; I found it in his closet; 't is his will: Let but the commons hear this testament-- Which, pardon me, I do not mean to read-- And they would go and kiss dead Caesar's wounds, And dip their napkins in his sacred blood; Yea, beg a hair of him for memory, And, dying, mention it within their wills, Bequeathing it as a rich legacy Unto their issue. Citizen. We'll hear the will: read it, Mark Antony. All. The will, the will; we will hear Caesar's will. Ant. Have patience, gentle friends, I must not read it; It is not meet you know how Caesar loved you. You are not wood, you are not stones, but men; And, being men, hearing the will of Caesar, It will inflame you, it will make you mad; 'T is good you know not that you are his heirs; For, if you should, Oh what would come of it! Cit. Read the will; we'll hear it, Antony; You shall read the will, Caesar's will. Ant. Will you be patient? Will you stay awhile? I have o'ershot myself to tell you of it: I fear I wrong the honorable men Whose daggers have stabbed Caesar. I do fear it. Cit. They were traitors: honorable men! All. The will! the testament! Ant. You will compel me, then, to read the will? Then make a ring about the corpse of Caesar, And let me show you him that made the will. (He comes down from the pulpit.) If you have tears, prepare to shed them now. You all do know this mantle: I remember The first time ever Caesar put it on; 'T was on a summer's evening, in his tent, That day he overcame the Nervii; Look! in this place, ran Cassius' dagger through: See what a rent the envious Casca made: Through this, the well belove'd Brutus stabbed; And, as he plucked his cursed steel away, Mark how the blood of Caesar followed it, As rushing out of doors, to be resolved If Brutus so unkindly knocked, or no; For Brutus, as you know, was Caesar's angel: Judge, O you gods, how dearly Caesar loved him! This was the most unkindest cut of all; For, when the noble Caesar saw him stab, Ingratitude, more strong than traitors' arms, Quite vanquished him: then burst his mighty heart; And, in his mantle muffling up his face, Even at the base of Pompey's statua, Which all the while ran blood, great Caesar fell. Oh, what a fall was there, my countrymen! Then I, and you, and all of us fell down, Whilst bloody treason flourished over us. Oh, now you weep; and, I perceive, you feel The dint of pity: these are gracious drops. Kind souls, what, weep you when you but behold Our Caesar's vesture wounded? Look you here, Here is himself, marred, as you see, with traitors. 1st Cit. O piteous spectacle! 2d Cit. O noble Caesar! 3d Cit. We will be revenged! All. Revenge! About! Seek! Burn! Fire! Kill! Slay! Let not a traitor live. Ant. Stay, countrymen. 1st Cit. Peace there! hear the noble Antony. 2d Cit. We'll hear him, we'll follow him, we'll die with him. Ant. Good friends, sweet friends, let me not stir you up To such a sudden flood of mutiny. They that have done this deed are honorable: What private griefs they have, alas, I know not, That made them do it; they are wise and honorable, And will, no doubt, with reasons answer you. I come not, friends, to steal away your hearts: I am no orator, as Brutus is; But, as you know me all, a plain, blunt man, That love my friend; and that they know full well That gave me public leave to speak of him: For I have neither wit, nor words, nor worth, Action, nor utterance, nor the power of speech, To stir men's blood: I only speak right on: I tell you that which you yourselves do know; Show you sweet Caesar's wounds, poor, poor, dumb mouths, And bid them speak for me: but were I Brutus, And Brutus Antony, there were an Antony Would ruffle up your spirits, and put a tongue In every wound of Caesar, that should move The stones of Rome to rise and mutiny. Shakespeare.--Julius Caesar, Act iii, Scene ii. NOTES.--Gaius Julius Caesar (b. 102, d. 44 B. C.) was the most remarkable genius of the ancient world, Caesar ruled Rome as imperator five years and a half, and, in the intervals of seven campaigns during that time, spent only fifteen months in Rome. Under his rule Rome was probably at her best, and his murder at once produced a state of anarchy. The conspirators against Caesar--among whom were Brutus, Cassius and Casca--professed to be moved by honest zeal for the good of Rome; but their own ambition was no doubt the true motive, except with Brutus. Mark Antony was a strong friend of Julius Caesar. Upon the latter's death, Antony, by his funeral oration, incited the people and drove the conspirators from Rome. The Lupercal was a festival of purification and expiation held in Rome on the 15th of February. Antony was officiating as priest at this festival when he offered the crown to Caesar. In his will Caesar left to every citizen of Rome a sum of money, and bequeathed his private gardens to the public. The Nervii were one of the most warlike tribes of Celtic Gaul. Caesar almost annihilated them in 57 B. C. Pompey, once associated with Caesar in the government of Rome, was afterwards at war with him. He was murdered by those who thought to propitiate Caesar, but the latter wept when Pompey's head was sent to him, and had the murderers put to death. Statua is the Latin form of statue, in common use in Shakespeare's time; this form is required here by the meter. LXXVIII. THE ENGLISH CHARACTER. (286) William Hickling Prescott, 1796-1859, the historian, was the son of William Prescott, an eminent jurist, and the grandson of Col. William Prescott, who commanded the Americans at the battle of Bunker Hill. He was born in Salem, Massachusetts, graduated at Harvard University in 1814, and died in Boston. Just as he was completing his college course, the careless sport of a fellow-student injured one of his eyes so seriously that he never recovered from it. He had intended to adopt law as his profession; but, from his detective eyesight, he was obliged to choose work in which he could regulate his hours of labor, and could employ the aid of a secretary. He chose to be a historian; and followed his choice with wonderful system, perseverance, and success till the close of his life. His works are: "The Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella," "The Conquest of Mexico," "The Conquest of Peru," "The Reign of Philip II," and a volume of "Miscellanies." He had not completed the history of Philip at the time of his death. As a writer of history, Mr. Prescott ranks with the first for accuracy, precision, clearness, and beauty of style. As a man, he was genial, kind-hearted and even-tempered. ### On the whole, what I have seen raises my preconceived estimate of the English character. It is full of generous, true, and manly qualities; and I doubt if there ever was so high a standard of morality in an aristocracy which has such means for self-indulgence at its command, and which occupies a position that secures it so much deference. In general, they do not seem to abuse their great advantages. The respect for religion--at least for the forms of it--is universal, and there are few, I imagine, of the great proprietors who are not more or less occupied with improving their estates, and with providing for the comfort of their tenantry, while many take a leading part in the great political movements of the time. There never was an aristocracy which combined so much practical knowledge and industry with the advantages of exalted rank. The Englishman is seen to most advantage in his country home. For he is constitutionally both domestic and rural in his habits. His fireside and his farm--these are the places in which one sees his simple and warm- hearted nature more freely unfolded. There is a shyness in an Englishman, --a natural reserve, which makes him cold to strangers, and difficult to approach. But once corner him in his own house, a frank and full expansion will be given to his feelings that we should look for in vain in the colder Yankee, and a depth not to be found in the light and superficial Frenchman,--speaking of nationalities, not of individualities. The Englishman is the most truly rural in his tastes and habits of any people in the world. I am speaking of the higher classes. The aristocracy of other countries affect the camp and the city. But the English love their old castles and country seats with a patriotic love. They are fond of country sports. Every man shoots or hunts. No man is too old to be in the saddle some part of the day, and men of seventy years and more follow the hounds, and, take a five-barred gate at a leap. The women are good whips, are fond of horses and dogs, and other animals. Duchesses have their cows, their poultry, their pigs,--all watched over and provided with accommodations of Dutch-like neatness. All this is characteristic of the people. It may be thought to detract something from the feminine graces which in other lands make a woman so amiably dependent as to be nearly imbecile. But it produces a healthy and blooming race of women to match the hardy Englishman,--the finest development of the physical and moral nature which the world has witnessed. For we are not to look on the English gentleman as a mere Nimrod. With all his relish for field sports and country usages, he has his house filled with collections of art and with extensive libraries. The tables of the drawing-rooms are covered with the latest works, sent down by the London publisher. Every guest is provided with an apparatus for writing, and often a little library of books for his own amusement. The English country gentleman of the present day is anything but a Squire Western, though he does retain all his relish for field sports. The character of an Englishman, under its most refined aspect, has some disagreeable points which jar unpleasantly on the foreigner not accustomed to them. The consciousness of national superiority, combined with natural feelings of independence, gives him an air of arrogance, though it must be owned that this is never betrayed in his own house,--I may almost say in his own country. But abroad, when he seems to institute a comparison between himself and the people he is thrown with, it becomes so obvious that he is the most unpopular, not to say odious, person in the world. Even the open hand with which he dispenses his bounty will not atone for the violence he offers to national vanity. There are other defects, which are visible even in his most favored circumstances. Such is his bigotry, surpassing everything in a quiet passive form, that has been witnessed since the more active bigotry of the times of the Spanish Philips. Such, too, is the exclusive, limited range of his knowledge and conceptions of all political and social topics and relations. The Englishman, the cultivated Englishman, has no standard of excellence borrowed from mankind. His speculation never travels beyond his own little--great little--island. That is the world to him. True, he travels, shoots lions among the Hottentots, chases the grizzly bear over the Rocky Mountains, kills elephants in India and salmon on the coast of Labrador, comes home, and very likely makes a book. But the scope of his ideas does not seem to be enlarged by all this. The body travels, not the mind. And, however he may abuse his own land, he returns home as hearty a John Bull, with all his prejudices and national tastes as rooted, as before. The English--the men of fortune--all travel. Yet how little sympathy they show for other people or institutions, and how slight is the interest they take in them! They are islanders, cut off from the great world. But their island is, indeed, a world of its own. With all their faults, never has the sun shone--if one may use the expression in reference to England--all a more noble race, or one that has done more for the great interests of humanity. NOTES.--Nimrod is spoken of in Genesis (x. 9) as "a mighty hunter." Thus the name came to be applied to any one devoted to hunting. Squire Western is a character in Fielding's "Tom Jones." He is represented as an ignorant, prejudiced, irascible, but, withal, a jolly, good-humored English country gentleman. LXXIX. THE SONG OF THE POTTER. (290) Turn, turn, my wheel! Turn round and round, Without a pause, without a sound: So spins the flying world away! This clay, well mixed with marl and sand, Follows the motion of my hand; For some must follow, and some command, Though all are made of clay! Turn, turn, my wheel! All things must change To something new, to something strange; Nothing that is can pause or stay; The moon will wax, the moon will wane, The mist and cloud will turn to rain, The rain to mist and cloud again, To-morrow be to-day. Turn, turn, my wheel! All life is brief; What now is bud will soon be leaf, What now is leaf will soon decay; The wind blows east, the wind blows west; The blue eggs in the robin's nest Will soon have wings and beak and breast, And flutter and fly away. Turn, turn, my wheel! This earthen jar A touch can make, a touch can mar; And shall it to the Potter say, What makest thou? Thou hast no hand? As men who think to understand A world by their Creator planned, Who wiser is than they. Turn, turn, my wheel! 'Tis nature's plan The child should grow into the man, The man grow wrinkled, old, and gray; In youth the heart exults and sings, The pulses leap, the feet have wings; In age the cricket chirps, and brings The harvest home of day. Turn, turn, my wheel! The human race, Of every tongue, of every place, Caucasian, Coptic, or Malay, All that inhabit this great earth, Whatever be their rank or worth, Are kindred and allied by birth, And made of the same clay. Turn, turn, my wheel! What is begun At daybreak must at dark be done, To-morrow will be another day; To-morrow the hot furnace flame Will search the heart and try the frame, And stamp with honor or with shame These vessels made of clay. Stop, stop, my wheel! Too soon, too soon The noon will be the afternoon, Too soon to-day be yesterday; Behind us in our path we cast The broken potsherds of the past, And all are ground to dust at last, And trodden into clay. --Longfellow. NOTE.--Coptic was formerly the language of Egypt. and is preserved in the inscriptions of the ancient monuments found there; it has now given place entirely to Arabic. LXXX. A HOT DAY IN NEW YORK. (292) William Dean Howells, 1837--, was born in Belmont County. Ohio. In boyhood he learned the printer's trade, at which he worked for several years. He published a volume of poems in 1860, in connection with John J. Piatt. From 1861 to 1865 he was United States Consul at Venice. On his return he resided for a time in New York City, and was one of the editors of the "Nation." In 1871 he was appointed editor in chief of the "Atlantic Monthly." He held the position ten years, and then retired in order to devote himself to his own writings. Since then, he has been connected with other literary magazines. Mr. Howells has written several books: novels and sketches: his writings are marked by an artistic finish, and a keen but subtile humor. The following selection is an extract from "Their Wedding Journey." ### When they alighted, they took their way up through one of the streets of the great wholesale businesses, to Broadway. On this street was a throng of trucks and wagons, lading and unlading; bales and boxes rose and sank by pulleys overhead; the footway was a labyrinth of packages of every shape and size; there was no flagging of the pitiless energy that moved all forward, no sign of how heavy a weight lay on it, save in the reeking faces of its helpless instruments. It was four o'clock, the deadliest hour of the deadly summer day. The spiritless air seemed to have a quality of blackness in it, as if filled with the gloom of low-hovering wings. One half the street lay in shadow, and one half in sun; but the sunshine itself was dim, as if a heat greater than its own had smitten it with languor. Little gusts of sick, warm wind blew across the great avenue at the corners of the intersecting streets. In the upward distance, at which the journeyers looked, the loftier roofs and steeples lifted themselves dim out of the livid atmosphere, and far up and down the length of the street swept a stream of tormented life. All sorts of wheeled things thronged it, conspicuous among which rolled and jarred the gaudily painted stages, with quivering horses driven each by a man who sat in the shade of a branching, white umbrella, and suffered with a moody truculence of aspect, and as if he harbored the bitterness of death in his heart for the crowding passengers within, when one of them pulled the strap about his legs, and summoned him to halt. Most of the foot passengers kept to the shady side, and to the unaccustomed eyes of the strangers they were not less in number than at any other time, though there were fewer women among them. Indomitably resolute of soul, they held their course with the swift pace of custom, and only here and there they showed the effect of the heat. One man, collarless, with waistcoat unbuttoned, and hat set far back from his forehead, waved a fan before his death-white, flabby face, and set down one foot after the other with the heaviness of a somnambulist. Another, as they passed him, was saying huskily to the friend at his side, "I can't stand this much longer. My hands tingle as if they had gone to sleep; my heart--" But still the multitude hurried on, passing, repassing, encountering, evading, vanishing into shop doors, and emerging from them, dispersing down the side streets, and swarming out of them. It was a scene that possessed the beholder with singular fascination, and in its effect of universal lunacy, it might well have seemed the last phase of a world presently to be destroyed. They who were in it, but not of it, as they fancied--though there was no reason for this--looked on it amazed, and at last their own errands being accomplished, and themselves so far cured of the madness of purpose, they cried with one voice that it was a hideous sight, and strove to take refuge from it in the nearest place where the soda fountain sparkled. It was a vain desire. At the front door of the apothecary's hung a thermometer, and as they entered they heard the next comer cry out with a maniacal pride in the affliction laid upon mankind, "Ninety-seven degrees!" Behind them, at the door, there poured in a ceaseless stream of people, each pausing at the shrine of heat, before he tossed off the hissing draught that two pale, close-clipped boys served them from either side of the fountain. Then, in the order of their coming, they issued through another door upon the side street, each, as he disappeared, turning his face half round, and casting a casual glance upon a little group near another counter. The group was of a very patient, half-frightened, half-puzzled looking gentleman who sat perfectly still on a stool, and of a lady who stood beside him, rubbing all over his head a handkerchief full of pounded ice, and easing one hand with the other when the first became tired. Basil drank his soda, and paused to look upon this group, which he felt would commend itself to realistic sculpture as eminently characteristic of the local life, and, as "The Sunstroke," would sell enormously in the hot season. "Better take a little more of that," the apothecary said, looking up from his prescription, and, as the organized sympathy of the seemingly indifferent crowd, smiling very kindly at his patient, who thereupon tasted something in the glass he held. "Do you still feel like fainting?" asked the humane authority. "Slightly, now and then," answered the other, "but I'm hanging on hard to the bottom curve of that icicled S on your soda fountain, and I feel that I'm all right as long as I can see that. The people get rather hazy occasionally, and have no features to speak of. But I do n't know that I look very impressive myself," he added in the jesting mood which seems the natural condition of Americans in the face of an embarrassments. "Oh, you'll do!" the apothecary answered, with a laugh; but he said, in an answer to an anxious question from the lady, "He mustn't be moved for an hour yet," and gayly pestled away at a prescription, while she resumed her office of grinding the pounded ice round and round upon her husband's skull. Isabel offered her the commiseration of friendly words, and of looks kinder yet, and then, seeing that they could do nothing, she and Basil fell into the endless procession, and passed out of the side door. "What a shocking thing," she whispered. "Did you see how all the people looked, one after another, so indifferently at that couple, and evidently forgot them the next instant? It was dreadful. I should n't like to have you sun-struck in New York." "That's very considerate of you; but place for place, if any accident must happen to me among strangers, I think I should prefer to have it in New York. The biggest place is always the kindest as well as the cruelest place. Amongst the thousands of spectators the good Samaritan as well as the Levite would be sure to be. As for a sunstroke, it requires peculiar gifts. But if you compel me to a choice in the matter, then I say give me the busiest part of Broadway for a sunstroke. There is such experience of calamity there that you could hardly fall the first victim to any misfortune." LXXXI. DISCONTENT.--AN ALLEGORY. (295) Joseph Addison, 1672-1719, the brilliant essayist and poet, has long occupied an exalted place in English literature. He was the son of an English clergyman, was born in Wiltshire, and educated at Oxford; he died at "Holland House" (the property of his wile, to whom he had been married but about two years), and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Several years of his life were spent in the political affairs of his time, he held several public offices, and was, for ten years, a member of Parliament. His fame as an author rests chiefly upon his "Hymns," his tragedy of "Cato," and his "Essays" contributed principally to the "Tatler" and the "Spectator." The excellent style of his essays, their genial wit and sprightly humor, made them conspicuous in an age when coarseness, bitterness, and exaggeration deformed the writings of the most eminent: and these characteristics have given them an unquestioned place among the classics of our language. Mr. Addison was shy and diffident, but genial and lovable; his moral character was above reproach, excepting that he is said to have been too fond of wine. ### It is a celebrated thought of Socrates, that if all the misfortunes of mankind were cast into a public stock, in order to be equally distributed among the whole species, those who now think themselves the most unhappy, would prefer the share they are already possessed of before that which would fall to them by such a division. Horace has carried this thought a great deal farther, and supposes that the hardships or misfortunes we lie under, are more easy to us than those of any other person would be, in case we could change conditions with him. As I was ruminating on these two remarks, and seated in my elbowchair, I insensibly fell asleep; when, on a sudden, methought there was a proclamation made by Jupiter, that every mortal should bring in his griefs and calamities, and throw them together in a heap. There was a large plain appointed for this purpose. I took my stand in the center of it, and saw, with a great deal of pleasure, the whole human species marching one after another, and throwing down their several loads, which immediately grew up into a prodigious mountain, that seemed to rise above the clouds. There was a certain lady of a thin, airy shape, who was very active in this solemnity. She carried a magnifying glass in one of her hands, and was clothed in a loose, flowing robe, embroidered with several figures of fiends and specters, that discovered themselves in a thousand chimerical shapes as her garment hovered in the wind. There was something wild and distracted in her looks. Her name was Fancy. She led up every mortal to the appointed place, after having officiously assisted him in making up his pack, and laying it upon his shoulders. My heart melted within me to see my fellow-creatures groaning under their respective burdens, and to consider that prodigious bulk of human calamities which lay before me. There were, however, several persons who gave me great diversion upon this occasion. I observed one bringing in a fardel, very carefully concealed under an old embroidered cloak, which, upon his throwing it into the heap, I discovered to be poverty. Another, after a great deal of puffing, threw down his luggage, which, upon examining, I found to be his wife. There were multitudes of lovers saddled with very whimsical burdens, composed of darts and flames; but, what was very odd, though they sighed as if their hearts would break under these bundles of calamities, they could not persuade themselves to cast them into the heap, when they came up to it; but, after a few faint efforts, shook their heads, and marched away as heavy loaden as they came. I saw multitudes of old women throw down their wrinkles, and several young ones who stripped themselves of a tawny skin. There were very great heaps of red noses, large lips, and rusty teeth. The truth of it is, I was surprised to see the greatest part of the mountain made up of bodily deformities. Observing one advancing toward the heap with a larger cargo than ordinary upon his back, I found, upon his near approach, that it was only a natural hump, which he disposed of with great joy of heart among this collection of human miseries. There were, likewise, distempers of all sorts, though I could not but observe that there were many more imaginary than real. One little packet I could not but take notice of, which was a complication of all the diseases incident to human nature, and was in the hand of a great many fine people. This was called the spleen. But what most of all surprised me was, that there was not a single vice or folly thrown into the whole heap: at which I was very much astonished, having concluded within myself that everyone would take this opportunity of getting rid of his passions, prejudices, and frailties. I took notice in particular of a very profligate fellow, who, I did not question, came loaden with his crimes, but upon searching into his bundle, I found that instead of throwing his guilt from him, he had only laid down his memory. He was followed by another worthless rogue, who flung away his modesty instead of his ignorance. When the whole race of mankind had thus cast their burdens, the phantom which had been so busy on this occasion, seeing me an idle spectator of what passed, approached toward me. I grew uneasy at her presence, when, of a sudden, she held her magnifying glass full before my eyes. I no sooner saw my face in it, but was startled at the shortness of it, which now appeared to me in its utmost aggravation. The immoderate breadth of the features made me very much out of humor with my own countenance, upon which I threw it from me like a mask. It happened very luckily that one who stood by me had just before thrown down his visage, which, it seems, was too long for him. It was, indeed, extended to a most shameful length; I believe the very chin was, modestly speaking, as long as my whole face. We had both of us an opportunity of mending ourselves; and all the contributions being now brought in, every man was at liberty to exchange his misfortunes for those of another person. As we stood round the heap, and surveyed the several materials of which it was composed, there was scarcely a mortal in this vast multitude who did not discover what he thought pleasures and blessings of life, and wondered how the owners of them ever came to look upon them as burthens and grievances. As we were regarding very attentively this confusion of miseries, this chaos of calamity, Jupiter issued out a second proclamation, that everyone was now at liberty to exchange his affliction, and to return to his habitation with any such other bundle as should be delivered to him. Upon this, Fancy began again to bestir herself, and, parceling out the whole heap with incredible activity, recommended to everyone his particular packet. The hurry and confusion at this time was not to be expressed. Some observations, which I made upon the occasion, I shall communicate to the public. A venerable, gray-headed man, who had laid down the colic, and who, I found, wanted an heir to his estate, snatched up an undutiful son that had been thrown into the heap by an angry father. The graceless youth, in less than a quarter of an hour, pulled the old gentleman by the beard, and had liked to have knocked his brains out; so that meeting the true father, who came toward him with a fit of the gripes, he begged him to take his son again, and give him back his colic; but they were incapable, either of them, to recede from the choice they had made. A poor galley slave, who had thrown down his chains, took up the gout in their stead, but made such wry faces that one might easily perceive he was no great gainer by the bargain. The female world were very busy among themselves in bartering for features; one was trucking a lock of gray hairs for a carbuncle; and another was making over a short waist for a pair of round shoulders; but on all these occasions there was not one of them who did not think the new blemish, as soon as she had got it into her possession, much more disagreeable than the old one. I must not omit my own particular adventure. My friend with the long visage had no sooner taken upon him my short face, but he made such a grotesque figure in it, that as I looked upon him, I could not forbear laughing at myself, insomuch that I put my own face out of countenance. The poor gentleman was so sensible of the ridicule, that I found he was ashamed of what he had done. On the other side, I found that I myself had no great reason to triumph, for as I went to touch my forehead, I missed the place, and clapped my finger upon my upper lip. Besides, as my nose was exceedingly prominent, I gave it two or three unlucky knocks as I was playing my hand about my face, and aiming at some other part of it. I saw two other gentlemen by me who were in the same ridiculous circumstances. These had made a foolish swap between a couple of thick bandy legs and two long trapsticks that had no calves to them. One of these looked like a man walking upon stilts, and was so lifted up into the air, above his ordinary height, that his head turned round with it, while the other made such awkward circles, as he attempted to walk, that he scarcely knew how to move forward upon his new supporters. Observing him to be a pleasant kind of a fellow, I stuck my cane in the ground, and told him I would lay him a bottle of wine that he did not march up to it on a line that I drew for him, in a quarter of an hour. The heap was at last distributed among the two sexes, who made a most piteous sight, as they wandered up and down under the pressure of their several burthens. The whole plain was filled with murmurs and complaints, groans and lamentations. Jupiter, at length taking compassion on the poor mortals, ordered them a second time to lay down their loads, with a design to give everyone his own again. They discharged themselves with a great deal of pleasure; after which, the phantom who had led them into such gross delusions, was commanded to disappear. There was sent in her stead a goddess of a quite different figure: her motions were steady and composed, and her aspect serious but cheerful. She every now and then cast her eyes toward heaven, and fixed them upon Jupiter. Her name was Patience. She had no sooner placed herself by the Mount of Sorrows, but, what I thought very remarkable, the whole heap sunk to such a degree that it did not appear a third part so big as it was before. She afterward returned every man his own proper calamity, and, teaching him how to bear it in the most commodious manner, he marched off with it contentedly, being very well pleased that he had not been left to his own choice as to the kind of evil which fell to his lot. Beside the several pieces of morality to be drawn out of this vision, I learnt from it never to repine at my own misfortunes, or to envy the happiness of another, since it is impossible for any man to form a right judgment of his neighbor's sufferings; for which reason, also, I have determined never to think too lightly of another's complaints, but to regard the sorrows of my fellow-creatures with sentiments of humanity and compassion. NOTES.--Horace (b. 65, d. 8 B. C.) was a celebrated Roman poet. Jupiter, according to mythology, was the greatest of the Greek and Roman gods; he was thought to be the supreme ruler of both mortals and immortals. LXXXII. JUPITER AND TEN. (301) James T. Fields, 1817-1881, was born at Portsmouth, New Hampshire. For many years he was partner in the well-known firm of Ticknor & Fields (Later Fields, Osgood & Co.), the leading publishers of standard American literature. For eight years, he was chief editor of the "Atlantic Monthly;" and, after he left that position, he often enriched its pages by the productions of his pen. During his latter years Mr. Fields gained some reputation as a lecturer. His literary abilities were of no mean order: but he did not do so much in producing literature himself, as in aiding others in its production. ### Mrs. Chub was rich and portly, Mrs. Chub was very grand, Mrs. Chub was always reckoned A lady in the land. You shall see her marble mansion In a very stately square,-- Mr. C. knows what it cost him, But that's neither here nor there. Mrs. Chub was so sagacious, Such a patron of the arts, And she gave such foreign orders That she won all foreign hearts. Mrs. Chub was always talking, When she went away from home, Of a most prodigious painting Which had just arrived from Rome. "Such a treasure," she insisted, "One might never see again!" "What's the subject?" we inquired. "It is Jupiter and Ten!" "Ten what?" we blandly asked her For the knowledge we did lack, "Ah! that I can not tell you, But the name is on the back. "There it stands in printed letters,-- Come to-morrow, gentlemen,-- Come and see our splendid painting, Our fine Jupiter and Ten!" When Mrs. Chub departed, Our brains began to rack,-- She could not be mistaken For the name was on the back. So we begged a great Professor To lay aside his pen, And give some information Touching "Jupiter and Ten." And we pondered well the subject, And our Lempriere we turned, To find out who the Ten were; But we could not, though we burned. But when we saw the picture,-- O Mrs. Chub! Oh, fie! O! We perused the printed label, And 't was JUPITER AND IO! NOTES.--John Lempriere, an Englishman, was the author of a "Classical Dictionary" which until the middle of the present century was the chief book of reference on ancient mythology. Io is a mythical heroine of Greece, with whom Jupiter was enamored. LXXXIII. SCENE FROM "THE POOR GENTLEMAN." George Colman, 1762-1836, was the son of George Colman, a writer of dramas, who in 1777 purchased the "Haymarket Theater," in London. Owing to the illness of the father, Colman the younger assumed the management of the theater in 1785, which post he held for a long time. He was highly distinguished as a dramatic author and wit. "The Poor Gentleman," from which the following selection is adapted, is perhaps the best known of his works. ### SIR ROBERT BRAMBLE and HUMPHREY DOBBINS. Sir R. I'll tell you what, Humphrey Dobbins, there is not a syllable of sense in all you have been saying. But I suppose you will maintain there is. Hum. Yes. Sir R. Yes! Is that the way you talk to me, you old boor? What's my name? Hum. Robert Bramble. Sir R. An't I a baronet? Sir Robert Bramble, of Blackberry Hall, in the county of Kent? 'T is time you should know it, for you have been my clumsy, two-fisted valet these thirty years: can you deny that? Hum. Hem! Sir R. Hem? What do you mean by hem? Open that rusty door of your mouth, and make your ugly voice walk out of it. Why don't you answer my question? Hum. Because, if I contradict you, I shall tell you a lie, and whenever I agree with you, you are sure to fall out. Sir R. Humphrey Dobbins. I have been so long endeavoring to beat a few brains into your pate that all your hair has tumbled off before my point is carried. Hum. What then? Our parson says my head is an emblem of both our honors. Sir R. Ay; because honors, like your head, are apt to be empty. Hum. No; but if a servant has grown bald under his master's nose, it looks as if there was honesty on one side, and regard for it on the other. Sir R. Why, to be sure, old Humphrey, you are as honest as a--pshaw! the parson means to palaver us; but, to return to my position, I tell you I do n't like your flat contradiction. Hum. Yes, you do. Sir R. I tell you I don't. I only love to hear men's arguments. I hate their flummery. Hum. What do you call flummery? Sir R. Flattery, blockhead! a dish too often served up by paltry poor men to paltry rich ones. Hum. I never serve it up to you. Sir R. No, you give me a dish of a different description. Hum. Hem! what is it? Sir R. Sauerkraut, you old crab Hum. I have held you a stout tug at argument this many a year. Sir R. And yet I could never teach you a syllogism. Now mind, when a poor man assents to what a rich man says, I suspect he means to flatter him: now I am rich, and hate flattery. Ergo--when a poor man subscribes to my opinion, I hate him. Hum. That's wrong. Sir R. Very well; negatur; now prove it. Hum. Put the case then, I am a poor man. Sir R. You an't, you scoundrel. You know you shall never want while I have a shilling. Hum. Bless you! Sir R. Pshaw! Proceed. Hum. Well, then, I am a poor--I must be a poor man now, or I never shall get on. Sir R. Well, get on, be a poor man. Hum. I am a poor man, and I argue with you, and convince you, you are wrong; then you call yourself a blockhead, and I am of your opinion: now, that's no flattery. Sir R. Why, no; but when a man's of the same opinion with me, he puts an end to the argument, and that puts an end to the conversation, and so I hate him for that. But where's my nephew Frederic? Hum. Been out these two hours. Sir R. An undutiful cub! Only arrived from Russia last night, and though I told him to stay at home till I rose, he's scampering over the fields like a Calmuck Tartar. Hum. He's a fine fellow. Sir R. He has a touch of our family. Don't you think he is a little like me, Humphrey? Hum. No, not a bit; you are as ugly an old man as ever I clapped my eyes on. Sir R. Now that's plaguy impudent, but there's no flattery in it, and it keeps up the independence of argument. His father, my brother Job, is of as tame a spirit--Humphrey, you remember my brother Job? Hum. Yes, you drove him to Russia five and twenty years ago. Sir R. I did not drive him. Hum. Yes, you did. You would never let him be at peace in the way of argument. Sir R. At peace! Zounds, he would never go to war. Hum. He had the merit to be calm. Sir R. So has a duck pond. He was a bit of still life; a chip; weak water gruel; a tame rabbit, boiled to rags, without sauce or salt. He received my arguments with his mouth open, like a poorbox gaping for half-pence, and, good or bad, he swallowed them all without any resistance. We could n't disagree, and so we parted. Hum. And the poor, meek gentleman went to Russia for a quiet life. Sir R. A quiet life! Why, he married the moment he got there, tacked himself to the shrew relict of a Russian merchant, and continued a speculation with her in furs, flax, potashes, tallow, linen, and leather; what's the consequence? Thirteen months ago he broke. Hum. Poor soul, his wife should have followed the business for him. Sir R. I fancy she did follow it, for she died just as he broke, and now this madcap, Frederic, is sent over to me for protection. Poor Job, now he is in distress, I must not neglect his son. Hum. Here comes his son; that's Mr. Frederic. Enter FREDERIC. Fred. Oh, my dear uncle, good morning! Your park is nothing but beauty. Sir R. Who bid you caper over my beauty? I told you to stay in doors till I got up. Fred. So you did, but I entirely forgot it. Sir R. And pray, what made you forget it? Fred. The sun. Sir R. The sun! he's mad; you mean the moon, 1 believe. Fred. Oh, my dear uncle, you don't know the effect of a fine spring morning upon a fellow just arrived from Russia. The day looked bright, trees budding, birds singing, the park was so gay that I took a leap out of your old balcony, made your deer fly before me like the wind, and chased them all around the park to get an appetite for breakfast, while you were snoring in bed, uncle. Sir R. Oh, oh! So the effect of English sunshine upon a Russian, is to make him jump out of a balcony, and worry my deer. Fred. I confess it had that influence upon me. Sir R. You had better be influenced by a rich old uncle, unless you think the sun likely to leave you a fat legacy. Fred. I hate legacies. Sir R. Sir, that's mighty singular. They are pretty solid tokens, at least. Fred. Very melancholy tokens, uncle; they are the posthumous dispatches Affection sends to Gratitude, to inform us we have lost a gracious friend. Sir R. How charmingly the dog argues! Fred. But I own my spirits ran away with me this morning. I will obey you better in future; for they tell me you are a very worthy, good sort of old gentleman. Sir R. Now who had the familiar impudence to tell you that? Fred. Old rusty, there. Sir R. Why Humphrey, you didn't? Hum. Yes, but I did though. Fred, Yes, he did, and on that score I shall be anxious to show you obedience, for 't is as meritorious to attempt sharing a good man's heart, as it is paltry to have designs upon a rich man's money. A noble nature aims its attentions full breast high, uncle; a mean mind levels its dirty assiduities at the pocket. Sir R. (Shaking him by the hand.) Jump out of every window I have in my house; hunt my deer into high fevers, my fine fellow! Ay, that's right. This is spunk, and plain speaking. Give me a man who is always flinging his dissent to my doctrines smack in my teeth. Fred. I disagree with you there, uncle. Hum. And so do I. Fred. You! you forward puppy! If you were not so old, I'd knock you down. Sir R. I'll knock you down, if you do. I won't have my servants thumped into dumb flattery. Hum. Come, you are ruffled. Let us go to the business of the morning. Sir R. I hate the business of the morning. Don't you see we are engaged in discussion. I tell you, I hate the business of the morning. Hum. No you don't. Sir R. Don't I? Why not? Hum. Because 't is charity. Sir R. Pshaw! Well, we must not neglect the business, if there be any distress in the parish. Read the list, Humphrey. Hum. (Taking out a paper and reading.) "Jonathan Huggins, of Muck Mead, is put in prison for debt." Sir R. Why, it was only last week that Gripe, the attorney, recovered two cottages for him by law, worth sixty pounds. Hum. Yes, and charged a hundred for his trouble; so seized the cottages for part of his bill, and threw Jonathan into jail for the remainder. Sir R. A harpy! I must relieve the poor fellow's distress. Fred. And I must kick his attorney. Hum. (Reading.) "The curate's horse is dead." Sir R. Pshaw! There's no distress in that. Hum. Yes, there is, to a man that must go twenty miles every Sunday to preach three sermons, for thirty pounds a year. Sir R. Why won't the vicar give him another nag? Hum. Because 't is cheaper to get another curate ready mounted. Sir R. Well, send him the black pad which I purchased last Tuesday, and tell him to work him as long as he lives. What else have we upon the list? Hum. Something out of the common; there's one Lieutenant Worthington, a disabled officer and a widower, come to lodge at Farmer Harrowby's, in the village; he is, it seems, very poor, and more proud than poor, and more honest than proud. Sir R. And so he sends to me for assistance? Hum. He'd see you hanged first! No, he'd sooner die than ask you or any man for a shilling! There's his daughter, and his wife's aunt, and an old corporal that served in the wars with him, he keeps them all upon his half pay. Sir R. Starves them all, I'm afraid, Humphrey. Fred. (Going.) Good morning, uncle. Sir R. You rogue, where are you running now? Fred. To talk with Lieutenant Worthington. Sir R. And what may you be going to say to him? Fred. I can't tell till I encounter him; and then, uncle, when I have an old gentleman by the hand, who has been disabled in his country's service, and is struggling to support his motherless child, a poor relation, and a faithful servant, in honorable indigence, impulse will supply me with words to express my sentiments. Sir R. Stop, you rogue; I must be before you in this business. Fred. That depends on who can run the fastest; so, start fair, uncle, and here goes.--(Runs out.) Sir R. Stop, stop; why, Frederic--a jackanapes--to take my department out of my hands! I'll disinherit the dog for his assurance. Hum. No, you won't. Sir R. Won't I? Hang me if I--but we'll argue that point as we go. So, come along Humphrey. NOTES.-Ergo (pro. er'go) is a Latin word meaning therefore. Negatur (pro. ne-ga'tur) is a Latin verb, and means it is denied. The Tartars are a branch of the Mongolian race, embracing among other tribes the Calmucks. The latter are a fierce, nomadic people inhabiting parts of the Russian and Chinese empires. LXXXIV. MY MOTHER'S PICTURE. (310) William Cowper, 1731-1800, was the son of an English clergyman; both his parents were descended from noble families. He was always of a gentle, timid disposition; and the roughness of his schoolfellows increased his weakness in this respect. He studied law, and was admitted to the bar, but never practiced his profession. When he was about thirty years of age, he was appointed to a clerkship in the House of Lords, but could not summon courage to enter upon the discharge of its duties. He was so disturbed by this affair that he became insane, sought to destroy himself, and had to be consigned to a private asylum. Soon after his recovery, he found a congenial home in the family of the Rev. Mr. Unwin. On the death of this gentleman, a few years later, he continued to reside with his widow till her death, a short time before that of Cowper. Most of this time their home was at Olney. His first writings were published in 1782. He wrote several beautiful hymns, "The Task," and some minor poems. These, with his translations of Homer and his correspondence, make up his published works. His life was always pure and gentle; he took great pleasure in simple, natural objects, and in playing with animals. His insanity returned from time to time, and darkened his life at its close. When six years of age, he lost his mother; and the following selection is part of a touching tribute to her memory, written many years later. ### Oh that those lips had language! Life has passed With me but roughly since I heard them last. My mother, when I learned that thou wast dead, Say, wast thou conscious of the tears I shed? Hovered thy spirit o'er thy sorrowing son, Wretch even then, life's journey just begun? Perhaps thou gavest me, though unfelt, a kiss, Perhaps a tear, if souls can weep in bliss. Ah, that maternal smile! it answers--Yes! I heard the bell tolled on thy burial day; I saw the hearse that bore thee slow away; And, turning from my nursery window, drew A long, long sigh, and wept a last adieu! But was it such? It was. Where thou art gone, Adieus and farewells are a sound unknown. May I but meet thee on that peaceful shore, The parting word shall pass my lips no more. Thy maidens, grieved themselves at my concern, Oft gave me promise of thy quick return; What ardently I wished, I long believed; And, disappointed still, was still deceived; By expectation, every day beguiled, Dupe of to-morrow, even when a child. Thus many a sad to-morrow came and went, Till, all my stock of infant sorrows spent, I learned at last submission to my lot; But, though I less deplored thee, ne'er forgot. My boast is not that I deduce my birth From loins enthroned, and rulers of the earth; But higher far my proud pretensions rise,-- The son of parents passed into the skies. And now, farewell! Time, unrevoked, has run His wonted course, yet what I wished is done. By Contemplation's help, not sought in vain, I seem to have lived my childhood o'er again; To have renewed the joys that once were mine, Without the sin of violating thine; And, while the wings of Fancy still are free, And I can view this mimic show of thee, Time has but half succeeded in his theft,-- Thyself removed, thy power to soothe me left. LXXXV. DEATH OF SAMSON. (312) John Milton, 1608-1674, was born in London--eight years before the greatest English poet, Shakespeare, died. His father followed the profession of a scrivener, in which he acquired a competence. As a boy, Milton was exceedingly studious, continuing his studies till midnight. He graduated at Christ's College, Cambridge, where his singular beauty, his slight figure, and his fastidious morality caused his companions to nickname him "the lady of Christ's." On leaving college he spent five years more in study, and produced his lighter poems. He then traveled on the continent, returning about the time the civil war broke out. For a time he taught a private school, but soon threw himself with all the power of his able and tried pen into the political struggle. He was the champion of Parliament and of Cromwell for about twenty years. On the accession of Charles II., he concealed himself for a time, but was soon allowed to live quietly in London. His eyesight had totally failed in 1654; but now, in blindness, age, family affliction, and comparative poverty, he produced his great work "Paradise Lost." In 1667 he sold the poem for 5 Pounds in cash, with a promise of 10 Pounds more on certain contingencies; the sum total received by himself and family for the immortal poem, was 23 Pounds. Later, he produced "Paradise Regained" and "Samson Agonistes," from the latter of which the following extract is taken. Milton is a wonderful example of a man, who, by the greatness of his own mind, triumphed over trials, afflictions, hardships, and the evil influence of bitter political controversy. ### Occasions drew me early to this city; And, as the gates I entered with sunrise, The morning trumpets festival proclaimed Through each high street: little I had dispatched, When all abroad was rumored that this day Samson should be brought forth, to show the people Proof of his mighty strength in feats and games. I sorrowed at his captive state, But minded not to be absent at that spectacle. The building was a spacious theater Half-round, on two main pillars vaulted high, With seats where all the lords, and each degree Of sort, might sit in order to behold; The other side was open, where the throng On banks and scaffolds under sky might stand: I among these aloof obscurely stood. The feast and noon grew high, and sacrifice Had filled their hearts with mirth, high cheer, and wine, When to their sports they turned. Immediately Was Samson as a public servant brought, In their state livery clad: before him pipes And timbrels; on each side went arme'd guards; Both horse and foot before him and behind, Archers and slingers, cataphracts, and spears. At sight of him the people with a shout Rifted the air, clamoring their god with praise, Who had made their dreadful enemy their thrall. He, patient, but undaunted, where they led him, Came to the place; and what was set before him, Which without help of eye might be essayed, To heave, pull, draw, or break, he still performed All with incredible, stupendous force, None daring to appear antagonist. At length for intermission sake, they led him Between the pillars; he his guide requested, As overtired, to let him lean awhile With both his arms on those two massy pillars, That to the arche'd roof gave main support. He unsuspicious led him; which when Samson Felt in his arms, with head awhile inclined, And eyes fast fixed, he stood, as one who prayed, Or some great matter in his mind revolved: At last, with head erect, thus cried aloud:-- "Hitherto, lords, what your commands imposed I have performed, as reason was, obeying, Not without wonder or delight beheld; Now, of my own accord, such other trial I mean to show you of my strength yet greater, As with amaze shall strike all who behold." This uttered, straining all his nerves, he bowed; As with the force of winds and waters pent When mountains tremble, those two massy pillars With horrible convulsion to and fro He tugged, he shook, till down they came, and drew The whole roof after them with burst of thunder Upon the heads of all who sat beneath,-- Lords, ladies, captains, counselors, or priests, Their choice nobility and flower, not only Of this, but each Philistian city round, Met from all parts to solemnize this feast. Samson, with these immixed, inevitably Pulled down the same destruction on himself; The vulgar only 'scaped who stood without. NOTE.--The person supposed to be speaking is a Hebrew who chanced to be present at Gaza when the, incidents related took place. After the catastrophe he rushes to Manoah, the father of Samson, to whom and his assembled friends he relates what he saw. (Cf. Bible, Judges xvi, 23.) LXXXVI. AN EVENING ADVENTURE. (315) Not long since, a gentleman was traveling in one of the counties of Virginia, and about the close of the day stopped at a public house to obtain refreshment and spend the night. He had been there but a short time, before an old man alighted from his gig, with the apparent intention of becoming his fellow guest at the same house. As the old man drove up, he observed that both the shafts of his gig were broken, and that they were held together by withes, formed from the bark of a hickory sapling. Our traveler observed further that he was plainly clad, that his knee buckles were loosened, and that something like negligence pervaded his dress. Conceiving him to be one of the honest yeomanry of our land, the courtesies of strangers passed between them, and they entered the tavern. It was about the same time, that an addition of three or four young gentlemen was made to their number; most, if not all of them, of the legal profession. As soon as they became conveniently accommodated, the conversation was turned, by one of the latter, upon the eloquent harangue which had that day been displayed at the bar. It was replied by the other that he had witnessed, the same day, a degree of eloquence no doubt equal, but it was from the pulpit. Something like a sarcastic rejoinder was made as to the eloquence of the pulpit, and a warm and able altercation ensued, in which the merits of the Christian religion became the subject of discussion. From six o'clock until eleven, the young champions wielded the sword of argument, adducing with ingenuity and ability everything that could be said pro and con. During this protracted period, the old gentleman listened with the meekness and modesty of a child, as if he were adding new information to the stores of his own mind; or perhaps he was observing, with a philosophic eye, the faculties of the youthful mind, and how new energies are evolved by repeated action; or perhaps, with patriotic emotion, he was reflecting upon the future destinies of his country, and on the rising generation, upon whom those future destinies must devolve; or, most probably, with a sentiment of moral and religious feeling, he was collecting an argument which no art would be "able to elude, and no force to resist." Our traveler remained a spectator, and took no part in what was said. At last one of the young men, remarking that it was impossible to combat with long and established prejudices, wheeled around, and with some familiarity exclaimed, "Well, my old gentleman, what think you of these things?" "If," said the traveler, "a streak of vivid lightning had at that moment crossed the room, their amazement could not have been greater than it was from what followed." The most eloquent and unanswerable appeal that he had ever heard or read, was made for nearly an hour by the old gentleman. So perfect was his recollection, that every argument urged against the Christian religion was met in the order in which it was advanced. Hume's sophistry on the subject of miracles, was, if possible, more perfectly answered than it had already been done by Campbell. And in the whole lecture there was so much simplicity and energy, pathos and sublimity, that not another word was uttered. "An attempt to describe it," said the traveler, "would be an attempt to paint the sunbeams." It was now a matter of curiosity and inquiry who the old gentleman was. The traveler concluded that it was the preacher from whom the pulpit eloquence was heard; but no, it was John Marshall, the Chief Justice of the United States. NOTES.--David Hume (b. 1711, d. 1776) was a celebrated Scotch historian and essayist. His most important work is "The History of England." He was a skeptic in matters of religion, and was a peculiarly subtle writer. George Campbell (b. 1719, d. 1796) was a distinguished Scotch minister. He wrote "A Dissertation on Miracles," ably answering Hume's "Essay on Miracles." John Marshall (b. 1755, d. 1835) was Chief Justice of the United States from 1801 until his death. He was an eminent jurist, and wrote a "Life of Washington," which made him famous as an author. LXXXVII. THE BAREFOOT BOY. (317) John Greenleaf Whittier, 1807-1892, was born in Haverhill, Mass., and, with short intervals of absence, he always resided in that vicinity. His parents were Friends or "Quakers," and he always held to the same faith. He spent his boyhood on a farm, occasionally writing verses for the papers even then. Two years of study in the academy seem to have given him all the special opportunity for education that he ever enjoyed. In 1829 he edited a newspaper in Boston, and the next year assumed a similar position in Hartford. For two years he was a member of the Massachusetts legislature. In 1836 he edited an anti-slavery paper in Philadelphia, and was secretary of the American Anti-Slavery Society. Mr. Whittier wrote extensively both in prose and verse. During the later years of his life he published several volumes of poems, and contributed frequently to the pages of the "Atlantic Monthly." An earnest opponent of slavery, some of his poems bearing on that subject are fiery and even bitter; but, in general, their sentiment is gentle, and often pathetic. As a poet, he took rank among those most highly esteemed by his countrymen. "Snow-Bound," published in 1805, is one of the longest and best of his poems. Several of his shorter pieces are marked by much smoothness and sweetness. ### Blessings on thee, little man, Barefoot boy, with cheek of tan! With thy turned-up pantaloons, And thy merry whistled tunes; With thy red lip, redder still Kissed by strawberries on the hill; With the sunshine on thy face, Through thy torn brim's jaunty grace; From my heart I give thee joy,-- I was once a barefoot boy! Prince thou art,--the grown-up man Only is republican. Let the million-dollared ride! Barefoot, trudging, at his side, Thou hast more than he can buy In the reach of ear and eye,-- Outward sunshine, inward joy: Blessings on thee, barefoot boy! Oh for boyhood's painless play, Sleep that wakes in laughing day, Health that mocks the doctor's rules, Knowledge never learned of schools, Of the wild bee's morning chase, Of the wild flower's time and place, Flight of fowl and habitude Of the tenants of the wood; How the tortoise bears his shell, How the woodchuck digs his cell, And the ground mole sinks his well How the robin feeds her young, How the oriole's nest is hung; Where the whitest lilies blow, Where the freshest berries grow, Where the groundnut trails its vine, Where the wood grape's clusters shine; Of the black wasp's cunning way, Mason of his walls of clay, And the architectural plans Of gray hornet artisans!-- For, eschewing books and tasks, Nature answers all he asks; Hand in hand with her he walks, Face to face with her he talks, Part and parcel of her joy,-- Blessings on thee, barefoot boy! Oh for boyhood's time of June, Crowding years in one brief moon, When all things I heard or saw Me, their master, waited for. I was rich in flowers and trees, Humming birds and honeybees; For my sport the squirrel played, Plied the snouted mole his spade; For my taste the blackberry cone Purpled over hedge and stone; Laughed the brook for my delight Through the day and through the night, Whispering at the garden wall, Talked with me from fall to fall; Mine the sand-rimmed pickerel pond, Mine the walnut slopes beyond, Mine, on bending orchard trees, Apples of Hesperides! Still, as my horizon grew, Larger grew my riches too; All the world I saw or knew Seemed a complex Chinese toy, Fashioned for a barefoot boy! Oh for festal dainties spread, Like my bowl of milk and bread,-- Pewter spoon and bowl of wood, On the doorstone, gray and rude! O'er me, like a regal tent, Cloudy-ribbed, the sunset bent, Purple-curtained, fringed with gold, Looped in many a wind-swung fold; While for music came the play Of the pied frog's orchestra; And to light the noisy choir, Lit the fly his lamp of fire. I was monarch: pomp and joy Waited on the barefoot boy! Cheerily, then, my little man, Live and laugh, as boyhood can! Though the flinty slopes be hard, Stubble-speared the new-mown sward, Every morn shall lead thee through Fresh baptisms of the dew; Every evening from thy feet Shall the cool wind kiss the heat: All too soon these feet must hide In the prison cells of pride, Lose the freedom of the sod, Like a colt's for work be shod, Made to tread the mills of toil, Up and down in ceaseless moil: Happy if their track be found Never on forbidden ground; Happy if they sink not in Quick and treacherous sands of sin. Ah! that thou shouldst know thy joy Ere it passes, barefoot boy! NOTE.--The Hesperides, in Grecian mythology, were four sisters (some traditions say three, and others, seven) who guarded the golden apples given to Juno as a wedding present. The locality of the garden of the Hesperides is a disputed point with mythologists. [Illustration: A well-dressed man is reaching for a glove while facing three ferocious lions. Several people are observing him from the safety of a raised platform.] LXXXVIII. THE GLOVE AND THE LIONS. (321) James Henry Leigh Hunt, 1784-1859. Leigh Hunt, as he is commonly called, was prominent before the public for fifty years as "a writer of essays, poems, plays, novels, and criticisms." He was born at Southgate, Middlesex, England. His mother was an American lady. He began to write for the public at a very early age. In 1808, In connection with his brother, he established "The Examiner," a newspaper advocating liberal opinions in politics. For certain articles offensive to the government, the brothers were fined 500 Pounds each and condemned to two years' imprisonment. Leigh fitted up his prison like a boudoir, received his friends here, and wrote several works during his confinement. Mr. Hunt was intimate with Byron, Shelley, Moore, and Keats, and was associated with Byron and Shelley in the publication of a political and literary journal. His last years were peacefully devoted to literature, and in 1847 he received a pension from the government. ### King Francis was a hearty king, and loved a royal sport, And one day, as his lions fought, sat looking on the court; The nobles filled the benches round, the ladies by their side, And 'mongst them sat the Count de Lorge, with one for whom he sighed: And truly 't was a gallant thing to see that crowning show, Valor and love, and a king above, and the royal beasts below. Ramped and roared the lions, with horrid laughing jaws; They bit, they glared, gave blows like beams, a wind went with their paws; With wallowing might and stifled roar, they rolled on one another: Till all the pit, with sand and mane, was in a thunderous smother; The bloody foam above the bars came whizzing through the air: Said Francis, then, "Faith, gentlemen, we're better here than there." De Lorge's love o'erheard the king,--a beauteous, lively dame, With smiling lips, and sharp, bright eyes, which always seemed the same; She thought, "The Count, my lover, is brave as brave call be, He surely would do wondrous things to show his love for me; King, ladies, lovers, all look on; the occasion is divine; I'll drop my glove to prove his love; great glory will be mine." She dropped her glove to prove his love, then looked at him and smiled; He bowed, and in a moment leaped among the lions wild; The leap was quick, return was quick, he soon regained his place, Then threw the glove, but not with love, right in the lady's face. "In faith," cried Francis, "rightly done!" and he rose from where he sat; "No love," quoth he, "but vanity, sets love a task like that." NOTE.--King Francis. This is supposed to have been Francis I. of France (b. 1494, d. 1547). He was devoted to sports of this nature. LXXXIX. THE FOLLY OF INTOXICATION. (322) Iago. What, are you hurt, lieutenant? Cassio. Ay, past all surgery. Iago. Marry, heaven forbid! Cas. Reputation, reputation, reputation! Oh, I have lost my reputation! I have lost the immortal part of myself, and what remains is bestial. My reputation! Iago, my reputation! Iago. As I am an honest man, I thought you had received some bodily wound; there is more sense in that than in reputation. Reputation is an idle and most false imposition: oft got without merit, and lost without deserving: you have lost no reputation at all, unless you repute yourself such a loser. What, man! there are ways to recover the general again. Sue to him again, and he's yours. Cas. I will rather sue to be despised than to deceive so good a commander with so slight, so drunken, and so indiscreet an officer. Drunk? and speak parrot? and squabble? swagger? swear? and discourse fustian with one's own shadow? O thou invisible spirit of wine, if thou hast no name to be known by, let us call thee devil! Iago. What was he that you followed with your sword? What had he done to you? Cas. I know not. Iago. Is't possible? Cas. I remember a mass of things, but nothing distinctly; a quarrel, but nothing wherefore. Oh that men should put an enemy in their mouths to steal away their brains! that we should, with joy, revel, pleasure, and applause, transform ourselves into beasts! Iago. Why, but you are now well enough: how came you thus recovered? Cas. It hath pleased the devil, Drunkenness, to give place to the devil, Wrath; one unperfectness shows me another, to make me frankly despise myself. Iago. Come, you are too severe a moraler. As the time, the place, and the condition of this country stands, I could heartily wish this had not befallen; but since it is as it is, mend it for your own good. Cas. I will ask him for my place again: he shall tell me I am a drunkard! Had I as many mouths as Hydra, such an answer would stop them all. To be now a sensible man, by and by a fool, and presently a beast! Oh strange!--Every inordinate cup is unblessed, and the ingredient is a devil! Iago. Come, come; good wine is a good familiar creature, if it be well used; exclaim no more against it. And, good lieutenant, I think you think I love you. Cas. I have well approved it, sir,--I, drunk! Iago. You or any man living may be drunk at a time, man. I'll tell you what you shall do. Our general's wife is now the general. Confess yourself freely to her; importune her help to put you in your place again. She is of so free, so kind, so apt, so blessed a disposition, she holds it a vice in her goodness not to do more than she is requested. This broken joint between you and her husband, entreat her to splinter; and, my fortunes against any lay worth naming, this crack of your love shall grow stronger than it was before. Cas. You advise me well. Iago. I protest in the sincerity of love and honest kindness. Cas. I think it freely, and betimes in the morning, I will beseech the virtuous Desdemona to undertake for me; I am desperate of my fortunes if they check me here. Iago. You are in the right. Good night, lieutenant, I must to the watch. Cas. Good night, honest Iago. Shakespeare.--Othello, Act ii, Scene iii. NOTES.--Iago is represented as a crafty, unscrupulous villain. He applies for the position of lieutenant under Othello, but the latter has already appointed Cassio--who is honest, but of a weak character--to that position; he, however, makes Iago his ensign. Then Iago, to revenge himself for this and other fancied wrongs, enters upon a systematic course of villainy, part of which is to bring about the intoxication of Cassio, and his consequent discharge from the lieutenancy. The Hydra was a fabled monster of Grecian mythology, having nine heads, one of which was immortal. Desdemona was the wife of Othello. XC. STARVED ROCK. (325) Francis Parkman, 1823-1893, the son of a clergyman of the same name, was born in Boston, and graduated at Harvard University in 1844. He spent more than twenty years in a careful study of the early French explorations and settlements in America; and he published the fruits of his labor in twelve large volumes. Although troubled with an affection of the eyes, which sometimes wholly prevented reading or writing, his work was most carefully and successfully done. His narratives are written in a clear and animated style, and his volumes are a rich contribution to American history. ### The cliff called "Starved Rock," now pointed out to travelers as the chief natural curiosity of the region, rises, steep on three sides as a castle wall, to the height of a hundred and twenty-five feet above the river. In front, it overhangs the water that washes its base; its western brow looks down on the tops of the forest trees below; and on the east lies a wide gorge, or ravine, choked with the mingled foliage of oaks, walnuts, and elms; while in its rocky depths a little brook creeps down to mingle with the river. From the rugged trunk of the stunted cedar that leans forward from the brink, you may drop a plummet into the river below, where the catfish and the turtles may plainly be seen gliding over the wrinkled sands of the clear and shallow current. The cliff is accessible only from the south, where a man may climb up, not without difficulty, by a steep and narrow passage. The top is about an acre in extent. Here, in the month of December, 1682, La Salle and Tonty began to entrench themselves. They cut away the forest that crowned the rock, built storehouses and dwellings of its remains, dragged timber up the rugged pathway, and encircled the summit with a palisade. Thus the winter was passed, and meanwhile the work of negotiation went prosperously on. The minds of the Indians had been already prepared. In La Salle they saw their champion against the Iroquois, the standing terror of all this region. They gathered around his stronghold like the timorous peasantry of the Middle Ages around the rock-built castle of their feudal lord. From the wooden ramparts of St. Louis,--for so he named his fort,--high and inaccessible as an eagle's nest, a strange scene lay before his eye. The broad, flat valley of the Illinois was spread beneath him like a map, bounded in the distance by its low wall of wooded hills. The river wound at his feet in devious channels among islands bordered with lofty trees; then, far on the left, flowed calmly westward through the vast meadows, till its glimmering blue ribbon was lost in hazy distance. There had been a time, and that not remote, when these fair meadows were a waste of death and desolation, scathed with fire, and strewn with the ghastly relics of an Iroquois victory. Now, all was changed. La Salle looked down from his rock on a concourse of wild human life. Lodges of bark and rushes, or cabins of logs, were clustered on the open plain, or along the edges of the bordering forests. Squaws labored, warriors lounged in the sun, naked children whooped and gamboled on the grass. Beyond the river, a mile and a half on the left, the banks were studded once more with the lodges of the Illinois, who, to the number of six thousand, had returned, since their defeat, to this their favorite dwelling place. Scattered along the valley, among the adjacent hills, or over the neighboring prairie, were the cantonments of a half score of other tribes, and fragments of tribes, gathered under the protecting aegis of the French. NOTES.--The curious elevation called Starved Rock is on the south side of Illinois River, between La Salle and Ottawa. There is a legend according to which it is said that over one hundred years ago, a party of Illinois Indians took refuge here from the Pottawatomies; their besiegers, however, confined them so closely that the whole party perished of starvation, or, as some say, of thirst. From this circumstance the rock takes its name. La Salle (b. 1643, d. 1687) was a celebrated French explorer and fur trader. He established many forts throughout the Mississippi Valley,-- among them, Fort St. Louis, in 1683. Tonty was an Italian, who formerly served in both the French army and navy, and afterwards joined La Salle in his explorations. XCI. PRINCE HENRY AND FALSTAFF. (327) PRINCE HENRY and POINS, in a back room, in a tavern. Enter FALSTAFF, GADSHILL, BARDOLPH, and PETO. Poins. Welcome, Jack. Where hast thou been? Falstaff. A plague of all cowards, I say, and a vengeance too! marry, and amen! Give me a cup of sack, boy. Ere I lead this life long, I'll sew nether stocks, and mend them, and foot them, too. A plague of all cowards! Give me a cup of sack, rogue. Is there no virtue extant? (He drinks, and then continues.) You rogue, here's lime in this sack, too; there is nothing but roguery to be found in villainous man: yet a coward is worse than a cup of sack with lime in it. A villainous coward! Go thy ways, old Jack; die when thou wilt: if manhood, good manhood, be not forgot upon the face of the earth, then am I a shotten herring. There live not three good men unhanged, in England; and one of them is fat and grows old; a bad world, I say! I would I were a weaver; I could sing psalms, or anything. A plague of all cowards, I say still. Prince Henry. How now, woolsack? What mutter you? Fal. A king's son! If I do not beat thee out of thy kingdom with a dagger of lath, and drive all thy subjects afore thee like a flock of wild geese, I'll never wear hair on my face more. You, Prince of Wales! P. Henry. Why, you baseborn dog! What's the matter? Fal. Are you not a coward? Answer me to that; and Poins there? Poins. Ye fat braggart, an ye call me coward, I'll stab thee. Fal. I call thee coward? I'll see thee gibbeted ere I call thee coward: but I would give a thousand pounds I could run as fast as thou canst. You are straight enough in the shoulders, you care not who sees your back: call you that backing of your friends? A plague upon such backing! Give me them that will face me. Give me a cup of sack. I am a rogue, if I have drunk to-day. P. Henry. O villain! thy lips ate scarce wiped since thou drunkest last. Fal. All's one for that. A plague of all cowards, still say 1. (He drinks.) P. Henry. What's the matter? Fal. What's the matter! There be four of us here have ta'en a thousand pounds this morning. P. Henry. Where is it, Jack? where is it? Fal. Where is it? Taken from us it is; a hundred upon poor four of us. P. Henry. What! a hundred, man? Fal. I am a rogue, if I were not at half-sword with a dozen of them two hours together. I have 'scaped by miracle. I am eight times thrust through the doublet; four, through the hose; my buckler cut through and through; my sword hacked like a handsaw; look here! (shows his sword.) I never dealt better since I was a man; all would not do. A plague of all cowards! Let them speak (pointing to GADSHILL, BARDOLPH, and PETO); if they speak more or less than truth, they are villains and the sons of darkness. P. Henry. Speak, sirs; how was it? Gadshill. We four set upon some dozen-- Fal. Sixteen, at least, my lord. Gad. And bound them. Peta. No, no, they were not bound. Fal. You rogue, they were bound, every man of them; or I am a Jew, else--an Ebrew Jew. Gad. As we were sharing, some six or seven fresh men set upon us-- Fal. And unbound the rest; and then come in the other. P. Henry. What! fought ye with them all? Fal. All? I know not what ye call all; but if I fought not with fifty of them, I am a bunch of radish: if there were not two or three and fifty upon poor old Jack, then I am no two-legged creature. P. Henry. Pray heaven, you have not murdered some of them. Fal. Nay, that's past praying for; for I have peppered two of them; two I am sure I have paid; two rogues in buckram suits. I tell thee what, Hal, if I tell thee a lie, spit in my face, and call me a horse. Thou knowest my old ward; (he draws his sword and stands if about to fight) here I lay, and thus I bore my point. Four rogues in buckram let drive at me-- P. Henry. What! four? Thou saidst but two even now. Fal. Four, Hal; I told thee four. Poins. Ay, ay, he said four. Fal. These four came all afront, and mainly thrust at me. I made no more ado, but took all their seven points in my target, thus. P. Henry. Seven? Why, there were but four, even now. Fal. In buckram? Poins. Ay, four, in buckram suits. Fal. Seven, by these hilts, or I am a villain else. P. Henry. Prithee, let him alone; we shall have more anon. Fal. Dost thou hear me, Hal? P. Henry. Ay, and mark thee, too, Jack. Fal. Do so, for it is worth the listening to. These nine in buckram, that I told thee of-- P. Henry. So, two more already. Fal. Their points being broken, began to give me ground; but I followed me close, came in foot and hand; and, with a thought, seven of the eleven I paid. P. Henry. O, monstrous! eleven buckram men grown out of two! Fal. But three knaves, in Kendal green, came at my back, and let drive at me; for it was so dark, Hal, that thou couldst not see thy hand. P. Henry. These lies are like the father of them; gross as a mountain, open, palpable. Why, thou clay-brained, nott-pated fool; thou greasy tallow keech-- Fal. What! Art thou mad! Art thou mad? Is not the truth the truth? P. Henry. Why, how couldst thou know these men in Kendal green, when it was so dark thou couldst not see thy hand? Come, tell us your reason; what sayest thou to this? Poins. Come, your reason, Jack, your reason. Fal. What, upon compulsion? No, were I at the strappado, or all the racks in the world, I would not tell you on compulsion. Give you a reason on compulsion! If reasons were as plentiful as blackberries, I would give no man a reason on compulsion, I. P. Henry. I'll be no longer guilty of this sin: this sanguine coward, this horseback breaker, this huge hill of flesh-- Fal. Away! you starveling, you eel skin, you dried neat's tongue, you stockfish! Oh for breath to utter what is like thee!--you tailor's yard, you sheath, you bow case, you-- P. Henry. Well, breathe awhile, and then to it again; and when thou hast tired thyself in base comparisons, hear me speak but this. Poins. Mark, Jack. P. Henry. We two saw you four set on four; you bound them, and were masters of their wealth. Mark now, how a plain tale shall put you down. Then did we two set on you four, and with a word outfaced you from your prize, and have it; yea, and can show it you here in the house.--And, Falstaff, you carried yourself away as nimbly, with as quick dexterity, and roared for mercy, and still ran and roared, as ever I heard a calf. What a slave art thou, to hack thy sword as thou hast done, and then say it was in fight! What trick, what device, what starting hole, canst thou now find out to hide thee from this open and apparent shame? Poins. Come, let's hear, Jack. What trick hast thou now? Fal. Why, I knew ye as well as he that made ye. Why, bear ye, my masters: was it for me to kill the heir apparent? Should I turn upon the true prince? Why, thou knowest I am as valiant as Hercules; but beware instinct; the lion will not touch the true prince; instinct is a great matter; I was a coward on instinct. I shall think the better of myself and thee during my life; I for a valiant lion, and thou for a true prince. But, lads, I am glad you have the money. Hostess, clap to the doors. Watch to-night, pray to-morrow. Gallants, lads, boys, hearts of gold; all the titles of good-fellowship come to you! What! shall we be merry? Shall we have a play extempore? P. Henry. Content; and the argument shall be thy running away. Fal. Ah, no more of that, Hal, an thou lovest me! Shakespeare.-Henry IV, Part I, Act ii, Scene iv. NOTES.--The lime is a fruit allied to the lemon, but smaller, and more intensely sour. The strappado was an instrument of torture by which the victim's limbs were wrenched out of joint and broken. Hercules is a hero of fabulous history, remarkable for his great strength and wonderful achievements. XCII. STUDIES. (332) Sir Francis Bacon, 1561-1626. This eminent man was the youngest son of Sir Nicholas Bacon, lord keeper of the seal in the early part of Elizabeth's reign, and Anne Bacon, one of the most learned women of the time, daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke. He was born in London, and educated at Cambridge. He was a laborious and successful student, but even in his boyhood conceived a great distrust of the methods of study pursued at the seats of learning,--methods which he exerted his great powers to correct in his maturer years. Much of his life was spent in the practice of law, in the discharge of the duties of high office, and as a member of Parliament; but, to the end of life, he busied himself with philosophical pursuits, and he will be known to posterity chiefly for his deep and clear writings on these subjects. His constant direction in philosophy is to break away from assumption and tradition, and to be led only by sound induction based on a knowledge of observed phenomena. His "Novum Organum" and "Advancement of Learning" embody his ideas on philosophy and the true methods of seeking knowledge. Bacon rose to no very great distinction during the reign of Elizabeth; but, under James I, he was promoted to positions of great honor and influence. In 1618 he was made Baron of Verulam; and, three years later, he was made Viscount of St. Albans. During much of his life, Bacon was in pecuniary straits, which was doubtless one reason of his downfall; for, in 1621, he was accused of taking bribes, a charge to which he pleaded guilty. His disgrace followed, and he passed the last years of his life in retirement. Among the distinguished names in English literature, none stands higher in his department than that of Francis Bacon. ### Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. Their chief use for delight is in privateness, and retiring; for ornament, is in discourse; and for ability, is in the judgment and disposition of business; for expert men can execute, and perhaps judge of the particulars, one by one; but the general counsels, and the plots and marshaling of affairs, come best from those that are learned. To spend too much time in studies, is sloth; to use them too much for ornament, is affectation; to make judgment wholly by their rules, is the humor of a scholar; they perfect nature and are perfected by experience-- for natural abilities are like natural plants, that need pruning by study; and studies themselves do give forth directions too much at large, except they be bounded in by experience. Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them, for they teach not their own use; but that is a wisdom without them, and above them, won by observation. Read not to contradict and confute, nor to believe and take for granted, nor to find talk and discourse, but to weigh and consider. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested; that is, some books are to be read only in parts; others to be read, but not curiously; and some few to be read wholly, and with diligence and attention. Some books also may he read by deputy, and extracts made of them by others; but that would be only in the less important arguments, and the meaner sort of books; else distilled books are like common distilled waters, flashy things. Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man, and writing an exact man; and, therefore, if a man write little, he had need have a great memory; if he confer little, he had need have a present wit; and if he read little, he had need have much cunning, to seem to know that he doth not. Histories make men wise; poets, witty; the mathematics, subtle; natural philosophy, deep; moral philosophy, grave; logic and rhetoric, able to contend. XCIII. SURRENDER OF GRANADA. (334) Sir Edward George Bulwer-Lytton, 1806-1873, was born in Norfolk County, England. His father died when he was young; his mother was a woman of strong literary tastes, and did much to form her son's mind. In 1844, by royal license, he took the surname of Lytton from his mother's family. Bulwer graduated at Cambridge. He began to publish in 1826, and his novels and plays followed rapidly. "Pelham," "The Caxtons," "My Novel," "What will he do with it?" and "Kenelm Chillingly" are among the best known of his numerous novels; and "The Lady of Lyons" and "Richelieu" are his most successful plays. His novels are extensively read on the continent, and have been translated into most of the languages spoken there. "Leila, or the Siege of Granada," from which this selection is adapted, was published in 1840. ### Day dawned upon Granada, and the beams of the winter sun, smiling away the clouds of the past night, played cheerily on the murmuring waves of the Xenil and the Darro. Alone, upon a balcony commanding a view of the beautiful landscape, stood Boabdil, the last of the Moorish kings. He had sought to bring to his aid all the lessons of the philosophy he had cultivated. "What are we," thought the musing prince, "that we should fill the world with ourselves--we kings? Earth resounds with the crash of my falling throne; on the ear of races unborn the echo will live prolonged. But what have I lost? Nothing that was necessary to my happiness, my repose: nothing save the source of all my wretchedness, the Marah of my life! Shall I less enjoy heaven and earth, or thought or action, or man's more material luxuries of food or sleep--the common and the cheap desires of all? Arouse thee, then, O heart within me! Many and deep emotions of sorrow or of joy are yet left to break the monotony of existence. . . . But it is time to depart." So saying, he descended to the court, flung himself on his barb, and, with a small and saddened train, passed through the gate which we yet survey, by a blackened and crumbling tower, overgrown with vines and ivy; thence, amidst gardens now appertaining to the convent of the victor faith, he took his mournful and unwitnessed way. When he came to the middle of the hill that rises above those gardens, the steel of the Spanish armor gleamed upon him, as the detachment sent to occupy the palace marched over the summit in steady order and profound silence. At the head of this vanguard, rode, upon a snow-white palfrey, the Bishop of Avila, followed by a long train of barefooted monks. They halted as Boabdil approached, and the grave bishop saluted him with the air of one who addresses an infidel and inferior. With the quick sense of dignity common to the great, and yet more to the fallen, Boabdil felt, but resented not, the pride of the ecclesiastic. "Go, Christian," said he, mildly, "the gates of the Alhambra are open, and Allah has bestowed the palace and the city upon your king; may his virtues atone the faults of Boabdil!" So saying, and waiting no answer, he rode on without looking to the right or the left. The Spaniards also pursued their way. The sun had fairly risen above the mountains, when Boabdil and his train beheld, from the eminence on which they were, the whole armament of Spain; and at the same moment, louder than the tramp of horse or the clash of arms, was heard distinctly the solemn chant of Te Deum, which preceded the blaze of the unfurled and lofty standards. Boabdil, himself still silent, heard the groans and exclamations of his train; he turned to cheer or chide them, and then saw, from his own watchtower, with the sun shining full upon its pure and dazzling surface, the silver cross of Spain. His Alhambra was already in the hands of the foe; while beside that badge of the holy war waved the gay and flaunting flag of St. Iago, the canonized Mars of the chivalry of Spain. At that sight the King's voice died within him; he gave the rein to his barb, impatient to close the fatal ceremonial, and did not slacken his speed till almost within bowshot of the first ranks of the army. Never had Christian war assumed a more splendid and imposing aspect. Far as the eye could reach, extended the glittering and gorgeous lines of that goodly power, bristling with sunlit spears and blazoned banners; while beside, murmured, and glowed, and danced, the silver and laughing Xenil, careless what lord should possess, for his little day, the banks that bloomed by its everlasting course. By a small mosque halted the flower of the army. Surrounded by the archpriests of that mighty hierarchy, the peers and princes of a court that rivaled the Rolands of Charlemagne, was seen the kingly form of Ferdinand himself, with Isabel at his right hand, and the highborn dames of Spain, relieving, with their gay colors and sparkling gems, the sterner splendor of the crested helmet and polished mail. Within sight of the royal group, Boabdil halted, composed his aspect so as best to conceal his soul, and, a little in advance of his scanty train, but never in mien and majesty more a king, the son of Abdallah met his haughty conqueror. At the sight of his princely countenance and golden hair, his comely and commanding beauty, made more touching by youth, a thrill of compassionate admiration ran through that assembly of the brave and fair. Ferdinand and Isabel slowly advanced to meet their late rival,--their new subject; and, as Boabdil would have dismounted, the Spanish king placed his hand upon his shoulder. "Brother and prince," said he, "forget thy sorrows; and may our friendship hereafter console thee for reverses, against which thou hast contended as a hero and a king--resisting man, but resigned at length to God." Boabdil did not affect to return this bitter but unintentional mockery of compliment, He bowed his head, and remained a moment silent; then motioning to his train, four of his officers approached, and, kneeling beside Ferdinand, proffered to him, upon a silver buckler, the keys of the city. "O king!" then said Boabdil, "accept the keys of the last hold which has resisted the arms of Spain! The empire of the Moslem is no more. Thine are the city and the people of Granada; yielding to thy prowess, they yet confide in thy mercy." "They do well," said the king; "our promises shall not be broken. But since we know the gallantry of Moorish cavaliers, not to us, but to gentler hands, shall the keys of Granada be surrendered." Thus saying, Ferdinand gave the keys to Isabel, who would have addressed some soothing flatteries to Boabdil, but the emotion and excitement were too much for her compassionate heart, heroine and queen though she was; and when she lifted her eyes upon the calm and pale features of the fallen monarch, the tears gushed from them irresistibly, and her voice died in murmurs. A faint flush overspread the features of Boabdil, and there was a momentary pause of embarrassment, which the Moor was the first to break. "Fair queen," said he, with mournful and pathetic dignity, "thou canst read the heart that thy generous sympathy touches and subdues; this is thy last, nor least glorious conquest. But I detain ye; let not my aspect cloud your triumph. Suffer me to say farewell." "Farewell, my brother," replied Ferdinand, "and may fair fortune go with you! Forget the past!" Boabdil smiled bitterly, saluted the royal pair with profound and silent reverence, and rode slowly on, leaving the army below as he ascended the path that led to his new principality beyond the Alpuxarras. As the trees snatched the Moorish cavalcade from the view of the king, Ferdinand ordered the army to recommence its march; and trumpet and cymbal presently sent their music to the ear of the Moslems. Boabdil spurred on at full speed, till his panting charger halted at the little village where his mother, his slaves, and his faithful wife, Amine--sent on before--awaited him. Joining these, he proceeded without delay upon his melancholy path. They ascended that eminence which is the pass into the Alpuxarras. From its height, the vale, the rivers, the spires, and the towers of Granada broke gloriously upon the view of the little band. They halted mechanically and abruptly; every eye was turned to the beloved scene. The proud shame of baffled warriors, the tender memories of home, of childhood, of fatherland, swelled every heart, and gushed from every eye. Suddenly the distant boom of artillery broke from the citadel, and rolled along the sunlit valley and crystal river. A universal wail burst from the exiles; it smote,--it overpowered the heart of the ill-starred king, in vain seeking to wrap himself in Eastern pride or stoical philosophy. The tears gushed from his eyes, and he covered his face with his hands. The band wound slowly on through the solitary defiles; and that place where the king wept is still called The Last Sigh of the Moor. NOTES.--Granada was the capital of an ancient Moorish kingdom of the same name, in the southeastern part of Spain. The Darro River flows through it, emptying into the Xenil (or Jenil) just outside the city walls. King Ferdinand of Spain drove out the Moors, and captured the city in 1492. Marah. See Exodus xv. 23. Avila is an episcopal city in Spain, capital of a province of the same name. The Te Deum is an ancient Christian hymn, composed by St. Ambrose; it is so called from the first Latin words, "Te Deum laudamus," We praise thee, O God. Mars, in mythology, the god of war. The Alhambra is the ancient palace of the Moorish kings, at Granada. Allah is the Mohammedan name for the Supreme Being. Roland was a nephew of Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, emperor of the West and king of France. He was one of the most famous knights of the chivalric romances. The Alpuxarras is a mountainous region in the old province of Granada, where the Moors were allowed to remain some time after their subjugation by Ferdinand. XCIV. HAMLET'S SOLILOQUY. (339) To be, or not to be; that is the question:-- Whether 't is nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, Or to take arms against a sea of troubles, And by opposing end them? To die,--to sleep,-- No more: and by a sleep to say we end The heartache and the thousand natural shocks That flesh is heir to,--'t is a consummation Devoutly to be wished. To die,--to sleep:-- To sleep! perchance to dream:--ay, there's the rub; For in that sleep of death what dreams may come When we have shuffled off this mortal coil, Must give us pause. There's the respect That makes calamity of so long life; For who would bear the whips and scorns of time, The oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely, The pangs of despised love, the law's delay, The insolence of office, and the spurns That patient merit of the unworthy takes, When he himself might his quietus make With a bare bodkin? Who would fardels bear, To grunt and sweat under a weary life, But that the dread of something after death,-- The undiscovered country from whose bourn No traveler returns,--puzzles the will And makes us rather bear those ills we have Than fly to others that we know not of? Thus conscience doth make cowards of us all; And thus the native hue of resolution Is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought, And enterprises of great pith and moment With this regard their currents turn awry, And lose the name of action. Shakespeare.--Hamlet, Act iii, Scene i. XCV. GINEVRA. (340) Samuel Rogers, 1763-1855, was the son of a London banker, and, in company with his father, followed the banking business for some years. He began to write at an early age, and published his "Pleasures of Memory," perhaps his most famous work, in 1792. The next year his father died, leaving him an ample fortune. He now retired from business and established himself in an elegant house in St. James's Place. This house was a place of resort for literary men during fifty years. In 1822 he published his longest poem, "Italy," after which he wrote but little. He wrote with care, spending, as he said, nine years on the "Pleasures of Memory," and sixteen on "Italy." "His writings are remarkable for elegance of diction, purity of taste, and beauty of sentiment." It is said that he was very agreeable in conversation and manners, and benevolent in his disposition; but he was addicted to ill-nature and satire in some of his criticisms. ### If thou shouldst ever come by choice or chance To Modena,--where still religiously Among her ancient trophies, is preserved Bologna's bucket (in its chain it hangs Within that reverend tower, the Guirlandine),-- Stop at a palace near the Reggio gate, Dwelt in of old by one of the Orsini. Its noble gardens, terrace above terrace, And rich in fountains, statues, cypresses, Will long detain thee; through their arche'd walks, Dim at noonday, discovering many a glimpse Of knights and dames such as in old romance, And lovers such as in heroic song,-- Perhaps the two, for groves were their delight, That in the springtime, as alone they sate, Venturing together on a tale of love. Read only part that day.--A summer sun Sets ere one half is seen; but, ere thou go, Enter the house--prithee, forget it not-- And look awhile upon a picture there. 'T is of a lady in her earliest youth, The very last of that illustrious race, Done by Zampieri--but by whom I care not. He who observes it, ere he passes on, Gazes his fill, and comes and comes again, That he may call it up when far away. She sits, inclining forward as to speak, Her lips half-open, and her finger up, As though she said, "Beware!" her vest of gold, Broidered with flowers, and clasped from head to foot, An emerald stone in every golden clasp; And on her brow, fairer than alabaster, A coronet of pearls. But then her face, So lovely, yet so arch, so full of mirth, The overflowings of an innocent heart,-- It haunts me still, though many a year has fled, Like some wild melody! Alone it hangs Over a moldering heirloom, its companion, An oaken chest, half-eaten by the worm, But richly carved by Antony of Trent With scripture stories from the life of Christ; A chest that came from Venice, and had held The ducal robes of some old ancestors-- That, by the way, it may be true or false-- But don't forget the picture; and thou wilt not, When thou hast heard the tale they told me there. She was an only child; from infancy The joy, the pride, of an indulgent sire; The young Ginevra was his all in life, Still as she grew, forever in his sight; And in her fifteenth year became a bride, Marrying an only son, Francesco Doria, Her playmate from her birth, and her first love. Just as she looks there in her bridal dress, She was all gentleness, all gayety, Her pranks the favorite theme of every tongue. But now the day was come, the day, the hour; Now, frowning, smiling, for the hundredth time, The nurse, that ancient lady, preached decorum: And, in the luster of her youth, she gave Her hand, with her heart in it, to Francesco. Great was the joy; but at the bridal feast, When all sate down, the bride was wanting there. Nor was she to be found! Her father cried, " 'Tis but to make a trial of our love!" And filled his glass to all; but his hand shook, And soon from guest to guest the panic spread. 'T was but that instant she had left Francesco, Laughing and looking back and flying still, Her ivory tooth imprinted on his finger. But now, alas! she was not to be found; Nor from that hour could anything be guessed, But that she was not!--Weary of his life, Francesco flew to Venice, and forthwith Flung it away in battle with the Turk. Orsini lived; and long was to be seen An old man wandering as in quest of something, Something he could not find--he knew not what. When he was gone, the house remained a while Silent and tenantless--then went to strangers. Full fifty years were past, and all forgot, When on an idle day, a day of search 'Mid the old lumber in the gallery, That moldering chest was noticed; and 't was said By one as young, as thoughtless as Ginevra, "Why not remove it from its lurking place?" 'T was done as soon as said; but on the way It burst, it fell; and lo! a skeleton, With here and there a pearl, an emerald stone, A golden clasp, clasping a shred of gold. All else had perished, save a nuptial ring, And a small seal, her mother's legacy, Engraven with a name, the name of both, "Ginevra."---There then had she found a grave! Within that chest had she concealed herself, Fluttering with joy, the happiest of the happy; When a spring lock, that lay in ambush there, Fastened her down forever! NOTES.--The above selection is part of the poem, "Italy." Of the story Rogers says, "This story is, I believe, founded on fact; though the time and place are uncertain. Many old houses in England lay claim to it." Modena is the capital of a province of the same name in northern Italy. Bologna's bucket. This is affirmed to be the very bucket which Tassoni, an Italian poet, has celebrated in his mock heroics as the cause of a war between Bologna and Modena. Reggio is a city about sixteen miles northwest of Modena. The Orsini. A famous Italian family in the Middle Ages. Zampieri, Domenichino (b. 1581, d. 1641), was one of the most celebrated of the Italian painters. XCVI. INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES. (344) John Caldwell Calhoun, 1782-1850. This great statesman, and champion of southern rights and opinions, was born in Abbeville District, South Carolina. In the line of both parents, he was of Irish Presbyterian descent. In youth he was very studious, and made the best use of such opportunities for education as the frontier settlement afforded. He graduated at Yale College in 1804, and studied law at Litchfield, Connecticut. In 1808 he was elected to the Legislature of South Carolina; and, three years later, he was chosen to the National House of Representatives. During the six years that he remained in the House, he took an active and prominent part in the stirring events of the time. In 1817 he was appointed Secretary of War, and held the office seven years. From 1825 to 1832 he was Vice President of the United States. He then resigned this office, and took his seat as senator from South Carolina. In 1844 President Tyler called him to his Cabinet as Secretary of State; and, in 1845, he returned to the Senate, where he remained till his death. During all his public life Mr. Calhoun was active and outspoken. His earnestness and logical force commanded the respect of those who differed most widely from him in opinion. He took the most advanced ground in favor of "State Rights," and defended slavery as neither morally nor politically wrong. His foes generally conceded his honesty, and respected his ability; while his friends regarded him as little less than an oracle. In private life Mr. Calhoun was highly esteemed and respected. His home was at "Fort Hill," in the northwestern district of South Carolina; and here he spent all the time he could spare from his public duties, in the enjoyments of domestic life and in cultivating his plantation. In his home he was remarkable for kindness, cheerfulness, and sociability. ### To comprehend more fully the force and bearing of public opinion, and to form a just estimate of the changes to which, aided by the press, it will probably lead, politically and socially, it will be necessary to consider it in connection with the causes that have given it an influence so great as to entitle it to be regarded as a new political element. They will, upon investigation, be found in the many discoveries and inventions made in the last few centuries. All these have led to important results. Through the invention of the mariner's compass, the globe has been circumnavigated and explored; and all who inhabit it, with but few exceptions, are brought within the sphere of an all-pervading commerce, which is daily diffusing over its surface the light and blessings of civilization. Through that of the art of printing, the fruits of observation and reflection, of discoveries and inventions, with all the accumulated stores of previously acquired knowledge, are preserved and widely diffused. The application of gunpowder to the art of war has forever settled the long conflict for ascendency between civilization and barbarism, in favor of the former, and thereby guaranteed that, whatever knowledge is now accumulated, or may hereafter be added, shall never again be lost. The numerous discoveries and inventions, chemical and mechanical, and the application of steam to machinery, have increased many fold the productive powers of labor and capital, and have thereby greatly increased the number who may devote themselves to study and improvement, and the amount of means necessary for commercial exchanges, especially between the more and the less advanced and civilized portions of the globe, to the great advantage of both, but particularly of the latter. The application of steam to the purposes of travel and transportation, by land and water, has vastly increased the facility, cheapness, and rapidity of both: diffusing, with them, information and intelligence almost as quickly and as freely as if borne by the winds; while the electrical wires outstrip them in velocity, rivaling in rapidity even thought itself. The joint effect of all this has been a great increase and diffusion of knowledge; and, with this, an impulse to progress and civilization heretofore unexampled in the history of the world, accompanied by a mental energy and activity unprecedented. To all these causes, public opinion, and its organ, the press, owe their origin and great influence. Already they have attained a force in the more civilized portions of the globe sufficient to be felt by all governments, even the most absolute and despotic. But, as great as they now are, they have, as yet, attained nothing like their maximum force. It is probable that not one of the causes which have contributed to their formation and influence, has yet produced its full effect; while several of the most powerful have just begun to operate; and many others, probably of equal or even greater force, yet remain to be brought to light. When the causes now in operation have produced their full effect, and inventions and discoveries shall have been exhausted--if that may ever be--they will give a force to public opinion, and cause changes, political and social, difficult to be anticipated. What will be their final bearing, time only can decide with any certainty. That they will, however, greatly improve the condition of man ultimately, it would be impious to doubt; it would be to suppose that the all-wise and beneficent Being, the Creator of all, had so constituted man as that the employment of the high intellectual faculties with which He has been pleased to endow him, in order that he might develop the laws that control the great agents of the material world, and make them subservient to his use, would prove to him the cause of permanent evil, and not of permanent good. NOTE.--This selection is an extract from "A Disquisition on Government." Mr. Calhoun expected to revise his manuscript before it was printed, but death interrupted his plans. XCVII. ENOCH ARDEN AT THE WINDOW. (347) Alfred Tennyson, 1809-1892, was born in Somerby, Lincolnshire, England; his father was a clergyman noted for his energy and physical stature. Alfred, with his two older brothers, graduated at Trinity College, Cambridge. His first volume of poems appeared in 1830; it made little impression, and was severely treated by the critics. On the publication of his third series, in 1842, his poetic genius began to receive general recognition. On the death of Wordsworth he was made poet laureate, and he was then regarded as the foremost living poet of England. "In Memoriam," written in memory of his friend Arthur Hallam, appeared in 1850; the "Idyls of the King," in 1858; and "Enoch Arden," a touching story in verse, from which the following selection is taken, was published in 1864. In 1883 he accepted a peerage as Baron Tennyson of Aldworth, Sussex, and of Freshwater, Isle of Wight. ### But Enoch yearned to see her face again; "If I might look on her sweet face again And know that she is happy." So the thought Haunted and harassed him, and drove him forth, At evening when the dull November day Was growing duller twilight, to the hill. There he sat down gazing on all below; There did a thousand memories roll upon him, Unspeakable for sadness. By and by The ruddy square of comfortable light, Far-blazing from the rear of Philip's house, Allured him, as the beacon blaze allures The bird of passage, till he mildly strikes Against it, and beats out his weary life. For Philip's dwelling fronted on the street, The latest house to landward; but behind, With one small gate that opened on the waste, Flourished a little garden, square and walled: And in it throve an ancient evergreen, A yew tree, and all round it ran a walk Of shingle, and a walk divided it: But Enoch shunned the middle walk, and stole Up by the wall, behind the yew; and thence That which he better might have shunned, if griefs Like his have worse or better, Enoch saw. For cups and silver on the burnished board Sparkled and shone; so genial was the hearth: And on the right hand of the hearth he saw Philip, the slighted suitor of old times, Stout, rosy, with his babe across his knees; And o'er her second father stooped a girl, A later but a loftier Annie Lee, Fair-haired and tall, and from her lifted hand Dangled a length of ribbon and a ring To tempt the babe, who reared his creasy arms, Caught at and ever missed it, and they laughed: And on the left hand of the hearth he saw The mother glancing often toward her babe, But turning now and then to speak with him, Her son, who stood beside her tall and strong, And saying that which pleased him, for he smiled. Now when the dead man come to life beheld His wife, his wife no more, and saw the babe, Hers, yet not his, upon the father's knee, And all the warmth, the peace, the happiness. And his own children tall and beautiful, And him, that other, reigning in his place, Lord of his rights and of his children's love, Then he, tho' Miriam Lane had told him all, Because things seen are mightier than things heard, Staggered and shook, holding the branch, and feared To send abroad a shrill and terrible cry, Which in one moment, like the blast of doom, Would shatter all the happiness of the hearth. He, therefore, turning softly like a thief, Lest the harsh shingle should grate underfoot, And feeling all along the garden wall, Lest he should swoon and tumble and be found, Crept to the gate, and opened it, and closed, As lightly as a sick man's chamber door, Behind him, and came out upon the waste. And there he would have knelt but that his knees Were feeble, so that falling prone he dug His fingers into the wet earth, and prayed. "Too hard to bear! why did they take me thence? O God Almighty, blessed Savior, Thou That did'st uphold me on my lonely isle, Uphold me, Father, in my loneliness A little longer! aid me, give me strength Not to tell her, never to let her know. Help me not to break in upon her peace. My children too! must I not speak to these? They know me not. I should betray myself. Never!--no father's kiss for me!--the girl So like her mother, and the boy, my son!" There speech and thought and nature failed a little, And he lay tranced; but when he rose and paced Back toward his solitary home again, All down the long and narrow street he went Beating it in upon his weary brain, As tho' it were the burden of a song, "Not to tell her, never to let her know." NOTE.--Enoch Arden had been wrecked on an uninhabited island, and was supposed to be dead. After many years he was rescued, and returned home, where he found his wife happily married a second time. For her happiness, he kept his existence a secret, but soon died of a broken heart. XCVIII. LOCHINVAR. (350) Oh, young Lochinvar is come out of the west, Through all the wide Border his steed was the best; And save his good broadsword, he weapon had none, He rode all unarmed, and he rode all alone! So faithful in love, and so dauntless in war, There never was knight like the young Lochinvar! He stayed not for brake, and he stopped not for stone, He swam the Eske River where ford there was none; But ere he alighted at Netherby gate, The bride had consented, the gallant came late: For a laggard in love, and a dastard in war, Was to wed the fair Ellen of brave Lochinvar! So boldly he entered the Netherby hall, Among bridesmen, and kinsmen, and brothers, and all: Then spoke the bride's father, his hand on his sword-- For the poor craven bridegroom said never a word-- "Oh, come ye in peace here, or come ye in war, Or to dance at our bridal, young Lord Lochinvar?" "I long wooed your daughter, my suit you denied;-- Love swells like the Solway, but ebbs like its tide-- And now am I come, with this lost love of mine, To lead but one measure, drink one cup of wine. There are maidens in Scotland more lovely by far, That would gladly be bride to the young Lochinvar." The bride kissed the goblet; the knight took it up, He quaffed off the wine, and he threw down the cup. She looked down to blush, and she looked up to sigh, With a smile on her lips, and a tear in her eye. He took her soft hand, ere her mother could bar, "Now tread we a measure!" said young Lochinvar. So stately his form, and so lovely her face, That never a hall such a galliard did grace; While her mother did fret, and her father did fume, And the bridegroom stood dangling his bonnet and plume; And the bridemaidens whispered, "'Twere better by far To have matched our fair cousin with young Lochinvar." One touch to her hand, and one word in her ear, When they reached the hall door, and the charger stood near, So light to the croup the fair lady he swung, So light to the saddle before her he sprung! "She is won! we are gone, over bank, bush, and scaur: They'll have fleet steeds that follow," quoth young Lochinvar. There was mounting 'mong Graemes of the Netherby clan; Forsters, Fenwicks, and Musgraves, they rode and they ran; There was racing and chasing on Cannobie Lee, But the lost bride of Netherby ne'er did they see. So daring in love, and so dauntless in war, Have ye e'er heard of gallant like young Lochinvar? -- Walter Scott. NOTES.--The above selection is a song taken from Scott's poem of "Marmion." It is in a slight degree founded on a ballad called "Katharine Janfarie," to be found in the "Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border." The Solway Frith, on the southwest coast of Scotland, is remarkable for its high spring tides. Bonnet is the ordinary name in Scotland for a man's cap. XCIX. SPEECH ON THE TRIAL OF A MURDERER. (352) Against the prisoner at the bar, as an individual, I can not have the slightest prejudice. I would not do him the smallest injury or injustice. But I do not affect to be indifferent to the discovery and the punishment of this deep guilt. I cheerfully share in the opprobrium, how much soever it may be, which is cast on those who feel and manifest an anxious concern that all who had a part in planning, or a hand in executing this deed of midnight assassination, may be brought to answer for their enormous crime at the bar of public justice. This is a most extraordinary case. In some respects it has hardly a precedent anywhere; certainly none in our New England history. This bloody drama exhibited no suddenly excited, ungovernable rage. The actors in it were not surprised by any lionlike temptation springing upon their virtue, and overcoming it before resistance could begin. Nor did they do the deed to glut savage vengeance, or satiate long-settled and deadly hate. It was a cool, calculating, money-making murder. It was all "hire and salary, not revenge." It was the weighing of money against life; the counting out of so many pieces of silver against so many ounces of blood. An aged man, without an enemy in the world, in his own house, and in his own bed, is made the victim of a butcherly murder for mere pay. Truly, here is a new lesson for painters and poets. Whoever shall hereafter draw the portrait of murder, if he will show it as it has been exhibited in an example, where such example was last to have been looked for, in the very bosom of our New England society, let him not give it the grim visage of Moloch, the brow knitted by revenge, the face black with settled hate, and the bloodshot eye emitting livid fires of malice. Let him draw, rather, a decorous, smooth-faced, bloodless demon; a picture in repose, rather than in action; not so much an example of human nature in its depravity, and in its paroxysms of crime, as an infernal nature, a fiend in the ordinary display and development of his character. The deed was executed with a degree of self-possession and steadiness equal to the wickedness with which it was planned. The circumstances, now clearly in evidence, spread out the whole scene before us. Deep sleep had fallen on the destined victim, and on all beneath his roof. A healthful old man, to whom sleep was sweet,--the first sound slumbers of the night held him in their soft but strong embrace. The assassin enters through the window, already prepared, into an unoccupied apartment. With noiseless foot he paces the lonely hall, half-lighted by the moon; he winds up the ascent of the stairs, and reaches the door of the chamber. Of this, he moves the lock by soft and continued pressure till it turns on its hinges without noise; and he enters, and beholds his victim before him. The room was uncommonly open to the admission of light. The face of the innocent sleeper was turned from the murderer, and the beams of the moon, resting on the gray locks of his aged temple, showed him where to strike. The fatal blow is given! and the victim passes, without a struggle or a motion, from the repose of sleep to the repose of death! It is the assassin's purpose to make sure work; and he yet plies the dagger, though it was obvious that life had been destroyed by the blow of the bludgeon. He even raises the aged arm, that he may not fail in his aim at the heart; and replaces it again over the wounds of the poniard! To finish the picture, he explores the wrist for the pulse! He feels for it, and ascertains that it beats no longer! It is accomplished. The deed is done. He retreats, retraces his steps to the window, passes out through it as he came in, and escapes. He has done the murder; no eye has seen him, no ear has heard him. The secret is his own, and it is safe! Ah! gentlemen, that was a dreadful mistake. Such a secret can be safe nowhere. The whole creation of God has neither nook nor corner where the guilty can bestow it, and say it is safe. Not to speak of that eye which glances through all disguises, and beholds everything as in the splendor of noon; such secrets of guilt are never safe from detection, even by men. True it is, generally speaking, that "murder will out." True it is that Providence hath so ordained, and doth so govern things, that those who break the great law of Heaven by shedding man's blood, seldom succeed in avoiding discovery. Especially, in a case exciting so much attention as this, discovery must come, and wilt come, sooner or later. A thousand eyes turn at once to explore every man, everything, every circumstance connected with the time and place; a thousand ears catch every whisper; a thousand excited minds intensely dwell on the scene, shedding all their light, and ready to kindle the slightest circumstance into a blaze of discovery. Meantime, the guilty soul can not keep its own secret. It is false to itself, or rather it feels an irresistible impulse of conscience to be true to itself. It labors under its guilty possession, and knows not what to do with it. The human heart was not made for the residence of such an inhabitant. It finds itself preyed on by a torment, which it dares not acknowledge to God nor man. A vulture is devouring it, and it can ask no sympathy or assistance either from heaven or earth. The secret which the murderer possesses soon comes to possess him; and, like the evil spirits of which we read, it overcomes him, and leads him whithersoever it will. He feels it beating at his heart, rising to his throat, and demanding disclosure. He thinks the whole world sees it in his face, reads it in his eyes, and almost hears its workings in the very silence of his thoughts. It has become his master. It betrays his discretion, it breaks down his courage, it conquers his prudence. When suspicions from without begin to embarrass him, and the net of circumstance to entangle him, the fatal secret struggles with still greater violence to burst forth. It must be confessed, it will be confessed; there is no refuge from confession but suicide, and suicide is confession. --Daniel Webster. NOTE.--The above extract is from Daniel Webster's argument in the trial of John F. Knapp for the murder of Mr. White, a very wealthy and respectable citizen of Salem, Mass, Four persons were arrested as being concerned in the conspiracy; one confessed the plot and all the details of the crime, implicating the others, but he afterwards refused to testify in court. The man who, by this confession, was the actual murderer, committed suicide, and Mr. Webster's assistance was obtained in prosecuting the others. John F. Knapp was convicted as principal, and the other two as accessaries in the murder. C. THE CLOSING YEAR. (355) George Denison Prentice, 1802-1870, widely known as a political writer, a poet, and a wit, was born in Preston, Connecticut, and graduated at Brown University in 1823. He studied law, but never practiced his profession. He edited a paper in Hartford for two years; and, in 1831, he became editor of the "Louisville Journal," which position he held for nearly forty years. As an editor, Mr. Prentice was an able, and sometimes bitter, political partisan, abounding in wit and satire; as a poet, he not only wrote gracefully himself, but he did much by his kindness and sympathy to develop the poetical talents of others. Some who have since taken high rank, first became known to the world through the columns of the "Louisville Journal." ### 'T is midnight's holy hour, and silence now Is brooding like a gentle spirit o'er The still and pulseless world. Hark! on the winds, The bell's deep notes are swelling; 't is the knell Of the departed year. No funeral train Is sweeping past; yet, on the stream and wood, With melancholy light, the moonbeams rest Like a pale, spotless shroud; the air is stirred As by a mourner's sigh; and, on yon cloud, That floats so still and placidly through heaven, The spirits of the Seasons seem to stand-- Young Spring, bright Summer, Autumn's solemn form, And Winter, with his aged locks--and breathe In mournful cadences, that come abroad Like the far wind harp's wild and touching wail, A melancholy dirge o'er the dead year, Gone from the earth forever. 'Tis a time For memory and for tears. Within the deep, Still chambers of the heart, a specter dim, Whose tones are like the wizard voice of Time, Heard from the tomb of ages, points its cold And solemn finger to the beautiful And holy visions, that have passed away, And left no shadow of their loveliness On the dead waste of life. That specter lifts The coffin lid of Hope, and Joy, and Love, And, bending mournfully above the pale, Sweet forms that slumber there, scatters dead flowers O'er what has passed to nothingness. The year Has gone, and, with it, many a glorious throng Of happy dreams. Its mark is on each brow, Its shadow in each heart. In its swift course It waved its scepter o'er the beautiful, And they are not. It laid its pallid hand Upon the strong man; and the haughty form Is fallen, and the flashing eye is dim. It trod the hall of revelry, where thronged The bright and joyous; and the tearful wail Of stricken ones is heard, where erst the song And reckless shout resounded. It passed o'er The battle plain, where sword, and spear, and shield Flashed in the light of midday; and the strength Of serried hosts is shivered, and the grass, Green from the soil of carnage, waves above The crushed and moldering skeleton. It came, And faded like a wreath of mist at eve; Yet, ere it melted in the viewless air, It heralded its millions to their home In the dim land of dreams. Remorseless Time!-- Fierce spirit of the glass and scythe!--what power Can stay him in his silent course, or melt His iron heart to pity! On, still on He presses, and forever. The proud bird, The condor of the Andes, that can soar Through heaven's unfathomable depths, or brave The fury of the northern hurricane, And bathe his plumage in the thunder's home, Furls his broad wings at nightfall, and sinks down To rest upon his mountain crag; but Time Knows not the weight of sleep or weariness; And Night's deep darkness has no chain to bind His rushing pinion. Revolutions sweep O'er earth, like troubled visions o'er the breast Of dreaming sorrow; cities rise and sink Like bubbles on the water; fiery isles Spring blazing from the ocean, and go back To their mysterious caverns; mountains rear To heaven their bald and blackened cliffs, and bow Their tall heads to the plain; new empires rise, Gathering the strength of hoary centuries, And rush down, like the Alpine avalanche, Startling the nations; and the very stars, Yon bright and burning blazonry of God, Glitter awhile in their eternal depths, And, like the Pleiad, loveliest of their train, Shoot from their glorious spheres, and pass away, To darkle in the trackless void; yet Time, Time the tomb builder, holds his fierce career, Dark, stern, all pitiless, and pauses not Amid the mighty wrecks that strew his path, To sit and muse, like other conquerors, Upon the fearful ruin he has wrought. CI. A NEW CITY IN COLORADO. (358) Helen Hunt Jackson, 1830-1885, was the daughter of the late Professor Nathan W. Fiske, of Amherst College. She was born in Amherst, and educated at Ipswich, Massachusetts, and at New York. Mrs. Jackson was twice married. In the latter years of her life, she became deeply interested in the Indians, and wrote two books, "Ramona," a novel, and "A Century of Dishonor," setting forth vividly the wrongs to which the red race has been subjected. She had previously published several books of prose and poetry, less important but charming in their way. The following selection is adapted from "Bits of Travel at Home." ### Garland City is six miles from Fort Garland. The road to it from the fort lies for the last three miles on the top of a sage-grown plateau. It is straight as an arrow, looks in the distance like a brown furrow on the pale gray plain, and seems to pierce the mountains beyond. Up to within an eighth of a mile of Garland City, there is no trace of human habitation. Knowing that the city must be near, you look in all directions for a glimpse of it; the hills ahead of you rise sharply across your way. Where is the city? At your very feet, but you do not suspect it. The sunset light was fading when we reached the edge of the ravine in which the city lies. It was like looking unawares over the edge of a precipice; the gulch opened beneath us as suddenly as if the earth had that moment parted and made it. With brakes set firm, we drove cautiously down the steep road; the ravine twinkled with lights, and almost seemed to flutter with white tents and wagon tops. At the farther end it widened, opening out on an inlet of the San Luis Park; and, in its center, near this widening mouth, lay the twelve-days-old city. A strange din arose from it. "What is going on?" we exclaimed. "The building of the city," was the reply. "Twelve days ago there was not a house here. To-day there are one hundred and five, and in a week more there will be two hundred; each man is building his own home, and working day and night to get it done ahead of his neighbor. There are four sawmills going constantly, but they can't turn out lumber half fast enough. Everybody has to be content with a board at a time. If it were not for that, there would have been twice as many houses done as there are." We drove on down the ravine. A little creek on our right was half hid in willow thickets. Hundreds of white tents gleamed among them: tents with poles; tents made by spreading sailcloth over the tops of bushes; round tents; square tents; big tents; little tents; and for every tent a camp fire; hundreds of white-topped wagons, also, at rest for the night, their great poles propped up by sticks, and their mules and drivers lying and standing in picturesque groups around them. It was a scene not to be forgotten. Louder and louder sounded the chorus of the hammers as we drew near the center of the "city;" more and more the bustle thickened; great ox teams swaying unwieldily about, drawing logs and planks, backing up steep places; all sorts of vehicles driving at reckless speed up and down; men carrying doors; men walking along inside of window sashes,--the easiest way to carry them; men shoveling; men wheeling wheelbarrows; not a man standing still; not a man with empty hands; every man picking up something, and running to put it down somewhere else, as in a play; and, all the while, "Clink! clink! clink!" ringing above the other sounds,--the strokes of hundreds of hammers, like the "Anvil Chorus." "Where is Perry's Hotel?" we asked. One of the least busy of the throng spared time to point to it with his thumb, as he passed us. In some bewilderment we drew up in front of a large unfinished house, through the many uncased apertures of which we could see only scaffoldings, rough boards, carpenters' benches, and heaps of shavings. Streams of men were passing in and out through these openings, which might be either doors or windows; no steps led to any of them. "Oh, yes! oh, yes! can accommodate you all!" was the landlord's reply to our hesitating inquiries. He stood in the doorway of his dining-room; the streams of men we had seen going in and out were the fed and the unfed guests of the house. It was supper time; we also were hungry. We peered into the dining room: three tables full of men; a huge pile of beds on the floor, covered with hats and coats; a singular wall, made entirely of doors propped upright; a triangular space walled off by sailcloth,--this is what we saw. We stood outside, waiting among the scaffolding and benches. A black man was lighting the candles in a candelabrum made of two narrow bars of wood nailed across each other at right angles, and perforated with holes. The candles sputtered, and the hot fat fell on the shavings below. "Dangerous way of lighting a room full of shavings," some one said. The landlord looked up at the swinging candelabra and laughed. "Tried it pretty often," he said. "Never burned a house down yet." I observed one peculiarity in the speech at Garland City. Personal pronouns, as a rule, were omitted; there was no time for a superfluous word. "Took down this house at Wagon Creek," he continued, "just one week ago; took it down one morning while the people were eating breakfast; took it down over their heads; putting it up again over their heads now." This was literally true. The last part of it we ourselves were seeing while he spoke, and a friend at our elbow had seen the Wagon Creek crisis. "Waiting for that round table for you," said the landlord; " 'll bring the chairs out here's fast's they quit 'em. That's the only way to get the table." So, watching his chances, as fast as a seat was vacated, he sprang into the room, seized the chair and brought it out to us; and we sat there in our "reserved seats," biding the time when there should be room enough vacant at the table for us to take our places. What an indescribable scene it was! The strange-looking wall of propped doors which we had seen, was the impromptu, wall separating the bedrooms from the dining-room. Bedrooms? Yes, five of them; that is, five bedsteads in a row, with just space enough between them to hang up a sheet, and with just room enough between them and the propped doors for a moderate-sized person to stand upright if he faced either the doors or the bed. Chairs? Oh, no! What do you want of a chair in a bedroom which has a bed in it? Washstands? One tin basin out in the unfinished room. Towels? Uncertain. The little triangular space walled off by the sailcloth was a sixth bedroom, quite private and exclusive; and the big pile of beds on the dining-room floor was to be made up into seven bedrooms more between the tables, after everybody had finished supper. Luckily for us we found a friend here,--a man who has been from the beginning one of Colorado's chief pioneers; and who is never, even in the wildest wilderness, without resources of comfort. "You can't sleep here," he said. "I can do better for you than this." "Better!" He offered us luxury. How movable a thing is one's standard of comfort! A two-roomed pine shanty, board walls, board floors, board ceilings, board partitions not reaching to the roof, looked to us that night like a palace. To have been entertained at Windsor Castle would not have made us half so grateful. It was late before the "city" grew quiet; and, long after most of the lights were out, and most of the sounds had ceased, I heard one solitary hammer in the distance, clink, clink, clink. I fell asleep listening to it. CII. IMPORTANCE OF THE UNION. (362) Mr. President: I am conscious of having detained you and the Senate much too long. I was drawn into the debate with no previous deliberation, such as is suited to the discussion of so grave and important a subject. But it is a subject of which my heart is full, and I have not been willing to suppress the utterance of its spontaneous sentiments. I can not, even now, persuade myself to relinquish it, without expressing once more my deep conviction, that, since it respects nothing less than the union of the states, it is of most vital and essential importance to the public happiness. I profess, sir, in my career hitherto, to have kept steadily in view the prosperity and honor of the whole country, and the preservation of our federal Union. It is to that Union we owe our safety at home, and our consideration and dignity abroad. It is to that Union that we are chiefly indebted for whatever makes us most proud of our country. That Union we reached only by the discipline of our virtues, in the severe school of adversity. It had its origin in the necessities of disordered finance, prostrate commerce, and ruined credit. Under its benign influences, these great interests immediately awoke, as from the dead, and sprang forth with newness of life. Every year of its duration has teemed with fresh proofs of its utility and its blessings; and, although our territory has stretched out wider and wider, and our population spread farther and farther, they have not outrun its protection or its benefits. It has been to us all a copious fountain of national, social, and personal happiness. I have not allowed myself, sir, to look beyond the Union, to see what might lie hidden in the dark recess behind. I have not coolly weighed the chances of preserving liberty, when the bonds that unite us together shall be broken asunder. I have not accustomed myself to hang over the precipice of disunion, to see whether, with my short sight, I can fathom the depth of the abyss below; nor could I regard him as a safe counselor in the affairs of this government, whose thoughts should be mainly bent on considering, not how the Union should be best preserved, but how tolerable might be the condition of the people when it shall be broken up and destroyed. While the Union lasts, we have high, exciting, gratifying prospects spread out before us, for us and our children. Beyond that, I seek not to penetrate the veil. God grant that in my day, at least, that curtain may not rise. God grant that on my vision never may be opened what lies behind. When my eyes shall be turned to behold, for the last time, the sun in heaven, may I not see him shining on the broken and dishonored fragments of a once glorious Union; on States dissevered, discordant, belligerent; on a land rent with civil feuds, or drenched, it may be, in fraternal blood. Let their last feeble and lingering glance rather behold the gorgeous ensign of the Republic, now known and honored throughout the earth, still full high advanced, its arms and trophies streaming in their original luster, not a stripe erased or polluted, not a single star obscured--bearing for its motto no such miserable interrogatory as, What is all this worth? nor those other words of delusion and folly, Liberty first, and Union afterwards--but everywhere, spread all over in characters of living light, blazing on all its ample folds, as they float over the sea and over the land, and in every wind under the whole heavens, that other sentiment, dear to every true American heart--Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable! --Daniel Webster. NOTE.--This selection is the peroration of Mr. Webster's speech in reply to Mr. Hayne during the debate in the Senate on Mr. Foot's Resolution in regard to the Public Lands. CIII. THE INFLUENCES OF THE SUN. (364) John Tyndall, 1820-1893, one of the most celebrated modern scientists, was an Irishman by birth. He was a pupil of the distinguished Faraday. In 1853 he was appointed Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Royal Institution of London. He is known chiefly for his brilliant experiments and clear writing respecting heat, light, and sound. He also wrote one or two interesting books concerning the Alps and their glaciers. He visited America, and delighted the most intelligent audiences by his scientific lectures and his brilliant experiments. The scientific world is indebted to him for several remarkable discoveries. ### As surely as the force which moves a clock's hands is derived from the arm which winds up the clock, so surely is all terrestrial power drawn from the sun. Leaving out of account the eruptions of volcanoes, and the ebb and flow of the tides, every mechanical action on the earth's surface, every manifestation of power, organic and inorganic, vital and physical, is produced by the sun. His warmth keeps the sea liquid, and the atmosphere a gas, and all the storms which agitate both are blown by the mechanical force of the sun. He lifts the rivers and the glaciers up to the mountains; and thus the cataract and the avalanche shoot with an energy derived immediately from him. Thunder and lightning are also his transmitted strength. Every fire that burns and every flame that glows, dispenses light and heat which originally belonged to the sun. In these days, unhappily, the news of battle is familiar to us, but every shock and every charge is an application or misapplication of the mechanical force of the sun. He blows the trumpet, he urges the projectile, he bursts the bomb. And, remember, this is not poetry, but rigid mechanical truth. He rears, as I have said, the whole vegetable world, and through it the animal; the lilies of the field are his workmanship, the verdure of the meadows, and the cattle upon a thousand hills. He forms the muscles, he urges the blood, he builds the brain. His fleetness is in the lion's foot; he springs in the panther, he soars in the eagle, he slides in the snake. He builds the forest and hews it down, the power which raised the tree, and which wields the ax, being one and the same. The clover sprouts and blossoms, and the scythe of the mower swings, by the operation of the same force. The sun digs the ore from our mines, he rolls the iron; he rivets the plates, he boils the water; he draws the train. He not only grows the cotton, but he spins the fiber and weaves the web. There is not a hammer raised, a wheel turned, or a shuttle thrown, that is not raised, and turned, and thrown by the sun. His energy is poured freely into space, but our world is a halting place where this energy is conditioned. Here the Proteus works his spells; the selfsame essence takes a million shapes and hues, and finally dissolves into its primitive and almost formless form. The sun comes to us as heat; he quits us as heat; and between his entrance and departure the multiform powers of our globe appear. They are all special forms of solar power--the molds into which his strength is temporarily poured in passing from its source through infinitude. NOTE.--Proteus (pro. Pro'te-us) was a mythological divinity. His distinguishing characteristic was the power of assuming different shapes. CIV. COLLOQUIAL POWERS OF FRANKLIN. (366) William Wirt, 1772-1834, an American lawyer and author, was born at Bladensburg, Maryland. Left an orphan at an early age, he was placed in care of his uncle. He improved his opportunities for education so well that he became a private tutor at fifteen. In 1792 he was admitted to the bar, and began the practice of law in Virginia; he removed to Richmond in 1799. From 1817 to 1829 he was Attorney-general of the United States. His last years were spent in Baltimore. Mr. Wirt was the author of several books; his "Letters of a British Spy," published in 1803, and "Life of Patrick Henry," published in 1817, are the best known of his writings. ### Never have I known such a fireside companion. Great as he was both as a statesman and philosopher, he never shone in a light more winning than when he was seen in a domestic circle. It was once my good fortune to pass two or three weeks with him, at the house of a private gentleman, in the back part of Pennsylvania, and we were confined to the house during the whole of that time by the unintermitting constancy and depth of the snows. But confinement never could be felt where Franklin was an inmate; His cheerfulness and his colloquial powers spread around him a perpetual spring. When I speak, however, of his colloquial powers, I do not mean to awaken any notion analogous to that which Boswell has given us of Johnson. The conversation of the latter continually reminds one of the "pomp and circumstance of glorious war." It was, indeed, a perpetual contest for victory, or an arbitrary or despotic exaction of homage to his superior talents. It was strong, acute, prompt, splendid, and vociferous; as loud, stormy, and sublime as those winds which he represents as shaking the Hebrides, and rocking the old castle which frowned on the dark-rolling sea beneath. But one gets tired of storms, however sublime they may be, and longs for the more orderly current of nature. Of Franklin, no one ever became tired. There was no ambition of eloquence, no effort to shine in anything which came from him. There was nothing which made any demand upon either your allegiance or your admiration. His manner was as unaffected as infancy. It was nature's self. He talked like an old patriarch; and his plainness and simplicity put you at once at your ease, and gave you the full and free possession and use of your faculties. His thoughts were of a character to shine by their own light, without any adventitious aid. They only required a medium of vision like his pure and simple style, to exhibit to the highest advantage their native radiance and beauty. His cheerfulness was unremitting. It seemed to be as much the effect of a systematic and salutary exercise of the mind, as of its superior organization. His wit was of the first order. It did not show itself merely in occasional coruscations[1]; but, without any effort or force on his part, it shed a constant stream of the purest light over the whole of his discourse. Whether in the company of commons or nobles, he was always the same plain man; always most perfectly at his ease, with his faculties in full play, and the full orbit of his genius forever clear and unclouded. [Transcriber's Footnote 1: coruscations: flashes of light.] And then, the stores of his mind were inexhaustible. He had commenced life with an attention so vigilant that nothing had escaped his observation; and a judgment so solid that every incident was turned to advantage. His youth had not been wasted in idleness, nor overcast by intemperance. He had been, all his life, a close and deep reader, as well as thinker; and by the force of his own powers, had wrought up the raw materials which he had gathered from books, with such exquisite skill and felicity, that he has added a hundred fold to their original value, and justly made them his own. NOTES.--Benjamin Franklin (b. 1706, d. 1790) was one of the most prominent men in the struggle of the American colonies for liberty. He was renowned as a statesman, and, although not an author by profession, was a very prolific writer. His "Autobiography," which was first printed in France, is now a household volume in America. See page 431. Boswell, James, (b. 1740, d. 1795,) was a Scotch lawyer, and is chiefly known as the biographer of Dr. Johnson, of whom he was the intimate friend and companion. Johnson, Samuel. See biographical notice, page 78. CV. THE DREAM OF CLARENCE. (368) SCENE--Room in the Tower of London. Enter CLARENCE and BRAKENBURY. Brak. Why looks your grace so heavily to-day? Clar. O, I have passed a miserable night, So full of ugly sights, of ghastly dreams, That, as I am a Christian, faithful man, I would not spend another such a night, Though 't were to buy a world of happy days, So full of dismal terror was the time! Brak. What was your dream? I long to hear you tell it. Clar. Methoughts, that I had broken from the Tower, And was embarked to cross to Burgundy; And, in my company, my brother Gloster; Who, from my cabin, tempted me to walk Upon the hatches; thence we looked toward England, And cited up a thousand fearful times, During the wars of York and Lancaster, That had befallen us. As we paced along Upon the giddy footing of the hatches, Methought that Gloster stumbled; and, in falling, Struck me, that thought to stay him, overboard, Into the tumbling billows of the main. Oh, then, methought, what pain it was to drown! What dreadful noise of waters in mine ears! What ugly sights of death within mine eyes! Methought I saw a thousand fearful wrecks; Ten thousand men that fishes gnawed upon; Wedges of gold, great anchors, heaps of pearl, Inestimable stones, unvalued jewels, All scattered in the bottom of the sea. Some lay in dead men's skulls; and, in those holes Where eyes did once inhabit, there were crept, As 't were in scorn of eyes, reflecting gems, Which wooed the slimy bottom of the deep, And mocked the dead bones that lay scattered by. Brak. Had you such leisure in the time of death, To gaze upon the secrets of the deep? Clar. Methought I had; and often did I strive To yield the ghost: but still the envious flood Kept in my soul, and would not let it forth To seek the empty, vast, and wandering air; But smothered it within my panting bulk, Which almost burst to belch it in the sea. Brak. Awaked you not with this sore agony? Clar. Oh, no; my dream was lengthened after life; Oh, then began the tempest to my soul, Who passed, methought, the melancholy flood, With that grim ferryman which poets write of, Unto the kingdom of perpetual night. The first that there did greet my stranger soul, Was my great father-in-law, renowne'd Warwick; Who cried aloud, "What scourge for perjury Can this dark monarchy afford false Clarence?" And so he vanished. Then came wandering by A shadow like an angel, with bright hair Dabbled in blood; and he shrieked out aloud: "Clarence is come! false, fleeting, perjured Clarence! That stabbed me in the field by Tewksbury: Seize on him, Furies, take him to your torments!" With that, methoughts, a legion of foul fiends Environed me, and howled in mine ears Such hideous cries, that, with the very noise, I, trembling, waked, and, for a season after, Could not believe but that I was in hell; Such terrible impression made the dream. Brak. No marvel, lord, though it affrighted you; I am afraid, methinks, to hear you tell it. Clar. O Brakenbury, I have done those things, Which now bear evidence against my soul, For Edward's sake; and see how he requites me! O God! if my deep prayers can not appease thee, But thou wilt be avenged on my misdeeds, Yet execute thy wrath in me alone: Oh, spare my guiltless wife and my poor children! --I pray thee, gentle keeper, stay by me; My soul is heavy, and I fain would sleep. Brak. I will, my lord: God give your grace good rest! CLARENCE reposes himself on a chair. Sorrow breaks seasons and reposing hours, Makes the night morning, and the noontide night. Shakespeare.--Richard III, Act i, Scene iv. NOTES.--The houses of York and Lancaster were at war for the possession of the English throne. The Duke of Clarence and the Duke of Gloster were brothers of King Edward IV., who was head of the house of York. Clarence married the daughter of the Earl of Warwick, and joined the latter in several insurrections against the king. They finally plotted with Queen Margaret of the Lancaster party for the restoration of the latter house to the English throne, but Clarence betrayed Warwick and the Queen, and killed the latter's son at the battle of Tewksbury. Through the plots of Gloster, Clarence was imprisoned in the Tower of London, and there murdered. Brakenbury was lieutenant of the Tower. The ferryman referred to is Charon, of Greek mythology, who was supposed to ferry the souls of the dead over the river Acheron to the infernal regions. CVI. HOMEWARD BOUND. (371) Richard H. Dana, Jr., 1815-1882, was the son of Richard H. Dana, the poet. He was born in Cambridge, Mass. In his boyhood be had a strong desire to be a sailor, but by his father's advice chose a student's life, and entered Harvard University. At the age of nineteen an affection of the eyes compelled him to suspend his studies. He now made a voyage to California as a common sailor, and was gone two years. On his return, he resumed his studies and graduated in 1837. He afterwards studied law, and entered upon an active and successful practice. Most of his life was spent in law and politics, although he won distinction in literature. The following extract is from his "Two Years before the Mast," a book published in 1840, giving an account of his voyage to California. This book details, in a most clear and entertaining manner, the everyday life of a common sailor on shipboard, and is the best known of all Mr. Dana's works. ### It is usual, in voyages round the Cape from the Pacific, to keep to the eastward of the Falkland Islands; but, as there had now set in a strong, steady, and clear southwester, with every prospect of its lasting, and we had had enough of high latitudes, the captain determined to stand immediately to the northward, running inside the Falkland Islands. Accordingly, when the wheel was relieved at eight o'clock, the order was given to keep her due north, and all hands were turned up to square away the yards and make sail. In a moment the news ran through the ship that the captain was keeping her off, with her nose straight for Boston, and Cape Horn over her taffrail. It was a moment of enthusiasm. Everyone was on the alert, and even the two sick men turned out to lend a hand at the halyards. The wind was now due southwest, and blowing a gale to which a vessel close-hauled could have shown no more than a single close-reefed sail; but as we were going before it, we could carry on. Accordingly, hands were sent aloft and a reef shaken out of the topsails, and the reefed foresail set. When we came to masthead the topsail yards, with all hands at the halyards, we struck up, "Cheerly, men," with a chorus which might have been heard halfway to Staten Island. Under her increased sail, the ship drove on through the water. Yet she could bear it well; and the captain sang out from the quarter-deck-- "Another reef out of that fore topsail, and give it to her." Two hands sprang aloft; the frozen reef points and earings were cast adrift, the halyards manned, and the sail gave out her increased canvas to the gale. All hands were kept on deck to watch the effect of the change. It was as much as she could well carry, and with a heavy sea astern, it took two men at the wheel to steer her. She flung the foam from her bows; the spray breaking aft as far as the gangway. She was going at a prodigious rate. Still, everything held. Preventer braces were reeved and hauled taut; tackles got upon the backstays; and everything done to keep all snug and strong. The captain walked the deck at a rapid stride, looked aloft at the sails, and then to windward; the mate stood in the gangway, rubbing his hands, and talking aloud to the ship--"Hurrah, old bucket! the Boston girls have got hold of the towrope!" and the like; and we were on the forecastle looking to see how the spars stood it, and guessing the rate at which she was going,--when the captain called out--"Mr. Brown, get up the topmast studding sail! What she can't carry she may drag!" The mate looked a moment; but he would let no one be before him in daring. He sprang forward,--"Hurrah, men! rig out the topmast studding sail boom! Lay aloft, and I'll send the rigging up to you!" We sprang aloft into the top; lowered a girtline down, by which we hauled up the rigging; rove the tacks and halyards; ran out the boom and lashed it fast, and sent down the lower halyards as a preventer. It was a clear starlight night, cold and blowing; but everybody worked with a will. Some, indeed, looked as though they thought the "old man" was mad, but no one said a word. We had had a new topmast studding sail made with a reef in it,--a thing hardly ever heard of, and which the sailors had ridiculed a good deal, saying that when it was time to reef a studding sail it was time to take it in. But we found a use for it now; for, there being a reef in the topsail, the studding sail could not be set without one in it also. To be sure, a studding sail with reefed topsails was rather a novelty; yet there was some reason in it, for if we carried that away, we should lose only a sail and a boom; but a whole topsail might have carried away the mast and all. While we were aloft, the sail had been got out, bent to the yard, reefed, and ready for hoisting. Waiting for a good opportunity, the halyards were manned and the yard hoisted fairly up to the block; but when the mate came to shake the cat's-paw out of the downhaul, and we began to boom end the sail, it shook the ship to her center. The boom buckled up and bent like a whipstick, and we looked every moment to see something go; but, being of the short, tough upland spruce, it bent like whalebone, and nothing could break it. The carpenter said it was the best stick he had ever seen. The strength of all hands soon brought the tack to the boom end, and the sheet was trimmed down, and the preventer and the weather brace hauled taut to take off the strain. Every rope-yarn seemed stretched to the utmost, and every thread of canvas; and with this sail added to her, the ship sprang through the water like a thing possessed. The sail being nearly all forward, it lifted her out of the water, and she seemed actually to jump from sea to sea. From the time her keel was laid, she had never been so driven; and had it been life or death with everyone of us, she could not have borne another stitch of canvas. Finding that she would bear the sail, the hands we're sent below, and our watch remained on deck. Two men at the wheel had as much as they could do to keep her within three points of her course, for she steered as wild as a young colt. The mate walked the deck, looking at the sails, and then over the side to see the foam fly by her,--slapping his hands upon his thighs and talking to the ship--"Hurrah, you jade, you've got the scent! you know where you're going!" And when she leaped over the seas, and almost out of the water, and trembled to her very keel, the spars and masts snapping and creaking, "There she goes!--There she goes--handsomely!--As long as she cracks, she holds!"--while we stood with the rigging laid down fair for letting go, and ready to take in sail and clear away if anything went. At four bells we have the log, and she was going eleven knots fairly; and had it not been for the sea from aft which sent the chip home, and threw her continually off her course, the log would have shown her to have been going somewhat faster. I went to the wheel with a young fellow from the Kennebec, who was a good helmsman; and for two hours we had our hands full. A few minutes showed us that our monkey jackets must come off; and, cold as it was, we stood in our shirt sleeves in a perspiration, and were glad enough to have it eight bells and the wheels relieved. We turned in and slept as well as we could, though the sea made a constant roar under her bows, and washed over the forecastle like a small cataract. NOTES.--The Falkland Islands are a group in the Atlantic just east of Cape Horn. Bells. On shipboard time is counted in bells, the bell being struck every half hour. CVII. IMPEACHMENT OF WARREN HASTINGS. (375) Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1800-1859, was born in the village of Rothley, Leicestershire. On his father's side, he descended from Scotch Highlanders and ministers of the kirk. His education began at home, and was completed at Trinity College, Cambridge. While a student, he gained much reputation as a writer and a debater. In 1826 he was admitted to the bar. In 1825 began his connection with the "Edinburgh Review," which continued twenty years. Some of his most brilliant essays appeared first in its pages. He was first chosen to Parliament in 1830, and was reelected several times. In 1840 his essays and some other writings were collected and published with the title of "Miscellanies." His "Lays of Ancient Rome" was published in 1842. His "History of England" was published near the close of his life. In 1857 he was given the title of Baron Macaulay. "His style is vigorous, rapid in its movement, and brilliant; and yet, with all its splendor, has a crystalline clearness. Indeed, the fault generally found with his style is, that it is so constantly brilliant that the vision is dazzled and wearied with its excessive brightness." He has sometimes been charged with sacrificing facts to fine sentences. In his statesmanship, Macaulay was always an earnest defender of liberty. His first speech in Parliament was in support of a bill to remove the civil disabilities of the Jews, and his whole parliamentary career was consistent with this wise and liberal beginning. ### The place in which the impeachment of Warren Hastings was conducted, was worthy of such a trial. It was the great hall of William Rufus; the hall which had resounded with acclamations at the inauguration of thirty kings; the hall which had witnessed the just sentence of Bacon, and the just absolution of Somers; the hall where the eloquence of Strafford had for a moment awed and melted a victorious party inflamed with just resentment; the hall where Charles had confronted the High Court of Justice with the placid courage which half redeemed his fame. Neither military nor civil pomp was wanting. The avenues were lined with grenadiers. The streets were kept clear by cavalry. The peers, robed in gold and ermine, were marshaled by heralds. The judges, in their vestments of state, attended to give advice on points of law. The long galleries were crowded by such an audience as has rarely excited the fears or the emulation of an orator. There were gathered together, from all parts of a great, free, enlightened, and prosperous realm, grace and female loveliness, wit and learning, the representatives of every science and of every art. There were seated around the queen, the fair-haired, young daughters of the house of Brunswick. There the embassadors of great kings and commonwealths gazed with admiration on a spectacle which no other country in the world could present. There Siddons, in the prime of her majestic beauty, looked with emotion on a scene surpassing all the imitations of the stage. There Gibbon, the historian of the Roman Empire, thought of the days when Cicero pleaded the cause of Sicily against Verres; and when, before a senate which had still some show of freedom, Tacitus thundered against the oppressor of Africa. There, too, were seen, side by side, the greatest painter and the greatest scholar of the age; for the spectacle had allured Reynolds from his easel and Parr from his study. The sergeants made proclamation. Hastings advanced to the bar, and bent his knee. The culprit was indeed not unworthy of that great presence. He had ruled an extensive and populous country; had made laws and treaties; had sent forth armies; had set up and pulled down princes; and in his high place he had so borne himself, that all had feared him, that most had loved him, and that hatred itself could deny him no title to glory, except virtue. A person, small and emaciated, yet deriving dignity from a carriage which, while it indicated deference to the court, indicated, also, habitual self-possession and self-respect; a high and intellectual forehead; a brow, pensive, but not gloomy; a mouth of inflexible decision; a face, pale and worn, but serene, on which a great and well-balanced mind was legibly written: such was the aspect with which the great proconsul presented himself to his judges. The charges, and the answers of Hastings, were first read. This ceremony occupied two whole days. On the third, Burke rose. Four sittings of the court were occupied by his opening speech, which was intended to be a general introduction to all the charges. With an exuberance of thought and a splendor of diction, which more than satisfied the highly raised expectations of the audience, he described the character and institutions of the natives of India; recounted the circumstances in which the Asiatic Empire of Britain had originated; and set forth the constitution of the Company and of the English Presidencies. Having thus attempted to communicate to his hearers an idea of eastern society, as vivid as that which existed in his own mind, he proceeded to arraign the administration of Hastings, as systematically conducted in defiance of morality and public law. The energy and pathos of the great orator extorted expressions of unwonted admiration from all; and, for a moment, seemed to pierce even the resolute heart of the defendant. The ladies in the galleries, unaccustomed to such displays of eloquence, excited by the solemnity of the occasion, and perhaps not unwilling to display their taste and sensibility, were in a state of uncontrollable emotion. Handkerchiefs were pulled out; smelling bottles were handed round; hysterical sobs and screams were heard, and some were even carried out in fits. At length the orator concluded. Raising his voice, till the old arches of Irish oak resounded--"Therefore," said he, "hath it with all confidence been ordered by the Commons of Great Britain, that I impeach Warren Hastings of high crimes and misdemeanors. I impeach him in the name of the Commons House of Parliament, whose trust he has betrayed. I impeach him in the name of the English nation, whose ancient honor he has sullied. I impeach him in the name of the people of India, whose rights he has trodden under foot, and whose country he has turned into a desert. Lastly, in the name of human nature itself, in the name of both sexes, in the name of every age, in the name of every rank, I impeach the common enemy and oppressor of all." NOTES.--Warren Hastings (b. 1732, d. 1818) was Governor-general of British India. He was impeached for maladministration, but, after a trial which extended from Feb. 13th, 1788, to April 23d, 1795, and occupied one hundred and forty-eight days, he was acquitted by a large majority on each separate count of the impeachment. William Rufus, or William II. (b. 1056, d. 1100), built Westminster Hall in which the trial was held. Bacon; see biographical notice, pages 332 and 333. Somers, John (b. 1651. d. 1716) was impeached for maladministration while holding the office of lord chamberlain. Strafford, Thomas Wentworth, earl of, (b. 1593, d. 1641,) was impeached for his mismanagement while governor of Ireland. He conducted his own defense with such eloquence that the original impeachment was abandoned, although he was immediately condemned for high treason and executed. Charles I. (b. 1600, d. 1649), after a war with Parliament, in which the rights of the people were at issue, was captured, tried, and condemned to death. The House of Brunswick is one of the oldest families of Germany. A branch of this family occupies the British throne. Siddons, Sarah (b. 1755, d. 1831), was a famous English actress. Gibbon, Edward (b. 1737, d. 1794), was a celebrated English historian. Cicero; see note on page 156. Tacitus (b. about 55, d. after 117 A. D.) was a Roman orator and historian, who conducted the prosecution of Marius, proconsul of Africa. Reynolds, Sir Joshua (b. 1723, d. 1792), an English portrait painter of note. Parr, Samuel (b. 1747, d. 1825), was an English author. Burke, Edmund; see biographical sketch accompanying the following lesson. CVIII. DESTRUCTION OF THE CARNATIC. Edmund Burke, 1730-1797, one of the most able and brilliant of England's essayists, orators, and statesmen, was born in Dublin, and was the son of an able lawyer. He graduated at Trinity College, Dublin, in 1748. As a student, he was distinguished for ability and industry. From 1750 to 1766 he was in London writing for periodicals, publishing books, or serving as private secretary. His work on "The Sublime and Beautiful" appeared in 1756. From 1766 to 1794 he was a member of Parliament, representing at different times different constituencies. On the first day of his appearance in the House of Commons he made a successful speech. "In the three principal questions which excited his interest, and called forth the most splendid displays of his eloquence--the contest with the American Colonies, the impeachment of Warren Hastings, and the French Revolution--we see displayed a philanthropy the most pure, illustrated by a genius the most resplendent." Mr. Burke's foresight, uprightness, integrity, learning, magnanimity, and eloquence made him one of the most conspicuous men of his time; and his writings stand among the noblest contributions to English literature. ### When at length Hyder Ali found that he had to do with men who either would sign no convention, or whom no treaty and no signature could bind, and who were the determined enemies of human intercourse itself, he decreed to make the country possessed by these incorrigible and predestinated criminals a memorable example to mankind. He resolved, in the gloomy recesses of a mind capacious of such things, to leave the whole Carnatic an everlasting monument of vengeance, and to put perpetual desolation as a barrier between him and those against whom the faith which holds the moral elements of the world together was no protection. He became at length so confident of his force, so collected in his might, that he made no secret whatsoever of his dreadful resolution. Having terminated his disputes with every enemy and every rival, who buried their mutual animosities in their common detestation against the creditors of the Nabob of Arcot, he drew from every quarter whatever a savage ferocity could add to his new rudiments in the arts of destruction; and compounding all the materials of fury, havoc, and desolation into one black cloud, he hung for a while on the declivities of the mountains. Whilst the authors of all these evils were idly and stupidly gazing on this menacing meteor which blackened all their horizon, it suddenly burst, and poured down the whole of its contents upon the plains of the Carnatic. Then ensued a scene of woe, the like of which no eye had seen, no heart conceived, and which no tongue can adequately tell. All the horrors of war before known or heard of, were mercy to that new havoc. A storm of universal fire blasted every field, consumed every house, destroyed every temple. The miserable inhabitants, flying from their flaming villages, in part were slaughtered; others, without regard to sex, to age, to the respect of rank, or sacredness of function,--fathers torn from children, husbands from wives, enveloped in a whirlwind of cavalry, and, amidst the goading spears of drivers, and the trampling of pursuing horses,--were swept into captivity, in an unknown and hostile land. Those who were able to evade this tempest, fled to the walled cities; but escaping from fire, sword, and exile, they fell into the jaws of famine. The alms of the settlement of Madras, in this dreadful exigency, were certainly liberal, and all was done by charity that private charity could do; but it was a people in beggary; it was a nation which stretched out its hands for food. For months together these creatures of sufferance, whose very excess and luxury in their most plenteous days had fallen short of the allowance of our austerest fasts, silent, patient, resigned, without sedition or disturbance, almost without complaint, perished by a hundred a day in the streets of Madras; every day seventy at least laid their bodies in the streets, or on the glacis of Tanjore, and expired of famine in the granary of India. I was going to wake your justice toward this unhappy part of our fellow-citizens, by bringing before you some of the circumstances of this plague of hunger. Of all the calamities which beset and waylay the life of man, this comes the nearest to our heart, and is that wherein the proudest of us all feels himself to be nothing more than he is. But I find myself unable to manage it with decorum. These details are of a species of horror so nauseous and disgusting; they are so degrading to the sufferers and to the hearers; they are so humiliating to human nature itself, that, on better thoughts, I find it more advisable to throw a pall over this hideous object, and to leave it to your general conceptions. For eighteen months, without intermission, this destruction raged from the gates of Madras to the gates of Tanjore; and so completely did these masters in their art, Hyder Ali, and his more ferocious son, absolve themselves of their impious vow, that when the British armies traversed, as they did, the Carnatic, for hundreds of miles in all directions, through the whole line of their march they did not see one man--not one woman--not one child--not one four-footed beast of any description whatever! One dead, uniform silence reigned over the whole region. With the inconsiderable exceptions of the narrow vicinage of some few forts, I wish to be understood as speaking literally;--I mean to produce to you more than three witnesses, who will support this assertion in its full extent. That hurricane of war passed through every part of the central provinces of the Carnatic. Six or seven districts to the north and to the south (and these not wholly untouched) escaped the general ravage. NOTES.--This selection is an extract from Burke's celebrated speech in Parliament, in 1785, on the Nabob of Arcot's debts; it bore upon the maladministration of Hastings. Arcot, a district in India, had been ceded to the British on condition that they should pay the former ruler's debts. These were found to be enormous, and the creditors proved to be individuals in the East India Company's employ. The creditors, for their private gain, induced the Nabob to attempt the subjugation of other native princes, among whom was Hyder Ali. The latter at first made successful resistance, and compelled the Nabob and his allies to sign a treaty. The treaty was not kept, and the destruction above recounted took place. The Carnatic is a province in British India, on the eastern side of the peninsula; it contains about 50,000 square miles. Madras is a city, and Tanjore a town, in this province. CIX. THE RAVEN. Edgar Allan Poe, 1809-1849, was born in Boston, and died in Baltimore. He was left a destitute orphan at an early age, and was adopted by Mr. John Allan, a wealthy citizen of Richmond. He entered the University of Virginia, at Charlottesville, where he excelled in his studies, and was always at the head of his class; but he was compelled to leave on account of irregularities. He was afterwards appointed a cadet at West Point, but failed to graduate there for the same reason. Poe now quarreled with his benefactor and left his house never to return. During the rest of his melancholy career, he obtained a precarious livelihood by different literary enterprises. His ability as a writer gained him positions with various periodicals in Richmond, New York, and Philadelphia, and during this time he wrote some of his finest prose. The appearance of "The Raven" in 1845, however, at once made Poe a literary lion. He was quite successful for a time, but then fell back into his dissipated habits which finally caused his death. In his personal appearance, Poe was neat and gentlemanly; his face was expressive of intellect and sensibility; and his mental powers in some directions were of a high order. His writings show care, and a great degree of skill in their construction; but their effect is generally morbid. ### Once upon a midnight dreary, While I pondered, weak and weary, Over many a quaint and curious Volume of forgotten lore-- While I nodded, nearly napping, Suddenly there came a tapping, As of some one gently rapping, Rapping at my chamber door. "'Tis some visitor," I muttered, "Tapping at my chamber door Only this, and nothing more." Ah, distinctly I remember, It was in the bleak December, And each separate dying ember Wrought its ghost upon the floor. Eagerly I wished the morrow; Vainly I had sought to borrow From my books surcease of sorrow Sorrow for the lost Lenore-- For the rare and radiant maiden Whom the angels name Lenore-- Nameless here for evermore. And the silken, sad, uncertain Rustling of each purple curtain Thrilled me,--filled me with fantastic Terrors, never felt before; So that now, to still the beating Of my heart, I stood repeating, " 'Tis some visitor entreating Entrance at my chamber door Some late visitor entreating Entrance at my chamber door; This it is, and nothing more." Presently my soul grew stronger; Hesitating then no longer, "Sir," said I, "or Madam, truly Your forgiveness I implore; But the fact is I was napping, And so gently you came rapping, And so faintly you came tapping, Tapping at my chamber door, That I scarce was sure I heard you."-- Here I opened wide the door; Darkness there, and nothing more. Deep into that darkness peering, Long I stood there, wondering, fearing, Doubting, dreaming dreams no mortals Ever dared to dream before; But the silence was unbroken, And the stillness gave no token, And the only word there spoken Was the whispered word, "Lenore!" This I whispered, and an echo Murmured back the word, "Lenore!" Merely this, and nothing more. Back into the chamber turning, All my soul within me burning, Soon again I heard a tapping, Something louder than before. "Surely," said I, "surely, that is Something at my window lattice; Let me see then, what thereat is, And this mystery explore-- Let my heart be still a moment, And this mystery explore;-- 'Tis the wind, and nothing more." Open here I flung the shutter. When, with many a flirt and flutter, In there stepped a stately Raven Of the saintly days of yore; Not the least obeisance made he; Not a minute stopped or stayed he, But, with mien of lord or lady, Perched above my chamber door-- Perched upon a bust of Pallas Just above my chamber door-- Perched, and sat, and nothing more. Then this ebony bird beguiling My sad fancy into smiling, By the grave and stern decorum Of the countenance it wore, "Though thy crest be shorn and shaven, Thou," I said, "art sure no craven, Ghastly, grim, and ancient Raven, Wandering from the nightly shore, Tell me what thy lordly name is On the night's Plutonian shore!" Quoth the Raven, "Nevermore." Much I marveled this ungainly Fowl to hear discourse so plainly, Though its answer little meaning-- Little relevancy bore; For we can not help agreeing That no living human being Ever yet was blest with seeing Bird above his chamber door-- Bird or beast upon the sculptured Bust above his chamber door, With such name as "Nevermore." But the Raven, sitting lonely On that placid bust, spoke only That one word, as if his soul in That one word he did outpour. Nothing farther then he uttered, Not a feather then he fluttered, Till I scarcely more than muttered, "Other friends have flown before-- On the morrow he will leave me, As my Hopes have flown before." Then the bird said, "Nevermore." Startled at the stillness broken By reply so aptly spoken, "Doubtless," said I, "what it utters Is its only stock and store, Caught from some unhappy master Whom unmerciful Disaster Followed fast and followed faster Till his songs one burden bore-- Till the dirges of his Hope that Melancholy burden bore Of 'Never--nevermore.' " But the Raven still beguiling All my sad soul into smiling, Straight I wheeled a cushioned seat in Front of bird, and bust, and door; Then, upon the velvet sinking, I betook myself to linking Fancy unto fancy, thinking What this ominous bird of yore-- What this grim, ungainly, ghastly, Gaunt, and ominous bird of yore Meant in croaking "Nevermore." This I sat engaged in guessing, But no syllable expressing To the fowl whose fiery eyes now Burned into my bosom's core; This and more I sat divining, With my head at ease reclining On the cushion's velvet lining That the lamplight gloated o'er, But whose velvet violet lining, With the lamplight gloating o'er She shall press, ah, nevermore! Then, methought, the air grew denser, Perfumed from an unseen censer Swung by Seraphim, whose footfalls Tinkled on the tufted floor. "Wretch," I cried, "thy God hath lent thee-- By these angels he hath sent thee Respite--respite and nepenthe [1] From thy memories of Lenore! Quaff, oh quaff this kind nepenthe, And forget this lost Lenore!" Quoth the Raven, "Nevermore." [Transcriber's Note 1: nepenthe--A drug to relieve grief, by blocking memory of sorrow or pain.] "Prophet!" said I, "thing of evil!-- Prophet still, if bird or devil!-- Whether Tempter sent, or whether Tempest tossed thee here ashore, Desolate, yet all undaunted, On this desert land enchanted-- On this home by Horror haunted-- Tell me truly, I implore-- Is there--is there balm in Gilead? Tell me--tell me, I implore!" Quoth the Raven, "Nevermore." "Prophet!" said I, "thing of evil,-- Prophet still, if bird or devil!-- By that heaven that bends above us, By that God we both adore, Tell this soul with sorrow laden, If, within the distant Aidenn, It shall clasp a sainted maiden Whom the angels name Lenore-- Clasp a rare and radiant maiden, Whom the angels name Lenore." Quoth the Raven, "Nevermore." "Be that word our sign of parting, Bird or fiend," I shrieked, upstarting; "Get thee back into the tempest And the night's Plutonian shore! Leave no black plume as a token Of that lie thy soul hath spoken! Leave my loneliness unbroken!-- Quit the bust above my door! Take thy beak from out my heart, and Take thy form from off my door!" Quoth the Raven, "Nevermore." And the Raven, never flitting, Still is sitting, still is sitting On the pallid bust of Pallas Just above my chamber door; And his eyes have all the seeming Of a demon's that is dreaming, And the lamplight o'er him streaming Throws his shadow on the floor; And my soul from out that shadow, That lies floating on the floor, Shall be lifted--nevermore! NOTES.--Pallas, or Minerva, in ancient mythology, was the goddess of wisdom. Plutonian, see note on Pluto, page 242. Gilead is the name of a mountain group of Palestine, celebrated for its balsam or balm made from herbs. It is here used figuratively. Aidenn is an Anglicized and disguised spelling of the Arabic form of the word Eden: it is here used as a synonym for heaven. CX. A VIEW OF THE COLOSSEUM. (389) Orville Dewey, 1794-1882, a well known Unitarian clergyman and author, was born in Sheffield, Massachusetts, graduated with distinction at Williams College in 1814, and afterward studied theology at Andover. For a while he was assistant to Dr. W. E. Channing in Boston, and later, was a pastor in New Bedford, New York City, and Boston. He made two or three voyages to Europe, and published accounts of his travels. "Discourses on Human Life," "Discourses on the Nature of Religion," "Discourses on Commerce and Business," are among his published works. His writings are both philosophical and practical; and, as a preacher, he was esteemed original, earnest, and impressive. ### On the eighth of November, from the high land, about fourteen miles distant, I first saw Rome; and although there is something very unfavorable to impression in the expectation that you are to be greatly impressed, or that you ought to be, or that such is the fashion; yet Rome is too mighty a name to be withstood by such or any other influences. Let you come upon that hill in what mood you may, the scene will lay hold upon you as with the hand of a giant. I scarcely know how to describe the impression, but it seemed to me as if something strong and stately, like the slow and majestic march of a mighty whirlwind, swept around those eternal towers; the storms of time, that had prostrated the proudest monuments of the world, seemed to have left their vibrations in the still and solemn air; ages of history passed before me; the mighty procession of nations, kings, consuls, emperors, empires, and generations had passed over that sublime theater. The fire, the storm, the earthquake, had gone by; but there was yet left the still, small voice like that at which the prophet "wrapped his face in his mantle." I went to see the Colosseum by moonlight. It is the monarch, the majesty of all ruins; there is nothing like it. All the associations of the place, too, give it the most impressive character. When you enter within this stupendous circle of ruinous walls and arches, and grand terraces of masonry, rising one above another, you stand upon the arena of the old gladiatorial combats and Christian martyrdom; and as you lift your eyes to the vast amphitheater, you meet, in imagination, the eyes of a hundred thousand Romans, assembled to witness these bloody spectacles. What a multitude and mighty array of human beings; and how little do we know in modern times of great assemblies! One, two, and three, and, at its last enlargement by Constantine, more than three hundred thousand persons could be seated in the Circus Maximus! But to return to the Colosseum; we went up under the conduct of a guide upon the walls and terraces, or embankments, which supported the ranges of seats. The seats have long since disappeared; and grass overgrows the spots where the pride, and power, and wealth, and beauty of Rome sat down to its barbarous entertainments. What thronging life was here then! What voices, what greetings, what hurrying footsteps upon the staircases of the eighty arches of entrance! And now, as we picked our way carefully through the decayed passages, or cautiously ascended some moldering flight of steps, or stood by the lonely walls--ourselves silent, and, for a wonder, the guide silent, too--there was no sound here but of the bat, and none came from without but the roll of a distant carriage, or the convent bell from the summit of the neighboring Esquiline. It is scarcely possible to describe the effect of moonlight upon this ruin. Through a hundred lonely arches and blackened passageways it streamed in, pure, bright, soft, lambent, and yet distinct and clear, as if it came there at once to reveal, and cheer, and pity the mighty desolation. But if the Colosseum is a mournful and desolate spectacle as seen from within--without, and especially on the side which is in best preservation, it is glorious. We passed around it; and, as we looked upward, the moon shining through its arches, from the opposite side, it appeared as if it were the coronet of the heavens, so vast was it--or like a glorious crown upon the brow of night. I feel that I do not and can not describe this mighty ruin. I can only say that I came away paralyzed, and as passive as a child. A soldier stretched out his hand for "un dona," as we passed the guard; and when my companion said I did wrong to give, I told him that I should have given my cloak, if the man had asked it. Would you break any spell that worldly feeling or selfish sorrow may have spread over your mind, go and see the Colosseum by moonlight. NOTES.--The Colosseum (pro. Col-os-se'um) was commenced by the Roman emperor Vespasian, and was completed by Titus, his son, 79 A.D. Its construction occupied but three years, notwithstanding its size; a great part of its walls are standing today. The Circus Maximus was an amphitheater built by Tarquin the Elder about 600 B. C. Constantine. See note on page 175. The Esquiline is one of the seven hills upon which Rome is built. Un dona, an Italian phrase meaning a gift or alms. CXI. THE BRIDGE. (392) I stood on the bridge at midnight, As the clocks were striking the hour, And the moon rose o'er the city, Behind the dark church tower. I saw her bright reflection In the waters under me, Like a golden goblet falling And sinking into the sea. And far in the hazy distance Of that lovely night in June, The blaze of the flaming furnace Gleamed redder than the moon. Among the long, black rafters The wavering shadows lay, And the current that came from the ocean Seemed to lift and bear them away; As, sweeping and eddying through them, Rose the belated tide, And, streaming into the moonlight, The seaweed floated wide. And like those waters rushing Among the wooden piers, A flood of thoughts came o'er me That filled my eyes with tears How often, oh, how often, In the days that had gone by, I had stood on that bridge at midnight And gazed on that wave and sky! How often, oh, how often, I had wished that the ebbing tide Would bear me away on its bosom O'er the ocean wild and wide. For my heart was hot and restless, And my life was full of care, And the burden laid upon me Seemed greater than I could bear. But now it has fallen from me, It is buried in the sea; And only the sorrow of others Throws its shadow over me. Yet, whenever I cross the river On its bridge with wooden piers, Like the odor of brine from the ocean Comes the thought of other years. And I think how many thousands Of care-encumbered men, Each bearing his burden of sorrow, Have crossed the bridge since then. I see the long procession Still passing to and fro, The young heart hot and restless, And the old, subdued and slow! And forever and forever, As long as the river flows, As long as the heart has passions, As long as life has woes; The moon and its broken reflection And its shadows shall appear As the symbol of love in heaven, And its wavering image here. --Longfellow. CXII. OBJECTS AND LIMITS OF SCIENCE. (394) Robert Charles Winthrop, 1809-1894, was a descendant of John Winthrop, the first Governor of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay. He was born in Boston, studied at the public Latin School, graduated at Harvard in 1828, and studied law with Daniel Webster. Possessing an ample fortune, he made little effort to practice his profession. In 1834 he was elected to the Legislature of his native state, and was reelected five times; three years he was Speaker of the House of Representatives. In 1840 he was chosen to Congress, and sat as Representative for ten years. In 1847 he was chosen Speaker of the House. He also served a short time in the Senate. His published writings are chiefly in the form of addresses and speeches; they are easy, finished, and scholarly. As a speaker, Mr. Winthrop was ready, full-voiced, and self-possessed. ### There are fields enough for the wildest and most extravagant theorizings, within man's own appropriate domain, without overleaping the barriers which separate things human and divine. Indeed, I have often thought that modern science had afforded a most opportune and providential safety valve for the intellectual curiosity and ambition of man, at a moment when the progress of education, invention, and liberty had roused and stimulated him to a pitch of such unprecedented eagerness and ardor. Astronomy, Chemistry, and, more than all, Geology, with their incidental branches of study, have opened an inexhaustible field for investigation and speculation. Here, by the aid of modern instruments and modern modes of analysis, the most ardent and earnest spirits may find ample room and verge enough for their insatiate activity and audacious enterprise, and may pursue their course not only without the slightest danger of doing mischief to others, but with the certainty of promoting the great end of scientific truth. Let them lift their vast reflectors or refractors to the skies, and detect new planets in their hiding places. Let them waylay the fugitive comets in their flight, and compel them to disclose the precise period of their orbits, and to give bonds for their punctual return. Let them drag out reluctant satellites from "their habitual concealments." Let them resolve the unresolvable nebulae of Orion or Andromeda. They need not fear. The sky will not fall, nor a single star be shaken from its sphere. Let them perfect and elaborate their marvelous processes of making the light and the lightning their ministers, for putting "a pencil of rays" into the hand of art, and providing tongues of fire for the communication of intelligence. Let them foretell the path of the whirlwind, and calculate the orbit of the storm. Let them hang out their gigantic pendulums, and make the earth do the work of describing and measuring her own motions. Let them annihilate human pain, and literally "charm ache with air, and agony with ether." The blessing of God will attend all their toils, and the gratitude of man will await all their triumphs. Let them dig down into the bowels of the earth. Let them rive asunder the massive rocks, and unfold the history of creation as it lies written on the pages of their piled up strata. Let them gather up the fossil fragments of a lost Fauna, reproducing the ancient forms which inhabited the land or the seas, bringing them together, bone to his bone, till Leviathan and Behemoth stand before us in bodily presence and in their full proportions, and we almost tremble lest these dry bones should live again! Let them put nature to the rack, and torture her, in all her forms, to the betrayal of her inmost secrets and confidences. They need not forbear. The foundations of the round world have been laid so strong that they can not be moved. But let them not think by searching to find out God. Let them not dream of understanding the Almighty to perfection. Let them not dare to apply their tests and solvents, their modes of analysis or their terms of definition, to the secrets of the spiritual kingdom. Let them spare the foundations of faith. Let them be satisfied with what is revealed of the mysteries of the Divine Nature. Let them not break through the bounds to gaze after the Invisible. NOTES.--Orion and Andromeda are the names of two constellations. The Leviathan is described in Job, chap. xli, and the Behemoth in Job, chap. xl. It is not known exactly what beasts are meant by these descriptions. CXIII. THE DOWNFALL OF POLAND. (396) O Sacred Truth! thy triumph ceased a while, And Hope, thy sister, ceased with thee to smile, When leagued Oppression poured to northern wars Her whiskered pandours and her fierce hussars, Waved her dread standard to the breeze of morn, Pealed her loud drum, and twanged her trumpet horn; Tumultuous horror brooded o'er her van, Presaging wrath to Poland--and to man! Warsaw's last champion, from her height surveyed, Wide o'er the fields a waste of ruin laid; "O Heaven!" he cried, "my bleeding country save! Is there no hand on high to shield the brave? Yet, though destruction sweep those lovely plains, Rise, fellow-men! our country yet remains! By that dread name, we wave the sword on high, And swear for her to live--with her to die!" He said, and on the rampart heights arrayed His trusty warriors, few, but undismayed; Firm-paced and slow, a horrid front they form, Still as the breeze, but dreadful as the storm; Low murmuring sounds along their banners fly, Revenge or death--the watchword and reply; Then pealed the notes, omnipotent to charm, And the loud tocsin tolled their last alarm. In vain, alas! in vain, ye gallant few! From rank to rank, your volleyed thunder flew! Oh, bloodiest picture in the book of time, Sarmatia fell, unwept, without a crime; Found not a generous friend, a pitying foe, Strength in her arms, nor mercy in her woe! Dropped from her nerveless grasp the shattered spear, Closed her bright eye, and curbed her high career; Hope, for a season, bade the world farewell, And Freedom shrieked as Kosciusko fell! --Thomas Campbell. NOTES.--Kosciusko (b. 1746, d. 1817), a celebrated Polish patriot, who had served in the American Revolution, was besieged at Warsaw, in 1794, by a large force of Russians, Prussians, and Austrians. After the siege was raised, he marched against a force of Russians much larger than his own, and was defeated. He was himself severely wounded and captured. Sarmatia is the ancient name for a region of Europe which embraced Poland, but was of greater extent. CXIV. LABOR. (398) Horace Greeley,1811-1872, perhaps the most famous editor of America, was born in Amherst, New Hampshire, of poor parents. His boyhood was passed in farm labor, in attending the common school, and in reading every book on which he could lay his hands. His reading was mostly done by the light of pine knots. At fifteen he entered a printing office in Vermont, became the best workman in the office, and continued to improve every opportunity for study. At the age of twenty he appeared in New York City, poorly clothed, and almost destitute of money. He worked at his trade for a year or two, and then set up printing for himself. For several years he was not successful, but struggled on, performing an immense amount of work as an editor. In 1841 he established the "New York Tribune," which soon became one of the most successful and influential papers in the country. In 1848 he was elected to Congress, but remained but a short time. In 1872 he was a candidate for the Presidency, was defeated, and died a few days afterward. Mr. Greeley is a rare example of what may be accomplished by honesty and unflinching industry. Besides the vast amount which he wrote for the newspapers, he published several books; the best known of which is "The American Conflict." ### Every child should be trained to dexterity in some useful branch of productive industry, not in order that he shall certainly follow that pursuit, but that he may at all events be able to do so in case he shall fail in the more intellectual or artificial calling which he may prefer to it. Let him seek to be a doctor, lawyer, preacher, poet, if he will; but let him not stake his all on success in that pursuit, but have a second line to fall back upon if driven from his first. Let him be so reared and trained that he may enter, if he will, upon some intellectual calling in the sustaining consciousness that he need not debase himself, nor do violence to his convictions, in order to achieve success therein, since he can live and thrive in another (if you choose, humbler) vocation, if driven from that of his choice. This buttress to integrity, this assurance of self-respect, is to be found in a universal training to efficiency in Productive Labor. The world is full of misdirection and waste; but all the calamities and losses endured by mankind through frost, drought, blight, hail, fires, earthquakes, inundations, are as nothing to those habitually suffered by them through human idleness and inefficiency, mainly caused (or excused) by lack of industrial training. It is quite within the truth to estimate that one tenth of our people, in the average, are habitually idle because (as they say) they can find no employment. They look for work where it can not be had. They seem to be, or they are, unable to do such as abundantly confronts and solicits them. Suppose these to average but one million able-bodied persons, and that their work is worth but one dollar each per day; our loss by involuntary idleness can not be less than $300,000,000 per annum. I judge that it is actually $500,000,000. Many who stand waiting to be hired could earn from two to five dollars per day had they been properly trained to work. "There is plenty of room higher up," said Daniel Webster, in response to an inquiry as to the prospects of a young man just entering upon the practice of law; and there is never a dearth of employment for men or women of signal capacity or skill. In this city, ten thousand women are always doing needlework for less than fifty cents per day, finding themselves; yet twice their number of capable, skillful seamstresses could find steady employment and good living in wealthy families at not less than one dollar per day over and above board and lodging. He who is a good blacksmith, a fair millwright, a tolerable wagon maker, and can chop timber, make fence, and manage a small farm if required, is always sure of work and fair recompense; while he or she who can keep books or teach music fairly, but knows how to do nothing else, is in constant danger of falling into involuntary idleness and consequent beggary. It is a broad, general truth, that no boy was ever yet inured to daily, systematic, productive labor in field or shop throughout the latter half of his minority, who did not prove a useful man, and was notable to find work whenever he wished it. Yet to the ample and constant employment of a whole community one prerequisite is indispensable,--that a variety of pursuits shall have been created or naturalized therein. A people who have but a single source of profit are uniformly poor, not because that vocation is necessarily ill-chosen, but because no single calling can employ and reward the varied capacities of male and female, old and young, robust and feeble. Thus a lumbering or fishing region with us is apt to have a large proportion of needy inhabitants; and the same is true of a region exclusively devoted to cotton growing or gold mining. A diversity of pursuits is indispensable to general activity and enduring prosperity. Sixty or seventy years ago, what was then the District, and is now the State, of Maine, was a proverb in New England for the poverty of its people, mainly because they were so largely engaged in timber cutting. The great grain-growing, wheat-exporting districts of the Russian empire have a poor and rude people for a like reason. Thus the industry of Massachusetts is immensely more productive per head than that of North Carolina, or even that of Indiana, as it will cease to be whenever manufactures shall have been diffused over our whole country, as they must and will be. In Massachusetts half the women and nearly half the children add by their daily labor to the aggregate of realized wealth; in North Carolina and in Indiana little wealth is produced save by the labor of men, including boys of fifteen or upward. When this disparity shall have ceased, its consequence will also disappear. [Illustration: A chained man in prison reclining against the wall. He is gazing down at a sleeping young boy.] CXV. THE LAST DAYS OF HERCULANEUM. (401) Edwin Atherstone, 1788-1872, was born at Nottingham, England, and became known to the literary world chiefly through two poems, "The Last Days of Herculaneum" and "The Fall of Nineveh." Both poems are written in blank verse, and are remarkable for their splendor of diction and their great descriptive power. Atherstone is compared to Thomson, whom he resembles somewhat in style. ### There was a man, A Roman soldier, for some daring deed That trespassed on the laws, in dungeon low Chained down. His was a noble spirit, rough, But generous, and brave, and kind. He had a son; it was a rosy boy, A little faithful copy of his sire, In face and gesture. From infancy, the child Had been his father's solace and his care. Every sport The father shared and heightened. But at length, The rigorous law had grasped him, and condemned To fetters and to darkness. The captive's lot, He felt in all its bitterness: the walls Of his deep dungeon answered many a sigh And heart-heaved groan. His tale was known, and touched His jailer with compassion; and the boy, Thenceforth a frequent visitor, beguiled His father's lingering hours, and brought a balm With his loved presence, that in every wound Dropped healing. But, in this terrific hour, He was a poisoned arrow in the breast Where he had been a cure. With earliest morn Of that first day of darkness and amaze, He came. The iron door was closed--for them Never to open more! The day, the night Dragged slowly by; nor did they know the fate Impending o'er the city. Well they heard The pent-up thunders in the earth beneath, And felt its giddy rocking; and the air Grew hot at length, and thick; but in his straw The boy was sleeping: and the father hoped The earthquake might pass by: nor would he wake From his sound rest the unfearing child, nor tell The dangers of their state. On his low couch The fettered soldier sank, and, with deep awe, Listened the fearful sounds: with upturned eye, To the great gods he breathed a prayer; then, strove To calm himself, and lose in sleep awhile His useless terrors. But he could not sleep: His body burned with feverish heat; his chains Clanked loud, although he moved not; deep in earth Groaned unimaginable thunders; sounds, Fearful and ominous, arose and died, Like the sad mornings of November's wind, In the blank midnight. Deepest horror chilled His blood that burned before; cold, clammy sweats Came o'er him; then anon, a fiery thrill Shot through his veins. Now, on his couch he shrunk And shivered as in fear; now, upright leaped, As though he heard the battle trumpet sound, And longed to cope with death. He slept, at last, A troubled, dreamy sleep. Well had he slept Never to waken more! His hours are few, But terrible his agony. Soon the storm Burst forth; the lightnings glanced; the air Shook with the thunders. They awoke; they sprung Amazed upon their feet. The dungeon glowed A moment as in sunshine--and was dark: Again, a flood of white flame fills the cell, Dying away upon the dazzled eye In darkening, quivering tints, as stunning sound Dies throbbing, ringing in the ear. With intensest awe, The soldier's frame was filled; and many a thought Of strange foreboding hurried through his mind, As underneath he felt the fevered earth Jarring and lifting; and the massive walls, Heard harshly grate and strain: yet knew he not, While evils undefined and yet to come Glanced through his thoughts, what deep and cureless wound Fate had already given.--Where, man of woe! Where, wretched father! is thy boy? Thou call'st His name in vain:--he can not answer thee. Loudly the father called upon his child: No voice replied. Trembling and anxiously He searched their couch of straw; with headlong haste Trod round his stinted limits, and, low bent, Groped darkling on the earth:--no child was there. Again he called: again, at farthest stretch Of his accursed fetters, till the blood Seemed bursting from his ears, and from his eyes Fire flashed, he strained with arm extended far, And fingers widely spread, greedy to touch Though but his idol's garment. Useless toil! Yet still renewed: still round and round he goes, And strains, and snatches, and with dreadful cries Calls on his boy. Mad frenzy fires him now. He plants against the wall his feet; his chain Grasps; tugs with giant strength to force away The deep-driven staple; yells and shrieks with rage: And, like a desert lion in the snare, Raging to break his toils,--to and fro bounds. But see! the ground is opening;--a blue light Mounts, gently waving,--noiseless;--thin and cold It seems, and like a rainbow tint, not flame; But by its luster, on the earth outstretched, Behold the lifeless child! his dress is singed, And, o'er his face serene, a darkened line Points out the lightning's track. The father saw, And all his fury fled:--a dead calm fell That instant on him:--speechless--fixed--he stood, And with a look that never wandered, gazed Intensely on the corse. Those laughing eyes Were not yet closed,--and round those ruby lips The wonted smile returned. Silent and pale The father stands:--no tear is in his eye:-- The thunders bellow;--but he hears them not:-- The ground lifts like a sea;--he knows it not:-- The strong walls grind and gape:--the vaulted roof Takes shape like bubble tossing in the wind; See! he looks up and smiles; for death to him Is happiness. Yet could one last embrace Be given, 't were still a sweeter thing to die. It will be given. Look! how the rolling ground, At every swell, nearer and still more near Moves toward the father's outstretched arm his boy. Once he has touched his garment:--how his eye Lightens with love, and hope, and anxious fears! Ha, see! he has him now!--he clasps him round; Kisses his face; puts back the curling locks, That shaded his fine brow; looks in his eyes; Grasps in his own those little dimpled hands; Then folds him to his breast, as he was wont To lie when sleeping; and resigned, awaits Undreaded death. And death came soon and swift And pangless. The huge pile sank down at once Into the opening earth. Walls--arches--roof-- And deep foundation stones--all--mingling--fell! NOTES.--Herculaneum and Pompeii were cities of Italy, which were destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius in the year 79 A. D., being entirely buried under ashes and lava. During the last century they have been dug out to a considerable extent, and many of the streets, buildings, and utensils have been found in a state of perfect preservation. CXVI. HOW MEN REASON. (405) My friend, the Professor, whom I have mentioned to you once or twice, told me yesterday that somebody had been abusing him in some of the journals of his calling. I told him that I did n't doubt he deserved it; that I hoped he did deserve a little abuse occasionally, and would for a number of years to come; that nobody could do anything to make his neighbors wiser or better without being liable to abuse for it; especially that people hated to have their little mistakes made fun of, and perhaps he had been doing something of the kind. The Professor smiled. Now, said I, hear what I am going to say. It will not take many years to bring you to the period of life when men, at least the majority of writing and talking men, do nothing but praise. Men, like peaches and pears, grow sweet a little while before they begin to decay. I don't know what it is,--whether a spontaneous change, mental or bodily, or whether it is through experience of the thanklessness of critical honesty,--but it is a fact, that most writers, except sour and unsuccessful ones, get tired of finding fault at about the time when they are beginning to grow old. As a general thing, I would not give a great deal for the fair words of a critic, if he is himself an author, over fifty years of age. At thirty, we are all trying to cut our names in big letters upon the walls of this tenement of life; twenty years later, we have carved it, or shut up our jackknives. Then we are ready to help others, and care less to hinder any, because nobody's elbows are in our way. So I am glad you have a little life left; you will be saccharine enough in a few years. Some of the softening effects of advancing age have struck me very much in what I have heard or seen here and elsewhere. I just now spoke of the sweetening process that authors undergo. Do you know that in the gradual passage from maturity to helplessness the harshest characters sometimes have a period in which they are gentle and placid as young children? I have heard it said, but I can not be sponsor for its truth, that the famous chieftain, Lochiel, was rocked in a cradle like a baby, in his old age. An old man, whose studies had been of the severest scholastic kind, used to love to hear little nursery stories read over and over to him. One who saw the Duke of Wellington in his last years describes him as very gentle in his aspect and demeanor. I remember a person of singularly stern and lofty bearing who became remarkably gracious and easy in all his ways in the later period of his life. And that leads me to say that men often remind me of pears in their way of coming to maturity. Some are ripe at twenty, like human Jargonelles, and must be made the most of, for their day is soon over. Some come into their perfect condition late, like the autumn kinds, and they last better than the summer fruit. And some, that, like the Winter Nelis, have been hard and uninviting until all the rest have had their season, get their glow and perfume long after the frost and snow have done their worst with the orchards. Beware of rash criticisms; the rough and stringent fruit you condemn may be an autumn or a winter pear, and that which you picked up beneath the same bough in August may have been only its worm--eaten windfalls. Milton was a Saint Germain with a graft of the roseate Early Catherine. Rich, juicy, lively, fragrant, russet-skinned old Chaucer was an Easter Beurre'; the buds of a new summer were swelling when he ripened. --Holmes. NOTES.--The above selection is from the "Autocrat of the Breakfast Table." Lochiel. See note on page 214. The Duke of Wellington (b. 1769, d. 1852) was the most celebrated of English generals. He won great renown in India and in the "Peninsular War," and commanded the allied forces when Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo. Easter Beurre', Saint Germain, Winter Nelis, Early Catherine and Jargonelles are the names of certain varieties of pears. Milton. See biographical notice on page 312. Chaucer, Geoffrey (b. 1328, d. 1400). is often called "The Father of English Poetry." He was the first poet buried in Westminster Abbey. He was a prolific writer, but his "Canterbury Tales" is by far the best known of his works. CXVII. THUNDERSTORM ON THE ALPS. (408) Clear, placid Leman! thy contrasted lake, With the wild world I dwell in, is a thing Which warns me, with its stillness, to forsake Earth's troubled waters for a purer spring. This quiet sail is as a noiseless wing To waft me from distraction; once I loved Torn ocean's roar, but thy soft murmuring Sounds sweet, as if a sister's voice reproved, That I with stern delights should e'er have been so moved. All heaven and earth are still--though not in sleep, But breathless, as we grow when feeling most; And silent, as we stand in thoughts too deep-- All heaven and earth are still: from the high host Of stars, to the lulled lake and mountain coast, All is concentered in a life intense, Where not a beam, nor air, nor leaf is lost, But hath a part of being, and a sense Of that which is of all Creator and defense. The sky is changed! and such a change! O night, And storm, and darkness, ye are wondrous strong, Yet lovely in your strength, as is the light Of a dark eye in woman! Far along, From peak to peak, the rattling crags among, Leaps the live thunder! Not from one lone cloud, But every mountain now hath found a tongue, And Jura answers, through her misty shroud, Back to the joyous Alps, who call to her aloud! And this is in the night.--Most glorious night! Thou wert not sent for slumber! let me be A sharer in thy fierce and far delight,-- A portion of the tempest and of thee! How the lit lake shines,--a phosphoric sea! And the big rain comes dancing to the earth! And now again, 'tis black,--and now, the glee Of the loud hills shakes with its mountain mirth, As if they did rejoice o'er a young earthquake's birth. Now, where the swift Rhone cleaves his way between Heights which appear as lovers who have parted In hate, whose mining depths so intervene, That they can meet no more, though broken-hearted; Though in their souls, which thus each other thwarted, Love was the very root of the fond rage, Which blighted their life's bloom, and then--departed. Itself expired, but leaving them an age Of years, all winters,--war within themselves to wage. Now, where the quick Rhone thus hath cleft his way, The mightiest of the storms hath ta'en his stand! For here, not one, but many make their play, And fling their thunderbolts from hand to hand, Flashing and cast around! Of all the band, The brightest through these parted hills hath forked His lightnings,--as if he did understand, That in such gaps as desolation worked, There, the hot shaft should blast whatever therein lurked. --Byron. NOTE.--Lake Leman (or Lake of Geneva) is in the south-western part of Switzerland, separating it in part from Savoy. The Rhone flows through it, entering by a deep narrow gap, with mountain groups on either hand, eight or nine thousand feet above the water. The scenery about the lake is magnificent, the Jura mountains bordering it on the northwest, and the Alps lying on the south and east. CXVIII. ORIGIN OF PROPERTY. (410) Sir William Blackstone, 1723-1780, was the son of a silk merchant, and was born in London. He studied with great success at Oxford, and was admitted to the bar in 1745. At first he could not obtain business enough in his profession to support himself, and for a time relinquished practice, and lectured at Oxford. He afterwards returned to London, and resumed his practice with great success, still continuing to lecture at Oxford. He was elected to Parliament in 1761; and in 1770 was made a justice of the Court of Common Pleas, which office he held till his death. Blackstone's fame rests upon his "Commentaries on the Laws of England," published about 1769. He was a man of great ability, sound learning, unflagging industry, and moral integrity. His great work is still a common text-book in the study of law. ### In the beginning of the world, we are informed by Holy Writ, the all- bountiful Creator gave to man dominion over all the earth, and "over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth." This is the only true and solid foundation of man's dominion over external things, whatever airy, metaphysical notions may have been started by fanciful writers upon this subject. The earth, therefore, and all things therein, are the general property of all mankind, exclusive of other beings, from the immediate gift of the Creator. And while the earth continued bare of inhabitants, it is reasonable to suppose that all was in common among them, and that everyone took from the public stock, to his own use, such things as his immediate necessities required. These general notions of property were then sufficient to answer all the purposes of human life; and might, perhaps, still have answered them, had it been possible for mankind to have remained in a state of primeval simplicity, in which "all things were common to him." Not that this communion of goods seems ever to have been applicable, even in the earliest ages, to aught but the substance of the thing; nor could it be extended to the use of it. For, by the law of nature and reason, he who first began to use it, acquired therein a kind of transient property, that lasted so long as he was using it, and no longer. Or, to speak with greater precision, the right of possession continued for the same time, only, that the act of possession lasted. Thus, the ground was in common, and no part of it was the permanent property of any man in particular; yet, whoever was in the occupation of any determined spot of it, for rest, for shade, or the like, acquired for the time a sort of ownership, from which it would have been unjust and contrary to the law of nature to have driven him by force; but, the instant that he quitted the use or occupation of it, another might seize it without injustice. Thus, also, a vine or other tree might be said to be in common, as all men were equally entitled to its produce; and yet, any private individual might gain the sole property of the fruit which he had gathered for his own repast: a doctrine well illustrated by Cicero, who compares the world to a great theater, which is common to the public, and yet the place which any man has taken is, for the time, his own. But when mankind increased in number, craft, and ambition, it became necessary to entertain conceptions of a more permanent dominion; and to appropriate to individuals not the immediate use only, but the very substance of the thing to be used. Otherwise, innumerable tumults must have arisen, and the good order of the world been continually broken and disturbed, while a variety of persons were striving who should get the first occupation of the same thing, or disputing which of them had actually gained it. As human life also grew more and more refined, abundance of conveniences were devised to render it more easy, commodious, and agreeable; as habitations for shelter and safety, and raiment for warmth and decency. But no man would be at the trouble to provide either, so long as he had only a usufructuary property in them, which was to cease the instant that he quitted possession; if, as soon as he walked out of his tent or pulled off his garment, the next stranger who came by would have a right to inhabit the one and to wear the other. In the case of habitations, in particular, it was natural to observe that even the brute creation, to whom everything else was in common, maintained a kind of permanent property in their dwellings, especially for the protection of their young; that the birds of the air had nests, and the beasts of the fields had caverns, the invasion of which they esteemed a very flagrant injustice, and would sacrifice their lives to preserve them. Hence a property was soon established in every man's house and homestead; which seem to have been originally mere temporary huts or movable cabins, suited to the design of Providence for more speedily peopling the earth, and suited to the wandering life of their owners, before any extensive property in the soil or ground was established. There can be no doubt but that movables of every kind became sooner appropriated than the permanent, substantial soil; partly because they were more susceptible of a long occupancy, which might be continue for months together without any sensible interruption, and at length, by usage, ripen into an established right; but, principally, because few of them could be fit for use till improved and meliorated by the bodily labor of the occupant; which bodily labor, bestowed upon any subject which before lay in common to all men, is universally allowed to give the fairest and most reasonable title to an exclusive property therein. The article of food was a more immediate call, and therefore a more early consideration. Such as were not contented with the spontaneous product of the earth, sought for a more solid refreshment in the flesh of beasts, which they obtained by hunting. But the frequent disappointments incident to that method of provision, induced them to gather together such animals as were of a more tame and sequacious nature and to establish themselves in a less precarious manner, partly by the milk of the dams, and partly by the flesh of the young. The support of these their cattle made the article of water also a very important point. And, therefore, the book of Genesis, (the most venerable monument of antiquity, considered merely with a view to history,) will furnish us with frequent instances of violent contentions concerning wells; the exclusive property of which appears to have been established in the first digger or occupant, even in places where the ground and herbage remained yet in common. Thus, we find Abraham, who was but a sojourner, asserting his right to a well in the country of Abimelech, and exacting an oath for his security "because he had digged that well." And Isaac, about ninety years afterwards, reclaimed this his father's property; and, after much contention with the Philistines, was suffered to enjoy it in peace. All this while, the soil and pasture of the earth remained still in common as before, and open to every occupant; except, perhaps, in the neighborhood of towns, where the necessity of a sale and exclusive property in lands, (for the sake of agriculture,) was earlier felt, and therefore more readily complied with. Otherwise, when the multitude of men and cattle had consumed every convenience on one spot of ground, it was deemed a natural right to seize upon and occupy such other lands as would more easily supply their necessities. We have a striking example of this in the history of Abraham and his nephew Lot. When their joint substance became so great that pasture and other conveniences grew scarce, the natural consequence was that a strife arose between their servants; so that it was no longer practicable to dwell together. This contention, Abraham thus endeavored to compose: "Let there be no strife, I pray thee, between me and thee. Is not the whole land before thee? Separate thyself, I pray thee, from me. If thou wilt take the left hand, then I will go to the right; or if thou depart to the right hand, then I will go to the left." This plainly implies an acknowledged right in either to occupy whatever ground he pleased that was not preoccupied by other tribes. "And Lot lifted up his eyes, and beheld all the plain of Jordan, that it was well watered everywhere, even as the garden of the Lord. Then Lot chose him all the plain of Jordan, and journeyed east; and Abraham dwelt in the land of Canaan." As the world by degrees grew more populous, it daily became more difficult to find out new spots to inhabit, without encroaching upon former occupants; and, by constantly occupying the same individual spot, the fruits of the earth were consumed, and its spontaneous products destroyed without any provision for future supply or succession. It, therefore, became necessary to pursue some regular method of providing a constant subsistence; and this necessity produced, or at least promoted and encouraged the art of agriculture. And the art of agriculture, by a regular connection and consequence, introduced and established the idea of a more permanent property in the soil than had hitherto been received and adopted. It was clear that the earth would not produce her fruits in sufficient quantities without the assistance of tillage; but who would be at the pains of tilling it, if another might watch an opportunity to seize upon and enjoy the product of his industry, art and labor? Had not, therefore, a separate property in lands, as well as movables, been vested in some individuals, the world must have continued a forest, and men have been mere animals of prey. Whereas, now, (so graciously has Providence interwoven our duty and our happiness together,) the result of this very necessity has been the ennobling of the human species, by giving it opportunities of improving its rational, as well as of exerting its natural faculties. Necessity begat property; and, in order to insure that property, recourse was had to civil society, which brought along with it a long train of inseparable concomitants: states, government, laws, punishments, and the public exercise of religious duties. Thus connected together, it was found that a part only of society was sufficient to provide, by their manual labor, for the necessary subsistence of all; and leisure was given to others to cultivate the human mind, to invent useful arts, and to lay the foundations of science. NOTE.--Cicero. See note on page 156. CXIX. BATTLE OF WATERLOO. (415) There was a sound of revelry by night, And Belgium's capital had gathered then Her Beauty and her Chivalry, and bright The lamps shone o'er fair women and brave men. A thousand hearts beat happily; and when Music arose with its voluptuous swell, Soft eyes looked love to eyes which spake again, And all went merry as a marriage bell; But hush! hark!--a deep sound strikes like a rising knell! Did ye not hear it?--No; 't was but the wind, Or the car rattling o'er the stony street; On with the dance! let joy be unconfined; No sleep till morn, when Youth and Pleasure meet To chase the glowing Hours with flying feet-- But, hark!--that heavy sound breaks in once mere, As if the clouds its echo would repeat, And nearer, clearer, deadlier than before! Arm! arm! it is--it is the cannon's opening roar! Ah! then and there was hurrying to and fro, And gathering tears, and tremblings of distress, And cheeks all pale, which, but an hour ago Blushed at the praise of their own loveliness; And there were sudden partings, such as press The life from out young hearts, and choking sighs Which ne'er might be repeated: who could guess If ever more should meet those mutual eyes, Since upon night so sweet such awful morn could rise. And there was mounting in hot haste: the steed, The mustering squadron, and the clattering car Went pouring forward with impetuous speed, And swiftly forming in the ranks of war; And the deep thunder, peal on peal afar; And near, the beat of the alarming drum Roused up the soldier ere the morning star; While thronged the citizens with terror dumb, Or whispering with white lips--"The foe! They come! They come!" And Ardennes waves above them her green leaves, Dewy with nature's tear-drops, as they pass, Grieving, if aught inanimate e'er grieves, Over the unreturning brave!--alas! Ere evening to be trodden like the grass, Which, now, beneath them, but above, shall grow, In its next verdure, when this fiery mass Of living valor, rolling on the foe, And burning with high hope, shall molder, cold and low Last noon beheld them full of lusty life, Last eve in beauty's circle proudly gay, The midnight brought the signal sound of strife, The morn, the marshaling in arms,--the day, Battle's magnificently stern array! The thunderclouds close o'er it, which when rent, The earth is covered thick with other clay, Which her own clay shall cover, heaped and pent, Rider and horse,--friend, foe,--in one red burial blent. --Byron. NOTES.--The Battle of Waterloo was fought on June 18th, 1815, between the French army on one side, commanded by Napoleon Bonaparte, and the English army and allies on the other side, commanded by the Duke of Wellington. At the commencement of the battle, some of the officers were at a ball at Brussels, a short distance from Waterloo, and being notified of the approaching contest by the cannonade, left the ballroom for the field of battle. The wood of Soignies lay between the field of Waterloo and Brussels. It is supposed to be a remnant of the forest of Ardennes. CXX. "WITH BRAINS, SIR." (417) John Brown, 1810-1882, was born in Lanarkshire, Scotland, and graduated at the University of Edinburgh. His father was John Brown, an eminent clergyman and the author of several books. Dr. Brown's literary reputation rests largely upon a series of papers contributed to the "North British Review." "Rab and his Friends," a collection of papers published in book form, is the most widely known of all his writings. ### "Pray, Mr. Opie, may I ask you what you mix your colors with?" said a brisk dilettante student to the great painter. "With brains, sir," was the gruff reply--and the right one. It did not give much of information; it did not expound the principles and rules of the art; but, if the inquirer had the commodity referred to, it would awaken him; it would set him agoing, athinking, and a-painting to good purpose. If he had not the wherewithal, as was likely enough, the less he had to do with colors and their mixture the better. Many other artists, when asked such a question, would have either set about detailing the mechanical composition of such and such colors, in such and such proportions, rubbed up so and so; or perhaps they would (and so much the better, but not the best) have shown him how they laid them on; but even this would leave him at the critical point. Opie preferred going to the quick and the heart of the matter: "With brains, sir." Sir Joshua Reynolds was taken by a friend to see a picture. He was anxious to admire it, and he looked it over with a keen and careful but favorable eye. "Capital composition; correct drawing; the color, tone, chiaroscuro excellent; but--but--it wants--hang it, it wants--that!" snapping his fingers; and, wanting "that," though it had everything else, it was worth nothing. Again, Etty was appointed teacher of the students of the Royal Academy, having been preceded by a clever, talkative, scientific expounder of aesthetics, who delighted to tell the young men how everything was done, how to copy this, and how to express that. A student came up to the new master, "How should I do this, sir?" "Suppose you try." Another, "What does this mean, Mr. Etty?" "Suppose you look." "But I have looked." "Suppose you look again." And they did try, and they did look, and looked again; and they saw and achieved what they never could have done had the how or the what (supposing this possible, which it is not, in full and highest meaning) been told them, or done for them; in the one case, sight and action were immediate, exact, intense, and secure; in the other, mediate, feeble, and lost as soon as gained. NOTES.--Opie, John (b. 1761, d. 1807), was born in Wales, and was known as the "Cornish wonder." He became celebrated as a portrait painter, but afterwards devoted himself to historical subjects. He was professor of painting at the Royal Academy. Reynolds. See note on page 379. Etty, William (b. 1787, d. 1849), is considered one of the principal artists of the modern English school. His pictures are mainly historical. The Royal Academy of Arts, in London, was founded in 1768. It is under the direction of forty artists of the first rank in their several professions, who have the title of "Royal Academicians." The admission to the Academy is free to all properly qualified students. CXXI. THE NEW ENGLAND PASTOR. (419) Timothy Dwight, 1752-1817, was born at Northampton, Massachusetts. His mother was a daughter of the celebrated Jonathan Edwards. It is said that she taught her son the alphabet in one lesson, that he could read the Bible at four years of age, and that he studied Latin by himself at six. He graduated at Yale in 1769, returned as tutor in 1771, and continued six years. He was chaplain in a brigade under General Putnam for a time. In 1778 his father died, and for five years he supported his mother and a family of twelve children by farming, teaching and preaching. From 1783 to 1795 he was pastor at Greenfield, Connecticut. He was then chosen President of Yale College, and remained in office till he died. Dr. Dwight was a man of fine bodily presence, of extended learning, and untiring industry. His presidency of the college was highly successful. His patriotism was no less ardent and true than his piety. In his younger days he wrote considerably in verse. His poetry is not all of a very high order, but some pieces possess merit. ### The place, with east and western sides, A wide and verdant street divides: And here the houses faced the day, And there the lawns in beauty lay. There, turret-crowned, and central, stood A neat and solemn house of God. Across the way, beneath the shade Two elms with sober silence spread, The preacher lived. O'er all the place His mansion cast a Sunday grace; Dumb stillness sate the fields around; His garden seemed a hallowed ground; Swains ceased to laugh aloud, when near, And schoolboys never sported there. In the same mild and temperate zone, Twice twenty years, his course had run, His locks of flowing silver spread A crown of glory o'er his head; His face, the image of his mind, With grave and furrowed wisdom shined; Not cold; but glowing still, and bright; Yet glowing with October light: As evening blends, with beauteous ray, Approaching night with shining day. His Cure his thoughts engrossed alone: For them his painful course was run: To bless, to save, his only care; To chill the guilty soul with fear; To point the pathway to the skies, And teach, and urge, and aid, to rise; Where strait, and difficult to keep, It climbs, and climbs, o'er Virtue's steep. CXXII. DEATH OF ABSALOM. (420) David numbered the people that were with him, and set captains of thousands and captains of hundreds over them. And David sent forth a third part of the people under the hand of Joab, and a third part under the hand of Abishai, the son of Zeruiah, Joab's brother, and a third part under the hand of Ittai, the Gittite. And the king said unto the people, I will surely go forth with you myself also. But the people answered, thou shalt not go forth; for if we flee away, they will not care for us; neither if half of us die, will they care for us; but now thou art worth ten thousand of us; therefore now it is better that thou succor us out of the city. And the king said unto them, What seemeth you best, I will do. And the king stood by the gate side, and all the people came out by hundreds and by thousands. And the king commanded Joab, and Abishai, and Ittai, saying, Deal gently for my sake with the young man, even with Absalom. And all the people heard when the king gave all the captains charge concerning Absalom. So the people went out into the field against Israel; and the battle was in the wood of Ephraim; where the people of Israel were slain before the servants of David, and there was there a great slaughter that day of twenty thousand men. For the battle was there scattered over the face of all the country: and the wood devoured more people that day than the sword devoured. And Absalom met the servants of David. And Absalom rode upon a mule, and the mule went under the thick boughs of a great oak, and his head caught hold of the oak, and he was taken up between the heaven and the earth; and the mule that was under him went away. And a certain man saw it, and told Joab, and said, Behold, I saw Absalom hanged in an oak. And Joab said unto the man that told him, And, behold, thou sawest him, and why didst thou not smite him there to the ground? and I would have given thee ten shekels of silver and a girdle. And the man said unto Joab, Though I should receive a thousand shekels of silver in my hand, yet would I not put forth my hand against the king's son; for, in our hearing, the king charged thee, and Abishai, and Ittai, saying, Beware that none touch the young man Absalom. Otherwise, I should have wrought falsehood against mine own life; for there is no matter hid from the king, and thou thyself wouldst have set thyself against me. Then said Joab, I may not tarry thus with thee. And he took three darts in his hand, and thrust them through the heart of Absalom, while he was yet alive in the midst of the oak. And ten young men that bare Joab's armor, compassed about and smote Absalom, and slew him. And Joab blew the trumpet, and the people returned from pursuing after Israel; for Joab held back the people. And they took Absalom, and cast him into a great pit in the wood, and laid a very great heap of stones upon him; and all Israel fled, everyone to his tent. Now Absalom, in his lifetime, had taken and reared up for himself a pillar, which is in the king's dale; for he said, I have no son to keep my name in remembrance; and he called the pillar after his own name; and it is called unto this day, Absalom's Place. Then said Ahimaaz, the son of Zadok, Let me now run, and bear the king tidings, how that the Lord hath avenged him of his enemies. And Joab said unto him, Thou shalt not bear tidings this day, but thou shalt bear tidings another day: but this day thou shalt bear no tidings, because the king's son is dead. Then said Joab to Cushi, Go, tell the king what thou hast seen. And Cushi bowed himself unto Joab, and ran. Then said Ahimaaz the son of Zadok yet again to Joab, But howsoever, let me, I pray thee, also run after Cushi. And Joab said, Wherefore wilt thou run, my son, seeing that thou hast no tidings ready? But howsoever, said he, let me run. And he said unto him, run. Then Ahimaaz ran by the way of the plain, and overran Cushi. And David sat between the two gates; and the watchman went up to the roof over the gate unto the wall, and lifted up his eyes, and looked, and behold, a man running alone. And the watchman cried, and told the king. And the king said, If he be alone, there is tidings in his mouth. And he came apace, and drew near. And the watchman saw another man running, and the watchman called unto the porter, and said, Behold, another man running alone. And the king said, He also bringeth tidings. And the watchman said, Methinketh the running of the foremost is like the running of Ahimaaz the son of Zadok. And the king said, He is a good man, and cometh with good tidings. And Ahimaaz called, and said unto the king, All is well. And he fell down to the earth upon his face before the king, and said, Blessed be the Lord thy God, which hath delivered up the men that lifted up their hand against my lord the king. And the king said, Is the young man Absalom safe? And Ahimaaz answered, When Joab sent the king's servant, and me thy servant, I saw a great tumult, but I knew not what it was. And the king said unto him, Turn aside and stand here. And he turned aside, and stood still. And behold, Cushi came; and Cushi said, Tidings my lord the king; for the Lord hath avenged thee this day of all them that rose up against thee. And the king said unto Cushi, Is the young man Absalom safe? And Cushi answered, The enemies of my lord the king, and all that rise against thee to do thee hurt, be as that young man is. And the king was much moved, and went up to the chamber over the gate, and wept; and as he went, thus he said, O my son Absalom! my son, my son Absalom! would God I had died for thee, O Absalom, my son, my son! --II Samuel, Chap. xviii. CXXIII. ABRAHAM DAVENPORT. (424) 'T was on a May day of the far old year Seventeen hundred eighty, that there fell Over the bloom and sweet life of the Spring, Over the fresh earth and the heaven of noon, A horror of great darkness, like the night In day of which the Norland sagas tell, The Twilight of the Gods. The low-hung sky Was black with ominous clouds, save where its rim Was fringed with a dull glow, like that which climbs The crater's sides from the red hell below. Birds ceased to sing, and all the barnyard fowls Roosted; the cattle at the pasture bars Lowed, and looked homeward; bats on leathern wings Flitted abroad; the sounds of labor died; Men prayed, and women wept; all ears grew sharp To hear the doom blast of the trumpet shatter The black sky, that the dreadful face of Christ Might look from the rent clouds, not as he looked A loving guest at Bethany, but stern As Justice and inexorable Law. Meanwhile in the old Statehouse, dim as ghosts, Sat the lawgivers of Connecticut, Trembling beneath their legislative robes. "It is the Lord's Great Day! Let us adjourn," Some said; and then, as if with one accord, All eyes were turned to Abraham Davenport. He rose, slow-cleaving with his steady voice The intolerable hush. "This well may be The Day of Judgment which the world awaits; But be it so or not, I only know My present duty, and my Lord's command To occupy till he come. So at the post Where he hath set me in his providence, I choose, for one, to meet him face to face, No faithless servant frightened from my task, But ready when the Lord of the harvest calls; And therefore, with all reverence, I would say, Let God do his work, we will see to ours. Bring in the candles." And they brought them in. Then by the flaring lights the Speaker read, Albeit with husky voice and shaking hands, An act to amend an act to regulate The shad and alewive fisheries. Whereupon, Wisely and well spake Abraham Davenport, Straight to the question, with no figures of speech Save the ten Arab signs, yet not without The shrewd, dry humor natural to the man: His awe-struck colleagues listening all the while, Between the pauses of his argument, To hear the thunder of the wrath of God Break from the hollow trumpet of the cloud. And there he stands in memory to this day, Erect, self-poised, a rugged face, half seen Against the background of unnatural dark, A witness to the ages as they pass, That simple duty hath no place for fear. --Whittier. NOTE.--The "Dark Day," as it is known, occurred May 19th, 1780, and extended over all New England. The darkness came on about ten o'clock in the morning, and lasted with varying degrees of intensity until midnight of the next day. The cause of the phenomenon is unknown. CXXIV. THE FALLS OF THE YOSEMITE. (426) Thomas Starr King, 1824-1863, was born in New York City. His father was a Universalist minister; and, in 1834, he settled in Charlestown, Massachusetts. The son was preparing to enter Harvard University, when the death of his father devolved upon him the support of his mother, and his collegiate course had to be given up. He spent several years as clerk and teacher, improving meanwhile all possible opportunities for study. In 1846 he was settled over the church to which his father had preached in Charlestown. Two years later, he was called to the Hollis Street Unitarian Church in Boston. Here his eloquence and active public spirit soon made him well known. He also gained much reputation as a public lecturer. In 1860 he left the East to take charge of the Unitarian church in San Francisco. During the remaining years of his life, he exercised much influence in the public affairs of California. He died suddenly, of diphtheria, in the midst of his brilliant career. Mr. King was a great lover of nature. His "White Hills," describing the mountain scenery of New Hampshire, is the most complete book ever written concerning that interesting region. ### The Yosemite valley, in California, is a pass about ten miles long. At its eastern extremity it leads into three narrower passes, each of which extends several miles, winding by the wildest paths into the heart of the Sierra Nevada chain of mountains. For seven miles of the main valley, which varies in width from three quarters of a mile to a mile and a half, the walls on either side are from two thousand to nearly five thousand feet above the road, and are nearly perpendicular. From these walls, rocky splinters a thousand feet in height start up, and every winter drop a few hundred tons of granite, to adorn the base of the rampart with picturesque ruin. The valley is of such irregular width, and bends so much and often so abruptly, that there is a great variety and frequent surprise in the forms and combinations of the overhanging rocks as one rides along the bank of the stream. The patches of luxuriant meadow, with their dazzling green, and the grouping of the superb firs, two hundred feet high, that skirt them, and that shoot above the stout and graceful oaks and sycamores through which the horse path winds, are delightful rests of sweetness and beauty amid the threatening awfulness. The Merced, which flows through the same pass, is a noble stream, a hundred feet wide and ten feet deep. It is formed chiefly of the streams that leap and rush through the narrower passes, and it is swollen, also, by the bounty of the marvelous waterfalls that pour down from the ramparts of the wider valley. The sublime poetry of Habakkuk is needed to describe the impression, and, perhaps, the geology, of these mighty fissures: "Thou didst cleave the earth with rivers." At the foot of the breakneck declivity of nearly three thousand feet by which we reach the banks of the Merced, we are six miles from the hotel, and every rod of the ride awakens wonder, awe, and a solemn joy. As we approach the hotel, and turn toward the opposite bank of the river, what is that "Which ever sounds and shines, A pillar of white light upon the wall Of purple cliffs aloof descried"? That, reader, is the highest waterfall in the world--the Yosemite cataract, nearly twenty-five hundred feet in its plunge, dashing from a break or depression in a cliff thirty-two hundred feet sheer. A writer who visited this valley in September, calls the cataract a mere tape line of water dropped from the sky. Perhaps it is so, toward the close of the dry season; but as we saw it, the blended majesty and beauty of it, apart from the general sublimities of Yosemite gorge, would repay a journey of a thousand miles. There was no deficiency of water. It was a powerful stream, thirty-five feet broad, fresh from the Nevada, that made the plunge from the brow of the awful precipice. At the first leap it clears fourteen hundred and ninety-seven feet; then it tumbles down a series of steep stairways four hundred and two feet, and then makes a jump to the meadows five hundred and eighteen feet more. But it is the upper and highest cataract that is most wonderful to the eye, as well as most musical. The cliff is so sheer that there is no break in the body of the water during the whole of its descent of more than a quarter of a mile. It pours in a curve from the summit, fifteen hundred feet, to the basin that hoards it but a moment for the cascades that follow. And what endless complexities and opulence of beauty in the forms and motions of the cataract! It is comparatively narrow at the top of the precipice, although, as we said, the tide that pours over is thirty-five feet broad. But it widens as it descends, and curves a little on one side as it widens, so that it shapes itself, before it reaches its first bowl of granite, into the figure of a comet. More beautiful than the comet, however, we can see the substance of this watery loveliness ever renew itself and ever pour itself away. "It mounts in spray the skies, and thence again Returns in an unceasing shower, which round With its unemptied cloud of gentle rain, Is an eternal April to the ground, Making it all one emerald;--how profound The gulf! and how the giant element From rock to rock leaps with delirious bound, Crushing the cliffs." The cataract seems to shoot out a thousand serpentine heads or knots of water, which wriggle down deliberately through the air and expend themselves in mist before half the descent is over. Then a new set burst from the body and sides of the fall, with the same fortune on the remaining distance; and thus the most charming fretwork of watery nodules, each trailing its vapory train for a hundred feet or more, is woven all over the cascade, which swings, now and then, thirty feet each way, on the mountain side, as if it were a pendulum of watery lace. Once in a while, too, the wind manages to get back of the fall, between it and the cliff, and then it will whirl it round and round for two or three hundred feet, as if to try the experiment of twisting it to wring it dry. Of course I visited the foot of the lowest fall of the Yosemite, and looked up through the spray, five hundred feet, to its crown. And I tried to climb to the base of the first or highest cataract, but lost my way among the steep, sharp rocks, for there is only one line by which the cliff can be scaled. But no nearer view that I found or heard described, is comparable with the picture, from the hotel, of the comet curve of the upper cataract, fifteen hundred feet high, and the two falls immediately beneath it, in which the same water leaps to the level of the quiet Merced. CXXV. A PSALM OF LIFE. (429) Tell me not, in mournful numbers, Life is but an empty dream! For the soul is dead that slumbers, And things are not what they seem. Life is real! Life is earnest! And the grave is not its goal; Dust thou art, to dust returnest, Was not spoken of the soul. Not enjoyment, and not sorrow, Is our destined end or way; But to act, that each to-morrow Find us farther than to-day. Art is long, and Time is fleeting, And our hearts, though stout and brave, Still, like muffled drums, are beating Funeral marches to the grave. In the world's broad field of battle, In the bivouac of Life, Be not like dumb, driven cattle! Be a hero in the strife! Trust no Future, howe'er pleasant! Let the dead Past bury its dead! Act--act in the living Present! Heart within, and God o'erhead. Lives of great men all remind us We can make our lives sublime, And, departing, leave behind us Footprints on the sands of time;-- Footprints, that perhaps another, Sailing o'er life's solemn main, A forlorn and shipwrecked brother, Seeing, shall take heart again. Let us, then, be up and doing, With a heart for any fate; Still achieving, still pursuing, Learn to labor and to wait. --Longfellow. CXXVI. FRANKLIN'S ENTRY INTO PHILADELPHIA. (431) Benjamin Franklin, 1706-1790, was born in Boston. He received little schooling, but being apprenticed to his brother, a printer, he acquired a taste for reading and study. In 1723, he went to Philadelphia, where he followed his chosen calling, and in time became the publisher of the "Pennsylvania Gazette" and the celebrated "Poor Richard's Almanac." As a philosopher Franklin was rendered famous by his discovery of the identity of lightning with electricity. His career in public affairs may be briefly summarized as follows: In 1736 he was made Clerk of the Provincial Assembly; in 1737, deputy postmaster at Philadelphia; and in 1753, Postmaster general for British America. He was twice in England as the agent of certain colonies. After signing the Declaration of Independence, he was sent as Minister Plenipotentiary to France in 1776. On his return, in 1785, he was made "President of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania," holding the office three years. He was also one of the framers of the Constitution of the United States. As a writer Franklin commenced his career when only twelve years old by composing two ballads, which, however, he condemned as "wretched stuff." Franklin's letters and papers on electricity, afterwards enlarged by essays on various philosophical subjects, have been translated into Latin, French, Italian, and German. The most noted of his works, and the one from which the following extract is taken, is his "Autobiography." This book is "one of the half dozen most widely popular books ever printed," and has been published in nearly every written language. Franklin founded the American Philosophical Society, and established an institution which has since grown into the University of Pennsylvania. His life is a noble example of the results of industry and perseverance, and his death was the occasion of public mourning. ### Walking in the evening by the side of the river, a boat came by, which I found was going towards Philadelphia, with several people in her. They took me in, and, as there was no wind, we rowed all the way; and about midnight, not having yet seen the city, some of the company were confident we must have passed it, and would row no farther; the others knew not where we were; so we put toward the shore, got into a creek, landed near an old fence, with the rails of which we made a fire, the night being cold, in October, and there we remained till daylight. Then one of the company knew the place to be Cooper's Creek, a little above Philadelphia, which we saw as soon as we got out of the creek, and arrived there about eight or nine o'clock on the Sunday morning, and landed at the Market Street wharf. I have been the more particular in this description of my journey, and shall be so of my first entry into that city, that you may in your mind compare such unlikely beginnings with the figure I have since made there. I was in my working dress, my best clothes being to come round by sea. I was dirty from my journey; my pockets were stuffed out with shirts and stockings, and I knew no soul nor where to look for lodging. I was fatigued with traveling, rowing, and want of rest; I was very hungry; and my whole stock of cash consisted of a Dutch dollar, and about a shilling in copper. The latter I gave the people of the boat for my passage, who at first refused it on account of my rowing; but I insisted on their taking it,--a man being sometimes more generous when he has but a little money than when he has plenty, perhaps through fear of being thought to have but little. Then I walked up the street gazing about, till, near the market house, I met a boy with bread. I had made many a meal on bread, and, inquiring where he got it, I went immediately to the baker's he directed me to, in Second Street, and asked for biscuit, intending such as we had in Boston: but they, it seems, were not made in Philadelphia. Then I asked for a threepenny loaf, and was told they had none such. So not considering or knowing the difference of money, and the greater cheapness nor the names of his bread, I bade him give threepenny worth of any sort. He gave me, accordingly, three great puffy rolls. I was surprised at the quantity, but took it, and, having no room in my pockets, walked off with a roll under each arm, and eating the other. Thus I went up Market Street as far as Fourth Street, passing by the door of Mr. Read, my future wife's father: when she, standing at the door, saw me, and thought I made, as I certainly did, a most awkward, ridiculous appearance. Then I turned and went down Chestnut Street and part of Walnut Street, eating my roll all the way, and, coming round, found myself again at Market Street wharf, near the boat I came in, to which I went for a draught of the river water; and, being filled with one of my rolls, gave the other two to a woman and her child that came down the river in the boat with us, and were waiting to go farther. Thus refreshed, I walked again up the street, which by this time had many clean-dressed people in it, who were all walking the same way. I joined them, and thereby was led into the great meetinghouse of the Quakers, near the market. I sat down among them, and, after looking round awhile and hearing nothing said, being very drowsy through labor and want of rest the preceding night, I fell fast asleep, and continued so till the meeting broke up, when one was kind enough to rouse me. This was, therefore, the first house I was in, or slept in, in Philadelphia. Walking down again toward the river, and looking in the faces of people, I met a young Quaker man, whose countenance I liked, and, accosting him, requested he would tell me where a stranger could get lodging. We were then near the sign of the Three Mariners. "Here," says he, "is one place that entertains strangers, but it is not a reputable house; if thee wilt walk with me, I'll show thee a better." He brought me to the Crooked Billet, in Water Street. Here I got a dinner; and, while I was eating it, several sly questions were asked me, as it seemed to be suspected from my youth and appearance that I might be some runaway. After dinner my sleepiness returned, and, being shown to a bed, I lay down without undressing, and slept till six in the evening; was called to supper, went to bed again very early, and slept soundly till next morning. NOTE.--The river referred to is the Delaware. Franklin was on his way from Boston to Philadelphia, and had just walked from Amboy to Burlington, New Jersey, a distance of fifty miles. CXXVII. LINES TO A WATERFOWL. (434) Whither 'midst falling dew, While glow the heavens with the last steps of day, Far, through their rosy depths, dost thou pursue Thy solitary way? Vainly the fowler's eye Might mark thy distant flight to do thee wrong, As, darkly painted on the crimson sky, Thy figure floats along. Seek'st thou the plashy brink Of weedy lake, or marge of river wide, Or where the rocky billows rise and sink On the chafed ocean side? There is a Power whose care Teaches thy way along that pathless coast. The desert and illimitable air, Lone wandering, but not lost. All day, thy wings have fanned, At that far height, the cold, thin atmosphere, Yet stoop not, weary, to the welcome land Though the dark night is near. And soon that toil shall end, Soon shalt thou find a summer home, and rest, And scream among thy fellows; reeds shall bend, Soon, o'er thy sheltered nest. Thou'rt gone; the abyss of heaven Hath swallowed up thy form; yet, on my heart, Deeply has sunk the lesson thou hast given, And shall not soon depart. He, who, from zone to zone, Guides through the boundless sky thy certain flight, In the long way that I must tread alone, Will lead my steps aright. --Bryant. CXXVIII. GOLDSMITH AND ADDISON. (435) William Makepeace Thackeray, 1811-1863, was born in Calcutta, and is one of the most popular of English novelists, essayists, and humorists. While a boy, he removed from India to England, where he was educated at the Charterhouse in London, and at Cambridge. When twenty-one years of age, he came into possession of about 20,000 pounds. He rapidly dissipated his fortune, however, and was compelled to work for his living, first turning his attention to law and then to art, but finally choosing literature as his profession. He was for many years correspondent, under assumed names, at the "London Times," "The New Monthly Magazine," "Punch," and "Fraser's Magazine." His first novel under his own name, "Vanity Fair," appeared in monthly numbers during 1846-8, and is generally considered his finest production: although "Pendennis," "Henry Esmond," and "The Newcomes" are also much admired. His lectures on "English Humorists of the Eighteenth Century," from which the following selections are taken, were delivered in England first in 1851, and afterwards in America, which he visited in 1852 and again in 1855-6. During the latter visit, he first delivered his course of lectures on "The Four Georges," which were later repeated in England. At the close of 1859, Thackeray became editor of the "Cornhill Magazine," and made it one of the most successful serials ever published. Thackeray has been charged with cynicism in his writings, but he was noted for his happy temper and genial disposition towards all who came in contact with him. ### 1. GOLDSMITH. To be the most beloved of English writers, what a title that is for a man! A wild youth, wayward, but full of tenderness and affection, quits the country village where his boyhood has been passed in happy musing, in idle shelter, in fond longing to see the great world out of doors, and achieve name and fortune--and after years of dire struggle, and neglect, and poverty, his heart turning back as fondly to his native place as it had longed eagerly for change when sheltered there, he writes a book and a poem, full of the recollections and feelings of home; he paints the friends and scenes of his youth, and peoples Auburn and Wakefield with the remembrances of Lissoy. Wander he must, but he carries away a home relic with him, and dies with it on his breast. His nature is truant; in repose it longs for change: as on the journey it looks back for friends and quiet. He passes to-day in building an air castle for to-morrow, or in writing yesterday's elegy; and he would flyaway this hour, but that a cage, necessity, keeps him. What is the charm of his verse, of his style, and humor? His sweet regrets, his delicate compassion, his soft smile, his tremulous sympathy, the weakness which he owns? Your love for him is half pity. You come hot and tired from the day's battle, and this sweet minstrel sings to you. Who could harm the kind vagrant harper? Whom did he ever hurt? He carries no weapon, save the harp on which he plays to you, and with which he delights great and humble, young and old, the captains in the tents, or the soldiers round the fire, or the women and children in the villages, at whose porches he stops and sings his simple songs of love and beauty. With that sweet story of "The Vicar of Wakefield" he has found entry into every castle and every hamlet in Europe. Not one of us, however busy or hard, but once or twice in our lives has passed an evening with him, and undergone the charm of his delightful music. II. ADDISON. (436) We love him for his vanities as much as his virtues. What is ridiculous is delightful in him; we are so fond of him because we laugh at him so. And out of that laughter, and out of that sweet weakness, and out of those harmless eccentricities and follies, and out of that touched brain, and out of that honest manhood and simplicity--we get a result of happiness, goodness, tenderness, pity, piety; such as doctors and divines but seldom have the fortune to inspire. And why not? Is the glory of Heaven to be sung only by gentlemen in black coats? When this man looks from the world, whose weaknesses he describes so benevolently, up to the Heaven which shines over us all, I can hardly fancy a human face lighted up with a more serene rapture; a human intellect thrilling with a purer love and adoration than Joseph Addison's. Listen to him: from your childhood you have known the verses; but who can hear their sacred music without love and awe? "Soon as the evening shades prevail, The moon takes up the wondrous tale, And nightly to the listening earth Repeats the story of her birth; And all the stars that round her burn, And all the planets in their turn, Confirm the tidings as they roll, And spread the truth from pole to pole. "What though, in solemn silence, all Move round this dark terrestrial ball; What though no real voice nor sound Among their radiant orbs be found; In reason's ear they all rejoice, And utter forth a glorious voice, Forever singing, as they shine, The Hand that made us is divine." It seems to me those verses shine like the stars. They shine out of a great, deep calm. When he turns to Heaven, a Sabbath comes over that man's mind; and his face lights up from it with a glory of thanks and prayers. His sense of religion stirs through his whole being. In the fields, in the town; looking at the birds in the trees; at the children in the streets; in the morning or in the moonlight; over his books in his own room; in a happy party at a country merrymaking or a town assembly, good will and peace to God's creatures, and love and awe of Him who made them, fill his pure heart and shine from his kind face. If Swift's life was the most wretched, I think Addison's was one of the most enviable. A life prosperous and beautiful--a calm death--an immense fame and affection afterwards for his happy and spotless name. NOTES.--Goldsmith (see biographical notice, page 215) founded his descriptions of Auburn in the poem of "The Deserted Village," and of Wakefield, in "The Vicar of Wakefield," on recollections of his early home at Lissoy. Ireland. Addison. See biographical notice, page 295. The quotation is from a "Letter from Italy to Charles Lord Halifax." Swift, Jonathan (b. 1667, d. 1745), the celebrated Irish satirist and poet, was a misanthrope. His disposition made his life miserable in the extreme, and he finally became insane. CXXIX. IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL. (438) SCENE--CATO, alone, sitting in a thoughtful posture;--in his hand, Plato's book on the immortality of the soul; a drawn sword on the table by him. Cato. It must be so. Plato, thou reasonest well! Else whence this pleasing hope, this fond desire, This longing after immortality? Or whence this secret dread, and inward horror, Of falling into naught? Why shrinks the soul Back on herself, and startles at destruction? 'T is the divinity that stirs within us; 'T is heaven itself that points out an hereafter, And intimates eternity to man. Eternity! thou pleasing, dreadful thought! Through what variety of untried being, Through what new scenes and changes must we pass? The wide, unbounded prospect lies before me: But shadows, clouds, and darkness rest upon it. Here will I hold. If there's a Power above us, (And that there is, all Nature cries aloud Through all her works) he must delight in virtue; And that which he delights in must be happy. But when?--or where?--This world was made for Caesar. I'm weary of conjectures--this must end them. (Seizes the sword.) Thus am I doubly armed: my death and life, My bane and antidote are both before me. This in a moment brings me to an end; But this informs me I shall never die. The soul, secured in her existence, smiles At the drawn dagger and defies its point. The stars shall fade away, the sun himself Grow dim with age, and Nature sink in years; But thou shalt flourish in immortal youth, Unhurt amidst the war of elements, The wrecks of matter, and the crush of worlds. --Addison. NOTES.--The above selection is Cato's soliloquy just before committing suicide. It is from the tragedy of "Cato." Cato, Marcus Porcius, (b. 95, d. 46 B. C.) was a Roman general, statesman, and philosopher. He was exceptionally honest and conscientious, and strongly opposed Caesar and Pompey in their attempts to seize the state. When Utica, the last African city to resist Caesar, finally yielded, Cato committed suicide. Plato (b. 429, d. about 348 B. C.) was a celebrated Greek philosopher. His writings are all in the form of dialogues, and have been preserved in a wonderfully perfect state. CXXX. CHARACTER OF WASHINGTON. (440) Jared Sparks, 1789-1866, was born at Willington, Connecticut, and graduated at Harvard in 1815. He was tutor in the University for two years, and in 1819 was ordained pastor of the Unitarian Church in Baltimore. In 1823 he returned to Boston, purchased the "North American Review," and was its sole editor for seven years. From 1839 to 1849 he was Professor in Harvard, and for the next three years was President of the University. Mr. Sparks has written extensively on American history and biography, including the lives of Washington and Franklin. He collected the materials for his biographies with great care, and wrought them up with much skill. ### The person of Washington was commanding, graceful, and fitly proportioned; his stature six feet, his chest broad and full, his limbs long and somewhat slender, but well-shaped and muscular. His features were regular and symmetrical, his eyes of a light blue color, and his whole countenance, in its quiet state, was grave, placid, and benignant. When alone, or not engaged in conversation, he appeared sedate and thoughtful; but when his attention was excited, his eye kindled quickly, and his face beamed with animation and intelligence. He was not fluent in speech, but what he said was apposite, and listened to with the more interest as being known to come from the heart. He seldom attempted sallies of wit or humor, but no man received more pleasure from an exhibition of them by others; and, although contented in seclusion, he sought his chief happiness in society, and participated with delight in all its rational and innocent amusements. Without austerity on the one hand, or an appearance of condescending familiarity on the other, he was affable, courteous, and cheerful; but it has often been remarked that there was a dignity in his person and manner not easy to be defined, which impressed everyone that saw him for the first time with an instinctive deference and awe. This may have arisen, in part, from a conviction of his superiority, as well as from the effect produced by his external form and deportment. The character of his mind was unfolded in the public and private acts of his life; and the proofs of his greatness are seen almost as much in the one as the other. The same qualities which raised him to the ascendency he possessed over the will of a nation, as the commander of armies and chief magistrate, caused him to be loved and respected as an individual. Wisdom, judgment, prudence, and firmness were his predominant traits. No man ever saw more clearly the relative importance of things and actions, or divested himself more entirely of the bias of personal interest, partiality, and prejudice, in discriminating between the true and the false, the right and the wrong, in all questions and subjects that were presented to him. He deliberated slowly, but decided surely; and when his decision was once formed he seldom reversed it, and never relaxed from the execution of a measure till it was completed. Courage, physical and moral, was a part of his nature; and, whether in battle, or in the midst of popular excitement, he was fearless of danger, and regardless of consequences to himself. His ambition was of that noble kind which aims to excel in whatever it undertakes, and to acquire a power over the hearts of men by promoting their happiness and winning their affections. Sensitive to the approbation of others, and solicitous to deserve it, he made no concessions to gain their applause, either by flattering their vanity or yielding to their caprices. Cautious without timidity, bold without rashness, cool in counsel, deliberate but firm in action, clear in foresight, patient under reverses, steady, persevering, and self-possessed, he met and conquered every obstacle that obstructed his path to honor, renown and success. More confident in the uprightness of his intention than in his resources, he sought knowledge and advice from other men. He chose his counselors with unerring sagacity; and his quick perception of the soundness of an opinion, and of the strong points in an argument, enabled him to draw to his aid the best fruits of their talents, and the light of their collected wisdom. His moral qualities were in perfect harmony with those of his intellect. Duty was the ruling principle of his conduct; and the rare endowments of his understanding were not more constantly tasked to devise the best methods of effecting an object, than they were to guard the sanctity of conscience. No instance can be adduced in which he was actuated by a sinister motive or endeavored to attain an end by unworthy means. Truth, integrity, and justice were deeply rooted in his mind; and nothing could rouse his indignation so soon, or so utterly destroy his confidence, as the discovery of the want of these virtues in anyone whom he had trusted. Weaknesses, follies, indiscretions be could forgive; but subterfuge and dishonesty he never forgot, rarely pardoned. He was candid and sincere, true to his friends, and faithful to all; neither practicing dissimulation, descending to artifice, nor holding out expectations which he did not intend should be realized. His passions were strong, and sometimes they broke out with vehemence: but he had the power of checking them in an instant. Perhaps self-control was the most remarkable trait of his character. It was, in part, the effect of discipline; yet he seems by nature to have possessed this power in a degree which has been denied to other men. A Christian in faith and practice, he was habitually devout. His reverence for religion is seen in his example, his public communications, and his private writings. He uniformly ascribed his successes to the beneficent agency of the Supreme Being. Charitable and humane, he was liberal to the poor, and kind to those in distress. As a husband, son, and brother, he was tender and affectionate. Without vanity, ostentation, or pride, he never spoke of himself or his actions unless required by circumstances which concerned the public interests. As he was free from envy, so he had the good fortune to escape the envy of others by standing on an elevation which none could hope to attain. If he had one passion more strong than another it was love of his country. The purity and ardor of his patriotism were commensurate with the greatness of its object. Love of country in him was invested with the sacred obligation of a duty; and from the faithful discharge of this duty he never swerved for a moment, either in thought or deed, through the whole period of his eventful career. Such are some of the traits in the character of Washington, which have acquired for him the love and veneration of mankind. If they are not marked with the brilliancy, extravagance, and eccentricity, which, in other men, have excited the astonishment of the world, so neither are they tarnished by the follies, nor disgraced by the crimes of those men. It is the happy combination of rare talents and qualities, the harmonious union of the intellectual and moral powers, rather than the dazzling splendor of any one trait, which constitute the grandeur of his character. If the title of great man ought to be reserved for him who can not be charged with an indiscretion or a vice; who spent his life in establishing the independence, the glory, and durable prosperity of his country; who succeeded in all that he undertook; and whose successes were never won at the expense of honor, justice, integrity, or by the sacrifice of a single principle,--this title will not be denied to Washington. How sweetly on the ear such echoes sound! While the mere victors may appall or stun The servile and the vain, such names will be A watchword till the future shall be free. --Byron. CXXXI. EULOGY ON WASHINGTON. (444) General Henry Lee, 1756-1818, a member of the celebrated Lee family of Virginia, was born in Westmoreland County in that state, and died on Cumberland Island, Georgia. He graduated at Princeton in his eighteenth year. In 1777 he marched with a regiment of cavalry to join the patriot army, and served with fidelity and success till the close of the war. He was noted for his bravery, skill, and celerity, and received the nickname of "Light-horse Harry." He was a great favorite with both General Greene and General Washington. In 1786 Virginia appointed him one of her delegates to Congress; he also took an active part in favor of the adoption of the constitution in the Virginia Convention of 1788. On the breaking out of the "Whisky Rebellion" in Pennsylvania, in 1794, the President sent General Lee with an army to suppress the disturbance. The insurgents submitted without resistance. In 1799 he was again a member of Congress; and, on the death of Washington, that body appointed him to pronounce a eulogy upon the life and character of the great and good man. The following extract contains the closing part of the oration. ### Who is there that has forgotten the vales of Brandywine, the fields of Germantown, or the plains of Monmouth? Everywhere present, wants of every kind obstructing, numerous and valiant armies encountering, himself a host, he assuaged our sufferings, limited our privations, and upheld our tottering Republic. Shall I display to you the spread of the fire of his soul by rehearsing the praises of the hero of Saratoga, and his much-loved compeer of the Carolinas? No; our Washington wears not borrowed glory. To Gates--to Greene, he gave without reserve the applause due to their eminent merit; and long may the chiefs of Saratoga and of Eutaw receive the grateful respect of a grateful people. Moving in his own orbit, he imparted heat and light to his most distant satellites; and, combining the physical and moral force of all within his sphere, with irresistible weight he took his course, commiserating folly, disdaining vice, dismaying treason, and invigorating despondency; until the auspicious hour arrived, when, united with the intrepid forces of a potent and magnanimous ally, he brought to submission Cornwallis, since the conqueror of India; thus finishing his long career of military glory with a luster corresponding to his great name, and in this his last act of war, affixing the seal of fate to our nation's birth. First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen, he was second to none in humble and endearing scenes of private life. Pious, just, humane, temperate, sincere, uniform, dignified, and commanding, his example was edifying to all around him, as were the effects of that example lasting. To his equals, he was condescending; to his inferiors, kind; and to the dear object of his affections, exemplarily tender. Correct throughout, vice shuddered in his presence, and virtue always felt his fostering hand; the purity of his private character gave effulgence to his public virtues. His last scene comported with the whole tenor of his life. Although in extreme pain, not a sigh, not a groan, escaped him; and with undisturbed serenity he closed his well-spent life. Such was the man America has lost! Such was the man for whom our nation mourns! NOTES.--At Brandywine Creek, in Pennsylvania, 18,000 British, under Howe, defeated 13,000 Americans under Washington. Germantown, near Philadelphia, was the scene of an American defeat by the British, the same generals commanding as at Brandywine. The battle of Monmouth, in New Jersey, resulted in victory for the Americans. The hero of Saratoga was General Gates, who there compelled the surrender of General Burgoyne. At Eutaw Springs, General Greene defeated a superior force of British. Cornwallis, Charles, second earl and first marquis (b. 1738, d. 1805), surrendered his forces to a combined American and French army and French fleet at Yorktown, in 1781, virtually ending the war. CXXXII. THE SOLITARY REAPER. (446) William Wordsworth, 1770-1850, the founder of the "Lake School" of poets, was born at Cockermouth, Cumberland, England. From his boyhood he was a great lover and student of nature, and it is to his beautiful descriptions of landscape, largely, that he owes his fame. He was a graduate of Cambridge University, and while there commenced the study of Chaucer, Spenser, Milton, and Shakespeare, as models for his own writings. Two legacies having been bequeathed him, Wordsworth determined to make poetry the aim of his life, and in 1795 located at Racedown with his sister Dorothy, where he commenced the tragedy of "The Borderers." A visit from Coleridge at this period made the two poets friends for life. In 1802 Wordsworth married Miss Mary Hutchinson, and in 1813 he settled at Rydal Mount, on Lake Windermere, where he passed the remainder of his life. Wordsworth's poetry is remarkable for its extreme simplicity of language. At first his efforts were almost universally ridiculed, and in 1819 his entire income from literary work had not amounted to 140 Pounds. In 1830 his merit began to be recognized; in 1839 Oxford University conferred upon him the degree of D. C. L.; and in 1843 he was made poet laureate. "The Excursion" is by far the most beautiful and the most important of Wordsworth's productions. "Salisbury Plain," "The White Doe of Rylstone," "Yarrow Revisited," and many of his sonnets and minor poems are also much admired. ### Behold her, single in the field, Yon solitary Highland lass! Reaping and singing by herself; Stop here, or gently pass! Alone she cuts and binds the grain, And sings a melancholy strain; Oh listen! for the vale profound Is overflowing with the sound. No nightingale did ever chant More welcome notes to weary bands Of travelers in some shady haunt, Among Arabian sands: A voice so thrilling ne'er was heard In springtime from the cuckoo bird, Breaking the silence of the seas Among the farthest Hebrides. Will no one tell me what she sings? Perhaps the plaintive numbers flow For old, unhappy, far-off things, And battles long ago: Or is it some more humble lay, Familiar matter of to-day? Some natural sorrow, loss, or pain, That has been, and may be again? Whate'er the theme, the maiden sang As if her song could have no ending; I saw her singing at her work, And o'er the sickle bending;-- I listened motionless and still; And, as I mounted up the hill, The music in my heart I bore, Long after it was heard no more. CXXXIII. VALUE OF THE PRESENT. (447) Ralph Waldo Emerson, 1803-1882, the celebrated essayist and philosopher, was born in Boston. His father was a Unitarian minister, and the son, after graduating at Harvard University, entered the ministry also, and took charge of a Unitarian congregation in Boston. His peculiar ideas on religious topics soon caused him to retire from the ministry, and he then devoted himself to literature. As a lecturer, Emerson attained a wide reputation, both in this country and in England, and he is considered as one of the most independent and original thinkers of the age. His style is brief and pithy, dazzling by its wit, but sometimes paradoxical. He wrote a few poems, but they are not generally admired, being didactic in style, bare, and obscure. Among his best known publications are his volume "Nature," and his lectures, "The Mind and Manners of the Nineteenth Century," "The Superlative in Manners and Literature," "English Character and Manners," and "The Conduct of Life." In 1850 appeared "Representative Men," embracing sketches of Plato, Swedenborg, Montaigne, Shakespeare, Napoleon, and Goethe. Such are the days,--the earth is the cup, the sky is the cover, of the immense bounty of nature which is offered us for our daily aliment; but what a force of illusion begins life with us, and attends us to the end! We are coaxed, flattered, and duped, from morn to eve, from birth to death; and where is the old eye that ever saw through the deception? The Hindoos represent Maia, the illusory energy of Vishnu, as one of his principal attributes. As if, in this gale of warring elements, which life is, it was necessary to bind souls to human life as mariners in a tempest lash themselves to the mast and bulwarks of a ship, and Nature employed certain illusions as her ties and straps,--a rattle, a doll, an apple, for a child; skates, a river, a boat, a horse, a gun, for the growing boy;--and I will not begin to name those of the youth and adult, for they are numberless. Seldom and slowly the mask falls, and the pupil is permitted to see that all is one stuff, cooked and painted under many counterfeit appearances. Hume's doctrine was that the circumstances vary, the amount of happiness does not; that the beggar cracking fleas in the sunshine under a hedge, and the duke rolling by in his chariot, the girl equipped for her first ball, and the orator returning triumphant from the debate, had different means, but the same quantity of pleasant excitement. This element of illusion lends all its force to hide the values of present time. Who is he that does not always find himself doing something less than his best task? "What are you doing?" "Oh, nothing; I have been doing thus, or I shall do so or so, but now I am only--" Ah! poor dupe, will you never slip out of the web of the master juggler?--never learn that, as soon as the irrecoverable years have woven their blue glory between to-day and us, these passing hours shall glitter and draw us, as the wildest romance and the homes of beauty and poetry? How difficult to deal erect with them! The events they bring, their trade, entertainments, and gossip, their urgent work, all throw dust in the eyes and distract attention. He is a strong man who can look them in the eye, see through this juggle, feel their identity, and keep his own; who can know surely that one will be like another to the end of the world, nor permit love, or death, or politics, or money, war, or pleasure, to draw him from his task. The world is always equal to itself, and every man in moments of deeper thought is apprised that he is repeating the experiences of the people in the streets of Thebes or Byzantium. An everlasting Now reigns in nature, which hangs the same roses on our bushes which charmed the Roman and the Chaldean in their hanging gardens. "To what end, then," he asks, "should I study languages, and traverse countries, to learn so simple truths?" History of ancient art, excavated cities, recovery of books and inscriptions,--yes, the works were beautiful, and the history worth knowing; and academies convene to settle the claims of the old schools. What journeys and measurements,--Niebuhr and Muller and Layard,--to identify the plain of Troy and Nimroud town! And your homage to Dante costs you so much sailing; and to ascertain the discoverers of America needs as much voyaging as the discovery cost. Poor child! that flexible clay of which these old brothers molded their admirable symbols was not Persian, nor Memphian, nor Teutonic, nor local at all, but was common lime and silex and water, and sunlight, the heat of the blood, and the heaving of the lungs; it was that clay which thou heldest but now in thy foolish hands, and threwest away to go and seek in vain in sepulchers, mummy pits, and old bookshops of Asia Minor, Egypt, and England. It was the deep to-day which all men scorn; the rich poverty, which men hate; the populous, all-loving solitude, which men quit for the tattle of towns. He lurks, he hides,--he who is success, reality, joy, and power. One of the illusions is that the present hour is not the critical, decisive hour. Write it on your heart that every day is the best day in the year. No man has learned anything rightly, until he knows that every day is Doomsday. 'T is the old secret of the gods that they come in low disguises. 'T is the vulgar great who come dizened with gold and jewels. Real kings hide away their crowns in their wardrobes, and affect a plain and poor exterior. In the Norse legend of our ancestors, Odin dwells in a fisher's hut, and patches a boat. In the Hindoo legends, Hari dwells a peasant among peasants. In the Greek legend, Apollo lodges with the shepherds of Admetus; and Jove liked to rusticate among the poor Ethiopians. So, in our history, Jesus is born in a barn, and his twelve peers are fishermen. 'T is the very principle of science that Nature shows herself best in leasts; 't was the maxim of Aristotle and Lucretius; and, in modern times, of Swedenborg and of Hahnemann. The order of changes in the egg determines the age of fossil strata. So it was the rule of our poets, in the legends of fairy lore, that the fairies largest in power were the least in size. In the Christian graces, humility stands highest of all, in the form of the Madonna; and in life, this is the secret of the wise. We owe to genius always the same debt, of lifting the curtain from the common, and showing us that divinities are sitting disguised in the seeming gang of gypsies and peddlers. In daily life, what distinguishes the master is the using those materials he has, instead of looking about for what are more renowned, or what others have used well. "A general," said Bonaparte, "always has troops enough, if he only knows how to employ those he has, and bivouacs with them." Do not refuse the employment which the hour brings you, for one more ambitious. The highest heaven of wisdom is alike near from every point, and thou must find it, if at all, by methods native to thyself alone. NOTES.--The Brahmanic religion teaches a Trinity, of which Vishnu is the savior of mankind. Thebes, the ancient capital of Upper Egypt, was at its most flourishing period about 1500 B. C. Byzantium was an important Greek city during the second and third centuries B. C. Niebuhr (b. 1776, d. 1831), Muller (b. 1797, d. 1840), and Layard (b. 1817, d. 1894), are celebrated archaeologists. The first two were Germans, and the last an Englishman. CXXXIV. HAPPINESS. (451) Alexander Pope, 1688-1744, was the shining literary light of the so-called Augustan reign of Queen Anne, the poetry of which was distinguished by the highest degree of polish and elegance. Pope was the son of a retired linen draper, who lived in a pleasant country house near the Windsor Forest. He was so badly deformed that his life was "one long disease;" he was remarkably precocious, and had a most intelligent face, with great, flaming, tender eyes. In disposition Pope was the reverse of admirable. He was extremely sensitive, petulant, and supercilious; fierce and even coarse in his attacks on opponents; boastful of his self-acquired wealth and of his intimacy with the nobility. The great redeeming feature of his character was his tender devotion to his aged parents. As a poet, however, Pope challenges the highest admiration. At the age of sixteen he commenced his "Pastorals," and when only twenty-one published his "Essay on Criticism," pronounced "the finest piece of argumentative and reasoning poetry in the English language." His reputation was now firmly established, and his literary activity ceased only at his death; although, during the latter portion of his life, he was so weak physically that he was unable to dress himself or even to rise from bed without assistance. Pope's great admiration was Dryden, whose style he studied and copied. He lacks the latter's strength, but in elegance and polish he remains unequaled. Pope's most remarkable work is "The Rape of the Lock;" his greatest, the translation into English verse of Homer's "Iliad" and "Odyssey." His "Epistle of Eloisa to Abelard," "The Dunciad," and the "Essay On Man" are also famous productions. He published an edition of "Shakespeare," which was awaited with great curiosity, and received with equal disappointment. During the three years following its appearance, he united with Swift and Arbuthnot in writing the "Miscellanies," an extensive satire on the abuses of learning and the extravagances of philosophy. His "Epistles," addressed to various distinguished men, and covering a period of four years, were copied after those of Horace; they were marked by great clearness, neatness of diction, and good sense, and by Pope's usual elegance and grace. His "Imitations of Horace" was left unfinished at his death. The following selection is an extract from the "Essay on Man;" ### Oh, sons of earth! attempt ye still to rise, By mountains piled on mountains, to the skies? Heaven still with laughter the vain toil surveys, And buries madmen in the heaps they raise. Know all the good that individuals find, Or God and nature meant to mere mankind. Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, Lie in three words,--health, peace, and competence. But health consists with temperance alone; And peace, O virtue! peace is all thy own. The good or bad the gifts of fortune gain; But these less taste them as they worse obtain. Say, in pursuit of profit or delight, Who risk the most, that take wrong means or right? Of vice or virtue, whether blest or curst, Which meets contempt, or which compassion first? Count all th' advantage prosperous vice attains, 'T is but what virtue flies from and disdains: And grant the bad what happiness they would, One they must want, which is, to pass for good. Oh, blind to truth, and God's whole scheme below, Who fancy bliss to vice, to virtue woe! Who sees and follows that great scheme the best, Best knows the blessing, and will most be blest. But fools the good alone unhappy call, For ills or accidents that chance to all. Think we, like some weak prince, the Eternal Cause, Prone for his favorites to reverse his laws? Shall burning AEtna, if a sage requires, Forget to thunder, and recall her fires? When the loose mountain trembles from on high, Shall gravitation cease, if you go by? "But sometimes virtue starves while vice is fed." What, then? Is the reward of virtue bread? That, vice may merit, 't is the price of toil; The knave deserves it when he tills the soil, The knave deserves it when he tempts the main, Where folly fights for kings or dives for gain. Honor and shame from no condition rise; Act well your part, there all the honor lies. Worth makes the man, and want of it the fellow; The rest is all but leather or prunella. A wit's a feather, and a chief a rod, An honest man's the noblest work of God. One self-approving hour whole years outweighs Of stupid starers, and of loud huzzas. Know then this truth (enough for man to know), "Virtue alone is happiness below." The only point where human bliss stands still, And tastes the good without the fall to ill; Where only merit constant pay receives, Is blest in what it takes and what it gives. CXXXV. MARION. (453) William Gilmore Simms, 1806-1870, one of the most versatile, prolific, and popular of American authors, was born at Charleston, South Carolina. His family was poor, and his means of education were limited, yet he managed to prepare himself for the bar, to which he was admitted when twenty-one years of age. The law proving uncongenial, he abandoned it, and in 1828 became editor of the "Charleston City Gazette." From this time till his death his literary activity was unceasing, and his writings were so numerous that it is possible only to group them under their various heads. They comprise Biography; History; Historical Romance, both Foreign and Domestic, the latter being further divided into Colonial, Revolutionary, and Border Romances; Pure Romance; The Drama; Poetry; and Criticism; besides miscellaneous books and pamphlets. In the midst of this remarkable literary activity, Mr. Simms still found time to devote to the affairs of state, being for several years a member of the South Carolina Legislature. He was also a lecturer, and was connected editorially with several magazines. Most of his time was spent at his summer house in Charleston, and at his winter residence, "Woodlands," on a plantation at Midway, S. C. The following selection is from "The Life and Times of Francis Marion." ### Art had done little to increase the comforts or the securities of his fortress. It was one, complete to his hands, from those of nature--such an one as must have delighted the generous English outlaw of Sherwood Forest; insulated by deep ravines and rivers, a dense forest of mighty trees, and interminable undergrowth. The vine and brier guarded his passes. The laurel and the shrub, the vine and sweet-scented jessamine roofed his dwelling, and clambered up between his closed eyelids and the stars. Obstructions scarcely penetrable by any foe, crowded the pathways to his tent; and no footstep not practiced in the secret, and to "the manner born," might pass unchallenged to his midnight rest. The swamp was his moat; his bulwarks were the deep ravines, which, watched by sleepless rifles, were quite as impregnable as the castles on the Rhine. Here, in the possession of his fortress, the partisan slept secure. His movements were marked by equal promptitude and wariness. He suffered no risks from a neglect of proper precaution. His habits of circumspection and resolve ran together in happy unison. His plans, carefully considered beforehand, were always timed with the happiest reference to the condition and feelings of his men. To prepare that condition, and to train those feelings, were the chief employment of his repose. He knew his game, and how it should be played, before a step was taken or a weapon drawn. When he himself or any of his parties left the island upon an expedition, they advanced along no beaten paths. They made them as they went. He had the Indian faculty in perfection, of gathering his course from the sun, from the stars, from the bark and the tops of trees, and such other natural guides as the woodman acquires only through long and watchful experience. Many of the trails thus opened by him, upon these expeditions, are now the ordinary avenues of the country. On starting, he almost invariably struck into the woods, and seeking the heads of the larger water courses, crossed them at their first and small beginnings. He destroyed the bridges where he could. He preferred fords. The former not only facilitated the progress of less fearless enemies, but apprised them of his own approach. If speed was essential, a more direct but not less cautious route was pursued. He intrusted his schemes to nobody, not even his most confidential officers. He consulted with them respectfully, heard them patiently, weighed their suggestions, and silently approached his conclusions. They knew his determinations only from his actions. He left no track behind him, if it were possible to avoid it. He was often vainly hunted after by his own detachments. He was more apt at finding them than they him. His scouts were taught a peculiar and shrill whistle, which, at night, could be heard at a most astonishing distance. We are reminded of a signal of Roderick Dhu:-- "He whistled shrill, And he was answered from the hill; Wild as the scream of the curlew, From crag to crag the signal flew." His expeditions were frequently long, and his men, hurrying forth without due preparation, not unfrequently suffered much privation from want of food. To guard against this danger, it was their habit to watch his cook. If they saw him unusually busied in preparing supplies of the rude, portable food which it was Marion's custom to carry on such occasions, they knew what was before them, and provided themselves accordingly. In no other way could they arrive at their general's intentions. His favorite time for moving was with the setting sun, and then it was known that the march would continue all night. His men were badly clothed in homespun,--a light wear which afforded little warmth. They slept in the open air, and frequently without a blanket. Their ordinary food consisted of sweet potatoes, garnished, on fortunate occasions, with lean beef. Their swords, unless taken from the enemy, were made out of mill saws, roughly manufactured by a forest blacksmith. His scouts were out in all directions, and at all hours. They did the double duty of patrol and spies. They hovered about the posts of the enemy, crouching in the thicket, or darting along the plain, picking up prisoners, and information, and spoils together. They cut off stragglers, encountered patrols of the foe, and arrested his supplies on the way to the garrison. Sometimes the single scout, buried in the thick tops of the tree, looked down upon the march of his legions, or hung, perched over the hostile encampment, till it slept; then slipping down, stole through the silent host, carrying off a drowsy sentinel, or a favorite charger, upon which the daring spy flourished conspicuous among his less fortunate companions. NOTES.--The outlaw of Sherwood Forest was Robin Hood. Roderick Dhu is a character in Sir Walter Scott's poem, "The Lady of the Lake," from which the quotation is taken. CXXXVI. A COMMON THOUGHT. (456) Henry Timrod, 1829-1867, was born at Charleston, South Carolina. He inherited his father's literary taste and ability, and had the advantages of a liberal education. He entered the University of Georgia before he was seventeen years of age, and while there commenced his career as a poet. Poverty and ill health compelled him to leave the university without taking a degree; he then commenced the study of law, and for ten years taught in various private families. At the outbreak of the war, in 1860, he warmly espoused the Southern cause, and wrote many stirring war lyrics. In 1863 he joined the Army of the West, as correspondent of the Charleston "Mercury," and in 1864 he became editor of the "South Carolinian," published first at Columbia and later at Charleston. He also served for a time as assistant secretary to Governor Orr. The advance of Sherman's army reduced him to poverty, and he was compelled to the greatest drudgery in order to earn a bare living. His health soon broke down, and he died of hemorrhage of the lungs. The following little poem seems, almost, to have been written under a presentiment, so accurately does it describe the closing incidents of the poet's life. The first volume of Timrod's poems appeared in 1860. A later edition, with a memoir of the author, was published in New York in 1873. ### Somewhere on this earthly planet In the dust of flowers that be, In the dewdrop, in the sunshine, Sleeps a solemn day for me. At this wakeful hour of midnight I behold it dawn in mist, And I hear a sound of sobbing Through the darkness,--Hist! oh, hist! In a dim and musky chamber, I am breathing life away; Some one draws a curtain softly, And I watch the broadening day. As it purples in the zenith, As it brightens on the lawn, There's a hush of death about me, And a whisper, "He is gone!" CXXXVII. A DEFINITE AIM IN READING. (457) Noah Porter, 1811-1892, was born at Farmington, Conn., and graduated at Yale in 1831. He remained in New Haven as a school-teacher, a tutor in college, and a student in the theological department until 1836, when he entered the ministry. In 1846 he was recalled to the college as Clark Professor of Moral Philosophy and Metaphysics; and in 1858 he also assumed the duties of the professorship of Systematic Theology, for a period of seven years. Upon the retirement of President Woolsey in 1871, he was elected to fill the office, which he held until 1886, being the eleventh president of the college. President Porter's greatest literary work is entitled, "The Human Intellect: With an Introduction upon Psychology and the Human Soul." It is remarkable for the clear thought and sound judgment it displays, as well as for its broad scholarship; and it has been pronounced "the most complete and exhaustive exhibition of the cognitive faculties of the human soul to be found in our language." His other important works are: "The Sciences of Nature versus the Science of Man," which is a review of the doctrines of Herbert Spencer; "American Colleges and the American Public;" and the book from which the following selection is taken, namely, "Books and Reading." Besides these he wrote numerous essays, contributions to periodicals, etc. During his professorship he was called upon to act as chief editor in the important work of revising "Webster's Dictionary." The edition of 1864 was the result of his careful oversight, and the subsequent revisions were also under his superintendence. ## In reading, we do well to propose to ourselves definite ends and purposes. The more distinctly we are aware of our own wants and desires in reading, the more definite and permanent will be our acquisitions. Hence it is a good rule to ask ourselves frequently, "Why am I reading this book, essay, or poem? or why am I reading it at the present time rather than any other?" It may often be a satisfying answer, that it is convenient; that the book happens to be at hand: or that we read to pass away the time. Such reasons are often very good, but they ought not always to satisfy us. Yet the very habit of proposing these questions, however they may be answered, will involve the calling of ourselves to account for our reading, and the consideration of it in the light of wisdom and duty. The distinct consciousness of some object at present before us, imparts a manifoldly greater interest to the contents of any volume. It imparts to the reader an appropriate power, a force of affinity, by which he insensibly and unconsciously attracts to himself all that has a near or even a remote relation to the end for which he reads. Anyone is conscious of this who reads a story with the purpose of repeating it to an absent friend; or an essay or a report with the design of using its facts or arguments in a debate; or a poem with the design of reviving its imagery, and reciting its finest passages. Indeed, one never learns to read effectively until he learns to read in such a spirit--not always, indeed, for a definite end, yet always with a mind attent to appropriate and retain and turn to the uses of culture, if not to a more direct application. The private history of every self-educated man, from Franklin onwards, attests that they all were uniformly not only earnest but select in their reading, and that they selected their books with distinct reference to the purposes for which they used them. Indeed, the reason why self-trained men so often surpass men who are trained by others in the effectiveness and success of their reading, is that they know for what they read and study, and have definite aims and wishes in all their dealings with books. The omnivorous and indiscriminate reader, who is at the same time a listless and passive reader, however ardent is his curiosity, can never be a reader of the most effective sort. Another good rule is suggested by the foregoing. Always have some solid reading in hand; i. e., some work or author which we carry forward from one day to another, or one hour of leisure to the next, with persistence, till we have finished whatever we have undertaken. There are many great and successful readers who do not observe this rule, but it is a good rule notwithstanding. The writer once called upon one of the most extensive and persevering of modern travelers, at an early hour of the day, to attend him upon a walk to a distant village. It was after breakfast, and though he had but few minutes at command, he was sitting with book in hand--a book of solid history he was perusing day after day. He remarked: "This has been my habit for years in all my wanderings. It is the one habit which gives solidity to my intellectual activities and imparts tone to my life. It is only in this way that I can overcome and counteract the tendency to the dissipation of my powers and the distraction of my attention, as strange persons and strange scenes present themselves from day to day." To the rule already given--read with a definite aim--we could add the rule--make your aims to be definite by continuously holding them rigidly to a single book at all times, except when relaxation requires you to cease to work, and to live for amusement and play. Always have at least one iron in the fire, and kindle the fire at least once every day. It is implied in the preceding that we should read upon definite subjects, and with a certain method and proportion in the choice of our books. If we have a single object to accomplish in our reading for the present, that object will of necessity direct the choice of what we read, and we shall arrange our reading with reference to this single end. This will be a nucleus around which our reading will for the moment naturally gather and arrange itself. If several subjects seem to us equally important and interesting, we should dispose of them in order, and give to each for the time our chief and perhaps our exclusive attention. That this is wise is so obvious as not to require illustration. "One thing at a time," is an accepted condition for all efficient activity, whether it is employed upon things or thoughts, upon men or books. If five or ten separate topics have equal claim upon our interest and attention, we shall do to each the amplest justice, if we make each in its turn the central subject of our reading. There is little danger of weariness or monotony from the workings of such a rule. Most single topics admit or require a considerable variety of books, each different from the other, and each supplementing the other. Hence it is one of the best of practices in prosecuting a course of reading, to read every author who can cast any light upon the subject which we have in hand. For example, if we are reading the history of the Great Rebellion in England, we should read, if we can, not a single author only, as Clarendon, but a half dozen or a half score, each of whom writes from his own point of view, supplies what another omits, or corrects what he under- or overstates. But, besides the formal histories of the period, there are the various novels, the scenes and characters of which are placed in those times, such as Scott's Woodstock; there are also diaries, such as those by Evelyn, Pepys, and Burton; and there are memoirs, such as those of Col. Hutchinson; while the last two have been imitated in scores of fictions. There are poems, such as those of Andrew Marvell, Milton, and Dryden. There are also shoals of political tracts and pamphlets, of handbills and caricatures. We name these various descriptions of works and classes of reading, not because we suppose all of them are accessible to those readers who live at a distance from large public libraries, or because we would advise everyone who may have access to such libraries, to read all these books and classes of books as a matter of course, but because we would illustrate how great is the variety of books and reading matter that are grouped around a single topic, and are embraced within a single period. Every person must judge for himself how long a time he can bestow upon any single subject, or how many and various are the books in respect to it which it is wise to read; but of this everyone may be assured, that it is far easier, far more agreeable, and far more economical of time and energy, to concentrate the attention upon a single subject at a time than to extend it to half a score, and that six books read in succession or together upon a single topic, are far more interesting and profitable than twice as many which treat of topics remotely related. A lady well known to the writer, of the least possible scholarly pretensions or literary notoriety, spent fifteen months of leisure, snatched by fragments from onerous family cares and brilliant social engagements, in reading the history of Greece as written by a great variety of authors and as illustrated by many accessories of literature and art. Nor should it be argued that such rules as these, or the habits which they enjoin, are suitable for scholars only, or for people who have much leisure for reading. It should rather be urged that those who can read the fewest books and who have at command the scantiest time, should aim to read with the greatest concentration and method; should occupy all of their divided energy with single centers of interest, and husband the few hours which they can command, in reading whatever converges to a definite, because to a single, impression. CXXXVIII. ODE TO MT. BLANC. (462) Samuel Taylor Coleridge, 1772-1834, was born in Devonshire, England, and was educated at Christ's Hospital and Cambridge University. Through poverty he was compelled to enlist in the army, but his literary attainments soon brought him into notice, and he was enabled to withdraw from the distasteful life. Coleridge's fame arises chiefly from his poems, of which the "Rime of the Ancient Mariner," "Genevieve," and "Christabel" may be classed among the best of English poetry. He also wrote a number of dramas, besides numerous essays on religious and political topics. As a conversationalist Coleridge had a remarkable reputation, and among his ardent admirers and friends may be ranked Southey, Wordsworth, Lovell, Lamb, and De Quincey. He and his friends Southey and Lovell married sisters, and talked at one time of founding a community on the banks of the Susquehanna. Although possessing such brilliant natural gifts, Coleridge fell far short of what he might have attained, through a great lack of energy and application, increased by an excessive use of opium. ### Hast thou a charm to stay the morning star In his steep course? So long he seems to pause On thy bald, awful head, O sovran Blanc! The Arve and Arveiron at thy base Rave ceaselessly; but thou, most awful Form, Risest from forth thy silent sea of pines, How silently! Around thee and above, Deep is the air and dark, substantial, black-- An ebon mass: methinks thou piercest it, As with a wedge! But when I look again, It is thine own calm home, thy crystal shrine, Thy habitation from eternity! O dread and silent Mount! I gazed upon thee Till thou, still present to the bodily sense, Didst vanish from my thoughts: entranced in prayer, I worshiped the Invisible alone. Yet, like some sweet, beguiling melody, So sweet we know not we are listening to it, Thou, the meanwhile, wast blending with my thought-- Yea, with my life and life's own secret joy Till the dilating soul, enrapt, transfused, Into the mighty vision passing--there, As in her natural form, swelled vast to Heaven! Awake, my soul! not only passive praise Thou owest! not alone these swelling tears, Mute thanks and secret ecstasy! Awake, Voice of sweet song! Awake, my heart, awake! Green vales and icy cliffs, all join my hymn. Thou first and chief, sole sovran of the vale! Oh, struggling with the darkness all the night, And visited all night by troops of stars, Or when they climb the sky, or when they sink-- Companion of the morning star at dawn, Thyself Earth's rosy star, and of the dawn Coherald--wake, oh wake, and utter praise! Who sank thy sunless pillars deep in earth? Who filled thy countenance with rosy light? Who made thee parent of perpetual streams? And you, ye five wild torrents fiercely glad! Who called you forth from night and utter death, From dark and icy caverns called you forth, Down those precipitous, black, jagged rocks, Forever shattered, and the same forever? Who gave you your invulnerable life, Your strength, your speed, your fury, and your joy, Unceasing thunder, and eternal foam? And who commanded (and the silence came), Here let the billows stiffen, and have rest? Ye icefalls! ye that from the mountain's brow Adown enormous ravines slope amain-- Torrents, methinks, that heard a mighty voice, And stopped at once amid their maddest plunge! Motionless torrents! silent cataracts! Who made you glorious as the gates of Heaven Beneath the keen full moon? Who bade the sun Clothe you with rainbows? Who, with living flowers Of loveliest blue, spread garlands at your feet? God!--let the torrents, like a shout of nations, Answer! and let the ice plains echo, God! God! sing ye meadow streams with gladsome voice! Ye pine groves, with your soft and soul-like sounds! And they, too, have a voice, yon piles of snow, And in their perilous fall shall thunder, God! Ye living flowers that skirt the eternal frost! Ye wild goats sporting round the eagle's nest! Ye eagles, playmates of the mountain storm! Ye lightnings, the dread arrows of the clouds! Ye signs and wonders of the elements! Utter forth, God, and fill the hills with praise! Thou, too, hoar Mount! with thy sky-pointing peaks, Oft from whose feet the avalanche, unheard, Shoots downward, glittering through the pure serene, Into the depth of clouds that veil thy breast-- Thou too again, stupendous Mountain! thou That as I raise my head, awhile bowed low In adoration, upward from thy base, Slow traveling, with dim eyes suffused with tears, Solemnly seemest, like a vapory cloud, To rise before me.--Rise, oh ever rise! Rise like a cloud of incense from the Earth! Thou kingly spirit throned among the hills, Thou dread embassador from Earth to Heaven, Great Hierarch! tell thou the silent sky, And tell the stars, and tell yon rising sun, Earth, with her thousand voices, praises God. 
665	----	None 
14766	----	Transcriber's Notes: Welcome to the schoolroom of 1900. The moral tone is plain. "She is kind to the old blind man." The exercises are still suitable, and perhaps more helpful than some contemporary alternatives. Much is left to the teacher. Explanations given in the text are enough to get started teaching a child to read and write. Counting in Roman numerals is included as a bonus in the form of lesson numbers. There is no text version because much of the material uses specialized characters that have no ASCI equivalent. Wherever possible the "ASCI" text has been converted. The "non-ASCI" text remains as images. The "non-ASCI" text is approximated in text boxes to right of the image, as are script images. The form of contractions includes a space. The contemporary word "don't" was rendered as "do n't". The author, not listed in the text is William Holmes McGuffey. Don Kostuc ECLECTIC EDUCATIONAL SERIES. MCGUFFEY'S(R) THIRD ECLECTIC READER. REVISED EDITION. McGuffey Editions and Colophon are Trademarks of JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. NEW YORK--CHICHESTER--WEINHEIM--BRISBANE--SINGAPORE--TORONTO The long continued popularity of MCGUFFEY'S READERS is sufficient evidence of the positive merits of the books. The aim of this revision has been to preserve unimpaired the distinctive features of the series, and at the same time to present the matter in a new dress, with new type, new illustrations, and with a considerable amount of new matter. Spelling exercises are continued through the first half of the THIRD READER. These exercises, with those furnished in the two lower books, are exhaustive of the words employed in the reading lessons. Words are not repeated in the vocabularies. In the latter half of the book, definitions are introduced. It is hoped that the teacher will extend this defining exercise to all the words of the lesson liable to be misunderstood. The child should define the word in his own language sufficiently to show that he has a mastery of the word in its use. Drills in articulation and emphasis should be given with every lesson. The essentials of good reading are not to be taught by one or two lessons. Constant drill on good exercises, with frequent exhibitions of the correct method from the teacher, will be found more effectual than any form prescribed in type. If the pupils are not familiar with the diacritical marks, they should be carefully taught; such instruction constitutes an excellent drill on articulation, and enables the pupils to use the dictionary with intelligence. Copyright, 1879, by VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG & Co. Copyright, 1896, by AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY. Copyright, 1907 and 1920, by H. H. VAIL. (ii) MG 30 60 REV. EP 308 CONTENTS INTRODUCTORY MATTER PAGE. ARTICULATION 5 EMPHASIS 10 PUNCTUATION 11 SELECTIONS IN PROSE AND POETRY. LESSON 1. The Shepherd Boy 13 2. Johnny's First Snowstorm 15 3. Let It rain 18 4. Castle-building 20 5. Castle-building 22 6. Lend a Hand (Script) 25 7. The Truant 27 8. The White Kitten 29 9. The Beaver 31 10. The Young Teacher 34 11. The Blacksmith 38 12. A Walk in the Garden 39 13. The Wolf 42 14. The Little Bird's Song 44 15. Harry and Annie 46 16. Bird Friends 48 17. What the Minutes say 51 18. The Widow and the Merchant 52 19. The Birds Set Free 54 20. A Moment too Late 66 21. Humming Birds 67 22. The Wind and the Sun 59 23. Sunset (Script) 61 24. Beautiful Hands 52 25. Things to Remember 65 26. Three Little Mice 67 Z7. The New Year 69 28. The Clock and the Sundial 72 29. Remember 74 (iii) iv CONTENTS. LESSON PAGE. 30. Courage and Cowardice 76 31. Weighing an Elephant 78 32. The Soldier 82 33. The Echo 83 34. George's Feast 86 35. The Lord's Prayer 90 An Evening: Prayer (Script.) 91 36. Finding the Owner 92 37. Bats 95 38. A Summer Day 98 39. I will Think of It 101 40. Charlie and Rob 104 41. Ray and his Kite 107 42. Beware of the First Drink 111 43. Speak Gently 114 44. The Seven Sticks 115 45. The Mountain Sister 117 46. Harry and the Guidepost 121 47. The Money Amy didn't Earn 123 48. Who Made the Stars? 126 49. Deeds of Kindness 128 50. The Alarm Clock 130 51. Spring 132 52. True Courage 134 53. The Old Clock 137 54. The Waves 139 55. Don't Kill the Birds 143 56. When to Say No 144 57. Which Loved Best? 146 58. John Carpenter 147 59. Persevere 151 60. The Contented Boy 151 61. Little Gustava 156 62. The Insolent Boy 158 63. We are Seven 163 64. Mary's Dime 167 65. Mary Dow 169 66. The Little Loaf 172 67. Susie and Rover 174 68. The Violet. 178 69. No Crown for Me 180 70. Young Soldiers 184 71. How Willie Got out of the Shaft 187 72. The Pert Chicken 191 73. Indian Corn 193 74. The Snowbird's Song 197 75. Mountains 200 76. A Child's Hymn 203 77. Holding the Fort 204 78. The Little People 207 79. Good Night 208 INTRODUCTION. ARTICULATION. A distinct articulation can only be gained by constant and careful practice of the elementary sounds. Whenever a word is imperfectly enunciated, the teacher should call attention to the sounds composing the spoken word. If the pupil fails to sound any element correctly, as in the case of lisping, the fault can be overcome by calling attention to the correct position of the organs of speech, and insisting upon exact execution. Except in case of malformation of these organs, every pupil should sound each element correctly before such drill should cease. TABLE OF VOCALS. LONG SOUNDS. 6 ECLECTIC SERIES, SHORT SOUNDS. DIPHTHONGS. TABLE OF SUBVOCALS. TABLE OF ASPIRATES. THIRD READER. 7 NOTE.-The above forty-five sounds are those most employed in the English language. Some of these sounds are represented by other letters, as shown in the following table. TABLE OF SUBSTITUTES. EXERCISES IN ARTICULATION. The following exercises may be used for drill after the tables are fully understood. Pronounce the word first; then, the sound indicated. 8 ECLECTIC SERIES. EXERCISE I. THIRD READER. 9 10 ECLECTIC SERIES. EMPHASIS. NOTE.--If the pupil has received proper oral instruction, he has been taught to understand what he has read, and has already acquired the habit of emphasizing words. He is now prepared for a more formal introduction to the SUBJECT of emphasis, and for more particular attention to its first PRINCIPLES. This lesson, and the examples given, should be repeatedly practiced. In reading and in talking, we always speak some words with more force than others. We do this, because the meaning of what we say depends most upon these words. If I wish to know whether it is George or his brother who is sick, I speak the words George and brother with more force than the other words. I say, Is it George or his brother who is sick? This greater force with which we speak the words is called EMPHASIS. The words upon which emphasis is put, are sometimes printed in slanting letters, called Italics,* and sometimes in CAPITALS. The words printed in Italics in the following questions and answers, should be read with more force than the other words, that is, with emphasis. Did you ride to town yesterday? No, my brother, did. Did yon ride to town yesterday? No, I walked. * Italics are also used for other purposes, though most frequently for emphasis. THIRD READER. 11 Did you ride to town yesterday? No, I went into the country. Did you ride to town yesterday? No, I went the day before. Have you seen James or John lately? I have seen James, but not John. Did you say there were four eggs in the nest, or three? There were only three eggs, not four. Were the eggs white or blue? The eggs were white, not blue. Had the boy a hat on his head, or a cap? He had a cap on, not a hat. PUNCTUATION. Punctuation should be thoroughly studied by the pupil, in order that he may become perfectly familiar with the marks and pauses found in the reading lessons of this volume. MARKS AND PAUSES. These marks are used to point off written or printed matter into sentences and parts of sentences, and thus to assist the reader in obtaining the meaning of the writer. They seldom indicate the length of the pause to be made; this must be determined by the sense. A Hyphen (-) is used between syllables in a word divided at the end of a line; as, "be-cause," "ques-tion," and between the parts of a compound word; as, Rocking-chair, good-by. 12 ECLECTIC SERIES. The Comma (,), Semicolon (;), and Colon (:) mark grammatical divisions in a sentence; as, God is good; for he gives us all things. Be wise to-day, my child: 't is madness to defer. A Period (.) is placed at the end of a sentence; as, God is love. Life is short. Or is used after an abbreviation; as, Dr. Murphy. Jan. 10, 1879. An Interrogation Point (?) denotes a question; as, Has he come? Who are you? An Exclamation Point (!) denotes strong feeling; as, O Absalom! my son! my son! The Dash (--) is used where there is a sudden break or pause in a sentence; as, The truth has power--such is God's will--to make us better. Quotation Marks (" ") denote the words of another; as, God said, "Let there be light." An Apostrophe (') denotes that a letter or letters are left out; as, O'er, for over; 't is, for it is. And is also used to show ownership; as, The man's hat. Helen's book. MCGUFFEY'S THIRD READER. LESSON I. THE SHEPHERD BOY. 1. Little Roy led his sheep down to pasture, And his cows, by the side of the brook; (13) 14 ECLECTIC SERIES. But his cows never drank any water, And his sheep never needed a crook. 2. For the pasture was gay as a garden, And it glowed with a flowery red; But the meadows had never a grass blade, And the brooklet--it slept in its bed: 3. And it lay without sparkle or murmur, Nor reflected the blue of the skies; But the music was made by the shepherd, And the sparkle was all in his eyes. 4. Oh, he sang like a bird in the summer! And, if sometimes you fancied a bleat, That, too, was the voice of the shepherd, And not of the lambs at his feet. 5. And the glossy brown cows were so gentle That they moved at the touch of his hand O'er the wonderful, rosy-red meadow, And they stood at the word of command. 6. So he led all his sheep to the pasture, And his cows, by the side of the brook; Though it rained, yet the rain never pattered O'er the beautiful way that they took. 7. And it was n't in Fairyland either, But a house in the midst of the town, Where Roy, as he looked from the window, Saw the silvery drops trickle down. THIRD READER. 15 8. For his pasture was only a table, With its cover so flowery fair, And his brooklet was just a green ribbon, That his sister had lost from her hair. 9. And his cows were but glossy horse-chestnuts, That had grown on his grandfather's tree; And his sheep only snowy-white pebbles, He had brought from the shore of the sea. 10. And at length when the shepherd was weary, And had taken his milk and his bread, And his mother had kissed him and tucked him, And had bid him "good night" in his bed; 11. Then there entered his big brother Walter, While the shepherd was soundly asleep, And he cut up the cows into baskets, And to jackstones turned all of the sheep. Emily S. Oakey. LESSON II. JOHNNY'S FIRST SNOWSTORM. 1. Johnny Reed was a little boy who never had seen a snowstorm till he was six years old. Before this, he had lived in a warm country, where the sun shines down on beautiful 16 ECLECTIC SERIES. orange groves, and fields always sweet with flowers. 2. But now he had come to visit his grandmother, who lived where the snow falls in winter. Johnny was standing at the window when the snow came down. 3. "O mamma!" he cried, joyfully, "do come quick, and see these little white birds flying down from heaven." 4. "They are not birds, Johnny," said mamma, smiling. 5. "Then maybe the little angels are losing their feathers! Oh! do tell me what it is; is it sugar? Let me taste it," said THIRD READER. 17 Johnny. But when he tasted it, he gave a little jump--it was so cold. 6. "That is only snow, Johnny," said his mother. 7. "What is snow, mother?" 8. "The snowflakes, Johnny, are little drops of water that fall from the clouds. But the air through which they pass is so cold it freezes them, and they come down turned into snow." 9. As she said this, she brought out an old black hat from the closet. "See, Johnny! I have caught a snowflake on this hat. Look quick through this glass, and you will see how beautiful it is." 10. Johnny looked through the glass. There lay the pure, feathery snowflake like a lovely little star. 11. "Twinkle, twinkle, little star!" he cried in delight. "Oh! please show me more snow-flakes, mother." 12. So his mother caught several more, and they were all beautiful. 13. The next day Johnny had a fine play in the snow, and when he carne in, he said, "I love snow; and I think snowballs are a great deal prettier than oranges." 3, 18 ECLECTIC SERIES. LESSON III. LET IT RAIN. Rose. See how it rains! Oh dear, dear, dear! how dull it is! Must I stay in doors all day? Father. Why, Rose, are you sorry that you had any bread and butter for breakfast, this morning? Rose. Why, father, what a question! I should be sorry, indeed, if I could not get any. Father. Are you sorry, my daughter, when you see the flowers and the trees growing in the garden? Rose. Sorry? No, indeed. Just now, I wished very much to go out and see them,--they look so pretty. Father. Well, are you sorry when you see the horses, cows, or sheep drinking at the brook to quench their thirst? Rose. Why, father, you must think I am a cruel girl, to wish that the poor horses that work so hard, the beautiful cows that THIRD READER. 19 give so much nice milk, and the pretty lambs should always be thirsty. Father. Do you not think they would die, if they had no water to drink? Rose. Yes, sir, I am sure they would. How shocking to think of such a thing! Father. I thought little Rose was sorry it rained. Do you think the trees and flowers would grow, if they never had any water on them? Rose. No, indeed, father, they would be dried up by the sun. Then we should not have any pretty flowers to look at, and to make wreaths of for mother. Father. I thought you were sorry it rained. Rose, what is our bread made of? Rose. It is made of flour, and the flour is made from wheat, which is ground in the mill. Father. Yes, Rose, and it was rain that helped to make the wheat grow, and it was water that turned the mill to grind the wheat. I thought little Rose was sorry it rained. Rose. I did not think of all these things, father. I am truly very glad to see the rain falling. 20 ECLECTIC SERIES. LESSON IV. CASTLE-BUILDING. 1. "O pussy!" cried Herbert, in a voice of anger and dismay, as the blockhouse he was building fell in sudden ruin. The playful cat had rubbed against his mimic castle, THIRD READER. 21 and tower and wall went rattling down upon the floor. 2. Herbert took up one of the blocks and threw it fiercely at pussy. Happily, it passed over her and did no harm. His hand was reaching for another block, when his little sister Hetty sprang toward the cat, and caught her up. 3. "No, no, no!" said she, "you sha'n't hurt pussy! She did n't mean to do it!" 4. Herbert's passion was over quickly, and, sitting down upon the floor, he covered his face with his hands, and began to cry. 5. "What a baby!" said Joe, his elder brother, who was reading on the sofa. "Crying over spilled milk does no good. Build it up again." 6. "No, I won't," said Herbert, and he went on crying. 7. "What's all the trouble here?" exclaimed papa, as he opened the door and came in. 8. "Pussy just rubbed against Herbert's castle, and it fell down," answered Hetty. "But she did n't mean to do it; she did n't know it would fall, did she, papa?" 9. "Why, no! And is that all the trouble?" 22 ECLECTIC SERIES. 10. "Herbert!" his papa called, and held out his hands. "Come." The little boy got up from the floor, and came slowly, his eyes full of tears, and stood by his father. 11. "There is a better way than this, my boy," said papa. "If you had taken that way, your heart would have been light already. I should have heard you singing over your blocks instead of crying. Shall I show you that way?" 12. Herbert nodded his head, and papa sat down on the floor by the pile of blocks, with his little son by his side, and began to lay the foundation for a new castle. LESSON V. CASTLE-BUILDING. (CONCLUDED) 1. Soon, Herbert was as much interested in castle-building as he had been a little while before. He began to sing over his work. All his trouble was gone. THIRD READER. 23 2. "This is a great deal better than crying, is n't it?" said papa. 3. "Crying for what?" asked Herbert, forgetting his grief of a few minutes before. 4. "Because pussy knocked your castle over." 5. "Oh!" A shadow flitted across his face, but was gone in a moment, and he went on building as eagerly as ever. 6. "I told him not to cry over spilled milk," said Joe, looking down from his place on the sofa. 7. "I wonder if you did n't cry when your kite string broke," retorted Herbert. 8. "Losing a kite is quite another thing," answered Joe, a little dashed. "The kite was gone forever; but your blocks were as good as before, and you had only to build again." 9. "I do n't see," said papa, "that crying was of any more use in your case then in Herbert's. Sticks and paper are easily found, and you had only to go to work and make another kite." Joe looked down at his book, and went on reading. By this time the castle was finished. 10. "It is ever so much nicer than the one 24 ECLECTIC SERIES. pussy knocked down," said Hetty. And so thought Herbert, as he looked at it proudly from all sides. 11. "If pussy knocks that down, I'll-" 12. "Build it up again," said papa, finishing the sentence for his little boy. 13. "But, papa, pussy must not knock my castles down. I can't have it," spoke out Herbert, knitting his forehead. 14. "You must watch her, then. Little boys, as well as grown up people, have to be often on their guard. If you go into the street, you have to look out for the carriages, so as not to be run over, and you have to keep out of people's way. 15. "In the house, if you go about heedlessly, you will be very apt to run against some one. I have seen a careless child dash suddenly into a room just as a servant was leaving it with a tray of dishes in her hands. A crash followed." THIRD READER. 25 16. "It was I, was n't it?" said Hetty. 17. "Yes, I believe it was, and I hope it will never happen again." 18. Papa now left the room, saying, "I do n't want any more of this crying over spilled milk, as Joe says. If your castles get knocked down, build them up again." LESSON VI. LEND A HAND. 26 ECLECTIC SERIES. THIRD READER. 27 LESSON VII. THE TRUANT. 1. James Brown was ten years old when his parents sent him to school. It was not far from his home, and therefore they sent him by himself. 2. But, instead of going to school, he was in the habit of playing truant. He would go into the fields, or spend his time with idle boys. 3. But this was not all. When he went home, he would falsely tell his mother that he had been to school, and had said his lessons very well. 4. One fine morning, his mother told James to make haste home from school, for she wished, after he had come back, to take him to his aunt's. 5. But, instead of minding her, he went off to the water, where there were some boats. There he met plenty of idle boys. 6. Some of these boys found that James 28 ECLECTIC SERIES, had money, which his aunt had given him; and he was led by them to hire a boat, and to go with them upon the water. 7. Little did James think of the danger into which he was running. Soon the wind began to blow, and none of them knew how to manage the boat. 8. For some time, they struggled against the wind and the tide. At last, they became so tired that they could row no longer. 9. A large wave upset the boat, and they were all thrown into the water. Think of James Brown, the truant, at this time! 10. He was far from home, known by no one. His parents were ignorant of his danger. THIRD READER. 29 He was struggling in the water, on the point of being drowned. 11. Some men, however, saw the boys, and went out to them in a boat. They reached them just in time to save them from a watery grave. 12. They were taken into a house, where their clothes were dried. After a while, they were sent home to their parents. 13. James was very sorry for his conduct, and he was never known to be guilty of the same thing again. 14. He became regular at school, learned to attend to his books, and, above all, to obey his parents perfectly. LESSON VIII. THE WHITE KITTEN. 1. My little white kitten's asleep on my knee; As white as the snow or the lilies is she; She wakes up with a pur When I stroke her soft fur: Was there ever another white kitten like her? 30 ECLECTIC SERIES. 2. My little white kitten now wants to go out And frolic, with no one to watch her about; "Little kitten," I say, "Just an hour you may stay, And be careful in choosing your places to play." 3. But night has come down, when I hear a loud "mew;" I open the door, and my kitten comes through; My white kitten! ah me! Can it really be she-- This ill-looking, beggar-like cat that I see? 4. What ugly, gray streaks on her side and her back! Her nose, once as pink as a rosebud, is black! Oh, I very well know, Though she does not say so, She has been where white kittens ought never to go. THIRD READER. 31 5. If little good children intend to do right, If little white kittens would keep themselves white, It is needful that they Should this counsel obey, And be careful in choosing their places to play. LESSON IX. THE BEAVER. 1. The beaver is found chiefly in North America. It is about three and a half feet long, including the flat, paddle- shaped tail, which is a foot in length. 2. The long, shining hair on the back is chestnut-colored, while the fine, soft fur that lies next the skin, is grayish brown. 3. Beavers build themselves most curious huts to live in, and quite frequently a great number of these huts are placed close together, like the buildings in a town. 4. They always build their huts on the banks of rivers or lakes, for they swim much 32 ECLECTIC SERIES. more easily than they walk, and prefer moving about in the water. 5. When they build on the bank of a running stream, they make a dam across the stream for the purpose of keeping the water at the height they wish. 6. These dams are made chiefly of mud, and stones, and the branches of trees. They are sometimes six or seven hundred feet in length, and are so constructed that they look more like the work of man than of little dumb beasts. 7. Their huts are made of the same material as the dams, and are round in shape. The walls are very thick, and the roofs are finished off with a thick layer of mud, sticks, and leaves. 8. They commence building their houses late in the summer, but do not get them finished before the early frosts. The freezing makes them tighter and stronger. 9. They obtain the wood for their dams and huts by gnawing through the branches of trees, and even through the trunks of small ones, with their sharp front teeth. They peel off the bark, and lay it up in store for winter food. THIRD READER. 33 10. The fur of the beaver is highly prized. The men who hunt these animals are called trappers. 11. A gentleman once saw five young beavers playing. They would leap on the trunk of a tree that lay near a beaver dam, and would push one another off into the water. 12. He crept forward very cautiously, and was about to fire on the little creatures; but their amusing tricks reminded him so much of some little children he knew at home, that he thought it would be inhuman to kill them. So he left them without even disturbing their play. 3,3 34 ECLECTIC SERIES. LESSON X. THE YOUNG TEACHER. 1. Charles Rose lived in the country with his father, who taught him to read and to write. 2. Mr. Rose told his son that, when his morning lessons were over, he might amuse himself for one hour as he pleased. 3. There was a river near by. On its bank stood the hut of a poor fisherman, who lived by selling fish. 4. His careful wife kept her wheel going early and late. They both worked very hard to keep themselves above want. 5. But they were greatly troubled lest their only son should never learn to read and to write. They could not teach him themselves, and they were too poor to send him to school. 6. Charles called at the hut of this fisherman one day, to inquire about his dog, which was missing. THIRD READER. 35 7. He found the little boy, whose name was Joe, sitting by the table, on which he was making marks with a piece of chalk. Charles asked him whether he was drawing pictures. 8. "No, I am trying to write," said little Joe, "but I know only two words. Those I saw upon a sign, and I am trying to write them." 9. "If I could only learn to read and write," said he, "I should be the happiest boy in the world." 36 ECLECTIC SERIES. 10. "Then I will make you happy," said Charles. "I am only a little boy, but I can teach you that. 11. "My father gives me an hour every day for myself. Now, if you will try to learn, you shall soon know how to read and to write." 12. Both Joe and his mother were ready to fall on their knees to thank Charles. They told him it was what they wished above all things. 13. So, on the next day when the hour came, Charles put his book in his pocket, and went to teach Joe. Joe learned very fast, and Charles soon began to teach him how to write. 14. Some time after, a gentleman called on Mr. Rose, and asked him if he knew where Charles was. Mr. Rose said that he was taking a walk, he supposed. 15. "I am afraid," said the gentleman, "that he does not always amuse himself thus. I often see him go to the house of the fisherman. I fear he goes out in their boat." 16. Mr. Rose was much troubled. He had told Charles that he must never venture on the river, and he thought he could trust him. THIRD READER. 37 17. The moment the gentleman left, Mr. Rose went in search of his son. He went to the river, and walked up and down, in hope of seeing the boat. 18. Not seeing it, he grew uneasy. He thought Charles must have gone a long way off. Unwilling to leave without learning something of him, he went to the hut. 19. He put his head in at the window, which was open. There a pleasant sight met his eyes. 20. Charles was at the table, ruling a copybook Joe was reading to him, while his mother was spinning in the corner. 21. Charles was a little confused. He feared his father might not be pleased; but he had no need to be uneasy, for his father was delighted. 22. The next day, his father took him to town, and gave him books for himself and Joe, with writing paper, pens, and ink. 23. Charles was the happiest boy in the world when he came home. He ran to Joe, his hands filled with parcels, and his heart beating with joy. 38 ECLECTIC SERIES. LESSON XI. THE BLACKSMITH. 1. Clink, clink, clinkerty clink! We begin to hammer at morning's blink, And hammer away Till the busy day, Like us, aweary, to rest shall sink. 2. Clink, clink, clinkerty clink! From labor and care we never will shrink; But our fires we'll blow Till our forges glow With light intense, while our eyelids wink. THIRD READER. 39 3. Clink, clink, clinkerty clink; The chain we'll forge with many a link. We'll work each form While the iron is warm, With strokes as fast as we can think. 4. Clink, clink, clinkerty clink! Our faces may be as black as ink, But our hearts are true As man ever knew, And kindly of all we shall ever think. LESSON XII. A WALK IN THE GARDEN. 1. Frank was one day walking with his mother, when they came to a pretty garden. Frank looked in, and saw that it had clean gravel walks, and beds of beautiful flowers all in bloom. 2. He called to his mother, and said, "Mother, come and look at this pretty garden. I wish I might open the gate, and walk in." 40 ECLECTIC SERIES. 3. The gardener, being near, heard what Frank said, and kindly invited him and his mother to come into the garden. 4. Frank's mother thanked the man. Turning to her son, she said, "Frank, if I take you to walk in this garden, you must take care not to meddle with anything in it." 5. Frank walked along the neat gravel paths, and looked at everything, but touched nothing that he saw. 6. He did not tread on any of the borders, and was careful that his clothes should not brush the tops of the flowers, lest he might break them. THIRD READER. 41 7. The gardener was much pleased with Frank, because he was so careful not to do mischief. He showed him the seeds, and told him the name of many of the flowers and plants. 8. While Frank was admiring the beauty of a flower, a boy came to the gate, and finding it locked, he shook it hard. But it would not open. Then he said, "Let me in; let me in; will you not let me in this garden?" 9. "No, indeed," said the gardener, "I will not let you in, I assure you; for when I let you in yesterday, you meddled with my flowers, and pulled some of my rare fruit. I do not choose to let a boy into my garden who meddles with the plants." 10. The boy looked ashamed, and when he found that the gardener would not let him in, he went slowly away. 11. Frank saw and felt how much happier a boy may be by not meddling with what does not belong to him. 12. He and his mother then continued their walk in the garden, and enjoyed the day very much. Before they left, the gardener gave each of them some pretty flowers. 42 ECLECTIC SERIES. LESSON XIII. THE WOLF. 1. A boy was once taking care of some sheep, not far from a forest. Near by was a village, and he was told to call for help if there was any danger. 2. One day, in order to have some fun, he cried out, with all his might, "The wolf is coming! the wolf is coming!" 3. The men came running with clubs and axes to destroy the wolf. As they saw nothing they went home again, and left John laughing in his sleeve. 4. As he had had so much fun this time, John cried out again, the next day, "The wolf! the wolf!" 5. The men came again, but not so many as the first time. Again they saw no trace of the wolf; so they shook their heads, and went back. 6. On the third day, the wolf came in earnest. John cried in dismay, "Help! help! THIRD READER. 43 the wolf! the wolf!" But not a single man came to help him. 7. The wolf broke into the flock, and killed a great many sheep. Among them was a beautiful lamb, which belonged to John. 8. Then he felt very sorry that he had deceived his friends and neighbors, and grieved over the loss of his pet lamb. The truth itself is not believed, From one who often has deceived. 44 ECLECTIC SERIES. LESSON XIV. THE LITTLE BIRD'S SONG. 1. A little bird, with feathers brown, Sat singing on a tree; The song was very soft and low, But sweet as it could be. 2. The people who were passing by, Looked up to see the bird THIRD READER. 45 That made the sweetest melody That ever they had heard. 3. But all the bright eyes looked in vain; Birdie was very small, And with his modest, dark-brown coat, He made no show at all. 4. "Why, father," little Gracie said "Where can the birdie be? If I could sing a song like that, I'd sit where folks could see." 5. "I hope my little girl will learn A lesson from the bird, And try to do what good she can, Not to be seen or heard. 6. "This birdie is content to sit Unnoticed on the way, And sweetly sing his Maker's praise From dawn to close of day. 7. "So live, my child, all through your life, That, be it short or long, Though others may forget your looks, They'll not forget your song." 46 ECLECTIC SERIES. LESSON XV. HARRY AND ANNIE. 1. Harry and Annie lived a mile from town, but they went there to school every day. It was a pleasant walk down the lane, and through the meadow by the pond. 2. I hardly know whether they liked it better in summer or in winter. They used to pretend that they were travelers exploring a new country, and would scatter leaves on THIRD READER. 47 the road that they might find their way back again. 3. When the ice was thick and firm, they went across the pond. But their mother did not like to have them do this unless some one was with them. 4. "Do n't go across the pond to-day, children," she said, as she kissed them and bade them good-by one morning; "it is beginning to thaw." 5. "All right, mother," said Harry, not very good- naturedly, for he was very fond of running and sliding on the ice. When they came to the pond, the ice looked hard and safe. 6. "There," said he to his sister, "I knew it had n't thawed any. Mother is always afraid we shall be drowned. Come along, we will have a good time sliding. The school bell will not ring for an hour at least." 7. "But you promised mother," said Annie. 8. "No, I did n't. I only said 'All right,' and it is all right." 9. "I did n't say anything; so I can do as I like," said Annie. 10. So they stepped on the ice, and started to go across the pond. They had not gone 48 ECLECTIC SERIES. far before the ice gave way, and they fell into the water. 11. A man who was at work near the shore, heard the screams of the children, and plunged into the water to save them. Harry managed to get to the shore without any help, but poor Annie was nearly drowned before the man could reach her. 12. Harry went home almost frozen, and told his mother how disobedient he had been. He remembered the lesson learned that day as long as he lived. LESSON XVI. BIRD FRIENDS. 1. I once knew a man who was rich in his love for birds, and in their love for him. He lived in the midst of a grove full of all kinds of trees. He had no wife or children in his home. 2. He was an old man with gray beard, blue and kind eyes, and a voice that the THIRD READER. 49 birds loved; and this was the way he made them his friends. 3. While he was at work with a rake on his nice walks in the grove, the birds came close to him to pick up the worms in the fresh earth he dug up. At first, they kept a rod or two from him, but they soon found he was a kind man, and would not hurt them, but liked to have them near him. 3. 4. 50 ECLECTIC SERIES. 4. They knew this by his kind eyes and voice, which tell what is in the heart. So, day by day their faith in his love grew in them. 5. They came close to the rake. They would hop on top of it to be first at the worm. They would turn up their eyes into his when he spoke to them, as if they said, "He is a kind man; he loves us; we need not fear him." 6. All the birds of the grove were soon his fast friends. They were on the watch for him, and would fly down from the green tree tops to greet him with their chirp. 7. When he had no work on the walks to do with his rake or his hoe, he took crusts of bread with him, and dropped the crumbs on the ground. Down they would dart on his head and feet to catch them as they fell from his hand. 8 He showed me how they loved him. He put a crust of bread in his mouth, with one end of it out of his lips. Down they came like bees at a flower, and flew off with it crumb by crumb. 9. When they thought he slept too long in the morning, they would fly in and sit THIRD READER. 51 on the bedpost, and call him up with their chirp. 10. They went with him to church, and while he said his prayers and sang his hymns in it, they sat in the trees, and sang their praises to the same good God who cares for them as he does for us. 11. Thus the love and trust of birds were a joy to him all his life long; and such love and trust no boy or girl can fail to win with the same kind heart, voice, and eye that he had. Adapted from Elihu Burritt. LESSON XVII. WHAT THE MINUTES SAY. 1. We are but minutes--little things! Each one furnished with sixty wings, With which we fly on our unseen track, And not a minute ever comes back. 2. We are but minutes; use us well, For how we are used we must one day tell. Who uses minutes, has hours to use; Who loses minutes, whole years must lose. 52 ECLECTIC SERIES LESSON XVIII. THE WIDOW AND THE MERCHANT. 1. A merchant, who was very fond of music, was asked by a poor widow to give her some assistance. Her husband, who was a musician, had died, and left her very poor indeed. 2. The merchant saw that the widow and her daughter, who was with her, were in great THIRD READER. 53 distress. He looked with pity into their pale faces, and was convinced by their conduct that their sad story was true. 3. "How much do you want, my good woman?" said the merchant. 4. "Five dollars will save us," said the poor widow, with some hesitation. 5. The merchant sat down at his desk, took a piece of paper, wrote a few lines on it, and gave it to the widow with the words, "Take it to the bank you see on the other side of the street." 6. The grateful widow and her daughter, without stopping to read the note, hastened to the bank. The banker at once counted out fifty dollars instead of five, and passed them to the widow. 7. She was amazed when she saw so much money. "Sir, there is a mistake here," she said. "You have given me fifty dollars, and I asked for only five." 8. The banker looked at the note once more, and said, "The check calls for fifty dollars." 9. "It is a mistake--indeed it is," said the widow. 10. The banker then asked her to wait 54 ECLECTIC SERIES. a few minutes, while he went to see the merchant who gave her the note. 11. "Yes." said the merchant, when he had heard the banker's story, "I did make a mistake. I wrote fifty instead of five hundred. Give the poor widow five hundred dollars, for such honesty is poorly rewarded with even that sum." LESSON XIX. THE BIRDS SET FREE. 1. A man was walking one day through a large city. On a street corner he saw a boy with a number of small birds for sale, in a cage. 2. He looked with sadness upon the little prisoners flying about the cage, peeping through the wires, beating them with their wings, and trying to get out. 3. He stood for some time looking at the birds. At last he said to the boy, "How much do you ask for your birds?" THIRD READER. 55 4. "Fifty cents apiece, sir," said the boy. "I do not mean how much apiece," said the man, "but how much for all of them? I want to buy them all." 5. The boy began to count, and found they came to five dollars. "There is your money," said the man. The boy took it, well pleased with his morning's trade. 6. No sooner was the bargain settled than the man opened the cage door, and let all the birds fly away. 7. The boy, in great surprise, cried, "What did you do that for, sir? You have lost all your birds." 56 ECLECTIC SERIES. 8. "I will tell you why I did it," said the man. "I was shut up three years in a French prison, as a prisoner of war, and I am resolved never to see anything in prison which I can make free." LESSON XX. A MOMENT TOO LATE. 1. A moment too late, my beautiful bird, A moment too late are you now; The wind has your soft, downy nest disturbed-- The nest that you hung on the bough. 2. A moment too late; that string in your bill, Would have fastened it firmly and strong; But see, there it goes, rolling over the hill! Oh, you staid a moment too long. 3. A moment, one moment too late, busy bee; The honey has dropped from the flower: No use to creep under the petals and see; It stood ready to drop for an hour. 4. A moment too late; had you sped on your wing, The honey would not have been gone; THIRD READER. 57 Now you see what a very, a very sad thing 'T is to stay a moment too long. 5. Little girl, never be a moment too late, It will soon end in trouble or crime; Better be an hour early, and stand and wait, Than a moment behind the time. 6. If the bird and the bee, little boy, were too late, Remember, as you play along On your way to school, with pencil and slate, Never stay a moment too long. LESSON XXI. HUMMING BIRDS. 1. The most beautiful humming birds are found in the West Indies and South America. The crest of the tiny head of one of these shines like a sparkling crown of colored light. 2. The shades of color that adorn its breast, are equally brilliant. As the bird 58 ECLECTIC SERIES. flits from one object to another, it looks more like a bright flash of sunlight than it does like a living being. 3. But, you ask, why are they called humming birds? It is because they make a soft, humming noise by the rapid motion of their wings--a motion so rapid, that as they fly you can only see that they have wings. 4. One day when walking in the woods, I found the nest of one of the smallest humming birds. It was about half the size of a very small hen's egg, and THIRD READER. 59 was attached to a twig no thicker than a steel knitting needle. 5. It seemed to have been made of cotton fibers, and was covered with the softest bits of leaf and bark. It had two eggs in it, quite white, and each about as large as a small sugarplum. 6. When you approach the spot where one of these birds has built its nest, it is necessary to be careful. The mother bird will dart at you and try to peck your eyes. Its sharp beak may hurt your eyes most severely, and even destroy the sight. 7. The poor little thing knows no other way of defending its young, and instinct teaches it that you might carry off its nest if you could find it. LESSON XXII. THE WIND AND THE SUN. A FABLE. 1. A dispute once arose between the Wind and the Sun, as to which was the stronger. 60 ECLECTIC SERIES. 2. To decide the matter, they agreed to try their power on a traveler. That party which should first strip him of his cloak, was to win the day. 3. The Wind began. He blew a cutting blast, which tore up the mountain oaks by their roots, and made the whole forest look like a wreck. 4. But the traveler, though at first he could scarcely keep his cloak on his back, ran under a hill for shelter, and buckled his mantle about him more closely. 5. The Wind having thus tried his utmost power in vain, the Sun began. 6. Bursting through a thick cloud, he darted his sultry beams so forcibly upon the traveler's head, that the poor fellow was almost melted. 7. "This," said he, "is past all bearing. It is so hot, that one might as well be in an oven." 8. So he quickly threw off his cloak, and went into the shade of a tree to cool himself. 9. This fable teaches us, that gentle means will often succeed where forcible ones will fail. THIRD READER. 61 LESSON XXIII. SUNSET. 62 ECLECTIC SERIES, LESSON XXIV. BEAUTIFUL HANDS. 1. "O Miss Roberts! what coarse-looking hands Mary Jessup has!" said Daisy Marvin, as she walked home from school with her teacher. THIRD READER. 63 2. "In my opinion, Daisy, Mary's hands are the prettiest in he class." 3. "Why, Miss Roberts, they are as red and hard as they can be. How they would look if she were to try to play on a piano!" exclaimed Daisy. 4. Miss Roberts took Daisy's hands in hers, and said, "Your hands are very soft and white, Daisy--just the hands to look beautiful on a piano; yet they lack one beauty that Mary's hands have. Shall I tell you what the difference is?" 5. "Yes, please, Miss Roberts." 6. "Well, Daisy, Mary's hands are always busy. They wash dishes; they make fires; they hang out clothes, and help to wash them, too; they sweep, and dust, and sew; they are always trying to help her poor, hard-working mother. 7. "Besides, they wash and dress the children; they mend their toys and dress their dolls; yet, they find time to bathe the head of the little girl who is so sick in the next house to theirs. 8. "They are full of good deeds to every living thing. I have seen them patting the tired horse and the lame dog in the street. 64 ECLECTIC SERIES, They are always ready to help those who need help." 9. "I shall never think Mary's hands are ugly any more, Miss Roberts." 10. "I am glad to hear you say that, Daisy; and I must tell you that they are beautiful because they do their work gladly and cheerfully." 11. "O Miss Roberts! I feel so ashamed of myself, and so sorry," said Daisy, looking into her teacher's face with tearful eyes. THIRD READER. 65 12. "Then, my dear, show your sorrow by deeds of kindness. The good alone are really beautiful." LESSON XXV. THINGS TO REMEMBER. 1. When you rise in the morning, remember who kept you from danger during the night. Remember who watched over you while you slept, and whose sun shines around you, and gives you the sweet light of day. 2. Let God have the thanks of your heart, for his kindness and his care; and pray for his protection during the wakeful hours of day. 3. Remember that God made all creatures to be happy, and will do nothing that may prevent their being so, without good reason for it. 4. When you are at the table, do not eat in a greedy manner, like a pig. Eat quietly, 3,5 66 ECLECTIC SERIES. and do not reach forth your hand for the food, but ask some one to help you. 5. Do not become peevish and pout, because you do not get a part of everything. Be satisfied with what is given you. 6. Avoid a pouting face, angry looks, and angry words. Do not slam the doors. Go quietly up and down stairs; and never make a loud noise about the house. 7. Be kind and gentle in your manners; not like the howling winter storm, but like the bright summer morning. 8. Do always as your parents bid you. Obey them with a ready mind, and with a pleasant face. 9. Never do anything that you would be afraid or ashamed that your parents should know. Remember, if no one else sees you, God does, from whom you can not hide even your most secret thought. 10. At night, before you go to sleep, think whether you have done anything that was wrong during the day, and pray to God to forgive you. If anyone has done you wrong, forgive him in your heart. 11. If you have not learned something useful, or been in some way useful, during THIRD READER. 67 the past day, think that it is a day lost, and be very sorry for it. 12. Trust in the Lord, and He will guide you in the way of good men. The path of the just is as the shining light that shineth more and more unto the perfect day. 13. We must do all the good we can to all men, for this is well pleasing in the sight of God. He delights to see his children walk in love, and do good one to another. LESSON XXVI. THREE LITTLE MICE. 1. I will tell you the story of three little mice, If you will keep still and listen to me, Who live in a cage that is cozy and nice, And are just as cunning as cunning can be. They look very wise, with their pretty red eyes, That seem just exactly like little round beads; They are white as the snow, and stand up in a row Whenever we do not attend to their needs;-- 68 ECLECTIC SERIES. 2. Stand up in a row in a comical way,-- Now folding their forepaws as if saying, "please;" Now rattling the lattice, as much as to say, "We shall not stay here without more bread and cheese," They are not at all shy, as you'll find, if you try To make them run up in their chamber to bed; If they do n't want to go, why, they won't go--ah! no, Though you tap with your finger each queer little head. 3. One day as I stood by the side of the cage, Through the bars there protruded a funny, round tail; THIRD READER. 69 Just for mischief I caught it, and soon; in a rage, Its owner set up a most pitiful wail. He looked in dismay,--there was something to pay,-- But what was the matter he could not make out; What was holding him so, when he wanted to go To see what his brothers upstairs were about? 4. But soon from the chamber the others rushed down, Impatient to learn what the trouble might be; I have not a doubt that each brow wore a frown, Only frowns on their brows are not easy to see. For a moment they gazed, perplexed and amazed; Then began both together to--gnaw off the tail! So, quick I released him,--do you think that it pleased him? And up the small staircase they fled like a gale. Julia C. R. Dorr. LESSON XXVII. THE NEW YEAR. 1. One pleasant New-year morning, Edward rose, and washed and dressed himself 70 ECLECTIC SERIES. in haste. He wanted to be first to wish a happy New Year. 2. He looked in every room, and shouted the words of welcome. He ran into the street, to repeat them to those he might meet. 3. When he came back, his father gave him two bright, new silver dollars. 4. His face lighted up as he took them. He had wished for a long time to buy some pretty books that he had seen at the bookstore. THIRD READER. 71 5. He left the house with a light heart, intending to buy the books. 6. As he ran down the street, he saw a poor German family, the father, mother, and three children shivering with cold. 7. "I wish you a happy New Year," said Edward, as he was gayly passing on. The man shook his head. 8. "You do not belong to this country," said Edward. The man again shook his head, for he could not understand or speak our language. 9. But he pointed to his mouth, and to the children, as if to say, "These little ones have had nothing to eat for a long time." 10. Edward quickly understood that these poor people were in distress. He took out his dollars, and gave one to the man, and the other to his wife. 11. How their eyes sparkled with gratitude! They said something in their language, which doubtless meant, "We thank you a thousand times, and will remember you in our prayers." 12. When Edward came home, his father asked what books he had bought. He hung his head a moment, but quickly looked up. 72 ECLECTIC SERIES. 13. "I have bought no books," said he, "I gave my money to some poor people, who seemed to be very hungry and wretched. 14. "I think I can wait for my books till next New Year. Oh, if you had seen how glad they were to receive the money!" 15. "My dear boy;" said his father, "here is a whole bundle of books. I give them to you, more as a reward for your goodness of heart than as a New-year gift. 16. "I saw you give the money to the poor German family. It was no small sum for a little boy to give cheerfully. 17. "Be thus ever ready to help the poor, and wretched, and distressed; and every year of your life will be to you a happy New Year." LESSON XXVIII. THE CLOCK AND THE SUNDIAL. A FABLE. 1. One gloomy day, the clock on a church steeple, looking down on a sundial, said, THIRD READER. 73 "How stupid it is in you to stand there all the while like a stock! 2. "You never tell the hour till a bright sun looks forth from the sky, and gives you leave. I go merrily round, day and night, in summer and winter the same, without asking his leave. 3. "I tell the people the time to rise, to go to dinner, and to come to church. 74 ECLECTIC SERIES. 4. "Hark! I am going to strike now; one, two, three, four. There it is for you. How silly you look! You can say nothing." 5. The sun, at that moment, broke forth from behind a cloud, and showed, by the sundial, that the clock was half an hour behind the right time. 6. The boasting clock now held his tongue, and the dial only smiled at his folly. 7. MORAL.--Humble modesty is more often right than a proud and boasting spirit. LESSON XXIX. REMEMBER. 1. Remember, child, remember, That God is in the sky; That He looks down on all we do, With an ever-wakeful eye. 2. Remember, oh remember, That, all the day and night, He sees our thoughts and actions With an ever-watchful sight. THIRD READER. 75 3. Remember, child, remember, That God is good and true; That He wishes us to always be Like Him in all we do. 4. Remember that He ever hates A falsehood or a lie; Remember He will punish, too, The wicked, by and by. 5. Remember, oh remember, That He is like a friend, And wishes us to holy be, And happy, in the end. 6. Remember, child, remember, To pray to Him in heaven; And if you have been doing wrong, Oh, ask to be forgiven. 7. Be sorry, in your little prayer, And whisper in his ear; Ask his forgiveness and his love. And He will surely hear. 8. Remember, child, remember, That you love, with all your might, 76 ECLECTIC SERIES. The God who watches o'er us, And gives us each delight; Who guards us ever through the day, And saves us in the night. LESSON XXX.. COURAGE AND COWARDICE. 1. Robert and Henry were going home from school, when, on turning a corner, Robert cried out, "A fight! let us go and see!" ECLECTIC READER. 77 2. "No," said Henry; "let us go quietly home and not meddle with this quarrel. We have nothing to do with it, and may get into mischief." 3. "You are a coward, and afraid to go," said Robert, and off he ran. Henry went straight home, and in the afternoon went to school, as usual. 4. But Robert had told all the boys that Henry was a coward, and they laughed at him a great deal. 5. Henry had learned, however, that true courage is shown most in bearing reproach when not deserved, and that he ought to be afraid of nothing but doing wrong. 6. A few days after, Robert was bathing with some schoolmates, and got out of his depth. He struggled, and screamed for help, but all in vain. 7. The boys who had called Henry a coward, got out of the water as fast as they could, but they did not even try to help him. 8. Robert was fast sinking, when Henry threw off his clothes, and sprang into the water. He reached Robert just as he was sinking the last time. 78 ECLECTIC SERIES. 9. By great effort, and with much danger to himself, he brought Robert to thc shore, and thus saved his life. 10. Robert and his schoolmates were ashamed at having called Henry a coward. They owned that he had more courage than any of them. 11. Never be afraid to do good, but always fear to do evil. LESSON XXXI. WEIGHING AN ELEPHANT. 1. "An eastern king," said Teddy's mother, "had been saved from some great danger. To show his gratitude for deliverance, he vowed he would give to the poor the weight of his favorite elephant in silver." 2. "Oh! what a great quantity that would be," cried Lily, opening her eyes very wide. "But how could you weigh an elephant?" THIRD READER. 79 asked Teddy, who was a quiet, thoughtful boy 3. "There was the difficulty," said his mother. "The wise and learned men of the court stroked their long beards, and talked the matter over, but no one found out how to weigh the elephant. 4. "At last, a poor old sailor found safe and simple means by which to weigh the enormous beast. The thousands and thousands of pieces of silver were counted out to the people; and crowds of the poor were relieved by the clever thought of the sailor." 5. "O mamma," said Lily, "do tell us what it was!" 6. "Stop, stop!" said Teddy. "I want to think for myself-- think hard--and find out how an elephant's weight could be known, with little trouble and expense." 7. "I am well pleased," said his mother, "that my little boy should set his mind to work on the subject. If he can find out the sailor's secret before night, he shall have that orange for his pains." 8. The boy thought hard and long. Lily laughed at her brother's grave looks, as he sat leaning his head on his hands. Often 80 ECLECTIC SERIES. she teased him with the question, "Can you weigh an elephant, Teddy?" 9. At last, while eating his supper, Teddy suddenly cried out, "I have it now!" 10. "Do you think so?" asked his mother. 11. "How would you do it," asked Lily. THIRD READER. 81 12. "First, I would have a big boat brought very close to the shore, and would have planks laid across, so that the elephant could walk right into it." 13. "Oh, such a great, heavy beast would make it sink low in the water," said Lily. 14. "Of course it would," said her brother. Then I would mark on the outside of the boat the exact height to which the water had risen all around it while the elephant was inside. Then he should march on shore, leaving the boat quite empty." 15. "But I do n't see the use of all this," said Lily. 16. "Do n't you?" cried Teddy, in surprise. "Why, I should then bring the heaps of silver, and throw them into the boat till their weight would sink it to the mark made by the elephant. That would show that the weight of each was the same." 17. "How funny!" cried Lily; "you would make a weighing machine of the boat?" 18. "That is my plan," said Teddy. 19. "That was the sailor's plan," said his mother. "You have earned the orange, my boy;" and she gave it to him with a smile. Adapted from A. L. O. E. 3,6. 82 ECLECTIC SERIES. LESSON XXXII. THE SOLDIER. 1. A soldier! a soldier! I'm longing to he: The name and the life of a soldier for me! I would not be living at ease and at play; True honor and glory I'd win in my day. 2. A soldier! a soldier! in armor arrayed; My weapons in hand, of no contest afraid; I'd ever be ready to strike the first blow, And to fight my way through the ranks of the foe. 3. But then, let me tell you, no blood would I shed, No victory seek o'er the dying and dead; A far braver soldier than this would I be; A warrior of Truth, in the ranks of the free. 4. A soldier! a soldier! Oh, then, let me be! My friends, I invite you, enlist now with me. Truth's bands shall be mustered, love's foes shall give way! Let's up, and be clad in our battle array! J. G. Adams. THIRD READER. 83 LESSON XXXIII. THE ECHO. 1. As Robert was one day rambling about, he happened to cry out, "Ho, ho!" He instantly heard coming back from a hill near by, the same words, "Ho, ho!" 2. In great surprise, he said with a loud voice, "Who are you?" Upon this, the same words came back, "Who are you?" 3. Robert now cried out harshly, "You must be a very foolish fellow." "Foolish fellow!" came back from the hill. 4. Robert became angry, and with loud and fierce words went toward the spot whence the sounds came. The words all came back to him in the same angry tone. 5. He then went into the thicket, and looked for the boy who, as he thought, was mocking him; but he could find nobody anywhere. 6. When he went home, he told his mothe 84 ECLECTIC SERIES. that some boy had hid himself in the wood, for the purpose of mocking him. 7. "Robert," said his mother, "you are angry with yourself alone. You heard nothing but your own words." 8. "Why, mother, how can that be?" said Robert. "Did you never hear an echo?" asked his mother. "An echo, dear mother? No, ma'am. What is it?" 9. "I will tell you," said his mother. "You know, when you play with your ball, THIRD READER. 85 and throw it against the side of a house, it bounds back to you." "Yes, mother," said he, "and I catch it again." 10. "Well," said his mother, "if I were in the open air, by the side of a hill or a large barn, and should speak very loud, my voice would be sent back, so that I could hear again the very words which I spoke. 11. "That, my son, is an echo. When you thought some one was mocking you, it was only the hill before you, echoing, or sending back, your own voice. 12. "The bad boy, as you thought it was, spoke no more angrily than yourself. If you had spoken kindly, you would have heard a kind reply. 13. "Had you spoken in a low, sweet, gentle tone, the voice that came back would have been as low, sweet, and gentle as your own. 14. "The Bible says, 'A soft answer turneth away wrath.' Remember this when you are at play with your school mates. 15. "If any of them should be offended, and speak in a loud, angry tone, remember the echo, and let your words be soft and kind." 86 ECLECTIC SERIES. 16. "When you come home from school, and find your little brother cross and peevish, speak mildly to him. You will soon see a smile on his lips, and find that his tones will become mild and sweet. 17. "Whether you are in the fields or in the woods, at school or at play, at home or abroad, remember, The good and the kind, By kindness their love ever proving, Will dwell with the pure and the loving." LESSON XXXIV. GEORGE'S FEAST. 1. George's mother was very poor. Instead of having bright, blazing fires in winter, she had nothing to burn but dry sticks, which George picked up from under the trees and hedges. 2. One fine day in July, she sent George to the woods, which were about two miles from the village in which she lived. He THIRD READER. 87 was to stay there all day, to get as much wood as he could collect. 3. It was a bright, sunny day, and George worked very hard; so that by the time the sun was high, he was hot, and wished for a cool place where he might rest and eat his dinner. 4. While he hunted about the bank he saw among the moss some fine, wild strawberries, which were a bright scarlet with ripeness. 88 ECLECTIC SERIES. 5. "How good these will be with my bread and butter!" thought George; and lining his little cap with leaves, he set to work eagerly to gather all he could find, and then seated himself by the brook. 6. It was a pleasant place, and George felt happy and contented. He thought how much his mother would like to see him there, and to be there herself, instead of in her dark, close room in the village. 7. George thought of all this, and just as he was lifting the first strawberry to his mouth, he said to himself, "How much mother would like these;" and he stopped, and put the strawberry back again. 8. "Shall I save them for her?" said he, thinking how much they would refresh her, yet still looking at them with a longing eye. 9. "I will eat half, and take the other half to her," said he at last; and he divided them into two heaps. But each heap looked so small, that he put them together again. 10. "I will only taste one," thought he; but, as he again lifted it to his mouth, he saw that he had taken the finest, and he put it back. "I will keep them all for her," THIRD READER. 89 said he, and he covered them up nicely, till he should go home. 11. When the sun was beginning to sink, George set out for home. How happy he felt, then, that he had all his strawberries for his sick mother. The nearer he came to his home, the less he wished to taste them. 12. Just as he had thrown down his wood, he heard his mother's faint voice calling him from the next room. "Is that you, George? I am glad you have come, for I am thirsty, and am longing for some tea." 13. George ran in to her, and joyfully offered his wild strawberries. "And you saved them for your sick mother, did you?" said she, laying her hand fondly on his head, while the tears stood in her eyes. "God will bless you for all this, my child." 14. Could the eating of the strawberries have given George half the happiness he felt at this moment? 90 ECLECTIC SERIES. LESSON XXXV. THE LORD'S PRAYER. 1. Our Father in heaven, We hallow thy name; May thy kingdom holy On earth be the same; Oh, give to us daily Our portion of bread; It is from thy bounty, That all must be fed. 2. Forgive our transgressions. And teach us to know The humble compassion That pardons each foe; Keep us from temptation, From weakness and sin, And thine be the glory Forever! Amen! THIRD READER. 91 AN EVENING PRAYER. 92 ECLECTIC SERIES. LESSON XXXVI. FINDING THE OWNER. 1. "It's mine," said Fred, showing a white handled pocketknife, with every blade perfect and shining. "Just what I've always THIRD READER. 93 wanted." And he turned the prize over and over with evident satisfaction. 2. "I guess I know who owns it," said Tom, looking at it with a critical eye. 3. "I guess you do n't," was the quick response. "It is n't Mr. Raymond's," said Fred, shooting wide of the mark. 4. "I know that; Mr. Raymond's is twice as large," observed Tom, going on with his drawing lesson. 5. Do you suppose Fred took any comfort in that knife? Not a bit of comfort did he take. He was conscious all the time of having something in his possession that did 94 ECLECTIC SERIES. not belong to him; and Tom's suspicion interfered sadly with his enjoyment. 6. Finally, it became such a torment to him, that he had serious thoughts of burning it, or burying it, or giving it away; but a better plan suggested itself. 7. "Tom," said he, one day at recess, "did n't you say you thought you knew who owned that knife I found?" 8. "Yes, I did; it looked like Doctor Perry's." And Tom ran off to his play, without giving the knife another thought. 9. Dr. Perry's! Why, Fred would have time to go to the doctor's office before recess closed: so he started in haste, and found the old gentleman getting ready to visit a patient. "Is this yours?" cried Fred, in breathless haste, holding up the cause of a week's anxiety. 10. "It was," said the doctor; "but I lost it the other day." 11. "I found it," said Fred, "and have felt like a thief ever since. Here, take it; I've got to run." 12. "Hold on!" said the doctor. "I've got a new one, and you are quite welcome to this." THIRD READER. 95 13. "Am I? May I? Oh! thank you!" And with what a different feeling he kept it from that which he had experienced for a week! LESSON XXXVII. BATS. 1. Bats are very strange little animals, having hair like mice, and wings like birds. During the day, they live in crevices of rocks, in caves, and in other dark places. 2. At night, they go forth in search of food; and, no doubt, you have seen them flying 96 ECLECTIC SERIES. about, catching such insects as happen to be out rather late at night. 3. The wings of a bat have no quills. They are only thin pieces of skin stretched upon a framework of bones. Besides this, it may be said that while he is a quadruped, he can rise into the air and fly from place to place like a bird. 4. There is a funny fable about the bat, founded upon this double character of beast and bird, which I will tell you. 5. An owl was once prowling about, when he came across a bat. So he caught him in his claws, and was about to devour him. Upon this, the bat began to squeal terribly; and he said to the owl, "Pray, what do you take me for, that you use me thus?" 6. "Why, you are a bird, to be sure," said the owl, "and I am fond of birds. I love dearly to break their little bones." 7. "Well," said the bat, "I thought there was some mistake. I am no bird. Do n't you see, Mr. Owl, that I have no feathers, and that I am covered with hair like a mouse?" 8. "Sure enough," said the owl, in great surprise; "I see it now. Really, I took you THIRD READER. 97 for a bird, but it appears you are only a kind of mouse. I ate a mouse last night, and it gave me the nightmare. I can't bear mice! Bah! it makes me sick to think of it." So the owl let the bat go. 9. The very next night, the bat encountered another danger. He was snapped up by puss, who took him for a mouse, and immediately prepared to eat him. 10. "I beg you to stop one moment," said the bat. "Pray, Miss Puss, what do you suppose I am?" "A mouse, to be sure!" said the cat. "Not at all," said the bat, spreading his long wings. 11. "Sure enough," said the cat: "you seem to be a bird, though your feathers are 3,7. 98 ECLECTIC SERIES. not very fine. I eat birds sometimes, but I am tired of them just now, having lately devoured four young robins; so you may go. But, bird or mouse, it will be your best policy to keep out of my way hereafter." 12. The meaning of this fable is, that a person playing a double part may sometimes escape danger; but he is always, like the bat, a creature that is disgusting to everybody, and shunned by all. S. G. Goodrich--Adapted. LESSON XXXVIII. A SUMMER DAY. 1. This is the way the morning dawns: Rosy tints on flowers and trees, Winds that wake the birds and bees, Dewdrops on the fields and lawns-- This is the way the morning dawns. 2. This is the way the sun comes up: Gold on brook and glossy leaves, THIRD READER. 99 Mist that melts above the sheaves, Vine, and rose, and buttercup-- This is the way the sun comes up. 0 3. This is the way the river flows: Here a whirl, and there a dance; Slowly now, then, like a lance, Swiftly to the sea it goes-- This is the way the river flows. 100 ECLECTIC SERIES. 4. This is the way the rain comes down: Tinkle, tinkle, drop by drop, Over roof and chimney top; Boughs that bend, and skies that frown-- This is the way the rain comes down. 5. This is the way the birdie sings: "Baby birdies in the nest, You I surely love the best; Over you I fold my wings"-- This is the way the birdie sings. 6. This is the way the daylight dies: Cows are lowing in the lane, Fireflies wink on hill and plain; Yellow, red, and purple skies-- This is the way the daylight dies. George Cooper. THIRD READER. 101 LESSON XXXIX. I WILL THINK OF IT. 1. "I will think of it." It is easy to say this; but do you know what great things have come from thinking? 2. We can not see our thoughts, or hear, or taste, or feel them; and yet what mighty power they have! 3. Sir Isaac Newton was seated in his garden on a summer's evening, when he saw an apple fall from a tree. He began to think, and, in trying to find out why the apple fell, discovered how the earth, sun, moon, and stars are kept in their places. 4. A boy named James Watt sat quietly by the fireside, watching the lid of the tea kettle as it moved up and down. He began to think; he wanted to find out why the steam in the kettle moved the heavy lid. 102 ECLECTIC SERIES. 5. From that time he went on thinking and thinking; and when he became a man, he improved the steam engine so much that it could, with the greatest ease, do the work of many horses. 6. When you see a steamboat, a steam mill, or a locomotive, remember that it would never have been built if it had not been for the hard thinking of some one. 7. A man named Galileo was once standing in the cathedral of Pisa, when he saw a chandelier swaying to and fro. THIRD READER. 103 8. This set him thinking, and it led to the invention of the pendulum. 9. James Ferguson was a poor Scotch shepherd boy. Once, seeing the inside of a watch, he was filled with wonder. "Why should I not make a watch?" thought he. 10. But how was he to get the materials out of which to make the wheels and the mainspring? He soon found how to get them: he made the mainspring out of a piece of whalebone. He then made a wooden clock which kept good time. 11. He began, also, to copy pictures with a pen, and portraits with oil colors. In a few years, while still a small boy, he earned money enough to support his father. 12. When he became a man, he went to London to live. Some of the wisest men in England, and the king himself, used to attend his lectures. His motto was, "I will think of it;" and he made his thoughts useful to himself and the world. 13. Boys, when you have a difficult lesson to learn, do n't feel discouraged, and ask some one to help you before helping yourselves. Think, and by thinking you will learn how to think to some purpose. 104 ECLECTIC SERIES. LESSON XL. CHARLIE AND ROB. 1. "Do n't you hate splitting wood?" asked Charlie, as he sat down on a log to hinder Rob for a while. 2. "No, I rather like it. When I get hold of a tough old fellow, I say, 'See here, now, you think you're the stronger, and are going to beat me; so I'll split you up into kindling wood." 3. "Pshaw!" said Charlie, laughing; "and it's only a stick of wood." 4. "Yes; but you see I pretend it's a lesson, or a tough job of any kind, and it's nice to conquer it." 5. "I do n't want to conquer such things; I do n't care what becomes of them. I wish I were a man, and a rich one." 6. "Well, Charlie, if you live long enough you'll be a man, without wishing for it; and as for the rich part, I mean to be that myself." 7. "You do. How do you expect to get your money? By sawing wood?" 8. "May be--some of it; that's as good a THIRD READER. 105 way as any, so long as it lasts. I do n't care how I get rich, you know, so that it's in an honest and useful way." 9. "I'd like to sleep over the next ten years, and wake up to find myself a young man with a splendid education and plenty of money." 106 ECLECTIC SERIES. 10. "Humph! I am not sleepy--a night at a time is enough for me. I mean to work the next ten years. You see there are things that you've got to work out--you can't sleep them out." 11. "I hate work," said Charlie, "that is, such work as sawing and splitting wood, and doing chores. I'd like to do some big work, like being a clerk in a bank or something of that sort." 12. "Wood has to be sawed and split before it can be burned," said Rob. "I do n't know but I'll be a clerk in a bank some time; I'm working towards it. I'm keeping father's accounts for him." 13. How Charlie laughed! "I should think that was a long way from being a bank clerk. I suppose your father sells two tables and six chairs, some days, does n't he?" 14. "Sometimes more than that, and sometimes not so much," said Rob, in perfect good humor. 15. "I did n't say I was a bank clerk now. I said I was working towards it. Am I not nearer it by keeping a little bit of a book than I should be if I did n't keep any book at all?" THIRD READER. 107 16. "Not a whit--such things happen," said Charlie, as he started to go. 17. Now, which of these boys, do you think, grew up to be a rich and useful man, and which of them joined a party of tramps before he was thirty years old? LESSON XLI. RAY AND HIS KITE. 1. Ray was thought to be an odd boy. You will think him so, too, when you have read this story. 2. Ray liked well enough to play with the boys at school; yet he liked better to be alone under the shade of some tree, reading a fairy tale or dreaming daydreams. But there was one sport that he liked as well as his companions; that was kiteflying. 3. One day when he was flying his kite, he said to himself, "I wonder if anybody ever tried to fly a kite at night. It seems 108 ECLECTIC SERIES. to me it would be nice. But then, if it were very dark, the kite could not be seen. What if I should fasten a light to it, though? That would make it show. I'll try it this very night." 4. As soon as it was dark, without saying a word to anybody, he took his kite and lantern, and went to a large, open lot, about a quarter of a mile from his home. "Well," thought he, "this is queer. How lonely and still it seems without any other boys around! But I am going to fly my kite, anyway." 5. So he tied the lantern, which was made of tin punched full of small holes, to the tail of his kite. Then he pitched the kite, and, THIRD READER. 109 after several attempts, succeeded in making it rise. Up it went, higher and higher, as Ray let out the string. When the string was all unwound, he tied it to a fence; and then he stood and gazed at his kite as it floated high up in the air. 6. While Ray was enjoying his sport, some people who were out on the street in the village, saw a strange light in the sky. They gathered in groups to watch it. Now it was still for a few seconds, then it seemed to be jumping up and down; then it made long sweeps back and forth through the air. 7. "What can it be?" said one person. "How strange!" said another. "It can not be a comet; for comets have tails," said a third. "Perhaps it's a big firefly," said another. 8. At last some of the men determined to find out what this strange light was--whether it was a hobgoblin dancing in the air, or something dropped from the sky. So off they started to get as near it as they could. 9. While this was taking place, Ray, who had got tired of standing, was seated in a fence corner, behind a tree. He could see 110 ECLECTIC SERIES. the men as they approached; but they did not see him. 10. When they were directly under the light, and saw what it was, they looked at each other, laughing, and said, "This is some boy's trick; and it has fooled us nicely. Let us keep the secret, and have our share of the joke." 11. Then they laughed again, and went back to the village; and some of the simple people there have not yet found out what that strange light was. 12. When thc men had gone, Ray thought it was time for him to go; so he wound up his string, picked up his kite and lantern, and went home. His mother had been wondering what had become of him. 13. When she heard what he had been doing, she hardly knew whether to laugh or scold; but I think she laughed, and told him that it was time for him to go to bed. THIRD READER. 111 LESSON XLII. BEWARE OF THE FIRST DRINK. 1. "Uncle Philip, as the day is fine, will you take a walk with us this morning?" 2. "Yes, boys. Let me get my hat and cane, and we will take a ramble. I will tell you a story as we go. Do you know poor old Tom Smith?" 3. "Know him! Why, Uncle Philip, everybody knows him. He is such a shocking drunkard, and swears so horribly." 4. "Well, I have known him ever since we were boys together. There was not a more decent, well-behaved boy among us. After he left school, his father died, and he was put into a store in the city. There, he fell into bad company. 5. "Instead of spending his evenings in reading, he would go to the theater and to balls. He soon learned to play cards, and of course to play for money. He lost more than he could pay. 6. "He wrote to his poor mother, and told her his losses. She sent him money to pay his debts, and told him to come home. 112 ECLECTIC SERIES. 7. "He did come home. After all, he might still have been useful and happy, for his friends were willing to forgive the past. For a time, things went on well. He married a lovely woman, gave up his bad habits, and was doing well. 8. "But one thing, boys, ruined him forever. In the city, he had learned to take strong drink, and he said to me once, that when a man begins to drink, he never knows where it will end. 'Therefore,' said Tom, 'beware of the first drink!' 9. "It was not long before he began to follow his old habit. He knew the danger, but it seemed as if he could not resist his desire to drink. His poor mother soon died of grief and shame. His lovely wife followed her to the grave. 10. "He lost the respect of all, went on from bad to worse, and has long been a perfect sot. Last night, I had a letter from the city, stating that Tom Smith had been found guilty of stealing, and sent to the state prison for ten years. 11. "There I suppose he will die, for he is now old. It is dreadful to think to what an end he has come. I could not but think, THIRD READER. 113 as I read the letter, of what he said to me years ago, 'Beware of the first drink!' 12. "Ah, my dear boys, when old Uncle Philip is gone, remember that he told you the story of Tom Smith, and said to you, 'Beware of the first drink!' The man who does this will never be a drunkard." 114 ECLECTIC SERIES. LESSON XLIII. SPEAK GENTLY. 1. Speak gently; it is better far To rule by love than fear: Speak gently; let no harsh words mar The good we might do here. 2. Speak gently to the little child; Its love be sure to gain; Teach it in accents soft and mild; It may not long remain. 3. Speak gently to the aged one; Grieve not the careworn heart: The sands of life are nearly run; Let such in peace depart. 4. Speak gently, kindly, to the poor; Let no harsh tone be heard; They have enough they must endure, Without an unkind word. 5. Speak gently to the erring; know They must have toiled in vain; Perhaps unkindness made them so; Oh, win them back again. THIRD READER. 115 6. Speak gently: 'tis a little thing Dropped in the heart's deep well; The good, the joy, which it may bring, Eternity shall tell. George Washington Langford. LESSON XLIV. THE SEVEN STICKS. 1. A man had seven sons, who were always quarreling. They left their studies and work, to quarrel among themselves. Some bad men were looking forward to the death of their father, to cheat them out of their property by making them quarrel about it. 2. The good old man, one day, called his sons around him. He laid before them seven sticks, which were bound together. He said, "I will pay a hundred dollars to the one who can break this bundle." 3. Each one strained every nerve to break the bundle. After a long but vain trial, they all said that it could not be done. 116 ECLECTIC SERIES. 4. "And yet, my boys," said the father, "nothing is easier to do." He then untied the bundle, and broke the sticks, one by one, with perfect ease. 5. "Ah!" said his sons, "it is easy enough to do it so; anybody could do it in that way." 6. Their father replied, "As it is with these sticks, so is it with you, my sons. So THIRD READER. 117 long as you hold fast together and aid each other, you will prosper, and none can injure you. 7. "But if the bond of union be broken, it will happen to you just as it has to these sticks, which lie here broken on the ground." Home, city, country, all are prosperous found, When by the powerful link of union bound. LESSON XLV. THE MOUNTAIN SISTER. 1. The home of little Jeannette is far away, high up among the mountains. Let us call her our mountain sister. 2. There are many things you would like to hear about her, but I can only tell you now how she goes with her father and brother, in the autumn, to help gather nuts for the long winter. 118 ECLECTIC SERIES. 3. A little way down the mountain side is a chestnut wood. Did you ever see a chestnut tree? In the spring its branches are covered with bunches of creamy flowers, like long tassels. All the hot summer these are turning into sweet nuts, wrapped safely in large, prickly, green balls. 4. But when the frost of autumn comes, these prickly balls turn brown, and crack open. Then you may see inside one, two, three, and even four, sweet, brown nuts. 5. When her father says, one night at supper time, "I think there will be a frost tonight," Jeannette knows very well what to do. She dances away early in the evening to her little bed, made in a box built up against the wall. 6. Soon she falls asleep to dream about THIRD READER. 119 the chestnut wood, and the little brook that springs from rock to rock down under the tall, dark trees. She wakes with the first daylight, and is out of bed in a minute, when she hears her father's cheerful call, "Come, children; it is time to be off." 7. Their dinner is ready in a large basket. The donkey stands before the door with great bags for the nuts hanging at each side. They go merrily over the crisp, white frost to the chestnut trees. How the frost has opened the burs! It has done half their work for them already. 8. How they laugh and sing, and shout to each other as they fill their baskets! The sun looks down through the yellow leaves; the rocks give them mossy seats; the birds and squirrels wonder what these strange people are doing in their woods. 9. Jeannette really helps, though she is only a little girl; and her father says at night, that his Jane is a dear, good child. This makes her very happy. She thinks about it at night, when she says her prayers. Then she goes to sleep to dream of the merry autumn days. 10. Such is our little mountain sister, and 120 ECLECTIC SERIES. here is a picture of her far-away home. The mountain life is ever a fresh and happy one. THIRD READER. 121 LESSON XLVI. HARRY AND THE GUIDEPOST. 1. The night was dark, the sun was hid Beneath the mountain gray, And not a single star appeared To shoot a silver ray. 2. Across the heath the owlet flew, And screamed along the blast; And onward, with a quickened step, Benighted Harry passed. 3. Now, in thickest darkness plunged, He groped his way to find; And now, he thought he saw beyond, A form of horrid kind. 4. In deadly white it upward rose, Of cloak and mantle bare, And held its naked arms across, To catch him by the hair. 5. Poor Harry felt his blood run cold, At what before him stood; But then, thought he, no harm, I'm sure, Can happen to the good. 122 ECLECTIC SERIES. 6. So, calling all his courage up, He to the monster went; And eager through the dismal gloom His piercing eyes he bent. 7. And when he came well nigh the ghost That gave him such affright, He clapped his hands upon his side, And loudly laughed outright. 8. For 't was a friendly guidepost stood, His wandering steps to guide; And thus he found that to the good, No evil could betide. THIRD READER. 123 9. Ah well, thought he, one thing I've learned, Nor shall I soon forget; Whatever frightens me again, I'll march straight up to it. 10. And when I hear an idle tale, Of monster or of ghost, I'll tell of this, my lonely walk, And one tall, white guidepost. LESSON XLVII. THE MONEY AMY DID N'T EARN. 1. Amy was a dear little girl, but she was too apt to waste time in getting ready to do her tasks, instead of doing them at once as she ought. 124 ECLECTIC SERIES. 2. In the village in which she lived, Mr. Thornton kept a store where he sold fruit of all kinds, including berries in their season. One day he said to Amy, whose parents were quite poor, "Would you like to earn some money? " 3. "Oh, yes," replied she, "for I want some new shoes, and papa has no money to buy them with." 4. "Well, Amy," said Mr. Thorhton, "I noticed some fine, ripe blackberries in Mr. Green's pasture to-day, and he said that anybody was welcome to them. I will pay you thirteen cents a quart for all you will pick for me." 5. Amy was delighted at the thought of earning some money; so she ran home to get a basket, intending to go immediately to pick the berries. 6. Then she thought she would like to know how much money she would get if she picked five quarts. With the help of her slate and pencil, she found out that she would get sixty-five cents. 7. "But supposing I should pick a dozen quarts," thought she, "how much should I earn then?" "Dear me," she said, after THIRD READER. 125 figuring a while, "I should earn a dollar and fifty-six cents." 8. Amy then found out what Mr. Thornton would pay her for fifty, a hundred, and two hundred quarts. It took her some time to do this, and then it was so near dinner time that she had to stay at home until afternoon. 9. As soon as dinner was over, she took 126 ECLECTIC SERIES, her basket and hurried to the pasture. Some boys had been there before dinner, and all the ripe berries were picked. She could not find enough to fill a quart measure. 10. As Amy went home, she thought of what her teacher had often told her--"Do your task at once; then think about it," for "one doer is worth a hundred dreamers." LESSON XLVIII. WHO MADE THE STARS? 1. "Mother, who made the stars, which light The beautiful blue sky? Who made the moon, so clear and bright, That rises up so high?" 2. "'T was God, my child, the Glorious One, He formed them by his power; He made alike the brilliant sun, And every leaf and flower. THIRD READER. 127 3. "He made your little feet to walk; Your sparkling eyes to see; Your busy, prattling tongue to talk, And limbs so light and free. 4. "He paints each fragrant flower that blows, With loveliness and bloom; He gives the violet and the rose Their beauty and perfume. 5. "Our various wants his hands supply; He guides us every hour; We're kept beneath his watchful eye, And guarded by his power. 6. "Then let your little heart, my love, Its grateful homage pay To that kind Friend, who, from above, Thus guides you every day. 7. "In all the changing scenes of time, On Him our hopes depend; In every age, in every clime, Our Father and our Friend." 128 ECLECTIC SERIES. LESSON XLIX. DEEDS OF KINDNESS. 1. One day, as two little boys were walking along the road, they overtook a woman carrying a large basket of apples. 2. The boys thought the woman looked very pale and tired; so they said, "Are you going to town? If you are, we will carry your basket." 3. "Thank you," replied the woman, "you are very kind: you see I am weak and ill." Then she told them that she was a widow, and had a lame son to support. 4. She lived in a cottage three miles away, and was now going to market to sell the apples which grew on the only tree in her little garden. She wanted the money to pay her rent. 5. "We are going the same way you are," said the boys. "Let us have the basket;" and they took hold of it, one on each side, and trudged along with merry hearts. 6. The poor widow looked glad, and said that she hoped their mother would not be angry with them. "Oh, no," they replied; THIRD READER. 129 "our mother has taught us to be kind to everybody, and to be useful in any way that we can." 7. She then offered to give them a few of the ripest apples for their trouble. "No, thank you," said they; "we do not want any pay for what we have done." 8. When the widow got home, she told her lame son what had happened on the road, 3. 9. 130 ECLECTIC SERIES. and they were both made happier that day by the kindness of the two boys. 9. The other day, I saw a little girl stop and pick up a piece of orange peel, which she threw into the gutter. "I wish the boys would not throw orange peel on the sidewalk," said she. "Some one may tread upon it, and fall." 10. "That is right, my dear," I said. "It is a little thing for you to do what you have done, but it shows that you have a thoughtful mind and a feeling heart." 11. Perhaps some may say that these are little things. So they are; but we must not wait for occasions to do great things. We must begin with little labors of love. LESSON L. THE ALARM CLOCK. 1. A lady, who found it not easy to wake in the morning as early as she wished, THIRD READER. 131 bought an alarm clock. These clocks are so made as to strike with a loud whirring noise at any hour the owner pleases to set them. 2. The lady placed her clock at the head of the bed, and at the right time she found herself roused by the long, rattling sound. 3. She arose at once, and felt better all day for her early rising. This lasted for some weeks. The alarm clock faithfully did its duty, and was plainly heard so long as it was obeyed. 4. But, after a time, the lady grew tired of early rising. When she was waked by the noise, she merely turned over in bed, and slept again. 5. In a few days, the clock ceased to rouse her from her sleep. It spoke just as loudly as ever; but she did not hear it, because she had been in the habit of not obeying it. 6. Finding that she might as well be without it, she resolved that when she heard the sound she would jump up. 7. Just so it is with conscience. If we will obey its voice, even in the most trifling things, we can always hear it, clear and strong. 132 ECLECTIC SERIES. 8. But if we allow ourselves to do what we have some fears may not be quite right, we shall grow more and more sleepy, until the voice of conscience has no longer power to wake as. LESSON LI. SPRING. 1. The alder by the river Shakes out her powdery curls; The willow buds in silver For little boys and girls. 2. The little birds fly over, And oh, how sweet they sing! To tell the happy children That once again 't is Spring. THIRD READER. 133 3. The gay green grass comes creeping So soft beneath their feet; The frogs begin to ripple A music clear and sweet. 4. And buttercups are coming, And scarlet columbine, And in the sunny meadows The dandelions shine. 5. And just as many daisies As their soft hands can hold, The little ones may gather, All fair in white and gold. 6. Here blows the warm red clover, There peeps the violet blue; Oh, happy little children! God made them all for you. Celia Thaxter. 134 ECLECTIC SERIES. LESSON LII. TRUE COURAGE. One cold winter's day, three boys were passing by a schoolhouse. The oldest was a bad boy. always in trouble himself, and trying to get others into trouble. The youngest, whose name was George, was a very good boy. George wished to do right, but was very much wanting in courage. The other boys were named Henry and James. As they walked along, they talked as follows: Henry. What fun it would be to throw a snowball against the schoolroom door, and make the teacher and scholars all jump! James. You would jump, if you should. If the teacher did not catch you and whip you, he would tell your father, and you would get a whipping then; and that would make you jump higher than the scholars, I think. Henry. Why, we would get so far off, before the teacher could come to the door, that he could not tell who we are. Here is a snowball just as hard as ice, and George THIRD READER. 135 would as soon throw it against the door as not. James. Give it to him, and see. He would not dare to throw it. Henry. Do you think George is a coward? You do not know him as well as I do. Here, George, take this snowball, and show James that you are not such a coward as he thinks you are. George. I am not afraid to throw it; but I do not want to. I do not see that it 136 ECLECTIC SERIES. will do any good, or that there will be any fun in it. James. There! I told you he would not dare to throw it. Henry. Why, George, are you turning coward? I thought you did not fear anything. Come, save your credit, and throw it. I know you are not afraid. George. Well, I am not afraid to throw. Give me the snowball. I would as soon throw it as not. Whack! went the snowball against the door; and the boys took to their heels. Henry was laughing as heartily as he could, to think what a fool he had made of George. George had a whipping for his folly, as he ought to have had. He was such a coward, that he was afraid of being called a coward. He did not dare refuse to do as Henry told him, for fear that he would be laughed at. If he had been really a brave boy, he would have said, "Henry, do you suppose that I am so foolish as to throw that snowball, just because you want to have me? You may throw your own snowballs, if you please!" THIRD READER. 137 Henry would, perhaps, have laughed at him, and called him a coward. But George would have said, "Do you think that 1 care for your laughing? I do not think it right to throw the snowball. I will not do that which 1 think to be wrong, if the whole town should join with you in laughing." This would have been real courage. Henry would have seen, at once, that it would do no good to laugh at a boy who had so bold a heart. You must have this fearless spirit, or you will get into trouble, and will be, and ought to be, disliked by all. LESSON LIII. THE OLD CLOCK. 1. In the old, old hall the old clock stands, And round and round move the steady hands; With its tick, tick, tick, both night and day, While seconds and minutes pass away. 138 ECLECTIC SERIES, 2. At the old, old clock oft wonders Nell, For she can't make out what it has to tell; She has ne'er yet read, in prose or rhyme, That it marks the silent course of time. 3. When I was a child, as Nell is now, And long ere Time had wrinkled my brow, The old, old clock both by night and day Said,--"Tick, tick, tick!" Time passes away. THIRD READER. 139 LESSON LIV. THE WAVES. 1. "Where are we to go?" said the little waves to the great, deep sea. "Go, my darlings, to the yellow sands: you will find work to do there." 2. "I want to play," said one little wave; "I want to see who can jump the highest." "No; come on, come on," said an earnest wave; "mother must be right. I want to work." 3. "Oh, I dare not go," said another; "look at those great, black rocks close to the sands; I dare not go there, for they will tear me to pieces." 4. "Take my hand, sister," said the earnest wave; "let us go on together. How glorious it is to do some work." 5. "Shall we ever go back to mother?" "Yes, when our work is done." 140 ECLECTIC SERIES. 6. So one and all hurried on. Even the little wave that wanted to play, pressed on, and thought that work might be fun after all. The timid ones did not like to be left behind, and they became earnest as they got nearer the sands. 7. After all, it was fun, pressing on one after another-- jumping, laughing, running on to the broad, shining sands. 8. First, they came in their course to a great sand castle. Splash, splash! they all THIRD READER. 141 went over it, and down it came. "Oh, what fun!" they cried. 9. "Mother told me to bring these seaweeds; I will find a pretty place for them," said one--and she ran a long way over the sands, and left them among the pebbles. The pebbles cried, "We are glad you are come. We wanted washing." 10. "Mother sent these shells; I do n't know where to put them," said a little fretful wave. "Lay them one by one on the sand, and do not break them," said the eldest wave. 11. And the little one went about its work, and learned to be quiet and gentle, for fear of breaking the shells. 12. "Where is my work?" said a great, full-grown wave. "this is mere play. The little ones can do this and laugh over it. Mother said there was work for me." And he came down upon some large rocks. 13. Over the rocks and into a pool he went, and he heard the fishes say, "The sea is coming. Thank you, great sea; you always send a big wave when a storm is nigh. Thank you, kind wave; we are all ready for you now." 142 ECLECTIC SERIES. 14. Then the waves all went back over the wet sands, slowly and carelessly, for they were tired. 15. "All my shells are safe," said one. 16. And, "My seaweeds are left behind," said another. 17. "I washed all of the pebbles," said a third. 18. "And I--I only broke on a rock, and splashed into a pool," said the one that was so eager to work. "I have done no good, mother--no work at all" 19. "Hush!" said the sea. And they heard a child that was walking on the shore, say, "O mother, the sea has been here! Look, how nice and clean the sand is, and how clear the water is in that pool." 20. Then the sea, said, "Hark!" and far away they heard the deep moaning of the coming storm. 21. "Come, my darlings," said she; "you have done your work, now let the storm do its work." THIRD READER. 143 LESSON LV. DO N'T KILL THE BIRDS. 1. Do n't kill the birds! the little birds, That sing about your door Soon as the joyous Spring has come, And chilling storms are o'er. 2. The little birds! how sweet they sing! Oh, let them joyous live; And do not seek to take the life Which you can never give. 3. Do n't kill the birds! the pretty birds, That play among the trees; 144 ECLECTIC SERIES. For earth would be a cheerless place, If it were not for these. 4. The little birds! how fond they play! Do not disturb their sport; But let them warble forth their songs, Till winter cuts them short. 5. Do n't kill the birds! the happy birds, That bless the field and grove; So innocent to look upon, They claim our warmest love. 6. The happy birds, the tuneful birds, How pleasant 't is to see! No spot can be a cheerless place Where'er their presence be. LESSON LVI. WHEN TO SAY NO. 1. Though "No" is a very little word, it is not always easy to say it; and the not doing so, often causes trouble. THIRD READER. 145 2. When we are asked to stay away from school, and spend in idleness or mischief the time which ought to be spent in study, we should at once say "No." 3. When we are urged to loiter on our way to school, and thus be late, and interrupt our teacher and the school, we should say "No." When some schoolmate wishes us to whisper or play in the schoolroom, we should say "No." 4. When we are tempted to use angry or wicked words, we should remember that the eye of God is always upon us, and should say "No." 5. When we have done anything wrong, and are tempted to conceal it by falsehood, we should say "No, we can not tell a lie; it is wicked and cowardly." 6. If we are asked to do anything which we know to be wrong, we should not fear to say "No." 7. If we thus learn to say "No," we shall avoid much trouble, and be always safe. 3.10. 146 ECLECTIC SERIES. LESSON LVII. WHICH LOVED BEST? "I love you, mother," said little John; Then, forgetting work, his cap went on, And he was off to the garden swing, Leaving his mother the wood to bring. 2. "I love you, mother," said rosy Nell; "I love you better than tongue can tell;" THIRD READER. 147 Then she teased and pouted full half the day, Till her mother rejoiced when she went to play. 3. "I love you, mother," said little Fan; "To-day I'll help you all I can; How glad I am that school does n't keep!" So she rocked the baby till it fell asleep. 4. Then, stepping softly, she took the broom, And swept the floor, and dusted the room; Busy and happy all day was she, Helpful and cheerful as child could be. 5. "I love you, mother," again they said-- Three little children going to bed; How do you think that mother guessed Which of them really loved her best? Joy Allison. LESSON LVIII. JOHN CARPENTER. 1. John Carpenter did not like to buy toys that somebody else had made. He liked the fun of making them himself. The thought that they were his own work delighted him. 2. Tom Austin, one of his playmates, thought a toy was worth nothing unless it cost a great deal of money. He never tried to make anything, but bought all his toys. 148 ECLECTIC SERIES. 3. "Come and look at my horse," said he, one day. "It cost a dollar, and it is such a beauty! Come and see it." 4. John was soon admiring his friend's horse; and he was examining it carefully, to see how it was made. The same evening he began to make one for himself. 5. He went into the wood shed, and picked THIRD READER. 149 out two pieces of wood--one for the head of his horse, the other for the body. It took him two or three days to shape them to his satisfaction. 6. His father gave him a bit of red leather for a bridle, and a few brass nails, and his mother found a bit of old fur with which he made a mane and tail for his horse. 7. But what about the wheels? This puzzled him. At last he thought he would go to a turner's shop, and see if he could not get some round pieces of wood which might suit his purpose. 8. He found a large number of such pieces among the shavings on the floor, and asked permission to take a few of them. The turner asked him what he wanted them for, and he told him about his horse. 9. "Oh," said the man, laughing, "if you wish it, I will make some wheels for your horse. But mind, when it is finished, you must let me see it." 10. John promised to do so, and he soon ran home with the wheels in his pocket. The next evening, he went to the turner's shop with his horse all complete, and was told that he was an ingenious little fellow 150 ECLECTIC SERIES. 11. Proud of this compliment, he ran to his friend Tom, crying, "Now then, Tom, here is my horse,--look!" 12. "Well, that is a funny horse," said Tom; "where did you buy it?" "I did n't buy it," replied John; I made it." 13. "You made it yourself! Oh, well, it's a good horse for you to make. But it is not so good as mine. Mine cost a dollar, and yours did n't cost anything." 14. "It was real fun to make it, though," said John, and away he ran with his horse rolling after him. 15. Do you want to know what became of John? Well, I will tell you. He studied hard in school, and was called the best scholar in his class. When he left school, he went to work in a machine shop. He is now a master workman, and will soon have a shop of his own. THIRD READER. 151 LESSON LIX. PERSEVERE. 1. The fisher who draws in his net too soon, Won't have any fish to sell; The child who shuts up his book too soon, Won't learn any lessons well. 2. If you would have your learning stay, Be patient,--do n't learn too fast: The man who travels a mile each day, May get round the world at last. LESSON LX. THE CONTENTED BOY. Mr. Lenox was one morning riding by himself. He got off from his horse to look at something on the roadside. The horse broke away from him, and ran off. Mr. Lenox ran after him, but soon found that he could not catch him. A little boy at work in a field near the road, heard the horse. As soon as he saw him running from his master, the boy ran 152 ECLECTIC SERIES. very quickly to the middle of the road, and, catching the horse by thc bridle, stopped him till Mr. Lenox came up. Mr. Lenox. Thank you, my good boy, you have caught my horse very nicely. What shall I give you for your trouble? Boy. I want nothing, sir. Mr. L. You want nothing? So much the better for you. Few men can say as much. But what were you doing in the field? B. I was rooting up weeds, and tending the sheep that were feeding on turnips. Mr. L. Do you like to work? B. Yes, sir, very well, this fine weather. Mr. L. But would you not rather play? B. This is not hard work. It is almost as good as play. Mr. L. Who set you to work? B. My father, sir. Mr. L. What is your name? B. Peter Hurdle, sir. Mr. L. How old are you? B. Eight years old, next June. Mr. L. How long have you been here? B. Ever since six o'clock this morning. Mr. L. Are you not hungry? B. Yes, sir, but I shall go to dinner soon. THIRD READER. 153 Mr. L. If you had a dime now, what would you do with it? B. I do n't know, sir. I never had so much. Mr. L. Have you no playthings? 154 ECLECTIC SERIES. B. Playthings? What are they? Mr. L. Such things as ninepins, marbles, tops, and wooden horses. B. No, sir. Tom and I play at football in winter, and I have a jumping rope. I had a hoop, but it is broken. Mr. L. Do you want nothing else? B. I have hardly time to play with what I have. I have to drive the cows, and to run on errands, and to ride the horses to the fields, and that is as good as play. Mr. L. You could get apples and cakes, if you had money, you know. B. I can have apples at home. As for cake, I do not want that. My mother makes me a pie now and then, which is as good. Mr. L. Would you not like a knife to cut sticks? B. I have one. Here it is. Brother Tom gave it to me. Mr. L. Your shoes are full of holes. Do n't you want a new pair? B. I have a better pair for Sundays. Mr. L. But these let in water. B. I do not mind that, sir. Mr. L. Your hat is all torn, too. B. I have a better one at home. THIRD READER. 155 Mr. L. What do yon do when it rains? B. If it rains very hard when I am in the field, I get under a tree for shelter. Mr. L. What do you do, if you are hungry before it is time to go home? B. I sometimes eat a raw turnip. Mr. L. But if there is none? B. Then I do as well as I can without. I work on, and never think of it. Mr. L. Why, my little fellow, I am glad to see that you are so contented. Were you ever at school? B. No, sir. But father means to send me next winter. Mr. L. You will want books then. B. Yes, sir; each boy has a Spelling Book, a Reader, and a Testament. Mr. L. Then I will give them to you. Tell your father so, and that it is because you are an obliging, contented little boy. B. I will, sir. Thank you. Mr. L. Good by, Peter. B. Good morning, sir. Dr. John Aiken 156 ECLECTIC SERIES. LESSON LXI. LITTLE GUSTAVA. 1. Little Gustava sits in the sun, Safe in the porch, and the little drops run From the icicles under the eaves so fast, For the bright spring sun shines warm at last, And glad is little Gustava. 2. She wears a quaint little scarlet cap, And a little green bowl she holds in her lap, Filled with bread and milk to the brim, And a wreath of marigolds round the rim: "Ha! ha!" laughs little Gustava. 3. Up comes her little gray, coaxing cat, With her little pink nose, and she mews, "What's that ?" Gustava feeds her,--she begs for more, And a little brown hen walks in at the door: "Good day!" cries little Gustava. 4. She scatters crumbs for the little brown hen, There comes a rush and a flutter, and then Down fly her little white doves so sweet, With their snowy wings and their crimson feet: "Welcome!" cries little Gustava. 5. So dainty and eager they pick up the crumbs. But who is this through the doorway comes? THIRD READER. 157 Little Scotch terrier, little dog Rags, Looks in her face, and his funny tail wags: "Ha! ha!" laughs little Gustava. 6. "You want some breakfast, too?" and down She sets her bowl on the brick floor brown, And little dog Rags drinks up her milk, While she strokes his shaggy locks, like silk: "Dear Rags!" says little Gustava. 7. Waiting without stood sparrow and crow, Cooling their feet in the melting snow. 158 ECLECTIC SERIES. "Won't you come in, good folk?" she cried, But they were too bashful, and staid outside, Though "Pray come in!" cried Gustava. 8. So the last she threw them, and knelt on the mat, With doves, and biddy, and dog, and cat. And her mother came to the open house door: "Dear little daughter, I bring you some more, My merry little Gustava." 9. Kitty and terrier, biddy and doves, All things harmless Gustava loves, The shy, kind creatures 't is joy to feed, And, oh! her breakfast is sweet indeed To happy little Gustava! Celia Thaxter. LESSON LXII. THE INSOLENT BOY. 1. James Selton was one of the most insolent boys in the village where he lived. He would rarely pass people in the street without being guilty of some sort of abuse. THIRD READER. 159 2. If a person were well dressed he would cry out, "Dandy!" If a person's clothes were dirty or torn, he would throw stones at him, and annoy him in every way. 3. One afternoon, just as the school was dismissed, a stranger passed through the village. His dress was plain and somewhat old, but neat and clean. He carried a cane in his hand, on the end of which was a bundle, and he wore a broad-brimmed hat. 4. No sooner did James see the stranger, than he winked to his playmates, and said, "Now for some fun!" He then silently went toward the stranger from behind, and, knocking off his hat, ran away. 5. The man turned and saw him, but James was out of hearing before he could speak. The stranger put on his hat, and went on his way. Again did James approach; but this time, the man caught him by the arm, and held him fast. 6. However, he contented himself with looking James a moment in the face, and then pushed him from him. No sooner did the naughty boy find himself free again, than he began to pelt the stranger with dirt and stones. 160 ECLECTIC SERIES. 7. But he was much frightened when the "rowdy," as he foolishly called the man, was struck on the head by a brick, and badly hurt. All the boys now ran away, and James skulked across the fields to his home. 8. As he drew near the house, his sister Caroline came out to meet him, holding up THIRD READER. 161 a beautiful gold chain and some new books for him to see. 9. She told James, as fast as she could talk, that their uncle, who had been away several years, had come home, and was now in the house; that he had brought beautiful presents for the whole family; that he had left his carriage at the tavern, a mile or two off, and walked on foot, so as to surprise his brother, their father. 10. She said, that while he was coming through the village, some wicked boys threw stones at him, and hit him just over the eye, and that mother had bound up the wound. "But what makes you look so pale?" asked Caroline, changing her tone. 11. The guilty boy told her that nothing was the matter with him; and running into the house, he went upstairs into his chamber. Soon after, he heard his father calling him to come down. Trembling from head to foot, he obeyed. When he reached the parlor door, he stood, fearing to enter. 12. His mother said, "James, why do you not come in? You are not usually so bashful. See this beautiful watch, which your uncle has brought for you." 3, 11. 162 ECLECTIC SERIES, 13. What a sense of shame did James now feel! Little Caroline seized his arm, and pulled him into the room. But he hung down his head, and covered his face with his hands. 14. His uncle went up to him, and kindly taking away his hands, said, "James, will you not bid me welcome?" But quickly starting back, he cried, "Brother, this is not your son. It is the boy who so shamefully insulted me in the street!" 15. With surprise and grief did the good father and mother learn this. His uncle was ready to forgive him, and forget the injury. But his father would never permit James to have the gold watch, nor the beautiful books, which his uncle had brought for him. 16. The rest of the children were loaded with presents. James was obliged to content himself with seeing them happy. He never forgot this lesson so long as he lived. It cured him entirely of his low and insolent manners. THIRD READER. 163 LESSON LXIII. WE ARE SEVEN. 1. I met a little cottage girl: She was eight years old, she said; Her hair was thick with many a curl, That clustered round her head. 2. She had a rustic, woodland air, And she was wildly clad: Her eyes were fair, and very fair;-- Her beauty made me glad. 3. "Sisters and brothers, little maid, How many may you be?" "How many? Seven in all," she said, And, wondering, looked at me. 4. "And where are they? I pray you tell." She answered, "Seven are we; And two of us at Conway dwell, And two are gone to sea. l64 ECLECTIC SERIES. 5. "Two of us in the churchyard lie, My sister and my brother; And, in the churchyard cottage, I Dwell near them with my mother," 6. "You say that two at Conway dwell, And two are gone to sea, Yet ye are seven! I pray you tell, Sweet maid, how this may be." THIRD READER. 165 7. Then did the little maid reply, "Seven boys and girls are we; Two of us in the churchyard lie, Beneath the churchyard tree." 8. "You run about, my little maid, Your limbs, they are alive; If two are in the churchyard laid, Then ye are only five." 9. "Their graves are green, they may be seen," The little maid replied, "Twelve steps or more from mother's door, And they are side by side. 10. "My stockings there I often knit, My kerchief there I hem; And there upon the ground I sit, And sing a song to them. 11. "And often after sunset, sir, When it is light and fair, I take my little porringer, And eat my supper there. 12. "The first that died was sister Jane; In bed she moaning lay, 166 ECLECTIC SERIES. Till God released her from her pain; And then she went away. 13. "So in the churchyard she was laid; And, when the grass was dry, Together round her grave we played, My brother John and I. 14. "And when the ground was white with snow, And I could run and slide, My brother John was forced to go, And he lies by her side." 15. "How many are you, then?" said I, "If they two are in heaven?" Quick was the little maid's reply, "O master! we are seven." 16. "But they are dead; those two are dead! Their spirits are in heaven!" 'T was throwing words away: for still The little maid would have her will, And said, "Nay, we are seven." William Wordsworth. THIRD READER. 167 LESSON LXIV. MARY'S DIME. 1. There! I have drawn the chairs into the right corners, and dusted the room nicely. How cold papa and mamma will be when they return from their long ride! It is not time to toast the bread yet, and I am tired of reading. 2. What shall I do? Somehow, I can't help thinking about the pale face of that little beggar girl all the time. I can see the glad light filling her eyes, just as plain as I did when I laid the dime in her little dirty hand. 3. How much I had thought of that dime, too! Grandpa gave it to me a whole month ago, and I had kept it ever since in my red box upstairs; but those sugar apples looked so beautiful, and were so cheap--only a dime apiece--that I made up my mind to have one. 4. I can see her--the beggar girl, I mean--as she stood there in front of the store, in her old hood and faded dress, looking at the candies laid all in a row. I wonder 168 ECLECTIC SERIES. what made me say, "Little girl, what do you want?" 5. How she stared at me, just as if nobody had spoken kindly to her before. I guess she thought I was sorry for her, for she said, so earnestly and sorrowfully, "I was thinking how good one of those gingerbread rolls would taste. I have n't had anything to eat to-day." THIRD READER. 169 6. Now, I thought to myself, "Mary Williams, you have had a good breakfast and a good dinner this day, and this poor girl has not had a mouthful. You can give her your dime; she needs it a great deal more than you do." 7. I could not resist that little girl's sorrowful, hungry look--so I dropped the dime right into her hand, and, without waiting for her to speak, walked straight away. I'm so glad I gave her the dime, if I did have to go without the apple lying there in the window, and looking just like a real one. LESSON LXV. MARY DOW. 1. "Come in, little stranger," I said, As she tapped at my half open door; While the blanket, pinned over her head, Just reached to the basket she bore. 170 ECLECTIC SERIES. 2. A look full of innocence fell From her modest and pretty blue eye, As she said, "I have matches to sell, And hope you are willing to buy. 3. "A penny a bunch is the price, I think you'll not find it too much; They are tied up so even and nice, And ready to light with a touch." 4. I asked, "'What's your name, little girl?" "'Tis Mary," said she, "Mary Dow;" THIRD READER. 171 And carelessly tossed off a curl, That played on her delicate brow. 5. "My father was lost on the deep; The ship never got to the shore; And mother is sad, and will weep, To hear the wind blow and sea roar. 6. "She sits there at home, without food, Beside our poor, sick Willy's bed; She paid all her money for wood, And so I sell matches for bread. 7. "I'd go to the yard and get chips, But then it would make me too sad To see the men building the ships, And think they had made one so bad. 8. "But God, I am sure, who can take Such fatherly care of a bird, Will never forget nor forsake The children who trust in his word. 9. "And now, if I only can sell The matches I brought out to-day, I think I shall do very well, And we shall rejoice at the pay." 172 ECLECTIC SERIES, 10. "Fly home, little bird," then I thought, "Fly home, full of joy, to your nest;" For I took all the matches she brought, And Mary may tell you the rest. LESSON LXVI. THE LITTLE LOAF. 1. Once when there was a famine, a rich baker sent for twenty of the poorest children in the town, and said to them, "In this basket there is a loaf for each of you. Take it, and come back to me every day at this hour till God sends us better times." 2. The hungry children gathered eagerly about the basket, and quarreled for the bread, because each wished to have the largest loaf. At last they went away without even thanking the good gentleman. 3. But Gretchen, a poorly-dressed little girl, did not quarrel or struggle with the rest, THIRD READER. 173 but remained standing modestly in the distance. When the ill-behaved girls had left, she took the smallest loaf, which alone was left in the basket, kissed the gentleman's hand, and went home. 4. The next day the children were as ill behaved as before, and poor, timid Gretchen received a loaf scarcely half the size of the one she got the first day. When she came home, and her mother cut the loaf open, many new, shining pieces of silver fell out of it. 174 ECLECTIC SERIES. 5. Her mother was very much alarmed, and said, "Take the money back to the good gentleman at once, for it must have got into the dough by accident. Be quick, Gretchen! be quick!" 6. But when the little girl gave the rich man her mother's message, he said, "No, no, my child, it was no mistake. I had the silver pieces put into the smallest loaf to reward you. Always be as contented, peaceable, and grateful as you now are. Go home now, and tell your mother that the money is your own." LESSON LXVII. SUSIE AND ROVER. 1. "Mamma," said Susie Dean, one summer's morning, "may I go to the woods, and pick berries?" THIRD READER. 175 2. "Yes," replied Mrs. Dean, "but you must take Rover with you." 3. Susie brought her little basket, and her mother put up a nice lunch for her. She tied down the cover, and fastened a tin cup to it. 4. The little girl called Rover--a great Newfoundland dog--and gave him a tin pail to carry. "If I bring it home full, mamma," she said, "won't you make some berry cakes for tea?" 5. Away she tripped, singing as she went down the lane and across the pasture. When she got to the woods, she put her dinner basket down beside a tree, and began to pick berries. 6. Rover ran about, chasing a squirrel or a rabbit now and then, but never straying far from Susie. 7. The tin pail was not a very small one. By the time it was two thirds full, Susie began to feel hungry, and thought she would eat her lunch. 8. Rover came and took his place at her side as soon as she began to eat. Did she not give him some of the lunch? No, she was in a selfish mood, and did no such thing. 176 ECLECTIC SERIES. 9. "There, Rover, run away! there's a good dog," she said; but Rover staid near her, watching her steadily with his clear brown eves. 10. The meat he wanted so much, was soon eaten up; and all he got of the nice dinner, was a small crust of gingerbread that Susie threw away. 11. After dinner, Susie played a while by THIRD READER. 177 the brook. She threw sticks into the water, and Rover swam in and brought them back. Then she began to pick berries again. 12. She did not enjoy the afternoon as she did the morning. The sunshine was as bright, the berries were as sweet and plentiful, and she was neither tired nor hungry. 13. But good, faithful Rover was hungry, and she had not given him even one piece of meat. She tried to forget how selfish she had been; but she could not do so, and quite early she started for home. 14. When she was nearly out of the woods, a rustling in the underbrush attracted her attention. "I wonder if that is a bird or a squirrel," said she to herself. "If I can catch it, how glad I shall be!" 15. She tried to make her way quietly through the underbrush; but what was her terror when she saw it large snake coiled up before her, prepared for a spring! 16. She was so much frightened that she could not move; but brave Rover saw the snake, and, springing forward, seized it by the neck and killed it. 17. When the faithful dog came and rubbed his head against her hand, Susie put her 3, 12. 178 ECLECTIC SERIES. arms 'round his neck, and burst into tears. "O Rover," she cried, "you dear, good dog! How sorry I am that I was so selfish!" 18. Rover understood the tone of her voice, if he did not understand her words, and capered about in great glee, barking all the time. You may be sure that he had a plentiful supper that evening. 19. Susie never forgot the lesson of that day. She soon learned to be on her guard against a selfish spirit, and became a happier and more lovable little girl. Mrs. M. O. Johnson--Adapted. LESSON LXVIII. THE VIOLET. 1. Down in a green and shady bed, A modest violet grew; Its stalk was bent, it hung its head, As if to hide from view THIRD READER. 179 2. And yet it was a lovely flower, Its colors bright and fair; It might have graced a rosy bower Instead of hiding there. 3. Yet there it was content to bloom, In modest tints arrayed, And there it spread its sweet perfume, Within the silent shade. 4. Then let me to the valley go, This pretty flower to see; That I may also learn to grow In sweet humility. Jane Taylor. 180 ECLECTIC SERIES. LESSON LXIX. NO CROWN FOR ME. 1. "Will you come with us, Susan?" cried several little girls to a schoolmate. "We are going to the woods; do come, too." 2. "I should like to go with you very much," replied Susan, with a sigh; "but I can not finish the task grandmother set me to do." 3. "How tiresome it must be to stay at home to work on a holiday!" said one of the girls, with a toss of her head. "Susan's grandmother is too strict." 4. Susan heard this remark, and, as she bent her head over her task, she wiped away a tear, and thought of the pleasant afternoon the girls would spend gathering wild flowers in the woods. 5. Soon she said to herself, "What harm can there be in moving the mark grandmother put in the stocking? The woods must be very beautiful to-day, and how I should like to be in them!" 6. "Grandmother," said she, a few minutes afterwards, "I am ready, now." "What, so THIRD READER. 181 soon, Susan?" Her grandmother took the work, and looked at it very closely. 7. "True, Susan," said she, laying great stress on each word; "true, I count twenty turns from the mark; and, as you have never deceived me, you may go and amuse yourself as you like the rest of the day." 8. Susan's cheeks were scarlet, and she did not say, "Thank you." As she left the cottage, she walked slowly away, not singing as usual. 9. "Why, here is Susan!" the girls cried, when she joined their company; "but what is the matter? Why have you left your dear, old grandmother?" they tauntingly added. 10. "There is nothing the matter." As Susan repeated these words, she felt that she was trying to deceive herself. She had acted a lie. At the same time she remembered her grandmother's words, "You have never deceived me." 11. "Yes, I have deceived her," said she to herself. "If she knew all, she would never trust me again." 12. When the little party had reached an open space in the woods, her companions ran about enjoying themselves; but Susan sat on 182 ECLECTIC SERIES. the grass, wishing she were at home confessing her fault. 13. After a while Rose cried out, "Let us make a crown of violets, and put it on the head of the best girl here." 14. "It will be easy enough to make the crown, but not so easy to decide who is to wear it," said Julia. 15. "Why, Susan is to wear it, of course," said Rose: "is she not said to be the best girl in school and the most obedient at home?" 16. "Yes, yes; the crown shall be for Susan," THIRD READER. 183 cried the other girls, and they began to make the crown. It was soon finished. 17. "Now, Susan," said Rose, "put it on in a very dignified way, for you are to be our queen." 18. As these words were spoken, the crown was placed on her head. In a moment she snatched it off, and threw it on the ground, saying, "No crown for me; I do not deserve it." 19. The girls looked at her with surprise. "I have deceived my grandmother," said she, while tears flowed down her cheeks. "I altered the mark she put in the stocking, that I might join you in the woods." 20. "Do you call that wicked?" asked one of the girls. "I am quite sure it is; and I have been miserable all the time I have been here." 21. Susan now ran home, and as soon as she got there she said, with a beating heart, "O grandmother! I deserve to be punished, for I altered the mark you put in the stocking. Do forgive me; I am very sorry and unhappy." 22. "Susan," said her grandmother, "I knew it all the time; but I let you go out, hoping 184 ECLECTIC SERIES. that your own conscience would tell you of your sin. I am so glad that you have confessed your fault and your sorrow." 23. "When shall I be your own little girl again?" "Now," was the quick reply, and Susan's grandmother kissed her forehead. LESSON LXX. YOUNG SOLDIERS. 1. Oh, were you ne'er a schoolboy, And did you never train, And feel that swelling of the heart You ne'er can feel again? 2. Did you never meet, far down the street, With plumes and banners gay, While the kettle, for the kettledrum, Played your march, march away? THIRD READER. 185 3. It seems to me but yesterday, Nor scarce so long ago, Since all our school their muskets took, To charge the fearful foe. 4. Our muskets were of cedar wood, With ramrods bright and new; With bayonets forever set, And painted barrels, too. 5. We charged upon a flock of geese, And put them all to flight-- Except one sturdy gander That thought to show us fight. 186 ECLECTIC SERIES. 6. But, ah! we knew a thing or two; Our captain wheeled the van; We routed him, we scouted him, Nor lost a single man! 7. Our captain was as brave a lad As e'er commission bore; And brightly shone his new tin sword; A paper cap he wore. 8. He led us up the steep hillside, Against the western wind, While the cockerel plume that decked his head Streamed bravely out behind. 9. We shouldered arms, we carried arms, We charged the bayonet; And woe unto the mullein stalk That in our course we met! THIRD READER. 187 10. At two o'clock the roll we called, And till the close of day, With fearless hearts, though tired limbs, We fought the mimic fray,-- Till the supper bell, from out the dell, Bade us march, march away. LESSON LXXI. HOW WILLIE GOT OUT OF THE SHAFT. 1. Willie's aunt sent him for a birthday present a little writing book. There was a place in the book for a pencil. Willie thought a great deal of this little book, and always kept it in his pocket. 2. One day, his mother was very busy, and he called his dog, and said, "Come, Caper, let us have a play." 188 ECLECTIC SERIES. 3. When Willie's mother missed him, she went to the door and looked out, and could not see him anywhere; but she knew that Caper was with him, and thought they would come back before long. 4. She waited an, hour, and still they did not come. When she came to the gate by the road, she met Mr. Lee, and told him how long Willie had been gone. Mr. Lee thought he must have gone to sleep under the trees. So they went to all the trees under which Willie was in the habit of playing, but he was nowhere to be found. 5. By this time the sun had gone down. The news that Willie was lost soon spread over the neighborhood, and all the men and women turned out to hunt. They hunted all night. 6. The next morning the neighbors were gathered round, and all were trying to think what to do next, when Caper came bounding into the room. There was a string tied round his neck, and a bit of paper tied to it. 7. Willie's father, Mr. Lee, took the paper, and saw that it was a letter from Willie. He read it aloud. It said, "O father! come to me. I am in the big hole in the pasture." THIRD READER. 189 8. Everybody ran at once to the far corner of the pasture; and there was Willie, alive and well, in the shaft. Oh, how glad he was when his father caught him in his arms, and lifted him out! 9. Now I will tell you how Willie came to be in the shaft. He and Caper went to the pasture field, and came to the edge of the shaft and sat down. In bending over 190 ECLECTIC SERIES. to see how deep it was, he lost his balance, and fell in. He tried very hard to get out, but could not. 10. When the good little dog saw that his master was in the shaft, he would not leave him, but ran round and round, reaching down and trying to pull him out. But while Caper was pulling Willie by the coat sleeves, a piece of sod gave way under his feet, and he fell in too. 11. Willie called for his father and mother as loud as he could call; but he was so far away from the house that no one could hear him. 12. He cried and called till it was dark, and then he lay down on the ground, and Caper lay down close beside him. It was not long before Willie cried himself to sleep. 13. When he awoke it was morning, and he began to think of a way to get out. The little writing book that his aunt had given him, was in his pocket. He took it out, and, after a good deal of trouble, wrote the letter to his father. 14. Then he tore the leaf out, and took a string out of his pocket, and tied it round Caper's neck, and tied the letter to the THIRD READER. 191 string. Then he lifted the dog up, and helped him out, and said to him, "Go home, Caper, go home!" The little dog scampered away, and was soon at home. LESSON LXXII. THE PERT CHICKEN. 1. There was once a pretty chicken; But his friends were very few, For he thought that there was nothing In the world but what he knew: So he always, in the farmyard, Had a very forward way, Telling all the hens and turkeys What they ought to do and say. "Mrs. Goose," he said, "I wonder That your goslings you should let Go out paddling in the water; It will kill them to get wet." 192 ECLECTIC SERIES, 2. "I wish, my old Aunt Dorking," He began to her, one day, "That you would n't sit all summer In your nest upon the hay. Won't you come out to the meadow, Where the grass with seeds is filled?" "If I should," said Mrs. Dorking, "Then my eggs would all get chilled." "No, they wo n't," replied the chicken, "And no matter if they do; Eggs are really good for nothing; What's an egg to me or you?" 3. "What's an egg!" said Mrs. Dorking, "Can it be you do not know THIRD READER. 193 You yourself were in an eggshell Just one little month ago? And, if kind wings had not warmed you, You would not be out to-day, Telling hens, and geese, and turkeys, What they ought to do and say! 4. "To be very wise, and show it, Is a pleasant thing, no doubt; But, when young folks talk to old folks, They should know what they're about." Marian Douglas. LESSON LXXIII. INDIAN CORN. 1. Few plants are more useful to man than Indian corn, or maize. No grain, except rice, is used to so great an extent as an article of food. In some countries corn is almost the only food eaten by the people. 3, 13 194 ECLECTIC SERIES. 2. Do you know why it is called Indian corn? It is because the American Indians were the first corn growers. Columbus found this grain widely cultivated by them when he discovered the New World. They pounded it in rude, stone bowls, and thus made a coarse flour, which they mixed with water and baked. 3. Indian corn is now the leading crop in the United States. In whatever part of this land we live, we see corn growing every year in its proper season. Yet how few can tell the most simple and important facts about its planting and its growth! 4. Corn, to do well, must have a rich soil and a warm climate. It is a tender plant, and is easily injured by cold weather. The seed corn does not sprout, but rots, if the ground is cold and wet. 5. To prepare land properly for planting corn, the soil is made fine by plowing, and furrows are run across the field four feet apart each way. At every point where these furrows cross, the farmer drops from four to seven grains of seed corn. These are then covered with about two inches of earth, and thus form "hills" of corn. THIRD READER. 195 6. In favorable weather, the tender blades push through the ground in ten days or two weeks; then the stalks mount up rapidly, and the long, streamer-like leaves unfold gracefully from day to day. Corn must be carefully cultivated while the plants are small. After they begin to shade the ground, they need but little hoeing or plowing. 7. The moisture and earthy matter, drawn through the roots, become sap. This passes through the stalk, and enters the leaves. There a great change takes place which results in the starting of the ears and the growth of the grain. 8. The maize plant bears two kinds of flowers,--male and female. The two are widely separated. The male flowers are on the tassel; the fine silk threads which surround the ear, and peep out from the end of the husks, are the female flowers. 9. Each grain on the cob is the starting point for a thread of silk; and, unless the thread receives some particle of the dust which falls from the tassel flowers, the kernel with which it is connected will not grow. 10. The many uses of Indian corn and its products are worthy of note. The green 196 ECLECTIC SERIES. stalks and leaves make excellent fodder for cattle. The ripe grain is used all over the earth as food for horses, pigs, and poultry. Nothing is better for fattening stock. 11. Green corn, or "roasting ears," hulled corn and hominy, New England hasty pudding, and succotash are favorite dishes with many persons. Then there are parched corn and pop corn--the delight of long winter evenings. 12. Cornstarch is an important article of commerce. Sirup and sugar are made from the juice of the stalk, and oil and alcohol from the ripened grain. Corn husks are largely used for filling THIRD READER. 197 mattresses, and are braided into mats, baskets, and other useful articles. 13. Thus it will be seen how varied are the uses of Indian corn. And besides being so useful, the plant is very beautiful. The sight of a large cornfield in the latter part of summer, with all its green banners waving and its tasseled plumes nodding, is one to admire, and not to be forgotten. LESSON LXXIV. THE SNOWBIRD'S SONG. 1. The ground was all covered with snow one day, And two little sisters were busy at play, When a snowbird was sitting close by on a tree, And merrily singing his chick-a-de-dee. 198 ECLECTIC SERIES. 2. He had not been singing that tune very long Ere Emily heard him, so loud was his song; "O sister, look out of the window!" said she; "Here's a dear little bird singing chick-a-de-dee. 3. "Poor fellow! he walks in the snow and the sleet, And has neither stockings nor shoes on his feet: I wonder what makes him so full of his glee; He's all the time singing his chick-a-de-dee. 4. "If I were a barefooted snowbird, I know, I would not stay out in the cold and the snow; I pity him so! oh, how cold he must be! And yet he keeps singing his chick-a-de-dee. THIRD READER. 199 5. "O mother; do get him some stockings, and shoes, And a nice little frock, and a hat if he choose: I wish he'd come into the parlor, and see How warm we would make him, poor chick-a-de-dee!" 6. The bird had flown down for some sweet crumbs of bread, And heard every word little Emily said: "What a figure I'd make in that dress" thought he, And laughed as he warbled his chick-a-de-dee. 7. "I am grateful," said he, "for the wish you express, But have no occasion for such a fine dress; I rather remain with my little limbs free, Than to hobble about, singing chick-a-de-dee. 8. "There is One, my dear child, though I can not tell who, Has clothed me already, and warm enough, too. Good morning! Oh, who are so happy as we?" And away he flew, singing his chick-a-de-dee. F. C. Woodworth. 200 ECLECTIC SERIES. LESSON LXXV. MOUNTAINS. 1. The Himalayas are the highest mountains on our globe, They are in Asia, and separate India from Thibet. They extend in a continuous line for more than a thousand miles. 2. If you ever ascend one of these mountains from the plain below, you will have to cross an unhealthy border, twenty miles in width. It is, in fact, a swamp caused by the waters overflowing the river banks. 3. The soil of this swampy border is covered with trees and shrubs, where the tiger, the elephant, and other animals find secure retreat. Beyond this border, you will reach smiling valleys and noble forests. 4. As you advance onward and upward, you will get among bolder and more rugged scenes. The sides of the mountains are very steep, sometimes well wooded to quite a height, but sometimes quite barren. 5. In crossing a river you must be content with three ropes for a bridge. You will find the streets of the towns to be simply stairs THIRD READER. 201 cut out of the rock, and see the houses rising in tiers. 6. The pathways into Thibet, among these mountains, are mere tracks by the side of foaming torrents. Often, as you advance, you will find every trace of the path swept away by the failing of rocks and earth from above. 202 ECLECTIC SERIES. 7. Sometimes you will find posts driven into the mountain side, upon which branches of trees and earth are spread. This forms a trembling foothold for the traveler. 8. In the Andes, in South America, the sure-footed mule is used to carry travelers. Quite often a chasm must be crossed that is many feet wide and hundreds of feet deep. The mule will leap across this chasm, but not until it is sure it can make a safe jump. 9. "One day," says a traveler, "I went by the worst pass over the Andes Mountains. The path for seventy yards was very narrow, and at one point it was washed entirely away. On one side the rock brushed my shoulder, and on the other side my foot overhung the precipice." 10. The guide told this man, after he was safely over the pass, that, to his knowledge, four hundred mules had fallen over that precipice, and in many instances travelers had lost their lives at that terrible spot. THIRD READER. 203 LESSON LXXVI. A CHILD'S HYMN. 1. God make my life a little light, Within the world to glow; A little flame that burneth bright Wherever I may go. 2. God make my life a little flower, That giveth joy to all, Content to bloom in native bower, Although its place be small. 3. God make my life a little song, That comforteth the sad; That helpeth others to be strong, And makes the singer glad. 4. God make my life a little hymn Of tenderness and praise; Of faith--that never waxeth dim In all His wondrous ways. 204 ECLECTIC SERIES, LESSON LXXVII. HOLDING THE FORT. 1. While Genie was walking slowly down street one day, she heard an odd rapping on the pavement behind her. Looking round, she saw Rob Grey hobbling on crutches. 2. "Why, what is the matter?" cried Genie. "I have n't seen you for a week, and now you are walking in that way." 3. "I shall have to walk in this way as much as a week longer, Genie. I sprained my ankle by stopping too quick-- no, not too quick, either, for there was something in my way." "What was it?" asked Genie. 4. "One of the Commandments," replied Rob. "You remember how that lecturer talked to us about 'holding the fort'? Well, I thought I should like to do it; but it's a pretty long war, you know--all a lifetime, and no vacations-- furloughs, I think they call them." 5. "If there was nothing to fight, we should not need to be soldiers," said Genie. 6. "Well, I thought I would try; but the THIRD READER. 205 first day, when we came out of the schoolhouse, Jack Lee snatched my books out of my hand, and threw them into the mud. 7. "I started after him as fast as I could run. I meant to throw him where he had thrown the books, when, all of a sudden, I thought of the Commandment about returning good for evil. 8. "I stopped short--so short, that, somehow, 206 ECLECTIC SERIES. my foot twisted under me. So, you see, it was one of the commandments." 9. "If one must stumble at them, it is a good thing to fall on the right side," said Genie, with a wise nod of her head. 10. "The whole thing puzzles me, and makes me feel-- well, like giving it up," said Rob. "It might have served me right when I was chasing Jack; but when I thought of the Commandment, I really tried to do the right thing." 11. "You did do it, Rob," said Genie. "You 'held the fort' that time. Why, do n't you see--you are only a wounded soldier." 12. "I never thought of that," said Rob. "If I believe that way--" He began to whistle, and limped off to school without finishing the sentence. But Genie knew, by the way he behaved that day, that he had made up his mind to hold the fort. THIRD READER. 207 LESSON LXXVIII. THE LITTLE PEOPLE. 1. A dreary place would be this earth, Were there no little people in it; The song of life would lose its mirth, Were there no children to begin it; 2. No little forms, like buds to grow, And make the admiring heart surrender; No little hands on breast and brow, To keep the thrilling love chords tender. 3. The sterner souls would grow more stern, Unfeeling nature more inhuman, And man to utter coldness turn, And woman would be less than woman. 4. Life's song, indeed, would lose its charm, Were there no babies to begin it; A doleful place this world would be, Were there no little people in it. John G. Whittier. 208 THIRD READER. LESSON LXXIX. GOOD NIGHT. 1. The sun is hidden from our sight, The birds are sleeping sound; 'T is time to say to all, "Good night!" And give a kiss all round. 2. Good night, my father, mother, dear! Now kiss your little son; Good night, my friends, both far and near! Good night to every one. 3. Good night, ye merry, merry birds! Sleep well till morning light; Perhaps, if you could sing in words, You would have said, "Good night!" 4. To all my pretty flowers, good night! You blossom while I sleep; And all the stars, that shine so bright, With you their watches keep. 5. The moon is lighting up the skies, The stars are sparkling there; 'T is time to shut our weary eyes, And say our evening prayer. Mrs. Follen. 
48673	----	produced from scanned images of public domain material from the Google Print project.) Transcriber's note: Italic text is denoted by _underscores_ and bold text by =equal signs=. Italics have replaced underlined words. Small capital text has been replaced with all capitals. Minor typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected without note. Irregularities and inconsistencies in the text have been retained as printed. Mismatched quotes are not fixed if it's not sufficiently clear where the missing quote should be placed. The cover for the eBook version of this book was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain. * * * * * ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION BY DOROTHEA F. CANFIELD FORMERLY SECRETARY OF THE HORACE MANN SCHOOLS AND GEORGE R. CARPENTER PROFESSOR OF RHETORIC AND ENGLISH COMPOSITION IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY New York THE MACMILLAN COMPANY LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO. LTD. 1918 _All rights reserved_ COPYRIGHT, 1906, BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published August, 1906. Reprinted July, 1907; February, August, 1909; September, 1910; February, 1911; March, 1913; September, 1914; June, 1915; March, twice, November, 1916. Norwood Press J. S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. PREFACE The authors have endeavored to provide an unusually rich collection of material for work in composition,--material well arranged, well graded, well adapted for use in the seventh and eighth grades, and accompanied by a clear and suggestive statement of the grammatical and rhetorical principles involved. For skilled advice and assistance in connection with Chapters II-VI we are greatly indebted to Miss Jennie F. Owens, of the Jersey City Training School. D. F. C. G. R. C. NEW YORK CITY, July, 1906. CONTENTS PAGE TABLE OF SECTIONS ix TABLE OF EXERCISES xiii CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION 1 II. THE SENTENCE 4 III. THE PARAGRAPH 29 IV. WORDS 49 V. CONDENSATION, EXPANSION, AND PARAPHRASE 69 VI. WHOLE COMPOSITIONS; OUTLINES 88 VII. ORAL COMPOSITION 102 VIII. THE DIARY 106 IX. THE LETTER 112 X. NARRATION 137 XI. DESCRIPTION 155 XII. NARRATION (_continued_) 188 XIII. EXPOSITION 199 XIV. ARGUMENT 214 XV. SECRETARIAL WORK 225 XVI. VERSIFICATION 234 XVII. PUNCTUATION 247 APPENDIX: A. RULES FOR SPELLING 269 B. MODEL OF CONSTITUTION 271 INDEX 273 TABLE OF SECTIONS [The roman numerals refer to chapters; the arabic, to sections.] CHAPTER PAGE I. INTRODUCTION 1 II. THE SENTENCE: =1.= Phrases, clauses, and sentences.--=2.= Simple, complex, and compound sentences.--=3.= Variety in the use of sentences.--=4.= Periodic sentences.--=5.= Bad sentences.--=6.= The "comma" sentence.--=7.= Sentences without unity.--=8.= The formless sentence 4 III. THE PARAGRAPH: =9.= The use of the paragraph.--=10.= The beginning.--=11.= Unity in the paragraph.--=12.= The body of the paragraph.--=13.= Too many paragraphs.--=14.= The end of a paragraph.--=15.= Quotations 29 IV. WORDS: =16.= How we learn words.--=17.= The size and character of the English vocabulary.--=18.= Increasing one's vocabulary.--=19.= Synonyms.--=20.= Accuracy in the use of words.--=21.= Figures of speech.--=22.= Mistakes in the use of words.--=23.= Spelling.--=24.= Slang.--=25.= Errors in the forms of words 49 V. CONDENSATION, EXPANSION, AND PARAPHRASE: =26.= Writing in which the ideas are already at hand.--=27.= Condensation.--=28.= Method in condensation.--=29.= Expansion.--=30.= The purpose of expansion.--=31.= Paraphrase.--=32.= Paraphrase of complete compositions 69 VI. WHOLE COMPOSITIONS; OUTLINES: =33.= Whole compositions.-- =34.= Outlines.--=35.= Essentials in a whole composition.--=36.= How to plan an essay 88 VII. ORAL COMPOSITION: =37.= The great essential.--=38.= How to be heard.--=39.= Pronunciation.--=40.= A plan necessary 102 VIII. THE DIARY: =41.= The value of a diary.--=42.= Contents of a diary.--=43.= Imaginary diaries.--=44.= The class diary 106 IX. THE LETTER: =45.= Various kinds of letters.--=46.= Friendly letters.--=47.= Letters of social intercourse.--=48.= Formal invitations.--=49.= Telegrams.--=50.= Business letters.--=51.= Notices.-- =52.= Appeals.--=53.= Petitions.--=54.= Advertisements 112 X. NARRATION: =55.= The essentials of a good narrative.-- =56.= Autobiography.--=57.= Biography.--=58.= History.--=59.= Plain reporting of facts.--=60=. Conversation 137 XI. DESCRIPTION: =61.= Observation.--=62.= General scientific description.--=63.= Specific scientific description.--=64.= Technical terms.--=65.= Literary description.--=66.= Description of people.--=67.= Longer description.--=68.= Description of conditions.--=69.= Description by contrast.--=70.= Description of events.--=71.= Picture making of scenes of action.--=72.= Travel.--=73.= Descriptions of an hour 155 XII. NARRATION (_Continued_): =74.= Historical stories.-- =75.= Fictitious stories.--=76.= The beginning.-- =77.= The ending.--=78.= The body 188 XIII. EXPOSITION: =79.= General principles.--=80.= Explanation of a material process.--=81.= Explanation of games.--=82.= Exposition of abstract ideas.--=83.= Exposition by example.--=84.= Exposition by repetition.--=85.= Exposition by contrast.--=86.= Exposition by a figure of speech 199 XIV. ARGUMENT: =87.= General principle.--=88.= The introduction.--=89.= The reasons.--=90.= The outline.--=91.= The plea.--=92.= Other forms 214 XV. SECRETARIAL WORK (=93=) 225 XVI. VERSIFICATION (=94=) 234 XVII. PUNCTUATION: =95.= General theory of punctuation.-- =96.= The period.--=97.= The question mark.--=98.= The exclamation point.--=99.= The semicolon.--=100.= The colon.--=101.= The comma.--=102.= Parentheses and brackets.--=103.= The dash.--=104.= The apostrophe.--=105.= Quotation marks.--=106.= Italics.--=107.= The hyphen.--=108.= Capitals.-- =109.= List of common abbreviations 247 TABLE OF EXERCISES CHAPTER II. THE SENTENCE EXERCISES PAGES 1-3. Distinguishing and constructing phrases, clauses, and sentences 5, 6 4-13. Distinguishing and constructing simple, complex, and compound sentences 7-13 14, 15. Variety in the form and length of sentences 15, 16 16. Distinguishing the periodic sentence 19 17-21. Constructing the periodic sentence 19-21 22-24. Distinguishing and correcting the "comma" sentence 22, 23 25. Correcting sentences that are without unity 24 26, 27. Reconstructing formless sentences 26-28 CHAPTER III. THE PARAGRAPH 28. Noting the force of topic sentences 33 29. Supplying topic sentences 34 30. Writing short paragraphs from topic sentences 35 31. Noting when and why paragraphs lack unity 36 32. Making notes for paragraphs suggested by topic sentences 40 33. Correcting bad division into paragraphs 41 34. Making notes for paragraphs suggested by summary sentences 43 35. Making summary sentences for paragraphs indicated by notes 44 36-38. Use of quotation marks 46-48 CHAPTER IV. WORDS 39-45. Increasing the vocabulary 51, 52 46-52. Synonyms 53-57 53. Distinguishing between similar words 59 54-60. Metaphors and similes 60-62 61-62. Slang 64 63-66. Errors in the forms of words 65-67 CHAPTER V. CONDENSATION, EXPANSION, AND PARAPHRASE 67. Condensing paragraphs 70 68-69. Condensing longer passages 75-77 70. Expanding short and suggestive statements 79 71. Expanding for the sake of clearness 80 72-73. Paraphrasing short passages 82-84 74. Paraphrasing complete poems 87 CHAPTER VI. WHOLE COMPOSITIONS; OUTLINES 75-76. Preparing outlines 96, 101 CHAPTER VII. ORAL COMPOSITION CHAPTER VIII. THE DIARY 77. Imaginary diaries 109 CHAPTER IX. THE LETTER 78. Friendly letters 118 79. Letters of social intercourse 121 80. Formal invitations 123 81. Telegrams 124 82-84. Business letters 126, 128, 129 85-87. Notices 131, 132 88. Appeals 134 89. Petitions 135 90-91. Advertisements 135, 136 CHAPTER X. NARRATION 92. Fables 138 93. Autobiographical sketches 141 94-96. Biographical sketches 142, 143 97. Historical sketches 150 98. Reporting facts 152 99. Fables told by conversation 153 100-101. Imaginary conversations 153, 154 CHAPTER XI. DESCRIPTION 102. Practice in accurate observation 157 103-104. General scientific description 162 105-107. Specific scientific description 163, 164 108-109. Literary description 168, 169 110-111. Description of people and animals 170, 171 112. Longer descriptions 173 113, 114. Description of conditions 175, 176 115. Description by contrast 177 116. Description of events 179 117, 118. Picture making of scenes of action 180, 181 119. Sketches of travel 185 120. Descriptions of an hour 187 CHAPTER XII. NARRATIVE (_Continued_) 121, 122. Historical stories 190, 191 123. Fictitious stories 193 124. Completing stories, when the beginning is given 194 125. Completing stories, when the ending is given 196 126. Completing stories, when the plot is suggested 198 CHAPTER XIII. EXPOSITION 127-129. Explanation of processes 203, 204 130-131. Explanation of games, sports, etc. 206 132. Explanation by comparison and example 209 133. Explanation (general) 211 134. Explanation of proverbs and quotations 212 135. Explanations of national festivals 213 CHAPTER XIV. ARGUMENT 136. Statement and definition of subject 216 137. Pleas 221 138. Argument (general) 222 139. Giving reasons for personal preference 223 CHAPTER XV. SECRETARIAL WORK 140-141. Minutes, official letters, etc. 228, 230 CHAPTER XVI. VERSIFICATION 142. Arranging verse in stanza form 240 Completing rhymes 241 143-144. Putting fables into verse 243 145. Writing letters, invitations, and stories in verse 245 CHAPTER XVII. PUNCTUATION 146. The semicolon 251 147. The colon and the semicolon 252 148. The comma 257 149. Punctuation of direct quotations 260 150. Punctuation of partial quotations 262 151. Punctuation of quotations within quotations 262 152. Capital letters 265 153. Review of punctuation 266 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION For several years you have written, from time to time, short compositions. These have been letters, or stories, or descriptions, or explanations of ideas you had in mind, or summaries of your lessons in history or geography. You have now come to a point in your education where it will be well for you to take up _composition_ as a separate subject, studying it as you would geography or history. Let us begin by asking ourselves what it is. What is composition? What geography and history are, it is easy to see. Geography is the subject that has to do with the world as a place. We learn the names that men have given to the parts of the world, large and small; and, with regard to each country, what are its climate and the nature of its soil, its products and manufactures, its cities, and mountains, and rivers. History is the subject that has to do with the actions of the inhabitants of the world. We learn what were the chief nations that have existed or still exist, what were the important events that took place in each nation, as time went on, and who were the great men that shaped its destinies. Any one who knew about all the main events in the life of all the great nations would be a very learned person indeed; but you have already read or studied some very important things in the history of Greece or Rome, or the United States, and thus have a general idea of the history of one or more of these nations. Since the beginning of time men have been talking to one another, and many thousand years ago they found a way of communicating with one another by written signs or letters; and not so many hundred years ago they discovered printing, which enables one person to communicate with many people in different places at the same time. All over the world, then, people are speaking words or writing words, and other people are hearing or reading these words and trying to understand the thoughts intended to be expressed by them. We have various words to express combinations of spoken or written words, such as _talk_ or _conversation_, _speech_, _oration_, _address_, _lecture_, _sermon_, _letter_, _telegram_, _essay_, _novel_, _poem_, and very many others. Now, it is obvious that a person may wish to express his ideas and yet not be successful in doing so. Words may be combined so as to express thoughts well or to express them badly. _Composition is the subject that has to do with the best expression of thought by language._ But how, then, does composition differ from grammar? Grammar is really a part--a small part--of composition. Each language has certain customs with regard to the forms which words have under various circumstances, and to the order in which the parts of a sentence are placed, as well as a system of names for different kinds of words and sentences and parts of sentences. This body of customs or rules we call grammar. But grammar takes into account mainly the form of a sentence, and pays little or no attention to its meaning. Composition, on the other hand, deals mainly with words as expressions of thought. In our study of composition, then, we are to learn how to combine or group our words so as best to express our ideas. There are three ways of gaining skill in composition:-- 1. By following a rule or theory. 2. By practice. 3. By imitation. There are certain rules in composition which are based on the experience of many writers and speakers. These you will learn as we go on. These rules will not be of very much value to you, however, unless you put them into _practice_. If you want to learn how to swim, you can get the general idea from a friend or a teacher; but that general idea will not enable you to swim. You must learn to swim by swimming. In the same way, you must learn composition by _composing_. Keep trying to express your ideas; let your teachers and friends tell you how clearly they understand you, take their criticism to heart, and _try again_. The third way to learn composition is by imitation, and that is a very good way indeed. When you think that some one else writes well, try to write like him or her. Imitation is the greatest possible help in learning how to do anything well. CHAPTER II THE SENTENCE =1. Phrases, Clauses, and Sentences.=--Composition means putting together or combining or grouping. The things that we combine are words. There are three simple ways in which, according to the customs or grammar of our language, words are combined:-- 1. Into phrases. 2. Into clauses. 3. Into sentences. A phrase is a group of words that does not contain a subject and a predicate. EXAMPLES. On the way. In the morning. By the fire. Sailing over the sea. A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate. A clause in which the words do not make complete sense is called a dependent or subordinate clause. EXAMPLES. If I could go. When the sun rose. While I was speaking. Which I saw. A sentence is a group of words containing at least one subject and one predicate and making complete sense. A sentence is thus a single clause or a group of clauses. In a group of clauses, a clause in which the sense is complete is called an independent or principal clause. EXAMPLES. He started at once. If I could, I should start at once. When the sun rose, the mist disappeared. While I was speaking, the rain fell heavily. Neither the phrase nor the dependent clause can be used by itself. Each is only a part of a sentence. The first rule of English composition is that we must group our words in sentences. EXCEPTION. Exclamatory words, phrases, or clauses, such as, Fudge! Silence in the ranks! If I could only go! =Exercise 1.=--Which are dependent clauses? phrases? sentences? Fill out the phrases and clauses so that they become sentences. 1. A little after noon. 2. I found the sea very calm. 3. If we had kept on board. 4. We should have been all safe. 5. Taking off my outer clothes. 6. When I came to the ship. 7. How to get on board. 8. I spied a small piece of rope. 9. By the help of that rope. 10. That all the ship's provisions were dry. 11. When this was done. 12. Putting them together in the form of a raft. 13. I filled the chests with provisions. 14. Toward the land. 15. My raft went very well. 16. In the mouth of a little river. 17. On the right shore of the creek. 18. I made a tent with the sail. 19. Near the sea. 20. Protected from the heat of the sun. =Exercise 2.=--Divide the following passages into sentences. Supply the omitted capitals and the periods or question marks. 1. How late the chimney-swifts are abroad I cannot determine long after I failed to detect any in the air I could hear them in my chimney it was the same rustling sound I heard by day when I could see them coming and going and I know that these birds were leaving and returning when the night was very dark I think they can be classed among the nocturnal species 2. Many years ago there was a cold rain-storm in June for comfort a fire was built on the open hearth instead of in the air-tight stove that stood before it all went well until the night was well advanced suddenly a struggle was heard and suppressed cries after a brief silence there was a shuffling of feet at the doorstep the men went out with a lantern but no one was to be seen the windows were then searched but there was nobody near them the matter was discussed in whispers again and again the noises were heard at last when everybody was roused to a high pitch of excitement the long stovepipe heated by the flames upon the hearth parted at a joint and out flew a sooty and bedraggled little owl no one was superstitious then but suppose the owl had made its way back to the chimney and by this way escaped would not every person present have had vague uncanny feelings would not the house from that time have been haunted =Exercise 3.=--1. Write a short passage containing the phrases and clauses used in Exercise 1. 2. Write a short passage containing the following phrases and clauses:-- About noon--going toward my boat--on the sand--the print of a man's naked foot--as if I had seen a ghost--up to a rising ground--to look around--so frightened was I--behind me--every now and then--fancying every stump to be a man. =2. Simple, Complex, and Compound Sentences.=--According to the custom or grammar of our language, we may group our words in sentences in three ways. Sentences are, from the point of grammar, of three kinds: simple, complex, and compound. A simple sentence consists of a single clause. EXAMPLES. The man fell. The birds sing most sweetly at morning and at evening. The subject or the predicate of a simple sentence, or both, may, however, consist of several parts. EXAMPLES. The man and the child fell. The man slipped and fell. The man and the child slipped and fell. A complex sentence contains one independent or principal clause and one or more dependent or subordinate clauses. EXAMPLES. It was nearly night when we heard the glad news. Before help could reach the city, it had been captured by the enemy. A compound sentence contains two or more independent or principal clauses, either with or without dependent or subordinate clauses. EXAMPLES. Every minute seemed a day; every hour was a year. Finally, I dropped into an exhausted slumber, but I was awakened by the sound of bells. The sun, which resembled a ball of fire, touched the horizon and passed beneath it, and the darkness of the tropical night came swiftly over us. =Exercise 4.=--Which sentences are simple? complex? compound? In the complex sentences, which clauses are dependent? In the compound sentences, separate the independent clauses from each other. Mention any dependent clauses which you find in the compound sentences. 1. It was now near the beginning of the month of June, and we had twelve weeks of bad weather before us. 2. Our rocky home was greatly improved by a wide porch, which I made along the whole front of our rooms and entrances. 3. The weeks of imprisonment passed so rapidly that no one found time hanging heavy on his hands. 4. As the rainy season drew to a close, the weather for a while became milder. 5. Thunder roared, lightning blazed, torrents rushed toward the sea, which came in raging billows to meet them. 6. Nature resumed her smiling aspect of peaceful beauty; and soon all traces of the ravages of floods and storms disappeared beneath the luxuriant vegetation of the tropics. 7. The recent storms had stirred the ocean to its depths. 8. We crossed the river for a walk along the coast, and presently Fritz observed on a small island something which was long and rounded, resembling a boat bottom upward. 9. The island being steep and rocky, it was necessary to be careful; but we found a good landing place on the farther side. 10. The boys hurried by the nearest way to the beach where lay the great object, which proved to be a huge stranded whale. 11. Look at these glorious shells and coral branches! 12. Did you notice the extreme delicacy of the shells? 13. We were soon ready to return to the boat, but Ernest had a fancy for remaining alone on the island till we came back. 14. The more oil we could obtain the better, for a great deal was used in the large lantern which burnt day and night in the recesses of the cave. 15. It was unpleasant work to cut up blubber. =Exercise 5.=--Expand the following simple sentences by substituting clauses for the italicized words or phrases. EXAMPLE. I consider him a _trustworthy_ man. I consider him a man who can be trusted. 1. The _early_ bird catches the worm. 2. We started _before sunrise_. 3. The _faithful_ steward received a reward. 4. I do not doubt _your prudence_. 5. They lived in a _rose-embowered_ cottage. 6. Santa Claus came at _candle-lighting_ time. 7. We pity the _friendless_. 8. The prayer of a _righteous man_ availeth much. 9. We should share the burdens of the _heavy-laden_. 10. She carried a dainty _lace-trimmed_ handkerchief. 11. We lingered in the _lilac-scented_ garden. 12. A _kind-hearted_ man delights in the happiness of others. 13. The traveler wore a _fur-lined_ coat. 14. I enjoy driving a _spirited_ horse. 15. A _solemn-looking_ servant opened the door. =Exercise 6.=--Use single words in place of the italicized phrases and clauses in the following sentences. 1. We were stepping _toward the west_. 2. A shout of _joy_ rang through the woods. 3. The song _of the bluebird_ sounds from the elm. 4. Her wedding gown, _which was made of silk_, was very expensive. 5. Words of kindness cheer _those who are unhappy_. 6. We listened to his tales, _which were often repeated_. 7. His deeds _of mercy_ made him beloved. 8. A look _of sadness_ clouded the face _of the leader_. 9. The lawyer _who is able_ secures many clients. 10. He visited the country, _which had recently been discovered_. =Exercise 7.=--Substitute, for the italicized words, phrases or clauses with the same meaning. EXAMPLE. _Contented_ people are happy (word). People _with contented minds_ are happy (phrase). People _who are contented_ are happy (clause). 1. An _honest_ man is the noblest work of God. 2. A _friendly_ man will have friends. 3. He is said to be a _good-natured_ man. 4. A _beautiful_ child opened the garden-gate. 5. She wore a simple _muslin_ frock. 6. The king wore his _golden_ crown. 7. He lived a _noble_ life. 8. The garden is filled with _fragrant_ blossoms. 9. Old King Cole was a _merry_ old soul. 10. The queen made some _delicious_ tarts. 11. He spoke _hastily_. 12. You have a very _comfortable_ home. 13. He treated the boy _harshly_. 14. Take her up _tenderly_. 15. Beware the fury of a _patient_ man. =Exercise 8.=--Combine each set of simple sentences into one complex sentence by changing one of them into a dependent clause. 1. The sun is in the west. Man ceases from labor. 2. The dew is falling. You must not walk in the garden. 3. The clock struck twelve. The door opened to admit Marley's ghost. 4. Mary has not written to me. She has been gone a month. 5. The bee is very industrious. It is always gathering honey. 6. I saw a little red owl. It lives in a hollow tree. 7. We pitched our tents on the shore. Then the sea winds blew. 8. We anchored in the bay. The water was calm. 9. They lived in a village. It was many miles from a railroad. 10. The poor suffered. The good man mourned. =Exercise 9.=--Combine the simple sentences, making compound sentences. 1. The wind blew freshly from the shore. The uneasy billows tossed up and down. 2. Eustace sat under a tree. The children gathered round him. 3. Cowards are cruel. The brave love mercy. 4. Charms strike the sight. Merit wins the soul. 5. He invited his guests to remain longer. They wished to start before the heat of the day. 6. The heaven was above his head. The sand was beneath his feet. 7. The water trickled among the rocks. A pleasant breeze rustled in the dry branches. 8. The commander was badly wounded. His men were scattered. 9. It was half-past eight in the evening. The conflict had raged for an hour. 10. The heavens declare the glory of God. The firmament showeth his handiwork. =Exercise 10.=--Combine the following statements into simple sentences. In each group express the idea of one statement by a modifying word or phrase. EXAMPLES. 1. She lay down. She was sorrowful. Sorrowfully she lay down. 2. She had no shoes. She had to go barefoot. Having no shoes, she had to go barefoot. 1. He looked back. He saw a cloud of dust. 2. He sprang to his feet. He ran after the messenger. 3. He donned the white cockade. He fought for the exiled prince. 4. We climbed the mountain. The day was cool. 5. We started for home. The sun had set. 6. He lifted his eyes. He looked toward heaven. He thanked God. 7. It was early morning. He rowed across the lake. 8. He left early. He wished to catch the train. 9. He was very studious. He won the scholarship. 10. I went for a ramble. I took little Annie with me. 11. John is a blacksmith. He lives in the village. 12. He shoes horses. He does it skillfully. 13. The bluebird sings. He tells us spring is here. 14. We feared to start. The night was stormy. 15. The watchman was weary. He slept at his post. =Exercise 11.=--Combine the following statements by using _relative pronouns_. EXAMPLES. The flames lit the wreck. They shone on the dead. The flames _that_ lit the wreck shone on the dead. 1. We heard the roll of ponderous wheels. They roused us from our slumbers. 2. Travelers are surprised at the beauty of the spot. They occasionally come upon it by accident. 3. Our throats are choked with the dust. It lies thick along the road. 4. He drank a cup of cold water. This refreshed him. 5. Along came a flock of sheep. They were being driven to market. 6. I went to live in a country village. It was more than a hundred miles from home. 7. The water gushed from a little spring. It sparkled in the sunshine. 8. The villagers were kindly people. They welcomed strangers. 9. I watch the sunrise stealing down the steeple. This stands opposite my chamber window. 10. Up came a gallant youth. He wore a scarf of the rainbow pattern crosswise on his breast. 11. He found under it a slender little boy. The boy wailed bitterly. 12. The Puritan saw the boy's frightened gaze. He endeavored to reassure him. 13. Here is a little outcast. Providence hath put him in our hands. 14. A young man was on his way to Morristown. He was a peddler by trade. 15. A little canary bird sings sweetly. It hangs in its gilded cage at my window. =Exercise 12.=--Fill the blanks with conjunctions selected from the following list. and, also, likewise, moreover, besides, furthermore, but, yet, however, nevertheless, or, either, nor, neither, therefore, hence, then, accordingly. 1. They had been friends in youth, ---- whispering tongues can poison truth. 2. The waves beside them danced, ---- they outdid the sparkling waves in glee. 3. The sun sank to rest; ---- we lingered. 4. I came, I saw, ---- I conquered. 5. He wanted to live, ---- he wanted to work. 6. The owl has a backbone; ---- it is a vertebrate. 7. Our forest life was rough; ---- dangers closed us round. 8. Knowledge comes; ---- wisdom lingers. 9. 'Tis winter now, ---- spring will blossom soon. 10. We had guns; ---- we had an abundance of ammunition. 11. I go, ---- I return. 12. All the rivers run into the sea; ---- the sea is not full. 13. It is storming; ---- we will not go. 14. He forgave his enemy; ---- he was merciful. 15. He is not tired, ---- he is lazy. 16. The day proved clear; ---- we began our journey. 17. They had ---- locks to their doors ---- bars to their windows. 18. I assured him of my willingness; ---- he hesitated. 19. He proved himself honest; ---- I trusted him. 20. The storm raged; ---- we pushed on. =Exercise 13.=--Two ideas are sometimes stated as of equal importance (compound sentence), when one is really dependent upon the other (complex sentence). EXAMPLE. "I was on my way to school yesterday morning, and I met my cousin Raymond." To revise such a sentence as this, decide which clause contains the main idea, and make this the principal clause, putting the subordinate idea in a subordinate clause. _E.g._ "As I was on my way to school yesterday morning, I met my cousin Raymond." Reconstruct the following sentences, making them _complex_ instead of _compound_:-- 1. The sun was hot, and we rested in the shade. 2. We visited Stratford, and here Shakspere lived. 3. The poor man was bent with age, and he staggered under the heavy load. 4. The old woman lived in a little cottage, and it stood on the edge of the woods. 5. I was walking along the country roads, and I saw some wild strawberries. 6. The little boy carried a bundle, and it seemed very heavy. 7. The night was chilly, and we built a fire in the grate. 8. I wished to pass away the time, and I read a newspaper. 9. He was very ambitious, and he wished to become President. 10. She struck a match, and it burned with a feeble light. =3. Variety in the Use of Sentences=:--All your sentences must be simple, or complex, or compound; but there is no reason why you should use one of the three kinds in preference to another. If you examine a passage which you think interesting, you will be quite likely to find that some sentences are simple, some complex, and some compound. The variety is pleasing. If all the sentences had been of one kind, the result would have been decidedly monotonous. Pupils sometimes ask whether they should use long sentences or short sentences. This question is really answered in the preceding paragraph, for a simple sentence is usually shorter than a complex or a compound sentence. The fact is that what we like is _variety_. Until you are more experienced in composition, it will be well for you, in general, to use comparatively short sentences,--that is, sentences of not more than twenty-five or thirty words. You should feel at liberty, however, to follow your own taste in such matters, provided that your sentences are not regularly of about the same length and about the same form, so that your writing is lacking in variety. Be particularly careful, moreover, to avoid the sentence which is so long as not to be easily understood, such as the following:-- I rose softly, slipped on my clothes, opened the door suddenly, and beheld one of the most beautiful little fairy groups that a painter could imagine, consisting of a boy and two girls, the eldest not more than six, and lovely as seraphs, who were going the rounds of the house, singing at every chamber door, until my sudden appearance frightened them into mute bashfulness, so that they remained for a moment playing on their lips with their fingers, and now and then stealing a shy glance from under their eyebrows, until, as if by one impulse, they scampered away, and as they turned an angle of the gallery, I heard them laughing in triumph at their escape. See how much this passage is improved when the long sentence is broken up into shorter sentences:-- I rose softly, slipped on my clothes, opened the door suddenly, and beheld one of the most beautiful little fairy groups that a painter could imagine. It consisted of a boy and two girls, the eldest not more than six, and lovely as seraphs. They were going the rounds of the house, singing at every chamber door, but my sudden appearance frightened them into mute bashfulness. They remained for a moment playing on their lips with their fingers, and now and then stealing a shy glance from under their eyebrows, until, as if by one impulse, they scampered away, and as they turned an angle of the gallery, I heard them laughing in triumph at their escape. =Exercise 14.=--I. Improve the following passage by combining some of the sentences, making larger complex or compound sentences:-- I explored an old cellar. I noticed a slight break in the wall. The neck of a bottle projected from it. I drew it from its resting place. It proved to be a quaint green glass bottle. It bore a label. The label read "Currant Wine, 1802." I smacked my lips. I handed the bottle to my companion to open. He pulled the cork out with his teeth. We filled two tumblers. I thanked him. I raised the glass to my lips. I took a deep draught. Instantly I bounded to my feet. My bound would have done credit to an athlete. I made for the spring-house. "Seems to me," remarked the old tenant of the house,--"seems to me that was horse liniment. I know the smell." II. Improve the following passage by using a greater number of sentences:-- Once upon a time there were two princes who were twins and they lived in the pleasant vale of Argos, far away in Hellas, where they had fruitful meadows and vineyards, sheep and oxen, and great herds of horses and all that men could need to make them blest, and yet they were wretched, because they were jealous of each other, and from the moment they were born began to quarrel. =Exercise 15.=--Improve the following by varying the length of your sentences, making some long and some short:-- A sleep fell upon the whole castle. The beautiful princess slept in her chamber. The king and the queen were in the great hall. They fell fast asleep. The horses slept in their stalls. The dogs slept in the yard. The pigeons slept on the roof. The very fire on the hearth slept like the rest. The meat on the spit ceased roasting. The wind ceased. Not a leaf fell from the trees about the castle. Around about that place grew a hedge of thorns. At last the whole castle was hidden from view. Nothing could be seen but the vane on the roof. Years after a king's son came into that country. He heard about the enchanted castle. He came near the hedge of thorns. It changed into a hedge of beautiful flowers. He passed through into the castle yard. He saw the horses and the hunting dogs lying asleep. On the roof, the pigeons were sitting with their heads under their wings. He entered the kitchen. The flies on the wall were asleep. The cook had her hand uplifted to strike the scullion. The kitchen maid had a fowl in her lap ready to pluck. He mounted higher. He saw the whole court asleep. The king and the queen were asleep on their thrones. At last he came to the tower. He went up the winding stair. He opened the door. He entered the room of the princess. He stooped and kissed the princess. She opened her eyes and looked kindly at him. She rose. They went forth together. Then the king and queen and whole court waked up. The horses rose and shook themselves. The hounds sprang up and wagged their tails. The pigeons flew into the field. The kitchen fire leaped up and cooked the meat. The cook gave the scullion a box on the ear. He roared out. The maid went on plucking the fowl. The wedding of the prince and princess was celebrated with great splendor. They lived happily ever after. =4. Periodic Sentences.=--We have now discussed sentences with regard to their grammatical structure and with regard to their length. There is one more way in which they may be looked at; that is, the degree to which the sense is suspended. This will require a little explanation. In each of the following sentences two vertical lines are placed at the spot where the words first make complete sense. 1. Whenever he comes, he is warmly welcomed.|| 2. He is warmly welcomed|| whenever he comes. 3. When Absalom died, David mourned.|| 4. David mourned|| when Absalom died. 5. As the President passed, the soldiers saluted.|| 6. The soldiers saluted|| as the President passed. 7. While there is life, there is hope.|| 8. The sun shines|| on the just and the unjust. 9. The steam tug had long since let slip her hawsers,|| and gone panting away with a derisive scream. 10. The ship seemed quite proud|| of being left to take care of itself, and, with its huge white sails bulged out, strutted off like a vain turkey. When the words in a sentence are so arranged that the sense is not immediately complete, the sense is said to be _suspended_. A sentence in which the sense is suspended until the end, or near the end, is called a _periodic_ sentence. A sentence in which the sense is not suspended until the end, or near the end, is called a _loose_ sentence. A periodic sentence, unless it is long and clumsy, often stimulates the attention. You cannot understand it at all until you get near the close, and this very fact keeps your interest alive and leads your mind on. In the following passage the sentences are periodic:-- In the midst of a garden grew a rosebush covered with roses. In one of them, the most beautiful of all, there dwelt an elf. So tiny was he that no human eye could see him. Behind every leaf in the rose he had a bedroom. Oh, what a fragrance there was in his rooms! The walls, which were made of the pale pink rose leaves, were very clear and bright. Flying from flower to flower, dancing on the wings of the butterflies, rejoicing in the warm sunshine, he led a peaceful and happy life. Here is the same paragraph, so written that none of the sentences is periodic. Does not the paragraph seem a little flat? A rosebush covered with roses grew in the midst of a garden. An elf dwelt in one of them, the most beautiful of all. No human eye could see him, he was so tiny. He had a bedroom behind every leaf in the rose. Oh, there was a great fragrance in his rooms! The walls were very clear and bright, and were made of the pale pink rose leaves. He led a peaceful and happy life, flying from flower to flower, dancing on the wings of the butterflies and rejoicing in the warm sunshine. The point here, as in the other similar matters we have discussed, is that the mind likes variety in expression. You need not worry yourself by thinking much about the form of your sentences; but you should, if possible, get into the habit of varying them from time to time. Let them be sometimes short and sometimes long; sometimes simple, and sometimes complex or compound. And above all, when you are revising what you have written, try to make sure that in some cases the sense is sufficiently suspended to make your sentences interesting. =Exercise 16.=--In the passage quoted on page 00, mark the place where the sense is complete in each simple or complex sentence. In compound sentences mark the place in each independent clause. =Exercise 17.=--Construct periodic sentences by placing phrases before the following statements. EXAMPLE. We idly floated. In among the lily pads we idly floated. 1. The child slept. 2. They eagerly searched. 3. The prisoner escaped. 4. We explored the creek. 5. The boys laughed. 6. The people rejoiced. 7. We despaired. 8. The girl fainted. 9. He blithely sang. 10. She succeeded. 11. He failed. 12. He received his diploma. 13. The soldiers retreated. 14. Mary turned. =Exercise 18.=--Construct periodic sentences by placing dependent clauses before the following statements. EXAMPLE. They immediately started. When they heard the signal-gun, they immediately started. 1. They landed. 2. I am happy. 3. We watched. 4. The coward fled. 5. The raven croaked. 6. The flag will float. 7. The child died. 8. The poor suffered. 9. Our president died. 10. The slaves were free. 11. We quietly left. 12. They fled. 13. She returned. 14. We received the message. 15. He encouraged us. =Exercise 19.=--Construct periodic sentences by filling the blanks in the following with phrases or clauses. 1. ---- the village smithy stands. 2. ---- he runs. 3. ---- lay the little village. 4. ---- to grandmother's house we go. 5. The moonlight ---- flooded the room. 6. ---- there was a honeysuckle arbor. 7. ---- he reached home. 8. ---- yet I trust him. 9. ---- I will help you. 10. ---- Washington ---- took command. 11. ---- rode the six hundred. 12. ---- a youth ---- passed by. 13. A traveler ---- was found. 14. ---- he still grasped a banner. 15. The prisoner ---- made a confession. =Exercise 20.=--Construct periodic sentences by filling in the blanks with phrases or clauses. 1. Far away in the forest ----. 2. Out in the country ----. 3. A city that is set on a hill ----. 4. With a look of delighted surprise ----. 5. This young lad, hard as the world had knocked him about, ----. 6. Yet, through all his fun, ----. 7. Though they spake little ----. 8. Without any discussion, ----. 9. Looking about her uneasily, ----. 10. Late that night, as I sat up pondering over all that had happened, ----. =Exercise 21.=--Rewrite the following sentences, making them periodic. 1. The night wind swept by with a desolate moan. 2. The old shutters swung to and fro, screaming upon their hinges. 3. The village preacher's modest mansion rose near yonder copse, where once the garden smiled. 4. The noble six hundred rode into the jaws of death. 5. A sound came from the land between the fitful gusts of wind. 6. The silvery rain comes aslant like a long line of spears brightly burnished. 7. The snow arrives, announced by all the trumpets of the sky. 8. Great burdocks grew from the wall down to the water, so high that little children could stand upright under the loftiest of them. 9. The loveliest children ran about on the roads, playing with the gay butterflies. 10. The clear sun shone warm on the first day of spring in a little court yard. 11. An old castle looms over the narrow road. 12. The ivy grows thickly over the crumbling red walls, leaf by leaf, up to the balcony, and a beautiful girl stands there. 13. She glances up the road as she bends over the balustrade. 14. The lighthouse of Inverkaldy stood on a little rocky island, quite a distance from the mainland. 15. He rowed across the water with a cheerful heart. =5. Bad Sentences.=--Good sentences, then, are sentences that have some variety in form and in length, and, in particular, that are frequently periodic. You will soon learn to give to your writing the little touch of grace or beauty that comes in this way. But what are _bad_ sentences? What sorts of sentences should you try not to make? There are really only three kinds of sentences which are positively bad. The first is the "comma sentence." =6. The "Comma Sentence."=--This name is sometimes given to sentences in which two or more independent clauses, not connected by conjunctions, are separated only by commas. You should guard carefully against this fault. If two independent clauses be placed in a single sentence, they should be connected by a conjunction or separated by a semicolon. When independent clauses in the same sentence are connected by a conjunction, it is proper to use either a semicolon or comma. When they are not connected by a conjunction, only the semicolon can be used. EXAMPLES. 1. It was late, and the moon shone brightly. 2. It was late; and the moon shone brightly. 3. It was late; the moon shone brightly. 4. It was late, the moon shone brightly. [Wrong.] _Note for the Teacher._--Occasionally, in a compound sentence, particularly when it consists of three or more short statements, commas are used instead of semicolons. But it seems best to encourage pupils to use the semicolon invariably. Insistence on this practice will greatly strengthen the pupil's grasp of the sentence and its structure. =Exercise 22.=--Correct the following sentences:-- 1. Everything has its time to flourish, everything passes away. 2. It was late at night, the moon shone through the windows. 3. We are in a rich, a happy house, all are cheerful and full of joy, 4. The door opened and the maid came in, they all stood still, not one stirred. 5. I was right, we were not of the smallest importance to her. 6. I'm glad they are gone, now we can be comfortable. 7. The frost had broken up, a soft plentiful rain had melted the snowdrifts. 8. The window was a grand advantage, out of it one could crawl on to the roof, and from the roof was the finest view in all Nortonbury. 9. It was one of my seasons of excessive pain, I found it difficult to think of anything but pain. 10. The stream lay so low as to be invisible from where we sat, you could only trace the line of its course by the small white sails. =Exercise 23.=--Insert capitals and periods. 1. I left Salem House upon the morrow afternoon, I little thought then that I left it, never to return, we traveled very slowly all night, and did not get into Yarmouth before nine or ten o'clock in the morning, I looked out for Mr. Barkis, but he was not there; and instead of him a fat, merry-looking little old man in black, with rusty little bunches of ribbons at the knees of his breeches, came puffing up to the coach window, and said, "Master Copperfield?" 2. The conflict had raged for an hour, it grew more furious, from deck to deck the combatants rushed madly, fighting like demons, the _Richard_ and her crew suffered terribly, yet they fought on, she had been pierced by several eighteen-pound balls below water, she leaked badly, but she would not surrender. =Exercise 24.=--Construct ten compound sentences in which no connectives are used, and the clauses are separated by semicolons. =7. Sentences without Unity.=--We put into a sentence thoughts that belong together. Indeed, a good sentence is a group of words representing thoughts that have a close relationship in the speaker's or writer's mind. A sentence thus constructed is said to have _unity_; that is, "one-ness." A sentence in which the words represent facts or thoughts that do not have such a relationship is said to lack unity. EXAMPLES. 1. The owl, which is a nocturnal bird, has round, staring eyes, and superstitious people dislike to hear it hoot. [Two thoughts not closely related.] 2. Columbus was assisted by Queen Isabella of Spain, and sailing across the Atlantic Ocean with a fleet of three vessels, he discovered a new world. [Two thoughts not closely related.] 3. Columbus was assisted by Queen Isabella, who pawned her jewels and used the money thus procured in fitting out for him a fleet of three vessels. [Thoughts closely related.] 4. William Penn settled Pennsylvania and made a treaty with the Indians under a large elm, which is one of the most graceful of our trees. [Thoughts not closely related.] 5. William Penn, who was himself a Quaker, founded Pennsylvania as a place of refuge for the persecuted Quakers. [Thoughts closely related.] =Exercise 25.=--Rewrite the following sentences:-- 1. The wild strawberry has a delicious flavor, and we enjoy picking the berries, which belong to the rose family. 2. Mary has a new beaver muff which her father bought for her in Montreal, the largest city in Canada. 3. Sir Walter Raleigh was a favorite of Queen Elizabeth, called the Virgin Queen, and he introduced tobacco into England. 4. We visited the Metropolitan Museum of Art, where we saw the picture called "The Horse Fair," and met Mary, who is certainly the most discontented girl I know. 5. Once, a long time ago, in a little cottage beside a dark wood, lived a naughty little boy, and his mother told him repeatedly that the old witch that lived in the wood would get him. =8. The Formless Sentence.=--There is still one other sort of sentence to be avoided; that is the ugly, shapeless sentence that results from placing together a number of complete statements loosely connected by _and_, _but_, or _so_. Sometimes this is called the _and_ sentence or the _so_ sentence, because these two connectives are so frequently used by inexperienced writers. Let us call it the _formless_ sentence, meaning thereby a sentence which is deficient in form, or the form of which is ugly or distasteful to the trained eye and ear. You will have to acquire your sense or taste for form in sentences by practice and experience; but you will be helped by studying the sentences given below. Those in the left-hand column are well-written; those in the right-hand column are _formless_. 1. At half-past nine we 1. At half-past nine we reached Charles's house, and reached Charles's house and until half-past ten we were until half-past ten we were busy thinking what to do. busy thinking what to do, Finally, some one suggested until some one suggested a a climb up the Palisades, and climb up the Palisades, and we started off at eleven. so we started off at eleven. 2. As it was getting very 2. It was getting very cloudy, we put on some of cloudy, so we put on some of Charles's old clothes. Charles's old clothes. 3. When I returned, it 3. When I returned, it had stopped raining, and the had stopped raining, and the boys were receiving a lecture boys were receiving a lecture from the farmer's wife. She from the farmer's wife, told us that we had no right who told us that we had no on her property, and a few right on her property, and other things we didn't pay a few other things we didn't much attention to. But pay much attention to, but when she said that her husband one thing she told us was was a magistrate, and that her husband was a magistrate, that she could have us locked and that she could up, we got away as quickly have us locked up, and so we as we could. got away from there as quickly as we could. 4. I had been traveling 4. I had been traveling all day through the all day through the snow snow with one companion, with one companion, who who had now gone off to had now gone off to what what our compasses told us our compasses told us was was the south, in search of the south, in search of wood, wood. I was hungry and and I was thoroughly hungry thoroughly tired. More than and tired, for more than once during the day I once during the day I had had stepped on what seemed stepped on what seemed to be to be firmly packed snow, firmly packed snow, only to only to sink to my waist in sink to my waist in a soft a soft drift, and it was always drift, and it was always with with difficulty that difficulty that I had got out. I had got out. You will see, then, that there is certain "knack" which you must acquire of giving a sentence a pleasing form. With a little patience, you will soon learn it, and you will gain it all the more easily by remembering that the ugly formless sentence, which you are to avoid, is simply a _long loose_ sentence (see § 4). =Exercise 26.=--Reconstruct the following sentences:-- 1. There once reigned a queen, and in her garden were found the most glorious flowers of all seasons and from all lands, but she loved best the roses, and so she had the most various kinds of this flower, and they grew against the earth walls, and wound themselves round pillars and window frames, and all along the ceiling in all the halls, and the roses were various in fragrance, form, and color. 2. Many years ago there lived an emperor, and he cared enormously for new clothes, and he wanted to be very fine, so he spent all his money for clothes, and he did not care about his soldiers, but only liked to drive out and show his new clothes, and he had a coat for every hour of the day, and just as they say of a king, "He is in council," they said of him, "The emperor is in his wardrobe." 3. Napoleon's marshals came to him once in the midst of a battle and said, "We have lost the day and are being cut to pieces," but the great soldier drew out his watch, unmoved, and said, "It is only two o'clock in the afternoon, and though you have lost the battle you have time to win another," so they charged again and won a victory, and we should enter our battle-fields of difficulty with the same unconquerable spirit. 4. The highest courage is sustained courage, for the power of continuance adds to all other powers, and to face danger, appreciate the full demand and meet it to the end, is the height of brave living, for most young hearts can respond to a sudden demand for courage, but the long stretch finds them lacking. 5. A New York woman called on Emerson one morning and found the philosopher reading in his study, while near him on a plate there lay a little heap of cherry stones, and the visitor slipped one of these stones into her glove. Some months later she met Emerson again at a reception in Boston and recalled her visit to him and then she pointed to the brooch she wore, a brooch of gold and brilliants with the cherry stone set in the center and she said, "I took this stone from the plate at your elbow on the morning of my call," and Emerson replied, "Ah, I'll tell my amanuensis of that and he will be so pleased, for he loves cherries, but I never touch them myself." 6. John was a boy who wanted to be a ventriloquist, and one day he visited an old engineer in a factory and after a little conversation he imitated the squeak of badly oiled machinery, and the old engineer trotted to a certain valve and oiled it, so John let a few minutes pass and then emitted another series of squeaks and the engineer again oiled his machinery, and the third time John squeaked the engineer saw through the joke and, walking up quietly behind John, squirted a half-pint of oil down the back of his neck, saying, "There! There'll be no more squeaking to-day." =Exercise 27.=--Reconstruct the following sentences, putting the underlined phrases in their proper places. 1. The musician was playing a sonata _with long hair_. 2. I saw at once that he was a villain _with half an eye_. 3. A woman desires a home for her _dog going abroad for the summer_. 4. The kind old gentleman lifted the trembling child _with a gold-headed cane_. 5. A wreath was made by a little girl of _roses_. 6. The house was painted brown _with the tall flag-pole_. 7. We saw a magnificent cedar tree _entering the woods_. 8. We found some golden-rod _walking along the dusty road_. 9. We saw the lakes _climbing a tree_. 10. The old lady gave alms to a young beggar _with the white hair_. CHAPTER III THE PARAGRAPH =9. The Use of the Paragraph.=--Composition is the combining or grouping of words. We group our words in sentences. We also group our sentences in paragraphs. A _paragraph_ is a group of sentences which together express an important thought. In a way, of course, every sentence expresses a thought--a small thought, so to speak. But experience has shown that the educated mind can best understand written language if it can take in several of these smaller thoughts, in as many sentences, in rapid succession, provided only that these smaller thoughts, when taken together, make up a larger thought. A paragraph is, then, the expression of a large or important thought, made up of several smaller or less important thoughts, expressed in sentences. _Note._--Sometimes, but not often, a single sentence represents such an important thought that it can best stand by itself. A paragraph is indicated to the eye by the fact that the beginning of the first sentence is placed a little way to the right of the left-hand margin; in other words, it is _indented_. On the printed page, a paragraph is indented only the space which would be occupied by two or three letters. In a written composition the paragraph is indented about an inch. Another fact that makes it easy for the eye to recognize a paragraph is that it frequently does not close with the end of a line. When, therefore, you look at a piece of printed or written composition, you see at once that you are to receive a certain number of thoughts or ideas, each of which is placed in a section or paragraph by itself. In listening to an address or oration you notice the separation between the thoughts by the fact that the speaker usually makes a pause of several seconds to indicate that he has finished the expression of one thought and is now ready to pass on to another. _Note._--In writing a long conversation, it is usually customary to make each speech of each person a paragraph by itself, even if it consists of only a few words. This is because it is of the utmost importance, in reading an account of a conversation, to know just who is speaking. =10. The Beginning.=--We group our sentences. But how shall we begin? What sentences shall come first? Usually we shall express our thoughts most clearly if we begin with a sentence that shows in brief what the whole paragraph is about. This is sometimes called the _topic sentence_, because it is the sentence that states the topic or central idea of the paragraph. EXAMPLES. 1. To the simple-hearted folk who dwelt in that island three thousand years ago, there was never a sweeter spot than sea-girt Ithaca. Rocky and rugged though it may have seemed, yet it was indeed a smiling land embosomed in the laughing sea. There the air was always mild and pure, and balmy with the breath of blossoms; the sun looked kindly down from a cloudless sky, and the storms seldom broke the quiet ripple of the waters which bathed the shores of that island home. On every side but one, the land rose straight up out of the deep sea to meet the feet of craggy hills and mountains crowned with woods. Between the heights were many narrow dells green with orchards, while the gentler slopes were covered with vineyards, and the steeps above them gave pasturage to flocks of long-wooled sheep and mountain-climbing goats.--JAMES BALDWIN: _A Story of the Golden Age_. [Here the first sentence shows that the paragraph is to be about the beauty of the island.] 2. Upon the ridge above our tent was a third tiny clearing, where some trappers had once made their winter camp. It was there that I watched the rabbits one moonlight night from my seat on an old log, just within the shadow at the edge of the opening. The first arrival came in with a rush. There was a sudden scurry behind me, and over the log he came with a flying leap that landed him on the smooth bit of ground in the middle, where he whirled around and around with grotesque jumps, like a kitten after its tail. Only Br'er Rabbit's tail was too short for him ever to catch it; he seemed rather to be trying to get a good look at it. Then he went off helter-skelter in a headlong rush through the ferns. Before I knew what had become of him, over the log he came again in a marvelous jump, and went tearing around the clearing like a circus horse, varying his performance now by a high leap, now by two or three awkward hops on his hind legs, like a dancing bear. It was immensely entertaining.--WILLIAM J. LONG: _Ways of Wood Folk_. [Here the first two sentences show that the paragraph is to be about watching rabbits in a clearing by moonlight.] 3. Soon after he was raised to the dignity of postmaster another piece of good fortune came in his way. Sangamon County covered a territory some forty miles long by fifty wide, and almost every citizen in it seemed intent on buying or selling land, laying out new roads, or locating some future city. John Calhoun, the county surveyor, therefore, found himself with far more work than he could personally attend to, and had to appoint deputies to assist him. Learning the high esteem in which Lincoln was held by the people of New Salem, he wisely concluded to make him a deputy, although they differed in politics. It was a flattering offer, and Lincoln accepted gladly. Of course he knew almost nothing about surveying, but he got a compass and chain, and, as he tells us, "studied Flint and Gibson a little, and went at it." The surveyor, who was a man of talent and education, not only gave Lincoln the appointment, but, it is said, lent him the book in which to study the art. Lincoln carried the book to his friend Graham, and "went at it" to such purpose that in six weeks he was ready to begin the practice of his new profession. Like Washington, who, it will be remembered, followed the same calling in his youth, he became an excellent surveyor.--HELEN NICOLAY: _The Boys' Life of Abraham Lincoln_. [Here the first sentence shows that the paragraph is to be about a new piece of good fortune in Lincoln's life.] When you are writing a composition in a single paragraph, you will find the topic sentence very useful. In no other way can you so quickly give the reader a notion of what to expect. But it is not necessary always to begin with a topic sentence. What is important is that you begin with a hint that will turn the reader's thoughts in the right direction. Look at the beginnings of several paragraphs in your reader, and you will see how the hint is given. =Exercise 28.=--What do the opening sentences in the following paragraphs show? 1. One cold morning early in December, 1800, a party of tourists was crossing the Alps,--a pretty large party, too, for there were several thousands of them. Some were riding, some walking, and most of them had knapsacks on their shoulders like many Alpine tourists nowadays. But instead of walking sticks, they carried muskets with bayonets, and dragged along with them some fifty or sixty cannons. 2. There was one among them who seemed quite to enjoy the rough marching and tramping along through the deep snow and cold gray mist. This was a little drummer boy ten years old, whose fresh, rosy face looked very bright and pretty among the grim, scarred visages of the old soldiers. When the cutting wind hurled a shower of snow in his face, he dashed it away with a cheery laugh, and awoke all the echoes with a lively rattle on his drum, till it seemed as if the huge black rocks around were all singing in chorus. 3. Ezekiel made the first plea. His argument was a strong one against all wild and destructive animals in general, and against this woodchuck in particular. He called attention to the damage which had been done already to the growing vegetables, and to the further mischief which might be done if the animal were set free. 4. Between two cliffs lay a deep ravine, with a full stream rolling heavily through it over bowlders and rough ground. It was high and steep, and one side was bare, save at the foot, where clustered a thick, fresh wood, so close to the stream that the mist from the water lay upon the foliage in spring and autumn. The trees stood looking upwards and forwards, unable to move either way. =Exercise 29.=--Supply topic sentences for the following paragraphs:-- 1. He [George Washington] was very tall, powerfully made, with a strong, handsome face. He was remarkably muscular and powerful. As a boy, he was a leader in all outdoor sports. No one could fling the bar farther than he, and no one could ride more difficult horses. 2. It [the old-fashioned school] is a large, dingy room, with a sanded floor, and is lighted by windows that turn on hinges, and have little diamond-shaped panes of glass. The scholars sit on long benches, with desks before them. At one end of the room is a great fireplace, so spacious that there is room enough for three or four boys to stand in each of the chimney corners. 3. The hall [of the Imperial library] is two hundred and forty-five feet long, with a magnificent dome in the center. The walls are of variegated marble, richly ornamented with gold, and the ceiling and dome are covered with brilliant fresco paintings. The library numbers three hundred thousand volumes and sixteen thousand manuscripts, which are kept in walnut cases, adorned with medallions. 4. [The Country Boy's Vacation.] When school keeps he has only to "do chores and go to school," but between terms there are a thousand things on the farm that have been left for the boys to do. Picking up stones in the pastures and piling them in heaps used to be one of them. 5. [Recess in a Country School.] He is like a deer; he can nearly fly; and he throws himself into play with entire self-forgetfulness, and an energy that would overturn the world if his strength were proportioned to it. For ten minutes the world is absolutely his; the weights are taken off, restraints are loosed, and he is his own master. =Exercise 30.=--Write short paragraphs to complete three of the following topic sentences:-- 1. From the summit of the hill they saw the sun set. 2. When the flames were out, we saw how great the damage was. 3. In a moment, the storm was upon them. 4. At ten years old, I was taken to help my father in his business. 5. It was a beautiful little craft. 6. There stood Lincoln, a remarkable figure. 7. It was market day. 8. Close by the roadside stands a little schoolhouse. 9. In the year 1776 a remarkable event occurred. 10. His attention was arrested by a dove, pursued by a kingbird. =11. Unity in the Paragraph.=--In your study of the sentence, you learned that every good sentence must have _unity_; that is, that the thoughts included in a sentence must be very closely associated. You are now to learn that every good paragraph must likewise have _unity_. A paragraph, whether it be long or short, has _unity_ when it treats of but a single topic. The _topic sentence_ will be a great help to you in giving your paragraphs _unity_. You will not be so apt to jumble into one paragraph material that should be placed in two or three, if you will, before you begin to write, decide upon the subject of your paragraph and make a topic sentence for it. You can test the unity of your paragraph by asking with respect to each sentence that you construct, "Does it relate to the subject of my paragraph?" =Exercise 31.=--The following paragraphs lack _unity_. How many topics are treated in each? 1. In the German land of Würtemberg lies the little town of Marbach. Although this place can be ranked only among the smaller towns, it is charmingly situated on the Neckar stream, that flows on and on, hurrying past villages and old castles to pour its waters into the proud Rhine. It was late in autumn. The leaves still clung to the grapevine, but they were already tinged with red. Rainy gusts swept over the country, and the cold autumn winds increased in violence. 2. Cecelia's home was an old family mansion situated in the midst of a pleasant farm. This was inclosed by willow hedges and a broad and gently murmuring river; nearer the house were groves with rocky knolls and breezy bowers of beech. Cecelia's bosom friend at school was Alice Archer; and after they left school, the love between them rather increased than diminished. 3. Alice Archer was a delicate girl with a pale transparent complexion and large gray eyes that seemed to see visions. Her figure was slight, almost fragile; her hands white and slender. The old house in which she lived with her mother, with four sickly Lombardy poplars in front, suggested gloomy and mournful thoughts. It was one of those places that depress you as you enter. One other inmate the house had, and only one. This was Sally Manchester, the cook. She was an extraordinary woman of large frame and masculine features,--one of those who are born to work. A treasure she was to this family. 4. Far out in the sea the water is as blue as the petals of the most beautiful corn-flowers, and as clear as the purest glass. But it is very deep, deeper than any cable will sound; and down there live the sea people. The Sea King had been a widower for many years. His old mother kept house for him and his daughters, the little sea princesses. 5. Shylock, the Jew, lived at Venice. He was a usurer, who had amassed an immense fortune by lending money at great interest to Christian merchants. Being a hard-hearted man, he was much disliked by all good men. Antonio was the kindest man that lived, the best loved, and had the most unwearied spirit in doing courtesies. He was greatly beloved by all his fellow-citizens; but the friend who was nearest to his heart was Bassanio, a noble young Venetian. One day, Bassanio came to Antonio and told him that he wished to repair his fortune by a wealthy marriage with a lady whom he dearly loved. =12. The Body of the Paragraph.=--We are to begin with a topic sentence, or with a sentence that gives some hint of what is to follow. And what next? Next comes the body of the paragraph, the real paragraph, the idea we had in mind to express. The best plan to follow in the making of your paragraph is this:-- 1. Write brief notes of your material on the topic you have in mind, and make sure that it all bears directly on the topic. 2. Arrange these notes in the order that would be most natural and intelligible to the reader. 3. Find a good topic sentence. 4. Write the paragraph according to the plan arranged. EXAMPLE I. Subject of paragraph: The Long-spurred Columbine. _A._ Material: 1. Native of the Rocky Mountains. 2. Blooms abundantly. 3. Grows on shady slopes. 4. Color--blue, white, occasionally pink, never red. 5. Sepals--ovate with slender spurs, spreading; double length of the petals with which they alternate. 6. Petals--round and lighter in color than sepals. 7. Size--three inches broad. 8. Beauty--so great that it has been introduced into gardens. [In this example, the material has fallen of its own accord into a good order: general statements, 1, 2, 3; color, 4; form, 5, 6; size, 7; beauty, 8. In this case, therefore, it will not be necessary to rearrange the material.] _B._ Topic sentence: The long-spurred columbine is an exquisite flower. _C._ Whole paragraph: The long-spurred columbine is an exquisite flower. It is a native of the Rocky Mountains, where it blooms abundantly on shady slopes. It often wears a blue gown; it also wears white and occasionally pink, but never red. The ovate sepals, with their slender spurs, are spreading, and double the length of the round, lighter-colored petals with which they alternate. In size it is quite three inches across. It is so beautiful that it has been introduced into many gardens. EXAMPLE II. Subject of paragraph: Emigration to California in 1849. _A._ Material: 1. In '49, "gold fever" reaches Eastern states. 2. Rush for West. 3. Eighty thousand men reach California before end of year. 4. A few gain riches. 5. The greater part barely make a living by exhaustive toil. 6. Hardships of journey across Isthmus of Panama and across continent (overland route). 7. San Francisco, from an insignificant settlement, sprang into city of twenty thousand inhabitants. _B._ Material rearranged: 1. In 1849--"gold fever" reaches Eastern states. 2. Rush for West. 3. Hardships of journey. 4. Eighty thousand men reach California. 5. San Francisco's rapid growth. 6. A few gain riches. 7. The greater number barely make a living by their exhausting toil. [Notice that 6 has been made 3. The hardships of the journey should naturally be described before the facts about the arrival are given.] _C._ Topic sentence: In 1849 the "gold fever" reached the Eastern states, and a great rush of emigration began, both by land and by sea. _D._ Whole paragraph: In 1849 the "gold fever" reached the Eastern states, and a great rush of emigration began both by land and by sea. Many died of sickness contracted in crossing the Isthmus of Panama; multitudes more perished on the overland route across the continent. Notwithstanding the hardships and loss of life, over eighty thousand men succeeded in reaching California before the end of the year. From an insignificant settlement San Francisco suddenly sprang into a city of twenty thousand inhabitants. A few of these emigrants gained the riches they so eagerly sought, but the greater part barely made a living by the most exhausting toil. EXAMPLE III. Subject of paragraph: President Lincoln's Call for Volunteers. _A._ Material: 1. Lincoln calls for seventy-five thousand volunteers April 15, 1861. 2. Wishes them to serve three months. 3. Within thirty-six hours several companies from Pennsylvania had reached Washington. 4. Men of all parties at the North forgot their political quarrels and hastened to the defense of the capital. 5. The Sixth Massachusetts Regiment was the first full regiment to march. 6. Few supposed the war would last longer than three months. 7. The Sixth Massachusetts speedily followed the Pennsylvania regiments. _B._ Material rearranged: 1. Lincoln calls for seventy-five thousand volunteers April 15, 1861. 2. For three months' service. 3. Few supposed the war would last longer. 4. Men of all parties at North forgot their political quarrels and hastened to the defense of the capital. 5. Within thirty-six hours several Pennsylvania regiments had reached Washington. 6. The Sixth Massachusetts was the first full regiment to march. 7. The Sixth Massachusetts speedily followed the Pennsylvania regiments. _C._ Topic sentence: On April 15, 1861, President Lincoln called for seventy-five thousand volunteers. _D._ Whole paragraph: On April 15, 1861, President Lincoln called for seventy-five thousand volunteers. They were to enlist for only three months, for few then supposed the war would last longer than that. In response to the President's call, men of all parties at the North forgot their political quarrels, and hastened to the defense of the capital. Within thirty-six hours several companies from Pennsylvania had reached Washington. They were speedily followed by the Sixth Massachusetts Regiment--the first full regiment to march. =Exercise 32.=--Make notes for completing the paragraphs suggested by the following topic sentences. In arranging your notes, you should follow some simple plan. If you are writing a story, for instance, you will naturally follow the order of time, and put things down in the order in which they occurred. If you are writing a description of scenery, you may mention the various objects in the order in which you saw them, or in the order of place, or in the order of importance. If you are explaining something, you will present facts in the order of their importance, and according to their connection with each other, always keeping in mind that you wish to make your explanation simple and clear. 1. The journey had been long and tiresome. 2. At sunset I stood on a hill, overlooking the town. 3. The dew had not disappeared, when, just after sunrise, I started out, fishing rod in hand. 4. Golden-rod is one of the most common and the most beautiful of our wayside flowers. =13. Too Many Paragraphs.=--Sometimes matter that might be properly included in one paragraph is spread over two or three paragraphs, as in the following passages:-- I. As the Hurons, to every appearance, had abandoned the pursuit, there was no apparent reason for this excess of caution. The flight was, however, maintained for hours, until they had reached a bay, near the northern termination of the lake. Here the canoe was driven upon the beach, and the whole party landed. II. The Duke of Normandy landed in Sussex, in the year 1066. He had an army of sixty thousand chosen men, for accomplishing his bold enterprise. Many gallant knights who were not his subjects joined him, in the hope of obtaining fame in arms and estates, if his enterprise should prosper. =Exercise 33.=--Write the following selection in three paragraphs. State the subject of each paragraph. Burton Holmes, the lecturer, says that the Indians of Alaska regard white men and canned goods as so closely associated that they are nearly synonymous. Wherever the white man is seen, canned meats, fruits, and vegetables are found. When Mr. Holmes visited Alaska recently, he carried with him a phonograph. This was exhibited to an old chief who had never seen a talking machine before. When the machine was started, and the sound of a human voice came from the trumpet, the Indian was much interested. He listened gravely for a time, then approached and peered into the trumpet. When the machine finished its cylinder and stopped, the Indian pointed at it, and smiling an expansive smile, remarked, "Huh! Him canned white man." =14. The End of a Paragraph.=--Occasionally you will find that it is convenient to put at the end of a paragraph a sentence that will sum up your whole idea in a few words. Such a sentence is particularly useful when no topic sentence has been used. EXAMPLES:-- 1. The great error in Rip's composition was a strong dislike of all kinds of profitable labor. It could not be from the want of perseverance; for he would sit on a wet rock, with a rod as long and heavy as a lance, and fish all day without a murmur, even though he should not be encouraged by a single nibble. He would carry a fowling piece on his shoulder for hours together, trudging through woods and swamps, and up hill and down dale, to shoot a few squirrels or wild pigeons. He would never refuse to assist a neighbor even in the roughest toil, and was a foremost man at all country frolics for husking Indian corn, or building stone fences; the women of the village, too, used to employ him to run their errands, and to do such little odd jobs as their less obliging husbands would not do for them. In a word, Rip was ready to attend to anybody's business but his own; but as to doing family duty, and keeping his farm in order, he found it impossible.--WASHINGTON IRVING: _Rip Van Winkle._ 2. I was fatigued with traveling, rowing, and want of rest; I was very hungry, and my whole stock of cash consisted of a Dutch dollar and about a shilling in copper. This latter I gave the people of the boat for my passage, who at first refused it on account of my rowing; but I insisted on their taking it. A man is sometimes more generous when he has but a little money than when he has plenty, perhaps through fear of being thought to have but little.--BENJAMIN FRANKLIN: _Autobiography._ 3. We are a part of the public, and help to make its opinions and give it its power. Laws are practically useless unless the general sentiment of the community sanctions them. The rules of great corporations prohibiting the use of liquor by employees are now enforced as they could not have been a few years ago. They can be enforced now because of a growth of the belief that intoxicants are harmful, and a growing demand that those intrusted with human lives and with great interests shall be clear of brain and reliable of hand. Public opinion is a power, and it is one that we should help to form and help to use. =Exercise 34.=--Make notes for paragraphs suggested by the following summary sentences:-- 1. In a word, it was a magnificent sight. 2. Thus died a brave soldier. 3. It was a simple but a kindly act. 4. It was too late. =Exercise 35.=--Find summary sentences for the paragraphs suggested by the following notes:-- 1. Tom obliged to whitewash fence.--Holiday.--Other boys come for him.--Pretends to enjoy his task.--Refuses to let them help him.--Finally accepts bribe and lets the boys do his work. [Summary sentence expressing an opinion of Tom's cleverness.] 2. Autumn storm--rocky coast--high wind--big waves--dashing spray. [Summary sentence expressing your pleasure or discomfort.] 3. Getting up early on a winter morning--unpleasant--dark--cold--sleepy. [Summary sentence indicating your dislike.] =15. Quotations.=--This is a convenient place to explain the punctuation of quotations. Quotations are _direct_ when the exact words of the speaker or writer are repeated. They are _indirect_ when the thought is expressed without using the exact words. 1. _Direct._ "Good evening, Dance," said the doctor, with a nod. "And good evening to you, Jim. What good wind brings you here?" 2. _Indirect._ The doctor nodded, said good evening to Dance and Jim, and asked what good wind brought them there. In writing down a conversation, it is customary to make each speech of each person a paragraph by itself, even if it consists of only a few words. A direct quotation should be inclosed in quotation marks. When a direct quotation is broken or separated by words which are not quoted, each part of the quotation should be inclosed in quotation marks. 1. _Unbroken._ "Have you any money?" asked the baker. 2. _Broken._ "Run along," said the woman, kindly; "carry your bread home, child." The first word of a direct quotation should begin with a capital letter. If the quotation when _unbroken_ is composed of two independent parts separated by a semicolon, a semicolon (not a comma) should follow the author's words when the quotation is broken. 1. _Unbroken._ Solomon said, "Boast not thyself of to-morrow; for thou knowest not what a day may bring forth." 2. _Broken._ "Boast not thyself of to-morrow," said Solomon; "for thou knowest not what a day may bring forth." When a quotation is long or formally introduced, it is usually preceded by a colon, or by a colon and a dash. 1. Nathan Hale, before he was executed, spoke the following words: "I regret that I have only one life to give for my country." 2. In Tennyson's _Bugle Song_ we find the following beautiful lines:-- "O love, they die in yon rich sky, They faint on hill, or field, or river; Our echoes roll from soul to soul And grow forever and forever." =Exercise 36.=--Rewrite the following sentences, putting in the quotation marks. Make each speech of each person a paragraph by itself. 1. The mother turned her head as Alice entered, and said, Who is it? Is it you, Alice? Yes, it is I, mother. Where have you been so long? I have been nowhere, dear mother. I have come directly home from church. How long it seems to me! It is very late. It is growing quite dark. I was just going to call for the lights. Why, mother! exclaimed Alice, in a startled tone, what do you mean? The sun is shining directly into your face! Impossible, my dear Alice. It is quite dark. I cannot see you. Where are you? Alice leaned over her mother and kissed her. Both were silent,--both wept. They knew that the hour, so long looked forward to with dismay, had suddenly come. Mrs. Archer was blind! 2. Yonder comes Moses. As she spoke, Moses came in on foot, sweating under the deal box, which he had strapped round his shoulders like a peddler. Welcome, welcome, Moses; well, my boy, what have you brought us from the fair? I have brought you myself, cried Moses, with a sly look, and resting the box on the dresser. Ah, Moses, cried my wife, that we know, but where is the horse? I have sold him, cried Moses, for three pounds five shillings and twopence. Well done, my good boy, returned she. Between ourselves, three pounds five shillings and twopence is no bad day's work. Come, let us have it, then. I have brought back no money, cried Moses again. I have laid it all out in a bargain, and here it is, pulling out a bundle from his breast; here they are, a gross of green spectacles, with silver rims and shagreen cases. A gross of green spectacles! repeated my wife in a faint voice. And you have parted with the colt, and bought us back nothing but a gross of green paltry spectacles! Dear mother, cried the boy, why won't you listen to reason? They were a dead bargain, or I should not have bought them. =Exercise 37.=--Change the following _indirect_ quotations to _direct_ quotations:-- 1. The fir tree wished it were tall enough to go to sea, and asked the stork to tell it what the sea looked like; but the stork replied that it would take too much time to explain. 2. The little boy asked his grandmother whether the swarm of white bees had a queen bee and she replied that they certainly had. 3. Rip asked in despair whether nobody there knew Rip Van Winkle, and some one answered that he stood leaning against a tree yonder. Rip looked, and beheld a precise counterpart of himself as he went up the mountain. The poor fellow was now completely confounded and wondered whether he was himself or another man. In the midst of his bewilderment, the man in the cocked hat demanded who he was and what was his name. Rip replied that he was not himself but somebody else, and that he could not tell who he was. =Exercise 38.=--Write from dictation. 1. A little daughter of a clergyman was not feeling well, and had to be put to bed early. "Mother," she said, "I want to see my dear father." "No, dear," said her mother, "father is not to be disturbed just now." Presently came the pleading voice, "I want to see my father." "No, dear," was the answer, "I cannot disturb him." Then the four-year-old parishioner rose to the question of privilege. "Mother," said she, "I am sick woman, and I want to see my minister." 2. One night my friend put up at a small country hotel. The next morning, at breakfast, the landlord said to him, "Did you enjoy the cornet playing in the room next to yours last night?" "Enjoy it!" my friend replied, "I should think not. Why, I spent half the night pounding on the wall to make the man stop." "It must have been a misunderstanding," said the landlord. "The cornet player told me that the person in the next room applauded him so heartily that he went over every piece he knew three times." CHAPTER IV WORDS =16. How We Learn Words.=--We have now for some time been studying about combinations of words, but we have said very little about words themselves. This was the proper course to follow, for in our native language we need to be told about combinations of words more than about words themselves; about these we cannot help finding out much by ourselves. Indeed, it is life that teaches us words,--life and association with our fellows. We could scarcely avoid learning rapidly the names which the people who speak our language have given to the multitude of actual things which we see and touch, and the common words which are customary to express our feelings and thoughts with regard to these objects. As we grow older and wiser, and particularly if we associate with persons of intelligence and information, and read widely in books of all sorts, we become rapidly acquainted also with a great mass of words that have grown up to express the most abstract thoughts and the most delicate shades of feeling. Life, then, and association with our fellows, and reading will bring to our knowledge, in due course of time, all the words we shall ever need to use. There are a few hints to be given, however, which will be of service to you in this process of learning the customary words which the people of our race and nation use to express their thoughts and feelings. =17. The Size and Character of the English Vocabulary.=--We use the word _vocabulary_ to express the total number of words used by a person or group of persons. The English vocabulary, then, is the total number of words used by the people who write and speak English. There are more than three hundred thousand such words collected in our dictionaries, and the number is being added to every year. No single person would be acquainted with all these words, for many of them have been used only rarely, or only among little groups of people, or in connection with sciences not understood by the people at large. The number of words that an intelligent and educated person would understand when he saw or heard them is not often more than sixty thousand; the number of words that such a person would himself use is very much less--probably not, as a rule, more than twenty thousand. A great many of our words come from the Latin language, and you will be greatly aided in your study of English words if you can learn something of that language. =18. Increasing One's Vocabulary.=--It is clear, then, that you will greatly increase your vocabulary as you grow older and wiser. It is also true, in general, that as your vocabulary grows you will grow, to some extent, in knowledge of the world. It will be worth while for you, therefore, to get into the habit of learning new words. This could, of course, be done by reading the dictionary (and the dictionary is by no means an uninteresting volume to pick up from time to time), but the more natural way is to reach this result by cultivating the habit of _attention_ to words. You might begin the habit by noticing accurately the names of things you see or handle,--of tools and implements, birds, animals, and flowers; the names of different colors and shades; the names applied to persons to describe their duties and occupations. =Exercise 39.=--Write as many words as possible that name:-- 1. Various trades and professions. 2. Vehicles used on land. 3. Boats (from a man-of-war to a flatboat). 4. Buildings--(_a_) churches, (_b_) public buildings, (_c_) educational buildings, (_d_) buildings used for amusements. 5. Parts of a bicycle. 6. Tools. 7. Birds. 8. Flowers. 9. Colors. 10. Musical instruments. =Exercise 40.=--After each of the following nouns place a verb that describes the sound made by the animal mentioned. Sheep, owls, sparrows, goats, oxen, frogs, hens, bears, horses, robins, roosters, doves, lions, parrots, ravens, monkeys, elephants, snakes. =Exercise 41.=--Notice the following words which might be used in describing some one's appearance:-- _Eyes_: bright, dull, sparkling, clear, heavy, close-set, shifting, narrow, honest, gentle, penetrating, keen, kindly, expressive, lovely, hard. _Forehead_: noble, high, receding, low, broad, narrow, well-shaped. _Figure_: muscular, wiry, broad-shouldered, well-proportioned, slender, thick-set, stout, short, tall. 1. Make a similar list to describe a person's disposition, ability, conversation. 2. Make a list of the descriptive words used by Longfellow in _The Village Blacksmith_. =Exercise 42.=--Find as many descriptions of winter as you can. Make lists of words used by the authors in describing it. Make lists of words that you might use in describing the following: _a picnic_; _Christmas night_; _the weather_; _the character of Washington_; _an old house_; _a shell_; _a feather_; _a sunset_; _Mount Washington_; _a lily-of-the valley_; _your favorite walk_. =Exercise 43.=--The same scene may look very different to you at different times,--for instance, a piece of woods which you visit in company with some merry boys and girls in search of spring flowers, and the same woods in which you wander alone, having lost your way. Select from the following list adjectives which you might use in writing the first description; the second. _Things described_: path, leaves on the ground, birds, squirrels, trees, brook. _Descriptive words_: lonely, crisp, solitary, chattering, moaning, merry, mournful, timid, scolding, shady, romantic, charming, singing, sweet-voiced, warning, sobbing, dismal, gloomy. =Exercise 44.=--Compare the following: 1. New York Harbor seen by a citizen of New York who is returning home after a long absence in some foreign country. 2. The same viewed by a homesick Norwegian girl who has left all her friends in Norway. Select some of your descriptive words from the following, adding as many others as you feel that you need: _inhospitable_, _gloomy_, _cold_, _hard_, _welcome_, _joyous_, _sad_, _bright_, _glorious_, _fearful_, _lonely_, _pathetic_, _homesick_. =Exercise 45.=--1. The village bell is ringing. Describe the way it sounds to you on the following occasions:-- Calling to church service on a clear, sunny Sabbath morning; tolling for the death of a dear friend; ringing in celebration of a victory (suppose that we are at war with another country); ringing to celebrate a wedding; ringing "the old year out, and the new year in." [Read _The Bells_, by Edgar Allan Poe, before writing.] 2. Write a paragraph telling how you felt when you heard that you were to have some unexpected pleasure. 3. Imagine yourself living on the morning of April 15, 1865. Describe your feelings on learning of the death of Lincoln. =19. Synonyms.=--Synonyms are words which have the same or nearly the same meaning. EXAMPLES: Liberal, generous; face, countenance. A knowledge of synonyms will be valuable to you in several ways. First, it will enable you to avoid the too frequent repetition of a word. By using synonyms, then, you add variety to your writing. "When the _walk_ is over there is abundance to think about; and the _ramble_ reviewed at night before the andirons is a repetition of the day's enjoyment." If you will substitute _walk_ for _ramble_ in the preceding sentence, you will see how much the sentence loses by not using the synonym. =Exercise 46.=--In each of the following fill each blank with an appropriate synonym of the italicized word in the same sentence:-- 1. Be astir at ----, then, and receive the greeting of that lover of the _dawn_, the blackcap. 2. The ---- thickened, so that now you waded through a condensation of _gloom_. 3. The thrush filled every lone pathway with its sweet _music_, and I wondered that the world should hear so little of this woodside ----. 4. The sobering _silence_ of the night was the subject of our conversation, when suddenly a sad, sweet song broke the ----. 5. In the _city_ these conditions are not so well marked; but beyond the ---- limits, nature still rules. 6. It was just the day for a _ramble_, and I was off early for an all-day ----. 7. The _gale_ died away, and he tried to go northward again; but again came the ---- and swept him back into the waste. 8. And what became of the little ----, the poor _boy_ in the pretty town of Marbach? 9. He comes up the stairs ---- and opens the door _noiselessly_. 10. When the first week had _passed_, the queen took little Eliza into the country, and but a short month had ---- when the king had entirely forgotten his little daughter. =Exercise 47.=--In the following use a synonym in place of one of the underlined words:-- 1. He has many _wealthy_ friends, although he is not a _wealthy_ man himself. 2. At his first glimpse of the _countenance_, Ernest did fancy that there was a resemblance between it and the familiar _countenance_ upon the mountain side. 3. Celia considered that it would be unsafe for two young _maids_ of rank to travel in their rich clothes; she therefore proposed that they should dress like country _maids_. 4. When the servant of the house of Montague met the servant of the house of Capulet, a _quarrel_ ensued; and frequent were the _quarrels_ from such accidental meetings. 5. Portia dressed herself and Nerissa in men's _apparel_, and putting on the _apparel_ of a counselor, she took Nerissa with her as clerk and set out for Venice. 6. Portia now _desired_ Shylock to let her see the bond; and when she had read it she _desired_ him to be merciful. 7. The importance of the arduous _task_ Portia had engaged in gave her courage, and she boldly proceeded to perform the _task_ she had undertaken. 8. The _lady_ expressed great sorrow at hearing this, and said she wished to see the father of Helena, a young _lady_ who was present. 9. The mourners sat in _silence_, with only a smothered sob now and then to break the _silence_. 10. She tried to _comfort_ the sorrowful girl, but could think of nothing that would _comfort_ her. =Exercise 48.=--1. Give one or more synonyms for each of the following words. Consult your dictionary. Dawn, neglect, perform, astonish, collect, bestow, appeal, destroy, attend, grieve, joy, brilliance, gloomy, happy, gentle, calm, excitable, fond, sweet, simple, just, honorable, gloaming, bewilder. 2. Rearrange the following list, putting together all words that are synonyms:-- Crime, smite, maid, fault, fervent, labor, reverence, ardent, instantly, respect, fraternal, quickly, work, glowing, entreat, toil, honor, brotherly, beg, venerate, beseech, gloaming, waste, importune, twilight, squander, glitter, shine, glisten, sparkle, offense, girl, strike, lass, sincere, faithful, transgression, true, desire, wish. A knowledge of synonyms, then, is valuable, since it enriches your vocabulary and enables you to give variety to your writing. There is still another way in which this knowledge may be useful to you, There is generally some slight difference in meaning, even in words classed as synonyms, and a wise choice will enable you to express your thought with more exactness. EXAMPLE. "I frantically _begged_ a knot of sailors not to let them perish before our eyes." In the dictionary you will find the following synonyms for _beg_, with an explanation of the different shades of meaning: ask, entreat, beseech, implore, supplicate. "One _asks_ what he feels he may fairly claim; he _begs_ for that to which he advances no claim but pity; _entreat_ implies a special earnestness of asking, and _beseech_, a still added and more humble intensity. To _implore_ is to ask with weeping and lamentation; to _supplicate_ is to ask, as it were, on bended knees." (_Standard Dictionary._) It would be better, then, to write,-- "I frantically _implored_ a knot of sailors not to let them perish before our eyes." =Exercise 49.=--Choose one of the synonyms given in each of the following sentences. Consult your dictionary to get the different shades of meaning. 1. They were making out to me, in an [agitated, excited, disturbed] way that the lifeboat had been bravely manned an hour ago, and could do nothing. 2. The thunder was loud and [ceaseless, incessant, continuous]. 3. I was [perplexed, confused, distracted] by the terrible sight. 4. The excited voice went [calling, crying, clamoring] along the staircase. 5. I was [tired, fatigued, exhausted] with traveling and want of rest. 6. I made a most [awkward, ridiculous, absurd, grotesque] appearance. 7. A man is sometimes more [generous, liberal, open-handed] when he has but a little money than when he has plenty. 8. Dost thou love life? Then do not [squander, waste, spend] time. 9. He [continued, admonished, warned, counseled, advised] me not to let so good an offer pass. 10. The eagle listens to every sound, [looking, gazing, glancing] now and then to the earth beneath. =Exercise 50.=--Fill the blanks below with words from the following groups of synonyms:-- I. Large, colossal, great, big, commodious, huge, vast, capacious, immense, spacious, huge. 1. Joan of Arc rode at the head of a ---- body of troops. 2. Our world itself is a very ---- place. 3. If a ---- giant could travel all over the universe and gather worlds, all as ---- as ours, and were to make first a heap of merely ten such worlds, how ---- it would be. 4. I pushed aside the heavy leathern curtain at the entrance, and stood in the ---- nave. The ---- cupola alone is sixty-five feet higher than the Bunker Hill Monument, and the four ---- pillars on which it rests are each one hundred and thirty-seven feet in circumference. The awe I felt in looking up at the ---- arch of marble and gold did not humble me. 5. The old lady drew a package of peppermints from her ---- pocket. 6. He lived in a ---- mansion with ---- rooms. II. Tiny, little, small, diminutive, minute. 1. The Lilliputians were a very ---- people. 2. Each ---- point was carefully explained. 3. I met a ---- cottage girl. 4. Far away in the forest, grew a pretty ---- fir tree. 5. The lame boy was so ---- that they called him ---- Tim. =Exercise 51.=--Consult your dictionary to get the exact meaning of each word in the following two groups of synonyms. Insert words in the blanks, using each word but once. 1. Funny, odd, strange, queer, grotesque, peculiar. 2. Brave, bold, daring, fearless, courageous, reckless. 1. He told us of many ---- happenings. 2. The bird has a ---- cry. 3. We laughed at the ---- story. 4. What an ---- stick he is, to be sure. 5. ---- faces were carved over the door. 6. It is a ---- coincidence. 7. He was a ---- bad man. 8. The ---- soldier was foremost in the fray. 9. The ---- deed was applauded. 10. He is a ---- man, and never considers consequences. 11. He seems to be perfectly ----. 12. The fireman received a medal for his ---- act. =Exercise 52.=--Do you see any difference in meaning in the pairs of words given below? Write sentences using each correctly. Artist, artisan; healthy, healthful; bring, fetch; applause, praise; propose, purpose; in, into; distinct, clear; few, little; defend, protect; thankful, grateful; right, privilege; occasion, opportunity; custom, habit; brutal, brutish; temperance, abstinence; exile, banish; excuse, apology; duty, obligation; doubt, suspense; price, worth; interfere, interpose; surprised, astonished; flexible, pliable. =20. Accuracy in the Use of Words.=--Accuracy in the use of words comes from practice. It is better to blunder by using a word without a complete knowledge of its meaning than to be afraid to use any but the commonest words. Some words sound very much alike and yet have very different meanings, and some words are so nearly alike in meaning that it is almost or quite impossible to define the difference between them, though we may perhaps feel it. All that we can do, then, is simply to go on learning, using new words as fast as we get fairly well acquainted with them, and depending upon our teachers and older friends to point out to us when we are wrong. What we must avoid is the stupid habit of using words thoughtlessly, after the manner of the blundering Mrs. Malaprop in Sheridan's _Rivals_, who said:-- I would by no means wish a daughter of mine to be a _progeny_ of learning; I don't think so much learning becomes a young woman.... As she grew up, I would have her instructed in _geometry_ that she might know something of the _contagious_ countries; but above all, Sir Anthony, she should be mistress of _orthodoxy_, that she might not misspell and mispronounce words so shamefully as girls usually do; and likewise that she might _reprehend_ the true meaning of what she is saying. This, Sir Anthony, is what I would have a woman know; and I don't think there is a _superstitious_ article in it. =Exercise 53.=--Distinguish between the meaning of the following words: _luxuriant_ and _luxurious_; _effect_ and _affect_; _disease_ and _decease_; _descent_ and _dissent_; _principal_ and _principle_; _suspect_ and _expect_; _sensuous_ and _sensible_; _allude_ and _elude_; _noted_ and _notorious_; _emigrant_ and _immigrant_; _ovation_ and _innovation_; _torpid_ and _tepid_. =21. Figures of Speech.=--There is a strange way we all have of using words in a sense different from that of ordinary expression. We say, for example, that a brave soldier "was a lion." Of course, he was not a lion actually; he merely had certain qualities which we think lions have to a particularly great degree, that is, strength and courage. In the same way, especially in joke, we may speak of a person as an ass, a mule, a fox, a goose, an elephant, etc. Or, instead of saying that a soldier fought bravely, we may say that he fought like a lion, and similarly, that he was as stubborn as a mule, as keen as a fox, etc. We thus say either what a thing is _not_, or what it is _like_, instead of what it _is_. Such expressions are called =figures= (that is, forms) of =speech=. In a metaphor, one thing is called by the name of another. In a simile, one thing is said to be like another. We use both the metaphor and the simile quite frequently and naturally in our ordinary speech and writing, particularly when our feelings are aroused in any way. 1. Bread is the staff of life. (Metaphor.) 2. The ground was an oven floor; and the breeze that passed by, the breath of a furnace. (Metaphor.) 3. His eye glowed like a fiery spark. (Simile.) 4. The carded wool, like a snowdrift, was piled at her knee. (Simile.) =Exercise 54.=--Pick out the metaphors and similes in the following sentences:-- 1. In this world a man must either be anvil or hammer. 2. He beheld the lights in the houses, shining like stars in the dusk and mist of the evening. 3. Hearty and hale was he, an oak that is covered with snowflakes. 4. Their lives glide on like rivers that water the woodland. 5. Their hearts leaped like the roe, when he hears in the woodland the voice of the huntsman. 6. Life is a sheet of paper white. 7. Her eyes are stars; her voice is music. 8. A fat little steamer rolled itself along like a sailor on shore. 9. He glared at us like a tiger out of a jungle. 10. Cornwallis, speaking of Washington, said he would "bag the old fox" in the morning. 11. He is a little chimney and heated hot in a moment. 12. John is the black sheep of the family. 13. She is like a gleam of sunlight on a dark day. 14. Pleasant words are as a honeycomb, sweet to the soul and health to the bones. 15. Her heart is as pure as the lilies. =Exercise 55.=--Change the following similes and metaphors to plain language:-- 1. He is a Samson. 2. He is a wet blanket. 3. They are a pair of turtle doves. 4. Never cross bridges until you come to them. 5. He is a tower of strength. 6. You are pure gold. 7. Night's candles are burnt out. 8. He is unstable as water. 9. He carries the world on his shoulders. 10. What a bear he is! 11. That is a hard nut to crack. 12. Don't be a dog in the manger. 13. Mother nature laughs around. 14. Don't rub him the wrong way. 15. The Roman mother said of her children, "These are my jewels." =Exercise 56.=--Find similes or metaphors to express the following:-- 1. Time passes quickly. 2. Her eyes are very bright. 3. The boat moved rapidly through the water. 4. She sings very sweetly. 5. The wind makes a sound in the tops of the pines. 6. He is very cross. 7. They are exceedingly poor. 8. Do not find fault with a gift. 9. Her hair is fine and soft. 10. The night was very dark. =Exercise 57.=--I. Compare the two following passages. Notice how the account of the beginning of the boat race loses in force by the changes from figurative language to plain language. 1. Hark! the first gun. The report sent Tom's heart into his mouth. The crowds on the bank began to be agitated by the shadow of the coming excitement. Long before the sound of the starting-gun can roll up the river, the pent-up life and energy which has been held in leash is let loose. 2. Hark! the first gun. The report made Tom nervous. The crowds on the bank began to be agitated by the thought of the coming excitement. Long before the sound of the starting-gun can be heard up the river, the life and energy which has been checked is released. II. Rewrite the following, changing the similes and metaphors to plain language. Notice how much the paragraph loses in force. Isn't he grand, the captain, as he comes forward _like lightning_, stroke after stroke? As the space narrows, the _fiery_ little cockswain's eyes _flash_ with excitement. =Exercise 58.=--Rewrite the following, using two or more similes or metaphors:-- The first snow came. It covered the brown fields and green meadows. It protected the roots of the plants hidden under it. It was very white and clean. It covered the bushes and trees and fences with a soft white covering. =Exercise 59.=--Write sentences comparing the descent of an eagle upon its prey to the fall of a thunderbolt; the falling of rain to weeping; a cheerful face to a sunbeam; the loss of hope to the setting of the sun; a modest little girl to a violet; a sailing vessel to a bird; dandelions to pieces of gold; a good book to a friend; a burst of anger to a storm; old age to sunset. =Exercise 60.=--Write a paragraph describing something you have seen in nature,--a brook, a meadow where cattle are grazing, a field of daisies, a waterfall, or anything else you may choose. Try to use at least one metaphor or simile. =22. Mistakes in the Use of Words.=--Let us now consider the principal errors which we are likely to make with regard to words. =23. Spelling.=--If our letters corresponded exactly to our English sounds, we could all spell fairly well, because we could use the symbols that answered to our pronunciation. But our letters do not agree well with our sounds; and there are many oddities and inconsistencies which cause the young student a great deal of trouble. Many plans have been proposed for simplifying our spelling, and it is to be hoped that eventually some wise scheme will be generally adopted, but that is not likely to come to pass for many years, and in the meantime we must follow the established custom. If we do not learn to spell in this way, we run the risk of being thought unintelligent and uneducated. As a matter of fact, however, students of your age are already over the worst of their troubles in this respect. All they have to do is to pay careful attention to the form of words as they read, and to keep a list of the words which they spell incorrectly in their own compositions, making sure that they do not make the same mistake a second time. A set of rules which will be of service to you will be found in the Appendix. =24. Slang.=--By slang we mean strange words or expressions, not employed in serious or dignified composition, whether written or spoken. They are sometimes used in conversation, largely in jest, by persons of intelligence and education, but more generally by persons of defective education, who are not really acquainted with the forms of the language used by the educated classes. There can be no great objection to playing with words on occasions where play is appropriate, particularly when the speakers are young or full of boisterous fun. It is, however, unwise for young students to get the habit of thus playing with words so firmly established that they play when they should be serious, or that they become unfamiliar with really good English. Particular care should be taken to avoid slang that is vulgar or coarse. Here is an extract which is intended to represent the natural and playful speech of a boy of high spirits:-- "I say, East, can't we get something else besides potatoes? I've got lots of money, you know." "Bless us, yes, I forgot," said East, "you've only just come. You see all my tin's been gone this twelve weeks. I've got a tick at Sally's, of course; but then I hate running it high, you see, toward the end of the half, because one has to shell out for it all directly one comes back, and that's a bore." "Well, what shall I buy?" said Tom, "I'm hungry." "I say," said East, "you're a trump, Brown. I'll do the same by you next half. Let's have a pound of sausages, then; that's the best grub for tea I know of."--THOMAS HUGHES: _Tom Brown's Schooldays_. There is a certain vigor and picturesqueness of expression here, and it would be absurd to expect boys, on all occasions, to speak like dictionaries. On the other hand, you will readily see that the italicized expressions in the following sentences would be wholly inappropriate in serious written composition. 1. John made a bad _break_. 2. Your new hat is simply _immense_. 3. I think that's the _limit_. 4. Children should _take a back seat_. 5. He _passed in his checks_. 6. That's only a _bluff_. 7. He's a big _chump_. 8. The people made a big _kick_. 9. That boy is a _fresh kid_. 10. He _chucked_ the tea overboard. =Exercise 61.=--Rewrite the sentences given above, substituting correct English for the slang words or expressions. What slang expression do you use most frequently? Write a paragraph explaining exactly what you mean by it. =Exercise 62.=--Point out the exaggeration in the use of the italicized words by giving the meaning of the word. Suggest words which might be substituted for them. 1. We had an _awfully_ good time. 2. Butter is _frightfully_ dear. 3. I'm _terribly_ tired. 4. We were _horribly_ bored. 5. He is _tremendously_ pleased. 6. This is a _magnificent_ lead pencil. 7. You are _fearfully_ late this morning. 8. I _adore_ chocolate fudge. 9. This is _beautiful_ jelly cake. 10. What a _splendid_ apple! =25. Errors in the Forms of Words.=--The following exercises will give you practice in the forms of words in which young students most often make mistakes. =Exercise 63.=--Write sentences containing the following:-- Babies', women's, boy's, boys', girl's, children's, man's, men's, girls', baby's, cats', cat's. =Exercise 64.=--Write from dictation:-- 1. The dog returns at John's call and rubs against his legs. He waits while his master's horse is dozing at the post, and his master talks within, and gossips with the other dogs, who are snapping at the flies. Nobody knows how many dogs' characters are destroyed in this gossip. 2. Malcolm entered the ladies' cabin and looked for a seat. A baby, who was pulling impatiently at its mother's dress, suddenly ran to him, crying, "Baby's papa,"--to his great embarrassment. 3. It's now midnight. 4. Olive's skates are with Alice's. 5. Yours is not so well prepared as ours. 6. Read Dickens's "Christmas Carol." =Exercise 65.=--I. Fill the blanks with _I_ or _me_. Give reasons for your choice. 1. His lecture gave pleasure to Frank and ----. 2. He is cleverer than ----. 3. This is for you and ----. 4. Henry and ---- went driving. 5. Is it you? It is ----. 6. May Ethel and ---- remain after school? 7. There is an agreement between you and ----. 8. This story was read by ----. 9. My sister and ---- were traveling through Yellowstone Park. II. Fill the blanks with _we_ or _us_:-- 1. ---- girls have formed a society. 2. He gave ---- boys permission to leave early. 3. Was it ---- whom you saw? 4. You know that as well as ----. 5. You are far nobler than ----. 6. You can do it better than ----. 7. He has promised to take our cousin and ---- to the circus. 8. He wishes to give ---- pleasure. III. Fill the blanks with _he_ or _him_:-- 1. It was ----. 2. All except ---- came early. 3. I can do it as well as ----. 4. Who saw it first, you or ----? 5. I have no time for children like you and ----. 6. What are you and ---- doing? 7. It was either ---- or James that did it. 8. ---- who had promised failed to fulfill his promise. 9. I thought it was ----. 10. I should not like to be ----. IV. Fill the blanks with _she_ or _her_:-- 1. We gave ---- one more chance. 2. ---- and I are going. 3. You read better than ----. 4. Can it be ----? 5. I am sure it is ----. 6. I will keep you and ----. 7. ---- and her friends have gone. 8. If I were ---- I would do it. 9. The fault lies between you and ----. 10. I am going with ----. V. Fill the blanks with _they_ or _them_:-- 1. We are as good as ----. 2. Could it have been ----? 3. It was ----. 4. ---- and their company have gone. 5. We are not as well educated as ----. VI. Fill the blanks with _who_ or _whom_:-- 1. ---- are you to believe? 2. ---- do you think it was? 3. I like to help those ---- deserve it. 4. Do you remember ---- you saw? 5. Can you tell ---- to believe? 6. ---- can this be from? 7. ---- do you think this is? 8. I heard from a boy ---- was a pupil. 9. He invited all ---- he believed to be his friends. 10. He saw a man ---- he supposed to be the minister. 11. I gave it to the one ---- seemed to need it most. 12. I hardly know ---- to believe. 13. I have appointed a clerk ---- I believe can be trusted. 14. We know ---- you are. 15. Mary, ---- is my friend, will certainly support me. 16. Lincoln was the man ---- liberated the slaves. 17. If I cannot believe in her, in ---- can I believe? 18. I will give it to the one ---- gets here first. 19. They left me in doubt as to ---- it was. 20. I have found my child ---- was lost. 21. A man ---- I expected to meet failed to arrive. 22. He spoke to the boy ---- he pitied. 23. He helped the boy, ---- had been deserted by his parents. 24. He was a man ---- was greatly beloved. 25. Helen, ----, I am told, is the winner of the medal, is a very studious child. =Exercise 66.=--I. Use some form of verb _set_ or _sit_:-- 1. ---- the plant on the window sill. 2. He ---- the table. 3. The hen is ----. 4. Harold is ---- out tomato plants. 5. The shepherds ---- on the ground in a row. 6. They were ---- there at nightfall. 7. He ---- in the front seat. 8. She was ---- by the fire. 9. We ---- under the sycamore tree. H. Use some form of _lie_ or _lay_:-- I. ---- still and rest. 2. He ---- under the lilac bush. 3. He was ---- there when I arrived. 4. We ---- her in the cold, moist earth. 5. Mary, ---- on the couch. 6. The men are ---- a board walk. 7. We have ---- our plan. 8. The ship is ---- in the harbor. 9. She has ---- there since seven o'clock. III. Use some form of _do_:-- 1. My work is ----. 2. He ---- (past tense) his work well. 3. We ---- (past tense) our duty. 4. Has he ---- it yet? 5. You---- (past tense) it. IV. Use some form of _bring_ or _take_:-- 1. Horace ---- his teacher a rose. 2. Miss Klein ---- it home with her. 3. Frank, --- -me your book. 4. He ---- it to me. 5. He has ---- it to me. 6. He ---- his dog into the garden. 7. He has ---- it home. V. Use some form of _learn_ and _teach_:-- 1. ---- me to sew. 2. Mother has ---- me to knit. 3. I have ---- how to sew. 4. I am ---- how to cook. 5. She ---- her brother how to skate. 6. She is ---- him to be fearless. VI. Use some form of _see_:-- 1. I ---- the sunset. 2. I have ---- the sunset. 3. He has ---- the procession. 4. He ---- it now. VII. Use correctly in sentences _see_, _saw_, _seen_. VIII. Use in sentences all forms of the following verbs:-- Go, drive, break, do, ring, run, bring, lie, lay, sit, set, teach, read, know, take. IX. Change the form of the verbs below from present to perfect or past perfect:-- 1. The boy runs rapidly. 2. The old man rings the bell at sundown. 3. I saw the lights of the village. 4. Tiny Tim sings very sweetly. 5. We sit by the fire in the gloaming. 6. Mr. Towne teaches drawing. 7. Mary reads well. 8. He lays fresh flowers on her grave. 9. He sets a light in the window. 10. Mary plays the piano. CHAPTER V CONDENSATION, EXPANSION, AND PARAPHRASE =26. Writing in which the Ideas are already at Hand.=--Young people have an abundance of things to write about. Their lives are usually full of interesting incidents, and their minds are fresh and eager. Before passing on, however, to the principal part of composition, that in which the writer expresses his own ideas, let us undertake a little practice in a form of composition in which the ideas are furnished us. We shall thus not have to devote so much effort to thinking what we are going to write, and can devote all the more attention to the pleasing form of what we write. =27. Condensation.=--Here are two well-written and clear paragraphs on an interesting topic, and beneath each are two or three pleasing sentences which give the same idea in a shorter or condensed form. 1. Centuries ago, in a remote village among some wild hills in France, there lived a country maiden, Joan of Arc, who was at this time in her twentieth year. She had been a solitary girl from her childhood; she had often tended sheep and cattle for whole days where no human figure was seen or human voice was heard; and she had often knelt, for hours together, in the gloomy empty little village chapel, looking up at the altar and at the dim lamp burning before it, until she fancied that she saw shadowy figures standing there, and even that she heard them speak to her.--CHARLES DICKENS: _A Child's History of England._ Joan of Arc lived centuries ago in a remote French village. Her childhood had been a solitary one. Often she was for days alone with her sheep, and she knelt long alone in the gloomy village chapel, where she fancied that she saw shadowy shapes that spoke to her. 2. I think it was Hans, our Eskimo hunter, who thought he saw a broad sledge track. The drift had nearly effaced it, and we were some of us doubtful at first whether it was not one of those accidental rifts which the gales make in the surface snow. But, as we traced it on to the deep snow among the hummocks, we were led to footsteps; and, following these with religious care, we at last came in sight of a small American flag fluttering from a hummock, and lower down a little banner hanging from a tent pole hardly above the drift. It was the camp of our disabled comrades; we reached it after an unbroken march of twenty-one hours.--E. E. KANE: _Arctic Explorations_. Hans, our Eskimo hunter, found what seemed to be the faint traces of a sledge, and this led us to footsteps. Following these with great care, we came at length to the camp of our disabled comrades. =Exercise 67.=--Condense the following paragraphs, making your sentences pleasing to the ear:-- 1. In order to begin at the beginning of the story, let us suppose that we go into a country garden one fine morning in May, when the sun is shining brightly overhead, and that we see hanging from the bough of an old apple tree a black object which looks very much like a large plum pudding. On approaching it, however, we see that it is a large cluster or swarm of bees clinging to each other by their legs; each bee with its two fore legs clinging to the hinder legs of the one above it. In this way as many as twenty thousand bees may be clinging together, and yet they hang so freely that a bee, even from quite the center of the swarm, can disengage herself from her neighbors and pass through to the outside of the cluster whenever she wishes.--ARABELLA BUCKLEY: _Fairyland of Science_. 2. This warning stopped all speech, and the hardy mariners, knowing that they had already done all in the power of man to insure their safety, stood in breathless anxiety, awaiting the result. At a short distance ahead of them the whole ocean was white with foam, and the waves, instead of rolling on in regular succession, appeared to be tossing madly about. A single streak of dark billows, not half a cable's length in width, could be discerned running into this chaos of water; but it was soon lost to the eye amid the confusion. Along this narrow path the vessel moved more heavily than before, being brought so near the wind as to keep her sails touching. The pilot silently proceeded to the wheel, and with his own hands undertook the steering of the ship. No noise proceeded from the frigate to interrupt the horrid tumult of the ocean; and she entered the channel among the breakers in dead silence.--JAMES FENIMORE COOPER: _The Pilot_. =28. Method in Condensation.=--The length of any piece of writing depends upon the purpose for which it is intended. For instance, the answer to the question, "Who was Abraham Lincoln?" might, according to the circumstances, be given in a paragraph, in a page, or in a chapter; or it might be expanded into a work of many volumes. If you were required, in preparation for a written lesson in history or geography, to read several pages, you would not be expected to write all you had read, but to be able to condense; that is, to omit details and select the _most important_ points. The ability to decide which points _are_ the important ones, and which may be omitted with least loss to the passage, will be of great value to you in all your serious reading and study. The following suggestions will help you in condensing:-- 1. Read the whole passage through carefully. 2. Pick out the things so important that they must be retained. As a rule, the more important the point, the greater the space the author allots to it. Drop the minor points. 3. Arrange the facts you decide to retain in order of importance, and in condensing the passage give most space to the most important points. Read, for example, the following narrative, and notice the condensation printed below it:-- In the reign of the great caliph, there lived in the city of Bagdad a celebrated barber, of the name of Ali. He was famous for a steady hand, and could shave a head, or trim your beard or whiskers, with his eyes blindfolded. There was not a man of fashion at Bagdad who did not employ him; and such a run of business had he that at length he became very proud and insolent. Firewood was always scarce and dear at Bagdad; and it happened one day that a poor woodcutter, ignorant of the character of Ali, stopped at his shop, to sell him a load of wood, which he had just brought from a distance on his donkey. Ali immediately offered him a certain sum "_for all the wood that was upon the donkey_." The woodcutter agreed, unloaded his beast, and asked for the money. "You have not given me all the wood yet," said the barber. "I must have your wooden pack saddle into the bargain: that was our agreement." "What!" said the other, in great amazement; "who ever heard of such a bargain? It is impossible." But after many words the overbearing barber seized the pack saddle, wood, and all, and sent away the poor peasant in great distress. The woodcutter then ran to the judge and stated his griefs; the judge was one of the barber's customers, and refused to hear the case. Then he went to a higher judge; he also patronized Ali, and made light of the complaint. The poor woodcutter was not disheartened, but forthwith got a scribe to write a petition to the caliph himself. The caliph's punctuality in reading petitions is well known, and it was not long before the woodcutter was called to his presence. When he had approached the caliph, he kneeled and kissed the ground; and then, folding his arms before him, his hands covered with the sleeves of his cloak, and his feet close together, he awaited the decision of his case. "Friend," said the caliph, "the barber has words on his side: you have equity on yours. The law must be defined by words, and agreements must be made by words. The law must have its course, or it is nothing; and agreements must be kept, or there would be no good faith between man and man. Therefore the barber must keep all his wood, but"-- Then calling the woodcutter close to him, the caliph whispered something in his ear, and sent him away quite satisfied. The woodcutter, having made obeisance, took his donkey by the halter, and returned home. A few days later he applied to the barber, as if nothing had happened between them, requesting that he, _and a companion of his from the country_, might enjoy the dexterity of his hand; and the price for which both operations were to be performed was settled. When the woodcutter's beard had been properly shaved, Ali asked where his companion was. "He is standing just outside," said the woodcutter; "he shall come in at once." Accordingly he went out, and led in his donkey by the halter. "This is my companion," said he: "shave him." "Shave him!" exclaimed the barber, in a rage: "is it not enough that I should degrade myself by touching _you_, but you must insult me by asking me to shave your donkey? Away with you!" The woodcutter immediately went to the caliph and related his case. "Bring Ali and his razors to me this instant," exclaimed the caliph to one of his officers; and in the course of ten minutes the barber stood before him. "Why do you refuse to shave this man's companion?" said the caliph to the barber: "was not that your agreement?" Ali, kissing the ground, answered, "It is true, O caliph, that such was our agreement; but who ever made a companion of a donkey before?" "True enough," said the caliph; "but who ever thought of insisting upon a pack saddle's being included in a load of wood? No, no, it is the woodcutter's turn now. Shave this donkey instantly!" So the barber was compelled to prepare a great quantity of soap, to lather the beast from head to foot, and to shave him in the presence of the caliph and of the whole court, whilst he was jeered and mocked by the bystanders. The poor woodcutter was then dismissed with a present of money; and all Bagdad resounded with the story, and praised the justice of the caliph. There was once in Bagdad a barber who was so skillful that he was employed by all the men of fashion, and who became so proud that he would seldom work for any but men of rank. One day a poor woodcutter came to his shop to sell a load of wood. Ali offered him a sum of money for "all the wood upon the donkey." The woodcutter agreed, whereupon Ali seized the wooden pack saddle as well as the wood, saying it was included in the bargain. After in vain seeking redress from the judges, the peasant went to the caliph, who decided that, according to the terms made, the bargain must stand; but, calling the woodcutter to him, he whispered something in his ear. A few days afterward the woodcutter asked the barber to shave him and a companion from the country, agreeing to pay the price asked by the barber. After the woodcutter had been attended to, the barber asked for the companion, whereupon the woodcutter led in his donkey. The barber in rage drove them from his shop, but the woodcutter immediately went to the caliph and stated his case. The tables were now turned, for the caliph decided in favor of the woodcutter. The barber was obliged to shave the beast in the presence of the caliph and the whole court, who mocked at him; and the woodcutter was dismissed with a rich present. =Exercise 68.= In a similar way condense this account of the battle of Hastings into about two hundred words. In the middle of the month of October, in the year one thousand and sixty-six, the Normans and the English came front to front. All night the armies lay encamped before each other in a part of the country then called Senlac, now called Battle. With the first dawn of day they arose. There, in the faint light, were the English on a hill. A wood lay behind them, and in their midst was the royal banner, representing a fighting warrior, woven in gold thread, adorned with precious stones. Beneath the banner, as it rustled in the wind, stood King Harold on foot, with two of his remaining brothers by his side; around them, still and silent as the dead, clustered the whole English army--every soldier covered by his shield, and bearing in his hand the dreaded English battle-ax. On an opposite hill, in three lines,--archers, foot soldiers, and horsemen,--was the Norman force. Of a sudden, a great battle cry, "God help us!" burst from the Norman lines. The English answered with their own battle cry, "God's Rood! Holy Rood!" The Normans then came sweeping down the hill to attack the English. There was one tall Norman knight who rode before the Norman army on a prancing horse, throwing up his heavy sword and catching it, and singing of the bravery of his countrymen. An English knight, who rode out from the English force to meet him, fell by this knight's hand. Another English knight rode out, and he also fell; but then a third rode out and killed the Norman. The English, keeping side by side in a great mass, cared no more for the showers of Norman arrows than if they had been showers of Norman rain. When the Norman horsemen rode against them, with their battle-axes they cut men and horses down. The Normans gave way. The English pressed forward. A cry went forth among the Norman troops that Duke William was killed. Duke William took off his helmet, in order that his face might be distinctly seen, and rode along the line before his men. This gave them courage. As they turned again to face the English, some of their Norman horse divided the pursuing body of the English from the rest, and thus all that foremost portion of the English army fell, fighting bravely. The main body still remaining firm, heedless of the Norman arrows, and with their battle-axes cutting down the crowds of horsemen when they rode up, like forests of young trees, Duke William pretended to retreat. The eager English followed. The Norman army closed again and fell upon them with great slaughter. "Still," said Duke William, "there are thousands of the English firm as rocks around their king. Shoot upward, Norman archers, that your arrows may fall down upon their faces." The sun rose high, and sank, and the battle still raged. Through all the wild October day, the clash and din resounded in the air. In the red sunset, and in the white moonlight, heaps upon heaps of dead men lay strewn, a dreadful spectacle, all over the ground. King Harold, wounded with an arrow in the eye, was nearly blind. His brothers were already killed. Twenty Norman knights now dashed forward to seize the royal banner from the English knights and soldiers, still faithfully collected round their blinded king. The king received a mortal wound and dropped. The English broke and fled. The Normans rallied, and the day was lost. Oh, what a sight beneath the moon and stars when lights were shining in the tent of the victorious Duke William, which was pitched near the spot where Harold fell--and he and his knights were carousing within--and soldiers with torches, going slowly to and fro without, sought for the corpse of Harold among piles of dead--and Harold's banner, worked in golden thread and precious stones, lay low, all torn and soiled with blood--and the Duke's flag, with three Norman lions upon it, kept watch over the field.--CHARLES DICKENS: _A Child's History of England_. =Exercise 69.=--Condense such of the passages suggested below as your teacher may indicate. 1. The passage quoted on pages 88-90. 2. The passage quoted on pages 144-148 (or 182-185). 3. A passage from your text-book in history or geography. 4. An account (of a fire, for instance), from a daily or weekly paper. =29. Expansion.=--An exercise just the opposite of the preceding is also highly profitable to young writers. Here, for example, are two sentences that will suggest a good deal to you. You will see at once that it is easy to expand them into a larger piece of writing, and just below is an entire paragraph which is based on these sentences. 1. Lord Fairfax asked George Washington to survey his lands in Virginia. The boy was very glad to do so, for he loved a wild and adventurous life. 2. Lord Fairfax wished very much to have his lands in the valley of Virginia surveyed, and he asked young George Washington if he would undertake the work. The boy was very glad to do so. Nothing could have pleased him better than work of this sort. He loved the open air and horseback riding; he would delight to explore that grand and beautiful country where Indians and wild animals still roamed at will; and he at once began to make ready for his journey. Here is another example of the same process:-- 1. The _Mayflower_ sailed on the 16th of September. After a long and stormy voyage the Pilgrims sighted land. 2. On the 16th of September the sails were spread once more, and the _Mayflower_ glided out upon the waters of the broad Atlantic. Fierce storms arose, and the vessel was tossed like an eggshell upon the waves. The main beam was wrenched from its place, and the ship was in danger of breaking in pieces. One passenger fell overboard and was lost. At length, on the 19th of November, the joyful cry of land rang through the ship. All eyes were strained to see the welcome sight. There it was--a long reach of sandy shore with dark forest trees in the background. The hard, dangerous voyage was almost at an end. The Pilgrims were nearly home. =Exercise 70.=--You will now be ready to try this form of writing for yourselves. Below are given a number of short and suggestive statements. Expand them, using your own imagination to fill out the material, and trying, in each case, to make your sentences pleasing to the ear. 1. Rip Van Winkle was a great favorite among the good wives of the village. The children, too, loved him, and followed him about. 2. The Catskill Mountains lie to the west of the Hudson River. They are very beautiful. 3. The news of Lexington and Concord was sent to Philadelphia. Here the Continental Congress was assembled. The members agreed upon Washington as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army. =30. The Purpose of Expansion.=--We sometimes expand passages in order to make them clearer by explanation or illustration. EXAMPLES. 1. In the Old World there are various grades of society, and it is almost impossible for a boy born in the lower to rise into the higher ranks. In this country this is not so; every man is as good as his neighbor. 2. In the aristocracies of the Old World, wealth and society are built up like the strata of rock which compose the crust of the earth. If a boy be born in the lowest stratum of life, it is almost impossible for him to rise through the hard crust into the higher ranks; but in this country it is not so. The strata of our society resemble rather the ocean, where every drop, even the lowest, is free to mingle with all others, and may shine at last on the crest of the highest wave. This is the glory of our country, and you need not fear that there are any obstacles which will prove too great for any brave heart. =Exercise 71.=--Expand into a paragraph such of the following statements as your teacher may indicate:-- 1. The early bird catches the worm. 2. If you would be well served, serve yourself. 3. For want of a nail, the shoe was lost; for want of a shoe, the horse was lost; for want of a horse, the rider was lost; for want of the rider, the army was lost. 4. Benedict Arnold's last request, it is said, was that he might die in his old American uniform; his last prayer, that God would forgive him for ever having put on any other. 5. After Washington's retreat from Long Island in September, 1776, he needed information as to the British fortifications. A young American officer, Nathan Hale, volunteered to get the information. While inside of the enemy's lines he was taken prisoner and hanged as a spy. With his latest breath he regretted that he had only one life to lose for his country. =31. Paraphrase.=--There is just one further kind of writing, in which the ideas are given you, that will be profitable to you as practice. This is _paraphrase_. To paraphrase a piece of writing is to restate it in your own words and in a simpler form. You used one form of paraphrasing in the exercise on page 60, when you explained figurative expressions by changing them into simpler or plainer language. In figurative language a resemblance between things otherwise unlike is pointed out or taken for granted, and in order to understand the author's meaning you must be able to discover the resemblance. By reducing the figure to plain language you make sure that you understand it; and you are often led in this way to see much more clearly the beauty or the force of the figure. In a similar manner paraphrasing will aid you in understanding difficult passages, whether in verse or in prose, which you may come on in your reading. It is said of Lincoln that whenever he read anything that seemed to him very difficult, he would try to express it so simply that people who knew less than he could understand it. Perhaps this is one reason why Lincoln's speeches and writings are so beautifully clear. EXAMPLES. 1. The reports of the expedition demonstrated the practicability of establishing a line of communication across the continent, from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. The reports of the expedition proved that it would be possible to build a road across the continent, from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. 2. Two leading objects of commercial gain have given birth to wide and daring enterprise in the early history of the Americas, the precious metals of the south and the rich peltries of the north. While the Spaniard, inflamed with the mania for gold, has extended his discoveries and conquests over those brilliant countries scorched by the ardent sun of the tropics, the Frenchman and Englishman have pursued the no less lucrative traffic in furs amid the hyperborean regions of the Canadas.--WASHINGTON IRVING: _Astoria_. Two important objects of commerce have given birth to daring undertakings in the early history of North and South America. These are the gold and silver of the south and the rich furs of the north. The Spaniard, mad for gold, has explored and conquered the tropical countries. Meanwhile, the Frenchman and the Englishman have followed the equally profitable traffic in furs in the far northern regions of Canada. 3. Meanwhile the choleric captain strode wrathful away to the council, Found it already assembled, impatiently waiting his coming; Men in the middle of life, austere and grave in deportment, Only one of them old, the hill that was nearest to heaven, Covered with snow, but erect, the excellent Elder of Plymouth. --H. W. LONGFELLOW: _The Courtship of Miles Standish_. Meanwhile the quick-tempered captain strode wrathfully away to the council, which he found already assembled, and impatiently waiting his coming. They were middle-aged men, stern and grave in bearing. Only one of them was old, the excellent Elder of Plymouth, but he still stood erect, though his hair was white--like the snow cap on a tall mountain. =Exercise 72.=--Paraphrase the following; try to express the thought so simply that people who know less than you do can understand it. 1. It was not until the year 1776 that the fur trade regained its old channels; but it was then pursued with much avidity and emulation by individual merchants, and soon transcended its former bounds.--WASHINGTON IRVING: _Astoria_. 2. It is characteristic of such a people [the Aztecs] to find a puerile pleasure in a dazzling and ostentatious pageantry; to mistake show for substance; vain pomp for power; to hedge round the throne itself with barren and burdensome ceremonial, the counterfeit of real majesty.--W. H. PRESCOTT: _The Conquest of Mexico_. 3. The messenger found access to the benignant princess and delivered the epistle of the friar. Isabella had always been favorably disposed to the proposition of Columbus. She wrote in reply to Juan Perez, thanking him for his timely service, and requesting that he would repair immediately to the court, leaving Columbus in confident hope until he should hear further from her.--WASHINGTON IRVING: _Life of Columbus_. 4. It cannot be disputed that the light toil requisite to cultivate a moderately sized garden imparts such zest to kitchen vegetables as is never found in those of the market gardener. Childless men, if they would know something of the bliss of paternity, should plant a seed with their own hands and nurse it from infancy to maturity altogether by their own care.--NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE: _Mosses from an Old Manse_. 5. Dorcas nourished her apprehensions in silence till one afternoon when Reuben awoke from an unquiet sleep and seemed to recognize her more perfectly than at any previous time. She saw that his intellect had become composed, and she could no longer restrain her filial anxiety.--_From the same_. =Exercise 73.=--Paraphrase the following passages:-- 1. Ah, no longer wizard Fancy Builds her castles in the air, Luring me by necromancy Up the never-ending stair. But instead she builds me bridges Over many a dark ravine, Where beneath the gusty ridges Cataracts dash and roar unseen. --H. W. LONGFELLOW: _The Bridge of Cloud_. 2. For a cap and bells our lives we pay, Bubbles we buy with a whole soul's tasking; 'Tis heaven alone that is given away, 'Tis only God may be had for the asking; No price is set on the lavish summer; June may be had by the poorest comer. --J. R. LOWELL: _The Vision of Sir Launfal_. 3. Oh, for festal dainties spread, Like my bowl of milk and bread; Pewter spoon and bowl of wood, On the door stone, gray and rude! O'er me, like a regal tent, Cloudy-ribbed, the sunset bent, Purple-curtained, fringed with gold, Looped in many a wind-swung fold; While for music came the play Of the pied frogs' orchestra; And, to light the noisy choir, Lit the fly his lamp of fire. I was monarch: pomp and joy Waited on the barefoot boy. --J. G. WHITTIER: _The Barefoot Boy_. =32. Paraphrase of Complete Compositions.=--It is also sometimes a helpful exercise to paraphrase, not an extract, but a complete poem or short piece of prose, in order to make sure that you understand it thoroughly. This often requires a good deal of study, for details, which you had not at first noticed, but which are essential to the meaning, need to be carefully thought out. Read, for example, Longfellow's delightful poem, _Walter Von der Vogelweid_ and then the paraphrase that follows. Vogelweid the Minnesinger, When he left this world of ours, Laid his body in the cloister, Under Würtzburg's minster towers. And he gave the monks his treasures, Gave them all with his behest: They should feed the birds at noontide Daily on his place of rest; Saying, "From these wandering minstrels I have learned the art of song; Let me now repay the lessons They have taught so well and long." Thus the bard of love departed; And, fulfilling his desire, On his tomb the birds were feasted By the children of the choir. Day by day, o'er tower and turret, In foul weather and in fair, Day by day, in vaster numbers, Flocked the poets of the air. On the tree, whose heavy branches Overshadowed all the place, On the pavement, on the tombstone, On the poet's sculptured face, On the crossbars of each window, On the lintel of each door, They renewed the War of Wartburg, Which the bard had fought before. There they sang their merry carols, Sang their lauds on every side; And the name their voices uttered Was the name of Vogelweid. Till at length the portly abbot Murmured, "Why this waste of food? Be it changed to loaves henceforward For our fasting brotherhood." Then in vain o'er tower and turret, From the walls and woodland nests, When the minster bells rang noontide, Gathered the unwelcome guests. Then in vain, with cries discordant, Clamorous round the Gothic spire, Screamed the feathered Minnesingers For the children of the choir. Time has long effaced the inscriptions On the cloister's funeral stones, And tradition only tells us Where repose the poet's bones. But around the vast cathedral, By sweet echoes multiplied, Still the birds repeat the legend, And the name of Vogelweid. Walter Von der Vogelweid was an old German Minnesinger, that is, a poet who sang of love, and his name means Walter of the Bird-meadow. When he passed from this world, his body was laid in the cloister under the towers of the cathedral of Würtzburg. He gave all his property to the monks, on condition that they should feed the birds that flew about his grave. "For," said he, "I want to repay the birds, who have taught me the art of song." Every noon, as Walter had desired, the children of the choir fed the birds about his tomb. Day after day, in larger and larger numbers, these small wandering minstrels flocked to be fed, in fair or stormy weather. On the tree that overshadowed his grave, on the pavement, on the tombstone, even on the face of the marble statue of the poet, they would cluster, singing in rivalry as he had once sung in competition with other poets at the castle of Wartburg. And in their carols was always the name of Vogelweid. At last the abbot determined that this waste of food should not continue, but that loaves of bread should be bought instead for the fasting priests. After this the birds clamored in vain for the children who had fed them. Time has long since worn away the inscription on the tombstone of the cloister, and now there is nothing to tell us where the poet's bones rest; but around the cathedral the sweet voices of the birds still repeat the story and the name of Walter Von der Vogelweid. =Exercise 74.= Paraphrase such complete poems or prose passages as your teacher may indicate. Suggested poems:--1. Longfellow's _The Legend of the Crossbill_, or _The Wreck of the Hesperus_. 2. Tennyson's _Lady Clare_. 3. Browning's _An Incident of the French Camp_. 4. Scott's _Lochinvar_. 5. Campbell's _Lord Ullin's Daughter_. 6. Bayard Taylor's _A Song of the Camp_. 7. Whittier's _Telling the Bees_. 8. Kingsley's _The Sands o' Dee_. 9. Leigh Hunt's _Abou Ben Adhem_. 10. Lowell's _The Courtin'_. CHAPTER VI WHOLE COMPOSITIONS; OUTLINES =33. Whole Compositions.=--You have now studied the combination of words into sentences and the combination of sentences into paragraphs. You must meanwhile have guessed that there is a still larger process of composition,--the combining of paragraphs into the essay or chapter or book. This process we must now examine briefly. Read the following passage, which, to be sure, is not exactly a whole composition in itself, for it forms a part of a long essay on a visit to Shakspere's birthplace. It is sufficiently long, however, to show how paragraphs are combined. I had come to Stratford on a poetical pilgrimage. My first visit was to the house where Shakspere was born, and where, according to tradition, he was brought up to his father's craft of wool-combing. It is a small, mean-looking edifice of wood and plaster, a true nestling place of genius, which seems to delight in hatching its offspring in by-corners. The walls of its squalid chambers are covered with names and inscriptions in every language, by pilgrims of all nations, ranks, and conditions, from the prince to the peasant; and present a simple, but striking instance of the spontaneous and universal homage of mankind to the great poet of nature. The house is shown by a garrulous old lady, in a frosty red face, lighted up by a cold blue anxious eye, and garnished with artificial locks of flaxen hair, curling from under an exceedingly dirty cap. She was peculiarly assiduous in exhibiting the relics with which this, like all other celebrated shrines, abounds. There was the shattered stock of the very matchlock with which Shakspere shot the deer, on his poaching exploits. There, too, was his tobacco box; which proves that he was a rival smoker of Sir Walter Raleigh; the sword also with which he played Hamlet; and the identical lantern with which Friar Laurence discovered Romeo and Juliet at the tomb! The most favorite object of curiosity, however, is Shakspere's chair. It stands in the chimney nook of a small gloomy chamber, just behind what was his father's shop. Here he may many a time have sat when a boy, watching the slowing revolving spit with all the longing of an urchin; or of an evening, listening to the cronies and gossips of Stratford, dealing forth churchyard tales and legendary anecdotes of the troublesome times of England. In this chair it is the custom of every one that visits the house to sit: whether this be done with the hope of imbibing any of the inspiration of the bard I am at a loss to say--I merely mention the fact; and mine hostess privately assured me, that, though built of solid oak, such was the fervent zeal of devotees, that the chair had to be new bottomed at least once in three years. It is worthy of notice also, in the history of this extraordinary chair, that it partakes something of the volatile nature of the Santa Casa of Loretto, or the flying chair of the Arabian enchanter; for though sold some few years since to a northern princess, yet, strange to tell, it has found its way back again to the old chimney. I am always of easy faith in such matters, and am ever willing to be deceived, where the deceit is pleasant and costs nothing. I am therefore a ready believer in relics, legends, and local anecdotes of goblins and great men; and would advise all travelers who travel for their gratification to be the same. What is it to us, whether these stories be true or false, so long as we can persuade ourselves into the belief of them, and enjoy all the charms of the reality? There is nothing like resolute good-humored credulity in these matters; and on this occasion I went even so far as willingly to believe the claims of mine hostess to a lineal descent from the poet, when, unluckily for my faith, she put into my hands a play of her own composition, which set all belief in her consanguinity at defiance.--WASHINGTON IRVING: _Stratford-on-Avon_. You will notice that the opening sentences give you a hint of what is coming. You will also notice that the author has a separate thought for each paragraph:-- 1. The house in general. 2. The relics exhibited by the housekeeper. 3. The most interesting relic; its history. 4. The author's "good-humored credulity." These thoughts, when taken together, build up in the reader's mind a larger thought, just as the thoughts expressed in each sentence in a paragraph, when taken together, build up in the reader's mind a smaller idea. Furthermore, you will notice how careful the writer has been to build up that idea in the reader's mind clearly and easily. He began with a thought that was easy to grasp and that gave you a hint of what was coming. Here is another good instance of an author's skill in planning his work:-- Let us consider briefly the structure of the earth, studying first its crust, second its interior, third its atmosphere. It has been found that what is called the earth's crust--that is, the outside of the earth, as the peel is the outside of an orange--is composed of various rocks of different kinds and ages, all of them, however, belonging to two great classes: stratified [that is, deposited in layers] rocks and igneous [made by fire] rocks. The stratified rocks have been deposited by water, principally by the sea. This is proved by two facts: first, in their formation they resemble the beds lying deposited by water at the present time; secondly, they nearly all contain remains of fishes and shell-fish. Such remains, being dug out of the earth, are called fossils, from the Latin _fossilis_, dug. The whole series of sedimentary rocks have been disturbed by eruptions of volcanic materials. Molten rock ejected from the interior of the earth and cooling form the igneous rocks we have spoken of. They are easily distinguished from the sedimentary rock, as they have no appearance of stratification and contain no fossils. We have numerous proofs that the interior of the earth is at a high temperature at present, although its surface has cooled. Our deepest mines are so hot that, without a perpetual current of cold air it would be impossible for the miners to live in them. The water brought up in artesian wells is found to increase in temperature one degree for from fifty to fifty-five feet of depth. In the hot lava emitted from volcanoes we have further evidence of this internal heat. It has been calculated that the temperature of the earth increases as we descend at the rate of one degree Fahrenheit in a little over fifty feet. We shall therefore have a temperature of two thousand seven hundred degrees at a depth of twenty-eight miles. At this temperature everything which we are acquainted with would be in a state of fusion. We now pass to the atmosphere, which may be likened to a great ocean, covering the earth to a height not yet exactly determined. This height is generally supposed to be forty-five or fifty miles, but there is evidence to show that we have an atmosphere of some kind at a height of four hundred or five hundred miles. The chemical composition by weight of one hundred parts of the atmosphere at present is as follows: nitrogen, seventy-seven parts; oxygen, twenty-three parts. Besides these two main constituents, we have carbonic acid, whose quantity varies with the locality; aqueous vapor, variable with the temperature and humidity; and a trace of ammonia.--Adapted from LOCKYER'S _Astronomy_. Here, as before, you will notice that the author has a separate idea for each paragraph, as follows:-- 1. The three parts of the earth. 2. The crust. 3. The interior. 4. The atmosphere. He has also begun in this case with a paragraph that states precisely what plan he is going to follow; namely, that he will treat the subject under three heads. =34. Outlines.=--A full outline of the selection would be as follows:-- I. Introduction. _A._ Announces whole topic. _B._ Names subdivisions--_crust, interior, atmosphere_. II. Crust. _A._ Composed of two kinds of rocks:-- 1. Stratified. 2. Igneous. III. Interior. _A._ Heat (proofs). _B._ Molten state. IV. Atmosphere. _A._ Height. _B._ Chemical composition. Now read the following composition:-- THE CUP OF WATER No touch in the history of the minstrel-king David gives us a more warm and personal feeling toward him than his longing for the water at the well of Bethlehem. Standing as the incident does in the summary of the characters of his mighty men, it is apt to appear to us as if it had taken place in his latter days; but such is not the case. It befell while he was still under thirty, in the time of his persecution by Saul. It was when the last attempt at reconciliation with the king had been made, when the affectionate parting with the generous and faithful Jonathan had taken place, when Saul was hunting him like a partridge on the mountains on the one side, and the Philistines had nearly taken his life on the other, that David, outlawed, yet loyal at the heart, sent his aged parents to the land of Moab for refuge, and himself took up his abode in the caves of the wild limestone hills that had become familiar to him when he was a shepherd. Brave captain and heaven-destined king as he was, his name attracted round him a motley group of those that were in distress, or in debt, or discontented, and among them were the "mighty men" whose brave deeds won them the foremost parts in that army with which David was to fulfill the ancient promises to his people. There were his three nephews, Joab, the ferocious and imperious, the chivalrous Abishai, and Asahel, the fleet of foot; there was the warlike Levite Benaiah, who slew lions and lionlike men, and others who, like David himself, had done battle with the gigantic sons of Anak. Yet even these valiant men, so wild and lawless, could be kept in check by the voice of their young captain; and outlaws as they were, they spoiled no peaceful villages, they lifted not their hands against the persecuting monarch, and the neighboring farms lost not one lamb through their violence. Some at least listened to the song of their warlike minstrel:-- "Come, ye children, and hearken to me: I will teach you the fear of the Lord. What man is he that lustest to live, And would fain see good days? Let him refrain his tongue from evil And his lips that they speak no guile; Let him eschew evil and do good; Let him seek peace and ensue it." With such strains as these, sung to his harp, the warrior gained the hearts of his men to enthusiastic love, and gathered followers on all sides, among them eleven fierce men of Gad, with faces like lions and feet swift as roes, who swam the Jordan in time of flood, and fought their way to him, putting all enemies in the valleys to flight. But the Eastern sun burnt on the bare rocks. A huge fissure, opening in the mountain ridge, encumbered at the bottom with broken rocks, with precipitous banks scarcely affording a footing for the wild goats,--such is the spot where, upon a cleft on the steep precipice, still remains the foundations of the "hold," or tower, believed to have been David's retreat; and near at hand is the low-browed entrance of the galleried cave, alternating between narrow passages and spacious halls, but all oppressively hot and close. Waste and wild, without a bush or a tree, in the feverish atmosphere of Palestine, it was a desolate region, and at length the wanderer's heart fainted in him, as he thought of his own home, with its rich and lovely terraced slopes, green with wheat, trellised with vines, and clouded with gray olive, and of the cool cisterns of living waters by the gate of which he loved to sing,-- "He shall feed me in a green pasture, And lead me forth beside the waters of comfort." His parched longing lips gave utterance to the sigh, "O that one would give me to drink of the water of the well of Bethlehem that is by the gate!" Three of his brave men, apparently Abishai, Benaiah, and Eleazar, heard the wish. Between their mountain fastness and the dearly-loved spring lay the host of the Philistines; but their love for their leader feared no enemies. It was not only water that he longed for, but the water from the fountain which he had loved in his childhood. They descended from their chasm, broke through the midst of the enemy's army, and drew the water from the favorite spring, bearing it back, once again through the foe, to the tower upon the rock! Deeply moved was their chief at this act of self-devotion,--so much moved that the water seemed to him too sacred to be put to his own use. "May God forbid it me that I should do this thing. Shall I drink the blood of these men that have put their lives in jeopardy, for with the jeopardy of their lives they brought it?" And as a hallowed and precious gift, he poured out unto the Lord the water obtained at the price of such peril to his followers.--CHARLOTTE YONGE: _A Book of Golden Deeds_. Notice the arrangement of the paragraphs in _The Cup of Water_, and study the way in which they are connected. Thus, in ¶ 1, the persecution of David by Saul is spoken of. ¶ 2 carries on the thought by speaking of David's attempt at reconciliation with Saul and ends with a song of David. ¶ 3 opens with a reference to this song--"with such strains as these," etc. ¶ 4 is connected with ¶ 3 by _but_ and ends with the expression of David's longing. ¶ 5 opens with direct reference to _the wish_. The following is an outline of the composition:-- I. Introduction. _A._ The incident gives us a warm feeling for him. _B._ It occurred when he was still a young man. II. Situation. _A._ David in hiding. _B._ His valiant followers. _C._ David's influence over them. III. The devotion of his followers. IV. What led David to wish for the water. _A._ The heat. _B._ The barren region. _C._ His memories of the cool spring at Bethlehem. V. The wish fulfilled. _A._ Expedition of the three valiant men. _B._ Their return. _C._ David's noble deed. =Exercise 75.=--Prepare outlines of passages indicated by the teacher. =35. Essentials in a Whole Composition.=--Your study of the preceding models and your practice in making outlines must have shown you some of the things a long composition should have. Let us now gather up these points. You have learned that both the sentence and the paragraph must have unity. The longer composition must also have _unity_. As in the paragraph everything must relate to one topic, so in the long composition everything must relate to one larger topic. Suppose that your subject is "Benjamin Franklin the Statesman"; you would then omit facts about Franklin's boyhood, also those about his discoveries in science, since, important and interesting as these facts are, they do not bear directly on the topic. In a good composition, one paragraph leads up to or suggests another. Look again at the passage on page 88. In ¶ 1 the house itself is described. In ¶ 2 we are taken inside by the housekeeper, who exhibits the relics. ¶ 3 gives a more detailed account of one relic in particular (Shakspere's chair). Doubts of its authenticity naturally lead to the author's little talk on relics in general, which you find in ¶ 4. Very often, although not always, you will find paragraphs joined by connecting words; but there should _always_ be connection in thought. In the chapter on _Condensation_ you are directed to decide carefully as to the relative importance of the different points treated, and to treat _the most important points at the greatest length_. Remember, then, that everything in your composition should treat of one theme; that the paragraphs should follow each other in an orderly way, each one carrying on the thought suggested by the preceding paragraph; and that the most important points should be treated _at the greatest length_. =36. How to Plan an Essay.=--Let us suppose that you take as your subject for a composition _The Cotton Gin_. Read all you can find on the subject, jotting down points of interest, such as the following:-- Boyhood of Whitney. His visit to the South. He becomes interested in problem of cleaning seeds from cotton wool. The method of removing seeds before the invention. Condition of cotton industry in the South. Description of cotton gin. Eli Whitney's attempts to make a machine. His success. Result of invention as to cotton raising. Whitney's character. Relation between slavery and the cotton gin. Effect of invention as to manufacturing at North. Amount of cotton exported after invention. Price of cotton before invention; after invention. From this mass of material you must choose the important facts. Keep only the facts that bear upon your topic. _Reject everything else._ The result would be somewhat as follows:-- _Accepted_:-- Condition of cotton industry before invention of cotton gin. Method of removing seeds before invention of cotton gin. Price of cotton. Whitney becomes interested in problem. His first attempt to make a machine. His success. Price of cotton after invention of cotton gin. Description of Whitney's cotton gin. Result of invention as to cotton raising. Relation between slavery and the cotton gin. Amount of cotton exported after the invention. Effect of invention on manufacturing at the North. _Rejected_:-- Boyhood of Whitney. Visit to South. Whitney's character. These points are rejected because they do not bear directly upon the main theme, although suggested by it. Close attention to the selection of material in this way will give your composition _unity_. After selecting your facts, the next point is to arrange them in an orderly way, so that one paragraph will lead naturally to the next. You would then have some such arrangement as this:-- I. Condition of cotton industry before invention of cotton gin. _A._ Method of removing seeds before invention of cotton gin. _B._ Price of cotton. II. Whitney's solution of the problem. _A._ His first attempt to make a machine. _B._ His success. _C._ Description of Whitney's cotton gin. III. Result of invention. _A._ Price of cotton after invention of cotton gin. _B._ Amount of cotton exported after the invention. _C._ Effect of invention on manufacturing at the North. _D._ Relation between slavery and the cotton gin. Here, for further illustration, is a similar outline for a composition on _cotton_. I. Description of plant. _A._ Root. _B._ Stem. _C._ Leaves. _D._ Flowers. _E._ Cotton boll. _F._ Seeds. II. Where grown. _A._ Of what country a native. _B._ Where grown most extensively. III. Preparation. _A._ Picking. _B._ Ginning. _C._ Packing. IV. Manufacturing. _A._ Articles manufactured. V. History of Plant. _A._ Discovery. _B._ In America before invention of cotton gin. _C._ In America after invention of cotton gin. _D._ Value to-day. =Exercise 76.=--I. Make outlines for composition on such topics as the teacher indicates. Suggested topics:-- 1. Our Fourth-of-July Celebration. 2. The Lost Child. 3. Tobacco. 4. The Battle of Bull Run. II. Write compositions, using the outlines you have made. Be sure you reject everything, no matter how interesting, that does not relate to your subject. Arrange your paragraphs carefully, using connecting words when possible. Treat the most important facts at greatest length. CHAPTER VII ORAL COMPOSITION =37. The Great Essential.=--We have now discussed certain matters which will be of service to you if you write your thoughts for others to read. Will these principles still hold if you speak your thoughts for others to hear? Yes, in the main; but you must remember that in the one case the persons you address have simply to _read_; if they do not understand, they can simply look back and reread. In the other case, the persons you address are listening, and they must understand each sentence as it comes to them, for of course any one in an audience cannot stop a speaker because he fails to hear a word or a phrase. A speaker must therefore, first of all, take pains that each person in his audience hears clearly every word he says. =38. How to be Heard.=--If you wish to speak so that every one in your audience can hear all that you say, you must take pains about several things:-- 1. _Proper Position._--Speech is sound produced by a stream of air forced from the lungs (as from a bellows) and striking against certain cords in the throat. By altering the tightness of these cords and by changing the position of the palate, tongue, and teeth, we change the character of the sound. If we are to speak to a considerable number of people, then, we must make sure that all this bodily machinery works with special ease and force, and first of all, that the lungs (the bellows) move freely. This means that they must have space to work, and this in turn means that we must stand erect, with the shoulders thrown back, the chest out, and the stomach in. The body should not be held stiffly or else the throat muscles are likely to become rigid also; but we should stand naturally, and firmly, not as if we were about to tumble over or to jump, but as if we were ready to speak quietly to our friends--which is just what we are to do. 2. _Proper Breathing._--We should breathe slowly, regularly, and deeply, from the abdomen rather than from the top of the lungs. If we breathe too fast or too irregularly, we shall speak in a rapid, jerky way, and find it very difficult to make ourselves understood. 3. _Proper Use of the Muscles of the Throat and Mouth._--We must be careful not to cramp the muscles of the throat, but to let them move easily. We can thus produce a loud clear tone without tiring ourselves unduly. If the head does not hang down, if the mouth is opened wide, and the throat muscles are allowed to work freely, without rigidity, the voice will be clear and distinct. 4. _Proper Pitch._--We must be sure (particularly the girls) not to pitch the voice too high, as if it were a siren whistle or a fife. A clear, rather low-pitched voice is the most pleasant to hear. We must be careful, too, not to talk (as so many of us do) through our noses. A nasal voice is almost always a disagreeable voice. 5. _Clear Articulation._--So much for the voice in general; now, last of all, we must be careful to pronounce clearly, to _articulate_ distinctly, that is, to give each syllable its proper value. Of course we do not ordinarily like to listen to a very prim and precise speaker, who pronounces every syllable with equal distinctness, uttering sharply, for instance, the _d_ in such an unimportant word as _and_. It is the custom of our language to distinguish between the accented syllables, which we pronounce distinctly, and the unaccented syllables, over which we pass lightly. But, on the other hand, we do not like to listen to the slovenly speaker, who drops entirely the _d_ in _and_ and the _g_ in _ing_, and who sounds all his vowels very much alike. In this matter of articulation, you will do well to take some older person, a good speaker or reader, as a model, and to imitate him or her. Practice reading aloud to your friends, standing sometimes at the very end of the room, or at the end of a suite of rooms, as far as possible from your hearers, asking any one of them to interrupt you the moment that anything you say is not distinctly heard. =39. Pronunciation.=--As to pronunciation, you must remember that often custom is not uniform. There are sometimes two or even more ways of pronouncing a word, both or all of which are given in the dictionaries; and occasionally there is a thoroughly proper way of pronouncing a word which the men who make the dictionaries have unfortunately omitted, but which is used by many educated and cultivated people. In general, you should use the pronunciation of the most intelligent and respected people you know, and in particular that of your teacher and your school. It is quite proper and desirable that every school or teacher should establish its own custom for words which are usually pronounced in one of several ways, and the pupil should do his best to conform, for the convenience of all, to the custom of the class or the school in this respect. =40. A Plan Necessary.=--There is no other important difference which you need now consider between oral composition and written composition. In both it is better, before you begin, to think carefully over what you have to say. In oral composition, as in written, it is wise to make a plan, and you can make it in precisely the same way. NOTE FOR THE TEACHER.--It does not seem necessary to insert special exercises in oral composition. Almost any of the exercises from the following chapters may be used with advantage. CHAPTER VIII THE DIARY =41. The Value of a Diary.=--The diary is the simplest form of writing, for you are writing for yourself, making for yourself a record of your life. What do you think should go in a diary? If your parents had kept one when they were your age, what would you have found most interesting now? A great many things which they would have taken for granted would seem odd to you, _i.e._ no telephone, big stoves in the class room, different studies, etc. If a boy in China kept a diary, what would you find most interesting? Some account of his games, of his playmates, of the look of the streets he passed through, of how he felt towards his teacher, etc. Bear these points in mind, for when you grow older, though you will not live in another land or another generation, you will be very far from your school-days, and your diary should make a picture of them for you. If you had been able to keep a diary when you were six or seven, what would you now read in it with most interest? The ideal is to set down at the end of the day a reminder of it, so that when you look at it you will remember what made that day different from every other. This is not possible always, but as a matter of fact every day has some special features, if it is only the weather. From a practical point of view, the diary is a great aid to letter-writing, since it really forms the notes for a narrative of your life. It often settles disputes about the date on which something was done; it furnishes data for calculations in planning; _i.e._ you wish to have an early spring picnic, and, consulting your diary, find that on the 20th of March of the year before you were in the woods without an overcoat and found arbutus; or you wish to get up an entertainment, and turn back in your diary for the description of one you saw during the summer. It gives you material for writing exercises for your English work; for instance, the entry, "To-day we went to Aunt Julia's to help pick cherries; I was almost bitten by their dog when we came down from the tree," is really the outline for a short story, if you make your note on it sufficient to bring the picture up before your mind. =42. Contents of a Diary.=--No two diaries should be alike, but certain things should always be noted so as to make a continuous record, even if they do not seem of special interest; _i.e._ the weather (very briefly if it is nothing unusual), the movements of the family (if any one is away or just returned), the health of the family (this only if any one is ill), what the general news of school is (if any special event of school life has taken place), and what you yourself have been doing. You may sometimes think that you have done nothing worth putting down, but anything that has made the day different from the day before is worth writing. Do not try to make entries for different days of same length. Try to cultivate the ability to pick out the details of an incident which will make _you_ remember it most distinctly. Later on, in letter writing and description, you will have to select details which will bring a picture most clearly before the minds of other people, but in your diary you are freer. In your entry after an afternoon's sledding, for instance, it may be sufficient for you to say: "Went sledding on Holmes's hill. Weather very cold, with a high wind, that sent the snow flying. Broke my sled, trying to make the corner curve too fast. The whole crowd of us come home together, taking turns in pulling each other and playing Eskimos, and I almost frosted my nose." If those were the important events of the afternoon to you, they should bring up the whole picture before you, so that you could see it clearly enough to remember all the other details that would be necessary to give any one else an idea of what the expedition was like. It is absolutely essential that the entry for each day should be made while it is fresh in your mind; do _not_ wait for several days, and then "write up" your diary. A short entry on the day of the occurrence is worth more than a page written a week later. After the school news, and what you yourself have done, enter anything unusual which any one you know has done, or any change of conditions at home; _i.e._ that it is preserving time and the house is full of odor of cooking fruit; that it is near Christmas, and you worked with the others on making wreaths for the decorations of the church. You will find that a brief record of your work at school, how you succeeded and how you failed, what you found hard and why, is of real use to you. =43. Imaginary Diaries.=--After you have formed the habit of making every day a picture of your own actual life, try making a similar picture of the life of an imaginary person. Take any period you have studied in your history and try to make a diary of a boy or girl who lived in that time. =Exercise 77.=--1. A Puritan boy in the first winter of the stay of the Puritan fathers in New England; choose a week when they first land, and a week when spring begins to come. Bring out the difference in his feelings. 2. A girl in Dutch Manhattan. Tell the story of the taking of Manhattan by the English as it would have appeared to her. From your study of the customs and habits of the time, write a week's entries of her holiday week, Christmas customs, etc. 3. An Indian boy: a week's diary in the West, on the plains, etc., and then later, a week's entries after he arrives at the Indian school and is being taught the customs of the white men. 4. Diary of a week spent as you would like best to spend it. Diary of an imaginary week in the country; in the city; in South America; on an ocean voyage; during a week's illness. 5. Diary of the inhabitant of any country you are studying in your geography lessons. =44. The Class Diary.=--If there is not already such a custom in your class room, it is a good thing for you to start a class diary, or record of the year's school work and activities. This aims to do the same thing for the class that your personal diary does for your own life, and in it should be written all that makes the life of each school day or week distinctive. This book is left in your class room, to form one of a series of such records, which will be of increasing interest as the years go on. Any large blank book may be used for this purpose, and great care should be taken to keep the record very neatly written. Nothing should be entered until all corrections have been made, so that a fair copy may be written. Sometimes, when only the larger events are to be chronicled, it is better that this record be set down by weeks, rather than by days. A good plan is to divide the class into committees of four or five each, who take charge of noting down the happenings of the week. They write the entry, read it to the class for suggestions and criticisms, and set it down in the class diary. It is well to have fixed a certain number of items which are to be noted regularly, and these may be divided among the members of the committee for the week. For instance, one may make it his business to note the weather, the temperature, the wind, or any unusual conditions out of doors; another, the advance of the seasons, the day when the first robin arrives, or when the first definite signs of winter were seen, whether this be the falling of the last leaves, the first snowstorm, or the fact that the street cars are heated; another may take as his share the state of the studies of the class, unusual lessons, if any, and the progress made in the regular ones; another, any items of general interest in other classes in the school. A record of all manner of items may be kept here,--facts which the class is interested in keeping, such as the attendance for each day, or the average attendance for the week, the average percentage of the class in any study, etc. For special events,--entertainments, debates, excursions, etc.,--there may be a member of the committee delegated to report, or the accounts may be written as an exercise, and the best one selected by the committee or teacher. The entry for the week should be made up of these various reports, entered neatly in the class diary, and signed by the pupils composing the committee. CHAPTER IX THE LETTER =45. Various Kinds of Letters.=--You have seen that the diary or journal is the most informal and simple form of written expression, since it is intended, as a rule, for the writer only. The letter is less personal than the diary, because it is addressed to one other person; but it is more personal than general writing (description, stories, etc.), which is addressed to a number of persons, most of whom the writer does not know. Letters differ widely according to their purposes, but the merit of any sort of a letter may be judged by putting yourself in the place of the person receiving it, and trying to feel whether you would be satisfied by it. Letters may be classified as follows according to their purposes:-- 1. To bridge over, as far as possible, a separation between people who know each other well, and to take the place of a conversation between them. _Friendly letters._ 2. To arrange matters of social intercourse in the most correct and pleasing manner, to extend and accept or refuse invitations, etc. _Social letters._ 3. To give information or ask questions as clearly as possible. _Business letters._ 4. To give information or ask questions as briefly as is consistent with perfect clearness. _Telegrams._ 5. To take the place of going about and telling many people the same thing. _Notices._ 6. To present a request for a favor in the most persuasive manner. _Petitions._ =46. Friendly Letters.=--There are five main parts to every letter: (1) the heading; (2) the salutation; (3) the body, or what is written; (4) the complimentary ending; (5) the conclusion. In a friendly letter the heading, which consists of the post-office address of the writer and the date of writing, is sometimes omitted, although it is always best to write the date, even in letters of the greatest intimacy. Some of the usual salutations in letters to near friends or relatives are: My dear Mother, Dear Father, Dear Mary, My dear Mrs. Smith, My dear Aunt Martha. According to the degree of intimacy the usual complimentary endings are: Sincerely yours, Very sincerely yours, Cordially yours, Heartily yours, Yours ever, Affectionately yours, Yours lovingly, Your loving daughter, Your affectionate son, etc. In letters to members of the family or close friends the first name only is sometimes signed. The following are good typical forms for friendly letters:-- (1) DORSET, N.H., May 10, 1906. MY DEAR GILBERT,-- ----------------------------- ------------------------------------------ ------------------ Faithfully yours, JAMES MEYER. (2) BUTTE, April 16, Thursday. DEAR MOTHER,-- -------------------------- ------------------------------------------ --------------------------- Your affectionate son, HENRY. The ideal in friendly letters is to write to your correspondent what you would say to him if you could see him, and to answer the questions he would put to you. If you are away on a visit, for instance, the questions he would probably ask are, "What sort of a place is it where you are? Are you having a good time? What are you doing to amuse yourself?" Try to think what sort of a letter you would like to have him write if he were away, and write accordingly. Although you wish to write naturally and almost as though you were talking, it is best to make out a list of the really important things you wish to say, or you will find that you have come to the end of your letter without stating some vital facts you wished your friend to know. It has been said that a friendly letter should be like a conversation, but you must remember that it is a conversation limited in time. If you were about to see your friend for only a half hour, it would be well to think of a few main facts you wished to tell him, or questions you wish him to answer, and bear them in mind; otherwise your time might come to an end before you had said the important things. Even for the most informal letter it is always best to make an outline, although it may be a very brief one. Suppose you wish to describe the way in which you spent Christmas away from home. Probably nothing very unusual happened, and you may think an outline unnecessary; but you will find, even in relating the facts of one day, that if you do not have some plan and keep in your mind the main events in their proper order, you will be likely to write a confused and incomplete account of what you did. Some such outline as the following is needed:-- INTRODUCTION. The place where I was,--city, country, or village; the weather; general conditions. (This information can be given as briefly as you please, in a paragraph, but it is essential to understanding what you say about Christmas Day itself.) MAIN BODY OF THE LETTER. _Morning._ Why we hung up our stockings, and how we received our presents. _Dinner._ How we helped prepare it, and any special features of it. _Afternoon._ Coasting. _Evening._ Charades, and the one we thought particularly good. ENDING. Inquiries about your friend's Christmas, friendly greetings, and the close. A letter written on the above outline follows:-- NEWTONVILLE, WIS. January 2, 1906. MY DEAR HARRY,-- I promised you before the holidays began that I would let you know how I had spent my Christmas, but the last day of the vacation has come and I have not written you a line. The truth is that I have been having such a good time every minute that I have not realized how fast the week has been going. You remember my big cousin who goes to the State University, don't you? He came to visit our school once, last winter. His father, my uncle, invited our family to come out here and have a real "country Christmas" on his farm, and here we have been since the day after school closed. He lives in a fine, large farmhouse, with room enough in it for his big family and ours, too. We are three miles from town, but there are plenty of horses to drive, and the air is so bracing and the weather so clear and cold that we don't mind the walk. Besides that, there are such a lot of us that nobody ever has to go alone. I never knew what fun it is to be in a big family. There is always somebody ready for a tramp whenever you want to go out, and in the evenings it is like being at a party all the time. On Christmas eve we hung up our stockings, even the grown-ups. That was for the little children, who still think there is a Santa Claus. There was hardly room enough along the mantelpiece for them all, and the next morning, when they were all full and knobby, they actually overlapped. Christmas morning we were all up ever so early. Before it was really light, my big cousin was around knocking at the doors, calling us to breakfast and shouting, "Merry Christmas!" We scrambled into our clothes and raced downstairs to breakfast, and then to the stockings. We pretended we thought Santa Claus had just that minute gone, and you ought to have seen the little girls look up the chimney after him. By the time everybody had looked at all his own presents and the things other people had, it was time to begin thinking about dinner. We helped get it. I shouldn't be surprised if we were more in the way than a help, but it was lots of fun. The girls worked around in the kitchen and helped set the table, and we boys decorated the rooms with greens and turned the ice-cream crank. There were eighteen of us at table, and you couldn't hear yourself think for the talking and laughing. The last thing we did was to pass around a big sheet of paper, and everybody wrote his name on it and anything else he wanted to say. We are going to try, all of us, to get together that way every Christmas, and make such a list each time for a remembrance. My big cousin wrote, "United we cook, united we eat, united we die!" I said it was the best Christmas I had ever had. We had eaten so much that after dinner we just sat around and talked for a while, and then a crowd of boys went out to coast and try our new sleds. There is a fine hill right near the house, and the snow was exactly right. You can coast as much as ten city blocks without slowing up at all, and then you run along on a level for four or five more. In the evening some of the neighbors came in and we played charades. I never knew you could have so much fun at that. We thought of a number of good words, but our side had the best, "Russian." We played the first syllable like a football "rush," and that was exciting. My cousin is on the university team, and he told us just what to do to have it like real football. We acted the last syllable as "shun," and none of us would look at one of the girls,--"shunned" her, you know. For the whole word we put on all the furs we could find, and paraded around with banners, and pretended to throw bombs. The other side couldn't guess for a long time what we were acting. We were pretty tired when we went to bed, but I thought again it was about the nicest Christmas I had ever known. I hope you had a good time, too, and I wish you would write me about it. It must have been very different from mine, since you were in the city. Did you get the new skates you wanted? My father gave me a pair. I hope I shall hear soon from you that your Christmas was as great a success as mine. Sincerely yours, GEORGE ALLEN. =Exercise 78.=--Make a similar outline and write a letter on any one of the following topics:-- (1) Your Christmas holidays in the city. (2) A trip in a boat. (3) The use of a new camera. (4) The beginning of a new study in school. (5) The beginning of new lessons out of school. (6) The last game of baseball, basket-ball, etc., you have seen. (7) A railway journey. (8) Your friend is away on a visit. Write him all that has gone on in the neighborhood and school since he left. (9) Your parents are away. Write them the news of your home. (10) You have found a certain book interesting. Write your friend about it and recommend it to him. (11) Describe an interesting address or play you have heard. (12) An accident which you saw or one in which you were. (13) An expedition in the woods. (14) An entertainment you have recently seen or one which you helped to give. (15) A new pet. (16) A carpenter shop you have arranged for yourself in an unused room. (17) A picnic. (18) A new society which has been started in your school. (19) You have your parents' permission to undertake a walking trip or bicycling tour of several days through the country. Write to a friend, stating your plans and asking him to join you. (20) A similar letter proposing a week's camping-out in the woods. _Note._--A longer list of subjects for friendly letters is not given because almost any of the subjects for other forms of composition can be treated in a letter. Moreover, it is highly desirable that pupils should write letters to real people,--relatives, friends, or pupils in other schools with whom an exchange has been arranged. A real correspondence, where the pupil feels he is attempting to interest and please an actual person, arouses much more spirit than purely imaginary letters. =47. Letters of Social Intercourse.=--In form, letters of social intercourse stand between the purely friendly letter and the business letter. The address of the writer and the date of the letter often stand at the foot of the letter, beginning opposite the signature in the more informal notes, as in the following form:-- MY DEAR MRS. BLACKMAR,-- ----------------------------- ----------------------------------------- ----------------------------- Very sincerely yours, MARY HOLDEN. 22 HIGH STREET, COLUMBUS, O. April 12, 1906. In the most formal letter of social intercourse, the address of the writer and the date stand at the beginning, and the complete name and address of the person addressed stand at the foot, thus:-- 428 BOLTON PLACE, PITTSBURGH, PA., September 26, 1906. MY DEAR SIR,-- ----------------------------------- ------------------------------------------ ----------------------------------- Very sincerely yours, RICHARD WHITE. MR. ELBERT PETERS, ROSS CENTER, N.Y. Sometimes, instead of writing =_Mr._= before a name, =_Esq._= is written after it, but the two are never used at the same time. In style, the letter of social intercourse should be as graceful as it is possible to make it, although it should always be simple and not too long. Many invitations and answers to them have a form fixed by tradition (see _Formal Invitations_, § 48), but the informal social letter is almost entirely a matter of taste. There are, however, a few courteous phrases which are so much used as to be almost fixed forms. Such are: "I hope that we may have the pleasure of your company," "I hope that you can be with us," "I regret most sincerely that it is impossible for me to accept your kind invitation," "I shall be very happy to be with you," "It is with great pleasure that I accept your kind invitation," "I regret that a previous engagement prevents me from accepting your invitation," etc. The following is a typical informal invitation:-- MY DEAR MRS. WILSON,-- My mother wishes me to write you that we are planning to take a drive to Chester on next Tuesday, and should be very glad to have you with us. We are to leave at nine o'clock, so that we may be at the Chester Hotel in time for dinner. I hope that is not too early an hour for you, and that we may have the pleasure of your company on that day. Very sincerely yours, MARGARET HUNT. HILLTOP LODGE, WIS., January 14, 1906. =Exercise 79.=--The following letters should be written on note paper or on paper ruled to that size:-- 1. Write an acceptance to the above invitation. 2. Write a note to a friend of your mother's, saying that your mother is slightly indisposed and cannot keep an engagement. Write a suitable answer. 3. Write a note to a friend of your father's, asking him in your father's name to join a fishing party; a whist club; a hunting expedition; to be one of a theater party. 4. Write a note to a friend, boy or girl, asking him or her to go to the theater with you, to come and spend the day with you, to come to a party you are giving, to attend some athletic contest with you, to go for a day's tramp with a party of friends, to play at a concert, to take part in a debate or entertainment, to lend you a book, to give you the address of a friend, to join with you in forming a club among your friends. 5. Write a note to a friend, thanking him for having helped you in an entertainment, for having lent you a book, for having done a service to a friend, for any favor shown you. 6. Write a note to your teacher, explaining your absence from school, asking her to send word to you about the lessons done in your absence; asking her to excuse you early from school, giving some specific reason; asking her for the date of the first day of school following a vacation; asking if you may be a few days late in returning to school; asking her to be present at a meeting of one of your societies; inviting her to your house for dinner. 7. Write a note to the principal of your school, asking him to be present at an entertainment given by your grade, at a spelling match, at a debate, or any special event in your class room; asking him to excuse you from drawing, on account of weak eyes, or from any other study, giving reasons; asking him to give you a letter of introduction to the principal of the new school to which you are about to go; asking him to be a judge in some contest in your class room; thanking him for having acted as judge. =48. Formal Invitations.=--These are written and answered according to certain fixed forms and in the third person. Mr. and Mrs. Henry Miller request the pleasure of Mr. Albert Knight's company at dinner on Wednesday evening, the tenth of March, at half past seven o'clock. 221 West Long Street, Friday morning. Mr. Albert Knight accepts with pleasure Mr. and Mrs. Miller's kind invitation to dinner on Wednesday evening at half past seven o'clock. 44 Park Place, Saturday morning. Mrs. William Morris Miss Morris At Home On Wednesday, March tenth, from four until six o'clock. 23 Grant Avenue. Extremely formal invitations, especially to public and semi-public functions, are often impersonal in form, as in the following:-- The Annual Concert of the Elementary Schools of St. Joseph, Michigan, will be held in the Assembly Room of the High School, Tuesday evening, May twentieth, at eight o'clock. You are cordially invited to be present. The President and Members of the School Board request the honor of your company at the formal dedication of the New High School, on Wednesday, November third, at half past three o'clock. =Exercise 80.=--I. Study these forms and copy them accurately on note paper. Write a formal invitation from Captain and Mrs. Arthur Elliott to Mrs. Alice Johnson for dinner; from Mrs. Henry White to Mr. and Miss Kellogg for an evening at home. Write acceptance and regret for each. II. 1. Prepare a card for a semi-public reception given by your school, by your church, by a club or society. 2. Prepare a card for a school concert, exhibition of school work, exhibition of work in Physical Culture; for a play given by the school Dramatic Society; for a May Festival given by the Eighth Grade; for the laying of a corner stone of a new schoolhouse, of a church, of a public building of any kind. =49. Telegrams.=--In a telegram clearness is the first quality to be sought. Because of the cost of sending, the telegram is usually limited to ten words, excluding the address and signature, and this brevity renders it difficult to state all that you wish clearly, and makes it an exercise in ingenuity to condense the information you wish to give without making it hard to understand. For instance, you wish your brother, who is visiting in another town, to meet you at a certain train on Monday and spend the day hunting with you, if the weather is good. You would word your telegram in some such way as this:-- September 9, 1906. MR. PETER WHITING, DANFIELD, MD. Meet me eight thirty, ready for hunting, if weather favorable. JOHN WHITING. Although you have used incomplete sentences, you have said enough so that your brother will understand what you mean. =Exercise 81.=--Condense as much as possible and write as telegrams, thinking before you write what are the essential parts of the message, and leaving out all else:-- 1. Mother has gone to spend the day with Aunt Mary, and wishes you to call there for her in the evening and bring her home. 2. Before you come home, be sure to call on the lady who is to be teacher of the seventh grade here next year. She lives on Horning Street. 3. We are all to be away from home on a picnic the day you speak of coming to see us. We should like to have you join us. 4. There is to be a very interesting entertainment here the day I was to go home. May I stay over another day to see it? 5. The river is too swollen for the canoe trip we planned for Saturday. Bring your tools along when you come, and we will try to make a raft. 6. Henry has just passed his examinations for Dartmouth College. He will stop in Farmington to see you, on his way home, Tuesday. 7. Can your basket-ball team put off the match we were to play on Monday until Wednesday? The field we hoped to have is engaged for Monday. 8. Will your debating society be willing to meet ours, on the 27th of this month, in our class room? 9. We have just heard of the burning of your schoolhouse and wish to extend our sympathy. Will you telegraph us if there is anything we can do to help you? 10. The hour of the train on which we were to leave has been changed, and we shall not reach home until six o'clock. 11. On unpacking my trunk I cannot find my volume of Tennyson's poems. Did you put it in the trunk or was it left behind? 12. I have spilled ink on my best dress. May Aunt Jane buy a new one for me to wear at my cousin's party? 13. We cannot find the key to the back door. If you took it with you by mistake, please return it to father's business address. 14. Will the seventh grade of your school join ours in a nature-study excursion to the river next Saturday? 15. Your mother is away from home on her birthday. Send her an appropriate telegram of congratulation and greeting. 16. You are to pass through the town where a friend lives and will have a half hour wait at the station. Telegraph him, asking him to come there to see you. =50. Business Letters.=--In a business letter the five main parts are very full and complete. The heading contains, as in other letters, the post office address of the writer and the date. Above the salutation is written the full name and address of the person to whom the letter is sent. There are slightly varied forms for the salutation:-- Dear Sir; My dear Sir; Dear Sirs; Dear Madam; Dear Mesdames; Sir; Gentlemen; Madam; Mesdames. The complimentary ending is usually one of the following:-- Truly yours; Very truly yours; Faithfully yours; Respectfully yours. Sometimes, in letters slightly more formal, these endings are written thus:-- I am, Very truly yours, ANDREW D. JORDAN. I remain, Respectfully yours, ANDREW D. JORDAN. Under the signature of the writer is frequently put his title; and if a clerk has written the signature, per followed by his initials is placed below. Very truly yours, ANDREW D. JORDAN, Secretary. Truly yours, MATTHEW BENNETT, per D. C. The following is a correct and usual form for a business letter:-- 501 SOUTH LINCOLN STREET, CLEVELAND, O. September 20, 1906. MESSRS. CHARLES WRIGHT AND SONS, 42 HILTON STREET, NORWOOD, PA. DEAR SIRS,-- Please send me the latest catalogue of your goods, and state whether you pay cost of transportation for large orders. Very truly yours, HENRY L. PERKINS. =Exercise 82.=--Study the forms given above, and write the beginning and end of each of the following letters:-- 1. Mr. Henry Smith, 44 Bolton Place, Brooklyn, N.Y., writes on November 10, 1906, to Messrs. John Murray Brothers, 32 Canal Street, New York. 2. Miss Helen Reed, Principal of the Woodlawn School, Saylesville, N.J., writes on October 10, 1906, to Mr. Percy Painter, 607 West 14th Street, Trenton, N.J. 3. The Landsdowne Manufacturing Company, 241 Greenwich Place, San Francisco, writes on May 7, 1906, to the San Francisco agent of the Northern Pacific R. R., 22 Newton Street, San Francisco. The writing of business letters should be taken up after the exercise in writing telegrams, for brevity is almost as essential in the one as in the other. There is, of course, no need to write incomplete sentences as in the telegram, but the same general process should be followed; that is, to see what are the really important points you wish to state, to express these with unmistakable clearness, and to say no more. It is proper to add that a person of education and cultivation is recognized at once as such by the letters he writes. Even in a matter-of-fact letter, too, you may often reveal, without realizing it, your courtesy and kindliness as well as your intelligence. We constantly judge people by their letters. _Note._--A good exercise is to have the pupils assume characters in the business world and answer each other's letters. An incomplete letter can often be detected thus, by being put to a practical test. Do not begin to write your letter until you have made a brief outline of what you wish to say, in the order in which it should be said. For instance, you wish to apply for the position of errand boy. To write a complete letter, you need some such outline as the following, even though it be only in your head and not written down:-- Give the reason for applying for the position by stating how you have heard of the need for errand boys (through advertisement, personally, etc.); state your own qualifications for the work as simply and plainly as possible, mentioning your age, education, health, experience, recommendations, and any other facts that may bear on your capacity to give satisfaction; and when you have given these essential points, close your letter. A letter written on such lines follows:-- 55 HENLY STREET, BALTIMORE, MD. January 17, 1906. MESSRS. JOHN HAMPTON AND SONS, 225 FULTON ST., NEW YORK. DEAR SIRS,-- I have heard through your agent here that you are looking for boys as messengers and errand boys. My family is about to move to New York and I wish to make application for one of those positions with your firm. I am fifteen years old, in good health, and have just graduated from the public schools in this city. For the last three summers I have acted as errand boy for the firm of Clancy Brothers here, which work I am told by your agent is similar to what you wish. I inclose letters of recommendation from the head of that firm and from the principal of my school. Hoping to hear from you favorably, Very truly yours, PETER MILLER. =Exercise 83.=--I. Write the answer to the above. II. Write, in the same manner, letter and answer, making a short outline first in each case:-- 1. A letter to a bicycle firm, asking to be given the agency for your town or locality. State why you think their bicycles would sell well, and what your qualifications for the position are. 2. Letter to a large grocery store, offering to sell them homemade preserves, nuts, maple sugar, candy, popcorn-balls, or anything you can make or gather in the country. 3. Letter to a florist, offering to supply him with autumn leaves, ferns, country flowers of any kind, moss, birchbark, etc. 4. Letter to a country newspaper, offering to write a weekly news letter. 5. Letter to a country church, offering to repeat for them an entertainment which has been successful in your own church or school _Note._--Make the letters above complete in all details, as to distance from the city or country, cost of transportation, etc.; and in the answer give full terms and conditions. 6. Letter to a livery stable, asking their price for a sleigh ride for a party of twelve. 7. Letter to the owner of an athletic field, asking his price for the use of the field every Tuesday afternoon during April and May. 8. Letter to a firm of dealers in athletic goods, asking for a reduced rate for an outfit for basket-ball, baseball, etc., and giving reasons why you think you should have a reduction. 9. To a piano manufacturer, asking lowest prices for a piano for the school and easiest methods of payment, installments, etc. Explain that the pupils are attempting to raise the money by entertainments. 10. To a bank, inclosing check and asking them to deposit it to your brother's credit, and to send acknowledgment to his address. =Exercise 84.=--Write the following: 1. To a carpenter, asking price of shelf for your class room. Give all necessary information about length, width, etc. 2. To a dressmaker, asking price for making a dress. Give all particulars. 3. To a department store, asking to open an account. Give references. 4. To the Gas Company, saying that you are about to leave town for a month and wish the gas turned off the house during that time. 5. To a theater, asking what reduction will be made if a number of pupils from your school buy tickets together. 6. To a railroad, asking what reduction in price will be made for a school excursion. 7. To a grocer, milkman, butcher, making arrangements for daily delivery of goods at your house. 8. To a caterer, asking prices for a large reception. 9. To the leader of a musical organization, asking his prices for playing at a school entertainment. 10. To a person who is to speak at your school, stating exactly what the occasion is, who will form his audience, how long he is expected to speak, etc. =51. Notices.=--In olden times, when any one wished to announce a meeting or give some information of common interest, he hired the town crier. This was a man who went about the town with a horn or bell, attracting as many people as possible to him, and then crying out in a loud voice the news he had to tell. The notice you put up on the blackboard in your class room, the slip of paper you post on the walls of your schoolhouse, to announce an entertainment, an examination, or a meeting of one of your clubs, is the modern town crier. The notices which you see in the newspapers, telling people the time and date of a public meeting, or announcing church services, also take the place of a town crier. There is this difference. If the crier forgot to tell the people listening to him any important detail of his news, they could at once call out and ask him; but if a notice is incomplete, there is no way for the people interested to get the information needed. If you will study notices of various kinds, you will see that good ones, that is, notices which are brief, clear, complete, and not clumsy, are not common; and, when you try to write them, you will probably find it more difficult than you thought to be a good town crier. A meeting for the purpose of forming a club for the study of birds will be held on Thursday afternoon at half past three, in the Seventh Grade room. Any pupils in grades higher than the Fourth, who are interested in bird study, are eligible for membership, and are cordially invited to attend the meeting. If a sufficient number appear before four o'clock, an expedition to the Wright Woods will be made, under the leadership of the teachers of the Seventh Grade. In studying this notice you will see that a great deal is contained in it. Place, date, hour, and purpose of the meeting are contained in the first sentence. In the next is definitely stated the condition for membership in the club, and in the last is placed an inducement to make the meeting a large one. Another example follows:-- A Christmas entertainment will be given by the pupils of the Eighth Grade on Friday afternoon at three o'clock, in the Seventh Grade room. A short play will be presented, and the Glee Club of the school will sing twice. Admission, ten cents. It is hoped that there will be a large number present, as the proceeds go to the piano fund. =Exercise 85.=--1. The Bird Club is formed, and you wish to announce a field expedition, on a Saturday, when every one is to bring his lunch. State place and time and date of meeting; probable length of the expedition; cost, if any; special equipment, such as rubbers; and what will be done in case of bad weather. 2. Write a notice for a regular meeting of the Bird Club, giving topic to be discussed. 3. You wish to announce a competition for a prize for the best story about a bird, for the best drawing of a bird, for the best plan of work for the club, for the best description of one of its excursions. State conditions of contest, time when contributions must be handed in, maximum and minimum length of article or size of drawing, what the prize is, etc. 4. Similar notice for prize competition for best Christmas story, Fourth of July article, Thanksgiving poem, etc.; for the best amateur photograph of the school, for the best drawing. 5. Write notice for the formation of a Kodak Club; of a football team; of a walking club; of a dramatic society; of a literary society; of a glee club; of a general athletic association; of a school library; of a chess club. 6. Write notices for a regular meeting of these societies. In writing notices for an address or entertainment it is often desirable to give a little space to a brief description or characterization of the speaker, as in the following:-- Dr. William T. Harris, the former National Commissioner of Education at Washington, will speak on Education and Philosophy at the morning session on Tuesday, at half-past nine o'clock, in the large Assembly Hall. Dr. Harris is one of the most distinguished of living educators. A general discussion will follow the address. =Exercise 86.=--Write a notice for an address by the President of the United States, by a senator, by one of the clergymen of your town, by the superintendent of city schools, by the mayor of your town, by any public person whom you would like to hear. =Exercise 87.=--1. Write a notice of a spelling match between two grades in your school, of an athletic contest of any kind, of a concert, of a play, of a school expedition to visit an historical monument, of the dates of a holiday, of a picnic, of a celebration of Washington's birthday, of a debate, of a celebration of Hallowe'en. 2. Write a notice stating that the skating is good on a pond near the school; that the pond is declared unsafe; that pupils are asked not to pass near a building that is being erected on the same street as the school on account of danger from falling timber; that pupils are requested to be very quiet in passing a house where some one lies seriously ill; that the city or village authorities have forbidden coasting down a certain street; that baseball is allowed on certain days in the park; that bonfires will be allowed in the streets in honor of some celebration; that the pupils of your school are expected to take part in the parade on Decoration Day, in any town celebration; that song birds are not to be killed; that a bridge near the school is unsafe; that all pupils must be vaccinated before a certain date. =52. Appeals.=--When brief, these are in the nature of notices; when longer, they are like open letters. They aim to move people to take action benefiting some good cause, and should be as brief as is possible while giving a sufficiently full explanation of the necessity for action. Always state plainly and definitely how the action desired may be taken, to whom contributions may be sent, etc. The following is an example of a brief appeal. Like any such communication, it may be lengthened as much as is desirable, by dwelling on the good that a library would do under the conditions mentioned, by citing examples of successful school libraries elsewhere, etc. Such expansion is only necessary when the people to whom you make your appeal know little or nothing of the matter. The public school which has just been completed near the iron foundries has no library of its own and there is no public library near it. Good reading matter is much needed there, and the pupils of other public schools in the city are earnestly requested to contribute books and magazines toward the formation of a school library. Anything in the way of interesting reading will be welcomed, in German as well as English, for there are a great many Germans among the pupils. Old magazines and old books will be of as much value in the beginning as new ones. Contributions may be left in the office of the principal of any public school. =Exercise 88.=--Write an appeal: (1) for old magazines to send to hospitals; (2) for pictures for your class room or for those of another school; (3) for books for your own library in your grade room; (4) for money for the fresh-air fund; (5) for pupils to join the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals; (6) for volunteers to aid in a benefit entertainment of some sort, drill, play, fair, etc.; (7) for old clothes and shoes for the very poor of the city who are suffering from the cold; (8) for examples of map making, penmanship, drawing, or some other school work to send away as models to a new school; (9) for pupils to hand in more material for the school paper. =53. Petitions.=--A petition is a form of open letter, asking a favor, and addressed by a number of people to an authority who can grant the request. There is a form fixed by tradition for the opening of a petition, but the content is varied according to the conditions, and the wording of a petition needs the greatest care. As in any literary exercise, the first thought should be of the essential points you wish to cover, and a brief outline should be made, comprising an exact statement of the concession you wish granted and the best reasons you can give for the granting of it. To the Mayor and Common Council of the city of Wakefield, Indiana, we, the undersigned, members of the Eighth Grade of Public School No. 12, respectfully petition that the west end of Elliott Park, above the driveway, be set apart for a school picnic on the afternoon of Tuesday, May the fourteenth, between two and six o'clock. There is no other place suitable for a picnic within walking distance of the school and all the members of the Eighth are not able to pay carfare. If our petition is granted, we guarantee that no damage will be done to the trees or shrubs, that the park will be vacated promptly at six o'clock, and left in good condition. =Exercise 89.=--1. Write a petition to the authorities of your city or town, asking for permission to use a certain street for coasting, for shinney, for baseball, etc. 2. Write a petition to the principal of your school, asking that a new study may be introduced into the school curriculum; that the weekly holiday be on another day; that school open later and close later, or _vice versa_; that punishment by staying after school be abolished; that the hours of schools be shorter and more work be done at home; that school be closed an hour earlier in order that the pupils may be present at a meeting or celebration of some kind; that your grade be allowed to use the assembly room for a debate; that you be permitted to flood a part of the playground to make a skating pond; that one of your studies be omitted from the course of study; that pupils be not marked tardy until ten minutes after the opening of school. =54. Advertisements.=--The advertisement is an outgrowth of the notice, and in its simplest form is still a notice, as when the expense of printing causes the advertisement to be as brief as possible. It is then written on the same principle as the telegram, that is, using the fewest words possible to express clearly a given amount of information. =Exercise 90.=--Write, after studying similar advertisements in the newspapers, advertisements for help of all kinds,--janitor, sewing girls, errand boys, maids, nurses, coachmen, farm hands, apple-pickers, telephone girls, stenographers, etc. Also advertisements for rented furnished rooms, for houses to rent, etc., giving all essential details in as few words as possible. The above are virtually notices without having the real characteristic of the advertisement, which differs from the notice in that it not only gives information but seeks to do this in so attractive and pleasing a manner that people will be induced to buy the wares offered. =Exercise 91.=--As a class exercise, take any one of the following topics, limit the number of words used to two or three hundred, and see who can write the most practical and attractive advertisement. Your aim is to state as forcibly as possible all the favorable aspects of your topic, so that they will appeal most surely to the people you wish to reach. Study the advertisements you like best and see their method. Note that you are attracted by those that seem honest and moderate, and that you are repelled by extravagant overstatements. 1. Write an advertisement for an amusement park which has been opened near your town. 2. For a country school for boys; for girls. 3. For a city school for boys; for girls. 4. For an excursion on a railroad or on a line of steamers. 5. For a summer resort in the North; for a winter resort in the South. 6. For a sanatorium in your town; for a skating rink; for a new hotel. 7. For an academy making a specialty of nature study; of modern languages; of athletics. CHAPTER X NARRATION =55. The Essentials of a Good Narrative.=--In a diary you set down things that happen, for your own information. In letters you try to report events so that they will be understood by the person to whom you are writing and, more than this, so that they will be interesting. In a good narration you write an account of a series of connected events, so that it can be understood by any one at all, and will interest and please the greater number of your readers. It is of course much harder to address an audience whom you do not know than to try to interest people with whose peculiarities you are well acquainted; but, after all, people are very much the same in general likes and dislikes, and there are several broad, simple rules for constructing narrations, or stories, which apply to all readers. The first thing that everybody wishes to have in a story is perfect clearness and good order. A story is a report of things _as they happened_, and every one wishes to learn the main events in the order in which they actually occurred. You have probably been annoyed by some one, who, in telling you a story, left out certain important steps, so that you could hardly understand how things came to happen as he related. Notice, for example, what has been left out in the following paragraph:-- As the soldiers were crossing the bridge, they noticed a man running down from a hill shouting to them and waving his arms. They could not hear what he was saying, because a strong wind was blowing away from them. As they were struggling in the water, one soldier noticed a large tree trunk floating down toward them and called to his fellows to try and save themselves by holding on to that. Of course, so great an omission is rare; but in writing of one event following another, you must take care that _your_ reader is never forced to stop and ask some such question as, "But you haven't told me how the soldiers came to be in the water," as he would on reading the paragraph above. A well-told fable is often a model for clear and connected simple narration. A crow sat on a tree, holding in his beak a large lump of cheese. A wily fox, attracted by the delicious smell, came to the foot of the tree and said to the crow, "How splendid you look up there, with your fine black feathers glistening in the sun! I wish I had feathers instead of fur. It is really not fair that you should have all the gifts, beauty and skill, and perhaps even talent. Do you sing as wonderfully as you fly?" The crow was so pleased by this that he opened his beak wide to show off his voice. The cheese fell to the ground; the fox snapped it up and ate it, saying, "I never tasted such a delicious morsel!" He then ran off, laughing at the crow's vanity and calling over his shoulder, "Learn from this that a flatterer lives at the expense of those who listen to him." =Exercise 92.=--Write simply and briefly some of the following fables, using as model the fable just given. Try to keep clear in your mind the exact order of events by imagining the whole story from beginning to end. There are in most of these subjects three or four separate little scenes, which you should try to bring visibly before your mind. It is a good plan to have an outline of the sequence of events, either written or in your head, and then develop each scene clearly and make it lifelike by conversation such as would naturally be used. The following is such an outline, by paragraphs, of a well-known fable:-- I. The old man has many sons who disturb him by quarreling among themselves. II. On his death bed he calls them about him and gives them some small sticks, asking them if they can break them. The sons readily break them. III. The old man ties them together tightly and asks his sons again to break them. IV. They all try in every possible way, but cannot. V. The old man says that if they will agree among themselves, they will be like the sticks bound together; but if they separate in quarrels, any one can injure them. 1. An ass laden with salt falls down in a stream; before he can rise the salt is dissolved away and his load is much lighter. The next time he crosses the stream he stumbles purposely and falls, but this time he is laden with sponges. 2. Two thieves who had stolen a horse fall to quarreling over who shall have the animal. While they are rolling in the dust fighting, a third thief comes along, jumps on the horse, and makes off with it. 3. An oak speaks contemptuously to a reed of its small size and yielding weakness, and boasts of its own strength and firmness. After a terrible storm the oak is blown down and the reed straightens itself unhurt. 4. A bat is caught by a weasel, who is about to devour it because it is so much like a mouse. The bat says, "I am not a mouse--you are mistaken--I am a bird. See my wings." Later the bat is caught again by a boy who wants to put it in a bird cage. "I am no bird--see my mouse's body." Thus the bat twice saves its life. 5. A cat was changed by magic to a woman. All went well until she saw a mouse run across the floor, when she ran after it and caught it. 6. A wolf in eating rapidly had swallowed a bone, which stuck in his throat. He went to the stork, who pulled it out with her beak, and then asked for pay for the service. The wolf said the stork could consider herself lucky that she had not had her head bitten off. 7. A weasel slipped into a barn through a small hole. There he ate so much grain that he was too fat to go out at the same hole, and was caught by the farmer. 8. The ass, seeing how much petting a little dog gets, tries to imitate its ways, prances about, and attempts to lie down at the feet of his mistress. He is driven back to the stable. 9. A sheep, going away for the day, cautions her little lambs not to open the door to any one, except to her, and she will say _Mariati_, so that they will recognize her. A wolf, hidden near, overhears the password, knocks on the door, and gives the right word; but the lambs, to be doubly sure, ask to see what color feet he has. They are black and betray him, so that the door is not opened. =56. Autobiography.=--There is one form of narration where it is almost impossible to get the events of your story in the wrong order, and that is autobiography, for in this you are telling the facts of your own life as they occurred, from month to month or year to year. In this form, as in narration, however, there is an important principle to bear in mind. Your material must be well chosen; that is, you must select only the important events in your life. Trivial and uninteresting details must be left out. To do this you must use your judgment, and try to put yourself in the place of your reader, and think what he would like to know. (If your great-grandfather had written his autobiography when he was your age, what would you have liked to know of his life? If Pocohontas had written her autobiography, what would most interest you?) =Exercise 93.=--I. Write your own autobiography up to the present date, and then continue in the same style, telling the story of your life as you would like best to have it. II. Write an imaginary autobiography of:-- 1. The starch-box after it was empty; a boy made a doll's wagon of it for his little sister. Forgotten in the street, it was picked up by two poor children, and taken home, where an invalid brother made it into a window box for flowers. 2. A gold dollar. Stamped in the mint, sent to the bank, given to a child for a birthday present, sent by her to the missionaries in Africa, lost there, and hung around the neck of a little black child. 3. A drop of rain--all its life from the cloud to the earth, to the brook, to the river, to the sea, back to the cloud again. 4. A knife. Made by Indian hunters, bought by white trappers, used on the plains, slipped into a package of furs sent to Paris to be made up into coats, and then used as a paper-cutter. 5. Similarly, invent stories for a handkerchief, a diamond, a doll, a knapsack, a book, a street car, a lamp, a sword, a tea kettle, a wagon, an old house, a dollar bill, a pencil, a mirror, an old apple tree, a thimble, a high tortoise-shell comb, a saddle, a suit of armor, a chair. III. Write autobiographies of a cat, a dog, a horse, an elephant, a polar bear, a fox, a rabbit, a canary bird, a hen, a trained pig, a poodle, a mouse, a woodchuck, a squirrel. IV. Write the account of the course of a river as told by itself, from the time it rises from a spring till it flows into the ocean. V. Write the autobiography of any statue that you know, from the block of marble to its present place. =57. Biography.=--In writing a biography it is not enough to select your facts with good judgment, and to arrange them in the order of their occurrence. A still more careful arrangement is needed, and this is usually provided for by grouping the facts of a life into several main divisions. For instance, in writing your mother's biography, you might make some such general division or outline as the following:-- I. Childhood in New England--village school; on a farm. II. Boarding-school life. Studies--beginning of interest in history. Visits to school friends in the vacation. The old home is destroyed by fire. III. Life in New York, as teacher of history in a private school. Summer abroad with several of the pupils. IV. Early married life in New York; boarding-house, later a small apartment. V. Removal to suburban town. Children of the family. General character of family life. Under these various headings you can group all the stories you can induce your mother to tell you of her past life. Without such broad divisions into periods it is impossible to write all the varied facts of a biography in such a manner that your reader gets a clear and connected idea of the course of events. =Exercise 94.=--Group into natural divisions the following facts:-- Henry Allen was married in 1875. His father was a lumber merchant. When he retired from business, he wrote an account of his life. As a boy he was fond of out-of-door life. He had three children. When he was a young man, he was sent up into Canada to look after some timber lands of his father's. He stayed there in the woods with the Indians for two years. He was born in 1840. He lived in Portland, Maine, until he was sixteen. When his father died in 1867, he carried on the lumber business. He went two years to Bowdoin College. He was once mayor of Hartford. He lived in Boston from 1856 to 1875. He died in 1900 in Hartford. He brought up his children to know the woods and fields better than schools. He was one of the first people to advocate nature study. He was a very successful business man. He founded a school of forestry. He married a Canadian girl whom he met on a second visit to the forest in 1870. =Exercise 95.=--Find out all you can about the life of any older member of your family. See if you can pick out the natural divisions into which these facts fall, and write a brief biography. Do not divide in a conventional way, as into _childhood_, _youth_, _maturity_, and _old age_, but try to select periods which are separated from each other by some feature peculiar to the individual life you are relating. Sometimes divisions are naturally made by change in residence, sometimes by change in occupation, and sometimes simply by the general character of a life between certain dates. Your own judgment must tell you how best to arrange the facts of the story you wish to tell. =Exercise 96.=--I. Write in the same way, the biography (1) of the mayor of your own town, (2) of the President of the United States, (3) of a schoolmate (continuing this in an imaginary account of what you fancy his life may be), (4) of your cook, (5) of your minister, or of any person whom you know well enough to ask the facts of his life, or about whom you can learn through other people. II. See how complete a biography you can write of either your grandfather or grandmother, or of any of your ancestors about whom you have heard stories, or of any of the early settlers of your town. III. Then, using the same method of collecting your facts first, and arranging those that naturally fall together in three or four groups, write the story of the life of (1) Joan of Arc, (2) Julius Cæsar, (3) Hannibal, (4) Alfred the Great, (5) Washington, (6) Lee, (7) Lincoln, (8) Thorwaldsen, (9) Giotto, (10) Christopher Columbus, (11) Pocahontas, (12) Whittier, (13) Longfellow, (14) Miles Standish. =58. History.=--Read the following account of how the Pilgrims came to Plymouth:-- For nearly twelve years "brave little Holland" had given shelter to the true men and women who, in 1607-1608, were driven out of England by persecution of the bishops because they _would_ worship God in their own way. After many trials and dangers they came together at Amsterdam in 1608, and formed a little "Independent" church, with Richard Clifton, their old pastor among the Nottingham hills, for their minister, and John Robinson, their teacher, as his assistant. Governor Bradford tells us, in his _Historie_, that "when they had lived at Amsterdam about a year they removed to Leyden, a fair and beautiful city and of a sweet situation," on the "Old Rhine." Clifton was growing old and did not go with them, and Robinson became their pastor. For eleven years--nearly the whole time of "the famous truce" which came between the bloody wars of Holland and Spain--they lived here, married, children were born to them, and here some of them died. Most of them had been farmers in England, but here "they fell to such trades & imployments as they best could, valewing peace & their spirituall comforte above any other riches whatsoever, and at length they came to raise a competente and comfortable living, but with hard and continuall labor." But about 1617 these good, brave people of Pastor Robinson's flock became very anxious as to their circumstances and future,--especially for their children,--and at length came sadly to realize that they must again seek a new home. Their numbers had been much increased; they could not hope to work so hard as they grew older, while war with the Spaniard was coming, and would surely make matters harder for them. But the chief reasons which made them anxious to find another and better home were the hardships which their children had to bear and the temptations to which they were exposed. Besides this, they were patriotic and full of love of their God, their simple worship, and their religious liberty. As Englishmen, though their king and his bishops had treated them cruelly, they still loved the laws, customs, speech, and flag of their native land. As they could not enjoy these in their own country, or longer endure their hard conditions in Holland, they determined to find a home--even though in a wild country beyond the wild ocean--where they might worship God as they chose, "plant religion," live as Englishmen, and reap a fair reward for their labors. It was very hard to decide where to go, but at last they made up their minds in favor of the "northern parts of Virginia" in the "New World," across the Atlantic. They found friends to help them both in England and in Holland, and they helped themselves; but even then, owing to enemies, false friends, and many difficulties, it was far from easy to get away, and they had sore trials and disappointments. And now "the younger and stronger part" of Pastor Robinson's flock, with Captain Miles Standish and his wife Rose and a few others, were to go from Leyden, in charge of Elder Brewster and Deacon Carver, and some were to join them in England, leaving the pastor and the rest to come afterward. It was a busy time in the _Klock Steeg_, or Bell Alley, where most of the Pilgrims lived, all the spring and early summer of 1620, when they were getting ready for America. Deacon Carver and Robert Cushman, two of their chief men, were in England, fitting out a hired ship--the _Mayflower_. But the Leyden leaders had bought in Holland a smaller ship, the _Speedwell_, and were refitting her for the voyage, an English "pilot," or ship's mate (Master Reynolds), having come over to take charge. (Bradford spells the word "pilott." He was in reality a mate, or "master's mate," as Bradford also calls him--the executive navigating officer next in rank to the master. The term "pilott" had not to the same extent the meaning it has now of an expert guide into harbors and along coasts. It meant, rather, a "deck" or "watch" officer, capable of steering and navigating a ship. He was on board the _Mayflower_ practically what the mate of a sailing ship would be to-day.) Thirty-six men, fifteen women, sixteen boys, four girls, and a baby boy--seventy-two, in all, besides sailors--made up the Leyden part of the Pilgrim company. Of these six went no farther than Plymouth, Old England, though three of them afterward joined the others in New England. Of the fifteen women, fourteen were wives of colonists and one was a lady's-maid. The thirty-six men of Leyden included all who became Pilgrim leaders, except three. At last they were off, and on Friday, July 21 (31),[1] they said good-by to the grand old city that had been so long their home. Going aboard the canal boats near the pastor's house, they floated down to Delfshaven, where their own little vessel, the _Speedwell_, lay waiting for them. At Delfshaven they made their last sad partings from their friends, and Saturday, July 22 (or August 1, as we should call it), hoisted the flag of their native land, sailed down the river Maas, and Sunday morning were out upon the German Ocean, under way, with a fair wind, for the English port of Southampton, where they were to join the other colonists. [1] owing to a difference in the methods of reckoning time used by england and other nations between the years 1582 and 1752,--when all became practically alike,--it was common to make use of "double-dating." in so doing, the terms, "old style" and "new style" were used, and to make the dates of the former and the latter correspond, ten days are _added_ to all dates of the period between 1582 and 1700. december 11, 1620, old style, would be, in our present reckoning, december 21, 1620 ("forefathers' day"). For three fine days they sailed down the North Sea, through Dover Straits, into the English Channel, and the fourth morning found them anchored in Southampton port. Here they found the _Mayflower_ from London lying at anchor, with some of their own people--the Cushmans and Deacon Carver--and some forty other Pilgrim colonists, who were going with them. Among these our Leyden young people were no doubt very glad to find eight more boys and six girls of all ages, two of them being Henry Sampson and Humility Cooper, little cousins of their own Edward Tilley, who was to take them with him. For ten days the two ships lay in this port. Trying days for the elders indeed they were. Mr. Weston, their former friend (who had arranged with the merchants to help them, but was now turned traitor), came to see them, was very harsh, and went away angry. The passengers and cargoes had to be divided anew between the ships, thirty persons going to the _Speedwell_ and ninety to the _Mayflower_. Then the pinnace sprung a leak and had to be reladen. To pay their "port charges" they were forced to sell most of their butter. And there were many sad and anxious hearts. But great times those ten days were for the larger boys and girls, who were allowed to go ashore on the West Quay (at which the ships lay), and for whom every day was full of new sights both aboard the vessels and ashore. "Governors" were chosen for the ships; a young cooper--John Alden--was found, to go over, do their work, and come back, if he wished, on the _Mayflower_; and all was at last ready. They said what they thought were their last farewells to England, and down the Solent, out by the lovely Isle of Wight, into the broad Channel, both ships sailed slowly, "outward bound." But twice more the leaky _Speedwell_ and her cowardly master made both ships seek harbor--first at Dartmouth, where they lay ten days while the pinnace was overhauled and repaired, and again at Plymouth, after they had sailed "above 100 leagues beyond Land's End." At Plymouth it was decided that the _Speedwell_ should give up the voyage and transfer most of her passengers and lading to the _Mayflower_, which would then make her belated way over the ocean alone. Some twenty passengers--the Cushmans, the Blossoms, and others--went back to London in the pinnace, and after a weary stay of nine days, on Wednesday, September 6 (16), the lone Pilgrim ship at last "shook off the land" and, with a fair wind, laid her course for "the northern coasts of Virginia."--AZEL AMES: _How the Pilgrims came to Plymouth_. This extract is an example of a narration that is more difficult to write than anything you have yet tried. In writing biographies you write about one person only. In history you write about a great number of persons, and you must hold together in one story a great number of different facts. An outline is, therefore, even more necessary here than in biography. In making your outline you will be helped by the same principle of keeping your occurrences in their natural order that governed you in your biography outlines. Put down a note of the main facts you wish to report, according to the date of their happening. Afterward arrange them in groups according to the connection they may have with each other, but always begin by making sure that they are set down in an orderly fashion. Have the outline before you as you write, and treat the different subjects as they come up. An outline for the extract given above might be the following:-- I. Introduction:-- _A._ Explanation of the state of the Puritans in Holland. _B._ Driven from England. _C._ Settled in Amsterdam. _D._ Removed to Leyden. _E._ General conditions. II. Reasons for leaving Holland. _A._ They could make no provision for the future. _B._ Their children could not be trained as they wished. _C._ They loved English ways. III. Beginning of preparations. _A._ Who were to go. _B._ Fitting out the boat--conditions of navigation. _C._ Number of those embarking. IV. Departure from Holland. V. Arrival in England. _A._ They join the _Mayflower_. _B._ Delays, at London, at Dartmouth, at Plymouth. VI. Final departure of the _Mayflower_ alone from England. Read again the selection with the outline before you and notice how each division is developed. When you have made a good outline, the hardest part of a piece of historical writing is completed. =Exercise 97.=--I. Let every one find out all he can about the founding or settling of the town where he lives. Talk over the facts in class, every one contributing what he has been able to learn; then see who can make the best outline and best story or history. (Notice how the two words are really alike.) II. Go on, investigating the subsequent history of the town, and write that briefly in the same way, bringing in all the stories and interesting incidents you can hear. III. Write similarly the history of any other town, village, or farming community you know, treating particularly the way in which any conditions general throughout the country affected your subject. For instance, if it is an old town, how it was affected by the Mexican War, the Civil War, any great panic, etc. Mention not only great events in the history of the town,--fires, floods, building of factories, etc.,--but try to give some idea of the general character of the life, whether the interests are chiefly manufacturing, farming, marine, railroad, etc. IV. Write a brief history of (1) Detroit, (2) St. Louis, (3) New Orleans, (4) New York, (5) San Francisco, (6) Boston, (7) Charlestown, (8) Lawrence, Kansas, (9) Deerfield, Mass., (10) Quebec, (11) St. Augustine, (12) Monterey, California (early Spanish mission), (13) Havana. V. Using the extract given above as a model, write an account of (1) Penn's treaty with the Indians, (2) The first year of the settlers in Virginia, (3) The taking of Old Manhattan by the English, (4) How La Salle happened to come to this country, (5) How Grant came to be a soldier, (6) The invention and first expedition of the first steamboat, (7) The first railroad, (8) The founding and first journey of the Mormons. =59. Plain Reporting of Facts.=--A history gives an account of things that happened some time ago. A newspaper gives an account of things that happened yesterday. The two are different in degree, but not in essential qualities. To give an account of an incident that lasted half an hour and make it clear, connected, and orderly, requires the same principles as to write a report of events that lasted through several years. You must arrange your narrative in the true order, in a story of how a barn was burned, just as in a story of how a town was settled. In the first case, however, this is not quite so easy to do, since many of the events occur almost at the same time. But this very circumstance gives you the clew to an easy grouping of your facts, since you can put those that happen together in the same division. An outline for an account of the burning of a barn is given below:-- I. Discovery of fire. A. Fire shows through one of the windows. B. The man of the house runs down the walk toward the barn. C. The neighbors come running and calling. D. One man is sent to call the fire department. [All these facts occur almost simultaneously, and the sentences stating them must be connected or explained by some such phrase as "at the same time," "seeing this," "while this was being done," "at that moment," "meanwhile," etc.] II. Fighting the fire. A. The neighbors bring buckets--a line is formed. B. The owner goes in and brings out the horse and cow. C. The fire department arrives, connects the hose. D. The firemen climb on the roof to direct the water; the fire is extinguished. III. Final condition. A. Half the hay burned, and two wagons ruined. B. Horse and cow safe. C. The barn can be rebuilt without tearing it completely down. D. There was no insurance. =Exercise 98.=--I. Make outlines, following this model, and write a newspaper account of any of the following events. Do not try to describe the occurrence particularly; simply put down as clearly as possible the facts, given in their proper order. (1) A burglary in the daytime. (2) A rescue of a drowning boy by two playmates. (3) A flood which washes away part of a street-car track--how long cars were delayed, what passengers did, how track was repaired, etc. (4) How a dog, supposed to be mad, frightened an entire neighborhood. (5) The burning of a department store. (6) The dedication of a church, a hospital, an asylum of any kind. (7) A lost child and how he was returned to his parents. (8) An accident to a street car. (9) A runaway. (10) A steeple climber faints away halfway up a steeple, where he hangs suspended by the rope attached to his belt. Tell how he was saved. (11) A bear belonging to a circus escapes, and after roaming about for a day or so is captured by the circus men. (12) A high wind blows down telegraph poles, unroofs barns, and throws trees across the roads. Write an account of the amount of damage done. II. Write a newspaper account of any event at your school: (1) A commencement day. (2) A reception day. (3) A play or entertainment. (4) A panic over a supposed fire. (5) A boy is locked in and has great difficulty in getting out. (6) A water pipe is broken and stopped by the presence of mind of one of the teachers. =60. Conversation.=--In the narratives which you have been writing there has been little if any occasion for conversation. In writing stories or anecdotes in which certain people come into contact with other persons, there is often no better way to give a vivid and interesting account of what happens than to tell what was said. This is equally true of real and of invented stories. People not only show their characters when they speak, but they indicate the course of events. The fact that one favorite form of writing consists entirely of conversation (for that is all that any play is) shows how truthfully and vividly facts can be presented in this way. =Exercise 99.=--Try telling in conversational form some of the fables mentioned on page 139, or write in this form the fable of (1) Death and the Woodchopper; (2) The Wolf and the Lamb; (3) The Grasshopper and the Ant; (4) The Town Mouse and the Country Mouse; (5) The Council of the Rats (Who'll bell the cat?); (6) The Fox and the Grapes (this as a monologue, or what the fox says to himself, from the moment he sees the grapes until he gives up trying to secure them). =Exercise 100.=--Give a conversation which you think is characteristic and lifelike, such as might have occurred between any two of the following persons. Try to bring out something of the story which naturally comes to your mind in connection with these people. 1. Joan of Arc to her mother the day before she leaves her home to go to the court of the king. [Suggestions: Her mother laments over the dangers of the road; Joan reassures her--she is to wear armor and be escorted by twenty soldiers. Her mother asks again why Joan wishes to set out. Joan answers by explaining about her "Voices" and her certainty that she is sent by heaven to rescue France.] [Read the story of Joan of Arc and of the other persons to be treated in this lesson before you begin to write the dialogue.] 2. Two boys of Puritan families about to embark for America on the _Mayflower_. 3. Christopher Columbus explaining to a friend what his hopes are in seeking out Queen Isabella. 4. A boy and girl in Old Manhattan on Christmas Day, bringing out, if possible, some of the customs of the times. 5. William Tell to his little son before he shoots the apple from his head. 6. The conversation at the christening of the Princess who was afterward to be the Sleeping Beauty, bringing in the arrival and curse of the wicked fairy. 7. Conversation of Hop o' my Thumb's father and mother, when they decide that the children must be left in the woods because they cannot earn enough to feed them. 8. Conversations between the Grecian warriors who fell at Thermopylæ, the evening before the battle. 9. Robinson Crusoe and his man Friday. Robinson is trying to explain (_a_) city life, (_b_) how and why food is cooked, (_c_) about his own children in England, (_d_) what winter is like when there is snow and ice. =Exercise 101.=--Try in the same way to bring out _character_ by inventing a dialogue between the persons mentioned below:-- 1. A gentle elder sister and a little boy, very irritable and cross from a long illness. He wishes to go outdoors to play and is only persuaded to stay in by the promise of a new game. 2. Two little girls playing at dolls. One is very much given to ordering the other about, but finally encounters rebellion. 3. One boy is urging another to go swimming with him. The second boy is afraid and makes all kinds of excuses. 4. A very bright pupil trying to explain a lesson in arithmetic to another who has no head for mathematics. 5. Two little boys playing Indians; one is teaching another how to play. 6. A father, tired and sleepy, and a little child asking questions. 7. Imaginary conversation between a lion and a polar bear, whose cages are side by side in a circus. Each tells the other about his home life when he was free. CHAPTER XI DESCRIPTION =61. Observation.=--The first recommendation given in beginning any new form of composition is always to arrange what you wish to say in a logical and orderly manner, by means of an outline, either mental or written. In description, however, the first thing to do is to observe the subject of your composition, carefully, completely, and accurately. You will be surprised to see how very carelessly you observe, as a rule, even things with which you are very familiar. Try, offhand, without further examination, to write a description of a piece of money (copper, nickel, silver, gold, or paper), giving the dimensions and the color, and stating what some of the printing on it is; and try in the same way to describe the face of a watch, telling the size and length of the hands, how they run, and what the printing is; to give an accurate and detailed account of the appearance of the front of your school building or church, your next door neighbor's house, the mechanism of a lamp, the exact disposition of the furniture in your parlor at home, a cornstalk (size of leaves, shape, how they are set on the stalk, where the ears grow, how many wrappings of husk inclose them, etc.), a violet, a silk hat (height, width, shape, lining, width of brim, etc.), a cat's forefeet (number of toes, sheath for the nail, how they curve in, why they do not penetrate the cushioned foot in walking, etc.), a common fly, a robin redbreast, the arrangement of panels in the front door of your house, an English sparrow, a postage stamp. Tell how a cow lies down; a horse; a dog. By such experiments you will find that you are hampered not by difficulty in expressing what you know, but by the great gaps in your knowledge of even such very familiar objects. You will discover that you have never really looked at them, although you may have seemed to do so every day since you can remember. Some people seem to have opened more eyes than others, they see with such force and distinctness; their vision penetrates the tangle and obscurity where that of others fails like a spent or impotent bullet. How many eyes did Gilbert White open? How many did Henry Thoreau? How many did Audubon? How many does the hunter, matching his sight against the keen and alert senses of a deer or a moose or a fox or a wolf. Not outward eyes but inward. We open another eye whenever we see beyond the first general features or outlines of things--whenever we grasp the special details and characteristic markings that this mask covers. Science confers new powers of vision. Wherever you have learned to discriminate the birds, or the plants, or the geological features of a country, it is as if new and keener eyes were added.... We think we have looked at a thing sharply until we are asked for its specific features. I thought I knew exactly the form of the leaf of the tulip tree, until one day a lady asked me to draw the outlines of one.... The habit of observation is the habit of clear and decisive gazing; not by a first, casual glance, but by a steady, deliberate aim of the eye are the rare and characteristic things discovered. You must look intently and hold your eye firmly to the spot, to see more than do the rank and file of mankind.--JOHN BURROUGHS: _Locusts and Wild Honey_. Description by means of writing is often compared to the work of an artist, since the aim of both artist and writer is to present a visual image of their subject. But the writer of a description is more like a Japanese artist than one of his own race. The artists of Japan look long and fixedly at an object or scene or person, and then produce the picture from memory. In general, it is not often easy to write your description while you are actually in presence of the thing you wish to picture, so that after quick, keen, and accurate observation you should try to cultivate a retentive memory for details. Try cultivating both of these qualities by some of the following class exercises. =Exercise 102.=--1. Look for one minute by the clock at your teacher's desk, and then without another glance see who can describe it with the most accuracy and completeness. 2. Turn to the title-page of this book, look at it for a moment, and then try to reproduce it. 3. Examine your own shoe for a moment and see how clearly you can describe it. 4. The stove or steam radiator in your room. 5. What you see from the window nearest you after a moment's gaze. 6. Just how the inside of your desk looks now--exact place of books, pencils, note books, etc. 7. Just how the pupil next you is dressed, with as many details as a two-minute gaze will show you. 8. The exact arrangement of maps, pictures, reports, plants, etc., about the wall of your class room. As you go about your house or school, in the streets, or in the woods, try this exercise, either in competition with a companion, or simply for your own satisfaction. In passing a shop window, see how many of the objects displayed you can remember, or in passing a brook, try to observe rapidly but accurately the exact nature of the banks at the place you crossed. See how definitely you can impress on your mind the appearance of any house you pass, or of a vehicle which passes you. After a moment's steady look at your mother's work-basket see how completely you can describe it,--or the dining table set for dinner, or the front hall, with wraps and rubbers in it, or the parlor with several people in it, or the minister preaching in church. You will be surprised to find how much you have overlooked before, even in scenes which have been constantly before you. You will see that Mr. Burroughs does not exaggerate when he says that when we observe carefully and accurately, it is as though we had opened a new pair of eyes, "not outward but inward." =62. General Scientific Description.=--Notice the difference between these two descriptions:-- 1. Gentiàna crinita, Froel. Fringed Gentian. Leaves lanceolate or broader, with rounded or heart-shaped base; flowers solitary on long peduncles terminating the stem or simple branches; calyx with 4 unequal lobes; corolla sky blue, showy, 2' long, funnel form, the 4 wedge-obovate lobes with margins cut into a long and delicate fringe. N. Eng., W. and S.--LEAVITT'S _Outlines of Botany_. 2. Thou blossom bright with autumn dew, And colored with the heaven's own blue, That openest when the quiet light Succeeds the keen and frosty night. Thou comest not when violets lean O'er wandering brooks and springs unseen, Or columbines, in purple dressed, Nod o'er the ground-bird's hidden nest. Thou waitest late and com'st alone, When woods are bare and birds are flown, And frosts and shortening days portend The aged year is near his end. Then doth thy sweet and quiet eye Look through its fringes to the sky, Blue--blue--as if that sky let fall A flower from its cerulean wall. I would that thus, when I shall see The hour of death draw near to me, Hope, blossoming within my heart, May look to heaven as I depart. --BRYANT: _To the Fringed Gentian._ You will see at once how extremely varied different forms of description may be when you reflect that these two extracts are both descriptions of the same thing. The prose extract presents a plain and accurate account of facts. The poetry aims to give a description of the object which will interest, please, and move the reader, and which will bring a picture vividly before his eyes. Between two examples contrasting so completely as these, there lies a long series of gradations from one variety of description to another. There are, however, two main divisions of this form of writing: the plain statement, whose only purpose is to present a picture of the object described and to interest the reader in doing so; and scientific description, which bears about the same relation to literary description as a business letter to a friendly one. They both present facts, but in one case for the sake of the facts and in the other in order to interest the reader. When analyzed, scientific description is found to be simply a list of all the facts about a given subject. These facts, however, must not be gathered together and thrown into a paragraph without order. In the plainest sort of description there must be a regular plan. Begin by stating definitely what it is you are about to treat, or give a definition of it as it stands in its broad relations to other things, so that your reader may have a general notion of your subject. This is called the introduction, and should vary in length and explicitness according to the familiarity of your theme. If you are about to describe the common house fly, a simple statement to that effect is enough; but if you are beginning a description of a rare dragon fly, you will need not only to give the name, but where it is found, its general relation to other families of flies more familiar, and perhaps to tell how you happened to see it, where it may be observed, etc. In general, however, the introduction should always be brief and very much to the point, since it is a common fault for inexperienced writers to delay too long over the beginning. After this, take up, one by one, in the order of their importance, the main qualities of your subject. For this purpose you should have brief outlines prepared, so that you will not state small and non-essential details before essentials. The following description of the group of birds known as warblers will aid you as a model:-- When you begin to study the warblers, you will probably conclude that you know nothing about birds and can never learn. But if you begin by recognizing their common traits, and study a few of the easiest and those that nest in your locality, you will be less discouraged; and when the flocks come back at the next migrations, you will be able to master the oddities of a large number. Most of them are very small--much less than half the size of a robin--and are not only short, but slender. Active as the chickadee or kinglet, they flit about the trees and undergrowth after insects, without charity for the observer who is trying to make out their markings. Unlike the waxwing, whose quiet ways are matched by its subdued tints, the warblers are dashed with all the glories of the rainbow, a flock of them looking as if a painter's palette had been thrown at them. Why they should be called warblers is a puzzle, as a large percentage of them have not as much song as a chippy, nothing but a thin chatter, or a shrill piping trill. If you wish a negative conception of them, think of the coloring and habits of the cuckoo. No contrast could be more complete. The best places to look for them during migration are in young trees, orchards, and sunny slopes. I find them in old orchards, swamps, the raspberry patch, and the edge of the woods.--FLORENCE A. MERRIAM: _Birds through an Opera Glass._ Study this description, and you will discover the plan on which it is built. First comes the introduction, giving general directions for recognizing the subject. Then the most noticeable characteristics are stated, the size and shape. Habits of great activity are next mentioned, and a general notion of coloring is given. The song of the warblers is then taken up, and the description is summed up in a sentence by contrasting them with the cuckoo. The statement of where they are found could well have been placed at the beginning, directly after the introduction. =Exercise 103.=--Using this as a model, describe any variety of bird or animal with which you are familiar, such as English sparrows, hens, parrots, ducks, dogs, cats, horses, goats, rabbits, squirrels, pigeons, geese, sheep. =Exercise 104.=--Describe tomatoes, peaches, apricots, grapes, potatoes, carrots, watermelons, rice, blackberries, huckleberries, corn, wheat, oats, rye. Use the following as a model:-- The apple is one of the most widely cultivated, and best known and appreciated of fruits belonging to temperate climates. In its wild state it is known as the crabapple, and is found generally distributed through Europe and Western Asia. The apple tree, as cultivated, is a moderate-sized tree with spreading branches, ovate, acutely serrated or crenated leaves, and flowers in corymbs. It is successfully cultivated in higher latitudes than any other fruit tree, growing up to 65° N.; but, notwithstanding this, its blossoms are more susceptible of injury from frost than the flowers of the peach or apricot. It comes into flower much later than these trees, and so avoids the night frost, which would be fatal to its fruit bearing. The apples which are grown in northern regions are, however, small, hard, and crabbed, the best fruit being produced in hot summer climates, such as Canada and the United States."--_Encyclopædia Britannica._ Try sometimes to make these descriptions so complete that your classmates can recognize what you are describing without knowing your subject beforehand. An almost infinite list of subjects suitable for scientific description could be given, but enough titles have been suggested to show you that you have only to look about you to find themes for the exercise. =63. Specific Scientific Description.=--Compare with the treatment of the warblers in general this description of one particular variety of that species, by the same author, a little later in the same book. The Blackburnian is one of the handsomest and most easily recognized of the warblers. His throat is a rich orange or flame color, so brilliant that it is enough in itself to distinguish him from any of the others. His back is black with yellow markings. His crown is black, but has an orange spot in the center, and the rest of his head, except near his eye, is the same flaming orange as his throat. His wings have white patches, and his breast is whitish tinged with yellow. His sides are streaked with black. The female and young are duller, the black of their backs being mingled with olive; while their throats are yellow instead of orange. In this case, the author, having stated the general characteristics and habits of the family of warblers, needs only to describe minutely the appearance of one variety. =Exercise 105.=--Take up in this way a special variety of the general topics you described in the last exercise: Buff Cochin hens; parrots from Central America; Royal Pekin ducks; Newfoundland or St. Bernard dogs, terriers, bull dogs, or greyhounds; Shetland ponies, race horses, or heavy draught horses; white rabbits or Belgian hares; gray squirrels, chipmunks, red squirrels or flying squirrels; pouter pigeons or homing pigeons. =64. Technical Terms.=--In describing some objects you will find that careful and accurate observation and logical arrangement of your information are not enough. You will discover that you do not know the names for all the various parts of your subject. In attempting to write a complete description of even as well known an object as a flower or fruit, you will probably need to consult a dictionary or a scientific work, to learn the botanical names. Minute scientific description is, therefore, an excellent exercise for enlarging your vocabulary, for giving you control over more words. In using very technical terms, which may be as unfamiliar to your reader as they were to you before you made a study of your subject, add a brief explanation of the meaning. =Exercise 106.=--Give a plain, scientific description of one or more of the illustrations given in your dictionary, remembering to start from some point and to proceed regularly from there in your description. For instance, in describing a ship under sail, begin at the water line and go up to the top of the masts, or else in the opposite direction; but do not begin at the stern, jump to the bow, and then back again to the masts. Do not attempt to explain the different qualities, the workings, or the interior parts of these objects. You will have this to do in exposition. Simply describe as accurately as possible their aspect, on the model of the description of the Blackburnian warbler. =Exercise 107.=--Describe scientifically and specifically, using correct botanical terms, an individual example of one of the list of topics given you for general treatment on page 162, taking up (1) the general habit of growth, (2) usual location, (3) usual dimensions of whole plant, (4) body of the plant, (5) leaves, (6) flowers, (7) fruit and seeds, (8) any general remarks as to its usefulness in the world, etc. In addition, treat similarly the sunflower, seaweed, pansies, the peanut vine, the hazel nut, witch-hazel, the forget-me-not, the golden-rod, the willow, the sumac. =65. Literary Description.=--An example of literary description, very far removed from the scientific variety, is the following extract:-- We had a remarkable sunset one day last November. I was walking in a meadow, the source of a small brook, when the sun at last, just before setting after a cold gray day, reached a clear stratum in the horizon; and the softest, brightest morning sunlight fell on the dry grass, and on the stems of the trees in the opposite horizon, and on the leaves of the scrub oaks on the hillside, while our shadows stretched long over the meadows eastward as if we were only motes in its beams. It was such a light as we could not have imagined a moment before, and the air also was so warm and serene that nothing was wanting to make a paradise of that meadow. When we reflected that this was not a solitary phenomenon, never to happen again, but that it would happen forever and ever an infinite number of evenings, and cheer and reassure the latest child that walked then, it was more glorious still.--H. D. THOREAU: _Excursions._ The real point of difference between such a description and the account of the Blackburnian warbler is that the aim in the one case is to present facts and in the other to present a picture. Observation, however accurate, and order, however logical, are not enough for this sort of description. You must interest and please, or you have failed of your purpose. You must observe keenly and arrange your material carefully, but you must do more than this. You must remember all the time that you are trying to make a picture, and in many regards you need to follow the same rule as the artist does in painting. For instance, he establishes himself in one place and draws the object, scene, or person as it looks to him from there. You would laugh at a painter who, in drawing a solid oak door, put in a person standing on the other side of it, but one of the first things to remember in making your written picture is not to put in details which you could not see from the point where you have placed yourself to make your sketch. In describing the view from a high hill, you must not write, "The woods back of our house looked like a green carpet and the house like the tiniest sort of a child's plaything. The sun shining in the windows of the front parlor made the room look as though it were smiling." The last sentence may be perfectly true, and in an account of the front parlor would be a good piece of description, but since you could not possibly see that detail from the top of a distant hill, it is absurd to use it. More even than this, you must learn to remove too much detail from your descriptions. Not only should you refrain from using anything you cannot see from the point where you have placed yourself, but you should not use all the things you can see. In the exercises on scientific description you have been observing, as completely as you possibly could, a given subject, and putting into your composition all the facts you could see or learn about. In literary description the process is quite different. You must train yourself to leave out a great many details, and to select those you use with great care for their value in aiding you to give your reader a lifelike picture. In describing a house scientifically, it is of just as much value to say that there are eight windows on the north side as that it stands on a high hill, for what you wish to do is to convey all the information you can about the house. But in a literary description you should not mention the windows at all, unless there is something unusual about them, and you should pick out for mention only the features that make that house different from other houses; so that one of the first things you would say is some presentation of the fact that it is on a hill. At length we stopped before a very old house bulging out over the road; a house with long low lattice-windows bulging out still further, and beams with carved heads on the ends bulging out too, so that I fancied the whole house was leaning forward, trying to see who was passing on the narrow pavement below. It was quite spotless in its cleanliness. The old-fashioned brass knocker on the low arched door, ornamented with carved garlands of fruit and flowers, twinkled like a star. The two stone steps descending to the door were as white as if they had been covered with fair linen; and all the angles and corners, and carvings and moldings, and quaint little panes of glass, and quainter little windows, though as old as the hills, were as pure as any snow that ever fell from the hills.--CHARLES DICKENS: _David Copperfield._ In this sketch of a house nothing is mentioned that could not be seen both from the position of a person who has just stepped in front of it and in the time which would naturally elapse between his ringing the doorbell and the arrival of some one to answer it. Notice also that a general impression of the whole house is given in the first sentence. Just as an artist making a sketch draws first a general rough outline of the whole object, "blocking in" (as it is called) the proportions and general aspect before going on to details; so a good beginning for a description is some general summing up of the first impression made upon you by the scene, or of the impression you desire to make upon your reader. This corresponds to the topic sentence of a paragraph. =Exercise 108.=--Write a description from a fixed point, and as if after only a few moments' look, of the general impression made upon the observer by any of the following subjects, trying to catch some characteristic trait or quality, which you can state in one metaphor or comparison, as the predominating effect. For instance:-- 1. I fancied that the whole house was leaning forward, trying to see who was passing on the narrow pavement below. 2. The deep projection of the second story gave the house such a meditative look that you could not pass it without the idea that it had secrets to keep, and an eventful history to moralize upon. 3. The nest looks as if it barely touched the twigs from which it hung; but when you examine it, you may find that the gray fibers have woven the wood in so securely that the nest would have to be torn in pieces before it could be loosened from the twigs. Make your descriptions brief and try to convey vividly the first impression. The front of your school building, your home, an old barn, the handsomest house in your neighborhood, a country church, the kitchen of your home, your own room, a hen house with the hens just going to roost, a dovecot, any public monument you may know, the inside of a public library, the post office, a drug store, a carpenter's shop, a blacksmith's, an iron foundry, a milliner's shop, a beehive, a crow's nest, an ant-hill, a spider's web, an aquarium, a farmhouse, a tall office building, an ocean steamer, a sailboat, any curious house you may have seen. One good exercise for forcing yourself to express quickly the aspect of a given object at a given time is to try to describe something in very rapid motion, of which you can get only a momentary glimpse. For instance:-- 1. The squirrel would shoot up the tree, making only a brown streak from the bottom to the top. 2. Away across the endless dead level of the prairie a black speck appears against the sky, and it is plain that it moves. Well, I should think so! In a second or two it becomes a horse and rider, rising and falling, rising and falling, sweeping toward us nearer and nearer, growing more and more distinct, more and more sharply defined, nearer and still nearer, and the flutter of the hoofs comes faintly to the ear. Another instant, a whoop and hurrah from all of us, a wave of the rider's hand, but no reply, and man and horse burst past our excited faces, and go winging away like a belated fragment of a storm! =Exercise 109.=--1. Try to give a brief, vivid impression of an express train passing at full speed, an automobile, a steamer, a race horse, a man running, a dog chasing a cat. 2. Describe how you are impressed by the passage through a short tunnel of a train you are on, by a village you pass on an express, by a bit of forest your train darts through. =66. Description of People.=--Read these two passages, the second of which is a description by the historian Motley of Thackeray, the great English novelist. 1. Mr. Creakle's face was fiery, and his eyes were small and deep in his head. He had thick veins in his forehead, a little nose, and a large chin. He was bald on the top of his head, and had some thin, wet-looking hair that was just turning gray, brushed across each temple, so that the two sides interlaced on his forehead. But the circumstance about him which most impressed me was that he had no voice, but spoke in a whisper.--CHARLES DICKENS: _David Copperfield._ 2. He has the appearance of a colossal infant, smooth, white, shiny, ringlety hair,--flaxen alas! with advancing years, a roundish face, with a little dab of a nose, upon which it is a perpetual wonder how he keeps his spectacles, a sweet but rather piping voice with something of a childish treble about it, and a very tall, slightly stooping figure. In writing this sort of quick sketch, notice what impresses you first about your subject, that is, what is the most characteristic feature. In Dickens's description of the house, it was the fact that the whole building seemed to be leaning forward; in Motley's picture of Thackeray, it was the fact that the great novelist looked curiously like a little child; in Dickens's Mr. Creakle, it was the fact that the school-teacher had no voice. =Exercise 110.=--I. Write in the same way as in the preceding lesson a picture, in a paragraph or two, suggested by any of the following subjects, trying to catch the most characteristic points, such as would impress you after a moment's observation, and to state them vividly and briefly, so that the description may be recognizable. The iceman; the policeman; the washerwoman; the janitor; a street-car conductor; a postman; an organ grinder; a newsboy; a farmer; a classmate; a messenger boy; a butcher; any one of unusual appearance who has passed you in the street, or whom you have seen in the cars. II. Or, give in the same brief, picturesque manner the impression made by a first sight of your dog as differing from other dogs of the same breed, trying to express the way in which his character shows itself through his appearance--kind and slow, or nervous and active, or affectionate and playful, etc.; of any dog you have seen who has a marked individuality; of your cat, canary, or any of your pets. In describing a person you will find very often that you are most impressed by the eyes, and that they give the characteristic expression to the face. These following extracts, taken from one novel, the work of a skillful writer, show how much attention is paid to the eyes of the persons described:-- 1. She was tall and pale, thin and a little awkward; her hair was fair and perfectly straight; her eyes were dark and they had the singularity of seeming at once dull and restless. 2. The second young lady was also thin and pale; but she was older than the other; she was shorter; she had dark, smooth hair. Her eyes, unlike the other's, were quick and bright; but they were not at all restless. 3. This latter personage was a man of rather less than the usual stature and the usual weight, with a quick, observant, agreeable dark eye. 4. She was a fair, plump person, of medium stature, with a round face, a small mouth, a delicate complexion, a bunch of light brown curls at the back of her head, and a peculiarly open, surprised-looking eye. =Exercise 111.=--I. Look at a portrait or bust of Julius Cæsar and see if you think his appearance as a young man was well described by the historian Froude in the following extract:-- A tall, slight, handsome youth, with dark piercing eyes, a sallow complexion, large nose, lips full, features refined and intellectual, neck sinewy and thick, beyond what might have been expected from the generally slender figure. II. Write a paragraph or two describing the personal appearance of any noted man or woman with whose portrait you are familiar. Try to reproduce the most striking traits, describing them as if you were speaking of a living person. (a) Sir Walter Scott, George Eliot, Hawthorne, Longfellow, James Russell Lowell, Whittier, Bryant, Dickens, Tennyson, Louisa M. Alcott. (b) George Washington, Daniel Webster, Abraham Lincoln, General Grant, Alexander Hamilton, Bismarck, Napoleon, Julius Cæsar, Queen Victoria, Queen Wilhelmina. III. Think over some of the fictitious characters given below; try to imagine how they would look, and write a brief description as of a living person. Do not begin writing until you have a complete picture in your mind. Cinderella and her two wicked sisters, Robin Hood, Ali Baba, Robinson Crusoe, Sindbad the Sailor, Uncle Remus, The Sleeping Beauty, Shylock, King Lear, St. George, Santa Claus, Bluebeard, Ruth, Samuel, David and Goliath. =67. Longer Description.=--You are now ready to try descriptions on a little larger scale. Be careful, however, to bear in mind the following hints:-- 1. Plan your whole description before you write any part of it, and see that you are following some natural order, such as from left to right, or right to left, from the top down, from the bottom up, from head to foot, etc. In describing a landscape, for instance, from a fixed point, after the introduction (usually only a single sentence) you begin with what is nearest to you--the foreground--and proceed to more distant points of the scene. Or you begin with what is far away--the background--and come closer and closer, finishing with the things immediately about you. 2. Use no details which will not add to the vividness and force of your picture. In describing a library, for instance, you can very well leave out any mention of the number of chairs there are in the room, or of the fact that the front door is of oak, since those details might be true of any large public room. But you must not fail to notice and to remark on the stillness of the place,--people walking about very quietly and talking in whispers, standing close to each other,--for that is one of the things which distinguishes a library from other places. So, in writing of both a handsome street and an alleyway, you would be telling the truth if you said that they were both paved and had a gutter on each side, but you would not be making a picture, as you would if you spoke of battered ash barrels and hungry cats in the alley, and of beautiful lawns and pretty romping children in the handsome street. In observing the scene you wish to describe, you should notice everything, looking at a sight long familiar to you with the steady gaze you had to give in order to see what is really on a postage stamp or a dollar bill. You will find that you have looked at the view from your window with the same careless, vacant, absent gaze, lacking real attention, and that you need to fix your mind on observing a landscape or a scene, before you take in a great many details that are essential. But when you come to writing, you should think of each detail before you use it, to see if it brings the picture out more clearly. 3. Use some device for expressing the relation between the different parts of your picture. This is usually done by employing complex sentences made up by means of connecting links, such as _near which_, _above which_, _around which_, etc., and by using such phrases as _farther off_, _nearer by_, _close at hand_, _far away_, _in the distance_, _high up_, _directly below_, _on the other side_, _beyond_, etc. =Exercise 112.=--Describe such of the following as your teacher may indicate:-- 1. What I see from my window at home, at school. 2. View from the highest place to which I ever climbed. 3. View from the top of our house. 4. The most beautiful view I ever saw. 5. How our street looks from our front steps. 6. Across the meadow. 7. How my room looks from the door. 8. The views in the park I like best. 9. View along a country road. 10. Trees along a village street. 11. View along a street in a large city. 12. The inside of our church from where I sit. 13. My class room from my seat. 14. Our kitchen. 15. The inside of a barn. 16. What I can see from the door of a barn. 17. An alleyway in a city. 18. View along the most beautiful street I know. 19. View from the back of a river or lake. 20. Imaginary description of the view I should like best to be able to see from my window. 21. How my room would look if I could have it exactly as I wished. 22. The prettiest parlor I ever saw. 23. How the inside of a public library looks from the door. 24. A view in the woods in the winter. 25. An orchard in bloom. 26. Beside the brook. 27. In the market. 28. Scene in a department store; in a hospital; in a restaurant. 29. A soda-water fountain. 30. A sand pile where children have been playing "keep-house." 31. Any scene at a county fair. =68. Description of Conditions.=--Read the following description:-- A cornfield in July is a hot place. The soil is hot and dry; the wind comes across the lazily murmuring leaves laden with a warm, sickening smell drawn from the rapidly growing, broad-flung banners of the corn. The sun, nearly vertical, drops a flood of dazzling light and heat upon the field, over which the cool shadows run, only to make the heat seem the more intense.--HAMLIN GARLAND: _Main-traveled Roads._ The first sentence of this paragraph states the fact that the author wished to convey to you. All the rest is added to make the conditions seem vivid to you, to make you feel the heat, smell the rank odor of the corn, and hear the murmur of the leaves. You will notice that this is different from the description in the last lesson, where you have been trying to tell merely how a scene or object looked to you, to make a picture such as an artist might paint. Here you are made to notice odors, motion, noises, and heat,--things that a painter would find it difficult to suggest in any picture. Think how different would be the effect of intense cold on a street in a big city or in the heart of the forest, and you will see that in the effect of given conditions on all kinds of objects you have one of the best methods of portraying a scene. For instance, in both the country and the city the rapid approach of a thundershower is preceded by black clouds and a high wind. The difference lies in what effect these things have. In the country, the wind tosses the trees wildly about, roars among the branches, scatters the dry leaves in volleys. In the city the arrival of a storm is heralded by a flapping of awnings, little whirlwinds of dust, crowds of people hurrying to shelter or looking up at the sky, and a hasty removal indoors of everything that would be spoiled by the rain. =Exercise 113.=--In treating such of the following subjects as your teacher may indicate, try to notice odor, noise, and movement as well as form, color, and position:-- 1. A very cold day in a city street, in a barnyard full of animals, in our class room, on the playground, in the woods, beside a river or brook, on a street car, in a railway train, at the station. 2. A very rainy day in our garden, in summer, in spring, in autumn, inside a barn, in an attic, in a henyard, in a crowded business street, on a boat, at the door of a department store, or church, or theater, at a country fair, at a picnic. 3. A snowstorm in the country, in the city. 4. Muddy walking on a country road, in a plowed field, in a city street, on the playground, at the door of our school. 5. A hot night on our piazza, indoors, in a public square, in the woods, in a theater, in a flower garden, in the street in front of our house, at a pleasure resort. 6. A high wind in the country, in the city, in summer, in autumn, in winter, on the harbor or river, at sea, in a tall tower, an attic (this mainly for sounds), in a pasture full of horses, in a group of pine trees, in a cornfield, in a city park, in a city court on wash day. =Exercise 114.=--As a class exercise, try writing on some one subject and comparing the results. See who has been able to produce the clearest impression and why his description is successful. The subjects should be only those of which the whole class has an equal knowledge, _e.g._ description of some public person who has addressed the school; of the walk to school on a snowy, rainy, or hot day, of the playground at recess time, of the aspect of the halls directly after school is dismissed, of the schoolroom, of any incident which all the pupils saw, a fire in the neighborhood, etc. =69. Description by Contrast.=--Another excellent device in description is contrast. For instance, if you wish to describe the effect made by a day in the woods when rain has frozen in falling and has coated everything with ice, you might begin by making a brief picture of such a day in the city,--every one slipping uncomfortably, horses straining painfully to keep their footing, the wheels of street cars revolving uselessly on an ice-coated track; and then suddenly transfer your description to the woods, where the trees are as though made of glass, every little twig a prism to reflect light, and where the bits of ice falling from the trees tinkle like broken glass on the frozen snow. =Exercise 115.=--Describe, by contrasting with each other:-- 1. A heavy draught horse and a race horse. 2. A canoe and a raft. 3. A Newfoundland dog and a pug dog. 4. Your class room when every one is busy and quietly studying, when every one is just going away, and when it is deserted after school hours. 5. The kitchen of your house on different occasions,--washing, ironing, just before dinner, just after a candy pull, after the work is all done, on a Sunday afternoon. 6. A theater full of people and bright with lights, afterward darkened and deserted except for cleaning women. 7. Our garden at different times of year,--in spring, when planting is being done; when I am weeding it on a hot day in summer; when everything is ripe in autumn; in winter, snow-covered. 8. A grocer's shop in early morning with a sleepy boy sweeping out, and later when full of customers and clerks. 9. An apple tree in blossom; in autumn with ripe fruit; in winter. 10. A brook or river frozen over with skaters on it, and in midsummer with swimmers, etc. 11. The route I generally take to and from school,--in the morning (other pupils going to school; business men going to their offices; butcher's carts and grocery and ice wagons); in the afternoon (nurses out with babies, ladies calling, children at play, etc.). 12. A public square in its ordinary aspect, and on the Fourth of July, or Decoration Day, or Election Night. 13. A department store full of shoppers just before Christmas, and early in the morning on a hot summer day, with only the clerks and a few customers. 14. A railway station, quiet and deserted, with only a few travelers waiting silently, and when an important train arrives, bringing a crowd of passengers. =70. Description of Events.=--In the extract given below there is a certain amount of definite information conveyed, in addition to the pictures presented. Slowly and mournfully they carried his embalmed body in a procession of great state to Paris, and thence to Rouen, where his queen was, from whom the sad intelligence of his death was concealed until he had been dead some days. Thence, lying on a bed of crimson and gold, with a golden crown upon his head and a golden ball and scepter lying in the nerveless hands, they carried him to Calais, with such a great retinue as seemed to dye the road black. The King of Scotland acted as chief mourner, all the Royal Household followed; the knights wore black armor and black plumes of feathers, crowds of men bore torches, making the night as light as day; and the widowed Princess followed last of all. At Calais there was a fleet of ships to bring the funeral host to Dover; and so, by way of London Bridge, where the service for the dead was chanted as it passed along, they brought the body to Westminster Abbey, and there buried it with great respect.--CHARLES DICKENS: _A Child's History of England._ An account of almost any happening, custom, or festival must be told in this way, with an eye both to stating facts clearly and at the same time to making them seem lifelike. This sort of exercise is harder than anything you have yet tried, for you must be at once complete and full in your account and yet must continue to go on in the sort of picture making you have been practicing. In a way, this is almost a return to some of the exercises in narrative which you have had, since a description of several happenings in order of time is really a narrative. At any rate, in trying this sort of description you are like a person who has been learning to play the piano, first with the right hand and then with the left, and finally with both together in a simple but complete melody. You are to keep in mind that you have two aims in view: to be as full as is necessary to give an accurate idea of the facts, and to attempt to present a picture. =Exercise 116=.--Describe accurately, as though for a newspaper or magazine, but trying to reproduce some of the essential characters of the event:-- A fire drill in your school; how you celebrate Fourth of July, Thanksgiving, Hallowe'en, New Year's Day; laying the corner stone of a new building; the procession of the veterans on Decoration Day; a political parade or meeting; a wedding; a funeral; the parade of the Fire Department; a play or entertainment given by your school. =71. Picture Making of Scenes of Action.=--Here, instead of describing something stationary, like a house or landscape, the writer has taken one moment of a scene of action, and has attempted to make, as it were, a snapshot photograph of it. To-day the large side doors were thrown open toward the sun to admit a beautiful light to the immediate spot of the shearers' operations, which was the wood threshing floor in the center, formed of thick oak, black with age. Here the shearers knelt, the sun slanting in on their bleached shirts, tanned arms, and the polished shears they flourished, causing them to bristle with a thousand rays strong enough to blind a weak-eyed man. Beneath them a captive sheep lay panting, increasing the rapidity of its pants as misgiving merged in terror, till it quivered like the hot landscape outside.--THOMAS HARDY: _Far from the Madding Crowd._ All the painters of historical pictures try in the same way to paint one moment of a well-known incident, and they select some significant moment; that is, one where the action tells something of the story involved. =Exercise 117.=--I. Imagine that you are about to paint a picture of any one of the following scenes, and describe what comes into your mind when you think of the incident. Do not tell the story--simply describe the scene at a given moment. 1. Columbus sighting land. 2. Columbus landing. 3. The burial of De Soto. 4. Pocohontas saving the life of John Smith. 5. Penn making a treaty with the Indians. 6. A scene in the attack on Braddock by Indian skirmishers. 7. An night attack by Indians on a colonial settlement. 8. The discovery of Major André. 9. King Alfred and the cakes. 10. The rain of manna on the Children of Israel. II. Try in the following subjects to make a picture which would serve as illustration to a story. See if you can make the picture recognizable, so that your classmates can tell what the story is from the one scene from it which you present them. 1. Horatius at the bridge. 2. The Sleeping Beauty. 3. William Tell and the apple. 4. Cinderella trying on the slipper. 5. Ivanhoe and Rebecca during the progress of the battle which Rebecca is describing. 6. Ulysses, returned to Ithaca, is recognized by his old dog Argus. 7. Uncle Remus telling stories to the little boy. 8. Barbara Frietchie. 9. Robinson Crusoe and the footprints. Here is a description, by Parkman, of the robbing of a train of pack horses carrying valuable goods. Advancing deeper among the mountains, they began to descend the valley at the foot of Sidling Hill. The laden horses plodded knee-deep in snow. The mountains towered above the wayfarers in gray desolation, and the leafless forest howled dreary music to the wind of March. Suddenly, from behind snow-beplastered trunks and shaggy bushes of evergreen, uncouth apparitions started into view. Wild visages protruded, grotesquely horrible with vermilion and ocher, white lead and soot; stalwart limbs appeared, encased in buckskin; and rusty rifles thrust out their long muzzles. In front and flank and all around them white puffs of smoke and sharp reports assailed the bewildered senses of the travelers.--FRANCIS PARKMAN: _The Conspiracy of Pontiac._ With this description you are again almost back to narration. The extract presents two pictures, and in so doing, relates a story. This way of telling a story by a succession of pictures is a favorite one with comic illustrators, but it is also used very often in writing, although in a real narration explanatory matter is added between the scenes. =Exercise 118.=--The following topics are given as subjects for description only, and you are to try to give as vivid a picture of the two scenes as you can, letting the story tell itself by inference. 1. Boys skating at top speed along a river with a pack of wolves in the distance. A camp of wood choppers beside the river, a fire burning, the boys fallen exhausted, and men starting up with guns in their hands. 2. People on a raft waving coats and handkerchiefs wildly. On board a big ocean steamer, with passengers gathered around the group of rescued castaways. 3. A Christmas tree inside a richly furnished room with well-dressed children gathered around it. Outside in the snow a group of poor children looking in at the window. 4. A boy with a swollen jaw in the dentist's chair. A group of smaller children to whom the boy proudly holds up a tooth. 5. A hen calling wildly to her chickens and trying to cover them with her wings, and a farmer running up with a gun. The farmer has his gun in one hand, and with the other holds up a big hen-hawk for a group of people to see. 6. A street with everybody running in one direction, pointing ahead. A house on fire with firemen climbing up on ladders. 7. A family assembled at the dinner table in the evening quietly talking together. A man taps on the window pane outside; every one starts up in surprise and great pleasure, as if he were a relative returned from travels. 8. A group of women gathered at the end of a pier on a stormy night, straining their eyes anxiously out to sea. A fisherman returning up the beach, at early dawn, with a net full of fish on his back. In the background a small house with children running out to meet him. =72. Travel.=--It is hard to draw a definite line between descriptive writing and narrative writing, since description is very often needed to make a narration interesting, and sometimes to make it complete. There is one kind of composition where the two methods of writing are needed in almost equal quantities, and that is in stories of travel. In writing an account of a journey, you have a distinct story to tell, since you are narrating a series of events that took place one after the other; but without description of what you saw the account is scarcely worth writing at all. Your aim is to give your reader a clear idea of the course of your journey, and you can only do this by a combination of narration and description, by telling what happened and then by trying to make a picture of the event. So that there are two main things to remember in writing of travel: first, to make your journey clear and intelligible by following the time-order in your narration, and by recollecting all the important stages of the trip; and, second, to select for description the most interesting incidents or places which you saw, and to write of them as vividly and picturesquely as possible. The roads were gay early next morning when we started, for it was market day, and the country people were flocking into town, some driving their pigs, some riding donkeys with calfskin saddles adorned with little red tassels; the women wearing high-crowned hats with bright handkerchiefs tied on underneath, and bright cotton shawls; the men with brown-and-white-striped blankets gracefully thrown over the shoulder, and in their hands long, brass-tipped staves. Most of the women had large gold earrings, and some of them, in addition, gold chains and crosses and filigree heart-shaped pendants. We met presently a troop of fishwomen running at full speed to catch the market, their baskets balanced on their heads. Their earrings were hoop-shaped, and their skirts short and tucked up, and they had embroidered purses hanging at the side. The fishermen we overtook a little later, going back toward the sea with their nets. All had time to touch their caps and say "Good day," for civility to strangers is the rule in Portugal. Here and there were children minding goats under the shade of the olives. No idlers, no beggars were to be seen. At noon we came to Alcobaça, and walked through the town to the great abbey church of the Cistercians. The market was going on outside it. Gayly dressed women presided over heaps of maize and oranges and eggs. Strings of donkeys were tied up by the wall. A scarlet-robed acolyte walked amongst the people collecting alms. A broad flight of steps led up to the great door. Inside all is very simple and grand--a vaulted roof, rows of slender columns, no pictures or tawdry decorations to be seen. Now and then, not very often, a woman would come in from the busy market place and kneel to say a silent prayer.... We visited the convent where Beckford had lived, and saw its great tiled kitchen and its beautiful cloisters, and then went back to the inn to lunch, where we enjoyed above all a liberal dish of green peas--green still in our memories. We drove on through pleasant fields and vineyards, catching sight now and then of the distant sea, and, suddenly coming to an open space through the trees, we saw before us the great memorial church of Batalha, the Battle Abbey of Portugal, its pinnacles and the delicate lace work of its roof standing out against the clear blue sky. It stands quite alone, except for the handful of red-tiled houses that form the village, and from its roof you look down, not on the smoke and turmoil of human habitations, but on green fields and slopes and olive trees; and under its walls no troops of beggars, or pleasure seekers, or chattering merchants disturb the stillness. One only I saw there, sitting near the door under the shade of a bright-colored umbrella, a heap of pottery at her feet for sale, and a donkey tied up close by; but her child had fallen asleep in her arms, and she did not move or speak. Inside, also, all was quiet, and we could enjoy its beauty--the long aisles, the endless columns, the exquisite cloisters, where the fantastic and varied stone traceries contrast with the quaint formal garden with its box-edged beds, in which are set roses, and peonies, and columbines.... We learned that the church was founded in 1387 by the great King Joao soon after the fighting of the decisive victory which it commemorates, and that there is a doubt as to the architect employed, whether he was an Irishman named Hackett, or another. I am all for the Irishman, but hope he was not also responsible for the idea of laying the foundations in this hollow, where the water lies when the winter floods begin. We tried to find out, through Antonio, how high the water actually rises, but he would only wave his hands deferentially and say, as though he had been one of Canute's courtiers, "As high as you please, sir." That night we slept at Leiria. The inn is over a stable, and one room looks out on a piggery and another on a fowl yard. We said farewell to our mules, and took the train again at Pombal, interesting chiefly from its association with the great eighteenth-century statesman of the same name. We look out from the railway carriage on level meadows, purple with vipers' bugloss, bordering the Mondego, and then across a bend of the river where it is broadest we see Coimbra, the Oxford of Portugal, an ancient and beautiful city, beautifully set on a hillside. Bare-headed, black-robed students fill the streets, and swarm in and out of the doors of the university. The streets are steep and narrow, and here and there are unexpected gardens and blossoming Judas trees.--LADY GREGORY: _Through Portugal._ =Exercise 119.=--Write, either in letter form or as a composition, an account of any journey you have taken. It is better to select a small part of a trip, and describe that quite completely, than to try to cover a long journey. A day's excursion, if it is interesting, is enough as a rule for one exercise, although this is by no means an invariable rule. The following subjects are given as suitable for travel compositions, or as suggesting others:-- 1. Our trip to the county fair. 2. The journey I took the first time I saw the ocean. 3. How we go away for the summer: packing up, leaving the house, the journey with pet animals, etc., arrival. 4. A trip that should have been very short, but was made long by an accident. 5. How we go fishing, hunting, studying birds. 6. The trip to the greatest natural curiosity I ever saw; a cave; hanging cliff; waterfall, etc. =73. Descriptions of an Hour.=--When you write an account of a journey, you are telling all the interesting events that occurred in your life on a certain day or days, or in a certain number of hours. Now you do not need to travel to have interesting things happen to you, and a lively and picturesque account of your doings for an afternoon or a morning may be extremely readable, although perhaps you did not stir from one room. You will be quite surprised to see how many things you do, or any one else does, in a short space of time. The following passage from _David Copperfield_ is an account of how an underdone leg of mutton was made palatable after it had come to the table. No subject could be simpler, and yet it is treated in so lively a way that it is very entertaining. There was a gridiron in the pantry, on which my morning rasher of bacon was cooked. We had it in, in a twinkling, and immediately applied ourselves to carrying Mr. Micawber's idea into effect. The division of labor to which he had referred was this: Traddles cut the mutton into slices; Mr. Micawber (who could do anything of this sort to perfection) covered them with pepper, mustard, salt, and cayenne; I put them on the gridiron, turned them with a fork, and took them off, under Mr. Micawber's direction; and Mrs. Micawber heated, and continually stirred, some mushroom ketchup in a little saucepan. When we had slices enough to begin upon, we fell to, with our sleeves still tucked up at the wrists, more slices sputtering and blazing on the fire, and our attention divided between the mutton on our plates, and the mutton then preparing. What with the novelty of this cookery, the excellence of it, the bustle of it, the frequent starting up to look after it, the frequent sitting down to dispose of it as the crisp slices came off the gridiron hot and hot, the being so busy, so flushed with the fire, so amused, and in the midst of such a tempting noise and savor, we reduced the leg of mutton to the bone. My own appetite came back miraculously. I am ashamed to record it, but I really believe I forgot Dora for a little while. Traddles laughed heartily almost the whole time, as he ate and worked. Indeed we all did, all at once; and I dare say there never was a greater success. We were at the height of our enjoyment, and were all busily engaged, in our several departments, endeavoring to bring the last batch of slices to a state of perfection that should crown the feast, when I was aware of a strange presence in the room, and my eyes encountered those of the staid Littimer, standing hat in hand before me.--CHARLES DICKENS: _David Copperfield._ =Exercise 120.=--I. Take a piece of paper and try to note down everything a baby of six or eight months does for a half an hour when he is wide awake and active. Or take similar notes of all that a two-year-old child does in an hour's play; or watch a kitten amuse itself, and try to write an account of it that will give your reader some idea of the gay frolics of the little animal. If you can find a colony of ants, their movements will give you good material for this sort of composition; or a pair of birds building a nest, or a crowd of little children playing. II. In the same way, write on any of the following subjects:-- 1. The story of a convalescent's afternoon. 2. The story of one day in house-cleaning time. 3. What we do on Sunday afternoon. 4. The first day at school after a vacation. 5. Our school picnic. 6. Two hours spent at a junction, waiting for a delayed train--how we amused ourselves. 7. The first time I ever rode horseback or tried to sail a boat. 8. The cook's last fifteen minutes before dinner is served. 9. An hour in a department store. 10. A visit to a flour mill, blacksmith shop, large bakery, candy factory, or any manufactory. 11. An afternoon spent just as I should like it best. 12. What a country boy does to amuse himself in two leisure hours; a city boy. 13. The hardest hour's work I ever did. 14. The hour on a farm spent in feeding the animals. 15. How we hurried to catch the morning train. 16. The half hour when I tried to amuse the baby. CHAPTER XII NARRATION (_Continued_) =74. Historical Stories.=--In writing on the subjects given below, you are to try to make a complete story, including the dialogue between the principal characters, what descriptions of scenery or people or houses you think are needed to make your picture vivid and your persons real, and what explanation of conditions or surroundings are necessary to make the action intelligible. Once upon a time a worthy merchant of London, named Gilbert à Becket, made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and was taken prisoner by a Saracen lord. This lord, who treated him kindly and not like a slave, had one fair daughter, who fell in love with the merchant; and who told him that she wanted to become a Christian, and was willing to marry him if they could fly to a Christian country. The merchant returned her love, until he found an opportunity to escape, when he did not trouble himself about the Saracen lady, but escaped with his servant Richard, who had been taken prisoner along with him, and arrived in England and forgot her. The Saracen lady, who was more loving than the merchant, left her father's house in disguise to follow him, and made her way, under many hardships, to the seashore. The merchant had taught her only two English words (for I suppose he must have learnt the Saracen tongue himself, and made love in that language), of which London was one, and his own name, Gilbert, the other. She went among the ships saying, "London! London!" over and over again, until the sailors understood that she wanted to find an English vessel that would carry her there; so they showed her such a ship, and she paid for her passage with some of her jewels, and sailed away. Well! The merchant was sitting in his counting house in London one day, when he heard a great noise in the street; and presently Richard came running in from the warehouse with his eyes wide open and his breath almost gone, saying, "Master, master, here is the Saracen lady!" The merchant thought Richard was mad; but Richard said, "No, master! As I live, the Saracen lady is going up and down the city, calling 'Gilbert! Gilbert!'" Then he took the merchant by the sleeve and pointed out a window; and there they saw her among the gables and waterspouts of the dark, dirty streets, in her foreign dress, so forlorn, surrounded by a wondering crowd, and passing slowly along, calling "Gilbert! Gilbert!" When the merchant saw her and thought of the tenderness she had shown him in his captivity, and of her constancy, his heart was moved, and he ran down into the street; and she saw him coming, and with a great cry fainted in his arms. They were married without loss of time, and Richard (who was an excellent man) danced with joy the whole day of the wedding; and they all lived happily ever afterward. This merchant and the Saracen lady had one son, Thomas à Becket. He it was who became the favorite of King Henry the Second.--CHARLES DICKENS: _A Child's History of England._ Read this over very carefully and note the construction of it. The first half is plain narration, such as you have employed in historical writing, in fables, etc., but the second half is embellished narration, or a report of facts that at the same time gives you a lifelike picture of how they took place. After telling you the first half of his story without description, or any attempt to make you see the scenes, Dickens gives you a complete and striking picture of the last part of the action. It is by no means always best to adopt this method in story telling, but in re-telling historical stories it is often a good plan, since frequently your reader needs a brief explanation of what the general conditions are before he can really understand the tale you wish to tell him. For instance, in writing the story of Robin Hood for a little boy, you would need to explain some of the conditions of England at that time, so that your reader would not think of him as a common thief and poacher. =Exercise 121.=--Look up the facts about any of the following subjects, think them over, make the persons and scenes real to your own mind, and write as though trying to make the story clear, intelligible, interesting, and vivid to a boy or girl eight years old. 1. Robin Hood. 2. William Tell and his little son. 3. King Alfred and the cakes. 4. John Smith and Pocohontas. 5. The youth of Hannibal and his vow of revenge on the Romans. 6. Leonidas and the Spartans at Thermopylæ. 7. Nathan Hale's capture and death. 8. The Spanish Armada. 9. Guy Fawkes and his conspiracy. 10. The story of Marcus Curtius. 11. Dick Whittington. All these subjects have been selected because they naturally suggest to your mind one vivid and dramatic picture toward the end, so that you can take as a model the story of Gilbert à Becket. After you have studied the facts of each story, see if a picture does not rise before you of the most exciting or characteristic moment of the action. Then try to make this picture real to your reader by the best and most spirited description you can write. Put yourself in the place of the persons of the incident you are relating, and try to see the scene and feel what naturally would move you. =Exercise 122.=--Re-tell the following well-known stories, selecting two or three incidents for particularly detailed and careful treatment. Choose those that appeal to you as affording a good chance either for animated dialogue, which is an excellent means of making a scene lifelike, or for description which shall make the persons and action seem more real. Never put in any description for its own sake,--only so much as will help to interest your reader and make him feel and see the incidents of your story. In these stories, taken from well-known poems, be careful not to let yourself be influenced by the words of the poem. Think of the story as apart from its poetic expression, and write it in your own language. 1. Ulysses and the Cyclops. 2. Ulysses and the Sirens. 3. Ulysses's arrival at home. 4. Iphigenia. 5. The Pied Piper of Hamlin. 6. The story of the wooden horse in the siege of Troy. 7. Jason and the Golden Fleece. 8. The story of Pegasus and Bellerophon. 9. The One-Hoss Shay. 10. The Falcon. 11. John Gilpin's Ride. 12. Paul Revere's Ride. 13. Yussouf (James Russell Lowell). 14. Hervé Riel (Browning). 15. A story from the Bible, such as that of David and Goliath. =75. Fictitious Stories.=--In writing on the subjects of the preceding lesson you have been using material furnished you by history or by poetry. The final step in story writing is often considered to be the invention of the material from which you weave your tale; but, as a matter of fact, few writers actually invent their material. What is usually meant by "invention" in story telling is power to see the story which lies in the events of every day. A small incident, if you interest yourself in it, will be of interest to a reader. Once when John Burroughs was fishing on a lake, a mouse ran up his oar into the boat, sat there for a few moments, and then swam back to shore. You could scarcely imagine a less exciting adventure, and yet see what a charming little narrative he has made of it, making you almost feel that you have held the gentle little creature in your hand, and arousing so much sympathy for it in your mind that you are genuinely glad to think it was able to return safely to land:-- I met one of these mice in my travels one day under peculiar conditions. He was on his travels also, and we met in the middle of a mountain lake. I was casting my fly there, when I saw, just sketched or etched upon the glassy surface, a delicate V-shaped figure, the point of which reached about to the middle of the lake, while the two sides, as they diverged, faded out toward the shore. I saw the point of this V was being slowly pushed across the lake. I drew near in my boat, and beheld a little mouse swimming vigorously for the opposite shore. His little legs appeared like swiftly revolving wheels beneath him. As I came near, he dived under the water to escape me, but came up again like a cork and just as quickly. It was laughable to see him repeatedly duck beneath the surface and pop back again in a twinkling. He could not keep under water more than a second or two. Presently I reached him my oar, when he ran up it and into the palm of my hand, where he sat for some time and arranged his fur and warmed himself. He did not show the slightest fear. It was probably the first time he had ever shaken hands with a human being. He had doubtless lived all his life in the woods, and was strangely unsophisticated. How his little round eyes did shine, and how he sniffed me to find out if I was more dangerous than I appeared to his sight! After a while I put him down in the bottom of the boat and resumed my fishing. But it was not long before he became very restless, and evidently wanted to go about his business. He would climb up to the edge of the boat and peer down into the water. Finally he could brook the delay no longer and plunged boldly overboard; but he had either changed his mind or lost his reckoning, for he started back in the direction from which he had come, and the last I saw of him was a mere speck vanishing in the shadows near the shore.--JOHN BURROUGHS: _Squirrels and Other Fur-Bearing Animals._ =Exercise 123.=--Following this model, tell any incident, either real or invented, suggested by the following subjects:-- 1. Our cat and the dry leaves. 2. Our canary bird and the thunderstorm. 3. The butcher and the sick dog. 4. The tired street-car conductor and the lame man. 5. The mother and child and the little beggar. 6. How a horse got rid of his halter. 7. The hen and the duck eggs. 8. The elevator boy, the irritable man, and the soft answer. 9. The teacher's watch left in the class room and the janitor's little boy. 10. How I lost my belief in Santa Claus, in fairies. 11. A queer idea I had when I was younger,--_e.g._ that the North Pole is an actual pole sticking out from the ground, etc. =76. The Beginning.=--The beginning of a story is a very important part of it, for the average reader will not go on with a story which does not interest him at once. It is therefore better, as a rule, to begin, not with an introduction, as in historical stories, but with some phrase or sentence that belongs in the action. Then, after you have caught your reader's attention, you can, in a later paragraph, give briefly what explanation is needed. The beginnings of several excellent stories are given here to show you how they commence without any sort of introduction. [Edgar Allan Poe's _Descent into the Maelstrom_.] "We had now reached the summit of the loftiest crag. For some minutes the old man seemed too much exhausted to speak." [Octave Thanet's _The Sheriff_.] "Sheriff Wickliff leaned out of his office window, the better to watch the boy soldiers march down the street." [Louisa M. Alcott's _Jack and Jill_.] "'Clear the track' was the general cry on a bright December afternoon, when all the boys and girls of Harmony Village were out enjoying the first good snow of the season." =Exercise 124.=--Sometimes the beginning is so full of meaning that you can almost construct the whole story from it. See if you can finish the stories begun below:-- 1. Waking up with a start, he was very much amazed to find himself under the counter and not at home in bed. A little moonlight coming in the grocery window showed him where he was, and he remembered that he had lain down for a moment's nap, just as the clerks were closing the doors. Probably no one had noticed the little errand boy, tired out with his long day's work and with a long evening before spent over his books. Suddenly he noticed that the room was growing lighter, and saw a little tongue of flame shoot up from the floor near him. 2. Jack pulled his hand out of his pocket with a cry of alarm. "Why I've lost my purse and my railway ticket home!" he said, "and I don't know a soul in the city. What shall I do!" As he spoke, he noticed a man step out of a store and try to put up the awning over the door. The rope caught on a nail, and without seeing what was the trouble the man jerked impatiently but uselessly. Jack had been brought up to help people out if he could. "I think I can do that," he said pleasantly, stepping forward. The man stopped and looked at him curiously. 3. The mast broke with a loud report and the sail blew overboard in a breath. The two boys looked at each other with pale faces. "If this wind keeps up, it looks as though we never should get back to shore," said George, looking about him despairingly. 4. When Oliver Whiting realized that he had lived with the Indians for five years, it always surprised him. The time had slipped by very rapidly since that exciting night of the raid on the Puritan settlement, when he had been carried off from his master's house. He had really been happier in the lazy Indian life than in the busy, active, hard-working household of the Puritan farmer. As he lay on the grass one summer evening, listening to the river and watching the stars shine, he reflected that if he could, he would not choose to go away from his kindly Indian captors. A low call made him turn his head, and there, within a few feet of him, stood his old master, Fear-God Elliott. 5. "Run Johnnie, or the tree will strike you," shouted Mr. Edwards to his ten-year-old son, pushing him out of the way. The great tree came crashing down. The child was safe, but the man lay groaning with pain, both legs pinned down by the terrible, crushing weight. "Johnnie, do you suppose you can find your way five miles to Neighbor Ashley's clearing?" said the man, compressing his pale lips to keep back a shriek of pain. "If you lose yourself, you'll starve to death and so shall I, but there's no other way to save us both." 6. Mary Ellen was thinking of nothing more exciting than her arithmetic lesson, as she looked absently through the open door into the long empty hall of the school building. What she saw there made her catch her breath in horror, but her presence of mind came instantly to her rescue. If she screamed "Fire! Fire!" there would be a panic. What could she do? All at once a bright idea struck her. In beginning a story of your own, you should take any one of these beginnings as model. You will notice that each of them lets you know at once three main points--the principal character, the place of the action, and the general conditions. It is very important to do this, and, as you notice, these facts can be brought in without stating them definitely and tediously. For instance, the first story given might have begun, "Harry was an errand boy in a grocer's shop. He was poor and had to work hard all day, but he was ambitious, and kept up his studies in the evening. One night he went to sleep under the counter. When he woke up, he saw a tongue of flame darting up from the floor." Do you see how much better the first way of telling you all this about Harry is than the second? =77. The Ending.=--The end of a story is also very important. It should contain the _point_. This is sometimes the explanation of the action, sometimes the summing up of the spirit of the tale, but in any case it is brief and lively. =Exercise 125=--See if you can write the stories that go before the endings given below:-- 1. I was trembling with terror as the apparition drew nearer, and little Pollie was shaking so she could hardly stand. All at once she burst out in a loud fit of laughter, pointing through the dusk at the white spirit of our fears. "Why, aren't we silly!" she cried. "It's no ghost at all,--only our own old white cow." 2. Pauline had just given up trying to control the maddened horse, when out of a house ahead of them dashed a man with a long rope. Coiling this, he threw it deftly around the horse's neck as it plunged by, and, instantly dropping it about a fence post, he brought the animal to a dead stop so quickly that Pauline was thrown out of the wagon. She was unhurt, however, and the man, who ran to pick her up, exclaimed when he saw who she was. "Well, perhaps you'll take my advice about horses the next time," he said laughingly. 3. I splashed wildly, I kicked up a tremendous foam with my feet, I panted and spluttered like a porpoise; but, looking over my shoulder, I saw I had passed the line of the old oak tree. The deed was done,--very badly it might be, but none the less actually the accomplishment was mine. I had learned to swim at last! =78. The Body.=--You have now studied the beginning and the end of a story. The middle part is the easiest of all. You may have learned enough geometry to know that a straight line is the shortest distance between two points. A good story is the shortest distance between a good beginning and a good ending. By that you are not to understand actually the shortest statement you can make of the facts involved, but the shortest treatment of your theme which still slights none of the features necessary to make your ending most effective. Fix your mental eye on your ending, and write your story to make that most full of meaning. For instance, the first of the three endings given above would lose most of its value if you did not, in writing the story, describe the lonely house at twilight, the two dreadfully frightened children, and the shapeless white mass looming up through the dusk. Their relief at finding it to be only a cow is neither amusing nor even interesting unless you have shown by a lively description how terribly alarmed they were. In the same way the last ending must be preceded by a humorous account of the great difficulty a boy had in learning to swim. His joy at finding he could make a little headway is only of interest because it comes as a contrast to former discouragement. =Exercise 126.=--Write a story suggested by any of the following titles or phrases:-- 1. The first time I was badly frightened. 2. The thing I am proudest of having done. 3. My runaway. 4. How the bird's nest was saved from the snake. 5. When the elephant broke loose from the circus. 6. How the fox got the honeycomb away from the bear by saying it was bad for his health. 7. What I did when our house caught on fire. 8. How our cat got out of the barn when she was shut in. 9. Why I got to the train late. 10. How the children lost in the woods kept house in the cave. 11. What would happen if the statues in our school building could come to life. 12. If the pictures could come to life. 13. Christopher Columbus revisits America. 14. An interesting dream I once had. 15. At this, the Queen of the Fairies touched Hans with her wand. "Oh," he cried, "I'll never put off doing anything again." 16. The old sailor gave a little shiver of recollection. "Well, I hope you'll never be in such a place, sonny," he said to the little boy. 17. The poor old man looked at the kind young lady very intently. "Weren't you in Archester one summer?" he asked. "Why, you must be old Farmer Norton, to whom I owe such a lot of money," she cried. "I never could find you to pay it back." CHAPTER XIII EXPOSITION =79. General Principles.=--There is perhaps no other form of composition which is so generally in use as exposition or explanation. If you observe your own conversation and that of the people about you, you will find that a great deal of it is explanation. Every time you say in answer to some question about a remark you have just made, "Why, I mean that--," you are explaining the first remark. In almost all the recitations you make in school you are explaining something--a principle in arithmetic, or in physics, the construction of something in manual training, the meaning of a word, etc. The object of your explanation is to make the person whom you address understand the nature of your subject. There are a number of devices for doing this, which will be treated in this chapter, but you are never to forget that your aim is simply to make some one clearly understand what was not plain to him before. In description you were told that knowledge of your subject was the most necessary element. This is so true of exposition that only the briefest mention of that necessity is enough to show you its great importance. It might be possible to describe something and give a fair notion of it, without knowing it thoroughly yourself; but this is out of the question in explanation. If you do not entirely and completely understand what you are talking about, you certainly cannot explain it to any one else. One of the great advantages of writing explanations is that you are forced to think accurately as well as to express yourself clearly. The next thing in explanation is a consideration of the people for whom you are writing. In the diary you write to yourself; in a letter you address one person, whom you usually know well; in narration and description, you write for persons about whom you can know very little. In exposition you come back again to a set of readers about whom you have some definite information. They may be different from each other in a great many ways, but in one respect they are alike--they do not understand the thing you are explaining, or at least they do not understand it as clearly as you do, for if they did, they would not be reading your exposition. This may appear self-evident, but it is a very important matter. You are apt to forget what should be constantly in your mind, that the entire value of your explanation lies in making something clear to a person who has not before understood it. In literary description your aim was to make your reader see the picture you saw. In exposition your aim is always and forever to make him _understand_, and no matter how well written, your explanation is a failure if he does not understand. You will often find it difficult to realize that some people know nothing whatever of some process or principle with which you are very familiar, and a good device is to imagine that you are addressing your explanation to a foreigner ignorant of our life, or to some one younger than you. Put yourself in the place of such a person, and see if your remarks are sufficiently clear and full to be a complete explanation. There are two great divisions of exposition--the explanation of a material process or thing, and the explanation of an abstract idea. The first is very much easier and will be taken up first. =80. Explanation of a Material Process.=--There is a strange resemblance between the explanation of a material process and telling a story. This will be made more clear by an example. A well-written cookbook, or manual of handwork, employs constantly this simplest, plainest form of exposition. _To broil a steak._ Light the oven burners at least five minutes before the time for broiling. Allow twelve to fifteen minutes for a steak an inch and a half thick. When the rack and the pan are hot, place the steak on the rack and put it as near the flames as possible without having it touch. As soon as it is seared and brown on one side, turn, and sear and brown on the other. Now turn again. Remove the rack three or four slides down, but do not reduce the heat. Cook for five minutes. Turn the steak and broil for five minutes longer, and it is ready to season and serve. You may not see any connection between these straightforward and plain instructions for broiling a steak and a story; but if you examine them, you will see that they are the story of the process, and that the explanation relates from first to last all the things that were done by some one who cooked a steak in exactly the right way. This resemblance is mentioned because it shows you that clear statement of events in their right order is as necessary in this sort of exposition as in story telling. Every one who writes good instructions for going through some process, either consciously or unconsciously imagines himself doing what he explains. In the above example, the writer has imagined herself broiling a steak, and has set down, step by step, everything she does. This is a very good plan to follow. You will find that it simplifies any difficulty in your mind, when you are a little confused as to what comes next, if you will ask yourself, "If I were actually doing this, what would be the very next thing I should do?" Remember that your reader is ignorant of the process, and do not forget any details that must be cared for, or there will be a gap in your directions over which he cannot cross. Use the simplest, plainest terms possible, and do not fear to be too minute. You will have a tendency to forget some necessary instruction rather than to add one that is not needed. It is often well to make a broad statement of general conditions first, before going on to detailed instructions. For instance, suppose you are writing to a boy who has always until now lived in the South, in order to tell him how to make a snow man. Before you begin to tell him about starting with a small ball and rolling it about till it grows large, you should say that he should try to make a snow man only when the snow is somewhat damp, for no matter how clear your instructions are, he can accomplish nothing by following them if the snow be dry and powdery. =Exercise 127.=--Write an explanation of the following processes, as if to a person wholly ignorant of them:-- 1. How to make a dam in a brook; to make a snow man; a snow fort (with blocks pressed into shape in boxes); to set up a tent; to irrigate a garden; to hang wall paper; to teach a pet animal tricks; to build a fire out of doors. 2. How to make cocoa, soup, bread, butter, cheese, cake, custard. 3. How to grow flowers indoors; in a hot bed. How to plant and grow lettuce, tomatoes, tobacco, corn, mushrooms, celery, nasturtiums, crocuses, potatoes. 4. How to harness a horse. How to get a trunk from your house to your cousin's in another town. How to develop an exposed photographic plate. Probably you have been able to treat the subjects above directly from your own experience or observation. In the following subjects you will probably need to consult some books, but be careful not simply to repeat their language. Look up the subject, inform yourself of all necessary details of manufacture or use, and then write an exposition (as if to some one younger than yourself), explaining any terms that would be new to him and stating the facts in the simplest, plainest way. =Exercise 128.=--Write as if in answer to any one of the following questions from a child:-- 1. How are bricks made? paper? glass? ink? iron? steel? gold leaf? shingles? baseballs? hairbrushes? mirrors? 2. Why are fishhooks made in the form they are? saws? wheels? 3. Why does an ice house keep the ice from melting? 4. How does a water wheel work? a windmill? a well sweep? scissors? Why does a chimney "draw"? What makes popcorn pop? =Exercise 129.=--I. Explain, with a diagram or drawing, the mechanism of the following objects. Letter or number the different parts of your diagram, and refer to them in that way. Plan your exposition as if trying to make the matter clear to a younger brother or sister. A pump, lamp, candle, stove, furnace, cistern, switches on a railroad track, city waterworks, refrigerator, ice-cream freezer, silo, limekiln. II. Explain how a book is bound; how a horse is harnessed; how windows are hung; what makes a window shade go up when you pull the string; how thread is spun and cloth woven; how grain is ground into flour; how salt is obtained. III. Give instructions (using, if necessary, a lettered diagram): for making a snare for rabbits; a mouse trap; a bear trap; a mole trap; a box; a basket; a bow and arrow; a needlebook; a cover for a book; a kite; a baseball diamond; a tennis court; a doll's hat; a springboard; a picture frame; a toboggan slide; a hasty shelter of boughs for camping; a doll's dress (with pattern). =81. Explanation of Games=.--One form of exposition which you have often used is the explanation of games and contests; and you have probably suffered from having other people give you imperfect and confused directions for playing a game unfamiliar to you, finding at some critical time in the contest that a detail or rule has been forgotten. The following is an exposition of a game which will almost certainly be unfamiliar to you, but which is a great favorite in Spain:-- Pelota is an old Basque game, resembling hand ball, which of late years has come greatly into fashion in Spain. It is given over to professionals, and it is said that none can continue it more than three or four years, so severely does it tax the constitution. Pelota is played in large glass-roofed buildings, one side of which is devoted in all its breadth to the asphalt court. The side wall of the court at Madrid is 175 feet long and the end walls are 50 feet broad and 40 feet high. The wall fencing the players has a rib of metal along it, about a yard from the pavement, and another near the top, which limit of height is carried along the longitudinal wall opposite the spectators. A ball is only in play when it hits the first wall between these lines or the long wall below the prescribed limit. The court is marked off by lines at regular distances of about four yards. The spaces from four to seven are important, for the ball when first played must drop from the wall between these two spaces. The ball, which weighs about four ounces, is thrown from a basket-work gauntlet or cesta, with a leather glove attached for fastening to the hand, and during a game I have seen the ball sent with such terrific force that it has rebounded from the wall at one end of the court against that at the other. There are usually four players, two on each side, and the aim of the players is to cause the ball to rebound from the wall into so remote or unexpected a place in the court that it will be impossible for their opponents to reach it in time to return it again to the wall. The time that the ball is in play, that is, the time that both sides are successful in keeping the ball in motion, is called a "rally." There are frequently, between good players, rallies of sixteen strokes or more. During a match game of fifty up, the players will wear their shoes right through. Pelota is popular in most Spanish towns and villages, and one frequently sees notices on church walls to the effect that it is forbidden to play pelota against them.--E. MAIN: _Cities and Sights of Spain._ Are there any questions that you would like to ask about pelota after reading this explanation? Do you feel that you would need to know more about it before trying to play? If so, remember to make your own treatment of the following subjects complete enough to satisfy a child in the Philippines, who knows no more about marbles than you do about pelota. =Exercise 130.=--Tell how to play baseball; football; checkers; dominoes; basket ball; marbles; tag; hide-and-seek; drop the handkerchief; any game peculiar to your neighborhood. Explain how a field-day is conducted. What is a handicap? How do little girls play keep house? What do you mean by "playing Indians"? =Exercise 131.=--I. Following the model below, give good instructions for learning how to swim, to sail a boat, to ride a bicycle, to drive, to shoot a rifle, a revolver, to fish, to run a sewing machine, to paddle a canoe, to ride horseback, to go on snowshoes. Use a diagram, if necessary, and give all the information you yourself would like to have in beginning a new process, mentioning mistakes usually made by beginners and telling how to avoid them. II. Tell as well as you can how to bandage a cut, how to treat a burn, how to make a road, how to lay asphalt, brick, or macadam pavements, how to shoe a horse. The first thing in learning to skate is to be sure that your skates are properly attached to your foot. If you fasten them on with straps, do not pull the buckle too tight, as this stops the circulation of the blood and may end in frozen toes; if by clamps, see that they are very firmly fastened, or the skate may be wrenched off in some sudden movement, giving you a fall. Also be sure that the blades are sharp, as it is very hard to skate with dull blades. After you have attended to these matters, one of the best ways to begin is to skate with some one who is strong enough to hold you up, or if you cannot arrange this, to push a chair in front of you, until you have confidence enough to go alone. The feet are placed at right angles to each other with the toes turned out and the body bent slightly forward. Each foot is then raised alternately and set down slightly on the inside edge. It slides forward of its own accord and this motion is increased by pushing on the other foot, which is at right angles to your forward movement and so does not slide. You should keep your feet perfectly level when raised and set down, turning the forward foot a little on the outer edge as it slides, and keeping the other foot turned to the inside edge. A great help in keeping your balance is to swing your arms across your chest, with each forward slide, to the opposite side from the foot which is advancing. Never look at your feet, as it is almost impossible to keep your balance when doing so. Look straight in front of you at a spot about level with your eyes. There are various ways of stopping yourself. One is to dig the heel of your skate in the ice and turn the other foot sidewise. Another is to direct your course around a circle and to stop your forward pushing; but perhaps the best way is to turn your toes in, thus putting the line of your skate across the direction of your forward movement. Try to take as long strokes as possible and not to use the right leg more than the left, keeping your stroke steady and even. Always lean a little forward in ordinary skating and far forward if you wish to go fast. It is a good thing for beginners to force themselves to turn the advancing foot on the outer edge of the skate. It is a little more difficult to keep your balance in this way, but if once you become fixed in the habit of using the inner edge only, you will never be able to do any fancy or figure skating. =82. Exposition of Abstract Ideas.=--All the exercises in explanation you have had thus far have been with regard to simple, material things, that is, things you can touch or see. There are, however, very many subjects which need clear and accurate explanation, but which deal with abstract ideas, with principles, or with emotions. These are much harder to write of than material things, largely because it is harder to think of them quite clearly in your own mind. This is not because you do not have all the information you need, but because you have never tried to think out clearly and analyze the knowledge that you have. For instance, if some one should ask you, What is cheerfulness? although you would feel that you knew perfectly well what that quality is, you might have some difficulty in expressing it. =83. Exposition by Example.=--There are many ways to bring out the meaning of an abstract term. One good device is the use of examples. If it is someone in your family who asks you the question, you can give at once a good idea of what cheerfulness is by saying, "Aunt Kate is a cheerful person." But if you are speaking to some one who does not know your Aunt Kate, you must then proceed to describe the quality in her which you call cheerfulness. You will find this use of example a very convenient method of exposition. Another device is comparison with something that is similar but not quite the same. In explaining the exact difference between the two you define the subject of your exposition. For instance, suppose you are asked by a child to explain the meaning of _parsimony_. You can take a word which he knows, like _saving_ or _economy_, and by showing the difference between the two, you can give him a clear notion of the meaning, explaining that economy is wise and reasonable saving of expense, and parsimony is foolish and exaggerated saving. The following paragraph shows the use of this method, the author comparing _cheerfulness_ to _mirth_. I have always preferred cheerfulness to mirth. The latter I consider as an act, the former as a habit of the mind. Mirth is short and transient, cheerfulness fixed and permanent. Those are often raised into the greatest transports of mirth who are subject to the greatest depressions of melancholy. On the contrary, cheerfulness, though it does not give the mind such an exquisite gladness, prevents us from falling into any depths of sorrow. Mirth is like a flash of lightning that breaks through a gloom of clouds and glitters for a moment. Cheerfulness keeps up a kind of daylight in the mind and fills it with a steady and perpetual serenity.--JOSEPH ADDISON: _The Spectator._ =Exercise 132.=--Using this device of comparison, and adding to it examples, try to explain the following subjects:-- 1. Courage. Compare with rashness or foolhardiness, using as example the character of Hobson as compared with that of a man who goes over the Niagara Falls in a barrel. 2. Joy. Compare with contentment, using as example a mother perfectly contented with her home and children, who is suddenly overjoyed by a heroic deed of a son. 3. Perseverance. Compare with obstinacy, using as examples a hen sitting patiently till her chicks are hatched out; and another sitting week after week on china eggs. 4. Extravagance. Compare with liberality, using as example a man who gives away so much to strangers that he has not enough left to care for his family. 5. Industry. Compare with drudgery, using as examples a man who carries stone for road-mending, and the military punishment of making an offender carry stones from one side of the road to another. =84. Exposition by Repetition.=--Another good method of explaining an abstract idea is to repeat in several different ways your first statement or definition. First, you define your subject as accurately as possible, by telling to what kind or order of thing it belongs, and then by pointing out differences between this individual example and others of the same kind. For instance, you are asked by a child to define a snob. First, you give some general idea of the meaning of the term by saying, "A snob is a vulgar person with bad manners." But there are vulgar persons with bad manners who who are not in the least snobs, so that after stating the general order of the persons to which a snob belongs, you must separate him from all other varieties of that class. You go on, therefore, "He pays a foolish and exaggerated respect to social position and money, and cannot understand that a noble character has any value in a poor or uncultivated person." You have now given a general definition of your subject, and one good way to proceed with your explanation is, as stated above, by means of repetition in other words of your first statement, thus:-- A real snob values the opinion of an ignorant rich person more than that of an intelligent poor one. He is fawning and meanly polite to influential men, and rude and overbearing to those who have no recognized position. A snob will run hat in hand to open a door for a wealthy woman of rank, and will not give a helping hand to a poor woman who has fallen down. This sort of repetition serves to make perfectly clear the idea involved in your first statement. =85. Exposition by Contrast.=--A further device in explanation is contrast, showing the ways in which the subject of your exposition differs from its opposite. The explanation of the snob might be continued by contrasting him with a perfect gentleman, thus bringing out more clearly the offensive qualities. Or, you might go back to the sort of comparison you used in explaining courage, perseverance, etc., and compare the snob to a person thoroughly rude, a boor, showing how he differs: the snob is rude only to people who, he thinks, have no means of punishing him for it; whereas a boor is rude to every one. =Exercise 133.=--1. Bearing in mind these two new methods for explanation (repetition and contrast), as well as the methods previously explained (comparison and examples), explain the use and value of the study of geography, arithmetic, history, manual training, music, drawing, gymnasium work, military drill, sewing, reading aloud, spelling, a foreign language. 2. Explain (as if to a boy or girl younger than you, who asks, "What is it for?") the purpose and value of the following:-- A debating society; a literary club; a nature study club; a "Do as you would be done by" association; amateur theatricals; athletic contests; an aquarium; zoological gardens; city parks; public libraries; foreign travel; picture galleries. =86. Exposition by a Figure of Speech.=--One of the most forcible and graceful means of exposition is by the development of a figure of speech,--a simile or metaphor. I consider the human soul without education like marble in the quarry, which shows none of its inherent beauties until the skill of the polisher fetches out the colors, makes the surface shine, and discovers every ornamental cloud, spot, and vein that runs through the body of it. Education, after the same manner, when it works upon a noble mind, draws out to view every latent virtue and perfection, which without such helps are never able to make their appearance.... Aristotle tells us that a statue lies hid in a block of marble, and that the art of the statuary only clears away superfluous matter and removes the rubbish. The figure is in the stone; the sculptor only finds it. What sculpture is to a block of marble, education is to a human soul. The philosopher, the saint, the hero, the wise, the good, or the great man, very often lie hid and concealed in a plebeian, which a proper education might have disinterred and brought to light.--JOSEPH ADDISON: _The Spectator._ =Exercise 134.=--I. Proverbs are really only figures of speech, and explanation of these should be based to some degree on the model above. Try to explain fully, as if to your younger brother or sister, the true meaning of any of the following expressions, using all the devices for exposition which you have been studying. Think carefully before you begin to write and make sure that you fully grasp the real meaning. You will find examples and anecdotes illustrating your point particularly useful in this sort of explanation. 1. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. 2. Don't count your chickens before they are hatched. 3. A rolling stone gathers no moss. 4. The more haste the less speed. 5. Birds of a feather flock together. 6. Better an empty house than a bad tenant. 7. Make hay while the sun shines. 8. Enough is as good as a feast. 9. A burned child dreads the fire. 10. Strike while the iron is hot. 11. He laughs best who laughs last. 12. He that lives in a glass house should not throw stones. 13. Necessity is the mother of invention. II. Expound in the same way the following quotations, as if you were trying to give a full realization of all that they mean to some one who sees them for the first time and does not quite understand them:-- 1. Sweet are the uses of adversity.--SHAKSPERE. 2. He who loses wealth loses much; he who loses a friend loses more; but he who loses his courage loses all.--CERVANTES. 3. He who knows most, grieves most for wasted time.--DANTE. 4. The wicked flee when no man pursueth. 5. A soft answer turneth away wrath. 6. A good name is rather to be chosen than great riches. 7. Books are the best things well used; abused, among the worst.--EMERSON. 8. Charity is a virtue of the heart, not of the hands. =Exercise 135.=--I. Try to explain what Washington's Birthday means to us; St. Valentine's Day; April Fool's Day; Commencement Day at a school; Arbor Day; Thanksgiving Day; Christmas; New Year's; Labor Day; Fourth of July; Decoration Day. An exposition of this sort may be very straightforward and simple, only a paragraph long, or it may be as elaborate a composition as you can make it; but in either case you should try to express sincerely the deep feeling which underlies most of these festivals. Choose some favorite of yours in the above list and try to express why you are fond of it and impressed by it. II. Following the same method, look up the facts in regard to some foreign customs, and write an explanation of what you imagine to be the feeling underlying All Souls' Day in Paris; the pilgrimage to Mecca of the Mohammedans; the pilgrimage in India to the Ganges; cherry-blossoming time in Japan; Primrose Day in England; the Fourteenth of July in France; and other festivals of which you can learn. CHAPTER XIV ARGUMENT =87. General Principle.=--There is probably no form of expression with which you are more practically acquainted than argumentation, both from using it yourself and from having it employed on you. If you go to college, you will study the theory of it in connection with logic and you will have a great many hard names to learn and a complicated system to understand; but, as a matter of fact, you find now that if you greatly care to have something done or not done, you will instinctively find reasons for supporting your views. You did this even as a little child, when you wished to do something your parents did not think advisable, or to be excused from doing something they desired you to do. Although this may be the first time you have consciously thought of argument as a form of composition, you must have had a great deal of practical experience in it. It has been pointed out several times in this book that the very first thing to consider in any form of expression is the reader to whom you address yourself. Owing to the frequent practical use you have made of argument in conversation, this will be easy for you to remember when you now come to write it. That is, you are so used to making your arguments suit the persons you are trying to persuade, that you do it instinctively. Even a little child puts forth different reasons for action when trying to persuade his mother from those which he would put forth when trying to persuade a playfellow; and you feel, without the necessity of stopping to think at all, that you should use different arguments with your mother from those which would be likely to convince your teacher. But the next step in composing, which has been mentioned throughout the book, is more necessary in argumentation than in any other form of expression. You must not only have an outline in mind for what you are about to say, but that outline should be written, and almost as much time and thought should be given to it as to the composition itself; for clear thought is the great essential in argumentation, and a carefully prepared outline is the greatest help to clear thought. =88. The Introduction.=--There are three parts to every outline for a discussion or argument. First comes _the introduction_, or statement of the subject. To write this clearly, you need to remember the principles of exposition, because often the introduction to an argument is merely a clear exposition of the subject. It is very necessary to be perfectly clear in this introduction, so that your reader may have a definite idea of what it is you are about to discuss. Sometimes people discuss at great length, only to find that from neglect to state the subject clearly they have been arguing about quite different questions. For instance, suppose that the following subject is selected for a discussion: _Pupils under fifteen years of age should not be taken out of school to earn money for their families._ The statement and full exposition of the subject in the introduction to the argument should exclude cases where there is no other possible source of income for the family; otherwise you and your opponent may be discussing a question about which you really agree. In your introduction, therefore, give first a perfectly plain statement of your subject,--what are the generally admitted facts about it (facts which even your opponent must admit), and what it is you wish to prove. =Exercise 136.=--In the following subjects for discussion, see if you can pick out the place where the statement is indefinite and might lead to misunderstanding. Write one paragraph on each, defining, limiting, and making clear the subject as you see it, and another on the generally admitted facts in the case as distinct from the points which are debatable. 1. _Animals in captivity are better off than in their natural state._ What kind of captivity? What kind of animals? What do you mean by being "better off"--merely "healthier" or "happier" or "more secure"? 2. _A boy's club should not study history._ What kind of boys? What kind of history? Is history taught in the schools? Do these boys go to school? 3. _All girls should learn to be housekeepers._ What do you mean by "housekeeper"? Do you mean that they should learn nothing else? 4. _It is not harmful for children to read fairy tales._ How about nervous, excitable children who cannot sleep after a fairy story? How about dreadful tales of witches and hobgoblins that make the healthiest child afraid of the dark? 5. _It is wrong to kill animals._ Do you include noxious and dangerous ones? Or animals used for food? =89. The Reasons.=--The second part of your argument consists of the statement of the various proofs and reasons you advance to make people think and feel as you do about your subject. It is well to divide your subject into several main divisions or points, and take these up one by one; also to set down separately your main arguments. These should be arranged in what is called "climactic order,"--that is, the more unimportant reasons first and the better and stronger ones after, leading up to the argument which you think is your strongest one. There are two main divisions of argument as reasons in favor of something. First, there are the proofs directly for your side of the question, and then there are the proofs against your opponent's argument. The first is called direct proof; the second is called refutation. Suppose now that you wish to persuade the principal of your school to grant a holiday on Washington's Birthday. Your introduction states the subject very briefly, since in the nature of things there can be almost no possibility of misunderstanding. It might be well to mention here that nobody doubts the value of vacations in school life if wisely selected, and that what you wish to prove is that it would be a wise selection to give the school a holiday on the twenty-second of February. The body of your argument comes next, and you might begin by stating that a holiday would be beneficial to school work. Support the statement by pointing out, first, that the twenty-second of February comes in the midst of a long stretch of uninterrupted school, just at the time when both pupils and teachers are tired and would do better work after a rest; second, that the weather is apt to be brisk and bracing, and such as would tempt every one to be out of doors. Your next general argument might be a statement of the value of honoring in every way possible the great men of the nation, and of not allowing them to be forgotten. Three good reasons as proofs of this statement are, first, that we owe them great gratitude for what they have done for us; second, that they furnish the best examples for our own action; third, that they make us patriotic by making us proud of our country. Having established the desirability of honoring our great men, your next need is to show that granting a holiday to school children does honor them. To prove this, you might make a word picture of the great importance which a holiday has in a school; how every one looks forward to it, plans for it, enjoys it, and remembers it,--so that it is felt that the occasion of a holiday must be a very notable man. Show how even the little children are impressed with the greatness of Washington's name (because of the holiday) before they know much about him, so that they are all prepared to realize instinctively how prominent he was in our history when they come to study about him. See if you cannot show how much more valuable is an instinctive _feeling_ like this than any amount of mere _knowledge_ of what we owe to him, illustrating by the affection a child feels for a relative--a cousin or an aunt--whom he has always known, compared with his affection for a relative whom he learns to know after he has grown up. A second reason to prove the advisability of granting a holiday to honor the memory of a great man is based on one of the most universally acceptable of proofs. It is good to do a thing when other people do it and always have done it. This is usually one of the first proofs which come into your mind, as is shown by the fact that the average child, on being refused something, says immediately, "Why, all the other boys have it!" So your second reason is that in our own country and abroad no better way has been found to celebrate an anniversary than to grant a holiday on that date. Cite Christmas, the Fourth of July, the Fourteenth of July in France, etc., collecting as many instances as you can, from all sources. This is a very important form of proof, although it should rarely be placed first in your argument. Now, having shown that great men should be honored, and that holidays are a good form of honoring them, you need to prove that Washington should be specially selected from among our great men for such honors. There are various reasons you might cite here, a few of which are that he was the greatest of the founders of our nation; that his private character was noble and dignified; that he was the first American to receive world-wide recognition; that we might not be a nation without him; that, at the present day, we need more than ever to look back to his integrity and devotion to the patriotic cause, etc. You have now given enough proofs to make up the main body of your discussion. The end of an argument is called the conclusion, and sums up in a brief way, but as forcibly as possible, the main proofs, and the way in which they lead to the conclusion you desire. =90. The Outline.=--The outline of the argument which has just been sketched for you would be set down in a form something like this. A holiday should be granted to this school on Washington's Birthday. A. Introduction. It is taken for granted that holidays are desirable at times; we are to prove in this case that the twenty-second of February is a good time for a holiday. B. Proof. I. It would be beneficial to school work, 1. because the day comes at a time when a break in the routine is needed; 2. because it comes usually in good winter weather, when outdoor life is possible. II. It is desirable to honor the great men of a nation, 1. because of our gratitude to them; 2. because they set a good example to us; 3. because they help us to be patriotic. III. A holiday is a suitable means for honoring the memory of a great man, 1. because it is an important occasion for all pupils, and fixes their attention on the reason for granting it; 2. because all over the world holidays are given and always have been given as the best way of making a day memorable. IV. Washington should be selected for this honor, 1. because he was the founder of the nation; 2. because he was the first well-known American; 3. because he was the first president, etc. C. Conclusion. I. Summing up of the arguments. II. Statement of the conclusion. =91. The Plea.=--This is an outline of that form of argument which is sometimes called a _plea_; an argument, that is, which aims to induce somebody to take action. =Exercise 137.=--Make out similar outlines, and write pleas, addressed to the school authorities, on the following subjects. Take the side that appeals to you. 1. The weekly holiday should be on Monday instead of Saturday. (Or "should _not_ be," according to your convictions.) 2. The summer vacation should be shorter, in order that the winter vacation might be longer. 3. Gymnasium work, or participation in outdoor sports, should be compulsory for boys and girls alike. 4. Music should not be taught in the schools. 5. One foreign language should be compulsory in American public schools. 6. All pupils, even those who have no natural taste for it, should be made to study good literature. 7. Every one in the class should be forced to join a debating society. 8. There should be a common school library, rather than a collection of books in each class room. 9. It is better to have one long school session with a short recess than two shorter sessions with an hour or more for lunch. =92. Other Forms.=--There are a number of arguments which can scarcely be treated like _pleas_, since their object is not to induce somebody else to take some action, but to support the truth or justice of some statement. =Exercise 138.=--In treating the subjects given below, write as though you were defending the statement against an opponent. Or the subjects may be taken as topics for debate by the class, one half taking one side, and the other half attacking their position. 1. Tennis is a better game than golf. (Define what you mean by "better." Better for whom; or for what results?) 2. City life is better than country life. 3. Summer (autumn, winter, spring) is the best time of the year. 4. The best method to prepare for a hard examination is to study hard up to the last minute before you take it. 5. Children of foreigners in this country should learn only English and _not_ their parent language. 6. It is better to live near the sea than in the mountains. 7. It is easier to do school work at home than in the class room. 8. Swimming is the best form of exercise. 9. Little children should not be taught to believe in Santa Claus, in fairies, or in giants. 10. Novel reading has a bad influence. 11. Every one should be forced to learn to dance, to swim, to sail a boat, to skate, to ride, to learn a trade, etc. 12. Bonfires should be allowed in the street on the evenings of festival days of various kinds. 13. Pupils should report the wrong-doings of others to the teacher. 14. Books should be furnished free by public schools. 15. Composition is a more important study than arithmetic. 16. Alms should never be given to beggars. 17. No examination should be over an hour in length. 18. A city library is as important as city schools. 19. The climate of our part of the country is more conducive to good health than the climate of the tropics. Another form of argument or persuasion consists in finding reasons and stating them eloquently, in support of a personal taste or opinion. The same general outline is used as in the plea, but the argument is apt to be less impersonal. =Exercise 139.=--Arrange your reasons in their logical order and write most at length upon those which are most important. Construct your argument as though in answer to the remark, "Why do you feel that way? I don't agree with you at all." 1. I had rather be a doctor (lawyer, merchant, cook, teacher, musician, farmer, etc.) than anything else. 2. I had rather be a sailor than a soldier. 3. If I were not an American, I had rather be English (French, German, Italian, Norwegian, Cuban, etc.) than anything else. 4. If I did not live here, I had rather live in ---- than in any other state; in ---- than in any other city. 5. If I could always remain a certain age, I should prefer to be ---- years old. 6. Of all my studies I think ---- is the most valuable. 7. If I were not myself, I should prefer to be ----. 8. Of all the historical characters I have studied I should prefer to be ----. 9. The best book I ever read is ----. 10. I like poetry better than prose. 11. Unlike most people, I like a rainy day (a windy day, foggy weather) better than a fair day. 12. I had rather have a cat (a dog, a horse, a rabbit, etc.) than any other pet. Many of the above subjects can be treated in letter forms as pleas. This is a very good exercise in writing easily and familiarly upon a careful and well-constructed outline. For instance, you might take the abstract subject that every one should learn to swim. Make it personal and write a letter to your parents, asking to be allowed to learn to swim. Draw up your outline with no less care for a familiar letter than for a formal argument. Take pains to try to imagine the arguments which would be used on the other side and bring to bear all the counterproof you can think of. Your parents would naturally be anxious about the danger involved in your learning to swim. Oppose to this the ability to save yourself in the water all the rest of your life after you have learned. They may maintain that you will never have any occasion to swim, since you do not live near the water. You can oppose to this the great frequency of journeys taken on or partly on water. They might think it would take too much time and strength from your studies. Oppose to this the fact that you must have exercise of some sort, that you work better after you have been in the water, and that your general health will be better, etc. CHAPTER XV SECRETARIAL WORK =93.= In nearly all schools there are several organizations--a debating club, a current events club, an athletic association, a branch society for the prevention of cruelty to animals, etc.,--and in all these organizations there is need of a special form of composition, called secretarial writing, because the secretary does most (although not all) of it. While it may seem complicated and unnatural at first sight because of the number of forms fixed by tradition for every occasion, it is really easier than any other writing you have been studying, since the very fact that the forms are fixed makes invention, charm, or force of style on your part unnecessary. Perfect and unmistakable clearness, accuracy, completeness, and an observance of certain quite rigidly fixed formulæ are the essentials of good secretarial work. In the formation of an organization, the first writing to be done is the composition of notices (see page 130), sent or posted, announcing a meeting to be held for the purpose of forming a club. This first notice and all others announcing later meetings are to be written according to the general plan described on pages 130-132. At the first meeting, a chairman or president and a secretary are usually elected, and a committee chosen to draw up a constitution which shall be presented to the club at the next meeting. All constitutions are written along the same general lines. A good general model for a simple constitution will be found in the Appendix. The committee precedes the proposed constitution with a paragraph something like the following:-- To the Members of the ---- Club: Your committee, appointed at a meeting for the organization of the ---- Club, respectfully submit the following articles and by-laws, with the recommendation that they be adopted by this Club. During a meeting the secretary should take accurate and careful notes on what occurs, and as soon as possible afterward should write his report of the proceedings of the meeting. This report or record is called the "minutes of the meeting," and the reading aloud of the minutes is always the first business of each meeting. There should be no attempt made in writing the minutes to make them original or interesting. They should be perfectly accurate and complete. The content of speeches made is not reported (in ordinary minutes), nor are any comments made on the spirit or events of the meeting. A plain statement of what took place officially is all that is desirable. The place, date, and time of the meeting are set down first, and the name of the presiding officer. Then it is stated that the minutes were read and approved. After this the official events of the meeting are set down in the order of their occurrence. At the end the hour of adjournment is noted and the date fixed for the next meeting. WEST NEWTON, ILL., PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 3. The Literary Society of this school held its regular monthly meeting in the general assembly hall, on February 3, 1906, at 2 P.M., the president, Robert Wheeler, in the chair (_or_ presiding). After the meeting was called to order the minutes of the last meeting were read by the secretary and were approved. The president then addressed the Society briefly upon the need of new books for the school library, representing to the members the suitability of the Literary Society's taking some action in the matter. It was moved by Miss Mary Smith that the Literary Society give an entertainment in order to raise money for this purpose. The motion was carried by unanimous vote of the Society. The president appointed a committee, consisting of Miss Mary Smith, Chairman, Mr. Clark Sturgis, and Miss Helen Brown, to decide on the nature of the entertainment, and to report to the Society at its next regular meeting. On the motion of Mr. John Peters, it was voted that the Principal of the school, Miss Wheeler, should be made an honorary member of the Society. The literary programme was then carried out. Mr. Robert Peters and Miss Ellen Camp recited a dialogue, entitled "After the Runaway." Miss Edith Randing read an original short story called "The White Blackbird." Mr. Elbert Huntington delivered an argument in favor of shorter school hours and more home study. At 4 P.M. the meeting adjourned to meet at 2 P.M. on March 4, 1906. PETER HACKETT, _Secretary_. After the writing of the minutes, the next duty of the secretary is to see that the members of committees appointed are notified of that fact and are told who is their chairman. Some such form as the following is generally used:-- PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 3, WEST NEWTON, ILL., February 4, 1906. MR. CLARK STURGIS, DEAR SIR,-- At the last regular meeting of the Literary Society of this school, held February 3, 1906, you were appointed a member of the Entertainment Committee, of which Miss Mary Smith is chairman. Yours respectfully, PETER HACKETT, _Secretary_. =Exercise 140.=--1. Make out a constitution and by-laws for a debating society, an athletic association, a nature study club, a reading club, a literary society, a walking club, a sewing society, a chess club. 2. Write minutes for the regular meeting of any one of these organizations. 3. Write letters of notifications to committees appointed at these meetings. There are usually several permanent committees to whom are regularly referred matters falling in their provinces. Some of these committees are the financial committee, the entertainment committee, the membership committee, the programme committee, etc. When the club votes that some question be referred to one of these committees, it is the duty of the secretary to write a _notice of reference_ in some such form as this:-- THE MUSICAL CLUB OF THE CAXTON SCHOOL. OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY, CHICAGO, ILL., May 23, 1906. MR. ELMER HENDERSON, Chairman of Membership Committee, Musical Club of the Caxton School. DEAR SIR,-- At the last meeting of the Musical Club, the question of the admission to the Club of three pupils from the lower grades was referred to your committee. They are Henry Appleton, in the Fifth Grade, Mary Monkhouse, in the Sixth Grade, and Parsons Latham, in the Fourth Grade. The respective teachers of the above-mentioned pupils represent them as being sufficiently advanced in the study of music to become useful members of our Club. Your committee is requested to look into the matter and report at the next regular meeting. Yours very truly, HELEN IRVING, _Secretary_. The answer of the committee would be as follows:-- CHICAGO, ILL., May 28, 1906. To the Musical Club of the Caxton School: The Membership Committee, to whom on the 23d day of the present month was referred the question of the admission to the Musical Club of three pupils from the lower grades, with instructions to ascertain their proficiency in music, respectfully report that they have given due attention to the matter referred to them and find:-- That Henry Appleton plays the violin well enough to play a second part in the quartet. That Mary Monkhouse has a good voice and reads music at sight fluently. That Parsons Latham is as yet too uncertain in his mastery of the flute to take a part in our orchestra. Your committee therefore recommends that the first two be admitted to membership, but not the last. Respectfully submitted, For the Committee, ELMER HENDERSON, _Chairman_. =Exercise 141.=--1. Write a notice of reference to a committee on entertainment, asking them to decide on a programme for the annual meeting. Answer as from the committee. 2. Write a notice of reference to a committee on finance, asking them to look into the cost of renting a hall for the meeting of a dramatic society. Answer. 3. Write a notice of reference to a committee on finance, asking them to report upon the probable cost of a set of Dickens for the school library. Answer. A club sometimes wishes to send a member as delegate to an assembly or convention of similar clubs. When he arrives at the convention, he needs something to show that he has been regularly elected a delegate, and this is furnished him by the secretary in the following form:-- COLUMBUS, OHIO, March 30, 1906. To the Thirteenth Annual Convention of the School Branches of the S. P. C. A.: This certifies that James Harrow has been duly elected a delegate from the Columbus S. P. C. A. to the Thirteenth Annual Convention of the School Branches of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. HENRY SWIFT, _Secretary_. Such a letter is called "the delegate's credentials." All the usual duties of a secretary, so far as his writing goes, have now been stated, but there are other occasions for secretarial writing and for the use of set and customary forms, which arise in connection with the duties of other officers. The president's report is usually annual, and is presented to the club when he retires to make way for the new president. This report is less formal than other secretarial writing. It is supposed to present in a clear and condensed form a picture of the activities of the Club during the year. The treasurer should keep the club informed frequently and in detail of the state of its finances. A customary form for the beginning of his report is:-- The undersigned, Treasurer of the Musical Club, respectfully submits the following report for the month ending May 15, 1906:-- The balance on hand at the beginning of the month was three dollars and forty cents. There has been received from all sources during the month two dollars and sixty cents. During the month the expenses amounted to four dollars, leaving a balance in the treasury of two dollars. The annexed statement will show in detail the receipts and expenditures. ROBERT HARRIS, _Treasurer_. The most difficult form of secretarial writing is the drafting of preambles and resolutions. These are used for many purposes: to convey the thanks of the club to a person who has done something for it, to express condolence with the family of a member who has died, to send good wishes to a member leaving the club on account of change of residence, to voice the sentiments of the club on some matter of public interest. The preamble or first part (which is not always used) follows in general a fixed form, but to the composing of resolutions applies all that was said of the writing of petitions. They call for a graceful style, a good and melodious choice of words, and they aim to produce a favorable effect on the reader. Following is an example of a preamble and resolutions:-- WHEREAS the Reverend George S. Stirling has honored this Club by appearing before us and delivering an address, and whereas this club feels deeply the profit and pleasure it gained from his speech, therefore, be it RESOLVED, That we place on record our deep appreciation of the honor which Mr. Stirling did us, and our conviction that he has profoundly influenced for the better all who heard him. RESOLVED, That we tender to him our warmest thanks for consenting to address us. RESOLVED, That a copy of these resolutions be sent to Mr. Stirling. The resolutions would be sent to Mr. Stirling in a letter like the following:-- REVEREND GEORGE S. STIRLING, DEAR SIR,-- At a meeting of the ______ Club, held ______, the following resolutions were unanimously adopted:-- Whereas, the Reverend George S. Stirling, etc. ______ GEORGE OLDHAM, HENRY MILLER, _Secretary_. _President_. CHAPTER XVI VERSIFICATION =94.= Poetry is the most beautiful and attractive form of writing, and in the highest sense is by far the most difficult, since it is not only complicated in form, but is highly emotional and stirs deeply the feelings of the reader. To write real poetry is, therefore, out of the reach of most of us, but to write verse is not so difficult as it is usually thought, and it is an excellent exercise in learning control of words. Verse making gives skill in manipulating language and, because of the need for ingenuity and flexibility in sentence construction and for variety in the choice of words, it helps in writing prose. More than this, you will find that some practice in managing verse-forms yourself will enable you to understand and admire more intelligently the poetry you read. I wander'd lonely as a cloud That floats on high o'er vales and hills; When all at once I saw a crowd, A host of golden daffodils, Beside the lake, beneath the trees, Fluttering and dancing in the breeze. What is the difference between the sentences in this extract and ordinary prose sentences? If you read them over aloud, you will see that they are constructed on a definite plan. You notice that, as in pronouncing aloud every word of more than one syllable, you accent one of them more than the others (_páragraph, assúming_), just so you accent some syllables in each line of the verse. Your voice naturally falls four times, thus, "I _wán_der'd _lóne_ly _ás_ a _cloúd_" and in every line it falls the same number of times. The fact that there is a fixed and regular number of accents in each line makes it verse and not prose, and to write correct verse you must keep to a regular recurrence of accents in your lines. A line to which you naturally give three accents is said to have three _feet_; four accents, four _feet_, etc. A foot or pattern of syllables which is repeated to make up the line consists of an accented syllable and one or more unaccented ones. The foot is named according to the arrangement of syllables in it, but it is not necessary for you now to know the names, which come from the Greek and are hard to remember. Four of the best-known feet are mentioned here, with examples. The accented syllable is marked ´ and the unaccented [)]. [)I] wánde[)r']d lónel[)y] ás [)a] cloúd. _Iambic_ [)´]. Téll m[)e] nót [)in] moúrnf[)u]l númb[)e]rs. _Trochaic_ [´)]. B[)u]t [)we] steádf[)as]tl[)y] gázed [)o]n t[)h]e fáce th[)a]t w[)a]s déad. _Anapestic_ [) ) ´]. Bírd [)o]f t[)h]e wíld[)er]n[)e]ss, blíthes[)o]me a[)n]d cúmb[)e]rl[)e]ss. _Dactylic_ [´ ) )]. These names refer to the arrangement of syllables in the foot. There are other names that refer to the number of times the foot is repeated in the line. These also come from the Greek and are long and difficult, but are no more necessary for you to learn now than the names of feet. If you can pick out the arrangement of syllables which make up a foot, and the number of feet in a line, you can make a pattern for yourself out of any piece of poetry. The names and examples of the most common meters are here given for reference, however. 1. Three feet to the line, three-accent line or trimeter. H[)i]s voíce [)no] móre [)is] heárd. 2. Four feet to the line, four-accent line or tetrameter. Buíld [)me] straíght, [)O] wórth[)y] Mást[)er]. 3. Five feet to the line, five-accent line or pentameter. [)At] lást, w[)i]th héad [)e]rect, th[)u]s críed [)a]loúd. 4. Six feet to the line, six-accent line or hexameter. T[)h]e Ny['m]phs [)in] tángl[)e]d shádes of t['w]ilig[)ht] thíck[)et]s mou['r]n. Turn to any collection of poetry, and see how many of the feet and meters you can recognize. You will find, although the accent gradually recurs after a regular number of syllables, that it does not invariably do so; but you will also notice that this does not affect the accenting of the line. For instance, you give three accents to the line, "And I would that my tongue could utter," where there are ten syllables, but you also give three to the line, "Break, break, break." You must learn, therefore, to distinguish one variety of meter from another by the number of times your voice naturally makes an accent in reading it aloud; but for your own verse making it is a simpler and better rule to arrange your line so that there is the same number of syllables between each accent. You will find this a very general rule in all poetry, and it is a good guide for beginners. You can take, then, any piece of poetry which you admire and make from it a pattern for yourself. Suppose you wish to write a verse describing a rainy day. You turn to Whittier's _Snow-Bound_ as a suitable model:-- The sun that brief December day Rose cheerless over hills of gray, And, darkly circled, gave at noon A sadder light than waning moon. Reading the lines aloud, you see that they have four accents or feet, and each foot has two syllables, the second of which is regularly accented. Marking the accented and unaccented syllables as shown above, and then taking away the words, you have left a pattern by which you can test your own lines, namely u -- u -- u -- u --. Now, if you wish to write in metrical or verse form the statement that the rain resounding on the roof sounded as though a great many little drums were being beaten, you might write,-- The rain drummed loud as though the elves Were playing soldier. Your idea is now completely stated, and if you were writing prose you could stop there; but on consulting your pattern you see that you need one accented syllable to finish the last foot you have written, and one more foot to finish your last line. In your effort to add these three syllables, arranged in words which will complete the picture your lines suggest, you will readily hit upon some such phrase as _overhead_, _on the roof_, _in a crowd_, or _noisily_. You will then have written two lines of correct verse; but in comparing them with the first two lines of _Snow-Bound_, your model, you will notice one difference. Of the last words in each pair of lines from _Snow-Bound_ all but the first consonants are the same and have the same sound. These are called rhyming words. Nearly all verse rhymes. Words are considered to rhyme when they have the same accented vowel sound, different consonants preceding the accented vowel sound, and the same sounds following the accented vowel sound. One stumbling-block in the way of beginners in verse making is the fact that English words are spelled so differently from the way they are pronounced. Do not be misled by this. Remember that it is the accented vowel sound that must be the same in both words, and test your rhymes by saying them aloud. Thus _vessel_ and _wrestle_, _despair_ and _bare_, _gaze_ and _bays_, _bird_ and _heard_, rhyme perfectly, although they look so very different, but _door_ and _boor_ are not good rhymes, although they look just alike, nor are _trough_ and _bough___, and _through_ and _plough_. Rhymes usually occur at the end of lines, but not always, as in _Snow-Bound_, at the end of each pair of lines. Just as syllables are arranged in feet and feet are arranged in lines, so lines are arranged in stanzas. The shortest stanza is two lines rhymed. This is called a couplet. Poets themselves must fall, like those they sung, Deaf the praised ear, and mute the tuneful tongue. Somewhat more rarely, there are stanzas of three lines, called triplets, with all the lines rhyming. Dark, deep, and cold the current flows Unto the sea where no wind blows, Seeking the land which no one knows. The most common form of English verse is written in stanzas of four lines each. The rhymes may be arranged in all the combinations possible. The first and third and the second and fourth may rhyme, as in ballads:-- O Brignal banks are wild and fair, And Greta woods are green; And you may gather garlands there Would grace a summer queen. Or the first and fourth lines and the second and third may rhyme:-- Now rings the woodland loud and long, The distance takes a lovelier hue; And drowned in yonder living blue The lark becomes a sightless sound. Or the second and fourth lines may be the only ones to rhyme:-- He prayeth best who loveth best All things both great and small, For the dear God who loveth us He made and loveth all. In longer stanzas the rhymes may be arranged in almost any way, provided that they follow some regular plan. Notice, for instance, the arrangement of rhymes in Browning's well-known song:-- The year's at the spring And day's at the morn; Morning's at seven; The hillside's dew-pearled; The lark's on the wing; The snail's on the thorn: God's in his heaven-- All's right with the world. A convenient way of indicating briefly how the rhymes in a stanza are arranged is by the use of the letters of the alphabet: thus, a couplet would be said to have its rhymes arranged _a a_; a quatrain like the _Brignal banks_, _a b a b_; the stanza _Now rings_, _a b b a_. There are, of course, many other combinations of syllables in feet, of feet in lines, and of lines in stanzas than have been given here, but these are the most common forms and those that you will be most likely to see in your reading and to use in your verse making. =Exercise 142.=--I. Arrange the following in stanza form, letting yourself be guided by the recurrence of a regular number of feet in each line and by the rhyme. 1. Tiger, tiger, burning bright in the forests of the night, what immortal hand or eye could frame thy fearful symmetry? 2. The ship was cheer'd, the harbor clear'd, merrily did we drop below the kirk, below the hill, below the light-house top. The sun came up upon the left, out of the sea came he, and he shone bright and on the right went down into the sea. 3. We watched her breathing through the night, her breathing soft and low, as in her breast the wave of life kept heaving to and fro. Our very hopes belied our fears, our fears our hopes belied--we thought her dying when she slept and sleeping when she died. 4. Where the bee sucks, there suck I; in a cowslip's bell I lie; there I crouch when owls do cry. On the bat's wing I do fly after summer merrily. Merrily, merrily, shall I live now under the blossom that hangs on the bough. 5. I loved the brimming wave that swam through quiet meadows round the mill, the sleeping pool above the dam, the pools beneath it never still, the meal sacks on the whiten'd floor, the dark round of the dripping wheel, the very air around the door made misty with the floating meal. II. Complete the rhymes in the following:-- When I was sick and lay a-bed I had two pillows at my ---- And all my toys beside me lay To keep me happy all the ---- How do you like to go up in a swing Up in the air so blue! Oh, I do think it's the pleasantest ---- Ever a child can ---- Through all the pleasant meadow-side The grass grew shoulder high Till the shining scythes went far and ---- And cut it down to ----. The fight did last from break of day Till setting of the ---- For when they rang the evening bell The battle was scarce ---- In summer time in Breton The bells they sound so clear. Round both the shires they ring them In steeples far and ---- A happy noise to ---- An excellent exercise for training your ear is to have some one read verse aloud to you, leaving you to complete the rhymed lines. You have now learned a few simple rules about the construction of two or three of the most common forms of verse, and you may ask yourself what use you can make of them. One way in which you can employ verse is in writing a short story or incident. The simplest anecdote is often so set off by telling it in verse that its interest is doubled; and you will find this sort of familiar, conversational verse unexpectedly easy to write. One very good variety of story to tell in verse is the fable:-- Miss Grasshopper having sung All through summer, Found herself in sorry plight When the wind began to bite; Not a bit of grub or fly Met the little wanton's eye; So she wept for hunger sore At the Ant, her neighbor's door, Begging her just once to bend, And a little grain to lend Till warm weather came again. "I will pay you," cried she, then, "Ere next harvest, on my soul, Interest and principal." Now the Ant is not a lender. From that charge who needs defend her? "Tell me what you did last summer?" Said she to the beggar maid. "Day and night to every comer I was singing, I'm afraid." "Sing! Do tell! How entrancing! Well then, vagrant, off! be dancing!" =Exercise 143.=--See if you can complete _The Hare and the Tortoise_ from the beginning and the skeleton given below. How everybody laughed to hear The hare had planned a race Against the tortoise, patient, dull, And very slow of ----. The hare assured them one and all, "It's but that I may show That I can sleep till near the dusk And beat the -- u -- -- u -- ran like the wind And almost reached the goal, u -- u -- amid the hay And slept, the lazy ----! u -- u -- the hare still slept u -- u passed him by, u -- u -- u -- again It was too late to try To reach the goal, or win u -- The tortoise by my troth u -- u -- u steadiness u -- u -- u sloth. =Exercise 144.=--Try to put into verse, on this model, The Fox and the Grapes, The City Mouse and the Country Mouse, The Wolf and the Lamb, The Frog and the Stork, The Woodchopper and Death, The Goose that laid the Golden Eggs,--or any other fable you have known in prose. Sometimes it may be interesting to you to try to write a letter or to send an invitation in verse. Some of the greatest writers have amused themselves by making such playful use of verse in letters. Here is part of a letter written from India by Bishop Phillips Brooks to his little niece. Little Mistress Josephine, Tell me, have you ever seen Children half as queer as these Babies from across the seas? See their funny little fists, See the rings upon their wrists. One has very little clothes, One has jewels in her nose; And they all have silver bangles On their little heathen ankles. In their ears are curious things, Round their necks are beads and strings, And they jingle as they walk, And they talk outlandish talk: Do you want to know their names? One is called Jee Fingee Hames; One Buddhanda Arrich Bas, One Teehundee Hanki Sas. Aren't you glad then, little Queen, That your name is Josephine? That you live in Springfield, or Not at least in old Jeypore? That your Christian parents are John and Hattie, Pa and Ma? That you've an entire nose And no rings upon your toes? In a word, that Hat and you Do not have to be Hindu? =Exercise 145.=--1. Try writing a rhymed letter, describing an expedition in which you have taken part,--a railway journey, a picnic, a ride. Or write an invitation, from your class to the class below, to a spelling match, or entertainment you are giving. 2. Read _The One-Hoss Shay_, _John Gilpin's Ride_, _Lochinvar_, _The Legend of Bishop Hatto_, _The Falcon_--or any poem you know which tells a story, and try your own hand at turning into verse one of the stories you wrote in your study of narration. The uses of verse which have been pointed out as possible to you are not out of the question for any one who can write at all. This is verse making and not poetry. But there may be times when you find that you can say what you mean better in a few words of verse than in many of ordinary prose, that you can express some aspect of out of doors, or some sensation, more vividly in verse than in any other way. You will notice that words seem often to have a greater force and life in poetry than in prose, and if you make use of this quality, you will be writing real poetry. For instance, one day a third-grade class was asked to write a description of the conditions that morning in the woods near the school. It had rained and snowed the night before and everything was coated in ice. The wind was high and, shaking the branches violently, sent down a continuous shower of tiny pieces of ice, glistening in the sun and tinkling on the ice-covered snow. Many long compositions were written in the attempt to describe the effect such a day made on the observer; every one agreed that a little boy, eight years old, who wrote the following lines, had best expressed the singular spirit of the morning:-- The trees are all so silvery And the fairies dance around; They make a pretty tinkle As they step upon the ground. They dance upon the tree tops And dance upon the ground. Of course, that is not perfect verse, but it has a quality of real poetry in it. You cannot expect great results from your verse making, but you will certainly profit by some practice in managing meters. You will have a greater interest in the construction of the poetry you read, you will have greater ease in writing prose, and you may perhaps succeed in expressing some feeling of your own in a simple stanza which will be worth writing for its own sake. CHAPTER XVII PUNCTUATION =95. General Theory of Punctuation.=--Punctuation is a way of showing by various signs (or points) which words in a written composition bear a close relation to one another. Read, for example, the following passage:-- As Pandora raised the lid, the cottage grew very dark and dismal; a black cloud had swept over the sun, and seemed to have buried it alive. But Pandora, heeding nothing of all this, lifted the lid nearly upright, and looked inside. It seemed as if suddenly a swarm of winged insects brushed past her, taking flight out of the box, while at the same instant she heard a voice. It was that of Epimetheus, as if he were in pain. "Oh, I am stung!" cried he. "I am stung! Naughty Pandora! Why have you opened this wicked box?" The period at the end of the first sentence shows that all the words preceding it are to be taken together. Notice the similar use of the other periods. Notice the semicolon which is used to separate the two clauses of the first sentence. Each clause is complete in itself and might be taken separately; yet they are sufficiently related to be included in one sentence. The semicolon is therefore used to show a slighter separation between the thoughts than would be indicated by the use of the period. The commas show a still slighter separation, being used to divide the lesser groups of words. Notice this use of the two commas in the first sentence. In the second sentence the commas before and after "heeding nothing of all this" show that these words belong together, and that "But Pandora" belongs to "lifted the lid," etc. Notice the use of the interrogation point and the exclamation point in the last paragraph. These various marks, then, are used to help the reader. They show the grammatical structure or grouping. Let us now study these marks in detail, beginning with those that indicate the close of the larger groups,--the period, the exclamation point, the interrogation point. =96. The Period.=--The period marks the end of a declarative or imperative sentence. The period is also used after an abbreviation. (For a list of common abbreviations, see p. 267.) =97. The Question Mark.=--The question mark is placed at the end of every direct question. It is not used with an indirect question. Shall I go? I ask you, "Shall I go?" I asked whether I should go. =98. The Exclamation Point.=--The exclamation point is used after exclamatory words, phrases, and sentences. When an exclamatory sentence begins with an interjection, it is usually sufficient to place a comma after the interjection and to reserve the exclamation point until the end of the sentence. When an unemphatic interjection begins a declarative sentence, it is frequently possible to omit the exclamation point entirely. As a rule _O_ is used only in direct address. Help! You rascal! Be off with you! Ah, you are back again! Oh, what a mess I have made of it! Oh, I didn't see you. Hear me, O King! Oh! I am wounded! =99. The Semicolon.=--Semicolons have two uses:-- 1. To separate the principal clauses in a compound sentence. To our left we beheld the towers of the Alhambra beetling above us; to our right we were dominated by equal towers on a rocky eminence. Some suppose them to have been built by the Romans; others, by the Phoenicians. He received only ten guineas for this stately, vigorous poem; but the sale was rapid and the success complete. There was now a sound behind me like a rushing blast; I heard the clatter of a thousand hoofs; and countless throngs overtook me. When his men had thus indemnified themselves, in some degree, for their late reverses, Cortes called them again under their banners; and, after offering up a grateful acknowledgment to the Lord of Hosts for their miraculous preservation, they renewed their march across the now deserted valley. The principal clauses in a compound sentence may also be separated by a _comma_, provided that a coördinate conjunction is present. It was a moonlight night, _and_ the fresh north wind rustled solemnly in the palm trees. We examined their sculptures by the aid of torches, _and_ our Arab attendants kindled large fires of dry corn-stalks, which cast a strong red light on the walls. The forehead and nose approach the Greek standard, _but_ the mouth is more roundly and delicately carved, _and_ the chin and cheeks are fuller. When a coördinate conjunction is _not_ present, it is incorrect to separate such clauses by a comma. See § 6. When a coördinate conjunction _is_ present, and the choice lies between a comma and a semicolon, the semicolon is to be used:-- (_a_) When the writer wishes the break or separation between the principal clauses to be emphatic. (_b_) When the principal clauses are long and already divided into their parts by commas. 2. To separate clauses or phrases from each other in a series of similar phrases or subordinate clauses, when commas would not be sufficient to indicate clearly where each clause or phrase began and ended. We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with inherent and inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that to secure these rights governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new government, laying its foundations on such principles and organizing its power in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their happiness. =Exercise 146.=--(1) Find three sentences in which the principal clauses are separated by the semicolon. (2) Write three such sentences of your own composition. (3) Write three sentences in which the semicolon is used to separate similar phrases or subordinate clauses in a series. Let the sentences be of your own composition. =100. The Colon.=--The colon indicates that what follows it is an explanation or specification of what precedes it. It is used:-- 1. To introduce a list, a quotation, or an explanatory proposition. When the explanation begins a new paragraph, a dash is usually placed after the colon, as in the second sentence of this section. He provided himself with the following books: Worcester's dictionary, a Latin grammar, an atlas, and a Bible. We hold these truths to be self-evident: that, etc. [See example under § 99, 2 above.] He read, on a marble tablet in the chapel wall opposite, this singular inscription: "Look not mournfully into the past." 2. In a compound sentence in which the principal clauses are not connected by a conjunction, to show that the following clause explains or illustrates the preceding clause. I am no traveler: it is ten years since I have left my village. The general refused to believe him: the risk was too great. 3. After such phrases of address as _Dear Sir,_[2] _Ladies and Gentlemen,_ etc. [2] At the beginning of a letter, _Dear Sir_ may be followed by (1) a comma, (2) a comma and a dash, or (3) a colon. It should never be followed by a semicolon. (3) is more formal than (2) and (1). =Exercise 147.=--I. Write five examples of your own composition of (1); five of (2); and three of (3). II. Explain the use of the semicolons and colons in the following:-- 1. Sin has many tools; but a lie is the handle which fits them all. 2. In Bryant's _To a Waterfowl,_ we find the following lines:-- "He who, from zone to one, Guides through the boundless sky thy certain flight, In the long way that I must tread alone, Will lead my steps aright." 3. Speech is silver; silence is gold. 4. There are three great virtues: faith, hope, and charity. =101. The Comma.=--As we have seen, the period is used to close a declarative sentence, and the semicolon and colon are used to mark off the greater divisions of a sentence. The office of the comma is to point off the smaller divisions of a sentence. It is used in the following ways:-- 1. In a compound sentence, to separate the different clauses, when there is not a sufficient break in the thought to make the semicolon necessary. See above, §99, 1. He rested himself in the Chancellor's room till the debate commenced, and then, leaning on his two relatives, he limped to his seat. His exertions redeemed his own fame, but they effected little for his country. 2. To separate the different parts of a compound predicate, unless the connection between them is very close. The slightest particulars of that day were remembered, and have been carefully recorded. He lost the thread of his discourse, hesitated, repeated the same words several times, and was so confused that, in speaking of the Act of Settlement, he could not recall the name of the Electress Sophia. I see and hear you. 3. In a complex sentence in which the dependent clause precedes, to separate the dependent clause from the principal clause. When the dependent clause follows, the comma is, as a rule, not needed. If you are wise, you will trust him implicitly. Although I saw him, I could not wait. I would not stop until he called out to me. 4. To mark off an explanatory relative clause. _Note._--Relative clauses may be roughly divided into explanatory clauses and restrictive clauses. An explanatory relative clause describes or gives information about its antecedents. A restrictive relative clause narrows the meaning of its antecedent. An explanatory clause might usually be omitted without affecting the thought of the principal clause. A restrictive clause cannot usually be omitted without affecting the thought of the principal clause. No comma is used before a restrictive clause. EXAMPLES. (a) _Explanatory Clauses._--1. The twenty-four columns, each of which is sixty feet in height, are oppressive in their grandeur. 2. Beyond lay various other apartments, which receive no light from without. 3. This churchman rode upon a well-fed, ambling mule, whose bridle was ornamented with silver bells. 4. His companion, who was a man past forty, was tall and muscular. (_b_) _Restrictive Clauses._--1. The two who rode foremost were persons of importance. 2. This is not the book that I ordered. 3. There is no reason which can be urged in favor of such a bill. 4. Such was the appearance of the man who was about to receive into his hand the destinies of half the world. 5. We walked through the inner halls under the spell of a fascination which we had hardly power to break. 5. In general, to indicate the beginning and the end of a group of words, whether a phrase or a clause, which must be regarded as a unit, particularly if it occurs parenthetically. Let us go together through the low gateway, _with its battlemented top and small window in the center_, into the inner road. And now I wish that the reader, _before I bring him into St. Mark's Place_, would imagine himself in a little English town. 6. To separate similar words or phrases used, in a series, in the same construction, and not joined by conjunctions. It was done quickly, neatly, artistically. It was done quickly and neatly. He was a big, hearty, happy fellow. The horse was a quiet, sensible old beast. [Here _quiet_ and _sensible_ limit _old beast_, not _beast_ alone.] He was gay and jovial, gloomy and despondent, as the weather indicated. If the members of the series are joined by conjunctions, commas are unnecessary. When, however, a conjunction joins the last two members of the series, the comma is employed.[3] [3] The usage of many writers and publishers, however, is to omit commas in such cases; that is, they prefer "_a_, _b_ and _c_," to "_a_, _b_, and _c_." The latter usage, as described above, is followed in this book. Bread and butter. She was good and true and beautiful. They visited Rome, Florence, and Venice. 7. To indicate the omission of words logically necessary to the construction. One was tall; the other, short. Admission, twenty-five cents. 8. To mark off phrases when they open a sentence or are not closely connected with the context. Phrases occurring in their usual places and closely connected with the context are, however, not marked off by commas. Following the dim path, we proceeded slowly. On his arrival in England, he found himself an object of general interest and admiration. With rare delicacy, he refused to receive this token of gratitude. The case was heard, according to the usage of the time, before a committee of the whole house. From a child he hated the English. He refused with emphasis this token of gratitude. 9. To mark off adverbs and adverb phrases which have a connective force. Notice the difference between (_a_) "you will see, then, that you have been misled," and (_b_) "you will then see that you have been misled." This, on the other hand, was his purpose. My mission, too, is one of peace. He recalled, however, his motive. 10. To mark off words or phrases (_a_) in direct address or (_b_) in apposition. Notice, however, that in expressions like "the Emperor William," _William_ is rather a noun limited by _Emperor_ than a noun in apposition with _Emperor_. (_a_) I do not understand you, sir. I apologize, ladies and gentlemen, for my apparent discourtesy. (_b_) His romantic novel, the _Castle of Otranto_, is now unread. He is like me in this, that he cannot resist entreaty. 11. Before a direct quotation. See the more formal use of the colon, § 100, 1. He kept crying, "On! on!" As he fell, he heard some one say, "There goes another." 12. In dates, addresses, as in the following examples:-- Jan. 1, 1899. Dr. C. H. Smith, Salem, Essex County, Mass.[4] [4] On an envelope it is becoming customary to omit all punctuation at the end of lines, except periods after abbreviations. 13. To prevent ambiguity or to make a sentence more easily understood. =Exercise 148.=--I. Write two sentences (of your own composition) illustrating each of the uses described in the preceding section. II. Give reasons for the marks of punctuation used in the following:-- One day, when he was looking for wild flowers, of which he was very fond, he heard a rustling in some thick bushes near by, and saw that some animal was moving among them. He took his gun and fired, and, going to the place, found that he had shot a lion's cub. When his colored gun-bearer saw this, he screamed with terror, and ran away shouting, "Run, Benana! run!" Almost at the same instant, Bishop Hannington heard a fearful roar; turning, he saw a huge lion and a lioness rushing furiously towards him. III. Supply commas where needed, giving reasons. In Holland children have very few playthings. The shoes are shaped very much like the canal-boats of the country. The children recognize this fact and have a custom of sailing them on the water. This is fine sport except when the little craft is loaded with too many stones causing it to sink and insuring them punishment from their parents. I was told of a small lad who going out one morning to sail his wooden shoe put into it his knife a small brass cannon a top and some marbles that had been given him on the previous Christmas. His tiny vessel which had a paper sail ran firmly until an old man came down to the canal to dip up a pail of water. This made such waves that the heavily laden shoe was overwhelmed and sank suddenly before the knife or cannon or marbles could be rescued. =102. Parentheses and Brackets.=--Parentheses are to inclose explanatory matter which is independent of the grammatical construction of the sentence. Brackets have the same general office, but are generally used only to inclose corrections, explanations, or similar matter, introduced by the author into the statement of some one else. Prescott (1796-1859) was a brilliant historian. It is said (and I can believe that it is true) that many still believe in witches. It was at that moment [10 A.M.], the colonel goes on to say, that his superior officer [General Smith] met him. =103. The Dash.=--The dash is used to indicate a sudden change in thought or construction. Two dashes have the general effect of parentheses. Yes--no--I scarcely know what to say. You were saying that-- I suppose--but why should I tell you? His father, his mother, his brothers, his sisters,--all are dead. At last he succeeded in opening the box and found in it--nothing. He had two constant motives--love of man and love of God. The two motives--love of man and love of God--were constant. =104. The Apostrophe.=--The apostrophe is used (1) to indicate the omission of a letter or letters, (2) in forming the possessive case, and (3) in forming the plurals of letters and figures. Don't, shan't, o'er, John's, horses', his abc's. =105. Quotation Marks.=--Double inverted commas indicate that the inclosed matter is a quotation. Single inverted commas indicate a quotation within a quotation. Double quotation marks are also sometimes used to indicate the title of a book, magazine, or newspaper, or the name of a ship. See also § 106. A direct quotation is one in which the exact words of a speaker or writer are repeated. When a direct quotation is broken by words of the author, each part of the quotation should be inclosed in quotation marks. A short informal quotation, if it constitutes a sentence, is preceded by a comma or a comma and a dash. If a quotation is long, or if it is desired to give it with a little more formality, it may be preceded by a colon. If the quotation begins a paragraph, it is preceded by a colon and a dash. See § 100, 1. "To be or not to be." The word "coward" has never been applied to me. "Sir," said I, "you insult me." I said to him, "Sir, you insult me." This was his reply: "I tell you that he said only last night, 'You will never see me again.'" This "History of English Literature" is worth reading. The wreck of the "Polar Star." An indirect quotation repeats the thought of some speaker or writer without giving his exact words. Quotation marks are not used to indicate indirect quotations. [Direct quotation] "Well, my boys," said Mr. Webster, "I will be the judge." [Indirect quotation] Mr. Webster told his boys that he would be the judge. =Exercise 149.=--Rewrite the following story, _Daniel Webster's First Case_, changing the direct quotations to indirect and the indirect quotations to direct:-- The father of Daniel Webster was a farmer. His garden had suffered somewhat from the visits of a woodchuck that lived in a hole close by. One day Daniel and his brother Ezekiel set a steel trap for the trespasser, and caught him alive. And now the great question was, "What shall be done with the rogue?" "Kill him," said Ezekiel. "Let him go," said Daniel, looking with pity into the eyes of the dumb captive. "No, no!" replied Ezekiel, "he'll be at his old tricks again." The boys could not agree; so they appealed to their father to decide the case. "Well, my boys," said Mr. Webster, "I will be judge. There is the prisoner, and you shall be counsel, Daniel for him and Ezekiel against him. It rests with you whether the woodchuck shall live or die." Ezekiel opened the case. The woodchuck, he said, was a thief by nature. He had already done much harm, and would do more, if he were set free. It had cost a great deal of labor to catch him. It would be harder to catch him a second time; for he would have gained in cunning. It was better on every account to put him to death. His skin would be worth something, although it would not half repay the damage he had done. The father looked with pride upon his son, little dreaming, however, that he was then showing signs of that power that made him so sound a jurist in his manhood. "Now, Daniel, it is your turn. I'll hear what you have to say." Daniel saw that the argument of his brother had sensibly moved his father the judge. The boy's large, black eyes looked upon the timid woodchuck, and, as he saw the poor thing trembling with fear, his heart swelled with pity. God, he said, had made the woodchuck. He made him to live, to enjoy the air and sunshine, the free fields and woods. The woodchuck had as much right to live as any other thing that breathes. God did not make him or anything in vain. He was not a destructive animal like the wolf or the fox. He ate a few common things, to be sure; but they had plenty of them, and could well spare a part. And he destroyed nothing except the little food needed to sustain his humble life. That little food was as sweet to him, and as necessary to his existence, as was the food on their mother's table to them. God gave them their food. Would they not spare a little for the dumb creature that really had as much right to his small share of God's bounty as they themselves to theirs? Yea, more; the animal had never broken the laws of his nature or the laws of God, as man often did, but had strictly lived up to the simple instincts that had been given him by the good Creator of all things. Created by God's hands, he had a right from God to his life and his liberty, and they had no right to deprive him of either. The young orator then alluded to the mute but earnest entreaties of the animal for his life, as sweet, as dear to him, as their own was to them; and to the just penalty they might expect, if, in selfish cruelty, they took the life they could not restore,--the life that God Himself had given. During this appeal for mercy tears had started to the father's eyes, and were fast running down his sunburnt cheeks. Every feeling of his manly heart was stirred within him,--gratitude for the gift of so eloquent and noble a boy, pity for the helpless and anxious prisoner at the bar. The strain was more than he could bear. While Daniel was yet speaking, without thinking that he had won his case, his father sprang from his chair, and, in entire forgetfulness of his character as judge, exclaimed to his elder son, "Zeke! Zeke! let that woodchuck go!" Sometimes you may wish to quote, not a whole sentence, but a word or two. Such a partial quotation should be inclosed in quotation marks, but you should not begin it with a capital or place a comma before it, unless the comma is needed there for some other reason. She was "born to blush unseen." We listened with pity to this tale of "man's inhumanity to man." =Exercise 150.=--Construct sentences using the following partial quotations:-- "Waste her sweetness on the desert air," "simple and heart-felt lay," of "night's candles," "lowly thatched cottage," "sweet bells out of tune." =Exercise 151.=--Rewrite the following so that you will have in each instance a quotation within a quotation. You will be obliged to make introductions using the name of the author. 1. Had it not been the season when "no spirit dares stir abroad," I should have been half tempted to steal from my room at midnight.--WASHINGTON IRVING. 2. The story-teller paused for a moment and said, "There is no situation in life but has its advantages and pleasures." --DIEDRICH KNICKERBOCKER. 3. We are in that part of the year which I like best--the Rainy or Hurricane Season. "When it is good, it is very, very good; and when it is bad, it is horrid." --ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON. =106. Italics.=--The term "italics" refers to a special kind of type used in printing; thus, _italics_. Ordinary type is referred to as "roman." In writing, a single line drawn underneath a word is understood to be the equivalent of italics. Italics are used for (1) words especially emphasized, for (2) words from a foreign language, and, sometimes, as in this volume, for (3) names of books, newspapers, magazines, and ships. See § 105, ¶ 1. To his amazement, he saw _footprints_. The carriage rolled away from the _porte-cochère_. His _History of English Literature_. The wreck of the _Polar Star_. =107. The Hyphen.=--The hyphen is used as follows:-- 1. Between the parts of some compound words, _son-in-law_, _simple-hearted_, _vice-president_. With regard to many words, usage varies. The tendency is to omit the hyphen and write the words as one, _e.g. football_, _horsecar_. According to some authorities, compound numerals and fractions retain the hyphen, _e.g. twenty-nine_, _one hundred and thirty-first_, _two-thirds_. 2. To separate two vowels which are not pronounced together, _e.g._ _pre-eminent_, _co-operation_. The diæresis is frequently used for the same purpose, _e.g. preëminent_. 3. To mark the division of a word at the end of a line. Usage varies as to the way in which many words shall be divided. The subject can be best studied by noticing the practice of good printers. The pupil may bear in mind, however, (_a_) that he should not divide words of only one syllable; (_b_) that he should be guided by pronunciation; (_c_) that syllables should begin, if possible, with a consonant. For example, _photog-raphy_, _Napo-leon_, _litera-ture_. =Exercise 152.=--Make up three illustrations each of proper uses of the question mark, the exclamation point, parentheses, brackets, the dash, the apostrophe, double quotation marks, single quotation marks, italics, the hyphen. =108. Capitals.=--The pronoun _I_ and the interjection _O_ are written with capital letters. Capital letters are used at the beginning of words as follows:-- 1. The first word of a sentence, a line of poetry, and a direct quotation. "Making his rustic reed of song A weapon in the war with wrong." His last words were: "Mother is coming." "Run," he said, "there is still time." 2. Names and titles of the Deity and personal pronouns referring to Him, _e.g. the Almighty_, _the Holy Spirit_, _I pray that He will aid me_. 3. Proper nouns and adjectives, including names of streets, the months, the days, races, sects, parties, nations, and parts of the country. For example, _John Smith_, _Broadway_, _New York City_, _February_, _Sunday_, _Christmas_, _Indian_, _Episcopalian_, _Democrat_, _English_, _the South_. Notice that _negro_ and _gypsy_ are not begun with capital letters. Personal titles, whenever they are equivalent to proper nouns. In compound titles, each part begins with a capital. The President and the Governor of Rhode Island are here. The Attorney-General of the United States. 4. The first word in the title of a book, article, or composition and every noun and adjective in the title, but not other words. When a verb or adverb is an important or prominent word in the title, it may also be begun with a capital. The Spy; a Tale of the Neutral Ground. Under the Red Robe. Sketches, New and Old. Teaching Requires Knowledge and Skill. 5. Personified nouns, and names of great events or bodies of men. "While sallow Autumn fills thy lap with leaves." It was a cold day in autumn.[5] At the beginning of the Revolutionary War. While the Legislature is sitting. [5] Notice that the names of the seasons do not begin with capitals unless they are personified. =Exercise 153.=--I. Construct sentences containing in all twenty words that should begin with capital letters. II. Which words in the following sentences should begin with capitals? Why? 1. He added, with a look of curiosity, "you must be a stranger." 2. "I like," said he, "to lie down upon the grass." 3. In 1827 he entered the senate, serving there until the president appointed him secretary of state. 4. At length I reached fourth street. 5. It was easter morning. 6. He has always voted the republican ticket. 7. There are more negroes in the south than in the west. 8. No one imagined that he would make a good emperor. 9. The king died on tuesday. 10. I shall see you this summer. =Exercise 154.= (Review).--Insert in the following sentences the proper marks of punctuation:-- 1. It was a dull dark gloomy day. 2. He was a rosy faced smiling and cheerful young gentleman. 3. Some of us were disappointed others overjoyed. 4. A pretty little white dog came running up to me. 5. Samuel the youngest of the three was by far the tallest. 6. My letters have brought no response consequently I have ceased writing. 7. Well Philip I am glad to see you again. 8. With hearty thanks for your kindness to me a stranger I am my dear sir your obedient servant John Smith. 9. Now Wegg said Mr. Boffin hugging his stick closer I want to make an offer to you. 10. The champion moving onward ascended the platform. 11. At the flourish of clarions and trumpets they started out at full galop. 12. The lake greatly to my surprise seemed as far off as before. 13. Terrible as was his anger he still spoke calmly. 14. To make a long story short I could never find a trace of him again. 15. His expressions too were frequently incorrect. 16. After the fourth encounter however there was a considerable pause. 17. However strong you may be you must not waste your strength. 18. My friend who is called Sir Roger came at once to see me. 19. The person who comes last must start first. 20. He that read loudest was to have a half-penny. 21. None was so dissatisfied as Cedric who regarded the whole scene with scorn. 22. The message which I wished to send is simply this. 23. I will never do not interrupt me I will never consent to such a plan. 24. As often as he came and he came very often he stood long at the gate before entering. 25. Though they dwelt in such a solitude these people were not lonely. 26. If you insist I will speak frankly. 27. At ten o'clock the great war chief with his treacherous followers reached the fort and the gateway was thronged with their savage faces. 28. Some were crested with hawk eagle or raven plumes others had shaved their heads leaving only the fluttering scalp-lock on the crown while others again wore their long black hair flowing loosely at their backs or wildly hanging about their brows like a lion's mane. 29. Their bold yet crafty features their cheeks besmeared with ocher and vermilion white lead and soot their keen deep-set eyes gleaming in their sockets like those of rattlesnakes gave them an aspect grim uncouth and horrible. 30. For the most part they were tall strong men and all had a gait and bearing of peculiar stateliness. =109. List of Common Abbreviations.=--The following is a list of common abbreviations, particularly those of foreign words or phrases. Abbreviations of names of states and other very familiar abbreviations are omitted. =A.B.= or =B.A.= (Latin, _Artium Baccalaureus_), Bachelor of Arts. =A.D.= (Latin, _anno domini_), in the year of our Lord. =A.M.= or =M.A.= (Latin, _Artium Magister_), Master of Arts. =a.m.= (Latin, _ante meridiem_), before noon. =anon.=, anonymous. =B.C.=, before Christ. =Bp.=, Bishop. =Capt.=, Captain. =cf.= (Latin, _confer_), compare. =C.O.D.=, collect on delivery. =Col.=, Colonel. =cor. sec.=, corresponding secretary. =D.D.=, Doctor of Divinity. =e.g.= (Latin, _exempli gratia_), for example. =Esq.=, Esquire. =etc.= (Latin, _et cetera_), and so forth. =F.= or =Fahr.=, Fahrenheit (thermometer). =F.R.S.=, Fellow of the Royal Society. =Gov.=, Governor. =H.R.H.=, His Royal Highness. =Hon.=, Honorable. =ibid.= (Latin, _ibidem_, "in the same place"), a term used in footnotes, in reference to a book just mentioned. =i.e.= (Latin, _id est_), that is. =inst.= (Latin, _mense instante_), the present month. =jr.= or =jun.=, junior. =Lieut.=, Lieutenant. =LL.D.=, Doctor of Laws. =M.= (Latin, _meridies_), noon. =M.= (French, _Monsieur_), Mr. =Maj.=, Major. =M.C.=, Member of Congress. =M.D.= (Latin, _Medicinæ Doctor_), Doctor of Medicine. =Mlle.= (French, _Mademoiselle_), Miss. =MM.= (French, _Messieurs_), used as the plural of _M._ =Mme.= (French, _Madame_), Mrs. =MS.=, manuscript. =MSS.=, manuscripts. =N.B.= (Latin, _nota bene_), mark well. =p.=, page. =per cent.= (Latin, _per centum_), by the hundred. =p.m.= (Latin, _post meridiem_), after noon. =pp.=, pages. =Prof.=, Professor. =pro tem.= (Latin, _pro tempore_), for the time being. =prox.= (Latin, _proximo_), next month. =P.S.= (Latin, _post scriptum_), postscript. =Q.E.D.= (Latin, _quod erat demonstrandum_), which was to be proved. =Rev.=, Reverend. =R.R.=, Railroad. =Rt. Rev.=, Right Reverend. =sr.= or =sen.=, senior. =Supt.=, Superintendent. =ult.= (Latin, _ultimo_), last month. =U.S.A.=, United States army. =U.S.M.=, United States mail. =U.S.N.=, United States navy. =vid.= (Latin, _vide_), see. =viz.= (Latin, _videlicet_), to wit, namely. APPENDIX _A._ RULES FOR SPELLING I. For dropping or retaining the final _e_. 1. Words ending in _e_, preceded by a consonant, usually drop _e_ on taking a suffix beginning with a vowel. move moving believe believing conceive conceiving receive receiving achieve achieving 2. Words ending in _ue_ drop _e_ on taking a suffix. argue arguing fatigue fatiguing _Exception_: vague, vaguely, vagueness. 3. Words ending in _e_ retain _e_ on taking a suffix beginning with a consonant. move movement large largely hoarse hoarseness peace peaceful sense senseless whole wholesome remorse remorseless advertise advertisement 4. Words ending in _ce_ or _ge_ retain _e_ on adding _able_, _ably_, or _ous_. change changeable courage courageous notice noticeable outrage outrageous II. For doubling the final consonant. 1. Words of one syllable (and words of more than one syllable if accented on the last syllable), ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double the first consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel. thin thinner forgot forgotten slap slapping trot trotting acquit acquitting begin beginner 2. When the accent is thrown back upon another syllable, after the derivative is formed, the final consonant is not doubled. refer reference prefer preference 3. When preceded by two vowels, the final consonant is not doubled. toil toiling keep keeper III. For final _y_. 1. Words ending in _y_, preceded by a consonant, retain _y_ before a suffix beginning with _i_; on taking a suffix beginning with any other letter, _y_ is in most cases changed to _i_. cry crying lazy laziness fly flying duty dutiable try trying happy happiness 2. Words ending in _y_, preceded by a vowel, retain _y_ before a suffix. buy buying gray grayness play playing stay staying joy joyful obey obeying _B._ MODEL OF CONSTITUTION ARTICLE I. _Name._--This club shall be known as the ...... ARTICLE II. _Object._--Its object shall be the ...... ARTICLE III. _Officers._--Its officers shall be a president, a vice-president, a secretary, and a treasurer. There shall also be ...... committees of ...... each. These officers and committees shall be elected by the club at each annual meeting, as provided for in the by-laws. ARTICLE IV. _Meetings._--The club shall hold an annual business meeting on ......, and a regular meeting every ...... None but members shall be present, except as provided in the by-laws. ...... members shall constitute a quorum. Special meetings may be called by the president upon the written application of ...... members. ARTICLE V. _Membership._--...... ARTICLE VI. _Dues._--The [annual] dues shall be ...... payable on ...... BY-LAWS ARTICLE I. _Duties of Officers._--SECTION 1. President and vice-president.--The President shall preside at meetings of the club and shall ...... The vice-president shall preside at meetings in the absence of the president and shall ...... SECT. 2. The Secretary.--The secretary shall keep a correct record of all meetings and shall ...... SECT. 3. The Treasurer.--The treasurer shall receive and pay out all money, subject to the order of the club, and shall keep a correct account in detail of all receipts and expenditures, and shall render a report in writing at the annual meeting. SECT. 4. Standing Committees.--The duties of the committees shall be as specified below ...... ARTICLE II. _Election of Members._--...... ARTICLE III. _Visitors._--...... ARTICLE IV. _Programme of Meetings._--...... ARTICLE V. _Amendments._--This constitution may be amended at any regular meeting of the club by a two-thirds vote of the members present, provided that written notice of the intended change has been given at the previous meeting. INDEX (THE NUMERALS REFER TO PAGES.) I. SUBJECTS TREATED Advertisements, 135. Appeals, 133. Argument, general principle of, 214; the introduction, 215; the reasons, 217; the outline, 220; the plea, 221; other forms of, 221. Autobiography, 140. Biography, 142. Clause, defined, 4; dependent or subordinate, 4; independent or principal, 5. Condensation, 67; method in, 71. Description, observation necessary in, 155; general scientific description, 158; specific scientific, 162; use of technical terms in, 163; literary description, 164; of people, 169; longer description, 172; description of conditions, 174; by contrast, 176; of events, 177; picture making of scenes of action, 179; description of travel, 182; descriptions of an hour, 185. Diary, value of, 106; contents of, 107; imaginary diaries, 109; class diaries, 109. Expansion, 78; purpose of, 79. Exposition, general principles of, 199; explanation of a material process, 201; of games, 204; of abstract ideas, 208; by example and comparison, 208; by repetition, 210; by contrast, 211; by a figure of speech, 211. Figures of speech, 59. History, 144. Invitations, formal, 122. Letters, various kinds of, 112; friendly, 113; of social intercourse, 119; formal invitations, 122; telegrams, 123; business letters, 125. Metaphor, 59. Narration, essentials of a good narrative, 137; autobiography, 140; biography, 142; history, 144; plain reporting of facts, 150; conversation, 152; travel, 182; historical stories, 188; fictitious stories, 191; the beginning of a narrative, 193; the ending, 196; the body, 197. Notices, 130. Oral composition, 102. Outlines, 92, 98, 220. Paragraph, defined and described, 29; beginning of or topic sentence, 30; unity in, 35; body of, 37; too many paragraphs, 41; end of paragraph or summary sentence, 42; arrangement in a whole composition, 96. Paraphrase, 80, 84. Petitions, 134. Phrase, defined, 4. Pronunciation, 104. Punctuation, 246. Quotations, how punctuated, 44, 259. Secretarial work, 225. Sentence, distinguished from phrase and clause, 4; simple, complex, and compound, 7; variety in the use of sentences, 14, 19; length of, 14; periodic, 17; loose, 18; bad, 21, 22, 23, 25; "comma" sentence, 22; with and without unity, 23; formless, 25. Simile, 59. Slang, 63. Spelling, 62. Synonyms, 53. Telegrams, 123. Travel, 182. Unity, in sentences, 23; in paragraphs, 35; in whole compositions, 97. Versification, 234. Vocabulary, size and character of English, 50; increasing one's vocabulary, 50. Whole composition, 88; outline of, 92, 98, 220; arrangement of paragraphs in, 96; essentials of, 97; how to plan a, 98. Words, 49; vocabulary, 50; synonyms, 53; choice of words, 55; accuracy in the use of, 58; errors in the use of, 62. II. ILLUSTRATIVE EXTRACTS Addison, Joseph, The Spectator, 209, 212. Ames, Azel, How the Pilgrims Came to Plymouth, 144. Baldwin, James, A Story of the Golden Age, 30. Bryant, William C., To the Fringed Gentian, 158. Buckley, Arabella, Fairyland of Science, 70. Burroughs, John, Locusts and Wild Honey, 156; Squirrels and Other Fur-bearing Animals, 192. Cooper, James Fenimore, The Pilot, 71. Dickens, Charles, A Child's History of England, 69, 75, 177, 188; David Copperfield, 167, 169, 186. Franklin, Benjamin, Autobiography, 43. Garland, Hamlin, Main-traveled Roads, 174. Gregory, Lady, Through Portugal, 182. Hardy, Thomas, Far from the Madding Crowd, 179. Hawthorne, Nathaniel, Mosses from an Old Manse, 83. Hughes, Thomas, Tom Brown's Schooldays, 63. Irving, Washington, Rip Van Winkle, 43; Astoria, 81, 82; Life of Columbus, 83; Stratford-on-Avon (The Sketch-Book), 88. Kane, Elisha E., Arctic Explorations, 70. Leavitt, R. G., Outlines of Botany, 158. Lockyer, J. N., Astronomy, 92. Long, William J., Ways of Wood Folk, 31. Longfellow, Henry W., The Courtship of Miles Standish, 82; The Bridge of Cloud, 83; Walter Von der Vogelweid, 85. Lowell, James R., The Vision of Sir Launfal, 84. Main, E., Cities and Sights of Spain, 204. Merriam, Florence A., Birds through an Opera Glass, 160, 162. Motley, J. L., Correspondence, 170. Nicolay, Helen, The Boys' Life of Abraham Lincoln, 32. Parkman, Francis, The Conspiracy of Pontiac, 180. Prescott, William H., The Conquest of Mexico, 82. Sheridan, Richard B., The Rivals, 58. Thoreau, Henry D., Excursions, 165. Whittier, John G., The Barefoot Boy, 84. Yonge, Charlotte M., A Book of Golden Deeds, 93. Printed in the United States of America. The following pages contain advertisements of a few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects. Tarr and McMurry's Geographies A New Series of Geographies in Two, Three, or Five Volumes By RALPH S. TARR, B.S., F.G.S.A. CORNELL UNIVERSITY AND FRANK M. McMURRY, Ph.D TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY TWO BOOK SERIES Introductory Geography 60 cents Complete Geography $1.00 THE THREE BOOK SERIES FIRST BOOK (4th and 5th years) Home Geography and the Earth as a Whole 60 cents SECOND BOOK (6th year) North America 75 cents THIRD BOOK (7th year) Europe and Other Continents 75 cents THE FIVE BOOK SERIES FIRST PART (4th year) Home Geography 40 cents SECOND PART (5th year) The Earth as a Whole 40 cents THIRD PART (6th year) North America 75 cents FOURTH PART (7th year) Europe, South America, etc. 50 cents FIFTH PART (8th year) Asia and Africa, with Review of North America (with State Supplement) 50 cents Without Supplement 40 cents Home Geography, Greater New York Edition 50 cents Teachers' Manual of Method in Geography. By CHARLES A. 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THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 64-66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO Tarr and McMurry's Geographies COMMENTS =North Plainfield, N.J.=--"I think it the best Geography that I have seen."--H. J. WIGHTMAN, _Superintendent_. =Boston, Mass.=--"I have been teaching the subject in the Boston Normal School for over twenty years, and Book I is the book I have been looking for for the last ten years. It comes nearer to what I have been working for than anything in the geography line that I have yet seen. I congratulate you on the good work." --MISS L. T. MOSES, _Normal School_. =Detroit, Mich.=--"I am much pleased with it and have had enthusiastic praise for it from all the teachers to whom I have shown it. It seems to me to be scientific, artistic, and convenient to a marked degree. The maps are a perfect joy to any teacher who has been using the complicated affairs given in most books of the kind." --AGNES MCRAE =De Kalb, Ill.=--"I have just finished examining the first book of Tarr and McMurry's Geographies. I have read the book with care from cover to cover. To say that I am pleased with it is expressing it mildly. It seems to me just what a geography should be. It is correctly conceived and admirably executed. The subject is approached from the right direction and is developed in the right proportions. And those maps--how could they be any better? Surely authors and publishers have achieved a triumph in text-book making. I shall watch with interest for the appearance of the other two volumes."--Professor EDWARD C. PAGE, _Northern Illinois State Normal School_. =Asbury Park, N.J.=--"I do not hesitate at all to say that I think the Tarr and McMurry's Geography the best in the market."--F. S. 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4597	----	ECLECTIC SCHOOL READINGS: STORIES FROM LIFE A BOOK FOR YOUNG PEOPLE BY ORISON SWETT MARDEN AUTHOR OF "ARCHITECTS OF FATE," "RUSHING TO THE FRONT," "WINNING OUT," ETC, AND EDITOR OF "SUCCESS" PREFACE To make a life, as well as to make a living, is one of the supreme objects for which we must all struggle. The sooner we realize what this means, the greater and more worthy will be the life which we shall make. In putting together the brief life stories and incidents from great lives which make up the pages of this little volume, the writer's object has been to show young people that, no matter how humble their birth or circumstances, they may make lives that will be held up as examples to future generations, even as these stories show how boys, handicapped by poverty and the most discouraging surroundings, yet succeeded so that they are held up as models to the boys of to-day. No boy or girl can learn too early in life the value of time and the opportunities within reach of the humblest children of the twentieth century to enable them to make of themselves noble men and women. The stories here presented do not claim to be more than mere outlines of the subjects chosen, enough to show what brave souls in the past, souls animated by loyalty to God and to their best selves, were able to accomplish in spite of obstacles of which the more fortunately born youths of to-day can have no conception. It should never be forgotten, however, in the strivings of ambition, that, while every one should endeavor to raise himself to his highest power and to attain to as exalted and honorable a position as his abilities entitle him to, his first object should be to make a noble life. The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance of Miss Margaret Connolly in the preparation of this volume. O.S.M. CONTENTS TO-DAY "THE MILL BOY OF THE SLASHES" THE GREEK SLAVE WHO WON THE OLIVE CROWN TURNING POINTS IN THE LIFE OF A HERO: I. THE FIRST TURNING POINT II. A BORN LEADER III. "FARRAGUT IS THE MAN" HE AIMED HIGH AND HIT THE MARK THE EVOLUTION OF A VIOLINIST THE LESSON OF THE TEAKETTLE HOW THE ART OF PRINTING WAS DISCOVERED SEA FEVER AND WHAT IT LED TO GLADSTONE FOUND TIME TO BE KIND A TRIBUNE OF THE PEOPLE THE MIGHT OF PATIENCE THE INSPIRATION OF GAMBETTA ANDREW JACKSON: THE BOY WHO "NEVER WOULD GIVE UP" SIR HUMPHRY DAVY'S GREATEST DISCOVERY, MICHAEL FARADAY THE TRIUMPH OF CANOVA FRANKLIN'S LESSON ON TIME VALUE FROM STORE BOY TO MILLIONAIRE "I WILL PAINT OR DIE!" THE CALL THAT SPEAKS IN THE BLOOD WASHINGTON'S YOUTHFUL HEROISM A COW HIS CAPITAL THE BOY WHO SAID "I MUST" THE HIDDEN TREASURE LOVE TAMED THE LION "THERE IS ROOM ENOUGH AT THE TOP" THE UPLIFT OF A SLAVE BOY'S IDEAL "TO THE FIRST ROBIN" THE "WIZARD" AS AN EDITOR HOW GOOD FORTUNE CAME TO PIERRE "IF I REST, I RUST" A BOY WHO KNEW NOT FEAR HOW STANLEY FOUND LIVINGSTONE THE NESTOR OF AMERICAN JOURNALISTS THE MAN WITH AN IDEA "BERNARD OF THE TUILERIES" HOW THE "LEARNED BLACKSMITH" FOUND TIME THE LEGEND OF WILLIAM TELL "WESTWARD HO!" THREE GREAT AMERICAN SONGS AND THEIR AUTHORS I. THE STAR-SPANGLED BANNER II. AMERICA III. THE BATTLE HYMN OF THE REPUBLIC TRAINING FOR GREATNESS THE MARBLE WAITETH STORIES FROM LIFE TO-DAY For the structure that we raise, Time is with materials filled; Our to-days and yesterdays Are the blocks with which we build. Longfellow. To-day! To-day! It is ours, with all its magic possibilities of being and doing. Yesterday, with its mistakes, misdeeds, lost opportunities, and failures, is gone forever. With the morrow we are not immediately concerned. It is but a promise yet to be fulfilled. Hidden behind the veil of the future, it may dimly beckon us, but it is yet a shadowy, unsubstantial vision, one that we, perhaps, never may realize. But to-day, the Here, the Now, that dawned upon us with the first hour of the morn, is a reality, a precious possession upon the right use of which may depend all our future of happiness and success, or of misery and failure; for "This day we fashion Destiny, our web of Fate we spin." Lest he should forget that Time's wings are swift and noiseless, and so rapidly bear our to-days to the Land of Yesterday, John Ruskin, philosopher, philanthropist, and tireless worker though he was, kept constantly before his eyes on his study table a large, handsome block of chalcedony, on which was graven the single word "To-day." Every moment of this noble life was enriched by the right use of each passing moment. A successful merchant, whose name is well-known throughout our country, very tersely sums up the means by which true success may be attained. "It is just this," he says: "Do your best every day, whatever you have in hand." This simple rule, if followed in sunshine and in storm, in days of sadness as well as days of gladness, will rear for the builder a Palace Beautiful more precious than pearls of great price, more enduring than time. "THE MILL BOY OF THE SLASHES" A picturesque, as well as pathetic figure, was Henry Clay, the little "Mill Boy of the Slashes," as he rode along on the old family horse to Mrs. Darricott's mill. Blue-eyed, rosy-cheeked, and bare-footed, clothed in coarse shirt and trousers, and a time-worn straw hat, he sat erect on the bare back of the horse, holding, with firm hand, the rope which did duty as a bridle. In front of him lay the precious sack, containing the grist which was to be ground into meal or flour, to feed the hungry mouths of the seven little boys and girls who, with the widowed mother, made up the Clay family. It required a good deal of grist to feed so large a family, especially when hoecake was the staple food, and it was because of his frequent trips to the mill, across the swampy region called the "Slashes," that Henry was dubbed by the neighbors "The Mill Boy of the Slashes." The lad was ambitious, however, and, very early in life, made up his mind that he would win for himself a more imposing title. He never dreamed of winning world-wide renown as an orator, or of exchanging his boyish sobriquet for "The Orator of Ashland." But he who forms high ideals in youth usually far outstrips his first ambition, and Henry had "hitched his wagon to a star." This awkward country boy, who was so bashful, and so lacking in self-confidence that he hardly dared recite before his class in the log schoolhouse, DETERMINED TO BECOME AN ORATOR. Henry Clay, the brilliant lawyer and statesman, the American Demosthenes who could sway multitudes by his matchless oratory, once said, "In order to succeed a man must have a purpose fixed, then let his motto be VICTORY OR DEATH." When Henry Clay, the poor country boy, son of an unknown Baptist minister, made up his mind to become an orator, he acted on this principle. No discouragement or obstacle was allowed to swerve him from his purpose. Since the death of his father, when the boy was but five years old, he had carried grist to the mill, chopped wood, followed the plow barefooted, clerked in a country store,--did everything that a loving son and brother could do to help win a subsistence for the family. In the midst of poverty, hard work, and the most pitilessly unfavorable conditions, the youth clung to his resolve. He learned what he could at the country schoolhouse, during the time the duties of the farm permitted him to attend school. He committed speeches to memory, and recited them aloud, sometimes in the forest, sometimes while working in the cornfield, and frequently in a barn with a horse and an ox for his audience. In his fifteenth year he left the grocery store where he had been clerking to take a position in the office of the clerk of the High Court of Chancery. There he became interested in law, and by reading and study began at once to supplement the scanty education of his childhood. To such good purpose did he use his opportunities that in 1797, when only twenty years old, he was licensed by the judges of the court of appeals to practice law. When he moved from Richmond to Lexington, Kentucky, the same year to begin practice for himself, he had no influential friends, no patrons, and not even the means to pay his board. Referring to this time years afterward, he said, "I remember how comfortable I thought I should be if I could make one hundred pounds Virginia money (less than five hundred dollars) per year; and with what delight I received the first fifteen-shilling fee." Contrary to his expectations, the young lawyer had "immediately rushed into a lucrative practice." At the age of twenty-seven he was elected to the Kentucky legislature. Two years later he was sent to the United States Senate to fill out the remainder of the term of a senator who had withdrawn. In 1811 he was elected to Congress, and made Speaker of the national House of Representatives. He was afterward elected to the United States Senate in the regular way. Both in Congress and in the Senate Clay always worked for what he believed to be the best interests of his country. Ambition, which so often causes men to turn aside from the paths of truth and honor, had no power to tempt him to do wrong. He was ambitious to be president, but would not sacrifice any of his convictions for the sake of being elected. Although he was nominated by his party three times, he never became president. It was when warned by a friend that if he persisted in a certain course of political conduct he would injure his prospects of being elected, that he made his famous statement, "I would rather be right than be president." Clay has been described by one of his biographers as "a brilliant orator, an honest man, a charming gentleman, an ardent patriot, and a leader whose popularity was equaled only by that of Andrew Jackson." Although born in a state in which wealth and ancient ancestry were highly rated, he was never ashamed of his birth or poverty. Once when taunted by the aristocratic John Randolph with his lowly origin, he proudly exclaimed, "I was born to no proud paternal estate. I inherited only infancy, ignorance, and indigence." He was born in Hanover County, Virginia, on April 12, 1777, and died in Washington, June 29, 1852. With only the humble inheritance which he claimed--"infancy, ignorance, and indigence"--Henry Clay made himself a name that wealth and a long line of ancestry could never bestow. THE GREEK SLAVE WHO WON THE OLIVE CROWN The teeming life of the streets has vanished; the voices of the children have died away into silence; the artisan has dropped his tools, the artist has laid aside his brush, the sculptor his chisel. Night has spread her wings over the scene. The queen city of Greece is wrapped in slumber. But, in the midst of that hushed life, there is one who sleeps not, a worshiper at the shrine of art, who feels neither fatigue nor hardship, and fears not death itself in the pursuit of his object. With the fire of genius burning in his dark eyes, a youth works with feverish haste on a group of wondrous beauty. But why is this master artist at work, in secret, in a cellar where the sun never shone, the daylight never entered? I will tell you. Creon, the inspired worker, the son of genius, is a slave, and the penalty of pursuing his art is death. When the Athenian law debarring all but freemen from the exercise of art was enacted, Creon was at work trying to realize in marble the vision his soul had created. The beautiful group was growing into life under his magic touch when the cruel edict struck the chisel from his fingers. "O ye gods!" groans the stricken youth, "why have ye deserted me, now, when my task is almost completed? I have thrown my soul, my very life, into this block of marble, and now--" Cleone, the beautiful dark-haired sister of the sculptor, felt the blow as keenly as her brother, to whom she was utterly devoted. "O immortal Athene! my goddess, my patron, at whose shrine I have daily laid my offerings, be now my friend, the friend of my brother!" she prayed. Then, with the light of a new-born resolve shining in her eyes, she turned to her brother, saying:-- "The thought of your brain shall live. Let us go to the cellar beneath our house. It is dark, but I will bring you light and food, and no one will discover our secret. You can there continue your work; the gods will be our allies." It is the golden age of Pericles, the most brilliant epoch of Grecian art and dramatic literature. The scene is one of the most memorable that has ever been enacted within the proud city of Athens. In the Agora, the public assembly or market place, are gathered together the wisdom and wit, the genius and beauty, the glory and power, of all Greece. Enthroned in regal state sits Pericles, president of the assembly, soldier, statesman, orator, ruler, and "sole master of Athens." By his side sits his beautiful partner, the learned and queenly Aspasia. Phidias, one of the greatest sculptors, if not the greatest the world has known, who "formed a new style characterized by sublimity and ideal beauty," is there. Near him is Sophocles, the greatest of the tragic poets. Yonder we catch a glimpse of a face and form that offers the most striking contrast to the manly beauty of the poet, but whose wisdom and virtue have brought Athens to his feet. It is the "father of philosophy," Socrates. With his arm linked in that of the philosopher, we see--but why prolong the list? All Greece has been bidden to Athens to view the works of art. The works of the great masters are there. On every side paintings and statues, marvelous in detail, exquisite in finish, challenge the admiration of the crowd and the criticism of the rival artists and connoisseurs who throng the place. But even in the midst of masterpieces, one group of statuary so far surpasses all the others that it rivets the attention of the vast assembly. "Who is the sculptor of this group?" demands Pericles. Envious artists look from one to the other with questioning eyes, but the question remains unanswered. No triumphant sculptor comes forward to claim the wondrous creation as the work of his brain and hand. Heralds, in thunder tones, repeat, "Who is the sculptor of this group?" No one can tell. It is a mystery. Is it the work of the gods? or--and, with bated breath, the question passes from lip to lip, "Can it have been fashioned by the hand of a slave?" Suddenly a disturbance arises at the edge of the crowd. Loud voices are heard, and anon the trembling tones of a woman. Pushing their way through the concourse, two officers drag a shrinking girl, with dark, frightened eyes, to the feet of Pericles. "This woman," they cry, "knows the sculptor; we are sure of this; but she will not tell his name." Neither threats nor pleading can unlock the lips of the brave girl. Not even when informed that the penalty of her conduct was death would she divulge her secret. "The law," says Pericles, "is imperative. Take the maid to the dungeon." Creon, who, with his sister, had been among the first to find his way to the Agora that morning, rushed forward, and, flinging himself at the ruler's feet, cried "O Pericles! forgive and save the maid. She is my sister. I am the culprit. The group is the work of my hands, the hands of a slave." An intense silence fell upon the multitude, and then went up a mighty shout,--"To the dungeon, to the dungeon with the slave." "As I live, no!" said Pericles, rising. "Not to the dungeon, but to my side bring the youth. The highest purpose of the law should be the development of the beautiful. The gods decide by that group that there is something higher in Greece than an unjust law. To the sculptor who fashioned it give the victor's crown." And then, amid the applause of all the people, Aspasia placed the crown of olives on the youth's brow, and tenderly kissed the devoted sister who had been the right hand of genius. TURNING POINTS IN THE LIFE OF A HERO I. THE FIRST TURNING POINT David Farragut was acting as cabin boy to his father, who was on his way to New Orleans with the infant navy of the United States. The boy thought he had the qualities that make a man. "I could swear like an old salt," he says, "could drink as stiff a glass of grog as if I had doubled Cape Horn, and could smoke like a locomotive. I was great at cards, and was fond of gambling in every shape. At the close of dinner one day," he continues, "my father turned everybody out of the cabin, locked the door, and said to me, 'David, what do you mean to be?' "'I mean to follow the sea,' I said. "'Follow the sea!' exclaimed father, 'yes, be a poor, miserable, drunken sailor before the mast, kicked and cuffed about the world, and die in some fever hospital in a foreign clime!' "'No, father,' I replied, 'I will tread the quarterdeck, and command as you do.' "'No, David; no boy ever trod the quarterdeck with such principles as you have and such habits as you exhibit. You will have to change your whole course of life if you ever become a man.' "My father left me and went on deck. I was stunned by the rebuke, and overwhelmed with mortification. 'A poor, miserable, drunken sailor before the mast, kicked and cuffed about the world, and die in some fever hospital!' 'That's my fate, is it? I'll change my life, and _I_ WILL CHANGE IT AT ONCE. I will never utter another oath, never drink another drop of intoxicating liquor, never gamble,' and, as God is my witness," said the admiral, solemnly, "I have kept these three vows to this hour." II. A BORN LEADER The event which proved David Glasgow Farragut's qualities as a leader happened before he was thirteen. He was with his adopted father, Captain Porter, on board the Essex, when war was declared with England in 1812. A number of prizes were captured by the Essex, and David was ordered by Captain Porter to take one of the captured vessels, with her commander as navigator, to Valparaiso. Although inwardly quailing before the violent-tempered old captain of the prize ship, of whom, as he afterward confessed, he was really "a little afraid," the boy assumed the command with a fearless air. On giving his first order, that the "main topsail be filled away," the trouble began. The old captain, furious at hearing a command given aboard his vessel by a boy not yet in his teens, replied to the order, with an oath, that he would shoot any one who dared touch a rope without his orders. Having delivered this mandate, he rushed below for his pistols. The situation was critical. If the young commander hesitated for a moment, or showed the least sign of submitting to be bullied, his authority would instantly have fallen from him. Boy as he was, David realized this, and, calling one of the crew to him, explained what had taken place, and repeated his order. With a hearty "Aye, aye, sir!" the sailor flew to the ropes, while the plucky midshipman called down to the captain that "if he came on deck with his pistols, he would be thrown overboard." David's victory was complete. During the remainder of the voyage none dared dispute his authority. Indeed his coolness and promptitude had won for him the lasting admiration of the crew. III. "FARRAGUT IS THE MAN" The great turning point which placed Farragut at the head of the American navy was reached in 1861, when Virginia seceded from the Union, and he had to choose between the cause of the North and that of the South. He dearly loved his native South, and said, "God forbid that I should have to raise my hand against her," but he determined, come what would, to "stick to the flag." So it came about that when, in order to secure the control of the Mississippi, the national government resolved upon the capture of New Orleans, Farragut was chosen to lead the undertaking. Several officers, noted for their loyalty, good judgment, and daring, were suggested, but the Secretary of the Navy said, "Farragut is the man." The opportunity for which all his previous noble life and brilliant services had been a preparation came to him when he was sixty-one years old. The command laid upon him was "the certain capture of the city of New Orleans." "The department and the country," so ran his instructions, "require of you success. ... If successful, you open the way to the sea for the great West, never again to be closed. The rebellion will be riven in the center, and the flag, to which you have been so faithful, will recover its supremacy in every state." On January 9, 1862, Farragut was appointed to the command of the western gulf blockading squadron. "On February 2," says the National Cyclopedia of American Biograph, "he sailed on the steam sloop Hartford from Hampton Roads, arriving at the appointed rendezvous, Ship Island, in sixteen days. His fleet, consisting of six war steamers, sixteen gunboats, twenty-one mortar vessels, under the command of Commodore David D. Porter, and five supply ships, was the largest that had ever sailed under the American flag. Yet the task assigned him, the passing of the forts below New Orleans, the capture of the city, and the opening of the Mississippi River through its entire length was one of difficulty unprecedented in the history of naval warfare." Danger or death had no terror for the brave sailor. Before setting out on his hazardous enterprise, he said: "If I die in the attempt, it will only be what every officer has to expect. He who dies in doing his duty to his country, and at peace with his God, has played the drama of life to the best advantage." The hero did not die. He fought and won the great battle, and thus executed the command laid upon him,--"the certain capture of the city of New Orleans." The victory was accomplished with the loss of but one ship, and 184 men killed and wounded,--"a feat in naval warfare," says his son and biographer, "which has no precedent, and which is still without a parallel, except the one furnished by Farragut himself, two years later, at Mobile." HE AIMED HIGH AND HIT THE MARK "Without vision the people perish" Without a high ideal an individual never climbs. Keep your eyes on the mountain top, and, though you may stumble and fall many times in the ascent, though great bowlders, dense forests, and roaring torrents may often bar the way, look right on, never losing sight of the light which shines away up in the clear atmosphere of the mountain peak, and you will ultimately reach your goal. When the late Horace Maynard, LL.D., entered Amherst College, he exposed himself to the ridicule and jibing questions of his fellow-students by placing over the door of his room a large square of white cardboard on which was inscribed in bold outlines the single letter "V." Disregarding comment and question, the young man applied himself to his work, ever keeping in mind the height to which he wished to climb, the first step toward which was signified by the mysterious "V." Four years later, after receiving the compliments of professors and students on the way he had acquitted himself as valedictorian of his class, young Maynard called the attention of his fellow-graduates to the letter over his door. Then a light broke in upon them, and they cried out, "Is it possible that you had the valedictory in mind when you put that 'V' over your door?" "Assuredly I had," was the emphatic reply. On he climbed, from height to height, becoming successively professor of mathematics in the University of Tennessee, lawyer, member of Congress, attorney-general of Tennessee, United States minister to Constantinople, and, finally, postmaster-general. Honorable ambition is the leaven that raises the whole mass of mankind. Ideals, visions, are the stepping-stones by which we rise to higher things. "Still, through our paltry stir and strife, Glows down the wished ideal, And longing molds in clay what life Carves in the marble real; "To let the new life in, we know, Desire must ope the portal,-- Perhaps the longing to be so Helps make the soul immortal." THE EVOLUTION OF A VIOLINIST He was a famous artist whom kings and queens and emperors delighted to honor. The emperor of all the Russias had sent him an affectionate letter, written by his own hand; the empress, a magnificent emerald ring set with diamonds; the king of his own beloved Norway, who had listened reverently, standing with uncovered head, while he, the king of violinists, played before him, had bestowed upon him the Order of Vasa; the king of Copenhagen presented him with a gold snuffbox, encrusted with diamonds; while, at a public dinner given him by the students of Christiana, he was crowned with a laurel wreath. Not all the thousands who thronged to hear him in London could gain entrance to the concert hall, and in Liverpool he received four thousand dollars for one evening's performance. Yet the homage of the great ones of the earth, the princely gifts bestowed upon him, the admiration of the thousands who hung entranced on every note breathed by his magic violin, gave less delight than the boy of fourteen experienced when he received from an old man, whose heart his playing had gladdened, the present of four pairs of doves, with a card suspended by a blue ribbon round the neck of one, bearing his own name, "Ole Bull." The soul of little Ole Bull had always been attuned to melody, from the time when, a toddling boy of four, he had kissed with passionate delight the little yellow violin given him by his uncle. How happy he was, as he wandered alone through the meadows, listening with the inner ear of heaven-born genius to the great song of nature. The bluebells, the buttercups, and the blades of grass sang to him in low, sweet tones, unheard by duller ears. How he thrilled with delight when he touched the strings of the little red violin, purchased for him when he was eight years old. His father destined him for the church, and, feeling that music should form part of the education of a clergyman, he consented to the mother's proposition that the boy should take lessons on the violin. Ole could not sleep for joy, that first night of ownership; and, when the house was wrapped in slumber, he got up and stole on tiptoe to the room where his treasure lay. The bow seemed to beckon to him, the pretty pearl screws to smile at him out of their red setting. "I pinched the strings just a little," he said. "It smiled at me ever more and more. I took up the bow and looked at it. It said to me it would be pleasant to try it across the strings. So I did try it just a very, very little, and it did sing to me so sweetly. At first I did play very soft. But presently I did begin a capriccio, which I like very much, and it did go ever louder and louder; and I forgot that it was midnight and that everybody was asleep. Presently I hear something crack; and the next minute I feel my father's whip across my shoulders. My little red violin dropped on the floor, and was broken. I weep much for it, but it did no good. They did have a doctor to it next day, but it never recovered its health." He was given another violin, however, and, when only ten, he would wander into the fields and woods, and spend hours playing his own improvisations, echoing the song of the birds, the murmur of the brook, the thunder of the waterfall, the soughing of the wind among the trees, the roar of the storm. But childhood's days are short. The years fly by. The little Ole is eighteen, a student in the University of Christiana, preparing for the ministry. His brother students beg him to play for a charitable association. He remembers his father's request that he yield not to his passion for music, but being urged for "sweet charity's sake," he consents. The youth's struggle between the soul's imperative demand and the equally imperative parental dictate was pathetic. Meanwhile the position of musical director of the Philharmonic and Dramatic Societies becoming vacant, Ole was appointed to the office; and, seeing that it was useless to contend longer against the genius of his son, the disappointed father allowed him to accept the directorship. When fairly launched on a musical career, his trials and disappointments began. Wishing to assure himself whether he had genius or not, he traveled five hundred miles to see and hear the celebrated Louis Spohr, who received the tremulous youth coldly, and gave him no encouragement. No matter, he would go to the city of art. In Paris he heard Berlioz and other great musicians. Entranced he listened, in his high seat at the top of the house, to the exquisite notes of Malibran. His soul feasted on music, but his money was fast dwindling away, and the body could not be sustained by sweet sounds. But the poor unknown violinist, who was only another atom in the surging life of the great city, could earn nothing. He was on the verge of starvation, but he would not go back to Christiana. He must still struggle and study. He became ill of brain fever, and was tenderly nursed back to life by the granddaughter of his kind landlady, pretty little Felicie Villeminot, who afterward became his wife. He had drained the cup of poverty and disappointment to the dregs, but the tide was about to turn. He was invited to play at a concert presided over by the Duke of Montebello, and this led to other profitable engagements. But the great opportunity of his life came to him in Bologna. The people had thronged to the opera house to hear Malibran. She had disappointed them, and they were in no mood to be lenient to the unknown violinist who had the temerity to try to fill her place. He came on the stage. He bowed. He grew pale under the cold gaze of the thousands of unsympathetic eyes turned upon him. But the touch of his beloved violin gave him confidence. Lovingly, tenderly, he drew the bow across the strings. The coldly critical eyes no longer gazed at him. The unsympathetic audience melted away. He and his violin were one and alone. In the hands of the great magician the instrument was more than human. It talked; it laughed; it wept; it controlled the moods of men as the wind controls the sea. The audience scarcely breathed. Criticism was disarmed. Malibran was forgotten. The people were under the spell of the enchanter. Orpheus had come again. But suddenly the music ceased. The spell was broken. With a shock the audience returned to earth, and Ole Bull, restored to consciousness of his whereabouts by the storm of applause which shook the house, found himself famous forever. His triumph was complete, but his work was not over, for the price of fame is ceaseless endeavor. But the turning point had been passed. He had seized the great opportunity for which his life had been a preparation, and it had placed him on the roll of the immortals. THE LESSON OF THE TEAKETTLE The teakettle was singing merrily over the fire; the good aunt was bustling round, on housewifely cares intent, and her little nephew sat dreamily gazing into the glowing blaze on the kitchen hearth. Presently the teakettle ceased singing, and a column of steam came rushing from its pipe. The boy started to his feet, raised the lid from the kettle, and peered in at the bubbling, boiling water, with a look of intense interest. Then he rushed off for a teacup, and, holding it over the steam, eagerly watched the latter as it condensed and formed into tiny drops of water on the inside of the cup. Returning from an upper room, whither her duties had called her, the thrifty aunt was shocked to find her nephew engaged in so profitless an occupation, and soundly scolded him for what she called his trifling. The good lady little dreamed that James Watt was even then unconsciously studying the germ of the science by which he "transformed the steam engine from a mere toy into the most wonderful instrument which human industry has ever had at its command." This studious little Scottish lad, who, because too frail to go to school, had been taught at home, was very different from other boys. When only six or seven years old, he would lie for hours on the hearth, in the little cottage at Greenock, near Glasgow, where he was born in 1736, drawing geometrical figures with pieces of colored chalk. He loved, too, to gaze at the stars, and longed to solve their mysteries. But his favorite pastime was to burrow among the ropes and sails and tackles in his father's store, trying to find out how they were made and what purposes they served. In spite of his limited advantages and frail health, at fifteen he was the wonder of the public school, which he had attended for two years. His favorite studies were mathematics and natural philosophy. He had also made good progress in chemistry, physiology, mineralogy, and botany, and, at the same time, had learned carpentry and acquired some skill as a worker in metals. So studious and ambitious a youth scarcely needed the spur of poverty to induce him to make the most of his talents. The spur was there, however, and, at the age of eighteen, though delicate in health, he was obliged to go out and battle with the world. Having first spent some time in Glasgow, learning how to make mathematical instruments, he determined to go to London, there to perfect himself in his trade. Working early and late, and suffering frequently from cold and hunger, he broke down under the unequal strain, and was obliged to return to his parents for a time until health was regained. Always struggling against great odds, he returned to Glasgow when his trade was mastered, and began to make mathematical instruments, for which, however, he found little sale. Then, to help eke out a living, he began to make and mend other instruments,--fiddles, guitars, and flutes,--and finally built an organ,--a very superior one, too,--with several additions of his own invention. A commonplace incident enough it seemed, in the routine of his daily occupation, when, one morning, a model of Newcomen's engine was brought to him for repair, yet it marked the turning point in his career, which ultimately led from poverty and struggle to fame and affluence. Watt's practiced eye at once perceived the defects in the Newcomen engine, which, although the best then in existence could not do much better or quicker work than horses. Filled with enthusiasm over the plans which he had conceived for the construction of a really powerful engine, he immediately set to work, and spent two months in an old cellar, working on a model. "My whole thoughts are bent on this machine," he wrote to a friend. "I can think of nothing else." So absorbed had he become in his new work that the old business of making and mending instruments had declined. This was all the more unfortunate as he was no longer struggling for himself alone. He had fallen in love with, and married, his cousin, Margaret Miller, who brought him the greatest happiness of his life. The neglect of the only practical means of support he had reduced Watt and his family to the direst poverty. More than once his health failed, and often the brave spirit was almost broken, as when he exclaimed in heaviness of heart, "Of all the things in the world, there is nothing so foolish as inventing." Five years had passed since the model of the Newcomen engine had been sent to him for repair before he succeeded in securing a patent on his own invention. Yet five more long years of bitter drudgery, clutched in the grip of poverty, debt, and sickness, did the brave inventor, sustained by the love and help of his noble wife, toil through. On his thirty-fifth birthday he said, "To-day I enter the thirty-fifth year of my life, and I think I have hardly yet done thirty-five pence worth of good in the world; but I cannot help it." Poor Watt! He had traveled with bleeding feet along the same thorny path trod by the great inventors and benefactors of all ages. But, in spite of all obstacles, he persevered; and, after ten years of inconceivable labor and hardship, during which his beautiful wife died, he had a glorious triumph. His perfected steam engine was the wonder of the age. Sir James Mackintosh placed him "at the head of all inventors in all ages and nations." "I look upon him," said the poet Wordsworth, "considering both the magnitude and the universality of his genius, as, perhaps, the most extraordinary man that this country ever produced." Wealthy beyond his desires,--for he cared not for wealth,--crowned with the laurel wreath of fame, honored by the civilized world as one of its greatest benefactors, the struggle over, the triumph achieved, on August 19, 1819, he lay down to rest. HOW THE ART OF PRINTING WAS DISCOVERED "Look, Grandfather; see what the letters have done!" exclaimed a delighted boy, as he picked up the piece of parchment in which Grandfather Coster had carried the bark letters cut from the trees in the grove, for the instruction and amusement of his little grandsons. "See what the letters have done!" echoed the old man. "Bless me, what does the child mean?" and his eyes twinkled with pleasure, as he noted the astonishment and pleasure visible on the little face. "Let me see what it is that pleases thee so, Laurence," and he eagerly took the parchment from the boy's hand. "Bless my soul!" cried the old man, after gazing spellbound upon it for some seconds. The track of the mysterious footprint in the sand excited no more surprise in the mind of Robinson Crusoe than Grandfather Coster felt at the sight which met his eyes. There, distinctly impressed upon the parchment, was a clear imprint of the bark letters; though, of course, they were reversed or turned about. But you twentieth-century young folks who have your fill of story books, picture books, and reading matter of all kinds, are wondering, perhaps, what all this talk about bark letters and parchment and imprint of letters means. To understand it, you must carry your imagination away back more than five centuries--quite a long journey of the mind, even for "grown-ups"--to a time when there were no printed books, and when very, very few of the rich and noble, and scarcely any of the so-called common people, could read. In those far-off days there were no public libraries, and no books except rare and expensive volumes, written by hand, mainly by monks in their quiet monasteries, on parchment or vellum. In the quaint, drowsy, picturesque town of Haarlem, in Holland, with its narrow, irregular, grass-grown streets and many-gabled houses, the projecting upper stories of which almost meet, one particular house, which seems even older than any of the others, is pointed out to visitors as one of the most interesting sights of the ancient place. It was in this house that Laurence Coster, the father of the art of printing, the man--at least so runs the legend--who made it possible for the poorest and humblest to enjoy the inestimable luxury of books and reading, lived and loved and dreamed more than five hundred years ago. Coster was warden of the little church which stood near his home, and his days flowed peacefully on, in a quiet, uneventful way, occupied with the duties of his office, and reading and study, for he was one of those who had mastered the art of reading. A diligent student, he had conned over and over, until he knew them by heart, the few manuscript volumes owned by the little church of which he was warden. A lover of solitude, as well as student and dreamer, the church warden's favorite resort, when his duties left him at leisure, was a dense grove not far from the town. Thither he went when he wished to be free from all distraction, to think and dream over many things which would appear nonsensical to his sober, practical-minded neighbors. There he indulged in day dreams and poetic fancies; and once, when in a sentimental mood, he carved the initials of the lady of his love on one of the trees. In time a fair young wife and children came, bringing new brightness and joy to the serious-minded warden. With ever increasing interests, he passed on from youth to middle life, and from middle life to old age. Then his son married, and again the patter of little feet filled the old home and made music in the ears of Grandfather Coster, whom the baby grandchildren almost worshiped. To amuse the children, and to impart to them whatever knowledge he himself possessed, became the delight of his old age. Then the habit acquired in youth of carving letters in the bark of the trees served a very useful purpose in furthering his object. He still loved to take solitary walks, and many a quiet summer afternoon the familiar figure of the venerable churchwarden, in his seedy black cloak and sugar-loaf hat, might be seen wending its way along the banks of the River Spaaren to his favorite resort in the grove. One day, while reclining on a mossy couch beneath a spreading beech tree, amusing himself by tearing strips of bark from the tree that shaded him, and carving letters with his knife, a happy thought entered his mind. "Why can I not," he mused within himself, "cut those letters out, carry them home, and, while using them as playthings, teach the little ones how to read?" The plan worked admirably. Long practice had made the old man quite expert in fashioning the letters, and many hours of quiet happiness were spent in the grove in this pleasing occupation. One afternoon he succeeded in cutting some unusually fine specimens, and, chuckling to himself over the delight they would give the children, he wrapped them carefully, placing them side by side in an old piece of parchment which he happened to have in his pocket. The bark from which they had been cut being fresh and full of sap, and the letters being firmly pressed upon the parchment, the result was the series of "pictures" which delighted the child and gave to the world the first suggestion of a printing press. And then a mighty thought flashed across the brain of the poor, humble, unknown churchwarden, a thought the realization of which was destined not only to make him famous for all time, but to revolutionize the whole world. The first dim suggestion came to him in this form, "By having a series of letters and impressing them over and over again on parchment, cannot books be printed instead of written, and so multiplied and cheapened as to be brought within the reach of all?" The remainder of his life was given up to developing this great idea. He cut more letters from bark, and, covering the smooth surface with ink, pressed them upon parchment, thus getting a better impression, though still blurred and imperfect. He then cut letters from wood instead of bark, and managed to invent himself a better and thicker ink, which did not blur the page. Next, he cut letters from lead, and then from pewter. Every hour was absorbed in the work of making possible the art of printing. His simple-minded neighbors thought he had lost his mind, and some of the more superstitious spread the report that he was a sorcerer. But, like all other great discoverers, he heeded not annoyances or discouragements. Shutting himself away from the prying curiosity of the ignorant and superstitious, he plodded on, making steady, if slow, advance toward the realization of his dream. "One day, while old Coster was thus busily at work," says George Makepeace Towle, "a sturdy German youth, with a knapsack slung across his back, trudged into Haarlem. By some chance this youth happened to hear how the churchwarden was at work upon a wild scheme to print books instead of writing them. With beating heart, the young man repaired to Coster's house and made all haste to knock at the churchwarden's humble door." The "sturdy German youth" who knocked at Laurence Coster's door was Johann Gutenberg, the inventor of modern printing. Coster invited him to enter. Gutenberg accepted the invitation, and then stated the object of his visit. He desired to learn more about the work on which Coster was engaged. Delighted to have a visitor who was honestly interested in his work, the old man eagerly explained its details to the youth, and showed him some examples of his printing. Gutenberg was much impressed by what he saw, but still more by the possibilities which he dimly foresaw in Coster's discovery. "But we can do much better than this," he said with the enthusiasm of youth. "Your printing is even slower than the writing of the monks. From this day forth I will work upon this problem, and not rest till I have solved it." Johann Gutenberg kept his word. He never rested until he had given the art of printing to the world. But to Laurence Coster, in the first place, if legend speaks truth, we owe one of the greatest inventions that has ever blessed mankind. SEA FEVER AND WHAT IT LED TO "Jim, you've too good a head on you to be a wood chopper or a canal driver," said the captain of the canal boat for whom young Garfield had engaged to drive horses along the towpath. "Jim" had always loved books from the time when, seated on his father's knee, he had with his baby lips pronounced after him the name "Plutarch." Mr. Garfield had been reading "Plutarch's Lives," and was much astonished when, without hesitation or stammering, his little son distinctly pronounced the name of the Greek biographer. Turning to his wife, with a glow of love and pride, the fond father said, "Eliza, this boy will be a scholar some day." Perhaps the near approach of death had clarified the father's vision, but when, soon after, the sorrowing wife was left a widow, with an indebted farm and four little children to care for, she saw little chance for the fulfillment of the prophecy. Even in his babyhood the boy whose future greatness the father dimly felt had learned the lesson of self-reliance. The familiar words which so often fell from his lips--"I can do that"--enabled him to conquer difficulties before which stouter hearts than that of a little child might well have quailed. The teaching of his good mother, that "God will bless all our efforts to do the best we can," became a part of the fiber of his being. "What will He do," asked the boy one day, "when we don't do the best we can?" "He will withhold His blessing; and that is the greatest calamity that could possibly happen to us," was the reply, which made a deep impression on the mind of the questioner. In spite of almost constant toil, and very meager schooling,--only a few weeks each year,--James Garfield excelled all his companions in the log schoolhouse. Besides solving at home in the long winter evenings, by the light of the pine fire, all the knotty problems in Adams' Arithmetic--the terror of many a schoolboy--he found time to revel in the pages of "Robinson Crusoe" and "Josephus." The latter was his special favorite. Before he was fifteen, Garfield had successfully followed the occupations of farmer, wood chopper, and carpenter. No matter what his occupation was he always managed to find some time for reading. He had recently read some of Marryat's novels, "Sindbad the Sailor," "The Pirate's Own Book," and others of a similar nature, which had smitten him with a virulent attack of sea fever. This is a mental disease which many robust, adventurous boys are apt to contract in their teens. Garfield felt that he must "sail the ocean blue." The glamour of the sea was upon him. Everything must give way before it. His mother, however, could not be induced to assent to his plans, and, after long pleading, would only compromise by agreeing that he might, if he could, secure a berth on one of the vessels navigating Lake Erie. He was rudely repulsed by the owner of the first vessel to whom he applied, a brutal, drunken creature, who answered his request for employment with an oath and a rough "Get off this schooner in double quick, or I'll throw you into the dock." Garfield turned away in disgust, his ardor for the sea somewhat dampened by the man's appearance and behavior. In this mood he met his cousin, formerly a schoolmaster, then captain of a canal boat, with whom he at once engaged to drive his horses. After a few months on the towpath, young Garfield contracted another kind of fever quite unlike that from which he had been suffering previously, and went home to be nursed out of it by his ever faithful mother. During his convalescence he thought a great deal over his cousin's words,--"Jim, you've got too good a head on you to be a wood chopper or a canal driver." "He who wills to do anything will do it," he had learned from his mother's lips when a mere baby, and then and there he said in his heart, "I will be a scholar; I will go to college." And so, out of his sea fever and towpath experience was born the resolution that made the turning point in his career. Action followed hot upon resolve. He lost no time in applying himself to the work of securing an education. Alternately chopping wood and carpentering, farming and teaching school, ringing bells and sweeping floors, he worked his way through seminary and college. His strong will and resolute purpose to make the most of himself not only enabled him to obtain an education, but raised him from the towpath to the presidential chair. GLADSTONE FOUND TIME TO BE KIND A kindly act is a kernel sown, That will grow to a goodly tree, Shedding its fruit when time has flown Down the gulf of Eternity. JOHN BOYLE O'REILLY. In the restless desire for acquisition,--acquisition of money, of power, or of fame,--there is danger of selfishness, self-absorption, closing the doors of our hearts against the demands of brotherly love, courtesy, and kindness. "I cannot afford to help," say the poor in pocket; "all I have is too little for my own needs." "I should like to help others," says the ambitious student, whose every spare moment is crowded with some extra task, "but I have no money, and cannot afford to take the time from my studies to give sympathy or kind words to the suffering and the poor." Says the busy man of affairs: "I am willing to give money, but my time is too valuable to be spent in talking to sick people or shiftless, lazy ones. That sort of work is not in my line. I leave it to women and the charitable organizations." The business man forgets, as do many of us, the truth expressed by Ruskin, that "a little thought and a little kindness are often worth more than a great deal of money." A few kind words, a little sympathy and encouragement have often brought sunshine and hope into the lives of men and women who were on the verge of despair. The great demand is on people's hearts rather than on their purses. In the matter of kindness we can all afford to be generous whether we have money or not. The schoolboy may give it as freely as the millionaire. No one is so driven by work that he has not time, now and then, to say a kind word or do a kind deed that will help to brighten life for another. If the prime minister of England, William E. Gladstone, could find time to carry a bunch of flowers to a little sick crossing-sweeper, shall we not be ashamed to make for ourselves the excuse, "I haven't time to be kind"? A TRIBUNE OF THE PEOPLE Clad in a homespun tow shirt, shrunken, butternut-colored, linsey-woolsey pantaloons, battered straw hat, and much-mended jacket and shoes, with ten dollars in his pocket, and all his other worldly goods packed in the bundle he carried on his back, Horace Greeley, the future founder of the New York Tribune, started to seek his fortune in New York. A newspaper had always been an object of interest and delight to the little delicate, tow-haired boy, and at the mature age of six he had made up his mind to be a printer. His love of reading was unusual in one so young. Before he was six he had read the Bible and "Pilgrim's Progress" through. Like the children of all poor farmers, Horace was put to work as soon as he was able to do anything. But he made the most of the opportunities given him to attend school, and his love of reading; stimulated him to unusual efforts to procure books. By selling nuts and bundles of kindling wood at the village store, before he was ten he had earned enough money to buy a copy of Shakespeare and of Mrs. Hemans's poems. He borrowed every book that could be found within a radius of seven miles of his home, and by many readings he had made himself familiar with the score of old volumes in his log-cabin home. Mrs. Sarah K. Bolton draws a pleasing picture of the farmer boy reading at night after the day's work on the farm was done. "He gathered a stock of pine knots," she says, "and, lighting one each night, lay down by the hearth and read, oblivious to all around him. The neighbors came and made their friendly visits, and ate apples and drank cider, as was the fashion, but the lad never noticed their coming or their going. When really forced to leave his precious books for bed, he would repeat the information he had learned, or the lessons for the next day to his brother, who usually, most ungraciously, fell asleep before the conversation was half completed." "Ah!" said Zaccheus Greeley, Horace's father, when the boy one day, in a fit of abstraction, tried to yoke the "off" ox on the "near" side: "Ah! that boy will never know enough to get on in the world. He'll never know more than enough to come in when it rains!" Yet this boy knew so much that when at fourteen he secured a place as printer in a newspaper office at East Poultney, Vermont, he was looked up to by his fellow-printers as equal in learning to the editor himself. At first they tried to make merry at his expense, poking fun at his odd-looking garments, his uncouth appearance, and his pale, delicate face and almost white hair, which subsequently won for him the nickname of "Ghost." But when they saw that Horace was too good humored and too much in earnest with his work to be disturbed by their teasing, they gave it up. In a short time he became a general favorite, not only in the office, but in the town of Poultney, whose debating and literary societies soon recognized him as leader. Even the minister, the lawyer, and the school-teachers looked up to the poor, retiring young printer, who was a veritable encyclopedia of knowledge, ready at all times to speak or to write an essay on any subject. But the Poultney newspaper was obliged to suspend soon after Horace had learned his trade, and, penniless,--for every cent of his earnings beyond what furnished the bare necessaries of life had been sent home to his parents in the wilderness,--he faced the world once more. After working in different small towns wherever he could get a "job," reading, studying, enlarging his knowledge all the time when not in the office, he made up his mind to go to New York, "to be somebody," as he put it. When he stepped off the towboat at Whitehall, near the Battery, that sunny morning in August, 1831, with only the experience of a score of years in life, a stout heart, quick brain, nimble fingers, and an abiding faith in God as his capital, his prospects certainly were not very alluring. "An overgrown, awkward, white-headed, forlorn-looking boy; a pack suspended on a staff over his right shoulder; his dress unrivaled in sylvan simplicity since the primitive fig leaves of Eden; the expression of his face presenting a strange union of wonder and apathy: his whole appearance gave you the impression of a runaway apprentice in desperate search of employment. Ignorant alike of the world and its ways, he seemed to the denizens of the city almost like a wanderer from another planet." Such was the impression Horace Greeley made on a New Yorker on his first arrival in that city which was to be the scene of his future work and triumphs. He tramped the streets all that day, Friday, and the next, looking for work, everywhere getting the same discouraging reply, "No, we don't want any one." At last, when weary and disheartened, his ten dollars almost gone, he had decided to shake the dust of New York from his feet, the foreman of a printing office engaged him to do some work that most of the men in the office had refused to touch. The setting up of a Polyglot Testament, with involved marginal references, was something new for the supposed "green" hand from the country. But when the day was done, the young printer was no longer looked upon as "green" by his fellow-workers, for he had done more and better work than the oldest and most experienced hands who had tried the Testament. But, oh, what hard work it was, beginning at six o'clock in the morning, and working long after the going down of the sun, by the light of a candle stuck in a bottle, to earn six dollars a week, most of which was sent to his dear ones at home. After nearly ten years more of struggle and privation, Greeley entered upon the great work of his life--the founding and editing of the New York Tribune. He had very little money to start with, and even that little was borrowed. But he had courage, truth, honesty, a noble purpose, and rare ability and industry to supplement his small financial capital. He needed them all in the work he had undertaken, for he was handicapped not only by lack of means, but also by the opposition of some of the New York papers. In spite of the adverse conditions he succeeded in establishing one of the greatest and most popular newspapers in the country. The Tribune became the champion of the oppressed, the guardian of justice, the defender of truth, a power for good in the land. Through his paper Greeley became a tribune of the people. No thought of making money hampered him in his work. Unselfishly he wrought as editor, writer, and lecturer for the good of his country and the uplifting of mankind. "He who by voice or pen," he said, "strikes his best blow at the impostures or vices whereby our race is debased and paralyzed, may close his eyes in death, consoled and cheered by the reflection that he has done what he could for the emancipation and elevation of his kind." Well, then, might he rejoice in his life work, for his voice and pen had to the last been active in thus serving the race. He died on November 29, 1872, at the age of sixty-one. So great a man had Horace Greeley, the poor New Hampshire farmer boy, become that the whole nation mourned for his death. The people felt that in him they had lost one of their best friends. A workman who attended his funeral expressed the feeling of his fellow-workmen all over the land when he said, "It is little enough to lose a day for Horace Greeley who spent many a day working for us." "I've come a hundred miles to be at the funeral of Horace Greeley," said a farmer. The great tribune had deserved well of the people and of his country. THE MIGHT OF PATIENCE Perhaps some would feel inclined to ridicule rather than applaud the patience of a poor Chinese woman who tried to make a needle from a rod of iron by rubbing it against a stone. It is doubtful whether she succeeded or not, but, so the story runs, the sight of the worker plying her seemingly hopeless task, put new courage and determination into the heart of a young Chinese student, who, in deep despondency, stood watching her. Because of repeated failures in his studies, ambition and hope had left him. Bitterly disappointed with himself, and despairing of ever accomplishing anything, the young man had thrown his books aside in disgust. Put to shame, however, by the lesson taught by the old woman, he gathered his scattered forces together, went to work with renewed ardor, and, wedding Patience and Energy, became, in time, one of the greatest scholars in China. When you know you are on the right track, do not let any failures dim your vision or discourage you, for you cannot tell how close you may be to victory. Have patience and stick, stick, stick. It is eternally true that he "Who steers right on Will gain, at length, however far, the port." THE INSPIRATION OF GAMBETTA "Try to come home a somebody!" Long after Leon Gambetta had left the old French town of Cahors, where he was born October 30, 1838, long after the gay and brilliant streets of Paris had become familiar to him, did the parting words of his idolized mother ring in his ears, "Try to come home a somebody!" Pinched for food and clothes, as he often was, while he studied early and late in his bare garret near the Sorbonne, the memory of that dear mother cheered and strengthened him. He could still feel her tears and kisses on his cheek, and the tender clasp of her hand as she pressed into his the slender purse of money which she had saved to release him from the drudgery of an occupation he loathed, and to enable him to become a great lawyer in Paris. How well he remembered her delight in listening to him declaim the speeches of Thiers and Guizot from the pages of the National, which she had taught him to read when but a mere baby, and from which he imbibed his first lessons in republicanism,--lessons that he never afterward forgot. Such deep root had they taken that he could not be induced to change his views by the fathers of the preparatory school at Monfaucon, whither he had been sent to be trained for the priesthood. Finally despairing of bringing the young radical to their way of thinking, the Monfaucon fathers sent him home to his parents. "You will never make a priest of him," they wrote; "he has a character that cannot be disciplined." His father, an honest but narrow-minded Italian, whose ideas did not soar beyond his little bazaar and grocery store, was displeased with the boy, who was then only ten years old. He could not understand how one so young dared to think his own thoughts and hold his own opinions. The neighbors held up their hands in dismay, and prophesied, "He will end his days in the Bastile." His mother wept and blamed herself and the National as the cause of all the trouble. How little the fond mother, the disappointed father, or the gloomily foreboding neighbors dreamt to what heights those early lessons they now so bitterly deplored were to lead! When at sixteen Leon Gambetta returned from the Lyceum to which he had been sent on his return from the Monfaucon seminary, his wide reading and deep study had but intensified and broadened the radicalism of his childhood. He longed to go to Paris to study law, but his father insisted that he must now confine his thoughts to selling groceries and yards of ribbon and lace, as he expected his son to succeed him in the business. Poor, foolish Joseph Gambetta! he would confine the young eagle in a barnyard. But the eagle pined and drooped in his cage, and then the loving mother--ah, those loving mothers, will their boys ever realize how much they owe them!--threw open the doors and gave him freedom, an opportunity to win fame and fortune in the great city of Paris. And now what mattered it that his clothes were poor, that his food was scant, and that it was often bitterly cold in his little garret. If not for his own sake, he MUST for hers "come home a somebody." The doors which led to a wider future were already opening. The professors at the Sorbonne appreciated his great intellect and originality. "You have a true vocation," said one. "Follow it. But go to the bar, where your voice, which is one in a thousand, will carry you on, study and intelligence aiding. The lecture room is a narrow theater. If you like, I will write to your father to tell him what my opinion of you is." And he wrote, "The best investment you ever made would be to spend what money you can divert from your business in helping your son to become an advocate." To such good purpose did the young student use his time that within two years he won his diploma. Still too young to be admitted to the bar, he spent a year studying life in Paris, listening to the debates in the Corps Legislatif, reading and debating in the radical club which he had organized, making himself ready at every point for the great opportunity which gained him a national reputation and made him the idol of the masses. In 1868 his masterly defense of Delescluze, the radical editor, against the prosecution of the Imperial government, brought the brilliant but hitherto unknown young lawyer prominently before the public. He lost his case, but won fame. Gambetta had waited eighteen months for his first brief, and five times eighteen months for his first great case. This case proved to be the initial step that led him from victory to victory, until, after the fall of Napoleon at Sedan, he became practically Dictator of France. He was, more than any one man, the maker of the French Republic, whose rights and liberties he ever defended, even at the risk of his life. He died December 31, 1882. Well had he fulfilled the hopes and ambitions of his loving mother, well had he answered the pathetic appeal, "Try to come home a somebody." ANDREW JACKSON THE BOY WHO "NEVER WOULD GIVE UP" "Sir, I am a prisoner of war, and demand to be treated as such," was the spirited reply of Andrew Jackson to a British officer who had commanded him to clean his boots. This was characteristic of the future hero of New Orleans, and president of the United States, whose independent spirit rebelled at the insolent command of his captor. The officer drew his sword to enforce obedience, but, nothing daunted, the youth, although then only fourteen, persisted in his refusal. He tried to parry the sword thrusts aimed at him, but did not escape without wounds on head and arm, the marks of which he carried to his grave. Stubborn, self-willed, and always dominated by the desire to be a leader, Andrew Jackson was by no means a model boy. But his honesty, love of truth, indomitable will and courage, in spite of his many faults, led him to greatness. He was born with fighting blood in his veins, and, like other eminent men who have risen to the White House, poor. His father, an Irish immigrant, died before his youngest son was born,--in 1767,--and life held for the boy more hard knocks than soft places. His mother, who was ambitious to make him a clergyman, tried to secure him some early advantages of schooling. Andrew, however, was not of a studious disposition, nor at all inclined to the ministry, and made little effort to profit by even the limited opportunities he had. But despite all the disadvantages of environment and mental traits by which he was handicapped, he was bound by the force of certain other traits to be a winner in the battle of life. The quality to which his success is chiefly owing is revealed by the words of a school-fellow, who, in spite of Jackson's slender physique and lack of physical strength at that time, felt the force of his iron will. Speaking of their wrestling matches at school, this boy said, "I could throw him [Jackson] three times out of four, but he never would stay throwed. He was dead game and never would give up." A boy who "never would stay throwed," and "never would give up" would succeed though the whole world tried to bar his progress. When, at the age of fifteen, he found himself alone in the world, homeless and penniless, he adapted himself to anything he could find to do. Worker in a saddler's shop, school-teacher, lawyer, merchant, judge of the Supreme Court, United States senator, soldier, leader, step by step the son of the poor Irish immigrant rose to the highest office to which his countrymen could elect him--the presidency of the United States. Rash, headstrong, and narrow-minded, Andrew Jackson fell into many errors during his life, but, notwithstanding his shortcomings, he persistently tried to live up to his boyhood's motto, "Ask nothing but what is right--submit to nothing wrong." SIR HUMPHRY DAVY'S GREATEST DISCOVERY, MICHAEL FARADAY He was only a little, barefooted errand boy, the son of a poor blacksmith. His school life ended in his thirteenth year. The extent of his education then was limited to a knowledge of the three "R's." As he trudged on his daily rounds, through the busy streets of London, delivering newspapers and books to the customers of his employer, there was little difference, outwardly, between him and scores of other boys who jostled one another in the narrow, crowded thoroughfares. But under the shabby jacket of Michael Faraday beat a heart braver and tenderer than the average; and, under the well-worn cap, a brain was throbbing that was destined to illuminate the world of science with a light that would never grow dim. Less than any one else, perhaps, did the boy dream of future greatness. For a year he served his employer faithfully in his capacity of errand boy, and, in 1805, at the age of fourteen, was apprenticed to a bookseller for seven years, as was the custom in England, to learn the combined trades of bookbinding and book-selling. The young journeyman had to exercise all his self-control to confine his attention to the outside of the books which passed through his hands. In his spare moments, however, he made himself familiar with the inside of many of them, eagerly devouring such works on science, electricity, chemistry, and natural philosophy, as came within his reach. He was especially delighted with an article on electricity, which he found in a volume of the "Encyclopedia Britannica," which had been given him to bind. He immediately began work on an electrical machine, from the very crudest materials, and, much to his delight, succeeded. It was a red-letter day in his young life when a kind-hearted customer, who had noticed his interest in scientific works, offered to take him to the Royal Institution, to attend a course of lectures to be given by the great Sir Humphry Davy. From this time on, his thoughts were constantly turned toward science. "Oh, if I could only help in some scientific work, no matter how humble!" was the daily cry of his soul. But not yet was his prayer to be granted. His mettle must be tried in the school of patience and drudgery. He must fulfill his contract with his master. For seven years he was faithful to his work, while his heart was elsewhere. And all that time, in the eagerness of his thirst for knowledge, he was imbibing facts which helped him to plan electrical achievements, the possibilities of which have not, to this day, been exhausted,--or even half realized. Like Franklin, he seemed to forecast the scientific future for ages. At length he was free to follow his bent, and his mind turned at once to Sir Humphry Davy. With a beating heart, divided between hope and fear, he wrote to the great man, telling what he wished, and asking his aid. The scientist, remembering his own day of small things, wrote the youth, politely, that he was going out of town, but would see if he could, sometime, aid him. He also said that "science is a harsh mistress, and, in a pecuniary point of view, but poorly rewards those who devote themselves exclusively to her service." This was not very encouraging, but the young votary of science was nothing daunted, and toiled at his uncongenial trade, with the added discomfort of an ill-tempered employer, giving all his evenings and odd moments to study and experiments. Then came another red-letter day. He was growing depressed, and feared that Sir Humphry had forgotten his quasi-promise, when one evening a carriage stopped at the door, and out stepped an important-looking footman in livery, with a note from the famous scientist, requesting the young bookbinder to call on him on the following morning. At last had come the answer to the prayer of little Michael Faraday, as will come the answer to all who back their prayers with patient, persistent hard work, in spite of discouragement, disappointment, and failure. And when, on that never-to-be-forgotten morning, he was engaged by the great scientist at a salary of six dollars a week, with two rooms at the top of the house, to wash bottles, clean the instruments, move them to and from the lecture rooms, and make himself generally useful in the laboratory and out of it, no happier youth could be found in all London. The door was open; not, indeed, wide, but sufficiently to allow this ardent disciple to work his way into the innermost shrine of the temple of science. Though it took years and years of plodding, incessant work and study, and a devotion to purpose with which nothing was allowed to interfere, it made Faraday, by virtue of his marvelous discoveries in electricity, electro-magnetism, and chemistry, a world benefactor, honored not only by his own country and sovereign, but by other rulers and leading nations of the earth, as one of the greatest chemists and natural philosophers of his time. So great has been his value to the scientific world, that his theories are still a constant source of inspiration to the workers in those great professions allied to electricity and chemistry. No library is complete without his published works. What wonder that Davy called Faraday his greatest discovery! THE TRIUMPH OF CANOVA The Villa d'Asola, the country residence of the Signor Falieri, was in a state of unusual excitement. Some of the most distinguished patricians of Venice had been bidden to a great banquet, which was to surpass in magnificence any entertainment ever before given, even by the wealthy and hospitable Signer Falieri. The feast was ready, the guests were assembled, when word came from the confectioner, who had been charged to prepare the center ornament for the table, that he had spoiled the piece. Consternation reigned in the servants' hall. What was to be done? The steward, or head servant, was in despair. He was responsible for the table decorations, and the absence of the centerpiece would seriously mar the arrangements. He wrung his hands and gesticulated wildly. What should he do! "If you will let me try, I think I can make something that will do." The speaker was a delicate, pale-faced boy, about twelve years old, who had been engaged to help in some of the minor details of preparation for the great event. "You!" exclaimed the steward, gazing in amazement at the modest, yet apparently audacious lad before him. "And who are you?" "I am Antonio Canova, the grandson of Pisano, the stonecutter." Desperately grasping at even the most forlorn hope, the perplexed servant gave the boy permission to try his hand at making a centerpiece. Calling for some butter, with nimble fingers and the skill of a practiced sculptor, in a short time the little scullion molded the figure of a crouching lion. So perfect in proportion, so spirited and full of life in every detail, was this marvelous butter lion that it elicited a chorus of admiration from the delighted guests, who were eager to know who the great sculptor was who had deigned to expend his genius on such perishable material. Signor Falieri, unable to gratify their curiosity, sent for his head servant, who gave them the history of the centerpiece. Antonio was immediately summoned to the banquet hall, where he blushingly received the praises and congratulations of all present, and the promise of Signer Falieri to become his patron, and thus enable him to achieve fame as a sculptor. Such, according to some biographers, was the turning point in the career of Antonio Canova, who, from a peasant lad, born in the little Venetian village of Possagno, rose to be the most illustrious sculptor of his age. Whether or not the story be true, it is certain that when the boy was in his thirteenth year, Signer Falieri placed him in the studio of Toretto, a Venetian sculptor, then living near Asola. But it is equally certain that the fame which crowned Canova's manhood, the title of Marquis of Ischia, the decorations and honors so liberally bestowed upon him by the ruler of the Vatican, kings, princes, and emperors, were all the fruits of his ceaseless industry, high ideals, and unfailing enthusiasm. The little Antonio began to draw almost as soon as he could hold a pencil, and the gown of the dear old grandmother who so tenderly loved him, and was so tenderly loved in return, often bore the marks of baby fingers fresh from modeling in clay. Antonio's father having died when the child was but three years old, his grandfather, Pisano, hoped that he would succeed him as village stonecutter and sculptor. Delicate though the little fellow had been from birth, at nine years of age he was laboring, as far as his strength would permit, in Pisano's workshop. But in the evening, after the work of the day was done, with pencil or clay he tried to give expression to the poetic fancies he had imbibed from the ballads and legends of his native hills, crooned to him in infancy by his grandmother. Under Toretto his genius developed so rapidly that the sculptor spoke of one of his creations as "a truly marvelous production." He was then only thirteen. Later we find him in Venice, studying and working with ever increasing zeal. Though Signor Falieri would have been only too glad to supply the youth's needs, he was too proud to be dependent on others. Speaking of this time, he says: "I labored for a mere pittance, but it was sufficient. It was the fruit of my own resolution, and, as I then flattered myself, the foretaste of more honorable rewards, for I never thought of wealth." Too poor to hire a workshop or studio, through the kindness of the monks of St. Stefano, he was given a cell in a vacant monastery, and here, at the age of sixteen, he started business as a sculptor on his own account. Before he was twenty, the youth had become a master of anatomy, which he declared was "the secret of the art," was thoroughly versed in literature, languages, history, poetry, mythology,--everything that could help to make him the greatest sculptor of his age,--and had, even then, produced works of surpassing merit. Effort to do better was the motto of his life, and he never permitted a day to pass without making some advance in his profession. Though often too poor to buy the marble in which to embody his conceptions, he for many years lived up to a resolution made about this time, never to close his eyes at night without having produced some design. What wonder that at twenty-five this noble youth, whose incessant toil had perfected genius, was the marvel of his age! What wonder that his famous group, Theseus vanquishing the Minotaur, elicited the enthusiastic admiration of the most noted art critics of Rome! What wonder that the little peasant boy, who had first opened his eyes, in 1757, in a mud cabin, closed them at last, in 1822, in a marble palace, crowned with all of fame and honor and wealth the world could give! But better still, he was loved and enshrined in the hearts of the people, as a friend of the poor, a patron of struggling merit, a man in whom nobility of character overtopped even the genius of the artist. FRANKLIN'S LESSON ON TIME VALUE Dost thou love life? Then, do not squander time, for that is the stuff life is made of!--FRANKLIN. Franklin not only understood the value of time, but he put a price upon it that made others appreciate its worth. A customer who came one day to his little bookstore in Philadelphia, not being satisfied with the price demanded by the clerk for the book he wished to purchase, asked for the proprietor. "Mr. Franklin is very busy just now in the press room," replied the clerk. The man, however, who had already spent an hour aimlessly turning over books, insisted on seeing him. In answer to the clerk's summons, Mr. Franklin hurried out from the newspaper establishment at the back of the store. "What is the lowest price you can take for this book, sir?" asked the leisurely customer, holding up the volume. "One dollar and a quarter," was the prompt reply. "A dollar and a quarter! Why, your clerk asked me only a dollar just now." "True," said Franklin, "and I could have better afforded to take a dollar than to leave my work." The man, who seemed to be in doubt as to whether Mr. Franklin was in earnest, said jokingly, "Well, come now, tell me your lowest price for this book." "One dollar and a half," was the grave reply. "A dollar and a half! Why, you just offered it for a dollar and a quarter." "Yes, and I could have better taken that price then than a dollar and a half now." Without another word, the crestfallen purchaser laid the money on the counter and left the store. He had learned not only that he who squanders his own time is foolish, but that he who wastes the time of others is a thief. FROM STORE BOY TO MILLIONAIRE "But I am only nineteen years old, Mr. Riggs," and the speaker looked questioningly into the eyes of his companion, as if he doubted his seriousness in asking him to become a partner in his business. Mr. Riggs was not joking, however, and he met George Peabody's perplexed gaze smilingly, as he replied: "That is no objection. If you are willing to go in with me and put your labor against my capital, I shall be well satisfied." This was the turning point in a life which was to leave its impress on two of the world's greatest nations. And what were the experiences that led to it? They were utterly commonplace, and in some respects such as fall to the lot of many country boys to-day. At eleven the lad was obliged to earn his own living. At that time (1806), his native town, Danvers, Massachusetts, presented few opportunities to the ambitious. He took the best that offered--a position as store boy in the village grocer's. Four years of faithful work and constant effort at self-culture followed. He was now fifteen. His ambition was growing. He must seek a wider field. Another year passed, and then came the longed-for opening. Joyfully the youth set out for his brother's store, in Newburyport, Massachusetts. Here he felt he would have a better chance. But disappointment and disaster were lurking round the corner. Soon after he had taken up his new duties, the store was burned to the ground. In the meantime, his father had died, and his mother, whom he idolized, needed his help more than ever. Penniless and out of work, but not disheartened, he immediately looked about for another position. Gladly he accepted an offer to work in his uncle's dry goods store in Georgetown, D.C., and here we find him, two years later, at the time when Mr. Riggs made his flattering proposition. Did influence, a "pull," or financial considerations have anything to do with the merchant's choice of a partner? Nothing whatever. The young man had no money and no "pull," save what his character had made for him. His agreeable personality had won him many friends and his uncle much additional trade. His business qualities had gained him an enviable reputation. "His tact," says Sarah K. Bolton, "was unusual. He never wounded the feelings of a buyer of goods, never tried him with unnecessary talk, never seemed impatient, and was punctual to the minute." That Mr. Riggs had made no mistake in choosing his partner, the rapid growth of his business conclusively proved. About a year after the partnership had been formed, the firm moved to Baltimore. So well did the business flourish in Baltimore that within seven years the partners had established branch houses in New York and Philadelphia. Finally Mr. Riggs decided to retire, and Peabody, who was then but thirty-five, found himself at the head of the business. London, which he had visited several times, now attracted him. It offered great possibilities for banking. He went there, studied finance, established a banking business, and thenceforth made London his headquarters. Wealth began to pour in upon him in a golden stream. But, although he had worked steadily for this, it was not for personal ends. He never married, and, to the end, lived simply and unostentatiously. Through the long years of patient work a great purpose had been shaping his life. Daily he had prayed that God might give him means wherewith to help his fellow-men. His prayer was being answered in overflowing measure. Business interests constrained him to spend the latter half of his life in London; but absence only deepened his love for his own country. All that great wealth could do to advance the welfare and prestige of the United States was done by the millionaire philanthropist. But above all else, he tried to bring within the reach of poor children that which was denied himself,--a school education. The Peabody Institute in his native town, with its free library and free course of lectures; the Institute, Academy of Music, and Art Gallery of Baltimore; the Museum of Natural History at Yale University; the Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at Harvard University; the Peabody Academy of Science at Salem, Massachusetts, besides large contributions every year to libraries and other educational and philanthropic institutions all over the country, bear witness to his love for humanity. Surpassing all this, however, was his establishment of the Peabody fund of three million dollars for the education of the freed slaves of the South, and for the equally needy poor of the white race. An equal amount had been previously devoted to the better housing of the London poor. A dream almost too good to come true it seemed to the toilers in the great city's slums, when they found their filthy, unhealthy tenements replaced by clean, wholesome dwellings, well supplied with air and sunlight and all modern conveniences and comforts. London presented its generous benefactor with the freedom of the city; a bronze statue was erected in his honor, and Queen Victoria, who would fain have loaded him with titles and honors,--all of which he respectfully declined,--declared his act to be "wholly without parallel." A beautiful miniature portrait of her Majesty, which she caused to be specially made for him, and a letter written by her own hand, were the only gifts he would accept. Gloriously had his great purpose been fulfilled. He who began life as a poor boy had given to the furtherance of education and for the benefit of the poor in various ways the sum of nine million dollars. The remaining four million dollars of his fortune was divided among his relatives. England loved and honored him even as his own country did; and when he died in London, November 4, 1869, she offered him a resting place among her immortals in Westminster Abbey. His last wish, however, was fulfilled, and he was laid beside his mother in his native land. His legacies to humanity are doing their splendid work to-day as they have done in the past, and as they will continue to do in the future, enabling multitudes of aspiring souls to reach heights which but for him they never could have attained. These words of his, too, spoken on the occasion of the dedication of his gift to Danvers,--its free Institute,--will serve for ages as a bugle call to all youths who are anxious to make the most of themselves, and, like him, to give of their best to the world:-- "Though Providence has granted me an unvaried and unusual success in the pursuit of fortune in other lands," he said, "I am still in heart the humble boy who left yonder unpretending dwelling many, very many years ago. ... There is not a youth within the sound of my voice whose early opportunities and advantages are not very much greater than were my own; and I have since achieved nothing that is impossible to the most humble boy among you. Bear in mind, that, to be truly great, it is not necessary that you should gain wealth and importance. Steadfast and undeviating truth, fearless and straightforward integrity, and an honor ever unsullied by an unworthy word or action, make their possessor greater than worldly success or prosperity. These qualities constitute greatness." "I WILL PAINT OR DIE!" HOW A POOR, UNTAUGHT FARMER'S BOY BECAME AN ARTIST "I will paint or die!" So stoutly resolved a poor, friendless boy, on a far-away Ohio farm, amid surroundings calculated to quench rather than to foster ambition. He knew not how his object was to be accomplished, for genius is never fettered by details. He only knew that he would be an artist. That settled it. He had never seen a work of art, or read or heard anything on the subject. It was his soul's voice alone that spoke, and "the soul's emphasis is always right." Left an orphan at the age of eleven, the boy agreed to work on his uncle's farm for a term of five years for the munificent sum of ten dollars per annum, the total amount of which he was to receive at the end of the five years. The little fellow struggled bravely along with the laborious farm work, never for a moment losing sight of his ideal, and profiting as he could by the few months' schooling snatched from the duties of the farm during the winter. Toward the close of his five years' service a great event happened. There came to the neighborhood an artist from Washington,--Mr. Uhl, whom he overheard by chance speaking on the subject of art. His words transformed the dream in the youth's soul to a living purpose, and it was then he resolved that he would "paint or die," and that he would go to Washington and study under Mr. Uhl. On his release from the farm he started for Washington, with a coarse outfit packed away in a shabby little trunk, and a few dollars in his pocket. With the trustfulness of extreme youth, and in ignorance of a great world, he expected to get work that would enable him to live, and, at the same time, find leisure for the pursuit of his real life work. He immediately sought Mr. Uhl, who, with great generosity, offered to teach him without charge. Then began the weary search for work in a large city already overcrowded with applicants. In his earnestness and eagerness the youth went from house to house asking for any kind of work "that would enable him to study art." But it was all in vain, and to save himself from starvation he was at length forced to accept the position of a day laborer, crushing stones for street paving. Yet he hoped to study painting when his day's work was done! Mr. Uhl was at this time engaged in painting the portraits of Mrs. Frances Hodgson Burnett's sons. In the course of conversation with Mrs. Burnett, he spoke of the heroic struggle the youth was making. The author's heart was touched by the pathetic story. She at once wrote a check for one hundred dollars, and handed it to Mr. Uhl, for his protege. With that rare delicacy of feeling which marks all beautiful souls, Mrs. Burnett did not wish to embarrass the struggler by the necessity of thanking her. "Do not let him even write to me," she said to Mr. Uhl. "Simply say to him that I shall sail for Europe in a few days, and this is to give him a chance to work at the thing he cares for so much. It will at least give him a start." In the throbbing life of the crowded city one heart beat high with hope and happiness that night. A youth lay awake until morning, too bewildered with gratitude and amazement to comprehend the meaning of the good fortune which had come to him. Who could his benefactor be? Three years later, at the annual exhibition of Washington artists, Mrs. Burnett stood before a remarkably vivid portrait. Addressing the artist in charge of the exhibition, she said: "That seems to me very strong. It looks as if it must be a realistic likeness. Who did it?" "I am so glad you like it. It was painted by your protege, Mrs. Burnett." "My protege! My protege! Whom do you mean?" "Why, the young man you saved from despair three years ago. Don't you remember young W----?" "W----?" queried Mrs. Burnett. "The young man whose story Mr. Uhl told you." Mrs. Burnett then inquired if the portrait was for sale. When informed that the picture was an order and not for sale, she asked if there was anything else of Mr. W----'s on exhibition. She was conducted to a striking picture of a turbaned head, which was pointed out as another of Mr. W----'s works. "How much does he ask for it?" "A hundred and fifty dollars." "Put 'sold' upon it, and when Mr. W---- comes, tell him his friend has bought his picture," said Mrs. Burnett. On her return home Mrs. Burnett made out a check, which she inclosed in a letter to the young painter. It was mailed simultaneously with a letter from her protege, who had but just heard of her return from Europe, in which he begged her to accept, as a slight expression of his gratitude, the picture she had just purchased. The turbaned head now adorns the hall of Mrs. Burnett's house in Washington. "I do not understand it even to-day," declares Mr. W----. "I knew nothing of Mrs. Burnett, nor she of me. Why did she do it? I only know that that hundred dollars was worth more to me then than fifty thousand in gold would be now. I lived upon it a whole year, and it put me on my feet." Mr. W---- is a successful artist, now favorably known in his own country and in England for the strength and promise of his work. THE CALL THAT SPEAKS IN THE BLOOD Nature took the measure of little Tommy Edwards for a round hole, but his parents, teachers, and all with whom his childhood was cast, got it into their heads that Tommy was certainly intended for a square hole. So, with the best intentions in the world,--but oh, such woeful ignorance!--they tortured the poor little fellow and crippled him for life by trying to fit him to their pattern instead of that designed for him by the all-wise Mother. Mother Nature called to Tommy to go into the woods and fields, to wade through the brooks, and make friends with all the living things she had placed there,--tadpoles, beetles, frogs, crabs, mice, rats, spiders, bugs,--everything that had life. Willingly, lovingly did the little lad obey, but only to be whipped and scolded by good Mother Edwards when he let loose in her kitchen the precious treasures which he had collected in his rambles. It was provoking to have rats, mice, toads, bugs, and all sorts of creepy things sent sprawling over one's clean kitchen floor. But the pity of it was that Mrs. Edwards did not understand her boy, and thought the only cure for what she deemed his mischievous propensity as whipping. So Tommy was whipped and scolded, and scolded and whipped, which, however, did not in the least abate his love for Nature. Driven to desperation, his mother bethought her of a plan. She would make the boy prisoner and see if this would tame him. With a stout rope she tied him by the leg to a table, and shut him in a room alone. But no sooner was the door closed than he dragged himself and the table to the fireplace, and, at the risk of setting himself and the house on fire, burned the rope which bound him, and made his escape into the woods to collect new specimens. And yet his parents did not understand. It was time, however, to send him to school. They would see what the schoolmaster would do for him. But the schoolmaster was as blind as the parents, and Tommy's doom was sealed, when one morning, while the school was at prayers, a jackdaw poked its head out of his pocket and began to caw. His next teacher misunderstood, whipped, and bore with him until one day nearly every boy in the school found a horse-leech wriggling up his leg, trying to suck his blood. This ended his second school experience. He was given a third trial, but with no better results than before. Things went on in the usual way until a centipede was discovered in another boy's desk. Although in this case Tommy was innocent of any knowledge of the intruder, he was found guilty, whipped, and sent home with the message, "Go and tell your father to get you on board a man-of-war, as that is the best school for irreclaimables such as you." His school life thus ended, he was apprenticed to a shoemaker, and thenceforth made his living at the bench. But every spare moment was given to the work which was meat and drink, life itself, to him. In his manhood, to enable him to classify the minute and copious knowledge of birds, beasts, and insects which he had been gathering since childhood, with great labor and patience he learned how to read and write. Later, realizing how his lack of education hampered him, he endeavored to secure the means to enable him to study to better advantage, and sold for twenty pounds sterling a very large number of valuable specimens. He tried to get employment as a naturalist, and, but for his poor reading and writing, would have succeeded. Poor little Scotch laddie! Had his parents or teachers understood him, he might have been as great a naturalist as Agassiz, and his life instead of being dwarfed and crippled, would have been a joy to himself and an incalculable benefit to the world. WASHINGTON'S YOUTHFUL HEROISM "No great deed is done By falterers who ask for certainty." "God will give you a reward," solemnly spoke the grateful mother, as she received from the arms of the brave youth the child he had risked his life to save. As if her lips were touched with the spirit of prophecy, she continued, "He will do great things for you in return for this day's work, and the blessings of thousands besides mine will attend you." The ear of George Washington was ever open to the cry of distress; his sympathy and aid were ever at the service of those who needed them. One calm, sunny day, in the spring of 1750, he was dining with other surveyors in a forest in Virginia. Suddenly the stillness of the forest was startled by the piercing shriek of a woman. Washington instantly sprang to his feet and hurried to the woman's assistance. "My boy, my boy,--oh, my poor boy is drowning, and they will not let me go," screamed the frantic mother, as she tried to escape from the detaining hands which withheld her from jumping into the rapids. "Oh, sir!" she implored, as she caught sight of the manly youth of eighteen, whose presence even then inspired confidence; "Oh, sir, you will surely do something for me!" For an instant Washington measured the rocks and the whirling currents with a comprehensive look, and then, throwing off his coat, plunged into the roaring rapids where he had caught a glimpse of the drowning boy. With stout heart and steady hand he struggled against the seething mass of waters which threatened every moment to engulf or dash him to pieces against the sharp-pointed rocks which lay concealed beneath. Three times he had almost succeeded in grasping the child's dress, when the force of the current drove him back. Then he gathered himself together for one last effort. Just as the child was about to escape him forever and be shot over the falls into the whirlpool below, he clutched him. The spectators on the bank cried out in horror. They gave both up for lost. But Washington seemed to lead a charmed life, and the cry of horror was changed to one of joy when, still holding the child, he emerged lower down from the vortex of waters. Striking out for a low place in the bank, within a few minutes he reached the shore with his burden. Then amid the acclamations of those who had witnessed his heroism, and the blessings of the overjoyed mother, Washington placed the unconscious, but still living, child in her arms. A COW HIS CAPITAL A cow! Now, of all things in the world; of what use was a cow to an ambitious boy who wanted to go to college? Yet a cow, and nothing more, was the capital, the entire stock in trade, of an aspiring farmer boy who felt within him a call to another kind of life than that his father led. This youth, who was yet in his teens, next to his father and mother, loved a book better than anything else in the world, and his great ambition was to go to college, to become a "scholar." Whether he followed the plow, or tossed hay under a burning July sun, or chopped wood, while his blood tingled from the combined effects of exercise and the keen December wind, his thoughts were ever fixed on the problem, "How can I go to college?" His parents were poor, and, while they could give him a comfortable support as long as he worked on the farm with them, they could not afford to send him to college. But if they could not give him any material aid, they gave him all their sympathy, which kept the fire of his resolution burning at white heat. There is some subtle communication between the mind and the spiritual forces of achievement which renders it impossible for one to think for any great length of time on a tangled problem, without a method for its untanglement being suggested. So, one evening, while driving the cows home to be milked, the thought flashed across the brain of the would-be student: "If I can't have anything else for capital, why can't I have a cow? I could do something with it, I am sure, and to college I MUST go, come what will." Courage is more than half the battle. Decision and Energy are its captains, and, when these three are united, victory is sure. The problem of going to college was already more than half solved. Our youthful farmer did not let his thought grow cold. Hurrying at once to his father, he said, "If you will give me a cow, I shall feel free, with your permission, to go forth and see what I can do for myself in the world." The father, agreeing to the proposition, which seemed to him a practical one, replied heartily, "My son, you shall have the best milch cow I own." Followed by the prayers and blessings of his parents, the youth started from home, driving his cow before him, his destination being a certain academy between seventy-five and one hundred miles distant. Very soon he experienced the truth of the old adage that "Heaven helps those who help themselves." At the end of his first day's journey, when he sought a night's lodging for himself and accommodation for his cow in return for her milk, he met with unexpected kindness. The good people to whom he applied not only refused to take anything from him, but gave him bread to eat with his milk, and his cow a comfortable barn to lie in, with all the hay she could eat. During the entire length of his journey, he met with equal kindness and consideration at the hands of all those with whom he came in contact; and, when he reached the academy, the principal and his wife were so pleased with his frank, modest, yet self-confident bearing, that they at once adopted himself and his cow into the family. He worked for his board, and the cow ungrudgingly gave her milk for the general good. In due time the youth was graduated with honors from the academy. He was then ready to enter college, but had no money. The kind-hearted principal of the academy and his wife again came to his aid and helped him out of the difficulty by purchasing his cow. The money thus obtained enabled him to take the next step forward. He bade his good friends farewell, and the same year entered college. For four years he worked steadily with hand and brain. In spite of the hard work they were happy years, and at their close the persevering student had won, in addition to his classical degree, many new friends and well-wishers. His next step was to take a theological course in another institution. When he had finished the course, he was called to be principal of the academy to which honest ambition first led him with his cow. Years afterward a learned professor of Hebrew, and the author of a scholarly "Commentary," cheered and encouraged many a struggling youth by relating the story of his own experiences from the time when he, a simple rustic, had started for college with naught but a cow as capital. This story was first related to the writer by the late Frances E. Willard, who vouched for its truth. THE BOY WHO SAID "I MUST" Farther back than the memory of the grandfathers and grandmothers of some of my young readers can go, there lived in a historic town in Massachusetts a brave little lad who loved books and study more than toys or games, or play of any kind. The dearest wish of his heart was to be able to go to school every day, like more fortunate boys and girls, so that, when he should grow up to be a man, he might be well educated and fitted to do some grand work in the world. But his help was needed at home, and, young as he was, he began then to learn the lessons of unselfishness and duty. It was hard, wasn't it, for a little fellow only eight years old to have to leave off going to school and settle down to work on a farm? Many young folks at his age think they are very badly treated if they are not permitted to have some toy or story book, or other thing on which they have set their hearts; and older boys and girls, too, are apt to pout and frown if their whims are not gratified. But Theodore's parents were very poor, and could not even indulge his longing to go to school. Did he give up his dreams of being a great man? Not a bit of it. He did not even cry or utter a complaint, but manfully resolved that he would do everything he could "to help father," and then, "when winter comes," he thought, "I shall be able to go to school again." Bravely the little fellow toiled through the beautiful springtide, though his wistful glances were often turned in the direction of the schoolhouse. But he resolutely bent to his work and renewed his resolve that he would be educated. As spring deepened into summer, the work on the farm grew harder and harder, but Theodore rejoiced that the flight of each season brought winter nearer. At length autumn had vanished; the fruits of the spring and summer's toil had been gathered; the boy was free to go to his beloved studies again. And oh, how he reveled in the few books at his command in the village school! How eagerly he trudged across the fields, morning after morning, to the schoolhouse, where he always held first place in his class! Blustering winds and fierce snowstorms had no terrors for the ardent student. His only sorrow was that winter was all too short, and the days freighted with the happiness of regular study slipped all too quickly by. But the kind-hearted schoolmaster lent him books, so that, when spring came round again, and the boy had to go back to work, he could pore over them in his odd moments of relaxation. As he patiently plodded along, guiding the plow over the rough earth, he recited the lessons he had learned during the brief winter season, and after dinner, while the others rested awhile from their labors, Theodore eagerly turned the pages of one of his borrowed books, from which he drank in deep draughts of delight and knowledge. Early in the summer mornings, before the regular work began, and late in the evening, when the day's tasks had all been done, he read and re-read his treasured volumes until he knew them from cover to cover. Then he was confronted with a difficulty. He had begun to study Latin, but found it impossible to get along without a dictionary. "What shall I do?" he thought; "there is no one from whom I can borrow a Latin dictionary, and I cannot ask father to buy me one, because he cannot afford it. But I MUST have it." That "must" settled the question. Three quarters of a century ago, book stores were few and books very costly. Boys and girls who have free access to libraries and reading rooms, and can buy the best works of great authors, sometimes for a few cents, can hardly imagine the difficulties which beset the little farmer boy in trying to get the book he wanted. Did he get the dictionary? Oh, yes. You remember he had said, "I must." After thinking and thinking how he could get the money to buy it, a bright idea flashed across his mind. The bushes in the fields about the farm seemed waiting for some one to pick the ripe whortle-berries. "Why," thought he, "can't I gather and sell enough to buy my dictionary?" The next morning, before any one else in the farmhouse was astir, Theodore was moving rapidly through the bushes, picking, picking, picking, with unwearied fingers, the shining berries, every one of which was of greater value in his eyes than a penny would be to some of you. At last, after picking and selling several bushels of ripe berries, he had enough money to buy the coveted dictionary. Oh, what a joy it was to possess a book that had been purchased with his own money! How it thrilled the boy and quickened his ambition to renewed efforts! "Well done, my boy! But, Theodore, I cannot afford to keep you there." "Well, father," replied the youth, "but I am not going to study there; I shall study at home at odd times, and thus prepare myself for a final examination, which will give me a diploma." Theodore had just returned from Boston, and was telling his delighted father how he had spent the holiday which he had asked for in the morning. Starting out early from the farm, so as to reach Boston before the intense heat of the August day had set in, he cheerfully tramped the ten miles that lay between his home in Lexington and Harvard College, where he presented himself as a candidate for admission; and when the examinations were over, Theodore had the joy of hearing his name announced in the list of successful students. The youth had reached the goal which the boy of eight had dimly seen. And now, if you would learn how he worked and taught in a country school in order to earn the money to spend two years in college, and how the young man became one of the most eminent preachers in America, you must read a complete biography of Theodore Parker, the hero of this little story. THE HIDDEN TREASURE Long, long ago, in the shadowy past, Ali Hafed dwelt on the shores of the River Indus, in the ancient land of the Hindus. His beautiful cottage, set in the midst of fruit and flower gardens, looked from the mountain side on which it stood over the broad expanse of the noble river. Rich meadows, waving fields of grain, and the herds and flocks contentedly grazing on the pasture lands, testified to the thrift and prosperity of Ali Hafed. The love of a beautiful wife and a large family of light-hearted boys and girls made his home an earthly paradise. Healthy, wealthy, contented, rich in love and friendship, his cup of happiness seemed full to overflowing. Happy and contented, as we have seen, was the good Ali Hafed, when one evening a learned priest of Buddha, journeying along the banks of the Indus, stopped for rest and refreshment at his home, where all wayfarers were hospitably welcomed and treated as honored guests. After the evening meal, the farmer and his family, with the priest in their midst, gathered around the fireside, the chilly mountain air of the late autumn making a fire desirable. The disciple of Buddha entertained his kind hosts with various legends and myths, and last of all with the story of the creation. He told his wondering listeners how in the beginning the solid earth on which they lived was not solid at all, but a mere bank of fog. "The Great Spirit," said he, "thrust his finger into the bank of fog and began slowly describing a circle in its midst, increasing the speed gradually until the fog went whirling round his finger so rapidly that it was transformed into a glowing ball of fire. Then the Creative Spirit hurled the fiery ball from his hand, and it shot through the universe, burning its way through other banks of fog and condensing them into rain, which fell in great floods, cooling the surface of the immense ball. Flames then bursting from the interior through the cooled outer crust, threw up the hills and mountain ranges, and made the beautiful fertile valleys. In the flood of rain that followed this fiery upheaval, the substance that cooled very quickly formed granite, that which cooled less rapidly became copper, the next in degree cooled down into silver, and the last became gold. But the most beautiful substance of all, the diamond, was formed by the first beams of sunlight condensed on the earth's surface. "A drop of sunlight the size of my thumb," said the priest, holding up his hand, "is worth more than mines of gold. With one such drop," he continued, turning to Ali Hafed, "you could buy many farms like yours; with a handful you could buy a province, and with a mine of diamonds you could purchase a whole kingdom." The company parted for the night, and Ali Hafed went to bed, but not to sleep. All night long he tossed restlessly from side to side, thinking, planning, scheming how he could secure some diamonds. The demon of discontent had entered his soul, and the blessings and advantages which he possessed in such abundance seemed as by some malicious magic to have utterly vanished. Although his wife and children loved him as before; although his farm, his orchards, his flocks, and herds were as real and prosperous as they had ever been, yet the last words of the priest, which kept ringing in his ears, turned his content into vague longings and blinded him to all that had hitherto made him happy. Before dawn next morning the farmer, full of his purpose, was astir. Rousing the priest, he eagerly inquired if he could direct him to a mine of diamonds. "A mine of diamonds!" echoed the astonished priest. "What do you, who already have so much to be grateful for, want with diamonds?" "I wish to be rich and place my children on thrones." "All you have to do, then," said the Buddhist, "is to go and search until you find them." "But where shall I go?" questioned the infatuated man. "Go anywhere," was the vague reply; "north, south, east, or west,--anywhere." "But how shall I know the place?" asked the farmer. "When you find a river running over white sands between high mountain ranges, in these white sands you will find diamonds. There are many such rivers and many mines of diamonds waiting to be discovered. All you have to do is to start out and go somewhere--" and he waved his hand--"away, away!" Ali Hafed's mind was full made up. "I will no longer," he thought, "remain on a wretched farm, toiling day in and day out for a mere subsistence, when acres of diamonds--untold wealth--may be had by him who is bold enough to seek them." He sold his farm for less than half its value. Then, after putting his young family under the care of a neighbor, he set out on his quest. With high hopes and the coveted diamond mines beckoning in the far distance, Ali Hafed began his wanderings. During the first few weeks his spirits did not flag, nor did his feet grow weary. On, and on, he tramped until he came to the Mountains of the Moon, beyond the bounds of Arabia. Weeks stretched into months, and the wanderer often looked regretfully in the direction of his once happy home. Still no gleam of waters glinting over white sands greeted his eyes. But on he went, into Egypt, through Palestine, and other eastern lands, always looking for the treasure he still hoped to find. At last, after years of fruitless search, during which he had wandered north and south, east and west, hope left him. All his money was spent. He was starving and almost naked, and the diamonds--which had lured him away from all that made life dear--where were they? Poor Ali Hafed never knew. He died by the wayside, never dreaming that the wealth for which he had sacrificed happiness and life might have been his had he remained at home. "Here is a diamond! here is a diamond! Has Ali Hafed returned?" shouted an excited voice. The speaker, no other than our old acquaintance, the Buddhist priest, was standing in the same room where years before he had told poor Ali Hafed how the world was made, and where diamonds were to be found. "No, Ali Hafed has not returned," quietly answered his successor. "Neither is that which you hold in your hand a diamond; it is but a pretty black pebble I picked up in my garden." "I tell you," said the priest, excitedly, "this is a genuine diamond. I know one when I see it. Tell me how and where you found it?" "One day," replied the farmer, slowly, "having led my camel into the garden to drink, I noticed, as he put his nose into the water, a sparkle of light coming from the white sand at the bottom of the clear stream. Stooping down, I picked up the black pebble you now hold, guided to it by that crystal eye in the center from which the light flashes so brilliantly." "Why, thou simple one," cried the priest, "this is no common stone, but a gem of the purest water. Come, show me where thou didst find it." Together they flew to the spot where the farmer had found the "pebble," and, turning over the white sands with eager fingers, they found, to their great delight, other stones even more valuable and beautiful than the first. Then they extended their search, and, so the Oriental story goes, "every shovelful of the old farm, as acre after acre was sifted over, revealed gems with which to decorate the crowns of emperors and moguls." LOVE TAMED THE LION I would not enter on my list of friends, (Though graced with polished manners and fine sense, Yet wanting sensibility), the man Who needlessly sets foot upon a worm. COWPER. "Nero!" Crushed, baffled, blinded, and, like Samson, shorn of his strength, prostrate in his cage lay the great tawny monarch of the forest. Heedless of the curious crowds passing to and fro, he seemed deaf as well as blind to everything going on around him. Perhaps he was dreaming of the jungle. Perhaps he was longing to roam the wilds once more in his native strength. Perhaps memories of a happy past even in captivity stirred him. Perhaps--But what is this? What change has come o'er the spirit of his dreams? No one has touched him. Apparently, nothing has happened to arouse him. Only a woman's voice, soft, caressing, full of love, has uttered the name, "Nero." But there was magic in the sound. In an instant the huge animal was on his feet. Quivering with emotion, he rushed to the side of the cage from whence the voice proceeded, and threw himself against the bars with such violence that he fell back half stunned. As he fell he uttered the peculiar note of welcome with which, in happier days, he was wont to greet his loved and long-lost mistress. Touched with the devotion of her dumb friend, Rosa Bonheur--for it was she who had spoken--released from bondage the faithful animal whom, years before, she had bought from a keeper who declared him untamable. "In order to secure the affections of wild animals," said the great-hearted painter, "you must love them," and by love she had subdued the ferocious beast whom even the lion-tamers had given up as hopeless. When about to travel for two years, it being impossible to take her pet with her, Mademoiselle Bonheur sold him to the Jardin des Plantes in Paris, where she found him on her return, totally blind, owing, it is said, to the ill treatment of the attendant. Grieved beyond measure at the condition of poor Nero, she had him removed to her chateau, where everything was done for his comfort that love could suggest. Often in her leisure moments, when she had laid aside her painting garb, the artist would have him taken to her studio, where she would play with and fondle the enormous creature as if he were a kitten. And there, at last, he died happily, his great paws clinging fondly to the mistress who loved him so well, his sightless eyes turned upon her to the end, as if beseeching that she would not again leave him. "THERE IS ROOM ENOUGH AT THE TOP" These words ere uttered many years ago by a youth who had no other means by which to reach the top than work and will. They have since become the watchword of every poor boy whose ambition is backed by energy and a determination to make the most possible of himself. The occasion on which Daniel Webster first said "There is room enough at the top," marked the turning point in his life. Had he not been animated at that time by an ambition to make the most of his talents, he might have remained forever in obscurity. His father and other friends had secured for him the position of Clerk of the Court of Common Pleas, of Hillsborough County, New Hampshire. Daniel was studying law in the office of Mr. Christopher Gore, a distinguished Boston lawyer, and was about ready for his admission to the bar. The position offered him was worth fifteen hundred dollars a year. This seemed a fortune to the struggling student. He lay awake the whole night following the day on which he had heard the good news, planning what he would do for his father and mother, his brother Ezekiel, and his sisters. Next morning he hurried to the office to tell Mr. Gore of his good fortune. "Well, my young friend," said the lawyer, when Daniel had told his story, "the gentlemen have been very kind to you; I am glad of it. You must thank them for it. You will write immediately, of course." Webster explained that, since he must go to New Hampshire immediately, it would hardly be worth while to write. He could thank his good friends in person. "Why," said Mr. Gore in great astonishment, "you don't mean to accept it, surely!" The youth's high spirits were damped at once by his senior's manner. "The bare idea of not accepting it," he says, "so astounded me that I should have been glad to have found any hole to have hid myself in." "Well," said Mr. Gore, seeing the disappointment his words had caused, "you must decide for yourself; but come, sit down and let us talk it over. The office is worth fifteen hundred a year, you say. Well, it never will be any more. Ten to one, if they find out it is so much, the fees will be reduced. You are appointed now by friends; others may fill their places who are of different opinions, and who have friends of their own to provide for. You will lose your place; or, supposing you to retain it, what are you but a clerk for life? And your prospects as a lawyer are good enough to encourage you to go on. Go on, and finish your studies; you are poor enough, but there are greater evils than poverty; live on no man's favor; what bread you do eat, let it be the bread of independence; pursue your profession, make yourself useful to your friends and a little formidable to your enemies, and you have nothing to fear." How fortunate Webster as to have at this point in his career so wise and far-seeing a friend! His father, who had made many sacrifices to educate his boys, saw in the proffered clerkship a great opening for his favorite, Daniel. He never dreamed of the future that was to make him one of America's greatest orators and statesmen. At first he could not believe that the position which he had worked so hard to obtain was to be rejected. "Daniel, Daniel," he said sorrowfully, "don't you mean to take that office?" "No, indeed, father," was the reply, "I hope I can do much better than that. I mean to use my tongue in the courts, not my pen; to be an actor, not a register of other men's acts. I hope yet, sir, to astonish your honor in your own court by my professional attainments." Judge Webster made no attempt to conceal his disappointment. He even tried to discourage his son by reminding him that there were already more lawyers than the country needed. It was in answer to this objection that Daniel used the famous and oft-quoted words,--"There is room enough at the top." "Well, my son," said the fond but doubting father, "your mother has always said you would come to something or nothing. She was not sure which; I think you are now about settling that doubt for her." It was very painful to Daniel to disappoint his father, but his purpose was fixed, and nothing now could change it. He knew he had turned his face in the right direction, and though when he commenced to practice law he earned only about five or six hundred dollars a year, he never regretted the decision he had made. He aimed high, and he had his reward. It is true now and forever, as Lowell says, that-- "Not failure, but low aim, is crime." THE UPLIFT OF A SLAVE BOY'S IDEAL Invincible determination, and a right nature, are the levers that move the world.--PORTER. Born a slave, with the feelings and possibilities of a man, but with no rights above the beast of the field, Fred Douglass gave the world one of the most notable examples of man's power over circumstances. He had no knowledge of his father, whom he had never seen. He had only a dim recollection of his mother, from whom he had been separated at birth. The poor slave mother used to walk twelve miles when her day's work was done, in order to get an occasional glimpse of her child. Then she had to walk back to the plantation on which she labored, so as to be in time to begin to work at dawn next morning. Under the brutal discipline of the "Aunt Katy" who had charge of the slaves who were still too young to labor in the fields, he early began to realize the hardships of his lot, and to rebel against the state of bondage into which he had been born. Often hungry, and clothed in hottest summer and coldest winter alike, in a coarse tow linen shirt, scarcely reaching to the knees, without a bed to lie on or a blanket to cover him, his only protection, no matter how cold the night, was an old corn bag, into which he thrust himself, leaving his feet exposed at one end, and his head at the other. When about seven years old, he was transferred to new owners in Baltimore, where his kind-hearted mistress, who did not know that in doing so she was breaking the law, taught him the alphabet. He thus got possession of the key which was to unlock his bonds, and, young as he was, he knew it. It did not matter that his master, when he learned what had been done, forbade his wife to give the boy further instructions. He had already tasted of the fruit of the tree of knowledge. The prohibition was useless. Neither threats nor stripes nor chains could hold the awakened soul in bondage. With infinite pains and patience, and by stealth, he enlarged upon his knowledge of the alphabet. An old copy of "Webster's Spelling Book," cast aside by his young master, as his greatest treasure. With the aid of a few good-natured white boys, who sometimes played with him in the streets, he quickly mastered its contents. Then he cast about for further means to satisfy his mental craving. How difficult it was for the poor, despised slave to do this, we learn from his own pathetic words. "I have gathered," he says, "scattered pages of the Bible from the filthy street gutters, and washed and dried them, that, in moments of leisure, I might get a word or two of wisdom from them." Think of that, boys and girls of the twentieth century, with your day schools and evening schools, libraries, colleges, and universities,--picking reading material from the gutter and mastering it by stealth! Yet this boy grew up to be the friend and co-worker of Garrison and Phillips, the eloquent spokesman of his race, the honored guest of distinguished peers and commoners of England, one of the noblest examples of a self-made man that the world has ever seen. Under equal hardships he learned to write. The boy's wits, sharpened instead of blunted by repression, saw opportunities where more favored children could see none. He gave himself his first writing lesson in his master's shipyard, by copying from the various pieces of timber the letters with which they had been marked by the carpenters, to show the different parts of the ship for which they were intended. He copied from posters on fences, from old copy books, from anything and everything he could get hold of. He practiced his new art on pavements and rails, and entered into contests in letter making with white boys, in order to add to his knowledge. "With playmates for my teachers," he says, "fences and pavements for my copy books, and chalk for my pen and ink, I learned to write." While being "broken in" to field labor under the lash of the overseer, chained and imprisoned for the crime of attempting to escape from slavery, the spirit of the youth never quailed. He believed in himself, in his God-given powers, and he was determined to use them in freeing himself and his race. How well he succeeded in the stupendous task to which he set himself while yet groping in the black night of bondage, with no human power outside of his own indomitable will to help him, his life work attests in language more enduring than "storied urn" or written history. A roll call of the world's great moral heroes would be incomplete without the name of the slave-born Douglass, who came on the stage of life to play the leading role of the Moses of his race in one of the saddest and, at the same time, most glorious eras of American history. He was born in Talbot County, Maryland. The exact date of his birth is not known; but he himself thought it was in February, 1817. He died in Washington, D.C., February 20, 1895. "TO THE FIRST ROBIN" The air was keen and biting, and traces of snow still lingered on the ground and sparkled on the tree tops in the morning sun. But the happy, rosy-cheeked children, lately freed from the restraints of city life, who played in the old garden in Concord, Massachusetts, that bright spring morning many years ago, heeded not the biting wind or the lingering snow. As they raced up and down the paths, in and out among the trees, their cheeks took on a deeper glow, their eyes a brighter sparkle, while their shouts of merry laughter made the morning glad. But stay, what is this? What has happened to check the laughter on their lips, and dim their bright eyes with tears? The little group, headed by Louisa, has suddenly come to a pause under a tree, where a wee robin, half dead with hunger and cold, has fallen from its perch. "Poor, poor birdie!" exclaimed a chorus of pitying voices. "It is dead, poor little thing," said Anna. "No," said Louisa, the leader of the children in fun and works of mercy alike; "it is warm, and I can feel its heart beat." As she spoke, she gathered the tiny bundle of feathers to her bosom, and, heading the little procession, turned toward the house. A warm nest was made for the foundling, and, with motherly care, the little Louisa May Alcott, then only eight years old, fed and nursed back to life the half-famished bird. Before the feathered claimant on her mercy flew away to freedom, the future authoress, the "children's friend," who loved and pitied all helpless things, wrote her first poem, and called it "To the First Robin." It contained only these two stanzas:-- "Welcome, welcome, little stranger, Fear no harm, and fear no danger, We are glad to see you here, For you sing, 'Sweet spring is near.' "Now the white snow melts away, Now the flowers blossom gay, Come, dear bird, and build your nest, For we love our robin best." THE "WIZARD" AS AN EDITOR Although he had only a few months' regular schooling, at ten Thomas Alva Edison had read and thought more than many youths of twenty. Gibbon's "Rome," Hume's "England," Sears's "History of the World," besides several books on chemistry,--a subject in which he was even then deeply interested,--were familiar friends. Yet he was not, by any means, a serious bookworm. On the contrary, he was as full of fun and mischief as any healthy boy of his age. The little fellow's sunny face and pleasing manners made him a general favorite, and when circumstances forced him from the parent nest into the big bustling world at the age of twelve, he became the most popular train boy on the Grand Trunk Railroad in central Michigan, while his keen powers of observation and practical turn of mind made him the most successful. His ambition soared far beyond the selling of papers, song books, apples, and peanuts, and his business ability was such that he soon had three or four boys selling his wares on commission. His interest in chemistry, however, had not abated, and his busy brain now urged him to try new fields. He exchanged some of his papers for retorts and other simple apparatus, bought a copy of Fiesenius's "Qualitative Analysis," and secured the use of an old baggage car as a laboratory. Here, surrounded by chemicals and experimenting apparatus, he spent some of the happiest hours of his life. But even this was not a sufficient outlet for the energies of the budding inventor. Selling papers had naturally aroused his interest in printing and editing, and with Edison interest always manifested itself in action. In buying papers, he had, as usual, made use of his eyes, and, with the little knowledge of printing picked up in this way, he determined to start a printing press and edit a paper of his own. He first purchased a quantity of old type from the Detroit Free Press. Then he put a printing press in the baggage car, which did duty as printing and editorial office as well as laboratory, and began his editorial labors. When the first copy of the Grand Trunk Herald was put on sale, it would be hard to find a happier boy than its owner was. No matter that the youthful editor's "Associated Press" consisted of baggage men and brakemen, or that the literary matter contributed to the Grand Trunk Herald was chiefly railway gossip, with some general information of interest to passengers, the little three-cent sheet became very popular. Even the great London Times deigned to notice it, as the only journal in the world printed on a railway train. But, successful as he was in his editorial venture, Edison's best love was given to chemistry and electricity, which latter subject he had begun to study with his usual ardor. And well it was for the world when the youth of sixteen gave up train and newspaper work, that no poverty, no difficulties, no ridicule, no "hard luck," none of the trials and obstacles he had to encounter in after life, had power to chill or discourage the genius of the master inventor of the nineteenth century. HOW GOOD FORTUNE CAME TO PIERRE Many years ago, in a shabby room in one of the poorest streets of London, a little golden-haired boy sat singing, in his sweet, childish voice, by the bedside of his sick mother. Though faint from hunger and oppressed with loneliness, he manfully forced back the tears that kept welling up into his blue eyes, and, for his mother's sake, tried to look bright and cheerful. But it was hard to be brave and strong while his dear mother was suffering for lack of the delicacies which he longed to provide for her, but could not. He had not tasted food all day himself. How he could drive away the gaunt, hungry wolf, Famine, that had come to take up its abode with them, was the thought that haunted him as he tried to sing a little song he himself had composed. He left his place by the invalid, who, lulled by his singing, had fallen into a light sleep. As he looked listlessly out of the window, he noticed a man putting up a large poster, which bore, in staring yellow letters, the announcement that Madame M----, one of the greatest singers that ever lived, was to sing in public that night. "Oh, if I could only go!" thought little Pierre, his love of music for the moment making him forgetful of aught else. Suddenly his face brightened, and the light of a great resolve shone in his eyes. "I will try it," he said to himself; and, running lightly to a little stand that stood at the opposite end of the room, with trembling hands he took from a tiny box a roll of paper. With a wistful, loving glance at the sleeper, he stole from the room and hurried out into the street. "Who did you say is waiting for me?" asked Madame M---- of her servant; "I am already worn out with company." "It is only a very pretty little boy with yellow curls, who said that if he can just see you, he is sure you will not be sorry, and he will not keep you a moment." "Oh, well, let him come," said the great singer, with a kindly smile, "I can never refuse children." Timidly the child entered the luxurious apartment, and, bowing before the beautiful, stately woman, he began rapidly, lest his courage should fail him: "I came to see you because my mother is very sick, and we are too poor to get food and medicine. I thought, perhaps, that if you would sing my little song at some of your grand concerts, maybe some publisher would buy it for a small sum, and so I could get food and medicine for my mother." Taking the little roll of paper which the boy held in his hand, the warm-hearted singer lightly hummed the air. Then, turning toward him, she asked, in amazement: "Did you compose it? you, a child! And the words, too?" Without waiting for a reply, she added quickly, "Would you like to come to my concert this evening?" The boy's face became radiant with delight at the thought of hearing the famous songstress, but a vision of his sick mother, lying alone in the poor, cheerless room, flitted across his mind, and he answered, with a choking in his throat:-- "Oh, yes; I should so love to go, but I couldn't leave my mother." "I will send somebody to take care of your mother for the evening, and here is a crown with which you may go and get food and medicine. Here is also one of my tickets. Come to-night; that will admit you to a seat near me." Overcome with joy, the child could scarcely express his gratitude to the gracious being who seemed to him like an angel from heaven. As he went out again into the crowded street, he seemed to tread on air. He bought some fruit and other little delicacies to tempt his mother's appetite, and while spreading out the feast of good things before her astonished gaze, with tears in his eyes, he told her of the kindness of the beautiful lady. An hour later, tingling with expectation, Pierre set out for the concert. How like fairyland it all seemed! The color, the dazzling lights, the flashing gems and glistening silks of the richly dressed ladies bewildered him. Ah! could it be possible that the great artist who had been so kind to him would sing his little song before this brilliant audience? At length she came on the stage, bowing right and left in answer to the enthusiastic welcome which greeted her appearance. A pause of expectancy followed. The boy held his breath and gazed spellbound at the radiant vision on whom all eyes were riveted. The orchestra struck the first notes of a plaintive melody, and the glorious voice of the great singer filled the vast hall, as the words of the sad little song of the child composer floated on the air. It was so simple, so touching, so full of exquisite pathos, that many were in tears before it was finished. And little Pierre? There he sat, scarcely daring to move or breathe, fearing that the flowers, the lights, the music, should vanish, and he should wake up to find it all a dream. He was aroused from his trance by the tremendous burst of applause that rang through the house as the last note trembled away into silence. He started up. It was no dream. The greatest singer in Europe had sung his little song before a fashionable London audience. Almost dazed with happiness, he never knew how he reached his poor home; and when he related the incidents of the evening, his mother's delight nearly equaled his own. Nor was this the end. Next day they were startled by a visit from Madame M----. After gently greeting the sick woman, while her hand played with Pierre's golden curls, she said: "Your little boy, Madame, has brought you a fortune. I was offered this morning, by the best publisher in London, 300 pounds for his little song; and after he has realized a certain amount from the sale, little Pierre here is to share the profits. Madame, thank God that your son has a gift from heaven." The grateful tears of the invalid and her visitor mingled, while the child knelt by his mother's bedside and prayed God to bless the kind lady who, in their time of sorrow and great need, had been to them as a savior. The boy never forgot his noble benefactress, and years afterward, when the great singer lay dying, the beloved friend who smoothed her pillow and cheered and brightened her last moments--the rich, popular, and talented composer--was no other than our little Pierre. "IF I REST, I RUST" "The heights by great men reached and kept Were not attained by sudden flight; But they, while their companions slept, Were toiling upward in the night." The significant inscription found on an old key,--"If I rest, I rust,"--would be an excellent motto for those who are afflicted with the slightest taint of idleness. Even the industrious might adopt it with advantage to serve as a reminder that, if one allows his faculties to rest, like the iron in the unused key, they will soon show signs of rust, and, ultimately, cannot do the work required of them. Those who would attain "The heights by great men reached and kept" must keep their faculties burnished by constant use, so that they will unlock the doors of knowledge, the gates that guard the entrances to the professions, to science, art, literature, agriculture,--every department of human endeavor. Industry keeps bright the key that opens the treasury of achievement. If Hugh Miller, after toiling all day in a quarry, had devoted his evenings to rest and recreation, he would never have become a famous geologist. The celebrated mathematician, Edmund Stone, would never have published a mathematical dictionary, never have found the key to the science of mathematics, if he had given his spare moments, snatched from the duties of a gardener, to idleness. Had the little Scotch lad, Ferguson, allowed the busy brain to go to sleep while he tended sheep on the hillside, instead of calculating the position of the stars by the help of a string of beads, he would never have become a famous astronomer. "Labor vanquishes all,"--not in constant, spasmodic, or ill-directed labor, but faithful, unremitting, daily effort toward a well-directed purpose. Just as truly as eternal vigilance is the price of liberty, so is eternal industry the price of noble and enduring success. "Seize, then, the minutes as they pass; The woof of life is thought! Warm up the colors; let them glow With fire of fancy fraught." A BOY WHO KNEW NOT FEAR Richard Wagner, the great composer, weaves into one of his musical dramas a beautiful story about a youth named Siegfried, who did not know what fear was. The story is a sort of fairy tale or myth,--something which has a deep meaning hidden in it, but which is not literally true. We smile at the idea of a youth who never knew fear, who even as a little child had never been frightened by the imaginary terrors of night, the darkness of the forest, or the cries of the wild animals which inhabited it. Yet it is actually true that there was born at Burnham Thorpe, Norfolk, England, on September 29, 1758, a boy who never knew what fear was. This boy's name was Horatio Nelson,--a name which his fearlessness, ambition, and patriotism made immortal. Courage even to daring distinguished young Nelson from his boy companions. Many stories illustrating this quality are told of him. On one occasion, when the future hero of England was but a mere child, while staying at his grandmother's, he wandered away from the house in search of birds' nests. When dinner time came and went and the boy did not return, his family became alarmed. They feared that he had been kidnapped by gypsies, or that some other mishap had befallen him. A thorough search was made for him in every direction. Just as the searchers were about to give up their quest, the truant was discovered sitting quietly by the side of a brook which he was unable to cross. "I wonder, child," said his grandmother, "that hunger and fear did not drive you home." "Fear! grand-mamma," exclaimed the boy; "I never saw fear. What is it?" Horatio was a born leader, who never even in childhood shrank from a hazardous undertaking. This story of his school days shows how the spirit of leadership marked him before he had entered his teens. In the garden attached to the boarding school at North Walsham, which he and his elder brother, William, attended, there grew a remarkably fine pear tree. The sight of this tree, loaded with fruit was, naturally, a very tempting one to the boys. The boldest among the older ones, however, dared not risk the consequences of helping themselves to the pears, which they knew were highly prized by the master of the school. Horatio, who thought neither of the sin of stealing the schoolmaster's property, nor of the risk involved in the attempt, volunteered to secure the coveted pears. He was let down in sheets from the bedroom window by his schoolmates, and, after gathering as much of the fruit as he could carry, returned with considerable difficulty. He then turned the pears over to the boys, not keeping one for himself. "I only took them," he explained, "because the rest of you were afraid to venture." The sense of honor of the future "Hero of the Nile" and of Trafalgar was as keen in boyhood as in later life. One year, at the close of the Christmas holidays, he and his brother William set out on horseback to return to school. There had been a heavy fall of snow which made traveling very disagreeable, and William persuaded Horatio to go back home with him, saying that it was not safe to go on. "If that be the case," said Rev. Mr. Nelson, the father of the boys, when the matter was explained to him, "you certainly shall not go; but make another attempt, and I will leave it to your honor. If the road is dangerous, you may return; but remember, boys, I leave it to your honor." The snow was really deep enough to be made an excuse for not going on, and William was for returning home a second time. Horatio, however, would not be persuaded again. "We must go on," he said; "remember, brother, it was left to our honor." When only twelve years old, young Nelson's ambition urged him to try his fortune at sea. His uncle, Captain Maurice Suckling, commanded the Raisonnable, a ship of sixty-four guns, and the boy thought it would be good fortune, indeed, if he could get an opportunity to serve under him. "Do, William," he said to his brother, "write to my father, and tell him that I should like to go to sea with Uncle Maurice." On hearing of his son's wishes, Mr. Nelson at once wrote to Captain Suckling. The latter wrote back without delay: "What has poor Horatio done, who is so weak, that he, above all the rest, should be sent to rough it out at sea? But let him come, and the first time we go into action, a cannon ball may knock off his head and provide for him at once." This was not very encouraging for a delicate boy of twelve. But Horatio was not daunted. His father took him to London, and there put him into the stage coach for Chatham, where the Raisonnable was lying at anchor. He arrived at Chatham during the temporary absence of his uncle, so that there was no friendly voice to greet him when he went on board the big ship. Homesick and heartsick, he passed some of the most miserable days of his life on the Raisonnable. The officers treated the sailors with a harshness bordering on cruelty. This treatment, of course, increased the natural roughness of the sailors; and, altogether, the conditions were such that Horatio's opinion of the Royal Navy was sadly altered. But in spite of the separation from his brother William, who had been his schoolmate and constant companion, and all his other loved ones, the hardships he had to endure as a sailor boy among rough officers and rougher men, and his physical weakness, his courage did not fail him. He stuck bravely to his determination to be a sailor. Later, the lad went on a voyage to the West Indies, in a merchant ship commanded by Mr. John Rathbone. During this voyage, his anxiety to rise in his profession and his keen powers of observation, which were constantly exercised, combined to make him a practical sailor. After his return from the West Indies, his love of adventure was excited by the news that two ships--the Racehorse and the Carcass--were being fitted out for a voyage of discovery to the North Pole. Through the influence of Captain Suckling, he secured an appointment as coxswain, under Captain Lutwidge, who was second in command of the expedition. All went well with the Racehorse and the Carcass until they neared the Polar regions. Then they were becalmed, surrounded with ice, and wedged in so that they could not move. Young as Nelson was, he was put in command of one of the boats sent out to try to find a passage to the open water. While engaged in this work he was instrumental in saving the crew of another of the boats which had been attacked by walruses. His most notable adventure during this Polar cruise, however, was a fight with a bear. One night he stole away from his ship with a companion in pursuit of a bear. A fog which had been rising when they left the Carcass soon enveloped them. Between three and four o'clock in the morning, when the weather began to clear, they were sighted by Captain Lutwidge and his officers, at some distance from the ship, in conflict with a huge bear. The boys, who had been missed soon after they set out on their adventure, were at once signaled to return. Nelson's companion urged him to obey the signal, and, though their ammunition had given out, he longed to continue the fight. "Never mind," he cried excitedly; "do but let me get a blow at this fellow with the butt end of my musket, and we shall have him." Captain Lutwidge, seeing the boy's danger,--he being separated from the bear only by a narrow chasm in the ice,--fired a gun. This frightened the bear away. Nelson then returned to face the consequences of his disobedience. He was severely reprimanded by his captain for "conduct so unworthy of the office he filled." When asked what motive he had in hunting a bear, he replied, still trembling from the excitement of the encounter, "Sir, I wished to kill the bear that I might carry the skin to my father." The expedition finally worked its way out of the ice and sailed for home. Horatio's next voyage was to the East Indies, aboard the Seahorse, one of the vessels of a squadron under the command of Sir Edward Hughes. His attention to duty attracted the notice of his senior officer, on whose recommendation he was rated as a midshipman. After eighteen months in the trying climate of India, the youth's health gave way, and he was sent home in the Dolphin. His physical weakness affected his spirits. Gloom fastened upon him, and for a time he was very despondent about his future. "I felt impressed," he says, "with an idea that I should never rise in my profession. My mind was staggered with a view of the difficulties I had to surmount and the little interest I possessed. I could discover no means of reaching the object of my ambition. After a long and gloomy revery in which I almost wished myself overboard, a sudden flow of patriotism was kindled within me and presented my king and my country as my patrons. My mind exulted in the idea. 'Well, then,' I exclaimed, 'I will be a hero, and, confiding in Providence, I will brave every danger!'" In that hour Nelson leaped from boyhood to manhood. Thenceforth the purpose of his life never changed. From that time, as he often said afterward, "a radiant orb was suspended in his mind's eye, which urged him onward to renown." His health improved very much during the homeward voyage, and he was soon able to resume duty again. At nineteen he was made second lieutenant of the Lowestoffe; and at twenty he was commander of the Badger. Before he was twenty-one, owing largely to his courage and presence of mind in face of every danger, and his enthusiasm in his profession, "he had gained that mark," says his biographer, Southey, "which brought all the honors of the service within his reach." Pleasing in his address and conversation, always kind and thoughtful in his treatment of the men and boys under him, Nelson was the best-loved man in the British navy,--nay, in all England. When he was appointed to the command of the Boreas, a ship of twenty-eight guns, then bound for the Leeward Islands, he had thirty midshipmen under him. When any of them, at first, showed any timidity about going up the masts, he would say, by way of encouragement, "I am going a race to the masthead, and beg that I may meet you there." And again he would say cheerfully, that "any person was to be pitied who could fancy there was any danger, or even anything disagreeable, in the attempt." "Your Excellency must excuse me for bringing one of my midshipmen with me," he said to the governor of Barbados, who had invited him to dine. "I make it a rule to introduce them to all the good company I can, as they have few to look up to besides myself during the time they are at sea." Was it any wonder that his "middies" almost worshiped him? This thoughtfulness in small matters is always characteristic of truly great, large-souled men. Another distinguishing mark of Nelson's greatness was that he ruled by love rather than fear. When, at the age of forty-seven, he fell mortally wounded at the battle of Trafalgar, all England was plunged into grief. The crowning victory of his life had been won, but his country was inconsolable for the loss of the noblest of her naval heroes. "The greatest sea victory that the world had ever known was won," says W. Clark Russell, "but at such a cost, that there was no man throughout the British fleet--there was no man indeed in all England--but would have welcomed defeat sooner than have paid the price of this wonderful conquest." The last words of the hero who had won some of the greatest of England's sea fights were, "Thank God, I have done my duty." HOW STANLEY FOUND LIVINGSTONE In the year 1866 David Livingstone, the great African explorer and missionary, started on his last journey to Africa. Three years passed away during which no word or sign from him had reached his friends. The whole civilized world became alarmed for his safety. It was feared that his interest in the savages in the interior of Africa had cost him his life. Newspapers and clergymen in many lands were clamoring for a relief expedition to be sent out in search of him. Royal societies, scientific associations, and the British government were debating what steps should be taken to find him. But they were very slow in coming to any conclusion, and while they were weighing questions and discussing measures, an energetic American settled the matter offhand. This was James Gordon Bennett, Jr., manager of the New York Herald and son of James Gordon Bennett, its editor and proprietor. Mr. Bennett was in a position which brought him into contact with some of the cleverest and most enterprising young men of his day. From all those he knew he singled out Henry M. Stanley for the difficult and perilous task of finding Livingstone. And who was this young man who was chosen to undertake a work which required the highest qualities of manhood to carry it to success? Henry M. Stanley, whose baptismal name was John Rowlands, was born of poor parents in Wales, in 1840. Being left an orphan at the age of three, he was sent to the poorhouse in his native place. There he remained for ten years, and then shipped as a cabin boy in a vessel bound for America. Soon after his arrival in this country, he found employment in New Orleans with a merchant named Stanley. His intelligence, energy, and ambition won him so much favor with this gentleman that he adopted him as his son and gave him his name. The elder Stanley died while Henry was still a youth. This threw him again upon his own resources, as he inherited nothing from his adopted father, who died without making a will. He next went to California to seek his fortune. He was not successful, however, and at twenty he was a soldier in the Civil War. When the war was over, he engaged himself as a correspondent to the New York Herald. In this capacity he traveled extensively in the East, doing brilliant work for his paper. When England went to war with King Theodore of Abyssinia, he accompanied the English army to Abyssinia, and from thence wrote vivid descriptive letters to the Herald. The child whose early advantages were only such as a Welsh poorhouse afforded, was already, through his own unaided efforts, a leader in his profession. He was soon to become a leader in a larger sense. At the time Mr. Bennett conceived the idea of sending an expedition in search of Livingstone, Stanley was in Spain. He had been sent there by the Herald to report the civil war then raging in that country. He thus describes the receipt of Mr. Bennett's message and the events immediately following:-- "I am in Madrid, fresh from the carnage at Valencia. At 10 A.M. Jacopo, at No.--Calle de la Cruz, hands me a telegram; on opening it I find it reads, 'Come to Paris on important business.' The telegram is from James Gordon Bennett, Jr., the young manager of the New York Herald. "Down come my pictures from the walls of my apartments on the second floor; into my trunks go my books and souvenirs, my clothes are hastily collected, some half washed, some from the clothesline half dry, and after a couple of hours of hasty hard work my portmanteaus are strapped up and labeled for 'Paris.'" It was late at night when Stanley arrived in Paris. "I went straight to the 'Grand Hotel,'" he says, "and knocked at the door of Mr. Bennett's room. "'Come in,' I heard a voice say. Entering I found Mr. Bennett in bed. "'Who are you?' he asked. "'My name is Stanley,' I answered. "'Ah, yes! sit down; I have important business on hand for you. "'Where do you think Livingstone is?' "'I really do not know, sir.' "'Do you think he is alive?' "'He may be, and he may not be,' I answered. "'Well, I think he is alive, and that he can be found, and I am going to send you to find him.' "'What!' said I, 'do you really think I can find Dr. Livingstone? Do you mean me to go to Central Africa?' "'Yes, I mean that you shall go and find him wherever you may hear that he is.... Of course you will act according to your own plans and do what you think best--BUT FIND LIVINGSTONE.'" The question of expense coming up, Mr. Bennett said: "Draw a thousand pounds now; and when you have gone through that, draw another thousand; and when that is spent, draw another thousand; and when you have finished that, draw another thousand, and so on; but, FIND LIVINGSTONE." Stanley asked no questions, awaited no further instructions. The two men parted with a hearty hand clasp. "Good night, and God be with you," said Bennett. "Good night, sir," returned Stanley. "What it is in the power of human nature to do I will do; and on such an errand as I go upon, God will be with me." The young man immediately began the work of preparation for his great undertaking. This in itself was a task requiring more than ordinary judgment and foresight, but Stanley was equal to the occasion. On January 6, 1871, he reached Zanzibar, an important native seaport on the east coast of Africa. Here the preparations for the journey were completed. Soon, with a train composed of one hundred and ninety men, twenty donkeys, and baggage amounting to about six tons, he started from this point for the interior of the continent. Then began a journey the dangers and tediousness of which can hardly be described. Stanley and his men were often obliged to wade through swamps filled with alligators. Crawling on hands and knees, they forced their way through miles of tangled jungle, breathing in as they went the sickening odor of decaying vegetables. They were obliged to be continually on their guard against elephants, lions, hyenas, and other wild inhabitants of the jungle. Fierce as these were, however, they were no more to be dreaded than the savage tribes whom they sometimes encountered. Whenever they stopped to rest, they were tormented by flies, white ants, and reptiles, which crawled all over them. For months they journeyed on under these conditions. The donkeys had died from drinking impure water, and some of the men had fallen victims to disease. It was no wonder that the survivors of the expedition--all but Stanley--had grown disheartened. Half starved, wasted by sickness and hardships of all kinds, with bleeding feet and torn clothes, some of them became mutinous. Stanley's skill as a leader was taxed to the utmost. Alternately coaxing the faint-hearted and punishing the insubordinate, he continued to lead them on almost in spite of themselves. So far they had heard nothing of Livingstone, nor had they any clew as to the direction in which they should go. There was no ray of light or hope to cheer them on their way, yet Stanley never for a moment thought of giving up the search. Once, amid the terrors of the jungle, surrounded by savages and wild animals, with supplies almost exhausted, and the remnant of his followers in a despairing condition, the young explorer came near being discouraged. But he would not give way to any feeling that might lessen his chances of success, and it was at this crisis he wrote in his journal:-- "No living man shall stop me--only death can prevent me. But death--not even this; I shall not die--I will not die--I cannot die! Something tells me I shall find him and--write it larger--FIND HIM, FIND HIM! Even the words are inspiring." Soon after this a caravan passed and gave the expedition news which renewed hope: A white man, old, white haired, and sick, had just arrived at Ujiji. Stanley and his followers pushed on until they came in sight of Ujiji. Then the order was given to "unfurl the flags and load the guns." Immediately the Stars and Stripes and the flag of Zanzibar were thrown to the breeze, and the report of fifty guns awakened the echoes. The noise startled the inhabitants of Ujiji. They came running in the direction of the sounds, and soon the expedition was surrounded by a crowd of friendly black men, who cried loudly, "YAMBO, YAMBO, BANA!" which signifies welcome. "At this grand moment," says Stanley, "we do not think of the hundreds of miles we have marched, of the hundreds of hills that we have ascended and descended, of the many forests we have traversed, of the jungle and thickets that annoyed us, of the fervid salt plains that blistered our feet, of the hot suns that scorched us, nor the dangers and difficulties now happily surmounted. "At last the sublime hour has arrived!--our dreams, our hopes and anticipations are now about to be realized! Our hearts and our feelings are with our eyes, as we peer into the palms and try to make out in which hut or house lives the white man with the gray beard we heard about on the Malagarazi." When the uproar had ceased, a voice was heard saluting the leader of the expedition in English--"Good morning, sir." "Startled at hearing this greeting in the midst of such a crowd of black people," says Stanley, "I turn sharply round in search of the man, and see him at my side, with the blackest of faces, but animated and joyous--a man dressed in a long white shirt, with a turban of American sheeting around his head, and I ask, 'Who the mischief are you?' "'I am Susi, the servant of Dr. Livingstone,' said he, smiling, and showing a gleaming row of teeth. "'What! Is Dr. Livingstone here?' "'Yes, sir.' "'In this village?' "'Yes, sir.' "'Are you sure?' "'Sure, sure, sir. Why, I leave him just now.' "'Susi, run, and tell the Doctor I am coming.'" Susi ran like a madman to deliver the message. Stanley and his men followed more slowly. Soon they were gazing into the eyes of the man for news of whom the whole civilized world was waiting. "My heart beat fast," says Stanley, "but I must not let my face betray my emotions, lest it shall detract from the dignity of a white man appearing under such extraordinary circumstances." The young explorer longed to leap and shout for joy, but he controlled himself, and instead of embracing Livingstone as he would have liked to do, he grasped his hand, exclaiming, "I thank God, Doctor, that I have been permitted to see you." "I feel grateful that I am here to welcome you," was the gentle reply. All the dangers through which they had passed, all the privations they had endured were forgotten in the joy of this meeting. Doctor Livingstone's years of toil and suspense, during which he had heard nothing from the outside world; Stanley's awful experiences in the jungle, the fact that both men had almost exhausted their supplies; the terrors of open and hidden dangers from men and beasts, sickness, hope deferred, all were, for the moment, pushed out of mind. Later, each recounted his story to the other. After a period of rest, the two joined forces and together explored and made plans for the future. Stanley tried to induce Livingstone to return with him. But in vain; the great missionary explorer would not lay down his work. He persevered, literally until death. At last the hour of parting came. With the greatest reluctance Stanley gave his men the order, "Right about face." With a silent farewell, a grasp of the hands, and a look into each other's eyes which said more than words, the old man and the young man parted forever. Livingstone's life work was almost done. Stanley was the man on whose shoulders his mantle was to fall. The great work he had accomplished in finding Livingstone was the beginning of his career as an African explorer. After the death of Livingstone, Stanley determined to take up the explorer's unfinished work. In 1874 he left England at the head of an expedition fitted out by the London Daily Telegraph and the New York Herald, and penetrated into the very heart of Africa. He crossed the continent from shore to shore, overcoming on his march dangers and difficulties compared with which those encountered on his first journey sank into insignificance. He afterward gave an account of this expedition in his book entitled, "Darkest Africa." Stanley had successfully accomplished one of the great works of the world. He had opened the way for commerce and Christianity into the vast interior of Africa, which, prior to his discoveries, had been marked on the map by a blank space, signifying that it was an unexplored and unknown country. On his return the successful explorer found himself famous. Princes and scientific societies vied with one another in honoring him. King Edward VII of England, who was then Prince of Wales, sent him his personal congratulations; Humbert, the king of Italy, sent him his portrait; the khedive of Egypt decorated him with the grand commandership of the Order of the Medjidie; the Geographical Societies of London, Paris, Italy, and Marseilles sent him their gold medals; while in Berlin, Vienna, and many other large European cities, he was elected an honorary member of their most learned and most distinguished associations. What pleased the explorer most of all, though, was the honor paid him by America. "The government of the United States," he says, "has crowned my success with its official approval, and the unanimous vote of thanks passed in both houses of the legislature has made me proud for life of the expedition and its achievements." Honored to-day as the greatest explorer of his age, and esteemed alike for his scholarship and the immense services he has rendered mankind, Sir Henry Morton Stanley, the once friendless orphan lad whose only home was a Welsh poorhouse, may well be proud of the career he has carved out for himself. THE NESTOR OF AMERICAN JOURNALISTS "I heard that a neighbor three miles off, had borrowed from a still more distant neighbor, a book of great interest. I started off, barefoot, in the snow, to obtain the treasure. There were spots of bare ground, upon which I would stop to warm my feet. And there were also, along the road, occasional lengths of log fence from which the snow had melted, and upon which it was a luxury to walk. The book was at home, and the good people consented, upon my promise that it should be neither torn nor soiled, to lend it to me. In returning with the prize, I was too happy to think of the snow on my naked feet." This little incident, related by Thurlow Weed himself, is a sample of the means by which he gained that knowledge and power which made him not only the "Nestor of American Journalists," but rendered him famous in national affairs as the "American Warwick" or "The King Maker." There were no long happy years of schooling for this child of the "common people," whose father was a struggling teamster and farmer; no prelude of careless, laughing childhood before the stern duties of life began. Thurlow Weed was born at Catskill, Greene County, New York, in 1797, a period in the history of our republic when there were very few educational opportunities for the children of the poor. "I cannot ascertain," he says, "how much schooling I got at Catskill, probably less than a year, certainly not a year and a half, and this was when I was not more than five or six years old." At an early age Thurlow learned to bend circumstances to his will and, ground by poverty, shut in by limitations as he was, even while contributing by his earning to the slender resources of the family, he gathered knowledge and pleasure where many would have found but thorns and bitterness. How simply he tells his story, as though his hardships and struggles were of no account, and how clearly the narrative mirrors the brave little fellow of ten! "My first employment," he says, "was in sugar making, an occupation to which I became much attached. I now look with great pleasure upon the days and nights passed in the sap-bush. The want of shoes (which, as the snow was deep, was no small privation) was the only drawback upon my happiness. I used, however, to tie pieces of an old rag carpet around my feet, and got along pretty well, chopping wood and gathering up sap." During this period he traveled, barefoot, to borrow books, wherever they could be found among the neighboring farmers. With his body in the sugar house, and his head thrust out of doors, "where the fat pine was blazing," the young enthusiast devoured with breathless interest a "History of the French Revolution," and the few other well-worn volumes which had been loaned him. Later, after he left the farm, we see the future journalist working successively as cabin boy and deck hand on a Hudson River steamboat, and cheerfully sending home the few dollars he earned. While employed in this capacity, he earned his first "quarter" in New York by carrying a trunk for one of the passengers from the boat to a hotel on Broad Street. But his boyish ambition was to be a journalist, and, after a year of seafaring life, he found his niche in the office of a small weekly newspaper, the Lynx, published at Onondaga Hollow, New York. So, at fourteen, owing to his indomitable will and perseverance, which conquered the most formidable obstacles, Thurlow Weed started on the career in which, despite the rugged road he still had to travel, he built up a noble character and won international fame. THE MAN WITH AN IDEA It is February, 1492. A poor man, with gray hair, disheartened and dejected, is going out of the gate from the beautiful Alhambra, in Granada, on a mule. Ever since he was a boy, he has been haunted with the idea that the earth is round. He has believed that the pieces of carved wood, picked up four hundred miles at sea, and the bodies of two men, unlike any other human beings known, found on the shores of Portugal, have drifted from unknown lands in the west. But his last hope of obtaining aid for a voyage of discovery has failed. King John of Portugal, under pretense of helping him, has secretly sent out an expedition of his own. His friends have abandoned him; he has begged bread; has drawn maps to keep him from starving, and lost his wife; his friends have called him crazy, and have forsaken him. The council of wise men, called by Ferdinand and Isabella, ridicule his theory of reaching the east by sailing west. "But the sun and moon are round," replies Columbus, "why not the earth?" "If the earth is a ball, what holds it up?" the wise men ask. "What holds the sun and moon up?" Columbus replies. A learned doctor asks, "How can men walk with their heads hanging down, and their feet up, like flies on a ceiling?" "How can trees grow with their roots in the air?" "The water would run out of the ponds, and we should fall off," says another. "The doctrine is contrary to the Bible, which says, 'The heavens are stretched out like a tent.'" "Of course it is flat; it is rank heresy to say it is round." He has waited seven long years. He has had his last interview, hoping to get assistance from Ferdinand and Isabella after they drive the Moors out of Spain. Isabella was almost persuaded, but finally refused. He is now old, his last hope has fled; the ambition of his life has failed. He hears a voice calling him. He looks back and sees an old friend pursuing him on a horse, and beckoning him to come back. He saw Columbus turn away from the Alhambra, disheartened, and he hastens to the queen and tells her what a great thing it would be, at a trifling expense, if what the sailor believes should prove true. "It shall be done," Isabella replies. "I will pledge my jewels to raise the money; call him back." Columbus turns back, and with him turns the world. Three frail vessels, little larger than fishing boats, the Santa Maria, the Pinta, and the Nina, set sail from Palos, August 3, 1492, for an unknown land, upon untried seas; the sailors would not volunteer, but were forced to go by the king. Friends ridiculed them for following a crazy man to certain destruction, for they believed the sea beyond the Canaries was boiling hot. "What if the earth is round?" they said, "and you sail down the other side, how can you get back again? Can ships sail up hill?" Only three days out, the Pinto's signal of distress is flying; she has broken her rudder. September 8 they discover a broken mast covered with seaweed floating in the sea. Terror seizes the sailors, but Columbus calms their fears with pictures of gold and precious stones of India. September 13, two hundred miles west of the Canaries, Columbus is horrified to find that the compass, his only guide, is failing him, and no longer points to the north star. No one had yet dreamed that the earth turns on its axis. The sailors are ready for mutiny, but Columbus tells them the north star is not exactly in the north. October 1 they are two thousand three hundred miles from land, though Columbus tells the sailors one thousand seven hundred. Columbus discovers a bush in the sea, with berries on it, and soon they see birds and a piece of carved wood. At sunset, the crew kneel upon the deck and chant the vesper hymn. It is sixty-seven days since they left Palos, and they have sailed nearly three thousand miles, only changing their course once. At ten o'clock at night they see a light ahead, but it vanishes. Two o'clock in the morning, October 12, Roderigo de Friana, on watch at the masthead of the Pinta, shouts, "Land! land! land!" The sailors are wild with joy, and throw themselves on their knees before Columbus, and ask forgiveness. They reach the shore, and the hero of the world's greatest expedition unfolds the flag of Spain and takes possession of the new world. Perhaps no greater honor was ever paid man than Columbus received on his return to Ferdinand and Isabella. Yet, after his second visit to the land he discovered, he was taken back to Spain in chains, and finally died in poverty and neglect; while a pickle dealer of Seville, who had never risen above second mate, on a fishing vessel, Amerigo Vespucci, gave his name to the new world. Amerigo's name was put on an old chart or sketch to indicate the point of land where he landed, five years after Columbus discovered the country, and this crept into print by accident. "BERNARD OF THE TUILERIES" Opposite the entrance to the Sevres Museum in the old town of Sevres, in France, stands a handsome bronze statue of Bernard Palissy, the potter. Within the museum are some exquisite pieces of pottery known as "Palissy ware." They are specimens of the art of Palissy, who spent the best years of his life toiling to discover the mode of making white enamel. The story of his trials and sufferings in seeking to learn the secret, and of his final triumph over all difficulties, is an inspiring one. Born in the south of France, as far back as the year 1509, Bernard Palissy did not differ much from an intelligent, high-spirited American boy of the twentieth century. His parents were poor, and he had few of the advantages within the reach of the humblest child in the United States to-day. In spite of poverty, he was cheerful, light hearted, and happy in his great love for nature, which distinguished him all through life. The forest was his playground, his companions the birds, insects, and other living things that made their home there. From the first, Nature was his chief teacher. It was from her, and her alone, he learned the lessons that in after years made him famous both as a potter and a scientist. The habit of observation seemed natural to him, for without suggestions from books or older heads, his eyes and ears noticed all that the nature student of our day is drilled into observing. The free, outdoor life of the forest helped to give the boy the strength of mind and body which afterward enabled him, in spite of the most discouraging conditions, to pursue his ideal. He was taught how to read and write, and from his father learned how to paint on glass. From him he also learned the names and some of the properties of the minerals employed in painting glass. All the knowledge that in after years made him an artist, a scientist, and a writer, was the result of his unaided study of nature. To books he was indebted for only the smallest part of what he knew. Happy and hopeful, sunshiny of face and disposition, Bernard grew from childhood to youth. Then, when he was about eighteen, there came into his heart a longing to try his fortune in the great world which lay beyond his forest home. Like most country-bred boys of his age, he felt that he had grown too large for the parent nest and must try his wings elsewhere. In his case there was, indeed, little to induce an ambitious boy to stay at home. The trade of glass painting, which in previous years had been a profitable one, had at that time fallen somewhat out of favor, and there was not enough work to keep father and son busy. When he shouldered his scanty wallet and bade farewell to father and mother, and the few friends and neighbors he knew in the straggling forest hamlet, Bernard Palissy closed the first chapter of his life. The second was a long period of travel and self-education. He wandered through the forest of Ardennes, making observations and collecting specimens of minerals, plants, reptiles, and insects. He spent some years in the upper Pyrenees, at Tarbes. From Antwerp in the east he bent his steps to Brest, in the most westerly part of Brittany, and from Montpellier to Nismes he traveled across France. During his wanderings he supported himself by painting on glass, portrait painting (which he practiced after a fashion), surveying, and planning sites for houses and gardens. In copying or inventing patterns for painted windows, he had acquired a knowledge of geometry and considerable skill in the use of a rule and compass. His love of knowledge for its own sake made him follow up the study of geometry, as far as he could pursue it, and hence his skill as a surveyor. At this time young Palissy had no other object in life than to learn. His eager, inquiring mind was ever on the alert. Wherever his travels led him, he sought information of men and nature, always finding the latter his chief instructor. He painted and planned that he might live to probe her secrets. But the time was fast approaching when a new interest should come into his life and overshadow all others. After ten or twelve years of travel, he married and settled in Saintes where he pursued, as his services were required, the work of glass painter and surveyor. Before long he grew dissatisfied with the dull routine of his daily life. He felt that he ought to do more than make a living for his wife and children. There were two babies now to be cared for as well as his wife, and he could not shoulder his wallet, as in the careless days of his boyhood, and wander away in search of knowledge or fortune. About this time an event happened which changed his whole life. He was shown a beautiful cup of Italian manufacture. I give in his own words a description of the cup, and the effect the sight of it had on him. "An earthen cup," he says, "turned and enameled with so much beauty, that from that time I entered into controversy with my own thoughts, recalling to mind several suggestions that some people had made to me in fun, when I was painting portraits. Then, seeing that these were falling out of request in the country where I dwelt, and that glass painting was also little patronized, I began to think that if I should discover how to make enamels, I could make earthen vessels and other things very prettily, because God has gifted me with some knowledge of drawing." His ambition was fired at once. A definite purpose formed itself in his mind. He knew nothing whatever of pottery. No man in France knew the secret of enameling, which made the Italian cup so beautiful, and Palissy had not the means to go to Italy, where he probably could have learned it. He resolved to study the nature and properties of clays, and not to rest until he had discovered the secret of the white enamel. Delightful visions filled his imagination. He thought within himself that he would become the prince of potters, and would provide his wife and children with all the luxuries that money could buy. "Thereafter," he wrote, "regardless of the fact that I had no knowledge of clays, I began to seek for the enamels as a man gropes in the dark." Palissy was a young man when he began his search for the enamel; he was past middle life when his labors were finally rewarded. Groping like a man in the dark, as he himself said, he experimented for years with clays and chemicals, but with small success. He built with his own hands a furnace at the back of his little cottage in which to carry on his experiments. At first his enthusiasm inspired his wife and neighbors with the belief that he would succeed in his efforts. But time went on, and as one experiment after another failed or was only partially successful, one and all lost faith in him. He had no friend or helper to buoy him up under his many disappointments. Even his wife reproached him for neglecting his regular work and reducing herself and her children to poverty and want, while he wasted his time and strength in chasing a dream. His neighbors jeered at him as a madman, one who put his plain duty aside for the gratification of what seemed to their dull minds merely a whim. His poor wife could hardly be blamed for reproaching him. She could neither understand nor sympathize with his hopes and fears, while she knew that if he followed his trade, he could at least save his family from want. It was a trying time for both of them. But who ever heard tell of an artist, inventor, discoverer, or genius of any kind being deterred by poverty, abuse, ridicule, or obstacles of any kind from the pursuit of an ideal! After many painful efforts, the poor glass painter had succeeded in producing a substance which he believed to be white enamel. He spread it on a number of earthenware pots which he had made, and placed them in his furnace. The extremities to which he was reduced to supply heat to the furnace are set forth in his own words: "Having," he says, "covered the new pieces with the said enamel, I put them into the furnace, still keeping the fire at its height; but thereupon occurred to me a new misfortune which caused great mortification, namely, that the wood having failed me, I was forced to burn the palings which maintained the boundaries of my garden; which being burnt also, I was forced to burn the tables and the flooring of my house, to cause the melting of the second composition. I suffered an anguish that I cannot speak, for I was quite exhausted and dried up by the heat of the furnace. Further, to console me, I was the object of mockery; and even those from whom solace was due ran crying through the town that I was burning my floors, and in this way my credit was taken from me, and I was regarded as a madman. "Others said that I was laboring to make false money, which was a scandal under which I pined away, and slipped with bowed head through the streets like a man put to shame. No one gave me consolation, but, on the contrary, men jested at me, saying, 'It was right for him to die of hunger, seeing that he had left off following his trade!' All these things assailed my ears when I passed through the street; but for all that, there still remained some hope which encouraged and sustained me, inasmuch as the last trials had turned out tolerably well; and thereafter I thought that I knew enough to get my own living, although I was far enough from that (as you shall hear afterward)." This latest experiment filled him with joy, for he had at last discovered the secret of the enamel. But there was yet much to be learned, and several years more of extreme poverty and suffering had to be endured before his labors were rewarded with complete success. But it came at last in overflowing measure, as it almost invariably does to those who are willing to work and suffer privation and persevere to the end. His work as a potter brought Palissy fame and riches. At the invitation of Catherine de' Medici, wife of King Henry II of France, he removed to Paris. He established a workshop in the vicinity of the royal Palace of the Tuileries, and was thereafter known as "Bernard of the Tuileries." He was employed by the king and queen and some of the greatest nobles of France to embellish their palaces and gardens with the products of his beautiful art. Notwithstanding his lack of schooling, Bernard Palissy was one of the most learned men of his day. He founded a Museum of Natural History, wrote valuable books on natural science, and for several years delivered lectures on the same subject. His lectures were attended by the most advanced scholars of Paris, who were astonished at the extent and accuracy of his knowledge of nature. But he was as modest as he was wise and good, and when people wondered at his learning, he would reply with the most unaffected simplicity, "I have had no other book than the sky and the earth, known to all." No more touching story of success, in spite of great difficulties, than Bernard Palissy's has been written. It is bad to think that after the terrible trials which he endured for the sake of his art, his last years also should have been clouded by misfortune. During the civil war which raged in France between the Huguenots and the Catholics, he was, on account of his religious views, imprisoned in the Bastile, where he died in 1589, at the age of eighty. HOW THE "LEARNED BLACKSMITH" FOUND TIME "The loss of an hour," says the philosopher, Leibnitz, "is the loss of a part of life." This is a truth that has been appreciated by most men who have risen to distinction,--who have been world benefactors. The lives of those great moral heroes put to shame the laggard youth of to-day, who so often grumbles: "I have no time. If I didn't have to work all day, I could accomplish something. I could read and educate myself. But if a fellow has to grub away ten or twelve hours out of the twenty-four, what time is left to do anything for one's self?" How much spare time had Elihu Burritt, "the youngest of many brethren," as he himself quaintly puts it, born in a humble home in New Britain, Connecticut, reared amid toil and poverty? Yet, during his father's long illness, and after his death, when Elihu was but a lad in his teens, with the family partially dependent upon the work of his hands, he found time,--if only a few moments,--at the end of a fourteen-hour day of labor, for his books. While working at his trade as a blacksmith, he solved problems in arithmetic and algebra while his irons were heating. Over the forge also appeared a Latin grammar and a Greek lexicon; and, while with sturdy blows the ambitious youth of sixteen shaped the iron on the anvil, he fixed in his mind conjugations and declensions. How did this man, born nearly a century ago, possessing none of the advantages within reach of the poorest and humblest boy of to-day, become one of the brightest ornaments in the world of letters, a leader in the reform movements of his generation? Apparently no more talented than his nine brothers and sisters, by improving every opportunity he could wring from a youth of unremitting toil, his love for knowledge grew with what it fed upon, and carried him to undreamed-of heights. In palaces and council halls, the words of the "Learned Blacksmith" were listened to with the closest attention and deference. Read the life of Elihu Burritt, and you will be ashamed to grumble that you have no time--no chance for self-improvement. THE LEGEND OF WILLIAM TELL "Ye crags and peaks, I'm with you once again! I hold to you the hands you first beheld, to show they still are free. Methinks I hear a spirit in your echoes answer me, and bid your tenant welcome to his home again! O sacred forms, how proud you look! how high you lift your heads into the sky! how huge you are, how mighty, and how free! Ye are the things that tower, that shine; whose smile makes glad--whose frown is terrible; whose forms, robed or unrobed, do all the impress wear of awe divine. Ye guards of liberty, I'm with you once again! I call to you with all my voice! I hold my hands to you to show they still are free. I rush to you as though I could embrace you!" What schoolboy or schoolgirl is not familiar with those stirring lines from "William Tell's Address to His Native Mountains," by J. M. Knowles? And the story of William Tell,--is it not dear to every heart that loves liberty? Though modern history declares it to be purely mythical, its popularity remains unaffected. It will live forever in the traditions of Switzerland, dear to the hearts of her people as their native mountains, and even more full of interest to the stranger than authentic history. "His image [Tell's]," says Lamartine, "with those of his wife and children, are inseparably connected with the majestic, rural, and smiling landscapes of Helvetia, the modern Arcadia of Europe. As often as the traveler visits these peculiar regions; as often as the unconquered summits of Mont Blanc, St. Gothard, and the Rigi, present themselves to his eyes in the vast firmament as the ever-enduring symbols of liberty; whenever the lake of the Four Cantons presents a vessel wavering on the blue surface of its waters; whenever the cascade bursts in thunder from the heights of the Splugen, and shivers itself upon the rocks like tyranny against free hearts; whenever the ruins of an Austrian fortress darken with the remains of frowning walls the round eminences of Uri or Claris; and whenever a calm sunbeam gilds on the declivity of a village the green velvet of the meadows where the herds are feeding to the tinkling of bells and the echo of the Ranz des Vaches--so often the imagination traces in all these varied scenes the hat on the summit of the pole--the archer condemned to aim at the apple placed on the head of his own child--the mark hurled to the ground, transfixed by the unerring arrow--the father chained to the bottom of the boat, subduing night, the storm, and his own indignation, to save his executioner--and finally, the outraged husband, threatened with the loss of all he holds most dear, yielding to the impulse of nature, and in his turn striking the murderer with a deathblow." The story which tradition hands down as the origin of the freedom of Switzerland dates back to the beginning of the fourteenth century. At that time Switzerland was under the sovereignty of the emperor of Germany, who ruled over Central Europe. Count Rudolph of Hapsburg, a Swiss by birth, who had been elected to the imperial throne in 1273, made some efforts to save his countrymen from the oppression of a foreign yoke. His son, Albert, Archduke of Austria, who succeeded him in 1298, inherited none of his sympathies for Switzerland. On his accession to the throne Albert resolved to curtail the liberties still enjoyed by the inhabitants of some of the cantons, and to bend the whole of the Swiss people to his will. The mountaineers of the cantons of Schwytz, Uri, and Unterwalden recognized no authority but that of the emperor; while the peasants of the neighboring valleys were at the mercy of local tyrants--the great nobles and their allies. In order to carry out his project of subjecting all to the same yoke, Albert of Austria appointed governors to rule over the semi-free provinces or cantons. These governors, who bore the official title of Bailiffs of the Emperor, exercised absolute authority over the people. Men, women, and children were at their mercy, and were treated as mere chattels--the property of their rulers. Insult and outrage were heaped upon them until their lives became almost unendurable. An instance of the manner in which these petty tyrants used their authority is related of the bailiff Landenberg, who ruled over Unterwalden. For some trumped-up offense of which a young peasant, named Arnold of Melcthal, was accused, his oxen were confiscated by Landenberg. The deputy sent to seize the animals, which Landenberg really coveted for his own, said sneeringly to Arnold, "If peasants wish for bread, they must draw the plow themselves." Roused to fury by this taunt, Arnold attempted to resist the seizure of his property, and in so doing broke an arm of one of the deputy's men. He then fled to the mountains; but he could not hide himself from the vengeance of Landenberg. The peasant's aged father was arrested by order of the bailiff, and his eyes put out in punishment for his son's offense. "That puncture," says an old chronicler, "went so deep into many a heart that numbers resolved to die rather than leave it unrequited." But the crudest and most vindictive of the Austrian or German bailiffs, as they were interchangeably called, was one Hermann Gessler. He had built himself a fortress, which he called "Uri's Restraint," and there he felt secure from all attacks. This man was the terror of the whole district. His name was a synonym for all that was base, brutal, and tyrannical. Neither the property, the lives, nor the honor of the people were respected by him. His hatred and contempt for the peasants were so great that the least semblance of prosperity among them aroused his ire. One day while riding with an armed escort through the canton of Schwytz, he noticed a comfortable-looking dwelling which was being built by one Werner Stauffacher. Turning to his followers, he cried, "Is it not shameful that miserable serfs like these should be permitted to build such houses when huts would be too good for them?" "Let this be finished," said his chief attendant; "we shall then sculpture over the gate the arms of the emperor, and a little time will show whether the builder has the audacity to dispute possession with us." The answer pleased Gessler, who replied, "Thou art right," and, planning future vengeance, he passed on with his escort. The wife of Stauffacher, who had been standing near the new building, but concealed from Gessler and his men, heard the conversation, and reported it to her husband. The latter, filled with indignation, without uttering a word, arose and started for the home of his father-in-law, Walter Furst, in the village of Attinghaussen. On his arrival Staffaucher was cordially welcomed by his father-in-law, who placed refreshments before him, and waited for him to explain the object of his visit. Pushing aside the food, he said, "I have made a vow never again to taste wine or swallow meat until we cease to be slaves." Stauffacher then related what had happened. Furst's anger was kindled by the recital. Both men were roused to such a pitch that they resolved, then and there, to free themselves and their countrymen from the chains which bound them, or die in the attempt. They conversed far into the night, making plans for the gaining of national independence. Then they sought out in his hiding-place Arnold of Melchthal, the young peasant whom Landenberg had so cruelly persecuted. In him they found, as they expected, an ardent supporter of their plans. The three conspirators, Stauffacher, Furst, and Melchthal, represented different cantons; one belonging to Schwytz, another to Uri, and the third to Unterwalden. They hoped to form a league and unite the three cantons against the power of Austria. In pursuance of their plans, each pledged himself to select from among the most persecuted and the most daring in their respective cantons ten others to join them in the cause of liberty. On the night of November 7, or 17 (the date is variously given), in the year 1307, the confederates met together in a secluded mountain spot called Rutli. There they bound themselves by an oath, the terms of which embodied their purpose: "We swear in the presence of God, before whom kings and people are equal, to live or die for our fellow-countrymen; to undertake and sustain all in common; neither to suffer injustice nor to commit injury; to respect the rights and property of the Count of Hapsburg; to do no violence to the imperial bailiffs, but to put an end to their tyranny." They fixed upon January 1, 1308, as the day for a general uprising. Events were gradually shaping themselves for the appearance of William Tell on the scene. Up to this time his name does not appear in the annals of his country. The bold peasant of Uri was so little prominent among his countrymen that, according to some versions of the legend, although a son-in-law of Walter Furst, he had not been chosen among the thirty conspirators summoned to the meeting at Rutli. This, however, is contradicted by another, which asserts that he was "one of the oath-bound men of Rutli." The various divergences in the different versions of the legend do not affect its main features, on which all the chroniclers are agreed. It was the crowning insult to his country which indisputably brought Tell into prominence and made his name forever famous. Gessler's hatred of the people daily increased, and was constantly showing itself in every form of petty tyranny that a mean and wicked nature could devise. He noticed the growing discontent among the peasantry, but instead of trying to allay it, he determined to humiliate them still more. For this purpose he had a pole, surmounted by the ducal cap of Austria, erected in the market square of the village of Altdorf, and issued a command that all who passed it should bow before the symbol of imperial rule. Guards were placed by the pole with orders to make prisoners of all who refused to pay homage to the ducal cap. William Tell, a bold hunter and skillful boatman of Uri, passing by one day, with his little son, Walter, refused to bend his knee before the symbol of foreign oppression. He was seized at once by the guards and carried before the bailiff. There is considerable contradiction at this point as to whether Tell was at once carried before the bailiff or bound to the pole, where he remained, guarded by the soldiers, until the bailiff, returning the same day from a hunting expedition, appeared upon the scene. Schiller, in his drama of "William Tell," adopts the latter version of the story. According to the drama, Tell is represented as being bound to the pole. In a short time he is surrounded by friends and neighbors. Among them are his father-in-law, Walter Furst, Werner Stauffacher, and Arnold of Melchthal. They advance to rescue the prisoner. The guards cry in a loud voice: "Revolt! Rebellion! Treason! Sedition! Help! Protect the agents of the law!" Gessler and his party hear the cries, and rush to the support of the guards. Gessler cries in a loud authoritative voice: "Wherefore is this assembly of people? Who called for help? What does all this mean? I demand to know the cause of this!" Then, addressing himself particularly to one of the guards and pointing to Tell, he says: "Stand forward! Who art thou, and why dost thou hold that man a prisoner?" "Most mighty lord," replies the guard, "I am one of your soldiers placed here as a sentinel over that hat. I seized this man in the act of disobedience, for refusing to salute it. I was about to carry him to prison in compliance with your orders, and the populace were preparing to rescue him by force." After questioning Tell, whose answers are not satisfactory, the bailiff pronounces sentence upon him. The sentence is that he shall shoot at an apple placed on the head of his little son, Walter, and if he fails to hit the mark he shall die. "My lord," cries the agonized parent; "what horrible command is this you lay upon me? What! aim at a mark placed on the head of my dear child? No, no, it is impossible that such a thought could enter your imagination. In the name of the God of mercy, you cannot seriously impose that trial on a father." "Thou shalt aim at an apple placed on the head of thy son. I will and I command it," repeats the tyrant. "I! William Tell! aim with my own crossbow at the head of my own offspring! I would rather die a thousand deaths." "Thou shall shoot, or assuredly thou diest with thy son!" "Become the murderer of my child! My lord, you have no son--you cannot have the feelings of a father's heart!" Gessler's friends interfere in behalf of the unhappy father, and plead for mercy. But all appeal is in vain. The tyrant is determined on carrying out his sentence. The father and son are placed at a distance of eighty paces apart. An apple is placed on the boy's head, and the father is commanded to hit the mark. He hesitates and trembles. "Why dost thou hesitate?" questions his persecutor. "Thou hast deserved death, and I could compel thee to undergo the punishment; but in my clemency I place thy fate in thy own skillful hands. He who is the master of his destiny cannot complain that his sentence is a severe one. Thou art proud of thy steady eye and unerring aim; now, hunter, is the moment to prove thy skill. The object is worthy of thee--the prize is worth contending for. To strike the center of a target is an ordinary achievement; but the true master of his art is he who is always certain, and whose heart, hand, and eye are firm and steady under every trial." At length Tell nerves himself for the ordeal, raises his bow, and takes aim at the target on his son's head. Before firing, however, he concealed a second arrow under his vest. His movement did not escape Gessler's notice. The marksman fires. The apple falls from his boy's head, cleft in twain by the arrow. Even Gessler is loud in his admiration of Tell's skill. "By heaven," he cries, "he has clove the apple exactly in the center. Let us do justice; it is indeed a masterpiece of skill." Tell's friends congratulate him. He is about to set out for his home with the child who has been saved to him from the very jaws of death as it were. But Gessler stays him. "Thou hast concealed a second arrow in thy bosom," he says, sternly addressing Tell. "What didst thou intend to do with it?" Tell replies that such is the custom of all hunters. Gessler is not satisfied and urges him to confess his real motive. "Speak truly and frankly," he says; "say what thou wilt, I promise thee thy life. To what purpose didst thou destine the second arrow?" Tell can no longer restrain his indignation, and, fixing his eyes steadily on Gessler, he answers "Well then, my lord, since you assure my life, I will speak the truth without reserve. If I had struck my beloved child, with the second arrow I would have transpierced thy heart. Assuredly that time I should not have missed my mark." "Villain!" exclaims Gessler, "I have promised thee life upon my knightly word; I will keep my pledge. But since I know thee now, and thy rebellious heart, I will remove thee to a place where thou shalt never more behold the light of sun or moon. Thus only shall I be sheltered from thy arrows." He orders the guards to seize and bind Tell, saying, "I will myself at once conduct him to Kussnacht." The fortress of Kussnacht was situated on the summit of Mount Rigi between Lake Lucerne, or the Lake of the Four Cantons as it is sometimes called, and Lake Zug. It was reached by crossing Lake Lucerne. The prisoner was placed bound in the bottom of a boat, and with his guards, the rowers, an inexperienced pilot, and Gessler in command, the boat was headed for Kussnacht. When about halfway across the lake a sudden and violent storm overwhelmed the party. They were in peril of their lives. The rowers and pilot were panic-stricken, and powerless in face of the danger that threatened them. Tell's fame as a boatman was as widespread as that of his skill as an archer. The rowers cried aloud in their terror that he was the only man in Switzerland that could save them from death. Gessler immediately commanded him to be released from his bonds and given the helm. Tell succeeded in guiding the vessel to the shore. Then seizing his bow and arrows, which his captors had thrown beside him, he sprang ashore at a point known as "Tell's Leap." The boat, rebounding, after he leaped from it was again driven out on the lake before any of the remainder of its occupants could effect a landing. After a time, however, the fury of the storm abated, and they reached the shore in safety. In the meantime Tell had concealed himself in a defile in the mountain through which Gessler would have to pass on his way to Kussnacht. There he lay in wait for his persecutor who followed in hot pursuit. Vowing vengeance as he went, Gessler declared that if the fugitive did not give himself up to justice, every day that passed by should cost him the life of his wife or one of his children. While the tyrant was yet speaking, an arrow shot by an unerring hand pierced his heart. Tell had taken vengeance into his own hands. The death of Gessler was the signal for a general uprising. The oath-bound men of Rutli saw that this was their great opportunity. They called to their countrymen to follow them to freedom or death. Gessler's crowning act of tyranny--his inhuman punishment of Tell--had roused the spirit of rebellion in the hearts of even the meekest and most submissive of the peasants. Gladly, then, did they respond to the call of the leaders of the insurrection. The legend says that on New Year's Eve, 1308, Stauffacher, with a chosen band of followers, climbed the mountain which led to Landenberg's fortress castle of Rotzberg. There they were assisted by an inmate of the castle, a young girl whose lover was among the rebels. She threw a rope out of one of the windows of the castle, and by it her countrymen climbed one after another into the castle. They seized the bailiff, Landenberg, and confined him in one of the dungeons of his own castle. Next day the conspirators were reinforced by another party who gained entrance to the castle by means of a clever ruse. Landenberg and his men were given their freedom by the peasants on condition that they would quit Switzerland forever. The castle of Uri was attacked and taken possession of by Walter Furst and William Tell, while other strongholds were captured by Arnold of Melchthal and his associates. Bonfires blazed all over the country. The dawn of Switzerland's freedom had appeared. The reign of tyranny was doomed. William Tell was the hero of the hour, and ever since his name has been enshrined in the hearts of his countrymen as the watchword of their liberties. Even to this day, as history tells us, the Swiss peasant cherishes the belief that "Tell and the three men of Rutli are asleep in the mountains, but will awake to the rescue of their land should tyranny ever again enchain it." Lamartine, to whose story of William Tell the writer is indebted, commenting on the legend says: "The artlessness of this history resembles a poem; it is a pastoral song in which a single drop of blood is mingled with the dew upon a leaf or a tuft of grass. Providence seems thus to delight in providing for every free community, as the founder of their independence, a fabulous or actual hero, conformable to the local situation, manners, and character of each particular race. To a rustic, pastoral people, like the Swiss, is given for their liberator a noble peasant; to a proud, aspiring race, such as the Americans, an honest soldier. Two distinct symbols, standing erect by the cradles of the two modern liberties of the world to personify their opposite natures: on the one hand Tell, with his arrow and the apple; on the other, Washington, with his sword and the law." "WESTWARD HO!" When the current serves, the unseen monitor that directs our affairs bids us step aboard our craft, and, with hand firmly grasping the helm, steer boldly for the distant goal. Philip D. Armour, the open-handed, large-hearted merchant prince, who has left a standing memorial to his benevolence in the Armour Institute at Chicago, heard the call to put to sea when in his teens. It came during the gold fever, which raged with such intensity from 1849 to 1851, when the wildest stories were afloat of the treasures that were daily being dug out of the earth in California. The brain of the sturdy youth, whose Scotch and Puritan blood tingled for some broader field than the village store and his father's farm in Stockbridge, New York, was haunted by the tales of adventure and fortune wafted across the continent from the new El Dorado. "I brooded over the difference," he says, "between tossing hay in the hot sun and digging gold by handfuls, until, one day, I threw down the pitchfork, went to the house, and told mother that I had quit that kind of work." Armour was nineteen years old when he determined to seek his fortune in California. His determination once formed, he lost no time in carrying it out. As much of the journey across the plains was to be made on foot, he first provided himself with a pair of stout boots. Then he packed his extra clothing in an old carpetbag, and with a light heart bade his family good-by. He had induced a young friend, Calvin Gilbert, to accompany him in his search for fortune. The two youths joined the motley crowd of adventurers who were flocking from all quarters to the Land of Promise, and set out on their journey. Tramping over the plains, crossing rivers in tow-boats and ferryboats, and riding in trains and on wagons when they could, the adventurers, after many weary months, reached their destination. During the journey young Armour became sick, but was tenderly nursed back to health by his companion. "I had scarcely any money when I arrived at the gold fields," said Armour, "but I struck right out and found a place where I could dig, and in a little time I struck pay dirt." He entered into partnership with a Mr. Croarkin, and, with characteristic energy, kept digging and taking his turn at the rude housekeeping in the shanty which he and his partner shared. "Croarkin would cook one week," he says, "and I the next, and we would have a clean-up Sunday morning We baked our own bread, and kept a few hens, too, which supplied us with fresh eggs." The young gold hunter, however, did not find nuggets as "plentiful as blackberries," but he found within himself that which led him to a bonanza far exceeding his wildest dreams of "finds" in the gold fields. He discovered his business ability; he learned how to economize, how to rely upon himself, even to the extent of baking his own bread. THREE GREAT AMERICAN SONGS AND THEIR AUTHORS THE STAR-SPANGLED BANNER "Poetry and music," says Sir John Lubbock, "unite in song. From the earliest ages song has been the sweet companion of labor. The rude chant of the boatman floats upon the water, the shepherd sings upon the hill, the milkmaid in the dairy, the plowman in the field. Every trade, every occupation, every act and scene of life, has long had its own especial music. The bride went to her marriage, the laborer to his work, the old man to his last long rest, each with appropriate and immemorial music." It is strange that Lubbock did not mention specifically the power of music in inspiring the soldier as he marches to the defense of his country, or in arousing the spirit of patriotism and kindling the love of country, whether in peace or war, in every bosom. "Let me make the songs of a country," Fletcher of Saltoun has well said, "and I care not who makes its laws." Not to know the words and the air of the national anthem or chief patriotic songs of one's country is considered little less than a disgrace. To know something of their authors and the occasion which inspired them, or the conditions under which they were composed, gives additional interest to the songs themselves. Francis Scott Key, author of "The Star-spangled Banner," one of the, if not the most, popular of our national songs, was born in Frederick County, Maryland, on August 1, 1779. He was the son of John Ross Key, an officer in the Revolutionary army. Young Key's early education was carried on under the direction of his father. Later he became a student in St. John's College, from which institution he was graduated in his nineteenth year. Immediately after his graduation he began to study law under his uncle, Philip Barton Key, one of the ablest lawyers of his time. He was admitted to the bar in 1801, and commenced to practice in Fredericktown, Maryland, where he won the reputation of an eloquent advocate. After a few years' practice in Fredericktown, he removed to Washington, where he was appointed district attorney for the District of Columbia. Young Key was as widely known and admired as a writer of hymns and ballads as he was as a lawyer of promise. But the production of the popular national anthem which crowned him with immortality has so overshadowed the rest of his life work that we remember him only as its author. The occasion which inspired "The Star-spangled Banner" must always be memorable in the annals of our country. The war with the British had been about two years in progress, when, in August, 1814, a British fleet arrived in the Chesapeake, and an army under General Ross landed about forty miles from the city of Washington. The army took possession of Washington, burnt the capitol, the President's residence, and other public buildings, and then sailed around by the sea to attack Baltimore. The fleet was to bombard Fort McHenry, while the land forces were to attack the city. The commanding officers of the fleet and land army, Admiral Cockburn and General Ross, made their headquarters in Upper Marlboro, Maryland, at the house of Dr. William Beanes, whom they held as their prisoner. Francis Scott Key, who was a warm friend of Dr. Beanes, went to President Madison in order to enlist his aid in securing the release of Beanes. The president furnished Key with a vessel, and instructed John L. Skinner, agent for the exchange of prisoners, to accompany him under a flag of truce to the British fleet. The British commander agreed to release Dr. Beanes, but would not permit Key and his party to return then, lest they should carry back important information to the American side. He boastingly declared, however, that the defense could hold out only a few hours, and that Baltimore would then be in the hands of the British. Skinner and Key were sent on board the Surprise, which was under the command of Admiral Cockburn's son. But after a short time they were allowed to return to their own vessel, and from its deck they saw the American flag waving over Fort McHenry and witnessed the bombardment. All through the night the furious attack of the British continued. The roar of cannon and the bursting of shells was incessant. It is said that as many as fifteen hundred shells were hurled at the fort. Shortly before daybreak the firing ceased. Key and his companions waited in painful suspense to know the result. In the intense silence that followed the cannonading, each one asked himself if the flag of his country was still waving on high, or if it had been hauled down to give place to that of England. They strained their eyes in the direction of Baltimore, but the darkness revealed nothing. At last day dawned, and to their delight the little party saw the American flag still floating over Fort McHenry. Key's heart was stirred to its depths, and in a glow of patriotic enthusiasm he immediately wrote down a rough draft of "The Star-spangled Banner." On his arrival in Baltimore he perfected the first copy of the song, and gave it to Captain Benjamin Eades, of the 27th Baltimore Regiment, saying that he wished it to be sung to the air of "Anacreon in Heaven." Eades had it put in type, and took the first proof to a famous old tavern near the Holliday Street Theater, a favorite resort of actors and literary people of that day. The verses were read to the company assembled there, and Frederick Durang, an actor, was asked to sing them to the air designated by the author. Durang, mounting a chair, sang as requested. The song was enthusiastically received. From that moment it became the great popular favorite that it has ever since been, and that it will continue to be as long as the American republic exists. Key died in Baltimore on January 11, 1843. A monument was erected to his memory by the munificence of James Lick, a Californian millionaire. The sculptor to whom the work was intrusted was the celebrated W. W. Story, who completed it in 1887. The monument, which is fifty-one feet high, stands in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco. It is built of travertine, in the form of a double arch, under which a bronze statue of Key is seated. A bronze figure, representing America with an unfolded flag, supports the arch. On the occasion of the unveiling of this statue, the New York Home Journal contained an appreciative criticism of Key as a poet, and the following estimate of his greatest production. "The poetry of the 'Star-spangled Banner' has touches of delicacy for which one looks in vain in most national odes, and is as near a true poem as any national ode ever was. The picture of the 'dawn's early light' and the tricolor, half concealed, half disclosed, amid the mists that wreathed the battle-sounding Patapsco, is a true poetic concept. "The 'Star-spangled Banner' has the peculiar merit of not being a tocsin song, like the 'Marseillaise.' Indeed, there is not a restful, soothing, or even humane sentiment in all that stormy shout. It is the scream of oppressed humanity against its oppressor, presaging a more than quid pro quo; and it fitly prefigured the sight of that long file of tumbrils bearing to the Place de la Revolution the fairest scions of French aristocracy. On the other hand, 'God Save the King,' in its original, has one or two lines as grotesque as 'Yankee Doodle' itself; yet we have paraphrased it in 'America,' and made it a hymn meet for all our churches. But the 'Star-spangled Banner' combines dignity and beauty, and it would be hard to find a line of it that could be improved upon." Over the simple grave of Francis Scott Key, in Frederick, Maryland, there is no other monument than the "star-spangled banner." In storm and in sunshine, in summer and in winter, its folds ever float over the resting place of the man who has immortalized it in verse. No other memorial could so fitly commemorate the life and death of this simple, dignified, patriotic American. "A sweet, noble life," says a recent writer, "was that of the author of our favorite national hymn--a life of ideal refinement, piety, scholarly gentleness. Little did he think that his voice would be the storm song, the victor shout, of conquering America to resound down and down the ages!" THE STAR-SPANGLED BANNER Oh! say, can you see, by the dawn's early light, What so proudly we hailed at the twilight's last gleaming? Whose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilous fight, O'er the rampart we watched, were so gallantly streaming, And the rocket's red glare, the bombs bursting in air, Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there, Oh! say, does that star-spangled banner yet wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave? On the shore, dimly seen through the mists of the deep, Where the foe's haughty host in dread silence reposes, What is that which the breeze, o'er the towering steep, As it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses? Now it catches the gleam of the morning's first beam, In full glory reflected now shines on the stream, 'Tis the star-spangled banner' oh, long may it wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave! And where is that band, who so vauntingly swore That the havoc of war and the battle's confusion A home and a country should leave us no more? Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps' pollution. No refuge could save the hireling and slave, From the terror of death and the gloom of the grave, And the star spangled banner in triumph shall wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave! Oh! thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand Between their loved homes and the war's desolation, Blest with victory and peace, may the heaven rescued land Praise the power that has made and preserved us a nation. Then conquer we must, for our cause it is just, And this be our motto, "In God is our trust" And the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave! II. AMERICA "And there's a nice youngster of excellent pith; Fate tried to conceal him by naming him Smith! But he shouted a song for the brave and the free-- Just read on his medal, 'My Country of Thee.'" In these lines of his famous Reunion Poem, "The Boys," Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes commemorated his old friend and college-mate, Dr. Samuel Francis Smith, author of "America." Samuel Francis Smith was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on October 21, 1808. He attended the Latin School in his native city, and it is said that when only twelve years old he could "talk Latin." He entered Harvard College, Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1825, and graduated in the famous class of 1829, of which Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes, James Freeman Clarke, William E. Channing, and other celebrated Americans were members. Dr. Smith, like so many other noted men, "worked his way through college." He did this principally by coaching other students, and by making translations from the German "Conversations-Lexicon" for the "American Cyclopedia." After graduating from Harvard, he immediately entered Andover Theological Seminary. Three years later, in 1832, he wrote, among others, his most famous hymn, "America," of which the "National Cyclopedia of American Biography" says, "It has found its way wherever an American heart beats or the English language is spoken, and has probably proved useful in stirring the patriotic spirit of the American people." Dr. Smith himself often said that he had heard "America" sung "halfway round the world, under the earth in the caverns of Manitou, Colorado, and almost above the earth near the top of Pike's Peak." The hymn, as every child knows, is sung to the air of the national anthem of England,--"God Save the King." The author came upon it in a book of German music, and by it was inspired to write the words of "America," a work which he accomplished in half an hour. Many years after, referring to its impromptu composition, he wrote: "If I had anticipated the future of it, doubtless I should have taken more pains with it. Such as it is, I am glad to have contributed this mite to the cause of American freedom." In a magazine article, written several years ago, Mr. Herbert Heywood gave an interesting account of an interview with Dr. Smith, who told him the story of the writing of the hymn himself. "'I wrote "America,"' he said, 'when I was a theological student at Andover, during my last year there. In February, 1832, I was poring over a German book of patriotic songs which Lowell Mason, of Boston, had sent me to translate, when I came upon one with a tune of great majesty. I hummed it over, and was struck with the ease with which the accompanying German words fell into the music. I saw it was a patriotic song, and while I was thinking of translating it, I felt an impulse to write an American patriotic hymn. I reached my hand for a bit of waste paper, and, taking my quill pen, wrote the four verses in half an hour. I sent it with some translations of the German songs to Lowell Mason, and the next thing I knew of it I was told it had been sung by the Sunday-school children at Park Street Church, Boston, at the following Fourth of July celebration. The house where I was living at the time was on the Andover turnpike, a little north of the seminary building. I have been in the house since I left it in September, 1832, but never went into my old room.'" This room is now visited by patriotic Americans from every part of the country. Two years after "America" was written, Dr. Smith became pastor of the First Baptist Church in Waterville, Maine, and also professor of modern languages in Waterville College, which is now known as Colby University. His great industry and zeal, both as a clergyman and student and teacher of languages, enabled him to perform the duties of both positions successfully. He was a noted linguist, and could read books in fifteen different languages. He could converse in most of the modern European tongues, and at eighty-six was engaged in studying Russian. In 1842 Dr. Smith was made pastor of the First Baptist Church, Newton Center, Massachusetts, where he made his home for the rest of his life. "When he died, in November, 1895," says Mr. Heywood, "he was living in the old brown frame-house at Newton Center, Massachusetts, which had been his home for over fifty years. It stood back from the street, on the brow of a hill sloping gently to a valley on the north. Pine trees were in the front and rear, and the sun, from his rising to his setting, smiled upon that abode of simple greatness. The house was faded and worn by wind and weather, and was in perfect harmony with its surroundings--the brown grass sod that peeped from under the snow, the dull-colored, leafless elms, and the gray, worn stone steps leading up from the street. "An air of gentle refinement pervaded the interior, and every room spoke of its inmate. But perhaps the library was best loved of all by Dr. Smith, for here it was that his work went on. Here, beside a sunny bay window, stood his work table, and his high-backed, old-fashioned chair, with black, rounded arms. All about the room were ranged his bookcases, and an old, tall clock marked the flight of time that was so kind to the old man. His figure was short, his shoulders slightly bowed, and around his full, ruddy face, that beamed with kindness, was a fringe of white hair and beard." Dr. Smith resigned his pastorate of the Newton church in 1854, and became editorial secretary of the American Baptist Missionary Union. In 1875 he went abroad for the first time, and spent a year in European travel. Five years later he went to India and the Burmese empire. During his travels he visited Christian missionary stations in France, Spain, Italy, Austria, Turkey, Greece, Sweden, Denmark, Burmah, India, and Ceylon. The latter years of his life were devoted almost entirely to literary work. He wrote numerous poems which were published in magazines and newspapers, but never collected in book form. His hymns, numbering over one hundred, are sung by various Christian denominations. "The Morning Light is Breaking" is a popular favorite. Among his other published works are "Missionary Sketches," "Rambles in Mission Fields," a "History of Newton," and a "Life of Rev. Joseph Grafton." Besides his original hymns, he translated many from other languages, and wrote numerous magazine articles and sketches during his long and busy life. Dr. Smith's vitality and enthusiasm remained with him to the last. A great-grandfather when he died in his eighty-seventh year, he was an inspiration to the younger generations growing up around him. He was at work almost to the moment of his death, and still actively planning for the future. His great national hymn, if he had left nothing else, will keep his memory green forever in the hearts of his countrymen. It is even more popular to-day, after seventy-one years have elapsed, than it was when first sung in Park Street Church by the Sunday-school children of Boston. Its patriotic ring, rather than its literary merit, renders it sweet to the ear of every American. Wherever it is sung, the feeble treble of age will join as enthusiastically as the joyous note of youth in rendering the inspiring strains of AMERICA My country, 'tis of thee, Sweet land of liberty, Of thee I sing, Land where my fathers died, Land of the pilgrim's pride, From every mountain side, Let freedom ring. My native country, thee, Land of the noble, free, Thy name I love; I love thy rocks and rills, Thy woods and templed hills,-- My heart with rapture thrills, Like that above. Let music swell the breeze, And ring from all the trees Sweet freedom's song; Let mortal tongues awake, Let all that breathe partake, Let rocks their silence break, The sound prolong. Our fathers' God, to Thee, Author of Liberty, To Thee we sing; Long may our land be bright With freedom's holy light,-- Protect us by thy might, Great God, our King. III. THE BATTLE HYMN OF THE REPUBLIC "No single influence," says United States Senator George F. Hoar of Massachusetts, "has had so much to do with shaping the destiny of a nation--as nothing more surely expresses national character--than what is known as the national anthem." There is some difference of opinion as to which of our patriotic hymns or songs is distinctively the national anthem of America. Senator Hoar seems to have made up his mind in favor of "The Battle Hymn of the Republic." Writing of its author, Julia Ward Howe, in 1903, he said: "We waited eighty years for our American national anthem. At last God inspired an illustrious and noble woman to utter in undying verse the thought which we hope is forever to animate the soldier of the republic:-- "'In the beauty of the lilies Christ was born across the sea With a glory in His bosom that transfigures you and me; As He died to make men holy, let us die to make men free, While God is marching on.'" Mrs. Julia Ward Howe is as widely known for her learning and literary and poetic achievements as she is for her work as a philanthropist and reformer. She was born in New York City, in a stately mansion near the Bowling Green, on May 27, 1819. From her birth she was fortunate in possessing the advantages that wealth and high social position bestow. Her father, Samuel Ward, the descendant of an old colonial family, was a member of a leading banking firm of New York. Her mother, Julia Cutter Ward, was a most charming and accomplished woman. She died very young, however, while her little daughter Julia was still a child. Mr. Ward was a man of advanced ideas, and was determined that his daughters should have, as far as possible, the same educational advantages as his sons. Of course, in those early days there were no separate colleges for women, and they would not be admitted to men's colleges. It was impossible for Mr. Ward to overcome these difficulties wholly, but he did the next best thing he could for his girls. He engaged as their tutor the learned Dr. Joseph Green Cogswell, and instructed him to put them through the full curriculum of Harvard College. On her entrance into society the "little Miss Ward," as Julia had been called from her childhood, at once became a leader of the cultured and fashionable circle in which she moved. In her father's home she met the most distinguished American men of letters of that time. The liberal education which she had received made the young girl feel perfectly at her ease in such society. In addition to other accomplishments, she was mistress of several ancient and modern languages, and a musical amateur of great promise. In 1843 Miss Ward was married to Dr. Samuel G. Howe, director of the Institute for the Blind in South Boston, Massachusetts. Immediately after their marriage Dr. and Mrs. Howe went to Europe, where they traveled for some time. The home which they established in Boston on their return became a center for the refined and literary society of Boston and its environment. Mrs. Howe's grace, learning, and accomplishments made her a charming hostess and fit mistress of such a home. Her literary talent was developed at a very early age. One of her friends has humorously said that "Mrs. Howe wrote leading articles from her cradle." However this may be, it is undoubtedly true that at seventeen she contributed valuable articles to a leading New York magazine. In 1854 she published her first volume of poems, "Passion Flowers." Other volumes, including collections of her later poems, books of travel, and a biography of Margaret Fuller, were afterward published. For more than half a century she has been a constant contributor to the leading magazines of the country. Since 1869 Mrs. Howe has been a leader in the movement for woman's suffrage, and both by lecturing and writing has supported every effort put forth for the educational and general advancement of her sex. Although in her eightieth year when the writer conversed with her a few years ago, Mrs. Howe was then full of youthful enthusiasm, and her interest in the great movements of the world was as keen as ever. Age had in no way lessened her intellectual vigor. Surrounded by her children and grandchildren, and one great-grandchild, she recently celebrated her eighty-fourth birthday. The story of "The Battle Hymn of the Republic" has been left to the last, not because it is the least important, but, on the contrary, because it is one of the most important works of her life. Certain it is that the "Battle Hymn" will live and thrill the hearts of Americans centuries after its author has passed on to the other life. The hymn was written in Washington, in November, 1861, the first year of our Civil War. Dr. and Mrs. Howe were visiting friends in that city. During their stay, they went one day with a party to see a review of Union troops. The review, however, was interrupted by a movement of the Confederate forces which were besieging the city. On their return, the carriage in which Mrs. Howe and her friends were seated was surrounded by soldiers. Stirred by the scene and the occasion, she began to sing "John Brown," to the delight of the soldiers, who heartily joined in the refrain. At the close of the song Mrs. Howe expressed to her friends the strong desire she felt to write some words which might be sung to this stirring tune. But she added that she feared she would never be able to do so. "That night," says her daughter, Maude Howe Eliot, "she went to sleep full of thoughts of battle, and awoke before dawn the next morning to find the desired verses immediately present to her mind. She sprang from her bed, and in the dim gray light found a pen and paper, whereon she wrote, scarcely seeing them, the lines of the poem. Returning to her couch, she was soon asleep, but not until she had said to herself, 'I like this better than anything I have ever written before.'" THE BATTLE HYMN OF THE REPUBLIC Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord: He is trampling out the vintage where the grapes of wrath are stored; He hath loosed the fateful lightning of His terrible swift sword: His truth is marching on. I have seen Him in the watch fires of a hundred circling camps; They have builded Him an altar in the evening dews and damps; I can read His righteous sentence by the dim and flaring lamps; His day is marching on. I have read a fiery gospel, writ in burnished rows of steel: "As ye deal with my contemners, so with you my grace shall deal; Let the Hero born of woman crush the serpent with his heel, Since God is marching on." He has sounded forth the trumpet that shall never call retreat; He is sifting out the hearts of men before His judgment seat: Oh! be swift, my soul, to answer Him! be jubilant, my feet! Our God is marching on. In the beauty of the lilies Christ was born across the sea, With a glory in His bosom that transfigures you and me: As he died to make men holy, let us die to make men free, While God is marching on. TRAINING FOR GREATNESS GLIMPSES OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN'S BOYHOOD In pronouncing a eulogy on Henry Clay, Lincoln said: "His example teaches us that one can scarcely be so poor but that, if he will, he can acquire sufficient education to get through the world respectably." Endowed as he was with all the qualities that make a man truly great, Lincoln's own life teaches above all other things the lesson he drew from that of Henry Clay. Is there in all the length and breadth of the United States to-day a boy so poor as to envy Abraham Lincoln the chances of his boyhood? The story of his life has been told so often that nothing new can be said about him. Yet every fresh reading of the story fills the reader anew with wonder and admiration at what was accomplished by the poor backwoods boy. Let your mind separate itself from all the marvels of the twentieth century. Think of a time when railroads and telegraph wires, telephones, great ocean steamers, lighting by gas and electricity, daily newspapers (except in a few centers), great circulating libraries, and the hundreds of conveniences which are necessities to the people of to-day, were unknown. Even the very rich at the beginning of the nineteenth century could not buy the advantages that are free to the poorest boy at the beginning of the twentieth century. When Lincoln was a boy, thorns were used for pins; cork covered with cloth or bits of bone served as buttons; crusts of rye bread were used by the poor as substitutes for coffee, and dried leaves of certain herbs for tea. Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, in a log cabin in Hardin County, now La Rue County, Kentucky. His father, Thomas Lincoln, was not remarkable either for thrift or industry. He was tall, well built, and muscular, expert with his rifle, and a noted hunter, but he did not possess the qualities necessary to make a successful pioneer farmer. The character of the mother of Abraham, may best be gathered from his own words: "All that I am or hope to be," he said when president of the United States, "I owe to my angel mother. Blessings on her memory!" It was at her knee he learned his first lessons from the Bible. With his sister Sarah, a girl two years his senior, he listened with wonder and delight to the Bible stories, fairy tales, and legends with which the gentle mother entertained and instructed them when the labors of the day were done. When Abraham was about four years old, the family moved from the farm on Nolin Creek to another about fifteen miles distant. There the first great event in his life took place. He went to school. Primitive as was the log-cabin schoolhouse, and elementary as were the acquirements of his first schoolmaster, it was a wonderful experience for the boy, and one that he never forgot. In 1816 Thomas Lincoln again decided to make a change. He was enticed by stories that came to him from Indiana to try his fortunes there. So, once more the little family "pulled up stakes" and moved on to the place selected by the father in Spencer County, about a mile and a half from Gentryville. It was a long, toilsome journey through the forest, from the old home in Kentucky to the new one in Indiana. In some places they had to clear their way through the tangled thickets as they journeyed along. The stock of provisions they carried with them was supplemented by game snared or shot in the forest and fish caught in the river. These they cooked over the wood fire, kindled by means of tinder and flint. The interlaced branches of trees and the sky made the roof of their bedchamber by night, and pine twigs their bed. When the travelers arrived at their destination, there was no time for rest after their journey. Some sort of shelter had to be provided at once for their accommodation. They hastily put up a "half-faced camp"--a sort of rude tent, with an opening on one side. The framework of the tent was of upright posts, crossed by thin slabs, cut from the trees they felled. The open side, or entrance, was covered with "pelts," or half-dressed skins of wild animals. There was no ruder dwelling in the wilds of Indiana, and no poorer family among the settlers than the new adventurers from Kentucky. They were reduced to the most primitive makeshifts in order to eke out a living. There was no lack of food, however, for the woods were full of game of all kinds, both feathered and furred, and the streams and rivers abounded with fish. But the home lacked everything in the way of comfort or convenience. Abraham, who was then in his eighth year, has been described as a tall, ungainly, fast-growing, long-legged lad, clad in the garb of the frontier. This consisted of a shirt of linsey-woolsey, a coarse homespun material made of linen and wool, a pair of home-made moccasins, deerskin leggings or breeches, and a hunting shirt of the same material. This costume was completed by a coonskin cap, the tail of the animal being left to hang down the wearer's back as an ornament. This sturdy lad, who was born to a life of unremitting toil, was already doing a man's work. From the time he was four years old, away back on the Kentucky farm, he had contributed his share to the family labors. Picking berries, dropping seeds, and doing other simple tasks suited to his strength, he had thus early begun his apprenticeship to toil. In putting up the "half-faced" camp, he was his father's principal helper. Afterward, when they built a more, substantial cabin to take the place of the camp, he learned to handle an ax, a maul, and a wedge. He helped to fell trees, fashion logs, split rails, and do other important work in building the one-roomed cabin, which was to be the permanent home of the family. He assisted also in making the rough tables and chairs and the one rude bedstead or bed frame which constituted the principal furniture of the cabin. In his childhood Abraham did not enjoy the luxury of sleeping on a bedstead. His bed was simply a heap of dry leaves, which occupied a corner of the loft over the cabin. He climbed to it every night by a stepladder, or rather a number of pegs driven into the wall. Rough and poor and full of hardship as his life was, Lincoln was by no means a sad or unhappy boy. On the contrary, he was full of fun and boyish pranks. His life in the open air, the vigorous exercise of every muscle which necessity forced upon him, the tonic of the forests which he breathed from his infancy, his interest in every living and growing thing about him,--all helped to make him unusually strong, healthy, buoyant, and rich in animal spirits. The first great sorrow of his life came to him in the death of his dearly loved mother in 1818. The boy mourned for her as few children mourn even for the most loving parent. Day after day he went from the home made desolate by her death to weep on her grave under the near-by trees. There were no churches in the Indiana wilderness, and the visits of wandering ministers of religion to the scattered settlements were few and far between. Little Abraham was grieved that no funeral service had been held over his dead mother. He felt that it was in some sense a lack of respect to her. He thought a great deal about the matter, and finally wrote a letter to a minister named Elkins, whom the family had known in Kentucky. Several months after the receipt of the letter Parson Elkins came to Indiana. On the Sabbath morning after his arrival, in the presence of friends who had come long distances to assist, he read the funeral service over the grave of Mrs. Lincoln. He also spoke in touching words of the tender Christian mother who lay buried there. This simple service greatly comforted the heart of the lonely boy. Some time after Thomas Lincoln brought a new mother to his children from Kentucky. This was Mrs. Sally Bush Johnston, a young widow, who had been a girlhood friend of Nancy Hanks. She had three children,--John, Sarah, and Matilda Johnston,--who accompanied her to Indiana. The second Mrs. Lincoln brought a stock of household goods and furniture with her from Kentucky, and with the help of these made so many improvements in the rude log cabin that her stepchildren regarded her as a sort of magician or wonder worker. She was a good mother to them, intelligent, kind, and loving. He was ten years old at this time, and had been to school but little. Indeed, he says himself that he only went to school "by littles," and that all his schooling "did not amount to more than a year." But he had learned to read when he was a mere baby at his mother's knee; and to a boy who loved knowledge as he did, this furnished the key to a broad education. His love of reading amounted to a passion. The books he had access to when a boy were very few; but they were good ones, and he knew them literally from cover to cover. They were the Bible, "Robinson Crusoe," "Pilgrim's Progress," a "History of the United States," and Weems's "Life of Washington." Some of these were borrowed, among them the "Life of Washington," of which Abraham afterward became the happy owner. The story of how he became its owner has often been told. The book had been loaned to him by a neighbor, a well-to-do farmer named Crawford. After reading from it late into the night by the light of pine knots, Abraham carried it to his bedroom in the loft. He placed it in a crack between the logs over his bed of dry leaves, so that he could reach to it as soon as the first streaks of dawn penetrated through the chinks in the log cabin. Unfortunately, it rained heavily during the night, and when he took down the precious volume in the morning, he found it badly damaged, all soddened and stained by the rain. He was much distressed, and hurried to the owner of the book as soon as possible to explain the mishap. "I'm real sorry, Mr. Crawford," he said, in concluding his explanation, "and want to fix it up with you somehow, if you can tell me any way, for I ain't got the money to pay for it with." "Well," said Mr. Crawford, "being as it's you, Abe, I won't be hard on you. Come over and shuck corn three days, and the book's yours." The boy was delighted with the result of what at first had seemed a great misfortune. Verily, his sorrow was turned into joy. What! Shuck corn only three days and become owner of the book that told all about his greatest hero! What an unexpected piece of good fortune! Lincoln's reading had revealed to him a world beyond his home in the wilderness. Slowly it dawned upon him that one day he might find his place in that great world, and he resolved to prepare himself with all his might for whatever the future might hold. "I don't intend to delve, grub, shuck corn, split rails, and the like always," he told Mrs. Crawford after he had finished reading the "Life of Washington." "I'm going to fit myself for a profession." "Why, what do you want to be now?" asked Mrs. Crawford, in surprise. "Oh, I'll be president," said the boy, with a smile. "You'd make a pretty president, with all your tricks and jokes, now wouldn't you?" said Mrs. Crawford. "Oh, I'll study and get ready," was the reply, "and then maybe the chance will come." If the life of George Washington, who had all the advantages of culture and training that his time afforded, was an inspiration to Lincoln, the poor hard-working backwoods boy, what should the life of Lincoln be to boys of to-day? Here is a further glimpse of the way in which he prepared himself to be president of the United States. The quotation is from Ida M. Tarbell's "Life of Lincoln." "Every lull in his daily labor he used for reading, rarely going to his work without a book. When plowing or cultivating the rough fields of Spencer County, he found frequently a half hour for reading, for at the end of every long row the horse was allowed to rest, and Lincoln had his book out and was perched on stump or fence, almost as soon as the plow had come to a standstill. One of the few people left in Gentryville who still remembers Lincoln, Captain John Lamar, tells to this day of riding to mill with his father, and seeing, as they drove along, a boy sitting on the top rail of an old-fashioned, stake-and-rider worm fence, reading so intently that he did not notice their approach. His father, turning to him, said: 'John, look at that boy yonder, and mark my words, he will make a smart man out of himself. I may not see it, but you'll see if my words don't come true.' 'That boy was Abraham Lincoln,' adds Mr. Lamar, impressively." Lincoln's father was illiterate, and had no sympathy with his son's efforts to educate himself. Fortunately for him, however, his stepmother helped and encouraged him in every way possible. Shortly before her death she said to a biographer of Lincoln: "I induced my husband to permit Abe to read and study at home, as well as at school. At first he was not easily reconciled to it, but finally he too seemed willing to encourage him to a certain extent. Abe was a dutiful son to me always, and we took particular care when he was reading not to disturb him,--would let him read on and on till he quit of his own accord." Lincoln fully appreciated his stepmother's sympathy and love for him, and returned them in equal measure. It added greatly to his enjoyment of his reading and studies to have some one to whom he could talk about them, and in after life he always gratefully remembered what his second mother did for him in those early days of toil and effort. If there was a book to be borrowed anywhere in his neighborhood, he was sure to hear about it and borrow it if possible. He said himself that he "read through every book he had ever heard of in that county for a circuit of fifty miles." And how he read! Boys who have books and magazines and papers in abundance in their homes, besides having thousands of volumes to choose from in great city libraries, can have no idea of what a book meant to this boy in the wilderness. He devoured every one that came into his hands as a man famishing from hunger devours a crust of bread. He read and re-read it until he had made the contents his own. "From everything he read," says Miss Tarbell, "he made long extracts, with his turkey-buzzard pen and brier-root ink. When he had no paper he would write on a board, and thus preserve his selections until he secured a copybook. The wooden fire shovel was his usual slate, and on its back he ciphered with a charred stick, shaving it off when it had become too grimy for use. The logs and boards in his vicinity he covered with his figures and quotations. By night he read and worked as long as there was light, and he kept a book in the crack of the logs in his loft to have it at hand at peep of day. When acting as ferryman on the Ohio in his nineteenth year, anxious, no doubt, to get through the books of the house where he boarded before he left the place, he read every night until midnight." His stepmother said: "He read everything he could lay his hands on, and when he came across a passage that struck him, he would write it down on boards if he had no paper, and keep it by him until he could get paper. Then he would copy it, look at it, commit it to memory, and repeat it." His thoroughness in mastering everything he undertook to study was a habit acquired in childhood. How he acquired this habit he tells himself. "Among my earliest recollections I remember how, when a mere child," he says, "I used to get irritated when anybody talked to me in a way I could not understand. I do not think I ever got angry at anything else in my life; but that always disturbed my temper, and has ever since. I can remember going to my little bedroom, after hearing the neighbors talk of an evening with my father, and spending no small part of the night walking up and down and trying to make out what was the exact meaning of some of their--to me--dark sayings. "I could not sleep, although I tried to, when I got on such a hunt for an idea until I had caught it; and when I thought I had got it, I was not satisfied until I had repeated it over and over; until I had put it in language plain enough, as I thought, for any boy I knew to comprehend. This was a kind of passion with me, and it has stuck by me; for I am never easy now when I am handling a thought, till I have bounded it north and bounded it south and bounded it east and bounded it west." With all his hard study, reading, and thinking, Lincoln was not a bookworm, nor a dull companion to the humble, unschooled people among whom his youth was spent. On the contrary, although he was looked up to as one whose acquirements in "book learning" had raised him far above every one in his neighborhood, he was the most popular youth in all the country round. No "husking bee," or "house raising" or merry-making of any kind was complete if Abraham was not present. He was witty, ready of speech, a good story-teller, and had stored his memory with a fund of humorous anecdotes, which he always used to good purpose and with great effect. He had committed to memory, and could recite all the poetry in the various school readers used at that time in the log-cabin schoolhouse. He could make rhymes himself, and even make impromptu speeches that excited the admiration of his hearers. He was the best wrestler, jumper, runner, and the strongest of all his young companions. Even when a mere youth he could lift as much as three full-grown men; and, "if you heard him fellin' trees in a clearin'," said his cousin, Dennis Hanks, "you would say there was three men at work by the way the trees fell. His ax would flash and bite into a sugar tree or sycamore, and down it would come." His kindness and tenderness of heart were as great as his strength and agility. He loved all God's creatures, and cruelty to any of them always aroused his indignation. Only once did he ever attempt to kill any of the game in the woods, which the family considered necessary for their subsistence. He refers to this occasion in an autobiography, written by him in the third person, in the year 1860. "A few days before the completion of his eighth year," he says, "in the absence of his father, a flock of wild turkeys approached the new log cabin; and Abraham, with a rifle gun, standing inside, shot through a crack and killed one of them. He has never since pulled the trigger on any larger game." Any suffering thing, whether it was animal, man, woman, or child, was sure of his sympathy and aid. Although he never touched intoxicating drinks himself, he pitied those who lost manhood by their use. One night on his way home from a husking bee or house raising, he found an unfortunate man lying on the roadside overcome with drink. If the man were allowed to remain there, he would freeze to death. Lincoln raised him from the ground and carried him a long distance to the nearest house, where he remained with him during the night. The man was his firm friend ever after. Women admired him for his courtesy and rough gallantry, as well as for his strength and kindness of heart; and he, in his turn, reverenced women, as every noble, strong man does. This big, bony, tall, awkward young fellow, who at eighteen measured six feet four, was as ready to care for a baby in the absence of its mother as he was to tell a good story or to fell a tree. Was it any wonder that he was popular with all kinds of people? His stepmother says of him: "Abe was a good boy, and I can say what scarcely one woman--a mother--can say in a thousand; Abe never gave me a cross word or look, and never refused in fact or appearance to do anything I requested him. I never gave him a cross word in all my life. His mind and mine--what little I had--seemed to run together. He was here after he was elected president. He was a dutiful son to me always. I think he loved me truly. I had a son, John, who was raised with Abe. Both were good boys; but I must say, both now being dead, that Abe was the best boy I ever saw or expect to see." Wherever he went, or whatever he did, he studied men and things, and gathered knowledge as much by observation as from books and whatever news-papers or other publications he could get hold of. He used to go regularly to the leading store in Gentryville, to read a Louisville paper, taken by the proprietor of the store, Mr. Jones. He discussed its contents, and exchanged views with the farmers who made the store their place of meeting. His love of oratory was great. When the courts were in session in Boonville, a town fifteen miles distant from his home, whenever he could spare a day, he used to walk there in the morning and back at night, to hear the lawyers argue cases and make speeches. By this time Abraham himself could make an impromptu speech on any subject with which he was at all familiar, good enough to win the applause of the Indiana farmers. So, his boyhood days, rough, hard-working days, but not devoid of fun and recreation, passed. Abraham did not love work any more than other country boys of his age, but he never shirked his tasks. Whether it was plowing, splitting rails, felling trees, doing chores, reaping, threshing, or any of the multitude of things to be done on a farm, the work was always well done. Sometimes, to make a diversion, when he was working as a "hired hand," he would stop to tell some of his funny stories, or to make a stump speech before his fellow-workers, who would all crowd round him to listen; but he would more than make up for the time thus spent by the increased energy with which he afterward worked. Doubtless the other laborers, too, were refreshed and stimulated to greater effort by the recreation he afforded them and the inspiration of his example. Thomas Lincoln had learned carpentry and cabinet making in his youth, and taught the rudiments of these trades to his son; so that in addition to his skill and efficiency in all the work that falls to the lot of a pioneer backwoods farmer, Abraham added the accomplishment of being a fairly good carpenter. He worked at these trades with his father whenever the opportunity offered. When he was not working for his family, he was hired out to the neighboring farmers. His highest wage was twenty-five cents a day, which he always handed over to his father. Lincoln got his first glimpse of the world beyond Indiana when he worked for several months as a ferryman and boatman on the Ohio River, at Anderson Creek. He saw the steamers and vessels of all kinds sailing up and down the Ohio, laden with produce and merchandise, on their way to and from western and southern towns. He came in contact with different kinds of people from different states, and thus his views of the world and its people became a little more extended, and his longing to be somebody and to do something worth while in the world waxed stronger daily. His work as a ferryman showed him that there were other ways of making a little money than by hiring out to the neighbors at twenty-five cents a day. He resolved to take some of the farm produce to New Orleans and sell it there. This project led to the unexpected earning of a dollar, which added strength to his purpose to prepare himself to take the part of a man in the world outside of Indiana. Let him tell in his own words, as he related the story to Mr. Seward years afterward, how he earned the dollar:-- "Seward," he said, "did you ever hear how I earned my first dollar?" "No," said Mr. Seward. "Well," replied he, "I was about eighteen years of age, and belonged, as you know, to what they call down south the 'scrubs'; people who do not own land and slaves are nobodies there; but we had succeeded in raising, chiefly by my labor, sufficient produce, as I thought, to justify me in taking it down the river to sell. After much persuasion I had got the consent of my mother to go, and had constructed a flatboat large enough to take the few barrels of things we had gathered to New Orleans. A steamer was going down the river. We have, you know, no wharves on the western streams, and the custom was, if passengers were at any of the landings, they were to go out in a boat, the steamer stopping and taking them on board. I was contemplating my new boat, and wondering whether I could make it stronger or improve it in any part, when two men with trunks came down to the shore in carriages, and looking at the different boats singled out mine, and asked, 'Who owns this?' I answered modestly, 'I do.' 'Will you,' said one of them, 'take us and our trunks to the steamer?' 'Certainly,' said I. I was very glad to have the chance of earning something, and supposed that each of them would give me a couple of bits. The trunks were put in my boat, the passengers seated themselves on them, and I sculled them out to the steamer. They got on board, and I lifted the trunks and put them on the deck. The steamer was about to put on steam again, when I called out, 'You have forgotten to pay me.' Each of them took from his pocket a silver half-dollar and threw it on the bottom of my boat. I could scarcely believe my eyes as I picked up the money. You may think it was a very little thing, and in these days it seems to me like a trifle, but it was a most important incident in my life. I could scarcely credit that I, the poor boy, had earned a dollar in less than a day; that by honest work I had earned a dollar. I was a more hopeful and thoughtful boy from that time." In March, 1828, Lincoln was employed by one of the leading men of Gentryville to take a load of produce down the Mississippi River to New Orleans. For this service he was paid eight dollars a month and his rations. This visit to New Orleans was a great event in his life. It showed him the life of a busy cosmopolitan city, which was a perfect wonderland to him. Everything he saw aroused his astonishment and interest, and served to educate him for the larger life on which he was to enter later. The next important event in the history of the Lincoln family was their removal from Indiana to Illinois in 1830. The farm in Indiana had not prospered as they hoped it would,--hence the removal to new ground in Illinois. Abraham drove the team of oxen which carried their household goods from the old home to their new abiding place near Decatur, in Macon County, Illinois. Driving over the muddy, ill-made roads with a heavily laden team was hard and slow work, and the journey occupied a fortnight. When they arrived at their destination, Lincoln again helped to build a log cabin for the family home. With his stepbrother he also, as he said himself, "made sufficient of rails to fence ten acres of ground, and raised a crop of sown corn upon it the same year." In that same year, 1830, he reached his majority. It was time for him to be about his own business. He had worked patiently and cheerfully since he was able to hold an ax in his hands for his own and the family's maintenance. They could now get along without him, and he felt that the time had come for him to develop himself for larger duties. He left the log cabin, penniless, without even a good suit of clothes. The first work he did when he became his own master was to supply this latter deficiency. For a certain Mrs. Millet he "split four hundred rails for every yard of brown jeans, dyed with white walnut bark, necessary to make a pair of trousers." For nearly a year he continued to work as a rail splitter and farm "hand." Then he was hired by a Mr. Denton Offut to take a flatboat loaded with goods from Sangamon town to New Orleans. So well pleased was Mr. Offut with the way in which Lincoln executed his commission that on his return he engaged him to take charge of a mill and store at New Salem. There, as in every other place in which he had resided, he became the popular favorite. His kindness of heart, his good humor, his skill as a story teller, his strength, his courtesy, manliness, and honesty were such as to win all hearts. He would allow no man to use profane language before women. A boorish fellow who insisted on doing so in the store on one occasion, in spite of Lincoln's protests, found this out to his cost. Lincoln had politely requested him not to use such language before ladies, but the man persisted in doing so. When the women left the store, he became violently angry and began to abuse Lincoln. He wanted to pick a quarrel with him. Seeing this Lincoln said, "Well, if you must be whipped, I suppose I may as well whip you as any other man," and taking the man out of the store he gave him a well-merited chastisement. Strange to say, he became Lincoln's friend after this, and remained so to the end of his life. His scrupulous honesty won for him in the New Salem community the title of "Honest Abe," a title which is still affectionately applied to him. On one occasion, having by mistake overcharged a customer six and a quarter cents, he walked three miles after the store was closed in order to restore the customer's money. At another time, in weighing tea for a woman, he used a quarter-pound instead of a half-pound weight. When he went to use the scales again, he discovered his mistake, and promptly walked a long distance to deliver the remainder of the tea. Lincoln's determination to improve himself continued to be the leading object of his life. He said once to his fellow-clerk in the store, "I have talked with great men, and I do not see how they differ from others." His observation had taught him that the great difference in men's positions was not due so much to one having more talents or being more highly gifted than another, but rather to the way in which one cultivated his talent or talents and another neglected his. Up to this time he had not made a study of grammar, but he realized that if he were to speak in public he must learn to speak grammatically. He had no grammar, and did not know where to get one. In this dilemma he consulted the schoolmaster of New Salem, who told him where and from whom he could borrow a copy of Kirkham's Grammar. The place named was six miles from New Salem. But that was nothing to a youth so hungry for an education as Lincoln. He immediately started for the residence of the fortunate people who owned a copy of Kirkham's Grammar. The book was loaned to him without hesitation. In a short time its contents were mastered, the student studying at night by the light of shavings burned in the village cooper's shop. "Well," said Lincoln to Greene, his fellow-clerk, when he had turned over the last page of the grammar, "if that's what they call a science, I think I'll go at another." The conquering of one thing after another, the thorough mastery of whatever he undertook to do, made the next thing easier of accomplishment than it would otherwise have been. In order to practice debating he used to walk seven or eight miles to debating clubs. No labor or trouble seemed too great to him if by it he could increase his knowledge or add to his acquirements. No matter how hard or exhausting his work, whether it was rail splitting, plowing, lumbering, boating, or store keeping, he studied and read every spare minute, and often until late at night. But this sketch has already exceeded the limits of Lincoln's boyhood, for he had reached his twenty-second year while in the store in New Salem. How he was made captain of a company raised to fight against the Indians, how he kept store for himself, learned surveying, was elected a member of the Illinois legislature, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in Springfield, and how he finally became president of the United States,--all this belongs to a later chapter of his life. Lincoln's rise from the poorest of log cabins to the White House, to be president of the greatest republic in the world, is one of the most inspiring stories in American biography. Yet he was not a genius, unless a determination to make the most of one's self and to persist in spite of all hardships, discouragements, and hindrances, be genius. He made himself what he was--one of the noblest, greatest, and best of men--by sheer dint of hard work and the cultivation of the talents that had been given him. No fortunate chances, no influential friends, no rare opportunities played a part in his life. Alone and unaided he made, by the grace of God, the great career which will forever challenge the admiration of mankind. THE MARBLE WAITETH THE STATUE The marble waits, immaculate and rude; Beside it stands the sculptor, lost in dreams. With vague, chaotic forms his vision teems. Fair shapes pursue him, only to elude And mock his eager fancy. Lines of grace And heavenly beauty vanish, and, behold! Out through the Parian luster, pure and cold, Glares the wild horror of a devil's face. The clay is ready for the modeling. The marble waits: how beautiful, how pure, That gleaming substance, and it shall endure, When dynasty and empire, throne and king Have crumbled back to dust. Well may you pause, Oh, sculptor-artist! and, before that mute, Unshapen surface, stand irresolute! Awful, indeed, are art's unchanging laws. The thing you fashion out of senseless clay, Transformed to marble, shall outlive your fame; And, when no more is known your race, or name, Men shall be moved by what you mold to-day. We all are sculptors. By each act and thought, We form the model. Time, the artisan, Stands, with his chisel, fashioning the Man, And stroke by stroke the masterpiece is wrought. Angel or demon? Choose, and do not err! For time but follows as you shape the mold, And finishes in marble, stern and cold, That statue of the soul, the character. By wordless blessing, or by silent curse, By act and motive,--so do you define The image which time copies, line by line, For the great gallery of the Universe. ELLA WHEELER WILCOX. At the gateway of a new year, emerging from the gay carelessness of childhood, stand troops of buoyant, eager-eyed youths and maidens, gazing down the vista of the future with glad expectancy. Fancy spreads upon her canvas radiant pictures of the joys and triumphs which await them in the unborn years. In their unclouded springtime there is no place for the specters of doubt and fear which too often overshadow the autumn of life. In this formative period, the soul is unsoiled by warfare with the world. It lies, like a block of pure, uncut Parian marble, ready to be fashioned into--what? Its possibilities are limitless. You are the sculptor. An unseen hand places in yours the mallet and the chisel, and a voice whispers: "The marble waiteth. What will you do with it?" In this same block the angel and the demon lie sleeping. Which will you call into life? Blows of some sort you must strike. The marble cannot be left uncut. From its crudity some shape must be evolved. Shall it be one of beauty, or of deformity; an angel, or a devil? Will you shape it into a statue of beauty which will enchant the world, or will you call out a hideous image which will demoralize every beholder? What are your ideals, as you stand facing the dawn of this new year with the promise and responsibility of the new life on which you have entered, awaiting you? Upon them depends the form which the rough block shall take. Every stroke of the chisel is guided by the ideal behind the blow. Look at this easy-going, pleasure-loving youth who takes up the mallet and smites the chisel with careless, thoughtless blows. His mind is filled with images of low, sensual pleasures; the passing enjoyment of the hour is everything to him; his work, the future, nothing. He carries in his heart, perhaps, the bestial motto of the glutton, "Eat, drink, and be merry, for to-morrow we die;" or the flippant maxim of the gay worldling, "A short life and a merry one; the foam of the chalice for me;" forgetting that beneath the foam are the bitter dregs, which, be he ever so unwilling, he must swallow, not to-day, nor yet to-morrow,--perhaps not this year nor next; but sometime, as surely as the reaping follows the sowing, will the bitter draught follow the foaming glass of unlawful pleasure. As the years go by, and youth merges into manhood, the sculptor's hand becomes more unsteady. One false blow follows another in rapid succession. The formless marble takes on distorted outlines. Its whiteness has long since become spotted. The sculptor, with blurred vision and shattered nerves, still strikes with aimless hand, carving deep gashes, adding a crooked line here, another there, soiling and marring until no trace of the virgin purity of the block of marble which was given him remains. It has become so grimy, so demoniacally fantastic in its outlines, that the beholder turns from it with a shudder. Not far off we see another youth at work on a block of marble, similar in every detail to the first. The tools with which he plies his labor differ in no wise from those of the worker we have been following. The glory of the morning shines upon the marble. Glowing with enthusiasm, the light of a high purpose illuminating his face, the sculptor, with steady hand and eye, begins to work out his ideal. The vision that flits before him is so beautiful that he almost fears the cunning of his hand will be unequal to fashioning it from the rigid mass before him. Patiently he measures each blow of the mallet. With infinite care he chisels each line and curve. Every stroke is true. Months stretch into years, and still we find the sculptor at work. Time has given greater precision to his touch, and the skill of the youth, strengthened by noble aspirations and right effort, has become positive genius in the man. If he has not attained the ideal that haunted him, he has created a form so beautiful in its clear-cut outlines, so imposing in the majesty of its purity and strength, that the beholder involuntarily bows before it. THE MARBLE WAITETH. WHAT WILL YOU DO WITH IT? 
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9078	----	and the Distributed Proofreaders SANDERS' UNION FOURTH READER: EMBRACING A FULL EXPOSITION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF RHETORICAL READING; WITH NUMEROUS EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE, BOTH IN PROSE AND POETRY, VARIOUS IN STYLE, AND CAREFULLY ADAPTED TO THE PURPOSES OF TEACHING IN SCHOOLS OF EVERY GRADE. BY CHARLES W. SANDERS, A.M. PREFACE. THIS FOURTH READER is designed to pass the pupil from the comparatively easy ground occupied by the THIRD to the more difficult course embraced in THE UNION FIFTH READER, which is next higher in the series. It is, therefore, carefully graded to this intermediate position. In one sense, however, it is the most important in the set; since the great mass of pupils, in our common schools, are drawn away from scholastic pursuits long before the proper time for entering upon any course of reading more advanced than that which is here presented. This consideration has had its full weight in the preparation of the following pages. Every exercise will be found to bear the impress of that special adaptation to the purposes of teaching, without which no book of this kind can fully perform the office which it assumes. The labor expended in this direction, though all unseen by the casual observer, has been neither light nor brief. It can be duly appreciated by none but the experienced teacher. All words in the exercises, requiring explanation, have been arranged, as regular lessons in spelling and definition. In these definitions, however, it must be kept in mind, that no attempt has been made to give _all the meanings of which a word is susceptible, but that only which it bears in the particular place in the exercise where it is found._ There is a special educational advantage in thus leading the mind of the pupil definitely to fix upon the _precise import_ of a word, in some particular use or application of it. All proper names occurring in the text, and at all likely to embarrass the learner, have been explained in brief, comprehensive notes. These notes involve many matters, Geographical, Biographical, and Historical, which are not a little interesting in themselves, aside from the special purpose subserved by them in the present connection. All this has been done, and more, in order to secure that kind of interest in the exercises which comes of reading what is clearly understood; and because no perfect reading is possible, where the reader himself fails to perceive the meaning of what he reads. In the selection and adaptation of the pieces, the highest aim has been to make and to leave the best moral impression; and this, not by dull and formal teachings, but by the pleasanter, and, therefore, more powerful, means of incidental and unexpected suggestion. Admonition is then most likely to be heeded, when it comes through the channel of events and circumstances. The direct and ostensible aim of the book, however, has been kept steadily in view; which is to furnish the best possible exercises for practice in Rhetorical reading. To this end, the greatest variety of style and sentiment has been sought. There is scarcely a tone or modulation, of which the human voice is capable, that finds not here some piece adapted precisely to its best expression. There is not an inflection, however delicate, not an emphasis, however slight, however strong, that does not here meet with something fitted well for its amplest illustration. No tenderness of pathos, no earnestness of thought, no play of wit, no burst of passion, is there, perhaps, of which the accomplished teacher of Elocution may not find the proper style of expression in these pages, and, consequently, the best examples for the illustration of his art. The book, thus briefly described, is, therefore, given to the public with the same confidence that has hitherto inspired the author in similar efforts, and with the hope that it may reach even a higher measure of usefulness than that attained by any of its predecessors, in the long line of works which he has prepared for the use of schools. NEW YORK, April, 1863. CONTENTS. PART FIRST. ELOCUTION. SECTION I.--ARTICULATION ELEMENTARY SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS SUBSTITUTES FOR THE VOWEL ELEMENTS SUBSTITUTES FOR THE CONSONANT ELEMENTS ERRORS IN ARTICULATION COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS EXAMPLES TO ILLUSTRATE INDISTINCT ARTICULATION MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES SECTION II--ACCENT AND EMPHASIS EXAMPLES OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY ACCENT EXAMPLES OF INTENSIVE EMPHASIS EXAMPLES OF ABSOLUTE EMPHASIS EXAMPLES OF ANTITHETIC EMPHASIS SECTION III.--INFLECTIONS MONOTONE RISING AND FALLING INFLECTIONS RULES FOR THE USE OF INFLECTIONS THE CIRCUMFLEX SECTION IV.--MODULATION PITCH OF VOICE QUANTITY RULES FOR QUANTITY QUALITY RULES FOR QUALITY NOTATION IN MODULATION EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE IN MODULATION SECTION V.--THE RHETORICAL PAUSE PART SECOND. 1. TRUE HEROISM, _Adapted. Osborne_ 2. YOU AND I, _Charles Mackay_ 3. LIFE'S WORK 4. THE YOUNG CAPTIVES 5. MY MOTHER'S LAST KISS, _Mrs. E. Oakes Smith_ 6. THE DEAD CHILD'S FORD, _Mrs. E. Oakes Smith_ 7. LAME AND LAZY--_A Fable_ 8. FAITHFULNESS IN LITTLE THINGS, _Adapted, Eliza A. Chase_ 9. THE AMERICAN BOY 10. THE SAILOR BOY'S SONG 11. CHASE OF THE PET FAWN, _Adapted. Miss Cooper_ 12. KINDNESS 13. CARELESS WORDS 14. WEBSTER AND THE WOODCHUCK, _Adapted. Boston Traveler_ 15. DO IT YOURSELF 16. BETTER LATE THAN NEVER 17. THE ADOPTED CHILD, _Mrs. Hemans_ 18. THE OLD EAGLE TREE, _Rev. John Todd_ 19. THE LIGHT OF KNOWLEDGE, _Elihu Burritt_ 20. NIGHT'S LESSONS, _L.H. Sigourney_ 21. NATURE'S TEACHINGS, _Chambers' Journal_ 22. SOWING AND HARVESTING, _Anon._ 23. A THRILLING INCIDENT, _Adapted. Anon._ 24. THE TRUTHFUL KING 25. WHEN SHALL I ANSWER, NO, _J.N. McElligott_ 26. TO MASTER ROBERT AND JOHN, _Davis_ 27. WHANG, THE MILLER, _Goldsmith_ 28. CHIMNEY-SWALLOWS, _Henry Ward Beecher_ 29. THE DOUBTING HEART, _Adelaide Procter_ 30. THE COMING OF WINTER, _T.B. Read_ 31. CHILD TIRED OF PLAY, _N.P. Willis_ 32. THE RESCUE, _By a Sea Captain_ 33. ROBERT BRUCE AND THE SCOTCH WOMAN 34. ROBERT BRUCE AND THE SPIDER, _Bernard Barton_ 35. WEALTH AND FASHION 36. MY FIRST JACK-KNIFE 37. THE PINE-TREE SHILLINGS, _Nathaniel Hawthorne_ 38. HIAWATHA'S HUNTING, _Longfellow_ 39. DESPERATE ENCOUNTER WITH A PANTHER, _Bk. of Adventures_ 40. THE POWER OF HABIT, _John B. Gough_ 41. THE DRUNKARD'S DAUGHTER 42. THE TWO YOUNG TRAVELERS, _Adapted. Merry's Museum_ 43. HIGHER! 44. LABOR, _Caroline F. Orne_ 45. THE AMBITIOUS APPRENTICE 46. SO WAS FRANKLIN, _Anon._ 47. NOW AND THEN, _Jane Taylor_ 48. AN INGENIOUS STRATAGEM, _Days of Washington_ 49. FRANCES SLOCUM, THE YOUNG CAPTIVE, _B.J. Lossing_ 50. THE RAIN-DROPS, _Delia Louise Colton_ 51. SMALL THINGS, _F. Bennoch_ 52. MURDERER'S CREEK, _James K. Paulding_ 53. NAPOLEON'S ARMY CROSSING THE ALPS, _Adapted. Anon._ 54. WHERE THERE'S A WILL THERE'S A WAY, _Eliza Cook_ 55. "I CAN" 56. NOW, TO-DAY, _Adelaide A. Procter_ 57. CAPTURE OF MAJOR ANDRE 58. BENEDICT ARNOLD 59. BEHIND TIME, _Freeman Hunt_ 60. HOW HAPPY I'LL BE 61. THE SWORD OF BUNKER HILL, _William R. Wallace_ 62. BIBLE LEGEND OF THE WISSAHIKON, _Lippard_ 63. ADVICE TO THE YOUNG, _E.H. Chapin_ 64. THE INTREPID YOUTH 65. THE FOUR MISFORTUNES, _John G. Saxe_ 66. MRS. CREDULOUS AND THE FORTUNE-TELLER 67. FAITH, HOPE, AND CHARITY--_An Allegory_ 68. NOT TO MYSELF ALONE, _S.W. Partridge_ 69. THE WORLD WOULD BE THE BETTER FOR IT, _W.H. Cobb_ 70. SELECT PROVERBS OF SOLOMON, _Bible_ 71. WINTER BEAUTY, _Henry Ward Beecher_ 72. FROSTED TREES 73. THE MOUNTAINS OF LIFE, _James G. Clark_ 74. IMAGINARY EVILS, _Chas. Swain_ 75. SIR WALTER AND THE LION, _A. Walchner_ 76. CHOICE EXTRACTS I. WHAT REALLY BENEFITS US. II. GOD'S LOVE. III. LIFE-WORK. IV. HUMILITY. V. BENEFITS OF ADVERSITY. VI. OUR MOUNTAIN HOMES. VII. MAKE A BEGINNING. VIII. INFLUENCE. IX. PLEASURE IN ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE. X. WHAT IS FAME? XI. CULTIVATED INTELLECT. XII. GOD'S WORKS ATTEST HIS GREATNESS. 77. CAPTURE OF THE WHALE 78. LEAVES FROM AN AERONAUT, _Willis Gaylord Clark_ 79. THE DAPPLE MARE, _John G. Saxe_ 80. A LEAP FOR LIFE, _George P. Morris_ 81. THE INDIAN BRIDE'S REVENGE, _Adapted. L.M. Stowell_ 82. A MOTHER'S LOVE, _Albert Barnes_ 83. THE LIFE-BOOK, _Home Journal_ 84. ODE ON SOLITUDE, _Pope_ 85. GETTING THE RIGHT START, _J.G. Holland_ 86. THE PRESUMPTION OF YOUTH, _Rollin_ 87. SONG OF THE AMERICAN EAGLE 88 THE ARMY OF REFORM, _Sarah Jane Lippincott_ 89. LAST CRUISE OF THE MONITOR, _Adapted. Grenville M. Weeks_ 90. DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF WOMEN, _Gail Hamilton_ 91. SCENE FROM WILLIAM TELL, _J. Sheridan Knowles_ 92. THE RICH MAN AND THE POOR MAN, _Khemnitzer_ 93. GRANDEUR OF THE OCEAN, _Walter Colton_ 94. A BURIAL AT SEA, _Walter Colton_ 95. THE TREASURES OF THE DEEP, _Mrs. Hemans_ 96. THE BRIDGE OF SIGHS, _Thomas Hood_ 97. A REQUIEM 98. VISIT TO MOUNT VERNON, _A.C. Ritchie_ 99. LA FAYETTE, _Charles Sprague_ 100. THE MYSTIC WEAVER, _Rev. Dr. Harbaugh_ 101. WORK AWAY, _Harpers' Magazine_ 102. QUEEN ISABELLA'S RESOLVE, _Vinet_ 103. DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD, _Lamartine_ 104. THE RETURN OF COLUMBUS, _Vinet_ 105. TWO HUNDRED YEARS AGO, _Grenville Mellen_ 106. PRESS ON, _Park Benjamin_ 107. THE THREE FORMS OF NATURE, _From the French of Michelet_ 108. THE WHALE AND THE WHALER, _From the French of Michelet_ 109. RIENZI'S ADDRESS TO THE ROMANS, _Miss Mitford_ 110. SONG OF THE FORGE 111. CHOICE EXTRACTS I. SWIFTNESS OF TIME. II. THE SHIP OF STATE. III. THE TRUE HERO. IV. HEART ESSENTIAL TO GENIUS. V. EDUCATION. VI. VANITY OF WEALTH. VII. CONSOLATION OF THE GOSPEL. VIII. THE LIGHT OF HOPE. IX. PAMPERING THE BODY AND STARVING THE SOUL. 112. WE ALL DO FADE AS A LEAF, _Gail Hamilton_ 113. TEACHINGS OF NATURE, _Pollok_ 114. PASSING UNDER THE ROD, _Mary S.B. Dana_ 115. THE PETULANT MAN, _Osborne_ 116. THE BRAHMIN AND THE ROGUES, _Versified by J.N. McElligott_ 117. LIVING WITHIN OUR MEANS, _S.W. Partridge_ 118. GRANDEUR OF THE UNIVERSE, _O.M. Mitchel_ 119. "WHOM HAVE I IN HEAVEN BUT THEE?", _Pamelia S. Vining_ 120. THE MEMORY OF WASHINGTON, _Kossuth_ 121. THE LOST ONE'S LAMENT EXPLANATION OF THE PAUSES. . The Period is the longest pause--a full stop. It marks the end of a sentence, and shows the sense complete; as, The sky is blue`. Pause the time of counting _six_, and let the voice fall. ? The Interrogation is used at the end of a question; as, Is the sky blue'? If the question can be answered by _yes_ or _no_, the voice rises; if not, it falls; as, Where is your map`;? Pause the time of counting _six_. ! The Exclamation denotes wonder, surprise, pain, or joy; as, O'! what a sweet rose`! Pause the time of counting _one_, after a single word, and let the voice rise; but after a complete sentence, pause the time of counting _six_, and let the voice fall. : The Colon is a pause shorter than the Period; as, The sky is clear`: the sun shines. Pause the time of counting _four_, and let the voice fall. ; The Semicolon is a pause shorter than the Colon; as, The rose is fair`; but it soon fades. Pause the time of counting _two_, and let the voice fall. Sometimes the voice should rise, as the sense may require. , The Comma is the shortest pause; as, Jane goes to school', and learns to read. Pause the time of counting _one_, and keep the voice up. -- The Dash denotes a sudden pause or change of subject; as, I saw him--but what a sight! When the dash is used after any other pause, the time of that pause is doubled. * * * * * EXPLANATION OF OTHER MARKS. ' The Apostrophe has the form of the comma. It denotes the possessive case; as, John's book; also, that one or more letters have been left out of a word; as, lov'd for loved. " " The Quotation includes a passage that is taken from some other author or speaker; as, John said: "See my kite." ( ) The Parenthesis includes words not properly a part of the main sentence; as, I like these people (who would not?) very much. The words within the parenthesis should be read in a lower tone of voice. [ ] The Brackets inclose words that serve to explain the preceding word or sentence; as, James [the truthful boy] went home. ^ The Caret shows where words are to be put in that have been omitted by mistake; as, Live ^in peace. (..) The Diaresis is placed over the latter of two vowels, to show that they belong to two distinct syllables; as, aerial. - The Hyphen is used to connect compound words; as, Well-doing; or the parts of a word separated at the end of a line. [Index] The Index points to something special or remarkable; as, => Important News! *** .... or ---- The Ellipsis shows that certain words or letters have been purposely omitted; as, K**g, k..g, or k--g, for king. [Paragraph] The Paragraph denotes the beginning of a new subject. It is chiefly used in the Bible; as, [Paragraph] The same day came to him, etc. [Section] The Section is used to divide a book or chapter into parts; as, [Section]45. * [Obelisk] [Double Dagger] The Asterisk, the Obelisk, the Double Dagger, and sometimes other marks, [Footnote: For instance: the Section mark, [Section], and the Parallel, ||.] refer to notes in the margin. APPLICATIONS OF THE MARKS USED IN WRITING. LINE 1 My Young Friends', never tell a falsehood`; but always 2 speak the truth`; this is pleasing to your Maker. 3 Do you read His holy word--the Bible'? O! remem- 4 ber, that He has there said: "He that speaketh lies, shall 5 not escape: he shall perish."* Remember, too, that the 6 All-seeing God knows all that we say or do. 7 [Paragraph] Tho' wisdom's voice is seldom heard in k--g's 8 palaces,--there have been _wise_ kings, (_e.g._ Solomon,) who 9 were lov'd and obey'd by their subjects.[Obelisk] 10 Here, [i.e. in the U.S.,] we can not boast of our kings, 11 princes, lords, &c.; yet we have had a PRESIDENT, who, 12 in true greatness, surpass'ed them all; viz., the great 13 WASHINGTON.---- [Index] Washington feared and hon- 14 ored God. 15 [S] Section, [/=] Double Dagger, and || Parallel, are also used 16 for reference to the margin. * * * * * * Proverbs xix. 5 and 9. [Obelisk] 1 Kings. PART FIRST. ELOCUTION. Elocution is the art of delivering written or extemporaneous composition with force, propriety, and ease. It deals, therefore, with words, not only as individuals, but as members of a sentence, and parts of a connected discourse: including every thing necessary to the just expression of the sense. Accordingly, it demands, in a _special_ manner, attention to the following particulars; viz., ARTICULATION, ACCENT, EMPHASIS, INFLECTION, MODULATION, and PAUSES. * * * * * SECTION I. ARTICULATION. Articulation is the art of uttering distinctly and justly the letters and syllables constituting a word. It deals, therefore, with the elements of words, just as elocution deals with the elements of sentences: the one securing the true enunciation of each letter, or combination of letters, the other giving to each word, or combination of words, such a delivery as best expresses the meaning of the author. It is the basis of all good reading, and should be carefully practiced by the learner. ELEMENTARY SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. VOWEL SOUNDS. TONICS. _Element_. _Power_. 1.--1 A as in _A_pe. 2.--2 A " _A_rm. 3.--3 A " _A_ll. 4.--4 A " _A_t. 5.--5 A " C_a_re. 6.--6 A " _A_sk. 7.--1 E " _E_ve. 8.--2 E " _E_nd. 9.--1 I " _I_ce. 10.--2 I " _I_t. 11.--1 O " _O_ld. 12.--2 O " D_o_. 13.--3 O " _O_x. 14.--1 U " _U_se. 15.--2 U " _U_p. 16.--3 U " P_u_ll. 17.--OI " O_i_l. 18.--OU " O_u_t. CONSONANT SOUNDS. SUB-TONICS. 19.--B as in _B_at. 20.--D " _D_un. 21.--G " _G_un. 22.--J " _J_et. 23.--L " _L_et. 24.--M " _M_an. 25.--N " _N_ot. 26.--R " _R_un. 27.--V " _V_ent. 28.--W " _W_ent. 29.--Y " _Y_es. 30.--1 Z " _Z_eal. 31.--2 Z " A_z_ure. 32.--NG " Si_ng_. 33.--TH " _Th_y. A-TONICS. 34.--F as in _F_it. 35.--H " _H_at. 36.--K " _K_id. 36.--P " _P_it. 38.--S " _S_in. 39.--T " _T_op. 40.--CH " _Ch_at. 41.--SH " _Sh_un. 42.--TH " _Th_in. 43.--WH " _Wh_en. 21: Soft G is equivalent to J; soft C to S, and hard C and Q to K. X is equivalent to K and S, as in _box_, or to G and Z as in _exalt_. 42: WH is pronounced as if the H preceded W, otherwise it would be pronounced _W hen_. R should be slightly trilled before a vowel. For further instructions, see Sanders and Merrill's Elementary and Elocutionary Chart. SUBSTITUTES FOR THE VOWEL ELEMENTS. For Long A. _ai_ as in s_ai_l. _au_ " g_au_ge. _ay_ " l_ay_. _ea_ " gr_ea_t. _ei_ " d_ei_gn. _ey_ " th_ey_. For Flat A. _au_ as in d_au_nt. _ea_ " h_ea_rt. _ua_ " g_ua_rd. For Broad A. _au_ as in p_au_se. _aw_ " l_a_w. _eo_ " G_eo_rge. _oa_ " gr_oa_t. _o_ " h_o_rn. _ou_ " s_ou_ght. For Short A. _ai_ as in pl_ai_d. _ua_ " g_ua_ranty. For Intermediate A. _ai_ as in h_ai_r. _ea_ " b_ea_r. _e_ " wh_e_re. _ei_ " th_ei_r. For Long E. _ea_ as in w_ea_k. _ei_ " s_ei_ze. _eo_ " p_eo_ple. _ey_ " k_ey_. _ie_ " br_ie_f. _i_ " p_i_que. For Short E. _a_ as in _a_ny. _ai_ " s_ai_d. _ay_ " s_ay_s. _ea_ " d_ea_d. _ei_ " h_ei_fer. _eo_ " l_eo_pard. _ie_ " fr_ie_nd. _ue_ " g_ue_ss. _u_ " b_u_ry. For Long I. _ai_ as in _ai_sle. _ei_ " sl_ei_ght. _ey_ " _ey_e. _ie_ " d_ie_. _oi_ " ch_oi_r. _ui_ " g_ui_de. _uy_ " b_uy_. _y_ " tr_y_. For Short I. _e_ as in _E_nglish. _ee_ " b_ee_n. _ie_ " s_ie_ve. _o_ " w_o_men. _u_ " b_u_sy. _ui_ " b_ui_ld. _y_ " s_y_mbol. For Long O. _au_ as in h_au_tboy. _eau_ " b_eau_. _eo_ " y_eo_man. _ew_ " s_ew_. _oa_ " b_oa_t. _oe_ " h_oe_. _ou_ " s_ou_l. _ow_ " fl_o_w. For Long Slender O. _oe_ as in sh_oe_. _ou_ " s_ou_p. For Short O. _a_ as in w_a_s. _ou_ " h_ou_gh. _ow_ " kn_ow_ledge. For Long U. _eau_ as in b_eau_ty. _eu_ " f_eu_d. _ew_ " d_ew_. _ieu_ " ad_ieu_. _ou_ " y_ou_r. _ue_ " c_ue_. _ui_ " s_ui_t. For Short U. _e_ as in h_e_r. _i_ " s_i_r. _oe_ " d_oe_s. _o_ " l_o_ve. _ou_ " y_ou_ng. For Short Slender U. _o_ as in w_o_lf. _ou_ " w_ou_ld. For the Diphthong OI. _oy_ as in j_oy_. For the Diphthong OU. _ow_ as in n_ow_. There is no pure Triphthongal sound in the language. _Buoy_ is equivalent to _bwoy_. _U_ being a consonant. SUBSTITUTES FOR THE CONSONANT ELEMENTS. F. _gh_ as in lau_gh_. _ph_ " s_ph_ere. J. _g_ " _g_em. K. _c_ " _c_an. _ch_ " _ch_ord. _gh_ " hou_gh_. _q_ " _q_uit. S. _c_ " _c_ent. T. _d_ " face_d_. _phth_ " _phth_isic. V. _f_ " o_f_. _ph_ " Ste_ph_en. Y. _i_ " val_i_ant. 1 Z. _c_ " suffi_c_e. _s_ " wa_s_. _x_ " _X_erxes. 2 Z. _s_ " trea_s_ure. _z_ " a_z_ure. _si_ " fu_si_on. _zi_ " gla_zi_er. NG. _n_ " co_n_ch. SH. _ce_ " o_ce_an. _ci_ " so_ci_al. _ch_ " _ch_aise. _si_ " pen_si_on. _s_ " _s_ure. _ss_ " i_ss_ue. _ti_ " no_ti_on. CH. _ti_ " fus_ti_an. B, D, G, H, L, M, N, P, and R, have no substitutes. The most common faults in ARTICULATION are I. _The suppression of a syllable; as,_ cab'n for cab-_i_n. cap'n " cap-_tai_n. barr'l " bar-r_e_l. ev'ry " ev-_e_-ry. hist'ry " his-t_o_-ry reg'lar " reg-_u_-lar. sev'ral " sev-_e_r-al. rhet'ric " rhet-_o_-ric. mem'ry " mem-_o_-ry. jub'lee " ju-b_i_-lee. trav'ler " trav-_e_l-er. fam'ly " fam-_i_-ly. vent'late " ven-t_i_-late. des'late " des-_o_-late. prob'ble " prob-_a_-ble. par-tic'lar " par-tic-_u_-lar. II. _The omission of any sound properly belonging to a word; as,_ read-in for read-in_g_. swif-ly " swif_t_-ly. com-mans " com-man_d_s. wam-er " wa_r_m-er. um-ble " _h_um-ble. ap-py " _h_ap-py. con-sis " con-sis_t_s. fa-t'l " fa-tal. pr'-tect " pr_o_-tect. b'low " b_e_-low. p'r-vade " p_e_r-vade. srink-in " s_h_rink-in_g_. th'if-ty " th_r_if-ty. as-ter-is " as-ter-is_k_. gov-er-ment " gov-er_n_-ment. Feb-u-ary " Feb-_r_u-a-ry. III. _The substitution of one sound for another; as,_ _uf_-ford for _a_f-ford. wil-l_e_r " wil-lo_w_. sock-_i_t " sock-_et_. fear-l_u_ss " fear-l_e_ss. cul-t_e_r " cult-_u_re. prod-u_x_ " prod-u_cts_. judg-m_u_nt " judg-m_e_nt. chil-dr_i_n " chil-dr_e_n. mod-_i_st " mod-_e_st. _u_p-prove " _a_p-prove. _w_in-e-gar " _v_in-e-gar. sep-_e_-rate " sep-_a_-rate. temp-er-_i_t " tem-per-_a_te. croc-_e_r-dile " croc-_o_-dile. t_u_b-ac-c_u_r " t_o_-bac-c_o_. com-pr_u_m-ise " com-pr_o_-mise. IV. Produce the sounds denoted by the following combinations of consonants:-- Let the pupil first produce the sound of the letters, and then the word or words in which they occur. Be careful to give a clear and distinct enunciation to every letter. 1. _Bd_, as in ro_b'd_; _bdst_, pro_b'dst_; _bl_, _bl_ and, a_bl_e; _bld_, hum-_bl'd; bldst_, trou_bl'dst_; _blst_, trou_bl'st; blz_, crum_bles; br_, _br_and; _bz_, ri_bs_. 2. _Ch_, as in _ch_ur_ch; cht_, fet_ch'd_. 3. _Dj_, as in e_dg_e; _djd_, he_dg'd; dl_, bri_dle; dld_, rid_dl'd; dlst_, han_dl'st_; _dlz_, bun_dles; dn_, har_d'n; dr_, _dr_ove; _dth_, wi_dth; dths_, brea_dths; dz_, o_dds_. 4. _Fl_, as in _fl_ame; _fld_, ri_fl'd_; _flst_, sti_fl'st_; _flx_, ri_fles_; _fr_, _fr_om; _fs_, qua_ffs_, lau_ghs_; _fst_, lau_gh'st_, qua_ff'st_; _ft_, ra_ft_; _fts_, wa_fts; ftst_, gr_ft'st_. 5. _Gd_, as in beg_g'd_; _gdst_, brag_g'dst; gl_, _gl_ide; _gld_, strug_gl'd; gldst_, hag_gl'dst; gist_, stran_gl'st; glz_, min_gles; gr, gr_ove; _gst_, beg_g'st; gz_, fi_gs_. 6. _Kl_, as in un_cle_, an_kle_; _kld_, trick_l'd; kldst_, truck_l'dst; klst_, chuc_kl'st; klz_, wrin_kles; kn_, blac_k'n; knd_, rec_k'n'd; kndst_, rec_k'n'dst; knst_, blac_k'n'st; knz_, rec_k'ns; kr, cr_ank; _ks_, chec_ks; kt_, a_ct_. 7. _Lb_, as in bu_lb_; _lbd_, bu_lb'd; lbs_, bu_lbs; lch_, fi_lch; lcht_, be_lch'd; ld_, ho_ld; ldst_, fo_ld'st; ldz_, ho_lds; lf_, se_lf; lfs_, gu_lfs; lj_, bu_lge; lk_, e_lk; lks_, si_lks; lkt_, mi_lk'd; lkts_, mu_lcts; lm_, e_lm; lmd_, whel_m'd; lmz_, fi_lms; ln_, fa_ll'n;_ _lp_, he_lp_; _lps_, sca_lps_; _lpst_, _help'st_; _ls_, fa_lse_; _lst_, ca_ll'st_; _lt_, me_lt_; _lth_, hea_lth_; _lths_, stea_lths_; _lts_, co_lts_; _lv_, de_lve_; _lvd_, she_lv'd_; _lvz_, el_ves_; _lz_, ha_lls_. 8. _Md_, as in doo_m'd_; _mf_, triu_mph_; _mp_, he_mp_; _mpt_, te_mpt_; _mpts_, atte_mpts_; _mst_, ento_mb'st_; _mz_, to_mbs_. 9. _Nch_, as in be_nch_; _ncht_, pi_nch'd_; _nd_, a_nd_; _ndst_, e_nd'st_; _ndz_, e_nds_; _ng_, su_ng_; _ngd_, ba_nged_; _ngth_, le_ngth_; _ngz_, so_ngs_; _nj_, ra_nge_; _njd_, ra_ng'd_; _nk_, i_nk_; _nks_, ra_nks_; _nkst_, tha_nk'st_; _nst_, wi_ne'd_; _nt_, se_nt_; _nts_, re_nts_; _ntst_, we_nt'st_; _nz_, ru_ns_. 10. _Pl_, as in _pl_ume; _pld_, rip_pl'd_; _plst_, rip_pl'st_; _plz_, ap_ples_; _pr_, _pr_ince; _ps_, si_ps_; _pst_, rap_p'st_; _pt_, rip_p'd_. 11. _Rb_, as in he_rb_; _rch_, sea_rch_; _rcht_, chu_rch'd_; _rbd_, o_rbd_; _rbdst_, ba_rb'dst_; _rbst_, distu_rb'st_; _rbz_, o_rbs_; _rd_, ha_rd_; _rdst_, hea_rd'st_; _rdz_, wo_rds_; _rf_, tu_rf_; _rft_, sca_rfd_; _rg_, bu_rg_; _rgz_, bu_rgs_; _rj_, di_rge_; _rjd_, u_rg'd_; _rk_, a_rk_; _rks_, a_rks_; _rkst_, wo_rk'st_; _rkt_, di_rk'd_; _rktst_, emba_rk'dst_; _rl_, gi_rl_; _rld_, wo_rld_; _rldst_, hu_rld'st_; _rlst_, whi_rl'st_; _rlz_, hu_rls_; _rm_, a_rm_; _rmd_, a_rm'd_; _rmdst_, ha_rm'dst_; _rmst_, a_rm'st_; _rmz_, cha_rms_; _rn_, tu_rn_; _rnd_, tu_rn'd_; _rndst_, ea_rn'dst_; _rnst_, lea_rn'st_; _rnz_, u_rns_; _rp_, ca_rp_; _rps_, ha_rps_; _rpt_, wa_rp'd_; _rs_, ve_rs_e; _rsh_, ha_rsh_; _rst_, fi_rst_; _rsts_, bu_rsts_; _rt_, da_rt_; _rth_, ea_rth_; _rths_, bi_rths_; _rts_, ma_rts_; _rtst_, da_rt'st_; _rv_, cu_rve_; _rvd_, ne_rv'd_; _rvdst_, cu_rv'dst_; _rvst_, swe_rv'st_; _rvz_, ne_rves_; _rz_, e_rrs_. 12. _Sh_, as in _sh_ip; _sht_, hu_sh'd_; _sk_, _sc_an, _sk_ip; _sks_, tu_sks_; _skst_, fri_sk'st_; _skt_, ri_sk'd_; _sl_, _sl_ow; _sld_, ne_stl'd_; _slz_, we_stles_; _sm_, _sm_ile; _sn_, _sn_ag; _sp_, _sp_ort; _sps_, li_sps_; _spt_, cla_sp'd_; _st_, _st_ag; _str_, _str_ike; _sts_, re_sts_; _sw_, _sw_ing. 13. _Th_, as in _th_ine, _th_in; _thd_, brea_th'd_; _thr_, _thr_ee; _thst_, brea_th'st_; _thw_, _thw_ack; _thz_, wri_thes_; _tl_, ti_tle_; _tld_, set_tl'd_; _tldst_, set_tl'dst_; _tlst_,set_tl'st_; _tlz_, net_tles_; _tr_, _tr_uuk; _ts_, fi_ts_; _tw_, _tw_irl. 14. _Vd_, as in cur_v'd_; _vdst_, li_v'dst_; _vl_, dri_v'l_; _vld_, gro_v'l'd_; _vldst_, gro_v'l'dst_; _vlst_, dri_v'l'st_; _un_, dri_v'n_; _vst_, li_v'st_; _vz_, li_ves_. 15. _Wh_, as in _wh_en, _wh_ere. 16. _Zd_, as in mu_s'd_; _zl_, daz_zle_; _zld_, muz_zl'd_; _zldst_, daz_zl'dst_; _zlst_, daz_zl'st_; _zlz_, muz_zles_; _zm_, spa_sm_; _zmz_, cha_sms_; _zn_, ri_s'n_; _znd_, rea_s'n'd_; _znz_, pri_s'nz_; _zndst_, impri_s'n'dst_. V. Avoid blending the termination of one word with the beginning of another, or suppressing the final letter or letters of one word, when the next word commences with a similar sound. EXAMPLES. His small eyes instead of His small lies. She keeps pies " She keeps spies. His hour is up " His sour is sup. Dry the widow's tears " Dry the widow steers. Your eyes and ears " Your rise sand dears. He had two small eggs " He had two small legs. Bring some ice cream " Bring some mice scream. Let all men praise Him " Let tall men pray sim. He was killed in war " He was skilled in war. Water, air, and earth " Water rare rand dearth. Come and see me once more " Come mand see me one smore. NOTE.--By an indistinct Articulation the sense of a passage is often liable to be perverted. EXAMPLES. 1. Will he attempt to conceal hi_s acts?_ Will he attempt to conceal hi_s sacks?_ 2. The man ha_d o_ars to row he_r o_ver. The man ha_d d_oors to row he_r r_over. 3. Can there be a_n a_im more lofty? Can there be _a n_ame more lofty? 4. The judge_s o_ught to arrest the culprits. The judge_s s_ought to arrest the culprits. 5. Hi_s i_re burned when she told him he_r a_ge. Hi_s s_ire burned when she told him he_r r_age. 6. He wa_s a_wed at the works of labor a_nd a_rt. He wa_s s_awed at the works of labor a_n d_art. 7. He wa_s tr_ained in the religion of his fathers. He wa_s st_rained in the religion of his fathers. MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 1. _Br_avely o'er _th_e _b_oi_st_e_r_ous _b_i_ll_ow_s_, _H_is _g_a_ll_a_nt_ _b_a_rk_ _w_a_s_ _b_o_rn_e. 2. _C_a_n_ _cr_a_v_e_n_ _c_owa_rds_ e_x_pe_ct_ to _c_o_nq_ue_r_ _th_e _c_ou_ntr_y? 3. _Cl_i_ck_, _cl_i_ck_, _g_oe_s_ _th_e _cl_o_ck_; _cl_a_ck_, _cl_a_ck_, _g_oe_s_ _th_e _m_i_ll_. 4. _D_i_d_ _y_ou _d_esi_r_e to _h_ea_r_ _h_i_s_ _d_a_rk_ a_nd_ _d_o_l_e_f_u_l_ _dr_ea_ms_? 5. "_F_ir_m_-_p_a_c_e_d_ a_nd_ _sl_ow, a _h_o_rr_i_d_ _fr_o_nt_ _th_ey _form_, _St_i_ll_ a_s_ _th_e _br_ee_ze_; _b_u_t_ _dr_ea_df_u_l_ a_s_ _th_e _st_or_m_." 6. _Th_e _fl_a_m_i_ng_ _f_i_r_e _fl_a_sh_ed _f_ea_rf_u_ll_y i_n_ _h_i_s_ _f_a_c_e. 7. _Th_e _gl_a_ss_y _gl_a_ci_e_rs_ _gl_ea_m_e_d_ i_n_ _gl_owi_ng_ _l_igh_t_. 8. _H_ow _h_igh _h_i_s_ ho_n_o_rs_ _h_ea_v_e_d_ _h_i_s_ _h_augh_t_y _h_ea_d_! 9. _H_e _dr_ew _l_o_ng_, _l_e_g_i_bl_e _lin_e_s_ a_l_o_ng_ _th_e _l_ove_l_y _l_a_ndsc_a_p_e. 10. _M_a_ss_e_s_ of i_mm_e_ns_e _m_a_gn_i_t_u_d_e _m_o_v_e _m_a_j_e_st_i_c_a_ll_y _thr_ough _th_e _v_a_st_ e_mp_i_r_e of _th_e _s_o_l_a_r_ _s_y_st_e_m_. 11. _R_ou_nd_ _th_e _r_ou_gh_ a_nd_ _r_u_gg_e_d_ _r_o_cks_ _th_e _r_a_gg_e_d_ _r_a_sc_a_l_ _r_a_n_. 12. _Th_e _str_i_pl_i_ng_ _str_a_ng_e_r_ _str_aye_d_ _str_aigh_t_ _to_wa_rd_ _th_e _str_u_ggl_i_ng_ _str_ea_m_. 13. _Sh_e u_tt_e_r_e_d_ a _sh_a_rp_, _shr_i_ll_ _shr_ie_k_, a_nd_ _th_e_n_ _shr_u_nk_ _fr_o_m_ _th_e _shr_i_v_e_l_e_d_ _f_o_rm_ _th_a_t_ _sl_u_mb_e_r_e_d_ i_n_ _th_e _shr_ou_d_. 14. _F_or _f_ear o_f_ o_ff_ending _th_e _fr_ight_f_ul fugitive, _th_e _v_i_l_e _v_a_g_a_b_o_nd_ _v_e_nt_u_r_e_d_ _t_o _v_i_l_i_fy_ _th_e _v_e_n_e_r_a_bl_e _v_e_t_e_r_a_n_. 15. A_midst_ _th_e _m_i_sts_, _w_i_th_ a_ngr_y _b_oa_sts_, _H_e _thr_u_sts_ _h_i_s_ _f_i_sts_ a_g_ai_nst_ _th_e _p_o_sts_, A_nd_ _st_i_ll_ i_ns_i_sts_ _h_e _s_ee_s_ _th_e _g_ho_sts_. 16. Peter Prangle, the prickly prangly pear picker, picked three pecks of prickly prangly pears, from the prangly pear trees, on the pleasant prairies. 17. Theophilus Thistle, the successful thistle sifter, in sifting a sieve full of unsifted thistles, thrust three thousand thistles through the thick of his thumb; now, if Theophilus Thistle, the successful thistle sifter, in sifting a sieve full of unsifted thistles, thrust three thousand thistles through the thick of _his_ thumb, see that _thou_, in sifting a sieve full of unsifted thistles, thrust not three thousand thistles through the thick of _thy_ thumb. Success to the successful thistle sifter. 18. We travel _sea_ and _soil_; we _pry_, we _prowl_; We _progress_, and we _prog_ from _pole_ to _pole_. SECTION II. ACCENT AND EMPHASIS. ACCENT and EMPHASIS both indicate some special stress of voice. Accent is that stress of voice by which one _syllable_ of a word is made more prominent than others; EMPHASIS is that stress of voice by which one or more _words_ of a sentence are distinguished above the rest. ACCENT. The accented syllable is sometimes designated thus: ('); as, _com-mand'-ment_. NOTE I.--Words of more than two syllables generally have two or more of them accented. The more forcible stress of voice, is called the _Primary Accent_; and the less forcible, the _Secondary Accent_. EXAMPLES OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY ACCENT. In the following examples the Primary Accent is designated by double accentual marks, thus: _Ed''-u-cate'_, _ed'-u-ca''-tion_, _mul''-ti-ply'_, _mul'-ti-pli-ca''-tion_, _sat''-is-fy'_, _sat'-is-fac''-tion_, _com'-pre-hend''_, _com'-pre-hen''-sion_, _rec'-om-mend''_, _rec'-om-mend-a''-tion_, _mo''-ment-a'-ry_, _com-mun''-ni-cate'_, _com'-pli-ment''-al_, _in-dem'-ni-fi-ca''-tion_, _ex'-tem-po-ra''-ne-ous_, _coun'-ter-rev'-o-lu''-tion-a-ry_. NOTE II.--The change of accent on the same word often changes its meaning. EXAMPLES. col'-league, _a partner_. col-league', _to unite with_. con'-duct, _behavior_. con-duct', _to lead_. des'-cant, _a song or tune_. des-cant', _to comment_. ob'-ject, _ultimate purpose_. ob-ject', _to oppose_. in'-ter-dict, _a prohibition_. in-ter-dict', _to forbid_. o'ver-throw, _ruin; defeat_. o-ver-throw', _to throw down_. NOTE III.--Emphatic words are often printed in _Italics_. When, however, different degrees of emphasis are to be denoted, the higher degrees are designated by the use of Capitals, LARGER or SMALLER, according to the degree of intensity. EXAMPLES. 1. Our motto shall be, _our country_, OUR WHOLE COUNTRY, and NOTHING BUT OUR COUNTRY. 2. _Thou Child of Joy!_ SHOUT round me: let me HEAR _thy shouts, thou happy Shepherd Boy!_ 3. Freedom calls you! _quick_, be ready, Think of what your sires have done; _Onward_, ONWARD! strong and steady, Drive the tyrant to his den; ON, and let the watchword be, _Country_, HOME, and LIBERTY. NOTE IV.--Emphasis, as before intimated, varies in degrees of intensity. EXAMPLES OF INTENSIVE EMPHASIS. 1. He shook the fragment of his blade, And shouted: "VICTORY! _Charge_, Chester, CHARGE! _On_, Stanley, ON!" 2. A _month!_ O, for a single WEEK! I as not for _years'_, though an AGE were _too little_ for the _much_ I have to do. 3. _Now_ for the FIGHT! _now_ for the CANNON PEAL! ONWARD! through _blood_, and _toil_, and _cloud_, and _fire!_ _Glorious_--the SHOUT, the SHOCK, the CRASH of STEEL, The VOLLEY'S ROLL, the ROCKET'S BLAZING SPIRE! 4. Hear, O HEAVENS! and give ear, O EARTH! NOTE V.--Emphasis sometimes changes the seat of accent from its ordinary position. EXAMPLES. There is a difference between _pos'_sibility and _prob'_ability. And behold, the angels of God _as'_cending and _de'_scending on it. For this corruptible must put on _in'_corruption, and this mortal must put on _im'_mortality. Does his conduct deserve _ap'_probation or _rep'_robation? NOTE VI.--There are two kinds of Emphasis:--_Absolute_ and _Antithetic_. ABSOLUTE EMPHASIS is used to designate the important words of a sentence, without any direct reference to other words. EXAMPLES OF ABSOLUTE EMPHASIS. 1. Oh, speak to passion's raging tide, _Speak_ and _say_: "PEACE, BE STILL!" 2. The UNION, it MUST and SHALL BE PRESERVED! 3. HUSH! _breathe it not aloud_, _The wild winds must not hear it! Yet, again_, _I tell thee_--WE ARE FREE! KNOWLES. 4. When my country shall take her place among the nations of the earth, THEN and not TILL then, let my epitaph be written. EMMETT. 5. If you are MEN, _follow_ ME! STRIKE DOWN _yon guard, and gain the mountain passes._ 6. OH! _shame on us_, countrymen, SHAME _on us_ ALL, If we CRINGE to so dastard a race. 7. This doctrine _never was received_; it NEVER CAN, _by any_ POSSIBILITY, BE RECEIVED; and, if admitted at ALL, it _must be by_ THE TOTAL SUBVERSION OF LIBERTY! 8. Are you _Christians_, and, by upholding duelists, will you _deluge the land with blood_, and _fill it with widows and orphans._ BEECHER. 9. LIBERTY _and_ UNION, NOW _and_ FOREVER, ONE _and_ INSEPARABLE. WEBSTER. 10. _Treason!_ cried the speaker; _treason_, TREASON, TREASON, reechoed from every part of the house. 11. _The war is inevitable_,--and LET IT COME! I repeat it, Sir,--LET IT COME! PATRICK HENRY. 12. Be we _men_, And suffer such dishonor? MEN, and wash not The stain away in BLOOD? MISS MITFORD. 13. O SACRED FORMS! how _proud_ you look! How _high_ you lift your heads into the sky! How _huge_ you are! how _mighty_ and how _free_! KNOWLES. 14. I shall know but _one_ country. The ends _I_ aim at, shall be "My COUNTRY'S, my GOD'S, and TRUTH'S." WEBSTER. NOTE VII.--ANTITHETIC EMPHASIS is that which is founded on the contrast of one word or clause with another. EXAMPLES OF ANTITHETIC EMPHASIS. 1. The faults of _others_ should always remind us of our _own_. 2. He desired to _protect_ his friend, not to _injure_ him. 3. But _yesterday_, the word of Caesar might Have stood against the world; _now_ lies he there, And none so poor to do him reverence. SHAKESPEARE. 4. A _good name_ is rather to be chosen than _great riches_. BIBLE. 5. We can do nothing _against_ the truth; but _for_ the truth. BIBLE. 6. He that is _slow to anger_, is better than the _mighty_; and he that _ruleth his spirit_, than he that _taketh a city_. BIBLE. NOTE VIII.--The following examples contain two or more sets of Antitheses. 1. _Just men_ are only _free_, the _rest_ are _slaves_. 2. _Beauty_ is like the _flower of spring; virtue_ is like the _stars of heaven_. 3. _Truth_ crushed to earth shall _rise_ again, The eternal years of God are hers; But _error_, wounded, _writhes_ in pain, And _dies_ amid her worshipers. BRYANT. 4. A _false balance_ is _abomination to the Lord_; but a _just weight_ is _his delight_. BIBLE. 5. A _friend_ can not be _known_ in _prosperity;_ and an _enemy_ can not be _hidden_ in _adversity_. 6. It is my _living sentiment_, and, by the blessing of God, it shall be my _dying sentiment:_ INDEPENDENCE NOW, and INDEPENDENCE FOREVER. WEBSTER. 7. We live in _deeds_, not _years_,--in _thoughts_, not _breaths_,--in _feelings_, not in _figures on a dial_. We should count time by _heart throbs_. He _most lives_, who THINKS THE MOST,--FEELS THE NOBLEST,--ACTS THE BEST. 8. _You_ have done the _mischief_, and _I_ bear the _blame_. 9. The _wise man_ is happy when he gains his _own_ approbation; the _fool_ when he gains that of _others_. 10. We must hold _them_ as we hold the _rest_ of mankind--_enemies_ in _war_,--in _peace, friends_. JEFFERSON. NOTE IX.--The sense of a passage is varied by changing the place of the emphasis. EXAMPLES. 1. Has _James_ seen his brother to-day? No; but _Charles_ has. 2. Has James _seen_ his brother to-day? No; but he has _heard_ from him. 3. Has James seen _his_ brother to-day? No; but he saw _yours_. 4. Has James seen his _brother_ to-day? No; but he has seen his _sister_. 5. Has James seen his brother _to-day_? No; but he saw him _yesterday_. REMARK.--To determine the emphatic words of a sentence, as well as the _degree_ and _kind_ of emphasis to be employed, the reader must be governed wholly by the _sentiment_ to be expressed. The idea is sometimes entertained that emphasis consists merely in _loudness_ of tone. But it should be borne in mind that the most _intense_ emphasis may often be effectively expressed, even by a whisper. SECTION III. INFLECTIONS. INFLECTIONS are turns or slides of the voice, made in reading or speaking; as; Will you go to New [Transcriber's Note: Two missing lines in printing, page 25 in original.] or to [Transcriber's Note: Remainder of paragraph is missing.] All the various sounds of the human voice may be comprehended under the general appellation of _tones_. The principal modifications of these tones are the MONOTONE, the RISING INFLECTION, the FALLING INFLECTION, and the CIRCUMFLEX. The Horizontal Line (--) denotes the Monotone. The Rising Slide (/) denotes the Rising Inflection. The Falling Slide (\) denotes the Falling Inflection. The Curve (\_/) denotes the Circumflex. The MONOTONE is that sameness of sound, which arises from repeating the several words or syllables of a passage in one and the same general tone. REMARK.--The Monotone is employed with admirable effect in the delivery of a passage that is solemn or sublime. EXAMPLES. 1. O thou that rollest above, round as the shield of my fathers: whence are thy beams, O sun, thy everlasting light? OSSIAN. 2. 'Tis midnight's holy hour, and silence now Is brooding, like a gentle spirit, o'er The still and pulseless world. Hark! on the winds The bells' deep tones are swelling; 'tis the knell Of the departed year. PRENTICE. 3. God came from Teman, and the Holy One from Mount Paran. Selah. His glory covered the heavens, and the earth was full of His praise. 4. Before Him went the pestilence, and burning coals went forth at His feet. He stood and measured the earth: He beheld, and drove asunder the nations; and the everlasting mountains were scattered, the perpetual hills did bow: His ways are everlasting. BIBLE. 5. The heavens declare the glory of God, and the firmament showeth His handy work. Day unto day uttereth speech, and night unto night showeth knowledge. There is no speech nor language, where their voice is not heard. ID. 6. How brief is life! how passing brief! How brief its joys and cares! It seems to be in league with time, And leaves us unawares. 7. The thunder rolls: be hushed the prostrate world, While cloud to cloud returns the solemn hymn. THOMSON. REMARK.--The inappropriate use of the monotone,--a fault into which young people naturally fall,--is a very grave and obstinate error. It is always tedious, and often even ridiculous. It should be studiously avoided. The RISING INFLECTION is an upward turn, or slide of the voice, used in reading or speaking; as, s? n/ o/ s/ s/ e/ Are you prepared to recite your l/ The FALLING INFLECTION is a downward turn, or slide of the voice, used in reading or speaking; as, \d \o \i \n What are you \g? In the falling inflection, the voice should not sink below the _general pitch_; but in the rising inflection, it is raised above it. The two inflections may be illustrated by the following diagrams: 1. \i \m y, \p \p l/ \r \r t/ \u \u n/ \d \d e/ \e \e d/ \n \n u/ \t \t r/ \l \l Did he act p/ or \y? He acted \y. 2. \u \n y, \w \w l/ \i \i g/ \l \l n/ \l \l i/ \i \i l/ \n \n l/ \g \g i/ \l \l Did they go w/ or \y? They went \y. 3. r, e/ h/ g/ i/ If the flight of Dryden is h/ Pope continues longer on the r, e/ t/ h/ \w g/ \i i/ \n r/ \g. If the blaze of Dryden's fire is b/ the heat of Pope's is \c \o \n \s \t \a \n more regular and \t. 4. Is honor's lofty soul forever fled'? Is virtue lost'? Is martial ardor dead'? Is there no heart where worth and valor dwell'? No patriot WALLACE'? No undaunted TELL'? Yes`, Freedom, yes`! thy sons, a noble band, Around thy banner, firm, exulting stand`. REMARK.--The same _degree_ of inflection is not, at all times, used, or indicated by the notation. The due degree to be employed, depends on the _nature_ of what is to be expressed. For example; if a person, under great excitement, asks another: t? s e n r a Are you in e the degree of inflection would be much greater, t? s e n r a than if he playfully asks: Are you in e The former inflection may be called _intensive_, the latter, _common_. RULES FOR THE USE OF INFLECTIONS. RULE I. Direct questions, or those which may be answered by _yes_ or _no_, usually take the rising inflection; but their answers, generally, the falling. EXAMPLES. 1. Will you meet me at the depot'? Yes`; or, I will`. 2. Did you intend to visit Boston'? No`; or, I did not`. 3. Can you explain this difficult sentence'? Yes`; I can. 4. Are they willing to remain at home'? They are`. 5. Is this a time for imbecility and inaction'? By no means`. 6. King Agrippa, believest thou the prophets'? I know that thou believest`. 7. Were the tribes of this country, when first discovered, making any progress in arts and civilization'? By no means`. 8. To purchase heaven has gold the power'? Can gold remove the mortal hour'? In life, can love be bought with gold'? Are friendship's pleasures to be sold'? No`; all that's worth a wish, a thought, Fair virtue gives unbribed, unbought. 9. What would content you`? Talents'? No`. Enterprise'? No`. Courage'? No`. Reputation'? No`. Virtue'? No`. The man whom you would select, should possess not one, but all of these`. NOTE I.--When the direct question becomes an appeal, and the reply to it is anticipated, it takes the intense _falling_ inflection. EXAMPLES. 1. _Is_` he not a bold and eloquent speaker`? 2. _Can_` such inconsistent measures be adopted`? 3. _Did_` you ever hear of such cruel barbarities`? 4. _Is_ this reason`? _Is_` it law`? _Is_ it humanity`? 5. _Was_` not the gentleman's argument conclusive`? RULE II. Indirect questions, or those which can not be answered by _yes_ or _no_, usually take the _falling_ inflection, and their answers the same. 1. How far did you travel yesterday`? Forty miles`. 2. Which of you brought this beautiful bouquet`? Julia`. 3. Where do you intend to spend the summer`? At Saratoga`. 4. When will Charles graduate at college`? Next year`. 5. What is one of the most delightful emotions of the heart`? Gratitude`. NOTE I.--When the indirect question is one asking a repetition of what was not, at first, understood, it takes the _rising_ inflection. EXAMPLES. 1. When do you expect to return? Next week. When_ did you say'? Next week. 2. _Where_ did you say William had gone'? To New York. NOTE II.--Answers to questions, whether direct or indirect, when expressive of indifference, take the _rising_ inflection, or the circumflex. EXAMPLES. 1. Did you admire his discourse? Not much'. 2. Which way shall we walk? I am not particular'. 3. Can Henry go with us? If he chooses'. 4. What color do you prefer? I have no particular choice'. NOTE III.--In some instances, direct questions become indirect by a change of the inflection from the rising to the falling. EXAMPLES. 1. Will you come to-morrow' or next day'? Yes. 2. Will you come to-morrow,' or next day`? I will come to-morrow. REMARK.--The first question asks if the person addressed will _come_ within the two days, and may be answered by _yes_ or _no_; but the second asks on _which_ of the two days he will come, and it can not be thus answered. RULE III. When questions are connected by the conjunction _or_, the first requires the _rising_, and the second, the _falling_ inflection. EXAMPLES. 1. Does he study for amusement', or improvement`? 2. Was he esteemed for his wealth', or for his wisdom`? 3. Sink' or swim`, live' or die`, survive' or perish`, I give my hand and heart to this vote. WEBSTER. 4. Is it lawful to do good on the Sabbath-days', or to do evil`? to save life', or to kill`? 5. Was it an act of moral courage', or cowardice`, for Cato to fall on his sword`? RULE IV. Antithetic terms or clauses usually take opposite inflections; generally, the former has the _rising_, and the latter the _falling_ inflection. EXAMPLES. 1. If you seek to make one rich, study not to increase his stores' but to diminish his desires`. 2. They have mouths',--but they speak not`: Eyes have they',--but they see not`: They have ears',--but they hear not`: Noses have they',--but they smell not`: They have hands',--but they handle not`: Feet have they',--but they walk not`. BIBLE. NOTE I.--When one of the antithetic clauses is a _negative_, and the other an _affirmative_, generally the negative has the _rising_, and the affirmative the _falling_ inflection. EXAMPLES. 1. I said an elder soldier` not a better'. 2. His acts deserve punishment` rather than commiseration'. 3. This is no time for a tribunal of justice', but for showing mercy`; not for accusation', but for philanthropy`; not for trial', but for pardon`; not for sentence and execution', but for compassion and kindness`. RULE V. The Pause of Suspension, denoting that the sense is incomplete, usually has the _rising_ inflection. EXAMPLES. 1. Although the fig tree shall not blossom', neither shall fruit be in the vine'; the labor of the olive shall fail', and the fields shall yield no meat'; the flocks shall be cut off from the fold', and there shall be no herd in the stalls'; yet will I rejoice in the Lord`, I will joy in the God of my salvation`. BIBLE. NOTE I.--The ordinary direct address, not accompanied with strong emphasis, takes the _rising_ inflection, on the principle of the pause of suspension. EXAMPLES. 1. Men', brethren', and fathers', hear ye my defense which I make now unto you. BIBLE. 2. Ye living flowers', that skirt the eternal frost'! Ye wild goats', sporting round the eagle's nest'! Ye eagles', playmates of the mountain storm'! Ye lightnings', the dread arrows of the clouds'! Ye signs' and wonders' of the elements'! Utter forth GOD`, and fill the hills with praise`! COLERIDGE. NOTE II.--In some instances of a pause of suspension, the sense requires an intense _falling_ inflection. EXAMPLE. 1. The prodigal, if he does not become a _pauper_`, will, at least, have but little to bestow on others. REMARK.--If the _rising_ inflection is given on _pauper_, the sense would be perverted, and the passage made to mean, that, in order to be able to bestow on others, it is necessary that he should become a pauper. RULE VI. Expressions of tenderness, as of grief, or kindness, commonly incline the voice to the _rising_ inflection. EXAMPLES. 1. Mother',--I leave thy dwelling'; Oh! shall it be forever'? With grief my heart is swelling', From thee',--from thee',--to sever'. 2. O my son Absalom'! my son', my son Absalom'! Would God I had died for thee', Absalom', my son', my son'! BIBLE. RULE VII. The Penultimate Pause, or the last but one, of a passage, is usually preceded by the _rising_ inflection. EXAMPLES. 1. Diligence`, industry`, and proper improvement of time', are material duties of the young`. 2. These through faith subdued kingdoms`, wrought righteous-ness`, obtained promises`, stopped the mouths of lions`, quenched the violence of fire`, escaped the edge of the sword`, out of weakness were made strong`, waxed valiant in fight', turned to flight the armies of the aliens`. REMARK.--The rising inflection is employed at the penultimate pause in order to promote variety, since the voice generally falls at the end of a sentence. RULE VIII. Expressions of strong emotion, as of anger or surprise, and also the language of authority and reproach, are expressed with the _falling_ inflection. EXAMPLES. 1. On YOU`, and on your CHILDREN`, be the peril of the innocent blood which shall be shed this day`. 2. What a piece of workmanship is MAN`! How noble in REASON`! How infinite in FACULTIES`! 3. O FOOLS`! and _slow of heart_ to believe all that the prophets have written concerning me`! BIBLE. 4. HENCE`, HOME`, _you idle creatures_`, GET YOU HOME`, YOU BLOCKS`, YOU STONES`, YOU WORSE THAN USELESS THINGS`! 5. Avaunt`! and quit my sight`! let the earth hide thee`! Thy bones are marrowless`; thou hast no speculation in thine eyes which thou dost glare` with. SHAKSPEARE. 6. Slave, do thy office`! Strike`, as I struck the foe`! Strike`, as I would have struck the tyrants`! Strike deep as my curse`! Strike`, and but once`! ID. RULE IX. An emphatic succession of particulars, and emphatic repetition, require the _falling_ inflection. EXAMPLES. 1. _Beware_` what earth calls happiness; BEWARE` All joys but joys that never can expire`. 2. A great mind`, a great heart`, a great orator`, a great career`, have been consigned to history`. BUTLER. REMARK.--The stress of voice on each successive particular, or repetition, should gradually be increased as the subject advances. The CIRCUMFLEX is a union of the two inflections on the same word, beginning either with the _falling_ and ending with the _rising_, or with the _rising_ and ending with the _falling_; as, If he goes to ____ I shall go to ____. The circumflex is mainly employed in the language of irony, and in expressing ideas implying some condition, either expressed or understood. EXAMPLES. 1. You, a beardless youth, pretend to teach a British general. 2. What! shear a wolf? a prowling wolf? 3. My father's trade? ah, really, that's too bad! My father's trade? Why, blockhead, are you mad? My father, sir, did never stoop so low,-- He was a gentleman, I'd have you know. 4. What! confer a crown on the author of the public calamities? 5. But you are very wise men, and deeply learned in the truth; we are weak, contemptible, mean persons. 6. They pretend they come to improve our state, enlarge our thoughts, and free us from error. 7. But youth, it seems, is not my only crime; I have been accused of acting a theatrical part. 8. And this man has become a god and Cassius a wretched creature. SECTION IV. MODULATION. MODULATION implies those variations of the voice, heard in reading or speaking, which are prompted by the feelings and emotions that the subject inspires. EXAMPLES. EXPRESSIVE OF COURAGE AND CHIVALROUS EXCITEMENT. FULL .- Once more unto the breach, dear friends, _once more_, TONE '- Or close the wall up with our English dead! MIDDLE .- In peace, there's nothing so becomes a man, TONE '- As modest stillness and humility; .- But when the blast of war blows in our ears, SHORT | Then imitate the action of the tiger; AND + Stiffen the sinews, summon up the blood, QUICK '- Disguise fair nature with hard-favored rage. .- _On_, ON, you noblest English, HIGH | Whose blood is fetched from fathers of war-proof! AND + _Fathers_, that, like so many Alexanders, LOUD | Have, in these parts, from morn till even fought, '- And sheathed their swords for lack of argument. QUICK .- I see you stand like greyhounds in the slips, AND | Straining upon the start. The game's afoot; VERY + Follow your spirits, and, upon this charge, LOUD '- CRY--HEAVEN FOR HARRY! ENGLAND! AND ST. GEORGE! SHAKSPEARE. REMARK.--To read the foregoing example in one dull, monotonous tone of voice, without regard to the sentiment expressed, would render the passage extremely insipid and lifeless. But by a proper modulation of the voice, it infuses into the mind of the reader or hearer the most animating and exciting emotions. The voice is modulated in _three_ different ways. _First_, it is varied in PITCH; that is, from _high_ to _low_ tones, and the reverse. _Secondly_, it is varied in QUANTITY, or in _loudness_ or _volume_ of sound. _Thirdly_, it is varied in QUALITY, or in the _kind_ of sound expressed. PITCH OF VOICE. Pitch of voice has reference to its degree of elevation. Every person, in reading or speaking, assumes a certain pitch, which may be either _high_ or _low_, according to circumstances, and which has a governing influence on the variations of the voice, above and below it. This degree of elevation is usually called the KEY NOTE. As an exercise in varying the voice in pitch, the practice of uttering a sentence on the several degrees of elevation, as represented in the following scale, will be found beneficial. First, utter the musical syllables, then the vowel sound, and lastly, the proposed sentence,--ascending and descending. ---------8.--do--#--_e_-in-m_e_.---Virtue alone survives.---- 7. si # _i_ in d_i_e. Virtue alone survives. -------6.--la--#--_o_-in-d_o_.---Virtue alone survives.------ 5. sol # _o_ in n_o_. Virtue alone survives. -----4.--fa--#--_a_-in-_a_t.---Virtue alone survives.-------- 3. mi # _a_-in _a_te. Virtue alone survives. ---2.--re--#--_a_-in-f_a_r.--Virtue alone survives.---------- 1. do # _a_ in _a_ll. Virtue alone survives Although the voice is capable of as many variations in speaking, as are marked on the musical scale, yet for all the purposes of ordinary elocution, it will be sufficiently exact if we make but _three_ degrees of variation, viz., the _Low_, the _Middle_, and the _High_. 1. THE LOW PITCH is that which falls below the usual speaking key, and is employed in expressing emotions of _sublimity_, _awe_, and _reverence_. EXAMPLE. Silence, how dead! darkness, how profound! Nor eye, nor list'ning ear, an object finds; Creation sleeps. 'Tis as the general pulse Of life stood still, and Nature made a pause.-- An awful pause! prophetic of her end. YOUNG. 2. THE MIDDLE PITCH is that usually employed in common conversation, and in expressing _unimpassioned thought_ and _moderate emotion_. EXAMPLES. 1. It was early in a summer morning, when the air was cool, the earth moist, the whole face of the creation fresh and gay, that I lately walked in a beautiful flower garden, and, at once, regaled the senses and indulged the fancy. HERVEY. 2. "_I love to live_," said a prattling boy, As he gayly played with his new-bought toy, And a merry laugh went echoing forth, From a bosom filled with joyous mirth. 3. THE HIGH PITCH is that which rises above the usual speaking key, and is used in expressing _joyous_ and _elevated feelings_. EXAMPLE. Higher, _higher_, EVER HIGHER,-- Let the watchword be "ASPIRE!" Noble Christian youth; Whatsoe'er be God's behest, Try to do that duty best, In the strength of Truth. M.F. TUPPER. QUANTITY. QUANTITY is two-fold;--consisting in FULLNESS or VOLUME of sound, as _soft_ or _loud_; and in TIME, as _slow_ or _quick_. The former has reference to STRESS; the latter, to MOVEMENT. The degrees of variation in quantity are numerous, varying from a slight, soft whisper to a vehement shout. But for all practical purposes, they may be considered as _three_, the same as in pitch;--the _soft_, the _middle_, and the _loud_. For exercise in quantity, let the pupil read any sentence, as, "Beauty is a fading flower," first in a slight, soft tone, and then repeat it, gradually increasing in quantity to the full extent of the voice. Also, let him read it first very slowly, and then repeat it, gradually increasing the movement. In doing this, he should be careful not to vary the pitch. In like manner, let him repeat any vowel sound, or all of them, and also inversely. Thus: [Illustration] [Transcriber's Note: The illustration is a row of the letter "O," increasing in size across the page, followed by a row of the letter "O" decreasing in size. The presumed intent is to convey loudness.] REMARK.--Quantity is often mistaken for Pitch. But it should be borne in mind that quantity has reference to _loudness_ or _volume_ of sound, and pitch to the _elevation_ or _depression_ of a tone. The difference may be distinguished by the slight and heavy strokes on a bell;--both of which produce sounds alike in _pitch_; but they differ in _quantity_ or _loudness_, in proportion as the strokes are light or heavy. RULES FOR QUANTITY. 1. SOFT, OR SUBDUED TONES, are those which range from a whisper to a complete vocality, and are used to express _fear_, _caution_, _secrecy_, _solemnity_, and all _tender emotions_. EXAMPLES. 1. We watched her breathing through the night, Her breathing soft and low, As in her breast the wave of life Kept heaving to and fro. HOOD. 2. Softly, peacefully, Lay her to rest; Place the turf lightly, On her young breast. D.E. GOODMAN. 3. The loud wind dwindled to a whisper low, And sighed for pity as it answered,--"No." 2. A MIDDLE TONE, or medium loudness of voice, is employed in reading _narrative_, _descriptive_, or _didactic sentences_. EXAMPLE. I love my country's pine-clad hills, Her thousand bright and gushing rills, Her sunshine and her storms; Her rough and rugged rocks that rear Their hoary heads high in the air, In wild fantastic forms. 3. A LOUD TONE, or fullness and stress of voice, is used in expressing _violent passions_ and _vehement emotions_. EXAMPLES. 1. STAND! _the ground's your own_, my braves,-- Will ye give it up to _slaves_? Will ye look for _greener graves_? Hope ye mercy still? What's the mercy _despots_ feel? Hear it in that _battle-peal_,-- Read it on yon bristling steel, Ask it--_ye who will!_ PIERPONT. 2. "HOLD!" Tyranny cries; but their resolute breath Sends back the reply: "INDEPENDENCE or DEATH!" QUALITY. QUALITY has reference to _the kind of sound_ uttered. Two sounds may be alike in quantity and pitch, yet differ in quality. The sounds produced on the clarinet and flute may agree in pitch and quantity, yet be unlike in quality. The same is true in regard to the tones of the voice of two individuals. This difference is occasioned mainly by the different positions of the vocal organs. The qualities of voice mostly used in reading or speaking, and which should receive the highest degree of culture, are the _Pure Tone_, the _Orotund_, the _Aspirated_, and the _Guttural_. RULES FOR QUALITY. 1. THE PURE TONE is a clear, smooth, sonorous flow of sound, usually accompanied with the middle pitch of voice, and is adapted to express emotions of _joy, cheerfulness, love_, and _tranquillity_. EXAMPLE. Hail! beauteous stranger of the wood, Attendant on the spring, Now heaven repairs thy vernal seat, And woods thy welcome sing. 2. THE OROTUND is a full, deep, round, and pure tone of voice, peculiarly adapted in expressing _sublime_ and _pathetic emotions_. EXAMPLE. It thunders! Sons of dust, in reverence bow! Ancient of Days! Thou speakest from above: Almighty! trembling, like a timid child, I hear thy awful voice. Alarmed--afraid-- I see the flashes of thy lightning wild, And in the very grave would hide my head. 3. THE ASPIRATED TONE of voice is not a pure, vocal sound, but rather a forcible breathing utterance, and is used to express _amazement, fear, terror, anger, revenge, remorse_, and _fervent emotions_. EXAMPLE. Oh, coward conscience, how dost thou affright me! The lights burn blue. It is now dead midnight; Cold, fearful drops stand on my trembling flesh. 4. THE GUTTURAL QUALITY is a deep, aspirated tone of voice, used to express _aversion, hatred, loathing_, and _contempt_. EXAMPLE. Tell me I _hate_ the bowl? HATE is a feeble word: I _loathe_, ABHOR, my very soul With strong disgust is stirred, Whene'er I see, or hear, or tell, Of the dark beverage of hell. NOTATION IN MODULATION. (o) high. (oo) high and loud. ([o]) low. ([oo]) low and loud. (=) quick. (_''_) short and quick. (_sl_.) slow. (_p_.) soft. (_pp_.) very soft. (_f_.) loud. (_ff_.) very loud. (_pl_.) plaintive. (<) increase. (>) decrease. EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE IN MODULATION. (_p_.) Soft is the strain when zephyr gently blows, And the smooth stream in smoother numbers flows; (_f_.) But when loud surges lash the sounding shore, The hoarse rough verse should like the torrent roar. (_sl_.) When Ajax strives some rock's vast weight to throw, The line, too, labors, and the words move slow: (=) Not so, when swift Camilla scours the plain, Flies o'er the unbending corn, and skims along the main. POPE. (o=) Go ring the bells and fire the guns, And fling the starry banner out; (_ff_.) Shout "FREEDOM" till your lisping ones Give back the cradle shout. WHITTIER. (_pl_.) "And now, farewell! 'Tis hard to give thee up, With death so like a gentle slumber on thee!-- And thy dark sin!--oh! I could drink the cup If from this woe its bitterness had won thee. May God have called thee, like a wanderer, home, My lost boy, Absalom!" WILLIS. (_sl_.) The sun hath set in folded clouds,-- Its twilight rays are gone, (o) And, gathered in the shades of night, The storm is rolling on. (_pl_.) Alas! how ill that bursting storm (>) The fainting spirit braves, (_p_.) When they,--the lovely and the lost,-- (_pl_.) Are gone to early graves! (o) On! onward still! o'er the land he sweeps, (>) With wreck, and ruin, and rush, and roar, Nor stops to look back On his dreary track (_''_) But speeds to the spoils before. MISS J.H. LEWIS. From every battle-field of the revolution--from Lexington and Bunker Hill--from Saratoga and Yorktown--from the fields of Entaw--from the cane-brakes that sheltered the men of Marion--the repeated, long-prolonged echoes came up--(_f_.) "THE UNION: IT MUST BE PRESERVED" (<) From every valley in our land--from every cabin on the pleasant mountain sides--from the ships at our wharves--from the tents of the hunter in our westernmost prairies--from the living minds of the living millions of American freemen--from the thickly coming glories of futurity--the shout went up, like the sound of many waters, (_ff._) "THE UNION: IT MUST BE PRESERVED." BANCROFT. (_p_.) Hark! (_sl_.) Along the vales and mountains of the earth ([o]) There is a deep, portentous murmuring, (=) Like the swift rush of subterranean streams, Or like the mingled sounds of earth and air, When the fierce tempest, with sonorous wing, Heaves his deep folds upon the rushing winds, (<) And hurries onward, with his night of clouds, Against the eternal mountains. 'Tis the voice Of infant FREEDOM,--and her stirring call Is heard and answered in a thousand tones (<) From every hill-top of her western home; And lo! it breaks across old Ocean's flood,-- (oo) And "FREEDOM! FREEDOM!" is the answering shout Of nations, starting from the spell of years. G.D. PRENTICE. (<) The thunders hushed,-- The trembling lightning fled away in fear,-- (_p._) The foam-capt surges sunk to quiet rest,-- The raging winds grew still,-- (_pp_.) There was a calm. (o,o,) "Quick! Man the boat!" (=) Away they spring The stranger ship to aid, (_f_.) And loud their hailing voices ring, As rapid speed they made. (p) Hush! lightly tread! still tranquilly she sleeps; I've watched, suspending e'en my breath, in fear To break the heavenly spell. (_pp_.) Move silently. Can it be? Matter immortal? and shall spirit die? Above the nobler, shall less nobler rise? (<) Shall man alone, for whom all else revives, No resurrection know? (o<) Shall man alone, Imperial man! be sown in barren ground, Less privileged than grain, on which he feeds? YOUNG. (=) Away! away to the mountain's brow, Where the trees are gently waving; (_''_) Away! away to the vale below, Where the streams are gently laving. An hour passed on;--the Turk awoke;-- That bright dream was his last;-- He woke--to hear his sentry's shriek, (oo) "To ARMS! they come! (_ff_.) THE GREEK! THE GREEK!" (_pl_.) He woke to die, midst flame and smoke, And shout, and groan, and sabre stroke, And death shots falling thick and fast As lightnings from the mountain cloud; And heard, with voice as trumpet loud, Bozzaris cheer his band;-- (oo) "_Strike_--till the last armed foe expires! _Strike_--for your altars and your fires! _Strike_--for the green graves of your sires! God, and your native land!" HALLECK. He said, and on the rampart hights arrayed His trusty warriors, few, but undismayed; (_sl_) Firm paced and slow, a horrid front they form, (_pp_) Still as the breeze, ([oo]) but dreadful as the storm! (_p_.) Low, murmuring sounds along their banners fly, (_ff_.) REVENGE, or DEATH!--the watchword and reply; (oo) Then pealed the notes, omnipotent to charm, (_f_.) And the loud tocsin tolled their last alarm! CAMPBELL. ([o]') His speech was at first low toned and slow. Sometimes his voice would deepen, ([oo]) like the sound of distant thunder; and anon, (_''_) his flashes of wit and enthusiasm would light up the anxious faces of his hearers, (<) like the far-off lightning of a coming storm. (>) Receding now, the dying numbers ring (_p_.) Fainter and fainter, down the rugged dell: (_pp_.) And now 'tis silent all--enchantress, fare thee well. (=) Oh, joy to the world! the hour is come, When the nations to freedom awake, When the royalists stand agape and dumb, And monarchs with terror shake! Over the walls of majesty, "Upharsin" is writ in words of fire, And the eyes of the bondmen, wherever they be, Are lit with their wild desire. (<) Soon, soon shall the thrones that blot the world, Like the Orleans, into the dust be hurl'd, And the world roll on, like a hurricane's breath, Till the farthest nation hears what it saith.-- (_ff_.) "ARISE! ARISE! BE FREE!" T.B. READ. (_p_.[o]) Tread softly--bow the head,-- In reverent silence bow,-- No passing bell doth toll,-- (_pl_.) Yet an immortal soul Is passing now. MRS. SOUTHEY. (o[_f_].) SPEAK OUT, my friends; would you exchange it for the DEMON'S DRINK, (_ff_.) ALCOHOL? A _shout_, like the _roar_ of a tempest, answered, (oo) NO! (oo) The combat deepens! (_ff_.) ON! YE BRAVE! (=) Who rush to GLORY, (_p_.) or the GRAVE! (_ff_.) WAVE, _Munich_, all thy banners WAVE! And CHARGE with all thy CHIVALRY! (_pl_.) Ah! few shall part where many meet! The snow shall be their winding sheet, And every turf beneath their feet (_sl._[o]) Shall be a soldier's sepulcher! CAMPBELL. (_sl_.) At length, o'er Columbus slow consciousness breaks, (oo) "LAND! LAND!" cry the sailors; (_ff_.) "LAND! LAND!"--he awakes,-- (_''_) He runs,--yes! behold it! it blesseth his sight! THE LAND! _O, dear spectacle! transport! delight!_ SECTION V. THE RHETORICAL PAUSE. RHETORICAL PAUSES are those which are frequently required by the voice in reading and speaking, although the construction of the passage admits of no grammatical point. These pauses should be as manifest to the ear, as those which are indicated by the comma, semicolon, or other grammatical points, though not commonly denoted by any visible sign. In the following examples they are denoted thus, (||). EXAMPLES. 1. In slumbers of midnight || the sailor-boy lay, His hammock swung loose || at the sport of the wind; But watch-worn and weary, || his cares flew away, And visions of happiness || danced o'er his mind. DIMOND. 2. There is a land, || of every land the pride, Beloved of heaven || o'er all the world beside; Where brighter suns || dispense serener light, And milder moons || imparadise the night. O, thou shalt find, || howe'er thy footsteps roam, That land thy country, || and that spot thy home! This pause is generally made before or after the utterance of some important word or clause on which it is especially desired to fix the attention. In such cases it is usually denoted by the use of the dash (--). EXAMPLES. 1. God said--"_Let there be light!_" 2. All dead and silent was the earth, In deepest night it lay; The Eternal spoke creation's word, And called to being--Day! No definite rule can be given with reference to the length of the rhetorical, or grammatical pause. The correct taste of the reader or speaker must determine it. For the voice should sometimes be suspended much longer at the same pause in one situation than in another; as in the two following EXAMPLES. LONG PAUSE. Pause a moment. I heard a footstep. Listen now. I heard it again; but it is going from us. It sounds fainter,--still fainter. It is gone. SHORT PAUSE. John, be quick. Get some water. Throw the powder overboard. "It can not be reached." Jump into the boat, then. Shove off. There goes the powder. Thank Heaven. We are safe. * * * * * REMARKS TO TEACHERS. It is of the utmost importance, in order to secure an easy and elegant style in reading, to refer the pupil often to the more important principles involved in a just elocution. To this end, it will be found very advantageous, occasionally to review the rules and directions given in the preceding pages, and thus early accustom him to apply them in the subsequent reading lessons. For a wider range of examples and illustrations, it is only necessary to refer to the numerous and various exercises which form the body of this book. They have been selected, in many cases, with a special view to this object. PART SECOND. LESSON I. HER' O ISM, bravery; courage. MA LI'' CIOUS, ill disposed; resentful. AM BI'' TION, eager desire. SAR CAS' TIC, severe; cutting. DE RIS' ION, ridicule. CON FER' RED, bestowed. RES' CU ED, saved; preserved. DIS AS' TER, calamity. IN CLIN' ED, disposed. SYM' PA THY, fellow-feeling. TEN' DER ED, offered. A POL' O GY, excuse. TRUE HEROISM. OSBORNE. 1. I shall never forget a lesson which I received when quite a young lad, while attending an Academy. Among my schoolmates were Hartly and Vincent. They were both older than myself, and Vincent was looked up to, as a sort of leader in matters of opinion, and in directing our sports. 2. He was not, at heart, a malicious boy; but he had a foolish ambition of being thought witty and sarcastic; and he made himself feared by a habit of turning things into ridicule. He seemed to be constantly looking out for something to occur, which he could turn into derision. 3. Hartly was a new scholar, and little was known of him among the boys. One morning as we were on our way to school, he was seen driving a cow along the road toward the pasture. A group of boys, among whom was Vincent, met him as he was passing. 4. "Now," said Vincent, "let us have a little sport with our country rustic." So saying, he exclaimed: "Halloo, Jonathan! [Footnote: A title frequently applied to the Yankees by the English.] what is the price of milk? What do you feed her on? What will you take for all the gold on her horns? Boys, if you want to see the latest Paris style, look at those boots!" 5. Hartly waved his hand at us with a pleasant smile, and, driving the cow to the field, took down the bars of a rail-fence, saw her safely in the pasture, and then, putting up the bars, came and entered the school with the rest of us. After school, in the afternoon, he let out the cow, and drove her away, none of us knew where. Every day, for two or three weeks, he went through the same task. 6. The boys who attended the Academy, were nearly all the sons of wealthy parents, and some of them were foolish enough to look down, with a sort of disdain, upon a scholar who had to drive a cow to pasture; and the sneers and jeers of Vincent were often repeated. 7. One day, he refused to sit next to Hartly in school, on a pretense that he did not like the odor of the barn. Sometimes he would inquire of Hartly after the cow's health, pronouncing the word "ke-ow," after the manner of some people. 8. Hartly bore all these silly attempts to wound his feelings and annoy him, with the utmost good nature. He never once returned an angry look or word. One time, Vincent said: "Hartly, I suppose your father intends to make a milkman of you." 9. "Why not?" said Hartly. "Oh, nothing," said Vincent; "only do not leave much water in the cans after rinsing them--that's all!" The boys laughed, and Hartly, not in the least mortified, replied: "Never fear; if I ever rise to be a milkman, I will give _good measure_ and _good milk_ too." 10. A few days after this conversation, there was a public exhibition, at which a number of ladies and gentlemen from the city, was present. Prizes were awarded by the Principal of the Academy, and Hartly and Vincent each received one; for, in respect to scholarship, they were about equal. 11. After the prizes were distributed, the Principal remarked that there was _one prize_, consisting of a medal, which was _rarely_ awarded, not so much on account of its great value, as because the instances are _rare_ that merit it. It is THE PRIZE FOR HEROISM. The last boy on whom it was conferred, was Master Manners, who, three years ago, rescued the blind girl from drowning. 12. The Principal then said, "With the permission of the company, I will relate a short story. Not long since, some boys were flying a kite in the street, just as a poor boy on horseback rode by, on his way to mill. The horse took fright, and threw the boy, injuring him so badly that he was carried home, and confined for some weeks to his bed. 13. "None of the boys who had caused the disaster, followed to learn the fate of the wounded boy. There was one, however, who witnessed the accident from a distance, and went to render what service he could. He soon learned that the wounded boy was the grandson of a poor widow, whose only support consisted in selling the milk of a fine cow, of which she was the owner. 14. "Alas! what could she now do? She was old and lame, and her grandson, on whom she depended to drive the cow to pasture, was now sick and helpless. 'Never mind, good woman,' said the boy, 'I can drive your cow.' With thanks, the poor widow accepted his offer. 15. "But the boy's kindness did not stop here. Money was wanted to purchase medicine. 'I have money that my mother sent me to buy a pair of boots,' said the boy; 'but I can do without them for the present.' 16. "'Oh, no!' said the old lady, 'I can not consent to that; but here is a pair of cowhide boots that I bought for Henry, who can not wear them. If you will buy them, giving me what they cost, I can get along very well.' The boy bought the boots, clumsy as they were, and has worn them up to this time. 17. "When the other boys of the Academy saw this scholar driving a cow to the pasture, he was assailed with laughter and ridicule. His thick cowhide boots, in particular, were made matters of mirth. But he kept on cheerfully and bravely, day after day, driving the widow's cow to the pasture, and wearing his thick boots, contented in the thought that he was _doing right_, not caring for all the jeers and sneers that could be uttered. 18. "He never undertook to explain why he drove the cow; for he was not inclined to display his charitable motives, and besides, in heart, he had no sympathy with the false pride that looks with ridicule on any useful employment. It was by _mere accident_ that his course of conduct and self-denial, was yesterday discovered by his teacher. 19. "And now, ladies and gentlemen, I appeal to you. Was there not _true heroism_ in this boy's conduct? Nay, Master Hartly, do not steal out of sight behind the blackboard! You were not ashamed of _ridicule_--you must not shun _praise. Come forth, come forth, Master Edward James Hartly, and let us see your honest face!_" 20. As Hartly, with blushing cheeks, made his appearance, the whole company greeted him with a round of applause for his _heroic conduct_. The ladies stood upon benches, and waved their handkerchiefs. The old men clapped their hands, and wiped the moisture from the corners of their eyes. Those clumsy boots on Hartly's feet seemed prouder ornaments, than a crown would have been on his head. The medal was bestowed on him, amid the applause of the whole company. 21. Vincent was heartily ashamed of his ill-natured sneers, and, after the school was dismissed, he went, with tears in his eyes, and tendered his hand to Hartly, making a handsome apology for his past ill manners. "Think no more about it," said Hartly; "let us all go and have a ramble in the woods, before we break up for vacation." The boys, one and all, followed Vincent's example, and then, with shouts and huzzas, they all set forth into the woods--a happy, cheerful group. QUESTIONS.--1. In what way did Vincent try to make derision of Hartly? 2. How did Hartly receive it? 3. For what did Hartly receive a prize from his teacher? 4. How did the spectators manifest their approbation of Hartly's conduct? * * * * * LESSON II. A VERT' ED, turned aside. RE PENT' ANT, contrite; sorrowful. SIN CERE', honest; true-hearted. SE VERE', harsh; rigid TAUNTS, scoffs; insults. PLATE, dishes of gold or silverware. DE SERT', forsake; abandon. FAIL' URE, want of success. SID' ING, taking part. TYR' AN NY, oppression; cruelty. YOU AND I. CHARLES MACKAY. 1. Who would scorn his humble fellow For the coat he wears? For the poverty he suffers? For his daily cares? Who would pass him in the foot-way With averted eye? Would you, brother'? No`,--you _would_ not. If _you_ would,--not _I_. 2. Who, when vice or crime repentant, With a grief sincere, Asked for pardon, would refuse it, More than heaven severe? Who, to erring woman's sorrow, Would with taunts reply? Would _you_, brother'! No`,--you _would_ not. If _you_ would,--not _I_. 3. Would you say that Vice is Virtue In a hall of state'? Or, that rogues are not dishonest If they dine off plate'? Who would say Success and Merit Ne'er part company? Would _you_, brother'? No`,--you _would_ not. If _you_ would,--not _I_. 4. Who would give a cause his efforts When the cause is strong; But desert it on its failure, Whether right or wrong`? Ever siding with the upmost, Letting downmost lie? Would _you_, brother'? No`,--you _would_ not. If _you_ would,--not _I_. 5. Who would lend his arm to strengthen Warfare with the right`? Who would give his pen to blacken Freedom's page of light`? Who would lend his tongue to utter Praise of tyranny? Would _you_, brother'? No`,--you _would_ not. If _you_ would,--not _I_. QUESTIONS.--1. What rule for the rising and falling inflections, first verse? See page 28. 2. Repeat the rule. 3. What rule for the falling inflections, fifth verse? See page 29. 4. Repeat the rule. What is the meaning of the suffix _en_, in the words _strengthen_, _blacken?_ See SANDERS and McELLIGOTT'S ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH WORDS, p. 132, Ex. 174. * * * * * LESSON III. WAR' FARE, conflict; struggle. CLUTCH ES, paws; firm grasp. DO MIN' ION, rule; sway. PIN' ION, wing; as of a bird. PRE' CIOUS, costly; valuable. SCOFF' ER, scorner. VA' RI ED, changing; different. WAVES, moves to and fro. PRO PHET' IC, (_ph_ like _f_.) foretelling. DE SPISE', scorn; disdain. GOAL, the mark that bounds a race. BECK' ON, motion; invite with the hand. LIFE'S WORK. 1. _Life is onward:_ use it With a forward aim; Toil is heavenly: choose it, And its warfare claim. Look not to another To perform your will; Let not your own brother Keep your warm hand still. 2. _Life is onward:_ never Look upon the past; It would hold you ever In its clutches fast. _Now_ is your dominion; Weave it as you please; Bid not the soul's pinion To a bed of ease. 3. _Life is onward:_ try it, Ere the day is lost; It hath virtue: buy it, At whatever cost. If the World should offer Every precious gem, Look not at the scoffer, Change it not for them. 4. _Life is onward:_ heed it, In each varied dress; Your own _act_ can speed it On to happiness. His bright pinion o'er you Time waves not in vain, If Hope chant before you Her prophetic strain. 5. _Life is onward:_ prize it, In sunshine and in storm; Oh! do not despise it In its humblest form. Hope and Joy together, Standing at the goal, Through life's darkest weather Beckon on the soul. QUESTIONS.--1. What do _it_ and _them_ refer to, third verse, last line? 2. Repeat the word _sunshine_ several times in quick succession. * * * * * LESSON IV. AC CUS' TOM ED, used; habituated. PLAN TA' TIONS, settlements. PRO TEC' TION, safety; defense. RE PROACH' FUL, reproving. CAP' TUR ED, taken prisoners. DE CID' ED, concluded. COR O NET, little crown. SA LUT' ED, greeted. MON' ARCH, sovereign; ruler. CON CEAL' ED, hid; secreted. RE STOR' ED, brought back. VI' O LENCE, outrage; wrong. RE BUK' ED, reproved. LEAGUE, compact; alliance. TER' RI BLE, fearful; dreadful. AT TEND' ANT, waiter; servant. THE YOUNG CAPTIVES. 1. Many years ago, dining the early settlements in New England, the children were accustomed to gather large quantities of nuts, which grew in great abundance in the forests that surrounded their little plantations. 2. In one of these nut-gatherings, a little boy and girl, the one eight and the other four years of age, whose mother was dead, became separated from their companions. On their way home, they came across some wild grapes, and were busily engaged in gathering them, till the last rays of the setting sun were fading away. 3. Suddenly they were seized by two Indians. The boy struggled violently, and his little sister cried to him for protection; but in vain. The Indians soon bore them far beyond the bounds of the settlement. Night was far advanced before they halted. Then they kindled a fire, and offered the children some food. 4. The heart of the boy swelled high with grief and anger, and he refused to eat. But the poor little girl took some parched corn from the hand of the Indian who held her on his knee. He smiled as he saw her eat the kernels, and look up in his face with a wondering, yet reproachful eye. Then they lay down to sleep in the dark forest, each with an arm over his little captive. 5. Great was the alarm in the colony when these children did not return. Every spot was searched, where it was thought possible they might have lost their way. But when, at length, their little basket was found, overturned in a tangled thicket, they came to the conclusion that they must have been captured by the Indians. 6. It was decided that before any warlike measures were adopted, the father should go peacefully to the Indian king, and demand his children. At the earliest dawn of morning he departed with his companions. They met a friendly Indian pursuing the chase, who consented to be their guide. 7. They traveled through rude paths, until the day drew near a close. Then, approaching a circle of native dwellings, in the midst of which was a tent, they saw a man of lofty form, with a coronet of feathers upon his brow, and surrounded by warriors. The guide saluted him as his monarch, and the bereaved father, bowing down, thus addressed him: 8. "King of the red men, thou seest a father in pursuit of his lost children. He has heard that your people will not harm the stranger in distress. So he trusts himself fearlessly among you. The king of our own native land, who should have protected us, became our foe. We fled from our dear homes--from the graves of our fathers. 9. "The ocean wave brought us to this New World. We are a peaceful race, pure from the blood of all men. We seek to take the hand of our red brethren. Of my own kindred, none inhabit this wilderness, save two little buds, from a broken, buried stem. 10. "Last night, sorrow entered into my soul, because I found them not. Knowest thou, O king, if thy people have taken my children'? Knowest thou where they have concealed them'? Cause them, I pray thee, to be restored to my arms. So shall the Great Spirit bless thy own tender plants, and lift up thy heart when it weigheth heavily on they bosom." 11. The Indian monarch, fixing on him a piercing glance, said: "Knowest thou me'? Look in my eyes`! Look`! Answer me`! Are they the eyes of a stranger`!" The bereaved father replied that he had no recollection of having ever before seen his countenance. 12. "Thus it is with the white man. He is dim-eyed. He looketh on the _garments_ more than on the _soul_. Where your plows turn up the earth, oft have I stood watching your toil. There was no coronet on my brow. But I was king. And you knew it not. 13. "I looked upon your people. I saw neither pride nor violence. I went an _enemy_, but returned a _friend_. I said to my warriors, 'Do these men no harm. They do not hate Indians.' Then our white-haired prophet of the Great Spirit rebuked me. He bade me make no league with the pale faces, lest angry words should be spoken of me, among the shades of our buried kings. 14. "Yet, again, I went where thy brethren have reared their dwellings. Yes; I entered thy house. _And thou knowest not this brow'?_ I could tell _thine_ at midnight, if but a single star trembled through the clouds. My ear would know _thy_ voice, though the storm was abroad with all its thunders. 15. "I have said that I was king. Yet I came to thee hungry, and thou gavest me bread. My head was wet with the tempest. Thou badest me lie down on thy couch, and thy son, for whom thou mournest, covered me. 16. "I was sad in spirit, and thy little daughter, whom thou seekest with tears, sat on my knee. She smiled when I told her how the beaver buildeth his house in the forest. My heart was comforted, for I saw that she did not hate Indians. 17. "Turn not on me such a terrible eye. I am no stealer of babes. I have reproved the people who took thy children. I have sheltered them for thee. Not a hair of their head is hurt. Thinkest thou that the red man can forget kindness'? They are sleeping in my tent. Had I but a single blanket, it should have been their bed. Take them, and return unto thy people." 18. He waved his hand to an attendant, and, in a moment, the two children were in the arms of their father. The white men were kindly sheltered for that night, and, the next day, they bore the children to their home, and the people rejoiced at their safe return. QUESTIONS.--1. By whom wore those children taken captive? 2. Who went in search of them? 3. What did he say to the king of the tribe? 4. What reply did the Indian monarch make? 5. Were the children restored to their father? 6. What is meant by the _New World_, 9th paragraph? 7. What by _two little buds, from a broken, buried stem_, same paragraph? * * * * * LESSON V. IM' AGE. form; likeness. ELAPS' ED, glided away. WAY' WARD NESS, perverseness. SHUD' DER ING, chilling tremor. PAS' SION ATE, easily excited to anger. MAS' TER Y, rule; sway. HEAD' STRONG, stubborn; obstinate. UN DER WENT', experienced. AF FEC' TION, love; attachment. THRESH' OLD, entrance. ANX I' E TY, care; solicitude. PER PET' U AL, continual. MY MOTHER'S LAST KISS. MRS. E. OAKES SMITH. 1. I was but five years old when my mother died; but her image is as fresh in my mind, now that twenty years have elapsed, as it was at the time of her death. I remember her, as a pale, gentle being, with a sweet smile, and a voice soft and cheerful when she praised me; and when I had erred, (for I was a wild, thoughtless child,) there was a mild and tender earnestness in her reproofs, that always went to my little heart. 2. Methinks I can now see her large, blue eyes moist with sorrow, because of my childish waywardness, and hear her repeat: "My child, how can you grieve me so?" She had, for a long time, been pale and feeble, and sometimes there would come a bright spot on her cheek, which made her look so lovely, I thought she must be well. But then she spoke of dying, and pressed me to her bosom, and told me to be good when she was gone, and to love my father, and be kind to him; for he would have no one else to love. 3. I recollect she was ill all day, and my little hobbyhorse and whip were laid aside, and I tried to be very quiet. I did not see her for the whole day, and it seemed very long. At night, they told me my mother was too sick to kiss me, as she always had done before I went to bed, and I must go without it. But I could not. I stole into the room, and placing my lips close to hers, whispered: "Mother, dear mother, won't you kiss me?" 4. Her lips were very cold, and when she put her hand upon my cheek, and laid my head on her bosom, I felt a cold shuddering pass all through me. My father carried me from the room; but he could not speak. After they put me in bed, I lay a long while thinking; I feared my mother would, indeed, die; for her cheek felt cold, as my little sister's did when she died, and they carried her little body away where I never saw it again. But I soon fell asleep. 5. In the morning I rushed to my mother's room, with a strange dread of evil to come upon me. It was just as I feared. A white linen covered her straight, cold form. I removed it from her face: her eyes were closed, and her cheeks were hard and cold. But my mother's dear, dear smile was there, or my heart would have broken. 6. In an instant, all the little faults, for which she had so often reproved me, rushed upon my mind. I longed to tell her how good I would always be, if she would but stay with me. I longed to tell her how, in all time to come, her words would be a law to me. I would be all that she had wished me to be. 7. I was a passionate, headstrong boy; and never did this frame of temper come upon me, but I seemed to see her mild, tearful eyes full upon me, just as she used to look in life; and when I strove for the mastery over my passions, her smile seemed to cheer my heart, and I was happy. 8. My whole character underwent a change, even from the moment of her death. Her spirit seemed to be always with me, _to aid the good_ and _root out the evil_ that was in me. I felt it would grieve her gentle spirit to see me err, and I _could not_, _would not_, do so. 9. I was the child of her affection. I knew she had prayed and wept over me; and that even on the threshold of the grave, her anxiety for my welfare had caused her spirit to linger, that she might pray once more for me. I never forgot my mother's last kiss. It was with me in sorrow; it was with me in joy; it was with me in moments of evil, like a perpetual good. QUESTIONS.--1. What was the age of the person represented in this piece? 2. What, when his mother died? 3. What did he say of himself when a child? 4. Had he ever grieved his mother? 5. What did he say of his _faults_, after his mother's death? 6. What did he desire to tell her? 7. How ought you to treat your mother, in order to avoid the reproaches of your own conscience? * * * * * LESSON VI. SUR PRISE', amazement. PER' ISH ED, died. STINT' ED, small of size. STERN, severe; harsh; rigid. LOI' TER, linger; tarry. STAG' GER ED, reeled to and fro. FORD' ED, waded. ES CAP ED, fled from. THE DEAD CHILD'S FORD. MRS. E. OAKES SMITH. 1. "Dear mother, here's the _very_ place Where little John was found, The water covering up his face, His feet upon the ground. Now won't you tell me _all about_ The death of little John'? And how the woman sent him out Long after sun was down'? And tell me _all about the wrong_, And _that_ will make the story long." 2. I took the child upon my knee Beside the lake so clear; For _there_ the tale of misery Young Edward begged to hear He looked into my _very_ eyes, With sad and earnest face, And caught his breath with wild surprise, And turned to mark the place Where _perished_, years agone, the child Alone, beneath the waters wild. 3. "A weakly orphan boy was John, A barefoot, stinted child, Whose work-day task was never done, Who wept when others smiled. Around his home the trees were high, Down to the water's brink, And almost hid the pleasant sky, Where wild deer came to drink." ('') "And did they come, the pretty deer'? And did they drink the water here'?" 4. Cried Edward, with a wondering eye: "Now, mother, tell to me, Was John about as _large_ as I'? Pray tell, how _big_ was he'?" "He was an _older_ boy than _you_, And _stouter_ every way; For, water from the well he drew, And hard he worked all day. But then poor John was sharp and thin, With sun-burnt hair and sun-burnt skin. 5. "His mother used to spin and weave; From farm to farm she went; And, though it made her much to grieve, She John to service sent. He lived with one, a woman stern, Of hard and cruel ways; And he must bring her wood to burn, From forest and highways; And then, at night, on cold, hard bed, He laid his little, aching head. 6. "The weary boy had toiled all day With heavy spade and hoe; His mistress met him on the way, And bade him quickly go And bring her home some sticks of wood, For she would bake and brew; When he returned, she'd give him food; For she had much to do. And then she charged him not to stay, Nor loiter long upon the way. 7. "He went; but scarce his toil-worn feet Could crawl along the wood, He was so spent with work and heat, And faint for lack of food. He bent his aching, little back To bear the weight along, And staggered then upon the track; For John was _never_ strong; His eyesight, too, began to fail, And he grew giddy, faint, and pale. 8. "The load was small, _quite_ small, 'tis true, But John could bring no more; The woman in a rage it threw,-- She stamped upon the floor. (_f_.) 'No supper you shall have to-night; So go along to bed, You good-for-nothing, ugly fright, You little stupid-head!'" Said Edward: "_I_ would _never_ go; She wouldn't _dare_ to serve _me_ so!" 9. "The moon-beams fell upon the child As, weeping, there he lay; And gusty winds were sweeping wild Along the forest way, When up rose John, at dead of night; For he would see his mother; _She_ loved her child, although _he_ might Be _nothing_ to another. That narrow creek he forded o'er,-- 'Tis nearer than around the shore. 10. "But here the shore is rough, you see; The bank is high and steep; And John, who climbed on hands and knee, His footing could not keep. He backward fell, all, all alone; Too weak was he to rise; (_pl._) And no one heard his dying moan, Or closed his dying eyes. How still he slept! And grief and pain Could never come to him again. 11. "A stranger, passing on his way, Found him, as you have said; His feet were out upon the clay, The water o'er his head. And then his foot-prints showed the path He took, adown the creek, When he escaped the woman's wrath, So hungry, faint, and weak. And people now, as you have heard, Do call the place, THE DEAD CHILD'S FORD." QUESTIONS.--1. Was John an orphan, or half orphan? 2. Was he drowned at night, or in the daytime? 8. By whom was he found? 4. What is the place called where he was drowned? 5. Give the rule for the rising inflections, as marked in the 1st, 2d, and 4th verses. 6. Why are there no quotation marks at the beginning of the 2d verse? 7. Why are half quotations used in the 3d and 8th verses? 8. How should a part of the 8th and 10th verses be read, according to the notation marks? See page 41. * * * * * LESSON VII. EX CLAIM' ED, cried out. DE MAND' ING, asking; requiring. A MISS', wrong; improperly. AC CUS' ED, charged with. BREACH, violation. VIS' ION, sight; view. DE SCRIP' TION, account. SLUG' GARD, lazy person. LAME AND LAZY,--A FABLE. [Footnote: For an explanation of the term fable, see page 236.] 1. Two beggars, LAME and LAZY, were in want of bread. _One_ leaned on his crutch, the _other_ reclined on his couch. Lame called on Charity, and humbly asked for a _cracker_. Instead of a cracker, he received a _loaf_. 2. Lazy, seeing the gift of Charity, exclaimed: "What`! ask a _cracker_ and receive a _loaf'_? Well, I will ask a loaf." Lazy now applied to Charity, and called for a loaf of bread. "Your demanding a loaf," said Charity, "proves you a _loaf_-er. You are of that class and character who _ask_ and _receive not_; because you ask amiss." 3. Lazy, who always found fault, and had rather whine than work, complained of _ill-treatment_, and even accused Charity of a breach of an exceeding great and precious promise: "Ask, and ye shall receive." 4. Charity pointed him to a painting in her room, which presented to his vision three personages, Faith, Hope and Charity. Charity appeared larger and fairer than her sisters. He noticed that her right hand held a pot of honey, which fed a bee disabled, having lost its wings. Her left hand was armed with a whip to keep off the drones. 5. "I do not understand it," said Lazy. Charity replied: "It means that Charity _feeds_ the lame, and _flogs_ the lazy." Lazy turned to go. "Stop," said Charity, "instead of _coin_, I will give you _counsel_. Do not go and live on your poor mother; I will send you to a _rich ant_." 6. "_Rich aunt'_?" echoed Lazy. "Where shall I find her'?" "You will find a description of her," replied Charity, "in Proverbs, sixth chapter, sixth, seventh, and eighth verses, which read as follows: 'Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise; which, having no guide, overseer, or ruler, provided her meat in summer, and gathereth her food in the harvest.'" 7. MORAL. Instead of waiting and wishing for a rich UNCLE to _die_, go and see how a rich ANT _lives_. QUESTIONS.--1. Where is the quotation in the 3d paragraph to be found? Answer. John, 16th chapter, 24th verse. 2. Where, the quotation in the sixth paragraph? 3. Why does it commence with a half quotation? Answer. Because it denotes a quotation within a quotation. * * * * * LESSON VIII. HAUGH'TY, proud; disdainful. PAR TIC' U LAR LY, especially. TRANS ACT', do; perform. A BASH' ED, confused. DIS COV' ER, find out. EX AM' INE (_egz am' in_), look over; inspect. REC' TI FY, correct; make right. REC' OM PENSE, reward. DE SERVES', merits. DE CLIN' ING, failing. PRE VENT' ED, hindered. AP PRO BA' TION, approval. PRE'CEPTS, instructions; counsels. BEN E FAC' TOR, friend; one that benefits. A MASS' ED, gathered. A DAPT' ED, suited. CON FI DEN' TIAL, trusty; trusted. IN TEG' RI TY, honesty. FAITHFULNESS IN LITTLE THINGS. ELIZA A. CHASE. 1. "Is Mr. Harris in'?" inquired a plainly, but neatly dressed boy, twelve or thirteen years of age, of a clerk, as he stood by the counter of a large bookstore. The clerk regarded the boy with a haughty look, and answered: "Mr. Harris is in; but he is engaged." 2. The boy looked at the clerk hesitatingly, and then said: "If he is not particularly engaged, I would like to see him." "If you have any business to transact, _I_ can attend to it," replied the clerk. "Mr. Harris can not be troubled with boys like you." 3. "What is this, Mr. Morley?" said a pleasant-looking man, stepping up to the clerk; "what does the boy want?" "He insisted on seeing you, though I told him you were engaged," returned the clerk, a little abashed by the manner of his employer. 4. "And what do you wish to see me about, my lad?" inquired Mr. Harris, kindly. The boy raised his eyes, and, meeting the scornful glance of the clerk, said timidly: "I wish you to look at the bill of some books which I bought here, about three months since. There is a mistake in it, which I wish to correct." 5. "Ah, my boy, I see," replied Mr. Harris; "you have _overpaid_ us, I suppose!" "No, sir," answered the boy. "On the contrary, I purchased some books which are _not charged_ in the bill, and I have called to pay for them." 6. Mr. Harris looked at the boy earnestly for a moment, and then asked: "When did you discover this mistake?" "Not until I reached home," replied the lad. "When I paid for the books I was in a great hurry, fearing the boat would leave before I could reach it, and I did not examine the bill." 7. "Why did you not return before, and rectify the mistake?" asked the gentleman, in a tone slightly altered. "Because, sir, I live some distance from the city, and have not been able to return till now." 8. "My dear boy," said Mr. Harris, "you have given me great pleasure. In a long life of mercantile business, I have never met with an instance of this kind before. You have _acted nobly_ and deserve a recompense." "I ask no recompense," returned the boy. "_I have done nothing but my duty_--a simple act of justice, and that deserves no reward, but itself." 9. "May I ask who taught you such noble principles'?" inquired Mr. Harris. "My mother'," answered the boy, bursting into tears. 10. "Blessed is the child who has such a mother," said Mr. Harris, "and blessed is the mother of such a child. Be faithful to her teachings, my dear boy, and you will be the staff of her declining years." "Alas, sir," said the boy, "my mother is dead! It was her sickness and death which prevented me from coming here before." 11. "What is your name?" inquired Mr. Harris. "Edward Delong." "Have you a father living'?" "No, sir. My father died when I was an infant." 12. "Where do you reside?" "In the town of Linwood, about fifty miles from this city." "Well, my boy, what are the books which were forgotten?" "Tacitus and a Latin Dictionary." 13. "Let me see the bill. Ha! signed by A. C. Morley. I will see to that. Here, Mr. Morley!" called Mr. Harris; but the clerk was busily engaged in waiting on a customer at the opposite side of the store, bowing and smiling in the most attentive manner. 14. "Edward," continued Mr. Harris, "I am not going to _reward_ you for what you have done; but I wish to manifest my approbation of your conduct in such a manner, as to make you remember the wise and excellent precepts of your departed mother. Select from my store any ten books you choose, which, in addition to the two you had before, shall be a _present_ to you; and henceforth, as now, my boy, remember and not 'despise the day of small things.' If ever you need a friend, call on me, and I will assist you." 15. The grateful boy thanked his kind benefactor, and, with tears in his eyes, bowed and left the store. Edward Delong wished for knowledge, and, though the scanty means left him by his mother, could hardly satisfy his desire, by diligence and economy he had advanced far beyond most boys of his age. By working nights and mornings for a neighbor, he had amassed, what seemed to him, a large sum of money, and this was expended in books. 16. Edward's home was now with a man who regarded money as the chief end and aim of life, and severe and constant physical labor as the only means of obtaining that end. For two years Edward struggled with his hopeless condition, toiling early and late to obtain a livelihood. 17. Edward now resolved to go to the city, to seek some employment, better adapted to promote his education. He entered the same store where he purchased the books, and inquired for Mr. Harris. "He is engaged," replied the polite clerk. "If you will wait a moment, he will be at liberty." 18. "Did you wish to see me?" asked Mr. Harris of the boy, whose thoughts were so intense that he had not noticed the approach of his friend. "Mr. Harris!" exclaimed Edward, and it was all he could say. For the remembrance of past favors bestowed on him by his kind benefactor, so filled his heart with gratitude, that further utterance was denied. "My noble Edward!" said the old gentleman. "And so you needed a friend. Well, you shall have one." 19. Five years from that time, Edward Delong was the confidential clerk of Mr. Harris, and, in three more, a partner in the firm. The integrity of purpose, which first won the regard of his benefactor, was his guide in after life. Prosperity crowned his efforts, and happiness blessed his heart,--the never-failing result of _faithfulness in little things_. QUESTIONS.--1. Why did Edward Delong wish to see Mr. Harris? 2. Had he overpaid for the books he purchased? 3. What did he say when Mr. Harris told him he deserved a recompense? 4. What books were not charged in the bill? 5. In what way did Mr. Harris manifest his approval of Edward's conduct? 6. How long after this, before he again called on Mr. Harris? 7. Why could he not, at first, talk with Mr. Harris? 8. What did Edward finally become? * * * * * LESSON IX. GRACE' FUL LY, beautifully. PROUD' LY, splendidly. FOR' EIGN (_for' en_), distant. CLIMES, countries; regions. SYM' BOL, sign; emblem. FEAR' FUL, dreadful; terrible. CAN' NON RY, discharge of cannon. JU' BI LEE, season of public joy. WIT' NESS ED, seen; beheld. NA' TIVE, birth-giving. BOON, gift; blessing. PAR' A DISE, blissful abode. THE AMERICAN BOY. SON. Father, look up, and see that flag! How gracefully it flies! Those pretty stripes, they seem to be A rainbow in the skies. FATHER. It is your country's flag, my boy, And proudly drinks the light, O'er ocean's wave, in foreign climes, A symbol of our might. SON. Father, what fearful noise is that, Now thundering in the clouds? Why do they, cheering, wave their hat, And rush along in crowds? FATHER. It is the voice of cannonry, The glad shouts of the free; This is a day of memory, 'Tis FREEDOM'S JUBILEE! SON. I wish that _I_ was now a man, _I'd free my country_ too, And cheer as loudly as the rest; But, father, why don't _you_? FATHER. I'm getting old and weak; but still My heart is big with joy; I've witnessed many a day like this, Shout you aloud, my boy! SON. (oo) HURRAH, FOR FREEDOM'S JUBILEE, God bless our native land! And may _I_ live to hold the boon Of _freedom_ in my hand. FATHER. Well done, my boy, grow up, and love The land that gave you birth,-- A land where Freedom loves to dwell,-- A paradise on earth. QUESTIONS.--1. Of what is our flag a symbol? 2. What is meant by _Freedom's jubilee_? 3. What is the use of the apostrophes in the words _I'd_, _I'm_, _I've_, &c. * * * * * LESSON X. BIL' LOWS, waves; surges. DE LIGHT', joy; pleasure. DOOM, fate; end. TWINK' LES, sparkles. GLARE, bright, dazzling light. EX PANSE', surface; extent. SWEEP, pass or drive over. RIFE, filled; abounding. VOY' AGE, passage; journey. AN' CHOR ED, moored; fixed. HA' VEN, harbor. PEACE' FUL LY, quietly; calmly. THE SAILOR BOY'S SONG. WRITTEN BY A GIRL THIRTEEN YEARS OF AGE. 1. (_''_) Oh! the sea, the sea Is the place for me, With its billows blue and bright; I love its roar, As it breaks on the shore, And its danger to me is delight. 2. Oh! I love the wave, And the sailor brave, Who often meets his doom On the ocean vast, And sleeps his last In a shell and coral tomb. 3. And, in the night, The moon's soft light Smiles sweetly on the foamy billow: And many a star, As it twinkles afar, Seems to rise from a watery pillow. 4. In the noontide glare, Oh! bright and fair Is the wide expanse of ocean; In the morn's first light 'Tis a glorious sight, So full of life and motion. 5. When the tempests sweep The rolling deep, And the angry billows swell, I mind not the strife, Which to me is rife With thoughts that I can not tell. 6. When life's voyage is o'er, And I sail no more On the ocean's troubled breast, Safe anchored above, In the haven of love, May the sailor boy peacefully rest. QUESTIONS.--1. What is meant by _coral tomb_, 2d verse? 2. What, by _watery pillow_, third verse. * * * * * LESSON XI. FOUN DA' TION, commencement. DO MES' TI CA TED, tamed. FA' VOR ITE, one specially favored. CA RESS' ED, fondled; petted. GAM' BOL ING, skipping; frolicking. IM' PULSE, feeling of excitement. DI LAT' ED, distended. SPEC TA' TORS, observers; lookers on. EN DEAV' OR ED, tried; attempted. ANX' IOUS, very desirous. IN TER CEPT', (INTER, _between_; CEPT, _to take_ or _seize_;) to stop on the way. BE TRAY' ED, showed; disclosed. RE STRAIN' ED, held back; checked. COW' ED, depressed with fear. EN GRAV' ED, cut; inscribed. In this lesson every pause is marked with its appropriate inflection. CHASE OF THE PET FAWN. MISS COOPER. 1. Within twenty years from the foundation of our village', [Footnote: Cooperstown, New York.] the deer had already become scarce', and', in a brief period later', they had almost entirely fled from the country`. One of the last of these beautiful creatures, a pretty little fawn, had been brought in from the woods, when it was very young, and had been nursed and petted by a young lady in the village, until it became completely domesticated. 2. It was graceful, as those little creatures always are, and so gentle and playful that it became a great favorite. Following the different members of the family about, it was caressed and welcomed everywhere. One morning, after gamboling about as usual, until weary, it threw itself down in the sunshine, at the feet of one of its friends, upon the door-step of a store. 3. There came along a countryman, who, for several years, had been a hunter by pursuit, and who still kept several hounds, one of which came to the village with him, on this occasion. The dog, as it approached the place where the fawn lay, suddenly stopped; the little animal saw him, and darted to its feet. 4. It had lived more than half its life among the villagers, and had apparently lost all fear of them; but it now seemed to know instinctively that an enemy was at hand. In an instant, its whole character and appearance seemed changed; all its past habits were forgotten; every wild impulse was awake; its head erect, its nostrils dilated, its eyes flashing. 5. In another instant, before the spectators had thought of the danger, and before its friends could secure it, the fawn was leaping wildly through the street, and the hound in full chase. The by-standers were eager to save it; several persons instantly followed its track; the friends who had long fed and fondled it, were calling the name it had hitherto known; but, in vain. 6. The hunter endeavored to call back his dog; but, with no better success. In half a minute, the fawn had turned the first corner, dashed onward toward the lake, and thrown itself into the water. But, if, for a moment, the startled creature believed itself safe in the lake, it was soon undeceived; for the hound followed in hot and eager chase, while a dozen village dogs joined in the pursuit. 7. A large crowd collected on the bank--men, women, and children,--anxious for the fate of the little animal. Some threw themselves into boats, hoping to intercept the hound before he reached his prey. But the splashing of the oars, the voices of men and boys, and the barking of the dogs, must have filled the beating heart of the poor fawn with terror and anguish; as if every creature on the spot where it had once been caressed and fondled, had suddenly turned into a deadly foe. 8. It was soon seen that the fawn was directing its course across a bay, toward the nearest borders of the forest. Immediately the owner of the hound crossed the bridge, ran at full speed in the same direction, hoping to stop his dog as he landed. On swam the fawn, as it had never swam before; its delicate head scarcely seen above the water, but leaving a disturbed track which betrayed its course alike to anxious friends and fierce enemies. 9. As it approached the land, the interest became intense. The hunter was already on the same side of the lake, calling loudly and angrily to his dog; but the animal seemed to have quite forgotten his master's voice in the pitiless pursuit. The fawn touched the land; in one leap, it had crossed the narrow piece of beach, and, in another instant, it would reach the cover of the woods. 10. The hound followed true to the scent, aiming at the same spot on the shore. His master, anxious to meet him, had run at full speed, and was now coming up at the same critical moment. Would the dog listen to his voice? Could the hunter reach him in time to seize and control him? A shout from the spectators proclaimed that the fawn had passed out of sight into the forest. At the same instant, the hound, as he touched the land, felt the hunter's strong arm clutching his neck. 11. The worst was believed to be over; the fawn was leaping up the mountain-side, and its enemy restrained. The other dogs, seeing their leader cowed, were easily managed. A number of men and boys dispersed themselves through the wood in search of the little creature; but, without success. They all returned to the village, reporting that the animal had not been seen by them. Some persons thought that, after its fright had passed over, it would return of its own accord. 12. It wore a pretty collar with its owner's name engraved upon it, so that it could be easily known from any other fawn, that might be straying about the woods. Before many hours had passed, a hunter presented himself before the lady, whose pet the little creature had been, and showed a collar with her name upon it. He said that he was out hunting in the morning, and saw a fawn in the distance. The little creature, instead of bounding away as he expected, moved toward him. He took aim, fired, and shot it to the heart. 13. When he found the collar about its neck, he was very sorry he had killed it. One would have thought that that terrible chase would have made it afraid of man; but no; _it forgot the evil_, and _remembered the kindness only_; and came to meet, as a friend, the hunter who shot it. It was long mourned by its best friend. QUESTIONS.--1. Where did the lady reside who kept this pet fawn? 2. Is there a lake near that village? 3. What river rises in that lake? 4. Describe the chase of the pet fawn. 5. How came it to be shot? 6. What did it forget, and what remember? * * * * * LESSON XII. IN' FLU ENCE, moral power. DROOP' ED. bent over; languished. TING' ED, stained; colored. DEL' I CATE, soft; tender. TRIB' UTE, pay; requital. CASE' MENT, window. PERCH' ED, alighted. PLAINT' IVE, sorrowful. AF FRIGHT' ED, alarmed. TIM' ID, fearful; timorous. RE STRAIN' ED, held back. AT TEST', bear witness. SUA' SION, act of persuading. COM PLI' ANCE, submission. PAL' ED, inclosed. DE BAS' ED, degraded. DE' VI ATE, wander; stray. LE' NI ENT, mild; merciful. KINDNESS. KATE CLARENCE. 1. Not _man_ alone, but _every thing_ in nature, owns its influence. I knew a little flower that sprang up amidst the weeds and brambles of a long-neglected garden; but soon drooped its slender stem, and its leaves grew tinged from the waste around. 2. I took it to my home, supported its drooping stem, and placed it where the warm sunshine and refreshing showers cheered its little life. Again it raised its beautiful head, and its delicate buds burst forth in gladness; and when the winds of autumn came, the dying flower gave up to me its golden seeds--a thankful tribute for my love. 'Twas a little thing, but _kindness_ did the deed. 3. There came to my casement, one winter's morning, a shivering, starving bird, and perched itself there, striving to tell its tale of suffering; but feeble were its plaintive notes, and its glossy breast was ruffled in the blast. I raised the window. Affrighted, the little wanderer spread its wings, as if to soar away; but, weak and faint, it sank fluttering in my outstretched hands. I drew it in. Alarmed, it darted round and round the room, and beat against the frosted pane. _O Cruelty! thou hast taught even the little birds to doubt!_ 4. When the little stranger grew less timid, I gave it clear water, and tempting food, and so, for many weeks, we dwelt together; but when came the first warm, sunny day, I opened my doors, and it flew away,--_away up, up_ into the dark-blue heavens, till it was lost to my eager gaze. 5. But not an hour had passed, ere I heard the flutter of its tiny wings, and saw, without, its little breast glittering in the golden sunbeams. It had a joyous life. No wired cage restrained its restless wing; but, free as the summer cloud, would it come each day, and gladly would my delighted soul drink in the silvery notes of its gladdening melody. 6. And it is not _birds_ and _flowers_ alone, that, treated with kindness flourish so brightly 'neath its heaven-born rays. Individuals, families, nations, attest its truth. _Legal suasion_ may frighten to compliance, but _moral suasion_ rules the will. 7. To the erring wanderer, in the by and forbidden paths of sin, with a heart paled in darkness, and lost to every better feeling of his nature, one little word, one little act of kindness, however slight, will find a sunny resting-place in that sinful shade, and prove a light to guide the wayward one to holier and better deeds. The lion licked the hand that drew the thorn from his wounded foot; and Powhatan stayed the descending club, when the burning lips of the Indian girl pressed the prisoner's [Footnote: Captain Smith] pallid brow. 8. And it is _ever_ thus. There beats not a heart, however debased by sin, or darkened by sorrow, that has not its noblest impulses aroused, in view of a _generous and kindly action_. The Holy Father implanted His own pure principles in the breast of _every one_, and widely do we deviate from their just dictates, when an unkind word, or an unkind act, wounds a broken heart, or crushes a loving, gentle nature. 9. "_Speak not harshly_,--much of care Every human heart must bear; Enough of shadows rudely play Around the very sunniest way; Enough of sorrows darkly lie Vailed within the merriest eye. By thy childhood's gushing tears, By thy grief in after years, By the anguish thou dost know, _Add not to another's woe._ 10. "_Speak not harshly_,--much of sin Dwelleth every heart within; In its closely caverned cells, Many a wayward passion dwells. By the many hours misspent, By the gifts to error lent, By the wrongs thou didst not shun, By the good thou hast not done, With a lenient spirit scan The weakness of thy brother man." QUESTIONS.--1. On what has kindness an influence? 2. What influence had it upon the little flower? 3. What, upon the little bird? 4. What is said of cruelty? 5. What is said of legal and moral suasion? 6. What is said of the lion? 7. Of Powhatan? 8. Why ought we not to speak harshly? * * * * * LESSON XIII. SHAFT, arrow; _here_, careless word. MES' SEN GERS, message-bearers. PANG, distress; anguish. SPELLS, charms; enchantments. SEAL' ED, closed up; under seal. SEP' UL CHER, (_ch_ like _k_), grave; tomb. SUM' MON ED, called. AG' O NY, extreme suffering. WRING, writhe. UN A WARES, unconsciously. MIN' GLES, unites; mixes. EN DEAR' ING, kind; affectionate. E CLIPSE', darkness; obscuration. CHER' ISH ED, fostered. EN SHRIN' ED, sacredly preserved. UT' TER ED, expressed. CARELESS WORDS. 1. Oh, never say a careless Word Hath not the power to pain; The shaft may ope some hidden wound, That closes not again! Weigh _well_ those light-winged messengers; God marked your heedless Word, And with it, too, the falling tear, The heart-pang that it stirred. 2. Words! what are Words? A simple Word Hath spells to call the tears, That long have lain a sealed fount, Unclosed through mournful years. Back from the unseen sepulcher, A Word hath summoned forth A form that hath its place no more Among the things of Earth, 3. Words! heed them well; some whispered one Hath yet a power to fling A shadow on the brow, the soul In agony to wring; A name, forbidden, or forgot, That sometimes, unawares, Murmurs upon our wak'ning lips, And mingles in our prayers. 4. Oh, Words! sweet Words! A blessing comes Softly from kindly lips; Tender, endearing tones, that break The Spirit's drear eclipse. Oh! are there not some cherished tones In the deep heart enshrined? Uttered but once--they passed--and left A track of light behind. QUESTIONS.--1. What is said of _careless words_? 2. What, of _sweet words_? 3. What is the use of the apostrophe in _wak'ning_, third verse? 4. What is the meaning of the suffix _less_, in the words _careless, heedless_? See SANDERS' NEW SPELLER, DEFINER, AND ANALYZER, page 143, Ex. 369. * * * * * LESSON XIV. VEG' E TA BLES, plants. DEP RE DA' TION, robbery; plunder. CAP TUR' ING, catching. TRES' PASS ER, transgressor. AP PEAL' ED, referred. COUN' SEL, lawyer; advocate. AR' GU MENT, plea; reason. URG' ING, enforcing; advocating. MIS' CHIEV OUS, hurtful; injurious. PRAC' TI CAL, pertaining to practice. DIS TIN' GUISH ED, celebrated. JU' RIST, one versed in law. AF FECT' ED, moved; impressed. FUR' NISH ED, supplied. VI' O LA TED, broken; transgressed. DE PRIVE', rob; hinder. AL LUD' ED, referred; adverted. RE STORE', give back. WEBSTER AND THE WOODCHUCK. BOSTON TRAVELER. 1. Ebenezer Webster, the father of Daniel, was a farmer. The vegetables in his garden had suffered considerably from the depredations of a woodchuck, which had his hole or habitation near the premises. Daniel, some ten or twelve years old, and his older brother Ezekiel, had set a trap, and finally succeeded in capturing the trespasser. 2. Ezekiel proposed to kill the animal, and end, at once, all further trouble from him; but Daniel looked with compassion upon his meek, dumb captive, and offered to let him again go free. The boys could not agree, and they appealed to their father to decide the case. 3. "Well, my boys," said the old gentleman, "_I_ will be the _judge_. There is the _prisoner_, (pointing to the wood-chuck,) and _you_ shall be the _counsel_, and plead the case _for_ and _against_ his life and liberty." 4. Ezekiel opened the case with a strong argument, urging the mischievous nature of the criminal, the great harm he had already done; said that much time and labor had been spent in his capture, and now, if he were suffered to live and go again at large, he would renew his depredations, and be cunning enough not to suffer himself to be caught again. 5. He urged, further, that his skin was of some value, and that, to make the most of him they could, it would not repay half the damage he had already done. His argument was ready, practical, to the point, and of much greater length than our limits will allow us to occupy in relating the story. 6. The father looked with pride upon his son, who became a distinguished jurist in his manhood. "Now, Daniel, it is _your_ turn: I'll hear what _you_ have to say." 7. It was his first case. Daniel saw that the plea of his brother had sensibly affected his father, the judge; and as his large, brilliant, black eyes looked upon the soft, timid, expression of the animal, and he saw it tremble with fear in its narrow prison-house, his heart swelled with pity, and he urged, with eloquent words, that the captive might again go free. 8. "God," he said, "had made the woodchuck; he made him to live, to enjoy the bright sunlight, the pure air, the free fields and woods. God had not made him, or _any_ thing, in vain; the woodchuck had as much right to life as any _other_ living thing." 9. "He was not a destructive animal, as the wolf and the fox were; he simply ate a few common vegetables, of which they had plenty, and could well spare a part; he destroyed nothing except the little food he needed to sustain his humble life; and that little food was as sweet to him, and as necessary to his existence, as was to them the food upon their mother's table." 10. "God furnished to them food; he gave them all they possessed; and would they not spare a little for the dumb creature, that really had as much right to his small share of God's bounty, as they themselves had to their portion?" 11. "Yea, more, the animal had never violated the laws of his nature or the laws of God, as man often did; but strictly followed the simple, harmless instincts he had received from the hand of the Creator of all things. Created by God's hand, he had a right--a right from God--to life, to food, to liberty; and they had no right to deprive him of either." 12. He alluded to the mute, but earnest pleadings of the animal for that life, as sweet, as dear to him, as their own was to them, and the just judgment they might expect, if, in selfish cruelty and cold heartlessness, they took the life they could not restore--the life that God alone had given. 13. During this appeal, the tears had started to the old man's eyes, and were fast running down his sun-burnt cheeks; every feeling of a father's heart was stirred within him; he saw the future greatness of his son before his eyes, he felt that God had blessed him in his children, beyond the lot of most men. 14. His pity and sympathy were awakened by the eloquent words of compassion, and the strong appeal for mercy; and, forgetting the judge in the man and father, he sprang from his chair, (while Daniel was in the midst of his argument, without thinking he had already won his case,) and, turning to his older son, dashing the tears from his eyes, exclaimed, "_Ezekiel, Ezekiel, you let that woodchuck go!_" QUESTIONS.--1. What did Ezekiel propose to do with the woodchuck after he was caught? 2. What argument did he offer for so doing? 3. What did Daniel wish to do with him? 4. What argument did he offer? 4. What was their father's decision? * * * * * LESSON XV. SOLVE, explain; work out. PROB' LEM, question for solution. COM PELL' ED, obliged. IN' DO LENT, idle; lazy. DINT, force; means. CON' SCIOUS, self-perceived; felt. DEM ON STRA' TION, formal proof. RE CLIN' ING, leaning back. PON' DERS, weighs; examines. PROC' ESS, operation. DO IT YOURSELF. 1. Do not ask the teacher or some classmate to solve that hard problem. DO IT YOURSELF. You might as well let him eat your dinner as "do your sums" for you. It is in studying as in eating; _he who does it_, gets the benefit, and not _he who sees it done_. In almost any school, the teacher learns more than the best scholars, simply because he is compelled to solve all the difficult problems, and answer all the questions of the indolent pupils. 2. Do not ask your teacher to parse that difficult word, or assist you in the performance of any of your studies. DO IT YOURSELF. Never mind, though they _do_ look dark. Do not ask even a hint from any one. TRY AGAIN. Every trial increases your ability, and you will finally succeed by dint of the very wisdom and strength gained in the effort, even though, at first, the problem was beyond your skill. It is the _study_, and not the _answer_, that really rewards your labor. 3. Look at that boy, who has just succeeded after six hours of hard study. How his large eye is lit up with a proud joy, as he marches to his class! He treads like a conqueror! And well he may. Last night his lamp burned, and this morning he waked at dawn. Once or twice he nearly gave it up. He had tried his last thought; but a new thought strikes him, and he ponders the last process. He tries once more, and succeeds; and now mark the air of conscious strength with which he pronounces his demonstration. 4. His poor, weak schoolmate, who gave up that same problem, after his first trial, now looks up to him with something of a wonder, as a superior being. And he _is_ his superior. That problem lies there, a great gulf between those boys who stood side by side yesterday. 5. The boy who _did it for himself_, has taken a stride upward, and what is better still, _has gained strength_ to take other and better ones. The boy who waited to see _others do it_, has lost both strength and courage, and is already looking for some good excuse to give up school and study forever. 6. DO IT YOURSELF. Remember the counsel given to the artist, who lay reclining upon his couch, and wondering what the fates would work out for him. Directing his attention to a block of unhewn marble, with a chisel lying by its side, the sculptor in the vision is represented as thus addressing him: "Sir, "There's the marble, there's the chisel, Take it, work it to thy will; _Thou alone_ must shape thy future, Heaven send thee strength and skill!" QUESTIONS.--1. Who is benefited in studying? 2. What really rewards the labor of study? 3. What is said of the boy who succeeded after six hours of hard study? 4. What, of the boy who gave up, after the first trial? 5. What counsel was given to the artist who wondered what the fates would work out for him? How are the words to be read, which are printed in Italics and in capitals? See page 22, Note III. * * * * * LESSON XVI. SLACK' EN, relax; lessen. EN DEAV' OR, effort; exertion. WHOLE' SOME, useful; salutary. EX CEL', surpass; outdo. OUT STRIP' PED, outrun; excelled. SUR PASS' ED, excelled. VIC' TO RY, conquest; triumph. UT' TER MOST, very best. DAR' ING, courage; bravery. DE FECT', fault; deficiency. REPIN'ING, fretting; complaining. UN A VAIL' ING, vain; useless. COR RECT', amend; make right. MAX' IM, proverb; saying. BETTER LATE THAN NEVER. 1. _Life is a race_, where some succeed, While others are beginning; 'Tis luck, at times, at others, speed, That gives an early winning. But, if you chance to fall behind, Ne'er slacken your endeavor; Just keep this wholesome truth in mind: _'Tis better late than never!_ 2. If you can keep ahead, 'tis well; But never trip your neighbor; 'Tis noble when you can excel By honest, patient labor. But, if you are outstripped, at last, Press on, as bold as ever; Remember, though you are surpassed, _'Tis better late than never!_ 3. Ne'er labor for an idle boast Of victory o'er another; But, while you strive your uttermost, Deal fairly with a brother. Whate'er your station, do your best, And, hold your purpose ever; And, if you fail to beat the rest, _'Tis better late than never!_ 4. Choose well the path in which you run,-- Succeed by noble daring; Then, though the last, when once 'tis won, Your crown is worth the wearing. Then never fret, if left behind, Nor slacken your endeavor; But ever keep this truth in mind: _'Tis better late than never!_ 5. Yet, would you cure this sad defect, Repining's unavailing; Begin, _at once_, and _now_ correct This very common failing. _This day_ resolve,--_this very hour,_ Nor e'en a moment wait; Go, make this better maxim yours,-- _'Tis better never late!_ QUESTIONS.--1. To what is life compared, first verse? 2. What advice is given _if you chance to fall behind?_ 3. How ought you to treat your competitors? 4. What is a very common failing? 5. How may it be corrected? 6. What is the use of the apostrophe in the word _repining's_, fifth verse? * * * * * LESSON XVII. A DOPT' ED, taken as one's own. PIL' LAR ED, supported by pillars. TWI' LIGHT, faint light after sunset and before sunrise. THYME, (_time_,) fragrant plant. VINE' YARD, plantation of grapevines. DYE, hue; color. SPARK' LING, emitting bubbles. THE ADOPTED CHILD. MISS. HEMANS. LADY. Why wouldst thou leave me, O gentle child? _Thy home_ on the mountains is bleak and wild, A straw-roofed cabin with lowly wall; _Mine_ is a fair and a pillared hall, Where many an image of marble gleams, And the sunshine of picture forever streams. BOY. Oh, green is the turf where my brothers play, Through the long, bright hours of the summer-day; They find the red cup-moss where they climb, And they chase the bee o'er the scented thyme; And the rocks where the heath-flower blooms they know, Lady, kind lady! oh, let me go! LADY. Content thee, boy, in my bower to dwell; Here are sweet sounds which thou lovest well,-- Flutes on the air in the stilly noon, Harps which the wandering breezes tune, And the silvery wood-note of many a bird Whose voice was ne'er in thy mountains heard. BOY. My mother sings, at the twilight's fall, A song of the hills, far more sweet than all; She sings it under our own green tree, To the babe half-slumbering on her knee; I dreamed, last night, of that music low,-- Lady, kind lady! oh, let me go! LADY. (_pl._) Thy mother hath gone from her cares to rest; She hath taken the babe on her quiet breast; Thou wouldst meet her footstep, my boy, no more, Nor hear her song at the cabin-door: Come thou with me to the vineyards nigh, And we'll pluck the grapes of the richest dye. BOY. Is my mother gone from her home away?-- But I know that my brothers are there at play, I know they are gathering the fox-glove's bell, Or the long fern leaves by the sparkling well; Or they launch their boats where the bright streams flow, Lady, kind lady! oh, let me go! LADY. Fair child, thy brothers are wanderers now, They sport no more on the mountain's brow; They have left the fern by the spring's green side, And the streams where the fairy barks were tried: Be thou at peace in thy brighter lot, For thy cabin-home is a lonely spot. BOY. Are they gone, all gone from the sunny hill? But the bird and the blue-fly rove o'er it still, And the red deer bound in their gladness free, And the heath is bent by the singing bee, And the waters leap, and the fresh winds blow,-- Lady, kind lady! oh, let me go! QUESTIONS.--1. What kind of words are _straw-roofed, heath-flower, wood-note,_ &c.? 2. What is the use of the apostrophes in the words _o'er, ne'er, twilight's_, &c.? * * * * * LESSON XVIII. AP PAR' ENT LY, evidently. CEN' TU RY, hundred years. GI GAN' TIC, very large. SPE' CIES, sort; kind. DI MEN' SION, size; bulk. SUB LIME', grand; magnificent. UN MO LEST' ED, free from disturbance. DIS PERS' ED, separated; scattered. CLAM' OR OUS, noisy; importunate. IN DE CIS' ION, doubt; irresolution. POIS' ED, balanced. AT' MOS PHERE, surrounding air. TAL' ONS, claws. DIS TRI BU' TION, division. EC' STA SY, excessive joy; transport. PER' SE CUT ED, harassed; injured. THE OLD EAGLE TREE. REV. JOHN TODD. 1. In a remote field stood a large tulip tree, apparently of a century's growth, and one of the most gigantic of that splendid species. It looked like the father of the surrounding forest. A single tree, of huge dimensions, standing all alone, is a sublime object. 2. On the top of this tree, an old eagle, commonly called the "Fishing Eagle," had built her nest every year, for many years, and, unmolested, raised her young. What is remarkable, as she procured her food from the ocean, this tree stood full ten miles from the sea-shore. It had long been known as the "Old Eagle tree." 3. On a warm, sunny day, the workmen were hoeing corn in an adjoining field. At a certain hour of the day, the old eagle was known to set off for the sea-side, to gather food for her young. As she this day returned with a large fish in her claws, the workmen surrounded the tree, and, by yelling, and hooting, and throwing stones, so scared the poor bird that she dropped her fish, and they carried it off in triumph. 4. The men soon dispersed; but Joseph sat down under a bush near by, to watch, and to bestow unavailing pity. The bird soon returned to her nest without food. The eaglets at once set up a cry for food, so shrill, so clear, and so clamorous, that the boy was greatly moved. 5. The parent bird seemed to try to soothe them; but their appetites were too keen, and it was all in vain. She then perched herself on a limb near them, and looked down into the nest with a look that seemed to say, "I know not what to do next." 6. Her indecision was but momentary; again she poised herself, uttered one or two sharp notes, as if telling them to "lie still," balanced her body, spread her wings, and was away again for the sea! 7. Joseph was determined to see the result. His eyes followed her till she grew small, smaller,--a mere speck in the sky,--and then disappeared. What boy has not often watched the flight of the bird of his country in this way? 8. She was gone nearly two hours, about double her usual time for a voyage, when she again returned, on a slow, weary wing, flying uncommonly low, in order to have a heavier atmosphere to sustain her, with another fish in her talons. 9. On nearing the field, she made a circuit around it, to see if her enemies were again there. Finding the coast clear, she once more reached her tree, drooping, faint, and weary, and evidently nearly exhausted. Again the eaglets set up their cry, which was soon hushed by the distribution of a dinner, such as--save the cooking--a king might admire. 10. "GLORIOUS BIRD!" cried the boy in ecstacy, and aloud; "what a spirit! Other birds can fly swifter, others can sing more sweetly, others can scream more loudly; but what _other bird_, when persecuted and robbed--when weary--when discouraged--when so far from sea,--would have done this! 11. "GLORIOUS BIRD! I will learn a lesson from thee to-day. I will never forget hereafter, that when the spirit is determined, it can do almost anything. Others would have drooped and hung the head, and mourned over the cruelty of man, and sighed over the wants of the nestlings; but _thou,_ by at once recovering the loss, hast forgotten all. 12. "I will learn of thee, _noble bird!_ I will remember this. I will set my mark high. I will try to do something, and to be something in the world; _I will never yield to discouragements."_ QUESTIONS.--1. How far was this Old Eagle tree from the seashore? 2. In what way did the workmen obtain the fish she brought for her young? 3. What is said of the eaglets and the parent bird, when she returned to the nest? 4. What did she then do? 5. What did Joseph say when she returned with another fish? * * * * * LESSON XIX. AUC' TION, vendue; public sale. HOME' LESS, (LESS, _without or destitute of,_) without home. PEN' NI LESS, destitute of pennies. WASTE' LESS, without waste. UN LIGHT' ED, (UN, _not_,) not lighted. SELF' ISH NESS, devoted to one's self. RE VERSE' (RE, _back_ or _again_; VERSE, _turn_), turn back, or exchange places. AC QUIRE', gain; obtain. IL LUS TRA' TION, explanation. SOL' I TA RY, single. DIS PEL', drive away; disperse. BE NIGHT' ED, unenlightened. THE LIGHT OF KNOWLEDGE. ELIHU BURRITT. 1. Knowledge can not be stolen from you. It can not be bought or sold. You may be _poor_, and the sheriff come into your house, and sell your furniture at auction, or drive away your cow, or take your lamb, and leave you homeless and penniless; but he can not lay the law's hand upon the _jewelry of your mind_. This can not be taken for debt; neither can you _give it away_, though you give enough of it to fill a million minds. 2. I will tell you what such giving is like. Suppose, now, that there were no sun nor stars in the heavens, nor any thing that shone in the black brow of night; and suppose that a lighted lamp were put into your hand, which should burn wasteless and clear amid all the tempests that should brood upon this lower world. 3. Suppose next, that there were a thousand millions of human beings on the earth with you, each holding in his hand an unlighted lamp, filled with the same oil as yours, and capable of giving as much light. Suppose these millions should come, one by one, to you, and light each his lamp by yours, would they rob you of any light? Would less of it shine on your own path? Would your lamp burn more dimly for lighting a thousand millions? 4. Thus it is, young friends. In getting rich in the things which perish with the using, men have often obeyed to the letter that first commandment of selfishness: _"Keep what you can get, and get what you can."_ In filling your minds with the wealth of knowledge, you must reverse this rule, and obey this law: _"Keep what you give, and give what you can."_ 5. The fountain of knowledge is filled by its _outlets,_ not by its inlets. You can _learn_ nothing which you do not _teach;_ you can acquire nothing of intellectual wealth, except by _giving._ In the illustration of the lamps, which I have given you, was not the light of the thousands of millions which were lighted at yours, as much your light, as if it all came from your solitary lamp? Did you not dispel darkness by giving away light? 6. Remember this parable, and, whenever you fall in with an unlighted mind in your walk of life, drop a kind and glowing thought upon it from yours, and set it a-burning in the world with a light that shall shine in some dark place to beam on the benighted. QUESTIONS.--1. What is said of knowledge? 2. What is the giving of knowledge like? 3. In getting rich, what precept have men obeyed? 4. What precept must be obeyed in getting knowledge? 5. How is knowledge best acquired? 6. What is meant by the _jewelry of the mind,_ first paragraph? 7. What, by _intellectual wealth,_ fifth paragraph? * * * * * LESSON XX. EX TIN' GUISH ED, put out. SOL' EMN, grave; serious. GAR' RI SON, fortress furnished with soldiers, for defense. SEN' TI NEL, soldier on guard. CAR A VAN, company of traveling traders or pilgrims. CON STEL LA' TIONS, clusters of fixed stars. BRILL' IANT, shining; sparkling. HOST, great multitude. EX' TRA, additional. CRES' CENT, form of the new moon. HAIL' ED, saluted. EF FUL' GENCE, splendor. RE' GEN CY, rule; government. WAN' ING, decreasing. SUP PLI CA TION, prayer; petition. RAPT' URE, great joy; transport. [Headnote 1: PAL' ES TINE includes that part of Turkey in Asia, lying on the eastern borders of the Mediterranean Sea.] NIGHT'S LESSONS. L.H. SIGOURNEY. 1. The lessons of our school are over. The lights in the distant windows are extinguished, one after the other. The village will soon be lost in slumber. When all the men and the women are asleep, must we keep awake to learn lessons? 2. In large cities, there may be heard, now and then, the rushing wheel of the traveler. The watchmen pace their round, and cry, _"All is well."_ In the long, cold nights of Norway, the watchmen who guard the capitol, pronounce, in a solemn tone, "God bless our good city of Bergen!" 3. In the garrison, or the endangered fortress, the armed sentinel keeps watch, lest they should be surprised by the foe. But in this peaceful village there is no need of either sentinel or watchman. Why may we not go to sleep, instead of learning Night's lessons? 4. My son, one of these you may learn in a moment. Did you say that all will soon be sleeping? No! there is one Eye that never slumbers. He who made all the people, keepeth watch above the everlasting hills. Commit yourself to His care. 5. Now, will you learn with me the second lesson of the night? Lift your eyes to yon glorious canopy. Seest thou not there a sentinel, set by the Eternal, at the northern gate of heaven,--the pole-star? 6. The pole-star! Blessings are breathed upon it, by the weary caravan, fearing the poisonous wind of the desert,--by the red forest-children, seeking their home beyond the far Western prairies,--and by the lonely mariner, upon the pathless ocean. 7. The stars! See them! The oil in their lamps never burns out. These glorious constellations wheel their mighty course unchanged, while "man dieth and wasteth away, yea, man giveth up the ghost, and where is he?" [Footnote: Job, 14th chap., 10th verse.] 8. Yon brilliant orbs maintain their places, while countless generations pass away, and nations disappear and are forgotten. Let us bow in humility before "Him who bringeth out their host by number, who calleth them all by names, by the greatness of His might, for that He is strong in power; not one faileth." [Footnote: Isaiah. 40th chap., 26th verse.] 9. Thirteen times in the year, Night, the teacher, gives extra lessons. Will you be there to learn them? First, she hangs up a pale crescent in the west. The ancient Jews hailed its infant beam, and answering fires of joy were kindled on the hills of Palestine.[Headnote 1] 10. Next, she summons forth a rounded orb, clad in full effulgence, and commits to it the regency when the sun retires. Lastly, a slender, waning crescent appears nightly, like an aged man, ready to descend into the night of the tomb. 11. "Soon as the evening shades prevail, The moon takes up the wondrous tale, And nightly to the listening earth, Repeats the story of her birth; While all the stars that round her burn, And all the planets in their turn, Confirm the tidings as they roll, And spread the truth from pole to pole." 12. These are some of Night's lessons. Are you tired of them? Or, will you learn one more? Lift up your heart to Him who has given you the past day, with thanks for its blessings,--with penitence for its faults,--with supplication for strength and wisdom for the time that is to come. 13. "Day unto day uttereth speech, and night unto night showeth knowledge" [Footnote: Psalm 19th, 2nd verse.] of God. Thus, meekly and faithfully studying Night's lessons, may we find "Even sorrow, touched by Heaven, grows bright With more than rapture's ray, As darkness shows us worlds of light, We never saw by day." QUESTIONS.--1. Who watches over us when asleep? 2. In what way is the pole-star useful to man? 3. What is said of the stars? 4. What extra lessons is it that night gives thirteen times a year? 5. Describe the first appearance of the moon. 6. How does it next appear? 7. Where is Palestine? 8. Where are the passages to be found, quoted in the 7th, 8th, and 13th paragraphs? 9. Do you know who is the author of the 11th verse? Ans. Addison. * * * * * LESSON XXI. HID' DEN, secret; concealed. QUAIL, sink; droop. SCORN' ING, disdaining. GREET' ING, salutation. VIEW' LESS, not to be seen. YEARN' ETH, longeth. CHANT, sing; carol. PORT' AL, entrance; gate-way. CHEER' Y, gay; lively. E TER' NI TY, endless duration. NATURE'S TEACHINGS. CHAMBERS' JOURNAL. FIRST VOICE. 1. Sunlight! tell the hidden meaning Of the rays thou lettest fall; Are they lessons writ in burning, Like God's warning on the wall? SECOND VOICE. Strive, O man, to let a loving Spirit cheer the sad and poor; So shall many a fair hope blossom, Where none grew before! FIRST VOICE. 2. Stars! what is it ye would whisper, With your pure and holy light? Looking down so calm and tender From the watch-tower of the night. SECOND VOICE. When thy soul would quail from scorning, Keep a brave heart and a bold; As we always shine the brightest When the nights are cold. FIRST VOICE. 3. Hast thou not a greeting for me, Heaven's own happy minstrel-bird'? Thou whose voice, like some sweet angel's, Viewless, in the cloud is heard'? SECOND VOICE. Though thy spirit yearneth sky-ward, Oh, forget not human worth! I, who chant at heaven's portal, Build my nest on earth. FIRST VOICE. 4. River! river'! singing gayly From the hill-side all day long, Teach my heart the merry music Of thy cheery, rippling song. SECOND VOICE. Many winding ways I follow; Yet, at length, I reach the sea. Man, remember that _thy_ ocean Is ETERNITY! QUESTIONS.--1. What is meant by _God's warning on the wall?_ See the 5th chap. of Daniel. 2. What is meant by _minstrel-bird?_ Ans. The lark. * * * * * LESSON XXII. GLARE, dazzling light. BLITHE' LY, gayly; joyfully. WROUGHT, worked; labored. RE MORSE', painful regret. WANE, decrease; grow less. FAN' CIES, whims; notions. A NON._'_ is an abbreviation of _anonymous_, which means _without name; nameless_. See SANDERS' ANALYSIS, page 88, Exercise 108. SOWING AND HARVESTING. ANON. 1. They are sowing their seed in the daylight fair, They are sowing their seed in the noonday's glare, They are sowing their seed in the soft twilight, They are sowing their seed in the solemn night; _What_ shall their harvest be? 2. They are sowing their seed of pleasant thought, In the spring's green light they have blithely wrought; They have brought their fancies from wood and dell, Where the mosses creep, and the flower-buds swell; _Rare_ shall the harvest be! 3. They are sowing the seeds of word and deed, Which the cold know not, nor the careless heed,-- Of the gentle word and the kindest deed, That have blessed the heart in its sorest need; _Sweet_ shall the harvest be! 4. And some are sowing the seeds of pain, Of late remorse, and in maddened brain; And the stars shall fall, and the sun shall wane, Ere they root the weeds from the soil again; _Dark_ will the harvest be! 5. And some are standing with idle hand, Yet they scatter seeds on their native land; And some are sowing the seeds of care, Which their soil has borne, and still must bear; _Sad_ will the harvest be! 6. They are sowing the seed of noble deed, With a sleepless watch and an earnest heed; With a ceaseless hand o'er the earth they sow, And the fields are whitening where'er they go; _Rich_ will the harvest be! 7. Sown in darkness, or sown in light, Sown in weakness, or sown in might, Sown in meekness, or sown in wrath, In the broad work-field, or the shadowy path, SURE will the harvest be! QUESTIONS.--1. Who are meant by _they_ in this lesson? 2. What is said of those who are _sowing the seeds of word and deed?_ 3. What, of those who are sowing the _seeds of care?_ 4. Repeat the last verse. 5. What passage of Scripture teaches the same idea? Ans. "Whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap."--Gal., 6th chap., 7th verse. * * * * * LESSON XXIII. FOR' TI FI ED, strengthened by works of art for defense. SUL' TRY, close; oppressively hot. BOAT' SWAIN, one who has charge of a ship's boats, rigging, &c. TARS, sailors. MOOR' ED, anchored. BUOYS, floats. AN' CHOR, iron instrument for holding ships. STAR' BOARD, right side of a ship. FORE' CAS TLE, short deck in the fore part of a ship. WAKE, track. BE REFT', deprived. IM' MI NENT, impending. PIERC' ED, went through. FORE AND AFT, before and behind. SWAY' ED, swung; moved. CAR' CASS, dead body. EX CITE' MENT, agitation. PHA' SES, forms; appearances. [Headnote 1: SA HA' RA, is a Great Desert in Africa, lying south of the Barbary States, and extending from the Atlantic on the west to Egypt and Nubia on the east. The winds that come from this desert, are hot and suffocating.] A THRILLING INCIDENT. ANON. 1. Our noble ship lay at anchor in the Bay of Tangier, a fortified town in the extreme northwest of Africa. The day had been extremely mild, with a gentle breeze sweeping to the northward and westward; but, toward the close of the afternoon, the sea-breeze died away, and one of those sultry, oven-like breathings came from the great, sun-burnt Sahara [Headnote 1]. 2. Half an hour before sundown, the captain gave the cheering order for the boatswain to call the hands to "go in swimming;" and, in less than five minutes, the forms of our tars were seen leaping from the arms of the lower yards, into the water. One of the studding sails, with its corners suspended from the main yard-arm and the swinging boom, had been lowered into the water, and into this most of the swimmers made their way. 3. Among those who seemed to be enjoying the sport most heartily, were two of the boys, Timothy Wallace and Frederic Fairbanks, the latter of whom was the son of our old gunner; and, in a laughing mood, they started out from the studding sail on a race. There was a loud ringing shout of joy on their lips as they put off, and they darted through the water like fishes. The surface of the sea was smooth as glass, though its bosom rose in long, heavy swells that set in from the Atlantic. 4. The vessel was moored with a long sweep from both cables, and one of the buoys of the anchor was far away on the starboard quarter, where it rose and fell with the lazy swells of the waves. Toward this buoy the two lads made their way, young Fairbanks taking the lead; but, when they were within about twenty or thirty fathoms of the buoy, Wallace shot ahead and promised to win the race. 5. The old gunner had watched the progress of his little son with a great degree of pride; and when he saw him drop behind, he leaped upon the quarter-deck, and was just upon the point of urging him on by a shout, when a cry was heard that struck him with instant horror. 6. "_A shark! a shark!_" was sounded from the captain of the forecastle; and, at the sound of these terrible words, the men who were in the water, leaped and plunged toward the ship. Right abeam, at the distance of three or four cables' lengths, was seen the wake of a shark in the water, where the back of the monster was visible. His course was for the boys. 7. For a moment, the gunner stood like one bereft of reason; but, on the next, he shouted at the top of his voice, for the boys to turn; but they heard him not. Stoutly the two swimmers strove for the goal, all unconscious of their imminent danger. Their merry laugh still rang over the waters, and, at length, they both touched the buoy together. 8. Oh, what agony filled the heart of the gunner! A boat had put off, but he knew that it could not reach the boys in season, and every moment he expected to see the monster sink from sight,--_then_ he knew that all hope would be gone. At this moment, a cry reached the ship, that pierced every heart,--the boys had discovered their enemy. 9. The cry started the old gunner to his senses, and quicker than thought, he sprang from the quarter-deck. The guns were all loaded and shotted, fore and aft, and none knew their temper better than he. With steady hand, made strong by sudden hope, the old gunner seized a priming-wire and picked the cartridge of one of the quarter guns; then he took from his pocket a percussion cap, fixed it in its place, and set back the hammer of the patent lock. 10. With a giant strength the old man swayed the breech of the heavy gun to its bearing, and then seizing the string of the lock, he stood back and watched for the next swell that would bring the shark in range. He had aimed the piece some distance ahead of his mark; but yet a little moment would settle his hopes and fears. 11. Every breath was hushed, and every heart in that old ship beat painfully. The boat was yet some distance from the boys, while the horrid sea-monster was fearfully near. Suddenly the air was rent by the roar of the heavy gun; and, as the old man knew his shot was gone, he sank back upon the hatch, and covered his face with his hands, as if afraid to see the result of his own efforts; for, if he had failed, he knew that his boy was lost. 12. For a moment after the report of the gun had died away upon the air, there was an unbroken silence; but, as the dense smoke arose from the surface of the water, there was, at first, a low murmur breaking from the lips of the men,--that murmur grew louder and stronger, till it swelled to a joyous, deafening shout. The old gunner sprang to his feet, and gazed off on the water, and the first thing that met his view, was the huge carcass of the shark, floating on his back--a mangled, lifeless mass. 13. In a few moments, the boats reached the daring swimmers, and, greatly frightened, they were brought on board. The old man clasped his boy in his arms, and then, overcome by the powerful excitement, he leaned upon a gun for support. I have seen men in all the phases of excitement and suspense, but never have I seen three human beings more overcome by thrilling emotions, than on that startling moment when they first knew the effect of our gunner's shot. QUESTIONS.--1. Where is the town of Tangier? 2. What order had been given by the captain of the vessel? 3. Who seemed most to enjoy the sport? 4. What is said of the old gunner? 5. What did he do? 6. What effect did his shot produce? 7. Describe the closing scene. * * * * * LESSON XXIV. DIS GUISE', concealment. WAY' LAID, beset by the way. THREAT' EN ED, declared the intention. IN CLINE, dispose. RUF' FIANS, robbers; murderers. DIS TRIB'UTE, divide; apportion. TREAS' UR Y, place for keeping money. ALMS, gifts; donations. MI' SER LY, covetous; niggardly. SAL' A RY, wages; allowance for services. IN VOLV' ING, entangling. BE WIL' DER ED, puzzled; perplexed. LOG' IC, reasoning. SAGE, wise man. FUL FILL' ING, performing. E VA' SION, departure from truth. DE CEIT', deception; fraud. THE TRUTHFUL KING. 1. A certain Persian king, while traveling in disguise, with but few attendants, was waylaid by robbers, who threatened to take not only his goods, but his life. 2. Feeling himself beyond the reach of human aid, he inwardly made a vow, that if God would incline the hearts of these ruffians to mercy, and restore him in safety to his family and people, he would distribute all the money then in his treasury, in alms to the needy of his realm. 3. The robbers, from some unknown cause, liberated him, and he soon reached home in safety, having sustained no injury, save the loss of the small purse of gold that he had carried in his girdle. 4. Desirous of keeping the vow he had made, he summoned his officers, and commanded them to make immediate distribution to the poor, of all that the treasury contained, at the time of his return. 5. But his officers, more miserly than himself, and, fearful that they might fall short in their salaries and pensions, began to urge upon the monarch the folly of keeping this rash vow, and the danger of thus involving himself and his kingdom in difficulties. 6. Finding he still remained firm, they took other grounds, and plausibly argued that the troops and other officials needed aid as well as the poor; and, as by the _words_ of his vow, he had bound himself to distribute the contents of the treasury to those who had claim to relief, the public servants certainly came within the required limits. 7. Bewildered by their false logic, and sincerely desirous of doing right, he appealed to a certain sage who dwelt near the royal palace, and determined to abide by his decision. 8. The sage, after hearing the case, only asked the following simple question: "Of whom were you thinking when you made the vow,--the poor, or the public servants?" The monarch replied, "Of the poor." "Then," answered the sage, "it is to the _poor_ you are bound to distribute these funds; for you are not _really_ fulfilling your vow, unless you do that which you intended to do when it was made." The king was satisfied that this was the right decision, and did as the sage advised. 9. Let the young bear in mind that God is a being of truth, requiring truth in the inward heart; and, if they would have His approval, and that of their own consciences, they must avoid not only the _outward_ appearance of falsehood, but the slightest evasion or deceit; and when promises have been made, fulfill not only the _letter_, but the _spirit_ of that which they agreed to perform. 10. Beware of the first and slightest departure from truth, of the least endeavor to deceive, and even of the desire to have others believe what is not so. Let your motto be, _"The truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth."_ QUESTIONS.--1. What happened to a certain Persian king? 2. What vow did he then make? 3. What objection did his officers make to this? 4. What did the king then do? 5. What was the sage's decision? 6. What motto ought you to adopt? 7. What rule for spelling the word _traveling_ with one _l_? See SANDERS & McELLIGOTT'S ANALYSIS, page 13, Rule 10. * * * * * LESSON XXV. EN TIC' ES, allures; leads astray. PRE TEXT, pretense; false reason. PRO FANE, pollute; defile, TEMP TA' TION, allurement. IN' LY, within; in the heart. DE CLARES, says; asserts. CHAFE, vex; provoke. MAL' ICE, hatred; malevolence. AV' A RICE, excessive love of money. FORE GO', give up; renounce. MAM' MON, god of wealth; riches. IN DIG' NANT, with anger; disdainfully. LU' CRE, gain; profit. EM PRISE', enterprise; undertaking. SURE' TY, security. O VER THROW', subvert; destroy. CON TEMPT', scorn; disdain. SOR' CER ESS, enchantress. EX PEL', (EX, _out_; PEL, _to drive_) drive out; banish. RE SIST', (RE, _again_; SIST, _to stand_,) stand again; hence, to withstand. See SANDERS and McELLIGOTT'S ANALYSIS, page 90, Ex. 113; also, page 110, Ex. 142. WHEN SHALL I ANSWER NO? J.N. McELLIGOTT. 1. When FALSEHOOD fair entices thee Against the truth to go, No matter what the pretext be, Be thy firm answer,--No! 2. When RASHNESS would thy tongue profane With language vile and low, O, make the gross temptation vain, By answering inly,--No! 3. When PRIDE the silly wish declares, That thou should'st fashion know, And lifts thy head with empty airs, Be wise, and answer,--No! 4. When ENVY would thy spirit chafe, That others prosper so, On calm contentment resting safe, Expel her with a--No! 5. When MALICE foul, or deadly HATE, Would turn thee on a foe, And dark, revengeful thirst create, In horror answer,--No! 6. When sluggish SLEEP, with folded arms, Would make thee health forego, ('')Rise up at once, resist her charms; _Act out_ the answer,--No! 7. When AVARICE would, with heartless speed, Shout out the sight of woe, And whisper joy from Mammon's greed, Indignant answer,--No! 8. When filthy LUCRE lifts her hand, Ungodly gains to show, Though she should promise all the land, Be thy prompt answer,--No! 9. When greedy GAIN, or rash EMPRISE, Would have thee surety go, Keep Wisdom's words [Footnote 1] before thine eyes, And firmly answer,--No! 10. When mad AMBITION would seduce, The _right_ to overthrow, And turn the selfish passions loose, In mercy answer,--No! 11. When foul CONTEMPT of Holy Writ Would in thy bosom sow The wish to be where scorners sit,[Footnote 2] Let Conscience answer,--No! 12. When SIN, indeed, whate'er her style, Would have thee with her go; Stay not to hear the Sorceress vile, But leave her with a--No! [Footnote 1: Prov., 11th Chap., 15th verse.] [Footnote 2: 1st Psalm, 1st verse.] * * * * * LESSON XXVI. PE RUSE', read; study. AL LOT' TED, assigned. ME RID' I AN, noon; mid-day. GEN' U INE, true; real. ART' FUL, cunning; crafty. MIM' ICK ED, pretended; counterfeited. PRE SIDE', have sway or rule. DE MER' IT, ill-desert; defect. RU' BY, precious stone. PUP' PET, little image. DE TER' MINE, decide; find out. ER' MINE, fine fur--(of the ermine.) CAP' TOR, one who takes a prize. SCEP' TERS, emblems of authority. CHA' RY, careful; wary. MYS' TIC, secret; mysterious. We have seldom seen any thing so full of wit, truth, and practical wisdom, as this poem inscribed. TO MASTERS ROBERT AND JOHN. 1. Take this book, my boys, Earnestly peruse it; Much of after lies In the way ye use it: Keep it neat and clean; For, remember, in it, Every stain that's seen, Marks a thoughtless minute. 2. Life is like a book, Time is like a printer, Darting now his look Where has gloomed no winter. Thus he'll look, and on, Till each page allotted, Robert, thee and John, Printed be or blotted. 3. Youth's a sunny beam, Dancing o'er a river, With a flashing gleam, Then away forever. Use it while ye may, Not in childish mourning,-- Not in childish play, But in _useful learning_. 4. As your years attain Life's meridian brightness, Hourly seek and gain _Genuine politeness:_ This lives not in forms, As too many teach us,-- Not in open arms, Not in silken speeches, 5. Not in haughty eye, Not in artful dealing, Not within the sigh Of a mimicked feeling: But its lights preside Rich in nature's splendor, Over honest pride, Gentleness and candor. 6. Slight ye not the soul For the frame's demerit; Oft a shattered bowl Holds a mighty spirit: Never search a breast By thy ruby's glances; Pomp's a puppet guest, Danced by circumstances. 7. What is good and great, Sense can soon determine; Prize it though ye meet, Or in rags or ermine. Fortune's truly blind; Fools may be her captors; But the _wealth of mind_ Stands above their scepters. 8. Value not the lips Swiftest kept in motion, Fleetly-sailing ships Draw no depth of ocean: Snatch the chary gleam, From the cautious knowing For the deepest stream Scarcely lisps 'tis flowing. 9. Cull from bad and good Every seeming flower, Store it up as food For some hungry hour: Press its every leaf, And remember, Johnny, Even weeds the chief May have drops of honey. 10. Pomp and power alone Never make a blessing; Seek not e'en a throne By one wretch distressing. Better toil a slave For the blood-earned penny, Than be rich, and have A curse on every guinea. 11. Think, my gentle boys, Every man a brother! _That's where honor lies,_ Nay, but _greatness_ rather: One's the mystic whole, Lordly flesh won't know it; But the kingly soul, Sees but vice below it. 12. Robert, thoughts like these, Store you more than money; Read them not to please, But to practice, Johnny. Artless though their dress, As an infant's dimple, _Truth is none the less_ _For being truly simple._ QUESTIONS.--1. What did the writer tell Robert and John to do with the book, given them? 2. What use did he tell them to make of Youth? * * * * * LESSON XXVII. AV A RI'' CIOUS, greedy after gain. IN' TI MATE, close in friendship. EA' GER NESS, ardent desire. FRU GAL' I TY, wise economy. AC QUI SI'' TIONS, gains. AF' FLU ENCE, great wealth. SUC' CES SION, regular order. MOIL' ING, drudging; laboring. DIS CON TIN' U ED, ceased. AS SI DU' I TY, untiring diligence. DIS GUST' ED, greatly dissatisfied. IN DULG' ED, gratified. MON' STROUS, very large. SUC CEED' ING, following. MAT' TOCK, pick-ax. UN DER MINE', dig under. O' MEN, sign; token. IM AG' IN ED, conceived. WHANG, THE MILLER. GOLDSMITH. 1. Whang, the miller, was naturally avaricious; nobody loved money better than he, or more respected those that had it. When people would talk of a rich man in company, Whang would say, "_I_ know him very well, _he_ and _I_ have been very long acquainted; _he_ and _I_ are intimate." 2. But, if a poor man was mentioned, he had not the least knowledge of the man; he might be very well, for aught _he_ knew; but he was not fond of making many acquaintances, and loved to choose his company. 3. Whang, however, with all his eagerness for riches, was poor. He had nothing but the profits of his mill to support him; but, though these were small, they were certain: while it stood and went, he was sure of eating; and his frugality was such, that he, every day, laid some money by; which he would, at intervals, count and contemplate with much satisfaction. 4. Yet still his acquisitions were not equal to his desires; he only found himself above want; whereas he desired to be possessed of affluence. One day, as he was indulging these wishes, he was informed that a neighbor of his had found a pan of money under ground, having dreamed of it three nights in succession. 5. These tidings were daggers to the heart of poor Whang. "Here am I," said he, "toiling and moiling from morning till night for a few paltry farthings, while neighbor Thanks only goes quietly to bed, and dreams himself into thousands before morning. Oh, that I could dream like him! With what pleasure would I dig round the pan! How slyly would I carry it home! Not even my wife should see me! And then, oh the pleasure of thrusting one's hands into a heap of gold up to the elbows!" 6. Such reflections only served to make the miller unhappy. He discontinued his former assiduity; he was quite disgusted with small gains; and his customers began to forsake him. Every day he repeated the wish, and every night laid himself down in order to dream. Fortune, that was for a long time unkind, at last, however, seemed to smile upon his distress, and indulged him with the wished-for vision. 7. He dreamed that under a certain part of the foundation of his mill, there was concealed a monstrous pan of gold and diamonds, buried deep in the ground, and covered with a large flat stone. He concealed his good luck from every person, as is usual in money-dreams, in order to have the vision repeated the two succeeding nights, by which he should be certain of its truth. His wishes in this, also, were answered; he still dreamed of the same pan of money, in the very same place. 8. Now, therefore, it was past a doubt; so, getting up early the third morning, he repaired, alone, with a mattock in his hand, to the mill, and began to undermine that part of the wall to which the vision directed. The first omen of success that he met with, was a broken ring; digging still deeper, he turned up a house-tile, quite new and entire. 9. At last, after much digging, he came to a broad flat stone; but then it was so large, that it was beyond his strength to remove it. "_There_," cried he in raptures to himself, "_there it is!_ under this stone, there is room for a very large pan of diamonds indeed. I must e'en go home to my wife, and tell her the whole affair, and get her to assist me in turning it up." Away, therefore, he goes, and acquaints his wife with every circumstance of their good fortune. 10. Her raptures, on this occasion, may easily be imagined; she flew round his neck, and embraced him in an agony of joy. But these transports, however, did not allay their eagerness to know the exact sum; returning, together, to the place where Whang had been digging, there they found--not, indeed, the expected treasure--but the mill, their only support, undermined and fallen! QUESTIONS.--1. Upon what was Whang, the miller, dependent for support? 2. Why was he not satisfied? 3. What did he say to himself, after the information he had received from a neighbor? 4. What effect had such reflections upon him? 5. What did he dream three nights successively? 6. What did he do? 7. What was the result? * * * * * LESSON XXVIII. PO LITE' NESS, good manners. FI DEL' I TY, faithfulness. IN CU BA' TION, act of hatching eggs. REC RE A' TION, pastime; amusement. DE MURE' LY, gravely; with affected modesty. AP PRE CI A' TION, estimate. LITHE, nimble; flexible. EX' IT, departure; going out. ARCH' I TECTS, (_ch_, like _k_,) builders. SA LI' VA, spittle. SE CRETE', to deposit; produce. CON'' GRE GATE, collect together. FLEDG' ED, furnished with feathers. DO MAIN', realm; kingdom. AC COM MO DA' TIONS, conveniences. MI' GRATE, remove; travel. SPHERE, (_ph_ like _f_,) circuit of action. CHIMNEY-SWALLOWS. HENRY WARD BEECHER. 1. Every one knows, who lives in the country, what a chimney-swallow is. They are among the birds that seem to love the neighborhood of man. Many birds there are, that nestle confidingly in the protection of their superiors, and are seldom found nesting or breeding far from human habitations. 2. The wren builds close to your door. Sparrows and robins, if well treated, will make their nests right under your window, in some favorite tree, and will teach you, if you choose to go into the business, how to build birds' nests. 3. A great deal of politeness and fidelity may be learned. The female bird is waited upon, fed, cheered with singing, during her incubation, in a manner that might give lessons to the household. Nay, when she needs exercise and recreation, her husband very demurely takes her place, and keeps the eggs warm in the most gentlemanly way. 4. Barn-swallows have a very sensible appreciation of the pleasures of an ample barn. A barn might not be found quite the thing to live in, (although we have seen many a place where we would take the barn sooner than the house,) but it is one of the most charming places in a summer-day to lounge, read, or nap in. 5. And, as you lie on your back upon the sweet-scented hay-mow, or upon clean straw thrown down on the great floor, reading books of natural history, it is very pleasant to see the flitting swallows glance in and out, or course about under the roof, with motion so lithe and rapid as to seem more like the glancing of shadows than the winging of birds. Their mud-nests are clean, if they _are_ made of dirt; and you would never dream, from their feathers, what sort of a house they lived in. 6. But, it was of _chimney-swallows_ that we began to write; and they are just now roaring in the little, stubbed chimney behind us, to remind us of our duty. Every evening we hear them; for a nest of young ones brings the parents in with food, early and late, and every entrance or exit is like a distant roll of thunder, or like those old-fashioned rumblings of high winds in the chimney, which made us children think that all out-of-doors was coming down the chimney in stormy nights. 7. These little architects build their simple nests upon the sides of the chimney with sticks, which they are said to break off from dead branches of trees, though they might more easily pick them up already prepared. But they, doubtless, have their own reasons for cutting their own timber. Then these are glued to the wall by a saliva which they secrete, so that they carry their mortar in their mouths, and use their bills for trowels. 8. When the young are ready to leave, they climb up the chimney to the top, by means of their sharp claws, aided by their tail-feathers, which are short, stiff, and at the end armed with sharp spines. Two broods are reared in a season. From the few which congregate in any one neighborhood, one would not suspect the great numbers which assemble at the end of the season. Audubon estimated that _nine thousand_ entered a large sycamore-tree, every night, to roost, near Louisville, Kentucky. 9. Sometimes the little nest has been slighted in building, or the weight proves too great, and down it comes into the fire-place, to the great amusement of the children, who are all a-fever to hold in their hands these clean, bright-eyed little fellows. Who would suspect that they had ever been bred in such a flue? 10. And it was just this thought that set us to writing. Because a bird lives in a chimney, he need not be _smutty_. There is many a fine feather that lives in a chimney-corner. Nor are birds the _only_ instances. Many men are born in a garret, or in a cellar, who fly out of it, as soon as fledged, as fine as any body. A lowly home has reared many high natures. 11. On these bare sticks, right against the bricks, in this smoky flue, the eggs are laid, the brooding goes on, the young are hatched, fed, grown. But then comes the day when they spread the wing, and the whole heaven is theirs! From morning to night, they can not touch the bounds of their liberty! 12. And, in like manner, it is with the human soul that has learned to know its liberty. Born in a body, pent up, and cramped, it seems imprisoned in a mere smoky flue for passions. But, when once faith has taught the soul that it has wings, then it begins to fly; and flying, finds that all God's domain is its liberty. 13. And, as the swallow that comes back to roost in its hard hole at night, is quite content, so that the morning gives it again all the bright heavens for its soaring-ground, so may men, close quartered and cramped in bodily accommodations, be quite patient of their narrow bounds, for their thoughts may fly out every day gloriously. 14. And as, in autumn, these children of the chimney gather in flocks, and fly away to heavens without a winter, so men shall find a day when they, too, shall migrate; and, rising into a higher sphere, without storm or winter, shall remember the troubles of this mortal life, as birds in Florida may be supposed to remember the northern chills, which drove them forth to a fairer clime. QUESTIONS.--1. What birds seem to love the neighborhood of man? 2. In what respects may men be like birds? * * * * * LESSON XXIX. The first part of each verse, or that portion read by the _First Voice_, should be expressed in a slow and despondent tone of voice: the second part, or that read by the _Second Voice_, should be expressed in a more sprightly and cheerful manner. THE DOUBTING HEART. ADELAIDE A. PROCTER. FIRST VOICE. 1. Where are the swallows fled? Frozen and dead, Perchance, upon some bleak and stormy shore. SECOND VOICE. O doubting heart! Far over purple seas, They wait, in sunny ease, The balmy southern breeze, To bring them to their northern homes once more. FIRST VOICE. 2. Why must the flowers die? Poisoned they lie In the cold tomb, heedless of tears or rain. SECOND VOICE. O doubting heart! They only sleep below The soft, white ermine snow, While winter winds shall blow, To breathe and smile upon you soon again. FIRST VOICE. 3. The sun has hid its rays These many days; Will dreary hours never leave the earth? SECOND VOICE. O doubting heart! The stormy clouds on high Vail the same sunny sky, That soon, (for Spring is nigh,) Shall wake the Summer into golden mirth. FIRST VOICE. 4. Fair Hope is dead, and light Is quenched in night. What sound can break the silence of despair? SECOND VOICE. O doubting heart! The sky is overcast, Yet stars shall rise at last, Brighter for darkness past, And angels' silver voices stir the air. * * * * * LESSON XXX. DECK'ED, dressed; arrayed. TRAIL'ING, hanging down; following one after another. UN FAIL'ING, constant; continually. UN PLI'ANT, stiff; unbending. DE FI'ANT, daring; bidding defiance. VES'PER, evening. CRISP'ER, more brittle. TREAS'URES, wealth; riches. MER'IT, desert; goodness. IN HER'IT, occupy; possess. MOR'SEL, bit; small piece. WAIL'ING, loudly lamenting. RAIL'ING, clamoring. THE COMING OF WINTER. T.B. READ. 1. Autumn's sighing, Moaning, dying, Clouds are flying On like steeds; While their shadows O'er the meadows. Walk like widows Decked in weeds. 2. Red leaves trailing, Fall unfailing, Dropping, sailing, From the wood, That, unpliant, Stands defiant, Like a giant Dropping blood. 3. Winds are swelling Round our dwelling, All day telling Us their woe; And, at vesper, Frosts grow crisper, As they whisper Of the snow. 4. From th' unseen land, Frozen inland, Down from Greenland, Winter glides, Shedding lightness Like the brightness When moon-whiteness Fills the tides. 5. Now bright Pleasure's Sparkling measures With rare treasures Overflow! With this gladness Comes what sadness! Oh, what madness, Oh, what woe! 6. Even merit May inherit Some bare garret, Or the ground; Or, a worse ill, Beg a morsel At some door-sill, Like a hound. 7. Storms are trailing, Winds are wailing, Howling, railing, At each door. 'Midst this trailing Howling, railing, List the wailing Of the poor! QUESTIONS.--1. What is the first sign of the coming of winter? 2. What, the second? 3. What, the third? 4. What are some of the pleasures of winter? 5. What is said of the poor in winter? 6. What is the use of the apostrophes in the words _autumn's, o'er, pleasure's, 'midst,_ &c.? * * * * * LESSON XXXI. LIVE' LONG, whole; entire. EAVES, edges of a roof. E' VEN TIDE, evening. STRIV' EN, struggled; contended. RE LIEV' ED, mitigated; alleviated. WRETCH' ED NESS, distress; destitution. OF FENSE', fault; crime. PEN' I TENCE, repentance; contrition. EL' O QUENT LY, forcibly; persuasively. CHILD TIRED OF PLAY. N.P. WILLIS. 1. Tired of play`! tired of play`! What hast thou done this livelong day`? The birds are silent', and so is the bee`; The sun is creeping up steeple and tree`; The doves have flown to the sheltering eaves', And the nests are dark with the drooping leaves'; Twilight gathers', and day is done`,-- How hast them spent it`,--restless one'? 2. Playing`? But what hast thou done beside, To tell thy mother at eventide`? What promise of morn is left unbroken`? What kind word to thy playmates spoken`? Whom hast thou pitied, and whom forgiven`? How with thy faults has duty striven`? What hast thou learned by field and hill, By greenwood path, and by singing rill`? 3. There will come an eve to a longer day', That will find thee tired`,--but not of play'! And thou wilt lean, as thou leanest now, With drooping limbs, and aching brow, And wish the shadows would faster creep, And long to go to thy quiet sleep. _Well_ were it then, if thine aching brow Were as free from sin and shame as now! _Well_ for thee, if thy lip could tell A tale like this, of _a day spent well_. 4. If thine open hand hath relieved distress',-- If thy pity hath sprung to wretchedness',-- If thou hast forgiven the sore offense', And humbled thy heart with penitence',-- If Nature's voices have spoken to thee With her holy meanings eloquently',-- If every creature hath won thy love', From the creeping worm to the brooding dove',-- If never a sad, low-spoken word Hath pled with thy human heart unheard',-- _Then_`, when the night steals on, as now, It will bring relief to thine aching brow, And, with joy and peace at the thought of rest, Thou wilt sink to sleep on thy mother's breast. QUESTIONS.--1. What had the child been doing? 2. What questions did the mother ask? 3. What did she tell the child would come? 4. What is meant by _eve to a longer day_, third verse? 5. What, by _quiet sleep_, same verse? 6. What ought we to do in life, in order to have a joyful and peaceful death? 7. What rule for the rising inflection on _restless one_, first verse? See page 32, Note I. 8. What rule for the falling inflection on _playing_, second verse? See page 29, Rule II. 9. What rule for the rising inflections in the fourth verse? Rule V., page 31. * * * * * LESSON XXXII. NORTH-EAST' ERS, north-east winds. EX HAUST' ED, (_x_ like _gz_,) tired out. VIG' I LANT, watchful. DE TECT' ED, discovered. LEE' WARD, pertaining to the part toward which the wind blows. RE CED' ING, retiring; passing away. BRILL' IAN CY, brightness; luster. TILL' ER, bar used to turn the rudder. TORT' URE, anguish of spirit. DE SERT' ED, relinquished; abandoned. RA PID' I TY, speed; swiftness. EN VEL' OP ED, inclosed; covered. GEN' ER A TED, produced. LETH' AR GY, drowsiness; dullness. RES' CUE, deliverance. IN EV' I TA BLY, surely; certainly. ES PY' ING, seeing; discovering. CON' TACT, (CON, _together_; TAC, _touch_,) a touching together; close union. THE RESCUE. BY A SEA CAPTAIN. 1. On a bright moonlight night, in the month of February, 1831, when it was intensely cold, the little brig which I commanded, lay quietly at her anchors, inside of Sandy Hook. We had had a hard time, beating about for eleven days off this coast, with cutting north-easters blowing, and snow and sleet falling for the most part of that time. 2. Forward, the vessel was thickly coated with ice, and it was hard work to handle her; as the rigging and sails were stiff, and yielded only when the strength of the men was exerted to the utmost. When we, at length, made the port, all hands were worn down and exhausted. 3. "A bitter cold night, Mr. Larkin," I said to my mate, as I tarried for a short time upon deck. The worthy down-easter buttoned his coat more tightly around him, and, looking up to the moon, replied, "It's a whistler, captain; and nothing can live comfortably out of blankets to-night." 4. "The tide is running out swift and strong, and it will be well to keep a sharp look-out for this floating ice, Mr. Larkin," said I, as I turned to go below. "Ay, ay, sir," responded the faithful mate. 5. About two hours afterward, I was aroused from a sound sleep by the vigilant officer. "Excuse me for disturbing you, captain," said he, as he detected an expression of vexation in my face, "but I wish you would turn out, and come on deck as soon as possible." 6. "What's the matter, Mr. Larkin," said I. "Why, sir, I have been watching a large cake of ice, which swept by at a distance, a moment ago; and I saw something black upon it, something that I thought moved. The moon is under a cloud, and I could not see distinctly; but I believe there is a child floating out to the sea, this freezing night, on that cake of ice." 7. We were on deck before either spoke another word. The mate pointed out, with no little difficulty, the cake of ice floating off to the leeward, with its white, glittering surface broken by a black spot. "Get the glass, Mr. Larkin," said I; "the moon will be out of that cloud in a moment, and then we can see distinctly." 8. I kept my eye upon the receding mass of ice, while the moon was slowly working her way through a heavy bank of clouds. The mate stood by me with the glass; and when the full light fell upon the water with a brilliancy only known in our northern latitudes, I put the glass to my eye. One glance was enough. 9. (_''_)"_Forward, there!_" I hailed at the top of my voice; and, with one bound, I reached the main hatch, and began to clear away the little cutter, which was stowed in the ship's yawl. Mr. Larkin had taken the glass to look for himself, "_There are two children on that cake of ice!_" he exclaimed, as he hastened to assist me in getting out the boat. 10. The men answered my hail, and walked quickly aft. In a short space of time, we launched the cutter, into which Mr. Larkin and myself jumped, followed by the two men, who took the oars. I rigged the tiller, and the mate sat beside me in the stern sheets. 11. "Do you see that cake of ice with something black upon it, my lads? Put me alongside of that, and I'll give you a month's extra wages when you are paid off," said I to the men. 12. They bent to their oars, but their strokes were uneven and feeble; for they were worn out by the hard duty of the preceding fortnight; and, though they did their best, the boat made little more headway than the tide. It was a losing chase, and Mr. Larkin, who was suffering torture as he saw how little we gained, cried out, "_Pull, lads! I'll double the captain's prize: two months' extra pay: pull, lads! pull for life!_" 13. A convulsive effort at the oars told how willing the men were to obey; but the strength of the strong man was gone. One of the poor fellows washed us twice in recovering his oar, and then gave out; and the other was nearly as far gone. Mr. Larkin sprang forward and seized the deserted oar. "Lie down in the bottom of the boat," said he to the man; "and, captain, take the other oar; we must row for ourselves." 14. I took the second man's place. Larkin had stripped off his coat, and, as he pulled the bow, I waited for the signal stroke. It came gently, but firm; and the next moment we were pulling a long, steady stroke; gradually increasing in rapidity, until the wood seemed to smoke in the row-locks. We kept time, each by the long, deep breathing of the other. 15. Such a pull! We bent forward until our faces almost touched our knees; and then throwing all our strength into the backward movement, drew on the oar until every inch covered by the sweep was gained. Thus we worked at the oars for fifteen minutes; and it seemed to me as many hours. The sweat rolled off in great drops, and I was enveloped in a steam generated from my own body. 16. "Are we almost up to it, Mr. Larkin?" I gasped out. "Almost, captain," said he: "and _don't give up!_ for the love of our dear little ones at home: _don't give up_, captain!" The oars flashed as their blades turned up to the moonlight, for the men who plied them were fathers, and had fathers' hearts. 17. Suddenly Mr. Larkin ceased pulling; and my heart, for a moment, almost stopped its beating; for the terrible thought that he had given out, crossed my mind. But I was re-assured by his voice, (_p_) "Gently, captain, gently: a stroke or two more: there, that will do;" and the next moment Mr. Larkin sprang upon the ice. I started up, and, calling to the men to make fast the boat to the ice, followed him. 18. We ran to the dark spot in the center of the mass, and found two little boys. The head of the smaller was resting in the bosom of the larger; and both were fast asleep. The lethargy, which would have been fatal but for the timely rescue, had overcome them. 19. Mr. Larkin grasped one of the lads, cut off his shoes, tore off his jacket, and then, loosening his own garments to the skin, placed the cold child in contact with his own warm body, carefully wrapping his overcoat around him. I did the same with the other child, and we then returned to the boat. 20. The children, as we learned when we had the delight of restoring them to their parents, were playing on the cake of ice, which had jammed into a bend of the river, about ten miles above New York. A movement of the tide set the ice in motion, and the little fellows were borne away, that cold night, and would have inevitably perished, but for Mr. Larkin's espying them as they were sweeping out to sea. 21. "How do you feel, Mr. Larkin?" I said to the mate, the morning after this adventure. "A little stiff in the arms, captain," the noble fellow replied, while the big tears of grateful happiness gathered in his eyes,--"a little stiff in the arms, captain, but very easy here," laying his hand on the rough chest in which beat a true and manly heart. My quaint down-easter, He who lashes the seas into fury, and lets loose the tempest, will care for thee! The storms may rage without, but in _thy_ bosom peace and sunshine abide always. QUESTIONS.--1. Describe the condition of the vessel as she lay at anchor inside Sandy Hook. 2. What did the captain say to Mr. Larkin, as he retired to rest? 3. Why did Mr. Larkin wake up the captain? 4. What did they discover on a cake of ice, floating out to sea? 5. Who went to their rescue? 6. What did the captain say to the rowers of the boat? 7. What did Mr. Larkin say to them? 8. Did they finally succeed in rescuing the children? 9. How came the two boys to be on that cake of ice? 10. What did Mr. Larkin say, when the captain asked him how he felt? * * * * * LESSON XXXIII. A DORN' ED, decorated; embellished. SPOILS, booty; prey. ANT' LERS, branching horns. SUS PEND' ED, hung; atatched. DIS TRACT' ED, disturbed; disordered. FU' GI TIVE, runaway; wanderer. BE SET', hemmen in; surrounded. TRAI' TORS, betrayers. HEATH, place overgrown with shrubs. LIEGE, lord; sovereign. LOY' AL, true; faithful. FE' AL TY, loyalty; fidelity. MA' TRON, married woman. REC OG NIZ' ED, knew; recollected. IN VAD' ERS, persons invading. ROBERT BRUCE AND THE SCOTCH WOMAN. ANON. 1. Many years ago, an old Scotch woman sat alone, spinning by the kitchen fire, in her little cottage. The room was adorned with the spoils of the chase, and many implements of war and hunting. There were spears, bows and arrows, swords, and shields; and, against the side of the room, hung a pair of huge antlers, once reared on the lordly brow of a "stag of ten," [Footnote: That is, a stag ten years old. The age of the animal is known by the number of prongs or tines, each year one new prong being added.] on which were suspended skins, plaids, bonnets, and one or two ponderous battle-axes. 2. The table, in the middle of the floor, was spread for supper, and some oatmeal cakes were baking before the fire. But the dame was not thinking of any of _these things_, nor of her two manly sons, who, in an adjoining room, were busily preparing for the next day's sport. 3. She was thinking of the distracted state of her native land, and of the good king, Robert Bruce, a fugitive in his own kingdom, beset, on every hand, by open enemies and secret traitors. "Alas!" thought she, "to-night I dwell here in peace, while to-morrow may see me driven out into the heath; and even now our king is a wanderer, with no shelter for his weary limbs." 4. A loud knock at the door broke in upon her musings. She rose, trembling with fear, to unbar the entrance, and beheld a man closely muffled in a cloak. "My good woman," said he, "will you grant a poor traveler the shelter of your roof to-night'?" 5. "Right willingly will I," said she; "for the love of _one_, for whose sake all travelers are welcome here." 6. "For whose sake is it that you make all wanderers welcome?" asked the stranger. 7. "For the sake of our good king, Robert Bruce, who, though he is now hunted like a wild beast, with horn and hound, I trust yet to see on the throne of Scotland!" 8. "Nay, then, my good woman," replied the man, "since you love him so well, know that you see him now _I_ am Robert Bruce." 9. "_You'!_--are _you_ our king'?" she inquired, sinking on her knees, and reverently kissing his hand; "where, then, are your followers, and why are you thus alone?" 10. "I have no followers now," replied Bruce, "and am, therefore, compelled to travel alone." 11. "Nay, my liege," exclaimed the loyal dame, "that you shall do no longer; for here are my two sons, whom I give to you, and may they long live to serve and defend your majesty!" 12. The Scottish youths bent their knees, and took the oath of fealty; and then, sitting beside the fire, the king entered into conversation with his new retainers, while their mother was busied in preparing the evening meal. 13. Suddenly, they were startled by the tramp of horses' hoofs, and the voices of men. "'_Tis the English!_" shouted the matron, "_fight to the last, my sons, and defend your king!_" But, at this moment, the king recognized the voices of Lord James, of Douglas, and of Edward Bruce, and bade them have no fear. 14. Bruce was overjoyed at meeting with his brother, and his faithful friend Douglas, who had with them a band of one hundred and fifty men. He bade farewell to the brave and loyal woman, and, taking with him her two sons, left the place. 15. The two young Scots served Bruce well and faithfully, and were high officers in his service when, at the head of a conquering army, he drove the English invaders from the soil of Scotland, and rendered her again a _free and independent kingdom_. QUESTIONS.--1. Describe the room in which the Scotch woman resided. 2, What is meant by a "_stag of ten?_" 3. Who did the stranger prove to be? 4. Who joined Bruce? 5. What did Bruce and his men then do? * * * * * LESSON XXXIV. PROS PER' ITY, success; good fortune. DIG' NI FIES, elevates; ennobles. SUS TAIN' ED, endured; suffered. AD VERS' I TY, calamity; misfortune. UN ERR' ING, sure; certain. FOR LORN', forsaken; wretched. CAN' O PY, covering overhead. EI DER DOWN, fine, soft feathers from the eider-duck. DE VOID', destitute. IM MERS' ED, inwrapped; sunk. GOS' SA MER Y, like gossamer; filmy. RE COIL' ED, started back. FOIL' ED, frustrated; defeated. RO MANCE', fiction. TRIV' I AL, small; trifling. CON FIDE', trust; believe. AD' VERSE, contrary; opposite. PALM, token of victory. ROBERT BRUCE AND THE SPIDER. BERNARD BARTON. 1. Not in _prosperity's broad light_, Can reason justly scan The _sterling worth which_, viewed aright, _Most dignifies the man_. Favored at once by wind and tide, The skillful pilot well may guide The bark in safety on; Yet, when his harbor he has gained, He who no conflict hath sustained, No meed has fairly won. 2. But in _adversity's dark hour_ _Of peril and of fear,_ When clouds above the vessel lower, With scarce one star to cheer; When winds are loud, and waves are high, And ocean, to a timid eye, Appears the seaman's grave; Amid the conflict, calm, unmoved, By truth's unerring test is proved _The skillful and the brave._ 3. For Scotland and her freedom's right The Bruce his part had played; _In five successive fields of fight_ _Been conquered and dismayed._ _Once more, against the English host_ _His band he led, and once more lost_ _The meed for which he fought;_ And now, from battle faint and worn, The homeless fugitive forlorn A hut's lone shelter sought. 4. And cheerless was that resting-place For him who claimed a throne; His canopy, devoid of grace,-- The rude, rough beams alone; The heather couch his only bed, Yet well I know had slumber fled From couch of eider down; Through darksome night to dawn of day, Immersed in wakeful thought he lay, Of Scotland and her crown. 5. The sun rose brightly, and its gleam Fell on that hapless bed, And tinged with light each shapeless beam Which roofed the lowly shed; When, looking up with wistful eye, The Bruce beheld a spider try His filmy thread to fling From beam to beam of that rude cot; And well the insect's toilsome lot Taught Scotland's future king. 6. Six times his gossamery thread The wary spider threw: In vain the filmy line was sped; For, powerless or untrue, Each aim appeared and back recoiled The patient insect, _six times foiled_, And yet unconquered still; And soon the Bruce, with eager eye, Saw him prepare once more to try His courage, strength, and skill. 7. _One effort more, the seventh and last_,-- The hero hailed the sign! And on the wished-for beam hung fast The slender, silken line. Slight as it was, his spirit caught The more than omen; for his thought The lesson well could trace, Which even "he who runs may read," That _perseverance gains its meed_, And _patience wins the race_. 8. Is it a tale of mere romance'? Its moral is the same,-- A light and trivial circumstance'? Some thought, it still may claim. Art thou a father'? teach thy son Never to deem that _all is done_, While _aught remains untried_; To hope, though every hope seems crossed, And when his bark is tempest-tossed Still calmly to confide. 9. Hast thou been long and often foiled (<) By adverse wind and seas'? And vainly struggled, vainly toiled, For what some win with ease'? Yet bear up heart, and hope, and will, Nobly resolved to struggle still, With patience persevere; Knowing, when darkest seems the night, The dawn of morning's glorious light Is swiftly drawing near. 10. Art thou a Christian? shall the frown Of fortune cause dismay'? The Bruce but won an _earthly crown_, Which long hath passed away; For thee a _heavenly crown_ awaits; For thee are oped the pearly gates,-- Prepared the deathless palm: But bear in mind that _only those_ _Who persevere unto the close,_ _Can join in Victory's psalm_. QUESTIONS.--1. Will smooth seas and favoring gales make a skillful mariner? 2. What will make skillful and brave men? 3. In what respect is adversity better than prosperity? 4. What story illustrates this fact? 5. How many times did the spider try, before it succeeded? 6. In how many battles had Bruce been defeated? 7. What important lesson is taught youth? 8. What encouragement is given to the Christian? * * * * * LESSON XXXV. PA' TRI OT' IC, having love of country. OB SER VA' TION, remark, expression. POP' U LAR, well received; prevailing. E QUAL' I TY, sameness of social position. AUD' I BLE, that may be heard. DE TER' MIN ED, fully resolved. HES' I TATE, scruple. BRA' VO, well done. BROILS, wrangles; quarrels. RENOWN' ED, famed; celebrated. O' DI OUS, hateful; offensive. COUNT' ESS, wife of a count or earl. FAG-END', the meaner part. NO BIL' I TY, noble rank. BUR LESQUE', (_burlesk',_) ridicule. HE RED' I TA RY, coming by descent. CON' STI TUTES, forms; composes. APH' O RISMS, precepts; maxims. TEM' PO RA RY, continuing for a time. BECK, sign with the hand; nod. [Headnote 1: LA VA' TER, (John Gaspar,) a celebrated physiognomist, that is, one skilled in the art of determining character by the external features, born in Zurich, in 1741.] That part of this dialogue uttered by Caroline, should be read in a very earnest and spirited style,--that uttered by Horace in a more grave, deliberate, and candid manner. WEALTH AND FASHION. _Caroline_. What a pity it is that we are born under a Republican government! _Horace_. Upon my word, Caroline, that is a patriotic observation for an American. _Caroline_. Oh, I know that it is not a _popular_ one! We must all join in the cry of liberty and equality, and bless our stars that we have neither kings nor emperors to rule over us, and that our very first audible squeak was republicanism. If we don't join in the shout, and hang our caps on liberty-poles, we are considered monsters. For my part, I am _tired_ of it, and am determined to _say what I think_. I _hate_ republicanism; I hate liberty and equality; and I don't hesitate to _declare_ that I am for monarchy. You may laugh, but I would say it at the stake. _Horace_. Bravo, Caroline! You have almost run yourself out of breath. You deserve to be prime minister to the king. _Caroline_. You mistake; I have no wish to mingle in political broils, not even if I could be as renowned as Pitt or Fox; but I must say, I think our equality is _odious_. What do you think! To-day, the new chamber-maid put her head into the door, and said, "Caroline, your marm wants you!" _Horace_. _Excellent!_ I suppose if ours were a _monarchical_ government, she would have bent to the ground, or saluted your little foot, before she spoke. _Caroline_. No, Horace; you _know_ there are no such forms in this country. _Horace_. May I ask your highness what you _would_ like to be? _Caroline_. I should like to be a countess. _Horace_. Oh, you are moderate in your ambition! A countess, now-a-days, is the fag-end of nobility. _Caroline_. Oh! but it sounds so delightfully,--_"The young Countess Caroline!"_ _Horace_. If _sound_ is all, you shall have that pleasure; we will call you _the young countess_. _Caroline_. That would be mere burlesque, Horace, and would make one ridiculous. _Horace_. Nothing can be more inconsistent in us, than aiming at titles. _Caroline_. For _us_, I grant you; but, if they were _hereditary,_ if we had been born to them, if they came to us through belted knights and high-born dames, _then_ we might be proud to wear them. I never shall cease to regret that I was not born under a monarchy. _Horace_. You seem to forget that all are not lords and ladies in _royal_ dominions. Suppose you should have drawn your first breath among the _lower classes_,--suppose it should have been your lot to crouch and bend, or be trodden under foot by some titled personage, whom in your heart you despised; what then? _Caroline_. You may easily suppose that I did not mean to take _those_ chances. No; I meant to be born among the _higher_ ranks. _Horace_. Your own reason must tell you, that _all_ can not be born among the _higher ranks_; for then the _lower ones_ would be wanting, which constitute the comparison. Now, Caroline, is it not better to be born under a government where there are no such ranks, and where _the only nobility is talent and virtue'?_ _Caroline_. Talent and virtue! I think _wealth_ constitutes our nobility, and the right of abusing each other, our liberty. _Horace_. You are as fond of aphorisms as Lavater[Headnote 1] was. _Caroline_. Let me ask you if our rich men, who ride in their own carriages, who have fine houses, and who count by millions, are not our _great_ men? _Horace_. They have all the greatness that _money_ can buy; but this is very limited. _Caroline_. Well, in _my_ opinion, _money is power_. _Horace_. You mistake. Money may be _temporary power_, but _talent_ is _power itself_; and, _when united with virtue, is godlike power_, before which the mere man of millions quails. _Caroline_. Well, Horace, I really wish you the possession of _talent_, and _principle_, and _wealth_ into the bargain. The latter, you think, will follow the two former, simply at your beck;--you smile; but _I_ feel as determined in _my_ way of thinking, as _you_ do in _yours_. QUESTIONS.--1. What is the subject of this dialogue? 2. What did Caroline regret? 3. What reply did Horace make? 4. What did Caroline wish to be? 5. What did Horace say constituted true nobility? * * * * * LESSON XXXVI. RE SERV'ING, keeping; retaining. AC CU' MU LA TED, collected. IN DIG NA' TION, angry feeling. RE SOURC' ES, means; funds. DIS SER TA' TION, discourse; essay. EX PAN' SION, enlargement. DE POS' IT ED, put; laid. EX ER' TION (_egs er shun_,) effort. JU DI' CIOUS, wise, prudent. VO CA' TION, business; employment. EU PHON' IC, agreeable; well-sounding. CO TEM' PO RA RIES, those living at the same time. DI GRES' SION, departure from the subject. PRE DIC' TIONS, prophecies. IM PELL' ED, driven forward. AR IS TOC' RA CY, (ARISTO, _the best_; CRACY, _government_,) government by the best, or nobles. See SANDERS' ANALYSIS, page 200, Ex. 283. [Headnote 1: SOC' RA TES, the most celebrated philosopher of antiquity, was born at Athens, 470 years before Christ. The purity of his doctrines, and his independence of character, rendered him popular with the most enlightened Athenians, though they created him many enemies. He was _falsely accused_, arraigned, and condemned to drink _hemlock_, the juice of a poisonous plant. When the hour to take the poison had come, the executioner handed him the cup, with tears in his eyes. Socrates received it with composure, drank it with unaltered countenance, and, in a few moments, expired.] [Headnote 2: DE MOS' THE NES, a great Grecian orator, who, rather than fall into the hands of his enemies, destroyed himself by taking poison. It is said that, when a youth, he frequently declaimed on the sea-shore, while the waves were roaring around him, in order to secure a large compass of voice, and to accustom himself to the tumult of a popular assembly.] [Headnote 3: KING DA' VID, the sweet singer and poet of Israel. For the interesting account of his triumph over Goliath, the great champion of the Philistines, see I Sam., chap. 17.] MY FIRST JACK-KNIFE. 1. I remember it well! Its horn handle, so smooth and clear, glowing with the unmeaning, but magic word, "_Bunkum;_" and the blade significantly inviting you to the test, by the two monosyllables, "_Try me_." 2. I know not how it is, but I never could take half the comfort in any thing which I have since possessed, that I took in this _jack-knife_. I earned it myself; and, therefore, I had a feeling of independence; it was bought with my _own money_,--not teazed out of my uncle, or still kinder father,--_money_ that I had silently earned on the afternoons of those days set apart for boys to amuse themselves. 3. Yes! with a spirit of persevering industry and self-denial, at which I now wonder, I went, every afternoon, during "berry-time," and picked the ripened fruit with eagerness; for my heart was in the task. I sold my berries, and, carefully reserving the proceeds, shortly accumulated enough to purchase the treasure, for which I so eagerly longed. 4. I went to one of the village-stores, and requested the clerk to show me his jack-knives; but he, seeing that I was only a boy, and thinking that I merely meant to amuse myself in looking at the nicest, and wishing it was mine, told me not to plague him, as he was otherwise engaged. 5. I turned with indignation; but I felt the inward comfort of a man who has _confidence_ in his own resources, and knows he has the power in his own hands. I quietly jingled the money in my pockets, and went to the opposite store. I asked for jack-knives, and was shown a lot fresh from the city, which were temptingly laid down before me, and left for me to select one, while the trader went to another part of his store to wait upon an older customer. I looked over them, opened them, breathed upon the blades, and shut them again. 6. One was too hard to open, another had no spring; finally, after examining them with all the judgment which, in my opinion, the extent of the investment required, I selected one with a hole through the handle; and, after a dissertation with the owner upon jack-knives in general, and _this one_ in particular,--upon hawk-bill, and dagger-blades,--and handles, iron, bone, and buck-horn,--I succeeded in closing a bargain. 7. I took the instrument I had purchased, and felt a sudden expansion of my boyish frame! It was my world! I deposited it in my pocket among other valuables,--twine, marbles, slate-pencils, &c. I went home to my father; I told him how long I had toiled for it, and how eagerly I had spent time, which others had allotted to play, to possess myself of my treasure. 8. My father gently chided me for not telling him of my wants; but I observed his glistening eye turn affectionately to my mother and then to me, and I thought that his manly form seemed to straighten up and to look prouder than I had ever before seen him. At any rate, he came to me, and, patting my curly head, told me there was no object in life, which was reasonably to be desired, that _honesty, self-denial, well-directed industry_, and _perseverance_ would not place within my reach; and if, through life, I carried the spirit of independent exertion into practice, which I had displayed in the purchase of the jack-knife, I should become a "_great man_." 9. From that moment, I was a new being. I had discovered that I could _rely upon myself_. I took my jack-knife, and many a time, while cutting the walnut-saplings for my bow, or the straight pine for my arrow, or carving my mimic ship, did I muse upon these words of my father,--so deeply are the kind expressions of a judicious parent engraven on the heart and memory of boyhood. 10. My knife was my constant companion. It was my carpenter, my ship-builder, and my toy-manufacturer. It was out upon all occasions, never amiss, and always "handy;" and, as I valued it, I never let it part from me. I own my selfishness; I would divide my apples among my playmates, my whole store of marbles was at their service,--they might knock my bats, kick my foot-ball as they chose; but I had no partnership of enjoyments in my jack-knife. Its possession was connected in my mind with something so _exclusive_, that I could not permit another to take it for a moment. Oh! there is a wild and delicious luxury in one's boyish anticipations and youthful day-dreams! 11. If, however, the _use_ of my jack-knife afforded me pleasure, the idea of its possession was no less a source of enjoyment. I was, for the time being, a little prince among my fellows,--a perfect monarch. Let no one exclaim against aristocracy; were we all perfectly _equal to-day_, there would be an _aristocracy to-morrow_. Talent, judgment, skill, tact, industry, perseverance, will place some on the top, while the contrary attributes will place others at the bottom of fortune's ever-revolving wheel! 12. The plowman is an aristocrat, if he excels in his vocation: he is an aristocrat, if he turns a better or a straighter furrow than his neighbor. The poorest poet is an aristocrat, if he writes more feelingly, in a purer language, or with more euphonic jingle than his cotemporaries. The fisherman is an aristocrat, if he wields his harpoon with more skill, and hurls it with a deadlier energy than his messmates, or has even learned to fix his bait more alluringly on his barbed hook. 13. All _have_ had, and _still_ have their foibles; all have some possession, upon which they pride themselves, and I was proud of my jack-knife! Spirit of Socrates, [Headnote 1] forgive me! was there no pride in dying like a philosopher'? Spirit of Demosthenes, [Headnote 2] forgive me! was there no pride in your addresses to the boundless and roaring ocean'? Spirit of David! [Headnote 3] was there no pride in the deadly hurling of the smooth pebble, which sank deep into the forehead of your enemy'? 14. But I must take my jack-knife and _cut short_ this digression. Let no man say _this_ or _that_ occurrence "will make _no difference fifty years hence_,"--a common, but dangerous phrase. I am _now_ a man of three-score years. I can point my finger _here_ to my ships, _there_ to my warehouse. My name is well known in two hemispheres. I have drank deeply of intellectual pleasures, have served my country in many important stations, have had my gains and my losses. 15. I have seen many, who started with fairer prospects, but with no compass, wrecked before me; but I have been impelled in my operations, no matter how extensive, by the _same spirit_ which conceived and executed the purchase of the jack-knife. And I have found my reward in it; and, perhaps, in after years, there will be those who will say that the predictions of my father were fulfilled in their case; and that, from _small beginnings_, by "_honesty, self-denial, well-directed industry_, and _perseverance_," they also, BECAME TRULY "GREAT MEN." QUESTIONS.--1. How did this boy obtain his first jack-knife? 2. What did his father say to him, when he told how he had earned it? 3. What use did he make of his knife? 4. What is said about _aristocracy_? 5. What is said of this boy when he came to be three-score years old? * * * * * LESSON XXXVII. COIN' ED, stamped. BAR' TER, trade; exchange. COM MOD' I TIES, goods; wares. BULL'ION, uncoined silver or gold. BUC' CA NEERS, pirates; freebooters. IM MENSE', very great; enormous. DAIN' TIES, delicacies. SMALL-CLOTHES, breeches. AT TIR' ED, dressed; arrayed. PE' ONY, plant and beautiful flower. PER' SON A BLE, handsome; graceful. ES PE' CIAL LY, mainly; chiefly. RE CEP' TA CLE, that which receives or holds. PON' DER OUS, heavy; bulky. RE SUM' ING, taking again. THE PINE-TREE SHILLINGS. 1. Captain John Hull was the mint-master of Massachusetts, and coined all the money that was made there. This was a new line of business; for, in the earlier days of the colony, the current coinage consisted of gold and silver money of England, Portugal, and Spain. 2. These coins being scarce, the people were often forced to barter their commodities, instead of selling them. For instance, if a man wanted to buy a coat, he, perhaps, exchanged a bear-skin for it. If he wished for a barrel of molasses, he might purchase it with a pile of pine-boards. Musket-bullets were used instead of farthings. 3. The Indians had a sort of money, called _wampum_, which was made of clam-shells; and this strange sort of specie was, likewise, taken in payment of debts, by the English settlers. Bank-bills had never been heard of. There was not money enough of any kind, in many parts of the country, to pay the salaries of the ministers; so that they sometimes had to take quintals of fish, bushels of corn, or cords of wood, instead of silver or gold. 4. As the people grew more numerous, and their trade one with another increased, the want of current money was still more sensibly felt. To supply the demand, the general court passed a law for establishing a coinage of shillings, sixpences, and threepences. Captain John Hull was appointed to manufacture this money, and was to have _one shilling_, out of every twenty, to pay him for the trouble of making them. 5. Hereupon, all the old silver in the colony was handed over to Captain John Hull. The battered silver cans, and tankards, and silver-buckles, and broken spoons, and silver-buttons of worn-out coats, and silver hilts of swords that had figured at courts,--all such curious old articles were, doubtless, thrown into the melting-pot together. But by far the greater part of the silver consisted of bullion from the mines of South America, which the English buccaneers, (who were little better than pirates,) had taken from the Spaniards, and brought to Massachusetts. 6. All this old and new silver being melted down and coined, the result was an immense amount of splendid shillings, sixpences, and threepences. Each had the date, 1652, on the one side, and the figure of a _pine-tree_ on the other. Hence, they were called _pine-tree shillings_. And, for every _twenty shillings_ that he coined, you will remember, Captain John Hull was entitled to put _one shilling_ into his own pocket. 7. The magistrates soon began to suspect that the mint-master would have the best of the bargain. They offered him a large sum of money, if he would but give up that _twentieth shilling_, which he was continually dropping into his own pocket. But Captain Hull declared himself perfectly satisfied with the shilling. And well he might be; for, so diligently did he labor, that, in a few years, his pockets, his money-bags, and his strong box, were overflowing with pine-tree shillings. This was probably the case when he came into possession of Grandfather's chair; and, as he had worked so hard at the mint, it was certainly proper that he should have a comfortable chair to rest himself in. 8. When the mint-master had grown very rich, a young man, Samuel Sewell by name, fell in love with his only daughter. His daughter, whom we will call Betsey, was a fine, hearty damsel, by no means so slender as some young ladies of our own days. As Samuel was a young man of good character, industrious in his business, and a member of the church, the mint-master very readily gave his consent. 9. "Yes; you may take her," said he, in his rough way; "and you'll find her a heavy burden enough!" On the wedding-day, we may suppose that honest John Hull dressed himself in a plum-colored coat, all the buttons of which were made of pine-tree shillings. The buttons of his waistcoat were sixpences; and the knees of his small-clothes were buttoned with silver threepences. 10. Thus attired, he sat with great dignity in Grandfather's chair; and, being a portly old gentleman, he completely filled it from elbow to elbow. On the opposite side of the room, between her bridemaids, sat Miss Betsey, blushing like a full-blown peony. 11. There, too, was the bridegroom, dressed in a fine purple coat, and gold-lace waistcoat, with as much other finery as the Puritan laws and customs would allow him to put on. His hair was cropped close to his head, because Governor Endicott had forbidden any man to wear it below the ears. But he was a very personable young man; and so thought the bridemaids and Miss Betsey herself. 12. The mint-master, also, was pleased with his new son-in-law; especially as he had courted Miss Betsey out of pure love, and had said nothing at all about her portion. So, when the marriage ceremony was over, Captain Hull whispered a word to two of his men-servants, who immediately went out, and soon returned, lugging in a large pair of scales. They were such a pair as wholesale merchants use for weighing bulky commodities; and quite a bulky commodity was now to be weighed in them. 13. "Daughter Betsey," said the mint-master, "get into one side of these scales." Miss Betsey, or Mrs. Sewell, as we must now call her, did as she was bid, like a dutiful child, without any question of the why and wherefore. But what her father could mean, unless to make her husband pay for her by the pound, (in which case she would have been a dear bargain,) she had not the least idea. 14. "And now," said honest John Hull to the servants, "bring that box hither." The box, to which the mint-master pointed, was a huge, square, iron-bound, oaken chest. The servants tugged with might and main; but could not lift this enormous receptacle, and were finally obliged to drag it across the floor. 15. Captain Hull then took a key from his girdle, unlocked the chest, and lifted its ponderous lid. Behold! _it was full to the brim of bright pine-tree shillings_, fresh from the mint; and Samuel Sewell began to think that his father-in-law had got possession of all the money in the Massachusetts' treasury. But it was only the mint-master's honest share of the coinage. 16. Then the servants, at Captain Hull's command, heaped double handfuls of shillings into one side of the scales, while Betsey remained in the other. Jingle, jingle, went the shillings, as handful after handful was thrown in, till, plump and ponderous as she was, they fairly weighed the young lady from the floor. 17. "There, son Samuel," said the honest mint-master, resuming his seat in Grandfather's chair, "take these shillings for my daughter's portion. Use her kindly, and thank Heaven for her. _It is not every wife that's worth her weight in silver!_" QUESTIONS.--1. What was Captain John Hull's business? 2. What portion of the money coined, was he to receive? 3. How did he get silver to coin? 4. Describe the shillings he coined. 5. How did he become wealthy? 6. Describe his dress on his daughter's wedding-day. 7. What did he say to his son-in-law, after weighing her with shillings? * * * * * LESSON XXXVIII. LODG' ES, dens; caves. MAR' VEL OUS, wonderful. TIP' PED, pointed. HERD, gather in herds. FA' MOUS, noted; remarkable. ROE' BUCK, small species of deer. STRAIGHT' WAY, immediately. E RECT', upright. FROL' IC, fun; play. FORD, place where water can be waded. FLECK' ED, spotted; striped. FLUT' TER ED, quivered. PAL' PI TA TED, beat; throbbed. WA' RY, watchful; cautious. FA' TAL, deadly; mortal. EX ULT' ED, (_x_ like _gz_,) greatly rejoiced. HIAWATHA'S HUNTING. LONGFELLOW. This lesson is taken from "The Song of Hiawatha," a poem, founded upon traditions current among some tribes of North American Indians, respecting an imaginary being of more than mortal powers and gifts, named Hiawatha. The scene of the poem is laid among the Ojibways, or Chippewas, a tribe of Indians, occupants, from the period of our earliest history, of the basin of Lake Superior. 1. Then the little Hiawatha Learned of every bird its language, Learned their names and all their secrets, How they built their nests in summer, Where they hid themselves in winter, Talked with them where'er he met them, Called them "Hiawatha's chickens." 2. Of all beasts he learned the language, Learned their names and all their secrets, How the beavers built their lodges, Where the squirrels hid their acorns, How the reindeer ran so swiftly, Why the rabbit was so timid, Talked with them whene'er he met them, Called them "Hiawatha's brothers." 3. Then Ia'goo, the great boaster, He, the marvelous story-teller, He, the traveler and the talker, Made a bow for Hiawatha; From a branch of ash he made it, From an oak-bough made the arrows, Tipped with flint, and winged with feathers, And the cord he made of deer-skin. 4. Then he said to Hiawatha, "Go, my son, into the forest, Where the red deer herd together, Kill for us a famous roebuck, Kill for us a deer with antlers." Forth into the forest straightway All alone walked Hiawatha Proudly with his bow and arrows. 5. And the birds sang round him, o'er him "Do not shoot us, Hiawatha." Sang the robin, sang the bluebird, "Do not shoot us, Hiawatha." Up the oak-tree, close beside him, Sprang the squirrel, lightly leaping In and out among the branches; Coughed and chattered from the oak-tree, Laughed, and said between his laughing, "Do not shoot me, Hiawatha." 6. And the rabbit from his pathway Leaped aside, and, at a distance, Sat erect upon his haunches, Half in fear, and half in frolic, Saying to the little hunter, "Do not shoot me, Hiawatha." 7. But he heeded not nor heard them, For his thoughts were with the red deer; On their tracks his eyes were fastened, Leading downward to the river, To the ford across the river, And as one in slumber walked he. 8. Hidden in the alder bushes, There he waited till the deer came, Till he saw too antlers lifted, Saw two eyes look from the thicket, Saw two nostrils point to windward, And the deer came down the pathway, Flecked with leafy light and shadow. And his heart within him fluttered, Trembled like the leaves above him, Like the birch leaf palpitated, As the deer came down the pathway. 9. Then, upon one knee uprising, Hiawatha aimed an arrow; Scarce a twig moved with his motion, Scarce a leaf was stirred or rustled, But the wary roebuck started, Stamped with all his hoofs together, Listened with one foot uplifted, Leaped as if to meet the arrow; Ah, the singing, fatal arrow, Like a wasp it buzzed and stung him. 10. Dead he lay there in the forest, By the ford across the river; Beat his timid heart no longer; But the heart of Hiawatha Throbbed, and shouted, and exulted, As he bore the red deer homeward. * * * * * LESSON XXXIX. TRAIL, track; footprints. IN' DICATED, pointed out; shown. MURK' Y, dark; gloomy. FLAM' BEAU, (_flam' bo_,) lighted torch. RE FLECT' ING, throwing back. LU' RID LY, gloomily; dismally. SUS PECT' ING, mistrusting. AS SAIL' ANTS, assaulters. ECH' O, (_ek' o_,) sound reverberated. RE LAPS' ED, fell back; returned. EN VEL' OPED, inwrapped. SUF FO CATED, smothered. BRAND' ISHING, flourishing; waving. RIG' ID, stiff. BIV' OUAC, (_biv' wak_,) pass the night without tents. PEER' ED, came in sight; appeared. DE CLIV' I TY, gradual descent. PRO LONG' ED, lengthened; continued. COM' RADE, companion; associate. A DESPERATE ENCOUNTER WITH A PANTHER. BOY'S BOOK OF ADVENTURES. 1. I had left the hunting party more than an hour, when I came upon the track of my old friend Konwell, who was, with his dogs, on the bloody trail of a panther. The animal must have had one of his legs broken; this was indicated by the marks on the soft ground; and it was plain that the tracks were made by three feet instead of four, and accompanied by blood at every leap. 2. I determined to follow; and, after a tramp of nearly an hour, I overtook my friend at the entrance of a cavern, where he stood waiting for me. The wounded animal had taken refuge in this cave, leaving us to do whatever we thought best. The poor beast doubtless supposed that within this murky recess he was safe from pursuit; but he was mistaken. Konwell informed me that he had hidden a bundle of pine splinters in a gulley, about half a mile distant, and that if I would keep guard over the mouth of the cave, he would go and bring it. 3. I agreed to this measure; and, with ready gun and drawn knife, prepared for any attack that might be made. I lay down at the entrance of the panther's cave. My friend soon returned, bringing the pine, as he had promised. His next movement was to kindle a large fire at the mouth of the cave, at which we lighted our torches; and, having taken the flambeaus in our left hand, while we carried our guns in the right, we cautiously entered the cave. I crept on before; but the space within soon became so high and roomy, that we could stand upright, and keep close to each other. 4. Bending toward the left, the cavity extended a considerable distance within the hill. After we had advanced about two hundred steps, we saw the glaring eyes of the wounded beast, which gleamed forth like two fiery balls, reflecting most luridly the light of our torches. Konwell now took my flambeau and stepped behind me. I leveled my gun in the direction of those flaming eyes, and fired. After the report, we heard a bustle; but could not exactly make out what it meant. 5. I reloaded my gun, resumed my torch, and Konwell now took his place in front. But, as those flaming eyes were no longer to be seen, we felt obliged to go farther. Our guns ready loaded, we believed ourselves to be prepared for anything. We proceeded carefully, as men are likely to do when suspecting danger, when, instantly, the panther started up from a hollow, in which he was lying, quite close to our feet. 6. It was a fearful sight to look upon him as he stood with ears laid back, his white teeth set together, as if in intense anger, and those wide open eyes glowing and sparkling as they rested upon us, his assailants. I can never forget his appearance. In a moment our guns were discharged, and the cave returned the thundering echo. We had both fired so precisely at the same moment, that neither of us could believe the other had discharged his gun. 7. We were certain that our enemy had been struck, but we knew not whether killed or only disabled. Quick as thought, we dropped our guns and drew our knives from the sheath. And haste was necessary; for the echo had not relapsed into silence, before we felt the weight of the panther against us; and we began cutting at him with our knives, and, at the same moment, in consequence of our hurried movements, our torches died out, and we were left in utter darkness. 8. Deafened by the noise and utterly bewildered, I turned to fly from the now raging enemy, and only became perfectly aware of what I was doing, when I found myself standing beside Konwell outside the cave in the open air. I only know now, that, enveloped in thick darkness, and almost suffocated with the smoke of gunpowder, I groped about, not knowing what I wished or intended; and that Konwell, at last, drew me forcibly to the mouth of the cave. 9. There we stood, each one brandishing his hunting-knife in his right hand, and holding the extinguished torch in the left; as we looked on each other, we scarcely knew whether to laugh or to be frightened at the strange figures we made. We were black with powder-smoke, covered with sweat and blood, and our clothing torn to rags. 10. Konwell complained of a pain in his breast. I opened the bosom of his shirt, and found two deep gashes made by the panther's claws, extending from the left shoulder to the pit of the stomach. I also received a few scratches, but our stout hunting-shirts were torn to shreds. 11. Until this moment, neither of us had felt that he was wounded; and even now, before we began to think of dressing those wounds, we made a large fire at the mouth of the cavern, in order to prevent the panther from coming forth. This done, we sat down beside the genial blaze to wash and bind up our scratches, and consult on what plan it was now best to proceed. 12. That the panther was still in the cave we were certain; but, whether living or dead, we did not know; at all events, he was wounded; for our hunting-knives were covered with blood quite up to the hilt. But we had no choice left; we must return; for our guns and Konwell's powder-flask, which the animal dragged off with him, still lay within the cavern. We therefore plucked up new courage; and, having relighted our torches, we brandished our knives, and prepared, though not without some heart throbbings, once more to enter the panther's den. 13. With light and cautious steps, lest we might be as unpleasantly surprised as we had been when we made our hasty retreat, we advanced, holding our torches before us, to the spot where we had dropped our guns, and without meeting with any hinderance from our enemy. Once more in possession of our trusty weapons, we reloaded them, and stepped forward with lighter hearts, yet still with great caution, when Konwell exclaimed, as he raised the flaming pine high above his head, and pointed with it in a certain direction, "_See! there he is!_" 14. This was the first word that had been spoken since we reentered the cavern. I looked in the indicated direction, and there, indeed, lay the panther, stretched out at full length, but no longer dangerous. His eyes were set, his limbs were rigid,--the last agony was over. We skinned and cut him up as he lay. All three bullets had struck him, and both knives penetrated his body; and it must have been in the death-struggle that he leaped upon us. 15. When our work was ended, and we again came to the open air, the sun was low in the horizon, and all haste was necessary that we should set out on our forest-path without further delay. Our wounds smarted not a little, and, although we took time once more to wash them, they became so stiff that our progress was both toilsome and tedious. We soon became convinced that we should not succeed in reaching our companions while daylight remained, and we determined to bivouac for the night, at the foot of a rocky declivity, which promised a good shelter from the cutting wind. 16. To add to our discomfort, hunger began to make itself painfully felt; but this was soon overpowered by weariness, and, having gathered up the dry pine branches, we kindled up a good fire, and, without troubling ourselves to prepare any thing for supper, we stretched ourselves on the grass before it, and found the warmth most grateful. 17. Worn out by the toils of the day, in a few minutes Konwell was fast asleep; but, although much inclined to follow his example, I was prevented by the restlessness of my dog, which seemed to wish to warn me of the presence of danger. The faithful animal, cringing closely to me, laid his nose on my shoulder, raising his head from time to time, and whined, as though he wished to communicate something, and then, for a few moments, would remain quiet. Then, suddenly, he would rise up as in the attitude of listening, occasionally uttering a low growl. 18. Completely awakened by this strange behavior on the part of my faithful dog, it seemed to me as if I heard a slight rustling among the dry bushes; and, rising up to a half-sitting posture, I looked toward the rock behind me, and, to my great astonishment, became aware of a pair of glaring eyes fastened upon me. As my head was between the fire and those fearful eyes, I could plainly distinguish the fiery balls as, reflected on by the red light, they peered above the naked rocks. 19. It was a panther, and evidently, from the position in which I saw it, was ready for a spring. Happily on this, as on every other night, my trusty gun lay close beside me. I seized it, and, half-rising, so that the fire behind me afforded light for a steady aim, I leveled it exactly between the eyes. I fired, the bullet sped on its deadly errand, and the crack of the noble rifle, thundering against the steep rocks, returned with loud and prolonged echo. 20. Konwell, to whom the report of a gun was ever the sweetest music, now started up, as if roused by an electric shock, and grasped his gun. The dog continued his barking, smelling all around, and looking in my face as if to inquire in what direction he should go. There was no rustling movement on the rock, and the bullet must have taken effect. 21. Konwell shook his head as he inquired, "Why I had shot?" Without answering, I began to reload my gun: this finished, I took up a blazing pine brand from the fire, and proceeded to climb the steep wall of rock, that raised itself like a barrier, about twenty steps distant from the spot upon which we rested. Here I found an old panther, the largest I had ever seen, lying dead--my well-directed bullet had finished him. I flung the body over the rock, and my old comrade dragged him to the fire. 22. The ball had struck him directly in the right eye, passing through the brain. He was a fearful-looking animal, with terrible teeth and claws, and the more to be dreaded, as, when we cut him up, his stomach was found entirely empty. I believed that hunger had driven him so close to the fire; but Konwell thought he had scented the fresh venison we had with us. Be that as it may, there was little doubt but that he would have made a leap, as soon as the intervening fire had burned down; to its friendly presence, therefore, on this occasion, as a means of Providence, we owed our lives. QUESTIONS.--1. What had Konwell driven into a den? 2. What preparation did he make, before entering into the cavern? 3. How far had the men proceeded before they saw the panther? 4. Describe the appearance of the panther, as they came near him after the first shot? 5. What did the panther do after the men both fired at him? 6. Did they finally succeed in killing the panther? 7. Describe the manner in which they killed another panther. * * * * * LESSON XL. RAP' IDs, part of a river where the current is swift. TUR' BU LENCE, violent agitation. HELM, instrument for steering a vessel. EX CUR' SION, tour; ramble. A HOY', sea term used in hailing a vessel. QUAFF, drink largely. HOIST, raise; lift up. BLAS PHEM' ING, uttering impious language. SHRIEK' ING, screaming; crying out. THE POWER OF HABIT. JOHN B. GOUGH. 1. I remember once riding from Buffalo to the Niagara Palls. I said to a gentleman, "What river is that, sir?" "That," said he, "is Niagara river." 2. "Well, it is a beautiful stream," said I; "bright, and fair, and glassy. How far off are the rapids?" "Only a mile or two," was the reply. 3. "Is it _possible_ that only a mile from us, we shall find the water in the turbulence which it must show near the Falls'?" "You will find it so, sir." And so I found it; and the first sight of Niagara I shall never forget. 4. Now, launch your bark on that Niagara river; it is bright, smooth, beautiful, and glassy. There is a ripple at the bow; the silver wake you leave behind, adds to your enjoyment. Down the stream you glide, oars, sails, and helm in proper trim, and you set out on your pleasure excursion. 5. Suddenly, some one cries out from the bank, "_Young men, ahoy!_" "What is it?" "_The rapids are below you!_" 6. "Ha! ha! we have heard of the rapids; but we are not such fools as to get there. If we go too fast, then we shall up with the helm, and steer to the shore; we will set the mast in the socket, hoist the sail, and speed to the land. Then on, boys; don't be alarmed,--there is no danger." 7. "Young men, ahoy there!" "What is it?" "_The rapids are below you!_" 8. "Ha! ha! we will laugh and quaff; all things delight us. What care we for the future! No man ever saw it. Sufficient for the day is the evil thereof. We will enjoy life while we may,--will catch pleasure as it flies. This is enjoyment; time enough to steer out of danger when we are sailing swiftly with the current." 9 (_ff._) "YOUNG MEN, AHOY!" "What is it?" "BEWARE! BEWARE! THE RAPIDS ARE BELOW YOU!" 10. "Now you see the water foaming all around. See how fast you pass that point! Up with the helm! Now turn! Pull hard! (=) Quick! quick! quick! pull for your lives! pull till the blood starts from your nostrils, and the veins stand like whip-cords upon your brow! Set the mast in the socket! hoist the sail! (_sl._) Ah! ah! it is too late! Shrieking, howling, blaspheming; over they go." 11. Thousands go over the rapids of intemperance every year, through _the power of habit_, crying all the while, "_When I find out that it_ [Footnote: Temperate drinking.] _is injuring me, I will give it up!_" QUESTIONS.--1. Where are the Niagara Falls? 2. How does the water appear just above the Falls? 3. How does it appear farther up? 4. What reply are the young men represented as making, when first told the rapids were below them? 5. What, when told the second time? 6. What must they do, to escape destruction? 7. What is said of _the power of habit?_ * * * * * LESSON XLI. BE SOT' TED, stupefied. BUR LESQU' ED, mocked; derided. DE FI' ED, set at defiance. CHER' ISH ED, fostered; encouraged. STREW' ED, scattered; spread. LIV' ID, discolored; black and blue. MIR' ROR ED, reflected, as in a glass. RE VEAL' INGS, disclosures. PLIGHT' ED, pledged. FOR SWORN', perjured. STAMP' ED, impressed; fixed deeply. BLIGHT, blasting disease. A TONE', make reparation. PRO CLAIM' ED, openly declared. LOATHE, detest; abhor. BEV' ER AGE, drink. These verses should be read in a firm, half-indignant, yet imploring tone of voice,--except the last verse, which should be expressed in a very decided and impassioned manner. THE DRUNKARD'S DAUGHTER. [Footnote: These beautiful and touching verses were written by a young lady, in reply to a friend who had called her a monomaniac on the subject of temperance.] 1. Go, feel what I have felt, Go, bear what I have borne; Sink 'neath a blow a father dealt, And the cold, proud world's scorn; Thus struggle on from year to year, Thy sole relief,--the scalding tear. 2. Go, weep as I have wept, O'er a loved father's fall, See every cherished promise swept,-- Youth's sweetness turned to gall; Hope's faded flowers strewed all the way That led me up to woman's day. 3. Go, kneel as I have knelt; Implore, beseech, and pray, Strive the besotted heart to melt, The downward course to stay; Be cast with bitter curse aside,-- Thy prayers burlesqued, thy tears defied. 4. Go, stand where I have stood, And see the strong man bow; With gnashing teeth, lips bathed in blood, And cold and livid brow; Go, catch his wandering glance, and see There mirrored, his soul's misery. 5. Go, hear what I have heard,-- The sobs of sad despair, As memory's feeling fount hath stirred, And its revealings there Have told him what he might have been, Had he the drunkard's fate foreseen. 6. Go to my mother's side, And her crushed spirit cheer; Thine own deep anguish hide, Wipe from her cheek the tear; Mark her dimmed eye,--her furrowed brow, The gray that streaks her dark hair now; Her toil-worn frame, her trembling limb, And trace the ruin back to him Whose plighted faith, in early youth, Promised eternal love and truth; But who, forsworn, hath yielded up That promise to the deadly cup, And led her down from love and light, From all that made her pathway bright, And chained her there 'mid want and strife, That lowly thing,--_a drunkard's wife!_ And stamped on childhood's brow so mild, That withering blight, _a drunkard's child!_ 7. Go, hear, and see, and feel, and know, All that _my soul_ hath felt and known, Then look upon the wine-cup's glow; See if its brightness can atone; Think if its flavor you will try, If all proclaimed, "_'Tis drink and die!_" 8. Tell me I _hate_ the bowl; _Hate_ is a feeble word: (f.) _I loathe_, ABHOR,--_my very soul_ _With strong disgust is stirred_, Whene'er I see, or hear, or tell, Of the DARK BEVERAGE OF HELL!! QUESTIONS.--1. By whom was this poetry written? 2. What circumstance induced her to write it? 3. What is the meaning of _monomaniac?_ Ans. One who is deranged in a single faculty of the mind, or with regard to a particular subject, the other faculties being in regular exercise. 4. What reasons does she assign for her hatred of alcoholic drink? 5. What does she say of her mother? 6. With what tone of voice should the last verse be read? See page 40, Rule 4. 7. Why are some words and sentences printed in Italics and Capitals? See page 22, Note III. * * * * * LESSON XLII. REC' ORDS, accounts; minutes. AD VENT' URES, doings; strange occurences. EN CUM' BER, load; clog. GRAT I FI CA' TION, indulgence. SCHEME, plan; progress. DE LIB ER A' TION, thought; consideration. LUX U RI OUS, pleasure-loving. EX PE DI' TION, tour; enterprise. MO ROSE', sour; ill-humored. RE VOLT' ING, disgusting; abhorrent. CON TEM' PLATE, consider; think upon. REL' IC, remains. IN VES' TI GATE, examine; look into. AC COM' PLISH ED, effected. PIC TUR ESQUE', (_pikt yur esk'_)grand; beautiful; picture-like. THE TWO YOUNG TRAVELERS. MERRY'S MUSEUM. 1. Horace and Herman, two young men who were friends, set out to travel in distant countries. Before they departed, each had formed a _plan_ of proceeding. Horace determined to give himself up entirely to _pleasure,_--to go wherever his humor might dictate,--and to keep no records of his adventures. In short, he resolved to _enjoy himself_ as much as possible, and, by no means, to encumber his mind with cares, duties, or troubles of any kind. 2. Herman was as fond of amusement as Horace; but the _mode_ he adopted for the gratification of his wishes, was quite different. In the first place, he made out a scheme of his travels: he procured maps, read books, and, after mature deliberation, adopted a certain route, as most likely to afford him pleasure as well as instruction. 3. In the formation of this plan, he spent several weeks; and, in this occupation, he found quite as much satisfaction as he afterwards did in traveling. Thus he obtained one great advantage over his idle and luxurious friend, who foolishly thought that the essence of enjoyment lay in freedom from thought, restraint, and toil. Even before they set out on their journey, Herman had actually found nearly as _much_ pleasure as Horace received in the whole course of his expedition. 4. The two young men started together; and, as there were then no canals or railroads, they both set out on foot. They had not proceeded far before they separated,--Horace taking one road and Herman another. 5. After the lapse of three years, they both returned; but what a difference between them! Horace was morose and dissatisfied; he had seen a good deal of the world, but, as he had traveled with no other design than to _gratify himself_ from hour to hour, he had soon exhausted the cup of pleasure, and found nothing at the bottom but the bitter dregs of discontent. 6. He pursued pleasure, till, at last, he found the pursuit to be distasteful and revolting. He grew tired even of amusement. He indulged his tastes, humors, and passions, until indulgence itself was disgusting. When he returned to his friends, he had laid up nothing in his memory, by the relation of which he could amuse them; he had kept no record of things he had seen; he brought back no store of pleasing and useful recollections for himself, or others. Such was the result of three years' travel for pleasure. 7. It was quite otherwise with Herman. Adhering to his plans, he visited a great many places, and, each day, he recorded in his journal what he had seen. Whenever he met with an interesting object, he stopped to contemplate it. If it was some aged relic, famous in history, he took pains to investigate its story, and to write it down. If it was an object of interest to the eye, he made a sketch of it in a book which he kept for that purpose. 8. In this way, Herman accomplished three good objects. In the first place, by taking pleasure in a moderate way, and mixing with it a little toil and industry, he prevented that cloying surfeit which, at last, sickened and disgusted Horace. 9. In the second place, he greatly increased his enjoyments by the plan he adopted. Merely executing a plan is agreeable, and a source of great pleasure. It is natural to derive happiness from following out a design,--from seeing, hour by hour, day by day, how results come about, in conformity to our intentions. 10. But _this_ was not the _only_ advantage which Herman received from his system. The very toil he bestowed; the investigations he made; the pleasant thoughts and curious knowledge that were unfolded to his mind; the excitement he found in his exertions; the pleasure he took in drawing picturesque scenes; _all_ constituted a rich harvest of pleasure, which was wholly denied to Horace. 11. Thus it was that labor and industry, exerted in carrying out a plan, afforded the young traveler a vast deal of gratification. The very things that Horace looked upon as hateful, were, in fact, the sources of his friend's most permanent enjoyment. 12. In the third place, Herman had come back laden with rich stores of knowledge, observation, and experience. Not only was his journal rich in tales, legends, scenes, incidents, and historical records, but in putting these things down on paper, his memory had been improved, and he had acquired the habit of observing and remembering. His mind was full of pleasant things, and nothing could be more interesting than to hear him tell of his travels, and of what he had seen. 13. While Horace was dull, silent, and sour, Herman was full of conversation, life, and interest. The one was happy', the other unhappy`; one was agreeable', the other disagreeable`; one had exhausted the cup of pleasure', the other seemed always to have the cup full and sparkling before him`. It was agreed on all hands that Horace was a disagreeable person, and everybody shunned him; while Herman was considered by all a most agreeable companion, and everybody sought his society. 14. So much for the two travelers; _one_, a luxurious lover of pleasure, who thought only of the passing moment, and, in his folly, abused and threw away his powers of enjoyment; the _other_, a lover of pleasure also; but who pursued it moderately, with a wise regard to the future, and careful attention, every day, to the rules of duty; and who thus secured his true happiness. QUESTIONS.--1. What plan had Horace determined to pursue while traveling? 2. What was Herman's plan? 3. What is said of Horace, after his return? 4. How was it with Herman? 5. What is said of the two in contrast? 6. What effect has the emphasis on the place of the accent in the words _unhappy_ and _disagreeable_, 13th paragraph? See page 22, note V. * * * * * LESSON XLIII. IM' PORT, meaning. GROV' EL ING, mean; creeping. A CHIEVE' MENT, performance. AS PI RA' TION, wish; ardent desire. SAN' GUINE, ardent; hopeful. RE' AL IZ ED, attained. IN SPI RA' TION, natural impulse. STATE' LI NESS, dignity: majesty. AD VENT' TUR OUS, daring; enterprising. EX UL TA' TION, (_x_ like _gz_,) triumph. RI' VALS, competitors. DIG' NI TY, elevation; majesty. OR' A CLES, wise words or sentences. A' PEX, hight; summit. TEN' E MENT, dwelling; _here means_, the body. AD MON' ISH. warn. RAPT' UR OUS, joyous; ecstatic. AN TIC I PA' TION, foretaste. PHI LOS' O PHY, (PHILO, _love_; SOPHY, _wisdom_,) love of wisdom; reason of things. See SANDERS & McELLIGOTT'S ANALYSIS, page 236, Ex. 334 HIGHER! 1. HIGHER! It is a word of noble import. It lifts the soul of man from low and groveling pursuits, to the achievement of great and noble deeds, and ever keeps the object of his aspiration in view, till his most sanguine expectations are fully realized. 2. HIGHER! lisps the infant that clasps its parent's knee, and makes its feeble effort to rise from the floor. It is the first inspiration of childhood to burst the narrow confines of the cradle, and to exercise those feeble, tottering limbs, which are to walk forth in the stateliness of manhood. 3. HIGHER! echoes the proud school-boy in his swing; or, as he climbs the tallest tree of the forest, that he may look down upon his less adventurous comrades with a flush of exultation,--and abroad over the fields, the meadows, and his native village. 4. HIGHER! earnestly breathes the student of philosophy and nature. He has a host of rivals; but he must excel them all. The midnight oil burns dim; but he finds light and knowledge in the lamps of heaven, and his soul is never weary, when the last of them is hid by the splendors of the morning. 5. And HIGHER! his voice thunders forth, when the dignity of manhood has mantled his form, and the multitude is listening with delight to his oracles, burning with eloquence, and ringing like true steel in the cause of _Freedom_ and _Right_. And when time has changed his locks to silver,--when the young and the old unite to do him honor, he still breathes forth from his generous heart fond wishes for their welfare. 6. HIGHER YET! He has reached the apex of earthly honor; yet his spirit burns as warm as in youth, though with a steadier and purer light. And even now, while his frail tenement begins to admonish him, that "the time of his departure is at hand," he looks forward, with rapturous anticipation, to the never-fading glory, attainable only in the presence of the Most High. QUESTIONS.--1. What is said of the word _Higher_, first paragraph? 2. When does the school-boy say Higher? 3. What is said of the student? 4. What, when he arrives at manhood? 5. What, when he becomes old? 6. Where is the passage within the quotation to be found? Ans. 2 Timothy, 4th chapter, 6th verse. * * * * * LESSON XLIV. IN TENS' ER, more fervent. STUB' BORN, unyielding; rugged. DEEM, think; imagine. OLD' EN, old; ancient. CLINGS, sticks; adheres closely. GAL' LANT, fine; noble. YAWN' ING, wide-opening. FU' RY, rage; madness. RAVE, rage; become furious. HEC' TIC, habitual; continuous. MEN' TAL, intellectual. WIELD, sway; exert. PRIV' I LEGE, right; opportunity. DOW' ER, gift; portion. LABOR. [Footnote: These lines were suggested by the simple incident of an industrious wood-sawyer's reply to a man who told him that _his was a hard work_. "Yes, it is hard, to be sure; but _it is harder to do nothing_," was his answer.] CAROLINE F. ORNE. 1. Ho, ye who at the anvil toil, And strike the sounding blow, Where, from the burning iron's breast, The sparks fly to and fro, While answering to the hammer's ring, And fire's intenser glow!--Oh, while ye feel 'tis hard to toil And sweat the long day through, Remember, it is harder still _To have no work to do!_ 2. Ho, ye who till the stubborn soil, Whose hard hands guide the plow, Who bend beneath the summer sun, With burning cheek and brow!--Ye deem the curse still clings to earth From olden time till now; But, while ye feel 'tis hard to toil And labor all day through, Remember, it is harder still _To have no work to do_! 3. Ho, ye who plow the sea's blue field, Who ride the restless wave, Beneath whose gallant vessel's keel There lies a yawning grave, Around whose bark the wint'ry winds Like fiends of fury rave!--Oh, while ye feel 'tis hard to toil And labor long hours through, Remember, it is harder still _To have no work to do!_ 4 Ho, ye upon whose fevered cheeks The hectic glow is bright, Whose mental toil wears out the day, And half the weary night, Who labor for the souls of men, Champions of truth and right!--Although ye feel your toil is hard, Even with this glorious view, Remember, it is harder still _To have no work to do!_ 5. Ho, all who labor,--all who strive Ye wield a lofty power; Do with your might, do with your strength, Fill every golden hour! The glorious privilege _to do_ Is man's most noble dower. Oh, to your birthright and yourselves To your own souls be true! A weary, wretched life is theirs, _Who have no work to do!_ QUESTIONS.--1. What incident suggested these thoughts to the writer? 2. Who toil at the anvil? 3. Who till the stubborn soil? 4. Who plow the sea's blue wave? 5. Who toil mentally? 6. Who labor for the souls of men? 7. What is man's most noble dower? 8. What is said to all these different laborers? 9. What is the meaning of the suffix _less_ in the word _restless?_ See SANDERS & McELLIGOTT'S ANALYSIS, page 140, Ex. 187. * * * * * LESSON XLV. E LIC' IT, draw forth. IN TEL' LI GENT, knowing; well-informed. RE FRAIN, hold in, or keep back. IG NO RA' MUS, ignorant person. RE TORT', reply; answer back. IN DEL' I BLY, in a way not to be effaced. MYS' TE RIES, profound secrets. AB SORB' ED, engrossed; occupied. MOR TI FI CA' TION, deep disappointment. OB STA CLE, hinderance; impediment. RE VOLT ED, shrank back. POR' ING, earnestly perusing. EM I NENCE, distinction. IN FOR MA' TION, knowledge. IL LIT' ER ATE, ignorant; unlearned. PRO FES' SION, business; employment. DIS' CI PLIN ED trained; instructed. CON TEMPT' U OUS, scornful; hateful. AN TAG' O NIST, opponent; adversary. THE AMBITIOUS APPRENTICE. 1. "How far is it from here to the sun?" asked Harmon Lee of his father's apprentice, James Wallace, intending by the question to elicit some reply that would exhibit the boy's ignorance. 2. James Wallace, a boy of fourteen, turned his bright, intelligent eyes upon the son of his employer, and replied, "I don't know, Harmon. How far is it?" 3. There was something so honest and earnest in the tone of the boy, that, much as Harmon had felt disposed, at first, to sport with his ignorance, he could not refrain from giving him a true answer. Still, his contempt for the ignorant apprentice was not to be concealed, and he replied, "_Ninety-five millions of miles_, you ignoramus!" James did not retort; but, repeating over in his mind the distance named, fixed it indelibly upon his memory. 4. On the same evening, after he had finished his day's work, he obtained a small text-book on astronomy, which belonged to Harmon Lee, and went up into his garret with a candle, and there, alone, attempted to dive into the mysteries of that sublime science. As he read, the earnestness of his attention fixed nearly every fact upon his mind. So intent was he, that he perceived not the flight of time, until the town-clock struck ten. 5. He lay down upon his hard bed, and gave full scope to his thoughts. Hour after hour passed away, but he could not sleep, so absorbed was he in reviewing the new and wonderful things he had read. At last, wearied nature gave way, and he fell into a slumber, filled with dreams of planets, moons, comets, and fixed stars. 6. The next morning the apprentice boy resumed his place at the work-bench with a new feeling; and, with _this_ feeling, was mingled one of regret, that he could not go to school as well as Harmon. "But I can study at night, while he is asleep," he said to himself. 7. Just then Harmon Lee came into the shop, and, approaching James, said, for the purpose of teasing him, "How big round is the earth, James?" "_Twenty-five thousand miles,_" was the quick reply. 8. Harmon looked surprised, for a moment, and then responded, with a sneer,--for he was not a kind-hearted boy, but, on the contrary, very selfish, and disposed to _injure_ rather than _do good_ to others,--"Oh! how wonderfully wise you are all at once! And no doubt you can tell how many moons Jupiter has? Come, let us hear." 9. "Jupiter has four moons," James answered, with something of exultation in his tone. "And, no doubt, you can tell how many rings it has?" "Jupiter has no rings. Saturn has rings, and Jupiter belts," James replied, in a decisive tone. 10. For a moment or two Harmon was silent with surprise and mortification, to think that his father's _apprentice_, whom he esteemed so far below him, should be possessed of knowledge equal to his, and on the points in reference to which he had chosen to question him,--and that he should be able to convict him of an error, into which he had purposely fallen. 11. "I should like to know how long it is since you became so wonderfully wise," said Harmon, with a sneer. "Not very long," James replied calmly. "I have been reading one of your books on astronomy." 12. "I should like to know what business _you_ have to touch one of _my_ books! You had better be minding your work." "I did not neglect it, Harmon; I read at _night_, after I was done with my work; and I did not hurt your book." "I don't care if you _didn't_ hurt it. You are not going to have _my_ books, I can tell you. So, you just let them alone." 13. Poor James's heart sank within him at this unexpected obstacle, so suddenly thrown in his way. He had no money of his own to buy, and knew of no one from whom he could borrow the book, that had become so necessary to his happiness. "Do, Harmon," he said, "lend me the book; I will take good care of it." "No; I will not. And don't you dare to touch it," was the angry reply. 14. James Wallace knew well enough the selfish disposition of Harmon, to be convinced that there was now but little hope of his having the use of his books, except by stealth; and from that his naturally open and honest principles revolted. All day he thought earnestly of the means whereby he should be able to obtain a book on astronomy, to quench the ardent thirst he had created in his own mind. 15. He was learning the trade of a blind-maker. Having been already an apprentice for two years, and being industrious and intelligent, he had acquired a readiness with tools, and much skill in some parts of his trade. While sitting alone, after he had finished his work for the day, it occurred to him that he might, by working in the evening, earn some money, and with it buy such books as he wanted. 16. By consent of his employer, he succeeded in getting a small job, from one of his neighbors; and, in a short time, by working evenings, he obtained sufficient money to purchase a book of his own, and had a half dollar left, with which he bought a second-hand dictionary. Every night found him poring over his books; and, as soon as it was light enough in the morning to see, he was up and reading. During the day, his mind was pondering over the things he had read, while his hands were diligently employed in the labor assigned him. 17. It occurred, just at this time, that a number of benevolent individuals established, in the town where James lived, one of those excellent institutions, an Apprentices' Library. To this he applied, and obtained the books he needed. And thus, did this poor apprentice boy lay the foundation of future eminence and usefulness. At the age of twenty-one, he was master of his trade; and, what was more, had laid up a vast amount of general and scientific information. 18. Let us now turn to mark the progress of the young student, Harmon Lee, in one of the best seminaries in his native city, and afterwards at college. The idea that he was to be a lawyer, soon took possession of his mind, and this caused him to feel contempt for other boys, who were merely designed for trades or store-keeping. 19. Like too many others, he had no love for learning. To be a _lawyer_ he thought would be much more honorable than to be a mere mechanic; and, for this reason _alone_, he desired to be one. As for James Wallace, the poor illiterate apprentice, he was most heartily despised, and never treated by Harmon with the least degree of kind consideration. 20. At the age of eighteen, Harmon was sent away to one of the eastern universities, and there remained until he was twenty years of age, when he graduated, and came home with the honorary title of Bachelor of Arts. On the very day that James completed his term of apprenticeship, Harmon was admitted to the bar. 21. From some cause, James determined he would make law _his_ profession. To the acquirement of a knowledge of legal matters, therefore, he bent all the energies of a well disciplined mind. Two years passed away in an untiring devotion to the studies he had assigned himself, and he then made application for admission to the bar. 22. Young Wallace passed his examinations with some applause, and the first case on which he was employed, chanced to be one of great difficulty, which required all his skill; the lawyer on the opposite side was Harmon Lee, who entertained for his father's apprentice the utmost contempt. 23. The cause came on. There was a profound silence and a marked attention and interest, when the young stranger arose in the court-room to open the case. A smile of contempt curled the lip of Harmon Lee, but Wallace saw it not. The prominent points of the case were presented in plain, but concise language to the court; and a few remarks bearing upon its merits being made, the young lawyer took his seat, and gave room for the defense. 24. Instantly Harmon Lee was on his feet, and began referring to the points presented by his "very learned brother," in a very flippant manner. There were those present who marked the light that kindled in the eye of Wallace, and the flash that passed over his countenance at the first contemptuous word and tone that were uttered by his antagonist at the bar. These soon gave place to attention, and an air of conscious power. Nearly an hour had passed when Harmon resumed his seat with a look of exultation, which was followed by a pitying and contemptuous smile, as Wallace again slowly rose. 25. Ten minutes, however, had not passed when that smile had changed to a look of surprise, mortification, and alarm. The young lawyer's first speech showed him to be a man of calm, deep, systematic thought,--well skilled in points of law and in authorities,--and, more than all, a lawyer of practical and comprehensive views. When he sat down, no important point in the case had been left untouched, and none that had been touched, required further elucidation. 20. Lee followed briefly, in a vain attempt to torture his language and break down his positions. But he felt that he was contending with weapons whose edges were turned at every blow. When he took his seat again, Wallace merely remarked that he was prepared, without further argument, to submit the case to the court. 27. The case was accordingly submitted, and a decision unhesitatingly made in favor of the plaintiff, or Wallace's client. From that hour James Wallace took his true position. _The despised apprentice became the able and profound lawyer,_ and was esteemed for real talent and real moral worth, which, when combined, ever place their possessor in his true position. Ten years from that day, Wallace was elevated to the bench, while Lee, a second-rate lawyer, never rose above that position. QUESTIONS.--1. What profession did James study, after he had learned his trade? 2. Who was his opponent in the first cause he tried? 3. Which won the case? 4. What did James finally become? * * * * * LESSON XLVI. TAUNT' ING LY, insultingly. DIG' NI FI ED, noble. DIS PU' TANTS, persons disputing. RES O LU' TION, decision. IM AG' IN ED, fancied. RE FLEC' TION, thought; consideration. SU PE RI OR' I TY, preeminence. SUB OR DI NATE, one inferior in position. BUF' FET ED, struggled against. THRALLS, bondage. DES POT' IC, tyrannical. OP PRES' SION, tyranny. PEN' U RY, poverty; destitution. PRED E CES' SORS, those who have gone before. DIS PEN SA' TIONS, dealings. CRI TE' RI ON, standard; measure. "SO WAS FRANKLIN." ANON. 1. "Oh, you're a _'prentice!_" said a little boy, the other day, tauntingly, to his companion. The boy addressed turned proudly round, and, while the fire of injured pride, and the look of pity were strangely blended in his countenance, coolly answered, "_So was Franklin!_" 2. This dignified reply struck me forcibly, and I turned to mark the disputants more closely. The former, I perceived by his dress, was of a higher class in society than his humble, yet more dignified companion. The latter was a sprightly, active lad, scarce twelve years old, and coarsely, but neatly attired. But, young as he was, there was visible in his countenance much of genius, manly dignity, and determinate resolution; while that of the former showed only fostered pride, and the imagined superiority of riches. 3. That little fellow, thought we, gazing at our young hero, displays already much of the man, though his calling be a humble one; and, though poverty extends to him her dreary, cheerless reality, still he looks on the brightest side of the scene, and already rises in anticipation from poverty and wretchedness! Once, "_so was Franklin_" and the world may one day witness in our little "_'prentice_" as great a philosopher as they have already seen in his noble pattern! And we passed on, buried in meditation. 4. The motto of our infantile philosopher contains much,--too much to be forgotten, and should be engraven on the minds of all. What can better cheer man in a humble calling, than the reflection that the greatest and the best of earth--the greatest statesmen, the brightest philosophers, and the proudest warriors--have once graced the same profession? 5. "Look at Franklin! He who With the thunder talked, as friend to friend, And wove his garland of the lightning's wing, In sportive twist." What was he? A _printer!_ once a subordinate in a printing office! Poverty stared him in the face; but her blank, hollow look, could nothing daunt him. He struggled against a harder current than most are called to encounter; but he did not yield. He pressed manfully onward; bravely buffeted misfortune's billows, and gained the desired haven! 6. Look at Cincinnatus! At the call of his country he laid aside the plow and seized the sword. But having wielded it with success, when his country was no longer endangered, and public affairs needed not his longer stay, "he beat his sword Into a ploughshare," and returned with honest delight to his little farm. 7. Look at Washington! What was his course of life? He was first a _farmer;_ next a _Commander in Chief_ of the hosts of freedom, fighting for the liberation of his country from the thralls of despotic oppression; next, called to the highest seat of government by his ransomed brethren, a _President of the largest Republic on earth_, and lastly, a _farmer_ again. 8. What was the famous Ben Jonson? He was first a _brick-layer, or mason!_ What was he in after years? 'Tis needless to answer. What was Burns? An Ayrshire _plowman!_ What was he in after life, in the estimation of his countrymen, and the world? Your library gives the answer! 9. But shall we go on, and call up, in proud array, all the mighty host of worthies that have lived and died, who were cradled in the lap of penury, and received their first lessons in the school of affliction'? Nay'; we have cited instances enough already,--yea, more than enough to prove the point in question--namely, _that there is no profession, however low in the opinion of the world, but has been honored with earth's greatest and worthiest._ 10. Young man! Does the iron hand of misfortune press hard upon you, and disappointments well-nigh sink your despairing soul'? Have courage! Mighty ones have been your predecessors, and have withstood the current of opposition that threatened to overwhelm their fragile bark. 11. Do you despise your humble station, and repine that Providence has not placed you in some nobler sphere'? Murmur not against the dispensations of an All-wise Creator! Remember that wealth is no criterion of moral rectitude or intellectual worth,--that riches dishonestly gained, are a lasting curse,--that virtue and uprightness work out a rich reward,--and that "An honest man's the noblest work of God." 12. And when dark Disappointment comes, do not wither at her stare; but press forward, and the prize is yours! It was thus with _Franklin_,--it can be thus with _you_. He strove for the prize, and he won it! So may _you!_ 'Tis well worth contending for; and may success attend you, and the "stars" grow brighter, as the "stripes" wear deeper! QUESTIONS.--1. What did the rich boy say of the poor boy? 2. What reply did the poor boy make? 3. What other examples are cited of eminent men who were once poor? 4. What is said of Cincinnatus? 5. Of Washington? 6. Of Ben Jonson? 7. Of Burns? 8. What do all these examples prove? 9. What encouragement is given to young men? 10. What are the full forms of the words _you're, 'prentice?_ * * * * * LESSON XLVII. MAG'IC, power of enchantment. CONTEN'TION, strife; controversy. TRA DI'TION, facts or events handed down from age to age. SUB TILE, thin; slight; slender. IN VEST'ED, clothed. CREST'ED, adorned with a plume or crest. AZ'URE, light-blue; sky-colored. PER SPECT' IVE, (PER, _through_; SPECT, _to see_; IVE, _having the power_,) having the power to see through; a view through. UN DI VERT' ED, (UN, _not_; DI, _aside_; VERTED, _turned_,) not turned aside; unheeded. VEST'URE, garment. SE DATE', calm; quiet. FAN TAS'TIC, fanciful; visionary. RA DI ANCE, brightness; luster. IN VEC'TIVE, railing speech. I DE'AL, imaginary. FA TIGU ING, wearisome, toilsome. AS PIR'ING, aiming; seeking to rise. NOW AND THEN. JANE TAYLOR. 1. In distant days,--of wild romance, Of magic, mist, and fable,-- When stones could argue, trees advance,[Footnote 1] And brutes to talk were able,-- When shrubs and flowers were said to preach, And manage all the parts of speech,-- 2. 'Twas _then_, no doubt, if 'twas at all, (But doubts we need not mention,) That _Then_ and _Now_, two adverbs small, Engaged in sharp contention; But how they made each other hear, Tradition doth not make appear. 3. _Then_ was a sprite of subtile frame, With rainbow tints invested.-- On clouds of dazzling light she came, And stars her forehead crested; Her sparkling eyes of azure hue, Seemed borrowed from the distant blue. 4. _Now_ rested on the solid earth, And sober was her vesture; She seldom either grief or mirth Expressed, by word or gesture; Composed, sedate, and firm she stood, And looked industrious, calm, and good. 5. _Then_ sang a wild, fantastic song, Light as the gale she flies on, Still stretching, as she sailed along, Toward the far horizon, Where clouds of radiance, fringed with gold, O'er hills of emerald beauty rolled. 6. _Now_ rarely raised her sober eye To view that golden distance; Nor let one idle minute fly In hope of _Then's_ assistance; But still with busy hands she stood, Intent on doing _present_ good. 7. She ate the sweet, but homely fare, That passing moments brought her; While _Then_, expecting dainties rare, Despised such bread and water; And waited for the fruits and flowers Of future, still receding hours. 8. _Now_, venturing once to ask her why, She answered with invective; And pointed, as she made reply, _Toward that long perspective Of years to come_,--in distant blue, Wherein she meant to _live_ and _do_, 9. "Alas!" says she, _"how hard you toil!_ With undiverted sadness; Behold yon land of wine and oil! Those sunny hills of gladness! Those joys I wait, with eager brow," _"And so you always will!"_ said _Now_. 10. "That fairy land that looks so real, Recedes as you pursue it; Thus, while you wait for time's ideal, _I take my work and do it;_ Intent to form, when time is gone, A _pleasant past_ to look upon." 11. "Ah, well," said _Then_, "I envy not Your dull, fatiguing labors,-- Aspiring to a brighter lot, With thousands of my neighbors; Soon as I reach that golden hill,"-- "But that," says _Now_, "you _never will!"_ 12. "And e'en suppose you should," said she, "(Though mortal ne'er attained it,) Your nature you must change with me, The moment you have gained it; Since hope fulfilled, (you must allow,) Turns NOW to _Then_, and THEN to _Now_." [Footnote 1: The reference is to Orpheus, (or' fuse,) an ancient poet and musician of Greece. The skill of Orpheus on the lyre, was fabled to have been such as to move the very trees and rocks, and to assemble the beasts around him as he touched its chords.] QUESTIONS.--1. What two words are represented as holding a controversy? 2. Describe the appearance of each. 3. When did _Then_ propose to do something? 4. How did Now act? 5. What answer did _Then_ make, when _Now_ asked her why she waited? 6. What was _Now's_ reply? 7. What did _Now_ finally say to _Then_? 8. How should passages, within a parenthesis, be read? See SANDERS' UNION READER, NUMBER THREE, page 20. * * * * * LESSON XLVIII. IN GEN' IOUS, artful; skillful. STRAT' A GEM, trick; artifice. EX CEED' ED, surpassed. SIG' NALS, signs. AM' I CA BLE, friendly; peaceable. RE PEL', (RE, _back_; PEL, _to drive_,)drive back. MU' TU AL, reciprocal. EX TRAOR' DI NA RY, uncommon. IN VET' ER ATE, obstinate; violent. HARANGUE', declamatory speech. EN TER TAIN' ED, held; had. SUS PI' CION, mistrust. EN COUN' TER ED, met face to face. EX' E CU TED, carried out. FOR' MI DA BLE, fearful; dreadful. PER FID' I OUS, treacherous. PRE CIP' ITATELY, headlong. IN AN' I MATE, dead; lifeless. AN INGENIOUS STRATAGEM. DAYS OF WASHINGTON. 1. In the early part of the war, a sergeant and twelve armed men undertook a journey through the wilderness, in the State of New Hampshire. Their route was remote from any settlement, and they were under the necessity of encamping over night in the woods. Nothing material happened the first day of their excursion; but, early in the afternoon of the second, they, from an eminence, discovered a body of armed Indians advancing toward them, whose number rather exceeded their own. 2. As soon as the whites were perceived by their red brethren, the latter made signals, and the two parties approached each other in an amicable manner. The Indians appeared to be much gratified with meeting the sergeant and his men, whom, they observed, they considered as their protectors. They said they belonged to a tribe which had raised the hatchet with zeal in the cause of liberty, and were determined to do all in their power to repel the common enemy. 3. They shook hands in friendship. When they had conversed with each other for some time, and exchanged mutual good wishes, they, at length, separated, and each party traveled in a different direction. After proceeding to the distance of a mile or more, the sergeant, who was acquainted with all the different tribes, and knew on which side of the contest they were respectively ranked, halted his men, and addressed them in the following words: 4. "My brave companions, we must use the utmost caution, or this night may be our last. Should we not make some extraordinary exertions to defend ourselves, to-morrow's sun may find us sleeping, never to wake. You are surprised, comrades, at my words, and your anxiety will not be lessened, when I inform you that we have just passed _our most inveterate foe_, who, under the mask of pretended friendship, which you have witnessed, would lull us to security, and, by such means, in the unguarded moments of our midnight slumber, without resistance, seal our fate." 5. The men with astonishment listened to this short harangue; and their surprise was greater, as not one of them had entertained the suspicion but that they had just encountered friends. They all immediately resolved to enter into some scheme for their mutual preservation, and the destruction of their enemies. By the proposal of their leader, the following plan was adopted and executed. 6. The spot selected for their night's encampment, was near a stream of water, which served to cover their rear. They felled a large tree, before which, on the approach of night, a brilliant fire was lighted. Each individual cut a log of wood, about the size of his body, rolled it nicely in his blanket, placed his hat upon one end, and laid it before the fire, that the enemy might be deceived, and mistake it for a man. 7. After they had thus fitted out logs, equal in number to the sergeant's party, and had so artfully arranged them, that they might be easily mistaken for so many soldiers, the men with loaded muskets placed themselves behind the fallen tree, by which time the shades of evening began to close around. The fire was kept burning brilliantly until late in the evening, when it was suffered to decline. 8. The critical time was now approaching, when an attack might be expected from the Indians; but the sergeant's men rested in their place of concealment with great anxiety, till near midnight, without perceiving any movement of the enemy. At length, a tall Indian was discovered, through the glimmering of the fire, cautiously moving toward them, making no noise, and apparently using every means in his power to conceal himself from any one about the camp. 9. For a time, his actions showed him to be suspicious that a guard might be stationed to watch any unusual appearance, who would give the alarm in case of danger; but, all appearing quiet, he ventured forward more boldly, rested upon his toes, and was distinctly seen to move his finger as he numbered each log of wood, or what he supposed to be a human being quietly enjoying repose. 10. To satisfy himself more fully, as to the number, he counted them over a second time, and cautiously retired. He was succeeded by another Indian, who went through the same movements, and retired in the same manner. Soon after, the whole party, sixteen in number, were discovered approaching, and greedily eyeing their supposed victims. 11. The feelings of the sergeant's men can be better imagined than described, when they saw the base and cruel purpose of their enemies, who were now so near that they could scarcely be restrained from firing upon them. The plan, however, of the sergeant, was to have his men remain silent in their places of concealment, till the muskets of the savages were discharged, that their own fire might be effectual, and opposition less formidable. 12. Their suspense was not of long duration. The Indians, in a body, cautiously approached till within a short distance: they then halted, took deliberate aim, discharged their pieces upon inanimate logs, gave a dreadful war-whoop, and instantly rushed forward, with tomahawk and scalping knife in hand, to dispatch the living, and obtain the scalps of the dead. 13. As soon as they had collected in close order, more effectually to execute their horrid intentions, the sergeant's party discharged their pieces, not on logs of wood, but perfidious savages,--many of whom fell under the hot fire of the little band, and the rest precipitately fled. But for this ingenious scheme, it is probable that not one of these twelve men would have escaped the tomahawk of the savages. QUESTIONS.--1. What did the sergeant say to his men, after parting with the Indians? 2. What plan did the sergeant propose for their preservation? 3. Did the plan succeed? 4. Describe the closing scene. * * * * * LESSON XLIX. VEN' ER A BLE, worthy of reverence. IN VA' SION, irruption; inroad. EX CIT' ED, roused; stirred up. IRE, wrath; indignation. VENGE' ANCE, retaliation. RE LEAS' ED, set free; liberated. TRO PHIES, memorials of victory. BE REFT', deprived. VULT' URE, rapacious bird. TRAV' ERS ED, crossed over. DE SCRIP' TION, representation. MA TER' NAL, motherly. FIL' IAL, becoming a child. CON SAN GUIN' I TY, blood relationship. IN TEL' LI GENCE, news; information. I DEN' TI TY, sameness. SUR VIV' ED, remained alive. AS CER TAIN' ED, found out. IN TER' PRET ER, explainer. LIN' E A MENTS, features. FRANCES SLOCUM, THE YOUNG CAPTIVE. [Footnote: The great massacre at Wyoming was, perhaps, the most bloody and terrible chapter of the Revolution. A combined Indian and Tory force had flung itself upon the peaceful valley, and murdered or made captive nearly all its unoffending inhabitants; its old and its young,--men, women, and children alike,--were either indiscriminately butchered or made prisoners. Among the prisoners taken on that occasion, was an infant child by the name of Frances Slocum. The story is a very strange one; we copy it from Lossing's very excellent work, "The Field Book of the Revolution."] B.J. LOSSING. 1. I passed the evening with the venerable Joseph Slocum, whose family was among the sufferers, in Wyoming Valley. He related to me all the particulars of the capture and final discovery of his sister Frances, and other incidents connected with the sufferings of his family. 2. His father was a Quaker, and was distinguished for his kindness to the Indians. He remained unharmed at the time of the invasion, and, while the torch was applied to the dwellings of others, _his_ was left untouched. But his son Giles was in the battle. This, doubtless, excited the ire of the Indians, and they resolved on vengeance. 3. Late in the autumn, they were seen prowling about the house, which was situated about one hundred rods from the Wilkesbarre Fort. A neighbor, named Kingsley, had been made prisoner, and his wife and two sons had a welcome home in Mr. Slocum's family. One morning, the boys were grinding a knife near the house, when a rifle-shot and a shriek brought Mrs. Slocum to the door. An Indian was scalping the eldest boy, a lad of fifteen, with the knife he had been grinding. 4. The savage then went into the house, and caught up a little son of Mrs. Slocum. "See!" exclaimed the frightened mother, "he can do thee no good; he is lame." The Indian released the boy, took up her little daughter Frances, aged five years, gently in his arms, and, seizing the younger Kingsley, hastened to the mountains. 5. Two Indians who were with him, carried off a black girl, about seventeen years of age. Mr. Slocum's daughter caught up her brother Joseph, (my informant,) two and a half years old, and fled in safety to the fort, where an alarm was given; but the savages were beyond successful pursuit. 6. About six weeks afterward, Mr. Slocum and his father-in-law Ira Tripp, were shot and scalped by some Indians while foddering cattle near the house. Again the savages escaped with their horrid trophies. Mrs. Slocum, bereft of father, husband, and child, and stripped of all possessions but the house that sheltered her, could not leave the valley, for nine helpless children were yet in her household. 7. She trusted in the God of Elijah; and, if she was not fed by the ravens, she was spared by the vultures. She mourned not for the dead; for they were at rest: but little Frances, her lost darling, where was she? The lamp of hope kept on burning; but years rolled by, and no tidings of the little one came. 8. When peace returned, and friendly intercourse with Canada was established, two of the little captive's brothers started in search of her. They traversed the wilderness to Niagara, offering rewards for her recovery; but all in vain. They returned to Wyoming, convinced that the child was dead. But the mother's heart was still the shrine of hope, and she felt assured that Frances was not in the grave. 9. Her soul appeared to commune with that of her child, and she often said, "I know Frances is still living." At length, the mother's heart was cheered: a woman (for many years had now passed, and Frances, if living, must have arrived to womanhood) was found among the Indians, answering the description of the lost one. She only remembered being carried away from the Susquehanna. 10. Mrs. Slocum took her home, and cherished her with a mother's tenderness. Yet the mysterious link of sympathy which binds the maternal spirit to its offspring, was unfelt, and the bereaved mother was bereaved still. "It may be Frances, but it does not seem so; yet the woman shall ever be welcome," said Mrs. Slocum. The foundling, also, felt no filial yearnings; and, both becoming convinced that no consanguinity existed, the orphan returned to her Indian friends. 11. From time to time, the hope of the mother would be revived, and journeys were made to distant Indian settlements in search of the lost sister; but in vain. The mother went "down into the grave, mourning," and little Frances was almost forgotten. Her brothers had become aged men, and their grandchildren were playing upon the very spot, whence she had been taken. 12. In the summer of 1837, fifty-nine years after her capture, intelligence of Frances was received. Colonel Ewing, an Indian agent and trader, in a letter from Logansport, Indiana, to the editor of the _Lancaster Intelligencer_, gave such information, that all doubts respecting her identity were removed; and Joseph Slocum, with the sister who carried him to the fort, and yet survived, immediately journeyed to Ohio, where they were joined by their younger brother Isaac. 13. They proceeded to Logansport, where they found Mr. Ewing, and ascertained that the woman spoken of by him, lived about twelve miles from the village. She was immediately sent for; and, toward evening the next day, she came into the town, riding a spirited young horse, accompanied by her two daughters, and the husband of one of them,--all dressed in full Indian costume. 14. An interpreter was procured, (for she could not speak or understand English,) and she listened seriously to what her brothers had to say. She answered but little, and, at sunset, departed for her home, promising to return the next morning. The brother and sister were quite sure that it was indeed Frances, though in her face nothing but Indian lineaments were seen, her color alone revealing her origin. 15. True to her appointment, she appeared the following morning, accompanied as before. Mr. Joseph Slocum then mentioned a mark of recognition, which, his mother had said, was a sure test. While playing, one day, with a hammer in a blacksmith's shop, Joseph, then a child two and a half years old, gave Frances a blow upon the middle finger of the left hand, which crushed the bone, and deprived the finger of its nail. 16. This test Mr. Slocum had withheld until others should fail. When he mentioned it, the aged woman was greatly agitated; and, while tears filled the furrows of her face, she held out the wounded finger. There was no longer a doubt, and a scene of great interest ensued. Her affections for her kindred, that had slumbered half a century, were aroused, and she made earnest inquiries after her father, mother, brothers, and sisters. Her full heart--full with the cherished secrets of her history--was opened, and the story of her life freely given. 17. She said the savages, who were Delawares, after taking her to a rocky cave in the mountains, departed to the Indian country. The first night was the unhappiest of her life. She was kindly treated,--being carried tenderly in their arms when she was weary. She was adopted in an Indian family, and brought up as their daughter. For years she lived a roving life, and loved it. She was taught the use of the bow and arrow, and became expert in all the employments of savage existence. 18. When she was grown to womanhood, both her Indian parents died, and she soon afterward married a young chief of the nation, and removed to the Ohio country. She was treated with more respect than the Indian women generally; and so happy was she in her domestic relations, that the chance of being discovered, and compelled to return among the whites, was the greatest evil that she feared; for she had been taught that they were the implacable enemies of the Indians, whom she loved. 19. Her husband died; and, her people having joined the Miamies, she went with them, and married one of that tribe. The last husband was also dead, and she had been a widow many years. Children and grandchildren were around her, and her life was passing pleasantly away. When she concluded the narrative, she lifted her right hand in a solemn manner, and said, "All this is as true as that there is a Great Spirit in the heavens!" she had entirely forgotten her native language, and was a pagan. 20. On the day after the second interview, the brothers and sisters, with the interpreter, rode out to her dwelling. It was a well-built log-house, in the midst of cultivation. A large herd of cattle and sixty horses were grazing in the pasture. Everything betokened plenty and comfort; for she was wealthy, when her wants and her means were compared. Her annuity from government, which she received as one of the Miami tribe, had been saved, and she had about one thousand dollars in specie. 21. Her white friends passed several days very agreeably with her; and subsequently her brother Joseph, with his daughter, the wife of the Hon. Mr. Bennet, of Wyoming, made her another visit, and bade her a last farewell. She died a few years ago, and was buried with considerable pomp; for she was regarded as a queen among her tribe. QUESTIONS.--1. Where is the Wyoming Valley? 2. Relate the incidents connected with the capture of little Frances. 3. What efforts were made to find her? 4. How many years after her capture before she was found? 5. Where did they find her? 6. By what test did Mr. Slocum prove that she was his sister? 7. What history did she relate of herself? 8. Describe her home. * * * * * LESSON L. FRING' ING, bordering; edging. LEDGE, layer; ridge. DAI SY, (literally _day's eye_,) a little wild flower very common in summer. RI' OT OUS, noisy; reveling. BOIS' TER OUS, tumultuous; violent. CULL' ING, selecting; picking. BOU QUETS', (_boo kas_,) bunches of flowers. SULK' Y, morose. BOTH' ER ING, perplexing. UN WONT' ED, rare: uncommon. TE' DI OUS, tiresome; wearisome. THE RAIN-DROPS. DELIA LOUISE COLTON. 1. _The silver rain, the golden rain,_ _The tripping, dancing, laughing rain!_ Stringing its pearls on the green leaf's edge, Fringing with gems the brown rock's ledge, Spinning a vail for the water-fall, And building an amber-colored wall Across the West where the sun-beams fall: _The gentle rain_, in the shady lane, _The pattering, peering, winning rain!_ 2. _The noisy rain, the marching rain,_ _The rushing tread of the heavy rain!_ Pouring its rivers from out the blue, Down on the grass where the daisies grew, Darting in clouds of angry drops Across the hills and the green tree-tops, And kissing, at last, in its giant glee, The foaming lips of the great green sea: _The fierce, wild rain, the riotous rain,_ _The boisterous, dashing, shouting rain!_ 3. _The still night rain, the solemn rain!_ _The soldier-step of the midnight rain!_ With its measured beat on the roof o'erhead, With its tidings sweet of the faithful dead, Whispers from loves who are laid asleep Under the sod where the myrtles creep, Culling bouquets from the sun-lit past, Of flowers too sweet, too fair to last: _The faithful rain, the untiring rain,_ _The cooing, sobbing, weeping rain!_ 4. _The sulky rain, the spiteful rain,_ _The bothering, pilfering, thieving rain!_ Creeping so lazily over the sky, A leaden mask o'er a bright blue eye, And shutting in, with its damp, strong hands, The rosy faces in curls, and bands Of girls who think, with unwonted frown Of the charming laces and things down-town, That might as well for this tiresome rain, Be in the rose land of Almahain: _The horrid rain, the tedious rain,_ _The never-ending, dingy rain!_ QUESTIONS.--1. What is the meaning of the suffix _ing_, in such words as _tripping, dancing, laughing_, &c.? See SANDERS & McELLIGOTT'S ANALYSIS, page 153, Ex. 206. 2. What is the use of the hyphen in such words as _water-fall, amber-colored_, &c.? See SANDERS' NEW SPELLER, page l65. * * * * * LESSON LI. LAV' ISH, liberal; profuse. PER' FUMES, pleasant odors. HAR MO' NI OUS, concordant. RAPT' URE, extreme joyousness. GERMS, seed-buds; beginnings. PAR'TICLES, minute parts; atoms. MOTES, very small particles. VENT' URE, dare; have courage. COL' UMNS, pillars. DOME, arched roof; cupola. TI' NY, very small. ES' SENCE, perfume. "SMALL THINGS." F. BENNOCH. 1. Who dares to scorn the meanest thing, The humblest weed that grows, While pleasure spreads its joyous wing On every breeze that blows? The simplest flower that, hidden, blooms The lowest on the ground, Is lavish of its rare perfumes, And scatters sweetness round. 2. The poorest friend upholds a part Of life's harmonious plan; The weakest hand may have the art To serve the strongest man. The bird that highest, clearest sings, To greet the morning's birth, Falls down to drink, with folded wings, Love's rapture on the earth. 3. From germs too small for mortal sight Grow all things that are seen, Their floating particles of light Weave Nature's robe of green. The motes that fill the sunny rays Build ocean, earth, and sky,-- The wondrous orbs that round us blaze Are motes to Deity! 4. Life, love, devotion, closely twine, Like tree, and flower, and fruit; They ripen by a power divine, Though fed by leaf and root. And he who would be truly great, Must venture to be small; On airy columns rests the dome That, shining, circles all. 5. Small duties grow to mighty deeds; Small words to thoughts of power; Great forests spring from tiny seeds, As moments make the hour. And life, howe'er it lowly grows, The essence to it given, Like odor from the breathing rose, Floats evermore to Heaven. * * * * * LESSON LII. EX TINCT', extinguished. IN COR' PO RA TED, united. TAC' IT, silent; implied. SUB SIST' ED, existed. HOS PI TAL' I TY, kind treatment. IN POR' TU NATE, urgent; pressing. EN CROACH' MENT, intrusion. IR' RI TA TED, provoked; exasperated. MAS' SA CRE, (_mas' sa ker_,) slaughter. GRAV' I TY, seriousness. DE LIB' ER ATE, take council. TREA' SON, treachery; disloyalty. AP PRIS' ING, informing. BE TRAY', expose. IN VIN CI BLE, unconquerable. WAX' ED, became, grew. BE SOUGHT', entreated; implored. SUF FICE, (_c like z_,) prove sufficient. MURDERER'S CREEK. [Footnote: In Orange County, New York.] JAMES K. PAULDING. 1. Little more than a century ago, the beautiful region watered by this stream, was possessed by a small tribe of Indians, which has long since become extinct, or incorporated with some other savage nation of the West. Three or four hundred yards from where the stream discharges itself into the Hudson, a white family, of the name of Stacy, had established itself in a log-house, by tacit permission of the tribe, to whom Stacy had made himself useful by his skill in a variety of little arts, highly estimated by the savages. 2. In particular, a friendship subsisted between him and an old Indian, called Naoman, who often came to his house, and partook of his hospitality. _The Indians never forgive injuries, nor forget benefits_. The family consisted of Stacy, his wife, and two children, a boy and a girl, the former five, the latter three years old. 3. One day, Naoman came to Stacy's log-hut, in his absence, lighted his pipe, and sat down. He looked very serious, sometimes sighed deeply, but said not a word. Stacy's wife asked him what was the matter,--if he was sick. He shook his head, sighed, but said nothing, and soon went away. The next day, he came again and behaved in the same manner. Stacy's wife began to think strange of this, and related it to her husband, who advised her to urge the old man to an explanation the next time he came. 4. Accordingly, when he repeated his visit the day after, she was more importunate than usual. At last, the old Indian said. "I am a red man, and the pale faces are our enemies: why should I speak?"--"But my husband and I are your friends: you have eaten salt with us a thousand times, and my children have sat on your knees as often. If you have anything on your mind, tell it me."--"It will cost me my life if it is known, and the white-faced women are not good at keeping secrets," replied Naoman. 5. "Try me, and see."--"Will you swear by your Great Spirit that you will tell none but your husband?"--"I have none else to tell."--"But will you swear?"--"I do swear by our Great Spirit, I will tell none but my husband."--"Not if my tribe should _kill you_ for not telling?"--"Not if your tribe should kill me for not telling." 6. Naoman then proceeded to tell her that, owing to some encroachments of the white people below the mountains, his tribe had become irritated, and were resolved that night to massacre all the white settlers within their reach; that she must send for her husband, inform him of the danger, and, as secretly and speedily as possible, take their canoe and paddle, with all haste, over the river to Fishkill for safety. "Be quick, and do nothing that may excite suspicion," said Naoman, as he departed. 7. The good wife sought her husband, who was down on the river fishing, told him the story, and, as no time was to be lost, they proceeded to their boat, which was unluckily filled with water. It took some time to clear it out, and, meanwhile, Stacy recollected his gun, which had been left behind. He proceeded to the house, and returned with it. All this took up considerable time, and precious time it proved to this poor family. 8. The daily visits of old Naoman, and his more than ordinary gravity, had excited suspicion in some of the tribe, who had, accordingly, paid particular attention to the movements of Stacy. One of the young Indians, who had been kept on the watch, seeing the whole family about to take to the boat, ran to the little Indian village, about a mile off, and gave the alarm. Five Indians collected, ran down to the river, where their canoes were moored, jumped in, and paddled after Stacy, who, by this time, had got some distance out into the stream. 9. They gained on him so fast, that twice he dropped his paddle, and took up his gun. But his wife prevented his shooting by telling him that, if he fired, and they were afterwards overtaken, they would meet with no mercy from the Indians. He accordingly refrained, and plied his paddle till the sweat rolled in big drops down his forehead. All would not do; they were overtaken within a hundred yards from the shore, and carried back with shouts of yelling triumph. 10. When they got ashore, the Indians set fire to Stacy's house, and dragged himself, his wife, and children, to their village. Here the principal old men, and Naoman among them, assembled to deliberate on the affair. The chief men of the council stated that some of the tribe had, undoubtedly, been guilty of treason, in apprising Stacy, the white man, of the designs of the tribe, whereby they took the alarm, and well-nigh escaped. 11. He proposed to examine the prisoners, to learn who gave the information. The old men assented to this, and Naoman among the rest. Stacy was first interrogated by one of the old men, who spoke English and interpreted to the others. Stacy refused to betray his informant. His wife was then questioned; while, at the same moment, two Indians stood threatening the two children, with tomahawks, in case she did not confess. 12. She attempted to evade the truth, by declaring she had a dream the night before, which alarmed her, and that she had persuaded her husband to fly. "The Great Spirit never deigns to talk in dreams to a white face," said the old Indian. "Woman, thou hast two tongues, and two faces. Speak the truth, or thy children shall surely die." The little boy and girl were then brought close to her, and the two savages stood over them, ready to execute their bloody orders. 13. "Wilt thou name," said the old Indian, "the red man who betrayed his tribe? I will ask thee three times." The mother answered not. "Wilt thou name the traitor? This is the second time." The poor mother looked at her husband, and then at her children, and stole a glance at Naoman, who sat smoking his pipe with invincible gravity. 14. She wrung her hands, and wept; but remained silent. "Wilt thou name the traitor? 'Tis the third and last time." The agony of the mother waxed more bitter; again she sought the eye of Naoman; but it was cold and motionless. A pause of a moment awaited her reply, and the tomahawks were raised over the heads of the children, who besought their mother not to let them be murdered. 15. "Stop!" cried Naoman. All eyes were turned upon him. "Stop!" repeated he, in a tone of authority. "White woman, thou hast kept thy word with me to the last moment. _I am the traitor_. I have eaten of the salt, warmed myself at the fire, shared the kindness, of these Christian white people, and it was _I_ that told them of their danger. I am a withered, leafless, branchless trunk. Cut me down, if you will: I am ready." 16. A yell of indignation sounded on all sides. Naoman descended from the little bank where he sat, shrouded his face with his mantle of skins, and submitted to his fate. He fell dead at the feet of the white woman by a blow of the tomahawk. 17. But the sacrifice of Naoman, and the firmness of the Christian white woman, did not suffice to save the lives of the other victims. They perished,--how, it is needless to say; and the memory of their fate has been preserved in the name of the pleasant stream, on whose banks they lived and died, which, to this day, is called MURDERER'S CREEK. QUESTIONS.--1. Where is Murderer's Creek? 2. What is said of Naoman and Stacy's family? 3. Why did Naoman, at first, refuse to tell Mrs. Stacy of her danger? 4. Did Stacy's family make their escape? 5. Where were they taken? 6. Did Mrs. Stacy tell who had informed her? 7. What measures did the Indians adopt, to make her tell? What did Naoman say? 9. What did the Indians do with Naoman and Stacy's family? * * * * * LESSON LIII. PER' IL OUS, hazardous; dangerous. DE FILES', narrow passages. PREC' I PIC ES, steep descents. SOL'I TUDE, lonely places. AM MU NI' TION, military stores, as powder, balls, &c. DRA GOONS, mounted soldiers. SUM' MIT, top; highest point. AV A LANCHE', snow-slip. CROUCH' ED, cringed. AD VANCE', forward; proceed. BE NUMB' ED, deprived of feeling. EX PLOITS', heroic deeds. IL LUS' TRATES, explains; makes clear. HE RO'IC, brave; fearless. UN FLINCH'ING, determined; resolute. BAY' O NET, a short, pointed instrument of iron, or broad dagger, fitted to the barrel of a gun. It is so called, because the first bayonets were made at Bayonne, in France. NAPOLEON'S ARMY CROSSING THE ALPS. 1. When Napoleon was carrying war into Italy, he ordered one of his officers, Marshal Macdonald, to cross the Splugen with fifteen thousand soldiers, and join him on the plains below. The Splugen is one of the four great roads which cross the Alps from Switzerland to Italy. 2. When Macdonald received the order, it was about the last of November, and the winter storms were raging among the mountain passes. It was a perilous undertaking, yet he must obey; and the men began their terrible march through narrow defiles and overhanging precipices, six thousand feet up, up among the gloomy solitudes of the Alps. 3. The cannon were placed on sleds drawn by oxen, and the ammunition was packed on mules. First came the guides, sticking their long poles in the snow, in order to find the path; then came workmen to clear away the drifts; then the dragoons, mounted on their most powerful horses, to beat down the track; after which followed the main body of the army. 4. They encountered severe storms and piercing cold. When half-way up the summit, a rumbling noise was heard among the cliffs. The guides looked at each other in alarm; for they knew well what it meant. It grew louder and louder. "_An avalanche! an avalanche!_" they shrieked, and the next moment a field of ice and snow came leaping down the mountain, striking the line of march, and sweeping thirty dragoons in a wild plunge below. The black forms of the horses and their riders were seen for an instant struggling for life, and then they disappeared forever. 5. The sight struck the soldiers with horror; they crouched and shivered in the blast. Their enemy was not now flesh and blood, but wild winter storms; swords and bayonets could not defend them from the desolating avalanche. Flight or retreat was hopeless; for all around lay the drifted snow, like a vast winding-sheet. On they must go, or death was certain, and the brave men struggled forward. 6. "Soldiers!" exclaimed their commander, "you are called to Italy; your general needs you. Advance and conquer, first the mountain and the snow, then the plains and the enemy!" Blinded by the winds, benumbed with the cold, and far beyond the reach of aid, Macdonald and his men pressed on. Sometimes a whole company of soldiers were suddenly swept away by an avalanche. 7. On one occasion, a poor drummer, crawling out from the mass of snow, which had torn him from his comrades, began to beat his drum for relief. The muffled sound came up from his gloomy resting-place, and was heard by his brother soldiers; but none could go to his rescue. For an hour, he beat rapidly, then the strokes grew fainter, until they were heard no more, and the poor drummer laid himself down to die. Two weeks were occupied in this perilous march, and two hundred men perished in the undertaking. 8. This passage of the Splugen is one of the bravest exploits in the history of Napoleon's generals, and illustrates the truth of the proverb, "_Where there is a will there is a way_." No one can read the heroic deeds of brave men grappling with danger and death, without a feeling of respect and admiration; but heroic deeds are always the fruit of _toil_ and _self-sacrifice_. _No one can accomplish great things, unless he aims at great things, and pursues that aim with unflinching courage and perseverance._ QUESTIONS.--1. What orders had Napoleon given to Marshal Macdonald? 2. What time of year was it? 3. Describe the march of the army over the Alps. 4. What disaster occurred to them? 5. How did their commander address the army? 6 Describe the drummer boy's fate. 7. How many men perished? 8. What does this exploit of the army illustrate? 9. What is said of heroic deeds? * * * * * LESSON LIV. PROV' ERBS, sayings; maxims. TRAC' ED, shown; marked out. WOO ERS, suitors; lovers. DENSE, close; thick. STRIV' ING, making efforts. CON TROL', restraint; government. COPE, strive; contend. DE FY' ING, daring; outbraving. GHOST, specter; apparition. RE LY' ING, trusting; depending. WIN' NING, getting; gaining. BRAM' BLES, prickly shrubs. WHERE THERE'S A WILL THERE'S A WAY. ELIZA COOK. 1. We have faith in old proverbs full surely, For wisdom has traced what they tell, And truth may be drawn up as purely From them, as it may from a "well." Let us question the thinkers and doers, And hear what they honestly say, And you'll find they believe, like bold wooers, In "_Where there's a WILL there's a WAY._" 2. The hills have been high for man's mounting, The woods have been dense for his ax, The stars have been thick for his counting, The sands have been wide for his tracks. The sea has been deep for his diving, The poles have been broad for his sway, But bravely he's proved by his striving, That "_Where there's a WILL there's a WAY._" 3. Have ye vices that ask a destroyer, Or passions that need your control? Let Reason become your employer, And your body be ruled by your soul. Fight on, though ye bleed at the trial, Resist with all strength that ye may, Ye may conquer Sin's host by denial, For, "_Where there's a WILL there's a WAY._" 4. Have ye poverty's pinching to cope with'? Does suffering weigh down your might'? Only call up a spirit to hope with, And dawn may come out of the night. Oh! much may be done by defying The ghost of Despair and Dismay, And much may be gained by relying On "_Where there's a WILL there's a WAY._" 5. Should ye see afar off that worth winning, Set out on a journey with trust, And ne'er heed though your path at beginning Should be among brambles and dust. Though it is by footsteps ye do it, And hardships may hinder and stay, Keep a heart and be sure ye go through it, For, "_Where there's a WILL there's a WAY._" QUESTIONS.--1. What is the meaning of this proverb, "_Where there's a WILL there's a WAY?_" 2. What instances can you mention in which its truth has been realized? 3. Do you apply this proverb in getting your lessons? * * * * * LESSON LV. TAL' IS MAN, charm; amulet. VAN, front or head of an army. FI' ER Y, ardent; passionate. PLUMES, supplies with feathers. TENSE' LY, tightly. SWERVES, deviates. DAUNT, frighten; terrify. BAN' ISH, expel; drive away. TEL EGRAPH,(TELE,_far off_; GRAPH, _writing or marking_,) a machine to convey news far off. See SANDERS' NEW SPELLER, p. 161, Ex. 419. "I CAN!" 1. "I CAN!" oh yes,--we _know_ you can! We read it in your eye; There is a mystic talisman Flashing all gloriously! Speak it out boldly, let it ring, There is a volume there, There's meaning in the eagle's wing _Then soar, and do, and dare!_ 2. "I CAN!" climbs to the mountain top, And plows the billowy main; He lifts the hammer in the shop, And drives the saw and plane; He's fearless in the battle shock, And always leads the van Of young America's brave sons,-- They never quailed nor ran. 3. "I CAN!" He is a fiery youth, And WILL a brother twin, And, arm in arm, in love and truth. They'll either die or win. Shoulder to shoulder, ever ready, All firm and fearless still These brothers labor,--true and steady,-- "I CAN," and brave "I WILL." 4. "I CAN," e'en on his pleasure trips, Travels by telegraph; He plumes the snowy wing of ships, And never works by half; His music is the humming loom, And shuttles are his dancers., Then clear the way, and quick give room For the noble-souled "I CAN," sirs! 5. "I CAN!" Indeed, we _know_ you can! 'Tis lithe in every limb, �To your blood 'tis a busy fan, How can the flame burn dim? It tensely draws your sturdy nerves,-- No bow's without a string, And when nor bow nor bow-string swerves, An arrow's on the wing. 6. There is a magic in the power Of an unbending _will_, That makes us stronger every hour, For greater efforts still. Then banish from you every CAN'T, And show yourself a MAN, And nothing will your purpose daunt, Led by the brave "I CAN!" QUESTIONS.--1. What does "_I can_" do? 2. Who is called his twin brother? 3. What is said of an unbending will? * * * * * LESSON LVI. CAS' ED, invested. ARM' OR, defensive arms. STORM' ING, taking by assault. AIR' Y, fanciful; visionary. FOR' TRESS, fort; strong-hold. DE TAIN', hinder; keep back. WEAP' ONS, instruments for defense, or offense. UN WOR' THY, undeserving. RE GRET', sorrow for the past. PHAN' TOM, specter; ghost-like. SCARCE' LY, hardly. NOW, TO-DAY. ADELAIDE A. PROCTER. 1. ARISE`! for the day is passing, And you lie dreaming on; Your brothers are cased in armor, And forth to the fight are gone! A place in the ranks awaits you; Each man has some part to play; The Past and the Future are nothing In the face of stern TO-DAY. 2. ARISE from your dreams of the Future,-- Of gaining some hard-fought field, Of storming some airy fortress, Or bidding some giant yield; Your Future has deeds of glory, Of honor, (God grant it may!) But your arm will never be stronger, Or needed as _now_,--TO-DAY. 3. ARISE`! if the Past detain you, Her sunshine and storms forget; No chains so unworthy to hold you As those of a vain regret; Sad or bright, she is lifeless ever; Cast her phantom arms away, Nor look back, save to learn the lesson Of a nobler strife TO-DAY. 4. ARISE`! for the day is passing; The sound that you scarcely hear, Is the enemy marching to battle! (f.) _Rise_`! RISE`! for the foe is near! Stay not to sharpen your weapons, Or the hour will strike at last, When, from dreams of a coming battle, You may wake to find it past! QUESTIONS.--1. What reasons are assigned why we should arouse to effort _now, to-day?_ 2. What rule for the falling inflection on _arise?_ See Rule VIII., page 33. 3. How, according to the notation mark, should the last verse be read? * * * * * LESSON LVII. REV O LU' TION, change of government. FAN' CI ED, thought; imagined, UN GEN' ER OUS, mean; ignoble. AC KNOWL' EDG ED, owned. PLOT' TING, planning; contriving. DE SIGN', purpose; intention. COR RE SPOND' ENCE, intercourse by letters. CON' QUEST, victory. IN' TER VIEW, meeting; conference. SOL' I TA RY, lonely; retired. CON GRAT' U LA TING, rejoicing with. IS' SU ED, started up; come forth. SUS PECT' ING, mistrusting. DE TECT' ED, exposed; found out. A' MI A BLE, lovely; agreeable. FEL' ON, criminal. CON' SE QUENCE, (CON, _with_; SEQUENCE, _a following_,) a following with, as an effect, or result. IM PRESS' IVE, (IM, _in_; PRESS, _to bear upon_; IVE, _tending to_,) tending to press in, or upon; producing an effect. IN VOLV' ED, (IN, _in_; VOLVED, _rolled_,) rolled in; enveloped. THE CAPTURE OF MAJOR ANDRE. 1. One of the saddest events in the history of the American Revolution is the _treason of Arnold_, and, in consequence of it, _the death of Major Andre_. Arnold was an officer in the American army, who, though brave, had a proud and impatient spirit. 2. He fancied he had not all the honor and the pay due for his services, and, having plunged himself into debt by his expensive style of living, these things soured his heart; and, as is the case with ungenerous minds, he never acknowledged a fault, or forgave an injury. More than this, he sought revenge against his countrymen by plotting _treason against his country_. 3. Soon after forming this bad design, he opened a secret correspondence with the English General, Henry Clinton, and, at the same time, asked General Washington to give him the command of West Point, an important post on the Hudson river. Washington let him have it, and this he determined to betray into the hands of the enemy, provided he could make out of it a good bargain for himself. 4. He wrote to General Clinton what he would do, and asked to have a secret interview with some English officer, in order to agree upon the terms. General Clinton was delighted; for he thought an army divided against itself, must prove an easy conquest; and he asked Major Andre, a gallant young officer, to meet Arnold, and settle the price of his treason. 5. Andre did not wish to engage in such business; but he obeyed, and went up the Hudson in an English sloop-of-war for this purpose. Arnold agreed to meet him at a certain spot, and when night came on, sent a little boat to bring him ashore. He landed at the foot of a mountain called the Long Clove, on the western side of the river, a few miles from Haverstraw, where he found the traitor hid in a clump of bushes. 6. Little did poor Andre foresee the fatal consequences of this step. All that still star-light night they sat and talked; daylight came, and the business was not concluded. Arnold dismissed the boatmen, and led his companion to a solitary farm-house on the river's bank, where the papers were finally drawn up, and hid in one of Andre's stockings. Andre felt how exposed he was to danger in the enemy's country, and heartily wished himself back to the sloop. 7. Forced now, however, to go by land, Arnold gave him a pass to go through the American lines; and, at sunset, he set off, on horseback, with a guide. They crossed the river, and, getting along on their dangerous journey with but few alarms, the guide left the next morning, and Andre rode briskly on, congratulating himself upon leaving all dangers behind, for he was rapidly nearing the English lines, when there was a loud shout, "_Stand!_ HALT!" and three men [Footnote: Paulding, Williams, and Van Wart.] issued from the woods, one seizing the bridle, and the others presenting their guns. 8. Andre told them he had a pass to White Plains, on urgent business from General Arnold, and begged them not to detain him; but the men, suspecting that all was not right, began to search him; and, hauling off his boots, they discovered his papers in his stockings. 9. Finding himself detected, he offered them any sum of money, if they would let him go. "No;" answered the sturdy men, "not if you would give us ten thousand guineas;" for, though poor, they were above selling their country at any price. Andre was sent a prisoner to General Washington's camp. Arnold, on learning the news of his capture, immediately fled from West Point, and made his escape to the English sloop. 10. According to the rules of war, poor Andre was sentenced to the death of a spy. Great efforts were made to save him. General Clinton offered a large sum to redeem him. So young, so amiable, so gallant, and to meet a felon's doom! but, in ten days he was hung. 11. Arnold lived; but, with the thirty thousand dollars--the price of his treachery--he lived a miserable man, despised even by those who bought him. And one impressive lesson which the story teaches, is, that _the consequences of guilt do not fall alone on the guilty man;_ others are often involved in distress, disgrace, and ruin. QUESTIONS.--1. What is one of the saddest events in the history of the American Revolution? 2. Who was Arnold? 3. What reason is assigned why he plotted treason against his country? 4. What measures did he adopt to do this? 5. With whom, and where did he make the agreement? 6. By whom was Andre detected? 7. What became of Andre and Arnold? * * * * * LESSON LVIII. SE CUR' ED, obtained. HES' I TA TED, paused. MIS' ER A BLE, wretched. SUP' PLI ANT, petitioner; beggar. PECUL' IAR, singular; remarkable. IN DIC' A TIVE, showing; intimating. SO LIC' IT ED, asked; requested. COS TUME', mode of dress. VIG' OR OUS, stout; strong. SYN' O NYM, a word meaning the same as some other word. IN' FA MY, utter disgrace. [Headnote 1: TAL' LEY RAND, a distinguished French statesman, was born Feb. 13th, 1754. He died May 20th, 1838.] BENEDICT ARNOLD. 1. There was a day when Talleyrand [Headnote 1] arrived in Havre, direct from Paris. It was the darkest hour of the French Revolution. Pursued by the blood-hounds of the Reign of Terror, stripped of every wreck of property or power, Talleyrand secured a passage to America, in a ship about to sail. He was a beggar and a wanderer in a strange land, to earn his bread by daily labor. 2. "Is there an American staying at your house?" he asked the landlord of the hotel. "I am bound to cross the water, and should like a letter to a person of influence in the New World." The landlord hesitated a moment, then replied: "There is a gentleman up-stairs, either from America or Britain; but whether an American or an Englishman, I can not tell." 3. He pointed the way, and Talleyrand, who, in his life, was Bishop, Prince, and Prime Minister, ascended the stairs. A miserable suppliant, he stood before the stranger's door, knocked, and entered. In the far corner of the dimly-lighted room, sat a man of some fifty years, his arms folded, and his head bowed on his breast. From a window directly opposite, a faint light rested on his forehead. 4. His eyes looked from beneath the downcast brows, and gazed on Talleyrand's face with a peculiar and searching expression. His face was striking in outline,--the mouth and chin indicative of an iron will. His form, vigorous, even with the snows of fifty winters, was clad in a dark, but rich and distinguished costume. 5. Talleyrand advanced, stated that he was a fugitive; and, under the impression that the gentleman before him was an American, he solicited his kind and generous offices. He related his history in eloquent French and broken English. 6. "I am a wanderer, and an exile. I am forced to flee to the New World, without a friend or home. You are an American! Give me, then, I beseech you, a letter of yours, so that I may be able to earn my bread. I am willing to toil in any manner; the scenes of Paris have seized me with such horror, that a life of labor would be a paradise to a career of luxury in France. You will give me a letter to one of your friends? A gentleman like yourself has, doubtless, many friends." 7. The strange gentleman rose. With a look that Talleyrand never forgot, he retreated to the door of the next chamber,--his eyes looking still from beneath his darkened brow. He spoke as he retreated backward,--his voice was full of meaning. "I am the only man born in the New World, who can raise his hand to God and say, I have not a friend, not one, in all America!" Talleyrand never forgot the overwhelming sadness of that look which accompanied these words. 8. "Who are you?" he cried, as the strange man retreated to the next room: "your name?" "My name," he replied, with a smile that had more of mockery than joy in its convulsive expression,--"my name is Benedict Arnold!" He was gone: Talleyrand sank into his chair, gasping the words, "ARNOLD, THE TRAITOR!" 9. Thus, you see, he wandered over the earth another Cain, with the wanderer's mark upon his brow. Even in that secluded room, in that inn at Havre, his crimes found him out, and forced him to tell his name: that name the synonym of infamy. The last twenty years of his life are covered with a cloud, from whose darkness but a few gleams of light flash out upon the page of history. 10. The manner of his death is not exactly known; but we can not doubt that he died utterly friendless,--that remorse pursued him to the grave, whispering "John Andre" in his ear,--and that the memory of his course of infamy gnawed like a canker at his heart, murmuring forever, "True to your country, what might you have been, O ARNOLD, THE TRAITOR!" QUESTIONS.--1. Who was Talleyrand? 2. Why was he obliged to flee from Paris? 3. Whom did he seek at Havre? 4. Why did he wish to see the stranger? 5. Describe the appearance of this stranger. 6. What did he say to Talleyrand? 7. Who did the stranger prove to be? 8. What is said of Arnold? 9. Where is Havre? 10. Where is Paris? 11. What is meant by _New World_? * * * * * LESSON LIX. LO CO MO' TIVE, steam-engine to propel rail-cars. COL LIS' ION, (_s_ like _zh_,) shock; violent contact. EN GIN EER', one who manages an engine. PRE CIP' I TA TED, thrown headlong. RE-EN FORCE' MENTS, additional forces. OB' STI NATE, unyielding. CORPS, (_kore_,) body of troops. BANK' RUPT CY, insolvency. E NOR' MOUS, immense; very large. AS' SETS, amounts due. RE MIT' TANCE, money remitted. PRE SERV' ED, secured; saved. MA TU' RI TY, time of payment. RE PRIEVE', respite. IN SOLV' ENT, one unable to pay his debts. PROV O CA' TION, incitement to anger. IG NO MIN' I OUS, disgraceful. SAC RI FIC' ED, (_c_ like _z_,) thrown away. BEHIND TIME. FREEMAN HUNT. 1. A railroad train was rushing along at almost lightning speed. A curve was just ahead, beyond which was a station, at which the cars usually passed each other. The conductor was late,--so late that the period during which the down train was to wait, had nearly elapsed: but he hoped yet to pass the curve safely. Suddenly, a locomotive dashed into sight right ahead. In an instant, there was a collision. A shriek, a shock, and fifty souls were in eternity; and all because an engineer had been _behind time_. 2. A great battle was going on. Column after column had been precipitated for eight mortal hours on the enemy posted along the ridge of a hill. The summer sun was sinking to the west; re-enforcements for the obstinate defenders were already in sight; it was necessary to carry the position with one final charge, or every thing would be lost. A powerful corps had been summoned from across the country, and, if it came up in season, all would yet be right. The great conqueror, confident in its arrival, formed his reserve into an attacking column, and led them down the hill. The whole world knows the result. Grouchy [Footnote: Pronounced _Groo' shee_.] failed to appear; the imperial guard was beaten back; Waterloo was lost. Napoleon died a prisoner at St. Helena, because one of his marshals was _behind time_. 3. A leading firm, in commercial circles had long struggled against bankruptcy. As it had enormous assets in California, it expected remittances by a certain day; and if the sums promised arrived, its credit, its honor, and its future prosperity would be preserved. But week after week elapsed without bringing the gold. At last, came the fatal day on which the firm had bills maturing to enormous amounts. The steamer was telegraphed at daybreak; but it was found on inquiry that she brought no funds; and the house failed. The next arrival brought nearly half a million to the insolvents, but it was too late; they were ruined, because their agent, in remitting, had been _behind time_. 4. A condemned man was led out for execution, he had taken human life, but under circumstances of the greatest provocation, and public sympathy was active in his behalf. Thousands had signed petitions for a reprieve, a favorable answer had been expected the night before, and, though it had not come, even the sheriff felt confident that it would yet arrive in season. Thus the morning passed without the appearance of the messenger. The last moment was up. The prisoner took his place on the drop, the cap was drawn over his eyes, the bolt was drawn, and a lifeless body hung suspended in the air. Just at that moment a horseman came into sight, galloping down the hill, his steed covered with foam. He carried a packet in his right hand, which he waved to the crowd. He was the express rider with the reprieve. But he had come too late. A comparatively innocent man had died an ignominious death, because a watch had been five minutes too slow, making its bearer arrive _behind time_. 5. It is continually so in life. The best laid plans, the most important affairs, the fortunes of individuals, the wealth of nations, honor, happiness, life itself, are daily sacrificed because somebody is "behind time." There are men who always fail in whatever they undertake, simply because they are "behind time." Five minutes in a crisis are worth years. It is but a little period, yet it has often saved a fortune, or redeemed a people. If there is one virtue that should be cultivated more than another by him who would succeed in life, it is _punctuality_; if there is one error that should be avoided, it is being _behind time_. QUESTIONS.--1. What sad results are mentioned, in consequence of being _behind time?_ 2. What virtue should be cultivated, and what error avoided? 3. What is the use of the hyphen in the word _re-enforcements?_ See SANDERS' NEW SPELLER, page 165. * * * * * LESSON LX. TWIN' ED, interwoven. GAR' LAND, wreath of flowers. MUS' ED, thought; meditated. AN TIQUE', (_an teek'_,) ancient. MOLD, shape; form. RARE, scarce; seldom seen. SOOTH ED, calmed; quieted. THROB' BED, beat; palpitated. CO' ZY, snug; comfortable. EBB' ED, flowed back. JOUR' NEY, travel. LONG' ING, earnestly desiring. TIE, bond of affection. RIV' EN, torn asunder. "HOW HAPPY I'LL BE." 1. A little girl sat amid the flowers, In the blush and bloom of childhood's hours; She twined the buds in a garland fair, And bound them up in her shining hair: "Ah, me!" said she, "_how happy I'll be_, When ten years more have gone over me, And I am a maiden with youth's bright glow Flushing my cheek, and lighting my brow!" 2. A maiden mused in a pleasant room, Where the air was filled with a soft perfume; Vases were near of antique mold, And beautiful pictures, rare and old; And she, amid all the beauty there, Was by far the loveliest and most fair. "Ah, me!" said she, "_how happy I'll be_, When my heart's own choice comes back to me, When I proudly stand by my dear one's side, With the thrilling joy of a youthful bride!" 3. A mother bent o'er the cradle nest Where she soothed her babe to his smiling rest; She watched the sleep of her cherub-boy, And her spirit throbbed with exulting joy. "Ah, me!" said she, "_how happy I'll be_, When he reaches manhood, proud and free, And the world bows down, in its rapture wild, It the earnest words of my darling child!" 4. An aged one sat by the cozy hearth, Counting life's sands as they ebbed from earth; Feeble and frail; the race she run Had borne her along to the setting sun. "Ah, me!" said she, "_how happy I'll be_, When from time's long fever my soul is free, When the world fades out with its weary strife, And I soar away to a better life!" 5. 'Tis thus we journey from youth to age, Longing to turn to another page, Striving to hasten the years away, Lighting our hearts with the future's ray, Hoping on earth till its visions fade, Wishing and waiting, through sun and shade, But turning, when earth's last tie is riven, To the beautiful rest of a fadeless Heaven. QUESTIONS.--1. When did the little girl think she would be happy? 2. What did she say when she became old? 3. What are we constantly expecting from youth to age? 4. What is the meaning of the suffix _ing_, in such words as _longing, striving, lighting_, &c.? See SANDERS & McELLIGOTT'S ANALYSIS, page 134, Ex. 176. * * * * * LESSON LXI. VET' ER AN, old soldier. GRASP' ED, seized hold of. AN' CIENT, old. MUR' MUR, ED, uttered in a low voice. IM MOR' TAL, imperishable. RAG' ED, was furious. RE MAIN', still exists. SIRE, father. LIGHT' EN ED, (EN, _make_; ED, _did_,) did make light. THE SWORD OF BUNKER HILL. WILLIAM R. WALLACE. 1. He lay upon his dying bed, (pl.) His eye was growing dim, When, with a feeble voice, he called His weeping son to him: "Weep not, my boy," the veteran said, "I bow to Heaven's high will; But quickly from yon antlers bring, The sword of Bunker Hill." 2. The sword was brought; the soldier's eye Lit with a sudden flame; And, as he grasped the ancient blade, He murmured Warren's[1] name; Then said, "My boy, I leave you gold, But what is richer still, I leave you, mark me, mark me, now, The sword of Bunker Hill. 3. "'Twas on that dread, immortal day, I dared the Briton's band, A captain raised his blade on me, I tore it from his hand; And while the glorious battle raged, It lightened Freedom's will; For, boy, the God of Freedom blessed The sword of Bunker Hill. 4. "Oh! keep this sword," his accents broke,-- A smile--and he was dead; But his wrinkled hand still grasped the blade, Upon that dying bed. The son remains, the sword remains, Its glory growing still, And twenty millions bless the sire And sword of Bunker Hill. [Footnote 1: General Warren, a brave and valuable officer, fell by a musket-ball, while fighting the British at Bunker's Hill, June 17th, 1775.] QUESTIONS.--1. What request did the old veteran make of his son? 2. What bequest did he make to him? 3. How did he obtain that sword? 4. What did he say to his son? 5. Who was Warren? * * * * * LESSON LXII. LE' GEND, fictitious narrative. MOR' TAL, deadly. COM' BAT, battle; conflict. PRI ME' VAL, first; primitive. MUS' CU LAR, strong; vigorous. CA DAV' ER OUS, pale; sickly. REF U GEE', runaway; fugitive. QUAR' TER, mercy; indulgence. PIN' ION ED, confined; shackled. A BYSS', yawning gulf. PRO POS' AL, offer; proposition. DI SHEV' EL ED, disordered. IM BO' SOM ED, surrounded; inclosed. CON FESS' ED, owned; acknowledged. RE LENT' ING, pitying; compassionate. RAN' DOM, venture. SU PER STI' TION, false religious belief. A VENGE', take satisfaction for. UN CON' SCIOUS, unaware. SUB LIM' I TY, grandeur. THE BIBLE LEGEND OF THE WIS SA HI' KON. LIPPARD. 1. It was here in the wilds of the Wis sa hi' kon, on the day of battle, as the noonday sun came shining through the thickly clustered leaves, that two men met in mortal combat. They grappled in deadly conflict near a rock that rose, like the huge wreck of some primeval world, at least one hundred feet above the dark waters of the Wis sa hi'kon. 2. That man with the dark brow and the darker gray eye,--with the muscular form, clad in the blue hunting-frock of the Revolution,--is a Continental, named Warner. His brother was murdered at the massacre of Pao'li. That _other_ man, with long black hair drooping along his cadaverous face, is clad in the half-military costume of a Tory refugee. _That_ is the murderer of Pao'li, named Dabney. 3. They had met there in the woods by accident; and now they fought, not with sword or rifle, but with long and deadly hunting-knives, that flash in the light as they go turning, and twining, and twisting over the green-sward. At last, the Tory is down!--down on the green-sward, with the knee of the Continental upon his breast,--that up-raised knife quivering in the light,--that dark-gray eye flashing death into his face! 4. "Quarter! I yield!" gasped the Tory, as the knee was pressed upon his breast. "Spare me!--I yield!" 5. "_My_ brother," said the patriot soldier, in a low tone of deadly hate,--"_My_ brother cried for quarter on the night of Pa o' li, and, even as he clung to your knees, you struck that knife into his heart. Oh, I will give you the quarter of Pa o' li!" And his hand was raised for the blow, and his teeth were clinched in deadly hate. He paused for a moment, and then pinioned the Tory's arms, and, with one rapid stride, dragged him to the verge of the rock, and held him quivering over the abyss. 6. "Mercy!" gasped the Tory, turning black and ashy by turns, as that awful gulf yawned below. "_Mercy! I have a wife! a child! spare me!_" 7. Then the Continental, with his muscular strength gathered for the effort, shook the murderer once more over the abyss, and then hissed this bitter sneer between his teeth,--"_My brother had a wife and two children_. The morning after the night of Pa o' li, that wife was a widow,--those children were orphans! Would not you like to go and beg your life of that widow and her children?" 8. The proposal, made by the Continental in the mere mockery of hate, was taken in serious earnest by the horror-stricken Tory. He begged to be taken to the widow and her children, to have the pitiful privilege of begging his life. After a moment's serious thought, the patriot soldier consented. He bound the Tory's arms yet tighter, placed him on the rock again, and then led him up the woods. A quiet cottage, imbosomed among the trees, broke on their eyes. 9. They entered that cottage. There, beside the desolate hearth-stone, sat the widow and her children. She was a matronly woman of about thirty years, with a face faded by care, a deep, dark eye, and long, disheveled hair about her shoulder. On one side was a dark-haired boy, of some six years; on the other, a little girl, one year younger, with light hair and blue eyes. The Bible, an old, venerable volume, lay open on that mother's lap. 10. And then that pale-faced Tory flung himself on his knees, confessed that he had butchered her husband on the night of Pa o'li, but begged his life at her hands! _"Spare me, for the sake of my wife--my child!"_ He had expected that his pitiful moan would touch the widow's heart; but not one relenting gleam softened her pale face. 11. "The Lord shall judge between us!" she said in a cold, icy tone, that froze the murderer's heart. "Look! The Bible lies open before me. I will close that volume, and then this boy shall open it, and place his finger at random upon a line, and by _that line_ you shall live or die!" This was a strange proposal, made in full faith of a wild and dark superstition of the olden time. For a moment, the Tory, kneeling there, livid as ashes, was wrapt in thought. Then, in a faltering voice, he signified his consent. 12. Raising her dark eyes to heaven, the mother prayed the Great Father to direct the finger of her son. She closed the book, and handed it to that boy, whose young cheek reddened with loathing as he gazed upon his father's murderer. He took the Bible, opened its holy pages at random, and placed his fingers upon a verse. 13. Then there was a silence. That Continental soldier, who had sworn to avenge his brother's death, stood there with dilating eyes and parted lips. Then the culprit, kneeling on the floor, with a face like discolored clay, felt his heart leap to his throat. Then, in a clear, bold voice, the widow read this line from the Old Testament. It was short, yet terrible: "_That man shall die!_" 14. Look! The brother springs forward to plunge a knife into the murderer's heart; but the Tory, pinioned as he is, begs that one more trial may be made by the little girl,--that child of five years, with golden hair and laughing eyes. The widow consents. There is an awful pause. With a smile in her eye, without knowing what she does, the little girl opens the Bible,--she turns her laughing face away,--she places her fingers upon the page. 15. That awful silence grows deeper. The deep-drawn breath of the brother, and the broken gasps of the murderer, alone disturb the stillness. The widow and dark-eyed boy are breathless. That little girl, unconscious as she was, caught a feeling of awe from the countenances around her, and stood breathless, her face turned aside, and her tiny fingers resting on that line of life or death. At last, gathering courage, the widow bent her eyes on the page, and read. It was a line from the New Testament: "LOVE YOUR ENEMIES." Ah! that moment was sublime! 16. Oh, awful Book of God! in whose dread pages we see Job talking face to face with Jehovah, or Jesus waiting by Samaria's well, or wandering by the waves of dark Galilee! Oh, awful Book! shining to-night, as I speak, the light of that widow's home,--the glory of the mechanic's shop,--shining where the world comes not, to look on the last night of the convict in his cell, lightening the way to God, even over that dread gibbet! 17. Oh, Book of terrible majesty and child-like love,--for sublimity that crushes the soul into awe,--of beauty that melts the heart with rapture! you never shone more strangely beautiful than there in the lonely cot of the Wissa hi'kon, where you saved the murderer's life. For,--need I tell you?--_that murderer's life was saved_. That widow recognized the finger of God, and even the stern brother was awed into silence. The murderer went his way. 18. Now look ye, how wonderful are the ways of Heaven! That very night, as the widow sat by her lonely hearth, her orphans by her side,--sat there with a crushed heart and hot eye-balls, thinking of her husband, who, she supposed, now lay moldering on the blood-drenched soil of Pa o' li,--there was a tap at the door. She opened it, and that husband, living, though covered with wounds, was in her arms! He had fallen at Pa o' li, but not in death. _He was alive_,--his wife lay panting on his breast. That night there was a prayer in that wood-embowered cot of the Wis sa hi' kon. QUESTIONS.--1. What two men are said to have engaged in deadly combat? 2. Which gained the mastery? 3. What did the patriot soldier say to the Tory, when he cried, _Quarter_? 4. What, when the Tory told him he had a wife and child? 5. What proposal was made to him? 6. How was his fate to be decided? 7. Was his life spared? 8. What proved the justice of the decision? * * * * * LESSON LXIII. VES' TI BULE, porch, entrance. VI' BRATE, move to and fro. IM MOR' TALS, undying creatures. MON' U MENTS, memorials. A CHIEVE', accomplish. MU TA BLE, changeable. IM MOR TAL' I TY, deathless existence. IL LU' MIN ATE, enlighten. UN DER STAND' ING, intellect. RE AL' I TIES, truths; facts. AS SAULTS', violent attacks. DE SER' TION, abandonment. IN EX HAUST' I BLE, never-failing. CHAR' TER, title; deed. ADVICE TO THE YOUNG. E.H. CHAPIN. 1. Young friends', in whatever pursuits you may engage, you must not forget that the lawful objects of human efforts, are but means to higher results and nobler ends. Start not forward in life with the idea of becoming mere seekers of pleasure,--sportive butterflies searching for gaudy flowers. Consider and act with reference to the true ends of existence. 2. This world is but the vestibule of an immortal life. Every action of your life touches on some chord that will vibrate in eternity. These thoughts and motives within you, stir the pulses of a deathless spirit. Act not, then, as mere creatures of this life, who, for a little while, are to walk the valleys and the hills, to enjoy the sunshine and to breathe the air, and then pass away and be no more; but _act_ as immortals, with an _aim_ and a _purpose_ worthy of your high nature. 3. Set before you, as the chief object to be obtained, an _end_ that is superior to any on earth,--_a desirable end_, A PERFECT END. Labor to accomplish a work which shall survive unchanged and beautiful, when time shall have withered the garland of youth, when thrones of power and monuments of art shall have crumbled into ashes; and, finally, aim to achieve something, which, when these our mutable and perishing voices are hushed forever, shall live amid the songs and triumphs of IMMORTALITY. 4. Well will it be for you, if you have a _guide_ within, which will aid you in every issue which will arm you in every temptation, and comfort you in every sorrow. Consult, then, that Volume whose precepts will never fail you. Consult it with a deep aspiration after the true and good, and it shall illuminate your understanding with divine realities. 5. Open your soul, and it shall breathe into it a holy influence, and fill all its wants. Bind it close to your heart; it will be a shield against all the assaults of evil. Read it in the lonely hour of desertion; it will be the best of companions. Open it when the voyage of life is troubled'; it is a sure chart. Study it in poverty'; it will unhoard to you inexhaustible riches. Commune with it in sickness'; it contains the medicine of the soul. Clasp it when dying'; IT IS THE CHARTER OF IMMORTALITY. QUESTIONS.--1. What ought we not to forget? 2. How ought the world to be regarded? 3. How ought we to act and labor? 4. What ought we to consult? * * * * * LESSON LXIV. IN TREP' ID, brave; heroic. BE TO' KEN ED, showed; indicated. E LAS' TIC, springy; agile. AT' TI TUDE, posture; position. UN' DER GROWTH, shrubbery. CON FRONT', stand before. CA TAS' TRO PHE, disaster; calamity. DE TER' RED, hindered; prevented. HUR' RI CANE, violent tempest. BUF' FET ING, beating with the hands. ATH LET' IC, strong; powerful. MI RAC' U LOUS, wonderful. TRE MEN DOUS, terrible; frightful. DES' PE RATE, rash; furious. IN VOL' UN TA RY, spontaneous. CAT' A RACT, waterfall. RE SUS' CI TATE, revive; bring to life. CH AR' AC TER IZ ED, distinguished. THE INTREPID YOUTH. 1. It was a calm, sunny day in the year 1750; the scene, a piece of forest land in the north of Virginia, near a noble stream of water. Implements of surveying were lying about, and several men reclining under the trees, betokened, by their dress and appearance, that they composed a party engaged in laying out the wild lands of the country. 2. These persons had apparently just finished their dinner. Apart from the group, walked a young man of a tall and compact frame, and moved with the elastic tread of one accustomed to constant exercise in the open air. His countenance wore a look of decision and manliness not usually found in one so young, for he was apparently little over eighteen years of age. His hat had been cast off, as if for comfort, and he had paused, with one foot advanced, in a graceful and natural attitude. 3. Suddenly there was a shriek, then another, and several in rapid succession. The voice was that of a woman, and seemed to proceed from the other side of a dense thicket. At the first scream, the youth turned his head in the direction of the sound; but when it was repeated, he pushed aside the undergrowth which separated him from it, and, quickening his footsteps, as the cries succeeded each other in alarming rapidity, he soon dashed into an open space on the banks of the stream, where stood a rude log-cabin. 4. As the young man broke from the undergrowth, he saw his companions crowded together on the banks of the river, while in the midst stood the woman, from whom proceeded the shrieks, held back by two of the men, but struggling vigorously for freedom. It was but the work of a moment for the young man to make his way through the crowd and confront the female. The instant her eye fell on him, she exclaimed, "Oh! sir, you will do something for me. Make them release me,--for the love of God! _My boy,--my poor boy is drowning, and they will not let me go!"_ "It would be madness; she will jump into the river," said one, "and the rapids would dash her to pieces in a moment!" 5. The youth had scarcely waited for these words, for he recollected the child, a bold little boy of four years old, whose beautiful blue eyes and flaxen ringlets made him a favorite with all who knew him. He had been accustomed to play in the little inclosure before the cabin, but the gate having been left open, he had stolen incautiously out, reached the edge of the bank, and was in the act of looking over, when his mother saw him. 6. The shriek she uttered only hastened the catastrophe she feared; for the child, frightened at the cry of its mother, lost its balance, and fell into the stream, which here went foaming and roaring along amid innumerable rocks, constituting the most dangerous rapids known in that section of the country. Scream now followed scream in rapid succession, as the agonized mother rushed to the bank. 7. The party we left reclining in the shade within a few steps of the accident, were immediately on the spot. Fortunate it was that they were so near, else the mother would have jumped in after her child, and both been lost. Several of the men approached the brink, and were on the point of springing in after the child, when the sight of the sharp rocks crowding the channel, the rush and whirl of the waters, and the want of any knowledge where to look for the boy, deterred them, and they gave up the enterprise. 8. Not so with the noble youth. His first work was to throw off his coat; next to spring to the edge of the bank. Here he stood for a moment, running his eyes rapidly over the scene below, taking with a glance the different currents and the most dangerous of the rocks, in order to shape his course when in the stream. He had scarcely formed his conclusion, when he saw in the water a white object, which he knew to be the boy's dress, and he plunged into the wild and roaring rapids. 9. _"Thank God, he will save my child,"_ cried the mother; _"there he is!--oh! my boy, my darling boy, how could I leave you!"_ Every one had rushed to the brink of the precipice, and was now following with eager eyes the progress of the youth, as the current bore him onward, like a feather in the embrace of the hurricane. Now it seemed as if he would be dashed against a jutting rock, over which the water flew in foam, and a whirlpool would drag him in, from whose grasp escape would appear impossible. 10. At times, the current bore him under, and he would be lost to sight; then, just as the spectators gave him up, he would appear, though far from where he vanished, still buffeting amid the vortex. Oh, how that mother's straining eyes followed him in his perilous career! how her heart sunk when he went under,--and with what a gush of joy when she saw him emerge again from the waters, and, flinging the waves aside with his athletic arms, struggle on in pursuit of her boy! 11. But it seemed as if his generous efforts were not to avail; for, though the current was bearing off the boy before his eyes, scarcely ten feet distant, he could not, despite his gigantic efforts, overtake the drowning child. On flew the youth and child; and it was miraculous how each escaped being dashed in pieces against the rocks. Twice the boy went out of sight, and a suppressed shriek escaped the mother's lips; but twice he reappeared, and then, with hands wrung wildly together, and breathless anxiety, she followed his progress, as his unresisting form was hurried with the onward current. 12. The youth now appeared to redouble his exertions, for they were approaching the most dangerous part of the river, where the rapids, contracting between the narrow shores, shot almost perpendicularly down a declivity of fifteen feet. The rush of the waters at this spot was tremendous, and no one ventured to approach its vicinity, even in a canoe, lest he should be dashed in pieces. What, then, would be the youth's fate, unless he soon overtook the child? He seemed fully sensible of the increasing peril, and now urged his way through the foaming current with a desperate strength. 13. Three times he was on the point of grasping the child, when the waters whirled the prize from him. The third effort was made just as they were entering within the influence of the current above the fall; and when it failed, the mother's heart sunk within her, and she groaned, fully expecting the youth to give up his task. But no; he only pressed forward the more eagerly; and, as they breathlessly watched amid the boiling waters, they saw the form of the brave youth following close after that of the boy. 14. And now, like an arrow from the bow, pursuer and pursued shot to the brink of the precipice. An instant they hung there, distinctly visible amid the foaming waters. Every brain grew dizzy at the sight. But a shout of involuntary exultation burst from the spectators, when they saw the boy held aloft by the right arm of the youth,--a shout that was suddenly checked with horror, when they both vanished into the abyss below! 15. A moment elapsed before a word was spoken, or a breath drawn. The mother ran forward, and then stood gazing with fixed eyes at the foot of the cataract, as if her all depended upon what the next moment should reveal. Suddenly she gave the glad cry, (_f_.) "_There they are! See! they are safe!_--Great God, I thank thee!" And, sure enough, there was the youth still unharmed, and still buffeting the waters. He had just emerged from the boiling vortex below the cataract. With one hand he held aloft the child, and with the other he was making for the shore. 16. They ran, they shouted, they scarcely knew what they did, until they reached his side, just as he was struggling to the bank. They drew him out almost exhausted. The boy was senseless; but his mother declared that he still lived, as she pressed him frantically to her bosom. The youth could scarcely stand, so faint was he from his exertions. 17. Who can describe the scene that followed,--the mother's calmness while she strove to resuscitate her boy, and her wild gratitude to his preserver, when the child was out of danger, and sweetly sleeping in her arms? Our pen shrinks at the task. But her words, pronounced then, were remembered afterwards by more than one who heard them. 18. "_God will reward you_," said she, "as _I_ can not. He will do great things for you in return for this day's work, and the blessings of thousands besides mine will attend you." And so it was; for, to the _hero_ of that hour, were subsequently confided the destinies of a mighty nation. But, throughout his long career, what tended to make him more honored and respected beyond all men, was the _self-sacrificing spirit_, which, in the rescue of that mother's child, as in the more august events of his life, characterized OUR BELOVED WASHINGTON. QUESTIONS.--1. Describe the scene where this accident took place. 2. What did the woman say to the young man? 3. Why would not the men release the woman? 4. What did the young man do? 5. Did he finally succeed in saving the child? 6. What did the mother say to him? 7. Who did this youth prove to be? * * * * * LESSON LXV. RAB' BI, teacher or doctor. HEA' THEN, pagan; gentile. BOUND' A RIES, limits. WAN' DER ED, strayed. SUB MIS' SIVE, resigned; humble. PIL' GRIM, wanderer. RE PEL' LED, drove off. IN HOS' PI TA BLE, unkind to strangers. MAN' TLE, garment, cloak. CON SOL' ING, comforting. RE POS' ING, lying down; resting. CA LAM' I TY, misfortune. POUN' CED, fell or jumped suddenly. IM PLOR' ING, begging; entreating. DE SPOIL' ED, robbed. CHURL' ISH, surly; rude. THE FOUR MISFORTUNES. JOHN G. SANE. 1. A pious Rabbi, forced by heathen hate, To quit the boundaries of his native land, Wandered abroad, submissive to his fate, Through pathless woods and wastes of burning sand. 2. A patient ass, to bear him in his flight, A dog, to guard him from the robber's stealth, A lamp, by which to read the law at night,-- Was all the pilgrim's store of worldly wealth. 3. At set of sun he reached a little town, And asked for shelter and a crumb of food; But every face repelled him with a frown, And so he sought a lodging in the wood. 4. "'Tis very hard," the weary traveler said, "And most inhospitable, I protest, To send me fasting to this forest bed; But God is good, and means it for the best!" 5. He lit his lamp to read the sacred law, Before he spread his mantle for the night; But the wind rising with a sudden flaw, He read no more,--the gust put out the light. 6. "'Tis strange," he said, "'tis very strange, indeed, That ere I lay me down to take my rest, A chapter of the law I may not read,-- But God is good, and all is for the best!" 7. With these consoling words the Rabbi tries To sleep,--his head reposing on a log,-- But, ere he fairly shut his drowsy eyes, A wolf came up and killed his faithful dog. 8. "What new calamity is this?" he cried; "My honest dog--a friend who stood the test When others failed--lies murdered at my side! Well,--God is good, and means it for the best." 9. Scarce had the Rabbi spoken, when, alas!-- As if, at once, to crown his wretched lot, A hungry lion pounced upon the ass, And killed the faithful donkey on the spot. 10. "Alas!--alas!" the weeping Rabbi said, "Misfortune haunts me like a hateful guest; My dog is gone, and now my ass is dead,-- Well, God is good, and all is for the best!" 11. At dawn of day, imploring heavenly grace, Once more he sought the town, but all in vain; A band of robbers had despoiled the place, And all the churlish citizens were slain. 12. "Now God be praised!" the grateful Rabbi cried, "If I had tarried in the town to rest, I too, with these poor villagers had died,-- Sure, God is good, and all is for the best!" 13. "Had not the saucy wind put out my lamp, By which the sacred law I would have read, The light had shown the robbers to my camp, And here the villains would have left me dead. 14. "Had not my faithful animals been slain, Their noise, no doubt, had drawn the robbers near, And so their master, it is very plain, Instead of them, had fallen murdered here. 15. "Full well I see that this hath happened so To put my faith and patience to the test; Thanks to His name! for now I surely know That God is good, and all is for the best!" * * * * * LESSON LXVI. FU TU' RI TY, events to come. CON SULT', counsel with. PRE TEN' SIONS, claims; assumptions. FOR' TI TUDE, patience; endurance. MOD' EL, pattern; example. RES IG NA' TION, submissiveness. O VER WHELMS', overcomes. IN GRAT' I TUDE, unthankfulness. VAG' A BOND, vagrant; worthless. IM' PU DENCE, sauciness. DES' TI NY, fate; final lot. DE CEAS' ED, dead. DE PRIV' ED, robbed. IN CUR' RED, brought on; caused. CON SUL TA' TIONS, couselings. CAL CU LA' TIONS, reckonings. PRE TER NAT' U RAL, (PRETER, _beyond_;) beyond what is natural; miraculous. IN VOLV' ED, (IN, _in_; VOLVED, _rolled_;) rolled in; enveloped. IN TER RUPT', (INTER, _in, between_; RUPT, _to break_;) break in between; stop; hinder. [Headnote 1: JOB, a patriarch, celebrated for his patience, constancy, and piety. For note on DAVID, see page 138.] NOTE.--The dash at the end of a remark denotes that the speaker is interrupted by the one with whom he is conversing. MRS. CREDULOUS AND THE FORTUNE-TELLER. _Mrs. Credulous._ Are you the fortune-teller, sir, that knows every thing? _Fortune-Teller._ I sometimes consult futurity, madam; but I make no pretensions to any supernatural knowledge. _Mrs. C._ Ay, so _you_ say; but every body else says you know _every thing_; and I have come all the way from Boston to consult you; for you must know I have met with a dreadful loss. _F. T._ We are liable to losses in this world, madam. _Mrs. C._ Yes; and I have had my share of them, though I shall be only fifty, come Thanksgiving. _F. T._ You must have learned to bear misfortunes with fortitude, by this time. _Mrs. C._ I don't know how that is, though my dear husband, rest his soul, used to say, "Molly, you are as patient as Job,[Headnote 1] though you never had any children to lose, as he had." _F. T._ Job was a model of patience, madam, and few could lose their all with so much resignation. _Mrs. C._ Ah, sir', that is too true'; for even the small loss _I_ have suffered, overwhelms me! _F. T._ The loss of property, madam, comes home to the bosom of the best of us. _Mrs. C._ Yes, sir; and when the thing lost can not be replaced, it is doubly distressing. When my poor, good man, on our wedding day, gave me the ring, "Keep it, Molly," said he, "till you die, for my sake." And now, that I should have lost it, after keeping it thirty years, and locking it up so carefully all the time, as I did-- _F. T._ We can not be too careful in this world, madam; our best friends often deceive us. _Mrs. C._ True, sir, true,--but who would have thought that the child I took, as it were, out of the street, and brought up as my own, could have been guilty of such ingratitude? She never would have touched what was not her own, if her vagabond lover had not put her up to it. _F. T._ Ah, madam, ingratitude is the basest of all crimes! _Mrs. C._ Yes; but to think that the impudent creature should deny she took it, when I saw it in the possession of that wretch myself. _F. T._ Impudence, madam, usually accompanies crime. But my time is precious, and the star that rules your destiny will set, and your fate be involved in darkness, unless I proceed to business immediately. The star informs me, madam, that you are a widow. _Mrs. C._ La! sir, were you acquainted with my deceased husband? _F. T._ No, madam; we do not receive our knowledge by such means. Thy name is Mary, and thy dwelling-place is Boston. _Mrs. C._ Some spirit must have told you this, for certain. _F. T._ This is not all, madam. You were married at the age of twenty years, and were the sole heir of your deceased husband. _Mrs. C._ I perceive, sir, you know _every_ thing. _F. T._ Madam, I can not help knowing what I _do_ know; I must therefore inform you that your adopted daughter, in the dead of night-- _Mrs. C._ No, sir; it was in the day-time. _F. T._ Do not interrupt me, madam. In the dead of night, your adopted daughter planned the robbery which deprived you of your wedding-ring. _Mrs. C._ No earthly being could have told you this, for I never let my right hand know that I possessed it, lest some evil should happen to it. _F. T._ Hear me, madam; you have come all this distance to consult the fates, and find your ring. _Mrs. C._ You have guessed my intention exactly, sir. _F. T._ Guessed'! madam'. I _know_ this is your object; and I know, moreover, that your ungrateful daughter has incurred your displeasure, by receiving the addresses of a worthless man. _Mrs. C._ Every word is gospel truth. _F. T._ This man has persuaded your daughter-- _Mrs. C._ I knew he did, I told her so. But good sir, can you tell me who has the ring? _F. T._ This young man has it. _Mrs. C._ But he denies it. _F. T._ No matter, madam, he has it. _Mrs. C._ But how shall I obtain it again? _F. T._ The law points out the way, madam,--it is _my_ business to point out the rogue,--you must catch him. _Mrs. C._ You are right, sir,--and if there is law to be had, I will spend every cent I own, but I will have it. I knew he was the robber, and I thank you for the information. [_Going_.] _F. T._ But thanks, madam, will not pay for all my nightly vigils, consultations, and calculations. _Mrs. C._ Oh, right, sir! I forgot to pay you. What am I indebted to you? _F. T._ Only five dollars, madam. _Mrs. C._ [_Handing him the money_.] There it is, sir. I would have paid twenty rather than not have found the ring. _F. T._ I never take but five, madam. Farewell, madam, your friend is at the door with your chaise. [_He leaves the room_.] [_Enter, Friend_.] _Friend_. Well, Mary, what does the fortune-teller say? _Mrs. C._ Oh, he told me I was a widow, and lived in Boston, and had an adopted daughter,--and---- _Friend._ But you knew all this before, did you not? _Mrs. C._ Yes; but how should _he_ know it? He told me, too, that I had lost a ring,-- _Friend._ Did he tell you where to find it? _Mrs. C._ Oh yes! he says that fellow has it, and I must go to law and get it, if he will not give it up. What do you think of that? _Friend._ It is precisely what any fool could have told you. But how much did you pay for this precious information? _Mrs. C._ Only five dollars. _Friend._ How much was the ring worth? _Mrs. C._ Why, two dollars, at least. _Friend._ Then you have paid ten dollars for a chaise to bring you here, five dollars for the information that you had already, and all this to gain possession of a ring not worth one quarter of the expense! _Mrs. C._ Oh, the rascal! how he has cheated me! I will go to the world's end but I will be revenged. _Friend._ You had better go home, and say nothing about it; for every effort to recover your money, will only expose your folly. QUESTIONS.--1. What had Mrs. Credulous said, by which the fortune-teller knew all the circumstances relative to the loss of her ring? 2. How was she told she must get her ring? 3. What did she pay the fortune-teller? 4. How much for the chaise? 5. What was her ring worth? 6. Was she a bright dame? * * * * * LESSON LXVII. UN FAL' TER ING, steady. CON FID' ING LY, trustingly. SOOTH' ING LY, tenderly, calmly. AL LUR'ING, seductive; flattering. AP PRO' PRI ATE, proper; peculiar. SUB MIS' SION, resignation. IN' VA LID, sick or infirm person. CON TENT' MENT, satifaction. MEA' GER, scanty. CON' FI DENCE, faith; reliance. AS SUAG' ED, relieved; mitigated. FER' VEN CY, heat; ardent feeling. RA DI A TION luster. FRU I' TION, realization; enjoyment. FAITH, HOPE, AND CHARITY.--AN ALLEGORY. [Footnote: AL' LE GO RY is a word of Greek origin. It is made up of two parts; ALL, _other_; and EGORY, _discourse_; the literal meaning of the compound being, _discourse_ about _other_ things; that is, things other than those expressed by the words, literally interpreted. Allegory is, therefore, the general name for that class of compositions, as _Fables_, _Apologues_, _Parables_, and _Myth_, in which there is a _double_ signification, one _literal_ and the other _figurative_; the literal being designed merely to give a more clear and impressive view of that which is figurative.] 1. Many years ago, three beautiful sisters came into our world to lighten the burdens of earth's toiling pilgrims, and aid them in preparation for a higher state of existence. Alike commissioned by the Great Father, they were sent on errands of mercy, and were not to turn away from scenes of darkness, sorrow, and suffering. 2. FAITH had a firm, unfaltering step; HOPE, a beaming eye, ever turned to the future; and LOVE, a pitying glance, and a helping hand. They journeyed confidingly together; and when they found a stricken being in danger of perishing by the wayside, FAITH soothingly whispered, "My Father doeth all things well;" HOPE pointed to the cooling shade just in advance; and LOVE assisted him to rise, and aided his feeble steps. 3. Groups of fair children played near the path in which they were traveling. Some of these did not understand the tones of FAITH; but they all listened eagerly to the alluring strains of HOPE, who painted brighter scenes than those they were enjoying, and flowers more fragrant than any they yet had gathered. LOVE delighted to linger with the youthful band, lessening their trials, and increasing their pleasures. 4. Her gentle touch arrested the little hand that was lifted against a playmate, and her soothing voice calmed the angry passions which were swelling in the bosom. When a child stumbled in the way, she tenderly raised it up again, or when a thorn pierced the unwary finger, she kindly removed it, and bound up the bleeding wound. 5. While the sisters were busy in their appropriate mission, a pale-cheeked lad mingled with the group of merry children, though too weak to share their sports. FAITH stole to his side, and whispered of the great Parent above, who afflicts in wisdom, and chastens in love. His eye brightened while she spoke, and he looked upward with that trust and submission which he had never before experienced. 6. Then HOPE came, with visions of returning health, when his frame would be strong and his heart buoyant. But when HOPE and FAITH were gone, again his head drooped, and the tear started. Then LOVE sat down by the invalid, twining a garland of summer blossoms for his pale brow, and singing sweet melodies which charmed his listening ear. The pain was all gone now; smiles wreathed his pallid lips, and the sick boy laughed as merrily as his more robust companions. 7. The sisters, in their journeyings, entered the abode of poverty. It was a humble dwelling, and yet it looked cheerful, yea, even inviting, when the three graced it with their presence. FAITH shed a spirit of calm contentment and heavenly trust in those lowly walls; HOPE whispered of the better mansions prepared for the followers of the Lamb; and LOVE, not less exalted than her sisters, threw a charm over the meager fare and scanty attire of the inmates. FAITH taught them to offer the daily prayer in trusting confidence; HOPE pointed beyond this world to joys which eye hath not seen, nor ear heard; while LOVE lessened each burden, and increased each simple pleasure. FAITH, HOPE, and CHARITY! ye, indeed, can make a paradise of the humblest home! 8. There was a darkened chamber, with a wan form tossing restlessly upon the couch. Wealth was there; but it could not allay pain, or prolong life. FAITH, noiseless as a spirit form, glided to the sick one's side. "Though He slay me, yet will I trust in Him," was her language, as she pointed upward. HOPE fain would have whispered of length of days, but she knew this could not be; so she spoke of life eternal, where there is no more pain. Then LOVE smoothed the pillow, and bathed the fevered brow, pausing not in her tender ministries through the night-watches. When morning dawned, the spirit of the sick man passed away, though not until FAITH, and HOPE, and LOVE had assuaged the anguish of the parting pang. 9. Weeping mourners gathered around the dead. There were tears,--for "tears well befit earth's partings;" there was sorrow,--for what bitterness is like unto that of the bereaved, when the grave opens to infold the heart's best treasure? Yet FAITH, and HOPE, and LOVE were there, assuaging those tears, and mitigating that sorrow. FAITH, even while her cheeks were wet, exclaimed, "The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away; blessed be the name of the Lord." 10. HOPE'S language was, "Not lost, but gone before;" and her eye, having lost none of its brightness, saw with prophetic vision a reunion yet to come. LOVE tenderly wiped away each gathering tear, and gave deeper fervency to the trusting confidence of FAITH, and the inspiring strains of HOPE. And when the sleeper was committed to the dust, these gentle sisters lingered in the lonely house, and by the darkened hearth. 11. Such are FAITH, HOPE, and CHARITY,--given by God to lighten human sorrow, and bless the creatures He has made. They have each a mission to fulfill,--different, it is true, and yet they move in harmony. FAITH enables us to submit trustingly to daily trials, viewing a kind Father's hand in each passing event. HOPE, when the sky is dark, and the path thorny, points not only to fairer scenes below, but to that brighter world where there is no night and no sorrow. 12. LOVE lightens every burden, and reflects upon earth a faint radiation of heavenly blessedness,--for the Scriptures assure us that "God is love: and every one that loveth is born of God." The time will come when, the purposes of the wise Creator being accomplished, Faith and Hope will cease. Faith will be lost in sight, Hope in fruition; but Love will remain, binding the spirits of the redeemed in blissful communion, and uniting them to God the Father and Christ the Elder Brother. 13. Faith, Hope, and Charity! blessed spirits! May they be inmates of every heart! May they assist each of us in the peculiar trials which none can know but ourselves! They will come to us if we seek their presence; but they must be carefully nurtured. Let us cherish them in our bosoms, and they will bless us constantly in our pilgrimage below, and conduct us to the presence of our God. * * * * * LESSON LXVIII. TRANSPORT' ED, highly delighted. THREAT' EN ING, impending. COR' O NAL, crown; chaplet. MYR' I AD, innumerable. LUS' CIOUS, delicious. LUS TY, strong; vigorous. WAR' BLING, singing; caroling. CHURL, sour, surly man. RE FRESH', cool; make fresh. LAN' GUID, dull; sluggish. DROUTH' Y, dry; arid. SUS TAIN', uphold; support. UN GRUDG'ING, free-hearted; liberal. NIG GARD, miser; stingy person. "NOT TO MYSELF ALONE." S.W. PARTRIDGE. 1. "_Not to myself alone,_" The little opening flower transported cries. "Not to myself alone I bud and bloom; With fragrant breath the breezes I perfume, And gladden all things with my rainbow dyes. The bee comes sipping, every eventide, His dainty fill; The butterfly within my cup doth hide From threatening ill." 2. "_Not to myself alone,_" The circling star with honest pride doth boast, "Not to myself alone I rise and set; I write upon night's coronal of jet His power and skill who formed our myriad host; A friendly beacon at heaven's open gate, I gem the sky. That man might ne'er forget, in every fate, His home on high." 3. "_Not to myself alone_," The heavy-laden bee doth murmuring hum, "Not to myself alone, from flower to flower, I rove the wood, the garden, and the bower, And to the hive at evening weary come; For man, for man, the luscious food I pile With busy care, Content if he repay my ceaseless toil With scanty share." 4. "_Not to myself alone_," The soaring bird with lusty pinion sings, "Not to myself alone I raise my song; I cheer the drooping with my warbling tongue, And bear the mourner on my viewless wings; I bid the hymnless churl my anthem learn, And God adore; I call the worldling from his dross to turn, And sing and scar." 5. _"Not to myself alone,"_ The streamlet whispers on its pebbly way, "Not to myself alone I sparkling glide; I scatter health and life on every side, And strew the fields with herb and floweret gay. I sing unto the common, bleak and bare, My gladsome tune; I sweeten and refresh the languid air In droughty June." 6. _"Not to myself alone:"_-- O man, forget not thou,--earth's honored priest, Its tongue, its soul, its life, its pulse, its heart,-- In earth's great chorus to sustain _thy_ part! Chiefest of guests at Love's ungrudging feast, Play not the niggard; spurn thy native clod, And _self_ disown; Live to thy neighbor; live unto thy God; _Not to thyself alone!_ QUESTIONS.--1. What things are mentioned, that contribute to our comfort and happiness? 2. How does the suffix _less,_ affect the meaning of the words _cease, view, hymn,_ &c.? 3. What is the meaning of the suffixes _let_ and _et,_ in the words _streamlet_ and _floweret?_ See SANDERS & McELLIGOTT'S ANALYSIS, page 140, Ex. 185 and 187. * * * * * LESSON LXIX. NURS'ING, nourishing; cherishing. AB HOR', detest; loathe. RE LI' ED, depended. FRA TER' NAL, brotherly. SU PER' NAL, heavenly. COM BINE', unite; join together. RE HEARS' AL, recital; repetition. BIG' OT RY, blind zeal; prejudice. SHEATHE, put in a sheath. U NI VERS AL, general. CUS TOM, practice; usage. TAL' ENT, natural ability. AF FECT'ING, making false show. IS' O LATE, separate; detach. THE WORLD WOULD BE THE BETTER FOR IT. W.H. COBB. 1. If men cared less for wealth and fame, And less for battle-fields and glory,-- If writ in human hearts a name Seemed better than in song and story,-- If men instead of nursing pride, Would learn to hate it and abhor it,-- If more relied On _love_ to guide,-- _The world would be the better for it._ 2. If men dealt less in stocks and lands, And more in bonds and deeds fraternal,-- If Love's work had more willing hands To link this world to the supernal,-- If men stored up Love's oil and wine, And on bruised human hearts would pour it,-- If _"yours"_ and _"mine"_ Would once combine,-- _The world would be the letter for it._ 3. If more would _act_ the play of Life, And fewer spoil it in rehearsal,-- If Bigotry would sheathe his knife Till Good became more universal,-- If Custom, gray with ages grown, Had fewer blind men to adore it,-- If talent shone In Truth alone,-- _The world would be the better for it._ 4. If men were wise in little things, Affecting less in all their dealings,-- If hearts had fewer rusted strings To isolate their kindly feelings,-- If men, when Wrong beats down the Right, Would strike together and restore it,-- If Right made Might In every fight,-- _The world would be the letter for it._ * * * * * LESSON LXX. In reading these antithetic sentences, an excellent effect may be produced by dividing the class equally into two parts, and letting one part read, in concert, the line marked _1st Voice_, and the other part, the line marked _2d Voice;_ or, one pupil may read one line, and the next pupil the other, alternately. SELECT PROVERBS OF SOLOMON. _1st Voice_. A wise son maketh a glad father; _2d Voice_, but a foolish son is the heaviness of his mother. _1 V_. Treasures of wickedness profit nothing; _2 V_. but righteousness delivereth from death. _1 V_. He becometh poor, that dealeth with a slack hand; _2 V_. but the hand of the diligent maketh rich. _1 V_. Blessings are upon the head of the just; _2 V_. but violence covereth the mouth of the wicked. _1 V_. The memory of the just is blessed; _2 V_. but the name of the wicked shall rot. _1 V_. The wise in heart will receive commandment; _2 V_. but a prating fool shall fall. _1 V._ He that walketh uprightly, walketh surely; _2 V._ but he that perverteth his ways, shall be known. _1 V._ Wise men lay up knowledge; _2 V._ but the mouth of the wicked is near destruction. _1 V._ He is in the way of life, that keepeth instruction; _2 V._ but he that refuseth reproof, erreth. _1 V._ It is as sport to a fool to do mischief; _2 V._ but a man of understanding hath wisdom. _1 V._ The fear of the Lord prolongeth days; _2 V._ but the years of the wicked shall be shortened. _1 V._ The hope of the righteous shall be gladness; _2 V._ but the expectation of the wicked shall perish. _1 V._ The righteous shall never be removed; _2 V._ but the wicked shall not inhabit the earth. _1 V._ The mouth of the just bringeth forth wisdom; _2 V._ but the froward tongue shall be cut out. _1 V._ A false balance is an abomination to the Lord; _2 V._ but a just weight is his delight. _1 V._ Riches profit not in the day of wrath; _2 V._ but righteousness delivereth from death. _1 V._ The righteousness of the perfect shall direct his way; _2 V._ but the wicked shall fall by his own wickedness. _1 V._ By the blessing of the upright the city is exalted; _2 V._ but it is overthrown by the mouth of the wicked. _1 V._ Where no counsel is, the people fall, _2 V._ but in the multitude of counselors there is safety. _1 V._ He that diligently seeketh good, procureth favor; _2 V._ but he that seeketh mischief, it shall come unto him. _1 V._ The righteous man regardeth the life of his beast; _2 V._ but the tender mercies of the wicked are cruel. _1 V_. The lip of truth shall be established forever; _2 V_. but a lying tongue is but for a moment. _1 V_. Lying lips are abomination to the Lord; _2 V_. but they that deal truly are His delight. _1 V_. The hand of the diligent shall bear rule; _2 V_. but the slothful shall be under tribute. _1 V_. A wise son heareth his father's instruction; _2 V_. but a scorner heareth not rebuke. _1 V_. He that keepeth his mouth, keepeth his life; _2 V_. but he that openeth wide his lips, shall have destruction. _1 V_. A scorner seeketh wisdom, and findeth it not; _2 V_. but knowledge is easy unto him that understandeth. _1 V_. There is a way which seemeth right unto a man; _2 V_. but the end thereof are the ways of death. _1 V_. A wise man feareth, and departeth from evil; _2 V_. but the fool rageth, and is confident. _1 V_. The poor is hated even of his neighbor; _2 V_. but the rich hath many friends. _1 V_. He that oppresseth the poor, reproacheth his Maker; _2 V_. but he that honoreth Him, hath mercy on the poor. _1 V_. He that is slow to wrath, is of great understanding; _2 V_. but he that is hasty in spirit, exalteth folly. _1 V_. A soft answer turneth away wrath; _2 V_. but grievous words stir up anger. _1 V_. He that walketh with wise men, shall be wise; _2 V_. but a companion of fools shall be destroyed. _1 V_. Counsel in the heart of man is like deep water; _2 V_. but a man of understanding will draw it out. _1 V_. The wicked is driven away in his wickedness; _2 V_. but the righteous hath hope in his death. * * * * * LESSON LXXI. IM PRES' SION, idea; notion. AT TRAC' TIONS, allurements. SA TI' E TY, excessive fullness. SAT' ED, glutted; satiated. PAM' PER ED, over-fed. SUC' CU LENT, full of sap; juicy. UM BRA' GEOUS, shady. GOR' GEOUS, showy; brilliant. DREAR' I NESS, gloominess. REG' IS TER, record; note down. SUG GEST' IVE, giving signs. DEC LA RA' TION, announcement. EX TREM' I TIES, ends. DRA' PER Y, hangings; decorations. EN CHANT' MENT, charms; fascination. FRET' TED, furnished with frets, of ornamental raised work. DEC O RA' TIONS, adornments. [Headnote 1: AR' A BESQUES, is a word, denoting ornaments after the Arabian manner, often intricate and fantastic, from the intermingling of foliage, fruits, &c., with other objects real or imaginary.] WINTER BEAUTY. HENRY WARD BEECHER. 1. It is the impression of many, that only in summer, including spring and autumn, of course, is the _country_ desirable as a residence. The country in summer, and the city for the winter. It is true, that the winter gives attractions to the city, in endless meetings, lectures, concerts, and indoor amusements; but it is not true that the country loses all interest when the leaves are shed and the grass is gone. On the contrary, to one who has learned how to use his senses and his sensibilities, there are attractions in the winter of a peculiar kind, and pleasures which can be reaped only then. 2. It appears to me, that winter comes in to relieve the year of satiety. The mind grows sated with greenness. After eight or nine months of luxuriant growths, the eye grows accustomed to vegetation. To be sure, we never are less pleased with the wide prospect; with forms of noble trees, with towns and meadows, and with the whole aspect of nature. But it is the pleasure of one pampered. We lose the keen edge of hunger. The eye enjoys, without the relish of newness. We expect to enjoy. Every thing loses surprise. 3. Of course, the sky is blue, the grass succulent, the fields green, the trees umbrageous, the clouds silent and mysterious. They were so yesterday, they are so to-day, they will be so to-morrow, next week, next month. In short, the mind does not cease to feel the charm of endless growths; but needs variety, change of diet, less of perpetual feasting, and something of the blessings of a fast. _This_ winter gives. It says to us: You have had too much. You are luxurious and dainty. You need relief and change of diet. 4. The cold blue of the sky, the cold gray of rocks, the sober warmth of browns and russets, take the place of more gorgeous colors. If, now, one will accept this change in the tone of nature, after a time a new and relishful pleasure arises. The month formed by the last fortnight of November and the first two weeks of December, is, to me, the saddest of the year. It most nearly produces the sense of desolateness and dreariness of any portion of the year. 5. From the hour that the summer begins to shorten its days, and register the increasing change along the horizon, over which the sun sets, farther and farther toward the south, we have a genial and gentle sadness. But sadness belongs to all very deep joys. It is almost as needful to the perfectness of joy, as shadows in landscapes are to the charm of the picture. Then, too, comes the fading out of flowers,--each variety in its turn, saying, "Farewell till next summer." 6. Scarcely less suggestive of departing summer are the new-comers, the late summer golden-rod, the asters, and all autumnal flowers. Long experience teaches us that these are the latest blossoms that fall from the sun's lap, and next to them is snow. By association we already see white in the yellow and blue. Then, too, birds are thinking of other things. No more nests, no more young, no more songs,--except signal-notes and rallying-calls; for they are evidently warned, and go about their little remaining daily business, as persons who expect every hour to depart to a distant land. 7. It is scarcely ever that we see the birds _go_. They are here to-day, and gone to-morrow. They disappear without observation. The fields are empty and silent. It seems as if the winds had blown them away with the leaves. The first sight of northern waterfowl, far up in the air, retreating from Labrador and the short, Arctic summer, is always to us like the declaration: "Summer is gone; winter is behind us; it will soon be upon you." At last come the late days of November. All is gone,--frosts reap and glean more sharply every night. 8. A few weeks bring earnest winter. Then begin to dawn other delights. The bracing air, the clean snow-paths, the sled and sleigh, the revelation of forms that all summer were grass-hidden; the sharp-outlined hills lying clear upon the sky; the exquisite tracery of trees,--especially of all such trees as that dendral child of God, the elm, whose branches are carried out into an endless complexity of fine lines of spray, and which stands up in winter, showing in its whole anatomy, that all its summer shade was founded upon the most substantial reality. 9. In winter, too, particularly in the latter periods of it, the extremities of shrubs and branches begin to take on ruddy hues, or purplish browns, and the eye knows that these are the first faint blushes of coming summer. Now, too, we find how beautiful are the mosses in the woods; and under them we find solitary green leaves, that have laughed all winter because they had outwitted the frost. 10. Wherever flowing springs gush from sheltered spots looking south, one will find many green edges, young grass, and some few tougher leaves. Now, too, in still days, the crow swings heavily through the air, cawing with a pleasing harshness. For dieting has performed its work. Your appetite is eager. A little now pleases you more than abundance did in August. Every tiny leaf is to you like a cedar of Lebanon. 11. All these things are unknown to dwellers in cities. It is nothing to them that a robin appeared for the first time yesterday morning, or that a blue-bird sang over against the house. Some new _prima-donna_ [Footnote: The first female singer in an opera.] exhausts their admiration. They are yet studying laces, and do not care for the of swamps, for the first catkins of the willow. They are still coveting the stores of precious stones at the jewelers, and do not care for my ruby buds, and red dogwood, and scarlet winter berries, and ground pine, and partridge-berry leaves. 12. There is one sight of the country, at about this time of the year--the first of March--that few have seen, or else they have passed it by as if it were not worthy of record. I mean the drapery of rocks in gorges, or along precipitous sides of hills or mountains. The seams of rocks are the outlets of springs. The water, trickling through, is seized by the frost, and held fast in white enchantment. Every day adds to the length of the ice drapery; and, as the surface is overlaid by new issuings, it is furred and fretted with silver-white chasings, the most exquisite. 13. Thus, one may find a succession, in a single gorge, of extraordinary ice-curtains, and pendent draperies, of varying lengths, of every fantastic form, of colors varying by thickness, or by the tinge of earth or rock shining through them. In my boyhood, I used to wander along these fairy halls, imagining them to be now altars in long, white draperies; now, grand cathedral pillars of white marble; then, long tapestries chased in white, with arabesques [Headnote 1] and crinkled vines and leaves. 14. Sometimes they seemed like gigantic bridal decorations, or like the robes of beings vast and high, hung in their wardrobes while they slept. But, whatever fancy interpreted them, or whether they were looked upon with two good, sober, literal eyes, they were, and still are, among the most delightful of winter exhibitions, to those who are wise enough to search out the hidden beauty of winter in the country. QUESTIONS.--1. What are some of the attractions of winter in the city? 2. What are some of the delights of winter in the country? 3. What is said of the drapery of rocks? 4. What did the writer imagine them to be, in boyhood? * * * * * LESSON LXXII. UN SUL' LIED, pure; clear. PHE NOM' E NON, appearance. TRANS PAR' EN CY, clearness. AS TON' ISH ING, amazing. RAM I FI CA' TION, branch, or branching out. IN DE SCRIB' A BLY, beyond description. MA JES' TIC, grand. OC CA' SION AL, occurring at times. IM PRESS'IVE, powerful; effective. IN TER SECT' ING, meeting and crossing. PEN' E TRA TING, piercing. E' THER, thin or refined air. CON GEAL' ED, frozen. BUR' NISH ING, brightening. EN GEN' DER ED, produced. EM' BLEM, symbol. CON TEM PLA' TION, meditation. EL E VA' TION, loftiness. FROSTED TREES. 1. "Ere yet the clouds let fall the treasured snow, Or winds begun their hazy skies to blow, At evening, a keen eastern breeze arose, And the descending rain unsullied froze. Soon as the silent shades of night withdrew, The ruddy morn disclosed at once to view The face of Nature in a rich disguise, And brightened every object to my eyes. For every shrub, and every blade of grass, And every pointed thorn, seemed wrought in glass." 2. Since Sunday, [Feb. 1st, 1852,] we have had presented to our view, the beautiful phenomenon of FROSTED TREES, the most astonishing and brilliant that I ever remember to have noticed. The previous storm and mist had thickly covered every exposed object,--the loftiest trees, the minutest blade, hill and dale, with the icy garment. This transparency was most perfect, defining every form and ramification into exact models of the entire body, branch, or limb. 3. Dwellings and barns were incrusted by the chilling vapor. It hung upon the manes of the cattle, and decorated, wherever seen, the humble grass, which appeared bending, like threads of crystal. The small bushes were indescribably beautiful, and seemed as if chiseled out of the whitest marble. As far as the eye could extend, over brooks, fields, and woods, the same striking and singular sight was universal. 4. I could not remain contented in the house, and toward sunset, hastened away, where the view might be free and uninterrupted. Here, the scene, if possible, was more impressive and interesting. There was scarcely a breath of air, and the general silence was only interrupted by the occasional flight of some winter bird, which, alighting on a limb, would shake down a thousand feathery showers, until he seemed frightened at the unusual sound. The forest trees made a truly majestic appearance, with their naked, giant arms and mossy branches intersecting each other, and fast bound by the frozen barriers. 5. I shall not attempt to describe the brilliancy of the undergrowth and dwarf trees, upon whose limbs hung a delicate frosting, like unwrought silver, nor the crimson glow of the holly-berries through their transparent and icy covering,--all, all was a dazzling and splendid winter array, "That buries wide the works of man." It brought to my mind some of the Eastern fairy tales, and their gardens ornamented with shrubs and plants of sparkling crystals. 6. The exposed sides of the rocks and fences were completely iced over, not the smallest particle escaping the penetrating and congealed ether. It was truly astonishing to examine its thickness. On some twigs, not larger than a wheat straw, the ice measured half an inch through. One would scarcely imagine what an immense weight of the frozen mass a tree will sustain, before it breaks under the unusual load. Many branches were bent so low that I could reach them with my hands; and, shaking off their frosted barks, they would instantly spring far above my reach. Every few minutes, I was startled by the rattling noise of these falling icicles from some neighboring tree or grove. 7. Just when the sun went down, there was not a single cloud to be seen in the horizon, and his cold, bright, setting rays brought out, on every hand, frozen gems, diamonds, rubies, and sapphires, in every possible prismatic beauty, wherever his departing beams fell. Presently the moon bathed the whitened earth, and every congealed drop, in her soft light, burnishing, with dazzling icy brilliancy, trees, dwellings, and streams. I am an ardent lover of Nature and her scenery, and have often, delighted, gazed upon the Queen of Night; but _never_ did I behold such a brilliant moonlight night as this. 8. Who could help bringing to mind the sublimities of Job and of David,--"The hoary frost of heaven, who hath engendered it? The waters are hid, as with a stone, and the face of the deep is frozen."--"By the breath of the Mighty God, ice is produced, and the waters which were spread on all sides, are held in chains." The Psalmist says, "He giveth the snow like wool, He scattereth the hoar-frost like ashes. Wash me, and I shall be whiter than snow."--Well may poets look to the falling snow-flake for their images of purity and innocence, ere it receives the stain of earth. I know of no litter emblem. 9. Such a winter's night! _and the skies! the skies!_ So resplendent in brightness are the hosts of heaven at this moment, that they should be contemplated by every lover and student of the works of God. Their numbers who can count,--their twinkling beauty who can describe, as onward they roll in the deep blue of midnight? In their contemplation are inspired "thoughts that wander through eternity," with an elevation of feeling, as if we were separated from the toils and tumults of earth, and exalted into a higher state of being than that in which we toiled through the day! These heavens tell us of a WISDOM and POWER we can not search or estimate. There we seem to stand more immediately in the vailed presence of the Infinite Majesty, who "laid the foundations of the earth, when the morning stars sang together, and all the sons of God shouted for joy." QUESTIONS.--1. Describe the appearance of frosted trees. 2. What is said of the appearance of shrubs, bushes, &c.? 3. What, of the weight sustained by a single tree? 4. What was the appearance at sunset? 5. What passages of Scripture did the scene bring to mind? 6. Of what is the snowflake an emblem? 7. What is said of the skies? * * * * * LESSON LXXIII. SPLEN' DOR, brightness; glory. E TER' NAL LY, everlastingly. WAY'-WEA RY, tired; fatigued. GAZE, eager look. EV' ER GREEN, always green. LONG' ED, earnestly desired. RE POSE, rest; quietude. RAN' SOM ED, redeemed. PAL' ACE, mansion; abode. UN CEAS' ING LY, constantly. THE MOUNTAINS OF LIFE. JAMES G. CLARK. 1. There's a land far away, 'mid the stars, we are told, Where they know not the sorrows of time,-- Where the pure waters wander through valleys of gold, And life is a treasure sublime; 'Tis the land of our God, 'tis the home of the soul, Where the ages of splendor eternally roll,-- Where the way-weary traveler reaches his goal, On the evergreen Mountains of Life. 2. Our gaze can not soar to that beautiful land, But our visions have told of its bliss; And our souls by the gale from its gardens are fanned, When we faint in the desert of this; And we sometimes have longed for its holy repose, When our spirits were torn with temptations and woes, And we've drank from the tide of the river that flows From the evergreen Mountains of Life. 3. Oh! the stars never tread the blue heavens at night, But we think where the ransomed have trod; And the day never smiles from his palace of light, But we feel the bright smile of our God. We are traveling homeward, through changes and gloom, To a kingdom where pleasures unceasingly bloom, And our guide is the glory that shines through the tomb, From the evergreen Mountains of Life. QUESTIONS.--1. What is said of that land far away? 2. How do we know there is such a land? 3. Of what do the stars remind us? * * * * * LESSON LXXIV. IM AG' IN A RY, not real. AN TIC' I PATE, take beforehand. PRE FER' RED, chosen. OC CUR' RED, happened. SUS TAIN', support; uphold. PER MIT', allow. IN VIS' I BLE, unseen. EN CHAIN', bind; fasten. FORE BOD' ING, dread of evil. IN VEN' TION, contrivance. CON FER' RED, bestowed. AP PRE HEN' SION, dread; fear. IMAGINARY EVILS. CHARLES SWAIN. 1. Let to-morrow take care of to-morrow; Leave things of the future to fate; What's the use to anticipate sorrow? Life's troubles come never too late. If to hope overmuch be an error, 'Tis one that the wise have preferred; And how often have hearts been in terror Of evils that never occurred. 2. Have faith, and thy faith shall sustain thee; Permit not suspicion and care With invisible bonds to enchain thee, But bear what God gives thee to bear. By His Spirit supported and gladdened, Be ne'er by forebodings deterred; But think how oft hearts have been saddened By fears of what never occurred! 3. Let to-morrow take care of to-morrow; Short and dark as our life may appear, We may make it still darker by sorrow, Still shorter by folly and fear; Half our troubles are half our invention, And often from blessings conferred, Have we shrunk in the wild apprehension Of evils that never occurred! QUESTIONS.--1. What is said of imaginary evils? 2. How may we be supported under trials? 3. What tends to shorten life? 4. Whence proceed half our troubles? 5. What rule for doubling the _r_ and _d_ in such words as _occurred_, _saddened_, &c.? See SANDERS' NEW SPELLER, page 168, Rule II. * * * * * LESSON LXXV. WASTE, desolate region. PRO CEED', come forth. CHASM, gap; opening. COILS, folds; convolutions. MAN I FEST, plain; evident. PRE SERV' ER, protector. AL LE' GI ANCE, duty; loyalty. RAY, make bright; adorn. EX PAND, swell; dilate. FA' THER LAND, native land. GUER DON, reward; recompense. PROF' FER, offer; tender. PIT' E OUS, mournful; sorrowful. IM PET' U OUS LY, furiously. AT TRACT', (AT, _to_; TRACT, _draw_;) draw to; allure. IN VEST', (IN, _to_; VEST, _clothe_;) clothe in or with; inclose; surround. PRO TEST, (PRO, _before_; TEST, _witness_;) witness before; openly declare. [Headnote 1: PY THON is the name of a large serpent, fabled to have been slain by the god Apollo.] SIR WALTER AND THE LION. A. WALCHNER. 1. Sir Walter of Thurn, over the Syrian waste, Rides away with a flowing rein; But he hears a groan that checks his haste, As if death were in the strain. He spurs his steed Whence the sounds proceed; And there, from a rocky chasm, arise Fierce cries of pain, that assail the skies; And his horse uprears In excess of fears, As the glance of a lion attracts his eyes. 2. Fierce struggling there in the monster folds Of a serpent that round him twines; Sir Walter a moment the scene beholds, Then to save the beast inclines. His good sword stout From its sheath leaps out, When down it falls on the Python's [Headnote 1] crest, And cleaves the coils that the lion invest; And the noble beast, From its thrall released, Shows grateful joy most manifest. 3. He shakes his mane, and bends his form, And licks his preserver's hand, As if he yields allegiance warm To his supreme command. Like the faithful hound To be constant found, And follow his steps for evermore; And thus he follows, on sea and shore, In the battle's tide, He stands by his side, Or with him rests when the strife is o'er. 4. In Palestine Sir Walter is known,-- Long years attest his fame; And many brave deeds he there hath done, That ray with glory his name; But his heart doth expand For the fatherland, And he fain its pleasant scenes would see, With his friendly lion for company; But with fearful breast, The sailors protest, As they glanced at the beast and his majesty. 5. Rich guerdon he proffers, and golden store; But though the prize were great, The sailors hurry away from the shore As if from the doom of fate. The poor beast moans In piteous tones, Then darts impetuously o'er the sands,-- Then looks to the ship, and mournfully stands; Then plunges into the gloomy wave, The perils of the depths to brave. Already he nears the flying bark, Already his roar of grief they hark; But his strength is spent, and the sea is strong, And he may not the fearful struggle prolong. His dying glances are fondly cast Along the track where the loved one passed; Then sinks to his grave Beneath the wave, And the night and the ocean behold him the last. QUESTIONS.--1. What did Sir Walter discover as he was riding over the Syrian waste? 2. What did he do? 3. What did the lion do, after being released? 4. Did the sailors allow the lion to go on board the ship? 5. What did the lion then do? 6. What became of him? * * * * * LESSON LXXVI. VAL' IANT, strong; courageous, INC LI NA' TION, desire; tendency. RE PLEN' ISH ED, filled up. DIS SEV' ER, part; sunder. SHIV' ER, dash to pieces. EC STAT' IC, rapturous. CON CLU' SION, result. CON CEP' TION, thought; idea. DEF' ER ENCE, respect. PHYS I CAL, material. AR' RANT, mere; vile. TIME'-BAN DI ED, time-lost. DE VEL' OP ED, brought out. CON STEL LA' TIONS, clusters of stars. DE SIGN ED, planned. COM BIN' ED, united. UNINTERRUPTED, (UN, _not_; INTER, _in between_; RUPTED, _broken_;) not broken in between; unbroken. It is sometimes desirable to have each member of the class read a piece complete in itself. To answer this end, the following collection of brief, though beautiful productions, have been brought together all under one head. CHOICE EXTRACTS. I. WHAT REALLY BENEFITS US. It is not what we earn, but what we save, that makes us rich. It is not what we eat, but what we digest, that makes us strong. It is not what we read, but what we remember, that makes us learned. It is not what we intend, but what we do, that makes us useful. It is not a few faint wishes, but a life-long struggle, that makes us valiant. II. GOD'S LOVE. There's not a flower that decks the vale, There's not a beam that lights the mountain, There's not a shrub that scents the gale, There's not a wind that stirs the fountain, There's not a hue that paints the rose, There's not a leaf around us lying, But in its use or beauty shows God's love to us, and love undying! III. LIFE-WORK. To acquire a thorough knowledge of our own hearts and characters, to restrain every irregular inclination, to subdue every rebellious passion, to purify the motives of our conduct, to form ourselves to that temperance which no pleasure can seduce, to that meekness which no provocation can ruffle, to that patience which no affliction can overwhelm, and that integrity which no interest can shake; _this is the task which is assigned to us_,--a task which can not be performed without the utmost diligence and care. IV. HUMILITY. The brightest stars are burning suns; The deepest water stillest runs; The laden bee the lowest flies; The richest mine the deepest lies; The stalk that's most replenished, Doth bow the most its modest head. Thus, deep Humility we find The mark of every master-mind; The highest-gifted lowliest bends, And merit meekest condescends, And shuns the fame that fools adore,-- That puff that bids a feather soar. V. BENEFITS OF ADVERSITY. A smooth sea never made a skillful mariner. Neither do uninterrupted prosperity and success qualify man for usefulness or happiness. The storms of adversity, like the storms of the ocean, rouse the faculties and excite the invention, prudence, skill, and fortitude of the voyager. VI. OUR MOUNTAIN HOMES. MRS. S.R.A. BARNES. Why turn we to our mountain homes With more than filial feeling? 'Tis _here_ that Freedom's altars rise, And Freedom's sons are kneeling! Why sigh we not for softer climes? Why cling to that which bore us? _'Tis here we tread on Freedom's soil,_ _With Freedom's sunshine o'er us!_ VII. MAKE A BEGINNING. If you do not begin, you will never come to the end. The first weed pulled up in the garden, the first seed set in the ground, the first dollar put in the savings-bank, and the first mile traveled on a journey, are all important things; they make a _beginning_, and thereby give a hope, a promise, a pledge, an assurance that you are in earnest in what you have undertaken. How many a poor, idle, erring, hesitating outcast is now creeping his way through the world, who might have held up his head and prospered, if, instead of putting off his resolutions of amendment and industry, he had only made a beginning! VIII. INFLUENCE. GEORGE W. BUNGAY. 1. Drop follows drop, and swells With rain the sweeping river; Word follows word, and tells A truth that lives forever. 2. Flake follows flake, like sprites Whose wings the winds dissever; Thought follows thought, and lights The realm of mind forever. 3. Beam follows beam to cheer, The cloud a bolt might shiver; Throb follows throb, and fear Gives place to joy forever. 4. The drop, the flake, the beam, Teach us a lesson ever; The word, the thought, the dream Impress the soul forever. IX. PLEASURE IN ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE. CAROLINE F. ORNE. 1. Note the ecstatic joy of the student, who has labored long over a problem or proposition, but finally comes to a logical conclusion; who has struggled with the misty darkness of his own mind, for a clear view of some difficult subject, until the clouds, one after another, have dispersed, and he beholds, with his mental vision, in bright and glorious light, the conception for which he labored. Think you he would exchange his joys for the pleasures of sense'? It is of a higher and more ennobling character, and not to be bartered for paltry wealth. 2. What dignity and self-respect invest the man of thought! His very looks bespeak of mind. He is approached with deference, as a being of higher order in the scale of intelligence,--as one who has a right to command and be obeyed. For what moves mind, but mind? A strong intellect, coming in contact with one of less energy, will as naturally move it, as superior physical strength will overcome the weaker. X. WHAT IS FAME? MOTHERWELL. What is glory`? What is fame`? The echo of a long-lost name`; A breath`, an idle hour's brief talk`; The shadow of an arrant naught`; A flower that blossoms for a day`, Dying next morrow'; A stream that hurries on its way, Singing of sorrow'; A fortune that to lose were gain`; A word of praise, perchance of blame`; The wreck of a time-bandied name`-- _Ay` this is glory`! this is fame`!_ XI. CULTIVATED INTELLECT. Ah! well do we all know the worth of intelligence, the power of knowledge, and the beauty and glory of wisdom. It is _educated manhood_ that wakes up the sleeping soil, covers the earth with good, that gathers in the golden harvest, that clothes the naked, that feeds the hungry. It is the _cultivated mind_ that applies the strength of the ox and the fleetness of the horse; that bridges the river, that turns to use the flying winds, that makes the lightning its swift messenger, that makes beautiful palaces of dull clay, that rouses the dead ore to active life, that covers the sea with ships, and the land with mighty engines of wealth. It is the _developed intellect_ that flies through the upper air, that mingles with the stars, that follows the moon in her course, that overtakes the constellations in their orbits, that weighs the sun, that measures the distance to the polar star. It is the _enlightened soul_ that worships God. XII. GOD'S WORKS ATTEST HIS GREATNESS. MRS. OPIE. 1. There's not a leaf within the bower; There's not a bird upon the tree; There's not a dew-drop on the flower, But bears the impress, Lord, of Thee. 2. Thy hand the varied leaf designed, And gave the bird its thrilling tone; Thy power the dewdrop's tints combined, Till like the diamond's blaze they shone. 3. Yes, dewdrops, leaves, and buds, and all The smallest, like the greatest things,-- The sea's vast space, the earth's wide ball, Alike proclaim Thee King of kings. 4. But man alone to bounteous Heaven, Thanksgiving's conscious strains can raise; To favored man alone 'tis given To join the angelic choir in praise! * * * * * LESSON LXXVII. MO NOT' O NOUS, dull; uniform. HAR POON', barbed spear. AG' I TA TED, disturbed. RE VER' BER ATES, rebounds; re-echoes. WRITHES, twists, or or turns in agony. CON TOR' TIONS, twistings; writhings. VE LOC' I TY, swiftness. IG NITES', takes fire. FRIC' TION, rubbing together. COILS, winds into a ring. PRO JECT' ED, thrown out or forward. VO CIF' ER A TED, shouted. IN FU' RI A TED, enraged. UN RE LENT' ING, unfeeling. CON VUL' SIONS, violent spasms. REN COUN' TER, fight; conflict. CAPTURE OF THE WHALE. 1. Let the reader suppose himself on the deck of a South-seaman, cruising in the North Pacific ocean. He may be musing over some past event, the ship may be sailing gently along over the smooth ocean, every thing around solemnly still, with the sun pouring its intense rays with dazzling brightness. Suddenly the monotonous quietude is broken by an animated voice from the masthead, exclaiming, _"There he spouts!"_ 2. The captain starts on deck in an instant, and inquires _"Where away?"_ but, perhaps, the next moment every one aloft and on deck, can perceive an enormous whale lying about a quarter of a mile from the ship, on the surface of the sea, having just come up to breathe,--his large "hump" projecting three feet out of the water. At the end of every ten seconds, the spout is seen rushing from the fore part of his enormous head, followed by the cry of every one on board, who join in the chorus of _"There again!"_ keeping time with the duration of the spout. 3. But, while they have been looking, a few seconds have expired. They rush into the boats, which are directly lowered to receive them; and in two minutes from the time of first observing the whale, three or four boats are down, and are darting through the water with their utmost speed toward their intended victim, perhaps accompanied with a song from the headsman, who urges the quick and powerful plying of the oar, with the common whaling chant of "Away, my boys, away, my boys, 'tis time for us to go." 4. But, while they are rushing along, the whale is breathing; they have yet, perhaps, some distance to pull before they can get a chance of striking him with the harpoon. His "spoutings are nearly out," he is about to descend, or he hears the boats approaching. The few sailors left on board, and who are anxiously watching the whale and the gradual approach of the boats, exclaim, _"Ah, he is going down!"_ Yet he spouts again, but slowly, the water is seen agitated around him; the spectators on board with breathless anxiety think they perceive him rising in preparation for his descent. _"He will be lost!"_ they exclaim; for the boats are not yet near enough to strike him, and the men are still bending their oars in each boat with all their strength, to claim the honor of the first blow with the harpoon. 5. The bow-boat has the advantage of being the nearest to the whale; the others, for fear of disturbing the unconscious monster, are now ordered to drop astern. One more spout is seen slowly curling forth,--it is his last; but the boat shoots rapidly alongside of the gigantic creature. _"Peak your oars!"_ exclaims the mate, and directly they flourish in the air; the glistening harpoon is seen above the head of the harpooner. In an instant it is darted with unerring force and aim, and is buried deeply in the side of the huge animal. It is "socket up;" that is, it is buried in his flesh up to the socket which admits the handle or pole of the harpoon. 6. A cheer from those in the boats, and from the seamen on board, reverberates along the still deep at the same moment. The sea, which a moment before was unruffled, now becomes lashed into foam by the immense strength of the wounded whale, which, with its vast tail, strikes in all directions at his enemies. Now his enormous head rises high into the air, then his flukes are seen lashing everywhere, his huge body writhes in violent contortions from the agony the harpoon has inflicted. The water all around him is a mass of foam, and the sounds of the blows from his tail on the surface of the sea, can be heard for miles! 7. _"Stern all!"_ cries the headsman; but the whale suddenly disappears; he has "sounded;" the line is running through the groove at the head of the boat, with lightning-like velocity; it smokes; it ignites from the heat produced by the friction; but the headsman, cool and collected, pours water upon it as it passes. But an oar is now held up in their boat; it signifies that their line is rapidly running out; two hundred fathoms are nearly exhausted; up flies one of the other boats, and "bends on" another line, just in time to save that which was nearly lost. 8. But still the monster descends; he is seeking to rid himself of his enemies by descending deeply into the dark and unknown depths of the vast ocean. Two more lines are exhausted,--he is _six hundred fathoms deep! "Stand ready to bend on!"_ cries the mate to the fourth boat; (for sometimes they take the whole four lines away with them,--_eight hundred fathoms!!_) but, it is not required, he is rising. _"Haul in the slack!"_ observes the headsman, while the boat-steerer coils it again carefully into the tubs as it is drawn up. 9. The whale is now seen approaching the surface; the gurgling and bubbling water which rises, proclaims that he is near; his nose starts from the sea; the rushing spout is projected high and suddenly, from his agitation. The slack of the line is now coiled in the tubs, and those in the fast boat, haul themselves gently toward the whale. The boat-steerer places the headsman close to the fin of the trembling animal, who immediately buries his long lance in the vitals of the leviathan, while, at the same moment, those in one of the other boats, dart another harpoon into his opposite side. Then, _"Stern all!"_ is again vociferated, and the boats shoot rapidly away from the danger. 10. Mad with the agony which he endures from these fresh attacks, the infuriated "sea monster" rolls over and over, and coils an amazing length of line around him. He rears his enormous head, and, with wide-expanded jaws, snaps at every thing around him. He rushes at the boats with his head,--they are propelled before him with vast swiftness, and sometimes utterly destroyed. 11. He is lanced again,--and his pain appears more than he can bear. He throws himself, in his agony, completely out of his element; the boats are violently jerked, by which one of the lines is snapped asunder; at the same time the other boat is upset, and its crew are swimming for their lives. The whale is now free! he passes along the surface with remarkable swiftness, "going head out;" but the two boats that have not yet "fastened," and are fresh and free, now give chase. 12. The whale becomes exhausted from the blood which flows from his deep and dangerous wounds, and the two hundred fathoms of line belonging to the overturned boat, which he is dragging after him through the water, checks him in his course; his pursuers again overtake him, and another harpoon is darted and buried deeply in his flesh. 13. The fatal lance is, at length, given; the blood gushes from the nostrils of the unfortunate animal in a thick, black stream, which stains the clear blue water of the ocean to a considerable distance around the scene of the affray. The immense creature may now again endeavor to "sound," to escape from his unrelenting pursuers; but he is powerless. He soon rises to the surface, and passes slowly along until the death-pang seizes him, when his appearance is awful in the extreme. 14. Suffering from suffocation, or from the stoppage of some important organ, the whole strength of his enormous frame is set in motion, for a few seconds, when his convulsions throw him into a hundred different contortions of the most violent description, by which the sea is beaten into foam, and boats are sometimes crushed to atoms, with their crews. 15. But this violent action being soon over, the now unconscious animal passes rapidly along, describing in his rapid course the segment of a circle; this is his "flurry," which ends in his sudden dissolution. The mighty rencounter is finished. The gigantic animal rolls over on his side, and floats an inanimate mass on the surface of the crystal deep,--a victim to the tyranny and selfishness, as well as a wonderful proof of the _great power of the mind of man_. QUESTIONS.--1. How are whales generally discovered? 2. Why do they come to the surface of the water? 3. How far do they sometimes descend in the ocean? 4. Describe the manner in which they are captured. * * * * * LESSON LXXVIII. A'ER O NAUT, one who sails in the air. RE DOUB LED, repeated. MAG NIF I CENT, grand; splendid. EL' E VA TED, raised; excited. GON' DO LA, small boat. BE GIRT', surrounded. RO TA RY, turning; revolving. IN TEN' SI TY, extreme degree. A' ER OS TAT, air-balloon. IN TER MI NA BLE, boundless. VA' RI E GA TED, diversified; varied. VERG' ING, tending; inclining. OB LIQUE' LY, slantingly. RES PI RA' TION, act of breathing. ZE' NITH, point in the heavens directly over head. MAN' DI BLES, jaws. EU ROC' LY DON, tempestuous wind. LEAVES FROM AN AERONAUT. WILLIS GAYLORD CLARK. 1. My hour had now come, and I entered the car. With a singular taste, the band struck up, at this moment, the melting air of "Sweet Home." It almost overcame me. A thousand associations of youth, friends, of all that I must leave, rushed upon my mind. But I had no leisure for sentiment. A buzz ran through the assemblage; unnumbered hands were clapping, unnumbered hearts beating high; and _I_ was the cause. Every eye was upon me. There was pride in the thought. 2. "Let go!" was the word. The cheers redoubled; handkerchiefs waved from many a fair hand; bright faces beamed from every window, and on every side. One dash with my knife, and I rose aloft, a habitant of air. How magnificent was the sight which now burst upon me! How sublime were my sensations! I waved the flag of my country; the cheers of the multitude from a thousand housetops, reached me on the breeze; and a taste of the rarer atmosphere elevated my spirits into ecstasy. 3. The city, with a brilliant sunshine striking the spires and domes, now unfolded to view a sight incomparably beautiful. My gondola went easily upward, cleaving the depths of heaven like a vital thing. A diagram placed before you, on the table, could not permit you to trace more definitely than I now could, the streets, the highways, basins, wharves, and squares of the town. The hum of the city arose to my ear, as from a vast bee-hive; and I seemed the monarch-bee, directing the swarm. 4. I heard the rattling of carriages, the hearty _yo-heavo-s!_ of sailors from the docks that, begirt with spars, hemmed the city round. I was a spectator of all, yet aloof, and alone. Increasing stillness attended my way; and, at last, the murmurs of earth came to my ear like the vast vibrations of a bell. My car tilted and trembled, as I rose. A swift wind sometimes gave the balloon a rotary motion, which made me deathly sick for a moment; but strong emotion conquered all my physical ailings. 5. My brain ached with the intensity of my rapture. Human sounds had fainted from my ear. I was in the abyss of heaven, and _alone_ with my God. I could tell my direction by the sun on my left; and, as his rays played on the aerostat, it seemed only a bright bubble, wavering in the sky, and I, a suspended mote, hung by chance to its train. Looking below me, the distant Sound and Long Island appeared to the east; the bay lay to the south, sprinkled with shipping; under me, the city, girded with bright rivers and sparry forests. 6. The free wind was on my cheek, and in my locks; afar, the ocean rolled its long, blue waves, checkered with masses of shadow, and gushes of ruby sunlight; to the north and west, the interminable land, variegated like a map, dotted with purple, and green, and silver, faded to the eye. The atmosphere which I now breathed, seemed to dilate my heart at every breath. I uttered some audible expressions. My voice was weaker than the faintest sound of a reed. There was no object near to make it reverb or echo. 7. My barometer now denoted an immense hight; and, as I looked upward and around, the concave above seemed like a mighty waste of purple air, verging to blackness. Below, it was lighter; but a long, lurid bar of cloud stretched along the west, temporarily excluding the sun. The shadows rushed afar into the void, and a solemn, Sabbath twilight reigned around. I was now startled by a fluttering in my gondola. It was my carrier-pigeon. I had forgotten him entirely. I attached a string to his neck, with a label, announcing my hight, then nearly four miles, and the state of the barometer. 8. As he sat on the side of the car, and turned his tender eyes upon me in mute supplication, every feather shivering with apprehension, I felt that it was a guilty act to push him into the waste beneath. But it was done; he attempted to rise, but I out-sped him; he then fell obliquely, fluttering and moaning, till I lost him in the haze. My greatest altitude had not yet been reached. I was now five miles from _terra firma_. [Footnote: Solid earth.] I began to breathe with difficulty. The atmosphere was too rare for safe respiration. 9. I pulled my valve-cord to descend. It refused to obey my hand. For a moment I was horror-struck. What was to be done? If I ascended much higher, the balloon would explode. I threw over some tissue paper to test my progress. It is well known that this will _rise_ very swiftly. It _fell_, as if blown downward by a wind from the zenith. I was going upward like an arrow. I attempted to pray, but my parched lips could not move. I seized the cord again, with desperate energy. Blessed Heaven! it moved. 10. I threw out more tissue. It rose to me like a wing of joy. I was descending. Though far from sunset, it was now dark about me, except a track of blood-red haze in the direction of the sun. I encountered a strong current of wind; mist was about me; it lay like dew upon my coat. At last, a thick bar of vapor being past, what a scene was disclosed! A storm was sweeping through the sky, nearly a mile beneath; and I looked down upon an ocean of rainbows, rolling in indescribable grandeur, to the music of the thunder-peal, as it moaned afar and near, on the coming and dying wind. 11. A frightened eagle had ascended through the tempest, and sailed for minutes by my side, looking at me with panting weariness, and quivering mandibles, but with a dilated eye, whose keen iris flashed unsubdued. Proud emblem of my country! As he fanned me with his heavy wing, and looked with a human intelligence at the car, my pulse bounded with exulting rapture. Like the genius of my native land, he had risen above every storm, unfettered and FREE. 12. But my transports were soon at an end. He attempted to light on the balloon, and my heart sunk; I feared his huge claws would tear the silk. I pulled my cord; he rose, as I sank, and the blast swept him from my view in a moment. A flock of wild-fowl, beat by the storm, were coursing below, on bewildered pinions; and, as I was nearing them, I knew I was descending. A breaking rift now admitted the sun. The rainbows tossed and gleamed; chains of fleecy rack, shining in prismatic rays of gold, and purple, and emerald, "beautiful exceedingly," spread on every hand. 13. Vast curtains of clouds pavilioned the immensity, brighter than celestial roses; masses of mist were lifted on high, like strips of living fire, more radiant than the sun himself, when his glorious noontide culminates from the equator. A kind of aerial Euroclydon now smote my car, and three of the cords parted, which tilted my gondola to the side, filling me with terror. I caught the broken cords in my hand, but could not tie them. 14. The storm below was now rapidly passing away, and beneath its waving outline, to the south-east, I saw the ocean. Ships were speeding on their course, and their bright sails melting into distance; a rainbow hung afar; and the rolling anthems of the Atlantic came like celestial hymnings to my ear. Presently all was clear below me. The fresh air played around. I had taken a noble circuit; and my last view was better than the first, I was far over the bay, "afloating sweetly to the west." The city, colored by the last blaze of day, brightened remotely to the view. 15. Below, ships were hastening to and fro through the Narrows, and the far country lay smiling like an Eden. Bright rivers ran like ribbons of gold and silver, till they were lost in the vast inland, stretching beyond the view; the gilded mountains were flinging their purple shadows over many a vale; bays were blushing to the farewell day-beams; and now I was passing over a green island. I sailed to the mainland; saw the tall, old trees waving to the evening breeze; heard the rural lowing of herds, and the welcome sound of human voices; and, finally, sweeping over forest-tops and embowered villages, at last, descended with the sun, among a kind-hearted, surprised, and hospitable community, in as pretty a town as one could desire to see, "safe and well." QUESTIONS.--1. What demonstrations were made by the people as the aeronaut began to ascend? 2. How did the city and other objects appear to him? 3. What could he hear? 4. Describe the appearance of the ocean. 5. What did he do with his carrier-pigeon? 6. How high did he ascend? 7. Describe his descent. 8. What is said about the eagle that came near him? 9. Describe the appearance of the clouds beneath him. * * * * * LESSON LXXIX. BOUN' TY, charity; favor. FRU' GAL, prudent; economical. FLOUR' ISH ED, thrived; prospered. DIS CHARG' ED, performed. BREED' ING, education. EM BRAC' ED, accepted. MAIN TAIN' ED, supported. TRUDG' ED, traveled. BE GUIL' ED, amused. LE' GAL, lawful. TWAIN, two. BE WITCH' ING, charming. YOUNK' ER, lad; youngster. MED' I TA TIVE, thoughtful. PRO VOK' ED, (PRO, _forward, forth_; VOKED, _called_;) called forth; excited. IN CLUDE', (IN, _in_; CLUDE, _shut_;) shut in; inclose. IN SERT', (IN, _in_; SERT, _join, set_;) join, or set in; put in. THE DAPPLE MARE. JOHN G. SAXE. 1. "Once on a time," as ancient tales declare, There lived a farmer in a quiet dell In Massachusetts, but exactly where, Or when, is really more than I can tell,-- Except that quite above the public bounty, He lived within his means and Bristol county. 2. By patient labor and unceasing care, He earned, and so enjoyed, his daily bread; Contented always with his frugal fare, Ambition to be rich ne'er vexed his head; And thus unknown to envy, want, or wealth, He flourished long in comfort, peace, and health. 3. The gentle partner of his humble lot, The joy and jewel of his wedded life, Discharged the duties of his peaceful cot, Like a true woman and a faithful wife; Her mind improved by thought and useful reading, Kind words and gentle manners showed her breeding. 4. Grown old, at last, the farmer called his son, The youngest, (and the favorite I suppose,) And said,-- "I long have thought, my darling John, 'Tis time to bring my labors to a close; So now to toil I mean to bid adieu, And deed, my son, the homestead-farm to you." 5. The boy embraced the boon with vast delight, And promised, while their precious lives remained, He'd till and tend the farm from morn till night, And see his parents handsomely maintained; God help him, he would never fail to love, nor Do aught to grieve his gen'rous old gov'nor. 6. The farmer said,--"Well, let us now proceed, (You know there's always danger in delay,) And get 'Squire Robinson to write the deed; Come,--where's my staff?--we'll soon be on the way." But John replied, with tender, filial care, "You're old and weak--I'll catch the Dapple Mare." 7. The mare was saddled, and the old man got on, The boy on foot trudged cheerfully along, The while, to cheer his sire, the duteous son Beguiled the weary way with talk and song. Arrived, at length, they found the 'Squire at home, And quickly told him wherefore they had come. 8. The deed was writ in proper form of law, With many a "foresaid," "therefore," and "the same," And made throughout without mistake or flaw, To show that John had now a legal claim To all his father's land--conveyed, given, sold, Quit-claimed, et cetera,[Footnote 1]--to have and hold. 9. Their business done, they left the lawyer's door, Happier, perhaps, than when they entered there; And started off as they had done before,-- The son on foot, the father on the mare. But ere the twain a single mile had gone, A brilliant thought occurred to Master John. 10. Alas for truth!--alas for filial duty!-- Alas that Satan in the shape of pride, (His most bewitching form save that of beauty,) Whispered the lad--"My boy, you ought to ride!" "Get off!" exclaimed the younker--"'t isn't fair That you should always ride the Dapple Mare!" 11. The son was lusty, and the sire was old, And so, with many an oath and many a frown, The hapless father did as he was told; The man got off the steed, the boy got on, And rode away as fast as she could trot, And left his sire to trudge it home on foot! 12. That night, while seated round the kitchen fire The household sat, cheerful as if no word Or deed, provoked the injured father's ire, Or aught to make him sad had e'er occurred,-- Thus spoke he to his son: "We quite forgot, I think, t'include that little turnip lot!" 13. "I'm very sure, my son, it wouldn't hurt it," Calmly observed the meditative sire, "To take the deed, my lad, and just insert it;" Here the old man inserts it--_in the fire!_ Then cries aloud with most triumphant air, "Who now, my son, shall ride the Dapple Mare?" [Footnote 1: And so forth.] QUESTIONS.--1. What proposition did the father make to his son? 2. What did the son promise to do? 3. How did the son treat his father after he got the deed? 4. What did the old gentleman do? * * * * * LESSON LXXX. HARD' I HOOD, bravery. MAIN TRUCK, small cap at the top of a flagstaff or masthead. A GHAST', horrified. GROUPS, clusters; crowds. PAL' LID, pale. LU' RID, dismal; gloomy. HUE, color. RIV' ET TED, firmly fixed. FOLD' ED, embraced; clasped. A LEAP FOR LIFE. GEORGE P. MORRIS. 1. Old Ironsides at anchor lay, (sl.) In the harbor of Mahon [Footnote 1]; A dead calm rested on the bay,-- The waves to sleep had gone,-- When little Jack,[Footnote 2] the captain's son, With gallant hardihood, Climbed shroud and spar,--and then upon The main-truck rose and stood! 2. A shudder ran through every vein,-- All eyes were turned on high! There stood the boy, with dizzy brain, Between the sea and sky! No hold had he above,--below, Alone he stood in air! At that far hight none dared to go,-- No aid could reach him there. 3. We gazed,--but not a man could speak; With horror all aghast, In groups, with pallid brow and cheek, We watched the quivering mast! The atmosphere grew thick and hot, And of a lurid hue, As, riveted unto the spot, Stood officers and crew. 4. The father came on deck. He gasped, "O God, Thy will be done!" Then suddenly a rifle grasped, And aimed it at his son! "Jump far out, boy, into the wave! Jump, or I fire!" he said. "That only chance your life can save: ('') Jump! jump, boy!" He obeyed. 5. He sank,--he rose,--he lived,--he moved,-- He for the ship struck out! On board we hailed the lad beloved With many a manly shout. His father drew, in silent joy, Those wet arms round his neck, Then folded to his heart the boy, And fainted on the deck! [Footnote 1: MA HON', (_Ma hone_,) a sea-port town on the island of Minorca, in the Mediterranean Sea.] [Footnote 2: A name commonly applied to a young sailor.] QUESTIONS.--1. What did the captain's son do, on board the Ironsides? 2. Describe his situation. 3. What is said of the officers and crew? 4. What did the father say and do? 5. What did the boy do? * * * * * LESSON LXXXI. COM MIN' GLE, mix or unite. PE DES' TRI AN, traveler on foot. PROM' I NENT, important. TRAG' lC, fatal; mournful. NAR RATE', tell; relate. YORE, olden time. WI' LY, craft; cunning. RE LENT' LESS, hard-hearted; cruel. WIG' WAM, Indian hut or cabin. EM BARK' ED, went aboard. TWANG, quick, sharp sound. SPA' CIOUS, large; capacious. WA' RI LY, cautiously. MYS TE' RI OUS LY, strangely. OM' IN OUS, foreboding ill. IM PLA' CA BLE, relentless. UN TRACE' A BLE, (UN, _not_; TRACE, _mark_; ABLE, _that can be_;) that can not be marked, or traced; not found out. THE INDIAN BRIDE'S REVENGE. L.M. STOWELL. 1. In the State of New York, where the dark, foaming waters of the Black River, after roaring and surging through many pleasant fields, beautiful groves, and dense woodlands, commingle with the clear, cold waters of Lake Ontario, the wandering pedestrian or the lone fisherman may see, resting upon a gravelly flat, the remains of an _old Indian canoe_, whose once beautiful proportions, now untraceable in its rottenness, bore a prominent part in the tragic event I am about to narrate. 2. Through these pleasant valleys, among the broken hills, and in the majestic forests, of yore, the wily Indian and his dusky mate, held undisputed possession; and many are the incidents, yet unwritten, of tragic and thrilling interest, that transpired around the red men's camp-fire, ere the white man disturbed their forest homes. 3. Si ous' ka, or the "Wild Flower," was the daughter of a powerful chief of the Onondagas, and the only being ever known to turn the relentless old chief from a savage purpose. Something of this influence was owing to her great beauty; but more to the gentleness of which that beauty was the emblem. Her downcast eye, her trembling lip, her quiet, submissive motion, all bespoke its language; and many were the young chieftains that sought to win her affections. 4. Among her admirers were two young chiefs of the Oneidas, with whom the Onondagas were on the most friendly terms. Si ous' ka's father, in order to cherish the friendly feeling of the two tribes, and, at the same time, strengthen his power, besought her to accept the more powerful chief, "Eagle Eye." He did not plead in vain; for she had long loved the young Oneida. 5. One bright sunny morning, in early spring, as the old chief was out hunting, the young Oneida crossed his path, upon which the old man advanced, and, laying his hand upon his shoulder, pointed to the dwelling of Si ous' ka. Not a word was spoken. The proud old man and the strong, young chief proceeded toward her wigwam, and entered together. 6. Si ous' ka was seated in one corner, engaged upon some fancy basket-work, and did not notice their approach until they had entered. The old chief looked upon her with an expression of love, which his stern countenance never wore except in her presence. "Sious'ka," he said in a subdued tone, "Go to the wigwam of the Oneida, that your father's tribe may be strengthened, and many moons may shine upon their peace and prosperity." 7. There was mingled joy and modesty in the upward glance of the "Wild Flower" of the Onondagas, and, when the young chief saw the light of her mild eye suddenly and timidly vailed by its deeply-fringed lid, he knew that her love had lost none of its power. The marriage song was soon sung in the royal wigwam, in which the sweet voice of Sious'ka was happily heard to mingle. 8. When the rejected chief of the Oneidas heard that the "Wild Flower" had mated with the "Eagle Eye," his wrath knew no bounds, and he secretly resolved upon revenge. Two years passed away, and, as yet, no good opportunity had arrived; for he dared not attack "Eagle Eye" in open conflict, for fear of his superior powers; and, assassin-like, he sought to give the blow unperceived. 9. At length, the spring came, and a number of the tribe prepared to visit Lake Ontario, on a fishing and hunting excursion. Among the number who went, were the "Eagle Eye," Sious'ka, and their little boy. They were obliged to carry their light, birchen canoes from home, and these were packed with the necessary tackle, skins for beds, &c. The strong men of the party carried the canoes on their shoulders, and the women the smaller articles of furniture. 10. They had advanced across the country, until they reached the Black River, and, by carrying their canoes around falls and rapids, gently floated down the stream till they reached the great falls, about six miles from the Lake. Here they halted for the night, and encamped about half a mile above the falls. 11. The morning came; and, as the first beam of the rising sun pierced the forest shade, the party again embarked in their canoes for the mouth of the river, the gaudy canoe of Si ous' ka, which her father had given her, taking the lead. They had scarcely started from the shore, ere the sharp twang of a bow-string was heard from the shore, and an unerring arrow pierced the heart of "Eagle Eye." He fell over the side of the canoe, and was swept by the current over the great falls. 12. The party immediately started in pursuit of the coward murderer; but they sought in vain. His hiding-place was too sure,--he had taken refuge in a cave, the entrance of which was hid from observation by a thick clump of cedars. Here he remained till he was certain the company had departed. This cave is still there, and I have often been in its many chambers,--some of which are very spacious. 13. The fatal shaft was winged from the bow of the revenged Oneida chief. Having been apprised of the expedition, he had warily dogged the steps of the party, until a favorable opportunity presented itself, and then satisfied his secret longing for revenge upon the enemy, whom he did not dare to attack even-handed. The party sought him far and near; but, as no trace of any one could be found, they imagined, with superstitious fear, that the "Great Spirit" had thus summoned "Eagle Eye" to the "Spirit's Hunting Ground." 14. When they returned to their canoes, no traces of Si ous' ka and her child were to be found. They, too, had mysteriously disappeared, and the whole party, with ominous silence, hastened around the falls, and away from the fearful place. When Si ous' ka saw the fatal shaft pierce her companion, with, a fearful shriek she fell into the bottom of the canoe, hid herself in the furs, and immediately her reason forsook her. 15. When she recovered, she found that her canoe, urged on by the current, had floated into a large cave, and was firmly wedged in between two rocks; and her little boy, with his bow and arrow in his hand, was quietly sleeping by her side. Dislodging the canoe, she plied the oars, and was soon outside the cave. 16. On finding her people had left her, she sought the shore, and, fastening the canoe, proceeded below the falls, where she found the body of the ill-fated "Eagle Eye," where it had washed ashore. With superhuman strength, she bore the mangled body to a thick grove of cedars, and, with her own hands, dug a rude grave, and covered his remains with dried leaves and earth. That night she kept her lonely watch beside the grave of all that she held dear on earth, save her boy, intending to follow the party on the morrow. 17. The morning came, and the mid-day sun began to descend toward the western hills, ere she left the grave of the murdered chief. But, at length, she sorrowfully departed; and, on arriving where she moored the canoe the day before, what was her surprise to see the murderer of her husband, quietly sleeping upon the skins where last "Eagle Eye" had reposed, in the bow of the canoe. 18. From that moment Si ous' ka was changed. Her quiet, submissive air immediately gave place to fierce sternness, and the eye that had always beamed with the smile of love, shot forth flashes of bitter hate and passion, implacable as the most bloodthirsty of her tribe. Noiselessly throwing the oars from the boat, with a wild shriek, she quickly swung it around into the rapidly rolling current, and it was hurried toward the brink of that awful cataract, over which no living being had ever passed alive. 19. The young chief, awakened by that fearful, exulting cry of revenge, and seeing the peril of his situation, leaped from the bark that was hurrying him to sure destruction, and vainly sought to gain the shore. After struggling with the swift tide for a moment, in which he was carried nearer and nearer the awful brink, he turned, and, with a wild, unearthly yell, plunged over, and the boiling waters only responded to his death-wail, as he sunk to rise no more, and his spirit joined that of his victim in the "Spirit Land." 20. After the gentle "Wild Flower" had avenged the death of the "Eagle Eye," she returned to her father's wigwam, and spent the remainder of her life to the memory of her heart's first devotion. The canoe, all battered and broken, floated to the mouth of the river, bottom side up, where it was seen by one of the party while fishing, drawn to the shore, and left to decay. The party supposed that "Eagle Eye," Sious'ka, and her child, had all perished in some mysterious manner. QUESTIONS.--1. Who was Sious'ka? 2. Who became her husband? 3. What effect had her marriage upon the rejected Oneida chief? 4. In what way did he seek revenge? 5. How did Sious'ka avenge the death of her husband? * * * * * LESSON LXXXII. EN TER TAIN' ED, had; harbored. PE CUL IAR' I TY, something special. CHA GRIN'ED, (_sha grin'ed_,) vexed. MOR' TI FI ED, hurt in feeling. OUT STRIP', go beyond; excel. RI' VAL RY, emulation. RE VERS' ES, troubles; difficulties. IN VIG' OR A TED, made strong. DES O LA' TION, waste; ruin. REF' UGE, shelter; protection. SYM' PA THIZ ED, (SYM, _with_; PATH, _feeling_; IZE, _make, have_; ED, _did_;) did have feeling with. See Note on the suffix IZE, p. 132 of the ANALYSIS. [Headnote 1: SIS' ER A, captain of the army of the Canaanitish king, Jabin. He was utterly defeated by Barak. Fleeing on foot, he took refuge in the tent of Jael, wife of Heber. There, while asleep, Jael drove a nail through his temples, and so he died. His mother, finding he did not return from the battle, "looked out at a window, and cried through the lattice, Why is his chariot so long in coming?" Read 4th and 5th chapters of Judges.] A MOTHER'S LOVE. ALBERT BARNES. 1. Many of us who are advanced beyond the period of childhood, went out from home to embark on the stormy sea of life. Of the feelings of a father, and of his interest in our welfare, we have never entertained a doubt, and our home was dear because he was there; but there was a peculiarity in the feeling that it was the home of our mother. Where _she_ lived, there was a place that we felt was _home_. There was _one place_ where we would always be welcome, _one place_ where we would be met with a smile, _one place_ where we would be sure of a friend. 2. The world might be indifferent to us. We might be unsuccessful in our studies or our business. The new friends which we supposed we had made, might prove to be false. The honor which we thought we deserved, might be withheld from us. We might be chagrined and mortified by seeing a rival outstrip us, and bear away the prize which we sought. But there _was_ a place where no feelings of rivalry were found, and where those whom the world overlooked, would be sure of a friendly greeting. Whether pale and wan by study, care, or sickness, or flushed with health and flattering success, we were _sure_ that we should be welcome there. 3. Though the world was cold toward us, yet there was _one_ who always rejoiced in our success, and always was affected in our reverses; and there was a _place_ to which we might go back from the storm which began to pelt us, where we might rest, and become encouraged and invigorated for a new conflict. So have I seen a bird, in its first efforts to fly, leave its nest, and stretch its wings, and go forth to the wide world. But the wind blew it back, and the rain began to fall, and the darkness of night began to draw on, and there was no shelter abroad, and it sought its way back to its nest, to take shelter beneath its mother's wings, and to be refreshed for the struggles of a new day; but then it flew away to think of its nest and its mother no more. 4. But not thus did we leave our home when we bade adieu to it to go forth alone to the manly duties of life. Even amidst the storms that then beat upon us, and the disappointments that we met with, and the coldness of the world, we felt still that there _was one_ who sympathized in our troubles, as well as rejoiced in our success, and that, whatever might be abroad, when we entered the door of her dwelling, we should be met with a smile. We expected that a mother, like the mother of Sisera [Headnote 1], as she "looked out at her window," waiting for the coming of her son laden with the spoils of victory, would look out for _our_ coming, and that _our_ return would renew her joy and ours in our earlier days. 5. It makes a sad desolation when, from such a place, a mother is taken away, and when, whatever may be the sorrows or the successes in life, she is to greet the returning son or daughter no more. The home of our childhood may be still lovely. The old family mansion--the green fields--the running stream--the moss-covered well--the trees--the lawn--the rose--the sweet-brier--may be there. Perchance, too, there may be an aged father, with venerable locks, sitting in his loneliness, with every thing to command respect and love; but she is not there. Her familiar voice is not heard. The mother has been borne forth to sleep by the side of her children who went before her, and the place is not what it was. 6. There may be those there whom we much love; but _she_ is not there. We may have formed new relations in life, tender and strong as they can be; we may have another home, dear to us as was the home of our childhood, where there is all in affection, kindness, and religion, to make us happy; but _that_ home is not what it was, and it will _never_ be what it was again. It is a loosening of one of the cords which bound us to earth, designed to prepare us for our eternal flight from every thing dear here below, and to teach us that there is _no_ place here, that is to be our permanent home. QUESTIONS.--1. What renders home doubly endearing? 2. Where are we always welcome? 3. Who always rejoices in our successes, and is affected in our reverses? 4. Who was Sisera, and what account is given of him? * * * * * LESSON LXXXIII. UN SPOT' TED, pure; unstained. FAL' TER, fail. TRA' CER Y, traces; impressions. IM' PRESS, mark: stamp. DO MIN' ION, authority; predominance. SHRINK, withdraw. PUR SU' ING, following. STERN ER, harsher; more rigid. DE FY', dare; challenge. WHO' SO, any person whatever. TO' KEN, sign; indication. BROTH' ER HOOD, fraternity. THE LIFE-BOOK. HOME JOURNAL. 1. Write, mother, write! A new, unspotted book of life before thee, Thine is the hand to trace upon its pages The first few characters, to live in glory, Or live in shame, through long, unending ages! Write, mother, write! Thy hand, though woman's, must not faint nor falter: The lot is on thee,--nerve thee then with care,-- A _mother's tracery_ time may never alter; Be its first impress, then, the breath of prayer! Write, mother, write! 2. Write, father, write! Take thee a pen plucked from an eagle's pinion, And write _immortal actions_ for thy son; Teach him that man forgets man's high dominion, Creeping on earth, leaving _great deeds_ undone! Write, father, write! Leave on his life-book a fond father's blessing, To shield him 'mid temptation, toil, and sin. And he shall go to glory's field, possessing _Strength to contend, and confidence to win_. Write, father, write! 3. Write, sister, write! Nay, shrink not, for a sister's love is holy! Write words the angels whisper in thine ears,-- No bud of sweet affection, howe'er lowly, But planted here, will bloom in after years. Write, sister, write! Something to cheer him, his rough way pursuing, For manhood's lot is sterner far than ours; He may not pause,--he must be up and doing, Whilst thou sitt'st idly, dreaming among flowers. Write, sister, write! 4. Write, brother, write! Strike a bold blow upon those kindred pages,-- Write; shoulder to shoulder, brother, we will go; Heart linked to heart, though wild the conflict rages, We will defy the battle and the foe. Write, brother, write! We who have trodden boyhood's path together, Beneath the summer's sun and winter's sky, What matter if life brings us some foul weather, We may be stronger than adversity! Write, brother, write! 5. Fellow immortal, write! One GOD reigns in the Heavens,--there is no other,-- And _all mankind are brethren_--thus 'tis spoken,-- And whoso aids a sorrowing, struggling brother, By kindly word, or deed, or friendly token, Shall win the favor of our heavenly Father, Who judges evil, and rewards the good, And who hath linked the race of man together, In one vast, universal brotherhood! Fellow immortal, write! QUESTIONS.--1. What may the mother write in the Life-Book? 2. What, the father? 3. What, the sister? 4. What, the brother? 5. What may all write? * * * * * LESSON LXXXIV. ODE, short poem. PA TER' NAL, coming by inheritance. AT TIRE', clothing; raiment. UN CON CERN' ED LY, without care. REC RE A' TION, amusement. IN' NO CENCE, freedom from guilt. MED I TA' TION, contemplation. UN LA MENT' ED, unmourned. ODE ON SOLITUDE. POPE. Written when the author was twelve years of age. 1. Happy the man whose wish and care A few paternal acres bound, Content to breathe his native air In his own ground. 2. Whose herds with milk, whose fields with bread, Whose flocks supply him with attire; Whose trees in summer yield him shade, In winter fire. 3. Blest who can unconcern'dly find Hours, days, and years glide soft away, In health of body, peace of mind, Quiet by day. 4. Sound sleep by night; study and ease, Together mixed; sweet recreation; And innocence, which most doth please With meditation. 5. Thus let me live, unseen, unknown; Thus unlamented let me die; Steal from the world, and not a stone Tell where I lie. QUESTIONS.--1. Who, did the writer think, were happy? 2. How did he wish to live and die? 3. Analyse the word _recreation_, (RE _back_; CREATION, _act of bringing into life_;) act of bringing back to life; a reviving. * * * * * LESSON LXXXV. AD MI RA' TION, esteem. FRA TER' NAL, brotherly. IN SIG NIF' I CANCE, worthlessness. CRIT' IC AL, perilous. THOR' OUGH LY, completely; fully. COM PRE HEND', understand. CON VIC' TION, strong belief. COM PE TI' TION, strife; rivalry. EM U LA' TION, competition. IN TRIN' SIC AL LY, really; truly. AP PRE' CI ATE, value; esteem. BRAWN, physical strength. PIN' NA CLE, summit; highest point. SIN' U OUS, winding; bending. LE GIT' I MATE, lawful. REQ' UI SITE, necessary. CON SER VA' TION, act of keeping. DE VEL' OP MENT, training. GETTING THE RIGHT START. J.G. HOLLAND. 1. The first great lesson a young man should learn, is, that _he knows nothing;_ and that the earlier and more thoroughly this lesson is learned, the better it will be for his peace of mind, and his success in life. A young man bred at home, and growing up in the light of parental admiration and fraternal pride, can not readily understand how it is, that every one else can be his equal in talent and acquisition. If bred in the country, he seeks the life of the town, he will very early obtain an idea of his insignificance. 2. This is a critical period in his history. The result of his reasoning will decide his fate. If, at this time, he thoroughly comprehend, and in his soul admit and accept the fact, that _he knows nothing_ and _is nothing;_ if he bow to the conviction that his mind and his person are but ciphers, and that whatever he is _to be_, and is _to win_, must be achieved by _hard work_, there is abundant hope of him. 3. If, on the contrary, a huge self-conceit still hold possession of him, and he straightens stiffly up to the assertion of his old and valueless self,--or, if he sink discouraged upon the threshold of a life of fierce competitions, and more manly emulations, he might as well be a dead man. The world has no use for such a man, and he has only to retire or be trodden upon. 4. When a young man has thoroughly comprehended the fact that _he knows nothing_, and that, intrinsically, he is of but _little value_, the next thing for him to learn is that _the world cares nothing for him_,--that he is the subject of no man's overwhelming admiration and esteem,--that he must take care of himself. 5. If he be a stranger, he will find every man busy with his own affairs, and none to look after him. He will not be noticed until he becomes _noticeable_, and he will not become noticeable, until he _does something_ to prove that he has an absolute value in society. No letter of recommendation will give him this, or ought to give him this. No family connection will give him this, except among those few who think more of blood than brains. 6. Society demands that a young man _shall be somebody_, not only, but that _he shall prove his right to the title_; and it has a right to demand this. Society will not take this matter upon trust,--at least, not for a long time; for it has been cheated too frequently. Society is not very particular what a man does, so that it prove him to be a _man_: then it will bow to him, and make room for him. 7. There is no surer sign of an unmanly and cowardly spirit, than a vague desire for _help_,--a wish to _depend_, to _lean_ upon somebody, and enjoy the fruits of the industry of others. There are multitudes of young men who indulge in dreams of help from some quarter, coming in at a convenient moment, to enable them to secure the success in life which they covet. The vision haunts them of some benevolent old gentleman, with a pocket full of money, a trunk full of mortgages and stocks, and a mind remarkably appreciative of merit and genius, who will, perhaps, give or lend them from ten to twenty thousand dollars, with which they will commence and go on swimmingly. 8. To me, one of the most disgusting sights in the world, is that of a young man with healthy blood, broad shoulders, and a hundred and fifty pounds, more or less, of good bone and muscle, standing with his hands in his pockets, longing for help. I admit that there are positions in which the most independent spirit may accept of assistance,--may, in fact, as a choice of evils, desire it; but for a man who is able to help himself, to desire the help of others in the accomplishment of his plans of life, is positive proof that he has received a most unfortunate training, or that there is a leaven of meanness in his composition, that should make him shudder. 9. When, therefore, a young man has ascertained and fully received the fact that he does not know any thing, that the world does not care any thing about him, that what he wins must be won by his own brain and brawn, and that while he holds in his own hands the means of gaining his own livelihood and the objects of his life, he can not receive assistance without compromising his self-respect and selling his freedom, he is in a fair position for beginning life. When a young man becomes aware that only by _his own efforts_ can he rise into companionship and competition with the sharp, strong, and well-drilled minds around him, he of ready for work, and not before. 10. The next lesson is, that of _patience_, thoroughness in preparation, and contentment with the regular channels of business effort and enterprise. This is, perhaps, one of the most difficult to learn, of all the lessons of life. It is natural for the mind to reach out eagerly for immediate results. 11. As manhood dawns, and the young man catches in its first light the pinnacles of realized dreams, the golden domes of high possibilities, and the purpling hills of great delights, and then looks down upon the narrow, sinuous, long, and dusty path by which others have reached them, he is apt to be disgusted with the passage, and to seek for success through broader channels, by quicker means. Beginning at the very foot of the hill, and working slowly to the top, seems a very discouraging process; and precisely at this point, have thousands of young men made shipwreck of their lives. 12. Let this be understood, then, at starting; that the patient conquest of difficulties, which rise in the regular and legitimate channels of business and enterprise, is not only essential in securing the successes which you seek, but it is essential to that preparation of your mind, requisite for the enjoyment of your successes, and for retaining them when gained. It is the general rule of Providence, the world over, and in all time, that unearned success is a curse. It is the rule of Providence, that the process of earning success, shall be the preparation for its conservation and enjoyment. 13. So, day by day, and week by week; so, month after month, and year after year, _work on_, and in that process gain strength and symmetry, and nerve and knowledge, that when success, patiently and bravely worked for, shall come, it may find you prepared to receive it and keep it. The development which you will get in this brave and patient labor, will prove itself, in the end, the most valuable of your successes. It will help to make a _man_ of you. It will give you power and self-reliance. It will give you not only _self-respect_, but the _respect of your fellows and the public_. QUESTIONS.--1. What is the first lesson a young man should learn? 2. What is the next lesson he should learn? 3. What does society demand of a young man? 4. What is a sure sign of an unmanly and cowardly spirit? 5. When is a young man in a fair position for beginning life? 6. What is a general rule of Providence? * * * * * LESSON LXXXVI. PRE SUMP' TION, arrogance. SOPH' ISTS, professed teachers of wisdom. AC COST' ED, addressed. GEN' IUS, natural aptitude. IN DUC' ED, prevailed upon. PHI LOS' O PHER, lover of wisdom. BAR' BA ROUS, foreign; uncivilized. DIS SUADE', turn away from. EX CESS' IVE. overmuch. ES TEEM' ED, highly regarded. RE TRENCH, lessen; curtail. SU PER' FLU OUS, extravagant; needless. UN DER TAK' ING, engaging in. IN CA PAC' I TY, inability. [Headnote 1: THE MIS' TO CLES, a celebrated Athenian statesman and military leader, was born about 514 before Christ.] [Headnote 2: CI' MON, an illustrious Athenian general and statesman, born about the year 510, before Christ. He belonged to the aristocratic party of his time, and contributed to the banishment of Themistocles, the leader of the opposite party. He was also the political opponent of Pericles.] [Headnote 3: PER' I CLES, an Athenian statesman, born about 495 before Christ. He labored to make Athens the capital of all Greece, and the seat of art and refinement.] [Headnote 4: PLA' TO, a celebrated Greek philosopher, born in Athens about the year 429 before Christ. He was a pupil of Socrates.] THE PRESUMPTION OF YOUTH. ROLLIN. 1. The young people of Athens, amazed at the glory of Themistocles,[Headnote 1] of Cimon,[Headnote 2] of Pericles,[Headnote 3] and full of a foolish ambition, after having received some lessons from the sophists, who promised to render them very great politicians, believed themselves capable of every thing, and aspired to fill the highest places. One of them, named Glaucon, took it so strongly in his head that he had a _peculiar genius_ for public affairs, although he was not yet twenty years of age, that no person in his family, nor among his friends, had the power to divert him from a notion so little befitting his age and capacity. 2. Socrates, who liked him on account of Plato [Headnote 4] his brother, was the only one who succeeded in making him change his resolution. Meeting him one day, he accosted him with so dexterous a discourse, that he induced him to listen. He had already gained much influence over him. "You have a desire to govern the republic?" said Socrates. "True," replied Glaucon. "You can not have a finer design," said the philosopher, "since, if you succeed in it, you will be in a state to serve your friends, to enlarge your house, and to extend the limits of your native country. 3. "You will become known not only in Athens, but through all Greece; and it may be that your renown will reach even to the barbarous nations, like that of Themistocles. At last, you will gain the respect and admiration of everybody." A beginning so flattering pleased the young man exceedingly, and he very willingly continued the conversation. "Since you desire to make yourself esteemed and respected, it is clear that you think to render yourself useful to the public." "Assuredly." "Tell me, then, I beseech you, what is the first service that you intend to render the state?" 4. As Glaucon appeared to be perplexed, and considered what he ought to answer,--"Probably," replied Socrates, "it will be to enrich the republic, that is to say, to increase its revenues." "Exactly so." "And, undoubtedly, you know in what the revenues of the state consist, and the extent to which they may be increased. You will not have failed to make it a private study, to the end that if one source should suddenly fail, you may be able to supply its place immediately with another." "I assure you," answered Glaucon, "that this is what I have never thought of." 5. "Tell me, at least, then, the necessary expenses of maintaining the republic. You can not fail to know of what importance it is to retrench those which are superfluous." "I confess to you that I am not more instructed with regard to this article than the other." "Then it is necessary to defer till another time the design that you have of enriching the republic; for it is impossible for you to benefit the state while you are ignorant of its revenues and expenses." 6. "But," said Glaucon, "there is still another means that you pass over in silence,--one can enrich a state by the ruin of its enemies." "You are right." replied Socrates, "but, in order to do that, you must be the more powerful; otherwise you run the risk of losing that which you possess. So, he who speaks of undertaking a war, ought to know the power of both parties, to the end that if he finds his party the stronger, he may boldly risk the adventure; but, if he find it the weaker, he should dissuade the people from undertaking it. 7. "But, do you know what are the forces of our republic, by sea and by land, and what are those of our enemies'? have you a statement of them in writing'? You will do me the pleasure to allow me a perusal of it." "I have none yet," replied Glaucon. "I see, then," said Socrates, "that we shall not make war so soon, if they intrust _you_ with the government; for there remain many things for you to know, and many cares to take." 8. The sage mentioned many other articles, not less important, in which he found Glaucon equally inexperienced, and he pointed out how ridiculous they render themselves, who have the rashness to intermeddle with government, without bringing any other preparation to the task than _a great degree of self-esteem and excessive ambition_. "Fear, my dear Glaucon," said Socrates, "fear, lest a too ardent desire for honors should blind you; and cause you to take a part that would cover you with shame, in bringing to light your incapacity, and want of talent." 9. The youth was wise enough to profit by the good advice of his instructor, and took some time to gain private information, before he ventured to appear in public. This lesson is for all ages. QUESTIONS.--1. To what did the young people of Athens aspire? 2. What did Glaucon believe he possessed? 3. Who succeeded in making him change his resolution? 4. How did Socrates do this? 5. What did Socrates finally say to him? * * * * * LESSON LXXXVII. CREST, topmost height. TOR' RENTS, rushing streams. TYPE, symbol; token. AE' RIE, (_a' ry_,) eagle's nest. VAULT' ED, arched. LIQ' UID, (_lik' wid_,) clear; flowing. BASK, lie exposed to warmth. CAN' O PY, covering. REV' EL RY, noisy merriment. BIDE, stay; continue. VO LUP' TU OUS, devoted to pleasure. HAUNTS, places of resort. EX PIRES', dies; becomes extinct. SMOL' DER ING, burning and smoking without vent. HER' IT AGE, inheritance. QUENCH' ED, extinguished. PEN' NON, flag; banner. WRENCH, wrest; twist off. CRA' VEN, base; cowardly. SONG OF THE AMERICAN EAGLE. 1. I build my nest on the mountain's crest, Where the wild winds rock my eaglets to rest,-- Where the lightnings flash, and the thunders crash, And the roaring torrents foam and dash; For my spirit free henceforth shall be A type of the sons of Liberty. 2. Aloft I fly from my aerie high, Through the vaulted dome of the azure sky; On a sunbeam bright take my airy flight, And float in a flood of liquid light; For I love to play in the noontide ray, And bask in a blaze from the throne of day. 3. Away I spring with a tireless wing, On a feathery cloud I poise and swing; I dart down the steep where the lightnings leap, And the clear blue canopy swiftly sweep; For, dear to me is the revelry Of a free and fearless Liberty. 4. I love the land where the mountains stand, Like the watch-towers high of a Patriot band; For I may not bide in my glory and pride, Though the land be never so fair and wide, Where Luxury reigns o'er voluptuous plains, And fetters the free-born soul in chains. 5. Then give to me in my flights to see The land of the pilgrims _ever free_! And I never will rove from the haunts I love But watch, from my sentinel-track above, Your banner free, o'er land and sea, And exult in your glorious Liberty. 6. _O, guard ye well the land where I dwell_, Lest to future times the tale I tell, When slow expires in smoldering fires The goodly heritage of your sires,-- How Freedom's light rose clear and bright O'er fair Columbia's beacon-hight, Till ye quenched the flame in a starless night. 7. Then will I tear from your pennon fair The stars ye have set in triumph there; My olive-branch on the blast I'll launch, The fluttering stripes from the flagstaff wrench, And away I'll flee; for I scorn to see _A craven race_ in the land of the free! QUESTIONS.--1. Where does the eagle build its nest? 2. Describe its flights. 3. Where does it love to dwell? 4. Of what is the eagle a type? 5. What warning does it give to the people of this country? 6. What is there peculiar in the construction of the first, third, and fifth lines of each verse? * * * * * LESSON LXXXVIII. AN' THEM, ode; song. DAUNT' LESS, bold; fearless. WAG' ED, carried on. UN AW' ED, undismayed. SCROLL, roll of paper; document. COUNT' LESS, unnumbered. ROY' AL, regal; noble. U' NI VERSE, whole creation. BAF' FLED, frustrated. TY RAN' NIC, oppressive; despotic. CURB, check; restrain. SUC CEED' ING, following. HURL' ED, thrown. PEAL' ED, resounded. [Headnote 1: HEL' LES PONT, now the Dardanelles, a narrow strait between Asia and Europe.] [Headnote 2: XER' XES, (_zerks' ees_,) the celebrated king of Persia, during his famous expedition into Greece, caused a bridge of boats to be built over the Hellespont; but the work having been destroyed by a storm, he was greatly enraged against the sea, and ordered it to be lashed, and fetters to be cast into it to restrain its violence.] THE ARMY OF REFORM. SARAH JANE LIPPINCOTT. 1. Yes, _ye are few_,--and _they were few_, Who, daring storm and sea, Once raised upon old Plymouth rock "The anthem of the free." 2. _And they were few_ at Lexington, To battle, or to die,-- That lightning-flash, that thunder-peal, Told that the storm was nigh. 3. _And they were few_, who dauntless stood, Upon old Bunkers hight, And waged with Britain's strength and pride The fierce, unequal fight. 4. _And they were few_, who, all unawed By kingly "rights divine," The Declaration, rebel scroll,[Footnote 1] Untrembling dared to sign. 5. _Yes, ye are few_; for one proud glance Can take in all your band, As now against a countless host, Firm, true, and calm, ye stand. 6. Unmoved by Folly's idiot laugh, Hate's curse, or Envy's frown,-- Wearing your rights as royal robes, Your manhood as a crown,-- 7. With eyes whose gaze, unvailed by mists, Still rises, clearer, higher,-- With stainless hands, and lips that Truth Hath touched with living fire,-- 8. With one high hope, that ever shines Before you as a star,-- One prayer of faith, one fount of strength, _A glorious few ye are!_ 9. Ye _dare_ not fear, ye _can not_ fail, Your destiny ye bind To that sublime, eternal law That rules the march of mind. 10. See yon bold eagle toward the sun Now rising free and strong, And see yon mighty river roll Its sounding tide along! 11. Ah! yet near earth the eagle tires, Lost in the sea, the river; _But naught can stay the human mind_,-- _'Tis upward, onward, ever!_ 12. It yet shall tread the starlit paths, By highest angels trod, And pause but at the farthest world In the universe of God. 13. 'Tis said that Persia's baffled king, In mad, tyrannic pride, Cast fetters on the Hellespont,[Headnote 1] To curb its swelling tide: 14. But freedom's own true spirit heaves The bosom of the main; It tossed those fetters to the skies, And bounded on again! 15. The scorn of each succeeding age On Xerxes'[Headnote 2] head was hurled, And o'er that foolish deed has pealed The long laugh of a world. 16. Thus, thus, defeat, and scorn, and shame, Is _his_, who strives to bind _The restless, leaping waves of thought,_ _The free tide of the mind._ [Footnote 1: The reference is to the Declaration of Independence, made July 4th, 1776.] QUESTIONS.--1. Who raised the anthem of the free on Plymouth Rock? 2. What is said of the few on Bunker's Hight? 3. How many signed the Declaration of Independence? Ans. 56. 4. What is said of the eagle? 5. Of the human mind? 6. Of Freedom? 7. Where is the Hellespont? * * * * * LESSON LXXXIX. FRESH' EN ED, grew brisk or strong. FIT FUL LY, at intervals. IN DI CA' TION, sign; token. EN THU' SI ASM, strong feeling. AP PRE HEND' ING, fearing. A BAN' DON, give up; forsake. HAW' SERS, cables; large ropes. VOL UN TEER' ED, offered willingly. IN' TER VAL, intervening time. DE VOT' ED, doomed; ill-fated. THWARTS, seats placed across a boat. GUAR' AN TY, warrant. IN EV' I TA BLY, certainly; surely. AC CU' MU LA TED, collected; heaped. STAN' CHION, (_stan' shun_,) small post. VI' ED, strove; contended. DIS' LO CA TED, out of joint; disjointed. AM' PU TA TED, cut off. THE LAST CRUISE OF THE MONITOR. GREENVILLE M. WEEKS. 1. On the afternoon of December 29th, 1862, she put on steam, and, in tow of the "Rhode Island," passed Fortress Monroe, and out to sea. As we gradually passed out, the wind freshened somewhat; but the sun went down in glorious clouds of purple and crimson, and the night was fair and calm above us, though, in the interior of our little vessel, the air had already begun to lose its freshness. We suffered more or less from its closeness through the night, and woke in the morning to find it heavy with impurity, from the breaths of some sixty persons, composing the officers and crew. 2. Sunshine found us on deck, enjoying pure air, and watching the east. During the night we had passed Cape Henry, and now, at dawn, found ourselves on the ocean,--the land only a blue line in the distance. A few more hours, and that had vanished. No sails were visible; and the Passaic, which we had noticed the evening before, was now out of sight. The morning and afternoon passed quietly; we spent most of our time on deck, on account of the confined air below, and, being on a level with the sea, with the spray dashing over us occasionally, amused ourselves with noting its shifting hues and forms, from the deep green of the first long roll, to the foam-crest and prismatic tints of the falling wave. 3. As the afternoon advanced, the freshening wind, the thickening clouds, and the increasing roll of the sea, gave those most accustomed to ordinary ship-life, some new experiences. The little vessel plunged through the rising waves, instead of riding them, and, as they increased in violence, lay, as it were, under their crests, which washed over her continually; so that, even when we considered ourselves safe, the appearance was that of a vessel sinking. 4. "I'd rather go to sea in a diving-bell!" said one, as the waves dashed over the pilot-house, and the little craft seemed buried in water. "Give me an oyster-scow!" cried another,--"any thing! only let it be _wood_, and something that will float _over_, instead of _under_ the water!" Still she plunged on; and about 6:30 P.M., we made Cape Hatteras; in half an hour we had rounded the point. A general hurrah went up,--"Hurrah for the first iron-clad that ever rounded Cape Hatteras! Hurrah for the little boat that is first in every thing!" 5. At half-past seven, a heavy shower fell, lasting about twenty minutes. At this time the gale increased; black, heavy clouds covered the sky, through which the moon glittered fitfully, allowing us to see in the distance a long line of white, plunging foam rushing toward us,--sure indication, to a sailor's eye, of a stormy time. A gloom overhung every thing; the banks of cloud seemed to settle around us; the moan of the ocean grew louder and more fearful. Still our little boat pushed doggedly on: victorious through all, we thought that here, too, she would conquer, though the beating waves sent shudders through her whole frame. 6. An hour passed; the air below, which had all day been increasing in closeness, was now almost stifling; but our men lost no courage. Some sang as they worked; and the cadence of their voices, mingling with the roar of waters, sounded like a defiance to Ocean. Some stationed themselves on top of the turret, and a general enthusiasm filled all breasts, as huge waves, twenty feet high, rose up on all sides, hung suspended for a moment like jaws open to devour, and then, breaking, gnashed over in foam from side to side. 7. Those of us new to the sea, and not apprehending our peril, hurrahed for the largest wave; but the captain and one or two others, old sailors, knowing its power, grew momentarily more and more--anxious, feeling, with a dread instinctive to the sailor, that, in case of extremity, no wreck yet known to ocean, could be so hopeless as this. Solid iron from keelson to turret-top, clinging to any thing for safety, if the "Monitor" should go down, would only insure a share in her fate. No mast., no spar, no floating thing, to meet the outstretched hand in the last moment. 8. The sea gathered force from each attack. Thick and fast came the blows on the iron mail of the "Monitor," and still the brave little vessel held her own, until, at half-past eight, the engineer, faithful to the end, reported a leak. The pumps were instantly set in motion, and we watched their progress with an intense interest. She had seemed to us like an old-time knight, in armor, battling against fearful odds, but still holding his ground. We who watched, when the blow came which made the strong man reel and the life-blood spout, felt our hearts faint within us; then, again, ground was gained, and the fight went on, the water lowering somewhat under the laboring pumps. 9. From nine to ten it kept pace with them. From ten to eleven the sea increased in violence, the waves now dashing entirely over the turret, blinding the eyes, and causing quick catchings of the breath, as they swept against us. At ten the engineer had reported the leak as gaining on us; at half-past ten, with several pumps in constant motion, one of which threw out three thousand gallons a minute, the water was rising rapidly, and nearing the fires. When these were reached, the vessel's doom was sealed; for, with their extinction, the pumps must cease, and all hope of keeping the "Monitor" above water more than an hour or two, expired. 10. Our knight had received his death-blow, and lay struggling and helpless under the power of a stronger than he. A consultation was held, and, not without a conflict of fueling, it was decided that signals of distress should be made. Ocean claimed our little vessel, and her trembling frame and failing fire proved she would soon answer his call; yet a pang went through us, as we thought of the first iron-clad lying alone at the bottom of this stormy sea, her guns silenced, herself a useless mass of metal. Each quiver of her strong frame seemed to plead with us not to abandon her. 11. The work she _had_ done, the work she _was_ to do, rose before us: might there not be a possibility of saving her yet? Her time could not have come so soon. But we who descended for a moment to the cabin, knew, by the rising-water through which we waded, that the end was near. Small time was there for regrets. Rockets were thrown up, and answered by the "Rhode Island," whose brave men prepared at once to lower boats, though, in that wild sea, it was almost madness. 12. The "Monitor" had been attached to the "Rhode Island" by two hawsers, one of which had parted at about seven P.M. The other remained firm; but now it was necessary it should be cut. How was that possible, when every wave washed clean over the deck? What man could reach it alive? "Who'll cut the hawser?" shouted Captain Bankhead. Acting master Stodder volunteered, and was followed by another. Holding by one hand to the ropes at her side, they cut through, by many blows of the hatchet, the immense rope which united the vessels. Stodder returned in safety, but his brave companion was washed over, and went down. 13. Meanwhile the boat launched from the "Rhode Island," had started, manned by a crew of picked men. A mere heroic impulse could not have accomplished this most noble deed. For hours they had watched the raging sea. Their captain and _they_ knew the danger; every man who entered that boat, did it at the peril of his life; and yet all were ready. Are not such acts as these convincing proofs of the divinity of human nature'? We watched her with straining eyes; for few thought she could live to reach us. She neared; we were sure of her, thank Heaven! 14. In this interval, the cut hawser had become entangled in the paddle-wheel of the "Rhode Island," and she drifted down upon us; we, not knowing this fact, supposed her coming to our assistance; but a moment undeceived us. The launch sent to our relief was now between us and her,--too near for safety. The steamer bore swiftly down, stern first, upon our starboard quarter. "_Keep off! keep off!_" we cried, and then first saw she was helpless. 15. Even as we looked, the devoted boat was caught between the steamer and the iron-clad,--a sharp sound of crushing wood was heard,--thwarts, oars, and splinters flew in air,--the boat's crew leaped to the "Monitor's" deck, Death stared us in the face; our iron prow must go through the Rhode Island's side,--and then an end to all. One awful moment we held our breath,--then the hawser was cleared,--the steamer moved off, as it were, step by step, first one, then another, till a ship's length lay between us, and then we breathed freely. 16. But the boat!--had she gone to the bottom, carrying brave souls with her? No; there she lay, beating against our iron sides; but still, though bruised and broken, a lifeboat to us. There was no hasty scramble for life when it was found she floated,--all held back. The men kept steady on at their work of bailing,--only those leaving, and in the order named, whom the captain bade save themselves. They descended from the turret to the deck with mingled fear and hope, for the waves tore from side to side, and the coolest head and bravest heart could not guaranty safety. Some were washed over as they left the turret, and, with a vain clutch at the iron deck, a wild throwing up of the arms, went down, their death-cry ringing in the ears of their companions. 17. The boat sometimes held her place by the "Monitor's" side, then was dashed hopelessly out of reach, rising and falling on the waves. A sailor would spring from the deck to reach her, to be seen for a moment in mid-air, and then, as she rose, fall into her. So she gradually filled up; but some poor souls who sought to reach her, failed, even as they touched her receding sides, and went down. We had a little messenger-boy, the special charge of one of our sailors, and the pet of all; he must inevitably have been lost, but for the care of his adopted father, who, holding him firmly in his arms, escaped, as by a miracle, being washed overboard, but finally succeeded in placing him safely in the boat. 18. The last but one to make the desperate venture, was the surgeon; he leaped from the deck, at the very instant when the boat was being swept away by the merciless sea. Making one final effort, he threw his body forward as he fell, striking across the boat's side so violently, it was thought some of his ribs must be broken. "_Haul the Doctor in!_" shouted Lieutenant Greene, perhaps remembering how, a little time back, he himself, almost gone down in the unknown sea, had been "hauled in" by a quinine rope flung him by the Doctor. Stout sailor-arms pulled him in; one more sprang to a place in her, and the boat, now full, pushed off,--in a sinking condition, it is true, but still bearing hope with her, for _she was wood_. 19. Over the waves we made little progress, though pulling for life. The men stuffed their pea-jackets into the leaks, and bailed incessantly. We neared the "Rhode Island;" but now a new peril appeared. Eight down upon our center, borne by the might of the rushing water, came the whale-boat sent to rescue others from the iron-clad. We barely floated; if she struck us with her bows full on us, we must go to the bottom. One sprang, and, as she neared, with outstretched arms, met and turned her course. She passed against us, and his hand, caught between the two boats, was crushed, and the arm, wrenched from its socket, fell a helpless weight against his side; but life remained. We were saved, and an arm was a small price to pay for life. 20. We reached the "Rhode Island;" ropes were flung over her side, and caught with a death-grip. Some lost their hold, were washed away, and again dragged in by the boat's crew. What chance had one whose right arm hung a dead weight, when strong men with their two hands, went down before him? He caught at a rope, found it impossible to save himself alone, and then for the first time said,--"I am injured; can any one help me?" Ensign Taylor, at the risk of his own life, brought the rope around his shoulder in such a way that it could not slip, and he was drawn up in safety. 21. In the mean time, the whale-boat, which had nearly caused our destruction, had reached the side of the "Monitor;" and now the captain said, "It is madness to remain here longer: let each man save himself." For a moment, he descended to the cabin for a coat, and his faithful servant followed to secure a jewel-box, containing the accumulated treasure of years. A sad, sorry sight it was! In the heavy air the lamps burned dimly, and the water, waist-deep, splashed sullenly against the sides of the wardroom. One lingering look, and he left the "Monitor's" cabin forever! 22. Time was precious; he hastened to the deck, where, in the midst of a terrible sea, Lieutenant Greene nobly held his post. He seized the rope from the whale-boat, wound it about an iron stanchion, then around his wrists, and, by this means, was drawn aboard the boat. Thus, one by one, watching their time between the waves, the men filled in, and, at last, after making all effort for others, and none for themselves, Captain Bankhead and Lieutenant Greene took their places in the boat The gallant Brown pushed off, and soon laid his boat-load safe upon the "Rhode Island's" deck. 23. Here the heartiest and most tender reception met us. Our drenched clothing was replaced by warm and dry garments, and all on board vied with each other in acts of kindness. The only one who had received any injury, Surgeon Weeks, [Footnote: The writer of this account.] was carefully attended to, the dislocated arm set, and the crushed fingers amputated, by the gentlest and most considerate of surgeons, Dr. Webber, of the "Rhode Island." 24. For an hour or more we watched, from the deck of the steamer, the lonely light upon the "Monitor's" turrets; a hundred times we thought it gone forever,--a hundred times it reappeared, till, at last, about two o'clock, Wednesday morning, December 31st, it sank, and we saw it no more. An actor in the scenes of that wild night, when the "Monitor" went down, relates the story of her last cruise. _Her_ work is now over. She lies a hundred fathoms deep under the stormy-waters off Cape Hatteras; but she has made herself a name, which will not soon be forgotten by the American people. QUESTIONS.--1. When and where was the Monitor lost? 2. What signal service had she rendered? 3. Who was the writer of this account? * * * * * LESSON XC. RE SPON SI BIL' I TIES, obligations. LA' TENT, secret; hidden. IN IQ' UI TY, wickedness. EF FECT' IVE, powerful; efficient. REC' TI TUDE, right. PEN' E TRA TIVE, entering; piercing. MAL' ICE, ill-will; hatred. CHIV' AL RY, heroism; valor. WAN' TON LY, wastefully. SHEEN, brightness. SHIM' MER, glitter; gleam. RE VER' SION, future possession. IN SID' I OUS, crafty; deceitful. A THWART', across. SUS' TE NANCE, food; support. IM POS' ED, laid on; assigned. DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF WOMAN. GAIL HAMILTON. 1. Oh, if this latent power could be aroused! If woman would shake off this slumber, and put on her strength, her beautiful garments, how would she go forth conquering and to conquer! How would the mountains break forth into singing, and the trees of the field clap their hands! How would our sin-stained earth arise and shine, her light being come, and the glory of the Lord being risen upon her! 2. One can not do the _world's_ work; but one can do _one's_ work. You may not be able to turn the world from iniquity; but you can, at least, keep the dust and rust from gathering on your own soul. If you can not be directly and actively engaged in fighting the battle, you can, at least, polish your armor and sharpen your weapons, to strike an effective blow when the hour comes. You can stanch the blood of him who has been wounded in the fray,--bear a cup of cold water to the thirsty and fainting,--give help to the conquered, and smiles to the victor. 3. You can gather from the past and the present stores of wisdom, so that, when the future demands it, you may bring forth from your treasures things new and old. Whatever of bliss the "Divinity that shapes our ends" may see fit to withhold from you, you are but very little lower than the angels, so long as you have the "Godlike power to do,--the godlike aim to know." 4. You can be forming habits of self-reliance, sound judgment, perseverance, and endurance, which may, one day, stand you in good stead. You can so train yourself to right thinking and right acting, that uprightness shall be your nature, truth your impulse. His head is seldom far wrong, whose heart is always right. We bow down to mental greatness, intellectual strength, and they are divine gifts; but _moral rectitude_ is stronger than they. It is irresistible,--always in the end triumphant. 5. There is in _goodness_ a penetrative power that nothing can withstand. Cunning and malice melt away before its mild, open, steady glance. Not alone on the fields where chivalry charges for laurels, with helmet and breastplate and lance in rest, can the true knight exultingly exclaim, "My strength is as the strength of ten, Because my heart is pure;" but wherever man meets man, wherever there is a prize to be won, a goal to be reached. Wealth, and rank, and beauty, may form a brilliant setting to the diamond; but they only expose more nakedly the false glare of the paste. Only when the king's daughter is all glorious within, is it fitting and proper that her clothing should be of wrought gold. 6. From the great and good of all ages rings out the same monotone. The high-priest of Nature, the calm-eyed poet who laid his heart so close to hers, that they seemed to throb in one pulsation, yet whose ear was always open to the "still sad music of humanity," has given us the promise of his life-long wisdom in these grand words:-- "True dignity abides with him alone Who, in the silent hour of inward thought, Can still suspect and still revere himself." 7. Through the din of twenty rolling centuries, pierces the sharp, stern voice of the brave old Greek: "_Let every man, when he is about to do a wicked action, above all things in the world, stand in awe of himself, and dread the witness within him._" All greatness, and all glory, all that earth has to give, all that Heaven can proffer, lies within the reach of the lowliest as well as the highest; for He who spake as never man spake, has said that the very "kingdom of God is within you." 8. Born to such an inheritance, will you wantonly cast it away? With such a goal in prospect, will you suffer yourself to be turned aside by the sheen and shimmer of tinsel fruit? With earth in possession, and Heaven in reversion, will you go sorrowing and downcast, because here and there a pearl or ruby fails you? Nay, rather forgetting those things which are behind, and reaching forth unto those which are before, _press forward_! 9. Discontent and murmuring are insidious foes; trample them under your feet. Utter no complaint, whatever betide; for complaining is a sign of weakness. If your trouble can be helped, _help it_; if not, _bear it_. You can be whatever you _will_ to be. Therefore, form and accomplish worthy purposes. 10. If you walk alone, let it be with no faltering tread. Show to an incredulous world "How grand may be Life's might, Without Love's circling crown." Or, if the golden thread of love shine athwart the dusky warp of duty, if other hearts depend on yours for sustenance and strength, give to them from your fullness no stinted measure. Let the dew of your kindness fall on the evil and the good, on the just and on the unjust. 11. Compass happiness, since happiness alone is victory. On the fragments of your shattered plans, and hopes, and love,--on the heaped-up ruins of your past, rear a stately palace, whose top shall reach unto heaven, whose beauty shall gladden the eyes of all beholders, whose doors shall stand wide open to receive the way-worn and weary. Life is a burden, but it is imposed by God. What you _make_ of it, it will _be_ to you, whether a millstone about your neck, or a diadem upon your brow. _Take it up bravely, bear it on joyfully, lay it down triumphantly._ QUESTIONS.--1. What are some of the duties of women? 2. What is said of goodness? 3. What was the adage of the old Greek? 4. What is said of discontent and murmuring? * * * * * LESSON XCI. ID' I OT, one devoid of reason. HOR' RI BLE, awful; dreadful. WOE' FUL, afflicted. HAR' ROW, disturb; harass. PRE SERVE', safely keep. SOOTH, fact; truth. SPOIL' ED, stripped; plundered. YEARN' ING, longing. IN SUF' FER A BLE, intolerable. CAN' TON, district; region. PAS TIME, amusement; diversion. ES PI' ED, saw; discovered. MOUNT AIN EER', dweller on a mountain. BRAWN' Y, strong; firm. FAG OTS, bundles of sticks. AUG MENT', increase; make larger. BEA' CON, signal-fire. BE TIDE', happen; befall. SCENE FROM WILLIAM TELL. J. SHERIDAN KNOWLES. _Emma._ I never knew a weary night before! I have seen the sun a dozen times go down, And still no William,--and the storm was on, Yet have I laid me down in peace to sleep, The mountain with the lightning all a-blaze, And shaking with the thunder,--but to-night Mine eyes refuse to close, (_sl._) The old man rests: Pain hath outworn itself, and turned to ease. How deadly calm's the night! (_''_) What's that? I'm grown An idiot with my fears. I do not know,-- The avalanche! Great Power that hurls it down, Watch o'er my boy, and guide his little steps! What keeps him? 'tis but four hours' journey hence: He'd rest; then four hours back again. _What keeps him?_ Erni would sure be found by him,--he knows The track, well as he knows the road to Altorf! _Melchtal_. Help! (_in his sleep_.) _Emma_. What's the matter? Only the old man dreaming. He thinks again they're pulling out his eyes. I'm sick with terror! Merciful powers! what's this That fills my heart with horrible alarm? And yet it can not see. _Melch_. (_waking_) Where am I? _Emma_. Father! _Melch_. My daughter, is it thou'! Thank Heaven, I'm here! Is't day yet'? _Emma_. No'. _Melch_. Is't far on the night'? _Emma_. Methinks, about the turn on't. _Melch_. Is the boy Come back'? _Emma_. No', father'. _Melch_. Nor thy husband'? _Emma_. No'. _Melch_. A woeful wife and mother have I made thee! Would thou hadst never seen me. _Emma_. Father'! _Melch_. Child'! _Emma_. Methinks I hear a step !--I do! (_knocking_.) A knock! _Melch_. 'Tis William! _Emma_. No; it is not William's knock. (_Opens the door_.) I told you so. Your will? _Enter_ STRANGER. _Stran_. Seeing a light, I e'en made bold to knock, to ask for shelter; For I have missed my way. _Emma_. Whence come you` friend'? _Stran_. From Altorf. _Emma_. Altorf'! Any news from thence'? _Stran_. Ay`! News to harrow parents' hearts, and make The barren bless themselves that they are childless! _Emma_. May Heaven preserve my boy! _Melch_. What say'st thy news? _Stran_. Art thou not Melchtal--he whose eyes, 'tis said, The tyrant has torn out'? _Melch_. Yes`, friend', the same. _Stran_. Is this thy cottage'? _Melch_. No`; 'tis William Tell's. _Stran_. 'Tis William Tell's--and that's his wife--Goodnight. _Emma_. (_Rushing between him and the door_.) Thou stirr'st not hence until thy news be told! _Stran_. My news! In sooth 'tis nothing thou would'st heed. _Emma_. 'Tis something none should heed so well as I! _Stran_. I must be gone, _Emma_. Thou seest a tigress, friend, Spoiled of her mate and young, and yearning for them. Don't thwart her! Come, thy news! What fear'st thou, man? What more hath she to dread, who reads thy looks, And knows the most has come? Thy news! Is't bondage'? _Stran_. It is. _Emma_. Thank Heaven, it is not death! Of one--Or two? _Stran_. Of two. _Emma_. A father and a son, Is't not? _Stran_. It is. _Emma_. My husband and my son Are in the tyrant's power! There's worse than that! What's that is news to harrow parents' breasts. The which the thought to only tell, 'twould seem, Drives back the blood to thine?--Thy news, I say! Wouldst thou be merciful, this is not mercy! Wast thou the mark, friend, of the bowman's aim. Wouldst thou not hare the fatal arrow speed, Rather than watch it hanging in the string? Thou'lt drive me mad! Let fly at once! _Melch_. Thy news from Altorf, friend, whatever it is! _Stran_. To save himself and child from certain death, Tell is to hit an apple, to be placed Upon the stripling's head. _Melch_. My child! my child! Speak to me! Stranger, hast thou killed her? _Emma_. No! No`, father'. I'm the wife of William Tell; Oh, but to be a man!--to have an arm To fit a heart swelling with the sense of wrong! Unnatural--insufferable wrong! When makes the tyrant trial of his skill? _Stran_. To-morrow. _Emma_. Spirit of the lake and hill, Inspire thy daughter! On the head of him Who makes his pastime of a mother's pangs, Launch down thy vengeance by a mother's hand. Know'st the signal when the hills shall rise'? (_To Melchtal._) _Melch_. Are they to rise'? _Emma_. I see thou knowest naught. _Stran_. Something's on foot! 'Twas only yesterday, That, traveling from our canton, I espied Slow toiling up a steep, a mountaineer Of brawny limb, upon his back a load Of fagots bound. Curious to see what end Was worthy of such labor, after him I took the cliff; and saw its lofty top Receive his load, which went but to augment A pile of many another. _Emma_. 'Tis by fire! Fire is the signal for the hills to rise! (_Rushes out_.) _Melch_. Went she not forth! _Stran_. She did,--she's here again, And brings with her a lighted brand. _Melch_. My child, What dost thou with a lighted brand? (_Re-enter_ EMMA _with a brand_.) _Emma_. Prepare To give the signal for the hills to rise! _Melch_. Where are the fagots, child, for such a blaze? _Emma_. I'll find the fagots, father. (_Exit_.) _Melch_. She's gone Again! _Stran_. She is,--I think into her chamber. _Emma_. (_Rushing in_.)--Father, the pile is fired! _Melch_. What pile, my child! _Emma_. The joists and rafters of our cottage, father! _Melch_. Thou hast not fired thy cottage?--but thou hast; Alas, I hear the crackling of the flames! _Emma_. Say'st thou, alas! when I do say, thank Heaven. Father, this blaze will set the land a-blaze With fire that shall preserve, and not destroy it. (_f_.) _Blaze on!_ BLAZE ON! Oh, may'st thou be a beacon To light its sons enslaved to liberty! How fast it spreads! A spirit's in the fire: It knows the work it does.--(_Goes to the door, and opens it_.) The land is free! Yonder's another blaze! Beyond that, shoots Another up!--Anon will every hill Redden with vengeance! Father, come! Whate'er Betides us, worse we're certain can't befall, And better may! Oh, be it liberty, Safe hearts and homes, husbands and children! Come,-- It spreads apace. (_ff_.) Blaze on--_blaze on_--BLAZE ON! QUESTIONS.--1. What rule for the rising inflection on _father_? See Note I., page 32. 2. What rule for the falling inflection on _no_? See Rule I., page 28. * * * * * LESSON XCII. HON' OR A BLE, noble; illustrious. IN' TEL LECT, mind; understanding. SCORE, account; motive. CLEV' ER, skillful; expert. SO' CIAL, familiar. CON FU' SION, fuss; tumult. CON DE SCEN' SION, loveliness; deference. COM PRE HEN' SION, understanding. [Headnote 1: CROE SUS, a very wealthy king of ancient Lydia, in Asia Minor, was born about 591 before Christ.] THE RICH MAN AND THE POOR MAN. KHEMNITZER. 1. So goes the world`;--if wealthy, you may call _This_--friend, _that_--brother`;--friends and brothers all Though you are worthless, witless,--never mind it; You may have been a stable-boy,--what then? 'Tis _wealth_, my friends, makes _honorable_ men. You seek respect, no doubt, and you will find it. 2. But, if you are poor', heaven help you`! though your sire Had royal blood in him`, and though you Possess the intellect of angels too. 'Tis all in vain`;--the world will ne'er inquire On such a score`:--why should it take the pains? 'Tis easier to weigh purses`, sure, than brains'. 3. I once saw a poor fellow, keen and clever. Witty and wise`; he paid a man a visit, And no one noticed him', and no one ever Gave him a welcome`. "Strange`," cried I', "whence is it`?" He walked on this side', then on that`, He tried to introduce a social chat`; Now here', now there`, in vain he tried`; Some formally and freezingly replied, And some said by their silence,--"Better stay at home." 4. A rich man burst the door, As Croesus [Headnote 1] rich;--I'm sure He could not pride himself upon his wit`; And, as for wisdom, he had none of it`; He had what's better`,--he had wealth. What a confusion!--all stand up erect,-- These crowd around to ask him of his health; These bow in _honest_ duty and respect; And these arrange a sofa or a chair, And these conduct him there. "Allow me, sir, the honor`;"--Then a bow Down to the earth`.--_Is't_ possible to show Meet gratitude for such kind condescension`! 5. The poor man hung his head, And to himself he said, "This is indeed beyond my comprehension:" Then looking round, one friendly face he found, And said,--"Pray tell me why is wealth preferred "To wisdom?"--"That's a silly question, friend!" Replied the other,--"have you never heard. A man may lend his store Of gold or silver ore, But wisdom none can borrow, none can lend?" QUESTIONS.--1. How do you account for the different inflections in the last line of the second verse? See page 31, Note I. 2. What rule for the falling inflection on _condescension_? See page 29, Note I. * * * * * LESSON XCIII. EX HI BI' TIONS, displays. CIR CUM SCRIB' ED, encompassed. NA' VIES, ships of war. ARM' A MENTS, forces equipped for war. IM PED' ED, hindered, obstructed. LE VI' A THAN, huge sea-monster. MAG NIF' I CENCE, grandeur. UN A BAT' ED, undiminished. RE SERV' ED, kept. EN TRANC' ED, enraptured. PROM' ON TO RY, headland. RE VEAL'ED, laid open. SYM' BOL, token; sign. AD A MAN TINE, exceedingly hard. AP PER TAIN' ING, belonging. TRANS FORM' ING, changing. [Headnote 1: AC' TI UM is the ancient name of a promontory of Albania, in Turkey in Europe, near which was fought (B.C. 29) the celebrated naval battle that made Augustus Caesar master of the Roman world.] [Headnote 2: SAL' A MIS, an island opposite Attica, in Greece, near which (B.C. 480) occurred the famous naval engagement which resulted in the defeat of the Persians.] [Headnote 3: NAV A RI' NO is a seaport town on the southwestern coast of Greece. It was the scene of the memorable victory of the combined English, French, and Russian fleets over those of the Turks and Egyptians, gained on the 20th of October, 1827.] [Headnote 4: TRA FAL GAR', a cape on the southwestern coast of Spain. It is famous for the great naval battle, fought in its vicinity, Oct. 21st, 1805, between the fleets of the French and Spanish on the one side, and the English, under Lord Nelson, on the other. The English were victorious, though Nelson was mortally wounded.] GRANDEUR OF THE OCEAN. WALTER COLTON. 1. The most fearful and impressive exhibitions of power known to our globe, belong to the ocean. The volcano, with its ascending flame and falling torrents of fire, and the earthquake, whose footstep is on the ruin of cities, are circumscribed in the desolating range of their visitations. But the ocean, when it once rouses itself in its chainless strength, shakes a thousand shores with its storm and thunder. Navies of oak and iron are tossed in mockery from its crest, and armaments, manned by the strength and courage of millions, perish among its bubbles. 2. The avalanche, shaken from its glittering steep, if it rolls to the bosom of the earth, melts away, and is lost in vapor; but if it plunge into the embrace of the ocean, this mountain mass of ice and hail is borne about for ages in tumult and terror; it is the drifting monument of the ocean's dead. The tempest on land is impeded by forests, and broken by mountains; but on the plain of the deep it rushes unresisted; and when its strength is at last spent, ten thousand giant waves still roll its terrors onward. 3. The mountain lake and the meadow stream are inhabited only by the timid prey of the angler; but the ocean is the home of the leviathan,--his ways are in the mighty deep. The glittering pebble and the rainbow-tinted shell, which the returning tide has left on the shore, and the watery gem which the pearl-diver reaches at the peril of his life, are all that man can filch from the treasures of the sea. The groves of coral which wave over its pavements, and the halls of amber which glow in its depths, are beyond his approaches, save when he goes down there to seek, amid their silent magnificence, his burial monument. 4. The islands, the continents, the shores of civilized and savage realms, the capitals of kings, are worn by time, washed away by the wave, consumed by the flame, or sunk by the earthquake; but the ocean still remains, and still rolls on in the greatness of its unabated strength. Over the majesty of its form and the marvel of its might, time and disaster have no power. Such as creation's dawn beheld, it rolleth now. 5. The vast clouds of vapor which roll up from its bosom, float away to encircle the globe: on distant mountains and deserts they pour out their watery treasures, which gather themselves again in streams and torrents, to return, with exulting bounds, to their parent ocean. These are the messengers which proclaim in every land the exhaustless resources of the sea; but it is reserved for those who go down in ships, and who do business in the great waters, to see the works of the Lord and His wonders in the deep. 6. Let one go upon deck in the middle watch of a still night, with naught above him but the silent and solemn skies, and naught around and beneath him but an interminable waste of waters, and with the conviction that there is but a plank between him and eternity, a feeling of loneliness, solitude, and desertion, mingled with a sentiment of reverence for the vast, mysterious and unknown, will come upon him with a power, all unknown before, and he might stand for hours entranced in reverence and tears. 7. Man, also, has made the ocean the theater of _his_ power. The ship in which he rides that element, is one of the highest triumphs of his skill. At first, this floating fabric was only a frail bark, slowly urged by the laboring oar. The sail, at length, arose and spread its wings to the wind. Still he had no power to direct his course when the lofty promontory sunk from sight, or the orbs above him were lost in clouds. But the secret of the magnet is, at length, revealed to him, and his needle now settles, with a fixedness which love has stolen as the symbol of its constancy, to the polar star. 8. Now, however, he can dispense even with sail, and wind, and flowing wave. He constructs and propels his vast engines of flame and vapor, and, through the solitude of the sea, as over the solid land, goes thundering on his track. On the ocean, too, thrones have been lost and won. On the fate of Actium [Headnote 1] was suspended the empire of the world. In the gulf of Salamis,[Headnote 2] the pride of Persia found a grave; and the crescent set forever in the waters of Navarino;[Headnote 3] while, at Trafalgar [Headnote 4] and the Nile, nations held their breath, As each gun, From its adamantine lips, Spread a death-shade round the ships Like the hurricane's eclipse Of the sun. 9. But, of all the wonders appertaining to the ocean, the greatest, perhaps, is its transforming power on man. It unravels and weaves anew the web of his moral and social being. It invests him with feelings, associations, and habits, to which he has been an entire stranger. It breaks up the sealed fountain of his nature, and lifts his soul into features prominent as the cliffs which beetle over its surge. 10. Once the adopted child of the ocean, he can never bring back his entire sympathies to land. He will still move in his dreams over that vast waste of waters, still bound in exultation and triumph through its foaming billows. All the other realities of life will be comparatively tame, and he will sigh for his tossing element, as the caged eagle for the roar and arrowy light of his mountain cataract. QUESTIONS.--1. What is said of the volcano and earthquake? 2. Of the avalanche and tempest? 3. Of the ocean? 4. Of ships? 5. Where have naval battles been fought? 6. What influence has the ocean on man? * * * * * LESSON XCIV. RE LAX' ED, loosened. AS SI DU' I TIES, kind, constant attentions. CON SIGN' ED, committed; given over. EX TE' RI OR, outer appearance. UN AF FECT' ED, sincere. UN PRE TEND' ING, unostentatious. HA BIL' I MENTS, vestments. SU PER STI' TIOUS, full of scruples. REC' ON CILE, make willing. PEN' E TRATES, sees through. PER VADE', (PER, _through_; VADE, _go_, or _pass_;) pass through; appear throughout. A BURIAL AT SEA. WALTER COLTON. 1. Death is a fearful thing, come in what form it may,--fearful, when the vital chords are so gradually relaxed, that life passes away sweetly as music from the slumbering harp-string,--fearful, when in his own quiet chamber, the departing one is summoned by those who sweetly follow him with their prayers, when the assiduities of friendship and affection can go no farther, and who discourse of heaven and future blessedness, till the closing ear can no longer catch the tones of the long-familiar voice, and who, lingering near, still feel for the hushed pulse, and then trace in the placid slumber, which pervades each feature, a quiet emblem of the spirit's serene repose. 2. What, then, must this dread event be to one, who meets it comparatively alone, far away from the hearth of his home, upon a troubled sea, between the narrow decks of a restless ship, and at that dread hour of night, when even the sympathies of the world seem suspended! Such has been the end of many who traverse the ocean; and such was the hurried end of him, whose remains we have just consigned to a watery grave. 3. He was a sailor; but, beneath his rude exterior, he carried a heart touched with refinement, pride, and greatness. There was something about him, which spoke of better days and a higher destiny. By what errors or misfortunes he was reduced to his humble condition, was a secret which he would reveal to none. Silent, reserved, and thoughtful, he stood a stranger among his free companions, and never was his voice heard in the laughter or the jest. He has undoubtedly left behind many who will long look for his return, and bitterly weep when they are told they shall see his face no more. 4. As the remains of the poor sailor were brought up on deck, wound in that hammock which, through many a stormy night, had swung to the wind, one could not but observe the big tear that stole unconsciously down the rough cheeks of his hardy companions. When the funeral service was read to that most affecting passage, "we commit this body to the deep," and the plank was raised which precipitated to the momentary eddy of the wave the quickly disappearing form, a heavy sigh from those around, told that the strong heart of the sailor can be touched with grief, and that a truly unaffected sorrow may accompany virtue, in its most unpretending form, to its ocean grave. Yet how soon is such a scene forgotten! "As from the wing the sky no scar retains, The parted wave no furrow from the keel, So dies in human hearts the thought of death." 5. There is something peculiarly melancholy and impressive in a burial at sea: there is here no coffin or hearse, procession or tolling bell,--nothing that gradually prepares us for the final separation. The body is wound in the drapery of its couch, much as if the deceased were only in a quiet and temporary sleep. In these habiliments of seeming slumber, it is dropped into the wave, the waters close over it, the vessel passes quickly on, and not a solitary trace is left to tell where sunk from light and life, one that loved to look at the sky and breathe this vital air. 6. There is nothing that, for one moment, can point to the deep, unvisited resting-place of the departed,--it is a grave in the midst of the ocean,--in the midst of a vast, untrodden solitude. Affection can not approach it, with its tears; the dews of heaven can not reach it; and there is around it no violet, or shrub, or murmuring stream. 7. It may be superstitious; but no advantages of wealth, or honor, or power, through life, would reconcile me at its close to such a burial. I would rather share the coarse and scanty provisions of the simplest cabin, and drop away unknown and unhonored by the world, so that my final resting-place be beneath some green tree, by the side of some living stream, or in some familiar spot, where the few that loved me in life, might visit me in death. 8. But, whether our grave be in the fragrant shade, or in the fathomless ocean, among our kindred, or in the midst of strangers, the day is coming when we shall all appear at one universal bar, and receive from a righteous Judge the award of our deeds. He that is wisest, penetrates the future the deepest. QUESTIONS.--1. What is said of death? 2. What, of death at sea? 3. What renders a burial at sea peculiarly melancholy and impressive? * * * * * LESSON XCV. MYS TE' RI OUS, secret; mystical. UN RECK' ED, unheeded. AR' GO SIES, ships of great burden. WR ATH' FUL, furious; raging. PAL' A CES, splendid mansions. SCORN' FUL, disdainful. DE CAY', ruin; destruction. BOOM' ING, roaring. FES' TAL, joyous; merry. RE CLAIM', claim again; recover. THE TREASURES OF THE DEEP. MRS. HERMANS. 1. What hid'st thou in thy treasure-caves and cells? Thou hollow-sounding and mysterious main! Pale, glistening pearls, and rainbow-colored shells, Bright things which gleam unrecked of, and in vain! Keep, keep thy riches, melancholy sea! We ask not such from thee. 2. Yet more, the depths have more! what wealth untold, Far down, and shining through their stillness lies! Thou hast the starry gems, the burning gold, Won from ten thousand royal argosies! Sweep o'er thy spoils, thou wild and wrathful main! Earth claims not _these_ again. 3. Yet more, the depths have more! thy waves have rolled Above the cities of a world gone by! Sand hath filled up the palaces of old, Sea-weed o'ergrown the halls of revelry. Dash o'er them, Ocean! in thy scornful play! Man yields them to decay. 4. Yet more, the billows and the depths have more! High hearts and brave are gathered to thy breast! They hear not now the booming waters roar; The battle-thunders will not break their rest. Keep thy red gold and gems, thou stormy grave! Give back the true and brave! 5. Give back the lost and lovely,--those for whom The place was kept at board and hearth so long, The prayer went up through midnight's breathless gloom, And the vain yearning woke 'midst festal song! Hold fast thy buried isles, thy towers o'erthrown; But all is not thine own. 6. To thee the love of woman hath gone down; Dark flow thy tides o'er manhood's noble head, O'er youth's bright locks, and beauty's flowery crown, Yet must thou hear a voice,--_Restore the dead!_ Earth shall reclaim her precious things from thee! _Restore the dead, thou Sea!_ QUESTIONS.--1. What are some of the treasures of the deep? 2. What treasures has the sea won from trading vessels? 3. Over what does the sea roll? 4. What does the writer call on the sea to restore? * * * * * LESSON XCVI. UN FOR' TU NATE, wretched person. CER E MENTS, grave-clothes. SCRU' TI NY, inquiry. MU' TI NY, resistance to rightful rule. WON' DER MENT, curiosity. PROV' I DENCE, care; protection. A MAZE' MENT, astonishment. DIS' SO LUTE, abandoned; licentious. SPUR' RED, pushed on; impelled. CON' TU ME LY, scorn; insult. IN HU MAN' I TY, cruel treatment. IN SAN' I TY, madness. THE BRIDGE OF SIGHS. THOMAS HOOD. 1. One more Unfortunate, Weary of breath, Rashly importunate, Gone to her death! 2. Take her up tenderly, Lift her with care, Fashioned so slenderly, Young, and so fair! 3. Look at her garments Clinging like cerements; While the wave constantly Drips from her clothing; Take her up instantly, Loving, not loathing. 4. Touch her not scornfully; Think of her mournfully, Gently and humanly; Not of the stains of her; All that remains of her Now, is pure womanly. 5. Make no deep scrutiny Into her mutiny, Rash and undutiful; Past all dishonor, Death has left on her Only the beautiful. 6. Loop up her tresses Escaped from the comb,-- Her fair auburn tresses; While wonderment guesses Where was her home? 7. Who was her father`? Who was her mother`? Had she a sister'? Had she a brother'? Or, was there a dearer one Still, and a nearer one Yet, than all other'? 8. Alas! for the rarity Of Christian charity Under the sun! Oh! it was pitiful! Near a whole city full, Home she had none. 9. Sisterly, brotherly, Fatherly, motherly, Feelings had changed: Love, by harsh evidence, Thrown from its eminence; Even God's providence Seeming estranged. 10. Where the lamps quiver So far in the river, With many a light From window and casement, From garret to basement, She stood with amazement, Houseless by night. 11. The bleak winds of March Made her tremble and shiver But not the dark arch, Or the black flowing river, Mad from life's history, Glad to death's mystery, Swift to be hurled-- Anywhere, anywhere, Out of the world! 12. In she plunged boldly, No matter how coldly The rough river ran-- Picture it--think of it, Dissolute Man! 13. Take her up tenderly, Lift her with care, Fashioned so slenderly, Young, and so fair! 14. Perishing gloomily, Spurred by contumely, Cold inhumanity, Burning insanity, Into her rest, Cross her hands humbly, As if praying dumbly, Over her breast! 15. Owning her weakness, Her evil behavior, And leaving, with meekness, Her sins to her Savior! * * * * * LESSON XCVII. RE' QUI EM, hymn in honor of the dead. WED, joined; united. HENCE' FORTH, hereafter. DROOP, languish; fail. AF FEC TION, love. DIM' MED, dull; obscured. A REQUIEM. 1. Breathe low, thou gentle wind, (pl) Breathe soft and low; The beautiful lies dead! The joy of life is fled! And my lone heart is wed Henceforth to woe! 2. That thou should'st droop and die At early morn! While yet thy graceful dew A joyous fragrance drew From every flower that grew Life's path along! 3. The green earth mourns for thee, Thou dearest one; A plaintive tone is heard, And flower and leaflet stirred, And every fav'rite bird Sings sad and lone. 4. Pale is thy brow, and dimmed Thy sparkling eye! Affection's sweetest token Is lost fore'er and broken! The last kind word is spoken,-- Why did'st thou die? 5. Breathe low, thou gentle wind, Breathe soft and low; The beautiful lies dead! The joy of life is fled! And my lone heart is wed Henceforth to woe! QUESTIONS.--1. What rule for changing _y_ into _i_ in the word _beautiful?_ See ANALYSIS, page 13, Rule XI. 2. Why are _r_ and _m_ doubled in the words _stirred, dimmed?_ See Rule IX. 3. What is the meaning of the suffix _let_, in the word _leaflet?_ See page 240, Ex. 185. * * * * * LESSON XCVIII. LUX U' RI ANT, rich; plentiful. UN OS TEN TA' TIOUS, plain; not showy. RE VER EN' TIAL, deeply respectful. RE CEP' TA CLE, place of reception. SEM' I CIR CLE, half-circle. REC OG NI' TION, act of knowing. AG RI CUL' TUR AL, relating to farming. BEN E DIC' TION, blessing. DI' A RY, note-book; journal. SO JOURN' ED, resided for a while. AC CLA MA' TIONS, shouts. TRI UMPH' AL, relating to victory. GRAT U LA' TION, rejoicing. IN AUG U RA' TION, act of investing with office. EN FRAN' CHIS ED, freed; liberated. [Headnote 1: SAR COPH' A GUS, (SARCO, _flesh_; and PHAGUS, _that which eats or devours_,) is made up of two Greek words, signifying together _flesh-eating_, and was applied by the ancients to a species of stone, used for making coffins. Hence, sarcophagus came to signify a _stone-coffin_. The form of the plural in Latin, is _sarcophagi_.] [Headnote 2: BAS' TILE, (_bas' teel_,) an old state prison in Paris, built in 1369, and destroyed by a mob in 1789.] VISIT TO MOUNT VERNON. A.C. RITCHIE. 1. At this moment, we drew near the rude wharf at Mount Vernon; the boat stopped, and the crowd of passengers landed. By a narrow pathway we ascended a majestic hill thickly draped with trees. The sun scarcely found its way through the luxuriant foliage. We mounted slowly, but had only spent a few minutes in ascending, when we came suddenly upon a picturesque nook, where a cluster of unostentatious, white marble shafts, shot from the greenly sodded earth, inclosed by iron railings. Those unpretending monuments mark the localities where repose the mortal remains of Washington's kindred. 2. Just beyond stands a square brick building. In the center you see an iron gate. Here the crowd pauses in reverential silence. Men lift their hats and women bow their heads. You behold within, two sarcophagi. [Headnote 1] In those moldering tombs lie the ashes of the great Washington and his wife. Not a word is uttered as the crowd stand gazing on this lowly receptacle of the dust of America's mighty dead. 3. Are there any in that group who can say, "this was _our_ country's father'?" If there be, can they stand pilgrims at that grave without Washington's examples, his counsels, his words, heretofore, it may be, half-forgotten, stealing back into their minds, until the sense of reverence and gratitude is deepened almost to awe? Do they not feel that Washington's spirit is abroad in the world, filling the souls of a heaven-favored people with the love of freedom and of country, though his ashes are gathered here'? 4. Some one moves to pass on; and, with that first step, the spell is broken; others follow. Herman and Jessie linger last. After a period of mute and moving reflection, they turn away and slowly approach the mansion that, in simple, rural stateliness, stands upon a noble promontory, belted with woods, and half-girdled by the sparkling waters of the Potomac, which flow in a semicircle around a portion of the mount. 5. The water and woodland view from the portico is highly imposing. But it was not the mere recognition of the picturesque and beautiful in nature, that moved Herman and Jessie. They would have felt that they were on holy ground, had the landscape been devoid of natural charm. Here the feet of the first of heroes had trod, and here, in boyhood, he had sported with his beloved brother Lawrence. 6. In those forests, those deep-wooded glens, he had hunted, when a stripling, by the side of old Lord Fairfax; here he took his first lessons in the art of war; to this home he brought his bride; by this old-fashioned, hospitable-looking fireside, he sat with that dear and faithful wife; beneath yonder alley of lofty trees he has often wandered by her side; here he indulged the agricultural tastes in which he delighted; here resigned his Cincinnatus vocation, and bade adieu to his cherished home at the summons of his country. 7. Here his wife received the letter which told her that he had been appointed Commander-in-chief of the army; here, when the glorious struggle closed at the trumpet notes of victory--when the British had retired--when, with tears coursing down his benignant, manly countenance, he had uttered a touching farewell--bestowed a paternal benediction on the American army, and resigned all public service-- _here_ he returned, thinking to resume the rural pursuits that charmed him, and to end his days in peace! 8. Here are the trees, the shrubbery he planted with his own hands, and noted in his diary; here are the columns of the portico round which he twined the coral honeysuckle; the ivy he transplanted still clings to yonder garden wall; these vistas he opened through yon pine groves to command far-off views! Here the valiant Lafayette sojourned with him; there hangs the key of the Bastile [Headnote 2] which he presented. 9. Here flocked the illustrious men of all climes, and were received with warm, unpretending, almost rustic hospitality. Here the French Houdon modeled his statue, and the English Pine painted his portrait, and caused that jocose remark, "I am so hackneyed to the touches of the painters' pencil, that I am altogether at their beck, and sit like 'Patience on a monument!'" 10. Then came another summons from the land he had saved, and he was chosen by unanimous voice its chief ruler. Thousands of men, women, and children, sent up acclamations, and called down blessings on his head, as he made his triumphal progress from Mount Vernon to New York, to take the presidential oath. The roar of cannon rent the air. The streets through which he passed, were illuminated and decked with flags and wreaths. Bonfires blazed on the hills. From ships and boats floated festive decorations. At Gray's Ferry, he passed under triumphal arches. 11. On the bridge across the Assumpink, at Trenton, (the very bridge over which he had retreated in such blank despair, before the army of Cornwallis, on the eve of the battle of Princeton,) thirteen pillars, twined with laurel and evergreens, were reared by woman's hands. The foremost of the arches those columns supported, bore the inscription, _"The Defender of the Mothers will he the Protector of the Daughters."_ Mothers, with their white-robed daughters, were assembled beneath the vernal arcade. Thirteen maidens scattered flowers beneath his feet, as they sang an ode of gratulation. The people's hero ever after spoke of this tribute, as the one that touched him most deeply. 13. When his first presidential term expired, and his heart yearned for the peace of his domestic hearth, the entreaties of Jefferson, Randolph, and Hamilton, forced him to forget that home for the one he held in the hearts of patriots, and to allow his name to be used a second time. A second time he was unanimously elected to preside over his country's welfare. But, the period happily expired, he thankfully laid aside the mantle of state, the scepter of power, and, five days after the inauguration of Adams, returned here to his Mount Vernon home. And here the good servant, whom his Lord, when He came, found watching and ready, calmly yielded up his breath, exclaiming, "It is well!" and his spirit was wafted to Heaven by the blessings of his enfranchised countrymen. QUESTIONS.--1. Where is Mount Vernon? 2. What is said of Washington's tomb? 3. Mention some of the things which he did here? 4. What demonstrations were made by the people, as he went to New York to take the oath of office? 5. Did he serve more than one term as President? * * * * * LESSON XCIX. CHIV' AL ROUS, gallant; heroic. HAL' LOW, consecrate; keep sacred. MER' CE NA RY, mean; venal. AD VEN' TUR ER, fortune-seeker. VAN' QUISH ED, conquered. OUT' CAST, exile; castaway. TRAP' PINGS, ornaments; equipments. CRU SADE', battle zealously. CA REER' ED, moved rapidly. PHAL' ANX, compact body of men. TRANS PORT' ING, exulting. TRO PHIES, memorials of victory. PA' GEANT, pompous; showy. MIN' ION, favorite. LA FAYETTE. CHARLES SPRAGUE. 1. While we bring our offerings for the mighty of our _own_ land, shall we not remember the chivalrous spirits of _other_ shores, who shared with them the hour of weakness and woe'? Pile to the clouds the majestic column of glory`; let the lips of those who can speak well, hallow each spot where the bones of your bold repose`; but forget not those who, with your bold, went out to battle. 2. Among those men of noble daring, there was _one_, a young and gallant stranger, who left the blushing vine-hills of his delightful France. The people whom he came to succor, were not _his_ people; he knew them only in the melancholy story of their wrongs. He was no mercenary adventurer, striving for the spoil of the vanquished; the palace acknowledged him for its lord, and the valley yielded him its increase. He was no nameless man, staking life for reputation; he ranked among nobles, and looked unawed upon kings. 3. He was no friendless outcast, seeking for a grave to hide a broken heart; he was girdled by the companions of his childhood; his kinsmen were about him; his wife was before him. Yet from all these loved ones he turned away. Like a lofty tree that shakes down its green glories, to battle with the winter storm, he flung aside the trappings of place and pride, to crusade for Freedom, in Freedom's holy land. He came`; but not in the day of successful rebellion', not when the new-risen sun of Independence had burst the cloud of time, and careered to its place in the heavens'. 4. He came when darkness curtained the hills, and the tempest was abroad in its anger`; when the plow stood still in the field of promise, and briers cumbered the garden of beauty`; when fathers were dying, and mothers were weeping over them`; when the wife was binding up the gashed bosom of her husband, and the maiden was wiping the death-damp from the brow of her lover`. He came when the brave began to fear the power of man, and the pious to doubt the favor of God. It was _then_ that this one joined the ranks of a revolted people. 5. Freedom's little phalanx bade him a grateful welcome. With them he courted the battle's rage; with theirs, his arm was lifted; with theirs, his blood was shed. Long and doubtful was the conflict. At length, kind Heaven smiled on the good cause, and the beaten invaders fled. The profane were driven from the temple of Liberty, and, at her pure shrine, the pilgrim-warrior, with his adored commander, knelt and worshiped. Leaving there his offering, the incense of an uncorrupted spirit, he at length rose, and, crowned with benedictions, turned his happy feet toward his long-deserted home. 6. After nearly fifty years, that _one_ has come again. Can mortal tongue tell? can mortal heart feel, the sublimity of that coming? Exulting millions rejoice in it; and their loud, long, transporting shout, like the mingling of many winds, rolls on, undying, to Freedom's farthest mountains. A congregated nation comes around him. Old men bless him, and children reverence him. The lovely come out to look upon him; the learned deck their halls to greet him; the rulers of the land rise up to do him homage. 7. How his full heart labors! He views the rusting trophies of departed days; he treads the high places where his brethren molder; he bends before the tomb of his "father;" [Footnote: Washington] his words are tears,--the speech of sad remembrance. But he looks round upon a ransomed land and a joyous race; he beholds the blessings these trophies secured, for which these brethren died, for which that "father" lived; and again his words are tears,--the eloquence of gratitude and joy. 8. Spread forth creation like a map; bid earth's dead multitudes revive; and of all the pageant splendors that ever glittered to the sun, when looked his burning eye on a sight like this? Of all the myriads that have come and gone, what cherished minion ever ruled an hour like this? Many have struck the redeeming blow for their own freedom; but who, like this man, has bared his bosom in the cause of strangers? 9. Others have lived in the love of their own people; but who, like this man, has drank his sweetest cup of welcome with another? Matchless chief! of glory's immortal tablets there is one for him, for _him_ alone! Oblivion shall never shroud its splendor; the everlasting flame of Liberty shall guard it, that the generations of men may repeat the name recorded there, the beloved name of LA FAYETTE. QUESTIONS.--1. Of what country was La Fayette a native? 2. What was his position at home? 3. In what condition was this country when he came to join our army? 4. How many years after, before he revisited this country? 5. What demonstrations were manifested by the people? 6. What is said of his fame? * * * * * LESSON C. PRO FU' SION, abundance; variety. CON FU' SION, intricacy; indistinct movement. COM MO TION, agitation; shaking. RE SULT', effect. DI MIN' ISH, lessen. MYS' TER Y, maze; secrecy. HIS' TO RY, plain matter of fact. PA' GES, boy-servants; attendants. SPAR' RING, boxing; disputing. PUP' PETS, dolls; small figures of persons. FIN ISH, completion. GLO' RI OUS, grand; splendid. RE JECT, refuse; deny. RE FLECT' ED, turned back; borrowed. THE MYSTIC WEAVER. REV. DR. HARBAUGH. 1. Weaver at his loom is sitting, Throws his shuttle to and fro; Foot and treadle, Hand and pedal, Upward, downward, Hither, thither, How the weaver makes them go! As the weaver _wills_ they go. Up and down the web is plying, And across the woof is flying; What a rattling! What a battling! What a shuffling! What a scuffling! As the weaver makes his shuttle, Hither, thither, scud and scuttle. 2. Threads in single, Threads in double; How they mingle! What a trouble, Every color! What profusion! Every motion-- What confusion! While the web and woof are mingling, Signal bells above are jingling, Telling how each figure ranges, Telling when the color changes, As the weaver makes his shuttle, Hither, thither, scud and scuttle. 3. Weaver at his loom is sitting, Throws his shuttle to and fro; 'Mid the noise and wild confusion, Well the weaver seems to know, As he makes his shuttle go, What each motion, And commotion, What each fusion, And confusion, In the _grand result_ will show: Weaving daily, Singing gayly, As he makes his busy shuttle, Hither, thither, scud and scuttle. 4. Weaver at his loom is sitting, Throws his shuttle to and fro; See you not how shape and order From the wild confusion grow, As he makes his shuttle go'? As the web and woof diminish, Grows beyond the beauteous finish: Tufted plaidings, Shapes and shadings, All the mystery Now is history: And we see the reason subtle, Why the weaver makes his shuttle, Hither, thither, scud and scuttle. 5. See the Mystic Weaver sitting, High in Heaven--His loom below. Up and down the treadles go: Takes for web the world's long ages, Takes for woof its kings and sages, Takes the nobles and their pages, Takes all stations and all stages. Thrones are bobbins in His shuttle; Armies make them scud and scuttle. 6. Web into the woof must flow, Up and down the nations go, As the Weaver _wills_ they go. Men are sparring, Powers are jarring, Upward, downward, Hither, thither, See how strange the nations go, Just like puppets in a show. Up and down the web is plying And across the woof is flying. What a rattling! What a battling! What a shuffling! What a scuffling! As the Weaver makes His shuttle Hither, thither, scud and scuttle. 7. Calmly see the Mystic Weaver, Throw His shuttle to and fro; 'Mid the noise and wild confusion, Well the Weaver seems to know What each motion And commotion, What each fusion And confusion, In the grand result will show, As the nations, Kings and stations, Upward, downward, Hither, thither, As in mystic dances, go. 8. In the Present all is mystery, In the Past 'tis beauteous History. O'er the mixing and the mingling, How the signal bells are jingling! See you not the Weaver leaving Finished work behind in weaving'? See you not the reason subtle, As the web and woof diminish, Changing into beauteous finish, Why the Weaver makes His shuttle, Hither, thither, scud and scuttle'? 9. _Glorious wonder_! What a weaving! To the dull beyond believing! Such no fabled ages know. Only Faith can see the mystery How, along the aisle of History Where the feet of sages go, Loveliest to the purest eyes, Grand the mystic tapet lies! Soft and smooth and even-spreading As if made for angels' treading; Tufted circles touching ever, Inwrought figures fading never; Every figure has its plaidings, Brighter form and softer shadings; Each illuminated,--what a riddle!-- From a Cross that gems the middle. 10. 'Tis a saying--some reject it,-- That its light is all reflected: That the tapet's hues are given By a Sun that shines in Heaven! 'Tis believed, by all believing That great God Himself is weaving! Bringing out the world's dark mystery In the light of Faith and History; And, as web and woof diminish, Comes the grand and glorious finish: When begin the golden ages, Long foretold by seers and sages. QUESTIONS.--1. Describe the process of weaving. 2. Who are weaving the web of history? * * * * * LESSON CI. CON FOUND', perplex; confuse. WOOF, cloth; texture. RAR' ER, scarcer; more excellent. PRAI' RIES, large tracts of land, with few trees, and covered with grass. SAV' AGE, wild; uncultivated. SAVAN'NA, open meadow or plain. PI O NEERS', persons that go before to prepare the way for others. SCOUTS, spies. HEART' EN, encourage. SCAN' NED, closely examined. CLEAV' ING, parting; separating. HOL' I DAY, day of rest or joy. WORK AWAY. HARPERS' MAGAZINE. 1. Work away! For the Master's eye is on us, Never off us, still upon us, Night and day! Work away! Keep the busy fingers plying, Keep the ceaseless shuttles flying, See that never thread lie wrong; Let not clash or clatter round us, Sound of whirring wheels, confound us; Steady hand! let woof be strong And firm, that has to last so long? Work away! 2. Keep upon the anvil ringing Stroke of hammer; on the gloom Set 'twixt cradle and the tomb, Showers of fiery sparkles flinging; Keep the mighty furnace glowing; Keep the red ore hissing, flowing Swift within the ready mold; See that each one than the old Still be fitter, still be fairer For the servant's use, and rarer For the Master to behold: Work away! 3. Work away! For the Leader's eye is on us, Never off us, still upon us, Night and day! Wide the trackless prairies round us, Dark and unsunned woods surround us, Steep and savage mountains bound us; Far away Smile the soft savannas green, Rivers sweep and roll between: Work away! 4. Bring your axes, woodmen true; Smite the forest till the blue Of heaven's sunny eye looks through Every wild and tangled glade; Jungled swamp and thicket shade Give to day! 5. O'er the torrents fling your bridges, Pioneers! Upon the ridges Widen, smooth the rocky stair,-- They that follow far behind Coming after us, will find Surer, easier footing there; Heart to heart, and hand with hand, From the dawn to dusk of day, Work away! Scouts upon the mountain's peak,-- Ye that see the Promised Land, Hearten us! for ye can speak Of the Country ye have scanned, Far away! 6. Work away! For the Father's eye is on us, Never off us, still upon us, Night and day! WORK AND PRAY! Pray! and Work will be completer; Work! and Prayer will be the sweeter; Love! and Prayer and Work the fleeter Will ascend upon their way! 7. Fear not lest the busy finger Weave a net the soul to stay; Give her wings,--she will not linger, Soaring to the source of day; Clearing clouds that still divide us From the azure depths of rest, She will come again! beside us, With the sunshine on her breast, Sit, and sing to us, while quickest On their task the fingers move, While the outward din wars thickest, Songs that she hath learned above. 8. Live in Future as in Present; Work for both while yet the day Is our own! for lord and peasant, Long and bright as summer's day, Cometh, yet more sure, more pleasant, Cometh soon our Holiday; Work away! * * * * * LESSON CII. PROP O SI' TION, proposal. AD HE' SION, attraction. AB SURD I TY, folly; nonsense. VIS' ION ARY, fanciful; imaginary. DIS CUS' SION, debate; controversy. THE' O RY, idea; scheme of doctrine. AM BAS' SA DOR, messenger; deputy. NAV' I GA TORS, voyagers; seamen. SPEC U LA' TION, theory; mental view. EN' TER PRISE, attempt; undertaking. FRI VOL' I TY, levity; triflingness. PRE SENT' I MENT, previous notice. AN TIP' O DES, (ANTI, _opposite_; PODES, _the feet_;) having their feet opposite to ours; that is, living on the other side of the earth. [Headnote 1: GEN O ESE', a native of Genoa,--a famous fortified seaport city in Northern Italy.] [Headnote 2: LAC TAN' TIUS, one of the fathers of the Latin church, born about the year A.D. 250. He was celebrated as a teacher of eloquence, and before his conversion to Christianity, had so successfully studied the great Roman orator that he afterwards received the appellation of the "Christian Cicero."] QUEEN ISABELLA'S RESOLVE. FROM VINET. QUEEN ISABELLA OF SPAIN, DON GOMEZ, AND COLUMBUS. _Isabella._ And so, Don Gomez, it is your conclusion that we ought to dismiss the proposition of this worthy Genoese.[Headnote 1] _Don Gomez._ His scheme, your majesty, seems to me fanciful in the extreme; but I am a plain matter-of-fact man, and do not see visions and dreams, like some. _Isa._ And yet Columbus has given us cogent reasons for believing that it is practicable to reach the eastern coast of India by sailing in a westerly direction. _Don G._ Admitting that his theory is correct, namely, that the earth is a sphere, how would it be possible for him to return, if he once descended that sphere in the direction he proposes`? Would not the coming back be all up-hill'? Could a ship accomplish it with even the most favorable wind'? _Columbus._ Will your majesty allow me to suggest that, if the earth is a sphere, the same laws of adhesion and motion must operate at every point on its surface; and the objection of Don Gomez would be quite as valid against our being able to return from crossing the Strait of Gibraltar. _Don G._ This gentleman, then, would have us believe the monstrous absurdity, that there are people on the earth who are our antipodes,--who walk with their heads down, like flies on the ceiling. _Col._ But, your majesty, if there is a law of attraction which makes matter gravitate to the earth, and prevents its flying off into space, may not this law operate at every point on the round earth's surface'? _Isa._ Truly, it so seems to me; and I perceive nothing absurd in the notion that this earth is a globe floating or revolving in space. _Don G._ May it please your majesty, the ladies are privileged to give credence to many wild tales which we plain matter-of-fact men can not admit. Every step I take, confutes this visionary idea of the earth's rotundity. Would not the blood run into my head, if I were standing upside down! Were I not fearful of offending your majesty, I would quote what the great Lactantius [Headnote 2] says. _Isa_. We are not vain of our science, Don Gomez; so let us have the quotation. _Don G_. "Is there any one so foolish," he asks, "as to believe that there are antipodes with their feet opposite to ours,--that there is a part of the world in which all things are topsy-turvy, where the trees grow with their branches downward, and where it rains, hails, and snows, upward'?" _Col_. I have already answered this objection. If there are people on the earth who are our antipodes, it should be remembered that we are theirs also. _Don G_. Really, that is the very point wherein we matter-of-fact men abide by the assurance of our own senses. We know that we are not walking with our heads downward. _Isa_. To cut short the discussion, you think that the enterprise which the Genoese proposes, is one unworthy of our serious consideration; and that his theory of an unknown shore to the westward of us is a fallacy. _Don G_. As a plain matter-of-fact man, I must confess that I so regard it. Has your majesty ever seen an ambassador from this unknown coast? _Isa_. Don Gomez, do you believe in the existence of a world of spirits? Have you ever seen an ambassador from that unknown world? _Don G_. Certainly not. By faith we look forward to it. _Isa_. Even so by faith does the Genoese look forward, far over misty ocean, to an undiscovered shore. _Col._ Your majesty is right; but let it be added that I have reasons, oh! most potent and resistless reasons, for the faith that is in me: the testimony of many navigators who have picked up articles that must have drifted from this distant coast: the nature of things, admitting that the earth is round: the reports current among the people of one of the northern nations, that many years ago their mariners had sailed many leagues westward till they reached a shore where the grape grew abundantly; these and other considerations have made it the fixed persuasion of my mind, that there is a great discovery reserved for the man who will sail patiently westward, trusting in God's good providence, and turning not back till he has achieved his purpose. _Don G._ Then truly we should never hear of him again. Speculation! mere speculation, your majesty! When this gentleman can bring forward some solid facts that will induce us plain matter-of-fact men to risk money in forwarding his enterprise, it will then be time enough for royalty to give it heed. Why, your majesty, the very boys in the streets point at their foreheads as he passes along. _Isa._ And so you bring forward the frivolity of boys jeering at what they do not comprehend, as an argument why Isabella should not give heed to this great and glorious scheme? Ay, sir, though it should fail, still, it has been urged in language so intelligent and convincing, by this grave and earnest man, whom you think to undervalue by calling him an adventurer, that I am resolved to test the "absurdity," as you style it, and that forthwith. _Don G._ Your majesty will excuse me if I remark, that I have from your royal consort himself the assurance that the finances are so exhausted by the late wars, that he can not consent to advance the necessary funds for fitting out an expedition of the kind proposed. _Isa._ Be _mine_, then, the privilege! I have jewels, by the pledging of which I can raise the amount required; and I have resolved that they shall be pledged to this enterprise, without any more delay. _Col._ Your majesty shall not repent your heroic resolve. I will return, your majesty; be sure I will return, and lay at your feet such a jewel as never queen wore yet, an imperishable fame,--a fame that shall couple with your memory the benedictions of millions yet unborn, in climes yet unknown to civilized man. There is an uplifting presentiment in my mind, a conviction that your majesty will live to bless the hour you came to this decision. _Don G._ A presentiment? A plain matter-of-fact man, like myself, must take leave of your majesty, if his practical common-sense is to be met and superseded by presentiments! An ounce of fact, your majesty, is worth a ton of presentiment. _Isa._ That depends altogether upon the source of the presentiment, Don Gomez. If it come from the Fountain of all truth, shall it not be good? _Don G._ I humbly take my leave of your majesty. QUESTIONS.--1. What reasons did Don Gomez advance in proof that the earth is not a sphere? 2. What argument did Columbus present in proof that it was? 3. What did Queen Isabella resolve to do? * * * * * LESSON CIII. CON FIRM' ING, corroborating. AS SUR AN CES, assertions. MU TI NEER', one who resists orders. IN FER' RED, concluded. CRAV' ED, begged. AS SO' CIA TING, joining; connecting. EX PEC TA' TION, hope; a looking for. VER' I FIED, made true; realized. PHOS PHO RES' CENCE, faint light. HES I TA' TION, doubt. EN JOIN' ING, commanding; ordering. AM PHI THE' A TER, circular theater. CON TR AST' ED, set in opposition. DE MEAN' OR, behavior. DE FAULT', defect; absence. IN SIG' NIA, marks; signs. IN I' TIALS, first letters. DEV AS TA TION, a laying waste. DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD. LAMARTINE. 1. At sunrise, on the second day, some rashes recently torn up, were seen near the vessels. A plank, evidently hewn by an ax, a stick skillfully carved by some cutting instrument, a bough of hawthorn in blossom,--and lastly, a bird's nest built on a branch which the wind had broken, and full of eggs, on which the parent bird was sitting amid the gently-rolling waves,--were seen floating past on the waters. The sailors brought on board these living and inanimate witnesses of their approach to land. They were a voice from the shore, confirming the assurances of Columbus. Before the land actually appeared in sight, its neighborhood was inferred from these marks of life. 2. The mutineers fell on their knees before the Admiral, whom they had insulted but the day before, craved pardon for their mistrust, and struck up a hymn of thanksgiving to God for associating them with this triumph. Night fell on these songs welcoming a new world. The Admiral gave orders that the sails should be close-reefed, and the lead kept going; and that they should sail slowly, being afraid of breakers and shoals, and feeling certain that the first gleam of daybreak would discover land under their bows. 3. On the last anxious night none slept. Impatient expectation had removed all heaviness from their eyes; the pilots and the seamen, clinging about the masts, yards, and shrouds, each tried to keep the best place and the closest watch to get the earliest sight of the new hemisphere. The Admiral had offered a reward to the first who should cry _Land_, provided his announcement was verified by its actual discovery. 4. Providence, however, reserved to Columbus himself this first glimpse, which he had purchased at the expense of twenty years of his life, and of untiring perseverance. While walking the quarter-deck alone, at midnight, and sweeping the dark horizon with his keen eye, a gleam of fire passed and disappeared, and again showed itself on the level of the waves. Fearful of being deceived by the phosphorescence of the sea, he quietly called a Spanish gentleman of Isabella's court, in whom he had more confidence than in the pilots, pointed out the direction in which he had seen the light, and asked him whether he could discern any thing there. 5. He replied that he did, indeed, see a flickering light in that quarter. To make the fact still more sure, Columbus called another in whom he had confidence to look in the same direction. He said he had no hesitation in pronouncing that there was a light on the horizon. But the blaze was hardly seen before it again disappeared in the ocean, to show itself anew the next moment. Whether it was the light of a fire on a low shore, alternately appearing and disappearing beyond the broken horizon, or whether it was the floating beacon of a fisherman's boat now rising on the waves, and now sinking in the trough of the sea, they could not determine. 6. Thus both land and safety appeared together in the shape of fire to Columbus and his two friends, on the night between the 11th and 12th of October, 1492. The Admiral, enjoining silence, kept his observation to himself, for fear of again raising false hopes, and giving a bitter disappointment to his ships' companies. He lost sight of the light, and remained on deck until two in the morning,--praying, hoping, and despairing alone, awaiting the _triumph or the return_ on which the morrow was to decide. 7. He was seized with that anguish which precedes the great discoveries of truth, when, suddenly, a cannon-shot, sounding over the sea, a few hundred yards in advance of him, burst upon his ear the announcement of a _new-born world_, which made him tremble, and fall upon his knees. It was the signal of land in sight! made by firing a shot, as had been arranged with the _Pinta_, which was sailing in advance of the squadron, to guide their course and take soundings. 8. At this signal a general shout of _"Land ho!"_ arose from all the yards and riggings of the ships. The sails were furled, and daybreak was anxiously awaited. The mystery of the ocean had breathed its first whisper in the bosom of night. Daybreak would clear it up openly to every eye. Delicious and unknown perfumes reached the vessels from the outline of the shore, with the roar of the waves upon the reefs and the soft land breeze. 9. The fire seen by Columbus indicated the presence of man, and of the first element of civilization. Never did the night appear so long in clearing away from the horizon; for this horizon was to Columbus and his companions a second creation of God. The dawn, as it spread over the sky, gradually raised the shores of an island from the waves. Its distant extremities were lost in the morning mist. It ascended gradually, like an amphitheater, from the low beach to the summit of the hills, whose dark-green covering contrasted strongly with the blue heavens. 10. Within a few paces from where the foam of the waves breaks on the yellow sand, forests of tall and unknown trees stretched away, one above another, over the successive terraces of the island. Green valleys and bright clefts in the hollows, afforded a half glimpse into these mysterious wilds. Here and there could be discovered a few scattered huts, which, with their outlines and roofs of dry leaves, looked like bee-hives, and thin columns of blue smoke rose above the tops of the trees. Half-naked groups of men, women, and children, more astonished than frightened, appeared among the thickets near the shore, advancing timidly, and then drawing back, exhibiting, by their gestures and demeanor, as much fear as curiosity and wonder, at the sight of these strange vessels, which the previous night had brought to their shores. 11. Columbus, after gazing in silence on this foremost shore of the land so often determined by his calculations, and so magnificently colored by his imagination, found it to exceed even his own expectations. He burned with impatience to be the first European to set foot on the sand, and to plant the flag of Spain,--the standard of the conquest of God and of his sovereigns, effected by his genius. But he restrained the eagerness of himself and of his crew to land, being desirous of giving to the act of taking possession of a new world, a _solemnity_ worthy of the greatest deed, perhaps, ever accomplished by a seaman; and, in default of men, to call God and His angels, sea, earth, and sky, as witnesses of his conquest of an unknown hemisphere. 12. He put on all the insignia of his dignities as Admiral of the Ocean, and the Viceroy of these future realms; he wrapped himself in his purple cloak, and taking in his hand an embroidered flag, in which the initials of Ferdinand and Isabella were interlaced, like their two kingdoms, and, surmounted by a crown, he entered his boat, and pulled toward the shore, followed by the boats of his two lieutenants. 13. On landing, he fell on his knees, to acknowledge, by this act of humility and worship, the goodness and greatness of God in this new sphere of His works. He kissed the ground, and, with his face on the earth, he wept tears of double import, as they fell on the dust of this hemisphere, now, for the first time, visited by Europeans,--tears of joy for the overflowing of a proud spirit, grateful and pious,--tears of sadness for this virgin soil, seeming to foreshadow the calamities, and devastation, with fire and sword, and blood and destruction, which the strangers were to bring with their pride, their knowledge, and their power. 14. It was the _man_ that shed these tears; but it was the _earth_ that was destined to weep. As Columbus raised his forehead from the dust, with a Latin prayer, which his companions have handed down to us, he thus addressed the Sovereign Ruler of the world: (_sl_.) "Almighty and eternal God, who, by the energy of thy creative word, hast made the firmament, the earth, and sea, blessed and glorified be Thy name in all places! May Thy majesty and dominion be exalted forever and ever, as Thou hast permitted Thy holy name to be made known and spread by the most humble of Thy servants, in this hitherto unknown portion of Thy empire." 15. He then gave to this land the name of San Salvador. His lieutenants, his pilots, and his seamen, full of gladness, and impressed with a superstitious respect for him whose glance had pierced beyond the visible horizon, and whom they had offended by their unbelief,--overcome by the evidence of their eyes, and by that mental superiority which overawes the minds of men,--fell at the feet of the Admiral, kissed his hands and his clothes, and recognized, for a moment, the power and the almost divine nature of genius; _yesterday_ the victims of his obstinacy,--_now_ the companions of his success, and sharers in the glory which they had mocked. Such is humanity,--persecuting discoverers, yet reaping the fruits of their inventions. QUESTIONS.--1. What evidences had Columbus that land was near? 2. What did the mutineers do? 3. In what month and year was the _new world_ discovered? 4. What is said of the natives? 5. What did Columbus do on landing? 6. What was the conduct of the officers and seamen? * * * * * LESSON CIV. FER' MENT, heat; glow. EN THU' SI ASM, excitement. PRO DIG' IOUS, very great. SPEC I MENS, samples. LEAGU' ED, joined; banded. PER SUAD' ED, convinced. PRE POS' TEROUS, absurd; ridiculous. VAUNT' ED, boasted. DE LU' SION, deception. CRED' U LOUS, apt to believe. UN RE LI' A BLE, untrustworthy. SUS PI'' CION, doubt; mistrust. THE RETURN OF COLUMBUS. VINET. DON GOMEZ AND HIS SECRETARY. _Don Gomez_. WHAT! what is this you tell me? Columbus returned? A new world discovered? Impossible! _Secretary_. It is even so, sir. A courier arrived at the palace but an hour since with the intelligence. Columbus was driven by stress of weather to anchor in the Tagus. All Portugal is in a ferment of enthusiasm, and all Spain will be equally excited soon. The sensation is prodigious! _Don G_. Oh, it is a trick! It must be a trick! _Sec_. But he has brought home the proofs of his visit,--gold and precious stones, strange plants and animals; and, above all, specimens of a new race of men, copper-colored, with straight hair. _Don G_. Still I say, a trick! He has been coasting along the African shore, and there collected a few curiosities, which he is passing off for proofs of his pretended discovery. _Sec_. It is a little singular that all his men should be leagued with him in keeping up so unprofitable a falsehood. _Don G_. But 'tis against reason, against common sense, that such a discovery should be made. _Sec_. King John of Portugal has received him with royal magnificence, has listened to his accounts, and is persuaded that they are true. _Don G._ We shall see, we shall see. Look you, sir, a plain matter-of-fact man, such as I, is not to be taken in by any such preposterous story! This vaunted discovery will turn out no discovery at all. _Sec._ The king and queen have given orders for preparations on the most magnificent scale for the reception of Columbus. _Don G._ What delusion! Her majesty is so credulous. A practical, common-sense man, like myself, can find no points of sympathy in her nature. _Sec._ The Indians on board the returned vessels, are said to be unlike any known race of men. _Don G._ Very unreliable all that! I take the common-sense view of the thing. I am a matter-of-fact man; and do you remember what I say, it will all turn out a trick! The crews may have been deceived. Columbus may have steered a southerly course, instead of a westerly. Any thing is probable, rather than that a coast to the westward of us has been discovered. _Sec._ I saw the courier, who told me he had conversed with all the sailors; and they laughed at the suspicion that there could be any mistake about the discovery, or that any other than a westerly course had been steered. _Don G._ Still I say, a trick! An unknown coast reached by steering west? Impossible! The earth a globe, and men standing with their heads down in space? Folly! An ignorant sailor from Genoa in the right, and all our learned doctors and philosophers in the wrong? _Nonsense!_ I'm a matter-of-fact man, sir. I will believe what I can see, and handle, and understand. But as for believing in the antipodes, or that the earth is round, or that Columbus has discovered land to the west,--Ring the bell, sir; call my carriage; I will go to the palace and undeceive the king. * * * * * LESSON CV. HAR' BIN GER, forerunner; precursor. UN PIL' LAR ED, unsupported by pillars. UN YIELDING, stubborn. DE CREES', edicts; laws. HAL' LOW ED, sacred; consecrated. MOLD' ER ING, decaying. TWO HUNDRED YEARS AGO, GRENVILLE MULLEN. 1. Wake your harp's music!--louder,--higher, And pour your strains along; And smite again each quivering wire, In all the pride of song! (f.)Shout like those godlike men of old, Who, daring storm and foe, On this blessed soil their anthem rolled, TWO HUNDRED YEARS AGO! 2. From native shores by tempests driven, They sought a purer sky; And found, beneath a milder heaven, _The home of Liberty!_ An altar rose,--and prayers,--a ray Broke on their night of woe,-- The harbinger of Freedom's day, TWO HUNDRED YEARS AGO! 3. They clung around that symbol too, Their refuge and their all; And swore, while skies and waves were blue, That altar should not fall! They stood upon the red man's sod, 'Neath heaven's unpillared bow, With home,--a country, and a God,-- TWO HUNDRED YEARS AGO! 4. Oh! 'twas a hard, unyielding fate That drove them to the seas; And Persecution strove with Hate, To darken her decrees: But safe, above each coral grave, Each booming ship did go,-- A God was on the western wave,-- TWO HUNDRED YEARS AGO! 5. They knelt them on the desert sand, By waters cold and rude, Alone upon the dreary strand Of oceaned solitude! They looked upon the high, blue air, And felt their spirits glow, Resolved to live or perish there,-- TWO HUNDRED YEARS AGO! 6. The warrior's red right arm was bared, His eyes flashed deep and wild: Was there a foreign footstep dared To seek his home and child'? The dark chiefs yelled alarm, and swore The white man's blood should flow, And his hewn bones should bleach their shore, TWO HUNDRED YEARS AGO! 7. But lo! the warrior's eye grew dim,-- His arm was left alone; The still, black wilds which sheltered him, No longer were his own! Time fled,--and on the hallowed ground His highest pine lies low,-- And cities swell where forests frowned, TWO HUNDRED YEARS AGO! 8. Oh! stay not to recount the tale,-- 'Twas bloody, and 'tis past; The firmest cheek might well grow pale, To hear it to the last. The God of Heaven who prospers us, Could bid a nation grow, And shield us from the red man's curse,-- TWO HUNDRED YEARS AGO! 9. Come, then,--great shades of glorious men, From your still glorious grave! Look on your own proud land again, O bravest of the brave! We call you from each mouldering tomb, And each blue wave below, To bless the world ye snatched from doom, TWO HUNDRED YEARS AGO! 10. Then to your harps!--yet louder,--higher And pour your strains along; And smite again each quivering wire, In all the pride of song! (f.)Shout for those godlike men of old, Who, daring storm and foe, On this blessed soil their anthem rolled, TWO HUNDRED YEARS AGO! QUESTIONS.--1. Who are meant by _godlike men of old_? 2. Why did they flee to this country? 3. Who warred against them? * * * * * LESSON CVI. SE RENE' LY, calmly; quietly. SUR MOUNT', rise above; overcome. TRAMP, tread, or travel. EB' ON, black, as ebony. GUARD' I AN, defender; protector. CHIV' AL RIC, brave; heroic. MAIL, defensive armor. EX ALT', lift up. FRAIL' TY, weakness. BLIGHT' ED, blasted. RE NOWN', fame; celebrity. STEAD' FAST, firm; resolute. IN TER VENE', (INTER, _between_; VENE, _to come_;) come between; interpose. SUC CEED', (SUC, _after;_ CEED, _to come;_) come after; follow. PRESS ON. PARK BENJAMIN. 1. _Press on!_ there's no such word as fail! Press nobly on! the goal is near,-- Ascend the mountain! breast the gale! Look upward, onward,--never fear! Why shouldst thou faint? Heaven smiles above, Though storms and vapor intervene; That Sun shines on, whose name is Love, Serenely o'er Life's shadowed scene. 2. _Press on!_ surmount the rocky steeps, Climb boldly o'er the torrent's arch: He fails alone who feebly creeps; He wins, who dares the hero's march. Be thou a hero! let thy might Tramp on eternal snows its way, And, through the ebon walls of night, Hew down a passage unto day. 3. _Press on!_ if once and twice thy feet Slip back and stumble, harder try; From him who never dreads to meet Danger and death, they're sure to fly. To coward ranks the bullet speeds; While on their breasts who never quail, Gleams, guardian of chivalric deeds, Bright courage, like a coat of mail. 4. _Press on_! if Fortune play thee false To-day, to-morrow she'll be true; Whom now she sinks she now exalts, Taking old gifts and granting new. The wisdom of the present hour Makes up her follies past and gone: To weakness strength succeeds, and power From frailty springs;--_press on_! PRESS ON! 5. _Press on_! what though upon the ground Thy love has been poured out like rain? That happiness is always found The sweetest, which is born of pain. Oft 'mid the forest's deepest glooms, A bird sings from some blighted tree, And, in the dreariest desert, blooms A never-dying rose for thee. 6. Therefore, _press on_! and reach the goal, And gain the prize, and wear the crown: Faint not! for, to the steadfast soul, Come wealth, and honor, and renown. To thine own self be true, and keep Thy mind from sloth, thy heart from soil; _Press on_! and thou shalt surely reap A heavenly harvest for thy toil! QUESTIONS.--1. What encouragement is given to those who press on? 2. Who fails, and who wins? 3. What is said of those who never dread to meet danger and death? 4. How are they rewarded, who press on? * * * * * LESSON CVII. EX PAND, develop; enlarge. EL E VATE, raise; dignify. VAR RI A BLE, changeable. PHAN TAS MA GO' RIA, magic lantern; illusive representations. UN' DU LA TING, waving; irregular. MO BIL'I TY, movableness; readiness to move. DO' CILE, teachable; obedient. CE LES' TIAL, heavenly. DIS' SI PATES, scatters, or confuses. IN FIN' I TY, boundlessness. GYM NAS' TIC, athletic exercise. O PAC' I TY, state of being opaque or dark. PA THET' IC, feeling; tender. IN DOM' I TA BLE, unconquerable. CO-OP' ER ATE, work with; join with. MOUNT PER' DU, one of the high summits of the Pyrenees mountains, in Spain. The name signifies "Lost Mountain;" in allusion, probably, to its peak being lost in the clouds. THE THREE FORMS OF NATURE. FROM THE FRENCH OF MICHELET. 1. There are three forms of Nature, which especially command and elevate our souls, release her from her heavy clay and earthly limits, and send her, exulting, to sail amidst the wonders and mysteries of the Infinite. _First_, there is the unstable _Ocean of Air_ with its glorious banquet of light, its vapors, its twilight, and its shifting phantasmagoria of capricious creatures, coming into existence only to depart the next instant. 2. _Second_, there is the fixed _Ocean of the Earth_, its undulating and vast waves, as we see them from the tops of "the earth o'er gazing mountains," the elevations which testify to antique mobility, and the sublimity of its mightier mountain-tops, clad in eternal snows. _Third_, there is the _Ocean of Waters_, less mobile than air, less fixed than earth, but liable, in its movements, to the celestial bodies. 3. _These three things_ form the gamut by which the Infinite speaks to our souls. Nevertheless, let us point out some very notable differences. The _Air-ocean_ is so mobile that we can scarcely examine it. It deceives; it decoys; it diverts; it dissipates, and breaks up our chain of thought. 4. For an instant, it is an immense hope, the day of all infinity; anon, it is not so; all flies from before us, and our hearts are grieved, agitated, and filled with doubt. Why have I been permitted to see for a moment that immense flood of light? The memory of that brief gleaming must ever abide with me, and that memory makes all things here on earth look dark. 5. The _fixed Ocean of the mountains_ is not thus transient or fugitive; on the contrary, it stops us at every step, and imposes upon us the necessity of a very hard, though wholesome gymnastic. Contemplation here has to be bought at the price of the most violent action. Nevertheless, the opacity of the earth, like the transparency of the air, frequently deceives and bewilders us. Who can forget that for ten years, Ramon, in vain, sought to reach Mount Perdu though often within sight of it? 6. Great, _very great_, is the difference between the elements; the earth is mute and the ocean speaks. The ocean is a voice. It speaks to the distant stars; it answers to their movements in its deep and solemn language. It speaks to the earth on the shores, replying to the echoes that reply again; by turns wailing, soothing, threatening--its deepest roar is presently succeeded by a sad, pathetic silence. 7. And it especially addresses itself to man. It is creation's living eloquence. It is Life speaking to Life. The millions, the countless myriads of beings to which it gives birth, are its words. All these, mingled together make the unity, the great and solemn voice of the ocean. And "what are those wild waves saying?" They are talking of _Life,--of Immortality._ 8. An indomitable strength is at the bottom of Nature--how much more so at Nature's summit, the Soul! And it speaks of partnership, of union. Let us accept the swift exchange which, in the individual, exists between the diverse elements; let us accept the superior Law which unites the living members of the same body--Humanity; and, still more, let us accept and respect the supreme Law which makes us co-operate with the great Soul, associated as we are--in proportion with our powers--with the loving harmony of the world--copartners in the life of God. QUESTIONS.--1. What are three great forms of Nature? 2. What is said of the Air-ocean? 3. How does the Ocean address itself to man? * * * * * LESSON CVIII. MO NOP' O LIZED, engrossed. CEL' E BRA TED, praised; talked of. PO' TENT LY, powerfully. MAR' I TIME, pertaining to sea. SA GAC' I TY, acuteness. IN TRE PID' I TY, daring valor. SAN' GUINE, bloody; cruel. EC CEN TRIC' I TY, peculiarity, oddity. WA' RI NESS, cautiousness. ED' I BLE, eatable. E MAN' CI PA TED, freed; liberated. IN TER ME' DI ATE, lying between. DEV AS TA TING, laying waste. DOUB' LE, sail around. [Headnote 1: BASQUES, (_basks_), an ancient and peculiar people, living on the slopes of the Pyrenees Mountains.] [Headnote 2: BRE' TON, a native of Brittany, an ancient province in France.] [Headnote 3: NOR' MAN, that is, Northman, a name given to the ancient inhabitants of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden, and afterward to their descendants who settled in the north of France.] THE WHALE AND THE WHALER. FROM THE FRENCH OF MICHELET. 1. Who opened up to men the great distant navigation? Who revealed the ocean, and marked out its zones and its liquid highways? Who discovered the secrets of the globe? _The Whale and the Whaler!_ And all this before Columbus and the famous gold-seekers, who have monopolized all the glory, found again, with much outcry about their discovery, what had so long before been discovered by the whalers. 2. That crossing of the ocean, which was so boastfully celebrated in the fifteenth century, had often been made, not only by the narrow passage between Iceland and Greenland, but, also, by the open sea; for the Basques [Headnote 1] went to Newfoundland. The smallest danger was the mere voyage; for these men, who went to the very end of the _then_ known world, to challenge the whale to single combat, to steer right away into the Northern sea, to attack the mighty monster, amid darkness and storms, with the dense fog all around, and the foaming waves below,--those who could do this, were not the men to shrink from the ordinary dangers of the voyage. 3. Noble warfare! Great school of courage! That fishery was not _then_, as it is _now_, an easy war to wage, made from a distance, and with a potently murderous machine. No; the fisher then struck with his own strong hand, impelled and guided by his own fearless heart, and he risked life to take life. The men of that day killed but few whales; but they gained infinitely in maritime ability, in patience, in sagacity, and in intrepidity. They brought back _less_ of oil; but _more, far more_ of glory. 4. Every nation has its own peculiar genius. We recognize each by its own style of procedure. There are a hundred forms of courage, and these graduated varieties formed, as it were, another heroic game. At the North, the Scandinavian, the rude race from Norway to Flanders, had their sanguine fury. At the South, the wild burst, the gay daring, the clear-headed excitement, that impelled, at once, and guided them over the world. In the center, the silent and patient firmness of the Breton [Headnote 2], who yet, in the hour of danger, could display a quite sublime eccentricity. And, lastly, the Norman [Headnote 3] wariness, considerately courageous; daring all, but daring all for success. Such was the beauty of man, in that sovereign manifestation of human courage. 5. We owe a vast deal to the whale. But for it, the fishers would still have hugged the shore; for, almost every edible fish seeks the shore and the river. It was the whale that emancipated them, and led them afar. It led them onward, and onward still, until they found it, after having almost unconsciously passed from one world to the other. Greenland did not seduce them; it was not _the land_ that they sought; but _the sea, and the tracks of the whale_. 6. The ocean at large is its home, and _especially_ the broad and open sea. Each species has its especial preference for this or that latitude,--for a certain zone of water, more or less cold. And it was _that_ preference which traced out the great divisions of the Atlantic. The tribe of inferior whales, that have a dorsal fin, are to be found in the warmest and in the coldest seas,--under the line and in the polar seas. 7. In the great intermediate region, the fierce Cachalot inclines toward the south, devastating the warm waters. On the contrary, the Free Whale fears the warm waters,--we should rather say, that they did, formerly, fear them,--they have become so scarce. They are never found in the warm southern current; it is _that_ fact that led to the current being noticed, and thence to the discovery of the _true course from America to Europe_. From Europe to America, the trade winds will serve us. 8. If the Free Whale has a perfect horror of the warm waters, and can not pass the equator, it is clear that he can not double the southern end of America. How happens it, then, that when he is wounded on one side of America, in the Atlantic, he is sometimes found on the other side of America, and in the Pacific? _It proves that there is a north-western passage_. Another discovery which we owe to the whale, and one which throws a broad light alike on the form of the globe, and the geography of the seas! 9. By degrees, the whale has led us everywhere. Rare as he is at present, he has led us to both poles, from the uttermost recesses of the Pacific to Behring's Strait, and the infinite wastes of the Antarctic waters. There is even an enormous region that no vessel, whether war-ship or merchantman, ever traverses, at a few degrees beyond the southern points of America and Africa. No one visits that region but the whaler. QUESTIONS.--1. What has been done by the whaler? 2. By whom had Newfoundland been discovered? 3. What is said of the courage of the whaler? 4. What proof is given that there is a north-western passage, by water, from the Atlantic to the Pacific? * * * * * LESSON CIX. THRALL' DOM, bondage; slavery. IG NO' BLE, mean; degraded. HORDE, clan; tribe. FEUD' AL, pertaining to military tenure. DES' POTS, tyrants. PAL' TRY, mean; contemptible. RAP' INE,(_rapin;_) plunder; violence. FOR SOOTH', in truth; in fact. RUF' FIAN, robber; cut-throat. SERV' ILE, slavish; cringing. LIM' NERS, painters. DIS CI' PLE, learner; follower. CORSE, corpse; dead body. BRAWL, wrangle; contention. DIS TAIN' ED, sullied; stained. ECH' O ED, resounded. RIENZI'S ADDRESS TO THE ROMANS. [Footnote: RI EN' ZI, the last of the Roman Tribunes, was born in Rome about the year 1310. He was assassinated Oct. 8th, 1354 He was a person of extraordinary eloquence. In his day, Rome was a prey to contending factions of nobles. This kept the city in constant turmoil, and subjected the people to continual abuse and tyranny. It was the endeavor of Rienzi to arouse them to a resolution to be free.] MISS MITFORD. 1. Friends! I come not here to _talk_. You know too well The story of our thralldom. We are _slaves!_ The bright sun rises to his course, and lights A race of _slaves!_ He sets, and his last beam Falls on a _slave_: not such as, swept along By the full tide of power, the conqueror leads To crimson glory and undying fame; _But base, ignoble slaves!_ slaves to a horde Of petty tyrants, feudal despots, lords, Rich in some dozen paltry villages; Strong in some hundred spearmen; only great In that strange spell,--_a name_. 2. Each hour, dark fraud, Or open rapine, or protected murder, Cries out against them. But this very day, An honest man, my neighbor,--there he stands, Was struck, _struck_ like a dog, by one who wore The badge of Ursini; because, forsooth, He tossed not high his ready cap in air, Nor lifted up his voice in servile shouts, At sight of that great ruffian! 3. (f.) Be we _men_, And suffer such dishonor'? MEN, and wash not The stain away in blood'? Such shames are common! I have known deeper wrongs. I, that speak to ye, I had a brother once, a gracious boy, Full of gentleness, of calmest hope, Of sweet and quiet joy; there was the look Of heaven upon his face, which limners give To the beloved disciple! 4. How I loved That gracious boy! Younger by fifteen years, Brother at once, and son! He left my side, A summer bloom on his fair cheek,--a smile Parting his innocent lips. In one short hour, That pretty, harmless boy was slain! (_p_.) I saw The corse, the mangled corse, and then I cried For vengeance! (_ff_.) _Rouse ye, Romans!_--ROUSE YE, SLAVES! Have ye brave sons? Look in the next fierce brawl To see them die! Have ye fair daughters? Look To see them live, torn from your arms, distained, Dishonored; and if ye dare call for justice, Be answered by the lash! 5. Yet this is Rome, That sat on her seven hills, and, from her throne Of beauty, ruled the world! Yet we are Romans! Why, in that elder day, to be a Roman, Was greater than a king! And once again,-- Hear me, ye walls, that echoed to the tread Of either Brutus! Once again I swear, The eternal city shall be free! QUESTIONS.--1. In what condition did the writer say the Roman people were? 2. What wrongs are complained of? 3. What special cases are mentioned? 4. What are the people exhorted to do? 5. What is the meaning of the suffix _dom_, in the word _thralldom?_ See ANALYSIS, page 142, Ex. 189. 6. What is the meaning of the suffix _less_, in the word _harmless?_ See page 140, Ex. 187. 7. How, according to the notation mark, should the first part of the third verse be read? 8. What rule for the rising inflections, third verse? See page 28, Rule I. * * * * * LESSON CX. MUL' TI PLY, increase; continue. COL'TER, part of the plow that cuts the sod. GE' NI AL, productive. BE NIG' NANT, kind; bounteous. SAUN' TER ING, loitering. WOOD' BINE, honeysuckle. RE SPLEN DENT, splendid, beautiful. PO' TENT, powerful. ROAD' STEAD, place where ships may anchor. RE LI' ANT, trusting; depending. PES TI LEN' TIAL, infectious; noxious. PER PET' U AL, continual. STER' ILE, barren. [Headnote 1: LE ON' I DAS, the celebrated Spartan leader who, with three hundred men, perished in the effort to resist the Persian hosts, at the mountain pass of Thermopylae, (B.C., 480.)] [Headnote 2: MARS' TON, that is, Marston Moor, a place in Yorkshire, England, memorable for the defeat of Charles I., (in 1644,) by the forces of Cromwell and others.] [Headnote 3: BAN' NOCK BURN, a village in Stirlingshire, Scotland, famous for the battle between the patriots, under Robert Bruce, and the English invading army, under Edward II., fought, June 25, 1314.] [Headnote 4: AR MA' DA, a great naval armament sent by Philip II. of Spain, in 1588, for the conquest of England. It failed utterly, however, of its object, having been scattered and disabled by violent storms.] SONG OF THE FORGE. 1. Clang! clang! the massive anvils ring,-- Clang! clang! a hundred hammers swing, Like the thunder-rattle of a tropic sky, The mighty blows still multiply: Clang! clang! Say, brothers of the dusky brow, What are your strong arms forging now? 2. Clang! clang!--we forge the _colter_ now-- The colter of the kindly plow; Benignant Father, bless our toil; May its broad furrow still unbind To genial rains, to sun and wind, The most productive soil! 3. Clang! clang!--our colter's course shall be On many a sweet and sunny lea, By many a streamlet's silver tide, Amidst the song of morning birds, Amidst the low of sauntering herds, Amidst soft breezes which do stray Through woodbine-hedges and sweet May, Along the green hill's side. 4. When regal Autumn's bounteous hand, With wide-spread glory clothes the land,-- When, to the valleys, from the brow Of each resplendent slope, is rolled A ruddy sea of living gold, We bless,--we bless the PLOW. 5. Clang! clang!--again, my mates, what glows Beneath the hammer's potent blows? Clink! clank!--we forge the _giant chain_, Which bears the gallant vessel's strain, 'Midst stormy winds and adverse tides; Secured by this, the good ship braves The rocky roadstead and the waves Which thunder on her sides. 6. Anxious no more, the merchant sees The mist drive dark before the breeze. The storm-cloud on the hill; Calmly he rests, though, far away In boisterous climes, his vessel lay Reliant on our skill. 7. Say, on what sands these links shall sleep, Fathoms beneath the solemn deep`? By Afric's pestilential shore',-- By many an iceberg, lone and hoar',-- By many a palmy western isle, Basking in spring's perpetual smile',-- By stormy Labrador'? 8. Say, shall they feel the vessel reel, When, to the battery's deadly peal, The crashing broadside makes reply'? Or else, as at the glorious Nile, Hold grappling ships, that strive the while, For death or victory'? 9. _Hurrah!_--cling! clang!--once more, what glows, Dark brothers of the forge, beneath The iron tempest of your blows The furnace's fiery breath? 10. Clang! clang!--a burning torrent, clear And brilliant, of bright sparks is poured Around and up in the dusky air, As our hammers forge the SWORD. 11. The _sword!_ a name of dread; yet when Upon the freeman's thigh 'tis bound, While for his altar and his hearth,-- While for the land that gave him birth, The war-drums roll, the trumpets sound, How _sacred_ is it then! 12. Whenever for the truth and right It flashes in the van of fight, Whether in some wild mountain pass As that where fell Leonidas [Headnote 1]; Or on some sterile plain and stern, A Marston [Headnote 2] or a Bannockburn [Headnote 3]; Or, mid fierce crags and bursting rills, The Switzer's Alps, gray Tyrol's hills,-- Or, as when sunk the Armada's [Headnote 4] pride, It gleams above the stormy tide,-- Still, still, whene'er the battle word Is LIBERTY, when men do stand For _justice_ and their _native land_, Then Heaven bless THE SWORD! QUESTIONS.--1. What things are mentioned as being forged? 2. What is said of the colter? 3. What, of the iron cable? 4. What, of the sword? * * * * * LESSON CXI. BEN E FAC' TION, gift; favor. E LATE', flushed with success. IN HER' ENT, natural. PER FEC' TION, excellence. VIG' ILS, watchfulness. UN BRIB' ED, not influenced by gifts. CON SO LA' TION, comfort. AV' E NUE, way; entrance. A TROC' I TIES, enormities. MOCK' ER Y, derision; ridicule. FAC' UL TIES, powers of the mind. CA PAC' I TIES, abilities. CHOICE EXTRACTS. I. SWIFTNESS OF TIME. IDLER. Let him that desires to see others happy, make haste to give while his gift can be enjoyed, and remember that every moment of delay takes away something from the value of his benefaction. And let him who proposes his own happiness, reflect, that while he forms his purpose, the days roll on, and "the night cometh when no man can work." II. THE SHIP OF STATE. LONGFELLOW. Thou, too, sail on, O Ship of State! Sail on, O Union, strong and great! Humanity, with all its fears, With all the hopes of future years, Is hanging breathless on thy fate! We know what Master laid thy keel, What workmen wrought thy ribs of steel, Who made each mast, and sail, and rope, What anvils rang, what hammers beat, In what a forge, and what a heat, Were shaped the anchors of thy hope. III. THE TRUE HERO. HORACE BUSHNELL. The true hero is the great, wise man of duty,--he whose soul is armed by truth and supported by the smile of God,--he who meets life's perils with a cautious but tranquil spirit, gathers strength by facing its storms, and dies, if he is called to die, as a Christian victor at the post of duty. And, if we must have heroes, and wars wherein to make them, there is none so brilliant as a war with wrong,--no hero so fit to be sung as he who hath gained the bloodless victory of truth and mercy. IV. HEART ESSENTIAL TO GENIUS. W.G. SIMMS. We are not always equal to our fate, Nor true to our conditions. Doubt and fear Beset the bravest, in their high career, At moments when the soul, no more elate With expectation, sinks beneath the time. The masters have their weakness. "I would climb," Said Raleigh, gazing on the highest hill,-- "But that I tremble with the fear to fall." Apt was the answer of the high-souled queen: "If thy heart fail thee, never climb at all!" The heart! if that be sound, confirms the rest, Crowns genius with his lion will and mien, And, from the conscious virtue in the breast, To trembling nature gives both strength and will. V. EDUCATION. ADDISON. I consider a human soul without education, like marble in the quarry, which shows none of its inherent beauties until the skill of the polisher fetches out the colors, makes the surface shine, and discovers every ornamental cloud, spot, and vein that runs through the body of it. Education, after the same manner, when it works upon a noble mind, draws out every latent virtue and perfection, which, without such helps, are never able to make their appearance. VI. THE VANITY OF WEALTH. DR. JOHNSON. No more thus brooding o'er yon heap, With av'rice painful vigils keep; Still unenjoyed the present store, Still endless sighs are breathed for more. Oh! quit the shadow, catch the prize, Which not all India's treasure buys! To purchase Heaven has gold the power'? Can gold remove the mortal hour? In life, can love be bought with gold? Are friendship's pleasures to be sold? No; all that's worth a wish--a thought, Fair Virtue gives unbribed, unbought. Cease then on trash thy hopes to bind; Let _nobler views_ engage thy mind. VII. CONSOLATION OF THE GOSPEL. A. ALEXANDER. Oh, precious gospel! Will any merciless hand endeavor to tear away from our hearts, this last, this sweetest consolation? Would you darken the only avenue through which one ray of hope can enter? Would you tear from the aged and infirm poor the only prop on which their souls can repose in peace? Would you deprive the dying of their only source of consolation? Would you rob the world of its richest treasure? Would you let loose the flood-gates of every vice, and bring back upon the earth the horrors of superstition, or the atrocities of atheism? Then endeavor to subvert the gospel; throw around you the firebrands of infidelity; laugh at religion, and make a mockery of futurity; but be assured that for all these things, God will bring you into judgment. VIII. THE LIGHT OF HOPE. O.W.B. PEABODY. 1. Oh, who that has gazed, in the stillness of even, On the fast-fading hues of the west, Has seen not afar, in the bosom of heaven, Some bright little mansion of rest, And mourned that the path to a region so fair Should be shrouded with sadness and fears;-- That the night-winds of sorrow, misfortune, and care, Should sweep from the deep-rolling waves of despair, To darken this cold world of tears? 2. And who that has gazed, has not longed for an hour, When misfortune forever shall cease; And Hope, like the rainbow, unfold, through the shower, Her bright-written promise of peace? And, oh! if that rainbow of promise may shine On the last scene of life's wint'ry gloom, May its light in the moment of parting be mine; I ask but one ray from a source so divine, To brighten the vale of the tomb. IX. PAMPERING THE BODY AND STARVING THE SOUL. EDWARD EVERETT. 1. What`! feed a child's body, and let his soul hunger'? pamper his limbs, and starve his faculties'? Plant the earth, cover a thousand hills with your droves of cattle, pursue the fish to their hiding-places in the sea, and spread out your wheat-fields across the plain, in order to supply the wants of that body which will soon be as cold and as senseless as the poorest clod, and let the pure spiritual essence within you, with all its glorious capacities for improvement, languish and pine'? 2. What`! build factories, turn in rivers upon the water-wheels, unchain the imprisoned spirits of steam, to weave a garment for the body, and let the soul remain unadorned and naked'? What`! send out your vessels to the furthest ocean, and make battle with the monsters of the deep, in order to obtain the means of lighting up your dwellings and workshops, and prolonging the hours of labor for the meat that perisheth, and permit that vital spark, which God has kindled, which He has intrusted to our care, to be fanned into a bright and heavenly flame,--permit it, I say, to languish and go out'? 3. What considerate man can enter a school, and not reflect, with awe, that it is a seminary where immortal minds are training for eternity'? What parent but is, at times, weighed down with the thought, that _there_ must be laid the foundations of a building which will stand, when not merely temple and palace, but the perpetual hills and adamantine rocks on which they rest, have melted away`!--that a light may _there_ be kindled which will shine, not merely when every artificial beam is extinguished, but when the affrighted sun has fled away from the heavens`? * * * * * LESSON CXII. FRUIT' AGE, collection of fruits. WAX' ES, grows; increases. JU' BI LANT, joyous. TINGE, imbue. GLO' RI FI ED, exalted to glory. UN WA' RY, incautious. FAM' ISH ED, afflicted with hunger. BAN' ISH ED, driven out; expelled. RE NEW' ED, made new again. MA TUR' ING, ripening. VINT' AGE, produce of the vine. DIS LOY' AL TY, unfaithfulness. BE QUEATH' ED, left by inheritance. CON SID' ER ATE, thoughtful. RE VIV' I FY, (RE, _again_; VIV, _live_; IFY, _to make_;) to make alive again, to bring to life; renew. WE ALL DO FADE AS A LEAF. GAIL HAMILTON. 1. "_We all do fade as a leaf_." Change is the essence of life. "Passing away," is written on all things; and passing away is passing on from strength to strength, from glory to glory. Spring has its growth, summer its fruitage, and autumn its festive in-gathering. The spring of eager preparation waxes into the summer of noble work; mellowing in its turn into the serene autumn, the golden-brown haze of October, when the soul may robe itself in jubilant drapery, awaiting the welcome command, "Come up higher," where mortality shall be swallowed up in life. 2. Why, then, should autumn tinge our thoughts with sadness. We fade as the leaf, and the leaf fades only to revivify. Though it fall, it shall rise again. Does the bud fear to become a blossom, or the blossom shudder as it swells into fruit; and shall the redeemed weep that they must become glorified'? Strange inconsistency`! We faint with the burden and the heat of the day. We bow down under the crosses that are laid upon our shoulders. We are bruised and torn by the snares and pitfalls which beset our way, and into which our unwary feet often fall. 3. We are famished, and foot-sore, and travel-stained, from our long journey, and yet we are saddened by tokens that we shall pass away from all these,--away from sin and sorrow, from temptation and fall, from disappointment, and weary waiting, and a fearful looking-for of evil, to purity and holiness, and the full fruition of every hope,--bliss which eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, nor heart conceived,--to a world whence all that made this dreary is forever banished, and where all that made this delightful is forever renewed and increased,--a world where the activities and energies of the soul shall have full scope, and love and recognition wait upon its steps forever. 4. Let him alone fear, who does not fade as the leaf,--him whose sources are not in God, and who does not draw his life thence,--him whose spring is gathering no strength, whose summer is maturing no fruit, and whose autumn shall have no vintage. Is not this the real sorrow of us all? not a dread of change, but a secret consciousness of wasted power,--of disloyalty to God, as the supreme object of our love and service. 5. Yet even here the fading leaf brings hope. Our future is always before us. The past is fixed. No tears can wash away its facts. Let us waste no vain regrets upon it; but, from the wisdom which its very mistakes and sins have bequeathed us, start afresh on the race. Though yesterday we were weak, and selfish, and indolent, let us to-day--at this moment--begin to be strong, and brave, and helpful, and just, and generous, and considerate, and tender, and truthful, and pure, and patient, and forgiving. "Now" is a glorious word. "HENCEFORTH" is always within our grasp. QUESTIONS.--1. To what are we compared? 2. What is said of change? 3. What change takes place in the leaf? 4. What, in man? 5. Who have reason to fear? 6. What is said of the past and the future? * * * * * LESSON CXIII. UN HEED' ED, not regarded. EX POS' ED, unprotected. EX HORT' ED, urged; persuaded. AT TUN' ED, put in tune. ES SEN' TIAL, real; true. AN NOUNC' ED, proclaimed. TEACHINGS OF NATURE. POLLOCK. 1. The seasons came and went, and went and came, To teach men gratitude; and, as they passed, Gave warning of the lapse of time, that else Had stolen unheeded by: the gentle flowers Retired, and, stooping o'er the wilderness, Talked of humility, and peace, and love. The dews came down unseen at evening tide. And silently their bounties shed, to teach Mankind unostentatious charity. 2. With arm in arm the forest rose on high, And lesson gave of brotherly regard; And, on the rugged mountain brow exposed, Bearing the blast alone, the ancient oak Stood, lifting high his mighty arm, and still To courage in distress exhorted loud. The flocks, the herds, the birds, the streams, the breeze, Attuned the heart to melody and love. 3. Mercy stood in the cloud, with eye that wept Essential love; and, from her glorious brow, Bending to kiss the earth in token of peace, With her own lips, her gracious lips, which God Of sweetest accent made, she whispered still, She whispered to Revenge, Forgive! forgive! 4. The Sun, rejoicing round the earth, announced Daily the wisdom, power, and love of God. The Moon awoke, and, from her maiden face Shedding her cloudy locks, looked meekly forth, And, with her virgin stars, walked in the heavens,-- Walked nightly there, conversing as she walked Of purity, and holiness, and God. 5. In dreams and visions, sleep instructed much. Day uttered speech to day, and night to night Taught knowledge: silence had a tongue: the grave, The darkness, and the lonely waste, had each A tongue, that ever said, Man! think of God! Think of thyself! think of eternity! 6. Fear God, the thunders said; Fear God, the waves; Fear God, the lightning of the storm replied; Fear God, deep loudly answered back to deep. And, in the temples of the Holy One, Messiah's messengers, the faithful few, Faithful 'mong many false, the Bible opened, And cried: Repent! repent, ye Sons of Men! Believe, be saved. QUESTIONS.--1. What do the seasons teach? 2. What, the trees? 3. What, the sun and moon? 4. What, Messiah's messengers? * * * * * LESSON CXIV. BE DECK' ED, adorned. AR RAY', dress; attire. MAN' TLED, spread; rushed. DE VO' TION, attachment. I DOL A TROUS, excessive. SEV' ER ED, rent; sundered. EN CIR' CLED, inclosed; surrounded. SA' BLES, mourning clothes. GIFT' ED, talented. FOUND ED, established. AL LURE', (AL, _to_; LURE, _draw_;) draw to; entice. PASSING UNDER THE ROD. [Footnote: These lines are founded on the following passage of Jewish history:--"It was the custom of the Jews to select the tenth of their sheep after this manner: The lambs were separated from their dams, and inclosed in a sheep-cot, with only one narrow way out; the lambs hastened to join the dams, and a man, placed at the entrance, with a rod dipped in ocher, touched every tenth lamb, and so marked it with his rod, saying, 'LET THIS BE HOLY.' Hence, God says by his prophet, '_I will cause you to pass under the rod_.'"] MARY S.B. DANA. 1. I saw the young bride, in her beauty and pride, Bedecked in her snowy array; And the bright flush of joy mantled high on her cheek, And the future looked blooming and gay: And with a woman's devotion she laid her fond heart At the shrine of idolatrous love; And she anchored her hopes to this perishing earth, By the chain which her tenderness wove. But I saw, when those heartstrings were bleeding and torn, And the chain had been severed in two, She had changed her white robes for the sables of grief, And her bloom for the paleness of woe! But the Healer was there, pouring balm on her heart, And wiping the tears from her eyes; And He strengthened the chain He had broken in twain, And fastened it firm to the skies! There had whispered a voice,--'twas the voice of her God: "I love thee--I love thee--_pass under the rod!_" 2. I saw the young mother in tenderness bend O'er the couch of her slumbering boy; And she kissed the soft lips as they murmured her name, While the dreamer lay smiling in joy. Oh, sweet as the rose-bud encircled with dew, When its fragrance is flung on the air, So fresh and so bright to that mother he seemed, As he lay in his innocence there. But I saw when she gazed on the same lovely form, Pale as marble, and silent, and cold, But paler and colder her beautiful boy, And the tale of her sorrow was told! But the Healer was there, who had stricken her heart, And taken her treasure away; To allure her to heaven, He has placed it on high, And the mourner will sweetly obey. There had whispered a voice,--'twas the voice of her God: "I love thee--I love thee--_pass under the rod!_" 3. I saw, too, a father and mother who leaned On the arms of a dear gifted son; And the star in the future grew bright to their gaze, As they saw the proud place he had won; And the fast coming evening of life promised fair, And its pathway grew smooth to their feet, And the starlight of love glimmered bright at the end, And the whispers of fancy were sweet. And I saw them again, bending low o'er the grave, Where their hearts' dearest hope had been laid; And the star had gone down in the darkness of night, And the joy from their bosoms had fled. But the Healer was there, and His arms were around, And He led them with tenderest care; And He showed them a star in the bright upper world, 'Twas their star shining brilliantly there! They had each heard a voice,--'twas the voice of their God: "I love thee--I love thee--_pass under the rod_!" QUESTIONS.--1. What custom is alluded to, in the passage "_I will cause you to pass under the rod?_" See note. 2. Where is that passage found in the Scriptures? Ans. Ezekiel, 20th chap., 37th verse. 3. What instances are mentioned of individuals "_passing under the rod_?" * * * * * LESSON CXV. PET' U LANT, cross; fretful. CA LAM' I TY, misfortune. SA TIR' IC AL, keenly severe; cutting. NUI' SANCE, annoyance. JUST' I FY, give a right to. STU PID' I TY, extreme dullness. CUL' PABLE, blamable; censurable. IR RI TA BIL' I TY, excitableness. AP PEL LA' TION, name; title. VE' HE MENT, violent; furious. VO CIF ER A' TIONS, loud outcries. MEN' A CES, threats. CEN' SUR ED, blamed. VIN DI CA' TION, justification. LON GEV' I TY, length of life. CON TEMPT' I BLE, despicable. THE PETULANT MAN. OSBORNE. MR. GRIM--MICHAEL--COUSIN MARY. _Cousin Mary_. More breezes? What terrible thing has happened now, Cousin Grim? What's the matter? _Grim_. Matter enough, I should think! I sent this stupid fellow to bring me a pair of boots from the closet; and he has brought me two rights, instead of a right and left. _Cousin_. What a serious calamity! But, perhaps, he thought it was but _right_ to leave the _left_. _Grim_. None of your jokes, if you please. This is nothing to laugh at. _Cousin_. So it would seem, from the expression on your face,--rather something to storm at, roar at, and fall into a frenzy about. _Michael_. That's right, Miss; give him a piece of your mind! He's the crossest little man I have met with in the new country. You might scrape old Ireland with a fine-tooth comb, and not find such another. _Grim_. How dare you talk to me in that style? I'll discharge you this very day! _Michael_. I'm thinking of discharging _you_, if you don't take better care of that _sweet temper_ of yours. _Grim_. Leave the room, sir! _Michael_. That I will, in search of better company, saving the lady's presence. [_Exit._ _Grim_. There, cousin! there is a specimen of my provocations! Can you wonder at my losing my temper? _Cousin_. Cousin Grim, that would be the most _fortunate_ thing that could befall you. _Grim_. What do you mean? _Cousin_. I mean, if you could only _lose that temper_ of yours, it would be a blessed thing for you; though I should pity the poor fellow who _found it._ _Grim_. You are growing satirical in your old age, Cousin Mary. _Cousin_. Cousin Grim, hear the plain truth; your ill temper makes you a nuisance to yourself and every body about you. _Grim_. Really, Miss Mary Somerville, you are getting to be complimentary! _Cousin_. No; I am getting to be _candid_. I have passed a week in your house, on your invitation. I leave you this afternoon; but, before I go, I mean to speak my mind. _Grim_. It seems to me that you have spoken it rather freely already. _Cousin_. What was there, in the circumstance of poor Michael's bringing you the wrong boots, to justify your flying into a rage, and bellowing as if your life had been threatened? _Grim_. That fellow is perpetually making just such provoking blunders! _Cousin_. And do you never make provoking blunders'? Didn't you send me five pounds of Hyson tea, when I wrote for Souchong'? Didn't you send a carriage for me to the cars, half an hour too late, so that I had to hire one myself, after great trouble'? And did I roar at you, when we met, because you had done these things'? _Grim_. On the contrary, this is the first time you have alluded to them. I am sorry they should have happened. But surely you should make a _distinction_ between any such little oversight of mine, and the stupidity of a servant, hired to attend to your orders. _Cousin_. I do not admit that there should be a distinction. You are both human; only, as you have had the better education, and the greater advantages, stupidity or neglect on your part, is much the more culpable. _Grim_. Thank you! Go on. _Cousin_. I mean to; so don't be impatient. If an uncooked potato, or a burnt mutton-chop, happens to fall to your lot at the dinner-table, what a tempest follows! One would think you had been wronged, insulted, trampled on, driven to despair. Your face is like a thunder-cloud, all the rest of the meal. Your poor wife endeavors to hide her tears. Your children feel timid and miserable. Your guest feels as if she would like to see you held under the nose of the pump, and thoroughly ducked. _Grim_. The carriage is waiting for you, Miss Somerville, and the driver has put on your baggage. _Cousin_. I have hired that carriage by the hour, and so am in no hurry. Your excuse for your irritability will be, I suppose, that it is _constitutional_, and not to be controlled. A selfish, paltry, miserable excuse! I have turned down a leaf in Dr. Johnson's works, and will read what he says in regard to tempers like yours. _Grim_. You are always quoting Dr. Johnson! Cousin, I can not endure it! Dr. Johnson is a bore! _Cousin_. Oh, yes! to _evil-doers_,--but to none else. Hear him: "There is in the world a class of mortals known, and contentedly known, by the appellation of _passionate men_, who imagine themselves entitled, by this distinction, to be provoked on every slight occasion, and to vent their rage in vehement and fierce vociferations, in furious menaces, and licentious reproaches." _Grim_. That will do. _Cousin_. "Men of this kind," he tells us, "are often pitied rather than censured, and are not treated with the severity which their neglect of the ease of all about them, might justly provoke." But he adds: "It is surely not to be observed without indignation, that men may be found of minds mean enough to be satisfied with this treatment; wretches who are proud to obtain the privilege of madmen, and----" _Grim_. I will hear no more! Have done! _Cousin_. So the shaft went home! I am not sorry. _Grim_. No one but a meddlesome old maid would think of insulting a man in his own house. _Cousin_. So, when, at a loss for a vindication, you reproach me with being an old maid! Cousin, it does not distress me, either to be an old maid, or to be called one. I must, however, remark, that the manhood that can charge against a woman her single state, either as a matter of ridicule or reproach, is not quite up to my standard. _Grim_. Cousin Mary, I ask your pardon! But am I, indeed, the petulant, disagreeable fellow, you would make me out? _Cousin_. My dear Caspar, you are generous enough in large things; but, oh! consider that _trifles make up a good portion of the sum of life_; and so "_a small unkindness is a great offense_." Why not be cheerful, sunny, genial, in little things? Why not look on the bright side? Why not present an unruffled front to petty annoyances? Why not labor,--ay, labor,--to have those around you happy and contented, by reflecting from yourself such a frame of mind upon them? Life is short, at the best; why not make it cheerful? Do you know that longevity is promoted by a tranquil, happy habit of thought and temper'? Do you know that cheerfulness, like mercy, is twice blessed; blessing "him that gives, and him that takes'?" Do you know that good manners, as well as good sense, demand that we should look at objects on their bright side'? Do you know that it is contemptible selfishness in you to shed gloom and sorrow over a whole family by your moroseness and ill-humor'? _Grim_. Cousin Mary, the patience with which I have listened to your cutting remarks, will prove to you, I hope, that, notwithstanding my angry retorts, I am convinced there is much truth in what you have said of me. I have a favor to ask. Send away your carriage; stay a week longer,--a month,--a year, if you will. Hold the lash over this ugly temper of mine,--and I give you my word that I will set about the cure of it in earnest. _Cousin_. You should have begun earlier,--in youth, when the temper is pliable, and strong impressions can work great changes. But we will not despair. I will tarry with you a while, just to see if you are serious in your wish for a reformation, and to help you bring it about. _Grim_. Thank you. We hear of reformed drunkards, and reformed thieves; and _why may not a petulant temper be reformed_, but a system of total abstinence from all harsh, unkind moods and expressions? Come, we will try. QUESTIONS.--1. At what was Mr. Grim offended? 2. What did Cousin Mary say would be fortunate for him? 3. What blunder had Mr. Grim made? 4. How did he often behave at the table? 5. What does Dr. Johnson say of such men? 6. What did Cousin Mary finally say to him? 7. Of what was he convinced? 8. What did he resolve to do? * * * * * LESSON CXVI. SAC' RI FICE, religious offering. STRAIGHT, immediately. SCUR' VY, low; mean. SCRU' PLE, hesitate. EN DURE', suffer'; tolerate. IM PURE, filthy; unclean. UT TER LY, entirely; completely. BLEM' ISH, defect; deformity. WA' VER ED, hesitated. IM PAR' TIAL, just; free from bias. RE FER', leave to another. PAR' DON, forgive. GHEE, kind of butter used in India. DIS TRUST' ING, suspecting. PAL PA BLE, obvious; evident. LAUD' ING, praising. THE BRAHMIN AND THE ROGUES. [Footnote: The fable, here thrown into verse, is related in English prose by Macaulay, who says:--"Thus, or nearly thus, if we remember rightly, runs the story of the Sanscrit Aesop."] AN EASTERN FABLE. VERSIFIED BY J.N. McELLIGOTT. 1. A Brahmin went out, the legends say, To buy him a sheep a certain day; For he had solemnly vowed to slay, In sacrifice, a sheep that day, And wanted a sheep his vow to pay. Three neighboring rogues (The cunning dogs!) Finding this out, Went straight about (Moved, I ween, by the very Old Nick,) To play the Brahmin a scurvy trick. 2. So one of them met him with the cry:-- "O Brahmin! O Brahmin! won't you buy A beautiful sheep? for here have I A beautiful sheep for sacrifice, As ever was seen by mortal eyes." 3. "Where is your sheep?" replied the Brahmin; "Bring him out here, and let me examine." With that the wag Opened a bag, And out he drew To public view An ugly, dirty, horrible dog! Blind as a bat, and lame as a frog; With a broken leg, climbing a log. Or limping slowly over a bog. 4. "Wretch!" said the Brahmin indignant, "who Shamelessly utterest things untrue, And dost without a scruple endure To handle creatures the most impure, How darest thou call that cur a sheep? Do you think, foul knave, that I'm asleep?" 5. "_Cur'!_" said the fellow with steady tone; "A _sheep_ it is, and a sheep alone; A sheep (see here, what a splendid fleece!) With flesh the sweetest, and fat as grease; And such a prize For sacrifice, As neither gods nor men can despise, Unless they both have dust in their eyes!" "Sir," said the Brahmin, surprised to find A person so utterly out of his mind, "'Tis certain that _you_ or _I_ am blind." 6. Then stepping up, Patting the pup, Rogue the second, as if amazed, While on the dog he steadily gazed, Exclaims aloud:--"The gods be praised! Since I've no need to market to go To buy me a sheep; for here's one so From spot and blemish perfectly free, That better could not possibly be. Isn't it nice? What's your price?" 7. The Brahmin, seeing this singular thing, Wavered in mind, like one in a swing; Yet answered the stranger, firmly,--"Sir, This isn't a sheep, but only a cur." "_Cur_?" with disdain, the new-comer said; "Why, man, you're surely out of your head!" 8. As this occurred, Came rogue the third, To whom, as being a witness new, And likely to take impartial view, Brahmin proposed at once to refer, Whether the creature was _sheep_ or _cur_. All being agreed, the eager priest Said:--"Stranger, what do you call this beast?" "A _sheep_, to be sure!" the knave replied; "As fine a sheep as ever you spied." 9. "Well," said the Brahmin, "the gods this day Have surely taken my senses away!" Then begging the rogue That carried the dog, To pardon him for doubting his word, He, with a readiness most absurd, Purchased the creature with rice and ghee, Which went, of course, to the worthless three, And which they shared with wonderful glee. 10. Thus taken in, The poor Brahmin Offered it up, The filthy pup, Which so offended the gods, that they Sent sore disease his folly to pay: Thinking it right the man to chastise For so distrusting his natural eyes, And being led by palpable lies To offer a dog as a sacrifice. MORAL. Look out for the arts of the puffing tribe,-- People that praise for the sake of a bribe; Lavishly lauding a book or a pill, Or any thing else the pocket to fill; Singing Simplicity fast asleep, And making her dream a dog's a sheep. QUESTIONS.--1. What trick did the three rogues play off on the Brahmin? 2. In what way did they do this? 3. What moral is taught in this fable? * * * * * LESSON CXVII. E LAS TIC' I TY, returning vigor. MIN' I FIES, lessens; makes small. DEG RA DA' TION, abasement. ES TRANGED, alienates. UN ALMS' ED, not having received alms. HA BIT' U AL, accustomed. EX TRAV' A GANCE, superfluous expense. IM PER' TI NENCE, that which is not pertinent. SUS PI' CIOUS, distrustful. E CON' O MY, frugality. TRAN' QUIL, calm; undisturbed. BE NUMB' ING, dull; stupefying. IM PROV' I DENCE, wastefulness. LIVING WITHIN OUR MEANS. S.W. PARTRIDGE. 1. _Oh, beware of debt_! It crushes out the manhood of a man, Robs his bright eye of boldness, cheats his limbs Of elasticity, unnerves his hand, Beclouds his judgment, dulls his intellect, Perils his uprightness, and stains his name, And minifies him to his fellow-men; Yea, far worse degradation, to himself. 2. Who hath the hurried step, the anxious eye, Avoids the public haunt and open street, And anxious waits for evening? Restlessly Tosses upon his bed, and dreads the approach Of the tell-tale morning sunlight? Who, unmanned, Starts at the sudden knock, and shrinks with dread E'en at his own shadow; shuns with care The stranger's look, skulks from his fellow's glance, And sees in every man a creditor? 3. The _debtor_;--he is only half a man; He saddens and estranges his chief friends, Burdens his dearest relatives; he hears In vain the stranger's tale, the widow's prayer, And sends away the orphan all unalmsed. None dare to place him in a post of trust, And business men regard him with a shrug. 4. "Owe no man aught." Stand in the world erect, And lean alone upon thyself and God. The habitual borrower will be ever found Wicked, or weak, or both. Sweat, study, stint, Yea, rather _any thing_ than meanly owe. Let thine own honest hands feed thee and thine, And, if not thy friend's purse, at least, respect Thine own sweet independence. 5. Have fewest wants: the book, however good, Thou shouldst not purchase, let it go unbought; And fashion's vests by thee be all unworn. Soon luxuries become necessities, But self-denying thrift more joy affords Than all the pleasures of extravagance. A cottage, free from clamorous creditors, Is better than a mansion dunned; a coat, However darned, if paid for, hath an ease, And a respectability beside: Gay, ill-afforded vests can never boast. 6. However cheap, Whatever thou want'st not, buy not. That is dear, A mere extravagant impertinence, For which thou hast no need. Feel first the want Ere it be satisfied; bargains full oft Are money-wasting things, that prudent men Will keep afar from with suspicious eye; Perchance to any but of little use, And to themselves, most likely, none at all. 7. The habit of economy once formed, 'Tis easy to attain to prosperous things. Thou then shalt lend, not borrow: shalt not want A helping trifle when thy friend hath need, Or means to seize an opportunity,-- Seed-coin, to ensure a harvest. Thou shalt then Want not an alms for pinching poverty; And, though a sudden sickness dam the stream, And cut off thy supplies, thou shalt lie down And view thy morrows with a tranquil eye; Even benumbing age shall scare thee not, But find thee unindebted, and secure From all the penury and wretchedness That dog the footsteps of improvidence. * * * * * LESSON CXVIII. OM NIP' O TENT, all-powerful. IN TER' MI NA BLE, endless. MILK Y-WAY, galaxy; luminous circle in the heavens. AS' TRAL, starry. IN FIN' I TUDE, unlimited extent. IM PET' U OUS, rushing. AS TRON O MER, one skilled in the science of the stars. AP PROX' I MATE LY, nearly. OM NIS' CIENCE, knowledge of all things. PER TUR BA' TIONS, irregularities of motion. AB' SO LUTE, entire. PRE CIS' ION, exactness. AD JUST' MENTS, arrangements. RET' I NUE, company. SAT' EL LITES, small planets revolving round others. GRANDEUR OF THE UNIVERSE. O.M. MITCHEL. 1. If you would know the _glory_ of the Omnipotent Ruler of the universe, examine the interminable range of suns and systems which crowd the Milky-Way. Multiply the hundred millions of stars which belong to our own "island universe" by the thousands of these astral systems that exist in space, within the range of human vision, and _then_ you may form some idea of the _infinitude_ of His kingdom; for lo! these are but a part of His ways. 2. Examine the scale on which the universe is built. Comprehend, if you can, the vast dimensions of our sun. Stretch outward through his system, from planet to planet, and circumscribe the whole within the immense circumference of Neptune's orbit. This is but a single unit out of the myriads of similar systems. 3. Take the wings of light, and flash with impetuous speed, day and night, and month, and year, till youth shall wear away, and middle age is gone, and the extremest limit of human life has been attained;--count every pulse, and, at each, speed on your way a hundred thousand miles; and when a hundred years have rolled by, look out, and behold! the thronging millions of blazing suns are still around you, each separated from the other by such a distance, that, in this journey of a century, you have only left half a score behind you. 4. Would you gather some idea of the _eternity_ past of God's existence,--go to the astronomer, and bid him lead you in one of his walks through space; and, as he sweeps outward from object to object, from universe to universe, remember that the light from those filmy stains on the deep pure blue of heaven, now falling on your eye, has been traversing space for a million of years. 5. Would you gather some knowledge of the _omnipotence_ of God,--weigh the earth on which we dwell, then count the millions of its inhabitants that have come and gone for the last six thousand years. Unite their strength into one arm, and test its power in an effort to move this earth. It could not stir it a single foot in a thousand years; and yet under the omnipotent hand of God, not a minute passes that it does not fly more than a thousand miles. 6. But this is a mere atom,--the most insignificant point among his innumerable worlds. At his bidding, every planet, and satellite, and comet, and the sun himself, fly onward in their appointed courses. His single arm guides the millions of sweeping suns, and around His throne circles the great constellation of unnumbered universes. 7. Would you comprehend the idea of the _omniscience_ of God,--remember that the highest pinnacle of knowledge reached by the whole human race, by the combined efforts of its brightest intellects, has enabled the astronomer to compute approximately the perturbations of the planetary worlds. He has predicted roughly the return of half a score of comets. But God has computed the mutual perturbations of millions of suns, and planets, and comets, and worlds, without number, through the ages that are passed, and throughout the ages which are yet to come, not approximately, but with perfect and absolute precision. 8. The universe is in motion,--system rising above system, cluster above cluster, nebula above nebula,--all majestically sweeping around under the providence of God, who alone knows the end from the beginning, and before whose glory and power all intelligent beings, whether in heaven or on earth, should bow with humility and awe. 9. Would you gain some idea of the _wisdom_ of God,--look to the admirable adjustments of the magnificent retinue of planets and satellites which sweep around the sun. Every globe has been weighed and poised, every orbit has been measured and bent to its beautiful form. 10. All is changing; but the laws fixed by the wisdom of God, though they permit the rocking to and fro of the system, never introduce disorder, or lead to destruction. All is perfect and harmonious, and the music of the spheres that burn and roll around our sun, is echoed by that of ten millions of moving worlds, that sing and shine around the bright suns that reign above. 11. If, overwhelmed with the grandeur and majesty of the universe of God, we are led to exclaim with the Hebrew poet-king,--"When I consider Thy heavens, the work of Thy fingers, the moon and the stars, which Thou hast ordained, what is man, that Thou art mindful of him? and the son of man, that Thou visitest him?"--If fearful that the eye of God may overlook us in the immensity of His kingdom, we have only to call to mind that other passage, "Yet Thou hast made him but a little lower than the angels, and hast crowned him with glory and honor. Thou madest him to have dominion over all the works of Thy hand; Thou hast put all things under his feet." Such are the teachings of the word, and such are the lessons of the works of God. * * * * * LESSON CXIX. "WHOM HAVE I IN HEAVEN BUT THEE?" MISS PAMELIA S. VINING. 1. 'Twere naught to me, yon glorious arch of night, Decked with the gorgeous blazonry of heaven, If, to my faith, amid its splendors bright, No vision of the Eternal One were given; I could but view a dreary, soulless waste,-- A vast expanse of solitude unknown, More cheerless for the splendors o'er it cast,-- For all its grandeur more intensely lone. 2. 'Twere naught to me, this ever-changeful scene Of earthly beauty, sunshine, and delight,-- The wood's deep shadows and the valley's green,-- Morn's tender glow, and sunset's splendors bright; Naught, if my Father spoke not from the sky, The cloud, the flower, the landscape, and the leaf; My soul would pine 'mid earth's vain pageantry, And droop in hopeless orphanage and grief. 3. 'Twere naught to me, the ocean's vast expanse, If His perfections were not mirrored there; Hopeless across the unmeasured waste I'd glance, And clasp my hands in anguish, not in prayer. Naught Nature's anthem, ever swelling up From Nature's myriad voices; for the hymn Breathes not of love, or gratitude, or hope, Robbed of the tones that tell my soul of Him. 4. This wondrous universe how less than naught Without my God! how desolate and drear! A mock'ry, earth with her vain splendors fraught! A gilded pageant, every rolling sphere! The noonday sun with all his glories crowned, A sickly meteor glimmers faint and pale! And all earth's melodies, their sweetness drowned, Are but the utterance of a funeral wail. * * * * * LESSON CXX. THE MEMORY OF WASHINGTON. KOSSUTH. 1. Mr. President: I consider it a particular favor of Providence that I am permitted to partake, on the present solemn occasion, in paying the tribute of honor and gratitude to the memory of your immortal Washington. 2. An architect having raised a proud and noble building to the service of the Almighty, his admirers desired to erect a monument to his memory. How was it done? His name was inscribed upon the wall, with these additional words: "You seek his monument--look around." 3. Let him who looks for a monument of Washington look around the United States. The whole country is a monument to him. Your freedom, your independence, your national power, your prosperity, and your prodigious growth, is a monument to Washington. 4. There is no room left for panegyric, none especially to a stranger whom you had full reason to charge with arrogance, were he able to believe that his feeble voice could claim to be noticed in the mighty harmony of a nation's praise. Let me, therefore, instead of such an arrogant attempt, pray that that God, to whose providential intentions Washington was a glorious instrument, may impart to the people of the United States the same wisdom for the conservation of the present prosperity of the land and for its future security, which he gave to Washington for the foundation of it. 5. I yield to nobody in the world in reverence and respect to the immortal memory of Washington. His life and his principles were the guiding star of my life; to that star I looked up for inspiration and advice, during the vicissitudes of my stormy life. Hence I drew that devotion to my country and to the cause of national freedom, which you, gentlemen, and millions of your fellow-citizens, and your national government, are so kind as to honor by unexampled distinction. 6. Sir, I have studied the history of your immortal Washington, and have, from my early youth, considered his principles as a living source of instruction to statesmen and to patriots. When, in that very year in which Washington issued his Farewell Address, M. Adet, the French Minister, presented to him the flag of the French Republic, Washington, as President of the United States, answered officially, with these memorable words: "Born in a land of liberty, having early learned its value, having engaged in a perilous conflict to defend it, having devoted the best years of my life to secure its permanent establishment in my country, my anxious recollections, my sympathetic feelings, and my best wishes, are irresistibly attracted, whensoever in any country I see an oppressed nation unfurl the banner of freedom." 7. Thus spoke Washington. Have I not then full reason to say, that if he were alive his generous sympathy would be with me; and the sympathy of a Washington never was, and never would be, a barren word. Washington, who raised the word "honesty" as a rule of policy, never would have professed a sentiment which his wisdom as a statesman would not have approved. 8. Sir! here let me end. I consider it already as an immense benefit that your generous attention connected the cause of Hungary with the celebration of the memory of Washington. 9. Spirit of the departed! smile down from heaven upon this appreciation of my country's cause; watch over those principles which thou hast taken for the guiding star of thy noble life, and the time will yet come when not only thine own country, but liberated Europe, also, will be a living monument to thy immortal name. * * * * * LESSON CXXI. THE LOST ONE'S LAMENT. 1. Oh! the snow, the beautiful snow, Filling the sky and earth below; Over the housetops, over the street, Over the heads of the people you meet, Dancing, Flirting, Skimming along! Beautiful snow! it can do no wrong. Flying to kiss a fair lady's cheek, Clinging to lips in a frolicsome freak, Beautiful snow from the Heaven above, Pure as an angel, gentle as love! 2. Oh! the snow, the beautiful snow, How the flakes gather and laugh as they go? Whirling about in its maddening fun, It plays in its glee with every one; Chasing, Laughing, Hurrying by, It lights on the face and it sparkles the eye! And even the dogs, with a bark and a bound, Snap at the crystals that eddy around. The town is alive, and its heart in a glow To welcome the coming of beautiful snow. 3. How wild the crowd goes swaying along, Hailing each other with humor and song! How the gay sledges, like meteors, flash by, Bright for the moment, then lost to the eye! Ringing, Swinging, Dashing they go Over the crust of the beautiful snow; Snow so pure when it falls from the sky, To be trampled in mud by the crowd rushing by, To be trampled and tracked by thousands of feet, Till it blends with the filth in the horrible street 4. How strange it should be that this beautiful snow, Should fall on a sinner with nowhere to go! How strange it should be, when the night comes again If the snow and the ice struck my desperate brain! Fainting, Freezing, Dying alone, Too wicked for prayer, too weak for a moan To be heard in the crazy town, Gone mad in the joy of the snow coming down; To lie and so die, in my terrible woe, With a bed and a shroud of the beautiful snow! 
34316	----	Transcriber's note: In this e-text a-breve is represented by [)a], a-macron by [=a], c-dotted-over by [.c] and e-ogonek by [e,], etc. Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this file in which these characters are displayed properly. See 34316-h.htm or 34316-h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34316/34316-h/34316-h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34316/34316-h.zip) Page numbers enclosed by curly braces (example: {25}) have been incorporated to facilitate the use of the Notes to the Readings. AN ANGLO-SAXON PRIMER With Grammar, Notes, and Glossary by HENRY SWEET, M.A., PH.D., LL.D. Eighth Edition, Revised Oxford At the Clarendon Press 1905 Printed in England At the Oxford University Press {v} PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. The want of an introduction to the study of Old-English has long been felt. Vernon's _Anglo-Saxon Guide_ was an admirable book for its time, but has long been completely antiquated. I was therefore obliged to make my _Anglo-Saxon Reader_ a somewhat unsatisfactory compromise between an elementary primer and a manual for advanced students, but I always looked forward to producing a strictly elementary book like the present one, which would enable me to give the larger one a more scientific character, and would at the same time serve as an introduction to it. Meanwhile, however, Professor Earle has brought out his _Book for the beginner in Anglo-Saxon_. But this work is quite unsuited to serve as an introduction to my Reader, and will be found to differ so totally in plan and execution from the present one as to preclude all idea of rivalry on my part. We work on lines which instead of clashing can only diverge more and more. My main principle has been to make the book the easiest possible introduction to the study of Old-English. Poetry has been excluded, and a selection made from the easiest prose pieces I could find. Old-English original prose is unfortunately limited in extent, and the most suitable pieces (such as the voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan) are already given in the Reader; these I could not give over {vi} again. But I hope the short extracts from the Chronicle and the Martyrdom of King Edmund will be found not wanting in interest. For the rest of the selections I have had to fall back on scriptural extracts, which have the great advantages of simplicity and familiarity of subject. The Gospel extracts have been transferred here from the Reader, where they will be omitted in the next edition. The sentences which head the selections have been gathered mainly from the Gospels, Ælfric's Homilies, and the Chronicle. They are all of the simplest possible character, only those having been taken which would bear isolation from their context. They are intended to serve both as an introduction and as a supplement to the longer pieces. They are grouped roughly into paragraphs, according to the grammatical forms they illustrate. Thus the first paragraph consists mainly of examples of the nominative singular of nouns and adjectives, the second of accusative singulars, and so on. The spelling has been made rigorously uniform throughout on an early West-Saxon basis. Injurious as normalizing is to the advanced student, it is an absolute necessity for the beginner, who wants to have the definite results of scholarship laid before him, not the confused and fluctuating spellings which he cannot yet interpret intelligently. Even for purely scientific purposes we require a standard of comparison and classification, as in the arrangement of words in a dictionary, where we have to decide, for instance, whether to put the original of _hear_ under _[=e], [=i]e, [=i]_ or _[=y]_. The spelling I here adopt is, in fact, the one I should recommend for dictionary purposes. From early West-Saxon it is an easy step both to late W. S. and to the Mercian forms from which Modern English is derived. That I give Ælfric in a spelling slightly earlier than his date is no more {vii} unreasonable than it is for a classical scholar to print Ausonius (who doubtless spoke Latin with an almost Italian pronunciation) in the same spelling as Virgil. It is impossible to go into details, but in doubtful or optional cases I have preferred those forms which seemed most instructive to the student. Thus I have preferred keeping up the distinction between the indic. _bundon_ and the subj. _bunden_, although the latter is often levelled under the former even in early MS. In the accentuation I have for the present retained the conventional quantities, which are really 'prehistoric' quantities, as I have shown elsewhere (Phil. Soc. Proc. 1880, 1881). It is no use trying to disguise the fact that Old English philology (owing mainly to its neglect in its native land) is still in an unsettled state. In the Grammar I have cut down the phonology to the narrowest limits, giving only what is necessary to enable the beginner to trace the connection of forms within the language itself. Derivation and syntax have been treated with the same fulness as the inflections. In my opinion, to give inflections without explaining their use is as absurd as it would be to teach the names of the different parts of a machine without explaining their use, and derivation is as much a fundamental element of a language as inflection. The grammar has been based throughout on the texts, from which all words and sentences given as examples have, as far as possible, been taken. This I consider absolutely essential in an elementary book. What is the use of a grammar which gives a number of forms and rules which the learner has no occasion to apply practically in his reading? Simply to cut down an ordinary grammar and prefix it to a selection of elementary texts, without any attempt to adapt them to one another, is a most unjustifiable proceeding. {viii} In the Glossary cognate and root words are given only when they occur in the texts, or else are easily recognizable by the ordinary English reader. All reference to cognate languages has been avoided. Of course, if the beginner knows German, the labour of learning Old English will be lightened for him by one half, but he does not require to have the analogies pointed out to him. The same applies to the relation between Old and Modern English. To trace the history of the sounds would be quite out of place in this book, and postulates a knowledge of the intermediate stages which the beginner cannot have. The Notes consist chiefly of references to the Grammar, and are intended mainly for those who study without a teacher. As a general rule, no such references are given where the passage itself is quoted in the Grammar. On the whole I do not think the book could be made much easier without defeating its object. Thus, instead of simply referring the student from _st[e,]nt_ to _standan_, and thence to the Grammar, I might have saved him all this trouble by putting '_st[e,]nt_, 3 sg. pres. of _standan_, stand,' but the result would be in many cases that he would not look at the Grammar at all--surely a most undesirable result. Although I have given everything that I believe to be _necessary_, every teacher may, of course, at his own discretion add such further illustrations, linguistic, historical, antiquarian, or otherwise, as he thinks likely to instruct or interest his pupils. My thanks are due to Professor Skeat, not only for constant advice and encouragement in planning and carrying out this work, but also for help in correcting the proofs. In conclusion I may be allowed to express a hope that this little book may prove useful not only to young beginners, but also to some of our Professors of and {ix} Examiners in the English language, most of whom are now beginning to see the importance of a sound elementary knowledge of 'Anglo-Saxon'--a knowledge which I believe this book to be capable of imparting, if studied diligently, and not hurriedly cast aside for a more ambitious one. HENRY SWEET. HEATH STREET, HAMPSTEAD, _March 31, 1882_. * * * * * PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION. In the present edition I have put this book into what must be (for some time at least) its permanent form, making such additions and alterations as seemed necessary. If I had any opportunity of teaching the language, I should no doubt have been able to introduce many other improvements; as it is, I have had to rely mainly on the suggestions and corrections kindly sent to me by various teachers and students who have used this book, among whom my especial thanks are due to the Rev. W. F. Moulton, of Cambridge, and Mr. C. Stoffel, of Amsterdam. HENRY SWEET. LONDON, _October 15, 1884_. {x} CONTENTS. Page GRAMMAR 1 TEXTS 55 NOTES 91 GLOSSARY 97 {1} GRAMMAR. The oldest stage of English before the Norman Conquest is called 'Old English,' which name will be used throughout in this Book, although the name 'Anglo-Saxon' is still often used. There were several dialects of Old English. This book deals only with the _West-Saxon_ dialect in its earliest form. SOUNDS. VOWELS. The vowel-letters in Old English had nearly the same values as in Latin. Long vowels were occasionally marked by (´), short vowels being left unmarked. In this book long vowels are marked by (-). The following are the elementary vowels and diphthongs, with examples, and key-words from English, French (F.), and German (G.):-- a _as in_ mann (G.) nama (_name_). [=a] " father st[=a]n (_stone_). æ " man glæd (_glad_). [=æ] " d[=æ]d (_deed_)[1]. e " été (F.) ic ete[2] (_I eat_). [=e] " see (G.) h[=e] (_he_). [e,] " men m[e,]nn (_men_). {2} i " fini (F.) cwic (_alive_). [=i] " sieh (G.) w[=i]n (_wine_). ie " fin ieldran (_ancestors_). [=i]e " h[=i]eran (_hear_). o " beau (F.) god (_god_). [=o] " so (G.) g[=o]d (_good_). u " sou (F.) sunu (_son_). [=u] " gut (G.) n[=u] (_now_). y " véc_u_ (F.) synn (_sin_). [=y] " grün (G.) br[=y]d (_bride_). ea = æ + a eall (_all_). [=e]a = [=æ] + a [=e]ast (_east_). eo = e + o weorc (_work_). [=e]o = [=e] + o d[=e]op (_deep_). _e_ and _[e,]_ are both written e in the MSS. The diphthongs are pronounced with the stress on the first element. Those who find a difficulty in learning strange vowel-sounds may adopt the following approximate pronunciation:-- a as in ask (short) nama (n[)a]hm[)a]h). [=a] " father st[=a]n (stahn). æ " man glæd (glad). [=æ] " there [=æ]r (air). e, [e,] " men ete (etty), m[e,]nn (men). [=e] " they h[=e] (hay). i, ie " fin cwic (quick), ieldran (ildr[)a]hn). [=i], [=i]e " see w[=i]n (ween), h[=i]eran (heer[)a]hn). o " not god (god). [=o] " note g[=o]d (goad). u " full full (full). [=u] " fool n[=u] (noo). y " fin synn (zin). [=y] " see br[=y]d (breed). ea = [)e]-[)a]h eall ([)e]-[)a]hl). [=e]a = ai-[)a]h [=e]ast (ai-[)a]hst). {3} eo = [)e]-o weorc (w[)e]-ork). [=e]o = ai-o d[=e]op (dai-op). The pronunciation given in parentheses is the nearest that can be expressed in English letters as pronounced in Southern English. CONSONANTS. Double consonants must be pronounced double, or long, as in Italian. Thus _sunu_ (son) must be distinguished from _sunne_ (sun) in the same way as _penny_ is distinguished from _penknife_. So also _in_ (in) must be distinguished from _inn_ (house); noting that in modern English final consonants in accented monosyllables after a short vowel are long, our _in_ and _inn_ both having the pronunciation of Old English _inn_, not of O.E. _in_. _c_ and _g_ had each a _back_ (guttural) and a _front_ (palatal) pron., which latter is in this book written _[.c]_, _[.g]_. c = _k_, as in _c[=e]ne_ (bold), _cn[=a]wan_ (know). [.c] = _kj_, a _k_ formed in the _j_ (English _y_) position, nearly as in the old-fashioned pron. of _sky_: _[.c]iri[.c]e_ (church), _sty[.c][.c]e_ (piece), _þ[e,]n[.c]an_ (think). g initially and in the combination _ng_ was pron. as in 'get': _g[=o]d_ (good), _lang_ (long); otherwise (that is, medially and finally after vowels and _l, r_) as in German _sagen: dagas_ (days), _burg_ (city), _h[=a]lga_ (saint). [.g] initially and in the combination _n[.g]_ was pronounced _gj_ (corresponding to _kj_): _[.g][=e]_ (ye), _[.g]eorn_ (willing), _spr[e,]n[.g]an_ (scatter); otherwise = _j_ (as in 'you'): _dæ[.g]_ (day), _wr[=e][.g]an_ (accuse), _h[e,]r[.g]ian_ (ravage). It is possible that _[.g]_ in _[.g]e-boren_ (born) and other unaccented syllables was already pronounced _j. [.c][.g] = [.g][.g]: s[e,][.c][.g]an_ (say), _hry[.c][.g]_ (back). f had the sound of _v_ everywhere where it was possible:--_faran_ (go), _of_ (of), _ofer_ (over); not, of course, in _oft_ (often), or when doubled, as in _offrian_ (offer). {4} h initially, as in _h[=e]_ (he), had the same sound as now. Everywhere else it had that of Scotch and German _ch_ in _loch_:--_h[=e]ah_ (high), _Wealh_ (Welshman), _riht_ (right). _hw_, as in _hwæt_ (what), _hw[=i]l_ (while), had the sound of our _wh_; and _hl, hn, hr_ differed from _l, n, r_ respectively precisely as _wh_ differs from _w_, that is, they were these consonants devocalized, _hl_ being nearly the same as Welsh _ll:--hl[=a]ford_ (lord), _hl[=u]d_ (loud); _hnappian_ (doze), _hnutu_ (nut); _hraþe_ (quickly), _hr[=e]od_ (reed). r was always a strong trill, as in Scotch:--_r[=æ]ran_ (to raise), _h[=e]r_ (here), _word_ (word). s had the sound of _z_:--_s[=e][.c]an_ (seek), _sw[=a]_ (so), _w[=i]s_ (wise), _[=a]·r[=i]san_ (rise); not, of course, in combination with hard consonants, as in _st[=a]n_ (stone), _fæst_ (firm), _r[=i][.c]sian_ (rule), or when double, as in _cyssan_ (kiss). þ had the sound of our _th_ (= dh) in _then_:_--þ[=u]_ (thou), _þing_ (thing), _s[=o]þ_ (true), _h[=æ]þen_ (heathen); except when in combination with hard consonants, where it had that of our _th_ in _thin_, as in _s[=e][.c]þ_ (seeks). Note _hæfþ_ (has) = _hævdh_. w was fully pronounced wherever written:--_wr[=i]tan_ (write), _n[=i]we_ (new), _s[=e]ow_ (sowed _pret._). STRESS. The stress or accent is marked throughout in this book, whenever it is not on the first syllable of a word, by (·) preceding the letter on which the stress begins. Thus _for·[.g]iefan_ is pronounced with the same stress as that of _forgive_, _andswaru_ with that of _answer_. * * * * * PHONOLOGY. VOWELS. Different vowels are related to one another in various ways in O.E., the most important of which are _mutation_ (German _umlaut_) and _gradation_ (G. _ablaut_). {5} The following changes are _mutations_:-- a .. [e,]:--mann, _pl._ m[e,]nn; wand (wound _prt._), w[e,]ndan (to turn). ea (= a) .. ie (= [e,]):--eald (old), ieldra (older); feallan (fall), fielþ (falls). [=a] .. [=æ]:--bl[=a]wan (to blow), bl[=æ]wþ (bloweth); h[=a]l (sound), h[=æ]lan (heal). u .. y:--burg (city), _pl._ byri[.g]; trum (strong), trymman (to strengthen). o .. y:--gold, gylden (golden); coss (a kiss), cyssan (to kiss). e .. i:--beran (to bear), bireþ (beareth); cweþan (speak), cwide (speech). eo (= e) .. ie (= i):--heord (herd), hierde (shepherd); [.c]eorfan (cut), [.c]ierfþ (cuts). u .. o:--curon (they chose), [.g]e·coren (chosen). [=u] .. [=y]:--c[=u]þ (known), c[=y]þan (to make known); f[=u]l (foul), [=a]·f[=y]lan (defile). [=o] .. [=e]:--s[=o]hte (sought _prt._), s[=e][.c]an (to seek); f[=o]da (food), f[=e]dan (to feed). [=e]a .. [=i]e:--h[=e]awan (to hew), h[=i]ewþ (hews); t[=e]am (progeny), t[=i]eman (teem). [=e]o .. [=i]e:--st[=e]or (rudder), st[=i]eran (steer); [.g]e·str[=e]on (possession), [.g]es·tr[=i]enan (gain). Before proceeding to gradation, it will be desirable to describe the other most important vowel-relations. a, æ, ea. In O.E. original _a_ is preserved before nasals, as in _mann_, _lang_, _nama_ (name), and before a single consonant followed by _a_, _u_, or _o_, as in _dagas_ (days), _dagum_ (to days), _faran_ (go), _gafol_ (profit), and in some words when _e_ follows, as in _ic fare_ (I go), _faren_ (gone). Before _r_, _l_, _h_ followed by another consonant, and before _x_ it becomes _ea_, as in _heard_ (hard), _eall_ (all), _eald_ (old), _eahta_ (eight), _weaxan_ (to grow). Not in _bærst_ (p. 7). In most other cases it becomes _æ_:--_dæ[.g]_, (day), _dæ[.g]es_ (of a day), _fæst_ (firm), _wær_ (wary). {6} e before nasals always becomes _i_: compare _bindan_ (to bind), pret. _band_, with _beran_ (to bear), pret. _bær_. _e_ before _r_ (generally followed by a consonant) becomes _eo:--eorþe_ (earth), _heorte_ (heart). Not in _berstan_ (p. 7). Also in other cases:--_seolfor_ (silver), _heofon_ (heaven). i before _r_ + cons. becomes _ie:--bierþ_ (beareth) contr. from _bireþ, hierde_ (shepherd) from _heord_ (herd), _wiersa_ (worse). [e,] before _r_, or _l_ + cons. often becomes _ie:--fierd_ (army) from _faran_, _bieldo_ (boldness) from _beald_, _ieldra_ (elder) from _eald_. By _gradation_ the vowels are related as follows:-- e (i, eo) .. a (æ, ea) .. u (o):-- _bindan_ (inf.), _band_ (pret.), _bundon_ (they bound). _beran_ (inf.), _bær_ (pret.), _boren_ (past partic.). _[.c]eorfan_ (cut), _[.c]earf_ (pret.), _curfon_ (they cut), _corfen_ (past partic.). _b[e,]nd_ (bond) = mutation of band, _byr-þen_ (burden) of _bor-en_. a (æ, ea) .. [=æ]:--_spræc_ (spoke), _spr[=æ]con_ (they spoke), _spr[=æ][.c]_ (speech). a .. [=o]:--_faran_ (to go), _f[=o]r_ (pret.), _f[=o]r_ (journey). _[.g]e·f[=e]ra_ (companion) mutation of _f[=o]r_. [=i] .. [=a] .. i:--_wr[=i]tan, wr[=a]t, writon, [.g]e·writ_ (writing, _subst._). _(be)·l[=i]fan_ (remain), _l[=a]f_ (remains), whence by mutation _l[=æ]fan_ (leave). [=e]o ([=u]) .. [=e]a .. u (o):--_[.c][=e]osan_ (choose), _[.c][=e]as, curon, coren_. _cys-t_ (choice). _(for)·l[=e]osan_ (lose), _l[=e]as_ (loose), _[=a]·l[=i]esan_ (release), _losian_ (to be lost). _b[=u]gan_ (bend), _boga_ (bow). We see that the laws of gradation are most clearly shown in the conjugation of the strong verbs. But they run through the whole language, and a knowledge of the laws of gradation and mutation is the main key to O.E. etymology. It is often necessary to supply intermediate stages in connecting two words. Thus _l[e,][.c][.g]an_ (lay) cannot be directly referred to _li[.c][.g]an_ (lie), but only to a form *_lag_-, preserved in the preterite _læ[.g]_. So also _bl[e,]ndan_ (to blind) can be referred only indirectly to the adjective _blind_ through an intermediate *_bland_-. Again, the root-vowel of _byrþen_ {7} (burden) cannot be explained by the infinitive _beran_ (bear), but only by the past participle _[.g]e·boren_. In the same way _hryre_ (fall _sb._) must be referred, not to the infinitive _hr[=e]osan_, but to the preterite plural _hruron_. The vowel-changes in the preterites of verbs of the 'fall'-conjugation (1) _feallan_, _f[=e]oll_, &c., are due not to gradation, but to other causes. CONSONANTS. s becomes _r_ in the preterite plurals and past participles of strong verbs, as in _curon_, _[.g]e·coren_ from _[.c][=e]osan_, _w[=æ]ron_ pl. of _wæs_ (was), and in other formations, such as _hryre_ (fall) from _hr[=e]osan_. þ becomes _d_ under the same conditions, as in _wurdon_, _[.g]e·worden_ from _weorþan_ (become), _cwæþ_ (quoth), pl. _cw[=æ]don_, _cwide_ (speech) from _cweþan_ (infin.). r is often transposed, as in _iernan_ (run) from original *_rinnan_ (cp. the subst. _ryne_), _berstan_ (burst) from *_brestan_, _bærst_ (burst _pret._) from _bræst_, _hors_ (horse) from *_hross_. The combinations cæ-, gæ- become _[.c]ea-_, _[.g]ea-_, as in _[.c]eaf_ (chaff) from *_cæf_, _s[.c]eal_ (shall) from *_scæl_, _[.g]eaf_ (gave) = *_gæf_ from _[.g]iefan_ (cp. _cwæþ_ from _cweþan_), _[.g]eat_ (gate)--cp. _fæt_ (vessel). g[=æ]- often becomes _[.g][=e]a-_, as in _[.g][=e]afon_ (they gave), with which compare _cw[=æ]don_ (they said). ge- becomes _[.g]ie_, as in _[.g]iefan_, _[.g]ieldan_ (pay) from *_gefan_, *_geldan_--cp. _cweþan_, _delfan_. Not in the prefix _[.g]e-_ and _[.g][=e]_ (ye). When g comes before a consonant in inflection, it often becomes _h_, as in _h[=e] l[=i]ehþ_ (he lies) from _l[=e]ogan_ (mentiri). h after a consonant is dropt when a vowel follows, the preceding vowel being lengthened, thus _Wealh_ (Welshman) has plural _W[=e]alas_. * * * * * INFLECTIONS. NOUNS. Gender. There are three genders in O.E.--masculine, neuter, and feminine. The gender is partly natural, partly {8} grammatical. By the natural gender names of male beings, such as _se mann_ (the man), are masculine; of female beings, such as _s[=e]o dohtor_ (the daughter), are feminine; and of young creatures, such as _þæt [.c]ild_ (the child), neuter. Note, however, that _þæt w[=i]f_ (woman) is neuter. Grammatical gender is known only by the gender of the article and other words connected with the noun, and, to some extent, by its form. Thus all nouns ending in _-a_, such as _se m[=o]na_ (moon), are masculine, _s[=e]o sunne_ (sun) being feminine. Those ending in _-d[=o]m_, _-h[=a]d_, and _-s[.c]ipe_ are also masculine:--_se w[=i]sd[=o]m_ (wisdom), _se [.c]ildh[=a]d_ (childhood), _se fr[=e]onds[.c]ipe_ (friendship). Those in _-nes_, _-o_ (from adjectives) _-r[=æ]den_, and _-ung_ are feminine:--_s[=e]o rihtw[=i]snes_ (righteousness), _s[=e]o bieldo_ (boldness) from _beald_, _s[=e]o mann-r[=æ]den_ (allegiance), _s[=e]o scotung_ (shooting). Compounds follow the gender of their last element, as in _þæt burg-[.g]eat_ (city-gate), from _s[=e]o burg_ and _þæt [.g]eat_. Hence also _se w[=i]f-mann_ (woman) is masculine. The gender of most words can be learnt only by practice, and the student should learn each noun with its proper definite article. Strong and Weak. Weak nouns are those which form their inflections with _n_, such as _se m[=o]na_, plural _m[=o]nan_; _s[=e]o sunne_, genitive sing. _þ[=æ]re sunnan_. All the others, such as _se dæ[.g]_, pl. _dagas_, _þæt h[=u]s_ (house), gen. sing. _þæs h[=u]ses_, are strong. Cases. There are four cases, nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive. The acc. is the same as the nom. in all plurals, in the sing. of all neuter nouns, and of all strong masculines. Masculine and neuter nouns never differ in the plural except in the nom. and acc., and in the singular they differ only in the acc. of weak nouns, which in neuters is the same as the nom. The dative plural of nearly all nouns ends in _-um_. {9} STRONG MASCULINES. (1) as-plurals. SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom[3]._ st[=a]n (_stone_). _Nom._ st[=a]n-as. _Dat._ st[=a]n-e. _Dat._ st[=a]n-um. _Gen._ st[=a]n-es. _Gen._ st[=a]n-a. So also _d[=æ]l_ (part), _cyning_ (king), _[.c]ildh[=a]d_ (childhood). _dæ[.g]_ (day) changes its vowel in the pl. (p. 5):--_dæ[.g]_, _dæ[.g]e_, _dæ[.g]es_; _dagas_, _dagum_, _daga_. Nouns in _-e_ have nom. and dat. sing. the same:--_[e,]nde_, (end), _[e,]nde_, _[e,]ndes_; _[e,]ndas_, _[e,]ndum_, _[e,]nda_. Nouns in _-el_, _-ol_, _-um_, _-en_, _-on_, _-er_, _-or_ often contract:--_[e,]n[.g]el_ (angel), _[e,]n[.g]le_, _[e,]n[.g]les_; _[e,]n[.g]las_, _[e,]n[.g]lum_, _[e,]n[.g]la_. So also _næ[.g]el_ (nail), _þe[.g]en_ (thane), _ealdor_ (prince). Others, such as _æcer_ (field), do not contract. _h_ after a consonant is dropped in inflection (p. 7), as in _feorh_ (life), _f[=e]ore_, _f[=e]ores_. So also in _Wealh_ (Welshman), plur. _W[=e]alas_. There are other classes which are represented only by a few nouns each. (2) e-plurals. A few nouns which occur only in the plur.:--_l[=e]ode_ (people), _l[=e]odum_, _l[=e]oda_. So also several names of nations:--_[E,]n[.g]le_ (English), _D[e,]ne_ (Danes); _Seaxe_ (Saxons), _Mier[.c]e_ (Mercians), have gen. plur. _Seaxna_, _Mier[.c]na_. (3) Mutation-plurals. SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ f[=o]t (_foot_). _Nom._ f[=e]t. _Dat._ f[=e]t. _Dat._ f[=o]t-um. _Gen._ f[=o]t-es. _Gen._ f[=o]t-a. So also _t[=o]þ_ (tooth). _Mann_ (man), _m[e,]nn_, _mannes_; _m[e,]nn_, _mannum_, _manna_. {10} (4) u-nouns. SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ sun-u (_son_). _Nom._ sun-a. _Dat._ sun-a. _Dat._ sun-um. _Gen._ sun-a. _Gen._ sun-a. So also _wudu_ (wood). (5) r-nouns (including feminines). SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ m[=o]dor (_mother_). _Nom._ m[=o]dor. _Dat._ m[=e]der. _Dat._ m[=o]dr-um. _Gen._ m[=o]dor. _Gen._ m[=o]dr-a. So also _br[=o]þor_ (brother); _fæder_ (father), _dohtor_ (daughter), have dat. sing. _fæder_, _dehter_. (6) nd-nouns. Formed from the present participle of verbs. SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ fr[=e]ond (_friend_). _Nom._ fr[=i]end. _Dat._ fr[=i]end. _Dat._ fr[=e]ond-um. _Gen._ fr[=e]ond-es. _Gen._ fr[=e]ond-a. So also _f[=e]ond_ (enemy). Those in _-end_ inflect thus:--_b[=u]end_ (dweller), _b[=u]end_, _b[=u]endes_; _b[=u]end_, _b[=u]endum_, _b[=u]endra_. So also _H[=æ]lend_ (saviour). The _-ra_ is an adjectival inflection. STRONG NEUTERS. (1) u-plurals. SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ s[.c]ip (_ship_). _Nom._ s[.c]ip-u. _Dat._ s[.c]ip-e. _Dat._ s[.c]ip-um. _Gen._ s[.c]ip-es. _Gen._ s[.c]ip-a. So all neuters with short final syllable, such as _[.g]e·bed_ (prayer), _[.g]e·writ_ (writing), _[.g]eat_ (gate). {11} _Fæt_ (vessel), _fæte_, _fætes_; _fatu_, _fatum_, _fata_ (p. 5). _R[=i][.c]e_ (kingdom), _r[=i][.c]e_, _r[=i][.c]es_; _r[=i][.c]u_, _r[=i][.c]um_, _r[=i][.c]a_. So also all neuters in _e_, except _[=e]age_ and _[=e]are_ (p. 13): _[.g]e·þ[=e]ode_ (language), _sty[.c][.c]e_ (piece). Those in _-ol_, _-en_, _-or_, &c. are generally contracted:--_d[=e]ofol_ (devil), _d[=e]ofles_, _d[=e]oflu_. So also _w[=æ]pen_ (weapon), _mynster_ (monastery), _wundor_ (wonder). (2) Unchanged plurals. SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ h[=u]s (_house_). _Nom._ h[=u]s. _Dat._ h[=u]s-e. _Dat._ h[=u]s-um. _Gen._ h[=u]s-es. _Gen._ h[=u]s-a. So all others with long final syllables (that is, containing a long vowel, or a short vowel followed by more than one consonant), such as _bearn_ (child), _folc_ (nation), _w[=i]f_ (woman). _Feoh_ (money) drops its _h_ in inflection and lengthens the _eo_:--_feoh_, _f[=e]o_, _f[=e]os_. So also _bleoh_ (colour). STRONG FEMININES. (1) a-plurals. SINGULAR. PLURAL. (a) _Nom._ [.g]ief-u (_gift_). _Nom._ [.g]ief-a. _Acc._ [.g]ief-e. _Acc._ [.g]ief-a. _Dat._ [.g]ief-e. _Dat._ [.g]ief-um. _Gen._ [.g]ief-e. _Gen._ [.g]ief-ena. So also _lufu_ (love), _scamu_ (shame). _Duru_ (door) is an _u_-noun: it has acc. _duru_, d., g. _dura_, g. pl. _dura_. Observe that all these nouns have a short syllable before the final vowel. When it is long, the _u_ is dropped, and the noun falls under (_b_). {12} SINGULAR. PLURAL. (_b_) _Nom._ spr[=æ][.c] (_speech_). _Nom._ spr[=æ][.c]-a. _Acc._ spr[=æ][.c]-e. _Acc._ spr[=æ][.c]-a. _Dat._ spr[=æ][.c]-e. _Dat._ spr[=æ][.c]-um. _Gen._ spr[=æ][.c]-e. _Gen._ spr[=æ][.c]-a. So also _str[=æ]t_ (street), _sorg_ (sorrow). Some have the acc. sing. the same as the nom., such as _d[=æ]d_, _hand_, _miht_. Those in _-ol_, _-er_, _-or_, &c. contract:--_s[=a]wol_ (soul), _s[=a]wle_, _s[=a]wla_, _s[=a]wlum_. So also _[.c]easter_ (city), _hl[=æ]dder_ (ladder). Some in _-en_ double the _n_ in inflection:--_byrþen_ (burden), _byrþenne_. So also those in _-r[=æ]den_, such as _hierdr[=æ]den_ (guardianship). Those in _-nes_ also double the _s_ in inflection: _g[=o]dnes_ (goodness), _g[=o]dnesse_. (2) Mutation-plurals. SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ b[=o]c (_book_). _Nom._ b[=e][.c]. _Dat._ b[=e][.c]. _Dat._ b[=o]c-um. _Gen._ b[=e][.c]. _Gen._ b[=o]c-a. _Burg_ (city), _byri[.g]_, _burge_; _byri[.g]_, _burgum_, _burga_. (3) Indeclinable. SINGULAR. _Nom._ bieldo (_boldness_). _Dat._ bieldo. _Gen._ bieldo. So also _ieldo_ (age). For _r_-nouns, see under Masculines. WEAK MASCULINES. SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ nam-a (_name_). _Nom._ nam-an. _Acc._ nam-an. _Acc._ nam-an. _Dat._ nam-an. _Dat._ nam-um. _Gen._ nam-an. _Gen._ nam-ena. {13} So also all nouns in _-a_:--_[.g]e·f[=e]ra_ (companion), _guma_ (man), _[.g]e·l[=e]afa_ (belief). _Ieldran_ (elders) occurs only in the plural. _[.G]e·f[=e]a_ (joy) is contracted throughout:--_[.g]ef[=e]a_, _[.g]ef[=e]an_. WEAK NEUTERS. SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ [=e]ag-e (_eye_). _Nom._ [=e]ag-an. _Acc._ [=e]ag-e. _Acc._ [=e]ag-an. _Dat._ [=e]ag-an. _Dat._ [=e]ag-um. _Gen._ [=e]ag-an. _Gen._ [=e]ag-ena. So also _[=e]are_ 'ear.' WEAK FEMININES. SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ sunn-e (_sun_). _Nom._ sunn-an. _Acc._ sunn-an. _Acc._ sunn-an. _Dat._ sunn-an. _Dat._ sunn-um. _Gen._ sunn-an. _Gen._ sunn-ena. So also _[.c]iri[.c]e_ (church), _f[=æ]mne_ (virgin), _heorte_ (heart). _L[=e]o_ (lion) has acc., &c. _l[=e]on_. PROPER NAMES. Native names of persons are declined like other nouns:--_Ælfred_, gen. _Ælfredes_, dat. _Ælfrede_; _[=E]ad-burg_ (fem.), gen. _[=E]adburge_, &c. Foreign names of persons sometimes follow the analogy of native names, thus _Cr[=i]st_, _Salomon_ have gen. _Cr[=i]stes_, _Salomones_, dat. _Cr[=i]ste_, _Salomone_. Sometimes they are declined as in Latin, especially those in _-us_, but often with a mixture of English endings, and the Latin endings are used {14} somewhat loosely, the accus. ending being often extended to the other oblique cases; thus we find nom. _C[=y]rus_, gen. _C[=y]res_, acc. _C[=y]rum_, dat. _C[=y]rum_ (þ[=æ]m cyninge C[=y]rum). Almost the only names of countries and districts in Old English are those taken from Latin, such as _Breten_ (Britain), _C[e,]nt_ (Kent), _[.G]erm[=a]nia_ (Germany), and those formed by composition, generally with _land_, such as _[E,]n[.g]la-land_ (land of the English, England), _Isr·ah[=e]la-þ[=e]od_ (Israel). In both of these cases the first element is in the gen. pl., but ordinary compounds, such as _Scot-land_, also occur. In other cases the name of the inhabitants of a country is used for the country itself:--_on [=E]ast-[e,]n[.g]lum_ = in East-anglia, lit. 'among the East-anglians.' So also _on Angel-cynne_ = in England, lit. 'among the English race,' more accurately expressed by _Angelcynnes land_. Uncompounded names of countries are sometimes undeclined. Thus we find _on C[e,]nt_, _t[=o] Hierusal[=e]m_. _[.G]erm[=a]nia_, _Asia_, and other foreign names in _-a_ take _-e_ in the oblique cases, thus gen. _[.G]erm[=a]nie_. * * * * * ADJECTIVES. Adjectives have three genders, and the same cases as nouns, though with partly different endings, together with strong and weak inflection. In the masc. and neut. sing. they have an _instrumental_ case, for which in the fem. and plur., and in the weak inflection the dative is used. STRONG ADJECTIVES. Adjectives with a short syllable before the endings take _-u_ in the fem. sing. nom. and neut. pl. nom., those with a long one drop it. {15} SINGULAR. Masc. Neut. Fem. (_a_) _Nom._ cwic (_alive_), cwic, cwic-u. _Acc._ cwic-ne, cwic, cwic-e. _Dat._ cwic-um, cwic-um, cwic-re. _Gen._ cwic-es, cwic-es, cwic-re. _Instr._ cwic-e, cwic-e. (cwicre). PLURAL. _Nom._ cwic-e, cwic-u, cwic-e. \____________________ ______________/ \/ _Dat._ cwic-um. _Gen._ cwic-ra. So also _sum_ (some), _f[=æ]rlic_ (dangerous). Those with _æ_, such as _glæd_ (glad), change it to _a_ in dat. _gladum_, &c. Those in _-e_, such as _bl[=i]þe_ (glad), drop it in all inflections:--_bl[=i]þne_, _bl[=i]þu_, _bl[=i]þre_. Those in _-ig_, _-el_, _-ol_, _-en_, _-er_, _-or_ often contract before inflections beginning with a vowel, as in _h[=a]li[.g]_ (holy), _h[=a]lges_, _h[=a]lgum_; _mi[.c]el_ (great), _mi[.c]lu_, _mi[.c]le_. Not, of course, before consonants:--_h[=a]li[.g]ne_, _mi[.c]elne_, _mi[.c]elra_. Those in _-u_, such as _[.g]earu_ (ready), change the _u_ into a _w_ before vowels:--_[.g]earwes_, _[.g]earwe_. Adjectives with long syllable before the endings drop the _u_ of the fem. and neuter:-- Masc. Neut. Fem. (_b_) _Nom. Sing._ g[=o]d (_good_), g[=o]d, g[=o]d. _Plur._ g[=o]de, g[=o]d, g[=o]de. _F[=e]a_ (few) has only the plural inflections, dat. _f[=e]am_, gen. _f[=e]ara_. _H[=e]ah_ (high) drops its second _h_ in inflection and contracts:--_h[=e]are_, nom. pl. _h[=e]a_, dat. _h[=e]am_, acc. sing. masc. _h[=e]anne_. _Fela_ (many) is indeclinable. {16} WEAK ADJECTIVES. The weak inflections of adjectives agree exactly with the noun ones:- SINGULAR. Masc. Neut. Fem. _Nom._ g[=o]d-a, g[=o]d-e, g[=o]d-e. _Acc._ g[=o]d-an, g[=o]d-e, g[=o]d-an. _Dat._ g[=o]d-an, g[=o]d-an, g[=o]d-an. _Gen._ g[=o]d-an, g[=o]d-an, g[=o]d-an. \________________ __________________/ \/ PLURAL. _Nom._ g[=o]d-an. _Dat._ g[=o]d-um. _Gen._ g[=o]d-ra. The vowel- and consonant-changes are as in the strong declension. COMPARISON. The comparative is formed by adding _-ra_, and is declined like a weak adjective:--_l[=e]of_ (dear), _l[=e]ofra_ masc., _l[=e]ofre_ fem., _l[=e]ofran_ plur., etc.; _m[=æ]re_ (famous), _m[=æ]rra_. The superlative is formed by adding _-ost_, and may be either weak or strong:--_l[=e]ofost_ (dearest). The following form their comparisons with mutation, with superlative in _-est_ (the forms in parentheses are adverbs):-- eald (_old_), ieldra, ieldest. lang (_long_), l[e,]n[.g]ra, l[e,]n[.g]est. n[=e]ah (_near_), (n[=e]ar), n[=i]ehst. h[=e]ah (_high_), h[=i]erra, h[=i]ehst. The following show different roots:-- g[=o]d (_good_), b[e,]tera, b[e,]tst. yfel (_evil_), wiersa, wierrest. mi[.c]el (_great_), m[=a]ra (m[=a]), m[=æ]st. l[=y]tel (_little_), l[=æ]ssa (l[=æ]s), l[=æ]st. {17} The following are defective as well as irregular, being formed from adverbs:-- [=æ]r (_formerly_), [=æ]rra ([=æ]ror), [=æ]rest. fore (_before_), . . . forma, fyrmest. [=u]t (_out_), [=y]terra, [=y]temest. NUMERALS. CARDINAL. ORDINAL. [=a]n, _one_. forma (_first_). tw[=a], _two_. [=o]þer. þr[=e]o, _three_. þridda. f[=e]ower, _four_. f[=e]orþa. f[=i]f, _five_. f[=i]f-ta. siex, _six_. siex-ta. seofon, _seven_. seofoþa. eahta, _eight_. eahtoþa. nigon, _nine_. nigoþa. t[=i]en, _ten_. t[=e]oþa. [e,]ndlufon, _eleven_. [e,]ndlyf-ta. tw[e,]lf, _twelve_. tw[=e,]lf-ta. þr[=e]o-t[=i]ene, _thirteen_. þr[=e]o-t[=e]oþa. f[=e]ower-t[=i]ene, _fourteen_. f[=i]f-t[=i]ene, _fifteen_. siex-t[=i]ene, _sixteen_. seofon-t[=i]ene, _seventeen_. eahta-t[=i]ene, _eighteen_. nigon-t[=i]ene, _nineteen_. tw[e,]n-ti[.g], _twenty_. þri-ti[.g], _thirty_. f[=e]ower-ti[.g], _forty_. f[=i]f-ti[.g], _fifty_. siex-ti[.g], _sixty_. {18} hund-·seofon-ti[.g], _seventy_. hund-·eahta-ti[.g], _eighty_. hund-·nigon-ti[.g], _ninety_. hund } _hundred_. hund-·t[=e]onti[.g], } hund-·[e,]ndlufonti[.g], _hundred and ten_. hund-·tw[e,]lfti[.g], _hundred and twenty_. þ[=u]send, _thousand_. _[=A]n_ is declined like other adjectives. _Tw[=a]_ is declined thus:-- Masc. Neut. Fem. _Nom._ tw[=e][.g]en, tw[=a], tw[=a]. \__________________ ___________________/ \/ _Dat._ tw[=æ]m. _Gen._ tw[=e][.g]ra. So also _b[=e][.g]en_ (both), _b[=a]_, _b[=æ]m_, _b[=e][.g]ra_. _Þr[=e]o_ is declined thus:-- Masc. Neut. Fem. _Nom._ þr[=i]e, þr[=e]o, þr[=e]o. \_____________ _______________/ \/ _Dat._ þrim. _Gen._ þr[=e]ora. The others up to _tw[e,]nti[.g]_ are generally indeclinable. Those in _-ti[.g]_ are sometimes declined like neuter nouns, sometimes like adjectives, and are often left undeclined. When not made into adjectives they govern the genitive. _Hund_ and _þ[=u]send_ are either declined as neuters or left undeclined, always taking a genitive:--_eahta hund m[=i]la_ (eight hundred miles), _f[=e]ower þ[=u]send wera_ (four thousand men). Units are always put before tens:--_[=a]n and tw[e,]nti[.g]_ (twenty-one). {19} The ordinals are always weak, except _[=o]þer_, which is always strong. * * * * * PRONOUNS. PERSONAL. SINGULAR. _Nom._ i[.c] (_I_), þ[=u] (_thou_). _Acc._ m[=e], þ[=e]. _Dat._ m[=e], þ[=e]. _Gen._ m[=i]n, þ[=i]n. DUAL. _Nom._ wit (_we two_), [.g]it (_ye two_). _Acc._ unc, inc. _Dat._ unc, inc. _Gen._ uncer, incer. PLURAL. _Nom._ w[=e] (_we_), [.g][=e] (_ye_). _Acc._ [=u]s, [=e]ow. _Dat._ [=u]s, [=e]ow. _Gen._ [=u]re, [=e]ower. SINGULAR. Masc. Neut. Fem. _Nom._ h[=e] (_he_), hit (_it_), h[=e]o (_she_). _Acc._ hine, hit, h[=i]e. _Dat._ him, him, hiere. _Gen._ his, his, hiere. \_________________ _________________/ \/ PLURAL. _Nom._ h[=i]e (_they_). _Dat._ him. _Gen._ hiera. There are no reflexive pronouns in O.E., and the ordinary {20} personal pronouns are used instead:--_h[=i]e [.g]e·samnodon h[=i]e_ (they collected themselves, assembled); _h[=i]e [=a]·b[=æ]don him w[=i]f_ (they asked for wives for themselves). _Self_ is used as an emphatic reflexive adjective agreeing with its pronoun:--_sw[=a] sw[=a] h[=i]e w[=y]s[.c]ton him selfum_ (as they wished for themselves). POSSESSIVE. _M[=i]n_ (my), _þ[=i]n_ (thy), _[=u]re_ (our), _[=e]ower_ (your), and the dual _uncer_ and _incer_ are declined like other adjectives. The genitives _his_ (his, its), _hiere_ (her), _hiera_ (their) are used as indeclinable possessives. INTERROGATIVE. Masc. and Fem. Neut. _Nom._ hw[=a] (_who_), hwæt (_what_). _Acc._ hwone, hwæt. _Dat._ hw[=æ]m, hw[=æ]m. _Gen._ hwæs, hwæs. _Instr._ hw[=y], hw[=y]. _Hwelc_ (which) is declined like a strong adjective: it is used both as a noun and an adjective. DEMONSTRATIVE. SINGULAR. Masc. Neut. Fem. _Nom._ se (_that_, _the_), þæt, s[=e]o. _Acc._ þone, þæt, þ[=a]. _Dat._ þ[=æ]m, þ[=æ]m, þ[=æ]re. _Gen._ þæs, þæs, þ[=æ]re. _Instr._ þ[=y], þon, þ[=y], (þ[=æ]re). \_______________________ __________________/ \/ PLURAL. _Nom._ þ[=a]. _Dat._ þ[=æ]m. _Gen._ þ[=a]ra. {21} _Se_ is both a demonstrative and a definite article. It is also used as a personal pronoun:--_h[=e] [.g]e·h[=i]erþ m[=i]n word, and wyr[.c]þ þ[=a]_ (he hears my words, and does them). _S[=e]_ as a demonstrative and pers. pronoun has its vowel long. SINGULAR. Masc. Neut. Fem. _Nom._ þes (_this_), þis, þ[=e]os. _Acc._ þisne, þis, þ[=a]s. _Dat._ þissum, þissum, þisse. _Gen._ þisses, þisses, þisse. _Instr._ þ[=y]s, þ[=y]s. (þisse). \__________________ ______________/ \/ PLURAL. _Nom._ þ[=a]s. _Dat._ þissum. _Gen._ þissa. Other demonstratives, which are used both as nouns and as adjectives, are _se ilca_ (same), which is always weak, _swelc_ (such), which is always strong. RELATIVE. The regular relative is the indeclinable _þe_, as in _[=æ]lc þ[=a]ra þe þ[=a]s m[=i]n word [.g]e·h[=i]erþ_ (each of those who hears these my words). It is often combined with _s[=e]_, which is declined:--_s[=e] þe_ = who, masc., _s[=e]o þe_, fem., &c. _S[=e]_ alone is also used as a relative:--_h[=e]r is m[=i]n cnapa, þone ic [.g]e·[.c][=e]as_ (here is my servant, whom I have chosen); sometimes in the sense of 'he who':--_h[=e]r þ[=u] hæfst þæt þ[=i]n is_ (here thou hast that which is thine). INDEFINITE. Indefinites are formed with _sw[=a]_ and the interrogative pronouns, thus:--_sw[=a] hw[=a] sw[=a]_, _sw[=a] hwel[.c] sw[=a]_ (whoever), _sw[=a] hwæt sw[=a]_ (whatever). {22} _[=A]n_ and _sum_ (some) are used in an indefinite sense:--_[=a]n mann_, _sum mann_ = 'a certain man,' hence 'a man.' But the indefinite article is generally not expressed. _[=Æ]l[.c]_ (each), _[=æ]ni[.g]_ (any), _n[=æ]ni[.g]_ (no, none), are declined like other adjectives. _[=O]þer_ (other) is always strong:--_þ[=a] [=o]þre m[e,]nn_. _Man_, another form of _mann_, is often used in the indefinite sense of 'one,' French _on_:--_his br[=o]þor Horsan man of·sl[=o]g_ (they killed his brother Horsa). * * * * * VERBS. There are two classes of verbs in O.E., _strong_ and _weak_. The conjugation of strong verbs is effected mainly by means of vowel-gradation, that of weak verbs by the addition of _d_ (-ode, -ede, -de) to the root-syllable. The following is the conjugation of the strong verb _bindan_ (bind), which will serve to show the endings which are common to all verbs:-- INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. _Pres. sing._ 1. bind-e, bind-e. 2. bind-est, bintst, bind-e. 3. bind-eþ, bint, bind-e. _plur._ bind-aþ, bind-en. _Pret. sing._ 1. band, bund-e. 2. bund-e, bund-e. 3. band, bund-e. _plur._ bund-on, bund-en. _Imper. sing._ bind; _plur._ bind-aþ. _Infin._ bind-an. _Partic. pres._ bind-ende; _pret._ [.g]e-·bund-en. _Gerund._ t[=o] bind-enne. For the plural _bindaþ_, both indicative and imperative, _binde_ is used when the personal pronoun follows immediately after {23} the verb:--_w[=e] bindaþ_ (we bind), but _binde w[=e]_ (let us bind); so also _g[=a]þ!_ (go plur.), but _g[=a] [.g][=e]!_ (go ye). The present participle may be declined like an adjective. Its declension when used as a noun is given above, p. 10. The past participle generally prefixes _[.g]e-_, as in _[.g]e·bunden_, _[.g]e·numen_ from _niman_ (take), unless the other parts of the verbs have it already, as in _[.g]e·h[=i]eran_ (hear), _[.g]e·h[=i]ered_. It is sometimes prefixed to other parts of the verb as well. No _[.g]e_ is added if the verb has another prefix, such as _[=a]-_, _be-_, _for-_; thus _for·[.g]iefan_ (forgive) has the past participle _for·[.g]iefen_. The past participle may be declined like an adjective. Traces of an older passive voice are preserved in the form _h[=a]t-te_ from _h[=a]tan_ (call, name), which is both present 'is called,' and preterite 'was called':--_se munuc h[=a]tte Abbo_ (the monk's name was Abbo). STRONG VERBS. In the strong verbs the plural of the pret. indic. generally has a different vowel from that of the sing. (_ic band_, _w[=e] bundon_). The 2nd sing. pret. indic. and the whole pret. subj. always have the vowel of the preterite plural indicative (_þ[=u] bunde, ic bunde, w[=e] bunden_.) The 2nd and 3rd persons sing. of the pres. indic. often mutate the root-vowel, thus:-- a _becomes_ [e,] _as in_ (h[=e]) st[e,]nt _from_ standan (_stand_). ea " ie " fielþ " feallan (_fall_). e " i " cwiþþ " cweþan (_say_). eo " ie " wierþ " weorþan (_happen_). [=a] " [=æ] " h[=æ]tt " h[=a]tan (_command_). [=o] " [=e] " gr[=e]wþ " gr[=o]wan (_grow_). [=e]a " [=i]e " h[=i]ewþ " h[=e]awan (_hew_). [=e]o " [=i]e " [.c][=i]est " [.c][=e]osan (_choose_). [=u] " [=y] " l[=y]cþ " l[=u]can (_close_). {24} The full ending of the 3rd pers. sing. pres. indic. is _-eþ_, which is generally contracted, with the following consonant-changes:-- -teþ _becomes_ -tt _as in_ l[=æ]tt _from_ l[=æ]tan (_let_). -deþ " -tt " b[=i]tt " b[=i]dan (_wait_). -ddeþ " -tt " bitt " biddan (_pray_). -þeþ " -þþ " cwiþþ " cweþan (_say_). -seþ " -st " [.c][=i]est " [.c][=e]osan (_choose_). -ndeþ " -nt " bint " bindan (_bind_). Double consonants become single, as in _h[=e] fielþ_ from _feallan_. Before the _-st_ of the 2nd pers. consonants are often dropt, as in _þ[=u] cwist_ from _cweþan_, _þ[=u] [.c][=i]est_ from _[.c][=e]osan_; and _d_ becomes _t_, as in _þ[=u] bintst_ from _bindan_. For the changes between _s_ and _r_, _þ_ and _d_, _g_ and _h_, see p. 7. Some verbs, such as _s[=e]on_ (see), drop the _h_ and contract before most inflections beginning with a vowel:--_ic s[=e]o_, _w[=e] s[=e]oþ_, _t[=o] s[=e]onne_; but _h[=e] sihþ_. There are seven conjugations of strong verbs, distinguished mainly by the different formation of their preterites. The following lists comprise all the strong verbs that occur in the texts given in this book, together with several others of the commoner ones. I. 'Fall'-conjugation. The pret. sing. and pl. has _[=e]o_ or _[=e]_, and the past partic. retains the original vowel of the infinitive. {25} (_a_) [=e]o-_preterites_. ea:-- INFINITIVE. THIRD PRES. PRET. SING. PRET. PL. PTC. PRET. feallan (_fall_) fielþ f[=e]oll f[=e]ollon feallen healdan (_hold_) hielt h[=e]old h[=e]oldon healden wealdan (_wield_) wielt w[=e]old w[=e]oldon wealden weaxan (_grow_) wiext w[=e]ox w[=e]oxon weaxen [=a]:-- bl[=a]wan (_blow_) bl[=æ]wþ bl[=e]ow bl[=e]owon bl[=a]wen cn[=a]wan (_know_) cn[=æ]wþ cn[=e]ow cn[=e]owon cn[=a]wen s[=a]wan (_sow_) s[=æ]wþ s[=e]ow s[=e]owon s[=a]wen [=e]:-- w[=e]pan (_weep_) w[=e]pþ w[=e]op w[=e]opon w[=o]pen _W[=e]pan_ has really a weak present (p. 30) with mutation (the original _[=o]_ re-appearing in the past partic.), but it makes no difference in the inflection. [=o]:-- fl[=o]wan (_flow_) fl[=e]wþ fl[=e]ow fl[=e]owon fl[=o]wen gr[=o]wan (_grow_) gr[=e]wþ gr[=e]ow gr[=e]owon gr[=o]wen r[=o]wan (_row_) r[=e]wþ r[=e]ow r[=e]owon r[=o]wen [=e]a:-- b[=e]atan (_beat_) b[=i]ett b[=e]ot b[=e]oton b[=e]aten h[=e]awan (_hew_) h[=i]ewþ h[=e]ow h[=e]owon h[=e]awen hl[=e]apan (_leap_) hl[=i]epþ hl[=e]op hl[=e]opon hl[=e]apen (_b_) [=e]-_preterites_. [=a]:-- h[=a]tan (_command_) h[=æ]tt h[=e]t h[=e]ton h[=a]ten [=æ]:-- l[=æ]tan (_let_) l[=æ]tt l[=e]t l[=e]ton l[=æ]ten [=o]:-- f[=o]n (_seize_) f[=e]hþ f[=e]ng f[=e]ngon fangen h[=o]n (_hang_) h[=e]hþ h[=e]ng h[=e]ngon hangen {26} II. 'Shake'-conjugation. Verbs in _a_ (_ea_) and _[e,]_ (_ie_). _[=O]_ in pret. sing, and pl., _a_ (_æ_) in partic. pret. _Standan_ drops its _n_ in the pret. The partic. pret. of _sw[e,]rian_ is irregular. a:-- INFINITIVE. THIRD. PRES. PRET. SING. PRET. PL. PTC. PRET. faran (_go_) færþ f[=o]r f[=o]ron faren sacan (_quarrel_) sæcþ s[=o]c s[=o]con sacen scacan (_shake_) scæcþ sc[=o]c sc[=o]con scacen standan (_stand_) st[e,]nt st[=o]d st[=o]don standen The following shows contraction of original _ea_:-- sl[=e]an (_strike_) sliehþ sl[=o]g sl[=o]gon slæ[.g]en [e,]:-- h[e,]bban (_lift_) h[e,]fþ h[=o]f h[=o]fon hafen s[.c]ieppan (_create_) s[.c]iepþ sc[=o]p sc[=o]pon scapen sw[e,]rian (_swear_) sw[e,]reþ sw[=o]r sw[=o]ron sworen The presents of these verbs are inflected weak, so that their imperative sing. is _h[e,]fe_ and _sw[e,]re_, like that of _w[e,]nian_ (p. 32). _Sw[e,]rian_ has indic. _sw[e,]rige_, _sw[e,]rest_, like _w[e,]nian_; _h[e,]bban_ has _h[e,]bbe_, _h[e,]fst_, &c. like _h[=i]eran_ (p. 30). III. 'Bind'-conjugation. _I_ (_ie_, _e_, _eo_) followed by two consonants, one or both of which is nearly always a liquid (_l_, _r_) or nasal (_m_, _n_) in the infin., _a_ (_æ_, _ea_) in pret. sing., _u_ in pret. pl., _u_ (_o_) in ptc. pret. _Findan_ has a weak preterite. i:-- INFINITIVE. THIRD PRES. PRET.SING. PRET. PL. PTC. PRET. bindan (_bind_) bint band bundon bunden drincan (_drink_) drincþ dranc druncon druncen findan (_find_) fint funde fundon funden [.g]ieldan (_pay_) [.g]ielt [.g]eald guldon golden (on)[.g]innan (_begin_) -[.g]inþ -gann -gunnon -gunnen {27} grindan (_grind_) grint grand grundon grunden iernan (_run_) [p. 7] iernþ arn urnon urnen [.g]e-·limpan (_happen_) -limpþ -lamp -lumpon -lumpen scrincan (_shrink_) scrincþ scranc scruncon scruncen springan (_spring_) springþ sprang sprungon sprungen swincan (_toil_) swincþ swanc swuncon swuncen windan (_wind_) wint wand wundon wunden winnan (_fight_) winþ wann wunnon wunnen e:-- berstan (_burst_) bierst bærst burston borsten bre[.g]dan (_pull_) ... bræ[.g]d brugdon brogden delfan (_dig_) dilfþ dealf dulfon dolfen sweltan (_die_) swilt swealt swulton swolten eo:-- beorgan (_protect_) bierhþ bearg burgon borgen beornan (_burn_)[p. 7] biernþ barn burnon burnen [.c]eorfan (_cut_) [.c]ierfþ [.c]earf curfon corfen feohtan (_fight_) fieht feaht fuhton fohten weorpan (_throw_) wierpþ wearp wurpon worpen weorþan (_become_) wierþ wearþ wurdon worden IV. 'Bear'-conjugation. Verbs in _e_ (_i_), followed by a single consonant, generally a liquid or nasal; in _brecan_ the liquid precedes the vowel. _A_ (_æ_) in pret. sing., _[=æ]_ (_[=a]_) in pret. pl., _o_ (_u_) in ptc. pret. _Cuman_ is irregular. i:-- INFINITIVE. THIRD PRES. PRET. SG. PRET. PL. PTC. PRET. niman (_take_) nimþ nam n[=a]mon numen e:-- beran (_bear_) bierþ bær b[=æ]ron boren brecan (_break_) bricþ bræc br[=æ]con brocen s[.c]eran (_shear_) s[.c]ierþ s[.c]ear s[.c][=e]aron scoren stelan (_steal_) stilþ stæl st[=æ]lon stolen teran (_tear_) .. tær t[=æ]ron toren {28} u:-- cuman (_come_) cymþ c[=o]m c[=o]mon cumen V. 'Give'-conjugation. Verbs in _e_ (_i_, _eo_, _ie_) followed by single consonants, which are not liquids or nasals. This class differs from the last only in the ptc. pret. which keeps the vowel of the infinitive. e:-- INFINITIVE. THIRD PRES. PRET. SG. PRET. PL. PTC. PRET. cweþan (_say_) cwiþþ cwæþ cw[=æ]don cweden etan (_eat_) itt [=æ]t [=æ]ton eten sprecan (_speak_) spricþ spræc spr[=æ]con sprecen wrecan (_avenge_) wricþ wræc wr[=æ]con wrecen i:-- biddan (_pray_) bitt bæd b[=æ]don beden li[.c][.g]an (_lie_) l[=i]þ læ[.g] l[=æ]gon le[.g]en sittan (_sit_) sitt sæt s[=æ]ton seten þi[.c][.g]an (_receive_) þi[.g]eþ þeah þ[=æ]gon þe[.g]en All these have weak presents:--imper. _bide_, _li[.g]e_, _site_, _þi[.g]e_. Their _i_s are mutations of the _e_ which appears in their past partic. ie:-- [.g]iefan (_give_) [.g]iefþ [.g]eaf [.g][=e]afon [.g]iefen (on)[.g]ietan (_understand_) -[.g]iett -[.g]eat -[.g][=e]aton -[.g]ieten The following is contracted in most forms:-- s[=e]on (_see_) sihþ seah s[=a]won sewen VI. 'Shine'-conjugation. Verbs in _[=i]_, with pret. sing, in _[=a]_, pl. _i_, ptc. pret. _i_. INFINITIVE. THIRD PRES. PRET. SING. PRET. PL. PTC. PRET. b[=i]dan (_wait_) b[=i]tt b[=a]d bidon biden b[=i]tan (_bite_) b[=i]tt b[=a]t biton biten dr[=i]fan (_drive_) dr[=i]fþ dr[=a]f drifon drifen {29} (be)l[=i]fan (_remain_) -l[=i]fþ -l[=a]f -lifon -lifen r[=i]dan (_ride_) r[=i]tt r[=a]d ridon riden r[=i]pan (_reap_) r[=i]pþ r[=a]p ripon ripen ([=a])r[=i]san (_rise_) -r[=i]st -r[=a]s -rison -risen s[.c][=i]nan (_shine_) s[.c][=i]nþ sc[=a]n s[.c]inon s[.c]inen sn[=i]þan (_cut_) sn[=i]þþ sn[=a]þ snidon sniden st[=i]gan (_ascend_) st[=i][.g]þ st[=a]g stigon sti[.g]en (be)sw[=i]can (_deceive_) -sw[=i]cþ -sw[=a]c -swicon -swicen [.g]e·w[=i]tan (_depart_) -w[=i]tt w[=a]t -witon -witen wr[=i]tan (_write_) wr[=i]tt wr[=a]t writon writen VII. 'Choose'-conjugation. Verbs in _[=e]o_ and _[=u]_, with pret. sing. _[=e]a_, pl. _u_, ptc. pret. _o_. _Fl[=e]on_ and _t[=e]on_ contract. INFINITIVE. THIRD PRES. PRET. SING. PRET. PL. PTC. PRET. b[=e]odan (_offer_) b[=i]ett b[=e]ad budon boden br[=e]otan (_break_) br[=i]ett br[=e]at bruton broten [.c][=e]osan (_choose_) [.c][=i]est [.c][=e]as curon coren fl[=e]ogan (_fly_) fl[=i]ehþ fl[=e]ag flugon flogen fl[=e]on (_flee_) fl[=i]ehþ fl[=e]ah flugon flogen fl[=e]otan (_float_) fl[=i]ett fl[=e]at fluton floten hr[=e]osan (_fall_) hr[=i]est hr[=e]as hruron hroren hr[=e]owan (_rue_) hr[=i]ewþ hr[=e]aw hruwon hrowen for·l[=e]osan (_lose_) -l[=i]est -l[=e]as -luron -loren s[.c][=e]otan (_shoot_) s[.c][=i]ett s[.c][=e]at scuton scoten sm[=e]ocan (_smoke_) sm[=i]ecþ sm[=e]ac smucon smocen t[=e]on (_pull_) t[=i]ehþ t[=e]ah tugon togen [=a]-þr[=e]otan (_fail_) -þr[=i]ett -þr[=e]at -þruton -þroten [=u]:-- br[=u]can (_enjoy_) br[=y]cþ br[=e]ac brucon brocen b[=u]gan (_bow_) b[=y]hþ b[=e]ag bugon bogen l[=u]can (_lock_) l[=y]cþ l[=e]ac lucon locen l[=u]tan (_bow_) l[=y]tt l[=e]at luton loten sc[=u]fan (_push_) sc[=y]fþ s[.c][=e]af scufon scofen {30} WEAK VERBS. There are three conjugations of weak verbs--(1) in _-an_, pret. _-de_ (_h[=i]eran_, _h[=i]erde_, 'hear'); (2) in _-ian_, pret. _-ede_ (_w[e,]nian_, _w[e,]nede_, 'wean'); (3) in _-ian_, pret. _-ode_ (_lufian_, _lufode_, 'love'). The verbs of the first two conjugations nearly all have a mutated vowel in the present and infinitive, which those of the third conjugation very seldom have. I. _an-_verbs. This class of weak verbs has the same endings as the strong verbs, except in the pret. and past partic., which are formed by adding _-de_ and _-ed_ respectively, with the following consonant changes. -ndde _becomes_ -nde _as in_ s[e,]nde _from_ s[e,]ndan (_send_). -llde " -lde " fylde " fyllan (_fill_). -tde " -tte " m[=e]tte " m[=e]tan (_find_). -pde " -pte " dypte " dyppan (_dip_). -cde " -hte " t[=æ]hte " t[=æ][.c]an (_show_). The past partic. is generally contracted in the same way:--_s[e,]nd_, _m[=e]tt_, _t[=æ]ht_, but some of them often retain the uncontracted forms:--_fylled_, _dypped_. When declined like adjectives they drop their _e_ where practicable:--_fylled_, plur. _fylde_; _h[=i]ered_, _h[=i]erde_. The 2nd and 3rd pres. sing. ind. are contracted as in the strong verbs. (_a_) 'Hear'_-class_. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. _Pres. sing._ 1. h[=i]er-e (_hear_), h[=i]er-e. 2. h[=i]er-st, h[=i]er-e. 3. h[=i]er-þ, h[=i]er-e. _plur._ h[=i]er-aþ, h[=i]er-en. {31} _Pret. sing._ 1. h[=i]er-de, h[=i]er-de. 2. h[=i]er-dest, h[=i]er-de. 3. h[=i]er-de, h[=i]er-de. _plur._ h[=i]er-don, h[=i]er-den. Imper. sing. h[=i]er; plur. h[=i]er-aþ. Infin. h[=i]er-an. Ptc. pres. h[=i]er-ende; pret. h[=i]er-ed. Gerund. t[=o] h[=i]er-enne. Further examples of this class are:-- INFINITIVE. THIRD PRES. PRET. PARTIC. PRET. æt·[=i]ewan (_show_) -[=i]ewþ -[=i]ewde -[=i]ewed. c[=y]þan (_make known_) c[=y]þþ c[=y]þde c[=y]þed, c[=y]dd fyllan (_fill_) fylþ fylde fylled (n[=e]a)l[=æ][.c]an (_approach_) -l[=æ][.c]þ -l[=æ]hte -l[=æ]ht l[=æ]dan (_lead_) l[æ]tt l[=æ]dde l[=æ]dd l[e,][.c][.g]an (_lay_) l[e,][.g]þ l[e,][.g]de l[e,][.g]d [.g]e·l[=i]efan (_believe_) -l[=i]efþ -l[=i]efde -l[=i]efed n[e,]mnan (_name_) n[e,]mneþ n[e,]mnde n[e,]mned s[e,]ndan (_send_) s[e,]nt s[e,]nde s[e,]nd s[e,]ttan (_set_) s[e,]tt s[e,]tte s[e,]tt sm[=e]an (_consider_) sm[=e]aþ sm[=e]ade sm[=e]ad t[=æ][.c]an (_show_) t[=æ][.c]þ t[=æ]hte t[=æ]ht w[e,]ndan (_turn_) w[e,]nt w[e,]nde w[e,]nd (_b_) 'Seek'-_class_. In this class the mutated vowels lose their mutation in the preterite and past partic., besides undergoing other changes in some verbs. Those in double consonants (and _[.c][.g]_) simplify them in the contracted 2nd and 3rd sing. pres. indic.:--_s[e,]lle_, _s[e,]lst_, _s[e,]lþ_; _s[e,][.c][,g]e_, _s[e,][.g]st_, _s[e,][.g]þ_; also in the imperative, which is formed as in Conj. II:--_s[e,]le_, _s[e,][.g]e_, _by[.g]e_, &c. {32} [e,]:-- INFINITIVE. THIRD PRES. PRET. PARTIC. PRET. cw[e,]llan (_kill_) cw[e,]lþ cwealde cweald r[e,][.c][.c]an (_tell_) r[e,][.c]þ reahte reaht s[e,][.c][.g]an (_say_) s[e,][.g]þ sæ[.g]de sæ[.g]d s[e,]llan (_give_) s[e,]lþ sealde seald w[e,][.c][.c]an (_wake_) w[e,][.c]þ weahte weaht þ[e,]n[.c]an (_think_) þ[e,]n[.c]þ þ[=o]hte þ[=o]ht i:-- bringan (_bring_) bringþ br[=o]hte br[=o]ht y:-- by[.c][.g]an (_buy_) by[.g]þ bohte boht þyn[.c]an (_appear_) þyn[.c]þ þ[=u]hte þ-uht wyr[.c]an (_work_) wyr[.c]þ worhte worht [=e]:-- r[=e][.c]an (_care_) r[=e][.c]þ r[=o]hte r[=o]ht s[=e][.c]an (_seek_) s[=e][.c]þ s[=o]hte s[=o]ht II. 'Wean'-_conjugation_. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. _Pres. sing._ 1. w[e,]n-i[.g]e (_wean_), w[e,]n-i[.g]e. 2. w[e,]n-est, w[e,]n-i[.g]e. 3. w[e,]n-eþ, w[e,]n-i[.g]e. _plur._ w[e,]n-iaþ, w[e,]n-ien. _Pret. sing._ 1. w[e,]n-ede, w[e,]n-ede. 2. w[e,]n-edest, w[e,]n-ede. 3. w[e,]n-ede, w[e,]n-ede. _plur._ w[e,]n-edon, w[e,]n-eden. _Imper._ w[e,]n-e, w[e,]n-iaþ. _Infin._ w[e,]n-ian. _Partic. pres._ w[e,]n-iende; _pret._ w[e,]n-ed. _Gerund._ t[=o] w[e,]n-ienne. {33} So are conjugated all weak verbs with a short mutated root syllable, such as _f[e,]rian_ (carry), _w[e,]rian_ (defend), _[.g]e·byrian_ (befit). There are not many of them. III. 'Love'-_conjugation_. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. _Pres. sing._ 1. luf-i[.g]e (_love_), luf-i[.g]e. 2. luf-ast, luf-i[.g]e. 3. luf-aþ, luf-i[.g]e. _plur._ luf-iaþ, luf-ien. _Pret. sing._ 1. luf-ode, luf-ode. 2. luf-odest, luf-ode. 3. luf-ode, luf-ode. _plur._ luf-odon, luf-oden. _Imper._ luf-a, luf-iaþ. _Infin._ luf-ian. _Partic. pres._ luf-iende: _pret._ luf-od. _Gerund._ t[=o] luf-ienne. So also _[=a]scian_ (ask), _macian_ (make), _weorþian_ (honour), and many others. _Irregularities._ Some verbs are conjugated partly after I, partly after III. Such are _habban_ (have) and _libban_ (live). _Habban_ has pres. indic. _hæbbe_, _hæfst_, _hæfþ_; _habbaþ_, subj. _hæbbe_, _hæbben_, pret. _hæfde_, imper. _hafa_, _habbaþ_, particc. _habbende_, _hæfd_. _Libban_ has pres. _libbe_, _leofast_, _leofaþ_; _libbaþ_, subj. _libbe_, pret. _leofode_, imper. _leofa_, _libbaþ_, particc. _libbende_, _lifiende_; _leofod_. _F[e,]tian_ (fetch) has pret. _f[e,]tte_. STRONG-WEAK VERBS. The strong-weak verbs have for their presents old strong preterites, from which new weak preterites are formed. Note the occasional second person sing. in _t_. {34} INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. _Pres. sing._ 1. w[=a]t (_know_), wite. 2. w[=a]st, wite. 3. w[=a]t, wite. _plur._ witon, witen. _Pret._ wiste. _Imper._ wite, witaþ. _Infin._ witan. _Partic. pres._ witende; _pret._ witen. The other most important weak-strong verbs are given below in the 1st and 2nd sing. pres. indic., in the plur. indic., in the pret., in the infin. and partic. pret. Of several the last two forms are doubtful, or do not exist. [=A]h (_possess_), [=a]ge, [=a]gon; [=a]hte; [=a]gen (_only as adjective_)[4]. Cann (_know_) canst, cunnon; c[=u]þe; cunnan; c[=u]þ (_only as adjective_.) Dearr (_dare_), durre, durron; dorste. [.G]e·man (_remember_), -manst; -munde; -munan. Mæ[.g] (_can_), miht, magon, mæ[.g]e (_subj._); mihte. M[=o]t (_may_), m[=o]st, m[=o]ton; m[=o]ste. S[.c]eal (_shall_), s[.c]ealt, sculon, scyle (_subj._); scolde. Þearf (_need_), þurfon, þyrfe (_subj._); þorfte; þurfan. ANOMALOUS VERBS. (1) Willan (_will_) shows a mixture of subj. forms in the pres. indic. sing.:-- INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. _Pres. sing._ 1. wile, wile. 2. wilt, wile. 3. wile, wile. _plur._ willaþ, willen. _Pret._ wolde, etc. {35} Similarly _nyllan_ (will not):-- INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. _Pres. sing._ 1. nyle, nyle. 2. nylt, nyle. 3. nyle, nyle. _plur._ nyllaþ, nyllen. _Pret._ nolde, etc. (2) Wesan (_be_). INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. _Pres. sing._ 1. eom; b[=e]o, s[=i]e; b[=e]o. 2. eart; bist, s[=i]e; b[=e]o. 3. is; biþ, s[=i]e; b[=e]o. _plur._ sind; b[=e]oþ, s[=i]en; b[=e]on. _Pret. sing._ 1. wæs, w[=æ]re. 2. w[=æ]re, w[=æ]re. 3. wæs, w[=æ]re. _plur._ w[=æ]ron, w[=æ]ren. _Imper._ wes, wesaþ; b[=e]o, b[=e]oþ. _Infin._ wesan; b[=e]on. _Partic. pres._ wesende. The contracted negative forms are:--_neom_, _neart_, _nis_; _næs_, _n[=æ]re_, _n[=æ]ron_; _n[=æ]re_, _n[=æ]ren_. (3) D[=o]n (_do_). INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. _Pres. sing._ 1. d[=o], d[=o]. 2. d[=e]st, d[=o]. 3. d[=e]þ, d[=o]. _plur._ d[=o]þ, d[=o]n. _Pret._ dyde, etc. _Imper._ d[=o], d[=o]þ. _Infin._ d[=o]n. _Partic. pres._ d[=o]nde; _pret._ [.g]e·d[=o]n. {36} (4) G[=a]n (_go_). INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. _Pres. sing._ 1. g[=a], g[=a]. 2. g[=æ]st, g[=a]. 3. g[=æ]þ, g[=a]. _plur._ g[=a]þ, g[=a]n. _Pret._ [=e]ode, [=e]ode. _Imper._ g[=a], g[=a]þ. _Infin._ g[=a]n. _Partic. pres._ gangende; _pret._ [.g]e·g[=a]n. * * * * * DERIVATION. PREFIXES. The following are the most important prefixes, some of which are _verbal_, being confined to verbs and words formed directly from them; some _nominal_, being confined to nouns and adjectives. [=a]- (1) originally 'forth,' 'away,' as in _[=a]·r[=i]san_, 'rise forth,' 'arise'; _[=a]·faran_, 'go away,''depart'; but generally only intensive, as in _[=a]·cw[e,]llan_ (kill), _[=a]·hr[=e]osan_ (fall). (2) = 'ever' in pronouns and particles, where it gives an indefinite sense, as in _[=a]-hw[=æ]r_ (anywhere), _[=a]-wiht_ (anything). [=æ][.g]- from _[=a]-[.g]e_-, the _[=a]_ being mutated and the _e_ dropped, has a similar meaning, as in _[=æ][.g]-hwelc_ (each), _[=æ][.g]þer_ = _[=æ][.g]-hwæþer_ (either). be-, originally 'by,' 'around' (cp. the preposition _be_), (1) specializes the meaning of a transitive verb, as in _be·s[e,]ttan_ (beset, surround), _be·s[.c]ieran_ (shear); (2) makes an intransitive verb transitive, as in _be·þ[e,]n[.c]an_ (consider) from _þ[e,]n[.c]an_ (think); (3) gives a privative meaning, as in _be·h[=e]afdian_ (behead). In some words, such as _be·cuman_ (come), it is practically unmeaning. {37} for- (which is distinct from the preposition _for_) generally has the sense of 'loss' or 'destruction,' as in _for·d[=o]n_ (destroy), _for·weorþan_ (perish). Of course, if the verb with which it is compounded already has this meaning, it acts merely as an intensitive, as in _for·br[=e]otan_ (break up, break), _for·scrincan_ (shrink up). It also modifies in a bad sense generally, as in _for·s[=e]on_ (despise), or negatives, as in _for·b[=e]odan_ (forbid). [.g]e- originally meant 'together,' as in _[.g]e·f[=e]ra_ (fellow-traveller, companion) from _f[=e]ran_ (travel). With verbs it often signifies 'completion,' 'attainment,' and hence 'success,' as in _[.g]e·g[=a]n_ (conquer), originally 'go over,' or 'reach,' _[.g]e·winnan_ (win) from _winnan_ (fight). Hence generally prefixed to _h[=i]eran_ and _s[=e]on_, _[.g]e·h[=i]eran_ and _[.g]e·s[=e]on_ strictly meaning 'succeed in hearing, seeing.' It is generally prefixed to past participles (p. 23), where it originally gave the meaning of completion--_[.g]e·lufod_ = 'completely loved.' mis- = 'mis,' as in _mis-d[=æ]d_ (misdeed). n- = _ne_ (not), as in _n[=a]_ (not), literally 'never,' _n[=æ]fre_ (never), _næs_ (was not) = _ne wæs_. on- as a verbal prefix has nothing to do with the preposition _on_. It properly signifies 'separation,' as in _on·l[=u]can_ (open) from _l[=u]can_ (lock, close), but is often practically unmeaning, as in _on·[.g]innan_ (begin). or-, literally 'out of,' is privative, as in _orsorg_ (unconcerned) from _sorg_ (sorrow). t[=o]- as a verbal prefix has nothing to do with the preposition _t[=o]_ (which occurs in _t[=o]·gædre_, 'together,' &c.), but signifies 'separation,' as in _t[=o]·berstan_ (burst asunder), _t[=o]·bre[.g]dan_ (shake off), and hence 'destruction,' as in _t[=o]·cw[=i]esan_ (crush to pieces, bruise). un- negatives, as in _un-[.g]es[=æ]li[.g]_ (unhappy). {38} ENDINGS. (_a_) NOUNS. _Personal._ -end, from the present participle _-ende_, = '-er':--_H[=æ]lend_ (healer, Saviour), _b[=u]end_ (dweller). -ere = '-er':--_s[=a]were_ (sower), _mynetere_ (money-changer, minter) from _mynet_ (coin). -ing, patronymic, _æþeling_ (son of a noble, prince) from _æþele_ (noble). _Abstract._ -nes, fem. from adjectives:--_g[=o]d-nes_ (goodness), _rihtw[=i]snes_ (righteousness). -uþ, -þo, fem., generally from adjectives:--_[.g][=e]oguþ_ (youth), _str[e,]n[.g]þo_ (strength) from _strang_. -ung, fem. from verbs:--_scotung_ (shooting, shot), _h[e,]rgung_ (ravaging), from _scotian_, _h[e,]rgian_. The following are also independent words:-- -d[=o]m, masc.:--_w[=i]s-d[=o]m_ (wisdom), _þ[=e]ow-d[=o]m_ (servitude). -h[=a]d, masc.:--_[.c]ild-h[=a]d_ (childhood). -r[=æ]den, fem.:--_[.g]e·cwid-r[=æ]den_ (agreement) from _cwide_ (speech); _mann-r[=æ]den_ (allegiance). -s[.c]ipe, masc.:--_fr[=e]ond-s[.c]ipe_ (friendship). Concrete in _wæter-s[.c]ipe_ (piece of water, water). (_b_) ADJECTIVES. -en, with mutation, denotes 'material,' 'belonging to':--_gylden_ (golden), _st[=æ]nen_ (of stone), _h[=æ]þen_ (heathen) from _h[=æ]þ_ (heath). In _seolcen_ (silken) there is no mutation. -feald = '-fold':--_hund-feald_ (hundred-fold). -i[.g]:--_miht-i[.g]_ (mighty); _h[=a]l-i[.g]_ (holy) from _h[=a]l_ (whole). {39} -isc, with mutation:--_[E,]n[.g]lisc_ (English) from _Angel_; _m[e,]nn-isc_ (human) from _mann_. -ol:--_swic-ol_ (deceitful). -iht, with mutation, denotes 'material,' 'nature':--_st[=æ]n-iht_ (stony). -sum = 'some':--_h[=i]er-sum_ (obedient). The following exist (sometimes in a different form) as independent words:-- -fæst:--_s[=o]þ-fæst_ (truthful). -full:--_sorg-full_ (sorrowful), _[.g]e·l[=e]af-full_ (believing, pious). -l[=e]as = '-less':--_[=a]r-l[=e]as_ (dishonoured, wicked). -lic (cp. _[.g]e·l[=i]c_) = '-ly':--_folc-lic_ (popular), _heofon-lic_ (heavenly). -weard = '-ward':--_s[=u]þan-weard_ (southward). VERBS. -l[=æ][.c]an:--_[=a]n-l[=æ][.c]an_ (unite), _[.g]e·þw[=æ]r-l[=æ][.c]an_ (agree). ADVERBS. -e, the regular adverb-termination:--_lange_ (long), _[.g]e·l[=i]ce_ (similarly) from _lang_, _[.g]e·l[=i]c_. Sometimes _-l[=i]ce_ (from _-lic_) is used to form adverbs, as _bl[=i]þe-l[=i]ce_ (gladly) from _bl[=i]þe_. DERIVATIONS FROM PARTICIPLES. Many abstract words are formed from present participles (often in a passive sense) and past participles (often in an active sense):-- -nes:--_for·[.g]iefen-nes_ (forgiveness), _[.g]e·r[e,][.c]ed-nes_ (narrative), _welwillend-nes_ (benevolence). -lic:--_un[=a]r[=i]med-lic_ (innumerable). -l[=i]ce:--_welwillend-l[=i]ce_ (benevolently). * * * * * {40} SYNTAX. GENDER. When masculine and feminine beings are referred to by the same adjective or pronoun, the adjective or pronoun is put in the neuter:--_h[=i]e [.g]e·samnodon h[=i]e_, _ealle þ[=a] h[=e]afod-m[e,]nn, and [=e]ac swelce w[=i]f-menn_ ... _and þ[=a] h[=i]e bl[=i]þost w[=æ]ron_ ... (they gathered themselves, all the chief men, and also women ... and when they were most merry ...). Here _bl[=i]þost_ is in the neuter plur. CASES. Accusative. Some verbs of asking (a question) and requesting, together with _l[=æ]ran_ (teach), take two accusatives, one of the person, and another of the thing:--_h[=i]e hine ne dorston [=æ]ni[.g] þing [=a]scian_ (they durst not ask him anything); _w[=e] magon [=e]ow r[=æ]d [.g]e·l[=æ]ran_ (we can teach you a plan). The accusative is used adverbially to express duration of time: _hw[=y] stande [.g][=e] h[=e]r ealne dæ[.g] [=i]dle?_ (why stand ye here all the day idle?) Dative. The dative in Old E. is of two kinds, (1) the dative proper, and (2) the instrumental dative, interchanging with the regular instrumental. It is not always easy to separate the two. (1) The dative proper usually designates personal relations, and is frequently used with verbs, together with an accusative (generally of the thing). The dative is also used with adjectives. It is used not only with verbs of _giving_, &c., as in _h[=e] sealde [=æ]lcum [=a]nne p[e,]ning_ (he gave each a penny); _addressing_, as in _ic [=e]ow s[e,][.c][.g]e_ (I say to you), _h[=e] þancode his Dryhtne_ (he thanked his Lord); but also with many verbs of _benefiting_, _influencing_, &c., as in _ne d[=o] ic þ[=e] n[=a]nne t[=e]onan_ (I do thee no injury), _h[=i]e noldon him l[=i]efan_ (they would not allow {41} them to do so); _þ[=æ]m r[=e]þum st[=i]erde_ (restrained the cruel ones). Also in looser constructions, to denote the person indirectly affected, benefited, &c., as in _by[.c][.g]aþ [=e]ow ele_ (buy for yourselves oil). Note especially the following idiom: _h[=i]e [.g]e·s[=o]hton Bretene Brettum t[=o] fultume_ (they came to Britain as a help to the Britains--to help them); _h[=e] clipode Cr[=i]st him t[=o] fultume_ (he called Christ to his help). The dative is also used with adjectives of _nearness_, _likeness_, &c.:--_[=E]admund cyning clipode [=a]nne biscop þe him [.g]e·h[e,]ndost wæs_ (King Edmund summoned a bishop who was nearest at hand to him); _heofona r[=i][.c]e is [.g]e·l[=i]c þ[=æ]m mangere þe s[=o]hte þæt g[=o]de m[e,]regrot_ (the kingdom of the heavens is like the merchant who sought the good pearl). (2) The instrumental dative is used to denote the _instrument_ and _manner_ of an action: _h[=e] [.g]e·[e,]ndode yflum d[=e]aþe_ (he ended with an evil death). Hence its use to form adverbs, as in _s[.c][=e]afm[=æ]lum_ (sheafwise). It also signifies time when:--_þrim [.g][=e]arum [=æ]r þ[=æ]m þe h[=e] forþ·f[=e]rde_ (three years before he died), which is also expressed by the instrumental itself:--_s[=e]o wolde [e,]fsian [=æ]lce [.g][=e]are þone sanct_ (she used to cut the saint's hair every year); _þ[=y] f[=e]orþan [.g][=e]are his r[=i][.c]es_ (in the fourth year of his reign). A past participle with a noun in the instrumental dative is used like the ablative absolute in Latin: _Hubba be·l[=a]f on Norþhymbra-lande, [.g]e·wunnenum si[.g]e mid wælhr[=e]ownesse_ (H. remained in Northumbria, victory having been won with cruelty). Genitive. The genitive is often used in a partitive sense:--_his f[=e]onda sum_ (one of his enemies); _hiera f[=i]f w[=æ]ron dysi[.g]e_ (five of them were foolish). Hence it is generally used with _fela_, as in _fela wundra_ (many miracles); also with numerals when used as substantives (p. 18). The genitive is often used like an accusative to denote the object of various emotions and mental states, such as {42} _joy_, _desire_, _remembering_:--_h[=i]e þæs fæ[.g]nodon sw[=i]þe_ (they rejoiced at it greatly); _m[=e] l[=e]ofre w[=æ]re þæt ic on [.g]e·feohte f[=e]olle wiþ þ[=æ]m þe m[=i]n folc m[=o]ste hiera eardes br[=u]can_ (it would be pleasanter to me to fall in fight that my people might enjoy (possess) their country); _ic þæs [.g]e·wilni[.g]e_ (I desire that); _[.g]if h[=e] his f[=e]ores r[=o]hte_ (if he cared about his life); _h[=e] wæs þæs H[=æ]lendes [.g]e·myndi[.g]_ (he was mindful of--he remembered the Saviour). Some of these verbs, such as _biddan_ (ask), take an accusative of the person and a genitive of the thing:--_h[=e] hine hl[=a]fes bitt_ (he asks him for bread). Verbs of _depriving_, _restraining_, &c., have the same construction:--_nis Angel-cynn be·d[=æ]led Dryhtnes h[=a]lgena_ (England is not deprived of the Lord's saints). Some verbs of _giving_, &c., take a genitive of the thing and a dative of the person:--_him wæs of·togen [=æ]lces f[=o]dan_ (they were deprived of all food). The genitive is often used to _define_ an adjective or noun:--_þ[=u] eart wierþe sl[e,][.g]es_ (thou art worthy of death); _on þ[=æ]m [.g][=e]are þe Ælfred æþeling [=a]n and tw[e,]nti[.g] [.g][=e]ara wæs_ (in the year when Prince Alfred was twenty-one). CONCORD. Adjectives agree with their nouns not only when used attributively (g[=o]de m[e,]nn), but also when the adjective follows the noun, either predicatively or in apposition:--_þ[=a] m[e,]nn sind g[=o]de_; _h[=e] [.g]e·seah [=o]þre [=i]dle standan_ (he saw others standing idle); _h[=i]e c[=o]mon mid langum s[.c]ipum, n[=a] manigum_ (they came with long ships, not many). APPOSITION. In such expressions as 'the island of Britain,' the second noun is not put in the genitive, but the two are simply put in {43} apposition, both being declined separately:--_Breten [=i]e[.g]land, on Bretene (þ[=æ]m) [=i]e[.g]lande_. In 'king Alfred,' &c., the proper name is put first in the same way:--_Ælfred æþeling_ (prince Alfred); _on Æþelredes cyninges dæ[.g]e_ (in the days of king Æþelred). There is a similar apposition with the adjective _sum_ followed by a noun or pronoun, as in _sume þ[=a] m[e,]nn_ (some of the men); _þ[=a] þ[=a] h[=e] s[=e]ow, sumu h[=i]e f[=e]ollon wiþ we[.g]_ (while he sowed, some of them [the seeds] fell by the road). Sometimes the pronoun precedes, as in _þ[=a] b[=æ]don h[=i]e sume þæt Samson m[=o]ste him macian sum gamen_ (then some of them asked that Samson might make some sport for them). Another kind of apposition occurs in instances like the following, where we have an adjective agreeing with a following noun, and denoting a part of it:--_h[=i]e [.g]e·s[=æ]ton s[=u]þanwearde Bretene [=æ]rest_ (they occupied the south of Britain first); _s[=u]þanweard hit_ (= þæt land) _hæfdon Peohtas_ (the Picts had the south part of it). ADJECTIVES. The weak forms are used: (1) after the definite article:--_se æþela cyning_ (the noble king); _þæs æþelan cyninges_, _þæt g[=o]de m[e,]regrot_, _þ[=a] g[=o]dan m[e,]regrotu_. (2) after _þis_:--_þ[=a]s earman landl[=e]ode_ (these poor people, _pl._); _þes h[=a]lga cyning_ (this holy king), _þisses h[=a]lgan cyninges_. (3) occasionally after other demonstrative and indefinite adjectives, and often after possessive pronouns:--_þ[=i]ne d[=i]eglan gold-hordas_ (thy hidden treasures). (4) in the vocative:--_þ[=u] yfla þ[=e]ow and sl[=a]wa!_ (thou bad and slothful servant); _[=e]al[=a] þ[=u] l[=e]ofa cyning!_ (oh, thou dear king). Note that _[=o]þer_ always keeps the strong form: _þ[=a] [=o]þru d[=e]or_ (the other wild beasts). So also do the possessive pronouns: {44} _þ[=a]s m[=i]n word_ (these my words). _[=A]n_ in the sense of 'one' keeps the strong form to distinguish it from the weak _[=a]na_ = 'alone': _þæt [=a]n d[=e]orwierþe m[e,]regrot_ (the one precious pearl). ARTICLES. The definite article is omitted as in Modern English before names such as _God_, and also before _Dryhten_ (the Lord), _D[=e]ofol_ (the Devil), although _se D[=e]ofol_ also occurs, and names of nations:--_Bretta cyning_ (king of the Britons). It is omitted in many prepositional combinations, not only in those where it is omitted in Modern English also, as in _si[.g]efæst on s[=æ] and on lande_ (victorious on sea and on land), but also in many others: _[.g]ew[e,]nde t[=o] wuda on·[.g][=e]an_ (went back to the wood); _se floth[e,]re f[=e]rde eft t[=o] s[.c]ipe_ (the army of pirates went back to their ships); _h[=e] f[=e]ng t[=o] r[=i][.c]e_ (he took the government--came to the throne). The definite article is, on the other hand, sometimes used where it would not be in Modern E., as in _se mann_ = 'man' (men in general). The indefinite article is often not expressed at all:--_þæt dyde unhold mann_ (an enemy did that); _h[=e] be·stealcode on land sw[=a] sw[=a] wulf_ (he stole to land like a wolf). Or it is expressed by _sum_: _on þ[=æ]m lande wæs sum mann, L[=e]ofr[=i][.c] [.g]e·h[=a]ten_ (in that country was a man called L.). Or by _[=a]n_, as in Modern English_:--[=a]n wulf wearþ [=a]·s[e,]nd t[=o] be·w[e,]rienne þæt h[=e]afod wiþ þ[=a] [=o]þru d[=e]or_ (a wolf was sent to protect the head against the other wild beasts). PRONOUNS. _Hwæt_ is used interrogatively of persons where we should use 'who':--_h[=e] nyste hwæt h[=i]e w[=æ]ron_ (he did not know who they were). {45} VERBS. NUMBER. After _[=æ]lc þ[=a]ra þe_ (each of-those-who) the verb is put in the sing., agreeing not with _þ[=a]ra þe_ but with _[=æ]lc_:--_[=æ]lc þ[=a]ra þe þ[=a]s m[=i]n word [.g]e·h[=i]erþ_ (each of those who hear these my words). When _þæt_ or _þis_ is connected with a plural predicate by means of the verb 'to be,' the verb is put in the plural:--_þæt w[=æ]ron þ[=a] [=æ]restan s[.c]ipu D[e,]niscra manna þe Angel-cynnes land [.g]e·s[=o]hton_ (those were the first ships of Danish men which came to the land of the English race). Impersonal verbs take an accusative of the person, sometimes also with a genitive of the thing. Others, such as _þyn[.c]an_ (appear), take a dative of the person:--_wæs him [.g]e·þ[=u]ht þæt h[=i]e be·h[=y]dden þæt h[=e]afod_ (they thought they (the Danes) had hidden the head). TENSES. There being no future inflection in Old E., the present is used instead:--_ne [=a]·b[=y]hþ n[=æ]fre E[=a]dmund Hinguare_ (Edmund will never submit to H.); _g[=a] [.g][=e] on m[=i]nne w[=i]n[.g]eard, and ic s[e,]lle [=e]ow þæt riht biþ_ (go ye into my vineyard, and I will give you what is right). As we see in this example, there is a tendency to use _b[=e]on_ in a future sense. Another example is _[.g]if ic b[=e]o [.g]e·bunden mid seofon r[=a]pum, s[=o]na ic b[=e]o [.g]e·wield_ (if I am bound with seven ropes, I shall at once be overcome). The future is sometimes expressed by _will_ and _shall_, as in Modern English, though generally with a sense of volition with the one, and of necessity with the other, the idea of simple futurity coming out most clearly in the preterites _wolde_ and _scolde_:-- _H[=e] [.g]e·l[=æ]hte [=a]ne l[=e]on þe hine [=a]·b[=i]tan wolde_ (he seized a lion {46} that was going to devour him); _h[=i]e w[=e]ndon þæt h[=i]e scolden m[=a]re on·f[=o]n_ (they expected to receive more). The preterite has the meaning of the modern (1) Preterite and imperfect:--_se s[=a]were [=u]t [=e]ode his s[=æ]d t[=o] s[=a]wenne, and þ[=a] þ[=a] h[=e] s[=e]ow ..._ (the sower _went_ out to sow his seed, and while he _was sowing_ ...). (2) Perfect:--_h[=e]r is m[=i]n cnapa, þone ic [.g]e[.c][=e]as_ (here is my servant, whom I have chosen);--_[=u]re cyning c[=o]m n[=u] h[=e]r t[=o] lande_ (our king has just landed here). (3) Pluperfect:--_þ[=a] þ[=a] [.g]e·c[=o]mon þe ymb þ[=a] [e,]ndlyftan t[=i]d c[=o]mon_ (when those came who had come at the eleventh hour). Periphrastic tenses are sometimes formed, as in Modern E., by _hæbbe_ and _hæfde_ with the past participles, and often have the meanings of the modern perfect and pluperfect respectively, as in _n[=u] ic hæbbe [.g]estr[=i]ened [=o]þru tw[=a] pund_ (now I have gained two other pounds), but even the pluperfect often has the sense of a simple preterite. The participle is undeclinable in the later language, but originally it was declined, being really an adjective in apposition to the noun or pronoun governed by _habban_: _h[=i]e hæfdon hiera cyning [=a]·worpenne_ (they had deposed their king). The pluperfect sense is often indicated by the addition of the adverb _[=æ]r_ (before):--_his sw[=e]ora, þe [=æ]r wæs for·slæ[.g]en_ (his neck, which had been cut through). The periphrastic forms of intransitive verbs are formed with _wesan_:--_siþþan h[=i]e [=a]·farene w[=æ]ron_ (after they had gone away). Here the participle always agrees with the noun or pronoun with which it is connected. The periphrases with the present participle have no distinctive meanings of duration, &c.:--_[=a]n mann wæs eardiende on Israh[=e]la þ[=e]ode, Manu[=e] [.g]e·h[=a]ten_ (a man dwelt in Israel called Manue). {47} PASSIVE. The passive is formed with _wesan_ or _weorþan_ with the past participle. These forms are very vague in meaning, and the distinction between the two auxiliaries is not clearly marked, but _wesan_ appears to indicate a state, _weorþan_ an action. _wearþ [.g]e·lufod_ is generally preterite or perfect in meaning: _[=a]n wulf wearþ [=a]·s[e,]nd_ (a wolf was sent); _m[=i]ne l[=e]ofe þe[.g]nas, þe on hiera b[e,]ddum wurdon of·slæ[.g]ene_ (my beloved thanes, who have been killed in their beds). _wæs [.g]e·lufod_, indicating a state, is naturally pluperfect in meaning:--_se [=æ]rendraca sæ[.g]de his hl[=a]forde h[=u] him [.g]e·andwyrd wæs_ (the messenger told his lord how he had been answered). SUBJUNCTIVE. The subjunctive states something not as a fact, as in the indicative, but merely as an object of thought. Hence it is used to express wish, conditions, doubt, &c. A. In principal sentences. _Wish_ and _command_ (often nearly equivalent to the imperative):--_þæs him s[=i]e wuldor and lof [=a] b[=u]tan [e,]nde_ (therefore let there be to him praise and glory ever without end); _ne h[=e] ealu ne drince n[=æ]fre oþþe w[=i]n_ (nor shall he ever drink ale or wine). B. In dependent sentences. The chief cases are the following:-- (1) In _indirect narrative_ and _question_: _s[=e]o cw[=e]n sæ[.g]de þæt hiere n[=æ]re be healfum d[=æ]le [.g]e·sæ[.g]d be Salomones m[=æ]rþo_ (the queen said that she had not been told about Solomon's glory by half); _ic [=a]sci[.g]e hw[=æ]r s[=e]o offrung s[=i]e_ (I ask where the offering is); _m[e,]nn woldon s[.c][=e]awian h[=u] h[=e] l[=æ][.g]e_ (men {48} wished to see how he lay). When the statement in the indirect narration is perfectly certain in itself, and not merely accepted on the authority of the speaker, it is put in the indicative:--_h[=e] hiere sæ[.g]de on hw[=æ]m his miht wæs_ (he told her what his strength consisted in). (2) After verbs of _desiring_ and _commanding_:-- _þæs ic [.g]e·wilni[.g]e and [.g]e·wys[.c]e mid m[=o]de þæt ic [=a]na ne be·l[=i]fe æfter m[=i]num l[=e]ofum þe[.g]num_ (that I desire and wish with heart that I may not remain alone after my dear thanes). (3) To express _purpose_:--_þ[=y] l[=æ]s [.g][=e] þone hw[=æ]te [=a]·wyrtwalien_ (lest ye root up the wheat);--_Dryhten [=a]s·t[=a]g niþer, t[=o] b[=æ]m þæt h[=e] [.g]e·s[=a]we þ[=a] burg_ (the Lord descended, in order that he might see the city). (4) To express _result_:--_þ[=u] næfst þ[=a] mihte þæt þ[=u] mæ[.g]e him wiþ·standan_ (thou hast not the power that thou canst withstand him). (5) To express _hypothetical comparison_ (as if):--_se wulf folgode forþ mid þ[=æ]m h[=e]afde, swelce h[=e] tam w[=æ]re_ (the wolf followed on with the head, as if he were tame); _h[=e] [.g]e·l[=æ]hte [=a]ne l[=e]on, and t[=o]·bræ[.g]d h[=i]e t[=o] sty[.c][.c]um, swelce h[=e] t[=o]·t[=æ]re ti[.c][.c]en_ (he seized a lion and tore her to pieces, as if he were rending a kid). (6) In _conditional_ clauses, generally with _[.g]if_ or _b[=u]tan_, and in _concessive_ clauses with _þ[=e]ah_, _þ[=e]ah þe_:--_God w[=a]t þæt ic nyle [=a]·b[=u]gan fram his b[=i]g[e,]ngum [=æ]fre, swelte ic, libbe ic_ (God knows that I will not swerve from his worship ever, whether I die or live); _þ[=a]s flotm[e,]nn cumaþ, and þ[=e] cwicne [.g]e·bindaþ, b[=u]tan þ[=u] mid fl[=e]ame þ[=i]num f[=e]ore [.g]e·beorge_ (these pirates will come and bind thee alive, unless thou savest thy life with flight); _God hielt [=E]admund h[=a]lne his l[=i]chaman oþ þone mi[.c]lan dæ[.g], þ[=e]ah þe h[=e] on moldan c[=o]me_ (God will keep Edmund {49} with his body whole until the great day, although he has come to earth--been buried). Sometimes the idea of 'if' must be got from the context:--_clipiaþ t[=o] þissum [.g]ieftum sw[=a] hwelce sw[=a] [.g][=e] [.g]e·m[=e]ten_ (summon to this wedding whomsoever ye meet, = _if_ ye meet any one); _h[=i]e be·h[=e]ton hiere s[.c]eattas wiþ þ[=æ]m þe h[=e]o be·swice Samson_ (they promised her money in consideration of her betraying Samson, = if she would...). When the statement is assumed as unreal, instead of merely hypothetical, as in the above instances, both clauses are put in the subjunctive, the preterite being substituted for the present, as in Modern English also, where _if I were_ ... implies _I am not_.... The modern distinction between _if I were_ and _if I had been_, the former corresponding to the present indicative _I am not_, the latter to the preterite _I was not_, is not made in Old English, which uses _gif ic w[=æ]re_ in both instances. Sometimes the 'if'-clause has to be supplied in thought:--_m[=e] l[=e]ofre w[=æ]re þæt ic on [.g]e·feohte f[=e]olle wiþ þ[=æ]m þe m[=i]n folc m[=o]ste hiera eardes br[=u]can_ (I would rather fall in fight that my people might possess their country), where we must supply some such clause as _[.g]if hit sw[=a] b[=e]on mihte_ (if it might be so--if it were possible to save my people by my death). (7) In clauses dependant on a _negative sentence_:--_nis n[=a]n þing þe his mihte wiþ·stande_ (there is nothing that resists his might). Sometimes the negation must be gathered from the context, as in _se h[=a]lga is m[=æ]rra þonne m[e,]nn mæ[.g]en [=a]·sm[=e]an_ (the saint is more illustrious than men can conceive = the saint is so illustrious that no men can conceive it). (8) In other cases, to express uncertainty, futurity, &c.: _þ[=i]n r[=i][.c]e [.g]e·w[=i]tt fram þ[=e], oþ þæt þ[=u] wite þæt God [.g]e·wielt manna r[=i][.c]a_ (thy kingdom shall depart from thee, till thou knowest that God rules the kingdoms of men); _uton_ {50} _weorþian [=u]rne naman, [=æ]r þ[=æ]m þe w[=e] s[=i]en t[=o]·d[=æ]lde [.g]eond ealle eorþan!_ (let us make our name famous, before we are dispersed over the earth). The preterite subjunctive is often expressed by _should_ and _would_ with an infinitive, as in Modern English. _Scolde_ is used after verbs of _desiring_, _requesting_ and _commanding_:--_biddende þone Ælmihtigan þæt h[=e] him [=a]rian scolde_ (praying the Almighty to have mercy on him). In the following example the verb of commanding is understood from the noun _[=æ]rende_:--_h[=e] s[e,]nde t[=o] þæm cyninge b[=e]otlic [=æ]rende, þæt h[=e] [=a]·b[=u]gan scolde t[=o] his mannr[=æ]denne, [.g]if h[=e] his f[=e]ores r[=o]hte_ (he sent to the king an arrogant message, that he was to turn to his allegiance, if he cared about his life). _Wolde_ is used after verbs of _purpose_:--_se cyning [=e]ode inn þæt he wolde [.g]e·s[=e]on þ[=a] þe þ[=æ]r s[=æ]ton_ (the king went in to see those who were sitting there). INFINITIVE. After verbs of commanding the infinitive often seems to have a passive sense:--_h[=i]e h[=e]ton him s[e,]ndan m[=a]ran fultum_ (they ordered that more forces should be sent to them). So also after verbs of hearing, &c.:--_þæt m[=æ]ste wæl þe w[=e] s[e,][.c][.g]an h[=i]erdon_ (the greatest slaughter we have heard told of). In such cases an indefinite pronoun has been omitted: 'ordered them to send ...' etc. GERUND. The gerund is used-- (1) to express purpose:--_[=u]t [=e]ode se s[=a]were his s[=æ]d t[=o] s[=a]wenne_ (the sower went forth to sow his seed). (2) it defines or determines an adjective (adverb or noun): _hit is scandlic ymb swelc t[=o] sprecenne_ (it is shameful to speak of such things). {51} PREPOSITIONS. Some prepositions govern the accusative, such as _þurh_ (through), _ymbe_ (about); some the dative (and instrumental), such as _æfter_ (after), _[=æ]r_ (before), _æt_ (at), _be_ (by), _binnan_ (within), _b[=u]tan_ (without), _for_ (for), _fram_ (from), _of_ (of), _t[=o]_ (to). Some govern both accusative and dative, such as _ofer_ (over), _on_ (on, in), _under_ (under). The general rule is that when motion is implied they take the accusative, when rest is implied, the dative. Thus _on_ with the accusative signifies 'into,' with the dative 'in.' But this rule is not strictly followed, and we often find the accusative used with verbs of rest, as in _h[=e] his h[=u]s [.g]e·timbrode ofer st[=a]n_ (he built his house on a rock), and conversely, the dative with verbs of motion, as in _h[=i]e f[=e]ollon on st[=æ]nihte_ (they fell on stony ground). As regards the use and meaning of the prepositions, it must be noticed that _in_ is very seldom used, its place being supplied by _on_, the meaning 'on' being in its turn often expressed by _ofer_, as in the passage just quoted. When a thing is referred to, _þ[=æ]r_ is substituted for _hit_, the preposition being joined on to the _þ[=æ]r_, so that, for instance, _þ[=æ]r-t[=o]_ corresponds to _t[=o] him_; _h[=i]e l[=æ]ddon þone cyning t[=o] [=a]num tr[=e]owe, and t[=i]e[.g]don hine þ[=æ]r-t[=o]_ (they led the king to a tree, and tied him to it). So also _h[=e]r-be[=e]astan_ is equivalent to 'east of this (country).' Prepositions sometimes follow, instead of preceding the words they modify, sometimes with other words intervening: _h[=i]e scuton mid gafelocum him t[=o]_ (they shot at him with missiles); _h[=i]e cw[=æ]don him be·tw[=e]onan_ (they said among themselves); _þ[=æ]m Ælmihtigan t[=o] lofe, þe h[=i]e on [.g]e·l[=i]efdon_ (to the praise of the Almighty, in whom they believed), where _on_ {52} refers to the indeclinable _þe_. So also in _þæt h[=u]s þe h[=e] inne wunode_ (the house he dwelt in). Where the noun modified by such a preposition is not expressed, the preposition becomes an adverb: _se cyning s[e,]nde his h[e,]re t[=o], and for·dyde þ[=a] mannslagan_ (the king sent his army to the place, and destroyed the murderers). NEGATION. The negative particle is _ne_, which drops its _e_ before some common verbs and pronouns, as in _nis_ = _ne is_, _n[=a]n_ = _ne [=a]n_. The negative particle is prefixed to every finite verb in a sentence, and to all the words besides which admit the contracted forms:--_t[=o]·cw[=i]esed hr[=e]od h[=e] ne for·br[=i]ett_ (he breaks not the bruised reed), _hit n[=a] ne f[=e]oll_ (it did not fall); _n[=a]n mann nyste n[=a]n þing_ (no man knew anything). So also with _ne ... ne_ = 'neither ... nor': _ne fl[=i]tt h[=e] ne h[=e] ne hr[=i]emþ_ (he neither disputes nor cries out). CORRELATION. Correlation is often more fully expressed in Old than in Modern English, as in _þ[=a] þ[=a] m[e,]nn sl[=e]pon, þ[=a] c[=o]m his f[=e]onda sum_ = '_when_ the men slept, _then_ came one of his enemies.' In _þ[=a] þ[=a]_ = 'when' the two correlatives are brought immediately together:--_þ[=a] þ[=a] h[=e] s[=e]ow, sumu h[=i]e f[=e]ollon wiþ we[.g]_ = 'then when he sowed, some of them fell by the road.' In the following example the conjunction _þæt_ is correlative with the pronoun _þæt_:--_þæs ic [.g]e·wilni[.g]e þæt ic [=a]na ne be·l[=i]fe æfter m[=i]num l[=e]ofum þe[.g]num_--'that I desire, that I may not remain alone after my dear thanes.' Sometimes a word is used to include both the demonstrative and the relative meaning:--_h[=e] [.g]e·br[=o]hte hine þ[=æ]r h[=e] hine [=æ]r [.g]e·nam_ (he brought him to the place where he took him from). {53} WORD-ORDER. The Old English word-order resembles that of German in many respects, though it is not so strict, thus:-- The verb comes before its nominative when the sentence is headed by an adverb or adverbial group, or when the object or predicate is put at the head of the sentence:--_þ[=a] cwæþ se cyning_ (then said the king); _[=æ]rest w[=æ]ron b[=u]end þisses landes Brettas_ (at first the Britons were the inhabitants of this country); _on his dagum c[=o]mon [=æ]rest þr[=e]o s[.c]ipu_ (in his days three ships first came); _þæt b[=æ]ron olfendas_ (camels carried it); _m[=æ]re is se God þe Dani[=e]l on be·l[=i]efþ_ (great is the God that Daniel believes in). The infinite often comes at the end of the sentence; _w[=e] magon [=e]ow r[=æ]d [.g]e·l[=æ]ran_ (we can teach you a plan). The finite verb often comes at the end in dependent sentences, an auxiliary verb often coming after an infinitive or participle; _þæt w[=æ]ron þ[=a] [=æ]restan s[.c]ipu D[e,]niscra manna þe Angel-cynnes land [.g]e·s[=o]hton_ (those were the first ships of Danish men which came to the land of the English race); _þæt m[=æ]ste wæl þe w[=e] s[e,][.c][.g]an h[=i]erdon oþ þisne andweardan dæ[.g]_ (the greatest slaughter that we have heard tell of up to this present day); _þæt h[=i]e þone Godes mann [=a]·bitan scolden_ (in order that they should devour the man of God). There is a tendency to put the verb at the end in principal sentences also, or, at least, to bring it near the end: _hiene man of·sl[=o]g_ (they killed him); _h[=i]e þ[=æ]r si[.g]e n[=a]mon_ (they got the victory there). * * * * * {54} GENERAL TABLE OF ENDINGS. NOUNS. STRONG. WEAK. _M._ _N._ _F._ _M._ _N._ _F._ _Sg. N._ -- -- -(u) -a -e -e _A._ -- -- -(e) -an -e -an _D._ -e -e -e -an -an -an _G._ -es -es -e -an -an -an \______ ______/ \/ _Pl. N._ -as -(u) -a -an _D._ -um -um -um -um _G._ -a -a -(en)a -ena ADJECTIVES. _Sg. N._ -- -- -(u) -a -e -e _A._ -ne -- -(e) -an -e -an _D._ -um -um -re -an -an -an _G._ -es -es -re -an -an -an _I._ -e -e (-re) (-an -an -an) _Pl. N._ -e -(u) -e \______ ______/ \______ ______/ \/ \/ -an _D._ -um -um _G._ -ra -ra VERBS. PRESENT. PRETERITE. _Indic._ _Subj._ _Indic._ _Subj._ _Sg._ 1. -e; -i[.g]e -(i[.g])e - ; -de -e; -de 2. -(e)st; -ast -(i[.g])e -e; -dest -e; -de 3. -(e)þ; -aþ -(i[.g])e - ; -de -e; -de _Pl._ -aþ; -iaþ -(i)en -on; -don -en; -den _Imper. sg._ -(a); _pl._ -(i)aþ. _Infin._ -(i)an. _Partic. pres._ -(i)ende; _pret._ -en, -ed, -od. _Ger._ (i)enne. * * * * * {55} TEXTS. I. SENTENCES. [=A]n on-[.g]inn is ealra þinga, þæt is God æl-mihti[.g]. Se [.g]e·l[=e]afa þe biþ b[=u]tan g[=o]dum weorcum, s[=e] is d[=e]ad; þis sind þ[=a]ra apostola word. Ic eom g[=o]d hierde: se g[=o]da hierde s[e,]lþ his [=a]gen l[=i]f for his s[.c][=e]apum. [=U]re [=A]·l[=i]esend is se g[=o]da hierde, and w[=e] cr[=i]stene m[e,]nn sind his s[.c]eap. Se m[=o]na his 5 leoht ne s[e,]lþ, and steorran of heofone feallaþ. Sw[=a] sw[=a] wæter [=a]·dw[=æ]s[.c]þ f[=y]r, sw[=a] [=a]·dw[=æ]s[.c]þ s[=e]o ælmesse synna. Ealle [.g]e·s[.c]eafta, heofonas and [e,]n[.g]las, sunnan and m[=o]nan, steorran and eorþan, eall n[=i]etenu and ealle fuglas, s[=æ] and ealle fiscas God [.g]e·sc[=o]p and [.g]e·worhte on siex dagum; and 10 on þ[=æ]m seofoþan dæ[.g]e h[=e] [.g]e·[e,]ndode his weorc; and h[=e] be·h[=e]old þ[=a] eall his weorc þe h[=e] [.g]e·worhte, and h[=i]e w[=æ]ron eall sw[=i]þe g[=o]d. H[=e] f[=e]rde [.g]eond manigu land, bodiende Godes [.g]e·l[=e]afan. H[=e] for·l[=e]t eall woruld-þing. Se cyning be·b[=e]ad þæt man scolde ofer eall Angel-cynn s[.c]ipu wyr[.c]an; 15 and hiera wæs sw[=a] fela sw[=a] n[=æ]fre [=æ]r ne wæs on n[=a]nes cyninges dæ[.g]e. Se cyning h[=e]t of·sl[=e]an ealle þ[=a] D[e,]niscan m[e,]nn þe on Angel-cynne w[=æ]ron. Þ[=a] ne mihton h[=i]e him n[=a]n word and-swarian, ne n[=a]n mann ne dorste hine n[=a]n þing m[=a]re [=a]scian. H[=i]e fuhton 20 {56} on þ[=a] burg ealne dæ[.g], and þ[=o]hton þæt h[=i]e h[=i]e scolden [=a]·brecan. Se eorl [.g]e·w[e,]nde west t[=o] [=I]r-lande, and wæs þ[=æ]r ealne þone winter. Æþelred cyning and Ælfred his br[=o]þor fuhton wiþ ealne þone h[e,]re on Æsces-d[=u]ne. Se mann is [=e][.c]e on [=a]num d[=æ]le, þæt is, on þ[=æ]re s[=a]wle; 25 h[=e]o ne [.g]e·[e,]ndaþ n[=æ]fre. [.G]if se biscop d[=e]þ be his [=a]gnum willan, and wile bindan þone un-scyldigan, and þone scyldigan [=a]·l[=i]esan, þonne for·l[=i]est h[=e] þ[=a] miht þe him God for·[.g]eaf. Þ[=e]od winþ on·[.g][=e]an þ[=e]ode, and r[=i][.c]e on·[.g][=e]an r[=i][.c]e. Ealle m[e,]nn [=e]ow hatiaþ for m[=i]num naman. H[=e] [.g]e·worhte 30 fela wundra binnan þ[=æ]m fierste þe h[=e] biscop wæs. H[=e] [.g]e·h[=æ]lde sum w[=i]f mid h[=a]lgum wætre. Se cyning wearþ of·slæ[.g]en fram his [=a]gnum folce. On þ[=æ]m ilcan [.g][=e]are wæs se mi[.c]la hungor [.g]eond Angel-cynn. Se mæsse-pr[=e]ost [=a]scaþ þæt [.c]ild, and cwiþþ: 'Wiþ·sæcst þ[=u] d[=e]ofle?' Þonne andwyrt 35 se god-fæder, and cwiþþ: 'Ic wiþ·sace d[=e]ofle.' God ælmihtiga, [.g]e·miltsa m[=e] synn-fullum! Æþelred cyning c[=o]m h[=a]m t[=o] his [=a]genre þ[=e]ode, and h[=e] glædl[=i]ce fram him eallum on·fangen wearþ. Cr[=i]st, [=u]re Dryhten, be·b[=e]ad his leornung-cnihtum þæt 40 h[=i]e scolden t[=æ][.c]an eallum þ[=e]odum þ[=a] þing þ[=a] h[=e] self him t[=æ]hte. [.G]if [.g][=e] for·[.g]iefaþ mannum hiera synna, þonne for·giefþ [=e]ower se heofonlica Fæder [=e]owre synna. Ne mæ[.g] n[=a]n mann tw[=æ]m hl[=a]fordum þ[=e]owian: oþþe h[=e] [=a]nne hataþ and [=o]þerne lufaþ, oþþe h[=e] biþ [=a]num [.g]e·h[=i]ersum and [=o]þrum un[.g]eh[=i]ersum. 45 Se cyning nam þæs eorles sunu mid him t[=o] [E,]n[.g]la-lande. M[e,]nn be·h[=o]fiaþ g[=o]dre l[=a]re on þissum t[=i]man, þe is [.g]e·[e,]ndung þisse worulde. Se l[=i]chama, þe is þ[=æ]re s[=a]wle r[=e]af, andb[=i]daþ þæs mi[.c]lan d[=o]mes; and þ[=e]ah h[=e] b[=e]o t[=o] d[=u]ste for·molsnod, 50 {57} God hine [=a]·r[=æ]rþ, and [.g]e·bringþ t[=o]·gædre s[=a]wle and l[=i]chaman t[=o] þ[=æ]m [=e][.c]an l[=i]fe. Hwelc fæder wile s[e,]llan his [.c]ilde st[=a]n, [.g]if hit hine hl[=a]fes bitt? [=A]·[.g]iefaþ þ[=æ]m c[=a]sere þ[=a] þing þe þæs c[=a]seres sind, and Gode þ[=a] þing þe Godes sind. S[=e]o s[=a]wol and-b[=i]daþ þæs [=e][.c]an [=æ]ristes. 55 H[=e] wæs cyning ofer eall [E,]n[.g]la-land tw[e,]nti[.g] wintra. God ælmihti[.g] is ealra cyninga cyning, and ealra hl[=a]forda hl[=a]ford. D[=e]ofol is ealra un-riht-w[=i]sra manna h[=e]afod, and þ[=a] yflan m[e,]nn sind his limu. Synnfulra manna d[=e]aþ is yfel and earmlic, for þ[=æ]m þe h[=i]e faraþ of þissum scortan l[=i]fe t[=o] [=e][.c]um 60 w[=i]tum. H[=u] fela hl[=a]fa hæbbe [.g][=e]? Seofon, and f[=e]a fisca. Ne [.g]e·wilna þ[=u] [=o]þres mannes [=æ]hta! On þ[=æ]m landum eardodon [E,]n[.g]le, [=æ]r þ[=æ]m þe h[=i]e hider on land c[=o]mon. H[=i]e fuhton on þ[=a] burg ealne dæ[.g], ac h[=i]e ne mihton h[=i]e [=a]·brecan. Þ[=a] [=e]odon h[=i]e t[=o] hiera s[.c]ipum. Þ[=æ]r 65 b[=e]oþ sw[=i]þe mani[.g]e byri[.g] on þ[=æ]m lande, and on [=æ]lcre byri[.g] biþ cyning. God cwæþ t[=o] No[=e]: 'Ic wile for·d[=o]n eall mann-cynn mid wætre for hiera synnum, ac ic wile [.g]e·healdan þ[=e], and þ[=i]n w[=i]f, and þ[=i]ne þr[=i]e suna.' [=A]n mann hæfde tw[=e][.g]en suna; þ[=a] 70 cwæþ h[=e] t[=o] þ[=æ]m ieldran: 'g[=a] and wyr[.c] t[=o]·dæ[.g] on m[=i]num w[=i]n-[.g]earde.' Þ[=a] cwæþ h[=e]: 'ic nyle:' [=e]ode þ[=e]ah siþþan t[=o] þ[=æ]m w[=i]n[.g]earde. H[=e] dyde his fæder willan. Se pr[=e]ost cwæþ t[=o] þ[=æ]m folce: 'Ic [=e]ow bl[=e]tsi[.g]e on naman þæs Fæder, þæs Suna, and þæs H[=a]lgan G[=a]stes.' [=A]ra þ[=i]num fæder and 75 þ[=i]nre m[=e]der! Sum w[=i]f c[=o]m t[=o] Cr[=i]ste, and bæd for hiere dehter. S[=e]o dohtor wearþ [.g]e·h[=æ]led þurh [.g]e·l[=e]afan þ[=æ]re m[=o]dor. B[=e]oþ [.g]e·myndi[.g]e þ[=a]ra tw[=e][.g]ra worda þe Dryhten cwæþ on {58} his god-spelle! H[=e] cwæþ: 'For·[.g]iefaþ, and [=e]ow biþ for·[.g]iefen; 80 s[e,]llaþ, and [=e]ow biþ [.g]e·seald.' Tw[=e][.g]en m[e,]nn [=e]odon int[=o] Godes temple h[=i]e t[=o] [.g]e·biddenne. Ælfred cyning f[=o]r mid þrim s[.c]ipum [=u]t on s[=æ], and [.g]e·feaht wiþ f[=e]ower s[.c]ip-hlæstas D[e,]niscra manna, and þ[=a]ra s[.c]ipa tw[=a] [.g]e·nam, and þ[=a] m[e,]nn of·slæ[.g]ene w[=æ]ron þe 85 þ[=æ]r-on w[=æ]ron. Þ[=a] c[=o]mon þr[=e]o s[.c]ipu. Þ[=a] [.g]e·f[=e]ngon h[=i]e þ[=a]ra þr[=e]ora s[.c]ipa tw[=a], and þ-a m[e,]nn of·sl[=o]gon, ealle b[=u]tan f[=i]fum. Se w[=i]tega [=a]·wr[=a]t be þ[=æ]m f[=e]ower n[=i]etenum þe him æt·[=i]ewdu w[=æ]ron, þæt h[=i]e hæfden [=e]agan him on [=æ]lce healfe. [=A]n þ[=a]ra n[=i]etena wæs on m[e,]nniscre ons[=i]ene him æt·[=i]ewed, 90 [=o]þer on l[=e]on ons[=i]ene, þridde on [.c]ealfes, f[=e]orþe on earnes. God þone [=æ]restan mann rihtne and g[=o]dne [.g]e·sc[=o]p, and eall mann-cynn mid him. Ælfred Æþelwulfing wæs cyning ofer eall Angel-cynn b[=u]tan þ[=æ]m d[=æ]le þe under D[e,]na onwealde wæs. [=Æ]lc g[=o]d tr[=e]ow bierþ g[=o]de wæstmas, and [=æ]lc 95 yfel tr[=e]ow bierþ yfle wæstmas; ne mæ[.g] þæt g[=o]de tr[=e]ow beran yfle wæstmas, ne þæt yfle tr[=e]ow g[=o]de wæstmas. [=E]adigu sind [=e]owru [=e]agan, for þ[=æ]m þe h[=i]e [.g]e·s[=e]oþ, and [=e]owru [=e]aran, for þ[=æ]m þe h[=i]e [.g]e·h[=i]eraþ. Sw[=a] hw[=a] sw[=a] s[e,]lþ [=a]num þurstigum m[e,]nn [.c]eald wæter on m[=i]num naman, ne 100 for·l[=i]est h[=e] his m[=e]de. Ne fare [.g][=e] on h[=æ]þenra manna we[.g]e! G[=o]d mann of g[=o]dum gold-horde bringþ g[=o]d forþ; and yfel mann of yflum goldhorde bringþ yfel forþ. Greg[=o]rius se h[=a]lga p[=a]pa is rihtl[=i]ce [.g]e·cweden [E,]n[.g]liscre þ[=e]ode apostol. Þ[=a] h[=e] [.g]e·seah þæt se m[=æ]sta d[=æ]l þ[=æ]re þ[=e]ode 105 his l[=a]re for·s[=a]won, þ[=a] for·l[=e]t h[=e] h[=i]e, and [.g]e·[.c][=e]as þ[=a] h[=æ]þnan l[=e]ode. [.G]if se blinda blindne l[=æ]tt, h[=i]e feallaþ b[=e][.g]en on [=a]nne pytt. Se H[=a]lga G[=a]st is lufu and willa þæs Fæder and þæs Suna; and h[=i]e sind ealle [.g]e·l[=i]ce mihti[.g]e. B[e,]tere is s[=e]o s[=a]wol þonne se m[e,]te, and b[e,]tera se l[=i]chama þonne his scr[=u]d. 110 {59} S[=e]o s[=a]wol is g[=a]st, and be eorþlicum m[e,]ttum ne leofaþ. Be·healdaþ þ[=a]s fl[=e]ogendan fuglas, þe ne s[=a]waþ ne ne r[=i]paþ, ac se heofonlica Fæder h[=i]e [=a]·f[=e]tt. H[=e] cwæþ, 'Ic neom [=o]þrum mannum [.g]e·l[=i]c;' swelce h[=e] cw[=æ]de, 'Ic [=a]na eom rihtw[=i]s, and þ[=a] [=o]þre sind synn-fulle.' 115 Þ[=a] se H[=æ]lend þanon f[=o]r, þ[=a] folgodon him tw[=e][.g]en blinde, cweþende: '[.G]e·miltsa unc, Dav[=i]des sunu!' H[=e] cwæþ t[=o] him: '[.G]e·l[=i]efe [.g]it þæt ic inc mæ[.g]e [.g]e·hælan?' H[=e] cwæþ: 'S[=i]e inc æfter incrum [.g]e·l[=e]afan.' Æþelst[=a]n cyning f[=o]r inn on Scot-land, [=æ][.g]þer [.g]e mid land-h[e,]re [.g]e mid s[.c]ip-h[e,]re, 120 and his mi[.c]el ofer·h[e,]rgode. Se mann þe God for·[.g]iett, God for·[.g]iett [=e]ac hine. Faraþ, and l[=æ]raþ ealle þ[=e]oda! L[=æ]raþ h[=i]e þæt h[=i]e healden eall þ[=a] þing þe ic [=e]ow be·b[=e]ad! Sume m[e,]nn sæ[.g]don be him þæt h[=e] w[=æ]re Ælfredes sunu cyninges. Se H[=æ]lend [=a]scode his leornung-cnihtas, 'Hwone s[e,][.c][.g]aþ 125 m[e,]nn þæt s[=i]e mannes Sunu?' Hwæt s[e,][.c][.g]e [.g][=e] þæt ic s[=i]e? Þ[=u] eart þæs libbendan Godes sunu. Cr[=i]st cwæþ be his Fæder: '[.G][=e] s[e,][.c][.g]aþ þæt h[=e] [=e]ower God s[=i]e, and [.g][=e] hine ne on·cn[=e]owon.' [.G]if h[=i]e þone h[=a]lgan Fæder on·cn[=e]owen, þonne under·f[=e]ngen h[=i]e mid [.g]e·l[=e]afan his Sunu, þe h[=e] [=a]·s[e,]nde 130 t[=o] middan-[.g]earde. Se we[.g] is sw[=i]þe nearu and sticol s[=e] þe l[=æ]tt t[=o] heofona r[=i][.c]e; and se we[.g] is sw[=i]þe br[=a]d and sm[=e]þe s[=e] þe l[=æ]tt t[=o] h[e,]lle w[)i]te. Dysi[.g] biþ se we[.g]-f[=e]renda mann s[=e] þe nimþ þone sm[=e]þan we[.g] þe h[=i]ne mis-l[=æ]tt, and for·l[=æ]tt þone sticolan þe hine [.g]e·bringþ t[=o] þ[=æ]re byri[.g]. Þæt 135 ic [=e]ow s[e,][.c][.g]e on þ[=e]ostrum, s[e,][.c][.g]aþ hit on leohte; and þæt [.g][=e] on [=e]are [.g]e·h[=i]eraþ, bodiaþ uppan hr[=o]fum. H[=i]e scufon [=u]t hiera s[.c]ipu, and [.g]e·w[e,]ndon him be·[.g]eondan s[=æ]. Healdaþ and d[=o]þ sw[=a] hwæt sw[=a] h[=i]e s[e,][.c][.g]aþ; and ne d[=o] [.g][=e] n[=a], æfter hiera weorcum: h[=i]e s[e,][.c][.g]aþ, and ne d[=o]þ. Eall 140 hiera weorc h[=i]e d[=o]þ þæt m[e,]nn h[=i]e [.g]e·s[=e]on. H[=i]e lufiaþ þæt {60} man h[=i]e gr[=e]te on str[=æ]tum. [=E]al[=a] [.g][=e] n[=æ]ddran and n[=æ]ddrena cynn, h[=u] fl[=e]o [.g][=e] fram h[e,]lle d[=o]me? W[=e] sind ealle cuman on þissum and-weardan l[=i]fe, and [=u]re eard nis n[=a] h[=e]r; ac w[=e] sind h[=e]r swelce we[.g]-f[=e]rende 145 m[e,]nn: [=a]n cymþ, [=o]þer færþ. Hwelc mann s[e,]lþ his bearne n[=æ]ddran, [.g]if hit fisces bitt? [=Æ]lc þ[=a]ra þe bitt, h[=e] on·f[=e]hþ; and s[=e] þe s[=e][.c]þ, h[=e] hit fint. Ne g[=æ]þ [=æ]lc þ[=a]ra on heofona r[=i][.c]e þe cwiþþ t[=o] m[=e], 'Dryhten, Dryhten;' ac s[=e] þe wyr[.c]þ m[=i]nes Fæder willan þe on heofonum is, s[=e] g[=æ]þ on heofona 150 r[=i][.c]e. Nis hit n[=a] g[=o]d þ[=æ]t man nime bearna hl[=a]f and hundum weorpe. Ic hæbbe þe[.g]nas under m[=e]: and ic cweþe t[=o] þissum, 'g[=a],' and h[=e] g[=æ]þ; and t[=o] [=o]þrum, 'cum,' and h[=e] cymþ, and t[=o] m[=i]num þ[=e]owe, 'wyr[.c] þis,' and h[=e] wyr[.c]þ. Se H[=æ]lend [.g]e·nam þ[=a] f[=i]f hl[=a]fas, and bl[=e]tsode, and t[=o]·bræc, 155 and t[=o]·d[=æ]lde be·twix þ[=æ]m sittendum; sw[=a] [.g]e·l[=i]ce [=e]ac þ[=a] fiscas t[=o]·d[=æ]lde; and h[=i]e ealle [.g]e·n[=o]g hæfdon. Þ[=a] þe þ[=æ]r [=æ]ton w[=æ]ron f[=e]ower þ[=u]send manna, b[=u]tan [.c]ildum and w[=i]fum. H[=i]e c[=o]mon t[=o] him, and t[=o] him [.g]eb[=æ]don, and þus cw[=æ]don: 'S[=o]þl[=i]ce þ[=u] eart Godes sunu.' Ne w[=e]ne [.g][=e] þæt 160 ic c[=o]me sibbe on eorþan to s[e,]ndenne: ne c[=o]m ic sibbe t[=o] s[e,]ndenne, ac sweord. H[=e] be·b[=e]ad þæt h[=i]e s[=æ]ten ofer þ[=æ]re eorþan. H[=e] sæ[.g]de þæt Norþ-manna land w[=æ]re sw[=i]þe lang and sw[=i]þe smæl. H[=i]e ealle on þone cyning w[=æ]ron feohtende, oþ þæt h[=i]e 165 hine ofslæ[.g]enne hæfdon. [=Æ]lc mann þe [=o]þre m[e,]nn for·sihþ biþ fram Gode for·sewen. S[=e] þe [=e]aran hæbbe t[=o] [.g]e·hi[=e]renne, [.g]e·h[=i]ere. G[=o]d is [=u]s h[=e]r t[=o] b[=e]onne. God cwæþ t[=o] [=a]num w[=i]tegan, s[=e] wæs Ionas [.g]e·h[=a]ten: 'Far t[=o] þ[=æ]re byri[.g], and boda þ[=æ]r þ[=a] word þe ic þ[=e] s[e,][.c][.g]e.' 170 {61} Lufiaþ [=e]owre f[=i]end, and d[=o]þ wel þ[=æ]m þe [=e]ow yfel d[=o]þ. Lufa Dryhten þ[=i]nne God on ealre þ[=i]nre heortan, and on ealre þ[=i]nre sawle, and on eallum þ[=i]num m[=o]de. S[=e] þe ne lufaþ his br[=o]þor, þone þe h[=e] [.g]e·sihþ, h[=u] mæ[.g] h[=e] lufian God, þone þe h[=e] ne [.g]e·sihþ l[=i]cham-l[=i]ce? S[e,][.g]e [=u]s hwonne þ[=a]s 175 þing [.g]e·weorþen, and hwelc t[=a]cen s[=i]e þ[=i]nes t[=o]-cymes and worulde [.g]e·[e,]ndunge. Se H[=æ]lend cwæþ t[=o] [=a]num his leornung-cnihta, s[=e] wæs h[=a]ten Philippus: 'Mid hw[=æ]m magon w[=e] by[.c][.g]an hl[=a]f þissum folce?' Wel wiste Cr[=i]st hwæt h[=e] d[=o]n wolde, and h[=e] wiste 180 þæt Philippus þæt nyste. God mæ[.g] d[=o]n eall þing; w[=e] sculon wundrian his mihte, and [=e]ac [.g]e·l[=i]efan. Cr[=i]st [=a]·r[=æ]rde Lazarum of d[=e]aþe, and cwæþ t[=o] his leornung-cnihtum: 'T[=o]·l[=i]esaþ his b[e,]ndas, þæt h[=e] g[=a]n mæ[.g]e.' God is ælmihti[.g], and mæ[.g] d[=o]n eall þæt h[=e] wile. [.G][=e] nyton on hwelcre t[=i]de 185 [=e]ower hl[=a]ford cuman wile. For þ[=æ]m b[=e]o [.g][=e] [.g]earwe; for þ[=æ]m þe mannes Sunu wile cuman on þ[=æ]re t[=i]de þe [.g][=e] nyton. Se H[=æ]lend cwæþ be his Fæder: 'Ic hine cann, and [.g]if ic s[e,][.c][.g]e þæt ic hine ne cunne, þonne b[=e]o ic l[=e]as, [=e]ow [.g]e·l[=i]c.' Se d[=e]ofol cwæþ t[=o] Cr[=i]ste: '[.G]if þ[=u] s[=i]e Godes sunu, cweþ 190 t[=o] þissum st[=a]num þæt h[=i]e b[=e]on [=a]·w[e,]nde t[=o] hl[=a]fum.' Þ[=a] and-wyrde se H[=æ]lend, and cwæþ: 'Hit is [=a]·writen, "ne leofaþ se mann n[=a] be hl[=a]fe [=a]num, ac leofaþ be eallum þ[=æ]m wordum þe g[=a]þ of Godes m[=u]þe."' Se H[=æ]lend c[=o]m t[=o] him, þ[=æ]r h[=i]e w[=æ]ron [.g]e·gadrode, and cwæþ: 'S[=i]e sibb be·twix 195 [=e]ow; ic hit eom; ne b[=e]o [.g][=e] n[=a] [=a]·fyrhte.' Fæder [=u]re, þ[=u] þe eart on heofonum, s[=i]e þ[=i]n nama [.g]e·h[=a]lgod. W[=e] syngodon, w[=e] dydon un-rihtl[=i]ce; s[e,]le [=u]s for·[.g]iefnesse: hwæt sculon w[=e] d[=o]n? {62} II. FROM THE GOSPEL OF ST. MATTHEW. VII. 24-7. [=Æ]lc þ[=a]ra þe þ[=a]s m[=i]n word [.g]e·h[=i]erþ, and þ[=a] wyr[.c]þ, biþ [.g]e·l[=i]c þ[=æ]m w[=i]san were, s[=e] his h[=u]s ofer st[=a]n [.g]et·imbrode. Þ[=a] c[=o]m þ[=æ]r re[.g]en and mi[.c]el fl[=o]d, and þ[=æ]r bl[=e]owon windas, and [=a]·hruron on þæt h[=u]s, and hit n[=a] ne f[=e]oll: s[=o]þl[=i]ce hit wæs ofer st[=a]n [.g]e·timbrod. 5 And [=æ]lc þ[=a]ra þe [.g]e·h[=i]erþ þ[=a]s m[=i]n word, and þ[=a] ne wyr[.c]þ, s[=e] biþ [.g]e·l[=i]c þ[=æ]m dysigan m[e,]nn, þe [.g]e·timbrode his h[=u]s ofer sand-[.c]eosol. Þ[=a] r[=i]nde hit, and þ[=æ]r c[=o]m fl[=o]d, and bl[=e]owon windas, and [=a]·hruron on þ[=æ]t h[=u]s, and þæt h[=u]s f[=e]oll; and his hryre wæs mi[.c]el. 10 XII. 18-21. H[=e]r is m[=i]n cnapa, þone ic [.g]e·[.c][=e]as; m[=i]n [.g]e·corena, on þ[=æ]m wel [.g]e·l[=i]code m[=i]nre s[=a]wle: ic [=a]·s[e,]tte m[=i]nne g[=a]st ofer hine, and d[=o]m h[=e] bodaþ þ[=e]odum. Ne fl[=i]tt h[=e], ne h[=e] ne hriemþ, ne n[=a]n mann ne [.g]e·h[=i]erþ his stefne on str[=æ]tum. T[=o]·cw[=i]esed hr[=e]od h[=e] ne for·br[=i]ett, and sm[=e]ocende fleax h[=e] ne [=a]·dw[=æ]scþ, 15 [=æ]r þ[=æ]m þe h[=e] [=a]·weorpe d[=o]m t[=o] si[.g]e. And on his naman þ[=e]oda [.g]e·hyhtaþ. XIII. 3-8. S[=o]þl[=i]ce [=u]t [=e]ode se s[=a]were his s[=æ]d t[=o] s[=a]wenne. And þ[=a] þ[=a] h[=e] s[=e]ow, sumu h[=i]e f[=e]ollon wiþ we[.g], and fuglas c[=o]mon and [=æ]ton þ[=a]. S[=o]þl[=i]ce sumu f[=e]ollon on st[=æ]nihte, þ[=æ]r hit 20 {63} næfde mi[.c]le eorþan, and hrædl[=i]ce [=u]p sprungon, for þ[=æ]m þe h[=i]e næfdon p[=æ]re eorþan d[=i]epan; s[=o]þl[=i]ce, [=u]p sprungenre sunnan, h[=i]e [=a]·dr[=u]godon and for·scruncon, for þ[=æ]m þe h[=i]e næfdon wyrtruman. S[=o]þl[=i]ce sumu f[=e]ollon on þornas, and þ[=a] þornas w[=e]oxon, and for·þrysmdon þ[=a]. Sumu s[=o]þl[=i]ce 25 f[=e]ollon on g[=o]de eorþan, and sealdon wæstm, sum hund-fealdne, sum siexti[.g]-fealdne, sum þriti[.g]-fealdn[e,]. XIII. 24-30. Heofona r[=i][.c]e is [.g]e·worden þ[=æ]m m[e,]nn [.g]e·l[=i]c þe s[=e]ow g[=o]d s[=æ]d on his æcere. S[=o]þl[=i]ce, þ[=a] þ[=a] m[e,]nn sl[=e]pon, þ[=a] c[=o]m his f[=e]onda sum, and ofer·s[=e]ow hit mid coccele on·middan þ[=æ]m 30 hw[=æ]te, and f[=e]rde þanon. S[=o]þl[=i]ce, þ[=a] s[=e]o wyrt w[=e]ox, and þone wæstm br[=o]hte, þ[=a] æt·[=i]ewde se coccel hine. Þ[=a] [=e]odon þæs hl[=a]fordes þ[=e]owas and cw[=æ]don: 'Hl[=a]ford, h[=u], ne s[=e]owe þ[=u] g[=o]d s[=æ]d on þ[=i]num æcere? hwanon hæfde h[=e] coccel?' Þ[=a] cwæþ h[=e]: 'þæt dyde unhold mann.' Þ[=a] cw[=æ]don þ[=a] 35 þ[=e]owas: 'Wilt þ[=u], w[=e] g[=a]þ and gadriaþ h[=i]e?' Þ[=a] cwæp h[=e]: 'Nese: þ[=y] l[=æ]s [.g][=e] þone hw[=æ]te [=a]·wyrtwalien, þonne [.g][=e] þone coccel gadriaþ. L[=æ]taþ [=æ][.g]þer weaxan oþ r[=i]p-t[=i]man; and on p[=æ]m r[=i]pt[=i]man ic s[e,][.c][.g]e þ[=æ]m r[=i]perum: "gadriaþ [=æ]rest þone coccel, and bindaþ s[.c][=e]af-m[=æ]lum t[=o] for·bærnenne; 40 and gadriaþ þone hw[=æ]te int[=o] m[=i]num b[e,]rne."' XIII. 44-8. Heofona r[=i][.c]e is [.g]e·l[=i]c [.g]e·h[=y]ddum gold-horde on þ[=æ]m æcere. Þone be·h[=y]tt se mann þe hine fint, and for his blisse g[=æ]þ, and s[e,]lþ eall þæt h[=e] [=a]h, and [.g]e·by[.g]þ þone æcer. Eft is heofona r[=i][.c]e [.g]e·l[=i]c þ[=æ]m mangere þe s[=o]hte þæt g[=o]de 45 m[e,]re-grot. Þ[=a] h[=e] funde þæt [=a]n d[=e]or-wierþe m[e,]regrot, þ[=a] [=e]ode h[=e], and sealde eall þæt h[=e] [=a]hte, and bohte þæt m[e,]regrot. {64} Eft is heofona r[=i][.c]e [.g]e·l[=i]c [=a]·s[e,]ndum n[e,]tte on þ[=a] s[=æ], and of [=æ]lcum fisc-cynne gadriendum. Þ[=a] h[=i]e þ[=a] þæt n[e,]tt [=u]p 50 [=a]·tugon, and s[=æ]ton be þ[=æ]m strande, þ[=a] [.g]e·curon h[=i]e þ[=a] g[=o]dan on hiera fatu, and þ[=a] yflan h[=i]e [=a]·wurpon [=u]t. XVIII. 12-14. [.G]if hwelc mann hæfþ hund s[.c][=e]apa, and him losaþ [=a]n of þ[=æ]m, h[=u], ne for·l[=æ]tt h[=e] þ[=a] nigon and hund·nigonti[.g] on þ[=æ]m muntum, and g[=æ]þ, and s[=e][.c]þ þæt [=a]n þe for·wearþ? And [.g]if 55 hit [.g]e·limpþ þæt h[=e] hit fint, s[=o]þl[=i]ce ic [=e]ow s[e,][.c][.g]e þæt h[=e] sw[=i]þor [.g]e·blissaþ for þ[=æ]m [=a]num þonne for þ[=æ]m nigon and hund·nigontigum þe n[=a] ne losodon. XX. 1-16. Heofona r[=i][.c]e is [.g]e·l[=i]c þ[=æ]m h[=i]redes ealdre, þe on [=æ]rnemer[.g]en [=u]t [=e]ode [=a]·h[=y]ran wyrhtan on his w[=i]n-[.g]eard. [.G]e·wordenre 60 [.g]e·cwid-r[=æ]denne þ[=æ]m wyrhtum, h[=e] sealde [=æ]lcum [=a]nne þ[e,]ning wiþ his dæ[.g]es weorce, and [=a]·s[e,]nde h[=i]e on his w[=i]n[.g]eard. And þ[=a] h[=e] [=u]t [=e]ode ymbe undern-t[=i]d, h[=e] [.g]e·seah oþre on str[=æ]te [=i]dle standan. Þ[=a] cwæþ h[=e]: 'G[=a] [.g][=e] on m[=i]nne w[=i]n[.g]eard, and ic s[e,]lle [=e]ow þæt riht biþ.' And h[=i]e þ[=a] 65 f[=e]rdon. Eft h[=e] [=u]t [=e]ode ymbe þ[=a] siextan and nigoþan t[=i]d, and dyde þ[=æ]m sw[=a] [.g]e·l[=i]ce. Þ[=a] ymbe þ[=a] [e,]ndlyftan t[=i]d h[=e] [=u]t [=e]ode, and funde [=o]þre standende, and þ[=a] sæ[.g]de h[=e]: 'Hw[=y] stande [.g][=e] h[=e]r ealne dae[.g] [=i]dle?' Þ[=a] cw[=æ]don h[=i]e: 'For þ[=æ]m þe [=u]s n[=a]n mann ne h[=y]rde.' Þ[=a] cwæþ h[=e]: 'And 70 g[=a] [.g][=e] on m[=i]nne w[=i]n[.g]eard.' S[=o]þl[=i]ce þ[=a] hit wæs [=æ]fen [.g]e·worden, þ[=a] sæ[.g]de se w[=i]n[.g]eardes hl[=a]ford his [.g]e·r[=e]fan: 'Clipa þ[=a] wyrhtan, and [=a]·[.g]ief him hiera m[=e]de; on·[.g]inn fram þ[=æ]m [=y]t·emestan oþ þone fyrmestan.' Eornostl[=i]ce þ[=a] þ[=a] [.g]e·c[=o]mon þe ymbe þ[=a] [e,]ndlyftan 75 t[=i]d c[=o]mon, þ[=a] on·f[=e]ngon h[=i]e [=æ]lc his p[e,]ning. And þ[=a] þe {65} þ[=æ]r [=æ]rest c[=o]mon, w[=e]ndon þæt h[=i]e scolden m[=a]re on·f[=o]n; þ[=a] on·f[=e]ngon h[=i]e syndri[.g]e þ[e,]ningas. Þa on·gunnon h[=i]e murcnian on·[.g][=e]an þone h[=i]redes ealdor, and þus cw[=æ]don: 'Þ[=a]s [=y]temestan worhton [=a]ne t[=i]d, and þ[=u] dydest h[=i]e [.g]e·l[=i]ce [=u]s, 80 þe b[=æ]ron byrþenna on þisses dæ[.g]es h[=æ]tan.' Þ[=a] cwæþ h[=e] and-swariende hiera [=a]num: '[=E]al[=a] þ[=u] fr[=e]ond, ne d[=o] ic þ[=e] n[=a]nne t[=e]onan; h[=u], ne c[=o]me þ[=u] t[=o] m[=e] t[=o] wyr[.c]enne wiþ [=a]num p[e,]ninge? Nim þæt þ[=i]n is, and g[=a]; ic wile þissum [=y]temestum s[e,]llan eall sw[=a] mi[.c]el sw[=a] þ[=e]. Oþþe ne m[=o]t ic 85 d[=o]n þæt ic wile? Hwæþer þe þ[=i]n [=e]age m[=a]nfull is for þ[=æ]m þe ic g[=o]d eom? Sw[=a] b[=e]oþ þa fyrmestan [=y]temeste, and þ[=a] [=y]temestan fyrmeste; s[=o]þl[=i]ce mani[.g]e sind [.g]e·clipode, and f[=e]a [.g]e·corene.' XXII. 2-14. Heofona r[=i][.c]e is [.g]e·l[=i]c þ[=æ]m cyninge þe macode his suna 90 [.g]iefta, and s[e,]nde his þ[=e]owas, and clipode þ[=a] [.g]e·laþodan t[=o] þ[=æ]m [.g]ieftum. Þ[=a] noldon h[=i]e cuman. Þ[=a] s[e,]nde h[=e] eft [=o]þre þ[=e]owas, and sæ[.g]de þ[=æ]m [.g]e·laþodum: 'N[=u] ic [.g]e·[.g]earwode m[=i]ne feorme: m[=i]ne fearras and m[=i]ne fuglas sind of·slæ[.g]ene, and eall m[=i]n þing sind [.g]earu; cumaþ t[=o] þ[=æ]m [.g]ieftum.' Þ[=a] 95 for·g[=i]emdon h[=i]e þæt, and f[=e]rdon, sum t[=o] his t[=u]ne, sum t[=o] his mangunge. And þ[=a] [=o]þre n[=a]mon his þ[=e]owas, and mid t[=e]onan [.g]e·sw[e,]n[.c]ton, and of·sl[=o]gon. Þ[=a] se cyning þæt [.g]e·hierde, þ[=a] wæs h[=e] ierre, and s[e,]nde his h[e,]re t[=o], and for·dyde þ[=a] mann-slagan, and hiera burg for·bærnde. 100 Þ[=a] cwæþ h[=e] t[=o] his þ[=e]owum: 'Witodl[=i]ce þ[=a]s [.g]iefta sind [.g]earwe, ac þ[=a] þe [.g]e·laþode w[=æ]ron ne sind wierþe. G[=a]þ n[=u] t[=o] wega [.g]el[=æ]tum, and clipiaþ t[=o] þissum [.g]ieftum sw[=a] hwelce sw[=a] [.g][=e] [.g]e·m[=e]ten.' Þ[=a] [=e]odon þ[=a] þ[=e]owas [=u]t on þ[=a] wegas, and [.g]e·gadrodon ealle þ[=a] þe h[=i]e [.g]e·m[=e]tton, g[=o]de and yfle; 105 þ[=a] w[=æ]ron þ[=a] [.g]ieft-h[=u]s mid sittendum mannum [.g]efyldu. Þ[=a] [=e]ode se cyning inn, þæt h[=e] wolde [.g]e·s[=e]on þ[=a] þe þ[=æ]r {66} s[=æ]ton, and þ[=a] [.g]e·seah h[=e] þ[=æ]r [=a]nne mann þe næs mid [.g]ieftlicum r[=e]afe [.g]escr[=y]dd. Þ[=a] cwæþ h[=e]: 'L[=a], fr[=e]ond, h[=u]meta [=e]odest þ[=u] inn, and næfdest [.g]ieftlic r[=e]af?' Þa sw[=i]gode h[=e]. 110 And se cyning cwæþ t[=o] his þe[.g]num: '[.G]e·bindaþ his handa and his f[=e]t, and weorpaþ hine on þ[=a] [=y]terran þ[=e]ostru; þ[=æ]r biþ w[=o]p and t[=o]þa gr[=i]st-b[=i]tung.' Witodl[=i]ce mani[.g]e sind [.g]e·laþode, and f[=e]a [.g]e·corene. XXV. 1-13. Þonne biþ heofona r[=i][.c]e [.g]e·l[=i]c þ[=æ]m t[=i]en f[=æ]mnum, þe þ[=a] 115 leoht-fatu n[=a]mon, and f[=e]rdon on·[.g][=e]an þone br[=y]d-guman and þ[=a] br[=y]d. Hiera f[=i]f w[=æ]ron dysi[.g]e, and f[=i]f gl[=e]awe. And þ[=a] f[=i]f dysigan n[=a]mon leohtfatu, and ne n[=a]mon n[=a]nne ele mid him; þ[=a] gl[=e]awan n[=a]mon ele on hiera fatum mid þ[=æ]m leohtfatum. Þ[=a] se br[=y]dguma ielde, þ[=a] hnappodon h[=i]e ealle, and sl[=e]pon. 120 Witodl[=i]ce t[=o] middre nihte man hr[=i]emde, and cwæþ: 'N[=u] se br[=y]dguma cymþ, faraþ him t[=o]·[.g][=e]anes.' Þ[=a] [=a]·rison ealle þ[=a] f[=æ]mnan, and gl[e,]n[.g]don hiera leohtfatu. Þ[=a] cw[=æ]don þ[=a] dysigan to p[=æ]m w[=i]sum: 'S[e,]llaþ [=u]s of [=e]owrum ele, for þ[=æ]m [=u]re leohtfatu sind [=a]·cw[e,]n[.c]tu.' Þ[=a] and·swarodon þ[=a] gl[=e]awan, 125 and cw[=æ]don: 'Nese; þ[=y] l[=æ]s þe w[=e] and [.g][=e] næbben [.g]en[=o]g: g[=a]þ t[=o] þ[=æ]m [.c][=i]ependum, and by[.c][.g]aþ [=e]ow ele.' Witodl[=i]ce, þ[=a] h[=i]e f[=e]rdon, and woldon by[.c][.g]an, þ[=a] c[=o]m se br[=y]dguma; and þ[=a] þe [.g]earwe w[=æ]ron [=e]odon inn mid him t[=o] þ[=æ]m [.g]ieftum; and s[=e]o duru wæs be·locen. Þ[=a] æt n[=i]ehstan c[=o]mon 130 þa [=o]þre f[=æ]mnan, and cw[=æ]don: 'Dryhten, Dryhten, l[=æ]t [=u]s inn.' Þ[=a] and-swarode h[=e] him, and cwæþ: 'S[=o]þ ic [=e]ow s[e,][.c][.g]e, ne cann ic [=e]ow.' Witodl[=i]ce, waciaþ, for þ[=æ]m þe [.g][=e] nyton ne þone dæ[.g] ne þ[=a] t[=i]d. XXV. 14-30. Sum mann f[=e]rde on [e,]lþ[=e]odi[.g]nesse, and clipode his 135 {67} þ[=e]owas, and be·t[=æ]hte him his [=æ]hta. And [=a]num h[=e] sealde f[=i]f pund, sumum tw[=a], sumum [=a]n: [=æ][.g]hwelcum be his [=a]gnum mæ[.g]ne; and f[=e]rde s[=o]na. Þ[=a] f[=e]rde s[=e] þe þ[=a] f[=i]f pund under·f[=e]ng, and [.g]e·str[=i]ende [=o]þru f[=i]f. And eall-sw[=a] s[=e] þe þ[=a] tw[=a] under·feng, [.g]e·str[=i]ende 140 [=o]þru tw[=a]. Witodl[=i]ce s[=e] þe þæt [=a]n under·f[=e]ng, f[=e]rde, and be·dealf hit on eorþan, and be·h[=y]dde his hl[=a]fordes feoh. Witodl[=i]ce æfter mi[.c]lum fierste c[=o]m þ[=a]ra þ[=e]owa hl[=a]ford, and dihte him [.g]e·rad. Þ[=a] c[=o]m s[=e] þe þ[=a] f[=i]f pund under·f[=e]ng, and br[=o]hte [=o]þru f[=i]f, and cwæþ: 'Hl[=a]ford, f[=i]f pund þ[=u] sealdest 145 m[=e]; n[=u] ic [.g]e·str[=i]ende [=o]þru f[=i]f.' Þ[=a] cwæp his hl[=a]ford t[=o] him: 'B[=e]o bl[=i]þe, þ[=u] g[=o]da þ[=e]ow and [.g]e·tr[=e]owa: for þ[=æ]m þe þ[=u] w[=æ]re [.g]e·tr[=e]owe ofer l[=y]tlu þing, ic [.]ge·s[e,]tte þ[=e] ofer mi[.c]lu; g[=a] int[=o] þ[=i]nes hl[=a]fordes blisse.' Þ[=a] c[=o]m s[=e] þe þ[=a] tw[=a] pund under·f[=e]ng, and cwæþ: 'Hl[=a]ford, tw[=a] pund þ[=u] 150 m[=e] sealdest; n[=u] ic hæbbe [.g]e·str[=i]ened [=o]þru tw[=a].' Þ[=a] cwæþ his hl[=a]ford t[=o] him: '[.G]e·blissa, þ[=u] g[=o]da þ[=e]ow and [.g]etr[=e]owa: for þ[=æ]m þe þ[=u] w[=æ]re [.g]e·tr[=e]owe ofer f[=e]a, ofer fela ic þ[=e] [.g]e·s[e,]tte; g[=a] on þ[=i]nes hl[=a]fordes [.g]e·f[=e]an.' Þ[=a] c[=o]m s[=e] þe þæt [=a]n pund under·f[=e]ng, and cwæþ: 'Hl[=a]ford, ic w[=a]t þæt 155 þ[=u] eart heard mann: þ[=u] r[=i]pst þ[=æ]r þ[=u] ne s[=e]owe, and gaderast þ[=æ]r þ[=u] ne spr[e,]n[.g]dest. And ic f[=e]rde of·dr[=æ]dd, and be·h[=y]dde þ[=i]n pund on eorþan; h[=e]r þ[=u] hæfst þæt þ[=i]n is.' Þ[=a] andswarode his hl[=a]ford him, and cwæþ: 'þ[=u] yfla þ[=e]ow and sl[=a]wa, þ[=u] wistest þæt ic r[=i]pe þ[=æ]r ic ne s[=e]owe, 160 and ic gadri[.g]e þ[=æ]r ic ne str[=e]dde: hit [.g]e·byrede þæt þ[=u] be·fæste m[=i]n feoh myneterum, and ic n[=a]me, þonne ic c[=o]me, þæt m[=i]n is, mid þ[=æ]m gafole. [=A]·nimaþ þæt pund æt him, and s[e,]llaþ þ[=æ]m þe m[=e] þ[=a] t[=i]en pund br[=o]hte. Witodl[=i]ce [=æ]lcum þ[=a]ra þe hæfþ man s[e,]lþ, and h[=e] hæfþ [.g]e·n[=o]g; þ[=æ]m þe næfþ, 165 þæt him þyn[.c]þ þæt h[=e] hæbbe, þæt him biþ æt·brogden. And weorpaþ þone un·nyttan þ[=e]ow on þ[=a] [=y]terran þ[=e]ostru; þ[=æ]r biþ w[=o]p and t[=o]þa grist·b[=i]tung.' {68} III. OLD TESTAMENT PIECES. I. Æfter þ[=æ]m s[=o]þl[=i]ce ealle m[e,]nn spr[=æ]con [=a]ne spr[=æ][.c]e. Þ[=a] þ[=a] h[=i]e f[=e]rdon fram [=E]ast-d[=æ]le, h[=i]e fundon [=a]nne feld on Senna[=a]r-lande, and wunodon þ[=æ]r-on. Þ[=a] cw[=æ]don h[=i]e him be·tw[=e]onan: 'Uton wyr[.c]an [=u]s ti[.g]elan, and [=æ]lan h[=i]e on f[=y]re!' Witodl[=i]ce h[=i]e hæfdon ti[.g]elan for 5 st[=a]n and tierwan for weal-l[=i]m. And h[=i]e cw[=æ]don: 'Uton timbrian [=u]s [.c]eastre, and st[=i]epel oþ heofon h[=e]anne! uton weorþian [=u]rne naman, [=æ]r þ[æ]m þe w[=e] s[=i]en t[=o]·d[=æ]lde [.g]eond ealle eorþan!' Witodl[=i]ce Dryhten [=a]·st[=a]g niþer, t[=o] þ[=æ]m þæt h[=e] [.g]e·s[=a]we 10 þ[=a] burg and þone st[=i]epel, þe Ad[=a]mes bearn [.g]e·timbrodon. And h[=e] cwæþ: 'þis is [=a]n folc, and ealle h[=i]e sprecaþ [=a]n læden, and h[=i]e be·gunnon þis t[=o] wyr[.c]enne: ne [.g]e·sw[=i]caþ h[=i]e [=æ]r þ[=æ]m þe hit [.g]earu s[=i]e; s[=o]þl[=i]ce uton cuman and t[=o]·d[=æ]lan hiera spr[=æ][.c]e!' 15 Sw[=a] Dryhten h[=i]e t[=o]·d[=æ]lde of þ[=æ]re st[=o]we [.g]eond ealle eorþan. And for þ[=æ]m man n[e,]mnde þ[=a] st[=o]we Bab[=e]l for þ[=æ]m þe þ[=æ]r w[=æ]ron t[=o]·d[=æ]lde ealle spr[=æ][.c]a. II. God wolde p[=a] fandian Abrah[=a]mes [.g]e·h[=i]ersumnesse, and clipode his naman, and cwæþ him þus t[=o]: 'Nim þ[=i]nne 20 [=a]n-c[e,]nnedan sunu Isa[=a]c, þe þ[=u] lufast, and far t[=o] þ[=æ]m {69} lande Visionis hraþe, and [.g]e·offra hine þ[=æ]r uppan [=a]nre d[=u]ne.' Abrah[=a]m þ[=a] [=a]·r[=a]s on þ[=æ]re ilcan nihte, and f[=e]rde mid tw[=æ]m cnapum t[=o] þ[=æ]m fierlenum lande, and Isa[=a]c samod, 25 on assum r[=i]dende. Þ[=a] on þ[=æ]m þriddan dæ[.g]e, þ[=a] h[=i]e þ[=a] d[=u]ne [.g]e·s[=a]won, þ[=æ]r þ[=æ]r h[=i]e t[=o] scoldon t[=o] of·sl[=e]anne Isa[=a]c, þ[=a] cwæþ Abrah[=a]m t[=o] þ[=æ]m tw[=æ]m cnapum þus: 'Andb[=i]diaþ [=e]ow h[=e]r mid þ[=æ]m assum sume hw[=i]le! ic and þ[=æ]t [.c]ild g[=a]þ unc t[=o] [.g]e·biddenne, 30 and wit siþþan cumaþ s[=o]na eft t[=o] [=e]ow.' Abrah[=a]m þ[=a] h[=e]t Isa[=a]c beran þone wudu t[=o] þ[=æ]re st[=o]we, and h[=e] self bær his sweord and f[=y]r. Isa[=a]c þa [=a]scode Abrah[=a]m his fæder: 'Fæder m[=i]n, ic [=a]sci[.g]e hw[=æ]r s[=e]o offrung s[=i]e; h[=e]r is wudu and f[=y]r.' Him andwyrde se fæder: 'God fores[.c][=e]awaþ, 35 m[=i]n sunu, him self þ[=a] offrunge.' H[=i]e c[=o]mon þ[=a] t[=o] þ[=æ]re st[=o]we þe him [.g]e·sweotolode God; and h[=e] þ[=æ]r weofod [=a]·r[=æ]rde on þ[=a] ealdan w[=i]san, and þone wudu [.g]e·l[=o]gode sw[=a] sw[=a] h[=e] hit wolde habban t[=o] his suna bærnette, siþþan h[=e] of·slæ[.g]en wurde. H[=e] [.g]e·band þ[=a] his 40 sunu, and his sweord [=a]·t[=e]ah, þæt h[=e] hine [.g]e·offrode on þ[=a] ealdan w[=i]san. Mid þ[=æ]m þe h[=e] wolde þ[=æ]t weorc be·[.g]innan, þ[=a] clipode Godes [e,]n[.g]el arodl[=i]ce of heofonum: 'Abrah[=a]m!' H[=e] andwyrde s[=o]na. Se [e,]n[.g]el him cwæþ t[=o]: 'Ne [=a]·cw[e,]le þ[=u] 45 þæt [.c]ild, ne þ[=i]ne hand ne [=a]·str[e,][.c]e ofer his sw[=e]oran! N[=u] ic on·cn[=e]ow s[=o]þl[=i]ce þæt p[=u] on·dr[=æ]tst sw[=i]þe God, n[=u] p[=u] p[=i]nne [=a]n-c[e,]nnedan sunu woldest of·sl[=e]an for him.' Þ[=a] be·seah Abrah[=a]m s[=o]na under bæc, and [.g]e·seah þ[=æ]r [=a]nne ramm be·twix þ[=æ]m br[=e]mlum be þ[=æ]m hornum [.g]e·hæftne, 50 and h[=e] hæfde þone ramm t[=o] þ[=æ]re offrunge, and hine þ[=æ]r of·sn[=a]þ Gode t[=o] l[=a]ce for his sunu Isa[=a]c. H[=e] h[=e]t þ[=a] st[=o]we _Dominus videt_, þæt is 'God [.g]e·sihþ,' and [.g]iet is [.g]e·sæ[.g]d sw[=a], _In monte Dominus videbit_, þæt is, 'God [.g]e·sihþ on d[=u]ne.' {70} Eft clipode se [e,]n[.g]el Abrah[=a]m, and cwæþ: 'Ic sæ[.g]de 55 þurh m[=e] selfne, sæ[.g]de se Ælmihtiga, n[=u] þ[=u] noldest [=a]rian þ[=i]num [=a]nc[e,]nnedum suna, ac þ[=e] wæs m[=i]n [e,][.g]e m[=a]re þonne his l[=i]f, ic þ[=e] n[=u] bl[=e]tsi[.g]e, and þ[=i]nne of-spring ge·mani[.g]-fielde sw[=a] sw[=a] steorran on heofonum, and sw[=a] sw[=a] sand-[.c]eosol on s[=æ]; þ[=i]n ofspring s[.c]eal [=a]gan hiera f[=e]onda [.g]eatu. And on 60 þ[=i]num s[=æ]de b[=e]oþ ealle þ[=e]oda [.g]e·bl[=e]tsode, for þ[=æ]m þe þ[=u] [.g]e·h[=i]ersumodest m[=i]nre h[=æ]se þus.' Abrah[=a]m þ[=a] [.g]e·[.c]ierde s[=o]na t[=o] his cnapum, and f[=e]rdon him h[=a]m s[=o]na mid heofonlicre bl[=e]tsunge. III. Sum cw[=e]n wæs on s[=u]þ-d[=æ]le, Saba [.g]e·h[=a]ten, snotor and 65 w[=i]s. Þ[=a] [.g]e·h[=i]erde h[=e]o Salomones hl[=i]san, and c[=o]m fram þ[=æ]m s[=u]þernum [.g]e·m[=æ]rum to Salomone binnan Hierusal[=e]m mid mi[.c]elre fare, and hiere olfendas b[=æ]ron s[=u]þerne wyrta, and d[=e]or-wierþe [.g]imm-st[=a]nas, and un-[.g]er[=i]m gold. S[=e]o cw[=e]n þ[=a] hæfde spr[=æ][.c]e wiþ Salomon, and sæ[.g]de him sw[=a] hwæt 70 sw[=a] h[=e]o on hiere heortan [.g]e·þ[=o]hte. Salomon þ[=a] h[=i]e l[=æ]rde, and hiere sæ[.g]de ealra þ[=a]ra worda and[.g]iet þe h[=e]o hine [=a]scode. Þ[=a] [.g]e·seah s[=e]o cw[=e]n Salomones w[=i]sd[=o]m, and þæt m[=æ]re tempel þe h[=e] [.g]e·timbrod hæfde, and þ[=a] l[=a]c þe man Gode offrode, and þæs cyninges mani[.g]-fealde þe[.g]nunga, and wæs 75 t[=o] þ[=æ]m sw[=i]þe of·wundrod þæt h[=e]o næfde furþor n[=a]nne g[=a]st, for þ[=æ]m þe h[=e]o ne mihte n[=a] furþor sm[=e]an. H[=e]o cwæþ þ[=a] t[=o] þ[=æ]m cyninge: 'S[=o]þ is þæt word þe ic [.g]e·h[=i]erde on m[=i]num earde be þ[=e] and be þ[=i]num w[=i]sd[=o]me, ac ic nolde [.g]e·l[=i]efan [=æ]r þ[=æ]m þe ic self hit [.g]e·s[=a]we. N[=u] hæbbe ic [=a]·fandod 80 þæt m[=e] næs be healfum d[=æ]le þ[=i]n m[=æ]rþo [.g]e·c[=y]ped. M[=a]re is þ[=i]n w[=i]sd[=o]m and þ[=i]n weorc þonne se hl[=i]sa w[=æ]re þe ic [.g]e·h[=i]erde. [=E]adige sind þ[=i]ne þe[.g]nas and þ[=i]ne þ[=e]owas, þe simle æt·foran þ[=e] standaþ, and þ[=i]nne w[=i]sd[=o]m [.g]e·h[=i]eraþ. [.G]e·bl[=e]tsod s[=i]e se ælmihtiga God, þe þ[=e] [.g]e·[.c][=e]as and [.g]e·s[e,]tte 85 {71} ofer Israh[=e]la r[=i][.c]e, þæt þ[=u] d[=o]mas s[e,]tte and riht-w[=i]snesse,' H[=e]o for·[.g]eaf þ[=æ]em cyninge þ[=a] hund·tw[e,]lfti[.g] punda goldes, and un[.g]er[=i]m d[=e]orwierþra wyrta and d[=e]orwierþra [.g]immst[=a]na. Salomon [=e]ac for·[.g]eaf þ[=æ]re cw[=e]ne sw[=a] hwæs sw[=a] h[=e]o [.g]iernde æt him; and h[=e]o [.g]e·w[e,]nde on·[.g]e[=a]n t[=o] hiere [=e]þle mid hiere 90 þe[.g]num. Salomon þ[=a] wæs [.g]e·m[=æ]rsod ofer eallum eorþlicum cyningum, and ealle þ[=e]oda [.g]e·wilnodon þæt h[=i]e hine [.g]e·s[=a]wen, and his w[=i]sd[=o]m [.g]e·h[=i]erden, and h[=i]e him mani[.g]feald l[=a]c br[=o]hton. S[=e]o cw[=e]n hæfde [.g]e·t[=a]cnunge þ[=æ]re h[=a]lgan [.g]e·laþunge ealles 95 cr[=i]stenes folces, þe c[=o]m t[=o] þ[=æ]m [.g]e·sibbsuman Cr[=i]ste t[=o] [.g]e·h[=i]erenne his w[=i]sd[=o]m and þ[=a] god-spellican l[=a]re þa h[=e] [=a]·stealde, and be on·liehtunge þæs s[=o]þan [.g]e·l[=e]afan, and be þ[=æ]m t[=o]weardan d[=o]me, be [=u]rre s[=a]wle un-d[=e]adlicnesse, and be hyhte and wuldre þæs [.g]e·m[=æ]nelican [=æ]ristes. 100 S[=e]o cw[=e]n c[=o]m t[=o] Salomone mid mi[.c]lum l[=a]cum on golde and on d[=e]orwierþum [.g]immst[=a]num and wyrt-br[=æ]þum; and þæt b[=æ]ron olfendas. S[=e]o [.g]e·l[=e]affulle [.g]e·laþung, þe cymþ of [=æ]lcum earde t[=o] Cr[=i]ste, bringþ him þ[=a]s fore-sæ[.g]dan l[=a]c æfter g[=a]stlicum and[.g]iete. H[=e]o offraþ him gold þurh s[=o]þne 105 [.g]e·l[=e]afan, and wyrtbr[=æ]þas þurh [.g]e·bedu, and d[=e]orwierþe [.g]immas þurh fæ[.g]ernesse g[=o]dra þ[=e]awa and h[=a]li[.g]ra mæ[.g]na. Be þisse [.g]e·laþunge cwæþ se w[=i]tega t[=o] Gode: _Adstitit_ _regina a dextris tuis, in vestitu deaurato, circumdata varietate_, þæt is, 's[=e]o cw[=e]n st[e,]nt æt þ[=i]nre sw[=i]þran, on ofergyldum 110 [.g]ierlan, ymb·scr[=y]dd mid mani[.g]fealdre f[=a]gnesse.' S[=e]o g[=a]stlice cw[=e]n, Godes [.g]e·laþung, is [.g]e·gl[e,]n[.g]ed mid d[=e]orwierþre frætwunge and mani[.g]fealdum bl[=e]o g[=o]dra drohtnunga and mihta. H[=e]o sæ[.g]de Salomone ealle hiere d[=i]egolnessa, and s[=e]o 115 [.g]e·laþung [.g]e·openaþ Cr[=i]ste hiere inn-[.g]ehy[.g]d and þa d[=i]eglan [.g]e·þ[=o]htas on s[=o]þre andetnesse. Olfendas b[=æ]ron þ[=a] d[=e]orwierþan l[=a]c mid þ[=æ]re cw[=e]ne {72} int[=o] Hierusal[=e]m; for þ[=æ]m þe þ[=a] h[=æ]þnan, þe [=æ]r w[=æ]ron [.g]e·hoferode þurh [.g][=i]tsunge and atollice þurh leahtras, b[=æ]ron, 120 þurh hiera [.g]e·[.c]ierrednesse and [.g]e·l[=e]afan, þ[=a] g[=a]stlican l[=a]c t[=o] Cr[=i]stes handum. S[=e]o cw[=e]n wundrode Salomones w[=i]sd[=o]mes, and his [.g]e·timbrunga, and þe[.g]nunga; and s[=e]o [.g]e·laþung wundraþ Cr[=i]stes w[=i]sd[=o]mes, for þ[=æ]m þe h[=e] is s[=o]þ w[=i]sd[=o]m, and eall w[=i]sd[=o]m is 125 of him. H[=e] [.g]e·timbrode þ[=a] h[=e]alican heofonas and ealne middan[.g]eard, and ealle [.g]e·sceafta [.g]e·s[e,]tte on þrim þingum, _in mensura, et pondere, et numero_, þæt is, on [.g]e·mete, and on h[e,]fe, and on [.g]e·tele. Cr[=i]stes þe[.g]nung is [=u]re h[=æ]lo and folca [=a]·l[=i]esednes, and þ[=a] sind [.g]e·s[=æ]li[.g]e þe him þe[.g]niaþ t[=o] 130 [.g]e·cw[=e]mednesse on þ[=æ]m g[=a]stlicum [.g]e·r[=y]num. S[=e]o cw[=e]n sæ[.g]de þæt hiere n[=æ]re be healfum d[=æ]le [.g]e·sæ[.g]d be Salomones m[=æ]rþo, and s[=e]o g[=a]stlice cw[=e]n, Godes [.g]e·laþung, oþþe [.g]e·hwelc h[=a]li[.g] s[=a]wol, þonne h[=e]o cymþ t[=o] þ[=æ]re heofonlican Hierusal[=e]m, þonne [.g]e·sihþ h[=e]o mi[.c]le m[=a]ran m[=æ]rþo 135 and wuldor þonne hiere [=æ]r on l[=i]fe þurh w[=i]tegan oþþe apostolas [.g]e·c[=y]dd w[=æ]re. Ne mæ[.g] n[=a]n [=e]age on þissum l[=i]fe [.g]e·s[=e]on, ne n[=a]n [=e]are [.g]e·h[=i]eran, ne n[=a]nes mannes heorte [=a]·sm[=e]an þ[=a] þing þe God [.g]earcaþ þ[=æ]m þe hine lufiaþ. Þ[=a] þing w[=e] magon be·[.g]ietan, ac w[=e] ne magon h[=i]e [=a]·sm[=e]an, 140 ne [=u]s n[=æ]fre ne [=a]·þr[=i]ett þ[=a]ra g[=o]da [.g]e·nyhtsumnes. Cr[=i]st is ealra cyninga cyning, and sw[=a] sw[=a] ealle þ[=e]oda woldon [.g]e·s[=e]on þone [.g]e·sibbsuman Salomon, and his w[=i]sd[=o]m [.g]e·h[=i]eran, and him mislicu l[=a]c br[=o]hton, sw[=a] [=e]ac n[=u] of eallum þ[=e]odum [.g]e·wilniaþ m[e,]nn t[=o] [.g]e·s[=e]onne þone [.g]e-sibbsuman 145 Cr[=i]st þurh [.g]e·l[=e]afan, and þone godspellican w[=i]sd[=o]m [.g]e·h[=i]eran, and h[=i]e him dæ[.g]-hw[=æ]ml[=i]ce þ[=a] g[=a]stlican l[=a]c [.g]e·offriaþ on mani[.g]fealdum [.g]e·metum. IV. On C[=y]res dagum cyninges wr[=e][.g]don þ[=a] Babil[=o]niscan þone {73} w[=i]tegan Dani[=e]l, for þ[=æ]m þe h[=e] t[=o]·wearp hiera d[=e]ofol-[.g]ield, 150 and cw[=æ]don [=a]n-m[=o]dl[=i]ce t[=o] þ[=æ]m fore-sæ[.g]dan cyninge C[=y]rum: 'Bet[=æ][.c] [=u]s Dani[=e]l, þe [=u]rne god B[=e]l t[=o]·wearp, and þone dracan [=a]·cwealde þe w[=e] on be·l[=i]efdon; [.g]if þ[=u] hine for·st[e,]ntst, w[=e] for·dilgiaþ þ[=e] and þ[=i]nne h[=i]red.' Þ[=a] [.g]e·seah se cyning þæt h[=i]e [=a]n-m[=o]de w[=æ]ron, and n[=i]edunga 155 þone w[=i]tegan him t[=o] handum [=a]·s[.c][=e]af. H[=i]e þ[=a] hine [=a]·wurpon int[=o] [=a]num s[=e]aþe, on þ[=æ]m w[=æ]ron seofon l[=e]on, þ[=æ]m man sealde dæ[.g]hw[=æ]ml[=i]ce tw[=a] hr[=i]þeru and tw[=a] s[.c][=e]ap, ac him wæs þ[=a] of·togen [=æ]lces f[=o]dan siex dagas, þæt h[=i]e þone Godes mann [=a]·b[=i]tan scolden. 160 On þ[=æ]re t[=i]de wæs sum [=o]þer w[=i]tega on J[=u]d[=e]a-lande, his nama waes Abacuc, s[=e] bær his rifterum m[e,]te t[=o] æcere. Þ[=a] c[=o]m him t[=o] Godes [e,]n[.g]el, and cwæþ: 'Abacuc, ber þone m[e,]te t[=o] Babil[=o]ne, and s[e,]le Dani[=e]le, s[=e] þe sitt on þ[=a]ra l[=e]ona s[=e]aþe.' Abacuc andwyrde þ[=æ]m [e,]n[.g]le: 'L[=a] l[=e]of, ne [.g]e·seah 165 ic n[=æ]fre þ[=a] burg, ne ic þone s[=e]aþ n[=a]t.' Þ[=a] se [e,]n[.g]el [.g]e·l[=æ]hte hine be þ[=æ]m feaxe, and hine bær t[=o] Babil[=o]ne, and hine s[e,]tte bufan þ[=æ]m s[=e]aþe. Þ[=a] clipode se Abacuc: 'þ[=u] Godes þ[=e]ow, Dani[=e]l, nim þ[=a]s l[=a]c þe þ[=e] God s[e,]nde!' Dani[=e]l cwæþ: 'M[=i]n Dryhten H[=æ]lend, s[=i]e þ[=e] lof 170 and weorþ-mynd þæt þ[=u] m[=e] [.g]e·mundest.' And h[=e] þ[=a] þ[=æ]re sande br[=e]ac. Witodl[=i]ce Godes [e,]n[.g]el þ[=æ]r-rihte mid swiftum flyhte [.g]e·br[=o]hte þone disc-þe[.g]n, Abacuc, þ[=æ]r h[=e] hine [=æ]r [.g]e·nam. Se cyning þ[=a] C[=y]rus on þ[=æ]m seofoþan dæ[.g]e [=e]ode dr[=e]ori[.g] 175 t[=o] þ[=a]ra l[=e]ona s[=e]aþe, and inn be·seah, and efne þ[=a] Dani[=e]l sittende wæs [.g]e·sundfull on·middan þ[=æ]m l[=e]onum. Þ[=a] clipode se cyning mid mi[.c]elre stefne: 'M[=æ]re is se God þe Dani[=e]l on be·l[=i]efþ.' And h[=e] þ[=a] mid þ[=æ]m worde hine [=a]·t[=e]ah of þ[=æ]m scræfe, and h[=e]t inn weorpan þ[=a] þe hine [=æ]r for·d[=o]n woldon. 180 Þæs cyninges h[=æ]s wearþ hrædl[=i]ce [.g]e·fr[e,]mmed, and þæs w[=i]tegan [=e]hteras wurdon [=a]·scofene be·twix þ[=a] l[=e]on, and h[=i]e {74} þ[=æ]r-rihte mid gr[=æ]digum [.c]eaflum h[=i]e ealle t[=o]·t[=æ]ron. Þ[=a] cwæþ se cyning: 'Forhtien and on·dr[=æ]den ealle eorþ-b[=u]end Dani[=e]les God, for þ[=æ]m þe h[=e] is [=A]·l[=i]esend and H[=æ]lend, 185 wyr[.c]ende t[=a]cnu and wundru on heofonan and on eorþan.' V. Nabochodonosor, se h[=æ]þena cyning, [.g]e·h[e,]rgode on Godes folce, on J[=u]d[=e]a-lande, and for hiera m[=a]n-d[=æ]dum God þæt [.g]e·þafode. Þ[=a] [.g]e·nam h[=e] þ[=a] m[=a]þm-fatu, gyldenu and silfrenu, binnan Godes temple, and t[=o] his lande mid him 190 [.g]e·l[=æ]dde. Hit [.g]e·lamp eft siþþan þæt h[=e] on swefne [=a]ne [.g]e·sihþe be him selfum [.g]e·seah, sw[=a] sw[=a] him siþþan [=a]·[=e]ode. Æfter þissum ymb twelf m[=o]naþ, [=e]ode se cyning binnan his healle mid orm[=æ]tre [=u]p-[=a]hafennesse, h[e,]riende his weorc and his miht, and cwæþ: 'H[=u], ne is þis s[=e]o mi[.c]le Babil[=o]n, 195 þe ic self [.g]e·timbrode t[=o] cyne-st[=o]le and t[=o] þrymme, m[=e] selfum to wlite and wuldre, mid m[=i]num [=a]gnum mæ[.g]ne and str[e,]n[.g]þo?' Ac him clipode þ[=æ]rrihte t[=o] sw[=i]þe [e,][.g]eslic stefn of heofonum, þus cweþende: 'Þ[=u] Nabochodonosor, þ[=i]n r[=i][.c]e [.g]e·w[=i]tt fram þ[=e], and þ[=u] bist fram mannum [=a]·worpen, 200 and þ[=i]n wunung biþ mid wild[=e]orum, and þ[=u] itst gærs, sw[=a] sw[=a] oxa, seofon [.g][=e]ar, oþ þæt þ[=u] wite þæt se h[=e]alica God [.g]e·wielt manna r[=i][.c]a, and þæt h[=e] for·[.g]iefþ r[=i][.c]e þ[=æ]m þe h[=e] wile.' Witodl[=i]ce on þ[=æ]re ilcan t[=i]de wæs þ[=e]os spr[=æ][.c] [.g]e·fylled 205 ofer Nabochodonosor, and h[=e] arn t[=o] wuda, and wunode mid wild[=e]orum, leofode be gærse, sw[=a] sw[=a] n[=i]eten, oþ þæt his feax w[=e]ox sw[=a] sw[=a] w[=i]f-manna, and his næ[.g]las sw[=a] sw[=a] earnes clawa. Eft siþþan him for·[.g]eaf se ælmihtiga Wealdend his [.g]e·witt, 210 and h[=e] cwæþ: 'Ic Nabochodonosor [=a]·h[=o]f m[=i]n [=e]agan [=u]p t[=o] heofonum, and m[=i]n and[.g]iet m[=e] wearþ for·[.g]iefen, and ic þ[=a] bl[=e]tsode þone h[=i]ehstan God, and ic h[e,]rede and wuldrode {75} þone þe leofaþ on [=e][.c]nesse, for þ[=æ]m þe his miht is [=e][.c]e, and his r[=i][.c]e st[e,]nt on m[=æ][.g]þe and on m[=æ][.g]þe. Ealle eorþ-b[=u]end 215 sind t[=o] n[=a]hte [.g]e·tealde on his wiþ·metennesse. Æfter his willan h[=e] d[=e]þ [=æ][.g]þer [.g]e on heofone [.g]e on eorþan, and nis n[=a]n þing þe his mihte wiþ·stande, oþþe him t[=o] cweþe 'hw[=y] d[=e]st þ[=u] sw[=a]?' On þ[=æ]re t[=i]de m[=i]n and[.g]iet [.g]e·w[e,]nde t[=o] m[=e], and ic be·c[=o]m t[=o] weorþ-mynde m[=i]nes cyne-r[=i][.c]es, and m[=i]n 220 m[e,]nnisce h[=i]w m[=e] be·c[=o]m. M[=i]ne witan m[=e] s[=o]hton, and m[=i]n m[=æ]rþo wearþ [.g]e·[=e]acnod. N[=u] eornostl[=i]ce ic m[=æ]rsi[.g]e and wuldri[.g]e þone heofonlican cyning, for þ[=æ]m þe eall his weorc sind s[=o]þ, and his wegas riht-w[=i]se, and h[=e] mæ[.g] [.g]e·[=e]aþ-m[=e]dan þ[=a] þe on m[=o]di[.g]nesse faraþ.' 225 Þus [.g]e·[=e]aþm[=e]dde se ælmihtiga God þone m[=o]digan cyning Nabochodonosor. {76} IV. SAMSON. [=A]n mann wæs eardiende on Israh[=e]la þ[=e]ode, Manu[=e] [.g]e·h[=a]ten, of þ[=æ]re m[=æ][.g]þe Dan; his w[=i]f wæs un-t[=i]emend, and h[=i]e wunodon b[=u]tan [.c]ilde. Him c[=o]m þ[=a] gangende t[=o] Godes [e,]n[.g]el, and cwæþ þæt h[=i]e scolden habban sunu him [.g]e·m[=æ]nne; 'ne h[=e] ealu ne drince n[=æ]fre oþþe w[=i]n, ne n[=a]ht 5 f[=u]les ne þi[.c][.g]e; s[=e] biþ Gode h[=a]li[.g] fram his [.c]ildh[=a]de; and man ne m[=o]t hine [e,]fsian oþþe be·s[.c]ieran, for þ[=æ]m þe h[=e] on·[.g]inþ t[=o] [=a]·l[=i]esenne his folc, Israh[=e]la þ[=e]ode, of Philist[=e]a þ[=e]owte.' H[=e]o [=a]·c[e,]nde þ[=a] sunu, sw[=a] sw[=a] hiere sæ[.g]de se [e,]n[.g]el, and 10 h[=e]t hine Samson; and h[=e] sw[=i]þe w[=e]ox; and God hine bl[=e]tsode, and Godes g[=a]st wæs on him. H[=e] wearþ þ[=a] mihti[.g] on mi[.c]elre str[e,]n[.g]þo, sw[=a] þæt h[=e] [.g]e·l[=æ]hte [=a]ne l[=e]on be we[.g]e, þe hine [=a]·b[=i]tan wolde, and t[=o]·bræ[.g]d h[=i]e t[=o] sty[.c][.c]um, swelce he t[=o]·t[=æ]re sum [=e]aþelic ti[.c][.c]en. 15 H[=e] be·gann þ[=a] t[=o] winnenne wiþ þ[=a] Philist[=e]os, and hiera fela of·sl[=o]g and t[=o] scame t[=u]code, þ[=e]ah þe h[=i]e onweald hæfden ofer h[=i]s l[=e]ode. Þ[=a] f[=e]rdon þ[=a] Philist[=e]i forþ æfter Samsone, and h[=e]ton his l[=e]ode þæt h[=i]e hine [=a]·[.g][=e]afen t[=o] hiera onwealde, þæt h[=i]e wrecan mihten hiera t[=e]on-r[=æ]denne mid tintregum 20 on him. H[=i]e þ[=a] hine [.g]e·bundon mid tw[=æ]m bæstenum r[=a]pum and hine [.g]e·l[=æ]ddon t[=o] þ[=æ]m folce. And þ[=a] Philist[=e]iscan þæs fæ[.g]nodon sw[=i]þe; urnon him t[=o]·[.g][=e]anes ealle hl[=y]dende; woldon hine tintre[.g]ian for hiera t[=e]onr[=æ]denne. Þ[=a] t[=o]·bræ[.g]d Samson b[=e][.g]en his earmas, þæt þ[=a] r[=a]pas t[=o]-burston þe h[=e] mid 25 {77} [.g]e·bunden wæs. And h[=e] [.g]e·l[=æ]hte þ[= a] s[=o]na sumes assan [.c]inn-b[=a]n þe h[=e] þ[=æ]r funde, and [.g]e·feaht wiþ h[=i]e, and of·sl[=o][.g] [=a]n þ[=u]send mid þæs assan [.c]innb[=a]ne. H[=e] wearþ þ[=a] sw[=i]þe of·þyrst for þ[=æ]m wundorlican sl[e,][.g]e, and bæd þone heofonlican God þæt h[=e] him [=a]·s[e,]nde drincan, for þ[=æ]m þe on þ[=æ]re 30 n[=e]awiste næs n[=a]n wæters[.c]ipe. Þ[=a] arn of þ[=æ]n [.c]innb[=a]ne of [=a]num t[=e]þ wæter; and Samson þ[=a] dranc, and his Dryhtne þancode. Æfter þissum h[=e] f[=e]rde t[=o] Philist[=e]a lande, int[=o] [=a]nre byri[.g] on hiera onwealde, Gaza [.g]e·h[=a]ten. And h[=i]e þæs fæ[.g]nodon; 35 be·s[e,]tton þ[=a] þ[=æ]t h[=u]s þe h[=e] inne wunode; woldon hine [.g]e·niman mid þ[=æ]m þe h[=e] [=u]t [=e]ode on [=æ]rne-mer[.g]en, and hine of·sl[=e]an. Hwæt þ[=a] Samson hiera sierwunga under·[.g]eat; and [=a]·r[=a]s on middre nihte t[=o]·middes his f[=e]ondum, and [.g]e·nam þ[=a] burg-[.g]eatu, and [.g]e·bær on his hry[.c][.g]e mid þ[=æ]m postum, 40 sw[=a] sw[=a] h[=i]e be·locenu w[=æ]ron, [=u]p t[=o] [=a]nre d[=u]ne t[=o] ufeweardum þ[=æ]m cnolle; and [=e]ode sw[=a] or-sorg of hiera [.g]e·sihþum. Hine be·sw[=a]c sw[=a]·þ[=e]ah siþþan [=a]n w[=i]f, Dalila [.g]e·h[=a]ten, of þ[=æ]m h[=æ]þnan folce, sw[=a] þæt h[=e] hiere sæ[.g]de, þurh hiere sw[=i]cd[=o]m 45 be·p[=æ]ht, on hw[=æ]m his str[e,]n[.g]þo wæs and his wundorlicu miht. Þ[=a] h[=æ]þnan Philist[=e]i be·h[=e]ton hiere s[.c]eattas wiþ þ[=æ]m þe h[=e]o be·swice Samson þone strangan. Þ[=a] [=a]scode h[=e]o hine [.g]eorne mid hiere [=o]l[=æ][.c]unge on hw[=æ]m his miht w[=æ]re; and h[=e] hiere andwyrde: '[.G]if ic b[=e]o [.g]e·bunden mid seofon 50 r[=a]pum, of sinum [.g]eworhte, s[=o]na ic b[=e]o [.g]e·wield.' Þæt swicole w[=i]f þ[=a] be·[.g]eat þ[=a] seofon r[=a]pas, and h[=e] þurh sierwunge sw[=a] wearþ [.g]e·bunden. And him man c[=y]þde þæt þ[=æ]r c[=o]mon his f[=i]end; þ[=a] t[=o]·bræc h[=e] s[=o]na þ[=a] r[=a]pas, sw[=a] sw[=a] h[e,]fel-þr[=æ]das; and þæt w[=i]f nyste on hw[=æ]m his miht 55 wæs. H[=e] wearþ eft [.g]e·bunden mid eall-n[=i]wum r[=a]pum; and h[=e] þ[=a] t[=o]·bræc, sw[=a] sw[=a] þ[=a] [=o]þre. H[=e]o be·sw[=a]c hine sw[=a]·þ[=e]ah, þæt h[=e] hiere sæ[.g]de æt {78} n[=i]ehstan: 'Ic eom Gode [.g]e·h[=a]lgod fram m[=i]num [.c]ildh[=a]de; and ic næs n[=æ]fre [.g]e·[e,]fsod, ne n[=æ]fre be·scoren; and [.g]if ic b[=e]o 60 be·scoren, þonne b[=e]o ic un-mihti[.g], [=o]þrum mannum [.g]e·l[=i]c;' and h[=e]o l[=e]t þ[=a] sw[=a]. H[=e]o þ[=a] on sumum dæ[.g]e, þ[=a] þ[=a] h[=e] on sl[=æ]pe læ[.g], for·[.c]earf his seofon loccas, and [=a]·weahte hine siþþan; þ[=a] wæs h[=e] sw[=a] unmihti[.g] sw[=a] sw[=a] [=o]þre m[e,]nn. And þ[=a] Philist[=e]i 65 [.g]e·f[=e]ngon hine s[=o]na, sw[=a] sw[=a] h[=e]o hine be·l[=æ]wde, and [.g]e·l[=æ]ddon hine on·we[.g]; and h[=e]o hæfde þone s[.c]eatt, sw[=a] sw[=a] him [.g]e·wearþ. H[=i]e þ[=a] hine [=a]·bl[e,]ndon, and [.g]e·bundenne l[=æ]ddon on heardum racent[=e]agum h[=a]m t[=o] hiera byri[.g], and on cwearterne 70 be·lucon t[=o] langre fierste: h[=e]ton hine grindan æt hiera hand-cweorne. Þ[=a] w[=e]oxon his loccas and his miht eft on him. And þ[=a] Philist[=e]i full·bl[=i]þe w[=æ]ron: þancodon hiera Gode, Dagon [.g]e·h[=a]ten, swelce h[=i]e þurh his fultum hiera f[=e]ond [.g]e·wielden. 75 Þ[=a] Philist[=e]i þ[=a] mi[.c]le feorme [.g]e·worhton, and [.g]e·samnodon h[=i]e on sumre [=u]p-fl[=o]ra, ealle þ[=a] h[=e]afod-m[e,]nn, and [=e]ac swelce w[=i]f-m[e,]nn, þr[=e]o þ[=u]send manna on mi[.c]elre blisse. And þ[=a] þ[=a] h[=i]e bl[=i]þost w[=æ]ron, þ[=a] b[=æ]don h[=i]e sume þæt Samson m[=o]ste him macian sum gamen; and hine man s[=o]na 80 [.g]e·f[e,]tte mid sw[=i]þlicre w[=a]funge, and h[=e]ton hine standan be·twix tw[=æ]m st[=æ]nenum sw[=e]orum. On þ[=æ]m tw[=æ]m sw[=e]orum st[=o]d þæt h[=u]s eall [.g]e·worht. And Samson þ[=a] plegode sw[=i]þe him æt·foran; and [.g]e·l[=æ]hte þ[=a] sw[=e]oras mid sw[=i]þlicre mihte, and sl[=o]g h[=i]e t[=o]·gædre þæt h[=i]e s[=o]na t[=o]·burston; and 85 þæt h[=u]s þ[=a] [=a]·f[=e]oll eall, þ[=æ]m folce t[=o] d[=e]aþe, and Samson forþ mid, sw[=a] þæt h[=e] mi[.c]le m[=a] on his d[=e]aþe [=a]·cwealde þonne h[=e] [=æ]r cwic dyde. {79} V. FROM THE CHRONICLE. Breten [=i]e[.g]-land is eahta hund m[=i]la lang, and tw[=a] hund m[=i]la br[=a]d; and h[=e]r sind on þ[=æ]m [=i]e[.g]lande f[=i]f [.g]e·þ[=e]odu: [E,]n[.g]lisc, Brettisc, Scyttisc, Pihtisc, and B[=o]c-læden. [=Æ]rest w[=æ]ron b[=u]end þisses landes Brettas. Þ[=a] c[=o]mon of Armenia, and [.g]e·s[=æ]ton s[=u]þan-wearde Bretene [=æ]rest. Þ[=a] 5 [.g]e·lamp hit þæt Peohtas c[=o]mon s[=u]þan of Scithian mid langum s[.c]ipum, n[=a] manigum; and þ[=a] c[=o]mon [=æ]rest on Norþ-ibernian [=u]p; and þ[=æ]r b[=æ]don Scottas þæt h[=i]e þ[=æ]r m[=o]sten wunian. Ac h[=i]e noldon him l[=i]efan, for þ[=æ]m þe h[=i]e cw[=æ]don þæt h[=i]e ne mihten ealle æt·gædre [.g]e·wunian þ[=æ]r. 10 And þ[=a] cw[=æ]don þ[=a] Scottas: 'W[=e] magon [=e]ow hwæþre r[=æ]d [.g]e·l[=æ]ran: w[=e] witon [=o]þer [=i]e[.g]land h[=e]r-be·[=e]astan; þ[=æ]r [.g][=e] magon eardian, [.g]if [.g][=e] willaþ; and [.g]if hw[=a] [=e]ow wiþ·st[e,]nt, w[=e] [=e]ow fultumiaþ þæt [.g][=e] hit mæ[.g]en [.g]e·g[=a]n.' Þ[=a] f[=e]rdon þ[=a] Peohtas, and [.g]ef[=e]rdon þis land norþan-weard; 15 s[=u]þan-weard hit hæfdon Brettas, sw[=a] sw[=a] w[=e] [=æ]r cw[=æ]don. And þ[=a] Peohtas him [=a]·b[=æ]don w[=i]f æt Scottum on þ[=a] [.g]e·r[=a]d þæt h[=i]e [.g]e·curen hiera cyne-cynn [=a] on þ[=a] w[=i]f-healfe. Þæt h[=i]e h[=e]oldon sw[=a] lange siþþan. And þ[=a] [.g]e·lamp ymbe [.g][=e]ara ryne þæt Scotta sum d[=æ]l 20 [.g]e·w[=a]t of Ibernian on Bretene, and þæs landes sumne d[=æ]l [.g]e·[=e]odon; and wæs hiera h[e,]re-toga R[=e]oda [.g]e·h[=a]ten: fram þæm h[=i]e sind [.g]e·n[e,]mnede D[=a]lr[=e]odi. {80} Anno 449. H[=e]r Marti[=a]nus and Valent[=i]nus on·f[=e]ngon r[=i][.c]e, and r[=i][.c]sodon seofon winter. 25 And on hiera dagum, H[e,]n[.g]est and Horsa, fram Wyrt[.g]eorne [.g]e·laþode, Bretta cyninge, [.g]e·s[=o]hton Bretene on þ[=æ]m st[e,]de þe is [.g]e·n[e,]mned Ypwines-fl[=e]ot, [=æ]rest Brettum t[=o] fultume, ac h[=i]e eft on h[=i]e fuhton. Se cyning h[=e]t h[=i]e feohtan on·[.g][=e]an Peohtas; and h[=i]e sw[=a] 30 dydon, and si[.g]e hæfdon sw[=a] hw[=æ]r sw[=a] h[=i]e c[=o]mon. H[=i]e þ[=a] s[e,]ndon t[=o] Angle, and h[=e]ton him s[e,]ndan m[=a]ran fultum; and h[=e]ton him s[e,][.c][.g]an Bret-w[=e]ala n[=a]htnesse and þæs landes cysta. H[=i]e þ[=a] s[e,]ndon him m[=a]ran fultum. Þ[=a] c[=o]mon þ[=a] m[e,]nn of þrim m[=æ][.g]þum [.G]erm[=a]nie: of Eald-seaxum, of 35 [E,]n[.g]lum, of [=I]otum. Of [=I]otum c[=o]mon Cant-ware and Wiht-ware--þæt is s[=e]o m[=æ][.g]þ þe n[=u] eardaþ on Wiht--and þæt cynn on West-seaxum þe man n[=u]·[.g]iet h[=æ]tt '[=I]otena cynn.' Of Eald-seaxum c[=o]mon [=E]ast-seaxe, and S[=u]þ-seaxe, and West-seaxe. 40 Of Angle c[=o]mon--s[=e] [=a] siþþan st[=o]d w[=e]ste be·twix [=I]otum and Seaxum--[=E]ast-[e,]n[.g]le, Middel-[e,]n[.g]le, Mier[.c]e, and ealle Norþhymbre. 455. H[=e]r H[e,]n[.g]est and Horsa fuhton wiþ Wyrt[.g]eorne þ[=æ]m cyninge in þ[=æ]re st[=o]we þe is [.g]e·cweden Æ[.g]les-þrep; 45 and his br[=o]þor Horsan man of·sl[=o]g. And æfter þ[=æ]m H[e,]n[.g]est f[=e]ng t[=o] r[=i][.c]e, and Æsc his sunu. 457. H[=e]r H[e,]n[.g]est and Æsc fuhton wiþ Brettas in þ[=æ]re st[=o]we þe is [.g]e·cweden Cr[e,][.c][.g]an-ford, and þ[=æ]r of·sl[=o]gon f[=e]ower þ[=u]send wera. And þ[=a] Brettas þ[=a] for·l[=e]ton C[e,]nt-land, 50 and mid mi[.c]le [e,][.g]e flugon t[=o] Lunden-byri[.g]. 473. H[=e]r Hen[.g]est and Æsc [.g]e·fuhton wiþ W[=e]alas, and [.g]e·n[=a]mon un-[=a]r[=i]medlicu h[e,]re-r[=e]af, and þ[=a] W[=e]alas flugon þ[=a] [E,]n[.g]le sw[=a] sw[=a] f[=y]r. 787. H[=e]r nam Beorht-r[=i][.c] cyning Offan dohtor [=E]ad-burge. 55 And on his dagum c[=o]mon [=æ]rest þr[=e]o s[.c]ipu; and þ[=a] se {81} [.g]e·r[=e]fa þ[=æ]r t[=o] r[=a]d, and h[=i]e wolde dr[=i]fan t[=o] þæs cyninges t[=u]ne, þ[=y] h[=e] nyste hwæt h[=i]e w[=æ]ron; and hine man of·sl[=o]g. Þæt w[=æ]ron þ[=a] [=æ]restan s[.c]ipu D[e,]niscra manna þe Angel-cynnes land [.g]e·s[=o]hton. 60 851. H[=e]r [.C]eorl ealdor-mann [.g]e·feaht wiþ h[=æ]þne m[e,]nn mid Defena-s[.c][=i]re æt Wi[.c][.g]an-beorge, and þ[=æ]r mi[.c]el wæl [.g]e·sl[=o]gon, and si[.g]e n[=a]mon. And þ[=y] ilcan [.g][=e]are Æþelst[=a]n cyning and Ealhh[e,]re dux mi[.c]elne h[e,]re of·sl[=o]gon æt Sand-w[=i]c on C[e,]nt; and nigon 65 s[.c]ipu [.g]e·f[=e]ngon, and þ[=a] [=o]þru [.g]e·fl[=i]emdon; and h[=æ]þne m[e,]nn [=æ]rest ofer winter s[=æ]ton. And þ[=y] ilcan [.g][=e]are c[=o]m f[=e]orþe healf hund s[.c]ipa on T[e,]mese-m[=u]þan, and br[=æ]con Cantwara-burg, and Lunden-burg, and [.g]e·fl[=i]emdon Beorhtwulf Mier[.c]na cyning mid his 70 fierde; and f[=e]rdon þ[=a] s[=u]þ ofer T[e,]mese on S[=u]þri[.g]e; and him [.g]e·feaht wiþ Æþelwulf cyning and Æþelbeald his sunu æt [=A]c-l[=e]a mid West-seaxna fierde, and þ[=æ]r þæt m[=æ]ste wæl [.g]e·sl[=o]gon on h[=æ]þnum h[e,]re þe w[=e] s[e,][.c][.g]an h[=i]erdon oþ þisne andweardan dæ[.g], and þ[=æ]r si[.g]e n[=a]mon. 75 867. H[=e]r f[=o]r se h[e,]re of [=E]ast-[e,]n[.g]lum ofer Humbre-m[=u]þan t[=o] Eoforw[=i]c-[.c]eastre on Norþ-hymbre. And þ[=æ]r wæs mi[.c]el un-[.g]eþw[=æ]rnes þ[=æ]re þ[=e]ode be·twix him selfum, and h[=i]e hæfdon hiera cyning [=a]·worpenne [=O]sbryht, and un-[.g]ecyndne cyning under·f[=e]ngon Ællan. And h[=i]e late on [.g][=e]are t[=o] þ[=æ]m 80 [.g]e·[.c]ierdon þæt h[=i]e wiþ þone h[e,]re winnende w[=æ]ron; and h[=i]e þ[=e]ah mi[.c]le fierd [.g]e·gadrodon, and þone h[e,]re s[=o]hton æt Eoforw[=i]c-[.c]eastre; and on þ[=a] [.c]eastre br[=æ]con, and h[=i]e sume inne wurdon; and þ[=æ]r wæs un-[.g]emetlic wæl ge·slæ[.g]en Norþanhymbra, sume binnan, sume b[=u]tan, and þ[=a] cyningas 85 b[=e][.g]en ofslæ[.g]ene; and s[=e]o l[=a]f wiþ þone h[e,]re friþ nam. {82} VI. KING EDMUND. Sum sw[=i]þe [.g]e·l[=æ]red munuc c[=o]m s[=u]þan ofer s[=æ] fram sancte Benedictes st[=o]we, on Æþelredes cyninges dæ[.g]e, to D[=u]nst[=a]ne ær[.c]e-biscope, þrim [.g][=e]arum [=æ]r þ[=æ]m þe h[=e] forþ·f[=e]rde, and se munuc h[=a]tte Abbo. Þ[=a] wurdon h[=i]e æt spr[=æ][.c]e, oþ þæt D[=u]nst[=a]n reahte be sancte [=E]admunde, sw[=a] sw[=a] [=E]admundes 5 sweord-bora hit reahte Æþelst[=a]ne cyninge, þ[=a] þ[=a] D[=u]nst[=a]n [.g][=e]ong mann wæs, and se sweord-bora wæs for·ealdod mann. Þ[=a] [.g]e·s[e,]tte se munuc ealle þ[=a], [.g]e·r[e,][.c]ednesse on [=a]nre b[=e]c, and eft, þ[=a] þ[=a] s[=e]o b[=o]c c[=o]m t[=o] [=u]s, binnan f[=e]am [.g][=e]arum, þ[=a] [=a]·w[e,]ndon w[=e] hit on [E,]n[.g]lisc, sw[=a] sw[=a] hit h[=e]r·æfter 10 st[e,]nt. Se munuc þ[=a] Abbo binnan tw[=æ]m [.g][=e]arum [.g]e·w[e,]nde h[=a]m t[=o] his mynstre, and wearþ s[=o]na t[=o] abbode [.g]e·s[e,]tt on þ[=æ]m ilcan mynstre. [=E]admund se [=e]adiga, [=E]ast-[e,]n[.g]la cyning, wæs snotor and weorþfull, and weorþode simle mid æþelum þ[=e]awum þone 15 ælmihtigan God. H[=e] wæs [=e]aþ-m[=o]d and [.g]e·þungen, and sw[=a] [=a]n-r[=æ]d þurh·wunode þæt h[=e] nolde [=a]·b[=u]gan t[=o] bismerfullum leahtrum, ne on n[=a]wþre healfe h[=e] ne [=a]·hielde his þ[=e]awas, ac wæs simle [.g]e·myndi[.g] þ[=æ]re s[=o]þan l[=a]re: '[.G]if þ[=u] eart t[=o] h[=e]afod-m[e,]nn [.g]e·s[e,]tt, ne [=a]·h[e,]fe þ[=u] þ[=e], ac b[=e]o be·twix 20 mannum sw[=a] sw[=a] [=a]n mann of him.' H[=e] wæs cysti[.g] w[=æ]dlum and widewum sw[=a] sw[=a] fæder, and mid wel-willendnesse [.g]e·wissode his folc simle t[=o] riht-w[=i]snesse, and þ[=æ]m r[=e]þum st[=i]erde, and [.g]e·s[=æ]li[.g]l[=i]ce leofode on s[=o]þum [.g]e·l[=e]afan. 25 {83} Hit [.g]e·lamp þ[=a] æt n[=i]ehstan þæt þ[=a] D[e,]niscan l[=e]ode f[=e]rdon mid s[.c]ip-h[e,]re, h[e,]rgiende and sl[=e]ande w[=i]de [.g]eond land, sw[=a] sw[=a] hiera [.g]e·wuna is. On þ[=æ]m flotan w[=æ]ron þ[=a] fyrmestan h[=e]afod-m[e,]nn, Hinguar and Hubba, [.g]e·[=a]nl[=æ]hte þurh d[=e]ofol, and h[=i]e on Norþhymbra-lande [.g]e·l[e,]ndon mid æscum, and 30 [=a]·w[=e]ston þæt land, and þ[=a] l[=e]ode of·sl[=o]gon. Þ[=a] [.g]e·w[e,]nde Hinguar [=e]ast mid his s[.c]ipum, and Hubba be·l[=a]f on Norþhymbra-lande, [.g]e·wunnenum si[.g]e mid wæl-hr[=e]ownesse. Hinguar þ[=a] be·c[=o]m t[=o] [=E]ast-[e,]n[.g]lum r[=o]wende on þ[=æ]m [.g][=e]are þe Ælfred æþeling [=a]n and tw[e,]nti[.g] [.g][=e]ara wæs, s[=e] þe West-seaxna 35 cyning siþþan wearþ m[=æ]re. And se fore-sæ[.g]da Hinguar f[=æ]rl[=i]ce, sw[=a] sw[=a] wulf, on lande be·stealcode, and þ[=a] l[=e]ode sl[=o]g, weras and w[=i]f, and þ[=a] un[.g]ewittigan [.c][=i]ld, and to bismere t[=u]code þ[=a] bilew[=i]tan Cr[=i]stenan. H[=e] s[e,]nde þ[=a] siþþan s[=o]na t[=o] þ[=æ]m cyninge b[=e]otlic [=æ]rende, þæt h[=e] 40 [=a]·b[=u]gan scolde t[=o] his mann-r[=æ]denne, [.g]if h[=e] his f[=e]ores r[=o]hte. Se [=æ]rend-raca c[=o]m þ[=a] t[=o] [=E]admunde cyninge, and Hinguares [=æ]rende him arodl[=i]ce [=a]·b[=e]ad: 'Hinguar [=u]re cyning, c[=e]ne and si[.g]efæst on s[=æ] and on lande, hæfþ fela þ[=e]oda [.g]e·weald, and c[=o]m n[=u] mid fierde f[=æ]rl[=i]ce h[=e]r t[=o] lande, þæt 45 h[=e] h[=e]r winter-setl mid his werode hæbbe. N[=u] h[=æ]tt h[=e] þ[=e] d[=æ]lan þ[=i]ne d[=i]eglan gold-hordas and þ[=i]nra ieldrena [.g]e·str[=e]on arodl[=i]ce wiþ hine, and þ[=u] b[=e]o his under-cyning, [.g]if þ[=u] cwic b[=e]on wilt, for þ[=æ]m þe þ[=u] næfst þ[=a] miht þæt þ[=u] mæ[.g]e him wiþ·standan.' 50 Hwæt þ[=a] [=E]admund cyning clipode [=a]nne biscop þe him þ[=a] [.g]e·h[e,]ndost wæs, and wiþ hine sm[=e]ade h[=u] h[=e] þ[=æ]m r[=e]þan Hinguare andwyrdan scolde. Þ[=a] forhtode se biscop for þ[=æ]m f[=æ]rlican [.g]e·limpe, and for þæs cyninges l[=i]fe, and cwæþ þæt him r[=æ]d þ[=u]hte þæt h[=e] t[=o] þ[=æ]m [.g]e·buge þe 55 him b[=e]ad Hinguar. Þ[=a] sw[=i]gode se cyning, and be·seah t[=o] þ[=æ]re eorþan, and cwæþ þ[=a] æt n[=i]ehstan cynel[=i]ce him t[=o]: '[=E]al[=a] þ[=u] biscop, t[=o] bismere sind [.g]e·t[=a]wode þ[=a]s earman {84} land-l[=e]ode, and m[=e] n[=u] l[=e]ofre w[=æ]re þæt ic on [.g]e·feohte f[=e]olle wiþ þ[=æ]m þe m[=i]n folc m[=o]ste hiera eardes br[=u]can.' 60 And se biscop cwæþ: '[=E]al[=a] þ[=u] l[=e]ofa cyning, þ[=i]n folc l[=i]þ of·slæ[.g]en, and þ[=u] næfst þone fultum þæt þ[=u] feohtan mæ[.g]e, and þ[=a]s flot-m[e,]nn cumaþ, and þ[=e] cwicne [.g]e·bindaþ, b[=u]tan þ[=u] mid fl[=e]ame þ[=i]num f[=e]ore [.g]e·beorge, oþþe þ[=u] þ[=e] sw[=a] [.g]e·beorge þæt þ[=u] b[=u]ge t[=o] him.' Þ[=a] cwæþ [=E]admund cyning, 65 sw[=a] sw[=a] h[=e] full·c[=e]ne wæs: 'þæs ic [.g]e·wilni[.g]e and [.g]e·w[=y]s[.c]e mid m[=o]de þæt ic [=a]na ne be·l[=i]fe æfter m[=i]num l[=e]ofum þe[.g]num, þe on hiera b[e,]ddum wurdon mid bearnum and w[=i]fum f[=æ]rl[=i]ce of·slæ[.g]ene fram þissum flot-mannum. Næs m[=e] n[=æ]fre [.g]e·wunelic þæt ic worhte fl[=e]ames, ac ic wolde sw[=i]þor sweltan, 70 [.g]if ic þorfte, for m[=i]num [=a]gnum earde, and se ælmihtiga God w[=a]t þæt ic nyle [=a]·b[=u]gan fram his b[=i]-g[e,]n[.g]um [=æ]fre, ne fram his s[=o]þre lufe, swelte ic, libbe ic.' Æfter þissum wordum h[=e] [.g]e·w[e,]nde t[=o] þ[=æ]m [=æ]rend-racan þe Hinguar him t[=o] s[e,]nde, and sæ[.g]de him un·forht: 'Witodl[=i]ce 75 þ[=u] w[=æ]re n[=u] wierþe sl[e,][.g]es, ac ic nyle [=a]·f[=y]lan on þ[=i]num f[=u]lum bl[=o]de m[=i]ne cl[=æ]nan handa, for þ[=æ]m þe ic Cr[=i]ste folgi[.g]e, þe [=u]s sw[=a] [.g]e·b[=y]snode; ac ic bl[=i]þel[=i]ce wile b[=e]on of·slæ[.g]en þurh [=e]ow, [.g]if hit sw[=a] God fore-s[.c][=e]awaþ. Far n[=u] sw[=i]þe hraþe, and s[e,][.g]e þ[=i]num r[=e]þan hl[=a]forde, "ne [=a]·b[=y]hþ n[=æ]fre [=E]admund 80 Hinguare on l[=i]fe, h[=æ]þnum h[e,]re-togan, b[=u]tan h[=e] to H[=æ]lende Cr[=i]ste [=æ]rest mid [.g]e·l[=e]afan on þissum lande [.g]e·b[=u]ge."' Þ[=a] [.g]e·w[e,]nde se [=æ]rend-raca arodl[=i]ce on·we[.g], and [.g]e·m[=e]tte be we[.g]e þone wæl-hr[=e]owan Hinguar mid ealre his fierde f[=u]se to [=E]admunde, and sæ[.g]de þ[=æ]m [=a]rleasan h[=u] him [.g]e·andwyrd 85 wæs. Hinguar beb[=e]ad þ[=a] mid bieldo þ[=æ]m s[.c]ip-h[e,]re þæt h[=i]e þæs cyninges [=a]nes ealle c[=e]pan scolden, þe his h[=æ]se for·seah, and hine s[=o]na bindan. Hwæt þ[=a] [=E]admund cyning, mid þ[=æ]m þe Hinguar c[=o]m, st[=o]d innan his healle, þæs H[=æ]lendes [.g]e·myndi[.g], and [=a]·wearp 90 his w[=æ]pnu: wolde [.g]e·efenl[=æ][.c]an Cr[=i]stes [.g]e·b[=y]snungum, þe {85} for·b[=e]ad Petre mid w[=æ]pnum t[=o] winnenne wiþ þ[=a] wælhr[=e]owan I[=u]d[=e]iscan. Hwæt þ[=a] [=a]rl[=e]asan þ[=a] [=E]admund [.g]e·bundon, and [.g]e·bismrodon huxl[=i]ce, and b[=e]oton mid s[=a]glum, and sw[=a] siþþan l[=æ]ddon þone [.g]e·l[=e]affullan cyning t[=o] [=a]num eorþ-faestan 95 tr[=e]owe, and t[=i]e[.g]don hine þ[=æ]r-t[=o] mid heardum b[e,]ndum, and hine eft swungon langl[=i]ce mid swipum; and h[=e] simle clipode be·twix þ[=æ]m swinglum mid s[=o]þum [.g]e·l[=e]afan t[=o] H[=æ]lende Cr[=i]ste; and þ[=a] h[=æ]þnan þ[=a] for his [.g]e·l[=e]afan wurdon w[=o]dl[=i]ce ierre, for þ[=æ]m þe h[=e] clipode Cr[=i]st him t[=o] fultume: 100 h[=i]e scuton þ[=a] mid gafelocum him t[=o], swelce him to gamene, oþ þæt h[=e] eall wæs be·s[e,]tt mid hiera scotungum, swelce [=i]les byrsta, sw[=a] sw[=a] Sebasti[=a]nus wæs. Þ[=a] [.g]e·seah Hinguar, se [=a]rl[=e]asa flotmann, þæt se æþela cyning nolde Cr[=i]ste wiþ·sacan, ac mid [=a]nr[=æ]dum [.g]e·l[=e]afan hine [=æ]fre clipode: h[=e]t hine þ[=a] 105 be·h[=e]afdian, and þ[=a] h[=æ]þnan sw[=a] dydon. Be·twix þ[=æ]m þe h[=e] clipode t[=o] Cr[=i]ste þ[=a]·[.g]iet, þ[=a] tugon þ[=a] h[=æ]þnan þone h[=a]lgan t[=o] sl[e,][.g]e, and mid [=a]num sw[e,]n[.g]e sl[=o]gon him of þæt h[=e]afod, and his s[=a]wol s[=i]þode [.g]e·s[=æ]li[.g] t[=o] Cr[=i]ste. Þ[=æ]r wæs sum mann [.g]e·h[e,]nde [.g]e·healden, þurh God be·h[=y]dd þ[=æ]m h[=æ]þnum, 110 þe þis [.g]e·h[=i]erde eall, and hit eft sæ[.g]de, sw[=a] sw[=a] w[=e] hit s[e,][.c][.g]aþ h[=e]r. Hwæt þ[=a] se flot-h[e,]re f[=e]rde eft t[=o] s[.c]ipe, and be·h[=y]ddon þæt h[=e]afod þæs h[=a]lgan [=E]admundes on þ[=æ]m þi[.c][.c]um br[=e]mlum, þæt hit be·byr[.g]ed ne wurde. Þ[=a] æfter fierste siþþan h[=i]e 115 [=a]·farene w[=æ]ron, c[=o]m þæt land-folc t[=o], þe þ[=æ]r t[=o] l[=a]fe wæs, þ[=æ]r hiera hl[=a]fordes l[=i]c læ[.g] b[=u]tan h[=e]afde, and wurdon swiþe s[=a]ri[.g]e for his sl[e,][.g]e on m[=o]de, and h[=u]ru þæt h[=i]e næfden þæt h[=e]afod t[=o] þ[=æ]m bodi[.g]e. Þ[=a] sæ[.g]de se s[.c][=e]awere þe hit [=æ]r [.g]e·seah, þæt þ[=a] flotm[e,]nn hæfden þæt h[=e]afod mid him; and 120 wæs him [.g]e·þ[=u]ht, sw[=a] sw[=a] hit wæs full·s[=o]þ, þæt h[=i]e beh[=y]dden þæt h[=e]afod on þ[=æ]m holte for·hwega. H[=i]e [=e]odon þ[=a] [e,]ndemes ealle t[=o] þ[=æ]m wuda, s[=e][.c]ende [.g]e·hw[=æ]r, [.g]eond þ[=y]flas and br[=e]mlas, [.g]if h[=i]e [=a]-hw[=æ]r mihten {86} [.g]e·m[=e]tan þæt h[=e]afod. Wæs [=e]ac mi[.c]el wundor þæt [=a]n wulf 125 wearþ [=a]·s[e,]nd, þurh Godes wissunge, t[=o] be·w[e,]rienne þæt h[=e]afod wiþ þ[=a] [=o]þru d[=e]or ofer dæ[.g] and niht. H[=i]e [=e]odon þ[=a] s[=e][.c]ende and simle clipiende, sw[=a] sw[=a] hit [.g]e·wunelic is þ[=æ]m þe on wuda g[=a]þ oft, 'hw[=æ]r eart þ[=u] n[=u], [.g]e·f[=e]ra?' And him andwyrde þæt h[=e]afod, 'h[=e]r, h[=e]r, h[=e]r;' and sw[=a] [.g]e·l[=o]me 130 clipode andswariende him eallum, sw[=a] oft sw[=a] hiera [=æ]ni[.g] clipode, oþ þæt h[=i]e ealle be·c[=o]mon þurh þ[=a] clipunge him t[=o]. Þ[=a] læ[.g] se gr[=æ]ga wulf þe be·wiste þæt h[=e]afod, and mid his tw[=æ]m f[=o]tum hæfde þæt h[=e]afod be·clypped, gr[=æ]di[.g] and hungri[.g], and for Gode ne dorste þæs h[=e]afdes on·byr[.g]an, ac 135 h[=e]old hit wiþ d[=e]or. Þ[=a] wurdon h[=i]e of·wundrode þæs wulfes hierd-r[=æ]denne, and þæt h[=a]li[.g]e h[=e]afod h[=a]m f[e,]redon mid him, þanciende þ[=æ]m Ælmihtigan ealra his wundra. Ac se wulf folgode forþ mid þ[=æ]m h[=e]afde, oþ þæt h[=i]e t[=o] t[=u]ne c[=o]mon, swelce h[=e] tam wære, and [.g]e·w[e,]nde eft siþþan 140 t[=o] wuda on·[.g][=e]an. Þ[=a] land-l[=e]ode þ[=a] siþþan l[e,][.g]don þæt h[=e]afod t[=o] þ[=æ]m h[=a]lgan bodi[.g]e, and be·byri[.g]don sw[=a] h[=i]e s[=e]lest mihton on swelcre hrædunge, and [.c]iri[.c]an [=a]·r[=æ]rdon s[=o]na him on·uppan. Eft þ[=a] on fierste, æfter fela [.g][=e]arum, þ[=a] s[=e]o h[e,]rgung [.g]e·sw[=a]c, 145 and sibb wearþ for·[.g]iefen þ[=æ]m [.g]e·sw[e,]n[.c]tan folce, þ[=a] f[=e]ngon h[=i]e t[=o]·gædre, and worhton [=a]ne [.c]iri[.c]an weorþl[=i]ce þ[=æ]m h[=a]lgan, for þ[=æ]m þe ge·l[=o]me wundru wurdon æt his byr[.g]enne, æt þ[=æ]m [.g]e·bed-h[=u]se þ[=æ]r h[=e] be·byr[.g]ed wæs. H[=i]e woldon þ[=a] f[e,]rian mid folclicre weorþmynde þone h[=a]lgan l[=i]chaman, and 150 l[e,][.c][.g]an innan þ[=æ]re [.c]iri[.c]an. Þ[=a] wæs mi[.c]el wundor þæt h[=e] wæs eall sw[=a] [.g]e·h[=a]l swelce h[=e] cwic w[=æ]re, mid cl[=æ]num l[=i]chaman, and his sw[=e]ora wæs [.g]e·h[=æ]led, þe [=æ]r wæs for·slæ[.g]en, and wæs swelce [=a]n seolcen þr[=æ]d ymbe his sw[=e]oran, mannum t[=o] sweotolunge h[=u] h[=e] ofs·læ[.g]en wæs. [=E]ac swelce þ[=a] wunda, 155 þe þ[=a] wælhr[=e]owan h[=æ]þnan mid [.g]e·l[=o]mum scotungum on his l[=i]ce macodon, w[=æ]ron [.g]e·h[=æ]lde þurh þone heofonlican God; {87} and h[=e]; l[=i]þ sw[=a] onsund oþ þisne and-weardan dæ[.g], and-b[=i]diende [=æ]ristes and þæs [=e][.c]an wuldres. His l[=i]chama [=u]s c[=y]þþ, þe l[=i]þ un-formolsnod, þæt h[=e] b[=u]tan for·li[.g]re h[=e]r on 160 worulde leofode, and mid cl[=æ]num l[=i]fe t[=o]; Cr[=i]ste s[=i]þode. Sum widewe wunode, [=O]swyn [.g]e·h[=a]ten, æt þæs h[=a]lgan byr[.g]enne, on [.g]e·bedum and fæstennum manigu [.g][=e]ar siþþan. S[=e]o wolde [e,]fsian [=æ]lce [.g][=e]are þone sanct, and his næ[.g]las [.c]eorfan s[=i]eferl[=i]ce mid lufe, and on scr[=i]ne healdan t[=o] h[=a]li[.g]-d[=o]me 165 on weofode. Þa weorþode þæt land-folc mid [.g]e·l[=e]afan þone sanct, and Þ[=e]odred biscop þearle mid [.g]iefum on golde and on seolfre, þ[=æ]m sancte t[=o] weorþmynde. Þ[=a] c[=o]mon on sumne s[=æ]l un-[.g]es[=æ]lige þ[=e]ofas eahta on [=a]nre nihte t[=o] þ[=æ]m [=a]r-weorþan h[=a]lgan: woldon stelan þ[=a] 170 m[=a]þmas þe m[e,]nn þider br[=o]hton, and cunnodon mid cræfte h[=u] h[=i]e inn cuman mihten. Sum sl[=o]g mid sl[e,][.c][.g]e sw[=i]þe þ[=a] hæspan, sum hiera mid f[=e]olan f[=e]olode ymb·[=u]tan, sum [=e]ac under·dealf þ[=a] duru mid spadan, sum hiera mid hl[=æ]ddre wolde on·l[=u]can þ[=æ]t [=e]ag-þ[=y]rel; ac h[=i]e swuncon on [=i]del, and earml[=i]ce 175 f[=e]rdon, sw[=a] þæt se h[=a]lga wer h[=i]e wundorl[=i]ce [.g]e·band, [=æ]lcne sw[=a] h[=e] st[=o]d str[=u]tiendne mid t[=o]le, þæt hiera n[=a]n ne mihte þæt morþ [.g]e·fr[e,]mman ne h[=i]e þanon [=a]·styrian; ac st[=o]don sw[=a] oþ mer[.g]en. M[e,]nn þ[=a] þæs wundrodon, h[=u] þ[=a] weargas hangodon, sum on hl[=æ]ddre, sum l[=e]at t[=o] [.g]e·delfe, 180 and [=æ]lc on his weorce wæs fæste [.g]e·bunden. H[=i]e wurdon þ[=a] [.g]e·br[=o]hte t[=o] þ[=æ]m biscope ealle, and h[=e] h[=e]t h[=i]e [=a]·h[=o]n on h[=e]am [.g]ealgum ealle; ac h[=e] næs n[=a] [.g]e·myndi[.g] h[=u] se mildheorta God clipode þurh his w[=i]tegan þ[=a]s word þe h[=e]r standaþ: _Eos qui ducuntur ad mortem eruere ne cesses_, 'þ[=a] þe man l[=æ]tt 185 t[=o] d[=e]aþe [=a]·l[=i]es h[=i]e [=u]t simle.' And [=e]ac þ[=a] h[=a]lgan can[=o]nes b[=e]c [.g]e·h[=a]dodum for·b[=e]odaþ [.g]e biscopum [.g]e pr[=e]ostum t[=o] b[=e]onne ymbe þ[=e]ofas, for þ[=æ]m þe hit ne [.g]e·byreþ þ[=æ]m þe b[=e]op [.g]e·corene Gode to þe[.g]nienne þæt h[=i]e [.g]e·þw[=æ]rl[=æ][.c]an scylen on [=æ]ni[.g]es mannes d[=e]aþe, [.g]if h[=i]e b[=e]oþ Dryhtnes 190 {88} þe[.g]nas. Eft þ[=a] Þ[=e]odred biscop s[.c][=e]awode his b[=e]c, h[=e] siþþan be·hr[=e]owsode mid [.g][=e]omrunge þæt h[=e] sw[=a] r[=e]þne d[=o]m s[e,]tte þ[=æ]m un[.g]es[=æ]ligum þ[=e]ofum, and hit be·s[=a]rgode [=æ]fre oþ his l[=i]fes [e,]nde, and þ[=a] l[=e]ode bæd [.g]eorne þæt h[=i]e him mid fæsten full[=i]ce þr[=i]e dagas, biddende þone Ælmihtigan þæt h[=e] him 195 [=a]rian scolde. On þ[=æ]m lande wæs sum mann, L[=e]ofst[=a]n [.g]e·h[=a]ten, r[=i][.c]e for worulde, un-[.g]ewitti[.g] for Gode; s[=e] r[=a]d t[=o] þ[=æ]m h[=a]lgan mid r[=i][.c]etere sw[=i]þe, and h[=e]t him æt·[=i]ewan orgell[=i]ce sw[=i]þe þone h[=a]lgan sanct, hwæþer h[=e] [.g]e·sund w[=æ]re; ac sw[=a] hraþe 200 sw[=a] h[=e] [.g]e·seah þæs sanctes l[=i]chaman, þ[=a] [=a]·w[=e]dde h[=e] s[=o]na, and wæl-hr[=e]owl[=i]ce grymetode, and earml[=i]ce [.g]e·[e,]ndode yflum d[=e]aþe. Þis is þ[=æ]m [.g]e·l[=i]c þe se [.g]e·l[=e]affulla p[=a]pa Greg[=o]rius sæ[.g]de on his [.g]es[e,]tnesse be þ[=æ]m h[=a]lgan Laurentie, þe l[=i]þ on R[=o]me-byri[.g], þæt m[e,]nn wolden s[.c][=e]awian h[=u] h[=e] l[=æ][.g]e [.g]e 205 g[=o]de [.g]e yfle; ac God h[=i]e [.g]e·stilde sw[=a] þæt þ[=æ]r swulton on þ[=æ]re s[.c][=e]awunge seofon m[e,]nn æt·gædre; þ[=a] [.g]eswicon þ[=a] [=o]þre t[=o] s[.c][=e]awienne þone martyr mid m[e,]nniscum [.g]e·dwylde. Fela wundra w[=e] [.g]e·h[=i]erdon on folclicre spr[=æ][.c]e be þ[=æ]m 210 h[=a]lgan [=E]admunde, þe w[=e] h[=e]r nyllaþ on [.g]e·write s[e,]ttan, ac h[=i]e w[=a]t [.g]e·hw[=a]. On þissum h[=a]lgan is sweotol, and on swelcum [=o]þrum, þæt God ælmihti[.g] mæ[.g] þone mann [=a]·r[=æ]ran eft on d[=o]mes dæ[.g]e onsundne of eorþan, s[=e] þe hielt [=E]admund h[=a]lne his l[=i]chaman oþ þone m[=i][.c]lan dæ[.g], þ[=e]ah þe h[=e] on moldan c[=o]me. 215 Wierþe w[=æ]re s[=e]o st[=o]w for þ[=æ]m weorþfullan h[=a]lgan þæt h[=i]e man weorþode and wel [.g]e·l[=o]gode mid cl[=æ]num Godes þ[=e]owum t[=o] Cr[=i]stes þ[=e]owd[=o]me; for þ[=æ]m þe se h[=a]lga is m[=æ]rra þonne m[e,]nn mæ[.g]en [=a]·sm[=e]an. Nis Angel-cynn be·d[=æ]led Dryhtnes h[=a]lgena, þonne on [E,]n[.g]la-lande li[.c][.g]aþ swelce h[=a]lgan swelce 220 þes h[=a]lga cyning, and C[=u]þberht se [=e]adiga and sancte Æþelþr[=y]þ on [=E]li[.g], and [=e]ac hiere sweostor, onsund on l[=i]chaman, [.g]e·l[=e]afan t[=o] trymmunge. Sind [=e]ac fela [=o]þre on {89} Angel-cynne h[=a]lgan, þe fela wundra wyr[.c]aþ, sw[=a] sw[=a] hit w[=i]de is c[=u]þ, þ[=æ]m Ælmihtigan t[=o] lofe, þe h[=i]e on [.g]e·l[=i]efdon. 225 Cr[=i]st [.g]e·sweotolaþ mannum þurh his m[=æ]re h[=a]lgan þæt h[=e] is ælmihti[.g] God þe wyr[.c]þ swelc wundru, þ[=e]ah þe þ[=a] earman I[=u]d[=e]iscan hine eallunga wiþ·s[=o]cen, for þ[=æ]m þe h[=i]e sind [=a]·wier[.g]de, sw[=a] sw[=a] h[=i]e w[=y]s[.c]ton him selfum. Ne b[=e]oþ n[=a]n wundru [.g]e·worht æt hiera byr[.g]ennum, for þ[=æ]m þe h[=i]e ne 230 [.g]e·l[=i]efaþ on þone lifiendan Cr[=i]st; ac Cr[=i]st [.g]e·sweotolaþ mannum hw[=æ]r se g[=o]da [.g]e·l[=e]afa is, þonne h[=e] swelc wundru wyr[.c]þ þurh his h[=a]lgan w[=i]de [.g]eond þ[=a]s eorþan, þæs him s[=i]e wuldor and lof [=a] mid his heofonlicum Fæder and þ[=æ]m H[=a]lgan G[=a]ste, [=a] b[=u]tan [e,]nde. 235 {91} NOTES. The references marked 'Gr.' are to the pages and paragraphs of the grammar; paragraph-references in ( ) are to the numbered paragraphs in the grammar. I. SENTENCES. Line 2. s[=e]. Gr. 21. 1. þis sind. Gr. 45. 2. l. 6. s[e,]lþ. Gr. 45. 5. l. 7. s[=e]o ælmesse. Gr. 44. 3. l. 12. [.g]eworhte. Gr. 46. (3). l. 16. hiera. Gr. 41. 3. n[=æ]fre ... ne ... n[=a]nes. Gr. 52. 2. _ne wæs_ is usually contracted into _næs_; the full form is used here because the _wæs_ is emphatic. l. 17. h[=e]t ofsl[=e]an. Gr. 50. 4. l. 23. Æþelred cyning. Gr. 42. 6. l. 24. Æsces-d[=u]n, _sf._ Ashdown, literally 'hill (or down) of the ashtree.' l. 27. wile here denotes _repetition_, = 'is in the habit of.' Cp. l. 52. l. 28. þonne is correlative with _gif_ (l. 26), Gr. 52. 3. l. 37. ælmihtiga. Gr. 43. (4). l. 43. [=e]ower se heofonlica Fæder. This insertion of the definite article between a possessive pronoun and an adjective is frequent. l. 50. b[=e]o. Gr. 48. (6). l. 52. t[=o], for. l. 56. tw[e,]nti[.g] wintra. Gr. 18. l. 58. D[=e]ofol. Gr. 44. 1. l. 60. scortan. Gr. 43. (2). l. 61. fisca. Gr. 41. 3. l. 63. p[=æ]m, those. hider on land, lit. hither on to land, = to this land. l. 74. bl[=e]tsian. The older form of this word is _bledsian_. It is a derivative of _bl[=o]d_, like _r[=i][.c]sian_ from _r[=i][.c]e_, with mutation of the root vowel. Its original meaning was to 'sprinkle with blood,' and hence, in heathen times, to 'consecrate,' especially to consecrate an altar by sprinkling it with the blood of the victim. l. 80. godspell. The original form of this word was probably _g[=o]dspell_ = 'good tidings,' a literal translation of the Greek _euaggélion_. {92} Afterwards the first vowel was shortened before the following consonant-group, or else _god_ was directly substituted for _g[=o]d_, as giving a more evident meaning, the result being that the word was taken in the sense of 'God's tidings.' In this form it was adopted into Icelandic (guðspiall) and Old High German (gotespel), having been introduced by the Old English missionaries. biþ. Gr. 45. 5. l. 82. h[=i]e. Gr. 19. l. 89. him on [=æ]lce healfe, lit. 'to (for) themselves on each side,' = on every side (of themselves). l. 92. rihtne. Gr. 42. 5. l. 93. Æþelwulf-ing. Gr. 38. l. 101. fare [.g][=e]. Gr. 22. 7. l. 106. fors[=a]won. A plural verb after a singular noun of multitude is common in O. E., as in other languages. l. 107. [.g]if se blinda blindne l[=æ]tt. _[.g]if_ here takes the indic., instead of the subj. (Gr. 48. 6), because the case is not assumed to be unreal. So also in V. 13, where the opposition (wiþst[e,]nt) is assumed as certain, and VI. 19. l. 114. cw[=æ]de. Gr. 48. (5). l. 118. mæ[.g]e. Compare Gr. 47. (B. 1). l. 119. s[=i]e. Gr. 47. (A). l. 120. Scotland is here used in its older sense of 'Ireland.' Compare the first extract from the Chronicle, p. 79 below. l. 121. his. Gr. 41. 3. l. 123. healden. Gr. 48. (2). l. 124. w[=æ]re. Gr. 47. (B. 1). l. 132. s[=e] þe. Gr. 21. l. 135. þæt. Gr. 21; 52. 3. l. 137. on [=e]are. Gr. 51. 2. l. 138. [.g]ew[e,]ndon him, lit. 'they went for-themselves'; a reflexive pronoun in the dative, Gr. 40. (1), is often added to verbs of motion. l. 139. d[=o] [.g][=e]. Gr. 22. l. 142. gr[=e]te. Compare Gr. 49. (8). l. 145. swelce, adverb, 'as it were.' l. 151. nime. Gr. 49. (7). l. 161. c[=o]me. Compare _mæ[.g]e_, l. 118 above. l. 166. ofslæ[.g]enne. Gr. 46. 5. l. 176. [.g]eweorþan. Gr. 47. (B. 1.) l. 180. wolde. Gr. 45. 5. l. 191. b[=e]on. Gr. 48. (2). {93} II. FROM THE GOSPEL OF ST. MATTHEW. l. 1. þ[=a]s m[=i]n word. Gr. 43. 8. l. 16. [=a]weorpe. Gr. 49. (8). l. 20. hit refers back to _s[=æ]d_, l. 18. l. 22. [=u]p sprungenre sunnan. Gr. 41. 2. l. 28. is [.g]eworden. An over-literal rendering of the Latin _factum est_. l. 32. hine, reflexive, Gr. 19. l. 40. t[=o] forbærnenne. We see here how out of the active 'in order to burn it' may be developed the passive 'in order that it may be burnt,' as in the modern E. 'a house to let.' Compare Gr. 50. 4, (1). l. 52. on hiera fatu. Compare l. 137. l. 60. [.g]ewordenre [.g]ecwidr[=æ]enne þ[=æ]m wyrhtum. A very stiff adaptation of the ablative absolute of the original, 'conventione autem facta cum operariis.' _þ[=æ]m wyrhtum_ is to be taken as a dative of the person affected (Gr. 41). l. 67. dyde þ[=æ]m sw[=a] [.g]el[=i]ce. The Latin has simply 'fecit similiter.' The sense is 'did like to it' (like his former proceeding), the _sw[=a]_ being pleonastic. l. 86. þæt. Gr. 21. l. 90. suna, dative, 'for his son.' l. 106. [.g]iefth[=u]s. _h[=u]s_ must here be taken in the sense of 'hall,' 'chamber.' In Icelandic the plural _h[=u]s_ is regularly used to denote the group of buildings (often detached) constituting a house or homestead, the kitchen, for instance, which was originally detached, being still called _eldh[=u]s_ (fire-house). l. 107. þæt h[=e] wolde ges[=e]on. This clause is due to a confusion of two constructions, (1) _h[=e] wolde [.g]es[=e]on_, (2) _þæt_ (in order that) _h[=e] [.g]e·s[=a]we_. III. OLD TESTAMENT PIECES. The first two pieces are taken from Ælfric's translation of the Heptateuch, first published by Thwaites in his Heptateuchus, and afterwards by Grein as vol. i. of his _Bibliothek der angelsächsischen Prosa_--Genesis xi. and xxii. The other three are from Ælfric's Homilies (edited by Thorpe)--ii. 584 foll., i. 570, ii. 432. l. 4. him betw[=e]onan. Gr. 51. 5. l. 13. læden. This word is the Latin _latina_ (= _lingua latina_) used first in the sense of 'Latin language,' then of language generally. {94} l. 17. for þ[=æ]m ... for þ[=æ]m þe, correlative, the first demonstrative, the second relative. l. 28. t[=o] scoldon. This use of _s[.c]eal_ with a verb of motion understood is very common. l. 36. him self. _him_ is the reflexive dative of interest referring to _God_--literally, 'God him-self will appoint for him-self.' In such constructions we see the origin of the modern _himself_, _themselves_. ll. 46, 47. n[=u] ... n[=u], correlative, = now ... now that, the second _n[=u]_ being almost causal (since). l. 51. hæfde ... t[=o], took ... for. l. 52. Gode t[=o] l[=a]ce. Gr. 40. (1). l. 57. m[=i]n [e,][.g]e, objective genitive, 'the fear of me.' m[=a]re, neut. 'a greater thing,' 'something more important.' l. 81. m[=a]re. Cp. l. 57. l. 82. w[=æ]re. Gr. 49. (7). l. 89. hwæs is governed by _[.g]iernde_, by 'attraction.' l. 135. mi[.c]le, adverb. l. 137. w[=æ]re. Gr, 49. (7). l. 153. bel[=i]efan is a later form for _[.g]el[=i]efan_. l. 156. t[=o] handum. Cp. l. 122 above. l. 174. [=æ]r [.g]enam. Gr. 46. 6. l. 200. fram mannum. _fram_ here, as usual, denotes the agent 'by' in passive constructions. l. 202. wite. Compare Gr. 48. (3) and 49. (8). IV. SAMSON. From Ælfric's translation of the Book of Judges in Thwaites' Heptateuch. l. 8. on[.g]inþ t[=o] [=a]l[=i]esenne, will release, _on[.g]innan_ is often used pleonastically in this way. l. 35. Gaza [.g]eh[=a]ten. When a name together with _[.g]eh[=a]ten_ is put in apposition to another noun it is left undeclined, contrary to the general principle (Gr. 42. 6). l. 41. sw[=a] sw[=a] h[=i]e belocenu w[=æ]ron, locked as they were. ufeweardum þ[=æ]m cnolle. Gr. 43. 2. l. 46. wæs, consisted. l. 51. [.g]eworhte. We should expect _[.g]eworhtum_ (Gr. 42. 5). Perhaps the nom. is due to confusion with the construction with a relative clause--_þe of sinum [.g]eworhte sind_. {95} l. 74. Dagon [.g]eh[=a]ten. Compare l. 35. swelce, 'on the ground that'--'because (as they said).' l. 81. h[=e]ton. Compare l. 106. l. 87. forþ is often used pleonastically in this way with _mid_. V. FROM THE CHRONICLE. l. 2. h[=e]r sind, there are here. _h[=e]r_ is here used analogously to _þ[=æ]r_, as in II. 3 and the modern E. _there are_. Cp. also l. 12 below. [.g]eþ[=e]odu, languages as the test of nationality. It is believed that Latin was still spoken as a living language by the Romanized Britons at the time of the venerable Bede (eighth century), from whose Church History this section was taken by the compilers of the Chronicle. l. 5. Armenia is an error for _Armorica_. l. 6. Scithie, Scythia. l. 8. Norþibernie, North of Ireland. l. 24. h[=e]r, at this date--at this place in the series of entries which constitute the Chronicle. l. 26. Wyrt[.g]eorn is the regular development of an earlier *_Wurtigern_ from the British _Vortigern_. l. 28. Ypwinesfl[=e]ot has not been identified; some say Ebbsfleet. l. 45. Æ[.g]lesþrep, Aylesthorpe, a village near Aylesford. l. 49. Cr[e,][.c][.g]anford, Crayford. l. 52. The diction of this passage, with its alliteration and simile, shows that it is taken from some old poem. l. 61. h[=æ]þne m[e,]nn, Danes. l. 62. mid Defena-s[.c][=i]re, literally 'together with Devonshire,' that is 'with a force of Devonshire men.' l. 64. dux is here written instead of _ealdormann_. So also we find _rex_ for _cyning_. l. 65. Sandw[=i]c, Sandwich. l. 68. f[=e]orþe healf hund, fourth half = three and a half. This is the regular way of expressing fractional numbers, as in the German _viertehalb_. l. 71. S[=u]þri[.g]e, Surrey. l. 73. [=A]cl[=e]a, Ockley. l. 76. se h[e,]re, the Danish army. _h[e,]re_ got a bad sense, through its association with _h[e,]rgian_ (to harry), and hence is applied only to a plundering, marauding body of men. In the Laws _h[e,]re_ is defined as {96} a gang of thieves more than thirty-five in number. The national English army (militia) is called _fierd_, l. 71, 3 above. Humbrem[=u]þa, mouth of the Humber. l. 77. Eoforw[=i]c, York; a corruption of _Eboracum_. l. 84. inne wurdon, got in. l. 85. sume. Compare IV. 51. VI. KING EDMUND. From Ælfric's Lives of the Saints, now published for the Early English Text Society by Prof. Skeat. The present life has been printed only by Thorpe, in his _Analecta Anglosaxonica_ from a very late MS. It is here given from the older MS., Cott. Jul. E. 7. It will be observed that the present piece is in alliterative prose, that is, with the letter-rime of poetry, but without its metrical form. The alliteration is easily discernible:--c[=o]m _s_[=u]þan ofer s[=æ] fram _s_ancte Benedictes _s_t[=o]we; _d_æ[.g]e, t[=o] _D_[=u]nst[=a]ne, &c. l. 1. sancte is an English modification of the Latin genitive _sancti_. l. 5. sancte is here the E. dative inflection, _sanct_ having been made into a substantive. l. 39. bilew[=i]t = _*bile-hw[=i]t_ (with the regular change of _hw_ into _w_ between vowels) literally 'white (=tender) of bill,' originally, no doubt, applied to young birds, and then used metaphorically in the sense of 'gentle,' 'simple.' l. 70. worhte fl[=e]ames. This construction of _wyrcan_ with a genitive is frequent. l. 76. w[=æ]re, subj. Gr. 48. (6). l. 85. f[=u]se. The correct reading is probably _f[=u]sne_, but the plural _f[=u]se_ may be taken to refer to Hinguar and his men collectively. l. 149. [.g]ebedh[=u]s. The Welsh _bettws_, as in Bettws-y-coed = 'chapel in the wood,' still preserves the O. E. form nearly unchanged. l. 176. sw[=a] þæt does not denote result here, but is explanatory--'namely by being bound....' l. 178. h[=i]e, reflexive. l. 179. þæs ... h[=u], correlative. l. 185. The reference is apparently to Proverbs xxiv. 11, which (in the Vulgate) runs thus: 'Erue eos qui ducuntur ad mortem.' l. 200. hwæþer, (that he might see) whether ... l. 215. l[=i]chaman, instrumental dative (Gr. 41) of defining. l. 222. [=E]li[.g] = _[=æ]l-[=i]eg_ 'eel-island.' {97} GLOSSARY. The order is strictly alphabetical (þ following _t_) except that words with the prefix _ge_ are put in the order of the letter that follows the _ge_ (_gebed_ under _b_, &c.). The following abbreviations are used :-- _sm._, _sn._, _sf._ masc., neut., fem. substantive. _sv._ strong verb. _wv._ weak verb. _swv._ strong-weak verb (preterito-present). The others require no explanation. The numbers after _sv._ refer to the classes of strong verbs in the grammar. Words in [ ] are Latin (and Greek) originals or cognate Old E. words. The latter are only referred to when the connection can be proved by the phonetic laws given in the grammar. [=A], _av._ ever, always. abbod, _sm._ abbot [_Latin_ abbatem]. [=a]-·b[=e]odan, _sv. 7_, _w. dat._ (offer), announce. [=a]-·biddan, _sv. 5_, ask for, demand. [=a]-·b[=i]tan, _sv. 6_, devour. [=a]-·bl[e,]ndan, _wv._ blind [blind]. [=a]-·brecan, _sv. 4_, break into, take (city). [=a]-·b[=u]gan, _sv. 7_, bend; swerve, turn. ac, _cj._ but. [=a]-·c[e,]nnan, _wv._ bring forth, bear (child). [=a]-·cw[e,]llan, _wv._ kill. [=a]-·cw[e,]n[.c]an, _wv._ extinguish. [=a]-·dr[=u]gian, _wv._ dry up, _intr._ [dr[=y][.g]e]. [=a]-·dw[=æ]s[.c]an, _wv._ extinguish. æcer, _sm._ field. æþele, _aj._ noble, excellent. æþeling, _sm._ prince. [=æ]fen, _sm._ evening. [=æ]fre, _av._ ever, always. æfter, _av._, _prep. w. dat._ after--æfter þ[=æ]em, after that, afterwards; according to, by. [=æ][.g]-hwelc, _prn._ each. [=æ][.g]þer, _prn._ either, each--_cj._ [=æ][.g]þer [.g]e ... [.g]e, both ... and [ = [=æ][.g] hwæþer]. [=æ]ht, _sf._ property [[=a]hte, [=a]gan]. [=æ]lan, _wv._ burn. [=æ]l[.c], _aj._ each. ælmesse, _sf._ alms, charity [_Greek_ ele[=e]mosún[=e]]. æl-mihti[g.], _aj._ almighty. [=æ]ni[.g], _aj._ any [[=a]n]. [=æ]r, _prep. w. dat._ before (of time), [=æ]r þ[=æ]m þe, _cj._ before. [=æ]r, _av._ formerly, before; _superl._ [=æ]rest, _adj. and adv._, first. ær[.c]e-biscop, _sm._ archbishop [_Latin_ archiepiscopus]. [=æ]rende, _sn._ errand, message. {98} [=æ]rend-raca, _sm._ messenger. [=æ]-rist, _sfm._ (rising again), resurrection [[=a]r[=i]san]. [=æ]rne-mergen, _sm._ early morning. æsc, _sm._ (ash-tree); war-ship. æt, _prp. w. dat._ at; _deprivation_, from; _origin_, _source_--[=a]b[=æ]don w[=i]f æt him, 'asked for wives from them;' _specification_, _defining_--wurdon æt spr[=æ][.c]e, 'fell into conversation.' æt-·bre[.g]dan, _sv. 3_ (snatch away), deprive of. æt-·foran, _prp. w. dat._ before. æt-·gædre, _av._ together. æt-[=i]ewan, _wv. w. dat._ show. [=æ]ton, _see_ etan. [=a]-·fandian, _wv._ experience, find out [findan]. [=a]-·faran, _sv. 2_, go away, depart. [=a]-·feallan, _sv. 1_, fall. [=a]-·f[=e]dan, _wv._ feed. [=a]-·f[=y]lan, _wv._ defile [f[=u]l]. [=a]-fyrht, _aj._ frightened [_past partic. of_ [=a]·fyrhtan _from_ forht]. [=a]gan, _swv._ possess. [=a]-·g[=a]n, _sv._ happen. [=a]gen, _aj._ own [_originally past partic. of_ [=a]gan]. [=a]-·[.g]iefan, _sv. 5_, _w. dat._ give, render. [=a]h, _see_ [=a]gan. [=a]-·h[e,]bban, _sv. 2_, raise, exalt. [=a]-·hieldan, _wv._ incline. [=a]-·h[=o]n, _sv. 1_, hang, _trans._ [=a]-·hr[=e]osan, _sv. 7_, fall. [=a]hte, _see_ [=a]gan. [=a]-hw[=æ]r, _av._ anywhere. [=a]-·h[=y]ran, _wv._ hire. [=a]-·l[=i]esan, _wv._ (loosen), release; redeem [l[=e]as]. [=a]-·l[=i]esed-nes, _sf._ redemption. [=a]-l[=i]esend, _sm._ redeemer. [=a]n, _aj._ one (_always strong_); a certain one, certain; alone (_generally weak_); _gen. pl._ [=a]nra _in_ [=a]nra ge-hwel[.c], 'each one.' [=a]n-c[e,]nned, _aj._ (_past partic._) (only-born), only (child). and, _cj._ and. and-b[=i]dian, _wv. w. gen._ wait, expect [b[=i]dan]. andet-nes, _sf._ confession. andettan, _wv._ confess. and-[.g]iet, _sn._ sense, meaning; understanding, intelligence. and-swarian, _wv. w. dat._ answer [andswaru]. and-swaru, _sf._ answer [sw[e,]rian]. and-weard, _aj._ present. and-wyrdan, _wv. w. dat._ answer [word]. Angel, _sm._ Anglen (a district in Slesvig). Angel-cynn, _sn._ English nation, England. [=a]-·niman, _sv. 4_, take away. [=a]n-l[=æ][.c]an, _wv._ unite. [=a]n-m[=o]d, _aj._ unanimous. [=a]n-m[=o]d-l[=i]ce, _av._ unanimously. [=a]n-r[=æ]d, _aj._ (of one counsel) constant, firm, resolute. apostol, _sm._ apostle. [=a]r, _sf._ mercy; honour. [=a]-·r[=æ]ran, _wv._ raise, build [[=a]r[=i]san]. [=a]rian, _wv. w. dat._ honour; spare, have mercy on [[=a]r]. [=a]-·r[=i]san, _sv. 6_, arise. [=a]r-l[=e]as, _aj._ wicked. arn, _see_ iernan. arod, _aj._ quick, bold. arod-l[=i]ce, _av._ quickly, readily, boldly. [=a]r-weorþ, _adj._ worthy of honour, venerable. [=a]scian, _wv._ ask. [=a]-·sc[=u]fan, _sv. 7_, thrust. [=a]-·s[e,]ndan, _wv._ send. [=a]-·s[e,]ttan, _wv._ set, place. [=a]-·sm[=e]an, _wv._ consider, think of, conceive. assa, _sm._ ass. [=a]-·st[e,]llan, _wv._ institute. [=a]-·st[=i]gan, _sv. 6_, ascend, descend. [=a]-·str[e,][.c][.c]an, _wv._ stretch out, extend. [=a]-·styrian, _wv._ stir, move. [=a]-·t[=e]on, _sv. 7_, draw out, draw, take. atol-lic, _aj._ deformed. [=a]-·þr[=e]otan, _sv. 7_, fail, run short. {99} [=a]-·w[e,][.c][.c]an, _wv._ awake, arouse [wacian]. [=a]-·w[=e]dan, _wv._ go mad [w[=o]d]. [=a]-·w[e,]ndan, _wv._ turn; translate. [=a]-·weorpan, _sv. 3_, throw, throw away; depose (king). [=a]-·w[=e]stan, _wv._ lay waste, ravage. [=a]-·wier[.g]ed, _aj._ cursed, accursed, [_past. partic. of_ [=a]wier[.g]an, _from_ wearg]. [=a]-wiht, _prn._ aught, anything. [=a]-·wr[=i]tan, _sv. 6_, write. [=a]-·wyrtwalian, _wv._ root up. B. Bæc, _sn._ back--under bæc, behind. bæd, _see_ biddan. b[=æ]don, _see_ biddan. bærnan, _wv._ burn, _trans._ [beornan]. bærnett, _sn._ burning. b[=æ]ron, _see_ beran. bæst, _sm._ bast. bæsten, _aj._ of bast. be, _prep. w. dat._ by; about, concerning. beald, _aj._ bold. bearn, _sn._ child [beran]. b[=e]atan, _sv. 1_, beat. be-·b[=e]odan, _sv. 7_, _w. dat._ bid, command. be-·byr[.g]an, _wv._ bury. b[=e][.c], _see_ b[=o]c. be-·clyppan, _wv._ embrace, encompass, hold. be-·cuman, _sv. 4_, come. _[.g]e_·bed, _sn._ prayer [biddan]. be-·d[=æ]lan, _wv. w. gen._ deprive of [d[=æ]l]. b[e,]dd, _sn._ bed. be-·delfan, _sv. 3_; (hide by digging), bury. _[.g]e_·bed-h[=u]s, _sn._ oratory, chapel. be-·fæstan, _wv._ (make fast); _w. dat._ commit, entrust to. be-·foran, _prp. w. dat._ before. b[=e][.g]en, _prn._ both. be-·[.g]eondan, _prp. w. acc._ beyond. be-·[.g]ietan, _sv. 5_, get, obtain. be-·[.g]innan, _sv. 3_, begin. be-·h[=a]tan, _sv. 1_, _w. dat._ promise. be-·h[=e]afdian, _wv._ behead [h[=e]afod]. be-·healdan, _sv. 1_, behold. be-·h[=o]fian, _wv. w. gen._ require. be-·hr[=e]owsian, _wv._ repent [hr[=e]owan]. be-·h[=y]dan, _wv._ hide. be-·l[=æ]wan, _wv._ betray. be-·l[=i]efan, _wv._ believe. be-·l[=i]fan, _sv. 6_, remain [l[=a]f]. be-·l[=u]can, _sv. 7_, lock, close. b[e,]nd, _smfn._ bond [bindan]. b[=e]odan, _sv. 7_, _w. dat._ offer. b[=e]on, _v._ be--b[=e]on ymbe, have to do with. beorg, _sm._ hill, mountain. _[.g]e_beorgan, _sv. 3_, _w. dat._ save, protect. beornan, _sv. 3_, burn, _intrans_. b[=e]ot-lic, _aj._ boastful. be-·p[=æ][.c]an, _wv._ deceive. beran, _sv. 4_, bear, carry; ([.g]eberan, bring forth). b[e,]rn, _sn._ barn. berstan, _sv. 3_, burst. be-·s[=a]rgian, _wv._ lament [s[=a]ri[.g]]. be-·s[.c]ieran, _sv. 4_, shear, cut hair. be-·s[=e]on, _sv. 5_, see, look. be-·s[e,]ttan, _wv._ set about, surround, cover. be-·stealcian, _wv._ go stealthily, steal. be-·sw[=i]can, _sv. 6_, deceive, circumvent, betray. be-·t[=æ][.c]an, _wv._ commit, entrust, give up. b[e,]tera, b[e,]tst, _see_ g[=o]d. be·tw[=e]onan, _prp. w. dat._ between, among. be-·twix, _prep. w. acc. and dat._ between, among; _of time_, during--betwix þ[=æ]m þe, _cj._ while. be-·w[e,]rian, _wv._ defend. be-·witan, _swv._ watch over, have charge of. b[=i]dan, _sv. 6_, wait. biddan, _sv. 5_, ask, beg. _[.g]e_·biddan, _sv. 5_, _refl._ pray. {100} bieldo, _sf._ (boldness), arrogance [beald]. b[=i]-g[e,]ng, _sm._ worship [bi, by, _and_ g[e,]n[.g] _from_ g[=a]n]. bile-w[=i]t, _aj._ simple, innocent. bindan, _sv. 3_, bind. binnan, _av._ inside; _prp. w. dat._ within, in [ = be-innan]. biscop, _sm._ bishop [_Latin_ episcopus]. bi-smer, _snm._ insult, ignominy. bismer-full, _aj._ ignominious, shameful. bismerian, _wv._ treat with ignominy, insult [bismer]. b[=i]tan, _sv. 6_, bite. biþ, _see_ b[=e]on. bl[=a]wan, _sv. 1_, blow. bleoh, _sn._ colour. bl[=e]ow, _see_ bl[=a]wan. bl[=e]tsian, _wv._ bless. blind, _aj._ blind. bliss, _sf._ merriment, joy. blissian, _wv._ rejoice. bl[=i]þe, _aj._ glad, merry. bl[=i]þe-l[=i]ce, _av._ gladly. bl[=o]d, _sn._ blood. b[=o]c, _sf._ book, scripture. B[=o]c-læden, _sn._ book Latin, Latin. bodian, _wv._ announce, preach [b[=e]odan]. bodi[.g], _sm._ body. bohte, _see_ by[.c][.g]an. br[=a]d, _aj._ broad. br[=æ]þ, _sm._ vapour, odour. brecan, _sv. 4_, break; take (city). bre[.g]dan, _sv. 3_, pull. br[=e]mel, _sm._ bramble. Breten, _sf._ Britain. Brettas, _smpl._ the British. Brettisc, _aj._ British [Brettas]. bringan, _wv._ bring. br[=o]hte, _see_ bringan. br[=o]þor, _sm._ brother. br[=u]can, _sv. 7_, _w. gen._ enjoy, partake of. br[=y]d, _sf._ bride. br[=y]d-guma, _sm._ bridegroom [_literally_ bride-man]. b[=u]an, _wv._ dwell. b[=u]end, _smpl._ dwellers [_pres. partic. of_ b[=u]an]. bufan, _prp. w. dat. and acc._ over, above, on. b[=u]gan, _sv. 7_, bend, incline. bundon, _see_ bindan. burg, _sf._ city. burg-[.g]eat, _sn._ city-gate. b[=u]tan, _av._ outs[=i]de; _prp. w. dat._ without, except, besides [ = be-[=u]tan]. b[=u]tan, _cj._ unless, except. by[.c][.g]an, _wv._ buy. byrþen, _sf._ burden [beran]. byr[.g]en, _sf._ tomb [bebyr[.g]an]. _[.g]e_byrian, _wf._ be due, befit. byri[.g], _see_ burg. byrst, _sf._ bristle. _[.g]e_·b[=y]snian, _wv._ give example, illustrate. _[.g]e_·b[=y]snung, _sf._ example. C. Cann, _see_ cunnan. can[=o]n, _sm._ canon; can[=o]nes b[=e]c, canonical books. Cantwara-burg, _sf._ Canterbury [Cantwara, _gen. of_ Cantware]. Cant-ware, _pl._ Kent-dwellers, men of Kent [_Lat._ Cantia _and_ ware]. c[=a]sere, _sm._ emperor [_Latin_ Caesar]. [.c]eaflas, _smpl._ jaws. [.c]eald, _aj._ cold. [.c]ealf, _sn._ calf. [.c][=e]ap, _sn._ purchase. [.c][=e]as, _see_ [.c][=e]osan. [.c]easter, _sf._ city [_Latin_ castra]. c[=e]ne, _aj._ brave, bold. c[e,]nnan, _wv._ bring forth, bear child. C[e,]nt, _sf._ Kent [Cantia]. C[e,]nt-land, _sn._ Kent. [.c]eorfan, _sv. 3_, cut. [.c][=e]osan, _sv. 7_, choose. c[=e]pan, _wv. w. gen._ attend, look out for. [.c][=i]epan, _wv._ trade, sell [[.c][=e]ap]. [.c][=i]epend, _sm._ seller [_pres. partic. of_ [.c][=i]epan]. [.c]ierr, _sm._ turn. {101} [.c]ierran, _wv._ turn, return, go--[.c]ierran t[=o], take to. _[.g]e_·[.c]ierred-nes, _sf._ conversion. [.c]ild, _sn._ child. [.c]ild-h[=a]d, _sm._ childhood. [.c]inn-b[=a]n, _sn._ jawbone. [.c]iri[.c]e, _sf._ church. cl[=æ]ne, _aj._ clean, pure. clawu, _sf._ claw. clipian, _wv._ call, summon. clipung, _sf._ calling. clyppan, _wv._ clip, embrace. cnapa, _sm._ (boy, youth), servant. cnoll, _sm._ top, summit. coccel, _sm._ corn-cockle. c[=o]m, _see_ cuman. coren, _see_ [.c][=e]osan. cræft, _sm._ skill, cunning. cr[=i]sten, _aj._ Christian. cuma, _sm._ stranger [cuman]. cuman, _sv. 4_, come; cuman [=u]p, land. cunnan, _swv._ know. cunnian, _wv._ try [cunnan]. curon, _see_ [.c][=e]osan. c[=u]þ, _aj._ known [_originally past partic. of_ cunnan]. cw[=æ]don, _see_ cweþan. cwaeþ, _see_ cweþan. cweartern, _sn._ prison. cw[=e]man, _wv._ please, gratify. _[.g]e_·cw[=e]mednes, _sf._ pleasing. cw[=e]n, _sf._ queen. cweþan, _sv. 5_, say, speak; name, call. cwic, _aj._ alive. cwide, _sm._ speech, address [cweþan]. _[.g]e_cw[=i]d-r[=æ]den, _sf._ agreement. cwiþþ, _see_ cweþan. cymþ, _see_ cuman. cyne-cynn, _sn._ royal family. cyne-l[=i]c, _aj._ royal. cyne-l[=i]ce, _av._ like a king, royally. cyne-st[=o]l, _sm._ throne. cyning, _sm._ king. cynn, _sn._ race, kind. cyst, _sf._ excellence [[.c][=e]osan]. cysti[.g], _aj._ (excellent), charitable. c[=y]þan, _wv._ make known, tell [c[=u]þ]. D. D[=æ]d, _sf._ deed. dæ[.g], _sm._ day. dæ[.g]-hw[=æ]m-l[=i]ce, _av._ daily. d[=æ]l, _sm._ part--be healfum d[=æ]le, by half. d[=æ]lan, _wv._ divide, share. d[=e]ad, _aj._ dead. d[=e]aþ, _sm._ death. Defena-s[.c][=i]r, _sf._ Devonshire [Devonia]. dehter, _see_ dohtor. _[.g]e_delf, _sn._ digging. delfan, _sv. 3_, dig. D[e,]ne, _smpl._ Danes. D[e,]nisc, _aj._ Danish. d[=e]ofol, _sum._ devil [_Latin_ diabolus]. d[=e]ofol-[.g]ield, _sn._ idol. d[=e]op, _aj._ deep. d[=e]or, _sn._ wild beast. d[=e]ore, _aj._ dear, precious. d[=e]or-wierþe, _aj._ precious. d[=i]egol, _aj._ hidden, secret. d[=i]egol-nes, _sf._ secret. d[=i]epe, _sf._ depth [d[=e]op]. dihtan, _wv._ appoint [_Latin_ dictare]. disc-þe[.g]n, _sm._ (dish-thane), waiter. dohtor, _sf._ daughter. d[=o]m, _sm._ doom, judgment, sentence. d[=o]n, _sv._ do, act. dorste, _see_ durran. draca, _sm._ dragon. dranc, _see_ drincan. dr[=e]ori[.g], _aj._ sad. dr[=i]fan, _sv. 6_, drive. drinca, _sm._ drink. drincan, _sv. 3_, drink. drohtnian, _wv._ live, continue, behave. drohtnung, _sf._ conduct. dr[=y][.g]e, _aj._ dry. Dryhten, _sm._ Lord, d[=u]n, _sf._ hill, down. durran, _swv._ dare. duru, _sf._ door. d[=u]st, _sn._ dust. _[.g]e_·dwyld, _sn._ error. dyde, _see_ d[=o]n. dyppan, _wv._ dip. dysi[.g], _aj._ foolish. {102} E. [=E]ac, _av._ also; [=e]ac swelce, also. [=e]acnian, _wv._ increase. [=e]adi[.g], _aj._ (prosperous), blessed. [=e]age, _sn._ eye. [=e]ag-þ[=y]rel, _sn._ (eye-hole), window. eahta, _num._ eight. [=e]a-l[=a], _interj._ oh! eald, _aj._ old--_cp._ ieldra. Eald-seaxe, _smpl._ Old Saxons. ealdor, _sm._ chief, master. ealdor-mann, _sm._ chief, officer. eall, _aj._ all. eall, _av._ quite ; eall sw[=a] mi[.c]el sw[=a], (quite) as much as. eall-n[=i]we, _aj._ quite new. eallunga, _av._ entirely. ealu, _sn._ ale. eard, _sm._ country, native land. eardian, _wv._ dwell. [=e]are, _sn._ ear. earm, _sm._ arm. earm, _aj._ poor, wretched, despicable. earm-lic, _aj._ miserable. earm-l[=i]ce, _av._ miserably, wretchedly. earn, _sm._ eagle. eart, _see_ wesan. [=e]ast, _av._ eastwards. [=e]ast-d[=æ]l, _sm._ east part, the East. [=E]ast-[e,]n[.g]le, _smpl._ East-Anglians. [=E]ast-seaxe, _smpl._ East-Saxons. [=e]aþe-lic, _aj._ insignificant, weak. [=e]aþ-m[=e]dan, _wv._ humble [[=e]aþm[=o]d]. [=e]aþ-m[=o]d, _aj._ humble. [=e][.c]e, _aj._ eternal. [=e][.c]-nes, _sf._ eternity. efen, _aj._ even. _[.g]e_·efen-l[=æ][.c]an, _wv._ imitate. efne, _av._ behold, lo! [efen]. [e,]fsian, _wv._ clip, shear. eft, _av._ again; afterwards, then; back. [e,][.g]e, _sm._ fear. [e,][.g]esa, _sm._ fear [e[.g]e]. [e,][.g]es-lic, _aj._ fearful, awful. [=e]htere, _sm._ persecutor. ele, _sm._ oil. [e,]l-þ[=e]odi[.g]-nes, _sf._ foreign land. [e,]nde, _sm._ end. [e,]ndemes, _av._ together. _[.g]e_·[e,]ndian, _wv._ end; die. [e,]ndlufon, _num._ eleven. [e,]ndlyfta, _aj._ eleventh. _[.g]e_·[e,]ndung, _sf._ ending, end. [e,]n[.g]el, _sm._ angel [_Latin_ angelus]. [E,]n[.g]la-land, _sn._ England [[E,]n[.g]la _gen. pl. of_ [E,]n[.g]le]. [E,]n[.g]le, _smpl._ the English [Angel]. [E,]n[.g]lisc, _aj._ English--_sn._ English language [[E,]n[.g]le]. [=e]ode, _see_ g[=a]n. eom, _see_ wesan. eorl, _sm._ earl. eorþ-b[=u]end, _sm._ earth-dweller. eorþe, _sf._ earth. eorþ-fæst, _aj._ firm in the earth. eorþ-lic, _aj._ earthly. eornost, _sf._ earnest. eornost-l[=i]ce, _av._ in truth, indeed. [=e]ow, _see_ þ[=u]. etan, _sv. 5_, eat. [=e]þel, _sm._ country, native land. F. Fæder, _sm._ father. fæ[.g]en, _aj._ glad. fæ[.g]er, _aj._ fair. fæ[.g]er-nes, _sf._ fairness, beauty. fæ[.g]nian, _wv. w. gen._ rejoice. f[=æ]mne, _sf._ virgin. f[=æ]r, _sf._ danger. f[=æ]r-lic, _aj._ sudden. f[=æ]r-l[=i]ce, _av._ suddenly. fæst, _aj._ fast, firm. fæstan, _wv._ fast. fæsten, _sf._ fasting. fæt, _sn._ vessel. f[=a]g-nes, _sf._ variegation, various colours. fandian, _wv. w. gen._ try, test, tempt [findan]. faran, _sv. 2_, go. faru, _sf._ procession, retinue, pomp. f[=e]a, _aj. pl._ few. _[.g]e_·f[=e]a, _sm._ joy. feallan, _sv. 1_, fall. fearr, _sm._ bull; ox. feax, _sn._ hair of head. {103} f[=e]dan, _wv._ feed [f[=o]da]. fela, _aj. pl. w. gen._ many. feld, _sm._ field. feoh, _sn._ money, property. _[.g]e_·feoht, _sn._ fight. feohtan, _sv. 3_, fight. f[=e]ole, _sf._ file. f[=e]olian, _wv._ file. f[=e]oll, _see_ feallan. f[=e]ond, _sm._ enemy. feorh, _snm._ life. feorm, _sf._ (food); feast, banquet. feorr, _av._ far. f[=e]orþa, _num._ fourth. f[=e]ower, _num._ four. _[.g]e_·f[=e]ra, _sm._ companion [f[=o]r]. f[=e]ran, _wv._ go, fare [f[=o]r]. _[.g]e_·f[=e]ran, _wv._ (go over), take possession of. f[e,]rian, _wv._ carry [faran]. f[=e]t, _see_ f[=o]t. f[e,]tian, _wv._ fetch--_pret._ [.g]ef[e,]tte. _[.g]e_·f[e,]tte, _see_ f[e,]tian. f[=i]end, _see_ f[=e]ond. fierd, _sf._ army [faran]. fierlen, _aj._ distant [feorr]. fierst, _sm._ period, time. f[=i]f, _num._ five. findan, _sv. 3_ (_pret._ funde), find. fisc, _sm._ fish. fisc-cynn, _sn._ fish-kind. fl[=e]am, _sm._ flight [fl[=e]on]. fleax, _sn._ flax. fl[=e]ogan, _sv. 7_, fly. fl[=e]on, _sv. 7_, flee. fl[=e]otan, _sv. 7_, float. fl[=i]tan, _sv. 6_, quarrel, dispute. _[.g]e_·fl[=i]eman, _wv._ put to flight [fl[=e]am]. fl[=o]d, _sm._ flood. flota, _sm._ fleet [fl[=e]otan]. flot-h[e,]re, _sm._ naval army, army of pirates. flot-mann, _sm._ sailor, pirate. fl[=o]wan, _sv. 1_, flow. flugon, _see_ fl[=e]on. flyht, _sm._ flight [fl[=e]ogan]. f[=o]da, _sm._ food. folc, _sn._ people, nation. folc-lic, _aj._ popular. folgian, _wv. w. dat._ follow; obey. f[=o]n, _sv. 1_, seize, take, capture; f[=e]ng t[=o] r[=i][.c]e, came to the throne; t[=o]gædre f[=e]ngon, joined together. for, _prep. w. dat._ before--r[=i][.c]e for worulde, in the eyes of the world; _causal_, for, because of, for the sake of--ne dorste for Gode, for the fear of God--for þ[=æ]m, therefore, for þ[=æ]em (þe), because; _w. acc._, instead of, for. f[=o]r, _sf._ journey [faran]. f[=o]r, _see_ faran. for-·bærnan, _wv._ burn up, burn, _trans._ for-·b[=e]odan, _sv. 7_, forbid. for-·br[=e]otan, _sv. 7_, break. for-·[.c]eorfan, _sv. 3_, cut off. for-·dilgian, _wv._ destroy. for-·d[=o]n, _sv._ destroy. for-·ealdod, _aj._ aged [_past partic. of_ forealdian, grow old]. fore-s[.c][=e]awian, _wv._ pre-ordain, decree, appoint. fore-s[e,][.c][.g]an, _wv._ say before--se foresæ[.g]da, the aforesaid. for-·[.g]iefan, _sv. 5_, _w. dat._ give, grant; forgive. for-·[.g]ief-nes, _sf._ forgiveness. for-·[.g][=i]eman, _wv._ neglect. for-·[.g]ietan, _sv._ forget. forht, _aj._ afraid. forhtian, _wv._ be afraid. for-·hwega, _av._ somewhere. for-·l[=æ]tan, _sv. 1_, leave, abandon. for-·l[=e]osan, _sv. 7_, lose. for-·li[.g]er, _sn._ wantonness, immorality. forma, _aj._ first--_superl._ fyrmest, first. for-·molsnian, _wv._ crumble, decay. for-·scrincan, _sv. 3_, shrink up. for-s[=e]on, _sv. 5_, despise. for-·sl[=e]an, _sv. 2_, cut through. for-·standan, _sv. 2_, (stand before), protect. forþ, _av._ forth, forwards, on. forþ-·f[=e]ran, _wv._ depart, die. for-·þrysman, _wv._ suffocate, choke. {104} for-·weorþan, _sv. 3_, perish. f[=o]t, _sm._ foot. frætwian, _wv._ adorn. frætwung, _sf._ ornament. fram, _prep. w. dat._ from; _agent. w. pass._ h[=i]e w[=æ]ron fram Wyrt[.g]eorne [.g]elaþode, invited by. fr[e,]mman, _wv._ perform, do. fr[=e]ond, _sm._ friend. friþ, _sm._ peace--friþ niman, make peace. fugol, _sm._ bird. fuhton, _see_ feohtan. f[=u]l, _aj._ foul, impure. full, _aj._ full. full-·bl[=i]þe, _aj._ very glad. full-·c[=e]ne, _aj._ very brave. ful-l[=i]ce, _av._ fully. full-·s[=o]þ, _aj._ very true. fultum, _sm._ help; forces, troops. fultumian, _wv. w. dat._ help. funde, _see_ findan. furþor, _av._ further, more [forþ]. f[=u]s, _aj._ hastening. fyllan, _wv._ fill, fulfil [full]. f[=y]r, _sn._ fire. fyrmest, _see_ forma. G. Gadrian, _wv._ gather. gærs, _sn._ grass. gafeloc, _sm._ missile, spear. gafol, _sn._ interest, profit. gamen, _sn._ sport. g[=a]n, _sv._ go. _[.g]e·_g[=a]n, _sv._ gain, conquer. gangende, _see_ g[=a]n. g[=a]st, _sm._ spirit; se h[=a]lga g[=a]st, the Holy Ghost. g[=a]st-lic, _aj._ spiritual. [.g]e, _cj._ and--[.g]e ... [.g]e, both ... and. [.g][=e], _see_ þ[=u]. [.g]ealga, _sm._ gallows. [.g][=e]ar, _sn._ year. [.g]earcian, _wv._ prepare [[.g]earo]. [.g]eard, _sm._ yard, court. [.g]earu, _aj._ ready. [.g]earwian, _wv._ prepare. [.g]eat, _sn._ gate. [.g][=e]oguþ, _sf._ youth. [.g][=e]omrung, _sf._ lamentation. [.g]eond, _prp. w. acc._ through, throughout. [.g][=e]ong, _aj._ young. [.g]eorn, _aj._ eager. [.g]eorne, _av._ eagerly, earnestly. [.g]iefan, _sv. 5_, give. [.g]iefta, _sfpl._ marriage, wedding [[.g]iefan]. [.g]ieft-h[=u]s, _sn._ wedding-hall. [.g]ieft-lic, _aj._ wedding. [.g]iefu, _sf._ gift; grace (of God) [[.g]iefan]. [.g]ierla, _sm._ dress [[.g]earu]. [.g]iernan, _wv. w. gen._ yearn, desire; ask [[.g]eorn]. [.g]iet, _av._ yet; further, besides. [.g]if, _cj._ if. [.g]imm, _sm._ gem, jewel [_Latin_ gemma]. [.g]imm-st[=a]n, _sm._ gem, jewel. [.g]it, _see_ þ[=u]. [.g][=i]tsian, _wv._ covet. [.g][=i]tsung, _sf._ covetousness, avarice. glæd, _aj._ glad. glæd-l[=i]ce, _av._ gladly. gl[=e]aw, _aj._ prudent, wise. gl[e,]n[.g]an, _wv._ adorn; trim (lamp). god, _sm._ God. god-fæder, _sm._ godfather. god-spell, _sn._ gospel. godspel-lic, _aj._ evangelical. g[=o]d, _aj._ good--_compar._ b[e,]tera. _superl._ b[e,]tst. g[=o]d, _sn._ good thing, good. gold, _sn._ gold. gold-hord, _sn._ treasure. gr[=æ]di[.g]. _aj._ greedy. gr[=æ][.g], _aj._ grey. gr[=e]tan, _wv._ greet, salute. grindan, _sv. 3_, grind. gr[=i]st-b[=i]tung, _sf._ gnashing of teeth. grymetian, _wv._ grunt, roar. gyldan, _wv._ gild [gold]. gylden, _aj._ golden [gold]. H. Habban, _wv._ have; take. {105} h[=a]d, _sm._ rank, condition. _[.g]e_·h[=a]dod, _aj._ ordained, in orders, clerical [_past partic. of_ h[=a]dian, ordain]. hæfde, hæfþ, _see_ habban. hæftan, _wv._ hold fast, hold [habban]. h[=æ]lan, _wv._ heal [h[=a]l]. h[=æ]lend, _sm._ Saviour [_pres. partic. of_ h[=æ]lan]. h[=æ]lo, _sf._ salvation [h[=a]l]. h[=æ]s, _sf._ command. hæspe, _sf._ hasp. h[=æ]te, _sf._ heat [h[=a]t]. h[=æ]þ, _sf._ heath. h[=æ]þen, _aj._ heathen [h[=æ]þ]. h[=a]l, _aj._ whole, sound. _[.g]e_·h[=a]l, _aj._ whole, uninjured. h[=a]lga, _sm._ saint. h[=a]l[.g]ian, _wv._ hallow, consecrate. h[=a]li[.g], _aj._ holy. h[=a]li[.g]-d[=o]m, _sm._ holy object, relic. h[=a]m, _av._ homewards, home. hand, _sf._ hand. hand-cweorn, _sf._ hand-mill. hangian, _wv._ hang, _intr._ [h[=o]n]. h[=a]t, _aj._ hot. h[=a]tan, _sv. 1_, command, ask--_w. inf. in passive sense_, h[=e]ton him s[e,][.c][.g]an, bade them be told ; name--_passive_, h[=a]tte. hatian, _wv._ hate. h[=a]tte, _see_ h[=a]tan. h[=e], _prn_. he. h[=e]afod, _sn._ head. h[=e]afod-mann, _sm._ head-man, ruler, chief. h[=e]ah, _aj._ high--_superl._ h[=i]ehst. healdan, _sv. 1_, hold, keep; guard; preserve; observe, keep. healf, _aj._ half. healf, _sf._ side. h[=e]a-lic, _aj._ lofty [h[=e]ah]. heall, _sf._ hall. heard, _aj._ hard ; strong; severe. h[e,]bban, _sv. 2_, raise. h[e,]fel-þr[=æ]d, _sm._ web-thread, thread. h[e,]fe, _sm._ weight [h[e,]bban]. h[e,]fi[.g], _aj._ heavy [h[e,]fe]. h[e,]ll, _sf._ hell. _[.g]e_·h[e,]nde, _aj. w. dat._ near [hand]. h[=e]o, _see_ h[=e]. heofon, _sm._ heaven--_often in plur._, heofona r[=i][.c]e. heofon-lic, _aj._ heavenly. h[=e]old, _see_ healdan. heord, _sf._ herd. heorte, _sf._ heart. h[=e]r, _av._ here; hither--h[=e]r·æfter, &c., hereafter. h[=e]r-be-·[=e]astan, _av._ east of this. h[e,]re, _sm._ army. h[e,]re-r[=e]af, _sn._ spoil. h[e,]re-toga, _sm._ army-leader, general, chief [toga _from_ t[=e]on]. h[e,]rgian, _wv._ ravage, make war [h[e,]re]. h[e,]rgung, _sf._ (ravaging), warfare, war. h[e,]rian, _wv._ praise. h[=e]t, _see_ h[=a]tan. hider, _av_. hither. h[=i]e, _see_ h[=e]. h[=i]ehst, _see_ h[=e]ah. hiera, _see_ h[=e]. _[.g]e_·h[=i]eran, _wv._ hear. hierde, _sm._ shepherd [heord]. hierd-r[=æ]den, _sf._ guardianship. hiere, _see_ h[=e]. _[.g]e_·h[=i]er-sum, _aj. w. dat._ obedient [h[=i]eran]. _[.g]e_·h[=i]ersum-nes, _sf._ obedience. him, hine, _see_ h[=e]. h[=i]red, _snm._ family, household. his, _see_ h[=e]. hit, _see_ h[=e]. h[=i]w, _sn._ hue, form. hl[=æ]dder, _sf._ ladder. hlæst, _sm._ load. hl[=a]f, _sm._ bread, loaf of bread. hl[=a]ford, _sm._ lord. hl[=i]sa, _sm._ fame. hl[=u]d, _aj._ loud. hl[=y]dan, _wv._ make a noise, shout [hl[=u]d]. hnappian, _wv_. doze. _[.g]e_·hoferod, _aj._ (past partic.), hump-backed. holt, _sn._ wood. {106} h[=o]n, _sv. 1_, hang [hangian]. horn, _sm._ horn. hræd-l[=i]ce, _av._ quickly. hrædung, _sf._ hurry. hraþe, _av._ quickly--sw[=a] hraþe sw[=a], as soon as. hr[=e]od, _sn._ reed. hr[=e]owan, _sv. 7_, rue, repent. hr[=i]eman, _wv._ cry, call. hr[=i]þer, _sn._ ox. hr[=o]f, _sn._ roof. hry[.c][.g], _sm._ back. hryre, _sm._ fall [hr[=e]osan]. h[=u], _av._ how. h[=u]-meta, _av._ how. hund, _sn. w. gen._ hundred. hund, _sm._ dog. hund-feald, _aj._ hundredfold. hund-·nigonti[.g], _num._ ninety. hund-·tw[e,]lfti[.g], _num._ hundred and twenty. hungor, _sm._ hunger; famine. hungri[.g], _aj._ hungry. h[=u]ru, _av._ especially. h[=u]s, _sn._ house. hux-l[=i]ce, _av._ ignominiously. hw[=a], _prn._ who. [.g]e·hw[=a], _prn._ every one. hw[=æ]m, _see_ hw[=a]. hw[=æ]r, _av._ where--sw[=a] hw[=æ]r sw[=a], wherever. [.g]e·hw[=æ]r, _av._ everywhere. hwæs, hwæt, _see_ hw[=a]. hwæt, _interj._ what! lo! well. hw[=æ]te, _sm._ wheat. hwæþer, _av. cj._ whether--hwæþer þe, _to introduce a direct question_. hwæþre, _av._ however. hwanon, _av._ whence. hwel[.c], _prn._ which; any one, any--sw[=a] hwel[.c] sw[=a], whoever. [.g]e·hwel[.c], _prn._ any, any one. hw[=i]l, _sf._ while, time. hwone, _see_ hw[=a]. hwonne, _av._ when. hw[=y], _av._ why. h[=y]dan, _wv._ hide. hyht, _sf._ hope. _[.g]e_·hyhtan, _wv._ hope. h[=y]ran, _wv._ hire. I. I[.c], _prn._ I. [=i]del, _aj._ idle; useless, vain--on [=i]del, in vain. [=i]e[.g]-land, _sn._ island. ieldan, _wv._ delay [eald]. ieldra, _see_ eald. ieldran, _smpl._ ancestors [_originally compar._ of eald]. iernan, _sv. 3_, run; flow. ierre, _aj._ angry. [=i]l, _sm._ hedgehog. ilca, _prn._ same (always weak, and with the definite article). in, _prp. w. dat. and acc._ in, into. inc, _see_ þ[=u]. inn, _av._ in (of motion). innan, _prp. w. dat._ (_av._) within. inne, _av._ within, inside. inn-[.g]ehy[.g]d, _sn._ inner thoughts, mind. in-t[=o], _prp. w. dat._ into. [=I]otan, _smpl._ Jutes. [=I]r-land, _sn._ Ireland. I[=u]d[=e]isc, _aj._ Jewish--þ[=a] I[=u]d[=e]iscan, the Jews. L. L[=a], _interj._ lo!--l[=a] l[=e]of! Sir! l[=a]c, _sn._ gift; offering, sacrifice. [.g]e·l[=æ][.c]an, _wv._ seize. l[=æ]dan, _wv._ lead; carry, bring, take. læden, _sn._ Latin; language. læ[.g], _see_ li[.c][.g]an. l[=æ]ran, _wv. w. double acc._ teach; advise, suggest [l[=a]r]. _[.g]e_·l[=æ]red, _aj._ learned [_past partic._ of l[=æ]ran]. l[=æ]s, _av._ less--þ[=y] l[=æ]s (þe), _cj. w. subj._ lest. l[=æ]tan, _sv. 1_, let; leave--h[=e]o l[=e]t þ[=a] sw[=a], she let the matter rest there. _[.g]e_·l[=æ]te, _sn._--wega [.g]el[=æ]tu, _pl._ meetings of the roads. l[=a]f, _sf._ remains--t[=o] l[=a]fe b[=e]on, remain over, be left [(be)l[=i]fan]. {107} _[.g]e·_lamp, _see_ _[.g]e_limpan. land, _sn._ land, country. land-folc, _sn._ people of the country. land-h[e,]re, _sm._ land-army. land-l[=e]ode, _smpl._ people of the country. lang, _aj._ long. lange, _av._ for a long time, long. lang-l[=i]ce, _av._ for a long time, long. l[=a]r, _sf._ teaching, doctrine. late, _av._ slowly, late--late on [.g][=e]are, late in the year. _[.g]e·_laþian, _wv._ invite. _[.g]e·_laþung, _sf._ congregation. l[=e]af, _sf._ leave. __[.g]e·_l_[=e]afa, _sm._ belief, faith. _[.g]e·_l[=e]af-full, _aj._ believing, pious. leahtor, _sm._ crime, vice. l[=e]as, _aj._ without (expers), _in compos._--less; false. l[=e]at, _see_ l[=u]tan. l[e,][.c][.g]an, _wv._ lay [li[.c][.g]an]. _[.g]e·_l[e,]ndan, _wv._ land [land]. l[=e]o, _smf._ lion. l[=e]ode, _smpl._ people. l[=e]of, _aj._ dear, beloved; pleasant--m[=e] w[=æ]re l[=e]ofre, I would rather--[lufu]. leofode, _see_ libban. leoht, _sn._ light. leoht-fæt, _sn._ (light-vessel), lamp. leornian, _wv._ learn. leornung-cniht, _sm._ disciple. l[=e]t, _see_ l[=æ]tan. libban, _wv._ live. l[=i]c, _sn._ body, corpse. _[.g]e·_l[=i]c, _aj. w. dat._ like. _[.g]e·_l[=i]ce, _av._ in like manner, alike, equally. li[.c][.g]an, _sv. 5_, lie. l[=i]c-hama, _sm._ body. l[=i]cham-l[=i]ce, _av._ bodily. _[.g]e_l[=i]cian, _wv. w. dat._ please. l[=i]efan, _wv. w. dat._ allow [l[=e]af]. _[.g]e·_l[=i]efan, _wv._ believe [gel[=e]afa]. l[=i]f, _sn._ l[=i]fe. lifiend, _see_ libban. lim, _sn._ limb, member. _[.g]e·_limp, _sn._ event, emergency, calamity. _[.g]e_·limpan, _sv. 3_, happen. l[=i]þ, _see_ li[.c][.g]an. locc, _sm._ lock of hair. lof, _sn._ praise; glory. _[.g]e_·l[=o]gian, place; occupy, furnish. _[.g]e_·l[=o]m, _aj._ frequent, repeated. _[.g]e_·l[=o]me, _av._ often, repeatedly. losian, _wv. w. dat._ be lost--him losaþ, he loses [(for)l[=e]osan]. l[=u]can, _sv. 7_, close. lufian, _wv._ love. lufu, _sf._ love [l[=e]of]. Lunden-burg, _sf._ London [Lundonia]. l[=u]tan, _sv. 7_, stoop. l[=y]tel, _aj._ little. M. M[=a], _see_ micel. macian, _wv._ make. mæ[.g], _swv._ can, be able. mæ[.g]en, _sn._ strength, capacity; virtue [mæ[.g]]. m[=æ][.g]þ, _sf._ family; tribe, nation; generation. _[.g]e_·m[=æ]ne, _aj._ common. _[.g]e_·m[=æ]nelic, _aj._ common, general. m[=æ]re, _aj._ famous, glorious, great (metaphorically). _[.g]e_·m[=æ]re, _sn._ boundary, territory. m[=æ]rsian, _wv._ extol, celebrate [m[=æ]re]. m[=æ]rþo, _sf._ glory [m[=æ]re]. mæsse, _sf._ mass [_Latin_ missa]. mæsse-pr[=e]ost, _sm._ mass-priest. m[=æ]st, _see_ mi[.c]el. magon, _see_ mæ[.g]. man, _indef._ one [mann]. m[=a]n, _sn._ wickedness. m[=a]n-d[=æ]d, _sf._ wicked deed. m[=a]n-full, _aj._ wicked. mangere, _sm._ merchant. mangung, _sf._ trade, business. mani[.g], _aj._ many. man[=i][.g]-feald, _aj._ manifold. mani[.g]-fieldan, _wv._ multiply [mani[.g]feald]. mann, _sm._ man; person. mann-cynn, _sn._ mankind. {108} mann-r[=æ]den, _sf._ allegiance. mann-slaga, _sm._ manslayer, murderer [sl[=e]an, sl[e,][.g]e]. m[=a]re, _see_ mi[.c]el. martyr, _sm._ martyr. m[=a]þm, _sm._ treasure. m[=a]þm-fæt, _sn._ precious vessel. m[=e], _see_ ic. mearc, _sf._ boundary. m[=e]d, _sf._ reward, pay. m[=e]der, _see_ m[=o]dor. m[e,]nn, _see_ mann. m[e,]nnisc, _aj._ human [mann]. m[e,]re-grot, _sr._ pearl [margarita]. mer[.g]en, _sm._ morning [morgen]. _[.g]e_·met, _sn._ measure; manner, way. metan, _sv. 5_, measure. _[.g]e_·m[=e]tan, _wv._ meet; find [[.g]em[=o]t]. m[e,]te, _sm._ food--pl. m[e,]ttas. mi[.c]el, _aj._ great, much--_comp._ m[=a]re, m[=a] (_adv._, _sn._, _aj._), _sup._ m[=æ]st. mi[.c]le, _av._ greatly, much. mid, _prp. w. dat._ (_instr._) with--mid þ[=æ]m þe, _cj._ when. middan-[.g]eard, _sm._ world [_literally_ middle enclosure]. midde, _aj._ mid, middle (only of time). middel, _sn._ middle. Middel-[e,]n[.g]le, _smpl._ Middle-Angles. Mier[.c]e, _smpl._ Mercians [mearc]. miht, _sf._ might, strength; virtue [mæ[.g]]. mihte, _see_ mæ[.g]. mihti[.g], _aj._ mighty, strong. m[=i]l, _sf._ mile [_Latin_ milia (passuum)]. mild-heort, _aj._ mild-hearted, merciful. _[.g]e_·miltsian, _wv. w. dat._ have mercy on, pity [milde]. m[=i]n, _see_ ic. mis-l[=æ]dan, _wv._ mislead, lead astray. mis-lic, _aj._ various. m[=o]d, _sn._ heart, mind. m[=o]dig, _aj._ proud. m[=o]di[.g]-nes, _sf._ pride. m[=o]dor, _sf._ mother. molde, _sf._ mould, earth. m[=o]na, _sm._ moon. m[=o]naþ, _sm._ month--_pl._ m[=o]naþ [m[=o]na]. morgen, _sm._ morning. morþ, _sn._ (murder), crime. m[=o]ste, see m[=o]tan. _[.g]e·_m[=o]t, _sn._ meeting. m[=o]tan, _swv._ may; ne m[=o]t, must not. _[.g]e·_munan, _swv._ remember. munt, _sm._ mountain, hill [_Latin_ montem]. munuc, _sm._ monk [_Latin_ monachus]. murcnian, _wv._ grumble, complain. m[=u]þ, _sm._ mouth. m[=u]þa, _sm._ mouth of a river [m[=u]þ]. _[.g]e·_mynd, _sf._ memory, mind [[.g]emunan]. _[.g]e·_myndi[.g], _aj. w. gen._ mindful. mynet, _sf._ coin [_Latin_ moneta]. mynetere, _sm._ money-changer. mynster, _sn._ monastery [_Latin_ monasterium]. N. N[=a], _av._ not, no [ = ne [=a]]. nabban = ne habban. n[=æ]ddre, _sf._ snake. næfde, næfst, = ne hæfde, ne hæfst. n[=æ]fre, _av._ never [ = ne [=æ]fre]. næ[.g]el, _sm._ nail. næs = ne wæs. n[=a]ht, _prn. w. gen._ naught, nothing [ = n[=a]n wiht]. n[=a]ht-nes, _sf._ worthlessness, cowardice. nam, _see_ niman. nama, _sm._ name. n[=a]mon, _see_ niman. n[=a]n, _prn._ none, no [ = ne [=a]n]. n[=a]t = ne w[=a]t. n[=a]wþer, _prn._ neither [ = ne [=a]hwæþer (either)]. ne, _av._ not--ne ... ne, neither ... not. {109} n[=e]ah, _av._ near; _superl._ n[=i]ehst--æt n[=i]ehstan, next, immediately, afterwards. nearu, _aj._ narrow. n[=e]a-wist, _sfm._ neighbourhood [wesan]. n[e,]mnan, _wv._ name [nama]. neom = ne eom. nese, _av._ no. n[e,]tt, _sn._ net. n[=i]ed, _sf._ need. n[=i]edunga, _av._ needs, by necessity. n[=i]ehst, _see_ n[=e]ah. n[=i]eten, _sn._ animal. nigon, _num._ nine. nigoþa, _aj._ ninth. niht, _sf._ night. niman, _sv. 4_, take, capture; take in marriage, marry. nis = ne is. niþer, _av._ down. n[=i]we, _aj._ new. _[.g]e_·n[=o]g, _aj._ enough. nolde = ne wolde. norþ, _av._ north. Norþhymbra-land, _sn._ Northumberland. Norþ-hymbre, _smpl._ Northumbrians [Humbra]. norþan-weard, _aj._ northward. Norþ-m[e,]nn, _pl._ Norwegians. n[=u], _av._ now, just now; _cj. causal_, now that, since. n[=u]·[.g]iet, _av._ still. _[.g]e_·nyht-sum-nes, _sf._ sufficience, abundance. nyle, = ne wile. nyste, nyton = ne wiste, ne witon. O. Of, _prp. w. dat._ of, from _of place_, _origin_, _privation_, _release_, &c.; _partitive_, s[e,]llaþ [=u]s of [=e]owrum ele, some of your oil. of-·dr[=æ]dd, _aj._ afraid [_past partic. of_ ofdr[=æ]dan, dread]. ofer, _prp. w. dat. and acc._ over; on; _of time_, during, throughout, over. ofer-gyld, _aj._ (past partic.), gilded over, covered with gold. ofer-·h[e,]rgian, _wv._ ravage, over-run. ofer-·s[=a]wan, _sv. 2_, sow over. offrian, _wv._ offer, sacrifice [_Latin_ offerre]. offrung, _sf._ offering, sacrifice. of-·sl[=e]an, _sv. 2_, slay. of-·sn[=i]þan, _sv. 6_, kill [sn[=i]þan, cut]. of-spring, _sm._ offspring [springan]. oft, _av._ often. of-·t[=e]on, _sv. 7, w. dat. of pers. and gen. of thing_, deprive. of-·þyrst, _aj._ thirsty [_past partic. of_ ofþyrstan, _from_ þurst]. of-·wundrian, _wv. w. gen._ wonder. [=o]-l[=æ][.c]ung, _sf._ flattery. olfend, _sm._ camel [_Latin_ elephas]. on, _prp. w. dat. and acc._ on; in; _hostility_, against, on h[=i]e fuhton; _of time_, in. on-·byr[.g]an, _wv._ taste. on-·cn[=a]wan, _sv. 1_, know, recognize. on·dr[=æ]dan, _sv. 1_, _wv._ dread, fear. on-·f[=o]n, _sv. 1_, receive. on-·[.g][=e]an, _prp. w. dat. and acc._ towards; _hostility_, against. on-·[.g][=e]an, _av._ back--[.g]ew[e,]nde on-[.g][=e]an, returned. on-[.g]inn, _sn._ beginning. on-·[.g]innan, _sv. 3_, begin. on-·liehtan, _wv._ illuminate, enlighten [leoht]. on·liehtung, _sf._ illumination, light. on-·l[=u]can, _sv. 7_, unlock. on-·middan, _prp. w. dat._ in the midst of. on-s[=i]en, _sf._ appearance, form. on-sund, _aj._ sound, whole. on-·uppan, _prp. w. dat._ upon. on-weald, _sm._ rule, authority, power; territory. on-·we[.g], _av._ away. open, _aj._ open. openian, _wv._ open, reveal, disclose. orgel-l[=i]ce, _av._ proudly. {110} or-m[=æ]te, _aj._ immense, boundless [metan]. or-sorg, _aj._ unconcerned, careless. oþ, _prp. w. acc._ until--oþ þæt, _cj._ until; up to, as far as. [=o]þer, _prn._ (always strong), second; other. oþþe, _cj._ or--oþþe ... oþþe, either ... or. oxa, _sm._ ox. P. P[=a]pa, _sm._ pope [_Latin_ papa]. p[e,]ning, _sm._ penny. Peohtas, _smpl._ Picts. Philist[=e]isc, _aj._ Philistine. Pihtisc, _aj._ Pictish [Peohtas]. plegian, _wv._ play. post, _sm._ post [_Latin_ postis]. pr[=e]ost, _sm._ priest [_Latin_ presbyter]. pund, _sn._ pound [_Latin_ pondus]. pytt, _sm._ pit [_Latin_ puteus]. R. Racent[=e]ag, _ sf._ chains. r[=a]d, _see_ r[=i]dan. _[.g]e_·r[=a]d, _sn._ reckoning, account; on þ[=a] [.g]er[=a]d þæt, on condition that. r[=æ]d, _sm._ advice; what is advisable, plan of action--him r[=æ]d þ[=u]hte, it seemed advisable to him. ramm, _sm._ ram. r[=a]p, _sm._ rope. r[=e]af, _sn._ robe, dress. reahte, _see_ re[.c][.c]an. r[=e][.c]an, _wv. w. gen._ reck, care. r[e,][.c][.c]an, _wv._ tell, narrate. _[.g]e_·r[e,][.c]ednes, _sf._ narrative. _[.g]e_·r[=e]fa, _sm._ officer, reeve, bailiff. re[.g]en, _sm._ rain. r[=e]þe, _aj._ fierce, cruel. r[=i][.c]e, _aj._ powerful, of high rank. r[=i][.c]e, _sn._ kingdom, sovereignty, government. r[=i][.c]etere, _sn._ (ambition), pomp. r[=i][.c]sian, _wv._ rule. r[=i]dan, _sv. 6_, ride. riftere, _sm._ reaper. riht, _aj._ right; righteous. riht-l[=i]ce, _av._ rightly, correctly. riht-w[=i]s, _aj._ righteous. riht-w[=i]snes, _sf._ righteousness. r[=i]m, _sm._ number. r[=i]man, _wv._ count. r[=i]nan, _wv._ rain [re[.g]en]. r[=i]pan, _sv. 6_, reap. r[=i]pere, _sm._ reaper. r[=i]p-t[=i]ma, _sm._ reaping-time, harvest. r[=o]hte, _see_ r[=e][.c]an. R[=o]me-burg, _sf._ city of Rome. r[=o]wan, _sv. 1_, row. ryne, _sm._ course. _[.g]e_·r[=y]ne, _sn._ mystery. S. S[=æ], _sf._ sea--_dat._ s[=æ]. s[=æ]d, _sn._ seed. sæ[.g]de, _see_ s[e,][.c][.g]an. s[=æ]l, _sm._ time, occasion. _[.g]e_·s[=æ]li[.g], _aj._ happy, blessed. _[.g]e_·s[=æ]li[.g]-l[=i]ce, _av._ happily, blessedly. sæt, s[=æ]ton, _see_ sittan. sagol, _sm._ rod, staff. [.g]e·samnian, _wv._ collect, assemble. samod, _av_. together, with. sanct, _sm._ saint [_Latin_ sanctus]. sand, _sf._ dish of food [s[e,]ndan]. sand-[.c]eosol, _sm._ sand (_literally_ sand-gravel). s[=a]r, _sn._ grief. s[=a]r, _aj._ grievous. s[=a]ri[.g], _aj._ sorry, sad. s[=a]wan, _sv. 1_, sow. s[=a]were, _sm._ sower. s[=a]wol, _sf._ soul. scamu, _sf._ shame. scand, _sf._ disgrace. scand-lic, _aj._ shameful. s[.c][=e]af, _sm._ sheaf [sc[=u]fan]. s[.c][=e]af-m[=æ]lum, _av._ sheafwise. _[.g]e_·s[.c]eaft, _sf._ creature, created thing. s[.c]eal, _swv._ ought to, must; shall. s[.c][=e]ap, _sn._ sheep. s[.c]eatt, _sm._ (tribute); money. s[.c][=e]awere, _sm._ spy, witness. s[.c][=e]awian, _wv._ see; examine; read. s[.c][=e]awung, _sf._ seeing, examination. s[.c][=e]otan, _sv. 7_, shoot. {111} s[.c]ieppan, _sv. 2_, create. s[.c]ieran, _sv. 4_, shear. s[.c]ip, _sn._ ship. s[.c]ip-h[e,]re, _sm._ fleet. s[.c]ip-hlæst, _sm._ (shipload), crew. s[.c][=i]r, _sf._ shire. scolde, _see_ sceal. sc[=o]p, _see_ s[.c]ieppan. scort, _aj._ short. scotian, _wv._ shoot [s[.c][=e]otan]. Scot-land, _sn._ Ireland. Scottas, _smpl._ the Irish. scotung, _sf._ shot. scræf, _sn._ cave. scr[=i]n, _sn._ shrine [_Latin_ scrinium]. scrincan, _sv. 3_, shrink. scr[=u]d, _sn._ dress. scr[=y]dan, _wv._ clothe [scr[=u]d]. sc[=u]fan, _sv. 7_, push--sc[=u]fan [=u]t, launch (ship). sculon, _see_ s[.c]eal. scuton, _see_ s[.c][=e]otan. scyld, _sf._ guilt [sculon, sceal]. scyldig, _aj._ guilty. scylen, _see_ sceal. Scyttisc, _aj._ Scotch [Scottas]. se, s[=e], _prn._ that; the; he; who. _[.g]e_seah, _see_ _[.g]e_s[=e]on. sealde, _see_ s[e,]llan. s[=e]aþ, _sm._ pit. Seaxe, _smpl._ Saxons. s[=e][.c]an, _wv._ seek; visit, come to; attack. s[e,][.c][.g]an, _wv._ say. self, _prn._ self. s[e,]llan, _wv._ give; sell. s[=e]lest, _av. superl._ best. s[e,]ndan, _wv._ send, send message [sand]. s[=e]o, _see_ se. seofon, _num._ seven. seofoþa, _aj._ seventh. seolc, _sf._ silk. seolcen, _aj._ silken. seolfor, _sn._ silver. _[.g]e·_s[=e]on, _sv. 5_, see. s[=e]ow, _see_ s[=a]wan. _[.g]e·_s[e,]tnes, _sf._ narrative [s[e,]ttan]. s[e,]ttan, _wv._ set; appoint, institute--d[=o]m s[e,]ttan _w. dat._ pass sentence on; compose, write; create [sittan]. sibb, _sf._ peace. _[.g]e_·sibb-sum, _aj._ peaceful. s[=i]e, _see_ wesan. s[=i]efer-l[=i]ce, _av._ purely. s[=i]efre, _aj._ pure. sierwung, _sf._ stratagem. siex, _num._ six. siexta, _aj._ sixth. siexti[.g], _num._ sixty. siexti[.g]-feald, _aj._ sixtyfold. si[.g]e, _sm._ victory--si[.g]e niman, gain the victory. si[.g]e-fæst, _aj._ victorious. _[.g]e_·sihþ, _sf._ sight; vision, dream [[.g]es[=e]on]. sifren, _aj._ silver. simle, _av._ always. sind, _see_ wesan. sinu, _sf_, sinew. sittan, _sv. 5_, sit; settle, stay. _[.g]e_·sittan, _sv. 5_, take possession of. s[=i]þ, _sm._ journey. s[=i]þian, _wv._ journey, go. siþþan, _av._ since, afterwards; cj. when. sl[=æ]p, _sm._ sleep. sl[=æ]pan, _sv. 1_, sleep, slaga, _sm._ slayer. [sl[=e]an, _past. partic._ [.g]eslæ[.g]en]. sl[=a]w, _aj._ slow, slothful, dull. sl[=e]an, _sv. 2_, strike; slay, kill. sl[e,][.c][.g], _sm._ hammer [slaga, sl[=e]an]. sl[e,][.g]e, _sm._ killing [slaga, sl[=e]an]. sl[=e]p, _see_ sl[=æ]pan. sl[=o]g, _see_ sl[=e]an. smæl, _aj._ narrow. sm[=e]an, _wv._ consider, think; consult. sm[=e]ocan, _sv. 7_, smoke. sm[=e]þe, _aj._ smooth. snotor, _aj._ wise, prudent. s[=o]na, _av._ soon; then. sorg, _sf._ sorrow. s[=o]þ, _aj._ true. s[=o]þ, _sn._ truth. s[=o]þ-l[=i]ce, _av._ truly, indeed. spade, _wf._ spade [_Lati_n spatha]. {112} spr[=æ][.c], _sf._ speech, language; conversation [sprecan]. sprecan, _sv. 5_, speak. spr[e,]n[.g]an, _wv._ (scatter); sow [springan]. springan, _sv. 3_, spring. sprungen, _see_ springan. st[=æ]nen, _aj._ of stone [st[=a]n]. st[=æ]niht, _sn._ stony ground [_originally adj._ 'stony,' from st[=a]n]. st[=a]n, _sm._ stone; brick. standan, _sv. 2_, stand. st[=e]ap, _aj._ steep. st[e,]de, _sm._ place. stefn, _sf._ voice. stelan, _sv. 4_, steal. st[e,]nt, _see_ standan. st[=e]or, _sf._ steering, rudder. steorra, _sm._ star. sticol, _aj._ rough. st[=i]epel, _sm._ steeple [st[=e]ap]. st[=i]eran, _wv. w. dat._ restrain [st[=e]or]. _[.g]e_·stillan, _wv._ stop, prevent. stille, _aj._ still, quiet. st[=o]d, _see_ standan. st[=o]l, _sm._ seat. st[=o]w, _sf._ place. str[=æ]t, _sf._ street, road [_Latin_ strata via]. strand, _sm._ shore. strang, _aj._ strong. str[=e]dan, _wv._ (scatter), sow. str[e,]n[.g]þo, _sf._ strength [strang]. [.g]e·str[=e]on, _sn._ possession. [.g]e·str[=i]enan, _wv._ gain [[.g]estr[=e]on]. str[=u]tian, _wv._ strut. sty[.c][.c]e, _sn._ piece. sum, _prn._ some, a certain (one), one; a. _[.g]e_·sund, _aj._ sound, healthy. _[.g]e_·sund-full. _aj._ safe and sound. sundor, _av._ apart. sunne, _sf._ sun. sunu, _sm._ son. s[=u]þ, _av._ south, southwards. s[=u]þan, _av._ from the south. s[=u]þan-weard, _aj._ southward. s[=u]þ-d[=æ]l, _sm._ the South. s[=u]þerne, _aj._ southern. S[=u]þ-seaxe, _smpl._ South-Saxons. sw[=a], _av._ so; sw[=a], sw[=a], as, like--sw[=a] ... sw[=a], so ... as. sw[=a]c, _see_ sw[=i]can. sw[=a]-·þ[=e]ah, _av._ however. swefn, _sn._ sleep; dream. swel[.c], _prn._ such. swel[.c]e, _av._ as if, as it were, as, like. sweltan, _sv. 3_, die. sw[e,]n[.c]an, _wv._ afflict, molest [swincan]. sw[e,]n[.g], _sm._ stroke, blow [swingan]. sw[=e]or, _sm._ pillar. sw[=e]ora, _sm._ neck. sweord, _sn._ sword. sweord-bora, _sm._ sword-bearer [beran]. sweotol, _aj._ clear, evident. sweotolian, _wv._ display, show, indicate. sweotolung, _sf._ manifestation, sign. sw[e,]rian, _sv. 2_, swear. sw[=i]c, _sm._ deceit. _[.g]e_·sw[=i]can, _sv. 6_ (fail, fall short); cease (betray). sw[=i]c-d[=o]m, _sm._ deceit [sw[=i]can]. swicol, _aj._ deceitful, treacherous. swicon, _see_ sw[=i]can. swift, _aj._ swift. sw[=i]gian, _wv._ be silent. swincan, _sv. 3_, labour, toil. swingan, _sv. 3_, beat. swingle, _sf._ stroke [swingan]. swipe, _sm._ whip. sw[=i]þe, _av._ very, much, greatly, violently--_cp._ sw[=i]þor, rather, more. sw[=i]þ-lic, _aj._ excessive, great. sw[=i]þre, _sf._ right hand [_cp. of_ sw[=i]þe _with_ hand _understood_]. swulton, _see_ sweltan. swuncon, _see_ swincan. swungon, _see_ swingan. syndri[.g], _aj._ separate [sundor]. syn-full, _aj._ sinful. syngian, _wv._ sin. synn, _sf._ sin. {113} T. T[=a]cen, _sn._ sign, token; miracle. t[=a]cnian, _wv._ signify. _[.g]e_·t[=a]cnung, _sf._ signification, type. t[=æ][.c]an, _wv. w. dat._ show; teach. talu, _sf._ number [getel]. tam, _aj._ tame. t[=a]wian, _wv._ ill-treat. t[=e]am, _sm._ progeny [t[=e]on]. _[.g]e_·tel, _sn._ number. t[e,]llan, _wv._ count, account--t[e,]llan t[=o] n[=a]hte, count as naught [talu]. T[e,]mes, _sf._ Thames [Tamisia]. tempel, _sn._ temple [_Latin_ templum]. t[=e]on, _sv. 7_, pull, drag. t[=e]ona, _sm._ injury, insult. t[=e]on-r[=æ]den, _sf._ humiliation. t[=e]þ, _see_ t[=o]þ. ti[.c][.c]en, _sn._ kid. t[=i]d, _sf._ time; hour. t[=i]e[.g]an, _wv._ tie. t[=i]eman, _wv._ teem, bring forth [t[=e]am]. t[=i]en, _num._ ten. tierwe, _sf._ tar. ti[.g]ele, _wf._ tile [_Latin_ tegula]. t[=i]ma, _sm._ time. timbrian, _wv._ build. _[.g]e_·timbrung, _sf._ building. tintre[.g], _sn._ torture. tintregian, _wv._ torture. t[=o], _prp. w. dat._ (_av._) to--t[=o] abbode [.g]es[e,]tt, made abbot; _time_, at--t[=o] langum fierste, for a long time; _adverbial_, t[=o] scande, ignominiously; _fitness_, _purpose_, _for_--þ[=æ]m folce (dat.) t[=o] d[=e]aþe, to the death of the people, so that the people were killed; t[=o] þ[=æ]m þæt, cj. in order that--t[=o] þæm (sw[=i]þe) ... þæt, so (greatly) ... that. t[=o], _av._ too. t[=o]-·berstan, _sv. 3_, burst, break asunder. t[=o]-·brecan, _sv. 4_, break in pieces, break through. t[=o]-·bre[.g]dan, _sv. 3_, tear asunder. t[=o]-·cw[=i]esan, _wv._ crush, bruise. t[=o]-cyme, _sm._ coming [cuman]. t[=o]-·dæ[.g], _av._ to-day. t[=o]-·d[=æ]lan, _wv._ disperse; separate, divide. t[=o]-·gædre, _av._ together. t[=o]-·[.g][=e]anes, _prp. w. dat._ towards--him t[=o][.g][=e]anes, to meet him. t[=o]l, _sn._ tool. t[=o]-·l[=i]esan, _wv._ loosen [l[=e]as]. t[=o]-·middes, _prp. w. dat._ in the midst of. t[=o]-·teran, _sv. 4_, tear to pieces. t[=o]þ, _sm._ tooth. t[=o]-weard, _aj._ future. t[=o]-·weorpan, _sv. 3_, overthrow, destroy. tr[=e]ow, _sn._ tree. _[.g]e_·tr[=e]owe, _aj._ true, faithful. trum, _aj._ strong. trymman, _wv._ strengthen [trum]. trymmung, _sf._ strengthening, encouragement. t[=u]cian, _wv._ ill-treat. tugon, _see_ t[=e]on. t[=u]n, _sm._ village, town. tw[=a], tw[=æ]m, _see_ tw[=e][.g]en. tw[=e][.g]en, _num._ two. tw[e,]lf, _num._ twelve. tw[e,]nti[.g], _num. w. gen._ twenty. Þ. Þ[=a], _av. cj._ then; when--þ[=a] þ[=a], when, while--_correlative_ þ[=a] ... þ[=a], when ... (then). þ[=a], þ[=æ]m, &c., _see_ se. þ[=æ]r, _av._ there--þ[=æ]rt[=o], &c. thereto, to it; where--þ[=æ]r þ[=æ]r, _correl._ where. þ[=æ]re, _see_ se. þ[=æ]r-rihte, _av._ immediately. þæs, _av._ therefore; wherefore. þæs, þæt, _see_ se. þæt, _cj._ that. _[.g]e_·þafian, _wv._ allow, permit. þ[=a]-·[.g]iet, _av._ still, yet. þanc, _sm._ thought; thanks. þancian, _wv. w. gen. of thing and dat. of person_, thank. {114} þanon, _av._ thence, away. þ[=a]s, _see_ þis. þe, _rel. prn._ who--s[=e] þe, who; _av._ when. þ[=e], _see_ þ[=u]. þ[=e]ah, _av. cj._ though, yet, however--þ[=e]ah þe, although. þearf, _swv._ need. þearle, _av._ very, greatly. þ[=e]aw, _sm._ custom, habit; þ[=e]awas, virtues, morality. þe[.g]en, _sm._ thane; servant. þe[.g]nian, _wv. w. dat._ serve. þe[.g]nung, _sf._ service, retinue. þ[e,]n[.c]an, _wv._ think, expect [þanc]. þ[=e]od, _sf._ people, nation. _[.g]e_·þ[=e]ode, _sn._ language. þ[=e]of, _sm._ thief. þ[=e]os, _see_ þes. þ[=e]ostru, _spl._ darkness. þ[=e]ow, _sm._ servant. þ[=e]ow-d[=o]m, _sm._ service. þ[=e]owian, _wv. w. dat._ serve. þ[=e]owot, _sn._ servitude. þes, _prn._ this. þi[.c][.c]e, _aj._ thick. þi[.c][.g]an, _sv. 5_, take, receive; eat, drink. þ[=i]n, _see_ þ[=u]. þing, _sn._ thing. þis, þissum, &c., _see_ þes. _[.g]e_·p[=o]ht, _sm._ thought. þ[=o]hte, _see_ þ[e,]n[.c]an. þone, _see_ se. þonne, _av. cj._ then; when; because. þonne, _av._ than. þorfte, _see_ þearf. þorn, _sm._ thorn. þr[=æ]d, _sm._ thread. þr[=e]o, _see_ þr[=i]e. þridda, _aj._ third. þr[=i]e, _num._ three. þrim, _see_ þr[=i]e. þriti[.g], _num._ thirty. þriti[.g]-feald, _aj._ thirtyfold. þrymm, _sm._ glory. þ[=u], _prn._ thou. þ[=u]hte, _see_ þyn[.c]an. _[.g]e_·þungen, _aj._ excellent, distinguished. þurh, _prp. w. acc._ through; _causal_, through, by. þurh-·wunian, _wv._ continue. þurst, _sm._ thirst. þursti[.g], _aj._ thirsty. þus, _av._ thus. þ[=u]send, _sn._ thousand. _[.g]e_·þw[=æ]r-l[=æ][.c]an, _wv._ agree. þ[=y], _instr. of_ se; _av._ because. þ[=y]fel, _sm._ bush. þ[=y]·l[=æ]s, _cj._ lest. þyn[.c]an, _wv. impers. w. dat._ m[=e] þyn[.c]þ, methinks [þ[e,]n[.c]an]. þ[=y]rel, _sn._ hole [þurh]. U. Ufe-weard, _aj._ upward, at the top of. un-[=a]r[=i]med-lic, _aj._ innumerable. unc, _see_ ic. un-_[.g]e_cynd, _aj._ strange, of alien family. un-d[=e]ad-lic-nes, _sf._ immortality. under, _prp. w. dat. and acc._ under. under-cyning, _sm._ under-king. under-·delfan, _sv._ dig under. under-·f[=o]n, _sv. 1_, receive, take. under-·[.g]ietan, _sv. 5_, understand. undern-t[=i]d, _sf._ morning-time. un-forht, _aj._ dauntless. un-for-molsnod, _aj._ (past partic.) undecayed. un-_[.g]e_h[=i]ersum, _aj. w. dat._ disobedient. un-hold, _aj._ hostile. un-_[.g]e_metlic, _aj._ immense. un-mihti[.g], _aj._ weak. un-nytt, _aj._ useless. un-rihtl[=i]ce, _av._ wrongly. un-rihtw[=i]s, _aj._ unrighteous. un-_[.g]e_r[=i]m, _sn._ countless number or quantity. un-_[.g]e_r[=i]m, _aj._ countless. un-_[.g]e_s[=æ]li[.g], _aj._ unhappy, accursed. un-scyldi[.g], _aj._ innocent. un-t[=i]emend, _aj._ barren [_from pres. partic._ of t[=i]eman]. {115} un-_[.g]e_þw[=æ]r-nes, _sf._ discord. un-_[.g]e_witti[.g], _aj._ foolish. [=u]p, _av._ up. [=u]p-[=a]hafen-nes, _sf._ conceit, arrogance. [=u]p-fl[=o]r, _sf._ (_dat. sing._ -a) upper floor, upper story. uppan, _prp. w. dat._ on, upon. urnon, _see_ iernan. [=u]s, _see_ ic. [=u]t, _av._ out. [=u]tan, _av._ outside. uton, _defect. verb, w. infin._ let us--uton g[=a]n, let us go! W. Wacian, _wv._ be awake, watch. w[=æ]dla, _sm._ poor man. wæl, _sn._ slaughter--wæl [.g]e·sl[=e]an, make a slaughter. wæl-hr[=e]ow, _aj._ cruel. wælhr[=e]ow-l[=i]ce, _av._ cruelly, savagely. wælhr[=e]ownes, _sf._ cruelty. w[=æ]pen, _sn._ weapon. wær, _aj._ wary. w[=æ]ron, wæs, _see_ wesan. wæstm, _sm._ (growth); fruit. wæter, _sn._ water. wæter-s[.c]ipe, _sm._ piece of water, water. w[=a]fung, _sf._ (spectacle), display. -ware, _pl._ (only in composition) dwellers, inhabitants [_originally defenders, cp._ w[e,]rian]. w[=a]t, _see_ witan. _[.g]e_w[=a]t, _see_ _[.g]e_w[=i]tan. w[=e], _see_ ic. _[.g]e_·weald, _sn._ power, command. wealdan, _sv. 1, w. gen._ rule. Wealh, _sm._ (_pl._ W[=e]alas), _sm._ Welshman, Briton (_originally_ foreigner). weall, _sm._ wall. weall-l[=i]m, _sm._ (wall-lime), cement, mortar. wearg, _sm._ felon, criminal [_originally_ wolf, _then_ proscribed man, outlaw]. weaxan, _sv. 1_, grow, increase. we[.g], _sm._ way, road. we[.g]-f[=e]rende, _aj._ (pres. partic.) way-faring. wel, _av._ well. wel-willend-nes, _sf._ benevolence. w[=e]nan, _wv._ expect, think. _[.g]e_·w[e,]ndan, _wv._ turn; go [windan]. w[e,]nian, _wv._ accustom, wean [[.g]ewuna]. weofod, _sn._ altar. weorc, _sn._ work. weorpan, _sv. 3_, throw. weorþ, _sn._ worth. weorþ, _aj._ worth, worthy. weorþan, _sv. 3_, happen; become--w. æt spr[=æ][.c]e, enter into conversation. _[.g]e_·weorþan, _sv. 3, impers. w. dat._--him [.g]ewearþ, they agreed on. weorþ-full, _aj._ worthy. weorþian, _wv._ honour, worship; make honoured, exalt. weorþ-l[=i]ce, _aj._ honourably. weorþ-mynd, _sf._ honour. w[=e]ox, _see_ weaxan. w[=e]pan, _sv. 1_, weep. wer, _sm._ man. w[e,]rian, _wv._ defend [wær]. werod, _sn._ troop, army. wesan, _sv._ be. west, _av._ west. West-seaxe, _smpl._ West-saxons. w[=e]ste, _aj._ waste, desolate. w[=i]d, _aj._ wide. w[=i]de, _av._ widely, far and wide. widewe, _sf._ widow. _[.g]e_·wieldan, _wv._ overpower, conquer [wealdan]. wierþe, _aj. w. gen._ worthy [weorþ]. w[=i]f, _sn._ woman; wife. w[=i]f-healf, _sf._ female side. w[=i]f-mann, _sm._ woman. wiht, _sf._ wight, creature, thing. Wiht, _sf._ Isle of Wight [Vectis]. Wiht-ware, _pl._ Wight-dwellers. wilde, _aj._ wild. wild[=e]or, _sn._ wild beast. willa, _sm._ will. {116} willan, _swv._ will, wish; _of repetition_, be used to. _[.g]e_·wilnian, _wv. w. gen._ desire. w[=i]n, _sn._ wine. wind, _sm._ wind. windan, _sv. 3_, wind. w[=i]n-[.g]eard, _sm._ vineyard. winnan, _sv. 3_, fight. _[.g]e_·winnan, _sv. 3_, win, gain. winter, (_pl._ winter), _sm._ winter; _in reckoning_ = year. winter-setl, _sn._ winter-quarters. w[=i]s, _aj._ wise. w[=i]s-d[=o]m, _sm._ wisdom. w[=i]se, _sf._ (wise), way. _[.g]e_·wiss, _aj._ certain. _[.g]e_·wissian, _wv._ guide, direct. _[.g]e_·wissung, _sf._ guidance, direction. wiste, _see_ witan. wit, _see_ ic. wita, _sm._ councillor, sage. witan, _swv._ know. _[.g]e_·w[=i]tan, _sv. 6_, depart. w[=i]te, _sn._ punishment; torment. w[=i]tega, _sm._ prophet. witod-l[=i]ce, _av._ truly, indeed, and [witan]. _[.g]e_·witt, _sn._ wits, intelligence, understanding [witan]. wiþ, _prp. w. dat. and acc._ towards; along--wiþ we[.g], by the road; _hostility_, against--fuhton wiþ Brettas, fought with the Britons; _association, sharing, &c._, with; _defence_, against; _exchange, price, for_--wiþ þ[=æ]m þe, in consideration of, provided that. wiþ-·meten-nes, _sf._ comparison. wiþ-·sacan, _sv. 2, w. dat._ deny. wiþ-·standan, _sv. 2, w. dat._ withstand, resist. wlite, _sm._ beauty. w[=o]d, _aj._ mad. w[=o]d-l[=i]ce, _av._ madly. wolde, _see_ willan. w[=o]p, _sm._ weeping [w[=e]pan]. word, _sn._ word, sentence; subject of talk, question, answer, report. _[.g]e_worden, _see_ weorþan. worhte, _see_ wyr[.c]an. woruld, _sf._ world. woruld-þing, _sn._ worldly thing. wrecan, _sv. 5_, avenge. wr[=e][.g]an, _wv._ accuse. _[.g]e_·writ, _sn._ writing [wr[=i]tan]. wr[=i]tan, _sv. 6_, write. wudu, _sm._ wood. wuldor, _sn._ glory. wuldrian, _wv._ glorify, extol. wulf, _sm._ wolf. _[.g]e_·wuna, _sm._ habit, custom [wunian]. wund, _sf._ wound. wundor, _sn._ wonder; miracle. wundor-lic, _aj._ wonderful, wondrous. wundor-l[=i]ce, _av._ wonderfully, wondrously. wundrian, _wv. w. gen._ wonder. _[.g]e_·wunelic, _aj._ customary. wunian, _wv._ dwell, stay, continue [[.g]ewuna]. wunung, _sf._ dwelling. _[.g]e_wunnen, _see_ _[.g]e_winnan. wyr[.c]an, _wv._ work, make; build; do, perform [weorc]. wyrhta, _sm._ worker. wyrt, _sf._ herb, spice; crop. wyrt-br[=æ]þ, _sm._ spice-fragrance, fragrant spice. wyrtruma, _sm._ root. w[=y]s[.c]an, _wv._ wish. Y. Yfel, _aj._ evil, bad. yfel, _sn._ evil. ymbe, _prp. w. acc._ around; _of time_, about, at. ymb-·scr[=y]dan, _wv._ clothe, array. ymb-·[=u]tan, _av._ round about. [=y]terra, _aj. comp._ outer; _superl._ [=y]temest, outermost, last [[=u]t]. * * * * * Notes [1] Where no key-word is given for a long vowel, it must be pronounced exactly like the corresponding short one, only lengthened. [2] Both vowels. [3] Wherever the acc. is not given separately, it is the same as the nom. [4] So also _n[=a]h_ = _ne_ (not) _[=a]h_. 
9106	----	THE ELSON READERS BOOK FIVE WILLIAM H. ELSON AND CHRISTINE M. KECK PREFACE This book is based on the belief that an efficient reader for the fifth grade must score high when tested on five fundamental features: quality of literature; variety of literature; organization of literature; quantity of literature; and definite helps sufficient to make the text a genuine tool for classroom use. Quality Literature: First among these features is the essential that the foundation of the book must be the acknowledged masterpieces of American and British authors. American boys and girls may be depended upon to read current magazines and newspapers, but if they are ever to have their taste and judgment of literary values enriched by familiarity with the classics of our literature, the schools must provide the opportunity. This ideal does not mean the exclusion of well established present-day writers, but it does mean that the core of the school reader should be the rich literary heritage that has won recognition for its enduring value. Moreover, these masterpieces must come to the pupil in complete units, not in mere excerpts or garbled "cross-sections"; for the pupil in his school life should gain some real literary possessions. A study of the contents of The Elson Readers, Book Five, will show how consistently its authors have based the book on this sound test of quality. The works of the acknowledged "makers" of our literature have been abundantly drawn upon to furnish a foundation of great stories and poems, gripping in interest and well within the powers of child-appreciation in this grade. Variety of Literature: Variety is fundamental to a well-rounded course of reading. If the school reader is to provide for all the purposes that a collection of literature for this grade should serve, it must contain material covering at least the following types: (1) literature representing both British and American authors; (2) some of the best modern poetry and prose as well as the literature of the past; (3) important race stories--great epics--and world-stories of adventure; (4) patriotic literature, rich in ideals of home and country, loyalty and service, thrift, cooperation, and citizenship--ideals of which American children gained, during the World War, a new conception that the school reader should perpetuate; (5) literature suited to festival occasions, particularly those celebrated in the schools: Armistice Day, Thanksgiving Day, Christmas, Arbor Day and Bird Day, anniversaries of the birthdays of Lincoln and Washington, as well as of Longfellow and other great American authors; (6) literature of the seasons, Nature, and out-of-door life; (7) literature of humor that will enliven the reading and cultivate the power to discriminate between wholesome humor--an essential part of life--and crude humor, so prevalent in the pupil's outside reading; (8) adventure stories both imaginative and real; (9) literature suited to dramatization, providing real project material. This book offers a well-rounded course of reading covering all the types mentioned above. Especially by means of groups of stories and poems that portray love of home and its festivals, love of our free country and its flag, and unselfish service to others, this book makes a stirring appeal to good citizenship. Moreover, it will be noted that wholesome ethical ideals pervade the literature throughout. Organization of Literature: The literature of a school reader, if it is to do effective work, must be purposefully organized. Sound organization groups into related units the various selections that center about a common theme. This arrangement enables the pupil to see the larger dominant ideas of the book as a whole, instead of looking upon it as a confused scrapbook of miscellaneous selections. Such arrangement also fosters literary comparison by bringing together selections having a common theme or authorship. This book has been so organized as to fulfill these purposes. There are three main Parts, each distinguished by unity of theme or authorship. Part I, leading from a wholesome appreciation of Nature, particularly in its American setting, centers mainly about the important themes of patriotism, service, and good citizenship; Part II introduces some of the great tales that typify our love of stirring deeds; Part III presents some of our greatest American authors at sufficient length to make them stand out to the pupil. Through these grouped selections, together with the accompanying biographies, pupils may come to be familiar with and love some of the great company of writers that have made the name of America known in the world of literature. Attention is called to three special features that keep the dominant theme of each Part clearly in the foreground: (1) "A Forward Look" and "A Backward Look" for each main division and important subdivisions emphasize the larger theme, and show how each selection contributes to the group-idea (see pages 19, 56, etc.); (2) the Notes and Questions frequently call the pupil's attention to the relation the selection bears to the main thought (see pages 39, 75, etc.); (3) the three main divisions, and the subordinate groups within each main unit, are made to stand out clearly by illustrations that typify the theme (see pages 18, 21, etc.) and by topical headings that enable the pupil to visualize the group-units. By these three means the organization of the book is emphasized, and fundamental ideals are kept dominant. Quality of Literature: Obviously, a book that is to supply the pupil with a year's course in literature must be a generous volume. Variety is impossible without quantity, especially where literary wholes rather than mere fragmentary excerpts are offered. Particularly is this true when complete units are included not only for intensive study, but also for extensive reading--longer units, of the so-called "paper classics" type, to be read mainly for the story-element. In bulk such units should be as large as the pupil can control readily in rapid silent reading, a kind of reading that increases the power to enjoy with intelligence a magazine or a book. The Elson Readers, Book Five, is a generous volume in provision for these needs. Its inclusiveness makes possible a proper balance between prose and poetry, between long and short selections, and between material for intensive and extensive reading. Definite Helps: If the pupil is to gain the full benefit from his reading, certain definite helps must be provided. An efficient reader must score a high test not only on the fundamentals of quality, variety, organization and quantity of literature, but also on its fitness as a tool for classroom use. The effectiveness of this Reader as such a tool may be indicated by the following distinguishing features: (1) A distinctive introduction, "The Crystal Glass" (see page 13), gives the pupil an illuminating interpretation of the organization and literary content of the volume. (2) Definite suggestions for developing speed and concentration in silent reading. (See pages 21, 30, 34, 163, etc.) (3) A comprehensive Glossary (pages 399-418) contains the words and phrases that offer valuable vocabulary training, either of pronunciation or meaning. The teacher is free to use the Glossary according to the needs of her particular class, but suggestive type words and phrases are listed under Notes and Questions. (4) A complete program of study, "How to Gain the Full Benefit from Your Reading" (pages 28, 29), gives a concise explanation of the various helps found in the book. (5) The helps to study are more than mere notes; they aid in making significant the larger purposes of the literature. These "Notes and Questions" include: (a) Biographies of the authors, that supply data for interpreting the stories and poems; particularly helpful are those of Part III; (b) Historical settings, wherever they are necessary to the intelligent understanding of the selection (see pages 94, 105, etc.); (c) Questions and suggestions that present clearly the main idea, stimulate original discussion and comparison, and bring out modern parallels to the situations found in the selections; (d) Words of everyday use frequently mispronounced, listed, for study under "Discussion" (see page 29, etc.); (e) Phrases that offer idiomatic difficulty; for convenience in locating these phrases the page and line numbers are indicated; (f) Projects, individual and social. CONTENTS PREFACE SUGGESTIONS FOR AN ORDER OF READING THE CRYSTAL GLASS PART I NATURE--HUMOR--HOME AND COUNTRY THE WORLD OF NATURE A Forward Look ANIMALS Turk, The Faithful Dog Samuel White Baker Our Uninvited Guest Ernest Harold Baynes Hunting The American Buffalo Theodore Roosevelt BIRDS AND THEIR SONGS The Birds And I Liberty H. Bailey The Brown Thrush Lucy Larcom Sing On, Blithe Bird William Motherwell FLOWERS The Violet And The Bee John B. Tabb Four-Leaf Clovers Ella Higginson Jack In The Pulpit Clara Smith TIMES AND SEASONS September Helen Hunt Jackson October's Bright Blue Weather Helen Hunt Jackson November Alice Cary Today Thomas Carlyle The Night Has A Thousand Eyes Francis Bourdillon A Backward Look STORIES IN LIGHTER VEIN A Forward Look Adventures of Munchausen R. E. Raspe The Blind Men and the Elephant John G. Saxe Darius Green John T. Trowbridge Birthday Greetings Lewis Carroll The Wind and The Moon George Macdonald A Backward Look HOME AND COUNTRY A Forward Look HOME AND ITS FESTIVALS Home, Sweet Home John Howard Payne The Grapevine Swing Samuel Minturn Peck Lullaby of an Infant Chief Sir Walter Scott The First Thanksgiving Day Margaret Junkin Preston A Visit from St. Nicholas Clement C. Moore OUR COUNTRY AND ITS FLAG The Land of Liberty (Author Unknown) The Flag of Our Country Charles Sumner The Name of Old Glory James Whitcomb Riley The Star-Spangled Banner Francis Scott Key The Boyhood of Lincoln Elbridge S. Brooks Washington with Braddock Elbridge S. Brooks SERVICE Somebody's Mother (Author Unknown) The Leak in the Dike Phoebe Cary Casablanca Felicia Hemans Tubal Cain Charles Mackay The Inchcape Rock Robert Southey My Boyhood on the Prairie Hamlin Garland Woodman, Spare That Tree George P. Morris The American Boy Theodore Roosevelt A Backward Look PART II STORIES OF ADVENTURE A Forward Look STORIES FROM THE ARABIAN NIGHTS Aladdin, or The Wonderful Lamp Ali Baba and the Open Sesame Sindbad The Sailor Robin Hood Joseph Walker McSpadden Gulliver's Travels Jonathan Swift Robinson Crusoe Daniel Defoe A Backward Look PART III GREAT AMERICAN AUTHORS A Forward Look BENJAMIN FRANKLIN Biography The Whistle An Ax to Grind WILLIAM GULLEN BRYANT Biography The Yellow Violet The Gladness of Nature JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER Biography The Huskers The Corn-Song WASHINGTON IRVING Biography Capturing the Wild Horse The Adventure of the Mason HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW Biography The Arrow and the Song The Children's Hour The Song of Hiawatha NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE Biography The Paradise of Children The Golden Touch A Backward Look SUGGESTIONS FOR AN ORDER OF READING In The Elson Readers selections are grouped according to theme or authorship. Such an arrangement enables the pupil to see the dominant ideas of the book as a whole. This purpose is further aided by A Forward Look, or introduction, and A Backward Look, or review, for each main group. The book, therefore, emphasizes certain fundamental ideals, making them stand out clearly in the mind of the pupil. This result can best be accomplished by reading all the selections of a group in the order given, before taking up those of a different group. The order of the groups, however, may be varied to suit school conditions or preferences. It goes without saying that selections particularly suited to the celebration of special days will be read in connection with such festival occasions. For example, "The First Thanksgiving Day," page 92, will be read immediately before the Thanksgiving holiday, even if the class at that particular time is in the midst of some other main part of the Reader. Before assigning a selection out of order, however, the teacher should scrutinize the notes and questions, to make certain that no references are made within these notes to a discussion in A Forward Look or to other selections in the group that pupils have not yet read. In case such references are found the teacher may well conduct a brief class discussion to make these questions significant to the pupils. It is the belief of the authors that the longer selections, such as those found in Part II, should be read silently and reported on in class. In this way the monotony incident to the reading of such selections aloud in class will be avoided. However, the class will wish to read aloud certain passages from these longer units because of their beauty, their dramatic quality, or the forceful way in which the author has expressed his thoughts. Class readings are frequently suggested for this purpose. In this way reading aloud is given purposefulness. THE CRYSTAL GLASS Once upon a time, as the fairy tale has it, there was a mighty magician named Merlin. He was the teacher of the young Prince Arthur, who was one day to become the British King. Merlin was old and wise, and he had the power of prophecy. One of his most wonderful possessions was a magic glass, a globe of crystal, into which one might gaze and see distant places as if they were near at hand, and see the events of past and future as if they were happening right before his eyes. No one knows now the whereabouts of this wonder-working crystal, or what was its appearance. Very likely it seemed ordinary enough, though a glass of curious shape. Only those who knew how to use it could learn its secrets; for all others it had no power. But the magic that once lay in it has been given to certain books, which, like Merlin's globe, are filled with mysterious power. Such a book you now hold in your hands. If you do not understand how to use it, it will tell you nothing. But if you have this understanding, you have only to look within these pages, and past and present and future will be unfolded to your gaze. Here is what you will find if you use this book as a Merlin's glass wherein to see the wonders which lie concealed within it. First of all, you will see the world of animals and birds and flowers and times and seasons--the world of Nature. There is a story about a little girl who wanted to see the King to ask of him a favor. But no one could see him unless he was accompanied by some friends, for the King would not trust anyone unless he had proved himself friendly so that people loved to be with him. Now this little girl was very poor, and she had no friends. She wandered alone in the forest, and cried because she had no friends. Just at this time she came into the knowledge of a wonderful secret by which she could understand the language of the birds and of all the shy animals of the forest, and as soon as she could understand them and talk with them, they loved her, and the forest was no longer a lonely place but was filled with friends. Some of these friends went with her to the King's palace, and she now had no difficulty. She knew the language of those who lived in the forest, and she was no longer poor and lonely. So in the pages of this book you will learn of the lives of faithful dogs and huge buffaloes, and the brown thrush will sing for you a song full of meaning. The modest violet, the jack-in-the-pulpit, even the four-leaf clovers will tell you stories about the forest and the field, so that wherever you walk you will be surrounded by your friends. The magic glass of Merlin will unseal for you this world of Nature. Merlin's globe also enables you to look into the past and live in it as if it were the present. You will take part in the first Thanksgiving Day. You will learn why the flag of our country is called Old Glory. You will look in upon the boy Lincoln, tired after his hard day's work on the farm, reading by the open fire in his father's cabin. You will see the young Washington bravely helping General Braddock to save his soldiers. So the magic glass of reading will make the early history of our country real to you, and the past will no longer be the past but a part of your present life. If you wish to live for a time in the fairy realm, where there are buried treasure chests or magic lamps and rings, or if you would like to make a journey to far-off lands where are many wonders, you have only to look in this magic glass, and in a twinkling you are whisked away. You find yourself in a strange country where men and women wear curious, flowing garments of many colors, where trees and animals are unfamiliar, and where queer buildings with many towers attract your delighted eyes. The narrow streets are filled with strange life. You see a boy with eyes that seem to be looking on strange things. He is talking with an evil-looking man who bends over him, pointing down the street and out into the open country at the other end of the town. And presently the boy goes with the stranger, and you follow, for it is Aladdin and the magician, and you wish to know the adventure that is to come. After this, Ali Baba and the cave of buried treasure and the forty thieves and Morgiana, the shrewd slave-girl, and the jars of oil will all appear in the magic glass, and another series of marvelous adventures will be disclosed to you. And then again, you come to a rich man's home, and before it, gazing enviously at it, is a poor tramp. Go up the steps with him and look upon the feast within the house. There is a queer table filled with food of strange form. And there is the rich man, Sindbad the Sailor, and you may listen if you will to his stories of travel to marvelous lands. Thus you travel to the mysterious East, without effort. You take part in wonderful adventures, without danger. Your magic glass is the window through which a world of fairy magic gleams vividly. At another time you look, and the glass shows an English scene. It is the greenwood, somewhat out from London. Never were trees so green, or flowers so fresh and gay, or birds so filled with joy. You listen, and a gay fellow sings, "Under the greenwood tree Who loves to lie with me, And tune his merry note Unto the sweet bird's throat, "Come hither! come hither! come hither! Here shall he see No enemy But winter and rough weather." Presently you hear the sound of a horn deep in the forest, to be followed soon by the coming of a merry crowd. Here is the prince of outlaws, clad in Lincoln green and followed by a score of lusty fellows, and at once there are songs, wrestling matches, and merry jests, till your heart is filled with joy. Little John, and the Sheriff of Nottingham, and Friar Tuck, and Robin Hood, and last of all, the King himself--these are the actors in the play that you see through your magic glass. And so it goes through all these stories of adventure--they become a part of your experience, and you live more lives than one. Last of all, your magic glass, which is this book, and which is always ready to do you service when you call upon it, will introduce you to a group of great Americans who long ago learned these secrets and wrote down what they themselves had seen. A patriot who helped to make our America will tell you several stories of his childhood. A Nature-loving poet will tell you about flowers and birds. Another poet will furnish stories about merry times on the farm. A third will tell you legends of the Indians. Once more the world of Nature, the world of adventure, and the world of history and legend will open before you, but this time you will learn something also of the men who have lived in our America and have written about it in such way as to show us that, after all, we need no marvelous Eastern country or desert islands--there is adventure enough and to spare all about us, if we have eyes to see. And here is the greatest charm of all. It is good to know about this magic glass of reading, so that we shall never want for the joy it can bring. But while we use it, we shall find our sight made pure and strong, so that when we no longer have the crystal globe, we can walk in field and wood, and along our streets, and see, wondering, the beauty of the world in which we live. PART I NATURE--HUMOR--HOME AND COUNTRY Better--a thousand times better--than all the material wealth the world can give is the love for the best books. THE WORLD OF NATURE A FORWARD LOOK If we have eyes to see, the world of Nature is a fairyland. Further on in this book you will read how Aladdin--a boy who was led by a magician to a cave in which were all kinds of wonderful objects--came upon a garden underground wherein grew trees filled with extraordinary fruit. "Each tree bore fruit of a different color," we are told: "The white were pearls; the sparkling were diamonds; the deep red were rubies; the green, emeralds; the blue, turquoises." Now with this compare a story about a great American author, Ralph Waldo Emerson. Emerson loved all the forms of Nature. He wrote of the bee, of the wild flowers, of the storm, of the snowbird, and of running waters. And in talking of the magic of a river he reminds us of Aladdin's fairy fruits: "I see thy brimming, eddying stream And thy enchantment, For thou changest every rock in thy bed Into a gem. All is opal and agate, And at will thou pavest with diamonds." Now we may suppose that Aladdin often waded through the brook and noticed the shining pebbles and heard the tinkling music of the water as it rippled over stones in the stream. He noticed the pebbles, but did not look at them. He heard the murmur of the waters, but he did not listen. But when the magician uttered his magic words, and the earth opened, and Aladdin saw a little ladder leading down into a deep cave, and in that cave found curious trees bearing curious fruits, he was so surprised that he looked more closely, and all that he saw was full of wonder. Now the poet is like the magician. His words open the door of enchantment for us if we care to enter. For the poets have been lovers of Nature, and they help us to see the beauty that lies about us. One of them calls the stars "the forget-me-nots of the angels." Another writes of the song of the brook as it goes dancing and singing down into the river, until we hear the music of the waters in the melody of the poet's verse. Through such stories and poems of animals and birds and flowers and of the seasons of the year as you will find in the following pages, your magic glass of reading will open up the fairyland of Nature. For magic wonders are not limited to the fairylands that we read about in the Arabian Nights or in the tales of Cinderella or of the Sleeping Beauty. There is the enchantment which put the princess and all her household to sleep for a hundred years until the prince came to release them. There is also the enchantment of the frost, that stills all the life of brook and lake and river, and holds the outdoor world in deep sleep until the breath of spring comes and releases the prisoners. There is the enchantment which Aladdin controlled by his lamp and his ring, so that at his bidding giant figures appeared to do his will; there is also the enchantment of the snow, of the fire, of the lightning, of the storm; or there is the equally marvelous enchantment by which the rose unfolds from the bud, the apple grows from the blossom, and the robin from the tiny blue egg. Only we must see and listen when the magicians lead us to the fairy world of Nature. Aladdin had passed the entrance to the magic cave a hundred times and had seen nothing. So men pass the fields and see nothing but the corn and the wheat and the cotton, and in the autumn they see the harvesters gathering the crops of the fields. But the poet looks on these same fields and gathers another crop from them, and this he puts into a song, and this song opens for us the world of Nature. ANIMALS TURK, THE FAITHFUL Samuel White Baker TURK'S FAILURE When I was a boy, my grandfather frequently told a story concerning a dog which he knew, as an example of true fidelity. This animal was a mastiff that belonged to a friend, Mr. Prideaux, to whom it was a constant companion. Whenever Mr. Prideaux went out for a walk, Turk was sure to be near his heels. Street dogs would bark and snarl at the giant as his massive form attracted their attention, but Turk seldom noticed them. At night he slept outside his master's door, and no sentry could be more alert upon his watch than the faithful dog. One day Mr. Prideaux had a dinner party. The dog Turk was present, and stretched his huge form upon the hearthrug. It was a cold night in winter, and Mr. Prideaux's friends after dinner began to discuss the subject of dogs. Almost every person had an anecdote to relate, and my own grandfather, being present, had no doubt added his mite to the collection, when Turk suddenly awoke from a sound sleep, and having stretched himself, walked up to his master's side and rested his large head upon the table. "Ha, ha, Turk!" exclaimed Mr. Prideaux, "you must have heard our arguments about the dogs, so you have put in an appearance." "And a magnificent animal he is!" remarked my grandfather; "but although a mastiff is the largest of dogs, I do not think it is as sensible as many others." "As a rule you are right," replied his master, "because they are generally chained up as watch-dogs, and have not the intimate association with human beings which is so great an advantage to house-dogs; but Turk has been my constant companion from the first month of his life, and his intelligence is very remarkable. He understands most things that I say, if they are connected with himself; he will often lie upon the rug with his large eyes fixed upon me, and he will frequently become aware that I wish to go out; at such times he will fetch my hat, cane, or gloves, whichever may be at hand, and wait for me at the front door. He will take a letter to several houses of my acquaintance, and wait for a reply; and he can perform a variety of actions that would imply a share of reason seldom possessed by other dogs." A smile upon several faces was at once noticed by Mr. Prideaux, who immediately took a guinea from his pocket, and said to his dog, "Here, Turk! They won't believe in you! Take this guinea to No.--Street, to Mr.--, and bring me a receipt." The dog wagged his huge tail with pleasure, and the guinea having been placed in his mouth, he hastened toward the door; this being opened, he was admitted through the front entrance to the street. It was a miserable night. The wind was blowing the sleet and rain against the windows, and the gutters were running with muddy water; nevertheless, Turk had started upon his mission in the howling gale, while the front door was once more closed against the blast. The party were comfortably seated around the fire, much interested in the success or failure of the dog's adventure. "How long will it be before we may expect Turk's return?" inquired a guest. "The house to which I have sent him is about a mile and a half distant; therefore, if there is no delay when he barks for admission at the door, and my friend is not absent from home, he should return in about three-quarters of an hour with a receipt. If, on the other hand, he cannot gain admission, he may wait for any length of time," replied his master. Some among the company supported the dog's chances of success, while others were against him. The evening wore away; the allotted time was exceeded, and a whole hour had passed, but no dog had returned. Nevertheless, his master was still hopeful. "I must tell you," said Mr. Prideaux, "that Turk frequently carries notes for me, and as he knows the house well, he certainly will not make a mistake; perhaps my friend may be dining out, in which case, Turk will probably wait for a longer time." Two hours passed; the storm was raging. Mr. Prideaux himself went to the front door, which flew open before a fierce gust the instant that the lock was turned. The gutters were clogged with masses of half-melted snow. "Poor Turk!" muttered his master, "this is indeed a wretched night for you. Perhaps they have kept you in the warm kitchen, and will not allow you to return in such fearful weather." When Mr. Prideaux returned to his guests, he could not conceal his disappointment. "Ha!" exclaimed one, "with a guinea in his mouth, he has probably gone into some house of entertainment where dogs are supplied with dinner and a warm bed, instead of shivering in a winter's gale!" Jokes were made at the absent dog's expense, but his master was anxious and annoyed. Poor Turk's reputation had suffered severely. It was long past midnight; the guests had departed, the storm was raging, and violent gusts occasionally shook the house. Mr. Prideaux was alone in his study, and he poked the fire until it blazed and roared up the chimney. "What can have become of that dog?" exclaimed his master to himself, now really anxious; "I hope they kept him; most likely they would not send him back upon such a dreadful night." Mr. Prideaux's study was close to the front door, and his attention was suddenly directed to a violent shaking and scratching. In an instant he ran into the hall and unlocked the entrance door. A mass of filth and mud entered. This was Turk! The dog was shivering with wet and cold. His usually clean coat was thick with mire, as though he had been dragged through deep mud. He wagged his tail when he heard his master's voice, but appeared dejected and ill. The dog was taken downstairs, and immediately placed in a large tub of hot water, in which he was accustomed to be bathed. It was now discovered that in addition to mud and dirt, which almost concealed his coat, he was besmeared with blood! Mr. Prideaux sponged his favorite with warm water, and, to his surprise, he saw wounds of a serious nature; the dog's throat was badly torn, his back and breast were deeply bitten, and there could be no doubt that he had been worried by a pack of dogs. He was now washed clean, and was being rubbed dry with a thick towel while he stood upon a blanket before the fire. "Why, Turk, old boy, what has been the matter? Tell us all about it, poor old man!" exclaimed his master. The dog was now thoroughly warmed and he panted with the heat of the kitchen fire; he opened his mouth, and the guinea which he had received in trust dropped on the kitchen floor! "There is some mystery in this," said Mr. Prideaux, "which I will try to discover tomorrow. He has been set upon by strange dogs, and rather than lose the guinea, he has allowed himself to be half killed without once opening his mouth in self-defense! Poor Turk!" continued his master, "you must have lost your way old man, in the darkness and storm; most likely confused after the unequal fight. What an example you have given us in being faithful to a trust!" Turk was wonderfully better after his warm bath. He lapped up a large bowl of good thick soup mixed with bread, and in half an hour was comfortably asleep upon his thick rug by his master's bedroom door. THE MYSTERY EXPLAINED Upon the following morning the storm had cleared away, and a bright sky had succeeded to the gloom of the preceding night. Immediately after breakfast Mr. Prideaux, accompanied by his dog (which was, although rather stiff, not much the worse for the rough treatment he had received), started for a walk toward the house to which he had directed Turk upon the previous evening. He was anxious to discover whether his friend had been absent, as he believed that the dog might have been waiting for admittance, and had been perhaps attacked by some dogs in the neighborhood. The master and Turk had walked for nearly a mile, and had just turned the corner of a street, when, as they passed a butcher's shop, a large brindled mastiff rushed from the shop-door and flew at Turk. "Call your dog off!" shouted Mr. Prideaux to the butcher, who watched the attack with impudent satisfaction. "Call him off, or my dog will kill him!" continued Mr. Prideaux. The usually docile Turk had rushed to meet his assailant with a fury that was extraordinary. With a growl like that of a lion he quickly seized his foe by the throat, and in a fierce struggle of only a few seconds he threw the brindled dog upon his back. It was in vain that Mr. Prideaux tried to call him off; he never for an instant relaxed his hold, but with the strength of a wild beast of prey Turk shook the head of the butcher's dog to the right and left. The butcher attempted to interfere and lashed him with a huge whip. "Stand clear! fair play! Don't you strike my dog!" shouted Mr. Prideaux. "Your dog was the first to attack!" Mr. Prideaux seized Turk by his collar, while the butcher was endeavoring to release his dog from the deadly grip. At length Mr. Prideaux's voice and action appeared for a moment to create a calm, and he held back his dog. Turk's flanks were heaving with the intense exertion and excitement of the fight, and he strained to escape from his master's hold to attack once more his enemy. At length, by kind words and the caress of the well-known hand, his fury was calmed down. "Well, that's the most curious adventure I've ever had with a dog!" exclaimed the butcher who was now completely crestfallen. "Why, that's the very dog! That's the very dog that came by my shop late last night in the howling storm, and my dog Tiger went at him and tousled him up completely. I never saw such a cowardly cur; he wouldn't show any fight, although he was pretty near as big as a donkey; and there my dog Tiger nearly ate half of him, and dragged the other half about the gutter, till he looked more like an old door-mat than dog; and I thought he must have killed him; and here he comes out as fresh as paint today." "What do you say?" asked Mr. Prideaux. "Was it your dog that worried my poor dog last night when he was upon a message of trust? My friend, let me inform you of the fact that my dog had a guinea in his mouth to carry to my friend, and rather than drop it, he allowed himself to be half killed by your savage Tiger. Today he has proved his courage, and your dog has discovered his mistake. This is the guinea that he dropped from his mouth when he returned to me after midnight, beaten and distressed!" said Mr. Prideaux, much excited. "Here, Turk, old boy, take the guinea again, and come along with me! You have had your revenge, and have given us all a lesson." His master gave him the guinea in his mouth, and they continued their walk. It appeared, upon Mr. Prideaux's arrival at his friend's house, that Turk had never been there; probably after his defeat he had become so confused that he lost his way in the heavy storm, and had at length regained the road home some time after midnight, in the condition already described. How to Gain the Full Benefit from Your Reading The reading of this story, besides giving you pleasure, has no doubt given you a new idea of the faithfulness often shown by dogs. But if you are to get the full benefit from any story or poem in this Reader, you will need to pause long enough to notice certain things that will give you a better understanding of it. The Crystal Glass, A Forward Look, and A Backward Look. First, you should read and discuss in class "The Crystal Glass" and study the Table of Contents, to gain a general idea of the book as a whole. Next, you should notice that each story and poem is a part of some special group that treats of some one big idea--such as Nature, Home and Country, etc. Each selection will have a fuller meaning for you if you understand how it helps to bring out the big idea of this group. Before reading the stories in any group you should read and discuss in class the "Forward Look" (see page 19) that precedes them. And after you have read all the selections in a group, you will enjoy a pleasant class period discussing the "Backward Look"--taking stock, as it were, of the joy and benefit gained from your reading. In addition, each selection is followed by Notes and Questions that contain some or all of the following features: Biography. First, it is always desirable to learn something about the author. When you read, for example, that Samuel White Baker gave the best years of his life to a study of animals, you feel that his story of the dog's faithfulness is well worth reading. Discussion. Next, if you will read the story so carefully that you can answer the questions given under the topic Discussion, you will probably find it easier to understand certain incidents. For example, you hear much about the word "service" in the different wars in which American soldiers have served their country so nobly. But perhaps when you think of the answer to the third question you will see more clearly than before that "service" and "faithfulness" are qualities that are shown not only on the battlefield but in humble walks of life--sometimes even by animals. Glossary. One of the benefits that should result from reading is the learning of new words. At the end of the Discussion you will find a list of words, the meaning of which you are to look up in the Glossary, and a second list that you should find out how to pronounce. Many of these words you may feel certain you know how to pronounce correctly. But perhaps you have been mispronouncing some of them. Look up in the glossary the words listed under question 9, and you may find that you have been mispronouncing calm, hearth, or extraordinary. When you are looking up words in the pronunciation lists, be sure that you understand the meaning, also. Besides the individual words that you do not understand, you will sometimes read a phrase, or group of words, used in some special sense. The most striking are listed under the topic Phrases for Study. Look them up in the Glossary, for you will often find the hardest passage of the reading lesson made easy by the explanation of a single phrase. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biography. Samuel White Baker (1821-1893) was an English engineer and author. At the age of twenty-four he went to Ceylon, where he soon became known as an explorer and hunter of big game. With his wife he later explored the region of the Nile River. He is the author of True Tales for My Grandsons, from which "Turk, the Faithful Dog" is taken. Discussion. 1. How does this story prove the intelligence of Turk? 2. How does it prove his fidelity? 3. Here are two qualities that every man should desire to possess; do you think many men, set upon by robbers, would act as bravely and as faithfully as Turk? Give reasons for your answer. 4. What do you know of the author? 5. Class readings: The conversation between Mr. Prideaux and the butcher, (2 pupils). 6. Outline for testing silent reading. Tell the story in your own words, using these topics: (a) Turk's adventure; (b) how the mystery was explained. 7. You will enjoy reading "Cap, the Red Cross Dog" (in Stories for Children, Faulkner). 8. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: alert; mission; dejected; besmeared; brindled; docile; relaxed; crestfallen. 9. Pronounce: hearthrug; anecdote; guinea; toward; extraordinary; calm. Phrases for Study: intimate association, of a serious nature, imply a share of reason, received in trust, supported the dog's chances, succeeded to the gloom. OUR UNINVITED GUEST Ernest Harold Baynes "Jimmy," our young black bear, was known to every child in the neighborhood. If a children's vote had been taken for the most popular animal in the county, I believe that Jimmy would have been unanimously elected. If the grown people had held the election, however, it is certain that there would have been some votes against him. For example, when Mr. W--, one of our neighbors, came home very late one night, got into bed in the dark, and unwittingly kicked a bear cub that had climbed in at a window earlier in the evening, of course he had his toes nipped. That man would never have voted for Jimmy. Neither would the farmer's wife he met one evening coming from the barn with a pail of new milk. The weather was warm, Jimmy was thirsty, and he was particularly fond of new milk. So he stood on his hind legs, threw his arms around the pail, and sucked up half the contents before the good woman had recovered from her astonishment. But with the children he was a great favorite. He was one of them, and they understood him. Like them he was full of fun and mischief, and he would play as long as anyone cared to play with him. One Christmas we gave a children's party, and perhaps a score of girls and boys came to spend the evening. As it was not possible to make Jimmy understand about the party, he went to bed early, as usual, and was asleep in his own den under the porch long before the first guests arrived. He was not forgotten by his little friends, however, and "Where's Jimmy?" was the first question asked by almost every child as he came in. But there was so much to chatter about, and there were so many games to play, that absent comrades--even Jimmy--were soon out of mind. At last supper was ready, and all the children trooped into the dining-room and took their places at the long table. For a little while everyone was so busy that there was little to be heard except the clatter of forks and spoons and plates. I stood at the end of the room, enjoying the fun. For the moment, my eyes were on a small boy who seemed to be enjoying himself even more than the rest. He was making more noise than anyone else, and at the same time performing remarkable sleight-of-mouth tricks with a large piece of cake and a plate of ice cream. Suddenly, I saw his face change. His laugh was cut in two, his smile faded, the remains of the cake fell to his plate, and a spoonful of ice cream, on its way to his open mouth, remained suspended in the air. He was facing a window, and as I followed his gaze, I saw a hairy black face, with a tawny muzzle and a pair of small shining black eyes, looking eagerly into the room. It was the bear cub, whose slumbers had been disturbed by the noise, and who had come to see what it was all about. In an instant the room was in an uproar. All the children left the table at once, and crowded around the window yelling--"Jimmy!" "It's Jimmy!" "Let him in!" "Don't you do it!" "Keep him out!" "Open the window!" "Give him some cake!" One little boy, with a piece of cake in his hand, raised the window just a little. That was enough for Jimmy; he thrust his strong muzzle under the sash, raised it with one jerk of his head, and came tumbling into the room. How those children yelled and scattered! While they all thought it good fun to have the cub at the party, none of them knew just what he would do, and some; especially among the younger ones, were decidedly nervous. A small girl hid behind the window curtains, two little boys scurried upstairs and peeped through the banisters, and another, by means of a chair, scrambled to the top of a sideboard. But Jimmy had his own ideas about a party. His first interest was in the supper table. Standing up on his hind legs, he placed his forepaws on the cloth. Just in front of him was a plate with some apple jelly on it. One sweep of his long tongue and the plate was almost as clean as if it had been washed. A dish of blancmange was the next to be gobbled up, and then a boy rather bolder than the rest made an attempt to save the cake. He seized the intruder by the skin of his neck, but except for a loud, grumbling protest, the bear paid no attention to him. He walked right along, pulling the boy with him, and one slice of cake after another disappeared down the black throat. The little girl behind the curtains, seeing that Jimmy did not intend to hurt anyone, came from her hiding place to try to help the boy who was holding him. Now this little girl had been eating strawberry jam, and as little girls sometimes do, had left some of it on her lips. The moment she touched him, Jimmy turned, and seeing and smelling the jam, he caught the child in his short forearms, and in spite of her screams, licked her face all over before letting her go. Then he reached for the sugar basin, lifted it from the table with his paws, and sat down on his haunches to devour the contents. By this time the children who had been nervous were quite at their ease again, and gathered round to see him eat the sugar. In a few moments he had satisfied his hunger, and was ready to play. First of all he acted as if he had lost his wits; or as if he wanted to "show off," which is about the same thing. He rolled over on his back, turned somersaults, and batted the chairs and the table legs with his paws. The children got down on the floor to romp with him, and together they had a merry time. When they were all upon their feet again, Jimmy arose and stood perfectly straight on his hind legs. Then he picked out a girl about his own height and took a step toward her, raising his paws as though inviting her to a boxing match. The girl accepted the challenge, and as she was strong, she held her own very well for a time. But as Jimmy warmed up to his work, he became very rough and swung his heavy paws as hard as he could. At last he gave his playmate a stinging slap on the side of her face, and she decided not to play any more. And as I thought that Jimmy had had about enough fun for one evening, I opened the door, and he galloped off to his den under the porch. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biography. Ernest Harold Baynes (1868-1925), the naturalist-author, lived in Meriden, New Hampshire. He was the author of the interesting book Wild Bird Guests, and of "Our Animal Allies" (in Harper's Magazine, January, 1921). During the World War I Mr. Baynes was in France, studying the part that birds and animals played in helping to win the war. Wherever he went he organized bird clubs, in order to protect our wild birds. Discussion. 1. Why was Jimmy not popular with the farmer's wife? 2. Why do you think the children liked the bear? 3. Do you think they would have enjoyed the party more, or less, if there had been no "uninvited guest"? 4. Class readings: The description of the supper, page 31, line 7, to page 32, line 26. 5. Outline for testing silent reading. Tell the story of the "uninvited guest," using these topics: (a) the bear and how he was liked; (b) the bear's actions at the children's party; (c) the boxing match. 6. You will find interesting stories in Bear Stories Retold from St. Nicholas, Carter, and in The Biography of a Grizzly, Seton. 7. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: unanimously; unwittingly; sleight-of-mouth; tawny; muzzle; intruder. Pronounce: blancmange; haunches. HUNTING THE AMERICAN BUFFALO THEODORE ROOSEVELT In the fall of 1889 I heard that a very few bison were still left around the head of Wisdom River. Thither I went and hunted faithfully; there was plenty of game of other kinds, but of bison not a trace did we see. Nevertheless, a few days later that same year I came across these great wild cattle at a time when I had no idea of seeing them. It was, as nearly as we could tell, in Idaho, just south of the Montana boundary line, and some twenty-five miles west of the line of Wyoming. We were camped high among the mountains, with a small pack train. On the day in question we had gone out to find moose, but had seen no sign of them, and had then begun to climb over the higher peaks with an idea of getting sheep. The old hunter who was with me was, very fortunately, suffering from rheumatism, and he therefore carried a long staff instead of his rifle; I say fortunately, for if he had carried his rifle, it would have been impossible to stop his firing at such game as bison, nor would he have spared the cows and calves. About the middle of the afternoon we crossed a low, rocky ridge, and saw at our feet a basin, or round valley, of singular beauty. Its walls were formed by steep mountains. At its upper end lay a small lake, bordered on one side by a meadow of emerald green. The lake's other side marked the edge of the frowning pine forest which filled the rest of the valley. Beyond the lake the ground rose in a pass much frequented by game in bygone days, their trails lying along it in thick zigzags, each gradually fading out after a few hundred yards, and then starting again in a little different place, as game trails so often seem to do. We bent our steps toward these trails, and no sooner had we reached the first than the old hunter bent over it with a sharp exclamation of wonder. There in the dust, apparently but a few hours old, were the hoof-marks of a small band of bison. They were headed toward the lake. There had been half a dozen animals in the party; one a big bull, and two calves. We immediately turned and followed the trail. It led down to the little lake, where the beasts had spread and grazed on the tender, green blades, and had drunk their fill. The footprints then came together again, showing where the animals had gathered and walked off in single file to the forest. Evidently they had come to the pool in the early morning, and after drinking and feeding had moved into the forest to find some spot for their noontide rest. It was a very still day, and there were nearly three hours of daylight left. Without a word my silent companion, who had been scanning the whole country with hawk-eyed eagerness, took the trail, motioning me to follow. In a moment we entered the woods, breathing a sigh of relief as we did so; for while in the meadow we could never tell that the buffalo might not see us, if they happened to be lying in some place with a commanding lookout. It was not very long before we struck the day-beds, which were made on a knoll, where the forest was open, and where there was much down timber. After leaving the day-beds the animals had at first fed separately around the grassy base and sides of the knoll, and had then made off in their usual single file, going straight to a small pool in the forest. After drinking they had left this pool and traveled down toward the mouth of the basin, the trail leading along the sides of the steep hill, which were dotted by open glades. Here we moved with caution, for the sign had grown very fresh, and the animals had once more scattered and begun feeding. When the trail led across the glades, we usually skirted them so as to keep in the timber. At last, on nearing the edge of one of these glades, we saw a movement among the young trees on the other side, not fifty yards away. Peering through some thick evergreen bushes, we speedily made out three bison, a cow, a calf, and a yearling, grazing greedily on the other side of the glade. Soon another cow and calf stepped out after them. I did not wish to shoot, waiting for the appearance of the big bull which I knew was accompanying them. So for several minutes I watched the great, clumsy, shaggy beasts, as they grazed in the open glade. Mixed with the eager excitement of the hunter was a certain half-melancholy feeling as I gazed on these bison, themselves part of the last remnant of a nearly vanished race. Few, indeed, are the men who now have, or evermore shall have, the chance of seeing the mightiest of American beasts in all his wild vigor. At last, when I had begun to grow very anxious lest the others should take alarm, the bull likewise appeared on the edge of the glade, and stood with outstretched head, scratching his throat against a young tree, which shook violently. I aimed low, behind his shoulder, and pulled the trigger. At the crack of the rifle all the bison turned and raced off at headlong speed. The fringe of young pines beyond and below the glade cracked and swayed as if a whirlwind were passing, and in another moment the bison reached the top of a steep incline, thickly strewn with boulders and dead reckless speed; the timber. Down this they plunged with surefootedness was a marvel. A column of dust obscured their passage, and under its cover they disappeared in the forest; but the trail of the bull was marked by splashes of frothy blood, and we followed it at a trot. Fifty yards beyond the border of the forest we found the black body stretched motionless. He was a splendid old bull, still in his full vigor, with large, sharp horns, and heavy mane and glossy coat; and I felt the most exulting pride as I handled and examined him; for I had procured a trophy such as can fall henceforth to few hunters indeed. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biography. Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919), twenty-sixth President of the United States, was born in New York City. As a boy he was frail of body, but overcame this handicap by regular exercise and outdoor life. He was always interested in animals and birds and particularly in hunting game in the western plains and mountains. In 1884 Roosevelt bought two cattle ranches in North Dakota, where for two years he lived and entered actively into western life and spirit. Two of the books in which he has recorded his western experience: The Deer Family and The Wilderness Hunter, from the latter of which "Hunting the American Buffalo" is taken. Discussion. 1. What makes this story "exciting," or "thrilling"? 2. How does the writer let you know his feelings? 3. What proof of Roosevelt's good sportsmanship is found in the second paragraph on page 34? 4. Class reading: From page 35, line 3, to page 36, line 13. 5. Outline for testing silent reading. Tell the story briefly, using these topics: (a) the discovery; (b) the pursuit; (c) the first view; (d) the end of the story. 6. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: day-beds; glade; skirted; yearling; trophy. 7. Pronounce: bison; boundary; frequented; knoll; melancholy; remnant; incline; strewn. Phrases for Study pack train, hawk-eyed eagerness, frowning pine forest, commanding lookout, much frequented, down timber, thick zigzags, obscured their passage. BIRDS AND THEIR SONGS THE BIRDS AND I Liberty H. Bailey The springtime belongs to the birds and me. We own it. We know when the mayflowers and the buttercups bloom. We know when the first frogs peep. We watch the awakening of the woods. We are wet by the warm April showers. We go where we will, and we are companions. Every tree and brook and blade of grass is ours; and our hearts are full of song. There are boys who kill the birds, and girls who want to catch them and put them into cages, and there are others who steal their eggs. The birds are not partners with them; they are only servants. Birds, like people, sing for their friends, not for their masters. I am sure that one cannot think much of the springtime and the flowers if his heart is always set upon killing or catching something. We are happy when we are free, and so are the birds. The birds and I get acquainted all over again every spring. They have seen strange lands in the winter, and all the brooks and woods have been covered with snow. So we run and romp together, and find all the nooks and crannies which we had half-forgotten since October. The birds remember the old places. The wrens pull the sticks from the old hollow rail and seem to be wild with joy to see the place again. They must be the same wrens that were here last year, for strangers could not make so much fuss over an old rail. The bluebirds and wrens look into every crack and corner for a place in which to build, and the robins and chirping-sparrows explore every tree in the old orchard. If the birds want to live with us, we should encourage them. The first thing to do is to leave them alone. Let them be as free from danger and fear as you and I. Take the hammer off the old gun, give pussy so much to eat that she will not care to hunt for birds, and keep away the boys who steal eggs and who carry sling-shots and throw stones. Plant trees and bushes about the borders of the place, and let some of them, at least, grow into tangles; then, even in the back yard, the wary catbird may make its home. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biography. Liberty Hyde Bailey (1858-1954) has written many books on Nature and outdoor life. He was chairman of the Commission on Country Life, appointed by Roosevelt. Discussion. 1. Why does the author say that the springtime belongs to "the birds and me"? 2. When may we say the birds are our partners and when our servants? 3. What different ways of dealing with birds are spoken of? Which way does the writer prefer? 4. How may you encourage the birds to live near you? 5. What do you gain if you persuade them to do this? Find an answer to this question in the poems that follow. 6. What birds come to trees near your home? 7. How are birds helpful to men? 8. You will find interesting stories and pictures of birds in The Burgess Bird Book for Children, Burgess. 9. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: acquainted; explore; wary. 10. Pronounce: partners; again. THE BROWN THRUSH Lucy LARCOM There's a merry brown thrush sitting up in a tree-- He's singing to me! he's singing to me! And what does he say, little girl, little boy? "Oh, the world's running over with joy! Don't you hear? Don't you see? Hush! Look! In my tree I'm as happy as happy can be!" And the brown thrush keeps singing--"A nest do you see, And five eggs, hid by me in the juniper-tree? Don't meddle! don't touch! little girl, little boy, Or the world will lose some of its joy. Now I'm glad! Now I'm free! And I always shall be, If you never bring sorrow to me." So the merry brown thrush sings away in the tree, To you and to me, to you and to me; And he sings all the day, little girl, little boy-- "Oh, the world's running over with joy; But long it won't be, Don't you know, don't you see, Unless we're as good as can be?" NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biography. Lucy Larcom (1826-1893) was the daughter of a sea captain. During twenty years of teaching school, she wrote many charming poems for children. Discussion. 1. Who is supposed to be speaking in the first two lines? 2. Who asks the question in the third line? 3. Who answers the question? 4. Find the answer to the question in the first stanza. 5. Why is the little bird so happy? 6. What will make him unhappy? 7. How can you help to make the world "run over with joy"? 8. You will enjoy hearing "Songs of Our Native Birds" and "How Birds Sing", Victor records by Kellogg. SING ON, BLITHE BIRD WILLIAM MOTHERWELL I've plucked the berry from the bush, the brown nut from the tree, But heart of happy little bird ne'er broken was by me. I saw them in their curious nests, close couching, slyly peer With their wild eyes, like glittering beads, to note if harm were near; I passed them by, and blessed them all; I felt that it was good To leave unmoved the creatures small whose home was in the wood. And here, even now, above my head, a lusty rogue doth sing; He pecks his swelling breast and neck, and trims his little wing. He will not fly; he knows full well, while chirping on that spray, I would not harm him for a world, or interrupt his lay. Sing on, sing on, blithe bird! and fill my heart with summer gladness; It has been aching many a day with measures full of sadness! NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biography. William Motherwell (1797-1835), a Scotch poet and journalist, was born in Glasgow, where he lived and died. In 1830 he became editor of the Glasgow Courier. He wrote a volume of local ballads, and many of his poems were published in the magazines and newspapers. Discussion. 1. To what does the poet compare the eyes of birds? 2. Find the lines that tell why the bird is not afraid of the poet. 3. How do you think the birds know their friends? 4. What happiness does the poet get because of his kindness to the birds? 5. Read the lines that another poet who loved birds has written about his love for them: "He prayeth well who loveth well Both man and bird and beast. "He prayeth best who loveth best All things both great and small; For the dear God who loveth us, He made and loveth all." 6. You will find helpful suggestions in the illustrated Farmers' Bulletins, Bird Houses and How to Build Them, and How to Attract Birds, sent free by the Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. 7. In the Forward Look, on pages 19 and 20, you were told that the poets and wise story writers of Nature help us to see the beauty that lies in the great outdoor world. Mention instances of help that you have received from the stories and poems you have read in this group. 8. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: glittering; trims; spray; blithe; measures. Phrases for Study: close couching, lusty rogue, note if harm were near, knows full well, leave unmoved, interrupt his lay. THE VIOLET AND THE BEE John Bannister Tabb "And pray, who are you?" Said the Violet blue To the Bee, with surprise, At his wonderful size, In her eyeglass of dew. "I, madam," quoth he, "Am a publican Bee, Collecting the tax Of honey and wax. Have you nothing for me?" NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biography. Reverend John B. Tabb (1845-1909), a Southern poet, was born near Richmond, Virginia. All his life he was interested in birds, flowers, and outdoor life. When the Civil War began, he joined the Southern army, although he was a mere lad of sixteen. After the war he became a clergyman and a teacher. Discussion. 1. What did the Violet ask the Bee? 2. What surprised the Violet? 3. What is the Violet's "eyeglass of dew"? 4. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: quoth; publican; tax. FOUR-LEAF CLOVERS Ella Higginson I know a place where the sun is like gold, And the cherry blooms burst with snow; And down underneath is the loveliest nook, Where the four-leaf clovers grow. One leaf is for hope, and one is for faith, And one is for love, you know; But God put another in for luck-- If you search, you will find where they grow. But you must have hope, and you must have faith; You must love and be strong; and so, If you work, if you wait, you will find the place Where the four-leaf clovers grow. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biography. Ella Higginson (1862-1940), an American writer, lived in Bellingham, on Puget Sound, Washington. She won a prize of five hundred dollars, offered by a magazine for the best short story. Discussion. 1. To whom is the four-leaf clover supposed to bring good luck? 2. Which do you think will give greater happiness, to learn something by hard work or to gain it by chance? Why do you think so? 3. What does the poem say we must have? 4. What does the poem say we must do? 5. If we have all these things and do all these things, shall we need to hunt for the four-leaf clover to bring us good fortune? Why? 6. Commit the poem to memory. JACK IN THE PULPIT Clara Smith Jack in the pulpit Preaches today, Under the green trees Just over the way. Squirrel and song-sparrow, High on their perch, Hear the sweet lily-bells Ringing to church. Come hear what his reverence Rises to say In his low, painted pulpit This calm Sabbath day. Meek-faced anemones, Drooping and sad; Great yellow violets, Smiling out glad; Buttercups' faces, Beaming and bright; Clovers with bonnets, Some red and some white; Daisies, their white fingers Half-clasped in prayer; Dandelions, proud of The gold of their hair; Innocents, children Guileless and frail, Meek little faces Upturned and pale; Wildwood geraniums, All in their best, Languidly leaning, In purple gauze dressed-- All are assembled This sweet Sabbath day To hear what the priest In his pulpit will say. So much for the preacher; The sermon comes next-- Shall we tell how he preached it And where was his text? Alas! like too many Grown-up folks who play At worship in churches Man-builded today, We heard not the preacher Expound or discuss; But we looked at the people And they looked at us. We saw all their dresses-- Their colors and shapes, The trim of their bonnets; The cut of their capes; We heard the wind-organ, The bee, and the bird, But of Jack in the pulpit We heard not a word! NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biography. Clara Smith is not a well-known writer, but her poem, "Jack in the Pulpit," is full of beauty. The rhythm is as pleasing as the picture is charming. Discussion. 1. What time of year is described in this poem? 2. Who make up the congregation when Jack in the pulpit preaches? 3. How does the poet make the flowers seem like people? 4. How many of the flowers described in this poem are familiar to you? 5. Which flower is most beautifully described? Find the lines that give the description. 6. Why are we not told about the sermon? 7. What was the congregation doing during the sermon? 8. What did they see? What did they hear? 9. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: drooping; beaming; gauze; assembled; text; worship; expound. 10. Pronounce: anemones; guileless; languidly. Phrases for Study: his reverence, all in their best, painted pulpit, man-builded today. SEPTEMBER Helen Hunt Jackson The goldenrod is yellow; The corn is turning brown; The trees in apple orchards With fruit are bending down. The gentian's bluest fringes Are curling in the sun; In dusky pods the milkweed Its hidden silk has spun. The sedges flaunt their harvest In every meadow-nook; And asters by the brookside Make asters in the brook. From dewy lanes at morning The grapes' sweet odors rise; At noon the roads all flutter With yellow butterflies. By all these lovely tokens September days are here, With summer's best of weather, And autumn's best of cheer. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biography. Helen Hunt Jackson (1831-1885) was an American poet and novelist. She was born in Amherst, Massachusetts, where her father was a professor in Amherst College, but she spent much of her life in California. She married a banker in Colorado Springs, Colorado, where she lived for a few years. Her poems are very beautiful, and "September" and "October's Bright Blue Weather" are especially good pictures of these autumn months. Every child should know these poems by heart. Discussion. 1. What is meant by the harvest of the sedges? 2. How are the "asters in the brook" made? 3. Which lines in the last stanza tell us what September brings? 4. What things mentioned in this poem have you seen? 5. Read again what is said on pages 19 and 20 about the poet as a magician; what beauty of Nature does the poet show you in the following lines? "And asters by the brookside Make asters in the brook." 6. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: sedges; flaunt; flutter. 7. Pronounce: gentian; dusky. Phrases for Study: dusky pods, lovely tokens, hidden silk has spun, best of cheer. OCTOBER'S BRIGHT BLUE WEATHER Helen Hunt Jackson O sun and skies and clouds of June And flowers of June together, Ye cannot rival for one hour October's bright blue weather; When loud the bumblebee makes haste, Belated, thriftless vagrant, And goldenrod is dying fast, And lanes with grapes are fragrant; When gentians roll their fringes tight, To save them for the morning, And chestnuts fall from satin burs Without a sound of warning; When on the ground red apples lie In piles like jewels shining, And redder still on old stone walls Are leaves of woodbine twining; When all the lovely wayside things Their white-winged seeds are sowing, And in the fields, still green and fair, Late aftermaths are growing; When springs run low, and on the brooks In idle, golden freighting, Bright leaves sink noiseless in the hush Of woods, for winter waiting; When comrades seek sweet country haunt By twos and twos together, And count like misers hour by hour October's bright blue weather. O sun and skies and flowers of June, Count all your boasts together, Love loveth best of all the year October's bright blue weather. NOTES AND QUESTIONS For Biography see above. Discussion. 1. What comparison is made in the first stanza between June and October? 2. Why is the bumblebee described as "loud"? 3. Compare the description of the goldenrod in this poem with the description of the goldenrod in "September." 4. Compare the description of the apples in this poem with the description of the apples in "September." 5. Find the line that tells why the "gentians roll their fringes tight." 6. What is the color of the woodbine leaves? 7. What are the "wayside things" usually called? 8. What do good comrades like to do in October? 9. Why are we sorry to have October go? 10. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: fragrant; twining; aftermath; haunts. 11. Pronounce: rival; vagrant; freighting. Phrases for Study: rival for one hour, hush of woods, belated, thriftless vagrant, count like misers, satin burs, count all your boasts, idle, golden freighting. NOVEMBER Alice Cary The leaves are fading and falling; The winds are rough and wild; The birds have ceased their calling-- But let me tell you, my child, Though day by day, as it closes, Doth darker and colder grow, The roots of the bright red roses Will keep alive in the snow. And when the winter is over, The boughs will get new leaves, The quail come back to the clover, And the swallow back to the eaves. The robin will wear on his bosom A vest that is bright and new, And the loveliest wayside blossom Will shine with the sun and dew. The leaves today are whirling; The brooks are all dry and dumb-- But let me tell you, my darling, The spring will be sure to come. There must be rough, cold weather, And winds and rains so wild; Not all good things together Come to us here, my child. So, when some dear joy loses Its beauteous summer glow, Think how the roots of the roses Are kept alive in the snow. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biography. Alice Cary (1820-1871), an American poet, was born in Cincinnati. She and her sister, Phoebe, wrote many beautiful poems and sketches. They removed to New York City and lived together there. "November" is one of Alice Cary's most widely known poems. Discussion. 1. What signs of autumn are mentioned in the first stanza? 2. What signs of the coming winter are mentioned in the second stanza? 3. Where have the birds gone? 4. What is meant by the word "here" in line 4, above? 5. Why are the brooks "dry and dumb" in November? 6. Is this true in all parts of the country? 7. What are we told about the spring in "October's Bright Blue Weather"? 8. What will happen when the winter is over? 9. Where does the swallow build his nest? 10. What wonder of Nature, about which you read in A Forward Look, above, does the second stanza tell you? 11. How can the snow help keep the roots alive? 12. In what stanza is this thought repeated? 13. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: fading; quail; eaves. Phrases for Study: ceased their calling, wayside blossom, vest that is bright, beauteous summer glow. TODAY Thomas Carlyle Lo, here hath been dawning Another blue day; Think, wilt thou let it Slip useless away? Out of Eternity This new day is born; Into Eternity, At night, will return. Behold it aforetime No eye ever did; So soon it forever From all eyes is hid. Here hath been dawning Another blue day; Think, wilt thou let it Slip useless away? NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biography. Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881) was a great Scotch writer of essays and history. He lived in Edinburgh, and later in London. Discussion. 1. Find the lines that explain why the day is called a "new day." 2. Find the lines which remind us that the day will pass quickly. 3. The poet tells us in the first stanza to "think"; what does he want us to think about? 4. Find the same lines in another stanza. Why did the poet repeat these words? 5. Read the short story that follows, and tell whether Titus and the poet have the same, idea of a "useless" day. The Roman Emperor, Titus, won the love of all his people by his kindness and generosity to those who were in trouble. One night at supper, remembering that he had not helped anyone that day, he exclaimed, "My friends, I have lost a day!" Phrases for Study: behold it aforetime blue day. THE NIGHT HAS A THOUSAND EYES Francis Bourdillon The night has a thousand eyes, And the day but one; Yet the light of the bright world dies With the dying sun. The mind has a thousand eyes, And the heart but one; Yet the light of a whole life dies When love is done. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biography. Francis William Bourdillon (1852-1921) an English poet, lived at Buddington, England. He attended college at Oxford. Few poets have written more beautiful lines than his "The Night Has a Thousand Eyes." Discussion. 1. What are the eyes of the night? 2. What is the eye of the day? 3. How many eyes does the poet say the mind has? 4. How many eyes does he say the heart has? 5. In which line are we told what the eye of the heart is? 6. In A Forward Look, above, you read that the poet is a magician whose words open for us the fairyland of Nature; what have the words of this poet done for you? 7. Memorize the poem. A BACKWARD LOOK As you look backward over the animal stories you have read in this group, which did you enjoy most? Which story would be the most interesting to tell to a younger brother or sister? Which do you like better, stories in which animals are the actors, or stories about the hunting of animals? Which one of the poems about birds has lines in it that sound like the bird's song? Which author makes you feel most keenly his love for birds? Which one tells you of pleasures that birds enjoy? Make a program for Arbor and Bird Day from selections found or suggested in this group. In the "Notes and Questions" you have found a number of suggestions for outside reading. Did you find in the school library or public library any of the books that are mentioned in the different biographies? In your class, who has read Baker's True Tales for My Grandsons, or other selections mentioned in the biographies or elsewhere? What progress have you made in silent reading? If you were making a blackboard calendar for each of the months--September, October, and November--what stanzas in each of the three poems on these months would give you ideas for decoration? Select a stanza from these poems as a motto for each of your calendars. November teaches Alice Caw a truth which she passes on to us; what is this truth? On pages 19 and 20 you read that the world of Nature is a fairyland, and that the poets help us to see the beauty that lies about us. Perhaps now when you look up into a starry sky you say to yourself almost without thinking, "The night has a thousand eyes--" What other poems have revealed beauties of Nature to you? A FORWARD LOOK Here is matter for your entertainment. Several interesting persons will appear and will show you that a small part of the joy of reading consists in the merry tales that you may find in books. One of the English poets somewhere calls upon the spirits of fun and joy, a cheerful nymph and her companions, to drive dull care away. This poet, John Milton by name, wrote many poems and prose works on very serious matters. He lived in a serious time, the time when many Englishmen were leaving their native country and emigrating to America in order that they might find a freedom that was denied to them at home. But even under these circumstances, sympathizing with those who went into exile for freedom, and studying night and day how he could himself advance the cause of liberty, John Milton was too great a man to believe that life is altogether serious and earnest. Humor and jesting and wholesome fun have a part in every life; they are no more to be neglected than the spices in a Thanksgiving pie. So the poet called upon the cheerful nymph and her attendants to help him see the brighter side of life; the fun that there is in foolishness, and the health that comes with a hearty laugh. Here is what he wrote: "Haste thee, Nymph, and bring with thee Jest and youthful Jollity, Come, and trip it, as you go, On the light, fantastic toe." Now let us imagine that we, also, are inviting these kindly spirits of Mirth. Our lives are serious, too. We have arithmetic to learn, or we have a composition to write. People expect us to do all sorts of things that take our time, and of course we want to do these things. But here comes Laughter holding both his sides, a fat old gentleman who makes you feel merry the moment you set eyes on him. And Father Laughter first introduces the Baron Munchausen, who will tell some of his marvelous experiences. We are not compelled to believe all of them. Perhaps Father Laughter wanted to take a sly dig or two at the yarns some travelers tell when they get home. By this means the story illustrates one of the great sources of humor--monstrous exaggeration. It also shows what a foolish thing it is to be a boaster. Most people, at one time or another, are tempted to brag about their deeds, their possessions, or their smartness. If they would only think of Baron Munchausen, they would flee from this temptation. After this comes a story about the blind men and the elephant. Here Father Laughter gets his way with you by making you see how absurd were the guesses about the elephant made by men who knew only the animal's trunk, or his tusks, or his tail. And here, too, after you have laughed heartily at the foolish fellows who were so positive that they knew everything when they knew nothing, you begin to see the danger in what are called "snap judgments." "Look at these ridiculous fellows," says Father Laughter, "and consider how silly it is to jump to a conclusion unless you have all the facts." You will agree that Father Laughter's next performer, Darius Green, is especially interesting in these days when men fly across the Atlantic or from New York to San Francisco. Darius seems to have been the first "bird-man," and though he was absurd enough, he reminds one of the fact that many useful inventions that now add to our comfort were prepared for by men who seemed to their friends and acquaintances crazy enough. But this is introduction a-plenty; there's really no need to keep you any longer from getting acquainted with Father Laughter and the antics he likes to play. ADVENTURES OF BARON MUNCHAUSEN R. E. Raspe The Savage Boar Baron Munchausen had feasted his friends right well, and after supper he leaned back in his chair and said, "So you want me to tell you of my adventures in the past." His guests eagerly urged him on, and he began his story. Once, when I was returning from a hunt, with an empty gun (having used all my ammunition), a raging wild boar rushed at me. Well, you know how unpleasant such an encounter may be, so I am sure none of you will think me a coward for hastily climbing the nearest tree; it was a young birch which could hardly bear my weight. The boar made a dash for the tree, but was a moment too late, for I had just drawn my legs out of his reach. But so violent was his rush that his tusks went through the trunk of the tree and projected an inch through the other side. I slid down the tree, picked up a stone the size of my fist, and riveted down the projecting points of the tusks. You can imagine what a narrow escape I had when I tell you that the beast weighed five tons--a good deal for a wild boar." A Narrow Escape "At another time, when I was hunting in Ceylon, I was terrified to see a gigantic lion approaching, with the evident intention of devouring me. My gun was only loaded with bird-shot, and I had no other about me. The savage animal shook his head several times, uttered a loud roar, and prepared to spring. I turned to flee, and--my flesh creeps even now at the recollection of it--there, on the bank of a river that lay behind me, was a huge crocodile with his terrible jaws open ready to swallow me! "Imagine, gentlemen, the horror of my situation--before me the lion, behind me the crocodile, on my left a rushing torrent, and on the right an abyss full of poisonous snakes! I gave myself up for lost, and fell to the ground in an almost fainting condition, expecting nothing better than to meet with a horrible death from one or the other of these terrible animals. "After waiting a few seconds I heard a violent noise, different from any that had fallen on my ears before. I ventured to raise my head, and what do you think had happened? "The lion had, in his eagerness, jumped clean over me into the crocodile's jaws; the head of the one stuck in the throat of the other, and they were struggling to free themselves. I quickly sprang to my feet, drew out my hunting-knife, and with one blow severed the lion's head. Then, with the butt-end of my gun, I rammed the head farther into the throat of the crocodile, and destroyed him by suffocation. The hide of the crocodile, which was exactly forty feet in length, I had stuffed, and it now forms one of the chief attractions in the museum at Amsterdam, where the superintendent relates the story to all spectators, with harrowing additions. "One of these is that the lion jumped right through the crocodile, but as soon as the head appeared, Monsieur the Famous Baron (as he is pleased to call me) cut it off, and three feet of the crocodile's tail as well, whereupon the crocodile turned round, snatched the knife out of my hand, and swallowed it so greedily that it pierced his heart and killed him! "I need not tell you how annoyed I was by these exaggerations. In this age of doubt people who do not know me might possibly be led to disbelieve the real facts when they are mixed up with such absurd inventions. HOW THE BARON SAVED GIBRALTAR "Some years later I made a voyage to Gibraltar to visit my old friend, General Elliott. He received me with joy and took me for a stroll along the ramparts to examine the operations of the enemy. I had brought with me an excellent telescope, which I had purchased in Rome. Looking through it, I saw that the enemy were about to discharge a thirty-six pound cannon at the very spot where we were standing. I rushed toward our nearest cannon, a forty-eight pounder, and placed it exactly facing that of the enemy. I watched carefully till I saw the Spanish gunner apply a match to the touchhole, and then I, too, gave the word 'Fire.' "Both reports rang out at the same instant, and the two cannon balls met halfway with amazing force. Ours, being the heavier, caused the enemy's ball to recoil with such violence as to kill the man who had discharged it; it then passed through the masts of three ships which lay in a line behind each other, and flew across the Straits of Gibraltar some miles into Africa. Our own ball, after repelling the other, proceeded on its way, dismounted the very cannon which had just been used against us, and forced it into the hold of the ship, where it fell with so much force as to break its way through the bottom. The ship immediately filled and sank, with about a thousand Spanish sailors and a large number of soldiers on board, who were all drowned. "You can see for yourselves that this strange tale must be true, however improbable it sounds, or else how could it possibly have happened?" NOTES AND QUESTIONS A long time ago a book called The Travels of Baron Munchausen was written by Rudolph Erich Raspe. The tales told in this book were so extravagant that the name Munchausen is often applied to boasters. The author pretends that the stories are all strictly true. Discussion. 1. What extravagant statements do you find in the story "The Savage Boar"? In "A Narrow Escape"? In "How the Baron Saved Gibraltar"? 2. Which of the incidents mentioned do you think is the most ridiculous? 3. What do you think of the proof given by the author to prove the truthfulness of the last story? 4. Which of the sources of humor mentioned on page 58 does this story illustrate? 5. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: boar; encounter; tusks; riveted; gigantic; abyss; severed; whereupon; exaggerations; ramparts; touchhole; recoil; repelling; dismounted; hold. 6. Pronounce: Munchausen; projected; harrowing; Monsieur. Phrases for Study evident intention, age of doubt, horror of my situation, absurd inventions, gave myself up for lost, operations of the enemy, harrowing additions, Straits of Gibraltar. THE BLIND MEN AND THE ELEPHANT John G. Saxe It was six men of Indostan, To learning much inclined Who went to see the elephant (Though all of them were blind), That each by observation Might satisfy his mind. The first approached the elephant, And happening to fall Against his broad and sturdy side, At once began to bawl: "God bless me! but the elephant Is very like a wall!" The second, feeling of the tusk, Cried, "Ho! what have we here So very round and smooth and sharp? To me 'tis mighty clear This wonder of an elephant Is very like a spear!" The third approached the animal, And happening to take The squirming trunk within his hands Thus boldly up and spake: "I see," quoth he, "the elephant Is very like a snake!" The fourth reached out his eager hand, And felt about the knee. "What most this wondrous beast is like Is mighty plain," quoth he; "'Tis clear enough the elephant Is very like a tree!" The fifth, who chanced to touch the ear, Said: "E'en the blindest man Can tell what this resembles most; Deny the fact who can, This marvel of an elephant Is very like a fan!" The sixth no sooner had begun About the beast to grope, Than, seizing on the swinging tail, That fell within his scope, "I see," quoth he, "the elephant Is very like a rope!" And so these men of Indostan Disputed loud and long, Each in his own opinion Exceeding stiff and strong, Though each was partly in the right, And all were in the wrong! NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biography. John Godfrey Saxe (1816-1887), an American poet, was born in Vermont. He is best known by his humorous poems, of which "The Blind Men and the Elephant" is most widely read. Discussion. 1. How could blind men "see" the elephant? 2. To what did each compare the elephant? 3. Explain the comparison each made. 4. Why is comparison a common way of describing objects? 5. Point out instances of its use by other authors in this book. 6. Why were these blind men all "in the wrong"? 7. How far was each "in the right"? 8. What makes this poem humorous? 9. What may we learn from this story? 10. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: learning; observation; approached; bawl; wonder; resembles; marvel; grope; disputed; stiff. 11. Pronounce: sturdy; wondrous; scope. Phrases for Study much inclined, eager hand, satisfy his mind, within his scope. DARIUS GREEN AND HIS FLYING-MACHINE JOHN TOWNSEND TROWBRIDGE If ever there lived a Yankee lad, Wise or otherwise, good or bad, Who, seeing the birds fly, didn't jump With flapping arms from stake or stump, Or, spreading the tail Of his coat for a sail, Take a soaring leap from post or rail, And wonder why He couldn't fly, And flap and flutter and wish and try-- If ever you knew a country dunce Who didn't try that as often as once, All I can say is, that's a sign He never would do for a hero of mine. An aspiring genius was D. Green; The son of a farmer--age fourteen. His body was long and lank and lean-- Just right for flying, as will be seen; He had two eyes, each bright as a bean, And a freckled nose that grew between, A little awry--for I must mention That he had riveted his attention Upon his wonderful invention, Twisting his tongue as he twisted the strings, Working his face as he worked the wings, Arid with every turn of gimlet and screw Turning and screwing his mouth round, too, Till his nose seemed bent To catch the scent, Around some corner, of new-baked pies, And his wrinkled cheeks and his squinting eyes Grew puckered into a queer grimace, That made him look very droll in the face, And also very wise. And wise he must have been, to do more Than ever a genius did before, Excepting Daedalus of yore And his son Icarus, who wore Upon their backs Those wings of wax He had read of in the old almanacs. Darius was clearly of the opinion That the air is also man's dominion, And that, with paddle or fin or pinion, We soon or late Shall navigate The azure as now we sail the sea. The thing looks simple enough to me; And if you doubt it, Hear how Darius reasoned about it. "Birds can fly, An' why can't I? Must we give in," Says he with a grin, "'T the bluebird an' phoebe Are smarter'n we be? Jest fold our hands an' see the swaller An' blackbird an' catbird beat us holler? Does the leetle, chatterin', sassy wren, No bigger'n my thumb, know more than men Jest show me that! Er prove't the bat Has got more brains than's in my hat, An' I'll back down, an' not till then!" He argued further: "Ner I can't see What's th' use o' wings to a bumblebee, Fer to git a livin' with, more'n to me; Ain't my business Importanter'n his'n is? That Icarus Was a silly cuss-- Him an' his daddy, Daedalus. They might 'a' knowed wings made o' wax Wouldn't stan' sun-heat an' hard whacks; I'll make mine o' luther, Er suthin' er other." And he said to himself, as he tinkered and planned: "But I ain't goin' to show my hand To mummies that never can understand The fust idee that's big an' grand. They'd 'a' laft an' made fun O' Creation itself afore 'twas done!" So he kept his secret from all the rest, Safely buttoned within his vest; And in the loft above the shed Himself he locks, With thimble and thread And wax and hammer and buckles and screws, And all such things as geniuses use; Two bats for patterns, curious fellows! A charcoal-pot and a pair of bellows; An old hoop-skirt or two, as Well as Some wire and several old umbrellas; A carriage-cover, for tail and wings; A piece of harness; and straps and strings; And a big strong box, In which he locks These and a hundred other things. His grinning brothers, Reuben and Burke And Nathan and Jotham and Solomon, lurk Around the corner to see him work-- Sitting cross-legged, like a Turk, Drawing the waxed end through with a jerk, And boring the holes with a comical quirk Of his wise old head, and a knowing smirk. But vainly they mounted each other's backs, And poked through knot-holes and pried through cracks; With wood from the pile and straw from the stacks He plugged the knot-holes and calked the cracks; And a bucket of water, which one would think; He had brought up into the loft to drink When he chanced to be dry, Stood always nigh, For Darius was sly! And whenever at work he happened to spy At chink or crevice a blinking eye, He let a dipper of water fly. "Take that! an' ef ever ye get a peep, Guess ye'll ketch a weasel asleep!" And he sings as he locks His big strong box: "The weasel's head is small an' trim, An' he is leetle an' long an' slim, An' quick of motion an' nimble of limb, An' ef yeou'll be Advised by me, Keep wide awake when ye're ketchin' him!" So day after day He stitched and tinkered and hammered Till at last 'twas done-- The greatest invention under the sun! "An' now," says Darius, "hooray fer some fun!" 'Twas the Fourth of July, And the weather was dry, And not a cloud was on all the sky Save a few light fleeces, which here and there. Half mist, half air, Like foam on the ocean went floating by; Just as lovely a morning as ever was seen For a nice little trip in a flying-machine. Thought cunning Darius: "Now I shan't go Along 'ith the fellers to see the show. I'll say I've got sich a terrible cough! An' then, when the folks 'ave all gone off, I'll hev full swing For to try the thing, An' practyse a leetle on the wing." "Ain't goin' to see the celebration?" Says Brother Nate. "No; botheration! I've got sich a cold--a toothache--I-- My gracious!--feel's though I should fly!" Said Jotham, "Sho! Guess ye better go." But Darius said, "No! Shouldn't wonder 'f yeou might see me, though, 'Long 'bout noon, ef I git red O' this jumpin', thumpin' pain 'n my head." For all the while to himself he said: "I'll tell ye what! I'll fly a few times around the lot, To see how 't seems; then soon's I've got The hang o' the thing, ez likely's not, I'll astonish the nation, And all creation, By flyin' over the celebration! Over their heads I'll sail like an eagle; I'll balance myself on my wings like a sea-gull; I'll dance on the chimbleys; I'll stan' on the steeple; I'll flop up to winders an' scare the people! I'll light on the libbe'ty-pole, an' crow; An' I'll say to the gawpin' fools below, 'What world's this 'ere That I've come near?' Fer I'll make 'em believe I'm a chap f'm the moon! An' I'll try a race 'ith their ol' bulloon." He crept from his bed; And, seeing the others were gone, he said, "I'm a gittin' over the cold 'n my head." And away he sped To open the wonderful box in the shed. His brothers had walked but a little way When Jotham to Nathan chanced to say, "What on airth is he up to, hey?" "Don'o'--the' 's suthin' er other to pay, Er he wouldn't 'a' stayed to hum today." Says Burke, "His toothache's all 'n his eye! He never'd miss a Fo'th-o'-July Ef he hedn't got some machine to try. Le's hurry back an' hide in the barn, An' pay him fer tellin' us that yarn!" "Agreed!" Through the orchard they creep back, Along by the fences, behind the stack, And one by one, through a hole in the wall, In under the dusty barn they crawl, Dressed in their Sunday garments all; And a very astonishing sight was that, When each in his cobwebbed coat and hat Came up through the floor like an ancient rat And there they hid; And Reuben slid The fastenings back, and the door undid. "Keep dark!" said he, "While I squint an' see what the' is to see." As knights of old put on their mail-- From head to foot An iron suit, Iron jacket and iron boot, Iron breeches, and on the head No hat, but an iron pot instead, And under the chin the bail (I believe they called the thing a helm); And the lid they carried they called a shield; And, thus accoutered, they took the field, Sallying forth to overwhelm The dragons and pagans that plagued the realm-- So this modern knight Prepared for flight, Put on his wings and strapped them tight; Jointed and jaunty, strong and light; Buckled them fast to shoulder and hip-- Ten feet they measured from tip to tip! And a helm had he, but that he wore, Not on his head like those of yore, But more like the helm of a ship. "Hush!" Reuben said, "He's up in the shed! He's opened the winder--I see his head! He stretches it out, An' pokes it about, Lookin' to see 'f the coast is clear, An' nobody near; Guess he don'o' who's hid in here! He's riggin' a spring-board over the sill! Stop laffin', Solomon! Burke, keep still! He's a climbin' out now--of all the things! What's he got on? I van, it's wings! An' that 'tother thing? I yum, it's a tail! An' there he sets like a hawk on a rail! Steppin' careful, he travels the length Of his spring-board, and teeters to try its strength. Now he stretches his wings, like a monstrous bat; Peeks over his shoulder, this way an' that, Fer to see 'f the' 's anyone passin' by; But the' 's on'y a ca'f an' a goslin' nigh. They turn up at him a wonderin' eye, To see--the dragon! he's goin' to fly! Away he goes! Jimminy! what a jump! Flop--flop--an' plump To the ground with a thump! Flutt'rin' an' flound'rin', all in a lump!" As a demon is hurled by an angel's spear, Heels over head, to his proper sphere-- Heels over head, and head over heels, Dizzily down the abyss he wheels-- So fell Darius. Upon his crown, In the midst of the barnyard, he came down, In a wonderful whirl of tangled strings, Broken braces and broken springs, Broken tail and broken wings, Shooting-stars, and various things! Away with a bellow fled the calf, And what was that? Did the gosling laugh? 'Tis a merry roar From the old barn-door, And he hears the voice of Jotham crying, "Say, D'rius! how de yeou like flyin'?" Slowly, ruefully, where he lay, Darius just turned and looked that way, As he stanched his sorrowful nose with his cuff. "Wal, I like flyin' well enough," He said; "but the' ain't sich a thunderin' sight O' fun in 't when ye come to light." MORAL I just have room for the moral here, And this is the moral: Stick to your sphere. Or if you insist, as you have the right, On spreading your wings for a loftier flight, The moral is: Take care how you light. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biography. John Townsend Trowbridge (1827-1916), an American writer, lived in Cambridge. He and Lucy Larcom were for a time editors of Our Young Folks' Magazine. Trowbridge first saw a flying-machine sixty years after he wrote "Darius Green and His Flying-Machine." He was then eighty-three years old. Discussion. 1. What did Darius Green believe that men would soon be able to do? 2. What did Darius determine to use as material for his machine? 3. Why did he not tell his brothers what he was trying to do? 4. When did he plan to try his machine? 5. Find the lines that tell what he imagined he would do. 6. Find the lines that tell what he really did. 7. What did he say was the unpleasant part of flying? 8. Mention some inventions that people once thought were as impossible as the boys thought this flying-machine was. 9. Mention some inventors at whom people once laughed but who are now honored. 10. In what way does the author make his story humorous? 11. Notice Darius's language on pages 67 and 68. The writer shows by such words that Darius was not a well-educated boy; are persons often judged by the way they talk? 12. In Wildman's Famous Leaders of Industry, you will find interesting facts about Orville and Wilbur Wright..You will enjoy reading The Boys' Airplane Book, Collins. 13, Report any current news on airplane development, airplane mail routes, etc., that you can find. 14. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: soaring; lank; gimlet; yore; pinion; tinkered; mummies; quirk; smirk; crevice; weasel; cunning; ancient; helm; ruefully. 15. Pronounce: Darius; aspiring; genius; awry; grimace; droll; Daedalus; Icarus; almanacs; phoebe; calked; breeches; accoutered; pagans; jaunty; stanched. Phrases for Study aspiring genius, like a Turk, riveted his attention, knights of old, Daedalus of yore, thus accoutered, man's dominion, plagued the realm, navigate the azure, his proper sphere, beat us holler, stick to your sphere. BIRTHDAY GREETINGS C. L. DODGSON ("Lewis Carroll") Christ Church, Oxford October 13, 1875 My Dear Gertrude: I never give birthday presents, but you see I do sometimes write a birthday letter; so, as I've just arrived here, I am writing this to wish you many and many a happy return of your birthday tomorrow. I will drink your health, if only I can remember, and if you don't mind--but perhaps you object? You see, if I were to sit by you at breakfast, and to drink your tea, you wouldn't like that, would you? You would say "Boo! hoo! Here's Mr. Dodgson's drunk all my tea, and I haven't any left!" So I am very much afraid, next time Sybil looks for you, she'll find you sitting by the sad sea-wave, and crying "Boo! hoo! Here's Mr. Dodgson has drunk my health, and I haven't got any left!" And how it will puzzle Dr. Maund, when he is sent for to see you! "My dear Madam, I'm very sorry to say your little girl has got no health at all! I never saw such a thing in my life!" "Oh, I can easily explain it!" your mother will say. "You see she would go and make friends with a strange gentleman, and yesterday he drank her health!" "Well, Mrs. Chataway," he will say, "the only way to cure her is to wait till his next birthday, and then for her to drink his health." And then we shall have changed healths. I wonder how you'll like mine! Oh, Gertrude, I wish you wouldn't talk such nonsense! Your loving friend, LEWIS CARROLL NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biography. Charles Lutwidge Dodgson (1832-1898), better known by his pen name, "Lewis Carroll," was an English author. He was the son of a clergyman. For four years he attended the famous school at Rugby, after which he entered college at Oxford. He became an excellent scholar and mathematician and was appointed a lecturer on mathematics at Oxford University, a position that he held for many years. His keen sympathy with the imagination of children and their sense of fun led him to tell of the adventures of Alice, in a book called Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. This book made Lewis Carroll's name famous. His delightful humor is well illustrated in his letter of "Birthday Greetings" to Gertrude Chataway. Discussion. 1. What is usually meant by "drink your health"? 2. What play on the meaning of these words gives a humorous turn to them? 3. What remedy does the author suggest the doctor will prescribe for Gertrude? 4. What does the author call this humor? 5. The author was a serious man, yet he believed in the value of wholesome fun; of what great poet did you read, on page 57, who also believed in the value of a hearty laugh? Phrases for Study many a happy return, sad sea-wave. THE WIND AND THE MOON GEORGE MACDONALD Said the Wind to the Moon, "I will blow you out. You stare in the air Like a ghost in a chair, Always looking what I am about. I hate to be watched; I will blow you out." The Wind blew hard, and out went the Moon. So, deep on a heap Of clouds, to sleep Down lay the Wind, and slumbered soon-- Muttering low. "I've done for that Moon." He turned in his bed; she was there again. On high in the sky, With her one ghost eye, The Moon shone white and alive and plain. Said the Wind, "I will blow you out again." The Wind blew hard, and the Moon grew dim. "With my sledge and my wedge I have knocked off her edge. If only I blow right fierce and grim, The creature will soon be dimmer than dim." He blew and he blew, and she thinned to a thread. "One puff more's enough To blow her to snuff! One good puff more where the last was bred, And glimmer, glimmer glum will go the thread." He blew a great blast, and the thread was gone; In the air nowhere Was a moonbeam bare; Far off and harmless the shy stars shone; Sure and certain the Moon was gone! The Wind he took to his revels once more: On down, in town, Like a merry-mad clown, He leaped and hallooed with whistle and roar-- "What's that?" The glimmering thread once more. He flew in a rage--he danced and blew; But in vain was the pain Of his bursting brain; For still the broader the moon-scrap grew, The broader he swelled his big cheeks and blew. Slowly she grew--till she filled the night, And shone on her throne In the sky alone, A matchless, wonderful, silvery light, Radiant and lovely, the queen of the night. Said the Wind: "What a marvel of power am I With my breath, good faith, I blew her to death-- First blew her away right out of the sky-- Then blew her in; what a strength am I!" But the Moon she knew nothing about the affair, For, high in the sky, With her one white eye, Motionless, miles above the air, She had never heard the great Wind blare. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biography. George Macdonald (1824-1905), a Scotch poet, wrote many entertaining poems and stories for children. "The Wind and the Moon" is a good illustration of the fact that he knew how to interest boys and girls. Discussion. 1. Why did the wind want to blow out the moon? 2. What natural changes in the shape of the moon take place each month? 3. What really caused it to disappear? 4. What did the wind do when he thought he had succeeded? 5. Find the lines that tell how the wind felt when he saw the moon grow broader and bigger. 6. Find the lines which tell that the moon did not know that the wind was blowing. 7. What qualities does this story give to the wind? 8. Do you know any person who has these qualities? 9. The poet aims in this poem to amuse us; by what means does he do this? 10. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: muttering; sledge; wedge; grim; matchless; blare. 11. Pronounce: revels; hallooed; radiant. Phrases for Study thinned to a thread, took to his revels, where the last was bred, filled the night. STORIES IN LIGHTER VEIN A BACKWARD LOOK Why is it good for us, even in the midst of serious work, to read humorous stories from time to time? An interesting anecdote is told of Abraham Lincoln that shows how he would have answered this question. One day when the Civil War was at its height, President Lincoln opened his cabinet meeting by saying, "Gentlemen, I am going to read you something that will make you laugh." He then read a chapter from a humorous book, laughing heartily as he read. When he saw that none of the members of his cabinet joined in the laughter, he said with a sigh, "Gentlemen, why don't you laugh? With the fearful strain that is put on me day and night, if I did not laugh once in a while I should die; and you need this medicine as much as I do," What did you read in the Forward Look on page 57 about another serious-minded man who believed that wholesome humor is a "medicine"? Which selection in this group gave you the heartiest laugh? Often some sensible truth is taught through a little nonsense; of which selections is this particularly true? It is interesting to stop for a moment and think just why certain stories make us laugh. One story is humorous because of its wild exaggeration; another because it makes us see how ridiculous it is to be a boaster or to be conceited or to jump at conclusions; and still another because it has an interesting little play upon words. What is the source of humor in "The Savage Boar"; "A Narrow Escape"; "How the Baron Saved Gibraltar"; "The Blind Men and the Elephant"; "Birthday Greetings"; "The Wind and the Moon"? How does the present-day newspaper furnish fun for its readers? Which newspaper cartoons do you look at regularly, and which are your favorites? Bring to class examples of cartoons, and then divide the collection into three groups--those that you think drive home a truth; those that you think are funny and clever; and those that you think are merely silly. Prepare an exhibit for "Cartoon Day" in your school, selecting the material from these examples. Clip and bring to class newspaper jokes that you and your family particularly enjoyed. Recommend to your classmates humorous stories that you have read in The Junior Red Cross News, Life, St. Nicholas, The Youth's Companion, or in some other magazine. In previous pages you have found occasional suggestions for problems similar to those of the preceding paragraph. Like suggestions will be found later in the book. The working out of these problems and reporting on them in class will add greatly to the value and pleasure of your reading. Some of these suggested problems are: (a) Silent Reading--Making a report showing comparisons month by month of individual and class progress in silent reading; (b) Books I Have Read--Reviewing a favorite book, giving title, author, time and scene of story, principal characters, and a brief outline of the story, with readings of the selected passages that will give your classmates most pleasure; (c) Magazine Reading--Reporting monthly on current numbers of magazines, telling your classmates what you have found that is interesting; in this way you will help each other to become acquainted with a number of magazines; (d) Newspaper Reading--Reporting current events, and showing in the newspapers that you read the place of general news, of editorials, society news, sports, the joke column, cartoons, advertisements, etc.; (e) Dramatizing--Planning and presenting before your class some selection or some incident from a selection that you think will make an interesting play; (f) Good Citizenship--Making a list of the suggestions you find in this Reader that help you to be a useful home-member and a good citizen, and preparing a program from selections in this book for "Citizenship Day" in your school. Which of the problems that you have worked out did you find most interesting? HOME AND COUNTRY A Forward Look One of the most famous stories in American literature tells about a man who spoke of his country with sneers and insults and acted in such a way that he was forbidden ever to set foot on American soil again. So he became a wanderer. He saw how men from other countries looked upon their homelands with pride and affection, and how his countrymen loved America better even than their lives. He came to be known as "the man without a country," and he lived a wretched and lonely life. At last he came to the hour of death, and he wrote these words for all Americans to think about if the temptation should ever come to speak scornfully of their country: "If you are ever tempted to say a word or to do a thing that shall put a bar between you and your country, pray God in his mercy to take you that instant home to his own heaven. Stick by your family, boy; forget you have a self, while you do everything for them. Think of your home, boy; write and send, and talk about it. Let it be nearer and nearer to your thoughts, the farther you have to travel from it; and rush back to it when you are free. And for your country, boy"--and the words rattled in his throat--"and for that flag"--and he pointed to the ship--"never dream a dream but of serving her as she bids you, though the service carry you through a thousand hells. No matter what happens to you, no matter who flatters you or who abuses you, never look to another flag, never let a night pass but you pray God to bless that flag. Remember, boy, that behind all these men you have to do with, behind officers, and government, and people even, there is the Country Herself, your Country, and that you belong to Her as you belong to your mother. Stand by Her, boy, as you would stand by your mother." Such was the dying message of "the man without a country" to the Americans of his time; such is his message to us. When we were at war, it was to be expected that all men would answer the call of patriotism. But now that peace has come, it is not so easy to forget self in a loyalty to our country and its flag. It is easy to be on guard when we know that an armed enemy is close by; it is not easy when the enemy is hidden, and the guns are silent. These hidden enemies of our country do not fight in armies; they are the bad citizens who are scattered about; often you do not realize who they are. Generally these bad citizens, who are enemies of our country, possess one or all of the following characteristics: In the first place, they have no love for home and its festivals. Now, our nation is a collection of homes. The government was formed to protect these homes. The good citizen is a lover of his native soil, a lover of his home, a lover of Thanksgiving and Independence Day and Christmas. These festivals bind men more closely together, make them one, join them to their native land. But there are many bad citizens, enemies of America, who seek to destroy these influences that lead men to work together to make the community a better place in which to live. Second, the history of the United States, the stories of the founding of our nation, the stories about our flag and its defenders, have no interest for these bad citizens. You remember how mother used to tell you stories about when she was a little girl, and how these stories made you love her the more. It is the same with the stories about the days when our country was young: how the young George Washington showed the kind of man he was, or how the young Abraham Lincoln struggled to fit himself to become a leader of men. Through these stories we learn what the flag really means and what it has cost, and we love our country as we love our mother. But the enemy, the bad citizen, laughs at these things. He just thinks of himself. He thinks he has a right to do as he likes because this is, he says, "a free country." He doesn't think that he owes anything to Washington and Jefferson and Lincoln, or to those who kept the flag at the masthead when it was in peril. And the third test of a man's loyalty to our country is met only if he has the true feeling of democracy in his heart. This feeling of democracy means service, willingness to help others. The man or woman who thinks only of his own good time or his own fortune is a bad citizen. You see, it is this way. In olden times men had no part in the government unless they were born into a high place in society. The ordinary man did as he was told, went to the wars at the king's pleasure, and paid taxes that often took all he could save. He had little opportunity to make money or collect property. If he did, very probably the king would hear of it and would take away from him all that he had saved. But America was founded with a different idea of these matters. Here men got together and set up the kind of government they wished. They taxed themselves in order to support this government. They worked together to drive away hostile Indians, to kill wild beasts, to conquer the forests, to plant their crops, to make their lives safe and happy. In this cooperation, or working together, in government and in all the ways of living we find the spirit of democracy. This spirit has made America what it is today. It has opened up farms, built railways and ships and great industries, built also mighty cities, and made laws for the protection of property and life. All this men have done through the cooperation that means democracy. If any man thinks that this freedom gives him the right to trample on others, he is no better than one of the wicked kings of former times. If he thinks that under this freedom he may devote himself wholly to the selfish gain of wealth without giving a share of his money, his time, and his skill to making his community a better place to live in and his nation stronger and more secure, he cheats his fellows, because he takes, without making any return, the blessings that the founders and defenders of the Republic established with their lives. In the old stories the youth who was ready to be made a knight had to do certain things. He had to take the vow of knighthood, that he would lead a pure and blameless life. He had to render a service to someone in distress. And he had to watch, his arms beside him, through a night. You boys and girls, lovers of America, her defenders if need be, her guardians in the years to come, must also watch by your arms. These arms are not guns and bayonets; they belong to your heart and mind. They are three in number: the love of home, the inheritance of freedom, and the will to work with others. The first is a foundation to make strong your heart; the second is a bulwark to make safe your life; the third is a sword wherewith to slay the enemies of the Republic. This foundation in the love of home, this bulwark of our inheritance of freedom, and this sword of unselfish service are subjects often dealt with by great writers. In the pages that follow you will find pieces selected in order to bring out these ideas. You should read each of these selections not only for itself but also as a member of the group to which it belongs; and you should try to get the central idea that unites all the pieces that make up the group. Thus, little by little, you will come to see how your joy in Thanksgiving, the thrill that Old Glory can give you, and the service that you can render to someone else, are all related to each other. To defend home and country by being a good citizen is to be your mission in life. It is more important than a successful career, or than great personal happiness. For both your career and your happiness will depend upon the way in which you, and the other boys and girls of America, thousands upon thousands, keep watch by these arms, keep faith with home and country. HOME AND ITS FESTIVALS HOME, SWEET HOME John Howard Payne 'Mid pleasures and palaces though we may roam Be it ever so humble, there's no place like home! A charm from the sky seems to hallow us there, Which, seek through the world, is ne'er met with elsewhere. Home, Home, sweet, sweet Home! There's no place like Home! there's no place like Home! An exile from home, splendor dazzles in vain; Oh! give me my lonely thatched cottage again! The birds, singing gayly, that came at my call-- Give me them--and the peace of mind dearer than all! Home, Home, sweet, sweet Home! There's no place like Home! there's no place like Home! How sweet 'tis to sit 'neath a fond father's smile, And the cares of a mother to soothe and beguile! Let others delight mid new pleasures to roam, But give me, oh, give me, the pleasures of home! Home, Home, sweet, sweet Home! There's no place like Home! there's no place like Home! To thee I'll return, overburdened with care; The heart's dearest solace will smile on me there; No more from that cottage again will I roam; Be it ever so humble, there's no place like home. Home, Home, sweet, sweet Home! There's no place like Home! there's no place like Home! NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biography. John Howard Payne (1792-1852) was born in New York City. He became an actor and also a writer of plays and operas. He died at Tunis, Africa, to which place he had been sent as United States consul. When Jenny Lind, the celebrated Swedish singer, visited the United States in 1850, she sang in Washington before a large audience. John Howard Payne sat in one of the boxes, and at the close of her wonderful concert the singer turned toward the box in which the poet sat, and sang "Home, Sweet Home" with so much sweetness and power that many of the audience cried like children. Discussion. 1. What words in the first stanza are repeated in the refrain, or chorus? 2. What is it that the poet says "hallows," or blesses, us when we are in our homes? 3. With what word in the second stanza is "cottage" contrasted? 4. What does the second stanza tell us that the poet had at home and missed afterwards? 5. What is it that really makes home beautiful? 6. What great service do our mothers perform? 7. What does page 84 tell you of the value the love of home is to a nation? 8. Explain the expression "splendor dazzles in vain". 9. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: humble; hallow; charm; fond; soothe; beguile; roam. 10. Pronounce: exile; solace. THE GRAPEVINE SWING SAMUEL MINTURN PECK When I was a boy on the old plantation, Down by the deep bayou-- The fairest spot of all creation Under the arching blue-- When the wind came over the cotton and corn, To the long, slim loop I'd spring With brown feet bare, and a hat-brim torn, And swing in the grapevine swing. Swinging in the grapevine swing, Laughing where the wild birds sing, I dream and sigh For the days gone by, Swinging in the grapevine swing. Out--o'er the water lilies bonny and bright Back--to the moss-green trees; I shouted and laughed with a heart as light As a wild rose tossed by the breeze. The mocking bird joined in my reckless glee; I longed for no angel's wing; I was just as near heaven as I wanted to be Swinging in the grapevine swing. Swinging in the grapevine swing, Laughing where the wild birds sing-- Oh, to be a boy With a heart full of joy, Swinging in the grapevine swing! I'm weary at noon, I'm weary at night, I'm fretted and sore of heart, And care is sowing my locks with white As I wend through the fevered mart. I'm tired of the world with its pride and pomp, And fame seems a worthless thing. I'd barter it all for one day's romp, And a swing in the grapevine swing. Swinging in the grapevine swing, Laughing where the wild birds sing-- I would I were away From the world today, Swinging in the grapevine swing. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biography. Samuel Minturn Peck (1854-1886) is a native of the South. He was born in Tuscaloosa, Alabama, and spent most of his early years in that city. He was gifted in music and became an excellent amateur pianist. His published works include Cap and Bells, Rhymes and Roses, and Rings and Love-Knots, from which "The Grapevine Swing," one of his most musical poems, is taken. Discussion. 1. Why does the poet call the old plantation "The fairest spot of all creation"? 2. What does he mean by "the long, slim loop"? 3. For what "days gone by" does the poet sigh? 4. What picture do lines 6, 7, and 8, page 89, give you? 5. What tells you that the swing was near the bayou? 6. What is compared to the wild rose? 7. Why do you think the poet would "barter it all for one day's romp"? 8. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: creation; bonny; reckless; fretted; wend; pomp; fame. 9. Pronounce: bayou; arching; laughing. Phrases for Study arching blue, care is sowing, moss-green trees, fevered mart, sore of heart, barter it all. LULLABY OF AN INFANT CHIEF SIR WALTER SCOTT O hush thee, my babie! thy sire was a knight, Thy mother a lady, both lovely and bright; The woods and the glens, from the towers which we see, They are all belonging, dear babie, to thee. O fear not the bugle, though loudly it blows; It calls but the warders that guard thy repose; Their bows would be bended, their blades would be red, Ere the step of a foeman draws near to thy bed. O hush thee, my babie! the time soon will come When thy sleep shall be broken by trumpet and drum; Then hush thee, my darling, take rest while you may, For strife comes with manhood, and waking with day. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biography. Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832) was born in Scotland. He was a famous novelist and poet. When a child, he learned the Scottish legends and ballads, and later he wove them into his writings. Discussion. 1. What things mentioned in the first stanza show that the baby has great possessions? 2. How would the warders protect the baby? 3. What word could be used instead of "blades"? 4. What will this baby have to do when he becomes a man? 5. What will the trumpet and drum mean to him then? 6. How could you tell that this baby lived a long time ago? 7. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: sire; knight; lady; glens; towers. Phrases for Study calls but the warders, sleep shall be broken, guard thy repose, strife comes with manhood. THE FIRST THANKSGIVING DAY MARGARET JUNKIN PRESTON "And now," said the Governor, gazing abroad on the piled-up store Of the sheaves that dotted the clearings and covered the meadows o'er, "'Tis meet that we render praises because of this yield of grain; 'Tis meet that the Lord of the harvest be thanked for his sun and rain. "And, therefore, I, William Bradford (by the grace of God today, And the franchise of this good people), Governor of Plymouth, say, Through virtue of vested power--ye shall gather with one accord, And hold, in the month of November, thanksgiving unto the Lord. "He hath granted us peace and plenty, and the quiet we've sought so long; He hath thwarted the wily savage, and kept him from wrack and wrong; And unto our feast the Sachem shall be bidden, that he may know We worship his own Great Spirit, who maketh the harvests grow. "So shoulder your matchlocks, masters--there is hunting of all degrees; And, fishermen, take your tackle, and scour for spoils the seas; And, maidens and dames of Plymouth, your delicate crafts employ To honor our First Thanksgiving, and make it a feast of joy! "We fail of the fruits and dainties--we fail of the old home cheer; Ah, these are the lightest losses, mayhap, that befall us here; But see, in our open clearings, how golden the melons lie; Enrich them with sweets and spices, and give us the pumpkin-pie!" So, bravely the preparations went on for the autumn feast; The deer and the bear were slaughtered; wild game from the greatest to least Was heaped in the colony cabins; brown home-brew served for wine, And the plum and the grape of the forest, for orange and peach and pine. At length came the day appointed; the snow had begun to fall, But the clang from the meeting-house belfry rang merrily over all, And summoned the folk Of Plymouth, who hastened with glad accord To listen to Elder Brewster as he fervently thanked the Lord. In his seat sate Governor Bradford; men, matrons, and maidens fair, Miles Standish and all his soldiers, with corselet and sword, were there; And sobbing and tears and gladness had each in its turn the sway, For the grave of the sweet Rose Standish o'ershadowed Thanksgiving Day. And when Massasoit, the Sachem, sate down with his hundred braves, And ate of the varied riches of gardens and woods and waves, And looked on the granaried harvest--with a blow on his brawny chest, He muttered, "The good Great Spirit loves his white children best!" NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biographical and Historical Note. Margaret J. Preston (1820-1897) was one of the leading poets of the South. She wrote many poems and sketches. "The First Thanksgiving Day" gives a good picture of the life in the old Pilgrim days. The Pilgrims landed at Plymouth December 21, 1620. During the long, hard winter fifty-one of the one hundred Pilgrims died, among them being Rose Standish, wife of Captain Miles Standish. As soon as spring came, the colonists planted their fields, and by the end of summer a plentiful harvest was gathered in. When provisions and fuel had been laid in for the winter, Governor Bradford appointed a day of thanksgiving. Venison, wild fowl, and fish were easy to obtain. We are told, "there was great store of wild turkeys, of which they took many." For three days a great feast was spread, and Massasoit, the Indian Sachem, or chief, and many of his people enjoyed it with the colonists. Discussion. 1. When did the events related in this story take place? 2. Who was the governor of Plymouth at this time? 3. What proclamation did he make? 4. What did the governor say that God had done for the colony? 5. Who did he say should be invited to the feast? 6. What meat did the Pilgrims have at their first Thanksgiving dinner? 7. What fruits did they have for the feast? 8. What fruit is meant by "pine" in line 12, page 93? 9. What did the colonists do "with glad accord" before they sat down to their feast? 10. Find the lines that tell what Massasoit said when he ate of the feast. 11. Why is it a good thing for America to have a day set apart each year for us to give thanks for our blessings? 12. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: store; sheaves; clearings; wrack; dames; mayhap; befall; slaughtered; appointed; summoned; fervently; sate; braves; brawny. 13. Pronounce: therefore; franchise; wily; Sachem, pumpkin; matrons; corselet; Massasoit; granaried. Phrases for Study 'tis meet, scour for spoils, franchise of this good people, delicate crafts employ, virtue of vested power, fail of the fruits, with one accord, home-brew served for wine, thwarted the wily savage, each in its turn the sway, Great Spirit, o'ershadowed Thanksgiving Day, shoulder your matchlocks, of all degrees, varied riches. A VISIT FROM ST. NICHOLAS CLEMENT C. MOORE 'Twas the night before Christmas, when all through the house Not a creature was stirring, not even a mouse. The stockings were hung by the chimney with care, In hopes that St. Nicholas soon would be there The children were nestled all snug in their beds, While visions of sugarplums danced through their heads; And mamma in her kerchief, and I in my cap, Had just settled our brains for a long winter's nap-- When out on the lawn there arose such a clatter, I sprang from my bed to see what was the matter. Away to the window I flew like a flash, Tore open the shutters, and threw up the sash; The moon on the breast of the new-fallen snow Gave a luster of midday to objects below; When what to my wondering eyes should appear But a miniature sleigh and eight tiny reindeer, With a little old driver, so lively and quick, I knew in a moment it must be St. Nick. More rapid than eagles his coursers they came, And he whistled, and shouted, and called them by name: "Now, Dasher! now, Dancer! now, Prancer and Vixen! On, Comet! on, Cupid! on, Donder and Blitzen!-- To the top of the porch, to the top of the wall, Now, dash away, dash away, dash away, all!" As dry leaves that before the wild hurricane fly, When they meet with an obstacle, mount to the sky, So, up to the housetop the coursers they flew, With a sleigh full of toys--and St. Nicholas, too. And then, in a twinkling, I heard on the roof The prancing and pawing of each little hoof. As I drew in my head, and was turning around, Down the chimney St. Nicholas came with a bound; He was dressed all in fur from his head to his foot, And his clothes were all tarnished with ashes and soot. A bundle of toys he had flung on his back, And he looked like a peddler just opening his pack. His eyes, how they twinkled! his dimples, how merry! His cheeks were like roses, his nose like a cherry; His droll little mouth was drawn up like a bow, And the beard on his chin was as white as the snow. The stump of a pipe he held tight in his teeth, And the smoke, it encircled his head like a wreath. He had a broad face, and a little round belly That shook when he laughed, like a bowl full of jelly. He was chubby and plump--a right jolly old elf; And I laughed when I saw him, in spite of myself. A wink of his eye and a twist of his head Soon gave me to know I had nothing to dread. He spoke not a word, but went straight to his work, And filled all the stockings; then turned with a jerk, And laying his finger aside of his nose, And giving a nod, up the chimney he rose. He sprang to his sleigh, to his team gave a whistle, And away they all flew like the down of a thistle. But I heard him exclaim, ere they drove out of sight, "Happy Christmas to all, and to all a good night." NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biography. Clement C. Moore (1779-1863) was am American poet and author. He lived in New York City, where for many years he was engaged in educational work. Discussion. 1. What picture do the first eight lines of this poem give you? 2. Does this picture seem real to you? 3. Of what were the children dreaming? 4. What word do you use instead of sugarplums? 5. What picture do you find in lines 7-10, page 96? 6 What is the next picture? Find the lines that make it. 7. To what is the swiftness of the reindeer compared? 8. What words show how lightly the reindeer flew through the air? 9. Find the lines that picture St. Nicholas after he came down the chimney. 10. Which of all the pictures in the entire poem can you see most distinctly? 11. Which do you like best? 12. What did you read in "A Forward Look," pages 83-86, about the value of the home festivals? What does a love of these festivals do for us? What should we lose if we did not celebrate them? 13. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: clatter; coursers; hurricane; obstacle; twinkling; tarnished; encircled; elf. 14. Pronounce: miniature; tiny; chimney; droll. OUR COUNTRY AND ITS FLAG THE LAND OF LIBERTY (AUTHOR UNKNOWN) I love my country's pine-clad hills, Her thousand bright and gushing rills, Her sunshine and her storms; Her rough and rugged rocks, that rear Their hoary heads high in the air In wild, fantastic forms. I love her rivers, deep and wide, Those mighty streams that seaward glide To seek the ocean's breast; Her smiling fields, her pleasant vales, Her shady dells, her flow'ry dales, The haunts of peaceful rest. I love her forests, dark and lone, For there the wild bird's merry tone I hear from morn till night; And there are lovelier flowers, I ween, Than e'er in Eastern lands were seen, In varied colors bright. Her forests and her valleys fair, Her flowers that scent the morning air-- All have their charms for me; But more I love my country's name, Those words that echo deathless fame, "The Land of Liberty." NOTES AND QUESTIONS Discussion. 1. What parts of our country are noted for pine forests? 2. What things about America call forth the love of the poet? 3. Does he have all parts of America in mind, or some part that he knows well? 4. What name does he give America? Why does this "echo deathless fame"? 5. Name one of the "mighty streams that seaward glide." 6. What does the poet say makes the forests beautiful? 7. This poem is similar in many ways to the national hymn, "America." Compare it with the words of the hymn in as many ways as you can. 8. Commit to memory the last three lines of the poem. 9. Why is our country called "The Land of Liberty"? 10. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: gushing; rills; rugged; rear; vales; dells; lone; ween. 11. Pronounce: hoary; fantastic; haunts; echo. Phrases for Study pine-clad hills, smiling fields, fantastic forms, flow'ry dales, seaward glide, Eastern lands, ocean's breast, deathless fame. THE FLAG OF OUR COUNTRY Charles Sumner There is the national flag. He must be cold indeed who can look upon its folds, rippling in the breeze, without pride of country. If he be in a foreign land, the flag is companionship and country itself, with all its endearments. Its highest beauty is in what it symbolizes. It is because it represents all, that all gaze at it with delight and reverence. It is a piece of bunting lifted in the air; but it speaks sublimely, and every part has a voice. Its stripes of alternate red and white proclaim the original union of thirteen states to maintain the Declaration of Independence. Its stars of white on a field of blue proclaim that union of states constituting our national constellation, which receives a new star with every new state. The two together signify union past and present. The very colors have a language which was officially recognized by our fathers. White is for purity, red for valor, blue for justice; and all together, bunting, stripes, stars, and colors, blazing in the sky, make the flag of our country to be cherished by all our hearts, to be upheld by all our hands. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biography. Charles Sumner (1811-1874), an American statesman and orator, was born in Boston, Massachusetts. He became United States senator in 1851. "The Flag of Our Country" is taken from an address delivered in 1867 at Cooper Institute in New York. Discussion. 1. Each paragraph in this selection has a separate message. Does the first paragraph fit America only, or could an Englishman say the same thing about his national flag, and a Frenchman of his? What then is the thing that any flag represents to the citizen of the country to which he belongs? 2. What facts peculiar to America does the second paragraph give you? 3. How many stripes has the flag? 4. How many stars were in the first American flag? How many are there now? 5. What is meant by "union past and present"? 6. "White is for purity"--in what way does this express the ideals of the founders of our country? 7. Do you know the rules for the raising and lowering of the flag? 8. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: rippling; reverence; bunting; proclaim; original; maintain; constituting; valor; cherished. 9. Pronounce: symbolizes; sublimely; alternate; constellation. Phrases for Study he must be cold, national constellation, all its endearments, signify union, speaks sublimely, officially recognized, every part has a voice, blazing in the sky. THE NAME OF OLD GLORY 1898 James Whitcomb Riley I Old Glory! say, who, By the ships and the crew, And the long, blended ranks of the gray and the blue,-- Who gave you, Old Glory, the name that you bear With such pride everywhere As you cast yourself free to the rapturous air And leap out full-length, as we're wanting you to?-- Who gave you that name, with the ring of the same, And the honor and fame so becoming to you?-- Your stripes stroked in ripples of white and of red, With your stars at their glittering best overhead-- By day or by night Their delightfulest light Laughing down from their little square heaven of blue!-- Who gave you the name of Old Glory?--say, who-- Who gave you the name of Old Glory? The old banner lifted, and altering then In vague lisps and whispers fell silent again. II Old Glory,--speak out!--we are asking about How you happened to "favor" a name, so to say, That sounds so familiar and careless and gay As we cheer it and shout in our wild breezy way-- We--the crowd, every man of us, calling you that-- We--Tom, Dick, and Harry--each swinging his hat And hurrahing "Old Glory!" like you were our kin, When--Lord!--we all know we're as common as sin! And yet it just seems like you humor us all And waft us your thanks, as we hail you and fall Into line, with you over us, waving us on Where our glorified, sanctified betters have gone,-- And this is the reason we're wanting to know-- (And we're wanting it so!-- Where our own fathers went we are willing to go.)-- Who gave you the name of Old Glory--O-ho!-- Who gave you the name of Old Glory? The old flag unfurled with a billowy thrill For an instant, then wistfully sighed and was still. III Old Glory: the story we're wanting to hear Is what the plain facts of your christening were,-- For your name--just to hear it. Repeat it, and cheer it, 's a tang to the spirit As salty as a tear;-- And seeing you fly, and the boys marching by, There's a shout in the throat and a blur in the eye And an aching to live for you always--or die, If, dying, we still keep you waving on high. And so, by our love For you, floating above, And the sears of all wars and the sorrows thereof, Who gave you the name of Old Glory, and why Are we thrilled at the name of Old Glory? Then the old banner leaped, like a sail in the blast, And fluttered an audible answer at last.-- IV And it spake, with a shake of the voice, and it said:-- By the driven snow-white and the living blood-red Of my bars, and their heaven of stars overhead-- By the symbol conjoined of them all, skyward cast, As I float from the steeple, or flap at the mast, Or droop o'er the sod where the long grasses nod,-- My name is as old as the glory of God. ...So I came by the name of Old Glory. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biography. James Whitcomb Riley (1852-1916) was a native of Indiana. Most of his life was spent in Indianapolis, where he lived on the quiet Lockerbie Street which he celebrated in one of his poems. He is called "The Hoosier Poet." He wrote several volumes of poems, the first being The Old Swimmin' Hole and 'Leven More Poems. The school children of Indiana celebrated Riley's birthday on October 7, 1911, and have each year since made this a festival day. Discussion. Because of the many figurative expressions used in this selection it should be read and studied in class. THE STAR-SPANGLED BANNER FRANCIS SCOTT KEY O say, can you see, by the dawn's early light, What so proudly we hailed at the twilight's last gleaming? Whose broad stripes and bright stars, through the perilous fight, O'er the ramparts we watched were so gallantly streaming; And the rockets' red glare, the bombs bursting in air, Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there; O say, does that Star-Spangled Banner yet wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave? On that shore dimly seen through the mists of the deep, Where the foe's haughty host in dread silence reposes, What is that which the breeze, o'er the towering steep, As it fitfully blows, now conceals, now discloses? Now it catches the gleam of the morning's first beam-- In full glory reflected now shines in the stream; 'Tis the Star-Spangled Banner; O long may it wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave! And where are the foes who so vauntingly swore That the havoc of war and the battle's confusion A home and a country should leave us no more? Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps' pollution. No refuge could save the hireling and slave From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave; And the Star-Spangled Banner in triumph doth wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave! O thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand Between their loved homes and the war desolation; Blest with victory and peace, may the heav'n-rescued land Praise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation! Then conquer we must, for our cause it is just, And this be our motto, "In God is our trust"; And the Star-Spangled Banner in triumph shall wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave! NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biographical and Historical Note. Francis Scott Key (1780-1843), a native of Maryland, was a lawyer and poet. His patriotic poem, "The Star-Spangled Banner," which has become a national song, made him famous. The incidents referred to in this poem occurred during the War of 1812. In August, 1814, a strong force of British entered Washington and burned the Capitol, the White House, and many other public buildings. On September 13, the British admiral moved his fleet into position to attack Fort McHenry, near Baltimore. The bombardment of the fort lasted all night, but the fort was so bravely defended that the flag was still floating over it when morning came. Just before the bombardment began, Francis Scott Key was sent to the admiral's frigate to arrange for an exchange of prisoners, and was told to wait until the bombardment was over. All night he watched the fort, and by the first rays of morning light he saw he Stars and Stripes still waving. Then, in his joy and pride, he wrote the stirring words of the song which is now known and loved by all Americans--"The Star-Spangled Banner." Discussion. 1. What lines in the poem are explained by the historical note above? 2. The poem expresses the love and reverence felt by patriots when the flag is endangered by the attacks of armed men in war. What is said on page 84 about the danger to our country in a time of peace? From what people? Can you do anything to prevent this danger? 3. Where was the reflection of the flag seen? 4. What is the meaning of "thus" in line 1, page 105? 5. What land is the "heav'n-rescued land"? 6. What does the poet mean when he speaks of the "Power that hath made and preserved us a nation," line 4, page 105? 7. Find the words that must be our country's motto. 8. Do you think this national song cheered the American soldiers in the recent World War? 9. Explain why you think the picture on page 98 aptly illustrates "Our Country and Its Flag." 10. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: dawn; gleaming; host; discloses; beam; triumph. 11. Pronounce: haughty; vauntingly; pollution; hireling; desolation. Phrases for Study proudly we hailed, fitfully blows, gallantly streaming, catches the gleam, Star-Spangled, full glory reflected, mists of the deep, havoc of war, dread silence reposes, foul footsteps' pollution. THE BOYHOOD OF LINCOLN ELBRIDGE S. BROOKS The future president of the United States was eight years old when he spent the winter with his father, mother, and sister in the "half-faced camp" on Little Pigeon Creek. It was indeed rough living in the Lincoln home on Little Pigeon Creek. When he was "good and ready," the father, Thomas Lincoln, set about building a better shelter for his family than the forlorn "half-faced camp." The new building was not such a great improvement, but it was more like a house. It was a rough cabin of logs, without door, window, or floor. But it seemed so much better than the shanty in which they had been living that Abraham felt quite princely. His life was lonely enough in that wilderness; but, before many months, he had company. His Uncle and Aunt Sparrow and his boy cousin, Dennis Hanks came from Kentucky to try their luck in Indiana. Abraham's father gave them the old "half-faced camp" as a home, and so the Lincolns had near neighbors. But before the winter set in, there came sad days to both houses. A terrible sickness--what we call an epidemic--visited that section of Indiana. Many people died from it, and among these were first, Uncle and Aunt Sparrow, and then Mrs. Lincoln, the mother of Abraham. It was a poor kind of housekeeping they had in that shiftless home on Little Pigeon Creek after the mother of the home had been taken away. Sarah, the eldest child, was only twelve; Abraham was but ten, and little Dennis Hanks was eight. Sarah tried to keep house; and her father, in his careless way, tried to help her. But about all they could do was to keep from going hungry. Deer-meat broiled on the coals of the wood-fire, ash-cakes made of cornmeal, with now and then a slab of pork, was their only bill of fare. About all the pleasure Abraham found when he was not trying to keep from being cold and hungry, was in his books. How many do you think he had? Just three: the Bible, Aesop's Fables, and The Pilgrim's Progress. Think of that, you boys and girls who have more books than you can read, and for whom the printing presses are always hard at work. The boy knew these three books almost by heart. He could repeat whole chapters of the Bible, many parts of The Pilgrim's Progress, and every one of Aesop's Fables; and he never forgot them. Thomas Lincoln knew that the uncomfortable state of affairs in his log cabin could not long continue, or his home, such as it was, would go to ruin. So one day he bade the children good-by and told them he was going back to Kentucky on a visit. He was away for three weeks; but when he returned from his Kentucky visit in December, 1819, he brought back a new wife to look after his home and be a mother to his motherless children. Mrs. Lincoln seemed to take an especial liking to the little ten-year-old Abraham. She saw something in the boy that made her feel sure that a little guidance would do wonders for him. Having first made him clean and comfortable, she next made him intelligent, bright, and good. She managed to send him to school for a few months. The little log schoolhouse, close to the meeting-house, to which the traveling schoolmaster would come to give four weeks' schooling, was scarcely high enough for a man to stand straight in; it had holes for windows and greased paper to take the place of glass. But in such a place Abraham Lincoln "got his schooling" for a few weeks only in "reading, writing, and ciphering"; here he was again and again head of his class; and here he "spelled down" all the big boys and girls in the exciting contests called "spelling matches." He became a great reader. He read every book and newspaper he could get hold of, and if he came across anything in his reading that he wished to remember, he would copy it on a shingle, because writing paper was scarce, and either learn it by heart or hide the shingle away until he could get some paper to copy it on. Lamps and candles were almost unknown in his home, and Abraham, flat on his stomach, would often do his reading, writing, and ciphering in the firelight, as it flashed and flickered on the big hearth of his log-cabin home. One day Abraham found that a man for whom he sometimes worked owned a copy of Weems's Life of Washington. This was a famous book in its day. Abraham borrowed it at once. When he was not reading it, he put it away on a shelf--a clapboard resting on wooden pins. There was a big crack between the log behind the shelf, and one rainy day the Life of Washington fell into the crack and was soaked almost into pulp. Young Abraham went at once to the owner of the book and, after telling him of the accident promised to "work the book out." The old farmer kept him so strictly to his promise that he made him "pull fodder" for the cattle three days as payment for the book. And that is the way that Abraham Lincoln bought his first book. For he dried the Life of Washington and put it in his "library." What boy or girl of today would like to buy books at such a price? NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biography. Elbridge S. Brooks (1846-1902) was a native of Massachusetts. He was always interested in stories of history, for his mother descended from the Monroes, who fought bravely at Lexington. He was for a time one of the editors of St. Nicholas. Discussion. 1. What were the hardships suffered by the young Lincoln in the Indiana wilderness? 2. What do you learn about Lincoln's reading? About his school life? 3. What was the first book Lincoln owned, and how did he get it? 4. What do you suppose Lincoln learned from the life of Washington? 5. How did Lincoln fix in his memory things that he wished to remember? 6. What characteristics of the boy help to explain why he afterwards became such a great man? 7. You will enjoy reading The True Story of Lincoln, from which this selection is taken. 8. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: forlorn; shanty; princely; wilderness; epidemic; shiftless; ash-cakes; slab; guidance; ciphering; clapboard; pulp. 9. Pronounce: Aesop; bade. Phrases for Study half-faced camp, spelled down, uncomfortable state, work the book out, traveling schoolmaster, pull fodder. WASHINGTON WITH GENERAL BRADDOCK ELBRIDGE S. BROOKS The King of England and his advisers determined to make a stand in America against the French. So they sent over two regiments of British troops under command of a brave soldier whose name was Braddock, and told him to get what help he could in Virginia and drive out the French. General Braddock came to Virginia with his splendid-looking fighting men. When he had studied the situation there, one of the first things he did was to ask Colonel George Washington of Mount Vernon to come with him as one of his chief assistants. Washington at once accepted. He saw that now the King of England "meant business," and that if General Braddock were as wise as he was brave, the trouble in the Ohio country might be speedily ended and the French driven out. But when he had joined General Braddock, he discovered that that brave but obstinate leader thought that battles were to be fought in America just the same as in Europe, and that soldiers could be marched against such forest-fighters as the French and Indians as if they were going on a parade. Washington did all he could to advise caution. It was of no use, however. General Braddock said that he was a soldier and knew how to fight, and that he did not wish for any advice from these Americans who had never seen a real battle. At last everything was ready, and in July, 1755, the army, led by General Braddock, marched off to attack Fort Duquesne, which the French had built at Pittsburgh. Washington had worked so hard to get things ready that he was sick in bed with fever when the soldiers started; but, without waiting to get well, he hurried after them and caught up with them on the ninth of July, at a ford on the Monongahela, fifteen miles from Fort Duquesne. The British troops, in full uniform, and in regular order as if they were to drill before the King, marched straight on in splendid array. Washington thought it the most beautiful show he had ever seen; but he said to the general: "Do not let the soldiers march into the woods like that. The Frenchmen and the Indians may even now be hiding behind the trees ready to shoot us down. Let me send some men ahead to see where they are, and let some of our Virginians who are used to fighting in the forest go before to clear them away." But General Braddock told him to mind his own business, and marched on as gallantly as ever. Suddenly, just as they reached a narrow part of the road, where the woods were all about them, the Frenchmen and Indians who were waiting for them behind the great trees and underbrush opened fire upon the British troops, and there came just such a dreadful time as Washington had feared. But even now Braddock would not give in. His soldiers must fight as they had been drilled to fight in Europe; and when the Virginians who were with him tried to fight as they had been accustomed to, he called them cowards and ordered them to form in line. It was all over very soon. The British soldiers, fired upon from all sides and scarcely able to see where their enemies were, became frightened, huddled together, and made all the better marks for the bullets of the French and Indians hiding among the trees and bushes. Then General Braddock fell from his horse, mortally wounded; his splendidly-drilled redcoats broke into panic, turned, and ran away; and only the coolness of Washington and the Virginia forest-fighters who were with him saved the entire army from being cut to pieces. Washington fought like a hero. Two horses that he rode were killed while he kept in the saddle; his coat was shot through and through, and it seemed as if he would be killed any moment. But he kept on fighting, caring nothing for danger. He tried to turn back the fleeing British troops; he tried to bring back the cannon, and, when the gunners ran away, he leaped from his horse and aimed and fired the cannon himself. Then with his Virginians, that Braddock had so despised as soldiers, he protected the rear of the retreating army, carried off the dying general and, cool and collected in the midst of all the terrible things that were happening, saved the British army from slaughter, buried poor General Braddock in the Virginia woods, and finally brought back to the settlements what was left of that splendid army of the King. He was the only man in all that time of disaster who came out of the fight with glory and renown. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Discussion. 1. Tell what you can of the contest for territory in America between the French and the English. 2. Who was General Braddock and for what was he sent to America? 3. Compare Washington and General Braddock in as many ways as you can. 4. Why did Washington do all he could to help General Braddock in spite of the fact that he knew Braddock was not acting wisely? 5. How did Washington gain glory from the engagement? 6. What are you told on page 84 about the value to us of studying the lives of great Americans? What do you owe to Washington and Lincoln? 7. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: advisers; situation; caution; ford; array; gallantly; huddled; collected; disaster; renown. 8. Pronounce: Duquesne; Monongahela; mortally; wounded. SERVICE SOMEBODY'S MOTHER (AUTHOR UNKNOWN) The woman was old and ragged and gray And bent with the chill of the winter's day. The street was wet with the recent snow, And the woman's feet were aged and slow. She stood at the crossing and waited long Alone, uncared for, amid the throng Of human beings who passed her by, Nor heeded the glance of her anxious eye. Down the street with laughter and shout. Glad in the freedom of "school let out," Came the boys like a flock of sheep, Hailing the snow piled white and deep. Past the woman so old and gray Hastened the children on their way, Nor offered a helping hand to her, So meek, so timid, afraid to stir, Lest the carriage wheels or the horses' feet Should crowd her down in the slippery street. At last came one of the merry troop, The gayest laddie of all the group; He paused beside her and whispered low, "I'll help you across if you wish to go." Her aged hand on his strong young arm She placed, and so, without hurt or harm, He guided her trembling feet along, Proud that his own were firm and strong. Then back again to his friends he went, His young heart happy and well content. "She's somebody's mother, boys, you know, For all she's aged and poor and slow; "And I hope some fellow will lend a hand To help my mother, you understand, If ever she's poor and old and gray, When her own dear boy is far away." And "somebody's mother" bowed low her head In her home that night, and the prayer she said Was, "God be kind to the noble boy Who is somebody's son and pride and joy." NOTES AND QUESTIONS Discussion. 1. Here is a story about a boy who saw a chance to do a service and did it; how was he different from his companions? 2. What were they interested in? 3. Wasn't he also eager to do what they did? 4. Why did he stop and help the old woman? 5. How did the woman feel toward the boy? 6. How do you think his own mother would have felt if she had seen him? 7. Why is this incident a splendid example of service? How was this boy doing his part as a good citizen? THE LEAK IN THE DIKE PHOEBE CARY The good dame looked from her cottage At the close of the pleasant day, And cheerily called to her little son Outside the door at play: "Come, Peter, come! I want you to go, While there is light to see, To the hut of the blind old man who lives Across the dike, for me; And take these cakes I made for him-- They are hot and smoking yet; You have time enough to go and come Before the sun is set." And Peter left the brother With whom all day he had played, And the sister who had watched their sports In the willow's tender shade; And told them they'd see him back before They saw a star in sight, Though he wouldn't be afraid to go In the very darkest night! For he was a brave, bright fellow With eye and conscience clear; He could do whatever a boy might do, And he had not learned to fear. And now with his face all glowing And eyes as bright as the day With the thoughts of his pleasant errand, He trudged along the way; And soon his joyous prattle Made glad a lonesome place-- Alas! if only the blind old man Could have seen that happy face! Yet he somehow caught the brightness Which his voice and presence lent; And he felt the sunshine come and go As Peter came and went. And now as the day was sinking, And the winds began to rise, The mother looked from her door again, Shading her anxious eyes, And saw the shadows deepen And birds to their homes come back, But never a sign of Peter Along the level track. But she said: "He will come at morning, So I need not fret or grieve-- Though it isn't like my boy at all To stay without my leave." But where was the child delaying? On the homeward way was he; And across the dike while the sun was up An hour above the sea; He was stopping now to gather flowers, Now listening to the sound, As the angry waters dashed themselves Against their narrow bound. "Ah! well for us," said Peter, "That the gates are good and strong, And my father tends them carefully, Or they would not hold you long! You're a wicked sea," said Peter; "I know why you fret and chafe; You would like to spoil our land and homes; But our sluices keep you safe." But hark! through the noise of waters Comes a low, clear, trickling sound; And the child's face pales with terror, And his blossoms drop to the ground. He is up the bank in a moment And, stealing through the sand He sees a stream not yet so large As his slender childish hand. 'Tis a leak in the dike! He is but a boy, Unused to fearful scenes; But, young as he is, he has learned to know The dreadful thing that means. A leak in the dike! The stoutest heart Grows faint that cry to hear. And the bravest man in all the land Turns white with mortal fear, For he knows the smallest leak may grow To a flood in a single night; And he knows the strength of the cruel sea When loosed in its angry might. And the boy! he has seen the danger And, shouting a wild alarm, He forces back the weight of the sea With the strength of his single arm! He listens for the joyful sound Of a footstep passing nigh; And lays his ear to the ground, to catch The answer to his cry. And he hears the rough winds blowing, And the waters rise and fall, But never an answer comes to him Save the echo of his call. So, faintly calling and crying Till the sun is under the sea, Crying and moaning till the stars Come out for company, He thinks of his brother and sister, Asleep in their safe warm bed; He thinks of his father and mother, Of himself as dying--and dead; And of how, when the night is over, They must come and find him at last; But he never thinks he can leave the place Where duty holds him fast. The good dame in the cottage Is up and astir with the light, For the thought of her little Peter Has been with her all the night. And now she watches the pathway, As yester eve she had done; But what does she see so strange and black Against the rising sun? Her neighbors are bearing between them Something straight to her door; Her child is coming home, but not As he ever came before! "He is dead!" she cries; "thy darling!" And the startled father hears, And comes and looks the way she looks, And fears the thing she fears; Till a glad shout from the bearers Thrills the stricken man and wife-- "Give thanks, for your son has saved our land, And God has saved his life!" So, there in the morning sunshine They knelt about the boy; And every head was bared and bent In tearful, reverent joy. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biography. Phoebe Cary (1824-1871) was an American poet. She was born in Cincinnati and lived with her sister, Alice, in New York City. She wrote many poems of beauty and charm, but none is more widely read than "The Leak in the Dike." Note. A large part of Holland consists of meadow-land so low and flat that the sea would overflow it during high tide if it were not protected, partly by natural sand hills but more by a wonderful system of diking. The dikes are long mounds, or thick walls, of earth and stone, broad at the base and gradual in slope. Discussion. 1. What purpose do the dikes of Holland serve? 2. There were no Boy Scouts in those days, but here is a story of a boy who would have been a good member of the Scouts. Why? 3. What service did Peter's mother call him to render? 4. Had he done such things before? 5. How did the blind man think of Peter? 6. How did Peter find the danger? 7. What would many boys have done? 8. How did he stop the leak in the dike? 9. What would have happened if he had grown afraid, or tired? 10. Peter saw a duty to be performed and was brave enough to do it, though it was not easy, and might have cost him his life. What were the results of his quick wit and courage? 11. How was Peter doing his part as a good citizen? 12. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: prattle; presence; anxious; trickling; stoutest; save; astir; yester; stricken. 13. Pronounce: chafe; sluices; loosed. Phrases for Study narrow bound, sun is under the sea, mortal fear, duty holds him fast. CASABLANCA FELICIA DOROTHEA HEMANS The boy stood on the burning deck Whence all but him had fled; The flame that lit the battle's wreck Shone round him o'er the dead. Yet, beautiful and bright he stood, As born to rule the storm-- A creature of heroic blood, A proud, though childlike, form. The flames rolled on--he would not go Without his father's word; That father, faint in death below, His voice no longer heard. He called aloud: "Say, father, say If yet my task is done!" He knew not that the chieftain lay Unconscious of his son. "Speak, father!" once again he cried, "If I may yet be gone!" And but the booming shots replied, And fast the flames rolled on. Upon his brow he felt their breath, And in his waving hair, And looked from that lone post of death In still, yet brave, despair; And shouted but once more aloud, "My father! must I stay?" While o'er him fast, through sail and shroud, The wreathing fires made way. They wrapped the ship in splendor wild, They caught the flag on high, And streamed above the gallant child Like banners in the sky. There came a burst of thunder sound-- The boy--oh! where was he? Ask of the winds that far around With fragments strewed the sea-- With mast, and helm, and pennon fair. That well had borne their part; But the noblest thing which perished there Was that young, faithful heart! NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biographical and Historical Note. Felicia Hemans, (1793-1835), an English poet, was born in Liverpool, but spent much of her life in North Wales. "Casabianca" and "The Landing of the Pilgrims" are her best known poems. The hero of this poem was the son of Louis Casabianca, the captain of L'Orient, the flagship of the fleet that carried Napoleon Bonaparte and his army to Egypt. The incident narrated in this poem occurred during the Battle of the Nile. The powder magazine exploded, the ship was burned, and the captain, and his son perished. Discussion. 1. How did it happen that the boy was alone on the "burning deck"? 2. Find two lines in the third stanza that tell how the boy showed his faithfulness and his "heroic blood." 3. Why is his father called the "chieftain"? 4. What did the boy ask his father? 5. Why did he remain in such great danger when he might have saved himself? 6. What was it that "wrapped the ship in splendor wild"? 7. What made the "burst of thunder sound"? 8. What things are mentioned as fragments which "strewed the sea"? 9. Why is it good for us to read such a poem as this? 10. What service did Casabianca do for all of us? 11. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: chieftain; unconscious; booming; despair; fragments; pennon. 12. Pronounce: heroic; shroud; helm. Phrases for Study born to rule the storm, wreathing fires, heroic blood, splendor wild, lone post of death, borne their part. TUBAL CAIN Charles MacKay Old Tubal Cain was a man of might In the days when the earth was young; By the fierce red light of his furnace bright The strokes of his hammer rung; And he lifted high his brawny hand On the iron glowing clear. Till the sparks rushed out in scarlet showers, As he fashioned the sword and spear. And he sang, "Hurrah for my handiwork! Hurrah for the spear and sword! Hurrah for the hand that shall wield them well! For he shall be king and lord." To Tubal Cain came many a one. As he wrought by his roaring fire. And each one prayed for a strong steel blade, As the crown of his desire; And he made them weapons, sharp and strong, Till they shouted loud in glee. And gave him gifts of pearls and gold, And spoils of forest free. And they sang, "Hurrah for Tubal Cain, Who hath given us strength anew! Hurrah for the smith! hurrah for the fire! And hurrah for the metal true!" But a sudden change came o'er his heart Ere the setting of the sun, And Tubal Cain was filled with pain For the evil he had done. He saw that men, with rage and hate, Made war upon their kind; That the land was red with the blood they shed In their lust for carnage, blind. And he said, "Alas, that ever I made, Or that skill of mine should plan, The spear and the sword for men whose joy Is to slay their fellow-man!" And for many a day old Tubal Cain Sat brooding o'er his woe; And his hand forbore to smite the ore, And his furnace smoldered low; But he rose at last with a cheerful face And a bright, courageous eye, And bared his strong right arm for work, While the quick flames mounted high; And he sang, "Hurrah for my handiwork!" And the red sparks lit the air-- "Not alone for the blade was the bright steel made"-- And he fashioned the first plowshare. And men, taught wisdom from the past, In friendship joined their hands, Hung the sword in the hall, the spear on the wall, And plowed the willing lands; And sang, "Hurrah for Tubal Cain! Our stanch good friend is he. And, for the plowshare and the plow, To him our praise shall be. But, while oppression lifts its head, Or a tyrant would be lord, Though we may thank him for the plow, We'll not forget the sword." NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biography. Charles Mackay (1814-1889) was a Scotch poet. For some years he was editor of the Glasgow Argus, and afterwards he became editor of the Illustrated London News. During the Civil War he was the special correspondent of the London Times at New York. He wrote many poems of interest to young people. Historical Note. Tubal Cain was one of the sons of Lamech, a descendant of Cain. He was an "instructor of every artificer in brass and iron," that is, he was the first smith. All that we really know of his history is given in the fourth chapter of Genesis. Discussion. 1. What did Tubal Cain first make on his forge? 2. Why did he think that his work was good? 3. What did men say about him? 4. How did Tubal Cain feel when he saw what men were doing with the products of his forge? 5. What did he do then? 6. What made his face "cheerful" at last? 7. Is it better to make instruments of war or tools for industry? 8. Why was Tubal Cain happy when he made plows? 9. Was he working for money, or for service? 10. Explain the last four lines. 11. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: fashioned; handiwork; wrought; anew; lust; brooding; forbore; plowshare. 12. Pronounce: hurrah; wield; carnage; smoldered; stanch. Phrases for Study man of might, smite the ore, earth was young, taught wisdom from the past, crown of his desire, spoils of forest free, willing lands, metal true, oppression lifts its head, upon their kind, tyrant would be lord, whose joy is to slay. THE INCHCAPE ROCK ROBERT SOUTHEY No stir in the air, no stir in the sea; The ship was still as she could be; Her sails from Heaven received no motion; Her keel was steady in the ocean. Without either sign or sound of their shock, The waves flowed over the Inchcape Rock; So little they rose, so little they fell, They did not move the Inchcape Bell. The holy Abbot of Aberbrothok Had placed that bell on the Inchcape Rock; On a buoy in the storm it floated and swung, And over the waves its warning rung. When the rock was hid by the surge's swell, The mariners heard the warning bell; And then they knew the perilous rock And blessed the Abbot of Aberbrothok. The sun in heaven was shining gay; All things were joyful on that day; The sea-birds screamed as they wheeled around, And there was joyance in their sound. The buoy of the Inchcape Bell was seen, A darker speck on the ocean green; Sir Ralph the Rover walked his deck, And he fixed his eye on the darker speck. He felt the cheering power of spring; It made him whistle, it made him sing; His heart was mirthful to excess, But the Rover's mirth was wickedness. His eye was on the Inchcape float; Quoth he, "My men, put out the boat And row me to the Inchcape Rock, And I'll plague the Abbot of Aberbrothok." The boat is lowered, the boatmen row, And to the Inchcape Rock they go; Sir Ralph bent over from the boat, And he cut the bell from the Inchcape float. Down sank the bell, with a gurgling sound; The bubbles rose and burst around; Quoth Sir Ralph, "The next who comes to the Rock Won't bless the Abbot of Aberbrothok!" Sir Ralph the Rover sailed away; He scoured the seas for many a day; And now grown rich with plundered store, He steers his course for Scotland's shore. So thick a haze o'erspreads the sky They cannot see the sun on high; The wind hath blown a gale all day; At evening it hath died away. On the deck the Rover takes his stand; So dark it is they see no land. Quoth Sir Ralph, "It will be lighter soon, For there is dawn of the rising moon." "Canst hear," said one, "the breakers roar? For methinks we should be near the shore." "Now where we are I cannot tell, But I wish I could hear the Inchcape Bell." They hear no sound; the swell is strong; Though the wind hath fallen, they drift along Till the vessel strikes with a shivering shock-- "O Christ! it is the Inchcape Rock!" NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biographical and Historical Note. Robert Southey (1774-1843) was an English poet. From 1813 until his death he was Poet Laureate of England. Bell Rock, or Inchcape, is a reef of red sandstone near the Firth of Tay, on the east coast of Scotland. At the time of the spring tides part of the reef is uncovered to the height of four feet. Because so many vessels were wrecked upon these rocks the Abbot of Aberbrothok is said to have placed a bell there, "fixed upon a tree or timber, which rang continually, being moved by the sea." Discussion. 1. What picture do you see when you read the first stanza? The second stanza? 2. This story tells about a man who failed. You have read about Peter's heroism and the lives he saved, about the service a schoolboy rendered to a poor old woman, about a blacksmith who joyously made the tools by which men raised fruit and grain for food, and about a boy who was faithful to orders, even though it cost his life. Here you see how men sometimes try to make of no effect all the good deeds that others perform. 3. The Abbot of Aberbrothok was a man who lived up to the ideal of service; how did he do this, and why did men bless him? 4. Ralph the Rover was a pirate; why did he destroy the bell? 5. All the others in the stories you have read, boys and men, thought less of themselves than of others; of what did Ralph think? 6. Is a merchant who raises the price of food as high as he can, who makes huge profits while others suffer or starve, any better than Ralph the Rover? 7. What test of loyalty to our country, would prove such a man to be a "bad citizen"? 8. Ralph was a free man--what did "liberty" mean to him? 9. What happened to Ralph the Rover? 10. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: keel; abbot; perilous; joyance; breakers; methinks. 11. Pronounce: buoy; mariners; excess; scoured. Phrases for Study sound of their shock, mirthful to excess, surge's swell, plague the Abbot, cheering power of spring, plundered store. MY BOYHOOD ON THE PRAIRIE HAMLIN GARLAND The cabin faced a level plain with no tree in sight. A mile away to the west stood a low stone house, and immediately in front of us opened a half-section of unfenced sod. To the north, as far as I could see, the land billowed like a russet ocean, with scarcely a roof to fleck its lonely spread. I cannot say that I liked or disliked it. I merely marveled at it; and while I wandered about the yard, the hired man scorched some cornmeal mush in a skillet, and this, with some butter and gingerbread, made up my first breakfast in Mitchell County. For a few days my brother and I had little to do other than to keep the cattle from straying, and we used our leisure in becoming acquainted with the region round about. To the south the sections were nearly all settled upon, for in that direction lay the county town; but to the north and on into Minnesota rolled the unplowed sod, the feeding ground of the cattle, the home of foxes and wolves, and to the west, just beyond the highest ridges, we loved to think the bison might still be seen. The cabin on this rented farm was a mere shanty, a shell of pine boards, which needed reinforcing to make it habitable, and one day my father said, "Well, Hamlin, I guess you'll have to run the plow-team this fall. I must help neighbor Button reinforce the house, and I can't afford to hire another man." This seemed a fine commission for a lad of ten, and I drove my horses into the field that first morning with a manly pride which added an inch to my stature. I took my initial "round" at a "land" which stretched from one side of the quarter section to the other, in confident mood. I was grown up! But alas! My sense of elation did not last long. To guide a team for a few minutes as an experiment was one thing--to plow all day like a hired hand was another. It was not a chore; it was a job. It meant moving to and fro hour after hour, day after day, with no one to talk to but the horses. It meant trudging eight or nine miles in the forenoon and as many more in the afternoon, with less than an hour off at noon. It meant dragging the heavy implement around the corners, and it meant also many shipwrecks; for the thick, wet stubble often threw the share completely out of the ground, making it necessary for me to halt the team and jerk the heavy plow backward for a new start. Although strong and active, I was rather short, even for a ten-year-old, and to reach the plow handles I was obliged to lift my hands above my shoulders; and so with the guiding lines crossed over my back and my worn straw hat bobbing just above the cross-brace I must have made a comical figure. At any rate nothing like it had been seen in the neighborhood; and the people on the road to town, looking across the field, laughed and called to me, and neighbor Button said to my father in my hearing, "That chap's too young to run a plow," a judgment which pleased and flattered me greatly. Harriet cheered me by running out occasionally to meet me as I turned the nearest corner, and sometimes Frank consented to go all the way around, chatting breathlessly as he trotted along behind. At other times he brought me a cookie and a glass of milk, a deed which helped to shorten the forenoon. And yet plowing became tedious. The flies were savage, especially in the middle of the day, and the horses, tortured by their lances, drove badly, twisting and turning in their rage. Their tails were continually getting over the lines, and in stopping to kick their tormentors they often got astride the traces, and in other ways made trouble for me. Only in the early morning or when the sun sank low at night were they able to move quietly along their way. The soil was the kind my father had been seeking, a smooth, dark, sandy loam, which made it possible for a lad to do the work of a man. Often the share would go the entire "round" without striking a root or a pebble as big as a walnut, the steel running steadily with a crisp, crunching, ripping sound which I rather liked to hear. In truth, the work would have been quite tolerable had it not been so long drawn out. Ten hours of it, even on a fine day, made about twice too many for a boy. Meanwhile I cheered myself in every imaginable way. I whistled. I sang. I studied the clouds. I gnawed the beautiful red skin from the seed vessels which hung upon the wild rose bushes, and I counted the prairie chickens as they began to come together in winter flocks, running through the stubble in search of food. I stopped now and again to examine the lizards unhoused by the share, and I measured the little granaries of wheat which the mice and gophers had deposited deep under the ground, storehouses which the plow had violated. My eyes dwelt enviously upon the sailing hawk and on the passing of ducks. The occasional shadowy figure of a prairie wolf made me wish for Uncle David and his rifle. On certain days nothing could cheer me. When the bitter wind blew from the north, and the sky was filled with wild geese racing southward with swiftly-hurrying clouds, winter seemed about to spring upon me. The horses' tails streamed in the wind. Flurries of snow covered me with clinging flakes, and the mud "gummed" my boots and trouser legs, clogging my steps. At such times I suffered from cold and loneliness--all sense of being a man evaporated. I was just a little boy, longing for the leisure of boyhood. Day after day, through the month of October and deep into November, I followed that team, turning over two acres of stubble each day. I would not believe this without proof, but it is true! At last it grew so cold that in the early morning everything was white with frost, and I was obliged to put one hand in my pocket to keep it warm, while holding the plow with the other; but I didn't mind this so much, for it hinted at the close of autumn. I've no doubt facing the wind in this way was excellent discipline, but I didn't think it necessary then, and my heart was sometimes bitter and rebellious. My father did not intend to be severe. As he had always been an early riser and a busy toiler, it seemed perfectly natural and good discipline that his sons should also plow and husk corn at ten years of age. He often told of beginning life as a "bound boy" at nine, and these stories helped me to perform my own tasks without whining. At last there came a morning when by striking my heel upon the ground I convinced my boss that the soil was frozen. "All right," he said; "you may lay off this forenoon." NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biography. Hamlin Garland (1860-1940) was born in Wisconsin. His father was a farmer-pioneer, who was always eager to be on the border line of the farming country; consequently, he moved from Wisconsin to Minnesota, from Minnesota to Iowa, and from Iowa to Dakota. The hope of cheaper land, better soil, and bigger crops led him on. When Hamlin Garland turned his attention to literature, he decided to write truthfully of the western farmer's life and its great hardships in pioneer days, as well as its hopes and joys. In A Son of the Middle Border, an autobiography, from which "My Boyhood on the Prairie" is taken, he has given a most interesting record of experiences in the development of the Middle West. Mitchell County, where this scene is laid, is in Iowa. Discussion. 1. Describe the boy's new home. 2. What work did the boy have to do? 3. In what spirit did he start the plowing? 4. Why did his "sense of elation" soon disappear? 5. Was his task harder than that of Peter or of the boy who helped "Somebody's Mother"? 6. Must a boy do some marvelous thing to be a hero? 7. How did the boy try to keep himself in good cheer? 8. In The World of Nature, A Forward Look you are told that if you have eyes to see, "the world of Nature is a fairyland." Why do you think this boy had "eyes to see"? Find your answer by reading the last two lines on page 131 and the first ten lines on page 132. 9. What made him wish for freedom? 10. Class reading: Page 131, line 8, to the end of the story. 11. Outline for testing silent reading. Tell the story briefly, using these topics: (a) the region and the cabin; (b) what plowing meant to a boy; (c) how the boy was cheered. 12. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: marveled; scorched; skillet; ridges; reinforcing; habitable; commission; stature; implement; stubble; share; cross-brace; judgment; tormentors; tolerable; unhoused; deposited; clog ging; evaporated. 13. Pronounce: chore; tedious; loam; imaginable; gopher; leisure. Phrases for Study billowed like a russet ocean, guiding lines, fleck its lonely spread, tortured by their lances, county town, astride the traces, initial round, go the entire round, confident mood, plow had violated, sense of elation, bound boy. WOODMAN, SPARE THAT TREE GEORGE P. MORRIS Woodman, spare that tree! Touch not a single bough; In youth it sheltered me, And I'll protect it now. 'Twas my forefather's hand That placed it near his cot; There, woodman, let it stand; Thy ax shall harm it not; That old familiar tree, Whose glory and renown Are spread o'er land and sea-- And wouldst thou hack it down? Woodman, forbear thy stroke! Cut not its earth-bound ties; Oh, spare that aged oak Now towering to the skies. When but an idle boy, I sought its grateful shade; In all their gushing joy, Here, too, my sisters played. My mother kissed me here; My father pressed my hand-- Forgive this foolish tear, But let that old oak stand! My heart-strings round thee cling, Close as thy bark, old friend! Here shall the wild-bird sing, And still thy branches bend. Old tree! the storm still brave! And, woodman, leave the spot; While I've a hand to save, Thy ax shall harm it not. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biography. George P. Morris (1802-1864) was born in Philadelphia. He was an editor and a poet and was connected with a number of newspapers in New York City. Discussion. 1. To whom is the poet speaking in these verses? 2. What does he wish to prevent? 3. Why is the tree dear to him? 4. Whom does he remember seeing under the tree? 5. What did they do there? 6. How will the poet protect the tree? 7. How does the American Forestry Association protect trees? 8. Why should trees be cared for and protected? 9. Why do we celebrate Arbor Day? 10. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: forefather; renown; towering; heart-strings. Phrases for Study near his cot, earth-bound ties, forbear thy stroke, storm still brave. THE AMERICAN BOY THEODORE ROOSEVELT What we have a right to expect of the American boy is that he shall turn out to be a good American man. Now the chances are strong that he won't be much of a man unless he is a good deal of a boy. He must not be a coward or a weakling, a bully, a shirk, or a prig. He must work hard and play hard. He must be clean-minded and clean lived, and able to hold his own against all comers. It is only on these conditions that he will grow into the kind of American man of whom America can be really proud. No boy can afford to neglect his work, and, with a boy, work as a rule means study. A boy should work, and should work hard, at his lessons--in the first place, for the sake of what he will learn, and in the next place, for the sake of the effect upon his own character of resolutely settling down to learn it. Shiftlessness, slackness, indifference in studying are almost certain to mean inability to get on in other walks of life. I do not believe in mischief-doing in school hours, or in the kind of animal spirits that results in making bad scholars; and I believe that those boys who take part in rough, hard play outside of school will not find any need for horseplay in school. While they study they should study just as hard as they play football. It is wise to obey the homely old adage, "Work while you work; play while you play." A boy needs both physical and moral courage. Neither can take the place of the other. A coward who will take a blow without returning it is a contemptible creature; but, after all, he is hardly as contemptible as the boy who dares not stand up for what he deems right against the sneers of his companions who are themselves wrong. There is no need to be a prig. There is no need for a boy to preach about his own conduct and virtue. If he does, he will make himself ridiculous. But there is need that he should practice decency; that he should be clean and straight, honest and truthful, gentle and tender, as well as brave. The boy can best become a good man by being a good boy--not a goody-goody boy, but just a plain good boy. "Good," in the largest sense, should include whatever is fine, straightforward, clean, brave, and manly. The best boys I know--the best men I know--are good at their studies or their business, fearless and stalwart, hated and feared by all that is wicked, incapable of submitting to wrong-doing, and equally incapable of being aught but tender to the weak and helpless. A healthy-minded boy should feel hearty contempt for the coward, and even more hearty indignation for the boy who bullies girls or small boys, or tortures animals. Of course the effect that a thoroughly manly, thoroughly straight and upright boy can have upon the companions of his own age, and upon those who are younger, is incalculable. He cannot do good work if he is not strong and does not try with his whole heart and soul to count in any contest; and his strength will be a curse to himself and to everyone else if he does not have thorough command over himself and over his own evil passions, and if he does not use his strength on the side of decency, justice, and fair dealing. In short, in life, as in a football game, the principle to follow is: Hit the line hard; don't foul and don't shirk, but hit the line hard! --Abridged. NOTES AND QUESTIONS For Biography, see page 37. Discussion. 1. This selection sums up all the stories of service that you have been reading. You will get most out of it if you will think back over these stories and use them as illustrations of what Mr. Roosevelt tells you is his ideal of the American boy. What examples, in these stories, can you find to illustrate the sentence, "He must not be a coward or a weakling.... He must work hard and play hard"? 2. Illustrate, from the story of Lincoln, what Mr. Roosevelt says about study. What was Lincoln's attitude toward study? What is yours? Did Lincoln's studies have the effect on his character that Mr. Roosevelt speaks about? 3. What story illustrates the sentence, "There is need that he should practice decency; that he should be clean and straight, honest and truthful, gentle and tender, as well as brave"? 4. How does the story about life on the prairie illustrate the paragraph that begins, "The boy can best become a good man by being a good boy"? What is the difference between being "a good boy" and "a goodygoody boy"? 5. Was Ralph the Rover a brave man or a coward? 6. Apply the principle stated by Mr. Roosevelt at the end of the selection to the story about Washington and Braddock. To the story about the boy on the prairie. 7. Can you relate an instance in which a manly boy had a good influence upon another boy or Upon his companions? 8. Do you think the football slogan given in the last sentence on page 137 is a good principle of life? Memorize the slogan. 9. This selection is taken from The Strenuous Life; it first appeared in St. Nicholas, May, 1900. 10. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: shirk; prig; resolutely; indifference; inability; horseplay; deems; indignation; bullies. 11. Pronounce: adage; neither; contemptible; ridiculous; stalwart; incapable; aught; incalculable. Phrases for Study against all comers, physical and moral courage, walks of life, practice decency, animal spirits, in the largest sense, homely old adage, aught but tender. HOME AND COUNTRY A BACKWARD LOOK As you gazed through your Crystal Glass of Reading at the selections in Part I, you saw reflected now pictures of home and now again a picture of that early Thanksgiving Day when Pilgrim and Indian sat down together to the "varied riches of gardens and woods and waves." When you heard Massasoit say at the feast, "The Good Spirit loves His white children best," you wondered about the truth of his statement and, as you thought about it, perhaps Abraham Lincoln came to mind; what do you think Lincoln, if he had been alive at that time, might have answered the Indian chief? The poems about home might be called memory-pictures of home; why do you think older people remember with so much fondness their childhood homes? Imagine yourself telling your grandchildren about the home of your youth and about your home pleasures; what things would you mention? Why is it a good thing for a nation to have its people love their homes and the festival days like Christmas and Thanksgiving? And now a turn of the Crystal Glass reveals a glorious flag, floating protectingly over us. How you love to look upon its starry folds; when statesmen and poets tell you of the meaning of Old Glory you realize that there is good reason for your pride and your love. What did Charles Sumner tell you about the meaning of the stars and the stripes and the colors of the Flag? What did James Whitcomb Riley tell you about how Old Glow got its name? What were the circumstances under which Francis Scott Key wrote "The Star-Spangled Banner"? What are some of the things you can do to show your respect for the Flag? What are some of the things you remember about Lincoln's boyhood? How does his method of memorizing com-pare with yours? The young George Washington showed remarkable bravery as Braddock's chief assistant; what other fine quality did he show? How may these stories about Washington and Lincoln help you to be a worthy citizen of the country they helped to found and preserve? We admire all people who are helpful to others, but when in giving service, some forget about themselves and even sacrifice themselves for others, we regard these as heroes. Peter, in "The Leak in the Dike," and the boy in "Somebody's Mother" forgot about themselves in their service to others; one disregarded danger to himself, and the other the possible jeers of his playmates; do you know of any instances of service in your school? It is fine to serve obediently under the command of superiors as did the young Casabianca, but it is even finer to think quickly in an emergency and to do what should be done when there is no one at hand to give orders. Who gave Peter his orders? Tubal Cain belongs to a group of men who have served their fellow men by useful inventions; mention some other inventors and tell how they have helped mankind. Hamlin Garland gave you a glimpse of the pioneer's service to our country; what names of pioneers in your locality are honored for their service in the early days? What ideas of being useful home-members did you get from Hamlin Garland and Theodore Roosevelt? How does the habit of being useful in the home fit one for being a good citizen? American boys and girls have many opportunities for service in the home, in the school, and in their other relations; have you done any piece of service, in an organized way, in your school? Does your school belong to the Junior Red Cross, and does it try' to follow the motto, "Go forth to serve"? When you look back upon all that you have read of home and country, you no doubt come to the conclusion that "the man without a country" summed it all up when he said, "Stick to your family... Think of your home... And for your country and for your Flag, never dream but of serving her." From selections found in this book prepare a program for Washington's birthday. PART II STORIES OF ADVENTURE Hush! Again a forest and somebody up in a tree--not Robin Hood... but an Eastern King with a glittering scimitar and turban. It is the setting-in of the bright Arabian Nights. Oh, now ail common things become uncommon and enchanted to me. All lamps are wonderful; all rings are talismans... Trees are for Ali Baba to hide in; beefsteaks are to throw down into the Valley of Diamonds that the precious stones may stick to them and be carried by the eagles to their nests, whence the traders, with loud cries, will scare them. CHARLES DICKENS. STORIES OF ADVENTURE A FORWARD LOOK When something out of the ordinary happens to you, you call it an adventure. Perhaps you came very near getting drowned in the swimming pool, or you found a purse with some money and some queer treasures in it, or you met a very curious old man, or you caught a rabbit after an exciting chase, or you went on a long journey and saw many wonderful things. If you have had such an experience, you like to tell about it to your friends, and if you have not, you like to hear the stories told by people who have had some thrilling adventure of their own. From the earliest times to the present the man who has had some unusual experience to tell about has been a favorite. We are eager to hear such stories; they make life seem more interesting and varied. Nowadays we read such stories in books and magazines; we are not dependent upon hearing them from the lips of those who have lived lives of adventure. But centuries ago, before there were books and newspapers, when any journey away from home, even for a few miles, was filled with peril, the traveler who could tell of marvelous things, or the weaver of tales who had a vivid imagination so that he could tell about things that seemed really true, found eager hearers. Among the French, stories about Roland, the wonderful knight who fought in the wars of the Emperor Charlemagne, were known by every boy and girl. The English had King Arthur, and Saint George, and Robin Hood. Besides these legends about a national hero, there are many collections of stories that have grown up among the common people. One of the oldest of these collections of tales is that known as the Arabian Nights. For hundreds of years these stories were told in the tents of the desert or in the gay bazaars of the cities of the East. About the time of the discovery of America they were written down and became known as the Arabian Nights Entertainment, or the tales of a thousand and one nights. We are told that there was once a cruel King who planned to slay all the women in his kingdom. His wife determined to tell him such wonderful stories that he would give up his cruel purpose. So she told him of enchanted gardens, of caves filled with treasure, of palaces built in a night, and of many other things. He was so eager to hear these stories that a thousand and one nights passed before he could escape from the spell that she laid upon him. By this time he was so much in love with her that he withdrew his wicked order. You may see how marvelous were these tales by reading the stories of Aladdin, of Ali Baba, and of Sindbad the Sailor. Perhaps when you have finished them you will not wonder that the King found the thousand and one nights so happy that he lost his desire to carry out his cruel purpose. Next, you are introduced to one of the most popular of English heroes, Robin Hood. Many old ballads and tales, older than the first American colony, have come down to us with these stories of the famous outlaw. The stories are very different from those of the Arabian Nights. They have no treasure caves or magic lamps or voyages to strange countries in them. They tell of contests in archery, for which the English were famous; of wrestling and swimming matches; of outlaws and dwellers in the greenwood. Because he was their champion against unjust taxation and oppressive laws, Robin Hood was the idol of the common people. They made up games about him, in which old and young took part. Wandering minstrels sang about him. "Lincoln green," the color of the clothing worn by Robin and his followers, was a favorite with all foresters. Why Robin was so loved you may determine for yourselves by reading the stories of Robin Hood given in the pages that follow. In Gulliver's Travels we pass from stories like the Arabian Nights and "Robin Hood," which grew up among the common people, to a story composed by a single author who wrote out his material and then had it printed in order that all might enjoy it. We do not know who wrote the story of Ali Baba or the adventures of Robin Hood, but we know all about Jonathan Swift, the great English writer who tells us the story of Gulliver's adventures among the little people, or Lilliputians. Gulliver also had wonderful experiences among a race of giants, and in a land where the citizens were horses that were more intelligent than men. Somewhat different from all the other tales in this part of our book is the story of Robinson Crusoe, written by Daniel Defoe about two hundred years ago and here condensed for your enjoyment. There was, in Defoe's time, a sailor, Alexander Selkirk by name, who was left by his shipmates on an island and who lived by himself for four years before he attracted the attention of a passing ship. This suggested the idea of Robinson Crusoe to Defoe, but he has greatly expanded the story. Crusoe lived on his lonely island for twenty-seven years. During this time he learned how to make tools, to build his house, to cultivate his farm, to prepare to defend himself against an enemy's attack, and to civilize barbarous people. In its original form each of the stories in this group makes a good-sized book. While some incidents and many details have been omitted here in order to shorten and simplify the stories, the main plot and all the most interesting incidents are given. The world is full of stories of adventure; these are only samples of the joyful experiences that you may have through your power to read. And you boys and girls are more fortunate than those who lived in the time of Aladdin, or even those who lived in the time of Robin Hood or Robinson Crusoe, for they had no books at all, or only a few, and if they had any, these books were poorly printed, with very ugly illustrations, not at all like the wonderful books that you may have at will. But of all the stories that might have been selected, the ones placed before you have been chosen for two reasons. First of all, they are interesting, and are to be read for pure enjoyment. And next, these stories leave with you certain ideas that are well worth while. Aladdin and Ali Baba, the heroes of the Arabian Nights stories, who became rich through their strange adventures, helped their neighbors with their wealth. Robin Hood, too, helped the poor oppressed people of his time, though he did many things that would be wrong today. Robinson Crusoe's lonely life on a desert island shows us how much we depend upon the work of those about us. And Captain Gulliver, in the midst of his wonderful adventures, always kept in mind the ideas of justice and honor. So in all these stories there is a sense of justice and responsibility. Nowadays--at least in America--men are free. Buried treasure is as hard to find as ever, but it can be found. The man who works hard, who seizes opportunities, who builds up a business or runs a farm, can find his treasure. The government will protect him; we no longer need to use the methods of Robin Hood to get justice. The important question is whether the Ali Babas and Aladdins of our day will feel just such responsibility to others as you find recorded in these stories, and whether the desire to help the unfortunate is as strong in our free America as it was in the heart of Robin Hood. STORIES FROM THE ARABIAN NIGHTS ALADDIN, OR THE WONDERFUL LAMP (Ed.--This story, in it's original, uncondensed version, in addition to many others, can be found at the web site http://www.gutenberg.org, searching in the index for the title Arabian Nights.) Aladdin was the son of Mustapha, a poor tailor in one of the rich provinces of China. When the boy was old enough to learn a trade, his father took him into his own workshop. But Aladdin, being but an idle fellow, loved play more than work, and spent his days playing in the public streets with other boys as idle as himself. His father died while he was yet very young; but Aladdin still continued his foolish ways, and his mother was forced to spin cotton night and day in order to keep herself and her boy. When Aladdin was about fifteen years old, he was one day playing in the streets with some of his companions. A stranger who was going by stopped and looked at him. This stranger was a famous African magician, who, having need of the help of some ignorant person, no sooner beheld Aladdin than he knew by his whole manner and appearance that he was a person of small prudence and very fit to be made a tool of. The magician inquired of some persons standing near, the name and character of Aladdin, and the answers proved to him that he had judged rightly of the boy. The stranger, pressing in among the crowd of lads, clapped his hand on Aladdin's shoulder, and said, "My good lad, are you not the son of Mustapha, the tailor?" "Yes, sir," said Aladdin; "but my father has been dead this long time." "Alas!" cried he, "what unhappy news! I am your father's brother, child. I have been many years abroad; and now that I have come home in the hope of seeing him, you tell me he is dead!" And all the while tears ran down the stranger's cheeks, and his bosom heaved with sighs. Then, pulling out a purse, he gave Aladdin two pieces of gold, saying, "Take this, my boy, to your mother. Tell her that I will come and see her tonight, and sup with her." Pleased with the money, Aladdin ran home to his mother. "Mother," said he, "have I an uncle?" His mother told him he had not, whereupon Aladdin pulled out his gold and told her that a man who said he was his father's brother was coming to sup with her that very evening. Full of bewilderment, the good woman set out for the market, where she bought provisions, and was busy preparing the supper when the magician knocked at the door. He entered, followed by a porter who brought all kinds of delicious fruits and sweetmeats for their dessert. As soon as they sat down to supper, he gave Aladdin's mother an account of his travels, saying that for forty years he had been away from home, in order to see the wonders of distant countries. Then, turning toward Aladdin, he asked his name. "I am called Aladdin," said he. "Well, Aladdin," said the magician, "what business do you follow?" At this question Aladdin hung down his head, and was not a little abashed when his mother made answer: "Aladdin is an idle fellow; his father strove all he could to teach him his trade, but could not succeed; and since his death, in spite of all I can say to him, he does nothing but idle away his time in the streets, so that I despair of his ever coming to any good." With these words the poor woman burst into tears, and the magician, turning to Aladdin, said: "This is not well, nephew; you must think of helping yourself and getting your livelihood. I will help you as far as I may. What think you--shall I take a shop and furnish it for you?" Aladdin was overjoyed at the idea, for he thought there was very little labor in keeping a shop, and he told his uncle this would suit him better than anything else. "I will take you with me tomorrow," said the magician, "clothe you as handsomely as the best merchants in the city, and then we will open a shop." Aladdin's mother thanked him very heartily and begged Aladdin to behave so as to prove himself worthy of the good fortune promised by his kind uncle. Next day the stranger called for Aladdin as he had promised, and led him to a merchant's, where clothes for all sorts of people were sold. Then he caused Aladdin to try on the handsomest suits, and choosing the one Aladdin preferred he paid the merchant for it at once. The pretended uncle then took Aladdin to visit the bazaars, the khans where the foreign merchants were, and the most splendid mosques, and gave him a merry feast in the evening. The next morning Aladdin got up and dressed himself very early, so impatient was he to see his uncle. Presently he saw him coming, and ran to meet him. The magician greeted him very kindly. "Come, my good boy," he said with a smile; "I will today show you some very fine things." He then led him through some beautiful gardens with great houses standing in the midst of them. Aladdin did nothing but exclaim at their beauty, and so his uncle by degrees led him on farther and farther into the country. "We shall now," said he to Aladdin, "go no farther, for I shall here show you some extraordinary wonders that no one besides yourself will ever have seen. I am now going to strike a light, and do you, in the meantime, collect all the dry sticks and leaves that you can find, in order to make a fire." There were so many pieces of dry sticks scattered about this place that Aladdin collected more than enough by the time his uncle had struck a light. The magician then set them on fire, and as soon as they were in a blaze he threw a certain perfume, that he had ready in his hand, upon them. A dense smoke arose, while the magician spoke some mysterious words. At the same instant the ground shook slightly, and, opening in the spot where they stood, showed a square stone about a foot and a half across, with a brass ring in the center. Aladdin was frightened out of his wits, and was about to run away, when the magician suddenly gave him a box on the ear so violent as to beat him down and very nearly to knock some of his teeth out. Poor Aladdin, with tears in his eyes and trembling in every limb, got up. "My dear uncle," he cried, "what have I done to deserve so severe a blow?" "I have good reasons for it," replied the magician. "Do you but obey me, and you will not repent of it. Underneath that stone is a great hidden treasure, which will make you richer than many kings if you will be attentive to what I shall say to you." Aladdin had now got the better of his fright. "Well," said he, "what must I do? Tell me; I am ready to obey you in everything!" "Well said!" replied the magician; "come to me, then; take hold of this ring, and lift up the stone." To Aladdin's surprise the stone was raised without any trouble, and then he could see a small opening three or four feet deep, at the bottom of which was a little door, with steps to go down still lower. "You must now," said the magician, "go down into this cavern, and when you have come to the bottom of the steps, you will see an open door which leads into three great halls. In each of these you will see, on both sides of you, four bronze vases as large as tubs, full of gold and silver, but you must not touch any of it. "When you get to the first hall, bind your robe around you. Then go to the second without stopping, and thence in the same manner to the third. Above all, be very particular not to go near the walls or even to touch them with your robe; for if any part of your dress should chance to touch them, your instant death will be the consequence. At the far end of the third hall there is a door which leads to a garden planted with beautiful trees, all of which are full of fruit. Go straight forward, and follow a path which you will see. This will bring you to the bottom of a flight of fifty steps, at the top of which there is a terrace. "There you will see a niche and in it a lighted lamp. Take the lamp and extinguish it. Then throw out the wick and the liquid that is within, and put the lamp in your bosom. If you should wish very much to gather any of the fruit in the garden, you may do so; and there is nothing to prevent your taking as much as you please." When the magician had given these directions to Aladdin, he took off a ring which he had on one of his fingers and put it on his pretended nephew, telling him at the same time that it was to secure him against every evil that might otherwise happen to him. "Go, my child," he said; "descend boldly; we shall now both of us become immensely rich for the rest of our lives." ALADDIN FINDS THE WONDERFUL LAMP Aladdin jumped willingly into the opening and went down to the bottom of the steps. He found the three halls exactly as the magician had said. These he passed through with the greatest care, keeping in mind his uncle's warning. He went on to the garden, and mounted to the terrace without stopping. There in a niche was the lamp, which he seized, and after he had thrown out the oil which it contained, he put it in his bosom. This done, he returned to the garden. The trees here were all full of the most extraordinary fruit. Never before had he seen fruits of so many different colors. The white were pearls; the sparkling and transparent Were diamonds; the deep red were rubies; the paler, a particular sort of ruby called balas; the green, emeralds; the blue, turquoises; the violet, amethysts; those tinged with yellow, sapphires. All were of the largest size, and finer than were ever seen before in the whole world. Aladdin was not yet of an age to know their value, and thought they were all only pieces of colored glass. However, the variety, brilliancy, and extraordinary size of each sort tempted him to gather some of each; and he took so many of every color that he filled both his pockets, as well as the two new purses the magician had bought for him at the time he made him a present of his new suit. Since his pockets were already full, he fastened the two purses on each side of his girdle, and also wrapped some of the gems in its folds, as it was of silk and made very full. In this manner he carried his treasures so that they could not fall out. He did not forget to fill even his bosom quite full, between his robe and his shirt. Laden in this manner with the most immense treasure, though ignorant of its value, Aladdin made haste through the three halls, in order that he might not make his uncle wait too long. Having passed through them with the same caution as before, he began to ascend the steps he had come down, and reached the entrance of the cave, where the magician was impatiently waiting. When Aladdin saw his uncle, he called to him, "Help me up!" "My dear boy," replied the magician, "you had better first give me the lamp, as that will only hinder you." "It is not at all in my way," said Aladdin, "and I will give it to you when I am out." The magician still persevered in wishing to get the lamp before he helped Aladdin out of the cave; but the boy had so covered it with the fruit of the trees that he absolutely refused to give it. The wicked magician was in the greatest despair at the obstinate resistance the boy made, and fell into the most violent rage. He then threw some perfume on the fire, and had hardly spoken two magic words, before the stone, which served to shut up the entrance to the cavern, returned of its own accord to the place, with all the earth over it, exactly in the same state as it was when the magician and Aladdin first arrived there. When Aladdin found himself buried alive, he called aloud a thousand times to his uncle, telling him he was ready to give him the lamp. But all his cries were useless, and, having no other means of making himself heard, he remained in perfect darkness. Finally he went down to the bottom of the stairs, intending to go toward the light in the garden, where he had been before. But the wails, which had been opened by enchantment, were now shut by the same means. The poor boy felt all around him several times, but could not discover the least opening. He then redoubled his cries and tears, and sat down upon the step of his dungeon, without the least hope of ever seeing the light of day again. For two days Aladdin remained in this state, without either eating or drinking. On the third day, feeling that his death was near, he clasped his hands in prayer and said in a loud tone of voice, "There is no strength or power but in the great and high Heavens." In this act of joining his hands he happened, without thinking of it, to rub the ring which the magician had put upon his finger. Instantly a Genius of enormous figure and horrid countenance rose out of the earth. This Genius, who was so extremely tall that his head touched the roof, addressed these words to Aladdin: "What do you wish? I am ready to obey you as your slave, both I and the other slaves of the ring." Weak and terrified, and scarcely daring to hope, Aladdin cried, "Whoever you are, take me, if you are able, out of this place!" No sooner had his lips formed the words than he found himself on the outside of the cave, at the very spot where the magician had left him. Almost unable to believe his good fortune, he arose trembling, and seeing the city in the distance, made his way back by the same road over which he had come. Such a long weary road he found it to his mother's door that when he reached it he was fainting from hunger and fatigue: His mother, whose heart had been almost broken by his long absence, received him joyfully and refreshed him with food. When he had regained his strength, he told her all, and showed her the lamp and the colored fruits and the wonderful ring on his finger. His mother thought little of the jewels, as she was quite ignorant of their value; so Aladdin put them all behind one of the cushions of the sofa on which they were sitting. Next morning when Aladdin awoke, his first thought was that he was very hungry and would like some breakfast. "Alas, my child," said his mother, "I have not a morsel of bread to give you. Last night you ate all the food in the house. However, I have a little cotton of my own spinning. I will go and sell it, and buy something for our dinner." "Keep your cotton, mother, for another time," said Aladdin, "and give me the lamp which I brought with me yesterday. I will go and sell that, and the money will serve us for breakfast and dinner too; perhaps also for supper." Aladdin's mother took the lamp from the place where she had put it. "Here it is," she said to her son; "but it is very dirty; if I were to clean it a little, perhaps it might sell for something more." She then took some water and a little fine sand with which to clean it. But she had scarcely begun to rub the lamp, when a hideous and gigantic Genius rose out of the ground before her, and cried with a voice as loud as thunder, "What do you wish? I am ready to obey you as your slave, both I and the other slaves of the lamp." Aladdin's mother was much terrified; but Aladdin, who had seen the Genius in the cavern, did not lose his presence of mind. Seizing the lamp, he answered in a firm voice, "I am hungry; bring me something to eat." The Genius disappeared, and returned a moment later with a large silver basin, which he carried on his head. In it were twelve covered dishes of the same material, filled with the most delicious meats, and six loaves as white as snow upon as many plates, and in his hand he carried two silver cups. All these the Genius placed upon the table, and instantly vanished. When Aladdin's mother had recovered from her fright, they both sat down to their meal, in the greatest delight imaginable, for never before had they eaten such delicate meats or seen such splendid dishes. The remains of this feast provided them with food for some days, and when it was all gone, Aladdin sold the silver dishes one by one for their support. In this way they lived happily for several years, for Aladdin had been sobered by his adventure, and now behaved with the greatest wisdom and prudence. He took care to visit the principal shops and public places, speaking only with wise and prudent persons; and in this way he gathered much wisdom, and grew to be a courteous and handsome youth. ALADDIN WEDS THE PRINCESS One day Aladdin told his mother that he intended to ask the Sultan to give him his daughter in marriage. "Truly, my son," said his mother, "you seem to have forgotten that your father was but a poor tailor; and indeed I do not know who will dare to go and speak to the Sultan about it." "You yourself must," said he, decidedly. "I!" cried his mother, in the greatest surprise; "I go to the Sultan! Not I, indeed; I will take care that I am not joined to such folly. You know very well that no one can make any demand of the Sultan without bringing a rich present, and where shall such poor folk as we find one?" Thereupon Aladdin told his mother that while talking with the merchants in the bazaar he had learned to know the value of their gems, and for a long time he had known that nothing which the merchants had in their shops was half so fine as those jewels he had brought home from the enchanted cave. So his mother took them from the drawer where they had been hidden and put them in a dish of fine porcelain. Aladdin's mother, now sure that such a gift was one that could not fail to please the Sultan, at last agreed to do everything her son wished. She took the porcelain dish with its precious contents and folded it up in a very fine linen cloth. She then took another, less fine, and tied the four corners of it together, that she might carry it without trouble. This done, she took the road toward the palace of the Sultan. Trembling, she told the Sultan of her son's boldness, and begged his mercy for Aladdin and for herself. The Sultan heard her kindly; then before giving any answer to her request, he asked her what she had with her so carefully tied up in a linen cloth. Aladdin's mother unfolded the cloths and humbly laid the jewels before him. It is impossible to express the surprise which this monarch felt when he saw before him such a quantity of the most precious, perfect, and brilliant jewels, the size of which was greater than any he had ever seen before. For some moments he gazed at them, speechless. Then he took the present from the hand of Aladdin's mother, and exclaimed, in a transport of joy. "Ah! how very beautiful, how very wonderful they are!" Then turning to his grand vizier, he showed him the gems and talked privately to him for some minutes. At last he said to Aladdin's mother: "My good woman, I will indeed make your son happy by marrying him to the Princess, my daughter, as soon as he shall send me forty large basins of massive gold, quite full of the same varieties of precious stones which you have already presented me with, brought by an equal number of black slaves, each of whom shall be led by a white slave, young, well-made, handsome, and richly-dressed. These are the conditions upon which I am ready to give him the Princess, my daughter. Go, my good woman, and I will wait till you bring me his answer." Full of disappointment, Aladdin's mother made her way home, and told her son the Sultan's strange wish. But Aladdin only smiled, and when his mother had gone out, he took the lamp and rubbed it. Instantly the Genius appeared, and Aladdin commanded him to lose no time in bringing the present which the Sultan had wished for. The Genius only said that his commands should be at once obeyed, and then disappeared. In a very short time the Genius returned with forty black slaves, each carrying upon his head a large golden basin of great weight, full of pearls, diamonds, rubies, and emeralds, quite as fine as the jewels that Aladdin's mother had given the Sultan. Each basin was covered with a cloth of silver, embroidered with flowers of gold. There were also forty white slaves, as Aladdin had commanded. All these slaves with their golden basins entirely filled the house, which was but small, as well as the court in front and the garden behind it. Aladdin's mother now came back and almost fainted when she saw this great crowd and all its magnificence. Aladdin desired her at once to follow the procession of slaves to the palace, and present to the Sultan the dowry of the Princess. The astonishment of the Sultan at the sight of all these riches is hardly to be imagined. After gazing upon the slaves with their shining heaps of jewels, he said to Aladdin's mother, "Go, my good woman, and tell your son that I am waiting with open arms to embrace him!" Aladdin was so delighted with this news that he could hardly answer his mother, and, hastening to his chamber, he shut the door. Once more he summoned the Genius, who brought to him garments that shone like the sun. The Genius also brought him a splendid charger and twenty slaves to march on either side of him on the way to the Sultan's palace, all holding purses of gold to scatter among the people. If there had been a crowd before, there was ten times as great a one now to watch Aladdin as he rode to the Sultan's palace, and to pick up the gold pieces which were showered by his slaves as he went. The Sultan came down from his throne to greet him, and all was feasting and joy in the palace. After the feast the judge drew up a contract of marriage between Aladdin and the beautiful Princess. As soon as this was done, the Sultan asked Aladdin if he wished to remain in the palace and complete all the ceremonies that day. "Sire," he replied, "however impatient I may be to have entire possession of all your majesty's bounties, I beg you to permit me to wait until I shall have built a palace to receive the Princess in, that shall be worthy of her; and for this purpose I request that you will have the goodness to point out a suitable place for it near your own, that I may always be ready to pay my court to your majesty. I will then neglect nothing to get it finished with all possible diligence." "My son," answered the Sultan, "take the open space before my palace; but remember that, to have my happiness complete, I cannot see you united too soon to my daughter." Having said this, he again embraced Aladdin, who now took leave of the Sultan as if he had been brought up and had spent all his life at court. As soon as Aladdin reached home, he again summoned the Genius and commanded him to build instantly the most gorgeous palace ever seen, on the spot of ground given by the Sultan. Early the next morning the Genius appeared. "Sir," said he, "your palace is finished; see if it is as you wish." Words cannot paint the astonishment of the Sultan and all his household at seeing this gorgeous palace shining in the place which only the day before had been empty and bare. The Princess, too, rejoiced much at the sight. Her marriage with Aladdin was held the same day, and their happiness was the greatest that heart could wish. ALADDIN LOSES AND REGAINS THE LAMP For some months they lived thus, Aladdin showing great kindness to the poor, and pleasing all by his generosity. About this time his old enemy, the African magician, found out by some of his magic arts that Aladdin was alive and enormously rich, instead of being, as he had supposed, dead in the enchanted cave. He was filled with rage, and, vowing to destroy Aladdin, he immediately set out for China. There he learned that Aladdin had gone hunting, and was not expected home for three or four days. The magician bought a dozen shining new lamps, put them in a basket, and set out for Aladdin's palace. As he came near it he cried, "Who will change old lamps for new?" When he came under the Princess's windows, one of her slaves said, "Come, let us see if the old fool means what he says; there is an ugly old lamp lying on the cornice of the hall of four-and-twenty windows; we will put a new one in its place, if the old fellow is really in earnest." The Princess having given permission, one of the slaves took the lamp to the magician, who willingly gave her the best he had among his new ones. As soon as night arrived, the magician summoned the Genius of the lamp and commanded him to transport him, the palace, and the Princess to the remotest corner of Africa. The confusion and grief of the Sultan were terrible when he found the palace vanished and his daughter lost. The people ran in fear through the streets, and the soldiers were sent in search of Aladdin, who had not yet returned. Aladdin was soon found and dragged before the Sultan like a criminal. He would have been beheaded had not the Sultan been afraid to enrage the people. "Go, wretch!" cried the Sultan; "I grant thee thy life; but if ever thou appearest before me again, death shall overtake thee, unless in forty days thou bringest me tidings of my daughter." Aladdin, wretched and downfallen, left the palace, not knowing whither to turn his steps. At length he stopped at a brook to bathe his eyes, which smarted with the tears he had shed. As he stooped, his foot slipped, and, catching hold of a piece of rock to save himself from falling, he pressed the magician's ring, which he still wore on his finger, and the Genius of the ring appeared before him, saying "What would you have?" "Oh; Genius," cried Aladdin, "bring my palace back without delay." "What you command," replied the Genius, "is not in my power; you must call the Genius of the lamp." "Then I command you," said Aladdin, "to transport me to the place where now it stands." Instantly Aladdin found himself beside his own palace, which stood in a meadow not far from a strange city; and the Princess was then walking in her own chamber, weeping for her loss. Happening to come near to the window, she saw Aladdin under it. And making a sign to him to keep silence, she sent a slave to bring him in. The Princess and her husband having kissed each other and shed many tears, Aladdin said, "Tell me, my Princess, what has become of an old lamp which I left on the cornice of the hall of four-and-twenty windows?" The Princess then told how her slave had exchanged it for a new one, and said that the tyrant in whose power she was, always carried that very lamp in his bosom. Aladdin was then sure that this person was no other than his old enemy, the African magician. After talking a long while, they hit upon a plan for getting back the lamp. Aladdin went into the city in the disguise of a slave, and bought a powder. Then the Princess invited the magician to sup with her. As she had never before shown him the least kindness, he was delighted and came. While they were at table, she ordered a slave to bring two cups of wine, one of which she had prepared by mixing in the powder. After pretending to taste the one she held in her hand, she asked the magician to change cups, as was the custom in China. He joyfully seized the goblet, and drinking it all at a draft, fell senseless on the floor. Aladdin was at hand to snatch the lamp from his bosom. Hastily rubbing it, he summoned the Genius, who instantly transported the palace and all it contained back to the place whence they had come. Some hours after, the Sultan, who had risen at break of day to mourn for his daughter, went to the window to look at the spot which he expected to see empty and vacant, and there to his unspeakable joy he saw Aladdin's palace shining in its place. He summoned his guards and hastened to embrace his daughter; and during a whole week nothing was heard but the sound of drums, trumpets, and cymbals, and there were all kinds of music and feasting, in honor of Aladdin's return with the Princess. Some time after this, the Sultan died, and Aladdin and the Princess ascended the throne. They reigned together many years and left many noble sons and daughters at their death. Suggestions for Silent Reading Some stories and poems must be read thoughtfully in order to gain the author's full meaning; such reading cannot be done rapidly. In other selections, the meaning can be grasped easily, and the reading can be rapid; in such cases we read mainly for the story, holding in mind the various incidents as the plot unfolds. Throughout this book certain stories, particularly those of Part II, may well be read silently and reported on in class: The following suggestions will help you to gain power in silent reading: (a) Time yourself by the clock as you read each story suggested for silent reading; what was your reading speed per page? (b) Test your ability to get the thought quickly from the printed page (1) by noting how many of the questions that develop the main thoughts, under Discussion, you can answer after one reading, and (2) by telling the substance of the story from an outline. Sometimes this guiding outline is prepared for you, as in question 19, below; sometimes you are asked to prepare it. This outline may also be used at the close of the lesson as a guide in retelling the story. You may have to read parts of the story again to be able to answer all these questions and to give the substance of the story fully. Notice that the rapid silent readers in your class generally gain and retain more facts than the slow readers do. Try steadily to increase your speed in silent reading. To supplement and give balance to the lessons in silent reading, certain passages notable for their beauty, their force, or their dramatic quality, are listed, under Class readings, to be read aloud. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Discussion. 1. What kind of boy was Aladdin? What caused the magician to notice him? 3. What did the magician do to make Aladdin and his mother like him? 4. How did he force Aladdin to obey him? 5. What did Aladdin see when he raised the stone? 6. What directions did the magician give Aladdin before he descended the steps? 7. Explain the magician's anxiety to get the lamp before he helped Aladdin up from the cavern. 8. How was Aladdin rescued from the cavern? 9. How did he discover the power of his lamp? 10. What effect did his good fortune have upon him? 11. What use did Aladdin make of the fruit he had gathered? 12. How did Aladdin persuade his mother to see the Sultan? 13. Why did the Sultan permit Aladdin to marry his daughter? 14. How and where was Aladdin's palace built? 15. Where had Aladdin left the lamp when he went on his hunting trip? 16. How did the magician gain possession of it? 17. How did Aladdin regain the lamp? 18. Class readings: Page 156, line 9, to page 160, line 4 (5 pupils). 19. Outline for testing silent reading. Tell in your own words the story of Aladdin, using the following topics: (a) the boyhood of Aladdin; (b) Aladdin's pretended uncle; (c) the visit to the cave; (d) Aladdin's return to his mother; (e) Aladdin and the Princess. 20. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: province; prudence; bewilderment; abashed; extinguish; transparent; enchantment; dungeon; Genius; Sultan; magnificence; bounties; cornice; transport. 21. Pronounce: dessert; nephew; niche; fatigue; hideous; imaginable; porcelain; vizier; gorgeous. ALI BABA AND THE OPEN SESAME (Ed.--This story, in it's original, uncondensed version, in addition to many others, can be found at the web site http://www.gutenberg.org, searching in the index for the title Arabian Nights.) In an old town of Persia there lived two brothers, Cassim and Ali Baba. Cassim married a wife who owned a fine shop, a warehouse, and some land; he thus found himself quite at his ease, and soon became one of the richest men in the town. Ali Baba, on the other hand, had a wife no better off than himself, and lived in a very poor house. He supported his family by cutting wood in the forest, and carrying it on his asses to sell about the town. One day Ali Baba went to the forest, and had very nearly finished cutting as much wood as his asses could carry, when he saw high in the air a thick cloud of dust, which seemed to be coming toward him. He gazed at it for a long time, until he saw a company of men on horseback, riding so fast that they were almost hidden by the dust. Although that part of the country was not often troubled by robbers, Ali Baba thought that these horsemen looked like evil men. Therefore, without thinking at all what might become of his asses, his first and only care was to save himself. So he climbed up quickly into a large tree, the branches of which spread out so close and thick that from the midst of them he could see everything that passed, without being seen. The robbers rode swiftly up to this very tree, and there alighted. Ali Baba counted forty of them, and saw that each horseman took the bridle off his horse and hung over its head a bag filled with barley. Then they took their traveling bags, which were so heavy that Ali Baba thought they must be filled with gold and silver. With his bag on his shoulder, the Captain of the thieves came close to the rock, at the very spot where the tree grew in which Ali Baba had hidden himself. After the rascal had made his way through the shrubs that grew there, he cried out, "Open Sesame!" so that Ali Baba distinctly heard the words. No sooner were they spoken than a door opened in the rock. The Captain and all his men passed quickly in, and the door closed again. There they stayed for a long time. Ali Baba was compelled to wait in the tree with patience, as he was afraid some of them might come out if he left his hiding-place. At length the door opened, and the forty thieves came out. After he had seen all the troop pass out before him, the Captain exclaimed, "Shut Sesame!" Each man then bridled his horse, and mounted. When the Captain saw that all were ready, he put himself at their head, and they rode off as they had come. Ali Baba did not come down from the tree at once, because he thought they might have forgotten something, and be obliged to come back, and that he should thus be caught. He watched them as long as he could; nor did he leave the tree for a long time after he had lost sight of them. Then, recalling the words the Captain had used to open and shut the door, he made his way through the bushes to it, and called out, "Open Sesame!" Instantly the door flew wide open! Ali Baba expected to find only a dark cave, and was very much astonished at seeing a fine large chamber, dug out of the rock, and higher than a man could reach. It received its light from a hole in the top of the rock. In it were piled all sorts of rare fruits, bales of rich merchandise, silk stuffs and brocades, and great heaps of money, both silver and gold, some loose, some in large leather bags. The sight of alt these things almost took Ali Baba's breath away. But he did not hesitate long as to what he should do. He went boldly into the cave, and as soon as he was there, the door shut; but since he knew the secret by which to open it, this gave him no fear. Leaving the silver, he turned to the gold which was in the bags, and when he had gathered enough for loading his three asses, he brought them to the rock, loaded them, and so covered the sacks of gold over with wood that no one could suspect anything. This done, he went to the door, and had no sooner said the words, "Shut Sesame," than it closed. And now Ali Baba took the road to the town; and when he got home, he drove his asses into the yard and shut the gate with great care. He threw off the wood that hid the gold and carried the bags into the house, where he laid them down in a row before his wife, who was sitting upon a couch. When he had told the whole story of the cave and the forty thieves, he emptied the sacks, making one great heap of gold that quite dazzled his wife's eyes. His wife began to rejoice in this good fortune, and was going to count over the money that lay before her, piece by piece. "What are you going to do?" said he. "Why, you would never finish counting them. I will dig a pit to bury it in; we have no time to lose." "It is right, though," replied the wife, "that we should know about how much there may be. I will go and borrow a small grain-measure, and while you are digging the pit, I will find how much there is." So the wife of Ali Baba set off and went to her brother-in-law, Cassim, who lived a short way from her house. Cassim was away from home, so she begged his wife to lend her a measure for a few minutes. "That I will with pleasure," said Cassim's wife. She went to seek a measure, but knowing how poor Ali Baba was, she was curious to know what sort of grain his wife wanted to measure; so she put some tallow on the bottom of the measure in such a way that no one would notice it. The wife of Ali Baba returned home, and placing the measure on the heap of gold, filled it over and over again, till she had measured the whole. Ali Baba by this time had dug the pit for it, and while he was burying the gold, his wife went back with the measure to her sister-in-law, but without noticing that a piece of gold had stuck to the bottom of it. The wife of Ali Baba had scarcely turned her back, when Cassim's wife looked at the bottom of the measure, and was astonished to see a piece of gold sticking to it. "What!" said she, "Ali Baba measures his gold! Where can the wretch have got it?" When her husband Cassim came home, she said to him, "Cassim, you think you are rich, but Ali Baba must have far more wealth than you; he does not count his gold as you do; he measures it." Then she showed him the piece of money she had found sticking to the bottom of the measure--a coin so ancient that the name of the prince engraved on it was unknown to her. Far from feeling glad at the good fortune which his brother had met with, Cassim grew so jealous of Ali Baba that he passed almost the whole night without closing his eyes. The next morning before sunrise he went to him. "Ali Baba," said he, harshly, "you pretend to be poor and miserable and a beggar, and yet you measure your money"--here Cassim showed him the piece Of gold his wife had given him. "How many pieces," added he, "have you like this, that my wife found sticking to the bottom of the measure yesterday?" CASSIM VISITS THE CAVE From this speech Ali Baba knew that Cassim, and his wife also, must suspect what had happened. So, without showing the least sign of surprise, he told Cassim by what chance he had found the retreat' of the thieves, and where it was; and offered, if he would keep the secret, to share the treasure with him. "This I certainly expect," replied Cassim in a haughty tone; "otherwise I will inform the police of it." Ali Baba, led rather by his good nature than by fear, told him all, even to the words he must pronounce, both on entering the cave and on quitting it. Cassim made no further inquiries of Ali Baba; he left him, determined to seize the whole treasure, and set off the next morning before break of day with ten mules laden with large hampers which he proposed to fill. He took the road which Ali Baba had pointed out, and arrived at the rock and the tree; on looking for the door, he soon discovered it. When he cried, "Open Sesame!" the door obeyed; he entered, and it closed again. Greedy as Cassim was, he could have passed the whole day in feasting his eyes with the sight of so much gold; but he remembered that he had come to take away as much as he could; he therefore filled his sacks, and coming to the door, he found that he had forgotten the secret words, and instead of saying, "Open Sesame" he said, "Open Barley." So the door, instead of flying open, remained closed. He named various other kinds of grain; all but the right one were called upon, and still the door did not move. The thieves returned to their cave toward noon; and when they were within a short distance of it, and saw the mules belonging to Cassim laden with hampers, standing about the rock, they were a good deal surprised. They drove away the ten mules, which took to flight in the forest. Then the Captain and his men, with their sabers in their hands, went toward the door and said, "Open Sesame!" At once it flew open. Cassim, who from the inside of the cave heard the horses trampling on the ground, did not doubt that the thieves had come, and that his death was near. Resolved, however, on one effort to escape and reach some place of safety, he placed himself near the door ready to run out as soon as it should open. The word "Sesame" was scarcely pronounced when it opened, and he rushed out with such violence that he threw the Captain to the ground. He could not, however, escape the other thieves, who slew him on the spot. On entering the cave the thieves found, near the door, the sacks which Cassim had filled, but they could not imagine how he had been able to get in. The wife of Cassim, in the meantime, was in the greatest uneasiness when night came and her husband did not return. After waiting as long as she could, she went in the utmost alarm to Ali Baba, and said to him, "Brother, I believe you know that Cassim has gone to the forest; he has not yet come back, although it is almost morning. I fear some accident may have befallen him." Ali Baba did not wait for entreaties to go and seek for Cassim. He immediately set off with his three asses, and went to the forest. As he drew near the rock, he was astonished to see that blood had been shed near the cave. When he reached the door, he said, "Open Sesame!" and it opened. He was shocked to see his brother's body in the cave. He decided to carry it home, and placed it on one of his asses, covering it with sticks to conceal it. The other two asses he quickly loaded with sacks of gold, putting wood over them as before. Then, commanding the door to close, he took the road to the city, waiting in the forest till nightfall, that he might return without being observed. When he got home, he left the two asses that were laden with gold for his wife to unload; and having told her what had happened, he led the other ass to his sister-in-law's. Ali Baba knocked at the door, which was opened to him by Morgiana, who was a female slave, clever, and full of invention. "Morgiana," said he, "the first thing I have to ask you is to keep a deep secret! This packet contains the body of your master, and we must bury him as if he had died a natural death. Let me speak to your mistress, and hearken what I say to her." Morgiana went to call her mistress, and Ali Baba then told her all that had happened before his arrival with the body of Cassim. "Sister," added he, "here is a sad affliction for you, but we must contrive to bury my brother as if he had died a natural death; and then we shall be glad to offer you a shelter under our own roof." The widow of Cassim reflected that she could not do better than consent. She therefore wiped away her tears, and suppressed her mournful cries, and thereby showed Ali Baba that she accepted his offer. Ali Baba left her in this frame of mind, and Morgiana went out with him to an apothecary's there. She knocked at the shop door, and when it was opened, asked for a particular kind of lozenge of great effect in dangerous illness. The apothecary gave her the lozenge, asking who was ill in her master's family. "Ah!" exclaimed she with a deep sigh, "it is my worthy master, Cassim himself. He can neither speak nor eat!" Meanwhile, as Ali Baba and his wife were seen going backwards and forwards to the house of Cassim, in the course of the day, no one was surprised on hearing in the evening the piercing cries of his widow and Morgiana, which announced his death. And so the body of Cassim was prepared for its burial, which took place the next day, attended by Ali Baba and Morgiana. As for his widow, she remained at home to lament and weep with her neighbors, who, according to the usual custom, repaired to her house during the ceremony of the burial, and joining their cries to hers, filled the air with sounds of woe. Thus the manner of Cassim's death was so well hidden that no one in the city knew anything about it. THE ROBBERS SEEK REVENGE ON ALI BABA But let us now leave Ali Baba and Morgiana, and return to the forty thieves. When they came back to their cave, they found the body of Cassim gone, and with it much of their treasure. "We are discovered," said the Captain, "and we shall be lost if we are not very careful. All that we can at present tell is that the man whom we killed in the Cave knew the secret of opening the door. But he was not the only one; another must have found it out too. Having slain one, we must not let the other escape. Well, the first thing to be done is that one of you should go to the city in the dress of a traveler, and try to learn who the man we killed was." The thief who agreed to carry out this plan, having disguised himself so that no one could have told who he was, set off at night, and entered the city just at dawn. By asking questions in the town he discovered that a body had been prepared for burial at a certain house. Having found the house, the thief marked the door with chalk and returned to the forest. Very soon after this, Morgiana had occasion to go out, and saw the mark which the thief had made on the door of Ali Baba's house. "What can this mark mean?" thought she; "has anyone a spite against my master, or has it been done only for fun? In any ease, it will be well to guard against the worst that may happen." She therefore took some chalk, and as several of the doors, both above and below her master's, were alike, she marked them in the same manner, and then went in without saying anything of what she had done either to her master or mistress. The thief in the meantime arrived at the forest, and related the success of his journey. They all listened to him with great delight, and the Captain, after praising him, said, "Comrades, we have no time to lose; let us arm ourselves and depart, and when we have entered the city, which we had best do separately, let us all meet in the great square, and I will go and find out the house with the chalk mark." Thus the thieves 'went in small parties of two or three to the city without causing any suspicion. The thief who had been there in the morning then led the Captain to the street in which he had marked the house of Ali Baba. When they reached the first house that had been marked by Morgiana, he pointed it out, saying that was the one. But as they continued walking on, the Captain saw that the next door was marked in the same manner. At this the thief was quite confused, and knew not what to say; for they found four or five doors more with the same mark. The Captain, who was in great anger, returned to the square, and told the first of his men whom he met to tell the rest that they had lost their labor, and that nothing remained but to return to the forest. When they had reached the forest, the Captain declared the mistaken thief deserving of death, and he was at once killed by his companions. Next day another thief, in spite of this, determined to succeed where the other had failed. He went to the city, found the house, and marked the door of it with red. But, a short time after. Morgiana; vent out and saw the red mark and did not fail to make a similar red mark on the neighboring doors. The thief when he returned to the forest boasted of his success, and the Captain and the rest repaired to the city with as much care as before, and the Captain and his guide went immediately to the street where Ali Baba resided; but the same thing occurred as before. Thus they were obliged to return again to the forest disappointed. The second thief was put to death as a punishment for deceiving them. Next time the Captain himself went to the city, and found the house of Ali Baba. But not choosing to amuse himself by making marks on it, he examined it so well, not only by looking at it. But by passing before it several times, that at last he was certain he could not mistake it. Thereupon he returned to the forest, and told the thieves he had made sure of the house, and had made a plan such that at last he was certain he could not mistake it. And first he ordered them to divide into small parties, and go into the neighboring towns and villages and buy nineteen mules and thirty-eight large leather jars to carry oil, one of which must be full, and all the others empty. In the course of two or three days the thieves returned, and the Captain made one of his men enter each jar, armed as he thought necessary. Then he closed the jars as if each were full of oil, leaving, however, a small slit open to admit air. Things being thus disposed, the mules were laden with the thirty-seven thieves, each concealed in a jar, and the jar that was filled with oil; whereupon the Captain took the road to the city at the hour that had been agreed, and arrived about an hour after sunset. He went straight to the house of Ali Baba, where he found Ali Baba at the door, enjoying the fresh air after supper. "Sir," said he, "I have brought oil from a great distance to sell tomorrow at the market, and I do not know where to go to pass the night; if it would not occasion you much trouble, do me the favor to take me in." Although Ali Baba had seen, in the forest, the man who now spoke to him and had even heard his voice, yet he had no idea that this was the Captain of the forty robbers, disguised as an oil merchant. "You are welcome," said he, and took him into the house, and his mules into the stable. THE OIL MERCHANT IN THE HOME OF ALI BABA Ali Baba, having told Morgiana to see that his guest wanted nothing, added, "Tomorrow before daybreak I shall go to the bath. Make me some good broth to take when I return." After giving these orders, he went to bed. In the meantime the Captain of the thieves, on leaving the stable, went to give his people orders what to do. Beginning with the first jar, and going through the whole number, he said to each, "When I shall throw some pebbles from my chamber, do not fail to rip open the jar from top to bottom with the knife you have, and to come out; I shall be with you soon after." The knives he spoke of were sharpened for the purpose. This done, he returned, and Morgiana took a light, and led him to his chamber. Not to cause any suspicion, he put out the light and lay down in his clothes, to be ready to rise as soon as he had taken his first sleep. Morgiana did not forget Ali Baba's orders; she prepared his linen for the bath and gave it to Abdalla, Ali Baba's slave, who had not yet gone to bed. Then she put the pot on the fire to make the broth, but while she was skimming it. The lamp went out. There was no more oil in the house, and she had no candle. She did not know what to do. She wanted a light to see to skim the pot, and mentioned it to Abdalla. "Take some oil," said he, "out of one of the jars in the court." Morgiana accordingly took the oil-can and went into the court. As she drew near the first jar, the thief who was concealed within said in a low voice, "Is it time?" Any other slave except Morgiana, in the first moment of surprise at finding a man in the jar instead of some oil, would have made a great uproar. But Morgiana collected her thoughts, and without showing any emotion assumed the voice of the Captain, and answered, "Not yet, but presently." She approached the next jar, and the others in turn, making the same answer to the same question, till she came to the last, which was full of oil. Morgiana by this means discovered that her master, who supposed he was giving a night's lodging to an oil merchant only, had afforded shelter to thirty-eight robbers, including the pretended merchant, their Captain. She quickly filled her oil-can from the last jar, and returned to the kitchen; and after having put some oil in her lamp and lighted it, she took a large kettle, and went again into the court to fill it with oil from the jar. This done, she brought it back again, put it over the tire, and made a great blaze under it with a quantity of wood; for the sooner the oil boiled, the sooner her plan would be carried out. At length the oil boiled. She then took the kettle and poured into each jar, from the first to the last, enough boiling oil to kill the robbers. This being done without any noise, she returned to the kitchen with the empty kettle, and shut the door. She put out the large fire she had made up for this purpose, and left only enough to finish boiling the broth for Ali Baba. She then blew out the lamp and remained perfectly silent, determined not to go to bed until she had watched what would happen, from a window which overlooked the court. Morgiana had waited scarcely a quarter of an hour, when the Captain of the robbers awoke. He got up, and opening the window, looked out. All was dark and silent; he gave the signal by throwing the pebbles, many of which fell on the jars, as the sound plainly proved. He listened, but heard nothing that could lead him to suppose his men obeyed the summons. He became uneasy at this delay, and threw some pebbles down a second time, and even a third. They all struck the jars, yet nothing moved, and he became frightened. He went down into the court in the utmost alarm; and going up to the first jar, he was going to ask if the robber contained in it was asleep. As soon as he drew near, he smelled a strong scent of hot and burning oil coming out of the jar. From this he feared that his wicked plan had failed. He went to the next jar, and to each in turn, and discovered that all his men were dead. Terrified at this, he jumped over the garden-gate, and going from one garden to another by getting over the walls, he made his escape. Before daybreak Ali Baba, followed by his slave, went out and repaired to the bath, totally ignorant of the surprising events that had taken place in his house during his sleep. Morgiana had not thought it necessary to wake him, particularly as she had no time to lose, while she was engaged in her perilous enterprise, and it was useless to disturb him after she had averted the danger. When he returned from the bath, the sun being risen, Ali Baba was surprised to see the jars of oil still in their places; he inquired the reason of Morgiana, who let him in, and who had left everything as it was, in order to show it to him. "My good master," said Morgiana to Ali Baba's question, "may God preserve you and all your family. You will soon know the reason, if you will take the trouble to come with me." Ali Baba followed Morgiana, and when she had shut the door, she took him to the first jar and bade him look in and see if it contained oil. He did as she desired; and seeing a man in the jar, he hastily drew back and uttered a cry of surprise. "Do not be afraid," said she; "the man you see there will not do you any harm; he will never hurt either you or anyone else again, for he is now a corpse." "Morgiana!" exclaimed Ali Baba, "what does all this mean? You explain this mystery." "I will explain it," replied Morgiana, "but pray be cautious, and do not awaken the curiosity of your neighbors to learn what it is of the utmost importance that you should keep secret and concealed. Look first at all the other jars." Ali Baba examined all the rest of the jars, one after the other, from the first till he came to the last, which contained the oil, and he noticed that its oil was nearly all gone. This done, he stood, sometimes casting his eyes on Morgiana, then looking at the jars, yet without speaking a word, so great was his surprise. At length he said, "And what has become of the merchant?" "The merchant," replied Morgiana, "is just as much a merchant as I am. I can tell you who he is." She then described the marks made upon the door, and the way in which she had copied them, adding: "You see this is a plot contrived by the thieves of the forest, whose troop, I know not how, seems to be diminished by two. But be that as it may, it is now reduced to three at most. This proves that they are determined on your death, and you will do right to be on your guard against them, so long as you are certain that even one of the robbers remains." Ali Baba, full of gratitude for all he owed her, replied, "I will reward you as you deserve, before I die. I owe my life to you, and from this moment I give you your liberty, and wilt soon do still more for you." MORGIANA'S GREAT COURAGE AND REWARD Meanwhile the Captain of the forty thieves had returned to the forest full of rage, and determined to revenge himself on Ali Baba. Next morning he awoke at an early hour, put on a merchant's dress, and returned to the city, where he took a lodging in a khan. Then he bought a horse, which he made use of to convey to his lodging several kinds of rich stuffs and fine linens, bringing them from the forest at various times. In order to dispose of these wares, he took a shop, and established himself in it. This shop was exactly opposite to that which had been Cassim's, and was now occupied by the son of Ali Baba. The Captain of the thieves, who had taken the name of Cogia Houssam, soon succeeded in making friends with the son of Ali Baba, who was young and good-natured. He often invited the youth to sup with him, and made him rich gifts. When Ali Baba heard of it, he resolved to make a return for this kindness, to Cogia Houssam, little thinking that the pretended merchant was really the Captain of the thieves. So one day he asked Cogia Houssam to do him the honor of supping and spending the evening at his house. "Sir," replied Cogia, "I am grateful for your kindness, but I must beg you to excuse me, and for a reason which I am sure you will think sufficient. It is this: I never eat of any dish that has salt in it; judge, then, of the figure I should make at your table." "If this be your only reason," replied Ali Baba, "it need not prevent your coming to supper with me. The bread which is eaten in my house does not contain any salt; and as for the meat and other dishes, I promise you there shall be none in those which are served before you." So Ali Baba went into the kitchen, and desired Morgiana not to put any salt in the meat she was going to serve for supper, and also to prepare two or three dishes of those that he had ordered, without any salt. Morgiana obeyed, though much against her will; and she felt some curiosity to see this man who did not eat salt. When she had finished, and Abdalla had prepared the table, she helped him in carrying the dishes. On looking at Cogia Houssam, she instantly recognized the Captain of the robbers, in spite of his disguise; and looking at him more closely, she saw that he had a dagger hidden under his dress. "I am no longer surprised," said she to herself, "that this villain will not eat salt with my master; he is his enemy, and means to murder him! But I wilt prevent the villain!" When the supper was ended, the Captain of the thieves thought that the time for revenging himself on Ali Baba had come. "I will make them both drink much wine," thought he, "and then the son, against whom I bear no malice, will not prevent my plunging my dagger into the heart of his father, and I shall escape by way of the garden, as I did before, while the cook and the slave are at their supper in the kitchen." Instead, however, of going to supper, Morgiana did not allow him time to carry out his wicked plans. She dressed herself as a dancer, put on a headdress suitable to that character, and wore round her waist a fancy girdle of gilt, to which she fastened a dagger, made of the same metal. Her face was hidden by a very handsome mask. When she had so disguised herself, she said to Abdalla, "Take your tabor, and let us go and entertain our master's guest, who is the friend of his son, as we do sometimes by our performances." Abdalla took his tabor and began to play, as he walked before Morgiana, and entered the room. Morgiana followed him, making a low curtsy, and performed several dances, with equal grace and agility. At length she drew out the dagger, and dancing with it in her hand, she surpassed all she had yet done, by her light movements and high leaps; sometimes presenting the dagger as if to strike, and at others holding it to her own bosom, as if to stab herself. At length, as if out of breath, she took the tabor from Abdalla with her left hand, and holding the dagger in her right, she held out the tabor to Ali Baba, who threw a piece of gold into it. Morgiana then held the tabor out to his son, who did the same. Cogia Houssam, who saw that she was coming to him next, had already taken his purse from his bosom, and was putting his hand in it, when Morgiana, with great courage, suddenly plunged the dagger into his heart. Ali Baba and his son, terrified at this action, uttered a loud cry: "Wretch!" exclaimed Ali Baba, "what hast thou done? Thou hast ruined me and my family forever." "What I have done," replied Morgiana, "is not for your ruin, but for your safety." Then opening Cogia Houssam's robe to show Ali Baba the poniard which was concealed under it, "See," continued she, "the cruel enemy you had to deal with; examine him, and you will recognize the pretended oil-merchant and the Captain of the forty thieves! Do you now see why he refused to eat salt with you? Can you require a stronger proof of his treachery?" Ali Baba, who now saw all that he owed to Morgiana for having thus saved his life a second time, cried, "Morgiana, I gave you your liberty, and at the same time promised to do more for you at some future time. This time has come, and I present you to my son as his wife." A few days after, Ali Baba had the marriage of his son and Morgiana celebrated with great feasting. After the marriage, Ali Baba decided to visit again the cave of the forty thieves. On reaching it he repeated the word, "Open Sesame." At once the door opened, and he entered the cave, and found that no one had been in it from the time that Cogia Houssam had opened his shop in the city. He therefore knew that the whole troop of thieves was killed, and that he was the only person in the world who knew the secret of the cave. From that time Ali Baba and his son, whom he took to the cave and taught the secret of how to enter it, enjoyed its riches with moderation and lived in great happiness and comfort to the end of their long lives. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Discussion. 1. How did Ali Baba make his living? 2. When did he first see the robber band? 3. What words did the Captain say to gain entrance to the cave? 4. Why did Ali Baba wish to see the cave? 5. How did he plan to hide his gold after he returned home? 6. What aroused the suspicions of his brother? 7. How did Cassim feel toward Ali Baba when he heard the story? 8. What did Cassim plan to do? 9. Why could not Cassim open the door after it closed upon him? 10. Why did Ali Baba wish to conceal the fact that Cassim was killed by the robbers? 11. Why could not the robbers find Ali Baba's house after it had been marked with chalk? 12. What plan did the Captain of the robbers determine upon in order to have revenge upon Ali Baba? 13. How did Morgiana discover the plot and prevent it from being carried out? 14. How did Ali Baba reward her? 15. How did the Captain manage to win the friendship of Ali Baba? 16. What was his object in doing this? 17. The Captain would not eat salt in Ali Baba's house because, according to an old Eastern custom, the use of salt at a meal was a sign of friendship and loyalty. How did Morgiana save Ali Baba's life? 18. Who is the cleverest person in the story? 19. Did Ali Baba have a right to take the treasure from the robbers and keep it? Why? 20. Class readings: Select passages to be read aloud in class. 21. Outline for testing silent reading. Tell in your own words the story of Ali Baba, using the following topics: (a.) the adventure in the forest; (b) Ali Baba's return; (c) the fate of Cassim; (d) Morgiana's plans; (e) how the thieves were caught; (f) how Ali Baba used his good fortune. 22. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: bridled; recalling; astonished; merchandise; retreat; hampers; resolved; uneasiness; utmost; invention; packet; reflected; suppressed; ceremony; related; confused; presently; enterprise; contrived; diminished; prevent; gilt; surpassed; moderation. 23. Pronounce: Ali Baba; sesame; brocades; inquiries; hearken; affliction; apothecary; lozenge; burial; comrades; averted; corpse; Cogia Houssam; villain; curtsy; agility; poniard. Phrases for Study feasting his eyes, full of invention, natural death, repaired to her house, had occasion to go out, lost their labor, thus disposed, wanted nothing, collected her thoughts, rich stuffs, bear no malice, suitable to that character. SINDBAD THE SAILOR (Ed.--This story, in it's original, uncondensed version, in addition to many others, can be found at the web site http://www.gutenberg.org, searching in the index for the title Arabian Nights.) In the reign of the Caliph Harun-al-Rashid there lived in Baghdad a poor porter called Hindbad. One day he was carrying a heavy burden from one end of the town to the other; being weary, he took off his load and sat upon it, near a large mansion. He knew not who owned the mansion; but he went to the servants and asked the name of the master. "How," replied one of them, "do you live in Baghdad, and know not that this is the house of Sindbad the sailor, that famous voyager, who has sailed round the world?" The porter said, loud enough to be heard, "Almighty Creator of all things, consider the difference between Sindbad and me! I work faithfully every day and suffer hardships, and can scarcely get barley bread for myself and family, while happy Sindbad spends riches and leads a life of continual pleasure. What has he done to obtain a lot so agreeable? And what have I done to deserve one so wretched?" While the porter was thus complaining, a servant came out of the house and said to him, "Sindbad, my master, wishes to speak to you. Come in." The servants took him into a great hall, where a number of people sat around a table covered with all sorts of savory dishes. At the upper end was a tall, grave gentleman, with a long white beard, and behind him stood a number of officers and servants, all ready to attend his pleasure. This person was Sindbad. Hindbad, whose fear was increased at the sight of so many people and of so great a feast, saluted the company tremblingly. Sindbad bade him draw near, and seating him at his right hand, served him himself. Now, Sindbad had heard the porter complain, and this it was that led him to have the man brought in. When the repast was over, Sindbad spoke to Hindbad, asked his name and business, and said: "I wish to hear from your own mouth what it was you said in the street." Hindbad replied, "My lord, I confess that my weariness put me out of humor, and made me utter some foolish words, which I beg you to pardon." "Do not think I am so unjust," resumed Sindbad, "as to blame you. But you are mistaken about me, and I wish to set you right. You think that I have gained without labor and trouble the ease and plenty which I now enjoy. But make no mistake; I did not reach this happy condition without suffering for several years more trouble of body and mind than can well be imagined. Yes, gentlemen," he added, speaking to the whole company, "I assure you that my sufferings have been so extraordinary that they would make the greatest miser lose his love of riches; and I will, with your leave, tell of the dangers I have overcome, which I think will not be uninteresting to you." THE FIRST VOYAGE OF SINDBAD THE SAILOR He then told the following story: My father was a wealthy merchant, much respected by everyone. He left me a large fortune, which I wasted in wild living. I then remembered Solomon's saying, "A good name is better than precious ointment," and resolved to walk in my father's ways. I therefore made arrangements to go on a voyage with some merchants. After touching at many places where we sold or exchanged goods, we were becalmed near a small island which looked like a green meadow. The captain permitted some of us to land, but while we were eating and drinking, the island began to shake, and he called to us to return to the ship. What we thought was an island was really the back of a sea monster. I had just time to catch hold of a piece of wood, when the island disappeared into the sea. The captain, thinking I was drowned, resolved to make use of a favorable gale, which had just risen, to continue his voyage. I was tossed by the waves all that day and night, but the next day I was thrown upon an island. I was very feeble, but I crept along and found a spring of water, which did much to restore my strength. After this I went farther into the island and saw a man watching some horses that were feeding near by. He was much surprised to see me and took me to a cave where there were several other men. They told me they were grooms of the Maharaja, ruler of the island, and that every year they brought his horses to this uninhabited place for pasturage. Next morning they returned to the capital of the island, taking me with them. They presented me to the Maharaja, who ordered his people to care for me. The capital has a fine harbor, where ships arrive daily from all parts of the world, and I hoped soon to have a chance to return to Baghdad. One day the ship arrived in which I had sailed from home. I went to the captain and asked for my goods. "I am Sindbad," I said, "and those bales marked with his name are mine." At first the captain did not know me, but after looking at me closely, he cried, "Heaven be praised for your happy escape. These are your goods; take them and do what you please with them." I made a present of my choicest goods to the Maharaja, who asked me how I came by such rarities. When I told him, he was much pleased and gave me many valuable things in return. After exchanging my goods for aloes, sandalwood, camphor, nutmegs, cloves, pepper, and ginger, I sailed for home and at last reached Baghdad with goods worth one hundred thousand sequins. Sindbad stopped here and ordered the musicians to proceed with their concert. When it was evening, Sindbad gave the porter a purse of one hundred sequins and told him to come back the next day to hear more of his adventures. Hindbad put on his best robe the next day and returned to the bountiful traveler, who welcomed him heartily. When all the guests had arrived, dinner was served and continued a long time. When it was ended, Sindbad said, "Gentlemen, hear now the adventures of my second voyage. They deserve your attention even more than those of the first." THE SECOND VOYAGE OF SINDBAD THE SAILOR I planned, after my first voyage, to spend the rest of my days at Baghdad, but I grew weary of an idle life, and put to sea a second time, with merchants I knew to be honorable. We embarked on board a good ship and set sail. We traded from island to island, and exchanged goods with great profit. One day we landed on an island covered with fruit-trees, but we could see neither man nor animal. We walked in the meadows and along the streams that watered them. While some gathered flowers and others fruits, I took my wine and provisions and sat down near a stream between two high trees, which formed a thick shade. I made a good meal, and afterwards fell asleep. I cannot tell how long I slept, but when I awoke, the ship was gone. In this sad condition, I was ready to die with grief. I was sorry that I had not been satisfied with the profits of my first voyage, that might have been enough for me all my life. But my repentance came too late. At last I took courage and, not knowing what to do, climbed to the top of a lofty tree and looked about on all sides to see if I could discover anything that could give me hope. Toward the sea I could see nothing but sky and water; but looking over the land, I beheld something white, and, coming down, I took what provisions I had left and went toward it, the distance being so great that I could not tell what it was. As I came nearer, I thought it was a white dome, of great height and size; and when I came up to it, I touched it and found it to be very smooth. I went around to see if it was open on any side, but saw it was not, and that there was no climbing up to the top, as it was so smooth. It was at least fifty paces around. By this time the sun was about to set, and all of a sudden the sky became as dark as if it had been covered with a thick cloud. I was much astonished at this sudden darkness, but much more when I found it was caused by a bird of monstrous size, that came flying toward me. I remembered that I had often heard sailors speak of a wonderful bird called the roc, and saw that the great dome which I so much admired must be its egg. The bird alighted, and sat over the egg. As I saw it coming, I crept close to the egg, so that I had before me one of the legs of the bird, which was as big as the trunk of a tree. I tied myself strongly to it with my turban, hoping that the roc next morning would carry me out of this desert island. After passing the night in this condition, the bird flew away as soon as it was daylight, and carried me so high that I could not see the earth; it afterwards descended so swiftly that I lost my senses. But when I found myself on the ground, I speedily untied the knot, and had scarcely done so when the roc, having taken up a serpent in its bill, flew away. The spot where it left me was surrounded by mountains that seemed to reach above the clouds, and so steep that there was no chance of getting out of the valley. When I compared this place with the desert island from which the roc had brought me, I found that I had gained nothing by the change. As I walked through this valley, I saw it was strewn with diamonds, some of which were of a surprising size. I had never believed what I had heard sailors tell of the valley of diamonds, and of the tricks used by merchants to obtain jewels from that place; but now I found that they had stated nothing but the truth. For the fact is that the merchants come to this valley when the eagles have young ones, and throw great joints of meat into the valley; the diamonds, upon whose points they fall, stick to them; the eagles pounce upon those pieces of meat and carry them to their nests on the rocks to feed their young; the merchants at this time run to the nests, drive off the eagles, and take away the diamonds that stick to the meat. I had thought the valley must surely be my grave, but now I took courage and began to plan a way to escape. Collecting the largest diamonds and putting them into the leather bag in which I used to carry my provisions, I took the largest of the pieces of meat, tied it close around me, and then lay down upon the ground, face downwards, the bag of diamonds being made fast to my girdle. I had scarcely placed myself in this position when one of the eagles, having taken me up with the piece of meat to which I was fastened, carried me to his nest on the top of the mountain. The merchants frightened the eagles, and when they had forced them to quit their prey, one of them came to the nest where I was. He was much alarmed when he saw me; but, recovering himself, instead of asking how I came thither, began to quarrel with me, and asked why I stole his goods. "You will treat me," replied I, "with more politeness when you know me better. Do not be uneasy; I have diamonds enough for you and myself, more than all the other merchants together. Whatever they have they owe to chance, but I selected for myself in the bottom of the valley those which you see in this bag." I had scarcely done speaking when the other merchants came crowding about us, much astonished to see me, but more surprised when I told them my story. They took me to their camp, and there, when I opened my bag, they were surprised at the beauty of my diamonds, and confessed that they had never seen any of such size and perfection. I prayed the merchant who owned the nest to which I had been carried, for every merchant had his own nest, to take as many for his share as he pleased. He, however, took only one, and that, too, the least of them; and when I pressed him to take more, he said, "No, I am very well satisfied with this gem, which is valuable enough to save me the trouble of making any more voyages, and will bring as great a fortune as I desire." The merchants had thrown their pieces of meat into the valley for several days; and each of them being satisfied with the diamonds that had fallen to his lot, we left the place and traveled near high mountains, where there were serpents of great length, which we had the fortune to escape. We took shipping at the first port we reached, and touched at the isle of Roha, where the trees grow that yield camphor. I pass over many other things peculiar to this island, lest I should weary you. Here I exchanged some of my diamonds for merchandise. From here we went to other islands, and at last, having touched at several trading towns of the continent, we landed at Bussorah, and from there I proceeded to Baghdad. There I gave presents to the poor, and lived honorably upon the vast riches I had gained with so many terrible hardships and so many great perils. Thus Sindbad ended the story of the second voyage, gave Hindbad another hundred sequins, and invited him to come the next day to hear more of his adventures. THE THIRD VOYAGE OF SINDBAD THE SAILOR On the third day the porter again repaired to the house in which he had heard such wonderful tales. After the dinner was finished, the host began once more to tell of his travels. I soon grew weary of a life of idleness and embarked with some merchants on another long voyage. One day we were overtaken by a storm, which drove us out of our course, and we were obliged to cast anchor near an island. As soon as we landed, we were surrounded by savage dwarfs, who took possession of our ship and sailed away. Left without means of escape from the island, we determined to explore it, in hope of finding food and shelter. We had not advanced far, however, when we discovered that this island was inhabited by giants, more savage than the dwarfs who had first attacked us. We knew that we could not remain on the island, and so we went back to the shore and planned how we might escape. When night came, we made rafts, each large enough to carry three men, and as soon as it was light we put to sea with all the speed we could. The giants saw us as we pushed out and, rushing down to the water's edge, threw great stones, which sank all the rafts except the one upon which I was. All that day and night we were tossed by the waves, but the next morning we were thrown upon an island, where we found delicious fruit which satisfied our hunger. Beautiful as this island was, we found ourselves in danger as great as any we had escaped. My two companions were killed by serpents, and I was almost in despair, when I saw a ship in the distance. By shouting and waving my turban I attracted the attention of the crew, and a boat was sent for me. As soon as I saw the captain, I knew him to be the man who, in my second voyage, had left me on the island. "Captain," said I, "I am Sindbad, whom you left on the island." "Heaven be praised," said the captain; "I am glad that my careless act did not cause your death. These are your goods, which I always took care to preserve." We continued at sea for some time and touched at many islands, where I traded for cloves, cinnamon, and other spices. At last I returned to Baghdad with so much wealth that I knew not its value. I gave a great deal to the poor and bought another estate. Thus Sindbad finished the story of his third voyage. He gave another hundred sequins to Hindbad and invited him to dinner the next day. THE FOURTH VOYAGE OF SINDBAD THE SAILOR After dinner on the fourth day the merchant once more began to tell of his adventures. After I had rested from the dangers of my third voyage, my love for trade and adventure again took hold of me. I provided a stock of goods and started on another voyage. We had sailed a great way, when we were overtaken by a storm, and the ship was wrecked. I clung to a plank and was carried by the current to an island; here I found fruit and spring water, which saved my life. The next day I started to explore the island and, seeing some huts, I went toward them. The people who lived in these huts were savages, and they took me prisoner. I was in such fear of them that I could not eat, and at last I became sick. After that they did not watch me so closely, and I found a chance to escape. I traveled seven days, living upon coconuts, which served me for food and drink. On the eighth day I met some people gathering pepper, and I told them my story. They treated me with great kindness and took me with them when they sailed home. On arriving in their own country they presented me to their King, who commanded his people to take care of me, and soon I was looked upon as a native rather than a stranger. I was not, however, satisfied to remain away from my own home and planned to escape and return to Baghdad. One day I saw a ship approaching the place where I was. I called to the crew, and they quickly sent a boat and took me on board. We stopped at several islands and collected great stores of costly goods. After we had finished our traffic, we put to sea again and at last arrived at Baghdad. I gave large sums to the poor and enjoyed myself with my friends in feasts and amusements. Here Sindbad made a present of one hundred sequins to Hindbad, whom he requested to return the next day to dine with him and hear the story of his fifth voyage. THE FIFTH VOYAGE OF SINDBAD THE SAILOR The story of the fifth day was as follows: All the misfortunes I had undergone could not cure me of my desire to make new voyages. I therefore had a ship built and, taking with me several merchants, I started on my fifth voyage. We touched at a desert island, where we found a roc's egg. We could see that the young bird had begun to break the shell with his beak. The merchants who were with me broke the shell with hatchets and killed the young roc. Scarcely had they done this when the parent birds flew down with a frightful noise. We hurried to the ship and set sail as speedily as possible. But the great birds followed us, each carrying a rock between its claws. When they came directly over our ship, they let the rocks fall, and the ship was crushed and most of the passengers killed. I caught hold of a piece of the wreck and swam to an island. Here I found fruit and streams of fresh, pure water. After resting and eating some of the fruit, I determined to find out who lived upon the island. I had not walked far, when I saw an old man sitting on the bank of a stream. He made signs to me to carry him over the brook, and as he seemed very weak, I took him upon my back and carried him across. When we reached the other side, the old man threw his legs around my neck and squeezed my throat until I fainted. But he kept his seat and kicked me to make me stand up. He made me carry him all that day, and at night lay down with me, still holding fast to my neck. This continued for some time, and I grew weaker every day. One day, feeling sure that I could not escape, he began to laugh and sing and move around on my back. This was my opportunity, and, using all my strength, I threw him to the ground, where he lay motionless. Feeling very thankful at my escape, I went down to the beach and saw a ship at anchor there. The crew were very much surprised when I told my adventure. "You are the first," they said, "who ever escaped from the old man of the sea after falling into his power." We soon put out to sea and after a few days arrived at a great city. One of the merchants invited me to go with him and others to gather coconuts. The trunks of the coconut trees were lofty and very smooth, and I saw many apes among the branches. It was not possible to climb the trees, but the merchants, by throwing stones, provoked the apes to throw the coconuts at us, and by this trick we collected enough coconuts to load our ship. We then set sail and touched at other islands, where I exchanged my coconuts for pepper and wood of aloes. I also hired divers, who brought me up pearls that were very large and perfect. When I returned to Baghdad, I made vast sums from my pepper, precious woods, and pearls. I gave the tenth of my gains to charity, as I had done on my return from other voyages. Sindbad here ordered one hundred sequins to be given to Hindbad and requested him to dine with him the next day to hear the account of his next voyage. THE SIXTH VOYAGE OF SINDBAD THE SAILOR When dinner was finished on the sixth day, Sindbad spoke as follows: After a year's rest I prepared for a sixth voyage, notwithstanding the entreaties of my friends, who did all in their power to keep me at home. I traveled through several provinces of Persia and the Indies, and then embarked on a long voyage, in the course of which the ship was carried by a rapid current to the foot of a high mountain, where she struck and went to pieces. We managed to save most of our provisions and our goods, but it was impossible to climb the mountain or to escape by the sea. We were obliged to remain upon the strip of shore between the mountain and the sea. At last our provisions were exhausted, and my companions died, one after the other. Then I determined to try once more to find a way of escape. A river ran from the sea into a dark cavern under an archway of rock. I said to myself, "If I make a raft and float with the current, it will doubtless carry me to some inhabited country." I made a very solid raft and loaded it with bales of rich goods from the wreck, and rubies, emeralds, and other precious stones which covered the mountain. As soon as I entered the cavern, I found myself in darkness and I floated on, I knew not where. I must have fallen asleep, for when I opened my eyes I was on the bank of a river, and a great many people were around me. They spoke to me, but I did not understand their language. I was so full of joy at my escape from death that I said aloud in Arabic, "Close thine eyes, and while thou art asleep, Heaven will change thy evil fortune into good fortune." One of the men, who understood Arabic, said, "Brother, we are inhabitants of this country and water our fields from this river. We saw your raft, and one of us swam out and brought it here. Pray tell us your history." After they had given me food, I told them my story, and then they took me to their King. I told the King my adventures; and when my raft was brought in, I showed him my rich goods and precious stones. I saw that my jewels pleased him, and I said, "Sire, I am at your Majesty's service, and all that I have is yours." He answered, with a smile, "Sindbad, I will take nothing from you; far from lessening your wealth, I mean to increase it." I prayed the King to allow me to return to my own country, and he granted me permission in the most honorable manner. He gave me a rich present and a letter for the Commander of the Faithful, our sovereign, saying to me, "I pray you, give this present and this letter to the Caliph Harun-al-Rashid." The letter was written on the skin of a certain animal of great value, very scarce, and of a yellowish color. The characters of this letter were of azure, and the contents as follows: "The King of the Indies, before whom march one hundred elephants, who lives in a palace that shines with one hundred thousand rubies, and who has in his treasury twenty thousand crowns enriched with diamonds, to Caliph Harun-al-Rashid "Though the present we send you be small, receive it, however, as a brother and a friend, in consideration of the hearty friendship which we bear for you, and of which we are willing to give you proof. We send you this letter as from one brother to another. Farewell." The present consisted of one single ruby made into a cup, about half a foot high and an inch thick, filled with round pearls large and beautiful; the skin of a serpent, whose scales were as bright as an ordinary piece of gold, and had the power to preserve from sickness those who lay upon it; quantities of the best wood of aloes and camphor; and, lastly, a wonderful robe covered with jewels of great beauty. The ship set sail, and after a successful voyage we landed at Bussorah, and from there I went to the city of Baghdad, where the first thing I did was to go to the palace of the Caliph. Taking the King's letter, I presented myself at the gate of the Commander of the Faithful and was conducted to the throne of the Caliph. I presented the letter and gift. When he had finished reading, he asked me if that ruler were really as rich as he represented himself in his letter. I said, "Commander of the Faithful, I can assure your Majesty he does not stretch the truth. I bear him witness. Nothing is more worthy of admiration than the splendor of his palace. When the King appears in public, he has a throne fixed on the back of an elephant, and rides betwixt two ranks of his ministers and favorites, and other people of his court. Before him, upon the same elephant, an officer carries a golden lance in his hand, and behind him there is another who strands with a rod of gold, on the top of which is an emerald half a foot long and an inch thick. "He is attended by one thousand men, clad in cloth of gold, and mounted on elephants richly decked. The officer who is before him cries from time to time, in a loud voice, 'Behold the great monarch, the powerful Sultan of the Indies, the monarch greater than Solomon and the powerful Maharaja. After he has pronounced these words, the officer behind the throne cries in his turn, 'This monarch, so great and so powerful, must die, must die, must die.' And the officer before replies, 'Praise be to Him alone who liveth forever and ever.'" The Caliph was much pleased with my account, and sent me home with a rich present. Here Sindbad commanded another hundred sequins to be paid to Hindbad, and begged his return on the morrow to hear of his last voyage. THE LAST VOYAGE OF SINDBAD THE SAILOR On the seventh day, after dinner, Sindbad told the story of his last voyage: On my return home from my sixth voyage, I had entirely given up all thoughts of again going to sea; for, not only did my age now require rest, but I was resolved to run no more such risks as I had encountered, so that I thought of nothing but to pass the rest of my days in peace. One day, however, an officer of the Caliph inquired for me. "The Caliph," said he, "has sent me to tell you that he must speak with you." I followed the officer to the palace, where, being presented to the Caliph, I saluted him, throwing myself at his feet. "Sindbad," said he to me, "I stand in need of your service; you must carry my answer and present to the King of the Indies." This command of the Caliph was to me like a clap of thunder. "Commander of the Faithful," I replied, "I am ready to do whatever your Majesty shall think fit to command; but I beg you most humbly to consider what I have undergone. I have also made a vow never to leave Baghdad." The Caliph insisted, and I finally told him that I was willing to obey. He was pleased, and gave me one thousand sequins for the expenses of my journey. I prepared for my departure in a few days. As soon as the Caliph's letter and present were delivered to me, I went to Bussorah, where I embarked, and had a safe voyage. Having arrived at the capital of the Indies, I was shown to the palace with much pomp, when I prostrated myself on the ground before the King. "Sindbad," said the King, "you are welcome; I have many times thought of you; I bless the day on which I see you once more." I thanked him for his kindness, and delivered the gifts from my master. The Caliph's present was a complete suit of cloth of gold, fifty robes of rich stuff, a hundred of white cloth, the finest of Cairo, Suez, and Alexandria; a vessel of agate, more broad than deep, an inch thick, and half a foot long, the bottom of which was carved to represent a man with one knee on the ground, who held a bow and arrow, ready to discharge at a lion. He sent him also a rich tablet, which, according to tradition, had belonged to the great Solomon. The King of the Indies was highly gratified at the Caliph's mark of friendship. A little time after this I asked leave to depart, and with much difficulty obtained it. The King, when he dismissed me, made me a very splendid present. I embarked for Baghdad, but had not the good fortune to arrive there so speedily as I had hoped. Three or four days after my departure we were attacked by pirates, who seized upon our ship, because it was not a vessel of war. Some of the crew fought back, which cost them their lives. But myself and the rest, who were not so rash, the pirates saved, and carried into a distant island, where they sold us. I fell into the hands of a rich merchant, who, as soon as he bought me, took me to his house, treated me well, and clad me handsomely as a slave. Some days after, he asked me if I understood any trade. I answered that I was no mechanic, but a merchant, and that the pirates who sold me had robbed me of all I had. "Tell me," he said, "can you shoot with a bow?" I answered that the bow was one of my exercises in my youth. Then my master told me to climb into a tree and shoot at the elephants as they passed and let him know as soon as I killed one, in order that he might get the tusks. I hid as he told me, and as I was successful the first day, he sent me day after day, for two months. One morning the elephants surrounded my tree, and the largest pulled up the tree with his trunk and threw it on the ground. Then, picking me up, he laid me on his back and carried me to a hill almost covered with the bones and tusks of elephants. I knew that this must be the burial place of the elephants and they had brought me here to show me that I could get vast quantities of ivory without killing any more elephants. I went back to the city and told my master all that had happened. He was overjoyed at my escape from death and the riches which I had obtained for him. As a reward for my services he set me free and promised to send me home as soon as the trade winds brought the ships for ivory. A ship arrived at last, and my master loaded one half of it with ivory for me. When we reached a port on the mainland, I landed my ivory and set out for home with a caravan of merchants. I was a long time on the journey, but was happy in thinking that I had nothing to fear from the sea or from pirates. At last I arrived at Baghdad, and the Caliph loaded me with honors and rich presents. Sindbad here finished the story of his seventh and last voyage. Then addressing himself to Hindbad, he said, "Well, friend, did you ever hear of any person who had suffered as much as I have?" Hindbad kissed Sindbad's hand and said, "Sir, my afflictions are not to be compared with yours. You not only deserve a quiet life, but are worthy of all the riches you possess. May you live happily for a long time." Sindbad ordered him to be paid another hundred sequins and told him to give up carrying burdens and to eat henceforth at his table, for he wished him to remember that he would always have a friend in Sindbad the Sailor. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Discussion. 1. Why did Sindbad tell the story of his voyages? 2. What was the effect of these stories upon Hindbad? 3. If Hindbad had desired to become as rich as Sindbad, what should he have done, and what price would he have paid? 4. Why did Sindbad give money to his guest at the end of each story? 5. Did he do other good deeds with his money? 6. In each of these three long stories, of Aladdin, Ali Baba, and Sindbad the Sailor, what do you learn about the duty of men who have by chance or by their own hard work succeeded in acquiring riches? 7. How many voyages did Sindbad make to satisfy his love of adventure? 8. Which voyage was undertaken to please someone else? 9. Mention some things that Sindbad sold at great profit. 10. Where are these articles most used or valued? 11. Why was it so difficult to travel by water at the time Sindbad lived? 12. What do we learn about Sindbad's character from the story of his voyages? 13. What do we learn about Sindbad's character from his treatment of Hindbad? 14. What parts of the story show that people in Sindbad's time knew very little about geography? 15. Which of Sindbad's seven voyages is the most interesting to you? 16. What have you learned of Eastern customs from this story? 17. Earlier you were told why we read adventure stories of this kind; show why you think the Arabian Nights stories have the two values mentioned. 18. Class readings: Select passages to be read aloud. 19. Outline for testing silent reading. Tell in your own words the story of each of the voyages of Sindbad, using the topic headings given in the book. If possible, try to tell these stories to some child who cannot read them. 20. The Arabian Nights by Wiggin and Smith was illustrated by the famous American artist, Maxfield Parrish; you will enjoy looking at these pictures. 21. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: mansion; grave; humor; ointment; sandalwood; repentance; turban; shipping; traffic; azure. 22. Pronounce: Caliph; Harun-al-Rashid; savory; repast; becalmed; Maharaja; rarities; aloes; sequin; roc; desert; Arabic; sovereign; tradition. Phrases for Study attend his pleasure, Commander of the Faithful, bountiful traveler, trade winds. THE STORY OF ROBIN HOOD (Ed.--This story, in it's original, uncondensed version, in addition to many others, can be found at the web site http://www.gutenberg.org, searching in the index for the title Robin Hood.) THE HOME OF ROBIN IN SHERWOOD FOREST Many hundreds of years ago, when the Plantagenets were kings, England was so covered with woods that a squirrel was said to be able to hop from tree to tree from the Severn to the Humber. It must have been very different-looking from the country we travel through now; but still there were roads that ran from north to south and from east to west, for the use of those who wished to leave their homes, and at certain times of the year these roads were thronged with people. Pilgrims going to some holy shrine passed along, merchants taking their wares to Court, Abbots and Bishops ambling by on palfreys to bear their part in the King's Council, and, more frequently still, a solitary Knight, seeking adventures. Besides the broad roads there were small tracks and little green paths, and these led to clumps of low huts, where dwelt the peasants, charcoal-burners, and plowmen, while here and there some larger clearing than usual told that the house of a yeoman was near. Now and then as you passed through the forest you might ride by a splendid abbey, and catch a glimpse of monks in long black or white gowns, fishing in the streams and rivers that abound in this part of England, or casting nets in the fish ponds which were in the midst of the abbey gardens. Or you might chance to see a castle with round turrets and high battlements, circled by strong walls, and protected by a moat full of water. This was the sort of England into which the famous Robin Hood was born. We know very little about him, who he was, or where he lived, except that for some reason he had offended the King, who had declared him an outlaw, so that any man might kill him and never pay a penalty for it. But, outlaw or not, the poor people loved him and looked on him as their friend, and many a stout fellow came to join him, and led a merry life in the greenwood, with moss and fern for bed, and for meat the King's deer, which it was death to slay. Peasants of all sorts, tillers of the land, yeomen, and, as some say, Knights, went on their ways freely, for of them Robin took no toll; but rich men with moneybags well filled trembled as they drew near to Sherwood Forest--who was to know whether behind every tree there did not lurk Robin Hood or some of his men? THE COMING OF LITTLE JOHN One day Robin was walking alone in the wood, and reached a river which was spanned by a very narrow bridge, over which one man only could pass. In the middle stood a stranger, and Robin bade him go back and let him go over. "I am no man of yours," was all the answer Robin got, and in anger he drew his bow and fitted an arrow to it. "Would you shoot a man who has no arms but a staff?" asked the stranger in scorn; and with shame Robin laid down his bow, and unbuckled an oaken stick at his side. "We will fight till one of us falls into the water," he said; and fight they did, till the stranger planted a blow so well that Robin rolled over into the river. "You are a brave soul," said he, when he had waded to land; and he blew a blast with his horn which brought fifty good fellows, clad in green, to the little bridge. "Have you fallen into the river, that your clothes are wet?" asked one; and Robin made answer, "No, but this stranger, fighting on the bridge, got the better of me and tumbled me into the stream." At this the foresters seized the stranger and would have ducked him, had not their leader bade them stop and begged the stranger to stay with them and make one of themselves. "Here is my hand," replied the stranger, "and my heart with it. My name, if you would know it, is John Little." "That must be altered," cried Will Scarlett; "we will call a feast, and henceforth, because he is full seven feet tall and round the waist at least an ell, he shall be called Little John." And thus it was done; but at the feast Little John, who always liked to know exactly what work he had to do, put some questions to Robin Hood. "Before I join hands with you, tell me first what sort of life this is you lead. How am I to know whose goods I shall take, and whose I shall leave? Whom shall I beat, and whom shall I refrain from beating?" And Robin answered: "Look that you harm not any tiller of the ground, nor any yeoman of the greenwood--no, nor any knight or squire, unless you have heard him ill spoken of. But if rich men with moneybags come your way, see that you spoil THEM, and mark that you always hold in your mind the High Sheriff of Nottingham." This being settled, Robin Hood declared Little John to be second in command to himself among the brotherhood of the forest, and the new outlaw never forgot to hold in his mind the High Sheriff of Nottingham, who was the bitterest enemy the foresters had. Robin Hood, however, had no liking for a company of idle men about him, so he at once sent off Little John and Will Scarlett to the great road known as Wafting Street with orders to hide among the trees and wait till some adventure might come to them. If they took captive Earl or Baron, Abbot or Knight, he was to be brought unharmed back to Robin Hood. But all along Wafting Street the road was bare; white and hard it lay in the sun, without the tiniest cloud of dust to show that a rich company might be coming; east and west the land lay still. LITTLE JOHN'S FIRST ADVENTURE At length, just where a side path turned into the broad highway, there rode a Knight, and a sorrier man than he never sat a horse on a summer day. One foot only was in the stirrup; the other hung carelessly by his side. His head was bowed, the reins dropped loose, and his horse went on as he would. At so sad a sight the hearts of the outlaws were filled with pity, and Little John fell on his knees and bade the Knight welcome in the name of his master. "Who is your master?" asked the Knight. "Robin Hood," answered Little John. "I have heard much good of him," replied the Knight, "and will go with you gladly." Then they all set off together, tears running down the Knight's cheeks as he rode. But he said nothing; neither was anything said to him. And in this wise they came to Robin Hood. "Welcome, Sir Knight," cried he, "and thrice welcome, for I waited to break my fast till you or some other had come to me." "God save you, good Robin," answered the Knight; and after they had washed themselves in the stream, they sat down to dine off bread and wine, with flesh of the King's deer, and swans and pheasants. "Such a dinner have I not had for three weeks and more," said the Knight. "And if I ever come again this way, good Robin, I will give you as fine a dinner as you have given me." "I thank you," replied Robin; "my dinner is always welcome; still, I am none so greedy but I can wait for it. But before you go, pay me, I pray you, for the food which you have had. It was never the custom for a yeoman to pay for a Knight." "My bag is empty," said the Knight, "save for ten shillings only." "Go, Little John, and look in his wallet," said Robin, "and, Sir Knight, if in truth you have no more, not one penny will I take; nay, I will give you all that you shall need." So Little John spread out the Knight's mantle, and opened the bag, and therein lay ten shillings and naught besides. "What tidings, Little John?" cried his master. "Sir, the Knight speaks truly," said Little John. "Then fill a cup of the best wine and tell me Sir Knight, whether it is your own ill doings which have brought you to this sorry pass." "For a hundred years my fathers have dwelt in the forest," answered the Knight, "and four hundred pounds might they spend yearly. But within two years misfortune has befallen me, and my wife and children also." "How did this evil come to pass?" asked Robin. "Through my own folly," answered the Knight, "and because of the great love I bore my son, who would never be guided of my counsel, and slew, ere he was twenty years old, a Knight of Lancaster and his squire. For their deaths I had to pay a large sum, which I could not raise without giving my lands in pledge to a rich man at York. If I cannot give him the money by a certain day, they will be lost to me forever." "What is the sum?" asked Robin. "Tell me truly." "It is four hundred pounds," said the Knight. "And what will you do if you lose your lands?" asked Robin again. "Hie myself over the sea," said the Knight, "and bid farewell to my friends and country. There is no better way open to me." As he spoke, tears fell from his eyes, and he turned to depart. "Good day, my friend," he said to Robin; "I cannot pay you what I should--" But Robin held him fast. "Where are your friends?" asked he. "Sir, they have all forsaken me, since I became poor, and they turn away their heads if we meet upon the road, though when I was rich they were ever in my castle." When Little John and Will Scarlett and the rest heard this, they wept for very shame and fury, and Robin bade them fill a cup of the best wine and give it to the Knight. "Have you no one who would stay surety for you?" said he. "None," answered the Knight; "there is no one who will stay surety for me." "You speak well," said Robin, "and you, Little John, go to my treasure chest, and bring me thence four hundred pounds. And be sure you count it truly." So Little John went, and Will Scarlett, and they brought back the money. "Sir," said Little John, when Robin had counted it and found it no more and no less, "look at his clothes, how thin they are! You have stores of garments, green and scarlet, in your coffers--no merchant in England can boast the like. I will measure some out with my bow." And thus he did. "Master," spoke Little John again, "there is still something else. You must give him a horse, that he may go as beseems his quality to York." "Take the gray horse," said Robin, "and put a new saddle on it, and take likewise a good palfrey and a pair of boots, with gilt Spurs on them. And as it would be a shame for a Knight to ride by himself on this errand, I will lend you Little John as squire--perchance he may stand you in yeoman's stead." "When shall we meet again?" asked the Knight. "This day twelve months," said Robin, "under the greenwood tree." THE KNIGHT WINS BACK HIS LANDS Then the Knight rode on his way, with Little John behind him, and as he went he thought of Robin Hood and his men, and blessed them for the goodness they had shown toward him. "Tomorrow," he said to Little John, "I must be in the city of York, for if I am so much as a day late, my lands are lost forever; and though I were to bring the money, I should not be allowed to redeem them." Now the man who had lent the money, as well as the Knight, had been counting the days, and the next day he said to his friends, "This day year there came a Knight and borrowed of me four hundred pounds, giving his lands as surety. If he come not to pay his debt before midnight, they will be mine forever." "It is full early yet," said one; "he may still be coming." "He is far beyond the sea and suffers from hunger and cold," said the rich man. "How is he to get here?" "It were a shame," said another, "for you to take his lands. And you do him much wrong if you drive such a hard bargain." "He is dead or hanged," said a third, "and you will have his lands." So they went to the High Justiciar, whose duty it would be to declare the Knight's lands forfeited if he did not pay the money. "If he come not this day," cried the rich man, rubbing his hands, "the lands will be mine." "He will not come," said the Justiciar, but he knew not that the Knight was already at the outer gate, and Little John with him. "Welcome, Sir Knight," said the porter. "The horse that you ride is the noblest that ever I saw. Let me lead it and the steed of your companion to the stable, that they may have food and rest." "They shall not pass these gates," answered the Knight sternly, and he entered the hall alone. "I have come back, my lord," he said, kneeling down before the rich man, who had just returned from court. "Have you brought my money?" "I have come to pray you to give me more time," said the Knight. "The day was fixed and cannot be gainsaid," answered the Justiciar, who was sitting at meat with others in the hall. The Knight begged the Justiciar to be his friend and help him, but he refused. "Give me one more chance to get the money and free my lands," prayed the Knight. "I will serve you day and night till I have four hundred pounds to redeem them." But the rich man only vowed that the money must be paid that day or the lands be forfeited. Then the Knight stood up straight and tall. "You are not courteous," he said, "to make a Knight kneel so long. But it is well to prove one's friends against the hour of need." Then he looked the rich man full in the face, and the man felt uneasy and hated the Knight more than ever. "Out of my hall, false Knight," he cried, pretending to a courage he did not feel. But the Knight answered him, "Never was I false, and that I have shown in jousts and in tourneys." "Give him two hundred pounds more," said the Justiciar to the rich man, "and keep the lands yourself." "No," cried the Knight, "not if you offered me a thousand pounds would I do it. No one here shall be heir of mine." Then he strode up to a table and emptied out four hundred pounds. "Take your gold which you lent to me a year agone," he said. "Had you but received me civilly, I would have paid you something more." Then he passed out of the hall singing merrily and rode back to his house, where his wife met him at the gate. He went forth full merrily singing, As men have told in tale; His lady met him at the gate, At home in Wierysdale. "Welcome, my lord," said his lady; "Sir, lost is all your good." "Be merry, dame," said the Knight, "And pray for Robin Hood." Then he told how Robin Hood had befriended him, and how he had redeemed his lands, and finished his tale by praising the outlaw. "But for his kindness," he said, "we had been beggars." After this the Knight dwelt at home, looking after his lands and saving his money carefully, till the four hundred pounds lay ready for Robin Hood. Then he bought a hundred bows and a hundred arrows, and every arrow was an ell long, and had a head of silver and peacock's feathers. And clothing himself in white and red, and with a hundred men in his train, he set off to Sherwood Forest. On the way he passed an open space near a bridge where there was a wrestling, and the Knight stopped and looked, for he himself had taken many a prize in that sport. Here the prizes were such as to fill any man with envy: a fine horse, saddled and bridled, a great white bull, a pair of gloves, and a ring of bright, red gold. There was not a yeoman present who did not hope to win one of them. But when the wrestling was over, the yeoman who had beaten them all was a man who kept apart from his fellows and was said to think much of himself. Therefore the men grudged him his skill, and set upon him with blows, and would have killed him had not the Knight, for love of Robin Hood, taken pity on him, while his followers fought with the crowd, and would not suffer them to touch the prizes a better man had won. When the wrestling was finished, the Knight rode on, and there under the greenwood tree, in the place appointed, he found Robin and his merry men waiting for him, according to the tryst that they had fixed last year. "God save thee, Robin Hood, And all this company." "Welcome be thou, gentle Knight, And right welcome to me. "Hast thou thy land again?" said Robin; "Truth then tell thou me." "Yea, 'fore God," said the Knight, "And for it thank I God and thee. "Have here four hundred pounds, The which you lent to me; And here are also twenty marks For your courtesie." But Robin would not take the money. A miracle had happened, he said, and it had been paid to him, and shame would it be for him to take it twice over. Then he noticed for the first time the bows and arrows which the Knight had brought, and asked what they were. "A poor present to you," answered the Knight; and Robin, who would not be outdone, sent Little John once more to his treasury, and bade him bring forth four hundred pounds, which were given to the Knight. After that they parted, in much love; and Robin prayed the Knight if he were in any strait to let him know at the greenwood tree, and while there was any gold there he should have it. HOW LITTLE JOHN BECAME THE SHERIFF'S SERVANT Meanwhile the High Sheriff of Nottingham proclaimed a great shooting-match in a broad open space, and Little John was minded to try his skill with the rest. He rode through the forest, whistling gaily to himself, for well he knew that not one of Robin Hood's men could send an arrow as straight as he, and he felt little fear of anyone else. When he reached the trysting place, he found a large company assembled, the Sheriff with them, and the rules of the match were read out: where they were to stand, how far the mark was to be, and that three tries should be given to every man. Some of the shooters shot near the mark; some of them even touched it; but none but Little John split the slender wand of willow with every arrow that flew from his bow. At this sight the Sheriff of Nottingham swore that Little John was the best archer that ever he had seen, and asked him who he was and where he was born, and vowed that if he would enter his service he would give twenty marks a year to so good a bowman. Little John, who did not wish to confess that he was one of Robin Hood's men and an outlaw, said his name was Reynold Greenleaf, and that he was in the service of a Knight, whose leave he must get before he became the servant of any man. This was given heartily by the Knight whose lands had been saved by the kindness of Robin Hood, and Little John bound himself to the Sheriff for the space of twelve months, and was given a good white horse to ride on whenever he went abroad. But for all that, he did not like his bargain, and made up his mind to do the Sheriff, who was hated of the outlaws, all the mischief he could. His chance came on a Wednesday, when the Sheriff always went hunting, and Little John lay in bed till noon, or till he grew hungry. Then he got up and told the steward that he wanted some dinner. The steward answered that he should have nothing till the Sheriff came home; so Little John grumbled and left him, and sought out the butler. Here he was no more successful than before; the butler just went to the buttery door and locked it, and told Little John that he would have to make himself happy till his lord returned. Rude words mattered nothing to Little John, who was not, accustomed to be balked by trifles; so he gave a mighty kick, which burst open the door, and then ate and drank as much as he would, and when he had finished all there was in the buttery, he went down into the kitchen. Now the Sheriff's cook was a strong man and a bold one, and had no mind to let another man play the king in his kitchen; so he gave Little John three smart blows, which were returned heartily. "Thou art a brave man and hardy," said Little John, "and a good fighter withal. I have a sword; take you another, and let us see which is the better man of us twain." The cook did as he was bid, and for two hours they fought, neither of them harming the other. "Fellow," said Little John at last, "you are one of the best swordsmen that I ever saw--and if you could shoot as well with the bow, I would take you back to the merry greenwood, and Robin Hood would give you twenty marks a year and two changes of clothing." "Put up your sword," said the cook, "and I will go with you. But first we will have some food in my kitchen, and carry off a little of the gold and silver that is in the Sheriff's treasure house." They ate and drank till they wanted no more, and they broke the locks of the treasure house, and took of the silver as much as they could carry, and of the gold, three hundred pounds and more, and departed unseen by anyone to Robin in the forest. "Welcome! welcome!" cried Robin, when he saw them; "a welcome, too, to the fair yeoman you bring with you. What tidings from Nottingham, Little John?" "The proud Sheriff greets you, and sends you by my hand his cook and his silver vessels, and three hundred pounds and three also." Robin shook his head, for he knew better than to believe Little John's tale. "It was never by his good will that you brought such treasure to me," he answered; and Little John, fearing that he might be ordered to take it back again, slipped away into the forest to carry out a plan that had just come into his head. He ran straight on for five miles, till he came up with the Sheriff, who was still hunting, and flung himself on his knees before him. "Reynold Greenleaf," cried the Sheriff, "what are you doing here, and where have you been?" "I have been in the forest, where I saw a fair hart of a green color, and seven score deer feeding hard by." "That sight would I see too," said the Sheriff. "Then follow me," answered Little John, and he ran back the way he came, the Sheriff following on horseback, till they turned a corner of the forest, and found themselves in Robin Hood's presence. "Sir, here is the master hart," said Little John. Still stood the proud Sheriff; A sorry man was he. "Woe be to you, Reynold Greenleaf; Thou hast betrayed me!" "It was not my fault," answered Little John, "but the fault of your servants, master; for they would not give me my dinner." So he went away to see to the supper. It was spread under the greenwood tree, and they sat down to it, hungry men all. But when the Sheriff saw himself served from his own dishes, his appetite went from him. "Take heart, man," said Robin Hood, "and think not we will poison you. For charity's sake, and for the love of Little John, your life shall be granted you. Only for twelve months you shall dwell with me, and learn what it is to be an outlaw." To the Sheriff this punishment was worse to bear than the loss of gold, or silver dishes, and earnestly he begged Robin Hood to set him free, vowing he would prove himself the best friend that ever the foresters had. Neither Robin nor any of his men believed him; but he swore that he would never seek to do them harm, and that if he found any of them in evil plight he would deliver them out of it. With that Robin let him go. HOW ROBIN MET FRIAR TUCK In many ways life in the forest was dull in the winter, and often the days passed slowly; but in summer, when the leaves were green, and flowers and ferns covered all the woodland, Robin Hood and his men would come out of their warm resting places, like the rabbits and the squirrels, and would play, too. Races they ran to stretch their legs, or leaping matches were arranged, or they would shoot at a mark. Anything was pleasant when the grass was soft once more under their feet. "Who of you can kill a hart five hundred paces off?" So said Robin to his men one bright May morning; and they went into the wood and tried their skill, and in the end it was Little John who brought down the hart, to the great joy of Robin Hood. "I would ride my horse a hundred miles to find one who could match with thee," he said to Little John; and Will Scarlett, who was perhaps rather jealous of this mighty deed, answered, with a laugh, "There lives a friar in Fountains Abbey who would beat both him and you." Now Robin Hood did not like to be told that any man could shoot better than himself or his foresters; so he swore lustily that he would neither eat nor drink till he had seen that friar. Leaving his men where they were, he put on a coat of mail and a steel cap, took his shield and sword, slung his bow over his shoulder, and filled his quiver with arrows. Thus armed, he set forth to Fountains Dale. By the side of the river a friar was walking, armed like Robin, but without a bow. At this sight Robin jumped from his horse, which he tied to a thorn, and called to the friar to carry him over the water, or it would cost him his life. The friar said nothing, but hoisted Robin on his broad back and marched into the river. Not a word was spoken till they reached the other side, when Robin leaped, lightly down, and was going on his way. Then the friar stopped him. "Not so fast, my fine fellow," said he. "It is my turn now, and you shall take me across the river, or woe will betide you." So Robin carried him, and when they had reached the side from which they had started, he set down the friar and jumped for the second time on his back, and bade him take him whence he had come. The friar strode into the stream with his burden, but as soon as they got to the middle he bent his head, and Robin fell into the water. "Now you can sink or swim, as you like," said the friar, as he stood and laughed. Robin Hood swam to a bush of golden broom, and pulled himself out of the water; and while the friar was scrambling out, Robin fitted an arrow to his bow and let fly at him. But the friar quickly held up his shield, and the arrow fell harmless. "Shoot on, my fine fellow; shoot on all day if you like," shouted the friar; and Robin shot till his arrows were gone, but always missed his mark. Then they took their swords, and at four of the afternoon they were still fighting. By this time Robin's strength was wearing, and he felt he could not fight much more. "A boon, a boon!" cried he. "Let me but blow three blasts on my horn, and I will thank you on my bended knees for it." The friar told him to blow as many blasts as he liked, and in an instant the forest echoed with his horn; it was but a few minutes before half a hundred yeomen were racing over the lea. The friar stared when he saw them; then, turning to Robin, he begged of him a boon also; and leave being granted, he gave three whistles, which were followed by the noise of a great crashing through the trees, as fifty great dogs bounded toward him. "Here's a dog for each of your men," said the friar, "and I myself for you"; but the dogs did not listen to his words, for two of them rushed at Robin and tore his mantle of Lincoln green from off his back. His men were kept busy defending themselves, for every arrow shot at a dog was caught and held in the creature's mouth. Robin's men were not used to fight with dogs, and felt they were getting beaten. At last Little John bade the friar call off his dogs, and as he did not do so, he let fly some arrows, which this time left half a dozen dead on the ground. "Hold, hold, my good fellow," said the friar, "till your master and I can come to a bargain"; and when the bargain was made, this was how it ran: that the friar was to forswear Fountains Abbey and join Robin Hood, and that he should be paid a golden noble every Sunday throughout the year, besides a change of clothes on each holy day. This Friar had kept Fountains Dale Seven long years or more; There was neither Knight, nor Lord, nor Earl Could make him yield before. But now he became one of the most famous members of Robin Hood's men under the name of Friar Tuck. HOW ROBIN HOOD AND LITTLE JOHN FELL OUT One Whitsunday morning, when the sun was shining and the birds singing, Robin Hood called to Little John to come with him into Nottingham to church. As was their custom, they took their bows, and on the way Little John proposed that they should shoot a match, with a penny for a wager. Robin, who held that he shot better than any Other man living, laughed in scorn, and told Little John that he should have three tries to his master's one, which John without more ado accepted. But Robin soon repented both of his offer and his scorn, for Little John speedily won five shillings, whereat Robin became angry and smote Little John with his hand. Little John was not the man to bear being treated so, and he told Robin roundly that he would never more own him for master, and straightway turned back into the wood. At this, Robin was ashamed of what he had done, but his pride would not suffer him to say so; and he continued his way to Nottingham, and entered the Church of St. Mary, not without secret fears, for the Sheriff of the town was ever his enemy. However, there he was, and there he meant to stay. He knelt down in the sight of all the people; but none knew him save one man only, and he stole out of church and ran to the Sheriff and bade him come quickly and take his foe. The Sheriff was not slow to do what he was bidden, and, calling his men to follow him, he marched to the church. The noise they made in entering caused Robin to look round. "Alas, alas," he said to himself, "now miss I Little John." But he drew his two-handed sword and laid about him in such wise that twelve of the Sheriff's men lay dead before him. Then Robin found himself face to face with the Sheriff, and gave him a fierce blow; but his sword broke on the Sheriff's head, and he had shot away all his arrows. So the men closed round him and bound his arms. Ill news travels fast, and not many hours had passed before the foresters heard that their master was in prison. They wept and moaned and wrung their hands, and seemed to have gone suddenly mad, till Little John bade them pluck up their hearts and help him deal with the Sheriff. The next morning Little John hid himself and waited with a comrade till he saw a messenger riding along the road, carrying letters from the Sheriff to the King, telling him of the capture of Robin Hood. "Whence come you?" asked Little John, going up to the messenger, "and can you give us tidings of an outlaw named Robin Hood, who was taken prisoner yesterday?" "You may thank me that he is taken," said the rider, "for I laid hands on him." "I thank you so much that I and my friend will bear you company," said Little John, "for in this forest are many wild men who own Robin Hood for leader, and you ride along this road at the peril of your life." They went on together, talking the while, when suddenly Little John seized the horse by the head and pulled down the rider. "He was my master," said Little John, "That you have brought to bale; Never shall you come at the King For to tell him that tale." Then taking the letters, Little John carried them to the King. When they arrived at the palace in the presence of the King, Little John and his companion fell on their knees and held out the letters. "God save you, my liege lord," they said, and the King unfolded the letters and read them. Then he handed his own seal to Little John and ordered him to bear it to the Sheriff and bid him without delay bring Robin Hood unhurt into his presence. "There never was yeoman in Merry England that I longed so sore to see," he said. The King also ordered his treasurer to give the messengers twenty pounds each, and made them yeomen of the crown. Little John took the King's seal to the Sheriff, who made him and his companion welcome because they came from the King. He set a feast for them, and after he had eaten he fell asleep. Then the two outlaws stole softly to the prison. They overpowered the guard and, taking the keys, hunted through the cells until they found Robin Hood. Little John whispered to his master to follow him, and they crept along till they reached the lowest part of the city wall, from which they jumped and were safe and free. "Now, farewell," said Little John; "I have done you a good turn for an ill." "Not so," answered Robin Hood; "I make you master of my men and me." But Little John would hear nothing of it. "I only wish to be your comrade, and thus it shall be," he replied. "Little John has beguiled us both," said the King, when he heard of the adventure. HOW THE KING VISITED ROBIN HOOD Now the King had no mind that Robin Hood should do as he willed, and called his Knights to follow him to Nottingham, where they would lay plans how best to take captive the outlaw. Here they heard sad tales of Robin's misdoings, and how of the many herds of wild deer that had roamed the forest, in some places scarce one deer remained. This was the work of Robin Hood and his merry men, on whom the King swore vengeance with a great oath. "I would I had this Robin Hood in my hands," cried he, "and an end should soon be put to his doings." So spake the King; but an old Knight, full of days and wisdom, answered him and warned him that the task of taking Robin Hood would be a sore one, and best let alone. The King, who had seen the vanity of his hot words the moment that he had uttered them, listened to the old man and resolved to bide his time until perchance some day Robin should fall into his power. All this time, and for six weeks later that he dwelt in Nottingham, the King could hear nothing of Robin, who seemed to have vanished into the earth with his merry men, though one by one the deer were vanishing, too. At last one day a forester came to the King and told him that if he would see Robin he must come with him and take five of his best Knights. The King eagerly sprang up to do his bidding, and the six men, clad in monks' clothes, mounted their palfreys and rode merrily along, the King wearing an Abbot's broad hat over his crown, and singing as he passed through the greenwood. Suddenly at the turn of a path Robin and his archers appeared before them. "By your leave, Sir Abbot," said Robin, seizing the King's bridle, "you will stay a while with us. Know that we are yeomen, who live upon the King's deer, and other food have we none. Now you have abbeys and churches, and gold in plenty; therefore give us some of it, in the name of holy charity." "I have no more than forty pounds with me," answered the King, "but sorry I am it is not a hundred, for you should have it all." So Robin took the forty pounds, and gave half to his men, and then told the King he might go on his way. "I thank you," said the King, "but I would have you know that our liege lord has bid me bear you his seal and pray you to come to Nottingham." At this message Robin bent his knee. "I love no man in all the world So well as I do my King," he cried, "and Sir Abbot, for thy tidings, which fill my heart with joy, today thou shalt dine with me, for love of my King." Then he led the King into an open place, and Robin took a horn and blew it loud, and at its blast seven score of young men came speedily to do his will. "They are quicker to do his bidding than my men are to do mine," said the King to himself. Speedily the foresters set out the dinner, roasts of venison and loaves of white bread, and Robin and Little John served the King. "Make good cheer," said Robin, "Abbot, for charity, and then you shall see what sort of life we lead, so that you may tell our King." When he had finished eating, the archers took their bows and hung rose-garlands up with a string, and every man was to shoot through the garland. If he failed, he should have a buffet on the head from Robin. Good bowmen as they were, few managed to stand the test. Little John and Will Scarlett and Much all shot wide of the mark, and at length no one was left in but Robin himself and Gilbert of the Wide Hand. Then Robin fired his last bolt, and it fell three fingers from the garland. "Master," said Gilbert, "you have lost; stand forth and take your punishment, as was agreed." "I will take it," answered Robin, "but, Sir Abbot, I pray you that I may suffer it at your hands." The King hesitated. "It does not become me," he said, "to smite such a stout yeoman"; but Robin bade him smite on and spare him not; so he turned up his sleeve, and gave Robin such a lusty buffet on the head that he lost his feet and rolled upon the ground. "There is pith in your arm," said Robin. "Come, shoot a main with me." And the King took up a bow, and in so doing his hat fell back, and Robin saw his face. "My lord the King of England, now I know you well," cried he; and he fell on his knees, and all the outlaws with him. "Mercy I ask, my lord the King, for all my brave foresters and me." "Mercy I grant," then said the King; "and therefore I came hither, to bid you and your men leave the greenwood and dwell in my Court with me." "So shall it be," answered Robin; "I and my men will come to your Court, and see how your service liketh us." ROBIN AT COURT "Have you any green cloth," asked the King, "that you could sell to me?" and Robin brought out thirty yards and more, and clad the King and his men in coats of Lincoln green. "Now we will all ride to Nottingham," said he, and they went merrily, shooting by the way. The people of Nottingham saw them coming and trembled as they watched the dark mass of Lincoln green drawing near over the fields. "I fear lest our King be slain," whispered one to another; "and if Robin Hood gets into the town, there is not one of us whose life is safe"; and every man, woman, and child made ready to flee. The King laughed out when he saw their fright, and called them back. Right glad were they to hear his voice, and they feasted and made merry. A few days later the King returned to London, and Robin dwelt in his Court for twelve months. By that time he had spent a hundred pounds, for he gave largely to the Knights and squires he met, and great renown he had for his open-handedness. But his men, who had been born under the shadow of the forest, could not live amid streets and houses. One by one they slipped away, till only Little John and Will Scarlett were left. Then Robin himself grew homesick, and at the sight of some young men shooting he thought upon the time when he was accounted the best archer in all England, and went straightway to the King and begged for leave to go on a pilgrimage. "I may not say you nay," answered the King; "seven nights you may be gone and no more." And Robin thanked him, and that evening set out for the greenwood. It was early morning when he reached it at last, and listened thirstily to the notes of singing birds, great and small. "It seems long since I was here," he said to himself; "it would give me great joy if I could bring down a deer once more"; and he shot a great hart, and blew his horn, and all the outlaws of the forest came flocking round him. "Welcome," they said, "our dear master, back to the greenwood tree"; and they threw off their caps and fell on their knees before him in delight at his return. Naught that the King could say would tempt Robin Hood back again, and he dwelt in the greenwood for two and twenty years after he had run away from Court. And he was ever a faithful friend, kind to the poor, and gentle to all women. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Historical Note. When William the Conqueror became King of England he destroyed many villages and towns to make royal forests in which he might enjoy his favorite sport of hunting. The most famous of the hunting grounds was in Hampshire and was called the New Forest. Hundreds of poor people were driven from their homes and left shelterless that this hunting park might be made. In order to keep up these hunting grounds, William and the Kings who followed him made very severe laws for the protection of the deer. The temptation to shoot these deer must have been very strong, especially to men living near the forest, for the English at that time excelled all other nations in the use of the long bow. In consequence of this, many men killed the King's deer, and fled to the woods to escape punishment. There they formed into bands and, knowing the forests so well, were safe from the King's officers. Among these outlaws were many brave and skillful archers, but none was ever more famous than the hero of this story, Robin Hood. Discussion. 1. Why was Robin Hood obliged to live in the forest? 2. How did he win the friendship of Little John? 3. What did Robin Hood tell him about the Sheriff of Nottingham? 4. Describe the appearance of the Knight whom Little John met in the forest. 5. What foods were prepared for the dinner which Robin Hood invited the Knight? 6. How had these provisions been obtained? 7. What story did the Knight tell to Robin Hood? 8. How did Robin Hood help him? 9. Where do you think the treasure chest was kept? 10. From whom had this treasure been taken? 11. How did the Knight show his gratitude after he regained his lands? 12. Why did the Sheriff of Nottingham want Little John in his service? 13. What thought was constantly in Little John's mind? 14. How did he accomplish his purpose? 15. What explanation did he give to Robin Hood for what he brought from the Sheriff's house? 16. How did he induce the Sheriff to follow him to the place where Robin Hood was? 17. What punishment did Robin Hood decide upon for the Sheriff? Why did he not carry it out? 18. How was Robin Hood captured by the Sheriff? 19. What reason do you think the King had for wanting to see Robin Hood? 20. What did he determine to do after Robin Hood's escape? 21. Find words in which Robin Hood expressed his love for his King. 22. What offer did the King make to Robin Hood and his men? Why did the King make them such an offer? 23. Why did Robin dislike living at Court? 24. How long did Robin Hood live in the greenwood after he left the Court? 25. Under what conditions do you think life in the forest would be pleasant? 26. What were these men obliged to give up when they went into the forest to live? 27. What did they gain by living in the forest? 28. When did Robin Hood show himself generous? 29. When did Robin show himself merciful? 30. What do you think of Little John's treatment of the Sheriff of Nottingham after he had lived in his house? 31. When did Little John show himself a loyal friend? 32. When did he show himself hard and cruel? 33. What things mentioned in this story show that the manners and life of the people in England at this time were rough? 34. What qualities were most admired in men at the time of Robin Hood? 35. What was the reason for this? 36. Make a list showing the good qualities of Robin Hood, such as his courtesy, his justice, his sense of fair play. Mention the incidents that illustrate each characteristic. 37. Show that this story has the two values mentioned in the last paragraph of page 146. 38. Why did Robin dislike the Sheriff? 39. Find, from the story, ways in which poor or unfortunate men were oppressed by the laws in those days. 40. Did the laws seem made to give equal justice to all, or unfair advantages to the rich and powerful? 41. How do you think Robin felt about these matters? 42. How did he try to take the side of the poor men who were thus unfairly dealt with by the government? 43. Tell the story of Friar Tuck. 44. Why did the King take such an interest in Robin? Do you think the King was glad to get away from the Court? Why? 45. What did he say about the way in which Robin was obeyed by his followers? 46. What does the Forward Look tell you about the source of this story? 47. Class readings: Little John's first adventure, omitting all but the dialogue, (3 pupils); Robin and his archers with the King; Robin at the King's Court. 48. Outline for testing silent reading. Tell the story of Robin Hood, using these topics: (a) the home of Robin in Sherwood Forest; (b) the coming of Little John; (c) Little John's first adventure, (d) the Knight's recovery of his lands; (e) Little John as the Sheriff's servant; (f) Robin's meeting with Friar Tuck; (g) the disagreement between Robin and Little John; (h) the King's visit to Robin Hood; (i) Robin at Court. 49. You will enjoy seeing the pictures in the edition of Robin Hood illustrated by N. C. Wyeth. 50. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: abbey; battlements ell; coffers; tourneys; hart; broom; boon; noble. 51. Pronounce: Plantagenets; palfreys; peasants; yeoman; toll; pheasants; naught; hie; surety; Justiciar; gainsaid; jousts; heir; tryst; steward; balked; lea; ado; liege; beguiled; buffet. Phrases for Study King's Council, stout fellow, took no toll, break my fast, sorry pass, guided of my counsel, stay surety, beseems his quality, stand you in yeoman's stead, redeem them, was minded to try, without more ado, in such wise, brought to bale, shoot a main, service liketh us. GULLIVER'S TRAVELS JONATHAN SWIFT (Ed.--This story, in it's original, uncondensed version, in addition to many others, can be found at the web site http://www.gutenberg.org, searching in the index for the title Gulliver's Travels.) GULLIVER SAILS FOR THE SOUTH SEA AND IS SHIPWRECKED My name is Lemuel Gulliver, and my home is in Nottinghamshire. I went to college at Cambridge, where I studied hard, for I knew my father was not rich enough to keep me when I should become a man, and that I must be able to earn my own living. I decided to be a doctor, but as I had always longed to travel, I learned to be a good sailor as well. When I had succeeded in becoming both doctor and sailor, I married, and with my wife's consent I became surgeon upon a ship and made many voyages. One of these voyages was with Captain Prichard, master of a vessel called the Antelope, bound for the South Sea. We set sail from Bristol and started upon our journey very fairly, until there came a violent storm that drove our ship near an island called Van Diemen's Land. The Antelope was driven against a rock, which wrecked and split the vessel in half. Six of the sailors and myself let down one of the small boats, and, getting into it, rowed away from the ruined vessel and the dangerous rock. We rowed until we were so tired we could no longer hold the oars; then we were obliged to allow our boat to go as the waves carried it. Suddenly there came another violent gust of wind from the north, and our small boat was at once overturned. I do not know what became of my unfortunate companions, but I fear all must have been drowned. I was a good swimmer, and I swam for my life. I went the best way I could, pushed forward by wind and tide. Sometimes I let my legs drop to see if my feet touched the bottom, and when I was almost overcome and fainting, I found to my great joy that I was out of the deep water and able to walk. By this time the storm was over. I walked about a mile, until I reached the shore, and when I stood upon land I could not see a sign of any houses or people. I felt very weak and tired; so I lay down upon the grass, which was very short and soft; and soon fell into a sound sleep. I must have slept all that night, for when I awoke, it was bright daylight. I tried to rise, but found I was not able even to move. I had been lying upon my back, and I found my arms and legs were strongly fastened on each side to the ground; and that my hair, which was long and thick, was also tied to the ground. I felt several slender threads over my body. Fastened in this way, I could only look upwards, and, as the sun came out and shone in my eyes, this was very uncomfortable. I heard a queer noise about me, but could see nothing except the sky. In a little while I felt something alive moving on my left leg; this thing came gently forward over my breast and almost up to my chin. Bending my eyes downward as much as I could, I saw a tiny human creature, not more than six inches high, with a tiny bow and arrow in his hands. While I gazed in astonishment, forty more of the same kind followed the first. I called out so loud in my amazement that they all ran back in a fright, and I felt them leaping from my sides to the ground. However, they soon returned, and one of them came up so far as to get a full sight of my face. As he looked at me, he held up his hands and cried out in a shrill but distinct voice, "Hekinah degul!" Of course I did not understand what this meant, but from the tone in which it was said I thought it must express admiration for me. All this time I lay in great uneasiness. At length I struggled to get loose, and managed to break the strings and pull up the pegs that fastened my left arm to the ground. Then with a violent tug that caused me much pain I broke the strings that tied down my hair on the left side, and was then able to turn my head a trifle. The little people all ran off before I could seize them, and there was a great deal of shouting in very shrill voices. Then in about an instant I felt quite a hundred arrows shot on my left hand, which pricked me like so many needles. Besides this, another hundred were shot into the air and fell all over my body, and some upon my face. When this shower of arrows was over, I lay groaning with the pain and covering my face with my free hand. I had only just done so in time, for immediately another and larger shower fell upon me, and some of the little people tried to stick their spears into my sides; but luckily I had a leather waistcoat on, which the tiny spears could not pierce. After this, I thought I had better lie still and remain very quiet till night came. Then I hoped this odd army would leave me and I should be able to set myself free. I was not at all afraid of any number of such small people, once I had the use of my limbs. GULLIVER IS VISITED BY THE EMPEROR When they saw I was quiet, they stopped shooting arrows; and, as I was almost starving, I tried to show them I wanted food by putting my finger to my mouth, and looking beseechingly at them, praying them to give me something to eat. Soon several ladders were put against my sides. Upon these about a hundred of the people mounted and walked toward my mouth, carrying baskets full of meat. This meat was in the same shape as shoulders, legs, and loins of mutton, but smaller than the wings of a lark. It was all well dressed and cooked, and I ate two or three joints at a mouthful and took three loaves at a time, which were no bigger than bullets. The little people gave the food to me as fast as they could, and showed much wonder at the greatness of my appetite. I must confess I was tempted to pick up those who were running over my body and throw them to the ground. But remembering the shower of arrows and the food they had given me, I felt I was bound in honor not to do them harm. I could not help thinking these tiny creatures were plucky and brave, that they should dare to walk over such a giant as I must seem to them, although one of my hands was free to seize upon them. After a time there came before me no less a personage than his Imperial Majesty, the Emperor of these odd little people. His Majesty mounted my right leg and advanced forward to my face, followed by a dozen of his courtiers. As he stood looking at my face, he spoke for about ten minutes without any sign of anger, but very gravely and sternly, and often pointing in front of him, toward, as I afterwards found, the capital city. To this city the people agreed I was to be carried, and it lay about half a mile off. I made signs to the Emperor that I wanted to be freed from the cords that bound me to the earth, and allowed to rise. But although he understood me well enough, his Majesty shook his head and showed me I must be carried as a prisoner. However, he made other signs that told me I should have meat and drink, and was not to be ill-treated. After this the Emperor and his train got off my body and went away. Soon after, I felt a great number of people at my left side; and they loosened the cords that held me, and so let me turn a little upon my right and get more ease in my uncomfortable position. Then they put some sweet-smelling ointment upon my face and hands, which soon removed the smart of the arrows. Being thus refreshed, I again fell into a deep sleep, which lasted some hours. These little people were very clever at making all kinds of machines and engines for carrying heavy weights. They built their ships and men-of-war, which were about the length of a large dining-table, in the woods where the timber grew, and then carried them to the sea upon the machines they made. They now set to work to prepare the greatest engine they had, which was a frame of wood, raised three inches from the ground, and about as long as one of our bedsteads and nearly as wide across. Five hundred carpenters and engineers got this machine into readiness to carry me to the city. There was loud shouting, as it was brought up to my side; and then came the chief difficulty, which was how to lift me on to it. Eighty poles were driven into the ground, each pole about as tall as an ordinary ruler. Then the workmen bound my neck, hands, body, and legs in bandages, and to these bandages they fixed hooks with the strongest cords fastened to them. Nine hundred of the strongest men then drew up these cords by pulleys attached to the poles, and thus in about three hours I was raised and slung upon the machine, and there tied fast. Fifteen hundred of the Emperor's largest horses, each about four inches and a half high, were used to draw me on the machine, to the city. When at last we arrived at the city gates, the Emperor and all his court came out to meet us. At the place where we stopped there stood a very old temple, which was the largest in the whole kingdom. The people no longer used it to worship in, and it had been emptied of all its furniture and ornaments. It was in this building the Emperor decided I should live. The great gate was about four feet high and two feet wide, and I could easily creep through it. Upon each side of the gate was a small window, just six inches from the ground. To one of these windows the Emperor's smith fixed ninety-one chains, like those we use as watch chains in England, and these chains were locked to my left leg by thirty-six padlocks. Just in front of the temple there was a turret five feet high, and the Emperor and his principal nobles got upon the top of this turret to be able to look at me as I lay. So many people crowded from the city to see me, and all mounted upon my body by the help of ladders, that at last the Emperor gave an order that no one else must do so, on penalty of death. For this I was very glad, as I was becoming quite worn out. When the workmen found it was impossible for me to break my chains and get free, they cut all the strings that bound me, and I rose up feeling very strange and sad. The astonishment of the people at seeing me rise was truly great. The chains that held my left leg were two yards long, and that allowed me to walk backwards and forwards, and also to creep into the temple and lie down. GULLIVER IS KEPT A PRISONER AT THE CAPITAL When I found myself on my feet, I looked about at the surrounding country. It seemed like one big garden, and the fields, which were about the size of an ordinary room, appeared like so many beds of flowers. Then there were the little patches of trees, which made the woods of this tiny country, and the tallest tree among them was not much higher than an Englishman. The little city itself looked like the painted scene in a theater. As I was extremely tired, I did not stay long to look, but crept into my house and shut the door after me. When I had rested, I came out again and stepped backward and forward as far as my chains allowed. Then the Emperor began to ride up to me; but upon seeing me, the horse took fright and nearly threw its rider, which was no wonder, as the poor animal must have thought I was a moving mountain. The prince was an excellent horseman and kept his seat well, while his attendants ran to assist him. Then his Majesty got off his horse and walked up to me and seemed to look at me with great admiration, but did not come near enough for me to touch him. He ordered his cooks to bring me more food and drink, and they brought me the food put into carriages upon wheels, which they pushed forward until I could reach them. I very soon emptied the carriages. The Empress and the young princes, with many other nobles and ladies, all came and gathered round the Emperor and watched me while I ate. His Majesty was taller than any of the others; that is to say, he stood about the breadth of my nail above the heads of his people. He was handsome and well made and had an air of great dignity. I heard that he had reigned seven years, and had been victorious, and that he was much respected. His dress was very plain, except that he had on his head a light helmet made of gold and adorned with jewels and with a plume upon it. He now held his drawn sword in his hand, to defend himself if I should happen to break loose. This sword was about three inches long, and the hilt and case of it were gold, enriched with diamonds. After about two hours the court went away, and I was left with a guard of soldiers to keep the people from crowding round me. This guard was necessary, for one of the men had the impudence to shoot an arrow at me as I sat upon the ground, and it nearly hit my eye. Then the soldiers ordered the man to be seized and bound and given into my hands to punish. I took him up and made a face as if I were going to eat him. The poor little fellow screamed terribly, and even the soldiers looked very much alarmed when I took out my penknife. However, I soon put an end to their fears, for I cut the strings that bound my captive and set him gently upon the ground and let him run away. I saw that all the soldiers and people were delighted at this mark of my mercy and gentleness; and I afterwards heard they told the Emperor about it, and he was very pleased with me. When night came, I crept into my shelter again and lay upon the ground to sleep. The next day the Emperor gave orders for a bed to be made for me. The workmen brought six hundred beds to my house in carriages, and sewed them all together to make one large enough for me to lie upon. They did the same with sheets and blankets, and at the end of two weeks' labor my bed was ready for me. As the news of my arrival spread over the kingdom, it brought numbers of people to see me. The villages were almost emptied, and those men and women who should have been at work came to the city to gaze at me. At last the Emperor gave orders that all who had seen me once were to go to their homes immediately, and not come near me again without his Majesty's permission. The Emperor and his court met together to talk over what could be done with me, which seemed a very difficult question. They were afraid I might break my chains and do them harm; then they were afraid that I would eat so much that it would cause a famine in the land and there would be no food left for them. Luckily for me, his Majesty remembered the kind way I had treated the man who shot the arrow at me, and because of my good behavior he allowed me to live. Orders were given for each of the villages round the city to send in every morning six cows and forty sheep for my meals, and also bread and wine, for all of which the Emperor paid. I was also given six hundred little men as my servants, and these built their tents upon each side of my door. Then three hundred tailors set to work to make me a suit of clothes like those worn in that country, and six of the most learned men taught me to speak the language. Lastly, the Emperor's horses and those of the nobles and soldiers were ridden and exercised before me, until they became quite used to seeing me and would trot quietly past. GULLIVER IS GIVEN HIS LIBERTY My quiet and good behavior so pleased the Emperor and his court that I began to hope he would soon give me my liberty. I did all I could to make the people like me and lose their fear of me. I would lie down and let five or six of them dance upon my hand, and at last the boys and girls even dared to come and play at hide-and-seek in my hair. There was one general, named Skyresh, who was my enemy. I had not given him any cause to dislike me, but he did, and it was he who tried to persuade the Emperor not to give me my liberty. However, I implored his Majesty so often to set me free that at last he promised to do so, but he first made me swear to certain conditions which were to be read to me. These conditions were as follows: "His Majesty, the mighty Emperor of Lilliput, proposes to the Man-Mountain the following articles, which he must swear to perform: "First. The Man-Mountain shall not depart from our country without our permission. "Second. He shall not enter our chief city without our express consent. "Third. He shall walk only along the principal roads, and not over our meadows and fields of corn. "Fourth. As he walks he must take the greatest care not to trample upon any of our subjects, or their horses and carriages, and he must not take any into his hands without their consent. "Fifth. If we desire to send a message anywhere, very quickly, the Man-Mountain shall be obliged to carry the messenger and his horse in his pocket and return with them safe to our court. "Sixth. He must promise not to join the army of our enemies in the island of Blefuscu, and he must do his utmost to destroy their fleet of ships, which is now preparing to attack us. "Seventh. The Man-Mountain shall always be ready to help our workmen in lifting heavy weights. "Eighth. He must walk all round our island and then tell us how many steps round it measures. "Lastly. The Man-Mountain shall have a daily allowance of food sufficient for 1724 of our subjects. "All of these conditions he must take a solemn oath to keep. Then he shall be allowed his liberty." I swore to keep these promises, and my chains were at once unlocked and I was at full liberty. I expressed my gratitude by casting myself at the Emperor's feet, but he graciously commanded me to rise, telling me he hoped I would prove a useful servant and deserve all the favors he had conferred upon me. One morning, about a fortnight after I had obtained my liberty, the principal noble who managed the Emperor's private affairs, and whose name was Reldresal, came to my house, attended by only one servant. He asked to speak to me privately, and I readily consented, as he had always shown me much kindness. I offered to lie down so that he could speak into my ear, but he chose to let me hold him in my hand during our conversation. He told me that the island of Lilliput was threatened with invasion by an army from the island of Blefuscu, which was the next island, and one almost as large and powerful as Lilliput itself. These two islands and their Emperors had for some time been engaged in a most obstinate war. Reldresal told me that his Majesty had just heard that the Blefuscudians had got together a large fleet of warships and were preparing to invade Lilliput. His Majesty said he placed great trust in my power to help them in this trouble, and had commanded his officer to lay the case before me. I told Reldresal to present my humble duty to the Emperor and tell him I thought it would hardly be fair for me, as I was a foreigner, to interfere between the two islands. But I said I was quite ready, even at the risk of my life, to defend his Majesty's state and person against all invaders. The island of Blefuscu was separated from Lilliput by a channel eight hundred yards wide. I had not yet seen it, but after hearing that the Emperor of Blefuscu had a fleet of ships upon the water, I kept from going near the coast, as I did not want to be noticed by the enemy. The Blefuscudians did not know of my presence in Lilliput. I told his Majesty, the Emperor of Lilliput, that I had a plan by which I could seize all the enemy's ships. GULLIVER CAPTURES THE BLEFUSCUDIAN FLEET I had asked the most clever seamen upon the island how deep the channel was, and they told me that in the middle it was about six feet deep, and at the sides it was only four feet. I then walked toward the coast and lay down behind a hillock; here I took out my telescope and looked at the enemy's fleet. It consisted of fifty men-of-war and a great number of smaller vessels. I hurried back to my house and gave orders for a quantity of the strongest rope and bars of iron. The Emperor said all my orders were to be carried out. The rope that was brought me was only as thick as our packing thread, and the iron bars were the length and size of a knitting-needle. I twisted three lengths of the rope together to make it stronger, and three of the iron bars in the same way. I turned up the ends of the bars to form a hook. I fixed fifty hooks to as many pieces of rope, and then I took them all down to the coast. Here I took off my shoes and stockings and coat, and walked into the sea. I waded until I came to the middle of the channel, and, the water being deep there, I was obliged to swim about thirty yards. After this I waded again, and in less than half an hour I arrived at the fleet of the enemy. The Blefuscudians were so frightened when they saw me that they leaped out of their ships and swam to shore. I then took my hooks and ropes and fastened a hook to the end of each vessel. Then I tied all the ropes together. While I was doing this, the enemy discharged several thousand arrows at me from the shore, and many of the arrows stuck in my face and hands. This hurt me very much, and prevented my working quickly. My worst fear was for my eyes, which would certainly have been put out by arrows had I not thought of my spectacles. These I fastened as strongly as I could upon my nose, and, thus protected, I went boldly on, while the arrows struck my glasses without even cracking them. When I had fastened all my hooks, I took the knot of ropes in my hands and began to pull. But I could not move a single ship, for they were all held fast by their anchors. Therefore I let go the cord, and, taking my knife from my pocket, I cut the cables that held the anchors, at the same time receiving about two hundred arrows from the enemy, in my face and hands. After this, I once more grasped the ropes, and, with the greatest ease, I pulled fifty of their largest vessels after me. The Blefuscudians were confounded with astonishment. They had seen me cut the cables, but thought I only meant to let the ships run adrift; but when they saw me walking off with almost all of the fleet, they set up a tremendous scream of grief and despair. When I had got out of danger, I stopped to pick out the arrows that were stuck in my hands and face, and I rubbed on some of the ointment the Lilliputians had given me. Then I took off my spectacles and waded on with my cargo. As the tide was then fallen, I did not need to swim through the middle, but was able to walk right into the royal port of Lilliput. The Emperor and all his court stood upon the shore, watching for my return. They saw the ships coming over the water, in the form of a great half-moon, and soon I was able to make the Emperor hear my voice. Holding up my rope, I cried aloud, "Long live the most glorious Emperor of Lilliput!" His Majesty received me with great joy and honor, and made me a lord of the island upon the spot. The Emperor then wished me to try to bring all the rest of the enemy's ships to Lilliput. And he talked of taking the whole island of Blefuscu, and reigning over it himself. I did not think this at all fair, but very selfish and greedy of his Majesty. I tried to tell him so as politely as I could, and said I could not help to bring a free and brave people into slavery. My bold speech made the Emperor very angry indeed, and he never forgave me. But most of his best nobles thought the same as I did, although they dared not say so openly. From this time his Majesty and some of his court began to bear me ill-will, which nearly ended in my death. I considered this very mean of the Emperor, after my helping him as I did; but like many other people, he became ungrateful when he found he could not get all he wanted. About three weeks after this the Emperor of Blefuscu sent messengers with humble offers to make peace; to this the Lilliputians agreed, upon certain terms. The messengers consisted of six nobles with a train of five hundred men. They were all very grandly and magnificently dressed. After they had spoken to our Emperor, they expressed a wish to come to visit me. It seems they were told I had been their friend when the Emperor asked me to help him take Blefuscu, and they came to thank me for my justice and generosity. They invited me to visit their island, where I should receive every kindness and hospitality. I thanked their lordships very much, and said I should be pleased to come and pay my respects to the Emperor of Blefuscu before I returned to my own country. So the next time I saw our Emperor I begged his permission to go to Blefuscu, which he was gracious enough to grant me, although in a very cold manner. I afterwards heard that my request displeased him, and he did not like my making friends of the Blefuscudians. THE INHABITANTS OF LILLIPUT--THEIR LAWS AND CUSTOMS I am now going to say a few words about the Lilliputians and their laws and customs. These little people are generally about six inches high, their horses and oxen between four and five inches, their sheep an inch and a half, and their geese about the size of a sparrow. One day I watched a cook pulling the feathers off a lark, which was no bigger than a fly. Some of their laws are very unlike our English ones, but they are very just all the same. If a man accuses another of any crime, and it is proved that he has told a lie and the man is innocent, then the accuser is severely punished, and the innocent man is rewarded for all the injustice and pain he has suffered. This keeps people from being so ready to tell tales about others. Then deceit and cunning are considered greater crimes than stealing in Lilliput, for the people say that a man can take means to protect his goods and money, but he cannot prevent another man's deceiving him. And so, if any man makes a promise of importance to another and then breaks it, he is severely punished. Also, if he has any money belonging to another and has promised to take care of it, and then loses it through carelessness or spends any upon himself, he is guilty of a crime. Another law is that not only the guilty should be punished, but that the innocent shall be rewarded. So that whoever shall behave himself well and keep the laws of his country for a whole year, shall receive a sum of money and a favor from the Emperor. When the Emperor has some special favor to confer, or position to offer, he does not choose the most clever or learned man to give it to, but picks out the one who has been the best behaved and who is the bravest and truest among his subjects. Ingratitude among the Lilliputians is considered a capital crime, and anyone who returns evil for good is judged not fit to live. I am sorry to say that the Emperor and his people did not keep these good laws as they should have done, for if they had, his Majesty would never have treated me so badly after I had done my best to help him. In Lilliput there are large public schools to which parents are bound to send their children. Here they are educated and fitted for some position in life, for no one is allowed to be idle. All the children are brought up very well indeed, and taught to be honorable, courageous, and truthful men and women. The nurses are forbidden to tell the children foolish or frightening stories, and if they are found to do so, they are soundly whipped and sent to a most lonely part of the country. And now I will give a further account of my own way of living among these strange little people. I had made myself a table and chair, as large as I could get out of the biggest tree in the royal park. Two hundred sewing women were employed to make my shirts and the linen for my bed and table. They got the strongest and coarsest linen the island could produce, and even then they were obliged to sew several folds together to make it strong enough for my use. The sewing women took my measure as I lay upon the ground, one standing at my neck and another at my leg, with a strong cord that each held, one at one end and one at the other. One clever woman fitted me for a shirt by simply taking the width of my right thumb, for she said that twice round the thumb is once round the wrist, and twice round the wrist is once round the neck, and twice round the neck is once round the waist. By this means she was able to fit me exactly. The three hundred tailors who were employed to make my clothes had another way of measuring me. I knelt down, and they raised a ladder from the ground to my neck; upon this ladder one man mounted, and let fall a cord from my collar to the floor, which was the length for my coat. My waist and arms I measured myself. As the largest piece of cloth made in the island was only about the size of a yard of wide ribbon, my clothes looked like a patchwork quilt; only, the cloth was all of the same color. I had three hundred cooks to prepare my food, and each one cooked me two dishes. When I was ready for my meal, I took up twenty waiters in my hand and placed them upon the table; a hundred more attended on the ground, carrying the dishes. The waiters upon the table drew these things up by cords, as we might draw a bucket from a well. One joint of meat generally made a mouthful for me, but once I actually had a sirloin of beef so large that I was forced to make three bites of it. I never had another as big. The geese and turkeys also only made a mouthful, and of the small fowl I could take up twenty at a time on my fork. GULLIVER ESCAPES TO BLEFUSCU I must now tell my reader of a great plot that had been formed against me in the island of Lilliput. I was preparing to pay my promised visit to the Emperor of Blefuscu, when one day a Lilliputian noble called at my house privately, and at night; and without sending in his name, he asked me to allow him to come in and speak to me. I went out and picked up his lordship and brought him on to my table. Then I fastened the door of my house and sat down in front of the noble. As I saw he looked very anxious and troubled, I asked him if anything was the matter. At that he begged me to listen to him with patience, as he had much to tell me that concerned my life and honor. I replied that I was all eagerness to hear him, and this is what he told me: "You must know," said he, "that his Majesty has lately had many private meetings with his nobles about yourself. And two days ago he formed a plan that will do you great injury. You know that Skyresh has always been your mortal enemy; and his hatred grew even more when you so successfully won the ships of the Blefuscudians. He was very jealous, and considered you had taken away some of the glory that ought to have been his, as an admiral of his Majesty. This lord, with some others who dislike you, has prepared a charge against you of treason and other crimes. Now, because I consider this to be unjust treatment, and because you have always shown me kindness and courtesy, I have risked my life to come here tonight to warn you. "Skyresh and the other nobles insisted that you should be put to death, and that in the most cruel way: either by setting fire to your house while you slept, or by having you shot with poisoned arrows by twenty thousand men. But his Majesty could not be persuaded to do this cruelty, and decided to spare your life. Then Reldresal, who has always been your true friend, was asked by the Emperor to give his opinion, which he accordingly did. "He allowed your crimes to be very great, but said that he considered mercy ought to be shown you in return for the services you had rendered the Empire. He advised his Majesty to spare your life, but have both your eyes put out. By this means justice would be satisfied, and the loss of your eyes would not take from your bodily strength, so that you could still be useful to us. This proposal of Reldresal was not at all approved by the other lords. Skyresh flew into a great passion, and said he wondered Reldresal could dare to wish to save the life of a traitor. He again accused you of being a traitor, and insisted that you should be put to death. "Still his Majesty refused to consent to your death, but said that, as the court did not consider putting out your eyes was sufficient punishment for your crimes, some other must be thought of. "Then Reldresal again spoke, saying that, as it cost so much to feed you, another way of punishing you would be to give you less and less to eat, until you were gradually starved to death. "This proposal was agreed upon, but it was decided to keep the plan of starving you a great secret. In three days from now Reldresal will be sent here to read these accusations I have now told to you, and to tell you that his Majesty condemns you to the loss of your eyes. Twenty of his Majesty's surgeons will attend in order to perform the operation, which will be done by shooting very sharp pointed arrows into the balls of your eyes as you lie upon the ground. "I have now told you all that will happen to you, and must leave you to act as you think best. As no one must know I have been here with you now, I must hasten back to the court as secretly as I can." This his lordship immediately did, leaving me in much doubt and trouble. Knowing the good and just laws of the island of Lilliput, I was much shocked and astonished to find the Emperor could so far forget them as to condemn an innocent man to so brutal a punishment. I tried to think what I had better do to save myself. My first idea was to wait quietly and go through with my trial. Then I could plead my innocence and try to obtain mercy. But, upon second thoughts, I saw that this was a dangerous, almost a hopeless, plan, as my enemies at court were so bitter against me. Then I almost made up my mind to use my own strength, for while I had liberty I knew that I could easily overcome all the Lilliputians and knock the city to pieces with stones. But I put the idea away as unfair and dishonorable, because I had given my oath not to harm the island and its inhabitants. And even though the Emperor was so unjust and cruel to me, I did not consider that his conduct freed me from the promise I had made. At last I formed a plan by which I hoped to save my eyesight and my liberty, and, as things proved, it was a very fortunate plan for me. As I had obtained the Emperor's permission to visit the island of Blefuscu, I at once made preparations to go there. I sent a letter to Reldresal telling him I intended to visit Blefuscu, according to the permission I had obtained from his Majesty, and that I was starts g that morning. By wading and swimming I crossed the channel and reached the port of Blefuscu. I found the people there had long expected me, and they appeared very pleased to see me. They lent me two guides to show me the way to the capital city. These men I held in my hands, while they directed me which way to take. Having arrived at the city gate, I put them down and desired them to tell his Majesty, the Emperor of Blefuscu, that I was awaiting his commands. I had an answer in about an hour, which was that his Majesty and the royal family were coming out to receive me. The Emperor and his train then rode out of the palace, and the Empress and her ladies also drove up in coaches. They did not seem at all frightened at seeing me. I lay upon the ground to kiss his Majesty's and the Empress's hands. I told his Majesty I had come according to my promise and with the consent of the Emperor of Lilliput, and that I considered it a great honor to receive the welcome I did. I also begged to offer his Majesty any service I could render him. I was treated with much kindness and generosity while at Blefuscu; but as there was no place large enough for me to get into, I had to be without house and bed. So I was forced to sleep upon the ground, wrapped in my cloak. GULLIVER RETURNS TO ENGLAND Three days after my arrival at Blefuscu I was walking along the coast, when I suddenly caught sight of some object in the sea that looked like a boat overturned. I pulled off my shoes and stockings, and waded out into the water. As I drew near the object, I could plainly see that it was a big boat, which, I suppose, must have been driven there by some tempest. Having made this discovery, I hastened back to shore and went to the city to beg his Majesty to lend me twenty of his tallest ships, and three thousand sailors, under the command of an admiral. The Emperor gave his consent, and the fleet of ships sailed to the place where I had discovered the boat. I again waded into the water, and found that the tide had driven the boat still nearer the shore. The sailors in the ships were all provided with cord, which I had twisted together and made strong. I walked as near the boat as I could, then swam up to it. The sailors threw me the end of the cord, which I fastened to part of the boat and the other end to a man-of-war. Then, getting behind the boat, I swam and pushed it as best I could with one hand until I had got it out of the deep water. Being then able to walk, I rested a few minutes, and then, taking some other ropes, I fastened all of them to the boat and they to the vessels the Emperor had lent me. Then the sailors pulled, and I shoved, and, the wind being favorable, we arrived at the shore of Blefuscu, dragging the boat with us. With the help of two thousand men, with ropes and engines, I was able to turn the boat upon the right side, and found it was in quite good condition. After this I worked hard for many days making paddles for my boat, and getting it ready to go to sea in. The people of Blefuscu came and gazed in wonder and astonishment at so immense a vessel. I told the Emperor that my good fortune had thrown this boat in my way to carry me to some place from which I might be able to return to my native land. And I begged his Majesty to allow me to have materials with which to fit it up, and also to give me his gracious permission to depart when it was ready. This his Majesty most kindly granted me. Five hundred workmen were employed to make two sails for my boat, under my directions. This had to be done by sewing together thirteen' folds of their strongest linen. Then I made rope by twisting together twenty or thirty lengths of the stoutest cord upon the island. After a long search by the seashore I discovered a large stone, which had to serve me for an anchor. I used the fat of three hundred cows for greasing my boat. Then I set to work and cut down some of the largest trees to make into oars and masts. His Majesty's carpenters helped me greatly in smoothing them after I had cut them into shape. In about a month all was ready, and I sent to tell his Majesty I was going to take my leave. The Emperor and royal family came out of the palace and allowed me to kiss their hands. His Majesty presented me with fifty purses containing two hundred pieces of gold hands. I told his Majesty I had come according to my promise and with the consent of the Emperor of Lilliput, and that I considered it a great honor to receive the welcome I did. I also begged to offer his Majesty any service I could render him. I was treated with much kindness and generosity while at Blefuscu; but as there was no place large enough for me to get into, I had to be without house and bed. So I was forced to sleep upon the ground, wrapped in my cloak. GULLIVER RETURNS TO ENGLAND Three days after my arrival at Blefuscu I was walking along the coast, when I suddenly caught sight of some object in the sea that looked like a boat overturned. I pulled off my shoes and stockings, and waded out into the water. As I drew near the object, I could plainly see that it was a big boat, which, I suppose, must have been driven there by some tempest. Having made this discovery, I hastened back to shore and went to the city to beg his Majesty to lend me twenty of his tallest ships, and three thousand sailors, under the command of an admiral. The Emperor gave his consent, and the fleet of ships sailed to the place where I had discovered the boat. I again waded into the water, and found that the tide had driven the boat still nearer the shore. The sailors in the ships were all provided with cord, which I had twisted together and made strong. I walked as near the boat as I could, then swam up to it. The sailors threw me the end of the cord, which I fastened to part of the boat and the other end to a man-of-war. Then, getting behind the boat, I swam and pushed it as best I could with one hand until I had got it out of the deep water. Being then able to walk, I rested a few minutes, and then, taking some other ropes, I fastened all of them to the boat and they to the vessels the Emperor had lent me. Then the sailors pulled, and I shoved, and, the wind being favorable, we arrived at the shore of Blefuscu, dragging the boat with us. With the help of two thousand men, with ropes and engines, I was able to turn the boat upon the right side, and found it was in quite good condition. After this I worked hard for many days making paddles for my boat, and getting it ready to go to sea in. The people of Blefuscu came and gazed in wonder and astonishment at so immense a vessel. I told the Emperor that my good fortune had thrown this boat in my way to carry me to some place from which I might be able to return to my native land. And I begged his Majesty to allow me to have materials with which to fit it up, and also to give me his gracious permission to depart when it was ready. This his Majesty most kindly granted me. Five hundred workmen were employed to make two sails for my boat, under my directions. This had to be done by sewing together thirteen' folds of their strongest linen. Then I made rope by twisting together twenty or thirty lengths of the stoutest cord upon the island. After a long search by the seashore I discovered a large stone, which had to serve me for an anchor. I used the fat of three hundred cows for greasing my boat. Then I set to work and cut down some of the largest trees to make into oars and masts. His Majesty's carpenters helped me greatly in smoothing them after I had cut them into shape. In about a month all was ready, and I sent to tell his Majesty I was going to take my leave. The Emperor and royal family came out of the palace and allowed me to kiss their hands. His Majesty presented me with fifty purses containing two hundred pieces of gold did Gulliver capture the fleet from Blefuscu? 7. What did the Emperor of Lilliput wish to do when Gulliver had won the victory? 8. What evil thing about war does this incident show? 9. Can a nation fight a great war without desire to add to its territory? Was this true of the United States in the war recently fought?' 10. What was Gulliver's feeling about the proposal of the Emperor? Was he right? 11. How did the Emperor feel toward him after his refusal? 12. How did Gulliver learn of the plot against him? 13. Why did he not use his strength against his enemies? 14. What did he decide to do? 15. What fortunate discovery did Gulliver make at Blefuscu? 16. How did Gulliver get back to England? 17. Name two or three things that you think he learned on his travels. 18. What are we told about the education of children in Lilliput? 19. Why did the people consider deceit worse than stealing? 20. What did they think of a person who returns evil for good? 21. Name some of the laws of the Lilliputians. Which of these laws do you like, and why? 22. Why were not all the people of Lilliput good when they had such good laws? 23. Compare Gulliver's adventures with those of Baron Munchausen. 24. How does this story differ as to its source from the Arabian Nights tales? 25. Show that it has the two values mentioned on page 146. 26. Class readings: Select passages to be read aloud in class. 27. Outline for testing silent reading. Tell the story briefly in your own words, following the topic headings given in the book. 28. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: keep; human; engines; bandages; turret; carriages; merchantman. 29. Pronounce: ruined; drowned; waistcoat; Imperial; courtiers; theater; reigned; learned; Lilliput; graciously; fortnight; Lilliputians. Phrases for Study express consent, capital crime, state and person, mortal enemy, confounded with astonishment, gave me a good character, fair voyage. ROBINSON CRUSOE DANIEL DEFOE (Ed.--This story, in it's original, uncondensed version, in addition to many others, can be found at the web site http://www.gutenberg.org, searching in the index for the title Robinson Crusoe.) HOW I WENT TO SEA AND WAS SHIPWRECKED I was born at York, in England, on the first of March, 1632. From the time that I was quite a young child I had felt a great wish to spend my life at sea, and as I grew, so did this taste grow more and more strong; till at last on September first, 1651, I ran away from my school and home, and found my way on foot to Hull, where I soon got a place on board a ship. Never did any young adventurer's misfortunes begin sooner or continue longer than mine, for when we were far out at sea, some Turks in a small ship came on our track in full chase. After a long pursuit our vessel was captured, and all on board were taken as slaves. The chief of the Turks took me as his prize to a port which was held by the Moors. There I remained in slavery for several years, and bitterly did I repent my rash act in leaving my good parents in England. At length I found an opportunity to escape to a vessel that was passing by, and was kindly received by the captain, who proved to be an English sailor bound on a voyage of trade. I had not been aboard more than twelve days when a high wind took us off, we knew not where. All at once there was a cry of "Land!" and the ship struck on a bank of sand, in which she sank so deep that we could not get her off. At last we found that we must make up our minds to leave her and get to shore as well as we could. There had been a boat at her stern, but we found it had been torn off by the force of the waves. One small boat was still left on the ship's side, so we got into it. There we were, all of us, on the wild sea. The heart of s each now grew faint, our cheeks were pale, and our eyes were dim, for there was but one hope, and that was to find some bay, and so get in the lee of the land. The sea grew more and more rough, and its white foam would curl and boil till at last the waves in their wild sport burst on the boat's side, and we were all thrown out. I could swim well, but the force of the waves made me lose my breath too much to do so. At length one large wave took me to the shore and left me high and dry, though half dead with fear. I got on my feet and made the best of my way for the land; but just then the curve of a huge wave rose up as high as a hill, and this I had no strength to keep from, so it took me back to the sea. I did my best to float on the top, and held my breath to do so. The next wave was quite as high, and shut me up in its bulk. I held my hands down tight to my sides, and then my head shot out at the top of the waves. This gave me breath, and soon my feet felt the ground. I stood quite still for a short time, to let the sea run back from me, and then I set off with all my might to the shore, but yet the waves caught me, and twice more did they take me back, and twice more land me on the shore. I thought the last wave would have been the death of me, for it drove me on a piece of rock, and with such force as to leave me in a kind of swoon. I soon regained my senses and got up to the cliffs close to the shore, where I found some grass out of the reach of the sea. There I sat down, safe on land at last. I felt so wrapped in joy that all I could do was to walk up and down the coast, now lift up my hands, now fold them on my breast and thank God for all that he had done for me, when the rest of the men were lost. I now cast my eyes round me, to find out what kind of place it was that I had been thus thrown in, like a bird in a storm. Then all the glee I felt at first left me; for I was wet and cold, and had no dry clothes to put on, no food to eat, and not a friend to help me. I feared that there might be wild beasts here, and I had no gun to shoot them with, or to keep me from their jaws. I had but a knife and a pipe. It now grew dark; and where was I to go for the night? I thought the top of some high tree would be a good place to keep me out of harm's way; and that there I might sit and think of death, for, as yet, I had no hope of life. Well, I went to my tree and made a kind of nest to sleep in. Then I cut a stick to keep off beasts of prey, in case any should come, and -fell asleep just as if the branch I lay on had been a bed of down. When I woke up, it was broad day; the sky too was clear and the sea calm. But I saw from the top of the tree that in the night the ship had left the bank of sand, and lay but a mile from me. I soon threw off my clothes, took to the sea, and swam up to the wreck. But how was I to get on deck? I had gone twice around the ship, when a piece of rope caught my eye, which hung down from her side so low that at first the waves hid it. By the help of this rope I got on board. HOW I MADE AND USED A RAFT I found that there was a bulge in the ship, and that she had sprung a leak. You may be sure that my first thought was to look around for some food, and I soon made my way to the bin where the bread was kept, and ate some of it as I went to and fro, for there was no time to lose. What I stood most in need of was a boat to take the goods to shore. But it was vain to wish for that which could not be had; and as there were some spare yards in the ship, two or three large planks, and a mast or two; I fell to work with these to make a raft. I put four spars side by side, and laid short bits of plank on them, crossways, to make my raft strong. Though these planks would bear my own weight, they were too slight to bear much of my freight. So I took a saw, which was on board, and cut a mast in three lengths, and these gave great strength to the raft. I found some bread and rice, a Dutch cheese, and some dry goat's flesh. My next task was to screen my goods from the spray of the sea; and this did not take long, for there were three large chests on board which held all, and these I put on the raft. "See, here is a prize!" said I, out loud (though there was none to hear me); "now I shall not starve." For I found four large guns. But how was my raft to be got to land? I had no sail, no oars; and a gust of wind would make all my store slide off. Yet there were three things which I was glad of a calm sea, a tide which set in to the shore, and a slight breeze to blow me there. I had the good luck to find some oars in a part of the ship in which I had made no search till now. With these I put to sea, and for half a mile my raft went well; but soon I found it driven to one side. At length I saw a creek, up which, with some toil, I took my raft. I saw that there were birds on the isle, and I shot one of them. Mine must have been the first gun that had been heard there since the world was made; for, at the sound of it, whole flocks of birds flew up, with loud cries, from all parts of the wood. The shape of the beak of the one I shot was like that of a hawk, but the claws were not so large. I now went back to my raft to land my stores, and this took up the rest of the day: What to do at night I knew not, nor where to find a safe place to land my stores on. I did not like to lie down on the ground, for fear of beasts of prey, as well as snakes; but there was no cause for these fears, as I have since found. I put the chests and boards round me as well as I could, and made a kind of hut for the night. As there was still a great store of things left in the ship which would be of use to me, I thought that I ought to bring them to land at once; for I knew that the first storm would break up the ship. So I went on board, and took good care this time not to load my raft too much. The first thing sought for was the tool chest; and in it were some bags of nails, spikes, saws, knives, and such things; but best of all, I found a stone to grind my tools on. There were two or three flasks, some large bags of shot, and a roll of lead; but this last I had not the strength to hoist up to the ship's side, so as to get it on my raft. There were some spare sails too, which I brought to shore. Now that I had two freights of goods on hand, I made a tent with the ship's sails, to stow them in, and cut the poles for it from the wood. I now took all the things out of the casks and chests and put the casks in piles round the tent to give it strength; and when this was done, I shut up the door with the boards, spread on the ground one of the beds which I had brought from the ship, laid two guns close to my head and went to bed for the first time. I slept all night, for I was much in need of rest. The next day I was sad and sick at heart, for I felt how dull it was to be thus cut off from all the rest of the world! I had no great wish for work; but there was too much to be done for me to dwell long on my sad lot. Each day, as it came, I went off to the wreck to fetch more things; and I brought back as much as the raft would hold. The last time I went to the wreck the wind blew so hard that I made up my mind to go on board next time at low tide. I found some tea and some gold coin; but as to the gold, it made me laugh to look at it. "O drug!" said I, "thou art of no use to me! I care not to save thee. Stay where thou art till the ship goes down; then go thou with it!" Still, I thought I might just as well take it; so I put it in a piece of the sail and threw it on deck, that I might place it on the raft. By-and-by the wind blew from the shore, so I had to hurry back with all speed; for I knew that at the turn of the tide I should find it hard work to get to land at all. But in spite of the high wind I came to my home all safe. At dawn I put my head out and cast my eyes on the sea, when lo! no ship was there!. This great change in the face of things, and the loss of such a friend, quite struck me down. Yet I was glad to think that I had brought to shore all that could be of use to me. I had now to look out for some spot where I could make my home. Halfway up the hill there was a small plain, four or five score feet long and twice as broad; and as it had a full view of the sea, I thought that it would be a good place for my house. HOW I MADE MYSELF A HOME ON THE ISLAND I first dug a trench round a space which took in twelve yards; and in this I drove two rows of stakes, till they stood firm like piles, five and a half feet from the ground. I made the stakes close and tight with bits of rope and put small sticks on the top of them in the shape of spikes. This made so strong a fence that no man or beast could get in. The door of my house was on top, and I had to climb up to it by steps, which I took in with me, so that no one else might come up by the same way. Close to the back of the house stood a sand rock, in which I made a cave, and laid all the earth that I had dug out of it round my house, to the height of a foot and a half. I had to go out once a day in search of food. The first time, I saw some, goats, but they were too shy to let me get near them. At first I thought that for the lack of pen and ink I should lose all note of time; so I made a large post, in the shape of a cross, on which I cut these words: "I came on shore here on the thirtieth of September, 1659." On the side of this post I made a notch each day, and this I kept up till the last. I have not yet said a word of my four pets, which were two cats, a dog, and a parrot. You may guess how fond I was of them, for they were all the friends left to me. I brought the dog and two cats from the ship. The dog would fetch things for me at all times, and by his bark, his whine, his growl, and his tricks, he would all but talk to me; yet he could not give me thought for thought. If I could but have had someone near me to find fault with, or to find fault with me, what a treat it would have been! I was a long way out of the course of ships; and oh! how dull it was to be cast on this lone spot with no one to love, no one to make me laugh, no one to make me weep, no one to make me think.. It was dull to roam day by day from the wood to the shore, and from the shore back to the wood, and feed on my own thoughts all the while. So much for the sad view of my case; but like most things, it had a bright side as well as a dark one. For here was I safe on land, while all the rest of the ship's crew were lost. True, I was cast on a rough and rude part of the globe, but there were no beasts of prey on it to kill or hurt me. God had sent the ship so near to me that I had got from it all things to meet my wants for the rest of my days. Let life be what it might, there was surely much to thank God for. And I soon gave up all dull thoughts, and did not so much as look out for a sail. My goods from the wreck remained in the cave for more than ten months; I decided then that it was time to put them right, as they took up all the space and left me no room to turn in; so I made my small cave a large one, and dug it out a long way back in the sand rock. Then I brought the mouth of the cave up to my fence, and so made a back way to my house. This done, I put shelves on each side to hold my goods, which made the cave look like a shop full of stores. To make these shelves was a very difficult task and took a long time; for to make a board I was forced to cut down a whole tree, chop away with my ax till one side was flat, and then cut at the other side till the board was thin enough, when I smoothed it with my adz. But, in this way, out of each tree I would get only one plank. I made for myself also a table and a chair, and finally got my castle, as I called it, in good order. I usually rose early and worked till noon, when I ate my meal; then I went out with my gun, after which I worked once more till the sun had set; and then to bed. It took me more than a week to change the shape and size of my cave. Unfortunately, I made it far too large, for, later on, the earth fell in from the roof; and had I been in it when this took place, I should have lost my life. I had now to set up posts in my cave, with planks on the top of them, so as to make a roof of wood. HOW I SUPPLIED MY NEEDS I had to go to bed at dusk, till I made a lamp of goat's fat, which I put in a clay dish; and this, with a piece of hemp for a wick, made a good light. As I had found a, use for the bag which had held the fowls' food on board ship, I shook out from it the husks of grain. This was just at the time when the great rains fell, and in the course of a month, blades of rice and barley sprang up. As time went by, and the grain was ripe, I kept it, and took care to sow it each year; but I could not boast of a crop of grain for three years. I knew that tools would be my first want and that I should have to grind mine on the stone, as they were blunt and worn with use. But as it took both hands to hold the tool, I could not turn the stone; so I made a wheel by which I could move it with my foot. This was no small task, but I took great pains with it, and at length it was done. I had now been in the isle twelve months, and I thought it was time to go all round it in search of its woods, springs, and creeks. So I set off, and brought back with me limes and grapes in their prime, large and ripe. I had hung the grapes in the sun to dry, and in a few days' time went to fetch them, that I might lay up a store. The vale on the banks of which they grew was fresh and green, and a clear, bright stream ran through it, which gave so great a charm to the spot as to make me wish to live there. But there was no view of the sea from this vale, while from my house no ships could come on my side of the isle and not be seen by me; yet the cool, soft banks were so sweet and new to me that much of my time was spent there. In the first of the three years in which I had grown barley, I had sown it too late; in the next it was spoiled by the drought; but the third year's crop had sprung up well. Few of us think of the cost at which a loaf of bread is made. Of course, there was no plow here to turn up the earth, and no spade to dig it with, so I made one with wood; but this was soon worn out, and for want of a rake I made use of the bough of a tree. When I had got the grain home, I had to thresh it, part the grain from the chaff, and store it up. Then came the want of sieves to clean it, of a mill to grind it, and of yeast to make bread of it. If I could have found a large stone, slightly hollow on top, I might, by pounding the grain on it with another round stone, have made very good meal. But all the stones I could find were too soft; and in the end I had to make a sort of mill of hard wood, in which I burned a hollow place, and in that pounded the grain into' meal with a heavy stick. Baking I did by building a big fire, raking away the ashes, and putting the dough on the hot place, covered with a kind of basin made of clay, over which 'I had heaped the red ashes. Thus my bread was made, though I had no tools; and no one could say that I did not earn it by the sweat of my brow. When the rain kept me indoors, it was good fun to teach my pet bird Poll to talk; but so mute were all things round me that the sound of my own voice made me start. My chief wants now were jars, pots, cups, and plates, but I knew not how I could make them. At last I went in search of clay, and found a bank of it a mile from my house; but it was quite a joke to see the queer shapes and forms that I made out of it. For some of my pots and jars were too weak to bear their own weight; and they would fall out here, and in there, in all sorts of ways; while some, when they were put in the sun to bake, would crack with the heat of its rays. You may guess what my joy was when at last a pot was made which would stand the fire, so that I could boil the meat for broth! The next thing to turn my thoughts to was the ship's boat, which lay on the high ridge of sand, where it had been thrust by the storm which had cast me on these shores. But it lay with the keel to the sky, so I had to dig the sand from it and turn it up with the help of a pole. When I had done this, I found it was all in vain, for I had not the strength to launch it. So all I could do now was to make a boat of less size out of a tree; and I found one that was just fit for it, which grew not far from the shore, but I could no more stir this than I could the ship's boat. "Well," thought I, "I must give up the boat, and with it all my hopes of leaving the isle. But I have this to think of: I am lord of the whole isle; in fact, a king. I have wood with which I might build a fleet, and grapes, if not grain, to freight it with, though all my wealth is but a few gold coins." For these I had no sort of use, and could have found it in my heart to give them all for a peck of peas and some ink, which last I stood much in need of. But it was best to dwell more on what I had than on what I had not. I now must needs try once more to build a boat, but this time it was to have a mast, for which the ship's sails would be of great use. I made a deck at each end to keep out the spray of the sea, a bin for my food, and a rest for my gun, with a flap to screen it from the wet. More than all, the boat was one of such a size that I could launch it. My first cruise was up and down the creek, but soon I got bold, and made the whole round of my isle. I took with me bread, cakes, a pot of rice, half a goat, and two greatcoats, one of which was to lie on, and one to put on at night. I set sail in the sixth year of my reign. On the east side of the isle there was a large ridge of rocks which lay two miles from the shore, and a shoal of sand lay for half a mile from the rocks to the beach. To get round this point I had to sail a great way out to sea; and here I all but lost my life. But I got back to my home at last. On my way there, quite worn out with the toils of the boat, I lay down in the shade to rest my limbs, and slept. But judge, if you can what a start I gave when a voice woke me out of my sleep, and spoke my name three times! A voice in this wild place!, To call me by name, too! Then the voice said, "Robin! Robin Crusoe! Where are you? Where have you been? How came you here?" But now I saw it all; for at the top of the hedge sat Poll, who did but say the words she had been taught by me. I now went in search of some goats, and laid snares for them, with rice for a bait. I had set the traps in the night, and found they had stood, though the bait was all gone. So I thought of a new way to take them, which was to make a pit and lay sticks and grass on it so as to hide it; and in this way I caught an old goat and some kids. But the old goat was much too fierce for me, soy I let him go. I brought all the young ones home, and let them fast a long time, till at last they fed from my hand and were quite tame. I kept them in a kind of park, in which there were trees to screen them from the sun. At first my park was half a mile round; but it struck me that, in so great a space, the kids would soon get as wild as if they had the range of the whole vale, and that it would be as well to give them less room; so I had to make a hedge, which took me three months to plant. My park held a flock of twelve goats, and in two years time there were more than two score. My dog sat at meals with me, and one cat on each side of me, on stools, and we had Poll to talk to us. Now for a word or two as to the dress in which I made a tour round the isle. I could but think how droll it would look in the streets of the town in which I was born. I usually wore a high cap of goatskin, with a long flap that hung down to keep the sun and rain from my neck, a coat made from the skin of a goat, too, the skirts of which came down to my hips, and the same on my legs, with no shoes, but flaps of the fur round my shins. I had a broad belt of the same around my waist, which drew on with two thongs; and from it, on my right side; hung a saw and an ax; and on my left side a pouch for the shot. My beard had not been cut since I came here. But no more need be said of my looks, for there were few to see me. HOW I DISCOVERED A FOOTPRINT AND SAVED FRIDAY A strange sight was now in store for me, which was to change the whole course of my life in the isle. One day at noon, while on a stroll down to a part of the shore that was new to me, what should I see on the sand but the print of a man's foot! I felt as if I were bound by a spell, and could not stir from the spot. By-and-by I stole a look around me, but no one was in sight. What could this mean? I went three or four times to look at it. There it was-the print of a man's foot: toes, heel, and all the parts of a foot. How could it have come there? My head swam with fear; and as I left the spot, I made two or three steps, and then took a look around me; then two steps more, and did the same thing. I took fright at the stump of an old tree, and ran to my house, as if for my life. How could aught in the shape of a man come to that shore, and I not know it? Where was the ship that brought him? Then a vague dread took hold of my mind, that some man, or set of men, had found me out; and it might be that they meant to kill me, or rob me of all I had. Fear kept me indoors for three days, till the want of food drove me out. At last I was so bold as to go down to the coast to look once more at the print of the foot, to see if it was the same shape as my own. I found it was not so large by a great deal; so it was clear that it was not one of my own footprints and that there were men in the isle. One day as I went from the hill to the coast, a scene lay in front of me which made me sick at heart. The spot was spread with the bones of men. There was a round place dug in the earth, where a fire had been made, and here some men had come to feast. Now that I had seen this sight, I knew not how to act; I kept close to my home, and would scarce stir from it save to milk my flock of goats. A few days later I was struck by the sight of some smoke, which came from a fire no more than two miles off. From this time I lost all my peace of mind. Day and night a dread would haunt me that the men who had made this fire would find me out. I went home and drew up my steps, but first I made all things round me look wild and rude. To load my gun was the next thing to do; and I thought it would be best to stay at home and hide. But this was not to be borne long. I had no spy to send out, and all I could do was to get to the top of the hill and keep a good lookout. At last, through my glass, I could see a group of wild men join in a dance round their fire. As soon as they stopped, I took two guns and slung a sword on my side; then with all speed I set off to the top of the hill, once more to have a good view. This time I made up my mind to go up to the men, but not with a view to kill them, for I felt that it would be wrong to do so. With a heavy load of arms it took me two hours to reach the spot where the fire was; and by the time I got there the men had all gone; but I saw them in four boats out at sea. Down on the shore there was a proof of what the work of these men had been. The signs of their feast made me sick at heart, and I shut my eyes. I durst not fire my gun when I went out for food on that side of the isle, lest there should be some of the men left, who might hear it, and so find me out. From this time all went well with me for two years; but it was not to last. One day, as I stood on the hill, I saw six boats on the shore. What could this mean? Where were the men who had brought them? And what had they come for? I saw through my glass that there were a score and a half at least on the east side of the isle. They had meat on the fire, round which I could see them dance. They then took a man from one of the boats, who was bound hand and foot; but when they loosed his bonds, he set off as fast as his feet would take him, and in a straight line to my house. To tell the truth, when I saw all the rest of the men run to catch him, my hair stood on end with fright. In the creek he swam like a fish, and the plunge which he took brought him through it in a few strokes. All the men now gave up the chase but two, and they swam through the creek, but by no means so fast as the slave had done. Now, I thought, was the time to help the poor man, and my heart told me it would be right to do so. I ran down my steps with my two guns, and went with all speed up the hill, and then down by a short cut to meet them. I gave a sign to the poor slave to come to me, and at the same time went up to meet the two men who were in chase of him. I made a rush at the first of these, to knock him down with the stock of my gun, and he fell. I saw the one who was left aim at me with his bow; so, to save my life, I aimed carefully and shot him dead. The smoke and noise from my gun gave the poor slave who had been bound such a shock that he stood still on the spot, as if he had been in a trance. I gave a loud shout for him to come to me, and I took care to show him that I was a friend, and made all the signs I could think of to coax him up to me. At length he came, knelt down to kiss the ground, and then took hold of my foot and set it on his head. All this meant that he was my slave; and I bade him rise and made much of him. I did not like to take my slave to my house, or to my cave; so I threw down some straw from the rice plant for him to sleep on, and gave him some bread and a bunch of dry grapes to eat. He was a fine man, with straight, strong limbs, tall and young. His hair was thick, like wool, and black. His head was large and high, and he had bright black eyes. He was of a dark-brown hue; his face was round and his nose small, but not flat; he had a good mouth with thin lips, with which he could give a soft smile; and his teeth were as white as snow. Toward evening I had been out to milk my goats, and when he saw me, he ran to me and lay down-on the ground to show me his thanks. He then put his head on the ground and set my foot on his head, as he had done at first. He took all the means he could think of to let me know that he would serve me all his life; and I gave a sign to make him understand that I thought well of him. The next thing was to think of some name to call him by. I chose that of the sixth day of the week, Friday, as he came to me on that day. I took care not to lose sight of him all that night. When the sun rose, we event up to the top of the hill to look out for the men; but as we could not see them or their boats, it was clear that they had left the isle. I now set to work to make my man a cap of hare's skin, and gave him a goat's skin to wear round his waist. It was a great source of pride to him to find that his clothes were as good as my own. At night I kept my guns, swords, and bow close to my side; but there was no need for this, as my slave was, in sooth, most true to me. He did all that he was set to do, with his whole heart in the work; and I knew that he would lay down his life to save mine. What could a man do more than that? And oh, the joy to have him here to cheer me in this lone isle! HOW FRIDAY LEARNED MY WAYS I did my best to teach him, so like a child he was, to do and feel all that was right. I found him apt and full of fun; and he took great pains to understand and learn all that I could tell him. One day I sent him to beat out and sift some grain. I let him see me make the bread, and he soon did all the work. I felt quite a love for his true, warm heart, and he soon learned to talk to me. One day I said, "Do the men of your tribe win in fight?" He told me, with a smile, that they did. "Well, then," said I, "how came they to let their foes take you?" "They run one, two, three, and make go in the boat that time." "Well, and what do the men do with those they take?" "Eat them all up." This was not good news for me, but I went on, and said, "Where do they take them?" "Go to next place where they think." "Do they come here?" "Yes, yes, they come here, come else place, too." "Have you been here with them twice?" "Yes, come there." He meant the northwest side of the isle, so to this spot I took him the next day. He knew the place, and told me he was there once, and with him twelve men. To let me know this, he placed twelve stones all in a row, and made me count them. "Are not the boats lost on your shore now and then?" He said that there was no fear, and that no boats were lost. He told me that up a great way by the moon--that is, where the moon then came up--there dwelt a tribe of white men like me, with beards. I felt sure that they must have come from Spain, to work the gold mines. I put this to him: "Could I go from this isle and join those men?" "Yes, yes, you may go in two boats." It was hard to see how one man could go in two boats, but what he meant was a boat twice as large as my own. To please my poor slave, I gave him a sketch of my whole life; I told him where I was born and where I spent my days when a child. He was glad to hear tales of the land of my birth, and of the trade which we kept up, in ships, with all parts of the known world. I gave him a knife and a belt, which made him dance with joy. One day as we stood on the top of the hill at the east side of the isle, I saw him fix his eyes on the mainland, and stand for a long time gazing at it; then jump and sing, and call out to me. "What do you see?" said I. "O joy!" said he, with a fierce glee in his eyes, "O glad! There see my land!" Why did he strain his eyes to stare at this land as if he had a wish to be there? It put fears in my mind which made me feel far less at my ease with him. Thought I, if he should go back to his home, he will think no more of what I have taught him and done for him. He will be sure to tell the rest of his tribe all my ways, and come back with, it may be, scores of them, and kill me, and then dance round me, as they did round the men, the last time they came on my isle. But these were all false fears, though they found a place in my mind for a long while; and I was not so kind to him now as I had been. From this time I made it a rule, day by day, to find out if there were grounds for my fears or not. I said, "Do you wish to be once more in your own land?" "Yes! I be much O glad to be at my own land." "What would you do there? Would you turn wild, and be as you were?" "No, no, I would tell them to be good, tell them eat bread, grain, milk, no eat man more!" "Why, they would kill you!" "No, no, they no kill; they love learn." He then told me that some white men who had come on their shores in a boat had taught them a great deal. "Then will you go back to your land with me?" He said he could not swim so far, so I told him he should help me to build a boat to go in. Then he said, "If you go, I go." "I go? Why, they would eat me!" "No, me make them much love you." Then he told me, as well as he could, how kind they had been to some white men. I brought out the large boat to hear what he thought of it, but he said it was too small. We then went to look at the old ship's boat, which, as it had been in the sun for years, was not at all in a sound state. The poor man made sure that it would do. But how were we to know this? I told him we should build a boat as large as that, and that he should go home in it. He spoke not a word, but was grave and sad. "What ails you?" said I. "Why you grieve mad with your man?" "What do you mean? I am not cross with you." "No cross? No cross with me? Why send your man home to his own land, then?" "Did you not tell me you would like to go back?" "Yes, yes, we both there; no wish self there, if you not there!" "And what should I do there?" "You do great deal much good! You teach wild men be good men." We soon set to work to make a boat that would take us both. The first thing was to look out for some large tree that grew near the shore, so that we could launch our boat when it was made. My slave's plan was to burn the wood to make it the right shape; but as mine was to hew it, I set him to work with my tools, and in two months' time we had made a good, strong boat; but it took a long while to get her down to the shore and float her. Friday had the whole charge of her; and, large as she was, he made her move with ease, and said, "Me think she go there well, though great blow wind!" He did not know that I meant to make a mast and sail. I cut down a young fir tree for the mast, and then I set to work at the sail. It made me laugh to see my man stand and stare, when he came to watch me sail the boat. But he soon gave a jump, a laugh, and a clap of the hands when for the first time he saw the sail jib and fall, now on this side, now on that. The next thing to do was to stow our boat up in the creek, where we dug a small dock; and when the tide was low, we made a dam to keep out the sea. The time of year had now come for us to set sail, so we got out all our stores to put them into the boat. THE ENGLISH SHIP AND HOW I SAILED FOR HOME I was fast asleep in my hutch one morning, when my man Friday came running in to me and called aloud, "Master, master, they are come, they are come!" I jumped up and went out, as soon as I could get my clothes on, through my little grove, which, by the way, was by this time grown to be a very thick wood. I went without my arms, which was not my custom; but I was surprised when, turning my eyes to the sea, I saw a boat at about a league and a half distance, standing in for the shore, with a shoulder-of-mutton sail, as they call it, and the wind blowing pretty fair to bring them in; also I saw that they did not come from that side which the shore lay on, but from the south end of the island. Upon this I hastily called Friday in, and bade him lie close, for we did not know yet whether they were friends or enemies. In the next place, I went in to fetch my glass, to see what I could make of them; and, having climbed up to the top of the hill, I saw a ship lying at anchor, at about two leagues from me, but not above a league and a half from the shore. It seemed to be an English ship, and the boat looked like an English longboat. They ran their boat on shore upon the beach, at about half a mile from me; which was very happy for me, else they would have landed just at my door, as I may say, and would soon have beaten me out of my caste, and perhaps have plundered me of all I had. When they were on shore, I saw they were Englishmen; there were, in all, eleven men, whereof three of them I found were unarmed, and, as I thought, bound; and when the first four or five of them had jumped on shore, they took those three out of the boat as prisoners; one of the three I could see using the gestures of entreaty and despair; the other two, I could see, lifted up their hands and appeared concerned, but not to such a degree as the first. I was shocked and terrified at the sight of all this and knew not what the meaning of it could be. Friday called out to me in English, as well as he could, "O master! you see English mans eat prisoner as well as savage mans." "Why, Friday," said I, "do you think they are going to eat them, then?" "Yes," said Friday, "they will eat them." "No, no," said I, "Friday, I am afraid they will murder them indeed; but you may be sure they will not eat them." I expected every minute to see the three prisoners killed, so I fitted myself up for a battle, though with much caution, knowing that I had to do with another kind of enemy than if I were fighting savages. I ordered Friday also to load himself with arms. I took myself two fowling pieces, and I gave him two muskets. My figure was very fierce; I had my goatskin coat on, with the great cap, a naked sword, two pistols in my belt, and a gun upon each shoulder. It was my design not to make any attempt till it was dark; but about two o'clock, being the heat of the day, I found, in short, they had all gone straggling into the woods, and, as I thought, had all lain down to sleep. The three poor, distressed men, too anxious for their condition to get any sleep, had, however, sat down under the shelter of a great tree. I resolved to discover myself to them, and learn something of their condition; immediately I marched toward them, my man Friday at a good distance behind me, as formidable for his arms as I, but not making quite so staring a specter-like figure as I did. I came as near them undiscovered as I could, and then, before any of them saw me, I called aloud to them in Spanish, "Who are ye, sirs?" They gave a start at my voice and at my strange dress, and made a move as if they would flee from me. I said, ``Do not fear me, for it may be that you have a friend at hand, though you do not think it." "He must be sent from the sky, then," said one of them with a grave look; and he took off his hat to me at the same time. "All help is from thence, sir," I said. "But what can I do to aid you? You look as if you had some load of grief on your breast. A moment ago I saw one of the men lift his sword as if to kill you." The tears ran down the poor man's face as he said, "Is this a god, or is it but a man?" "Have no doubt on that score, sir," said I, "for a god would not have come with a dress like this. No, do not fear-nor raise your hopes too high; for you see but a man, yet one who will do all he can to help you. Your speech shows me that you come from the same land as I do. I will do all I can to serve you. Tell me your case." "Our case, sir, is too long to tell you while they who would kill us are so near. My name is Paul. To be short, sir, my crew have thrust me out of my ship, which you see out there, and have left me here to die. It was as much as I could do to make them sheathe their swords, which you saw were drawn to slay me. They have set me down in this isle with these two men, my friend here, and the ship's mate." "Where have they gone?" said I. "There, in the wood close by. I fear they may have seen and heard us. If they have, they will be sure to kill us all." "Have they firearms?" "They have four guns, one of which is in the boat." "Well, then, leave all to me!" "There are two of the men," said he, "who are worse than the rest. All but these I feel sure would go back to work the ship." I thought it was best to speak out to Paul at once, and I said, "Now if I save your life, there are two things which you must do." But he read my thoughts, and said, "If you save my life, you shall do as you like with me and my ship, and take her where you please." I saw that the two men, in whose charge the boat had been left, had come on shore; so the first thing I did was to send Friday to fetch from it the oars, the sail, and the gun. And now the ship might be said to be in our hands. When the time came for the men to go back to the ship, they were in a great rage; for, as the boat had now no sail or oars, they knew not how to get out to their ship. We heard them say that it was a strange sort of isle, for sprites had come to the boat, to take off the sails and oars. W e could see them run to and fro, with great rage; then go and sit in the boat to rest, and then come on shore once more. When they drew near to us, Paul and Friday would fain have had me fall on them at once. But my wish was to spare them, and kill as few as possible. I told two of my men to creep on their hands and knees close to the ground so that they might not be seen, and when they got 'up to the men, not to fire till I gave the word. They had not stood thus long when three of the crew came up to us. Till now we had but heard their voices, but when they came so near as to be seen, Paul and Friday shot at them. Two of the men fell dead, and they were the worst of the crew, and the third ran off. At the sound of the guns I came up, but it was so dark that the men could not tell if there were three of us or three score. It fell out just as I wished, for I heard the men ask: "To whom must we yield, and where are they?" Friday told them that Paul was there with the king of the isle, who had brought with him a crowd of men! At this, one of the crew said: "If Paul will spare our lives, we will yield." "Then," said Friday, "you shall know the king's will." Then Paul said to them: "You know my voice; if you lay down your arms, the king will spare your lives." They fell on their knees to beg the same of me. I took good care that they did not see me, but I gave them my word that they should all live, that I should take four of them to work the ship, and that the rest would be bound hand and foot for the good faith of the four. This was to show them what a stern king I was. Of course I soon set them free, and I put them in a way to take my place on the isle. I told them of all my ways, taught them how to mind the goats, how to work the farm, and how to make the bread. I gave them a house to live in, firearms, tools and my two tame cats-in fact, all that I owned but Poll and my gold. As I sat on the top of the hill, Paul came up to me. He held out his hand to point to the ship, and with much warmth took me to his arms and said: "My dear friend, there is your ship! For this vessel is all yours, and all that is in her, and so are all of us." I made ready to go on board the ship, but told the captain I would stay that night to get my things in shape, and asked him to go on board in the meantime and keep things right on the ship. I cast my eyes to the ship, which rode half a mile off the shore, at the mouth of the creek, and near the place where I had brought my raft to the land. Yes, there she stood, the ship that was to set me free and to take hie where I might choose to go. She set her sails to the wind, and her flags threw out their gay stripes in the breeze. Such a sight was too much for me, and I fell down faint with joy. Friday and Paul then went on board the ship, and Paul took charge of her once more. We did not start that night, but at noon the next day I left the isle-that lone isle, where I had spent so great a part of my life. When I took leave of this island, I carried on board a great goatskin cap I had made, and my parrot; also the money which had lain by me so long useless that it was grown rusty or tarnished, and could hardly pass for gold till it had been a little rubbed and handled. And thus I left the island, the nineteenth of December, as I found by the ship's account, in the year 1686, after I had been upon it seven-and-twenty years, two months, and nineteen days. In this vessel, after a long voyage, I arrived in England the eleventh of June, in the year 1687. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Biography. Daniel Defoe (1659-1731), an English author, was born in London. He was well educated and devoted himself chiefly to writing. He was active in political life, and many of his early pamphlets were attacks upon the government. Robinson Crusoe, his greatest story, is a world classic. It is founded mainly on the adventures of Alexander Selkirk, who told Defoe about his own experiences as a castaway on an island. Defoe tells his story in simple, direct language, with frequent use of details and illustrations. Discussion. 1. Why was an ocean voyage so difficult and dangerous at the time when Robinson Crusoe was written? 2. Find the lines that describe what you think was the most difficult work undertaken by Robinson Crusoe. 3. What under king required the most perseverance? Find lines that show this. 4. At what time did Crusoe show the greatest courage? Find lines that seem to yore to prove your answer is correct. 5. What was the greatest disappointment that he had to bear while on the island? 6. What do you think was the greatest happiness he had? 7. Find lines that tell how Robinson Crusoe studied to make something which was very necessary to him. 8. Mention something he made that you have tried to make. 9. How did your result compare with his? What reason can you give for this? 10. This story shows how dependent we are upon the tools, the inventions, and the means of protection that men have devised for making life happy. Crusoe had to make for himself under great difficulties things that we think nothing of. Show from the story how dependent we are upon the cooperation and assistance of others. Imagine the cooperation that has been necessary to give you milk, oranges or bananas, sugar for your dessert, meat for your dinner. What has been done to give you the stove on which your dinner is cooked, the fuel that it burns, the light that you use at night, the telephone that you use? Crusoe had to get along without such assistance. Do you owe anything, any return service, for what you receive and use? If Crusoe's hut had taken fire, what would have happened? What would happen if your home should catch fire? Who would pay for the help given you? If Crusoe had been attacked by robbers, what would have happened? What keeps you safe at night? If Crusoe had wished to go on a long journey, what would have been necessary? Who would help you if you had to take such a journey? 12. Tell a story about your debt to someone for an invention or discovery that makes your life pleasanter or safer. Tell a story about your debt for the sugar you use for your desert. Tell a story to illustrate what the government does for you. 13. Class readings: Select passages to be read aloud in class. 14. Outline for testing silent reading. Tell the story briefly in your own words, using the topic headings given in the book. 15. You will enjoy seeing the pictures in the edition of Robinson Crusoe that is illustrated by N. C. Wyeth. 16. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: stern; bulge; spikes; adz; limes; mute; league; thong; fowling; piece. 17. Pronounce: pursuit; swoon; spars; drought;; sieve; launch; cruise; shoal; tour; jib; gesture; formidable; sheathe; sprites. Phrases for Study lee of the land, in sooth, spare yards, I found him apt, O drug, standing in for the shore, give me thought for thought, appeared concerned, whole round of my isle, discover myself to them, bound by a spell, specter-like figure. STORIES OF ADVENTURE A BACKWARD LOOK Now that you have read all of these tales of adventure, perhaps some evening you will curl up in that big chair in a cozy place and will close your eyes and dream a dream. And in that dream you will see-who knows? Ali Baba and Aladdin in their queer dress, and Sindbad, the rich old sailor, and Captain Lemuel Gulliver, and Robin Hood in his Lincoln green, and Robinson Crusoe with his man Friday. All of them will sit down near you, between you and the fire perhaps, and they will talk to each other about the meaning of all the perils and successes that life brought them. And you will doubtless get the idea from them all that every man, rich or poor, ought to feel some responsibility to others. Ali Baba and Aladdin and Sindbad will tell the company, there in the firelight before your very eyes, how they felt that they owed something to' others because of the wealth they had, gained. Aladdin became a serious and public-spirited man, though as a boy he had been of little worth. Ali Baba and Sindbad helped others and did many good deeds. Then Robin Hood will join in the conversation. He lived in a time, as you can see from his story, when the poor not only had no chance but were oppressed. Robin tried to do away with some of this injustice. He was an outlaw; he did many things that it would not be right to do today; but he did these things in order to help people who were wretched and who had no chance. And next, Robinson Crusoe has a word to say. His experience, he tells us, showed him how much we depend on each other. If a man is suddenly cut off from his fellows, has to get his own food or starve, build his own house with his own rude tools or freeze, he finds out how much he owes to the cooperation of thousands of other people. And finally, Captain Gulliver, who has been listening quietly for a long time, knocks the ashes from his pipe as he gets up to go, and says: "You know, it all comes down to this: can a man or a nation stand being rich and strong? You know those Lilliputians, when they conquered the people of Blefuscu, wanted right away to annex the lands of their enemies. They had no right to the lands; they had enough of their own; if I had let them do what they planned, they would have made many people very miserable, But the moment they saw a chance to grab something, they wanted to go right after it.. And it makes me wonder about this America that is so much discussed just now. In my day we scarcely knew there was such a country, but you know how strong and prosperous the Americans are, and what a war they can fight, and how many rich men they have. They seem to me to have found that lamp and ring that friend Aladdin once had; everything they touch seems to turn to gold, and they can build a city over night. I just wonder what they will do with all this power?" And they all shake their heads, as if to say that they wonder, too. And the fire has grown lower and lower, so that you can hardly see the strange forms.--And then father calls to you to wake up and get your lesson or go to bed, and they all vanish at the sound of that voice. How would you answer Captain Gulliver's question about America? What did America do with its power in the World War? What good American citizens that you know of have used their wealth to found libraries, hospitals, parks, and other public benefits? Show that boys and girls join together in teamwork for the good of all by organizing clubs, Boy Scouts, Camp Fire Girls, Junior Red Cross, etc. Mention kinds of service these organizations give for the good of all. Show that each of the six stories in Part II has the two values mentioned in the first paragraph on page 146. Which story did you enjoy most? Which gave you the most worth-while ideas? What gains have you made in your ability to read silently with speed and understanding? PART III GREAT AMERICAN AUTHORS A man lives in the last half of life on the memory of things read in the first half of life. SAMUEL JOHNSON. GREAT AMERICAN AUTHORS A FORWARD LOOK When Mother used to tell you a story about when she was a little girl, you were interested only in the story and in the pictures her words called up in your mind. Suppose some older person had been listening while she told one of these tales, and had been interested not alone in the adventure that she was telling about, as you were, but in the way in which she told it. This person, your uncle, let's say, would notice how Mother planned her story so as to keep the very most exciting thing to the last, and how you grew more and more excited about it, and how your eyes shone, and her eyes too, and how without knowing it she was letting him see what kind of people they were in her story, and what kind of little girl she was-very brave, you know-and when at the end you drew a long breath and had that delightful little thrill that you always have at the end of a perfectly wonderful story-after all this, suppose your uncle should look at Mother in a funny kind of way and should say, "Bless me, Sis, I had no idea you were an author." What would you say? Mother an author? Why, an author is a person who writes big books in words that no one can understand, but Mother, she-why, she is Mother! Yet your uncle is right. Mother is an author when she thinks back over her life and picks out something that is interesting, and then tells it in her very most interesting way to please you. If she would only write out that story, and a printer would print it in a book, and in the front of the book you should read "When I Was a Little Girl." By Mother"-that would be a Book, and Mother would be a real author. Now long, long ago, there weren't any books. When Mother told you a story, if you had lived then, you would remember it and would tell it to other people, and after you grew up you would tell it to your children, and when they had grown up, they would tell it to your grandchildren, and so on and on. Who wrote Cinderella, or Sleeping Beauty, or the Three Bears? You don't know. Nobody knows. They just happened. They were told by mothers to their children and so on and so on, and after centuries, perhaps, when printing had been invented, some printer man thought, like your uncle, that here was a story that ought to be printed and so he made a book of it. But he didn't claim to be the author of it, for he was not. So, some of the stories you have read in this book do not have any author's name attached to them. And even if they did, you were not thinking, while you were reading, about the man who wrote them. You just thought of the story and whether you liked it or not. Yet no small part of the advantage that you enjoy because you live now, instead of in the days when there were no books, lies in the fact that you can become acquainted with the men and women who have written the stories and poems that you read. Let's put it this way. In those old days that we have been speaking about, you would have had to depend upon your Mother, or some other mother, or some village weaver of tales, for your stories. But they were busy, and you couldn't get enough stories to satisfy your appetite. Then one-time, let's say, a strange, wandering fellow came to your village. And he had yards and yards of the most wonderful stories to tell. And he went home with you, let's say, and stayed there, and did nothing but tell you stories whenever you wanted them, first thing in the morning, and after school, and bedtime, and all. And he was never too busy. And you learned to know him, what an interesting man he was, and what fine eyes he had, and what a smile that made you smile back before he said a word, and how he loved Truth and hated lies, and loved Honor and hated shameful things. He was your author, your book, your book of books. And he was as dear to you, in himself, as his stories were. Now you can have just such a friend, no, you can have a whole company of just such friends, for yourself. How? In books, of course. Only they won't be merely books; they will be friends. Washington Irving, teller of wonderful stories, and Robert Louis Stevenson are there, in those books, and you can learn them as well as their stories. And Henry W. Longfellow, writer of stories in verse; and John G. Whittier, writer of poems about barefoot boys and corn huskings; and Benjamin Franklin, a kindly philosopher-there, that word is too hard for you, but it just slipped out, and so you will have to be told that a philosopher is a person who thinks about life and its meaning. That's what all authors are, in a way. That's what makes them authors. They don't just eat and sleep and do their work, whatever it is-they think about life. And what they see and think they set down for you. To know them is to know delightful friends who will tell you what everything means and will answer all your questions. There they are, on your bookshelf. They won't speak to you unless you speak first. If you want to do something else and don't wish to be bothered, they won't bother you. But when you want to talk with them, they are ready. Call upon them often, and you will learn one of the blessedest things about life, the companionship of boobs. Some of them, men of our own America, are to be introduced to you in the following pages. From now on you are to do three things. First, you are to listen and enjoy when they tell you what they have to say. Next, you are to begin to do just what your uncle was doing when he listened to Mother telling you that story-you are to see that there is a way to tell something that is good, and that if one has learned this way, like Mother, he is an author. And last, you are to find that these authors are real persons whom you can learn to know. Then you will love them, just as you love Mother, not alone for what they say, but for what they are. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) was born in Boston in the early colonial days. While still a boy, he learned the printer's trade, but, having difficulty with his brother, for whom he worked, he went to Philadelphia,-where later he became owner and editor of the Philadelphia Gazette, the city's leading newspaper. Later he established another periodical, called Poor Richard's Almanac. Franklin was greatly interested in the study of science. He "snatched lightning from the skies" by the use of a key and a kite with a silk string. This experiment led to his invention of the lightning rod, which was soon placed on public and private buildings not only in America but also in England and France. He invented the "Franklin Stove," which is still in use in some places. This is an open stove made in such a way as to economize heat and save fuel. Franklin invented a street lamp which was used for lighting the streets of Philadelphia. Franklin was big-hearted and wished to be of real service to his fellow-citizens. He organized a debating club, a night watch, a volunteer fire company, a street-cleaning department, and a public library-the first of its kind in America. His-services to the new government that the Americans were just setting up were equally noteworthy. He went to England to represent the colonies and did all that he could to patch up the quarrel between the colonies and the mother country. When all these attempts failed, he gave himself heart and soul to the business of making a new government. He was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. Later, as a special minister to France he delighted Frenchmen by his humor and his common sense, and he even succeeded in securing the promise of the French government to acknowledge the independence of the colonies and to send ships and men to their assistance. In a letter to a friend in 1779, Franklin tells the story, "The Whistle." "An Ax to Grind" is from his autobiography. THE WHISTLE When I was a child seven years old, my friends on a holiday filled my pocket with coppers. I went directly to a shop where they sold toys for children, and, being charmed with the sound of a whistle that I met by the way in the hands of another boy, I voluntarily offered and gave all my money for one. I then ran home and went whistling all over the house, much pleased with my whistle, but disturbing all the family. My brothers and sisters and cousins, understanding the bargain I had made, told me I had given four times as much for it as it was worth; put me in mind what good things I might have bought with the rest of the money; and laughed at me so much for my folly that I cried with vexation; and the reflection gave me more chagrin than the whistle gave me pleasure. This, however, was afterwards of use to me, the impression continuing on my mind; so that often when I was tempted to buy some unnecessary thing, I said to myself, "Don't give too much for the whistle";' and I saved my money. As I grew up, came into the world, and observed the actions of men, I thought I met with many, very many, who gave too much for the whistle. When I saw one too ambitious of court favor, sacrificing his time in attendance on levees-his repose, his liberty, his virtue, and perhaps his friends, to attain it-I have said to myself, "This man gives too much for his whistle." When I saw another fond of popularity, constantly employing himself in political bustles, neglecting his own affairs, and ruining them by that neglect, "He pays indeed," said I, "too much for his whistle." If I knew a miser who gave up every kind of comfortable living, all the pleasure of doing good to others, all the esteem of his fellow citizens, and the joys of benevolent friendship, for the sake of accumulating wealth, "Poor man," said I, "you pay too much for your whistle." When I met with a man of pleasure, sacrificing every laudable improvement of the mind or of his fortune to mere corporeal sensations, and ruining his health in their pursuit, "Mistaken man," said I, "you are providing pain for yourself instead of pleasure; you give too much for your whistle." If I see one fond of appearance, or fine clothes, fine houses, fine furniture, fine equipages, all above his fortune, for which he contracts debts and ends his career in a prison, "Alas!" say I, "he has paid dear, very dear, for his whistle." In short, I conceive that a great part of the miseries of mankind are brought upon them by the false estimates they have made of the value of things, and by their giving too much for their whistles. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Discussion. 1. Why did Franklin say that lie paid too much for his whistle' 2. How was this incident of use to him afterwards? 3. How does it apply to a man too fond of popularity? To the miser? To the man of pleasure? To the one who cares too much for appearance? 4. Can you think of other incidents that illustrate what Franklin had in mind? 5. Extravagance has been called the great fault of Americans. During the World war what efforts were made by our people to. Correct this fault? Why were the efforts successful? 6. Why is it necessary to continue these efforts now? If all Americans would practice what Franklin advises, what would be the effect on the cost of living, and why? 7. In what ways can you save some of the pennies you might spend foolishly? S. What do you know about Postal Savings deposits? 9. Write a letter to your teacher, proposing that the children in your class save as many pennies as possible for savings accounts, pointing out some ways in which children may save their pennies; bring in a part of Franklin's story in the most interesting way that you can. 10. Tell what you can about the author. 11. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: coppers; voluntarily; vexation; ambitious; esteem; contracts. 12. Pronounce: directly: chagrin; sacrificing; levee; accumulating; laudable; equipage. Phrases for Study impression continuing, corporeal sensations, political bustles, above his fortune. AN AX TO GRIND When I was a little boy, I remember, one cold winter morning, I was accosted by a smiling man with an ax on his shoulder. "My pretty boy," said he, "has your father a grindstone?" "Yes, sir," said I. "You are a fine little fellow!" said he. "Will you, let me grind my ax on it?" Pleased with the compliment of "fine little fellow," "Oh, yes, sir," I answered. "It is down in the shop." "And will you, my man," said he, patting me on the head, "get me a little hot water?" How could I refuse? I ran, and soon brought a kettleful. "How old are you-and what's your name?" continued he, without waiting for a reply. "I'm sure you are one of the finest lads that I have ever seen. Will you just turn a few minutes for me?" Tickled with the flattery, like a little fool, I went to work, and bitterly did I rue the day. It was a new ax, and I toiled and tugged till I was almost tired to death. The school bell rang, and I could not get away. My hands were blistered, and the ax was not half ground. At length, however, it was sharpened, and the man turned to me with, "Now, you little rascal, you've played truant! Scud to school, or you'll rue it!" "Alas!" thought I, "it was hard enough to turn a grindstone this cold day, but now to be called a little rascal is too much." It sank deep into my mind, and often have I thought of it since. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Discussion. 1. In this story Franklin advises you to be on your guard against flatterers who wish to make use of you in order to gain their o"-n ends. What made Franklin do as the man wanted him to? What do you think of the man? 2. How would you have sought the boy's help? 3. In what way was this incident of use to Franklin afterwards? 4. What is meant when we say of a person that he has "an ax to grind"? 5. How do you think Franklin valued sincerity? 6. How do you value it? 7. Tell the story as the man would have told it to a friend. 8. Pronounce: accosted. WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT William Cullen Bryant (1794-1878) was born in the rugged hill country of western Massachusetts. From infancy he showed remarkable powers of mind. He could read by the time he was two years old, wrote verses at nine, and when scarcely eighteen wrote his most noted poem, "Thanatopsis," now one of the world's classics. He had a wonderful memory, and it is said he could repeat "by heart" every poem he had written. Bryant removed to New York, where in 1825 he became editor of the Evening Post. Through the remainder of--his long life he devoted his energy and great gifts to building up one of the most forceful of American newspapers, but he found time also to study Nature and to write so many poems that we now think of him as a poet, not as an editor. He was also a student, and we are indebted to him for some excellent translations from old authors. And, finally, he was a public-spirited American, interested in all matters that have to do with the honor of our country. Imagine yourself in New York City during the latter part of the last century. If you were walking up Broadway almost any morning, your attention would be attracted to a venerable looking man, with heavy, flowing, snow-white hair and beard, whom you would be quite likely to meet swinging along at a vigorous pace. You would not need to be told that this man is our first American poet, with whose verses you are already familiar; and you would probably know, too, that he is also the editor of the Evening Post and that, although now past eighty, he is on his way to his office, walking from his home some two miles away, as he has done, rain or shine, for over half a century. This great man was not too busy with affairs, or too learned, to look for the joy that comes from companionship with Nature. Like Irving he chose American subjects taken from his own surroundings: the scenes of his boyhood, the flowers, birds, and hills of his old New England home. He found pleasure in the simplest things, and he wrote about this pleasure in the simplest way. In this simplicity and the variety of his interests his wealth consisted; a treasure that made rich not only the poet who possessed it but all Americans, to whom he left his life and works for an inheritance. THE YELLOW VIOLET When beechen buds begin to swell, And woods the bluebird's warble know, The yellow violet's modest bell Peeps from the last year's leaves below. Ere russet fields their green resume, Sweet flower, I love, in forest bare, To meet thee, when thy faint perfume; Alone is in the virgin air. Of all her train, the hands of Spring First plant thee in the watery mold; And I have seen thee blossoming Beside the snow-bank's edges cold. Thy parent sun, who bade thee view dale-skies, and chilling moisture sip, Has bathed thee in his own bright hue, And streaked with jet thy glowing lip. Yet slight thy form, and low thy seat, And earthward bent thy gentle eye, Unapt the passing view to meet, When loftier flowers are flaunting nigh. Oft, in the sunless April day, Thy early smile has stayed my walk, But 'midst the gorgeous blooms of May I passed thee on thy humble stalk. So they who climb to wealth forget The friends in darker fortunes tried. I copied them--but I regret That I should ape the ways of pride. And when again the genial hour Awakes the painted tribes of light, I'll not o'erlook the modest flower That made the weds of April bright. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Discussion. 1. When does the poet say the violet makes its appearance? 2. Why is the violet called a "modest" flower? 3. Why does the violet make glad the heart of the poet? When the woods and fields are full of flowers, does he notice the violet? 4. What does "alone" add to the meaning of line 8, page 298? 5. What is meant by "her train," line 9, page 298? 6. What are "the hands of Spring"? 7. In what sense is the sun the "parent" of the violet? 8. Why does Bryant say the violet's seat is low? 9. What does the poet say the violet's "early smile" has often done for him? 10. Point out the stanzas in which the poet tells you where he finds the violet; the stanzas in which he tells you about the appearance and character of the flower; the stanzas in which he rebukes himself for passing it by, and makes a promise. 11. Why does Bryant stop to view the violet in April and pass it by in May? 12. With what does the poet compare this treatment of the violet? 13. What does the poet say he regrets? 14. What other flowers come very early in the spring? How do you feel when you see them? 15. Which stanza of the poem do you like best? 16. What other poem on the violet have you read? 17. Tell what you can about the author. 18. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: beechen; russet; train; jet; unapt. 19. Pronounce: ere; parent; gorgeous; humble; genial. Phrases for Study modest bell, stayed my walk, their green resume, in darker fortunes tried, virgin air, ape the ways of pride, pale skies, genial hour, flaunting nigh, painted tribes of light. THE GLADNESS OF NATURE Is this a time to be cloudy and sad, When our Mother Nature laughs around, When even the deep blue heavens look glad, And gladness breathes from the blossoming ground? There are notes of joy from the hangbird and wren, And the gossip of swallows through all the sky; The ground squirrel gayly chirps by his den, And the wilding bee hums merrily by. The clouds are at play in the azure space, And their shadows at play on the bright green vale, And here they stretch to the frolic chase, And there they roll on the easy gale. There's a dance of leaves in that aspen bower; There's a titter of winds in that beechen tree; There's a smile on the fruit, and a smile on the flower, And a laugh from the brook that runs to the sea. And look at the broad-faced sun, how he smiles On the dewy earth that smiles in his ray, On the leaping waters and gay young isles, Ay, look, and he'll smile thy gloom away. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Discussion. 1. What season is described here? 2. What are the signs that Nature is glad? How do all these things affect the poet? How do you sometimes feel on a cold, rainy day? 3. What signs of gladness are mentioned in the first two stanzas? 4. Which of these have you seen in springtime? 5. Have you ever seen clouds that seemed to chase one another? 6. What is meant by "a laugh from the brook"? 7. What does the poet say the sun will do for us? 8. Do you think spring is "a time to be cloudy and sad"? Why? 9. Why do city boys and girls like to visit the country? 10. Read again "A Forward Look," pages 19-20, and then point out fancies that Bryant uses in this poem to help us see the beauty and wonder of Nature. 11. Commit to memory the stanza that you like best. 12. Pronounce: wilding; azure; isles; ay. Phrases for Study gladness breathes, frolic chase, blossoming ground, aspen bower, gossip of swallows, titter of winds, azure space, broad-faced sun. JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER John Greenleaf Whittier (1807-1892) was born near the town of Haverhill, Massachusetts, not far from Hawthorne's birthplace. He had very little opportunity for education beyond what the district school afforded, for his parents were too poor to send him away to school. His two years' attendance at Haverhill Academy was paid for by his own work at making ladies' slippers for twenty-five cents a pair. He began writing verses almost as soon as he learned to write at all, but his father discouraged this ambition as frivolous, saying it would never give him bread. His family were Quakers, sturdy of stature as of character. He is called "The Quaker Poet." Whittier led the life of a New England farm boy, used to hard work and few pleasures. His library consisted of practically one book, the family Bible. Later, a copy of Burns's poems was loaned to him by the district schoolmaster. Like Burns he had great sympathy with the humble and the poor. In his poems. Whittier described the scenes and told the legends of his own locality. Home Ballads and Songs of Labor, in which "The Huskers" and "The Corn-Song" appear, are among his most widely read books. They picture country life and the scenes of the simple occupations common in his part of the country. Whittier was intensely patriotic and religious by nature. His happiness lay in his association with his friends, with children, animals, and the outdoor world. In these respects he was like Bryant, a man who found pleasure in simple things. Like Bryant, also, he was interested in public affairs. Any injustice to the poor he opposed passionately. He wrote many poems in protest against slavery. He wrote, also, ballads of early New England history, and some of our most beautiful religious poetry comes from his pen. His life was less filled with business cares than that of Bryant, but it was equally full of interests that made him happy and source of help and joy to others. THE HUSKERS It was late in mild October, and the long autumnal rain Had left the summer harvest-fields all green with grass again; The first sharp frosts had fallen, leaving all the woodlands gay With the hues of summer's rainbow or the meadow flowers of May. Through a thin, dry mist, that morning, the sun rose broad and red; At first a rayless disk of fire, he brightened as he sped; Yet even his noontide glory fell chastened and subdued On the cornfields and the orchards and softly pictured wood. And all that quiet afternoon, slow sloping to the night, He wove with golden shuttle the haze with yellow light; Slanting through the tented beeches, he glorified the hill; And, beneath it, pond and meadow lay brighter, greener still. And shouting boys in woodland haunts caught glimpses of that sky, Flecked by the many-tinted leaves, and laughed, they knew not why; And schoolgirls, gay with aster-flowers, beside the meadow brooks, Mingled the glow of autumn with the sunshine of sweet looks. From spire and barn looked westerly the patient weathercocks; But even the birches on the hill stood motionless as rocks. No sound was in the woodlands save the squirrel's dropping shell, And the yellow leaves among the boughs, low rustling as they fell. The summer grains were harvested; the stubble-fields lay dry, Where June winds rolled, in light and shade, the pale green waves of rye; But still, on gentle hill-slopes, in valleys fringed with wood, ungathered, bleaching in the sun, the heavy corn crop stood. Bent low by autumn's wind and rain, through husks that, dry and sear, Unfolded from their ripened charge, shone out the yellow ear; Beneath, the turnip lay concealed in many a verdant fold, And glistened in the slanting light the pumpkin's sphere of gold. There wrought the busy harvester, and many a creaking wain Bore slowly to the long barn-floor its load of husk and grain; Till broad and red, as when he rose, the sun sank down at last, And like a merry guest's farewell the day in brightness passed. And lo! as through the western pines, on meadow, stream, and pond, Flamed the red radiance of a sky set all afire beyond, Slowly o'er the eastern sea-bluffs a milder glory shone, And the sunset and the moonrise were mingled into one! As thus into the quiet night the twilight lapsed away, And deeper in the brightening moon the tranquil shadows lay, From many a brown old farmhouse and hamlet without name, Their milking and their home-tasks done, the merry huskers came. Swung o'er the heaped-up harvest, from pitchforks in the mow, Shone dimly down the lanterns on the pleasant scene below, The glowing pile of husks behind, the golden ears before, And laughing eyes and busy hands and brown cheeks glimmering o'er. Half hidden in a quiet nook, serene of look and heart, Talking their old times over, the old men sat apart; While up and down the unhusked pile, or nestling in its shade, At hide-and-seek, with laugh and shout, the happy children played. Urged by the good host's daughter, a maiden young and fair, Lifting to light her sweet blue eyes and pride of soft brown hair, The master of the village school, sleek of hair and smooth of tongue, To the quaint tune of some old psalm, a husking-ballad sung. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Discussion. 1. What is the difference between the sunshine of October and that of May? 2. Why does it seem to the poet as if the sun wove with golden shuttle the yellow haze? 3. What had the frost done that made the woodlands gay? 4. What words in the second stanza make you feel that the wood was some distance away? 5. To whom does "he" in the third stanza refer? 6. What words in the second stanza explain the word "haze" in the third stanza? 7. What gave the beeches the appearance of being painted? 8. What are the colors of the woods and sky in this poem? What colors are they in the poem "The Yellow Violet"? Find the words and phrases that tell you. How many times, in this poem, does the poet use the words golden and yellow, or speak of things that suggest these colors? 9. What do you think was the reason the boys laughed when they looked up to the sky? 10. What "summer grain" is mentioned in line 11, page 304? 11. What crop was still ungathered? 12. Where were the harvesters at work? 13. What was it that set the sky "all afire beyond"? 14. Where did the husking take place? What tells you this? 15.. How did the old men spend the evening? 16. What things that we eat depend on the work of the huskers? 17. Tell what you can about the author. 18. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: shuttle; spire; sear; verdant; wain; lapsed. 19. Pronounce: autumnal; chastened; beneath; sphere; wrought; radiance; tranquil; mow; serene; psalm. Phrases for Study hues of summer's rainbow, patient weathercocks, rayless disk of fire, ripened charge, brightened as he sped; sphere of gold, glory fell chastened, milder glory shone, softly pictured wood, mingled into one, slow sloping to the night, hamlet without name, glorified the hill, golden ears before, sunshine of sweet looks, glimmering o'er, looked westerly, serene of look and heart. THE CORN-SONG Heap high the farmer's wintry hoard! Heap high the golden corn! No richer gift has Autumn poured From out her lavish horn! Let other lands, exulting, glean The apple from the pine, The orange from its glossy green, The cluster from the vine; We better love the hardy gift Our rugged vales bestow, To cheer us when the storm shall drift Our harvest-fields with snow. Through vales of grass and meads of flowers Our plows their furrows made, While on the hills the sun and showers Of changeful April played. We dropped the seed o'er hill and plain, Beneath the sun of May, And frightened from our sprouting grain The robber crows away. All through the long, bright days of June Its leaves grew green and fair, And waved in hot midsummer's noon Its soft and yellow hair. And now, with Autumn's moonlit eves, Its harvest-time has come; We pluck away the frosted leaves, And bear the treasure home. Then shame on all the proud and vain Whose folly laughs to scorn The blessing of our hardy grain, Our wealth of golden corn! Let earth withhold her goodly root, Let mildew blight the rye, Give to the worm the orchard's fruit, The wheat-field to the fly; But let the good old crop adorn The hills our fathers trod; Still let us, for his golden corn, Send up our thanks to God! NOTES AND QUESTIONS Discussion. 1. In "A Forward Look," you read that poets help you to see beauty in things that might otherwise seem common. The yellow violet is less showy than the chrysanthemum, but the poet writes of the violet. The pineapple, the orange, the grape, seem more interesting than the yellow corn of the fields, but here is a poem about one of the commonest of farm crops. To whom is the poet speaking in the first two stanzas? Point out some of the poet's fancies in this poem. 2. Is all corn "golden"? What other kinds have you seen? 3. Name other gifts autumn brings us. 4. Why is the corn a "hardy gift"? What other words or phrases in the poem suggest the same idea? 5. What do we call the "apple from the pine"? 6. What clusters are picked from vines? 7. In what "other lands" do these fruits grow? 8. Where was Whittier's home? 9. What do you know of the soil and climate of New England? 10. Find the line that tells when we plant the corn. 11. Find the lines that tell when we harvest the corn. 12. What is the "yellow hair" the corn waves in summer? 13. What does the poet mean by "frosted leaves"? 14. What does he think of those who scorn the blessing of the corn? 15. What wish does the poet express in the last stanza? 16. What service did our farmers and boys and girls on the farms perform during the World War? 17. On page 291 you were asked to notice the way in which these American authors have expressed their thoughts; does Whittier's use of rime add to the beauty of his "song" about corn? Point out some of the lines that rime. 18. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: glean; hardy; meads; furrows; frosted; mildew; adorn. Pronounce: hoard; lavish; glossy; root. Phrases for Study wintry hoard, rugged vales bestow, lavish horn, changeful April, exulting, glean, folly laughs to scorn, hardy gift, goodly root. WASHINGTON IRVING Washington Irving (1783-1859) was a native of New York. He led a happy life, rambling in his boyhood about every nook and corner of the city and the adjacent woods, which at that time were not very far to seek. New York, called New Amsterdam in early colonial times, was then the capital of the country, and here the boy grew up happy, seeing many sides of American life, both in the city and country. Manhattan Island and the region about it, with its commanding position at the entrance to a great inland waterway, was from the first a prize for which the nations from across the sea had contended. Such a mingling of different people must give rise to interesting experiences, and when someone appears who can put the story of those events into a pleasing sketch, then we begin to have real literature: Irving had not only the experience and observation, but the ability 'to express what he had seen and felt. Therefore, when he grew to manhood and gave his sketches of this region to the world, we had our first real American literature. Irving is best known as a humorist and a charming storyteller, but he has also written serious and tender works. His life of Washington is a tribute of loving reverence to the great American for whom he was named. As a boy, Irving was of a rather mischievous turn, a trait which perhaps helped to make him the "first American humorist." Indeed, it has been said that "before Irving there was no laughter in the land." He is called the "Father of American Literature," and also the "gentle humorist." "Capturing the Wild Horse" is taken from A Tour of the Prairies, and "The Adventure of the Mason" from The Alhambra. CAPTURING THE WILD HORSE We left the buffalo camp about eight o'clock and had a toilsome march of two hours over ridges of hills covered with a ragged forest of scrub-oaks and broken by deep gullies. Among the oaks I observed many of the most diminutive size, some not above a foot high, yet bearing abundance of small acorns. About ten o'clock in the morning we came to where this line of rugged hills swept down into a valley, through which flowed the north fork of the Red River. A beautiful meadow about half a mile wide, colored with yellow autumnal flowers, stretched for two or three miles along the foot of the hills, bordered on the opposite side by the river, whose bank was fringed with cottonwood trees. The meadow was finely diversified by groves and clumps of trees, so happily arranged that they seemed as if set out by the hand of art. As we cast our eyes over this fresh and delightful valley, we saw a troop of wild horses quietly grazing on a green lawn about a mile distant to our right, while to our left, at nearly the same distance, were several buffaloes--some feeding, others reposing and ruminating among the high, rich herbage under the shade of a clump of cottonwood trees. The whole had the appearance of a broad, beautiful tract of pasture land on the estate of some gentleman farmer, with his cattle grazing about the lawns and meadows. A council of war was now held, and it was determined to profit by the present favorable opportunity and try our hand at the grand hunting-maneuver which is called "ringing the wild horse." This requires a large party of horsemen, well mounted. They extend themselves in each direction, singly, at certain distances apart, and gradually form a ring of two or three miles in circumference, so as to surround the game. This has to be done with extreme care, for the wild horse is the most readily alarmed inhabitant of the prairie, and can scent a hunter at a great distance, if to windward. The ring being formed, two or three ride toward the horses, which start off in an opposite direction. Whenever they approach the bounds of the ring, however, a huntsman presents himself and turns them from their course. In this way they are checked and driven back at every point, and kept galloping round and round this magic circle, until, being completely tired down, it is easy for the hunters to ride up beside them and throw the lariat over their heads. The prime horses of most speed and courage, however, are apt to break through and escape, so that in general it is the second-rate horses that are taken. Preparations were now made for a hunt of this kind. The packhorses were taken into the woods and firmly tied to trees, lest in a rush of the wild horses they should break away with them. Twenty-five men were then sent, under the command of a lieutenant, to steal along the edge of the valley within the strip of wood that skirted the hills. They were to station themselves about fifty yards apart, within the edge of the woods, and not advance or show themselves until the horses dashed in that direction. Twenty-five men were sent across the valley to steal in like manner along the river bank that bordered the opposite side, and to station themselves among the trees. A third party of about the same number was to form a line stretching across the lower part of the valley, so as to connect the two wings. Beatte and our other half-breed; Antoine, together with the ever-officious Tonish, were to make a circuit through the woods, so as to get to the upper part of the valley in the rear of the horses, and to drive them forward into the kind of sack that we had formed, while the two wings should join behind them and make a complete circle. The flanking parties were quietly extending themselves, out of sight, on each side of the valley, and the rest were stretching themselves like the links of a chain across it, when the wild horses gave signs that they scented an enemy--snuffing the air, snorting, and looking about. At length they pranced off slowly toward the river and disappeared behind a green bank. Here, had the rules of the chase been observed, they would have been quietly checked and turned back by the advance of a hunter from among the trees; unluckily, however, we had our wildfire Jack-o'-lantern little Frenchman to deal with. Instead of keeping quietly up the right side of the valley to get above the horses, the moment he saw them move toward the river he broke out of the thicket of woods and dashed furiously across the plain in pursuit of them, being, mounted on one of the led horses belonging to the Count. This put an end to all system. The half-breeds and half a score of rangers joined in the chase. Away they all went over the green bank; in a moment or two the wild horses reappeared and came thundering down the valley, with Frenchman, half-breeds, and rangers galloping and yelling like mad behind them. It was in vain that the line drawn across the valley attempted to check and turn back the fugitives. They were too hotly pressed by their pursuers; in their panic they dashed through the line and clattered down the plain. The whole troop joined in the headlong chase-some of the rangers without hats or caps, their hair flying about their ears; others with handkerchiefs tied round their heads. The buffaloes, which had been calmly ruminating among the herbage, heaved up their huge forms, gazed for a moment with astonishment at the tempest that came scouring down the meadow, then turned and took to heavy-rolling flight. They were soon overtaken; the mixed throng were pressed together by the sides of the valley, and away they went, pell-mell, hurry-scurry, wild buffalo, wild horse, wild huntsman, with clang and clatter, and whoop and halloo, that made the forests ring. At length the buffaloes turned into a green brake on the river bank, while the horses dashed up a narrow defile of the hills, with their pursuers close at their heels. Beatte passed several of them, having fixed his eye upon a fine Pawnee horse that had his ears slit, and saddle marks upon his back. He pressed him gallantly, but lost him in the woods. Among the wild horses was a fine black mare. In scrambling up the defile she tripped and fell. A young ranger sprang from his horse and seized her by the mane and muzzle. Another ranger dismounted and came to his assistance. The mare struggled fiercely, kicking and biting, and striking with her forefeet; but a noose was slipped over her head, and her struggles were in vain. It was some time, however, before she gave over rearing and plunging, and lashing out with her feet on every side. The two rangers then led her along the valley by two long lariats, which enabled them to keep at a sufficient distance on each side to be out of the reach of her hoofs; and whenever she struck out in one direction, she was jerked in the other. In this way her spirit was gradually subdued. As to little Tonish, who had marred the whole scene by his rashness, he had been more successful than he deserved, having managed to catch a beautiful cream-colored colt about seven months old, which had not strength to keep up with its companions. The little Frenchman was beside himself with joy. It was amusing to see him with his prize. The colt would rear and kick and struggle to get free, when Tonish would take him about the neck, wrestle with him, jump on his back, and cut as many antics as a monkey with a kitten. Nothing surprised me more, however, than to see how soon these poor animals, thus taken from the unbounded freedom of the prairie, yielded to the control of man. In the course of two or three days the mare and colt went with the led horses and became quite docile. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Historical Note. In 1832 Irving made "a tour of the prairies"--that is, of what was then the Far West, beyond the Mississippi, where, he says, "there is neither to be seen the log house of the white man, nor the wigwam of the Indian." Discussion. 1. What picture do the first three paragraphs give you? 2. Tell how "ringing the wild horse" is accomplished. 3. What preparations did Irving's party make for the hunt? 4. Who broke the rules of the chase? 5. What was the effect of this? 6. Tell all you can learn about Tonish, the little Frenchman. 7. What does Irving say about the ease with which the wild horses were tamed? 8. List the words that give ideas of thrilling action in the paragraph beginning, "The whole troop joined in the headlong chase." What words tell the difference between the buffaloes and the horses in flight? 9. Tell what you can about the author. 10. Class readings: Select the passages you like best. 11. Outline for testing silent reading. Tell the story in your own words, using the following topics: (a) the scene of action; (b) the method of approach; (c) the preparations; (d) the mistake of Tonish; (e) the excitement of the chase; (f) the two captures. 12. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: toilsome; gullies; diversified; circumference; prime; skirted; fugitives; brake; defile. 13. Pronounce: diminutive; ruminating; herbage; maneuver; kept; lariat; circuit; reappeared; rangers; handkerchiefs; rearing; marred. Phrases for Study swept down into a valley, wildfire Jack-o'-lantern, fringed with trees, thundering down the valley, happily arranged, hand of art, hotly pressed, council of war, scouring down the meadow, well mounted, heavy-rolling flight, if to windward, spirit was gradually subdued, approach the bounds, ever-officious Tonish, marred the whole scene, flanking parties, beside himself with joy, extending themselves, unbounded freedom, THE ADVENTURE OF THE MASON There was once upon a time a poor mason, or bricklayer, in Granada, who kept all the saints' days and holidays, and Saint Monday into the bargain, and yet with all his devotion he grew poorer and poorer and could scarcely earn bread for his numerous family. One night he was roused from his first sleep by a knocking at his door. He opened it and beheld before him a tall stranger. "Hark ye, honest friend!" said the stranger; "I have observed that you are a good Christian and one to be trusted. Will you undertake a job this very night?" "With all my heart, Senor, on condition that I am paid accordingly." "That you shall be; but you must suffer yourself to be blindfolded." To this the mason made no objection. So, being hoodwinked, he was led by the stranger through various rough lanes and winding passages until they stopped before the portal of a house. The stranger then applied a key, turned a creaking lock, and opened what sounded like a ponderous door. They entered; the door was closed and bolted, and the mason was conducted through an echoing corridor and a spacious hall to an interior part of the building. Here the bandage was removed from his eyes, and he found himself in a court dimly lighted by a single lamp. In the center was the dry basin of an old fountain, under which the stranger requested him to form a small vault, bricks and mortar being at hand for the purpose. He worked all night, but without finishing the job. Just before daybreak the stranger put a piece of gold into his hand, and having again blindfolded him, conducted him back to his dwelling. "Are you willing," said he, "to return and complete your work?" "Gladly, Senor, provided I am so well paid." "Well then, tomorrow at midnight I will call again." He did so, and the vault was completed. "Now," said the stranger, "you must help me to bring forth the bodies that are to be buried in this vault." The poor mason's hair rose on his head at these words; he followed the stranger with trembling steps into a retired chamber of the mansion, expecting to behold some ghastly spectacle of death, but was relieved on seeing three or four jars standing in one corner. They were full of money, and it was with great labor that he and the stranger carried them forth and consigned them to their tomb. The vault was then closed, the pavement replaced, and all traces of the work were obliterated. The mason was again hoodwinked and led forth by a route different from that by which he had come. After they had wandered for a long time through a maze of lanes and alleys, they halted. The stranger then put two pieces of gold into his hand. "Wait here," said he, "until you hear the cathedral bell toll. If you uncover your eyes before that time, evil will befall you." So saying, he departed. The mason waited faithfully, amusing himself by weighing the gold pieces in his hand and clinking them against each other. The moment the cathedral bell rang its peals he uncovered his eyes and found himself on the banks of the Xenil; whence he made the best of his way home and reveled with his family for a whole fortnight on the profits of his two nights' work; after which he was as poor as ever. He continued to work a little and pray a good deal and keep saints' days and holidays from year to year, while his family grew up gaunt and ragged as a crew of gypsies. As he was seated one evening at the door of his hovel, he was accosted by a rich old curmudgeon who was noted for owning many houses and being a griping landlord. The man of money eyed him for a moment from beneath a pair of anxious, shaggy eyes. "I am told, friend, that you are very poor." "There is no denying the fact, Senor--it speaks for itself." "I presume then that you will be glad of a job and will work cheap?" "As cheap, my master, as any mason in Granada." "That's what I want. I have an old house fallen into decay, which costs me more money than it is worth to keep in repair, for nobody will live in it. So I must patch it up and keep it together at as small expense as possible." The mason was accordingly conducted to a large deserted house that seemed going to ruin. Passing through several empty halls and chambers, he entered an inner court, where his eye was caught by an old fountain. He paused for a moment, for a dreamy recollection of the place came over him. "Pray," said he, "who occupied this house formerly?" "A pest upon him!" cried the landlord; "it was an old miserly fellow who cared for nobody but himself. He was said to be immensely rich. He died suddenly, and nothing could they find but a few ducats in a leathern purse. The worst luck has fallen on me, for since his death the old fellow continues to occupy my house without paying rent. The people pretend to hear the clinking of gold all night in the chamber where the old fellow slept, as if he were counting over his money, and sometimes a groaning and moaning about the court. Whether true or false, these stories have brought a bad name on my house, and not a tenant will remain in it." "Enough," said the mason sturdily; "let me live in your house rent-free until some better tenant appears, and I will put it in repair and quiet the troubled spirit that disturbs it. I am a good Christian and a poor man and am not to be daunted by the Devil himself, even though he should come in the shape of a big bag of money!" The offer of the mason was gladly accepted. He moved with his family into the house, and fulfilled all of his engagements. By little and little he restored it to its former state; the clinking of gold was no more heard at night in the chamber of the defunct tenant, but began to be heard by day in the pocket of the living mason. In a word, he increased rapidly in wealth, to the admiration of all his neighbors, and became one of the richest men in Granada. He gave large sums to the Church--by way, no doubt, of satisfying his conscience--and never revealed the secret of the vault until on his deathbed to his son and heir. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Discussion. 1. What condition led the mason to undertake the stranger's task? 2. Why was the mason blindfolded? 3. How long did it take him to complete the vault? 4. What was buried in it? 5. How did the mason find his way home? 6. Was the mason's poverty relieved by the pay he received from the stranger? 7. What work did the grasping landlord propose to the mason? 8. What stories had brought a bad name upon the landlord's house? 9. What was the "dreamy recollection"? 10. How did the mason show his quick wit? 11. Why did he say that he was not afraid of the Devil in the shape of a bag of money? 12. What differences do you notice between this story of how the mason came upon great wealth and the stories of Aladdin and Ali Baba? 13. Read again pages 289-291 and tell what makes Irving a real author. Can you tell why you enjoyed this story? 14. Class reading: The second part of the story, page 318, line 20, to the end. 15. Outline for testing silent reading. Tell the story in your own words, using the following topics: (a) how the mason built the vault in the mysterious house; (b) how he unexpectedly came into possession of this vault many years later. 16. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: hoodwinked; vault; maze; cathedral; pest; ducat. 17. Pronounce: Granada; Senor; ponderous; ghastly; obliterated; route; gaunt; hovel; curmudgeon; daunted. Phrases for Study retired chamber, troubled spirit, ghastly spectacle, former state, crew of gypsies, defunct tenant, griping landlord, by way of satisfying. HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807-1882) was a native of Maine and a graduate of Bowdoin College, in the same class with Nathaniel Hawthorne. Longfellow came of early New England ancestry, his mother being a daughter of General Wadsworth of the Revolutionary War. After his graduation from college he spent several years abroad and upon his return to America held professorships first in Bowdoin and later in Harvard College. When he moved to Cambridge and began his active work at Harvard, he took up his residence in the historic Craigie House, overlooking the Charles River-a house in which Washington had been quartered for some months when in 1775 he took command of the Continental army. Longfellow is the poet who has spoken most sincerely and sympathetically to the hearts of the common people and to children. His style is notable for its simplicity and grace. His Hiawatha is a national poem that records the picturesque traditions of the American Indian. Its charm and melody are the delight of all children, and in years to come, when the race which it describes has utterly disappeared, we shall value at even higher state; the clinking of gold was no more heard at night in the chamber of the defunct tenant, but began to be heard by day in the pocket of the living mason. In a word, he increased rapidly in wealth, to the admiration of all his neighbors, and became one of the richest men in Granada. He gave large sums to the Church--by way, no doubt, of satisfying his conscience--and never revealed the secret of the vault until on his deathbed to his son and heir. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Discussion. 1. What condition led the mason to undertake the stranger's task? 2. Why was the mason blindfolded? 3. How long did it take him to complete the vault? 4. What was buried in it? 5. How did the mason find his way home? 6. Was the mason's poverty relieved by the pay he received from the stranger? 7. What work did the grasping landlord propose to the mason? 8. What stories had brought a bad name upon the landlord's house? 9. What was the "dreamy recollection"? 10. How did the mason show his quick wit? 11. Why did he say that he was not afraid of the Devil in the shape of a bag of money? 12. What differences do you notice between this story of how the mason came upon great wealth and the stories of Aladdin and Ali Baba? 13. Read again pages 289-291 and tell what makes Irving a real author. Can you tell why you enjoyed this story? 14. Class reading: The second part of the story, page 318, line 20, to the end. 15. Outline for testing silent reading. Tell the story in your own words, using the following topics: (a) how the mason built the vault in the mysterious house; (b) how he unexpectedly came into possession of this vault many years later. 16. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: hoodwinked; vault; maze; cathedral; pest; ducat. 17. Pronounce: Granada; Senor; ponderous; ghastly; obliterated; route; gaunt; hovel; curmudgeon; daunted. Phrases for Study retired chamber, troubled spirit, ghastly spectacle, former state, crew of gypsies, defunct tenant, griping landlord, by way of satisfying. HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807-1882) was a native of Maine and a graduate of Bowdoin College, in the same class with Nathaniel Hawthorne. Longfellow came of early New England ancestry, his mother being a daughter of General Wadsworth of the Revolutionary War. After his graduation from college he spent several years abroad and upon his return to America held professorships first in Bowdoin and later in Harvard College. When he moved to Cambridge and began his active work at Harvard, he took up his residence in the historic Craigie House, overlooking the Charles River-a house in which Washington had been quartered for some months when in 1775 he took command of the Continental army. Longfellow is the poet who has spoken most sincerely and sympathetically to the hearts of the common people and to children. His style is notable for its simplicity and grace. His Hiawatha is a national poem that records the picturesque traditions of the American Indian. Its charm and melody are the delight of all children, and in years to come, when the race which it describes has utterly disappeared, we shall value at even higher worth these stories of the romantic past of America and of the brave people who inhabited these mountains and plains before the white man came. Besides Indian stories, Longfellow wrote many narratives in verse dealing with old legends of America. "The Skeleton in Armor" is an example of the legends about European explorers who came here before the days of Columbus. Evangehne and The Courtship of Miles Standish are longer poems which find their subjects in early colonial history. He wrote also of legends of Europe, and was well acquainted with stories and romances of older civilizations than ours. Equally well-known poems, of a different type, are those in which household joys and sorrows give the theme. Longfellow is the poet of the home-life, of simple hopes, of true religious faith. His spirit was the Spirit of a child, affectionate, loyal, eager for romance and knightly adventure. He is the "Children's Poet," as the poem "The Children's Hour" helps to show. There were sorrows as well as joys in his life, and this is why we go to him in trouble and why so many people know his poems by heart. Sorrow never took away his faith or made him bitter. He is genial and kindly, the friend--of all Americans everywhere. THE ARROW AND THE SONG I shot an arrow into the air; It Fell to earth, I knew not where; For, so swiftly it flew, the sight Could not follow it in its flight. I breathed a Song into the air; It fell to earth, I knew not where; For who has sight so keen and strong That it can follow the flight of Song? Long, long afterwards, in an oak I found the arrow, still unbroke; And the song, from beginning to end, I found again in the heart of a friend. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Discussion: 1. What became of the arrow? Of the song? 2. Where was the arrow found? When? 3. Where was the Song found? 4. Point out lines that rime. 5. What is Longfellow's purpose in this poem? 6. Why is the poet's song compared to the flight of an arrow? 7. A poet once said, "Let me make the Songs of a nation, and I care not who makes the laws." What did he mean? 8. What was the Song doing "in the heart of a friend"? Phrases for Study breathed a song, flight of Song. THE CHILDREN'S HOUR Between the dark and the daylight, When the night is beginning to lower, Comes a pause in the day's occupations, That is known as the Children's Hour. I hear in the chamber above me The patter of little feet, The Sound of a door that is opened, And voices soft and sweet. From my study I See in the lamplight, Descending the broad hall stair, Grave Alice, and laughing Allegra. And Edith with golden hair. A whisper, and then a silence; Yet I know by their merry eyes They are plotting and planning together To take me by surprise. A sudden rush from the stairway, A sudden raid from the hall! By three doors left unguarded They enter my castle wall! They climb up into my turret O'er the arms and back of my chair; If I try to escape, they surround me; They seem to be everywhere. They almost devour me with kisses; Their arms about me entwine; Till I think of the Bishop of Bingen In his Mouse-Tower on the Rhine! Do you think, O blue-eyed banditti, Because you have scaled the wall, Such an old mustache as I am Is not a match for you all? I have you fast in my fortress, And will not let you depart, gut put you down into the dungeon in the round-tower of my heart. And there will I keep you forever, Yes, forever and a day, Till the walls shall crumble to ruin, And molder in dust away! NOTES AND QUESTIONS Discussion. 1. What is the time "Between the dark and the daylight" usually called? 2. What do you suppose Longfellow had been doing in his study before the children came down to him? 3. What reasons can you give for the "pause in the day's occupations"? 4. Who were the children whom the poet saw "Descending the broad hall stair" to enter his "castle wall"? 5. What were these children whispering about? 6. What does Longfellow mean by his "turret"? 7. To what does he compare the rush made by the children? 8. What wall did they scale in order to reach him? 9. Where does Longfellow say he will put the children now that he has captured them? 10. Which stanza of this poem do you like best? 11. Tell what you know about the life of Longfellow. 12. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: raid; match. 13. Pronounce: lower; banditti; dungeon. Phrases for Study Bishop of Bingen, round-tower of my heart, scaled the wall, forever and a day, such an old mustache, molder in dust away, fast in my fortress. THE SONG OF HIAWATHA INTRODUCTION Should you ask me, whence these stories, Whence these legends and traditions, With the odors of the forest, With the dew and damp of meadows, With the curling smoke of wigwams, With the rushing of great rivers, With their frequent repetitions, And their wild reverberations, As of thunder in the mountains. I should answer, I should tell you: "From the forests and the prairies, From the great lakes of the Northland, From the land of the Ojibways, From the land of the Dacotahs, From the mountains, moors, and fenlands, Where the heron, the Shuh-shuh-gah, Feeds among the reeds and rushes. I repeat them as I heard them From the lips Of Nawadaha The musician, the sweet singer." Should you ask where Nawadaha Found these songs, so wild and wayward, Found these legends and traditions, I should answer, I should tell you: "In the birds'-nests of the forests, In the lodges of the beaver, In the hoof-prints of the bison, In the aerie of the eagle!" If still further you should ask me, Saying, "Who was Nawadaha? Tell us of this Nawadaha," I should answer your inquiries Straightway in such words as follow: "In the Vale of Tawasentha, In the green and silent valley, By the pleasant water-courses. Dwelt the singer Nawadaha. Round about the Indian village Spread the meadows and the cornfields, And beyond them stood the forest, Stood the groves of singing pine-trees, Green in summer, white in winter, Ever sighing, ever singing. "There he sang of Hiawatha, Sang the Song of Hiawatha, Sang his wondrous birth and being, How he prayed and how he fasted, How he lived, and toiled, and suffered, That the tribes of men might prosper, That he might advance his people!" Ye who love the haunts of Nature, Love the sunshine of the meadow, Love the shadow of the forest, Love the wind among the branches, And the rain-shower and the snowstorm, And the rushing of great rivers Through their palisades of pine-trees, And the thunder in the mountains, Listen to this Indian Legend, To this Song of Hiawatha! Ye whose hearts are fresh and simple, Who have faith in God and Nature, Listen to this simple story, To this Song of Hiawatha! NOTES AND QUESTIONS You have now begun to read parts of a long poem about Indian life and tradition. The Indians, like all other races of men, have such songs. Longfellow studied the Indian legends and put them into English verse so that all of us may enjoy them. Such a poem, which is really a collection of ballads or songs about heroes and about the beliefs and superstitions of a race, is often called an epic. Notice that the poet tells you that these stories in verse have the odors of the forest, the curling smoke of wigwams; the rushing of great rivers, and the roar of mountain thunder. This means that such stories are very closely connected with the simple life of a simple people--there is much of their thought about Nature, much of their love of the land where they live. Next, notice that he got his knowledge of these songs from a "sweet singer," a minstrel. All simple tribes have had such singers, who went about from place to place telling in verse what the people wanted to hear. There were no books, both boys and girls learned their stories from older people, or from wandering singers. Next, you observe that the theme of the stories is the life of Hiawatha, their great hero. So the Greeks had stories about their hero Ulysses, the early English about Beowulf and King Arthur, the French about Roland. Every great race honors the memory of a hero who lived when the race was young. Many stories cluster about the name of this hero, and poets and minstrels love to sing, and the people to hear, about these great characters. Finally, notice at the end of the poet's Introduction, two things: First, Hiawatha lived and toiled and suffered that the tribes might prosper, that he might advance his people-thus an epic poem deals with the founding of a people or race. Second, you notice that there is much about God and Nature in the poem-the simple religious faith of the people. The hero, his deeds that helped his people, the religion of the tribes-these are the subjects. Find illustrations of these things as you read. Discussion. 1. Where did these stories come from? Read lines which tell. 2. Name the Great Lakes. 3. Who was Nawadaha? 4. What word tells the sound of the pine-trees? 5. Read five lines that tell what the singer sang of Hiawatha. 6. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: reverberations. 7. Pronounce: legends; wigwams; aerie. Phrases for Study singing pine-trees, advance his people, wondrous birth and being, haunts of Nature, tribes of men might prosper, palisades of pine-trees. HIAWATHA'S CHILDHOOD By the shores of Gitche Gumee, By the shining Big-Sea-Water, Stood the wigwam of Nokomis, Daughter of the Moon, Nokomis. Dark behind it rose the forest, Rose the black and gloomy pine-trees, Rose the firs with cones upon them; Bright before it beat the water, Beat the clear and sunny water, Beat the shining Big-Sea-Water. There the wrinkled, old Nokomis Nursed the little Hiawatha; Rocked him in his linden cradle, Bedded soft in moss and rushes, Safely bound with reindeer sinews; Stilled his fretful wail by saying, "Hush! The Naked Bear will get thee!" Lulled him into slumber, singing, "Ewa-yea! my little owlet! Who is this that lights the wigwam, With his great eyes lights the wigwam? Ewa-yea! my little owlet!" Many things Nokomis taught him Of the stars that shine in heaven; Showed the broad, white road in heaven, Pathway of the ghosts, the shadows, Running straight across the heavens, Crowded with the ghosts, the shadows. At the door on summer evenings Sat the little Hiawatha; Heard the whispering of the pine-trees, Heard the lapping of the water, Sounds of music, words of wonder; "Minne-wawa!" said the pine-trees, "Mudway-aushka! said the water. Saw the firefly, Wah-wah-taysee, Flitting through the dusk of evening, With the twinkle of its candle Lighting up the brakes and bushes; And he sang the song of children, Sang the song Nokomis taught him: "Wah-wah-taysee, little firefly, Little, flitting, white-fire insect, Little, dancing, white-fire creature, Light me with your little candle, Ere upon my bed I lay me, Ere in sleep I close my eyelids!" Saw the moon rise from the water Rippling, rounding from the water; Saw the flecks and shadows on it; Whispered, "What is that, Nokomis?" And the good Nokomis answered "Once a warrior, very angry, Seized his grandmother, and threw her Up into the sky at midnight; Right against the moon he threw her; Tis her body that you see there." Saw the rainbow in the heaven, In the eastern sky, the rainbow; Whispered, "What is that, Nokomis?" And the good Nokomis answered: "'Tis the heaven of flowers you see there. All the wild-flowers of the forest, All the lilies of the prairie, When on earth they fade and perish, Blossom in that heaven above us." When he heard the owls at midnight, Hooting, laughing in the forest, "What is that?" he cried in terror; "What is that," he said, "Nokomis?" And the good Nokomis answered: "That is but the owl and owlet, Talking in their native language, Talking, scolding at each other." Then the little Hiawatha Learned of every bird its language, Learned their names and all their secrets-- How they built their nests in summer, Where they hid themselves in winter-- Talked with them whene'er he met them, Called them "Hiawatha's Chickens." Of all beasts he learned the language, Learned their names and all their secrets-- How the beavers built their lodges, Where the squirrels hid their acorns, How the reindeer ran so swiftly, Why the rabbit was so timid; Talked with them whene'er he met then, Called them "Hiawatha's Brothers." Then Iagoo, the great boaster, He the marvelous story-teller, He the traveler and the talker, He the friend of old Nokomis, Made a bow for Hiawatha; From a branch of ash he made it, From an oak-bough made the arrows. Tipped with flint, and winged with feathers, And the cord he made of deerskin. Then he said to Hiawatha: "Go, my son, into the forest, Where the red deer herd together; Kill for us a famous roebuck, Kill for us a deer with antlers!" Forth into the forest straightway All alone walked Hiawatha Proudly, with his bow and arrows; And the birds sang round him, o'er him, "Do not shoot us, Hiawatha!", Sang the robin, the Opechee, Sang the bluebird, the Owaissa, "Do not shoot us, Hiawatha!" Up the oak-tree, close beside him, Sprang the squirrel, Adjidaumo, In and out among the branches, Coughed and chattered from the oak-tree, Laughed, and said between his laughing; "Do not shoot-me, Hiawatha!" And the rabbit from his pathway Leaped aside, and at a distance Sat erect upon his haunches, Half in fear and half in frolic, Saying to the little hunter, "Do not shoot me, Hiawatha!" But he heeded not, nor heard them, For his thoughts were with the red deer; On their tracks his eyes were fastened, Leading downward to the river, To the ford across the river; And as one in slumber walked he. Hidden in the alder-bushes, There he waited till the deer came, Till he saw two antlers lifted, Saw two eyes look from the thicket, Saw two nostrils point to windward, And a deer came down the pathway, Flecked with leafy light and shadow. His heart within him fluttered, Trembled like the leaves above him, Like the birch-leaf palpitated, As the deer came down the pathway. Then, upon one knee uprising, Hiawatha aimed an arrow; Scarce a twig moved with his motion, Scarce a leaf was stirred or rustled, But the wary roebuck started, Stamped with all his hoofs together, Listened with one foot uplifted, Leaped as if to meet the arrow, Ah! the singing, fatal arrow; Like a wasp it buzzed and stung him! Dead he lay there in the forest, By the ford across the river; Beat his timid heart no longer. But the heart of Hiawatha Throbbed and shouted and exulted, As he bore the red deer homeward; And WOO and Nokomis coming with applauses. From the red deer's hide Nokomis Made a cloak for Hiawatha; From the red deer's flesh Nokomis Made a banquet in his honor. All the village came and feasted; All the guests praised Hiawatha, Called him Strong-Heart, Soan-ge-taha! Called him Loon-Heart, Mahn-go-taysee! NOTES AND QUESTIONS Discussion. 1. What body of water is called Gitche Gumee? 2. Where did the wigwam of Nokomis stand? 3. What is meant by the "beat" of the water? 4. Why does Longfellow call the pine trees "black and gloomy"? 5. Who was Nokomis? 6. Why did she call Hiawatha "my little owlet"? 7. What do we call the "broad, white road in heaven"? 8. What word tells the so sound of the water? 9. Read lines that tell what Hiawatha learned of the birds and the beasts. 10. Of what was Hiawatha's bow made? His arrows? The cord? 11. Why was a tip of flint used on the arrows? 12. What is meant by "the ford across the river"? 13. Read lines which tell that Hiawatha was excited when hunting. 14. Find in the Glossary the meaning of linden; frolic; postrils. 15. Pronounce: moss; sinews; warrior; haunches; alder; palpitated; exulted. Phrases for Study twinkle of its candle, famous roebuck, native language, point to windward, tipped with flint, flecked with leafy light, winged with feathers, hailed his coming. HIAWATHA'S FRIENDS Two good friends had Hiawatha, Singled out from all the others, Bound to him in closest union, And to whom he gave the right hand Of his heart, in joy and sorrow: Chibiabos, the musician, And the very strong man, Kwasind. Most beloved by Hiawatha Was the gentle Chibiabos, We the best of all musicians, He the sweetest of all singers. Beautiful and childlike was he, Brave as man is, soft as woman, Pliant as a wand of willow, Stately as a deer with antlers. When he sang, the village listened; All the warriors gathered round him, All the women came to hear him; Now he stirred their souls to passion, Now he melted them to pity. From the hollow reeds he fashioned Flutes so musical and mellow That the brook, the Sebowisha, Ceased to murmur in the woodland, That the wood-birds ceased from singing, And the squirrel, Adjidaumo, Ceased his chatter in the oak-tree, Ceased his chatter in the oak-tree, And the rabbit, the Wabasso, Sat upright to look and listen. Yes, the brook, the Sebowisha, Pausing, said, "O Chibiabos, Teach my waves to flow in music, Softly as your words in singing!" Yes, the bluebird, the Owaissa, Envious, said, "O Chibiabos, Teach me tones as wild and wayward, Teach me songs as full of frenzy!" Yes, the robin, the Opechee, Joyous, said, "O Chibiabos, Teach me tunes as sweet and tender, Teach me songs as full of gladness!" And the whippoorwill, Wawonaissa, Sobbing, said, "O Chibiabos, Teach me tones as melancholy, Teach me songs as full of sadness!" All the many sounds of nature Borrowed sweetness from his singing; All the hearts of men were softened By the pathos of his music; For he sang of peace and freedom, Sang of beauty, love, and longing; Sang of death, and life undying In the Islands of the Blessed, In the kingdom of Pond, In the land of the Hereafter. Very dear to Hiawatha Was the gentle Chibiabos. He the best of all musicians, He the sweetest of all singers; For his gentleness he loved him, And the magic of his singing. Dear, too, unto Hiawatha Was the very strong man, Kwasind, He the strongest of all mortals, He the mightiest among many; For his very strength he loved him, For his strength allied to goodness. Idle in his youth was Kwasind, Very listless, dull, and dreamy, Never played with other children, Never fished and never hunted; Not like other children was he. "Lazy Kwasind!" said his mother, "In my work you never help me! In the summer you are roaming Idly in the fields and forests; In the winter you are cowering O'er the firebrands in the wigwam! In the coldest days of winter I must break the ice for fishing; With my nets you never help me! At the door--my nets are hanging, Dripping, freezing with the water; Go and wring them, Yenadizze! Go and dry them in the sunshine!" Slowly, from the ashes, Kwasind Rose, but made no angry answer; From the lodge went forth in silence, Took the nets, that hung together, Dripping, freezing at the doorway; Like a wisp of straw he wrung them, Like a wisp of straw he broke them, Could not wring them without breaking, Such the strength was in his fingers. "Lazy Kwasind!" said his father, "In the hunt you never help me; Every bow you touch is broken, Snapped asunder every arrow; Yet come with me to the forest, You shall bring the hunting homeward." Down a narrow pass they wandered, Where a brooklet led them onward, Where the trail of deer and bison Marked the soft mud on the margin, Till they found all further passage Shut against them, barred securely By the trunks of trees uprooted, Lying lengthwise, lying crosswise, And forbidding further passage. "We must go back," said the old man; "O'er these logs we cannot clamber; Not a woodchuck could get through them, Not a squirrel clamber o'er them!" And straightway his pipe he lighted, And sat down to smoke and ponder. But before his pipe was finished, Lo! the path was cleared before him; All the trunks had Kwasind lifted; To the right hand, to the left hand, Shot the pine-trees swift as arrows; Hurled the cedars light as lances. "Lazy Kwasind!" said the young men, As they sported in the meadow; "Why stand idly looking at us, Leaning on the rock behind you? Come and wrestle with the others; Let us pitch the quoit together!" Lazy Kwasind made no answer, To their challenge made no answer, Only rose, and, slowly turning, Seized the huge rock in his fingers, Tore it from its deep foundation, Poised it in the air a moment, Pitched it sheer into the river, Sheer into the swift Pauwating, Where it still is seen in summer. Once as down that foaming river, Down the rapids of Pauwating, Kwasind sailed with his companions, In the stream he saw a beaver, Saw Ahmeek, the King of Beavers, Struggling with the rushing currents, Rising, sinking in the water. Without speaking, without pausing, Kwasind leaped into the river, Plunged beneath the bubbling surface, Through the whirlpools chased the beaver, Followed him among the islands, Stayed so long beneath the water That his terrified companions Cried, "Alas! good-by to Kwasind! We shall never more see Kwasind!" But he reappeared triumphant, And upon his shining shoulders Brought the beaver, dead and dripping, Brought the King of all the Beavers. And these two, as I have told you, Were the friends of Hiawatha, Chibiabos, the musician, And the very strong man, Kwasind; Long they lived in peace together, Spake with naked hearts together, Pondering much and much contriving How the tribes of men might prosper. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Discussion. 1. What two friends had Hiawatha "Singled out from all the others"? 2. What were they "contriving"? 3. Read lines that tell of Chibiabos. 4. With what is he compared? Read lines that tell. 5. From what did he make his flutes? 6. Read lines that tell how musical they were. 7. What did the brook say to Chibiabos? The bluebird? The robin? 8. Of what did Chibiabos sing? 9. Why did Hiawatha love him more than all others? 10. For what did Hiawatha love Kwasind? 11. What did Kwasind's mother say to him? His father? 12. What is meant by the line, "Every bow you touch is broken"? 13. Read lines that tell of Kwasind and the beaver. 14. Which of Hiawatha's two friends do you like the better? Why? 15. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: reeds; frenzy; listless; cowering; clamber; ponder; sported. 16. Pronounce: pliant; wand; pathos; allied; asunder; quoit; triumphant. Phrases for Study singled out, strength allied to goodness, bound to him, bring the hunting homeward, pliant as a wand, stirred their souls to passion, forbidding further passage, poised it in the air, melted them to pity, sheer into the river, fashioned flutes, shining shoulders, flow in music, spake with naked hearts, Islands of the Blessed, pondering much, magic of his singing, much contriving. HIAWATHA'S SAILING "Give me of your bark, O Birch-Tree! Of your yellow bark, O Birch Tree! Growing by the rushing river, Tall and stately in the valley! I a light canoe will build me, Build a swift Cheemaun for sailing, That shall float upon the river, Like a yellow leaf in autumn, Like a yellow water-lily! "Lay aside your cloak, O Birch-Tree! Lay aside your white-skin wrapper, For the summer-time is coming, And the sun is warm in heaven, And you need no white-skin wrapper!" Thus aloud cried Hiawatha. And the tree with all its branches Rustled in the breeze of morning, Saying, with a sigh of patience, "Take my cloak, O Hiawatha!" With his knife the tree he girdled, Just beneath its lowest branches; Just above the roots he cut it, Till the sap came oozing outward; Down the trunk, from top to bottom, Sheer he cleft the bark asunder; With a wooden wedge he raised it, Stripped it from the trunk unbroken. "Give me of your boughs, O Cedar! Of your strong and pliant branches, My canoe to make more steady, Make more strong and firm beneath me!" Through the summit of the Cedar Went a sound, a cry of horror, Went a murmur of resistance; But it whispered, bending downward, "Take my boughs, O Hiawatha!" Down he hewed the boughs of cedar, Shaped them straightway to a framework; Like two bows he formed and shaped them, Like two bended bows together. "Give me of your roots, O Tamarack! Of your fibrous roots, O Larch-Tree! My canoe to bind together, So to bind the ends together That the water may not enter, That the river may not wet me!" And the Larch, with all its fibers, Shivered in the air of morning, Touched his forehead with its tassels, Said, with one long sigh of sorrow, "Take them all, O Hiawatha!" From the earth he tore the fibers, Tore the tough roots of the Larch-Tree, Closely sewed the bark together, Bound it closely to the framework. "Give me of your balm, O Fir-Tree! Of your balsam and your resin, So to close the seams together That the water may not enter, That the river may not wet me!" And the Fir-Tree, tall and somber, Sobbed through all its robes of darkness, Rattled like a shore with pebbles, Answered wailing, answered weeping, "Take my balm, 0 Hiawatha!" And he took the tears of balsam, Took the resin of the Fir-Tree, Smeared therewith each seam and fissure, Made each crevice safe from water. "Give me of your quills, O Hedgehog! All your quills, O Kagh, the Hedgehog! I will make a necklace of them, Make a girdle for my beauty, And two stars to deck her bosom!" From a hollow tree the hedgehog, With his sleepy eyes looked at him, Shot his shining quills, like arrows Saying, with a drowsy murmur, Through the tangle of his whiskers, "Take my quills, O Hiawatha!" From the ground the quills he gathered, All the little shining arrows; Stained them red and blue and yellow, With the juice of roots and berries; Into his canoe he wrought them, Round its waist a shining girdle, Round its bows a gleaming necklace, On its breast two stars resplendent. Thus the Birch-Canoe was builded In the valley, by the river, In the bosom of the forest; And the forest's life was in it-- All its mystery and its magic, All the lightness of the birch-tree, All the toughness of the cedar, All the larch's supple sinews; And it floated on the river Like a yellow leaf in autumn, Like a yellow water-lily. Paddles none had Hiawatha; Paddles none he had or needed, For his thoughts as paddles served him, And his wishes served to guide him; Swift or slow at will he glided, Veered to right or left at pleasure. Then he called aloud to Kwasind, To his friend, the strong man, Kwasind, Saying, "Help me clear this river Of its sunken logs and sandbars." Straight into the river Kwasind Plunged as if he were an otter, Dived as if he were a beaver, Stood up to his waist in water, To his armpits in the river, Swam and shouted in the river, Tugged at sunken logs and branches; With his hands he scooped the sandbars, With his feet the ooze and tangle. And thus sailed my Hiawatha Down the rushing Taquamenaw, Sailed through all its bends and windings, Sailed through all its deeps and shallows, While his friend, the strong man, Kwasind, Swam the deeps, the shallows waded. Up and down the river went they, In and out among its islands, Cleared its bed of root and sandbar, Dragged the dead trees from its channel, Made its passage safe and certain, Made a pathway for the people, From its springs among the mountains To the waters of Pauwating, To the bay of Taquamenaw. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Discussion. 1. Of what did Hiawatha make his canoe? 2. Why does Hiawatha call the bark of the birch-tree a cloak? 3. What other name does he give the bark of the birch-tree? 4. What word tells the sound made by the leaves of the birch-tree? 5. What word tells that Hiawatha cut all around the birch-tree? 6. Why did Hiawatha ask the cedar tree for its boughs? 7. Read lines that tell why he asked the larch-tree for its roots. S. What other name does he give the larch tree? 9. Why does Hiawatha call the drops of balsam "tears"? 10. Can the hedgehog really shoot his quills "like arrows"? 11. What is meant by "my beauty"? 12. Read lines that tell how Hiawatha decorated his canoe. 13. What did he use for paddles for the canoe? 14. What did Kwasind do to aid the canoeing? 15. Why is the fir-tree spoken of as "somber"? 16. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: stately; larch; channel. 17. Pronounce: horror; hewed; tamarack; fibrous; forehead; balm; balsam; resin; fissure; crevice; bosom; resplendent; supple; veered; swam. Phrases for Study white-skin wrapper, robes of darkness, oozing outward, deck her bosom, cleft the bark asunder, shot his shining quills, summit of the Cedar, wrought them, shaped them to a framework, forest's life was in it, ooze and tangle, close the seams together. HIAWATHA'S WOOING "As unto the bow the cord is, So unto the man is woman Though she bends him, she obeys him, Though she draws him, yet she follows-- Useless each without the other!" Thus the youthful Hiawatha Said within himself and pondered Much perplexed by various feelings-- Listless, longing, hoping, fearing, Dreaming still of Minnehaha, Of the lovely Laughing Water, In the Land of the Dacotahs. "Wed a maiden of your people," Warning said the old Nokomis; "Go not eastward, go not westward, For a stranger, whom we know not! Like a fire upon the hearthstone Is a neighbor's homely daughter; Like the starlight or the moonlight Is the handsomest of strangers!" Thus dissuading spake Nokomis, And my Hiawatha answered Only this: "Dear old Nokomis, Very pleasant is the firelight, But I like the starlight better, Better do I like the moonlight!" Gravely then said old Nokomis: "Bring not here an idle maiden, Bring not here a useless woman, Hands unskillful, feet unwilling; Bring a wife with nimble fingers, Heart and hand that move together, Feet that run on willing errands!" Smiling answered Hiawatha: "In the Land of the Dacotahs Lives the Arrow-maker's daughter, Minnehaha, Laughing Water, Handsomest of all the women. I will bring her to your wigwam; She shall run upon your errands, Be your starlight, moonlight, firelight, Be the sunlight of my people!" Still dissuading, said Nokomis: "Bring not to my lodge a stranger From the Land of the Dacotahs! Very fierce are the Dacotahs. Often is there war between us; There are feuds yet unforgotten, Wounds that ache and still may open!" Laughing answered Hiawatha: "For that reason, if no other, Would I wed the fair Dacotah, That our tribes might be united, That old feuds might be forgotten, And old wounds be healed forever!" Thus departed Hiawatha To the land of the Dacotahs, To the land of handsome women, Striding over moor and meadow, Through interminable forests, Through uninterrupted silence. With his moccasins of magic, At each stride a mile he measured; Yet the way seemed long before him, And his heart outran his footsteps; And he journeyed without resting, Till he heard the cataract's laughter, Heard the Falls of Minnehaha Calling to him through the silence. "Pleasant is the sound!" he murmured, "Pleasant is the voice that calls me!" On the outskirts of the forest, 'Twixt the shadow and the sunshine, Herds of fallow deer were feeding, But they saw not Hiawatha; To his bow he whispered, "Fail not!" To his arrow whispered, "Swerve not!" Sent it singing on its errand, To the red heart of the roebuck; Threw the deer across his shoulder And sped forward without pausing. At the doorway of his wigwam Sat the ancient Arrow-maker, In the land of the Dacotahs, Making arrow-heads of jasper, Arrow-heads of chalcedony. At his side, in all her beauty, Sat the lovely Minnehaha, Sat his daughter, Laughing Water, Plaiting mats of flags and rushes; Of the past the old man's thoughts were, And the maiden's of the future. He was thinking, as he sat there, Of the days when with such arrows He had struck the deer and bison, On the Muskoday, the meadow; Shot the wild goose, flying southward, On the wing, the clamorous Wawa; Thinking of the great war-parties, How they came to buy his arrows, Could not fight without his arrows. She was thinking of a hunter, From another tribe and country, Young and tall and very handsome, Who one morning, in the springtime, Came to buy her father's arrows, Sat and rested in the wigwam, Lingered long about the doorway, Looking back as he departed. She had heard her father praise him, Praise his courage and his wisdom; Would he come again for arrows To the Falls of Minnehaha? On the mat her hands lay idle, And her eyes were very dreamy. Through their thoughts they heard a footstep, Heard a rustling in the branches, And with glowing cheek and forehead, With the deer upon his shoulders, Suddenly from out the woodlands Hiawatha stood before them. Straight the ancient Arrow-maker Looked up gravely from his labor, Laid aside the unfinished arrow, Bade him enter at the doorway, Saying, as he rose to meet him, "Hiawatha, you are welcome!" At the feet of Laughing Water Hiawatha laid his burden, Threw the red deer from his shoulders; And the maiden looked up at him, Looked up from her mat of rushes, Said with gentle look and accent, "You are welcome, Hiawatha!" Very spacious was the wigwam, Made of deerskin dressed and whitened, With the gods of the Dacotahs Drawn and painted on its curtains; And so tall the doorway, hardly Hiawatha stooped to enter, Hardly touched his eagle-feathers As he entered at the doorway. Then up rose the Laughing Water; From the ground fair Minnehaha Laid aside her mat unfinished, Brought forth food and set before them, Water brought them from the brooklet, Gave them food in earthen vessels, Gave them drink in bowls of basswood, Listened while the guest was speaking, Listened while her father answered. But not once her lips she opened, Not a single word she uttered. Yes, as in a dream she listened To the words of Hiawatha, As he talked of old Nokomis, Who had nursed him in his childhood, As he told of his companions, Chibiabos, the musician, And the very strong man, Kwasind, And of happiness and plenty In the land of the Ojibways, In the pleasant land and peaceful. "After many years of warfare, Many years of strife and bloodshed, There is peace between the Ojibways And the tribe of the Dacotahs." Thus continued Hiawatha, And then added, speaking slowly, "That this peace may last forever, And our hands be clasped more closely, And our hearts be more united, Give me as my wife this maiden, Minnehaha, Laughing Water, Loveliest of Dacotah women!" And the ancient Arrow-maker Paused a moment ere he answered, Smoked a little while in silence, Looked at Hiawatha proudly, Fondly looked at Laughing Water, And made answer very gravely: "Yes, if Minnehaha wishes; Let your heart speak, Minnehaha!" And the lovely Laughing Water Seemed more lovely, as she stood there, Neither willing nor reluctant, As she went to Hiawatha, Softly took the seat beside him, While she said, and blushed to say it, "I will follow you, my husband!" This was Hiawatha's wooing! Thus it was he won the daughter Of the ancient Arrow-maker, In the land of the Dacotahs! From the wigwam he departed, Leading with him Laughing Water; Hand in hand they went together, Through the woodland and the meadow, Left the old man standing lonely At the doorway of his wigwam, Heard the Falls of Minnehaha Calling to them from the distance, Crying to them from afar off, "Fare thee well, O Minnehaha!" And the ancient Arrow-maker Turned again unto his labor, Sat down by his sunny doorway, Murmuring to himself, and saying: "Thus it is our daughters leave us, Those we love, and those who love us! Just when they have learned to help us, When we are old and lean upon them, Comes a youth with flaunting feathers, With his flute of reeds, a stranger, Wanders piping through the village, Beckons to the fairest maiden, And she follows where he leads her, Leaving all things for the stranger!" Pleasant was the journey homeward, Through interminable forests, Over meadow, over mountain, Over river, hill, and hollow. Short it seemed to Hiawatha, Though they journeyed very slowly, Though his pace he checked and slackened To the steps of Laughing Water. Over wide and rushing rivers In his arms he bore the maiden; Light he thought her as a feather, As the plume upon his head-gear; Cleared the tangled pathway for her, Bent aside the swaying branches, Made at night a lodge of branches, And a bed with boughs of hemlock, And a fire before the doorway With the dry cones of the pine-tree. All the traveling winds went with them, O'er the meadow, through the forest; All the stars of night looked at them, Watched with sleepless eyes their slumber; From his ambush in the oak-tree Peeped the squirrel, Adjidaumo, Watched with eager eyes the lovers; And the rabbit, the Wabasso, Scampered from the path before them, Peering, peeping from his burrow, Sat erect upon his haunches, Watched with curious eyes the lovers. Pleasant was the journey homeward! All the birds sang loud and sweetly Songs of happiness and heart's-ease; Sang the bluebird, the Owaissa, "Happy are you, Hiawatha, Having such a wife to love you!" Sang the robin, the Opechee, "Happy are you; Laughing Water, Having such a noble husband!" From the sky the sun benignant Looked upon them through the branches, Saying to them, "O my children, Love is sunshine, hate is shadow; Life is checkered shade and sunshine; Rule by love, O Hiawatha!" From the sky the moon looked at them, Filled the lodge with mystic splendors, Whispered to them, "O my children, Day is restless, night is quiet, Man imperious, woman feeble; Half is mine, although I follow; Rule by patience, Laughing Water!" Thus it was they journeyed homeward; Thus it was that Hiawatha To the lodge of old Nokomis Brought the moonlight, starlight, firelight, Brought the sunshine of his people, Minnehaha, Laughing Water, Handsomest of all the women In the land of the Dacotahs, In the land of handsome women. NOTES AND QUESTIONS Discussion. 1. Why did Nokomis wish Hiawatha to wed a maiden of his own people? 2. Whom did Hiawatha say he would wed? 3. Find the Falls of Minnehaha on your map. 4. Read lines that tell of Hiawatha's journey "To the land of the Dacotahs." 5. Of what was the Arrow-maker thinking when Hiawatha appeared? 6. Read lines that tell of what the maiden was thinking. 7. Read the words of Hiawatha when he asked the father for his daughter. 8. In what words did the Arrow-maker give his consent? 9. What was Minnehaha's answer? 10. Read lines that tell of the journey homeward. 11. Why did Hiawatha "check" his pace on this journey? 12. What greeting did the bluebird give them? 13. What was the greeting of the robin? The sun? The moon? 14. Read the lines that you like best. 15. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: cord; nimble; moor; fallow; swerve; jasper; flags; rushes; basswood; flaunting. 16. Pronounce: dissuading; feuds; wounds; chalcedony; plaiting; bade; spacious; benignant; mystic; imperious. Phrases for Study feet unwilling, neither willing nor reluctant, yet unforgotten, interminable forests, wanders piping through the village, moccasins of magic, heart outran his footsteps, heart's-ease, cataract's laughter, sun benignant, deerskin dressed and whitened, hate is shadow, mystic splendors. THE WHITE-MAN'S FOOT From his wanderings far to eastward, From the regions of the morning, From the shining land of Wabun, Homeward now returned Iagoo, The great traveler, the great boaster, Full of new and strange adventures, Marvels many and many wonders. And the people of the village Listened to him as he told them Of his marvelous adventures; Laughing answered him in this wise: "Ugh, it is indeed Iagoo! No one else beholds such wonders!" He had seen, he said, a water Bigger than the Big-Sea-Water, Broader than the Gitche Gumee, Bitter so that none could drink it! At each other looked the warriors, Looked the women at each other, Smiled, and said, "it cannot be so! Kaw!" they said, "it cannot be so!" O'er it, said he, o'er this water Came a great canoe with pinions, A canoe with wings came flying, Bigger than a grove of pine-trees, Taller than the tallest tree-tops! And the old men and the women Looked and tittered at each other; "Kaw!" they said, "we don't believe it!" From its mouth, he said, to greet him, Came Waywassimo, the lightning, Came the thunder, Annemeekee! And the warriors and the women Laughed aloud at poor Iagoo; "Kaw!" they said, "what tales you tell us!" In it, said he, came a people, In the great canoe with pinions Came, he said, a hundred warriors; Painted white were all their faces, And with hair their chins were covered! And the warriors and the women Laughed and shouted in derision, Like the ravens on the tree-tops, Like the crows upon the hemlocks. "Kaw!" they said, "what lies you tell us. Do not think that we believe them!" Only Hiawatha laughed not, But he gravely spake and answered To their jeering and their jesting: "True is all Iagoo tells us; I have seen it in a vision, Seen the great canoe with pinions, Seen the people with white faces, Seen the coming of this bearded People of the wooden vessel From the regions of the morning, From the shining land of Wabun. Gitche Manito, the Mighty, The Great Spirit, the Creator, Sends them hither on his errand, Sends them to us with his message. Wheresoe'er they tread, beneath them Swarms the stinging fly, the Ahmo, Swarms the bee, the honey-maker;. Wheresoe'er they tread, beneath them Springs a flower unknown among us, Springs the White-man's foot in blossom. "Let us welcome, then, the strangers, Hail them as our friends and brothers, And the heart's right hand of friendship Give them when they come to see us. Gitche Manito, the Mighty, Said this to me in my vision. "I beheld, too, in that vision, All the secrets of the future, Of the distant days that shall be. I beheld the westward marches Of the unknown, crowded nations. All the land was full of people, Restless, struggling, toiling, striving, Speaking many tongues, yet feeling But one heart-beat in their bosoms. In the woodlands rang their axes, Smoked their towns in all the valleys, Over all the lakes and rivers Rushed their great canoes of thunder. "Then a darker, drearier vision Passed before me, vague and cloud-like. I beheld our nations scattered, All forgetful of my counsels, Weakened, warring with each other; Saw the remnants of our people Sweeping westward, wild and woeful, Like the cloud-rack of a tempest, Like the withered leaves of autumn!" NOTES AND QUESTIONS Discussion. 1. Read lines that tell Iagoo's story of adventures. 2. Where do you think he had seen these things? 3. What was the "bitter" water Iagoo told about? 4. What were the "lightning" and the "thunder" that came from the "canoe with pinions"? 5. Why was his story laughed at as false by the Indians? 6. How did Hiawatha know it was all true? 7. How did Hiawatha say they should receive the White Man when he came? 8. What secrets came to Hiawatha in the vision? 9. What "darker vision" did he see? 10. Has Hiawatha's vision come true? 11. What do you think of Hiawatha's character? 12. Which of all the stories in this poem do you like best? 13. Give the reason for your answer. 14. You no doubt enjoyed reading this poem; can you tell why? 15. Read "A Forward Look," and tell why you think Longfellow was a real author. 16. You will enjoy reading Eastman's Indian Legends Retold. 17. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: tittered; hither; counsels. 18. Pronounce: pinions; derision; vision; regions; vague; warring. Phrases for Study regions of the morning, distant days that shall be, shining land of Wabun, unknown, crowded nations, canoe with pinions, feeling but one heart-beat, painted white, sweeping westward, heart's right hand of friendship, cloud-rack of a tempest. NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864), a native of Salem, Massachusetts, had the distinction of being born on the Fourth of July. He was graduated from Bowdoin College in the class with Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. When a mere boy, Nathaniel was crippled by an accident in playing ball. This led him to a life of quiet and to the companionship of books. His vivid imagination made him fond of inventing stories for the entertainment of his friends. When he began to think of a career it was quite natural that he should turn to literature, and that in looking about him for material he should-choose his subjects-as Irving did-from those stirring scenes of which he had an intimate, almost personal, knowledge many of them of his native town, Salem. Hawthorne pictured New England as Irving did New Amsterdam. He popularized New England history in the form of stories for children, one of which, Grandfather's Chair, contains "The Boston Tea Party." He wrote a book, The House of the Seven Gables, about the house in which he lived for many years. Soon after he wrote this tale, he wrote The Wonder-Book, a volume of stories about Greek gods and heroes, from which "The Paradise of Children" and "The Golden Touch" are taken. Perhaps the best known of all Hawthorne's works is the volume called Twice-Told Tales. In this book he collected a large number of legends about colonial life in New England and retold them in such a way as to give us one of the best pictures of early American life that we have. Some of them deal with actual events; others are based on legendary matter. But all of them do for early New England life what Longfellow's Hiawatha does for the Indian legends: they preserve the stories and also the spirit of early times. Like Longfellow, Hawthorne was a lover of romance and of the early history of our country. He w wrote in prose, not verse, but is prose is as careful and artistic as Longfellow's verse. THE PARADISE OF CHILDREN PANDORA AND THE GREAT BOX Long, long ago, when this old world was in its tender infancy, there was a child named Epimetheus who never had either father or mother; and that he might not be lonely, another child, fatherless and motherless like himself, was sent from a far country to live with him and be his playfellow and helpmate. Her name was Pandora. The first thing that Pandora saw when she entered the cottage where Epimetheus dwelt was a great box. And almost the first question which she put to him, after crossing the threshold, was this: "Epimetheus, what have you in that box?" "My dear little Pandora," answered Epimetheus, "that is a secret, and you must be kind enough not to ask any questions about it. The box was left here to be kept safely, and I do not myself know what it contains." "But who gave it to you?" asked Pandora. "And where did it come from?" "That is a secret, too," replied Epimetheus. "How provoking!" exclaimed Pandora, pouting her lip. "I wish the great ugly box were out of the way!" "O come, don't think of it any more," cried Epimetheus. "Let us run out of doors, and have some nice play with the other children." It is thousands of years since Epimetheus and Pandora were alive; and the world nowadays is a very different sort of thing from what it was in their time. Then, everybody was a child. They needed no fathers and mothers to take care of the children; because there was no danger or trouble of any kind, and there were no clothes to be mended, and there was always plenty to eat and drink. Whenever a child wanted his dinner, he found it growing on a tree; and if he looked at the tree in the morning, he could see the blossom of that night's supper; or at eventide he saw the tender bud of tomorrow's breakfast. It was a very pleasant life indeed. No labor to be done, no tasks to s be studied; nothing but sports and dances and sweet voices of children talking, or caroling like birds, or gushing out in merry laughter, throughout the livelong day. What was most wonderful of all, the children never quarreled among themselves; neither had they any crying fits; nor since time first began had a single one of these little mortals ever gone apart into a corner and sulked. O what a good time was that to be alive in! The truth is, those ugly little winged monsters called Troubles, which are now almost as numerous as mosquitoes, had never yet been seen on the earth. It is probable that the very greatest disquietude which a child had ever felt was Pandora's vexation at not being able to discover the secret of the mysterious box. This was at first only the faint shadow of a Trouble; but every day it grew more and-more real, until before a great while the cottage of Epimetheus and Pandora was less sunshiny than those of the other children. "Whence can the box have come?" Pandora continually kept saying to herself and to Epimetheus. "And can be inside of it?" "Always talking about this box!" said Epimetheus at last; for he had grown extremely tired of the subject. "I wish, dear Pandora, you would try to talk of something else. Come, let us go and gather some ripe figs, and eat them under the trees for our supper. And I know a vine that has the sweetest and juiciest grapes you ever tasted." "Always talking about grapes and figs!" cried Pandora, pettishly. "Well, then," said Epimetheus, who was a very good-tempered child, like many children in those days, "let us run out and have a merry time with our playmates." "I am tired of merry times, and don't care if I never have any more!" answered our pettish little Pandora. "And, besides, I never do have any. This ugly box! I am so taken up with thinking about it all the time. I insist upon your telling me what is inside of it." "As I have already said fifty times over, I do not know!" replied Epimetheus, getting a little vexed. "How, then, can I tell you what is inside?" "You might open it," said Pandora, looking sideways at Epimetheus, "and then we could see for ourselves!" "Pandora, what are you thinking of?" exclaimed Epimetheus. And his face expressed so much horror at the idea of looking into a box which had been given to him on the condition of his never opening it, that Pandora thought it best not to suggest it any more. Still, however, she could not help thinking and talking about the box. "At least," said she, "you can tell me how it came here." "It was left at the door," replied Epimetheus, "just before you came, by a person who looked very smiling and intelligent, and who could hardly forbear laughing as he put it down. He was dressed in an odd kind of cloak, and had on a cap that seemed to be made partly of feathers, so that it looked almost as if it had wings." "What sort of staff had he?" asked Pandora. "Oh, the most curious staff you ever saw!" cried Epimetheus. "It was like two serpents twisting around a stick, and was carved so naturally that I at first thought the serpents were alive." "I know him," said Pandora thoughtfully. "Nobody else has such a staff. It was Quicksilver; and he brought me hither, as well as the box. No doubt he intended it for me; and most probably it contains pretty dresses for me to wear, or toys for you and me to play with, or something very 5 nice for us both to eat!" "Perhaps so," answered Epimetheus, turning away. "But, until Quicksilver comes back and tells us so, we have neither of us any right to lift the lid of the box." "What a dull boy he is!" muttered Pandora, as Epimetheus left the cottage. "I do wish he had a little more enterprise!" THE KNOT OF GOLDEN CORD For the first time since her arrival Epimetheus had gone out without asking Pandora to accompany him. He went to gather figs and grapes for himself, or to seek whatever amusement he could find in other society than his little playfellow's. He was tired to death of hearing about the box, and heartily wished that Quicksilver, or whatever was the messenger's name, had left it at some other child's door where Pandora would never have set eyes on it. So perseveringly as she did babble about this one thing! The box, the box, and nothing but the box! It seemed as if the box were bewitched, and as if the cottage were not big enough to hold it without Pandora's continually stumbling over it and making Epimetheus stumble over it likewise, and bruising all four of their shins. Well, it was really hard that poor Epimetheus should have a box in his ears from morning till night; especially as the little people of the earth were so unaccustomed to vexations in those happy days that they knew not how to deal with them. Thus a small vexation made as much disturbance then as a far bigger one would in our own times. After Epimetheus was gone, Pandora stood gazing at the box. She had called it ugly above a hundred times; but in spite of all that she had said against it, it was positively a very handsome article of furniture, and would have been quite an ornament to any room in which it should be placed. It was made of a beautiful kind of wood with dark and rich veins spreading over its surface, which was so highly polished that little Pandora could see her face in it. As the child had no other looking-glass, it is odd that she did not value the box merely on this account. The edges and corners of the box were carved with most wonderful skill. Around the margin there were figures of graceful men and women, and the prettiest children ever seen, reclining or sporting amid a profusion of flowers and foliage; and these various objects were so finely represented, and were wrought together in such harmony, that flowers, foliage, and human beings seemed to combine into a wreath of mingled beauty. But here and there, peeping forth from behind the carved foliage, Pandora once or twice fancied she saw a face not so lovely, or something or other that was disagreeable, and which stole the beauty out of all, the rest. Nevertheless, on looking more closely and touching the spot with her finger, she could discover nothing of the kind. Some face that was really beautiful had been made to look ugly by her catching a sideways glimpse at it. The most beautiful face of all was done in what is called high relief, in the center of the lid. There was nothing else save the dark, smooth richness of the polished wood, and this one face in the center, with a garland of flowers about its brow. Pandora had looked at this face a great many times, and imagined that the mouth could smile if it liked, or be grave when it chose, the same as any living mouth. The features, indeed, all wore a very lively and rather mischievous expression, which looked almost as if it needs must burst out of the carved lips and utter itself in words. Had the mouth spoken, it would probably have been something like this: "Do not be afraid, Pandora! What harm can there be in opening the box? Never mind that poor, simple Epimetheus! You are wiser than he, and have ten times as much spirit. Open the box, and see if you do not find something very pretty!" The box, I had almost forgotten to say, was fastened, not by a lock or by any other such contrivance, but by a very fine knot of gold cord. There appeared to be no end to this knot, and no beginning. Never was a knot so cunningly twisted, nor with so many ins and outs, which roguishly defied the skillfulest fingers to disentangle them. And yet, by the very difficulty that there was in it, Pandora was the more tempted to examine the knot, and just see how it was made. Two or three times already she had stooped over the box, and taken the knot between her thumb and forefinger, but without positively trying to undo it. "I really believe," said she to herself, that I begin to see how it was done. Nay, perhaps I could tie it up again after undoing it. There could be no harm in that, surely. Even Epimetheus would not blame me for that. I need not open the box, and should not, of course, without the foolish boy's consent, even if the knot were untied." It might have been better for Pandora if she had had a little work to do, or anything to employ her mind upon, so as not to be so constantly thinking of this one subject. But children led so easy a life before any Troubles came into the world that they find really a great deal too much leisure. They could not be forever playing at hide-and-seek among the flower-shrubs, or at blind-man's buff with garlands over their eyes, or at whatever other games has been found out while Mother Earth was in her babyhood. When life is all sport, toil is the real play. There was absolutely nothing to do. A little sweeping and dusting about the cottage, I suppose, and the gathering of fresh flowers (which were only too abundant everywhere), and arranging them in vases--and poor little Pandora's day's work was over. And then, for the rest of the day, there was the box! After all, I am not quite sure that the box was not a blessing to her in its way. It supplied her with so many ideas to think of, and to talk about, whenever she had anybody to listen! When she was in good humor, she could admire the bright polish of its sides and the rich border of beautiful faces and foliage that ran all around it. Or, if she chanced to be ill-tempered, she could give it a push, or kick it with her naughty little foot. And many a kick did the box (but it was a mischievous box, as we shall see, and deserved all it got) many a kick did it receive. But certain it is, if it had not been for the box, our active-minded little Pandora would not have known half so well how to spend her time as she now did. GUESSING WHAT WAS IN THE BOX For it was really an endless employment to guess what was inside. What could it be, indeed? Just imagine, my little hearers, how busy your wits would be if there were a great box in the house, which, as you might have reason to suppose, contained something new and pretty for your Christmas or New Year's gifts. Do you think that you should be less curious than Pandora? If you were left alone with the box, might you not feel a little tempted to lift the lid? But you would not do it. Oh, fie! No, no! Only, if you thought there were toys in it, it would be so very hard to let slip an opportunity of taking just one peep! I know not whether Pandora expected any toys; for none had yet begun to be made, probably, in those days, when the world itself was one great plaything for the children that dwelt upon it. But Pandora was convinced that there was something very beautiful and valuable in the box; and therefore she felt just as anxious to take a peep as any of these little girls here around me would have felt. And, possibly, a little more so; but of that I am not quite so certain. On this particular day, however, which we have so long been talking about, her curiosity grew so much greater than it usually was that at last she approached the box. She was more than half determined to open, it, if she could. Ah, naughty Pandora! First, however, she tried to lift it. It was heavy; much too heavy for the slender strength of a child like Pandora. She raised one end of the box a few inches from the floor, and let it fall again with a pretty loud thump. A moment afterwards she almost fancied that she heard something stir inside the box. She applied her ear as closely as possible and listened. Positively, there did seem to be a kind of stifled murmur within. Or was it merely the singing in Pandora's ear's. Or could it be the beating of her heart? The child could not quite satisfy herself whether she had heard anything or no. But, at all events, her curiosity was stronger than ever, As she drew back her head, her eyes fell upon the knot of gold cord. "It must have been a very ingenious person who tied this knot," said Pandora to herself. "But I think 1 could untie it, nevertheless. I am resolved, at least, to find the two ends of the cord." So she took the golden knot in her fingers and pried into it as sharply as she could. Almost without intending it, or quite knowing what she was about, she was soon busily engaged in attempting to undo it. Meanwhile, the bright sunshine came through the open window; as did likewise the merry voices of the children, playing at a distance, and perhaps the voice of Epimetheus among them. Pandora stopped to listen. What a beautiful day it was! Would it not be wise if she were to let the trouble some knot alone and think no more about the box, but run and join her little playfellows and be happy? All this time, however, her fingers were busy with the knot; and happening to glance at the face on the lid of the enchanted box, she seemed to see it slyly grinning at her. "That face looks very mischievous," thought Pandora. "I wonder whether it smiles because I am doing wrong! I have the greatest mind in the world to run away!" But just then, by the merest accident, she gave the knot a kind of twist, which produced a wonderful result. The gold cord united itself, as if by magic, arid left the box without a fastening. "This is the strangest thing I ever knew!" said Pandora. "What will Epimetheus say? And how can I possibly tie it up again?" She made one or two attempts to restore the knot, but soon found it quite beyond her skill. It had untied itself so suddenly that she could not in the least remember how the strings had been doubled onto one another; and when she tried to recollect the shape and appearance of the knot, it seemed to have gone entirely out of her mind. Nothing was to be done therefore, but to let the box remain as it was until Epimetheus should come in. "But," said Pandora, "when he finds the knot untied, he will know that I have done it. How shall I make him believe that I have not looked into the box?" And then the thought came into her naughty little heart, that, since she would be suspected of having looked into the box, she might just as well do so at once. O very naughty and very foolish Pandora! You should have thought only of doing what was right and of leaving undone what was wrong, and not of what your playfellow Epimetheus would have said or believed. And so perhaps she might if the enchanted face on the lid of the box had not looked so bewitchingly persuasive at her, and if she had not seemed to hear, more distinctly than before, the murmur of small voices within. She could not tell whether it was fancy or no; but there was quite a little tumult of whispers in her ear--or else it was her curiosity that whispered: "Let us out, dear Pandora--pray let us out! We will be such nice, pretty playfellows for you! Only let us out!" "What can it be?" thought Pandora, "Is there something alive in the box? Well!--yes!--I am resolved to take just one peep! Only one peep; and then lid shall be shut down as safely as ever. There cannot possibly be any harm in just one little peep!" HOW TROUBLES CAME INTO THE WORLD But it is now time for us to see what Epimetheus was doing. This was the first time since his little Playmate had come to dwell with him that he had attempted to enjoy any pleasure in which she did not partake. But nothing went right; nor was he nearly so happy as on other days. He could not find a sweat grape or a ripe fig (if Epimetheus had a fault, it was a little too much fondness for figs); or, if ripe at all, they were overripe, and so sweet as to be distasteful. There was no mirth in his heart, such as usually made his voice gush out, of Its own accord, and swell the merriment of his companions. In short, he grew so uneasy and discontented that other children could not imagine what was the matter with Epimetheus. Neither did he himself know what ailed him, any better then they did. For you must recollect that, at the time we are speaking of, it was everybody's nature and common habit to be happy. The world had not yet learned to be otherwise. Not a single soul or body, since these children were first sent to enjoy it themselves on the beautiful earth, had ever been sick or out-of-sorts. At length, discovering that, somehow or other, he put a stop to all the play, Epimetheus judged it best to go back to Pandora, who was in a humor better suited to his own. But, with a hope of giving her pleasure, he gathered flowers and made them into a wreath, which he meant to put upon her head. The flowers were very lovely--roses and lilies and orange-blossoms, and a great many more, which left a trail of fragrance behind, as Epimetheus carried them along, and wreath was put together with as much skill as could be expected of a boy. The fingers of little girls, it has always appeared to me, are the fittest to twine flower-wreaths; but boys could de it in those days rather better than they can now. And here I must mention that a great black cloud had been gathering in the sky for some time past, although it had not yet overspread the sun. But, just as Epimetheus reached the cottage-door, this cloud began to cut off the sunshine, and thus to make a sudden and sad darkness. He entered softly; for he meant, if possible, to steal behind Pandora and fling a wreath of flowers over her head before she should be aware of his approach. But, as it happened, there was no need of his treading so very lightly. He might have trod as heavily as he pleased, as heavily as a grown man--as heavily, I was going to say, as an elephant--without much probability of Pandora's hearing his footsteps. She was too intent upon her purpose. At the moment of this entering the cottage the naughty box, I had almost forgotten to say, was fastened, not by a lock or by any other such contrivance, but by a very fine knot of gold cord. There appeared to be no end to this knot, and no beginning. Never was a knot so cunningly twisted, nor with so many ins and outs, which roguishly defied the skillfulest fingers to disentangle them. And yet, by the very difficulty that there was in it, Pandora was the more tempted to examine the knot, and just see how it was made. Two or three times already she had stooped over the box, and taken the knot between her thumb and forefinger, but without positively trying to undo it. "I really believe," said she to herself, that I begin to see how it was done. Nay, perhaps I could tie it up again after undoing it. There could be no harm in that, surely. Even Epimetheus would not blame me for that. I need not open the box, and should not, of course, without the foolish boy's consent, even if the knot were untied." It might have been better for Pandora if she had had a little work to do, or anything to employ her mind upon, so as not to be so constantly thinking of this one subject. But children led so easy a life before any Troubles came into the world that they find really a great deal too much leisure. They could not be forever playing at hide-and-seek among the flower-shrubs, or at blind-man's buff with garlands over their eyes, or at whatever other games has been found out while Mother Earth was in her babyhood. When life is all sport, toil is the real play. There was absolutely nothing to do. A little sweeping and dusting about the cottage, I suppose, and the gathering of fresh flowers (which were only too abundant everywhere), and arranging them in vases--and poor little Pandora's day's work was over. And then, for the rest of the day, there was the box! After all. I am not quite sure that the box was not a blessing to her in its way. It supplied her with so many ideas to think of, and to talk about, whenever she had anybody to listen! When she was in good humor, she could admire the bright polish of its sides and the rich border of beautiful faces and foliage that ran all around it. Or, if she chanced to be ill-tempered, she could give it a push, or kick it with her naughty little foot. And many a kick did the box (but it was a mischievous box, as we shall see, and deserved all it got) many a kick did it receive. But certain it is, if it had not been for the box, our active-minded little Pandora would not have known half so well how to spend her time as she now did. GUESSING WHAT WAS IN THE BOX For it was really an endless employment to guess what was inside. What could it be, indeed? Just imagine, my little hearers, how busy your wits would be if there were a great box in the house, which, as you might have reason to suppose, contained something new and pretty for your Christmas or New Year's gifts. Do you think that you should be less curious than Pandora? If you were left alone with the box, might you not feel a little tempted to lift the lid? But you would not do it. Oh, fie! No, no! Only, if you thought there were toys in it, it would be so very hard to let slip an opportunity of taking just one peep! I know not whether Pandora expected any toys; for none had yet begun to be made, probably, in those days, when the world itself was one great plaything for the children that dwelt upon it. But Pandora was convinced that there was something very beautiful and valuable in the box; and therefore she felt just as anxious to take a peep as any of these little girls here around me would have felt. For it was impossible, as you will easily guess, that the two children should keep the ugly swarm in their own little cottage. On the contrary, the first thing that they did was to fling open the doors and windows in hope of getting rid of them; and, sure enough, away flew the winged Troubles all abroad, and so pestered and tormented the small people, everywhere about, that none of them so much as smiled for many days afterwards. And, what was very singular, all the flowers and dewy blossoms on earth, not one of which had hitherto faded, now began to droop and shed their leaves, after a day or two. The children, moreover, who before seemed immortal in their childhood, now grew older, day by day, and came soon to be youths and maidens, and men and women by-and-by, and aged people, before they dreamed of such a thing. WHAT HOPE DOES FOR US Meanwhile, the naughty Pandora and hardly less naughty Epimetheus remained in their cottage. Both of them had been grievously stung, and were in a good deal of pain, which, seemed the more adorable intolerable to them, because it was the very first pain that had ever been felt since the world began. Of course they were entirely unaccustomed to it, and could have no idea what it meant. Besides all this, they were in exceedingly bad humor, both with themselves and with one another. In order to indulge it to the utmost, Epimetheus sat down sullenly in a corner with his back toward Pandora; while Pandora flung herself upon the floor and rested her head on the fatal box. She was crying bitterly, and sobbing as if her heart would break. Suddenly there was gentle little tap on the inside of the lid. "What can that be?" cried Pandora, lifting her head. But either Epimetheus had not heard the tap, or was too much out of humor to notice it. At any rate, he made no answer. "You are very unkind," said Pandora, sobbing anew, "not to speak to me!" Again the tap! It sounded like the tiny knuckles of a fairy's hand, knocking lightly and playfully on the inside of the box. "Who are you?" asked Pandora, with a little of her former curiosity. "Who are you, inside of this naughty box?" A sweet little voice spoke from within: "Only lift the lid, and you shall see." "No, no," answered Pandora, again beginning to sob, "I have had enough of lifting the lid! You are inside of the box, naughty creature, and there you shall stay! There are plenty of your ugly brothers and sisters already flying about the world. You need never think that I shall be so foolish as to let you out!" She looked toward Epimetheus as she spoke, perhaps expecting that he would commend her for her wisdom. But the sullen boy only muttered that she was wise a little too late. "Ah," said the sweet little voice again. "You had much better let me out. I am not like those naughty creatures that have stings in their tails. They are no brothers and sisters of mine, as you would see at once, if you were only to get a glimpse of me. Come, come, my pretty Pandora! I am sure you will let me out!" And, indeed, there was a kind of cheerful witchery in the tone that made it almost impossible to refuse anything which this little voice asked. Pandora's heart had grown lighter at every word that came from within the box. Epimetheus, too, though still in the corner, had turned half round, and seemed to be in rather better spirits than before. "My dear Epimetheus," cried Pandora, "have you heard this little voice?" "Yes, to be sure I have," answered he, but in no very good humor as yes. "And what of it?" "Shall I lift the lid again?" asked Pandora. "Just as you please," said Epimetheus. "You have done so much mischief already that perhaps you may as well do a little more. One other Trouble, in such a swarm as you have set adrift about the world, can make no very great difference." "You might speak a little more kindly!" murmured Pandora, wiping her eyes. "Ah, naughty boy!" cried the little voice within the box, in an arch and laughing tone. "He knows he is longing to see me. Come, my dear Pandora, lift up the lid. I am in a great hurry to comfort you. Only let me have some fresh air, and you shall soon see that matters are not quite so dismal as you think them!" "Epimetheus," exclaimed Pandora, "come what may, I am resolved to open the box!" "And, as the lid seems very heavy," cried Epimetheus, running across the room, "I will help you!" So, with one consent, the children again lifted the lid. Out flew a sunny and smiling little personage, and hovered about the room, throwing a light wherever she went. Have you never made the sunshine dance into dark corners by reflecting it from a bit of looking-glass? Well, so looked the winged cheerfulness of this fairy-like stranger amid the gloom of the cottage. She flew to Epimetheus and laid the least touch of her finger on the inflamed spot where the Trouble had stung him, and immediately the anguish of it was gone. Then she kissed Pandora on the forehead, and her hurt was cured likewise. After performing these good offices, the bright stranger fluttered sportively over the children's heads, and looked so sweetly at them that they both began to think it not so very much amiss to have opened the box, since, otherwise, their cheery guest must have been kept a prisoner among those naughty imps with stings in their tails. "Pray, who are you, beautiful creature?" inquired Pandora. "I am to be called Hope!" answered the sunshiny figure. "And because I am such a cheery little body, I was packed into the box, to make amends to the human race for that swarm of ugly Troubles, which was destined to be let loose among them. Never fear! We shall do pretty well in spite of them all." "Your wings are colored like the rainbow!" exclaimed Pandora. "How very beautiful!" "Yes, they are like the rainbow," said Hope, "because, glad as my nature is, I am partly made of tears as well as smiles." "And will you stay with us," asked Epimetheus, "for ever and ever?" "As long as you need me," said Hope, with her pleasant smile, "and that will be as long as you live in the world. I promise never to leave you. There may be times and seasons, now and then, when you will think that I have utterly vanished. But again, and again, and again, when perhaps you least dream of it, you shall see the glimmer of my wings on the ceiling of your cottage. Yes, my dear children, and I know something very good and beautiful that is to be Given you hereafter!" "Oh, tell us," they exclaimed; "tell us what it is!" "Do not ask me," replied Hope, patting her finger on her rosy mouth. "But do not despair, even if it should never happen while you live on this earth. Trust in my promise, for it is true." "We do trust you!" cried Epimetheus and Pandora, both in one breath. And so they did; and not only they, but so has everybody trusted Hope, that has since been alive. And, to tell You the truth, I cannot help being glad (though to be sure It was an uncommonly naughty thing for her to do) but I Cannot help being glad that our foolish Pandora peeped into the box. No doubt--no doubt--the Troubles are still flying about the world, and have increased in numbers, rather than lessened, and are a very ugly set of imps, and carry most venomous stings in their tails. I have felt them already, and expect to feel them more as I grow older. But then that lovely and lightsome little figure of Hope! What in the world could we do without her? Hope spiritualizes the earth; Hope makes it always new; and, even in the earth�s best and brightest aspect, Hope shows it to be only the shadow of an infinite bliss hereafter! NOTES AND QUESTIONS Discussion. 1. How long ago did Pandora and Epimetheus live? 2. Find the lines that tell how different the world was then from what it is now. 3. Where did the box come from? 4. On what conditions was it given to Epimetheus? 5. Find lines that describe the box. 6. Why was Pandora interested in it? 7. In what way was it a blessing to Pandora? 8. What led her to open the box? 9. Do you thing Epimetheus was at fault? Why? 10. What happened when Pandora raised the lid of the box? 11. How did this affect the Paradise of Children? The flowers? The children? 12. What happened when Pandora opened the box a second time? 13. Why was Hope put into the box with the Troubles? 14. Why are the wings of Hope like the rainbows? 15. What does Hope do for us? 16. What qualities in Epimetheus do you like? 17. What did Hope mean by saying she was partly made of tears? 18. How does Hope "spiritualize" the earth, i.e., make it purer? 19. Tell what you can about the author. 20. On page 291 you were asked to notice the way in which these authors tell their stories; you have no doubt noticed that Hawthorne uses humor and fancy to add interest. 21. Point out examples of his humor. 22. What quaint fancy has he about the way food was provided when the world was young? 23. By what fancy does he increase our interest in the mystery of the box? 24. Class readings: Select passages to be read aloud in class. 25. Outline for testing silent reading. Tell the story briefly in your own words, using the topic headings given in the story. 26. You will enjoy seeing the pictures in the edition of The Wonder-Book that is illustrated by the well known artist, Maxfield Parrish. 27. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: caroling; mysterious; whence; pettishly; intelligent; babble; combine; pried; restore; constant; intent; pestered; witchery; personage; glimmer; lightsome. 28 Pronounce: Epimetheus; either; Pandora; threshold; livelong; disquietude; merry; forbear; accompany; perseveringly; vexations; profusion; mischievous; contrivance; ingenious; merest; lamentable; gigantic; molested; calamity; grievously; intolerable; hovered; destined; venomous; spiritualizes; aspect; infinite. Phrases for Study greatest disquietude, afflicted the souls, faint shadow of a Trouble, obtained a foothold, more enterprise, immortal in their childhood, unaccustomed to vexations, wrought together in such harmony, indulge in to the utmost, with one consent, high relief, performing these good offices, utter itself in words, roguishly defied, much amiss, toil is the real play, make amends, bewitchingly persuasive, brightest aspect, humor better suited, shadow of an infinite bliss. THE GOLDEN TOUCH KING MIDAS AND HIS LOVE FOR GOLD Once upon a time there lived a very rich man, and a King besides, whose name was Midas; and he had a little daughter, whom nobody but myself ever heard of, and whose name I either never knew, or have entirely forgotten. So, because I love odd name for little girls, I choose to call her Marygold. This King Midas was fonder of gold than of anything else in the world. He valued his royal crown chiefly because it was composed of that precious metal. If he loved anything better, or half so well, it was the one little maiden who played so merrily around her father's footstool. But the more Midas loved his daughter, the more did he desire and seek for wealth. He thought, foolish man, that the best thing he could possibly do for his dear child would be to give her the immensest pile of yellow, glistening coin that had ever been heaped together since the world was make. Thus, he gave all his thoughts and all his time to this one Purpose. If ever he happened to gaze for an instant at the gold-tinted clouds of sunset, he wished that they were real gold and that they could be squeezed safely into his strong box. When little Marygold ran to meet him, with a bunch of buttercups and dandelions, he used to say, "Pooh, pooh, child! If these flowers were a golden as they look, they would be worth the plucking!" And yet, in his earlier days, before he was so entirely possessed of this insane desire for riches, King Midas had shown a great taste for flowers. He had planted a garden, in which grew the biggest and beautifulest and sweetest roses that any mortal ever saw or smelled. These roses were still growing in the garden, as large, as lovely, and as fragrant as when Midas used to pass whole hours in gazing at the and inhaling their perfume. But now, if he looked at them at all, it was only to calculate how much the garden would be worth if each of the many rose-petals were a thin plate of gold. At length (as people always grow more and more foolish, unless they take care to grow wiser and wiser) Midas had got to be so exceedingly unreasonable that he could scarcely bear to see or touch any object that was not gold. He made it his custom, therefore, to pass a large portion of every day in a dark and dreary apartment, underground, at the basement of the palace. It was here that he kept his wealth. To this dismal hole "for it was little better than a dungeon" Midas betook himself whenever he wanted to be particularly happy. Here, after carefully locking the door, he would take a bag of gold coin, or a gold cup as big as a washbowl, or a heavy golden bar, or a peck-measure of gold-dust, and bring them from the obscure corners of the room into the one bright and narrow sunbeam that fell from the dungeon-like window. He valued the sunbeam for no other reason but that his treasure would not shine without its help. And then would he reckon over the coins in the bag; toss up the bar, and catch it as it came down; sift the gold-dust through his fingers; look at the funny image of his own face, as reflected in the polished surface of the cup; and whisper to himself, "O Midas, rich King Midas, what a happy man art thou!" Midas was enjoying himself in his treasure-room one Day as usual, when he saw a shadow fall over the heaps of Gold; and, looking suddenly up, what should he behold but The figure of a strange, standing in the bright and narrow Sunbeam! It was a young man with a cheerful and ruddy face. Whether it was that the imagination of King Midas threw a yellow tinge over everything, or whatever the cause might be, he could not help fancying that the smile with which the stranger regarded him had a kind of golden radiance in it. As Midas knew that he had carefully turned the key in The lock, and that no mortal strength could possibly break Into his treasure-room, he of course concluded that his Visitor must be something more than mortal. It is no matter about telling you who he was. In those days, when the earth was comparatively a new affair, it was supposed to be often the resort of beings who had extraordinary powers, and who used to interest themselves in the joys and sorrows of men, women, and children, half playfully and half seriously, Midas had met such beings before now, and was not sorry to meet one of them again. The stranger's manner, indeed, was so good-humored and kindly that it would have been unreasonable to suspect him of intending any mischief. It was far more probable that he came to do Midas a favor. And what could that favor be, unless to multiply his heaps of treasure? The stranger gazed about the room; and when his bright smile had glistened upon all the golden objects that were there, he turned again to Midas. "You are a wealthy man, friend Midas!" he observed. "I doubt whether any other four walls on earth contain so much gold as you have piled up in this room." "I have done pretty well pretty well," answered Midas, in a discontented tone. "But, after all, it is but a trifle, when you consider that it has taken me my whole life to get it together. If one could live a thousand years, he might have time to grow rich!" "What!" exclaimed the stranger. "Then you are not satisfied?" Midas shook his head. "And pray what would satisfy you?" asked the stranger. "Merely for the curiosity of the thing I should be glad to know." Midas paused and meditated. He had a feeling that his stranger, with such a golden luster in his good-humored smile, had come hither with both the power and the purpose of gratifying his utmost wishes. Now, therefore, was the fortunate moment when he had but to speak and obtain whatever possible, or seemingly impossible, thing it might come into his head to ask. So he thought and thought and thought, and heaped up one golden mountain upon another in this imagination, without being able to imagine them big enough. At last, a bright idea occurred to King Midas. It seemed really as bright as the glistening metal which he loved so much. Raising his head, he looked the lustrous stranger in the face. "Well, Midas," observed his visitor. "I see that you have at length hit upon something that will satisfy you. Tell me your wish." "It is only this," Replied Midas. "I am weary of collecting my treasures with so much trouble, and beholding the heap so small after I have done my best. I wish everything that I touch to be changed to gold!" The stranger's smile grew so very broad that it seemed to fill the room like an outburst of the sun gleaming into a shadowy dell where the yellow autumnal leaves--for so looked the lumps and particles of gold--lie strewn in the glow of light. "The Golden Touch!" exclaimed he. "You certainly deserve credit, friend Midas, for striking out so brilliant an idea. But are you quite sure that this will satisfy you?" "How could it fail?" said Midas. "And will you never regret the possession of it?" "What could induce me?" asked Midas. "I ask nothing else to render me perfectly happy." "Be it as you wish, then," replied the stranger, waving his hand in token of farewell. "Tomorrow, at sunrise, you will find yourself gifted with the Golden touch." The figure of the stranger then became exceedingly bright, and Midas was forced to close his eyes. On opening them again he beheld only one yellow sunbeam in the room, and, all around him, the glistening of the precious metal which he had spent his life in hoarding up. Whether Midas slept as usual that night, the story does not say. Asleep or awake, however, his mind was probably in the state of a child's to whom a beautiful new plaything has been promised in the morning. At any rate, day had hardly peeped over the hills when King Midas was broad awake, and stretching his arms out of bed, began to touch the objects that were within reach. He was anxious to prove whether the Golden Touch had really come, according to the stranger's promise. So he laid his finger on a chair by the bedside, and on various other things, but was grievously disappointed to perceive that they remained of exactly the same substance as before. THE GIFT OF THE GOLDEN TOUCH All this while, it was only the gray of the morning, with but a streak of brightness along the edge of the sky, where Midas could not see it. He lay in a very unhappy mood, regretting the downfall of his hopes, and kept growing sadder and sadder, until the earliest sunbeam shone through the window and gilded the ceiling over his head. It seemed to Midas that this bright yellow sunbeam was reflected in rather a singular way on the white covering of the bed. Looking more closely, what was his astonishment and delight, when he found that this linen fabric wad been changed to what seemed a woven texture of the purest and brightest gold! The Golden Touch had come to him with the first sunbeam! Midas started up, in a kind of joyful frenzy, and ran about the room grasping at everything that happened to be in his way. He seized one of the bed-posts, and it became immediately a fluted golden pillar. He pulled aside a window-curtain in order to admit a clear spectacle of the wonders which he was performing; and the tassel grew heavy in his hand--a mass of gold. He took up a book from the table. At this first touch, it assumed the appearance of such a splendidly-bound and gilt-edged volume as one often meets with nowadays; but, on running his fingers through the leaves, behold! It was a bundle of thin golden plates, in which all the wisdom of the book had grown in distinct. He hurriedly put on his clothes, and was delighted to ace himself in magnificent suit of gold cloth, which retained its flexibility and softness, although it burdened him a little with its weight. Wise King Midas was so excited by his good fortune that the palace seemed not sufficiently spacious to contain him. He therefore went downstairs and smiled on observing that the balustrade of the staircase became a bar of burnished gold as his hand passed over it in the descent. He lifted the door latch (it was brass only a moment ago, but golden when his fingers quitted it) and went into the garden. Here, as it happened, he found a great number of beautiful roses in full bloom, and others in all the stages of lovely bud and blossom. Very delicious was their fragrance in the morning breeze. Their delicate blush was one of the fairest sights in the world--so gentle, so modest, and so full of erect composure did these roses seem to be. But Midas knew a way to make them far more precious, according to his way of thinking, than roses had ever been before. So he took great pains in going from bush to bush, and exercised his magic touch most freely; until every individual flower and bud, and even the worms at the heart of some of them, were changed to gold. By the time this good work was completed, King Midas was called to breakfast; and, as the morning air had given him an excellent appetite, he made haste back to the palace. What was usually a king's breakfast, in the days of Midas, I really do not know, and cannot stop now to find out. To the best of my belief, however, on this particular morning, the breakfast consisted of hot cakes, some nice little brook-trout, roasted potatoes, fresh boiled eggs, and coffee, for King Midas himself, and a bowl of bread and milk for his daughter Marygold. At all events, this is a breakfast fit to be set before a king; and, whether he had it or not, King Midas could not have had a better. Little Marygold had not yet made her appearance. Her father ordered her to be called, and, seating himself at table, awaited the child's coming, in order to begin his own breakfast. To do Midas justice, he really loved his daughter, and loved her so much the more this morning on account of the good fortune which had befallen him. It was not a great while before he heard her coming along the passage crying bitterly. This circumstance surprised him, because Marygold was one of the cheerfulest little people whom you would see in a summer day, and hardly shed a thimbleful of tears in a twelvemonth. When Midas heard her sobs, he determined to put little Marygold into better spirits by an agreeable surprise; so, leaning across the table, he touched his daughter's bowl (which was a china one, with pretty figures all around it) and turned it to gleaming gold. Meanwhile, Marygold slowly and sadly opened the door, and showed herself with her apron at her eyes, still sobbing as if her heart would break. "How now, my little lady!" cried Midas. "Pray what is the matter with you this bright morning?" Marygold, without taking the apron from her eyes, held out her hand, in which was one of the roses which Midas had so recently changed. "Beautiful!" exclaimed her father. "And what is there in this magnificent golden rose to make you cry?" "Ah, dear father!" answered the child, as well as her sobs would let her, "it is not beautiful, but the ugliest flower that ever grew! As soon as I was dressed, I ran into the garden to gather some roses for you, because I know you like them, and like them the better when gathered by your little daughter. But, O dear, dear me! What do you think has happened? Such a misfortune! All the beautiful roses, that smelled so sweet and had so many lovely blushes, are blighted and spoiled! They are grown quite yellow, as you see this one, and have no longer any fragrance! What can have been the matter?" "Pooh, my dear little girl, pray don't cry about it!" said Midas, who was ashamed to confess that he himself had wrought the change which so greatly afflicted her. "Sit down and eat your bread and milk! You will find it easy enough to exchange a golden rose like that (which will last hundreds of years) for an ordinary one, which would wither in a day." "I don't care for such roses as this!" cried Marygold. "It has no smell, and hard petals prick my nose!" THE KING'S BREAKFAST OF GOLD The child now sat down to table, but was so occupied with her grief for the blighted roses that she did not even notice the wonderful change of her china bowl. Perhaps this was all the better; for Marygold was accustomed to take pleasure in looking at the queer figures and strange trees and houses that were painted on the outside of the bowl; and those ornaments were now entirely lost in the yellow hue of the metal. Midas, meanwhile, had poured out a cup of coffee; and, as a matter of course, the coffee-pot, whatever metal it may have been when he took it up, was gold when he set it down. He thought to himself that it was rather an extravagant style of splendor, in a king of his simple habits, to breakfast off a service of gold, and began to be puzzled with the difficulty of keeping his treasures safe. The cupboard and the kitchen would no longer be a safe place of deposit for articles so valuable as golden bowls and coffee-pots. Amid these thoughts, he lifted a spoonful of coffee to his lips, and sipping it, was astonished to perceive that, the instant his lips touched the liquid, it became molten gold, and, the next moment, hardened into a lump! "Ha!" exclaimed Midas, rather aghast. "What is the matter, father?" asked little Marygold, gazing at him, with tears still standing in her eyes. "Nothing, child, nothing!" said Midas. "Eat your bread and milk before it gets quite cold." He took one of the nice little trout on his plate, and, by way of experiment, touched its tail with his finger. To his horror, it was immediately changed from an admirably-fried brook-trout into a gold fish, though not one of those goldfish which people often keep in glass globes, as ornaments for the parlor. No; but it was really a metallic fish, and looked as if it had been very cunningly made by the nicest goldsmith in the world. Its little bones were now golden wires; its fins and tail were thin plates of gold; and there were the marks of the fork in it, and all the delicate, frothy appearance of a nicely fried fish, exactly imitated in metal. A very pretty piece of work, as you may suppose; only King Midas just at the that moment would much rather have had a real trout in his dish than his elaborate and valuable imitation of one. "I don't quite see," thought he to himself, "how I am to get any breakfast!" He took one of the smoking hot cakes, and had scarcely broken it, when, to his cruel mortification, though a moment before it had been of the whitest wheat, it assumed the yellow hue of Indian meal. To say the truth, if it had really been a hot Indian cake, Midas would have prized it a good deal more than he now did, when its solidity and increased weight made him know too well that it was old. Almost in despair, he helped himself to a boiled egg, which immediately underwent a change similar to that of the trout and the cake. The egg, indeed, might have been mistaken for one of those which the famous goose, in the story-book, was in the habit of laying; but King Midas was the only goose that had had anything to do with the matter. "Well, this is a puzzle!" thought he, leaning back in his chair, and looking quite enviously at little Marygold, who was now eating her bread and milk with great satisfaction. "Such a costly breakfast, and nothing that can be eaten!" Hoping that, by dint of great quickness, he might avoid what he now felt to be a considerable inconvenience, King Midas next snatched a hot potato, and attempted to cram It into his mouth and swallow it in hurry. But the Golden Touch was too nimble for him. He found his mouth full, not of mealy potato, but of solid metal, which so burned his tongue that he roared aloud, and, jumping up from the table, began to dance and stamp about the room, both with pain and affright. "Father, dear father!" cried little Marygold, who was a very affectionate child, "pray, what is the matter? Have you burned your mouth?" "Ah, dear child," groaned Midas, dolefully, "I don't know what is to become of your poor father!" And, truly, my dear little folks, did you ever hear of such a pitiable case in all your lives? Here was literally the richest breakfast that could be set before a king, and its very richness made it absolutely good for nothing. The poorest laborer, sitting down to his crust of bread and cup of water, was far better off than King Midas, whose delicate food was really worth its weight in gold. And what was to be done? Already, at breakfast, Midas was very hungry. Would he be less so by dinner-time? And how ravenous would be his appetite for supper, which must undoubtedly consist of the same sort of indigestible dishes as those now before him! How many days, think you, would he survive the fate of this rich fare? These thoughts so troubled wise King Midas that he began to doubt whether, after all, riches are the one desirable thing in the world; or even the most desirable. But this was only a passing thought. So pleased was Midas with the glitter of the yellow metal that he would still have refused to give up the Golden Touch for so small a consideration as a breakfast. Just imagine what a price for one meal's victuals! It would have been the same as paying millions and millions of money (and as many millions more as would take forever to reckon up) for some fried trout, an egg, a potato, a hot cake, and a cup of coffee! "It would be quite too dear," thought Midas. Nevertheless, so great was his hunger and perplexity of this situation, that he again groaned aloud, and very grievously too. Our pretty Marygold could endure it no longer. She sat a moment gazing at her father, and trying, with all the might of her little wits, to find out what was the matter with him. Then, with a sweet and sorrowful impulse to comfort him, she started from the chair, and running to Midas, threw her arms affectionately about his knees. He bent down and kissed her. He felt that his little daughter's love was worth a thousand times more than he had gained by the Golden Touch. "My precious, precious Marygold!" cried he. But Marygold made no answer. Alas, what had he done? How fatal was the gift which the stranger gave! The moment the lips of Midas touched Marygold's forehead, a change had taken place. Her sweet, rosy face, so full of affection as it had been, assumed a glittering yellow color, with yellow tear-drops hardening on her cheeks. Her beautiful brown ringlets took the same tint. Her soft and tender little form grew hard and stiff within her father's encircling arms. O terrible misfortune! The victim of his great desire for wealth, little Marygold was human child no longer, but a golden statue! Yes, there she was, with the questioning look of love, grief, and pity, hardened into her face. It was the prettiest and most woeful sight that ever mortal saw. All the features and tokens of Marygold were there; even the beloved little dimple remained in her golden chin. But, the more perfect was the resemblance, the greater was the father's agony at beholding this golden image, which was all that was left him of a daughter. It had been a favorite phrase of Midas, whenever he felt particularly fond of the child, to say that she was worth her weight in gold. And how the phrase had become literally true. And now, at last, when it was too late, he felt how infinitely a warm and tender heart that loved him exceeded in value all the wealth that could be piled up betwixt the earth and sky! It would be too sad a story if I were to tell you how Midas, in the fullness of all his gratified desires, began to Wring his hands and bemoan himself; and how he could neither bear to look at Marygold, nor yet to look away from her. WHAT KING MIDAS LEARNED While he was in this despair, he suddenly beheld a stranger, standing near the door. Midas bent down his head, without speaking; for he recognized the same figure which had appeared to him the day before in the treasure-room, and had bestowed on him this unlucky power of the Golden Touch. The stranger's countenance still wore a smile, which Seemed to shed a yellow luster all about the room, and Gleamed on little Marygold's image, and on the other Objects that had been changed by the touch of Midas. "Well, friend Midas," said the stranger, "pray how do you succeed with the Golden Touch?" Midas shook his head. "I am very miserable," said he. "Very miserable, indeed!" exclaimed the stranger. "And how happens that? Have I not faithfully kept my promise with you? Have you not everything that your heart desired?" "Gold is not everything," answered Midas. "And I have lost all that my heart really cared for." "Ah! So you have made a discovery since yesterday?" observed the stranger. "Let us see, then. Which of these two things do you think is really worth the more--the gift of the Golden Touch, or one cup of clear cold water?" "O blessed water!" exclaimed Midas. "It will never moisten my parched throat again!" "The Golden Touch," continued the stranger, "or a crust of bread?" "A piece of bread," answered Midas, "is worth all the gold on earth!" "The Golden Touch," asked the stranger, "or your own little Marygold, warm, soft, and loving, as she was an hour ago?" "Oh, my child, my dear child, my dear child!" cried poor Midas, wringing his hands. "I would not have given that one small dimple in her chin for the power of changing his whole big earth into a solid lump of gold!" "You are wiser than you were, King Midas!" said the stranger, looking seriously at him. "Your own heart, I perceive, has not been entirely changed from flesh to gold. Were it so, your ease would indeed be desperate. But you appear to be still capable of understanding that the commonest things, such as lie within everybody's grasp, are more valuable than the riches which so many mortals sigh and struggle after. Tell me, now, do you sincerely desire to rid yourself of this Golden Touch?" "It is hateful to me!" replied Midas. A fly settled on his nose, but immediately fell to the Floor; for it, to had become gold. Midas shuddered. "Go, then," said the stranger, "and plunge into the river that glides past the bottom of the your garden. Take likewise a vase of the same water, and sprinkle it over any object that you may desire to change back again from gold into its former substance. If you do this in earnestness and sincerity, it may possibly repair the mischief which your avarice has occasioned." King Midas bowed low; and when he lifted his head, The lustrous stranger had vanished. You will easily believe that Midas lost no time in snatching up a great earthen pitcher (but, alas! It was no longer earthen after he touched it) and hastening to the riverside. As he scampered along, and forced his way through the shrubbery, it was positively marvelous to see how the foliage turned yellow behind him, as if the autumn had been there, and nowhere else. On reaching the river's brink, he plunged headlong in, without waiting so much as to pull off his shoes. "Poof! Poof! Poof!" snorted King Midas, as his head emerged out of the water. "Well, this is really a refreshing bath, and I think it must have quite washed away the Golden Touch. And now for filling my pitcher!" As he dipped the pitcher into the water, it gladdened his very heart to see it change from gold into the same good, honest earthen vessel which it had been before he touched it. He was conscious, also, of a change within himself. A cold, hard, and heavy weight seemed to have gone out of his bosom. No doubt his heart had been gradually losing its human substance, and changing itself into dull metal, but had now softened back again into flesh. Seeing a violet that grew on the bank of the river, Midas touched it with his finger, and was overjoyed to find that the delicate flower retained its purple hue, instead of undergoing a yellow blight. The curse of the Golden Touch had, therefore, really been removed from him. King Midas hastened back to the palace; and, I suppose, the servants knew not what to make of it when they saw their royal master so carefully bringing home an earthen pitcher of water. But that water, which was to undo all the mischief that his folly had wrought, was more precious to Midas than an ocean of molten gold could have been. The first thing he did, as you nee hardly be told, was to sprinkle it by handfuls over the golden figure of little Marygold. No sooner did it fall on her than you would have laughed to see how the rosy color came back to the dear child's cheek!--and how she began to sneeze and splutter!--and how astonished she was to find herself dripping wet, and her father still throwing more water over her! "Pray, do not, dear father!" cried she. "See how you have wet my nice frock, which I put on only this morning!" For Marygold did not know that she had been a little golden statue; nor could she remember anything that had happened since the moment when she ran, with outstretched arms, to comfort poor King Midas. Her father did not think it necessary to tell his beloved child how very foolish he had been, but contented himself with showing how much wiser he had now grown. For this purpose he led little Marygold into the garden, where he sprinkled all the remainder of the water over the rosebushes recovered their beautiful bloom. There were two circumstances, however, which, as long as he lived, used to put King Midas in mind of the Golden Touch. One was that the sands of the river sparkled like gold; the other that little Marygold's hair had now a golden tinge, which he had never observed in it before she had been changed by the effect of his kiss. This change of hue was really an improvement, and made Marygold's hair richer than in her babyhood. When King Midas had grown quite an old man, and used to trot Marygold's children on his knee, he was fond of telling them this marvelous story, pretty much as I have now told it to your. And then would he stroke their glossy ringlets, and tell them that their hair, likewise, had a rich shade of gold, which they had inherited from their mother. "And to tell you the truth, my precious little folks," quoth King Midas, diligently trotting the children all the while, "ever since that morning I have hated the very sight of all other gold save this!" NOTES AND QUESTIONS Discussion. 1. How did Midas think he could best show his love for this daughter? 2. What was his chief pleasure? 3. Describe the visitor who appeared to Midas in his treasure-room. 4. What did the stranger ask him? 5. Find the sentence that tells what Midas wished. 6. When did he receive his new power? 7. What use did he make of it? 8. What did Marygold think of the gold roses? 9. Why was not Midas's breakfast a success? 10. When did Midas first doubt whether riches are the most desirable thing in the world? 11. How did he drive this thought away? 12. What make him realize that his little daughter was dearer to him than gold? 13. Find lines that tell what he realized when it was too late. 14. What did the stranger ask when he came again? 15. What was the discovery that Midas mad made since the stranger's first visit? 16. How was Midas cured of the Golden Touch? 17. What was he told to do in order to restore Marygold to life? 18. What was the only gold he cared about after he was saved from the Golden Touch? 19. Find examples of human; of fanciful expressions, Such as "day had hardly peeped over the hills," of descriptions that you like. 20. Close readings: Select passages to be read aloud in class. 21. Outline for testing silent reading. Tell the story briefly in your own words, using the topic headings given in the story. 22. Find in the Glossary the meaning of: purpose; mortal; inhaling; induce; flexibility; balustrade; burnished; afflicted; affright; consideration; perplexity; fatal; agony; infinitely; desperate; earthen; conscious; molten. 23. Pronounce: Midas; calculate; particularly; obscure; tinge; extraordinary; mediate; composure; blighted; bath; cup; snarl; molten; aghast; admirably; metallic; frothy; pitiable; ravenous; indigestible; victuals; phrase; recognized; purebred; avarice. Phrases for Study comparatively a new affair, fairest goldsmith, woven texture, cruel mortification, wisdom of the book, by dint of great quickness, cunningly made, features and tokens. GREAT AMERICAN AUTHORS A Backward Look A wonderful power lies in the Crystal Glass of Reading--the power to increase your circle of friends and to know intimately people who have lived in distant times and places. Through its power the great heroes of all ages--Joseph, Beowulf, Sigurd, Robin Hood, and our own Washington, Lincoln, and Roosevelt--become your companions. Someone has said that the pen is mightier than the sword, which is another way of saying that great books have had more to do in shaping the lives and fortunes of men than bloody battles. The group of authors whose stories and poems you have just been reading is a company of friends whose thoughts about Nature, or about life and its meaning, have been a power in making America what it is today. Acquaintance with these friends has been made easy for you; you have had placed before you their pictures and interesting facts about their lives, and best of all, you have been able to hear them tell their own thoughts. What authors are in this group? Which of them did you learn to know in Book IV and which were new to you in this book? Close your eyes and see whether your "inward eye" can picture the faces of Franklin, Bryant, Whittier, Irving, Longfellow, Hawthorne. Make one interesting statement concerning each author and his works. Quote lines from poems by Bryant, Whittier, and Longfellow. Make from memory a list of title of stories or poems you have read from each of these six American authors. Benjamin Franklin founded the first public library in America; the picture on page 18 shows you what a library must have been like in the old Greek days, and page 288 pictures a view of the Congressional Library at Washington, the home of the complete works of all our American authors. The building is considered one of the most beautiful in the world; report to the class some interesting facts about this library that you have learned from someone who has seen it. In the last paragraph of the Forward Look, you are asked to notice the way in which authors tell what they have to say. When Franklin was a young boy he was not at all satisfied with his way of writing, so he sat himself the task of noticing carefully how a certain English writer, whom he admired very much, expressed himself, and tried to pattern after him. Notice how Franklin made the story "An Ax to Grind" seem very real by using direct quotations; where else has he used direct quotations with the same result? Notice the way Hawthorne added interest to his stories: (a) by touches of fancy; (b) by delicate humor; (c) by apt descriptions. Point out examples of each of these qualities in "The Paradise of Children." Make a similar showing for "The Golden Touch." Compare the two stories in regard to each of These qualities. Turn to the pictures on pages 282, 297, 302, 321, and 309, and see whether you are able to tell what selection each panel-picture illustrates. You have read many stories in this book that show how fine a thing it is to serve, and so it seems fitting to have on the cover at your reader a picture of Hiawatha, who "Lived and toiled, so I suffered, That the tribes of men might prosper, That he might advance his people!" Make a list of the stories you have read in this book that tell about service. Read the lines in "The White-man's foot" that describe "the great canoe with pinions," which you see in the picture on the outside cover of this book. Since you began to use this book what progress have you hade in gaining ability to read silently with speed and understanding? * * * * * GLOSSARY abashed (a-bashed'), ashamed abbey (ab'i), the home of monks abbot (ab'ut), head of an abbey above his fortune (for'toon), more than he can afford absolutely (ab'so-loot-ly), positively absurd inventions (ab-surd' in-ven'shuns), made-up stories not believable abyes (a-bis'), a space so deep as not to be easily measured accompany (ac-com'pa-ny), go with accosted (ac-cost'ed), spoken to accoutered (ac-cout'ered), dressed accumulating (ac-cu'mu-lat-ing), piling up acquainted (ac-quaint'ed), friendly with each other adage (ad'age), a saying Adjidaumo (Ad-ji-dau'mo) admirably (ad'mi-ra-bly), well ado (a-do'), fuss adorn (a-dorn'), decorate advance (ad-vance') his people, help his tribe of Indians to be better advisers (ad-viz'ers), men with whom he talked adz (adz'), tool for trimming wood aerie (i'ry), high nest Aesop (Ae'sop), a Greek slave who wrote many little stories afflicted (af-flict'ed), distressed afflicted (af-flict'ed) the souls, made people do wrong affliction (af-flic'shun), trouble affright (af-fright'), alarm aftermath (aft'er-math), second crop against all comers, with anyone he meets age of doubt, time when people are not ready to believe aghast (a-ghast'), startled agility (a-gil'i-ty), quickness agony (ag'o-ny), grief Ahmeek (Ah-meek') Ahno (Ah'no) Aladdin (A-lad'din) alder (al'der), a kind of tree alert (a-lert'), watchful Ali Baba (A'li Bah'bah) allied (al-lied'), joined all in their best, dressed in their best clothes all its endearments (en-dear'mentz), everything that makes it dear allotted (al-lot'ted) time, time granted for doing anything almanacs (al'ma-naks), small books containing a yearly calendar with little stories aloes (al'oes), a precious wood alternate (al-ter'nate), first one, then the other ambitious (am-bi'shus), eager for ambush in the oak-tree, hiding-place in the oak amethyst (am'e-thyst), a clear purple or bluish violet; a precious stone ancient, old; of old time anecdote (an'ek-dote), a story anemones (a-nim'o-nez), wild flowers of pale, dainty colors anew (a-nu'), again animal spirits, loud, rough play Annemeekee (An-ne-mee'kee) Antoine (An-twan') anxious (ang'shus), troubled ape the ways of pride, try to copy the actions of proud people apothecary (a-poth'uh-ca-ry), druggist appeared concerned (ap-peared' con-surned'), seemed anxious apple from the pine, pineapple appointed (ap-point'ed), chosen beforehand for the feast approached (ap-proacht'), went near to approach (ap-proach') the bounds, come near the edge Arabic (Ar'a-bik), language of Arabs arch and laughing tone, merry, teasing voice archery, shooting with bow and arrow arching, curving arching blue, sky arch of the sunlit bow, curve of the rainbow archway of rock, meeting place overhead of two rock walls array (ar-ray',) order artificar (ar-tif'i-sur), skilled worker ash-cakes, unsweetened cakes baked on a hot shovel laid on the ashes aspect, outlook; state aspen (as'pen) bower, thicket of trees the leaves of which are easily moved by the wind aspiring (as-pir'ing) genius, clever person who is trying to rise assembled (as-sem'bld), collected assumed (as-soomd') the ap-pear'ance of, looked like asters (as'ters) in the brook, reflection of the asters in the water astir (a-stur'), moving around astonished (as-ton'isht), surprised astride (a-stride') the traces, having one leg over one of the straps which fastened the plow to the horses asunder (a-sun'der), apart attendance (at-ten'dans) on levees (lev- ees'), going to receptions attend his pleasure (plezh'ur), do his bidding at their glittering (glit'ter-ing) best, shining as bright as possible audible (au'di-b'l), that can be heard aught but tender, any way except kind autumnal (au-tum'nal), of autumn avarice (av'a-ris), greed averted (a-vurt'ed), turned aside awakening (a-wak'n-ing) of the woods, the budding of the forest trees awry (a-ri'), crooked ay (I), yes azure (azh'ur), sky-blue; the air azure space, blue air above babble (bab'bl), chatter bade, told; told to balas (bal'as), a kind of ruby balked, (bal'kt) stopped balm (balm), sticky dried juice balsam (bal'sam), same as balm balustrade (bal'us-trad'), railing bandages (ban'daj-ez), strips of cloth banditti (ban-dit'ti), robbers barter (bar'ter) it all, trade all that I have gained basswood (bas'wood), wood of the linden tree battlements (bat'tl-ments), irregular top of the high walls of a castle bayou (bi'oo), inlet bazaars (ba-zars'), shops; marketplace beam, ray of light beaming, shining bear me ill-will, dislike me bear no malice (mal'is), have no ill-will beast of prey, flesh-eating animal Beatte (Be'ti) beat us holler, do things we cannot do beauteous (bu'te-us) summer glow, lovely brightness of summer time becalmed (be-kalmd'), prevented from sailing because of lack of wind beechen (bech'en), of the beech tree befall (be-fol'), happen to beguile (be-gil'), charm beguiled (be-gild'), tricked beheld it aforetime (a-for'tim), see it before it arrived belated (be-lat'ed) thriftless vagrant (va'grant), tardy, lazy wanderer belfry (bel'fri), tower for a bell bemoan (be-mon') himself, groan softly beneath (be-neth') benevolent (be-nev'o-lent) friendship, kind and generous acts of a friend benignant (be-nig'nant), kindly beseems (be-semz') his quality (kwol'i'ti), fits his rank beside himself with joy, so happy he did not know what to do besmeared (be-smerd'), covered best of cheer, things that make one most happy betrayed (be-trayd'; be_tra'ed), given me to my enemy by a trick bewinderment (be-wil'der-ment), perplexity bewitchingly persuasive (be-wich'ing-li per-swa'siv), charmingly coaxing Big-Sea-Water, Lake Superior billowed like a russet ocean (bil'od; rus'et), reddish grass blew like waves Bishop of Bingen (bish'up; bing'en), Hatto, who starved the poor and was shut up in a tower, where mice devoured him bison (bi'sun), American buffalo blanc-mange (bla-mänzh'), a dessert of starchy substances and milk blare (blar), blow harshly blest (blast), hard wind; loud, long sound blazing in the sky, showing bright against the sky Blefuscu (ble-fus'ku) blended ranks (blend'ed), mixed lines blighted (blit'ed), withered blithe (blith), happy; joyous blossoming ground, earth covered with flowers blue day, day when the sky is clear blur in the eye, tear boar (bor), wild hog bonny (bon'ì), gay booming (boom'ing), hollow-sounding boon (boon), favor borne their part (born), done their share born to rule the storm, naturally able to do anything bosom (booz'um), front part boundary (boun'da-ri), marking a division; separating bound boy, boy hired out to work by the year for his board and a small wage bound by a spell, charmed so that I could not move bound'less space, the endless extent of the regions of the air bound to him, made them love him bounties (boun'tiz), generous gifts bountiful traveler (boun'ti-foõl trav'el-er) generous traveler Bowdoin (bo'd'n) bowers (bou'erz), lovely rooms bowl'ders (bol'derz), large stones brake (brayk), valley enclosed by hills braves, Indian men ready to fight brawny (bra'ni), strong breakers (brayk'erz), big waves striking the shore break my fast, eat my meal breathed a song, sang a song softly breeches (brich'ez), short trousers bridled (bri'd'ld), put the headpiece on brig (brig), sailing ship with two masts brightened as he sped (brit'nd), grew brighter as he mounted up into the sky brightest aspect (as'pekt), look that is most attractive brin'dled (brin'd'ld), having dark streaks or spots on a gray or yellowish brown ground; streaked bring the hunting homeward, carry home what I shoot broadfaced sun, round, cheerful sun brocades (bro-kadz'), heavy silk woven with a raised figure or flower brooding (brood'ing), thinking sadly broom, a shrub with yellow flowers brought to bale (bal), made trouble for buffet (buf'et), slap bulge (bulj), place bent in bullies (bool'iz), teases bulwark (bool'wark), protection; defense bunting (bun'ting), cloth for flags buoy (boi) float burial (ber'i-al), act of placing in a grave burnished (bur'nisht), shining Bussorah (bus'o-ra) by dint of great quickness (dint), by acting very fast by way of satisfying (sat'is-fi'ing), in order to quiet the prickings of calamity (ka-lam'i-ti), misfortune calculate (kal'ku-lat), figure up Caliph (ka'lif), an Eastern title calked (kalkt), stopped up calls but the warders (wor'derz), only calls the watchmen calm (käm), a period of quiet came into the knowledge of, was told came into the world, took part in the business, political, social; etc., activities of the world canoe with pinions (ka-noo'; pin'yunz), sailboat capital crime (kap'i-tal), a sin so bad that it is punished by death care is sowing, worry and work are making grow carnage (kar'naj), killing caroling (kar'ul-ing), singing carriages (kar'ij-ez), carts Casabianca (ka'za-byan'ka) cast yourself free, unroll cataract's laughter (kat'a-rakts laf'ter), laughing sound made by water falling from a height catches the gleam, reflects the light cathedral (ka-the'dral), large church caution (kau'shun); carefulness ceased their calling (sest), stopped singing because they have migrated ceremony (ser'e-mo-nì), formal act chafe (chaf) rub, trying to get through chagrin (sha-grin'), annoyance chalcedony (ka1-sed'o-ni), a beautiful, very hard stone changeful April (chanj'fool), April has sudden changes of weather channel (chan'el), bed of the stream charger (char'jer), fine horse charm, something with magic power chastened (chas'nd), with a softer light Cheemaun (che-mon') cheering power of spring, how spring makes one glad cherished (cher'isht), lovingly cared for cherished possessions (cher'isht po-zesh'unz), dearest things he had Chibiabos (chib-i-a'bos) chieftain (chef'tin), one, who gave orders chimney (chim'ni) chore (chor), light task christening (kris'n-ing), naming ciphering (si'fér-ing), working examples curcuit (sur'kit), round-about trip circumference (ser-kum'fer-ens), distance around the edge of a circle clamber (klam'bér), climb clapboard (klap'bord), narrow board clatter, rattling noise clearings, ground where the trees have been cut cleft the bark asunder (a-sun'der), split the bark clogging (klog'ing), hindering close couching (kouch'ing), crouching so as to be hidden close the seams together, make the cracks tight cloud-rack of a tempest, flying, broken clouds after a storm coffers (kof'ers), treasure chests Cogia Houssam (ko'gya hoo'sam) collected (ko-lekt'ed), thoughtful collected her thoughts (ko-lekt'ed), thought quickly combine (kom-bin'), form themselves come what may, no matter what happens Commander of the Faithful (ko-man'der; fath'foõl), leader of those true to the Mohammedan religion. The title is given to the Caliphs commanding lookout (ko-mand'ing look'out'), place from which the surrounding neighborhood can be seen commission (ko-mish'un), thing to be done comparatively a new affair (kom-par'a-tiv-li; a-far'), a world that had been made only a short time composure (kom-po'zhur), calmness comrades (kom'radz), mates concealed (kon-seld'), hidden confident mood (kon'fi-dent mood), feeling sure I could do it confounded with astonishment (kon-found'ed; as-ton'ish-ment), so surprised that they could not think confused (kon-fuzd'), bothered conjoined of them all (kon-joind'), made of all together connected with himself (ko-nekt'ed), have reference to him conscious (kon'shus), aware consequence (kon'se-kwens), result consideration (kon-sid'er-a'shun), reason constant (kon'stant), regular constellation (kon'ste-la'shun), a group of stars constituting (kon'sti-tut'ing), making up consul (kon'sul), one who lives in a foreign country to look after the business interests of his own country there contemptible (kon-temp'ti-b'1), mean contracts (kon-trakts'), makes contrivance (kon-triv'ans), device contrived (kon-trivd'), made contrive to bury (kon-triv'; ber'i), manage to bury conveyed (kon-vad'), given over coppers (kop'erz), pennies cord, string of the bow cornice (kor'nis), high molding around the walls corporeal sensations (kor-po're-al sen-sa'shunz), coarse pleasures corpse (korps), dead body corselet (kors'1et), armor for the body council of war (koun'sil), meeting to make plans counsels (koun'selz), advice count all your boasts, even though you present your many charms count like misers (mi'zerz), count as lovingly as do misers their money county town, town where the business of the county (holding court, paying taxes, etc.), is carried on coursers (kor'serz), swift horses; here reindeer courteous (kur'te-us), polite court favor (kort fa'ver), good will of the ruler or other high personage courtiers (kort'yerz), those in attendance at the court of a ruler cover (kuv'er), underbrush large enough to hide behind cowering (kou'er-ing), hovering creation (kre-a'shun), the world crestfallen (krest'fol'n), cast down cresting the billows (krest'ing; bi1'oz), adorning the top of the waves crevice (krev'is), crack crew of gypsies, band of ragamuffins cross-brace, the piece of wood between the plow handles crown of his desire, thing he wanted most cruel mortification (kroo'el mor'ti-fi-ka'shun), very great annoyance cruise (krooz), trip in a boat cunning (kun'ing), tricky cunningly made, skillfully made cupboard (kub'erd), a closet for dishes curmudgeon (kur-muj'un), miser curtsy (kurt'si), bow cymbals (sim'balz), pair of brass half globes clashed together to produce a ringing sound Dacotahs (da-ko'taz), Sioux (Soo) Daedalus of yore (ded'a-lus) Daedalus of olden time. The story is that he escaped from prison by flying with wings he had made dames, married women Darius (da-ri'us) daunted (dant'ed), frightened dawn, daybreak daybeds, resting places in daytime deathless fame (deth'les), lasting glory deck her bosom (booz'um), trim the front of the canoe deems (demz), thinks deer-skin dressed and whitened, skins of deer, which had been cleaned, smoothed, and bleached defile (de-fi1'), narrow pass defunct tenant (de-funkt' ten'ant), man who formerly lived there but is dead dejected (de-jekt'ed), downhearted delicate crafts employ (del'i-kat), use your skill in cooking dell, small valley deposited (de-poz'it-ed), put away derision (de-rizh'un), mockery desert (dez'ert), uninhabited by man design (de-zin'), plan desolation (des'o-la'shun), ruin despair (de-spair'), hopelessness desperate (des'per-at), hopeless dessert (de-zurt'), fruit, pastry, etc., served at the close of a meal destined to be let loose (des'tind), fated to be free diamond (di'a-mund), precious stone diminished (di-min'isht); made less diminutive (di-min'u-tiv), tiny directly (di-rekt'li), at once disaster (diz-as'ter), great trouble discloses (dis-kloz'ez), lets be seen discover (dis-kuv'er), find out dismounted (dis-moun'ted), threw down off its mountings disputed (dis-put'id), argued; talked each against the others disquietude (dis-kwi'e-tud), uneasiness dissuading (di-swad'ing), advising away from distant days that shall be, time to come but still far-off diversified (di-vur'si-fid), made to have a look of variety docile (dos'il), gentle down of a thistle (this'l), lightest thing you can think of down timber (tim'ber), fallen trees dowry (dou'ri), gift of a man to his bride draft (draft), one drink dread silence reposes (dred si'lens re-poz'ez), sleeps quietly, so we fear it dreamy recollection (rek'o'lek'shun), faint memory drink your health, wish you good health when beginning to drink, usually at a meal driven (driv'en), blown before the wind droll (drol), laughable drooping (droop'ing), with hanging heads droop o'er the sod, hang over a grave drought (drout), lack of rain drowned (dround) dry and dumb (dum), dried up and still because there is no water to ripple ducat (duk'at), old gold coin ($2.28) dungeon (dun'jun), underground prison Duquesne (doo-kan') dusk'y pods (dus'ki), dark-colored seed vessels duty holds him fast (du'ti), he knows he ought to stay each in its turn the sway, one after the other ruled eager hand (e'ger), hand that could hardly wait earth-bound ties, roots which hold it in the ground ear'th'en (ur'th'n), earthenware earth was young, world had not long existed Eastern lands, Asia and Africa eaves (evz), edges of the roof which overhang the walls slightly echo (�k'õ), say over again echoing corridor (ek'o-ing kor'i-dor), long, empty hall in which they could hear their own footsteps ell (el), forty-five inches enchantment (en-chant'ment), magic en-circled (en-sur'kl'd), wound around en-counter (en-koun'ter), meeting engines (en'jinz), implements enterprise (en'ter-priz), undertaking; willingness to try different things epidemic (ep'i-dem'ik), a disease which one person takes from another Epimetheus (ep'i-me'thus) equipage (ek'wi-paj), horses and carriage ere (ar), before esteem (Ls-tém'), good opinion evaporated (e-vap'o-rat-ed), passed away from me ever-officious Tonish (o-fish'us ton'ish), Tonish, who was always doing too much every part has a voice (ev'er-i), each stripe and star means something evident intention (ev'i-dent in-ten'shun), plain purpose Ewayea (e-wa-ya'), a lullaby exaggerations (eg-zaj'er-a'shunz), overstatements excess (ek-ses'), too much exile (ek'sil), one away from home explore (eks-plor'), examine thoroughly expound (eks-pound'), explain express consent (eks-pres' kon-sent'), especial permission being given extending themselves (eks-tend'ing), spreading out so as to be at a distance from each other extinguish (eks-ting'gwish), put out extraordinary (eks-tror'di-na-ri), surprising; unusual exulted (eg-zult'ed), was glad exulting, glean (eg-zult'ing glen), rejoicing, harvest eyeglass of dew (i'glas'; du), a dew-drop fading, losing the original color fail of the fruits, have not the fruits faint shadow of a trouble, only a hint of unhappiness fair voyage (voi'aj), trip without severe storms or accidents fallow (fa1'o), pale yellow Falls of Minnehaha (min'e-ha'ha), a waterfall near Minneapolis false estimates (fols es'ti-mats), wrong judgment faltering (fol'ter-ing), stopping fame, being known everywhere fame so becoming to you (be-kum'ing), glory that suits you so well famous roebuck (ro'buk), fine, big deer fantastic forms (fan-tas'tik), strange shapes fashioned (fash'und), shaped; made fashioned flutes (fash'und), made pipes from which he blew music fast in my fortress (for'tres), held firmly by my love. fatal (fa'tal), destructive fatigue (fa-teg'), weariness favorable gale (fa'ver-a-b'l gal), wind blowing in the direction he wished to sail feasting his eyes, enjoying looking at features and tokens (fe'turz; to'k'nz), parts of the face, and expression feeling but one heart-beat, all having the same feelings and wishes feet unwilling, moving slowly without interest fenlands (fen'landz'), swamps fervently (fur'vent-li), warmly feuds (few-dz), quarrels fevered mart (fev'erd mart), market place full of excitement fib'rous (fi'brus), made of fibers; strong filled the night, made it all light fissure (fish'ur), narrow crack fitfully blows (fit'fool-li), blows and then stops fit to be made a tool of, suitable to be deceived by flattery to do the work of others flags, long, narrow leaves of a plant flanking parties, riders who were going to stand at the sides flaunt (flant), make a great showing of flaunting (flant'ing), waving flaunting nigh (falnt'ing al), making a great show near them flecked with leafy light, spotted with sunlight shining through the trees fleck its lonely spread (flek), show as a dark spot against the great stretch of grass flesh creeps, shudder with horror flexibility (flek'si-bil'i-ti), ability to be bent flight of song, where a song goes flitting (flit'ing), flying about flow in music, glide along so as to make pleasant sounds flow'ry dells, little valleys with flowers in them flutter (flut'er), are in motion foliage (fo'li-aj), leafy plants folly laughs to scorn (fol'i lafs to skorn), one who is foolish makes fun of fond, loving forbear (for-bear'), keep from forbear thy stroke (for-bear'), do not chop it down forbidding further passage (for-bid'ing fur'ther pas'aj), keeping them from going on forbore (for-bor'), held back ford, a shallow place where the soldier could cross without a bridge forefather (for'fath'er), ancestor forehead (for'ed), upper part of the face forest-fighters (for-est-fit'erz), men used to fighting among trees forest's life was in it, it was made from the trees and seemed alive like them forever and a day, for all time for-lore' (for-lorn'), poor and lonely former state, condition it had been in formidable (for'mi-da-b'l), dreadful fortnight (fort'nit), two weeks foul footsteps pollution (po-1u'shun), dishonor of the country, caused by an enemy being in it fowling piece, gun for shooting birds fragments (frag'ments), scraps fragrant (fra'grant), sweet-smelling frame of mind, feeling this way franchise of this good people (fran'chiz), vote of the men of this colony freight'ing (fra'ting), burden freight it with (frat), load the boat with frenzy (fren'zi), joyous madness frequented (fre-kwent'ed), visited fretted, tired; teased frigate (frig'at), light, sailing warship fringed with trees, with a thin line of trees along it frol'ic (frol'ik), play frolic chase, game of running after each other frosted (frost'ed), frostbitten, and, as a result, loosened frothy (froth'i), having bubbles frowning pine forest (froun'ing pin for'est), dark evergreen forest fugitives (fu'ji-tivz), horses which were trying to escape full glory reflected (re-flekt'ed), with all its colors showing full of invention (in-ven'shun), good at thinking up plans furrows (fur'oz), shallow trenches made by the plow furze (furz), an evergreen shrub with yellow flowers gainsaid (gan'sed'), changed gallantly (gal'ant-li), bravely gallantly streaming (gal'ant-li strem'ing), bravely flying gaunt (glint), thin from, hunger gauze (goz), thin, transparent stuff gave me a good character (kar'ak- said I was a reliable man gave myself up for lost, stopped having any hope of being saved genial (je'ni-al), favorable to growth genial hour (je'ni-al), pleasant spring time genius (jen'yus), a person who can do more or better than ordinary people Genius (jen'yus), a powerful spirit gentian (jen'shan), a beautiful flowering plant, usually blue gesture (jes'tur), motion ghastly spectacle (gast'li spec'ta- horrible sight gigantic (ji-gan'tik), very large gilt, gold-plated metal gimlet (gim'let), tool which bores small holes as it is turned Gitche Gum'ee (gi'che OW), Lake Superior gitche Manito (gi'che man'i-to), Great Spirit give back the cry, answer give me thought for thought, tell me his ideas and listen to mine glade (glad), an open, grassy space in a wood gladness breathes, joy seems to come gleaming (glem'ing), light glean, gather glens, little valleys dimmer (glim'er), gleam glimmering o'er (glim'er-ing), shining brightly over corn and people glittering (glit'er-ing), shining glorified the hill (glo'ri-fid), sent beautiful rays of light upon the hill glory fell chastened (chas'nd), his light at the height of its brightness cast but a soft light glossy (glos'i), shining gold'en ears before (gol'd'n), yellow ears of corn taken from their husks and piled in front of the huskers goodly root (good'li root), the much prized potato gophers (go'ferz), ground-squirrels gorgeous (gor'jus), magnificent; beautiful gossip of swallows, bird-notes that sound like chatter go the entire round, make the furrow around the field Governer (guv'er-ner), the chief man of the colony gracious-ly (gra'shus-li), with kind courtesy Granada (gra-na'da) granaried harvest (gran'a-rid), grain and vegetables stored for the winter gratifying his utmost wishes (grat'i-fy-ing), giving him anything he might wish for grave (grav), serious-looking gray of the morning, faint light before the sun is up greatest disquietude (dis-kwe'e-tood), worst trouble Great Spirit, God grievously (grev'us-li), painfully grim, stern; unyielding grimace (gri-mas'), made-up face griping landlord (grip'ing), stingy man who rents houses for high rent grope (grop), feel without seeing grow into tangles (tang'g'lz), grow wild as in the woods or fields guard thy repose (gard; re-poz'), protect you while you sleep guidance (gid'ans) showing him the right course to take guided of my counsel (gid'ed; koun'-sul), take my advice guiding lines (gid'ing), reins by which horses are driven guileless (gil'les), pure in heart guinea (gin'i), English coin ($5.11) gullies (gul'iz), small valleys dug out by water gushing (gush'ing), freely flowing habitable (hab'it-a-b'l), fit to live in had occasion to go out (o-ka'zhun), needed to go somewhere in the town hailed his coming, called out gladly when they saw him half-faced camp, shack with three walls and one open side half-section of unfenced sod, 320 acres of unbroken ground with no fence hallooed (ha-lood'), shouted halloo hallow us there (ha1'o), give us a feeling at home as of sacred things hamlet without name (ham'let), few houses near together, but not called a town hampers (ham'perz), woven baskets handiwork (han'di-wurk'), what I make handkerchiefs (hang'ker-chifs) hand of art, tasteful plan happily arranged, growing in pretty clumps hardy gift (har'di), fruit of the sturdy plant which is given by the earth harrowing additions (har'o-ing a-dish'unz), things added that are painful to hear hart (hart), male red deer Harunal-Rashid' (ha-roon'-ar-ra-shed'), Caliph of Bagdad harvest (har'vest), dry seeds has an ax to grind, wants someone to do some hard work without pay hate is shadow, feelings of dislike darken everything haughty (ho'ti), proud haunches (hanch'ez), hind legs haunt (hint), come back again and again haunts (hants), places where one loves to go often haunts of Nature (na'tur), out-of-doors havoc of war (hav'ok), ruin caused by fighting hawk-eyed eagerness (hok-id e'ger-nes), watching impatiently and with the sharpness of a hawk hearken (har'ken), listen hearthrug (harth'rug), rug in front of the fireplace heart outran his footsteps, wanted to be there before he was hearts-ease, comfort in trouble hearts right hand of friendship, a greeting that shows we feel friendly heartstrings, love heath (heth), land covered with heather, which has a purple blossom heav'n-rescued land (hev'n-res'kud), country saved by God heavy-rolling flight, running with a rocking movement from side to side heir (ar), one who takes the property of another after he is through with it helm (helm), helmet, a protection for the head; the machinery that steers the ship he must be cold, he lacks feeling herb'age (ur'baj), grass and other plants eaten by grazing animals here, on earth heroic blood (he-ro'ik), descended from brave men hewed (hud), chopped Hiawatha (hi-a-wath'a) hidden silk has spun (hid'n), threads of down in the pod that resemble those which the silkworm spins hideous (hid'e-us), horrible-looking hie (hi), go; take high relief (re-lef') carved so that the features stood up from the box hireling (hir'ling), paid soldier his proper sphere (prop'er sfer), his own place his reverence (rev'er-ens), the minister hither (hith'er), here hoard (hord), supply of provisions hoary (hor'i), old and gray hold (hold), lower part of a ship, where cargo is stored hollows that rustle between' (hol'oz; rus'l be-twen'), low, quiet places between large, noisily-roiling waves home-brew served for wine, home-made drinks were used instead of wine homely old adage (hom'li; ad'aj), common saying hoodwinked, blindfolded horror (hor'er), great fear horror of my situation (hor'er; sit'u-a'shun), great danger of the place I was in horseplay, rude play or jokes host (host), great number hotly pressed, closely followed hovel (hov'r1), small, poor house hovered (hub'erd), fluttered huddled (hud'ld), crowded hue (hu), color hues of summer's rainbow (huz), colors in the rainbow in summer human (hu'man), exactly like man Humber (hum'ber), a river in northeastern England humble (hum'b'l), lowly; not proud humor (hu'mer), temper humor better suited to his own (hu'-mer), more like his hurrah (hoo-ra'), a word used as a shout of joy hurricane (hur'i-kan), great storm hush of woods, quiet of the forest Iagoo (e-a'goo) Icarus (ik'a-rus), the son of Daedalus--which *see* ideas (i-de'az) thoughts idle, golden freighting (fra'ting), burden of golden-colored autumn leaves if to windward, if the hunter is in the direction from which the wind blows imaginable (i-maj'i-na-b'l), I could think of; possible immortal in their childhood (i-mor'-tal), so placed that they would never grow any older Imperial (im-pe'ri-al), royal imperious (im-pe'ri-us), demanding much implement (im'ple-ment), tool imply a share of reason (im-pli'; re'-z'n), suggest some power to think impression continuing (im-presh'-un kon-tin'u-ing), the effect remaining inability (in-a-bil'i-ti), that you cannot incalculable (in-kal'ku-la-b'l), cannot be counted incapable (in-ka'pa-b'l), not able incline (in-klin'), slope in darker fortunes tried (for'tunz), they had when they were poor indifference (in-dif'er-ens), not caring indigestible (in'di-jes'ti-b'l), impossible to digest indignation (in'dig-na'shun), anger against what is wrong induce (in-dus'), cause indulge it to the utmost (in-dulj'; ut'most), be as cross as be could infinite (in'fi-nit), everlasting infinitely (in'fi-nit-li), much more ingenious (in-jan'yús), clever inhaling (in-hal'ing), smelling inheritance (in-har'i-tans), a gift from our ancestors initial mound (in-ish'al), first furrow around the field inquíries (in-kwir'iz), questioning in such wise, so fiercely intelligent (in-tel'i-jent), clever intent upon (in-tent'), interested in interminable forests (in-tur'mi-na-b'l), woods that seemed endless interrupt his lay (in'te-rupt'), stop his song in the largest sense, in the broadest meaning intimate association (in'ti-mat a-so'si-a'shun), close companionship intolerable (in-tol'er-a-b'l), unbearable intruder (in-troo'der), an uninvited guest invention (in-ven'shun), schemes Islands of the Blessed (i'landz; bles'-ed), in mythology, islands where people lived happily, after death isles (ilz), islands jasper (jas'per), a dark, hard stone jaunty (jan'ti), gay and easy jet, black jib (jib), swing around joined to such folly (fol'i), a partner in such foolishness joyance (joi'ans), happiness judgment (juj'ment), idea; opinion Justiciar (jus-tish'i-ar), chief judge justs/jousts (justs), mock fights between knights on horseback Kagh (kag), the hedgehog keel (kel), bottom of a ship keep, support kept, made to go on khan (kan), an unfurnished building for the use of traveling traders King's Council (koun'sil), men who met with the King to advise him kissed into green (kist), changed to green when touched by the sun's rays knight (nit), in Great Britain, a man with the title Sir knights of old (nits), men of olden times who went about doing brave deeds knoll (nol), a little round hill knows full well, knows very well Kwansind (ksa'sind) lady, the wife of a knight lamentable (lam'ín-táa-b'l), distressed lamentable tone, sad voice languidly (lang'gwid-li), carelessly lank (lank), thin lapsed (lapst), slipped larch (larch), tree which looks like an evergreen but sheds its needles lariat (lar'i-at), long rope with running noose laudable (lod'a-b'l), praiseworthy laughing (laf'ing) launch (lanch), get it afloat lavish horn (lav'ish), overflowing horn; from the mythological story of the horn that could become filled with whatever its possessor desired lea (le), ground covered with grass league (lee-g), about three miles learned (lur'ned), highly educated learning (lurn'ing), knowledge leave unmoved (un-moovd'), unharmed lee of the land, shelter of the shore legends (lef'endz), old stories only partly true lei'sure (le'zhur), time to do what he wished levee (lev-e'), reception given by a ruler or his representative liege (lej), having the right to claim service light and boon, bright and pleasant lightsome (lit'sum), cheery life a Turk, as people do in Turkey Lilliput (lil'i-put) Lilliputians (lil'i-pu'shanz) limes (limz), fruit like lemons, but smaller and more sour linden (lin'den), made from basswood listless (list'les), caring about nothing livelihood (liv'li-hood), living livelong (liv'long'), whole loam (lam), earth lone (lon), lonely lone post of death, place where he must die alone looked westerly (wes'ter-li), turned toward the west, the direction in which the wind was blowing before it stopped loosed (loost), set free lost their labor, got no good from the work they had done lovely tokens (luv'li to'k'nz), beautiful signs lower (lo-ur), darken lowly thatched cottage, small one-story house with roof of straw lozenge (loz'enj), a tablet of medicine lust, strong wish luster of midday (lus'ter; mid'da), light bright as at noon lustrous (lus'trus), radiant lusty rogue (lus'ti rog), lively little rascal magic arts (maj'ik), power over spirits magician (ma-jish'an), one who uses magic arts magic his singing (maj'ik), charming way he sang magnificence (mag'nif'i-sens), grandeur Maharaja (ma-ha-ra'ja), title of the principal Hindu chief Mahngotaysee (man-go'ta'se), brave maintain (man-tan'), keep make amends to the human race (a-mendz'), make up to people everywhere make a stand, hold out against; fight man-builded today, built by people now maneuver (ma-noo'var), planned movement of a large number man of might, strong, important man man's dominion (do-min'yun), for the use of people mansion (man'shun), large and handsome residence many a happy return, many more mariners (mar'i-nerz), sailors marred (mard), spoiled marred the whole scene (mard) spoiled the effect planned marvel (mar'vel), wonderful thing marveled (mar'veld), wondered Massasoit (mas'a-soit') match, able to win against matchless, having no equal matrons (ma'trunz), married women mayhap, maybe maze (maz), confusing number of paths which cross meads (medz), meadows measures (mezh'urz), melodies meditated (med'i-tat'ed), thought meeting-house, church melancholy (mel'an-kol-i), sad melted them to pity, softened their feelings so they were filled with gentle thoughts merchandise (mur'chan-diz), goods merchant-man (mur'chant-man), a trading vessel merest (mer'est), simplest merry (mer'i), joyous metallic (me-tal'ik), of metal metal true, really good iron methinks (me-thinks'), it seems to me Midas (mi'das) milder glory shone (mil'der), a softer and paler glow cast its light mildew (mil'du), mold; rust mingled into one (ming'g'ld), so united that one could not be distinguished from the other miniature (min'i-a-tur), very small Minnehaha (min'e-ha'ha) Minnewawa (min'e-wa'wa) mirthful to excess (murth'fool; ek-ses'), too gay mischievious (mis'chi-vus), fun-loving misdoings (mis-doo'ingz), wrong acts mission (mish'un), errand mists of the deep, fog over the water moccasins of magic (mok'a-sinz), charmed shoes moderation (mod'er-a'shun), fair way modest bell, bell-shaped flower that hangs over molder in dust away (mol'der), lose their form and become earth again molested (mo-lest'ed), troubled molten (mol't'n), melted monarch (mon'ark), ruler Monongahela (mo-non'ga-he'la), river in Pennsylvania Monsieur (me-syur'), French for Mr. moor sandy, wet ground more enterprise (en'ter-priz), willingness to try to do things Morgiana (mor'gi-a'na) mortal (mor'tal), human mortal enemy (mor'tal en'e-me), man who hates you so much he would like to kill you mortal fear, greatest fear mortal-ly (mor'tal-i), so as to cause death mosques (mosks), places of worship in Mohammedan countries moss (mos), a tiny grasslike plant, very soft moss-green trees, trees with trunks covered by green moss mount to the sky, fly out of sight mow (mo; here, mo for rime) much amiss (a-mis'), very wrong much contriving (con-triv'ing), making great plans much frequented (fre-kwent'ed), often visited much inclined (in-klind'), having a great liking for Mudwayaushka (mud'way-oush'ka) multiply his heaps, make his piles many times greater mummies (mum'iz), dead bodies which have been preserved in a dried state; here, persons whose minds are dry and not open to new ideas Munchausen (mun-cho'zen), a teller of extravagant tales Musketaquid (mus-ket'a-kwid) Muskoday (musk'o-day) mute (m-yut), voiceless; quiet muttering, saying in a low tone muzzle (muz'l), nose and,mouth my design (de-zin'), my plan mysterious (mis-te'ri-us), puzzling mystic splendors (mis'tik splen'-derz), magic brightness naked sword (nay'kd sord), sword without a sheath narrow bound, thin wall keeping them out national constellation (nash'un-al kon'ste-la'shun), group of stars belonging to the nation native language (na'tiv lang'gwaj), way that is natural to them natural death (nat'u-ral), died without being killed naught (not), nothing navigate the azure (nav'i-gay-t; az'-ur), sail through the sky Nawadaha (na'wa-da'ha) near his cot, not far from his cottage neither (ne'ther) neither willing nor reluctant (ne'-ther re-luk'tant), not showing whether she wanted to go or stay nephew (nef'u), the son of a brother or sister nicest goldsmith, most skillful worker in gold niche (nich), small opening nimble (nim'b'l), quick to do things noble (no'b'l), coin worth about $1.60; man of high rank Nokomis (no-ko'mis) nostrils (nos'trilz), the openings in the nose for breathing note if harm were near, to see if there were any danger round about obliterated (ob-lit'er-at'ed), taken away obscure (ob-skur'), dark obscured their passage (ob-skurd'; pas'aj), hid their line of movement observation (ob'zer-vay'shun), careful notice obstacle (ob'sta-k'l), something in the way obtained a foothold (ob-tand'), got a start occupied with her grief (ok'u-pi-d), full of sorrow o'cean's breast (o'shanz brest), calm surface of the sea O drug, useless thing o'er-shadowed Thanksgiving Day (or-shad'od), brought up sad thoughts on the holiday o'er the combers (or; kom'erz), over the long rolling waves of all degrees, of all kinds, large and small of a serious nature (se'ri-us na'tur), of a dangerous kind officially recognized (o-fish'al-i rek'og-nizd), known and stated ointment (oint'ment), precious salve Ojibways (o-jib'waz), a tribe that lived just south of Lake Superior ooze and tangle (ooz), mud and roots oozing outward (ooz'ing), flowing from the tree Opechee (o-pech'e) open-handedness, generosity operations of the enemy (op'er-shunz; en'e-mi), doings of those fighting against us oppression lifts its head (o-presh'-shun), people are treated unjustly original (o-rij'i-nal), first outlaw', one who breaks the laws and flees to escape punishment overcame this handicap (han'di-kap), got over this disadvantage Owaissa (o-was'a) packet (pak'et), bundle pack train, a number of animals carrying the supplies of the party pagans (pa'ganz), not Christians painted pulpit (pool'pit), green and purple over-arching leaf of the jack-in-the-pulpit flower painted tribes of light, gay, bright flowers of spring painted white, white-skinned, like an Indian's face covered with paint pale skies, gray skies of early spring palfreys (pol'friz), saddle-horses palisades pine-trees (pa1'i-say-dz'), tall pines, standing like a wall on each bank palpitated (pal'pi-tat'ed), shook Pandora (pan-do'ra) parched (parcht), dry parent (par'ent), the giver of life partake (par-tak') share particularly (par-tik'u-lar'li), very partners (part'nerz), companions past will no longer be the past (past), things that happened long ago will seem as real as though going on now pathos (pa'thos), sad sweetness patient weathercocks (pa' shent we'-ther-koks), patient, waiting for the wind to blow Pauwating (pa-wa'ting) St. Mary's river, joining Lakes Superior and Huron pay my court (kort), show my respect by visiting you peace of mind, calm thoughts with nothing to disturb them peasants (pez'ants), lowest class of people peer (per) peep cautiously pennon (pen'un), flag performing these good offices (per-for'ing), doing these kind acts perilous (per'i-lus), dangerous periodical (pe'ri-od'i-kal), printed matter, in the form of a magazine, published regularly (not daily) perplexity (per-plek'si-ti), difficulty persevered (pur'se-verd') persisted perseveringly (pur'se-ver'ing-li), continually personage (pur'sun-aj), creature pest, disease which kills pestered (pes'terd), annoyed pettishly (pet'ish-li), crossly pheasants (fez'antz), wild birds of delicious flavor phoebe (fe'be), a kind of bird phrase (fray-z), expression physical and moral courage (fiz'i-kal; mor'al kur'aj), bravery of body and mind physique (íf-zék'), build and health piece of cover (kuv'er), bit of underbrush large enough to hide behind pierce like a shaft (pers; shaft), fly through like an arrow pine-clad hills, hills covered with pine trees pinion (pin'yun), wing pitiable (pit'i-a-b'l), sad place of deposit (de-poz'it), keeping place plagued the realm (plagd; relm), made trouble in the country plague the Abbot (plag), annoy the Abbot plaiting (plat'ing), braiding Plantagenets (plan-taj-e-nets), the English Kings from 1154 to 1485 plenty, enough of everything pliant as a wand (pli'ant; wond), as easily moved as a willow twig is bent plow had violated (vi'o-lat-ed), had been turned up by the plow, and thus spoiled for the small owners plowshare' (plou'shar'), blade of the plow; part which turns up the earth plundered store (plun'derd), goods he had taken by force Poet Laureate (lo're-at), poet chosen by the King to write on great events of the nation point to windward (wind'werd), turn in the direction from which the wind came poised it in the air (poizd), held it high political bustles (po-lit'i-kal bus'-lz), activities of politics pollution (po-lu'shun), soiling and making impure pomp (pomp), show ponder (pon'der), think pondering much, thinking things over ponderous (pon'der-us), heavy Ponemah (po-ne'ma) poniard (pon'yard), dagger porcelain (por'se-lan), fine white ware possessed authority (po-zest' o-thor'i-ti), knew how to control power of prophecy (prof'e-si), ability to foretell events practice decency (prak'tis de'sen-si), do the right thing every time prattle (prat'l), child's talk presence (prez'ens), being there presently (prez'ent-li), soon prevent (pre-vent'), keep from Prideaux (pre-do') pried into (prid), tried to pull apart prig, one who thinks himself good prime (pri-m), best princely (prins'li), like a prince proclaim (pro-klam'), show profusion of flowers (pro-fu'zhun), great many flowers projected (pro-jekt'ed), extended proudly we hailed, looked at with pride and joy province (prov'ins), one of the divisions of certain countries prudence (proo'dens), wisdom; sense psalm (salm), sacred song publican (pub'li-kan), tax gatherer pull fodder (fod'er), pull up cornstalks by the roots pulp, wet mixture of which paper is made pumpkin (pump'kin) purpose (pur'pus), object; work pursuit (pur-sut'), chase put me in mind, suggested to me quail (kway'-l), the bobwhite quirk (kwurk), turn quoit (kwoit), ring quoth (kwoth), said radiance (ra'di-ans), brilliance radiant (ra'di-ant), beaming raid (ray-d), attack made to get something ramparts (ram'parts), protecting walls for defense rangers (ran'jerz), men who live on the range or prairie rapturous (rap'tur-us), very happy rarities (rar'i-tiz), rare and precious things ravenous (rav'n-us), very great rayless disk of red, flat, burning circle, not seeming to throw off any rays of light reappeared (re'a-perd'), came in sight again rear (rer), raise rearing (rer'ing), standing on her hind legs recalling (re-kol'ing), remembering received in trust (re-sevd'), taken, to protect honorably reckless (rek'les), careless recognized (rek'og-nizd), saw recoil (re-koil'), rebound recovering himself (re-kuv'er-ing), coming back to his natural state of mind red-coats, British soldiers, so called because of their red uniforms redeem them (re-dem'), buy them back redoubled (re-dub'ld), repeated reeds, large tall swamp grasses reenforcing (re'en-fors'ing), covering again reflected (re-flekt'ed), thought regions of the morning (re'junz), place where the sun rises; the East regular order (reg'-u-lar or'der), in straight lines, one behind the other related (re-lat'ed), told relaxed (re-lakst'), loosened; let go Reldresal (rel'dre-sal) remnant (rem'nant), few that are left remotest corner of Africa (re-mot'-est), part of Africa the farthest away render (ren'der), give back renown (re-noun'), fame repaired to her house (re-pard'), went to her house repair the mischief (re-par'; mis'-chif), make up for the harm repast (re-past'), feast repelling (re-pel'ing), driving back repentance (re-pen'tans), regret resembles (re-zem'b'lz), is like resin (rez'in), dried sap resolutely (rez'o-lut-li), determinedly resoled (re-zolvd'), with his mind firmly made up resplendent (re-splend'ent), shining brightly restore (re-stor'), put back retired chamber (re-tird' cham'ber), room away from the main part of the house retreat (re-tret'), hiding place revels (rev'els), wild enjoyment reverberations (re-ver'ber-a'-shunz), echoes reverence (rev'er-ens), great respect richly decked (dekt), wearing beautiful and costly blankets and other decorations rich stuffs, costly cloth of different kinds ridges, raised lines of ground ridiculous (re-dik'u-lus), deserving to be laughed at rills, little streams ring of the same, sound of it ripened charge (rip'end charj), precious object in its keeping, now ready for husking rippling (rip'ling), blowing in curves rival for one hour (ri'val), equal at the time of greatest beauty riveted (riv'et-ed), fastened by bending down the end riveted his at-ten'tion (riv'et-ed; a-ten'shún), put all his thought roam (rom), wander robes of darkness, blue-black foliage clothing it roc (rok), imaginary bird of great size roguishly defied (ro'gish-li de-fid'), resisted in a joking way Roha (ro'ha) root (root), the potato rosy morn (ro'zi morn), reddish tint of the sky at sunrise round-tower of my heart, safest place for a prisoner route (root), way ruefully (roo'fool-i), sadly rue the day (roo), regret what I had done that day rugged (rug'ed), uneven rugged vales be-stow' (rug'ed vay'lz be-sto'), rough valleys furnish ruined (roo'ind), destroyed ruminating (roo'mi-nat'ing), chewing their cuds run over with joy, be wildly happy rushes, coarse grasses russet (rus'et), reddish brown or reddish gray Sachem (sa'chem), Indian chief sacrificing (sak'ri-fic'ing), giving up sad sea wave, ocean seeming sad because you are sad sage speeches (say'j), wise remarks saluted the company (sa-lut'ed; kum'pa-ni), greeted those assembled sandal-wood (san'dal-wood), a highly prized, fragrant Asiatic wood from a tree of the same name sank deep into my mind, made a lasting impression on me sate (sat), old spelling of satin satin burs (sat'in), prickly husks of chestnuts with their smooth, soft lining satisfy his mind (sat'is-fi), find out what he wanted to know save, except savory (sa'ver-i), pleasing to the smell scaled the wall (skald), got over the wall, as soldiers climbed by ladders over the walls of an old-time city scars of all wars, marks left from injuries got in fighting scope (skop), reach scorched (skorcht), heated until burned scoured the seas (skourd), hunted over the seas scour for spoils (skour), hunt for dainty foods scour'ing down the meadow (skour'ing; med'o), sweeping over the grassland sear (ser), withered seaward glide (se'werd glid), flow toward the ocean Sebowisha (seb'o-wish'a) secure him against evil (se-kur'; a-genst' e'v'l), protect him from harm sedges (sej'ez), grasslike plants with tall heads of seeds señor (se'nyor), Spanish for sir sense of elation (e-la'shun), feeling of joy sequin (se'kwin), a coin, no longer in use, worth about 82.25 serene of look and heart (se-ren'), with a calm face and mind service liketh us, we like to serve sesame (ses'a-me), a kind of grain grown in the East and used for food severed (sev'erd), cut off Severn (sev'ern), a river in southwestern England shadow of an infinite bliss (in'fi-nit), hint of happiness that cannot be measured shanty, small, unfinished house shaped them to a framework, bent and fastened them to form the skeleton of the canoe share, see plowshare sheath (sheth), put into its case sheaves (shevz), bundles of grain sheer into the river, straight down into the water shiftless (shift'les), poorly kept shilling, coin worth $0.24 shining land of Wabun (wa'bun), bright light (Wabun is the East Wind) shining shoulders, bare, wet shoulders glistening in the sun shipping, passage on shipboard shirk (shurk), one who tries to get out of work shivering shock, force that breaks its timbers shoal (shol), sandbar shoot a main, have a match shot his shining quills, cast off some of his smooth spines shoulder your matchlocks, take your guns shroud, rope of a ship shuttle (shut'l), tool used in weaving sieve (siv), a utensil for separating the coarse particles from the fine signify union (sig'ni-fi un'yun), mean joining sincerity (sin-ser'ity), honesty sinews (sin'uz), tough strips singing pine trees, pines through which the wind blew with a pleasant sound singled out (sing'g'ld), chose sire (sir), father situation (sit'u-a'shun), state in which things were skillet (skil'et), frying pan skimming (skim'ing), flying so close as to brush the surface skirted (skurt'ed), walked along the edge of; grew along the edge of skyward cast (ski'werd), hung high slab (slab), thick slice slaughtered (slo'terd), killed for food sledge (slej), a heavy hammer sleep shall be broken, you will be awakened sleight-of-mouth tricks (slit), mysterious disappearanoes slow sloping to the night (slop'ing), sinking slowly in the West sluices (sloos'ez), gates to hold back the water smiling fields, patches of grain growing well smirk (smurk), put-on smile smite the ore (smit), hammer the iron into shape smoldered (smol'derd), slowly burned Soangetaha (son'ge-ta'ha) soaring (sor'ing), floating in the air sobered by his adventure (so'berd; ad-ven'tur), made wise by his experience softly pictured wood (soft'li pik'turd), beautifully colored foliage showing up in soft tints solace (soi'as), comfort somber (som'ber), gloomy soothe, comfort sore of heart, weary and discouraged sorry pass, sad state sound of their shock, noise when they struck sovereign (sov'er-in), ruler spacious (spa'shus), large spake with naked hearts, hid no secrets from each other spare yards, extra poles used to support the sails spars (sparz), masts speaks sublimely (sub-lym'li), has a noble meaning specter-like figure (spek'ter-lyk'), person looking like a ghost spelled down, beat in spelling sphere of gold (sfer), golden globe spikes, large nails spire, a slender rod, or tower, extend ins upward from the top of a build ins; here, for the weathercock spiritualizes (spir'it-u-al-iz-ez), purifies spirit was gradually subdued (spir'it; grad'u-al-li sub-dud'), she was tamed splendor dazzles in vain (splen'der), bright show of glory does not tempt splendor wild (splen'der), light rising and falling spoils of forest free, things that come from trees sported, played spray (spra), twig sprites (sprits), fairies square heaven of blue, blue part of the flag stalwart (stol'wert), brave stanch (stanch), faithful stanched (stancht), checked the bleeding from standing in for the shore, coming toward the land stand you in yeoman's stead (yo' manz sted), be of help to you in your adventures star spangled, sprinkled with stars state and person, country and the man himself stately (stat'li), standing proudly stature (stat'ur), height stayed my walk, stopped me stay surety (shoor'ti), be security stern, the back part of a boat steward (stu'erd), man in charge of the food stick to your sphere (sfer), do the things you can do; don't try to do those you can't stiff, not to be bent or changed stifled murmur (sti'f'ld mur'mur), a low sound not easily heard stirred their souls to passion (pash'un), moved their deepest feelings store, large amount storm still brave, stand firm in a hard wind stoutest, bravest stout fellow, gay young man Straits of Gibraltar (strats; ji-brol'tar), narrow waterway between Spain and Africa strength allied to goodness (a-lid'), bodily power added to virtues strewn (stroon), covered stricken (strik'en), frightened strife comes with manhood, men have to fight stroked in ripples (strokt; rip'lz), gently made into little folds stubble (stub'l), short stalks left in the ground after grain has been cut studied the situation (stud'id; sit'u-a'shun), thought over the state in which things were sturdy (stur'di), strong; firm sublimely (sub-lim'li), with great nobility and purity succeeded to the gloom (suk-sed'ed; gloom), followed the cloudiness such an old mustache (mus-tash'), so fierce a soldier suitable to that character (sut'a-b'l; kar'ak-ter), such as dancers wore Sultan (sul'tan), title of the ruler in some Asiatic countries summit of the Cedar (sum'it), top of the tree summoned (sum'mund), called sun benignant (be-nig'nant), kindly sun sun is under the sea, sun has set sunshine of sweet looks, brightness of expression supple (sup'l), easily bent supported the dog's chances (su-port'ed; chans'ez), said that the dog would succeed suppressed (su-prest'), kept down surety (shoor'ti), security surge's swell (surj'ez), waves of the rising sea surpassed (sur-past'), did better than swam (swim) sweeping westward, moving swiftly toward the west sweetmeats, candied fruits swell the merriment (mer'i-ment), make louder the sound of happy voices swept down into a valley, sloped gradually to low land swerve (swurv), go crooked swoon (swoon), faint symbol (sim'bol), sign symbolizes (sim'bol-iz-ez), means tamarack (tam'a-rak), tree that looks like an evergreen but sheds its needles in winter tang to the spirit (tang; spir'it), fancied taste Taquamenaw (ta'kwa-me'no), river in Michigan tarnished (tar'nisht), stained taught wisdom from the past, having learned better things from what had happened before Tawasentha (ta'wa-sen'tha), name of a valley in New York tawny (ta'ni), yellowish-brown tax, a part of one's wealth given up by law to benefit the public tedious (te'di-us), tiresome terrace (ter'as), a raised level platform of earth text, the subject of a talk theater (the'a-ter), building in which plays are acted their green resume (re-zum'), are again covered with grass the night is behind us, night-time is almost here therefore (thar'for), for that reason thick zigzags (zig'zagz'), many paths running this way and that thinned to a thread, grew so narrow she could barely be seen thongs (thongz), narrow strips of leather threshold (thresh'old), piece of timber under the door thrilled (thrild), filled with joy thunder halls (thun'der holz), far up, where the thunder dwells thundering down the valley (thun'der-ing; val'i), running along level ground with a noise like thunder thus accoutered (a-koo'terd), dressed in this way thus disposed (dis-pozd'), so arranged thwarted the wily savage (thwort'ed; wi'li), fought against the tricks of the Indians tinge (tinj), color; tint tinkered (tink'erd), worked without knowing just how tiny (ti'ni), very small tipped with flint, having points of flint, the hardest kind of stone 'tis meet, it is right tittered (tit'erd), laughed mockingly titter of winds, merry sound of the breeze toil is the real play, work is more fun than playing toil'some (toil'sum), hard tolerable (tol'er-a-b'l), bearable toll (tol), tax; money took no toll (tol), did not rob them took shipping, engaged passage on shipboard took to his revels (rev'elz), went on with his wild play tormentors (tor-men'toerz), flies which bit them tortured by their lances (tor'turd), in great pain from the sharp bites touchhole (tuch'hol'), the place where the powder was lighted tour (toor), trip tourneys (toor'niz), meetings where knights fought toward (to'erd), in the direction of towering steep (tou'er-ing), high slope towers (tou'erz), high parts of the castle tracker (trak'er), one who traces the path an animal has taken trade winds, winds which always blow in the same direction tradition (tra-dish'un), story handed down traffic (traf'ik), business train, those in a company tranquil (tran'kwil), motionless because there was no wind transparent (trans-par'ent), able to be seen through transport (trans'port), great excitement transport (trans-port'), to remove traveling schoolmaster (trav'el-ing), teacher who went from one place to another treason (tre'z'n), attempt to injure the government tribes of men might prosper, all nations might live in better ways trickling (trik'ling), of water running in a small stream trims, smooths neatly triumph (tri'umf), victory triumphant (tri-um'fant), glad of success trophy (tro'fi), prize troubled spirit (trub'ld spir'it), soul of the dead man which cannot rest tryst (tryst), meeting place turban (tur'ban), headdress worn in Mohammedan countries, a cap with a sash or scarf wound about it turquoise (tur'koiz), a precious blue stone turret (tur'et), a small tower tusks (tusks), large, projecting teeth twining (twyn'ing), creeping up and winding about twinkle of its candle, little glow like that from a candle twinkling, moment tyrant would be lord (ti'rant), cruel master would rule everything unaccustomed to vexations (un'a-kus'tumd; vek-sa'shunz), not used to any sort of bothers unanimously elected (u-nan'i-mus-li), given every vote unapt (un-apt'), unlikely unbounded freedom (un-bound'ed), state where they did as they liked uncomfortable state of affairs (un-kom'fer-ta-b'l; a-farz'), hard way of living unconscious (un-kon'shus), feeling and knowing nothing uneasiness (un-ez'i-nes), worry unequal fight, ill-matched struggle unfolded to your gaze, spread out before you unhoused (un-houzd'), turned out of their homes unknown, crowded nations, great masses of people of different races unwittingly, by accident upon their kind, against other men useless (us'les), without having been made good use of utmost (utmost), greatest utter itself in words (ut'er), speak its meaning vagrant (va'grant), idle wanderer vague (vag), not clear vague lisps (vag), talk that could not be understood vales (valz), little valleys valor (val'er), bravery varied riches (va'rid), good foods of different kinds vault (volt), walled-up space under- ground vauntingly (vant'ing-li), boastingly veered (verd), turned venomous (ven'um-us), poisonous verdant (vur'dant), green vest that is bright, red breast vexation (vek-sa'shun), anger vexations (vek-sa'shunz), troubles victuals (vit'lz), food villain (vil'in), wicked man virgin air (vur'jin), clear, fresh air of spring. virtue of vested power (vur'tu), because of the office to which he had been elected vision (vizh'un), dream visions of sugarplums (vizh'unz), dreams of candy vizier (vi-zer'), a high state officer in Mohammedan countries voluntarily (voi'un-ta-ri-li), willingly Wabasso (wa-bas'o) Wabun (wa'bun), East wind Wahwahtaysee (wa'wa-ta'se) wain (wan), wagon waistcoat (wast'kot), vest walks of life, things they try to do wand (wand), slender stick wanders piping through the village, walks around the town, playing sweet music wanted nothing, had everything he wanted warring (wor'ing), fighting warrior (wor'yer), fighting man wary (wa'ri), easily frightened was minded to try (min'ded), felt he would like to test wastes (wasts), wide stretches of land unfit for cultivation wayside blossom (wa'sid blos'um), flower growing by the roadside wayside things (wa'sid'), flowers that grow along the roadside Wawa (wa'wa) Wawonaissa (wa'won-a'sa) Waywassimo (wa-was'i-mo) weasel (we'z'l), a small animal noted for its quickness wedge (wej), a tool, thinner at one edge, used for splitting ween, know well mounted, riding on good horses wend (wend), go wheeling (hwel'ing), circling whence, from where where the last was bred, in the place in which the last sprang whereupon (hwar'u-pon'), after which wherever it listeth (hwar'ev'er; list'eth), wherever it wishes white-skin wrapper, covering of white bark Whitsunday (hwit's-n-day), the seventh Sunday after Easter whole round of my isle, trip all the way around the island whose joy is to slay, who like to kill wield (weld), use wigwams (wig'womz), huts of bark wilderness (sil'der-nes), wild country wildfire Jack-o'-lantern, gay little man dancing about willing lands, ground ready for plowing will not eat salt, in olden times eating salt with a man (that is, being his guest) bound the guest to do his host no harm, then or afterward wily (wíi'i), tricky winged (wing'ed), having wings winged with feathers (wingd), having feathers at one end, to help them fly wintry hoard (win'tri hord), store of food for the winter wisdom of the book, words which made up the sense witchery (wich'er-i), fascination within his scope (with-in'; skop), where he could reach it with one accord (a-kord'), with the same idea with one consent (kon-sent'), agreeing without more ado (a-doo'), not making any objection wonder (wun'der), surprising thing wondrous (wun'drus), strange wondrous birth and being (wun'drus; be'ing), story of the wonderful way he came into the world and lived in it words cannot paint, anything one might say could not describe work the book out, do enough work to pay for the book worship (wur'ship), devotion to God wounded (woond'ed), hurt wounds (woondz), old griefs woven texture (wo'v-n; teks'tur), cloth wrack (rak), ruin wreath (reth), garland wreathed (reth'ed), joyous wreathing fires reth'ing), flames twisting around wrought (rot), worked wrought together in such harmony (rot; har'mo-ni), so combined in the carving Xenil (ze'nil) yearling (yer'ling), an animal one year old yellow hair, the silky threads growing out from the end of the corn ear Yenadizze (yen'a-diz'e), an idler yeoman (yo'man), free-born man yester (yes'ter), of the day before yet unforgotten, still remembered yore (yor), olden time young sun, early morning sun 
28097	----	Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this file which includes the original illustrations. See 28097-h.htm or 28097-h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/2/8/0/9/28097/28097-h/28097-h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/2/8/0/9/28097/28097-h.zip) ENGLISH: COMPOSITION AND LITERATURE by W. F. WEBSTER Principal of the East High School Minneapolis, Minnesota Houghton Mifflin Company Boston: 4 Park Street; New York: 85 Fifth Avenue Chicago: 378-388 Wabash Avenue The Riverside Press Cambridge Copyright, 1900 and 1902, by W. F. Webster All Rights Reserved PREFACE In July, 1898, I presented at the National Educational Association, convened in Washington, a Course of Study in English. At Los Angeles, in 1899, the Association indorsed the principles[1] of this course, and made it the basis of the Course in English for High Schools. At the request of friends, I have prepared this short text-book, outlining the method of carrying forward the course, and emphasizing the principles necessary for the intelligent communication of ideas. It has not been the purpose to write a rhetoric. The many fine distinctions and divisions, the rarefied examples of very beautiful forms of language which a young pupil cannot possibly reproduce, or even appreciate, have been omitted. To teach the methods of simple, direct, and accurate expression has been the purpose; and this is all that can be expected of a high school course in English. The teaching of composition differs from the teaching of Latin or mathematics in this point: whereas pupils can be compelled to solve a definite number of problems or to read a given number of lines, it is not possible to compel expression of the full thought. The full thought is made of an intellectual and an emotional element. Whatever is intellectual may be compelled by dint of sheer purpose; whatever is emotional must spring undriven by outside authority, and uncompelled by inside determination. A boy saws a cord of wood because he has been commanded by his father; but he cannot laugh or cry because directed to do so by the same authority. There must be the conditions which call forth smiles or tears. So there must be the conditions which call forth the full expression of thought, both what is intellectual and what is emotional. This means that the subject shall be one of which the writer knows something, and in which he is interested; that the demands in the composition shall not be made a discouragement; and that the teacher shall be competent and enthusiastic, inspiring in each pupil a desire to say truly and adequately the best he thinks and feels. These conditions cannot be realized while working with dead fragments of language; but they are realized while constructing living wholes of composition. It is not two decades ago when the pupil in drawing was compelled to make straight lines until he made them all crooked. The pupil in manual training began by drawing intersecting lines on two sides of a board; then he drove nails into the intersections on one side, hoping that they would hit the corresponding points on the other. Now no single line or exercise is an end in itself; it contributes to some whole. Under the old method the pupil did not care or try to draw a straight line, or to drive a nail straight; but now, in order that he may realize the idea that lies in his mind, he does care and he does try: so lines are drawn better and nails are driven straighter than before. In all training that combines intellect and hand, the principle has been recognized that the best work is done when the pupil's interest has been enlisted by making each exercise contribute directly to the construction of some whole. Only in the range of the spiritual are we twenty years behind time, trying to get the best construction by compulsion. It is quite time that we recognized that the best work in composition can be done, not while the pupil is correcting errors in the use of language which he never dreamed of, nor while he is writing ten similes or ten periodic sentences, but when both intellect and feeling combine and work together to produce some whole. Then into the construction of this whole the pupil will throw all his strength, using the most apt comparisons, choosing the best words, framing adequate sentences, in order that the outward form may worthily present to others what to himself has appeared worthy of expression. There are some persons who say that other languages are taught by the word and sentence method; then why not English? These persons overlook the fact that we are leaving that method as rapidly as possible, and adopting a more rational method which at once uses a language to communicate thought. And they overlook another fact of even greater importance: the pupil entering the high school is by no means a beginner in English. He has been using the language ten or twelve years, and has a fluency of expression in English which he cannot attain in German throughout a high school and college course. The conditions under which a pupil begins the study of German in a high school and the study of English composition are entirely dissimilar; and a conclusion based upon a fancied analogy is worthless. It is preferable, then, to practice the construction of wholes rather than the making of exercises; and it is best at the beginning to study the different kinds of wholes, one at a time, rather than all together. No one would attempt to teach elimination by addition and subtraction, by comparison and by substitution, all together; nor would an instructor take up heat, light, and electricity together. In algebra, or physics, certain great principles underlie the whole subject; and these appear and reappear as the study progresses through its allied parts. Still the best results are obtained by taking up these several divisions of the whole one after another. And in English the most certain and definite results are secured by studying the forms of discourse separately, learning the method of applying to each the great principles that underlie all composition. If the forms of discourse are to be studied one after another, which shall be taken up first? In general, all composition may be separated into two divisions: composition which deals with things, including narration and description; and composition which deals with ideas, comprising exposition and argument. It needs no argument to justify the position that an essay which deals with things seen and heard is easier for a beginner to construct than an essay which deals with ideas invisible and unheard. Whether narration or description should precede appears yet to be undetermined; for many text-books treat one first, and perhaps as many the other. I have thought it wiser to begin with the short story, because it is easier to gain free, spontaneous expression with narration than with description. To write a whole page of description is a task for a master, and very few attempt it; but for the uninitiated amateur about three sentences of description mark the limit of his ability to see and describe. To get started, to gain confidence in one's ability to say something, to acquire freedom and spontaneity of expression,--this is the first step in the practice of composition. Afterward, when the pupil has discovered that he really has something to say,--enough indeed to cover three or four pages of his tablet paper,--then it may be time to begin the study of description, and to acquire more careful and accurate forms of expression. Spontaneity should be acquired first,--crude and unformed it may be, but spontaneity first; and this spontaneity is best gained while studying narration. There can be but little question about the order of the other forms. Description, still dealing with the concrete, offers an admirable opportunity for shaping and forming the spontaneous expression gained in narration. Following description, in order of difficulty, come exposition and argument. I should be quite misunderstood, did any one gather from this that during the time in which wholes are being studied, no attention is to be given to parts; that is, to paragraphs, sentences, and words. All things cannot be learned at once and thoroughly; there must be some order of succession. In the beginning the primary object to be aimed at is the construction of wholes; yet during their construction, parts can also be incidentally studied. During this time many errors which annoy and exasperate must be passed over with but a word, in order that the weight of the criticism may be concentrated on the point then under consideration. As a pupil advances, he is more and more competent to appreciate and to form good paragraphs and well-turned sentences, and to single out from the multitude of verbal signs the word that exactly presents his thought. The appreciation and the use of the stronger as well as the finer and more delicate forms of language come only with much reading and writing; and to demand everything at the very beginning is little less than sheer madness. Moreover there never comes a time when the construction of a paragraph, the shaping of a phrase, or the choice of a word becomes an end in itself. Paragraphs, sentences, and words are well chosen when they serve best the whole composition. He who becomes enamored of one form of paragraph, who always uses periodic sentences, who chooses only common words, has not yet recognized that the beauty of a phrase or a word is determined by its fitness, and that it is most beautiful because it exactly suits the place it fills. The graceful sweep of a line by Praxiteles or the glorious radiancy of a color by Angelico is most beautiful in the place it took from the master's hand. So Lowell's wealth of figurative language and Stevenson's unerring choice of delicate words are most beautiful, not when torn from their original setting to serve as examples in rhetorics, but when fulfilling their part in a well-planned whole. And it is only as the beauties of literature are born of the thought that they ever succeed. No one can say to himself, "I will now make a good simile," and straightway fulfill his promise. If, however, the thought of a writer takes fire, and instead of the cold, unimpassioned phraseology of the logician, glowing images crowd up, and phrases tipped with fire, then figurative language best suits the thought,--indeed, it is the thought. But imagery upon compulsion,--never. So that at no time should one attempt to mould fine phrases for the sake of the phrases themselves, but he should spare no pains with them when they spring from the whole, when they harmonize with the whole, and when they give to the whole added beauty and strength. It is quite unnecessary at this day to urge the study of literature. It is in the course of study for every secondary school. Yet a word may be said of the value of this study to the practice of composition. There are two classes of artists: geniuses and men of talent. Of geniuses in literature, one can count the names on his fingers; most authors are simply men of talent. Talent learns to do by doing, and by observing how others have done. When Brunelleschi left Rome for Florence, he had closely observed and had drawn every arch of the stupendous architecture in that ancient city; and so he was adjudged by his fellow citizens to be the only man competent to lift the dome of their Duomo. His observation discovered the secret of Rome's architectural grandeur; and the slow accumulation of such secrets marks the development of every art and science. Milton had his method of writing prose, Macaulay his, and Arnold his,--all different and all excellent. And just as the architect stands before the cathedrals of Cologne, Milan, and Salisbury to learn the secret of each; as the painter searches out the secret of Raphael, Murillo, and Rembrandt; so the author analyzes the masterpieces of literature to discover the secret of Irving, of Eliot, and of Burke. Not that an author is to be a servile imitator of any man's manner; but that, having knowledge of all the secrets of composition, he shall so be enabled to set forth for others his own thought in all the beauty and perfection in which he himself conceives it. One thing further. A landscape painter would not make a primary study of Angelo's anatomical drawings; a composer of lyric forms of music would not study Sousa's marches; nor would a person writing a story look for much assistance in the arguments of Burke. The most direct benefit is derived from studying the very thing one wishes to know about, not from studying something else. That the literature may give the greatest possible assistance to the composition, the course has been so arranged that narration shall be taught by Hawthorne and Irving, description by Ruskin and Stevenson, exposition by Macaulay and Newman, and argument by Webster and Burke. Literature, arranged in this manner, is not only a stimulus to renewed effort, by showing what others have done; it is also the most skillful instructor in the art of composition, by showing how others have done. It would be quite impossible for any one at the present time to write a text-book in English that would not repeat what has already been said by many others. Nor have I tried to. My purpose has been rather to select from the whole literature of the subject just those principles which every author of a book on composition or rhetoric has thought essential, and to omit minor matters and all those about which there is a difference of opinion. This limits the contents to topics already familiar to every teacher. It also makes it necessary to repeat what has been written before many times. Certain books, however, have treated special divisions of the whole subject in a thorough and exhaustive manner. There is nothing new to say of Unity, Mass, and Coherence; Mr. Wendell said all concerning these in his book entitled "English Composition." So in paragraph development, Scott and Denney hold the field. Other books which I have frequently used in the classroom are "Talks on Writing English," by Arlo Bates, and Genung's "Practical Rhetoric." These books I have found very helpful in teaching, and I have drawn upon them often while writing this text-book. If the field has been covered, then why write a book at all? The answer is that the principles which are here treated have not been put into one book. They may be found in several. These essentials I have repeated many times with the hope that they will be fixed by this frequent repetition. The purpose has been to focus the attention upon these, to apply them in the construction of the different forms of discourse, paragraphs, and sentences, and to repeat them until it is impossible for a student to forget them. If the book fulfils this purpose, it was worth writing. Acknowledgments are due to Messrs. Charles Scribner's Sons for their kind permission to use the selections from the writings of Robert Louis Stevenson contained in this book; also, to Messrs. D. Appleton & Co., The Century Co., and Doubleday & McClure Co. for selections from the writings of Rudyard Kipling. W. F. WEBSTER. MINNEAPOLIS, 1900. CONTENTS Chapter I.--Forms of Discourse Composition 1 English Composition 1 Composition, Written and Oral 2 Conventions of Composition 2 Five Forms of Discourse 3 Definitions 4 Difficulty in distinguishing 4 Purpose of the Author 6 Chapter II.--Choice of Subject Form and Material 8 Author's Individuality 8 Knowledge of Subject 9 Common Subjects 10 Interest 11 The Familiar 11 Human Life 12 The Strange 12 Chapter III.--Narration Material of Narration 13 In Action 14 The Commonest Form of Discourse 14 Language as a Means of Expression 15 Without Plot 15 Plot 16 Unity, Mass, and Coherence 20 Main Incident 20 Its Importance 21 Unity 21 Introductions and Conclusions 23 Tedious Enumerations 23 What to include 24 Consistency 25 An Actor as the Story-teller 26 The Omniscience of an Author 27 The Climax 28 Who? Where? When? Why? 29 In what Order? 29 An Outline 32 Movement 32 Rapidity 32 Slowness 33 Description and Narration 34 Characters few, Time short 35 Simple Plot 36 Suggestive Questions and Exercises 38 Chapter IV.--Description Difficulties of Language for making Pictures 49 Painting and Sculpture 50 Advantages of Language 50 Enumeration and Suggestion 52 Enumerative Description 54 Suggestive Description 55 Value of Observation 55 The Point of View 56 Moving Point of View 58 The Point of View should be stated 58 Mental Point of View 59 Length of Descriptions 63 Arrangement of Details in Description 64 The End of a Description 70 Proportion 73 Arrangement must be natural 74 Use Familiar Images 75 Simile, Metaphor, Personification 77 Choice of Words. Adjectives and Nouns 78 Use of Verbs 79 Suggestive Questions and Exercises 81 Chapter V.--Exposition General Terms difficult 89 Definition 91 Exposition and Description distinguished 91 Logical Definition 91 Genus and Differentia 92 Requisites of a Good Definition 93 How do Men explain? First, by Repetition 94 Second, by telling the obverse 95 Third, by Details 96 Fourth, by Illustrations 97 Fifth, by Comparisons 98 The Subject 99 The Subject should allow Concrete Treatment 100 The Theme 100 The Title 102 Selection of Material 102 Scale of Treatment 104 Arrangement 108 Use Cards for Subdivisions 108 An Outline 109 Mass the End 110 The Beginning 112 Proportion in Treatment 114 Emphasis of Emotion 115 Phrases indicating Emphasis 116 Coherence 116 Transition Phrases 118 Summary and Transition 119 Suggestive Questions and Exercises 121 Chapter VI.--Argument Induction and Deduction 129 Syllogism Premises 129 Terms 129 Enthymeme 130 Definition of Terms 130 Undistributed Middle 131 False Premises 131 Method of Induction 132 Arguments from Cause 133 Arguments from Sign 134 Sequence and Cause 135 Arguments from Example 137 Selection of Material 138 Plan called The Brief 138 Climax 139 Inductive precedes Deductive 140 Cause precedes Sign 140 Example follows Sign 141 Refutation 141 Analysis of Burke's Oration 142 Suggestive Questions 148 Chapter VII.--Paragraphs Definition 151 Long and Short Paragraphs 151 Topic Sentence 157 No Topic Sentence 161 The Plan 162 Kinds of Paragraphs 163 Details 163 Comparisons 165 Repetition 167 Obverse 169 Examples 171 Combines Two or More Forms 173 Unity 173 Need of Outline 174 Mass 174 What begins and what ends a Paragraph? 175 Length of opening and closing Sentences 178 Proportion 179 Coherence and Clearness 180 Two Arrangements of Sentences in a Paragraph 181 Definite References 187 Use of Pronouns 188 Of Conjunctions 190 Parallel Constructions 192 Summary 195 Suggestive Questions 196 Chapter VIII.--Sentences Definition and Classification. Simple Sentences 200 Compound Sentences 200 Short Sentences 204 Long Sentences 204 Unity 205 Mass 207 End of a Sentence 208 Effect of Anti-climax 210 Use of Climax 211 Loose and Periodic 212 The Period 212 Periodic and Loose combined 214 Which shall be used? 215 Emphasis by Change of Order 217 Subdue Unimportant Elements 219 The Dynamic Point of a Sentence 221 Good Use 223 Clearness gained by Coherence 224 Parallel Construction 226 Balanced Sentences 227 Use of Connectives 228 Suggestive Questions 231 Chapter IX.--Words Need of a Large Vocabulary 236 Dictionary 237 Study of Literature 238 Vulgarisms are not reputable 240 Slang is not reputable 240 Words must be National. Provincialisms 242 Technical and Bookish Words 242 Foreign Words 243 Words in Present Use 244 Words in their Present Meaning 245 Words of Latin and Saxon Origin 245 General and Specific 248 Use Words that suggest most 249 Synecdoche, Metonymy 250 Care in Choice of Specific Words 250 Avoid Hackneyed Phrases 253 "Fine Writing" 253 In Prose avoid Poetical Words 254 Chapter X.--Figures of Speech Figurative Language 257 Figures based upon Likeness 259 Metaphor 260 Epithet 260 Personification 260 Apostrophe 261 Allegory 261 Simile 261 Figures based upon Sentence Structure 262 Inversion 262 Exclamation 262 Interrogation 262 Climax 262 Irony 262 Metonymy 263 Synecdoche 263 Allusion 263 Hyperbole 263 Exercises in Figures 264 Chapter XI.--Verse Forms Singing Verse 269 Poetic Feet 272 Kinds of Metre 273 Stanzas 275 Scansion 276 Variations in Metres 276 First and Last Foot 281 Kinds of Poetry 284 Exercises in Metres 286 APPENDIX A. Suggestions to Teachers 293 B. The Form of a Composition 296 C. Marks for Correction of Compositions 300 D. Punctuation 301 E. Supplementary List of Literature 309 A COURSE OF STUDY IN LITERATURE AND COMPOSITION The Course of Study which follows is presented, not because it is better than many others which might be made. For the purposes of this book it was necessary that some course be adopted as the basis of the text. The principles which guided in arranging this course I believe are sound; but the preferences of teachers and the peculiarities of environment will often make it wise to use other selections from literature. Of this a large "supplementary list" is given at the back of the book. It is now a generally accepted truth that the study of English should continue through the four years of a high-school course. The division of time that seems best is to take Narration and Description in the first year. In connection with Description, Figures of Speech should be studied. The next year, Exposition and Paragraphs form the major part of the work. This may be pleasantly broken by a study of Poetry, following the outline in the chapter on Verse Forms. In the third year, while the work in literature is mainly the Novel and the Drama, Sentences and Words should be studied in composition, with a review of the chapters on Narration and Description. Towards the close of the year, Exposition should be reviewed and the study of Argument taken up. The fourth year should be devoted to the study of such College Requirements as have not been taken in the course, and to the study of the History of English Literature as given in some good text book. In some instances, it will be found impossible to give so much time to the study of English. In such cases, the amount of literature to be studied should be decreased, and the work in the text book should be more rapidly done. The sequence of the parts should remain the same, but the time should be modified to suit the needs of any special environment. NARRATION. Composition. _To give Spontaneity._ I. External Form of Composition (p. 296). II. Marks for the Correction of Compositions (p. 300). III. Simple Rules for Punctuation (pp. 301-309). IV. Forms of Discourse. Definitions (pp. 1-7). V. Choice of Subject (pp. 8-12). VI. Study of Narration (pp. 13-48). a. Definition and General Discussion. b. Narration without Plot. Interest the Essential Feature. c. Narration with Plot. 1. Selection of Main Incident of first Importance. It gives to the story Unity, ridding it of Long Introductions and Conclusions, Tedious Enumerations, and Irrelevant Details. 2. Arrangement of Material. Close of Story contains Main Incident. Opening of Story contains Characters, Place, and Time. Incidents generally follow in Order of Time. 3. Movement. 4. Use of Description in Narration. 5. Some General Considerations. Literature. The Great Stone Face, The Gentle Boy, The Gray Champion, Roger Malvin's Burial, and other Stories. _Hawthorne._ Tales of a Wayside Inn. _Longfellow._ The Gold Bug. _Poe._ Marmion, or The Lady of the Lake. _Scott._ A Christmas Carol, or The Cricket on the Hearth. _Dickens._ The Vision of Sir Launfal, and other Narrative Poems. _Lowell._ An Incident of the French Camp, Hervé Riel, The Pied Piper, How they brought the Good News from Ghent to Aix. _Browning._ Meaning of the Author, calling for A Study of Words. Outline of Story. Turning Points in the Story. Central Idea, or Purpose of the Story. Method of the Author. Is there a Main Incident? Do all other Incidents converge to it? Is the Order a Sequence of Time alone? Is the Interest centred in Characters or Plot? Style of the Author. Compare the Works of the Author. DESCRIPTION. Composition. _To secure Accuracy of Expression_ (pp. 49-88). I. Definition and General Discussion. Difficulties in Language as a Means of Picturing. Value of Observation. II. Structure of Whole. a. To secure Unity. Select a Point of View. b. To secure Coherence. Arrange Details in Natural Order. c. To secure Emphasis. Arrange and proportion Treatment to effect your Purpose. III. Paragraph Structure. Definition. Length of Paragraphs. Development of Paragraphs. IV. Words. Specific rather than General. Adjectives, Nouns, and Verbs. V. Figures Of Speech (pp. 257-268). Based on Likeness. Based on Sentence Structure. Miscellaneous Figures. Literature. The Old Manse, The Old Apple Dealer. _Hawthorne._ An Indian-Summer Reverie, The Dandelion, The Birch, The Oak, and other Descriptive Poems. _Lowell._ The Fall of the House of Usher. _Poe._ The Legend of Sleepy Hollow, Selections from the Sketch Book. _Irving._ Selections from Childe Harold. _Byron._ The Deserted Village. _Goldsmith._ Julius Cæsar. _Shakespeare._ Poems selected from Palgrave's Golden Treasury. Meaning of the Author (as under Narration). Method of the Author. Does the Author keep his Point of View? Are the Details arranged in a Natural Order? Has any Detail a Supreme Importance? Are the Details treated in Proper Proportion? Has the Whole a Unity of Effect? Do you see the Picture distinctly? For what Purpose has the Author used Description? Does the Author employ Figures? Style of the Author. EXPOSITION, PARAGRAPHS, VERSE FORMS. Composition. _To encourage Logical Thinking and Adequate Expression_ (pp. 89-127). _Exposition._ I. Definition and General Considerations. II. Exposition of Terms. Definition. III. Exposition of Propositions. a. Clear Statement of the Proposition in a "Key Sentence." This will limit b. The Discussion. 1. What shall be included? 2. What shall be excluded? 3. How shall Important Matters be emphasized? Mass and Proportion. Expansion and Condensation. To effect these ends use an 4. Outline. _Paragraphs_ (pp. 151-199). I. Definition. II. Length of Paragraphs. III. Development of Paragraphs. IV. Principles of Structure. Unity. Mass. Coherence. _Verse Forms_ (pp. 269-291). Poetry Defined. Kinds of Feet. Number of Feet in a Verse. Substitutions and Rests. Kinds of Poetry. Literature. Essay on Milton. _Macaulay._ Essay on Addison. _Macaulay._ Commemoration Ode. _Lowell._ The Rime of the Ancient Mariner. _Coleridge._ Intimations of Immortality, and other Poems. _Wordsworth._ Selections from Palgrave's Golden Treasury. The Bunker Hill Oration, or Adams and Jefferson. _Webster._ Sesame and Lilies. _Ruskin._ Meaning of the Author. Outline showing the Main Thesis with the Dependence of Subordinate Propositions. Method of the Author. Does he hold to his Point and so gain Unity Does he arrange his Material so as to secure Emphasis? Does one Paragraph grow out of another? Does each Paragraph treat a Single Topic? Are the Sentences dovetailed together? Does the Author use Figures? Are the Figures Effective? Are his Words General or Specific? Style of the Author. Is it Clear? Has it Force? Is the Diction Elegant? How has he gained these Ends? SENTENCES, WORDS, ARGUMENT. Composition. _Sentences_ (pp. 200-234). I. Definition and Classification. II. Principles of Structure. a. Unity. b. Mass. 1. Prominent Positions in a Sentence. 2. Periodic Sentences. 3. Loose Sentences. c. Coherence. 1. Parallel Constructions. 2. Connectives. _Words_ (pp. 235-256). Reputable Words. Latin or Saxon Words. General or Specific. Figures of Speech. The One Rule for the Use of Words. _Narration and Description Reviewed._ _Exposition Reviewed._ Literature. _Argument_ (pp. 128-150). I. Kinds of Argument. II. Order of Arguments. III. Refutation. Sir Roger de Coverley Papers. _Addison._ The Vicar of Wakefield. _Goldsmith._ Silas Marner. _Eliot._ Ivanhoe. _Scott._ Macbeth, The Merchant of Venice, A Midsummer Night's Dream. _Shakespeare._ Conciliation with the Colonies. _Burke._ COMPOSITION. In the last year of the course, the compositions should be such as will test the maturer powers of the pupil. They should be written under the careful supervision of the teacher. They should be of all forms of discourse, and the subjects should be drawn from the subjects of study in the high school, especially from the literature. LITERATURE. _Difficult Selections._ L'Allegro, Il Penseroso, Comus, and Lycidas. _Milton._ Paradise Lost. Two Books. _Milton._ Essay on Burns. _Carlyle._ In Memoriam, The Princess, and other Poems. _Tennyson._ Selections. _Browning._ Selections. _Emerson._ A History of English Literature * * * * * ENGLISH: COMPOSITION AND LITERATURE CHAPTER I FORMS OF DISCOURSE Composition. Composition, from the Latin words _con,_ meaning together, and _ponere,_ meaning to place, signifies a placing together, a grouping or arrangement of objects or of ideas. This arrangement is generally made so that it will produce a desired result. Speaking accurately, the putting together is the composition. Much of the desired result is gained by care in the selection of materials. Placing together a well-worn book, a lamp, and a pair of heavy bowed spectacles makes a suggestive picture. The selection and grouping of these objects is spoken of as the composition of the picture. So in music, an author composes, when he groups certain musical tones and phrases so that they produce a desired effect. In literature, too, composition is, strictly speaking, the selection and arrangement of materials, whether the incidents of a story or the details of a description, to fulfill a definite purpose. English Composition. In practice, however, English composition has come to include more than the selection and arrangement of the materials,--incidents, objects, or ideas, as the case may be; the term has been extended to include the means by which the speaker or writer seeks to convey this impression to other persons. As a painter must understand drawing, the value of lights and shades, and the mixing of colors before he can successfully reproduce for others the idea he has to express, so the artist in literature needs a knowledge of elementary grammar and of the simpler usages of language in order clearly to represent to others the idea which lies in his own mind. As commonly understood, then, _English composition_ may be defined as _the art of selecting, arranging, and communicating ideas by means of the English language._ Composition, Written and Oral. The term "English composition" is now generally understood to mean written composition, and not oral composition. At first thought they seem to be the same thing. So far as the selection and arrangement of matter is concerned, they are the same. Moreover, both use words, and both employ sentences; but here the likeness ends. If sentences should be put upon paper exactly as they were spoken, in most instances they would not convey to a reader the same thought they conveyed to a listener. It is much more exacting to express the truth one wishes to convey, by silent, featureless symbols than by that wonderful organ of communication, the human voice. Now, if to the human voice be added eyes, features, gestures, and pose, we easily understand the great advantage a speaker has over a writer. Conventions of Composition. Moreover, there are imposed upon a writer certain established rules which he must follow. He must spell words correctly, and he must use correctly marks of punctuation. These things need not annoy a speaker; yet they are conditions which must be obeyed by a writer. A man who eats with a knife may succeed in getting his food to his mouth, yet certain conventions exclude such a person from polite society. So in composition, it is possible for a person to make himself understood, though he write "alright" instead of "all right," and never use a semicolon; still, such a person could hardly be considered a highly cultured writer. To express one's thoughts correctly and with refinement requires absolute obedience to the common conventions of good literature. The study of composition includes, first, the careful selection of materials and their effective arrangement; and second, a knowledge of the established conventions of literature: of spelling; of the common uses of the marks of punctuation,--period, question mark, exclamation point, colon, semicolon, comma; of the common idioms of our language; and of the elements of its grammar. From the beginning of the high school course, the essay, the paragraph, the sentence, the word, are to be studied with special attention to the effective use of each in adequately communicating ideas. Five Forms of Discourse. All written composition may be arranged in two classes, or groups. The first group will include all composition that deals with actual happenings and real things; the second, all that deals with abstract thoughts and spiritual ideas. The first will include narration and description; the second, exposition, argument, and persuasion. All literature, then, may be separated into five classes,--narration, description, exposition, argument, and persuasion. Narration tells what things do; description tells how things look. Narration deals with occurrences; description deals with appearances. Exposition defines a term, or explains a proposition; argument proves the truth or falsity of a proposition; persuasion urges to action upon a proposition. Exposition explains; argument convinces; persuasion arouses. These are the broad lines of distinction which separate the five forms of discourse. Definitions. _Narration is that form of discourse which recounts events in a sequence._ It includes stories, novels, romances, biographies, some books of travel, and some histories. _Description is that form of discourse which aims to present a picture._ It seldom occurs alone, but it is usually found in combination with the other forms of discourse. _Exposition is that form of discourse which seeks to explain a term or a proposition._ Text-books, books of information, theses, most histories, many magazine articles, and newspaper leaders are of this class of literature. _Argument is that form of discourse which has for its object the proof of the truth or falsity of a proposition._ _Persuasion is that form of discourse the purpose of which is to influence the will._ Difficulty in distinguishing. Though these definitions seem to set apart the great classes of literature, and to insure against any danger of confusion, it is not always easy to place individual pieces of literature in one of these divisions. Whittier's "Barbara Frietchie" and Stevenson's "Treasure Island" are narrative beyond any question; but what about "Snow-Bound" and "Travels with a Donkey" by the same authors? Are they narration or description? In them the narrative and descriptive portions are so nearly equal that one hesitates to set them down to either class; the reader is constantly called from beautiful pictures to delightful stories. The narrative can easily be separated from the descriptive portions; but when this has been done, has it been decided whether the whole piece is narration or description? When a person takes up the other forms of discourse, the difficulty becomes still greater. Description and narration are frequently used in exposition. If a boy should be asked to explain the working of a steam engine, he would, in all likelihood, begin with a description of an engine. If his purpose was to explain how an engine works, and was not to tell how an engine looks, the whole composition would be exposition. So, too, it is often the easiest way to explain what one means by telling a story. The expression of such thoughts would be exposition, although it might contain a number of stories and descriptions. Narration and description may be found in a piece of exposition; and all three may be employed in argument. If a person should wish to prove the dangers of intemperance, he might enforce his proof by a story, or by a description of the condition of the nervous system after a drunken revel. And one does not need to do more than explain the results of intemperance to a sensible man to prove to him that he should avoid all excesses. The explanation alone is argument enough for such a person. Still, is such an explanation exposition or argument? If the man cared nothing about convincing another that there are dangers in intemperance, did not wish to prove that the end of intemperance is death and dishonor, the composition is as much exposition as the explanation of a steam engine. If, on the other hand, he explained these results in order to convince another that he should avoid intemperance, then the piece is argument. Persuasion introduces a new element into composition; for, while exposition and argument are directed to a man's reason, persuasion is addressed to the emotions and the will. Its purpose is to arouse to action. One can readily imagine that a simple explanation of the evils of intemperance might be quite enough to convince a man that its dangers are truly great,--so great that he would determine to fight these evils with all his strength. In such a case explanation alone has convinced him; and it has aroused him to do something. Is the piece exposition, or argument, or persuasion? Here, as before, the answer is found in the purpose of the author. If he intended only to explain, the piece is exposition; if to convince, it is argument; if to arouse to action, it belongs to the literature of persuasion. It must now be plain that few pieces of literature are purely one form of discourse. The forms are mingled in most of our literature. Hardly a story can be found that does not contain some descriptions; and a description of any considerable length is sure to contain some narrative portions. So, too, narration and description are often found in exposition, argument, and persuasion; and these last three forms are frequently combined. Purpose of the Author. It must also be evident that the whole piece of literature will best be classified by discovering the purpose of the author. If his purpose is simply to tell a good story, his work is narration; if the purpose is merely to place a picture before the reader's mind, it is description; if to explain conditions and nothing more, it is exposition; if to prove to the reason the truth or falsity of a proposition, it is argument; while, if the writer addresses himself to the emotions and the will, no matter whether he tells anecdotes or paints lurid pictures, explains conditions or convinces of the dangers of the present course,--if he does all these to urge the reader to do something, the composition belongs to the literature of persuasion. The five forms of discourse are most easily distinguished by discovering the purpose of the author. One addition should be made. Few novels are written in which there is nothing more than a story. Nearly all contain some teaching; and it is a safe conclusion that the authors have taught "on purpose." In "Baa, Baa, Black Sheep," Kipling has shown the imperative necessity of a "real, live, lovely mamma;" in "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow," Irving has placed before us a charming picture of rural life in a dreamy Dutch village on the Hudson; and in his "Christmas Carol," Dickens shows plainly that happiness is not bought and sold even in London, and that the only happy man is he who shares with another's need. Yet all of these, and the hundreds of their kind, whatever the purpose of the authors when writing them, belong to the "story" or "novel" class. The purpose _in telling_ the story is secondary to the purpose _to tell_ a story. They are to be classified as narration. English composition, then, is a study of the selection and arrangement of ideas, and of the methods of using the English language to communicate them. All composition is divided into five great classes. These classes have broad lines of distinction, which are most easily applied by determining the purpose of the author. * * * * * CHAPTER II CHOICE OF SUBJECT Form and Material. From the considerations in the preceding chapter may be derived several principles regarding the choice of subject. If the composition is to be narrative, it should be upon a subject that readily lends itself to narrative form. One can tell a story about "A Day's Hunt" or "What We did Hallowe'en;" but it would try one's powers of imagination to write a story of "A Tree" or "A Chair." The latter subjects do not lend themselves to narration, but they may be described. Josiah P. Cooke has written a brilliant exposition of "Fire" in "The New Chemistry;" yet a young person would be foolish to take "Fire" as a subject for exposition, though he might easily write a good description of "How the Fire looked from My Window," or narrate "How a Fireman rescued My Sister." So in all work in composition, _select a subject that readily lends itself to the form of discourse demanded; or, conversely, select the form of discourse suitable for presenting most effectively your material._ Author's Individuality. If an author is writing for other purposes than for conscious practice, he should choose the form of discourse in which he can best work, and to which he can best shape his material. Some men tell stories well; others are debaters; while yet others are wonderfully gifted with eloquence. Emerson understood life thoroughly. He knew man's feelings, his motives, his hopes, his strength, his weakness; yet one cannot imagine Emerson shaping this material into a novel. But just a little way down the road lived a wizard who could transmute the commonest events of this workaday world to the most beautiful shapes; no one wishes that Hawthorne had written essays. The second principle guiding in the choice of a subject is this: _Select a subject which is suited to your peculiar ability as an author._ Knowledge of Subject. The form, then, should suit the matter; and it should be the form in which the author can work. There is a third principle that should guide in the choice of a subject. _It should be a subject of which the author knows something._ Pupils often exclaim, "What can I write about!" as if they were expected to find something new to write. An exercise in composition has not for its object the proclaiming of any new and unheard-of thing; it is an exercise in the expression of things already known. Even when the subject is known, the treatment offers difficulties enough. It is not true that what is thoroughly understood is easily explained. Many excellent scholars have written very poor text-books because they had not learned the art of expression. A necessary antecedent of all good composition is a full and accurate knowledge of the subject; and even when one knows all about it, the clear expression of the thought will be difficult enough. To demand accurate knowledge of the subject before an author begins work upon it narrows the field from which themes may be drawn. Burroughs is an authority on all the tenants of our groves; "Wake-Robin," "Pepacton," and his other books all show a master's certain hand. So Stedman is an authority in matters relating to literature. But Burroughs and Stedman alike would find difficulty in writing an essay on "Electricity in the Treatment of Nervous Diseases." They do not know about it. A boy in school probably knows something of fishing; of this he can write. A girl can tell of "The Last Parlor Concert." Both could write very entertainingly of their "First Algebra Recitation;" neither could write a convincing essay on "The Advantages of Free Trade." Common Subjects. This will seem to limit the list of subjects to the commonplace. The fact is that in a composition exercise the purpose is not to startle the world with some new thing; it is to learn the art of expression. And here in the region of common things, things thoroughly understood, every bit of effort can be given to the manner of expression. The truth is, it does not require much art to make a book containing new and interesting material popular; the matter in the book carries it in spite of poor composition. Popular it may be, but popularity is not immortality. Columns of poorly written articles upon "Dewey" and "The Philippines" have been eagerly read by thousands of Americans; it would require a literary artist of great power to write a one-column article on "Pigs" so that it would be eagerly read by thousands. Real art in composition is much more manifest when an author takes a common subject and treats it in such a way that it glows with new life. Richard Le Gallienne has written about a drove of pigs so beautifully that one forgets all the traditions about these common animals.[2] Choose common subjects, then,--subjects that allow every particle of your strength to go into the manner of saying what you already know. The requirement that the subject shall be common does not mean that the subject shall be trivial. "Sliding to First," "How Billy won the Game," with all of this class of subjects, at once put the writer into a trifling, careless attitude toward his work. The subjects themselves seem to call forth a cheap, slangy vocabulary and the vulgar phrases of sporting life. An equally common subject could be selected which would call forth serious, earnest effort. If a boy knew nothing except about ball games, it would be advisable for him to write upon this subject. Such a condition is hardly possible in a high school. _Choose common subjects, but subjects that call for earnest thinking and dignified expression._ Interest. Interest is another consideration in the choice of a subject. It applies equally to writer and reader. _Choose subjects that are interesting._ Not only must an author know about the subject; he must be interested in it. A pupil may have accurate knowledge of the uses of a semicolon; but he would not be likely to succeed in a paragraph about semicolons, largely because he is not much interested in semicolons. This matter of interest is so important that it is well to know what things all persons, authors and readers alike, are interested in. What, then, is generally interesting? The Familiar. First, _the familiar is interesting._ When reading a newspaper each one instinctively turns to the local column, or glances down the general news columns to see if there is anything from his home town. To a former resident, Jim Benson's fence in Annandale is more interesting than the bronze doors of the Congressional Library in Washington. For the same reason a physician lights upon "a new cure for consumption," a lawyer devours Supreme Court decisions, while the dealer in silks is absorbed in the process of making silk without the aid of the silkworm. Each is interested in that which to him is most familiar. Human Life. Second, _human life in all its phases is interesting._ The account of a fire or of a railroad accident takes on a new interest when, in addition to the loss of property, there has been a loss of life. War is horribly fascinating, not so much because there is a wanton destruction of property, as because it involves the slaughter of men. Stories about trees and animals are usually failures, unless handled by artists who breathe into them the life of man. Andersen's "Tannenbaum" and Kipling's "Jungle Books" are intensely interesting because in them trees and animals feel and act just as men do. The Strange. Third, _the romantic, the unique, and the impossible are interesting._ A new discovery, a new invention, a people of which little is known,--anything new is interesting. The stories of Rider Haggard and Jules Verne have been popular because they deal with things which eye hath not seen. This peculiar trait of man allows him to relish a good fish story, or the latest news from the sea-serpent. Just for the same reason, children love to hear of Little Red Riding Hood and Cinderella. Children and their parents are equally interested in those things which are entirely outside of their own experience. These, then, are the general conditions which govern the choice of a subject. It shall easily lend itself to the form of discourse chosen; it shall be suited to the peculiar ability of the author; it shall be thoroughly understood by the author,--common, but not trivial; it shall be interesting to both reader and author. * * * * * CHAPTER III NARRATION Material of Narration. Narration has been defined as the form of discourse which recounts events in a sequence. It includes not only letters, journals, memoirs, biographies, and many histories, but, in addition, that great body of literature which people generally include in the comprehensive term of "stories." If this body of literature be examined, it will be found that it deals with things as opposed to ideas; incidents as opposed to propositions. Sometimes, it is true, the author of a story is in reality dealing with ideas. In the fable about "The Hare and the Tortoise," the tortoise stands for the idea of slow, steady plodding; while the hare is the representative of quick wits which depend on their ability to show a brilliant burst of speed when called upon. The fable teaches better than an essay can that the dullness which perseveres will arrive at success sooner than brilliancy of mind which wastes its time in doing nothing to the purpose. Andersen's "Ugly Duckling," Ruskin's "King of the Golden River," and Lowell's "Sir Launfal" stand for deep spiritual ideas, which we understand better for this method of presentation. In an allegory like "Pilgrim's Progress," the passions and emotions, the sins and weaknesses of men are treated as if they were real persons. Ideas are represented by living, breathing persons; and we may say that all such narratives deal, not with ideas, but, for want of a better word, with things. In Action. Not only does narration deal with things, but with things doing something. Things inactive might be written of, but this would be description. It is necessary in narration that the things be in an active mood; that something be doing. "John struck James," then, is a narrative sentence; it tells that John has been doing something. Still, this one sentence would not ordinarily be accepted as narration. For narration there must be a series, a sequence of individual actions. _Recounting events in a sequence is narration._ The Commonest Form of Discourse. Narration is the most popular form of discourse. Between one fourth and one third of all books published are stories; and more than one half of the books issued by public libraries belong to the narrative class. Such a computation does not include the large number of stories read in our papers and magazines. In addition to being the most popular form of discourse, it is the most natural. It is the first form of connected discourse of the child; it is the form employed by the uncultured in giving his impressions; it is the form most used in conversation. Moreover, narration is the first form found in great literatures: the Iliad and the Odyssey, the songs of the troubadours in France, and the minnesingers in Germany, the chronicles and ballads of England,--all are narrative. Language as a Means of Expression. Narration is especially suited to the conditions imposed by language. Men do not think in single words, but in groups of words,--phrases, clauses, and sentences. In hearing, too, men do not consider the individual words; the mind waits until a group of words, a phrase, or a simple sentence perhaps,--which expresses a unit of thought, has been uttered. In narration these groups of words follow in a sequence exactly as the actions which they represent do. Take this rather lurid bit from Stevenson:-- "He dropped his cutlass as he jumped, and when he felt the pistol, whipped straight round and laid hold of me, roaring out an oath; and at the same time either my courage came again, or I grew so much afraid as came to the same thing; for I gave a shriek and shot him in the midst of the body." ("Kidnapped.") Each phrase or clause here is a unit of thought, and each follows the others in the same order as the events they tell of occurred. On the other hand, when one attempts description, and exposition too in many cases, he realizes the great difficulties imposed by the language itself; for in these forms of discourse the author not infrequently wishes to put the whole picture before the reader at once, or to set out several propositions at the same time, as belonging to one general truth. In order that the reader may get the complete picture or the complete thought, he must hold in mind often a whole paragraph before he unites it into the one conception the author intended. In narration one action is completed; it can be dropped. Then another follows, which can also be dropped. They need not be held in mind until the paragraph is finished. Narration is exactly suited to the means of its communication. The events which are recorded, and the sentences which record them, both follow in a sequence. Without Plot. The sequence of events in narration may be a simple sequence of time, in which case the narrative is without plot. This is the form of narration employed in newspapers in giving the events of the day. It is used in journals, memoirs, biographies, and many elementary histories. It makes little demand upon an author further than that he shall say clearly something that is interesting. Interesting it must be, if the author wishes it to be read; readers will not stay over dull material. Newspapers and magazines look out for interesting material, and it is for the matter in them that they are read. So memoirs and biographies are read, not to find out what happens at last,--that is known,--but to pick up information concerning an interesting subject. Plot. Or the sequence may be a more subtle and binding relation of cause and effect. This is the sequence employed in stories. One thing happens because another thing has happened. Generally the sequence of time and the sequence of cause and effect correspond; for effects come after causes. When, however, more than one cause is introduced, or when some cause is at work which the author hides until he can most advantageously produce it, or when an effect is held back for purposes of creating interest, the events may not be related exactly in the order in which they occurred. When any sequence is introduced in addition to the simple sequence of time, or when the time sequence is disturbed for the purpose of heightening interest, there is an arrangement of the parts which is generally termed plot. Plot is a term difficult to define. We feel, however, that Grant's "Memoirs" have no plot, and we feel just as sure that "King Lear" has a plot. So, too, we say that "Robinson Crusoe" has little, almost no plot; that the plot is simple in "Treasure Island," and that "Les Misérables" has an intricate plot. A plot seems to demand more than a mere succession of events. _Any arrangement of the parts of a narrative so that the reader's interest is aroused concerning the result of the series of events detailed is a plot._ It often occurs that a book which, as a whole, is without a plot, contains incidents which have a plot. In "Travels with a Donkey," by Stevenson, no one cares for the plot of the whole book,--in fact there is none; yet the reader is interested in the purchase of the "neat and high bred" Modestine up to the "last interview with Father Adam in a billiard-room at the witching hour of dawn, when I administered the brandy." This incident has a plot. The following is a paragraph from "An Autumn Effect" by Mr. Stevenson. The simple events are perfectly ordered, and there is a delightful surprise at the end. This paragraph has a plot. Yet the thirty pages of "An Autumn Effect" could not be said to have a plot. "Bidding good-morning to my fellow-traveler, I left the road and struck across country. It was rather a revelation to pass from between the hedgerows and find quite a bustle on the other side, a great coming and going of school-children upon by-paths, and, in every second field, lusty horses and stout country-folk a-ploughing. The way I followed took me through many fields thus occupied, and through many strips of plantation, and then over a little space of smooth turf, very pleasant to the feet, set with tall fir-trees and clamorous with rooks, making ready for the winter, and so back again into the quiet road. I was now not far from the end of my day's journey. A few hundred yards farther, and, passing through a gap in the hedge, I began to go down hill through a pretty extensive tract of young beeches. I was soon in shadow myself, but the afternoon sun still colored the upmost boughs of the wood, and made a fire over my head in the autumnal foliage. A little faint vapor lay among the slim tree-stems in the bottom of the hollow; and from farther up I heard from time to time an outburst of gross laughter, as though clowns were making merry in the bush. There was something about the atmosphere that brought all sights and sounds home to one with a singular purity, so that I felt as if my senses had been washed with water. After I had crossed the little zone of mist, the path began to remount the hill; and just as I, mounting along with it, had got back again from the head downwards, into the thin golden sunshine, I saw in front of me a donkey tied to a tree. Now, I have a certain liking for donkeys, principally, I believe, because of the delightful things that Sterne has written of them. But this was not after the pattern of the ass at Lyons. He was of a white color, that seemed to fit him rather for rare festal occasions than for constant drudgery. Besides, he was very small, and of the daintiest proportions you can imagine in a donkey. And so, sure enough, you had only to look at him to see he had never worked. There was something too roguish and wanton in his face, a look too like that of a schoolboy or a street Arab, to have survived much cudgeling. It was plain that these feet had kicked off sportive children oftener than they had plodded with freight through miry lanes. He was altogether a fine-weather, holiday sort of a donkey; and though he was just then somewhat solemnized and rueful, he still gave proof of the levity of his disposition by impudently wagging his ears at me as I drew near. I say he was somewhat solemnized just then; for with the admirable instinct of all men and animals under restraint, he had so wound and wound the halter about the tree that he could go neither back nor forwards, nor so much as put his head down to browse. There he stood, poor rogue, part puzzled, part angry, part, I believe, amused. He had not given up hope, and dully revolved the problem in his head, giving ever and again another jerk at the few inches of free rope that still remained unwound. A humorous sort of sympathy for the creature took hold upon me. I went up, and, not without some trouble on my part, and much distrust and resistance on the part of Neddy, got him forced backwards until the whole length of the halter was set loose, and he was once more as free a donkey as I dared to make him. I was pleased (as people are) with this friendly action to a fellow-creature in tribulation, and glanced back over my shoulder to see how he was profiting by his freedom. The brute was looking after me; and no sooner did he catch my eye than he put up his long white face into the air, pulled an impudent mouth at me, and began to bray derisively. If ever any one person made a grimace at another, that donkey made a grimace at me. The hardened ingratitude of his behavior, and the impertinence that inspired his whole face as he curled up his lip, and showed his teeth and began to bray, so tickled me and was so much in keeping with what I had imagined to myself of his character, that I could not find it in my heart to be angry, and burst into a peal of hearty laughter. This seemed to strike the ass as a repartee, so he brayed at me again by way of rejoinder; and we went on for awhile, braying and laughing, until I began to grow a-weary of it, and shouting a derisive farewell, turned to pursue my way. In so doing--it was like going suddenly into cold water--I found myself face to face with a prim, little old maid. She was all in a flutter, the poor old dear! She had concluded beyond question that this must be a lunatic who stood laughing aloud at a white donkey in the placid beech-woods. I was sure, by her face, that she had already recommended her spirit most religiously to Heaven, and prepared herself for the worst. And so, to reassure her, I uncovered and besought her, after a very staid fashion, to put me on my way to Great Missenden. Her voice trembled a little, to be sure, but I think her mind was set at rest; and she told me, very explicitly, to follow the path until I came to the end of the wood, and then I should see the village below me in the bottom of the valley. And, with mutual courtesies, the little old maid and I went on our respective ways." Books of travel, memoirs, and biographies, as whole books, are generally without any arrangement serious enough to be termed a plot; yet a large part of the interest in such books would be lost were the incidents there collected not well told, with a conscious attempt to set them out in the very best fashion; indeed, if each incident did not have a plot. In "Vanity Fair" with its six hundred pages, in "Silas Marner" with its two hundred pages, in the short stories of our best magazines, in the spicy little anecdotes in the "Youth's Companion,"--in the least bit of a good story as well as the three-volume novel, the authors have used the means best suited to retain the interest to the end. They have constructed plots. Unity, Mass, and Coherence. In the construction of any piece of composition there are three principles of primary importance: they are Unity, which is concerned with the material itself; and Mass and Coherence, which are concerned with the arrangement of the material. A composition has unity when all the material has been so sifted and selected that each part contributes its share to the central thought of the whole. Whether of a sentence, a paragraph, or a whole composition, all those parts must be excluded which do not bring something of value to the whole; and everything must be included which is necessary to give a clear understanding of the whole. Mass, the second principle of structure, demands that those parts of a composition, paragraph, or sentence which are of most importance shall be so placed that they will arrest the attention. By coherence is meant that principle of structure which, in sentences, paragraphs, and whole compositions, places those parts related in thought near together, and keeps separate those parts which are separated in thought. Main Incident. For the construction of a story that will retain the reader's interest to the end, for the selection of such material as will contribute to a central thought, for the arrangement of this material so that the most important matter shall occupy the most important position in the theme, one simple rule is of value. It is this: _First choose the main incident_ towards which all the other incidents converge, and for the accomplishment of which the preceding incidents are necessary. A few pages will be given to the application of this rule, and to the results of its application. Its Importance. There should be in each story, however slight the plot, some incident that is more important than the others, and toward which all the others converge. A reader is disappointed if, after reading a story through, he finds that there is no worthy ending, that all the preparation was made for no purpose. If, in "Wee Willie Winkie," Kipling had stopped just before Miss Allardyce started across the river, it would have been a poor story. It would have had no ending. It is because a story gets somewhere that we like it. Yet not just somewhere; it must arrive at a place worthy of all the preparation that has preceded. A very common fault with the compositions of young persons is that they begin big and end little. It is not infrequent that the first paragraph promises well; the second is not quite so good; and the rest gradually fall off until the end is worthless. The order should be changed. Have the first paragraph promise well, make the second better, and the last best of all. The main incident should be more important than each incident that precedes it. Get the main incident in mind before beginning; be sure it is the main incident; then bend all your energies to make it the most important incident toward which all the other incidents converge. Unity. The choice of a main incident will determine what incidents to exclude. The world is full of incidents--enough to make volumes more than we now have. A phonograph and a camera could gather enough any day at a busy corner in a city to fill a volume; yet these pictures and these bits of conversation, interesting as each in itself might be, would not be a unit,--not one story, but many. Few persons, indeed, would write anything so disjointed as the report made by this phonograph; yet good writers are often led astray by the brilliancy of their own ideas. They have so many good stories on hand which they would like to tell, that they force some of them into their present story, and so spoil two stories. In the very popular "David Harum," it would puzzle any one to know why the author has introduced the ladies from the city and the musical party at the lake. The episode is good enough in itself; but in this story it has not a shadow of excuse. There is a phrase of Kipling's that should ring in every story-teller's ears. Not once only, but a number of times, this prince of modern story-tellers catches himself--almost too late sometimes--and writes, "But that is another story." One incident calls up another; paragraph follows paragraph naturally. It is easy enough to look back and trace the road by which the writer arrived at his present position; yet it would be very hard to tell why he came hither, or to see how the journey up to this point will at all put him toward his destination. He has digressed; he has left the road. And he must get back to the road. By this digression he has wasted just as much time as it has taken to come from the direct road to this point added to the time it will take to go back. Do not digress; tell one story at a time; let no incident into your story which cannot answer the question, "Why are you here?" by "I help;" keep your eye on the main incident; things which do not unquestionably contribute something to the main incident should be excluded. Introductions and Conclusions. The choice of the main incident towards which all other incidents converge will rid compositions of worthless introductions and trailing conclusions. A story should get under way at once; and any explanations at the beginning, the introduction of long descriptions or tedious paragraphs of "fine writing," will be headed off if the pupil keeps constantly in mind that it must all lead directly toward the main incident. Again, if everything converges to the main incident, when that has been told the story is finished. After that there must be no explanations, no moralizing, nothing. When the story has been told it is a good rule to stop. An excellent example of a short story well told is "An Incident of the French Camp," by Robert Browning. Only the absolutely necessary has been introduced. The incidents flash before the reader. Nothing can be said after the last line. "Hervé Riel" is a vivid piece of narrative too. Such an exhibition of manliness appeals to all. Was it necessary to attach the last stanza? If this poem needed it, why not the other? If the story has no moral in it, no man can tie it on; if there is one, the reader should be accounted intelligent enough to find it without any help. Tedious Enumerations. Making all the incidents converge to one main incident will avoid tiresome enumerations of inconsequential events, which frequently fill the compositions of young pupils. Such essays generally start with "a bright, clear morning," and "a party of four of us." After recounting a dozen events of no consequence whatever, "we came home to a late supper, well repaid for our day's outing." These compositions may be quite correct in the choice of words, sentences, and paragraphs, and with it all be flat. There is nothing to them; they get the reader nowhere. Pick out one of the many incidents. Work it up. Turn back to the paragraph from Stevenson and notice how little there is to it when reduced to bare outline. He has worked it up so that it is good. Always remember that a short anecdote well told is worth pages of aimless enumeration. What to include. The selection of the main incident will guide in determining what to include; for every detail must be included that is necessary to make the main incident possible. A young pupil wrote of a party in the woods. The girls had found pleasant seats in a car and were chatting about their friends, when they felt a sudden lurch, and soon one of the party was besmeared by slippery, sticky whites of eggs. Now, if eggs were in the habit of clinging to the roofs of cars and breaking at unfortunate moments, there would be no need of any explanation; but as the cook forgot to boil the eggs and the girl had put them up into the rack herself, some of this should have been told. Enough at least should be told to make the main incident a possibility. Stories are full of surprises, but they can be understood easily from the preceding incidents; or else the new element is one that happens frequently, and of itself is nothing new. In the paragraph from Stevenson, the entrance of the "prim, little old maid" is a surprise, but it is a very common thing for ladies to walk upon a public highway. Any surprise must be natural,--the result of causes at work in the story, or of circumstances which are always occurring and by themselves no surprises. If the story be a tangled web of incidents culminating in some horror, as the death of the beautiful young wife in Hawthorne's "Birthmark," all the events must be told that are necessary to carry the reader from the first time he beholds her beauty until he sees her again, her life ebbing away as the fairy hand fades from her cheek. In "Baa, Baa, Black Sheep" it would be impossible to pass directly from the sweet boy of the first chapter to the little liar of the last; something must be told of those miserable days that intervene, and their telling effect on the little fellow. So a reader could not harmonize his idea of old Scrooge gained in the first chapter with generous Mr. Scrooge of the last without the intermediate chapters. Keeping the main incident in mind, include all that is necessary to make it possible. Consistency. This same rule more than any other will make a story consistent. If incidents are chosen with relation to the one main incident, they will all have a common quality; they can scarcely be inconsistent. It is much more essential that a story be consistent than that it be a fact. Indeed, facts are not necessary in stories, and they are dangerous. Ian Maclaren says that the only part of his stories that has been severely criticised is a drowning episode, which was a fact, and the only one he ever used. Yet to those who have read "The Bonnie Brier Bush," the old doctor is as well known as any person who lives across the street; he is real to us, though he never lived. "Old Scrooge" and "Brom Bones" are better known than John Adams is. A good character or a good story need not be drawn from facts. Indeed, in literature as in actual life, facts are stubborn things, and will not accommodate themselves to new surroundings. Make the story consistent; be not too careful about the facts. A story may be good and be entirely contrary to all known facts. "The Ugly Duckling" is as true as Fiske's "History of the United States," and every whit as consistent. "Alice in Wonderland" is an excellent story; yet it contains no facts. The introduction of a single fact would ruin the story; for between the realm of fact and the region of fancy is a great gulf fixed, and no man has successfully crossed it. Whatever conditions of life and action are assumed in one part of a story must be continued throughout. If walruses talk and hens are reasonable in one part of the story, to reduce them to every-day animals would be ruinous. Consistency, that the parts stand together, that the story seem probable,--this is more essential than facts. And to gain this consistency the surest rule is to test the material by its relation to the main incident. The choice of the main incident, then, will determine to a great degree what to exclude and what to include; it will assist in ridding compositions of countless enumerations, aimless wanderings, and flat endings; it will help the writer to get started, and insure a stop when the story is told; and it will give to the story the quality most essential for its success, consistency. An Actor as the Storyteller. There is yet another condition that enters into the selection of materials: it makes a difference who tells the story. If the story be told in the first person, that is, if one of the actors tell the story, he cannot be supposed to know all that the other persons do when out of sight and hearing, nor can he know what they think. To take an illustration from a pupil's essay. A girl took her baby sister out upon the lake in a rowboat. A violent storm arose, lashing the lake into a fury. The oars were wrenched from her hands. Helpless on the water, how was she to be saved? Here the essayist recited an infinite amount of detail about the distress at home, giving the conversation and the actions. These things she could not have known in the character she had assumed at the beginning, that of the chief actor. All of that should have been excluded. When Stevenson tells of the fight in the round house, though he knew what those old salts were doing outside, matters of great interest to the reader, he does not let David say anything except what he could see or hear, and a very little of what he "learned afterwards." Stevenson knew well who was telling the story; David is too good a story-teller to tell what he could not know. In the pupil's essay and in "Kidnapped," all such matters would have a direct bearing on the main incident; they could be included without destroying the unity of the story. But they cannot be included when the story is told by one of the actors. The Omniscience of an Author. Many stories, probably most stories, are told in the third person. In this case the author assumes the position of an omniscient power who knows everything that is done, said, or thought by the characters in his story. Not only what happens in the next room, but what is thought at the other side of the world, is comprehended in his omniscience. This is the position assumed by Irving in "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow," by Kipling in the series of stories included with "Wee Willie Winkie," by Scott in "Marmion," and by most great novelists. Omniscience is, however, a dangerous prerogative for a young person. The power is so great that the person who has but recently come into possession of it becomes dizzy with it and uncertain in his movements. A young person knows what he would do under certain conditions; but to be able to know what some other person would do and think under a certain set of circumstances requires a sure knowledge of character, and the capability of assuming entirely different and unaccustomed points of view. It is much safer for the beginner to take the point of view of one of the actors, and tell the story in the first person. Then when the grasp has become sure from this standpoint, he may assume the more difficult role of the omniscient third person. To sum up what has been said about the selection of materials: only those materials should be admitted to a story which contribute to its main incident, which are consistent with one another, and which could have been known by the narrator. The Climax. When the materials for a story have been selected, the next consideration is their arrangement. If the materials have been selected to contribute to the main incident and converge toward it, it will follow that _the main incident_ will come last in the story; it _will be the climax_ towards which the several parts of the story are directed. Moreover, it should be last, in order to retain the interest of the reader up to that time. This is in accordance with the demands of the second great principle of structure, Mass. An essay is well massed if the parts are so arranged that things of importance will arrest the attention. In literature to be read, to arrest the attention is almost equivalent to catching the eye. The positions that catch the eye, whether in sentence, paragraph, or essay, are the beginning and the end. Were it not for another element which enters into the calculation, these positions would be of nearly equal importance. Since, however, the mind retains the most vivid impression of the thing it received last, the impression of the end of the sentence, paragraph, or essay is stronger than the impression made by its beginning. The climax of a story should come at the end, both because it is the result of preceding incidents, and because by this position it receives the additional emphasis due to its position. Who? Where? When? Why? The beginning is the position of second importance. What, then, shall stand in this place? A story resembles a puzzle. The solution of the puzzle is given at the end; the thing of next importance is the conditions of the puzzle. In "Baa, Baa, Black Sheep" the story culminates in the surprise of a devoted mother when she discovers that her boy is a secretive little liar, who now deserves to be called "Black Sheep." This is the end; what was the beginning,--the conditions necessary to bring about this deplorable result? First, they were _the persons;_ second, _the place;_ third, _the time._ In many stories there is introduced the reason for telling the story. These conditions, answering the questions Who? Where? When? and Why? are all, or some of them, introduced at the beginning of any narrative, and as soon as it can be done, they ought all to be given. In a short essay, they are in the first paragraph; in a novel, in the first chapters. In "Marmion" the time, the place, and the principal character are introduced into the first canto. So Irving begins "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" with the place and time, then follow the characters. In all stories the beginning is occupied in giving the conditions of the story; that is, the principal characters, the time, and the place. In what Order? Having the end and the beginning clearly in mind, the next question is how best to get from one to the other. Shall the incidents be arranged in order of time? or shall other considerations govern? If it be any narrative of the journal form, whether a diary or a biography, the chronological arrangement will direct the sequence of events. Again, if it be a simple story with a single series of events, the time order will prevail. If, however, it be a narrative which contains several series of events, as a history or a novel, it may be wise, even necessary, to deviate from the time sequence. It would have been unwise for Scott to hold strictly to the order of time in "Marmion;" after introducing the principal character, giving the time and the setting, it was necessary for him to bring in another element of the plot, Constance, and to go backward in time to pick up this thread of the story. The really essential order in any narrative is the order of cause and effect. As causes precede effects, the causal order and the time order generally coincide. In a single series of events, that is, where one cause alone produces an effect, which in turn becomes the cause of another effect, the time order is the causal order. In a novel, or a short story frequently, where there are more than one series of incidents contributing to and converging towards the main incident, these causes must all be introduced before the effect, and may break the chronological order of the story. In "Roger Malvin's Burial," it would be impossible to tell what the stricken father was doing and what the joyous mother was thinking at the same time. Hawthorne must leave one and go to the other until they meet in their awful desolation. The only rule that can be given is, introduce causes before effects. In all stories, short or long, this will result in an approximation to the order of time; in a simple story it will invariably give a time sequence. There is one exception to this rule which should be noted. It is necessary at the very beginning to have some incident that will arrest the attention. This does not mean that persons, place, and time shall not come first. They shall come first, but they shall be so introduced as to make an interesting opening to the story. The novels of some decades ago did not sufficiently recognize the principle. One can frequently hear it said of Scott's stories, "I can't get started with them; they are too dry." The introductory chapters are often uninteresting. So much history is introduced, so much scenery is described before the author sets out his characters; and all this is done before he begins the story. Novelists of to-day realize that they must interest the reader at the beginning; when they have caught him, they are quite certain that he will bear with them while they bring up the other divisions of the story, which now have become interesting because they throw light on what has already been told. Even more than novelists, dramatists recognize this principle. When the curtain rises on the first act, something interesting is going on. The action frequently begins far along in the time covered by the story; then by cleverly arranged conversation all circumstances before the time of the opening that are necessary to the development of the plot are introduced. The audience receives these minor yet essential details with no impatience, since they explain in part a situation already interesting. The time order may be broken in order to introduce at the beginning of the story some interesting situation which will immediately engage the reader's attention. In arranging the materials of a story, the main considerations are Mass and Coherence. Mass demands important matters at the beginning and at the end of a story. Coherence demands that events closely related shall stand close together: that an effect shall immediately follow its cause. Beginning with some interesting situation that will also introduce the principal characters, the time, and the setting, the story follows in the main the order of time, and concludes with the main incident. An Outline. One practical suggestion will assist in arranging the parts of a story. Use an outline. It will guard against the omission of any detail that may afterward be found necessary, and against the necessity of offering the apology, inexcusable in prepared work, of "forgetting to say;" it will help the writer to see the best arrangement of the parts, to know that causes have preceded effects. The outline in narration should not be too much in detail, nor should it be followed if, as the story progresses, new light comes and the writer sees a better way to proceed. The writer should be above the outline, not its slave; but the outline is a most valuable servant of the writer. Movement. _Movement is an essential quality of narrative;_ a story must advance. This does not mean that the story shall always go at the same rate, though it does mean that it shall always go. If a story always had the rapidity and intensity of a climax, it would be intolerable. Music that is all rushing climaxes is unbearable; a picture must not be a glare of high lights. The quiet passages in music, the grays and low tones in the background of the picture, the slow chapters in a story, are as necessary as their opposites; indeed, climaxes are dependent on contrasts in order to be climaxes. Rapidity. The question of movement resolves itself into these two: how is rapidity of movement obtained, and how can the writer delay the movement. Rapidity is gained by the omission of all unnecessary details, and the use of the shortest, tersest sentences to express the absolutely essential. Dependent clauses disappear; either the sentences are simple, just one sharp statement, or they are made of coördinate clauses with no connectives. Every weight that could clog the story is thrown away, and it runs with the swiftness of the thought. At such a time it would be a waste of good material to introduce beautiful descriptions or profound philosophy. Such things would be skipped by the reader. Everything must clear the way for the story. Slowness. What has been said of rapidity will indicate the answer to the second question. Slowness of movement is obtained by introducing long descriptions, analyses of characters, and information regarding the history or customs of the time. Sentences become long and involved; dependent clauses abound; connective words and phrases are frequent. Needless details may be introduced until the story becomes wearisome; it has almost no movement. Very closely connected with what has been said above is another fact concerning movement. Strip the sentences as you may, there are still the verbs remaining. Verbs and derivatives from verbs are the words which denote action. If other classes of words be taken out, the ratio of verbs to the other words in the sentence is larger. Shorter sentences and an increased ratio of verbs mark the passages in which the movement is more rapid. In "Baa, Baa, Black Sheep" the sentences average twenty-five words in the slower parts; in the intenser paragraphs the sentences have an average of fifteen words. Poe's "Gold-Bug" changes from thirty-eight to twenty-one. Again, Stevenson's essays have a verb to eight words, while the fight at the round house has a verb to about five and a half words. One of Kipling's stories starts in with a verb to eight and a half words, and the climax has a verb in every four words. These figures mean that as the sentences are shortened, adjectives, adverbs, phrases, connectives, disappear. Everything not absolutely necessary is thrown away when the passage is to express rapid movement. No person should think that, by eliminating all dependent clauses, cutting away all unnecessary matters, and putting in a verb to every four words, he can gain intensity of expression. These are only accompanying circumstances. Climaxes are in the thought. When the thought moves rapidly, when things are being done with a rush, when the climax has been reached, then the writer will find that he can approach the movement of the thought most nearly by using these means. Description and Narration. _A valuable accessory to narration is description;_ in truth, description for its own sake is not frequently found. The story must be somewhere; and it is more real when we know in what kind of a place it occurs. Still it is not wise to do as Scott so often has done,--give chapters of description at the beginning of the story. Rather the setting should be scattered through the story so that it is hardly perceptible. At no time should the reader halt and realize that he is being treated to a description. Even in the beautiful descriptions by Stevenson quoted in the next chapter, the work is so intimately blended with the story that the reader unfortunately might pass over it. A large part of the pleasure derived from the best stories is supplied by good descriptions, giving a vivid picture of the setting of the story. Description has another use in narration beside giving the setting of the story; it is often used to accent the mood of the action. In "The Fall of the House of Usher" by Poe, much of the gloomy foreboding is caused by the weird descriptions. Hawthorne understood well the harmony between man's feelings and his surroundings. The Sylvan Dance in "The Marble Faun" is wonderfully handled. Irving, in "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow," throws about the story a "witching influence," and long before the Headless Horseman appears, the reader is quite sure that the region abounds in "ghosts and goblins," dwelling in its "haunted fields, and haunted brooks, and haunted bridges, and haunted houses." The danger in the use of description for this purpose is in overdoing it. The fact is, as Arlo Bates says, "the villains no longer steal through smiling gardens whose snowy lilies, all abloom, and sending up perfume like incense from censers of silver, seem to rebuke the wicked." Yet when handled as Stevenson and Irving handled it, description assists in accenting the mood of the action. Characters few, Time short. _The number of characters should be few_ and the time of the action short. Pupils are not able to handle a large number of persons. There is, however, a stronger reason for it than incapacity. A young person would have great trouble in remembering the large number of persons introduced into "Little Dorrit." Many of them would always remain entire strangers. Such a scattering of attention is unfavorable to a story. To focus the interest upon a few, to have the action centred in these few, increases the movement and intensity of the narrative. The writers of short stories in France (perhaps the best story-tellers of the present), Kipling, Davis, Miss Wilkins, and some others of our best authors, find few characters all that are necessary, and they gain in intensity by limiting the number of characters. For the same reason _the time should be short._ If all the incidents chosen are crowded into a short period of time, the action must be more rapid. The reader does not like to know five years have elapsed between one event and the next, even if the story-teller does not try to fill up the interim with matters of no consequence to the narrative. One exception must be made to this rule. In stories whose purpose is to portray a change of character, a long time is necessary; for the transformation is not usually the result of a day's experience, but a gradual process of years. "Silas Marner" and "Baa, Baa, Black Sheep" demand time to make naturally the great changes recounted. In general, however, the time should be short. Simple Plot. Moreover, _the plot should be simple._ This is not saying that the plot should be evident. No one is quite satisfied if he knows just how the story will turn out. There are, however, so many conditions in a story that the accentuation of one or the subordination of another may bring about something quite unexpected, yet perfectly natural. Complicated plots have had their day; simple plots are now in vogue. They are as natural as life, and quite as unfathomable. In Davis's "Gallegher" there is nothing complicated; one thing follows another in a perfectly natural way; yet there are many questions in the reader's mind as to how the little rascal will turn out, and whether he will accomplish his mission. Much more cleverness is shown by the sleight-of-hand trickster, who, unassisted and in the open, with no accessories, dupes his staring assembly, than by him who, on the stage, with the aid of mirrors, lights, machines, and a crowd of assistants, manages to deceive your eyes. A story that by its frank simplicity takes the reader into its confidence, and brings him to a conclusion that is so natural that it should have been foreseen from the beginning, has a good plot. The conclusion of a story must be natural,--the result of the causes at work in the story. It must be an expected surprise. If it cannot be accounted for by the causes at work in the story, the construction is faulty. In the world of fiction there is not the liberty one experiences in the world of fact. There things unexpected and unexplainable occur. But the story-teller has no such privilege. Truth is stranger than fiction dare be. A simple, natural story, with few characters and covering but a short period of time, has three elements of success. Paragraph structure, sentence structure, and choice of words are taken up in subsequent chapters. Of paragraphs it may be wise to say that there will be as many as there are divisions in the outline; and sometimes, by reason of the length of topic, a subdivision may be necessary. The paragraph most common in narration is the paragraph of details, the first form presented in the chapter on paragraphs. What needs to be said of sentences has already been said when treating of movement. Of words one thing may be suggested. Choose live words, specific words, words that have "go" in them. It should be remembered that everything cannot be learned at once. The study of the whole is the principal occupation just now. Select the main incident; choose other incidents to be consistent with it; start out at once giving the conditions of the story; proceed now fast, now slow, as the thought demands, arriving at a conclusion that is an expected surprise, the result of forces at work in the story. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES The questions are only suggestive. They indicate how literature can be made to teach composition. Some questions may seem hard, and will provoke discussion. To have even a false opinion, backed by only a few facts, is better than an entire absence of thought. Encourage discussion. The answers to the questions have not been suggested in the questions themselves. The object has been to throw the pupil upon his own thinking. These questions upon the "Method of the Author" should not be considered until the far more important work of deriving the "Meaning of the Author" has been finished. Only after the whole piece has been carefully studied can the relation of the parts to the whole be understood. Reserve the questions for the review. QUESTIONS. THE GREAT STONE FACE. (Riverside Literature Series, No. 40.) In what paragraphs is the main incident? Can you find one sentence on the second page of the story that foreshadows the result? How many incidents or episodes contribute to the story? Do these help in the development of Ernest's character? If not, what is the use of them? Why are they arranged in this order? Introduce into its proper place an incident of a scientist. Write it up. Do you think one of the incidents could be omitted? Which one? Are the incidents related in the order in which they occurred? Is one the cause of another? Has the story a plot? Why do you think so? What is a plot? Where are introduced the time, place, and the principal character? What is the use of the description of "the great stone face"? Why does the author tell only what "was reported" of the interior of Mr. Gathergold's palace? Is it better so? Are the descriptions to accent the mood of the story? or are they primarily to make concrete and real the persons and places? Is there any place where the movement of the story is rapid? Does the author begin at once, and close when the story is told? Did you find any use of comparisons in the piece? (See top of p. 6, top of p. 19, middle of p. 22.)[3] Of what value are they in composition? THE GENTLE BOY. (Riverside Literature Series, No. 145.) What is the main incident? In relation to the whole story, in what place does it stand? Do the other incidents serve to develop the character of "the gentle boy"? or are they introduced to open up to the reader that character? (Compare with "Wee Willie Winkie.") Do you consider all the incidents necessary? Why has the author introduced the fact that Ilbrahim gently cared for the little boy who fell from the tree? What is the use of the first two pages of the story? Where does the story really begin? How could you know the time, if the first page were not there? Is it a delicate way of telling "when"? Notice that time, place, and principal characters all are introduced into the first paragraph of the real story. Why does the author note the change in Tobias's circumstances? Does it add to the interest of the story? Would you omit it? Do you think this plot more complicated than that of "The Great Stone Face"? What is the use of the description on p. 31? What do you note as the difference between (a) second line of p. 19, sixth line of p. 27, sixteenth line of p. 29, and (b) fourth line of p. 25, the figure in the complete paragraph on p. 40? THE GRAY CHAMPION. (Riverside Literature Series, No. 145.) Note the successive stages by which the time is approached. (Compare with the beginning of "Silas Marner.") Can you feel any difference between the movement of this story and the movement in "The Gentle Boy"? Is there any difference in the length of the sentences? (Remember that the independent clauses of a compound sentence are very nearly the same as simple sentences.) Is there any difference in the proportion of verbs and verbals? What parts of speech have almost disappeared? ROGER MALVIN'S BURIAL. (Riverside Literature Series, No. 145.) Why is the first paragraph needed? Why could the incident in the first paragraph on p. 50 not be omitted? Do you find it later? How many chapters could you divide the story into? What is the basis of division? Why did not Hawthorne tell the result of the shot at once? A plot is usually made by introducing more than one cause, by hiding one of the causes, or by holding back an effect. Which in this story? Is there a change of movement between the beginning and the end of the story? Look at the last two pages carefully. How has the author expressed the intensity of the situation? Does the story end when it is finished? THE WEDDING KNELL. (Riverside Literature Series, No. 145.) Of the three common ways of giving uncertainty to a plot, which has been used? Do you call this plot more complicated than those of the other tales studied? Why does the author say, at the top of p. 72, "necessary preface"? Could it not be omitted? If not, what principle of narrative construction would be violated by its omission? Why has he introduced the last paragraph on p. 74 reaching over to p. 75? THE AMBITIOUS GUEST. (Riverside Literature Series, No. 40.) In what order are the elements of the story introduced? Pick out phrases which prepare you for the catastrophe. Can you detect any difference in the movement of the different parts of the story? What aids its expression? THE GOLD-BUG. (Riverside Literature Series, No. 120.) Would you have been satisfied if the story had stopped when the treasure was discovered? What more do you want to know? What, then, is the main incident? Was the main incident the last to occur in order of time? Why did Poe delay telling it until the end? Do you see how relating the story in the first person helped him to throw the main incident last? Why could he not tell it before? Does Poe tell any other stories in the first person? In what person are "Treasure Island" and "Kidnapped" told? Are they interesting? If a friend is telling you a story, do you care more for it if it is about a third party or about himself? Why? What, then, is the advantage of making an actor the narrator? What are some of the disadvantages? Do you think this plot as good as those of Hawthorne's stories? Why was it necessary to have "a day of remarkable chilliness" (p. 3), and a Newfoundland dog rushing into the room (p. 6)? What principle would it violate to omit these little matters? (Text-book, p. 24.) What of the rapidity of movement when they are digging? How has rapidity been gained? What form of wit does Poe attempt? Does he succeed? Do you think the conversation is natural? If not, what is the matter with it? Are negroes usually profane? Does Jupiter's general character lead you to expect profanity from him? Is anything gained by his oaths? Is anything sacrificed? In this story is profanity artistic? (To know what is meant by "artistic," read the last line of "L'Envoi" on p. 253 of the text-book.) THE VISION OF SIR LAUNFAL. (Riverside Literature Series, No. 30.) What is the purpose of the first stanza? What connection in thought is there between the second, third, and fourth stanzas? What have these stanzas to do with the story? If they have nothing to do with it, what principle of structure do they violate? Would Lowell be likely to do this? What is the use of the description beginning "And what is so rare as a day in June"? Would the story be complete without the preludes? Would the teaching be understood without them? Are time and place definitely stated in the poem? Why should they be, or not be? Why does so much time elapse between Part I. and Part II. of the story? In what lines do you find the main incident? In the first prelude is Lowell describing a landscape of New England or Old England? Where is the story laid? What comment have you to make upon these facts? Pick out the figures. Are they useful? Can you find passages of exposition and description in this narrative? Why do you call it narration? What is Lowell's criticism upon himself? (See "Fable for Critics.") A CHRISTMAS CAROL. (Riverside Literature Series, No. 57.) Is the opening such as to catch the attention? What is the essential idea in the description of Scrooge? Do all details enforce this idea? Do you know Scrooge? In what paragraph does Dickens tell where the story occurs? Find places on p. 19 and p. 96 where Dickens has used "in" or "into." What advantage to the story is the appearance in Scrooge's office of his nephew and the two gentlemen? Do they come into the story again? Are the details in the description of the apparition on p. 41 in the order in which they would be noted? Which is the most important detail? Where is it in the description? Is the description of Mrs. Fezziwig on p. 52 successful? What helps express rapidity of movement in the paragraph at the bottom of p. 53? (See also paragraph on p. 85.) Examining the words used by Dickens and Hawthorne, which are longer? Which are most effectual? Are you sure? Rewrite one of Hawthorne's paragraphs with a Dickens vocabulary. What is the result? What word is the topic of the last paragraph on p. 73? Recast the first sentence of the last paragraph on p. 77. Does Dickens use slang? (Do not consider conversation in the answer to this question.) What is the main incident? Is there one of the minor incidents that could be omitted? Which one could you most easily spare? What is the need of the last chapter? MARMION. (Rolfe's Student's Series, Vol. 2.) How do you know the time of "Marmion"? Do you see any reason why stanza vi. of Canto I. would better precede stanza v.? Where is the first mention of De Wilton? the first intimation of Clara de Clare? of Constance? What form of discourse in stanza vii. of Canto II.? What part in the development of the narrative does Fitz-Eustace's song make? Does the tale related by the host break the unity of the whole? Is it "another story"? What value has it? Why does Scott not tell of Marmion's encounter with the Elfin Knight in Canto III.? Where is it told? Why there? Why is Canto II. put after Canto I.? Did the events related in II. occur after those related in I.? How many of the descriptions of persons in "Marmion" begin with the face? How many times are they of the face only? Try to write the incident related in stanzas xix., xx., xxi., and xxii. of Canto III. in fewer words than Scott has done it without sacrificing any detail. Are you satisfied with the description of King James in stanza viii. Canto V.? Do you see him? Write an outline of the plot of "Marmion" in two hundred words. Why is the story of Lady Clare reserved until Canto V.? What cantos contain the main incident? Were all that precedes omitted, would "The Battle" be as interesting? Do you think the plot good? Is it complicated? What of the number of figures used in the last canto compared with those used in any other canto? Do you find more in narrative or descriptive passages? Why? Read stanza viii. Canto III. Can you describe a voice without using comparison? Do the introductions to the several cantos form any part of the story? Would they be just as good anywhere else? Would the story be better with them, or without them? What principle of structure do they violate? EXERCISES. The subjects for composition given below are not intended as a course to be followed, but only to suggest a plan for the work. The individual topics for essays may not be the best for all cases. Long lists of topics can be found in rhetorics. Bare subjects, however, are usually unsuggestive. They should be adapted to the class. Put the subjects in such shape that there is something to get hold of. Give the pupils a fair start. 1-4. In order to place before the pupils good models for constructing stories, read one like "A Piece of String" in "An Odd Number," by Maupassant. Stories for this purpose should not be long. Talk the story over with the pupils, bringing out clearly the main incident and the several episodes which contribute to it. Have them notice how characters, time, and place are introduced; and how each succeeding event is possible and natural. Then have it rewritten. This will fix the idea of plan. For this purpose some of Miss Wilkins's stories are excellent; Kenneth Grahame's "The Golden Age," and Miss Jewett's short stories are good material. Some of the short stories in current magazines serve well. 5, 6. Read the first of a story and its close,--enough to indicate the main incident and the setting of the story. Have the pupils write it complete. 7. Read the close of a story. The pupils will then write the whole. 8. Read the opening of a story. Have the pupils complete it. 9. Finish "The Circus-Man's Story" (Text-book, p. 297.) 10. My First Algebra Lesson. Remember that in composition a good story is worth more than a true one. The basis may be a fact. Do not hesitate to fix it up. 11. A delivery horse runs away. No persons are in the wagon. Tell about it. 12. Write about a runaway in which you and your little sister are injured. (I have found it very helpful to use the same subject, but having the relation of the narrator to the incident very different. It serves to bring out a whole new vocabulary in order to express the difference in the feelings of the narrator.) 13. Write the story suggested to your mind by these words: Digging in the sand I found a board much worn by the waves, on which were cut, in characters scarcely traceable, these words: "Dec.----18 9, N. J." 14. A humorous incident in a street car, in which the joke was on the other fellow. 15. Another in which the joke was on me. The same incident may be used with good effect. The choice of new words to express the difference of feelings makes an excellent exercise. 16. Tell the story that Doreas related to her neighbors about her husband's escape and her father's death. 17. To bring out the fact that the language must be varied to suit the character of the reader or listener, tell a fairy story to a sleepy five-year old so that he will not go to sleep. Do not hesitate at exaggerations. Only remember it must be consistent. 18. Have "The Gentle Boy" tell one of the incidents in which he was cruelly treated. This may well be an incident of your own life adapted to its purpose. 19, 20. Jim was a mean boy. Meanness seemed to be in his blood. He was all mean. His hair was mean; his freckles were mean; his big, chapped hands were mean. And he was always mean. He was mean to his pets; he was meaner to small boys; and he was as mean as he dared to be to his equals in size. Write one incident to show Jim's meanness. Write another to show how Jim met his match, and learned a lesson. 21. Work up the following into a story. It all occurs in one day at the present time. Place, your own city. Characters, a poor sewing girl, her little sick brother, and a wealthy society lady. Incidents: a conversation between brother and sister about some fruit; a conversation between the sewing girl and the lady about money due for sewing; stealing apples; arrest; appearance of the lady. Title: Who was the Criminal? 22. A story of a modern Sir Launfal. 23. The most thrilling moment of my life. 24. Tell the whole story suggested by the stanza of "A Nightingale in the Study," by Lowell, which begins, "Cloaked shapes, a twanging of guitars." 25. Write a story which teaches a lesson. Remember that the lesson is in the story, not at its end. In the work at this time but little attention can be given to the teaching of paragraphs and sentences. The pupil should learn what a paragraph is, and should have his composition properly divided into paragraphs. But the form and massing of paragraphs cannot be taken up at this time. The same may be said of sentences. He should have no sentences broken in two by periods; nor should he have two sentences forced into one. Grammatical errors should be severely criticised. However, the present work is to get the pupils started; and they cannot get started if there is a teacher holding them back by discouraging criticisms. Mark all mistakes of whatever kind; but put the stress upon the whole composition: its unity, its coherence, its mass, and its movement. Everything cannot be done at once; many distressing faults will have to be passed over until later. * * * * * CHAPTER IV DESCRIPTION Difficulties of Language for making Pictures. Description has been defined as the form of literature which presents a picture by means of language. In the preceding chapter, it has been pointed out that the sequence of language is perfectly adapted to detail the sequence of action in a narrative. For the purpose of constructing a picture, the means has serious drawbacks. The picture has to be presented in pieces; and the difficulties are much as would be experienced if "dissected maps and animals" used for children's amusement were to be put together in the head. It would not be easy to arrange the map of the United States from blocks, each containing a small part of it, taken one at a time from a box. Yet this closely resembles the method language forces us to adopt in constructing a picture. Each phrase is like one of the blocks, and introduces a new element into the picture; from these phrases the reader must reconstruct the whole. This means not alone that he shall remember them all, but there is a more serious trouble: he must often rearrange them. For example, a description by Ruskin begins, "Nine years old." Either a boy or a girl, the reader thinks, as it may be in his own home. In the case of this reader it is a boy, rather tall of his age, with brown hair and dark eyes. But the next phrase reads, "Neither tall nor short for her age." Now the reader knows it is a girl of common stature. Later on he learns that her eyes are "deep blue;" her lips "perfectly lovely in profile;" and so on through the details of the whole sketch. Many times in the course of the description the reader makes up a new picture; he is continually reconstructing. Any one who will observe his own mind while reading a new description can prove that the picture is arranged and rearranged many times. This is due to the means by which it is presented. Language presents only a phrase at a time,--a fragment, not a whole,--and so fails in the instantaneous presentation of a complete picture. Painting and Sculpture. The painter or sculptor who upon canvas or in stone flashes the whole composition before us at the same instant of time, has great advantages over the worker in words. In these methods there is needed no reconstruction of previous images, no piecing together of a number of fragments. Without any danger of mistakes which will have to be corrected later, the spectator can take in the whole picture at once,--every relation, every color, every difference in values. It is because pictures are the surest and quickest means of representing objects to the mind that books, especially text-books, and magazines are so profusely illustrated. No magazine can claim popularity to-day that does not use illustrations where possible; no text-book in science or history sells unless it contains pictures. And this is because all persons accurately and quickly get the idea from a picture. Advantages of Language. Whatever be the disadvantages of language, there are some advantages. Who could paint this from Hawthorne? "Soon the smoke ascended among the trees, impregnated with _savory incense,_ not _heavy, dull,_ and _surfeiting,_ like the steam of cookery indoors, but _sprightly_ and _piquant._ The _smell_ of our feast was akin to the woodland odors with which it mingled." ("Mosses from an Old Manse.") Or this from Lowell?-- "Under the yaller-pines I house, When sunshine makes 'em all _sweet-scented,_ An' _hear_ among their furry boughs The _baskin'_ west wind _purr contented,_ While 'way o'erhead, ez _sweet_ an' _low Ez distant bells thet ring for meetin',_ The wedged wil' geese _their bugles blow,_ Further an' further South retreatin'."[4] Or cut this from marble?-- "O mother Ida, many-fountained Ida, Dear mother Ida, hearken ere I die. For now the noonday quiet holds the hill; The grasshopper is silent in the grass; The lizard, with his shadow on the stone, Rests like a shadow, and the winds are dead. The purple flower droops; the golden bee Is lily-cradled; I alone awake. My eyes are full of tears, my heart of love, My heart is breaking, and my eyes are dim, And I am all aweary of my life."[5] The painter cannot put sounds upon a canvas, nor can the sculptor carve from marble an odor or a taste. We use the other senses in determining qualities of objects; and words which describe effects produced by other senses beside sight are valuable in description. As Lowell says, "we may shut our eyes, but we cannot help knowing" a large number of beautiful things. Moreover, language suggests hidden ideas that the representative arts cannot so well do. The following from a "Song" by Lowell has in it suggestions which the picture could not present. "Violet! sweet violet! Thine eyes are full of tears; Are they wet Even yet With the thought of other years? Or with gladness are they full, For the night so beautiful, And longing for those far-off spheres? "Thy little heart, that hath with love Grown colored like the sky above, On which thou lookest ever,-- Can it know All the woe Of hope for what returneth never, All the sorrow and the longing To these hearts of ours belonging?" Enumeration and Suggestion Description, like narration, has two large divisions: one simply to give information or instruction; the other to present a vivid picture. One is _representative_ or _enumerative;_ the other, _suggestive._ One may be illustrated by guide-books; the other by the descriptions of Stevenson or Ruskin. And in the most artistic fashion the two have been made to supplement each other in the following picture of "bright and beautiful Athens" by Cardinal Newman. From the first, to the sentence beginning "But what he would not think of," there is simply an enumeration of features which a commercial agent might see; the rest is what the artistic soul of the lover of beauty saw there. One is enumeration; the other a gloriously suggestive picture. "A confined triangle, perhaps fifty miles its greatest length, and thirty its greatest breadth; two elevated rocky barriers, meeting at an angle; three prominent mountains, commanding the plain,--Parnes, Pentelicus, and Hymettus; an unsatisfactory soil; some streams, not always full;--such is about the report which the agent of a London company would have made of Attica. He would report that the climate was mild; the hills were limestone; there was plenty of good marble; more pasture land than at first survey might have been expected, sufficient, certainly, for sheep and goats; fisheries productive; silver mines once, but long since worked out; figs fair; oil first-rate; olives in profusion. But what he would not think of noting down was that that olive-tree was so choice in nature and so noble in shape that it excited a religious veneration; and that it took so kindly to the light soil as to expand into woods upon the open plain, and to climb up and fringe the hills. He would not think of writing word to his employers, how that clear air, of which I have spoken, brought out, yet blended and subdued, the colors on the marble, till they had a softness and harmony, for all their richness, which in a picture looks exaggerated, yet is after all within the truth. He would not tell how that same delicate and brilliant atmosphere freshened up the pale olive, till the olive forgot its monotony, and its cheek glowed like the arbutus or beech of the Umbrian hills. He would say nothing of the thyme and the thousand fragrant herbs which carpeted Hymettus; he would hear nothing of the hum of its bees; nor take account of the rare flavor of its honey, since Gaza and Minorca were sufficient for the English demand. He would look over the �gean from the height he had ascended; he would follow with his eyes the chain of islands, which, starting from the Sunian headland, seemed to offer the fabled divinities of Attica, when they would visit their Ionian cousins, a sort of viaduct thereto across the sea; but that fancy would not occur to him, nor any admiration of the dark violet billows with their white edges down below; nor of those graceful, fan-like jets of silver upon the rocks, which slowly rise aloft like water spirits from the deep, then shiver, and break, and spread, and shroud themselves, and disappear in a soft mist of foam; nor of the gentle, incessant heaving and panting of the whole liquid plain; nor of the long waves, keeping steady time, like a line of soldiery as they resound upon the hollow shore,--he would not deign to notice the restless living element at all except to bless his stars that he was not upon it. Nor the distinct details, nor the refined coloring, nor the graceful outline and roseate golden hue of the jutting crags, nor the bold shadows cast from Otus or Laurium by the declining sun;--our agent of a mercantile firm would not value these matters even at a low figure. Rather, we must turn for the sympathy we seek to yon pilgrim student, come from a semi-barbarous land to that small corner of the earth, as to a shrine, where he might take his fill of gazing on those emblems and coruscations of invisible unoriginate perfection. It was the stranger from a remote province, from Britain or from Mauritania, who in a scene so different from that of his chilly, woody swamps, or of his fiery, choking sands, learned at once what a real University must be, by coming to understand the sort of country which was its suitable home."[6] Enumerative Description. Enumerative description has one point of great difference from suggestive description. In the former everything is told; in the latter the description is as fortunate in what it omits as in what it includes. Were an architect to give specifications for the building of a house, every detail would have to be included; but after all the pages of careful enumeration the reader would know less of how it looked than after these few words from Irving. "A large, rickety wooden building stood in its place, with great gaping windows, some of them broken and mended with old hats and petticoats, and over the door was painted 'The Union Hotel, by Jonathan Doolittle.'" So the manual training student uses five hundred words to describe in detail a box which would be thrown off with but a few words in a piece of literature. In enumerative description, one element is of as much importance as another; no special feature is made primary by the omission or subdual of other qualities. It has value in giving exact details of objects, as if for their construction, and in including an object in a class. Suggestive Description. Suggestive description, description the aim of which is not information, but the reproduction of a picture, is the kind most employed in literature. To present a picture, not all the details should be given. The mind cannot carry them all, and, much worse, it cannot arrange them. Nor is there any need for a detailed enumeration. A room has walls, floor, and ceiling; a man naturally has ears, arms, and feet. These things may be taken for granted. It is not what is common to a class that describes; it is what is individual, what takes one object out of a class. Value of Observation. This leads to the suggestion that _good description depends largely on accurate observation._ A selection frequently quoted, but none the less valuable because often seen, is in point here. It is the last word on the value of observation. "Talent is long patience. It is a question of regarding whatever one desires to express long enough and with attention close enough to discover a side which no one has seen and which has been expressed by nobody. In everything there is something of the unexplored, because we are accustomed to use our eyes only with the thought of what has already been said concerning the thing we see. The smallest thing has in it a grain of the unknown. Discover it. In order to describe a fire that flames or a tree in the plain, we must remain face to face with that fire or that tree until for us they no longer resemble any other tree or any other fire. This is the way to become original. "Having, moreover, impressed upon me the fact that there are not in the whole world two grains of sand, two insects, two hands, or two noses absolutely alike, he forced me to describe a being or an object in such a manner as to individualize it clearly, to distinguish it from all other objects of the same kind. 'When you pass,' he said to me, 'a grocer seated in his doorway, a concierge smoking his pipe, a row of cabs, show me this grocer and this concierge, their attitude, all their physical appearance; suggest by the skill of your image all their moral nature, so that I shall not confound them with any other grocer or any other concierge; make me see, by a single word, wherein a cab-horse differs from the fifty others that follow or precede him.'... Whatever may be the thing which one wishes to say, there is but one word for expressing it; only one verb to animate it, but one adjective to qualify it. It is essential to search for this verb, for this adjective, until they are discovered, and never to be satisfied with anything else."[7] The Point of View. With the closest observation, an author gets into his own mind what he wishes to present to another; but with this essential step taken, he is only ready to begin the work of communication. For the successful communication of a picture there are some considerations of value. And first is _the point of view._ It has much the same relation to description as the main incident has to narration. In large measure it determines what to exclude and what to include. When a writer has assumed his point of view, he must stay there, and tell not a thing more than he can see from there. It would hardly be possible for a man, telling only so much as he saw while gazing from Eiffel Tower into the streets below, to say that the people looked like Lilliputians and that their hands were dirty. To one lying on the bank of a stream, it does not look like "a silver thread running through the landscape." Things do not look the same when they are near as when at a distance. This fact has been acted upon more by the modern school of painting than ever before in art. Verboeckhoven painted sheep in a marvelous way. The drawing is perfect, giving the animal to the life. Still, no matter how far away the artist was standing, there are the same marvelously painted tufts of wool, showing almost the individual fibres. Tufts of wool were on the sheep, and made of fibres; but no artist at twenty rods could see them. The new school gives only what actually can be seen. Its first law is that each "shall draw the thing as he sees it for the God of Things as They Are." Make no additions to what you can actually see because, as a result of experience, you know that there are some things not yet mentioned in your description; the hands may be dirty, but the man on the tower cannot see the dirt. Neither make an addition simply because it sounds well; the "silver thread through the landscape" is beautiful, but, unfortunately, it is not always true. Not only does distance cut out details from a picture; the fact that man sees in a straight line and not around a corner eliminates some features. In describing a house, remember that as you stand across the street from it, the back porch cannot be seen, neither can the shrubbery in the back yard. A writer would not be justified in speaking of a man's necktie, if the man he was describing were walking in front of him. In enumerative description the inside of a box may be told of; a man may be turned around, as it were; but to present a picture, only one side can be described, just as it would be shown in a photograph. Any addition to what can actually be known from the point of view assumed by the author is a fault and a source of confusion. Choose your point of view; stay there; and tell only what is seen from that point. Moving Point of View. It has been said that the point of view should not be changed. This requires one modification. It may be changed, if the reader is kept informed of the changes. If a person wished to describe an interior, he would be unable to see the whole from any one point of view. As he passed from room to room he should inform his reader of his change of position. Then the description, though a unit, is a combination of several descriptions; just as the house is one, though made of dining-room, sitting-rooms, bedrooms, and attic. This kind of description is very common in books of travel, in which the author tells what he sees in passing. The thing to be remembered in writing this kind of description is to inform the reader where the author is when he writes the different parts of the description,--to give the points of view. The Point of View should be stated. The point of view, whether fixed or moving, should be made clear. Either it should be definitely stated, or it should be suggested by some phrase in the description. In the many examples which are quoted in this chapter, it would be well to see what it is that gives the point of view. The picture gains in distinctness when the point of view is known. The following sentences are from "The Old Manse;" there is no mistake here. The reader knows every move the author makes. It opens with:-- "Between two tall gateposts of rough-hewn stone (the gate itself having fallen from its hinges at some unknown epoch) we beheld the gray front of the old parsonage terminating the vista of an avenue of black ash-trees." From the street the reader is taken to "the rear of the house," where there was "the most delightful little nook of a study that ever offered its snug seclusion to a scholar." Through its window the clergyman saw the opening of the "deadly struggle between two nations." He heard the rattle of musketry, and "there needed but a gentle wind to sweep the battle smoke around this quiet house. Perhaps the reader, whom I cannot help considering as my guest in the Old Manse and entitled to all courtesy in the way of sight-showing,--perhaps he will choose to take a nearer view of the memorable spot. We stand now on the river's brink."... "Here we are, at the point where the river was crossed by the old bridge."... "The Old Manse! We had almost forgotten it, but will return thither through the orchard."... "What with the river, the battle-field, the orchard, and the garden, the reader begins to despair of finding his way back into the Old Manse. But in agreeable weather it is the truest hospitality to keep him out-of-doors. I never grew quite acquainted with my habitation till a long spell of sulky rain had confined me beneath its roof. There could not be a more sombre aspect of external nature than as then seen from the windows of my study." And so Hawthorne continues through this long and beautiful description of "The Old Manse;" every change in the point of view is noted. Mental Point of View. Closely connected with the physical point of view is the mood or purpose of the writer; this might be called _the mental point of view._ Not everything should be told which the author could know from his position, but only those things which at the time serve his purpose. In the description already quoted from Newman, the mercantile gentleman notes a large number of features which are the commercial advantages of Attica; of these but three are worthy of mention by "yon pilgrim student" in giving his impression of Athens as "a shrine where he might take his fill of gazing on those emblems and coruscations of invisible unoriginate perfection." The others--the soil, the streams, the climate, the limestone, the fisheries, and the silver mines--do not serve his purpose. Hawthorne in the long description already mentioned has retained those features which suggest quiet and peace. Such a profusion of "quiet," "half asleep," "peaceful," "unruffled," "unexcitable" words and phrases never "loitered" through forty pages of "dreamy" and "whispering" description. In the following bit from "Lear," where Edgar tells his blinded father how high the cliff is, only those details are included which measure distance. "How fearful And dizzy 'tis to cast one's eyes so low! The crows and choughs that wing the midway air Show scarce so gross as beetles; half way down Hangs one that gathers samphire,--dreadful trade! Methinks he seems no bigger than his head: The fishermen, that walk upon the beach, Appear like mice; and yond tall anchoring bark, Diminished to her cock; her cock, a buoy Almost too small for sight: the murmuring surge, That on th' unnumbered idle pebbles chafes, Cannot be heard so high.--I'll look no more, Lest my brain turn, and the deficient sight Topple down headlong." The following is from Kipling's "The Light that Failed:"-- "What do you think of a big, red, dead city built of red sandstone, with green aloes growing between the stones, lying out neglected on honey-colored sands? There are forty dead kings there, Maisie, each in a gorgeous tomb finer than all the others. You look at the palaces and streets and shops and tanks, and think that men must live there, till you find a wee gray squirrel rubbing its nose all alone in the marketplace, and a jeweled peacock struts out of a carved doorway and spreads its tail against a marble screen as fine pierced as point-lace. Then a monkey--a little black monkey--walks through the main square to get a drink from a tank forty feet deep. He slides down the creepers to the water's edge, and a friend holds him by the tail, in case he should fall in. "Is all that true? "I have been there and seen. Then evening comes and the lights change till it's just as though you stood in the heart of a king-opal. A little before sundown, as punctually as clockwork, a big bristly wild boar, with all his family following, trots through the city gate, churning the foam on his tusks. You climb on the shoulder of a big black stone god, and watch that pig choose himself a palace for the night and stump in wagging his tail. Then the night-wind gets up, and the sands move, and you hear the desert outside the city singing, 'Now I lay me down to sleep,' and everything is dark till the moon rises." Note how every detail introduced serves to make the city dead. Dead kings, a wee gray squirrel, a little black monkey, a bristly wild boar, the night wind, and the desert singing,--these could not be seen or heard in a live city with street cars; but all serve to emphasize the fact that here is "a big, red, dead city." At the risk of over-emphasizing this point that the purpose of the author, the mental point of view of the writer, the feeling which the object gives him and which he wishes to convey to the reader, the central thought in the description, is primary, and an element that cannot be overlooked in successful description, I give another example. This point really cannot be over-emphasized: a writer cannot be too careful in selecting materials. Careless grouping of incongruous matters cannot make a picture. Nor does the artistic author leave the reader in doubt as to the purpose of the description; its central thought is usually suggested in the first sentence. In the quotations from Shakespeare and Kipling, the opening sentences are the germ of what follows. Each detail seems to grow out of this sentence, and serves to emphasize it. In the following by Stevenson, the paragraphs spring from the opening sentence; they explain it, they elaborate it, and they accent it. "Night is a dead monotonous period under a roof; but in the open world it passes lightly, with its stars and dews and perfumes, and the hours are marked by changes in the face of Nature. What seems a kind of temporal death to people choked between walls and curtains is only a light and living slumber to the man who sleeps afield. All night long he can hear Nature breathing deeply and freely; even as she takes her rest she turns and smiles; and there is one stirring hour unknown to those who dwell in houses, when a wakeful influence goes abroad over the sleeping hemisphere, and all the outdoor world are on their feet. It is then that the first cock crows, not this time to announce the dawn, but like a cheerful watchman speeding the course of the night. Cattle awake on the meadows; sheep break their fast on the dewy hillsides, and change to a new lair among the ferns; and houseless men, who have lain down with the fowls, open their dim eyes and behold the beauty of the night. "At what inaudible summons, at what gentle touch of Nature, are all these sleepers thus recalled in the same hour to life? Do the stars rain down an influence, or do we share some thrill of mother earth below our resting bodies? Even shepherds and old country-folk, who are the deepest read in these arcana, have not a guess as to the means or purpose of this nightly resurrection. Towards two in the morning they declare the thing takes place; and neither know nor inquire further. And at least it is a pleasant incident. We are disturbed in our slumber only, like the luxurious Montaigne, 'that we may the better and more sensibly enjoy it.' We have a moment to look upon the stars. And there is a special pleasure for some minds in the reflection that we share the impulse with all outdoor creatures in our neighborhood, that we have escaped out of the Bastille of civilization, and are become, for the time being, a more kindly animal and a sheep of Nature's flock." ("Travels with a Donkey.") Length of Descriptions. There is one more step in the exclusion of details. This considers neither the point of view nor the purpose of the writer, but it is what is due the reader. Stevenson says in one of his essays that a description which lasts longer than two minutes is never attempted in conversation. The listener cannot hold the details enumerated. The clearest statement regarding this comes from Jules Lemaître in a criticism upon some descriptions by Emile Zola which the critic says are praised by persons who have never read them. He says:-- "It has been one of the greatest literary blunders of the time to suppose that an enumeration of parts is a picture, to think that forever placing details side by side, however picturesque they may be, is able in the end to make a picture, to give us any conception of the vast spectacles in the physical universe. In reality, a written description arranges its parts in our mind only when the impression of the first features of which it is formed are remembered sufficiently, so that we can easily join the first to those which complete and end it. In short, a piece of description is ineffective if we cannot hold in mind all its details at one time. It is necessary that all the details coexist in our memory just as the parts of a painting coexist under our eye. This becomes next to impossible if the description of one definite object last over fifteen minutes of reading. The longer it is, the more obscure it becomes. The individual features fade away in proportion to the number which are presented; and for this reason one might say that we cannot see the forest for the trees. Every description which is over fifty lines ceases to be clear to a mind of ordinary vigor. After that there is only a succession of fragmentary pictures which fatigues and overwhelms the reader."[8] These, then, are the principles that guide in the choice of materials for a description. First, the point of view, whether fixed or movable, should be made clear to the reader; it should be retained throughout the description, or the change should be announced. By regard for it the writer will be guided to the exclusion of matters that could not be observed, and to the inclusion of such details as can be seen and are essential. Second, the writer will keep out matters that do not contribute to his purpose, and will select only those details which assist in producing the desired impression. Third, the limitations of the reader's powers advise a writer to be brief: five hundred words should be the outside; two hundred are enough for most writers. These principles will give to the whole that unity of materials and of structure which is the first requisite of an effective description. The next matter for consideration is the arrangement of the materials. The arrangement depends on the principles that guided in narration, Mass and Coherence. Arrangement of Details in Description. After we have looked at any object long enough to be able to write about it, one feature comes to assume an importance that sets it far above all others. To a writer who has looked long at a man, he may shrink to a cringing piece of weakness, or he may grow to a strong, self-centred power whose presence alone inspires serenest trust. Hawthorne, standing in St. Peter's, saw only the gorgeous coloring; proportions, immensity, and sacredness were as nothing to the harmonious brilliancy of this expanded "jewel casket."[9] Stevenson, thinking of the beast of burden best suited to carry his great sleeping sack, discarded the horse, for, as he says, "she is a fine lady among animals."[10] The description of a horse which follows this statement emphasizes the fact that a horse is not intended for carrying burdens. From the germinal impression of a description, all the details grow; to this primary impression they all contribute. In the case of buildings, or other things material, this impression is generally one of form, sometimes of the height of the object; if striking, it may be color. The strongest impression of persons is a quality of character which shows itself either in the face or in the pose of a man. An example of each may be found in the following paragraphs from "David Copperfield:"-- "At length we stopped before a very old house bulging out over the road; a house with long, low lattice-windows bulging out still farther, and beams with carved heads on the ends bulging out too, so that I fancied the whole house was leaning forward, trying to see who was passing on the narrow pavement below. It was quite spotless in its cleanliness. The old-fashioned brass knocker on the low-arched door, ornamented with carved garlands of fruits and flowers, twinkled like a star; the two stone steps descending to the door were as white as if they had been covered with fair linen; and all the angles and corners, and carvings and mouldings, and quaint little panes of glass, and quainter little windows, though as old as the hills, were as pure as any snow that ever fell upon the hills. "When the pony-chaise stopped at the door, and my eyes were intent upon the house, I saw a cadaverous face appear at a small window on the ground floor (in a little round tower that formed one side of the house), and quickly disappear. The low arched door then opened, and the face came out. It was quite as cadaverous as it had looked in the window, though in the grain of it there was that tinge of red which is sometimes to be observed in the skins of red-haired people. It belonged to a red-haired person--a youth of fifteen, as I take it now, but looking much older whose hair was cropped as close as the closest stubble; who had hardly any eyebrows, and no eyelashes, and eyes of a red-brown; so unsheltered and unshaded that I remember wondering how he went to sleep. He was high-shouldered and bony; dressed in decent black, with a white wisp of a neck cloth; buttoned up to the throat; and had a long, lank, skeleton hand, which particularly attracted my attention, as he stood at the pony's head, rubbing his chin with it, and looking up at us in the chaise." Hawthorne thus begins his description of "The House of the Seven Gables:"-- "Maule's Lane, or Pyncheon Street, as it were now more decorous to call it, was thronged, at the appointed hour, as with a congregation on its way to church. All, as they approached, looked upward at the imposing edifice, which was henceforth to assume its rank among the habitations of mankind." And in the same volume his description of "The Pyncheon of To-day" begins:-- "As the child went down the steps, a gentleman ascended them, and made his entrance into the shop. It was the portly, and, had it possessed the advantage of a little more height, would have been the stately figure of a man, considerably in the decline of life, dressed in a black suit of some thin stuff, resembling broadcloth as closely as possible." If the description be long, and the object will lend itself to such a treatment, a definite, tangible, easily understood shape or form should be suggested at once. Notice Newman's first sentence describing Attica: "A confined triangle, perhaps fifty miles its greatest length, and thirty its greatest breadth." Like this is the beginning of the description of the battle of Waterloo by Victor Hugo. "Those who would get a clear idea of the battle of Waterloo have only to lay down upon the ground in their mind a capital letter A. The left stroke of the A is the road to Nivelles, the right stroke is the road from Genappe, the cross of the A is the sunken road from Ohain to Braine l'Alleud. The top of the A is Mont Saint Jean, Wellington is there; the left-hand lower point is Hougomont, Reille is there with Jerome Bonaparte; the right-hand lower point is La Belle Alliance, Napoleon is there. A little below the point where the cross of the A meets and cuts the right stroke, is La Haie Sainte. At the middle of this cross is the precise point where the final battle word was spoken. There the lion is placed, the involuntary symbol of the supreme heroism of the Imperial Guard. The triangle contained at the top of the A, between the two strokes and the cross, is the plateau of Mont Saint Jean. The struggle for this plateau was the whole of the battle."[11] In "The Vision of Sir Launfal" Lowell opens his beautiful description with the words, "And what is so rare as a day in June?" From this general and comprehensive sentence follow all the details which make a June day perfect. Hawthorne, after telling how he happened to write of him, begins his long description of "The Old Apple Dealer" with the following paragraph:-- "He is a small man, with gray hair and gray stubble beard, and is invariably clad in a shabby surtout of snuff color, closely buttoned, and half concealing a pair of gray pantaloons; the whole dress, though clean and entire, being evidently flimsy with much wear. His face, thin, withered, furrowed, and with features which even age has failed to render impressive, has a frost-bitten aspect. It is a moral frost which no physical warmth or comfortableness could counteract. The summer sunshine may fling its white heat upon him, or the good fire of the depot room may make him the focus of its blaze on a winter's day; but all in vain; for still the old man looks as if he were in a frosty atmosphere, with scarcely warmth enough to keep life in the region about his heart. It is a patient, long-suffering, quiet, hopeless, shivering aspect. He is not desperate,--that, though its etymology implies no more, would be too positive an expression,--but merely devoid of hope. As all his past life, probably, offers no spots of brightness to his memory, so he takes his present poverty and discomfort as entirely a matter of course; he thinks it the definition of existence, so far as himself is concerned, to be poor, cold, and uncomfortable. It may be added, that time has not thrown dignity as a mantle over the old man's figure: there is nothing venerable about him: you pity him without a scruple." So this old apple dealer shivers all through this description of nine pages to the last sentences:-- "God be praised, were it only for your sake, that the present shapes of human existence are not cast in iron nor hewn in everlasting adamant, but moulded of the vapors that vanish away while the essence flits upward to the Infinite. There is a spiritual essence in this gray and lean old shape that shall flit upward too. Yes; doubtless there is a region where the lifelong shiver will pass away from his being, and that quiet sigh, which it has taken him so many years to breathe, will be brought to a close for good and all." The prominent characteristic may be the feeling aroused by the object. It may be horror, as in a description of a haunted house or a murderer; it may be love, as in the picture of an old home or a sainted mother. The emotion occasioned is often mentioned or suggested at once, and the details are afterward given which have called forth the feeling. Poe uses this in the first paragraph of "The House of Usher." "During the whole of a dull, dark, and soundless day in the autumn of the year, when the clouds hung oppressively low in the heavens, I had been passing alone, on horseback, through a singularly dreary tract of country, and at length found myself, as the shades of evening drew on, within view of the melancholy House of Usher. I know not how it was--but, with the first glimpse of the building, _a sense of insufferable gloom pervaded my spirit._ I say insufferable; for the feeling was unrelieved by any of that half-pleasurable, because poetic, sentiment with which the mind usually receives even the sternest natural images of the desolate or terrible. I looked upon the scene before me--upon the mere house, and the simple landscape features of the domain--upon the bleak walls--upon the vacant, eye-like windows--upon a few rank sedges--and upon a few white trunks of decayed trees--with an utter depression of soul which I can compare to no earthly sensation more properly than to the after-dream of a reveler upon opium--the bitter lapse into every-day life--the hideous dropping off of the veil. There was an iciness, a sinking, a sickening of the heart--an unredeemed dreariness of thought which no goading of the imagination could torture into aught of the sublime.... It was, possible, I reflected, that a mere different arrangement of the particulars of the scene, of the details of the picture, would be sufficient to modify, or perhaps to annihilate, its capacity for sorrowful impression; and, acting upon this idea, I reined my horse to the precipitous brink of a black and lurid tarn that lay in unruffled lustre by the dwelling, and gazed down--but with a shudder even more thrilling than before--upon the remodeled and inverted images of the gray sedge, and the ghastly tree-stems, and the vacant and eye-like windows." And one may see from looking back at the illustrations given that the dominant impression which gives the character to the whole description, this leading quality which is the essence of the whole, usually stands at the very beginning, and to it all the succeeding details cling. The End of a Description. The end of a description is equally as important as the opening. In most descriptions, whether short or long, the most important detail, the detail that emphasizes most the general feeling of the whole, stands at the end. If the description be short, the necessity of a comprehensive opening statement is not imperative,--indeed, it may be made so formal and ostentatious when compared with the rest of the description as to be ridiculous; yet even in the short description some important detail should close it. In a long description the repetition of the opening statement in a new form sometimes stands at the end. If the description be of movement or change, the end will be the climax of the movement, the result of the change. In the examples already given there are illustrations of the methods of closing. In each case, there is an important detail or an artistic repetition of the general impression. Many examples of short characterization can be found in all narratives. In Irving's description of Ichabod Crane, the next to the last sentence gives the significant detail, and the last gives another general impression. It reads:-- "The cognomen of Crane was not inapplicable to his person. He was tall, but exceedingly lank, with narrow shoulders, long arms and legs, hands that dangled a mile out of his sleeves, feet that might have served for shovels, and his whole frame most loosely hung together. His head was small, and flat at top, with huge ears, large green glassy eyes, and a long snipe nose, so that it looked like a weather-cock perched upon his spindle neck to tell which way the wind blew." ("The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.") So far this is but an amplification of his likeness to a crane; certainly "a long snipe nose" "upon his spindle neck" is the most important detail. Next the author gives another general impression:-- "To see him striding along the profile of a hill on a windy day, with his clothes bagging and fluttering about him, one might have mistaken him for the genius of famine descending upon the earth, or some scarecrow eloped from a cornfield." The following is from "The House of Usher:"-- "Shaking off from my spirit what _must_ have been a dream, I scanned more narrowly the real aspect of the building. Its principal feature seemed to be that of an excessive antiquity. The discoloration of ages had been great. Minute fungi overspread the whole exterior, hanging in a fine tangled web-work from the eaves. Yet all this was apart from any extraordinary dilapidation. No portion of the masonry had fallen, and there appeared to be a wild inconsistency between its still perfect adaptation of parts and the crumbling condition of the individual stones. In this there was much that reminded me of the specious totality of old woodwork which has rotted for long years in some neglected vault with no disturbance from the breath of the external air. Beyond this indication of extensive decay, however, the fabric gave little token of instability. Perhaps the eye of a scrutinizing observer might have discovered a barely perceptible fissure, which, extending from the roof of the building in front, made its way down the wall in a zigzag direction, until it became lost in the sullen waters of the tarn." In this every detail emphasizes the "excessive antiquity" of the house; and on reading the story there is no question of the importance of the "barely perceptible fissure." Thereby hangs the tale. The two following are descriptions of dawn, of change; they have marked climaxes. The first is by Edward Everett, the second by Stevenson. The similarity in choice of words and in the feelings of the men is remarkable. "Such was the glorious spectacle as I entered the train. As we proceeded, the timid approach of twilight became more perceptible; the intense blue of the sky began to soften; the smaller stars, like little children, went first to rest; the sister-beams of the Pleiades soon melted together; but the bright constellations of the west and north remained unchanged. Steadily the wondrous transfiguration went on. Hands of angels, hidden from mortal eyes, shifted the scenery of the heavens; the glories of night dissolved into the glories of dawn. The blue sky now turned more softly gray; the great watch-stars shut up their holy eyes; the east began to kindle. Faint streaks of purple soon blushed along the sky; the whole celestial concave was filled with the inflowing tides of the morning light, which came pouring down from above in one great ocean of radiance, till at length, as we reached the Blue Hills, a flash of purple blazed out from above the horizon, and turned the dewy teardrops of flower and leaf into rubies and diamonds. In a few seconds, the everlasting gates of morning were thrown wide open, and the lord of day, arrayed in glories too severe for the gaze of man, began his state." ("The Uses of Astronomy.") "At last she began to be aware of a wonderful revolution, compared to which the fire of Mittwalden Palace was but a crack and flash of a percussion cap. The countenance with which the pines regarded her began insensibly to change; the grass, too, short as it was, and the whole winding staircase of the brook's course, began to wear a solemn freshness of appearance. And this slow transfiguration reached her heart, and played upon it, and transpierced it with a serious thrill. She looked all about; the whole face of nature looked back, brimful of meaning, finger on lip, leaking its glad secret. She looked up. Heaven was almost emptied of stars. Such as still lingered shone with a changed and waning brightness, and began to faint in their stations. And the color of the sky itself was most wonderful; for the rich blue of the night had now melted and softened and brightened; and there had succeeded a hue that has no name, and that is never seen but as the herald of the morning. 'Oh!' she cried, joy catching at her voice, 'Oh! it is the dawn!' "In a breath she passed over the brook, and looped up her skirts and fairly ran in the dim alleys. As she ran, her ears were aware of many pipings, more beautiful than music; in the small, dish-shaped houses in the fork of giant arms, where they had lain all night, lover by lover, warmly pressed, the bright-eyed, big-hearted singers began to awaken for the day. Her heart melted and flowed forth to them in kindness. And they, from their small and high perches in the clerestories of the wood cathedral, peered down sidelong at the ragged Princess as she flitted below them on the carpet of the moss and tassel. "Soon she had struggled to a certain hilltop, and saw far before her the silent inflooding of the day. Out of the East it welled and whitened; the darkness trembled into light; and the stars were extinguished like the street-lamps of a human city. The whiteness brightened into silver; the silver warmed into gold, and the gold kindled into pure and living fire; and the face of the East was barred with elemental scarlet. The day drew its first long breath, steady and chill; and for leagues around the woods sighed and shivered. And then, at one bound the sun had floated up; and her startled eyes received day's first arrow, and quailed under the buffet. On every side, the shadows leaped from their ambush and fell prone. The day was come, plain and garish; and up the steep and solitary eastern heaven, the sun, victorious over his competitors, continued slowly and royally to mount." ("Prince Otto.") Proportion. One thing further should be said regarding Mass. Not everything can stand first or last; some important details must be placed in the midst of a description. These particulars will not be of equal importance. The more important details may be given their proportionate emphasis by relatively increasing the length of their treatment. If one detail is more important than another, it requires more to be said about it; unimportant matters should be passed over with a word. Proportion in the length of treatment is a guide to the relative importance of the matters introduced into a description. In the description of "The House of Usher," position emphasizes the barely perceptible fissure. Proportion singles out the crumbling condition of the individual stones and makes this detail more emphatic than either the discoloration or the fungi. And in Newman's description, the olive-tree, the brilliant atmosphere, the thyme, the bees, all add to the charms of bright and beautiful Athens; but most of all the �gean, with its chain of islands, its dark violet billows, its jets of silver, the heaving and panting of its long waves,--the restless living element fascinates and enraptures "yon pilgrim student." Position and proportion are the means of emphasis in a paragraph of description. Arrangement must be natural. Having settled the massing of the description, the next matter for consideration is the arrangement. In order that the parts of a description may be coherent, hold together, they should be arranged in the order in which they would naturally be perceived. What strikes the eye of the beholder as most important, often the general characteristic of the whole, should be mentioned first; and the details should follow as they are seen. In a building, the usual way of observing and describing is from foundation to turret stone. A landscape may be described by beginning with what is near and extending the view; this is common. Sometimes the very opposite plan is pursued; or one may begin on either hand and advance toward the other. Of a person near by, the face is the first thing observed; for it is there that his character can be best discovered. Afterward details of clothing follow as they would naturally be noticed. If a person be at a distance his pose and carriage would be about all that could be seen; as he approaches, the other details would be mentioned as they came into view. To arrange details in the order in which they are naturally observed will result in an association in the description of the details that are contiguous in the objects. Jumping about in a description is a source of confusion. How entirely it may ruin a paragraph can be estimated by the effect upon this single sentence, "He was tall, with feet that might have served for shovels, narrow shoulders, hands that dangled a mile out of his sleeves, long arms and legs, and his whole frame most loosely hung together." This rearrangement makes but a disjointed and feeble impression; and the reason is entirely that an order in which no person ever observed a man has been substituted for the commonest order,--from head to foot. Arrange details so that the parts which are contiguous shall be associated in the description, and proceed in the order in which the details are naturally observed. The following is by Irving; he is describing the stage-coachman:-- "He has commonly a broad, full face, curiously mottled with red, as if the blood had been forced by hard feeding into every vessel of the skin; he is swelled into jolly dimensions by frequent potations of malt liquors, and his bulk is still further increased by a multiplicity of coats, in which he is buried like a cauliflower, the upper one reaching to his heels. He wears a broad-brimmed, low-crowned hat; a huge roll of colored handkerchief about his neck, knowingly knotted and tucked in at the bosom; and has in summer time a large bouquet of flowers in his buttonhole, the present, most probably, of some enamored country lass. His waistcoat is commonly of some bright color, striped, and his small-clothes extend far below the knees, to meet a pair of jockey boots which reach about half way up his legs."[12] Use Familiar Images. When the materials have been selected and arranged, the hardest part of the work has been done. It now remains to express in language the picture. A few suggestions regarding the kind of language will be helpful. The writer must always bear in mind the fact that in constructing a mental picture each reader does it from the images he already possesses. "Quaint arabesques" is without meaning to many persons; and until the word has been looked up in the dictionary, and the picture seen there, the beautiful line of "Sir Launfal" suggests no image whatever. So when Stevenson speaks of the birds in the "clerestories of the wood cathedral," the image is not distinct in the mind of a young American. Supposing a pupil in California were asked to describe an orange to an Esquimau. He might say that it is a spheroid about the size of an apple, and the color of one of Lorraine's sunsets. This would be absolutely worthless to a child of the frigid zone. Had he been told that an orange was about the size of a snowball, much the color of the flame of a candle, that the peeling came off like the skin from a seal, and that the inside was good to eat, he would have known more of this fruit. The images which lie in our minds and from which we construct new pictures are much like the blocks that a child-builder rearranges in many different forms; but the blocks do not change. From them he may build a castle or a mill; yet the only difference is a difference in arrangement. So it is with the pictures we build up in imagination: our castle in Spain we have never seen, but the individual elements which we associate to lift up this happy dwelling-place are the things we know and have seen. A reader creates nothing new; all he does is to rearrange in his own mind the images already familiar. Only so may he pass from the known to the unknown. The fact that we construct pictures of what we read from those images already in our minds warns the writer against using materials which those for whom he writes could not understand. It compels him to select definite images, and it urges him to use the common and the concrete. It frequently drives him to use comparisons. Use of Comparisons. To represent the extremely bare and unornamented appearance of a building, one might write, "It looked like a great barn," or "It was a great barn." In either case the image would be definite, common, and concrete. In both cases there is a comparison. In the first, where the comparison is expressed, there is a _simile;_ in the second, where the comparison is only implied, there is a _metaphor._ These two figures of speech are very common in description, and it is because they are of great value. One other is sometimes used,--_personification,_ which ascribes to inanimate things the attributes of life which are the property of animate nature. What could be happier than this by Stevenson: "All night long he can hear Nature breathing deeply and freely; even as she takes her rest she turns and smiles"? or this, "A faint sound, more like a moving coolness than a stream of air"? And at the end of the chapter which describes his "night under the pines," he speaks of the "tapestries" and "the inimitable ceiling" and "the view which I command from the windows." In this one chapter are personification, simile, metaphor,--all comparisons, and doing what could hardly be done without them. Common, distinct, concrete images are surest. Choice of Words. Adjectives and Nouns. To body forth these common, distinct, concrete images calls for a discriminating choice of words; for in the choice of words lies a large part of the vividness of description. If the thing described be unknown to the reader, it requires the right word to place it before him; if it be common, still must the right word be found to set it apart from the thousand other objects of the same class. The words that may justly be called describing words are adjectives and nouns; and of these the adjective is the first descriptive word. The rule that a writer should never use two adjectives where one will do, and that he should not use one if a noun can be found that completely expresses the thought, is a good one to follow. One certain stroke of the crayon is worth a hundred lines, each approaching the right one. One word, the only one, will tell the truth more vividly than ten that approach its expression. For it must be remembered that a description must be done quickly; every word that is used and does nothing is not only a waste of time, but is actually in the way. In a description every word must count. It may be a comparison, an epithet, personification, or what not, but whatever method is adopted, the right word must do it quickly. How much depends on the nice choice of words may be seen by a study of the selections already quoted; and especially by a careful reading of those by Stevenson and Everett. To show the use of adjectives and nouns in description, the following from Kipling is a good illustration. Toomai had just reached the elephants' "ball-room" when he saw-- "white-tusked wild males, with fallen leaves and nuts and twigs lying in the wrinkles of their necks and the folds of their ears; fat, slow-footed she-elephants, with restless pinky-black calves only three or four feet high, running under their stomachs; young elephants with their tusks just beginning to show, and very proud of them; lanky, scraggy, old-maid elephants, with their hollow, anxious faces, and trunks like rough bark; savage old bull-elephants, scarred from shoulder to flank with great weals and cuts of by-gone fights, and the caked dirt of their solitary mud bath dropping from their shoulders; and there was one with a broken tusk and the marks of the full-stroke, the terrible drawing scrape of a tiger's claw on his side."[13] One third of the words in this paragraph are descriptive nouns and adjectives, none of which the reader wishes to change. Use of Verbs. Verbs also have a great value in description. In the paragraph picturing the dawn, Stevenson has not neglected the verbs. "Welled," "whitened," "trembled," "brightened," "warmed," "kindled," and so on through the paragraph. Try to change them, and it is apparent that something is lost by any substitution. Kaa, the python, "_pours_ himself along the ground." If he is angry, "Baloo and Bagheera could see the big swallowing-muscles on either side of Kaa's throat _ripple_ and _bulge._" Yet in the choice of words, one may search for the bizarre and unusual rather than for the truly picturesque. Stevenson at times seems to have lapsed. When he says that Modestine would feel a switch "more _tenderly_ than my cane;" that he "must _instantly_ maltreat this uncomplaining animal," meaning constantly; and at another place that he "had to labor so _consistently_ with" his stick that the sweat ran into his eyes, there is a suspicion of a desire for the sensational rather than the direct truth. On the other hand, the beginner finds himself using words that have lost, their meaning through indiscriminate usage. "Awful good," "awful pretty," and "awful sweet" mean something less than good, pretty, and sweet. "Lovely," "dear," "splendid," "unique," and a large number of good words have been much dulled by the ignorant use of babblers. Superlatives and all words denoting comparison should be used with stinginess. One cannot afford to part with this kind of coin frequently; the cheaper coins should be used, else he will find an empty purse when need arises. Thackeray has this: "Her voice was the sweetest, low song." How much better this, Her voice was a sweet, low song. All the world is shut out from this, while in the former he challenges the world by the comparison. Shakespeare was wiser when he made Lear say,-- "Her voice was ever soft, Gentle, and low,--an excellent thing in woman." Avoid words which have lost their meaning by indiscriminate use; shun the sensational and the bizarre; use superlatives with economy; but in all you do, whether in unadorned or figurative language, choose the word that is quick and sure and vivid--the one word that exactly suggests the picture. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES QUESTIONS. THE OLD MANSE. (Riverside Literature Series, No. 69.) Are there narrative portions in "The Old Manse"? paragraphs of exposition? Do you term the whole narration, description, or exposition? Why? Frame a sentence which you think would be an adequate topic sentence for the whole piece. What phrase in the first paragraph allows the author to begin the second with the words, "Nor, in truth, had the Old Manse," etc.? Where in the second paragraph is found the words which are the source of "my design," mentioned in the third? How does the author pass from the fourth paragraph to the fifth? In the same way note the connections between the succeeding paragraphs. They are most skillfully dovetailed together. Now make a list of the phrases in the first fifteen pages which introduce paragraphs, telling from what in the preceding paragraph each new paragraph springs. Do you think that such a felicitous result just happened? or did Hawthorne plan it? Does Hawthorne generally introduce his descriptions by giving the feeling aroused by the object described, a method very common with Poe? In the paragraph beginning at the bottom of p. 18, what do you think of the selection of material? What have guided in the inclusion and exclusion of details? Write a paragraph upon this topic: There could not be a more joyous aspect of external nature than as seen from the windows of my study just after the passing of a cooling shower. Be careful to select things that have been made happy, and to use adjectives and nouns that are full of joy. Make a list of the words used to describe "The Old Apple Dealer." Has this description Unity? What relation to the whole has the first sentence of paragraph three? the last? Do you think there is a grammatical error in the third sentence of this paragraph? By contrasts to what has Hawthorne brought out better the character of the Apple Dealer? When can contrasts help? AN INDIAN-SUMMER REVERIE, AND OTHER POEMS. (Riverside Literature Series, No. 30.) In this poem what purpose is served by the first two stanzas? Where in the landscape does the author begin? Which way does he progress? Quote stanzas in which other senses than sight are called upon. Make a list of the figures of speech. How many similes? metaphors? examples of personification? Which seems most effective? Which instance of its use do you prefer? Has Lowell used too many figures? Read "The Oak," "The Dandelion," and "Al Fresco." Are they description or exposition? Do they bear out Lowell's estimate of himself? THE SKETCH-BOOK. (Riverside Literature Series, Nos. 51, 52.) Why has Irving given four pages to the description of Sleepy Hollow before he introduces Ichabod Crane? Why, then, seven pages to Ichabod before the story begins? What gives the peculiar interest to this tale? In the "Legend of Sleepy Hollow" how many paragraphs of description close with an important detail? In how many with a general characterization? In all the descriptions of buildings by Irving that you have read, what are the first things mentioned,--size, shape, color, or what? Make a list, so as to be sure. Does Irving use many comparisons? Are the likenesses to common things? Select the ten you think best. Are there more in narrative or descriptive passages? What do you gather from this fact? In "Christmas Day," on p. 51 (R. L. S., No. 52), does Irving proceed from far to near in the landscape? Is this common? Find another example. How has Irving emphasized the littleness of the minister described on p. 56 (R. L. S., No. 52)? THE FALL OF THE HOUSE OF USHER. (Riverside Literature Series, No. 119.) Is the arrangement of the details in the last two lines of the first paragraph stronger than the arrangement of the same details on p. 63? Why, or why not? In the description of the hall, pp. 67 and 68, do the details produce the effect upon you which they did upon Poe? Find a description in this piece which closes with an important detail. Is Usher described at all when Poe says, "I gazed upon him with a feeling half of pity, half of awe"? Do the details enumerated arouse such feelings in you? Would the feeling have been called forth if it had not been suggested by Poe? Is there, then, any advantage in this method of opening a description? What good was done by describing Usher as Poe knew him in youth? Why is the parenthetical clause on p. 72 necessary? On p. 80, should Poe write "previously to its final interment"? What do you think of the length of the sentence quoted on p. 85? Does Poe use description to accent the mood of the narrative, or to make concrete the places and persons? Why is "The Haunted Palace" introduced into the story? Is this story as good as "The Gold-Bug"? SILAS MARNER. (Riverside Literature Series, No. 83.) Why is not the early history of Silas Marner related first in the story? By what steps has the author approached the definite time? From the fragments about his appearance, do you get a clear idea of how Marner looks? Do you approve this method of scattering the description along through the story? Write a description of Marner on the night he was going to the tavern. Could not the quarrel between Godfrey and Dunsey been omitted? Describe the interior of Marner's cottage. Why should Sally Oates and her dropsy be admitted to the story? Do you know as well how George Eliot's characters look as how they think and feel? What do you think of the last sentence of Chapter IV.? Why does not Chapter V. go on with Dunsey's story? Why is Chapter VI. introduced at all? What of its close? What figure in the last sentence of Chapter X.? Would you prefer to know how tall Eppie was, what kind of clothes she wore, etc., to the knowledge you gain of her on p. 178? Suppose that Dunsey came home the night he staked Wildfire, recite the conversation between him and Godfrey. Have Dolly Winthrop, Priscilla Lammeter, and Mr. Macey talk over "The New Minister." Write on "What I see in George Eliot's Face." THE DESERTED VILLAGE. (Riverside Literature Series, No. 68.) Is this piece description or exposition? In the first stanza where is the topic sentence? The author has made two groups of charms. Would it be as well to change them about? Give your reasons. Where has he used the ear instead of the eye to suggest his picture? Is it clear? What method is adopted in lines 125-128? See also lines 237-250. Can you unite the paragraphs on p. 25? Why do you think so? Could you suggest a new arrangement of details in lines 341-362 that would be as good as the present? What are the last four lines for? EXERCISES. Enumerative Description may well employ a few lessons. In it accuracy of detail must be studied, and every detail must be introduced. 1. The Teacher's Desk. 2. Write a letter to a carpenter giving details for the construction of a small bookcase. 3. By telling how you made it, describe a camp, a kite, a dress, or a cake. Narration may be employed for the purpose of description. A good example may be found in "Robinson Crusoe" in the chapter describing his home after the shipwreck. 4. Describe an unfurnished room. Shape, size, position, and number of windows, the fireplace, etc., should be definite. Be sure to give the point of view. To say "On my right hand," "In front of me," or any similar phrases means nothing unless the reader knows where you are. In these exercises the pupil will doubtless employ the paragraph of particulars. This is the most common in description. Other forms are valuable. 5. Using a paragraph telling what it was not, finish this: I followed the great singer to her home. Imagine my surprise in finding that the house in which this lady lived was not a home of luxury and splendor,--not even a home of comfort. Go on with the details of a home of luxury which were _not_ there. Finish with what you did see. This is really a description of two houses set in artistic contrast to heighten the effect. Remember you are outside. 6. By the use of comparison finish this: The home of my poor little friend was but little better than a barn. Choose only such details as emphasize the barn-like appearance of the home. There is but one room. Remember where you are standing; and keep in mind the effect you wish to produce. 7. Using a moving point of view, describe an interior. Do not have too many rooms. 8. Furnish the room described in number four to suit your taste. Tell how it looks. Remember that a few things give character to a room. 9. Describe your childhood's home as it would look to you after years of absence. 10. Using a paragraph of the obverse, describe the appearance of the house from which you were driven by the cruelty of a drunken father. 11. Describe a single tree standing alone in a field. It will be well for the teacher to read to the class some descriptions of trees,--Lowell's "Birch" and "Oak," "Under the Willows," and some stanzas from "An Indian Summer Reverie." Holmes has some good paragraphs on trees in "The Autocrat." Any good tree descriptions will help pupils to do it better than they can without suggestion. They should describe their own tree, however. 12. Describe some single flower growing wild. Read Lowell's "Dandelion," "Violet, Sweet Violet," Wordsworth's "Daisy," "The Daffodils," "The Small Celandine," and Burns's "Daisy." These do not so much describe as they arouse a feeling of love for the flowers which will show itself in the composition. 13. Describe a view of a lake. If possible, have your point of view above the lake and use the paragraph of comparison. 14. Describe a landscape from a single point of view. Read Curtis's "My Castles in Spain" from "Prue and I," many descriptions in "An Inland Voyage" by Stevenson, and "Bay Street" by Bliss Carman in "The Atlantic Monthly." 15. Describe your first view of a small cluster of houses or a small town. 16. Approach the town, describing its principal features. Keep the reader informed as to where you are. 17. Describe a dog of your own. 18. Describe a dog of your neighbor's. Before the description is undertaken read "Our Dogs" and "Rab" by Dr. Brown; "A Dog of Flanders" by Ouida. Scott has some noble fellows in his novels. 19. Describe a flock of chickens. There are good descriptions of chickens in "The House of the Seven Gables" and in "Sketches" by Dickens. 20. Describe the burning of your own home. Be careful not to narrate. 21. Describe a stranger you met on the street to-day. It is easier to describe a person if you and the person you describe move toward each other. Remember that you begin the description at a distance. Details should be mentioned as they actually come into view. 22. Describe your father in his favorite corner at home. 23. Describe a person you do not like, by telling what he is not. 24. Describe a person you admire, but are not acquainted with, using the paragraph of comparisons. 25. Describe a picture. It would be well to have at the end of this year four or five stories written, in which description plays a part. Its principal use is to give the setting to the story, to give concreteness to the characters, and to accent the mood of the story. Most passages of description are short. Rarely will any pupil write over three hundred words. One hundred are often better. The short composition gives an opportunity for the study of accuracy of expression. What details to include; in what order to arrange them that they produce the best effect, both of vividness and naturalness; and the influence of the point of view and the purpose of the author on the unity of description should be kept constantly present in the exercises. Careful attention should be paid to choice of words, for on right words depends in a large degree the vividness of a description. Right words in well-massed paragraphs of vivid description should be the object this term. * * * * * CHAPTER V EXPOSITION So far we have studied discourse which deals with things,--things active, doing something, considered under the head of narration; and things at rest, and pictured, considered in description. Now we come to exposition, which deals with ideas either separately or in combinations. Instead of Mr. Smith's horse, exposition treats of the general term, horse. "The Great Stone Face" may have taught a lesson by its story, but the discussion of the value of lofty ideals is a subject for exposition. General Terms Difficult. That general terms and propositions are harder to get hold of than concrete facts is readily apparent in the first reading of an author like Emerson. To a young person it means little. Yet when he puts in the place of the general terms some specific examples, and so verifies the statements, the general propositions have a mine of meaning, and "the sense of the author is as broad as the world." This stanza from Lowell is but little suggestive to young readers:-- "Such earnest natures are the fiery pith, The compact nucleus, round which systems grow! Mass after mass becomes inspired therewith, And whirls impregnate with the central glow."[14] Yet when Columbus and Luther and Garrison are mentioned as illustrations of the meaning, it becomes world-wide in its application. Still in order to get at the thought, there is first the need of the specific and the concrete; afterward we pass to the general and the abstract. As abstract ideas are harder to get hold of than concrete facts, so exposition has difficulties greater than those found in narration and description. It is not so hard to tell what belongs in a story; the events are all distinct. Nor is it so difficult to know what to include in a description; one can look and see. In exposition this is not so. In most minds ideas do not have distinct limits; the edges rather are indistinct. It is hard to tell where the idea stops. In writing of "The Uses of Coal," it is easy to wander over an indistinct boundary and to take a survey of "The Origin of Coal." Not only may one include what unquestionably should be excluded, but there is no definite guide to the arrangement of the materials, such as was found in narration. There a sequence of time was an almost infallible rule; here the writer must search carefully how to arrange hazy ideas in some effective form. As discourse comes to deal more with general ideas, the difficulties of writing increase; and the difficulties are not due to any new principles of structure which must be introduced. When one says that the material should be selected according to the familiar law of Unity, he has given the guiding principle. Yet the real difficulty is still before an author: it is to decide what stamp to put upon such elusive matter as ideas. They cannot be kept long enough in the twilight of consciousness to analyze them; and often ideas that have been marked "accepted" have, upon reëxamination, to be "rejected." To examine ideas--the material used in this form of discourse--so thoroughly that they may be accurately, definitely known in their backward relation and their bearing upon what follows, this is the seat of the difficulty in exposition. Exposition may conveniently be classified into exposition of a term, or definition; and exposition of a proposition, which is generally suggested by the term exposition. Definition. Definition of a word means giving its limits or boundaries. Of man it might be said that it is a living animal, having a strong bony skeleton; that this skeleton consists of a trunk from which extend four limbs, called arms and legs, and is surmounted by a bony cavity, called a skull; that the skeleton protects the vital organs, and is itself covered by a muscular tissue which moves the bones and gives a rounded beauty to their ugliness; that man has a highly developed nervous system, the centre of which is the brain placed in the skull. So a person might go on for pages, enumerating the attributes which, taken together, make up the general idea of man. Exposition and Description distinguished. This sort of exposition is very near description; indeed, were the purpose different, it would be description. The purpose, however, is not to tell how an individual looks, but to place the object in a class. It is therefore not description, but exposition. Moreover, the method is different. In description those characteristics are given that distinguish the object from the rest of the class; while in exposition those qualities are selected which are common to all objects of its class. Logical Definition. On account of the length of the definition by an enumeration of all the attributes, it is not frequently used except in long treatises. For it there has been substituted what is called a _logical definition._ Instead of naming all the characteristics of an object, a logical definition groups many attributes under one general term, and then adds a quality which distinguishes the object from the others of the general class. Man has been defined as the "reasoning animal." In this definition a large number of attributes have been gathered together in the general term "animal;" then man is separated from the whole class "animal" by the word "reasoning." A logical definition consists, then, of two parts: the general term naming the genus, and the limiting term naming the distinguishing attribute called the differentia. Genus and Differentia. Genus and differentia are found in every good definition. The _genus_ should be a term more general than the term defined. "Man is a person who reasons" is a poor definition; because "person" is no more general than "man." "A canine is a dog that is wild" is very bad, because "dog," the general term in the definition, is less general than the word defined. However, to say that "a dog is a canine that has been domesticated," is a definition in which the genus is more general than the term defined. Next, the genus should be a term well understood. "Man is a mammal who reasons" is all right, in having a genus more general than the term defined, but the definition fails with many because "mammal" is not well understood. "Botany is that branch of biology which treats of plant life" has in it the same error. "Biology" is not so well understood as "botany," though it is a more general term. In cases of this sort, the writer should go farther toward the more general until he finds a term perfectly clear to all. "Man is an animal that reasons," "botany is the branch of science that treats of plant life," would both be easily understood. The genus should be a term better understood than the term defined; and it should be a term more general than the term defined. A definition may be faulty in its _differentia_ also. The differentia is that part of a definition which names the difference between the term defined and the general class to which it belongs. "Man is a reasoning animal." "Animal" names the general class, and "reasoning" is the differentia which separates "man" from other "animals." On the selection of this limiting word depends the accuracy of the definition. "Man is an animal that walks," or "that has hands," or "that talks," are all faulty; because bears walk, monkeys have hands, and parrots talk. Supposing the following definitions were given: "A cat is an animal that catches rats and mice;" "A rose is a flower that bears thorns;" "Gold is a metal that is heavy;" all would be faulty because the differentia in each is faulty. Notice, too, the definitions of "dog" and "canine" already given. Even "man is a reasoning animal" may fail; since many men declare that other animals reason. The differentia should include all the members that the term denotes, and it should exclude all that it does not denote. Requisites of a good Definition. The requisites of a good definition are: first, that it shall include or denote all the members of the class; second, that it shall exclude everything which does not belong to its class; third, that the words used in the definition shall be better understood than the word defined; fourth, that it shall be brief. A definition may perfectly expound a term; and because of the very qualities that make it a good definition, accuracy and brevity, it may be almost valueless to the ordinary reader. For instance, this definition, "An acid is a substance, usually sour and sharp to the taste, that changes vegetable blue colors to red, and, combining with an earth, an alkali, or a metallic oxide, forms a salt," would not generally be understood. So it frequently becomes necessary to do more than give a definition in order to explain the meaning of a term. This brings us to the study of exposition, as it is generally understood, in which all the resources of language are called into service to explain a term or a proposition. How do Men explain? First, by Repetition. What, then, are the methods of explaining a proposition? First, _a proposition may be explained by the repetition of the thought in some other form._ To be effective, repetition must add something to what has been said; the words used may be more specific or they may be more general. For example, "A strong partisan may not be a good citizen. The stanchest Republican may by reason of a blind adherence to party be working an injury to the country he loves. Indeed, one can easily conceive a body of men so devoted to a theory, beautiful though it may be in many respects, that they stand in the way of the world's progress." The second sentence repeats the thought of the first in more specific terms; the third repeats it in more general terms. The specific may be explained by the general; more often the general is cleared up by the specific. In either case, the proposition must be brought one step nearer to the reader by the restatement, or the repetition is not good. Speaking of written or printed words, Barrett Wendell writes:-- "In themselves, these black marks are nothing but black marks more or less regular in appearance. Modern English type and script are rather simple to the eye. Old English and German are less so; less so still, Hebrew and Chinese. But all alphabets present to the eye pretty obvious traces of regularity; in a written or printed page the same mark will occur over and over again. This is positively all we see,--a number of marks grouped together and occasionally repeated. A glance at a mummy-case, an old-fashioned tea-chest, a Hebrew Bible, will show us all that any eye can ever see in a written or printed document. The outward and visible body of style consists of a limited number of marks which, for all any reader is apt to know, are purely arbitrary." ("English Composition.") In this paragraph every sentence is a repetition of some part of the opening or topic sentence, and serves to explain it. Second, by telling the obverse. Second, _a proposition may be explained by telling what it is not._ At times this is as valuable as telling what it is. Care should be taken that the thing excluded or denied have some likeness to the proposition or term being explained; that the two be really in some danger of being confused. Unless to a hopelessly ignorant person, it would not explain anything to say "a horse is not a man;" but to assert that "a whale is not a fish, though they have many points in common," would prepare the way for an explanation of what a whale is. The obverse statement is nearly always followed by a repetition of what the thing is. The following from Newman illustrates the method: "Now what is Theology? First, I will tell you what it is not. And here, in the first place (though of course I speak on the subject as a Catholic), observe that, strictly speaking, I am not assuming that Catholicism is true, while I make myself the champion of Theology. Catholicism has not formally entered into my argument hitherto, nor shall I just now assume any principle peculiar to it, for reasons which will appear in the sequel, though of course I shall use Catholic language. Neither, secondly, will I fall into the fashion of the day, of identifying Natural Theology with Physical Theology; which said Physical Theology is a most jejune study, considered as a science, and really no science at all, for it is ordinarily no more than a series of pious or polemical remarks upon the physical world viewed religiously, whereas the word 'Natural' comprehends man and society, and all that is involved therein, as the great Protestant writer, Dr. Butler, shows us. Nor, in the third place, do I mean by Theology polemics of any kind; for instance, what are called 'Evidences of Religion,' or 'the Christian Evidences.'... Nor, fourthly, do I mean by Theology that vague thing called 'Christianity,' or 'our common Christianity,' or 'Christianity the law of the land,' if there is any man alive who can tell what it is.... Lastly, I do not understand by Theology, acquaintance with the Scriptures; for, though no person of religious feeling can read Scripture but he will find those feelings roused, and gain much knowledge of history into the bargain, yet historical reading and religious feeling are not a science. I mean none of these things by Theology. I simply mean the Science of God, or the truths we know about God put into a system; just as we have a science of the stars, and call it astronomy, or of the crust of the earth, and call it geology."[15] Third, by Details. Third, _a common way of explaining a proposition is to go into particulars about it._ Enough particulars should be given to furnish a reasonable explanation of the proposition. Macaulay, writing of the "muster-rolls of names" which Milton uses, goes into details. He says:-- "They are charmed names. Every one of them is the first link in a long chain of associated ideas. Like the dwelling place of our infancy revisited in manhood, like the song of our country heard in a strange land, they produce upon us an effect wholly independent of their intrinsic value. One transports us back to a remote period of history. Another places us among the novel scenes and manners of a distant region. A third evokes all the dear classical recollections of childhood,--the schoolroom, the dog-eared Virgil, the holiday, and the prize. A fourth brings before us the splendid phantoms of chivalrous romance, the trophied lists, the embroidered housings, the quaint devices, the haunted forests, the enchanted gardens, the achievements of enamoured knights, and the smiles of rescued princesses."[16] Fourth, by Illustrations. Fourth, _a proposition may be explained by the use of a single example or illustration._ The value of this method depends on the choice of the example. It must in no essential way differ from the general case it is intended to illustrate. Supposing this proposition were advanced by some woman-hater: "All women are, by nature, liars," and it should be followed by this sentence, "For example, take this lady of fashion." Such an illustration is worthless. The individual chosen does not fairly represent the class. If, on the other hand, a teacher in physics should announce that "all bodies fall at the same rate in a vacuum," and should illustrate by saying, "If I place a bullet and a feather in a tube from which the air has been exhausted, they will be found to fall equally fast," his example would be a fair one, as the two objects differ in no manner essential to the experiment from "all bodies." Here should be included anecdotes used as illustrations. They are of value if they are of the same type as the general class they are intended to explain. They may be of little value, however. It could safely be said that half the stories told in campaign speeches are not instances in point at all, but are told only to amuse and deceive. Specific instances must be chosen with care if they are to serve a useful purpose in exposition. This example is from Newman:-- "To know is one thing, to do is another; the two things are altogether distinct. A man knows that he should get up in the morning,--he lies abed; he knows that he should not lose his temper, yet he cannot keep it. A laboring man knows that he should not go to the ale-house, and his wife knows that she should not filch when she goes out charing, but, nevertheless, in these cases, the consciousness of a duty is not all one with the performance of it. There are, then, large families of instances, to say the least, in which men may become wiser, without becoming better."[17] Fifth, by Comparisons. Last, _a thing may be explained by telling what it is like, or what it is not like._ This method of comparison is very frequently employed. To liken a thing to something already known is a vivid way of explaining. Moreover in many cases it is easier than the method of repetition or that of details. By this method Macaulay explains his proposition that "it is the character of such revolutions that we always see the worst of them first." He says:-- "A newly liberated people may be compared to a northern army encamped on the Rhine or the Xeres. It is said that when soldiers in such a situation first find themselves able to indulge without restraint in such a rare and expensive luxury, nothing is to be seen but intoxication. Soon, however, plenty teaches discretion, and, after wine has been for a few months their daily fare, they become more temperate than they had ever been in their own country. In the same manner, the final and permanent fruits of liberty are wisdom, moderation, and mercy. Its immediate effects are often atrocious crimes, conflicting errors, skepticism on points the most clear, dogmatism on points the most mysterious."[18] The comparison may be a simile or a metaphor, as when Huxley writes, explaining "the physical basis of life:"-- "Protoplasm, simple or nucleated, is the formal basis of all life. It is the clay of the potter: which, bake it and paint it as he will, remains clay, separated by artifice, and not by nature, from the commonest brick or sun-dried clod."[19] These, then, are the methods commonly adopted for explaining terms and propositions. First, by the use of definitions; second, by repeating the proposition either directly or obversely, adding something to the thought by each repetition; third, by enumerating particulars which form the ground for the statement; fourth, by selecting an instance which fairly illustrates the proposition; fifth, by the use of comparisons and analogies. The Subject. Some general considerations regarding the choice of a subject have been given. A subject should lend itself to the form of discourse employed; next, it should be a subject interesting to the readers; and third, it should be interesting to the writer and suited to his ability. The last condition makes it advisable to limit the subject to a narrow field. Few persons have the ability to view a general subject in all its relations. "Books" everybody knows something of; yet very few are able to treat this general subject in all its ramifications. A person writing of the general topic "books" would not only be compelled to know what a book is, what may truly be called a book, and what is the value of books to readers, and therefore the influence of the different kinds of literature; he would also be driven to study the machinery for making books, the history of printing, illustrating, and binding books, and all the mechanical processes connected with the manufacture of books. The subject might take quite another turn, and be the development of fiction or drama; it might be a discussion of the influences, political or social, that have moulded literature; it might be a study of character as manifested in an author's works. No one is well fitted to write on the general topic "books." A subject should be limited. The Subject should allow Concrete Treatment. For young persons _the subject should be so selected and stated that the treatment may be concrete._ As persons advance they make more generalizations; few, however, go so far as to think in general terms. Macaulay says, "Logicians may reason about abstractions, but the great mass of men must have images." That author depended largely for his glittering effects upon the use of common, concrete things which the masses understand. The subject should be such that it can be treated concretely. "Love," as a general proposition, is beautiful; but what more can a young writer say about it? Let him leave the whole horde of abstract subjects found in old rhetorics alone. They are subjects for experience; they cannot be handled by youth. The Theme. After the subject has been chosen, the writer next considers how he shall treat it. He selects the attitude he will assume toward the proposition, his point of view; and this position he embodies in a short sentence, called his _theme._ For instance, "patriotism" is the subject; as it stands it is abstract and very general. However, this, "Can a partisan be a patriot?" would be sufficiently concrete to be treated. Even yet there is no indication of the author's point of view. Should he write, "A real partisan is no patriot," his theme is announced, and his point of view known. A _theme,_ either explicit or implicit, _is essential in exposition._ It is not necessary that it shall be stated to the reader, but it must be clearly stated by the writer for his own guidance. It is, however, usually announced at the opening of the essay. Whether announced or not, it is most essential to the success of the essay. It is the touchstone by which the author tries all the material which he has collected. Not everything on the subject of patriotism should be admitted to an essay that has for its theme, "A real partisan cannot be a true patriot." It would save many a digression if the theme were always written in bold, black letters, and placed before the author as he writes. Every word in a theme should be there for a purpose, expressing some important modification of the thought. For instance, the statement above regarding a partisan may be too sweeping; perhaps the essayist would prefer to discuss the modified statement that "a blind partisan cannot always be a true patriot." The theme should state exactly what will be treated in the essay. The statement of it should employ the hardest kind of thinking; and when the theme is determined definitely and for all, the essay is safe from the intrusion of foreign ideas which disturb the harmony of the whole. Another advantage in the theme is that, when once chosen, it will go far toward writing the essay. One great trouble with the young writer is that he is not willing to rely on his theme to suggest his composition. Mr. Palmer well says:-- "He examines his pen point, the curtains, his inkstand, to see if perhaps ideas may not be had from these. He wonders what the teacher will wish him to say, and he tries to recall how the passage sounded in the Third Reader. In every direction but one he turns, and that is the direction where lies the prime mover of his toil, his subject. Of that he is afraid. Now, what I want to make evident is that his subject is not in reality the foe, but the friend. It is his only helper. His composition is not to be, as he seems to suppose, a mass of laborious inventions, but it is made up exclusively of what the subject dictates. He has only to attend. At present he stands in his own way, making such a din with his private anxieties that he cannot hear the rich suggestions of his subject. He is bothered with considering how he feels, or what he or somebody else will like to see on his paper. This is debilitating business. He must lean on his subject, if he would have his writing strong, and busy himself with what it says, rather than with what he would say."[20] The Title. Having selected a subject, and with care stated the theme, it yet remains to give the essay a name. There is something in a name, and those authors who make a living by the pen are the shrewdest in displaying their wares under the most attractive titles. _The title should be attractive,_ but it should not promise what the essay does not give. Newspaper headlines are usually attractive enough, but shamefully untruthful. Next, the title should _indicate the scope of the essay._ When Mr. Palmer calls his little book "Self-Cultivation in English," it is evident that it is not a text-book, and that it will not treat English as literature or as a science. Then, the title should be _short._ The theme can rarely be used as a title; it is too long. But the paramount idea developed in the essay should be embodied in the title. "Partisanship and Patriotism" would be a good subject to give the essay we have spoken of. The title, then, should be attractive; it should be short; and it should truthfully indicate the contents of the essay. Selection of Material. One of the important factors in the construction of an essay is the selection of material. Though theme and title have already been discussed, it was not because they are the things for a writer to consider next after he has chosen his subject, but because they are so intimately bound up in the subject that their consideration at that time was natural. Before a writer can decide upon the position he will assume toward a proposition, he should have looked over the field in a general way; for only with the facts before him is he competent to choose his point of view and to state his theme. The title is not in the least essential to the writing of the essay; it may be deferred until the essay is finished. It is necessary, however, that the writer have much knowledge of his subject, and that from this knowledge he be able to frame an opinion regarding the subject. When this has been done he is ready to begin the work of constructing his essay; and the first question in exposition, as in narration and description, is the selection of material to develop the theme he has chosen. The selection of material is a more difficult matter in exposition than in narration and description. It requires the shrewdest scrutiny to keep out matter that does not help the thought forward. In narration we decided by the main incident; in description by the purpose and the point of view; in exposition we test all material by its relation to the theme. Does it help to explain the theme? If not, however good material it may be, it has no business in the essay. Association of ideas is a law by which, when one of two related ideas is mentioned, the other is suggested. To illustrate, when Manila is mentioned, Admiral Dewey appears; when treason is spoken of, Arnold is in the mind. This law is of fundamental importance in arranging an essay; one thing should suggest the next. But valuable as it is, even indispensable, it may become the source of much mischief. For instance, a pupil has this for a topic, "Reading gives pleasure to many." He writes as his second sentence, "By pleasure I mean the opposite of pain," and goes on. "All things are understood by their opposites. If we did not know sickness, we could not enjoy our health. Joy is understood through sorrow. I remember my first sorrow. My father had just given me a new knife,--my first knife," and so on from one thing to another. And not so unnaturally either; each sentence has suggested the next, but not one is on the topic. The most anxious watch must be kept in the selection of material. Some will be admitted without any question; some will be excluded with a brusqueness almost brutal. There is a third class, however, that is allied with the subject, yet it is not so easy to determine whether it should be admitted or rejected. This class requires the closest questioning. It must contribute to the strength of the essay, not to its pages, or it has no place there. Scale of Treatment. _There is another condition which must be considered in the selection of material, the scale of treatment._ If Macaulay had been asked by a daily paper to contribute a paragraph of five hundred words on Milton, he could not have introduced all the numerous topics which have their place in his essay of one hundred pages. He might have mentioned Milton's poetry and his character, the two main divisions of the present essay; but Dante and �schylus, Puritan and Royalist, would scarcely have received notice. The second consideration in selecting material is the purpose and length of the essay, and the consequent thoroughness with which the subject is to be treated. _The exhaustiveness with which an author treats any subject depends, first, on his knowledge._ Any person could write a paragraph on Milton; Macaulay and Lowell wrote delightful essays on the topic; David Masson has written volumes about him. These would have been impossible except to a person who had been a special student of the subject. Second, the thoroughness of the treatment depends _on the knowledge of the readers._ For persons acquainted with the record of the momentous events of Milton's time, it would have been quite unnecessary, it might be considered even an insult to intelligence, to go into such details of history. The shortest statement suffices when the reader is already familiar with the subject and needs only to know the application in this case. Third, the scale of treatment depends _on the purpose for which the essay is written._ If a newspaper paragraph, it is one thing; if for a magazine, it is quite another; if it is to be the final word on the subject, it may reach to volumes. An apt illustration of proportion in the scale of treatment has been given by Scott and Denny in their "Composition-Rhetoric." They suggest that three maps of the United States, one very large, another half the size of the first, and a third very small, be hung side by side. If a comparison be made, it will be found that, whereas a great number of cities are represented on the largest map, only half as many appear on the middle-sized map. If the smallest map be examined, only the largest cities, the longest rivers, the greatest lakes, and the highest mountains can be found; all others must be omitted. On all three maps the same relation of parts is maintained. In proportion to the whole, New York State will hold the same position in all of them. The Mississippi River will flow from Minnesota to the Gulf of Mexico, and the Gulf will sweep in a curve from Texas to Florida. The scale is different, but the proportion does not change. This principle applies in the construction of themes. In a paragraph only very important topics will receive any mention. In an essay these important topics retain their proper place and relation, while many other points of subordinate rank will be introduced. If the treatment be lengthened to a book, a host of minor sub-topics will be considered, each adding something to the development of the theme, and each giving to its principal topic the relative importance which belongs to the main divisions of the essay. The scale of treatment will have much to do with the selection of material. Using Macaulay's "Milton" as an illustration, the analyses below will show how by increasing the size of the essay new subjects come into the field for notice. The first is but a paragraph and has the two main divisions of the essay. The second is an outline for an essay of two thousand words. In the third only one of the sub-topics is analyzed, as Macaulay has discussed it. It would take too much space to analyze minutely the whole essay. MILTON. A. Milton's poetry has given him his position among great men. B. His conduct was such as was to be expected from a man of a spirit so high and of an intellect so powerful. In the following outline the same main headings are retained, and the sub-topics which explain them are introduced. The numbers indicate the paragraphs in Macaulay's essay given to each topic. INTRODUCTION (1-8). A. Milton's poetry has given him his position among men. (9-46.) I. No poet has ever triumphed over greater difficulties than Milton. (10-19.) II. In his lesser works he shows his great power. (20-31.) III. There is but one modern poem that can be compared with "Paradise Lost;" Dante's "Divine Comedy" has great power, is upon a kindred subject, but in style of treatment widely different. (32-46.) Transition. (47-49.) B. His conduct was such as was to be expected from a man of a spirit so high and of an intellect so powerful. (50-90.) I. He lived at one of the most memorable eras in the history of mankind, and his conduct must be judged as that of the people is judged. (50-78.) II. There were some peculiarities which distinguished him from his contemporaries. (79-90.) Conclusion. (91-94.) Again, taking up but one section, B, II., the analysis is as follows:-- II. There were some peculiarities which distinguished him from his contemporaries. (79-90.) A. Milton adopted the noblest qualities of every party-- 1. Puritans. (80-84.) a. They excited contempt. However b. They were no vulgar fanatics; but c. They derived their peculiarities from their daily contemplation of superior beings and eternal interests. d. Thus the Puritan was made up of two men,--the one all self-abasement, the other all pride. e. Résumé of character of Puritans. 2. Heathens were passionate lovers of freedom. (85.) 3. Royalists had individual independence, learning, and polite manners of the Court. B. But he alone fought the battle for the freedom of the mind. (88.) 1. This led him to discard parties; and (89) 2. To dare the boldest literary services. (90.) The fundamental principle guiding in the selection of material is unity. It decides what may with propriety be admitted to the essay, and it determines in part what must be left out. Another principle, secondary to this, is scale of treatment. If the essay is to be short, only essentials may be used; if long, many related sub-topics must take their subordinate positions in the essay. Arrangement. Following the selection of material comes its arrangement. Here also there is greater difficulty than was experienced in narration or description. Though the same principles of Coherence and Mass guide, they are more difficult to apply. The seat of the difficulty is in the elusiveness of the material. It is hard to picture distinctly the value and relation of the different topics of an essay. Suppose the subject is "The Evils of War." The first paragraph might contain a general statement announcing the theme. Then these topics are to be discussed:-- 1. The effect on the _morale_ of a nation. 2. The suffering of friends and relatives. 3. The destruction of life. 4. The backward step in civilization. 5. The destruction of property. The order could not be much worse. How shall a better be obtained? Use Cards for Subdivisions. The most helpful suggestion regarding a method of making the material in some degree visible, capable of being grasped, is that each subdivision be placed on a separate card, and that, as the material is gathered, it be put upon the card containing the group to which it belongs. By different arrangements of these cards the writer can find most easily the order that is natural and effective. It is much like anagrams, this ordering of matter in an essay. Take these letters, s-l-y-w-a-r-e, and in your head try to put them together to make a word; you will have some trouble, probably. If, however, these same letters be put upon separate slips of paper, you may with some arrangement get out the rather common word, lawyers. It is much the same with topic cards in exposition; they can be moved and rearranged in all possible ways, and at last an order distinctly better than any other will be found. Speaking of cards, it might be well to say that the habit of putting down a fact or an idea bearing on a topic just as soon as it occurs to one is invaluable for a writer. All men have good memories; some persons have better ones than others. But there is no one who does not forget; and each catches himself very often saying, "I knew that, but I forgot it." It is a fact, not perhaps complimentary, that paper tablets are surer than the tablets of memory. An Outline. In exposition, where the whole attention of the reader should be given to the thought, where more than ever the mind should be freed from every hindrance, and its whole energy directed to getting the meaning, the greatest care should be given to making a plan. No person who has attained distinction in prose has worked without a plan. Any piece of literature, even the most discursive, has in it something of plan; but in literature of the first rank the plan is easily discovered. How clear it is in Macaulay's essay has been seen. In Burke it is yet more logical and exact. However beautiful a piece may be, however naturally one thought grows out of another, as though it were always so and could be no other way, be sure it is so because of some man's thought, on account of careful planning. And it may be said without a chance of contradiction that when an essay has been well planned it is half done, and that half by far the harder. "We can hardly at the present day understand what Menander meant, when he told a man who inquired as to the progress of his comedy that he had finished it, not having yet written a single line, because he had constructed the action of it in his mind. A modern critic would have assured him that the merit of his piece depended on the brilliant things which arose under his pen as he went along." The brilliant things are but the gargoyles and the scrolls, the ornaments of the structure; and when so brilliant as to attract especial attention, they divert the mind from the total effect much as a series of beautiful marbles set between those perfect columns would have ruined the Parthenon. It was not in any single feature--not in pediment, column, or capital, not in frieze, architrave, or tympanum--that its glorious beauty lay, but in the simple strength and the harmonious symmetry of the whole, in the general plan. Webster planned his orations, Newman planned his essays, Carlyle planned his Frederick the Great. Their works are not a momentary inspiration; they are the result of forethought, long and painstaking. The absolute essential in the structure of an essay, that without which it will fail to arrive anywhere, that compared to which all ornament, all fine writing, is but sounding brass and a tinkling cymbal, that absolute essential is the total effect secured by making a plan. Mass the End. The principles governing the arrangement of material are Mass and Coherence. Both are equally essential, but in practice some questions regarding Mass are settled first. _The important positions in an essay are the beginning and the end; of these the more important is the end._ In this place, then, there shall be those sentences or those paragraphs which deserve that distinction. Here frequently stands the theme, the conclusion of the whole matter, that for which the composition was constructed. So that if one wished to know the theme of an essay, he would be justified in looking at its conclusion to find it. In the essay on "Milton," it is evident from the last paragraph that Macaulay never intended it to be only a criticism of his poetry, though he has devoted many pages to this discussion. Here is just the last sentence: "Nor do we envy the man who can study either the life or the writings of the great poet and patriot without aspiring to emulate, not indeed the sublime works with which his genius has enriched our literature, but the zeal with which he labored for the public good, the fortitude with which he endured every private calamity, the lofty disdain with which he looked down on temptations and dangers, the deadly hatred which he bore to bigots and tyrants, and the faith which he so sternly kept with his country and his fame." Notice the last sentence of a delightful essay by George William Curtis; one could easily guess the contents and the title. "Fear of yourself, fear of your own rebuke, fear of betraying your consciousness of your duty and not doing it--that is the fear that Lovelace loved better than Lucasta; that is the fear which Francis, having done his duty, saved, and justly called it honor." Examples of the ending in which the theme of the essay stands in the place of greatest distinction are so plentiful that there needs no collector to establish the assertion. In a single paragraph of exposition not exceeding two or three hundred words, it is a very safe rule for a beginner always to have the theme in the last sentence; or if he has stated the theme in the opening, to have a restatement of it in different form, fuller and more explicit usually, sometimes a shorter and more epigrammatic form, in the conclusion. If the pupil should obey this little rule to have at the end something worthy of the position, a vast amount of time would be saved both to teacher and to pupil. It can be safely said that not more than one half the essays end when the thought ends. Instead of quitting when he has finished, the writer dribbles on, repeating in diluted fashion what he has said with some force before, and often introducing matters that are not within hailing distance of his theme. When one has said what he started out to say, it is time to stop. If he stops then, he will have something important in the place of distinction. The Beginning. _The position of second importance is the beginning._ If but a paragraph be written, the topic is usually announced at the opening. In short essays this is the most frequent beginning, and it may safely be used at all times. Exposition is explanation; the natural thing is to let the reader know at once what the writer is attempting to explain. Then the reader knows what the author is talking about and can relate every statement to the general proposition. To delay the topic compels the reader to hold in mind all that has been said up to the time the real theme is uncovered; this frequently results in inattention. In the little book by Mr. Palmer, the first paragraph opens with these two sentences: "English as a study has four aims: the mastery of our language as a science, as a history, as a joy, and as a tool. I am concerned with but one, the mastery of it as a tool." So, too, the essay of which the last sentence has been quoted begins: "These are very precious words of Lovelace:-- 'I could not love thee, dear, so much, Loved I not honor more.' And Francis First's message to his mother after Pavia, 'All is lost but honor,' is in the same key." Instead of announcing the theme at the very beginning, in essays of some length there is sometimes an account of the occasion which led to the composition. Macaulay has used this opening in the essay on "Milton." Second, the opening may be the clearing away of matters unrelated in reality, but which people have commonly associated with the topic. And third, the essay may open with definitions of the terms that will be used in the discussion. Of these three, only the first will be much used by young persons. It makes an easy approach to the subject, and avoids the unpleasant jar of an abrupt start. It is common with Macaulay, Lowell, and many essayists that write in an easy, almost conversational style. There is one case in which the theme should not be announced at the opening. If the proposition were distasteful, if it were generally believed to be false, it would not be policy to announce it at the beginning. However reasonable men may be, it is still true that reason is subject to emotions and beliefs to a greater degree than is praiseworthy. If a man should open an address upon Abraham Lincoln by saying that he was a cringing coward, he would have difficulty to get an audience to hear anything he said after that, no matter how much truth he spoke. The author of such a statement would be so disliked that nothing would win for him favor. When an unwelcome theme is to be discussed, it must be approached carefully by successive steps which prepare the reader for the reception of a truth that before seemed false to him. In this case the theme will be stated at the end, but not at the beginning of the essay. Get started as soon as you can, and stop when you have finished; by so doing you will have important matters in those places which will emphasize them. Shun the allurements of high-sounding introductions and conclusions. Professor Marston used to tell his pupils to write the best introduction they could, to fashion their most gorgeous peroration, and to be sure to have the discussion clear, logical, and well expressed. Then he said that when he had cut off both ends, he generally had left a good essay. An essay should be done much as a business man does business. He does not want the gentleman who calls on him during business hours to bow and scatter compliments before he takes up the matter which brought him there; nor does he care to see him swaying on the doorknob after the business is finished. To the business at once, and leave off when you have done. Introductions, exordiums, perorations, and conclusions are worthless unless they be in reality a part of the discussion and necessary to the understanding of the whole. Proportion in Treatment. Everything, however, cannot occupy the first and last places. How can other matters be emphasized? To refer to the parallel of the map, in order to make people see that the Mississippi River is longer than the Hudson, the designer made it longer on the map. That is exactly what is done in an essay. If one matter is of greater importance than another, it should take up a larger part of the essay. When Macaulay passes over Milton's sonnets with a paragraph, while he devotes sixteen paragraphs to "Paradise Lost," he indicates by the greater mass the greater value he ascribes to the epic. So again, a very good proof that he did not intend this essay to be a literary criticism primarily, another evidence beside the closing paragraph, is found in his division of the whole essay. To Milton's poetry he has given forty-one paragraphs, and to his character fifty-two paragraphs. The most common way of emphasizing important divisions of an essay is by increasing the length of treatment. Emphasis of Emotion. However, there are times when this cannot be done: a point may be so well known that it needs no amplification. In such a case there may be an emphasis of emotion; that is, the statement may be made with an intensity that counterbalances the weight of the larger treatment. It might be said that the one has great velocity and little mass, while the other has great mass and little velocity. By hurling forth the smaller mass at a higher velocity, the momentum may be as great as when the larger mass moves with little velocity. The dynamic force of burning words may give an emphasis to a paragraph out of all proportion to the length of treatment. In one paragraph Macaulay dashes aside all the defenses of Charles. He writes:-- "The advocates of Charles, like the advocates of other malefactors against whom overwhelming evidence is produced, generally decline all controversy about the facts, and content themselves with calling testimony to character. He had so many private virtues! And had James II. no private virtues? Was Oliver Cromwell, his bitterest enemies themselves being the judges, destitute of private virtues? And what, after all, are the virtues ascribed to Charles? A religious zeal, not more sincere than that of his son, and fully as weak and narrow-minded, and a few of the ordinary household decencies which half the tombstones in England claim for those who lie beneath them. A good father! A good husband! Ample apologies indeed for fifteen years of persecution, tyranny, and falsehood." ("Essay on Milton.") Phrases indicating Emphasis. Moreover, phrases and sentences may be introduced to show that a writer considers some topics of equal importance to others, or even of greater importance, though they do not demand the same length of treatment. _Of equal importance, not less weighty, beyond question the most pertinent,_ illustrate what is meant by phrases which indicate values. These and many of their class which the occasion will call forth are necessary to give certain topics the rank they hold in the writer's conception of the whole subject. In discussing the temper and character of the American people, Burke ascribes it to six powerful causes. The relative value of these is indicated in the last three by phrases. I quote only the opening sentences. "First, the people of the colonies are descendants of Englishmen."... "They were further confirmed in this pleasing error by the form of their provincial legislative assemblies."... "If anything were wanting to this necessary operation of the form of government, religion would have given it a complete effect."... "There is a circumstance attending these [southern] colonies which makes the spirit of liberty _still more_ high and haughty than in those to the northward."... "Permit me, Sir, to add another circumstance which contributes _no mean part_ towards the growth and effect of this untractable spirit."... "The last cause of this disobedient spirit in the colonies is _hardly less powerful_ than the rest."[21] Emphasis is indicated, then, by position; by the length of treatment; by dynamic statement; and by phrases denoting values. Coherence. Coherence is the second principle which modifies the internal structure of a composition. That arrangement should be sought for that places in proximity one to another those ideas which are most closely related. More than in composition dealing with things, in those forms of discourse dealing with intangible, invisible ideas,--with thoughts, with speculations,--the greatest care is necessary to make one topic spring of necessity from a preceding topic. And this is not impossible when the material has been carefully selected. The principal divisions of the subject bear a necessary and logical relation to the whole theme, and the subordinate divisions have a similar relation to their main topic. In the essay on "Milton," Macaulay is seeking to commend his hero to the reader for two reasons: first, because his writings "are powerful, not only to delight, but to elevate and purify;" second, because "the zeal with which he labored for the public good, the fortitude with which he endured every private calamity, the lofty disdain with which he looked down on temptations and dangers, the deadly hatred which he bore to bigots and tyrants, and the faith which he so sternly kept with his country and with his fame" made him a patriot worthy of emulation. We feel instinctively that this arrangement, poetry first and character next, and not the reverse, is the right order. To discuss character first and poetry last would have been ruinous to Macaulay's purpose. Notice next the development of a sub-topic in the same essay. Only one sentence from a paragraph is given. The defenders of Charles do not choose to discuss "the great points of the question," but "content themselves with exposing some of the crimes and follies to which public commotions necessarily give birth." "Be it so." "Many evils were produced by the Civil War." "It is the character of such revolutions that we always see the worst of them first." Yet "there is only one cure for the evils which newly acquired freedom produces, and that cure is freedom." "Therefore it is that we decidedly approve of the conduct of Milton and the other wise and good men who, in spite of much that was ridiculous and hateful in the conduct of their associates, stood firmly by the cause of public liberty." No other arrangement of these paragraphs seems possible. To shift the sequence would break the chain. Each paragraph grows naturally from the paragraph preceding. Closely related topics stand together. There is Coherence. Transition Phrases. The logical connection between topics which have been well arranged may be made more evident by the skillful use of words and phrases that indicate the relation of what has been said to what is to be said. These phrases are guideposts pointing the direction the next topic will take. They advise the reader where he is and whither he is going. Cardinal Newman, who had the ability to write not only so that he could be understood, but so that he could not be misunderstood, made frequent use of these guides. The question in one of his essays is "whether knowledge, that is, acquirement, is the real principle of enlargement, or whether that is not rather something beyond it." These fragments of sentences open a series of paragraphs. 1. "For instance, let a person ... go for the first time where physical nature puts on her wilder and more awful forms," etc. 2. "Again, the view of the heavens which the telescope opens," etc. 3. "And so again, the sight of beasts of prey and other foreign animals," etc. 4. "Hence Physical Science generally," etc. 5. "Again, the study of history," etc. 6. "And in like manner, what is called seeing the world," etc. 7. "And then again, the first time the mind comes across the arguments and speculations of unbelievers," etc. 8. "On the other hand, Religion has its own enlargement," etc. 9. "Now from these instances, ... it is plain, first, that the communication of knowledge certainly is either a condition or a means of that sense of enlargement, or enlightenment of which at this day we hear so much in certain quarters: this cannot be denied; but next, it is equally plain, that such communication is not the whole of the process." How extremely valuable such phrases are may be realized from the fact that, though the matter is entirely unknown, any one can know the relation of the parts of this essay, whither it tends, and can almost supply Newman's thoughts. Summary and Transition. To secure coherence between the main divisions of an essay, instead of words and phrases, there are employed sentences and paragraphs of summary and transition. Summaries gather up what has been said on the topic, much like a conclusion to a theme; transitions show the relation between the topic already discussed and the one next to be treated. Summaries at the conclusion of any division of the whole subject are like the seats on a mountain path which are conveniently arranged to give the climber a needed rest, and to spread out at his feet the features of the landscape through which he has made his way. Summaries put the reader in possession of the situation up to that point, and make him ready for the next stage of the advance. At the end of the summary there is frequently a transition, either a few sentences or sometimes a short paragraph. The sentence or paragraph of transition is much more frequent than the paragraph which summarizes. The examples of these summaries and transitions are so frequent in Macaulay and Burke that one transition is sufficient to indicate their use. Macaulay writes:-- "There are several minor poems of Milton on which we would willingly make a few remarks.... Our limits, however, prevent us from discussing the point at length. We hasten on to that extraordinary production which the general suffrage of critics has placed in the highest class of human compositions." ("Essay on Milton.") To conclude, exposition embraces definition and explanation. Definition is usually too concise to be clear, and needs an added explanation. In any piece of exposition there must be unity, and this principle will dispense with everything that is not essential to the theme; there must be judicious massing, that those parts of the essay deserving emphasis may receive it; and there must be a coherence between the parts, large and small, so close and intimate that the progress from one topic to another shall be steady and without hindrance. Unity, Mass, and Coherence should be the main considerations in composition the aim of which is to explain a term or a proposition. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. QUESTIONS. MACAULAY'S ESSAY ON MILTON. (Riverside Literature Series, No. 103.) What makes up the introduction of this essay? Does he use the same method in the Essay on Addison? Take a volume of his essays and see how many begin in similar fashion. At what paragraph of this Essay on Milton does the introduction end? Would it be as well to omit it? Give reasons for your opinion. Make an analysis of his argument of the proposition, "No poet has ever triumphed over greater difficulties than Milton." Does Macaulay give a definition of poetry on page 13, or is it an exposition of the term? What figure of speech do you find in the last sentence of the paragraph on page 43? When Macaulay begins to discuss "the public conduct of Milton," what method of introduction does he adopt? What value is there in it? Do the trifles mentioned at the end of the paragraph on page 55 make an anticlimax? What arrangement of sentences in the paragraph does he use most, individual or serial? Does he close his paragraphs with a repetition of the topic more frequently than with a single detail emphasizing the topic? Is his last sentence, in case it is a repetition of the topic, longer or shorter than the topic sentence? Does Macaulay frequently use epigrams? antitheses? Find all transition paragraphs. Find ten full sentence transitions outside of the transition paragraphs. Where, in such paragraphs, is the topic sentence? In this essay find examples of the five methods of expounding a proposition. Which method does Macaulay use oftenest? Is his treatment of the subject concrete? What advantage is there in such treatment? OF KINGS' TREASURIES. (Riverside Literature Series, No. 142.) Do you think the title good? Is Ruskin wise in disclosing his subject at once? In section 3 what purpose does the first paragraph fulfill? What method of exposition is adopted in the last paragraph? What method in section 4? For what purpose is the first paragraph of section 5 introduced? Is the last paragraph of this section a digression? Do you think the last sentence of section 9 upon the topic announced in the first sentence? Where does Ruskin begin to treat the second topic? Should there be two paragraphs? Find the genus and differentia in the definition of "a good book of the hour." What is the use of the analogy in section 13? What figure do you find in section 14? Do you think a large part of section 30 a digression? What do you think of the structure of sentences 4 and 8 in section 32? Could you improve it by a change of punctuation? What is the effect of the supposed case at the end of section 33? Is it a fair deduction? Is it at the right place in the paragraph, and why? Where would you divide the paragraph in section 37? Is the example in section 36 a fair one, and does it prove the case? What is a very common method with Ruskin of connecting paragraphs? Could you break up the sixth sentence of section 31 so that it would be better? If his audience had been hostile to him would he have been fortunate in some of his assertions? Make an analysis of the whole essay. Does he seem to you to have digressed from his topic? At what point? Should it be two essays? What led Ruskin into this long criticism of English character? Could you include all the main topics that Ruskin has included, and by a change in proportion keep the essay on the subject? WEBSTER'S BUNKER HILL ORATION. (Riverside Literature Series, No. 56.) Number the paragraphs in this oration. Why is paragraph 3 introduced? What method of development is used in paragraph 7? In paragraph 8? In how many paragraphs is the last sentence short? In how many is the last sentence a repetition of the topic? What purpose is served in paragraphs 8, 9, and 10? In paragraph 12 note the use of contrast. What kind of development in paragraph 27? Analyze the oration from paragraph 28. Does he place the topic sentence near the beginning of the paragraphs? Does he frequently use transition sentences? Do you think the outline of this as distinct as that of Macaulay's Essay on Milton? Should it be? What figure of speech in the word "axe" in paragraph 32, and "bayonet" in paragraph 36? What figure at the end of paragraph 40? Does he use figures as frequently as Macaulay? EXERCISES. This year, taking up the study of exposition, offers especially good opportunities for exercises in paragraph and sentence construction. During the first eight or ten weeks the pupils will write isolated paragraphs. The unity and arrangement of these should be carefully criticised. Also the exercises should be arranged so that the pupils will employ all forms of paragraphs. Before he begins to write a paragraph, the pupil should know what he is to include in it, and in what order; otherwise the paragraph will fail in unity and effective massing. Paragraphs are made by forethought, not by inspiration. Following the writing of isolated paragraphs is the composition of the long essay. The first thing is a study of outlines. This will take up six or eight weeks. To secure the view of the whole in different arrangements, use the cards. When the class has gained some grasp of outlines, the writing of essays should be begun. At the option of the pupils, they may write some of the essays already outlined, or study new themes. Two or three paragraphs are all that can be well done for a lesson. Good, not much, should be the ideal. In this way a single essay may occupy a class from three to six weeks. It should be remembered that these exercises are written consciously for practice. They are exercises--no more. Their purpose is to give skill and judgment in composition. It is because they are exercises that they may be somewhat stereotyped and artificial in form, just as exercises in music may be artificially constructed to meet the difficulties the young musician will have to confront. During the writing of these essays special attention should be given to sentence construction. The inclusion of just the ideas needed in the sentence and no more; the massing that makes prominent the thought that deserves prominence; and the nice adjustment of one sentence to the next: these objects should be striven for during this semester. 1, 2. Write definitions of such common terms as jingoism, civil service, gold standard, the submerged tenth, sweat shop, internal revenue, cyclonic area, foreign policy, imperialism, free silver, mugwump, political pull, Monroe doctrine, etc. Five or six terms which are not found in a dictionary will make a hard exercise; and two or three lessons in definitions will set the pupils in the direction of accurate and adequate statements. For isolated paragraphs write upon the following subjects:-- 3. Novel reading gives one a knowledge of the world not to be gained in any other way. Particulars. 4. Novel reading unfits people for the actualities of life. Specific instances. 5. Among the numerous uses of biography three stand forth preëminent,--it furnishes the material of history, it lets us into the secrets of the good and great, and it sets before us attainable ideals of noble humanity. Repetition. 6. It is beyond any possibility of successful contradiction that the examination system encourages cheating. Proofs. 7. Electric cars and automobiles are driving horses out of the cities. Instances. 8. Every great development in the culture of a nation has followed a great war. Proofs. 9. From the following general subjects have the pupils state definite themes. Write isolated paragraphs on a few of them. Political Parties. War. Books. Machines. Inventions. Great Men. Planets. Civil Service. Coeducation. Roads. Tramps. Boycotts. 10. Place another similar list on the board and have the pupils vote on what three they prefer. Use these in making outlines. Then select more. Supposing they had settled upon this theme: The tramp is the logical result of our economic system; have it outlined. The result might be as follows:-- A. What is a tramp? 1. Who become tramps? 2. Their number. 3. Where are they? B. Why is he a tramp? 1. Inventions have increased the power of production more rapidly than the demand for products has grown. a. On the farm. b. Transportation. c. Factories. d. Piecework. 2. Women now do much work formerly done by men. a. As clerks. b. As typewriters, stenographers, and bookkeepers. c. In the professions. 3. The result of these causes is that many men willing to work are out of employment. C. What must be done? 11. Fill out the following outline. Subject: The Thermometer. A. Its Invention. B. Its Construction. C. Its Value and Uses. 12. Outline six more themes. 13. Beginning the writing of long essays, write essays in sections. Using "Tramps" for an illustration, as it is outlined it contains about twelve paragraphs. All of section "A" may be included in one paragraph. "B, 1" may be a paragraph of repetition; "a," "b," "c," "d," may each make a paragraph of particulars. By stating "B, 2" in the following way, it may be a paragraph of "what not:" It was once considered unladylike for women to engage in any occupation outside of the home. Men said that they could not retain, etc.--Go on with the things woman could not do, closing with a statement of what she does do. "B, 2, a." On account of their fidelity, honesty, and courtesy, women succeed as clerks. Repetition. b. The quickness of their intelligence and the accuracy of their work have made women more desirable for routine work in an office than men. Comparison and Contrast. c. There are certain feminine qualities which especially fit women for the practice of teaching and medicine. Details. "B, 3." By Combination of Forms. "C." By Details. It would be a pleasure to go on with this list of exercises, but it is unnecessary and it is unwise. These indicate the objects to be sought for in the exercises. They are not a specific course, though they might suit a certain environment. Each teacher knows her own pupils,--their attainments and their interests. The subjects should be chosen to suit their special cases. Only make them interesting; put them into such form that there is something to get hold of; and adapt them so that all the topics to be studied will be illustrated in the work. The pupils should be able to write any form of paragraph, to arrange it so that any idea is made prominent, and to make easy transitions. Arrange the exercises to accomplish definite results. During the third year, attention should be given to words and to the refinements of elegant composition. These the pupils will best learn by careful watch of the literature. The teacher should be quick to feel the strength and beauty of any passage and able to point out the means adopted to obtain the delightful effect. Clearness first is the thing to be desired; if to this can be added force and a degree of elegance during the last two years, the work of the instructor has been well done. * * * * * CHAPTER VI ARGUMENT Argument has been defined as that form of discourse the purpose of which is to convince the reader of the truth or falsity of a proposition. It is closely allied with exposition. To convince a person, it is first necessary that the proposition be explained to him. This is all that is necessary in many cases. Did men decide all matters without prejudice, and were they willing to accept the truth at any cost, even to discard the beliefs that have been to them the source of greatest happiness, the simple explanation would be sufficient. However, as men are not all-wise, and as they are not always "reasonable," they are found to hold different opinions regarding the same subject; and one person often wishes to convince another of the error of his beliefs. Men continually use the words _because_ and _therefore;_ indeed, a great deal of writing has in it an element of argument. From the fact that argument and exposition are so nearly alike, it follows that they will be governed by much the same principles. As argument, in addition to explaining, seeks to convince, it is necessary, in addition to knowing how to explain, to know what is considered convincing,--what are proofs; and secondly, what is the best order in which to arrange proofs. Induction and Deduction. Arguments have been classified as inductive and deductive.[22] Induction includes arguments that proceed from individual cases to establish a general truth. Deduction comprises arguments that proceed from a general truth to establish the proposition in specific instances, or groups of instances. Syllogism. Premises. If one should say "Socrates is mortal because he is a man," or "Socrates will die because all men are mortal," or "Socrates is a man, therefore he will die," by any of these he has expressed a truth which all men accept. In any of these expressions are bound up two propositions, called premises, from which a third proposition, called a conclusion, is derived. If expanded, the three propositions assume this form: All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore Socrates is mortal. This is termed a syllogism. A syllogism consists of a major premise, a predication about all the members of a general class of objects; a minor premise, a predication that includes an individual or a group of individuals in the general class named by the major premise; and a conclusion, the proposition which is derived from the relation existing between the other two propositions. The propositions above would be classified as follows:-- Major premise: All men are mortal, a predication about _all_ men. Minor premise: Socrates is a man, including an individual in the general class. Conclusion: Socrates is mortal. Terms. In every syllogism there are three terms,--major, minor, and middle. The middle term is found in both the premises, but not in the conclusion. It is the link connecting the major and minor terms. The major term is usually the predicate of the major premise and the predicate of the conclusion. The minor term is the subject of the minor premise and the subject of the conclusion. "Men" is the middle term, "are mortal" the major term, and "Socrates," the minor term. Enthymeme. It is rarely the case in literature that the syllogism is fully stated: generally one of the premises is omitted. Such a form of statement is termed an enthymeme. "Socrates will die because all men are mortal" is an enthymeme. The minor premise has been omitted. "Socrates is mortal because he is a man" is also an enthymeme, because the major premise which states that "all men are mortal" has been omitted. The conclusions arrived at by means of syllogisms are irresistible, provided the form be correct and the premises be true. It is impossible here to discuss the forms of syllogisms; they are too many. It will be of value, however, to call attention to a few of the commonest errors in syllogisms. Definition of Terms. The first error arises from a misunderstanding of terms. It is often said that George Eliot is a poet; there are some who disagree. Certain it is that she wrote in verse form; and it is true that she has embodied noble thoughts in verse; but it is quite as true that she lacks "the bird-note." If this were reduced to a syllogism, it would not be a discussion of whether George Eliot be a poet, but rather a discussion of what is a poet. Stated, it reads: All persons who embody noble thoughts in verse form are poets. George Eliot is a person who has embodied noble thoughts in verse form. Therefore George Eliot is a poet. If the major premise of this syllogism be granted, the conclusion is unquestionable. The terms should be defined at the beginning; then this error, springing from a misunderstanding of terms, perhaps the most common, would be avoided. Undistributed Middle. The second error arises from the fact that the middle term is not "distributed;" that is, the major premise makes no statement about all the members of a class. The premises in the following are true, but the conclusion is nonsense. A horse is an animal. Man is an animal. Therefore, man is a horse. The middle term, in this case "animal," must be "distributed;" some statement must be made of _all_ animals. The following would be true: All animals have life; therefore man has life. The major premise predicates life of all animals. False Premises. A third error in a syllogism is in the premises themselves. If either premise be false, the conclusion is not necessarily true. A parent might say to his son, "You are doing wrong, and you will pay the penalty for it soon." Generally he would be right. However, if this were put into a syllogism, it would read as follows: All persons who do wrong pay the penalty soon. You are such a person. Therefore, etc. Admitting the son is breaking the law, the fact is that the major premise is not always true, and the conclusion holds the weakness of the weak premise. Again, supposing everybody accepted the general truth, "All unrepentant sinners will be punished." The minister might then say to a young man, "You will certainly be punished, because all unrepentant sinners will be punished." The young man might deny the suppressed minor premise, which is, "You are an unrepentant sinner." Both premises must be true if they prove anything. The conclusion contains the weakness of either premise. In both of these examples note that the mistake is in the premise which does not appear. In an enthymeme, great care should be taken with the suppressed premise. Be sure it is true when you use this form of argument, and be sure to look for it and state it in full when examining another's argument. It is a common way of hiding a weak point to cover it in the suppressed premise of an enthymeme. Method of Induction. Induction, which proceeds directly opposite to the method of deduction, is the method by which all our ultimate knowledge has been obtained. By observing individual instances man has gathered a great store of general truths. There was a time when the first man would not have been justified in saying, "The sun will rise in the east to-morrow." The general law had not been established. To-day it is practically certain that the sun will rise in the east to-morrow morning, because it has done so for thousands of years; the large number of instances establishes the general truth. Yet there may come a day when it will rise in the south, or not rise at all. Until every case has been tried and found to conform to the law, theoretically man cannot be absolutely certain of any general truth. There may come an exception to the general rule that all men must die. So far, however, there is no experience to justify any man in hoping to escape death. "As sure as death" means in practice absolutely sure, though this is not what is called a perfect induction; that is, an induction in which every possible case has been included. "All the other States are smaller than Texas" is a perfect induction, but it forms no basis for argument. All the cases must be known for a perfect induction; there is no unknown to argue to. This, then, is only a short statement of many individual truths, and has but little of value. Induction that is imperfect is more valuable; for with many cases the probability becomes so strong that it is a practical certainty. It is the method of science. More valuable for literature is another division of arguments into arguments from cause, arguments from sign, and arguments from example. Arguments from Cause. Arguments from cause include those propositions which, if they were granted, would account for the fact or proposition maintained. The decisive test is to suppose the proposition to be true; then, if it will account for the condition, it is an argument from cause. A child holds its finger in a flame; therefore its finger is burned. If the first proposition be supposed to be true, it will account for a burned finger. It is an argument from cause, and it is conclusive. Again, if a man severs his carotid artery, he will die. If the first proposition be supposed to be true, it will account for the man's subsequent death. Now, supposing a man takes strychnine, he will die. This is not quite so sure. If a stomach-pump were used or an antidote given, he might not die. The cause has been hindered in its action, or another cause has intervened to counterbalance the first. If, then, a cause be adequate to produce the effect, and if it act unhindered or unmodified, the effect will certainly follow the active cause. An argument that uses as a premise such a cause may predicate its effect as a conclusion with absolute certainty. Such an argument is conclusive. The argument from cause is used more frequently to establish a probability than to prove a fact or proposition. However strong the proofs of a statement may be, men hesitate to accept either the statement or the proofs if the proposition is not plausible, or, as people say, if "they do not understand it," or if "it is not reasonable." If a murder be done and circumstances all point to your friend, you do not believe your friend to be the criminal until some fact is produced sufficient to cause your friend to commit the crime,--until some motive is established. If it be shown that the friend hated the murdered man and would be benefited by his death, a motive is established,--the proposition is made plausible. A man could "understand how he came to do it." The hatred and the benefit being granted, they would account for his deed. It is an argument from cause, used not as a proof, but to establish a probability. It makes the proposition ready for proof. Arguments from Sign. The second class of arguments, arguments from sign, is most often used for proof. If two facts or conditions always occur together, the presence of one is a sign of the presence of the other. Cause and effect are so related that if either be observed, it is an indication of the other. No cause acts without a consequent effect; an effect is a sure sign of a preceding cause. Supposing one should say, "Because the flowers are dead, there was a frost," or "If ice has formed on the river, it must have been cold," in both instances the argument would be an argument from sign. Both also proceed from the effect to the cause. Only a low temperature forms ice on the river; the argument from effect to cause is conclusive. In the first case, the argument is not conclusive, because flowers may die from other causes. In a case like this, it is necessary to find all possible causes, and then by testing each in succession to determine which could not have acted and leave the one that is the only actual cause. A man is found dead; death has resulted from natural causes, from murder, or from suicide. Each possible cause would be tested; and by elimination of the other possible causes the one right cause would be left. This method of elimination is frequently employed in arguments from effect to cause. When this method is used the alternatives should be few, else it gives rise to confusion and to lack of attention caused by the tediousness of the discussion. And an enumeration of all possible causes must be made; for if one be omitted it may be the one that is in fact the right one. The relation between cause and effect is so intimate that the occurrence of one may be regarded as a sure sign of the presence of the other. If an effect is produced by only one cause, the presence of the effect is a certain indication of the cause. If several causes produce the same effect, some other methods must be used to determine the cause operating in this special case. Sequence and Cause. In reasoning from effect to cause, one must be sure that he is dealing with a cause. As effect follows cause, there is danger that anything that follows another may be considered as caused by it. Because a man died just after eating, it would not be quite reasonable to connect eating and death as cause and effect. The fact is that death is surer to follow starvation. The glow at evening is generally followed by fair weather the next day; but the fair weather is not an effect of a clear sunset. Common sense must be used to determine whether the relation is one of cause and effect; something more than a simple sequence is necessary. Another argument from sign associates conditions that frequently occur together, though one is not the cause of the other. "James is near, because there is his blind father," means that James always accompanies his father; where the father is, the son is too. If one had noticed that potatoes planted at the full of the moon grew well, and potatoes planted at other times did not thrive, he might say as a result of years of observation that a certain crop would be a failure because it was not planted at the right time. This argument might have weight with ignorant people, but intelligent persons do not consider it a sure sign. All signs belong to this class of arguments; they are of value or worthless as they come true more or less frequently. Every time there is an exception the argument is weakened; another case of its working strengthens it. Where there is no sure relation like cause and effect, the strength of the argument depends on the frequency of the recurrence of the associated conditions. A third argument from sign associates two effects of the same cause. A lad on waking exclaims, "The window is covered with frost; I can go skating to-day." The frost on the window is not the cause of the ice on the river. Rather, both phenomena are results of the same cause. This kind of argument is not necessarily conclusive; yet with others it always strengthens a case. Testimony is usually called an argument from sign. The assertion by some one that a thing occurred is not sure proof; it is only a sign that it occurred. People have said that they have seen witches, ghosts, and sea serpents, and unquestionably believed it; men generally do not accept their testimony. In a criminal case, it would be difficult to accept the testimony of both sides. Though testimony seems a strong argument, it is or it is not, according to the conditions under which it is given. One would care little for the testimony of an ignorant man in a matter that called for wisdom; he would hesitate to accept the testimony of a man who claimed he saw, but upon cross-examination could not report what he saw; and he would not think it fair to be condemned upon the testimony of his enemies. Books have been written upon evidence, but three principles are all that are needed in ordinary arguments. First, the person giving testimony must be capable of observation; second, he must be able to report accurately what he has observed; third, he must have a desire to tell the exact truth. Arguments from Example. The third large division comprises arguments from example. That is, if a truth be asserted of an individual, it can therefore be predicated of the class to which the individual belongs. For instance, if the first time a person saw a giraffe, he observed that it was eating grass, he would be justified in saying that giraffes are herbivorous. All gold is yellow, heavy, and not corroded by acid, though no one has tested it all. However, every giraffe does not have one ear brown and the other gray because the first one seen happened to be so marked; neither is all gold in the shape of ten-dollar gold pieces. Only common sense will serve to pick out essential qualities; but if essential and invariable qualities be selected, the argument from the example of an individual to all members of its class is very powerful. Analogies resemble examples. In exposition they are used for illustration; in argument they are employed as proofs. Though two things belong to different classes of objects, they may have some qualities that are similar, and so an argument may be made from one to another. "Natural Law in the Spiritual World" is a book written to show how the physical laws hold true in the region of spirit. It is not because an enemy sowed tares in a neighbor's field that there are wicked men in the world; nor is it because a lover of jewels will sell everything that he has to buy the pearl of greatest price that men devote everything they have to the kingdom of heaven. Analogies prove nothing. They clear up relations and often help the reader to appreciate other arguments. They are valuable when the likeness is broad and easily traced. They should never be used alone. These, then, are the principal forms of argument: deduction and induction; arguments from cause, from sign, and from example. Upon these men depend when they wish to convince of truth or error. Selection of Material. In argument the material is selected with reference to its value as proof. Every particle of matter must be carefully tested. While a piece of material that could be omitted without loss to the explanation may sometimes find a place in exposition, such a thing must not occur in argument. As soon as a reader discovers that the writer is off the track, either he loses respect for the author's words, or he suspects him of trying to hide the weakness of his position in a cloud of worthless and irrelevant matters. Every bit of material should advance the argument one step; it should fill its niche in the well-planned structure; it should contribute its part to the strength of the whole. Plan called The Brief. When the material has been selected, it must be arranged. An argument is a demonstration. Each of its parts is the natural result of what has preceded, and, up to the last step, each part is the basis for the next step. As in geometry a demonstration that omits one step in its development, or, which comes to the same thing, puts the point out of its logical order, is worthless as a demonstration, so in argument not one essential step can be omitted, nor can it be misplaced. The plan in an argument may be more evident than in exposition. We are a little offended if the framework shows too plainly in exposition; but there is no offense in a well-articulated skeleton in an argument. It is quite the rule that the general plan and the main divisions of the argument are announced at the very beginning. Any device that will make the relation of the parts clearer should be used. Over and over again the writer should arrange the cards with the topics until he is certain that no other order is so good. The writing is a mere trifle compared with the outline, called in argument the brief. Though the brief is so essential, it is unfortunately a thing about which but few suggestions can be given. The circumstances under which arguments are written--especially whether written to defend a position or to attack it--are so various that rules cannot be given. Still a few general principles may be of value. Climax. Proofs should be arranged in a climax. This does not mean that the weakest argument should come first, and the next stronger should follow, and so on until the last and strongest is reached. It is necessary to begin with something that will catch the attention; and in argument it is frequently a proof strong enough to convince the reader that the writer knows what he is contending for, and that he can strike a hard blow. Then again, it is evident that in all arguments there are main points in the discussion that must be established by points of minor importance. The main points should be arranged in a logical climax, and the sub-topics which go to support one of the main divisions should have their climax. At the end of the whole should be the strongest and the most comprehensive argument. It should be a general advance of the whole line of argument, including all the propositions that have previously been called into action, sweeping everything before it. Inductive precedes Deductive. To gain this climax what kind of arguments should precede? Of inductive and deductive, the inductive proofs generally go first. The advance from particular instances to general truths is the best suited to catch the attention, for men think with individual examples, and general truths make little appeal to them. Moreover, if one is addressing people of opposing views,--and in most cases he is, else why is he arguing?--it is unwise to begin with bald statements of unwelcome truths. They will be rejected without consideration. They can with advantage be delayed until they are reached in the regular development, and the reader has been prepared for their reception. General truths and their application by deductive arguments usually stand late in the brief. Cause precedes Sign. Of arguments from cause, sign, or example, it is ordinarily wise to place arguments from cause first. A person does not listen to any explanation of an unknown truth until he knows that the explanation is plausible; that the cause assigned is adequate to produce the result. After one knows that the cause is sufficient and may have brought about the result, he is in a position to learn that it is the very cause that produced the effect. Arguments from cause are very rarely conclusive proofs of fact. They only establish a probability. And it would be unwise to prove that a thing might be a possibility after one had attempted to prove that it is a fact. It would be a long step backward, a retreat. Therefore arguments from cause, unless absolutely conclusive proof of fact, should not come last; but by other arguments,--by testimony, by example, by analogy,--the possibility, which has been reached by the argument from cause, may be established as a fact. Example follows Sign. Of the two, sign and example, example generally follows sign. In arguments about human affairs, examples seldom prove anything; for under similar conditions one person may not act like another. Though this be true, the argument from example is one of the most effective--it is not at all conclusive--in that class of cases where oratory is combined with argument to convince and persuade. This is because men learn most readily from examples. To reason about matters of conduct on abstract principles of morality convinces but few; to point to a Lincoln or a Franklin has persuaded thousands. Examples are of most use in enforcing and illustrating and strengthening a point already established, and they generally follow arguments from sign. Refutation. One other class of arguments finds a place in debate: namely, indirect arguments. It is often as much an advantage to a debater to dispose of objections as it is to establish his own case. This is because a question usually has two alternatives. If one can refute the arguments in favor of the opponent's position, he has by that very process established his own. If the points of the refutation are of minor importance and are related to any division of his own direct argument, the refutation of such points should be taken up in connection with the related parts of the direct argument. If, however, it is an argument of some weight and should be considered separate and apart from the direct argument, it is generally wisest to proceed to its demolition at the end of the direct argument and before the conclusion of the whole. For then the whole weight of the direct argument will be thrown into the refutation and will render every word so much the more destructive. Again, if the opposing argument be very strong and have taken complete possession of the audience, it must be attacked and disposed of at the very beginning. Otherwise it is impossible for the direct argument to make any advance. From these suggestions one derives the general principle that each case must be considered by itself. There will be cases of conflict among the rules, and there must be a careful weighing of methods. Common sense and patient labor are the most valuable assistants in arranging a powerful argument. It hardly needs to be said that the suggestions made in the chapter on Exposition regarding Mass and Coherence should be observed here. In argument as in exposition, topics are emphasized by position, and by proportion in the scale of treatment. Here as there, matters that are closely related in thought should be connected in the discourse, and matters that are not related in thought should not be associated in the essay. It will be an advantage now to look through "Conciliation with the Colonies" and note its general plan of structure. Only the main divisions of this powerful oration can be given, as to make a full brief would deprive this piece of literature of half its value for study. Analysis of Burke's Oration. Mr. Burke begins by saying that it is "an awful subject or there is none this side of the grave." He states that he has studied the question for years, and while Parliament has pursued a vacillating policy and one aggravating to the colonies, he has a fixed policy and one sure to restore "the former unsuspecting confidence in the Mother Country." His policy is simple peace. This by way of introduction. He then divides the argument into two large divisions and proceeds. I. OUGHT YOU TO CONCEDE? A. What are "the true nature and the peculiar circumstances of the object which we have before us?" I. America has a rapidly growing population. II. It has a rapidly increasing commercial value, shown by 1. Its demand for our goods. 2. The value of its agricultural products. 3. The value of the products of its fisheries. III. There is in the people a "fierce spirit of liberty." This is the result of 1. Their descent from Englishmen. 2. Their popular form of government. 3. Religion in the North. 4. The haughty spirit of the South. 5. Their education. 6. Their remoteness from the governing body. B. "You have before you the object." "What ... shall we do with it?" "There are but three ways of proceeding relative to this stubborn spirit in the colonies." I. To change it by removing the causes. This is impracticable. II. To prosecute it as criminal. This is inexpedient. III. _To comply with it as necessary._ This is the answer to the first question. II. OF WHAT NATURE OUGHT THE CONCESSION TO BE? A. A concession that grants to any colony the satisfaction of the grievances it complains of brings about conciliation and peace. This general proposition is established by the following examples. It has done so in 1. Ireland, 2. Wales, 3. Durham, and 4. Chester. B. The grievances complained of in America are unjust taxation and no representation. C. Therefore these resolutions rehearsing facts and calculated to satisfy their grievances will bring about conciliation and peace. I. They are unrepresented. II. They are taxed. III. No method has been devised for procuring a representation in Parliament for the said Colonies. IV. Each colony has within itself a body with powers to raise, levy, and assess taxes. V. These assemblies have at sundry times granted large subsidies and aids to his Majesty's service. VI. Experience teaches that it is expedient to follow their method rather than force payment. D. As a result of the adoption of these resolutions, "everything which has been made to enforce a contrary system must, I take it for granted, fall along with it. On that ground, I have drawn the following resolutions." I. It is proper to repeal certain legislation regarding taxes, imports, and administration of justice. II. To secure a fair and unbiased judiciary. III. To provide better for the Courts of Admiralty. E. He next considers objections. Conclusion. Notice first the introduction. It goes straight to the question. To tell a large opposition that it has vacillated on a great question is not calculated to win a kind hearing; yet this point, necessary to Burke's argument, is so delicately handled that no one could be seriously offended, nor could any one charge him with weakness. The introduction serves its purpose; it gains the attention of the audience and it exactly states the proposition. He then divides the whole argument into two parts. The framework is visible, and with intent. These great divisions he takes up separately. First, that there may be a perfect understanding of the question, he explains "the true nature and the peculiar circumstances of the object which we have before us." This illustrates the use of exposition in argument. The descent and education did not prove that the Americans had a fiery spirit; that was acknowledged and needed no proof. It simply sets forth the facts,--facts which he afterward uses as powerful instruments of conviction. As long as a man can use exposition, he can carry his readers with him; it is when he begins to argue, to force matters, that he raises opposition. So this use of exposition was fortunate. America was an English colony. Her strength and riches were England's strength and wealth. It would be pleasing to all Englishmen to hear the recital of America's prosperity. Up to the time he asks, "What, in the name of God, shall we do with it," the oration is not essentially argument; it does nothing more than place "before you the object." In the section marked "I. B," Burke begins the real argument by the method of elimination. He asserts that there are only three ways of dealing with this fierce spirit of liberty. Then he conclusively proves the first impracticable and the second inexpedient. There is left but the one course, concession. This method of proof is absolutely conclusive if every possible contingency is stated and provided for. Notice that in this section "B" everything that was mentioned in the first section "A" is used, and the whole is one solid mass moving forward irresistibly to the conclusion of the first and the most important part of this argument. The second main division is devoted to the conclusion of the first. If you must concede,--the conclusion of the first half,--what will be the nature of your concession? A concession, to be a concession, must grant what the colonists wish, not what the ministry thinks would be good for them. Then by the history of England's dealings with Ireland, Wales, Chester, and Durham, he proves that such a concession has been followed by peace. This makes the major premise of his syllogism, stated in "II. A." The minor premise is a statement of the grievances of the colonies. The conclusion is in the resolutions for the redress of the grievances of the colonies. The second part is then one great syllogism, the premises of which are established by ample proof, the conclusion of which cannot well be disputed. "And here I should close," says the orator; the direct argument is finished. There are some objections which demand dignified consideration. At this point, however, it is easy to refute any objections, for behind each word there is now the crushing weight of the whole argument. The conclusion recites the advantages of Burke's plan over all others, and reasserts its value, now proven at every point. It is a powerful summary, and a skillful plea for the adoption of a policy of conciliation with the colonies of America. Every kind of argument is used in this oration. One would look long for a treasury better supplied with illustrations. The great conclusions are reached by the certain methods of elimination and deduction. In establishing the minor points Burke has used arguments from sign, cause, example, and induction. He calls in testimony; he quotes authority; he illustrates. Not any device of sound argument that a man honest in his search for truth may use has been omitted. It is worthy of patient study. In conclusion, the student of argument should learn well the value of different kinds of argument; he should exercise the most careful scrutiny in selecting his material, without any hesitation rejecting irrelevant matter; he should state the proposition so that it cannot be misunderstood; he must consider his readers, guiding his course wisely with regard for all the conditions under which he produces his argument; he should remember that the law in argument is climax, and that coherence should be sought with infinite pains. Above all, the man who takes up a debate must be fair and honest; only so will he win favor from his readers, and gain what is worth more than victory,--the distinction of being a servant of truth. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS QUESTIONS. MACAULAY'S ESSAY ON MILTON. (Riverside Literature Series, No. 103.) Put into a syllogism, Macaulay's opponents said, "An educated man living in an enlightened age has better facilities for writing poetry than an uneducated man at the dawn of civilization. Milton was an educated man, living in an enlightened age; therefore Macaulay had better facilities," etc. Which premise does Macaulay attack? Does he demolish it? What value is there in an analogy between experimental sciences and imitative arts? Between poetry and a magic-lantern? Is either an argument that is convincing? Are both effective in the essay? What do you think of Macaulay's estimate of Wordsworth? Granting that this estimate is true, what kind of a proof is it of the proposition that "his very talents will be a hindrance to him"? Is it a uniform phenomenon that as civilization advances, poetry declines? Name some instances that prove it. Name some instances that disprove it. What method of proof have you used in both? Is an uncivilized state of society the cause of good poetry, or only an attendant circumstance? What method of proof is adopted on pages 34 and 35? Granting that you cannot conceive "a good man and an unnatural father," does that prove anything about the first sentence at the bottom of page 55? Does the example of the prisoner on page 60 prove anything? BURKE'S SPEECH ON CONCILIATION WITH THE COLONIES. (Riverside Literature Series, No. 100.) What argument does Burke use to prove that hedging in the population is not practicable? When he says that they will occupy territory because they have done so, is that an inductive or deductive argument, or is it an argument from sign? If it is deductive, what is the suppressed premise? Are the arguments from 48 to 64 more in the nature of direct or indirect proofs? What value is there in an indirect argument? "Americans speak the English language, therefore they are English." Is the argument good? Where is the fault? Look for the suppressed premise. Is paragraph 55 direct or indirect argument? Does he prove that criminal procedure against the colonies would fail, by sign or by deduction? Do the four precedents which he cites of Ireland, Wales, Durham, and Chester prove that his plan will work in America? Upon what general principle do all arguments from example depend? Is paragraph 79 in itself exposition or argument? What method is adopted in paragraph 88 to prove that the principle of concession is applicable to America? How does he prove that Americans were grieved by taxes? How does he establish the competence of the colony assemblies? How could the arguments have made "the conclusion irresistible"? (Paragraph 112.) What principle of argument is stated in paragraph 114? In paragraph 127 is the one example cited enough to prove the rule? Find an example of argument from sign. Is it a relation of cause and effect? Is it conclusive? In paragraph 129 what does Burke mention as arguments of value? What kind of arguments in paragraphs 128 to 136? What is the conclusion? Whenever Burke states a general truth it forms a part of what? Supply the other premise in five cases, and derive a conclusion. Does he ever use an argument from cause to establish a probability? To establish a fact? Does he use deduction more frequently than sign? Does he seek for a climax in the arrangement of the parts of his brief? * * * * * CHAPTER VII PARAGRAPHS Definition. So far we have been dealing with whole compositions; we now take up the study of paragraphs, sentences, and words. A paragraph in many respects resembles a whole composition. It may be narrative, descriptive, expositive, or argumentative. It must have a beginning, a middle, and an end. It is constructed with regard to Unity, Mass, and Coherence. And as a whole composition treats a single theme, so a paragraph treats one division of a theme. It has been defined as a composition in miniature. A paragraph is a sentence or a group of sentences serving a single purpose in the development of a theme. The purpose may be simply to announce the theme-subject, to make a conclusion, to indicate a transition; but in the great majority of cases its purpose is to treat a single topic. So true is this that many authors, with good reason, define a paragraph as a group of sentences treating a single topic. Long and Short Paragraphs. Nobody would have trouble in telling where on a page a paragraph began and where it ended. The indention at the beginning, and usually the incomplete line at the end, mark its visible limits. Unfortunately there is no specified length after which the writer is to make a break in the lines and begin a new paragraph. The length of a paragraph depends on something deeper than appearances; as the topic requires a lengthy or but a short treatment, as the paragraph may be a long summary or a short transition, the length of a paragraph varies. Yet there is one circumstance which should counsel an author to keep his paragraphs within certain bounds: he should always have regard for his readers. Readers shirk heavy labor. If a book or an article looks hard, it is passed by; if it looks easy, it is read. If the paragraphs be long and the page solid, the composition looks difficult; if the paragraphs be short and the page broken, the piece looks easy. This fact should advise a writer to make the page attractive by using short paragraphs; provided, and the provision is important, he can so make real paragraphs, divisions of composition that fully treat one topic. These divisions may in reality be but one sentence, and they may just as unquestionably be two pages of hard reading. Successive paragraphs, each more than a page of ordinary print in length, repel as too hard; and a series of paragraphs of less than a quarter of a page impresses a reader as scrappy, and the work seems to lack the authority of complete treatment. An author will serve his readers and himself best by so subdividing his subject that the paragraphs are within these limits. The following paragraph is much too long and can with no difficulty be subdivided. The paragraphs in the next group are too short, and they are incomplete. "Keating rode up now, and the transaction became more complicated. It ended in the purchase of the horse by Bryce for a hundred and twenty, to be paid on the delivery of Wildfire, safe and sound, at the Batherley stables. It did occur to Dunsey that it might be wise for him to give up the day's hunting, proceed at once to Batherley, and, having waited for Bryce's return, hire a horse to carry him home with the money in his pocket. But the inclination for a run, encouraged by confidence in his luck, and by a draught of brandy from his pocket-pistol at the conclusion of the bargain, was not easy to overcome, especially with a horse under him that would take the fences to the admiration of the field. Dunstan, however, took one fence too many, and got his horse pierced with a hedge-stake. His own ill-favored person, which was quite unmarketable, escaped without injury; but poor Wildfire, unconscious of his price, turned on his flank, and painfully panted his last. It happened that Dunstan, a short time before, having had to get down to arrange his stirrup, had muttered a good many curses at this interruption, which had thrown him in the rear of the hunt near the moment of glory, and under this exasperation had taken the fences more blindly. He would soon have been up with the hounds again, when the fatal accident happened; and hence he was between eager riders in advance, not troubling themselves about what happened behind them, and far-off stragglers, who were as likely as not to pass quite aloof from the line of road in which Wildfire had fallen. Dunstan, whose nature it was to care more for immediate annoyances than for remote consequences, no sooner recovered his legs, and saw that it was all over with Wildfire, than he felt a satisfaction at the absence of witnesses to a position which no swaggering could make enviable. Reinforcing himself, after his shake, with a little brandy and much swearing, he walked as fast as he could to a coppice on his right hand, through which it occurred to him that he could make his way to Batherley without danger of encountering any member of the hunt. His first intention was to hire a horse there and ride home forthwith, for to walk many miles without a gun in his hand, and along an ordinary road, was as much out of the question to him as to other spirited young men of his kind. He did not much mind about taking the bad news to Godfrey, for he had to offer him at the same time the resource of Marner's money; and if Godfrey kicked, as he always did, at the notion of making a fresh debt, from which he himself got the smallest share of advantage, why, he wouldn't kick long: Dunstan felt sure he could worry Godfrey into anything. The idea of Marner's money kept growing in vividness, now the want of it had become immediate; the prospect of having to make his appearance with the muddy boots of a pedestrian at Batherley, and to encounter the grinning queries of stablemen, stood unpleasantly in the way of his impatience to be back at Raveloe and carry out his felicitous plan; and a casual visitation of his waistcoat-pocket, as he was ruminating, awakened his memory to the fact that the two or three small coins his fore-finger encountered there were of too pale a color to cover that small debt, without payment of which the stable-keeper had declared he would never do any more business with Dunsey Cass. After all, according to the direction in which the run had brought him, he was not so very much farther from home than he was from Batherley; but Dunsey, not being remarkable for clearness of head, was only led to this conclusion by the gradual perception that there were other reasons for choosing the unprecedented course of walking home. It was now nearly four o'clock, and a mist was gathering: the sooner he got into the road the better. He remembered having crossed the road and seen the finger-post only a little while before Wildfire broke down; so, buttoning his coat, twisting the lash of his hunting-whip compactly round the handle, and rapping the tops of his boots with a self-possessed air, as if to assure himself that he was not at all taken by surprise, he set off with the sense that he was undertaking a remarkable feat of bodily exertion, which somehow, and at some time, he should be able to dress up and magnify to the admiration of a select circle at the Rainbow. When a young gentleman like Dunsey is reduced to so exceptional a mode of locomotion as walking, a whip in his hand is a desirable corrective to a too bewildering dreamy sense of unwontedness in his position; and Dunstan, as he went along through the gathering mist, was always rapping his whip somewhere. It was Godfrey's whip, which he had chosen to take without leave because it had a gold handle; of course no one could see, when Dunstan held it, that the name _Godfrey Cass_ was cut in deep letters on that gold handle--they could only see that it was a very handsome whip. Dunsey was not without fear that he might meet some acquaintance in whose eyes he would cut a pitiable figure, for mist is no screen when people get close to each other; but when he at last found himself in the well-known Raveloe lanes without having met a soul, he silently remarked that that was part of his usual good luck. But now the mist, helped by the evening darkness, was more of a screen than he desired, for it hid the ruts into which his feet were liable to slip--hid everything, so that he had to guide his steps by dragging his whip along the low bushes in advance of the hedgerow. He must soon, he thought, be getting near the opening at the Stone-pits: he should find it out by the break in the hedgerow. He found it out, however, by another circumstance which he had not expected--namely, by certain gleams of light, which he presently guessed to proceed from Silas Marner's cottage. That cottage and the money hidden within it had been in his mind continually during his walk, and he had been imagining ways of cajoling and tempting the weaver to part with the immediate possession of his money for the sake of receiving interest. Dunstan felt as if there must be a little frightening added to the cajolery, for his own arithmetical convictions were not clear enough to afford him any forcible demonstration as to the advantages of interest; and as for security, he regarded it vaguely as a means of cheating a man by making him believe that he would be paid. Altogether, the operation on the miser's mind was a task that Godfrey would be sure to hand over to his more daring and cunning brother: Dunstan had made up his mind to that; and by the time he saw the light gleaming through the chinks of Marner's shutters, the idea of a dialogue with the weaver had become so familiar to him, that it occurred to him as quite a natural thing to make the acquaintance forthwith. There might be several conveniences attending this course: the weaver had possibly got a lantern, and Dunstan was tired of feeling his way. He was still nearly three quarters of a mile from home, and the lane was becoming unpleasantly slippery, for the mist was passing into rain. He turned up the bank, not without some fear lest he might miss the right way, since he was not certain whether the light were in front or on the side of the cottage. But he felt the ground before him cautiously with his whip-handle, and at last arrived safely at the door. He knocked loudly, rather enjoying the idea that the old fellow would be frightened at the sudden noise. He heard no movement in reply: all was silence in the cottage. Was the weaver gone to bed, then? If so, why had he left a light? That was a strange forgetfulness in a miser. Dunstan knocked still more loudly, and, without pausing for a reply, pushed his fingers through the latch-hole, intending to shake the door and pull the latch-string up and down, not doubting that the door was fastened. But, to his surprise, at this double motion the door opened, and he found himself in front of a bright fire, which lit up every corner of the cottage--the bed, the loom, the three chairs, and the table--and showed him that Marner was not there."[23] "The country, all white, lit up by the fire, shone like a cloth of silver tinted with red. "A bell, far off, began to toll. "The old 'Sauvage' remained standing before her ruined dwelling, armed with her gun, her son's gun, for fear lest one of those men might escape. "When she saw that it was ended, she threw her weapon into the brasier. A loud report rang back. "People were coming, the peasants, the Prussians. "They found the woman seated on the trunk of a tree, calm and satisfied. "A German officer, who spoke French like a son of France, demanded of her:-- "'Where are your soldiers?' "She extended her thin arm towards the red heap of fire which was gradually going out, and she answered with a strong voice:-- "'There!' "They crowded round her. The Prussian asked:-- "'How did it take fire?' "She said:-- "'It was I who set it on fire.'"[24] Topic Sentence. Paragraphs are developments of a definite topic; and this topic is generally announced at the beginning of the paragraph. In isolated paragraphs, paragraphs that are indeed compositions in miniature, the topic-sentence is the first sentence. The reader is then advised of the subject of the discussion; and as sentence after sentence passes him, he can relate it to the topic, and the thought is a cumulative whole. If the subject be not announced, the individual sentences must be held in mind until the reader catches the drift of the discussion, or the author at last presents the topic. Below are four paragraphs, from different forms of discourse, all having the topic-sentence at the beginning. "_But success or defeat was a minor matter to them, who had only thought for the safety of those they loved._ Amelia, at the news of the victory, became still more agitated even than before. She was for going that moment to the army. She besought her brother with tears to conduct her thither. Her doubts and terrors reached their paroxysm; and the poor girl, who for many hours had been plunged into stupor, raved and ran hither and thither in hysteric insanity,--a piteous sight. No man writhing in pain in the hard-fought field fifteen miles off, where lay, after their struggles, so many of the brave--no man suffered more keenly than this poor harmless victim of the war. Jos could not bear the sight of her pain. He left his sister in the charge of her stouter female companion and descended once more to the threshold of the hotel, where everybody still lingered, and talked, and waited for more news."[25] "_Yet the fact remains that the honey-bee is essentially a wild creature, and never has been and cannot be thoroughly domesticated._ Its proper home is the woods, and thither every new swarm counts on going; and thither many do go in spite of the care and watchfulness of the bee-keeper. If the woods in any given locality are deficient in trees with suitable cavities, the bees resort to all kinds of makeshifts; they go into chimneys, into barns and outhouses, under stones, into rocks, and so forth. Several chimneys in my locality with disused flues are taken possession of by colonies of bees nearly every season. One day, while bee-hunting, I developed a line that went toward a farmhouse where I had reason to believe no bees were kept. I followed it up and questioned the farmer about his bees. He said he kept no bees, but that a swarm had taken possession of his chimney, and another had gone under the clapboards in the gable end of his house. He had taken a large lot of honey out of both places the year before. Another farmer told me that one day his family had seen a number of bees examining a knot-hole in the side of his house; the next day as they were sitting down to dinner their attention was attracted by a loud humming noise, when they discovered a swarm of bees settling upon the side of the house and pouring into the knot-hole. In subsequent years other swarms came to the same place."[26] "_It is important, therefore, to hold fast to this: that poetry is at bottom a criticism of life;_ that the greatness of a poet lies in his powerful and beautiful application of ideas to life,--to the question: How to live. Morals are often treated in a narrow and false fashion; they are bound up with systems of thought and belief which have had their day; they have fallen into the hands of pedants and professional dealers; they grow tiresome to some of us. We find attraction, at times, even in a poetry of revolt against them; in a poetry which might take for its motto Omar Khayyam's words: 'Let us make up in the tavern for the time which we have wasted in the mosque.' Or we find attractions in a poetry indifferent to them; in a poetry where the contents may be what they will, but where the form is studied and exquisite. We delude ourselves in either case; and the best cure for our delusion is to let our minds rest upon that great and inexhaustible word _life,_ until we learn to enter into its meaning. A poetry of revolt against moral ideas is a poetry of revolt against _life;_ a poetry of indifference toward moral ideas is a poetry of indifference toward _life._"[27] "_The advantages arising from a system of copyright are obvious._ It is desirable that we should have a supply of good books: we cannot have such a supply unless men of letters are liberally remunerated; and the least objectionable way of remunerating them is by means of copyright. You cannot depend for literary instruction and amusement on the leisure of men occupied in the pursuits of active life. Such men may occasionally produce compositions of great merit. But you must not look to such men for works which require deep meditation and long research. Works of that kind you can expect only from persons who make literature the business of their lives. Of these persons few will be found among the rich and the noble. The rich and the noble are not impelled to intellectual exertion by necessity. They may be impelled to intellectual exertion by the desire of distinguishing themselves, or by the desire of benefiting the community. But it is generally within these walls that they seek to signalize themselves and to serve their fellow-creatures. Both their ambition and their public spirit, in a country like this, naturally take a political turn. It is then on men whose profession is literature, and whose private means are not ample, that you must rely for a supply of valuable books. Such men must be remunerated for their literary labor. And there are only two ways in which they can be remunerated. One of those ways is patronage; the other is copyright."[28] Frequently the topic-sentence is delayed until after the connection between what was said in the preceding paragraph and what will be said has been made. To establish this relation requires sometimes but a word or a short phrase, and sometimes sentences. In these cases the topic-sentence follows the transition, and it may come as late as the middle of the paragraph. "The crows we have always with us, but it is not every day or every season that one sees an eagle. _Hence I must preserve the memory of one I saw the last day I went bee-hunting._ As I was laboring up the side of a mountain at the head of a valley, the noble bird sprang from the top of a dry tree above me and came sailing directly over my head. I saw him bend his eye down upon me, and I could hear the low hum of his plumage, as if the web of every quill in his great wings vibrated in his strong, level flight. I watched him as long as my eye could hold him. When he was fairly clear of the mountain he began that sweeping spiral movement in which he climbs the sky. Up and up he went without once breaking his majestic poise till he appeared to sight some far-off alien geography, when he bent his course thitherward, and gradually vanished in the blue depths. The eagle is a bird of large ideas, he embraces long distances; the continent is his home. I never look upon one without emotion; I follow him with my eye as long as I can. I think of Canada, of the Great Lakes, of the Rocky Mountains, of the wild and sounding sea-coast. The waters are his, and the woods and the inaccessible cliffs. He pierces behind the veil of the storm, and his joy is height and depth and vast spaces."[29] "Now these insinuations and questions shall be answered in their proper places; here I will but say that I scorn and detest lying, and quibbling, and double-tongued practice, and slyness, and cunning, and smoothness, and cant, and pretence, quite as much as any Protestants hate them; and I pray to be kept from the snare of them. But all this is just now by the bye; _my present subject is my Accuser;_ what I insist upon here is this unmanly attempt of his, in his concluding pages, to cut the ground from under my feet;--to poison by anticipation the public mind against me, John Henry Newman, and to infuse into the imaginations of my readers suspicion and mistrust of everything that I may say in reply to him. This I call poisoning the wells." ("Apologia.") In exposition and argument, and sometimes in the other forms of discourse, the topic-sentence may be at the end of the paragraph. This is for emphasis in narration and description. In exposition and argument it is better to lead up to an unwelcome truth than to announce it at once. "Thus the matter of life, so far as we know it (and we have no right to speculate on any other), breaks up, in consequence of that continual death which is the condition of its manifesting vitality, into carbonic acid, water, and nitrogenous compounds which certainly possess no properties but those of ordinary matter. And out of these same forms of ordinary matter, and from none which are simpler, the vegetable world builds up all the protoplasm which keeps the animal world a-going. _Plants are the accumulators of the power which animals distribute and disperse._"[30] No Topic-Sentence. Sometimes no topic-sentence appears in the paragraph. In such a case it is easily discovered; or at times it is too fragile to be compressed into any definite shape--a feeling, or a sentiment too delicate, too volatile for expression. A paragraph with no topic-sentence is most common in narration and description. "The tide of color has ebbed from the upper sky. In the west the sea of sunken fire draws back; and the stars leap forth, and tremble, and retire before the advancing moon, who slips the silver train of cloud from her shoulders, and, with her foot upon the pine-tops, surveys heaven." ("Richard Feverel," by George Meredith.) The Plan. Whether the topic form a part of the paragraph or not, it should be distinctly before the writer, and he should write upon the topic. Nothing contributes so much to the success of paragraphs as a definite treatment of one single topic. The paragraph is the development, the growth of this topic, as the plant is the development of its seed. Moreover, the development is according to a definite plan. The different steps are not usually laid out, as was done in the outline of a theme. Genung, in the "Practical Elements of Rhetoric," presents what he calls a typical form for a paragraph. It shows that a paragraph which is fully developed is in reality a miniature theme. It is as follows:-- The Subject proposed. I. Whatever is needed to explain the subject. Repetition. Obverse. Definition. II. Whatever is needed to establish the subject. Exemplification or detail. Illustration. Proof. III. Whatever is needed to apply the subject. Result or consequence. Enforcement. Summary or recapitulation. Kinds of Paragraphs. This typical form of a paragraph embodies all that paragraphs may do, and it is the logical arrangement. However, it is rare, perhaps it never occurs, that a paragraph is found having all these elements developed. The purpose determines which part of a paragraph should receive the amplification. If it be narrative or descriptive, there is no definition or proof; but the development by details will predominate. In an argument, definition and proof will form the large part of the paragraphs. Again, the position in the theme determines what kind of a paragraph should be used. In exposition the first paragraphs would be devoted to stating the proposition, and would therefore be largely given up to definition and repetition; the body would be especially paragraphs of detail and illustration; while the closing paragraph would be taken up with results and a summary. As one of the elements of a paragraph has been especially developed, paragraphs have been named paragraphs of repetition,[31] of the obverse, of details, of instances or examples, and of comparisons. Such a division is somewhat mechanical; but for purposes of study and for conscious practice in construction it has value. Details. The paragraph of details is by far the most common. It is found in all kinds of discourse. It originates from the fact that persons generally give the general truth first and follow this statement with the details or particulars. Whether the storyteller begins by saying, "Now I'll tell you just how they happened to be there;" or the traveler writes, "From the Place de la Concorde one has about him magnificent views," or "There were many unfortunate circumstances about the Dreyfus affair;" in each case he will follow the general statement of the opening sentence with sentences going into particulars or details. _"All was now bustle and hubbub in the late quiet schoolroom._ The scholars were hurried through their lessons without stopping at trifles; those who were nimble skipped over half with impunity, and those who were tardy had a smart application now and then in the rear, to quicken their speed or help them over a tall word. Books were flung aside without being put away on the shelves, inkstands were overturned, benches thrown down, and the whole school was turned loose an hour before the usual time, bursting forth like a legion of young imps, yelping and racketing about the green in joy at their early emancipation."[32] "It was toward evening that Ichabod arrived at the castle of the Heer Van Tassel, _which he found thronged with the pride and flower of the adjacent country._ Old farmers, a spare leathern-faced race, in homespun coats and breeches, blue stocking, huge shoes, and magnificent pewter buckles. Their brisk, withered little dames, in close crimped caps, long-waisted short-gowns, homespun petticoats, with scissors and pincushions, and gay calico pockets hanging on the outside. Buxom lasses, almost as antiquated as their mothers, excepting where a straw hat, a fine ribbon, or perhaps a white frock gave symptoms of city innovation. The sons, in short square-skirted coats, with rows of stupendous brass buttons, and their hair generally queued in the fashion of the times, especially if they could procure an eelskin for the purpose, it being esteemed throughout the country as a potent nourisher and strengthener of the hair."[32] "The enemies of the Parliament, indeed, rarely choose to take issue in the great points of the question. They content themselves with exposing some of _the crimes and follies_ to which public commotions necessarily give birth. They bewail the unmerited fate of Strafford. They execrate the lawless violence of the army. They laugh at the scriptural names of the preachers. Major-generals fleecing their districts; soldiers reveling on the spoils of a ruined peasantry; upstarts, enriched by the public plunder, taking possession of the hospitable firesides and hereditary trees of the old gentry; boys smashing the beautiful windows of cathedrals; Quakers riding naked through the market-place; Fifth-monarchy men shouting for King Jesus; agitators lecturing from the tops of tubs on the fate of Agag,--all these, they tell us, were the offspring of the great Rebellion."[33] In narration and in a short paragraph of description this paragraph of details is frequently without a topic-sentence. The circumstances that make up a transaction are grouped, but there is no need of writing, "I will now detail this." In the following, since the paragraph is plainly about the preparation for the fight, it is unnecessary to say so. Such a patent statement would hinder the movement of the story. "Alan drew a dirk, which he held in his left hand in case they should run in under his sword. I, on my part, clambered up into the berth with an armful of pistols and something of a heavy heart, and set open the window where I was to watch. It was a small part of the deck that I could overlook, but enough for our purpose. The sea had gone down, and the wind was steady and kept the sails quiet; so that there was a great stillness on the ship, in which I made sure I heard the sound of muttering voices. A little after, and there came a clash of steel upon the deck, by which I knew they were dealing out the cutlasses, and one had been let fall; and after that silence again."[34] Comparisons. The paragraph of comparisons tells what a thing is like and what a thing is not like. It is much used in description and exposition. It is often the clearest way to describe an object or to explain a proposition. One thing may be likened to a number of things, drawing from each a quality that more definitely pictures it; or it may be compared with but one, and the likeness may be followed out to the limit of its value. In the same manner it is often of value to tell what a thing or a proposition does not resemble, to contrast it with one or more ideas, and by this means exclude what might otherwise be confusing. Note that after the negative comparison the paragraph closes with what it is like, or what it is. From Macaulay's long comparison of the writings of Milton and Dante, one paragraph is enough to illustrate the use of contrast. "Now let us _compare_ with the exact details of Dante the dim intimations of Milton. We will cite a few examples. The English poet has never thought of taking the measure of Satan. He gives us merely a vague idea of vast bulk. In one passage the fiend lies stretched out, huge in length, floating many a rood, equal in size to the earth-born enemies of Jove, or to the sea monster which the mariner mistakes for an island. When he addresses himself to battle against the guardian angels, he stands like Teneriffe or Atlas; his stature reaches the sky. Contrast with these descriptions the lines in which Dante has described the gigantic spectre of Nimrod: 'His face seemed to me as long and as broad as the ball of St. Peter's at Rome, and his other limbs were in proportion; so that the bank, which concealed him from the waist downwards, nevertheless showed so much of him that three tall Germans would in vain have attempted to reach to his hair.'" ("Essay on Milton.") The following indicates the use of similarity. "It is the character of such revolutions that we always see the worst of them at first. Till men have been some time free, they know not how to use their freedom. The natives of wine countries are generally sober. In climates where wine is a rarity intemperance abounds. A newly liberated people may be _compared to_ a northern army encamped on the Rhine or the Xeres. It is said that, when soldiers in such a situation first find themselves able to indulge without restraint in such a rare and expensive luxury, nothing is to be seen but intoxication. Soon, however, plenty teaches discretion, and, after wine has been for a few months their daily fare, they become more temperate than they had ever been in their own country. In the same manner, the final and permanent fruits of liberty are wisdom, moderation, and mercy. Its immediate effects are often atrocious crimes, conflicting errors, skepticism on points the most clear, dogmatism on points the most mysterious. It is just at this crisis that its enemies love to exhibit it. They pull down the scaffolding from the half-finished edifice; they point to the flying dust, the falling bricks, the comfortless rooms, the frightful irregularity of the whole appearance, and then ask in scorn where the promised splendor and comfort is to be found. If such miserable sophisms were to prevail, there would never be a good house or a good government in the world." ("Essay on Milton," by Lord Macaulay.) Repetition. A third method of developing a paragraph from a topic-sentence is by repetition. Simply to repeat in other words would be useless redundancy; but so to repeat that with each repetition the thought broadens or deepens is valuable in proposing a subject or explaining it. No person has attained greater skill in repetition than Matthew Arnold, and much of his clearness comes from his repetition, often of the very same phrases. "Wordsworth has been in his grave for some thirty years, and certainly his lovers and admirers cannot flatter themselves that this great and steady light of glory as yet shines over him. He is not fully recognized at home; he is not recognized at all abroad. Yet I firmly believe that the poetical performance of Wordsworth is, after that of Shakespeare and Milton, of which all the world now recognizes the worth, undoubtedly the most considerable in our language from the Elizabethan age to the present time. Chaucer is anterior; and on other grounds, too, he cannot well be brought into the comparison. But taking the roll of our chief poetical names, besides Shakespeare and Milton, from the age of Elizabeth downwards, and going through it,--Spenser, Dryden, Pope, Gray, Goldsmith, Cowper, Burns, Coleridge, Scott, Campbell, Moore, Byron, Shelley, Keats (I mention those only who are dead),--I think it certain that Wordsworth's name deserves to stand, and will finally stand, above them all. Several of the poets named have gifts and excellencies which Wordsworth has not. But taking the performance of each as a whole, I say that Wordsworth seems to me to have left a body of poetical work superior in power, in interest, in the qualities which give enduring freshness, to that which any one of the others has left." ("Essay on Wordsworth," by Matthew Arnold.) "Perhaps no person can be a poet, or can even enjoy poetry, without a certain unsoundness of mind, if anything which gives so much pleasure ought to be called unsoundness. By poetry we mean not all writing in verse, nor even all good writing in verse. Our definition excludes many metrical compositions which, on other grounds, deserve the highest praise. By poetry, we mean the art of employing words in such a manner as to produce an illusion on the imagination, the art of doing by means of words what the painter does by means of colors. Thus the greatest of the poets has described it, in lines universally admired for the vigor and felicity of their diction, and still more valuable on account of the just notion which they convey of the art in which he excelled:-- 'As imagination bodies forth The forms of things unknown, the poet's pen Turns them to shapes, and gives to airy nothing A local habitation and a name.' These are the fruits of the 'fine frenzy' which he ascribes to the poet,--a fine frenzy, doubtless, but still a frenzy. Truth, indeed, is essential to poetry, but it is the truth of madness. The reasonings are just, but the premises are false. After the first suppositions have been made, everything ought to be consistent; but those first suppositions require a degree of credulity which almost amounts to a partial and temporary derangement of the intellect. Hence, of all people, children are the most imaginative. They abandon themselves without reserve to every illusion. Every image which is strongly presented to their mental eye produces in them the effect of reality. No man, whatever his sensibility may be, is ever affected by Hamlet or Lear as a little girl is affected by the story of poor Red Riding Hood. She knows it is all false, that wolves cannot speak, that there are no wolves in England. Yet in spite of her knowledge she believes; she weeps; she trembles; she dares not go into a dark room lest she should feel the teeth of the monster at her throat. Such is the despotism of the imagination over uncultivated minds." ("Essay on Milton," by Macaulay.) Obverse. A fourth method of building up a paragraph from a topic-sentence consists in telling what it is not; that is, giving the obverse. This is very effective in argument, and is employed in exposition and description. The obverse usually follows a positive statement, and again is followed by the affirmative; that is, first what it is, then what it is not, and last, what it is again. In the following description by Ruskin, the method appears and reappears. Notice the "nots" and "buts," indicating the change from the negative to the positive statement. It would be a sacrilege to omit the last paragraph, though it does not illustrate this manner of development. "For all other rivers there is a surface, and an underneath, and a vaguely displeasing idea of the bottom. But the Rhone flows like one lambent jewel; its surface is nowhere, its ethereal self is everywhere, the iridescent rush and translucent strength of it blue to the shore, and radiant to the depth. "Fifteen feet thick, not of flowing, but flying water; not water, neither--melted glacier, rather, one should call it; the force of the ice is with it, and the wreathing of the clouds, the gladness of the sky, and the continuance of Time. "Waves of clear sea are, indeed, lovely to watch, but they are always coming or gone, never in any taken shape to be seen for a second. But here was one mighty wave that was always itself, and every fluted swirl of it, constant as the wreathing of a shell. No wasting away of the fallen foam, no pause for gathering of power, no helpless ebb of discouraged recoil; but alike through bright day and lulling night, the never-pausing plunge, and never-fading flash, and never-hushing whisper, and, while the sun was up, the ever-answering glow of unearthly aquamarine, ultramarine, violet-blue, gentian-blue, peacock-blue, river-of-paradise blue, glass of a painted window melted in the sun, and the witch of the Alps flinging the spun tresses of it forever from her snow. "The innocent way, too, in which the river used to stop to look into every little corner. Great torrents always seem angry, and great rivers are often too sullen; but there is no anger, no disdain in the Rhone. It seemed as if the mountain stream was in mere bliss at recovering itself again out of the lake-sleep, and raced because it rejoiced in racing, fain yet to return and stay. There were pieces of wave that danced all day, as if Perdita were looking on to learn; there were little streams that skipped like lambs and leaped like chamois; there were pools that shook the sunshine all through them, and were rippled in layers of overlaid ripples, like crystal sand; there were currents that twisted the light into golden braids, and inlaid the threads with turquoise enamel; there were strips of stream that had certainly above the lake been mill-stream, and were looking busily for mills to turn again; and there were shoots of stream that had once shot fearfully into the air, and now sprang up again, laughing, that they had only fallen a foot or two;--and in the midst of all the gay glittering and eddied lingering, the noble bearing by of the midmost depth, so mighty, yet so terrorless and harmless, with its swallows skimming in spite of petrels, and the dear old decrepit town as safe in the embracing sweep of it as if it were set in a brooch of sapphires."[35] This extract from Burke's speech is a good example of the same method. "I put this consideration of the present and the growing numbers in the front of our deliberation, because, Sir, this consideration will make it evident to a blunter discernment than yours, that _no_ partial, narrow, contracted, pinched, occasional system will be at all suitable to such an object. It will show you that it is _not_ to be considered as one of those _minima_ which are out of the eye and consideration of the law; _not_ a paltry excrescence of the state; _not_ a mean dependent, who may be neglected with little damage and provoked with little danger. It will prove that some degree of care and caution is required in the handling such an object; it will show that you ought not, in reason, to trifle with so large a mass of the interests and feelings of the human race. You could at no time do so without guilt; and be assured you will not be able to do it long with impunity."[36] Examples. A fifth method of expanding a topic is by means of illustrations and examples. It is used largely in establishing or enforcing a proposition. The author selects one example, or perhaps more than one, to illustrate his proposition. Note the words that may introduce specific instances: _for example, for instance, to illustrate, a case in point,_ and so forth. In the first of the following quotations, Cardinal Newman is showing that simply to acquire is not true mental enlargement. The paragraph is made up of a series of instances. The second paragraph is by Macaulay. "The _case is the same still more strikingly when_ the persons in question are beyond dispute men of inferior powers and deficient education. Perhaps they have been much in foreign countries, and they receive, in a passive, otiose, unfruitful way, the various facts which are forced upon them there. Seafaring men, _for example,_ range from one end of the earth to the other; but the multiplicity of external objects which they have encountered forms no symmetrical and consistent picture upon their imagination; they see the tapestry of human life, as it were, on the wrong side, and it tells no story. They sleep, and they rise up, and they find themselves, now in Europe, now in Asia; they see visions of great cities and wild regions; they are in the marts of commerce, or amid the islands of the South; they gaze on Pompey's Pillar, or on the Andes; and nothing which meets them carries them forward or backward, to any idea beyond itself. Nothing has a drift or relation; nothing has a history or a promise. Everything stands by itself and comes and goes in its turn, like the shifting scenes of a show, which leave the spectator where he was. Perhaps you are near such a man on a particular occasion, and expect him to be shocked or perplexed at something which occurs; but one thing is much the same to him as another; or, if he is perplexed, it is as not knowing what to say, whether it is right to admire, or to ridicule, or to disapprove, while conscious that some expression of opinion is expected from him; for in fact he has no standard of judgment at all, and no landmarks to guide him to a conclusion. Such is mere acquisition, and, I repeat, no one would dream of calling it philosophy." ("Idea of a University," by Cardinal Newman.) "I will give _another instance._ One of the most instructive, interesting, and delightful books in our language is Boswell's 'Life of Johnson.' Now it is well known that Boswell's eldest son considered this book, considered the whole relation of Boswell to Johnson, as a blot in the escutcheon of the family. He thought, not perhaps altogether without reason, that his father had exhibited himself in a ludicrous and degrading light. And thus he became so sore and irritable that at last he could not bear to hear the 'Life of Johnson' mentioned. Suppose that the law had been what my honorable and learned friend wishes to make it. Suppose that the copyright of Boswell's 'Life of Johnson' had belonged, as it well might, during sixty years, to Boswell's eldest son. What would have been the consequence? An unadulterated copy of the finest biographical work in the world would have been as scarce as the first edition of Camden's 'Britannia.'" (Speech, "Copyright," by Macaulay.) Combines Two or More Forms. As was said at the beginning, a paragraph is seldom made exclusively of one form. One part of the typical paragraph is usually developed more than any other and gives to the paragraph its character and its name. By far the most common variety of paragraph is that which combines two or more of the other forms. It is not necessary to cite examples; they are everywhere. Though combination is the commonest method of development, it should be guarded. It is a poor paragraph that combines the forms indiscriminately. It should follow some plan; and the best plan is the one already given in the typical paragraph. All paragraphs, whatever be the special method of development, are governed by the three principles which have guided in the structure of whole compositions. Whether the purpose be to prove or to narrate, to enforce a conclusion or to illustrate, if a paragraph is to produce its greatest effect, it should have unity, it should be well massed, and it should be coherent. It is not necessary now to define unity in a paragraph; the need is rather to notice the offenses against it that frequently occur. They are manifestly two: too much may be included, and not all may be included. The accompanying circumstance of the one, not necessarily the cause, however, is often a very long paragraph, and of the other a short paragraph. Unity. Violations of the unity of a paragraph most frequently result from including more than belongs there. The theme has been selected; it is narrow and concise. When one begins to write, many things crowd in pell-mell. Impressions, which come and go, we hardly know how or why, are the only products of most minds. Impressions, not shaped and logical thoughts, make up the mixed confusion frequently called a theme. The writer puts down enough of these impressions to make a paragraph, and then goes on to do it again, fancying that so he is really paragraphing. Even should he keep within the limits of his theme, he cannot in this way paragraph. As everything upon a subject does not belong in a theme, so everything in a theme may not be introduced indiscriminately into any paragraph. The other danger lies in the short paragraph. It does not allow a writer room to say all he has to say upon the topic, so it runs over into the next paragraph. All of the thought-paragraph should appear in one division on the page. This error is not so common as the former. Examples of each are to be found on pages 152-157. Need of Outline. The remedy for this confusion clearly is hard thinking; and a great assistance is the outline. Before a word is written, think through the theme; get clearly the purpose of each paragraph in the development of the whole. Then write just what the paragraph was intended to include, and no more. More will be suggested because the parts of a whole theme are all closely related, but that more belongs somewhere else. Make a sharp outline, and follow it. Mass. A paragraph should be so arranged that the parts which arrest the eye will be important.[37] When a person glances down a page, his eye rests upon the beginning and the end of each paragraph. A reader going rapidly through an article to get what he wants of it does not read religiously every word; he knows that he will be directed to the contents of each paragraph by the first and last sentences. If a writer considers his readers, if he desires to arrange his paragraph so that it will be most effective, he will have at these points such sentences as will accurately indicate its contents and the trend of the discussion; and he will form these sentences so well that they will deserve the attention which is given them by reason of their position in the paragraph. What begins and what ends a Paragraph? What are the words that deserve the distinction of opening and closing a paragraph? As in the theme, so in a paragraph, the first thing is to announce the subject of discussion. When the subject is simply announced without giving any indication as to the drift of the discussion, the conclusion of the discussion is generally stated in the last sentence. Burke says, "The first thing we have to consider with regard to the nature of the object is the number of people in the colonies." He concludes the paragraph with, "Whilst we are discussing any given magnitude, they are grown to it. Whilst we spend our time in deliberating on the mode of governing two millions, we shall find we have millions more to manage. Your children do not grow faster from infancy to manhood than they spread from families to communities, and from villages to nations." In other cases the opening sentence states the conclusion at which the paragraph will arrive. Then the closing sentence may be a repetition of the opening or topic sentence; or it may be one of the points used to exemplify or establish the proposition which opens the paragraph. Again, in a short paragraph the topic need not be announced at the beginning; in this case it should be given in the concluding sentence. Or, should the topic be given in the opening sentence of a short paragraph, it is unnecessary to repeat it at the end. In any case, whether the paragraph opens with a simple announcement of the topic to be discussed, or with the conclusion which the paragraph aims to explain, establish, or illustrate, or whether it closes with the conclusion of the whole matter, or with one of the main points in the development, the sentences at the beginning and the end of a paragraph should be strong sentences worthy of their distinguished position. In the first paragraph below, there is a proposition in the first sentence and its repetition in the last. In the two following, though they close with no general statement, the specific assertions used to substantiate and illustrate the first sentences are strong and carry in themselves the truth of the topic-sentence. "The eloquence of Mr. Adams resembled his general character, and formed, indeed, a part of it. It was bold, manly, and energetic; and such the crisis required. When public bodies are to be addressed on momentous occasions, when great interests are at stake, and strong passions excited, nothing is valuable in speech farther than as it is connected with high intellectual and moral endowments. Clearness, force, and earnestness are the qualities which produce conviction. True eloquence, indeed, does not consist in speech. It cannot be brought from far. Labor and learning may toil for it, but they will toil in vain. Words and phrases may be marshaled in every way, but they cannot compass it. It must exist in the man, in the subject, and in the occasion. Affected passion, intense expression, the pomp of declamation, all may aspire to it; they cannot reach it. It comes, if it come at all, like the outbreaking of a fountain from the earth, or the bursting forth of volcanic fires, with spontaneous, original, native force. The graces taught in the schools, the costly ornaments and studied contrivances of speech, shock and disgust men when their own lives and the fate of their wives, their children, and their country hang on the decision of the hour. Then words have lost their power, rhetoric is vain, and all elaborate oratory contemptible. Even genius itself then feels rebuked and subdued, as in the presence of higher qualities. Then patriotism is eloquent; then self-devotion is eloquent. The clear conception, outrunning the deductions of logic, the high purpose, the firm resolve, the dauntless spirit, speaking on the tongue, beaming from the eye, informing every feature, and urging the whole man onward, right onward to his object--this, this is eloquence: or rather it is something greater and higher than all eloquence; it is action, noble, sublime, godlike action."[38] "The prejudiced man travels, and then everything he sees in Catholic countries only serves to make him more thankful that his notions are so true; and the more he sees of Popery, the more abominable he feels it to be. If there is any sin, any evil in a foreign population, though it be found among Protestants also, still Popery is clearly the cause of it. If great cities are the schools of vice, it is owing to Popery. If Sunday is profaned, if there is a carnival, it is the fault of the Catholic Church. Then, there are no private houses, as in England; families live in staircases; see what it is to belong to a Popish country. Why do the Roman laborers wheel their barrows so slow in the Forum? why do the Lazzaroni of Naples lie so listlessly on the beach? why, but because they are under the _malaria_ of a false religion. Rage, as is well known, is in the Roman like a falling sickness, almost as if his will had no part in it and he had no responsibility; see what it is to be a Papist. Bloodletting is as frequent and as much a matter of course in the South as hair-cutting in England; it is a trick borrowed from the convents, when they wish to tame down refractory spirits."[39] "Excuse me, Sir, if turning from such thoughts I resume this comparative view once more. You have seen it on a large scale; look at it on a small one. I will point out to your attention a particular instance of it in the single province of Pennsylvania. In the year 1704 that province called for £11,459 in value of your commodities, native and foreign. This was the whole. What did it demand in 1772? Why, nearly fifty times as much; for in that year the export to Pennsylvania was £507,909, nearly equal to the export to all the colonies together in the first period."[40] The following illustrates the weakness of closing with a specific instance when it does not rise to the level of the remainder of a paragraph. The last sentence would better be omitted. "We often hear of the magical influence of poetry. The expression in general means nothing; but, applied to the writings of Milton, it is most appropriate. His poetry acts like an incantation. Its merit lies less in its obvious meaning than in its occult power. There would seem, at first sight, to be no more in his words than in other words. But they are words of enchantment. No sooner are they pronounced than the past is present and the distant near. New forms of beauty start at once into existence, and all the burial-places of memory give up their dead. Change the structure of the sentence, substitute one synonym for another, and the whole effect is destroyed. The spell loses its power; and he who should then hope to conjure with it would find himself as much mistaken as Cassim in the Arabian tale, when he stood crying, 'Open Wheat,' 'Open Barley,' to the door which obeyed no sound but 'Open Sesame.' In the miserable failure of Dryden in his attempt to translate into his own diction some parts of the 'Paradise Lost' is a remarkable instance of this." ("Essay on Milton," by Macaulay.) Length of opening and closing Sentences. By examination, one finds that the first sentence of a paragraph of exposition and of argument is usually a terse statement of the proposition; and that after the proposition has been established there follows a longer sentence gathering up all the points of the discussion into a full, rounded period which forms a suitable climax and conclusion of the paragraph. Of Macaulay's "Milton" one is quite inside the truth when he says that of those paragraphs containing an opening topic-sentence and its restatement as a conclusion, the closing sentence is the longer in the ratio of two to one. In Burke's "Conciliation," the ratio rises as high as four to one. There are, however, exceptions to the rule. Paragraphs sometimes close with a shorter statement of the proposition, a sort of aphorism or epigram. As this kind of sentence is fascinating, some books have said that paragraphs should close so; that it is like cracking a whip, and gives a snap to the paragraph not gained in any other way. Even if readers enjoyed having paragraphs close in this cracking manner, it must be borne in mind that not all conclusions are capable of such a statement, and, what is worse, that the tendency to seek for epigrams leads to untruth and a degenerated form of witticism. Such forced sentences are only half truths, or they are a bit of cheap repartee. Such a close is effective, if the whole truth can be so expressed; but to seek for such sentences is dangerous. The best rule is the one already stated; it applies to the long sentence and the short sentence alike. It is that a paragraph should close with words that deserve distinction. Proportion. The body of a paragraph should have the matter so proportioned that the more important points shall receive the longer treatment. In a paragraph of proof, details, or comparison, that point in the proof, that particular, that part of the comparison, which for the specific purpose has most significance, should have proportionately fuller treatment. It is the same principle already noticed in exposition. Indicate the relative importance of topics in a paragraph by the relative number of words used in their treatment. For mass in a paragraph, then, keep in mind that the last sentence should contain matter and form worthy of the position it occupies; that the position of next importance is at the beginning; and that the relative importance of the matters in the body of a paragraph is pretty correctly indicated by the relative length of treatment. Coherence and Clearness. Coherence, the third principle of structure, is the most important; and it is the most difficult to apply. For one can make a beginning and an end, he can select his materials so that there is unity, but to make all the parts stick together, to arrange the sentences so that one grows naturally from the preceding and leads into the next, requires nice adjustment of parts, and rewriting many times. How essential coherence in a paragraph is, simply to make the thought easy to grasp, may be seen by taking a paragraph to pieces and mixing up its sentences, and at the same time removing all words that bind its parts together. The following can hardly be understood at all, but in its original condition it is so clear that it cannot be misunderstood. If the sentences be arranged in the following order, the original paragraph will appear: 1, 5, 3, 9, 8, 6, 2, 4, 7, 10. 1. "The first question which obviously suggests itself is how these wonderful moral effects are to be wrought under the instrumentality of the physical sciences. 2. To know is one thing, to do is another; the two things are altogether distinct. 3. Does Sir Robert Peel mean to say, that whatever be the occult reasons for the result, so it is; you have but to drench the popular mind with physics, and moral and religious advancement follows on the whole, in spite of individual failures? 4. A man knows he should get up in the morning,--he lies abed; he knows he should not lose his temper, yet he cannot keep it. 5. Can the process be analyzed and drawn out, or does it act like a dose or a charm which comes into general use empirically? 6. It is natural and becoming to seek for some clear idea of the meaning of so dark an oracle. 7. A laboring man knows he should not go to the ale-house, and his wife knows she should not filch when she goes out charing, but, nevertheless, in these cases, the consciousness of a duty is not all one with the performance of it. 8. Or rather, does he mean, that, from the nature of the case, he who is imbued with science and literature, unless adverse influences interfere, cannot but be a better man? 9. Yet when has the experiment been tried on so large a scale as to justify such anticipations? 10. There are, then, large families of instances, to say the least, in which men may become wiser, without becoming better; what, then, is the meaning of this great maxim in the mouth of its promulgators?" Coherence, so necessary to the easy understanding of a paragraph, is gained in three ways: by the order in which the sentences are arranged; by the use of parallel constructions for parallel ideas; and by the use of connectives. Two Arrangements of Sentences in a Paragraph. Material which has been selected with regard to the principle of unity is all informed with one idea. Yet though one thought runs through it all and unites it, the parts do not stand in an equally close relation to the conclusion, nor is each part equally related to every other part. Had they been, the last paragraph quoted would have been as well in one order as another. Rather the sentences seem to fall into groups of more closely related matters; or at times one sentence seems to follow as the direct consequence of the preceding sentence. With respect to the way in which the sentences contribute to the topic of the paragraph, whether the topic be announced first or last, sentences may be said to contribute directly to the proposition or indirectly. If directly, the paragraph is a collection of sentences, each having a common purpose, each having a similar relation to the topic, arranged, as it were, side by side, and advancing as one body to the conclusion. This may be termed an individual arrangement of sentences, since as individuals they each contribute to the topic. The conclusion derives its force from the combined mass of all. If indirectly, the paragraph is a series of sentences, each growing out of the one preceding it, each receiving a push from the sentence before, and the last having the combined force of all. This may be styled a serial arrangement of sentences, since in such a case each contributes to the topic only as one in a chain. The former overcomes by its mass; the latter strikes by reason of its velocity. The one advances in rank; the other advances in single file. An illustration of each will help to an understanding of this. In the following paragraph from Macaulay's essay on Milton, each of the details mentioned points directly to "those days" when the race became a "byword and a shaking of the head to the nations." Their aggregate mass enforces the topic of the paragraph. They are all one body equally informed with the common principle which is the topic. Notice that one sentence is not the source of the next, but that all the sentences stand in a similar relation to the conclusion. This arrangement is common in description. In the second paragraph, from Irving's "Legend of Sleepy Hollow," each detail contributes to the appearance of Ichabod, not through some other sentence, but directly. "Then came those days, never to be recalled without a blush, the days of servitude without loyalty and sensuality without love; of dwarfish talents and gigantic vices; the paradise of cold hearts and narrow minds; the golden age of the coward, the bigot, and the slave. The king cringed to his rival that he might trample on his people; sank into a viceroy of France, and pocketed with complacent infamy her degrading insults and her more degrading gold. The caresses of harlots and the jests of buffoons regulated the policy of the state. The government had just ability enough to deceive, and just religion enough to persecute. The principles of liberty were the scoff of every grinning courtier, and the Anathema Maranatha of every fawning dean. In every high place, worship was paid to Charles and James, Belial and Moloch; and England propitiated those obscene and cruel idols with the blood of her best and bravest children. Crime succeeded to crime, and disgrace to disgrace, till the race, accursed of God and man, was a second time driven forth to wander on the face of the earth, and to be a byword and a shaking of the head to the nations." "Ichabod was a suitable figure for such a steed. He rode with short stirrups, which brought his knees nearly up to the pommel of the saddle; his sharp elbows stuck out like grasshoppers'; he carried his whip perpendicularly in his hand, like a sceptre, and as his horse jogged on, the motion of his arms was not unlike the flapping of a pair of wings. A small wool hat rested on the top of his nose, for so his scanty strip of forehead might be called, and the skirts of his black coat fluttered out almost to the horse's tail. Such was the appearance of Ichabod and his steed as they shambled out of the gate of Hans Van Ripper, and it was altogether such an apparition as is seldom to be met with in broad daylight." The following paragraph in the essay on Milton contains an example of the second method of arrangement. Each sentence is the result of the one before it. The sentences advance in single file. Notice that each sentence does not contribute directly to the conclusion, but that it acts through the succeeding sentence. The phrases from which a succeeding sentence springs are in small capitals; and the phrases which refer back are in italics. "Most of the remarks which we have hitherto made on the public character of Milton apply to him only as one of A LARGE BODY. WE SHALL PROCEED to notice some of the peculiarities which distinguished him _from his contemporaries._ _And for that purpose_ it is necessary to take a short survey of THE PARTIES into which the political world was at that time divided. We must premise that our observations are intended to apply only to THOSE WHO ADHERED, from a sincere preference, to one or to the other side. In days of public commotion, _every faction,_ like an Oriental army, is attended by a crowd of camp-followers, a useless and heartless RABBLE, who prowl round its line of march in the hope of picking up something under its protection, but desert it in the day of battle, and often join to exterminate it after defeat. England, at the time of which we are treating, abounded with fickle and _selfish politicians,_ who transferred their support to every government as it rose; who kissed the hand of the king in 1640, and spat in his face in 1649; who shouted with equal glee when Cromwell was inaugurated in Westminster Hall, and when he was dug up to be hanged at Tyburn; who dined on calves' heads or broiled rumps, and cut down oak branches or stuck them up, as circumstances altered, without the slightest shame or repugnance. _These_ we leave out of account. We take our estimate of parties from _those who_ really deserve to be called partisans." (For other examples of the same arrangement see the next quotation, and also a paragraph quoted on page 222.) Paragraphs are most frequently found to combine the two methods. In the following, notice that the second sentence grows out of the first, the third from the second, and so the serial arrangement is maintained until the eighth is reached. Sentences nine, ten, eleven, and twelve give body to sentence eight. Then begins again the regular succession. Sentences sixteen to twenty are the outgrowth of the phrase "on his account." "1. The Puritans were men whose minds had derived a peculiar character from the daily contemplation of superior beings and eternal interests. 2. Not content with acknowledging in general terms an overruling Providence, they habitually ascribed every event to the will of the Great Being, for whose power nothing was too vast, for whose inspection nothing was too minute. 3. To know Him, to serve Him, to enjoy Him, was with them the great end of existence. 4. They rejected with contempt the ceremonious homage which other sects substituted for the pure worship of the soul. 5. Instead of catching occasional glimpses of the Deity through an obscuring veil, they aspired to gaze full on the intolerable brightness, and to commune with Him face to face. 6. Hence originated their contempt for terrestrial distinctions. 7. The difference between the greatest and the meanest of mankind seemed to vanish when compared with the boundless interval which separated the whole race from Him on whom their own eyes were constantly fixed. 8. They recognized no title to superiority but His favor; and, confident of that favor, they despised all the accomplishments and all the dignities of the world. 9. If they were unacquainted with the works of philosophers and poets, they were deeply read in the oracles of God. 10. If their names were not found in the registers of heralds, they were recorded in the Book of Life. 11. If their steps were not accompanied by a splendid train of menials, legions of ministering angels had charge over them. 12. Their palaces were houses not made with hands; their diadems, crowns of glory which should never fade away. 13. On the rich and the eloquent, on nobles and priests, they looked down with contempt; for they esteemed themselves rich in a more precious treasure, and eloquent in a more sublime language, nobles by the right of an earlier creation, and priests by the imposition of a mightier hand. 14. The very meanest of them was a being to whose fate a mysterious and terrible importance belonged, on whose slightest action the spirits of light and darkness looked with anxious interest; who had been destined, before heaven and earth were created, to enjoy a felicity which should continue when heaven and earth should have passed away. 15. Events which short-sighted politicians ascribed to earthly causes had been ordained on his account. 16. For his sake empires had risen, and flourished, and decayed. 17. For his sake the Almighty had proclaimed His will by the pen of the Evangelist and the harp of the prophet. 18. He had been wrested by no common deliverer from the grasp of no common foe. 19. He had been ransomed by the sweat of no vulgar agony, by the blood of no earthly sacrifice. 20. It was for him that the sun had been darkened, that the rocks had been rent, that the dead had risen, that all nature had shuddered at the sufferings of her expiring God." This division has been made because by its aid an approach can be made toward rules for arrangement. In the paragraph quoted on page 183, the different sentences are equally related to the topic. Is there, then, no reason why one should be first rather than another? Notice the topics of the sentences and the order becomes a necessity. King, state policy, government, liberty, religion,--it is an ascending scale. On page 96 is a paragraph on the charmed names used by Milton. "One," "another," "a third," "a fourth,"--for all one can see as to the relation of each to the topic, "a fourth" might as well have been "one" as fourth. But upon reading the paragraph it is evident that Macaulay thought the last more important than the first. So in the paragraph just quoted about the Puritans, when the arrangement of the first eight sentences changes in sentences nine through eleven, and again in sentences sixteen to twenty, the order is a climax. Moreover, those topics are associated which are more closely related in thought. King is more closely related to government than to religion, and religion is more intimately associated with the idea of liberty than with king. The order, then, is the natural order of association. From these examples we derive the first principle of arrangement. In a paragraph where several sentences contribute individually to the topic, they must be arranged in the order in which the thoughts are associated and follow each other; and, when possible, they should take the order of a climax. Definite References. In the paragraph made up of sentences in a series, each linked to the sentence before and after, the difficulty is in transmitting the force of one sentence to the next one undiminished. This is done by binding the sentences so closely together that one cannot slip on the other. In the paragraph about the Puritans, of the second sentence the "Great Being" goes back to "superior beings" of the first; and "Him" in the next springs from "Great Being." "To know Him, to serve Him, to enjoy Him,"--what is it but the "pure worship" of the fourth? while "ceremonious homage" of the fourth is the "occasional glimpses of the Deity through an obscuring veil" of the fifth. One sentence grows out of some phrase of the preceding sentence; the sentences are firmly locked together by the repetition, a little modified, of the thought of a preceding phrase. There is no slipping. To get this result there must be no question of the thought-sequence in the sentences. Each sentence must be a consequence of a preceding sentence. And there must be attention to the choice and position of the words from which the following sentence is to spring. Such words cannot be indefinite, mushy words; they must be definite, firm words. Moreover, they must not be buried out of sight by a mass of unimportant matters; they must be so placed that they are unhindered, free to push forward the thought toward its ultimate conclusion. This often requires inversion in the sentence. That phrase which is the source of the next sentence must be thrown up into a prominent position; and it is usually pressed toward the end of the sentence, nearer to the sentence which is its consequence. In a paragraph quoted on page 222, where this same subject is taken up in connection with sentences, there is an excellent illustration of this. "Slow and obscure," "inadequate ideas," "small circle," and the numerous phrases which repeat the thought, though not the words, are firm words binding the sentences together indissolubly. Use of Pronouns. Not all sentences permit such clear reference as this. Still it must be said that where the thought is logical and clear, the reference is never missed: the binding words are important words and they occupy prominent positions. There is, however, a whole group of words whose function is to make the references sure. They are pronouns. Pronouns refer back, and they point forward. Their careful use is the commonest method of making sure of references, and so of binding sentences together. The ones in common use are _this, that, the former, the latter;_ the relatives _who, which,_ and _that;_ and the personal pronouns _he, she, it._ To these may be added some adverbs: _here, there, hence, whence, now, then, when,_ and _while._ The binding force of these words is manifest in every paragraph of composition. The following paragraph, from Burke's speech on "Conciliation with the Colonies," illustrates the use of pronouns as words referring back, and binding the whole into one inseparable unit. "As to the wealth which the colonies have drawn from the sea by their fisheries, you had all that matter fully opened at your bar. You surely thought _those_ acquisitions of value, for _they_ seemed even to excite your envy; and yet the spirit by which _that_ enterprising employment has been exercised ought rather, in my opinion, to have raised your esteem and admiration. And pray, Sir, what in the world is equal to _it?_ Pass by the other parts, and look at the manner in which the people of New England have of late carried on the whale fishery. Whilst we follow _them_ among the tumbling mountains of ice, and behold _them_ penetrating into the deepest frozen recesses of Hudson's Bay and Davis's Straits, whilst we are looking for _them_ beneath the arctic circle, we hear that _they_ have pierced into the opposite region of polar cold, that _they_ are at the antipodes, and engaged under the frozen Serpent of the south. Falkland Island, which seemed too remote and romantic an object for the grasp of national ambition, is but a stage and resting-place in the progress of _their_ victorious industry. Nor is the equinoctial heat more discouraging to _them_ than the accumulated winter of both the poles. We know that whilst _some_ of _them_ draw the line and strike the harpoon on the coast of Africa, _others_ run the longitude and pursue _their_ gigantic game along the coast of Brazil. No sea but what is vexed by _their_ fisheries; no climate that is not witness to _their_ toils. Neither the perseverance of Holland, nor the activity of France, nor the dexterous and firm sagacity of English enterprise ever carried _this_ most perilous mode of hardy industry to the extent to which _it_ has been pushed by _this_ recent people; a people who are still, as it were, but in the gristle, and not yet hardened into the bone of manhood. When I contemplate _these_ things; when I know that the colonies in general owe little or nothing to any care of ours, and that they are not squeezed into this happy form by the constraints of watchful and suspicious government, but that, through a wise and salutary neglect, a generous nature has been suffered to take her own way to perfection; when I reflect upon _these_ effects, when I see how profitable _they_ have been to us, I feel all the pride of power sink, and all presumption in the wisdom of human contrivances melt and die away within me. My rigor relents. I pardon something to the spirit of liberty." Of Conjunctions. Another group of words which give coherence to a paragraph is conjunctions. They indicate the relations between sentences, and they point the direction of the new sentence. The common relations between sentences indicated by conjunctions are coördinative, subordinative, adversative, concessive, and illative. Each young writer has usually but one word, at the most two words, in his vocabulary to express each of these relations. He knows _and, but, if, although,_ and _therefore._ Each person should learn from a grammar the whole list, for no class of words indicates clear thinking so unmistakably as conjunctions. Two words of advice should be given regarding the use of conjunctions. If the thought all bends one way, if this direction is perfectly clear, there is no need of conjunctions. It is when the course of the discussion is tortuous, when the road is not direct, when the reader may lose the way without these guides, that conjunctions should be used. On the other hand, conjunctions are an annoyance when not needed. Just as guideposts along a road where there is no chance to leave the direct path are useless, and their recurrence is a cause of aggravation, so it is with unnecessary conjunctions. They attract attention to themselves, and so draw it from the thought. The first caution is, Do not use conjunctions unless needed. In the following, the repetition of _and_ is unnecessary and annoying. "Six shillings a week does not keep body and soul together very unitedly. They want to get away from each other when there is only such a very slight bond as that between them; and one day, I suppose, the pain and the dull monotony of it all had stood before her eyes plainer than usual, and the mocking spectre had frightened her. She had made one last appeal to friends, but, against the chill wall of their respectability, the voice of the erring outcast fell unheeded; _and_ then she had gone to see her child--had held it in her arms and kissed it, in a weary, dull sort of way, _and_ without betraying any particular emotion of any kind, _and_ had left it, after putting into its hand a penny box of chocolate she had bought it, _and_ afterwards, with her last few shillings, had taken a ticket _and_ come down to Goring. "It seemed that the bitterest thoughts of her life must have centred about the wooded reaches and the bright green meadows around Goring; but women strangely hug the knife that stabs them, and, perhaps, amidst the gall, there may have mingled also sunny memories of sweetest hours, spent upon those shadowed deeps over which the great trees bend their branches down so low. "She had wandered about the woods by the river's brink all day, _and_ then, when evening fell _and_ the gray twilight spread its dusky robe upon the waters, she stretched out her arms to the silent river that had known her sorrow and her joy. _And_ the old river had taken her into its gentle arms, _and_ had laid her weary head upon its bosom, _and_ had hushed away the pain." The other word is: When possible put the conjunction that connects two sentences into the body of the sentence, rather than at its beginning. In this way its binding power is increased. This principle should limit the use of _and_ and _but_ at the beginning of a sentence. Rarely is _and_ needed in such a place. If the thought goes straight forward--and it must do so if _and_ correctly expresses the relation--there is usually no gain in its use. At times when the reader might be led to expect some change of direction from some phrase in the preceding sentence, then it would be wise to set him right by the use of _and._ Moreover, there are times when coördinate thoughts are so important, and the expression of the coördination is so important, that a sentence beginning with _and_ is the only adequate means of expressing it. However, be very sure that there is need for every _and_ that you use. The same caution may be given about _but._ _But_ indicates an abrupt turn in the thought. Is such a contrast in the thought? If so, is there no other word to express the thought? Some persons go so far as to say that these words should never begin a sentence. This is too pedantic and not true. When coördinative and adversative relations are to be expressed, however, it is certainly more elegant if some variety can be obtained, and the union is closer if the conjunction be placed in the body of the sentence. This requires the use of other words besides _and_ and _but._ _Also, in like manner, besides, too, nevertheless, however, after all, for all that,_ should be as familiar as the two overworked words _and_ and _but._ Look for ways to bind sentences in the middle rather than at the end. It is more elegant and it is much safer. Parallel Constructions. A third principle of arrangement is the use of parallel constructions for parallel thoughts. By parallel structure is meant that the principal elements of the sentences shall be arranged in the same order. If subordinate clauses precede principal clauses in one sentence, they shall in the other; if they follow in one, they shall follow in the other. If an active voice be used in one, it shall be used in the other; if the predicate go before the subject in one, it shall in the other. The use of parallel structure frequently demands repetition of forms and even of identical words and phrases. It is very effective in giving clearness to a paragraph and in securing coherence of its parts. In the first of the two illustrations below, read one sentence this way and observe the ruin that is wrought. "The North American colonies made such a struggle against the mother country." In the second paragraph, change two of the sentences to the passive voice. The effect is evident loss in clearness and strength. "All history is full of revolutions, produced by causes similar to those which are now operating in England. A portion of the community which had been of no account, expands and becomes strong. It demands a place in the system, suited, not to its former weakness, but to its present power. If this is granted, all is well. If this is refused, then comes the struggle between the young energy of one class and the ancient privileges of another. Such was the struggle between the Plebeians and Patricians of Rome. Such was the struggle of the Italian allies for admission to the full rights of Roman citizens. Such was the struggle of our North American colonies against the mother country. Such was the struggle which the Third Estate of France maintained against the aristocracy of birth. Such was the struggle which the Roman Catholics of Ireland maintained against the aristocracy of creed. Such is the struggle which the free people of color in Jamaica are now maintaining against the aristocracy of skin. Such, finally, is the struggle which the middle classes in England are maintaining against an aristocracy of mere locality, against an aristocracy, the principle of which is to invest a hundred drunken pot-wallopers in one place, or the owner of a ruined hovel in another, with powers which are withheld from cities renowned to the furthest ends of the earth for the marvels of their wealth and of their industry."[41] "Man is a being of genius, passion, intellect, conscience, power. He exercises these various gifts in various ways, in great deeds, in great thoughts, in heroic acts, in hateful crimes. He founds states, he fights battles, he builds cities, he ploughs the forest, he subdues the elements, he rules his kind. He creates vast ideas, and influences many generations. He takes a thousand shapes, and undergoes a thousand fortunes. Literature records them all to the life.... He pours out his fervid soul in poetry; he sways to and fro, he soars, he dives, in his restless speculations; his lips drop eloquence; he touches the canvas, and it glows with beauty; he sweeps the strings, and they thrill with an ecstatic meaning. He looks back into himself, and he reads his own thoughts, and notes them down; he looks out into the universe, and tells over and celebrates the elements and principles of which it is the product."[42] (The principles of Mass and Coherence in paragraphs are closely allied with these same principles regarding sentences. Some further discussion of these important matters, as well as more illustrations, will be found in the next chapter.) Good sense must be exercised in the use of parallel constructions. Although a short series of sentences containing parallel thoughts is common and demands this treatment, it is not at all frequent that one has such a long series as these paragraphs contain. In these paragraphs the parallel is in the thought; it has not been searched out. Because one is pleased with these effects of parallel construction, he should not be led to seek for opportunities where he can force sentences into similar shapes. The thoughts must be parallel. If the thought is actually parallel, a parallel treatment may be adopted with great advantage to clearness and force; if it is not parallel, any attempt to treat it as such is detected as a shallow trick. To search for thoughts to trail along in a series results in thinnest bombast. As everywhere else in composition, so here a writer must rely on his good taste and good sense. Summary. Whatever may be the special mode of development, of whatever form of discourse it is to be a part, the three fundamental principles which guide in making a paragraph are Unity, Mass, and Coherence. The unity of the paragraph is secured by referring all of the material to the topic, including what contributes to the main thought and excluding what has no value. Paragraphs excessively long or very short may lead to offenses against unity. Mass in a paragraph is gained by placing worthy words in the positions of distinction; by treating the more important matters at greater length; and, when possible without disturbing coherence, by arranging the material in a climax. Coherence is secured by keeping together matters related in thought; by a wise choice and placing of all words which bind sentences together; and by the use of parallel constructions for parallel ideas. Carefully chosen material, arranged so that worthy words occupy the positions of distinction, and all so skillfully knit together that every sentence, every phrase, every word, takes the reader one step toward the conclusion,--this constitutes a good paragraph. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS THE OLD MANSE. (Riverside Literature Series, No. 69.) In the paragraph beginning at the bottom of page 19, what do you think of the selection of material? Does the last detail give the finishing touch to the paragraph? Is it a real climax? On page 25 a paragraph begins, "Lightly as," etc. In the second sentence "bound volume" goes back to what words in the first sentence? "he," of the third, to what of the second? "thus it was" to what before? Now take the paragraph on pages 34 and 35 and trace the connection of the sentences, drawing two lines under the phrase from which a succeeding sentence springs, and one line under words that refer back to a preceding phrase; also trace out the dovetailing in the sentences on pages 6 and 7. In the paragraph on pages 18 and 19 the development is not so. Each sentence emphasizes "the sombre aspect of external nature." What is the law of their arrangement? (See text-book, pages 181-187.) Find other paragraphs arranged in this way. (See pages 35, 36.) What is the topic of the second paragraph? Can you divide the paragraph filling the middle of page 8? Where? What is the relation between the first sentence and the last in the paragraph at the bottom of page 11? Give the words that join the sentences of the paragraph together. In the paragraph beginning on page 13, what is the purpose of the first two sentences? On page 14, does it seem to you that Hawthorne had forgotten the Old Manse enough so that it could be called a digression? or do you think that the delightful, rambling character of the essay permits it? Can you divide this paragraph on pages 14 and 15? Where? What figure at the bottom of page 15? Is it the custom to use a capital letter in such a case? Has the paragraph in which the figure occurs unity? Where could you divide it? Give the topic of both new paragraphs. Of the paragraph on pages 16 and 17, what is the relation of the last three sentences to the topic? What comment would you make upon the last sentence of the paragraph ending at the top of page 25? At the opening of the paragraph beginning on page 29, do you like the figure? Trace the relation between the first and second sentences; between the second and the third. Could this paragraph be divided? RIP VAN WINKLE AND THE LEGEND OF SLEEPY HOLLOW. (Riverside Literature Series, No. 51.) In the paragraph on page 11, what is the relation between the first and last sentences? Why is the middle of the paragraph introduced? Is it effective? What method of development is adopted in the next paragraph? Trace out the connection of the paragraphs in the first five pages of this essay. What words at the beginning of each paragraph are especially helpful in joining the parts? On page 13 Irving writes, "Times grew worse and worse for Rip Van Winkle," etc. How many paragraphs are given to this topic? Could all of them be put into one? Should they? What is the last part of the first sentence of this paragraph? Why are there so few topic sentences in this essay? How did Irving know where to paragraph? Give topics of the paragraphs on pages 16, 17, 18. In the paragraph beginning at the bottom of p. 17, why are the clothes of the man mentioned first? What method of paragraph development is adopted in the paragraph beginning in the middle of page 23? Is the last detail important? From the use on pages 24 and 25, what do you gather as to the rule for paragraphing where dialogue is reported? In the paragraph on page 40, what reason has Irving for saying "therefore"? From what sentence does the last of this paragraph arise? Do you think the specific closing of the paragraph worthy of the position? When Irving says on page 41 that he was "an odd mixture of small shrewdness and simple credulity," did he mean that he was shrewd, or that he was not shrewd? Can you find anything in the paragraphs to develop the thought that he was shrewd? How many paragraphs are given to his simple credulity? Why so many? In the paragraph beginning at the bottom of page 42, what advantage is there in the exclamatory sentences? Would it be as well to divide the next paragraph into three sentences? Give your reasons. As the paragraph stands, is the sentence loose or periodic? In the paragraph beginning at the bottom of page 45, what is the method of development? Why is the chanticleer mentioned last? Are Irving's sentences long? Do they seem long? Why, or why not? What is the relation of the first sentence of the first paragraph on page 55 to the last? What is the topic of the next paragraph? Do you think it would be just as well to put the second sentence of this paragraph last? In the paragraph beginning at the bottom of page 55, what method of development has been used? Why is the "blue jay" mentioned last? THE FALL OF THE HOUSE OF USHER. (Riverside Literature Series, No. 119.) Do you think the first paragraph too long? Where can you divide it? What is the test of the length of a paragraph? At the bottom of page 67, do you think the first sentence of the paragraph the topic? or is it the last sentence? Give reasons. Is the detail at the end of the paragraph beginning on the middle of page 71 upon the topic of the paragraph? Is it good there? How do you know that Usher did not say "him"? Of the paragraph on page 73, what sentence is the topic? What proportion of the paragraphs have topic sentences? Have the others topics? Give them for the paragraphs on the first five pages. What method of paragraph development has Poe adopted in the paragraph beginning in the middle of page 81? What is the relation between the opening and the close of the paragraph? Why is the middle needed? Do you like the second sentence of the next paragraph? What is there disagreeable in it? As you read along do the paragraphs run into one another? Is such a condition good? SILAS MARNER. (Riverside Literature Series, No. 83.) Divide paragraphs on pages 10 and 11. What is the topic of each of the new paragraphs? In the first paragraph of chapter two each sentence grows out of the one preceding. Put two lines under the words in each sentence which are the source of the next sentence. Draw one line under the words in each sentence which refer back to the preceding sentence. In the paragraph beginning at the bottom of page 94, what is the topic sentence? What relation has the last sentence to the first? What method of development in the paragraph? Can the paragraphs of exposition usually be divided? Do they violate unity? If not, upon what principle can you divide them? What is the tendency in regard to the length of paragraphs in recent literature? * * * * * CHAPTER VIII SENTENCES Definition and Classification. Simple Sentences. A sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought. Sentences have been classified as simple, complex, and compound. In reality there are but two classes of sentences,--simple and compound. It is not material to the construction of a sentence whether a modifier be a word, a phrase, or a clause; it still remains an adjective, adverb, or noun modifier, and the method in which the subject and predicate are developed is the same. By means of modifiers, a subject and predicate of but two words may grow to the size of a paragraph, and yet be a group of words expressing one complete thought. In the sentence below, the subject and predicate are "we are free." This does not, however, express Burke's complete thought. It is not what he meant. Free to do what? How free? When may it be done? Why now? What bill? All these introduce modifications to the simple assertion, "we are free," modifications which are essential to the completeness of the thought. "By the return of this bill, which seemed to have taken its flight forever, we are at this very instant nearly as free to choose a plan for our American government as we were on the first day of the session." Compound Sentences. On the other hand, the compound sentence is usually said to consist of at least two independent clauses; and the very fact of their independence, which is only a grammatical independence, to be sure, makes the clauses very nearly independent sentences. So near to sentences may the clauses be in their independence that some writers would make them so. The following group of sentences Kipling certainly could have handled in another way. "The reason for her wandering was simple enough. Coppy, in a tone of too hastily assumed authority, had told her over night that she must not ride out by the river. And she had gone to prove her own spirit and teach Coppy a lesson." Certainly the last two sentences could be united into a compound sentence, nor would it be straining the structure to put all three sentences into one. This example is not exceptional. Many similar cases may be found in all prose writers; and in Macaulay's writings there are certainly occasions when it would be better to unite independent sentences. If the fundamental ideas of the two clauses bear certain definite and evident relations to each other, they should stand in one compound sentence. These evident relations are: first, an assertion and its repetition in some other form; second, an assertion and its contrast; third, an assertion and its consequence; and fourth, an assertion and an example. If the clauses do not bear one of these evident relations to each other, they should receive special attention; for they may be two separate, independent thoughts requiring for their expression two sentences. The following sentences illustrate the common relations that may exist between the clauses of a compound sentence. _Repetition._ "Nothing has a drift or relation; nothing has a promise or history." "But the religion most prevalent in our northern colonies is a refinement on the principle of resistance; it is the dissidence of dissent, and the protestantism of the Protestant religion." _Contrast._ "If the people approve the way in which these authorities are interpreting and using the Constitution, they go on; if the people disapprove, they pause, or at least slacken their pace." "Every court is equally bound to pronounce, and competent to pronounce, on such questions, a State court no less than a Federal court; but as all the more important questions are carried by appeal to the supreme Federal court, it is practically that court whose opinion determines them." _Consequence._ "The British and American line had run near it during the war; it had, _therefore,_ been the scene of marauding, and infested with refugees, cow-boys, and all kinds of border chivalry." _Example._ "He found favor in the eyes of the mothers by petting the children, particularly the youngest; and like the lion bold, which whilom so magnanimously the lamb did hold, he would sit with a child on one knee, and rock a cradle with his foot for whole hours together." There is another condition which masses many details into one compound sentence. If in narration a writer wishes to give the impression that many things are done in a moment of time, and together form one incident, he may group many circumstances, nearly independent except for the matter of time, into one compound sentence. In description he may present groups of details hastily in one sentence, and so give the impression of unity. The same thing may be done in exposition. Many independent ideas may bear a common relation to another idea, either expressed or understood; and in order to get them before the reader as one whole, the author may group them in a single sentence. The examples below illustrate this method of sentence development. _Narration._ "For a moment the terror of Hans Van Ripper's wrath passed across his mind, for it was his Sunday saddle; but this was no time for petty fears; the goblin was hard on his haunches; and (unskillful rider that he was!) he had much ado to maintain his seat; sometimes slipping on one side, sometimes on another, and sometimes jolted on the high ridge of his horse's backbone, with a violence that he verily feared would cleave him asunder."[43] _Description._ "In one corner stood a huge bag of wool, ready to be spun; in another, a quantity of linsey-woolsey just from the loom; ears of Indian corn, and strings of dried apples and peaches, hung in gay festoons along the walls, mingled with the gaud of red peppers; and a door left ajar gave him a peep into the best parlor, where the claw-footed chairs and dark mahogany tables shone like mirrors; andirons, with their accompanying shovel and tongs, glistened from their covert of asparagus tops; mock oranges and conch shells decorated the mantelpiece; strings of various-colored birds' eggs were suspended above it; a great ostrich egg was hung from the centre of the room, and a corner cupboard, knowingly left open, displayed immense treasures of old silver and well-mended china."[43] _Exposition._ "That perfection of the Intellect, which is the result of Education, and its _beau idéal,_ to be imparted to individuals in their respective measures, is the clear, calm, accurate vision and comprehension of all things, as far as the finite mind can embrace them, each in its place, and with its own characteristics upon it. It is almost prophetic from its knowledge of history; it is almost heart-searching from its knowledge of human nature; it has almost supernatural charity from its freedom from littleness and prejudice; it has almost the repose of faith, because nothing can startle it; it has almost the beauty and harmony of heavenly contemplation, so intimate is it with the eternal order of things and the music of the spheres."[44] (Notice the use of the semicolon in the last two groups of sentences. The parts of compound sentences such as these should be separated by semicolons.) Short Sentences. Having determined approximately what relations may be grouped in a single sentence, the first question for consideration is whether sentences should be long or short. This cannot be definitely answered. Since they should be concise, the short sentence is well suited for definitions. Since a proposition should be announced in as few words as can be used, without sacrificing brevity to clearness, short sentences serve best for this purpose. As changes in the direction of the development of a thought should be quickly indicated, a short sentence is generally used for transition. And as at times when the mind is under a stress of strong feeling, or the action of a story is rapid, all explanatory matters are cut away, the barest statements in shortest sentences serve best to express strong emotion and rapid action. Long Sentences. Long sentences have the very opposite uses. To amplify a topic, to develop a proposition by repetition, by details, by proofs, or by example, long sentences are serviceable; by them the finer modifications of a thought can be expressed. So, too, a summary of a paragraph or a chapter frequently employs long sentences to express the whole thought with precision and with proper subordination of parts. Again, as short sentences best express haste and intensity, so long sentences give the feeling of quiet deliberation and dignified calm. Illustrations of definitions, propositions, transitions, and exemplifications are to be found everywhere. Slow movement expressed by long sentences is well illustrated in Irving and Hawthorne. One selection from George Meredith, to show the peculiar adaptation of the short sentence to express intensity of feeling, is given. Richard Feverel has just learned that the wife whom he had deserted has borne him a son. Description and narration are mingled. The short, nervous sentences express both the vividness of his impressions and the intensity of his emotions. "A pale gray light on the skirts of the flying tempest displayed the dawn. Richard was walking hurriedly. The green drenched woods lay all about his path, bent thick, and the forest drooped glimmeringly. Impelled as a man who feels a revelation mounting obscurely to his brain, Richard was passing one of those little forest-chapels, hung with votive wreaths, where the peasants halt to kneel and pray. Cold, still, in the twilight it stood, rain-drops pattering round it. He looked within, and saw the Virgin holding her Child. He moved not by. But not many steps had he gone before the strength went out of him, and he shuddered. What was it? He asked not. He was in other hands. Vivid as lightning the Spirit of Life illumined him. He felt in his heart the cry of his child, his darling's touch. With shut eyes he saw them both. They drew him from the depths; they led him a blind and tottering man. And as they led him he had a sense of purification so sweet he shuddered again and again." Unity. In a sentence, as in a theme or a paragraph, the first question regarding its structure is what to put into it. The germ of a paragraph is usually a sentence; of the sentence it is one word or but very few words. This kernel of a sentence may be developed through the many modifications of the thought; but always the additions must be distinctly related to the germ words. If this relation of parts to the kernel of the sentence be unmistakable, the sentence has unity; if there are parts whose connection with the germ of the sentence cannot be easily traced, they should be rejected as belonging to another sentence. The pith of the whole sentence can be stated in a few words, if the sentence has unity. Long sentences should be watched. One thing easily suggests another, interesting too, it may be; and when an essay is to be written, anything,--especially if it have so worthy a quality as interest to recommend it,--anything is allowed to go in. Such a sentence as the following can be explained on no other principle: "Just then James came rushing downstairs like mad to find the fellow who had punched a hole in the tire of his bicycle, which was a Columbia which he got two years before at a second-hand store, paying for it in work at fifteen cents an hour." Plainly everything after "bicycle" is nothing to the present purpose and should be excluded. The following from a description of Cologne Cathedral is as bad, in some respects, worse; for there is one point where the break is so abrupt that a child would detect it. "The superintendence was intrusted to Mr. Ahlert, whose ideas were not well adapted to inspire him for his grand task, under his direction much of the former beauty and artistical skill was lost sight of, but at all events it was a great satisfaction to see the work go on and to have the expenses defrayed by the State." In this case the writer, beyond doubt, thinks long sentences the correct thing. Long sentences are necessary at times; but the desire simply to write long sentences or to fill up space should never lead one to forget that a sentence is the expression of one--not more--of one complete thought. On the other hand, sentences should contain the whole of one thought; none of it should run over into another sentence. Strange as it may seem, sentences are sometimes found like the following: "James was on the whole a bad boy. But he had some redeeming qualities." "The first day at school was all new to me. While it was interesting as well." "He said that he was going. And that I might go with him." There is no ground for an explanation of such errors as these except laziness and grossest illiteracy. It is by no device so simple as the insertion of a period that man can separate what has been joined in thought. _And_ and _but_ rarely begin sentences; in nearly all cases it will be found that the sentences they purport to connect are but the independent clauses of one compound sentence. _While_ or any other subordinating conjunction introduces a dependent clause; a dependent clause is not a sentence; it can never stand alone. The offenses against the unity of a sentence are including too much and including too little. Both are the result of carelessness or inability to think. The purpose, the kernel, the germ of the sentence, should be so clearly in mind that every necessary modification of the thought shall be included and every unnecessary phrase be excluded. Some further suggestions concerning unity are found in the paragraphs treating primarily of mass and coherence. Mass. As advance is made in the ability to grasp quickly the thought of a book, it becomes more and more evident that the eye must be taken into account when arranging the parts of a composition. The eye sees the headings of the chapters; it catches the last words of one paragraph and the first words of the next; it lights upon the words near the periods; so the parts of a composition should be arranged so that these points shall contain worthy words. Moreover, within the sentence the colon marks the greatest independence of the parts; the semicolon comes next; and the comma marks the smallest division of thought. Following the guidance of the eye, then, the words before a period should be the most important; those near a colon, a semicolon, and a comma will have a descending scale of value. A speaker has no difficulty with punctuation; unconsciously he pauses with the thought. So true is this, that one is inclined to say that if the writer will read aloud his own composition, and punctuate where he pauses in the reading, always remembering the rank of the marks of punctuation, he will not be far from right. It will be noticed that he has paused in the reading after important words, as if the thought stayed a moment there for the help of the reader. Naturally we pause after important words; and conversely, the places of importance in a sentence are near the marks of punctuation, increasing from the comma to the period. End of a Sentence. The end of a sentence is more important than the beginning; and the difference in value is greater than in a paragraph. In a paragraph the opening is very important, generally containing the topic. In a sentence, however, the beginning more often has some phrase of transition, or some modifier; while it is the end that contains the gist of the sentence. This fact makes it imperative that no unworthy matter stand at the end. How important a position it is, and how much is expected of the final words of a sentence, is evident from the effect of failure produced by a sentence that closes with weak words. In the following sentences, phrases have been moved from their places; the weakness is apparent. Abstract liberty is not to be found; and this is true of other mere abstractions. This is a persuasion built upon liberty, and not only favorable to it. I pass, therefore, to their agriculture, another point of view. Of course Burke never wrote such sentences as these. However, sentences like them can be found in school compositions. "Lincoln's character is worthy to be any young man's ideal; having in it much to admire." "Euclid Avenue, with its broad lawns, and with Wade Park as the fitting climax of its spacious beauty, is the most attractive driveway in the United States, which is saying a good deal." "Minnesota has many beautiful lakes; Mille Lacs, fringed with dark pines; Osakis, with its beach of glistening sand; Minnetonka, skirted by a lovely boulevard bordered by cool lawns and cosy cottages; and many others not so big." Such sentences as these are not uncommon. Their ruin is wrought by the closing words. Watch for trailing relatives, dangling participles, and straggling generalities at the end of sentences. The end of a sentence is a position of distinction; it should be held by words of distinction. So influential is position in a sentence that by virtue of it a word or a clause of equal rank with others can be made to take on a certain added authority. By observing the end of a sentence, a reader can determine what was uppermost in the mind of an author careful of these things. In the following sentence as it was written by Burke the emphasis is on the duration of the time; but by a change of position it is put upon the fact. "Refined policy ever has been the parent of confusion; and ever will be so, as long as the world endures." Changing the last clause it reads, "and, as long as the world endures, ever will be so." This is not weak; but the stress is not where Burke placed it. The position of the words gives them an importance that does not inhere in the words themselves. Effect of Anti-climax. Still, as the tenure of a place of distinction cannot save a fool from the reputation of folly, position in a sentence cannot redeem empty words from their truly insipid character. Indeed, as the imbecility of a shallow pate is made all the more apparent by a position of distinction, so is the utter unfitness of certain words for their position painfully manifest. This is the secret of anti-climax. By reason of its very position in a sentence, the last phrase should be distinguished; instead the position is held by a silly nothing. Disappointing anti-climaxes, like those already cited, are frequently made by young writers; and they are sometimes met with in the works of the best authors. The following sentence is from Newman: from the point of view of an ardent churchman, it may be a climax; but from the point of view of the general reader who considers the whole greater than any of its parts, in spite of all the sense preceding the final phrase, that is absurd and disappointing nonsense. "I protest to you, gentlemen, that if I had to choose between a so-called university, which dispensed with residence and tutorial superintendence, and gave its degrees to any person who passed an examination in a wide range of subjects, and a university which had no professors and examinations at all, but merely brought a number of young men together for three or four years, and then sent them away as the University of Oxford is said to have done some sixty years since, if I were asked which of these methods was the better discipline of the intellect,--mind, I do not say which is _morally_ the better, for it is plain that compulsory study must be a good and idleness an intolerable mischief,--but if I must determine which of the two courses was the more successful in training, moulding, and enlarging the mind, which sent out men the more fitted for their secular duties, which produced better public men, men of the world, men whose names would descend to posterity, I have no hesitation in giving the preference to that university which did nothing, over that which exacted an acquaintance with every science under the sun. And, paradox as this may seem, still if results be the test of systems, the influence of the public schools and colleges of England, in the course of the last century, at least will bear out one side of the contrast as I have drawn it. What could come, on the other hand, of the ideal systems of education which have fascinated the imagination of this age, could they ever take effect, and whether they would not produce a generation frivolous, narrow-minded, and resourceless, intellectually considered, is a fair subject for debate; but so far is certain, that the universities and scholastic establishments, to which I refer, and which did little more than bring together first boys and then youths in large numbers, these institutions, with miserable deformities on the side of morals, with a hollow profession of Christianity, and a heathen code of ethics,--I say, at least, they can boast of a succession of heroes and statesmen, of literary men and philosophers, of men conspicuous for great natural virtues, for habits of business, for knowledge of life, for practical judgment, for cultivated tastes, for accomplishments, who have made England what it is,--able to subdue the earth, _able to domineer over Catholics._"[45] Use of Climax. From what has been said, it is evident that the parts of a sentence, as far as may be, should be arranged in a climax. The climax should be in the thought, with a corresponding increase in the weight of the phrases. If the thoughts increase in importance, the words that express them should increase in number. The number of words in the treatment bears a pretty constant ratio to the importance of the subject treated. The paragraph quoted from Newman is an excellent illustration of the use of climax,--until it comes to that last phrase. Note in the first sentence the repetition of the condition, three times repeated. Change the second to the third and see how different it is. Then he has "public men, men of the world, men whose names would descend to posterity,"--a steady increase in the thought, and a corresponding increase in the length of phrases. The last sentence contains a fine example of climax. "Of heroes and statesmen, of literary men and philosophers, of men conspicuous for great natural virtues, for habits of business, for knowledge of life, for practical judgment, for cultivated tastes, for accomplishments, who have made England what it is,--able to subdue the earth." Climax is the arrangement that produces the effect of vigorous strength. In arranging a succession of modifiers, so far as possible without breaking some other more important principle, a writer will gain in force if he seeks for climax. Loose and Periodic. Sentences are divided into two classes: loose and periodic. A loose sentence may be broken at some point before the end, and up to that point be grammatically a complete sentence. An arrangement of the parts of a sentence that suspends the meaning until the close is called periodic. The periodic sentence is generally so massed that the end contains words of distinction, and the sentence forms a climax. Not all climaxes are periods; but nearly all periods are climaxes. The Period. The philosophy of the periodic sentence has been best stated by Herbert Spencer. He starts with the axiom that the whole amount of attention a reader can give at any moment is limited and fixed. A reader must give a part of it to merely acquiring the meaning; the remainder of his attention he can give to the thought itself. In reading Cicero the pupil has to put a large part of his attention upon the vocabulary, upon the order and construction of the words; the barest fragment of attention he can bestow upon the thought of the great orator. So when the reader attacks one of Browning's most involved and obscure passages, he is kept from the thought by the difficulties in the language. As it is the purpose of language to convey thought, and as it is usually the wish of an author to be understood, he should use up as little as possible of the reader's limited attention for the mere acquisition of the thought, and leave the reader as much as he can to put upon the meaning. In applying this to sentences, the question is, which form of sentence demands least effort to get at its meaning: the periodic sentence, which suspends the meaning to the end; or the loose sentence, which may be broken at several points and gives its meaning in installments? The old example is as good as any: shall we say as the French do, a horse black; or shall we say as the English do, a black horse? for in the arrangement of these three words there lies the difference between a loose and a periodic sentence. Consider the French order first. When a person hears the words "a horse," he at once thinks of the horse he knows best; that is, generally, a bay horse. When the word "black" follows, the whole image has to be changed from the bay horse he knows to the black horse he has occasionally seen. There has been a waste of attention. On the other hand, when the words "a black" are heard, the mind constructs no image; it waits until the noun modified is spoken. Then the whole image springs up at once; it is correct and it needs no remodeling. The following sentence illustrates the point. "I am wasting time" is the beginning. It would be difficult to enumerate the many thoughts suggested by these words; each person has his own idea of wasting time. When the rest of the sentence is added, "trying to learn my geometry lesson," the whole has to be reconstructed. On the other hand the periodic statement suspends the meaning to the end. There is no place where, without additions to the words used, the mind can rest. "Trying to learn a geometry lesson is for me a waste of time." Theoretically the periodic sentence is better than the loose sentence; for it economizes attention. There is another side to the question, however. If the details be many, and if each be long, they would be more than the mind could carry without great effort; and instead of economy of attention, there is improvident waste. The mind will carry a long, carefully arranged period at intervals; but a succession of periods is sure to result in its absolute refusal to do so any longer. There is a limit to the length of a period that economizes attention; and there is a limit to the number of successive periods which a reader can endure. Periodic and Loose combined. There is another form of sentence, which combines the loose and the periodic. It generally begins with the periodic form and sustains this until it is better to relieve the mind of the stress, when the period ends or the loose structure begins; and the sentence may as a whole be periodic while containing parts that are loose. This kind of sentence is a common form for long sentences. It gives to prose much of the dignity of the period, together with the familiarity of the loose sentence. The sentence below may be changed, by putting the last clause first, to a loose sentence; and by placing it after the word "subject" it becomes mixed. "By all persons who have written of the subject, for the grandeur of its mountains and the deep quiet of its green valleys for the leaping torrents of its foaming rivers and blue calm of its crag-walled lakes, Switzerland has been named 'the Paradise of Europe.'" The following paragraph from Burke contains examples of loose, periodic, and mixed sentences:-- "To restore order and repose to an empire so great and so distracted as, ours, is, merely in the attempt, an undertaking that would ennoble the flights of the highest genius, and obtain pardon for the efforts of the meanest understanding. Struggling a good while with these thoughts, by degrees I felt myself more firm. I derived, at length, some confidence from what in other circumstances usually produces timidity. I grew less anxious, even from the idea of my own insignificance. For, judging of what you are by what you ought to be, I persuaded myself that you would not reject a reasonable proposition because it had nothing but its reason to recommend it. On the other hand, being totally destitute of all shadow of influence, natural or adventitious, I was very sure that, if my proposition were futile or dangerous--if it were weakly conceived, or improperly timed,--there was nothing exterior to it of power to awe, dazzle, or delude you. You will see it just as it is; and you will treat it just as it deserves."[46] Which shall be used? Which shall be used, loose sentences or periodic? In literature the loose more frequently occur. They are informal and conversational, and are especially suited to letter-writing, story-telling, and the light essay. The period is formal; it has the air of preparation. The oration, the formal essay, well-wrought argument,--forms of literature where preparation is expected,--may use the period with good effect. It has a finish, a scholarly refinement, not found in the loose sentence; and yet a series of periods would be as much out of place in a letter as a court regalia at a downtown restaurant. The loose sentence is easy, informal, and familiar; the periodic is stiff, artificial, and aristocratic. To use none but loose sentences gives a composition an air of familiarity even to the verge of vulgarity; to employ only periodic sentences induces a feeling of stiff artificiality bordering on bombast. The fitness of each for its purpose is the guide for its use. There is, however, a reason why young persons should be encouraged to use periodic sentences. Usually they compose short sentences, so there is little danger of overburdening the reader's attention. With this danger removed, the result of the generous use of periodic sentences will be nothing worse than a too obvious preparation. The sentences will all be finished to a degree, and unquestionably will give a feeling of artificiality. However, the attention to sentence-structure necessary in order to make it periodic is a thing devoutly to be wished at this stage of growth. No other fault is so common in sentence-construction as carelessness. A theme will be logically outlined, a paragraph carefully planned, but a sentence,--anybody standing on one foot can make a sentence. A well-turned sentence is a work of art, and it is never made in moments when the writer "didn't think." The end must be seen at the beginning: else it does not end; it plays out. There is no other remedy for careless, slipshod sentence-making so effective as the construction of many periodic sentences. Not only will there be care in the arrangement of the material, but when all details must be introduced before the principal thought, there will be little chance of any phrase slipping into the sentence that does not in truth belong there. Dangling participles, trailing relatives, and straggling generalities can find no chance to hang on to a periodic sentence. Every detail must be a real and necessary modification of the germ thought of the sentence, else it can hardly be forced in. Periodic sentences, then, besides insuring a careful finish to the work, are also a safeguard against the introduction of irrelevant material,--the commonest offense against sentence-unity. Emphasis by Change of Order. Closely connected with the emphasis gained by the periodic arrangement of the parts of a sentence is the emphasis gained by forcing words out of their natural order. In a sentence the points which arrest the eye and the attention are the beginning and the end. However, if the subject stands first and the words of the predicate in their natural order, there is no more emphasis upon them than these important elements of a sentence ordinarily deserve. To emphasize either it is necessary to force it out of its natural position. "George next went to Boston," is the natural order of this sentence. Supposing, however, that a writer wished to emphasize the fact that it was George who went next, not James or Fred, he could do it by forcing the word "George" from its present natural position to a position unnatural. He could write, "It was George who next went to Boston," or, "The next to go to Boston was George." Forcing the subject toward the position usually occupied by the predicate emphasizes the subject. This is similar to the emphasis given by the period. "It was George" is so far periodic, followed by the loose structure; and the last arrangement is quite periodic. Every device for throwing the subject back into the sentence makes the sentence up to the point where the subject is introduced periodic; this arrangement throws the emphasis forward to the word that closes the period. Other parts of a sentence may be emphasized by being placed out of their natural order. In the natural order, adjectives and adverbs precede the words they modify; conditional and concessive clauses precede the clauses they modify; an object follows a verb; and prepositional phrases and adjective clauses follow the words they modify. These rules are general. Moving a part of a sentence from this general order usually emphasizes it. "George went to Boston next" emphasizes a little the time; but "Next George went to Boston" places great emphasis on the time. So "It was to Boston that George went next" emphasizes the place. "Went" cannot be so dealt with. It seems irrevocably fixed that in a prose declarative sentence the verb shall never stand first. It is not allowed by good use. The rearrangement of the following sentence illustrates the emphasis given by putting words out of their natural order:-- The strong and swarthy sailors of the Patria slowly rowed the party to the shore. The sailors of the Patria, strong and swarthy, slowly rowed the party to the shore. Slowly the strong and swarthy sailors of the Patria rowed the party to the shore. Of the steamer Patria, the sailors, strong and swarthy, rowed the party to the shore. To show the arrangement of clauses the following will be sufficient:-- He cannot make advancement, even if he studies hard. Even if he studies hard, he cannot make advancement. "Your Irish pensioners would starve, if they had no other fund to live on than the taxes granted by English authority." If they had no other fund to live on than the taxes granted by English authority, your Irish pensioners would starve. The latter arrangement emphasizes the conclusion much more than the former; at the same time it subordinates the condition. Burke wished the emphasis to be upon the condition; he placed it after the conclusion. Subdue Unimportant Elements. Emphasis is gained by placing words in important positions in a sentence by arranging the parts to form a climax; by the use of the period; by forcing words out of their natural order. It is also gained by the subdual of parts not important. This emphasis is a matter of relative intensity. The beauty and strength of any artistic product depend as much upon the subdual of the accessories as upon the intensifying of the necessaries. In order to get the emphasis upon certain phrases, it is necessary to subordinate other phrases. In the talk of a child every thought phrases itself as a simple sentence. Not until it grows to youth does the child recognize that there is a difference in values, and adopt means for expressing it. To grasp firmly the principal idea and then subdue all other ideas is an elegant way of emphasizing. The subdual of parts is accomplished by reducing to subordinate clauses, to phrases, to words, some of the ideas which in a child's talk would be expressed in sentences. A thought of barely enough importance to be mentioned should be squeezed into a word. If it deserves more notice, perhaps a prepositional phrase will express it. A participial phrase will often serve for a clause or a sentence. A subordinate clause may be needed if the thought is of great importance. And last, if it deserves such a distinction, the thought may demand an independent clause or a sentence for itself. If the following sentence be broken into bits as a child would tell it, the nice effects of emphasis which Irving has given it are ruined:-- "When the dance was at an end, Ichabod was attracted to a knot of the sager folks, who, with old Van Tassel, sat smoking at one end of the piazza, gossiping over former times, and drawing out long stories about the war."[47] Put into simple sentences, it would be like this: The dance was at an end. Ichabod was attracted to a knot of folks. The folks were older. They sat at the end of the piazza. Old Van Tassel was with them. They were smoking, etc. In such sentences, nothing is emphatic; it is all alike. In Irving's sentences, where ideas are reduced to clause, phrase, even a word, there is no question about what is important and what is unimportant. He has secured an exquisite emphasis by a discriminating subdual of subordinate ideas. This brings up the sentences by Kipling already quoted on page 201. The author has used three independent sentences. They can be written as one, thus: The reason of her wandering was simple enough; for Coppy, in a tone of too-hastily-assumed authority, had told her over night that she must not ride out by the river, and she had gone to prove her own spirit and teach Coppy a lesson. There is a reason, however, why Kipling wished that last sentence to stand alone. Subordinated as it is here rewritten, it does not half express the spiteful independence she assumed to teach Coppy a lesson. It needs the independent construction. Just as surely as Kipling is right in putting the reasons into two sharp, independent sentences, is Irving right when he puts the reason in the following sentence into a subordinate clause. It is not important enough to deserve a sentence all by itself. "He was, moreover, esteemed by the women as a man of great erudition, for he had read several books quite through, and was a perfect master of Cotton Mather's 'History of New England Witchcraft,' in which, by the way, he most firmly and potently believed." In the following sentence the effect of subordination is unmistakable:-- "He had a name in the village for brutally misusing the ass; yet it is certain that he shed a tear _which_ made a clean mark down one cheek." Now read it again:-- "He had a name in the village for brutally misusing the ass; yet it is certain that he shed a tear, _and the tear_ made a clean mark down one cheek." The last clause has burst away from its former submission, and in its independence has made the most important announcement of the sentence,--the witty climax. Emphasis is, to a large degree, a matter of position, but position cannot emancipate any clause from the thralldom of subordination. To emphasize one idea, subordinate ancillary ideas; make them take their proper rank in the sentence. Reduce them to a clause or to a phrase; and if a word justly expresses the relative importance of the thought, reduce its expression to a single word. The Dynamic Point of a Sentence. In the chapter on paragraphs it was said that one sentence is often the source of the succeeding sentence; that such a sentence seemed to be charged like a Leyden jar, and to discharge its whole power through a single word or phrase; and further, that this word or phrase should be left free to act,--it should be uncovered. How a sentence can be arranged so that this word or phrase shall have the prominence it deserves, and can unhindered transmit the undiminished force of one sentence to the next, has now been explained. First, such words can be made dynamic by placing them at the beginning or the end of a sentence; second, by placing them near the major marks of punctuation; third, by forcing them from their natural order; and fourth, by the subdual of the other parts of the sentence. The greatest care in massing sentences so that none of their power be lost in transmission is one of the secrets of the literature that carries the reader irresistibly forward. Sometimes he may be annoyed by the repetition of phrases; but he cannot get away; he must go forward. In the paragraph below, quoted from Matthew Arnold, every phrase that is the point from which the next sentence springs is in a position where it can act untrammeled. Through it the whole force of the sentence passes:-- "It will be said that it is a very subtle and indirect action which I am thus prescribing for criticism, and that, by embracing in this manner the Indian virtue of detachment and abandoning the sphere of practical life, it condemns itself as a slow and obscure work. Slow and obscure it may be, but it is the only proper work of criticism. The mass of mankind will never have any ardent zeal for seeing things as they are; very inadequate ideas will satisfy them. On these inadequate ideas reposes, and must repose, the general practice of the world. That is as much as saying that whoever sets himself to see things as they are will find himself one of a very small circle; but it is only by this small circle resolutely doing its own work that adequate ideas will ever get current at all. The rush and uproar of practical life will always have a dizzying and attracting effect upon the most collected spectator, and tend to draw him into its vortex; most of all will this be the case where that life is so powerful as it is in England. But it is only by remaining collected, and refusing to lend himself to the point of view of the practical man, that the critic can do the practical man any service; and it is only by the greatest sincerity in pursuing his own course, and by at last convincing even the practical man of his sincerity, that he can escape misunderstandings which perpetually threaten him."[48] Good Use. Good use has been mentioned. In massing the parts of a sentence for the purpose of emphasizing some idea, a writer has not entire freedom. Good use, which is the use of acknowledged masters, decides what may be done. There are certain arrangements of words to which we are accustomed; and the disregard of them leads to obscurity or downright contrariety in the thought. "Brutus stabbed Cæsar" is the common order; "Brutus Cæsar stabbed," or "Stabbed Brutus Cæsar," is obscure; while "Cæsar stabbed Brutus" is the very opposite of the truth. Those who have studied Latin know that as far as understanding the sentence is concerned, it would make no difference in which order the three Latin words should be arranged; though it would make a mighty difference in the emphasis. In Latin the case endings determine the construction of the words. In an inflected language the words may be massed almost to suit the writer; in an uninflected language, within certain limits the order determines the relation between groups of words. Though for emphasis it might be advisable to have the object first, for the sake of clearness in a short sentence the object cannot stand first. The primary consideration in making any piece of literature is that it may be understood. To be understood, the sentence must be arranged in the order to which we are accustomed. The order to which we are accustomed has been determined by good use. The variety in the arrangement of the parts of a sentence that has been sanctioned by good usage is great, yet there are limits. Grammar is based upon the usage of the best writers. Any offense against the grammar of our language is a sin against good use. Browning may use constructions so erratic that the ordinary reader does not know what he is reading about; Carlyle may forge a new word rather than take the trouble to find one that other people have used. But the young writer, at least, is far safer while keeping within the limits of good use. Clearness gained by Coherence. Coherence in a sentence is that principle of structure by which its parts are best arranged to stick together. The parts of a sentence containing related ideas should be so associated that there can be no mistake regarding the reference or the modification. Such a sentence as the following cannot be understood; the reference is obscure. "James told him that he did not see what he was to do in the matter." If the reader were sure of the first "he," he could not come nearer than a guess at the reference of the second "he." The third personal pronoun--he, she, it--in all its cases is especially uncertain in its references. The first sentence below is from an English grammar. The second is from a recently published biography. Both are obscure in the reference of the pronouns. "When 'self' is added to a pronoun of the First and Second person, it is preceded by the Possessive case. But when it is added to a pronoun of the Third person, it is preceded by a pronoun in the Objective case." "I am reminded of Swinburne's view of Providence when he said that he never saw an old gentleman give a sixpence to a beggar, but he was straightway run over by a 'bus." The relative pronoun is also uncertain in its references. Some Southerners were among the ship's passengers, of whom a few had served in the Rebellion. (Obscure reference.) Red lights were displayed in a peculiar succession, which warned of impending storm. (No antecedent.) To make the reference of pronouns, personal and relative, distinct, the antecedent must be made prominent; sometimes the only way out of the difficulty is a repetition of the antecedent. And the pronoun should stand near the word to which it refers. Keep associated ideas together. Like pronouns in the uncertainty of their reference are participles. Either the subject is not expressed, or it is uncertain. Hastening up the steps, the door opened. (None.) Coming from the spring, with a pail of water in either hand, he saw her for the first time. (Uncertain.) Adverbs are sometimes placed so that they make a sentence ridiculous; and frequently their meaning is lost by being separated from the words they modify. "Only" is a word to be watched. Like adverbs are correlative conjunctions. They are frequently so placed that they do not join the elements they were intended to unite. He seized the young girl as she rose from the water almost roughly. I think I hardly shall. I only went as far as the gate. "Who shall say, of us who know only of rest and peace by toil and strife?" He not only learned algebra readily but also Latin. Phrases and clauses may lose their reference by being removed from the words they modify. Toiling up the hill, he arrived at Hotel Bellevue through a drizzling rain. Addison rose to a post which dukes, the heads of the great houses of Talbot, Russell, and Bentinck, have thought it an honor to fill without high birth, and with little property. "Fred was liked well; but he had the habit of that class that cannot get the English Language in the right order when a little excited." All the classes of errors which have been exemplified here are due to the infringement of one rule: things that belong together in thought should stand together in composition. Nothing should be allowed to come between a pronoun, an adjective, an adverb, a correlative, a phrase, or a clause, and the word it modifies. Sometimes other modifiers have to be taken into account: where more than one word or phrase modifies the same word, a trial will have to be made to arrange them so that there shall be no obscurity or absurdity. Keep related ideas together; keep unrelated ideas apart. Parallel Construction. The second principle which helps to make the relation of parts clear is parallel construction. It has already been explained in paragraphs. In sentences the commonest errors are in linking an infinitive with a gerund, a participle with a verb, an active with a passive voice, a phrase with a clause. The result is sentences like the following:-- You cannot persuade him to go and into buying what he does not want. Thus he spoke, and turning to the door. The king began to force the collection of duties, and an army was sent by him to execute his wishes. He was resolved to use patience and that he would often exercise charity. Such sentences are offensive to the ear; and were they as long as the ones below, they would not be clear. "You cannot persuade them _to burn_ their books of curious science; _to banish_ their lawyers from their courts of laws; or _to quench_ the lights of their assemblies by refusing to choose those persons who are best read in their privileges." "For though rebellion is declared, it _is_ not _proceeded against_ as such, nor _have_ any steps _been taken_ towards the apprehension or conviction of any individual offender, either on our late or our former Address; but modes of public coercion _have been adopted,_ and such as have much more resemblance to a sort of qualified hostility towards an independent power than the punishment of rebellious subjects." "My Resolutions therefore mean TO ESTABLISH the equity and justice of a taxation of America by grant and not by imposition; TO MARK the legal competency of the colony Assemblies for the support of their government in peace, and for public aids in time of war; TO ACKNOWLEDGE _that this legal competency has had_ a dutiful and beneficial exercise; and _that experience has shown_ the benefit of their grants, and the futility of Parliamentary taxation as a method of supply."[49] In the second sentence Burke has used a passive voice when it would certainly be more elegant to change to the active. "Is proceeded against" is surely awkward, but for uniformity and resulting clearness he has retained the passive. In the last sentence the infinitives "to establish," "to mark," and "to acknowledge" are in the same construction; they are objects of "mean." Then comes a change of form to show that the clauses "that this legal competency has had," etc., and "that experience has shown," etc., are in a like relation to the infinitive "to acknowledge." Though the last clause by reason of the punctuation looks correlative with the others, it is not related as object to the verb "mean," as the others are, but it is the object of "to acknowledge." There could hardly be a better example of the value of parallel constructions for the purpose of avoiding confusion, and linking together parts that are related. Balanced Sentences. Parallel constructions are used in balanced sentences. In balanced sentences one part is balanced against another,--a noun and a noun, an adjective and an adjective, phrase and phrase. Balanced sentences are especially suited to express antithesis, the figure of speech where two ideas are sharply opposed to each other. In the following from Newman, the balancing is admirable: "Inebriated with the cup of insanity, and flung upon the stream of recklessness, she dashes down the cataract of nonsense and whirls amid the pools of confusion." This is not antithesis, however; but the following from Macaulay is: "She seems to have written about the Elizabethan age, because she had read much about it; she seems, on the other hand, to have read a little about the age of Addison, because she had determined to write about it." The danger in the use of balanced sentences is excess. Macaulay is very fond of brilliant contrasts. _But_ is a very common word with him. In some cases the reader feels that for the sake of the figure he has forced the truth. Balanced sentences are palpably artificial, and should be used but sparingly. There is, however, but little danger of overdoing the parallel construction where there is no antithesis. The parts of succeeding sentences do not resemble each other so much in thought that there is great danger of resulting monotony in its expression. However, should the difficulty arise, the monotony may be broken up by a trifling variation. Macaulay has done this well in the sentences quoted on page 186, beginning with the words, "For his sake empires had risen, and flourished, and decayed," and continuing to the end of the paragraph. Use of Connectives. The third method of securing coherence in a sentence is by the use of connectives. The skillful use of prepositions and conjunctions indicates a master of words. The use of connectives has been discussed when treating of emphasis secured by subdual of unimportant details. Such parts are connected, and in a very definite way. The relations are evident. Two examples will illustrate. The first group of sentences are the fragments of but one of Irving's. He did not look to the right or left. He did not notice the scene. The scene was of rural wealth. He had often gloated on this scene. He went straight to the stable. He kicked and cuffed his steed several times, and so forth. Now note the value of prepositions in giving these separate sentences coherence. "Without looking to the right or left to notice the scene of rural wealth, on which he had so often gloated, he went straight to the stable, and with several hearty cuffs and kicks roused his steed most unceremoniously from the comfortable quarters in which he was soundly sleeping, dreaming of mountains of corn and oats, and whole valleys of timothy and clover." The next also is from Irving, and shows the skillful use of conjunctions to point out unerringly the relation of the clauses in a sentence. "What seemed particularly odd to Rip was that, though these folks were evidently amusing themselves, yet they maintained the gravest faces, the most mysterious silence, and were, withal, the most melancholy party of pleasure he had ever witnessed." Coherence, the principle of structure that surely holds the parts of a sentence together, is of greater importance than Mass. Upon Coherence depends the meaning of a sentence; upon Mass the force with which the meaning is expressed. That the meaning may be clear, it is necessary that the relation of the parts shall be perfectly evident. This lucidity is gained by placing related parts near together, and conversely, by separating unrelated ideas; by using parallel constructions for parallel thoughts; and by indicating relations by the correct use of prepositions and conjunctions. To summarize, sentences are the elements of discourse. The ability of a sentence to effect with certainty its purpose depends upon Unity, Mass, and Coherence. A sentence must contain all that is needed to express the whole thought, but it must contain no more. A sentence must be arranged so that its important parts shall be prominent. Position and proportion are the means of emphasis in a sentence. By placing the important words near the major marks of punctuation, by arranging the parts in a climax or a period, by forcing words out of the natural order, and by subduing unimportant details, a sentence is massed to give the important elements their relative emphasis. Last, the parts of a sentence should be arranged so that their relations shall be clear and unmistakable. Proximity of related parts, parallel construction for parallel ideas, and connectives are the surest means of securing Coherence in a sentence. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS SILAS MARNER. (Riverside Literature Series, No. 83.) On page 18 put together the sentence beginning "Every man's work," etc., with the next. What connective and what punctuation will you use? What is the difference in effect? What one of the relations of a compound sentence does the second part bear to the first? On page 26 could you make two sentences of the sentence beginning, "Raveloe lay low among the bushy trees"? Would it be as well? Would it be better? On page 35 do the three parts of the compound sentence beginning, "He would have liked," etc., belong to one sentence? Which one? Is it right to say, "He would have liked to spring," or would it be better to say, "He would have liked to have sprung"? Do you think colons are used too frequently in Silas Marner? Compare their use with their use in Hawthorne's Stories and Irving's Sketches. In the sentence beginning, "Let him live," etc., at the bottom of page 94, is "a possible state of mind in some possible person not yet forthcoming," a climax or an anti-climax? Why? At the bottom of page 183 why was it necessary to crowd so much into one sentence? MACAULAY'S ESSAY ON MILTON. (Riverside Literature Series, No. 103.) Re-write the sentence on page 33 beginning, "Of all poets," etc., making it loose. Is it better or worse? Why does "here" stand first in the next sentence? What poets with whom you are familiar have philosophized too much? Is the first sentence of the paragraph beginning in the middle of page 36 periodic or loose? How many periodic sentences in this paragraph? In the paragraph on pages 37 and 38 trace the relation of the succeeding sentences. At the bottom of page 45 what is the reason for putting first in the sentence, "of those principles"? What do you think of the massing of the whole sentence? What has been made emphatic? Note the last two sentences at the end of the paragraph on page 58. Is their arrangement effective? Change one. What is the effect? (See also the middle of page 64.) On page 60 why did he not say, "She grovels like a beast, she hisses like a serpent, she stings like a scorpion"? What arrangement of clauses in the first sentence in the paragraph beginning at the bottom of page 66? Does it add clearness? In the same paragraph find a balanced sentence. What advantage is there in the short sentences on page 68? In the first sentence of the paragraph, beginning on page 71, read one of the clauses, "by whom king, church, and aristocracy were trampled down." What is the effect of the change? Is the parallel construction in the last sentence beginning on page 77 good? Is it good in the last sentence of this paragraph? In the next paragraph, why is Macaulay's way better than this: "He was neither Puritan, free thinker, nor royalist"? When a sentence is introduced by a participial phrase or a dependent clause it is in part or wholly periodic. Does Macaulay frequently use this introduction? What is the effect upon his style? Can you find examples of sentences beginning with a loose structure, and having within them examples of the periodic structure? In the paragraph filling pages 79 and 80 there are many examples of periodic and parallel structure. Contrast this paragraph with some of Lamb's paragraphs. What is the effect of position upon the phrase, "Even in his hands," on page 67? When Macaulay inverts the order of a sentence does he usually do it for emphasis or to secure coherence? Does he use many pronouns and conjunctions? Does he repeat words? BURKE'S SPEECH ON CONCILIATION WITH THE COLONIES. (Riverside Literature Series, No. 100.) How many sentences in the first paragraph are periodic? What kind of sentences in paragraph 10? What is the effect of this paragraph? Notice the arrangement of loose and periodic clauses in the last sentence in paragraph 12. Make this sentence entirely loose. In the long sentence in paragraph 25 do the he's and him's all refer to the same person? What would you say of Burke's use of pronouns? Find examples of balanced sentences in this oration. Are you ever astray regarding Burke's meaning? What has he done to gain clearness? For what purpose does he frequently use questions? WEBSTER'S BUNKER HILL ORATION. (Riverside Literature Series, No. 56.) What relation has the second sentence of paragraph 1 to the first? Is the last sentence in paragraph 3 clear? How has he made it so? Compare this sentence with the one beginning at the bottom of page 12. In the last sentence of paragraph 6 where does loose structure change to the periodic? In paragraph 7 why would it be a blemish to write, "That we may keep alive similar sentiments"? Why does he repeat "We wish" so many times? Why did he not substitute synonyms? In paragraph 18 why has he used the word "interest" more than once? If the thought is to be repeated, why not some other word? In the eighth sentence of paragraph 21 is the structure periodic or loose? Reverse the order of clauses in the last sentence of paragraph 28. What is the effect? * * * * * CHAPTER IX WORDS A word is the sign of an idea. Whether the idea be an object, a quality, an action, simple existence, or a relation, if it be communicated to another, it must have some sign; in language these signs are words. Infinitely varied are the ideas man has to express. Each day, each moment, has its new combination of circumstances; yet by the common person the effect of the novel situation is described as "horrid" or "awful" or "perfectly lovely." Three adjectives to describe all creation! No wonder that people are constantly misunderstood; that others do not get their ideas. How can they? Do the best the master can, the thought will not pass from him to his reader without considerable deflection. He cannot say exactly what he would. His words do not hold the same meaning for him as for others. "Mother" to him is a dear woman with a gentle voice, always dressed in black, sitting by the window of home; to another she is a shrieking termagant, whose phrases are punctuated by blows. There is not a word that means exactly the same to two persons; yet with words men must express their thoughts, their feelings, their hopes, their purposes,--always changing, ever new,--and for all this shall they use but a few score of words? Words are the last, least elements of language; without these least elements, these atoms of language, no sentence, however simple, can be made; by means of them, the master drives mobs to frenzy or soothes the pain of eternal loss. The calm and peace which Emerson knew, we know; the perpetual benediction of past years which Wordsworth felt, all may feel. These thoughts masters have expressed in words, but not in three words. Thousands are not enough accurately to transfer their visions of this changing universe from them to us. Ideas infinite in their variety demand for their expression all the means which our language has placed at the disposal of the master. For this true expression the whole dictionary with its thousands of words is all too small. Need of a Large Vocabulary. Whoever hopes to be understood must acquire a full, rich vocabulary. However clearly he may think, however much he may feel, until he has words, the thought, the emotion, must remain his alone. To get a vocabulary, then, is a person's business. He who has it can command him who has it not. Not in literature alone, but in business,--in medicine, in law, behind the accountant's desk or the salesman's counter,--he is master who can say what he means so that the person to whom he speaks must know just what he means. Now it is a singular truth that when we read any great author, the words which we do not understand are remarkably few. Even in Shakespeare there are not many; and the few are unknown by reason of a constantly changing vocabulary. It was probably true then, as it would certainly be to-day, that the large majority of audiences lost not a word of his fifteen thousand, while they themselves used less than eight hundred. We know what others say; yet we say nothing ourselves. What a vocabulary one could accumulate, if from six to eighteen he added only two words a day! Twelve years, and each year more than seven hundred words! It does not look a difficult task. Children do more, and never realize the superiority of their achievement. Nine thousand words at eighteen! Shakespeare alone used more. Macaulay needed scarcely six thousand. Dictionary. How shall a vocabulary be accumulated? One method is by the use of a dictionary; and many persons find it a source of great pleasure. The genealogy and biography of words are as fascinating to a devoted philologist as stamps to a philatelist or cathedrals to an architect. "Canteen" is quite an unassuming little word. Yet imperious Cæsar knew it in its childhood. The Roman camp was laid out like a small city, with regular streets and avenues. On one of these streets called the "Via Quintana" all the supplies were kept. When the word passed into the Italian, it became "cantina;" and cantinas may be found among all nations who have drawn their language from the Latin. There is this difference, however: that whereas eatables were to be had in the Roman quintana, only drinkables can be found in the Italian cantina. When the English adopted the word, the middle meaning, a place where wines are stored, a wine-cellar, came to be a small flask especially fitted for the rough usage of a soldier's life, in which a necessary supply of some sort of liquid may be carried. So the name of a street has become the much-berated canteen of the sutler and the much needed canteen of the soldier. The dictionary is full of such fascinating biographies. Still its fascination is not the reason why most people study the dictionary: it is because such a study is necessary for the person who hopes for an accurate knowledge of the words he reads. It is not impossible to know "pretty nearly what it means" from the context; but no master uses words without knowing exactly what they mean. Certainty of meaning precedes frequency of use; and this necessary confidence is gained from a study of the dictionary. In a general way we know all the words of Macaulay's vocabulary; but the average man uses only eight hundred of them. His knowledge of words is no more than an indistinct, mumbling knowledge. To lift each word out of its context, to make it a distinct, living entity, capable of serving, the definition must be studied. Then the student knows just what service the word is fitted for, and finds a pleasure in being competent to command that service. The dictionary is a necessity to the person who hopes to use words. Study of Literature. Yet the knowledge of words that the student derives from the dictionary is not sufficient. When one hears an educated foreigner speak, he detects little errors in his use of words,--errors which are not the fault of definition, but errors in the idiomatic use of words. This use cannot be learned from a dictionary, where words are studied individually, but only by studying them in combination with other words where the influence of one word upon another may be noted. There is little difference in the size of a pile of stones, whether we say a great pile of stones or a large pile of stones; but a great man is of much more consequence than a large man. A dictionary could hardly have told a foreigner this. A man may pursue or chase a robber, as the author wishes; but he may not chase a course. Prepositions are especially liable to be misused, and their correct use comes from a study of literature, not of the dictionary. The nice and discriminating refinements in the use of words are learned by careful reading. When a phrase is met, such as "the steep and solitary eastern heaven," where each word has been born to a new beauty; or this, "And the sweet city with her dreaming spires," where the adjectives "sweet" and "dreaming" have a richer content, they should be regarded with great care and greeted with even more delight than words entirely new. How to read that we may gain this complete mastery of words, Mr. Ruskin has best told us in "Sesame and Lilies." Every person should know "Of Kings' Treasuries" by reading and re-reading. Literature, the way masters have used words, will furnish a knowledge of the nicer discriminations in their use. The dictionary and literature are the sources of a full and refined vocabulary. But the vocabulary which may be perfectly understood is not entirely in one's possession until it is used. Seek the first opportunity to use the newly acquired word. It will be hard to utter it; you will feel an effort in getting it out. Only once, however; after that it rises as easily as any old familiar word. Because the companion with whom you speak is always "just as mad as" she can be, is no reason why you may not at times be vexed, annoyed, aggravated, exasperated, or angry. Men are not always either "perfectly lovely" or "awful;" neither are all ladies "jewels." There are degrees of villainy and nobility; and all jewels have not the same lustre. Know what you want to say, and find the one word that will exactly say it. This costs work, it is true; but what is there worth having which has not cost some one work? Do the work; search for the word; then use it. In this way a vocabulary becomes a real possession. The words which a person may use are generally described as reputable, national, and present. Words must be reputable; that is, sanctioned by the authority of the creators of English literature. They must be national; words that are the property of the mass of the people, not of a clique or a district. And they must be of the present; Chaucer's vocabulary, though it be the source of English, will not satisfy the conditions of to-day. Vulgarisms are not reputable. First, words must be of reputable use. No person would consider vulgarisms reputable. When a person says "I hain't got none," he has reached about the acme of vulgarisms, the language of the illiterate. Grammar has been disregarded; a word has been used which is not a word; and another word has no reason for its appearance in the sentence. Yet sometimes this expression is heard; seldom seen written. It is always set down to the account of an illiterate home; for no one can reach a high school without knowing its grammatical errors. The unerring use of _don't, me, I, lie, lay, set,_ and _sit,_ is not so assured that the list can be omitted. Adjectives are used for adverbs; "real good" is not yet forgotten. Nouns are called upon to do the work of verbs. This is the language of the illiterate, and it should be avoided; for vulgarisms are not reputable. Slang is not reputable. Neither is slang reputable. He would be a prude who would not recognize that slang is sometimes right to the point; and that many of our strongest idioms were originally slang. Still, although many phrases which to-day are called slang were at one time reputable, the fact of their respectable birth cannot save them from the slight imputation that now they are slang. Notwithstanding the fact that we owe some of our strongest idioms to slang, the free use of slang always vulgarizes. It generally is called upon to supply a deficiency either in thought or in the power of expression. People too lazy to think, too indolent to read, with little to say, and but a few slang phrases to say it with, may be allowed to practice this vulgarity; but cultured persons in cultured conversation will eschew all acquaintance with it. To find it in the serious composition of educated persons always raises a question of their refinement. It is the stock in trade of the lazy and the uncultured. It is used to divert attention from poverty of thought and a threadbare vocabulary. It is unnecessary for the complete expression of thought by the scholar and man of refinement. It is a real misfortune that many good words have been tarnished by the handling of the illiterate. "Awful," "horrid," and "lovely" are good words; but they have been sullied by common use. So common have they become that they approach slang. They may be rescued from that charge in each person's writing, if he shows by accurate use of them that he is master of their secret strength. Milton wrote in "Paradise Lost:"-- "No! let us rather choose, Armed with Hell-flames and fury, all at once O'er Heav'n's high towers to force resistless way, Turning our tortures into _horrid_ arms Against the Torturer." Lord Lytton makes Richelieu exclaim:-- "Look where she stands! Around her form I draw The _awful_ circle of our solemn church." And in the New Testament we read:-- "Finally, brethren, whatsoever things are true, whatsoever things are honest, whatsoever things are just, whatsoever things are pure, whatsoever things are _lovely,_ whatsoever things are of good report; if there be any virtue, and if there be any praise, think on these things." There is no question here of the words; they have all the freshness and vigor of their youth. Do not hesitate to use such words exactly. When the thought calls for them, they say with certainty what can be expressed only doubtfully by other words. Words must be national. Provincialisms. Second, words must be of national use. They cannot be words confined to a locality. When Morris talks of a house that has been "gammoned," he deprives a large number of readers of his meaning. "Gums" and "brasses" may be good in certain districts of England, but in literature they should not be used, for they would not generally be understood. For the same reason much of the common conversation of the South is foreign to a native of New York. Whoever employs the language of a locality limits his circle of readers to that locality. To write for all he must use the language of all; he must avoid provincialisms. Technical and Bookish Words. Like words that are used by a small region are words which are understood by a clique of persons. Scholars are inclined to use a scholarly vocabulary. The biologist has one; the chemist another; the philosopher a third. This technical vocabulary may be a necessity at times; but when a specialist addresses the public, his words must be the words which an average cultured man can understand. Such words can be found if the writer will look for them; if he does not, his work can scarcely be called literature. Technical words and bookish terms are not words of national use. The following by Josiah Royce illustrates how clearly a most abstruse topic can be handled by a man willing to take the trouble:[50]-- "If you ask what sort of thing this substance is, the first answer is, that it is something eternal; and that means, not that it lasts a good while, but that no possible temporal view of it could exhaust its nature. All things that happen result from the one substance. This surely means that what happens now and what happened millions of years ago are, for the substance, equally present and necessary results. To illustrate once more in my own way: A spider creeping back and forth across a circle could, if she were geometrically disposed, measure out in temporal succession first this diameter, and then that. Crawling first over one diameter, she would say, 'I now find this so long.' Afterwards examining another diameter, she would say, 'It has now happened that what I have just measured proves to be precisely as long as what I measured some time since, and no longer.' The toil of such a spider might last many hours, and be full of such successive measurements, each marked by a spun thread of web. But the true circle itself within which the web was spun, the circle in actual space as the geometer knows it, would its nature be thus a series of events, a mere succession of spun threads? No, the true circle would be timeless, a truth founded in the nature of space, outlasting, preceding, determining all the weary web-spinning of this time-worn spider. Even so we, spinning our web of experience in all its dreary complications in the midst of the eternal nature of the world-embracing substance, imagine that our lives somehow contain true novelty, discover for the substance what it never knew before, invent new forms of being. We fancy our past wholly past, and our future wholly unmade. We think that where we have yet spun no web, there is nothing, and that what we long ago spun has vanished, broken by the winds of time into nothingness. It is not so. For the eternal substance there is no before and after; all truth is truth. 'Far and forgot to me is near,' it says. In the unvarying precision of its mathematical universe, all is eternally written. 'Not all your piety nor wit Can lure it back to cancel half a line, Nor all your tears wash out one word of it.'" Foreign Words. Words and phrases from a foreign language should be used only as a last resort. _Bon mot, sine qua non,_ and _dolce far niente_ are all very apt, and to a person like Mr. Lowell, who was intimately acquainted with many languages, they may come as soon as their English equivalents. In the case of such a person, the reason why they should not be used is that the reader cannot understand them. But when a young smatterer uses them to advertise his calling acquaintance with a language, he is but proclaiming his own lack of good taste. In his composition they are as ineffective to make it respectable as a large diamond on a gamester's finger to make him an honored gentleman. Use the English language when writing for English-speaking people. It has the fullest, richest vocabulary in the world. It will not be found unequal to the task of expressing your thoughts. Words in Present Use. Third, words should be in present use. Words may be so new that people do not know them; they may have passed out of use after years of good service. Of new words, but little can be said. The language constantly changes. New discoveries and inventions demand new words. What ones will be more than temporary cannot be prophesied. "Blizzard" and "mugwump" were new but a short time ago: the latter is dying from disuse, the former has come to stay. In this uncertainty one thing can be said, however. No word which has not secured recognition should be used by a young person, if by reputable words already in the language he can express his meaning. And just as he should not be the first to take up an untried word, so the young writer should not be the last to drop a dead one. There is at present a sort of fad for old English. A large number of words that have been resting quietly in their graves for centuries have been called forth. Some may enjoy a second life; most of them will feel only the weakness of a second obsolescence. "Foreword" and "inwit" were good once; but "preface" and "conscience" mean as much and have the advantage of being alive. To be understood use the words of the present. Words in their Present Meaning. Use words in their present signification. Not only has language cast out many words; it has changed many others so that they are hardly recognized. When Chaucer wrote, "Ther may no man Mercury mortify But hit be with his brother knowleching," "mortify" meant to make dead, to kill. To-day a lady may say she was mortified to death; but that is hyperbole. In "Paradise Lost" Satan may "Through the palpable obscure find out His uncouth way." But a person to-day is not justified in using "uncouth" for "unknown." The works of Shakespeare and Milton abound in words whose life has been prolonged to the present, but whose signification has been changed. The writer who seeks to use words with these old meanings is standing in his own light. Such use always attracts attention to the words themselves, and by so much subtracts attention from the thought. Words of Latin and Saxon Origin. Words that are in good use have been divided into two classes, as they have been drawn from two sources. Some differences between Anglo-Saxon and Latin words are marked. Saxon words are generally short; Latin words long. The first are the words of home and are concerned with the necessities of life; the second are the words of the court and the adornments of polite society. The former made the foundation of our language and gave to it its idiomatic strength; the latter came later, and added to the strength of the language its grace and refinement. In our speech there can be no doubt that short words are used when the purpose is to be understood quickly, even harshly, while the longer words are frequently employed for saying unpleasant things pleasantly. Euphemism, the choice of words not harsh for harsh ideas, has its uses. It is not always wrong to say, "He was taken away" for "He was killed." But when the plain truth is to be spoken, when, as in most composition, the object is to be understood, the words should be chosen which exactly express the thought, be those words Latin or Saxon. For any one to say, "Was launched into eternity" for "Was hanged," or "When the fatal noose was adjusted about the neck of the unfortunate victim of his own unbridled passions" for "When the halter was put around his neck," is a useless parade of vocabulary.[51] One knows that such phrases are made by a writer who is ignorant of the value of words, or by a penny-a-liner, willing to sacrifice every effect of language to the immediate needs of his purse. Such writing has no power. The words are dictated by too low a motive to have any force in them. Let a writer go straight to the point as directly as the hindrances of language will allow. Even then his expression will lag behind his thought. This does not mean that one is to use Saxon words always. It means that one shall use the words that say exactly what is to be said, so that the reader can get the exact thought with the least outlay of attention to the words. Latin words are as common as Saxon words. To search out a Saxon word because it is Saxon and short is as reprehensible as to use the indirection of Latin words where directness is wanted. Latin words have a place; they express the finer distinctions and gradations of thought. In the discussion of any question requiring nice precision of statement Latin words are necessary. In the following from Newman, it would be difficult, perhaps impossible, to substitute words of Anglo-Saxon origin for the words of Latin origin, and could it be done, the passage would not then have the clearness it now has from his use of common words, though they be Latin:-- "I mean then by the Supreme Being, one who is simply self-dependent, and the only Being who is such; moreover, that He is without beginning or Eternal, and the only Eternal; that in consequence He has lived a whole eternity by Himself; and hence that He is all-sufficient, sufficient for his own blessedness, and all-blessed, and ever-blessed. Further, I mean a Being who, having these prerogatives, has the Supreme Good, or rather is the Supreme Good, or has all the attributes of good in infinite intenseness; all wisdom, all truth, all justice, all love, all holiness, all beautifulness; who is omnipotent, omniscient, omnipresent; ineffably one, absolutely perfect; and such that what we do not know of Him is far more wonderful than what we do and can."[52] Latin words, moreover, have a fullness of sound which gives them an added weight and dignity. One would hesitate long before changing one of Milton's big-sounding phrases, even if he were not compelled to sacrifice the metre. In Webster's orations there is a dignity, a sublimity, gained by the use of full-mouthed polysyllables. Supposing he had said at the beginning of his eulogy of Adams and Jefferson, "This is a new sight" instead of "This is an unaccustomed spectacle," the whole effect of dignified utterance commensurate with the occasion would have been lost. The oration abounds in examples of reverberating cadences. Milton's sentences are a stately procession of gorgeous words: the dignified pomp of the advance is occasioned by the wealth of essential beauty and historical association in the individual words:-- "That proud honor claimed Azazel as his right, a Cherube tall: Who forthwith from the glittering staff unfurl'd Th' imperial ensign, which, full high advanc't Shon like a meteor streaming to the wind, With gemms and golden lustre rich emblaz'd Seraphic arms and trophies; all the while Sonorous metall blowing martial sounds: At which the universal host up-sent A shout that tore Hell's concave, and beyond Frighted the reign of Chaos and old Night. All in a moment through the gloom were seen Ten thousand banners rise into the air, With orient colours waving; with them rose A forrest huge of spears; and thronging helms Appear'd, and serried shields in thick array Of depth immeasurable." ("Paradise Lost.") The choice of words does not depend on whether they are of Latin or of Saxon origin. In use it will be found that short words, like short sentences, give more directness and force to the composition; while long words have a dignified elegance and refinement of discrimination not the property of monosyllables. No one should think, however, that short words cause the force or long words cause the dignity. These qualities belong to the thought; the completeness of its expression is approached by a choice in words. Choose words for their fitness to say what you think, or feel, or purpose, having no regard for their origin. General and specific. Words are also classified as general and specific. By a general word is meant a word common to or denoting a large number of ideas. By specific is meant a word that denotes or specifies a single idea. "Man," "move," "bad," are general and denote a large number of ideas; while "Whittier," "glide," "thieving," are specific, denoting but one man, one movement, one kind of badness. "Man" denotes the whole human race, while it implies a feeling, thinking, speaking, willing animal. "Whittier" denotes but a single person, but beside all the common qualities implied by the, word "man," "Whittier" suggests, among other things, a homely face, serious and kind, a poet, and an anti-slavery worker. Use Words that suggest most. As a principle in composition, it may be said that the more a word or phrase can be made to imply or suggest, while at the same time expressing all that the writer wishes to say, the more valuable does that word or phrase become. Yet it should be remembered that words may be so specific that they do not include all that the author wishes to include. For instance, if instead of "Blessed are the peacemakers," the beatitude should be made to read "Blessed are the Quakers," though this organized body of persons labor for the blessings of peace, yet the meaning would be restricted by the limited denotation of the term. It does not include enough. So in almost all of Emerson's writing, it would not be possible to express his entire thought with more specific words. Therefore regard must always be had for the thought,--that it may be expressed in its perfect fullness and entirety. Keeping this full expression in view, those words are strongest, truest, richest, which suggest most. To say of a person that he is a bad man is one thing; that he is a traitor is quite another; but when one writes that he is a veritable Judas, words fail to keep pace with suggestions, and reason yields to emotion. Specific words, if they denote the whole idea, are as much better than general terms as their suggestion exceeds the suggestion of general terms. Synecdoche, Metonymy. Much of the force of figures of speech is derived from the suggestive quality of the specific words employed. When a man calls another a dog, he has used a metaphor. He has availed himself of a term that gathers up all the snarling qualities of the worst of the dog species. The figure has high suggestive power. Synecdoche, too, that figure of speech in which a part is used for the whole or the whole for a part, employs a term of higher suggestive power for one of lower connoting force. "All hands took hold" is better than "All persons went to work." Metonymy is the substitution of the name of one thing for that of another to which the former bears a known and close relation. The most common of these known and close relations are those of cause and its effects, of container and the thing contained, and of sign and the thing signified. "He has read Shakespeare," "He was addicted to the use of the bottle," "All patriots fight for the flag," are examples of metonymy. All these figures depend in large degree for their power upon the greater suggestiveness of specific words; and their use gives to composition an efficiency and directness commensurate with the greater connoting value of the specific words. Care in Choice of Specific Words. A writer should keep in mind the fact that the same word may mean widely different things to two persons. For this reason the specific word that appeals to him most may be of no value in addressing others. "Free silver" means to one set of men the withdrawal of money from investment, consequent stagnation in business, followed by the closing of factories and penury among laborers. To others it means three dollars a day for unskilled labor, fire, clothes, and something to eat. Again, if one wished to present the horrors of devastating disease, in the South he would mention yellow fever, in the North smallpox; but to a lady who saw six little brothers and sisters dead from it in one week, three carried to the graveyard on the hillside one chill November morning, all the terrors of contagious disease are suggested by the word "diphtheria." Words are weighted with our experiences. They are laden with what we have lived into them. As persons have different experiences, each word carries to each person a different meaning. The wise writer chooses those specific words which suggest most to the men he addresses,--in general, to the average man. There are many words that carry some of the same suggestions to all. These words are connected with the common things of life: such words as "home," "death," "mother," and the many more that have been with all people from childhood. They are simple little words crowded with experiences. Such words carry a weight of suggestion not found in strange new words. It is for this reason that simple language goes straight to the heart; it is so loaded with life. Of two expressions that convey the thought with equal accuracy, always choose the simpler. The following poems--one by Tennyson,[53] steeped in pain, perfect in its phrasing; the other by Kipling, rising to a conception of a true artist's work, never before so simply expressed--are both written in home words, little words, but words all know, words that carry to all a common meaning:-- "Tears, idle tears, I know not what they mean: Tears from the depth of some divine despair Rise in the heart and gather to the eyes, In looking on the happy autumn fields, And thinking of the days that are no more. "Fresh as the first beam glittering on a sail That brings our friends up from the underworld; Sad as the last which reddens over one That sinks with all we love below the verge; So sad, so fresh, the days that are no more. "Ah! sad and strange as in dark summer dawns The earliest pipe of half-awakened birds To dying ears, when unto dying eyes The casement slowly grows a glimmering square; So sad, so strange, the days that are no more. "Dear as remembered kisses after death, And sweet as those by hopeless fancy feigned On lips that are for others; deep as love, Deep as first love, and wild with all regret; O Death in Life, the days that are no more!" L'ENVOI.[54] "When Earth's last picture is painted and the tubes are twisted and dried, When the oldest colors have faded, and the youngest critic has died, We shall rest, and, faith, we shall need it-- lie down for an æon or two, Till the Master of All Good Workmen shall put us to work anew! "And those that were good shall be happy: they shall sit in a golden chair; They shall splash at a ten-league canvas with brushes of comets' hair; They shall find real saints to draw from-- Magdalene, Peter, and Paul; They shall work for an age at a sitting and never be tired at all! "And only the Master shall praise us, and only the Master shall blame; And no one shall work for money, and no one shall work for fame; But each for the joy of the working, and each, in his separate star, Shall draw the Thing as he sees It for the God of Things as They Are!" Avoid Hackneyed Phrases. Much like general terms, which mean something or nothing, are expressions that have become trite and hackneyed. At some time they were accurate phrases, saying just what was needed. By being used for all sorts of purposes, they have lost the original thought of which they were the accurate expression. They have no freshness. The sounding phrases repeated in the pulpit, or the equally empty phrases of the scientist, however good they were at their inception, are, in the writing of many persons, but theological and scientific cant relied upon by ignorant people to cover up the vacuity of their thought. One's own expression, even though it be not so elegant and graceful, is better than any worn-out, hackneyed phrase. Think for yourself; then say what you have thought in the best language you can find yourself. "Fine Writing." "Fine writing," the subjection of noble words to ignoble service, is to be avoided. Mr. Micawber was addicted to this pomposity of language; and Dickens, by the creation of this character, has done literature a real service, by showing how absurd it is, how valueless for anything more than humor. "'Under the impression,' said Mr. Micawber, 'that your peregrinations in this metropolis have not as yet been extensive, and that you might have some difficulty in penetrating the arcana of the Modern Babylon in the direction of the City Road--in short,' said Mr. Micawber, in another burst of confidence, 'that you might lose yourself--I shall be happy to call this evening, and install you in the knowledge of the nearest way.'" Here are great words in profusion to dress out a little thought. "Fine writing" is as much out of taste as over-dressing. When the thought calls for noble expression, then all one's energies should be bent to finding noble phrases; but for common things common expressions are the only ones in good taste. In Prose avoid Poetical Words. Much like "fine writing" is the use of poetical words in prose. _Enow, erstwhile, besprent, methinks, agone,_ and _thine_ are examples of a large class of words which, though in perfectly good taste in poetry, are in extremely poor taste in prose. They are out of place; and so attract attention to themselves, not to the thought they express. When writing prose, avoid poetical words. All of this comes at last to one rule: be exact, be accurate in the choice of words. Not a word that half expresses the thought, not even one that is pretty near, but the only word that exactly expresses the meaning, that word must be used. It is not a question of long or short, of Latin or Saxon, of general or specific; it is a question of accuracy or inaccuracy, the whole or a part, the whole or too much, of just right or about right. No one would entirely misunderstand the following sentence; and just as certainly no one would derive from these words the impression the author had when he wrote it. He has phrased it as follows: "Another direction in which free education is most valuable to society, is the way in which it removes the gulf affixed between the rich and poor." The boy wanted the opening sentence to sound big, and forgot that the first use of words is accurately to express the thought. In this sentence are the commonest errors in the choice of words. "Most valuable" says more than truth; "direction" says less than truth; and "affixed" does not say anything. Had the boy studied the dictionary, had he been familiar with the Bible, had he carefully considered the figure he introduced with the word "gulf," he would not have written this incongruous sentence; he would not have been inaccurate. Spare no pains in your effort to be exact. Search through the words of your own vocabulary; if these fall short, find others in the dictionary. Get the word that exactly expresses the thought. Let no fine-sounding or high-born word trick you into saying what you do not mean. Be master of your words; never let fine expressions enslave you. In a word, be accurate. Such painstaking labor has its reward not alone in the increased power of expression; there is also a corresponding growth in the ability to observe accurately and to think clearly. No man can write such descriptions as Ruskin and Stevenson have written without seeing accurately; nor can a man speak with the definite certainty of Burke without thinking clearly. The desire to be accurate in expression drives a writer to be accurate in thinking. To think is the highest that man can hope from education. Anything that contributes to this highest attainment should be undertaken with joy. Whether planning a story or constructing an argument; whether excluding irrelevant matter or including what contributes to the perfection of the whole; whether massing the material so that all the parts shall receive their due emphasis; whether relating the parts so that the thought advances steadily and there can be no misunderstanding,--in all this the student will find arduous labor. Yet after all this is done,--when the theme, the paragraphs, and the sentences contain exactly what is needed, are properly massed, and are set in perfect order,--then comes the long labor of revision, which does not stop until the exact word is hunted out. For upon words, at last, we are dependent for the expression of our observation and thought. He is most entirely master of his thoughts who can accurately express them: clearly, that he cannot be misunderstood; forcefully, that he will not be unread; and elegantly, that he give the reader joy. And this mastery he evinces in a finely discriminating choice of words. * * * * * CHAPTER X FIGURES OF SPEECH Figurative Language. There is a generally accepted division of language into literal and figurative. Language that is literal uses words in their accepted and accurate meaning. Figurative language employs words with meanings not strictly literal, but varying from their ordinary definitions. Much of our language is figurative. When a person says, "He is a bright boy," he has used the word "bright" in a sense that is not literal; the use is figurative. In the following there is hardly a sentence that has not some variation from literal language. "Down by the river there is, as yet, little sign of spring. Its bed is all choked with last year's reeds, trampled about like a manger. Yet its running seems to have caught a happier note, and here and there along its banks flash silvery wands of palm. Right down among the shabby burnt-out underwood moves the sordid figure of a man. His hat is battered, and he wears no collar. I don't like staring at his face, for he has been unfortunate. Yet a glimpse tells me that he is far down the hill of life, old and drink-corroded at fifty." (Le Gallienne.) In the second sentence there are at least three figurative expressions. "Bed," "choked," and "trampled like a manger" are not literal. So, too, in the next sentence there are two beautiful variations from literal expression. Going on through the selection the reader will find frequently some happy change from literalness,--sometimes just a word, sometimes a phrase. Figurative language is of great value. It adds clearness to our speech; it gives it more force; or it imparts to literature beauty. The last use is the most common; indeed, it is so common that sometimes the other uses are overlooked. However, when such a sentence as the following is read, the comparison is of value in giving _clearness_ to the thought, although it does not state the literal truth. "In the early history of our planet, the moon was flung off into space, as mud is thrown from a turning wagon wheel." _Force_ is often gained by the use of figurative language. The following is a good illustration:-- "Neither the perseverance of Holland, nor the activity of France, nor the dextrous and firm sagacity of English enterprise, ever carried this most perilous mode of hardy industry to the extent to which it has been pushed by these people [Americans]; a people who are still, as it were, but in the gristle, and not yet hardened into the bone of manhood." The next is an illustration of a figure used for _beauty:--_ "Two of the fairest stars in all the heaven, Having some business, do entreat her eyes To twinkle in their spheres till they return." _A figure of speech is any use of words with a sense varying from their literal definition, to secure clearness, force, or beauty of expression._ Figures add so much to the attractiveness of literature, that every one would like to use them. Yet figures should never be sought for. When they come of themselves, when they insist on being used, and are a part of the thought itself, and seem to be its only adequate expression, then they should be used. In most cases figures are ornaments of literature; it must be remembered that ornament is always secondary, and that no ornament is good unless it is in entire harmony with the thing it is to beautify. (See Preface, p. viii.) When a figure suggests itself, it must be so clearly seen that there can be no mixing of images. Some people are determined to use figures, and they force them into every possible place. The result is that there is often a confusion of comparisons. The following is bad: "His name went resounding in golden letters through the corridors of time." Just how a name could resound "in golden letters" is a difficult question. Longfellow used the last phrase beautifully:-- "Not from the grand old masters, Not from the bards sublime, Whose distant footsteps echo Through the corridors of time." Of the two hundred or more figures of speech which have been named and defined, only a few need be mentioned here. And the purpose is not that you shall use them more, but that you may recognize them when you meet them in literature. Figures based upon Likeness. There is a large group of figures of speech based upon likeness. One thing is so much like another that it is spoken of as like it, or, more frequently, one is said to be the other. Yet if the things compared are very much alike, there is no figure. To say that a cat is like a panther is not considered figurative. It is when in objects essentially different we detect and name some likeness that we say there is a figure of speech. There is at first thought no likeness between hope and a nurse; yet were it not for hope most persons would die. Thackeray was right when he said that "Hope is the nurse of life." The principal figures based upon likeness are metaphor, epithet, personification, apostrophe, allegory, and simile. _A metaphor is an implied comparison between things essentially different, but having some common quality._ Metaphor is by far the most common figure of speech; indeed, so common is it that figurative language is often called metaphorical. "Tombs are the clothes of the dead; a grave is but a plain suit, and a rich monument is one embroidered." "Let me choose; For as I am, I live upon the rack." "The cataracts blow their trumpets from the steep." Only a little removed from metaphor is epithet. _An epithet is a word, generally a descriptive adjective or a noun, used, not to give information, but to impart strength or ornament to diction._ It is like a shortened metaphor. It is very often found in impassioned prose or verse. Notice that in each epithet there is a comparison; that the figure is based on likeness. "Here are sever'd lips Parted with _sugar_ breath." "Base _dog!_ why shouldst thou stand here?" _Personification is a figure that ascribes to inanimate things, abstract ideas, and the lower animals the attributes of human beings._ It is plain that there must be some resemblance of the lower to the higher, else this figure could not be used. Personification, like the epithet, is a modification of the metaphor. Indeed, in every personification there is also a metaphor. "When the sweet wind did gently kiss the trees And they did make no noise." "But ever heaves and moans the restless Deep." _Apostrophe is an address to the dead as if living; to abstract ideas or inanimate objects as if they were persons._ It is a variety of personification. "O Caledonia! stern and wild, Meet nurse for a poetic child!" "Wee, modest, crimson-tippèd flower, Thou's met me in an evil hour; For I maun crush amang the stoure Thy slender stem." "Milton! thou shouldst be living at this hour." _Allegory is a narrative in which material things and circumstances are used to illustrate and enforce high spiritual truths._ It is a continued personification. Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress" and Spenser's "Faerie Queene" are good examples of allegory. All these figures are varieties of metaphor. In them there is always an implied, not an expressed, comparison. _A simile is an expressed comparison between unlike things that have some common quality._ This comparison is usually indicated by _like_ or _as._ "Ilbrahim was like a domesticated sunbeam, brightening moody countenances, and chasing away the gloom from the dark corners of the cottage." (Does this figure change to another in its course?) "How far that little candle throws its beams! So shines a good deed in a naughty world." Of retired Dutch valleys, Irving wrote:-- "They are like those little nooks of still water which border a rapid stream; where we may see the straw and bubble riding quietly at anchor, or slowly revolving in their mimic harbor, undisturbed by the rush of the passing current." Figures based upon Sentence Structure. There are a number of figures that express emotion by simply changing the normal order of the sentence. Among these are inversion, exclamation, interrogation, climax, and irony. _Inversion is a figure intended to give emphasis to the thought by a change from the natural order of the words in a sentence._ "_Thine_ be the glory!" "_Few_ were the words they said." "He saved others; _himself_ he cannot save." _Exclamation is an expression of strong emotion in abrupt, inverted, or elliptical phrases._ It is among sentences what the interjection is among words. "How far that little candle throws its beams!" "Oh, what a rogue and peasant slave am I!" _Interrogation is a figure in which a question is asked, not to get an answer, but for the sake of emphasis._ "Do men gather grapes from thorns, or figs from thistles?" "Fear ye foes who kill for hire? Will ye to your homes retire?" "Am I a coward?" _Climax is a figure in which the intensity of the thought and emotion gradually increases with the successive groups of words or phrases._ (See p. 211.) "Your children do not grow faster from infancy to manhood than they [the American colonists] spread from families to communities, from villages to nations." _Irony is a figure in which one thing is said and the opposite is meant._ "And Job answered and said, No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom shall die with you." "O Jew, an upright judge, a learned judge!" Four other figures should be mentioned: metonymy, synecdoche, allusion, and hyperbole. _Metonymy calls one thing by the name of another which is closely related to the first._ The most common relations are cause and effect, container and thing contained, and sign and the thing signified. "From the cradle to the grave is but a day." "I did dream of money-bags to-night." _Synecdoche is that figure of speech in which a part is put for the whole, or the whole for a part._ "Fifty sail came into harbor." "The redcoats are marching." _Allusion is a reference to something in history or literature with which every one is supposed to be acquainted._ "A Daniel come to judgment! yea, a Daniel!" Men still sigh for the flesh pots of Egypt; still worship the golden calf. There is no "Open Sesame" to the treasures of learning; they must be acquired by hard study. Milton and Shakespeare are full of allusions to the classic literature of Greece and Rome. _Hyperbole is an exaggerated statement made for effect._ "He was tall, but exceedingly lank, with narrow shoulders, long arms and legs, hands that dangled a mile out of his sleeves, feet that might have served for shovels, and his whole frame most loosely hung together." "And, if thou prate of mountains, let them throw Millions of acres on us, till our ground, Singeing his pate against the burning zone, Make Ossa like a wart!" Exercises in Figures. Name the following figures. Of those that are based upon likeness, tell in what the similarity consists. In many of the selections more than one figure will be found.[55] 1. "The long, hard winter of his youth had ended; the spring-time of his manhood was turning green like the woods." 2. A pig came up to a horse and said, "Your feet are crooked, and your hair is worth nothing." 3. "The words of his mouth were smoother than butter, but war was in his heart; his words were softer than oil, but they were drawn swords." 4. "The lily maid of Astolat." 5. "O Truth! O Freedom! how are ye still born In the rude stable, in the manger nursed!" 6. "The birch, most shy and ladylike of trees, Her poverty, as best she may, retrieves, And hints at her foregone gentilities With some saved relics of her wealth of leaves." 7. "O friend, never strike sail to a fear! Come into port grandly, or sail with God the seas!" 8. "Primroses smile and daisies cannot frown." 9. "How deeply and warmly and spotlessly Earth's nakedness is clothed!--the 'wool' of the Psalmist nearly two feet deep. And as far as warmth and protection are concerned, there is a good deal of the virtue of wool in such a snow-fall. It is a veritable fleece, beneath which the shivering earth ('the frozen hills ached with pain,' says one of our young poets) is restored to warmth." 10. "We can win no laurels in a war for independence. Earlier and worthier hands have gathered them all. Nor are there places for us by the side of Solon and Alfred and other founders of States. Our fathers have filled them." 11. "I put on righteousness, and it clothed me; my judgment was as a robe and diadem. "I was eyes to the blind, and feet was I to the lame. "I was father to the poor; and the cause which I knew not I searched out. "And I brake the jaws of the wicked, and plucked the spoil out of his teeth." 12. "His head and his heart were so well combined that he could not avoid becoming a power in his community." Spenser, writing of honor, says:-- 13. "In woods, in waves, in wars, she wonts to dwell, And will be found with peril and with pain; Nor can the man that moulds an idle cell Unto her happy mansion attain: Before her gate high God did Sweat ordain, And wakeful watches ever to abide; But easy is the way and passage plain To pleasure's palace: it may soon be spied, And day and night her doors to all stand open wide." 14. "Over the vast green sea of the wilderness, the moon swung her silvery lamp." 15. "The peace of the golden sunshine was supreme. Even a tiny cloudlet anchored in the limitless sky would not sail to-day." 16. "A short way further along, I come across a boy gathering palm. He is a town boy, and has come all the way from Whitechapel thus early. He has already gathered a great bundle--worth five shillings to him, he says. This same palm will to-morrow be distributed over London, and those who buy sprigs of it by the Bank will know nothing of the blue-eyed boy who gathered it, and the murmuring river by which it grew. And the lad, once more lost in some squalid court, will be a sort of Sir John Mandeville to his companions--a Sir John Mandeville of the fields, with their water-rats, their birds' eggs, and many other wonders. And one can imagine him saying, 'And the sparrows there fly right up into the sun, and sing like angels.' But he won't get his comrades to believe _that._" 17. "We wandered to the Pine Forest That skirts the Ocean's foam; The lightest wind was in its nest, The tempest in its home. The whispering waves were half asleep, The clouds were gone to play, And on the bosom of the deep The smile of heaven lay; It seemed as if the hour were one Sent from beyond the skies Which scattered from above the sun The light of Paradise. "We paused amid the pines that stood The giants of the waste, Tortured by storms to shapes as rude As serpents interlaced,-- And soothed by every azure breath That under heaven is blown, To harmonies and hues beneath, As tender as its own: Now all the tree-tops lay asleep Like green waves on the sea, As still as in the silent deep The ocean woods may be." 18. "When a bee brings pollen into the hive, he advances to the cell in which it is to be deposited and kicks it off as one might his overalls or rubber boots, making one foot help the other; then he walks off without ever looking behind him; another bee, one of the indoor hands, comes along and rams it down with his head and packs it in the cell as the dairy-maid packs butter into a firkin." 19. "For thy desires Are wolfish, bloody, starved, and ravenous." 20. "What a piece of work is man! how noble in reason! how infinite in faculty! in form and moving how express and admirable! in action how like an angel! in apprehension how like a god! the beauty of the world! the paragon of animals!" 21. "And in her cheeks the vermeil red did shew Like roses in a bed of lilies shed." 22. He betrayed his friend with a Judas kiss. 23. "A true poet is not one whom they can hire by money and flattery to be a minister of their pleasures, their writer of occasional verses, their purveyor of table wit; he cannot be their menial, he cannot even be their partisan. At the peril of both parties let no such union be attempted. Will a Courser of the Sun work softly in the harness of a Dray-horse? His hoofs are of fire, and his path is through the heavens, bringing light to all lands; will he lumber on mud highways, dragging ale for earthly appetites from door to door?" 24. "Hath a dog money? is it possible A cur can lend three thousand ducats?" 25. "Kind hearts are more than coronets, And simple faith than Norman blood." 26. They sleep together,--the gray and the blue. 27. "Have not the Indians been kindly and justly treated? Have not the temporal things--the vain baubles and filthy lucre of this world--which were apt to engage their worldly and selfish thoughts, been benevolently taken from them? And have they not, instead thereof, been taught to set their affections on things above?" (Quoted from Meiklejohn's "The Art of Writing English.") 28. "Poetry is truth in its Sunday clothes." 29. "His words were shed softer than leaves from the pine, And they fell on Sir Launfal as snows on the brine, That mingle their softness and quiet in one With the shaggy unrest they float down upon." 30. Too much red tape caused a great amount of suffering in the beginning of the war. 31. "Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll! Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain." 32. "The old Mountain has thrown a stone at us for fear we should forget him. He sometimes nods his head, and threatens to come down." 33. "But pleasures are like poppies spread: You seize the flow'r, its bloom is shed; Or like the snow falls in the river, A moment white--then melts for ever; Or like the borealis race, That flit ere you can point their place; Or like the rainbow's lovely form Evanishing amid the storm." * * * * * CHAPTER XI VERSE FORMS[56] Preparer's note: In this chapter, the rhythms of the sample poetry lines were indicated with musical notes and rests. In this text version, an eighth note is indicated by e, a quarter note by q, and an eighth rest by r. No pupil has passed through the graded schools without being told that he should not sing verses, though no one is inclined to sing prose. One can scarcely help singing verse, and one cannot well sing prose. What is there about the form that leads a person to sing verses of poetry? For example, when a person reads the first lines of "The Lady of the Lake," he falls naturally into a sing-song which can be represented by musical notation as follows:-- | ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ | | e q | e q | e q | e q | "The stag at eve had drunk his fill, | ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ | | e q | e q | e q | e q | Where danced the moon on Mon an's rill, | ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ | | e q | e q | e q | e q | And deep his mid night lair had made | ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ | | e q | e q | e q | e q | In lone Glenart ney's ha zel shade." The second, fourth, sixth, and eighth syllables in each of these lines are naturally accented in reading, while the other syllables are read without stress. The eight syllables of each line fall naturally into groups of two, an unaccented syllable followed by an accented syllable, just as in the musical notation given, an unaccented eighth note is followed by an accented quarter. In "Hiawatha" the accented syllable comes first, and the unaccented follows it. | ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ | | q e | q e | q e | q e | "By the shores of Gitchee Gumee, | ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ | | q e | q e | q e | q e | By the shining Big-Sea-Water, | ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ | | q e | q e | q e | q e | Stood the wigwam of No komis, | ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ | | q e | q e | q e | q e | Daughter of the Moon, No komis." So, too, there are groups in which there are three syllables. The accent may fall on any one of the three. In the following stanza from "The Bridge of Sighs," the accent falls on the first syllable of each group. | ^ | ^ | | e e e | e e e | "Touch her not scornfully; | ^ | ^ | | e e e | e e e | Think of her mournfully, | ^ | ^ | | e e e | e e e | Gently and humanly, | ^ | ^ | | e e e | e e e | Not of the stains of her; | ^ | ^ | | e e e | e e e | All that re mains of her | ^ | ^ | | e e e | e e e | Now is pure womanly." The accent may be upon the second syllable of the group. This is not common. The following is from "The Three Fishers." | ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ | | e e e | e e e | e e e | e q | "Three fishers went sailing out into the West, | ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ | | e e e | e e e | e q | e q | Out into the West as the sun went down; | ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ | | e e e | e e e | e e e | e q | Each thought on the woman that loved him the best; | ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ | | [e] e e e | e e e | e e e | e q | [And] the children stood watching them out of the town." Or the accent may be upon the last syllable of the group. This form is very common. It is found in the poem entitled "Annabel Lee." | ^ | ^ | ^ ^| | | e e e |e e e |e e e |e q | "It was man y and man y a year ago, | ^ | ^ | ^ | | e e e | e q | e q | In a king dom by the sea, | ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ | | e e e |e e e | e q | e q | That a maid en there lived whom you may know | ^ | ^| ^ | | e e e | e q| e e e | By the name of An nabel Lee; | ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ | | e e e |e e e | e q | e e e | And this maid en she lived with no other thought | ^ | ^ | ^ | | e e e | e e e |e q | Than to love and be loved by me." Poetic Feet. If all these verses be observed carefully, it will be seen that in each group of syllables there is one accented syllable combined with one or two unaccented. Such a group of syllables is called a foot. The foot is the basis of the verse; and from the prevailing kind of foot that is found in any verse, the verse derives its name. _A foot is a group of syllables composed of one accented syllable combined with one or more unaccented._ It will be noticed further that if musical notation be used, all of these forms are but variations of the one form, represented by the standard measure 3/8. They are:-- | ^ | | ^ | | ^ | | ^ | | ^ | | e q |; | q e |; | e e e |; | e e e |; and | e e e |. Accordingly there are five forms of poetic feet made of this musical rhythm. Of these, four are in common use. _An Iambus is a two-syllable foot accented on the last syllable. Verse made of this kind of feet is called iambic._ It is the most common form found in English poetry. Example:-- "The stag at eve had drunk his fill." _A Trochee is a two-syllable foot accented on the first syllable. Verse made of this kind of feet is called trochaic._ Example:-- "Stood the wigwam of Nokomis." _A Dactyl is a three-syllable foot accented on the first syllable. Such verse is called dactylic._ Example:-- "Touch her not scornfully." _An Amphibrach is a three-syllable foot accented on the middle syllable._ It is uncommon. Example:-- "Three fishers went sailing out into the West." _An Anapest is a three-syllable foot accented on the last syllable._ Example:-- "It was many and many a year ago." A Spondee is a very uncommon foot in English. It consists of two long syllables accented about equally. It occurs as an occasional foot in a four-syllable rhythm. No English poem is entirely spondaic. The four-syllable foot and the spondee are so uncommon that there is little use in the pupil's knowing more than that there are such things. The example below is quoted from Lanier's "The Science of English Verse." | ^ | ^ | ^ ^ | | e e e e | q e e | q q | "Ah, the autumn days fade out, and the nights grow chill | ^ | ^ | ^ ^ | | e e e e | e e e e | q q | And we walk no more to gether as we used of yore When the rose was new in blossom and the sun was on the hill, And the eves were sweetly vocal with the happy whippoorwill, And the land-breeze piped its sweetest by the ocean shore." Kinds of Metre. _A verse is a single line of poetry._ It may contain from one foot to eight feet. _A line made of one foot is called monometer._ It is never used throughout a poem, except as a joke, but it sometimes occurs as an occasional verse in a poem that is made of longer lines. The two lines which follow are from the song of "Winter" in Shakespeare's "Love's Labour's Lost." The last is monometer. "Then nightly sings the staring owl Tu-whit." _A line containing two feet is called dimeter._ It also is uncommon; but it does sometimes make up a whole poem; as, "The Bridge of Sighs," already mentioned. Another example is:-- ^ ^ "I'm wearing awa', Jean, ^ ^ Like snaw when it's thaw, Jean, ^ ^ I'm wearing awa' ^ ^ To the land o' the leal." It is frequently met as an occasional line in a poem. Wordsworth's "Daisy" shows it. "Bright _Flower!_ for by that name at last, When all my reveries are past, I call thee, and to that cleave fast, Sweet, silent creature! That breath'st with me in sun and air, Do thou, as thou art wont, repair My heart with gladness, and a share Of thy meek nature!" _A line containing three feet is called trimeter._ Example:-- ^ ^ ^ "The snow had begun in the gloaming, ^ ^ ^ And busily all the night ^ ^ ^ Had been heaping field and highway ^ ^ ^ With a silence deep and white." _A line containing four feet is called tetrameter._ "Marmion" is written in tetrameters. See the extract on p. 276. _A line containing five feet is called pentameter._ This line is very common in English poetry. It gives room enough for the poet to say something, and is not so long that it breaks down with its own weight. Shakespeare's Plays, Milton's "Paradise Lost," Tennyson's "Idylls of the King,"--indeed, most of the great, serious work of the master-poets has been done in this verse. _A line containing six feet is called hexameter._ This is the form adopted in the Iliad and the Odyssey of the Greeks, and the �neid of the Romans; it has been used sometimes by English writers in treating dignified subjects. "The Courtship of Miles Standish" and "Evangeline" are written in hexameter. Verses of seven and eight feet are rare; they are called heptameter and octameter, respectively. The heptameter is usually divided into a tetrameter and a trimeter; the octameter, into two tetrameters. Poe's "Raven" and Tennyson's "Locksley Hall" are in octameters, and Bryant's "The Death of the Flowers" is in heptameters. A verse is named from its prevailing kind of foot and the number of feet. For example, "The Merchant of Venice" is in iambic pentameter, and "The Courtship of Miles Standish" is in dactylic hexameter. Stanzas. A stanza is a group of verses, but these verses are not necessarily of the same length. Monometer, dimeter, and trimeter are not often used for a whole stanza; but they are frequently found in a stanza, introducing variety into it. A stanza made up of tetrameter alternating with trimeter is very common. The stanzas from "Annabel Lee" and "The Village Blacksmith," found on pages 278 and 279, are excellent examples. Scansion. _Scansion is the separation of a verse of poetry into its component feet._ Poetry was originally sung or chanted by bards and troubadours. The accompaniment was a simple strumming on a harp of very few strings, and was hardly more than the beating of time. The chanting must have been much like the sing-song that some people fall into when reading verses now. The first thing in scanning a line of poetry is to drop into its rhythm,--to let it sing itself. When the regular accent is felt, the lines can easily be separated into their metrical feet. Read these lines from "Marmion," and mark only the accented syllables. ^ ^ ^ ^ "And there she stood so calm and pale, ^ ^ ^ ^ That but her breathing did not fail, And motion slight of eyes and head, And of her bosom, warranted That neither sense nor pulse she lacks, You might have thought a form of wax Wrought to the very life was there; So still she was, so pale, so fair." The marked verses have an accented syllable preceded by an unaccented syllable. Such a foot is iambic. There are four feet in each verse; so the poem is written in iambic tetrameter. In the same way, one decides that "The Song of Hiawatha" is written in trochaic tetrameter. Variations in Metres. In music the bar or measure is not always filled with exactly the same kind of notes arranged in the same order. If the signature reads 3/8, the measure may be filled by any notes that added together equal three eighth notes. It may be a quarter and an eighth, an eighth and a quarter, a dotted quarter, or three eighth notes. So, in poetry the verses are not always as regular as in "Marmion" and "Hiawatha," although poetry is more regular than music and there are usually few variations of metre in any one poem. A knowledge of the most common forms of variation is necessary to correct scansion. The commonest variation in verse is the substitution of three eighths for the quarter and the eighth, or the eighth and the quarter. And the very opposite of this often occurs; that is, the substitution of the two-syllable foot for the three-syllable foot. The following, from "The Burial of Sir John Moore," illustrates what is done. Notice, however, that the beat is quite regular, and the lines lilt along as if there were no change. | ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ | e e e | e q | e e e |e e e | "Not a drum was heard, not a fun eral note, | ^ | ^ | ^ | | e e e | e e e | e e e [e] | As his corse to the ram part we hur[ried]; | ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ | | e e e | e e e | e q | e q | Not a sol dier discharged his fare well shot | ^ | ^| ^ | | e e e | e e e| e e e [e] | O'er the grave where our he ro we bur[ied]." In reading this the first time, a person is not likely to notice that there are three feet in it containing but two syllables. The rhythm is perfectly smooth, and cannot be called irregular. The accent remains on the last syllable of the foot. In the following selection from "Evangeline," trochees are substituted for dactyls, yet there is no break in the rhythm. It does not seem in the least irregular. | ^ | ^ | ^ | | q e | e e e | q e | "Be hind them followed the watch-dog, | ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ | q e | e e e| e e e | e e e | e e e | q e | Patient, full of im portance, and grand in the pride of his instinct, Walking from side to side with a lordly air, and superbly Waving his bushy tail, and urging forward the stragglers." These examples are enough to illustrate the fact that one kind of foot may be substituted for another and not make the rhythm feel irregular. So long as the accent is not changed from the first syllable to the last, or from the last to the first, there is no jar in the flow of the lines. _The trochee and the dactyl are interchangeable; and the iambus and the anapest are interchangeable._ We may take a step further. There are many times when some sudden change of thought, some strong emotion forces a poet to break the smooth rhythm, that the verses may harmonize with his feeling. Such a variation is like an exclamation or a dash thrown into prose. The following is taken from "Annabel Lee." The regular foot has the accent on the last syllable. It is anapestic, in tetrameters and trimeters. But note the shudder in the third line when the accent is changed on the word "chilling." The music and the thought are in perfect harmony. "And this was the reason that, long ago, In this kingdom by the sea, | ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ | |e q | e q |e e e | q e | A wind blew out of a cloud, chilling My beautiful Annabel Lee; So that her highborn kinsman came And bore her away from me To shut her up in a sepulchre In this kingdom by the sea." Another beautiful example is found in the last stanza of the same poem. It is in the first two feet of the fifth line. Here the regular accent has yielded to an accent on the middle syllable and there are two amphibrachs. Notice, too, how it is almost impossible to tell in the next foot whether the accent goes upon the second or upon the third syllable. It is hovering between the form of the first two feet and the anapest of the last foot. "For the moon never beams, without bringing me dreams Of the beautiful Annabel Lee; And the stars never rise, but I feel the bright eyes Of the beautiful Annabel Lee; | ^ | ^ | ^ ^ | ^ | | e e e | e e e |e e e | e e e | And so, all the night-tide, I lie down by the side Of my darling--my darling--my life and my bride, In her sepulchre there by the sea In her tomb by the sounding sea." As has already been said, the iambus is the common foot of English verse. It is made of a short and a long syllable. At the beginning of a poem an unaccented syllable seems weak; and so very frequently the first foot of a poem is trochaic; often the first two or three feet are of this kind. At such a place the irregularity does not strike one. The following is an illustration:-- | ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ | | q e |e q | e q | e q | "Under a spread ing chest nut tree | ^ | ^ | ^ | | e q | e q |e q | The vil lage smith y stands; The smith, a mighty man is he, With large and sinewy hands; And the muscles of his brawny arms Are strong as iron bands." In this stanza the prevailing foot is iambic, but the first foot is trochaic. In the following beautiful lines by Ben Jonson, there is the same thing:-- | ^ | ^| ^ | ^ | | q e |e q|e q | e q | "Drink to me on ly with thine eyes And I will pledge with mine; Or leave a kiss but in the cup And I'll not look for wine. The thirst that from the soul doth rise Doth ask a drink divine; But might I of Jove's nectar sup, I would not change for thine." A similar substitution may occur in any other verse of the stanza; but we feel the change more than when it is found in the first verse. The second stanza of Jonson's song furnishes an example of the substitution of a trochee for an iambus:-- "I sent thee late a rosy wreath, | ^ | ^ | ^ | | q e | e q |e e e | Not so much hon oring thee As giving it a hope that there It could not withered be, But thou thereon didst only breathe And sent'st it back to me; Since when it grows and smells, I swear, Not of itself, but thee." Of all the great poets, but few have been such masters of the art of making musical verse as Spenser. The following stanza is from "The Faerie Queene;" and the delicate changes from one foot to another are so skillfully made that one has to look twice before he finds them. ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ "A little lowly hermitage it was, ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Down in a dale, hard by a forest's side, ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Far from resort of people that did pass ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ In travel to and fro; a little wide ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ There was a holy chapel edified, ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Wherein a hermit duly wont to say ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ His holy things each morn and eventide; ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Thereby a crystal stream did gently play, ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Which from a sacred fountain welléd forth alway." First and Last Foot. From the lines on "The Burial of Sir John Moore," another fact about metres may be derived. The second and fourth lines apparently have one too many syllables. _This may occur when the accent is upon the last syllable of the foot;_ that is, when the foot is an iambus or an anapest. Again, the last foot of each line may be one syllable short. _This may occur when the accent is on the first syllable of a foot;_ that is, when the foot is trochaic or dactylic. The scheme is like this: | ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ | | q e | q e | q e | q e | "Tell me not in mournful numbers | ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ | | q e | q e | q e | q r | Life is but an empty dream." The last foot of a verse of poetry, then, may have more or fewer syllables than the regular number; still the foot takes up the regular time and cannot be deemed unrhythmical. The first foot of a line, too, may contain an extra syllable; a good example has been given in the lines on page 273, beginning,-- "Ah, the autumn days fade out, and the nights grow chill." And the first foot of a line may lack a syllable, as in the first line of "Break, Break, Break," by Tennyson. In a line like the following, it is sometimes difficult to tell whether the syllable is omitted from the first or the last foot. If from the first, the verse is iambic, and is scanned like this:-- | ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ | | r q | e q |e q | e e e | "Proud and low ly, beg gar and lord." If the last foot is not full, the line is trochaic. | ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ | | q e | q e | e e e | q r | "Proud and low ly, beg gar and lord." Now if the whole of "London Bridge," from which this line is quoted, be read, there will be found several lines that are trochaic beyond question; and the last line of the chorus is iambic. The majority of trochaic lines leads us to decide that the verse is trochaic. From this example one learns to appreciate how nearly alike are trochaic and iambic verses. Both are composed of alternating accented and unaccented syllables; and the kind of metre depends upon which comes first in the foot. In Blake's "Tiger, Tiger," there is not a line that clearly shows what kind of verse the poet used. If the unaccented syllable is supplied at the beginning the poem is iambic; if at the end, it is trochaic. "Tiger, Tiger, burning bright In the forests of the night, What immortal hand or eye Framed thy fearful symmetry?" Silences may occur in the middle of a verse of poetry as well as at the beginning or the end. In the following nursery rhyme it is clear that the prevailing foot is anapestic, though several feet are iambic, and in the first two lines and the last line a single syllable makes a foot. Silences are introduced here as rests are in music. | r q | r q | r q | "Three blind mice! | r q | r q | e q | See how they run! | ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ | Hurrah, hurrah for the farm er's wife! | ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ | She cut off their tails with a carv ing knife! | ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ | Did you ev er see such a sight in your life |e q | r q | r q | As three blind mice!" Like this is the scansion of Tennyson's "Break, Break, Break." | r q | r q | r q | "Break, break, break! On thy cold gray stones, O sea! And I would that my tongue could utter The thoughts that arise in me." In scanning, then, it is necessary-- _First._ To determine by reading a number of verses the kind of foot that predominates, and to make this the basis of the metrical scheme. _Second._ To remember that one kind of foot may be substituted for another, at the will of the poet, introducing into the poem a delicate variety of rhythm. _Third._ To keep in mind that the first foot of a verse and the last foot may have more or fewer syllables than the regular foot of the poem. _Fourth._ That silences, like rests in music, may be introduced into a verse and give to it a perfect smoothness of rhythm. Kinds of Poetry. It is a difficult thing to give a definition of poetry. Many have done so, yet no one has been fortunate enough to have his definition go without criticism. In general, it may be said that poetry deals with serious subjects, that it appeals to the feelings rather than to the reason, that it employs beautiful language, and that it is written in some metrical form. Poetry has been divided into three great classes: narrative, lyric, and dramatic. Narrative poetry deals with events, real or imaginary. It includes, among other varieties, the epic, the metrical romance, the tale, and the ballad. _The epic is a narrative poem of elevated character telling generally of the exploits of heroes._ The "Iliad" of the Greeks, the "�neid" of the Romans, the "Nibelungen Lied" of the Germans, "Beowulf" of the Anglo-Saxons, and "Paradise Lost" are good examples of the epic. _The metrical romance is any fictitious narrative of heroic, marvelous, or supernatural incidents derived from history or legend, and told at considerable length._ "The Idylls of the King" are romances. The tale is but little different from the romance. It leaves the field of legend and occupies the place in poetry that a story or a novel does in prose. "Marmion" and "Enoch Arden" are tales. _A ballad is a short narrative poem, generally rehearsing but one incident._ It is usually vigorous in style, and gives but little thought to elegance. "Sir Patrick Spens," "The Battle of Otterburne," and "Chevy Chase" are examples. Lyric poetry finds its source in the author's feelings and emotions. In this it differs from narrative poems, which find their material in external events and circumstances. Epic poetry is written in a grand style, generally in pentameter, or hexameter; while the lyric adopts any verse that suits the emotion. The principal classes of lyric poetry are the song, the ode, the elegy, and the sonnet. _The song is a short poem intended to be sung._ It has great variety of metres and is generally divided into stanzas. "Sweet and Low," "Ye Banks and Braes o' Bonnie Doon," "John Anderson, My Jo, John," are songs. _An ode is a lyric expressing exalted emotion; it usually has a complex and irregular metrical form._ Collins's "The Passions," Wordsworth's "Intimations of Immortality," and Lowell's "Commemoration Ode," are well known. _An elegy is a serious poem pervaded by a feeling of melancholy._ It is generally written to commemorate the death of some friend. Milton's "Lycidas" and Gray's "Elegy in a Country Churchyard" are examples of this form of lyric. _A sonnet is a lyric that deals with a single thought, idea, or sentiment in a fixed metrical form. The sonnet always contains fourteen lines._ It has, too, a very definite rhyme scheme. Some of the best English sonnets have been written by Shakespeare, Wordsworth, and Mrs. Browning. Dramatic poetry presents a course of human events, and is generally designed to be spoken on the stage. Because such poetry presents human character in action, the term "dramatic" has come to be applied to any poetry having this quality. Many of Browning's poems are dramatic in this sense. In the first sense of the word, dramatic poetry includes tragedy and comedy. _Tragedy is a drama in which the diction is dignified, the movement impressive, and the ending unhappy._ _Comedy is a drama of a light and amusing character, with a happy conclusion to its plot._ Exercises in Metres. Enough of each poem is given below so that the kind of metre can be determined. Always name the verse form and write the verse scheme. Some hard work will be necessary to work out the irregular lines, but it is only by work on these that any ability in scanning can be gained. Always read a stanza two or three times to get the swing of the rhythm. Remember the silences, and the substitutions that may be made. 1. "I stood on the bridge at midnight As the clocks were striking the hour, And the moon rose over the city, Behind the dark church tower. "Among the long black rafters The wavering shadows lay, And the current that came from the ocean Seemed to lift and bear them away." 2. "All things are new;--the buds, the leaves, That gild the elm-tree's nodding crest, And even the nest beneath the eaves;-- There are no birds in last year's nest!" 3. "Meanwhile we did our nightly chores,-- Brought in the wood from out of doors, Littered the stalls, and from the mows Raked down the herd's-grass for the cows; Heard the horse whinnying for his corn; And, sharply clashing horn on horn, Impatient down the stanchion rows The cattle shake their walnut bows; While, peering from his early perch Upon the scaffold's pole of birch, The cock his crested helmet bent And down his querulous challenge sent." 4. "You know, we French stormed Ratisbon: A mile or so away, On a little mound, Napoleon Stood on our storming day; With neck out-thrust, you fancy how, Legs wide, arms locked behind, As if to balance the prone brow Oppressive with its mind." 5. "Come, read to me some poem, Some simple and heartfelt lay, That shall soothe this restless feeling, And banish the thoughts of day. "Not from the grand old masters, Not from the bards sublime, Whose distant footsteps echo Through the corridors of Time. "For, like strains of martial music, Their mighty thoughts suggest Life's endless toil and endeavor; And to-night I long for rest. "Read from some humbler poet Whose songs gushed from his heart, As showers from the clouds of summer, Or tears from the eyelids start; "Who through long days of labor, And nights devoid of ease, Still heard in his soul the music Of the wonderful melodies." 6. "Hickory, dickery, dock, The mouse ran up the clock; The clock struck one, And the mouse ran down; Hickory, dickery, dock." 7. "Two brothers had the maiden, and she thought, Within herself: 'I would I were like them; For then I might go forth alone, to trace The mighty rivers downward to the sea, And upward to the brooks that, through the year, Prattle to the cool valleys. I would know What races drink their waters; how their chiefs Bear rule, and how men worship there, and how They build, and to what quaint device they frame, Where sea and river meet, their stately ships; What flowers are in their gardens, and what trees Bear fruit within their orchards; in what garb Their bowmen meet on holidays, and how Their maidens bind the waist and braid the hair.'" (In this quotation we have blank verse; that is, verse that does not rhyme. It is iambic pentameter,--the most common verse in great English poetry. What poems are you familiar with that use this verse-form?) 8. "A wet sheet and a flowing sea, A wind that follows fast And fills the rustling sails And bends the gallant mast; And bends the gallant mast, my boys, While like the eagle free Away the good ship flies, and leaves Old England on the lee. "O for a soft and gentle wind; I heard a fair one cry; But give to me the snoring breeze And white waves heaving high; And white waves heaving high, my lads, The good ship tight and free-- The world of waters is our home, And merry men are we. "There's tempest in yon horned moon, And lightning in yon cloud; But hark the music, mariners! The wind is piping loud; The wind is piping loud, my boys, The lightning flashes free-- While the hollow oak our palace is, Our heritage the sea." 9. "Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary, Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore, While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping, As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door-- ''T is some visitor,' I muttered, 'tapping at my chamber door-- Only this, and nothing more.'" 10. "Somewhat back from the village street Stands the old-fashioned country-seat, Across its antique portico Tall poplar trees their shadows throw; And from its station in the hall An ancient timepiece says to all,-- 'Forever--never! Never--forever!'" 11. "Listen, my children, and you shall hear Of the midnight ride of Paul Revere, On the eighteenth of April, in seventy-five; Hardly a man is now alive Who remembers that famous day and year." 12. "Sweet and low, sweet and low, Wind of the western sea, Low, low, breathe and blow, Wind of the western sea! Over the rolling waters go, Come from the dying moon, and blow, Blow him again to me; While my little one, while my pretty one, sleeps. "Sleep and rest, sleep and rest, Father will come to thee soon; Rest, rest, on mother's breast, Father will come to thee soon; Father will come to his babe in the nest-- Silver sails all out of the west Under the silver moon: Sleep, my little one, sleep, my pretty one, sleep." 13. "See what a lovely shell, Small and pure as a pearl, Lying close to my foot, Frail, but a work divine, Made so fairily well With delicate spire and whorl, How exquisitely minute, A miracle of design!" (If the pupils have Palgrave's "Golden Treasury of Songs and Lyrics," they have a great fund of excellent material illustrating all varieties of metrical variation. There are very few pieces of literature that illustrate so many varieties of metre as Wordsworth's "Ode on the Intimations of Immortality.") * * * * * APPENDIX A. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. The Course of Study on pages xx-xxvi contemplates five days a week for the study of English. The text which is to be the subject of the term's work should first be studied for a few weeks. After it has been mastered, three days of each week should be given to literature and two to composition. In practice I have found it best to have the study of literature occupy three consecutive days,--for example, Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday. This arrangement leaves Monday and Friday for composition. Friday is used for the study of the text-book and for general criticism and suggestion. On Monday the compositions should be written in the classroom. To have them so written is, at least during the first year, distinctly better. The first draft of the composition should be brought to class ready for amendment and copying. During the writing the teacher should be among the pupils offering assistance, and insisting upon good penmanship. Care at the beginning will form a habit of neatness, and keep the penmanship up to a high standard. The arrangement suggested is only one plan. This works well. Many others may be adopted. But no plan should be accepted which makes the number of essays fewer than one a week; nor should the number of days given to literature be smaller than three a week. During the second year, if the instructor thinks it can be done without loss, the compositions may be written outside of school hours and brought to class on a definite day. A pupil should not be allowed to put off the writing of a composition any more than a lesson in geometry. On Monday of each week a composition should be handed in; irregularity only makes the work displeasing and leads to shirking. Writing out of school gives more time for criticism and study of composition, and during the second year this extra time is much needed. By the third year the pupils certainly can do the work out of school. As the compositions increase in length, more time will be necessary for their preparation. The teacher should, however, know exactly what progress has been made each week; and by individual criticisms and by wise suggestions she should help the pupil to meet the difficulties of his special case. In order that the instructor may have time for individual criticism, she should have two periods each day vacant in which to meet pupils for consultation. To make this clear, suppose that a teacher of English has one hundred pupils in her classes. She should have no more, for one hundred essays a week are enough for any person to correct. If there be six recitation periods daily, place twenty-five pupils in each of four sections for the study of literature, composition, and general criticism. This leaves two periods each day to meet individuals, giving ten pupils for each period. These should come on scheduled days, with the same regularity as for class recitation. The pupil's work should have been handed in on the second day before he comes up for consultation, in order that the teacher may be competent to give criticisms of any value. The inspiration of the first reading cannot be depended upon to suggest any help, nor is there time for such a reading during the recitation. There will be need of class recitation in argument. Ten days or two weeks are all that is necessary for text-book work. This should be done before pupils read the "Conciliation." In the reading constantly keep before the pupils the methods of the author. Every teacher should be able to do what she asks of the pupils. No person would dare to offer herself as a teacher of Latin or algebra until she could write all the translations of the one and solve all the problems of the other. Yet there are persons who have the audacity to offer their services as teachers of English, when they cannot write a letter correctly, to say nothing of a more formal piece of composition. If an instructor in physics, who had asked his pupils to solve a problem in electricity, should say to each unfortunate person as he handed in his solution, "No, that isn't right; you'll have to try again," without offering any help or suggestion, and should continue this discouraging process until some bright pupil worked it out, or perhaps some one guessed it, we should say that such a person was no instructor at all. We might go so far as to question his intellectual competency. We certainly should think him quite deserving of dismissal. Still many teachers of English do nothing more than say, "It isn't right. Make it so." If the teacher does not know how to do the thing she asks the pupils to do, she should not be teaching. And even when she can do it, she will often benefit herself and the pupils by actually writing the composition. In this way not only does she gain command of her own powers of expression, but she finds out the difficulties with which the pupils have to contend. Every teacher of English composition should be able to do some creditable work in English; and every teacher of English should put this talent into actual use. Numerous examples of correct paragraphs, well-made sentences, and apt words have not been included in the text. They have been omitted because they can be found in the literature study. It is better for pupils to find these for themselves. It will put them in the way of reading with the senses always alert for something good; and all good paragraphs and sentences lose something of their beautiful adaptation when torn from the place of their birth and growth. So, too, there are no long lists of errors. One hundred pupils in a term make enough to fill a volume. When a teacher knows that Sentences is to be her next subject she should begin three months in advance to get a good collection of specimens. These should be classified so that they may be most usable. By the time the class comes to the study of Sentences some new, live material will be on hand for illustration. In the pupils' exercises each week those errors should be singled out and dwelt upon which are the special subject of text-book work. If the pupils are studying Coherence in sentence structure, select all violations of this principle in the week's exercises, and by means of them nail that one principle down instead of trying to lay down the whole set of principles given in the chapter on Sentences. Alongside of this collection of mistakes in Coherence of sentences show the pupils the best examples of tight-jointed sentences to be found in the literature they are studying. Point out how these sentences have been made to hold together, and how their own shambling creations can be corrected. Some teachers will fear the amount of literature required. It may seem large, especially in the first two years. It certainly would be quite impossible to read aloud in class all of this. However, that is not intended. There would be but sorry progress either in the course of study or in the power to analyze literature if the class time were taken up with oral reading of narration and description. The whole of a short story or one or two chapters of a novel are not too much for a lesson. The discussion of the meaning and the method of the author should take up the largest part of the time. Then such portions should be read aloud as are especially suited to an exercise in oral reading. In this way the apparently large list will be easily covered within the time. Moreover, there is distinct gain in reading much. If only three or four pages be given for a lesson, the study of literature degenerates into a study of words. A study of words is necessary, but it is only a part of the study of literature. Such a method of study gives the pupil no sense of values. He does not get out into the wide spaces of the author's thought, but is eternally hedged about by the dwarfing barriers of etymology and grammar. B. THE FORM OF A COMPOSITION. THE MARGIN. It is the custom to leave a margin of about an inch at the left side of the page. In this margin the corrections should be written, not in the composition. There should be no margin at the right. The device of writing incomplete lines, or of making each sentence a paragraph, is sometimes adopted by young persons in the hope of deceiving the teacher as to the length of the composition. Remember that pages do not count for literature any more than yards of hideous advertising boards count as art. Write a full page with a straight-lined margin at the left. INDENTION. To designate the beginning of a new paragraph, it is customary to have the first line begin an inch farther in than the other lines. This indention of the margin and the incomplete line at the end mark the visible limits of the paragraph. THE HEADING. The heading or title of the composition should be written about an inch and a half from the top of the page, and well placed in the middle from left to right. There should be a blank line between the title and the beginning of the composition. Some persons prefer, in addition to the title, the name of the writer and the date of writing,--an unnecessary addition, it seems to me. If they are to appear, the name should be at the left and the date at the right, both on one line. The title will be on the next line below. Jay Phillips. Jan. 27, 1900. The Circus-Man's Story. "There was once an old man whom they called a wizard, and who lived in a great cave by the sea and raised dragons. Now when I was a very little boy, I had read a great deal about this old man and felt as if he were quite a friend of mine. I had planned for a long time to pay him a visit, although I had not decided just when I should start. But the day Jim White's father brought him that camel, I was crazy to be after my dragon at once. "When bedtime came, I had made all my plans; and scarcely had Nurse turned her back when I was on my way. It was really very far, but I traveled so swiftly that I arrived in a remarkably short time at the wizard's house. When I rapped, he opened the door and asked me in. "'I came to see if you had any dragons left,' I told him. 'I should like a very good, gentle dragon,' I added, 'that would not scare Nurse; and if it is isn't too much trouble, I should want one that I could ride.'" THE INDORSEMENT. When the composition is finished, it should be folded but once up and down the middle of the page. The indorsement upon the back is generally written toward the edges of the leaves, not toward the folded edge. I prefer the other way, however; and for this reason. If in a bunch of essays a teacher is searching for a particular one, she generally holds them in the left hand and with the fingers of the right lifts one essay after another. Indorsing toward the folded edge insures lifting a whole essay every time; while if the edges of the leaves be toward the right hand, too many or too few may be lifted. The indorsement should contain: first, the name of the writer; second, the term and period of his recitation; third, the title of the essay; and fourth, the date. In describing the class and period, it is well to use a Roman numeral for the term, counting two terms in each year, and an Arabic numeral to denote the period of his recitation. ||============================= || | || Jay Phillips. | || | || II, 3. | || | || The Circus-Man's Story. | || | || Jan. 27, 1900. | | | - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - PENMANSHIP. The penmanship should be neat and legible. Not all persons can write elegantly; but all can write so that their work can be easily read, and all can make a clean page. Scribbling is due to carelessness. A scribbled page points to a scribbling mind; clean-cut handwriting, perhaps not Spencerian, but a clear, legible handwriting is not only an indication of clear-cut thinking but a means and promoter of accurate thought. Moreover, as a business proposition, one cannot afford to become a slovenly penman. Every composition should be a lesson in penmanship, and by so much improve one's chances in the business world. And last, the teacher who has to read and correct the compositions of from one hundred to two hundred persons each week demands some consideration. No one but a teacher knows the drudgery of this work; it can be much lightened if each pupil writes so that the composition can be read without difficulty. By doing this, the pupil is sure of better criticism; for the teacher can give all her attention to the composition, none being demanded for the penmanship. C. MARKS FOR CORRECTION OF COMPOSITIONS. In correcting compositions certain abbreviations will save a teacher much time. Some of the common ones are given below. Underscore the element that needs correcting, and put the abbreviation in the margin. In case the whole paragraph needs remodeling, draw a line at its side and note the correction in the margin. Cap. Use a capital letter. l. c. Use a small letter. D. See the dictionary for the correct use of the word. Sp. Spelling. Gr. A mistake in grammatical use of language. Cnst. The construction of the sentence is awkward or unidiomatic. Cl. Not clear. The remedy may be suggested by reference to certain pages of the text. W. Weak. As above, point out the trouble by a page reference. Rep. Repetition is monotonous; or it may be necessary for clearness. p. Punctuation. Cond. Condense. Exp. Expand. Tr. Transpose. ? Some fault not designated. It is well to use page reference. ¶ Make a new paragraph. No ¶ Unite into one paragraph. [Greek lower-case delta] Cut out. ^ There is something omitted. In addition to the above very common corrections, many others should be made. Instead of abbreviations, it will be better to refer the pupil to the page of the book which treats of the special fault. For instance, if there be an unexpected change of construction, underscore it, and write in the margin "226;" on this page is found "parallel construction" of sentences. It may be well to use the letters U., C., and M., in connection with the page numbers to indicate that the fault is in the unity, coherence, or mass of the element to be corrected. The constant reference to the fuller statement of the principles violated will serve to fix them in the mind. D. PUNCTUATION. Punctuation seeks to do for written composition what inflections and pauses accomplish in vocal expression. It makes clear what kind of an expression the whole sentence is: whether declarative, exclamatory, or interrogative. And it assists in indicating the relations of the different parts within a sentence. While there is practically uniformity in the method of punctuation at the end of a sentence, within a sentence punctuation shows much variety of method. Where one person uses a comma, another inserts a semicolon; and where one finds a semicolon sufficient, another requires a colon. It should be remembered that the parts of a sentence have not equal rank; and that the difference in rank should, as far as possible, be indicated by the marks of punctuation. Keeping in mind, also, the fact that the internal marks of punctuation,--the colon, the semicolon, and the comma,--have a rank in the order mentioned, from the greatest to the least, a writer will use the stronger marks when the rank of the parts of a sentence demands them, and the weaker marks to separate the lesser elements of the sentence. The sentences below illustrate the variety which may be practiced, and the use of punctuation to show the relation and rank of the elements of a sentence. 1. Internal punctuation is largely a matter of taste but there are definite rules for final punctuation. 2. Internal punctuation is largely a matter of taste; there are, however, definite rules for final punctuation. 3. Internal punctuation, the purpose of which is to group phrases and clauses which belong together and to separate those which do not belong together, and to indicate the relative rank of the parts separated, is, to a great extent, a matter of taste: on the other hand, there are definite rules for final punctuation, the object of which is to separate sentences, and also to assist in telling what kind of a sentence precedes it; that is, whether it be declarative, interrogative, or exclamatory. Looking at the first sentence, we find two elements of equal rank separated by a comma. Some authors would prefer no punctuation at all in a sentence as short as this. Again, if one wished to make the two elements very independent, he would use a semicolon. There would be but little difference in meaning between no punctuation and a comma; but there is a wide difference in meaning between no punctuation and a semicolon. The independence caused by the use of the semicolon is felt in the second sentence, where the words are the same except one. In this sentence a colon might be used; and one might go so far as to make two sentences of it. Notice that in these two sentences the question is how independent you wish the elements to be, and it is also a question of taste. In the third sentence, there are elements of different rank. To indicate the rank, punctuation of different value must be introduced. The two independent elements are separated by a colon. A semicolon might be used, if a semicolon were not used within the second independent element. This renders the greater mark necessary. Look at the commas in the first independent element. The assertion is that "internal punctuation is a matter of taste." This is too sweeping. It is modified by an explanatory phrase, "to a large extent;" and this phrase is inclosed by commas. Moreover, the long clause indicating the purpose of internal punctuation is inclosed by commas. The use of a semicolon in the second part falls under the third rule for the semicolon. If one should substitute for this semicolon a comma and a dash, he could use a semicolon instead of a colon for separating the two main divisions of the sentence. However, the method in which they are first punctuated is in accord with the rules generally accepted. The simplest of these rules are given below but one must never be surprised to find a piece of literature in which the internal punctuation is at variance with these rules. CAPITAL LETTERS. 1. A capital letter begins every new sentence. 2. A capital letter begins every line of poetry. 3. All names of Deity begin with a capital letter. 4. All proper names begin with capital letters. 5. All adjectives derived from proper nouns begin with capital letters. 6. The first word of every direct quotation begins with a capital letter. 7. Most abbreviations use capital letters. COMMAS. 8. A series of words or a series of phrases, performing similar functions in a sentence, are separated from each other by commas, unless all the connectives are expressed. "Her voice was ever soft, Gentle, and low,--an excellent thing in woman." "Good my lord, You have begot me, bred me, loved me: I Return those duties back as are right fit, Obey you, love you, and most honor you." But, "shining and tall and fair and straight," because all the connectives are expressed. 9. Words out of their natural order are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. "To the unlearned, punctuation is a matter of chance." 10. Words and phrases, either explanatory or slightly parenthetical, are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. "Then poor Cordelia! And yet not so; since, I am sure, my love 's More richer than my tongue." However when phrases and clauses are quite parenthetic, they are separated from the remainder of the sentence by parentheses, or by commas and dashes. The comma and dash is more common, and generally indicates a lesser independence of the inclosed element. "Then Miss Gunns smiled stiffly, and thought what a pity it was that these rich country people, who could afford to buy such good clothes (really Miss Nancy's lace and silk were very costly), should be brought up in utter ignorance and vulgarity." 11. The nominative of direct address, and phrases in the nominative absolute construction are cut off by commas. "Goneril, Our eldest born, speak first." "The ridges being taken, the troops advanced a thousand yards." 12. Appositive words and phrases are separated from the remainder of the sentence by commas. "In the early years of this century, such a linen weaver, named Silas Marner, worked at his vocation, in a stone cottage that stood among the nutty hedgerows near the village of Raveloe, and not far from the edge of a deserted stone-pit." 13. When words are omitted, the omission is indicated by the use of a comma. "Fairest Cordelia, that art most rich, being poor; Most choice, forsaken; and most loved, despis'd!" 14. A comma is used before a short and informal quotation. "In the bitterness of his wounded spirit, he said to himself, '_She_ will cast me off too.'" 15. A comma is used to separate the independent clauses of a compound sentence sufficiently involved to necessitate some mark of punctuation, and yet not involved enough to require marks of different ranks. "But about the Christmas of the fifteenth year a second great change came over Marner's life, and his history became blent in a singular manner with the life of his neighbors." 6. Small groups of more closely related words are inclosed by commas to indicate their near relation and to separate them from words they might otherwise be thought to modify. "In this strange world, made a hopeless riddle to him, he might, if he had had a less intense nature, have sat weaving, weaving--looking towards the end of his pattern, or towards the end of his web, till he forgot the riddle, and everything else but his immediate sensations; but the money had come to mark off his weaving into periods, and the money not only grew, but it remained with him." SEMICOLONS. 17. A semicolon is used to separate the parts of a compound sentence if they are involved, or contain commas. It is also used to give independence to the members of a compound sentence when not very complex. "The meadow was searched in vain; and he got over the stile into the next field, looking with dying hope towards a small pond which was now reduced to its summer shallowness, so as to leave a wide margin of good adhesive mud." "As for the child, he would see that it was cared for; he would never forsake it; he would do everything but own it." 18. Semicolons are used to separate a series of clauses in much the same way as commas are used to separate a series of words. "I love you more than words can wield the matter; Dearer than eyesight, space, and liberty; Beyond what can be valued, rich or rare; No less than life, with grace, health, beauty, honor; As much as child e'er loved, or father found; A love that makes breath poor, and speech unable; Beyond all manner of so much I love thee." 19. A semicolon is generally used to introduce a clause of repetition, a clause stating the obverse, and a clause stating an inference. (Many examples of the last two rules will be found in the discussion of compound sentences on pages 202, 203.) COLONS. 20. A colon is used to introduce a formal quotation. It is frequently followed by a dash. "Under date of November 28, 1860, she wrote to a friend:-- "'I am engaged now in writing a story--the idea of which came to me after our arrival in this house, and which has thrust itself between me and the other book I was meditating. It is Silas Manner, the Weaver of Raveloe.'" "On the last day of the same year she wrote: 'I am writing a story which came across my other plans by a sudden inspiration, etc.'" 21. A colon is used to introduce a series of particulars, either appositional or explanatory, which the reader has been led to expect by the first clause of the sentence. These particulars are separated from each other by semicolons. "The study of the principles of composition should include the following subjects: a study of words as to their origin and meaning; a study of the structure of the sentence and of the larger elements of discourse--in other words, of concrete logic; a study of the principles of effective literary composition, as illustrated in the various divisions of literature; and also a study of the æsthetics of literature." "What John Morley once said of literature as a whole is even more accurate when applied to fiction alone: its purpose is 'to bring sunshine into our hearts and to drive moonshine out of our heads.'" 22. A colon is used to separate the major parts of a very complex and involved sentence, if the major parts, or either of them, contain within themselves semicolons. "For four years he had thought of Nancy Lammeter, and wooed her with a tacit patient worship, as the woman who made him think of the future with joy: she would be his wife, and would make home lovely to him, as his father's home had never been; and it would be easy, when she was always near, to shake off those foolish habits that were no pleasures, but only a feverish way of annulling vacancy." 23. A colon is sometimes used to mark a strong independence in the parts of a compound sentence. "He didn't want to give Godfrey that pleasure: he preferred that Master Godfrey should be vexed." THE DASH. 24. A dash is frequently used with a colon to introduce a formal quotation. The quotation then begins a new paragraph. (Example under colon.) 25. A dash is used alone or with a comma to inclose a phrase or clause which is parenthetic or explanatory. "'But as for being ugly, look at me, child, in this silver-colored silk--I told you how it 'ud be--I look as yallow as a daffadil.'" (Example under comma.) 26. A dash is used to denote a sudden turn of the thought. "I've no opinion of the men, Miss Gunn--I don't know what _you_ have." "'It does make her look funny, though--partly like a short-necked bottle wi' a long quill in it." 27. A dash is frequently used when the composition should be interrupted to indicate the intensity of the emotion. "No--no--I can't part with it, I can't let it go,' said Silas abruptly. 'It's come to me--I've a right to keep it.'" "And my poor fool is hang'd! No, no, no life! Why should a dog, a horse, a rat, have life, And thou no breath at all? Thou'lt come no more, Never, never, never, never, never!-- Pray you, undo this button:--thank you, sir.-- Do you see this? Look on her,--look,--her lips,-- Look there, look there!"-- 28. A dash is sometimes used alone before an appositive phrase or clause. "For the first time he determined to try the coal-hole--a small closet near the hearth." PERIOD, EXCLAMATION POINT, INTERROGATION MARK. 29. A period closes every declarative sentence. 30. A period is used after abbreviations. 31. An exclamation point follows an expression of strong emotion. 32. An interrogation mark follows a direct question. 33. An interrogation mark is sometimes used in the body of a sentence, when the writer wishes to make the assertion forceful and uses a rhetorical question for the purpose. "The shepherd's dog barked fiercely when one of these alien-looking men appeared on the upland, dark against the early winter sunset; for what dog likes a figure bent under a heavy bag?--and these pale men rarely stirred abroad without that mysterious burden." 34. Quotation marks inclose every quotation of the exact words of another. When one quotation is made within another, the inner or secondary quotation is inclosed with single marks, the main or outer quotation is included within the double marks. (Examples of both may be found above.) SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING PUNCTUATION. At the time the pupils are studying the rules for punctuation they are reading Hawthorne or some other author equally careful of his punctuation. In his writing they will find numerous examples of the rules for punctuation. Let them take five rules for the comma, finding all the examples in five pages of text. In the same way furnish semicolons, colons, and dashes. When the rules have all been learned, they should be able to give the reason for every mark they find in literature. Next place upon the board paragraphs not punctuated, and have the pupils punctuate them. Remember that there is not absolute uniformity in the use of the comma, semicolon, and colon; though in each author there is a general adherence to the principles he adopts. Punctuation should be consistent. Insist that the pupil punctuate his written work consistently. E. SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF LITERATURE.[57] HAWTHORNE . . . . . . . A Wonder-Book for Girls and Boys. TENNYSON. . . . . . . . Enoch Arden. LONGFELLOW. . . . . . . Tales of a Wayside Inn. WHITTIER. . . . . . . . The Tent on the Beach. MACAULAY. . . . . . . . Lays of Ancient Rome. DICKENS . . . . . . . . A Christmas Carol. KIPLING . . . . . . . . Wee Willie Winkie, and Other Stories. KIPLING . . . . . . . . The Jungle Books. HAWTHORNE . . . . . . . Twice-Told Tales. HAWTHORNE . . . . . . . Mosses from an Old Manse. DICKENS . . . . . . . . The Cricket on the Hearth. BROWN . . . . . . . . . Rab and his Friends. OUIDA . . . . . . . . . A Dog of Flanders. HALE. . . . . . . . . . The Man without a Country. DEFOE . . . . . . . . . Robinson Crusoe. POE . . . . . . . . . . The Gold-Bug. SCOTT . . . . . . . . . Marmion. SCOTT . . . . . . . . . The Lady of the Lake. BROWNING. . . . . . . . Hervé Riel, an Incident of the French Camp, and other Narrative Poems. FRANKLIN. . . . . . . . Autobiography. COOPER. . . . . . . . . The Last of the Mohicans. LONGFELLOW. . . . . . . Evangeline. LONGFELLOW. . . . . . . Miles Standish. DAVIS . . . . . . . . . Gallegher, and Other Stories. MAUPASSANT. . . . . . . Number Thirteen. MISS WILKINS. . . . . . Short Stories. MISS JEWETT . . . . . . Short Stories. POPE. . . . . . . . . . The Iliad. ALDRICH . . . . . . . . Marjorie Daw. LOWELL. . . . . . . . . The Vision of Sir Launfal, and Other Poems. IRVING. . . . . . . . . Tales of a Traveller. IRVING. . . . . . . . . The Sketch Book. POE . . . . . . . . . . The Fall of the House of Usher. WHITTIER. . . . . . . . Snow-Bound. BURROUGHS . . . . . . . Sharp Eyes; Birds and Bees; Pepacton. GOLDSMITH . . . . . . . The Deserted Village. SCOTT . . . . . . . . . Ivanhoe. DICKENS . . . . . . . . David Copperfield. SHAKESPEARE . . . . . . Julius Cæsar. SHAKESPEARE . . . . . . The Merchant of Venice. IRVING. . . . . . . . . Rip Van Winkle. IRVING. . . . . . . . . The Legend of Sleepy Hollow. BRYANT. . . . . . . . . Selected Poems. GRAY. . . . . . . . . . An Elegy in a Country Churchyard. TENNYSON. . . . . . . . The Princess; Idylls of the King. DICKENS . . . . . . . . The Pickwick Papers. BURNS . . . . . . . . . Selected Poems. DRYDEN. . . . . . . . . Alexander's Feast. BYRON . . . . . . . . . Childe Harold. GEORGE ELIOT. . . . . . Silas Marner. COLERIDGE . . . . . . . The Rime of the Ancient Mariner. MACAULAY. . . . . . . . Essay on Milton. RUSKIN. . . . . . . . . Sesame and Lilies. EMERSON . . . . . . . . Friendship; Self-Reliance; Fortune of the Republic; The American Scholar. ARNOLD. . . . . . . . . On the Study of Poetry; Wordsworth and Keats. LOWELL. . . . . . . . . Emerson, the Lecturer; Milton; Books and Libraries. HOLMES. . . . . . . . . The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table. ADDISON . . . . . . . . The Sir Roger de Coverley Papers. WORDSWORTH. . . . . . . Intimations of Immortality, and Other Poems. KEATS . . . . . . . . . Selected Poems. SHELLEY . . . . . . . . Selected Poems. SHAKESPEARE . . . . . . Macbeth. SHAKESPEARE . . . . . . A Midsummer Night's Dream. SHAKESPEARE . . . . . . As You Like It. WEBSTER . . . . . . . . Bunker Hill Monument Oration; Adams and Jefferson. GOLDSMITH . . . . . . . The Vicar of Wakefield. MILTON. . . . . . . . . L'Allegro; Il Penseroso; Comus; Lycidas. DE QUINCEY. . . . . . . Confessions of an English Opium Eater, and Other Papers. JOHN HENRY NEWMAN . . . Selected Essays. THACKERAY . . . . . . . Henry Esmond. STEVENSON . . . . . . . Virginibus Puerisque. STEVENSON . . . . . . . Memories and Portraits. SCHURZ. . . . . . . . . Abraham Lincoln. GEORGE WILLIAM CURTIS . Selected Addresses. CHARLES LAMB. . . . . . Essays of Elia. STEVENSON . . . . . . . Travels with a Donkey. STEVENSON . . . . . . . An Inland Voyage. BURKE . . . . . . . . . Conciliation with the Colonies. LINCOLN . . . . . . . . Cooper Union Address; Gettysburg Speech. CHAUCER . . . . . . . . Prologue, and Two Canterbury Tales. MILTON. . . . . . . . . Paradise Lost, and Sonnets. CARLYLE . . . . . . . . Essay on Burns. TENNYSON. . . . . . . . In Memoriam, and Lyrics. BROWNING. . . . . . . . Rabbi Ben Ezra; Saul; A Grammarian's Funeral. THOREAU . . . . . . . . Walden. AUSTEN. . . . . . . . . Pride and Prejudice. GEORGE ELIOT. . . . . . Romola. SHAKESPEARE . . . . . . King Lear. SHAKESPEARE . . . . . . Hamlet. MACAULAY. . . . . . . . Essay on Johnson. THACKERAY . . . . . . . Vanity Fair. LOWELL. . . . . . . . . Democracy; Lincoln. STEVENSON . . . . . . . Lantern Bearers; A Humble Remonstrance; Gossip about Romance. * * * * * INDEX Abstract vs. concrete, 89, 90. "Adams and Jefferson," Webster's, quotation from, 176. Adjectives, 78. "Alice in Wonderland," a story without facts, 25. Allegory, 261. Allusion, 263. Amphibrach, 273. Analogy, use of, 137. Anapest, defined, 273; interchangeable with iambus, 278. "And," use of, 192. Andersen, Hans Christian, his "Tannenbaum," 12. Anecdotes in exposition, 97. "Annabel Lee," quotations from, 271, 278, 279. Anti-climax, 210. Antithesis, 227. "Apologia," Newman's, quotation from, 160. Apostrophe, 261. Argument, 4, 128-137; from cause, 133; sign, 133-137; example, 137. Arnold, Matthew, quotation from, 159; quotation to illustrate repetition, 167; to illustrate sentence structure, 222. Arrangement, in narration, 29-32; description, 74, 75; exposition, 108-114; argument, 138-141; sentence, 222, 223. Association of ideas, 103. "Autumn Effect, An," quotation from, 17. "Baa, Baa, Black Sheep," its purpose, 7; beginning, 29; length of sentences in, 33; time for the action, 36. Balanced sentences, 227, 228. Ballad, defined, 285. "Barbara Frietchie," a narrative poem, 4. Bates, Arlo, quoted, 35. Beauty, gained by use of figurative language, 258. Beginning of a story, 29. Bellamy, Edward, his "Looking Backward," 7. "Biglow Papers," quotation from, 51. "Birthmark," Hawthorne's, 24. Blake, William, "Tiger, Tiger," quoted, 282, 283. "Bonnie Brier Bush, Beside the," 25. Bookish words, 242. "Break, Break, Break," quotation from, 283. "Bridge of Sighs, The," quotation from, 270. Brief in argument, 138, 139. Browning, Robert, vivid narration of, 23. "Burial of Sir John Moore, The," quotation from, 277. Burke, Edmund, quotation from his speech on "Conciliation with the Colonies," 116; that speech analyzed, 142-147; quotations to illustrate paragraph structure, 171, 175, 177, 188; quotations to show sentence structure, 200, 209, 214, 226. Burroughs, John, his knowledge of his field, 9; quotations from, 158, 160. "But," use of, 192. Capital letters, 303. Cause and effect, 133-136. Characters, number of, 35. Chaucer, Geoffrey, quotation from, 245. Choice of subject, 8-12. Choice of words, 78-80, 239-255. "Cinderella," 12. Clearness and coherence, 180-193, 224, 225. Clearness gained by use of figurative language, 258. Climax, 139-141, 211, 218; defined, 262. Coherence, 20; in narration, 31, 32; in description, 74, 75; in exposition, 116-118; in paragraphs, 180-193; in sentences, 224, 225. Colons, 306, 307. Comedy, 286. Commas, 303, 304. Comparisons, use of, 77, 98; paragraph of, 165; confusion of, 259. Composition, 1; oral and written, 2; conventions of, 2. "Conciliation with the Colonies," Burke's speech on, quoted, 116, 171, 175, 177, 188, 214, 226; analyzed, 142-147. Conclusion of a story, 23. Concrete facts, use of, 89, 90. Conjunctions, use of, 190, 191. Connectives in sentences, 228, 229. Consistency, 25. Cooke, Josiah P., his essay on "Fire," 8. "Copyright," quotations from Macaulay's speech on, 159, 172. Correction, marks for, 300. Curtis, George William, quoted, 111. Dactyl, defined, 272; interchangeable with trochee, 278. "Daisy, The," Wordsworth's quotation from, 274. "Darkness and Dawn," 8. Dash, 307, 308. "David Copperfield," description quoted from, 65. "David Harum," its construction criticised, 22. Davis, Richard Harding, small number of characters in his books, 35; simple plot in his "Gallegher," 36. Deduction, 129. Definition, a, 91-94. Description, 4, 49-80; an aid to narration, 34; and exposition, 91. Description and painting, 50. Details, in narration, 22-25; paragraph of, 163. Dickens, Charles, his "Nicholas Nickleby" as an exposition, 5; description from his "David Copperfield" quoted, 65; quotations from Mr. Micawber's conversation, 253. Dictionary, use of, 237. Differentia, 92, 93. Digression, 22. Dimeter, 274. Discourse, forms of, 3-7. "Discussions and Arguments," Newman's, quotation from, 97. Dramatic poetry, 286. Dynamic point of sentence, 221. Elegy, the, 285. Eliot, George, her "Silas Marner," 13; quotation from, 152-156. Emerson, Ralph Waldo, primarily an essayist, 9. Emotional statement, 115. Emphasis, how secured, 110-112, 115, 116, 217-219. End of a paragraph, 175-179; of a sentence, 208-212. "English Composition," Wendell's, quotation from, 94. Enthymeme, 130. Enumeration _vs._ suggestion, 52. Enumerative description, 54. Epic, the, 284. Epithet, 260. "Evangeline," quotation from, 277, 278. Events, order of, 29, 30. Everett, Edward, description from, quoted, 71. Examples, paragraph of, 171. Exclamation, 262. Exclamation point, 308. Exclusion of details, 22, 23, 26. Exposition, 4, 89-120; and description, 91. Facts in stories, 25. "Faerie Queene, The," quotation from, 281. "Fall of the House of Usher, The," descriptions in, 34; quotation from, 69, 71. Familiar images, 76. Farrar, Canon, as a writer of sermons, 8. "Feathertop," 13. Figurative language, 257; value of, 258. Figures of speech, 77, 250, 257-268. Fine writing, 253. "First Snow-Fall, The," quotation from, 274. Fiske, John, his "History of the United States," 25. Foot, a, in poetry, 272; one kind may be substituted for another, 277-281; first and last foot of a verse may be irregular, 281, 282. Force, gained by use of figurative language, 258. Foreign words, 243. Francis I. quoted, 113. "Function of Criticism at the Present Time," Arnold's, quotation from, 222. "Gallegher," simple plot of, 36. General terms, 89, 248-252. Genung, J. F., on paragraph structure, 162. Genus and differentia, 92, 93. "Gold Bug," length of sentences in, 33. Good usage, 222, 223, 239-245. Grant, U. S., his "Memoirs" have no plot, 16. Hackneyed phrases, 253. Haggard, Rider, 12. Hawthorne, Nathaniel, a story writer, 9; his "Feathertop," 13; his descriptions in "The Marble Faun," 34; quoted, 50; quotations from, about "The Old Manse," 58, 59; descriptions from his "House of the Seven Gables" quoted, 66; from "The Old Apple Dealer," 67. Heading of essay, 297. Heptameter, 275. "Hervé Riel" as a piece of narrative, 23. Hexameter, 275. "Hiawatha," quotation from, 270. "Historical Sketches," Newman's, quotation from, 52-54. Hood, Thomas, "The Bridge of Sighs" quoted, 270. "House of the Seven Gables," descriptions quoted from, 66. Hugo, Victor, his description of Waterloo quoted, 67. Huxley, Thomas, example of his use of comparison, 98; quotation from, to illustrate paragraph structure, 161. Hyperbole, 263. Iambus, defined, 272; the common foot of English verse, 272, 279; interchangeable with anapest, 278. "Idea of a University," quotations from, 95, 171, 193, 203, 210, 247. Illustrations, their value, 97. "Impressions de Théâtre," quotation from, 63. "Incident of a French Camp, An," as an example of a short story, 23. Incident, the main, 20, 21. Incidents, order of, 29, 30. Inclusion of material, 24. Indention of paragraph, 297. Individual arrangement of paragraph, 181-188. Individuality of author, 8. Indorsement of essay, 298. Induction, 128, 132. Interest, 11, 12. Interrogation, 262. Interrogation point, 308. Introduction of story, 23. Inversion, 262. Irony, 262. Irrelevant matter, 22, 23. Irving, Washington, as a story writer in the third person, 27; description from, quoted, 54; short characterization quoted, 70; description of a coachman quoted, 75; quotations to illustrate paragraph structure, 164, 183; to illustrate sentence construction, 202, 203, 219, 220, 229. Jonson, Ben, quotation from, 280. "Jungle Books," 12; quotation from, 78. "Kidnapped," quotations from, 15, 165; its unity, 27. "King Lear," its plot, 16; quotation from, 60. Kingsley, Charles, "The Three Fishers" quoted, 271. Kipling, Rudyard, his "Baa, Baa, Black Sheep," 7; his "Jungle Books," 12; his use of climax, 21; as a story-teller, 22, 27; small number of characters in his stories, 35; quotation from his "Light that Failed," 60; description quoted from his "Jungle Books," 78; quotation to illustrate sentence construction, 201; his "L'Envoi" quoted, 252. "Lady of the Lake, The," quotation from, 269. Language _vs._ painting, 49-52. Lanier, Sidney, "The Science of English Verse," cited, 269; quoted, 273. Latin words, 245-248. Le Gallienne, Richard, his essay on pigs, 10; quoted, 257. "Legend of Sleepy Hollow, The," 27, 29; description in, 34; quotation from to show paragraph structure, 163, 183; to show sentence structure, 202, 219. Lemaître, Jules, criticism of Zola quoted, 63. Length, of a description, 63, 64; of a paragraph, 151-156; of a sentence, 178, 179, 204, 205. "L'Envoi" to "The Seven Seas," quoted, 252. "Les Misérables," its intricate plot, 16; quotation from, 67. "Light that Failed, The," quotation from, 60. "Little Dorrit," large number of characters in, 35. "Little Red Riding Hood," 12. Logical definition, 91. "London Bridge," quotation from, 282. Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, "Hiawatha" quoted, 270; "Evangeline" quoted, 277, 278; "The Village Blacksmith" quoted, 279, 280. "Looking Backward," as a novel with a purpose, 7. Loose sentences, 212, 214, 215. Lovelace, Richard, quoted, 112. Lowell, James Russell, his "Sir Launfal," 13; quotation from "Biglow Papers," 51; from a "Song," 52; from "To W. L. Garrison," 89; from "The First Snow-Fall," 274. Lyric poetry, 285. Lytton, Lord, quotation from, 241. Macaulay, Lord, quotation on Milton from, 96; quotation to illustrate comparison, 98; his essay on "Milton" analyzed, 106; last sentence of that essay quoted, 111; that essay as an example of proportion in treatment, 114; his denunciation of Charles I. quoted, 115; further quotations from his "Milton," 117; his speeches on "Copyright" and the "Reform Bill" quoted, 159, 172, 193; quotations from the "Milton" to illustrate paragraph structure, 164, 166, 168, 178, 182, 184. "Macbeth," 13. Maclaren, Ian, 25. Main incident, 20-26. Major term, 129. "Marble Faun, The," description in, 34. Margin of composition, 296. "Marmion," 27, 29; quoted, 276. Mass, 20; in description, 64-75; in exposition, 108-114; in paragraphs, 174-178; in sentences, 207-212. Masson, David, 104. Maupassant, Guy de, quotation from his "Pierre et Jean," 56; from his "Odd Number," 156. Meredith, George, quotation from, to illustrate paragraph structure, 161; sentence structure, 205. Metaphor, 77, 260. Metonymy, 250, 263. Metre, kinds of, 273-275; variations in, 276. Metrical romance, the, 284. Middle term, 130. "Milton," Macaulay's essay on, quotations from, 96, 98, 111, 115, 117, 119, 164, 166-168, 178, 184; analyzed, 106. Milton, John, quotations from, 241, 245, 248. Minor term, 129. Monometer, 273. Mood in description, 59-62, 67-69. "Mosses from an Old Manse," quotation from, 50. Movement of story, 32, 33. Narration, 4, 13-37. Narrative poetry, 284. National usage, 242. "New Testament," quotation from, 241. Newman, Cardinal, quotation from, about Athens, 52; quotation on theology, 95; quotation to illustrate the use of specific instances in exposition, 97; to illustrate paragraph structure, 160, 171, 177, 193; to show sentence construction, 203, 210; to show use of words, 247. "Nicholas Nickleby," as an exposition of school abuses, 5. Nouns, 78. Number of characters, 35. Observation, its value, 55. Obverse statement, 95, 96; paragraph of, 169-171. Octameter, 275. "Odd Number, The," quotation from, 156. Ode, defined, 285. "OEnone," quotation from, 51. "Old Apple Dealer, The," quotation from, 67. Omniscience of an author, 27. Order of events in stories, 29; of words in sentences, 217-219. Outline, use of, 32, 109, 110, 138, 139, 174. Palmer, Professor G. H., quotations from, on composition writing, 101, 112. "Paradise Lost," quotations from, 241, 245, 248. Paragraphs, 151-195. Parallel construction, 192-194, 226, 227. Particulars in exposition, 96; paragraph of, 163. Penmanship, 300. Pentameter, 274. "Pepacton," 9; quotations from, 158, 160. Period, 308. Periodic sentences, 212-216. Personification, 77, 260. Persuasion, 4. Philippians iv. 8, 241. "Physical Basis of Life," Huxley's, quotations from, 98, 161. "Pierre et Jean," quotation from, 55. "Pilgrim's Progress," 13. Place of a story, 29. Plot, 15-20, 36. Poe, Edgar Allan, his sentences, 33; his use of description in "The Fall of the House of Usher," 34; quotations from that work, 68, 71; "Annabel Lee" quoted, 271, 278, 279. Poetic feet, 272. Poetical words, 254. Poetry, kinds of, 284-286. Point of view, 56-59; change of, 58; mental, 59. Position of words in sentences, 217. "Præterita," Ruskin's, quotations from, 169. Premises, 129; false, 131. "Present Position of Catholics in England," Newman's, quotation from, 177. Present usage of words, 244, 245. "Prince Otto," quotations from, 72, 73. "Princess, The," quotation from, 251. Pronouns, use of, 188, 189. Proportion in description, 73; in exposition, 104-108, 114; in paragraphs, 179. "Prose Fancies," 10. Provincialisms, 242. Purpose, of an author, 6, 7; in description, 59-62. Quotation marks, 308. "Quo Vadis," 7. Rapidity of movement, 32. "Reform Bill," quotation from Macaulay's speech on, 193. Refutation in argument, 141. Repetition, its value, 94; paragraph of, 167. Reputable words, 239-241. "Richard Feverel," quotations from, 161, 205. "Richelieu," quotation from, 241. "Robinson Crusoe," has little plot, 16. Royce, Josiah, quotation from, 242. Ruskin, John, 49; quotation to illustrate building up a paragraph, 169; his "Sesame and Lilies," 239. Saxon words, 245-248. Scale of treatment, 104-108. Scansion, 275-284; requisites for scanning, 283, 284. "Science of English Verse, The," quotation from, 273. Scott, Sir Walter, as a story-teller in the third person, 27; his dull introductory chapters, 31; "The Lady of the Lake" quoted, 269; "Marmion" quoted, 276. Selection of material in narration, 21-28; in description, 56-62; in exposition, 102-104; in argument, 138. "Self-Cultivation in English," quotation from, 101, 112. Semicolons, 202, 203, 305, 306. Sentences, 200-230; simple and compound, 200, 201; long or short, 204, 205. Sequence of events, 29, 30. Serial arrangement of paragraph, 181-188. "Sesame and Lilies," 239. Sienkiewicz, Henry, his "Quo Vadis," 7. "Silas Marner," written for a purpose, 13; example of a plot, 20; time consumed in the story, 36; quotation to show paragraph length, 152-156. Simile, 77, 261. Sing-song, natural tendency toward, 269, 276. Slang, 240. Slowness of movement, 33. "Snow-Bound," narrative or descriptive?, 4. Song defined, 285. Sonnet defined, 285. Specific words, 248-252. Spencer, Herbert, on the philosophy of the periodic sentence, 212. Spenser, Edmund, "The Faerie Queene" quoted, 281. "Spirit of Modern Philosophy," Royce's, quotation from, 242. Spondee, 273. Stanza, 275. Stedman, E. C., an authority on literature, 9. Stevenson, Robert Louis, his "Treasure Island" and "Travels with a Donkey" as narratives, 4; quotation from "Kidnapped," 15; his "An Autumn Effect" quoted, 17; unity in his stories, 27; descriptions from, quoted, 62, 72; examples of personification from, 77; his unusual use of words, 79; quotation to show paragraph structure, 165. Subdual of subordinate parts, 219. Subject, 8-12; common, 11; interesting, 11; in exposition, 99, 100. Suggestion _vs._ enumeration, 52. Suggestions to teachers, 257-260. Suggestive description, 55. Summary, a, 119. Superlatives, 80. Syllogism, 129-132. Synecdoche, 250, 263. "Tannenbaum," 12. Technical words, 242. Tennyson, Lord, quotations from, 51, 251, 283. Terms of syllogism, 129, 130. Testimony, 136. Tetrameter, 274. Thackeray, W. M., quotation from, 157. Theme in exposition, 100, 101. "Three Fishers, The," quotation from, 271. "Tiger, Tiger," quotation from, 283. Time of story, 35. Title in exposition, 102. "To W. L. Garrison," quotation from, 89. Topic-sentence, 157; its position, 157-161. Tragedy, 286. Transitions, 118, 119. "Travels with a Donkey," narrative or descriptive? 4; absence of plot, 17; quotations from, 62, 65, 157. "Treasure Island," a narrative, 4; plot simple, 16. Trimeter, 274. Trochee, defined, 272; interchangeable with dactyl, 278. Type-form of paragraph, 162. "Ugly Duckling, The," 25. Undistributed middle, 131. Unity, 20; in narration, 21, 22; in description, 56-64; in exposition, 102, 103; in argument, 138; in paragraphs, 173; in sentences, 205. "Uses of Astronomy, The," quotation from, 72. Value of observation, 55. "Vanity Fair," example of a plot, 19; quotation from, 157. Variations in metre, 276-284. Verbs in description, 79. Verne, Jules, 12. Verse, a, definition of, 273; how named, 275. Verse forms, 269-291. "Village Blacksmith, The," quotation from, 279, 280. "Vision of Sir Launfal, The," 13; quotation from, 67. Vocabulary, need of, 236. Vulgarisms, 240. "Wake Robin," 9. Webster, Daniel, quotation from, to illustrate paragraph structure, 176; his use of words, 247. "Wee Willie Winkie," its climax, 21. Wendell, Barrett, quotation on printed words from, 94. Whittier, John G., his "Barbara Frietchie" and "Snow-Bound" as narratives, 4. Wilkins, Miss, small number of characters in her books, 35. Wolfe, Charles, "The Burial of Sir John Moore" quoted, 277. Words, 235-256; choice of, 78, 79, 80, 254-260; reputable, 240, 241; national, 242; in present use, 244, 245; Latin and Saxon, 245-248; general and specific, 248-252. "Wordsworth," Arnold's essay on, quotations from, 158, 167; "The Daisy" quoted, 274. * * * * * FOOTNOTES 1. See pp. 13, 14, of the Report of Committee on College Entrance Requirements. 2. See the first essay in _Prose Fancies._ 3. Unless otherwise stated, all page references are to the Riverside Literature Series. 4. _Biglow Papers,_ No. X. 5. Tennyson's _OEnone._ 6. _Historical Sketches,_ by Cardinal Newman. 7. _Pierre et Jean,_ by Maupassant. Quoted from Bates's _Talks on Writing English._ 8. _Impressions de Théâtre,_ by Jules Lemaître. 9. _The Marble Faun,_ by Nathaniel Hawthorne. 10. _Travels with a Donkey,_ by R. L. Stevenson. 11. _Les Misérables,_ by Victor Hugo. 12. _The Stage Coach,_ in Irving's _Sketch Book._ 13. _The Jungle Book,_ by Rudyard Kipling. 14. _To W. L. Garrison,_ by J. R. Lowell. 15. _Idea of a University,_ by Cardinal Newman. 16. _Essay on Milton,_ by Lord Macaulay. 17. _Discussions and Arguments._ 18. _Essay on Milton._ 19. _The Physical Basis of Life,_ by T. H. Huxley. 20. _Self-Cultivation in English,_ by Professor G. H. Palmer. 21. Speech on _Conciliation with the Colonies,_ by Burke. 22. A text-book on Logic, such as Jevons's, should be used to illustrate the kinds of argument more fully. 23. _Silas Marner,_ by George Eliot. 24. _The Odd Number,_ by Guy de Maupassant. 25. _Vanity Fair,_ by W. M. Thackeray. 26. _Idyl of the Honey-Bee,_ from Burroughs's _Pepacton._ 27. _Essay on Wordsworth,_ by Matthew Arnold. 28. Speech on _Copyright,_ by Lord Macaulay. 29. _Idyl of the Honey-Bee,_ from Burroughs's _Pepacton._ 30. _The Physical Basis of Life,_ by T. H. Huxley. 31. See Scott and Denney's _Composition-Rhetoric._ 32. _Legend of Sleepy Hollow,_ by W. Irving. 33. _Essay on Milton,_ by Lord Macaulay. 34. _Kidnapped,_ by R. L. Stevenson. 35. _Præterita,_ by John Ruskin. 36. Speech on _Conciliation with the Colonies,_ by Burke. 37. Barrett Wendell's _English Composition._ 38. Oration on _Adams and Jefferson,_ by Daniel Webster. 39. _Present Position of Catholics in England,_ by Cardinal Newman. 40. Speech on _Conciliation with the Colonies,_ by Burke. 41. Speech on the _Reform Bill of 1832,_ by Lord Macaulay. 42. _Idea of a University,_ by Cardinal Newman. 43. _Legend of Sleepy Hollow,_ by W. Irving. 44. _Idea of a University,_ by Cardinal Newman. 45. _Idea of a University,_ by Cardinal Newman. 46. _Speech on Conciliation with the Colonies,_ by Burke. 47. _Legend of Sleepy Hollow,_ by W. Irving. 48. _Function of Criticism at the Present Time,_ by Matthew Arnold. 49. _Speech on Conciliation with the Colonies,_ by Burke. 50. _The Spirit of Modern Philosophy,_ by Josiah Royce. 51. See Lowell's _Biglow Papers,_ Introduction to Second Series. 52. _Idea of a University,_ by Cardinal Newman. 53. From _The Princess: a Medley,_ Part IV. 54. From _The Seven Seas,_ published by D. Appleton & Co., New York. Copyright, 1896, by Rudyard Kipling. 55. In any piece of literature there are many figures. The following should be used only to make pupils familiar with varieties of figures. They will find many more in the literature they read. 56. The treatment of this subject is based upon Lanier's _The Science of English Verse._ 57. See p. xix. 
30559	----	produced from scanned images of public domain material from the Google Print project.) Transcriber's note Minor changes have been made to correct typesetter errors; otherwise, every effort has been made to remain true to the authors' words and intent. Characters that could not be displayed directly in Latin-1 are transcribed as follows: [)a], [)e], [)i], [)o], [)y] - breve above letter [=a], [=e], [=i], [=o], [=y] - macron above letter [:a], [:i], [:o], [:u] - umlaut above letter [+s] - tack up below letter [Illustration: David Copperfield at Salem House (See page 23).] READING WITH EXPRESSION EIGHTH READER BY JAMES BALDWIN AUTHOR OF "SCHOOL READING BY GRADES--BALDWIN'S READERS," "HARPER'S READERS," ETC. AND IDA C. BENDER SUPERVISOR OF PRIMARY GRADES, BUFFALO, NEW YORK _EIGHT-BOOK SERIES_ NEW YORK ·:· CINCINNATI ·:· CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY COPYRIGHT, 1911, BY AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY. ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL, LONDON. B. & B. EIGHTH READER. W. P. 2 TO THE TEACHER The paramount design of this series of School Readers is to help young people to acquire the art and the habit of reading well--that is, of interpreting the printed page in such manner as to give pleasure and instruction to themselves and to those who listen to them. In his eighth year at school the pupil is supposed to be able to read, with ease and with some degree of fluency, anything in the English language that may come to his hand; but, that he may read always with the understanding and in a manner pleasing to his hearers and satisfactory to himself, he must still have daily systematic practice in the rendering of selections not too difficult for comprehension and yet embracing various styles of literary workmanship and illustrating the different forms of English composition. The contents of this volume have been chosen and arranged to supply--or, where not supplying, to suggest--the materials for this kind of practice. Particular attention is called both to the high quality and to the wide variety of the selections herein presented. They include specimens of many styles of literary workmanship--the products of the best thought of modern times. It is believed that their study will not only prove interesting to pupils, but will inspire them with a desire to read still more upon the same subjects or from the works of the same authors; for it is only by loving books and learning to know them that any one can become a really good reader. The pupils should be encouraged to seek for and point out the particular passages in each selection that are distinguished for their beauty, their truth, or their peculiar adaptability to the purpose in view. The habit should be cultivated of looking for and enjoying the admirable qualities of any worthy literary production; and special attention should be given to the style of writing which characterizes and gives value to the works of various authors. These points should be the subjects of daily discussions between teacher and pupils. The notes under the head of "Expression," which follow many of the lessons, are intended, not only to aid in securing correctness of expression, but also to afford suggestions for the appreciative reading of the selections and an intelligent comparison of their literary peculiarities. In the study of new, difficult, or unusual words, the pupils should invariably refer to the dictionary. CONTENTS PAGE Brother and Sister _George Eliot_ 11 My Last Day at Salem House _Charles Dickens_ 22 The Departure from Miss Pinkerton's _W. M. Thackeray_ 27 Two Gems from Browning: I. Incident of the French Camp _Robert Browning_ 36 II. Dog Tray _Robert Browning_ 41 The Discovery of America _Washington Irving_ 43 The Glove and the Lions _Leigh Hunt_ 48 St. Francis, the Gentle _William Canton_ 51 The Sermon of St. Francis _Henry W. Longfellow_ 54 In the Woods _John Burroughs_ 56 Bees and Flowers _Arabella B. Buckley_ 59 Song of the River _Abram J. Ryan_ 64 Song of the Chattahoochee _Sidney Lanier_ 66 War and Peace: I. War as the Mother of Valor and Civilization _Andrew Carnegie_ 68 II. Friendship among Nations _Victor Hugo_ 71 III. Soldier, Rest _Sir Walter Scott_ 74 IV. The Soldier's Dream _Thomas Campbell_ 75 V. How Sleep the Brave? _William Collins_ 76 Early Times in New York _Washington Irving_ 77 A Winter Evening in Old New England _J. G. Whittier_ 82 The Old-fashioned Thanksgiving _Donald G. Mitchell_ 84 A Thanksgiving _Robert Herrick_ 92 First Days at Wakefield _Oliver Goldsmith_ 94 Doubting Castle _John Bunyan_ 100 Shooting with the Longbow _Sir Walter Scott_ 108 A Christmas Hymn _Alfred Domett_ 117 Christmas Eve at Fezziwig's _Charles Dickens_ 120 The Christmas Holly _Eliza Cook_ 124 The New Year's Dinner Party _Charles Lamb_ 125 The Town Pump _Nathaniel Hawthorne_ 128 Come up from the Fields, Father _Walt Whitman_ 135 The Address at Gettysburg _Abraham Lincoln_ 139 Ode to the Confederate Dead _Henry Timrod_ 140 The Chariot Race _From Sophocles_ 141 The Coliseum at Midnight _Henry W. Longfellow_ 145 The Deacon's Masterpiece _Oliver Wendell Holmes_ 147 Dogs and Cats _Alexandre Dumas_ 154 The Owl Critic _James T. Fields_ 157 Mrs. Caudle's Umbrella Lecture _Douglas William Jerrold_ 161 The Dark Day in Connecticut _J. G. Whittier_ 164 Two Interesting Letters: I. Columbus to the Lord Treasurer of Spain 167 II. Governor Winslow to a Friend in England 171 Poems of Home and Country: I. "This is My Own, My Native Land" _Sir Walter Scott_ 174 II. The Green Little Shamrock of Ireland _Andrew Cherry_ 175 III. My Heart's in the Highlands _Robert Burns_ 176 IV. The Fatherland _James R. Lowell_ 177 V. Home _Oliver Goldsmith_ 178 The Age of Coal _Agnes Giberne_ 179 Something about the Moon _Richard A. Proctor_ 183 The Coming of the Birds _Ralph Waldo Emerson_ 187 The Return of the Birds _John Burroughs_ 188 The Poet and the Bird: I. The Song of the Lark 193 II. To a Skylark _Percy B. Shelley_ 197 Hark, Hark! the Lark _William Shakespeare_ 201 Echoes of the American Revolution: I. Patrick Henry's Famous Speech 202 II. Marion's Men _W. Gilmore Simms_ 206 III. In Memory of George Washington _Henry Lee_ 209 Three Great American Poems: I. Thanatopsis _William Cullen Bryant_ 213 II. The Bells _Edgar Allan Poe_ 219 III. Marco Bozzaris _Fitz-Greene Halleck_ 224 The Indian _Edward Everett_ 228 National Retribution _Theodore Parker_ 231 Who are Blessed _The Bible_ 233 Little Gems from the Older Poets: I. The Noble Nature _Ben Jonson_ 235 II. A Contented Mind _Joshua Sylvester_ 235 III. A Happy Life _Sir Henry Wotton_ 236 IV. Solitude _Alexander Pope_ 237 V. A Wish _Samuel Rogers_ 238 How King Arthur got his Name _Fiona Macleod_ 239 Antony's Oration over Cæsar's Dead Body _William Shakespeare_ 244 Selections to be Memorized: I. The Prayer Perfect _James Whitcomb Riley_ 250 II. Be Just and Fear Not _William Shakespeare_ 250 III. If I can Live _Author Unknown_ 251 IV. The Bugle Song _Alfred Tennyson_ 251 V. The Ninetieth Psalm _Book of Psalms_ 252 VI. Recessional _Rudyard Kipling_ 253 Proper Names 255 List of Authors 257 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Acknowledgment and thanks are proffered to Andrew Carnegie for permission to reprint in this volume his tract on "War as the Mother of Civilization and Valor"; to the Bobbs-Merrill Company for their courtesy in allowing us to use "The Prayer Perfect," from James Whitcomb Riley's _Rhymes of Childhood_; to David Mackay for the poem by Walt Whitman entitled "Come up from the Fields, Father"; to Charles Scribner's Sons for the "Song of the Chattahoochee," from the _Poems of Sidney Lanier_; and, also, to the same publishers for the selection, "The Old-fashioned Thanksgiving," from _Bound Together_ by Donald G. Mitchell. The selections from John Burroughs, Ralph Waldo Emerson, James T. Fields, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Henry W. Longfellow, and John G. Whittier are used by permission of, and special arrangement with, Houghton Mifflin Company, the authorized publishers of the works of those authors. EIGHTH READER BROTHER AND SISTER[1] I. THE HOME COMING Tom was to arrive early in the afternoon, and there was another fluttering heart besides Maggie's when it was late enough for the sound of the gig wheels to be expected. For if Mrs. Tulliver had a strong feeling, it was fondness for her boy. At last the sound came--that quick light bowling of the gig wheels. "There he is, my sweet lad!" Mrs. Tulliver stood with her arms open; Maggie jumped first on one leg and then on the other; while Tom descended from the gig, and said, with masculine reticence as to the tender emotions, "Hallo! Yap--what! are you there?" Nevertheless he submitted to be kissed willingly enough, though Maggie hung on his neck in rather a strangling fashion, while his blue eyes wandered toward the croft and the lambs and the river, where he promised himself he would begin to fish the first thing to-morrow morning. He was one of those lads that grow everywhere in England, and at twelve or thirteen years of age look as much alike as goslings,--a lad with a physiognomy in which it seems impossible to discern anything but the generic character of boyhood. "Maggie," said Tom, confidentially, taking her into a corner, as soon as his mother was gone out to examine his box, and the warm parlor had taken off the chill he had felt from the long drive, "you don't know what I've got in my pockets," nodding his head up and down as a means of rousing her sense of mystery. "No," said Maggie. "How stodgy they look, Tom! Is it marbles or cobnuts?" Maggie's heart sank a little, because Tom always said it was "no good" playing with her at those games--she played so badly. "Marbles! no; I've swopped all my marbles with the little fellows, and cobnuts are no fun, you silly, only when the nuts are green. But see here!" He drew something half out of his right-hand pocket. "What is it?" said Maggie, in a whisper. "I can see nothing but a bit of yellow." "Why, it's--a--new--guess, Maggie!" "Oh, I can't guess, Tom," said Maggie, impatiently. "Don't be a spitfire, else I won't tell you," said Tom, thrusting his hand back into his pocket, and looking determined. "No, Tom," said Maggie, imploringly, laying hold of the arm that was held stiffly in the pocket. "I'm not cross, Tom; it was only because I can't bear guessing. Please be good to me." [Illustration: The Home Coming.] Tom's arm slowly relaxed, and he said, "Well, then, it's a new fish line--two new ones--one for you, Maggie, all to yourself. I wouldn't go halves in the toffee and gingerbread on purpose to save the money; and Gibson and Spouncer fought with me because I wouldn't. And here's hooks; see here!--I say, won't we go and fish to-morrow down by the Round Pool? And you shall catch your own fish, Maggie, and put the worms on, and everything--won't it be fun?" Maggie's answer was to throw her arms around Tom's neck and hug him, and hold her cheek against his without speaking, while he slowly unwound some of the line, saying, after a pause:-- "Wasn't I a good brother, now, to buy you a line all to yourself? You know, I needn't have bought it, if I hadn't liked." "Yes, very, very good--I do love you, Tom." Tom had put the line back in his pocket, and was looking at the hooks one by one, before he spoke again. "And the fellows fought me, because I wouldn't give in about the toffee." "Oh, dear! I wish they wouldn't fight at your school, Tom. Didn't it hurt you?" "Hurt me? no," said Tom, putting up the hooks again, taking out a large pocketknife, and slowly opening the largest blade, which he looked at meditatively as he rubbed his finger along it. Then he added--"I gave Spouncer a black eye, I know--that's what he got by wanting to leather me; I wasn't going to go halves because anybody leathered me." "Oh, how brave you are, Tom! I think you're like Samson. If there came a lion roaring at me, I think you'd fight him--wouldn't you, Tom?" "How can a lion come roaring at you, you silly thing? There's no lions, only in the shows." "No; but if we were in the lion countries--I mean in Africa, where it's very hot--the lions eat people there. I can show it to you in the book where I read it." "Well, I should get a gun and shoot him." "But if you hadn't got a gun--we might have gone out, you know, not thinking just as we go fishing; and then a great lion might run toward us roaring, and we couldn't get away from him. What should you do, Tom?" Tom paused, and at last turned away contemptuously, saying, "But the lion isn't coming. What's the use of talking?" "But I like to fancy how it would be," said Maggie, following him. "Just think what you would do, Tom." "Oh, don't bother, Maggie! you're such a silly--I shall go and see my rabbits." II. THE FALLING OUT Maggie's heart began to flutter with fear. She dared not tell the sad truth at once, but she walked after Tom in trembling silence as he went out, thinking how she could tell him the news so as to soften at once his sorrow and his anger; for Maggie dreaded Tom's anger of all things--it was quite a different anger from her own. "Tom," she said timidly, when they were out of doors, "how much money did you give for your rabbits?" "Two half crowns and a sixpence," said Tom. "I think I've got a great deal more than that in my steel purse upstairs. I'll ask mother to give it to you." "What for?" said Tom. "I don't want your money, you silly thing. I've got a great deal more money than you, because I'm a boy. I always have half sovereigns and sovereigns for my Christmas boxes, because I shall be a man, and you only have five-shilling pieces, because you're only a girl." "Well, but, Tom--if mother would let me give you two half crowns and a sixpence out of my purse to put into your pocket and spend, you know; and buy some more rabbits with it?" "More rabbits? I don't want any more." "Oh, but, Tom, they're all dead." Tom stopped immediately in his walk and turned round toward Maggie. "You forgot to feed 'em, then, and Harry forgot," he said, his color heightening for a moment, but soon subsiding. "I'll pitch into Harry--I'll have him turned away. And I don't love you, Maggie. You shan't go fishing with me to-morrow. I told you to go and see the rabbits every day." He walked on again. "Yes, but I forgot--and I couldn't help it, indeed, Tom. I'm so very sorry," said Maggie, while the tears rushed fast. "You're a naughty girl," said Tom, severely; "and I'm sorry I bought you the fish line. I don't love you." "Oh, Tom, it's very cruel," sobbed Maggie. "I'd forgive you, if you forgot anything--I wouldn't mind what you did--I'd forgive you and love you." "Yes, you're a silly--but I never do forget things--I don't." "Oh, please forgive me, Tom; my heart will break," said Maggie, shaking with sobs, clinging to Tom's arm, and laying her wet cheek on his shoulder. Tom shook her off, and stopped again, saying in a peremptory tone, "Now, Maggie, you just listen. Aren't I a good brother to you?" "Ye-ye-es," sobbed Maggie, her chin rising and falling convulsedly. "Didn't I think about your fish line all this quarter, and mean to buy it, and saved my money o' purpose, and wouldn't go halves in the toffee, and Spouncer fought me because I wouldn't?" "Ye-ye-es--and I--lo-lo-love you so, Tom." "But you're a naughty girl. Last holidays you licked the paint off my lozenge box, and the holidays before that you let the boat drag my fish line down when I'd set you to watch it, and you pushed your head through my kite, all for nothing." "But I didn't mean," said Maggie; "I couldn't help it." "Yes, you could," said Tom, "if you'd minded what you were doing. And you're a naughty girl, and you shan't go fishing with me to-morrow." With this terrible conclusion, Tom ran away from Maggie toward the mill. Maggie stood motionless, except for her sobs, for a minute or two; then she turned round and ran into the house, and up to her attic, where she sat on the floor, and laid her head against the worm-eaten shelf, with a crushing sense of misery. Tom was come home, and she had thought how happy she should be--and now he was cruel to her. What use was anything, if Tom didn't love her? Oh, he was very cruel! Hadn't she wanted to give him the money, and said how very sorry she was? She had never been naughty to Tom--had never meant to be naughty to him. "Oh, he is cruel!" Maggie sobbed aloud, finding a wretched pleasure in the hollow resonance that came through the long empty space of the attic. She was too miserable to be angry. III. THE MAKING UP Maggie soon thought she had been hours in the attic, and it must be tea time, and they were all having their tea, and not thinking of her. Well, then, she would stay up there and starve herself--hide herself behind the tub, and stay there all night; and then they would all be frightened, and Tom would be sorry. Thus Maggie thought as she crept behind the tub; but presently she began to cry again at the idea that they didn't mind her being there. Tom had been too much interested in going the round of the premises, to think of Maggie and the effect his anger had produced on her. He meant to punish her, and that business having been performed, he occupied himself with other matters, like a practical person. But when he had been called in to tea, his father said, "Why, where's the little wench?" and Mrs. Tulliver, almost at the same moment, said, "Where's your little sister?"--both of them having supposed that Maggie and Tom had been together all the afternoon. "I don't know," said Tom. He didn't want to "tell" of Maggie, though he was angry with her; for Tom Tulliver was a lad of honor. "What! hasn't she been playing with you all this while?" said the father. "She'd been thinking of nothing but your coming home." "I haven't seen her this two hours," says Tom, commencing on the plum cake. "Goodness heart! She's got drowned!" exclaimed Mrs. Tulliver, rising from her seat and running to the window. "How could you let her do so?" she added, as became a fearful woman, accusing she didn't know whom of she didn't know what. "Nay, nay, she's none drowned," said Mr. Tulliver. "You've been naughty to her, I doubt, Tom?" "I'm sure I haven't, father," said Tom, indignantly. "I think she's in the house." "Perhaps up in that attic," said Mrs. Tulliver, "a-singing and talking to herself, and forgetting all about mealtimes." "You go and fetch her down, Tom," said Mr. Tulliver, rather sharply, his perspicacity or his fatherly fondness for Maggie making him suspect that the lad had been hard upon "the little un," else she would never have left his side. "And be good to her, do you hear? Else I'll let you know better." Tom never disobeyed his father, for Mr. Tulliver was a peremptory man; but he went out rather sullenly, carrying his piece of plum cake, and not intending to reprieve Maggie's punishment, which was no more than she deserved. Tom was only thirteen, and had no decided views in grammar and arithmetic, regarding them for the most part as open questions, but he was particularly clear and positive on one point--namely, that he would punish everybody who deserved it; why, he wouldn't have minded being punished himself, if he deserved it; but, then, he never did deserve it. It was Tom's step, then, that Maggie heard on the stairs, when her need of love had triumphed over her pride, and she was going down with her swollen eyes and disheveled hair to beg for pity. At least her father would stroke her head and say, "Never mind, my wench." But she knew Tom's step, and her heart began to beat violently with the sudden shock of hope. He only stood still at the top of the stairs and said, "Maggie, you're to come down." But she rushed to him and clung round his neck, sobbing, "O Tom, please forgive me--I can't bear it--I will always be good--always remember things--do love me--please, dear Tom!" Maggie and Tom were still very much like young animals, and so she could rub her cheek against his, and kiss his ear in a random, sobbing way; and there were tender fibers in the lad that had been used to answer to Maggie's fondling; so that he behaved with a weakness quite inconsistent with his resolution to punish her as much as she deserved; he actually began to kiss her in return, and say:-- "Don't cry, then, Magsie--here, eat a bit o' cake." Maggie's sobs began to subside, and she put out her mouth for the cake and bit a piece; and then Tom bit a piece, just for company, and they ate together and rubbed each other's cheeks and brows and noses together, while they ate, with a humiliating resemblance to two friendly ponies. "Come along, Magsie, and have tea," said Tom at last, when there was no more cake except what was downstairs. So ended the sorrows of this day. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 1: From "The Mill on the Floss," by George Eliot.] MY LAST DAY AT SALEM HOUSE[2] I pass over all that happened at school, until the anniversary of my birthday came round in March. The great remembrance by which that time is marked in my mind seems to have swallowed up all lesser recollections, and to exist alone. It is even difficult for me to believe there was a gap of full two months between my return to Salem House and the arrival of that birthday. I can only understand that the fact was so, because I know it must have been so; otherwise I should feel convinced there was no interval, and that the one occasion trod upon the other's heels. How well I recollect the kind of day it was! I smell the fog that hung about the place; I see the hoar-frost ghostly, through it; I feel my rimy hair fall clammy on my cheek; I look along the dim perspective of the schoolroom, with a spluttering candle here and there to light up the foggy morning, and the breath of the boys wreathing and smoking in the raw cold as they blow upon their fingers, and tap their feet upon the floor. It was after breakfast, and we had been summoned in from the playground, when Mr. Sharp entered and said, "David Copperfield is to go into the parlor." I expected a hamper from home, and brightened at the order. Some of the boys about me put in their claim not to be forgotten in the distribution of the good things, as I got out of my seat with great alacrity. "Don't hurry, David," said Mr. Sharp. "There's time enough, my boy, don't hurry." I might have been surprised by the feeling tone in which he spoke, if I had given it a thought; but I gave it none until afterward. I hurried away to the parlor; and there I found Mr. Creakle, sitting at his breakfast with the cane and newspaper before him, and Mrs. Creakle with an opened letter in her hand. But no hamper. "David Copperfield," said Mrs. Creakle, leading me to a sofa, and sitting down beside me, "I want to speak to you very particularly. I have something to tell you, my child." Mr. Creakle, at whom of course I looked, shook his head without looking at me, and stopped up a sigh with a very large piece of buttered toast. "You are too young to know how the world changes every day," said Mrs. Creakle, "and how the people in it pass away. But we all have to learn it, David; some of us when we are young, some of us when we are old, some of us at all times of our lives." I looked at her earnestly. "When you came away from home at the end of the vacation," said Mrs. Creakle, after a pause, "were they all well?" After another pause, "Was your mamma well?" I trembled without distinctly knowing why, and still looked at her earnestly, making no attempt to answer. "Because," said she, "I grieve to tell you that I hear this morning your mamma is very ill." A mist rose between Mrs. Creakle and me, and her figure seemed to move in it for an instant. Then I felt the burning tears run down my face, and it was steady again. "She is very dangerously ill," she added. I knew all now. "She is dead." There was no need to tell me so. I had already broken out into a desolate cry, and felt an orphan in the wide world. She was very kind to me. She kept me there all day, and left me alone sometimes; and I cried and wore myself to sleep, and awoke and cried again. When I could cry no more, I began to think; and then the oppression on my breast was heaviest, and my grief a dull pain that there was no ease for. And yet my thoughts were idle; not intent on the calamity that weighed upon my heart, but idly loitering near it. I thought of our house shut up and hushed. I thought of the little baby, who, Mrs. Creakle said, had been pining away for some time, and who, they believed, would die too. I thought of my father's grave in the churchyard, by our house, and of my mother lying there beneath the tree I knew so well. I stood upon a chair when I was left alone, and looked into the glass to see how red my eyes were, and how sorrowful my face. I considered, after some hours were gone, if my tears were really hard to flow now, as they seemed to be, what, in connection with my loss, it would affect me most to think of when I drew near home--for I was going home to the funeral. I am sensible of having felt that a dignity attached to me among the rest of the boys, and that I was important in my affliction. If ever child were stricken with sincere grief, I was. But I remembered that this importance was a kind of satisfaction to me, when I walked in the playground that afternoon while the boys were in school. When I saw them glancing at me out of the windows, as they went up to their classes, I felt distinguished, and looked more melancholy, and walked slower. When school was over, and they came out and spoke to me, I felt it rather good in myself not to be proud to any of them, and to take exactly the same notice of them all, as before. I was to go home next night; not by the mail, but by the heavy night coach, which was called the Farmer, and was principally used by country people traveling short intermediate distances upon the road. We had no story telling that evening, and Traddles insisted on lending me his pillow. I don't know what good he thought it would do me, for I had one of my own; but it was all he had to lend, poor fellow, except a sheet of letter paper full of skeletons; and that he gave me at parting, as a soother of my sorrows and a contribution to my peace of mind. I left Salem House upon the morrow afternoon. I little thought then that I left it, never to return. We traveled very slowly all night, and did not get into Yarmouth before nine or ten o'clock in the morning. I looked out for Mr. Barkis, but he was not there; and instead of him a fat, short-winded, merry-looking little old man in black, with rusty little bunches of ribbons at the knees of his breeches, black stockings, and a broad-brimmed hat, came puffing up to the coach window, and said, "Master Copperfield?" "Yes, sir." "Will you come with me, young sir, if you please," he said, opening the door, "and I shall have the pleasure of taking you home!" FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 2: From "David Copperfield," by Charles Dickens.] EXPRESSION: The two stories which you have just read were written by two of the greatest masters of fiction in English literature. Talk with your teacher about George Eliot and Charles Dickens, and learn all that you can about their works. Which of these two stories do you prefer? Why? Reread the conversation on pages 14 and 15. Imagine yourself to be Tom or Maggie, and speak just as he or she did. Read the conversation on pages 16 and 17 in the same way. Reread other portions that you like particularly well. In what respect does the second story differ most strongly from the first? Select the most striking passage and read it with expression sad feeling. THE DEPARTURE FROM MISS PINKERTON'S[3] I One sunshiny morning in June, there drove up to the great iron gate of Miss Pinkerton's Academy for young ladies, on Chiswick Mall, a large family coach, with two fat horses in blazing harness, driven by a fat coachman in a three-cornered hat and wig, at the rate of four miles an hour. A black servant, who reposed on the box beside the fat coachman, uncurled his bandy legs as soon as the equipage drew up opposite Miss Pinkerton's shining brass plate; and as he pulled the bell, at least a score of young heads were seen peering out of the narrow windows of the stately old brick house. Nay, the acute observer might have recognized the little red nose of good-natured Miss Jemima Pinkerton herself, rising over some geranium pots in the window of that lady's own drawing room. "It is Mrs. Sedley's coach, sister," said Miss Jemima. "Sambo, the black servant, has just rung the bell; and the coachman has a new red waistcoat." "Have you completed all the necessary preparations incident to Miss Sedley's departure?" asked Miss Pinkerton, that majestic lady, the friend of the famous literary man, Dr. Johnson, the author of the great "Dixonary" of the English language, called commonly the great Lexicographer. "The girls were up at four this morning, packing her trunks, sister," answered Miss Jemima. "We have made her a bowpot." "Say a bouquet, sister Jemima; 'tis more genteel." "Well, a booky as big almost as a haystack. I have put up two bottles of the gillyflower water for Mrs. Sedley, and the receipt for making it is in Amelia's box." "And I trust, Miss Jemima, you have made a copy of Miss Sedley's account. That is it, is it? Very good! Ninety-three pounds, four shillings. Be kind enough to address it to John Sedley, Esquire, and to seal this billet which I have written to his lady." II In Miss Jemima's eyes an autograph letter of her sister, Miss Pinkerton, was an object of as deep veneration as would have been a letter from a sovereign. Only when her pupils quitted the establishment, or when they were about to be married, and once when poor Miss Birch died of the scarlet fever, was Miss Pinkerton known to write personally to the parents of her pupils. In the present instance Miss Pinkerton's "billet" was to the following effect:-- _The Mall, Chiswick, June 15._ MADAM: After her six years' residence at the Mall, I have the honor and happiness of presenting Miss Amelia Sedley to her parents, as a young lady not unworthy to occupy a fitting position in their polished and refined circle. Those virtues which characterize the young English gentlewomen; those accomplishments which become her birth and station, will not be found wanting in the amiable Miss Sedley, whose industry and obedience have endeared her to her instructors, and whose delightful sweetness of temper has charmed her aged and her youthful companions. In music, dancing, in orthography, in every variety of embroidery and needle-work she will be found to have realized her friends' fondest wishes. In geography there is still much to be desired; and a careful and undeviating use of the back-board, for four hours daily during the next three years, is recommended as necessary to the acquirement of that dignified deportment and carriage so requisite for every young lady of fashion. In the principles of religion and morality, Miss Sedley will be found worthy of an establishment which has been honored by the presence of The Great Lexicographer and the patronage of the admirable Mrs. Chapone. In leaving them all, Miss Amelia carries with her the hearts of her companions and the affectionate regards of her mistress, who has the honor to subscribe herself, Madam your most obliged humble servant, BARBARA PINKERTON. P.S.--Miss Sharp accompanies Miss Sedley. It is particularly requested that Miss Sharp's stay in Russell Square may not exceed ten days. The family of distinction with whom she is engaged as governess desire to avail themselves of her services as soon as possible. This letter completed, Miss Pinkerton proceeded to write her own name and Miss Sedley's in the flyleaf of a Johnson's Dictionary, the interesting work which she invariably presented to her scholars on their departure from the Mall. On the cover was inserted a copy of "Lines addressed to a Young Lady on quitting Miss Pinkerton's School, at the Mall; by the late revered Dr. Samuel Johnson." In fact, the Lexicographer's name was always on the lips of this majestic woman, and a visit he had paid to her was the cause of her reputation and her fortune. Being commanded by her elder sister to get "The Dixonary" from the cupboard, Miss Jemima had extracted two copies of the book from the receptacle in question. When Miss Pinkerton had finished the inscription in the first, Jemima, with rather a dubious and timid air, handed her the second. "For whom is this, Miss Jemima?" said Miss Pinkerton with awful coldness. "For Becky Sharp," answered Jemima, trembling very much, and blushing over her withered face and neck, as she turned her back on her sister. "For Becky Sharp. She's going, too." "MISS JEMIMA!" exclaimed Miss Pinkerton, in the largest capitals. "Are you in your senses? Replace the Dixonary in the closet, and never venture to take such a liberty in future." With an unusual display of courage, Miss Jemima mildly protested: "Well, sister, it's only two and nine-pence, and poor Becky will be miserable if she doesn't get one." "Send Miss Sedley instantly to me," was Miss Pinkerton's only answer. And, venturing not to say another word, poor Jemima trotted off, exceedingly flurried and nervous, while the two pupils, Miss Sedley and Miss Sharp, were making final preparations for their departure for Miss Sedley's home. III Well, then. The flowers, and the presents, and the trunks, and the bonnet boxes of Miss Sedley having been arranged by Mr. Sambo in the carriage, together with a very small and weather-beaten old cowskin trunk with Miss Sharp's card neatly nailed upon it, which was delivered by Sambo with a grin, and packed by the coachman with a corresponding sneer, the hour for parting came; and the grief of that moment was considerably lessened by the admirable discourse which Miss Pinkerton addressed to her pupil. Not that the parting speech caused Amelia to philosophize, or that it armed her in any way with a calmness, the result of argument; but it was intolerably dull, and having the fear of her schoolmistress greatly before her eyes, Miss Sedley did not venture, in her presence, to give way to any ablutions of private grief. A seed cake and a bottle of wine were produced in the drawing room, as on the solemn occasions of the visits of parents; and these refreshments being partaken of, Miss Sedley was at liberty to depart. "You'll go in and say good-by to Miss Pinkerton, Becky!" said Miss Jemima to that young lady, of whom nobody took any notice, and who was coming downstairs with her own bandbox. "I suppose I must," said Miss Sharp calmly, and much to the wonder of Miss Jemima; and the latter having knocked at the door, and receiving permission to come in, Miss Sharp advanced in a very unconcerned manner, and said in French, and with a perfect accent, "_Mademoiselle, je viens vous faire mes adieux_."[4] Miss Pinkerton did not understand French, as we know; she only directed those who did. Biting her lips and throwing up her venerable and Roman-nosed head, she said, "Miss Sharp, I wish you a good morning." As she spoke, she waved one hand, both by way of adieu and to give Miss Sharp an opportunity of shaking one of the fingers of the hand, which was left out for that purpose. Miss Sharp only folded her own hands with a very frigid smile and bow, and quite declined to accept the proffered honor; on which Miss Pinkerton tossed up her turban more indignantly than ever. In fact, it was a little battle between the young lady and the old one, and the latter was worsted. "Come away, Becky," said Miss Jemima, pulling the young woman away in great alarm; and the drawing room door closed upon her forever. [Illustration: The Parting.] Then came the struggle and parting below. Words refuse to tell it. All the servants were there in the hall--all the dear friends--all the young ladies--even the dancing master, who had just arrived; and there was such a scuffling and hugging, and kissing, and crying, with the hysterical _yoops_ of Miss Schwartz, the parlor boarder, as no pen can depict, and as the tender heart would feign pass over. The embracing was finished; they parted--that is, Miss Sedley parted from her friends. Miss Sharp had demurely entered the carriage some minutes before. Nobody cried for leaving _her_. Sambo of the bandy legs slammed the carriage door on his young weeping mistress. He sprang up behind the carriage. "Stop!" cried Miss Jemima, rushing to the gate with a parcel. "It's some sandwiches, my dear," she called to Amelia. "You may be hungry, you know; and, Becky--Becky Sharp--here's a book for you, that my sister--that is, I--Johnson's Dixonary, you know. You mustn't leave us without that. Good-by! Drive on, coachman!--God bless you! Good-by." Then the kind creature retreated into the garden, overcome with emotion. But lo! and just as the coach drove off, Miss Sharp suddenly put her pale face out of the window, and flung the book back into the garden--flung it far and fast--watching it fall at the feet of astonished Miss Jemima; then sank back in the carriage, exclaiming, "So much for the 'Dixonary'; and thank God I'm out of Chiswick!" The shock of such an act almost caused Jemima to faint with terror. "Well, I never--" she began. "What an audacious--" she gasped. Emotion prevented her from completing either sentence. The carriage rolled away; the great gates were closed; the bell rang for the dancing lesson. The world is before the two young ladies; and so, farewell to Chiswick Mall! FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 3: From "Vanity Fair," by William Makepeace Thackeray.] [Footnote 4: "Madam, I have come to tell you good-by."] EXPRESSION: By many able critics, Thackeray is regarded as a greater novelist than either Dickens or George Eliot. Compare this extract from one of his best works with the two selections which precede it. Which of the three stories is the most interesting to you? Which sounds the best when read aloud? Which is the most humorous? Which is the most pathetic? Reread the three selections very carefully. Now tell what you observe about the style of each. In what respects is the style of the third story different from that of either of the others? Reread Miss Pinkerton's letter. What peculiarities do you observe in it? Select and reread the most humorous passage in this last story. TWO GEMS FROM BROWNING I. INCIDENT OF THE FRENCH CAMP In the small kingdom of Bavaria, on the south bank of the Danube River, there is a famous old city called Ratisbon. It is not a very large city, but its history can be traced far back to the time when the Romans had a military camp there which they used as an outpost against the German barbarians. At one time it ranked among the most flourishing towns of Germany. It is now of little commercial importance--a quaint and quiet old place, with a fine cathedral and many notable buildings which testify to its former greatness. During the earlier years of the nineteenth century, Napoleon Bonaparte, emperor of the French, was engaged in bitter warfare with Austria and indeed with nearly the whole of Europe. In April, 1809, the Austrian army, under Grand Duke Charles, was intrenched in Ratisbon and the neighboring towns. There it was attacked by the French army commanded by Napoleon himself and led by the brave Marshal Lannes, Duke of Montebello. The battle raged, first on this side of the city, then on that, and for several days no one could tell which of the combatants would be victorious. At length Napoleon decided to end the matter by storming the city and, if possible, driving the archduke from his stronghold. He, therefore, sent Marshal Lannes forward to direct the battle, while he watched the conflict and gave commands from a distance. For a long time the issue seemed doubtful, and not even Napoleon could guess what the result would be. Late in the day, however, French valor prevailed, the Austrians were routed, and Marshal Lannes forced his way into the city. It was at this time that the incident described so touchingly in the following poem by Robert Browning is supposed to have taken place. We do not know, nor does any one know, whether the story has any foundation in fact. It illustrates, however, the spirit of bravery and self-sacrifice that prevailed among the soldiers of Napoleon; and such an incident might, indeed, have happened not only at Ratisbon, but at almost any place where the emperor's presence urged his troops to victory. For, such was Napoleon's magic influence and such was the love which he inspired among all his followers, that thousands of young men were ready cheerfully to give their lives for the promotion of his selfish ambition. The poem, which is now regarded as one of the classics of our language, was first published in 1843, in a small volume entitled "Dramatic Lyrics." The same volume contained the well-known rime of "The Pied Piper of Hamelin." Robert Browning was at that time a young man of thirty, and most of the poems which afterwards made him famous were still unwritten. BROWNING'S POEM You know, we French stormed Ratisbon: A mile or so away, On a little mound, Napoleon Stood on our storming day: With neck outthrust, you fancy how, Legs wide, arms locked behind, As if to balance the prone brow Oppressive with its mind. Just as perhaps he mused, "My plans That soar, to earth may fall, Let once my army leader Lannes Waver at yonder wall,"-- Out 'twixt the battery smokes there flew A rider, bound on bound Full galloping; nor bridle drew Until he reached the mound. Then off there flung in smiling joy, And held himself erect By just his horse's mane, a boy: You hardly could suspect-- (So tight he kept his lips compressed, Scarce any blood came through) You looked twice ere you saw his breast Was all but shot in two. [Illustration: "We've got you Ratisbon!"] "Well," cried he, "Emperor by God's grace We've got you Ratisbon! The Marshal's in the market place, And you'll be there anon To see your flag bird flap his vans Where I, to heart's desire, Perched him!" The chiefs eye flashed; his plans Soared up again like fire. The chief's eye flashed; but presently Softened itself, as sheathes A film the mother eagle's eye When her bruised eaglet breathes; "You're wounded!" "Nay," the soldier's pride Touched to the quick, he said: "I'm killed, Sire!" And his chief beside, Smiling, the boy fell dead. EXPRESSION: This is a difficult selection to read properly and with spirit and feeling. Study each stanza until you understand it thoroughly. Practice reading the following passages, giving the proper emphasis and inflections. _You know, we French stormed Ratisbon. With neck outthrust you fancy how. "We've got you Ratisbon!" "You're wounded!" "Nay, I'm killed, Sire!"_ WORD STUDY: _Napoleon_, _Ratisbon_, _Bavaria_, _Lannes_; _anon_, _vans_, _sheathes_, _eaglet_, _Sire_. Explain: "_To see your flag bird flap his vans._" "_His plans soared up again like fire._" [Illustration] II. DOG TRAY[5] A beggar child Sat on a quay's edge: like a bird Sang to herself at careless play, And fell into the stream. "Dismay! Help, you standers-by!" None stirred. Bystanders reason, think of wives And children ere they risk their lives. Over the balustrade has bounced A mere instinctive dog, and pounced Plumb on the prize. "How well he dives!" "Up he comes with the child, see, tight In mouth, alive, too, clutched from quite A depth of ten feet--twelve, I bet! Good dog! What, off again? There's yet Another child to save? All right!" "How strange we saw no other fall! It's instinct in the animal. Good dog! But he's a long time under: If he got drowned, I should not wonder-- Strong current, that against the wall! "Here he comes, holds in mouth this time --What may the thing be? Well, that's prime! Now, did you ever? Reason reigns In man alone, since all Tray's pains Have fished--the child's doll from the slime!" FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 5: By Robert Browning.] EXPRESSION: Read the story silently, being sure that you understand it clearly. Then read each passage aloud, giving special attention to emphasis and inflections. Answer these questions by reading from the poem: Where was the child? What did she do? What did some one cry out? Why did not the bystanders help? What did the dog do? What did one bystander say? What did another say when the dog came up? What did he say when the dog went back? Read correctly: "_Well, that's prime!_" "_Now, did you ever?_" "_All right!_" "_If he got drowned, I should not wonder._" In what respects do these two poems differ from your favorite poems by Longfellow or Tennyson? Do you think there is much music in them? THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA[6] It was on Friday morning, the 12th of October, that Columbus first beheld the New World. As the day dawned he saw before him a level island, several leagues in extent, and covered with trees like a continual orchard. Though apparently uncultivated, it was populous, for the inhabitants were seen issuing from all parts of the woods and running to the shore. They stood gazing at the ships, and appeared, by their attitudes and gestures, to be lost in astonishment. Columbus made signal for the ships to cast anchor and the boats to be manned and armed. He entered his own boat richly attired in scarlet and holding the royal standard; while Martin Alonzo Pinzon and his brother put off in company in their boats, each with a banner of the enterprise emblazoned with a green cross, having on either side the letters F and Y, the initials of the Castilian monarchs Fernando and Ysabel, surmounted by crowns. As he approached the shore, Columbus, who was disposed for all kinds of agreeable impressions, was delighted with the purity and suavity of the atmosphere, the crystal transparency of the sea, and the extraordinary beauty of the vegetation. He beheld also fruits of an unknown kind upon the trees which overhung the shores. On landing he threw himself on his knees, kissed the earth, and returned thanks to God with tears of joy. His example was followed by the rest, whose hearts indeed overflowed with the same feelings of gratitude. Columbus then rising drew his sword, displayed the royal standard, and, assembling round him the two captains and the rest who had landed, he took solemn possession in the name of the Castilian sovereigns, giving the island the name of San Salvador. Having complied with the requisite forms and ceremonies, he called upon all present to take the oath of obedience to him as admiral and viceroy, representing the persons of the sovereigns. The feelings of the crew now burst forth in the most extravagant transports. They had recently considered themselves devoted men hurrying forward to destruction; they now looked upon themselves as favorites of fortune and gave themselves up to the most unbounded joy. They thronged around the admiral with overflowing zeal, some embracing him, others kissing his hands. Those who had been most mutinous and turbulent during the voyage were now most devoted and enthusiastic. Some begged favors of him, as if he had already wealth and honors in his gift. Many abject spirits, who had outraged him by their insolence, now crouched at his feet, begging pardon for all the trouble they had caused him and promising the blindest obedience for the future. The natives of the island, when at the dawn of day they had beheld the ships hovering on their coast, had supposed them monsters which had issued from the deep during the night. They had crowded to the beach and watched their movements with awful anxiety. Their veering about apparently without effort, and the shifting and furling of their sails, resembling huge wings, filled them with astonishment. When they beheld their boats approach the shore, and a number of strange beings clad in glittering steel, or raiment of various colors, landing upon the beach, they fled in affright to the woods. Finding, however, that there was no attempt to pursue or molest them, they gradually recovered from their terror and approached the Spaniards with great awe, frequently prostrating themselves on the earth and making signs of adoration. During the ceremonies of taking possession, they remained gazing in timid admiration at the complexion, the beards, the shining armor and splendid dress of the Spaniards. The admiral particularly attracted their attention, from his commanding height, his air of authority, his dress of scarlet, and the deference which was paid him by his companions; all which pointed him out to be the commander. When they had still further recovered from their fears, they approached the Spaniards, touched their beards and examined their hands and faces, admiring their whiteness. Columbus was pleased with their gentleness and confiding simplicity, and soon won them by his kindly bearing. They now supposed that the ships had sailed out of the crystal firmament which bounded their horizon, or had descended from above on their ample wings, and that these marvelous beings were inhabitants of the skies. The natives of the island were no less objects of curiosity to the Spaniards, differing as they did from any race of men they had ever seen. Their appearance gave no promise of either wealth or civilization, for they were entirely naked and painted with a variety of colors. With some it was confined merely to a part of the face, the nose, or around the eyes; with others it extended to the whole body and gave them a wild and fantastic appearance. Their complexion was of a tawny, or copper hue, and they were entirely destitute of beards. Their hair was not crisped, like the recently discovered tribes of the African coast, under the same latitude, but straight and coarse, partly cut short above the ears, but some locks were left long behind and falling upon their shoulders. Their features, though obscured and disfigured by paint, were agreeable; they had lofty foreheads and remarkably fine eyes. They were of moderate stature and well shaped. As Columbus supposed himself to have landed on an island at the extremity of India, he called the natives by the general name of Indians, which was universally adopted before the true nature of his discovery was known, and has since been extended to all the aboriginals of the New World. The islanders were friendly and gentle. Their only arms were lances, hardened at the end by fire, or pointed with a flint, or the teeth or bone of a fish. There was no iron to be seen, nor did they appear acquainted with its properties; for, when a drawn sword was presented to them, they unguardedly took it by the edge. Columbus distributed among them colored caps, glass beads, hawks' bells and other trifles, such as the Portuguese were accustomed to trade with among the nations of the gold coast of Africa. They received them eagerly, hung the beads round their necks, and were wonderfully pleased with their finery, and with the sound of the bells. The Spaniards remained all day on shore refreshing themselves, after their anxious voyage, amid the beautiful groves of the island, and returned on board late in the evening, delighted with all they had seen. The island where Columbus had thus, for the first time, set his foot upon the New World, was called by the natives Guanahane. It still retains the name of San Salvador, which he gave to it, though called by the English Cat Island. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 6: From "The Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus," by Washington Irving.] THE GLOVE AND THE LIONS[7] King Francis was a hearty king, and loved a royal sport, And one day as his lions fought, sat looking on the court; The nobles filled the benches, with the ladies in their pride, And 'mong them sat the Count de Lorge with one for whom he sighed: And truly 'twas a gallant thing to see that crowning show, Valor, and love, and a king above, and the royal beasts below. Ramped and roared the lions, with horrid laughing jaws; They bit, they glared, gave blows like beams, a wind went with their paws; With wallowing might and stifled roar they rolled on one another, Till all the pit with sand and mane was in a thundrous smother; The bloody foam above the bars came whisking through the air; Said Francis then, "Faith, gentlemen, we're better here than there." [Illustration: The Glove and the Lions.] De Lorge's love o'erheard the King,--a beauteous lively dame With smiling lips and sharp, bright eyes, which always seemed the same: She thought, "The Count, my lover, is brave as brave can be; He surely would do wondrous things to show his love of me; King, ladies, lovers, all look on; the occasion is divine; I'll drop my glove, to prove his love; great glory will be mine." She dropped her glove, to prove his love, then looked at him and smiled; He bowed, and in a moment leaped among the lions wild: His leap was quick, return was quick, he has regained his place, Then threw the glove, but not with love, right in the lady's face. "Well done!" cried Francis, "bravely done!" and he rose from where he sat: "No love," quoth he, "but vanity, sets love a task like that." FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 7: By Leigh Hunt, an English essayist and poet (1784-1859).] EXPRESSION: Read this poem silently, trying to understand fully the circumstances of the story: (1) the time; (2) the place; (3) the character of the leading actors. Then read aloud each stanza with feeling and expression. ST. FRANCIS, THE GENTLE[8] Seven hundred years ago, Francis the gentlest of the saints was born in Assisi, the quaint Umbrian town among the rocks; and for twenty years and more he cherished but one thought, and one desire, and one hope; and these were that he might lead the beautiful and holy and sorrowful life which our Master lived on earth, and that in every way he might resemble Him in the purity and loveliness of his humanity. Not to men alone but to all living things on earth and air and water was St. Francis most gracious and loving. They were all his little brothers and sisters, and he forgot them not, still less scorned or slighted them, but spoke to them often and blessed them, and in return they showed him great love and sought to be of his fellowship. He bade his companions keep plots of ground for their little sisters the flowers, and to these lovely and speechless creatures he spoke, with no great fear that they would not understand his words. And all this was a marvelous thing in a cruel time, when human life was accounted of slight worth by fierce barons and ruffling marauders. For the bees he set honey and wine in the winter, lest they should feel the nip of the cold too keenly; and bread for the birds, that they all, but especially "my brother Lark," should have joy of Christmastide, and at Rieti a brood of redbreasts were the guests of the house and raided the tables while the brethren were at meals; and when a youth gave St. Francis the turtledoves he had snared, the Saint had nests made for them, and there they laid their eggs and hatched them, and fed from the hands of the brethren. Out of affection a fisherman once gave him a great tench, but he put it back into the clear water of the lake, bidding it love God; and the fish played about the boat till St. Francis blessed it and bade it go. "Why dost thou torment my little brothers the Lambs," he asked of a shepherd, "carrying them bound thus and hanging from a staff, so that they cry piteously?" And in exchange for the lambs he gave the shepherd his cloak. And at another time seeing amid a flock of goats one white lamb feeding, he was concerned that he had nothing but his brown robe to offer for it (for it reminded him of our Lord among the Pharisees); but a merchant came up and paid for it and gave it him, and he took it with him to the city and preached about it so that the hearts of those hearing him were melted. Afterwards the lamb was left in the care of a convent of holy women, and to the Saint's great delight, these wove him a gown of the lamb's innocent wool. Fain would I tell of the coneys that took refuge in the folds of his habit, and of the swifts which flew screaming in their glee while he was preaching; but now it is time to speak of the sermon which he preached to a great multitude of birds in a field by the roadside, when he was on his way to Bevagno. Down from the trees flew the birds to hear him, and they nestled in the grassy bosom of the field, and listened till he had done. And these were the words he spoke to them:-- "Little birds, little sisters mine, much are you holden to God your Creator; and at all times and in every place you ought to praise Him. Freedom He has given you to fly everywhere; and raiment He has given you, double and threefold. More than this, He preserved your kind in the Ark, so that your race might not come to an end. Still more do you owe Him for the element of air, which He has made your portion. Over and above, you sow not, neither do you reap; but God feeds you, and gives you streams and springs for your thirst; the mountains He gives you, and the valleys for your refuge, and the tall trees wherein to build your nests. And because you cannot sew or spin, God takes thought to clothe you, you and your little ones. It must be, then, that your Creator loves you much, since He has granted you so many benefits. Be on your guard then against the sin of ingratitude, and strive always to give God praise." And when the Saint ceased speaking, the birds made such signs as they might, by spreading their wings and opening their beaks, to show their love and pleasure; and when he had blessed them with the sign of the cross, they sprang up, and singing songs of unspeakable sweetness, away they streamed in a great cross to the four quarters of heaven. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 8: By William Canton, an English journalist and poet (1845- ).] THE SERMON OF ST. FRANCIS[9] Up soared the lark into the air, A shaft of song, a winged prayer, As if a soul, released from pain, Were flying back to heaven again. St. Francis heard; it was to him An emblem of the Seraphim; The upward motion of the fire, The light, the heat, the heart's desire. Around Assisi's convent gate The birds, God's poor who cannot wait, From moor and mere and darksome wood, Came flocking for their dole of food. "O brother birds," St. Francis said, "Ye come to me and ask for bread, But not with bread alone to-day Shall ye be fed and sent away. "Ye shall be fed, ye happy birds, With manna of celestial words; Not mine, though mine they seem to be, Not mine, though they be spoken through me. "Oh, doubly are ye bound to praise The great creator in your lays; He giveth you your plumes of down, Your crimson hoods, your cloaks of brown. "He giveth you your wings to fly And breathe a purer air on high, And careth for you everywhere Who for yourselves so little care." With flutter of swift wings and songs Together rose the feathered throngs And, singing, scattered far apart; Deep peace was in St. Francis' heart. He knew not if the brotherhood His homily had understood; He only knew that to one ear The meaning of his words was clear. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 9: By Henry W. Longfellow.] EXPRESSION: Talk with your teacher about the life, work, and influence of St. Francis. Refer to cyclopedias for information. Read aloud the prose version of his sermon to the birds; the poetical version. Compare the two versions. What is said in one that is not said in the other? IN THE WOODS[10] Years ago, when quite a youth, I was rambling in the woods one day with my brothers, gathering black birch and wintergreens. As we lay upon the ground, gazing vaguely up into the trees, I caught sight of a bird, the like of which I had never before seen or heard of. It was the blue yellow-backed warbler, which I have found since; but to my young fancy it seemed like some fairy bird, so curiously marked was it, and so new and unexpected. I saw it a moment as the flickering leaves parted, noted the white spot on its wing, and it was gone. It was a revelation. It was the first intimation I had had that the woods we knew so well held birds that we knew not at all. Were our eyes and ears so dull? Did we pass by the beautiful things in nature without seeing them? Had we been blind then? There were the robin, the bluejay, the yellowbird, and others familiar to every one; but who ever dreamed that there were still others that not even the hunters saw, and whose names few had ever heard? The surprise that awaits every close observer of birds, the thrill of delight that accompanies it, and the feeling of fresh eager inquiry that follows can hardly be awakened by any other pursuit. There is a fascination about it quite overpowering. It fits so well with other things--with fishing, hunting, farming, walking, camping out--with all that takes one to the fields and the woods. One may go blackberrying and make some rare discovery; or, while driving his cow to pasture, hear a new song, or make a new observation. Secrets lurk on all sides. There is news in every bush. Expectation is ever on tiptoe. What no man ever saw may the next moment be revealed to you. What a new interest this gives to the woods! How you long to explore every nook and corner of them! One must taste it to understand. The looker-on sees nothing to make such a fuss about. Only a little glimpse of feathers and a half-musical note or two--why all this ado? It is not the mere knowledge of birds that you get, but a new interest in the fields and woods, the air, the sunshine, the healing fragrance and coolness, and the getting away from the worry of life. Yesterday was an October day of rare brightness and warmth. I spent the most of it in a wild, wooded gorge of Rock Creek. A tree which stood upon the bank had dropped some of its fruit in the water. As I stood there, half-leg deep, a wood duck came flying down the creek. Presently it returned, flying up; then it came back again, and sweeping low around a bend, prepared to alight in a still, dark reach in the creek which was hidden from my view. As I passed that way about half an hour afterward, the duck started up, uttering its wild alarm note. In the stillness I could hear the whistle of its wings and the splash of the water when it took flight. Near by I saw where a raccoon had come down to the water for fresh clams, leaving its long, sharp track in the mud and sand. Before I had passed this hidden stretch of water, a pair of strange thrushes flew up from the ground and perched on a low branch. Who can tell how much this duck, this footprint on the sand, and these strange thrushes from the far North enhanced the interest and charm of the autumn woods? Birds cannot be learned satisfactorily from books. The satisfaction is in learning them from nature. One must have an original experience with the birds. The books are only the guide, the invitation. But let me say in the same breath that the books can by no manner of means be dispensed with. In the beginning one finds it very difficult to identify a bird in any verbal description. First find your bird; observe its ways, its song, its calls, its flight, its haunts. Then compare with your book. In this way the feathered kingdom may soon be conquered. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 10: By John Burroughs, an American writer on nature (1837- ).] EXPRESSION: This and the selection which follows are fine examples of descriptive writing. Read them so that your hearers will understand every statement clearly and without special effort on their part. Talk about the various objects that are mentioned, and tell what you have learned about them from other sources. BEES AND FLOWERS[11] Fancy yourself to be in a pretty country garden on a hot summer's morning. Perhaps you have been walking, or reading, or playing, but it is getting too hot now to do anything. So you have chosen the shadiest nook under the walnut tree, close to some pretty flower bed. As you lie there you notice a gentle buzzing near you, and you see that on the flower bed close by several bees are working busily among the flowers. They do not seem to mind the heat, nor do they wish to rest; and they fly so lightly, and look so happy over their work, that it is pleasant to watch them. That great bumblebee takes it leisurely enough as she goes lumbering along, poking her head into the larkspurs; she remains so long in each that you might almost think she had fallen asleep. The brown hive-bee, on the other hand, moves busily and quickly among the stocks, sweet peas, and mignonette. She is evidently out on active duty, and means to get all she can from each flower, so as to carry a good load back to the hive. In some blossoms she does not stay a moment, but draws her head back almost as soon as she has popped it in, as if to say, "No honey there." But over other flowers she lingers a little, and then scrambles out again with her drop of honey, and goes off to seek more. Let us watch her a little more closely. There are many different plants growing in the flower bed, but, curiously enough, she does not go first to one kind and then to another, but keeps to one the whole time. Now she flies away. Rouse yourself to follow her, and you will see she takes her way back to the hive. We all know why she makes so many journeys between the garden and the hive, and that she is collecting drops of nectar from the flowers and carrying it to the hive to be stored up in the honeycomb for the winter's food. When she comes back again to the garden, we will follow her in her work among the flowers, and see what she is doing for them in return for their gifts to her. No doubt you have already learned that plants can make better and stronger seeds when they can get the pollen dust from other plants. But I am sure that you will be very much surprised to hear that the colors, the scent, and the curious shapes of the flowers are all so many baits to attract insects. And for what reason? In order that the insects may come and carry the pollen dust from one plant to another. So far as we know, it is entirely for this purpose that the plants form honey in different parts of the flower. This food they prepare for the insects, and then they have all sorts of contrivances to entice the little creatures to come and get it. The plants hang out gay-colored signs, as much as to say:-- "Come to me, and I will give you honey, if you will bring me pollen dust in exchange." If you watch the different kinds of grasses, sedges, and rushes, which have such tiny flowers that you can scarcely see them, you will find that no insects visit them. Neither will you ever find bees buzzing round oak trees, elms, or birches. But on the pretty and sweet-smelling apple blossoms you will find bees, wasps, and other insects. The reason of this is that grasses, sedges, rushes, and oak trees have a great deal of pollen dust. As the wind blows them to and fro it wafts the dust from one flower to another. And so these plants do not need to give out honey, or to have gaudy or sweet-scented flowers to attract insects. But the brilliant poppy, the large-flowered hollyhock, the flaunting dandelion, and the bright blue forget-me-not,--all these are visited by insects, which easily catch sight of them and hasten to sip their honey. We must not forget what the fragrance of the flowers can do. Have you ever noticed the delicious odor which comes from beds of mignonette, mint, or sweet alyssum? These plants have found another way of attracting the insects; they have no need of bright colors, for their fragrance is quite as true and certain a guide. You will be surprised if you once begin to count them up, how many dull-looking flowers are sweet-scented, while some gaudy flowers have little or no scent. Still we find some flowers, like the beautiful lily, the lovely rose, and the delicate hyacinth, which have color and fragrance and graceful shapes all combined. But there are still other ways by which flowers secure the visits of insects. Have you not observed that different flowers open and close at different times? The daisy receives its name "day's eye" because it opens at sunrise and closes at sunset, while the evening primrose spreads out its flowers just as the daisy is going to bed. What do you think is the reason of this? If you go near a bed of evening primroses just when the sun is setting, you will soon be able to guess. They will then give out such a sweet odor that you will not doubt for a moment that they are calling the evening moths to come and visit them. The daisy, however, opens by day and is therefore visited by day insects. Again, some flowers close whenever rain is coming. Look at the daisies when a storm is threatening. As the sky grows dark and heavy, you will see them shrink and close till the sun shines again. They do this because in the center of the flower there is a drop of honey which would be spoiled if it were washed by the rain. And now you will see why the cup-shaped flowers so often droop their heads,--think of the snowdrop, the lily-of-the-valley, and a host of others. How pretty they look with their bells hanging so modestly from the slender stalk! They are bending down to protect the honey within their cups. We are gradually learning that everything which a plant does has its meaning, if we can only find it out. And when we are aware of this, a flower garden may become a new world to us if we open our eyes to all that is going on in it. And so we learn that even among insects and flowers, those who do most for others receive most in return. The bee and the flower do not reason about the matter; they only live their little lives as nature guides them, helping and improving each other. I have been able to tell you but very little about the hidden work that is going on around us, and you must not for a moment imagine that we have fully explored the fairy land of nature. But at least we have passed through the gates, and have learned that there is a world of wonder which we may visit if we will. And it lies quite close to us, hidden in every dewdrop and gust of wind, in every brook and valley, in every little plant and animal. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 11: From "The Fairy Land of Nature," by Arabella B. Buckley.] EXPRESSION: Make a list of all the natural objects that are mentioned in this selection. Read what is said of each. Describe as many of them as you can in your own words. Tell what you have observed about bees and flowers. The daisy that is referred to is the true European daisy. The daisy, or whiteweed, of the United States does not open and close in the manner here described. SONG OF THE RIVER[12] A river went singing a-down to the sea, A-singing--low--singing-- And the dim rippling river said softly to me, "I'm bringing, a-bringing-- While floating along-- A beautiful song To the shores that are white where the waves are so weary, To the beach that is burdened with wrecks that are dreary. "A song sweet and calm As the peacefullest psalm; And the shore that was sad Will be grateful and glad, And the weariest wave from its dreariest dream Will wake to the sound of the song of the stream; And the tempests shall cease And there shall be peace." From the fairest of fountains And farthest of mountains, From the stillness of snow Came the stream in its flow. Down the slopes where the rocks are gray, Through the vales where the flowers are fair-- Where the sunlight flashed--where the shadows lay Like stories that cloud a face of care, The river ran on--and on--and on, Day and night, and night and day. Going and going, and never gone, Longing to flow to the "far away." Staying and staying, and never still,-- Going and staying, as if one will Said, "Beautiful river, go to the sea," And another will whispered, "Stay with me"-- And the river made answer, soft and low, "I go and stay--I stay and go." "But what is the song?" I said at last To the passing river that never passed; And a white, white wave whispered, "List to me, I'm a note in the song for the beautiful sea, A song whose grand accents no earth din may sever, And the river flows on in the same mystic key That blends in one chord the 'forever and never.'" [Footnote 12: By Abram J. Ryan, an American clergyman and poet.] EXPRESSION: Read aloud the three lines which introduce the song of the river. Read them in such a manner as to call up a mental picture of the river on its way to the sea. Read the first five lines of the third stanza in a similar way, and tell what picture is now called up in your mind. Now read the river's song. Read what the white wave said. Read the whole poem with spirit and feeling. Notice the words "a-down," "a-singing," "a-bringing." What effect is produced by the use of these unusual forms? SONG OF THE CHATTAHOOCHEE[13] Out of the hills of Habersham, Down the valleys of Hall, I hurry amain to reach the plain, Run the rapid and leap the fall, Split at the rock and together again, Accept my bed or narrow or wide, And flee from folly on every side With a lover's pain to attain the plain Far from the hills of Habersham, Far from the valleys of Hall. All down the hills of Habersham, All through the valleys of Hall, The rushes cried, "Abide, abide," The willful waterweeds held me thrall, The loving laurel turned my tide, The ferns and the fondling grass said, "Stay," The dewberry dipped for to work delay, And the little reeds sighed, "Abide, abide," Here in the hills of Habersham, Here in the valleys of Hall. High o'er the hills of Habersham, Veiling the valleys of Hall, The hickory told me manifold Fair tales of shade; the poplar tall Wrought me her shadowy self to hold; The chestnut, the oak, the walnut, the pine, Overleaning, with flickering meaning and sign, Said, "Pass not so cold, these manifold Deep shades of the hills of Habersham, These glades in the valleys of Hall." And oft in the hills of Habersham, And oft in the valleys of Hall, The white quartz shone, and the smooth brook stone Did bar me of passage with friendly brawl; And many a luminous jewel lone (Crystals clear or a-cloud with mist, Ruby, garnet, or amethyst) Made lures with the lights of streaming stone In the clefts of the hills of Habersham, In the beds of the valleys of Hall. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 13: By Sidney Lanier, an American musician and poet (1842-1881). From the _Poems of Sidney Lanier_, published by Charles Scribner's Sons.] EXPRESSION: Compare this poem with the one which precedes it. Compare them both with Tennyson's "Song of the Brook" ("Fifth Reader," p. 249). Which is the most musical? Which is the best simply as a description? Make a list of the unusual words in this last poem, and refer to the dictionary for their meaning. In what state is the Chattahoochee River? "Habersham" and "Hall" are the names of two counties in the same state. If you have access to a library, find Southey's poem, "The Cataract of Lodore," and read it aloud. WAR AND PEACE I. WAR AS THE MOTHER OF VALOR AND CIVILIZATION[14] We still hear war extolled at times as the mother of valor and the prime agency in the world's advancement. By it, we are told, civilization has spread and nations have been created, slavery has been abolished and the American Union preserved. It is even held that without war human progress would have been impossible. The answer: Men were at first savages who preyed upon each other like wild beasts, and so they developed a physical courage which they shared with the brutes. Moral courage was unknown to them. War was almost their sole occupation. Peace existed only for short periods that tribes might regain strength to resume the sacred duty of killing each other. Advancement in civilization was impossible while war reigned. Only as wars became less frequent and long intervals of peace supervened could civilization, the mother of true heroism, take root. Civilization has advanced just as war has receded, until in our day peace has become the rule and war the exception. Arbitration of international disputes grows more and more in favor. Successive generations of men now live and die without seeing war; and instead of the army and navy furnishing the only careers worthy of gentlemen, it is with difficulty that civilized nations can to-day obtain a sufficient supply of either officers or men. In the past, man's only method for removing obstacles and attaining desired ends was to use brute courage. The advance of civilization has developed moral courage. We use more beneficent means than men did of old. Britain in the eighteenth century used force to prevent American independence. In more recent times she graciously grants Canada the rights denied America. The United States also receives an award of the powers against China, and, finding it in excess of her expenditures, in the spirit of newer time, returns ten million dollars. Won by this act of justice, China devotes the sum to the education of Chinese students in the republic's universities. The greatest force is no longer that of brutal war, but the supreme force of gentlemen and generosity--the golden rule. The pen is rapidly superseding the sword. Arbitration is banishing war. More than five hundred international disputes have already been peacefully settled. Civilization, not barbarism, is the mother of true heroism. Our lately departed poet and disciple of peace, Richard Watson Gilder, has left us the answer to the false idea that brute force employed against our fellows ranks with heroic moral courage exerted to save or serve them:-- 'Twas said: "When roll of drum and battle's roar Shall cease upon the earth, oh, then no more The deed, the race, of heroes in the land." But scarce that word was breathed when one small hand Lifted victorious o'er a giant wrong That had its victims crushed through ages long; Some woman set her pale and quivering face, Firm as a rock, against a man's disgrace; A little child suffered in silence lest His savage pain should wound a mother's breast; Some quiet scholar flung his gauntlet down And risked, in Truth's great name, the synod's frown; A civic hero, in the calm realm of laws, Did that which suddenly drew a world's applause; And one to the pest his lithe young body gave That he a thousand thousand lives might save. On the field of carnage men lose all human instincts in the struggle to protect themselves. The true heroism inspired by moral courage prompts firemen, policemen, sailors, miners, and others to volunteer and risk their lives to save the lives of their fellowmen. Such heroism is now of everyday occurrence. In our age there is no more reason for permitting war between civilized nations than for relaxing the reign of law within nations, which compels men to submit their personal disputes to peaceful courts, and never dreams that by so doing they will be made less heroic.... When war ceases, the sense of human brotherhood will be strengthened and "heroism" will no longer mean to kill, but only to serve or save our fellows. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 14: By Andrew Carnegie, a Scottish-American manufacturer and philanthropist (1837- ).] II. FRIENDSHIP AMONG NATIONS[15] Let us suppose that four centuries ago some far-seeing prophet dared to predict to the duchies composing the kingdom of France that the day would come when they would no longer make war upon each other. Let us suppose him saying:-- "You will have many disputes to settle, interests to contend for, difficulties to resolve; but do you know what you will select instead of armed men, instead of cavalry, and infantry, of cannon, lances, pikes, and swords? "You will select, instead of all this destructive array, a small box of wood, which you will term a ballot-box, and from what shall issue--what? An assembly--an assembly in which you shall all live; an assembly which shall be, as it were, the soul of all; a supreme and popular council, which shall decide, judge, resolve everything; which shall say to each, 'Here terminates your right, there commences your duty: lay down your arms!' "And in that day you will all have one common thought, common interests, a common destiny; you will embrace each other, and recognize each other as children of the same blood and of the same race; that day you shall no longer be hostile tribes--you will be a people; you will be no longer merely Burgundy, Normandy, Brittany, Provence--you will be France! You will no longer make appeals to war; you will do so to civilization." If, at that period I speak of, some one had uttered these words, all men would have cried out: "What a dreamer! what a dream! How little this pretended prophet is acquainted with the human heart!" Yet time has gone on and on, and we find that this dream has been realized. Well, then, at this moment we who are assembled here say to France, to England, to Spain, to Italy, to Russia: "A day will come, when from your hands also the arms they have grasped shall fall. A day will come, when war shall appear as impossible, and will be as impossible, between Paris and London, between St. Petersburg and Berlin, as it is now between Rouen and Amiens, between Boston and Philadelphia. "A day will come, when you, France; you, Russia; you, Italy; you, England; you, Germany; all of you nations of the continent, shall, without losing your distinctive qualities and your glorious individuality, be blended into a superior unity, and shall constitute an European fraternity, just as Normandy, Brittany, Burgundy, Lorraine, have been blended into France. A day will come when the only battle field shall be the market open to commerce, and the mind open to new ideas. A day will come when bullets and shells shall be replaced by votes, by the universal suffrage of nations, by the arbitration of a great sovereign senate. Nor is it necessary for four hundred years to pass away for that day to come. We live in a period in which a year often suffices to do the work of a century. Suppose that the people of Europe, instead of mistrusting each other, entertaining jealousy of each other, hating each other, become fast friends; suppose they say that before they are French or English or German they are men, and that if nations form countries, human kind forms a family. Suppose that the enormous sums spent in maintaining armies should be spent in acts of mutual confidence. Suppose that the millions that are lavished on hatred, were bestowed on love, given to peace instead of war, given to labor, to intelligence, to industry, to commerce, to navigation, to agriculture, to science, to art. If this enormous sum were expended in this manner, know you what would happen? The face of the world would be changed. Isthmuses would be cut through. Railroads would cover the continents; the merchant navy of the globe would be increased a hundredfold. There would be nowhere barren plains nor moors nor marshes. Cities would be found where now there are only deserts. Asia would be rescued to civilization; Africa would be rescued to man; abundance would gush forth on every side, from every vein of the earth at the touch of man, like the living stream from the rock beneath the rod of Moses. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 15: By Victor Hugo, a celebrated French writer (1802-1885).] III. SOLDIER, REST[16] Soldier, rest! thy warfare o'er, Sleep the sleep that knows not breaking; Dream of battled fields no more, Days of danger, nights of waking. In our isle's enchanted hall, Hands unseen thy couch are strewing, Fairy strains of music fall, Every sense in slumber dewing. Soldier, rest! thy warfare o'er, Dream of fighting fields no more; Sleep the sleep that knows not breaking, Morn of toil nor night of waking. No rude sound shall reach thine ear, Armor's clang, or war steed champing, Trump nor pibroch summon here Mustering clan or squadron tramping. Yet the lark's shrill fife may come At the daybreak from the fallow, And the bittern sound his drum, Booming from the sedgy shallow. Ruder sounds shall none be near, Guards nor warders challenge here, Here's no war steed's neigh and champing, Shouting clans, or squadrons stamping. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 16: By Sir Walter Scott, a Scottish novelist and poet (1771-1832).] IV. THE SOLDIER'S DREAM[17] Our bugles sang truce, for the night cloud had lowered, And the sentinel stars set their watch in the sky; And thousands had sunk on the ground overpowered, The weary to sleep, and the wounded to die. When reposing that night on my pallet of straw, By the wolf-scaring fagot that guarded the slain; At the dead of the night a sweet vision I saw, And thrice ere the morning I dreamt it again. Methought from the battle field's dreadful array, Far, far I had roamed on a desolate track; 'Twas autumn, and sunshine arose on the way To the home of my fathers, that welcomed me back. I flew to the pleasant fields traversed so oft In life's morning march, when my bosom was young; I heard my own mountain goats bleating aloft, And knew the sweet strain that the corn reapers sung. Then pledged we the wine cup, and fondly I swore From my home and my weeping friends never to part; My little ones kissed me a thousand times o'er, And my wife sobbed aloud in her fullness of heart. "Stay, stay with us--rest, thou art weary and worn;" And fain was their war-broken soldier to stay; But sorrow returned with the dawning of morn, And the voice in my dreaming ear melted away. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 17: By Thomas Campbell, a Scottish poet (1777-1844).] V. HOW SLEEP THE BRAVE[18] How sleep the brave who sink to rest By all their country's wishes blest! When Spring, with dewy fingers cold, Returns to deck their hallowed mold, She there shall dress a sweeter sod Than Fancy's feet have ever trod. By fairy hands their knell is rung, By forms unseen their dirge is sung: There Honor comes, a pilgrim gray, To bless the turf that wraps their clay, And Freedom shall awhile repair To dwell a weeping hermit there. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 18: By William Collins, an English poet (1721-1759).] EXPRESSION: Which one of these three poems requires to be read with most spirit and enthusiasm? Which is the most pathetic? Which is the most musical? Which calls up the most pleasing mental pictures? Talk with your teacher about the three authors of these poems, and learn all you can about their lives and writings. EARLY TIMES IN NEW YORK.[19] In those good old days of simplicity and sunshine, a passion for cleanliness was the leading principle in domestic economy, and the universal test of an able housewife. The front door was never opened, except for marriages, funerals, New Year's Day, the festival of St. Nicholas, or some such great occasion. It was ornamented with a gorgeous brass knocker, which was curiously wrought,--sometimes in the device of a dog, and sometimes in that of a lion's head,--and daily burnished with such religious zeal that it was often worn out by the very precautions taken for its preservation. The whole house was constantly in a state of inundation, under the discipline of mops and brooms and scrubbing brushes; and the good housewives of those days were a kind of amphibious animal, delighting exceedingly to be dabbling in water,--insomuch that an historian of the day gravely tells us that many of his townswomen grew to have webbed fingers, "like unto ducks." The grand parlor was the _sanctum sanctorum_, where the passion for cleaning was indulged without control. No one was permitted to enter this sacred apartment, except the mistress and her confidential maid, who visited it once a week for the purpose of giving it a thorough cleaning. On these occasions they always took the precaution of leaving their shoes at the door, and entering devoutly in their stocking feet. After scrubbing the floor, sprinkling it with fine white sand,--which was curiously stroked with a broom into angles and curves and rhomboids,--after washing the windows, rubbing and polishing the furniture, and putting a new branch of evergreens in the fireplace, the windows were again closed to keep out the flies, and the room was kept carefully locked, until the revolution of time brought round the weekly cleaning day. As to the family, they always entered in at the gate, and generally lived in the kitchen. To have seen a numerous household assembled round the fire, one would have imagined that he was transported to those happy days of primeval simplicity which float before our imaginations like golden visions. The fireplaces were of a truly patriarchal magnitude, where the whole family, old and young, master and servant, black and white,--nay, even the very cat and dog,--enjoyed a community of privilege, and had each a right to a corner. Here the old burgher would sit in perfect silence, puffing his pipe, looking in the fire with half-shut eyes, and thinking of nothing, for hours together; the good wife, on the opposite side, would employ herself diligently in spinning yarn or knitting stockings. The young folks would crowd around the hearth, listening with breathless attention to some old crone of a negro, who was the oracle of the family, and who, perched like a raven in a corner of the chimney, would croak forth, for a long winter afternoon, a string of incredible stories about New England witches, grisly ghosts, and bloody encounters among Indians. In those happy days, fashionable parties were generally confined to the higher classes, or _noblesse_; that is to say, such as kept their own cows, and drove their own wagons. The company usually assembled at three o'clock, and went away about six, unless it was in winter time, when the fashionable hours were a little earlier, that the ladies might reach home before dark. The tea table was crowned with a huge earthen dish, well stored with slices of fat pork, fried brown, cut up into morsels, and swimming in gravy. The company seated round the genial board, evinced their dexterity in launching their forks at the fattest pieces in this mighty dish,--in much the same manner that sailors harpoon porpoises at sea, or our Indians spear salmon in the lakes. Sometimes the table was graced with immense apple pies, or saucers full of preserved peaches and pears; but it was always sure to boast an enormous dish of balls of sweetened dough, fried in hog's fat and called doughnuts or _olykoeks_, a delicious kind of cake, at present little known in this city, except in genuine Dutch families. The tea was served out of a majestic Delft teapot, ornamented with paintings of fat little Dutch shepherds and shepherdesses tending pigs,--with boats sailing in the air, and houses built in the clouds, and sundry other ingenious Dutch fancies. The beaux distinguished themselves by their adroitness in replenishing this pot from a huge copper teakettle. To sweeten the beverage, a lump of sugar was laid beside each cup, and the company alternately nibbled and sipped with great decorum; until an improvement was introduced by a shrewd and economic old lady, which was to suspend, by a string from the ceiling, a large lump directly over the tea table, so that it could be swung from mouth to mouth. At these primitive tea parties, the utmost propriety and dignity prevailed,--no flirting nor coquetting; no romping of young ladies; no self-satisfied struttings of wealthy gentlemen, with their brains in their pockets, nor amusing conceits and monkey divertisements of smart young gentlemen, with no brains at all. On the contrary, the young ladies seated themselves demurely in their rush-bottomed chairs, and knit their own woolen stockings; nor ever opened their lips, excepting to say "_Yah, Mynheer_," or "_Yah, yah, Vrouw_," to any question that was asked them; behaving in all things like decent, well-educated damsels. As to the gentlemen, each of them tranquilly smoked his pipe, and seemed lost in contemplation of the blue and white tiles with which the fireplaces were decorated; wherein sundry passages of Scripture were piously portrayed. Tobit and his dog figured to great advantage; Haman swung conspicuously on his gibbet; and Jonah appeared most manfully leaping from the whale's mouth, like Harlequin through a barrel of fire. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 19: From Diedrich Knickerbocker's, "History of New York," by Washington Irving.] NOTES: More than two hundred and fifty years have passed since the "good old days" described in this selection. New York in 1660 was a small place. It was called New Amsterdam, and its inhabitants were chiefly Dutch people from Holland. Knickerbocker's "History of New York" gives a delightfully humorous account of those early times. The festival of St. Nicholas occurs on December 6, and with the Dutch colonists was equivalent to our Christmas. WORD STUDY: _sanctum sanctorum_, a Latin expression meaning "holy of holies," a most sacred place. _noblesse_, persons of high rank. _olykoeks_ (_[)o]l´ y cooks_), doughnuts, or crullers. _Mynheer_ (_m[=i]n h[=a]r´_), sir, Mr. _Vrouw_ (_vrou_), madam, lady. _Tobit_, a pious man of ancient times whose story is related in "The Book of Tobit." _Haman_ (_ha´ man_), the prime minister of the king of Babylon, who was hanged on a gibbet which he had prepared for another. See "The Book of Esther." _Har´ le quin_, a clown well known in Italian comedy. Look in the dictionary for: _gorgeous_, _rhomboids_, _primeval_, _patriarchal_, _burgher_, _crone_, _porpoises_, _beverage_, _divertisements_. A WINTER EVENING IN OLD NEW ENGLAND Shut in from all the world without, We sat the clean-winged hearth about, Content to let the north wind roar In baffled rage at pane and door, While the red logs before us beat The frost line back with tropic heat; And ever, when a louder blast Shook beam and rafter as it passed, The merrier up its roaring draft The great throat of the chimney laughed. The house dog on his paws outspread Laid to the fire his drowsy head, The cat's dark silhouette on the wall A couchant tiger's seemed to fall; And, for the winter fireside meet, Between the andirons' straddling feet The mug of cider simmered slow, And apples sputtered in a row. And, close at hand, the basket stood With nuts from brown October's woods. What matter how the night behaved? What matter how the north wind raved? Blow high, blow low, not all its snow Could quench our hearth-fire's ruddy glow. [Illustration: A Winter Evening in Old New England.] THE OLD-FASHIONED THANKSGIVING[20] I do not know but it is that old New England holiday of Thanksgiving which, for one of New England birth, has most of home associations tied up with it, and most of gleeful memories. I know that they are very present ones. We all knew when it was coming; we all loved turkey--not Turkey on the map, for which we cared very little after we had once bounded it--by the Black Sea on the east, and by something else on the other sides--but basted turkey, brown turkey, stuffed turkey. Here was richness! We had scored off the days until we were sure, to a recitation mark, when it was due--well into the end of November, when winds would be blowing from the northwest, with great piles of dry leaves all down the sides of the street and in the angles of pasture walls. I cannot for my life conceive why any one should upset the old order of things by marking it down a fortnight earlier. A man in the country wants his crops well in and housed before he is ready to gush out with a round, outspoken Thanksgiving; but everybody knows, who knows anything about it, that the purple tops and the cow-horn turnips are, nine times in ten, left out till the latter days of November, and husking not half over. We all knew, as I said, when it was coming. We had a stock of empty flour barrels on Town-hill stuffed with leaves, and a big pole set in the ground, and a battered tar barrel, with its bung chopped out, to put on top of the pole. It was all to beat the last year's bonfire--and it did. The country wagoners had made their little stoppages at the back door. We knew what was to come of that. And if the old cook--a monstrous fine woman, who weighed two hundred if she weighed a pound--was brusque and wouldn't have us "round," we knew what was to come of that, too. Such pies as hers demanded thoughtful consideration: not very large, and baked in scalloped tins, and with such a relishy flavor to them, as on my honor, I do not recognize in any pies of this generation.... The sermon on that Thanksgiving (and we all heard it) was long. We boys were prepared for that too. But we couldn't treat a Thanksgiving sermon as we would an ordinary one; we couldn't doze--there was too much ahead. It seemed to me that the preacher made rather a merit of holding us in check--with that basted turkey in waiting. At last, though, it came to an end; and I believe Dick and I both joined in the doxology. All that followed is to me now a cloud of misty and joyful expectation, until we took our places--a score or more of cousins and kinsfolk; and the turkey, and celery, and cranberries, and what nots, were all in place. Did Dick whisper to me as we went in, "Get next to me, old fellow"? I cannot say; I have a half recollection that he did. But bless me! what did anybody care for what Dick said? And the old gentleman who bowed his head and said grace--there is no forgetting him. And the little golden-haired one who sat at his left--his pet, his idol--who lisped the thanksgiving after him, shall I forget her, and the games of forfeit afterwards at evening that brought her curls near to me? These fifty years she has been gone from sight, and is dust. What an awful tide of Thanksgivings has drifted by since she bowed her golden locks, and clasped her hand, and murmured, "Our Father, we thank thee for this, and for all thy bounties!" Who else? Well, troops of cousins--good, bad, and indifferent. No man is accountable for his cousins, I think; or if he is, the law should be changed. If a man can't speak honestly of cousinhood, to the third or fourth degree, what _can_ he speak honestly of? Didn't I see little Floy (who wore pea-green silk) make a saucy grimace when I made a false cut at that rolypoly turkey drumstick and landed it on the tablecloth? There was that scamp Tom, too, who loosened his waistcoat before he went into dinner. I saw him do it. Didn't he make faces at me, till he caught a warning from Aunt Polly's uplifted finger? [Illustration: A Thanksgiving Reunion.] How should I forget that good, kindly Aunt Polly--very severe in her turban, and with her meeting-house face upon her, but full of a great wealth of bonbons and dried fruits on Saturday afternoons, in I know not what capacious pockets; ample, too, in her jokes and in her laugh; making that day a great maelstrom of mirth around her? H---- sells hides now, and is as rich as Croesus, whatever that may mean; but does he remember his venturesome foray for a little bit of crisp roast pig that lay temptingly on the edge of the dish that day? There was Sarah, too,--turned of seventeen, education complete, looking down on us all--terribly learned (I know for a fact that she kept Mrs. Hemans in her pocket); terribly self-asserting, too. If she had not married happily, and not had a little brood about her in after years (which she did), I think she would have made one of the most terrible Sorosians of our time. At least that is the way I think of it now, looking back across the basted turkey (which she ate without gravy) and across the range of eager Thanksgiving faces. There was Uncle Ned--no forgetting him--who had a way of patting a boy on the head so that the patting reached clear through to the boy's heart, and made him sure of a blessing hovering over. That was the patting I liked. _That's_ the sort of uncle to come to a Thanksgiving dinner--the sort that eat double filberts with you, and pay up next day by noon with a pocketknife or a riding whip. Hurrah for Uncle Ned! And Aunt Eliza--is there any keeping her out of mind? I never liked the name much; but the face and the kindliness which was always ready to cover, as well as she might, what wrong we did, and to make clear what good we did, make me enrol her now--where she belongs evermore--among the saints. So quiet, so gentle, so winning, making conquest of all of us, because she never sought it; full of dignity, yet never asserting it; queening it over all by downright kindliness of heart. What a wife she would have made! Heigho! how we loved her, and made our boyish love of her--a Thanksgiving! Were there oranges? I think there were, with green spots on the peel--lately arrived from Florida. Tom boasted that he ate four. I dare say he told the truth--he looked peaked, and was a great deal the worse for the dinner next day, I remember. Was there punch, or any strong liquors? No; so far as my recollection now goes, there was none. Champagne? I have a faint remembrance of a loud pop or two which set some cousinly curls over opposite me into a nervous shake. Yet I would not like to speak positively. Good bottled cider or pop beer may possibly account for all the special phenomena I call to mind. Was there coffee, and were there olives? Not to the best of my recollection; or, if present, I lose them in the glamour of mince pies and Marlborough puddings. How we ever sidled away from that board when that feast was done I have no clear conception. I am firm in the belief that thanksgiving was said at the end, as at the beginning. I have a faint recollection of a gray head passing out at the door, and of a fleece of golden curls beside him, against which I jostle--not unkindly. Dark? Yes; I think the sun had gone down about the time when the mince pies had faded. Did Dick and Tom and the rest of us come sauntering in afterwards when the rooms were empty, foraging for any little tidbits of the feast that might be left, the tables showing only wreck under the dim light of a solitary candle? How we found our way with the weight of that stupendous dinner by us to the heights of Town-hill it is hard to tell. But we did, and when our barrel pile was fairly ablaze, we danced like young satyrs round the flame, shouting at our very loudest when the fire caught the tar barrel at the top, and the yellow pile of blaze threw its lurid glare over hill and houses and town. Afterwards I have recollection of an hour or more in a snug square parlor, which is given over to us youngsters and our games, dimly lighted, as was most fitting; but a fire upon the hearth flung out a red glory on the floor and on the walls. Was it a high old time, or did we only pretend that it was? Didn't I know little Floy in that pea-green silk, with my hands clasped round her waist and my eyes blinded--ever so fast? Didn't I give Dick an awful pinch in the leg, when I lay _perdu_ under the sofa in another one of those tremendous games? Didn't the door that led into the hall show a little open gap from time to time--old faces peering in, looking very kindly in the red firelight flaring on them? And didn't those we loved best look oftenest? Don't they always? Well, well--we were fagged at last: little Floy in a snooze before we knew it; Dick, pretending not to be sleepy, but gaping in a prodigious way. But the romps and the fatigue made sleep very grateful when it came at last: yet the sleep was very broken; the turkey and the nuts had their rights, and bred stupendous Thanksgiving dreams. What gorgeous dreams they were, to be sure! I seem to dream them again to-day. Once again I see the old, revered gray head bowing in utter thankfulness, with the hands clasped. Once again, over the awful tide of intervening years--so full, and yet so short--I seem to see the shimmer of _her_ golden hair--an aureole of light blazing on the borders of boyhood: "_For this, and all thy bounties, our Father, we thank thee._" FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 20: From "Bound Together," by Donald G. Mitchell, published by Charles Scribner's Sons.] A THANKSGIVING[21] Lord, thou hast given me a cell Wherein to dwell-- A little house, whose humble roof Is weatherproof-- Under the spans of which I lie Both soft and dry, Where thou, my chamber for to ward, Hast set a guard Of harmless thoughts, to watch and keep Me while I sleep. Low is my porch as is my fate-- Both void of state-- And yet the threshold of my door Is worn by the poor Who hither come, and freely get Good words or meat. Like as my parlor, so my hall And kitchen's small. A little buttery, and therein A little bin. Which keeps my little loaf of bread Unchipt, unfled. Some brittle sticks of thorn or brier Make me a fire Close by whose living coal I sit, And glow like it. Lord, I confess too, when I dine, The pulse is thine, And all those other bits that be There placed by thee. 'Tis thou that crown'st my glittering hearth With guiltless mirth, And giv'st me wassail bowls to drink, Spiced to the brink. Lord, 'tis thy plenty-dropping hand That soils my land, And giv'st me for my bushel sown Twice ten for one. All these and better thou dost send Me to this end,-- That I should render for my part, A thankful heart; Which, fired with incense, I resign As wholly thine-- But the acceptance, that must be, My God, by thee. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 21: By Robert Herrick, an English poet (1591-1674).] FIRST DAYS AT WAKEFIELD[22] _A proof that even the humblest fortune may grant happiness, which depends not on circumstances but constitution._ The place of our retreat was in a little neighborhood consisting of farmers, who tilled their own grounds, and were equal strangers to opulence and poverty. As they had almost all the conveniences of life within themselves, they seldom visited towns or cities in search of superfluity. Remote from the polite, they still retained the primeval simplicity of manners; and frugal by habit, they scarcely knew that temperance was a virtue. They wrought with cheerfulness on days of labor; but observed festivals as intervals of idleness and pleasure. They kept up the Christmas carol, sent true love knots on Valentine morning, ate pancakes on Shrovetide, showed their wit on the first of April, and religiously cracked nuts on Michaelmas Eve. Being apprised of our approach, the whole neighborhood came out to meet their minister, dressed in their finest clothes, and preceded by a pipe and tabor. A feast also was provided for our reception, at which we sat cheerfully down; and what the conversation wanted in wit was made up in laughter. Our little habitation was situated at the foot of a slopping bill, sheltered with a beautiful underwood behind, and a prattling river before; on one side a meadow, on the other a green. My farm consisted of about twenty acres of excellent land, having given a hundred pounds for my predecessor's goodwill. Nothing could exceed the neatness of my little inclosures, the elms and hedgerows appearing with inexpressible beauty. My house consisted of but one story, and was covered with thatch, which gave it an air of great snugness; the walls on the inside were nicely whitewashed, and my daughters undertook to adorn them with pictures of their own designing. Though the same room served us for parlor and kitchen, that only made it the warmer. Besides, as it was kept with the utmost neatness, the dishes, plates, and coppers being well scoured, and all disposed in bright rows on the shelves, the eye was agreeably relieved, and did not want richer furniture. There were three other apartments,--one for my wife and me, another for our two daughters, and the third, with two beds, for the rest of the children. The little republic to which I gave laws was regulated in the following manner: by sunrise we all assembled in our common apartment, the fire being previously kindled by the servant. After we had saluted each other with proper ceremony--for I always thought fit to keep up some mechanical forms of good breeding, without which freedom ever destroys friendship--we all bent in gratitude to that Being who gave us another day. This duty being performed, my son and I went to pursue our usual industry abroad, while my wife and daughters employed themselves in providing breakfast, which was always ready at a certain time. I allowed half an hour for this meal and an hour for dinner, which time was taken up in innocent mirth between my wife and daughters, and in philosophical arguments between my son and me. As we rose with the sun, so we never pursued our labors after it was gone down, but returned home to the expecting family, where smiling looks, a neat hearth, and pleasant fire were prepared for our reception. Nor were we without guests: sometimes Farmer Flamborough, our talkative neighbor, and often the blind piper would pay us a visit, and taste our gooseberry wine, for the making of which we had lost neither the receipt nor the reputation. The night was concluded in the manner we began the morning, my youngest boys being appointed to read the lessons of the day, and he that read loudest, distinctest and best was to have a halfpenny on Sunday to put in the poor's box. When Sunday came it was indeed a day of finery, which all my sumptuary edicts could not restrain. How well soever I fancied my lectures against pride had conquered the vanity of my daughters, yet I still found them secretly attached to all their former finery; they still loved laces, ribbons, bugles, and catgut; my wife herself retained a passion for her crimson paduasoy, because I formerly happened to say it became her. [Illustration: The First Sunday at Wakefield.] The first Sunday in particular their behavior served to mortify me; I had desired my girls the preceding night to be dressed early the next day; for I always loved to be at church a good while before the rest of the congregation. They punctually obeyed my directions; but when we were to assemble in the morning at breakfast, down came my wife and daughters dressed out all in their former splendor; their hair plastered up with pomatum, their faces patched to taste, their trains bundled up in a heap behind, and rustling at every motion. I could not help smiling at their vanity, particularly that of my wife, from whom I expected more discretion. In this exigence, therefore, my only resource was to order my son, with an important air, to call our coach. The girls were amazed at the command; but I repeated it with more solemnity than before. "Surely, my dear, you jest," cried my wife; "we can walk it perfectly well; we want no coach to carry us now." "You mistake, child," returned I, "we do want a coach; for if we walk to church in this trim, the very children in the parish will hoot after us." "Indeed," replied my wife, "I always imagined that my Charles was fond of seeing his children neat and handsome about him." "You may be as neat as you please," interrupted I, "and I shall love you the better for it; but all this is not neatness, but frippery. These rufflings and pinkings and patchings will only make us hated by all the wives of all our neighbors. No, my children," continued I, more gravely, "those gowns may be altered into something of a plainer cut; for finery is very unbecoming in us, who want the means of decency. I do not know whether such flouncing and shredding is becoming even in the rich, if we consider, upon a moderate calculation, that the nakedness of the indigent world may be clothed from the trimmings of the vain." This remonstrance had the proper effect; they went with great composure, that very instant, to change their dress; and the next day I had the satisfaction of finding my daughters, at their own request, employed in cutting up their trains into Sunday waistcoats for Dick and Bill, the two little ones; and what was still more satisfactory, the gowns seemed improved by this curtailing. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 22: From "The Vicar of Wakefield," by Oliver Goldsmith, a celebrated English author (1728-1774).] EXPRESSION: In this selection and the two which follow we have three other specimens of English prose fiction. You will observe that they are very different in style, as well as in subject, from the three specimens at the beginning of this book. Compare them with one another. Reread the selections from Dickens, Thackeray, and George Eliot, and compare them with these. Which do you like best? Why? DOUBTING CASTLE[23] I. THE PILGRIMS LOSE THEIR WAY Now I beheld in my dream that Christian and Hopeful had not journeyed far until they came where the river and the way parted, at which they were not a little sorry; yet they durst not go out of the way. Now the way from the river was rough, and their feet tender by reason of their travel; so the souls of the pilgrims were much discouraged because of the way. Wherefore, still as they went on, they wished for a better way. Now, a little before them, there was in the left hand of the road a meadow, and a stile to go over into it; and that meadow is called By-path Meadow. Then said Christian to his fellow, "If this meadow lieth along by our wayside, let us go over into it." Then he went to the stile to see, and behold a path lay along by the way on the other side of the fence. "'Tis according to my wish," said Christian; "here is the easiest going; come, good Hopeful, and let us go over." "But how if this path should lead us out of the way?" "_That_ is not likely," said the other. "Look, doth it not go along by the wayside?" So Hopeful, being persuaded by his fellow, went after him over the stile. When they were gone over, and were got into the path, they found it very easy for their feet; and withal they, looking before them, espied a man walking as they did, and his name was Vain-Confidence: so they called after him, and asked him whither that way led. He said, "To the Celestial Gate." "Look," said Christian, "did not I tell you so?--by this you may see we are right." So they followed, and he went before them. But, behold, the night came on, and it grew very dark; so that they who were behind lost sight of them that went before. He, therefore, that went before--Vain-Confidence by name--not seeing the way before him, fell into a deep pit, and was dashed in pieces with his fall. Now Christian and his fellow heard him fall; so they called to know the matter. But there was none to answer, only they heard a groan. Then said Hopeful, "Where are we now?" Then was his fellow silent, as mistrusting that he had led him out of the way; and now it began to rain and thunder and lightning in a most dreadful manner, and the water rose amain, by reason of which the way of going back was very dangerous. Yet they adventured to go back; but it was so dark and the flood so high, that in their going back they had like to have been drowned nine or ten times. Neither could they, with all the skill they had, get back again to the stile that night. Wherefore, at last lighting under a little shelter, they sat down there until daybreak. But, being weary, they fell asleep. [Illustration: In the Giant's Dungeon.] II. IN THE GIANT'S DUNGEON Now there was, not far from the place where they lay, a castle, called Doubting Castle, the owner whereof was Giant Despair; and it was in his grounds they now were sleeping. Wherefore he, getting up in the morning early, and walking up and down in his fields, caught Christian and Hopeful asleep in his grounds. Then with a grim and surly voice, he bid them awake, and asked them whence they were, and what they did in his grounds. They told him they were pilgrims, and that they had lost their way. Then said the giant, "You have this night trespassed on me, by trampling in and lying on my grounds, and therefore you must go along with me." So they were forced to go, because he was stronger than they. They also had but little to say, for they knew themselves in a fault. The giant, therefore, drove them before him, and put them into his castle, in a very dark dungeon. Here, then, they lay from Wednesday morning till Saturday night, without one bit of bread, or drop of drink, or light, or any to ask how they did: they were, therefore, here in evil case, and were far from friends and acquaintance. Now Giant Despair had a wife, and her name was Diffidence. So, when he was gone to bed, he told his wife that he had taken a couple of prisoners, and had cast them into his dungeon for trespassing on his grounds. Then he asked her also what he had best do to them. So she asked him what they were, whence they came, and whither they were bound; and he told her. Then she counseled him, that when he arose in the morning he should beat them without mercy. So when he arose, he getteth him a grievous crabtree cudgel, and goes into the dungeon to them, and there first falls to rating of them as if they were dogs, although they never gave him an unpleasant word. Then he fell upon them, and beat them fearfully, in such sort that they were not able to help themselves, or to turn them upon the floor. This done he withdraws, and leaves them there to condole their misery, and to mourn under their distress. So all that day they spent their time in nothing but sighs and bitter lamentations. The next night she, talking with her husband further about them, and understanding that they were yet alive, did advise him to counsel them to make away with themselves. So, when morning was come, he goes to them in a surly manner as before, and perceiving them to be very sore with the stripes that he had given them the day before, he told them that, since they were never like to come out of that place, their only way would be forthwith to make an end of themselves, either with knife, halter, or poison: "for why," he said, "should you choose to live, seeing it is attended with so much bitterness?" But they desired him to let them go. With that he looked ugly upon them, and, rushing to them, had doubtless made an end of them himself, but that he fell into one of his fits, and lost for a time the use of his hands. Wherefore he withdrew, and left them, as before, to consider what to do. Then did the prisoners consult between themselves, whether it was best to take his counsel or no. But they soon resolved to reject it; for it would be very wicked to kill themselves; and, besides, something might soon happen to enable them to make their escape. Well, towards evening the giant goes down to the dungeon again, to see if his prisoners had taken his counsel; but when he came there, he found them alive. I say, he found them alive; at which he fell into a grievous rage, and told them that, seeing they had disobeyed his counsel, it should be worse with them than if they had never been born. At this they trembled greatly, and I think that Christian fell into a swoon; but, coming a little to himself again, they renewed their discourse about the giant's counsel, and whether yet they had best take it or no. Now Christian again seemed for doing it, but Hopeful reminded him of the hardships and terrors he had already gone through, and said that they ought to bear up with patience as well as they could, and steadily reject the giant's wicked counsel. Now, night being come again, and the giant and his wife being in bed, she asked him concerning the prisoners, and if they had taken his counsel. To this he replied, "They are sturdy rogues, they choose rather to bear all hardships than to make away themselves." Then said she, "Take them into the castle yard to-morrow, and show them the bones and skulls of those that thou hast already dispatched, and make them believe, thou wilt tear them in pieces, as thou hast done their fellows before them." So when morning has come, the giant goes to them again, and takes them into the castle yard, and shows them as his wife had bidden him. "These," said he, "were pilgrims, as you are, once, and they trespassed on my grounds, as you have done; and when I thought fit, I tore them in pieces; and so within ten days I will do to you. Get you down to your den again." And with that he beat them all the way thither. Now, when night was come, Mrs. Diffidence and her husband began to renew their discourse of their prisoners. The old giant wondered that he could neither by his blows nor by his counsel bring them to an end. And with that his wife replied, "I fear," said she, "that they live in hopes that some will come to relieve them, or that they have picklocks about them, by the means of which they hope to escape." "And sayest thou so, my dear?" said the giant; "I will therefore search them in the morning." Well, on Saturday, about midnight, they began to pray, and continued in prayer till almost break of day. Now a little before it was day, good Christian, as one half amazed, brake out into a passionate speech: "What a fool am I, thus to lie in a dungeon! I have a key in my bosom, called Promise, that will, I am persuaded, open any lock in Doubting Castle." Then said Hopeful, "That's good news, good brother; pluck it out of thy bosom and try." Then Christian pulled it out of his bosom, and began to try at the dungeon door, whose bolt, as he turned the key, gave back, and the door flew open with ease, and Christian and Hopeful both came out. After that, he went to the iron gate, for that must be opened too, but that lock went desperately hard; yet the key did open it. Then they thrust open the gate to make their escape with speed; but that gate, as it opened, made such a creaking, that it waked Giant Despair, who, hastily rising to pursue his prisoners, felt his limbs to fail, for his fits took him again, so that he could by no means go after them. Then they went on, and came to the King's highway, again, and so were safe. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 23: From "The Pilgrim's Progress," by John Bunyan, a famous English preacher and writer (1628-1688).] EXPRESSION: What peculiarities do you observe in Bunyan's style of writing? Select the three most striking passages in this story, and read them with spirit and correct expression. SHOOTING WITH THE LONGBOW[24] Proclamation was made that Prince John, suddenly called by high and peremptory public duties, held himself obliged to discontinue the entertainments of to-morrow's festival: nevertheless, that, unwilling so many good yeomen should depart without a trial of skill, he was pleased to appoint them, before leaving the ground, presently to execute the competition of archery intended for the morrow. To the best archer a prize was to be awarded, being a bugle-horn, mounted with silver, and a silken baldric richly ornamented with a medallion of St. Hubert, the patron of sylvan sport. More than thirty yeomen at first presented themselves as competitors, several of whom were rangers and underkeepers in the royal forests of Needwood and Charnwood. When, however, the archers understood with whom they were to be matched, upwards of twenty withdrew themselves from the contest, unwilling to encounter the dishonor of almost certain defeat. The diminished list of competitors for sylvan fame still amounted to eight. Prince John stepped from his royal seat to view more nearly the persons of these chosen yeomen, several of whom wore the royal livery. Having satisfied his curiosity by this investigation, he looked for the object of his resentment, whom he observed standing on the same spot, and with the same composed countenance which he had exhibited upon the preceding day. "Fellow," said Prince John, "I guessed by thy insolent babble thou wert no true lover of the longbow, and I see thou darest not adventure thy skill among such merry men as stand yonder." "Under favor, sir," replied the yeoman, "I have another reason for refraining to shoot, besides the fearing discomfiture and disgrace." "And what is thy other reason?" said Prince John, who, for some cause which perhaps he could not himself have explained, felt a painful curiosity respecting this individual. "Because," replied the woodsman, "I know not if these yeomen and I are used to shoot at the same marks; and because, moreover, I know not how your grace might relish the winning of a third prize by one who has unwittingly fallen under your displeasure." Prince John colored as he put the question, "What is thy name, yeoman?" "Locksley," answered the yeoman. "Then, Locksley," said Prince John, "thou shalt shoot in thy turn, when these yeomen have displayed their skill. If thou carriest the prize, I will add to it twenty nobles; but if thou losest it, thou shalt be stripped of thy Lincoln green, and scourged out of the lists with bowstrings, for a wordy and insolent braggart." "And how if I refuse to shoot on such a wager?" said the yeoman. "Your grace's power, supported, as it is, by so many men at arms, may indeed easily strip and scourge me, but cannot compel me to bend or to draw my bow." "If thou refusest my fair proffer," said the prince, "the provost of the lists shall cut thy bowstring, break thy bow and arrows, and expel thee from the presence as a faint-hearted craven." "This is no fair chance you put on me, proud prince," said the yeoman, "to compel me to peril myself against the best archers of Leicester and Staffordshire, under the penalty of infamy if they should overshoot me. Nevertheless, I will obey your pleasure." "Look to him close, men at arms," said Prince John, "his heart is sinking; I am jealous lest he attempt to escape the trial. And do you, good fellows, shoot boldly round; a buck and a butt of wine are ready for your refreshment in yonder tent, when the prize is won." A target was placed at the upper end of the southern avenue which led to the lists. The contending archers took their station in turn, at the bottom of the southern access; the distance between that station and the mark allowing full distance for what was called a "shot at rovers." The archers, having previously determined by lot their order of precedence, were to shoot each three shafts in succession. The sports were regulated by an officer of inferior rank, termed the provost of the games; for the high rank of the marshals of the lists would have been held degraded had they condescended to superintend the sports of the yeomanry. One by one the archers, stepping forward, delivered their shafts yeomanlike and bravely. Of twenty-four arrows shot in succession, ten were fixed in the target, and the others ranged so near it that, considering the distance of the mark, it was accounted good archery. Of the ten shafts which hit the target, two within the inner ring were shot by Hubert, a forester, who was accordingly pronounced victorious. "Now, Locksley," said Prince John to the bold yeoman, with a bitter smile, "wilt thou try conclusions with Hubert, or wilt thou yield up bow, baldric, and quiver to the provost of the sports?" "Sith it be no better," said Locksley, "I am content to try my fortune; on condition that, when I have shot two shafts at yonder mark of Hubert's, he shall be bound to shoot one at that which I shall propose." "That is but fair," answered Prince John, "and it shall not be refused thee. If thou dost beat this braggart, Hubert, I will fill the bugle with silver pennies for thee." "A man can but do his best," answered Hubert; "but my grandsire drew a good longbow at Hastings, and I trust not to dishonor his memory." The former target was now removed, and a fresh one of the same size placed in its room. Hubert, who, as victor in the first trial of skill, had the right to shoot first, took his aim with great deliberation, long measuring the distance with his eye, while he held in his hand his bended bow, with the arrow placed on the string. At length he made a step forward, and raising the bow at the full stretch of his left arm, till the center of grasping place was nigh level with his face, he drew the bowstring to his ear. The arrow whistled through the air, and lighted within the inner ring of the target, but not exactly in the center. "You have not allowed for the wind, Hubert," said his antagonist, bending his bow, "or that had been a better shot." So saying, and without showing the least anxiety to pause upon his aim, Locksley stepped to the appointed station, and shot his arrow as carelessly in appearance as if he had not even looked at the mark. He was speaking almost at the instant that the shaft left the bowstring, yet it alighted in the target two inches nearer to the white spot which marked the center than that of Hubert. "By the light of heaven!" said Prince John to Hubert, "an thou suffer that runagate knave to overcome thee, thou art worthy of the gallows!" Hubert had but one set of speech for all occasions. "An your highness were to hang me," he said, "a man can but do his best. Nevertheless, my grandsire drew a good bow--" "The foul fiend on thy grandsire and all his generation!" interrupted John. "Shoot, knave, and shoot thy best, or it shall be the worse for thee!" Thus exhorted, Hubert resumed his place, and, not neglecting the caution which he had received from his adversary, he made the necessary allowance for a very light breath of wind which had just arisen, and shot so successfully that his arrow alighted in the very center of the target. "A Hubert! a Hubert!" shouted the populace, more interested in a known person than in a stranger. "In the clout!--in the clout! A Hubert forever!" "Thou canst not mend that shot, Locksley," said the prince, with an insulting smile. "I will notch his shaft for him, however," replied Locksley. And, letting fly his arrow with a little more precaution than before, it lighted right upon that of his competitor, which it split to shivers. The people who stood around were so astonished at his wonderful dexterity, that they could not even give vent to their surprise in their usual clamor. "This must be the devil, and no man of flesh and blood," whispered the yeomen to each other; "such archery was never seen since a bow was first bent in Britain!" "And now," said Locksley, "I will crave your grace's permission to plant such a mark as is used in the north country, and welcome every brave yeoman to try a shot at it." He then turned to leave the lists. "Let your guards attend me," he said, "if you please. I go but to cut a rod from the next willow bush." Prince John made a signal that some attendants should follow him, in case of his escape; but the cry of "Shame! shame!" which burst from the multitude induced him to alter his ungenerous purpose. Locksley returned almost instantly, with a willow wand about six feet in length, perfectly straight, and rather thicker than a man's thumb. He began to peel this with great composure, observing, at the same time, that to ask a good woodsman to shoot at a target so broad as had hitherto been used was to put shame upon his skill. "For my own part," said he, "in the land where I was bred, men would as soon take for their mark King Arthur's Round Table, which held sixty knights around it. "A child of seven years old might hit yonder target with a headless shaft; but," he added, walking deliberately to the other end of the lists and sticking the willow wand upright in the ground, "he that hits that rod at fivescore yards, I call him an archer fit to bear both bow and quiver before a king, and it were the stout King Richard himself!" "My grandsire," said Hubert, "drew a good bow at the battle of Hastings, and never shot at such a mark in his life; neither will I. If this yeoman can cleave that rod, I give him the bucklers--or, rather, I yield to the devil that is in his jerkin, and not to any human skill. A man can but do his best, and I will not shoot where I am sure to miss. I might as well shoot at the edge of our parson's whittle, or at a wheat straw, or at a sunbeam, as at a twinkling white streak which I can hardly see." "Cowardly dog!" exclaimed Prince John.--"Sirrah Locksley, do thou shoot; but if thou hittest such a mark, I will say thou art the first man ever did so. However it be, thou shalt not crow over us with a mere show of superior skill." "'A man can but do his best!' as Hubert says," answered Locksley. So saying, he again bent his bow, but, on the present occasion, looked with attention to his weapon, and changed the string, which he thought was no longer truly round, having been a little frayed by the two former shots. He then took his aim with some deliberation, and the multitude awaited the event in breathless silence. The archer vindicated their opinion of his skill: his arrow split the willow rod against which it was aimed. A jubilee of acclamations followed: and even Prince John, in admiration of Locksley's skill, lost for an instant his dislike to his person. "These twenty nobles," he said, "which with the bugle thou hast fairly won, are thine own: we will make them fifty if thou wilt take livery and service with us as a yeoman of our bodyguard, and be near to our person; for never did so strong a hand bend a bow, or so true an eye direct a shaft." "Pardon me, noble prince," said Locksley; "but I have vowed that, if ever I take service, it should be with your royal brother, King Richard. These twenty nobles I leave to Hubert, who has this day drawn as brave a bow as his grandsire did at Hastings. Had his modesty not refused the trial, he would have hit the wand as well as I." Hubert shook his head as he received with reluctance the bounty of the stranger; and Locksley, anxious to escape further observation, mixed with the crowd and was seen no more. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 24: From "Ivanhoe," by Sir Walter Scott.] EXPRESSION: Compare this selection with the two which precede it. "Pilgrim's Progress," "The Vicar of Wakefield," and "Ivanhoe" rank high among the world's most famous books. Notice how long ago each was written. Talk with your teacher about Bunyan, Goldsmith, and Scott--their lives and their writings. A CHRISTMAS HYMN[25] It was the calm and silent night! Seven hundred years and fifty-three Had Rome been growing up to might, And now was queen of land and sea. No sound was heard of clashing wars-- Peace brooded o'er the hushed domain; Apollo, Pallas, Jove, and Mars Held undisturbed their ancient reign, In the solemn midnight, Centuries ago. [Illustration] 'Twas in the calm and silent night, The senator of haughty Rome Impatient urged his chariot's flight, From lordly revel rolling home; Triumphal arches, gleaming, swell His breast with thoughts of boundless sway; What recked the Roman what befell A paltry province far away, In the solemn midnight, Centuries ago? [Illustration] Within that province far away, Went plodding home a weary boor; A streak of light before him lay, Fallen through a half-shut stable door Across his path. He paused--for naught Told what was going on within; How keen the stars, his only thought,-- The air how cold and calm and thin, In the solemn midnight, Centuries ago! Oh, strange indifference! low and high Drowsed over common joys and cares; The earth was still--but knew not why; The world was listening unawares. How calm a moment may precede One that shall thrill the world forever! To that still moment none would heed Man's doom was linked no more to sever, In the solemn midnight, Centuries ago. [Illustration] It is the calm and solemn night: A thousand bells ring out and throw Their joyous peals abroad, and smite The darkness--charmed and holy now! The night that erst no name had worn, To it a happy name is given; For in that stable lay, newborn, The peaceful Prince of earth and heaven, In the solemn midnight, Centuries ago. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 25: By Alfred Domett, (d[)o]m´et), an English writer (1811-1887).] CHRISTMAS EVE AT FEZZIWIG'S[26] Old Fezziwig in his warehouse laid down his pen, and looked up at the clock which pointed to the hour of seven. He rubbed his hands; adjusted his waistcoat; laughed all over himself, from his shoes to his organ of benevolence; and called out in a comfortable, oily, rich, fat, jovial voice:-- "Yo ho, there! Ebenezer! Dick!" Ebenezer came briskly in, followed by his fellow-'prentice. "Yo ho, my boys!" said Fezziwig. "No more work to-night. Christmas Eve, Dick! Christmas, Ebenezer! Let's have the shutters up," cried old Fezziwig, with a sharp clap of his hands, "before a man can say Jack Robinson." You wouldn't believe how those two fellows went at it! They charged into the street with the shutters--one, two, three--had 'em in their places--four, five, six--barred 'em and pinned 'em--seven, eight, nine--and came back before you could have got to twelve, panting like race horses. "Hilli-ho!" cried old Fezziwig, skipping down from his desk, with wonderful agility. "Clear away, my lads, and let's have lots of room here! Hilli-ho, Dick! Chirrup, Ebenezer!" Clear away? There was nothing they wouldn't have cleared away, or couldn't have cleared away, with old Fezziwig looking on. It was done in a minute. Every movable was packed off, as if it were dismissed from public life forevermore. The floor was swept and watered, the lamps were trimmed, fuel was heaped upon the fire; and the warehouse was as snug and warm, and dry and bright, as any ballroom you would desire to see upon a winter's night. In came a fiddler with a music book, and went up to the lofty desk, and made an orchestra of it. In came Mrs. Fezziwig, one vast substantial smile. In came the three Miss Fezziwigs, beaming and lovable. In came the six young followers, whose hearts they broke. In came all the young men and young women employed in the business. In came the housemaid, with her cousin the baker. In came the cook, with her brother's particular friend the milkman. In came the boy from over the way, who was suspected of not having enough to eat from his master. In they all came, one after another--some shyly, some boldly, some gracefully, some awkwardly, some pushing, some pulling. In they all came, anyhow and everyhow. Away they all went, twenty couples at once; down the middle and up again; round and round in various stages of affectionate grouping; old top couple always turning up in the wrong place; new top couple starting off again as soon as they got there; all top couples at last, and not a bottom one to help them! When this result was brought about, old Fezziwig, clapping his hands to stop the dance, cried out, "Well done!" Then there were more dances, and there were forfeits, and more dances; and there was cake, and there was a great piece of cold roast, and there was a great piece of cold boiled, and there were mince pies and other delicacies. But the great effect of the evening came after the roast and the boiled, when the fiddler, artful dog, struck up "Sir Roger de Coverley." Then old Mr. Fezziwig stood out to dance with Mrs. Fezziwig. Top couple, too, with a good stiff piece of work cut out for them; three or four and twenty pair of partners; people who were not to be trifled with--people who _would_ dance, and had no notion of walking. But if they had been twice as many--aye, four times--old Mr. Fezziwig would have been a match for them, and so would Mrs. Fezziwig. As to _her_, she was worthy to be his partner in every sense of the term. If that's not high praise, tell me higher and I'll use it.... And when Mr. Fezziwig and Mrs. Fezziwig had gone all through the dance--advance and retire, both hands to your partner, bow and curtsy, thread the needle, and back to your place--Fezziwig "cut" so deftly that he appeared to wink with his legs, and came upon his feet again without a stagger. [Illustration: Christmas Eve at Fezziwig's.] When the clock struck eleven, this domestic ball broke up. Mr. and Mrs. Fezziwig took their stations, one on either side of the door, and shaking hands with every person individually as he or she went out, wished him or her a Merry Christmas. When everybody had retired but the two apprentices, they did the same to them; and thus the cheerful voices died away and the lads were left to their beds--which were under a counter in the back shop. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 26: From "A Christmas Carol," by Charles Dickens.] THE CHRISTMAS HOLLY[27] The holly! the holly! oh, twine it with bay-- Come give the holly a song; For it helps to drive stern winter away, With his garment so somber and long; It peeps through the trees with its berries of red, And its leaves of burnished green, When the flowers and fruits have long been dead, And not even the daisy is seen. Then sing to the holly, the Christmas holly, That hangs over peasant and king; While we laugh and carouse 'neath its glittering boughs, To the Christmas holly we'll sing. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 27: By Eliza Cook, an English poet (1818-1889).] EXPRESSION: Imagine that you see Mr. Fezziwig with his apprentices preparing for the Christmas festivities. What is your opinion of him? Now read the story, paragraph by paragraph, trying to make it as interesting to your hearers as a real visit to Fezziwig warehouse would have been. THE NEW YEAR'S DINNER PARTY[28] The Old Year being dead, the New Year came of age, which he does by Calendar Law as soon as the breath is out of the old gentleman's body. Nothing would serve the youth but he must give a dinner upon the occasion, to which all the Days of the Year were invited. The Festivals, whom he appointed as his stewards, were mightily taken with the notion. They had been engaged time out of mind, they said, in providing mirth and cheer for mortals below; and it was time that they should have a taste of their bounty. All the Days came to dinner. Covers were provided for three hundred and sixty-five guests at the principal table; with an occasional knife and fork at the sideboard for the Twenty-ninth of February. I should have told you that cards of invitation had been sent out. The carriers were the Hours--twelve as merry little whirligig footpages as you should desire to see. They went all round, and found out the persons invited well enough, with the exception of Easter Day, Shrove Tuesday, and a few such Movables, who had lately shifted their quarters. Well, they were all met at last, four Days, five Days, all sorts of Days, and a rare din they made of it. There was nothing but "Hail! fellow Day!" "Well met, brother Day! sister Day!" only Lady Day kept a little on the aloof and seemed somewhat scornful. Yet some said that Twelfth Day cut her out, for she came in a silk suit, white and gold, like a queen on a frost-cake, all royal and glittering. The rest came, some in green, some in white--but Lent and his family were not yet out of mourning. Rainy Days came in dripping, and Sunshiny Days helped them to change their stockings. Wedding Day was there in his marriage finery. Pay Day came late, as he always does. Doomsday sent word he might be expected. April Fool (as my lord's jester) took upon himself to marshal the guests. And wild work he made of it; good Days, bad Days, all were shuffled together. He had stuck the Twenty-first of June next to the Twenty-second of December, and the former looked like a Maypole by the side of a marrow bone. Ash Wednesday got wedged in betwixt Christmas and Lord Mayor's Day. At another part of the table, Shrove Tuesday was helping the Second of September to some broth, which courtesy the latter returned with the delicate thigh of a pheasant. The Last of Lent was springing upon Shrovetide's pancakes; April Fool, seeing this, told him that he did well, for pancakes were proper to a good fry-day. May Day, with that sweetness which is her own, made a neat speech proposing the health of the founder. This being done, the lordly New Year from the upper end of the table, in a cordial but somewhat lofty tone, returned thanks. They next fell to quibbles and conundrums. The question being proposed, who had the greatest number of followers--the Quarter Days said there could be no question as to that; for they had all the creditors in the world dogging their heels. But April Fool gave it in favor of the Forty Days before Easter; because the debtors in all cases outnumbered the creditors, and they kept Lent all the year. At last, dinner being ended, the Days called for their cloaks, and great coats, and took their leaves. Lord Mayor's Day went off in a Mist as usual; Shortest Day in a deep black Fog, which wrapped the little gentleman all round like a hedgehog. Two Vigils, or watchmen, saw Christmas Day safe home. Another Vigil--a stout, sturdy patrol, called the Eve of St. Christopher--escorted Ash Wednesday. Longest Day set off westward in beautiful crimson and gold--the rest, some in one fashion, some in another, took their departure. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 28: By Charles Lamb, an English essayist and humorist (1775-1834).] EXPRESSION: What holidays are named in this selection? What holidays do you know about that were not present at this dinner? Refer to the dictionary and learn about all the days here mentioned. Select the humorous passages in this story, and tell why you think they are humorous. THE TOWN PUMP[29] [SCENE.--_The corner of two principal streets. The Town Pump talking through its nose._] Noon, by the north clock! Noon, by the east! High noon, too, by those hot sunbeams which fall, scarcely aslope, upon my head, and almost make the water bubble and smoke in the trough under my nose. Truly, we public characters have a tough time of it! And among all the town officers, chosen at the annual meeting, where is he that sustains, for a single year, the burden of such manifold duties as are imposed in perpetuity, upon the Town Pump? The title of town treasurer is rightfully mine, as guardian of the best treasure the town has. The overseers of the poor ought to make me their chairman since I provide bountifully for the pauper, without expense to him that pays taxes. I am at the head of the fire department, and one of the physicians of the board of health. As a keeper of the peace all water drinkers confess me equal to the constable. I perform some of the duties of the town clerk, by promulgating public notices, when they am pasted on my front. To speak within bounds, I am chief person of the municipality, and exhibit, moreover, an admirable pattern to my brother officers by the cool, steady, upright, downright, and impartial discharge of my business, and the constancy with which I stand to my post. Summer or winter, nobody seeks me in vain; for, all day long I am seen at the busiest corner, just above the market, stretching out my arms to rich and poor alike; and at night I hold a lantern over my head, to show where I am, and to keep people out of the gutters. At this sultry noontide, I am cupbearer to the parched populace, for whose benefit an iron goblet is chained to my waist. Like a dram seller on the public square, on a muster day, I cry aloud to all and sundry, in my plainest accents, and at the very tiptop of my voice, "Here it is, gentlemen! Here is the good liquor! Walk up, walk up, gentlemen, walk up, walk up! Here is the superior stuff! Here is the unadulterated ale of father Adam! better than cognac, Hollands, Jamaica, strong beer, or wine of any price; here it is by the hogshead or the single glass, and not a cent to pay. Walk up, gentlemen, walk up, and help yourselves!" It were a pity if all this outcry should draw no customers. Here they come. A hot day, gentlemen. Quaff and away again, so as to keep yourselves in a nice, cool sweat. You, my friend, will need another cupful to wash the dust out of your throat, if it be as thick there as it is on your cowhide shoes. I see that you have trudged half a score of miles to-day, and, like a wise man, have passed by the taverns, and stopped at the running brooks and well curbs. Otherwise, betwixt heat without and fire within, you would have been burnt to a cinder, or melted down to nothing at all--in the fashion of a jellyfish. Drink, and make room for that other fellow, who seeks my aid to quench the fiery fever of last night's potations, which he drained from no cup of mine. Welcome, most rubicund sir! You and I have been strangers hitherto; nor, to confess the truth, will my nose be anxious for a closer intimacy till the fumes of your breath be a little less potent. Mercy on you, man! The water absolutely hisses down your red-hot gullet, and is converted quite into steam in the miniature Tophet, which you mistake for a stomach. Fill again, and tell me, on the word of an honest toper, did you ever, in cellar, tavern, or any other kind of dramshop, spend the price of your children's food for a swig half so delicious? Now, for the first time these ten years, you know the flavor of cold water. Good-by; and whenever you are thirsty, recollect that I keep a constant supply at the old stand. Who next? Oh, my little friend, you are just let loose from school, and come hither to scrub your blooming face, and drown the memory of certain taps of the ferule, and other schoolboy troubles, in a draft from the Town Pump. Take it, pure as the current of your young life; take it, and may your heart and tongue never be scorched with a fiercer thirst than now. [Illustration: The Town Pump.] There, my dear child, put down the cup, and yield your place to this elderly gentleman, who treads so tenderly over the paving stones that I suspect he is afraid of breaking them. What! he limps by without so much as thanking me, as if my hospitable offers were meant only for people who have no wine cellars. Well, well, sir, no harm done, I hope! Go, draw the cork, tip the decanter; but when your great toe shall set you a-roaring, it will be no affair of mine. If gentlemen love the pleasant titillation of the gout, it is all one to the Town Pump. This thirsty dog, with his red tongue lolling out, does not scorn my hospitality, but stands on his hind legs and laps eagerly out of the trough. See how lightly he capers away again! Jowler, did your worship ever have the gout? Your pardon, good people! I must interrupt my stream of eloquence, and spout forth a stream of water, to replenish the trough for this teamster and his two yoke of oxen, who have come all the way from Staunton, or somewhere along that way. No part of my business gives me more pleasure than the watering of cattle. Look! how rapidly they lower the watermark on the sides of the trough, till their capacious stomachs are moistened with a gallon or two apiece, and they can afford time to breathe, with sighs of calm enjoyment! Now they roll their quiet eyes around the brim of their monstrous drinking vessel. An ox is your true toper. I hold myself the grand reformer of the age. From the Town Pump, as from other sources of water supply, must flow the stream that will cleanse our earth of a vast portion of the crime and anguish which have gushed from the fiery fountains of the still. In this mighty enterprise, the cow shall be my great confederate. Milk and water! Ahem! Dry work this speechifying, especially to all unpracticed orators. I never conceived, till now, what toil the temperance lecturers undergo for my sake. Do, some kind Christian, pump a stroke or two, just to wet my whistle. Thank you, sir. But to proceed. The Town Pump and the Cow! Such is the glorious partnership that shall finally monopolize the whole business of quenching thirst. Blessed consummation! Then Poverty shall pass away from the land, finding no hovel so wretched where her squalid form may shelter itself. Then Disease, for lack of other victims, shall gnaw his own heart and die. Then Sin, if she do not die, shall lose half her strength. Then there will be no war of households. The husband and the wife, drinking deep of peaceful joy, a calm bliss of temperate affections, shall pass hand in hand through life, and lie down, not reluctantly, at its protracted close. To them the past will be no turmoil of mad dreams, nor the future an eternity of such moments as follow the delirium of a drunkard. Their dead faces shall express what their spirits were, and are to be, by a lingering smile of memory and hope. Drink, then, and be refreshed! The water is as pure and cold as when it slaked the thirst of the red hunter, and flowed beneath the aged bough, though now this gem of the wilderness is treasured under these hot stones, where no shadow falls but from the brick buildings. But still is this fountain the source of health, peace, and happiness, and I behold, with certainty and joy, the approach of the period when the virtues of cold water, too little valued since our father's days, will be fully appreciated and recognized by all. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 29: By Nathaniel Hawthorne, an American writer of romances and short stories (1804-1864).] EXPRESSION: Read this selection again and again until you understand it clearly and appreciate its rare charm. Study each paragraph separately, observing how the topic of each is developed. Select the expressions which are the most pleasing to you. Tell why each pleases. Did you ever see a town pump? In the cities and larger towns, what has taken its place? Can we imagine a hydrant or a water faucet talking as this town pump did? If Hawthorne were writing to-day, would he represent the town pump as the "chief person of the municipality"? Discuss this question fully. Talk with your teacher about the life and works of the author of this selection. If you have access to any of his books, bring them to the class and read selections from them. Compare the style of this story with that of the selection from Dickens, page 22; or from Thackeray, page 27; or from Goldsmith, page 94. WORD STUDY: Refer to the dictionary for the pronunciation and meaning of: _perpetuity_, _constable_, _municipality_, _cognac_, _quaff_, _rubicund_, _Tophet_, _decanter_, _titillation_, _capacious_. COME UP FROM THE FIELDS, FATHER[30] Come up from the fields, father; here's a letter from our Pete, And come to the front door, mother; here's a letter from thy dear son. Lo, 'tis autumn; Lo, where the fields, deeper green, yellower and redder, Cool and sweeten Ohio's villages, with leaves fluttering in the moderate wind; Where apples ripe in the orchards hang, and grapes on the trellised vines, (Smell you the smell of the grapes on the vines? Smell you the buckwheat, where the bees were lately buzzing?) Above all, lo! the sky so calm, so transparent after the rain, and with wondrous clouds; Below, too, all calm, all vital and beautiful,--and the farm prospers well. Down in the fields all prospers well; But now from the fields come, father,--come at the daughter's call; And come to the entry, mother,--to the front door come, right away. Fast as she can she hurries,--something ominous,--her steps trembling; She does not tarry to smooth her white hair, nor adjust her cap. Open the envelope quickly; Oh, this is not our son's writing, yet his name is signed! Oh, a strange hand writes for our dear son--O stricken mother's soul! All swims before her eyes,--flashes with black,--she catches the main words only; Sentences broken,--_gunshot wound in the breast_--_cavalry skirmish, taken to hospital, At present low, but will soon be better._ Ah! now the single figure to me Amid all teeming and wealthy Ohio, with all its cities and farms, Sickly white in the face and dull in the head, very faint, By the jamb of a door leans. _Grieve not so, dear mother_ (the just grown daughter speaks through her sobs; The little sisters huddle around, speechless and dismayed). _See, dearest mother, the letter says Pete will soon be better._ Alas, poor boy! he will never be better (nor, maybe, needs to be better, that brave and simple soul). While they stand at home at the door he is dead already, The only son is dead. [Illustration: "Come up from the fields, father."] But the mother needs to be better; She, with thin form, presently dressed in black; By day her meals untouched,--then at night fitfully sleeping, often waking, In the midnight waking, weeping, longing with one deep longing, Oh, that she might withdraw unnoticed, silent from life, escape and withdraw, To follow, to seek, to be with her dear dead son! FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 30: By Walt Whitman, an American poet (1819-1892).] EXPRESSION: This poem is descriptive of an incident which occurred during the Civil War. There were many such incidents, both in the North and in the South. Read the selection silently to understand its full meaning. Who are the persons pictured to your imagination after reading it? Describe the place and the time. Now read the poem aloud, giving full expression to its pathetic meaning. Select the most striking descriptive passage and read it. Select the stanza which seems to you the most touching, and read it. Study now the peculiarities of the poem. Do the lines rime? Are they of similar length? What can you say about the meter? Compare this poem with the two gems from Browning, pages 38 and 41. Compare it with the selection from Longfellow, page 54; with that from Lanier, page 66. How does it differ from any or all of these? What is poetry? Name three great American poets; three great English poets. THE ADDRESS AT GETTYSBURG[31] Fourscore and seven years ago, our fathers brought forth upon this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation--or any nation so conceived and so dedicated--can long endure. We are met on a great battle field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field as the final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow, this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note nor long remember what we say here; but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us, the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us;--that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion;--that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain, that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 31: By Abraham Lincoln, at the dedication of the National Cemetery, 1863.] ODE TO THE CONFEDERATE DEAD[32] Sleep sweetly in your humble graves, Sleep, martyrs of a fallen cause; Though yet no marble column craves The pilgrim here to pause. In seeds of laurel in the earth The blossom of your fame is blown, And somewhere, waiting for its birth, The shaft is in the stone. Meanwhile, behalf the tardy years Which keep in trust your storied tombs, Behold! Your sisters bring their tears And these memorial blooms. Small tribute! but your shades will smile More proudly on these wreathes to-day, Than when some cannon-molded pile Shall overlook this bay. Stoop, angels, hither from the skies! There is no holier spot of ground Than where defeated valor lies, By mourning beauty crowned. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 32: By Henry Timrod, an American poet (1829-1867).] THE CHARIOT RACE[33] Orestes? He is dead. I will tell all as it happened. He journeyed forth to attend the great games which Hellas counts her pride, to join the Delphic contests. There he heard the herald's voice, with loud and clear command, proclaim, as coming first, the chariot race, and so he entered, radiant, every eye admiring as he passed. And in the race he equaled all the promise of his form in those his rounds, and so with noblest prize of conquest left the ground. Summing up in fewest words what many scarce could tell, I know of none in strength and act like him. And having won the prize in all the fivefold forms of race which the umpires had proclaimed, he then was hailed, proclaimed an Argive, and his name Orestes, the son of mighty Agamemnon, who once led Hellas's glorious host. So far, well. But when a god will injure, none can escape, strong though he be. For lo! another day, when, as the sun was rising, came the race swift-footed of the chariot and the horse, he entered the contest with many charioteers. One was an Achæan, one was from Sparta, two were from Libya with four-horsed chariots, and Orestes with swift Thessalian mares came as the fifth. A sixth, with bright bay colts, came from Ætolia; the seventh was born in far Magnesia; the eighth was an Ænian with white horses; the ninth was from Athens, the city built by the gods; the tenth and last was a Boeotian. [Illustration: The Chariot Race.] And so they stood, their cars in order as the umpires had decided by lot. Then, with sound of brazen trumpet, they started. All cheering their steeds at the same moment, they shook the reins, and at once the course was filled with the clash and din of rattling chariots, and the dust rose high. All were now commingled, each striving to pass the hubs of his neighbors' wheels. Hard and hot were the horses' breathings, and their backs and the chariot wheels were white with foam. Each charioteer, when he came to the place where the last stone marks the course's goal, turned the corner sharply, letting go the right-hand trace horse and pulling the nearer in. And so, at first, the chariots kept their course; but, at length, the Ænian's unbroken colts, just as they finished their sixth or seventh round, turned headlong back and dashed at full speed against the chariot wheels of those who were following. Then with tremendous uproar, each crashed on the other, they fell overturned, and Crissa's broad plain was filled with wreck of chariots. The man from Athens, skilled and wise as a charioteer, saw the mischief in time, turned his steeds aside, and escaped the whirling, raging surge of man and horse. Last of all, Orestes came, holding his horses in check, and waiting for the end. But when he saw the Athenian, his only rival left, he urged his colts forward, shaking the reins and speeding onward. And now the twain continued the race, their steeds sometimes head to head, sometimes one gaining ground, sometimes the other; and so all the other rounds were passed in safety. Upright in his chariot still stood the ill-starred hero. Then, just as his team was turning, he let loose the left rein unawares, and struck the farthest pillar, breaking the spokes right at his axles' center. Slipping out of his chariot, he was dragged along, with reins dissevered. His frightened colts tore headlong through the midst of the field; and the people, seeing him in his desperate plight, bewailed him greatly--so young, so noble, so unfortunate, now hurled upon the ground, helpless, lifeless. The charioteers, scarcely able to restrain the rushing steeds, freed the poor broken body--so mangled that not one of all his friends would have known whose it was. They built a pyre and burned it; and now they bear hither, in a poor urn of bronze, the sad ashes of that mighty form--that so Orestes may have his tomb in his fatherland. Such is my tale, full sad to hear; but to me who saw this accident, nothing can ever be more sorrowful. [Illustration] FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 33: Translated from the "Electra" of Sophocles, written about 450 years before Christ. The narrative is supposed to have been related by the friend and attendant of the hero, Orestes.] THE COLISEUM AT MIDNIGHT[34] I crossed the Forum to the foot of the Palatine, and, ascending the Via Sacra, passed beneath the Arch of Titus. From this point I saw below me the gigantic outline of the Coliseum, like a cloud resting upon the earth. As I descended the hillside, it grew more broad and high,--more definite in its form, and yet more grand in its dimensions,--till, from the vale in which it stands encompassed by three of the Seven Hills of Rome, the majestic ruin in all its solitary grandeur "swelled vast to heaven." A single sentinel was pacing to and fro beneath the arched gateway which leads to the interior, and his measured footsteps were the only sound that broke the breathless silence of night. What a contrast with the scene which that same midnight hour presented, when in Domitian's time the eager populace began to gather at the gates, impatient for the morning sports! Nor was the contrast within less striking. Silence, and the quiet moonbeams, and the broad, deep shadow of the ruined wall! Where now were the senators of Rome, her matrons, and her virgins? Where was the ferocious populace that rent the air with shouts, when, in the hundred holidays that marked the dedication of this imperial slaughter house, five thousand wild beasts from the Libyan deserts and the forests of Anatolia made the arena sick with blood? Where were the Christian martyrs that died with prayers upon their lips, amid the jeers and imprecations of their fellow men? Where were the barbarian gladiators, brought forth to the festival of blood, and "butchered to make a Roman holiday"? The awful silence answered, "They are mine!" The dust beneath me answered, "They are mine!" FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 34: From "Outre Mer," by Henry W. Longfellow.] EXPRESSION: Learn all you can about the Coliseum. When was it built? by whom? For what was it used? WORD STUDY: _Forum_, _Palatine_, _Via Sacra_, _Titus_, _Domitian_, _Libyan_, _Anatolia_. [Illustration] THE DEACON'S MASTERPIECE[35] Have you heard of the wonderful one-hoss shay, That was built in such a logical way It ran a hundred years to a day, And then, of a sudden, it--ah, but stay, I'll tell you what happened, without delay, Scaring the parson into fits, Frightening people out of their wits,-- Have you ever heard of that, I say? Seventeen hundred and fifty-five. _Georgius Secundus_ was then alive,-- Snuffy old drone from the German hive. That was the year when Lisbon town Saw the earth open and gulp her down, And Braddock's army was done so brown, Left without a scalp to its crown. It was on the terrible Earthquake day That the Deacon finished the one-hoss shay. Now in building of chaises, I tell you what, There is always _somewhere_ a weakest spot,-- In hub, tire, felloe, in spring or thill, In panel, or crossbar, or floor, or sill, In screw, bolt, thoroughbrace,--lurking still, Find it somewhere, you must and will,-- Above or below, or within or without,-- And that's the reason, beyond a doubt, A chaise _breaks down_, but doesn't _wear out_. But the Deacon swore (as Deacons do, With an "I dew vum," or an "I tell _yeou_,") He would build one shay to beat the taown 'n' the keounty 'n' all the kentry raoun'; It should be so built that it _couldn'_ break daown: "Fur," said the Deacon, "'t's mighty plain Thut the weakes' place mus' stan' the strain; 'n' the way t' fix it, uz I maintain, Is only jest T' make that place uz strong uz the rest." [Illustration: The Deacon's Masterpiece.] So the Deacon inquired of the village folk Where he could find the strongest oak, That couldn't be split nor bent nor broke, That was for spokes and floor and sills; He sent for lancewood to make the thills; The crossbars were ash, from the straightest trees; The panels of white wood, that cuts like cheese, But lasts like iron for things like these; The hubs of logs from the "Settler's ellum," Last of its timber,--they couldn't sell 'em, Never an ax had seen their chips, And the wedges flew from between their lips, Their blunt ends frizzled like celery tips; Step and prop-iron, bolt and screw, Spring, tire, axle, and linchpin, too, Steel of the finest, bright and blue; Thoroughbrace bison skin, thick and wide; Boot, top, dasher, from tough old hide Found in the pit when the tanner died. That was the way he "put her through."-- "There!" said the Deacon, "naow she'll dew." Do! I tell you, I rather guess She was a wonder, and nothing less! Colts grew horses, beards turned gray, Deacon and deaconess dropped away, Children and grandchildren--where were they? But there stood the stout old one-hoss shay As fresh as on Lisbon-earthquake day! EIGHTEEN HUNDRED,--it came and found The Deacon's masterpiece strong and sound, Eighteen hundred increased by ten,-- "Hahnsum kerridge" they called it then. Eighteen hundred and twenty came,-- Running as usual; much the same. Thirty and forty at last arrive, And then come fifty and FIFTY-FIVE. Little of all we value here Wakes on the morn of its hundredth year Without both feeling and looking queer. In fact, there's nothing that keeps its youth, So far as I know, but a tree and truth. (This is a moral that runs at large; Take it,--You're welcome.--No extra charge.) FIRST OF NOVEMBER,--the Earthquake day.-- There are traces of age in the one-hoss shay, A general flavor of mild decay, But nothing local, as one may say. There couldn't be,--for the Deacon's art Had made it so like in every part That there wasn't a chance for one to start, For the wheels were just as strong as the thills, And the floor was just as strong as the sills, And the panels just as strong as the floor, And the whippletree neither less nor more, And the back crossbar as strong as the fore, And spring and axle and hub _encore_. And yet, as a _whole_, it is past a doubt In another hour it will be _worn out_! [Illustration] First of November, Fifty-five! This morning the parson takes a drive. Now, small boys, get out of the way! Here comes the wonderful one-hoss shay, Drawn by a rat-tailed, ewe-necked bay. "Huddup!" said the parson.--Off went they. The parson was working his Sunday's text,-- Had got to _fifthly_, and stopped perplexed At what the--Moses--was coming next. All at once the horse stood still, Close by the meet'n'house on the hill. --First a shiver, and then a thrill, Then something decidedly like a spill,-- And the parson was sitting upon a rock, At half-past nine by the meet'n'house clock,-- Just the hour of the earthquake shock! --What do you think the parson found, When he got up and stared around? The poor old chaise in a heap or mound, As if it had been to the mill and ground. You see, of course, if you're not a dunce, How it went to pieces all at once,-- All at once, and nothing first,-- Just as bubbles do when they burst. End of the wonderful one-hoss shay. Logic is logic. That's all I say. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 35: From "The Autocrat or the Breakfast Table," by Oliver Wendell Holmes, a noted American author and physician (1809--1894).] EXPRESSION: Read the selection silently to appreciate its humor. Now read it aloud with careful attention to naturalness of expression. Study the historical allusions--"Georgius Secundus," "Lisbon town," "Braddock's army," "the Earthquake day," etc. Read again the passages in which dialect expressions occur. Try to speak these passages as the author intended them to be spoken. Select the passages which appeal most strongly to your sense of humor. Read them in such manner as to make their humorous quality thoroughly appreciable to those who listen to you. Now study the selection as a poem, comparing it with several typical poems which you have already studied. Remembering your definition of poetry (page 138), what is the real poetical value of this delightful composition? Is it a true poem? Find some other poems written by Dr. Holmes. Bring them to the class and read them aloud. Talk with your teacher about the life of Dr. Holmes and about his prose and poetical works. As a poet, how does he compare with Longfellow? with Whittier? with Walt Whitman? with Browning? DOGS AND CATS[36] Most people agree that the dog has intelligence, a heart, and possibly a soul; on the other hand, they declare that the cat is a traitor, a deceiver, an ingrate, a thief. How many persons have I heard say: "Oh, I can't bear a cat! The cat has no love for its master; it cares only for the house. I had one once, for I was living in the country, where there were mice. One day the cook left on the kitchen table a chicken she had just prepared for cooking; in came the cat, and carried it off, and we never saw a morsel of it. Oh, I hate cats; I will never have one." True, the cat is unpopular. Her reputation is bad, and she makes no effort to improve the general opinion which people have of her. She cares as little about your opinion as does the Sultan of Turkey. And--must I confess--this is the very reason I love her. In this world, no one can long be indifferent to things, whether trivial or serious--if, indeed, anything is serious. Hence, every person must, sooner or later, declare himself on the subjects of dogs and cats. Well, then! I love cats. Ah, how many times people have said to me, "What! do you love cats?" "Certainly." "Well, don't you love dogs better?" "No, I prefer cats every time." "Oh, that's very queer!" The truth is, I would rather have neither cat nor dog. But when I am obliged to live with one of these beings, I always choose the cat. I will tell you why. The cat seems to me to have the manners most necessary to good society. In her early youth she has all the graces, all the gentleness, all the unexpectedness that the most artistic imagination could desire. She is smart; she never loses herself. She is prudent, going everywhere, looking into everything, breaking nothing. The cat steals fresh mutton just as the dog steals it, but, unlike the dog, she takes no delight in carrion. She is fastidiously clean--and in this respect, she might well be imitated by many of her detractors. She washes her face, and in so doing foretells the weather into the bargain. You may please yourself by putting a ribbon around her neck, but never a collar; she cannot be enslaved. In short, the cat is a dignified, proud, disdainful animal. She defies advances and tolerates no insults. She abandons the house in which she is not treated according to her merits. She is, in both origin and character, a true aristocrat, while the dog is and always will be, a mere vulgar parvenu. The only serious argument that can be urged against the cat is that she destroys the birds, not caring whether they are sparrows or nightingales. If the dog does less, it is because of his stupidity and clumsiness, not because he is above such business. He also runs after the birds; but his foolish barking warns them of his coming, and as they fly away he can only watch them with open mouth and drooping tail. The dog submits himself to the slavery of the collar in order to be taught the art of circumventing rabbits and pigeons--and this not for his own profit, but for the pleasure of his master, the hunter. Foolish, foolish fellow! An animal himself, he delights in persecuting other animals at the command of the man who beats him. But the cat, when she catches a bird, has a good excuse for her cruelty--she catches it only to eat it herself. Shall she be slandered for such an act? Before condemning her, men may well think of their own shortcomings. They will find among themselves, as well as in the race of cats, many individuals who have claws and often use them for the destruction of those who are gifted with wings. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 36: Translated from Alexandre Dumas, a noted French novelist (1802-1870).] EXPRESSION: In what does the humor of this selection consist? Read aloud and with expression the passages which appeal to you as the most enjoyable. Do you agree with all the statements made by the author? Read these with which you disagree, and then give reasons for your disagreement. THE OWL CRITIC[37] "Who stuffed that white owl?" No one spoke in the shop; The barber was busy, and he couldn't stop; The customers, waiting their turns, were all reading The _Daily_, the _Herald_, the _Post_, little heeding The young man who blurted out such a blunt question; Not one raised a head, or even made a suggestion; And the barber kept on shaving. "Don't you see, Mister Brown," Cried the youth, with a frown, "How wrong the whole thing is, How preposterous each wing is, How flattened the head is, how jammed down the neck is-- In short, the whole owl, what an ignorant wreck 'tis? I make no apology; I've learned owl-eology, I've passed days and nights in a hundred collections, And cannot be blinded to any deflections Arising from unskillful fingers that fail To stuff a bird right, from his beak to his tail. Mister Brown! Mister Brown! Do take that bird down, Or you'll soon be the laughingstock all over town!" And the barber kept on shaving. [Illustration: The Owl Critic.] "I've _studied_ owls, And other night fowls, And I tell you What I know to be true: An owl cannot roost With his limbs so unloosed; No owl in this world Ever had his claws curled, Ever had his legs slanted, Ever had his bill canted, Ever had his neck screwed Into that attitude. He can't _do_ it, because 'Tis against all bird laws. Anatomy teaches, Ornithology preaches, An owl has a toe That _can't_ turn out so! I've made the white owl my study for years, And to see such a job almost moves me to tears! Mister Brown, I'm amazed You should be so gone crazed As to put up a bird In that posture absurd! To _look_ at that owl really brings on a dizziness; The man who stuffed _him_ don't half know his business!" And the barber kept on shaving. "Examine those eyes. I'm filled with surprise Taxidermists should pass Off on you such poor glass; So unnatural they seem They'd make Audubon scream, And John Burroughs laugh To encounter such chaff. Do take that bird down: Have him stuffed again, Brown!" And the barber kept on shaving. "With some sawdust and bark I could stuff in the dark An owl better than that. I could make an old hat Look more like an owl than that horrid fowl Stuck up there so stiff like a side of coarse leather. In fact, about _him_ there's not one natural feather." Just then, with a wink and a sly normal lurch, The owl, very gravely, got down from his perch, Walked round, and regarded his fault-finding critic (Who thought he was stuffed) with a glance analytic, And then fairly hooted, as if he should say, "Your learning's at fault _this_ time, anyway; Don't waste it again on a live bird, I pray. I'm an owl; you're another. Sir Critic, good day!" And the barber kept on shaving. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 37: By James T. Fields, an American publisher and author (1817-1881).] MRS. CAUDLE'S UMBRELLA LECTURE[38] Bah! That's the third umbrella gone since Christmas. What were you to do? Why, let him go home in the rain, to be sure. I'm very certain there was nothing about him that could spoil. Take cold? Indeed! He doesn't look like one of the sort to take cold. Besides, he'd better have taken cold than taken our umbrella. Do you hear the rain, Mr. Caudle? I say, DO YOU HEAR THE RAIN? Pooh! don't think me a fool, Mr. Caudle. Don't insult me. He return the umbrella? Anybody would think you were born yesterday. As if anybody ever did return an umbrella! I should like to know how the children are to go to school to-morrow. They shan't go through such weather, I'm determined. No! they shall stay at home and never learn anything--the blessed creatures--sooner than go and get wet. And when they grow up, I wonder whom they'll have to thank for knowing nothing--who, indeed, but their father? But I know why you lent the umbrella. Oh, yes! I know very well. I was going out to tea at dear mother's to-morrow--you knew that--and you did it on purpose. Don't tell me; you hate to have me to go there, and take every mean advantage to hinder me. But don't you think it, Mr. Caudle. No, sir; if it comes down in bucketfuls I'll go all the more. No! and I won't have a cab! Where do you think the money's to come from? You've got nice, high notions at that club of yours. A cab, indeed! Cost me sixteen pence at least--sixteen pence?--two-and-eight-pence, for there's back again! Cabs, indeed! I should like to know who is to pay for them! I can't pay for them, and I'm sure you can't if you go on as you do; throwing away your property and beggaring your children, buying umbrellas. Do you hear the rain, Mr. Caudle? I say, DO YOU HEAR IT? But I don't care--I'll go to mother's to-morrow, I will; and what's more, I'll walk every step of the way; and you know that will give me my death. Don't call me a foolish woman; it's you that's the foolish man. You know I can't wear clogs; and with no umbrella, the wet's sure to give me a cold--it always does. But what do you care for that? Nothing at all. I may be laid up for what you care, as I dare say I shall--and a pretty doctor's bill there'll be. I hope there will! It will teach you to lend your umbrella again. I shouldn't wonder if I caught my death; and that's what you lent your umbrella for. Of course! Nice clothes I shall get, too, traipsing through weather like this. My gown and bonnet will be spoiled quite. Needn't I wear them, then? Indeed, Mr. Caudle, I shall wear them. No, sir; I'm not going out a dowdy to please you or anybody else. Gracious knows, it isn't often I step over the threshold; indeed, I might as well be a slave at once--better, I should say. But when I go out, Mr. Caudle, I choose to go as a lady. Ugh! I look forward with dread for to-morrow. How I'm to go to mother's I'm sure I can't tell. But, if I die, I'll go. No, sir; I won't _borrow_ an umbrella. No; and you shan't _buy_ one. Mr. Caudle, if you bring home another umbrella, I'll throw it into the street. Ha! it was only last week I had a new nozzle put to that umbrella. I'm sure if I'd known as much as I do now, it might have gone without one, for all of me. The children, too, dear things, they'll be sopping wet; for they shan't stay at home; they shan't lose their learning; it's all their father will leave them, I'm sure. But they shall go to school. Don't tell me I said they shouldn't; you are so aggravating, Caudle, you'd spoil the temper of an angel; they shall go to school; mark that! And if they get their deaths of cold, it's not my fault. I didn't lend the umbrella. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 38: By Douglas William Jerrold, an English humorous writer (1803-1857).] NOTE: Which of the various specimens of humor here presented do you enjoy most? Give reasons. THE DARK DAY IN CONNECTICUT[39] 'Twas on a Mayday of the far old year, Seventeen hundred eighty, that there fell Over the bloom and sweet life of the spring, Over the fresh earth and the heaven of noon, A horror of great darkness, like the night In day of which the Norland sagas tell,-- The Twilight of the Gods.... Birds ceased to sing, and all the barnyard fowls Roosted; the cattle at the pasture bars Lowed, and looked homeward; bats on leathern wings Flitted abroad; the sounds of labor died; Men prayed, and women wept; all ears grew sharp To hear the doom blast of the trumpet shatter The black sky, that the dreadful face of Christ Might look from the rent clouds, not as he looked A loving guest at Bethany, but stern As Justice and inexorable Law. Meanwhile in the old statehouse, dim as ghosts, Sat the lawgivers of Connecticut, Trembling beneath their legislative robes. "It is the Lord's Great Day! Let us adjourn," Some said; and then as if with one accord All eyes were turned to Abraham Davenport. [Illustration: The Dark Day In Connecticut.] He rose, slow cleaving with his steady voice The intolerable hush. "This well may be The Day of Judgment which the world awaits; But be it so or not, I only know My present duty, and my Lord's command To occupy till he come. So at the post Where he hath set me in his providence, I choose, for one, to meet him face to face,-- No faithless servant frightened from my task, But ready when the Lord of the harvest calls; And therefore, with all reverence, I would say, Let God do his work, we will see to ours.-- Bring in the candles!" And they brought them in. Then, by the flaring lights the Speaker read, Albeit with husky voice and shaking hands, An act to amend an act to regulate The shad and alewive fisheries. Whereupon Wisely and well spake Abraham Davenport, Straight to the question, with no figures of speech Save the ten Arab signs, yet not without The shrewd, dry humor natural to the man-- His awestruck colleagues listening all the while, Between the pauses of his argument, To hear the thunder of the wrath of God Break from the hollow trumpet of the cloud. And there he stands in memory to this day, Erect, self-poised, a rugged face, half seen Against the background of unnatural dark, A witness to the ages as they pass, That simple duty hath no place for fear. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 39: From "Abraham Davenport," by John Greenleaf Whittier.] TWO INTERESTING LETTERS I. COLUMBUS TO THE LORD TREASURER OF SPAIN BARCELONA, 1493. TO LORD RAPHAEL SANCHEZ:-- Knowing that it will afford you pleasure to learn that I have brought my undertaking to a successful termination, I have decided upon writing you this letter to acquaint you with all the events which have occurred in my voyage, and the discoveries which have resulted from it. [Illustration] Thirty-three days after my departure from Cadiz I reached the Indian sea, where I discovered many islands, thickly peopled, of which I took possession without resistance in the name of our most illustrious monarchs, by public proclamation and with unfurled banners. To the first of these islands, which is called by the Indians Guanahani, I gave the name of the blessed Saviour, relying upon whose protection I had reached this as well as the other islands. As soon as we arrived at that, which as I have said was named Juana, I proceeded along its coast a short distance westward, and found it to be so large and apparently without termination, that I could not suppose it to be an island, but the continental province of Cathay. In the meantime I had learned from some Indians whom I had seized, that the country was certainly an island; and therefore I sailed toward the east, coasting to the distance of three hundred and twenty-two miles, which brought us to the extremity of it; from this point I saw lying eastwards another island, fifty-four miles distant from Juana, to which I gave the name Española. All these islands are very beautiful, and distinguished by a diversity of scenery; they are filled with a great variety of trees of immense height, and which I believe to retain their foliage in all seasons; for when I saw them they were as verdant and luxurious as they usually are in Spain in the month of May,--some of them were blossoming, some bearing fruit, and all flourishing in the greatest perfection, according to their respective stages of growth, and the nature and quality of each; yet the islands are not so thickly wooded as to be impassable. The nightingale and various birds were singing in countless numbers, and that in November, the month in which I arrived there. The inhabitants are very simple and honest, and exceedingly liberal with all they have; none of them refusing anything he may possess when he is asked for it, but on the contrary inviting us to ask them. They exhibit great love toward all others in preference to themselves: they also give objects of great value for trifles, and content themselves with very little or nothing in return. I, however, forbade that these trifles and articles of no value (such as pieces of dishes, plates, and glass, keys, and leather straps) should be given to them, although, if they could obtain them, they imagined themselves to be possessed of the most beautiful trinkets in the world. It even happened that a sailor received for a leather strap as much gold as was worth three golden nobles, and for things of more trifling value offered by our men, the Indian would give whatever the seller required. On my arrival I had taken some Indians by force from the first island that I came to, in order that they might learn our language. These men are still traveling with me, and although they have been with us now a long time, they continue to entertain the idea that I have descended from heaven; and on our arrival at any new place they published this, crying out immediately with a loud voice to the other Indians, "Come, come and look upon beings of a celestial race": upon which both men and women, children and adults, young men and old, when they got rid of the fear they at first entertained, would come out in throngs, crowding the roads to see us, some bringing food, others drink, with astonishing affection and kindness. Although all I have related may appear to be wonderful and unheard of, yet the results of my voyage would have been more astonishing if I had had at my disposal such ships as I required. But these great and marvelous results are not to be attributed to any merit of mine, but to the holy Christian faith, and to the piety and religion of our Sovereigns; for that which the unaided intellect of man could not compass, the spirit of God has granted to human exertions, for God is wont to hear the prayers of his servants who love his precepts even to the performance of apparent impossibilities. Thus it has happened to me in the present instance, who have accomplished a task to which the powers of mortal men had never hitherto attained; for if there have been those who have anywhere written or spoken of these islands, they have done so with doubts and conjectures, and no one has ever asserted that he has seen them, on which account their writings have been looked upon as little else than fables. Therefore let the king and queen, our princes and their most happy kingdoms, and all the other provinces of Christendom, render thanks to our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, who has granted us so great a victory and such prosperity. CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. EXPRESSION: In connection with this letter, read again the story of the discovery as narrated by Washington Irving, page 43. In what respect do the two accounts differ? II. GOVERNOR WINSLOW TO A FRIEND IN ENGLAND DEAR FRIEND,-- Although I received no letter from you by this ship, yet forasmuch as I know you expect the performance of my promise, which was to write to you truly and faithfully of all things, I have therefore, at this time, sent unto you accordingly, referring you for further satisfaction to our more large relations. [Illustration] You shall understand that in this little time that a few of us have been here, we have built seven dwelling houses and four for the use of the plantation, and have made preparation for divers others. We set the last spring some twenty acres of Indian corn, and sowed some six acres of barley and pease; and according to the manner of the Indians, we manured our ground with herrings, or rather shads, which we have in great abundance, and take with great ease at our doors. Our corn did prove well; and God be praised, we had a good increase of Indian corn, and our barley indifferent good, but our pease not worth the gathering, for we feared they were too late sown. They came up very well, and blossomed; but the sun parched them in the blossom. Our harvest being gotten in, our governor sent four men on fowling, that so we might, after a special manner, rejoice together after we had gathered the fruit of our labors. They four, in one day, killed as much fowl as with a little help beside, served the company almost a week. At which time, amongst other recreations, we exercised our arms, many of the Indians coming among us, and among the rest their greatest king, Massasoit, with some ninety men, whom for three days we entertained and feasted; and they went out and killed five deer, which they brought to the plantation, and bestowed upon our governor, and upon the captain and others. And although it be not always so plentiful as it was at this time with us, yet by the goodness of God we are so far from want, that we often wish you partakers of our plenty.... We have often found the Indians very faithful in their covenant of peace with us, very loving, and ready to pleasure us. We often go to them, and they come to us.... Yea, it hath pleased God so to possess the Indians with a fear of us and love to us, that not only the greatest king amongst them, called Massasoit, but also all the princes and peoples round about us, have either made suit to us, or been glad of any occasion to make peace with us; so that seven of them at once have sent their messengers to us to that end.... They are a people without any religion or knowledge of any God, yet very trusty, quick of apprehension, ripe-witted, just.... Now, because I expect you coming unto us, with other of our friends, I thought good to advertise you of a few things needful. Be careful to have a very good bread room to put your biscuits in. Let not your meat be dry-salted; none can better do it than the sailors. Let your meal be so hard trod in your cask that you shall need an adz or hatchet to work it out with. Trust not too much on us for corn at this time, for we shall have little enough till harvest. Build your cabins as open as you can, and bring good store of clothes and bedding with you. Bring every man a musket or fowling piece. Let your piece be long in the barrel, and fear not the weight of it, for most of our shooting is from stands. I forbear further to write for the present, hoping to see you by the next return. So I take my leave, commending you to the Lord for a safe conduct unto us, resting in him, Your loving friend, EDWARD WINSLOW. _Plymouth in New England, this 11th of December, 1621._ POEMS OF HOME AND COUNTRY I. "THIS IS MY OWN, MY NATIVE LAND"[40] Breathes there the man with soul so dead, Who never to himself hath said, This is my own, my native land! Whose heart hath ne'er within him burned As home his footsteps he hath turned, From wandering on a foreign strand? If such there breathe, go, mark him well. For him no minstrel raptures swell; High though his titles, proud his name, Boundless his wealth as wish can claim; Despite those titles, power, and pelf, The wretch concentered all in self, Living, shall forfeit fair renown, And, doubly dying, shall go down To the vile dust, from whence he sprung, Unwept, unhonored, and unsung. O Caledonia! stern and wild, Meet nurse for a poetic child! Land of brown heath and shaggy wood, Land of the mountain and the flood, Land of my sires! what mortal hand Can e'er untie the filial band, That knits me to thy rugged strand? FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 40: From the "Lay of the Last Minstrel," by Sir Walter Scott.] II. THE GREEN LITTLE SHAMROCK OF IRELAND[41] There's a dear little plant that grows in our isle, 'Twas St. Patrick himself, sure, that set it; And the sun on his labor with pleasure did smile, And with dew from his eye often wet it. It thrives through the bog, through the brake, through the mireland, And its name is the dear little shamrock of Ireland-- The sweet little shamrock, the dear little shamrock, The sweet little, green little shamrock of Ireland. This dear little plant still grows in our land, Fresh and fair as the daughters of Erin, Whose smiles can bewitch, whose eyes can command, In what climate they chance to appear in; For they shine through the bog, through the brake, through the mireland, Just like their own dear little shamrock of Ireland-- The sweet little shamrock, the dear little shamrock, The sweet little, green little shamrock of Ireland. This dear little plant that springs from our soil, When its three little leaves are extended, Betokens that each for the other should toil, And ourselves by ourselves be befriended,-- And still through the bog, through the brake, through the mireland, From one root should branch like the shamrock of Ireland-- The sweet little shamrock, the dear little shamrock, The sweet little, green little shamrock of Ireland! FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 41: By Andrew Cherry, an Irish poet (1762-1812).] III. MY HEART'S IN THE HIGHLANDS[42] My heart's in the Highlands, my heart is not here; My heart's in the Highlands a-chasing the deer, Chasing the wild deer and following the roe-- My heart's in the Highlands wherever I go. Farewell to the Highlands, farewell to the North, The birthplace of valor, the country of worth; Wherever I wander, wherever I rove, The hills of the Highlands forever I love. Farewell to the mountains high covered with snow; Farewell to the straths and green valleys below; Farewell to the forests and wild-hanging woods; Farewell to the torrents and loud-pouring floods. My heart's in the Highlands, my heart is not here; My heart's in the Highlands a-chasing the deer, Chasing the wild deer and following the roe-- My heart's in the Highlands wherever I go. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 42: By Robert Burns, a famous Scottish poet (1759-1796).] IV. THE FATHERLAND[43] Where is the true man's fatherland? Is it where he by chance is born? Doth not the yearning spirit scorn In such scant borders to be spanned? Oh, yes! his fatherland must be As the blue heaven wide and free! Is it alone where freedom is, Where God is God, and man is man? Doth he not claim a broader span For the soul's love of home than this? Oh, yes! his fatherland must be As the blue heaven wide and free! Where'er a human heart doth wear Joy's myrtle wreath or sorrow's gyves, Where'er a human spirit strives After a life more true and fair, There is the true man's birthplace grand, His is a world-wide fatherland! Where'er a single slave doth pine, Where'er one man may help another,-- Thank God for such a birthright, brother,-- That spot of earth is thine and mine! There is the true man's birthplace grand, His is a world-wide fatherland! FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 43: By James Russell Lowell.] V. HOME[44] But where to find that happiest spot below, Who can direct when all pretend to know? The shuddering tenant of the frigid zone Boldly proclaims that happiest spot his own-- Extols the treasures of his stormy seas, And his long nights of revelry and ease; The naked negro, panting at the line, Boasts of his golden sands and palmy wine, Basks in the glare, or stems the tepid wave, And thanks his gods for all the good they gave. Such is the patriot's boast, where'er we roam, His first, best country, ever is at home. And yet, perhaps, if countries we compare, And estimate the blessings which they share, Though patriots flatter, still shall wisdom find An equal portion dealt to all mankind; As different good, by art or nature given, To different nations makes their blessing even. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 44: By Oliver Goldsmith.] EXPRESSION: Read all of these poems silently with a view towards sympathizing with the feelings which they express. Now read each one separately, and compare them, one with another. What is the leading sentiment inculcated by each? Which poem appeals the most strongly to your own emotions? WORD STUDY: _Caledonia_, _shamrock_, _brake_, _Erin_, _gyves_, _yearning_, _frigid_, _tepid_, _patriot_. THE AGE OF COAL[45] Come with me, in fancy, back to those early ages of the world, thousands, yes millions, of years ago. Stand with me on some low ancient hill, which overlooks the flat and swampy lands that are to become the American continent. Few heights are yet in sight. The future Rocky Mountains lie still beneath the surface of the sea. The Alleghanies are not yet heaved up above the level surface of the ground, for over them are spread the boggy lands and thick forests of future coal fields. The Mississippi River is not yet in existence, or if in existence, is but an unimportant little stream. Below us, as we stand, we can see a broad and sluggish body of water, in places widening into shallow lakes. On either side of this stream, vast forests extend in every direction as far as the horizon, bounded on one side by the distant ocean, clothing each hilly rise, and sending islets of matted trees and shrubs floating down the waters. Strange forests these are to us. No oaks, no elms, no beeches, no birches, no palms, nor many colored wild flowers are there. The deciduous plants so common in our modern forests are nowhere found; but enormous club mosses are seen, as well as splendid pines and an abundance of ancient trees with waving, frondlike leaves. Here also are graceful tree ferns and countless ferns of lower growth filling up all gaps. [Illustration] No wild quadrupeds are yet in existence, and the silent forests are enlivened only by the stirring of the breeze among the trees or the occasional hum of monstrous insects. But upon the margin of yonder stream a huge four-footed creature creeps slowly along. He looks much like a gigantic salamander, and his broad, soft feet make deep impressions in the yielding mud. No sunshine but only a gleam of light can creep through the misty atmosphere. The earth seems clothed in a garment of clouds, and the air is positively reeking with damp warmth, like the air of a hothouse. This explains the luxuriant growth of foliage. Could we thus stand upon the hilltops and keep watch through the long coal building ages, we should see generation after generation of forest trees and underwoods living, withering, dying, falling to earth. Slowly a layer of dead and decaying vegetation thus collects, over which the forest flourishes still--tree for tree, and shrub for shrub, springing up in the place of each one that dies. Then, after a very long time, through the working of mighty underground forces, the broad lands sink a little way--perhaps only a few feet--and the ocean tide rushes in, overwhelming the forests, trees and plants and living creatures, in one dire desolation.--No, not dire, for the ruin is not objectless or needless. It is all a part of the wonderful preparation for the life of man on earth. Under the waves lie the overwhelmed forests--prostrate trunks and broken stumps in countless numbers overspreading the gathered vegetable remains of centuries before. Upon these the sea builds a protective covering of sand or mud, more or less thick. Here sea creatures come to live, fishes swim hungrily to and fro, and shellfishes die in the mud which, by and by, is to become firm rock with stony animal remains embedded in it. After a while the land rises again to its former position. There are bare, sandy flats as before, but they do not remain bare. Lichens and hardier plants find a home. The light spores of the ancient forest trees take root and grow, and luxuriant forests, like those of old, spring again into being. Upon river and lake bottoms, and over the low damp lands, rich layers of decaying vegetation again collect. Then once more the land sinks and the ocean tide pours in; and another sandy or muddy stratum is built up on the overflowed lands. Thus the second layer of forest growth is buried like the first, and both lie quietly through the long ages following, hidden from sight, slowly changing in their substance from wood to shining coal. * * * * * Thus time after time, the land rose and sank, rose and sank, again and again. Not the whole continent is believed to have risen or sunk at the same time; but here at one period, there at another period, the movements probably went on. The greater part of the vegetable mass decayed slowly; but when the final ruin of the forest came, whole trunks were snapped off close to the roots and flung down. These are now found in numbers on the tops of the coal layers, the barks being flattened and changed to shining black coal. How wonderful the tale of those ancient days told to us by these buried forests! FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 45: By Agnes Giberne, an English writer on scientific subjects.] SOMETHING ABOUT THE MOON[46] I am going to say a few words about the moon; but there are many matters relating to her of great interest which I must leave untouched, for the simple reason that there is not room to speak of them in a single paper. Thus the moon's changes of shape from the horned moon to the half, and thence to the full moon, with the following changes from full to half, and so to the horned form again, are well worth studying; but I should want all the space I am going to occupy, merely to explain properly those changes alone. So a study of the way in which the moon rules the tides would, I am sure, interest every thoughtful reader; but there is not room for it here. Let us now turn to consider the moon; not as the light which makes our nights beautiful, nor as the body which governs the mighty ocean in its tidal sway, but as another world,--the companion planet of the earth. It has always been a matter not only of the deepest curiosity, but of the greatest scientific import, whether other planets, and particularly our own satellite, are inhabited or exhibit any traces whatever of animal or vegetable life. One or two astronomers have claimed the discovery of vegetation on the moon's surface by reason of the periodic appearance of a greenish tint; but as the power of the telescope can bring the moon to within only about a hundred and twenty miles of us, these alleged appearances cannot be satisfactorily verified. The moon is a globe, two thousand one hundred and sixty-five miles in diameter; very much less, therefore, than our earth, which has a diameter of about seven thousand nine hundred and twenty miles. Thus the moon's surface is less than one thirteenth of the earth's. Instead of two hundred millions of square miles as the earth has, the moon has only about fourteen millions of square miles, or about the same surface as North and South America together, without the great American Islands of the Arctic regions. The volume of the earth exceeds that of the moon more than forty-nine times. But the moon's substance is somewhat lighter. Thus the mass, or quantity of matter in the moon, instead of being a forty-ninth part of the earth's, is about an eighty-first part. This small companion world travels like our own earth around the sun, at a distance of ninety-three millions of miles. The path of the moon around the sun is, in fact, so nearly the same as that of the earth that it would be almost impossible to distinguish one from the other, if they were both drawn on a sheet of paper a foot or so in diameter. You may perhaps be surprised to find me thus saying that the moon travels round the sun, when you have been accustomed to hear that the moon travels round the earth. In reality, however, it is round the sun the moon travels, though certainly the moon and the earth circle around each other. The distance of the moon from the earth is not always the same; but the average, or mean distance, amounts to about two hundred and thirty-eight thousand eight hundred and twenty-eight miles. This is the distance between the centers of the two globes. With this distance separating them, the companion worlds--the earth and the moon--circle round each other, as they both travel round the central sun. But now you will be curious to learn whether our companion planet, the moon, really presents the appearance of a world, when studied with a powerful telescope. If we judged the moon in this way, we should say that she is not only not inhabited by living creatures, but that she could not possibly be inhabited. What is it that makes our earth a fit abode for us who live upon it? Her surface is divided into land and water. We live on the land; but without the water we should perish. Were there no water, there would be no clouds, no rain, no snow, no rivers, brooks, or other streams. Without these, there could be no vegetable life; and without vegetable life, there could be no animal life, even if animals themselves could live without water. Yet again, the earth's globe is enwrapped in an atmosphere,--the air we breathe. Without this air, neither animals nor vegetables could live. I might go further and show other features of the earth, which we are at present justified in regarding as essential to the mere existence, and still more to the comfort, of creatures living upon the earth. Now, before the telescope was invented, many astronomers believed that there was water on the moon, and probably air also. But as soon as Galileo examined the moon with his largest telescope (and a very weak telescope it was), he found that whatever the dark parts of the moon may be, they certainly are not seas. More and more powerful telescopes have since been turned on the moon. It has been shown that there are not only no seas, but no rivers, pools, lakes, or other water surfaces. No clouds are ever seen to gather over any part of the moon's surface. In fact, nothing has ever yet been seen on the moon which suggests in the slightest degree the existence of water on her surface, or even that water could at present possibly exist; and, of course, without water it is safe to infer there could be neither vegetable nor animal existence. It would seem, then, that apart from the absence of air on the moon, there is such an entire absence of water that no creatures now living on the earth could possibly exist upon the moon. Certainly man could not exist there, nor could animals belonging to any except the lowest orders of animal life. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 46: By Richard A. Proctor, a noted English astronomer (1837-1888).] THE COMING OF THE BIRDS[47] I know the trusty almanac Of the punctual coming-back, On their due days, of the birds. I marked them yestermorn, A flock of finches darting Beneath the crystal arch, Piping, as they flew, a march,-- Belike the one they used in parting Last year from yon oak or larch; Dusky sparrows in a crowd, Diving, darting northward free, Suddenly betook them all, Every one to his hole in the wall, Or to his niche in the apple tree. I greet with joy the choral trains Fresh from palms and Cuba's canes. Best gems of Nature's cabinet, With dews of tropic morning wet, Beloved of children, bards and Spring, O birds, your perfect virtues bring, Your song, your forms, your rhythmic flight, Your manners for the heart's delight; Nestle in hedge, or barn, or roof, Here weave your chamber weather-proof, Forgive our harms, and condescend To man, as to a lubber friend, And, generous, teach his awkward race Courage and probity and grace! FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 47: By Ralph Waldo Emerson, an American poet and philosopher (1803-1882).] THE RETURN OF THE BIRDS[48] The coming and going of the birds is more or less a mystery and a surprise. We go out in the morning, and no thrush or finch is to be heard; we go out again, and every tree and grove is musical; yet again, and all is silent. Who saw them come? Who saw them depart? This pert little winter wren, for instance, darting in and out the fence, diving under the rubbish here and coming up yards away,--how does he manage with those little circular wings to compass degrees and zones, and arrive always in the nick of time? Last August I saw him in the remotest wilds of the Adirondacks, impatient and inquisitive as usual; a few weeks later, on the Potomac, I was greeted by the same hardy little busybody. Does he travel by easy stages from bush to bush and from wood to wood? or has that compact little body force and courage to brave the night and the upper air, and so achieve leagues at one pull? And yonder bluebird, with the earth tinge on his breast and the sky tinge on his back,--did he come down out of heaven on that bright March morning when he told us so softly and plaintively that spring had come? Indeed, there is nothing in the return of the birds more curious and suggestive than in the first appearance, or rumors of the appearance, of this little bluecoat. The bird at first seems a mere wandering voice in the air; one hears its call or carol on some bright March morning, but is uncertain of its source or direction; it falls like a drop of rain when no cloud is visible; one looks and listens, but to no purpose. The weather changes, perhaps a cold snap with snow comes on, and it may be a week before I hear the note again, and this time or the next perchance see the bird sitting on a stake in the fence, lifting his wing as he calls cheerily to his mate. Its notes now become daily more frequent; the birds multiply, and, flitting from point to point, call and warble more confidently and gleefully. Not long after the bluebird comes the robin, sometimes in March, but in most of the Northern states April is the month of the robin. In large numbers they scour the field and groves. You hear their piping in the meadow, in the pasture, on the hillside. Walk in the woods, and the dry leaves rustle with the whir of their wings, the air is vocal with their cheery call. In excess of joy and vivacity, they run, leap, scream, chase each other through the air, diving and sweeping among the trees with perilous rapidity. In that free, fascinating, half work and half play pursuit,--sugar making,--a pursuit which still lingers in many parts of New York, as in New England, the robin is one's constant companion. When the day is sunny and the ground bare, you meet him at all points and hear him at all hours. At sunset, on the tops of the tall maples, with look heavenward, and in a spirit of utter abandonment, he carols his simple strain. And sitting thus amid the stark, silent trees, above the wet, cold earth, with the chill of winter in the air, there is no fitter or sweeter songster in the whole round year. It is in keeping with the scene and the occasion. How round and genuine the notes are, and how eagerly our ears drink them in! The first utterance, and the spell of winter is thoroughly broken, and the remembrance of it afar off. Another April bird, which makes her appearance sometimes earlier and sometimes later than Robin, and whose memory I fondly cherish, is the Phoebe bird, the pioneer of the fly catchers. In the inland fanning districts, I used to notice her, on some bright morning about Easter Day, proclaiming her arrival with much variety of motion and attitude, from the peak of the barn or hay shed. As yet, you may have heard only the plaintive, homesick note of the bluebird, or the faint trill of the song sparrow; and Phoebe's clear, vivacious assurance of her veritable bodily presence among us again is welcomed by all ears. At agreeable intervals in her lay she describes a circle, or an ellipse in the air, ostensibly prospecting for insects, but really, I suspect, as an artistic flourish, thrown in to make up in some way for the deficiency of her musical performance. Another April comer, who arrives shortly after robin redbreast, with whom he associates both at this season and in the autumn, is the golden-winged woodpecker, _alias_ "high-hole," _alias_ "flicker," _alias_ "yarup." He is an old favorite of my boyhood, and his note to me means very much. He announces his arrival by a long, loud call, repeated from the dry branch of some tree, or a stake in the fence,--a thoroughly melodious April sound. I think how Solomon finished that beautiful climax on spring, "And the voice of the turtle is heard in the land," and see that a description of spring in this farming country, to be equally characteristic, should culminate in like manner, "And the call of the high-hole comes up from the wood." The song sparrow, that universal favorite and firstling of the spring, comes before April, and its simple strain gladdens all hearts. May is the month of the swallows and the orioles. There are many other distinguished arrivals, indeed, nine tenths of the birds are here by the last week in May, yet the swallows and orioles are the most conspicuous. The bright plumage of the latter seems really like an arrival from the tropics. I see them flash through the blossoming trees, and all the forenoon hear their incessant warbling and wooing. The swallows dive and chatter about the barn, or squeak and build beneath the eaves; the partridge drums in the fresh sprouting woods; the long, tender note of the meadow lark comes up from the meadow; and at sunset, from every marsh and pond come the ten thousand voices of the hylas. May is the transition month, and exists to connect April and June, the root with the flower. With June the cup is full, our hearts are satisfied, there is no more to be desired. The perfection of the season, among other things, has brought the perfection of the song and plumage of the birds. The master artists are all here, and the expectations excited by the robin and the song sparrow are fully justified. The thrushes have all come; and I sit down upon the first rock, with hands full of the pink azalea, to listen. In the meadows the bobolink is in all his glory; in the high pastures the field sparrow sings his breezy vesper hymn; and the woods are unfolding to the music of the thrushes. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 48: By John Burroughs.] EXPRESSION: Read again the four descriptive selections beginning on page 179. Observe the wide difference in style of composition. Of the three prose extracts, which is the most interesting to you? Give reasons why this is so. Which passages require the most animation in reading? Read these passages so that those who are listening to you may fully appreciate their meaning. THE POET AND THE BIRD I. THE SONG OF THE LARK On a pleasant evening in late summer the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley and his wife, Mary Shelley, were walking near the city of Leghorn in Italy. The sky was cloudless, the air was soft and balmy, and the earth seemed hushed into a restful stillness. The green lane along which they were walking was bordered by myrtle hedges, where crickets were softly chirping and fireflies were already beginning to light their lamps. From the fields beyond the hedges the grateful smell of new-mown hay was wafted, while in the hazy distance the church towers of the city glowed yellow in the last rays of the sun, and the gray-green sea rippled softly in the fading light of day. Suddenly, from somewhere above them, a burst of music fell upon their ears. It receded upward, but swelled into an ecstatic harmony, with fluttering intervals and melodious swervings such as no musician's art can imitate. "What is that?" asked the poet, as the song seemed to die away in the blue vault of heaven. "It is a skylark," answered his wife. "Nay," said the poet, his face all aglow with the joy of the moment; "no mere bird ever poured forth such strains of music as that. I think, rather, that it is some blithe spirit embodied as a bird." "Let us imagine that it is so," said Mary. "But, hearken. It is singing again, and soaring as it sings." "Yes, and I can see it, too, like a flake of gold against the pale purple of the sky. It is so high that it soars in the bright rays of the sun, while we below are in the twilight shade. And now it is descending again, and the air is filled with its song. Hark to the rain of melody which it showers down upon us." They listened enraptured, while the bird poured forth its flood of song. When at length it ceased, and the two walked home in the deepening twilight, the poet said:-- "We shall never know just what it was that sang so gloriously. But, Mary, what do you think is most like it?" "A poet," she answered. "There is nothing so like it as a poet wrapt in his own sweet thoughts and singing till the world is made to sing with him for very joy." "And I," said he, "would compare it to a beautiful maiden singing for love in some high palace tower, while all who hear her are bewitched by the enchanting melody." "And I," said she, "would compare it to a red, red rose sitting among its green leaves and giving its sweet perfumes to the summer breezes." "You speak well, Mary," said he; "but let me make one other comparison. Is it not like a glowworm lying unseen amid the grass and flowers, and all through the night casting a mellow radiance over them and filling them with divine beauty?" [Illustration: The Song of the Lark.] "I do not like the comparison so well," was the answer. "Yet, after all, there is nothing so like it as a poet--as yourself, for instance." "No poet ever had its skill, because no poet was ever so free from care," said Shelley, sadly. "It is like an unbodied joy floating unrestrained whithersoever it will. Ah, Mary, if I had but half the gladness that this bird or spirit must know, I would write such poetry as would bewitch the world, and all men would listen, entranced, to my song." That night the poet could not sleep for thinking of the skylark's song. The next day he sat alone in his study, putting into harmonious words the thoughts that filled his mind. In the evening he read to Mary a new poem, entitled "To a Skylark." It was full of the melody inspired by the song of the bird. Its very meter suggested the joyous flight, the fluttering pauses, the melodious swervings, the heavenward ascent of the bird. No poem has ever been written that is fuller of beautiful images and sweet and joyous harmonies. Have you ever listened to the song of a bird and tried to attune your own thoughts to its unrestrained and untaught melodies? There are no true skylarks in America, and therefore you may never be able to repeat the experience of the poet or fully to appreciate the "harmonious madness" of his matchless poem; for no other bird is so literally the embodiment of song as the European skylark. * * * * * But now let us read Shelley's inimitable poem. II. TO A SKYLARK Hail to thee, blithe spirit! Bird thou never wert, That from heaven, or near it, Pourest thy full heart In profuse strains of unpremeditated art. Higher still and higher From the earth thou springest Like a cloud of fire; The blue deep thou wingest, And singing still dost soar, and soaring ever singest. In the golden lightning Of the sunken sun, O'er which clouds are bright'ning, Thou dost float and run, Like an unbodied joy whose race is just begun. The pale purple even Melts around thy flight; Like a star of heaven, In the broad daylight Thou art unseen, but yet I hear thy shrill delight. Keen as are the arrows Of that silver sphere, Whose intense lamp narrows In the white dawn clear, Until we hardly see, we feel that it is there. All the earth and air With thy voice is loud, As, when night is bare, From one lonely cloud The moon rains out her beams, and heaven is overflowed. What thou art we know not; What is most like thee? From rainbow clouds there flow not Drops so bright to see, As from thy presence showers a rain of melody. Like a poet hidden In the light of thought, Singing hymns unbidden, Till the world is wrought To sympathy with hopes and fears it heeded not; Like a highborn maiden In a palace tower, Soothing her love-laden Soul in secret hour With music sweet as love, which overflows her bower; Like a glowworm golden In a dell of dew, Scattering unbeholden Its aërial hue Among the flowers and grass, which screen it from the view; Like a rose embowered In its own green leaves, By warm winds deflowered, Till the scent it gives Make faint with too much sweet these heavy-wingèd thieves. Sound of vernal showers On the twinkling grass, Rain-awakened flowers, All that ever was Joyous, and clear, and fresh, thy music doth surpass. Teach us, sprite or bird, What sweet thoughts are thine: I have never heard Praise of love or wine That panted forth a flood of rapture so divine. Chorus Hymeneal, Or triumphal chaunt, Matched with thine would be all But an empty vaunt, A thing wherein we feel there is some hidden want. What objects are the fountains Of thy happy strain? What fields, or waves, or mountains? What shapes of sky or plain? What love of thine own kind? What ignorance of pain? With thy clear keen joyance Languor cannot be: Shadow of annoyance Never came near thee: Thou lovest; but ne'er knew love's sad satiety. Waking or asleep, Thou of death must deem Things more true and deep Than we mortals dream, Or how could thy notes flow in such a crystal stream? We look before and after, And pine for what is not; Our sincerest laughter With some pain is fraught: Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought. Yet if we could scorn Hate, and pride, and fear; If we were things born Not to shed a tear, I know not how thy joy we ever should come near. Better than all measures Of delightful sound, Better than all treasures That in books are found, Thy skill to poet were, thou scorner of the ground! Teach me half the gladness That thy brain must know, Such harmonious madness From thy lips would flow, The world should listen then, as I am listening now. HARK, HARK! THE LARK[49] Hark, hark! The lark at Heaven's gate sings, And Phoebus 'gins arise, His steeds to water at those springs On chaliced flowers that lies; And winking Mary-buds begin To ope their golden eyes; With everything that pretty is, My lady sweet, arise; Arise, arise! FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 49: From "Cymbeline," by William Shakespeare.] EXPRESSION: Read Shelley's poem with care, trying to understand and interpret the poet's enthusiasm as he watched the flight of the lark. Point out the five passages in the poem which seem the most striking or the most beautiful. Memorize Shakespeare's song and repeat it in a pleasing manner. Point out any peculiarities you may notice. ECHOES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION I. PATRICK HENRY'S FAMOUS SPEECH[50] Mr. President, it is natural for man to indulge in the illusions of hope. We are apt to shut our eyes against a painful truth, and listen to the song of that siren till she transforms us into beasts. Is this the part of wise men, engaged in a great and arduous struggle for liberty? Are we disposed to be of the number of those who, having eyes, see not, and, having ears, hear not, the things which so nearly concern their temporal salvation? For my part, whatever anguish of spirit it may cost, I am willing to know the whole truth, to know the worst, and to provide for it. I have but one lamp by which my feet are guided, and that lamp is the lamp of experience. I know of no way of judging of the future but by the past. And, judging by the past, I wish to know what there has been in the conduct of the British ministry, for the last ten years, to justify those hopes with which gentlemen have been pleased to solace themselves and the house? Is it that insidious smile with which our petition has been lately received? Trust it not, sir; it will prove a snare to your feet. Suffer not yourselves to be betrayed with a kiss. Ask yourselves how this gracious reception of our petition comports with those warlike preparations which cover our waters, and darken our land. Are fleets and armies necessary to a work of love and reconciliation? Have we shown ourselves so unwilling to be reconciled that force must be called in to win back our love? Let us not deceive ourselves, sir. These are the implements of war and subjugation,--the last arguments to which kings resort. I ask, sir, what means this martial array, if its purpose be not to force us to submission? Can gentlemen assign any other possible motive for it? Has Great Britain any enemy in this quarter of the world, to call for all this accumulation of navies and armies? No, sir, she has none. They are meant for us; they can be meant for no other. They are sent over to bind and rivet upon us those chains which the British ministry have been so long forging. And what have we to oppose to them? Shall we try argument? Sir, we have been trying that for the last ten years. Have we anything new to offer upon the subject? Nothing. We have held the subject up in every light of which it is capable, but it has been all in vain. Shall we resort to entreaty and humble supplication? What terms shall we find, which have not been already exhausted? Let us not, I beseech you, sir, deceive ourselves longer. Sir, we have done everything that could be done to avert the storm which is now coming on. We have petitioned, we have remonstrated, we have supplicated; we have prostrated ourselves before the throne, and have implored its interposition to arrest the tyrannical hands of the ministry and Parliament. Our petitions have been slighted, our remonstrances have produced additional violence and insult, our supplications have been disregarded, and we have been spurned with contempt from the foot of the throne. In vain, after these things, may we indulge the fond hope of peace and reconciliation. There is no longer any room for hope. If we wish to be free, if we mean to preserve inviolate these inestimable privileges for which we have been so long contending, if we mean not basely to abandon the noble struggle in which we have been so long engaged, and which we have pledged ourselves never to abandon until the glorious object of our contest shall be obtained,--we must fight. I repeat it, sir, we must fight. An appeal to arms, and to the God of hosts, is all that is left us. They tell us, sir, that we are weak,--unable to cope with so formidable an adversary. But when shall we be stronger? Will it be the next week, or the next year? Will it be when we are totally disarmed, and when a British guard shall be stationed in every house? Shall we gather strength by irresolution and inaction? Shall we acquire the means of effectual resistance by lying supinely on our backs, and hugging the delusive phantom of hope, until our enemies shall have bound us hand and foot? Sir, we are not weak, if we make a proper use of those means which the God of nature hath placed in our power. Three millions of people, armed in the holy cause of liberty, and in such a country as that which we possess, are invincible by any force which our enemy can send against us. Besides, sir, we shall not fight our battles alone. There is a just God who presides over the destinies of nations, and who will raise up friends to fight our battles for us. The battle, sir, is not to the strong alone; it is to the vigilant, the active, the brave. Besides, sir, we have no election. If we were base enough to desire it, it is now too late to retire from the contest. There is no retreat, but in submission and slavery. Our chains are forged. Their clanking may be heard on the plains of Boston. The war is inevitable; and let it come!--I repeat it, sir, let it come. It is vain, sir, to extenuate the matter. Gentlemen may cry, Peace, peace! but there is no peace. The war is actually begun. The next gale that sweeps from the north will bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms. Our brethren are already in the field. Why stand we here idle? What is it that gentlemen wish? What would they have? Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what course others may take; but, as for me, give me liberty, or give me death! FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 50: Before the Virginia Convention, March 25, 1775.] II. MARION'S MEN[51] We follow where the Swamp Fox guides, His friends and merry men are we, And when the troop of Tarleton rides, We burrow in the cypress tree. The turfy hummock is our bed, Our home is in the red deer's den, Our roof, the treetop overhead, For we are wild and hunted men. We fly by day and shun its light, But, prompt to strike the sudden blow, We mount and start with early night, And through the forest track our foe. And soon he hears our chargers leap, The flashing saber blinds his eyes, And, ere he drives away his sleep And rushes from his camp, he dies. Free bridle bit, good gallant steed, That will not ask a kind caress, To swim the Santee at our need, When on his heels the foemen press,-- The true heart and the ready hand, The spirit stubborn to be free, The trusted bore, the smiting brand,-- And we are Marion's men, you see. [Illustration: Marion's Men.] Now light the fire and cook the meal, The last perhaps that we shall taste; I hear the Swamp Fox round us steal, And that's a sign we move in haste. He whistles to the scouts, and hark! You hear his order calm and low, Come, wave your torch across the dark, And let us see the boys that go. Now pile the brush and roll the log-- Hard pillow, but a soldier's head That's half the time in brake and bog Must never think of softer bed. The owl is hooting to the night, The cooter crawling o'er the bank, And in that pond the flashing light Tells where the alligator sank. * * * * * What! 'tis the signal! start so soon? And through the Santee swamps so deep, Without the aid of friendly moon, And we, Heaven help us! half asleep? But courage, comrades! Marion leads, The Swamp Fox takes us out to-night; So clear your swords and spur your steeds, There's goodly chance, I think, of fight. We follow where the Swamp Fox guides, We leave the swamp and cypress tree, Our spurs are in our coursers' sides, And ready for the strife are we. The Tory's camp is now in sight, And there he cowers within his den; He hears our shouts, he dreads the fight, He fears, and flies from Marion's men. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 51: By William Gilmore Simms, an American author (1806-1870).] III. IN MEMORY OF GEORGE WASHINGTON[52] How, my fellow-citizens, shall I single to your grateful hearts his preëminent worth? Where shall I begin in opening to your view a character throughout sublime? Shall I speak of his warlike achievements, all springing from obedience to his country's will--all directed to his country's good? Will you go with me to the banks of the Monongahela, to see our youthful Washington supporting, in the dismal hour of Indian victory, the ill-fated Braddock and saving, by his judgment and his valor, the remains of a defeated army, pressed by the conquering savage foe? Or when, oppressed America nobly resolving to risk her all in defense of her violated right, he was elevated by the unanimous vote of Congress to the command of her armies? Will you follow him to the high grounds of Boston, where to an undisciplined, courageous, and virtuous yeomanry his presence gave the stability of system and infused the invincibility of love of country? Or shall I carry you to the painful scenes of Long Island, York Island, and New Jersey, when, combating superior and gallant armies, aided by powerful fleets and led by chiefs high in the roll of fame, he stood the bulwark of our safety, undismayed by disasters, unchanged by change of fortune? Or will you view him in the precarious fields of Trenton, where deep gloom, unnerving every arm, reigned triumphant through our thinned, worn-down, unaided ranks, to himself unknown? Dreadful was the night. It was about this time of winter; the storm raged; the Delaware, rolling furiously with floating ice, forbade the approach of man. Washington, self-collected, viewed the tremendous scene. His country called; unappalled by surrounding dangers, he passed to the hostile shore; he fought, he conquered. The morning sun cheered the American world. Our country rose on the event, and her dauntless chief, pursuing his blow, completed in the lawns of Princeton what his vast soul had conceived on the shores of the Delaware. Thence to the strong grounds of Morristown he led his small but gallant band; and through an eventful winter, by the high effort of his genius, whose matchless force was measurable only by the growth of difficulties, he held in check formidable hostile legions, conducted by a chief experienced in the arts of war, and famed for his valor on the ever memorable Heights of Abraham, where fell Wolfe, Montcalm, and since our much-lamented Montgomery, all covered with glory. In this fortunate interval, produced by his masterly conduct, our fathers, ourselves, animated by his resistless example, rallied around our country's standard, and continued to follow her beloved chief through the various and trying scenes to which the destinies of our union led. Who is there that has forgotten the vales of Brandywine, the fields of Germantown, or the plains of Monmouth? Everywhere present, wants of every kind obstructing, numerous and valiant armies encountering, himself a host, he assuaged our sufferings, limited our privations, and upheld our tottering Republic. Shall I display to you the spread of the fire of his soul, by rehearsing the praises of the hero of Saratoga and his much-loved compeer of the Carolinas? No; our Washington wears not borrowed glory. To Gates, to Greene, he gave without reserve the applause due to their eminent merit; and long may the chiefs of Saratoga and of Eutaw receive the grateful respect of a grateful people. Moving in his own orbit, he imparted heat and light to his most distant satellites; and combining the physical and moral force of all within his sphere, with irresistible weight, he took his course, commiserating folly, disdaining vice, dismaying treason, and invigorating despondency; until the auspicious hour arrived when united with the intrepid forces of a potent and magnanimous ally, he brought to submission the since conqueror of India; thus finishing his long career of military glory with a luster corresponding to his great name, and in this, his last act of war, affixing the seal of fate to our nation's birth.... First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen, he was second to none in the humble and endearing scenes of private life. Pious, just, humane, temperate, and sincere, uniform, dignified, and commanding, his example was edifying to all around him, as were the effects of that example lasting. To his equals he was condescending; to his inferiors, kind; and to the dear object of his affections, exemplarily tender. Correct throughout, vice shuddered in his presence, and virtue always felt his fostering hand; the purity of his private character gave effulgence to his public virtues. His last scene comported with the whole tenor of his life. Although in extreme pain, not a sigh, not a groan, escaped him; and with undisturbed serenity he closed his well-spent life. Such was the man America has lost! Such was the man for whom our nation mourns! FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 52: By Henry Lee of Virginia. Extract from an oration delivered in the House of Representatives, 1799.] THREE GREAT AMERICAN POEMS I One day when Dr. Peter Bryant of Cummington, Massachusetts, was looking through his writing desk, he found a small package of papers on which some verses were written. He recognized the neat, legible handwriting as that of his son, and he paused to open the papers and read. Presently, he called aloud to his wife, "Here, Sallie, just listen to this poem which Cullen has written!" He began to read, and as he read, the proud mother listened with tears in her eyes. "Isn't that grand?" she cried. "I've always told you that Cullen would be a poet. And now just think what a pity it is that he must give up going to Yale College and settle down to the study of law!" "Yes, wife," responded Dr. Bryant, "it is to be regretted. But people with small means cannot always educate their children as they wish. A lawyer is a better breadwinner than most poets are, and I am satisfied that our boy will be a successful lawyer." "Of course he will," said Mrs. Bryant; "he will succeed at anything he may undertake. But that poem--why, Wordsworth never wrote anything half so grand or beautiful. What is the title?" "Thanatopsis." "Thanatopsis? I wonder what it means." "It is from two Greek words, and means 'A View of Death.' I have half a notion to take the poem to Boston with me next winter. I want to show it to my friend Mr. Philips." "Oh, do; and take some of Cullen's other poems with it. Perhaps he might think some of them good enough to publish." Dr. Peter Bryant was at that time a member of the senate in the Massachusetts general assembly. When the time came for the meeting of the assembly he went up to Boston, and he did not forget to take several of his son's poems with him. The _North American Review_ was a great magazine in those days, and Dr. Bryant was well acquainted with Mr. Philips, one of its editors. He called at the office of the _Review_, and not finding Mr. Philips, he left the package of manuscript with his name written upon it. When Mr. Philips returned he found the package, and after reading the poems concluded that Dr. Bryant had written "Thanatopsis," and that the others were probably by his son Cullen. "It is a remarkable poem--a remarkable poem," he said, as he showed it to his two fellow-editors. "We have never published anything better in the _Review_," he said, and he began to read it to them. When he had finished, one of them, Richard Henry Dana, who was himself a poet, said doubtingly: "Mr. Philips, you have been imposed upon. There is no person in America who can write a poem like that." "Ah, but I know the man who wrote it," answered Mr. Philips. "He is in the state senate, and he isn't a man who would impose upon any person." "Well, I must have a look at the man who can write such lines as those," said Mr. Dana. He went to the statehouse, and to the senate chamber, and asked to see Senator Bryant. A tall, gray-bearded man was pointed out to him. Mr. Dana looked at him for a few minutes and then said to himself, "He has a fine head; but he is not the man who could write 'Thanatopsis'" So without speaking to him he returned to his office. Mr. Philips, still full of enthusiasm, soon had an interview with Dr. Bryant, and learned the truth in regard to the authorship of the poem. It was printed in the next issue of the _North American Review_. It was the first great poem ever produced in America; it was the work of a young man not eighteen years of age, and it is without doubt the greatest poem ever written by one so young. But let us read it. THANATOPSIS To him who in the love of Nature holds Communion with her visible forms, she speaks A various language; for his gayer hours She has a voice of gladness, and a smile And eloquence of beauty, and she glides Into his darker musings with a mild And healing sympathy, that steals away Their sharpness ere he is aware. When thoughts Of the last bitter hour come like a blight Over thy spirit, and sad images Of the stern agony, and shroud, and pall, And breathless darkness, and the narrow house, Make thee to shudder, and grow sick at heart, Go forth, under the open sky, and list To Nature's teachings, while from all around-- Earth and her waters, and the depths of air-- Comes a still voice: Yet a few days, and thee The all-beholding sun shall see no more In all his course; nor yet in the cold ground, Where thy pale form was laid, with many tears, Nor in the embrace of ocean, shall exist Thy image. Earth, that nourished thee, shall claim Thy growth, to be resolved to earth again; And, lost each human trace, surrendering up Thine individual being, shalt thou go To mix forever with the elements, To be a brother to the insensible rock And to the sluggish clod, which the rude swain Turns with his share, and treads upon. The oak Shall send his roots abroad, and pierce thy mold. Yet not to thine eternal resting place Shalt thou retire alone, nor couldst thou wish Couch more magnificent. Thou shalt lie down With patriarchs of the infant world--with kings, The powerful of the earth--the wise, the good, Fair forms, and hoary seers of ages past, All in one mighty sepulcher. The hills Rock-ribbed and ancient as the sun--the vales Stretching in pensive quietness between-- The venerable woods--rivers that move In majesty, and the complaining brooks That make the meadows green; and, poured round all, Old Ocean's gray and melancholy waste-- Are but the solemn decorations all Of the great tomb of man. The golden sun, The planets, all the infinite host of heaven, Are shining on the sad abodes of death, Through the still lapse of ages. All that tread The globe are but a handful to the tribes That slumber in its bosom. Take the wings Of morning, pierce the Barcan wilderness, Or lose thyself in the continuous woods Where rolls the Oregon, and hears no sound Save his own dashings,--yet the dead are there; And millions in those solitudes, since first The flight of years began, have laid them down In their last sleep,--the dead reign there alone. So shalt thou rest, and what if thou withdraw In silence from the living, and no friend Take note of thy departure? All that breathe Will share thy destiny. The gay will laugh When thou art gone, the solemn brood of care Plod on, and each one as before will chase His favorite phantom; yet all these shall leave Their mirth and their employments and shall come And make their bed with thee. As the long train Of ages glides away, the sons of men, The youth in life's fresh spring, and he who goes In the full strength of years, matron and maid, The speechless babe, and the gray-headed man, Shall one by one be gathered to thy side By those who in their turn shall follow them. So live, that when thy summons comes to join The innumerable caravan that moves To the pale realms of shade, where each shall take His chamber in the silent halls of death, Thou go not, like the quarry slave at night, Scourged to his dungeon, but, sustained and soothed By an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams. EXPRESSION: Observe that this poem is written in blank verse. In what respects does it differ from other forms of verse? Read it with great care, observing the marks of punctuation and giving to each passage the proper inflections and emphasis. Compare it with some other poems you have read. II One Sunday evening, in the summer of 1848, Edgar Allan Poe was visiting at the house of a friend in New York city. The day was warm, and the windows of the conservatory where he was sitting were thrown wide open to admit the breeze. Mr. Poe was very despondent because of many sorrows and disappointments, and he was plainly annoyed by the sound of some near-by church bells pealing the hour of worship. "I have made an agreement with a publisher to write a poem for him," he said, "but I have no inspiration for such a task. What shall I do?" His friend Mrs. Shew gave him an encouraging reply, and invited him to drink tea with her. Then she placed paper and ink before him and suggested that, if he would try to write, the required inspiration would come. "No," he answered; "I so dislike the noise of bells to-night, I cannot write. I have no subject--I am exhausted." Mrs. Shew then wrote at the top of the sheet of paper, _The Bells, by E. A. Poe_, and added a single line as a beginning: "The bells, the little silver bells." The poet accepted the suggestion, and after some effort finished the first stanza. Then Mrs. Shew wrote another line: "The heavy iron bells." This idea was also elaborated by Mr. Poe, who copied off the two stanzas and entitled them _The Bells, by Mrs. M. L. Shew_. He went home, pondering deeply upon the subject; the required inspiration was not long lacking; and in a few days the completed poem was ready to be submitted to the publisher. THE BELLS Hear the sledges with the bells-- Silver bells! What a world of merriment their melody foretells! How they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle, In the icy air of night! While the stars that oversprinkle All the heavens seem to twinkle With a crystalline delight, Keeping time, time, time, In a sort of Runic rime, To the tintinnabulation that so musically swells From the bells, bells, bells, bells, Bells, bells, bells-- From the jingling and the tinkling of the bells. Hear the mellow wedding bells-- Golden bells! What a world of happiness their harmony foretells! Through the balmy air of night How they ring out their delight! From the molten-golden notes, And all in tune, What a liquid ditty floats To the turtledove that listens while she gloats On the moon! Oh, from out the sounding cells, What a gush of euphony voluminously wells! How it swells! How it dwells On the Future! how it tells Of the rapture that impels To the swinging and the ringing Of the bells, bells, bells-- Of the bells, bells, bells, bells, Bells, bells, bells-- To the riming and the chiming of the bells! Hear the loud alarum bells-- Brazen bells! What a tale of terror, now, their turbulency tells! In the startled ear of night How they scream out their affright! Too much horrified to speak, They can only shriek, shriek, Out of tune, In a clamorous appealing to the mercy of the fire, In a mad expostulation with the deaf and frantic fire Leaping higher, higher, higher, With a desperate desire And a resolute endeavor Now--now to sit or never, By the side of the pale-faced moon. Oh, the bells, bells, bells, What a tale their terror tells Of despair! How they clang and crash and roar! What a horror they outpour On the bosom of the palpitating air! Yet the ear it fully knows, By the twanging And the clanging, How the danger ebbs and flows; Yet the ear distinctly tells, In the jangling And the wrangling, How the danger sinks and swells, By the sinking or the swelling in the anger of the bells, Of the bells, Of the bells, bells, bells, bells, Bells, bells, bells! In the clamor and the clangor of the bells. Hear the tolling of the bells-- Iron bells! What a world of solemn thought their monody compels! In the silence of the night, How we shiver with affright At the melancholy menace of their tone! For every sound that floats From the rust within their throats Is a groan. And the people--ah, the people-- They that dwell up in the steeple, All alone, And who, tolling, tolling, tolling, In that muffled monotone, Feel a glory in so rolling On the human heart a stone: They are neither man nor woman; They are neither brute nor human; They are ghouls: And their king it is who tolls; And he rolls, rolls, rolls, Rolls A pæan from the bells! And his merry bosom swells With the pæan of the bells, And he dances and he yells, Keeping time, time, time, In a sort of Runic rime, To the pæan of the bells-- Of the bells: Keeping time, time, time, In a sort of Runic rime, To the throbbing of the bells-- Of the bells, bells, bells-- To the sobbing of the bells; Keeping time, time, time, As he knells, knells, knells, In a happy Runic rime, To the rolling of the bells-- Of the bells, bells, bells,-- To the tolling of the bells-- Of the bells, bells, bells, bells, Bells, bells, bells-- To the moaning and the groaning of the bells! III In the early part of the nineteenth century Fitz-Greene Halleck was regarded as one of the greatest of American poets. He is now, however, remembered chiefly as the author of a single poem, "Marco Bozzaris," published in 1827. This poem has been described, perhaps justly, as "the best martial lyric in the English language." It was written at a time when the people of Greece were fighting for their independence; and it celebrates the heroism of the young Greek patriot, Marco Bozzaris, who was killed while leading a desperate but successful night attack upon the Turks, August 20, 1823. As here presented, it is slightly abridged. MARCO BOZZARIS At midnight, in his guarded tent, The Turk was dreaming of the hour When Greece, her knee in suppliance bent, Should tremble at his power: In dreams, through camp and court, he bore The trophies of a conqueror; In dreams his song of triumph heard; Then wore his monarch's signet ring: Then pressed that monarch's throne--a king; As wild his thoughts, and gay of wing, As Eden's garden bird. At midnight, in the forest shades, Bozzaris ranged his Suliote band, True as the steel of their tried blades, Heroes in heart and hand. There had the Persian's thousands stood, There had the glad earth drunk their blood On old Platæa's day; And now there breathed that haunted air The sons of sires who conquered there, With arm to strike and soul to dare, As quick, as far as they. An hour passed on--the Turk awoke; That bright dream was his last; He woke--to hear his sentries shriek, "To arms! they come! the Greek! the Greek!" He woke--to die midst flame, and smoke, And shout, and groan, and saber stroke, And death shots falling thick and fast As lightnings from the mountain cloud; And heard, with voice as trumpet loud, Bozzaris cheer his band: "Strike--till the last armed foe expires; Strike--for your altars and your fires; Strike--for the green graves of your sires; God--and your native land!" They fought--like brave men, long and well; They piled that ground with Moslem slain, They conquered--but Bozzaris fell, Bleeding at every vein. His few surviving comrades saw His smile when rang their proud hurrah, And the red field was won; Then saw in death his eyelids close Calmly, as to a night's repose, Like flowers at set of sun. * * * * * Bozzaris! with the storied brave Greece nurtured in her glory's time, Rest thee--there is no prouder grave, Even in her own proud clime. She wore no funeral weeds for thee, Nor bade the dark hearse wave its plume Like torn branch from death's leafless tree In sorrow's pomp and pageantry, The heartless luxury of the tomb; But she remembers thee as one Long-loved and for a season gone. For thee her poet's lyre is wreathed, Her marble wrought, her music breathed; For thee she rings the birthday bells; Of thee her babes' first lisping tells; For thine her evening prayer is said At palace couch and cottage-bed.... And she, the mother of thy boys, Though in her eye and faded cheek Is read the grief she will not speak, The memory of her buried joys, And even she who gave thee birth, Will, by their pilgrim-circled hearth, Talk of thy doom without a sigh; For thou art Freedom's now, and Fame's: One of the few, the immortal names, That were not born to die. EXPRESSION: Talk with your teacher about these three poems, and the proper manner of reading each. Learn all that you can about their authors. THE INDIAN[53] Think of the country for which the Indians fought! Who can blame them? As Philip looked down from his seat on Mount Hope and beheld the lovely scene which spread beneath at a summer sunset,--the distant hilltops blazing with gold, the slanting beams streaming across the waters, the broad plains, the island groups, the majestic forests,--could he be blamed, if his heart burned within him, as he beheld it all passing, by no tardy process, from beneath his control, into the hands of the stranger? As the river chieftains--the lords of the waterfalls and the mountains--ranged this lovely valley, can it be wondered at, if they beheld with bitterness the forest disappearing beneath the settler's ax--the fishing places disturbed by his sawmills? Can we not imagine the feelings, with which some strong-minded savage chief, who should have ascended the summit of the Sugarloaf Mountain, in company with a friendly settler, contemplating the progress already made by the white man and marking the gigantic strides with which he was advancing into the wilderness, should fold his arms, and say:-- "White man, there is an eternal war between me and thee. I quit not the land of my fathers, but with my life. In those woods where I bent my youthful bow, I will still hunt the deer; over yonder waters I will still glide unrestrained in my bark canoe; by those dashing waterfalls I will still lay up my winter's store of food; on these fertile meadows I will still plant my corn. "Stranger! the land is mine. I understand not these paper rights. I gave not my consent, when, as thou sayest, these broad regions were purchased, for a few baubles, of my fathers. They could sell what was theirs; they could sell no more. How could my father sell that which the Great Spirit sent me into the world to live upon? He knew not what he did. "The stranger came, a timid suppliant; he asked to lie down on the red man's bearskin, and warm himself at the red man's fire, and have a little piece of land to raise corn for his women and children. Now he is become strong and mighty and bold, and spreads out his parchment over the whole, and says, 'It is mine!' "Stranger, there is no room for us both. The Great Spirit has not made us to live together. There is poison in the white man's cup; the white man's dog barks at the red man's heels. "If I should leave the land of my fathers, whither shall I fly? Shall I go to the south, and dwell among the graves of the Pequots? Shall I wander to the west? The fierce Mohawk--the man-eater--is my foe. Shall I fly to the east? The great water is before me. No, stranger! Here have I lived, and here will I die; and if here thou abidest, there is eternal war between me and thee. "Thou hast taught me thy arts of destruction; for that alone I thank thee. And now take heed to thy steps--the red man is thy foe. "When thou goest forth by day, my bullet shall whistle past thee. When thou liest down by night, my knife shall be at thy throat. The noonday sun shall not discover thy enemy; and the darkness of midnight shall not protect thy rest. Thou shalt plant in terror, and I will reap in blood. Thou shalt sow the earth with corn, and I will strew it with ashes. Thou shalt go forth with the sickle, and I will follow after with the scalping knife. Thou shalt build, and I will burn--till the white man or the Indian perish from the land." FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 53: By Edward Everett, an American statesman and orator (1794-1865).] EXPRESSION: This selection and also the selections on pages 202, 209, and 231 are fine examples of American oratory, such as was practiced by the statesmen and public speakers of the earlier years of our republic. Learn all that you can about Patrick Henry, Daniel Webster, Edward Everett, Theodore Parker, and other eminent orators. Before attempting to read this selection aloud, read it silently and try to understand every statement or allusion contained in it. Call to mind all that you have learned in your histories or elsewhere concerning the Indians and their treatment by the American colonists. Now read with energy and feeling each paragraph of this extract from Mr. Everett's oration. Try to make your hearers understand and appreciate the feelings which are expressed. NATIONAL RETRIBUTION[54] Do you know how empires find their end? Yes. The great states eat up the little. As with fish, so with nations. Come with me! Let us bring up the awful shadows of empires buried long ago, and learn a lesson from the tomb. Come, old Assyria, with the Ninevitish dove upon thy emerald crown! What laid thee low? Assyria answers: "I fell by my own injustice. Thereby Nineveh and Babylon came with me to the ground." O queenly Persia, flame of the nations! Wherefore art thou so fallen? thou who trod the people under thee, bridged the Hellespont with ships, and poured thy temple-wasting millions on the western world? Persia answers: "Because I trod the people under me, because I bridged the Hellespont with ships, and poured my temple-wasting millions on the western world, I fell by my own misdeeds!" And thou, muselike Grecian queen, fairest of all thy classic sisterhood of states, enchanting yet the world with thy sweet witchery, speaking in art, and most seductive in song, why liest thou there with thy beauteous yet dishonored brow reposing on thy broken harp? Greece answers: "I loved the loveliness of flesh, embalmed in Parian stone. I loved the loveliness of thought, and treasured that more than Parian speech. But the beauty of justice, the loveliness of love, I trod down to earth. Lo! therefore have I become as those barbarian states, and one of them." O manly, majestic Rome, with thy sevenfold mural crown all broken at thy feet, why art thou here? 'Twas not injustice brought thee low, for thy great Book of Law is prefaced with these words, "Justice is the unchanging, everlasting will to give each man his right." It was not the saint's ideal. It was the hypocrite's pretense. And Rome says: "I made iniquity my law! I trod the nations under me! Their wealth gilded my palaces, where now thou mayst see the fox and hear the owl. Wicked men were my cabinet counselors. The flatterer breathed his poison in my ear. Millions of bondmen wet the soil with tears and blood! Do you not hear it crying yet to God? Lo here have I my recompense, tormented with such downfalls as you see. "Go back and tell the newborn child who sitteth on the Alleghanies, laying his either hand upon a tributary sea,--tell him there are rights which States must keep, or they shall suffer punishment. Tell him there is a God who hurls to earth the loftiest realm that breaks his just, eternal law. Warn the young empire, that he come not down, dim and dishonored, to my shameful tomb. Tell him that Justice is the unchanging, everlasting will, to give each man his right. I knew this law. I broke it. Bid him keep it, and be forever safe." FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 54: By Theodore Parker, an eminent American clergyman and author (1810-1860).] WHO ARE BLESSED[55] And seeing the multitudes, he went up into a mountain: and when he was set, his disciples came unto him. And he opened his mouth, and taught them, saying: Blessed are the poor in spirit: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. Blessed are they that mourn: for they shall be comforted. Blessed are the meek: for they shall inherit the earth. Blessed are they which do hunger and thirst after righteousness: for they shall be filled. Blessed are the merciful: for they shall obtain mercy. Blessed are the pure in heart: for they shall see God. Blessed are the peacemakers: for they shall be called the children of God. Blessed are they which are persecuted for righteousness' sake: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. Blessed are ye, when men shall revile you, and persecute you, and shall say all manner of evil against you falsely, for my sake. Rejoice, and be exceeding glad: for great is your reward in heaven: for so persecuted they the prophets which were before you. Ye are the salt of the earth: but if the salt have lost his savor, wherewith shall it be salted? it is thenceforth good for nothing, but to be cast out, and to be trodden under foot of men. Ye are the light of the world. A city that is set on a hill cannot be hid. Neither do men light a candle, and put it under a bushel, but on a candlestick; and it giveth light unto all that are in the house. Let your light so shine before men, that they may see your good works, and glorify your Father which is in heaven.... Ye have heard that it hath been said, An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth: but I say unto you, That ye resist not evil: but whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other also. And if any man will sue thee at the law, and take away thy coat, let him have thy cloak also. And whosoever shall compel thee to go a mile, go with him twain. Give to him that asketh thee, and from him that would borrow of thee turn not thou away. Ye have heard that it hath been said, Thou shalt love thy neighbor, and hate thine enemy. But I say unto you, Love your enemies, bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate you, and pray for them which despitefully use you, and persecute you; that ye may be the children of your Father which is in heaven: for he maketh his sun to rise on the evil and on the good, and sendeth rain on the just and on the unjust. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 55: From the Gospel of Matthew.] LITTLE GEMS FROM THE OLDER POETS I. THE NOBLE NATURE[56] It is not growing like a tree In bulk doth make man better be; Or standing long an oak, three hundred year, To fall a log at last, dry, bald, and sear. A lily of a day Is fairer far in May, Although it fall and die that night,-- It was the plant and flower of light. In small proportions we just beauties see; And in short measures life may perfect be. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 56: By Ben Jonson (1573-1637).] II. A CONTENTED MIND[57] I weigh not fortune's frown or smile; I joy not much in earthly joys; I seek not state, I seek not style; I am not fond of fancy's toys; I rest so pleased with what I have, I wish no more, no more I crave. I quake not at the thunder's crack; I tremble not at noise of war; I swound not at the news of wrack; I shrink not at a blazing star; I fear not loss, I hope not gain, I envy none, I none disdain. I feign not friendship, where I hate; I fawn not on the great in show; I prize, I praise a mean estate-- Neither too lofty nor too low; This, this is all my choice, my cheer-- A mind content, a conscience clear. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 57: By Joshua Sylvester (1563-1618).] III. A HAPPY LIFE[58] How happy is he born and taught That serveth not another's will; Whose armor is his honest thought, And simple truth his utmost skill; Whose passions not his masters are, Whose soul is still prepared for death, Not tied unto the world with care Of public fame, or private breath; Who envies none that chance doth raise, Nor vice; who never understood How deepest wounds are given by praise; Nor rules of state, but rules of good. This man is freed from servile bands Of hope to rise or fear to fall; Lord of himself, though not of lands, And having nothing, yet hath all. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 58: By Sir Henry Wotton (1568-1639).] IV. SOLITUDE[59] Happy the man, whose wish and care A few paternal acres bound, Content to breathe his native air In his own ground. Whose herds with milk, whose fields with bread, Whose flocks supply him with attire; Whose trees in summer yield him shade, In winter, fire. Blest, who can unconcern'dly find Hours, days, and years slide soft away In health of body, peace of mind, Quiet by day, Sound sleep by night; study and ease Together mixt, sweet recreation, And innocence, which most does please With meditation. Thus let me live, unseen, unknown; Thus unlamented let me die; Steal from the world, and not a stone Tell where I lie. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 59: By Alexander Pope (1688-1744).] V. A WISH[60] Mine be a cot beside the hill; A beehive's hum shall soothe my ear; A willowy brook that turns a mill With many a fall shall linger near. The swallow, oft, beneath my thatch Shall twitter from her clay-built nest; Oft shall the pilgrim lift the latch, And share my meal, a welcome guest. Around my ivied porch shall spring Each fragrant flower that drinks the dew; And Lucy, at her wheel, shall sing In russet gown and apron blue. The village church among the trees, Where first our marriage vows were given, With merry peals shall swell the breeze And point with taper spire to Heaven. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 60: By Samuel Rogers (1763-1855).] EXPRESSION: Which of these poems do you like best? Give reasons for your preference. What sentiment is emphasized by all of them? What other pleasant ideas of life are expressed? What mental pictures are called up by reading the fourth poem? the fifth? What traits of character are alluded to in the first poem? the second? Now read each poem aloud, giving to each line and each stanza the thought which was in the author's mind when he wrote it. HOW KING ARTHUR GOT HIS NAME[61] One day at sunset, Snowbird, the young son of a king, came over the brow of a hill that stepped forward from a dark company of mountains and leaned over the shoreless sea which fills the West and drowns the North. All day he had been wandering alone, his mind heavy with wonder over many things. He had heard strange tales of late, tales about his heroic father and the royal clan, and how they were not like other men, but half divine. He had heard, too, of his own destiny,--that he also was to be a great king. What was Destiny, he wondered.... Then, as he wondered, he turned over and over in his mind all the names he could think of that he might choose for his own; for the time was come for him to put away the name of his childhood and to take on that by which he should be known among men. He came over the brow of the hill, and out of the way of the mountain wind, and, being tired, lay down among the heather and stared across the gray wilderness of the sea. The sun set, and the invisible throwers of the nets trailed darkness across the waves and up the wild shores and over the faces of the cliffs. Stars climbed out of shadowy abysses, and the great chariots of the constellations rode from the West to the East and from the North to the South. His eyes closed, ... but when he opened them again, he saw a great and kingly figure standing beside him. So great in stature, so splendid in kingly beauty, was the mysterious one who had so silently joined him, that he thought this must be one of the gods. "Do you know me, my son?" said the kingly stranger. The boy looked at him in awe and wonder, but unrecognizingly. "Do you not know me, my son?" he heard again ... "for I am your father, Pendragon. But my home is yonder, and that is why I have come to you as a vision in a dream ..." and, as he spoke, he pointed to the constellation of the _Arth_, or Bear, which nightly prowls through the vast abysses of the polar sky. When the boy turned his gaze from the great constellation which hung in the dark wilderness overhead, he saw that he was alone again. While he yet wondered in great awe at what he had seen and heard, he felt himself float like a mist and become like a cloud, rise beyond the brows of the hills, and ascend the invisible stairways of the sky.... It seemed to him thereafter that a swoon came over him, in which he passed beyond the far-off blazing fires of strange stars. At last, suddenly, he stood on the verge of _Arth_, _Arth Uthyr_, the Great Bear. There he saw, with the vision of immortal, not of mortal, eyes, a company of most noble and majestic figures seated at what he thought a circular abyss, but which had the semblance of a vast table. Each of these seven great knights or lordly kings had a star upon his forehead, and these were stars of the mighty constellation of the Bear which the boy had seen night after night from his home among the mountains by the sea. It was with a burning throb at his heart that he recognized in the King of all these kings no other than himself. While he looked, in amazement so great that he could hear the pulse of his heart, as in the silence of a wood one hears the tapping of a woodpecker, he saw this mighty phantom self rise till he stood towering over all there, and heard a voice as though an ocean rose and fell through the eternal silences. "Comrades in God," it said, "the time is come when that which is great shall become small." And when the voice was ended, the mighty figure faded in the blue darkness, and only a great star shone where the uplifted dragon helm had brushed the roof of heaven. One by one the white lords of the sky followed in his mysterious way, till once more were to be seen only the stars of the Bear. The boy dreamed that he fell as a falling meteor, and that he floated over land and sea as a cloud, and then that he sank as mist upon the hills of his own land. A noise of wind stirred in his ears. He rose stumblingly, and stood, staring around him. He glanced upward and saw the stars of the Great Bear in their slow march round the Pole.... Then he remembered. He went slowly down the hill, his mind heavy with thought. When he was come to his own place, lo! all the fierce chivalry of the land came out to meet him; for the archdruid had foretold that the great King to be had received his mystic initiation among the holy silences of the hills. "I am no more Snowbird, the child," the boy said, looking at them fearless and as though already King. "Henceforth I am Arth-Urthyr,[62] for my place is in the Great Bear which we see yonder in the north." So all there acclaimed him as Arthur, the wondrous one of the stars, the Great Bear. "I am old," said his father, "and soon you shall be King, Arthur, my son. So ask now a great boon of me and it shall be granted to you." Then Arthur remembered his dream. "Father and King," he said, "when I am King after you, I shall make a new order of knights, who shall be pure as the Immortal Ones, and be tender as women, and simple as little children. But first I ask of you seven flawless knights to be of my chosen company. To-morrow let the wood wrights make for me a round table, such as that where we eat our roasted meats, but round and of a size whereat I and my chosen knights may sit at ease." The king listened, and all there. "So be it," said the king. Then Arthur chose the seven flawless knights, and called them to him. "Ye are now Children of the Great Bear," he said, "and comrades and liegemen to me, Arthur, who shall be King of the West. "And ye shall be known as the Knights of the Round Table. But no man shall make a mock of that name and live: and in the end that name shall be so great in the mouths and minds of men that they shall consider no glory of the world to be so great as to be the youngest and frailest of that knighthood." And that is how Arthur, who three years later became King of the West, read the rune of the stars that are called the Great Bear, and took their name upon him, and from the strongest and purest and noblest of the land made Knighthood, such as the world had not seen, such as the world since has not seen. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 61: A Gaelic legend, by Fiona Macleod.] [Footnote 62: Pronounced _Arth-Ur_. In the ancient British language, _Arth_ means Bear, and _Urthyr_, great, wondrous.] EXPRESSION: Read this selection very carefully to get at the true meaning of each sentence and each thought. What peculiarities do you notice in the style of the language employed? Talk about King Arthur, and tell what you have learned elsewhere about him and his knights of the Round Table. In what respects does this legend differ from some other accounts of his boyhood? Now reread the selection, picturing in your mind the peculiarities of place and time. ANTONY'S ORATION OVER CÆSAR'S DEAD BODY[63] _Antony._ Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears: I come to bury Cæsar, not to praise him. The evil that men do lives after them; The good is oft interrèd with their bones; So let it be with Cæsar. The noble Brutus Hath told you Cæsar was ambitious: If it were so, it was a grievous fault, And grievously hath Cæsar answered it. Here, under leave of Brutus and the rest-- For Brutus is an honorable man; So are they all, all honorable men-- Come I to speak in Cæsar's funeral. He was my friend, faithful and just to me; But Brutus says he was ambitious, And Brutus is an honorable man. He hath brought many captives home to Rome, Whose ransoms did the general coffers fill; Did this in Cæsar seem ambitious? When that the poor have cried, Cæsar hath wept; Ambition should be made of sterner stuff. Yet Brutus says he was ambitious, And Brutus is an honorable man. You all did see, that on the Lupercal, I thrice presented him a kingly crown, Which he did thrice refuse. Was this ambition? Yet Brutus says he was ambitious, And, sure, he is an honorable man. I speak not to disprove what Brutus spoke, But here I am to speak what I do know. You all did love him once, not without cause; What cause withholds you, then, to mourn for him? O judgment! thou art fled to brutish beasts, And men have lost their reason.--Bear with me; My heart is in the coffin there with Cæsar, And I must pause till it come back to me. But yesterday the word of Cæsar might Have stood against the world; now lies he there, And none so poor to do him reverence. O masters! If I were disposed to stir Your hearts and minds to mutiny and rage, I should do Brutus wrong and Cassius wrong, Who, you all know, are honorable men. I will not do them wrong; I rather choose To wrong the dead, to wrong myself and you, Than I will wrong such honorable men. But here's a parchment with the seal of Cæsar, I found it in his closet; 'tis his will. Let but the commons hear this testament,-- Which, pardon me, I do not mean to read,-- And they would go and kiss dead Cæsar's wounds, And dip their napkins in his sacred blood; Yea, beg a hair of him for memory, And, dying, mention it within their wills, Bequeathing it as a rich legacy Unto their issue. _Citizen._ We'll hear the will: read it, Mark Antony. _All._ The will, the will! we will hear Cæsar's will. _Ant._ Have patience, gentle friends, I must not read it; It is not meet you know how Cæsar loved you. You are not wood, you are not stones, but men; And, being men, hearing the will of Cæsar, It will inflame you, it will make you mad. 'Tis good you know not that you are his heirs; For, if you should, oh, what would come of it! _Cit._ Read the will! we'll hear it, Antony! You shall read the will! Cæsar's will! _Ant._ Will you be patient? Will you stay awhile? I have o'ershot myself to tell you of it. I fear I wrong the honorable men Whose daggers have stabbed Cæsar. I do fear it. _Cit._ They were traitors! honorable men! _All._ The will! the testament! _Ant._ You will compel me, then, to read the will? Then make a ring about the corpse of Cæsar, And let me show you him that made the will. Shall I descend? And will you give me leave? _All._ Come down. _2 Citizen._ Descend. You shall have leave. [Illustration: "You all do know this mantle."] (_Antony comes down from the pulpit._) _Ant._ If you have tears, prepare to shed them now. You all do know this mantle; I remember The first time ever Cæsar put it on. 'Twas on a summer's evening, in his tent, That day he overcame the Nervii. Look! in this place, ran Cassius's dagger through; See what a rent the envious Casca made; Through this, the well-belovèd Brutus stabbed; And, as he plucked his cursèd steel away, Mark how the blood of Cæsar followed it, As rushing out of doors, to be resolved If Brutus so unkindly knocked, or no; For Brutus, as you know, was Cæsar's angel.-- Judge, O you gods, how dearly Cæsar loved him!-- This was the most unkindest cut of all; For, when the noble Cæsar saw him stab, Ingratitude, more strong than traitors' arms, Quite vanquished him. Then burst his mighty heart; And, in his mantle muffling up his face, Even at the base of Pompey's statua, Which all the while ran blood, great Cæsar fell. Oh, what a fall was there, my countrymen! Then I, and you, and all of us fell down, Whilst bloody treason flourished over us. Oh, now you weep, and I perceive you feel The dint of pity; these are gracious drops. Kind souls, What! weep you when you but behold Our Cæsar's vesture wounded? Look you here, Here is himself, marred, as you see, with traitors. Good friends, sweet friends, let me not stir you up To such a sudden flood of mutiny. They that have done this deed are honorable. What private griefs they have, alas! I know not, That made them do it; they are wise and honorable, And will, no doubt, with reasons answer you. I come not, friends, to steal away your hearts. I am no orator, as Brutus is, But, as you know me all, a plain blunt man, That love my friend; and that they know full well That gave me public leave to speak of him. For I have neither wit, nor words, nor worth, Action, nor utterance, nor the power of speech, To stir men's blood: I only speak right on; I tell you that which you yourselves do know; Show you sweet Cæsar's wounds, poor, poor dumb mouths, And bid them speak for me. But were I Brutus, And Brutus Antony, there were an Antony Would ruffle up your spirits, and put a tongue In every wound of Cæsar that should move The stones of Rome to rise and mutiny. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 63: From "Julius Cæsar" by William Shakespeare (1564-1616).] SELECTIONS TO BE MEMORIZED I. THE PRAYER PERFECT[64] Dear Lord! kind Lord! Gracious Lord! I pray Thou wilt look on all I love, Tenderly to-day! Weed their hearts of weariness; Scatter every care Down a wake of angel-wings, Winnowing the air. Bring unto the sorrowing All release from pain; Let the lips of laughter Overflow again; And with all the needy Oh, divide, I pray, This vast treasure of content That is mine to-day! FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 64: From "Rhymes of Childhood," by James Whitcomb Riley, copyright, 1890. Used by special permission of the publishers, The Bobbs-Merrill Company.] II. BE JUST AND FEAR NOT[65] Be just and fear not; Let all the ends thou aim'st at be thy country's, Thy God's, and truth's. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 65: By William Shakespeare.] III. IF I CAN LIVE[66] If I can live To make some pale face brighter and to give A second luster to some tear-dimmed eye, Or e'en impart One throb of comfort to an aching heart, Or cheer some wayworn soul in passing by; If I can lend A strong hand to the falling, or defend The right against one single envious strain, My life, though bare, Perhaps, of much that seemeth dear and fair To us of earth, will not have been in vain. The purest joy, Most near to heaven, far from earth's alloy, Is bidding cloud give way to sun and shine; And 'twill be well If on that day of days the angels tell Of me, "She did her best for one of Thine." FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 66: Author unknown.] IV. THE BUGLE SONG[67] The splendor falls on castle walls And snowy summits old in story: The long light shakes across the lakes, And the wild cataract leaps in glory. Blow, bugle, blow, set the wild echoes flying, Blow, bugle; answer, echoes, dying, dying, dying. O hark, O hear! how thin and clear, And thinner, dearer, farther going! O sweet and far from cliff and scar The horns of Elfland faintly blowing! Blow, let us hear the purple glens replying: Blow, bugle; answer, echoes, dying, dying, dying. O love, they die in yon rich sky, They faint on hill or field or river; Our echoes roll from soul to soul, And grow for ever and for ever. Blow, bugle, blow, set the wild echoes flying, And answer, echoes, answer, dying, dying, dying. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 67: By Alfred Tennyson.] V. THE NINETIETH PSALM Lord, thou hast been our dwelling place in all generations. Before the mountains were brought forth, or ever thou hadst formed the earth and the world, even from everlasting to everlasting, thou art God. Thou turns man to destruction; and sayest, Return, ye children of men. For a thousand years in thy sight are but as yesterday when it is past, and as a watch in the night. Thou carried them away as with a flood; they are as a sleep: in the morning they are like grass which groweth up. In the morning it flourisheth, and groweth up; in the evening it is cut down, and withereth. For we are consumed by thine anger, and by thy wrath are we troubled. Thou hast set our iniquities before thee, our secret sins in the light of thy countenance. For all our days are passed away in thy wrath; we spend our years as a tale that is told. The days of our years are threescore years and ten; and if by reason of strength they be fourscore years, yet is their strength labor and sorrow; for it is soon cut off, and we fly away. Who knoweth the power of thine anger? even according to thy fear, so is thy wrath. So teach us to number our days, that we may apply our hearts unto wisdom.... Oh, satisfy us early with thy mercy; that we may rejoice and be glad all our days.... Let thy work appear unto thy servants, and thy glory unto their children. VI. RECESSIONAL[68] God of our fathers, known of old-- Lord of our far-flung battle line-- Beneath Whose awful Hand we hold Dominion over palm and pine-- Lord God of Hosts, be with us yet, Lest we forget--lest we forget! The tumult and the shouting dies-- The captains and the kings depart-- Still stands Thine ancient Sacrifice, A humble and a contrite heart. God of Hosts, be with us yet, Lest we forget--lest we forget! Far-called, our navies melt away-- On dune and headland sinks the fire-- Lo, all our pomp of yesterday Is one with Nineveh and Tyre! Judge of the Nations, spare us yet, Lest we forget--lest we forget! If, drunk with sight of power, we loose Wild tongues that have not Thee in awe-- Such boasting as the Gentiles use Or lesser breeds without the Law-- Lord God of Hosts, be with us yet, Lest we forget--lest we forget! For heathen heart that puts her trust In reeking tube and iron shard, All valiant dust that builds on dust, And guarding calls not Thee to guard-- For frantic boast and foolish word, Thy mercy on Thy people, Lord! Amen. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 68: By Rudyard Kipling.] PROPER NAMES Ad i ron'dacks Æ t[=o]'li a Ag a mem'non A lon'zo A m[=e]'li a An a t[=o]'li a An'to ny A pol'lo Ar'g[=i]ve Ar'thur Assisi ([:a]s s[=e] z[=e]) As s[)y]r'i a Bar'ba ra Ba v[=a]'ri a Ber'lin Bevagno (ba v[=a]n'yo) Boetia (be [=o]'sh[)i] a) Bo'na parte Bozzaris (bo z[)a]r'is) Brit'ta ny Bru'tus Bun'yan Bur'gun dy Bysshe (b[)i]sh) Ca'diz Cal e do'ni a Ca thay' Cau'dle Charn'wood Chat ta hoo'chee Chi[+s]'_w_ick Col i s[=e]'um Cop'per field C[=o]v'er ley Cr[=e]a'kle Cris'sa D[=a]'na D[)a]n'ube D[=a]v'en port Delft Domitian (do m[)i]sh'i an) Eb en [=e]'zer Española ([)e]s pan y[=o]'la) Eu'taw Fer nan'do F[)e]z'z[)i] wig Fran'cis Gal i l[=e]'o Get'tys burg Gib'son Gu[:a] n[:a] h[)a]'n[:i] Hab'er sham H[=a]'man H[:a]m'elin Har'le quin H[)e]l'las Hel'les pont Hu'bert Ja m[=a]_i_'ca Je m[=i]'ma John'son Juana (hw[:a]'na) Knick'erbock er La n_i_[=e]r' Lannes (l[:a]n) Leg'horn Locks'ley Lor raine' Mag ne'si a M[)a]r'i on Mas'sa soit M[)i]c_h_'ael mas Mon'mouth Mont calm' Mon te bel'lo Mont g[:o]m'er y Na p[=o]'le on Need'wood Nic_h_'o las Nin'e veh Or'e gon O res't[=e]s Pal'las Phoe'bus Pinzon (p[=e]n th[=o]n') Pla tæ'a Po to'mac Pro vence' (-v[)a]ns) R[)a]ph'a el R[)a]t'is bon Rieti (r[=e] [)e]'t[=e]) Rog'er Rouen (r[=o][=o] [:a]n') Sa'lem San'c_h_ez San Sal va dor' San tee' Sar a to'ga Sed'ley Shel'ley Spoun'cer T[=o]'bit T[=o]'phet Tul'l[)i] ver T[=y]re Um'br[)i] a V[)a]l'en t[=i]ne Wake' field Y[+s]'a bel LIST OF AUTHORS (Place of birth in parentheses. Title of one noted book in italics. Title of most famous poem in quotation marks.) _Browning, Robert._ English poet. _The Ring and the Book._ (Born near London.) Lived in Italy. 1812-1889. _Bryant, William Cullen._ American poet and journalist. "Thanatopsis." (Massachusetts.) New York. 1794-1878. _Buckley, Arabella B._ (_Mrs. Fisher_). English writer on popular science. (Brighton, England.) 1840----. _Bunyan, John._ English preacher and writer. _Pilgrim's Progress._ (Bedford.) London. 1628-1688. _Burns, Robert._ Scottish poet. "Tam O'Shanter." (Alloway.) Dumfries. 1759-1796. _Campbell, Thomas._ Scottish poet. "Hohenlinden." (Glasgow.) 1777-1844. _Canton, William._ English journalist and writer. 1845----. _Carnegie (k[:a]r n[)e]g'[)i]), Andrew._ American manufacturer and philanthropist. (Scotland.) New York. 1837----. _Cherry, Andrew._ Irish poet and dramatist. _All for Fame._ (Ireland.) 1762-1812. _Collins, William._ English poet. (Chichester.) 1721-1759. _Columbus, Christopher._ The discoverer of America. (Genoa, Italy.) Spain. 1446(?)-1506. _Cook, Eliza._ English poet. "The Old Arm-Chair." 1818-1889. _Dickens, Charles._ English novelist. _David Copperfield._ (Portsmouth.) London. 1812-1870. _Domett (d[)o]m'et), Alfred._ English poet and statesman. "Christmas Hymn." 1811-1887. _Dumas (d[:u] m[:a]'), Alexandre._ French novelist and dramatist. _The Count of Monte Cristo._ 1802-1870. _Eliot, George (Mrs. Mary Ann Evans Cross)._ English novelist. _The Mill on the Floss._ 1819-1880. _Emerson, Ralph Waldo._ American philosopher and poet. _Essays._ (Boston.) 1803-1882. _Everett, Edward._ American statesman and orator. _Orations and Speeches._ (Massachusetts.) 1794-1865. _Fields, James T._ American publisher and author. (New Hampshire.) Massachusetts. 1817-1881. _Giberne, Agnes._ English writer on scientific subjects. _Goldsmith, Oliver._ English poet and novelist. _Vicar of Wakefield._ (Ireland.) 1728-1774. _Halleck, Fitz-Greene._ American poet. "Marco Bozzaris." (Connecticut.) 1790-1867. _Hawthorne, Nathaniel._ American novelist. _The Wonder Book._ (Massachusetts.) 1804-1864. _Henry, Patrick._ American patriot. (Virginia.) 1736-1799. _Herrick, Robert._ English poet. 1591-1674. _Holmes, Oliver Wendell._ American author. _Autocrat of the Breakfast Table._ (Massachusetts.) 1809-1894. _Hugo, Victor._ French novelist and poet. 1802-1885. _Hunt, Leigh (James Henry Leigh Hunt)._ English essayist and poet. "Abou ben Adhem." 1784-1859. _Irving, Washington._ American prose writer. _The Sketch Book._ (New York.) 1783-1859. _Jerrold, Douglas William._ English humorist. _Mrs. Caudle's Curtain Lectures._ (London.) 1803-1857. _Jonson, Ben._ English dramatist. 1573-1637. _Kipling, Rudyard._ English writer. _The Jungle Book._ (Bombay, India.) England. 1865----. _Lamb, Charles._ English essayist. (London.) 1775-1834. _Lanier, Sidney._ American musician and author. _Poems._ (Georgia.) Maryland. 1842-1881. _Lee, Henry._ American general, father of Robert E. Lee. (Virginia.) 1756-1818. _Lincoln, Abraham._ Sixteenth president of the United States. (Kentucky.) Illinois. 1809-1865. _Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth._ American poet. _Poems._ (Maine.) Massachusetts. 1807-1882. _Lowell, James Russell._ American poet and essayist. (Massachusetts.) 1819-1891. _Macleod, Fiona (True name William Sharp)._ Scottish poet and story-writer. 1856-1905. _Mitchell, Donald G._ American essayist. _Reveries of a Bachelor._ (Connecticut.) 1822-1908. _Parker, Theodore._ American clergyman and author. (Massachusetts.) 1810-1860. _Poe, Edgar Allan._ American poet and story-writer. "The Raven." (Massachusetts.) Virginia. 1809-1849. _Pope, Alexander._ English poet. (London.) 1688-1744. _Proctor, Richard A._ English astronomer. 1837-1888. _Riley, James Whitcomb._ American poet. (Indiana.) 1852----. _Rogers, Samuel._ English poet. (London.) 1763-1855. _Ryan, Abram J._ American clergyman and poet. (Virginia.) Georgia; Kentucky. 1839-1886. _Scott, Sir Walter._ Scottish poet and novelist. _Ivanhoe._ (Edinburgh.) 1771-1832. _Shakespeare, William._ The greatest of English dramatists. (Stratford-on-Avon.) 1564-1616. _Sharp, William._ See Macleod, Fiona. _Shelley, Percy Bysshe (b[)i]sh)._ English poet. _Poems._ 1792-1822. _Simms, William Gilmore._ American novelist and poet. (South Carolina.) 1806-1870. _Sophocles (s[)o]f'o kl[=e]z)._ Greek tragic poet. 495-406 B.C. _Sylvester, Joshua._ English poet. 1563-1618. _Tennyson, Alfred._ English poet. _In Memoriam._ (Lincolnshire.) 1809-1892. _Thackeray, William Makepeace._ English novelist and critic. (Calcutta, India.) London. 1811-1863. _Timrod, Henry._ American poet. (South Carolina.) 1829-1867. _Whitman, Walt._ American poet. _Leaves of Grass._ (New York.) Washington, D.C.; New Jersey. 1819-1892. _Whittier, John Greenleaf._ American poet. _Poems._ (Massachusetts.) 1807-1892. _Winslow, Edward._ Governor of Plymouth colony. (Worcestershire, Eng.) Plymouth, Massachusetts. 1595-1655. _Wotton, Sir Henry._ English poet. 1568-1639. 
15747	----	READING MADE EASY FOR FOREIGNERS Third Reader BY JOHN L. HÜLSHOF TEACHER OF MODERN LANGUAGES IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF NEW YORK CITY HINDS, NOBLE & ELDREDGE 31-33-35 West 15th Street, New York City COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY HINDS, NOBLE & ELDREDGE PREFACE This Reader is intended more particularly for pupils in Class A of the public evening schools. The pupils of this class may be considered as having passed the transition stage of which mention was made in the Second Reader, and as having entered upon the last stage in acquiring the English language. They have not only acquired a considerable vocabulary, but have now a practical mastery of our vernacular. They use English in their conversation; in short, they have acquired the power of expressing their feelings and thoughts in the English language. Notwithstanding all this, they are conscious of the fact that their _language_ is less idiomatic than that of the native born, and their power over the written expression is wofully weak. To remedy these defects, they flock to the evening schools. They have decided to make this country their permanent home, and they are deeply interested in everything appertaining to our government, our institutions, our literature, in fact our civilization. A glance at the contents of this reader will convince the experienced teacher that the reading material is many-sided enough to satisfy the demands of both teacher and pupils. That this series of readers may become a powerful incentive in implanting right ideals of social conduct, and lay the foundation of true American citizenship, is the heartfelt wish of THE AUTHOR. CONTENTS PREFACE REMARKS TO THE TEACHER LESSONS. I. FLAG DAY II. BREATHE PURE AIR III. COFFEE IV. OUR NATIONAL FLAG V. PRESS ON VI. RESIGNATION VII. STATUE OF LIBERTY IN NEW YORK HARBOR VIII. INDEPENDENCE IX. NEWFOUNDLAND X. THE USE OF TRIFLES XI. ROSA BONHEUR XII. ALEXANDER AND THE ROBBER XIII. THE AMERICAN INDIAN XIV. THE FIRST STEAMBOAT XV. KNOWLEDGE AND EDUCATION XVI. TACT AND TALENT XVII. GEORGE WASHINGTON, PART I XVIII. BEHAVIOR XIX. ESSENCE OF THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES XX. THE ART OF OBSERVATION XXI. LETTERS XXII. REAPING AND MOWING MACHINES XXIII. ALI BABA XXIV. BIRDS XXV. SLEEP XXVI. CURIOUS BIRDS' NESTS XXVII. BUSINESS QUALIFICATIONS XXVIII. ABBREVIATIONS OF NAMES OF STATES XXIX. THE SUN XXX. IVORY XXXI. FLOWERS XXXII. THE MOSQUITO XXXIII. SELF-RELIANCE XXXIV. FRANKLIN'S TOAST XXXV. HUMANITY REWARDED XXXVI. WORK PROCLAIMS A WORKMAN XXXVII. REPUBLICS XXXVIII. FALSE NOTIONS OF LIBERTY XXXIX. THE VOICE XL. THE INTREPID YOUTH XLI. AUTUMN XLII. WORDS AND THEIR MEANING XLIII. HOW TO SELECT A BOY XLIV. SALT XLV. STUDIES XLVI. RULES OF BEHAVIOR XLVII. USING THE EYES XLVIII. THE AFFECTION AND REVERENCE DUE A MOTHER XLIX. WHEAT L. COUNTENANCE AND CHARACTER LI. THE VALUE OF TIME LII. THE STUDY OF CIVICS LIII. THE SEA AND ITS USES LIV. WONDERLAND LV. OUR COUNTRY TO-DAY, PART I LVI. OUR COUNTRY TO-DAY, PART II LVII. PICTURES FROM AMERICAN HISTORY LVIII. THOMAS A. EDISON LIX. ABRAHAM LINCOLN LX. ADDRESS DELIVERED AT THE DEDICATION OF THE CEMETERY AT GETTYSBURG LXI. WAGES LXII. LOVE FOR THE DEAD LXIII. ECONOMY OF TIME LXIV. GEORGE STEPHENSON, THE ENGINEER LXV. GEORGE WASHINGTON, PART II LXVI. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN LXVII. NOBILITY REWARDED POETRY SELECTION. I. A CITY STREET II. THE SHIP OF STATE III. BE TRUE IV. BRING BACK MY FLOWERS V. "OLD IRONSIDES" VI. TREASURE TROVE VII. THE HERITAGE VIII. THE STAR-SPANGLED BANNER IX. THE SWORD OF BUNKER HILL X. THE HUNTERS XI. MY FATHERLAND XII. WOODMAN, SPARE THAT TREE XIII. PRAYER IN BATTLE XIV. THE RETORT XV. A PSALM OF LIFE XVI. THE OLD OAKEN BUCKET XVII. OFT IN THE STILLY NIGHT XVIII. THE PICKET OF THE POTOMAC XIX. COLUMBIA, THE GEM OF THE OCEAN; OR, RED, WHITE, AND BLUE XX. RECESSIONAL XXI. HUMAN PROGRESS XXII. GIVE ME THE PEOPLE MISCELLANEOUS CHARACTERISTIC OF HEROISM CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE FREEDOM OF THOUGHT USEFUL INFORMATION WISE SAYINGS REMARKS TO THE TEACHER Complete answers should be given by the pupils. The simple words "yes" or "no" do not constitute an answer in these exercises; such expressions give no practice in the use of the language. The teacher should prepare himself thoroughly for each lesson in order to ask many pointed questions relative to the reading matter. The entire time spent in reading the lesson and questioning the class should not exceed thirty minutes. Too much detail will only confuse and fatigue the pupils. Five or six words that present any difficulty _either in spelling or pronunciation_ may be selected from the reading lesson for dictation. Such words should not be given singly, but rather in short sentences. These sentences may first be read by the class from the blackboard and then copied. After new slips have been distributed, the same sentences should then be written from dictation (the writing on the blackboard being covered or erased in the meantime). The pupils are afterwards required to compare their work with that on the board and make the necessary corrections themselves. READING MADE EASY FOR FOREIGNERS THIRD READER LESSON I FLAG DAY In this fair land of ours you can see the Stars and Stripes floating over every public school. This beautiful flag stands for our country. Every American is proud of his country's flag. It stands for all that is good and dear to an American. It stands for Liberty. It proclaims liberty to all. Every star stands for liberty. Every stripe stands for liberty. It stands for liberty of thought and liberty of speech as well. The first American flag was made in June, 1777, by Mrs. Ross, in the city of Philadelphia. When General Washington saw the flag, he was delighted with it. Every American is not only delighted with it, but he loves the dear old flag. The fourteenth day of June of each year is set apart as Flag Day. "_I pledge allegiance to my flag and the Republic for which it stands; one nation indivisible, with liberty and justice for all_." DEVELOPMENT OF THE ABOVE LESSON ACCORDING TO THE RATIONAL METHOD. _See Remarks to the Teacher, Page vii_. What kind of a land is ours? What is meant by the stars and stripes? Over what buildings do we see the flag floating? What kind of a flag is it? For what does our flag stand? For what else does it stand? What does our flag proclaim? Who is proud of the flag? What does our flag tell to all the people? How many stars are there in the flag? For what does each star stand? When was the first American flag made? By whom was it made? In what city was it made? What did Washington think of it when he saw it? How do we Americans look upon the flag? When is Flag Day? etc., etc. DICTATION EXERCISES _See Remarks to the Teacher, Page vii_. Our country has a _beautiful_ flag. This flag _proclaims_ or declares liberty to the people. I am _delighted_ with my country's flag. I pledge _allegiance_ or _fidelity_ to my flag. Our nation is _indivisible_; it cannot be parted. SELECTION I A CITY STREET I love the woods, the fields, the streams, The wild flowers fresh and sweet, And yet I love no less than these The crowded city street; For haunts of men, where'er they be, Awake my deepest sympathy. I see within the city street Life's most extreme estates; The gorgeous domes of palaces; The dismal prison gates; The hearths by household virtues blest, The dens that are the serpent's nest. I see the rich man, proudly fed And richly clothed, pass by; I see the shivering, houseless wretch With hunger in his eye; For life's severest contrasts meet Forever in the city street. Hence is it that a city street Can deepest thoughts impart, For all its people, high and low, Are kindred to my heart; And with a yearning love I share In all their joy, their pain, their care. _Mary Howitt_. _Questions_: Can you put this little poem in prose? Tell what you admire in nature. Then tell what you observe in the city. Tell about the rich and where they live. Also about the poor and how they are housed and clothed. Let us write a composition together. LESSON II BREATHE PURE AIR Some boys were playing hide-and-seek one day, when one of their number thought it would be good sport to hide little Robert in a large empty trunk. He did so and then turned the key in the lock. The little fellow in the chest was very quiet indeed, and they almost forgot about him. After some time they thought of him and some one went to the trunk and asked: "Hello, Robert. Do you want to come out now?" No answer came. They opened the trunk and found poor little Robert nearly dead. The doctor had to be called, and he worked long and hard to restore the poor boy to health. The air which we breathe out is not fit to be breathed in again. We soon use up, in this way, all the pure air about us. So we must have a fresh supply. As soon as Robert had breathed in all the good air that was in the trunk, there was nothing left but poisoned air. If fresh air had not been given to him by opening the trunk, he could not have lived three minutes longer. Nothing is so needful to health as good, pure air. Whether you are in the schoolroom or in the house, remember this. Bad air is so much poison, and the more we breathe it the worse it gets. The poison is carbonic acid, and to breathe it long is certain death. Not many years ago, during a storm at sea, a stupid sea-captain ordered his passengers to go below in the hold of the vessel. Then he covered up the hold, so that no fresh air could enter. When the storm was over he opened the hold, and found that seventy human beings had died for want of pure air. Through his gross ignorance of the laws of life, he had done all this mischief. Remember what I say: insist on having good air; for impure air, though it may not always kill you, is always bad for your health. LESSON III COFFEE Coffee is made from the berries of a tree called the coffee plant, or coffee tree. This tree grows in some of the hot countries of the world, as Brazil, Cuba, Arabia, and Java. The best coffee comes from Arabia. But most of the coffee that is used in this country comes from Brazil. When first known, the coffee tree was a wild shrub growing among the hills of Caffa, in the northeastern part of Africa. But when people learned what a pleasant drink could be made from its berries, they began to take it into other countries, where they cultivated it with much care. There is an old story told of a shepherd who, it is said, was the first to use this drink. He noticed that after his goats had fed on the leaves of a certain tree--the coffee plant--they were always very lively and wakeful. So he took some of the leaves and berries of the plant, and boiling them in water, he made a drink for himself. He found it so pleasant to the taste that he told some of his neighbors about it. They tried it and were as much pleased as himself. And so, little by little, the drink came, after a while, into common use. The coffee plant is a beautiful little tree, growing sometimes to the height of twenty feet. It has smooth, dark leaves, long and pointed. It has pretty, white blossoms, which grow in thick clusters close to the branches. Its fruit looks a little like a cherry; and within it are the coffee berries, two in each cherry. When ripe, the red fruit turns to a deep purple and is sweet to the taste. In Arabia the fruit is allowed to fall on mats placed under the trees; but in other countries it is commonly gathered as soon as it is ripe, and it is then dried by being placed on mats in the sun. After the outside part has been removed the berries are again dried. They are then put in sacks and boxes to be sent into other parts of the world. LESSON IV OUR NATIONAL FLAG There is a national flag. He must be cold indeed who can look upon its folds rippling in the breeze without pride of country. If he be in a foreign land, the flag is companionship and country itself with all its endearments. Who, as he sees it, can think of a state merely? Whose eyes, once fastened upon it, can fail to recognize the image of the whole nation? It has been called a "floating piece of poetry." Its highest beauty is in what it symbolizes. It is because it represents all, that all gaze at it with delight and reverence. It is a piece of bunting lifted in the air, but it speaks sublimely, and every part has a voice. Its stripes of alternate red and white proclaim the original union of thirteen states. Its stars of white on a field of blue proclaim the union of the states. A new star is added with every new state. The very colors have a language, which was understood by our fathers. White is for purity, red for valor, blue for justice. Thus the bunting, stripes and stars together, make the flag of our country--loved by all our hearts and upheld by all our hands. SELECTION II THE SHIP OF STATE Thou, too, sail on, O ship of State! Sail on, O Union, strong and great! Humanity, with all its fears, With all the hopes of future years, Is hanging breathless on thy fate. We know what Master laid thy keel, What Workman wrought thy ribs of steel, Who made each mast, and sail, and rope, What anvils rang, what hammers beat, In what forge and what a heat Were shaped the anchors of thy hope! Fear not each sudden sound and shock, 'Tis of the wave, and not the rock; 'Tis but the flapping of the sail, And not a rent made by the gale. In spite of rock and tempest's roar, In spite of false lights on the shore, Sail on, nor fear to breast the sea. Our hearts, our hopes, are all with thee; Our hearts, our hopes, our prayers, our tears, Our faith triumphant o'er our fears, Are all with thee,--are all with thee. _H. W. Longfellow_. LESSON V "PRESS ON" This is a speech, brief, but full of inspiration, and opening the way to all victory. The secret of Napoleon's career was this,--under all difficulties and discouragements, "Press on." It solves the problem of all heroes; it is the rule by which to weigh rightly all wonderful successes and triumphal marches to fortune and genius. It should be the motto of all, old and young, high and low, fortunate and unfortunate, so called. "Press on." Never despair; never be discouraged, however stormy the heavens, however dark the way; however great the difficulties, and repeated the failures, "Press on." If fortune hath played false with thee today, do thou play true for thyself to-morrow. If thy riches have taken wings and left thee, do not weep thy life away; but be up and doing, and retrieve the loss by new energies and action. If an unfortunate bargain has deranged thy business, do not fold thy arms, and give up all as lost; but stir thyself and work the more vigorously. If those whom thou hast trusted have betrayed thee, do not be discouraged, do not idly weep, but "_Press on_." Find others: or, what is better, learn to live within thyself. Let the foolishness of yesterday make thee wise to-day. LESSON VI RESIGNATION Rabbi Meir, the great teacher, sat one Sabbath day in the school of the holy law, and taught the people. The rabbi had two sons, who were youths of great promise and well instructed in the law. On that Sabbath day they both died. Tenderly their mother bore them to an upper chamber, laid them on her bed, and spread a white sheet over their bodies. In the evening Rabbi Meir came home. "Where are my sons," asked he, "that I may give them my blessing?" "They are gone into the school of the law," was his wife's reply. "I looked around me," said he, "and I did not see them." She set before him a cup; he praised the Lord for the close of the Sabbath, drank, and then asked again, "Where are my sons, that they may also drink of the wine of blessing?" "They cannot be far off," said his wife, as she placed food before him and begged him to eat. When he had given thanks after the meal, she said, "Rabbi, allow me a question." "Speak, my beloved," answered he. "Some time ago," said she, "a certain one gave me jewels to keep for him, and now he asks them back. Shall I give him them?" "My wife should not need to ask such a question," said Rabbi Meir. "Would you hesitate to give anyone back his own?" "Oh, no," replied she, "but I did not like to give them back without your knowing beforehand." Then she led him to the upper chamber, stepped in, and took the covering off the bodies. "Oh, my sons," sobbed the father, "my sons, my sons!" The mother turned herself away and wept. Soon, however, his wife took him by the hand and said: "Rabbi, have you not taught me that we must not refuse to give back what was intrusted to us to keep? See, the Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away: the name of the Lord be blessed." And Rabbi Meir repeated the words, and said from the depths of his heart, "Amen." LESSON VII STATUE OF LIBERTY IN NEW YORK HARBOR "Liberty," or Bartholdi's statue, was presented to the United States by the French people in 1885. It is the largest statue ever built. The great French sculptor Bartholdi made it after the likeness of his mother. Eight years were consumed in the construction of this gigantic image. Its size is really enormous. The height of the figure alone is fully one hundred and fifty feet. Forty persons can find standing room within the mighty head, which is fifteen feet in diameter. A six-foot man, standing upon the lower lip, can hardly reach the eyes of the colossal head. The index finger is eight feet long, and the nose is over three feet long. Yet the proportion of all the parts of the figure is so well preserved that the whole statue is in perfect harmony. The materials of which the statue is composed are copper and steel. The immense torch which is held in the hand of the giantess is three hundred feet above tidewater. The Colossus of Rhodes was a pigmy compared with this huge wonder. LESSON VIII INDEPENDENCE Scholars, who are enjoying the priceless blessings of that liberty which cost our forefathers so much treasure and so much blood,--have you read the Declaration of Independence? If you have not, read it; if you have, read it again; study it; make its noble sentiments your own, and do not fail to grave deep in your memories these immortal lines:-- "We hold these truths to be self-evident; That all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that, whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such forms, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness." SELECTION III BE TRUE Thou must be true thyself, If thou the truth wouldst teach; Thy soul must overflow, if thou Another's soul would'st reach; It needs the overflow of hearts To give the lips full speech. Think truly, and thy thoughts Shall the world's famine feed; Speak truly, and each word of thine Shall be a fruitful seed; Live truly, and thy life shall be A great and noble creed. _Anonymous_. LESSON IX NEWFOUNDLAND Newfoundland is an island about the size of New York State. It belongs to England. The cod fisheries there are very extensive. The people of Newfoundland are strong, healthy and industrious. They are law-abiding, and serious; crime is very rare among them. Their kindness and hospitality to strangers who visit the country are proverbial. Kindness to the poor and unfortunate is a marked feature in the character of the people. When business is poor they are ready to share their last morsel with those in distress. The fishermen are the working classes of the country. During the height of the fishery season, and when fish are abundant, their labors are severe; but during winter they are for the most part in a condition of enforced idleness. Much of the work of curing the fish is done by women and girls, and their labors are often very heavy. When the fisheries are over, there are boats, nets, etc., to repair, stages to look after, and fuel to be cut in the woods and hauled over the snow. If the fishery has been successful, then the fisherman has a balance coming to him after paying for his summer supplies, and is enabled to lay in a stock of provisions for the winter. Winter is the season for enjoyment among the fishermen. This season for fireside enjoyments, home-born pleasures, is welcome. They have their simple social enjoyments of various kinds. Dancing is a favorite winter amusement among the fishermen and their families. Weddings are celebrated with great festivity. Newfoundland is often regarded as the very paradise of sportsmen. Its countless lakes and ponds abound with trout of the finest description, and these bodies of water are the abodes of the wild goose, the wild duck, and other fresh-water fowl. The pine forests are the home of numerous wild animals. The fox, the bear and the caribou furnish the highest prizes for the hunter. SELECTION IV BRING BACK MY FLOWERS A child sat by a limpid stream, And gazed upon the tide beneath; Upon her cheek was joy's bright beam, And on her brow a blooming wreath. Her lap was filled with fragrant flowers, And, as the clear brook babbled by, She scattered down the rosy showers, With many a wild and joyous cry, And laughed to see the mingling tide Upon its onward progress glide. And time flew on, and flower by flower Was cast upon the sunny stream; But when the shades of eve did lower, She woke up from her blissful dream. "Bring back my flowers!" she wildly cried; "Bring back the flowers I flung to thee!" But echo's voice alone replied, As danced the streamlet down the lea; And still, amid night's gloomy hours, In vain she cried, "Bring back my flowers!" O maiden, who on time's swift stream Dost gayly see the moments flee, In this poor child's delusive dream An emblem may be found of thee. Each moment is a perfumed rose, Into thy hand by mercy given, That thou its fragrance might dispose And let its incense rise to heaven; Else when death's shadow o'er thee lowers, Thy heart will wail, "Bring back my flowers!" _Lucy Larcom_. LESSON X THE USE OF TRIFLES A certain painter once said he had become great in his art by never neglecting trifles. It would be well for all of us to follow that simple and easy rule. No man's house but would be more comfortable, and no family but would be more cheerful, if the value of trifles and the art of using them were better understood. Attention to trifles is the true art of economy. We must, however, take care not to confound economy with parsimony. The former means a frugal and judicious use of things without waste, the latter a too close and sparing use of things needed. Now a person who understands the use of little things is economical; for instance. If you wipe a pen before you put it away it will last twice as long as if you do not. Generally the habits we acquire in our youth we carry with us into old age; hence the necessity of proper training in childhood. A woman who attends to trifles and has habits of economy will not hastily throw away bits of cotton or worsted, nor will she waste soap by letting it lie in the water. She will keep an eye to the pins and matches, knowing that the less often such things are bought, the more is saved. She will not think it above her care to mend the clothes or darn the stockings, remembering that "_a stitch in time saves nine_." LESSON XI ROSA BONHEUR Rosa Bonheur was born at Bordeaux, France, the daughter of a painter. Her father was her first teacher in art. At an early age, when most children draw in an aimless way, her father guided his little girl's efforts with his own experienced hand. He taught her to study and sketch from nature instead of relying on copies. As a child she cared nothing for dolls and toys, but loved animals dearly. Is it any wonder, then, that she took them for her subject when she began to paint? In her childhood she had two dogs and a goat for pets, and later on kept a sheep in her Parisian apartment. Still later, when she had become a distinguished woman, her studio included a farmyard. Her animal paintings are so real and life-like that a study of the faces of all the horses in that wonderful picture, "The Horse Fair," will reveal distinctly different expressions in each face. Although most simple in her personal habits and in her life, Rosa Bonheur was the greatest woman artist that ever lived. "The Horse Fair," Rosa Bonheur's most famous painting, was bought by an American gentleman and presented by him to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, in New York. LESSON XII ALEXANDER AND THE ROBBER _Alexander_--What! art thou that Thracian robber, of whose exploits I have heard so much? _Robber_--I am a Thracian, and a soldier. _Alexander_--A soldier!--a thief, a plunderer, an assassin, the pest of the country; but I must detest and punish thy crimes. _Robber_--What have I done of which you can complain? _Alexander_--Hast thou not set at defiance my authority, violated the public peace and passed thy life in injuring the persons and properties of thy fellow-subjects? _Robber_--Alexander, I am your captive. I must hear what you please to say, and endure what you please to inflict. But my soul is unconquered; and if I reply at all to your reproaches, I will reply like a free man. _Alexander_--Speak freely. Far be it from me to take advantage of my power, to silence those with whom I deign to converse. _Robber_--I must, then, answer your question by another. How have you passed your life? _Alexander_--Like a hero. Ask Fame, and she will tell you. Among the brave, the bravest; among sovereigns, the noblest; among conquerors, the mightiest. _Robber_--And does not Fame speak of me too? Was there ever a bolder captain of a more valiant band? Was there ever--but I scorn to boast. You yourself know that I have not been easily subdued. _Alexander_--Still, what are you but a robber,--a base, dishonest robber? _Robber_--And what is a conqueror? Have not you too gone about the earth like an evil genius, plundering, killing without law, without justice, merely to gratify your thirst for dominion? What I have done in a single province with a hundred followers, you have done to whole nations with a hundred thousand. What; then, is the difference, but that you were born a king, and I a private man; you have been able to become a mightier robber than I. _Alexander_--But if I have taken like a king, I have given like a king. If I have overthrown empires, I have founded greater. I have cherished arts, commerce, and philosophy. _Robber_--I too have freely given to the poor what I took from the rich. I know, indeed, very little of the philosophy you speak of, but I believe neither you nor I shall ever atone to the world for the mischief we have done it. _Alexander_--Leave me. Take off his chains, and use him well. Are we, then, so much alike? Alexander like a robber? Let me reflect. LESSON XIII THE AMERICAN INDIAN Not many generations ago, where you now sit, surrounded with all that makes life happy, the rank thistle nodded in the wind, and the wild fox dug his hole unscared. Here lived and loved another race of beings. Beneath the same sun that rolls over your heads, the Indian hunter pursued the panting deer; he gazed on the same moon that smiles for you, and here too the Indian lover wooed his dusky mate. Here the wigwam blaze beamed on the tender and helpless, the council fire glared on the wise and daring. Here they warred; and when the strife was over, here curled the smoke of peace. Here, too, they worshiped; and from many a dark bosom went up a pure prayer to the Great Spirit. He had written His laws for them, not on tables of stone, but He had traced them on the tables of their hearts. The poor child of nature knew not the God of revelation, but the God of the Universe he acknowledged in everything around. He beheld Him in the star that sunk in beauty behind his lonely dwelling; in the flower that swayed in the morning breeze; in the lofty trees as well as in the worm that crawled at his feet. All this has passed away. Four hundred years have changed the face of this great continent, and this peculiar race has been well-nigh blotted out. Art has taken the place of simple nature, and civilization has been too strong for the savage tribes of the red man. Here and there a few Indians remain; but these are merely the degraded offspring of this once noble race of men. SELECTION XI MY FATHERLAND There is a land, of every land the pride, Beloved by Heaven o'er all the world beside, Where brighter suns dispense serener light, And milder moons imparadise the night. O land of beauty, virtue, valor, truth, Time-tutored age, and love-exalted youth! The wandering mariner, whose eye explores The wealthiest isles, the most enchanting shores, Views not a realm so bountiful and fair, Nor breathes the spirit of a purer air. In every clime, the magnet of his soul, Touched by remembrance, trembles to that pole; For, in this land of Heaven's peculiar race, The heritage of nature's noblest grace, There is a spot of earth supremely blest, A dearer, sweeter spot than all the rest, Where man, creation's tyrant, casts aside His sword and scepter, pageantry and pride, While, in his softened looks, benignly blend The sire, the son, the husband, brother, friend. Here woman reigns; the mother, daughter, wife, Strew with fresh flowers the narrow way of life; In the clear heaven of her delightful eye, An angel guard of love and graces lie; Around her knees domestic duties meet, And fireside pleasures gambol at her feet. "Where shall that land, that spot of earth be found?" Art thou a man?--a patriot?--look round; Oh, thou shalt find, howe'er thy footsteps roam, That land thy country, and that spot thy home. _James Montgomery_. LESSON XXIX THE SUN How far away from us is the sun? Are we to answer just as we think, or just as we know? On a fine summer day, when we can see him clearly, it looks as if a short trip in a balloon might take us to his throne in the sky, yet we know--because the astronomers tell us so--that he is more than ninety-one millions of miles distant from our earth. Ninety-one millions of miles! It is not easy even to imagine this distance; but let us fancy ourselves in an express-train going sixty miles an hour without making a single stop. At that flying rate we could travel from the earth to the sun in one hundred and seventy-one years,--that is, if we had a road to run on and time to spare for the journey. Arriving at the palace of the sun, we might then have some idea of his size. A learned Greek who lived more than two thousand years ago thought the sun about as large as the Peloponnesus; if he had lived in our country, he might have said, "About as large as Massachusetts." As large as their peninsula! The other Greeks laughed at him for believing that the shining ball was so vast. How astonished they would have been--yes, and the wise man too--if they had been told that the brilliant lord of the day was more than a million times as large as the whole world! LESSON XXX IVORY How many articles are made of ivory! Here is a polished knife-handle, and there a strangely-carved paper-cutter. In the same shop may be found albums and prayer-books with ivory covers; and, not far away, penholders, curious toys, and parasol-handles, all made of the glossy white material. Where ivory is abundant, chairs of state, and even thrones are made of it; and in Russia, in the palaces of the great, floors inlaid with ivory help to beautify the grand apartments. One African sultan has a whole fence of elephants' tusks around his royal residence; the residence itself is straw-roofed and barbarous enough, both in design and in structure. Yet imagine that ivory fence! The elephants slain in Africa and India in the course of a year could not furnish half the ivory used in the great markets of the world during that time. Vienna, Paris, London and St. Petersburg keep the elephant-hunters busy, yet it is impossible for them to satisfy all the demands made upon them, and the ivory-diggers must be called upon to add to the supply. Every spring, when the ice begins to thaw, new mines or deposits of fossil ivory--a perfect treasure of mammoths' tusks--are discovered in the marsh-lands of Eastern Siberia. There are no mammoths now--unless we call elephants by that name; yet their remains have been found upon both continents. In the year 1799, the perfect skeleton of one of these animals was found in an ice-bank near the mouth of a Siberian river. As the vast ice-field thawed, the remains of the huge animal came to light. The traders who search for mammoths' tusks around the Arctic coasts of Asia make every effort to send off, each year, at least fifty thousand pounds of fossil ivory to the west along the great caravan road. So great is the demand, however, that this quantity, added to that sent by the elephant-hunters, is not large enough to make ivory cheap in trade or in manufacture. SELECTION XII WOODMAN, SPARE THAT TREE Woodman, spare that tree! Touch not a single bough! In youth it sheltered me, And I'll protect it now. 'Twas my forefather's hand That placed it near his cot: There, woodman, let it stand; Thy ax shall harm it not. That old familiar tree, Whose glory and renown Are spread o'er land and sea,-- And wouldst thou hew it down? Woodman, forbear thy stroke! Cut not its earthbound ties! Oh, spare that aged oak, Now towering to the skies! When but an idle boy I sought its grateful shade; In all their gushing joy, Here, too, my sisters played. My mother kissed me here, My father pressed my hand: Forgive this foolish tear, But let that old oak stand. My heart-strings round thee cling, Close as thy bark, old friend; Here shall the wild bird sing, And still thy branches bend. Old tree, the storm still brave! And, woodman, leave the spot! While I've a hand to save, Thy ax shall harm it not. _George P. Morris_. LESSON XXXI FLOWERS He who cannot appreciate floral beauty is to be pitied, like any other man who is born imperfect. It is a misfortune not unlike blindness. But men who reject flowers as effeminate and unworthy of manhood reveal a positive coarseness. Many persons lose all enjoyment of many flowers by indulging false associations. There are some who think that no weed can be of interest as a flower. But all flowers are weeds where they grow wild and in abundance; and somewhere our rarest flowers are somebody's commonest. And generally there is a disposition to undervalue common flowers. There are few that will trouble themselves to examine minutely a blossom that they have often seen and neglected; and yet if they would question such flowers and commune with them, they would often be surprised to find extreme beauty where it had long been overlooked. It is not impertinent to offer flowers to a stranger. The poorest child can proffer them to the richest. A hundred persons turned into a meadow full of flowers would be drawn together in a transient brotherhood. It is affecting to see how serviceable flowers often are to the necessities of the poor. If they bring their little floral gift to you, it cannot but touch your heart to think that their grateful affection longed to express itself as much as yours. You have books, or gems, or services that you can render as you will. The poor can give but little and can do but little. Were it not for flowers, they would be shut out from those exquisite pleasures which spring from such gifts. I never take one from a child, or from the poor, without thanking God, in their behalf, for flowers. CHARACTERISTIC OF HEROISM The characteristic of heroism is its persistency. All men have wandering impulses, fits and starts of generosity. But when you have chosen your part, abide by it, and do not weakly try to reconcile yourself with the world. The heroic cannot be the common, nor the common the heroic. _R. W. Emerson_. LESSON XVIII BEHAVIOR There is always a best way of doing everything, if it be to open a book. Manners are the happy ways of doing things. They form at last a rich varnish, with which the routine of life is washed, and its details adorned. Manners are very communicable; men catch them from each other. The power of manners is incessant,--an element as unconcealable as fire. The nobility cannot in any country be disguised, and no more in a republic or a democracy than in a kingdom. No man can resist their influence. There are certain manners which are learned in good society, and if a person have them, he or she must be considered, and is everywhere welcome, though without beauty, or wealth, or genius. Give a boy address and accomplishments, and you give him the mastery of palaces and fortune wherever he goes. Bad behavior the laws cannot reach. Society is infested with rude, restless, and frivolous persons who prey upon the rest. Bad manners are social inflictions which the magistrate cannot cure or defend you from, and which must be intrusted to the restraining force of custom. Familiar rules of behavior should be impressed on young people in their school-days. LESSON XIX ESSENCE OF THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 1. Congress must meet at least once a year. (Congress consists of the Senate and the House of Representatives.) 2. One State cannot undo the acts of another. 3. Congress may admit any number of new States. 4. One State must respect the laws and legal decisions of another. 5. Every citizen is guaranteed a speedy trial by jury. 6. Congress cannot pass a law to punish a crime already committed. 7. Bills of revenue can originate only in the House of Representatives. 8. A person committing a crime in one State cannot find refuge in another. 9. The Constitution forbids excessive bail or cruel punishment. 10. Treaties with foreign countries are made by the President and ratified by the Senate. 11. Writing alone does not constitute treason against the United States. There must be an overt act. 12. An Act of Congress cannot become law over the vote of the President except by a two-thirds vote of both Houses. 13. The Territories each send one delegate to Congress, who has the right to debate, but not the right to vote. 14. An officer of the Government cannot accept any title of nobility, order or gift without the permission of Congress. 15. Only a natural-born citizen of the United States can become President or Vice-President of the United States. SELECTION VIII THE STAR-SPANGLED BANNER 1. Oh, say, can you see, by the dawn's early light, What so proudly we hailed at the twilight's last gleaming? Whose broad stripes and bright stars, through the perilous fight, O'er the ramparts we watched were so gallantly streaming; And the rockets' red glare, the bombs bursting in air, Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there: Oh, say, does that Star-Spangled Banner yet wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave? 2. On that shore, dimly seen through the mists of the deep, Where the foe's haughty host in dread silence reposes, What is that which the breeze, o'er the towering steep, As it fitfully blows, now conceals, now discloses? Now it catches the gleam of the morning's first beam, In full glory reflected now shines in the stream: 'Tis the Star-Spangled Banner; oh, long may it wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave! 3. And where are the foes who so vauntingly swore That the havoc of war, and the battle's confusion, A home and a country should leave us no more? Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps' pollution. No refuge could save the hireling and slave From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave; And the Star-Spangled Banner in triumph doth wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. 4. Oh, thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand Between their loved homes and the war's desolation. Blest with victory and peace, may the heaven-rescued land Praise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation! Then conquer we must, when our cause it is just, And this be our motto, "In God is our trust"; And the Star-Spangled Banner in triumph shall wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. _Francis Scott Key_. USEFUL INFORMATION To obtain a good knowledge of pronunciation, it is advisable for the reader to listen to the examples given by educated persons. We learn the pronunciation of words, to a great extent, by imitation. It must never be forgotten, however, that the dictionary alone can give us absolute certainty in doubtful cases. "If the riches of the Indies," says Fenelon, "or the crowns of all the kingdoms of the world, were laid at my feet in exchange for my love for reading, I would despise them all." That writer does the most good who gives his reader the greatest amount of knowledge and takes from him the least time. A tremendous thought may be packed into a small compass, and as solid as a cannon ball. "Read much, but not many works," is the advice of a great writer. LESSON XX THE ART OF OBSERVATION The Indian trapper is a man of close observation, quick perception and prompt action. As he goes along, nothing escapes him. Often not another step is taken until some mystery that presents itself is fairly solved. He will stand for hours in succession to account for certain signs, and he may even spend days and weeks upon that same mystery until he solves it. I rode once several hundred miles in the company of such an experienced trailer, and asked him many questions about his art. Near the bank of a small river in Dakota we crossed the track of a pony. The guide followed the track for some distance and then said: "It is a stray black horse, with a long bushy tail, nearly starved to death; it has a broken hoof on the left fore foot and goes very lame; he has passed here early this morning." I could scarcely believe what was said, and asked for an explanation. The trailer replied: "It is a stray horse, because he did not go in a straight line; his tail is long, for he dragged it over the ground; in brushing against a bush he left some of his black hair; he is very hungry, because he nipped at the dry weeds which horses seldom eat; the break of his left fore foot can be seen in its track, and the slight impression of the one foot shows that he is lame. The tracks are as yet fresh, and that shows that he passed only this morning, when the earth was soft." In this manner the whole story was accounted for, and late in the afternoon we really did come across a riderless horse of that description wandering aimlessly in the prairies. SELECTION IX THE SWORD OF BUNKER HILL He lay upon his dying bed, His eye was growing dim, When, with a feeble voice, he called His weeping son to him: "Weep not, my boy," the veteran said, "I bow to Heaven's high will; But quickly from yon antlers bring The sword of Bunker Hill." The sword was brought; the soldier's eye Lit with a sudden flame; And, as he grasped the ancient blade, He murmured Warren's name; Then said: "My boy, I leave you gold, But what is richer still, I leave you,--mark me, mark me, now,-- The sword of Bunker Hill. "'Twas on that dread immortal day, I dared the Britons' band; A captain raised his blade on me, I tore it from his hand; And while the glorious battle raged, It lightened Freedom's will; For, boy, the God of Freedom blessed The sword of Bunker Hill. "Oh, keep this sword,"--his accents broke,-- A smile--and he was dead; But his wrinkled hand still grasped the blade, Upon the dying bed. The son remains, the sword remains, Its glory growing still, And eighty millions bless the sire And sword of Bunker Hill. _William R. Wallace_. The battle of Bunker Hill was fought on the 17th of June, 1775, in Charlestown, Massachusetts. The Americans, after having twice repulsed double their number of the English, were compelled to retreat for want of ammunition. This was the first actual battle of the Revolutionary War. NOTE:--Joseph Warren, a distinguished American general and patriot, born in Massachusetts in 1741, graduated at Harvard College in 1759. He was killed at the battle of Bunker Hill in 1775. LESSON XXI LETTERS _Notes of Invitation_. FORMAL NOTE. March 8, 1909. _Mr. Joseph H. Curtis_:-- The pupils of Class A, Public School No. -- most cordially invite Mr. and Mrs. Joseph H. Curtis to attend the Closing Exercises to be held in the school on Thursday evening, March eleventh, at eight o'clock. INFORMAL NOTE. February 2, 1909. _My dear Mr. Curtis_:-- May we have the pleasure of your company at dinner Tuesday evening, February ninth, at seven o'clock? Sincerely yours, CHARLES STORY. 406 Elm Street. INFORMAL REPLY TO ABOVE INVITATION. February 4, 1909. My dear Mr. Story:-- I thank you for your kind invitation to dine with you Tuesday evening, but a previous business engagement makes it impossible for me to be present. I am very sorry. Cordially yours, HENRY CURTIS. 215 Cedar Street. FORMAL NOTE. Mr. and Mrs. George H. Baldwin request the pleasure of the company of Mr. and Mrs. Henry S. Gray on Thursday evening, March fourth, at eight o'clock. 315 Madison Avenue. FORMAL REPLY TO ABOVE INVITATION. Mr. Henry S. Gray regrets that he is unable to accept the invitation of Mr. and Mrs. George H. Baldwin for Thursday evening, at eight o'clock. 506 Myrtle Avenue. INFORMAL LETTER. ROCHESTER, N. Y., March 1, 1909. My dear Friend:-- I arrived here yesterday afternoon in the best of spirits. I am staying here at a nice, quiet hotel, and expect to remain here for the next few days. Rochester is so different from the great Metropolis. This morning I went to see the University and some other public buildings. I am delighted with my trip. From here I intend to proceed to Buffalo and to Niagara Falls. From there I shall write you a much longer letter. Please give my kindest regards to all the family. Cordially yours, HENRY FIELD. LESSON XXII REAPING AND MOWING MACHINES The rapid settlement and improvement of many parts of our country have been greatly aided by the invention of various kinds of machinery. The work of many hands can now be done by one machine, and thus a great saving of human labor is effected. In former times, the crops of wheat and oats, rye and barley, were gathered with a sickle; the grain was thrashed with a flail; the grass in the meadows was cut with a scythe. But, now, all this is changed; on the great prairies of the West, the wheat, rye and oats are cut by the reaper, and with a steady hum the thrashing-machine does its work of cleaning the grain. The scythe has given place to the mowing machine, and the sickle and flail have been laid away as relics of other times. Thus the machinery invented by the genius and skill of man, not only lightens the labor of the farmer, but it performs the work which formerly required the united effort of many men. Many foreign countries send to the United States for mowers and reapers, because it is here these machines have reached their highest perfection. LESSON XXIII ALI BABA Ali Baba was a poor Persian wood carrier, who accidentally learned the magic words "_Open Sesame_," "_Shut Sesame_," by which he gained entrance into a vast cavern, in which forty thieves had stored their stolen treasures. He made himself rich by plundering these stores of wealth, and through the cunning of Morgiana, his female slave, Ali Baba succeeded in destroying the whole band of thieves. He then gave Morgiana her freedom and married her to his own son. LESSON XXIV BIRDS In the United States there are a great many birds. Many of them live in the woods; others are found in the fields. Some are seen in the gardens, and a few are kept in our houses. The eagle builds her nest upon the highest rock, while the wren forms her snug and tiny nest in the way-side hedge. The swallow plasters her nest upon the gable of the house or under the eaves of the barn. Out in the wheat-field we hear the whistle of the quail. The noise of the ducks and geese comes to us from the pond. The birds of prey dart downward through the air. Everywhere we find the birds. In autumn the migratory birds leave us, but they return in the spring. Even in March we hear the call of the robin. At the same time the bold and saucy blue-jay pays us his first visit. One hears the sweet songs of the birds from May until October. Some of them remain with us during the winter. There are many things that birds can do. The swallows fly with the greatest ease. The ostrich runs rapidly. Swimming birds dive with much skill. The owl moves noiselessly through the night air. Birds of prey search out their victims with keen vision. Nearly all birds build skillfully made nests with their bills and feet. Some make them out of straw, and the little birds usually line them with wool. The large birds of prey build theirs from small sticks and twigs. For the most part they hatch the eggs with the warmth of the body. Many birds are highly valued on account of their eggs, while others are prized for their flesh and feathers. Still others charm us with their songs. LESSON XXV SLEEP Of all the wonderful things about us, sleep is one of the most wonderful. How it comes, why it comes, how it does its kind, helpful work, not even the wisest people are able to tell. We do not have much trouble in seeking it, it comes to us of itself. It takes us in its kindly arms, quiets and comforts us, repairs and refreshes us, and turns us out in the morning quite like new people. Sleep is necessary to life and health. We crave it as urgently as we do food or drink. In our waking hours, rest is obtained only at short intervals; the muscles, the nerves, and the brain are in full activity. Repair goes on every moment, whether we are awake or asleep; but during the waking hours the waste of the tissues is far ahead of the repair, while during sleep the repair exceeds the waste. Hence a need of rest which at regular intervals causes all parts of the bodily machinery to be run at their lowest rate. In other words, we are put to sleep. Sleep is more or less sound, according to circumstances. Fatigue, if not too great, aids it; idleness lessens it. Anxious thought, and pain, and even anticipated pleasure, may keep us awake. Hence we should not go to bed with the brain excited or too active. We should read some pleasant book, laugh, talk, sing, or take a brisk walk, or otherwise rest the brain for half an hour before going to bed. The best time for sleep is during the silence and darkness of night. People who have to work nights, and to sleep during the day, have a strained and wearied look. The amount of sleep needed depends upon the temperament of each individual. Some require little sleep, while others need a great deal. Eight hours of sleep for an adult, and from ten to twelve hours for children and old people is about the average amount required. Some of the greatest men in history are known to have been light sleepers. Most of the world's great workers took a goodly amount of sleep, however. Sir Walter Scott, the great writer, took eight hours of sleep, and so did the famous philosopher Emanuel Kant. Children need more sleep than grown people. They should retire early and sleep until they awake in the morning. When fairly awake we should get up. Dozing is unhealthful, especially for young people. "Early to bed and early to rise, Makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise." LESSON XXVI CURIOUS BIRDS' NESTS Among the most curious nests are those made by the birds called weavers. These feathered workmen serve no apprenticeship; their trade comes to them by nature; and how well they work at it! But then you must admit that Nature is a skillful teacher and birds are apt scholars. The Baltimore oriole is a weaver, and it makes its nest out of bark, fine grass, moss, and wool, strengthening it, when circumstances permit, with pieces of string or horse-hair. This nest, pouch-shaped, and open at the top, is fastened to the branch of a tree, and sometimes is interwoven with the twigs of a waving bough. The threads of grass and long fibers of moss are woven together, in and out, as if by machinery; and it seems hard to believe that the little birds can do such work without help. The tailor-bird of India makes a still more curious nest: it actually sews, using its long, slender bill as a needle. Birds that fly, birds that run, birds that swim, and birds that sing are by no means rare; but birds that sew, seem like the wonderful birds in the fairy-tales. Yet they really exist, and make their odd nests with great care and skill. They pick out a leaf large enough for their nest, and pierce rows of holes along the edges with their sharp bill; then, with the fibers of a plant or long threads of grass, they sew the leaf up into a bag. Sometimes it is necessary to sew two leaves together, that the space within may be large enough. This kind of sewing resembles shoemakers' or saddlers' work; but, the leaf being like fine cloth and not like leather, perhaps the name "tailor-bird" is the most appropriate for the little worker. The bag is lined with soft, downy material, and in this the tiny eggs are laid--tiny indeed, for the tailor-bird is no larger than the hummingbird. The weight of the little creature does not even draw down the nest, and the leaf in which the eggs or young birds are hidden looks like the other leaves on the trees; so that there is nothing to attract the attention of the forest robbers. Another bird, called the Indian sparrow, makes her nest of grass-woven cloth and shaped like a bottle. The neck of the bottle hangs downward, and the bird enters from below. This structure, swinging from a high tree, over a river, is safe from the visits of mischievous animals. Is it any wonder, then, that birds and their nests have always been a source of delight to thinking man? With no tools but their tiny feet and sharp little bills, these feathered songsters build their habitat, more cunningly and artfully than any artisan could hope to do even after a long apprenticeship. SELECTION X THE HUNTERS In the bright October morning Savoy's Duke had left his bride. From the Castle, past the drawbridge, Flowed the hunters' merry tide. Steeds are neighing, gallants glittering Gay, her smiling lord to greet, From her splendid chamber casement Smiles the Duchess Marguerite. From Vienna by the Danube Here she came, a bride, in spring, Now the autumn crisps the forest; Hunters gather, bugles ring. Hark! the game's on foot; they scatter; Down the forest riding lone, Furious, single horsemen gallop. Hark! a shout--a crash--a groan! Pale and breathless, came the hunters; On the turf, dead lies the boar, But the Duke lies stretched beside him, Senseless, weltering in his gore. In the dull October evening, Down the leaf-strewn forest road, To the Castle, past the drawbridge, Came the hunters with their load. In the hall, with torches blazing, Ladies waiting round her seat, Clothed in smiles, beneath the dais Sat the Duchess Marguerite. Hark! below the gates unbarring, Tramp of men and quick commands. "'Tis my lord come back from hunting," And the Duchess claps her hands. Slow and tired, came the hunters; Stopped in darkness in the court.-- "Ho! this way, ye laggard hunters. To the hall! What sport, what sport?" Slow they entered with their Master; In the hall they laid him down; On his coat were leaves and blood-stains, On his brow an angry frown. Dead her princely, youthful husband Lay before his youthful wife; Bloody 'neath the flaring torches: And the sight froze all her life. In Vienna by the Danube Kings hold revel, gallants meet; Gay of old amid the gayest Was the Duchess Marguerite. In Vienna by the Danube Feast and dance her youth beguiled. Till that hour she never sorrowed; But from then she never smiled. _Matthew Arnold_. WISE SAYINGS A room hung with pictures is a room hung with thoughts. A fig for your bill of fare. Show me your bill of company. Let us raise a standard to which the wise and honest can repair. No evil can befall a good man, either in life or death. It is well to think well; it is divine to act well. They are never alone who are accompanied with noble, true thoughts. We find in life exactly what we put into it. Too much rest is rust. Order is heaven's first law. The difference between one boy and another is not so much in talent as in energy. LESSON XXVII BUSINESS QUALIFICATIONS Attention, application, accuracy, method, punctuality and dispatch are the principal qualities required for the efficient conduct of business of any sort. It is the precept of every day's experience that steady attention to matters of detail lies at the root of human progress, and that diligence, above all, is the mother of what is erroneously called "good luck." A French statesman, being asked how he contrived to accomplish so much work, and at the same time attend to his social duties, replied, "I do it simply by never postponing till to-morrow what should be done to-day." It was said of an unsuccessful public man that he used to reverse this process, his maxim being, "never to transact to-day what could be postponed till to-morrow." But bear in mind this: there may be success in life without success in business. The merchant who failed, but who afterward recovered his fortune, and then spent it in paying his creditors their demands in full, principal and interest, thus leaving himself a poor man, had a glorious success: while he who failed, paid his creditors ten cents only on a dollar, and afterward rode in his carriage and occupied a magnificent mansion, was sorrowfully looked on by angels and by honest men as lamentably unsuccessful. True success in life is success in building up a pure, honest, energetic character--in so shaping our habits, our thoughts, and our aspirations as to best qualify us for a higher life. LESSON XXVIII ABBREVIATIONS OF NAMES OF STATES Ala. Alabama, Mont. Montana, Alaska. Alaska, Nebr. Nebraska, Ariz. Arizona, Nev. Nevada, Ark. Arkansas (sa), N. H. New Hampshire, Cal. California, N. J. New Jersey, Colo. Colorado, N. Mex. New Mexico, Conn. Connecticut, N. Y. New York, Del. Delaware, N. C. North Carolina, Fla. Florida, N. Dak. North Dakota, Ga. Georgia, O. Ohio, Idaho. Idaho, Okla. Oklahoma, Ill. Illinois (noi), Ore. Oregon, Ind. Indiana, Pa. Pennsylvania, Ind. T. Indian Ter., R. I. Rhode Island, Ia. Iowa, S. C. South Carolina, Kans. Kansas, S. Dak. South Dakota, Ky. Kentucky, Tenn. Tennessee, La. Louisiana, Tex. Texas, Me. Maine, Utah. Utah, Md. Maryland (mer) Vt. Vermont, Mass. Massachusetts Va. Virginia, Mich. Michigan, Wash. Washington, Minn. Minnesota, W. Va. West Virginia, Miss. Mississippi, Wis. Wisconsin, Mo. Missouri, Wyo. Wyoming. *The words Utah, Idaho and Alaska are not abbreviated. SELECTION XI MY FATHERLAND There is a land, of every land the pride, Beloved by Heaven o'er all the world beside, Where brighter suns dispense serener light, And milder moons imparadise the night. O land of beauty, virtue, valor, truth, Time-tutored age, and love-exalted youth! The wandering mariner, whose eye explores The wealthiest isles, the most enchanting shores, Views not a realm so bountiful and fair, Nor breathes the spirit of a purer air. In every clime, the magnet of his soul, Touched by remembrance, trembles to that pole; For, in this land of Heaven's peculiar race, The heritage of nature's noblest grace, There is a spot of earth supremely blest, A dearer, sweeter spot than all the rest, Where man, creation's tyrant, casts aside His sword and scepter, pageantry and pride, While, in his softened looks, benignly blend The sire, the son, the husband, brother, friend. Here woman reigns; the mother, daughter, wife, Strew with fresh flowers the narrow way of life; In the clear heaven of her delightful eye, An angel guard of love and graces lie; Around her knees domestic duties meet, And fireside pleasures gambol at her feet. "Where shall that land, that spot of earth be found?" Art thou a man?--a patriot?--look round; Oh, thou shalt find, howe'er thy footsteps roam, That land thy country, and that spot thy home. _James Montgomery_. LESSON XXIX THE SUN How far away from us is the sun? Are we to answer just as we think, or just as we know? On a fine summer day, when we can see him clearly, it looks as if a short trip in a balloon might take us to his throne in the sky, yet we know--because the astronomers tell us so--that he is more than ninety-one millions of miles distant from our earth. Ninety-one millions of miles! It is not easy even to imagine this distance; but let us fancy ourselves in an express-train going sixty miles an hour without making a single stop. At that flying rate we could travel from the earth to the sun in one hundred and seventy-one years,--that is, if we had a road to run on and time to spare for the journey. Arriving at the palace of the sun, we might then have some idea of his size. A learned Greek who lived more than two thousand years ago thought the sun about as large as the Peloponnesus; if he had lived in our country, he might have said, "About as large as Massachusetts." As large as their peninsula! The other Greeks laughed at him for believing that the shining ball was so vast. How astonished they would have been--yes, and the wise man too--if they had been told that the brilliant lord of the day was more than a million times as large as the whole world! LESSON XXX IVORY How many articles are made of ivory! Here is a polished knife-handle, and there a strangely-carved paper-cutter. In the same shop may be found albums and prayer-books with ivory covers; and, not far away, penholders, curious toys, and parasol-handles, all made of the glossy white material. Where ivory is abundant, chairs of state, and even thrones are made of it; and in Russia, in the palaces of the great, floors inlaid with ivory help to beautify the grand apartments. One African sultan has a whole fence of elephants' tusks around his royal residence; the residence itself is straw-roofed and barbarous enough, both in design and in structure. Yet imagine that ivory fence! The elephants slain in Africa and India in the course of a year could not furnish half the ivory used in the great markets of the world during that time. Vienna, Paris, London and St. Petersburg keep the elephant-hunters busy, yet it is impossible for them to satisfy all the demands made upon them, and the ivory-diggers must be called upon to add to the supply. Every spring, when the ice begins to thaw, new mines or deposits of fossil ivory--a perfect treasure of mammoths' tusks--are discovered in the marsh-lands of Eastern Siberia. There are no mammoths now--unless we call elephants by that name; yet their remains have been found upon both continents. In the year 1799, the perfect skeleton of one of these animals was found in an ice-bank near the mouth of a Siberian river. As the vast ice-field thawed, the remains of the huge animal came to light. The traders who search for mammoths' tusks around the Arctic coasts of Asia make every effort to send off, each year, at least fifty thousand pounds of fossil ivory to the west along the great caravan road. So great is the demand, however, that this quantity, added to that sent by the elephant-hunters, is not large enough to make ivory cheap in trade or in manufacture. SELECTION XII WOODMAN, SPARE THAT TREE Woodman, spare that tree! Touch not a single bough! In youth it sheltered me, And I'll protect it now. 'Twas my forefather's hand That placed it near his cot: There, woodman, let it stand; Thy ax shall harm it not. That old familiar tree, Whose glory and renown Are spread o'er land and sea,-- And wouldst thou hew it down? Woodman, forbear thy stroke! Cut not its earthbound ties! Oh, spare that aged oak, Now towering to the skies! When but an idle boy I sought its grateful shade; In all their gushing joy, Here, too, my sisters played. My mother kissed me here, My father pressed my hand: Forgive this foolish tear, But let that old oak stand. My heart-strings round thee cling, Close as thy bark, old friend; Here shall the wild bird sing, And still thy branches bend. Old tree, the storm still brave! And, woodman, leave the spot! While I've a hand to save, Thy ax shall harm it not. _George P. Morris_. LESSON XXXI FLOWERS He who cannot appreciate floral beauty is to be pitied, like any other man who is born imperfect. It is a misfortune not unlike blindness. But men who reject flowers as effeminate and unworthy of manhood reveal a positive coarseness. Many persons lose all enjoyment of many flowers by indulging false associations. There are some who think that no weed can be of interest as a flower. But all flowers are weeds where they grow wild and in abundance; and somewhere our rarest flowers are somebody's commonest. And generally there is a disposition to undervalue common flowers. There are few that will trouble themselves to examine minutely a blossom that they have often seen and neglected; and yet if they would question such flowers and commune with them, they would often be surprised to find extreme beauty where it had long been overlooked. It is not impertinent to offer flowers to a stranger. The poorest child can proffer them to the richest. A hundred persons turned into a meadow full of flowers would be drawn together in a transient brotherhood. It is affecting to see how serviceable flowers often are to the necessities of the poor. If they bring their little floral gift to you, it cannot but touch your heart to think that their grateful affection longed to express itself as much as yours. You have books, or gems, or services that you can render as you will. The poor can give but little and can do but little. Were it not for flowers, they would be shut out from those exquisite pleasures which spring from such gifts. I never take one from a child, or from the poor, without thanking God, in their behalf, for flowers. LESSON XXXII THE MOSQUITO Mosquitoes are found in many parts of the world where there are pools of water. They swarm along the rivers of the sunny south and by the lakes of the far north. The life of one of these troublesome little fellows is well worth some attention. Did you ever hear about the little boats that they build? They lay their eggs on the water, in which the sun's warmth hatches them out. The insect leaves the water a full-fledged mosquito ready to annoy man and beast with its sting. The eyes of this insect are remarkable. They are so large that they cover the larger part of the head. Its feelers are very delicate, and look as if they were made of the finest feathers. Its wings are very pretty, and with them it makes a humming noise. The organ, which the female mosquito alone employs on her victims, is called a trunk, or proboscis. This trunk is a tube, inside of which is a bundle of stings with very sharp points. When she settles on your face or hands, she pierces the skin, extracts some blood, and at the same time injects a little poison; this produces the feeling which proves so annoying. LESSON XXXIII SELF-RELIANCE Of all the elements of success none is more vital than self-reliance,--a determination to be one's own helper, and not to look to others for support. It is the secret of all individual growth and vigor, the master-key that unlocks all difficulties in every profession or calling. "Help yourself, and Heaven will help you," should be the motto of every man who would make himself useful in the world. He who begins with crutches will generally end with crutches. Help from within always strengthens, but help from without invariably enfeebles. It is said that a lobster, when left high and dry among the rocks, has not instinct and energy enough to work his way back to the sea, but waits for the sea to come to him. If it does not come, he remains where he is and dies, although the slightest effort would enable him to reach the waves. The world is full of human lobsters,--men stranded on the rocks of business, who, instead of putting forth their energy, are waiting for some grand billow of good fortune to set them afloat. There are many young men, who, instead of carrying their own burdens, are always dreaming of some Hercules, in the shape of a rich uncle, or some other benevolent relative, coming to give them a "lift." In ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, pecuniary help to a beginner is not a blessing, but a calamity. Under the appearance of aiding, it weakens its victims, and keeps them in perpetual slavery and degradation. Let every young man have faith in himself, and take an earnest hold of life, scorning all props and buttresses, all crutches and life-preservers. Instead of wielding the rusted swords of valorous forefathers, let him forge his own weapons; and, mindful of the Providence over him, let him fight his own battles with his own good lance. SELECTION XIII PRAYER IN BATTLE Father, I call to Thee. Roaring enshrouds me, the din of the battle, Round me like lightning the leaping shots rattle. Leader of battles, I call to Thee. Father, Thou lead me. Father, Thou lead me. Lead me to victory, lead me to death; Lord, at Thy pleasure I offer my breath. Lord, as Thou wilt, so lead me. God, I acknowledge Thee. God, I acknowledge Thee. So when the thunders of battle are breaking, As when the leaves of the autumn are shaking, Fountain of grace, I acknowledge Thee. Father, Thou bless me. Father, Thou bless me. Into Thine hand I my being resign; Thou didst bestow it--to take it be Thine. Living and dying, O bless me. Father, I honor Thee. Father, I honor Thee. Not for earth's riches unsheath we the sword; 'Tis our hearts we protect; 'tis Thy temples, O Lord; So railing or conquering, I honor Thee. To Thee, God, I yield me. To thee, God, I yield me. Round me when death's fiery tempest is rushing, When from my veins the red currents are gushing, To Thee, O my God, do I yield me. Father, I call to Thee. _Theo. Körner_. LESSON XXXIV FRANKLIN'S TOAST Long after Washington's judicious and intrepid conduct in respect to the French and English had made his name familiar to all Europe, Dr. Franklin chanced to dine with the English and French ambassadors, when the following toasts were given:-- The British ambassador, rising, said: "England,--the sun whose bright beams enlighten and fertilize the remotest corners of the earth." The French ambassador, glowing with national pride, but too polite to dispute the previous toast, said: "France,--the moon whose mild, steady, and cheering rays are the delight of all nations, consoling them in darkness, and making their dreariness beautiful." Dr. Franklin then arose, and, with his usual dignified simplicity, said: "George Washington,--the Joshua who commanded the sun and moon to stand still, and they obeyed him." LESSON XXXV HUMANITY REWARDED Joseph the Second, Emperor of Germany, once received a petition in favor of a poor old officer, with a family of ten children, who was reduced to the utmost poverty. After making inquiries respecting the man, and satisfying himself of his worth, the Emperor determined to judge of his necessities by personal observation. Accordingly he went alone to the house of the officer, whom he found seated at table, with eleven children around him, dining upon vegetables of his own planting. The Emperor, who was disguised as a private citizen, after some general conversation with the officer, said: "I heard you had ten children, but I see here eleven." "This," replied the officer, pointing to one, "is a poor orphan, whom I found at my door. I have endeavored to obtain for him the assistance of persons who could better afford to provide for him, but have not been able to succeed; and of course, I could do no better than share my little portion with him." The Emperor, admiring the generous humanity of the poor man, immediately made himself known to him, and said, "I desire that all these children may be my pensioners, and that you will continue to give them examples of virtue and honor. "I grant you one hundred florins per annum. for each, and also, an addition of two hundred florins to your pension. Go tomorrow to my treasurer, where you will receive the first quarter's payment, together with a lieutenant's commission for your eldest son. Henceforth I will be the father of all the family." LESSON XXXVI WORK PROCLAIMS A WORKMAN A certain baron had an only son, who was not only a comfort to his father, but a blessing to all who lived on his father's land. Once, when the young man was away from home, a gentleman called to see his father, and using the name of God irreverently, the good old baron reproved him. "Are you not afraid," said he, "of offending the great Being who reigns above, by thus using His name in vain?" The gentleman said he neither feared nor believed in a being he could not see. The next morning the baron showed the gentleman a beautiful painting that adorned his hall. The gentleman admired the picture very much, and, when told by the baron that his son painted it, said: "Your son is an excellent painter." The baron then took his visitor into the garden, and showed him many beautiful flowers, arranged in the most perfect order. "Who has the direction of this garden?" said the gentleman. "My son," said the baron. "Indeed," said the gentleman; "I begin to think he is something uncommon." The baron then took him into the village, and showed him a small, neat cottage, where his son had established a school, in which a hundred orphans were fed and taught at his expense. "What a happy man you are," said the gentleman, "to have so good a son!" "How do you know that I have so good a son?" replied the baron. "Because I have seen his works," said the gentleman, "and I know he must be talented and good." "But you have never seen him," said the baron. "I have seen what he has done, and am disposed to love him, without having seen him," said the gentleman. "Can you see anything from that window?" asked the baron. "The landscape is beautiful," said the gentleman; "the golden sun, the mighty river, the vast forest, are admirable. How lovely, and pleasant and cheerful, every object appears!" "How happens it," said the baron, "that you could see such proof of my son's existence, in the imperfect work of his hands, and yet you can see no proof of the existence of a Creator, in the wonders and beauties which are now before you? Let me never hear you say again that you believe not in the existence of God, unless you would have me think that you have lost the use of your reason." LESSON XXXVII REPUBLICS The name Republic is written upon the oldest monuments of mankind. It has been connected in all ages with the noble and the great in art and letters. It might be asked, what land has ever felt the influence of liberty, that has not flourished like the spring? With regard to ourselves, we can truly say that we live under a form of government the equal of which the world has never seen. Is it, then, nothing to be free? How many nations in the history of the world have proved themselves worthy of being so? Were all men as enlightened, as brave and as self-respecting as they ought to be, would they suffer themselves to be insulted by any other form of government than a republic? Can anything be more striking or more sublime, than the idea of a republic like ours; which spreads over a territory far more extensive than that of the ancient Roman empire? And upon what is this great and glorious combination of states, so admirably united, really founded? It is founded upon the maxims of common sense and reason, without military despotism or monarchical domination of any kind. The people simply govern themselves, and the government is of the people, by the people and for the people. FREEDOM OF THOUGHT We must have an end of all persecution of ideas. I condemn the government of France and Prussia when they oppress the Jesuits. I condemn the government of Russia when it oppresses the Jews. I affirm that to persecute ideas is like persecuting light, air, electricity, or the magnetic fluid. Ideas escape all persecution. When repressed they explode like powder. LESSON XXXVIII FALSE NOTIONS OF LIBERTY People talk of liberty as if it meant the liberty of doing what a man likes. The only liberty that a man should ask for is the privilege of removing all restrictions that prevent his doing what he ought to do. I call that man free who is able to rule himself. I call him free who has his flesh in subjection to his spirit; who fears doing wrong, but who fears nothing else. I call that man free who has learned that liberty consists in obedience to the power and to the will and to the law that his higher soul approves. He is not free because he does what he likes, but he is free because he does what he ought. Some people think there is no liberty in obedience. I tell you there is no liberty except in loyal obedience. Did you ever see a mother kept at home, a kind of prisoner, by her sick child, obeying its every wish and caprice? Will you call that mother a slave? Or is this obedience the obedience of slavery? I call it the obedience of the highest liberty--the liberty of love. We hear in these days a great deal respecting rights: the rights of private judgment, the rights of labor, the rights, of property, and the rights of man. I cannot see anything manly in the struggle between rich and poor; the one striving to take as much, and the other to keep as much, as he can. The cry of "My rights, your duties," we should change to something nobler. If we can say "My duties, your rights," we shall learn what real liberty is. LESSON XXXIX THE VOICE A good voice has a charm in speech as in song. The voice, like the face, betrays the nature and disposition, and soon indicates what is the range of the speaker's mind. Many people have no ear for music; but everyone has an ear for skillful reading. Every one of us has at some time been the victim of a cunning voice, and perhaps been repelled once for all by a harsh, mechanical speaker. The voice, indeed, is a delicate index of the state of mind. What character, what infinite variety, belongs to the voice! Sometimes it is a flute, sometimes a trip-hammer; what a range of force! In moments of clearer thought or deeper sympathy, the voice will attain a music and penetration which surprise the speaker as much as the hearer. LESSON XL THE INTREPID YOUTH It was a calm, sunny day in the year 1750; the scene a piece of forest land in the north of Virginia, near a noble stream of water. Implements for surveying were lying about, and several men composed a party engaged in laying out the wild lands of the country. These persons had apparently just finished their dinner. Apart from the group walked a young man of a tall and compact frame. He moved with the elastic tread of one accustomed to constant exercise in the open air. His countenance wore a look of decision and manliness not usually found in one so young. Suddenly there was a shriek, then another, and several in rapid succession. The voice was that of a woman, and seemed to proceed from the other side of a dense thicket. At the first scream, the youth turned his head in the direction of the sound. When it was repeated, he pushed aside the undergrowth and, quickening his footsteps, he soon dashed into an open space on the bank of the stream, where stood a rude log cabin. It was but the work of a moment for the young man to make his way through the crowd and confront the woman. The instant her eye fell on him, she exclaimed: "Oh, sir, you will do something for me. Make them release me, for the love of God. My boy, my poor boy is drowning, and they will not let me go." "It would be madness; she will jump into the river," said one, "and the rapids would dash her to pieces in a moment." The youth scarcely waited for these words, for he recollected the child, a fine little boy of four years old, who was a favorite with all who knew him. He had been accustomed to play in the little inclosure before the cabin, but the gate having been left open, he had stolen out, reached the edge of the bank, and was in the act of looking over, when his mother saw him. The shriek she uttered only hastened the catastrophe she feared; for the child lost its balance, and fell into the stream. Scream now followed scream in rapid succession, as the agonized mother rushed to the bank. One glance at the situation was enough. To take off his coat and plunge in after the drowning child were but the actions of a moment. On went the youth and child; and it was miraculous how each escaped being dashed to pieces against the rocks. Twice the boy went out of sight, and a suppressed shriek escaped the mother's lips; but twice he reappeared, and with great anxiety she followed his progress, as his tiny form was hurried onward with the current. The youth now appeared to redouble his exertions, for they were approaching the most dangerous part of the river. The rush of the waters at this spot was tremendous, and no one ventured to approach, even in a canoe, lest he should be dashed in pieces. What, then, would be the youth's fate, unless he soon overtook the child? He urged his way through the foaming current with desperate strength. Three times he was on the point of grasping the child, when the waters whirled the prize from him. The third effort was made above the fall; and when it failed, the mother groaned, fully expecting the youth to give up his task. But no; he only pressed forward the more eagerly. And now, like an arrow from the bow, pursuer and pursued shot to the brink of the precipice. An instant they hung there, distinctly visible amid the foaming waters. Every brain grew dizzy at the sight. But a shout of exultation burst from the spectators, when they saw the boy held aloft by the right arm of the young hero. And thus he brought the child back to the distracted mother. With a most fervent blessing, she thanked the young man for his heroic deed. And was this blessing heard? Most assuredly; for the self-sacrificing spirit which characterized the life of this youth was none other than that of George Washington, the First President of the United States. LESSON XLI AUTUMN September has come. The fierce heat of summer is gone. Men are at work in the fields cutting down the yellow grain, and binding it up into sheaves. The fields of corn stand in thick ranks, heavy with ears. The boughs of the orchard hang low with the red and golden fruit. Laughing boys are picking up the purple plums and the red-cheeked peaches that have fallen in the high grass. Large, rich melons are on the garden vines, and sweet grapes hang in clusters by the wall. The larks with their black and yellow breasts stand watching you on the close-mown meadow. As you come near, they spring up, fly a little distance, and light again. The robins, that long ago left the gardens, feed in flocks upon the red berries of the sumac, and the soft-eyed pigeons are with them to claim their share. The lazy blackbirds follow the cows and pick up crickets and other insects. At noon, the air is still, mild, and soft. You see blue smoke off by the distant wood and hills. The brook is almost dry. The water runs over the pebbles with a soft, low murmur. The goldenrod is on the hill, the aster by the brook, and the sunflower in the garden. The twitter of the birds is still heard. The sheep graze upon the brown hillside. The merry whistle of the plowboy comes up from the field, and the cow lows in the distant pasture. As the sun sinks in the October haze, the low, south wind creeps over the dry tree-tops, and the leaves fall in showers upon the ground. The sun sinks lower, and lower, and is gone; but his bright beams still linger in the west. Then the evening star is seen shining with a soft, mellow light, and the moon rises slowly in the still and hazy air. November comes. The flowers are all dead. The grass is pale and white. The wind has blown the dry leaves into heaps. The timid rabbit treads softly on the dry leaves. The crow calls from the high tree-top. The sound of dropping nuts is heard in the wood. Children go out morning and evening to gather nuts for the winter. The busy little squirrels will be sure to get their share. SELECTION XIV THE RETORT One day, a rich man, flushed with pride and wine, Sitting with guests at table, all quite merry, Conceived it would be vastly fine To crack a joke upon his secretary. "Young man," said he, "by what art, craft, or trade Did your good father earn his livelihood?" "He was a saddler, sir," the young man said; "And in his line was always reckoned good." "A saddler, eh? and had you stuffed with Greek, Instead of teaching you like him to sew? And pray, sir, why did not your father make A saddler, too, of you?" At this each flatterer, as in duty bound, The joke applauded, and the laugh went round. At length the secretary, bowing low, Said (craving pardon if too free he made), "Sir, by your leave I fain would know Your father's trade." "My father's trade? Why, sir, but that's too bad! My father's trade? Why, blockhead, art thou mad? My, father, sir, was never brought so low: He was a gentleman, I'd have you know." "Indeed! excuse the liberty I take; But if your story's true, How happened it your father did not make A gentleman of you?" _G. P. Morris_. LESSON XLII WORDS AND THEIR MEANING I tell you earnestly, you must get into the habit of looking intensely at words, and assuring yourself of their meaning, syllable by syllable, nay, letter by letter. You might read all the books in the British Museum, if you could live long enough, and remain an utterly illiterate, uneducated person; but if you read ten pages of a good book, letter by letter,--that is to say, with real accuracy,--you are forevermore, in some measure, an educated person. The entire difference between education and non-education (as regards the merely intellectual part of it) consists in this accuracy. A well-educated gentleman may not know many languages, may not be able to speak any but his own, may have read very few books; but whatever word he pronounces, he pronounces rightly. An ordinarily clever and sensible seaman will be able to make his way ashore at most ports; yet he has only to speak a sentence to be known for an illiterate person; so also the accent, or turn of expression of a single sentence, will at once mark a scholar. Let the accent of words be watched, and closely; let their meaning be watched more closely still. A few words, well chosen, will do the work that a thousand cannot do, when every one of those few is acting properly, in the function of one another. LESSON XLIII HOW TO SELECT A BOY A gentleman advertised for a boy, and nearly fifty applicants presented themselves to him. Out of the whole number he selected one and dismissed the rest. "I should like to know," said a friend, "on what ground you selected that boy, who had not a single recommendation?" "You are mistaken," said the gentleman; "he has a great many. He wiped his feet when he came in, and closed the door after him, showing that he was careful. He gave his seat instantly to that lame old man, showing that he was thoughtful. He took off his cap when he came in and answered my questions promptly, showing that he was gentlemanly. "He picked up the book which I had purposely laid on the floor and replaced it on the table, and he waited quietly for his turn, instead of pushing and crowding; showing that he was honorable and orderly. When I talked to him I noticed that his clothes were brushed and his hair in order. When he wrote his name I noticed that his finger-nails were clean. "Don't you call those things letters of recommendation? I do; and I would give more for what I can tell about a boy by using my eyes ten minutes than for all the letters he can bring me." LESSON XLIV SALT Salt is an every-day article, so common that we rarely give it a thought; yet, like most common things, it is useful enough to be ranked among the necessaries of life. "I could not live without salt," would sound to us exaggerated in the mouth of any one. Have you ever fancied that you could do without it? How would meat taste without salt? Would not much of our vegetable food be insipid, if we neglected this common seasoning? And even the "daily bread" demands its share. Where is this salt found, that we prize so little, yet need so much? The sea furnishes some, and salt-mines and salt-springs give the rest. Most of the salt used in this country is obtained from the water of certain springs. Among the richest of these springs are those at Salina, now a part of the city of Syracuse, New York. Forty gallons of water from these wells yield one bushel of salt. LESSON XLV STUDIES Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. Their chief use for delight is in privateness; for ornament, in discourse; and for ability in the judgment and disposition of business. To spend too much time in studies is sloth; to use them too much for ornament is affectation; to make judgment wholly by their rules is the humor of a scholar. Crafty men contemn studies; simple men admire them; and wise men use them. Read not to contradict and confute, or to believe and take for granted, or to find talk and discourse, but to weigh and consider. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested; that is, some books are to be read only in parts; others to be read, but not curiously; and some few to be read wholly, and with diligence and attention. Reading makes a full man; conference, a ready man; and writing, an exact man. SELECTION XV A PSALM OF LIFE Tell me not, in mournful numbers, "Life is but an empty dream!" For the soul is dead that slumbers, And things are not what they seem. Life is real! Life is earnest! And the grave is not its goal; "Dust thou art, to dust returnest," Was not spoken of the soul. Not enjoyment, and not sorrow, Is our destined end or way, But to act, that each to-morrow Find us farther than to-day. Art is long, and Time is fleeting; And our hearts, though strong and brave, Still, like muffled drums, are beating Funeral marches to the grave. In the world's broad field of battle, In the bivouac of life, Be not like dumb, driven cattle, Be a hero in the strife. Trust no future, however pleasant; Let the dead past bury its dead: Act,--act in the living present, Heart within, and God o'erhead. Lives of great men all remind us We can make our lives sublime, And, departing, leave behind us Footprints on the sands of time. Footprints, that perhaps another, Sailing o'er life's solemn main, A forlorn and shipwrecked brother, Seeing, shall take heart again. Let us then be up and doing, With a heart for any fate; Still achieving, still pursuing, Learn to labor and to wait. _H. W. Longfellow_. LESSON XLVI RULES OF BEHAVIOR Every action in company ought to be done with some sign of respect to those present. In presence of others, sing not to yourself with a humming noise, nor drum with your fingers or feet. Speak not when others speak; sit not when others stand; speak not when you should hold your peace; walk not when others stop. Turn not your back to others, especially in speaking; jog not the table or desk on which another reads or writes; lean not on any one. Be no flatterer; neither play with any one that delights not to be played with. Read no letters, books, or papers, in company; but when there is a necessity for doing it, you must ask leave. Come not near the books or writings of any one so as to read them, unless desired. When another speaks, be attentive yourself, and disturb not the audience. If any one hesitates in his words, help him not, nor prompt him, without being desired; interrupt him not, nor answer him till his speech is ended. Be not curious to know the affairs of others, neither approach to those that speak in private. Make no show of taking great delight in your victuals; feed not with greediness; lean not on the table; neither find fault with what you eat. Let your discourses with men of business be short. Be not immoderate in urging your friend to discover a secret. Speak not in an unknown tongue in company, but in your own language, and as those of quality do, and not as the vulgar. LESSON XLVII USING THE EYES The difference between men consists, in great measure, in the intelligence of their observation. The Russian proverb says of the non-observant man, "He goes through the forest and sees no firewood." "Sir," said Johnson, on one occasion, to a fine gentleman, just returned from Italy, "some men will learn more in the Hampstead stage than others in the tour of Europe." It is the mind that sees as well as the eye. Many, before Galileo, had seen a suspended weight swing before their eyes with a measured beat; but he was the first to detect the value of the fact. One of the vergers in the cathedral at Pisa, after filling with oil a lamp which swung from the roof, left it swinging to and fro. Galileo, then a youth of only eighteen, noting it attentively, conceived the idea of applying it to the measurement of time. Fifty years of study and labor, however, elapsed before he completed the invention of his pendulum,--an invention the importance of which, in the measurement of time and in astronomical calculations, can scarcely be overvalued. While Captain Brown was occupied in studying the construction of bridges, he was walking in his garden one dewy morning, when he saw a tiny spider's-net suspended across his path. The idea occurred to him, that a bridge of iron ropes might be constructed in like manner, and the result was the invention of his Suspension Bridge. So trifling a matter as a straw may indicate which way the wind blows. It is the close observation of little things which is the secret of success in business, in art, in science and in every other pursuit in life. LESSON XLVIII THE AFFECTION AND REVERENCE DUE A MOTHER What an awful state of mind must a man have attained, when he can despise a mother's counsel! Her name is identified with every idea that can subdue the sternest mind; that can suggest the most profound respect, the deepest and most heartfelt attachment, the most unlimited obedience. It brings to the mind the first human being that loved us, the first guardian that protected us, the first friend that cherished us; who watched with anxious care over infant life, whilst yet we were unconscious of our being; whose days and nights were rendered wearisome by her anxious cares for our welfare; whose eager eye followed us through every path we took; who gloried in our honor; who sickened in heart at our shame; who loved and mourned, when others reviled and scorned; and whose affection for us survives the wreck of every other feeling within. When her voice is raised to inculcate religion, or to reprehend irregularity, it possesses unnumbered claims of attention, respect and obedience. She fills the place of the eternal God; by her lips that God is speaking; in her counsels He is conveying the most solemn admonitions; and to disregard such counsel, to despise such interference, to sneer at the wisdom that addresses you, or the aged piety that seeks to reform you, is the surest and the shortest path which the devil himself could have opened for your perdition. I know no grace that can have effect; I know not any authority upon earth to which you will listen, when once you have brought yourself to reject such advice. USEFUL INFORMATION The officials and clerks by whom the people's business in the administration of the government is carried on, constitute the Civil Service. About five thousand of these officials are appointed by the President alone or with the consent of the Senate; about fifteen to twenty thousand more are appointed under what is known as the "Civil-Service Rules," and the remainder of our office-holders are appointed by heads of departments. Competitive examinations for admission to the Civil Service are held at regular intervals by a Board of Examiners in each of the principal cities of the United States. Men and women receive the same pay for the same work in government service. The salary of the President of the United States is $75,000 a year. The Vice-president receives $8,000; Cabinet officers, $8,000; Senators, $5,000 and mileage. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court receives $10,500. Ministers to foreign nations receive from $5,000 to $18,000 annually. The amount varies with the importance of the post. The total number of Indians in the United States is about 250,000, Alaska not included. The most numerous tribes are the Cherokee and Choctaw Indians. The Apaches are the most savage. About half of the Indian tribes are now partly civilized and are self-supporting. WISE SAYINGS The first business of a state is the education of its citizens. Every child has a right to the best education. The highest motive of school government is to give the child the power and necessary reason to control himself. We have no right to teach anything that does not go through the intellect and reach the heart. Kindness is the golden chain by which society is bound together. LESSON XLIX WHEAT Wheat was unknown in America till it was brought over by Europeans, but it is now grown to an immense extent in the temperate regions of both North and South America. Our country is the greatest wheat granary in the world. The production of this grain in the United States is over five hundred millions of bushels a year. The great "wheat belt" of the United States is in the Northwest,--in Iowa, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota and the neighboring states. California also is a splendid country for this cereal, and California's wheat crop is every year worth more than were ever her stores of gold. People who live in cities and towns get their bread for the most part at the baker's; so that in many families the good old art of bread-making is almost forgotten. Then it must be said that it is the exception rather than the rule when one finds really good home-made bread. This is a great pity. Now, let me add one hint for the benefit of the girls. In the English language there is no nobler word than _Lady_. But go back to its origin, and what do we find that it means? We find that it means _She that looks after the loaf_. WISE SAYINGS Shallow men believe in luck; strong men in pluck. If there is honor among thieves, they stole it. Have a time and place for everything, and do everything in its time and place. You will never find time for anything. If you want time, you must make it. You will always find those men the most forward to do good, or to improve the times, who are always busy. Trifles make perfection, yet perfection is no trifle. LESSON L COUNTENANCE AND CHARACTER We know men by their looks; we read men by looking at their faces--not at their features, their eyes, their lips, because God made these; but a certain cast of motion, and shape and expression, which their features have acquired. It is this that we call the countenance. And what makes this countenance? The inward and mental habits; the constant pressure of the mind; the perpetual repetition of its acts. You detect at once a conceited, or foolish person. It is stamped on his countenance. You can see on the faces of the cunning or dissembling, certain corresponding lines, traced on the face as legibly as if they were written there. As it is with the countenance, so it is with the character. Character is the sum total of all our actions. It is the result of the habitual use we have been making of our intellect, heart and will. We are always at work, like the weaver at the loom. So we are always forming a character for ourselves. It is a plain truth, that everybody grows up in a certain character; some good, some bad, some excellent, and some unendurable. Every character is formed by habits. If a man is habitually proud, or vain, or false, he forms for himself a character like in kind. The character shows itself outwardly, but it is wrought within. Every habit is a chain of acts, and every one of those acts was a free link of the will. For instance, some people are habitually false. We sometimes meet with men whose word we can never take, and for this reason they have lost the perception of truth and falsehood. They do not know when they are speaking the truth and when they are speaking falsely. They bring this state upon themselves. But there was a time when these same men had never told a lie. A good character is to be more highly prized than riches. SELECTION XVI THE OLD OAKEN BUCKET 1. How dear to the heart are the scenes of my childhood, When fond recollection presents them to view! The orchard, the meadow, the deep-tangled wild-wood, And every loved spot which my infancy knew; The wide-spreading pond, and the mill which stood by it, The bridge and the rock where the cataract fell; The cot of my father, the dairy-house nigh it, And e'en the rude bucket which hung in the well: The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket. The moss-covered bucket, which hung in the well. 2. That moss-covered vessel I hail as a treasure; For often, at noon, when returned from the field, I found it the source of an exquisite pleasure, The purest and sweetest that nature can yield. How ardent I seized it, with hands that were glowing, And quick to the white-pebbled bottom it fell; Then soon, with the emblem of truth overflowing, And dripping with coolness, it rose from the well: The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket, The moss-covered bucket arose from the well. 3. How sweet from the green mossy brim to receive it, As poised on the curb it inclined to my lips! Not a full blushing goblet could tempt me to leave it, Though filled with the nectar that Jupiter sips. And now, far removed from the loved situation, The tear of regret will intrusively swell, As fancy reverts to my father's plantation, And sighs for the bucket which hangs in the well; The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket, The moss-covered bucket, which hangs in the well. _Samuel Woodworth_. LESSON LI THE VALUE OF TIME The value of time has passed into a proverb,--"Time is money." It is so because its employment brings money. But it is more. It is knowledge. Still more, it is virtue. Time is more than money. It brings what money cannot purchase. It has in its lap all the learning of the past, the spoils of antiquity, the priceless treasures of knowledge. Who would barter these for gold or silver? But knowledge is a means only, and not an end. It is valuable because it promotes the welfare, the development and the progress of man. And the highest value of time is not in knowledge, but in the opportunity of doing good. Time is opportunity. Little or much, it may be the occasion of usefulness. It is the point desired by the philosopher where to plant the lever that shall move the world. It is the napkin in which are wrapped, not only the talent of silver, but the treasures of knowledge and the fruits of virtue. Saving time, we save all these. Employing time to the best advantage, we exercise a true thrift. To each of us the passing day is of the same dimensions, nor can any one, by taking thought, add a moment to its hours. But, though unable to extend their duration, he may swell them with works. It is customary to say, "Take care of the small sums, and the large will take care of themselves." With equal wisdom may it be said, "Watch the minutes, and the hours and days will be safe." The moments are precious; they are gold filings, to be carefully preserved and melted into the rich ingot. Time is the measure of life on earth. Its enjoyment is life itself. Its divisions, its days, its hours, its minutes, are fractions of this heavenly gift. Every moment that flies over our heads takes from the future, shortening by so much the measure of our days. The moments lost in listlessness, or squandered in dissipation, are perhaps hours, days, weeks, months, years. The daily sacrifice of a single hour during a year comes at its end to thirty-six working days, an amount of time ample for the acquisition of important knowledge, and for the accomplishment of great good. Who of us does not each day, in many ways, sacrifice these precious moments, these golden hours? Seek, then, always to be usefully occupied. Employ all the faculties, whether in study or in manual labor, and your days shall be filled with usefulness. LESSON LII THE STUDY OF CIVICS Few people have the time to undertake a thorough study of civics, but everyone ought to find time to learn the principal features of the government under which he lives. We should know also of the way in which our government came into existence, and how this government is administered to-day. Such knowledge is necessary for the proper discharge of the duties of citizenship. All kinds of political questions are discussed daily in the newspapers and voted on at times at the polls, and it is the duty of every man to try to understand them. For if these questions are not intelligently settled, they will be settled by the ignorant, and the result will be very bad. Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty. People sometimes think that, because our national government is called a republic, and we have free schools and free libraries and other such free institutions, our liberty is forever secure. Our government is indeed a wonderful structure of political skill, and generally runs so very smoothly that we almost think it will run of itself. Beware! In order that the government of the nation, of the state, of the city or the town shall be properly administered, it is necessary that every citizen be watchful to secure the best officers for its government. USEFUL INFORMATION The great obelisk in Central Park, New York, is one of the most noted monoliths in the world. It was quarried, carved and erected about the time of Abraham, to commemorate the deeds of an ancient Pharaoh. Five hundred years later the conquering Sesostris, the bad Pharaoh of the Bible, carved on its surface the record of his famous reign. Now Sesostris, or Rameses II, reigned one thousand years before the Trojan war, so that all the symbols now seen on the obelisk were already very old in the days of Priam, Hector and Ulysses. The Roman poet Horace says that there were many brave men before Agamemnon, but there was no Homer to put their valiant deeds in verse. Sesostris was an exception. He escaped oblivion without the aid of Homer, and the figures upon the hard granite of Cleopatra's Needle tell us even now, after more than thirty-five centuries, of the reign of that remarkable king. LESSON LIII THE SEA AND ITS USES It is a common thing in speaking of the sea to call it "a waste of waters." But this is a mistake. Instead of being a waste and a desert, it keeps the earth itself from becoming a waste and a desert. It is the world's fountain of life and health and beauty, and if it were taken away, the grass would perish from the mountains, the forests would crumble on the hills. Water is as indispensable to all life, vegetable or animal, as the air itself. This element of water is supplied entirely by the sea. The sea is the great inexhaustible fountain which is continually pouring up into the sky precisely as many streams, and as large, as all the rivers of the world are pouring into the sea. The sea is the real birthplace of the clouds and the rivers, and out of it come all the rains and dews of heaven. Instead of being a waste and an incumbrance, therefore, it is a vast fountain of fruitfulness, and the nurse and mother of all the living. Out of its mighty breast come the resources that feed and support the population of the world. We are surrounded by the presence and bounty of the sea. It is the sea that feeds us. It is the sea that clothes us. It cools us with the summer cloud, and warms us with the blazing fires of winter. We make wealth for ourselves and for our children out of its rolling waters, though we may live a thousand leagues away from its shore. Thus the sea, though it bears no harvest on its bosom, yet sustains all the harvest of the world. If like a desert itself, it makes all the other wildernesses of the earth to bud and blossom as the rose. Though its own waters are as salt and wormwood, it makes the clouds of heaven drop with sweetness. The sea is a perpetual source of health to the world. Without it there could be no drainage for the lands. It is the scavenger of the world. The sea is also set to purify the atmosphere. Thus the sea, instead of being a waste of waters, is the very fountain of life, health and beauty. LESSON LIV WONDERLAND Many of you have read of the remarkable geysers of Iceland and the more remarkable ones in New Zealand, of grand cañons in Arizona, of deep mountain gorges in Colorado, of stupendous falls in Africa, of lofty mountains covered with snow in Europe, of elevated lakes in South America, of natural bridges in Virginia; but who has ever conceived of having all these wonders in one spot of the earth, and forever free as a great National Park, visited each summer by thousands of native and foreign travelers? Travelers report that this corner of the earth seems to be not quite finished by the great Creator. Through all this region volcanic action has been exceedingly vigorous. The effect of fire upon the rocks is plainly visible and widely spread. Whole mountains of volcanic rock exist. Floods of lava everywhere abound. The last feeble evidence of this gigantic force is to be seen in the hot springs on Gardiner River and on many other streams, and in the strange action of the geyser basins. There are sixteen important geysers in this section, and innumerable inferior ones. One geyser is called the "Giantess." It throws a great mass of water to a small height, surging and splashing in all directions. One of the most noted geysers is called the "Castle Geyser," because of its size and general appearance. The opening of the geyser tube is circular, and about three feet in diameter. When this geyser is about to spout, a rumbling is heard as of thousands of tons of stones rolling round and round. Louder and louder grows the noise and disturbance, till it has thrown out a few tons of water and obtained apparent relief. These are warnings to the observers to retreat to a safe distance. In a few moments the geyser increases in noise, the earth even trembles, and then a great column of water is hurled into the air. Another geyser is "Old Faithful," so called because he plays regularly every sixty-five minutes. The crater is quite low, and contains an opening which is only the widening of a crack extending across the whole mound. On the summit are a number of beautiful little pools, several feet deep, filled with water so clear that a name written in pencil on a piece of stone and placed at the bottom of the deepest pool is seen as clearly as if held in the hand. Another remarkable fact is, that the water does not efface the name, even after months of submersion. Old Faithful begins with a few feeble jets. Soon every spasm becomes more powerful, till with a mighty roar, up comes the water in a great column. This rises to the height of one hundred and thirty feet for the space of about five minutes. After the column of water sinks down there is a discharge of steam. The "Beehive Geyser" is named after the shape of its cone. The water and steam issue from the opening in a steady stream, instead of in successive impulses, as in the two mentioned above. No water falls back from this geyser, but the whole mass appears to be driven up into fine spray or steam, which is carried away as cloud, or diffused into the atmosphere. The names of some of the other well-known geysers are the "Giant," "Grotto," "Soda," "Turban," and "Young Faithful." The tremendous force with which some of these hot springs even now act, and the peculiarities of the earth's formation in this section of our country, may give us some faint idea of the phenomena through which our little world has passed until it became the dwelling-place of man. LESSON LV OUR COUNTRY TO-DAY _PART I_ The United States is one of the youngest nations of the world. Civilized men first went to England nearly twenty centuries ago, but since Columbus discovered America only four centuries have passed. Each of these four centuries has a character of its own and is quite unlike the others. The first was the time of exploring, the second of colonizing, the third of deciding who should rule in America, and the fourth of growth and development. During the first century explorers from France, England, and Spain visited the New World, each claiming for his own country the part that he explored. Each hoped to find gold, but only the Spaniards, who went to Mexico and Peru, were successful. There was little thought of making settlements, and at the end of the first century the Spanish colonies of St. Augustine and Santa Fe were the only ones on the mainland of what is now the territory of the United States. During the second century much colonizing was done. The French settled chiefly along the Saint Lawrence River; the English settled along the Atlantic coast of North America; the Spanish in Mexico and South America; the Dutch by the Hudson River; the Swedes by the Delaware. The European nations discovered that it was worth while to have American colonies. During the third century there was a long struggle to see which nation should rule in America. England and France were far ahead of the others, but which of them should it be? The French and Indian Wars gave the answer, "England." Then another question arose; should it be England or the Thirteen Colonies? The Revolutionary War answered, "The Colonies." At the end of the third century the United States had been established, and the land east of the Mississippi was under her rule. In the last century there has been a great gain in people and in land. To-day there are thirty times as many people in this country as there were then. USEFUL INFORMATION It may not be generally known that we have in the nickel five-cent piece of our American coinage a key to the tables of linear measures and weights. The diameter of a nickel is exactly two centimeters, and its weight is five grammes. Five nickels in a row will give the length of the decimeter, and two of them will weigh a decagram. As the kiloliter is a cubic meter, the key of the measure of length is also that of capacity. Among the North American Indians polished shells were used as currency. This money was called _wampum_ and was recognized by the colonists. Six white shells were exchanged for three purple beads, and these in turn were equivalent to one English penny. LESSON LVI OUR COUNTRY TO-DAY _PART II_ How has it come about that the number of people in the United States has increased with such rapidity? It is partly because more have been born than have died, and partly because so many have come from foreign countries. Fifty years ago large villages were common in which there were hardly any foreigners. Now one-sixth of the whole number of inhabitants of the United States are people who were born in some other country. These people are glad to come because the workingmen of America receive higher wages than those of any other country, and because in America a man is free to rise to any position that he is fitted to hold. The country is ready to give the education that will prepare her citizens to rise to high positions. It is believed that an educated man is likely to make a better citizen than an ignorant man, and therefore the public schools of the United States are entirely free. Then, too, there are public libraries not only in the cities but in many of the little villages, so that men who are too old to go to school may educate themselves by reading. There is opportunity to use all kinds of knowledge in carrying on the manufactures of the country. Almost everything that used to be made by hand is now made by machinery, and the skill to invent a machine that will work a little better than the one in use is always well rewarded. Knowledge is also needed to develop the mineral wealth of the country. Within the limits of the United States are metals, coal, natural gas, and petroleum, and it is the skill and inventive genius of her citizens that have brought such great wealth to the country from these products. This inventive genius has also given us rapid and cheap transportation. In the old days a man had to make or raise most things for himself. Manufactured articles that could be made very cheaply in one place became exceedingly dear when they had to be carried long distances by wagons over poor roads. Many delicate kinds of fruit would spoil on such long journeys. Now, fruit can be sent from California to Maine in fine condition. Cheap and rapid transportation is a great convenience. Business men need not live in the cities near their offices,--the steam or electric cars will carry them eight or ten miles in the time that it would take to walk one mile. The postal service and the telegraph are sure and rapid. So also is the telephone. No wonder, then, that our commerce has reached the fabulous sum of one billion, five hundred million dollars in one year. What the United States will become tomorrow, will lie in the hands of those who are the children of to-day. LESSON LVII PICTURES FROM AMERICAN HISTORY On the southern bank of the James River in Virginia stand the ruins of an old church. Its crumbling tower and broken arch are almost hidden by the tangled vines which cover it. Within the walls of the church-yard may be found a few ancient tombstones overgrown with ivy and long grass. This is all that remains of the first English settlement in America,--the colony of Jamestown, Virginia. This first permanent English settlement in the New World was made in the year 1607, more than a hundred years after the discovery of America by Columbus. Some attempts to colonize had been made by the English before this time. The most important of these was undertaken by the famous but unfortunate Sir Walter Raleigh. Raleigh obtained from Queen Elizabeth a grant of a vast territory, to be called Virginia, in honor of Elizabeth, the "virgin queen." It extended from the Hudson River to the boundary of what is now Georgia. In attempting to colonize Virginia, Raleigh spent a large fortune. But his colonies never prospered. The settlers returned home disgusted with the hardships of the wilderness. In 1589 Raleigh sold his rights to a stock company. Nevertheless the enterprise which proved too difficult for Raleigh was carried out during Raleigh's lifetime, under the leadership of the famous John Smith. The idea of colonizing Virginia had been growing wonderfully. In 1606 a company of "noblemen, gentlemen, and merchants," called the London Company, obtained from King James the First a charter for "planting and ruling" South Virginia. The company had gathered together a band of men willing to try their fortunes in Virginia, and they were just about to embark when Smith reached London. To Smith's bold and roving disposition the idea of a New World was irresistible, and he joined the colonists. In the last month of the year 1606, the party--in all, one hundred and five men--set sail in a little fleet of three vessels commanded by Captain Newport. On the 23d of May, 1607, after a weary and distressing voyage, the Virginia colonists landed. They commenced the settlement of Jamestown. When the king's sealed instructions were opened, and the names of the seven directors were made known, it was found that John Smith was to be one of the seven. Through the jealousy of Wingfield, who was chosen president, he was not allowed to take his place in the council. But this did not prevent his being the ablest man among them, and the colonists were soon glad to turn to him for guidance. For now their condition was most deplorable. They were surrounded by hostile Indians; the provisions they had brought from England were soon consumed; and the diseases caused by the hot, moist climate in a short time reduced their number by one-half. Besides, the colonists were a troublesome class to deal with. Many of them were broken-down "gentlemen," who despised hard work. A very few were farmers or mechanics or persons fitted for the life they sought. Day by day Smith made his influence more and more felt. He soon became the head of the colony. He put in force the good old rule that he who would not work should not eat. Many strange adventures are told about John Smith during the two years he remained in Virginia. He left the colony in the autumn of 1609 on account of a severe wound which he received, and which obliged him to return to England to be cured. The colonists, having lost the guidance of this resourceful man, were soon reduced to great want; still they held out and later on became a flourishing colony. LESSON LVIII THOMAS A. EDISON One of the greatest inventors of the age is Thomas A. Edison, and his whole life is an interesting story for young people. His mother had been a teacher, and her greatest wish for her son was that he should love knowledge and grow up to be a good and useful man. When Edison was only twelve years of age, he secured a position as train boy on the Grand Trunk Railroad in one of the western states. He went through the train and sold apples, peanuts, papers, and books. He had such a pleasant face that everybody liked to buy his wares. He traded some of his papers for things with which to try experiments. He then fitted out an old baggage car as a little room in which he began his first efforts in the way of inventions. One of the things he did while working as a train boy was to print a paper on the train. The "London Times" spoke of it as the only paper in the world published on a train. It was named the "Grand Trunk Herald." Young Edison worked as a train boy for four years, and he had in that time saved two thousand dollars, which he gave to his parents. Once he thought he would like to read all the books in the city library. He read for a long time, but he found that he could not finish all the books. He then made up his mind that one would have to live a thousand years in order to read all the books in that library, so he gave up the idea. One day he bought a book on electricity. Soon after that the basement of his home was filled with many odd things. He used a stovepipe to connect his home with that of another boy, and through this the boys could talk when they wished. A kind friend taught young Edison how to telegraph, and in five months he could operate well and was given a position. He worked very hard, night and day, so that he could learn all he could about electricity. He lost place after place because he was always trying some new idea. When he first proposed to send four messages on one wire at the same time, he was laughed at by the people; but Edison succeeded. Later on he invented the phonograph. His greatest invention is the incandescent light, which is used for lighting purposes. Mr. Edison loves his work, and although he is now a very wealthy man, he keeps on inventing and working every day. It is said that he sometimes works for twenty-four hours, day and night, without food or rest, until he has perfected some new invention. Mr. Edison is a true type of an American gentleman. SELECTION XVII OFT IN THE STILLY NIGHT Oft in the stilly night, Ere slumber's chain has bound me, Fond memory brings the light Of other days around me; The smiles, the tears Of boyhood's years, The words of love then spoken; The eyes that shone, Now dimm'd and gone, The cheerful hearts now broken. Thus in the stilly night, Ere slumber's chain has bound me, Sad memory brings the light Of other days around me. When I remember all The friends, so linked together, I've seen around me fall, Like leaves in wintry weather, I feel like one Who treads alone Some banquet hall deserted, Whose lights are fled, Whose garlands dead, And all but he departed. Thus in the stilly night, Ere slumber's chain has bound me, Sad memory brings the light Of other days around me. _Thomas Moore_. LESSON LIX ABRAHAM LINCOLN Abraham Lincoln, the restorer of the Union, the sixteenth president of the United States, was born in Kentucky on the twelfth of February, 1809. His father was a typical backwoodsman, and young Lincoln grew up among frontier surroundings. The Lincoln family came originally from Pennsylvania. At a later period the Lincolns moved south to Virginia, and again they migrated to Kentucky. It was here that the grandfather of Abraham Lincoln lost his life in a battle with the Indians. The first seven years of Lincoln's life were spent in the wilds of Kentucky. In 1816 his father left that state and moved northward to Indiana, but here the surroundings were not much better. A rude blockhouse, with a single large room below and a low garret above, was the home of our young hero. Every hardship and privation of the pioneer's life was here the lot of our growing youth. But he loved the tangled woods, and hunting and fishing were his delight. There were no schools there, and Abraham learned a little reading and writing from a man who shared the poor blockhouse with the Lincoln family. For writing, a slate was used, and now and then a pine board, or even some flat stone upon which the figures were traced with charcoal. His books were few, but he read them over and over again, and the impressions they made on him were so much the deeper. In this way Lincoln acquired the rudiments of education. When Abraham was scarcely nine years old, his excellent mother died. His father married again, and fortunately for young Lincoln, his stepmother was a lady of refinement, who took the greatest interest in her rugged but talented step-son. She sent him to a private school for a while, and Abraham learned many useful things and easily kept at the head of his class. His stepmother also procured more books for him, for Abraham was a most ardent reader, and he spent all his leisure time in reading and self-culture. Being tall of stature and well built, young Lincoln had to help his father on the farm a great deal, and the only time left for study was late at night or in the early morning. Thus our future president grew up to manhood; a sturdy, awkward, but honest backwoodsman, with a sound mind in a healthy body. When Lincoln was about eighteen years old, his father again moved northward, this time to Illinois. Here Abraham continued to work and to improve his mind as best he might. Borrowing books from some law office, he studied them at night and returned them in the morning. His honesty and true merit were soon recognized by the rest of the community where he lived, and he was elected to represent the people in the legislature. Lincoln became a lawyer of more than ordinary ability, and although his appearance remained somewhat ungainly, he easily won his lawsuits by the clear and logical conclusions which he advanced over those of his opponents. He had thus secured a splendid law-practice and had settled in Springfield, Illinois, when he became the republican candidate for president of the United States in 1860, and was elected the same year. The country at this time was agitated over two great questions: the question of slavery and that of secession. The South was ready to separate from the North, and the entire country was in a most critical condition. Such was the state of affairs when Abraham Lincoln took the oath of office as president of the United States. Lincoln was scarcely three weeks in office when the great war of the Rebellion between the North and the South broke out; a war of which there is no parallel in history. Brother fought against brother, and father against son. Here it was that Lincoln showed his heroic courage, and by his indomitable will kept the reins of government firmly in his hands, thus saving the country from utter anarchy. The war continued with unrelenting vigor for two years, and its horrible consequences were sorely felt throughout the land. In September, 1862, Lincoln issued his famous Emancipation Proclamation, by which slavery was forever banished from this country. Still the warring did not cease. In 1864 Lincoln was elected for a second term in office. The people knew his noble character and they had full confidence in him. At last peace seemed to be in sight. The North had sacrificed the blood of thousands of its men as well as the wealth of its treasuries. The South, in the same manner, had not only lost tens of thousands of its bravest men, but it was utterly ruined, on account of the terrible punishment the war had inflicted upon that sunny land. Richmond, the stronghold of the rebellion, had fallen, and victory was on the side of the Union. Amidst universal rejoicings, there came the saddest news. On the 14th day of April, 1865, Abraham Lincoln was assassinated. The whole nation was thrown into deepest mourning. The noble heart of Lincoln beat no more. He is called the "Martyr President." His remains were taken to Springfield, Illinois, where they rest at the foot of a small hill in Oakwood Cemetery. A simple monument, with the name--"Lincoln"--upon it, is the only epitaph of him, who next to Washington was the greatest man of our glorious Republic. LESSON LX ADDRESS DELIVERED AT THE DEDICATION OF THE CEMETERY AT GETTYSBURG Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting-place for those who here gave their lives that the nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate--we cannot consecrate--we cannot hallow--this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us, the living, rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us--that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion--that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain--that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom--and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth. _Abraham Lincoln_. November 19th, 1863. SELECTION XVIII THE PICKET OF THE POTOMAC "All quiet along the Potomac," they say, "Except now and then a stray picket Is shot as he walks on his beat to and fro, By a rifleman hid in the thicket." 'Tis nothing--a private or two now and then Will not count in the tale of the battle; Not an officer lost--only one of the men Breathing out all alone the death-rattle. All quiet along the Potomac to-night, Where the soldiers lie peacefully dreaming, Their tents in the ray of the clear autumn moon, And the light of the watch-fires gleaming. A tremulous sigh from the gentle night wind Through the forest leaves slowly is creeping, While the stars up above, with their glittering eyes, Keep watch while the army is sleeping. There's only the sound of the lone sentry's tread, As he tramps from the rock to the fountain, And thinks of the two in the low trundle-bed Far away in the hut on the mountain. His musket falls slack; his face, dark and grim, Grows gentle with memories tender, As he mutters a prayer for the children asleep, For their mother,--may heaven defend her! The moon seems to shine as serenely as then, That night when the love, yet unspoken, Lingered long on his lips, and when low-murmured vows Were pledged, never more to be broken. Then, drawing his sleeve roughly over his eyes, He dashes the tears that are welling, And gathers his gun closer up to its place, As if to keep down the heart-swelling. He passes the fountain, the blasted pine-tree-- The footstep is lagging and weary; Yet onward he glides through the broad belt of light, Towards the shade of a forest so dreary. Hark! Was it the night wind that rustled the leaves? Is it moonlight so suddenly flashing? It looked like a rifle-- "Ha, Mary, good-night!" His life-blood is ebbing and dashing. All quiet along the Potomac to-night, No sound save the rush of the river; But the dew falls unseen on the face of the dead-- The picket's off duty forever. _Ethel L. Beers_. LESSON LXI WAGES Wages are a compensation given to the laborer for the exertion of his physical powers, or of his skill and ingenuity. They must, therefore, vary according to the severity of the labor to be performed, or to the degree of skill and ingenuity required. A jeweller or engraver, for example, must be paid a higher rate of wages than a servant or laborer. A long course of training is necessary to instruct a man in the business of jewelling or engraving, and if the cost of his training were not made up to him in a higher rate of wages, he would, instead of learning so difficult an art, betake himself to such employments as require hardly any instruction. A skilled mason, who has served a long apprenticeship to his trade, will always obtain higher wages than a common laborer, who has simply to use his mere bodily strength. Were it not so, there would be nothing to induce the mason to spend many years in learning a trade at which he could earn no higher wages than the man who was simply qualified to carry lime in a hod, or to roll a wheelbarrow. The wages of labor in different employments vary with the constancy and inconstancy of employment. Employment is much more constant in some trades than in others. Many trades can be carried on only in particular states of weather, and seasons of the year; and if the workmen who are employed in these cannot easily find employment in others during the time they are thrown out of work, their wages must be proportionally raised. A journeyman weaver, shoemaker, or tailor may reckon, unless trade is dull, upon obtaining constant employment; but masons, bricklayers, pavers, and in general all those workmen who carry on their business in the open air, are liable to constant interruptions. Their wages, accordingly, must be sufficient to maintain them while they are employed, and also when they are necessarily idle. From the preceding observations it is evident that those who receive the highest wages are not, when the cost of their education, and the chances of their success, are taken into account, really better paid than those who receive the lowest. The wages earned by the different classes of workmen are equal, not when each individual earns the same number of dollars in a given space of time, but when each is paid in proportion to the severity of the labor he has to perform, and to the degree of previous education and skill it requires. So long as each individual is allowed to employ himself as he pleases, we may be assured that the rate of wages in different employments will be comparatively equal. SELECTION XIX COLUMBIA, THE GEM OF THE OCEAN; OR, THE RED, WHITE AND BLUE 1. O Columbia, the gem of the ocean, The home of the brave and the free, The shrine of each patriot's devotion, A world offers homage to thee. Thy mandates make heroes assemble, When Liberty's form stands in view, Thy banners make tyranny tremble, When borne by the red, white and blue. CHORUS. When borne by the red, white and blue, When borne by the red, white and blue, Thy banners make tyranny tremble, When borne by the red, white and blue. 2. When war winged its wide desolation. And threatened the land to deform, The ark then of freedom's foundation, Columbia, rode safe thro' the storm; With her garlands of vict'ry around her, When so proudly she bore her brave crew, With her flag proudly floating before her, The boast of the red, white and blue. CHORUS. 3. The wine-cup, the wine-cup bring hither, And fill you it true to the brim; May the wreaths they have won never wither, Nor the star of their glory grow dim. May the service united ne'er sever, But they to their colors prove true. The Army and Navy forever, Three cheers for the red, white and blue. CHORUS. _David T. Shaw_. LESSON LXII LOVE FOR THE DEAD The sorrow for the dead is the only sorrow from which we refuse to be divorced. Every other wound we seek to heal--every other affliction to forget; but this wound we consider it a duty to keep open--this affliction we cherish and brood over in solitude. Where is the mother who would willingly forget the infant that perished like a blossom from her arms, though every recollection is a pang? Where is the child that would willingly forget the most tender of parents, though to remember be but to lament? Who, even in the hour of agony, would forget the friend over whom he mourns? Who, even when the tomb is closing upon the remains of her he most loved--when he feels his heart, as it were, crushed in the closing of its portal--would accept of consolation that must be bought by forgetfulness? No, the love which survives the tomb is one of the noblest attributes of the soul. If it has its woes, it has likewise its delights; and when the overwhelming burst of grief is calmed into the gentle tear of recollection--when the sudden anguish and the convulsive agony over the present ruins of all that we most loved is softened away into pensive meditation on all that it was in the days of its loveliness--who would root out such a sorrow from the heart? Though it may sometimes throw a passing cloud over the bright hour of gayety, or spread a deeper sadness over the hour of gloom, yet who would exchange it, even for the song of pleasure or the burst of revelry? No, there is a voice from the tomb sweeter than song. There is a remembrance of the dead to which we turn even from the charms of the living. Oh, the grave! the grave! It buries every error--covers every defect. From its peaceful bosom spring none but fond regrets and tender recollections. Who can look down upon the grave even of an enemy, and not feel remorse that he should ever have warred with the poor handful of earth that lies mouldering before him? LESSON LXIII ECONOMY OF TIME One of the most important lessons to be learned in life is the art of economizing time. A celebrated Italian was wont to call his time his estate; and it is true of this as of other estates of which the young come into possession, that it is rarely prized till it is nearly squandered. Habits of indolence, listlessness, and sloth, once firmly fixed, cannot be suddenly thrown off, and the man who has wasted the precious hours of life's seed-time finds that he cannot reap a harvest in life's autumn. Lost wealth may be replaced by industry, lost knowledge by study, lost health by temperance or medicine; but lost time is gone forever. In the long catalogue of excuses for neglect of duty, there is none which drops more often from men's lips than the want of leisure. People are always cheating themselves with the idea that they would do this or that desirable thing, "if they only had the time." It is thus that the lazy and the selfish excuse themselves from a thousand things which conscience dictates should be done. Now, the truth is, there is no condition in which the chance of doing any good is less than in that of leisure. Go, seek out the men in any community who have done the most for their own and the general good, and you will find they are--who?--Wealthy, leisurely people, who have plenty of time to themselves, and nothing to do? No; they are almost always the men who are in ceaseless activity from January to December. Such men, however pressed with business, are always found capable of doing a little more; and you may rely on them in their busiest seasons with ten times more assurance than on idle men. The men who do the greatest things do them, not so much by fitful efforts, as by steady, unremitting toil,--by turning even the moments to account. They have the genius for hard work,--the most desirable kind of genius. SELECTION XX RECESSIONAL God of our fathers, known of old-- Lord of our far-flung battle-line-- Beneath whose awful hand we hold Dominion over palm and pine-- Lord God of Hosts, be with us yet, Lest we forget--lest we forget. The tumult and the shouting dies-- The captain and the kings depart-- Still stands Thine ancient sacrifice, An humble and a contrite heart. Lord God of hosts, be with us yet, Lest we forget--lest we forget. Far-called our navies melt away-- On dune and headland sinks the fire-- Lo, all our pomp of yesterday Is one with Nineveh and Tyre. Judge of the Nations, spare us yet, Lest we forget--lest we forget. If, drunk with sight of power, we loose Wild tongues that have not Thee in awe-- Such boasting as the Gentiles use, Or lesser breeds without the Law-- Lord God of Hosts, be with us yet, Lest we forget--lest we forget. For heathen heart that puts her trust In reeking tube and iron shard-- All valiant dust that builds on dust, And guarding calls not Thee to guard,-- For frantic boast and foolish word, Thy mercy on Thy people, Lord. Amen. _Rudyard Kipling_. SELECTION XXI HUMAN PROGRESS All is action, all is motion, In this mighty world of ours; Like the current of the ocean, Man is urged by unseen powers. Steadily, but strongly moving, Life is onward evermore; Still the present is improving On the age that went before. Duty points with outstretched fingers, Every soul to action high; Woe betide the soul that lingers-- Onward! onward! is the cry. Though man's form may seem victorious, War may waste and famine blight, Still from out the conflict glorious, Mind comes forth with added light. O'er the darkest night of sorrow, From the deadliest field of strife, Dawns a clearer, brighter morrow, Springs a truer, nobler life. Onward! onward! onward, ever! Human progress none may stay; All who make the vain endeavor Shall, like chaff, be swept away. _J. Hagan_. LESSON LXIV GEORGE STEPHENSON, THE ENGINEER A famous engineer, named Stephenson, was the first person to demonstrate the fact that an engine could be built which would draw a train of cars on a railway. He was an Englishman. His parents were poor, and the whole family had to live in one room. George was one of six children; none of them were sent to school, because they had to work for their living. From an early age George had assisted his father in tending the fires of the steam engine which worked the machinery of a large coal mine. He devoted himself to the study of this engine until he had mastered every detail of its construction. In 1813, a rich nobleman entrusted him with money to carry out his favorite plan of building a "traveling engine," as he then called it. He made an engine that was fairly successful, as it drew eight loaded cars on a railway at a speed of four miles an hour. But he was not contented; he knew that he could do much better. Soon afterward, he was employed to construct another engine, in which he made some great improvements that enabled it to go twice as fast as the other. Accounts of Stephenson's great invention crept into print, and people began to have faith in the locomotive. In 1822, a company began to build a line of railway between two towns named Stockton and Darlington. Stephenson was employed to construct the road-bed and build the engines. It was completed three years later, and was the subject of great popular curiosity. Great crowds came to see the line opened. Stephenson himself drove the first engine. The train consisted of thirty-four cars. The signal was given and the train started. Great was the sensation as it moved off, and still greater was the admiration of the people at Stockton when the train arrived there after a safe journey. Thus, in 1825, was opened the first railway ever made for public use. Stephenson was soon engaged in constructing a railway between Manchester and Liverpool. But now a storm of opposition broke out. Pamphlets and newspaper articles were written, making fun of Stephenson, and declaring that the new railroad would be a failure. It was claimed that the engine would certainly set fire to the surrounding country, that it would explode and kill the passengers, and that it would run over the people before they could get out of its way. A committee was appointed by the English Parliament to look into the matter. They sneered at Stephenson as a lunatic, when he assured them that he could run his engine at twelve miles an hour. One of these wise men said to him: "Suppose a cow were to get in the way of an engine running at that rate of speed, wouldn't that be a very awkward circumstance?" "Yes," answered Stephenson, "very awkward for the cow." But the consent of Parliament was at last obtained, and the line was completed in 1830, after many great obstacles had been overcome. It was shown that a train could be run at thirty miles an hour with safety, and thus the enemies of Stephenson were silenced. Stephenson superintended the building of many other lines of railroad, and lived to see his best hopes realized. He became quite wealthy, and many honors were bestowed upon him. Nevertheless he remained always a simple, kindly man, even in his years of prosperity. When England had experienced such success with railways, it was not long before America began building railroads on a large scale. More than three hundred thousand miles of railroads are now in operation in the United States, and many more miles are added each year. The great systems of railways, with their modern improvements for fast travel, are a triumph of skill, energy and enterprise. LESSON LXV GEORGE WASHINGTON _PART II_ The boundary war between France and the British possessions in America had been the cause of the war from 1753 to 1759 in which Washington and thousands of his countrymen did gallant services. It ended with the surrender of Quebec, by which France lost her foothold in the Ohio valley and all the territory east of the Mississippi. Ten years later, the whole aspect had changed. The same country, for which our forefathers in the colonies had sacrificed some of their noblest sons, was now beginning to oppress these very colonies. By unjust taxation, England tried to replenish her treasury, which a protracted war across the seas had made empty. But though the war against the French in the interest of England had cost the colonies in America some of its best blood, it had not been without its salutary lesson. America had learned its own strength as well as the weakness of the British soldiers and her public officials. Washington, above all, knew these facts too well. He was, however, no agitator, and for many reasons was deeply attached to old England. He, therefore, cautioned reserve and forbearance without sacrificing his patriotism. In the meantime the Revolution came to an outbreak. Washington was called upon by his compatriots to lead them on to liberty. After careful examination and due consideration he consented, and Washington took command of the colonial troops in the war against England. "It is my intention," said he, "if needs be, to sacrifice my life, my liberty and all my possessions in this holy cause." Thus, we see him leading the army, animated with the noblest sentiments. General Washington was now forty-three years of age and in the full power of manhood. His personality was distinguished and his bearing serene. He electrified the whole army. The Colonial troops, however, were not at all times equal to the well-drilled English soldiers, and General Washington had a difficult task before him. But what the Americans lacked in military tactics, they doubly possessed in enthusiasm and courage. From Lexington and Boston, Bunker Hill and Concord, through Connecticut, New York, Philadelphia, Valley Forge, and from Princeton to Morristown was a wearisome march. Want of provisions for the army under his command, as well as many other disappointments, might well have discouraged any but the stoutest heart. General Washington was a hero, and he trusted in God and the ultimate success of the country's just cause. When at last the American army was in sorest distress, there came unexpected help from many quarters. Such noble and self-sacrificing men as Lafayette, Steuben, Kosciusko, De Kalb and De Grasse arrived to aid our new republic, and after an unrelenting war of six long years, British rule was forever banished from the land. On the 4th of December, 1782, General Washington took leave of the continental army. His memorable speech on that occasion is a masterpiece of unselfish patriotism. He retired to his home at Mount Vernon, followed by the heartfelt blessings of a grateful people. His private life was one of regularity in all his doings. His hospitality was renowned, and Mount Vernon soon became a much frequented, much beloved place of reunion for many distinguished visitors. Not a great many years was Washington permitted to enjoy his well-merited repose in his country home. The same country of which he had been the successful liberator, now called upon him to lead and guide this newly established government. Washington was chosen the First President of the United States of America in 1789. It was at this time that he wrote in his diary: "To-day I take leave of private life and domestic happiness with feelings of regret, and am preparing to enter upon my official career. I hope I shall be able to realize the expectations my country has placed in me." His journey from Mount Vernon to New York became one of triumph. He was met with the greatest enthusiasm throughout the country wherever he passed. He took his oath of office in New York City where the sub-treasury now stands. Washington was elected a second time for the presidency. His presidential career was characteristic of the man and the hero. An equitable and conservative government was administered by him, and the young republic was prosperous and progressive during his two terms of office. Having returned once more to his beloved Virginia home, Washington now spent his declining years in much needed rest and quiet recreation. In the fall of the year 1799 Washington was seized with a malignant fever. The best medical aid proved unavailing, and the Father of our Country died on the 14th day of December. His last words were: "Let me die in peace; I am not afraid to die, it is a debt we all must pay." The exemplary life and the many noble achievements of this truly great man stand almost unique in the history of nations. LESSON LXVI BENJAMIN FRANKLIN Benjamin Franklin was born poor, but nothing could keep him ignorant. His genius and strong will were wealth enough for any man. At the age of twelve he was apprenticed to his brother James, who was a printer. At the same time--perhaps a little later--he used to sell his own ballads in the streets of Boston. At twenty-one years of age he was a master printer in Philadelphia, in his shop on Market Street. He had been at school in Boston for two years, but after the age of ten he had been obliged to teach himself: he was too poor to spend even those early years in a schoolhouse. Yet he learned without such helps as schools and schoolmasters afford. He studied Latin, French, Italian, Spanish, and German, and lived to hear two continents call him the greatest philosopher of his time. He discovered that lightning and electricity are the same, and taught men how to guard their houses against the thunder-bolt. To his great mind it seemed that all things came alike: no invention was too simple, and no idea too lofty. Whatever had to be done was worth doing in the best and simplest way: that was the ruling principle of Benjamin Franklin's life. He was an earnest and fearless patriot, always on the side of the people and their rights. His strong will, his cool manner, and his bold spirit made him an enemy not to be scorned by England. "What used to be the pride of the Americans?" asked a member of the English Parliament in 1776. And Franklin, then pleading the cause of the colonies before the House of Commons, replied, "To indulge in the fashions and wear the manufactures of Great Britain." The Englishman, sure that Franklin would be less ready to answer, continued: "What is now their pride?" And in a flash the old philosopher of threescore and ten said, "To wear their old clothes over again till they can make new ones." Years had not broken the strong will or dulled the sharp wit. His efforts to secure for the Americans the aid of France can never be forgotten by the American people. Burgoyne's surrender made the French believe that the patriots' cause was worthy of assistance, but it is quite certain that the eloquence of Dr. Franklin, as the French people called the Great American, had opened the way for all that followed. Whatever favor he met with in society, whatever honor he received, whatever fame he acquired at home or abroad, he turned all to account for the good of his country. SELECTION XXII GIVE ME THE PEOPLE Some love the glow of outward show, The shine of wealth, and try to win it: The house to me may lowly be, If I but like the people in it. What's all the gold that glitters cold, When linked to hard and haughty feeling? Whate'er we're told, the noblest gold Is truth of heart and honest dealing. A humble roof may give us proof That simple flowers are often fairest; And trees whose bark is hard and dark May yield us fruit, and bloom the rarest. There's worth as sure among the poor As e'er adorned the highest station; And minds as just as theirs, we trust, Whose claim is but of rank's creation. Then let them seek, whose minds are weak, Mere fashion's smile, and try to win it: The house to me may lowly be, If I but like the people in it. _Charles Swain_. LESSON LXVII NOBILITY REWARDED A rich man, feeling himself growing old, called his three sons around him and said: "I am resolved to divide my goods equally among you. You shall each have your full share, but there is one thing which I have not included in the share of any one of you. It is this costly diamond which you see in my hand. I will give it to that one of you who shall earn it by the noblest deed. Go, therefore, and travel for three months; at the end of that time we will meet here again, and you shall tell me what you have done." The sons departed accordingly, and traveled three months, each in a different direction. At the end of that time they returned; and all came together to their father to give an account of their journey. The eldest son spoke first. He said: "On my journey a stranger entrusted to me a great number of valuable jewels, without taking any account of them. Indeed, I was well aware that he did not know how many the parcel contained. One or two of them would never have been missed, and I might easily have enriched myself without fear of detection. But I did no such thing; I gave back the parcel exactly as I had received it. Was not this a noble deed?" "My son," said the father, "simple honesty cannot be called noble. You did what was right, and nothing more. If you had acted otherwise, you would have been dishonest, and your deed would have shamed you. You have done well, but not nobly." The second son now spoke. He said: "As I was traveling on my journey one day, I saw a poor child playing by the edge of a lake; and, just as I rode by, it fell into the water, and was in danger of being drowned. I immediately dismounted from my horse, and, wading into the water, brought it safe to land. All the people of the village where this occurred can bear witness of the deed. Was it not a noble action?" "My son," replied the old man, "you did only what was your duty, and you could hardly have left the innocent child to die without making an effort to save it. You, too, have acted well, but not nobly." Then the third son came forward to tell his tale. He said: "I had an enemy, who for years has done me much harm and sought to take my life. One evening, during my late journey, I was passing along a dangerous road which ran beside the summit of a steep cliff. As I rode cautiously along, my horse started at sight of something lying in the road. I dismounted to see what it was, and found my enemy lying fast asleep on the very edge of the cliff. The least movement in his sleep, and he must have rolled over, and would have been dashed to pieces on the rocks below. His life was in my hands. I drew him away from the edge, and then woke him, and told him to go on his way in peace." Then the old man cried out, in a transport of joy: "Dear son, the diamond is thine; for it is a noble and godlike thing to help the enemy, and to reward evil with good." THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE--1776. IN CONGRESS, JULY 4, 1776. _The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen United States of America_. When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the Powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shown, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security.--Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world. He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their Public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands. He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers. He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our People, and eat out their substance. He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislature. He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil Power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our Laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation: For quartering large bodies of armed men among us: For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from Punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States: For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world; For imposing taxes on us without our Consent; For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury; For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences: For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighboring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies: For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments; For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with Power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He has abdicated Government, here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty, and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands. He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions. In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free People. Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends. We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved: and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the Protection of Divine Providence we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes, and our sacred Honor. THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.[1] THE PREAMBLE. "We, the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America." ARTICLE I. THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT. Section I.--The Congress in General. "All legislative powers herein granted, shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives." Section II.--The House of Representatives. 1. "The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature." 2. "No person shall be a Representative, who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen." 3. "Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three."[2] 4. "When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies." 5. "The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment." Section III.--The Senate. 1. "The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six years, and each Senator shall have one vote." 2. "Immediately after they shall be assembled, in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be, into three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year; of the second class, at the expiration of the fourth year; and of the third class, at the expiration of the sixth year; so that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the Legislature of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies." 3. "No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen." 4. "The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided." 5. "The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President _pro tempore_, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States." 6. "The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief-Justice shall preside; and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present." 7. "Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit, under the United States; but the party convicted shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law." Section IV.--Both Houses. 1. "The times, places, and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time, by law, make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators." 2. "The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day." Section V.--The Houses Separately. 1. "Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties, as each House may provide." 2. "Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member." 3. "Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and, from time to time, publish the same, excepting such parts as may, in their judgment, require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House, on any question, shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal." 4. "Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting." Section VI.--Privileges and Disabilities of Members. 1. "The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall, in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and in going to, and returning from, the same; and for any speech or debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place." 2. "No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased, during such time; and no person, holding any office under the United States, shall be a member of either House during his continuance in office." Section VII.--Mode of Passing Laws. 1. "All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments, as on other bills." 2. "Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States; if he approve, he shall sign it, but if not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other House, by which it shall like-wise be reconsidered, and, if approved by two-thirds of that House, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each House, respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress, by their adjournment, prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law." 3. "Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a case of adjournment), shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or, being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill." Section VIII.--Powers Granted to Congress. 1. "The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts, provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States." 2. "To borrow money on the credit of the United States." 3. "To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes." 4. "To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies, throughout the United States." 5. "To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures." 6. "To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States." 7. "To establish post-offices and post-roads." 8. "To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing, for limited times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries." 9. "To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court." 10. "To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offences against the law of nations." 11. "To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water." 12. "To raise and support armies; but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years." 13. "To provide and maintain a navy." 14. "To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces." 15. "To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions." 16. "To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States; reserving to the States respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia, according to the discipline prescribed by Congress." 17. "To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square), as may, by cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places, purchased by the consent of the Legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings," and 18. "To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof." Section IX.--Powers Denied to the United States. 1. "The migration or importation of such persons, as any of the States, now existing, shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress, prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight; but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person." 2. "The privilege of the writ of _habeas corpus_ shall not be suspended unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may require it." 3. "No bill of attainder, or _ex post facto_ law, shall be passed." 4. "No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the _census_ or enumeration, herein before directed to be taken." 5. "No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State." 6. "No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue, to the ports of one State over those of another; nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties, in another." 7. "No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published, from time to time." 8. "No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States: and no person, holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state." Section X.--Powers Denied to the States. 1. "No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts, pass any bill of attainder, _ex post facto_ law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility." 2. "No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws; and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress." 3. "No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war, in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay." ARTICLE II. THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. Section I.--President and Vice-President. 1. "The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows: 2. "Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a number of Electors, equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector." 3. "[3]The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each; which list they sign and certify, and transmit, sealed, to the seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such a majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose, by ballot, one of them for President; and if no person have a majority, then, from the five highest on the list, the said House shall, in like manner, choose the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of votes of the Electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them, by ballot, the Vice-president." 4. "The Congress may determine the time of choosing the Electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same throughout the United States." 5. "No person, except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States." 6. "In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-president, and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability both of the President and Vice-president, declaring what officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected." 7. "The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services, a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them." 8. "Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath or affirmation: 'I do solemnly swear (or affirm), that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States.'" Section II.--Powers of the President. 1. "The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment." 2. "He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law: but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of Departments." 3. "The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen, during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions, which shall expire at the end of their next session." Section III.--Duties of the President. "He shall, from time to time, give to the Congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States." Section IV.--Impeachment of the President. "The President, Vice-president, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office, on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors." ARTICLE III. JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT. Section I.--United States Courts. "The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may, from time to time, ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office." Section II.--Jurisdiction of the United States Courts. 1. "The Judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party; to controversies between two or more States; between a State and citizens of another State, between citizens of different States, between citizens of the same State, claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign States, citizens, or subjects." 2. "In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls, and those in which a State shall be a party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations, as the Congress shall make." 3. "The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such place, or places, as the Congress may by law have directed." Section III.--Treason. 1. "Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and Comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason, unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court." 2. "The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted." ARTICLE IV. Section I.--State Records. "Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved and the effect thereof." Section II.--Privileges of Citizens. 1. "The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States." 2. "A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime." 3. "No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due." Section III.--New States and Territories. 1. "New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed, or erected, within the jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed, by the junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned, as well as of the Congress." 2. "The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory, or other property, belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular State." Section IV.--Guarantee to the States. "The United States shall guaranty to every State in this Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion; and, on application of the Legislature, or of the executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence." ARTICLE V. POWER OF AMENDMENT. "The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress; Provided, that no amendment, which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, shall, in any manner, affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article; and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate." ARTICLE VI. PUBLIC DEBT, SUPREMACY OF THE CONSTITUTION, OATH OF OFFICE, RELIGIOUS TEST. 1. "All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States, under this Constitution, as under the Confederation." 2. "This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding." 3. "The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States, and of the several States, shall be bound, by oath or affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States." ARTICLE VII. RATIFICATION OF THE CONSTITUTION. "The ratification of the Conventions of nine States shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same." Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the States present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord, one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the Independence of the United States of America the twelfth. AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. ARTICLES IN ADDITION TO, AND AMENDMENT OF, THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.[4] _Proposed by Congress and ratified by the Legislatures of the several States, pursuant to the fifth article of the original Constitution_. Article I.--Freedom of Religion, etc. "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances." Article II.--Right to Bear Arms. "A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed." Article III.--Quartering Soldiers on Citizens. "No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner; nor, in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law." Article IV.--Search-Warrants. "The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated; and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized." Article V.--Trial for Crime, etc. "No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service, in time of war, or public danger; nor shall any person be subject, for the same offence, to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case, to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation." Article VI.--Rights of Accused Persons. "In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence." Article VII.--Suits at Common Law. "In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved; and no fact, tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law." Article VIII.--Excessive Bail. "Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted." Article IX.--Rights Retained by the People. "The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people." Article X.---Reserved Powers of the States. "The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people." Article XI. "The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign State."[5] Article XII.--Mode of Choosing the President and Vice-president. 1. "The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-president; and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-president, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign, and certify, and transmit, sealed, to the seat of government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate; the President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted; the person having the greatest number of votes for President shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then, from the persons having the highest numbers, not exceeding three, on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President, whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-president shall act as President, and in case of the death, or other constitutional disability, of the President." 2. "The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-president shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have a majority, then, from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-president; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators; and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice." 3. "But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President, shall be eligible to that of Vice-president of the United States." Article XIII.--Abolition of Slavery. 1. "Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States or any place subject to their jurisdiction." 2. "Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation." Article XIV.--Right of Citizenship, etc. 1. "All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws." 2. "Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of Electors for President and Vice-President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens, twenty-one years of age, in such State." 3. "No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or Elector of President and Vice-president, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State Legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability." 4. "The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave, but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void." 5. "The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article." Article XV.--Right of Suffrage. 1. "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." 2. "The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation." [1]The Articles of Confederation proved by experience inadequate to the wants of the people of the United States, and they were supplanted by the Constitution. "The American Constitution, with its manifest defects, still remains one of the most abiding monuments of human wisdom, and it has received a tribute to its general excellence such as no other political system was ever honored with."--FREEMAN. [2]This clause has been superseded by Amendment XIV., Sect. 2. [3]This clause has been amended and superseded by the Twelfth Amendment to the Constitution. By the provisions of the original clause the person in the electoral college having the greatest number of votes (provided he had a majority of the whole number of electors appointed) became President, and the person having the next greatest number of votes became Vice-president, thus giving the Presidency to one political party and the Vice-Presidency to another. In the year 1800 the Democratic Republicans determined to elect Thomas Jefferson President and Aaron Burr Vice-president. The result was that each secured an equal number of votes, and neither was elected. The Constitution then, as now, provided that in case the electoral college failed to elect a President, the House of Representatives, voting as States, should elect. The Federalists distrusted and disliked Jefferson; the Democratic Republicans and some of the Federalists distrusted and disliked Burr. The vote in the House on the thirty-sixth ballot gave the Presidency to Jefferson and the Vice-Presidency to Burr. In order to prevent a repetition of so dangerous a struggle, the Twelfth Amendment, by which the electoral votes are cast separately for the candidates for President and for Vice-President, was proposed by Congress Dec. 12, 1803, and declared in force Sept. 25, 1804. [4]More than seven hundred amendments to the Constitution have been proposed since it was adopted. Several are usually proposed at each session of Congress. The first twelve articles of amendment to the Federal Constitution were adopted so soon after the original organization of the Government under it in 1789 as to justify the statement that they were practically contemporaneous with the adoption of the original (JUSTICE MILLER, _U. S. Supreme Court_). [5]In the case of Chisholm _vs_. The State of Georgia, the Supreme Court decided that under Article III., Section 2, of the Constitution a private citizen of a State might bring suit against a State other than the one of which he was a citizen. This decision, by which a State might be brought as defendant before the bar of a Federal court, was highly displeasing to the majority of the States in 1794. On the 5th of March of that year the Eleventh Amendment was passed by two-thirds of both houses of Congress, and declared in force January 8, 1798. Practically, the amendment has been the authority for the repudiation of debts by several States. 
15825	----	Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this file which includes the original illustrations. See 15825-h.htm or 15825-h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/1/5/8/2/15825/15825-h/15825-h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/1/5/8/2/15825/15825-h.zip) Transcriber's Notes Where reference is made to page numbers, there is an annotation showing a footnote number and the relative information is appended at the end of each lesson or section. Pronunciation marks have been ignored. However, accented syllables precede the single apostrophe, which also serves as a break. Otherwise breaks are shown by spaces. Barnes' New National Readers NEW NATIONAL FOURTH READER by CHARLES J. BARNES and J. MARSHALL HAWKES 1884 [Illustration: Destruction of Pompeii by Vesuvius.] PREFACE It is thought that the following special features of this book will commend themselves to Teachers and School Officers. _The reading matter of the book is more of a descriptive than conversational style_, as it is presumed that the pupil, after having finished the previous books of the series, will have formed the habit of easy intonation and distinct articulation. _The interesting character of the selections_, so unlike the reading books of former times. _The large amount of information_ which has been combined with incidents of an interesting nature, to insure the pupil's earnest and thoughtful attention. _The length of the selections for reading_,--the attention of pupils being held more readily by long selections than by short ones, though of equal interest. _The gradation of the lessons_, which has been systematically maintained by keeping a careful record of all new words as fast as they appeared, and using only such pieces as contained a limited number. _The simplicity of the lessons_, which becomes absolutely necessary in the schools of to-day, owing to the short school life of the pupil, his immature age, and inability to comprehend pieces of a metaphysical or highly poetical nature. _The ease with which pupils may pass from the Third Reader of this series to this book_, thereby avoiding the necessity of supplementary reading before commencing the Fourth Reader, or of using a book of another series much lower in grade. _Language Lessons_, of a nature to secure intelligent observation, and lead the pupil to habits of thought and reflection. Nothing being done for the learner that he could do for himself. _Directions for Reading_, which accompany the lessons--specific in their treatment and not of that general character which young teachers and pupils are unable to apply. _All new words of special difficulty, at the heads of the lessons_, having their syllabication, accent, and pronunciation indicated according to Webster. Other new words are placed in a vocabulary at the close of the book. _The type of this book, like that of the previous books of the series, is much larger than that generally used_, for a single reason. Parents, every-where, are complaining that the eye-sight of their children is being ruined by reading from small, condensed type. It is confidently expected that this large, clear style will obviate such unfortunate results. _The illustrations have been prepared regardless of expense_, and will commend themselves to every person of taste and refinement. CONTENTS LESSONS IN PROSE. 1.--"I'M GOING TO" (Part I) _Charlotte Daly_. 2.--"I'M GOING TO" (Part II) _Charlotte Daly_. 3.--THE BEAN AND THE STONE 5.--AN ADVENTURE WITH DUSKY WOLVES (I) _Mayne Reid_. 6.--AN ADVENTURE WITH DUSKY WOLVES (II) _Mayne Reid_. 7.--THE SAILOR CAT _David Ker_. 9.--THE LION 10.--ADVENTURE WITH A LION _Livingstone_. 11.--THE NOBLEST DEED OF ALL 13.--THE STORY OF INDIAN SPRING (I) _Aunt Mary_. 14.--THE STORY OF INDIAN SPRING (II) 15.--AN ADVENTURE WITH A SHARK 17.--A FUNNY HORSESHOE "_Christian Union_." 18.--THE GIRAFFE 19.--THE TRADER'S TRICK 21.--ALI, THE CAMEL DRIVER (I) 22.--ALI, THE CAMEL DRIVER (II) 23.--A QUEER PEOPLE 25.--WATER 26.--THE HIDDEN TREASURE (I) 27.--THE HIDDEN TREASURE (II) 28.--THE HIDDEN TREASURE (III) 30.--AIR _J. Berners_ (Adapted). 31.--A TIMELY RESCUE 33.--TRUE COURTESY (I) 34.--TRUE COURTESY (II) 35.--WHY AN APPLE FALLS 37.--THE JAGUAR 38.--HOLLAND (I) _Mary Mapes Dodge_. 39.--HOLLAND (II) _Mary Mapes Dodge_. 41.--SOMETHING ABOUT PLANTS 42.--FOREST ON FIRE (I) _Audubon_. 43.--FOREST ON FIRE (II) _Audubon_. 45.--A GHOST STORY (I) _Louisa M. Alcott_. 46.--A GHOST STORY (II) _Louisa M. Alcott_. 47.--A GHOST STORY (III) _Louisa M. Alcott_. 49.--THE RHINOCEROS 50.--PRESENCE OF MIND 51.--HALBERT AND HIS DOG 53.--THE CATERPILLAR AND BUTTERFLY 54.--WILD HORSES OF SOUTH AMERICA 55.--AN EMPEROR'S KINDNESS 57.--STORY OF THE SIOUX WAR (I) 58.--STORY OF THE SIOUX WAR (II) 59.--VOLCANOES 61.--ANECDOTE OF WASHINGTON (I) 62.--ANECDOTE OF WASHINGTON (II) 63.--THE OSTRICH 65.--AN INCIDENT OF THE REVOLUTION 66.--TROPICAL FRUITS 67.--STORY OF DETROIT 69.--MAKING MAPLE SUGAR (I) _Charles Dudley Warner_. 70.--MAKING MAPLE SUGAR (II) _Charles Dudley Warner_. 72.--NATURAL WONDERS OF AMERICA (I) 73.--NATURAL WONDERS OF AMERICA (II) 74.--AFRICAN ANTS _Du Chaillu_. 76.--EGYPT AND ITS RUINS (I) 77.--EGYPT AND ITS RUINS (II) LESSONS IN VERSE. 4.--TO-MORROW _Mrs. M.R. Johnson_. 8.--RESCUED _Celia Thaxter_. 12.--MARJORIE'S ALMANAC _T.B. Aldrich_. 16.--A LEGEND OF THE NORTHLAND _Phoebe Cary_. 20.--A HAPPY PAIR _Florence Percy_. 24.--ILL-NATURED BRIER _Mrs. Anna Bache_. 29.--LOOKING FOR THE FAIRIES _Julia Bacon_. 32.--BIRDS IN SUMMER _Mary Howitt_. 36.--THE MILLER OF THE DEE _Charles Mackay_. 40.--THE WIND IN A FROLIC _William Howitt_. 44.--COMMON GIFTS 48.--WHAT THE CHIMNEY SANG _Bret Harte_. 52.--THE LIGHT-HOUSE 56.--UNITED AT LAST 60.--THE BROOK _Alfred Tennyson_. 64.--TO-DAY AND TO-MORROW _Charles Mackay_. 68.--THE FISHERMAN _John G. Whittier_. 71.--OLD IRONSIDES _Oliver Wendell Holmes_. 75.--THE LEAP OF ROUSHAN BEG _Henry W. Longfellow_. DEFINITIONS GEOGRAPHICAL AND PROPER NAMES ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The publishers desire to thank Messrs. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., the Century Co., Roberts Brothers, and Charles Scribner's Sons, for permission to use and adapt some of their valuable copyright matter. SUGGESTIONS To Teachers The following suggestions are submitted for the benefit of young teachers. In order that pupils may learn how to define words at the heads of the lessons, let the teacher read the sentences containing such words and have pupils copy them upon slate or paper. Then indicate what words are to be defined, and insist upon the proper syllabication, accent, marking of letters, etc. In this way the pupil learns the meaning of the word as it is used, and not an abstract definition that may be meaningless. Have pupils study their reading lessons carefully before coming to recitation. The position of pupils while reading should be erect, easy, and graceful. Give special attention to the subject of articulation, and insist upon a clear and distinct enunciation. In order to develop a clear tone of voice, let pupils practice, in concert, upon some of the open vowel sounds, using such words as _arm, all, old_. In this exercise, the force of utterance should be gentle at first, and the words repeated a number of times; then the force should be increased by degrees, until "calling tones" are used. Encourage a natural use of the voice, with such modulations as may be proper for a correct rendering of the thoughts which are read. It should, be remembered that the development of a good tone of voice is the result of careful and constant practice. Concert reading is recommended as a useful exercise, inasmuch as any feeling of restraint or timidity disappears while reading with others. Question individual pupils upon the manner in which lessons should be read. In this way they will learn to think for themselves. Do not interrupt a pupil while reading until a thought or sentence is completed, since such a course tends to make reading mechanical and deprive it of expression. Errors in time, force of utterance, emphasis, and inflection should be carefully corrected, and then the passage read over again. The "Directions for Reading" throughout the book are intended to be suggestive rather than exhaustive, and can be added to as occasion requires. The "Language Lessons" in this book, should not be neglected. They contain only such matter as is necessary to meet the requirements of pupils. Words and expressions not readily understood, must be made intelligible to pupils. This has been done in part by definitions, and in part by interpreting some of the difficult phrases. After the habit of acquiring the usual meaning has been formed, the original meaning of those words which are made up of stems modified by prefixes or affixes should be shown. The real meaning of such words can be understood far better by a study of their formation, than by abstract definitions. It will be found, also, that pupils readily become interested in this kind of work. As the capabilities of classes of the same grade will differ, it may sometimes occur that a greater amount of language work can be done effectively than is laid down in this book. When this happens, more time can be devoted to such special kinds of work as the needs of the classes suggest. Constant drill upon the analysis of lessons, varied at times by the analysis of short stories taken from other sources and read to the class, will develop the reasoning faculties of pupils and render the writing of original compositions a comparatively easy exercise. Encourage the habit of self-reliance on the part of pupils. Original investigation, even if followed at first by somewhat crude results, is in the end more satisfactory than any other course. The Definitions (pages 373-382) and the List of Proper Names (pages 383 and 384) may be used in the preparation of the lessons.[01] When exercises are written, particular care should be required in regard to penmanship, correct spelling, punctuation, and neatness. [01] "The Definitions" are found at the end of the text, however "the List of Proper Names" has not been included in this production. PHONIC CHART. VOWELS. a as in lake a " " at a " " far a " " all a " " care a " " ask a as in what e " " be e " " let i " " ice i " " in o " " so o as in box u " " use u " " up u " " fur oo " " too oo " " look DIPHTHONGS. oi, oy (unmarked), as in oil, boy ou, ow " " " out, now CONSONANTS b as in bad d " " do f " " fox g " " go h " " he j " " just k " " kite l " " let m as in me n " " no p " " put r " " rat s " " so t " " too v " " very w " " we y as in yes z " " froze ng " " sing ch " " chick sh " " she th " " think th " " the wh(hw)," what EQUIVALENTS. VOWELS. a like o as in what e " a " " where e " a " " they e " u " " her i " u " " girl i " e " " police o, u like oo as in to, rule o " u " " come o " a " " for u, o " oo " " put, could y " i " " by y " i " " kit'ty CONSONANTS. c like s as in race c " k " " cat g " j " " cage n like ng as in think s " z " " has x " ks, or gz " box, exist FOURTH READER LESSON I spokes'man, _one who speaks for others_. cho'rus, _a number of speakers or singers_. apt, _likely; ready_. folks, _people; family_. mis'er a ble, _very unhappy; very poor_. lone'some, _without friends; lonely_. score, _twenty_. wretch'ed, _unhappy; very sad_. * * * * * "I'M GOING TO." PART I. Once upon a time, there was a little boy, whose name was Johnny. "Johnny," said his mamma, one day, "will you bring me an armful of wood?" "Yes," said Johnny, "I'm going to"; but just then he heard Carlo, the dog, barking at a chipmunk over in the meadow, so he ran off as fast as he could go. Now this was not the first time that Johnny had said to his mamma, "Yes, I'm going to." He never thought of that wood again until about dinner-time, when he began to feel hungry. When he got back, he found that dinner was over, and papa and mamma had gone to ride. He found a piece of bread and butter, and sat down on a Large rock, with his back against the stump of a tree, to eat it. When it was all gone, Johnny began to think what he should do next. He closed his eyes as people are apt to do when they think. Presently he heard a score of voices about him. One was saying, "Wait a bit"; another, "Pretty soon"; another, "In a minute"; another, "By and by"; and still another, louder than the rest, kept screaming as loud as it could, "Going to, going to, going to," till Johnny thought they were crazy. "Who in the world are you?" said he, in great surprise, "and what are you making such a noise about?" "We are telling our names," said they; "didn't you ask us to tell our names?" "No," said Johnny, "I didn't." "O what a story!" cried they all in a breath. [Illustration] "Let's shake him for it," said one. "No, let us carry him to the king," said another. So they began to spin about him like so many spiders; for each one of them carried a long web, and when that gets wound around a boy or a girl, it is a very difficult thing to get rid of. In a few minutes they had him all wound up--hands and feet, nose and eyes, all tied up tight. Then they took him among them, and flew away with him, miles and miles, over the hills, and up to a big cave in the mountain. There he heard ever so many more voices, and it was noisier than ever. "Where am I?" he said, as soon as he could speak. "O you're safe at home," answered Wait-a-bit, for he seemed to be the spokesman; "and they have been expecting you for some time." "This isn't my home," said Johnny, feeling very miserable and beginning to cry. "O yes, it is," said a chorus of voices. "This is just where such folks as you belong. There are many of your fellows here, and you won't be lonesome a bit." They had begun to unwind the web from his eyes now, so he opened them and looked about him. O what a wretched place it was! Against the sides of the cave, stood long rows of boys and girls, with very sorry faces, all of them saying over as fast as they could speak, "Going to, going to!" "Wait a bit, wait a bit!" "Pretty soon, pretty soon!" "In a minute, in a minute!" studying the names just as hard as if they were lessons. There were Delays, and Tardys, and Put-offs, with ever so many more; and in a corner by themselves, and looking more unhappy than all the rest, were the poor little fellows whose names were "Too late." * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Pupils should read loud enough for all the class to hear them. The words forming a _quotation_ should usually be spoken in a louder tone than the other words in the lesson, as-- _"Johnny,"_ said his mamma, one day, _"will you bring me an armful of wood?"_ * * * * * Language Lesson.--Divide into syllables, accent, and mark the sounds of the letters in the following words: _Carlo, armful, mountain, unwind_. What two words can be used for each of the following: _I'm, didn't, let's, you're, isn't, won't?_ What other words could be used instead of _got_ (page 16, line 4)?[02] Proper names should begin with capital letters: as, _Johnny, Carlo_. Give three other words used as proper names in this lesson. [02] paragraph 4 of this lesson * * * * * LESSON II. de spair', _loss of hope_. pro cras' ti na tor, _one who puts off doing any thing_. res o lu'tions, _promises made to one's self; resolves_. yon'der, _there; in that place_. mon'strous, _of great size_. gi'ant, _an unreal person, supposed to be of great size_. hor'rid, _causing great fear or alarm_. ex pect'ed, _thought; looked for_. * * * * * "I'M GOING TO." PART II. "O dear, dear! Where am I?" said Johnny in despair. "Please let me out! I want my mamma!" "No, you don't," said Wait-a-bit. "You don't care much about her, and this is really where you belong. This is the kingdom of Procrastination, and yonder comes the king." "The kingdom of what?" said Johnny, who had never heard such a long word in his life before. But just then he heard a heavy foot-fall, and a great voice that sounded like a roar, saying, "Has he come? Did you get him?" "Yes, here he is," said Wait-a-bit, "and he'd just been saying it a little while before we picked him up." Johnny looked up and saw a monstrous giant, with a bright green body and red legs, and a yellow head and two horrid coal-black eyes. "Let me have him," said the giant. So he took him up just as if he had been a rag-baby, and looked him all over, turning him from side to side, and from head to feet. O but Johnny was frightened, and expected every moment to be swallowed! "Let's see," said the giant; "he always says 'Pretty soon.' No, that isn't it. What is it, my fine fellow, that you always say to your mamma when she asks you to do any thing for her? "It isn't 'Pretty soon,' nor 'In a minute.' What is it? They all mean about the same thing, to be sure, and bring every body to me in the end; but I must know exactly, or I can't put you in the right place." Johnny hung his head, and did not want to tell; but an extra hard poke of the giant's big finger made him open his mouth and say with shame, that he always said, "I'm going to." "O that's it!" said the giant. "Well, then, you stand there." So he unwound a bit of the web from his fingers--just enough so that he could hold the Procrastinator's Primer--and stood him at the end of a long row of children, who were saying over and over again, just as fast as they could speak, "Going to, going to, going to, going to," just that, and nothing else in the world. Johnny was tired and hungry by this time, and longed to see his mamma, thinking that, if he could only get back: to her, he would always mind the very moment she told him to do any thing. He made a great many good resolutions while he stood there. At last the giant called him to come and say his lesson. "You shall have a short one to-day," said he, "and need say it only a thousand times, because it is your first day here. To-morrow, you must say it a million." Johnny tried to step forward, but the web was still about his feet, so he fell with, a bang to the floor. Just then he opened his eyes to find that he had rolled from the rock to the grass, and that mamma was calling him in a loud voice to come to supper, and this time he didn't say, "I'm going to." * * * * * Directions for Reading.--The words in quotation marks should be read in the same manner as in Lesson I. Read words in dark type in the following sentences with more force than the other words: "Has he _come?_ Did you _get_ him?" Words that are read more forcibly than other words in a sentence are called _emphatic words_. Which are the _emphatic words_ in the following sentences? "You shall have a short one to-day." "I must know exactly." * * * * * Language Lesson.--Divide into syllables, accent, and mark the sounds of the letters in the following words: _extra, primer, moment, coal-black_. * * * * * LESSON III. remark'able, _worthy of notice; unusual_. moist'ure, _wetness; that which makes wet_. absorbed', _sucked up; drunk up_. with'er, _lose freshness_. starched, _stiffened, as starch_. germ, _that from which the plant grows; bud_. hand'some, _pleasing in appearance; very pretty_. clasped, _surrounded; inclosed_. * * * * * THE BEAN AND THE STONE. "I think I ought to be doing something in the world!" said a little voice out in the garden. "Pray, what can you do?" asked another and somewhat stronger voice. "I think I can grow," answered the little voice. If you had seen the owner of the little voice, perhaps you would not have thought him any thing remarkable. It is true he had on a clean white coat, so smooth and shining that it looked as if it had been newly starched and ironed, and inside of this, he hugged two stout packages. The coat had only one fastening; but that fastening extended down the back, and was a curious thing to see. It looked just as if the coat had been cut with a knife, and had afterward grown together again. It was like a scar on your hand; and a scar it is called. "Yes, I ought to be growing," said the little voice, "for I am a bean, and in the spring a bean ought to grow." Now you know how the coat came by its scar, for the scar was the spot which showed where the bean had been broken from the pod. "What do you mean by growing?" said the other voice, which came from a large red stone. "Why," said the bean, "don't you know what growing means? I thought every thing knew how to grow. You see, when I grow, my root goes down into the soil to get moisture, and my stem goes up into the light to find heat. Heat and moisture are my food and drink. "By and by, I shall be a full-grown plant, and that is wonderful! In the ground, my roots will travel far and wide. "In the air, how happy my stem will be! I shall learn a great deal, and see beautiful things every day. O how I long for that time to come!" "What you say is very strange," said the red stone. "Here I have been in this same place for many years, and I have not grown at all. I have no root; I have no stem; or, if I have, they never move upward nor downward, as you say. Are you sure you are not mistaken?" "Why, of course I'm not mistaken," cried the bean. "I feel within myself that I can grow; and I have absorbed so much moisture that I must soon begin." Just then the bean's coat split from end to end, and for one or two minutes neither the stone nor the bean spoke. The stone was astonished, and the bean was a little frightened. However, he soon recovered his courage. "There!" said he, showing the two packages he had been carrying; "these are my seed-leaves. In them is the food on which I intend to live when I begin growing. "When my stem is strong enough to do without them, they will wither away. My coat is all worn-out, too. I shall not need it any longer. Look inside the seed-leaves, and you will see the germ. Part of it is root, and part of it is stem. Do you see?" "I see two little white lumps," replied the stone; "but I can not understand how they will ever be a root and a stem." "I do believe you are a poor, dull mineral, after all," said the bean; "and if so, of course you can not understand what pleasure a vegetable has in growing. "I wouldn't be a mineral for the world! I would not lie still and do nothing, year after year. I would rather spread my branches in the sunshine, and drink in the sweet spring air through my leaves." "What you say must be all nonsense," said the stone. "I can't understand it." But the bean grew on without minding him. The roots pushed down into the soil and drank up the moisture from the ground. Then this moisture went into the stem, and the stem climbed bravely up into the light. "How happy I am!" cried the bean. It ran over the red stone, and clasped it with long green branches, covered with white bean flowers. "O indeed!" said the stone. "Is this what you call growing? I thought you were only in fun. How handsome you are!" "May I hang my pods on you, so that they can ripen in the sun?" said the bean. "Certainly, friend," said the stone. He was very polite, now that he saw the bean was a full-grown vine. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Read in a conversational tone of voice, as in Lessons I and II. What word is emphatic in the third paragraph? * * * * * Language Lesson.--Syllabify, accent, and mark sounds of letters in the words, _broken, packages, courage, polite_. Tell in your own words how the bean grew. * * * * * LESSON IV. elf, _a very small person; an unreal being_. vex, _make angry; trouble_. pon'dered, _thought about with care_. streak, _line; long mark_. * * * * * TO-MORROW. A bright little boy with laughing face, Whose every motion was full of grace, Who knew no trouble and feared no care, Was the light of our household--the youngest there. He was too young--this little elf-- With troublesome questions to vex himself; But for many days a thought would rise, And bring a shade to the dancing eyes. He went to one whom he thought more wise Than any other beneath the skies: "Mother,"--O word that makes the home!-- "Tell me, when will to-morrow come?" "It is almost night," the mother said, "And time for my boy to be in bed; When you wake up and it's day again, It will be to-morrow, my darling, then." The little boy slept through all the night, But woke with the first red streak of light; He pressed a kiss on his mother's brow, And whispered, "Is it to-morrow now?" "No, little Eddie, this is to-day; To-morrow is always one night away." He pondered awhile, but joys came fast, And this vexing question quickly passed. But it came again with the shades of night: "Will it be to-morrow when it is light?" From years to come, he seemed care to borrow, He tried so hard to catch to-morrow. "You can not catch it, my little Ted; Enjoy to-day," the mother said; "Some wait for to-morrow through many a year-- It always is coming, but never is here." * * * * * Directions for Reading.--In reading poetry, pupils should notice the emphatic words, and give them proper force. Example. "_Mother_,"--O word that makes the home!-- "_Tell_ me, when will _to-morrow_ come?" The two dashes in the first line of the preceding example are used instead of a parenthesis, and have the same value. When there is no pause at the end of a line (see first line, third stanza), it should be closely joined in reading to the line which follows it, thus making the two lines read as one. * * * * * LESSON V. ap'pe tite, _wish for food_. a muse'ment, _play; enjoyment_. gaunt, _lean; hungry looking_. spe'cies, _kind_. oc curred', _took place; happened_. en cour'age ment, _hope given by another's words or actions_. di rec'tion, _way; course_. dusk'y, _very dark; almost black_. sin'gu lar, _unusual; strange_. * * * * * AN ADVENTURE WITH DUSKY WOLVES. PART I. "During the summer and winter, we had several adventures in the trapping and killing of wild animals. One of them was of such a singular and dangerous kind, that you may feel interested in hearing it. "It occurred in the dead of winter, when there was snow upon the ground. The lake was frozen over, and the ice was as smooth as glass. We spent much of our time in skating about over its surface, as the exercise gave us health and a good appetite. "Even Cudjo, our colored servant, had taken a fancy for this amusement, and was a very good skater. Frank was fonder of it than the rest of us, and was, in fact, the best skater among us. "One day, however, neither Cudjo nor I had gone out, but only Frank and Harry. The rest of us were busy at some carpenter work within doors. "We could hear the merry laugh of the boys, and the ring of their skates as they glided over the smooth ice. All at once, a cry reached our ears, which we knew meant the presence of some danger. "'O Robert!' cried my wife, 'they have broken through the ice!' "We all dropped what we held in our hands, and rushed to the door. I seized a rope as I ran, while Cudjo took his long spear, thinking it might be of use to us. This was the work of a moment, and the next we were outside the house. "What was our astonishment to see both the boys, away at the farthest end of the lake, but skating toward us as fast as they could! "At the same time, our eyes rested upon a terrible sight. Close behind them upon the ice, and following at full gallop, was a pack of wolves! "They were not the small prairie wolves, which either of the boys might have chased with a stick, but of a species known as the 'Great Dusky Wolf' of the Rocky Mountains. "There were six of them in all. Each of them was twice the size of the prairie wolf, and their long, dark bodies, gaunt with hunger, and crested from head to tail with a high, bristling mane, gave them a most fearful appearance. "They ran with their ears set back and their jaws apart, so that we could see their red tongues and white teeth. "We did not stop a moment, but rushed toward the lake. I threw down the rope, and seized hold of a large rail as I ran, while Cudjo hurried forward armed with a spear. My wife, with presence of mind, turned back into the house for my rifle. "I saw that Harry was foremost, and that the fierce wolves were fast closing upon Frank. This was strange, for we knew that Frank was by far the better skater. We all called out to him, uttering loud shouts of encouragement. Both were bearing themselves manfully, but Frank was most in danger. "The wolves were upon his heels! 'O they will kill him!' I cried, expecting the next moment to see him thrown down upon the ice. What was my joy at seeing him suddenly wheel and dart off in a new direction." * * * * * Directions for Reading.--This lesson should be read with spirit, and in a full, clear tone of voice. * * * * * Language Lesson.--_Presence of mind_ is the power to act quickly when sudden danger threatens. _Upon his heels_ means very close to. _Dead of winter_ is the middle of winter, as that is supposed to be the quietest or most lifeless time. Syllabify, accent, and mark sounds of letters in the following words: _fancy, gallop, prairie, bristling, rifle_. * * * * * LESSON VI. e lud'ed, _got away from; avoided_. ex cit'ing, _causing deep interest_. marks'man, _one who shoots well_. re treat'ing, _going away from_. en a'bled, _helped; made able_. sim'i lar, _like; nearly the same_. pur suit', _following after_. nim'bly, _with a quick motion_. com menced', _began_. * * * * * AN ADVENTURE WITH DUSKY WOLVES. PART II. "The wolves, thus nimbly eluded, now kept on after Harry, who, in turn, became the object of our anxiety. "In a moment they were close upon him; but he, already warned by his brother, wheeled in a similar manner, while the fierce brutes, swept along by the force of their running, were carried a long distance upon the ice before they could turn themselves. "Their long, bushy tails, however, soon enabled them to turn about and follow in the new direction, and they galloped after Harry, who was now the nearest to them. "Frank, in the meantime, had again turned, and came sweeping past behind them, at the same time shouting loudly, as if to tempt them away from their pursuit of Harry. "They heeded him not, and again he changed his direction, and, as though he was about to skate into their midst, followed the wolves. "This time he skated up close behind them, just at the moment when Harry had turned again, and thus made his second escape. "At this moment, we heard Frank calling out to his brother to make for the shore, while, instead of retreating himself, he stopped until Harry had passed, and then dashed off, followed closely by the whole pack. "Another slight turn brought him nearly in our direction; but there was a large hole broken through the ice close by the shore, and we saw that, unless he turned again, he would skate into it. "We thought he was watching the wolves too intently to see it, and we shouted to warn him. Not so; he knew better than we what he was about. "When he had reached within a few feet of the hole, he wheeled sharply to the left, and came dashing up to the point where we stood to receive him. "The wolves, too intent upon their chase to see any thing else, went sweeping past the point where he had turned, and the next moment plunged through the broken ice into the water. "Then Cudjo and I ran forward, shouting loudly, and, with the heavy rail and the long spear, commenced dealing death among them. "It was but a short, though exciting scene. Five of them were speared and drowned, while the sixth crawled out upon the ice and was rapidly making off, frightened enough at his cold ducking. [Illustration] "At that moment I heard the crack of a rifle and saw the wolf tumble over. "On turning round I saw Harry with, my rifle, which my wife had brought down and handed to him, as a better marksman than herself. "The wolf, only wounded, was kicking furiously about on the ice; but Cudjo now ran out, and, after a short struggle, finished the business with his spear. "This was, indeed, a day of great excitement in our forest home. Frank, who was the hero of the day, although he said nothing, was no doubt not a little proud of his skating feat. "And well he might be, as, but for his skill, poor Harry would no doubt have fallen a prey to the fierce wolves." * * * * * Language Lesson.--Let pupils use other words to express the meaning of what is given below in dark type. Again he _changed his direction_. He then _dashed off_. He wheeled _sharply_ to the left. Cudjo and I commenced _dealing death among them_. Cudjo _finished the business_ with his spear. Harry would have _fallen a prey to_ the fierce wolves. Tell the story in your own words, using the points in the following Analysis.--1. Frank and Harry go to skate. 2. The alarm. 3. The wolves. 4. The pursuit. 5. The escape. 6. Death of the wolves. * * * * * LESSON VII. craft, _ship; a boat of any kind_. mew'ing, _crying, like a cat_. a dopt'ed, _received as one's own_. ad mir'er, _one who likes another_. voy'age, _journey by water_. dain'ty, _nice in form or taste_. a loft', _on high; in the air_. wind'ward, _the point from which the wind blows_. star'board, _the right-hand side of a ship_. bruised, _injured, hurt_. * * * * * OUR SAILOR CAT. She was a sailor cat, indeed, and it was a sailor who first brought her on board. Our steamer was lying at her pier in the North River, at New York, taking in cargo. One of our men, who had been ashore, came back with a little gray-and-white kitten in his arms. She was very poor and thin, and her little furry coat was sadly soiled with dirt and grease. But she had not lost all her fun, for she was making play with her tiny fore-paws at the ends of the sailor's red beard, to honest Jack's great delight. "Where did you pick that up, Jack?" asked the third officer. "Well, your honor," said Jack Harmon, touching his cap with a grin, "seems to me she must have left her ship and gone to look for another, for I found her tramping along the pier there, and mewing as if she was calling out for somebody to show her the road. "So I thought that, as we have many rats aboard the old craft, she would be able to pick up a good living there; and I called to her, and she came at once, and here she is." Here she was, sure enough; and as Jack ended his story, she chimed in with a plaintive little "Me-ow," which said, as plainly as ever any cat spoke yet, "I'm very cold and hungry, and I do wish somebody would take me below and give me some food!" She had not long to wait. Half an hour later she was the best-fed cat in that part of New York City, and that night she lay snugly curled up with a good warm blanket over her. Of course, the first thing to do with an adopted cat is to give it a name, and Jack Harmon, who was a bit of a wag in his way, and a great admirer of the monster elephant which was just then making such a stir in New York, called his new pet "Jumbo." Jumbo soon became the pet of the whole crew, and of the passengers, too, when they came on board, a few days later, for the voyage back to England. Before we were half-way across the ocean, the bits of meat or cake, and bits of white bread soaked in milk, which were being constantly given her by one and another, had made her look as round as an apple. The ladies were never tired of stroking her soft fur and admiring her dainty white paws, which were now as spotless as snow. The children romped all day with this new playmate, who seemed to enjoy the sport quite as much as themselves. But Jumbo was not content with mere play. She seemed to think herself bound to do something to "work her passage." Whenever any of the crew went aloft to take in sail, Jumbo would always climb up, too, as if to help them. Jack Harmon was still her favorite, and whenever it came his turn to stand at the bow and keep watch, there was Jumbo going backward and forward. On the eighth night of the voyage, the stars looked dim and watery, and a low bank of clouds began to rise to windward of us, just between sea and sky. The old sailors shook their heads and looked grave, as if they expected an unusual storm. Suddenly the wind began to blow strongly upon the starboard quarter, stirring up a cross-sea which tossed the great ship like a toy. Nearly all the passengers had gone below, and the few who remained on deck buttoned their water-proof coats, and held tightly on by any thing they could seize. Jack Harmon had shut up his cat below, but poor puss escaped somehow, for all at once a shrill cry was heard, and there was Jumbo clinging to a rail, with a great mountain of a wave coming right down upon her. Several men sprang toward the spot, but Jack was foremost, and he had just reached his little pet when down came the great wave upon them both. Instantly the whole after-deck was one roaring, foaming waterfall, the flying spray of which blinded one for a moment. But when it cleared, there stood our brave Jack--dripping, bruised, and bleeding from a cut on the head. But his little favorite was safe in his arms, and as he came back with her, such a cheer went up from all who were on deck, as the old ship had not heard for many a day. "Let's send round the hat for him," said one of the passengers. And the hat was sent around, so successfully that Jack got enough money to give his poor old mother a happy Christmas, and still have something left over for himself and Jumbo, who was his mother's pet ever after. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Should this lesson be read with the same tone of voice as Lessons V. and VI.? In the first paragraph, do not say _pier rin_ for _pier in; dir' tand_ for _dirt and_. Point out two other places in the lesson where mistakes similar to those just given might occur. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Syllabify, accent, and mark the sounds of letters in the following words: _cargo, officer, blanket, passengers, instantly, bleeding_. _Work her passage_ means to pay her fare by making herself useful. Make out an _analysis_ in six parts for this lesson, and use it in telling the story in your own words. * * * * * LESSON VIII. loi'ter ing, _going slowly, lingering_. pro tect'or, _one who keeps another from harm_. throng'ing, _gathering in large numbers_. wrecked, _dashed to pieces_. thatched, _covered with straw or twigs_. bronzed, _brown, darked-colored_. bleach'ing, _whitening_. van'ished, _gone out of sight; departed suddenly_. rapt'ure, _great joy; delight_. * * * * * RESCUED. "Little lad, slow wandering across the sands so yellow, Leading safe a lassie small--O tell me, little fellow, Whither go you, loitering in the summer weather, Chattering like sweet-voiced birds on a bough together?" "I am Robert, if you please, and this is Rose, my sister, Youngest of us all"--he bent his curly head and kissed her, "Every day we come and wait here till the sun is setting, Watching for our father's ship, for mother dear is fretting. "Long ago he sailed away, out of sight and hearing, Straight across the bay he went, into sunset steering. Every day we look for him, and hope for his returning, Every night my mother keeps the candle for him burning. "Summer goes, and winter comes, and spring returns but never Father's step comes to the gate. O, is he gone forever? The great, grand ship that bore him off, think you some tempest wrecked her?" Tears shone in little Rose's eyes, upturned to her protector. Eagerly the bonny boy went on: "O, sir, look yonder! In the offing see the sails that east and westward wander; Every hour they come and go, the misty distance thronging. While we watch and see them fade, with sorrow and with longing." "Little Robert, little Rose!" The stranger's eyes were glistening At his bronzed and bearded face, upgazed the children, listening; He knelt upon the yellow sand, and clasped them to his bosom, Robert brave, and little Rose, as bright as any blossom. "Father, father! Is it you?" The still air rings with rapture; All the vanished joy of years the waiting ones recapture! Finds he welcome wild and sweet, the low-thatched cottage reaching, But the ship that into sunset steered, upon the rocks lies bleaching. [Illustration] * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Read the conversational parts of this poem like conversation in prose. Point out the _emphatic words_ in the first line of the last stanza. * * * * * Language Lesson.--_Into sunset steering_, means sailing westward. _The misty distance thronging_, means gathering together in the distance. _The still air rings with rapture_, means that the air becomes full of joyful shouts. _All the vanished joy of years the waiting ones recapture_, means that the children regain the happiness lost during their father's absence. * * * * * LESSON IX. impos'ing, _grand looking; of great size_. glar'ing, _fierce looking_. lim'its, _space_. e nor'mous, _very large; huge_. start'led, _suddenly alarmed; surprised_. au'dible, _that may be heard_. maj'esty, _greatness; nobility_. increas'ing, _growing larger_. * * * * * THE LION. There is, in the appearance of the lion, something both noble and imposing. Nature has given him wonderful strength and beauty. His body, when full grown, is only about seven feet long and less than four feet high; but his large and shapely head, with its powerful jaws, his glaring eye, and long, flowing mane, give him an air of majesty that shows him worthy of the name--"King of Beasts." Yet we are told that a lion will not willingly attack man, unless first attacked himself or driven by hunger to forget his habits. On meeting man suddenly, he will turn, retreat slowly for a short distance, and then run away. The lion belongs to the cat family, and his teeth and claws are similar in form and action to those of the house cat. His food is the flesh of animals; and so great is his appetite, that it must require several thousand other animals to supply one lion with food during his life-time. His strength is so enormous that he can crush the skull of an ox with a single blow of his powerful paw, and then grasp it in his jaws and bound away. Unless driven by hunger to bolder measures, he will hide in the bushes, or in the tall reeds along the banks of rivers, and spring suddenly upon the unlucky animal that chances to come near him. Many lions have been captured, and their habits and appearance carefully studied. Although there is a difference in color--some being of a yellowish brown, others of a deep red, and a few silvery gray--the general form and appearance of all lions is the same. The mane is of a dark brown, or of a dusky color, and the tail nearly three feet long, with a bunch of hair at the tip. The lioness, or female lion, is smaller in every way than the male and has no mane. It is in the night-time that the lion goes out from his den to seek for food, and his color is so dark and his movements so silent, that his presence is not known even at the distance of a few yards. These dangerous beasts are no longer found in Europe, although they lived there in numbers many hundred years ago. It is only in the deserts and rocky hills of Asia and Africa that they are met with. Those who have visited a menagerie, and have seen a lion within the limits of a narrow iron cage, can form no idea of the majesty of the brute when roaming about freely on his native soil. The voice of the lion is loud and strong. It is likely to strike terror to the bravest heart. "It consists," says a well-known writer, "at times of a low, deep moaning, repeated five or six times, and ending in scarcely audible sighs; at other times, the forest is startled with loud, deep-toned, solemn roars, increasing in loudness to the third or fourth, and then dying away in sounds like distant thunder." * * * * * Directions for Reading.--This lesson should be read a little more slowly than conversation. When we wish to describe any thing, we must give time for those who listen to us to get the meaning of what we say. Do not run the words together when reading. (See Directions for Reading, page 42.)[03] Example.--"There is, in the appearance of the lion, something both noble and imposing." * * * * * Language Lesson.--Syllabify, accent, and mark sounds of letters in the following words: _meeting, require, Europe, idea, terror, measures, unlucky, narrow, bolder_. _Air of majesty_ means the noble appearance supposed to belong to kings. [03] See Lesson VII. * * * * * LESSON X. ar ti fi' cial, _not real; made by human skill_. ex er'tion, _great effort; attempt_. destroyed', _killed; put an end to_. cleansed, _cleaned; freed from dirt_. sit u a'tion, _position_. fa'mous, _much talked of; well known_. fre'quent ly, _often_. in'ci dent, _adventure; event_. nar rat'ed, _told_. hurled, _thrown with force_. stu'por, _sleepy feeling_. * * * * * ADVENTURE WITH A LION. The dangers of lion-hunting may be understood from the following incident, narrated by Livingstone, the famous African traveler: "The villagers among whom I was staying were much troubled by lions, which leaped into their cattle-pens and destroyed their cows. "As I knew well that, if one of a number of lions is killed, the others frequently take the hint and leave that part of the country, I gave the villagers advice to that end, and, to encourage them, offered to lead the hunt. "The lions were found hiding among the rocks on a hill covered with trees, and about a quarter of a mile in length. The men circled the hill, and slowly edged in closer and closer, so that the lions might be completely surrounded. "Presently one of the natives spied a lion sitting on a piece of rock, and fired at him, the ball missing the beast and striking the rock. "The lion turned, bit like a dog at the spot where the bullet had struck, and then bounded off to the shelter of the brushwood. "Soon I saw another lion in much the same situation as the former, and, being not more than thirty yards from it, let fly with both barrels. "As the lion was still on its legs, I hastened to reload my gun; but hearing a sudden and frightful cry from the natives, I looked up and saw the wounded lion springing upon me. "I was caught by the shoulder and hurled to the ground. Growling terribly in my ear, the lion shook me as a dog does a rat. "The shock produced a stupor, similar to that which seems to be felt by a mouse after the first shake of a cat. "The lion then leaped upon one of the natives who had tried to shoot at him, and then sprang at the neck of a second native who, armed with a spear, was rushing to the rescue. [Illustration] "The exertion was too much for the wounded beast, and so, with his claws bedded in the spearman's shoulder, he rolled over and died. "I had escaped, but with a shoulder so broken as to need an artificial joint, and with eleven teeth wounds in my arm. "These wounds were less severe than they would have been, had not a heavy jacket which I had on, cleansed the teeth of the lion in their passage. As it was, they were soon cured and gave me no trouble afterward." * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Read this lesson in a full and clear conversational tone of voice. Those parts of the lesson to which we wish to call attention, should be read slowly. Example.--"The men edged in closer and closer, so that the lions might be completely surrounded." Should the slow and clear reading be kept up throughout pages 51 and 52, or should those pages be read more rapidly?[04] * * * * * Language Lesson.--Syllabify, accent, and mark sounds of letters in the following words: _Livingstone, bullet, growling, jacket, offered, advice, severe_. _Edged in closer and closer_ means went slowly nearer and nearer. _Let fly with both barrels_ means fired both barrels of his gun at the same time. _Still on its legs_ means not so badly wounded but that it was able to stand up. Tell the story in your own words. [04] See this lesson. * * * * * LESSON XI. en riched', _made rich_. de tec'tion, _being found out_. dis mount'ed, _got down from_. sat' is fied, _supplied with all one wants_. sum'mit, _top; highest point_. en trust'ed, _gave the care of_. em ployed', _used; made use of_. im por'tant, _worthy of attention_. ad dressed', _spoke to_. di' a mond, _a very valuable stone_. in clud' ed, _put in as a part_. * * * * * THE NOBLEST DEED OF ALL. A rich Persian, feeling himself growing old, and finding that the cares of business were too great for him, resolved, to divide his goods among his three sons, keeping a very small part to protect him from want in his old age. The sons were all well satisfied, and each took his share with thanks, and promised that it should be well and properly employed. When this important business was thus finished, the father addressed the sons in the following words: "My sons, there is one thing which I have not included in the share of any one of you. It is this costly diamond which you see in my hand. I will give it to that one of you who shall earn it by the noblest deed. "Go, therefore, and travel for three months; at the end of that time, we will meet here again, and you shall tell me what you have done." The sons thereupon departed, and traveled for three months, each in a different direction. At the end of that time they returned; and all came together to their father to give an account of their journey. The eldest son spoke first. "Father, on my journey a stranger entrusted to me a great number of valuable jewels, without taking any account of them. Indeed, I was well aware that he did not know how many the package contained. "One or two of them would never have been missed, and I might easily have enriched myself without fear of detection. But I gave back the package exactly as I had received it. Was not this a noble deed?" "My son," replied the father, "simple honesty cannot be called noble. You did what was right, and nothing more. If you had acted otherwise, you would have been dishonest, and your deed would have shamed you. You have done well, but not nobly." The second son now spoke. He said: "As I was riding along on my journey, I one day saw a poor child playing by the shore of a lake; and just as I rode by, it fell into the water, and was in danger of being drowned. "I at once dismounted from my horse, and plunging into the water, brought it safe to land. All the people of the village where this happened will tell you that what I say is true. Was it not a noble action?" "My son," replied the old man, "you did only what was your duty. You could hardly have left the child to die without exerting yourself to save it. You, too, have acted well, but not nobly." Then the third son came forward to tell his tale. He said: "Father, I had an enemy, who for years had done me much harm and tried to take my life. "One evening during my journey, I was passing along a dangerous road which ran beside the summit of a cliff. As I rode along, my horse started at sight of something in the road. "I dismounted to see what it was, and found my enemy lying fast asleep on the very edge of the cliff. The least movement in his sleep and he must have rolled over and been dashed to pieces on the rocks below. "His life was in my hands. I drew him away from the edge and then woke him, and told him to go on his way in peace." Then the old Persian cried out with great joy, "Dear son, the diamond is yours, for it is a noble and godlike thing to help an enemy and return good for evil." * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Read this lesson in a conversational tone of voice, and somewhat more slowly than Lesson III. Read what is said by each one of the four different persons, as you think each one of them would speak. How would you read the third and fourth paragraphs?--the last paragraph? Point out the _emphatic words_ in the last paragraph. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Syllabify, accent, and mark sounds of letters in the following words: _Persian, therefore, valuable, account, jewels, aware, contained, dishonest, duty, enemy_. Let pupils use other words, to express the following: To go on his way in peace. Return good for evil. Tell the story in your own words, using the points in the following Analysis.--1. The father divides his goods. 2. What he said to his sons. 3. What the eldest son did. 4. What the second son did. 5. What the third son did. 6. What the father said. * * * * * LESSON XII. a new', _over again_. al'ma nac, _a book giving days, weeks, and months of the year_. rus'tling, _shaking with a gentle sound_. scents, _smells_. drow'sy, _sleepy; making sleepy_. larch, _a kind of tree_. flue, _an opening for air or smoke to pass through_. haunt'ing, _staying in; returning often_. mur'mur, _a low sound_. fra' grant, _sweet smelling_. * * * * * MARJORIE'S ALMANAC. Robins in the tree-top, Blossoms in the grass, Green things a-growing Every-where you pass; Sudden fragrant breezes, Showers of silver dew, Black bough and bent twig Budding out anew; Pine-tree and willow-tree, Fringed elm and larch,-- Don't you think that May-time's Pleasanter than March? Apples in the orchard Mellowing one by one; Strawberries upturning Soft cheeks to the sun; Roses faint with sweetness, Lilies fair of face, Drowsy scents and murmurs Haunting every place; Lengths of golden sunshine, Moonlight bright as day,-- Don't you think that summer's Pleasanter than May? Roger in the corn-patch Whistling negro songs; Pussy by the hearth-side Romping with the tongs; Chestnuts in the ashes Bursting through the rind; Red leaf and gold leaf Rustling down the wind; Mother "doin' peaches" All the afternoon,-- Don't you think that autumn's Pleasanter than June? Little fairy snow-flakes Dancing in the flue; Old Mr. Santa Claus, What is keeping you? Twilight and firelight, Shadows come and go; Merry chime of sleigh-bells Tinkling through the snow; Mother knitting stockings (Pussy's got the ball!)-- Don't you think that winter's Pleasanter than all? * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Read the lesson with spirit, and avoid anything like sing-song. Do not make the last word of each line _emphatic_, unless it is really an _emphatic word_. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Syllabify, accent, and mark sounds of letters in the following words; _Marjorie's, chestnuts, peaches, afternoon_. What part of the year is described in each stanza? What two words can be used for each of the following: _May-time's, summer's_. * * * * * LESSON XIII. col'o ny, _a number of people living together in one place_. set'tlers, _those people who form a colony_. shy, _easily frightened; timid_. es tab'lished, _formed; settled_. war'rior, _a soldier; one who fights in war_. fur'ni ture, _articles used in a house_. dread'ed, _feared very much_. pros' per ous, _successful; rich_. * * * * * THE STORY OF INDIAN SPRING. PART I. "You want to know why this is called Indian Spring, Robbie? I will tell you. "When Mary and I were little girls, father moved away from our pleasant home on the bank of the Delaware River, and came to this part of the country. There were five of us: father, mother, Mary, our dear nurse Lizzie, and I. "Lizzie was a colored woman, who had lived with us a long time. She was very handsome, and straight as an arrow. She was a few years older than mother. "Grandfather Thorpe, your great grandfather, boys, gave her to mother when she was married. Your grandfather was a miller. The old mill that I went to see to-day, was his. It was the first mill built in this part of Pennsylvania. "O, this was a beautiful country! my eyes never were tired of looking out over these mountains and valleys. But I saw that mother's face was getting thinner and whiter every day; they said she was homesick, and before we had been in the colony a year, a grave was made under an elm-tree close by, and that grave was mother's. "I thought my heart was broken then, but I soon forgot my sorrow: I still had father, sister Mary, and Lizzie. "In this part of Pennsylvania at that time there were very few white people, and besides our own, there was no other colony within ten miles. But our people being so near together, and well armed, felt quite safe. "Ten miles away on the Susquehanna, was a small village established by a colony from the north, which was used as a trading-post. There the friendly Indians often came to trade. "Father went twice a year to this village to get supplies that came up the river. He often spoke of Red Feather, an old Indian warrior. Father liked Red Feather, and he learned to trust him almost as he would have trusted a white man. "Time passed on until I was thirteen years old, a tall, strong girl, and very brave for a girl. I could shoot almost as well as father. "Little Mary was very quiet and shy, not like me at all. I loved fishing, and often went out hunting with father, but she staid at home with Lizzie, or sat down under the trees by the spring, watching the shadow of the trees moving in it. "Our colony had by this time become quite prosperous. A good many of the settlers had built houses for themselves more like those they had left behind on the Delaware. "The spring that I was fourteen, father built this house. The mill had already been grinding away for two years. We were very happy when we moved out of our little log cabin into this pleasant house. "We had but little furniture, but we had plenty of room. Up to this time, there had not been much trouble with the Indians, and though we had often dreaded it, and lived in fear many days at a time, only four of our men had been killed by them. "We had trusted many of the friendly Indians, and Red Feather had frequently spent days at our settlement. He seemed to like the mill. "I became quite attached to the old man; but Mary was always afraid of him, and Lizzie kept her sharp eyes on him whenever he came into the house. She hated him, and he knew it. "One beautiful clear morning in August of that year, father went down to the mill as usual. Lizzie was busy with her work, and little Mary was playing with some tame doves, when looking up, I saw Lizzie start suddenly. "She had seen something in the woods that frightened her. Without speaking, she went to the door, closed and fastened it, then turned and looked out of the window. She never told mo what she saw. "Father came home early that day; he looked anxious, and I knew that something troubled him. Without waiting to eat his supper, he went out, and very soon most of the men of the colony had gathered round him at the spring." * * * * * Directions for Reading.--With what tone of voice should this lesson be read? What other lessons before this, have been read with the same tone of voice? Name two _emphatic words_ in the following _exclamation_: "O, this was a beautiful country!" * * * * * Language Lesson.--Change the _exclamation_ given above to a _statement_. What word would be omitted? How would the punctuation be changed? Syllabify, accent, and mark sounds of letters in the following words: _Delaware, thinner, Susquehanna, grinding_. * * * * * LESSON XIV. con fu'sion, _disorder_. sense'less, _without the power of thinking or acting; seemingly lifeless_. re vived', _came back to life; recovered_. cun'ning, _slyness; skill_. pro voke', _make angry_. stunned_, made senseless by a blow on the head_. meek'ly, _in a gentle manner_. his'to ry, _what is told of the past; a story_. tot'ter, _shake as if about to fall_. * * * * * THE STORY OF INDIAN SPRING. PART II. "It was as I had feared; we were in danger of an attack from the Indians. "Something had happened at the trading-post to provoke them, and rouse their thirst for blood. But a quiet night passed by and the sun shone again over the hills in wonderful beauty. "Suddenly, there sounded from the forest a scream. I had never heard it before, but I knew it. It was the terrible war-whoop. Then all was confusion and horror. "I saw Nanito, an Indian that I knew, who had eaten at our table. I saw him strike down our father, while Lizzie fought to save him. "But it was no use, there was no mercy in the heart of the Indian. They carried Lizzie away from us, and we never saw her again. "Poor little frightened Mary and I were tied together, our hands fastened behind us, and we were given, to--whom do you think, Robbie?--to Red Feather. Then I hated him, and resolved that I would kill him if I could. "After a while he took us out of the house, and then I saw that most of the houses in the little village were burning. The women and children were saved alive, but nearly all the men were killed. "I was very quiet, for I wanted my hands untied, and I thought perhaps Red Feather would pity me and unfasten them. "Little Mary was frightened nearly to death. She had not spoken since she saw the Indian strike father down,--when she screamed and fell senseless. "For a good while I thought she was dead. She had revived a great deal, but had not spoken. "About sundown Red Feather led us down past the spring, out into the woods, but not far away. We could still see the smoke rising from the burning houses. The Indians had gone some distance farther and camped with the white prisoners. "Red Feather could speak English, so I told him if he would untie my hands, I would make his fire, and bake his corn cake for him. "He was old and feeble, and had lost much of his natural cunning. He knew me, and trusted me; so without speaking, he took his hunting knife from his belt, cut the cords, and I was free. "I took the hatchet that he gave me to cut some branches for a fire, and went to work very meekly, with my head down. "I dared not speak to Mary, for fear he might see me, for his eyes were fixed on me every moment. I baked his corn cake in the ashes, and gave it to him. By this time it was dark, but the light from our fire shone far out into the woods. "I noticed Red Feather did not watch me so closely, and his eyes would now and then shut, for he was very tired. "He leaned forward to light his pipe in the ashes, when instantly, almost without thinking, I seized the hatchet, and struck him with all my might. "With a loud scream, I plunged into the woods toward home. Turning an instant, I saw Mary spring up, totter, and fall. With another sharp report came a twinge of pain in my side. Suddenly I fell, and in the darkness of the woods, they passed on, leaving me stunned and nearly dead. "I will not tell you now, my dear Robbie, how I was cared for, and who brought home little Mary and laid her to rest under the elm, beside mother--but the bullet that struck me then, I still carry in my side, and shall as long as I live. "Many years have passed since that terrible day, but I can never forget it. As long as the history of this country lasts, Indian Spring will be remembered, and other boys will listen, with eyes as wide open as yours, to the tale it has to tell." * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Should the second or third paragraph of the lesson be read the faster? When do we speak more rapidly--in telling an exciting story, or in common conversation? Do our feelings guide us when we speak slowly or rapidly?--when, we speak quietly or forcibly? Point out three paragraphs in the lesson that you would read as slowly as Lesson XIII.; three that you would read more rapidly. In reading rapidly, be careful not to omit syllables, and not to run words together. (See Directions for Reading, page 42.)[05] [05] See Lesson VII. * * * * * LESSON XV. aft, _near the stern of a ship_. anch'or, _a large iron for holding a ship_. aimed, _directed or pointed at, as a gun_. car'tridge, _a small case containing powder and ball_. mood, _state of mind; temper_. sul'try, _very hot_. cleav'ing, _cutting through; dividing_. dis cov'ered, _found out; seen clearly_. buoys, _floats, made of wood, hollow iron, or copper_. re sults', _what follows an act_. * * * * * AN ADVENTURE WITH A SHARK. Our noble ship lay at anchor in the Bay of Tangiers, a town in the north-west part of Africa. The day had been very mild, with a gentle breeze sweeping to the northward and westward. Toward the close of the day the sea-breeze died away, and hot, sultry breathings came from the great, sunburnt desert of Sahara. Half an hour before sundown, the captain gave the cheering order to call the hands to "go in swimming"; and, in less than five minutes, the forms of our sailors were seen leaping from the arms of the lower yards into the water. One of the sails, with its corners fastened from the main yard-arm and the swinging boom, had been lowered into the water, and into this most of the swimmers made their way. Among those who seemed to be enjoying the sport most heartily were two boys, one of whom was the son of our old gunner; and, in a laughing mood, they started out from the sail on a race. There was a loud ringing shout of joy on their lips as they put off; they darted through the water like fishes. The surface of the sea was smooth as glass, though its bosom rose in long, heavy swells that set in from the ocean. One of the buoys which was attached to the anchor, to show where it lay, was far away on the starboard quarter, where it rose and fell with the lazy swell of the waves. Towards this buoy the two lads made their way, the old gunner's son taking the lead; but, when they were within about sixty yards of the buoy, the other boy shot ahead and promised to win the race. The old gunner had watched the progress of his son with great pride; and when he saw him drop behind, he leaped upon the quarter-deck, and was just upon the point of urging him on by a shout, when a cry was heard that struck him with instant horror. "A shark! a shark!" shouted the officer of the deck; and, at the sound of those terrible words, the men who were in the water, leaped and plunged toward the ship. Three or four hundred yards away, the back of a monster shark was seen cleaving the water. Its course was for the boys. For a moment the gunner stood like one who had lost his reason; then he shouted at the top of his voice for the boys to turn; but they heard him not. Stoutly the two swimmers strove, knowing nothing of the danger from the shark. Their merry laughter still rang over the waters, as they were both nearing the buoy. O, what anxiety filled the heart of the gunner! A boat had put off, but he knew it could not reach the boys in time to prevent the shark from overtaking them. Every moment he expected to see the monster sink from sight,--then he knew all hope would be gone. At this moment a cry was heard on board the ship, that reached every heart,--the boys had discovered their enemy. The cry startled the old gunner, and, quicker than thought, he sprung from the quarter-deck. The guns were all loaded and shotted, fore and aft, and none knew their temper better than he. With steady hand, made strong by sudden hope, the old gunner pricked the cartridge of one of the quarter guns; then he took from his pocket a percussion cap, fixed it on its place, and set back the hammer of the gun-lock. With great exertions, the old man turned the heavy gun to its bearing, and then seizing the string of the lock, he stood back and watched for the next swell that would bring the shark in range. He had aimed the piece some distance ahead of his mark; but yet a moment would settle his hopes and fears. Every breath was hushed, and every heart in that old ship beat painfully. The boat was yet some distance from the boys, while the horrid sea-monster was fearfully near. [Illustration] Suddenly the silence was broken by the roar of the gun; and, as the old man knew his shot was gone, he covered his face with his hands, as if afraid to see the result. If he had failed, he knew that his boy was lost. For a moment after the report of the gun had died away upon the air, there was an unbroken silence; but, as the thick smoke arose from the surface of the water, there was, at first, a low murmur breaking from the lips of the men,--that murmur grew louder and stronger, till it swelled to a joyous, deafening shout. The old gunner sprung to his feet, and gazed off on the water, and the first thing that met his sight was the huge body of the shark floating on its back, the shot aimed by him having instantly killed it. In a few moments the boat reached the daring swimmers, and, greatly frightened, they were brought on board. The old man clasped his boy in his arms, and then, overcome by the powerful excitement, he leaned upon a gun for support. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--What paragraphs should be read rapidly? Does the feeling require it? Use _calling tones_ for the words, "A shark! A shark!" * * * * * Language Lesson.--Syllabify, accent, and mark sounds of letters in the following words: _Tangiers, Sahara, percussion, excitement, support_. Tell the story in your own words, using the points in the following Analysis.--1. Where the ship was. 2. The race. 3. The shark. 4. The gunner's trial. 5. The result. * * * * * LESSON XVI. scant'y, _not enough for use_. hu'man, _belonging to man or mankind_. cubs, _the young of wild animals_. le'gend, _a story; a tale_. soot'y, _blackened with smoke_. scar'let, _of a bright red color_. self'ish ly, _as if caring only for one's self_. knead'ed, _pressed and rolled with the hands_. dough, _unbaked bread or cake_. * * * * * A LEGEND OF THE NORTHLAND. Away, away in the Northland, Where the hours of the day are few, And the nights are so long in winter, They can not sleep them through; Where they harness the swift reindeer To the sledges when it snows; And the children look like bear's cubs, In their funny, furry clothes: They tell them a curious story-- I don't believe 'tis true; And yet you may learn a lesson If I tell the tale to you. Once, when the good Saint Peter Lived in the world below, And walked about it, preaching, Just as he did, you know; He came to the door of a cottage, In traveling round the earth, Where a little woman was making cakes, In the ashes on the hearth. And being faint with fasting-- For the day was almost done-- He asked her, from her store of cakes, To give him a single one. So she made a very little cake, But as it baking lay, She looked at it and thought it seemed Too large to give away. Therefore she kneaded another, And still a smaller one; But it looked, when she turned it over, As large as the first had done. Then she took a tiny scrap of dough, And rolled and rolled it flat; And baked it thin as a wafer-- But she couldn't part with that. For she said, "My cakes that seem so small When I eat of them myself, Are yet too large to give away." So she put them on a shelf. Then good Saint Peter grew angry, For he was hungry and faint; And surely such, a woman Was enough to provoke a saint. And he said, "You are far too selfish To dwell in a human form, To have both food and shelter, And fire to keep you warm. "Now, you shall build as the birds do, And shall get your scanty food By boring, and boring, and boring, All day in the hard dry wood." Then up she went through the chimney. Never speaking a word; And out of the top flew a woodpecker, For she was changed to a bird. She had a scarlet cap on her head, And that was left the same, But all the rest of her clothes were burned Black as a coal in the flame. And every country school-boy Has seen her in the wood; Where she lives in the trees till this very day Boring and boring for food. And this is the lesson she teaches: Live not for yourselves alone, Lest the needs you will not pity Shall one day be your own. Give plenty of what is given to you, Listen to pity's call; Don't think the little you give is great, And the much you get is small. Now, my little boy, remember that, And try to be kind and good, When you see the woodpecker's sooty dress, And see her scarlet hood. You mayn't be changed to a bird, though you live As selfishly as you can; But you will be changed to a smaller thing-- A mean and selfish man. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--In what manner should this lesson be read at the beginning--quietly, or with much spirit? On page 77, beginning with the second stanza, is what Saint Peter says quiet and slow, or emphatic and somewhat rapid?[06] Point out three places where two lines are to be joined and read as one. What two lines in each stanza end with similar sounds? [06] See stanza number 12 of the poem. * * * * * LESSON XVII. ex pres'sion, _a look showing feeling_. a maze'ment, _great surprise; astonishment_. mag'netisnm, _an unknown power of drawing or pulling_. con tin'ued, _went on; stayed_. test'ing, _trying_. con ven'ience, _ease; the saving of trouble_. ex per'i ments, _the trials made to find out facts_. * * * * * A FUNNY HORSESHOE. "What a funny horseshoe!" said Charlie, "It has no holes for the nails!" I looked up and saw that he had taken up a small "horseshoe magnet." "Why that isn't a horseshoe," I said. "It's a magnet." "Magnet! What's that?" Charlie turned it over in his hands, and pulled the bar a little. The bar slipped so that it hung only by a corner. "Never mind," I said, as he looked up with a scared expression. "It isn't broken. Put the bar back." Charlie put it back, and it sprung into place with a sharp click. "That's funny!" he cried again. "What made it jump so? And what makes it stick? It doesn't feel sticky." "We call it magnetism," I said. "Now, take hold of the bar, and see if you can pull it straight off." "I can't. It sticks fast." "Pull harder." Charlie braced himself for a strong pull. Suddenly the bar came off, and he went tumbling backward. "What did you say makes it hold so hard?" said he, getting up. "Magnetism," said I again. "But what is magnetism?" "I couldn't tell you if I tried; but I think you could learn a great deal about it with that magnet. You will find a lot of things in that box that may help you." Saying this, I left him to pursue his studies as best he could. When I came back, I found him more puzzled than when I left him. "That's the queerest thing I ever saw," he said. "Some things just jump at it as though they were alive; some things it pulls; and some things it doesn't pull a bit." "That's a very long lesson you have learned," I said. "What does it pull?" "These," he said, pointing to a pile of things on one side of the box. "And these things it doesn't pull." "Let us see what you have in this pile," I said, looking at the first little heap; "keys?" "Trunk keys," said Charlie. "It doesn't pull door keys. I tried ever so many." "Try this key," said I, taking one from my pocket. "This is a trunk key. See if the magnet pulls it." "No-o," said Charlie, thoughtfully, "it doesn't; but it pulled all the rest of the trunk keys I could find." "Try this key to my office door." Charlie tried it, and to his great amazement the key stuck fast to the magnet. "Surely," said I, "it pulls some door keys, and fails to pull some trunk keys." Charlie was more puzzled than ever. He looked at the keys, thought a moment, then picked up my trunk key, and said: "This key is brass; the rest are iron." "That's so," I said. "And all these door keys that the magnet didn't pull," he continued, "are brass, too. Perhaps it can't pull brass things." "Suppose you try. But first see if there are any brass things that the magnet pulled." Charlie looked them over. Then we tried the casters of my chair, and all the other brass things we could find, none of which the magnet would pull. "There's no use in trying any longer," said Charlie. "It won't pull brass." "Then, there's another matter settled," I said. "The magnet does not pull brass. Is there any thing else it does not pull?" "Wood," said Charlie. "I tried lots of pieces." "Any thing else?" "Stones," said Charlie, eagerly. "What are these?" I asked, holding up a couple of heavy stones he had put among the things the magnet pulled. "I guess I put those there by mistake," said Charlie, testing with, the magnet a number of stones in the other pile. "Try them," I said. "O!" he said, as the magnet lifted them; "I forgot. It does lift some stones." "Well, what else have you in that pile of things the magnet did not pull?" "Glass, leather, lead, bone, cloth, tin, zinc, corn, and a lot of things." "Very well. Now let us see what the magnet does pull." "Iron keys," said Charlie, "and nails." "Here's a nail in this other pile." "That's a brass nail. The magnet pulls only iron nails." "What else have we in this pile?" "Needles, hair-pins, screws, wire--iron wire," he added quickly. "Brass wire doesn't stick, you know." "How about this?" I asked, taking a small coil of copper wire from my desk. "I guess that won't stick," said Charlie. "Because that's copper wire, and the magnet doesn't seem to pull any thing that isn't iron." Much to Charlie's satisfaction, the magnet did not pull the copper wire. Then I took up two stones, one rusty red, the other black, and said: "What about these?" "I guess they must have iron in them too," said Charlie. "Have they?" "They have," I replied. "They are iron ores from which iron is made. Why did you think there was iron in them?" "Because they wouldn't have stuck to the magnet if there wasn't." "Quite true. So you have learned another very important fact. Can you tell me what it is?" "The magnet pulls iron," said Charlie. "Good," said I; "and it is also true that the magnet does not pull--" "Things that are not iron," said Charlie. "True again," I said. "So far as our experiments go, the magnet pulls iron always, and never any thing else." "But what makes it pull iron?" "That I can not tell. We see it does pull, but just how the pulling is done, or what makes it, no one has yet found out. "For convenience we call the pulling power magnetism. You may keep the magnet, and at some other time, I will tell you more about it." * * * * * Language Lesson.--Name six words in the lesson, each of which is made up of two words by leaving out letters. Write out the two words in each case. What is the name of the mark which shows the omission of letters? Point out the _statement, command, question_, and _exclamation_ in the sentences given below. "O, isn't it a funny horseshoe!" "Put the bar back." "What made it jump so?" "The magnet pulls iron." * * * * * LESSON XVIII. ex pos'es, _shows_. mi mo'sa, _a tree that grows in Africa_. mot'tled, _marked with spots of different color_. re sem'bling, _looking like_. ap proach', _coming near_. pub'lic, _open to all; free_. va'ri ous, _different; unlike in kind_. de fend', _take care of; protect_. gait, _manner of stepping_. pre vents', _keeps from; stops_. ca' pa ble, _having power; able_. * * * * * THE GIRAFFE OR CAMELOPARD. There are few sights more pleasing than a herd of tall and graceful giraffes. With, their heads reaching a height of from twelve to eighteen feet, they move about in small herds on the open plains of Africa, eating the tender twigs and leaves of the mimosa and other trees. The legs of a large giraffe are about nine feet long, and its neck nearly six feet; while its body measures only seven feet in length and slopes rapidly from the neck to the tail. The graceful appearance of the giraffe is increased by the beauty of its skin, which is orange red in color and mottled with dark spots. Its long tail has at the end a tuft of thick hair which serves the purpose of keeping off the flies and stinging insects, so plentiful in the hot climate of Africa. [Illustration] Its tongue is very wonderful. It is from thirteen to seventeen inches in length, is slender and pointed, and is capable of being moved in various ways. It is almost as useful to the giraffe as the trunk is to the elephant. The horns of the giraffe are very short and covered with skin. At the ends there are tufts of short hair. The animal has divided hoofs somewhat resembling those of the ox. The head of the giraffe is small, and its eyes, large and mild looking. These eyes are set in such a way that the animal can see a great deal of what is behind it without turning its head. In addition to its wonderful power of sight, the giraffe can scent danger from a great distance; so there is no animal more difficult of approach. Strange to relate, the giraffe has no voice. In London, some years ago, two giraffes were burned to death in their stables, when the slightest sound would have given notice of their danger, and saved their lives. The giraffe is naturally both gentle and timid, and he will always try to avoid danger by flight. It is when running that he exposes his only ungraceful point. He runs swiftly, but as he moves the fore and hind legs on each side at the same time, it gives him a very displeasing and awkward gait. But though timid, he will, when overtaken, turn even upon the lion or panther, and defend himself successfully by powerful kicks with his strong legs. The natives of Africa capture the giraffe in pitfalls, which are deep holes covered over with branches of trees and dirt. When captured, he can be tamed, and gives scarcely any trouble during captivity. Fifty years ago, but little was known about giraffes in Europe or America. Now we can find them in menageries and the public gardens of our large cities. The giraffe thrives in captivity and seems to be well satisfied with a diet of corn and hay. It is a source of great satisfaction to those who admire this beautiful animal, that there is no reason which prevents him from living in a climate so different from that of his African home. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Write statements containing each of the following words, used in such a manner as to show their proper meaning: _feet, feat; red, read; fore, four; gait, gate_. Model.-- We are coming to _see_ you to-morrow. He stood watching the ships sailing on the _sea_. * * * * * LESSON XIX. ex pert', _skillful_. ad vise', _offer advice; give notice of what has happened_. civ'il ized, _having laws, learning, and good manners_. quan'ti ty, _a large amount; part_. in duce', _lead one to think or act_. pre pared', _made ready for use_. de part'ed, _went away_. hence forth', _from this time forward_. part'ner, _one who shares with another, as a partner in business_. ar riv'ing, _coming to; reaching a point_. con vince', _make one believe_. * * * * * THE TRADER'S TRICK. Out in the West, where many Indians live, there are white men who go among them to trade for furs and skins of animals. These furs and skins are collected and prepared by the Indians, and serve the purpose of money when the traders visit them to dispose of various kinds of goods. In old times, before the white men came to this country, the Indians had only bows and arrows, and spears with which to hunt. But the white men soon taught them to use guns, and to-day, nearly all the tribes in America are well supplied with rifles or shotguns. They are very expert with these fire-arms, and as they use them a great deal, must have a large and constant supply of gunpowder. A story is told of how, at one time, a tribe of Indians tried to raise gunpowder by planting seed. This shows how little they knew of civilized life and habits. A trader went to a certain Indian nation to dispose of a stock of goods. Among other things he had a quantity of gunpowder. The Indians traded for his cloths, hats, axes, beads, and other things, but would not take the powder, saying: "We do not wish for the powder; we have plenty." The trader did not like to carry all the powder back to his camp; so thought he would play a trick on the Indians, and induce them to buy it. Going to an open piece of ground near the Indian camp, he dug some little holes in the soft, rich soil; then mixing a quantity of onion seed with his powder, he began to plant it. The Indians were curious to know what he was doing, and stood by greatly interested. "What are you doing?" said one. "Planting gunpowder," replied the trader. "Why do you plant it?" inquired another. "To raise a crop of powder. How could I raise it without planting?" said the trader. "Do you not plant corn in the ground?" "And will gunpowder grow like corn?" exclaimed half a dozen at once. "Certainly it will," said the trader. "Did you not know it? As you do not want my powder, I thought I would plant it, and raise a crop which I could gather and sell to the Crows." Now the Crows were another tribe of Indians, which was always at war with this tribe. The idea of their enemies having a large supply of powder increased the excitement, and one of the Indians said: "Well, well, if we can raise powder like corn, we will buy your stock and plant it." But some of the Indians thought best to wait, and see if the seed would grow. So the trader agreed to wait a few days. In about a week the tiny sprouts of the onion seed began to appear above the ground. The trader calling the Indians to the spot, said: "You see now for yourselves. The powder already begins to grow, just as I told you it would." The fact that some small plants appeared where the trader had put the gunpowder, was enough to convince the Indians. Every one of them became anxious to raise a crop of gunpowder. The trader sold them his stock, in which there was a large mixture of onion seeds, at a very high price, and then left. From this time, the Indians gave no attention to their corn crop. If they could raise gunpowder, they would be happy. They took great care of the little plants as they came up out of the ground, and watched every day for the appearance of the gunpowder blossoms. They planned a buffalo hunt which was to take place after the powder harvest. After a while the onions bore a plentiful crop of seeds, and the Indians began to gather and thresh it. They believed that threshing the onion seeds would produce the powder. But threshing failed to bring it. Then they discovered that they had been cheated. Of course the dishonest trader avoided these Indians, and did not make them a second visit. After some time, however, he sent his partner to them for the purpose of trading goods for furs and skins. By chance they found out that this man was the partner of the one who had cheated them. They said nothing to him about the matter; but when he had opened his goods and was ready to trade, they coolly helped themselves to all he had, and walked off. The trader did not understand this. He became furiously angry, and went to make his complaint to the chief of the nation. "I am an honest man," said he to the chief. "I came here to trade honestly. But your people are thieves; they have stolen all my goods." The old chief looked at him some time in silence, and then said: "My children are all honest. They have not stolen your goods. They will pay you as soon as they gather their gunpowder harvest." The man had heard of the trick played upon the Indians; but did not know before this, that his partner was the one who had cheated them. He could not say a word. He departed at once. Arriving at his home, he said to his partner: "We must separate. I have learned a lesson. I can not remain in business with a dishonest man. You cheated the Indians for a little gain. You have lost it, and I advise you, henceforth, to deal honestly with all men." * * * * * Directions for Reading.--In the first paragraph of the lesson, notice the places marked below (__) where words are likely to be run together in reading, and avoid making such errors. "Out__in the West, there__are men who trade for furs__and skins__of animals." Point out similar places in the second paragraph. Name four _emphatic words_ occurring in the last sentence of the lesson. * * * * * Language Lesson. Syllabify, accent, and mark sounds of letters in the following words: _dispose, gunpowder, complaint, henceforth_. Give reasons for the capital letters and marks of punctuation used in the last paragraph of the lesson. Tell the story in your own words, using the points given in the following Analysis.--1. Trading with the Indians. 2. The use of fire-arms among the Indians. 3. The trader's trick. 4. Visit of the trader's partner. 5. What the Indians did. 6. The return of the partner. 7. What he said to the trader. * * * * * LESSON XX. floss'y, _made of silk_. mag'ic, _unnatural power_. war'bling, _singing_. mope, _become stupid or dull_. boun'ty, _what is given freely_. lan'guish, _become weak; wither_. * * * * * A HAPPY PAIR. Over my shaded doorway Two little brown-winged birds Have chosen to fashion their dwelling, And utter their loving words; All day they are going and coming On errands frequent and fleet, And warbling over and over, "Sweetest, sweet, sweet, O sweet!" Their necks are changeful and shining, Their eyes like living gems; And all day long they are busy Gathering straws and stems, Lint and feathers and grasses, And half forgetting to eat, Yet never failing to warble, "Sweetest, sweet, sweet, O sweet!" I scatter crumbs on the doorstep, And fling them some flossy threads; They fearlessly gather my bounty, And turn up their grateful heads. And chatter and dance and flutter, And scrape with their tiny feet, Telling me over and over, "Sweetest, sweet, sweet, O sweet!" What if the sky is clouded? What if the rain comes down? They are all dressed to meet it, In water-proof suits of brown. They never mope nor languish, Nor murmur at storm or heat; But say, whatever the weather, "Sweetest, sweet, sweet, O sweet!" Always merry and busy, Dear little brown-winged birds! Teach me the happy magic Hidden in those soft words, Which always, in shine or shadow, So lovingly you repeat, Over and over and over, "Sweetest, sweet, sweet, O sweet!" * * * * * Language Lesson.--Let pupils express, in their own language, the words given below in dark type. Their eyes are like _living gems_. Which you always repeat _in shine or shadow_. What kind of birds are described in the lesson? Why did they gather straws, stems, lint, feathers, and grasses? * * * * * LESSON XXI. mes'sage, _word; notice_. mer'chan dise, _things traded; goods_. guid'ance _leading; directing_. halt, _stop_. de cid'ed, _made up their minds_. re trac'ing, _going back over_. ho ri'zon, _line where the earth and sky seem to meet_. en camped', _set up tents_. sole, _only_. gushed, _flowed rapidly; poured_. * * * * * ALI, THE BOY CAMEL-DRIVER PART I. Hassan was a camel-driver who dwelt at Gaza. It was his business to go with caravans, backwards and forwards, across the desert to Suez, to take care of the camels. He had a wife and one young son, called Ali. Hassan had been, absent for many weeks, when his wife received from him a message, brought by another camel-driver, who had returned with a caravan from Suez. It said: "Send the boy with the camel to Suez with the next caravan. I have some merchandise to bring home, and I will stop at Suez till he comes." Ali's mother was pained at the thought of sending her young son away to such a distance for the first time; but she said to herself that Ali was now quite old enough to be helping his father, and she at once set about doing what was required for his journey. Ali got out the trappings for the camel, and looked to the water-bottles to see that they did not leak. His mother did all that was needed to make him quite ready to join the next caravan that started. Ali was delighted to think that he was to go to his father, and that at last the day was come when, he too was to be a camel-driver, and to take a journey with the dear old camel which he was so fond of. He had long wanted to ride on its back across the desert, and to lie down by its side to rest at night. He had no fear. The camel, of which Ali was so fond, had been bought by his father with the savings of many a year's hard work, and formed the sole riches of the family. Hassan was looked upon as quite a rich man by the other camel-drivers, and Ali, besides having a great love for the animal, was proud of his father being a camel owner. Though it was a great creature by the side of the young boy, it would obey the voice of Ali, and come and go at his bidding, and lie down and rise up just as he wished. Hassan called his camel by an Arabian word, which meant "Meek-eye." At last, there was a caravan about to start for Suez which Ali could join. The party met near the gates of the city, where there were some wells, at which the water-bottles could be filled. Ali's mother attended, and bid her son a loving farewell. The caravan started. The camels which were to lead the way, had around their necks jingling bells, which the others hearing, followed without other guidance. Ali looked about and saw his mother standing near the city gate. He took his cap off and waved it above his head, and his mother took off the linen cloth which she wore over her head, and waved it. Tramp, tramp, tramp went the camels, their soft spongy feet making a noise as they trod the ground. The camel-drivers laughed, and talked to each other. Ali was the only boy in the caravan, and no one seemed to notice him. He had a stout heart, and tried not to care. He could talk to Meek-eye, and this he did, patting the creature's back, and telling him they would soon see his father. The sun rose higher and higher, and the day grew hotter and hotter. The morning breeze died away, and the noon was close and sultry. The sand glowed like fire. There was nothing to be seen but sand and sky. At mid-day a halt was made at one of the places well known to the drivers, where shade and water could be had. The water-bottles were not to be touched that day, for at this place a little stream, which gushed from a rock, supplied enough for the men, while the camels needed no water for many days. After resting a short time, the kneeling camels were made to rise, the riders first placing themselves on their backs, and the caravan then moved on. At night the party encamped for rest, the camels lying down, while fires were lighted and food was prepared. Several days were thus passed, and Ali found that he liked this kind of life as well as he thought he should. No Arabs were met with, nor even seen; but a danger of the desert, worse than a party of Arabs, came upon them. There arose one day at noon, one of those fearful burning winds which do such mischief to the traveler and his camel. The loose sand was raised like a cloud. It filled the nostrils and blinded the eyes. The only thing to be done, was for the men to get off the backs of the camels, and lie down with their faces to the earth. After the storm had passed, they arose to continue their journey. But the sand had been so blown as to cover the beaten track, and thus all trace of the road was lost. The camel-drivers who led the way stood still, and said that they did not know which way to turn. No distant rock or palm-tree was to be seen, and no one could say which was the south, towards which their faces ought to be turned. They wandered on, now turning to the right, and now to the left; and sometimes, when they had gone some distance in one direction, retracing their steps and trying another. The caravan made a halt, and it was now decided to journey towards the setting sun, in hopes of finding once more the right track. Night came on, however, and they had not found it, nor had they reached any place where they could fill their water-bottles, which were empty. Once or twice, some one of the party fancied that he saw in the distance the top of a palm-tree; but no, it turned out to be but a little cloud upon the horizon. They had not yet found the old track; neither had they supplied themselves with water to cool their parched lips. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Always take breath before beginning to read a sentence. If the sentence is a long one, choose such places for breathing as will not injure the sense. When we are out of breath, we are likely either to read too fast, or stop to breathe at such places as to injure the sense. In the first sentence of the second paragraph on page 101, we may make slight pauses to take breath after _noon_ and after _winds_.[07] Point out breathing-places in the last paragraph on page 100.[08] * * * * * Language Lesson.--Syllabify, accent, and mark sounds of letters in the following words: _jingling, nostrils, farewell_. Let pupils use other words to express the following: A stout heart. Towards the setting sun. [07] See paragraph 22 beginning, "There arose one day at noon...." [08] See paragraph 21 beginning, "Several days were thus passed...." * * * * * LESSON XXII. pro pose', _offer; advise_. group, _a number of persons or things together_. grief, _great sorrow; distress_. draughts (drafts), _quantities of water taken at one time_. quenched, _satisfied; put out_. re' cently, _newly; lately_. flick'er ing, _fluttering; keeping in motion_. greed'ily, _very eagerly_ pre'cious, _of great price; costly_. wea'ry, _very tired_. refresh'ing, _cooling; reviving_. * * * * * ALI, THE BOY CAMEL-DRIVER. PART II. Poor Ali suffered like the rest from terrible thirst. He drank the last drop of water from his water-bottle, and thought of the morrow with fear. He was so tired when night came, he was glad to lie down by the side of Meek-eye and go to sleep. Ali slept, but before morning, was awakened by the sound of voices. He listened, and heard the chief driver tell one of the merchants that, if they did not find water very soon, the next day a camel must be killed, in order to get the water contained in its stomach. This is often done in cases of great need in the desert, the stomach of the camel being so formed as to hold a great quantity of water. Ali was not surprised to hear such a thing spoken of; but what was his distress and alarm, when he heard the merchant propose that it should be "the boy's camel" that should be killed! The merchant said the other camels were of too good a kind, and of too much value; while, as to this young boy, what business had he to have a camel of his own? It would be better far, they said, for him to lose his camel than for him to die, like the rest, of thirst. And so it was decided that Meek-eye should be killed, unless water were found the next morning. Ali slept no more. His heart was full of grief; but his grief was mixed with courage and resolution. He said to himself that Meek-eye should not die. His father had trusted him to bring the camel, and what would he say if he should arrive at Suez without it? He would try to find his way alone, and leave the caravan as soon as possible. That night when all was quiet, and the merchant and camel-driver had gone to sleep, Ali arose, and gently patting the neck of Meek-eye, awoke him. He placed his empty bag and water-bottles on his back, and seating himself on him, made signs for the creature to rise, and then suddenly started off. Tramp, tramp, tramp, went Meek-eye over the soft sand. The night was cool and refreshing, and Ali felt stronger and braver with every tramp. The stars were shining brightly, and they were his only guides. He knew the star which was always in the north, and the one which was in the west after the sun had gone down. He must keep that star to the right, and he would be sure to be going towards the south. He journeyed on till day began to dawn. The sun came up on the edge of the desert, and rose higher and higher. Ali felt faint, weary, and thirsty, and could scarcely hold himself on to Meek-eye. When he thought of his father and mother, he took courage again, and bore up bravely. The sun was now at its height. Ali fancied he saw a palm-tree in the distance. It seemed as if Meek-eye saw it also, for he raised his head and quickened his step. It was not long before Ali found himself at one of those pleasant green islands which are found throughout the desert, and are called oases. He threw himself from the camel's back, and hunted out the pool of water that he knew he should find in the midst of the reeds and long grass which grew there. He dipped in his water-bottle and drank, while Meek-eye, lying down, stretched out his long neck, and greedily sucked up great draughts of the cool water. How sweet was the sleep which crept over them as they lay down in the shade of the great palm-tree, now that they had quenched their thirst! Refreshed and rested, Ali was able to satisfy his hunger on some ripe dates from the palm-tree, while Meek-eye began to feed upon the grass and leaves around. Ali noticed, while eating his dates, that other travelers had been there recently: as the grass at the side of the pool was trampled down. This greatly cheered him. He quickly followed in their track, still going in a southerly direction. He kept the setting sun to his right, and when it had gone down, he noticed the bright star that had guided him before. He traveled on, tired and faint with hunger for many a mile, till at last he saw, a long way off, the fires of a caravan which had halted for the night. Ali soon came up to them. He got down, from Meek-eye, and leading him by the bridle, came towards a group of camel-drivers, who were sitting in a circle. He told them his story, and asked permission to join the party, and begged a little rice, for which he was ready to pay with the piece of money that his mother had given him when he left home. Ali was kindly received by them, and allowed to partake of their supper. The men admired the courage with which he had saved his favorite camel. After supper Ali soon closed his weary eyes, and slept soundly by the side of Meek-eye. In the midst of a pleasant dream, Ali was suddenly aroused by the sound of tinkling bells, and on waking up he saw that another caravan had arrived, which had come from the south. The merchants sat down to wait until their supper was brought to them, and a party of camel-drivers drew round the fire near which Ali had been sleeping. They raked up its ashes, put on fresh fuel, and then prepared to boil their rice. What voice was that which roused Ali just as he was falling asleep again? He listened, he started to his feet, he looked about him, and waited for a flash of flame from the fire to fall on the faces of the camel-drivers who stood around it. It came flickering up at first, and then all at once blazing out, flashed upon the camel-driver who stood stooping over it, and lighted up the face of Ali's father! The father had waited at Suez many days, wondering why Ali did not come; and then, thinking there had been some mistake, determined to return home with the caravan, which was starting for Gaza. We need hardly describe the joy of both father and son at thus meeting, nor the pleasure with which the father listened to the history of Ali the fears and dangers to which his young son had been exposed. He was glad, too, that their precious Meek-eye had been saved. There was no one in the whole caravan so happy as Hassan, when, the next morning, he continued, his journey to Gaza in company with Meek-eye and his beloved son Ali. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Syllabify, accent, and mark sounds of letters in the following words: _suffered, permission, partake, merchants, beloved_. Let pupils use other words to express the meaning of what is given below in dark type. Ali _bore up bravely_. Meek-eye _quickened his step_. _The sun_ was now _at its height_. Write statements containing each of the following words, used in such a manner as to show their proper meaning: _herd, heard; need, knead; no, know; way, weigh; knew, new_. Make out an _analysis_ of the two lessons, and use it in telling the story in your own words. * * * * * LESSON XXIII. ob served', _saw; noticed_. trans par'ent, _clear; easily seen through_. ma te'ri al, _that of which any thing is made or to be made_. ob tained', _taken from; received_. gar'ments, _articles of clothing_. verd'ure, _any green growth_. a dorn', _dress with taste; beautify_. par tic'ular, _of an unusual kind_. va ri'e ty, _a number of different kinds_. del'i cate, _gentle; tender_. ca ressed', _treated with fondness_. * * * * * A QUEER PEOPLE. One evening, as Captain Perry was sitting by the fireside at his home in Liverpool, his children asked him to tell them a story. [Illustration] "What shall it be about?" said the captain. "O," said Harry, "tell us about other countries, and the curious people you have seen in them." "Yes, yes!" exclaimed Mary. "We were much interested, while you were away the last time, in reading 'Gulliver's Travels' and 'Sindbad the Sailor.'" "You have seen as wonderful things as they did, haven't you, father?" said Harry. "No, my dears," said the captain. "I never met such wonderful people as they tell about, I assure you; nor have I seen the 'Black Loadstone Mountain' or the 'Valley of Diamonds.'" "But," said Mary, "you have seen a great many people, and their different manners and ways of living." "Yes," said the captain, "and if it will interest you, I will tell you some of the curious things that I have observed." "Pray, do so!" cried Harry, as both the children drew close to him. "Well, then," began the captain, "I was once in a country where it was very cold, and the poor people could scarcely keep themselves from starving. "They were clothed partly in the skins of beasts, made smooth and soft by some particular art; but chiefly in garments made from the outer covering of an animal cruelly stripped off its back while alive. "They lived in houses partly sunk below the ground. These houses were mostly built of stones or of earth hardened by fire. "The walls of the houses had holes to let in light; but to prevent the cold air and rain from coming in, they were covered with a sort of transparent stone, made of melted sand. "As wood was rather scarce, they used for fuel a certain kind of stone which they dug out of the earth, and which, when put among burning wood, catches fire and makes a bright flame." "Dear me!" said Harry. "What a wonderful stone! Why didn't you bring a piece home with you, father?" "I have a piece, which I will show you some time," replied the captain. "But to go on with my story. "What these people eat is remarkable, too. Some of the poor people eat fish which had been hung up and smoked until quite dry and hard, and along with it they eat the roots of plants, or coarse, black cake made of powdered seeds. "The rich people have a whiter kind of cake upon which they spread a greasy matter that is obtained from a large animal. They eat also the flesh of many birds and beasts when they can get it, and the leaves and other parts of a variety of vegetables--some raw and others cooked. "For drink they use the water in which certain dry leaves have been steeped. These leaves, I was told, came from a country a great distance away. "I was glad to leave this country because it was so very cold; but about six months after, I was obliged to go there again. What was my surprise to find that great changes had taken place! "The climate was mild and warm, and the country was full of beauty and verdure. The trees and shrubs bore a great variety of fruits, which, with other vegetable products, were used largely as food. "The people were gentle and civilized. Their dress was varied. Many wore cloth woven from a sort of wool grown in pods on bushes. "Another singular material was a fine, glossy stuff used chiefly by the rich people. I was told that it was made out of the webs of caterpillars, which to me seemed quite wonderful, as it must have taken a great number of caterpillars to produce the large quantity of the stuff that I saw. "These people have queer ideas about their dress. The women wear strangely figured garments, and adorn their heads, like some Indian nations, with feathers and other fanciful head-dresses. "One thing surprised me very much. They bring up in their houses an animal of the tiger species, having the same kind of teeth and claws as the tiger. "In spite of the natural fierceness of this little beast, it is played with and caressed by the most timid and delicate of their women and children." "I am sure I would not play with it," said Harry. "You might get an ugly scratch, if you did," said the captain. "Aha!" cried Mary; "I've found you out: you have been telling us of our country and what is done at home all this while!" "But we don't burn stones, or eat grease and powdered seeds, or wear skins and caterpillars' webs, or play with tigers," said Harry. "No?" said the captain. "Pray, what is coal but a kind of stone; and is not butter, grease; and wheat, seeds; and leather, skins; and silk, the web of a kind of caterpillar; and may we not as well call a cat an animal of the tiger kind, as a tiger an animal of the cat kind?" "So, if you will remember what I have been describing, you will find that all the other wonderful things that I have told you of, are well known among ourselves." "I have told you the story to show that a foreigner might easily represent every thing among us as equally strange and wonderful, as we could with respect to his country." * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Point out breathing-places in the last paragraph. Name the _emphatic words_ in the last paragraph. Pronounce carefully the following words: _vegetable, foreigner, beasts, products, across, again, also, apron_. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Let pupils express the meaning of what is given below in dark type, using a single word for each example. Houses built of _earth hardened by fire_. The walls have _holes to let in the light_. They were covered with _a sort of transparent stone_. They drink _water in which dry leaves have been steeped_. Many wore cloth woven from _a sort of wool grown in pods_. * * * * * LESSON XXIV. lin'net, _a kind of bird_. com pare', _be equal; have similar appearance_. wor'ried, _troubled; anxious_. hum'ble, _meek; lowly_. mis'chiev ous, _full of mischief; troublesome_. grub, _dig up by the roots_. * * * * * THE ILL-NATURED BRIER Little Miss Brier came out of the ground, She put out her thorns, and scratched ev'ry thing 'round. "I'll just try," said she, "How bad I can be; At pricking and scratching, there are few can match me." Little Miss Brier was handsome and bright, Her leaves were dark green, and her flowers pure white; But all who came nigh her Were so worried by her, They'd go out of their way to keep clear of the Brier. Little Miss Brier was looking one day At her neighbor, the Violet, over the way; "I wonder," said she, "That no one pets me, While all seem so glad little Violet to see." A sober old Linnet, who sat on a tree, Heard the speech of the Brier, and thus answered he: "'Tis not that she's fair, For you may compare In beauty with even Miss Violet there; "But Violet is always so pleasant and kind, So gentle in manner, so humble in mind, E'en the worms at her feet She would never ill-treat, And to Bird, Bee, and Butterfly always is sweet." Then the gardener's wife the pathway came down, And the mischievous Brier caught hold of her gown; "O dear, what a tear! My gown's spoiled, I declare! That troublesome Brier!--it has no business there; Here, John, grub it up; throw it into the fire." And that was the end of the ill-natured Brier. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--This lesson should be read in a spirited manner. It is suggested to vary the reading exercise by having one pupil read each stanza, and the class repeat it in concert. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Let pupils use other words to express the meaning of what is given below in dark type. There are few can _match_ me. They'd go out of their way to _keep clear of_ the Brier. Supply letters omitted from the following words: _they'd, gown's, e'en, 'round_. Write the words in full. * * * * * LESSON XXV. ply, _make regular journeys_. com'merce, _trade between places or peoples_. might'y, _of great power_. trav'erse, _pass over; cross_. re'al ize, _understand the truth of_. pro pel', _drive forward_. prop'erty, _any thing that belongs to a person_. or'chards, _numbers of fruit-trees_. im mense', _very large_. glit'ter ing, _sparkling with light_. * * * * * WATER. It is difficult to realize that nearly three-fourths of the surface of the earth is water; yet it is a fact. Think of the immense space covered by oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers, and how useful all this water is to mankind. Sailing ships and steam-ships traverse the oceans and lakes. Steam-boats ply along the rivers, carrying people and merchandise to and fro, going sometimes as far as three thousand miles from their starting point. It is by water that men float their rafts of logs or lumber to distant places. Water turns the great wheels of many of our mills, and thus harnessed to mighty machines, does more work than thousands of men and horses. These machines produce paper, cloth, flour, lumber, and many other useful articles. When water is heated and turned into steam, it moves powerful engines. These engines propel our great steam-ships and steam-boats and drive machines of all kinds in mills and factories. Many of you have seen water, clear and cool, trickling from the rocks in the side of a hill. This water first forms a spring. From this spring, the water escapes in a tiny stream, called a rivulet or creek, and flows along until it enters a river. Many springs make many rivulets; many rivulets make large rivers. Rivers sometimes receive such great quantities of water that they overflow their banks, and destroy much valuable property. This is called a freshet or a flood. Many people who live near some of our rivers have lost their houses, furniture, and cattle, which were all swept away by these floods. In the winter of 1883, the Ohio River received so much water from the thousands of rivulets flowing into it, that it overflowed its banks. The result of this overflow was one of the greatest floods ever known, and many, no doubt, who read this, were there to see its terrible effects. But where does all this water come from? you may ask. Let me see if I can explain it to you. The water in all these rivers, lakes, and oceans is constantly rising into the air in what is called moisture or vapor. We can not see this moisture, neither can we see the air. If the air is cold, moisture does not rise rapidly; but, as the air becomes heated, it takes up more moisture, so that the more heat there is in the air, the more moisture rises. Heated air is light, and rises higher and higher from the ground, taking the moisture with it, until it reaches a point where it begins to cool. Then as the air cools, the moisture forms into clouds, and these clouds are, in a certain sense, floating water. Floating water! How can water float! do you ask? Well, I will tell you. Cold air is heavier than heated air, and until the clouds become so full of moisture as to return some of it to the earth, in the shape of rain, they float because they are lighter than the air underneath them. The winds, by the flapping of their mighty wings, drive the clouds over the land to the hills and the mountains and the thirsty fields; and there they pour their blessings on the farms, pastures, orchards, and the dusty roads and way-side grass, bringing greenness and gladness every-where. Without water nothing would grow; every thing would dry up and wither. All animals drink water, for it forms a part of their blood and thus helps to keep them alive. All trees and plants drink it by drawing it through their roots or leaves, for it helps to form their sap. Sometimes on a summer morning you will see drops of clear sparkling water on flowers and grass. To look at them you would think it had rained during the night; but, noticing that the ground is dry, you know that no rain has fallen. What then are these glittering drops of water? Where do they come from? I will tell you. These drops are called dew. As night comes on, the grass and the leaves of flowers and plants become cool. When the warm air touches them, it becomes chilled, and as the air can not then carry so much moisture as before, it leaves some of its moisture on the flowers and grass. A moisture like dew sometimes collects in the house. Did you ever observe it in drops on the outside of a pitcher of cold water? Some people suppose that the water comes through the pitcher, but it does not. The water being cold makes the pitcher cold, and as the warm air of the room strikes it, a moisture like dew is left on the pitcher, in the same manner as dew is left on grass, leaves, and flowers. In cold weather, when the dew gathers on plants and flowers, it sometimes freezes and forms frost, and when the clouds throw off their moisture in rain drops, the rain becomes sleet, hail, or snow. So you see that dew, rain, frost, sleet, snow, and hail are only different forms of water. * * * * * LESSON XXVI. treas'ure, _a large quantity of money; valuable things_. for'mer ly, _in time past; heretofore_. mod'er ate, _not great; limited in quantity_. or'phan, _a child whose father and mother are dead_. at tract'ive, _inviting; having power to draw toward_. em'er y, _a kind of hard, sharp sand_. ex treme', _last point or limit_. rub'bish, _things of no value_. fit'tings, _things needed in making an article ready for use_. * * * * * THE HIDDEN TREASURE. PART I. On a pleasant street in the old town of Fairfield, stands a neat, little cottage. This was formerly the home of Mrs. Reed, an old lady respected by her neighbors and loved by all the young people of the place. There was about Mrs. Reed a kindly manner which pleased all who knew her. Although very poor, she took much interest in her young friends and tried to make them happy. Mrs. Reed had not always been poor. Her husband when alive was supposed to be rich; but after his death, it was found that nothing was left to his widow but two small cottages. In one of these cottages, Mrs. Reed lived; the other, she rented. But the rent received was no more than enough to enable her to live with moderate comfort. She had little or nothing left with which to do for others. One cold winter morning, two persons were talking together in the cozy sitting-room of the cottage. One was Mrs. Reed, and the other, Alice Brown, a poor orphan girl, who lived with some distant relatives in Fairfield. "You are very kind to come to see me so often, Alice," said Mrs. Reed. "I wonder why you do; because there is nothing attractive here." "Why, Mrs. Reed!" replied Alice; "how can you talk so? are you not here? do I not always receive a kind word and a welcome smile from you?" "Well, you know I love you, Alice, and am always delighted to have you come," said Mrs. Reed; "I am sure that were it in my power to do so, I would have you here all the time. "I would like to give you books, have you attend school, and do every thing to make you happy. But alas! Alice, you know I am too poor to do what I wish, and at times it makes me feel very sad." "O, indeed you are too good, Mrs. Reed! My greatest pleasure is to come and see you, and I hope you will always love me. "I wish I could stay here all day; but you know that the day after to-morrow will be Christmas, and I must hurry home now, as auntie wants me to help her prepare for it. So good-by." "But, Alice, you will come to see me Christmas morning, will you not?" asked Mrs. Reed. "Yes," replied Alice, "for a little while." And with a kiss and another good-by, she left Mrs. Reed alone. "What a dear good girl she is," said Mrs. Reed to herself, as she watched Alice tripping down the street toward her home. "She was so good to me last summer when I was ill! and here is Christmas and I have no money with which to buy her a present. "O dear, dear! why was I left so poor! I am sure my husband had some money; what could he have done with it!" Mrs. Reed sat down in her rocking-chair and for a full half hour looked thoughtfully into the fire. Starting up suddenly, she again exclaimed to herself: "I do really believe that if I go up into the garret, I can find, something for a Christmas present, that will please Alice. "I remember a curious old box that Mr. Reed had, that was sent to him from India. If I can find some bits of ribbon, and silk, I will line it and make it into a nice little work-box for Alice." Then Mrs. Reed climbed up the narrow stairway into the garret, and, after searching some time among the rubbish that lay around in all the nooks and corners, discovered the box. Taking it down-stairs and finding some pieces of silk, she spent the rest of the day in making it into a work-box. She made a pretty needle-book, a tiny pincushion, and an emery bag like a big strawberry. Then from her own scanty stock she added needles, pins, thread, and her only pair of small scissors, scoured to the last extreme of brightness. One thing only she had to buy--a thimble; and that she bought for a penny. The thimble was of brass and so bright that it was quite as handsome as gold. When full, the little box was very pretty. In the bottom lay a quilted lining, which had always been there, and upon which she had placed the fittings. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--The conversational parts of this lesson may be read as a dialogue by two pupils. Which is the most _emphatic word_ in the following sentence? "O dear, dear! Why was I left so poor!" Point out the _emphatic words_ in the third paragraph of the lesson. * * * * * LESSON XXVII. hand'y, _convenient; ready for use_. ad join'ing, _next to; neighboring_. sin cere'ly, _honestly; truly_. fort'u nate, _favored; lucky_. act'u al ly, _really; truly_. suf fi'cient, _enough; plenty_. carv'ings, _figures cut in wood or stone_. mys'ter y, _something entirely unknown_. thresh'old, _a piece of board which lies under a door_. tile, _a thin piece of baked clay_. ex am'ine, _look at with care_. * * * * * THE HIDDEN TREASURE. PART II. Christmas morning came, and soon Alice Brown entered Mrs. Reed's cottage and received a warm welcome. "Merry Christmas! Mrs. Reed," said Alice. "Thank you, my dear," replied Mrs. Reed; "it will indeed be a 'Merry Christmas' if you can remain with me this forenoon." "Well, I can stay till dinner-time," said Alice. "See what a pretty present cousin John sent me!" and Alice held up a new pocket-book. "That is very nice, Alice," said Mrs. Reed; "now if you had some one to fill it with money, it would be better still." "Yes, indeed," cried Alice, laughingly; "but as I was not so fortunate as to receive any money, and have none of my own to put in it, the pocket-book is not likely to be worn out for a long time." "Well, well, Alice," replied Mrs. Reed, "it is always handy to have things in the house; for some time they may be needed. "Excuse me a moment, Alice," continued Mrs. Reed; "sit down here by the fire and warm yourself." Alice took a seat by the fire and warmed her fingers; for, although it was a bright sunshiny day, it was very cold. Mrs. Reed stepped into the adjoining room, and with a light heart and an expression on her face that no one had seen for many a day, took up the little work-box she had prepared for Alice. Returning again to the sitting-room with the box in her hand, she approached Alice and said; "Here, my dear, is a little Christmas present I have for you. I sincerely wish it were something better. It will be useful, I know, and I hope it will please you." "O how beautiful!" exclaimed Alice, as she caught sight of the curious carvings on the outside of the box. "And a work-box, too!" she continued, as she took it in her hands and lifted the cover; "is it really for me?" "For no one else, I assure you," replied Mrs. Reed, as her face lighted up with joy, at seeing Alice so happy. "O how can I ever thank you enough!" exclaimed Alice, as she threw her arms around Mrs. Reed's neck and kissed her again and again. Then taking a seat by Mrs. Reed, Alice began to examine the contents of the new work-box, lifting out the articles one by one, and placing them in her lap. She then admired the beautiful lining which. Mrs. Reed had put in the box, asking her where she got such pretty pieces of silk. "That piece of silk at the top, Alice, is a bit of my wedding-dress; and that on the sides, is a part of my wedding-sash. Those remind me of happy days, Alice. "I had plenty then: a good husband, a happy home, and never thought that I should come to poverty." "What is this from?" asked Alice, touching the silk lining at the bottom of the box. "O that was always in the box, Alice. It was there when my husband received it, and must be a piece of India silk. "Is any thing the matter with it?" continued Mrs. Reed, as she noticed Alice picking at one corner of it. "O nothing is the matter," replied Alice; "it only seemed to me to be a little loose." "Let me look," said Mrs. Reed. "I don't think it can be loose, or I should have seen it when I was lining the box." "It is actually quite loose," said Alice, as she examined it further, and picked up one corner with, a pin; "and here is a little piece of paper underneath it." "That is remarkable," said Mrs. Reed, as she put on her spectacles and drew up her chair a little closer to Alice. "And there is some writing on it too," said Alice, as she drew it from its hiding-place and handed it to Mrs. Reed. "Why, it's my husband's writing!" exclaimed Mrs. Reed, as she closely examined the faded letters. "What can it mean? I never saw it before. Read it, Alice; your eyes are younger than mine." Alice read: "'Look and ye shall find,' and underneath this," continued Alice, "is a picture of a mantel-piece, and underneath that, it reads: 'A word to the wise is sufficient.'" Mrs. Reed again took the paper. Her hand trembled and her face became a little pale. "Alice," said she, "this is a picture of the old tile mantel-piece in the other room. There is some mystery about this. What can it mean?" "Yes," said Alice, "the tiles in that mantel have quotations on them." In an instant, Alice was on her feet and sprung into the other room, leaving Mrs. Reed in a state of wonderment. Hastily examining the tiles in the mantel, Alice cried out: "O Mrs. Reed, do come! here is a tile with exactly the same words on it!" Mrs. Reed hurried into the room, and had scarcely passed the threshold, when the tile fell to the hearth and broke into a dozen pieces. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Point out breathing-places in the last paragraph. Pronounce carefully the following words: _fortunate, adjoining, clothes, hearth, sitting-room, wedding-dress_. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Let pupils use other words to express the meaning of the following sentences. _Alice received a warm welcome_. _Mrs. Reed stepped into the adjoining room with a light heart_. _Her face lighted up with joy_. _Those things remind me of happy days_. "_A word, to the wise is sufficient_." Change the _statements_ given above to _questions_. Change the following _exclamations_ to complete _statements_. Do come! Let me look! Read it, Alice! Model.--See my pocket-book! = I wish you would look at my pocket-book. * * * * * LESSON XXVIII. be fall'en, _happened to_. thrust, _move suddenly or with force_. mis hap', _something which has occurred to cause pain or sorrow_. ex cit'ed ly, _in a very earnest manner_. min'gled, _joined closely; united_. le'gal ly, _as the law requires_. a bun'dant, _beyond one's need; plentiful_. com'fort a ble, _having everything needed to keep one from pain or want_. re la'tions, _the feelings or acts of people toward each other_. charm'ing, _very pleasant_. * * * * * THE HIDDEN TREASURE. PART III. "O what have I done! what have I done!" cried Alice. "O Mrs. Reed, I'm so sorry--I have broken the tile!" "How did it happen, Alice? Was it loose?" "Why yes," replied Alice; "I put my hand on it, and thought it appeared to move a little. Having my scissors with, me, I, through curiosity, ran the points in between that tile and the next one." "Never mind, child," said Mrs. Reed kindly, seeing that Alice was feeling sad over the mishap; "perhaps the tile can be mended--let us see." As they both stooped down to pick up the pieces, Alice noticed that there was a hollow space back of where the tile had been, and that it contained something of a dingy white color. "O Mrs. Reed!" cried she; "there is something in there! See, it looks like a bag tied up! May I take it out?" Mrs. Reed turned deadly pale. "Yes," she replied, scarcely knowing what she expected or dared hope. Alice thrust her hand into the hole to pull the hag out, but as it was very old, it fell apart, and O wonder of wonders! as many as a hundred pieces of gold coin fell with a jingle on the hearth and rolled every way. "My husband's money!" exclaimed Mrs. Reed, as she leaned on Alice to keep from falling. Alice was nearly wild and talked like a crazy person. "O goody, goody!" she cried, clapping her hands and jumping up and down. "Now you can have everything you want! you won't be poor any longer!" But Mrs. Reed was too much overcome to hear what Alice said. [Illustration] She could scarcely realize the good fortune that had so suddenly befallen her. Presently, however, with the tenderness of a mother, she placed her arms around Alice and said: "O you precious child! but for you, I should never have known this!" "And if you had not given me the work-box," said Alice, "perhaps no one would ever have found it out. "But," continued she, excitedly, "let us see if there is any thing more in there." Again reaching into the hole in the mantel-piece, she sprung back with a look of amazement that frightened Mrs. Reed. "Why, Alice, what is the matter?" inquired the old lady. "Matter!" exclaimed Alice. "Why, dear me! Mrs. Reed, there are lots and lots of bags in there yet!" "Is it possible!" said Mrs. Reed hoarsely. Then reaching her hand into the hole, she drew out bag after bag, handling them very carefully, so that they would not fall to pieces as the first one had done. In the meantime Alice had pushed a table up near the fire-place. The bags were emptied upon it, until the glittering gold made a heap that struck Mrs. Reed and Alice with greater amazement than ever. "Alice," said Mrs. Reed, "this is a blessing from Heaven that I do not deserve. I can not tell you how thankful I am for it. My happiness now will be in doing for others." Alice said nothing; her heart was too full. A look of sadness came over her face. She was wondering whether Mrs. Reed would continue to love her, and thinking, with a mingled feeling of fear and dread, that now her friend was rich, perhaps she, the poor orphan girl, might not be so welcome at the cottage as before. Mrs. Reed seemed to understand somewhat the nature of Alice's thoughts. "Cheer up, Alice," said she; "this is not a time to be sad! Come, help me put away this gold. "By the way, Alice, now is the time to use your pocket-book; you know I told you it was handy to have things in the house, they might be needed," she continued, smilingly. "Why, certainly, Mrs. Reed; do you want to borrow my pocket-book? here it is." "Yes, my dear," replied Mrs. Reed, "I shall want a new one myself, and I want to see yours. I wonder how many pieces of gold it will hold." Then Mrs. Reed crammed the pocket-book full of gold pieces. "There!" said she, handing it to Alice; "that is the Christmas present I wanted to give you this morning, but did not have it." "What! this for me! O no, no! I do not deserve it!" cried Alice. "But you must take it, Alice, and listen; for I have something to tell you. I want you to be my daughter now. I will have abundant means to make both of us comfortable and happy." "O Mrs. Reed," said Alice, bursting into tears; "I would love to be your daughter, nothing could make me happier." In a very short time every thing was changed in the little cottage. Mrs. Reed had legally adopted Alice as her daughter and was sending her to school. Fresh paint, inside and out, and many new comforts, made the old house charming and bright. But nothing could change the happy relations between the two friends, and a more contented and cheerful household could not be found anywhere. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Tell the story in your own words, using the points given in the following Analysis.--1. Mrs. Reed's home. 2. Her talk with Alice. 3. Mrs. Reed prepares a present for Alice. 4. Alice receives the work-box. 5. What was found in it. 6. The broken tile and the discovery of the money. 7. What happened after that. * * * * * LESSON XXIX. dells, _small valleys_. bow'ers, _covered places made of boughs_. troupe, _a number of living beings; a company_. daf'fo dils, _yellow flowers_. sheen, _brightness; splendor_. sprite, _an unreal person_. sus pend'ed, _stopped for a time; hung_. va'ries, _is different; changes_. blue'bell, _a kind of flower_. ram'bling, _wandering_. rev'el, _play in a noisy manner_. * * * * * LOOKING FOR THE FAIRIES. I've peeped in many a bluebell, And crept among the flowers, And hunted in the acorn cups, And in the woodland bowers; And shook the yellow daffodils, And searched the gardens round, A-looking for the little folk I never, never found. I've linger'd till the setting sun Threw out a golden sheen, In hope to see a fairy troupe Come dancing on the green; And marveled that they did not come To revel in the air, And wondered if they slept, and where Their hiding-places were. I've wandered with a timid step Beneath the moon's pale light, And every blazing dew-drop seemed To be a tiny sprite; And listened with suspended breath, Among the grand, old trees, For fairy music floating soft Upon the evening breeze. Ah me! those pleasant, sunny days, In youthful fancies wild,-- Rambling through the wooded dells, A careless, happy child! And now I sit and sigh to think Age from childhood varies, And never more may we be found Looking for the fairies. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Which one of the stanzas should be read more slowly than the others? Point out the _emphatic words_ in the last four lines of the lesson. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Which lines in each stanza end in similar sounds? Let pupils explain the meaning of what is given below in dark type. I've hunted in the _acorn cups_. I've wandered with a _timid step_. _Age from childhood varies._ * * * * * LESSON XXX. poi'son ous, _likely to do great harm or injury_. sep'a rate, _apart from other things_. con di'tion, _state; situation_. nec'es sa ry, _really needed_. dis a gree'a ble, _very unpleasant_. sen'si ble, _wise; knowing what is proper_. ac cus'tomed, _being used to_. es pe'cial ly, _more than usual_. * * * * * AIR. We all know very well that we can not live without breathing. What we do not all know, or do not all think of, is that we want not only air, but good air. We are apt to take it for granted that any air will do for us; stale air, dirty air, even poisonous air. What makes the matter worse is, that we can not help spoiling air ourselves by the very act of breathing. If people are shut up in rooms where the bad air can not get out and the good air can not get in at all, they are sure to be made ill. Some people in Scotland thought they would have a merry Christmas party, and invited their friends to come to a dance. As it was very cold weather, they shut all the doors and windows tight, and then they began to dance. It was a small room with a low ceiling, and there were thirty-six people dancing in it all night. By the time morning came the air was so bad that it was really like poison; and very soon seven of the poor dancers were seized with a terrible fever, and two of them actually died. The air we breathe out is different from the air we take in. We send away some things with our breath which were not in the air when we took it in. One of these is water. Sometimes you can see this for yourself. On a cold, frosty day, you know we can see the clouds of steam coming out of our mouths. This steam is only very fine particles of water. In warm weather we do not see the steam, but the water is there all the same; if you will breathe on a looking-glass at any time, you will make it dim and damp directly with the water that is contained in your breath. We also breathe out animal matter, little particles of our own bodies just ready to decay. We can not see them, but they soon give the air a close, disagreeable smell. Good air has no smell at all. And now I have something to say to you about the use of noses. I dare say you can not see much use in the sense of smell. Seeing, hearing, touching, are very needful to us, we all know; but as to smelling, that does not seem to have any particular value. It is pleasant to smell a sweet rose or violet; and, I believe, smelling really forms a good part of what we call tasting. Of all our senses, smell is the one that soonest gets out of practice. If people would always accustom themselves to use their noses, they never would consent to live in the horrid air they do. If you go from the fresh air into a close room, you will notice the smell at once. Then, if you remain there, you will soon get accustomed to the smell and not notice it; but it will still be there, and will be doing you a great deal of harm. In good air there are, mainly, two sorts of gas. The first is a very lively sort of gas, called oxygen; it is very fond of joining itself with other things, and burning them, and things burn very fast indeed in oxygen. The second is a very slow, dull gas, called nitrogen; and nothing will burn in it at all. Pure oxygen would be too active for us to live in, so it is mixed with nitrogen. When we breathe, the air goes down into our lungs, which are something like sponges, inside our chests. These sponges have in them an immense quantity of little blood-vessels, and great numbers of little air-vessels; so that the blood almost touches the air; there is only a very, very thin skin between them. Through that skin, the blood sends away the waste and useless things it has collected from all parts of the body, and takes in the fresh oxygen which the body wants. You have often heard man's life compared to a candle. I will show you some ways in which they are much alike. When a candle or lamp burns, if we keep it from getting any new air, it soon uses all the lively gas, or oxygen, and then it goes out. This is easily shown by placing a glass jar over a lighted candle. If the candle gets only a little fresh air, it burns dim and weak. If we get only a little fresh air, we are sickly and weak. The candle makes another kind of gas. It is called carbonic acid gas, which, is unhealthy and not fit for breathing. The heat of our bodies also makes this gas, and we throw it off in our breath. Oxygen and carbon, in a separate condition, make up a good part of our flesh, blood, and bones; but when they are joined together, and make carbonic acid gas, they are of no further use to us. You might go to a store and buy sand and sugar; but if they became mixed together as you brought them home, you would not be able to use either one of them, unless some clever fairy could pick them apart for you. You see now one great way of spoiling the air. How are we to get rid of this bad air, and obtain fresh air, without being too cold? In summer time this is quite simple, but in winter it is more difficult; because it is a very bad thing to be cold, and a thin, cold draught of air is especially bad. The bad air loaded with carbonic acid gas, when we first breathe it out, is warm. Warm gases are much lighter than cold ones, therefore the bad air at first goes up to the ceiling. If there is an opening near the top of the room, the bad air goes out; but if there is no opening, it by and by grows cold and heavy, and comes down again. Then we have to breathe it. If you open the window at the top, it will let out the bad air, and you will not feel a draught. It is not often so very cold that you cannot bear the window open, even a little way from the top, and that is the best way of airing a room. This is just as necessary by night as by day. People who shut in the bad air, and shut out the good air, all night long, can never expect to awake refreshed, feeling better for their sleep. What becomes of the carbonic acid gas which the body throws off through our breath? Can any thing pick the carbon and oxygen in it apart, and make them fit for us to use again? Yes. Every plant, every green leaf, every blade of grass, does that for us. When the sun shines on them, they pick the carbon out and send back the oxygen for us to breathe. They keep the carbon and make that fit for us and animals to eat. The grass makes the carbon fit for sheep and cows, and then we eat their flesh or drink their milk; and the corn makes the carbon fit to eat; so do potatoes, and all the other vegetables and fruits which we eat. Is not this a wonderful arrangement? But perhaps you think, considering what an amazing number of people there are in the world, besides all the animals--for all creatures that breathe, spoil the air just as we do--there can hardly be trees and plants enough to set all the air right again. Round about cities and large towns there are certainly more people than there are trees, but in many other parts of the world there are a great many more trees than there are people. I have heard of forests in South America so thick and so large, that the monkeys might run along the tops of the trees for a hundred miles. So you see there are plenty of trees in the world to do the work. But then, how does all the bad air leave the towns and cities where men live, and get to the forests and meadows? The air is constantly moving about; rising and falling, sweeping this way or that way, and traveling from place to place. Not only the little particles out of our breath, but any thing that gives the air any smell, does it some harm. Even nice smells, like those of roses, are unhealthy, if shut up in a room for some time. Dirty walls, ceilings, and floors give the air a musty, close, smell; so do dirty clothes, muddy boots, cooking, and washing. Some of these ought not to be in the house at all; others remind us to open our windows wide. All the things I have been saying to you about pure air, apply still more to sick people than to healthy ones. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Read the following sentences carefully, and avoid running the words together. The good__air can not get__in at__all. We are__apt to take__it for granted. It__is sure to make them__ill. Point out three other places in the lesson where similar errors are likely to occur. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Add _ment_ to each of the following words, and then give the meaning of the words so formed. _arrange move settle encourage_ * * * * * LESSON XXXI. dis tinct'ly, _clearly; plainly_. a roused', _wakened_. re ced'ing, _going backward or away from_ vig'i lant, _watchful; careful_. ex haust'ed, _tired out with work_. pre ced'ing, _going before_. fort'night, _two weeks' time_. con vul'sive, _irregular in movement_. tar'ried, _delayed; remained_. grad'u al ly, _step by step; slowly_. * * * * * A TIMELY RESCUE. It was in the month of February, 1831, a bright moonlight night, and extremely cold, that the little brig I commanded lay quietly at her anchors inside the bay. We had had a hard time of it, beating about for eleven days, with cutting north-easters blowing, and snow and sleet falling for the greater part of the time. When at length we made the port, all hands were almost exhausted, and we could not have held out two days longer without relief. "A bitter cold night, Mr. Larkin," I said to my mate, as I tarried for a moment on deck to finish my pipe. "The tide is running out swift and strong; it will be well to keep a sharp look-out for this floating ice, Mr. Larkin." "Ay, ay, sir," answered the mate, and I went below. Two hours afterwards I was aroused from a sound sleep by the vigilant officer. "Excuse me for disturbing you, captain," said he, as he detected an expression of vexation on my face; "but I wish you would turn out, and come on deck as soon as possible." "Why--what's the matter, Mr. Larkin?" "Why, sir, I have been watching a cake of ice that swept by at a little distance a moment ago; I saw something black upon it--something that I thought moved." We were on deck before either spoke another word. The mate pointed out, with no little difficulty, the cake of ice floating off to leeward, and its white, glittering surface was broken by a black spot. "Get me a spy-glass, Mr. Larkin--the moon will be out of that cloud in a moment, and then we can see distinctly." I kept my eye on the receding mass of ice, while the moon was slowly working its way through a heavy bank of clouds. The mate stood by with a spy-glass. When the full light fell at last upon the water, I put the glass to my eye. One glance was enough.. "Forward, there!" I shouted at the top of my voice; and with, one bound I readied the main hatch, and began to clear away the ship's cutter. Mr. Larkin had received the glass from my hand to take a look for himself. "O, pitiful sight!" he said in a whisper, as he set to work to aid me in getting out the boat; "there are two children on that cake of ice!" In a very short space of time we launched the cutter, into which Mr. Larkin and myself jumped, followed by two men, who took the oars. I held the tiller, and the mate sat beside me. "Do you see that cake of ice with something black upon it, lads?" I cried; "put me alongside of that, and I will give you a month's extra wages when you are paid off." The men were worn out by the hard duty of the preceding fortnight; and, though they did their best, the boat made little more way than the tide. This was a long chase; and Mr. Larkin, who was suffering as he saw how little we gained, cried out-- "Pull, lads--I'll double the captain's prize. Pull, lads, for the sake of mercy, pull!" A convulsive effort at the oars told how willing the men were to obey, but their strength was gone. One of the poor fellows splashed us twice in recovering his oar, and then gave out; the other was nearly as far gone. Mr. Larkin sprung forward and seized the deserted oar. "Lie down in the bottom of the boat," said he to the man; "and, captain, take the other oar; we must row for ourselves." I took the second man's place. Larkin had stripped to his Guernsey shirt; as he pulled the bow I waited the signal stroke. It came gently, but firmly; and the next moment we were pulling a long, steady stroke, gradually increasing in rapidity until the wood seemed to smoke in the oar-locks. We kept time with each other by our long, deep breathing. Such a pull! At every stroke the boat shot ahead like an arrow. Thus we worked at the oars for fifteen minutes--it seemed to me as many hours. "Have we almost come to it, Mr. Larkin?" I asked. "Almost, captain,--don't give up: for the love of our dear little ones at home, don't give up, captain," replied Larkin. The oars flashed as the blades turned up to the moonlight. The men who plied them were fathers, and had fathers' hearts; the strength which nerved them at that moment was more than human. Suddenly Mr. Larkin stopped pulling, and my heart for a moment almost ceased its beating; for the terrible thought that he had given out crossed my mind. But I was quickly reassured by his saying-- "Gently, captain, gently--a stroke or two more--there, that will do"--and the next moment the boat's side came in contact with something. Larkin sprung from the boat upon the ice. I started up, and, calling upon the men to make fast the boat to the ice, followed. We ran to the dark spot in the centre of the mass, and found two little boys--the head of the smaller nestling in the bosom of the larger. Both were fast asleep! They were benumbed with cold, and would surely have frozen to death, but for our timely rescue. Mr. Larkin grasped one of the lads, cut off his shoes, tore off his jacket; and then, loosening his own garments to the skin, placed the chilled child in contact with his own warm body, carefully wrapping over him his great-coat. I did the same with the other child; and we then returned to the boat; and the men having partly recovered, pulled slowly back. The children, as we learned when we afterwards had the delight of returning them to their parents, were playing on the ice, and had ventured on the cake. A movement of the tide set the ice in motion, and the little fellows were borne away on that cold night, and would certainly have perished, had not Mr. Larkin seen them as the ice was sweeping out to sea. "How do you feel?" I said to the mate, the next morning after this adventure. "A little stiff in the arms, captain," the noble fellow replied, while the big tears of grateful happiness gushed from his eyes--"a little stiff in the arms, captain, but very easy here," and he laid his hand on his manly heart. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Change the following _commands_ to _statements_. Take the other oar. Don't give up! Give the meaning of the word _lads_ in the third and fourth lines of page 152, and in the fourth line of page 154.[09] Make out an _analysis_ of the lesson, and use it in telling the story in your own words. [09] See Lesson XXXI. * * * * * LESSON XXXII. re'gion, _place; space_. furze, _a thorny shrub with yellow flowers_. list'eth, _wishes; pleases_. mirth, _joy; fun_. boon, _gay; merry_. shaft, _an arrow; the stem of an arrow_. up borne', _held or borne up_. crest'ing, _touching the tops of_. * * * * * BIRDS IN SUMMER. How pleasant the life of a bird must be, Flitting about in each leafy tree;-- In the leafy trees so broad and tall, Like a green and beautiful palace hall, With its airy chambers, light and boon, That open to sun, and stars, and moon; That open unto the bright blue sky, And the frolicsome winds, as they wander by! [Illustration] They have left their nests in the forest bough; Those homes of delight they need not now; And the young and old they wander out, And traverse their green world round about; And hark! at the top of this leafy hall, How, one to the other, they lovingly call: "Come up, come up!" they seem to say, "Where the topmost twigs in the breezes play! "Come up, come up, for the world is fair, Where the merry leaves dance in the summer air!" And the birds below give back the cry, "We come, we come to the branches high!" How pleasant the life of the birds must be, Living in love in a leafy tree; And away through the air what joy to go, And to look on the green, bright earth below! How pleasant the life of a bird must be, Skimming about on the breezy sea, Cresting the billows like silvery foam, And then wheeling away to its cliff-built home! What joy it must be to sail, upborne By a strong, free wing, through the rosy morn, To meet the young sun, face to face, And pierce, like a shaft, the boundless space! How pleasant the life of a bird must be, Wherever it listeth there to flee: To go, when a joyful fancy calls, Dashing down, 'mong the waterfalls; Then wheeling about, with its mates at play, Above and below, and among the spray, Hither and thither, with screams as wild As the laughing mirth of a rosy child! What a joy it must be, like a living breeze, To flutter among the flowering trees; Lightly to soar, and to see beneath, The wastes of the blossoming purple heath, And the yellow furze, like fields of gold, That gladden some fairy region old. On mountain tops, on the billowy sea, On the leafy stems of the forest tree, How pleasant the life of a bird must be! * * * * * Directions for Reading.--The words of the first line of the poem, when repeated on pages 157 and 158, should be slightly emphasized.[10] Point out the lines on page 157 which would be joined in reading. Let the class read one or more stanzas of the poem in concert. [10] This lesson, Lesson XXXII. * * * * * LESSON XXXIII. stroll'ing, _wandering on foot_. quaint, _unusual; curious looking_. con sult'ed, _asked advice of_. roy'al, _belonging to a king or a queen_. en ter tain', _receive and care for_. court'esy, _politeness of manners_. bod'ice, _an article of clothing_. loy'al ty, _love of one's country or ruler_. a miss', _out of the way; wrong_. tri'fles, _articles small in size or value_. mut'tered, _said in a low voice_. ad mis'sion, _permission to enter_. * * * * * TRUE COURTESY. PART I. Prince George, the husband of Queen Anne of England, one time visited the town of Bristol, having with him as a companion, an officer of his household. While strolling about the town, looking at the people and the quaint old buildings, they stepped into the Exchange, where all the great merchants of the town had come together doing business. Prince George walked about, talking quite freely, first to one and then to another. As the towns-people had not expected him, no preparation had been made to receive him with honor; and the merchants stood in little groups, and consulted together with, a look of anxiety upon their faces. "What is to be done?" asked one. "I do not know," replied another. "If his Royal Highness does not give us notice of his coming, how can we entertain him in a proper manner?" "Would it be well to ask him to come to one of our homes?" inquired a third. "No, no!" cried another. "We could not ask him to partake of our humble fare, or even come to our homes, after the splendor to which he has been accustomed. For my part, I shall go home to dinner." "And I also," said the first one. "I do not care to remain here, and stare at the Prince, when we have nothing to offer." Then one by one, the merchants slipped away, afraid or ashamed to ask the great Prince to their homes. Prince George and the officer wondered at seeing the merchants disappear. At last there was but one man left, and as he walked toward the Prince, he bowed low, and said-- "Excuse me, sir; are you the husband of our Queen Anne, as folks here say you are?" "Yes, I am," was the answer; "and have come for a few hours to see the sights of the good town of Bristol." "Sir," said the man, "I have seen with much distress that none of our great merchants have invited you to their homes. Think not, sir, that it is because they are wanting in love and loyalty. They doubtless were all afraid to ask one so high as yourself to dine with them. "I am one John Duddlestone, sir, only a bodice-maker, and I pray you not to take it amiss if I ask you and the gentleman who is with, you, to come to my humble home, where you will be most welcome." "Indeed," answered the Prince, laughing, "I am only too delighted to accept your kind invitation, and I thank you for it very heartily. If you lead the way, we will follow at once." So Prince George, the officer, and Duddlestone, passed out of the Exchange together. "Ours is but humble fare," said Duddlestone; "for, sir, I can offer you only roast beef and plum-pudding." "Very good, very good indeed!" exclaimed the Prince; "it is food to which I bring a hearty appetite." They stopped before a small house. John pulled the latch, and, walking in, looked for his wife; but she was upstairs. "Here, wife, wife!" he called in a loud whisper, as he put his head up the narrow staircase; "put on a clean apron, and make haste and come down, for the Queen's husband and a soldier-gentleman have come to dine with, us." As you may think, Mrs. Duddlestone was strangely surprised at the news; but she did not become excited; she very seldom did, I believe. "Ay, ay!" she called. "I'm coming;" and then muttered, "The Queen's husband! the Queen's husband! Sure, that can never be--however, I'll go down and see." She ran to her closet, and pulled out a nice, clean apron and cap, and tied, the one round her waist, and the other round her comely face, saying all the time, "Dear me, dear me, to think of it!" and away she ran down stairs, where stood her husband and the two gentlemen. The good woman bowed low, first to one and then to the other. "Indeed, but I'm proud," she said, turning to Prince George, "to welcome you to our home. 'Tis but poor and humble, but we shall think more of it after this. I'll hurry and get dinner at once. I dare say you are hungry, gentlemen." Prince George laughed gayly, as he thanked her for her kind welcome, and sat down. The table was soon spread, and the Prince ate well, and appeared to enjoy himself so much, that Mrs. Duddlestone could scarcely believe he had always been accustomed to lords and ladies and footmen, and had never before sat down in such an humble way. Prince George inquired about their business and pleasures. "Do you never come up to London?" he asked; "I think you would find it worth your while to take a holiday some time, and see the great city." "Ah well," said Mrs. Duddlestone, "if that is not just the thing I long for. I've never been yet, nor am I likely to go, but John has been once or twice." "And why, John, have you never taken your wife as well, to see the great sights?" "Well, to say the truth," answered John, "I do not go to see the sights; for though I've been two or three times, I don't think I've seen any. "I must needs go sometimes to buy whalebone, and other trifles which I must have for my business here. So I just go and come back, and meddle with none." "Well, well," said the Prince, "the next time you come to London, you must bring your wife with you, and pay me a visit." Mrs. Duddlestone clasped her fat little hands with delight. "And shall I see the Queen?" she exclaimed. "And see both the Queen and myself," answered the Prince. "Come, John, say you will do so!" "Surely, sir," said John, "I should like to give the good woman a bit of pleasure in that way, but your grand servants would shut the doors before us, and never let us in, perhaps." "I can soon set that right!" and taking a card from his pocket, Prince George wrote a few words on it, and gave it to them. "That will gain you ready admission," he said, "and now I must leave you. Next time we meet, I shall entertain and care for you. For the present, I thank you for your kind welcome and good dinner, which I have heartily enjoyed." Then rising, he and the officer bade farewell to the good people and took their leave. * * * * * Language Lesson--Let pupils use other words to express what is given below in dark type. I _must needs go_. Indeed, _but I'm proud_. Ours is _but humble fare_. He _pulled the latch_. So I _meddle with none_. To see _the great sights_. Notes.--Queen Anne ruled over England from 1702 to 1714. Royal Highness is a title belonging to all persons in a royal family. * * * * * LESSON XXXIV. de sired', _asked; expressed a wish_. as sem'bled, _come together_. in tro duce', _make known_. sum'moned, _called_. knight, _a man of noble position_. grat'i tude, _thankfulness_. el'e gant, _beautiful; handsome_. pos sess'ing, _having; holding_. dis play', _a grand show_. e vent', _anything that takes place_. * * * * * TRUE COURTESY. PART II. It was some weeks later that John Duddlestone found his stock of whalebone was growing low. "Wife," said he, "the whalebone's nearly gone, and I must have some more at once." "Surely, John, I know well it's nearly gone!" she answered. "Haven't I watched every bit as you've used it? and haven't I pretty near cried to see it go so slowly?" "Pooh! you foolish woman!" he cried. "But, John, you'll take me, and go to see the King and Queen?" she inquired. "Why, you silly woman, do you think I should leave you behind, when I know you're nearly crazed to go?" "O John, John, you dear, good man! I've mended all my dresses, and made myself trim and neat. I've seen to your coats; and all's done; and I feel as if I could scarcely live till I see the Queen." "You'd best keep alive," said her husband; "and if all goes well we'll start by the coach on Monday." Monday was as lovely a day as heart could wish; and John and his wife walked down the Bristol streets to the public-house from which the coach was to start. It was a great event in Mrs. Duddlestone's life, for she had never been beyond her own town, except for a drive into the country in a neighbor's cart. They were quiet people; but it had got about the town, that they were going to London to visit the Queen, and numbers came out to see them go. Perhaps some of the great merchants wished they had been simple and humble enough to offer to entertain Prince George when he had visited their town. They journeyed straight to London, where John bought his whalebone, and then found their way to St. James' Palace, where, presenting the Prince's card, they gained ready admittance. They were shown into a room, more beautiful than any that they had ever seen. Very shortly the door opened, and the well-remembered face of their guest appeared. Almost before he had greeted them, a quiet-looking lady followed him, and came smilingly to greet them. "This is the Queen," said Prince George; and then, turning to her, he added, "These are the good people who showed me such kindness in Bristol." The Queen was so gentle and courteous that neither John nor his wife felt confused in her presence. She talked kindly to them, asking after their trade, and how they had fared in their journey. She then asked them to dine with her that evening, and said dresses would be provided for them, so that they should not feel strange by seeing that they were dressed differently from all her other guests. She then called an attendant, and desired that refreshment should be given them, and that they should be well cared for, and shown all that might interest them until dinner time. It was a long, wonderful day to them, as they walked about from place to place. Before dinner they were taken to the room that was prepared for them, and there they found elegant court dresses of purple velvet ready to put on. "Surely, John, they can not be for us!" cried Mrs. Duddlestone. "Yes, but they must be! Did not the Queen say she would give us dresses? and do not these dresses look as if they had been given by a queen?" "John, I shall feel very strange before all the grand ladies!" "Then you need not, wife, for the Queen and Prince will be there; and the others will not trouble you; but this is a queer dress. It's like being somebody else." And very queer they felt, as for the first time they walked down the grand stairs, in such, splendid dresses, to dine at the Queen's table, with the Queen's servants to wait on them. "You must go first, John," said his wife, for shyness came over her. "Be not so foolish, wife," whispered John; and, though feeling rather awkward in his new dress, he walked simply forward, as he might have done in a friend's house. The Queen met them at the door, and, turning to her other guests, who were assembled, she said, "Gentlemen, I have to introduce to you, with great pleasure, the most loyal people in the town of Bristol." At these words they all rose and bowed low, while John and his wife did the same, and then sat down, and ate a good dinner. After the dinner was over, the Prince summoned John Duddlestone to the Queen. At her command John knelt before her, and she laid a sword lightly on his shoulder, with the words, "Rise up, Sir John Duddlestone"; and the simple, kind-hearted bodice-maker of Bristol rose up a knight. His wife stood by, watching with eagerness, and could hardly believe that from plain Mistress Duddlestone she had become Lady Duddlestone. She would, have been very proud if the Queen had laid the sword upon her also; but she heard that was not needed. However, she was made very happy by being called to the Queen's side. "Lady Duddlestone," said Her Majesty, "allow me to present you with my gold watch, in remembrance of your visit to St. James' Palace, and of the Prince's visit to Bristol, which led to our knowing two such loyal and courteous subjects." Lady Duddlestone bowed lower and lower, almost unable to find any words in which to express her gratitude. A gold watch! Was it possible? Watches were not common in those times. She had heard of watches, and had even seen some; but had never dreamt of possessing one. Such a big beauty it was! She was glad to fall back behind the other guests, and get time to think quietly, and realize that all was true, and not a dream from which she would wake, and find herself in her little attic bed-room at Bristol. Queen Anne then spoke to Sir John, offering to give him a position under Government; but he begged to be excused. "It would be strange, your Majesty, very strange, up in London, and my work at Bristol suits me far the best. We want for nothing, and should never feel so well and home-like as in our little house at Bristol." The Queen understood him, and did not press him; and in another day or two the couple were again on their way home. "You're glad, wife, that we're going home?" John asked; "and you think I did well not to take some office in London?" "Well! You could have clone no better. It's been grand to see, and grand to hear; but it would be very strange and uncomfortable to live always like that, and I'll be right glad to be back once more. "I'm more than proud of it all. But I should never like our own room, in which Prince George sat so home-like with us, to belong to another." "No, no--we will keep our own snug home," replied John with earnestness. And so they did, living on quietly as of old; and the only display ever made by Lady Duddlestone was, that whenever she went to church or to market, she always wore the Queen's big gold watch. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Let pupils use other words to express the meaning of what is given below in dark type. You'd _best keep_ alive. It's been _grand_ to see. _Then you need not_. You're _nearly crazed to go_. _Attendant_ is made up of two parts--the stem, _attend_, and the ending, _ant_ (meaning one who). The meaning of the word _attendant_ is _one who attends_. Make out an _analysis_ of the last two lessons, and use it in telling the story in your own words. * * * * * LESSON XXXV. pre sume', _suppose; think without being sure_. mus'cles, _those parts of the body which give us motion, and by which we exert our strength_. ex tent', _space; distance_. or'di na ry, _common; usual_. knowl'edge, _that which is known through study_. de gree', _measure, as of space or time_. spent, _used up; exhausted_. snapped, _broken off_. de tached', _taken away from_. * * * * * WHY AN APPLE FALLS. "Father," said Lucy, "I have been reading to-day that Sir Isaac Newton was led to make a great discovery, by seeing an apple fall from a tree. What was there wonderful about the apple falling?" "Nothing very wonderful in that," replied her father; "but it set him to thinking of what made it fall." "Why, I could have told him that," said Lucy; "because the stem snapped and there was nothing to support it." "And what then?" asked her father. "Why, then, of course it must fall." "Ah!" said her father, "that is the point: why must it fall?" "I am sure I don't know," said Lucy. "I presume it was because there was nothing to keep it up." "Well, Lucy, suppose there was not--does it follow that it must come to the ground?" "Yes, certainly," replied Lucy, wonderingly. "Let us see," said her father; "but first answer this question: What is an animate object?" "Any thing that has animal life, and power to move at will," replied Lucy. "Very good," said her father; "now, what is an inanimate object?" "Any thing that does not possess animal life, or can not move at will." "Very good again," said her father. "Now an apple is, of course, an inanimate object; and therefore it could not move itself, and Sir Isaac Newton thought that he would try to find out what power moved it." "Well, then," said Lucy; "did he find that the apple fell, because it was forced to fall?" "Yes," replied her father; "he found that there was some force outside of the apple itself that acted upon it, otherwise it would have remained forever where it was, no matter if it were detached from the tree." "Would it, indeed?" asked Lucy. "Yes, without doubt," replied her father, "for there are only two ways in which it could be moved--by its own power of motion, or the power of something else moving it. Now the first power, you know it does not have; so the cause of its motion must be the second." "But every thing falls to the ground as well as an apple, when there is nothing to keep it up," said Lucy. "True. There must therefore be some power or force which causes things to fall," said her father. "And what is it?" asked Lucy. "If things away from the earth can not move themselves to it," said her father, "there can be no other cause of their falling than that the earth pulls them." "But," said Lucy, "the earth is no more animate than they are; so how can it pull?" "That is not an ordinary question, but I will try an explanation," said her father. "Sir Isaac Newton discovered that there was a law in nature called attraction, and that all bodies exert this force upon each other. The greater the body, the greater is its power of attraction. "Now, the earth is an immense mass of matter, with which nothing near it can compare in size. It draws therefore with mighty force all things within its reach, which is the cause of their falling. Do you understand this?" "I think that I do," said Lucy; "the earth is like a great magnet." "Yes," said her father; "but the attraction of the magnet is of a particular kind and is only over iron, while the attraction of the earth acts upon every thing alike." "Then it is pulling you and me at this moment!" said Lucy. "Certainly it is," replied her father; "and as I am the larger, it is pulling me with more force than it is pulling you. This attraction is what gives every thing weight. "If I lift up any thing, I am acting against this force, for which reason the article seems heavy; and the more matter it contains, the greater is the force of attraction and the heavier it appears to me." "Then," said Lucy, "if this attraction is so powerful, why do we not stick to the ground?" "Because," replied her father, "we are animate beings, and have the power of motion, by which, to a limited degree, we overcome the attraction of the earth." "Well then, father," said Lucy, "if our power of motion can overcome the attraction, why can not we jump a mile high as well as a foot?" "Because," replied her father, "as I said before, we can only overcome the attraction to a certain extent. As soon as the force our muscles give to the jump is spent, the attraction of the earth pulls us back." "Did Sir Isaac Newton think of all these things, because he saw the apple fall?" inquired Lucy. "Yes; of all these and many more. He was a man of great knowledge. The name by which the force he discovered is generally known, is the Attraction of Gravitation, and some time you will learn how this force keeps the earth, and the sun, moon, and stars, all in their places." * * * * * LESSON XXXVI. en'vy, _wish one's self in another's place_. doffed, _took off, as an article of dress_. blithe, _very happy; gay_. fee, _what is received as pay for service done_. boast, _object of pride_. quoth, _spoke_. hale, _in good health; strong_. * * * * * THE MILLER OF THE DEE. There dwelt a miller, hale and bold, Beside the river Dee; He worked and sang from morn till night-- No lark so blithe as he; And this the burden of his song Forever used to be: "I envy nobody--no, not I, And nobody envies me!" "Thou'rt wrong, my friend," said good King Hal; "As wrong as wrong can be; For could my heart be light as thine, I'd gladly change with thee. And tell me now, what makes thee sing, With voice so loud and free. While I am sad, though I'm a king, Beside the river Dee?" The miller smiled and doffed his cap: "I earn my bread," quoth he; "I love my wife, I love my friend, I love my children three; I owe no penny I can not pay; I thank the river Dee, That turns the mill that grinds the corn That feeds my babes and me." "Good friend," said Hal, and sighed the while, "Farewell! and happy be! But say no more, if thou'dst be true, That no one envies thee. Thy mealy cap is worth my crown; Thy mill, my kingdom's fee; Such men as thou are England's boast, O miller of the Dee!" * * * * * Directions for Reading.--In the second stanza of the lesson, _wrong_ becomes very _emphatic_ on account of _repetition_ (being repeated a number of times). _My_ and _thine_, in the same stanza, are _emphatic_ on account of _contrast_ (contrary meaning of the words). Point out an example of _emphasis_ by _repetition_, and an example of _emphasis_ by _contrast_, in the third stanza. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Hal = Harry = Henry. Let pupils place _un_ before each of the following words, and give their meaning. changed burdened envied * * * * * LESSON XXXVII. fero'cious, _savage; fierce_. rosette', _an article made to resemble a rose_. aban'doned, _left forever; given up_. encoun'ter, _meet face to face_. in'fluence, _power over others_. keen, _sharp; piercing_. reputa'tion, _what is known of a person_. wit'ness, _see or know by personal presence_. trail, _track; footsteps_. alert', _on the watch; careful_. * * * * * THE JAGUAR. The jaguar, or as he is sometimes called, the American tiger, is the largest and most ferocious of the cat family found on this continent. Some jaguars have been seen equal in size to the Asiatic tiger; but in most cases the American, animal is smaller. He is strong enough, however, to drag a horse or an ox to his den--sometimes to a long distance; and this feat has been frequently observed. The jaguar is found in all the tropical parts of North and South America. While he bears a considerable likeness to the tiger, both in shape and habits, the markings of his skin are quite different. Instead of being striped like the tiger, the skin of the jaguar is beautifully spotted. Each spot resembles a rosette, and consists of a black ring with a single dark-colored spot in the middle. Jaguars are not always of the same color; some have skins of an orange color, and these are the most beautiful. Others are lighter colored; and some few have been seen that were very nearly white. There, is a "black jaguar," which is thought to be of a different species. It is larger and fiercer than the other kinds, and is found only in South America. This animal is more dreaded by the inhabitants than the other kinds and is said always to attack man wherever it may encounter him. All the other beasts fear it. Its roar produces terror and confusion among them and causes them to flee in every direction. It is never heard by the natives without a feeling of fear, and no wonder; for a year does not pass without a number of these people falling victims to its ferocity. It is difficult for one living in a country where such fierce animals are unknown, to believe that they have an influence over man, to such an extent as to prevent his settling in a particular place; yet such is the fact. In many parts of South America, not only plantations, but whole villages, have been abandoned solely from fear of the jaguars. There are men, however, who can deal single-handed with the jaguar; and who do not fear to attack the brute in its own haunts. They do not trust to fire-arms, but to a sharp spear. On their left arm they carry a strong shield. This shield is held forward and is usually seized by the jaguar. While it is busied with this, the hunter thrusts at the animal with his sharp spear, and generally with deadly effect. A traveler in South America relates the following incident as having come under his observation: "Desiring to witness a jaguar hunt, I employed two well-known Indian hunters, and set out for the forest. The names of these hunters were Niño and Guapo. Both of them had long been accustomed to hunt the jaguar, and I felt perfectly safe in their company. "Guapo, the larger of the two, was a man of wonderful muscular power, and had the reputation of having at one time killed a black jaguar with only a stout club. "When all the preparations had been made for our start, we looked as if we might capture all the jaguars that came in our way. "Some hours after we had entered the forest, the quick eye of Guapo discovered the trail of a large jaguar which he assured me was recently made. "Stopping for a moment, both Guapo and Niño looked carefully about in every direction, and listened attentively, in order that they might see or hear the animal if he were near. "Then motioning me to follow at a little distance behind them, they stepped off quietly in the direction of the trail, Guapo being about thirty feet in advance of Niño. "We went forward in this manner several hundred yards, not a word being spoken, and the keen eyes of both the hunters constantly on the alert. "Guapo, in the meantime, who seemed to have no fear and became more and more excited as he approached to where he thought the animal must be, had increased the distance between himself and Niño considerably. [Illustration] "Suddenly a terrific roar, and at the same time a cry of pain and a shout, warned us that Guapo had met the jaguar. "Niño bounded forward, and I followed as quickly as I could. A fearful sight met our eyes! "The jaguar, which had been hiding in the branches of a large tree, had sprung down upon Guapo and fastened its terrible teeth in his thigh. "With a shout filled with fury and determination, Niño at once sprung forward and savagely attacked the beast with his spear. "This caused the jaguar to let go its hold of Guapo, who, made furious from the pain of the wound the animal had given him, turned, and with his spear attacked it with a mad ferocity as savage as that of the beast itself. "In a moment all was over, and the jaguar lay dead at our feet. I dressed Guapo's wound the best I could, while Niño took the skin from the body of the animal, which proved to be nearly eight feet long. "We returned very slowly to the village with the wounded man and our prize. In a few weeks Guapo had entirely recovered from his wounds, and was ready for another hunt." * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Let pupils pronounce in concert, and singly, the following words: _O, most, ferocious, only, whole, hold, slowly, over, both, roar_. What tone of voice should be used in reading this lesson? * * * * * Language Lesson.--Place _re_ before each of the following words, and then give the meaning of each. turned told join capture call * * * * * LESSON XXXVIII. dikes, _high banks of earth_. con'tra ry, _quite different from what is usual_. dis as'trous, _causing great loss or suffering_. keels, _strong timbers extending along the bottom of boats_. stork, _a kind of bird_. bus'tle, _quick and excited motion_. mire, _soft and wet earth_. scorn'ing, _turning from any thing as if of no value_. sat'u rat ed, _wet through and through_. moored, _tied fast, as a ship to land_. slouched, _hung down_. mim'ic, _copied in a smaller form_. * * * * * HOLLAND. PART I. Holland is one of the queerest countries under the sun. It should be called Odd-land, or Contrary-land; for, in nearly every thing, it is different from other parts of the world. In the first place, a large portion of the country is lower than the level of the sea. Great dikes have been built at a heavy cost of money and labor, to keep the ocean where it belongs. On certain parts of the coast it sometimes leans with all its weight against the land, and it is as much as the poor country can do to stand the pressure. Sometimes the dikes give way, or spring a leak, and the most disastrous results follow. They are high and wide, and the tops of some of them are covered with buildings and trees. They have even fine public roads upon them, from which horses may look down upon wayside cottages. Often the keels of floating ships are higher than the roofs of the dwellings. The stork, on the house-peak, may feel that her nest is lifted far out of danger, but the croaking frog in the neighboring bulrushes is nearer the stars than she. Water-bugs dart backward and forward above the heads of the chimney swallows; and willow-trees seem drooping with shame, because they can not reach so high as the reeds near by. Ditches, canals, ponds, rivers, and lakes are every-where to be seen. High, but not dry, they shine in the sunlight, catching nearly all the bustle and the business, quite scorning the tame fields, stretching damply beside them. One is tempted to ask: "Which is Holland--the shores or the water?" The very verdure that should be confined to the land has made a mistake and settled upon the fish ponds. In fact the entire country is a kind of saturated sponge, or, as the English poet Butler called it-- "A land that rides at anchor, and is moored, In which they do not live, but go aboard." Persons are born, live, and die, and even have their gardens on canal-boats. Farmhouses, with roofs like great slouched hats pulled over their eyes, stand on wooden legs, with a tucked up sort of air, as if to say, "We intend to keep dry if we can." Even the horses wear a wide stool on each hoof to lift them out of the mire. It is a glorious country in summer for bare-footed girls and boys. Such wadings! Such mimic ship sailing! Such rowing, fishing, and swimming! Only think of a chain of puddles where one can launch chip boats all day long, and never make a return trip! But enough. A full recital would set all Young America rushing in a body toward the Zuyder Zee. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--In reading the first line of page 187, there will be a slight rising of the voice after each of the words, _ditches', canals', ponds', rivers'_, and a slight falling of the voice after _lakes'_.[11] This rising or falling of the voice is called _inflection_, and may be indicated as above. Language Lesson.--What is the meaning of "Young America"? [11] See paragraph 7. * * * * * LESSON XXXIX. freight, _cargo; that which forms a load_. convey'ance, _the act of carrying_. jum'ble, _a number of things crowded together without order_. bobbed, _cut off short_. bewil'dering, _confusing_. gild'ed, _covered with a thin, surface of gold_. yoked, _joined together with harness_. rare'ly, _not often_. impris'oned, _shut up or confined, as in a prison_. clat'tering, _making a loud noise_. * * * * * HOLLAND. PART II. Dutch cities seem, at first sight, to be a bewildering jumble of houses, bridges, churches, and ships, sprouting into masts, steeples, and trees. In some cities boats are hitched, like horses, to their owners' door-posts, and receive their freight from the upper windows. [Illustration] Mothers scream to their children not to swing on the garden gate for fear they may be drowned. Water roads are more frequent there than common roads and railroads; water-fences, in the form of lazy green ditches, inclose pleasure-ground, farm, and garden. Sometimes fine green hedges are seen; but wooden fences, such as we have in America, are rarely met with in Holland. As for stone fences, a Hollander would lift his hands with astonishment at the very idea. There is no stone there excepting those great masses of rock that have been brought from other lands to strengthen and protect the coast. All the small stones or pebbles, if there ever were any, seem to be imprisoned in pavements, or quite melted away. Boys, with strong, quick arms, may grow from aprons to full beards without ever finding one to start the water-rings, or set the rabbits flying. The water roads are nothing less than canals crossing the country in every direction. These are of all sizes, from the great North Holland Ship Canal, which is the wonder of the world, to those which a boy can leap. Water-omnibuses constantly ply up and down these roads for the conveyance of passengers; and water-drays are used for carrying fuel and merchandise. Instead of green country lanes, green canals stretch from field to barn, and from barn to garden; and the farms are merely great lakes pumped dry. Some of the busiest streets are water, while many of the country roads are paved with brick. The city boats, with their rounded sterns, gilded bows, and gayly-painted sides, are unlike any others under the sun; a Dutch wagon with its funny little crooked pole is a perfect mystery of mysteries. One thing is clear, you may think that the inhabitants need never be thirsty. But no, Odd-land is true to itself still. With the sea pushing to get in, and the lakes struggling to get out, and the overflowing canals, rivers, and ditches, in many districts there is no water that is fit to swallow. Our poor Hollanders must go dry, or send far inland for that precious fluid, older than Adam, yet young as the morning dew. Sometimes, indeed, the inhabitants can swallow a shower, when they are provided with any means of catching it; but generally they are like the sailors told of in a famous poem, who saw "Water, water, every-where, Nor any drop to drink!" Great flapping windmills all over the country make it look as if flocks of huge sea birds were just settling upon it. Every-where one sees the funniest trees, bobbed into all sorts of odd shapes, with their trunks painted a dazzling' white, yellow, or red. Horses are often yoked three abreast. Men, women, and children, go clattering about in wooden shoes with loose heels. Husbands and wives lovingly harness themselves side by side on the bank of the canal and drag their produce to market. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Let pupils practice upon the inflections marked in the following Model.--Houses', bridges', churches', and ships', sprouting into masts', steeples', and trees'. Which words take the _falling inflection_? * * * * * LESSON XL. whisk'ing, _pulling suddenly and with force_. lus'ti er, _stronger; louder_. of fend'ed, _made angry_. fa mil'iar, _friendly; as of a friend_. ma'tron ly, _elderly; motherly_. com mo'tion, _noise; confusion_. pant'ed, _breathed quickly_. sa lute', _greeting_. mute, _silent; unable to speak_. stur'dy, _strong; powerful_. ker'chiefs, _pieces of cloth worn about the head_. a do', _trouble; delay_. in'mates, _the persons in a house_. * * * * * THE WIND IN A FROLIC. The wind one morning sprung up from sleep, Saying, "Now for a frolic! Now for a leap! Now for a madcap galloping chase! I'll make a commotion in every place!" So it swept with a bustle right through a great town, Creaking the signs and scattering down Shutters, and whisking with merciless squalls, Old women's bonnets and gingerbread stalls. There never was heard a much lustier shout, As the apples and oranges tumbled about. Then away to the fields it went blustering and humming, And the cattle all wondered whatever was coming. It pulled by their tails the grave, matronly cows, And tossed the colts' manes all about their brows, Till, offended at such a familiar salute, They all turned their backs and stood silently mute. So on it went, capering and playing its pranks; Whistling with reeds on the broad river banks; Puffing the birds, as they sat on the spray, Or the traveler grave on the king's highway. It was not too nice to hustle the bags Of the beggar, and flutter his dirty rags. 'Twas so bold that it feared not to play its joke With the doctor's wig, and the gentleman's cloak. Through the forest it roared, and cried gayly, "Now You sturdy old oaks, I'll make you bow!" And it made them bow without more ado, Or it cracked their great branches through and through. Then it rushed like a monster o'er cottage and farm, Striking their inmates with sudden alarm; And they ran out like bees in a midsummer swarm. There were dames with their kerchiefs tied over their caps, To see if their poultry were free from mishaps; The turkeys they gobbled, the geese screamed aloud, And the hens crept to roost in a terrified crowd; There was raising of ladders, and logs laying on, Where the thatch from the roof threatened soon to be gone. But the wind had passed on, and had met in a lane With a school-boy, who panted and struggled in vain; For it tossed him, and whirled him, then passed, and he stood With his hat in a pool, and his shoe in the mud. Then away went the wind in its holiday glee, And now it was far on the billowy sea; And the lordly ships felt its powerful blow, And the little boats darted to and fro. But, lo! it was night, and it sunk to rest On the sea-birds' rock in the gleaming west, Laughing to think, in its frolicsome fun, How little of mischief it really had done. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Let some pupil in the class state the manner in which the lesson should be read. Point out four lines that should be read more quietly than the rest of the lesson. Vary the reading by having parts of lesson read as a concert exercise. What effect has the repetition of the word _now_, in the second and third lines? * * * * * Language Lesson.--Let pupils write six sentences, each containing one of the following words, used in such a manner as to show its proper meaning: _right, write; reed, read; tied, tide_. Let pupils make out an _analysis_ of the lesson, and use it in giving the story in their own words. * * * * * LESSON XLI. veg e ta'tion, _every thing that grows out of the ground_. meth'od, _way; manner_. ta'per ing, _growing smaller toward the end_. men'tioned, _spoken of_. struct'ure, _arrangement of parts; a building of any kind_. marsh'y, _wet_. swamp, _low ground filled with water_. sprung, _started; begun_. * * * * * SOMETHING ABOUT PLANTS. The name plant belongs in a general way to all vegetation, from the tiniest spear of grass or creeping flower one sees on the rocks by the brook-side, to the largest and tallest of forest trees. Plants are divided into numerous groups of families, and the study of the many species belonging to each family, is very interesting. There are thousands of kinds of grasses, shrubs, and trees, scattered over the different parts of the earth, and the larger portion of them are in some way useful to mankind. In speaking of grasses, we are apt to think only of the grass in the meadows, which is the food for our horses and cattle; but there are other kinds of grasses which are just as important to man as the grass of the meadow is to the beast. These are oats, rye, barley, wheat, corn, and others, all of which belong to the grass family. Perhaps it appears strange to you to hear wheat and corn called grass, and you ask how can that be. In the first place, all plants that have the same general form and method of growth, belong to the same family. Now, if you will pull up a stalk of grass and a stalk of wheat or rye and compare them, you will find that they are alike in all important respects. The roots of each look like a little bundle of strings or fibers, and are therefore called fibrous; the stalks you will find jointed and hollow; and the leaves are long and narrow, tapering to a point at their ends. Then, if you examine the seeds, you will see that they are placed near together and form what we call an ear or head, as in an ear of corn, or a head of wheat. This same general form or structure applies to every one of the plants belonging to the grass family; and in this family are included all the different kinds of canes and reeds that grow in swamps and marshy places, as well as the bamboo of the tropics. Shrubs are those plants which have woody stems and branches. They are generally of small size, rarely reaching over twenty feet in height. Small shrubs are usually called bushes. In this class of plants, the branches generally start close to the ground, and in some cases, a little below the surface of the ground, rising and spreading out in all directions. The common currant bushes, blackberry bushes, and rose bushes which we see in gardens, are shrubs. So also are grape-vines, honeysuckles, ivy, and all other creeping vines. These are called climbing plants, because little tendrils or claspers which grow out of their branches, wind around and fasten themselves to any thing in their way. Trees are the largest and strongest of all plants. They have woody stems or trunks, and branches. These branches do not, as in shrubs, start close to the ground, but at some distance above, from which height they extend in different directions. It is difficult to believe that some of the large trees we see, sprung from small seeds; yet it is true that all trees started in this manner. The seeds are scattered about by birds and tempests, and falling on the soft ground, where they become covered with, leaves and earth, they take root and grow. Thus the little acorn sprouts, and from it springs the sturdy oak, which is not only the noblest of trees, but lives hundreds of years. The trunks and branches of trees are protected by a covering called bark. This bark is thicker near the base or root of the tree than it is higher up among the branches. On some trees, the bark is very rough and shaggy looking, as on the oak, ash, walnut, and pine; on others, the bark is smooth, as on the beech, apple, and birch. Some trees live for only a few years, rapidly reaching their full growth, and rapidly decaying. The peach-tree is one of this kind. Other trees live to a great age. An elm-tree has been known to live for three hundred years; a chestnut-tree, six hundred years; and oaks, eight hundred years. The baobab-tree of Africa lives to be many hundred years old. There is a yew-tree in England that is known to be over two thousand years old. The "big trees" of California are the largest in the world, although not of so great an age as some that have been mentioned. The tallest of these trees that has yet been discovered, measures over three hundred and fifty feet in height, and the distance around it near the ground is almost one hundred feet. The age of this tree must be between one thousand five hundred and two thousand years. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Let, pupils pronounce in concert and singly, the following words: _corn, stalks, important, form, tall, walnut, horses_. In the fifth paragraph on page 199, why are _some_ and _others_ emphatic?[12] Mark _inflections_ of _oak, ash, walnut_, and _pine_; and of _beech, apple_, and _birch_. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Place _dis_ before each of the following words, and then give the meaning of each of the words so formed. appear covered able like believe [12] See fifth paragraph from the end of the lesson. * * * * * LESSON XLII. flush, _bright red color_. low'ing, _the bellowing or cry of cattle_. rang'ing, _wandering_. in tent', _determined_. striv'ing, _making great efforts_. pre serve', _keep in safety_. re flect'ed, _shining back; thrown back, as by a looking-glass_. pro ceed'ed, _went forward_. checked, _stopped_. blasts, _sounds made by blowing_. * * * * * A FOREST ON FIRE. PART I. We were sound asleep one night, when, about two hours before day, the snorting of our horses and lowing of our cattle, which were ranging in the woods, suddenly awoke us. I took my rifle and went to the door to see what beast had caused the hubbub, when I was struck by the glare of light reflected on all the trees before me, as far as I could see through the woods. My horses were leaping about, snorting loudly, and the cattle ran among them in great confusion. On going to the back of the house I plainly heard the crackling made by the burning brushwood, and saw the flames coming toward us in a far-extended line. I ran to the house, told my wife to dress herself and the child as quickly as possible, and take the little money we had, while I managed to catch and saddle two of the best horses. All this was done in a very short time, for I felt that every moment was precious to us. We then mounted our horses, and made off from the fire. My wife, who is an excellent rider, kept close to me; and my daughter, who was then a small child, I took in one arm. When making off, I looked back and saw that the frightful blaze was close upon us, and had already laid hold of the house. By good luck there was a horn attached to my hunting-clothes, and I blew it, to bring after us, if possible, the remainder of my live-stock, as well as the dogs. The cattle followed for a while; but before an hour had passed they all ran, as if mad, through the woods, and that was the last we saw of them. My dogs, too, although at all other times easily managed, ran after the deer that in great numbers sprung before us as if fully aware of the death, that was so rapidly approaching. We heard blasts from the horns of our neighbors as we proceeded, and knew that they were in the same unfortunate condition that we were in ourselves. Intent on striving to the utmost to preserve our lives, I thought of a large lake, some miles off, where the flames might possibly be checked, and we might find a place of safety. Urging my wife to whip up her horse, we set off at full speed, making the best way we could over the fallen trees and the brush heaps, which lay like so many articles placed on purpose to keep up the terrific fires that advanced with a broad front upon us. By this time we were suffering greatly from the effects of the heat, and we were afraid that our horses would be overcome and drop down at any moment. A singular kind of breeze was passing over our heads, and the glare of the burning trees shone more brightly than the daylight. I was sensible of a slight faintness, and my wife looked pale. The heat had produced such a flush in the child's face that, when she turned toward either of us, our grief and anxiety were greatly increased. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--What tone of voice should be used in reading the lesson? Should the rate of reading be slow or rapid? Point out two paragraphs requiring a somewhat different rate. Should the feelings expressed in the lesson be rendered in a quiet or loud tone? Different inflections are sometimes used, simply to give variety to the reading and not for emphasis. In the first paragraph, mark _inflection_ of _night, day, horses, cattle, woods, us_. * * * * * LESSON XLIII. de voured', _eaten up greedily, as by wild animals_. por'cu pine, _a kind of animal_. smold'der ing, _burning slowly; smoking_. in suf'fer a ble, _not to be borne_. shift'ed, _moved about; changed position_. sti'fling, _stopping the breath_. dismal, _gloomy; cheerless_. un grate'ful, _not thankful_. rem'e died, _relieved; cured_. * * * * * A FOREST ON FIRE. PART II. Ten miles are soon gone over on swift horses; but yet, when we reached the borders of the lake we were quite exhausted, and our hearts failed us. The heat of the smoke was insufferable, and sheets of blazing fire flew over us in a manner beyond belief. [Illustration] We reached the shore, however, coasted the lake for a while, and got round to the sheltered side. There we gave up our horses, which we never saw again. We plunged down among the rushes, by the edge of the water, and laid ourselves down flat, to await the chance of escaping from being burned or devoured. The water greatly refreshed us, and we enjoyed the coolness. On went the fire, rushing and crashing through the woods. Such a morning may we never again see! The heavens themselves, I thought, were frightened. All above us was a bright, red glare, mingled with, dark, threatening clouds and black smoke, rolling and sweeping away in the distance. Our bodies were cool enough, but our heads were scorching; and the child, who now seemed to understand the matter, cried so as nearly to break our hearts. The day passed on, and we became hungry. Many wild beasts came plunging into the water beside us, and others swam across to our side, and stood still. Although faint and weary, I managed to shoot a porcupine, and we all tasted its flesh. The night passed, I cannot tell you how. Smoldering fires covered the ground, and the trees stood like pillars of fire, or fell across each other. The stifling and sickening smoke still rushed over us, and the burnt cinders and ashes fell thick around us. When morning came, every thing about us was calm; but a dismal smoke still filled the air, and the smell seemed worse than ever. What was to become of us I did not know. My wife hugged the child to her breast, and wept bitterly; but God had preserved us through the worst of the danger, and the flames had gone past, so I thought it would be both ungrateful to Him and unmanly to despair now. Hunger once more pressed upon us, but this was soon remedied. Several deer were standing in the water, up to the head, and I shot one of them. Some of its flesh was soon roasted, and after eating it we felt wonderfully strengthened. By this time the blaze of the burning forest was beyond our sight, although the remains of the fires of the night before were still burning in many places, and it was dangerous to go among the burnt trees. After resting for some time, we prepared to commence our march. Taking up the child in my arms, I led the way over the hot ground and rocks; and after two weary days and nights of suffering, during which we shifted in the best manner we could, we at last succeeded in reaching the hard woods, which had been free from the fire. Soon after we came to a house, where we were kindly treated. Since then I have worked hard and constantly as a lumber-man; and, thanks to God, we are safe, sound, and happy. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Point out, breathing-places in the last paragraph of page 207.[13] Name the _emphatic words_ in the last sentence of the lesson. Mark _inflection_ in the last line of the lesson. Pronounce carefully the following words: _dark, march, hard, calm, hearts_. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Let pupils define the following words: _complete, attract, locate, intent, procrastinate, separate_; then add to each word as a stem, the ending _ion_, and define the words so formed. Point out the omissions of letters necessary in joining the stems and endings. Let pupils make out an _analysis_ in six parts for the last two lessons, and use it in writing or telling the story in their own words. [13] See third paragraph from the end of the lesson. * * * * * LESSON XLIV. peas'ants, _those who work on farms_. hedge'rows, _rows of shrubs or trees used to inclose a space_. tow'ers, _very high buildings_. an ces'tral, _belonging to a family for a great many years_. mon'arch, _king; ruler_. roy'al ty, _kings and queens_. gifts, _things given; presents_. * * * * * COMMON GIFTS. The sunshine is a glorious thing, That comes alike to all, Lighting the peasant's lowly cot, The noble's painted hall. The moonlight is a gentle thing, Which through the window gleams Upon the snowy pillow, where The happy infant dreams. It shines upon the fisher's boat Out on the lonely sea, As well as on the flags which float On towers of royalty. The dewdrops of the summer morn Display their silver sheen Upon the smoothly shaven lawn, And on the village green. There are no gems in monarch's crown More beautiful than they; And yet you scarcely notice them, But tread them off in play. The music of the birds is heard, Borne on the passing breeze, As sweetly from the hedgerows as From old ancestral trees. There are as many lovely things, As many pleasant tones, For those who dwell by cottage hearths As those who sit on thrones. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--This lesson should be read with a full and clear tone of voice. The thoughts expressed are not of a conversational nature. In the first stanza, in the contrast between _peasant's lowly cot_ and _noble's painted hall_, the inflections are _rising circumflexes_ and _falling circumflexes_. The _rising circumflex_ consists of a downward turn of the voice followed by an upward turn; the _falling circumflex_, of an upward turn followed by a downward turn. Let pupils mark the inflections in the last two lines of the poem. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Let pupils express the meaning of what is given below in dark type, using a single word for each example. For _those who dwell by cottage hearths_ As _those who sit on thrones_. * * * * * LESSON XLV. re quest', _a wish that is expressed; desire_. har'bor, _a sheltered place where ships can anchor_. lo'cate, _place; choose as a place to live_. both'er, _trouble_. beach, _the shore of the sea_. knack, _an easy way of doing any thing_. in dulged', _gave way to, as to appetite_. ban'quet, _a very good dinner or other meal_. rheu'ma tism, _a painful trouble in the muscles or joints_. * * * * * A GHOST STORY. PART I. "I have not a room in the house; but if you don't mind going down to the cottage, and coming up here to your meals, I can take you, and would be glad to," said Mrs. Grant, in answer to my request for board. "Where is the cottage?" and I looked about me, feeling ready to accept any thing in the way of shelter, after the long, hot journey from Boston to breezy York Harbor. "Right down there--just a step, you see. It's all in order; and next week it will be full, for many folks prefer it because of the quiet." At the end of a very steep path, which offered every chance for accidents of all sorts, from a sprained ankle to a broken neck, stood the cottage--a little white building, with a pretty vine over the door, gay flowers in the garden, and the blue Atlantic rolling up at the foot of the cliff. "A regular 'Cottage by the Sea.' It will suit me exactly if I can have the upper front room. I don't mind being alone; so have my trunk taken down, please, and I'll get ready for tea," said I, feeling very happy on account of my good luck. Alas, how little I knew what a night of terror I was to pass in that pretty white cottage! An hour later, refreshed by my tea and the coolness of the place, I plunged into the pleasures of the season, and accepted two invitations for the evening--one to a, walk on Sunset Hill, the other to a clam-bake on the beach. The stroll came first, and on the hill-top we met an old gentleman with a spy-glass, who welcomed me with the remark-- "Pretty likely place for a prospect." After replying to what he said, I asked the old gentleman if he knew any legend or stories about the old houses all around us. "Yes, many of them," he replied; "and it isn't always the old places that have the most stories about 'em. "Why, that cottage down yonder isn't more'n fifty years old, and they do say there's been a lot of ghosts seen there, owin' to a man's killin' of himself in the back bed-room." "What! that house at the end of the lane?" I asked, with sudden interest. "Just so; nice place, but lonesome and dampish. Ghosts and toadstools are apt to locate in houses of that sort," was his mild reply. The dampness scared me more than the ghosts, for I had never seen a ghost yet; but I had been haunted by rheumatism, and found it a hard thing to get rid of. "I've taken a room there, so I'm rather interested in knowing what company I'm to have." "Taken a room, have you? Well, I dare say you won't be troubled. Some folks have a knack of seeing spirits, and then again some haven't. "My wife is uncommon powerful that way, but I an't; my sight's dreadful poor for that sort." There was such a sly look in the starboard eye of the old fellow as he spoke, that I laughed outright, and asked, sociably-- "Has she ever seen the ghosts of the cottage? I think I have rather a knack that way, and I'd like to know what to expect." "No, her sort is the rapping kind. Down yonder, the only ghost I take much stock in is old Bezee Tucker's. Some folks say they've heard him groaning there nights, and a dripping sound; he bled to death, you know. "It was kept quiet at the time, and is forgotten now by all but a few old fellows like me. Bezee was always polite to the ladies, so I guess he won't bother you, ma'am;" and the old fellow laughed. "If he does, I'll let you know;" and with that I left him, for I was called and told that the beach party was anxious for my company. In the delights of that happy hour, I forgot the warning of the old gentleman on the hill, for I was about to taste a clam for the first time in my life, and it was a most absorbing moment. Perched about on the rocks like hungry birds, we sat and watched the happy cooks with breathless interest, as they struggled with frying-pans, fish that refused to brown, steaming sea-weed, and hot ashes. Little Margie Grant waited upon me so prettily, that I should have been tempted to try a sea porcupine if she had offered it, so charming was her way of saying, "O here's a perfectly lovely one! Do take him by his little black head and eat him quick!" I indulged without thought, in clams, served hot between two shells, little dreaming what a price I was to pay for that banquet. * * * * * Language Lesson--Let pupils use other words to express the meaning of the parts given below in dark type. "Right down there--_just a step_, you see." "_Pretty likely_ place for a prospect." "The only one I _take much stock in_." Write out in full the words for which _'em_ and _an't_ are used. * * * * * LESSON XLVI. quaked, _shook, as with fear_. cha'os, _a great number of things without order_. gi gan'tic, _of very great size_. stealth'y, _very quiet, so as to escape notice_. fa'tal, _causing great harm_. mis'sion, _what one is sent to do_. in'ter vals, _spaces of time_. thrill, _feeling, as of pain or pleasure_. af fect'ing, _making a show of_. a pol'o gize, _express sorrow for an act_. ret ri bu'tion, _paying back for one's acts; punishment_. * * * * * A GHOST STORY. PART II. We staid up till late, and then I was left, at my own door by my friends, who informed me that York was a very quiet, safe place, where people slept with unlocked doors, and nothing ever went amiss o' nights. I said nothing of ghosts, being ashamed to own that I quaked, a little at the idea of the "back bed-room," as I shut out the friendly faces and fastened myself in. A lamp and matches stood in the hall, and lighting the lamp, I whisked up stairs with suspicious rapidity, locking my door, and went to bed, firmly refusing to own even to myself that I had ever heard the name of Bezee Tucker. Being very tired, I soon fell asleep; but fried potatoes and a dozen or two of hot clams are not kinds of food best fitted to bring quiet sleep, so a fit of nightmare brought me to a realizing sense of my foolishness. From a chaos of wild dreams was finally brought forth a gigantic clam, whose mission it was to devour me as I had devoured its relatives. The sharp shells were open before me, and a solemn voice said, "Take her by her little head and eat her quick." Retribution was at hand, and, with a despairing effort to escape by diving, I bumped my head smartly against the wall, and woke up feeling as if there was an earthquake under the bed. Collecting my scattered wits, I tried to go to sleep again; but alas! that fatal feast had destroyed sleep, and I vainly tried to quiet my wakeful senses with the rustle of leaves about the window and the breaking waves upon the beach. In one of the pauses between the sounds of the waves, I heard a curious noise in the house--a sort of moan, coming at regular intervals. And, as I sat up to make out where it was, another sound caught my attentive ear. Drip, drip, drip, went something out in the hall, and in an instant the tale told me on Sunset Hill came back with unpleasant reality. "Nonsense! It is raining, and the roof leaks," I said to myself, while an unpleasant thrill went through me, and fancy, aided by indigestion, began to people the house with ghostly inmates. No rain had fallen for weeks, and peeping through my curtain, I saw the big, bright stars shining in a cloudless sky; so that explanation failed, and still the drip, drip, drip went on. Likewise the moaning--so distinctly now that it was clear that the little back bed-room was next the chamber in which I was quaking at that very moment. "Some one is sleeping there," I said, and then remembered that all the rooms were locked, and all the keys but mine in Mrs. Grant's pocket, up at the house. "Well, let the ghosts enjoy themselves; I won't disturb them if they let me alone. Some of the ladies thought me brave to dare to sleep here, and it never will do to own I was scared by a foolish story and an odd sound." So down I lay, and said the multiplication table with great determination for several minutes, trying to turn a deaf ear to the outside world and check my unruly thoughts. But it was a failure; and when I found myself saying over and over "Four times twelve is twenty-four," I gave up affecting courage, and went in for a good, honest scare. As a cheerful subject for midnight consideration, I kept thinking of B. Tucker, in spite of every effort to give it up. In vain I remembered the fact that the departed gentleman was "always polite to ladies." I still was in great fear lest he might think it necessary to come and apologize in person for "bothering" me. Presently a clock struck three, and I gave a moan that beat the ghost's all hollow, so full of deep suffering was I at the thought of several hours of weary waiting. I was not sure at what time the daylight would appear, and I was bitterly sorry for not gathering useful information about sunrise, tides, and such things, instead of listening to the foolish gossip of Uncle Peter on the hill-top. Minute after minute dragged slowly on, and I was just thinking that I should be obliged to shout "Fire!" as the only means of relief in my power, when, a stealthy step under the window gave me a new feeling. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--To give greater effect to certain parts of the lesson, read them very slowly. The first line of the last paragraph is a good example of adding _emphasis_ by reading slowly. Point oat two other places in the lesson where slow reading would be best. What word in the last paragraph may be made very emphatic, even to the extent of using the _calling tone_ of voice? Let pupils pronounce in concert, and singly, the following words: _soon, do, two, foolish, roof, food, room_. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Let pupils write statements, each containing one of the following words, used in such a manner as to show its proper meaning: _beech, beach; sense, scents; fourth, forth; hear, here_. Give rules for the capital letters in the first three paragraphs of the lesson. Let pupils place _un_ before each of the following words, and then define them. safe lock heard pleasant fit Define each of the following words formed from _please_, and state in each case what change of meaning occurs. please pleasant pleasantly unpleasantly * * * * * LESSON XLVII. dag'ger, _a short sword_. spell, _a feeling which prevents one from moving_. bran'dished, _raised, and moved in different directions_. in spir'ing, _making one feel_. awe, _deep fear_. de mand'ed, _asked as a right_. punct'u al, _always on time_. ro mance, _a story of surprising adventures_. bur'glar, _one who breaks into a house at night_. cus'tom, _a way or a manner of doing things_. reigned, _ruled; held power_. * * * * * A GHOST STORY. PART III. This was a start, not a scare--for the new visitor was a human foe, and I had little fear of such, being possessed of good lungs, strong arms, and a Roman dagger nearly as big as a carving-knife. The step that I had just heard broke the spell, and creeping noiselessly to the window, I peeped out to see a dark figure coming up the stem of the tall tree close by, hand-over-hand, like a sailor or a monkey. "Two can play at that game, my friend; you scare me, and I'll scare you." And with an actual sense of relief in breaking the silence, I suddenly flung up the curtain, and leaned out. I brandished my dagger with what I intended to be an awe-inspiring screech; but, owing to the flutter of my breath, the effort ended in a curious mixture of howl and bray. A most effective sound, nevertheless; for the burglar dropped to the ground as if he had been shot, and, with one upward glance at the white figure dimly seen in the starlight, fled as if a thousand ghosts were at his heels. "What next?" thought I, wondering whether this eventful night would ever come to a close. I sat and waited, chilly but brave, while the strange sounds went on within the house and silence reigned without, till the cheerful crow of the punctual "cockadoo," as Margie called him, told me that it was sunrise and laid the ghosts. A red glow in the east drove away my last fear, and I soon lay down and slept quietly, quite worn out. The sun shining upon my face waked me, and a bell ringing warned me to hurry. A childish voice calling out, "Betfast is most weady, Miss Wee," assured me that sweet little spirits haunted the cottage as well as ghostly ones. As I left my room to join Margie, who was waiting for me, I saw two things which caused me to feel that the horrors of the night were not all unreal. Just outside the back bed-room door was a damp place, as if that part of the floor had been newly washed; and when led by curiosity, I peeped through the keyhole of the haunted chamber, my eye distinctly saw an open razor lying on a dusty table. My seeing was limited to that one object, but it was quite enough. I went up the hill thinking over the terrible secret hidden in my breast. I longed to tell some one, but was ashamed; and, when asked why I was so pale and absent-minded, I answered with a gloomy smile-- "It is the clams." All day I hid my sufferings pretty well, but as night approached and I thought of sleeping again in that haunted cottage, my heart began to fail. As we sat telling stories in the dusk, a bright idea came into my head. I would relate my ghost story, and rouse the curiosity of my hearers, so that some of them would offer to stay at the cottage in hopes of seeing the spirit of the restless Tucker. Cheered by this fancy, when my turn came I made a thrilling tale about Bezee Tucker and my night's adventure. After my hearers were worked up to a proper state of excitement, I paused for applause. It came in a most unexpected form, however, for Mrs. Grant burst out laughing, and the two boys--Johnny and Joe--rolled about in convulsions of merriment. Much displeased, I demanded the cause of their laughter, and then joined in the general shout when Mrs. Grant informed me that Bezee Tucker lived, died in, and haunted the tumble-down house at the other end of the lane, and not the cottage where I was staying. "Then who or what made those mysterious noises?" I asked, relieved but rather displeased at the downfall of my romance. "My brother Seth," replied Mrs. Grant, still laughing. "I thought you might be afraid to be there all alone, so he slipped into the bed-room, and I forgot to tell you. He's a powerful snorer, and that's one of the awful sounds. "The other was the dripping of salt water; for you wanted some, and the girl got it in a leaky pail. Seth swept out the water when he left the cottage early in the morning." I said nothing about having seen through the keyhole the harmless razor; but wishing to get some praise for my heroic encounter with the burglar, I mildly asked if it was the custom in York for men as well as turkeys to roost in trees. Another burst of laughter from the boys did away with my last hope of glory. As soon as he could speak, Joe answered-- "Johnny planned to be up early to pick the last cherries off that tree. I wanted to get ahead of him, and as I was going a-fishing, I went off quietly before daylight." "Did you get the cherries?" I asked, bound to have some laugh on my side. "Guess I didn't," grumbled Joe, rubbing his knees, while Johnny added-- "He got a horrid scare and a right good scraping, for he didn't know any one was down there. Couldn't go a-fishing, either--he was so lame--and I had the cherries after all. Served him right, didn't it?" No answer was necessary. Mrs. Grant went off to repeat the tale in the kitchen, and the sounds of hearty laughter that I heard, assured me that Seth was enjoying the joke as well as the rest of us. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Let pupils make out an _analysis_ for so much of the last three lessons as may be included under the subject--"A Night at the Cottage." Suggestion.--The _analysis_ of _simple subjects_, and their treatment orally or in writing, are valuable exercises, and should be assigned to pupils as frequently as possible during the whole of their school life. * * * * * LESSON XLVIII. mel'o dy, _sounds pleasant to the ear_. chant'ed, _sung in a simple melody_. witch, _a person supposed to deal with evil spirits_. trump'et, _a hollow piece of metal used to make music_. har'mo ny, _the effect produced by uniting two or more different parts in music_. * * * * * WHAT THE CHIMNEY SANG. Over the chimney the night-wind sang And chanted a melody no one knew; And the Woman stopped, as her babe she tossed, And thought of the one she had long since lost: And said, as her tear-drop back she forced, "I hate the wind in the chimney." Over the chimney the night-wind sang And chanted a melody no one knew; And the Children said, as they closer drew, "'Tis some witch that is cleaving the black night through-- 'Tis a fairy trumpet that just then blew, And we fear the wind in the chimney." Over the chimney the night-wind sang And chanted a melody no one knew; And the Man, as he sat on his hearth below, Said to himself, "It will surely snow, And fuel is dear and wages low, And I'll stop the leak in the chimney." Over the chimney the night-wind sang And chanted a melody no one knew; But the Poet listened and smiled, for he Was Man, and Woman, and Child--all three, And said, "It is God's own harmony, This wind we hear in the chimney." * * * * * Directions for Reading.--The first two lines of each stanza may be read more slowly and with a fuller tone of voice than the rest of the stanza. Notice that the words of special _emphasis_ throughout the poem begin with capital letters. Mark _inflections_ in the last four lines of the first and last stanzas. * * * * * LESSON XLIX. sel'dom, _not often; rarely_. jun'gles, _places covered with trees and brushwood_. tough (tuf), _not easily separated_. ap par'ent ly, _seemingly; in appearance_. a cute', _quick in action; sharp_. charg'es, _rushes forward_. gram'p us, _a kind of fish_. re sumed', _started again; took up again_. hid'e ous, _horrid to look at_. de struc'tion, _death; entire loss_. re sist', _stand against_. des'per ate, _without hope or care_. ex cur'sions, _journeys; rambles_. * * * * * THE RHINOCEROS. Next to the mighty elephant, the rhinoceros is the largest and strongest of animals. There are several species of the rhinoceros, some of which are found in Asia, and others in different parts of Africa. In the latter country there are four varieties--the black rhinoceros, having a single horn; the black species having two horns; the long-horned white rhinoceros; and the common white species, which has a short, stubby horn. The largest of the African species is the long-horned, white, or square-nosed rhinoceros. When full-grown, it sometimes measures eighteen feet in length, and about the same around the body. Its horn frequently reaches a length of thirty inches. The black rhinoceros, although much, smaller than the white, and seldom having a horn over eighteen inches long, is far more ferocious than the white species, and possesses a wonderful degree of strength. The form of the rhinoceros is clumsy, and its appearance dull and heavy. The limbs are thick and powerful, and each, foot has three toes, which are covered with broad, hoof-like nails. The tail is small; the head very long and large. Taken altogether, there are few--if any--animals that compare with the rhinoceros in ugliness. The eyes are set in such a manner that the animal can not see any thing exactly in front of it; but the senses of hearing and smelling are so keen that sight is not required to detect an enemy, whether it be man or beast. The skin of the African rhinoceros is smooth, and has only a few scattering hairs here and there. It is, however, very thick and tough, and can resist the force of a rifle-ball unless it is fired from a very short distance. The largest known species of the rhinoceros is found in Asia. It lives chiefly in the marshy jungles, and on the banks of lakes and rivers in India. Some of this species are over live feet in height, and have horns three feet in length and eighteen inches around the base. Unlike the African rhinoceros, the skin of the Asiatic species is not smooth, but lies in thick folds upon the body, forming flaps which can be lifted with the hand. The food of the rhinoceros consists of roots, and the young branches and leaves of trees and shrubs. It plows up the roots with the aid of its horn, and gathers the branches and leaves with the upper lip which is long and pointed, and with which the food is rolled together before placing it in the mouth. The flesh of the rhinoceros is good to eat; and its strong, thick skin is made by the natives, into shields, whips, and other articles. Though clumsy and apparently very stupid, the rhinoceros is a very active animal when attacked or otherwise alarmed, dashing about with wonderful rapidity. It is very fierce and savage--so much so that the natives dread it more than they do the lion. In hunting the animal, it is dangerous for a man to fire at one unless he is mounted upon a swift horse, and can easily reach some place of safety. When attacking an enemy, the rhinoceros lowers its head and rushes forward like an angry goat. Though it may not see the object of its attack, the sense of smell is so acute that it knows about when the enemy is reached. Then begins a furious tossing of the head, and if the powerful horn strikes the foe, a terrible wound is the result. When wounded itself, the rhinoceros loses all sense of fear, and charges again and again with such desperate fury that the enemy is almost always overcome. A famous traveler in South Africa relates the following incident that happened during one of his hunting excursions: "Having proceeded about two miles, I came upon a black rhinoceros, feeding on some Wait-a-bit thorns within fifty yards of me. "I fired from the saddle, and sent a bullet in behind his shoulder, when he rushed forward, blowing like a grampus, and then stood looking about him. "Presently he started off, and I followed. I expected that he would come to bay, but it seems a rhinoceros never does that--a fact I did not know at that time. "Suddenly he fell flat upon the ground; but soon recovering his feet, he resumed his course as if nothing had happened. "I spurred on my horse, dashed ahead, and rode right in his path. Upon this, the hideous monster charged me in the most resolute manner, blowing loudly through his nostrils. "Although I quickly turned about, he followed me at such a furious pace for several hundred yards, with his horrid horny snout within a few yards of my horse's tail, that I thought my destruction was certain. "The animal, however, suddenly turned and ran in another direction. I had now become so excited with the incident, that I determined to give him one more shot any way. "Nerving my horse again, I made another dash, after the rhinoceros, and coming up pretty close to him, I again fired, though with little effect, the ball striking some thick portion of his skin and doing no harm. "Feeling that I did not care to run the chance of the huge brute again charging me, and believing that my rifle-ball was not powerful enough to kill him, I determined to give up the pursuit, and accordingly let him run off while I returned to the camp." [Illustration] * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Let pupils mark _inflections_ in the first sentence of the lesson. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Let pupils express in other words the meaning of what is given below in dark type. "I expected that he would _come to bay_." * * * * * LESSON L. per'il, _great danger that is near one_. pru'dent, _careful in regard to what may happen_. con'fi dence, _courage; freedom from doubt_. oc ca'sion, _a chance event; an incident_. tor'rents, _violent streams, as of water_. ford, _a place to cross a river_. per suad'ed, _influenced by advice_. op'po site, _on the other side; in front of_. fran'tic, _without power to act properly_. her'o ism, _great courage, which makes one willing to face danger of any kind_. res'o lute, _decided; firm_. af fec'tion ate, _kind and loving_. * * * * * PRESENCE OF MIND. Many years ago, there lived on the banks of the Naugatuck River, in Connecticut, a family by the name of Bishop. The father was not wealthy, but a good man, and respected by all who knew him. He had fought in the battles of his country during the Revolutionary War, and was familiar with scenes of danger and peril. He had learned that it is always more prudent to preserve an air of confidence in danger, than to show signs of fear, and especially so, since his conduct might have a great influence upon the minds of those about him. On one occasion he sent his son James, a boy twelve years old, across the river to the house of a relative, on an errand. As there was no bridge or ferry, all who crossed the river were obliged to ford it. James was familiar with every part of the fording-place, and when the water was low, which was the case at this time, there was no danger in crossing. Mounted on one of his father's best horses, James set out. He crossed the river, and soon reached the house of his relatives. He was ready to start on his return, when suddenly the heavens became black with clouds, the wind blew with great violence, and the rain fell in torrents. It was late in the afternoon, and as his relatives feared to have him attempt to reach home in such a storm, they persuaded him to remain over night and wait until daylight before starting for home. His father suspected the cause of James' delay, and was not over anxious on his account. He knew that the boy was prudent, and did not fear that any accident would happen to him during the night. But he knew that he had taught James to obey his commands in every particular, and as the boy possessed, a daring and fearless spirit, that he would attempt to ford the river as soon as it was light enough in the morning. He knew, also, that the immense quantity of water that appeared to be falling, would cause the river to rise to a considerable height by morning, and make it very dangerous even for a strong man to attempt to cross it. The thought of what might befall his child caused Mr. Bishop to pass a sleepless night; for although he was very strict with his children, he possessed an affectionate nature and loved them dearly. The day dawned; the storm had ceased; the wind was still, and nothing was to be heard but the roar of the river. The rise of the river was even greater than Mr. Bishop expected, and as soon as it was light enough, for him to see objects across it, he took up a position on the bank to watch for the approach of his son. James arrived on the opposite shore at the same time, and his horse was beginning to enter the stream. All his father's feelings were roused into action, for he knew that his son was in fearful danger. James had already proceeded too far to return--in fact, to go forward or back was equally dangerous. His horse had arrived at the deepest part of the river, and was struggling against the current. The animal was being hurried down the stream, and apparently making but little progress toward the shore. James became very much alarmed. Raising his eyes toward the landing-place, he discovered his father. Almost frantic with fear, he exclaimed, "O father, father! I shall drown! I shall drown!" "No," replied his father, in a stern and resolute tone of voice, dismissing for a moment his feelings of tenderness; "if you do, I will whip you severely. Cling to your horse! Cling to your horse!" The son, who feared his father more than he did the raging river, obeyed the command; and the noble animal on which he was mounted, struggling for some time, carried him safe to shore. "My son!" exclaimed the glad father, bursting into tears, "remember, hereafter, that in danger you must possess courage, and being determined to save your life, cling to the last hope! "If I had replied to you with the tenderness and fear which I felt, you might have lost your life; you would have lost your presence of mind, been carried away by the current, and I should have seen you no more." What a noble example is this! The heroism of this father and his presence of mind saved the life of his boy. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--In _calling tones_, as on pages 237 and 238, notice that the falling inflections only can be used.[14] * * * * * Language Lesson.--Let pupils make out an _analysis_, and use it in telling the story in their own words. [14] See the last six paragraphs. * * * * * LESSON LI. rug'ged, _full of rough places_. con cealed', _covered over; hidden_. ra vines', _deep and narrow hollow places_. prec'i pice, _a very steep place_. dis'lo cate ed, _thrown out of joint_. mis'er y, _great unhappiness_. ev'i dence, _signs; that which is shown_. de scent', _going down_. haz'ards, _dangers; difficulties_. toil, _hard work_. pro ject'ing, _hanging over_. * * * * * HALBERT AND HIS DOG. Far up in the Highlands of Scotland lived Malcolm, a shepherd, with his wife and his son Halbert. Their little cottage was far from any village, and could only be reached by a rugged path through the mountains. One evening Halbert's mother was taken very ill, and Malcolm made preparations to go to the village to obtain some medicine for her. "Father," said Halbert, "I know the path through the dark glen better than you. Shag will walk before me, and I will be quite safe. Let me go for the doctor, and you stay at home and comfort mother." Old Shag, the dog, stood by, wagging his tail and looking up into Malcolm's face as if to say, "Yes, master, I will take good care of Halbert. Let him go." Malcolm did not like to have his boy undertake a journey of so much peril, as the snow was falling in heavy flakes, and it was growing very dark. But the boy again repeated his request, and Malcolm gave his consent. Halbert had been accustomed to the mountains from his earliest boyhood, and Shag set out with his young master, not seeming to care for wind, snow, or storm. They reached the village safely. Halbert saw the doctor, received some medicine for his mother, and then started on his return home with a cheerful heart. Shag trotted along before him to see that all was right. Suddenly, however, in one of the most dangerous parts of the rocky path, he stopped and began snuffing and smelling about. "Go on, Shag," said Halbert. Shag would not stir. "Shag, go on, sir," repeated the boy. "We are nearly at the top of the glen. Look through the dark, and you can see the candle shining through our window." Shag disobeyed for the first time in his life, and Halbert advanced ahead of him, heedless of the warning growl of his companion. He had proceeded but a few steps when he fell over a precipice, the approach to which had been concealed by the snow. It was getting late in the night, and Malcolm began to be alarmed at the long absence of Halbert. He placed the candle so as to throw the light over his boy's path, piled wood on the great hearth fire, and often went to the door. But no footstep sounded on the crackling ice; no figure darkened the wide waste of snow. "Perhaps the doctor is not at home, and he is waiting for him," said Halbert's mother. She felt so uneasy at her boy's absence, that she almost forgot her own pain. It was midnight when Malcolm heard the well-known bark of the faithful Shag. "O there is Halbert!" cried both parents at the same moment. Malcolm sprang to the door and opened it, expecting to see his son. But alas! Halbert was not there. Shag was alone. The old dog entered the door, and began to whine in a piteous manner. "O Malcolm, Malcolm, my brave son has perished in the snow!" exclaimed the mother. Malcolm stood wondering. His heart beat rapidly. A fear that the worst had happened almost overcame him. At that moment he saw a small package around the dog's neck. Seizing it in his hands, he exclaimed, "No, wife; look! Our boy lives! Here is the medicine, tied with his handkerchief; he has fallen into one of the deep ravines, but he is safe. "I will go out, and Shag shall go with me. He will conduct me safely to the rescue of my child." In an instant Shag was again on his feet, and gave evidence of great joy as he left the cottage with his old master. You may imagine the misery and grief the poor mother suffered--alone in her mountain dwelling; the certainty of her son's danger, and the fear that her husband also might perish. Shag went on straight and steadily for some distance after he left the cottage. Suddenly he turned down a path which led to the foot of the precipice over which Halbert had fallen. The descent was steep and dangerous, and Malcolm was frequently obliged to support himself by clinging to the frozen branches of the trees. At last Malcolm stood on the lower and opposite edge of the pit into which his son had fallen. He called to him, "Halbert! Halbert!" He looked in every direction, but could not see or hear any thing. Shag was making his way down a very steep and dangerous ledge of rocks, and Malcolm resolved at all hazards to follow him. After getting to the bottom, Shag scrambled to a projecting rock, which was covered with snow, and commenced whining and scratching in a violent manner. Malcolm followed, and after some search found what appeared to be the dead body of his son. He hastily tore off the jacket, which was soaked with blood and snow, and wrapping Halbert in his great cloak, took him upon his shoulders, and with much toil and difficulty reached the path again, and soon had his boy at home. Halbert was placed in his mother's bed, and by using great exertion, they aroused him from his dangerous sleep. He was much bruised and had his ankle dislocated, but was not otherwise hurt. When he recovered his senses, he fixed his eyes on his mother, and his first words were, "Did you get the medicine, mother?" When he fell, Shag had descended after him. The affectionate son used what little strength he had left to tie the medicine that he had received from the doctor around the dog's neck, and then sent him home with it. You may be sure that Shag was well taken care of after this incident. Even after Halbert became a man Shag was his constant companion, and he lived to a good old age. * * * * * Language Lesson--Let pupils add _ship_ to each of the following words, and then give their meaning. friend hard relation partner fellow Make out an _analysis_ of the lesson, and use it in telling the story in your own words. * * * * * LESSON LII. ebb'ing, _flowing out; falling_. break'ers, _waves breaking into foam against_ the shore_. main, _the great sea; the ocean_. reef, _a row or chain of rocks_. dis mayed', _having lost courage_. strand, _beach; shore_. treach'er ous, _likely to do harm_. vic'tor, _a successful warrior_. shroud'ing, _covering over_. murk'y, _gloomy; dark_. bea'con, _a signal fire or light_. * * * * * THE LIGHT-HOUSE. The tide comes up, and the tide goes down, Over the rocks, so rugged and brown, And the cruel sea, with a hungry roar, Dashes its breakers along the shore; But steady and clear, with a constant ray, The star of the light-house shines alway. The ships come sailing across the main, But the harbor mouth is hard to gain, For the treacherous reef lies close beside, And the rocks are bare at the ebbing tide, And the blinding fog comes down at night, Shrouding and hiding the harbor light. The sailors, sailing their ships along, Will tell you a tale of the light-house strong; How once, when the keeper was far away, A terrible storm swept down the bay, And two little children were left to keep Their awesome watch with the angry deep. The fair little sister wept, dismayed, But the brother said, "I am not afraid; There's One who ruleth on sea and land, And holds the sea in His mighty hand; For mercy's sake I will watch to-night, And feed, for the sailors, the beacon light." So the sailors heard through the murky shroud The fog-bell sounding its warning loud! While the children, up in the lonely tower, Tended the lamp in the midnight hour, And prayed for any whose souls might be In deadly peril by land or sea. Ghostly and dim, when the storm was o'er, The ships rode safely, far off the shore, And a boat shot out from the town that lay Dusk and purple, across the bay, She touched her keel to the light-house strand, And the eager keeper leaped to land. And swiftly climbing the light-house stair, He called to his children, young and fair; But, worn with their toilsome watch, they slept, While slowly o'er their foreheads crept, The golden light of the morning sun, Like a victor's crown, when his palm is won. "God bless you, children!" the keeper cried; "God bless thee, father!" the boy replied. "I dreamed that there stood beside my bed A beautiful angel, who smiled and said, 'Blessed are they whose love can make Joy of labor, for mercy's sake!'" [Illustration] * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Mark the _inflection_ of the following lines. The tide comes up, and the tide goes down. The fair little sister wept, dismayed, But the brother said, "I am not afraid." Name the _emphatic words_ in the lines just quoted. State whether the emphasis falls upon words that are inflected. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Why is the sea called _cruel_ and its roar _hungry?_ Give two examples of a similar use of words. * * * * * LESSON LIII. oc'cu pant, _one who is in possession of a thing_. ac quired', _gained_. mi'cro scope, _a glass so formed as to make small_ _objects appear large_. slug'gish, _slow; stupid_. in spect'ing, _looking at with attention_. com posed', _made up_. se'ries, _a number of things in order_. stub'bed, _short and thick_. dis turbed', _interfered with_. * * * * * THE CATERPILLAR AND BUTTERFLY. Last summer, when the trees were covered with green leaves, and when the little stream was sparkling and dancing in the sun, there appeared in the garden, a large caterpillar of many colors, and about as pretty as a caterpillar could be. All day long it was nibbling the green leaves, and leaf after leaf disappeared before it with wonderful rapidity. It seemed to live only for eating. As autumn came on, it quite lost its appetite; so much so, that even the tenderest and most juicy leaves could not tempt it to eat any more. It grew dull and stiff, and lost all interest in life. Feeling that some change was about to happen, it crawled into a little hole in the old garden wall. It wrapped itself up in a cobweb, and fell into a long sleep, during which it became changed from a caterpillar into a dried-up, dead-looking grub or chrysalis. It remained in this state through all the long winter, till the snow and frost had gone, and the cold March winds were over. In April the trees burst forth with their bright green leaves, and the grass looked fresh under the power of the warm rains. In May the many-tinted flowers appeared, filling the air with their sweetness, and brightening the fields and gardens with their gay colors. At this time another great change came over the old grub. It showed signs of life again; but it was now no longer a caterpillar--it was something else. It wriggled and turned in its narrow little home, and seemed anxious to get out and look at the sunshine and flowers. It bumped its head up and down until it succeeded in pushing off a little door. When the door was off, and the bright sunlight shone in, this little occupant of the chrysalis took a look at itself. It saw that during its long winter's nap, it had acquired a pair of beautiful wings, and its legs had grown longer and stronger than they were before. Crawling out of the chrysalis, and taking a position on a branch of the tree, it discovered that instead of a caterpillar, it was now a beautiful butterfly. It was a kind that is called the swallow-tail butterfly, because each of its wings tapered to a point, something like the tail of a swallow. We will call the butterfly, Miss Swallow-tail, and now let us see what her next move was. Her wings were damp and heavy, and she stood shivering and trembling; for although she had six legs, they were weak, having never before borne such a weight. But fresh air brings strength; so she soon felt like trying to walk. At first her movements were sluggish, but she finally reached a sunny spot where she dried and warmed herself, giving her wings a little shake now and then, until they opened grandly above her back. And how beautiful they were! Dark brown, bordered with two rows of yellow spots; and there were seven blue spots on each of the hind wings. As she stood there in the sun, a little wind came along and raised Miss Swallow-tail off her feet. She spread her wings to keep from falling, and found herself floating in the air. This proved to be such a delightful way of traveling, that she lifted her wings occasionally, and so kept herself floating; and in a short time she learned to turn in any direction she chose. As she flew along, growing stronger every minute, she was attracted by the bright colors of a flower, and stopped to admire it. The sweet perfume tempted her to taste, and unrolling her long tongue from under her chin, where she carried it, she put it down into the flower and drew up the honey hidden there. Miss Swallow-tail had wonderful eyes. All butterflies have wonderful eyes. If you will look at them through a microscope you will find that each eye is composed of a great many smaller ones, that can see in all directions. They have great need of such eyes, because there are so many birds and other hungry creatures, that want to eat them. One day a whiff of celery coming from a garden near by, reminded Miss Swallow-tail of the time when she was a baby and liked to eat celery. So she flew over into the garden, and fastened her eggs to a celery bush with some glue that she carried with her. Then she left them, and never thought of them again. In about ten days the babies that had been growing inside of the eggs, broke open the shells and crawled out. And what do you think they were? Butterflies? like their mamma, only very much smaller? No, indeed! for you know butterflies never grow any larger. They were the smallest green and black worms you ever saw! As soon as they were out of the shells, they began eating the celery, and grew so fast that in a week they were quite large worms. They were covered with green rings and black rings dotted with yellow. They each had sixteen short legs, and they had a flesh-colored, Y-shaped horn hidden away under a ring above the head, that they would show when they were disturbed. One morning the gardener discovered that something was eating his celery. Searching among the leaves he found all but one of the little worms, and put them where they could do no more mischief. Soon the little worm that had escaped his notice, had grown so fat that he was too stupid to eat any more; so he crawled away to a dark place on the fence and fastened himself there. But first he covered a small spot of the fence with a white, silken carpet, that he wove from a web which he drew from his under lip. He then glued the end of a web to the carpet, carried the rest of it up over his breast, and down on the other side and fastened it there. He then bent his head down under it, letting it pass over his head, and by bending forward and backward worked it down near the middle of his back. After inspecting his work, he bent his head upon his breast, and leaned against the fence. After resting two days, he began a series of twistings and turnings that burst open his skin from the corners of his mouth down a short way, and worked it all off himself. He drew his head in out of sight, and sent out a stubbed horn on each side of it, and lo! no worm was to be seen!--but a chrysalis, like the one his mother was sleeping in when we first found her. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Let pupils read the following lines, and then mark the _inflection_. "And what do you think they were? Butterflies? like their mamma, only very much smaller?" Does the first question expect the answer _yes_ or _no?_ Do the last two questions expect the answer _yes_ or _no?_ What would be the inflections used in the following questions? What kind of an answer is expected to each question? "Where are you going?" "Are you coming back again?" Fill blanks in the following statements. Questions which may be answered by _yes_ or _no_, regularly require the ---- inflection. Questions which can not be answered by _yes_ or _no_, regularly require the ---- inflection. * * * * * Language Lesson. Let pupils copy the following words. seize chief grief fear beach receive relief believe weary beacon Write sentences, each containing one of the preceding words, used in such a way as to show its meaning. * * * * * LESSON LIV. ob'sti nate, _determined to have one's own way_. vi'cious, _not well tamed; given to bad tricks_. sub dued', _made gentle; overcome_. swerve, _turn from a direct line_. squad'ron, _a number of horses drawn up together_. pli'able, _capable of being turned or bent_. strove, _attempted; tried hard_. ex ceed'ed, _went beyond_. thong, _a long strip of leather_. * * * * * WILD HORSES OF SOUTH AMERICA. At the time of the discovery of America there were no wild horses in any part of the continent. Soon, however, some of the horses brought over from Europe by the early settlers, wandered away, and now wild horses are to be met with in large numbers, in some cases as many as a thousand at a time. They appear to be under the command of a leader, the strongest and boldest of the herd, whom they obey. When threatened with danger, at some signal, understood by them all, they either close together and trample their enemy to death, or form themselves into a circle and welcome him with their heels. The leader first faces the danger, and when he finds it prudent to retreat, all follow his rapid flight. Byron thus describes a troop of wild horses: "A trampling troop; I see them come! In one vast squadron they advance! I strove to cry--my lips were dumb. The steeds rush on in plunging pride; But where are they the reins to guide? A thousand horse--and none to ride! With flowing tail, and flying mane, Wide nostrils--never stretch'd by pain, Mouths bloodless to the bit or rein And feet that iron never shod, And flanks unscarr'd by spur or rod, A thousand horse, the wild, the free, Like waves that follow o'er the sea. On came the troop.... They stop--they start--they snuff the air, Gallop a moment here and there, Approach, retire, wheel round and round, Then plunging back with sudden bound, They snort--they foam--neigh--swerve aside, And backward to the forest fly." The capture and breaking in of wild horses in America are described by Miers as follows-- "The lasso is used by the natives of South America. It is a very strong braided thong, half an inch thick, and forty feet long, made of many strips of rawhide, braided like a whip-thong, and made soft and pliable by rubbing with grease. "It has at one end an iron ring, about an inch and a half in diameter, through which the thong is passed, forming a running noose. "The herdsmen--gauchos, as they are called--are generally mounted on horseback when they use the lasso. One end of the thong is attached to the saddle; the remainder is coiled in the left hand, except about twelve feet belonging to the noose end, which is held in a coil in the right hand. "This long noose is then swung around the head, the weight of the iron ring at the end of the noose assisting in giving to it, by a continued circular motion, a sufficient force to project it the whole length of the line. "The gauchos drive the wild horses into a corral, which is a circular space surrounded by rough posts firmly driven into the ground. The corral," relates Miers, "was quite full of horses, most of which were young ones about two or three years old. "The chief gaucho, mounted on a strong, steady horse, rode into the corral, and threw his lasso over the neck of a young horse and dragged him to the gate. "For some time he was very unwilling to lose his companions; but the moment he was forced out of the corral his first idea was to gallop away; however, a timely jerk of the lasso checked him. "Some of the gauchos now ran after him on foot, and threw a lasso over his fore legs, and jerking it, they pulled his legs from under him so suddenly that I really thought the fall had killed him. "In an instant a gaucho was seated on his head. They then put a piece of hide in his mouth to serve for a bit, and a strong hide halter on his head, and allowed him to get on his feet. "While two men held the horse by his ears, the gaucho who was to mount him fastened on the saddle, and then quickly sprung into it. "The horse instantly began to jump in a manner which made it very difficult for the rider to keep his seat; however, the gaucho's spurs soon set him going, and off he galloped, doing every thing in his power to throw his rider. "Then another horse was brought from the corral; and so quickly was every thing done that twelve gauchos were mounted in less than an hour. "It was wonderful to see the different manner in which different horses behaved. Some would actually scream while the gauchos were fastening the saddle upon their backs, and some would instantly lie down and roll upon it. "Others would stand without being held, their legs stiff and in unnatural positions, their necks half bent towards their tails, and looking vicious and obstinate. "It was now curious to look around and see the gauchos trying to bring their horses back to the corral, which is the most difficult part of their work, for the poor creatures had been so scared there that they were unwilling to return to the place. "At last they brought the horses back, apparently subdued and broken in. The saddles and bridles were taken off, and the young horses trotted off towards the corral, neighing to one another. "When a gaucho wishes to take a wild horse, he mounts a horse that has been used to the sport, and gallops over the plain. "As soon as he comes near his victim, the lasso is thrown round the two hind-legs, and as the gaucho rides a little on one side, the jerk throws the wild horse without doing injury to his knees or his face. [Illustration] "Before the horse can recover from the shock, the rider dismounts, and snatching his cloak from his shoulders, wraps it round the fallen animal's head. "He then forces into his mouth one of the powerful bridles of the country, fastens a saddle on his back, and, mounting him, removes the cloak. "Upon this the astonished horse springs to his feet, and attempts to throw off his new master, who sits calmly on his back. "By a treatment which never fails, the gaucho brings the horse to such complete obedience that he is soon trained to give his whole speed and strength to the capture of his companions." * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Let pupils pronounce in concert, and singly, the following words: _I, hide, side, rides, flight, wild, finds, retire, describe_. Mark the inflection of the last six lines of poetry on page 256.[15] What _inflection_ is used (1) to keep up the interest?--(2) to show hesitation?--(3) to express a decided opinion?--(4) to give the conclusion of a story?--(5) to ask a question that may be answered by _yes_ or _no_?--(6) to ask a question that can not be answered by _yes_ or _no_? Let pupils state the special uses of _inflection_ shown in the following examples. I, I think perhaps you may go. I know that you may go. They silently went away. Yesterday, about three o'clock, just as we were preparing to go home, suddenly we heard a band of music. [15] This lesson. * * * * * LESSON LV. career', _course of life_. gen'erous, _free in giving aid to others_. char'ity, _goodwill; desire to aid others_. in her'ited, _came into possession of_. in jus'tice, _wrong-doing_. ac cused', _charged with a fault_. hes i ta'tion, _delay_. pre scrip'tion, _an order for medicine_. flor'ins, _pieces of money, each valued at about fifty cents_. pen'sion, _money paid for service in war_. re stor'ing, _giving back_. phy si'cian, _doctor of medicine_. * * * * * AN EMPEROR'S KINDNESS. Joseph II., Emperor of Austria, was a generous, warm-hearted man, who took great delight in doing acts of kindness and charity. One time, as he was passing through the streets of Vienna, dressed as a private gentleman, his attention was attracted to a boy about twelve years old, who timidly approached, and seemed, anxious to speak to him. "What do you wish, my little friend?" said the gentleman. His voice was so tender, and he had such a kindly look in his eyes, that the boy had courage to say: "O sir, you are very good to speak to me so kindly. I believe you will not refuse to do something for me." "I should be sorry to refuse you," replied the gentleman; "but why are you begging? You appear to be something better than a beggar; your voice and your manner show it." "I am not a beggar, sir," replied the boy, as a tear trickled down his cheek. "My father was a brave officer in the army. Owing to illness, he was obliged to leave the service, and was granted a pension by the emperor. "With this pension he supported our family; but a few months ago he died, and we are left very poor indeed." "Poor child!" said the gentleman. "Is your mother living?" "Yes, sir, she is; and I have two brothers who are at home with her now. She has been unable to leave her bed for weeks, and one of us must watch beside her, while the others go out to beg." Saying this, the poor boy tried very hard to keep back the great tears, but they would come in spite of all he could do to stop them. "Well, well, my boy," said the gentleman, "do not feel so unhappy; I will see what can be done to help you. Is there a physician to be found near you?" "There are two, sir, only a little way from where we live." "That is well. Now you go at once and have one of them visit your mother. Here is money, not only for the physician, but for other things to feed you and make you comfortable." "O sir," said the boy, as he looked upon the gentleman in amazement, "how can I thank you enough? This money will save my mother's life, and keep my brothers from want." "Never mind, my child; go and get the physician." The boy obeyed, and the good emperor having learned the situation of the house where the boy's mother lived, bent his steps in that direction, and soon arrived there. The room in which he found the poor woman gave evidence of great misery. She was lying on a low bedstead, and though still young, her face was pale and thin from sickness and want. Very little furniture of any kind was to be seen, for the mother had disposed of nearly all she possessed to obtain bread for her children. When the emperor entered the room, the widow and her children looked at him in astonishment. They did not know he was their emperor. "I am a physician, madam," said he, bowing respectfully; "your neighbors have informed me of your illness, and I am come to offer what service may be in my power." "Alas! sir," she answered with some hesitation, "I have no means of paying you for your attention." "Do not distress yourself on that account; I shall be fully repaid if I have the happiness of restoring you to health." With these words, the emperor approached the bed and inquired all about her illness, after which he wrote a few lines and placed them on the chimney-piece. "I will leave you this prescription, madam; and on my next visit, I hope to find you much better." He then withdrew. Almost immediately after this, the eldest son of the widow came in with a medical man. "O mother!" cried the boy, "a kind, good gentleman has given me all this!" and he placed in his mother's hand, the money which the emperor had given him. "There now, don't cry, mother; this money will pay the doctor and buy every thing till you are well and strong again." "A physician has already been here, my child, and has left his prescription. See, there it is." and she pointed to the paper on the chimney-piece. The boy took the paper, and no sooner had he glanced at its contents, than he uttered an exclamation of joyful surprise. "O mother! It's the best prescription a physician ever wrote; it's an order for a pension, mother--a pension for you--signed by the emperor himself; listen, mother; hear what he says:-- "'_Madam:_--Your son was fortunate enough to meet me in the city, and informed me of the fact that the widow of one of my bravest officers was suffering from poverty and sickness, without any means of assistance. I had no knowledge of this, therefore I can not be accused of injustice. "'It is difficult for me to know every thing that takes place in my empire. Now that I do know of your distress, I should indeed be ungrateful, did I not render you all the help in my power. I shall immediately place your name on the pension list for the yearly sum of two thousand florins, and trust that you may live many years to enjoy it. "'_Joseph II_.'" The widow and her children were taken under the especial care of the emperor, and a brilliant career was opened up for the boys, who had inherited all their father's bravery as well as their mother's gentle nature. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Mark the _inflection_ of the following questions. Where do you live? Is your name Harry or John? Why are you begging? Do you wish to walk? In such a question as the last one, if _emphasis_ be given in turn to the words _you, wish, walk_, the answer might still be _yes_ or _no_; and yet the meaning of the answer would be different in each case. Do _you_ wish to walk? Yes, I do. Do you _wish_ to walk? No, I do not _wish_ to walk; but suppose I must. Do you wish to _walk?_ No, I would rather _ride_. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Let pupils write a letter to some friend, using the last paragraph of the lesson as a subject. * * * * * LESSON LVI. persist'ed, _continued_. crip'ples, _those who have lost the use of a limb_. merged, _united; joined_. stal'wart, _strong; powerful_. in'nocent, _harmless_. pass'port, _what enables one to go in safety_. gal'lant, _brave; noble_. riv'en, _taken away; deprived_. * * * * * UNITED AT LAST. "O mother! What do they mean by blue? And what do they mean by gray?" Was heard from the lips of a little child As she bounded in from play. The mother's eyes filled up with tears; She turned to her darling fair, And smoothed away from the sunny brow Its treasure of golden hair. "Why, mother's eyes are blue, my sweet, And grandpa's hair is gray, And the love we bear our darling child Grows stronger every day." "But what did they mean?" persisted the child; "For I saw two cripples to-day, And one of them said he fought for the blue, The other, he fought for the gray. "Now he of the blue had lost a leg, And the other had but one arm, And both seemed worn and weary and sad, Yet their greeting was kind and warm. They told of the battles in days gone by, Till it made my young blood thrill; The leg was lost in the Wilderness fight, And the arm on Malvern Hill. "They sat on the stone by the farm-yard gate, And talked for an hour or more, Till their eyes grew bright and their hearts seemed warm With fighting their battles o'er; And they parted at last with a friendly grasp, In a kindly, brotherly way, Each calling on God to speed the time Uniting the blue and the gray." Then the mother thought of other days-- Two stalwart boys from her riven; How they knelt at her side and lispingly prayed, "Our Father which art in heaven;" How one wore the gray and the other the blue; How they passed away from sight, And had gone to the land where gray and blue Are merged in colors of light. And she answered her darling with golden hair, While her heart was sadly wrung With the thoughts awakened in that sad hour By her innocent, prattling tongue: "The blue and the gray are the colors of God, They are seen in the sky at even, And many a noble, gallant soul Has found them a passport to heaven." * * * * * LESSON LVII. declin'ing, _failing_. expe'rience, _that which happens to any one_. regard', _look at; consider_. robust', _sound in health_. ben'efit ed, _made better; helped_. intense', _extreme_. moc'ca sin, _a kind of shoe made of deer-skin_. tem'po ra ry, _for a time_. pe cul'iar, _strange; unusual_. in tel'li gent, _showing good sense_. * * * * * A STORY OF THE SIOUX WAR. PART I. In the summer of 1862, while we were living in the State of Minnesota, I had an experience which I regard as one of the most remarkable that I ever met with. We lived at Lac Qui Parle, or rather quite close to it, for we were about a mile from the place. There were only three of us--father, mother, and myself. We had moved to Minnesota three years before, the main object of my parents being to restore their health; for they were feeble and needed a change of climate. The first year, both father and mother were much benefited; but not long after, father began to fail. I remember that he used to take his chair out in front of the house in pleasant weather and sit there, with his eyes turned toward the blue horizon, or into the depths of the vast wilderness which was not more than a stone's throw from our door. Mother would sometimes go out and sit beside father, and they would talk long and earnestly in low tones. I was too young to understand all this at the time, but it was not long afterward that I learned the truth. Father was steadily and surely declining in health; but mother had become strong and robust, and her disease seemed to have left her altogether. She tried to encourage father, and really believed his weakness was only temporary. Scarcely a day passed that I did not see some of the Sioux Indians who were scattered through that portion of the State. In going to, and coming from the agency, they would sometimes stop at our house. Father was very quick in picking up languages, and he was able to converse quite easily with the red men. How I used to laugh to hear them talk in their odd language, which sounded to me just as if they were grunting at each other. But the visits used to please father and mother, and I was always glad to see some of the rather ragged and not over-clean warriors stop at the house. I remember one hot day in June, when father was sitting under a tree in front of the house, and I was inside helping mother, we heard the peculiar noises which told us that father had an Indian visitor. We both went to the door, and I passed outside to laugh at their queer talk. Sure enough, an Indian was seated in the other chair, and he and father were talking with great animation. The Indian was of a stout build, and wore a straw hat with a broad, red band around it; he had on a fine, black broad-cloth coat, but his trousers were shabby and his shoes were pretty well worn. His face was bright and intelligent, and I watched it very closely as he talked in his earnest way with father, who was equally animated in answering him. The Indian carried a rifle and a revolver--the latter being in plain sight at his waist--but I never connected the thought of danger with him as he sat there talking with father. I describe this Indian rather closely, as he was no other than the well-known chief, Little Crow, who was at the head of the frightful Sioux war, which broke out within sixty days from that time. The famous chieftain staid until the sun went down. Then he started up and walked away rapidly in the direction of Lac Qui Parle. Father called good-by to him, but he did not reply and soon disappeared in the woods. The sky was cloudy, and it looked as if a storm was coming; so, as it was dark and blustering, we remained within doors the rest of the evening. A fine drizzling rain began to fall, and the darkness was intense. The evening was well advanced, and father was reading to us, when there came a rap upon the door. It was so gentle and timid that it sounded like the pecking of a bird, and we all looked in the direction of the door, uncertain what it meant. "It is a bird, scared by the storm," said father, "and we may as well admit it." I sat much nearer the door than either of my parents, and instantly started up and opened it. As I did so, I looked out into the gloom, but sprung back the next moment with a low cry of alarm. "What's the matter?" asked father, hastily laying down his book and walking rapidly toward me. "It isn't a bird; it's a person." As I spoke, a little Indian girl, about my own age, walked into the room, and looking in each of our faces, asked in the Sioux language whether she could stay all night. I closed the door and we gathered around her. She had the prettiest, daintiest moccasins, but her limbs were bare from the knee downward. She wore a large shawl about her shoulders, while her coarse, black hair hung loosely below her waist. Her face was very pretty, and her eyes were as black as coal and seemed to flash fire whenever she looked upon any one. Of course, her clothing was dripping with moisture, and her call filled us all with wonder. She could speak only a few words of English, so her face lighted up with pleasure when father addressed her in the Sioux language. As near as we could find out, her name was Chitto, and she lived with her parents at Lac Qui Parle. She told us that there were several families in a spot by themselves, and that day they had secured a quantity of strong drink, of which they were partaking very freely. At such times Indians are dangerous, and Little Chitto was terrified almost out of her senses. She fled through the storm and the darkness, not caring where she went, but only anxious to get away from the dreadful scene. Entering, without any intention on her part, the path in the woods, she followed it until she saw in the distance the glimmer of the light in our window, when she hastened to the house and asked for admission. I need scarcely say it was gladly granted. My mother removed the damp clothes from the little Sioux girl, and replaced them with some warm, dry ones belonging to me. At the same time she gave her hot, refreshing tea, and did every thing to make her comfortable. I removed the little moccasins from the wondering Chitto's feet, kissed her dark cheeks, and, as I uttered expressions of pity, though in an unknown tongue, I am quite sure that they were understood by Chitto, who looked the gratitude she could not express. She soon began to show signs of drowsiness and was put to bed with me, falling asleep as soon as her head touched the pillow. I lay awake a little longer and noticed that the storm had ceased. The patter of the rain was heard no more upon the roof, and the wind blew just as it sometimes does late in the fall. At last I sunk into a sound sleep. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Let pupils write a short letter to some friend, taking as a subject, "A Visit from Little Crow," as given on pages 272 and 273.[16] Let pupils add _y_ to each of the following words, make such other changes as may be necessary, and then define them. earth air fire water sleep rain rust fun fur stick What two words double their final letter before adding _y_? _Fiery_, from _fire_, is irregular in spelling. [16] This lesson. * * * * * LESSON LVIII. de'mons, _spirits; evil spirits_. groped, _found one's way by feeling with the hands_. pre'vi ous, _going before in time; preceding_. in clined', _leaning towards; disposed_. dis tract'ed, _confused by grief_. ex pired', _died_. stat'ue, _a figure carved to represent a living being_. stag'gered, _walked with trembling steps_. as cer tained', _found out by inquiring_. re tain', _keep possession of_. * * * * * A STORY OF THE SIOUX WAR. PART II. I awoke in the morning and saw the rays of the sun entering the window. Recalling the incidents of the previous evening, I turned to speak to my young friend. To my surprise she was gone, and supposing she had risen a short time before, I hurriedly dressed myself and went down stairs to help keep her company. But she was not there, and father and mother had seen nothing of her. She had no doubt risen in the night and gone quietly away. There was something curious and touching in the fact that she had groped about in the darkness, until she found her own clothing, which she put on and departed without taking so much as a pin that belonged to us. We all felt a strong interest in Chitto, and father took me with him a few days later when he visited Lac Qui Parle. He made many inquiries for the little girl, but could learn nothing about her. I felt very much disappointed, for I had built up strong hopes of taking her out home with me to spend several days. Father and I went a number of times afterward, and always made an effort to discover Chitto; but we did not gain any knowledge of her. On the afternoon of August 19, father was sitting in his accustomed seat in front of the house, and mother was engaged, as usual about her household duties. I was playing and amusing myself as a girl of my age is inclined to do at all times. The day was sultry and close, and I remember that father was unusually pale and weak. He coughed a great deal, and sat for a long time so still that I thought he must be asleep. "Mother," said I, "what is that smoke yonder?" I pointed in the direction of Lac Qui Parle. She saw a dark column of smoke floating off in the horizon, its location being such, that there could be no doubt that it was at the Agency. "There is a fire of some kind there," she said, while she shaded her eyes with her hand and gazed long and earnestly in that direction. "The Indians are coming, Edward," she called to father; "they will be here in a few minutes!" Suddenly, a splendid black horse came galloping from the woods, and with two or three powerful bounds, halted directly in front of me. As it did so, I saw that the bareback rider was a small girl, and she was our little Sioux friend, Chitto. She made a striking picture, with her long, black hair streaming over her shoulders, and her dress fluttering in the wind. "Why, Chitto," said I, in amazement, "where did you come from?" "Must go--must go--must go!" she exclaimed, in great excitement. "Indian soon be here!" So it seemed that, in the few weeks since she had been at our house, she had picked up enough of the English language to make herself understood. "What do you mean?" asked mother, as she and I advanced to the side of the black steed upon which the little Sioux sat; "what are the Indians doing?" "They burn buildings--have killed people--coming this way!" Chitto spoke the truth, for the Sioux were raging like demons at that very hour at Lac Qui Parle. "What shall we do, Chitto?" asked my mother. "Get on horse--he carry you." "But my husband; the horse can not carry all three of us." My poor distracted mother scarcely knew what to do. All this time father sat like a statue in his chair. A terrible suspicion suddenly entered her mind, and she ran to him. Placing her hand upon his shoulder, she addressed him in a low tone, and then uttered a fearful shriek, as she staggered backward, saying: "He is dead! he is dead!" Such was the fact. The shock of the news brought by the little Indian girl was too much, and he had expired in his chair without a struggle. The wild cry which escaped my mother was answered by several whoops from the woods, and Chitto became frantic with terror. "Indian be here in minute!" said she. Mother instantly helped me upon the back of the horse and then followed herself. She was a skillful rider, but she allowed Chitto to retain the bridle, and we started off. Looking back I saw a half-dozen Sioux horsemen come out of the woods and start on a trot toward us. Just then Chitto spoke to the horse, and he bounded off at a terrible rate, never halting until he had gone two or three miles. Then, when we looked back, we saw nothing of the Indians, and the horse was brought down to a walk; and finally, when the sun went down, we entered a dense wood, where we staid all night. I shall not attempt to describe those fearful hours. Not one of us slept a wink. Mother sat weeping over the loss of father, while I was heart-broken, too. Chitto, like the Indian she was, kept on the move continually. Here and there she stole as noiselessly through the wood as a shadow, while playing the part of sentinel. At daylight we all fell into a feverish slumber, which lasted several hours. When we awoke, we were hungry and miserable. Seeing a settler's house in the distance, Chitto offered to go to it for food. We were afraid she would get into trouble, but she was sure there was no danger and went. In less than an hour she was back again with an abundance of bread. She said there was no one in the house, and we supposed the people had become alarmed and escaped. We staid where we were for three days, during which time we saw a party of Sioux warriors burn the house where Chitto had obtained the food for us. It seemed to mother that the Indians would not remain at Lac Qui Parle long, and that we would be likely to find safety there. Accordingly, she induced Chitto to start on the return. When we reached our house nothing was to be seen of father's body; but we soon, discovered a newly-made grave, where we had reason to believe he was buried. As was afterward ascertained, he had been given a decent burial by orders of Little Crow himself, who, doubtless, would have protected us, had we awaited his coming. We rode carefully through the woods, and when we came out on the other side, our hearts were made glad by the sight of the white tents of United States soldiers. Colonel Sibley was encamped at Lac Qui Parle, and we were safe at last. Chitto disappeared from this post in the same sudden manner as before; but I am happy to say that I have seen her several times since. Mother and I were afraid her people would punish her for the part she took in helping us, but they did not. Probably the friendship which Little Crow showed toward our family, may have had something to do with the gentle treatment which the Indians showed her. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Supply the words omitted from the following sentences. "Must go! Indian soon be here!" "Indian be here in minute!" Let pupils make out an _analysis_ for the subject-- "Our Second Visit from Chitto," and use it in giving that part of the story in their own words. * * * * * LESSON LIX. e mit', _send forth_. con'trast, _difference in form or appearance_. molt'en, _melted_. con'ic al, _having the shape of a cone_. vol'umes, _quantities; masses_. char'ac ter, _kind; formation_. del'uge, _flood; drown_. com pre hen'sion, _the power of the mind to understand_. ap pall'ing, _terrifying_. grand'eur, _majesty; vastness of size_. lu'rid, _gloomy; dismal_. tre men'dous, _terrific; awful_. * * * * * VOLCANOES. In various parts of the earth, there are mountains that send out from their highest peaks, smoke, ashes, and fire. Mountains of this class are called volcanoes, and they present a striking contrast to other mountains, on account of their conical form and the character of the rocks of which they are composed. All volcanoes have at their summits what are called craters. These are large, hollow, circular openings, from which the smoke and fire escape. Nearly all volcanoes emit smoke constantly. This smoke proceeds from fires that are burning far down in the depths of the earth. Sometimes these fires burst forth from the crater of the volcano with tremendous force. The smoke becomes thick and black, and lurid flames shoot up to a height of hundreds of feet, making a scene of amazing grandeur. [Illustration] With the flames there are thrown out stones, ashes, and streams of melted rock, called lava. This lava flows down the sides of the mountain, and, being red-hot, destroys every thing with which it comes in contact. At such times, a volcano is said to be in eruption. A volcanic eruption is generally preceded by low, rumbling sounds, and trembling of the earth's surface. Then follows greater activity of the volcano, from which dense volumes of smoke and steam issue, and fire and molten lava make their appearance. Such is the force of some of these eruptions, that large rocks have been hurled to great distances from the crater, and towns and cities have been buried under a vast covering of ashes and lava. The quantity of lava and ashes which sometimes escapes from volcanoes during an eruption, is almost beyond comprehension. In 1772, a volcano in the island of Java, threw out ashes and cinders that covered the ground fifty feet deep, for a distance of seven miles all around the mountain. This eruption destroyed nearly forty towns and villages. In 1783, a volcano in Iceland sent out two streams of lava; one forty miles long and seven miles wide, and the other fifty miles long and fifteen miles wide. These streams were from one hundred to six hundred feet deep. Near the city of Naples, Italy, is situated the volcano Mt. Vesuvius. This fiery monster has probably caused more destruction than any other volcano known. In the year 79 A.D., it suddenly burst forth in a violent eruption, that resulted in one of the most appalling disasters that ever happened. Such immense quantities of ashes, stones, and lava were poured forth from its crater, that within the short space of twenty hours, two large cities were completely destroyed. These cities were Herculaneum and Pompeii. At this eruption of Vesuvius, the stream of lava flowed directly through and over the city of Herculaneum into the sea. The quantity was so great that, as it cooled and became hardened, it gradually filled up all the streets and ran over the tops of the houses. While the lava was thus turning the city into a mass of solid stone, the inhabitants were fleeing from it along the shore toward Naples, and in boats on the sea. At the same time, too, the wind carried the ashes and cinders in such a direction as to deluge the city of Pompeii. Slowly and steadily the immense volume of ashes and small stones, blocked up the streets and settled on the roofs of houses. The light of the flames that burst out from the awful crater, aided the people in their escape; but many who for some reason could not get away, perished. Pompeii was so completely covered that, nothing could be seen of it. Thus it remained buried under the ground until the year 1748, when it was discovered by accident. Since that time much of the city has been uncovered, and now one can walk along the streets, look into the houses, and form some idea how the people lived there eighteen hundred years ago. * * * * * _Language Lesson_.--Let pupils write an account of a supposed journey from their homes to Naples, telling about the route they would take, and the particulars as to time and distance. Be very particular about handwriting, spelling, punctuation, and capital letters. * * * * * LESSON LX. coot, _a water-bird_. hern (her'on), _a wading bird_. ed'dying, _moving in small circles_. mal'low, _a kind of plant_. bick'er, _move quickly; quarrel_. fal'low, _plowed land_. gray'ling, _a kind of fish_. cress'es, _a kind of water-plant_. sal'ly, _a rushing or bursting forth_. thorps, _villages_. bram'bly, _full of rough shrubs_. * * * * * THE BROOK. I come from haunts of coot and hern, I make a sudden sally, And sparkle out among the fern, To bicker down a valley. By thirty hills I hurry down, Or slip between the ridges, By twenty thorps, a little town, And half a hundred bridges. Till last by Philip's farm I flow To join the brimming river, For men may come, and men may go, But I go on forever. I chatter over stony ways, In little sharps and trebles, I bubble into eddying bays, I babble on the pebbles. With many a curve my bank I fret By many a field and fallow, And many a fairy foreland set With willow-wood and mallow. I chatter, chatter, as I flow To join the brimming river, For men may come, and men may go, But I go on forever. I wind about, and in and out, With here a blossom sailing, And here and there a lusty trout, And here and there a grayling. And here and there a foamy flake Upon me, as I travel With many a silvery waterbreak Above the golden gravel. And draw them all along, and flow To join the brimming river, For men may come, and men may go, But I go on forever. I steal by lawns and grassy plots, I slide by hazel covers; I move the sweet forget-me-nots That grow for happy lovers. I slip, I slide, I gloom, I glance, Among my skimming swallows; I make the netted sunbeam dance Against my sandy shallows. I murmur under moon and stars In brambly wildernesses; I linger by my shingly bars; I loiter round my cresses. And out again I curve and flow To join the brimming river, For men may come, and men may go, But I go on forever. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Point out the places in the poem where two lines should be joined in reading. Mark the _inflection_ of the following lines. "I slip, I slide, I gloom, I glance, Among my skimming swallows." "For men may come, and men may go, But I go on forever." Read the last two lines, and state whether the _inflected words_ are also _emphatic words_. Find a similar example of _inflection_ and _emphasis_ upon the same words in the last stanza of Lesson XXXVI. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Let pupils explain the meaning of the following expressions. _Join the brimming river_. _Netted sunbeam_. * * * * * LESSON LXI. de terred', _kept from_. en'ter prise, _an undertaking_. im'ple ments, _articles used in a trade_. sur vey'ing, _measuring land_. in'di cated, _showed; pointed out_. re clin'ing, _partly lying down_. re lease', _let go_. con clu'sion, _final decision_. suc ces'sion, _following one after another_. hur'ri cane, _a high wind_. an'ec dote, _incident; story_. com pact', _closely put together_. * * * * * ANECDOTE OF WASHINGTON. PART I It was a calm, sunny day in the year 1750; the scene, a piece of forest land in the north of Virginia, near a noble stream of water. Implements of surveying were lying about, and several men reclining under the trees, indicated by their dress and appearance, that they were engaged in laying out the wild lands of the country. These persons had just finished their dinner. Apart from the group walked a young man of a tall and compact frame, who moved with the firm and steady tread of one accustomed to constant exercise in the open air. His face wore a look of decision and manliness not usually found in one so young, for he was but little over eighteen years of age. Suddenly there was a shriek, then another, and then several more in rapid succession. The voice was that of a woman, and seemed to proceed from the other side of a small piece of wooded land. At the first scream, the youth turned his head in the direction of the sound; but when it was repeated, he pushed aside the undergrowth and soon dashed into an open space on the banks of the stream, where stood a small log-cabin. As the young man broke from the undergrowth, he saw his companions crowded together on the banks of the river, while in their midst stood a woman, from whom proceeded the shrieks he had heard. She was held by two of the men, but was struggling to free herself. The instant the woman saw the young man, she exclaimed, "O sir, you will do something for me! Make them release me. My boy--my poor boy is drowning, and they will not let me go!" "It would be madness; she will jump into the river," said one of the men, "and the rapids would dash her to pieces in a moment!" The youth had scarcely waited for these words; for he remembered the child, a bold little boy four years of age, whose beautiful blue eyes and flaxen ringlets made him a favorite with every one. He had been accustomed to play in the little inclosure before the cabin; but the gate having been left open, he had stolen out, reached the edge of the bank, and was in the act of looking over, when his mother saw him. The shriek she uttered only hastened the accident she feared; for the child, frightened at the cry of his mother, lost his balance and fell into the stream, which here went foaming and roaring along among rocks and dangerous rapids. Several of the men approached the edge of the river, and were on the point of springing in after the boy. But the sight of the sharp rocks crowding the channel, the rush and whirl of the waters, and the want of any knowledge where to look for the child, deterred them, and they gave up the enterprise. Not so with the noble youth. His first act was to throw off his coat; next to spring to the edge of the bank. Here he stood for a moment, running his eyes rapidly over the scene below, taking in with a glance the different currents and the most dangerous of the rocks, in order to shape his course when in the stream. He had scarcely formed his conclusion, when he saw in the water a white object, which he knew was the boy's dress; and then he plunged into the wild and roaring rapids. "Thank God, he will save my child!" cried the mother; "there he is!--O my boy, my darling boy! How could I leave you!" Every one had rushed to the brink of the precipice and were now following with eager eyes the progress of the youth, as the current bore him onward, like a feather in the power of a hurricane. Now it seemed as if he would be dashed against a projecting rock, over which the water flew in foam, and a whirlpool would drag him in, from whose grasp escape would appear impossible. At times, the current bore him under, and he would be lost to sight; then in a few seconds he would come to the surface again, though his position would be far from where he had disappeared. Thus struggling amid the rocks and angry waters, was the noble youth borne onward, eager to succeed in his perilous undertaking. Those on shore looked on with breathless interest. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Point out the _emphatic words_ and mark _inflection_ in the third paragraph on page 295.[17] What effect has very strong _emphasis_ upon _inflection_? (See _Directions for Reading_, page 238.)[18] Should this lesson be read more slowly, or somewhat faster than conversation? * * * * * Language Lesson.--Let pupils fill blanks in the sentences given below, using in turn, each of the following sets of words: (1) _saw, knew, was, plunged;_ (2) _sees, knows, is, plunges;_ (3) _perceived, thought, was, jumped;_ (4) _perceives, thinks, is, jumps;_ (5) _noticed, concluded, was, dived;_ (6) _notices, concludes, is, dives_. He ---- in the water a white object, which he ---- -- the boy's dress. Then he ---- into the roaring rapids. When the first, third, and fifth sets of words are used, the action is represented as something that is past; but when the second, fourth, and sixth sets are used, the action is represented as going on at the present time. The forms of _verbs_ (_action-words_) which are given in the first, third, and fifth sets are used to indicate past time, and are called _past tenses_; and the forms given in the second, fourth, and sixth sets are used to indicate present time, and are called _present tenses_. [17] See fifth paragraph from the end of the passage. [18] See Lesson L. * * * * * LESSON LXII. e merge', _come out_. vor'tex, _water in whirling motion; a whirlpool_. con fid'ed, _given into the care of_. vis'i ble, _in sight_. spec ta'tors, _those who look on_. vent'ured, _dared_. re ward', _that which is received in return for one's acts_. des'ti nies, _lives and fortunes_. sup pressed', _kept back_. re doub'led, _made twice as great_. * * * * * ANECDOTE OF WASHINGTON. PART II. O, how that mother's straining eyes followed the struggling youth! How her heart sunk when he went under, and with what joy she saw him emerge again from the waters, and, flinging the waves aside with his strong arms, struggle on in pursuit of her boy! But it seemed as if his generous efforts were not to succeed; for, though the current was bearing off the boy before his eyes, scarcely ten feet distant, he could not overtake the drowning child. Twice the boy went out of sight; and a suppressed shriek escaped the mother's lips; but twice he reappeared, and then, with hands wrung wildly together, and breathless anxiety, she followed his progress, as his form was hurried onward. The youth now appeared to redouble his exertions, for they were approaching the most dangerous part of the river. The rush of waters at this spot was tremendous, and no one ventured to approach it, even in a canoe, lest he should be dashed to pieces. What, then, would be the youth's fate, unless he soon overtook the child? He seemed fully sensible of the increasing peril, and now urged his way through the foaming current with a desperate strength. Three times he was on the point of grasping the child, when the water's whirled the prize from him. The third effort was made just as they were entering within the influence of the current above the falls; and when it failed, the mother's heart sunk within her, and she groaned, fully expecting the youth to give up his task. But no; he only pressed forward the more eagerly; and, as they breathlessly watched, amid the boiling waters, they saw the form of the youth following close after that of the boy. And now both pursuer and pursued shot to the brink of the falls. An instant they hung there, distinctly visible amid the foaming waters. Every brain grew dizzy at the sight. But a shout burst from the spectators, when they saw the child held aloft by the right arm of the youth--a shout that was suddenly changed to a cry of horror, when they both vanished into the raging waters below! The mother ran forward, and then stood gazing with fixed eyes at the foot of the falls. Suddenly she gave the glad cry, "There they are! See! they are safe! Great God, I thank Thee!" And, sure enough, there was the youth still unharmed. He had just emerged from the boiling vortex below the falls. With, one hand he held aloft the child, and with the other he was making for the shore. They ran, they shouted, they scarcely knew what they did, until they reached his side, just as he was struggling to the bank. They drew him out almost exhausted. The boy was senseless; but his mother declared that he still lived, as she pressed him to her bosom. The youth could scarcely stand, so faint was he from his exertions. Who can describe the scene that followed--the mother's calmness while striving to bring her boy to life, and her wild gratitude to his preserver, when the child was out of danger, and sweetly sleeping in her arms? "God will give you a reward," said she. "He will do great things for you in return for this day's work, and the blessings of thousands besides mine will attend you." And so it was: for, to the hero of that hour were afterward confided the destinies of a mighty nation. Throughout his long career, what tended to make him honored and respected beyond all men, was the spirit of self-sacrifice which, in the rescue of that mother's child, as in the more important events of his life, characterized George Washington. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Read the first two pages of the lesson quietly, but not slowly. About the middle of page 299, the manner of reading should be changed, when the feeling of anxiety is turned to that of joy.[19] * * * * * Language Lesson.--Let pupils rewrite the first paragraph of the lesson, changing _past tenses_ to _present tenses_ throughout. What effect will this change have upon the meaning? [19] This lesson, seventh paragraph from the end. * * * * * LESSON LXIII ex ist'ing, _living_. mas'sive _large and solid_. hy e'na, _a beast of prey_. cau'tion, _great care_. strat'a gem, _a secret way; trick_. de pends', _trusts to_. mar'vel ous, _wonderful_. jack'al, _a beast of prey_. pro cure', _obtain_. a dorn', _make beautiful_. * * * * * THE OSTRICH. The ostrich is the largest of all birds now existing, and is found chiefly in the sandy deserts of Africa and Arabia. A full-grown African ostrich stands from seven to nine feet in height, to the top of its head, and will weigh from two to three hundred pounds. The body of the ostrich is large and massive; the legs are long, measuring four feet or more, and the neck is of about the same length as the legs. The head is small for so large a bird; but its feet with their two great toes are of good size, and possess astonishing strength. An ostrich's beak is short and blunt; its neck slender and covered with gray down. Its eyes are large and bright, and the sense of sight so keen that it can readily see a distance of from four to six miles. It hears and sees equally well, and can only be approached by stratagem. The feathers of the male ostrich are of a glossy black, with the exception of the large plumes of the wing-feathers, which in both the male and female are snowy white. To procure these beautiful white plumes is the chief object in hunting the ostrich. Those plumes when plucked are sent to foreign countries, and used to adorn ladies' hats, and for various other purposes. The ostrich feeds on vegetable substances; but as an aid to digestion, it sometimes swallows stones, glass, paper, nails, and pieces of wood. An incident is related of an ostrich on exhibition in Paris, swallowing a gold watch and chain. A gentleman approached within reach of the beak of the bird, and, in the twinkling of an eye, the watch and chain were snatched from his pocket and swallowed. Although the ostrich has wings, it can not fly--it depends upon its strong legs and feet for speed, and can run much faster than a horse. The strength of the ostrich is marvelous. Its only weapon of defence is its long and muscular leg. [Illustration.] It is accustomed to kick directly forward, and it is said by those who have observed this habit, that a single blow from its gigantic two-toed foot is sufficient to kill a panther, a jackal, or a hyena. No better idea of its strength can be given than the fact of its being employed for riding. A traveler, writing about two ostriches he saw in a village in Africa, says: "These gigantic birds were so tame that two boys mounted together the larger one. The ostrich no sooner felt their weight, than it started off at full speed and carried them several times around the village. "This trial pleased me so much that I wished to have it repeated; and in order to test their strength, I had a full-grown man mount the smaller bird, and two men the larger bird. "At first, they started with caution; but presently they spread their wings and went off at such a speed that they seemed scarcely to touch the ground." The voice of the ostrich is deep and hollow, and is said to resemble at times the roar of the lion. The bird frequently makes a kind of cackling noise, and when enraged at an enemy, it hisses very loudly. Ostriches make their nests in the sand. One female will, in a single season, lay from twenty to thirty eggs, weighing about three pounds each. Most of these she places in the nest, standing them on one end; but some of them are left outside of the nest as food for her young when they are hatched. The natives of Africa are very fond of ostrich eggs, using them for food. In taking the eggs, they exercise great caution; for should the birds discover them, they would break all the eggs and leave the nest. Young ostriches are readily tamed. Some families in Africa keep them as we do chickens. They play with children, sleep in the houses, and when a family moves, the ostriches follow the camels, frequently carrying the children on their backs. Within the past few years, ostriches have been brought to this country; and places called ostrich farms have been established in California and other States, for the purpose of raising them for their feathers. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Let pupils point out any points that are omitted from the following Analysis.--1. Where the ostrich lives. 2. Its size and appearance--body, head, neck, eyes, feathers, and plumes. 3. Its food. 4. An incident. 5. Its speed. 6. Its strength,--leg and foot. 7. Riding ostriches. 8. Voice of ostrich. 9. Nests and habits of the birds. 10. Ostriches in this country. Change such points as may be found necessary, and use the _analysis_ in describing some well-known bird. * * * * * LESSON LXIV. plead, _urge as a reason_. breach, _a breaking, as of a promise_. re buke', _call attention to wrong-doing_. strew, _spread; scatter_. chide, _find fault with_. re sent'nent, _anger on account of an injury_. un a vail'ing, _useless; not helping in any way_. jus'tice, _honesty; what is right_. * * * * * TO-DAY AND TO-MORROW. If Fortune, with a smiling face, Strew roses on our way, When shall we stoop to pick them up?-- To-day, my friend, to-day. But should she frown with face of care, And talk of coming sorrow, When shall we grieve, if grieve we must?-- To-morrow, friend, to-morrow. If those who have wronged us own their fault, And kindly pity pray, When shall we listen and forgive?-- To-day, my friend, to-day. But if stern justice urge rebuke, And warmth from memory borrow, When shall we chide, if chide we dare?-- To-morrow, friend, to-morrow. If those to whom we owe a debt Are harmed unless we pay, When shall we struggle to be just?-- To-day, my friend, to-day. But if our debtor fail our hope, And plead his ruin thorough, When shall we weigh his breach of faith?-- To-morrow, friend, to-morrow. For virtuous acts and harmless joys The minutes will not stay;-- We have always time to welcome them To-day, my friend, to-day. But care, resentment, angry words, And unavailing sorrow, Come far too soon, if they appear To-morrow, friend, to-morrow. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Let some pupil in the class state the manner in which the lesson should be read. What is the effect of repeating the words _to-day_ and _to-morrow_, in the fourth and eighth lines of each stanza? * * * * * Language Lesson.--Let pupils give the meaning of each stanza in their own words. _Warmth from memory borrow_ means become more angry when we remember our own acts of kindness toward the person now doing us injury. Explain the meaning of the following expressions. _Strew roses on our way._ _Breach of faith._ * * * * * LESSON LXV. ref'uge, _a place of safety_. fo'li age, _leaves and branches of trees or shrubs_. op pressed', _heavily burdened_. be tray', _give information to an enemy_. con trived', _managed; arranged_. rec'og nized, _knew by seeing_. ren'der, _give; make_. im'mi nent, _close by; threatening_. com pel', _make one do any thing_. cav'al ry, _soldiers mounted on horses_. false, _not true; unreal_. re spond'ed, _answered; replied_. * * * * * AN INCIDENT OF THE REVOLUTION. During the Revolutionary War, when the American people were fighting for independence, a governor of one of the colonies found himself in great danger of being captured by British soldiers. The governor, whose name was Griswold, contrived to reach the house of a relative, and while there, was informed that the soldiers had discovered his place of refuge and were then on their way to seize him. Griswold at once realizing that his peril was imminent, determined, if possible, to reach a small stream, where he had left a boat so hidden, by the foliage that it could not be seen from the road. In great haste and excitement, he left the house and proceeded in the direction of the river. Passing through an orchard, he encountered a young girl about twelve years old. She was watching some pieces of linen cloth which were stretched out on the grass for the purpose of bleaching. Hetty--that was the girl's name--was seated under a tree with her knitting, and had near her a pail of water, from which she occasionally sprinkled the cloths to keep them damp. She started up and was somewhat frightened when she saw a man leaping over the fence; but soon recognized him to be her cousin. "O, is it you, cousin!" exclaimed Hetty; "you frightened me--where are you going?" "Hetty," he replied, "the soldiers are seeking for me, and I shall lose my life, unless I can reach the boat before they come. I want you to run down toward the shore and meet them." "They will surely ask for me; and then you must tell them that I have gone up the road to catch the mail-cart, and they will turn off the other way." "But, cousin, how can I say so?--it would not be true. O, why did you tell me which way you were going?" "Would you betray me, Hetty, and see me put to death? Hark! they are coming. I hear the clink of their horses' feet. Tell them I have gone up the road and Heaven will bless you." "Those who speak false words will never be happy," said Hetty. "But they shall not compel me to tell which way you go, even if they kill me--so run as fast as you can." "I am afraid it is too late to run, Hetty; where can I hide myself?" "Be quick, cousin. Get down and lie under this cloth; I will throw it over you and go on sprinkling the linen." "I will do it, for it is my last chance." He was soon concealed under the heavy folds of the long cloth. A few minutes afterward, a party of cavalry dashed along the road. An officer saw the girl and called out to her in a loud voice-- "Have you seen a man run this way?" "Yes, sir," replied Hetty. "Which way did he go?" "I promised not to tell, sir." "But you must tell me this instant; or it will be worse for you." "I will not tell, for I must keep my word." "Let me question her, for I think I know the child," said a man who was guide to the party. "Is your name Hetty Marvin?" "Yes, sir." "Perhaps the man who ran past you was your cousin?" "Yes, sir, he was." "Well, we wish to speak with him. What did he say to you when, he came by?" "He told me that he had to run to save his life." "Just so--that was quite true. I hope he will not have far to run. Where was he going to hide himself?" "My cousin said that he would go to the river to find a boat, and he wanted me to tell the men in search of him that he had gone the other way to meet the mail-cart." "You are a good girl, Hetty, and we know you speak the truth. What did your cousin say when he heard that you could not tell a lie to save his life?" "He asked, would I betray him and see him put to death?" "And you said you would not tell, if you were killed for it." Poor Hetty's tears fell fast as she responded, "Yes, sir." "Those were brave words, and I suppose he thanked you and ran down the road as fast as he could?" "I promised not to tell which way he went, sir." "O yes, I forgot; but tell me his last words, and I will not trouble you any more." "He said, 'I will do it, for it is my last chance.'" Hetty was now oppressed with great fear; she sobbed aloud, and hid her face in her apron. The soldiers thought they had obtained all the information they could, and rode off toward the river-side. While Griswold lay hidden at the farm, he had agreed upon a signal with his boatmen, that if in trouble he would put a white cloth by day, or a light at night, in the attic window of his place of concealment. When either signal was seen, the men were to be on the watch, ready to render him assistance in case of need. No sooner had the soldiers ridden away, than Griswold's friends in the house hung out a white cloth from the window, to warn the boatmen, who then pulled out to sea. The boat, with two men in it, was nearly out of sight by the time the soldiers reached the shore, and this caused them to conclude that Griswold had effected his escape. Meantime he lay safe and quiet until the time came for Hetty to go home to supper. Then he requested her to go and ask her mother to put the signal-lamp in the window as it grew dark, and send him clothes and food. The signal was seen, the boat returned, and Griswold made his way to it in safety. In better days, when the war was over, and peace declared, he named one of his daughters Hetty Marvin, that he might daily think of the brave young cousin whose sense and truth-speaking had saved his life. * * * * * LESSON LXVI. con sume', _use entirely; exhaust_. cul ti va'tion, _attending to the growth of plants_. ex'ports, _the products of a country which are sold to other countries_ trans por ta'tion, _carrying_. o'val, _shaped like an egg_. prin'ci pal, _chief; that which is most important_. es'ti mat ed, _stated in regard to quantity_. se lect'ed, _chosen; picked out_. ter'mi nates, _comes to an end_. * * * * * TROPICAL FRUITS. Those who have not visited tropical countries, can scarcely imagine the wonders of their vegetation. There is nothing in the northern half of the United States, with which to compare the richness of the vegetable growth of the tropics. In the Southern States of our Union, as well as in Mexico and Central America, there are found many of the same plants and trees that grow in countries lying still nearer the equator. The various kinds of fruits which grow in these countries, form a very large portion of the exports. Among those that are most commonly sent to us, are bananas, oranges, lemons, dates, cocoa-nuts, and figs. In countries where the banana grows most abundantly, no article of food which the natives can obtain, requires so little trouble in its cultivation. One has only to set out a few banana sprouts, and await the result. In a short time, a juicy stem shoots up to the height of fifteen or twenty feet. It is formed of nothing more than a number of leaf stalks rolled one over the other, and grows sometimes to a thickness of two feet. Two gigantic leaves grow out from the top, ten feet long and two feet broad. They are so very thin and tender that a light wind splits them into ribbons. From the center of the leaves a very strong stalk rises up, which supports the cluster of bananas. There are sometimes over one hundred bananas to a single stalk. A cluster of ripe bananas will weigh from sixty to seventy pounds, and represents a large amount of food. When a stalk has produced and ripened its fruit, it begins to wither and soon dies. In a very short time, however, new sprouts spring up from the old root, and ere long the native has another cluster. So rapidly do they follow each other, that one cluster is scarcely consumed before another one is ready to ripen. Bananas ripened on the stalk will not bear transportation to any great distance; therefore, when selected for export, the clusters are cut off while the bananas are very green. Another valuable fruit of the tropics is the date. This fruit grows on a tree called the date-palm, that is found in both Asia and Africa. The date-palm is a majestic tree, rising to the height of sixty feet or more, without branches, and with a trunk of uniform thickness throughout its entire length. It begins to bear fruit about eight years after it has been planted, and continues to be productive from seventy to one hundred years. Dates are oval in shape, and have a long solid stone. They form the principal food of the inhabitants of some of the eastern countries, and are an important article of commerce. When they are perfectly ripe, they possess a delightful perfume, and are very agreeable to the taste. In preparing dates to be sent to distant countries, they are gathered a short time before they are quite ripe, dried in the sun on mats, and finally packed in boxes or straw sacks. Travelers in the deserts of Africa, often carry dried dates with them for their chief food, during a journey of hundreds of miles. The Arabs grind dried dates into a powder which they call date flour. If this is packed away in a dry place, it will keep for years, and only has to be moistened with a little water to prepare it for eating. One of the most valuable and productive of tropical trees is the cocoa-nut palm. It grows largely in both the East and West Indies, and elsewhere throughout the torrid zone. It rises to a height of from sixty to one hundred feet, and terminates in a crown, of graceful, waving leaves. Some of these leaves reach a length of twenty feet, and have the appearance of gigantic feathers. The fruit consists of a thick outward husk of a fibrous structure, and within this, is the ordinary cocoa-nut of commerce. The shell of the nut is hard and woody, and a little over a quarter of an inch in thickness. Next to this shell is the kernel, which is also a shell about half an inch thick, and composed of a white substance very pleasant to the taste. Within this white eatable shell, is a milky liquid, called cocoa-nut milk. [Illustration] The cocoa-nut is very useful to the natives of the regions in which it grows. The nuts supply a large portion of their food, and the milky fluid inclosed within, forms a pleasant and refreshing drink. The shell of the nut is made into cups, and from the kernel, cocoa-nut oil is pressed out and largely used in making soap and for other purposes. In Ceylon, the tree is cultivated extensively. It is estimated that there are twenty million trees in that island, and that each tree produces about sixty nuts yearly. The wealth of a native is based upon the number of cocoa-nut palms he owns. Another well-known tropical fruit is the fig, which grows on a bush or small tree about eighteen or twenty feet high. The fig-tree is now cultivated in all the Mediterranean countries, but the larger portion of the American supply comes from western Asia and the south of France. The varieties are extremely numerous, and the fruit is of various colors, from deep purple to yellow, or nearly white. The trees usually bear two crops--one in the early summer, the other in the autumn. When ripe, the figs are picked and spread out to dry in the sun. Thus prepared, the fruit is packed closely in barrels, baskets, or wooden boxes, for commerce. Oranges and lemons are cultivated in nearly all warm countries. They grow on trees somewhat smaller than apple trees, and must be picked for export while they are hard and green. They ripen during transportation, so that green oranges put up and sent to us from Sicily or other distant points, change to a golden yellow color by the time they reach us. Oranges are grown largely in Florida and Louisiana, extensive orange orchards being frequently met with in traveling through those States. The oranges grown there are considered very choice, and are generally sweeter than those brought from Italy. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Define the following words, giving the meaning of each part as indicated by hyphens: _ex-port-ing, un-common-ly, dis-trust-ful, pro-vid-ing, un-bear-able, un-hope-ful_. The syllables _placed before_ a stem are called _prefixes_; those _placed after_ a stem, _suffixes_. The words _shall_ and _will_ are used to indicate _future time_; as, I shall go; you will go; he will go. The three tenses of an action may in a general way be represented by the words _yesterday, to-day_, and _to-morrow_. Let pupils fill blanks in the following statements, and state the tense of each action. We ---- go to see them next week. John ---- last night. You and I ---- in school at the present time. * * * * * LESSON LXVII. found'ed, _established; placed_. gar'ri son, _soldiers stationed in a fort or town_. strode, _walked with long steps_. coun'cil, _a number of men called together for advice_. in cit'ing, _moving to action_. de vot'ed, _very much attached_. de feat'ed, _overcome_. cul'ture, _a high state of knowledge_. or'na ment ed, _adorned_. wam'pum, _shells used by the Indians as money or for ornament_. fan tas'tic, _wild; irregular_. * * * * * THE STORY OF DETROIT. The early history of Detroit is highly romantic. It was founded in 1701 as a military colony. It soon became one of the most important of the western outposts of Canada, and as the French and Indians were usually on the most friendly terms, the colony for a long time existed in a state of happiness and contentment. At the close of the French War, Detroit contained over two thousand inhabitants. Canadian dwellings with their lovely gardens lined the banks of the river for miles. Within the limits of the settlement were several Indian villages. Here the light-hearted French-Canadian smoked his pipe and told his story, and the friendly Indian supplied him with game and joined in his merry-making. In the year 1760, Detroit was taken possession of by the English. The Indians hated the English, as much as they had loved the French. Pontiac, the ruling spirit of the forests at this time, was a most powerful and statesmanlike chief. When he found that his friends, the French, had lost their power, he sought to unite the Indian tribes against the English colonies, and to destroy the English garrison at Detroit by strategy. He was chief of the Ottawas, but possessed great influence over several other tribes. Pontiac believed, and that truly, that the establishment of English colonies would be fatal to the interests of the Indian race. He strode through the forests like a giant, inciting the tribes to war. He urged a union of all the Indian nations from the lakes to the Mississippi for the common defense of the race. There lived near Detroit a beautiful Indian girl, called Catharine. The English commander, Gladwyn, was pleased with her, and showed her many favors, and she formed a warm friendship for him. One lovely day in May, this girl came to the fort and brought Gladwyn a pair of elk-skin moccasins. She appeared very sad. "Catharine," said Gladwyn, "what troubles you to-day?" She did not answer at once. There was a silent struggle going on in her heart. She had formed a strong attachment for the white people, and she was also devoted to her own race. "To-morrow," she said at length, "Pontiac will come to the fort with sixty of his chiefs. Each will be armed with a gun, which will be cut short and hidden under his blanket. The chief will ask to hold a council. He will then make a speech, and offer a belt of wampum as a peace-offering. "As soon as he holds up the belt, the chiefs will spring up and shoot the officers, and the Indians outside will attack the English. Every Englishman will be killed. The French inhabitants will be spared." Gladwyn made immediate preparations to avoid the danger which threatened them. The soldiers were put under arms. Orders were given to have them drawn up in line on the arrival of the Indians the following day. The next morning Indian canoes approached the fort from the eastern shores. They contained Pontiac and his sixty chiefs. At ten o'clock the chiefs marched to the fort, in fantastic procession. Each wore a colored blanket, and was painted, plumed, or in some way gaily ornamented. As Pontiac entered the fort, a glance showed him that his plot was discovered. He passed in amazement through glittering rows of steel, he made a speech, expressing friendship; but he did not dare to lift the wampum belt which was to have been the signal for attack. He was allowed to depart peaceably. When he found that his plot had been discovered, his anger knew no bounds. He gathered his warriors from every hand and laid siege to Detroit. He was defeated, and with his defeat ended the power of the Indian tribes in the region of the Upper Lakes. Detroit became an English town, and afterward an American city. She has gathered to herself the wealth of the fertile regions which lie around her, as well as the commerce of the broad inland seas on either hand. To-day she has more than one hundred and twenty thousand inhabitants, and is famous for her wealth and culture. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Let pupils review, as a written exercise, the spelling of the following words. treasure rheumatism group desperate release mischievous courtesy separate weary approach redoubled vegetable stealthy caution mighty stratagem peasants exhausted fortnight spectator concealed draughts knowledge necessary freight guidance flickering particular In the sentences given below, change the verbs so as to represent the action as completed. "The chiefs march to the fort in fantastic procession. They find that their plot is discovered. Pontiac immediately gathers his warriors from every hand, and lays siege to Detroit. He is defeated, and with his defeat, the power of the Indian tribes is at an end." In the last two sentences, change the verbs so as to represent future time. Let pupils make out an _analysis_ and use it in treating the subject-- _The town (or city) that I live in._ _Suggestion_.--Include the location and early history of the town. Its present population. Its different manufactures. How to get to it. Its chief points of interest to a stranger. Anecdotes. * * * * * LESSON LXVIII. heave, _raise; lift_. mack'er el, _a fish spotted with blue, and largely used for food_. con geals', _freezes; grows hard from cold_. ant'lers, _branching horns_. a main', _suddenly; at once_. lurks, _lies hidden_. reels, _frames for winding fishing lines_. teem'ing, _containing in abundance_. car'i bou, _a kind of reindeer_. Mick'mack, _a tribe of Indians_. * * * * * THE FISHERMEN. Hurra! the seaward breezes Sweep down the bay amain; Heave up, my lads, the anchor! Run up the sail again! Leave to the lubber landsmen The rail-car and the steed; The stars of heaven shall guide us The breath of heaven shall speed. From the hill-top looks the steeple, And the light-house from the sand; And the scattered pines are waving Their farewell from the land. One glance, my lads, behind us, For the homes we leave, one sigh, Ere we take the change and chances Of the ocean and the sky. Where in mist the rock is hiding, And the sharp reef lurks below, And the white squall smites in summer, And the autumn tempests blow; Where, through gray and rolling vapor, From evening unto morn, A thousand boats are hailing, Horn answering unto horn. Hurra! for the Red Island, With the white cross on its crown! Hurra! for Meccatina, And its mountains bare and brown! Where the caribou's tall antlers O'er the dwarf-wood freely toss, And the footsteps of the Mickmack Have no sound upon the moss. There we'll drop our lines, and gather Old ocean's treasures in, Where'er the mottled mackerel Turns up a steel-dark fin. The sea's our field of harvest, Its scaly tribes our grain; We'll reap the teeming waters As at home they reap the plain. Though the mist upon our jackets In the bitter air congeals, And our lines wind stiff and slowly From off the frozen reels; Though the fog be dark around us, And the storm blow high and loud, We will whistle down the wild wind, And laugh beneath the cloud! Hurra!--Hurra!--the west wind Comes freshening down the bay, The rising sails are filling-- Give way, my lads, give way! Leave the coward landsman clinging To the dull earth like a weed-- The stars of heaven shall guide us, The breath of heaven shall speed! * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Let some pupil in the class state in what manner the lesson should be read. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Change the verbs throughout the sixth stanza so as to represent past action. Give the time indicated in the following sentences. I _am thinking_ about it. I _am going_ to-morrow. As _verb-forms_ do not always determine the _time of an action_, we must call an action _past, present_, or _future_, in accordance with the meaning indicated by the verb. * * * * * LESSON LXIX. op er a'tions, _ways of working; deeds_. e vap'o rat ed, _has the moisture taken from it_. au'ger, _a tool used in boring holes_. shan'ty, _a hut; a poor dwelling_. e nor'mous, _of very large size_. su per in tend'ing, _directing; taking care of_. an nounce', _give first notice of; make known_. de li'cious, _affording great pleasure, especially to the taste_. de'tails, _small parts of any thing_. clar'i fied, _made clear or pure_. * * * * * MAKING MAPLE SUGAR. PART I. There is no part of farming that a boy enjoys more than the making of maple sugar; it is better than "blackberrying," and nearly as good as fishing. And one reason he likes this work is that somebody else does the most of it. It is a sort of work in which he can appear to be very active, and yet not do much. In my day maple-sugar-making used to be something between picnicking and being shipwrecked on a fertile island, where one should save from the wreck, tubs and augers, and great kettles and pork, and hen's-eggs and rye-and-indian bread, and begin at once to lead the sweetest life in the world. I am told that it is something different nowadays, and that there is more desire to save the sap, and make good, pure sugar, and sell it for a large price. I am told that it is the custom to carefully collect the sap and bring it to the house, where there are built brick arches, over which it is evaporated in shallow pans, and that pains are taken to keep the leaves, sticks, ashes and coals out of it, and that the sugar is clarified. In short, that it is a money-making business, in which there is very little fun, and that the boy is not allowed to dip his paddle into the kettle of boiling sugar and lick off the delicious syrup. As I remember, the country boy used to be on the lookout in the spring for the sap to begin running. I think he discovered it as soon as anybody. Perhaps he knew it by a feeling of something starting in his own veins--a sort of spring stir in his legs and arms, which tempted him to stand on his head, or throw a handspring, if he could find a spot of ground from which the snow had melted. The sap stirs early in the legs of a country boy, and shows itself in uneasiness in the toes, which, get tired of boots, and want to come out and touch the soil just as soon as the sun has warmed it a little. The country boy goes barefoot just as naturally as the trees burst their buds, which were packed and varnished over in the fall to keep the water and the frost out. Perhaps the boy has been out digging into the maple-trees with his jack-knife; at any rate, he is pretty sure to announce the discovery as he comes running into the house in a state of great excitement, with "Sap's runnin'!" And then, indeed, the stir and excitement begin. The sap-buckets, which have been stored in the wood-house, are brought down and set out on the south side of the house and scalded. The snow is still a foot or more deep in the woods, and the ox-sled is got out to make a road to the sugar camp. The boy is every-where present, superintending every thing, asking questions, and filled with a desire to help the excitement. It is a great day when the cart is loaded with the buckets, and the procession starts into the woods. The sun shines brightly; the snow is soft and beginning to sink down; the snow-birds are twittering about, and the noise of shouting and of the blows of the axe echoes far and wide. In the first place the men go about and tap the trees, drive in the spouts, and hang the buckets under. The boy watches all these operations with the greatest interest. He wishes that some time when a hole is bored into a tree that the sap would spout out in a stream, as it does when a cider-barrel is tapped. But it never does, it only drops, sometimes almost in a stream, but on the whole slowly, and the boy learns that the sweet things of the world have to be patiently waited for, and do not usually come otherwise than drop by drop. Then the camp is to be cleared of snow. The shanty is re-covered with boughs. In front of it two enormous logs are rolled nearly together, and a fire is built between them. Forked sticks are set at each end, and a long pole is laid on them, and on this are hung the great iron kettles. The huge hogsheads are turned right side up, and cleaned out to receive the sap that is gathered. The great fire that is kindled is never allowed to go out, night or day, so long as the season lasts. Somebody is always cutting wood to feed it; somebody is busy most of the time gathering in the sap. Somebody is required to watch the kettles that they do not boil over, and to fill them. It is not the boy, however; he is too busy with things in general to be of any use in details. He has his own little sap-yoke and small pails, with which he gathers the sweet liquid. He has a little boiling-place of his own, with small logs and a tiny kettle. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--In the second line of the lesson, after the word _more_, a pause should be made for the purpose of giving special effect to the words which follow. This is called a _rhetorical pause_. In the third and fourth lines, point out the _rhetorical pauses_. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Let some pupil explain the meaning of the third paragraph of the lesson. Change the verbs in the last paragraph so as to indicate _future time_. * * * * * LESSON LXX. grim'y, _dirty_. re al i za'tion, _the act of coming true_. in vent'ed, _found out; contrived_. per mit'ted, _allowed_. dis solved', _melted; broken up_. a vid'i ty, _eagerness_. re duced', _made smaller in quantity_. sen sa'tion, _feeling_. crys'tal lize, _change into hard particles of a regular shape_. * * * * * MAKING MAPLE SUGAR. PART II. In the great kettles the boiling of the sap goes on slowly, and the liquid, as it thickens, is dipped from one to another, until in the end kettle it is reduced to syrup, and is taken out to cool and settle, until enough is made to "sugar off." To "sugar off" is to boil the syrup until it is thick enough to crystallize into sugar. This is the grand event, and is only done once in two or three days. But the boy's desire is to "sugar off" all the time. He boils his kettle down as rapidly as possible; he is not particular about chips, scum, or ashes. He is apt to burn his sugar; but if he can get enough to make a little wax on the snow, or to scrape from the bottom of the kettle with his wooden paddle, he is happy. A great deal is wasted on his hands, and the outside of his face, and on his clothes, but he does not care; he is not stingy. To watch the operations of the big fire gives him constant pleasure. Sometimes he is left to watch the boiling kettles, with a piece of pork tied on the end of a stick, which he dips into the boiling mass when it threatens to go over. He is constantly tasting of it, however, to see if it is not almost syrup. He has a long, round stick, whittled smooth at one end, which he uses for this purpose, at the constant risk of burning his tongue. The smoke blows in his face; he is grimy with ashes; he is altogether such a mass of dirt, stickiness, and sweetness, that his own mother wouldn't know him. He likes to boil eggs with the hired man in the hot sap; he likes to roast potatoes in the ashes, and he would live in the camp day and night if he were permitted. To sleep there with the men, and awake in the night and hear the wind in the trees, and see the sparks fly up to the sky, is a perfect realization of all the stories of adventures he has ever read. He tells the other boys afterward that he heard something in the night that sounded very much like a bear. The hired man says that he was very much scared by the hooting of an owl. The great occasions for the boy, though, are the times of "sugaring off." Sometimes this used to be done in the evening, and it was made the excuse for a frolic in the camp. The neighbors were invited; sometimes even the pretty girls from the village, who filled all the woods with their sweet voices and merry laughter, were there, too. The tree branches all show distinctly in the light of the fire, which lights up the bough shanty, the hogsheads, the buckets on the trees, and the group about the boiling kettles, until the scene is like something taken out of a fairy play. At these sugar parties every one was expected to eat as much sugar as possible; and those who are practiced in it can eat a great deal. It is a peculiar fact about eating warm maple sugar, that though you may eat so much of it one day as to be sick, you will want it the next day more than ever. At the "sugaring off" they used to pour the hot sugar upon the snow, where it congealed into a sort of wax, which I suppose is the most delicious substance that was ever invented. And it takes a great while to eat it. If you should close your teeth firmly on a lump of it, you would be unable to open your mouth until it dissolved. The sensation while it is melting is very pleasant, but it will not do to try to talk, for you can not. The boy used to make a big lump of it and give it to the dog, who seized it with great avidity, and closed his jaws on it, as dogs will on any thing. It was funny the next moment to see the expression of perfect surprise on the dog's face when he found that he could not open his jaws. He shook his head; he sat down in despair; he ran round in a circle; he dashed into the woods and back again. He did every thing except climb a tree, and howl. It would have been such a relief to him if he could have howled. But that was the one thing he could not do. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Let pupils change the verbs in the following lines, so that they will indicate _present time_. "He shook his head; he sat down in despair; he ran around in a circle; he dashed into the woods and back again." Suggestion.--Let the teacher, from time to time, select stories, and have them read before the class. After the reading, let pupils make oral _analyses_. The stories should be short, and the exercise conducted without the use of pencils or paper. * * * * * LESSON LXXI. en'sign, _flag_. dis man'tled, _stripped of masts, sails, and guns_. pa tri ot'ic, _full of love for one's country_. hulk, _a dismantled ship_. frig'ate, _a ship of war_. tat'tered, _torn_. me'te or, _a fiery body in the heavens_. van'quished, _conquered; overcome_. har'pies, _destroyers_. manned, _supplied with men_. * * * * * OLD IRONSIDES. During our second war with Great Britain, which began in the year 1812, many battles were fought both on land and sea. Among the ships of war belonging to the United States Government, was a frigate named the Constitution. She was built about the beginning of the present century, and owing to her good fortune in many engagements, her seamen gave her the name of "Old Ironsides." She was in active service throughout the entire war, and captured five ships of war from the British, two of which were frigates. In all her service, her success was remarkable. She never lost her masts, never went ashore, and though so often in battle, no very serious loss of life ever occurred on her decks. Her entire career was that of what is called in the navy "a lucky ship." Perhaps this may be explained by the fact that she always had excellent commanders, and that she probably possessed as fine a ship's company as ever manned a frigate. In 1829, the Government ordered the Constitution to be dismantled and taken to pieces, because she had become unfit for service. At that time, Oliver Wendell Holmes, who has since become famous as a writer, was a young man twenty years of age, about completing his studies at Harvard College. When he heard of the intended destruction of "Old Ironsides," he went directly to his room, and, inspired by patriotic feelings, wrote the following poem. OLD IRONSIDES. Ay, tear her tattered ensign down! Long has it waved on high, And many an eye has danced to see That banner in the sky; Beneath it rung the battle shout And burst the cannons' roar: The meteor of the ocean air Shall sweep the clouds no more. Her deck, once red with heroes' blood, Where knelt the vanquished foe, When winds were hurrying o'er the flood And waves were white below, No more shall feel the victors' tread, Or know the conquered knee: The harpies of the shore shall pluck The eagle of the sea! O, better that her shattered hulk Should sink beneath the wave!-- Her thunders shook the mighty deep, And there should be her grave. Nail to the mast her holy flag, Set every threadbare sail, And give her to the god of storms, The lightning, and the gale! The effect of this poem upon the people was so great that a general outcry arose against the destruction of the gallant old ship. The Government was induced to reconsider its determination. The old ship was saved, repaired, and for many years has delighted the eyes of thousands of people who have visited her. At present, she is used as a receiving-ship at the United States Navy Yard, Portsmouth, New Hampshire. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--With what tone of voice should the prose part of the lesson be read? Read the poetry--first, slowly and quietly; then, in a loud tone of voice, expressing the feeling of anger. Which method of reading the poem do the pupils prefer? Which do they think represents the poet's feelings? Let pupils pronounce in concert, and singly, the following words: _hero, year, people, deep, eagle, knee, serious, meteor, complete, pieces_. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Let pupils point out and explain the unusual expressions found in the first two stanzas, writing out a list of the changes made. * * * * * LESSON LXXII. ver'tic al, _upright_. cat'a ract, _a great fall of water over a precipice_. pro vis'ions, _stock of food_. con struct'ed, _made; formed_. in cred'i ble, _not easily believed_. sta'tion a ry, _not moving; fixed_. ex tinct', _inactive; dead_. de pos'it, _that which is laid or thrown down_. ap'er ture, _an opening_. di am'e ter, _distance across or through_. com pris'es, _includes; contains_. * * * * * NATURAL WONDERS OF AMERICA. PART I. Within the vast extent of territory belonging to the United States, there are many wonderful natural curiosities which attract visitors from all parts of the world. A short description of some of the principal attractions is here given, with the hope that many who read this lesson, may at some time visit a part or all that are noticed. GEYSERS OF THE YELLOWSTONE PARK. The Yellowstone Park is a tract of country fifty-five by sixty-five miles in extent, lying mainly in the northwest corner of the Territory of Wyoming, but including a narrow belt in southern Montana. It contains nearly thirty-six hundred square miles, and is nearly three times as large as the State of Rhode Island. No equal extent of country on the globe comprises such a union of grand and wonderful scenery. Numerous hot springs, steam jets, and extinct geyser cones exist in the Yellowstone basin. Just beyond the western rim of the basin, lies the grand geyser region of Fire-Hole River. Scattered along both banks of this stream are boiling springs from two to twelve feet across, all in active operation. One of the most noted geysers of this district is "Old Faithful." It stands on a mound thirty feet high, the crater rising some six feet higher still. The eruptions take place about once an hour, and continue fifteen or twenty minutes, the column of water shooting upward with terrific force, from one hundred to one hundred and fifty feet. The great mass of water falls directly back into the basin, flowing over the edges and down the sides in large streams. When the action ceases, the water recedes from sight, and nothing is heard but an occasional escape of steam until another eruption occurs. [Illustration] Just across the river and close to the margin, a small conical mound is observed, about three feet high, and five feet in diameter at the base. No one would suspect it to be an active geyser. But in 1871, a column of water entirely filling the crater shot from it, which by actual measurement was found to be two hundred and nineteen feet high. Not more than a hundred yards from the river, there is a large oval aperture eighteen feet wide and twenty-five feet long. The sides are covered with a grayish-white deposit which is distinctly visible at a depth of a hundred feet below the surface. This geyser is known as the "Giantess," and a visitor in describing it states that "no water could be discovered on the first approach, but it could be distinctly heard gurgling and boiling at a great distance below. Suddenly it began to rise, spluttering and sending out huge volumes of steam, causing a general scattering of our company. "When within about forty feet of the surface, it became stationary, and we returned to look upon it. All at once it rose with incredible rapidity, the hot water bursting from the opening with terrific force, rising in a column the full size of this immense aperture to the height of sixty feet. "Through, and out of the top of this mass, five or six lesser jets or round columns of water, varying in size from six to fifteen inches in diameter, were projected to the marvelous height of two hundred and fifty feet." [Illustration: View in the Grand Cañon] THE CA�ONS OF THE COLORADO RIVER. The length of the Colorado River, from the sources of the Green River, is about two thousand miles. For five hundred miles of this distance, the river has worn deep cuts or gorges through the soft rock, called cañons. The rocky sides of these cañons form lofty vertical walls, which, in some places, rise to a height of more than a mile above the surface of the water. The largest and most noted of these vast gorges is the Grand Cañon, which extends a distance of more than two hundred miles. The height of the walls of this cañon varies from four thousand to seven thousand feet. The river, as it runs through it, is from fifty to three hundred feet wide. So swift is the current, that it is almost impossible to float a boat down the stream without having it dashed to pieces against the rocky walls on either side. The first descent through these cañons was made in 1867, from a point on Grand River, about thirty miles above its junction with Green River. Three men were prospecting for gold, and being attacked by Indians and one of their number killed, the other two decided to attempt the descent of the river, rather than retrace their steps through a country where Indians were numerous. They constructed a raft of a few pieces of drift-wood, and having secured their arms and provisions, commenced their journey down the stream. A few days afterward, while the raft was descending a cataract, one of the men was drowned and all the provisions were washed overboard. The third man, hemmed in by the walls of the cañon, continued the journey alone amid great perils from cataracts, rocks, and whirlpools. For ten days he pursued, his lonely way, tasting food but twice during the whole time. Once he obtained a few green pods and leaves from bushes growing along the stream, and the second time from some friendly Indians. At last he succeeded in reaching Callville in safety, after having floated several hundred miles. * * * * * LESSON LXXIII. pro por'tions, _relations of parts to each other_. in te'ri or, _the inside_. al a bas'ter, _a kind of whitish stone_. chasm, _a deep opening_. a're a, _any surface, as the floor of a room_. an'cient, _belonging to past ages_. un ex am'pled, _without a similar case_. co los'sal, _of great size_. feat'ure, _any thing worthy of notice_. dra'per y, _hangings of any kind_. o ver awed', _held in a state of fear_. sur pass'ing, _exceeding others_. * * * * * NATURAL WONDERS OF AMERICA. PART II. THE MAMMOTH CAVE. In the year 1809, a hunter named Hutchins, while pursuing a bear in Edmondson County, Kentucky, was surprised to see the animal disappear into a small opening in the side of a hill. Upon examining the spot, Hutchins found that the opening led into a cave. Following up the examination soon after, it was discovered that the cave was immense in its proportions. On account of its great size, it was named Mammoth Cave. It has an area of several hundred square miles, and two hundred and twenty-three known and numbered avenues, with a united length of from one hundred and fifty to two hundred miles. The interior of this cave is divided by huge columns and walls of stone into chambers of various shapes and sizes. Some of these are large enough to afford standing room for thousands of people. One of the largest of these chambers is called Mammoth Dome. This room is four hundred feet long, one hundred and fifty feet wide, and two hundred and fifty feet in height. The walls of this grand room are curtained by alabaster drapery in vertical folds and present to the eye a scene of unexampled beauty and grandeur. A large gateway at one end of this room opens into another room, in which the position of the huge stone pillars, reminds one of the ruins of some ancient temple. Six colossal columns, or pillars, eighty feet high and twenty-five feet in diameter, standing in a half circle, are among the imposing attractions of this wonderful room. Another striking feature of Mammoth Cave is what is called the Dead Sea. This body of water is four hundred feet long, forty feet wide, and very deep. A curious fish is found in this dark lake. It is without eyes, and, in form and color, is different from any fish found outside the cave. There are found also a blind grasshopper, without wings, and a blind crayfish of a whitish color, both of which are very curious and interesting. The fact that these living creatures are blind would seem to indicate that nature had produced them for the distinct purpose of inhabiting this dark cave. NIAGARA FALLS. Of all the sights to be seen on this continent, there is none that equals the great Falls of Niagara River, situated about twelve miles north of Buffalo, in the State of New York. On first beholding this most wonderful of all known cataracts, one is overawed by its surpassing grandeur, "and stunned by the sound of the falling waters as by a roar of thunder." For quite a distance above the falls, the Niagara River is about one mile wide, and flows with great swiftness. Just at the edge of the cataract stands Goat Island, which divides the waters of the river, and makes two distinct cataracts; one on the Canadian side, and one on the American side of the river. The one on the Canadian side, called from its shape the Horse-shoe Fall, is eighteen hundred feet wide, and one hundred, and fifty-eight feet high. The other, called the American Fall, is six hundred feet wide, and one hundred and sixty-four feet high. As the immense body of water leaps over this vast precipice, it breaks into a soft spray, which waves like a plume in the wind. At times, when the rays of the sun strike this spray, a rainbow is formed which stretches itself across the deep chasm, and produces a beautiful effect. During the winter, much of the water and spray freezes, and as each moment adds to the frozen mass, some curious and wonderful ice formations are produced. Sometimes, during a very cold winter, the ice at the foot of the falls forms a complete bridge from one shore to the other. An interesting feature of a visit to these falls is a descent to the level of the foot of the cataract behind the great sheet of water. A long flight of steps leads down to a secure footing between the rocky precipice and the falling torrent. By a narrow footpath, it is possible for the visitor to pass between this column of water and the wall of rock. Once behind the sheet of water, the roar is deafening. One can only cling to the narrow railing or his guide, as he picks his way for more than a hundred feet behind the roaring torrent. A single misstep, a slip, or a fall, and nothing remains but a horrible death by being dashed to pieces upon the jagged rocks below. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Point out four places in the lesson where words would likely be run together by a careless reader. The word _cañon_ is pronounced _can'yon_. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Give rules for marks of punctuation and capital letters used in the first paragraph of the account of Niagara Falls. Let pupils make out an _analysis_ in five or six parts, treating some well-known scene. * * * * * LESSON LXXIV. vo ra'cious, _greedy; very hungry_. o ver whelmed', _overcome by force of numbers_. a bound'ing, _existing in large numbers_. as cend'ing, _going up_. her'ald ed, _gave notice of_. im pet'u ous, _furious; without care for what happens_. crim'i nals, _those who have broken the law_. con'cen trate, _gather in a large mass_. in tol'er a ble, _not to be borne_. ir re sist'i ble, _can not be opposed_. * * * * * AFRICAN ANTS. A strange kind of ant is very abundant in the whole region I have traveled over in Africa, and is the most voracious creature I ever met. It is the dread of all living animals, from the leopard to the smallest insect. I do not think that these ants build nests or homes of any kind. At any rate they carry nothing away, but eat all their prey on the spot. It is their habit to march through the forests in a long, regular line--a line about two inches broad and often several miles in length. All along this line are larger ants, who act as officers, stand outside the ranks, and keep this singular army in order. If they come to a place where there are no trees to shelter them from the sun, whose heat they can not bear, they immediately build underground tunnels, through which the whole army passes in columns to the forest beyond. These tunnels are four or five feet underground, and are used only in the heat of the day, or during a storm. When, they grow hungry the long file spreads itself through the forest in a front line, and attacks and devours all it overtakes with a fury which is quite irresistible. The elephant and gorilla fly before this attack. The black men run for their lives. Every animal that lives in their line of march is chased. They seem to understand and act upon the tactics of Napoleon, and concentrate with great speed their heaviest forces upon the point of attack. In an incredibly short space of time the mouse, or dog, or leopard, or deer, is overwhelmed, killed, eaten, and the bare skeleton only remains. They seem to travel night and day. Many a time have I been awakened out of a sleep, and obliged to rush from the hut and into the water to save my life, and after all suffered intolerable agony from the bites of the advance-guard, that had got into my clothes. When they enter a house they clear it of all living things. Cockroaches are devoured in an instant. Rats and mice spring round the room in vain. An overwhelming force of ants kill a strong rat in less than a minute, in spite of the most frantic struggles, and in less than another minute its bones are stripped. Every living thing in the house is devoured. They will not touch vegetable matter. Thus they are in reality very useful, as well as dangerous, to the natives, who have their huts cleaned of all the abounding vermin, such as immense cockroaches and centipedes, at least several times a year. When on their march the insect world flies before them, and I have often had the approach of an ant-army heralded to me by this means. Wherever they go they make a clean sweep, even ascending to the tops of the highest trees in pursuit of their prey. Their manner of attack is an impetuous leap. Instantly the strong pincers are fastened, and they let go only when the piece gives way. At such times this little animal seems animated by a kind of fury which causes it to disregard entirely its own safety, and to seek only the conquest of its prey. The bite of these ants is very painful. The natives relate that in former times it was the custom to expose criminals in the path of these ants, as the most cruel way that was known of putting them to death. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Name the _emphatic words_ in the last paragraph of the lesson, and mark the _inflections_. In determining upon the _emphasis_ to be given to the words of a sentence, the only guide we have to follow is the _meaning_. We must ask ourselves, "Which, words are of special importance to the meaning?" * * * * * Language Lesson.--Change each of the sentences given below to _statements_, expressing as nearly as possible the same meaning. "What troubles you to-day?" "Tell me at once what the matter is!" "Let us shout for Meccatina, and its mountains bare and brown!" Model.--"What is your name?" changed to the form of a _statement_, becomes--"I wish you to tell me your name." Let pupils write four _questions_, and then change them to _statements_, expressing as nearly as possible the same meaning. * * * * * LESSON LXXV. plun'dered, _stripped of their goods by force_. surge, _a rolling swell of water; billows_. verge, _extreme side or edge_. sheer, _straight up and down_. frag'ments, _pieces; small portions_. vis'ion _scene; imaginary picture_. a byss', _chasm; deep space_. phan'tom, _ghost; airy spirit_. * * * * * THE LEAP OF ROUSHAN BEG. Mounted on Kyrat strong and fleet, His chestnut steed with four white feet, Roushan Beg, called Kurroglou, Son of the road and bandit chief, Seeking refuge and relief, Up the mountain pathway flew. Such was Kyrat's wondrous speed, Never yet could any steed Reach the dust-cloud in his course. More than maiden, more than wife, More than gold, and next to life, Roushan the Robber loved his horse. In the land that lies beyond Erzeroum and Trebizond, Garden-girt his fortress stood. Plundered khan, or caravan Journeying north from Koordistan, Gave him wealth and wine and food. Seven hundred and fourscore Men at arms his livery wore, Did his bidding night and day. Now, through regions all unknown, He was wandering, lost, alone, Seeking without guide his way. Suddenly the pathway ends, Sheer the precipice descends, Loud the torrent roars unseen; Thirty feet from side to side Yawns the chasm; on air must ride He who crosses this ravine. Following close in his pursuit, At the precipice's foot, Reyhan the Arab of Orfah Halted with his hundred men, Shouting upward from the glen, "La Illah'illa Allah'!" Gently Roushan Beg caressed Kyrat's forehead, neck, and breast; Kissed him upon both his eyes; Sang to him in his wild way, As upon the topmost spray Sings a bird before it flies. "O my Kyrat, O my steed, Round and slender as a reed, Carry me this peril through! Satin housings shall be thine, Shoes of gold, O Kyrat mine, O thou soul of Kurroglou! "Soft thy skin as silken skein, Soft as woman's hair thy mane, Tender are thine eyes and true; All thy hoofs like ivory shine, Polished bright; O, life of mine, Leap and rescue Kurroglou!" Kyrat, then, the strong and fleet, Drew together his four white feet, Paused a moment on the verge, Measured with his eye the space, And into the air's embrace Leaped as leaps the ocean surge. As the ocean surge o'er sand Bears a swimmer safe to land, Kyrat safe his rider bore; Rattling down the deep abyss, Fragments of the precipice Rolled like pebbles on a shore. Roushan's tassled cap of red Trembled not upon his head, Careless sat he and upright; Neither hand nor bridle shook, Nor his head he turned to look, As he galloped out of sight. Flash of harness in the air, Seen a moment, like the glare Of a sword drawn from its sheath; Thus the phantom horseman passed, And the shadow that he cast Leaped the cataract underneath. Reyhan the Arab held his breath While this vision of life and death Passed above him. "Allahu!" Cried he. "In all Koordistan Lives there not so brave a man As this Robber Kurroglou!" * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Let pupils point out where changes in tone of voice occur in reading this lesson. What lines in the last two stanzas are to be joined in reading? Keep the lungs sufficiently full of air to avoid stopping to breathe at such places as would injure the sense. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Let pupils select a subject, and then make out an _analysis_ to use in treating it. * * * * * LESSON LXXVI mu se'um, _a place where curiosities are exhibited_. ban'daged, _bound with strips of cloth_. dy'nas ties, _governments; families of kings_. ex plored', _searched; examined_. pop'u lat ed, _peopled; filled with people_. gen era' tions, _succession of families or peoples_. e rect'ed, _raised; built_. cal'cu lat ed, _estimated_. flour'ished, _prospered; thrived_. * * * * * EGYPT AND ITS RUINS. PART I. Egypt embraces that part of Africa occupied by the valley of the River Nile. For many centuries, it was a thickly populated country, and at one time possessed great influence and wealth, and had reached an advanced state of civilization. The history of Egypt extends through a period of about six thousand years. During this time great cities were built which flourished for hundreds of years. Owing to wars and changes of government many of these cities were destroyed, and nothing of them now remains but massive and extensive ruins. Pyramids were built, obelisks erected, canals projected, and many other vast enterprises were carried out. Remains of these are to be seen to-day, some in ruins, some fairly preserved, and, altogether, they give present generations an idea of the wealth and power of the different dynasties under which they were built. [Illustration] Not far from Cairo, which is now the principal city of Egypt, are the famous pyramids. These are of such immense proportions, that from a distance their tops seem to reach the clouds. They are constructed of blocks of stone. Some of these blocks are of great size, and how the builders ever put them into their places, is a question we can not answer. It is supposed that the construction of one of these pyramids required more than twenty years' labor from thousands of men. The largest pyramid is four hundred and sixty-one feet high, seven hundred and forty-six feet long at the base, and covers more than twelve acres of ground. In all, sixty-seven of these pyramids have been discovered and explored. They are the tombs in which the ancient kings and their families were buried. In the interior of these pyramids, many chambers were constructed to contain their stone coffins. It has been calculated that one of the principal pyramids could contain three thousand seven hundred rooms of large size. The bodies of those who were buried in the pyramids were preserved from decay by a secret process, known only to the priests. [Illustration] After the bodies were prepared, they were wrapped in bands of fine linen, and on the inside of these was spread a peculiar kind of gum. There were sometimes a thousand yards of these bands on a single body. After they were thus prepared, a soft substance was placed around the bandaged body. This covering, when it hardened, kept the body in a complete state of preservation. [Illustration] These coverings are now called mummy-cases, and the bodies they inclose, mummies. These bodies were finally placed, in huge stone coffins, many of which were covered with curious carvings. Some of these mummies have been found, that are said to be over three thousand years old. However, when the wrappings are removed from them, many of the bodies have been so well preserved, as to exhibit the appearance of the features as in life. Large numbers of these mummies have been carried to other countries and placed on exhibition in museums. Among the mummies brought to this country, are some of the best specimens which have yet been discovered. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Let pupils mark the _inflection_ and point out _emphatic words_ in the first two paragraphs of the lesson. Show positions of the _rhetorical pauses_ in the first paragraph on page 363.[20] * * * * * Language Lesson.--Let pupils review, as a written exercise, the spelling of the following words. receding principal rubbish punctual precipice council orphan microscope justice civilized threshold muscles precious merchandise especially traveler physician recognize anecdote marvelous sufficient apologize character benefited vicious poisonous tremendous intelligent Let pupils select a subject and make out an _analysis_ for its treatment. Each point in the _analysis_ will require a separate paragraph for its treatment. Be careful to use capital letters and marks of punctuation correctly. [20] Paragraph beginning, "Remains of these are to be seen to-day...." * * * * * LESSON LXXVII. de vic'es, _curious marks or shapes_. in scrip'tion, _any thing cut or written on a solid substance_. trans lat'ing, _expressing in another language_. mem'o ra ble, _worthy of being remembered_. spec'i mens, _small portions of things_. in ge nu'i ty, _skill in inventing_. tour'ists, _travelers; sight-seers_. ded'i cat ed, _set apart for a special purpose_. cer'e mo nies, _forms; special customs_. site, _the place where any thing is fixed_. mon'o lith, _a column consisting of a single stone_. o rig'i nal ly, _in the first place_. * * * * * EGYPT AND ITS RUINS. PART II. The ancient Egyptians erected many obelisks in various parts of their country. These were monuments made from single pieces of hard stone, and in some cases reached a height of more than a hundred feet. They were placed before gateways leading to the principal temples and palaces, and were covered with curious carvings in the stone, which represented the language of the people at that time. It thus appears that their written language was not composed of letters and words alone, like our own; but that they used pictures of animals, including birds, human figures, and other devices of a singular nature, to express their thoughts and ideas. Until the year 1799, it was impossible for the scholars of modern nations to read this strange language. In that year, however, a stone tablet was discovered by a French engineer, containing an inscription written in three languages. One of these was in the characters of the ancient Egyptian and another in those of the Greek. Upon translating the Greek writing, it was discovered to be a copy of the inscription in the Egyptian language. By comparing the words of these inscriptions with many others, the formation of this peculiar language was ascertained. It was then learned that the inscriptions on these obelisks were the records of memorable events, and the heroic deeds of their kings and heroes. Many of these obelisks have been taken from their positions in Egypt and transported with great labor to other countries. Nearly two thousand years ago the Roman emperors began to carry them to the city of Rome. Altogether, nearly fifty of these remarkable monuments were taken away and set up in that city. They were then, as now, regarded as curious examples of the ingenuity of the ancients who first made them. [Illustration: The Obelisk in Central Park, New York, and as it appeared in Egypt.] In later years, specimens were taken to Paris and London, and more recently one was brought to America, and set up in the Central Park, New York City. This one belongs to the largest class, being nearly seventy feet high and about eight feet square at the base. The accompanying cut shows the position of this obelisk as it appeared when standing near the city of Alexandria, Egypt. The difficulty of transporting one of these huge stone columns is so great, that for a long time it was thought impossible to remove it from Egypt to this country. In their large cities, the Egyptians built massive temples which were dedicated to religious ceremonies. Some of them, although now in ruins, are considered to be among the most remarkable productions of the ancients. Tourists who nowadays sail up the River Nile and visit the site of the city of Thebes, the ancient capital of Egypt, are struck with amazement at the vast ruins surrounding them. On the eastern side of the Nile lies what is left of the temple of Karnak. Imagine a long line of courts, gateways, and halls; here and there an obelisk rising above the ruins, and shutting off the view of the forest of columns! This mass of ruins, some lying in huge heaps of stone, others perfect and pointed as when they were first built, is approached on every side by avenues and gateways of colossal grandeur. The temple originally covered an area of two hundred and seventy acres, inclosed within a wall of brick. Parts of this wall are still visible, while the rest lies crumbled and broken. It is difficult to realize the grand appearance of the thirty rows of stone columns standing within the wall. Some of them that are still perfect, are capped with enormous monolith capitals, and it is said that one hundred men could stand on one of them without crowding. The hall itself is four hundred and twenty-two feet long by one hundred and sixty-five feet broad. The stones of the ceiling are supported by one hundred and thirty-four columns, which are still standing, and of which the largest measures ten feet in diameter, and more than seventy-two feet in height. They are covered with carvings and paintings whose colors are still bright, even after a lapse of forty centuries. Gazing on what he sees around, the traveler becomes lost in an effort to form some idea of the grandeur and vastness of the original. * * * * * Directions for Reading.--Let pupils read one or more of the paragraphs in a whisper, so as to improve _articulation_. Mark _rhetorical pauses_ in the last paragraph of the lesson. Name _emphatic words_ in the same paragraph, and state whether the _rhetorical pauses _occur before or after these words. * * * * * Language Lesson.--Let pupils write _statements_, each containing one of the following words, used in such a manner as to show its proper meaning: _haul, hall; site, sight; piece, peace; our, hour; sum, some_. Rules for the Analysis of a Subject.--Select such points as are necessary to make the treatment of the subject complete. Add such points as will increase the interest felt in the subject. Arrange the points in a natural and easy order. Note.--In treating an historical subject, it is necessary to arrange the points in the order in which they occurred. In description, it is best to adopt some plan of treatment, and arrange the points according to the plan decided upon. * * * * * DEFINITIONS OF NEW WORDS USED IN THIS BOOK, THAT DO NOT APPEAR AT THE HEADS OF THE LESSONS. _A_ a board', _on board of_. ac cept', _take; receive_. ac'ci dents, _effects; unusual results_. ac cord'ing ly, _agreeably to a plan_. ac count', _statement of facts; bill_. ad mit'tance, _permission to enter; entrance_. ad vice', _opinion worthy to be followed; counsel_. af ford', _give; produce_. a'gen cy, _office of an agent; action_. aid, _help; assistance_. al to geth'er, _with united action; completely_. a mid', _in the midst of; surrounded by_. anxi' e ty (ang zi'e ty), _concern respecting some future event_. ap plause', _praise_. ap ply', _suit; agree_. arch'es, _places made of stone, brick, etc_. art, _skill_. a shamed', _affected by a feeling of shame_. as sist'ing, _helping; aiding_. as sure', _tell truly; make sure or certain_. at tempt', _try; make an effort_. at ten'tion, _care; notice_. av'e nues, _broad streets; openings_. a wait'ed, _waited for_. a ware', _informed_. awk'ward, _clumsy; ungraceful_. ay, _yes_. _B_ bade, _said_. ban'dit, _robber_. ban'ner, _flag_. base, _lower part_. bid'ding, _command; order_. bil'lows, _large waves_. bon'ny, _handsome; beautiful_. bor'row, _to receive from another with the intention of returning_. bore, _carried_. bor'ders, _edges; outer parts_. braced, _took a firm stand_. braid'ed, _woven or twined together_ brick, _a body made of clay and water and hardened by fire_. bri'er, _a prickly plant or shrub_. brig, _a vessel with two masts, square-rigged_. brill'iant, _splendid; shining_. brim'ming, _full; nearly overflowing_. bris'tling, _standing erect_. bul'let, _small ball of lead_. bur'den, _that which is carried_. but'ter fly, _a winged insect of many colors_. _C_ cack'ling, _sharp and broken in sounds_. ca nals', _water-courses made by man_. ca'per ing, _playing; dancing_. capped, _covered over at the top_. cap tiv'ity, _state of being a prisoner_. car'go, _burden; load_. cas'ters, _rollers or small wheels_. ceil'ing, _the upper surface of a room_. cen'ter, _the middle point of any thing_. cen'ti pedes, _a kind of insect having a great number of feet_. cent'u ry, _one hundred years_. chan'nel, _the regular course of a river_. cheat'ed, _taken unfair advantage of; robbed_. chose, _wished; desired_. cin'ders, _small pieces of coal or wood partly burned_. cir'cu lar, _round; shaped like a circle_. cli'mate, _state or condition of the air as regards heat, cold, and moisture_. clink, _sharp ringing sound_. clum'sy, _awkward; ungraceful_. clus'ter, _number of things of the same kind growing together_. cock'roach es, _insects with long, flattish bodies_. cof'fins, _cases in which dead bodies are placed_. coin, _piece of stamped metal used for money_. col'umn, _a dark cloud of regular shape; a shaft of stone_. com mand'ed, _had charge of; ordered_. com plaint', _expression of anger_. com plete', _entire; perfect_. con clude', _make up one's mind_. con'duct, _manner of action_. con fined', _kept within limits_. con nect'ed, _joined_. con'quered, _subdued; overcome_. con'quest, _act of taking by force_. con sid'er a bly, _in a manner worthy of notice_. con sid'er ing, _thinking; regarding_. con'stant ly, _all the time_. con'tact, _touching; meeting_. con tained', _held_. con'ti nent, _a great extent of land unbroken by water_. con tin'u ally, _all the time_. con verse', _talk_. cour' age, _boldness_. cow'ard, _one who lacks courage_. crack'ling, _sharp noises_. creek, _a small river or brook; a bay_. crew (kru), _the sailors who man a ship_. croak'ing, _making a hoarse noise_. crook'ed, _not straight_. crop, _what grows in a season_. cured, _made well_. cu ri os'i ty, _eager desire to find out something_. cur'rent, _motion of a river_. cus'tom, _way of acting; habit_. cut'ter, _small boat used by ships of war_. _D_ dames, _women_. debt, _that which is owed_. de'cent, _fit; suitable_. de clare', _say with firmness_. deed, _act; that which is done_. de fence', _protection_. dense, _thick; close_. de scrip'tion, _an account_. de sert'ed, _left; given up_. de struc'tion, _ruin_. de ter'mine, _decided; resolved_. di'et, _what is eaten or drunk_. di rect'ly, _instantly; immediately_. dis ap point'ed, _grieved; filled with regret_. dis as'ters, _unfortunate events_. dis ease', _illness; sickness_. dis hon'est, _not honest; faithless_. dis miss' ing, _putting or sending away_. dis o beyed', _went contrary to orders_. dis pose', _sell; part with_. dis re gard', _lose sight of_. dis'trict, _part of a country; region_. di vide', _separate into equal shares or parts_. dome, _very high and broad roof_. drag, _pull; draw_. drays, _kinds of carts_. dread'ful, _full of terror_. drift, _borne along by the current of a river_. driz'zling, _falling in very small drops_. drowned, _deprived of life by water_. duck'ing, _plunging into water_. _E_ earth'quake, _a shaking or trembling of the earth_. ech'oes, _is heard_. ef fects', _results_. ef'fort (furt), _struggle; attempt_. em brace', _clasp; grasp_. em'pire, _the country of an emperor_. en'e my, _one who hates another_. en gaged', _occupied; taken_. en'gines, _machines used for applying force_. en raged', _made very angry_. en tire', _whole_. ere, _before_. er'rand, _short journeys on business_. ex am'ple, _a pattern; a copy_. ex'cel lent (ek), _very good_. ex cep'tion, _that which is left out or omitted_. ex cite'ment, _intense feeling_. ex cla ma'tion, _a cry; that which is cried out_. ex'er cise, _bodily exertion_. ex hi bi'tion, _show; display_. ex pla na'tion, _that which makes clear_. ex ten'sive ly, _widely; largely_. ex'tra, _more than usual_. _F_ fac'to ries, _places where things are made_. fare well', _good-by_. fa'vors, _kind acts_. fear'less ly, _without fear_. feast, _a joyous meal_. feat, _a difficult act_. fee'ble, _weak; sickly_. fer'ry, _a place to cross a river_. fig'ured, _ornamented with marks_. file, _a row of soldiers ranged behind one another_. flanks, _the fleshy parts of the sides of animals_. flee, _to run away_. flood, _great flow of water_. flour, _ground wheat_. flu'id, _water, or any liquid_. foot'men, _male servants_. for ma'tions, _things of certain shape or form_. for'tress, _a fort; a castle_. fort'une, _chance; luck_. frol'ic some, _merry; playful_. fu'el, _material for fire_. _G_ gal'lop, _a rapid movement, as of horses_. gar'ret, _the upper room of a house_. gems, _precious stones_. gen'eral ly, _usually; commonly_. gleam'ing, _shining brightly_. glee, _joy; happiness_. glim'mer, _a faint light_. glis'ten ing, _sparkling; shining_. globe, _the earth; a round body_. glo'ri ous, _grand; splendid_. glos'sy, _smooth; shining_. gor'ges, _narrow passages_. gos'sip, _foolish talk_. gov'ern ment, _the power that controls a people_. grand, _large; imposing_. grum'bled, _complained; found fault with_. guard, _that which protects_. guests, _visitors_. gur'gling, _flowing in a noisy current_. _H_ hatch, _the cover for an opening in a vessel's deck_. heath, _a meadow; cheerless tract of country_. hedg'es, _thickets of bushes_. hemmed, _shut in; surrounded_. hence forth', _hereafter_. he'ro, _a brave man_. high'way, _a public road_. hint, _something intended to give notice_. hitched, _tied; fastened_. hith'er, _in this direction_. hogs'head, _a large cask_. hoot'ing, _crying; shouting_. hor'ri ble, _dreadful; terrible_. howl'ing, _crying like a dog or wolf_. hub'bub, _a great noise; uproar_. husk, _the outside covering of certain fruits_. hust'le, _shake; push roughly_. _I_ i de'a, _thought_. ill'-nat ured, _cross; bad-tempered_. im ag'ine, _think; consider_. im me'di ate ly, _without delay_. im pos'si ble, _not possible_. in de pend'ence, _the state of being free_. in for ma'tion, _news; knowledge_. in formed', _told; gave notice of_. in hab'i tants, _persons living in a place_. in'jured, _hurt; harmed_. in'stant ly, _at once; without loss of time_. in tent', _eager; anxious_. in vi ta'tions, _requests for one's company_. is'sue, _come forth; flow out_. _J_ jag'ged, _having sharp points_. jew'els (ju'els), _precious stones_. jin'gling, _giving forth fine, sharp sounds_. _K_ kern'el, _the eatable part of a nut; a little grain or corn_. _L_ la'bor, _work; toil_. lapse, _passing away_. las'sie, _a young girl; a lass_. lat'ter, _last-named; nearer_. launched, _put into the water_ laws, _rules of action_. leath'er, _the skins of animals prepared for use_. ledge, _shelf of rocks_. lee'ward, _that part toward which the wind blows_. leop'ard, _a large animal of the cat kind_. lest, _for fear that_. lev'el, _smooth and flat; of equal height_. lin'ing, _inside covering_. lint, _linen scraped into a soft substance_. liq'uid, _any fluid, like water_. lisp'ing ly, _with a lisp_. liv'er y, _a peculiar dress_. load'stone, _a kind of magnetic ore_. loft'y, _very high_. low'ered, _let down_. lub'ber, _a heavy, clumsy fellow_. luck'y, _fortunate; meeting with good success_. lum'ber, _timber sawed or split for use; boards_. _M_ main'ly, _mostly; chiefly_. mam'moth, _of great size_. man'aged, _controlled; brought to do one's wishes_. mane, _the long hair on a horse's neck_. man'tel, _a narrow shelf over a fire-place, with its support_. mar'gin, _edge; border_. mark'et, _a place where things are sold_. mark'ings, _marks; stamped places_. mean'time, _during the interval; meanwhile_. mel'low ing, _ripening; growing soft_. melt'ed, _changed to a liquid form by the action of heat_. mem'o ry, _the power of recalling past events_. mer'chants, _those who buy goods to sell again_. mil'i ta ry, _belonging to soldiers, to arms, or to war_. mis'er y, _great unhappiness; extreme pain_. mod'ern, _of recent date; belonging to the present time_. mon'ster, _something of unusual size, shape, or quality_. mon'u ments, _those things which stand to remind us of the past_. mound, _a small hill, natural or artificial_. mo'tion, _movement; change of position_. must'y, _spoiled by age; of a sour smell_. _N_ neigh'bor, _a person who lives near one_. nerved, _strengthened; supplied with force_. night'-mare, _an unpleasant sensation during sleep_. nim'bly, _actively; in a nimble manner_. _O_ o be'di ence, _willingness to submit to commands_. o bliged', _forced; compelled_. oc'cu pied, _taken possession of; employed_. of'fi cer, _one who holds an office_. off'ing, _a part of the sea at a distance from the shore_. om'ni bus es, _large, four-wheeled carriages_. on'ion (un'yun), _a root much used for food_. out'posts, _advanced stations, as of an army_. o ver come', _affected; overpowered by force_. _P_ pace, _rate of movement_. pal'ace, _a splendid dwelling, as of a king_. par take', _share; take part in_. patch, _small piece of any thing, as of ground_. paus'es, _short stops; rests_. pave'ments, _coverings for streets, of stone or solid materials_. peb'bles, _small, roundish stones, worn by the action of water_. per cus'sion, _requiring to be struck; the act of striking_. per'fume, _scent or odor of sweet-smelling substances_. pe'ri od, _portion of time; an interval_. per'ished, _died; were destroyed_. per mis'sion, _the act of allowing; consent_. pic'nick ing, _having an outdoor party_. pier, _a landing-place for vessels_. pierce, _force a way into or through an object_. pil'lars, _columns; huge masses_. pin'cers, _jaws; pinchers_. pit'e ous, _fitted to excite pity; sorrowful_. pit'falls, _pits slightly covered for concealment_. plan ta'tions, _farms of great extent_. plots, _small pieces of ground, as garden plots_. plucked, _pulled out or off_. plunged, _dove; fell_. po'et, _a maker of verses_. pol'ished, _made bright and smooth by rubbing_. po lite', _obliging; pleasant in manner_. por'tion, _a part; that which is divided off_. prat'tling, _childish; talking like a child_. preach'ing, _speaking in public upon a religious subject_. pres'ent ly, _soon; in a short time_. prey, _any thing taken by force from an enemy_. pri'vate, _not publicly known; peculiar to one's self_. pro ces'sion, _regular movement, as of soldiers_. prod'ucts, _fruits; that which is brought forth_. proved, _turned out; showed the truth of_. pro vid'ed, _furnished; supplied with necessary articles_. puff'ing, _swelling with air; blowing in short, sudden whiffs_. pure, _clear; free from other matter_. _Q_ quilt'ed, _stitched together with some soft substance between_. quo ta'tions, _portions of writings_. _R_ range, _reach, as of a gun_. ranks, _regular rows or lines, as of soldiers_. ray, _light; a line of light or heat proceeding from a certain point_. read'i ly, _without trouble or difficulty; easily_. reap, _gather by cutting, as a harvest_. re call'ing, _thinking of; bringing back to mind_. re con sid'er, _think of again; change one's mind_. rec'ords, _stories; descriptions of events_. re gard'ed, _considered; looked at earnestly_. re late', _tell_. re lig'ious, _relating to religion_. re main'der, _the rest; what is left_. re mind', _call attention to for a second time_. re moved', _moved away; took off_. rent'ed, _gave possession of for pay_. re paired', _mended_. re placed', _put in place of another_. rep re sent', _picture; tell about in an effective manner_. re quire', _need; demand_. re sist', _stand against; oppose with force_. re spect', _regard_. re tire', _withdraw; turn back_. re volv'er, _a fire-arm with several chambers or barrels_. rid, _free_. ridg'es, _a long range of hills; steep places_. ri'fle, _a gun having the inside of the barrel grooved_. rind, _the outside coat, as of fruit_. risk, _danger; peril_. riv'u let, _a small river or brook_. rob'ber, _one who commits a robbery_. ro man'tic, _strange and interesting, as a romantic story_. rouse, _awake; excite_. ru'in, _that change of any thing which destroys it_. rust'y, _covered with rust on account of long disuse_. _S_ sake, _purpose; reason_. sap, _the juice of plants_. sat'in, _a glossy cloth made of silk_. scene, _picture; view_. schol'ars, _men of learning; those who attend school_. scorch'ing, _burning slightly; affecting by heat_. scoured, _made clean and bright_. scram'bled, _moved with difficulty_. scum, _that which rises to the surface; worthless matter_. se'ri ous, _severe; sad in appearance_. serv'ice, _duty, as of a soldier_. se vere', _violent; hard_. shab'by, _worn to rags; poor in appearance_. shag'gy, _rough_. shal'lows, _places where the water is not deep_. shat'tered, _broken; broken at once into many pieces_. sheath, _a covering for a sword_. shep'herd, _one who has the care of sheep_. shield, _a broad piece of armor carried on the arm_. shock, _a sudden striking against_. shriek, _a sharp, shrill cry on account of surprise or pain_. siege, _a closing in on all sides of a fortified place_. sighs, _stifled groans; long breaths_. skein, _a number of threads of silk or yarn_. skel'e ton, _bony frame-work of the body_. skull, _the bony case which encloses the brain_. sleet, _frozen mist_. slopes, _declines by degrees_. slum'ber, _sleep_. sly'ness, _cunning; artfulness_. smites, _strikes, as with a weapon_. snort'ing, _forcing the air through the nose with a loud noise_. soaked, _moistened throughout_. soar, _fly high_. sought (sawt), _tried; went in search of_. spared, _saved from death or punishment_. splut'ter ing, _boiling noisily; speaking hastily_. spout, _run out with force_. sprained, _injured by straining_. spurred, _urged; encouraged_. stale, _not new; not fresh_. stee'ples, _high towers ending in a point_. stern, _hind part of a boat_. stock, _supply on hand_. stout, _large; broad_. strain'ing, _exerting to the utmost_. strict, _severe; exact_. stub'by, _short and thick_. sub'stan ces, _bodies; matters_. suc ceed'ed, _obtained the object desired_. suf'fered, _felt pain_. sul'try, _very hot; burning_. sup port', _prop; pillar_. sus pect'ed, _thought; considered quite probable_. sus pi'cious, _indicating fear; inclined to suspect_. _T_ tab'let, _a flat piece of stone_. tac'tics, _disciplined movements_. tem'per, _way of acting_. tem'ple, _a place for worship_. ten'drils, _tender branches of plants_. ter'ri fied, _filled with fear_. ter'ri to ry, _a large tract of land_. ter'ror, _fear; dread_. thieves _persons who steal_. thirst, _strong desire for drink_. thith'er, _to that place_. thorns, _woody points on some trees and shrubs_. thor'ough, _complete; perfect_. thread'bare, _worn out_. thrives, _prospers; flourishes_. till'er, _the bar used to turn the rudder of a boat_. ti'tle, _a name_. tor'rid, _violently hot_. trace, _mark; appearance_. tract, _a region_. treb'les, _the higher parts in music_. trick'led, _flowed in drops_. trop'ic al, _belonging to the tropics_. tuft, _a cluster or bunch_. tun'nels, _passages; openings_. twinge, _a sudden, sharp pain_. twink'ling, _a quick movement_. twit'ter ing, _a trembling noise_. _U_ uncom'forta ble, _causing uneasiness; not pleasant_. un der neath', _below; beneath_. un der take', _attempt_. un ea'si ness, _want of ease_. un grate'ful, _not thankful_. u nit'ed, _joined; combined_. un man'ly, _not worthy of a man_. un ru'ly, _not submissive_. un scarred', _not marked_. urg'ing, _encouraging_. ut'most, _to the furthest point_. _V_ val'u a ble, _of great value_. vel'vet, _a soft material woven from silk_. ver'min, _little animals or insects_. vic'tims, _persons destroyed in pursuit of an object_. vic'tor, _one who conquers_. vi'o lence, _force; power_. virt'u ous, _inclined to do right_. _W_ wa'ges, _what is paid for services_. wa'ter break (breakwater), _that which breaks the force of water_. weap'on, _any thing to be used against an enemy_. whence, _from which or what place_. whiff, _a quick puff of air_. whith'er, _to what place_. wig, _a covering for the head, made of hair_. wine, _a liquor made from grapes_. wits, _powers of the mind_. wrig'gled, _moved or twisted_. wrung, _distressed; twisted about_. _Y_ yawns, _opens wide_. youth'ful, _young; belonging to early life_. 
19906	----	Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this file which includes the original illustrations. See 19906-h.htm or 19906-h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/1/9/9/0/19906/19906-h/19906-h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/1/9/9/0/19906/19906-h.zip) WINNING A CAUSE by JOHN GILBERT THOMPSON * * * * * * In Flanders Now (An Answer to Lt.-Col. McCrae) We have kept faith, ye Flanders' dead, Sleep well beneath those poppies red, That mark your place. The torch your dying hands did throw We 've held it high before the foe, And answered bitter blow for blow, In Flanders' fields. And where your heroes' blood was spilled The guns are now forever stilled And silent grown. There is no moaning of the slain, There is no cry of tortured pain, And blood will never flow again In Flanders' fields. Forever holy in our sight Shall be those crosses gleaming white, That guard your sleep. Rest you in peace, the task is done, The fight you left us we have won, And "Peace on Earth" has just begun In Flanders now. EDNA JACQUES in the _Calgary Herald_ * * * * * * [Frontispiece: Edwin Rowland Blashfield's poster, "Carry On," used in the Fourth Liberty Loan. This striking lithograph in the movement of its design expresses the compelling force of the American spirit as it entered the World War. The original oil painting has been purchased by The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.] WINNING A CAUSE World War Stories by JOHN GILBERT THOMPSON Principal of the State Normal School, Fitchburg, Mass. and INEZ BIGWOOD Instructor in Children's Literature, State Normal School, Fitchburg, Mass. Authors of Lest We Forget Silver, Burdett and Company Boston ---- New York ---- Chicago Copyright, 1919, by Silver, Burdett and Company. PREFACE _Lest We Forget_, the first volume of World War stories, gave an outline of the struggle up to the time of the signing of the armistice, November 11, 1918, and contained in general chronological order most of the stories that to children from ten to sixteen years of age would be of greatest interest, and give the clearest understanding of the titanic contest. This; the second volume of the same series, contains the stories of the war of the character described, that were not included in _Lest We Forget_,--stories of the United States naval heroes, of the Americans landed in France, of the concluding events of the war, of the visit of President Wilson to Europe, and of the Peace Conference. In a word, emphasis is placed upon America's part in the struggle. This volume should be of even greater interest to American children than the first, for it tells the story of America's greatest achievement, of a nation undertaking a tremendous and terrible task not for material gain, but for an ideal. No more inspiring story has ever been told to the children of men than the story of America's part in winning the greatest cause for which men have ever contended. President Wilson said in Europe, "The American soldiers came not merely to win a war, but to win a cause." Every child in every home and in every school should be made familiar with how it was won, and with the separate stories which go to make up the glorious epic. The two volumes of the series give for children, in a way that they will comprehend and enjoy, through stories so selected and so connected as to build up an understanding of the whole, the causes, the conduct, and the results of the World War. The thanks of the authors and publishers are hereby expressed to Mr. Edwin Rowland Blashfield for the permission to reproduce his poster, "Carry On"; to Mrs. Ella Wheeler Wilcox for "Song of the Aviator"; to George H. Doran Company, Publishers, for "Pershing at the Tomb of Lafayette" from "The Silver Trumpet," by Amelia Josephine Burr, copyright 1918; for "Where Are You Going, Great-Heart?" from "The Vision Splendid" by John Oxenham, copyright 1918; for "Trees" from "Trees and Other Poems" by Joyce Kilmer, copyright 1914; to _Collier's_ for Lieutenant McKeogh's story of "The Lost Battalion"; to Mr. Roger William Riis for his article "The Secret Service"; and to Mr. John Mackenzie, Chief Boatswain's Mate, U. S. S. _Remlik_, for the facts in the story, "Fighting a Depth Bomb." CONTENTS 1. WHY THE UNITED STATES ENTERED THE WAR 2. AMERICA COMES IN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._Klaxton_ 3. PERSHING AT THE TOMB OF LAFAYETTE . . . . _Amelia Josephine Burr_ 4. AMERICA ENTERS THE WAR . . . . . . . . . . . _David Lloyd George_ 5. THE FIRST TO FALL IN BATTLE 6. FOUR SOLDIERS 7. WHERE THE FOUR WINDS MEET . . . . . . . _Geoffrey Dalrymple Nash_ 8. THE SOLDIERS WHO GO TO SEA 9. WHEN THE TIDE TURNED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _Otto H. Kahn_ 10. A BOY OF PERUGIA 11. REDEEMED ITALY 12. SONG OF THE AVIATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . _Ella Wheeler Wilcox_ 13. NATIONS BORN AND REBORN 14. "TO VILLINGEN--AND BACK" 15. ALSACE-LORRAINE 16. THE CALL TO ARMS IN OUR STREET . . . . . . . . . . _W. M. Letts_ 17. THE KAISER'S CROWN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _Charles Mackay_ 18. THE QUALITY OF MERCY 19. THE REALLY INVINCIBLE ARMADA 20. "I KNEW YOU WOULD COME" . . . . . . _Rev. Ernest M. Stires, D.D._ 21. THE SEARCHLIGHTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _Alfred Noyes_ 22. FIGHTING A DEPTH BOMB 23. THE SECOND LINE OF DEFENSE 24. U. S. DESTROYER OSMOND C. INGRAM 25. JOYCE KILMER 26. BLOCKING THE CHANNEL 27. THE FLEET THAT LOST ITS SOUL 28. THE LITTLE OLD ROAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _Gertrude Vaughan_ 29. HARRY LAUDER SINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _Dr. George Adams_ 30. THE THIRTEENTH REGIMENT 31. WHERE ARE YOU GOING, GREAT-HEART? . . . . . . . . . _John Oxenham_ 32. THIS CAPTURE OF DUN 33. BOMBING METZ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _Raoul Lufbery_ 34. THE UNSPEAKABLE TURK 35. THE SECRET SERVICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . _Roger William Riis_ 36. AT THE FRONT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _G. B. Manwaring_ 37. A CAROL FROM FLANDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . _Frederick Niven_ 38. THE MINER AND THE TIGER 39. THE LOST BATTALION 40. UNITED STATES DAY 41. NOVEMBER 11, 1918 42. IN MEMORIAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _Alfred Tennyson_ 43. THE UNITED STATES AT WAR--IN FRANCE . . _General John J. Pershing_ 44. THE UNITED STATES AT WAR--AT HOME 45. A CONGRESSIONAL MESSAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . _Woodrow Wilson_ 46. PRESIDENT WILSON IN FRANCE 47. SERGEANT YORK OF TENNESSEE ILLUSTRATIONS Edwin Rowland Blashfield's poster, "Carry On," used in the Fourth Liberty Loan . . . . _Frontispiece_ The standard bearers and color guard leading a column of the Fifth Artillery of the First American Division through Hetzerath, Germany, on their way to the Rhine. "Lafayette, We Are Here!" The immortal tribute of General John J. Pershing at the grave of the great Frenchman. The religious and military tribute paid to the first Americans to fall in battle, at Bathelmont, November 4, 1917. Saint George and the Dragon, painted by V. Carpaccio in 1516, Venice; S. Giorgio Maggiore. Jeanne d'Arc, rising in her stirrups, holds on high her sword, as if to consecrate it for a war of Right. Memorial Day, 1918, was celebrated abroad as well as at home. This memorial to the memory of Edith Cavell was unveiled by Queen Alexandra in Norwich, England, at the opening of the Nurse Cavell Memorial Home. Somewhere in France these Salvation Army "lassies" are baking pies and "doughnuts for the doughboys." The U.S. Destroyer _Fanning_ with depth bombs stored in run-ways on the after deck. One of the camouflaged guns of the German shore batteries which raked with fire the _Vindictive_, the _Daffodil_, and the _Iris_ when they grappled with the mole, during the night raid. The British Cruiser _Curacao_, Admiral Tyrwhitt's flagship, leading out one column of British cruisers at the surrender of the German navy. From left to right, Admiral Sir David Beatty, Admiral Rodman, King George, the Prince of Wales, and Admiral Sims on the deck of the U.S. Battleship _New York_. The heroic American ace, Raoul Lufbery, wearing his well-earned decorations just after an official presentation. A two-passenger tractor biplane flying near the seashore. The official entry of General Allenby into Jerusalem, December 11, 1917. David Lloyd George. Georges Clemenceau. Major General Clarence R. Edwards pinning the congressional Medal of Honor on the breast of Lieutenant Colonel Charles W. Whittlesey. Messages from Colonel Whittlesey and Lieutenant McKeogh. This picture shows the standardized style of building used in every army in the United States. A 10-inch caliber naval gun on a railroad mount. A photograph from an airplane at 7900 feet, showing Love Field, Dallas, Texas, and a parachute jumper. The Red Cross War Fund and Membership poster. A photograph of the United States Transport _George Washington_ taken from an airplane. President Wilson driving from the railroad station in Paris with President Poincaré of France. Sergeant York wearing the French Croix de Guerre and the Congressional Medal of Honor. Pronouncing Vocabulary (four images). WINNING A CAUSE WHY THE UNITED STATES ENTERED THE WAR The United States was slow to enter the war, because her people believed war an evil to be avoided at almost any cost except honor. In fact, "Peace at any price" seemed to be the motto of many Americans even after two years of the World War. [Illustration: The standard bearers and color guard leading a column of the Fifth Artillery of the First American Division through Hetzerath, Germany, on their way to the Rhine.] President Wilson declared in a speech at Philadelphia on May 10, 1915, that there is such a thing as being too proud to fight. He was severely criticized for his statement, and yet it is very true, and for more than a generation it had been taught to American boys and girls. Peace societies had sent lecturers to the public schools to point out the wickedness of war and the blessings of peace. Prizes had been offered to high school, normal school, and college students for the best essays on _Peace_, _How to Maintain the Peace of the World_, and other similar subjects. To get ready for war by enlarging the army and navy was declared to be the very best way to bring on war. School reading books made a feature of peace selections, and school histories were making as little of our national wars as possible. These teachings and the very air of the land of freedom made people too proud to fight, if there were any honorable way of avoiding it. It is said that "People judge others by themselves." So Americans, being peaceful, contented, and not possessed with envy of their neighbors, supposed all other civilized people were like themselves. Therefore they could not at first believe that the Germans were different and looked upon war as a glorious thing, because through it they might get possession of the wealth and property of others. Perhaps the Germans, judging other people by themselves, believed that the French and Russians and English, like the Germans, stood ready to go to war whenever through it they might gain wealth and territory; but the Germans did not think this of the people of the United States. They thought that they were a nation of traders and money-getters in love with the Almighty Dollar. As events proved, this idea was a fatal mistake on the part of the Germans. In entirely different ways, both Americans and Germans were taught that they were the people above all other peoples in the world. The German insolently sang "Germany above All" while the American good-naturedly boasted his land as the freest, the noblest and best, leading all the other countries and showing them the way to become greater and better. The American people, however, did not intend to force their beliefs upon other nations. But the Germans were led by the idea that German Kultur would be a blessing for all mankind and that it was their destiny to conquer and improve all other nations. Thor stood at the northernmost point of the world. His hammer flew from his hand. "So far as my hammer this arm has hurled, All mine are the sea and the land." And forward flew the giant tool Over the whole broad earth, to fall At last in the southernmost pool To prove that Thor's was all. Since then 'tis the pleasant German way By the hammer, lands to win, And to claim for themselves world-wide sway, As the Hammer-god's nearest kin. But the American does not go this far. While he is inclined to believe himself and his country better than any other people or nation, yet he is content to let others live in their own way as long as they are honest and do not interfere with him and his business. He is, to be sure, desirous of improving them, but by peaceful means, by building dams and railroads for them, and by giving them schools and sending them missionaries. It was difficult therefore for Americans to realize that the Germans really planned and desired the war in order that they might rule the world. It took months and even years of war for the majority of Americans to come to a full realization of this truth. This should be remembered when the question is asked, not why the United States entered the war, but why she did not enter it earlier. Americans are honorable and look upon the breaking of a pledge or an agreement as a shameful thing. It was almost impossible for them to believe that a nation, far advanced in science and learning of all kinds, could look upon a treaty as a scrap of paper and consider its most solemn promises as not binding when it was to its advantage to break them. Americans in their homes, their churches, and their schools had been taught that "an honest man is the noblest work of God." They had heard the old saying that "All is fair in love and war"; but they could not think for a moment that a whole nation of men and women had been taught that lies and treachery and broken promises were fair because they helped the Fatherland work out its destiny and rule the world. They knew that Chancellor Bismarck falsified a telegram to bring on the war with France in 1870, and they learned to their dismay that Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg in 1914 declared the treaty with Belgium only "a scrap of paper" when Germany wished to cross that country to strike France. Americans kept learning that Germany's promises to respect hospitals and hospital ships, stretcher-bearers and the Red Cross, not to interfere with non-combatants, not to use poison gas, not to bombard defenseless cities and towns were all "scraps of paper." They discovered even the naturalization papers which Germans in America took out in order to become American citizens were lies sworn to, for the German who declared his loyalty to his new mother country was still held by Germany as owing his first fealty and duty to her. It must be said, however, that many Germans who became naturalized in the United States did not agree with these secret orders of their Fatherland; but many others did, and the rulers of Germany encouraged such deception. It was many months after the beginning of the World War before the large body of American citizens would believe that the German nation and the German people made a business of lies and deception, and considered such a business just and proper when in the service of the Fatherland. But when Germany--after having promised the United States on May 4, 1916, that merchant ships would not be sunk without warning or without giving the crews and passengers an opportunity for safety--on January 31, 1917, informed Washington that she was not going to keep her promise and told the German people that she had only made it in order to get time to build a great submarine fleet which would bring England to her knees in three months--then the American people saw Germany as she was and in her shame. Of all the peoples of the earth, the Americans are probably the most sympathetic and helpful to the weak and the afflicted. They are the most merciful, striving to be kind not only to people but even to animals. The Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, another for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, and the numberless Bands of Mercy show the feeling of the people of America toward the helpless. Americans supposed that other people were like them in this respect. They knew of the German pensions to the widows and to the aged, and they supposed that the efficient and enlightened Germans were among the merciful and sympathetic to the weak and dependent. The people of the United States knew, of course, of the Zabern incident where two German soldiers held a crippled Alsatian cobbler while a German officer slashed his face with his sword for laughing at him,--they knew that the German army officers were haughty and overbearing, but they thought this came from their training and was not a part of the German character. Americans had read the Kaiser's directions to the German soldiers going to China during the Boxer uprising to "Show no mercy! Take no prisoners! Use such frightfulness that a Chinaman will never dare look at a German again. Make a name for yourselves as the Hun did long ago." But the Americans, or most of them, did not believe that in the twentieth century a nation classified among the civilized nations could or would adopt _Frightfulness_ as a policy. But when they read of the devastation of Belgium and northern France; of the destruction of Louvain; of whole villages of innocent men, women, and children being wiped out; of the horrible crimes of the sinking of the _Lusitania_, the _Falaba_, and the _Laconia_; of the execution of Edith Cavell; of the carrying off into slavery, or worse than slavery, of the able-bodied women and men from the conquered territory--when Americans learned these horrors one after another, they at last were forced to acknowledge that, like the brutal Assyrian kings who sought to terrify their enemies into submission by standing as conquerors upon pyramids of the slain, the modern Huns sought mastery by _Frightfulness_. When most Americans came to realize that Germany was fighting a war to conquer the world, first Russia and France, then England, and then the United States--for she had written Mexico that if she would attack the United States, Germany and Mexico would make war and peace together--when they came to know the German nature and the idea of the Germans, that Might makes Right and that truth, honesty, and square dealing like mercy, pity, and love are only words of weaklings; that they were a nation of liars and falsifiers and the most brutal of all people of recorded history; when, added to this, the Americans realized that for over two years France and England had really been fighting for everything for which the United States stood and which her people held dear, for her very life and liberty, then America almost as one man declared for war. Meanwhile Germany had declined to recognize the laws of nations which allowed America to sell munitions to the Allies. She had scattered spies through the United States to destroy property and create labor troubles. She had challenged the right of peaceful Americans to travel on the high seas. She had sunk the _Lusitania_ with a loss of one hundred twenty-four American lives; the _Sussex_, the _Laconia_ with a loss of eight Americans, the _Vigilancia_ with five, the _City of Memphis_, the _Illinois_, the _Healdton_, and others. She had tried to unite Mexico and Japan against us. Not until then, after the American people had become fully aware of the German character and purposes, did Congress on April 6, 1917, declare a state of war existed between Germany and the United States. On that day the outcome of the war was decided. Through her hideous selfishness, her stupidity, and her brutality, Germany, after having spent nearly fifty years in preparation, lost her opportunity for world dominion. The resources and the fighting power of what she looked upon as a nation of cowardly, money-loving merchants decided the conflict. AMERICA COMES IN We are coming from the ranch, from the city and the mine, And the word has gone before us to the towns upon the Rhine; As the rising of the tide On the Old-World side, We are coming to the battle, to the Line. From the Valleys of Virginia, from the Rockies in the North, We are coming by battalions, for the word was carried forth: "We have put the pen away And the sword is out today, For the Lord has loosed the Vintages of Wrath." We are singing in the ships as they carry us to fight, As our fathers sang before us by the camp-fires' light; In the wharf-light glare, They can hear us Over There When the ships come steaming through the night. Right across the deep Atlantic where the Lusitania passed, With the battle-flag of Yankee-land a-floating at the mast We are coming all the while, Over twenty hundred mile, And we're staying to the finish, to the last. We are many--we are one--and we're in it overhead, We are coming as an Army that has seen its women dead, And the old Rebel Yell Will be loud above the shell When we cross the top together, seeing red. KLAXTON. PERSHING AT THE TOMB OF LAFAYETTE They knew they were fighting our war. As the months grew to years Their men and their women had watched through their blood and their tears For a sign that we knew, we who could not have come to be free Without France, long ago. And at last from the threatening sea The stars of our strength on the eyes of their weariness rose; And he stood among them, the sorrow strong hero we chose To carry our flag to the tomb of that Frenchman whose name A man of our country could once more pronounce without shame. What crown of rich words would he set for all time on this day? The past and the future were listening what he would say-- Only this, from the white-flaming heart of a passion austere, Only this--ah, but France understood! "Lafayette, we are here." AMELIA JOSEPHINE BURR. [Illustration: "Lafayette, We Are Here!" The immortal tribute of General John J. Pershing at the grave of the great Frenchman. Notice the difference between the American and French salutes.] AMERICA ENTERS THE WAR SPEECH BY LLOYD GEORGE, BRITISH PREMIER, APRIL 12, 1917 I am in the happy position of being, I think, the first British Minister of the Crown who, speaking on behalf of the people of this country, can salute the American Nation as comrades in arms. I am glad; I am proud. I am glad not merely because of the stupendous resources which this great nation will bring to the succor of the alliance, but I rejoice as a democrat that the advent of the United States into this war gives the final stamp and seal to the character of the conflict as a struggle against military autocracy throughout the world. That was the note that ran through the great deliverance of President Wilson. The United States of America have the noble tradition, never broken, of having never engaged in war except for liberty. And this is the greatest struggle for liberty that they have ever embarked upon. I am not at all surprised, when one recalls the wars of the past, that America took its time to make up its mind about the character of this struggle. In Europe most of the great wars of the past were waged for dynastic aggrandizement and conquest. No wonder when this great war started that there were some elements of suspicion still lurking in the minds of the people of the United States of America. There were those who thought perhaps that kings were at their old tricks--and although they saw the gallant Republic of France fighting, they some of them perhaps regarded it as the poor victim of a conspiracy of monarchical swash-bucklers. The fact that the United States of America has made up its mind finally makes it abundantly clear to the world that this is no struggle of that character, but a great fight for human liberty. They naturally did not know at first what we had endured in Europe for years from this military caste in Prussia. It never has reached the United States of America. Prussia was not a democracy. The Kaiser promises that it will be a democracy after the war. I think he is right. But Prussia not merely was not a democracy. Prussia was not a state; Prussia was an army. It had great industries that had been highly developed; a great educational system; it had its universities; it had developed its science. All these were subordinate to the one great predominant purpose of all--a conquering army which was to intimidate the world. The army was the spearpoint of Prussia; the rest was merely the haft. That was what we had to deal with in these old countries. It got on the nerves of Europe. They knew what it all meant. It was an army that in recent times had waged three wars, all of conquest, and the unceasing tramp of its legions through the streets of Prussia, on the parade grounds of Prussia, had got into the Prussian head. The Kaiser, when he witnessed on a grand scale his reviews, got drunk with the sound of it. He delivered the law to the world as if Potsdam was another Sinai, and he was uttering the law from the thunder clouds. But make no mistake. Europe was uneasy. Europe was half intimidated. Europe was anxious. Europe was apprehensive. We knew the whole time what it meant. What we did not know was the moment it would come. This is the menace, this is the apprehension from which Europe has suffered for over fifty years. It paralyzed the beneficent activity of all states, which ought to be devoted to concentrating on the well-being of their peoples. They had to think about this menace, which was there constantly as a cloud ready to burst over the land. No one can tell except Frenchmen what they endured from this tyranny, patiently, gallantly, with dignity, till the hour of deliverance came. The best energies of military science had been devoted to defending itself against the impending blow. France was like a nation which put up its right arm to ward off a blow, and could not give the whole of her strength to the great things which she was capable of. That great, bold, imaginative, fertile mind, which would otherwise have been clearing new paths for progress, was paralyzed. That is the state of things we had to encounter. The most characteristic of Prussian institutions is the Hindenburg line. What is the Hindenburg line? The Hindenburg line is a line drawn in the territories of other people, with a warning that the inhabitants of those territories shall not cross it at the peril of their lives. That line has been drawn in Europe for fifty years. You recollect what happened some years ago in France, when the French Foreign Minister was practically driven out of office by Prussian interference. Why? What had he done? He had done nothing which a minister of an independent state had not the most absolute right to do. He had crossed the imaginary line drawn in French territory by Prussian despotism, and he had to leave. Europe, after enduring this for generations, made up its mind at last that the Hindenburg line must be drawn along the legitimate frontiers of Germany herself. There could be no other attitude than that for the emancipation of Europe and the world. It was hard at first for the people of America quite to appreciate that Germany had not interfered to the same extent with their freedom, if at all. But at last they endured the same experience as Europe had been subjected to. Americans were told that they were not to be allowed to cross and recross the Atlantic except at their peril. American ships were sunk without warning. American citizens were drowned, hardly with an apology--in fact, as a matter of German right. At first America could hardly believe it. They could not think it possible that any sane people should behave in that manner. And they tolerated it once, and they tolerated it twice, until it became clear that the Germans really meant it. Then America acted, and acted promptly. The Hindenburg line was drawn along the shores of America, and the Americans were told they must not cross it. America said, "What is this?" Germany said, "This is our line, beyond which you must not go," and America said, "The place for that line is not the Atlantic, but on the Rhine--and we mean to help you roll it up." There are two great facts which clinch the argument that this is a great struggle for freedom. The first is the fact that America has come in. She would not have come in otherwise. When France in the eighteenth century sent her soldiers to America to fight for the freedom and independence of that land, France also was an autocracy in those days. But Frenchmen in America, once they were there, their aim was freedom, their atmosphere was freedom, their inspiration was freedom. They acquired a taste for freedom, and they took it home, and France became free. That is the story of Russia. Russia engaged in this great war for the freedom of Serbia, of Montenegro, of Bulgaria, and has fought for the freedom of Europe. They wanted to make their own country free, and they have done it. The Russian revolution is not merely the outcome of the struggle for freedom. It is a proof of the character of the struggle for liberty, and if the Russian people realize, as there is every evidence they are doing, that national discipline is not incompatible with national freedom--nay, that national discipline is essential to the security of national freedom--they will, indeed, become a free people. I have been asking myself the question, Why did Germany, deliberately, in the third year of the war, provoke America to this declaration and to this action--deliberately, resolutely? It has been suggested that the reason was that there were certain elements in American life, and the Hohenzollerns were under the impression that they would make it impossible for the United States to declare war. That I can hardly believe. But the answer has been afforded by Marshal von Hindenburg himself, in the very remarkable interview which appeared in the press, I think, only this morning. He depended clearly on one of two things. First, that the submarine campaign would have destroyed international shipping to such an extent that England would have been put out of business before America was ready. According to his computation, America cannot be ready for twelve months. He does not know America. Second, that when America is ready, at the end of twelve months, with her army, she will have no ships to transport that army to the field of battle. In von Hindenburg's words, "America carries no weight." I suppose he means she has no ships to carry weight. On that, undoubtedly, they are reckoning. Well, it is not wise always to assume that even when the German General Staff, which has miscalculated so often, makes a calculation it has no ground for it. It therefore behooves the whole of the Allies, Great Britain and America in particular, to see that that reckoning of von Hindenburg is as false as the one he made about his famous line, which we have broken already. The road to victory, the guarantee of victory, the absolute assurance of victory is to be found in one word--ships; and a second word--ships. And with that quickness of apprehension which characterizes your nation, I see that they fully realize that, and today I observe that they have already made arrangements to build one thousand 3000-tonners for the Atlantic. I think that the German military advisers must already begin to realize that this is another of the tragic miscalculations which are going to lead them to disaster and to ruin. But you will pardon me for emphasizing that. We are a slow people in these islands--slow and blundering--but we get there. You get there sooner, and that is why I am glad to see you in. But may I say that we have been in this business for three years? We have, as we generally do, tried every blunder. In golfing phraseology, we have got into every bunker. But we have got a good niblick. We are right out on the course. But may I respectfully suggest that it is worth America's while to study our blunders, so as to begin just where we are now and not where we were three years ago? That is an advantage. In war, time has as tragic a significance as it has in sickness. A step which, taken today, may lead to assured victory, taken tomorrow may barely avert disaster. All the Allies have discovered that. It was a new country for us all. It was trackless, mapless. We had to go by instinct. But we found the way, and I am so glad that you are sending your great naval and military experts here just to exchange experiences with men who have been through all the dreary, anxious crises of the last three years. America has helped us even to win the battle of Arras. The guns which destroyed the German trenches, shattered the barbed wire--I remember, with some friends of mine whom I see here, arranging to order the machines to make those guns from America. Not all of them--you got your share, but only a share, a glorious share. So that America has also had her training. She has been making guns, making ammunition, giving us machinery to prepare both; she has supplied us with steel, and she has all that organization, and all that wonderful facility, adaptability, and resourcefulness of the great people which inhabits that great continent. Ah! It was a bad day for military autocracy in Prussia when it challenged the great republic of the west. We know what America can do, and we also know that now she is in it she will do it. She will wage an effective and successful war. There is something more important. She will insure a beneficent peace. To this I attach great importance. I am the last man to say that the succor which is given to us from America is not something in itself to rejoice in, and to rejoice in greatly. But I do not mind saying that I rejoice even more in the knowledge that America is going to win the right to be at the conference table when the terms of peace are being discussed. That conference will settle the destiny of nations--the course of human life--for God knows how many ages. It would have been tragic for mankind if America had not been there, and there with all the influence, all the power, and the right which she has now won by flinging herself into this great struggle. I can see peace coming now--not a peace which will be the beginning of war, not a peace which will be an endless preparation for strife and bloodshed, but a real peace. The world is an old world. It has never had peace. It has been rocking and swaying like an ocean, and Europe--poor Europe!--has always lived under the menace of the sword. When this war began two-thirds of Europe were under autocratic rule. It is the other way about now, and democracy means peace. The democracy of France did not want war; the democracy of Italy hesitated long before they entered the war; the democracy of this country shrank from it--shrank and shuddered--and never would have entered the caldron had it not been for the invasion of Belgium. The democracies sought peace; strove for peace. If Prussia had been a democracy there would have been no war. Strange things have happened in this war. There are stranger things to come, and they are coming rapidly. There are times in history when this world spins so leisurely along its destined course that it seems for centuries to be at a standstill; but there are also times when it rushes along at a giddy pace, covering the track of centuries in a year. Those are the times we are living in now. Today we are waging the most devastating war that the world has ever seen; tomorrow--perhaps not a distant tomorrow--war may be abolished forever from the category of human crimes. This may be something like the fierce outburst of winter, which we are now witnessing, before the complete triumph of the sun. It is written of those gallant men who won that victory on Monday--men from Canada, from Australia, and from this old country, which has proved that in spite of its age it is not decrepit--it is written of those gallant men that they attacked with the dawn--fit work for the dawn!--to drive out of forty miles of French soil those miscreants who had defiled it for three years. "They attacked with the dawn." Significant phrase! The breaking up of the dark rule of the Turk, which for centuries has clouded the sunniest land in the world, the freeing of Russia from an oppression which has covered it like a shroud for so long, the great declaration of President Wilson coming with the might of the great nation which he represents into the struggle for liberty, are heralds of the dawn. "They attacked with the dawn," and these men are marching forward in the full radiance of that dawn, and soon Frenchmen and Americans, British, Italians, Russians, yea, and Serbians, Belgians, Montenegrins, will march into the full light of a perfect day. THE FIRST TO FALL IN BATTLE During the trench warfare, it was customary to raid the enemy trenches at unexpected hours, sometimes during the night, often during "the sleepiest hour," just before the dawn. In such a raid made by the Germans in the early dawn of November 3, 1917, fell the first American soldiers to die in the World War. The Germans began by shelling the barbed-wire barrier in front of the trenches where the Americans were stationed for a few days, taking their first lessons in trench warfare. A heavy artillery fire was then directed so as to cover the trenches and the country immediately back of them. This prevented reinforcements coming into the trenches. Following the barrage a large number of Huns broke through the barbed wire and jumped into the trenches. The Americans did not fully understand the situation, for it was their first experience with a trench raid. A wounded private said, "I was standing in a communicating trench waiting for orders. I heard a noise back of me and looked around in time to see a German fire in my direction. I felt a bullet hit my arm." Three Americans were killed. They were the first fighting under the American flag to fall in battle on the soil of Europe. They were-- Corporal James B. Gresham, Evansville, Indiana. Private Merle D. Hay, Glidden, Iowa. Private Thomas F. Enright, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. On November 6, three graves were dug. On one side of them stood a line of poilus in their uniforms of horizon blue and red, and on the other a line of American soldiers in khaki. The flag-covered caskets were lowered, as the bugler sounded "taps," and the batteries fired minute guns. Then the French officer in command of the division, amid the broken roar of the minute guns and the whistle of shells, paid a tribute to the dead. "In the name of this division, in the name of the French army, and in the name of France, I bid farewell to Corporal Gresham, Private Hay, and Private Enright of the American army. "Of their own free will they left a happy, prosperous country to come over here. They knew war was here. They knew that the forces battling for honor, for justice, and for civilization were still being checked by the forces serving the powers of frightfulness, brute force, and barbarity. They knew that fighting was still necessary. Not forgetting historical memories, they wished to give us their brave hearts. "They knew all the conditions, nothing had been hidden from them, not the length and hardship of the war, not the violence of battle, not the terrible destruction of the new weapons, not the falseness of the enemy. Nothing stopped them. They accepted the hard life, they crossed the ocean at great peril, they took their places at the front beside us; and now they have fallen in a desperate hand-to-hand fight. All honor to them. "Men! These American graves, the first to be dug in the soil of France, and but a short distance from the enemy, are a symbol of the mighty land that has come to aid the Allies, ready to sacrifice as long as may be necessary until the final victory for the most noble of causes, the liberty of peoples and of nations, of the weak as well as the strong. For this reason the deaths of these humble soldiers take on an extraordinary grandeur. "We shall ask that the mortal remains of these young men be left here, left with us forever. We will inscribe on the tombs, 'Here lie the first soldiers of the Republic of the United States to fall on the soil of France for liberty and justice.' The passer-by will stop and uncover his head. Travelers and men of feeling will go out of their way to come here to pay tribute. "Corporal Gresham, Private Hay, Private Enright, in the name of France, I thank you. God receive your souls. Farewell." As the French officer wished, there they remain. Soon a worthy monument will be erected upon the ground where they fought and now lie asleep in death. Americans of this generation and of generations to come will stand in future days with bared heads before that monument and pay tribute. [Illustration: The religious and military tribute paid to the first Americans to fall in battle, at Bathelmont, November 4, 1917. General Bordeaux, in the name of the French army, bade "farewell to all that was mortal of the three heroes." At this point in the funeral, notice that the American soldiers in the background are standing at "parade rest."] FOUR SOLDIERS THE BOCHE The _boche_ was chiefly what his masters made him. He was planned and turned out according to specifications. His leaders and his enemies always knew just what he would do under any given circumstances, and he himself always knew just what he would do. He would do what he was ordered to do, if he understood the order and had been taught how to execute it; otherwise he would do nothing but stare helplessly. He was a machine built to order, according to plans and specifications. "In critical moments the boche waited for direction instead of relying on himself. He could not vary a hairbreadth from an order given, even when the variation would have brought success. He was part of a machine army, a cog in a mechanism which needed a push to make it move; his actions must be dictated or he could not act; his very thoughts were disciplined and uniformed." To the _boche_ there was no chivalry in war. He fought as the barbarians would have fought, if they had had all his knowledge and equipment, but were still uncivilized. Women and children never called forth his pity or his mercy. He would defile and destroy a church or a cathedral with greater pleasure than he would a peasant's hut. To him there were no laws of war. War meant to fight, to conquer, to kill, to gain the end by any means whatever. Dropping bombs on defenseless women and children and on Red Cross hospitals; torpedoing merchant ships without warning and sending all the passengers, even neutrals or friends, to death, or worse, in open boats far from land; firing on stretcher-bearers and nurses; using poison gas and liquid fire; poisoning wells and spreading disease germs; all are forbidden to civilized races by the laws of war. The _boche_ regularly perpetrated them all and committed other atrocities much worse. He hoped to frighten the world by his cruelty and brutality, by making every man, woman, and child among his enemies believe that each _boche_ was an unconquerable giant possessed of a devil. To the _boche_ war was simply a robbery, and he was one of a robber band. On the land, he was a brigand, on the sea, a pirate. He went about his business with no more mercy and chivalry than a New York gunman or a Paris apache. To him war was a business, an unlawful business to be sure, but, he believed, a profitable one. He went at it, therefore, as he had at manufacturing and commerce in the days of peace. He sought to do bigger things than any one else and to gain an advantage by any means, fair or foul. Why should he think about being fair or humane? He was a thief, not a judge. And yet let it be recorded that while nearly all _boches_ acted like brutes instead of men, there were some who were different and who showed the highest type of courage and died bravely as soldiers may die. THE POILU The soldier of France, the _poilu_, is a crusader. He is fighting to defend France, his great mother, in whose defense, centuries ago, the invisible powers called and sustained Jeanne d'Arc. In his love of country there is something almost religious, like that of the Mohammedan for Mecca and Medina. To serve France, to fight for her, to die for her--and every French soldier expects to die in battle--is a privilege as well as a duty. He fights for his country as an Englishman fights for his home. With the Englishman, his home comes first and is nearest and dearest; with the Frenchman, his country. Philip Gibbs, who has written from day to day, from the trenches and the battlefields, letters that will never be forgotten because of their beauty and truth, says of the French _poilu_:-- "Yet if the English reader imagines that because this thread of sentiment runs through the character of France there is a softness in the qualities of French soldiers, he does not know the truth. Those men whom I saw at the front and behind the fighting lines were as hard in moral and spiritual strength as in physical endurance. It was this very hardness which impressed me even in the beginning of the war, when I did not know the soldiers of France as well as I do now. After a few weeks in the field these men, who had been laborers and mechanics, clerks and journalists, artists and poets, shop assistants and railway porters, hotel waiters, and young aristocrats of Paris, were toned down to the quality of tempered steel. With not a spare ounce of flesh on them--the rations of the French army are not as rich as ours--and tested by long marches down dusty roads, by incessant fighting in retreat against overwhelming odds, by the moral torture of those rearguard actions, and by their first experience of indescribable horrors, among dead and dying comrades, they had a beauty of manhood which I found sublime. They were bronzed and dirty and hairy, but they had the look of knighthood, with a calm light shining in their eyes and with resolute lips. They had no gayety in those days, when France was in gravest peril, and they did not find any kind of fun in this war. Out of their baptism of fire they had come with scorched souls, knowing the murderous quality of the business to which they were apprenticed, but though they did not hide their loathing of it, nor the fears which had assailed them, nor their passionate anger against the people who had thrust this thing upon them, they showed no sign of weakness. They were willing to die for France, though they hated death, and in spite of the first great rush of the German legions, they had a fine intellectual contempt of that army, which seemed to me then unjustified, though they were right, as history now shows. Man against man, in courage and cunning they were better than the Germans, gun against gun they were better, in cavalry charge and in bayonet charge they were better, and in equal number irresistible." THE TOMMY John Masefield, the English writer, says, "St. George did not go out against the dragon like that divine calm youth in Carpaccio's picture, nor like that divine calm man in Donatello's statue. He went out, I think, after some taste of defeat knowing that it was going to be bad, and that the dragon would breathe fire, and that very likely his spear would break, and that he wouldn't see his children again, and people would call him a fool. He went out, I think, as the battalions of our men went out, a little trembling and a little sick and not knowing much about it, except that it had to be done, and then stood up to the dragon in the mud of that far land and waited for him to come on." [Illustration: Saint George and the Dragon, painted by V. Carpaccio in 1516, Venice; S. Giorgio Maggiore. The background, as in most medieval paintings, gives scenes that explain further the legend depicted.] But as soon as the British Tommy had reached the dragon's lair, he became the British player in a great championship game of the nations. He was the British sportsman, hunting big game; for in matters of life or death, he is always the player or the sportsman. That it was a hideous dragon breathing out poison gas and fire and destroying Christian maidens, made the sport all the more interesting and worth while. Philip Gibbs says of the English Tommy:-- "They take great risks sometimes as a kind of sport, as Arctic explorers or big game hunters will face danger and endure great bodily suffering for their own sake. Those men are natural soldiers. There are some even who like war, though very few. But most of them would jeer at any kind of pity for them, because they do not pity themselves, except in most dreadful moments which they put away from their minds if they escape. They scorn pity, yet they hate worse still, with a most deadly hatred, all the talk about 'our cheerful men.' For they know that, however cheerful they may be, it is not because of a jolly life or lack of fear. They loathe shell-fire and machine-gun fire. They know what it is 'to have the wind up.' They have seen what a battlefield looks like before it has been cleared of its dead. It is not for non-combatants to call them 'cheerful'; because non-combatants do not understand and never will, not from now until the ending of the world. 'Not so much of your cheerfulness,' they say, and 'Cut it out about the brave boys in the trenches.' So it is difficult to describe them, or to give any idea of what goes on in their minds, for they belong to another world than the world of peace that we knew, and there is no code which can decipher their secret, nor any means of self-expression on their lips." The Tommy dislikes to show emotion or to brag or to be praised when he is present. To outsiders and to soldiers of other nations sent to help him, he likes to make the duties and the dangers seem as disagreeable, as horrible, and as inevitable as he possibly can, but when he has discharged a particularly tiresome and obnoxious duty himself or has met without flinching a terrible danger, he declares his act was "nothing." "The _poilu_ and the Tommy are vastly different. The Frenchman works himself up into a fanatical state of enthusiasm, and in a wild burst of excitement dashes into the fray. The Englishman finishes his cigarette, exchanges a joke with his 'bunkie' and coolly goes 'over the top.' Both are wonderful fighters with the profoundest admiration for each other." The Tommy wants his tea and the officers like to carry their canes and swagger sticks with them "over the top" into battle. A brave, unpretending man, who likes his own ways and wishes to be allowed to follow them and who is willing to fight and die that others also may be free--such is the English Tommy. With him it is all a part of the game, the game of war, and the greatest game of all, the game of life. He must play his part and play it well. THE YANK The _boche_ went into the war as a robber, the _poilu_ as a crusader determined to save the sacred and holy things of the world from desecration and destruction, the _Tommy_ as a player in a great game, and the _Yank_ as a policeman whose job it was to "clean up" the affair. To the American soldiers, the _Yanks_, and to the American people, the war was a job, a most disagreeable one, but one that must be done. No one else was ready and able to do it; so they went at it smilingly and "jollied" every one with whom they came in contact. French children were asked to write descriptions of the "Yanks" for a New York paper. They nearly all said that they were big and handsome and quick, that they always smiled and were always hungry, especially for chocolate and candy. The French noticed the everlasting smile of the _Yank_, for after three years of war and suffering the French, even the children, had ceased to smile. It is said the children had even forgotten how to play, but they responded to the love in the hearts of the _Yanks_, as did the German children when the American soldiers crossed the Rhine. To the _Yanks_ there were no enemies among the children; they loved them, French or German. The _Yank_ did not smile because he failed to realize the seriousness of his job, but because with him the harder, the more dangerous, and the dirtier the job, the more must he smile and "jolly" about it. "They had come to France to do a certain piece of work. It was a bloody, dusty, sweaty, unclean, disagreeable one, and they proposed to finish it. . . . We are a people given to discounting futures, and the average American soldier, to put it bluntly, discounted being killed in action. If our Allies, whose fortitude was sustained in a dark hour by the way that our men fought, could have probed what was in the mind of these Americans, they would have found still further reason for faith in our military strength." So declares Major Palmer of General Pershing's staff. Raymond Fosdick says the character of the American soldier was shown when a Y.M.C.A. secretary asked a large body of _Yanks_ to write on little slips of paper distributed to them what they thought were the three greatest sins in a soldier. When the papers were passed back and examined, it was found that they agreed unanimously upon the first sin. It was cowardice. And almost unanimously upon the second. It was selfishness. And the third was big-headedness. The _Yank_ is wonderfully free from the sins he hates. Dashing, fearless, willing to die rather than to surrender, unable, as General Bundy said, to understand an order to retreat, he is always a "jollier." It is said one platoon of _Yanks_ went "over the top" wearing tall silk hats with grenades in one hand and carrying pink parasols in the other. This may be only a story of what the _Yanks_ would have done if permitted, but it is true to their nature. The _Yanks_ have written the noblest chapter of American history. They have honored their fathers and mothers, their churches, the American public school, and the land of Washington and Lincoln. Those who sleep beneath foreign soil have not died in vain. ******************* DUTY So nigh is grandeur to our dust, So near is God to man, When Duty whispers low, "_Thou must_," The youth replies, "I _can_." WHERE THE FOUR WINDS MEET There are songs of the north and songs of the south, And songs of the east and west; But the songs of the place where the four winds meet Are the ones that we love the best. "And where do the four winds meet?" you ask. The answer is ready at hand-- "Wherever our dear ones chance to be By air, or by sea, or land." So the sailor, keeping his midnight watch 'Mid icicles, snow, and sleet, Can think of a village near Portsmouth town As the place where the four winds meet. And mother, perhaps, and sweetheart true Pray hard for the North Sea Fleet, And harder still for the boy who's gone To his place, where the four winds meet. And the man on guard at the "firing-step," 'Mid star-shells shimmering down, Can think of his home--where the four winds meet In some sheltered English town. And thoughts may fly to the distant trench, Whatever its name or "street," For "Somewhere in France" seems far less vague If we add, "where the four winds meet." And the pilot steers thro' the trackless waste While the engines throb and beat, Flouting surprise, with the army's eyes High up where the four winds meet. And to those who mourn comes a cheering cry, Which the angels in heaven repeat, "Grieve not, brave hearts; we await you here-- _Here_, where the four winds meet." There are songs of the north and songs of the south, The east and the west complete; But here is a song of the place we love, Which is called, "Where the four winds meet." GEOFFREY DALRYMPLE NASH. ******************* THE UNITED STATES MARINES Our flag's unfurled to every breeze From dawn to setting sun, We have fought in every clime or place Where we could take a gun-- In the snow of far-off northern lands And in sunny tropic scenes, You will find us always on the job-- The United States Marines. THE SOLDIERS WHO GO TO SEA "If the army or the navy ever gaze on Heaven's scenes, They will find the streets are guarded by United States marines." So sing the soldiers who go to sea, commonly called the marines. The Germans after the battles of Belleau Wood and Bouresches called them "devil hounds," and the French named them the "green devils." An English rhymester wrote to his home paper, "You must not call them Sammies, You should not call them Yanks. And if you call them 'doughboys' Loud laughter splits their flanks. You will not call them Buddies, And when on Kultur's track, You need not call them forward, You cannot call them back." They know too that whenever trouble arises in any part of the world, they are the first to be sent to protect American interests. It is said that many of them believe the chief reason why the United States has a navy is for the purpose of carrying the marines to the points where they are needed. They are aware of the fact that marines may be landed and such landing not be considered an act of war. Therefore they look upon their service as much more important than that of the soldier. The marine has been everywhere man has gone by land or sea or air, as one of their poets wrote: "From the hills of Montezuma To the gates of old Peking He has heard the shrapnel bursting, He has heard the Mauser's ping. He has known Alaskan waters And the coral roads of Guam, He has bowed to templed idols And to sultans made salaam." "I am more than a sailor, for although I belong to the navy I fight on the land. I am more than a soldier, for I do all that the soldier does and at the same time I belong to the navy and go to sea." Thus the marine proves to himself that he is "it," as the soldiers and sailors would say. "The marines get aviation, searchlight, wireless telegraph, heliograph, and other drill. They plant mines, put up telegraph and telephone lines in the field, tear down or build up bridges, sling from a ship and set up or land guns as big as 5-inch for their advance base work. "It is a belief with marines that the corps can do anything. Right in New York City is a marine printing plant with a battery of linotypes and a row of presses. They set their own type, write their own stuff (even to the poetry), draw their own sketches, do their own photography, their own color work--everything. Every man in that plant is a marine, enlisted or commissioned. Every one has seen service somewhere outside his country." Such a feeling of superiority, however, would soon be laughed down if it were not based upon something more than talk. The marines know this and try in every way to show that they excel the other branches. They are extremely careful of their dress, and their personal appearance, and of their conduct whether on duty or off. They try to sustain the reputation of their branch in every little way as well as in every great one. As an illustration of this, they are not satisfied with a commonplace mascot. Soldiers and sailors, and marines too, must have a mascot. A cat, a dog, a goat, a parrot, a monkey, a pig, a lion cub, or a bear are among the commonest and most popular of mascots. Therefore the marines would usually disdain any one of these. If any of them should happen to be accepted as a mascot, there would be some wonderful story to explain why it was the most remarkable monkey, goat, or lion cub that ever lived. A large and hideous snake, a young kangaroo, or an anteater are mascots more to the liking of the marines. They must have something like themselves, exclusive and distinguished. The anteater that one body of marines adopted when they were landed at Vera Cruz proved a very interesting and original mascot, and also that anteaters were not always exactly as they are described in school textbooks, for this anteater disdained to eat ants and greedily devoured anything from the food of the marines that they would give him, or that he could steal--bread, meat, pie, doughnuts, or eggs. A writer telling about this anteater mascot says he was taught several tricks, one of which was to put out with his forepaws every lighted cigarette dropped near him and then to tear it into little pieces. Heywood Broun, the writer, goes on to say, "The marine who dropped a hundred franc note by mistake just in front of Jimmy says that teaching tricks to anteaters is all foolishness." And how do they sustain the reputation of their branch in the great things? Here is where soldier, sailor, or marine must prove his superiority, for excelling here means greater service to his country. It would be difficult indeed to give the palm to any branch of the service. They have all endured hardship and met wounds and death with equal gallantry, each striving to outdo the other in devotion and sacrifice. Secretary Daniels has told the inspiring heroic story of the fighting of the eight thousand marines who in June, 1918, were thrown into the open gap between the advancing Germans and Paris. Although they were without proper artillery support and too small in numbers for the task, General Pershing in those dark days offered their services to Marshal Foch, saying, "If you have no other troops to use and the gap must be closed and the Germans stopped, they will do it." And they did! But out of the eight thousand, four thousand were missing, wounded, or killed. Read Secretary Daniels' story of this fight, called the battle of Belleau Wood, and be proud that you are an American. This efficient fighting, building, and landing force of the navy has won imperishable glory in the fulfillment of its latest duties upon the battlefields of France, where the marines, fighting for the time under General Pershing as a part of the victorious American army, have written a story of valor and sacrifice that will live in the brightest annals of the war. With heroism that nothing could daunt, the Marine Corps played a vital rôle in stemming the German rush on Paris, and in later days aided in the beginning of the great offensive, the freeing of Rheims, and participated in the hard fighting in Champagne, which had as its object the throwing back of the Prussian armies in the vicinity of Cambrai and St. Quentin. With only 8000 men engaged in the fiercest battles, the Marine Corps casualties numbered 69 officers and 1531 enlisted men dead and 78 officers and 2435 enlisted men wounded seriously enough to be officially reported by cablegram, to which number should be added not a few whose wounds did not incapacitate them for further fighting. However, with a casualty list that numbers nearly half the original 8000 men who entered battle, the official reports account for only 57 United States marines who have been captured by the enemy. This includes those who were wounded far in advance of their lines and who fell into the hands of Germans while unable to resist. Memorial Day shall henceforth have a greater, deeper significance for America, for it was on that day, May 30, 1918, that our country really received its first call to battle--the battle in which American troops had the honor of stopping the German drive on Paris, throwing back the Prussian hordes in attack after attack, and beginning the retreat which lasted until Imperial Germany was beaten to its knees and its emissaries appealing for an armistice under the flag of truce. And to the United States marines, fighting side by side with equally brave and equally courageous men in the American army, to that faithful sea and land force of the navy, fell the honor of taking over the lines where the blow of the Prussian would strike the hardest, the line that was nearest Paris, and where, should a breach occur, all would be lost. The world knows today that the United States marines held that line; that they blocked the advance that was rolling on toward Paris at a rate of six or seven miles a day; that they met the attack in American fashion and with American heroism; that marines and soldiers of the American army threw back the crack guard divisions of Germany, broke their advance, and then, attacking, drove them back in the beginning of a retreat that was not to end until the "cease firing" signal sounded for the end of the world's greatest war. It was on the evening of May 30, after a day dedicated to the memory of their comrades who had fallen in the training days and in the Verdun sector, that the 5th and 6th Regiments and the 6th Machine Gun Battalion, United States marines, each received the following orders:-- Advance information official received that this regiment will move at 10 P.M. 30 May by bus to new area. All trains shall be loaded at once and arrangements hastened. Wagons, when loaded, will move to Serans to form train. All through the night there was fevered activity among the marines. Then, the next morning, the long trains of camions, busses, and trucks, each carrying its full complement of United States marines, went forward on a road which at one place wound within less than ten miles of Paris, toward Meaux and the fighting line. Through the town of Meaux went the long line of camions and to the village of Montriel-aux-Lions, less than four miles from the rapidly advancing German line. On this trip the camions containing the Americans were the only traffic traveling in the direction of the Germans; everything else was going the other way--refugees, old men and women, small children, riding on every conceivable conveyance, many trudging along the side of the road driving a cow or calf before them, all of them covered with the white dust which the camion caravan was whirling up as it rolled along; along that road only one organization was advancing, the United States marines. At last, their destination reached early on the morning of June 2, they disembarked, stiff and tired after a journey of more than seventy-two miles, but as they formed their lines and marched onward in the direction of the line they were to hold they were determined and cheerful. That evening the first field message from the Fourth Brigade to Major General Omar Bundy, commanding the 2d Division, went forward:-- Second Battalion, 6th Marines, in line from Le Thiolet through Clarembauts Woods to Triangle to Lucy. Instructed to hold line. First Battalion, 6th marines, going into line from Lucy through Hill 142. Third Battalion in support at La Voie du Châtel, which is also the post command of the 6th Marines. Sixth Machine Gun Battalion distributed at line. Meanwhile the 5th Regiment was moving into line, machine guns were advancing, and the artillery taking its position. That night the men and officers of the marines slept in the open, many of them in a field that was green with unharvested wheat, awaiting the time when they should be summoned to battle. The next day at 5 o'clock, the afternoon of June 2, began the battle of Château-Thierry, with the Americans holding the line against the most vicious wedge of the German advance. The advance of the Germans was across a wheat field, driving at Hill 165 and advancing in smooth columns. The United States marines, trained to keen observation upon the rifle range, nearly every one of them wearing a marksman's medal or better, that of the sharpshooter or expert rifleman, did not wait for those gray-clad hordes to advance nearer. Calmly they set their sights and aimed with the same precision that they had shown upon the rifle ranges at Paris Island, Mare Island, and Quantico. Incessantly their rifles cracked, and with their fire came the support of the artillery. The machine-gun fire, incessant also, began to make its inroads upon the advancing forces. Closer and closer the shrapnel burst to its targets. Caught in a seething wave of machine-gun fire, of scattering shrapnel, of accurate rifle fire, the Germans found themselves in a position in which further advance could only mean absolute suicide. The lines hesitated. They stopped. They broke for cover, while the marines raked the woods and ravines in which they had taken refuge with machine gun and rifle to prevent them making another attempt to advance by infiltrating through. Above, a French airplane was checking up on the artillery fire. Surprised by the fact that men should deliberately set their sights, adjust their range, and then fire deliberately at an advancing foe, each man picking his target, instead of firing merely in the direction of the enemy, the aviator signaled below "Bravo!" In the rear that word was echoed again and again. The German drive on Paris had been stopped. For the next few days the fighting took on the character of pushing forth outposts and determining the strength of the enemy. Now, the fighting had changed. The Germans, mystified that they should have run against a stone wall of defense just when they believed that their advance would be easiest, had halted, amazed; then prepared to defend the positions they had won with all the stubbornness possible. In the black recesses of Belleau Wood the Germans had established nest after nest of machine guns. There in the jungle of matted underbrush, of vines, of heavy foliage, they had placed themselves in positions they believed impregnable. And this meant that unless they could be routed, unless they could be thrown back, the breaking of the attack of June 2 would mean nothing. There would come another drive and another. The battle of Château-Thierry was therefore not won and could not be won until Belleau Wood had been cleared of the enemy. It was June 6 that the attack of the American troops began against that wood and its adjacent surroundings, with the wood itself and the towns of Torcy and Bouresches forming the objectives. At 5 o'clock the attack came, and there began the tremendous sacrifices which the Marine Corps gladly suffered that the German fighters might be thrown back. The marines fought strictly according to American methods--a rush, a halt, a rush again, in four-wave formation, the rear waves taking over the work of those who had fallen before them, passing over the bodies of their dead comrades and plunging ahead, until they, too, should be torn to bits. But behind those waves were more waves and the attack went on. "Men fell like flies"; the expression is that of an officer writing from the field. Companies that had entered the battle 250 strong dwindled to fifty and sixty, with a sergeant in command; but the attack did not falter. At 9:45 o'clock that night Bouresches was taken by Lieutenant James F. Robertson and twenty odd men of his platoon; these soon were joined by two reënforcing platoons. Then came the enemy counter-attacks, but the marines held. In Belleau Wood the fighting had been literally from trees to tree, stronghold to stronghold; and it was a fight which must last for weeks before its accomplishment in victory. Belleau Wood was a jungle, its every rocky formation forming a German machine-gun nest, almost impossible to reach by artillery or grenade fire. There was only one way to wipe out these nests--by the bayonet. And by this method they were wiped out, for United States marines, bare chested, shouted their battle cry of "E-e-e-e-e y-a-a-h-h-h-yip!" charged straight into the murderous fire from those guns, and won! Out of the number that charged, in more than one instance, only one would reach the stronghold. There, with his bayonet as his only weapon, he would either kill or capture the defenders of the nest, and then swinging the gun about in its position, turn it against the remaining German positions in the forest. Such was the character of the fighting in Belleau Wood, fighting which continued until July 6, when after a short relief the invincible Americans finally were taken back to the rest billet for recuperation. In all the history of the Marine Corps there is no such battle as that one in Belleau Wood. Fighting day and night without relief, without sleep, often without water, and for days without hot rations, the marines met and defeated the best divisions that Germany could throw into the line. The heroism and doggedness of that battle are unparalleled. Time after time officers seeing their lines cut to pieces, seeing their men so dog tired that they even fell asleep under shell fire, hearing their wounded calling for the water that they were unable to supply, seeing men fight on after they had been wounded and until they dropped unconscious; time after time officers seeing these things, believing that the very limit of human endurance had been reached, would send back messages to their post command that their men were exhausted. But in answer to this would come the word that the lines must hold, and, if possible, those lines must attack. And the lines obeyed. Without water, without food, without rest, they went forward--and forward every time to victory. Companies had been so torn and lacerated by losses that they were hardly platoons, but they held their lines and advanced them. In more than one case companies lost every officer, leaving a sergeant and sometimes a corporal to command, and the advance continued. After thirteen days in this inferno of fire a captured German officer told with his dying breath of a fresh division of Germans that was about to be thrown into the battle to attempt to wrest from the marines that part of the wood they had gained. The marines, who for days had been fighting only on their sheer nerve, who had been worn out from nights of sleeplessness, from lack of rations, from terrific shell and machine-gun fire, straightened their lines and prepared for the attack. It came--as the dying German officer had predicted. At 2 o'clock on the morning of June 13 it was launched by the Germans along the whole front. Without regard for men, the enemy hurled his forces against Bouresches and the Bois de Belleau, and sought to win back what had been taken from Germany by the Americans. The orders were that these positions must be taken at all costs; that the utmost losses in men must be endured that the Bois de Belleau and Bouresches might fall again into German hands. But the depleted lines of the marines held; the men who had fought on their nerve alone for days once more showed the mettle of which they were made. With their backs to the trees and bowlders of the Bois de Belleau, with their sole shelter the scattered ruins of Bouresches, the thinning lines of the marines repelled the attack and crashed back the new division which had sought to wrest the position from them. And so it went. Day after day, night after night, while time after time messages like the following traveled to the post command:-- Losses heavy. Difficult to get runners through. Some have never returned. Morale excellent, but troops about all in. Men exhausted. Exhausted, but holding on. And they continued to hold on in spite of every difficulty. Advancing their lines slowly day by day, the marines finally prepared their positions to such an extent that the last rush for the possession of the wood could be made. Then, on June 24, following a tremendous barrage, the struggle began. The barrage literally tore the woods to pieces, but even its immensity could not wipe out all the nests that remained, the emplacements that were behind almost every clump of bushes, every jagged, rough group of bowlders. But those that remained were wiped out by the American method of the rush and the bayonet, and in the days that followed every foot of Belleau Wood was cleared of the enemy and held by the frayed lines of the Americans. It was, therefore, with the feeling of work well done that the depleted lines of the marines were relieved in July, that they might be filled with replacements and made ready for the grand offensive in the vicinity of Soissons, July 18. And in recognition of their sacrifice and bravery this praise was forthcoming from the French:-- Army Headquarters, June 30, 1918. In view of the brilliant conduct of the Fourth Brigade of the Second United States Division, which in a spirited fight took Bouresches and the important strong point of Bois de Belleau, stubbornly defended by a large enemy force, the General commanding the Sixth Army orders that henceforth, in all official papers, the Bois de Belleau shall be named "Bois de la Brigade de Marine." DIVISION GENERAL DEGOUTTE, Commanding Sixth Army. On July 18 the marines were again called into action in the vicinity of Soissons, near Tigny and Vierzy. In the face of a murderous fire from concentrated machine guns, which contested every foot of their advance, the United States marines moved forward until the severity of their casualties necessitated that they dig in and hold the positions they had gained. Here, again, their valor called forth official praise. Then came the battle for the St. Mihiel salient. On the night of Sept. 11 the 2d Division took over a line running from Remenauville to Limey, and on the night of Sept. 14 and the morning of Sept. 15 attacked, with two days' objectives ahead of them. Overcoming the enemy resistance, they romped through to the Rupt de Mad, a small river, crossed it on stone bridges, occupied Thiacourt, the first day's objective, scaled the heights just beyond it, pushed on to a line running from the Zammes-Joulney Ridges to the Binvaux Forest, and there rested, with the second day's objectives occupied by 2:50 o'clock of the first day. The casualties of the division were about 1000, of which 134 were killed. Of these, about half were marines. The captures in which the marines participated were 80 German officers, 3200 men, ninety-odd cannon, and vast stores. But even further honors were to befall the fighting, landing, and building force, of which the navy is justly proud. In the early part of October it became necessary for the Allies to capture the bald, jagged ridge twenty miles due east of Rheims, known as Blanc Mont Ridge. Here the armies of Germany and the Allies had clashed more than once, and attempt after attempt had been made to wrest it from German hands. It was a keystone of the German defense, the fall of which would have a far-reaching effect upon the enemy armies. To the glory of the United States marines, let it be said, that they were again a part of that splendid 2d Division which swept forward in the attack which freed Blanc Mont Ridge from German hands, pushed its way down the slopes, and occupied the level ground just beyond, thus assuring a victory, the full import of which can best be judged by the order of General Lejeune, following the battle:-- France, Oct. 11, 1918. Officers and Men of the 2d Division:-- It is beyond my power of expression to describe fitly my admiration for your heroism. You attacked magnificently and you seized Blanc Mont Ridge, the keystone of the arch constituting the enemy's main position. You advanced beyond the ridge, breaking the enemy's lines, and you held the ground gained with a tenacity which is unsurpassed in the annals of war. As a direct result of your victory, the German armies east and west of Rheims are in full retreat, and by drawing on yourselves several German divisions from other parts of the front you greatly assisted the victorious advance of the Allied armies between Cambrai and St. Quentin. Your heroism and the heroism of our comrades who died on the battlefield will live in history forever, and will be emulated by the young men of our country for generations to come. To be able to say when this war is finished, "I belonged to the 2d Division; I fought with it at the battle of Blanc Mont Ridge," will be the highest honor that can come to any man. JOHN A. LEJEUNE, Major General, United States Marine Corps, Commanding. Thus it is that the United States marines have fulfilled the glorious traditions of their corps in this their latest duty as the "soldiers who go to sea." Their sharpshooting--and in one regiment 93 per cent of the men wear the medal of a marksman, a sharpshooter, or an expert rifleman--has amazed soldiers of European armies, accustomed merely to shooting in the general direction of the enemy. Under the fiercest fire they have calmly adjusted their sights, aimed for their man, and killed him, and in bayonet attacks their advance on machine-gun nests has been irresistible. In the official citation lists more than one American marine is credited with taking an enemy machine gun single handed, bayoneting its crew and then turning the gun against the foe. In one battle alone, that of Belleau Wood, the citation lists bear the names of fully 500 United States marines who so distinguished themselves in battle as to call forth the official commendation of their superior officers. More than faithful in every emergency, accepting hardships with admirable morale, proud of the honor of taking their place as shock troops for the American legions, they have fulfilled every glorious tradition of their corps, and they have given to the world a list of heroes whose names will go down to all history. WHEN THE TIDE TURNED THE AMERICAN ATTACK AT CHÂTEAU-THIERRY AND BELLEAU WOOD IN THE FIRST WEEK OF JUNE, 1918 BY OTTO H. KAHN AN ADDRESS AT THE UNITED WAR WORK CAMPAIGN MEETING OF THE BOSTON ATHLETIC ASSOCIATION, NOVEMBER 12, 1918 WHY THE TIDE WAS FATED TO TURN These are soul-stirring days. To live through them is a glory and a solemn joy. The words of the poet resound in our hearts: "God's in His heaven, all's right with the world." Events have shaped themselves in accordance with the eternal law. Once again the fundamental lesson of all history is borne in upon the world, that evil--though it may seem to triumph for a while--carries within it the seed of its own dissolution. Once again it is revealed to us that the God-inspired soul of man is unconquerable and that the power, however formidable, which challenges it is doomed to go down in defeat. A righteous cause will not only stand unshaken through trials and discomfiture, but it will draw strength from the very setbacks which it may suffer. A wrongful cause can only stand as long as it is buoyed up by success. The German people were sustained by a sheer obsession akin to the old-time belief in the potent spell of "the black arts" that their military masters were invulnerable and invincible, that by some power--good or evil, they did not care which--they had been made so, and that the world was bound to fall before them. The nation was immensely strong only as long as that obsession remained unshaken. With its destruction by a series of defeats which were incapable of being explained as "strategic retreats," their morale crumbled and finally collapsed, because it was not sustained, as that of the Allies was sustained in the darkest days of the war, by the faith that they were fighting for all that men hold most sacred. To those who were acquainted with German mentality and psychology, it had been manifest all along that when the end foreordained did come, it would come with catastrophic suddenness. WHERE THE TIDE TURNED It is the general impression that the tide of victory set in with Marshal Foch's splendid movement against the German flank on July 18th. That movement, it is true, started the irresistible sweep of the wave which was destined to engulf and destroy the hideous power of Prussianism. But the tide which gathered and drove forward the waters out of which that wave arose, had turned before. It turned with and through the supreme valor of our marines and other American troops in the _first_ battle at Château-Thierry and at Belleau Wood, _in the first week of June_. The American force engaged was small, measured by the standard of numbers to which we have become accustomed in this war, but the story of their fighting will remain immortal and in its psychological and strategic consequences the action will take rank, I believe, among the decisive battles of the war. I am not speaking from hearsay. I was in France during the week preceding that battle, the most anxious and gloomy period, probably, of the entire war. What I am about to relate is based either on authoritative information gathered on the spot, or on my own observations. In telling it, nothing is farther from my thoughts than to wish to take away one tittle from the immortal glory which belongs to the Allied armies, nor from the undying gratitude which we owe to the nations who for four heart-breaking years, with superb heroism, fought the battle of civilization--our battle from the very beginning, no less than theirs--and bore untold sacrifices with never faltering spirit. JUST BEFORE THE TIDE TURNED On the 27th of last May the Germans broke through the French position at the Chemin des Dames, a position which had been considered by the Allies as almost impregnable. They overthrew the French as they had overthrown the British two months earlier. Day by day they came nearer to Paris, until only thirty-nine miles separated them from their goal. A few days more at the same rate of advance, and Paris was within range of the German guns of terrific destructive power. Paris, the nerve center of the French railroad system and the seat of many French war industries, not only, but the very heart of France, far more to the French people in its meaning and traditions than merely the capital of the country; Paris in imminent danger of ruthless bombardment like Rheims, in possible danger even of conquest by the brutal invader, drunk with lust and with victory! As one Frenchman expressed it to me: "We felt in our faces the very breath of the approaching beast." And whilst the Hunnish hordes came nearer and nearer, and the very roar of the battle could be dimly and ominously heard from time to time in Paris, there were air raids over the city practically every night, and the shells from the long-range monster guns installed some sixty or seventy miles distant fell on its houses, places, and streets almost every day. They were not afraid, these superb men and women of France. They do not know the meaning of fear in defense of their beloved soil and their sacred ideals. There was no outward manifestation even of excitement or apprehension. Calmly and resolutely they faced what destiny might bring. But there was deep gloom in their hearts and dire forebodings. They had fought and dared and suffered and sacrificed for well-nigh four years. They had buried a million of their sons, brothers, and fathers. They were bleeding from a million wounds and more. They said: "We will fight on to our last drop of blood, but alas! our physical strength is ebbing. The enemy is more numerous by far than we. Where can we look for aid? The British have just suffered grave defeat. The Italians have their own soil to defend after the disaster of last autumn. Our troops are in retreat. The Americans are not ready and they are untried as yet in the fierce ordeal of modern warfare. The Germans know well that in three months or six months the Americans will be ready and strong in numbers. That is why they are throwing every ounce of their formidable power against us _now_. The Hun is at the gate _now_. Immeasurable consequences are at stake _now_. It is a question of days, not of weeks or months. Where can we look for aid _now_?" And out of their nooks and corners and hiding places crawled forth the slimy brood of the Bolshevik-Socialists, of the Boloists, Caillauxists, and pacifists, and they hissed into the ears of the people, "Make peace! Victory has become impossible. Why go on shedding rivers of blood uselessly? The Germans will give you an honorable, even a generous peace. Save Paris! Make peace!" The holy wrath of France crushed those serpents whenever their heads became visible. Clemenceau, the embodiment of the dauntless spirit of France, stood forth the very soul of patriotic ardor and indomitable courage. But the serpents were there, crawling hidden in the grass, ever hissing, "Make peace!" And then, suddenly out of the gloom flashed the lightning of a new sword, sharp and mighty, a sword which had never been drawn except for freedom, a sword which had never known defeat--the sword of America! THE TURNING OF THE TIDE A division of marines and other American troops were rushed to the front as a desperate measure to try and stop a gap where flesh and blood, even when animated by French heroism, seemed incapable of further resistance. They came in trucks, in cattle cars, by any conceivable kind of conveyance, crowded together like sardines. They had had little food, and less sleep, for days. When they arrived, the situation had become such that the French command advised, indeed ordered, them to retire. But they and their brave general would not hear of it. They disembarked almost upon the field of battle and rushed forward, with little care for orthodox battle order, without awaiting the arrival of their artillery, which had been unable to keep up with their rapid passage to that front. They stormed ahead, right through the midst of a retreating French division, yelling like wild Indians, ardent, young, irresistible in their fury of battle. Some of the Frenchmen called out a well-meant warning: "Don't go in this direction. There are the boches with machine guns." They shouted back: "That's where we want to go. That's where we have come three thousand miles to go." And they did go, into the very teeth of the deadly machine guns. In defiance of all precedent they stormed, with rifle and bayonet in frontal attack, against massed machine guns. They threw themselves upon the victory-flushed Huns to whom this unconventional kind of fierce onset came as a complete and disconcerting surprise. They fought like demons, with utterly reckless bravery. They paid the price, alas! in heavy losses, but for what they paid they took compensation in over-full measure. They formed of themselves a spearhead at the point nearest Paris, against which the enemy's onslaught shattered itself and broke. They stopped the Hun, they beat him back, they broke the spell of his advance. They started victory on its march. A new and unspent and mighty force had come into the fray. And the Hun knew it to his cost and the French knew it to their unbounded joy. The French turned. Side by side the Americans and the French stood, and on that part of the front the Germans never advanced another inch from that day. They held for a while, and then set in the beginning of the great defeat. I was in Paris when the news of the American achievement reached the population. They knew full well what it meant. The danger was still present, but the crisis was over. The boche could not break through. He could and would be stopped and ultimately thrown back, out of France, out of Belgium, across the Rhine and beyond! The aid for which the sorely beset people of France had been praying, had arrived. The Americans had come, young, strong, daring, eager to fight, capable of standing up against and stopping and beating back German shock troops specially selected and trained, and spurred on by the belief in their own irresistibility and the exhaustion of their opponents. The full wave of the hideous instruments of warfare which the devilish ingenuity of the Germans had invented, liquid fire, monstrous shells, various kinds of gases including the horrible mustard gas, had struck the Americans squarely and fully, and they had stood and fought on and won. The French, so calm in their trials, so restrained in their own victories, gave full vent to their joy and enthusiasm at the splendid fighting and success of the Americans. The talk of them was everywhere in Paris. Hundreds of thousands of American soldiers already in France, thousands coming upon every steamer, millions more to come if needed--and they had shown the great stuff they were made of! All gloom vanished, overnight. The full magnificence of the French fighting morale shone out again--both behind the lines and at the front. "Ils ne passeront pas!" "On les aura." [1] And the Bolshevik-Socialists, Boloists, weak-kneed pacifists, and that whole noisome tribe slunk back into their holes and corners and hiding places, and never emerged again. And, as the people of Paris and the poilus at the front correctly interpreted the meaning of that battle in those early days of June, so did the supreme military genius of Marshal Foch interpret it. He knew what the new great fighting force could do which had come under his orders, and he knew what he meant to do and could do with it. It is an eloquent fact that when six weeks later he struck his great master stroke which was to lead ultimately to the utter defeat and collapse of the enemy, American troops formed the larger portion of an attacking force which, being thrown against a particularly vital position, was meant to deal and did deal the most staggering blow to the enemy; and other American troops were allotted the place which from the paramount responsibility attaching to it, may be termed the place of honor, in the center of the line, in immediate defense of the approaches to Paris. They made good there--officers and men alike. They made good everywhere, from Cantigny to Sedan. They made good on land, on the seas, and in the air; worthy comrades of the war-seasoned heroes of France and Great Britain, worthy defenders of American honor, eager artisans of American glory. When for the first time the American army went into action as a separate unit under the direct command of its great chief, General Pershing, Marshal Foch allotted them ten days for the accomplishment of the task set for them, i.e., the ejection of the German army from the strongly fortified St. Mihiel salient, which the enemy had held for four years. They did it in thirty hours, and made a complete and perfect job of it. I have had the privilege of seeing these splendid boys of ours, in all situations and circumstances, from their camps in America to the front in France--the boys and their equally splendid leaders. The sacred inspiration of what I have thus seen will stay with me to my last day. I confess I find it hard to speak of them without a catch in my throat and moisture in my eyes. I see them before me now in the fair land of France--brave, strong, ardent; keen and quick-witted; kindly and clean and modest and wholly free from boasting; good-humored and good-natured; willingly submissive to unaccustomed discipline; uncomplainingly enduring all manner of hardships and discomforts; utterly contemptuous of danger, daring to a fault, holding life cheap for the honor and glory of America. What true American can think of them or picture them without having his heart overflow with grateful and affectionate pride? As I observed our army "over there," I felt that in them, in the mass of them, representing as they do all sections and callings of America, there had returned the ancient spirit of knighthood. I measure my words. I am not exaggerating. If I had to find one single word with which to characterize our boys, I should select the adjective "knightly." A French officer who commanded a body of French troops, fighting fiercely and almost hopelessly in Belleau Wood near Château-Thierry (since then officially designated by the French Government as the Wood of the Marine Brigade), told me that when they had arrived almost at the point of total exhaustion, suddenly the Americans appeared rushing to the rescue. One of the American officers hurried up to him, saluted and said in execrably pronounced French just six words: "Vous--fatigués, vous--partir, notre job." "You--tired, you--get away, our job." And right nobly did they do their job! [1] "They shall not pass!" "We will get them." ******************* Almost every soldier who goes into battle leaves a letter to be read in the event of his death. Sturgis ("Spud") Pishon, a former famous college athlete, serving in the American air forces in Italy, before his fatal flight wrote this letter, so full of the strength and simplicity of a great soldier: "What little I have to give to my country I give without reservation. If there ever was a righteous cause it is ours, and I am proud to have worked and died for it. "Pray God this war will be over soon and that it will be the last war. "I leave you with a smile on my lips and a heart full of love for you all. God bless you and keep you." STURGIS. A BOY OF PERUGIA In the year 1500, Raphael was a boy of eighteen in Perugia working and studying with the master painter Perugino. Did the city itself, free on its hill top, looking afar over undulating mountains and great valleys, implant in the sensitive soul of Raphael a love of beauty and a vision that made him become one of the greatest painters of the world? Perugia can never be forgotten, for the boy Raphael once lived, worked, and studied there. In the year 1915 Enzo Valentini was a boy of eighteen in Perugia. He was a high school boy and his father was mayor of the city. One of his teachers says he was an unusually brilliant scholar, with remarkable artistic gifts. Did the city and its beautiful surroundings open his soul to the vision of love and tenderness for his "little mother" and of the duty that called him while but a boy in the high school to serve and, if need be, die for his country? When Italy entered the war, he gave up his studies, dropped his pen and his brushes, volunteered as a private, and was soon fighting with his countrymen in the Alps. Certainly his soul was responsive to beauty in nature; for in the midst of war and war's alarms, he found peace of spirit in the wonderful Alpine country. He writes, "The longer I am here, the more I love the mountains. The spell they weave does not come so quickly as that of the sea, but I think it is deeper and more enduring. Every passing moment, every cloud, every morning mist clothes the mountains in a beauty so great that even the coarsest of our brave soldiers stop to admire it. It may be for only an instant but this is enough to prove that the soul never forgets its heavenly birth even though it be the soul of an uneducated peasant, imprisoned in the roughest shell. The days pass one after another calmly, serenely. It seems as if the autumn ought never to end. The divine and solemn peace of the nights is beyond the power of words to express, especially now that the moon is shedding its magic silver over all. There are hours in the day when everything is so filled and covered with light and when the silence is so impressive that at moments the light seems to be gone letting the silence blaze forth in the wonderful harmony of nature." Enzo Valentini loved nature, loved his native land, and loved his mother. She understood him and knew that because of his love for her he was willing to die for Italy and the mothers of Italy. Shortly before his death he wrote her this beautiful letter:-- "Little mother, in a very few days I am leaving for the front lines. For your dear sake I am writing this farewell which you will read only if I am killed. Let it be my good-by to father, to my brothers, and to all those in the world who cared for me. "My heart in its love and gratitude to you has always brought its holiest thoughts to you; and now it is to you that I make known my last wishes. "Many have loved me. To each of them give some little thing of mine in remembrance of me, after you have laid aside all those that you care for most. I wish that all who have loved me should possess something of the friend that is gone to rise like a flame above the clouds, above the flesh, into the sun, into the very soul of the universe. "Try, if you can, not to weep for me too much. Believe that even though I do not come back to you, I am not dead. My body, the less important part of me, suffers and dies; but not I myself--I, the soul, cannot die, because I come from God and must return to God. I was made for happiness and through suffering I must return to the everlasting happiness. If I have been for a short time a prisoner in the body, I am not the less eternal. My death is freedom, the beginning of the real life, the return to the Infinite. "Therefore do not mourn for me. If you consider the immortal beauty of the ideals for which my soul is willingly sacrificing my body, you will not mourn. But if your mother heart must weep, let the tears flow; a mother's tears are forever sacred. God will take account of them; they will be the stars of a crown. "Be strong, little mother. From the great beyond, your son says farewell to you, to father, to brothers, to all who have loved him--your son, who has given his body in the fight against those who would put out the light of the world." So read the "little mother" of Enzo Valentini after the assault upon Sano di Mezzodi. When his platoon charged he was the first to dash from the trench giving courage to all who hesitated. Together they made the mountains ring with the old Italian war cry, "Savoia! Italia!" Enzo Valentini fell pierced by five pieces of shrapnel. They carried him back to a grotto where the surgeons dressed his wounds. A comrade says, "We laid him down on the litter in the grotto, among the great rocks, under the dark vault of the sky, his face upturned to the stars. He was exhausted, and asked for a drink, and fainted. Then they carried him to the hospital and I never saw him again. I have been told they carried him down Mount Mesola to the side of the little lake he loved so well, 'his little lake,' and that he sleeps there in death. But for his comrades he is still living in the glory of his youth, there on the Alps, waving his cap with an edelweiss in it, and crying, 'Savoia! Italia!'" ******************* Wild wind! what do you bear-- A song of the men who fought and fell, A tale of the strong to do and dare? --Aye, and a tolling bell! REDEEMED ITALY Italy, since 1860 at least, has cherished the dream that sometime all European territory with Italian-speaking inhabitants would be united under Italian government. When the World War began Italy was supposed to be an ally of Germany and Austria. She had agreed to fight with them in case they were attacked--in a defensive war. At first she did not enter the World War. She perceived from the very beginning that Germany and Austria were the attackers and were not the nations attacked. Her people began to understand what victory for the Central Powers would mean and clamored for war on the side of the Allies. Then the cry went up to redeem the lost Italian provinces held by Austria and called "Italia Irredenta" or "Unredeemed Italy," and Italy entered the war May 23, 1915. At first she declared war upon Austria but not upon Germany. She made no attempt to work in harmony with the Allies. It was a war of her own upon Austria to regain the lost Italian provinces of the Trentino and Trieste. Although she fought against tremendous obstacles in the mountain passes with wonderful courage and success, her entrance into the war was of assistance to the Allies only as it kept a certain number of Austrian soldiers from the eastern and western fronts. In 1916, the Italians captured Gorizia and all Italy went wild and began to dream of a more wonderful development than had ever seemed possible before. In 1917, they fought on with seemingly great success and dreamed wilder dreams than ever, for Russia was out of the war and would have no claim to Constantinople and the straits. Italy in this year sent an army across the Adriatic into Albania to assure Italian control of that country. And then the "castles in the air" were suddenly shattered. The Italian army had not been properly supplied and the country was very short of coal. The army had therefore not been able to follow up its successful attacks. The enemy had also caused great discontent among the common soldiers in the Italian forces by spreading lies among them. The collapse of the Russian armies had also made many of them believe Germany was unbeatable. Then, too, it is said the Italian generals were too sure, "too confident," as athletic trainers would say, and had not properly protected their armies and their northern provinces against a reverse. Italy had declared war on Germany on August 27, 1916, and German shock troops set free by the downfall of Russia were sent against the incautious Italians and broke through their lines. No prepared positions were ready back of the lines. The great bases were close up to the lines. Therefore when the Italian armies were obliged to retreat to prevent being surrounded and captured, they had to retreat so far that their army bases with all their supplies were lost and hundreds of thousands of Italian non-combatants were forced to leave their homes on scarcely a "moment's notice." 250,000 Italians and 2000 guns were captured by the enemy. The greatest humiliation and the worst suffering followed, however, for the Italian people who were left behind in the provinces overrun by the victorious Austrians and Germans. The following proclamation by the Germans in the province of Udine is an excellent example of how the Huns treated conquered territory and conquered peoples. PROCLAMATION issued by the Headquarters of the German Military Government at Udine to the inhabitants of conquered Italy. A house-to-house search will be made for all concealed arms, weapons, and ammunition. All victuals remaining in the houses must be delivered up. Every citizen must obey our labor regulations. ALL WORKMEN, WOMEN, AND CHILDREN OVER 15 YEARS OLD ARE obliged to work in the fields every day, Sundays included, from 4 A.M. to 8 P.M. Disobedience will be punished in the following manner:-- (1) Lazy workmen will be accompanied to their work and watched by Germans. After the harvest they will be IMPRISONED for six months, and every third day will be given NOTHING BUT BREAD AND WATER. (2) Lazy women will be obliged to work, and after the harvest receive SIX MONTHS' IMPRISONMENT. (3) LAZY CHILDREN WILL BE PUNISHED BY BEATING. The Commandant Reserves the Right to Punish Lazy Workmen with 20 Lashes Daily. What a contrast to the proclamation of General Allenby when the English captured Jerusalem whereby the inhabitants were guaranteed protection in carrying on their business, and all homes and buildings were to be safeguarded. When following the armistice the American soldiers occupied German cities, the Germans were surprised to find that they were in no wise punished or prevented from going about their regular pursuits. As a result of the World War, Italy recovered the unredeemed provinces, and just before the signing of the armistice, she redeemed herself in war by wiping out the memory of her humiliating defeat about a year earlier at Caporetto. The Italian war office in its official report of this second battle of the Piave says in substance the following:-- "The war against Austria-Hungary which under the supreme direction of the king, the commander-in-chief of the Italian army, began May 24, 1915, and which since then, with inferior numbers and material, has been conducted with unflagging faith and constant valor for forty-one months has been won. "The gigantic battle of October 24 is victoriously ended. Fifty-one Italian divisions, three British, two French, one Czechoslovak, and one American regiment fought against sixty-three Austro-Hungarian divisions. "The Austro-Hungarian army is destroyed. It suffered very heavy losses in the fierce resistance of the first days of the battle, and in retreat it lost an immense quantity of material of all kinds, nearly all its stores and depots, and has left in our hands over 300,000 prisoners, with their commands complete, and not less than 5,000 guns. "The defeat has left what was one of the most powerful armies in the world in disorder and without hope of returning along the valleys through which it advanced with proud assurance." Church bells were rung all over Italy and parades and celebrations were held in all the large cities. President Wilson sent on November 4 the following message to the King of Italy:-- May I not say how deeply and sincerely the people of the United States rejoice that the soil of Italy is delivered from her enemies? In their name I send your Majesty and the great Italian people the most enthusiastic congratulations. WOODROW WILSON. During the war, Italy called to the colors from a male population of only 17,000,000 nearly 5,500,000 men and suffered a loss of almost 1,000,000 of them. It is estimated that the nation's man power suffered a permanent loss of over half a million. But serious as is this loss, Italy inflicted an even greater punishment upon the foe. In Austrian prisoners alone she captured over a million. The Austrian loss in killed and wounded was doubtless far greater than Italy's. Over 2500 miles of roads were constructed on the mountains of Italy and Albania, and 1000 miles of aërial cable railroads were built to carry food, ammunition, and guns over deep ravines. Italy's fighters and industrial workers accomplished their work with an inadequate supply of materials and food that meant real and continuous suffering such as probably was felt by no other of the warring peoples. ******************* We will never bring disgrace to this, our city, by any act of dishonesty or cowardice, nor ever desert our suffering comrades in the ranks. We will fight for the ideals and sacred things of the city, both alone and with many; we will revere and obey the city's laws and do our best to incite a like respect and reverence in those above us who are prone to annul or to set them at naught; we will strive unceasingly to quicken the public's sense of civic duty. Thus in all these ways we will transmit this city not only not less but greater, better and more beautiful than it was transmitted to us. _The Oath of the Athenian Youth._ SONG OF THE AVIATOR (_This poem was written for an entertainment given by the Y.M.C.A. at an aviation barracks in a large camp in France. Mrs. Wilcox addressed five hundred aviators, and these verses were recited with great effect by Mrs. May Randall. After the entertainment there was a rush to obtain autographed copies of the poem._) You may thrill with the speed of your thoroughbred steed, You may laugh with delight as you ride the ocean, You may rush afar in your touring car, Leaping, sweeping by things that are creeping-- But you never will know the joy of motion Till you rise up over the earth some day And soar like an eagle, away--away. High and higher, above each spire, Till lost to sight is the tallest steeple, With the winds you chase in a valiant race, Looping, swooping, where mountains are grouping, Hailing them comrades, in place of people. Oh, vast is the rapture the bird man knows As into the ether he mounts and goes. He is over the sphere of human fear; He has come into touch with things supernal. At each man's gate death stands await; And dying flying were better than lying In sick beds crying for life eternal. Better to fly halfway to God Than to burrow too long like a worm in the sod. ELLA WHEELER WILCOX. NATIONS BORN AND REBORN In America, and in many other countries, people have listened with wonder and enjoyment to strangely beautiful music played by, probably the greatest of all pianists of today, Ignace Jan Paderewski. For years he has traveled from country to country and from city to city, playing the piano in a manner no other has been able to imitate, although Chopin's playing, it is said, had much the same effect upon the audiences. In Paderewski's playing as in his composition there is always an undercurrent deeply sad and weird. No one but a genius from the martyred land of Poland, or from some other that had equally suffered, could play as Chopin and Paderewski played or could compose music such as they composed. All the old glory of Poland in the ancient centuries, her grievous losses, the terrible wrongs done her, and the long-treasured dreams of a new and happier day for her people, live in the soul of Paderewski, and vibrate through his very finger tips as they move over the keys of his loved instrument. Today the dreams of the Polish people are coming true. Hopes cherished since about the twelfth century are through the World War being realized in a new Poland. The tenth century saw the formation of the first kingdom of Poland in central Europe to the east of the Germans. The country grew and prospered for two hundred years. Then, lacking kingly leadership, it became weak, and was finally divided into many principalities. At that time came the terrible Tartar invasion across Russia and into Poland, resulting in shocking desolation and ruin. When complete destruction was threatened from hostile peoples, on the north and east, the Poles summoned aid from the Teutonic Knights, a German crusading order. The Germans drove out the hostile neighbors, promptly taking control of their lands. Then Poland learned that she had even worse enemies to fear in those she had called to help her. She watched them build up military power to conquer her own lands. But by joining with the Lithuanians, she managed at length to defeat the Germans at the famous battle of Tannenberg in 1410. For over three hundred years the kingdom possessed great power. But at last it again began to weaken, and the year 1772 "saw the beginning of the end." The three great nations, Russia, Prussia, and Austria, then joined against Poland and began to divide the kingdom among themselves. By 1795 Poland had ceased to exist as a nation. The terrible misfortunes of the Polish people under these hostile foreign powers served really to bind them together with one common purpose--to win back the kingdom and to reëstablish a free country. This was their dream. When the World War came, the Polish people in many lands, especially in the United States, volunteered for service on the French front. On June 22, 1918, the first division of Polish troops in France was presented with flags at a solemn ceremony, and listened to an address by the French president. Soon large numbers of Poles were fighting the Austrians and Germans in Italy and in Russia, although they knew that capture meant court-martial and death, since Austria and Germany considered them deserters, as they indeed were. The supreme commander of Polish forces, General Josef Haller, had been a colonel in the Austrian army. But he decided to desert the Austrian army to lead an "Iron Brigade" of Poles against the enemies of freedom. Eighty-eight officers and twenty-six privates in his regiment were captured by the Austrians, court-martialed, and sentenced to death. When offered pardon by the Emperor Karl, they refused, saying, "We are soldiers of the Polish Nation. The Austrian government has no right to grant us pardon even as it has no more right to inflict punishment upon us than upon the soldiers of France and England." Facing death, these men wrote to the Polish Parliamentary Club in Vienna, their reasons for desertion,--namely, the unfair treatment at the hands of the Austrians and their love for Poland. They had heard a rumor that the Polish organization was about to secure a more liberal sentence for them by agreeing to the cession of certain provinces of Poland. So the prisoners further wrote:-- "We value greatly the love of our countrymen and we were touched deeply by the generosity with which they thought of us, but we desire to protest most energetically against relief and concessions secured for us to the detriment of our country and the ancient rights of our nation. "Do not permit our personal lot to weaken the united Polish front, for the death penalty can affect us only physically. The sufferings undergone by our grandfathers and fathers, we will continue to endure and with the sincere conviction that we are serving a free, united, and independent Poland." A few days after they were condemned, the Polish National Committee sent a message to Italy declaring that representatives from all classes of the Polish people had met at Warsaw and proclaimed the union of all Poland. Italy, France, and Great Britain formally recognized the Polish national army as independent and Allied, and on November 4, 1918, Secretary Lansing, in a letter, to a representative of the Polish National Committee, stated that the United States Government also wished to recognize officially the independence of the Polish army as a part of the Allied forces. The people of the United States with those of other countries are hoping that Paderewski's great national family shall become united in one free and independent state. They now applaud this master of music as the first leader of free Poland. He will help destroy Bolshevism with its cry, "Death to the educated," which has resulted already in the death of hundreds of doctors, professors, engineers, and in one case, the extermination of all the pupils in a single high school. He will join the other great leaders in their belief that "Economic development, patriotism, and the ennobling of all human souls alone can lead to freedom." To the south of Poland in the very heart of Europe is another new country, which already has set up a democratic government and elected as its president,--Thomas G. Masaryk, a former professor in the University of Prague, now the capital of Czecho-Slovakia. Professor Masaryk spent some time in the United States conferring with officials at Washington. He was here when he received word that he had been elected first president of his newly formed country by a convention held in Geneva, Switzerland. Great preparations for his return were made by the people. When at one o'clock on December 22, the booming of cannon told that the president's train was drawing in at the station, the hundred thousand people who had poured into the city of Prague were massed on every side to welcome him and sang, as only the Slavs can sing, their national song. Soon President Masaryk's train, with its engine elaborately decorated, steamed in through the silent crowd. In complete silence, Masaryk, gray-haired and distinguished appearing, left the train and entered the station. There he saw groups of Czecho-Slovaks in French uniforms, some wearing the war cross, and groups who had been fighting in the Italian Alps. He saw also a group of university professors who had come to honor him. In the tense silence, one of the leaders of the new republic came forward. He had for years conspired and worked with Masaryk for the freedom of their country, and now he greeted him by throwing his arms about him. After a further greeting from the government officials, and from the nation's aged and honored poet, Masaryk gave a brief speech telling of his hopes for the republic. He then passed out to the crowd who hailed him in a tumult of joy. One who witnessed Masaryk's return pictures the scenes on the way to the government buildings. "There began a triumphal procession which took two hours to arrive at the Parliament house. Every window, every balcony and every roof was filled to overflowing, and every street lined on either side, twenty deep. All this multitude, most of whom had been standing for hours, had such joy written on their faces as has never before been seen and cannot possibly be described. Elders were holding children on their shoulders, all eyes were full of tears, all eyes smiling. The people kissed the flags of the Allies as they would kiss their babies. "Since the proclamation, all the young ladies of Prague have taken to the fashion of peasant costumes, and several members of Parliament wore the old national dress. Searchlights playing on the spires and steeples of this most beautiful Slav city now again touch the great castle, henceforth the seat of government, where hundreds of windows are ablaze with lights, the first rejoicing it has known for three hundred years." For three hundred years the peasants of Bohemia together with Slovakia which, with some smaller provinces, is now called Czecho-Slovakia, had tried every means to free themselves from Austria. On the north and west were the Germans and on the south the Austrians, both enemies, seeking only to get what they could for themselves out of the little country. In their Declaration of Independence, given in Paris, October 18, 1918, the people have told the story of their past, as well as their purposes for the future. "We make this declaration on the basis of our historic and natural right. We have been an independent State since the seventh century, and in 1526, as an independent State, consisting of Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia, we joined with Austria and Hungary in a defensive union against the Turkish danger. We have never voluntarily surrendered our rights as an independent State in this confederation. The Hapsburgs broke their compact with our nation by illegally transgressing our rights and violating the Constitution of our State, which they had pledged themselves to uphold, and we therefore refuse longer to remain a part of Austria-Hungary in any form. "We claim the right of Bohemia to be reunited with her Slovak brethren of Slovakia, once a part of our national State, later torn from our national body, and fifty years ago incorporated in the Hungarian State of the Magyars, who, by their unspeakable violence and ruthless oppression of their subject races have lost all moral and human right to rule anybody but themselves. "The world knows the history of our struggle against the Hapsburg oppression. The world knows the justice of our claims, which the Hapsburgs themselves dared not deny. Francis Joseph in the most solemn manner repeatedly recognized the sovereign rights of our nation. The Germans and Magyars opposed this recognition, and Austria-Hungary, bowing before the Pan-Germans, became a colony of Germany, and, as her vanguard, to the East, provoked the last Balkan conflict, as well as the present world war, which was begun by the Hapsburgs alone without the consent of the representatives of the people. "We cannot and will not continue to live under the direct or indirect rule of the violators of Belgium, France, and Serbia, and would-be murderers of Russia and Rumania, the murderers of tens of thousands of civilians and soldiers of our blood, and the accomplices in numberless unspeakable crimes committed in this war against humanity by the two degenerate and irresponsible dynasties. We will not remain a part of a State which has no justification for existence. "We refuse to recognize the divine right of kings. Our nation elected the Hapsburgs to the throne of Bohemia of its own free will, and by the same right deposes them. We hereby declare the Hapsburg dynasty unworthy of leading our nation, and deny all of their claims to rule in the Czecho-Slovak land, which we here and now declare shall henceforth be a free and independent people and nation. "We accept and shall adhere to the ideals of modern democracy, as they have been the ideals of our nation for centuries. We accept the American principles as laid down by President Wilson; the principles of liberated mankind--of the actual equality of nations--and of Governments deriving all their just power from the consent of the governed. We, the nation of Comenius, cannot but accept these principles expressed in the American Declaration of Independence, the principles of Lincoln, and of the declaration of the rights of man and of the citizen. For these principles our nation shed its blood in the memorable Hussite Wars, 500 years ago; and for these same principles, beside her Allies, our nation is shedding its blood today in Russia, Italy, and France." It is said that the Czech soldiers fighting on the French front received the news of the declaration with wild enthusiasm, rushed forward, and wrested from the enemy one of the most difficult positions on the Aisne. The Czechs were also fighting in Italy, and in Russia, although they had been first forced into the Austrian army. One Czech battalion commanded by Austrians and ordered against the Russians, rushed forward, but killed their officers on the way and surrendered in a body to the Russians, asking to fight with them against the Austro-Germans. If the Russian soldiers had held together and followed the invincible Czechs, Germany would have been driven completely out of Russia. But the Czechs did not deceive the Austrians. Their hopes and plans were not secret. They openly warned Austria of their desertion. They wrote in chalk on the outside of the cars: "With us the Monarchy will not win." Upon seeing this declaration, it is reported, the German and Austrian officers ordered the trainload of men to stand in line, and then shot every tenth man. But the rest went on, through terrible and thrilling experiences, fighting and dying by the hundreds for the sake of the new republic which at last was born. The story of the passage through Russia and Siberia of the Czecho-Slovak troops, who were fighting with Russia against Austria and Germany, is one of the most remarkable and exciting stories of history. These troops probably saved Siberia for the Allies and were at last able to join in the fighting on the western front. Still another new nation now called Jugo-Slavia, although it may finally be called Serbia or some other name, has risen south of Austria-Hungary and east of the Adriatic Sea. It lies across from Italy and is nearly the same size as the mainland of that country. Its story, too, is one of conquest by northern enemies, followed by the crushing out of all freedom. But since the beginning of the World War, the people of Jugo-Slavia, on July 20, 1917, have set up a new republic based upon the ideas of justice and democracy, united under one flag, and granting its three different races equal rights and privileges. Across the sea, in Arabia, the country of Hedjaz has been freed from Germany's allies, the Turks. The people of Hedjaz also once enjoyed freedom and glory, their power in early history reaching all the way from France to China. Backed by the British in Egypt and Mesopotamia, the Arabs revolted from the Turks, drove them out of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, and at length broke their power completely. Mohammedans have always recognized the Mohammedan ruler who controlled Mecca and Medina, the birthplace and the burial place of the prophet, as their Kalif. If this custom is followed, the King of Hedjaz becomes the Kalif in place of the Sultan of Turkey. Hedjaz has already arisen from the ruins of the Turks as an independent and separate state. Armenia, it is to be hoped, will do the same. Each country needs only the will and the declaration of the people for freedom in order to secure the sympathy, aid, and recognition of the victorious Allied nations and the United States. As soon as they declare their independence and choose their own government, the greater nations at once rush to their relief. This was shown especially in the case of Finland. For centuries Finland's fate was uncertain, resting now in the hands of Sweden, now in the power of Russia, and last, and worst of all, in the hands of Germany. But the people rose united, expelled their new rulers, who had been sent to them by the Germans, and declared their independence. At once the United States and the Allies, with Food Administrator Hoover, planned a gigantic program for relief, which for Finland alone provided 14,000 tons of food. They further promised aid to all Russian provinces as fast as they should drive out the Bolsheviki, or at least deprive them of power. This meant a shipment in three months of 200,000 tons of food, clothing, agricultural supplies, and railroad equipment. The world expects Russia to regain her equilibrium and reach the greatest heights of power ever known in her history. Her possessions will not be as large as they were before the World War, because of the loss of Finland, and of provinces in the west and south which are likely to become independent states. In America the boys and girls scarcely realize what the blessings of freedom mean, as the children of the new countries do. But that America is indeed blessed with liberty and happiness is shown by the closeness with which the new nations have followed her as a pattern. Their appreciation of this country was clearly expressed in the Czecho-Slovak Declaration of Independence, and again when President Masaryk at the Hague, on December 30, 1918, spoke as follows:-- "Komensky's historic prayer has literally been fulfilled and our people, free and independent, advances, respected and supported by universal sympathy, into the community of European nations. Are we living in a fairy tale? Politicians of all countries are asking this. I put the same question to myself and yet it is all an actual reality. "When the German victories seemed about to realize the Pan-German plan of the subjection of the whole of the Old World, America stepped out of its reserve, replaced weary and betrayed Russia and within a short time Marshal Foch dictated terms to beaten Germany and Austria-Hungary. "President Wilson formulated the leading principle of democracy which is contained in the American Declaration of Independence, where, as in the French Declaration of the Rights of Man, revolution triumphed and established that all political power comes from the people. And as Lincoln said, is of the people, by the people, and for the people. "President Wilson proclaimed as the object of the war the liberation of all mankind. We Czechs and Slovaks could not stand aside in this world war. We were obliged to decide against Austria-Hungary and Germany for our whole history led us to democratic powers. "In May of last year I was obliged to go to Russia whence in the beginning of March I went to Japan and from Japan to the United States,--a remarkable and unexpected journey round the world,--verily a propaganda journey, winning the whole world for our national cause. "After seven months I returned nominated by our government as the first president of the Czecho-Slovak republic. I know not whom I ought to thank first. It is natural that the recognition by England and the United States, the greatest Allied Powers, has helped us greatly. The United States guaranteed from their wealth abundant help, and we have from them a definite promise for the future. President Wilson himself has devoted sincere attention to our question and we are obliged to him and the Allied Powers. They can always count on us. "The real object of the war and peace is the reorganization of eastern Europe and the solution of the eastern question. The war was a culmination of many struggles to solve the eastern question in the broad sense of the word. German pressure eastwards was directed against a zone of small nations between Germany and Russia, beginning with the Finns and going as far down as Greece, making a series of eighteen small nations. German, Austro-Hungarian, and Russian imperialism suffered shipwreck. The small nations are freed. The war's negative task is fulfilled. The positive task awaits--to organize east Europe and this with mankind in general. We stand on the threshold of a new time when all mankind feels in unity. Our people will contribute with full consciousness its part in the realization of this great and lofty task." ******************* And for your country, boy, and for that flag, never dream a dream but of serving her as she bids you, though the service carry you through a thousand hells. No matter what happens to you, no matter who flatters you or who abuses you, never look to another flag, never let a night pass but you pray God to bless that flag. Remember, boy, that behind all these men you have to do with, behind officers, and government, and people even, there is the Country Herself, your Country, and that you belong to Her as you belong to your own mother. Stand by Her, boy, as you would stand by your mother. EDWARD EVERETT HALE. "TO VILLINGEN--AND BACK" Very remarkable in the world struggle for liberty was the eagerness of the Allied soldiers to fight and to make the supreme sacrifice if necessary. The Americans, especially, brought cheer and courage to the tired French, Belgian, Italian, and British hearts, so daring and high spirited were they when going into battle. With a smile, a shout, or a song, they went over the top to meet the Huns, ready for anything except to be taken prisoners into Germany. This was the one possibility dreaded by the soldiers all along the front. They knew that the Huns were not a pleasant company to meet; that they sang only when ordered to do so, and sang only what they were ordered to sing; that they laughed most and shouted loudest when cruelly torturing innocent, unprotected, and unarmed people. What life must be in a German prison at the mercy of German soldiers, they dared hardly imagine. It is not strange therefore that our men wished rather to die than to be prisoners. Nor is it strange that, having been taken, they made the most desperate attempts to escape. Naturally the easiest time to break away was while being carried from the front to the rear of the German lines. Once thrown into prison, the difficulties were much greater. Often the captive was handed back from one company of guards to another, being made to work for the enemy on his way. Private Donahue was one who was sent back in this manner, after being captured in a midnight skirmish near Château-Thierry. He was dropped unconscious on the ground outside a German officer's tent, and when he revived he found that all his belongings,--even letters and snapshots from home,--had been taken from him. A German stood over him and began questioning him, hoping to gather important military information. When asked how many Americans were at the front, the prisoner said, "Thirty-two American divisions and forty French." "Pigs!" shouted the German lieutenant, and the cry was caught up by the guards, who came at a signal and dragged Donahue away. From early morning until nightfall, he worked with the camouflage men, masking the batteries and cutting leafy branches for screening the stores of ammunition heaped by the roadside. The Germans gave him no blankets at night, and for food poured out for him a sort of tasteless gruel and tossed him chunks of coarse black bread to eat with it. Every day a different soldier took him in charge. Each night he was closely guarded. He knew from the distant sounds of the guns that he was being taken back into Germany. On the seventh night, he lay on the ground with Germans sleeping all about him. His guard sat beside him, leaning against a tree, his rifle between his knees. Private Donahue wished that he were back in the American lines, when suddenly in the moonlight he could see the guard's head nodding and nodding. Now was his time to escape. He stole away and began creeping through the woods. There were Germans lying all around and he stumbled over several of them. But they only grunted savagely, and he crept fearfully on. Soon he reached the edge of the woods and crawled under a bush to think. Above No Man's Land an occasional shell was bursting, by whose light he could dimly see the American lines, eight kilometers away. He crept along in the shadows, lying still whenever a soldier passed near him. When morning came, he crawled into a grain field and lay down so that no one might see him. Several times soldiers passed so close to him that he could hear them talking. Once he was nearly trampled under the hoofs of two horses, and twice a Red Cross dog threatened to disclose his presence in the field. But he lay still as death and the dog went off. That night he was creeping up the side of a ravine when he was discovered by the sentry. "Halt!" cried the guard. Private Donahue had been fearing that he would hear that word. But now he recognized it as spoken by an American voice. "I am an American!" he cried joyfully, springing to his feet. Soon he was sleeping inside his own lines, under two old potato sacks. At dawn he ate a good breakfast at the field kitchen, then reported at headquarters. He had kept his eyes open during his seven days' journey through the German lines, and had some important information to give at French headquarters. But many times the captives had no opportunity to escape before they were locked in the prison camp somewhere in Germany. Then it demanded every bit of Yankee ingenuity to get away. One of the most elaborate attempts, involving the escape of a great number of men, is told in the following story. There were seventy Americans among the prisoners in a German camp at Villingen in Baden. Not all had arrived at the same time. Some were newcomers, others unfortunately had been detained there for more than a year. The prison consisted of a barracks for the men, surrounded by a large stretch of land, all inclosed with two rows of high wire fencing, completely charged with electricity. The second fence, which was six or eight feet away from the first, was very strong and bent inward toward the top, so that if a prisoner by any possible means succeeded in getting over the inner fence, he surely could not climb the outer. Moreover, guards were kept on watch between the fences, and outside, sentinels were stationed about thirty yards apart. It seemed impossible for the prisoners to get away by daylight, and at night the barracks with their iron-barred windows were closely guarded. The treatment of the prisoners, especially of those who had made any attempts to escape, was shameful and often cruel. The food, in general, consisted of sour black bread, soup made largely from tree leaves, and some sort of drink made from acorns and called coffee. Needless to say, the prisoners were half starved. Indeed, two American girls who were in Berne, Switzerland, working among the released prisoners, in a letter to America showed in what an awful condition they found some of the men. Their letter read:-- "We have gone to the station three times at four o'clock in the morning to help feed the English soldiers who were on their way home after being exchanged for German prisoners. We had the privilege of giving some of them the first white bread they had had in four years. The men who had been kept working behind the lines were in a pitiable condition. One such man happened to be at my table,--for they are taken off the train for two hours, given hot tea and roast beef and ham sandwiches,--and the poor fellow began taking sandwiches, eating a few bites, and stowing the rest feverishly away in his pocket. He couldn't realize that he was in a place where he would be fed." All of the seventy Americans at Villingen wished themselves anywhere outside the prison camp, and most of all back on the firing line, helping to win. So much did they wish this that a few more daring than the rest had twice attempted to escape together. Their attempts had ended in failure, but that had only led them to spend months in making still more elaborate plans to gain their freedom. Not all could leave the camp, they knew. Many did not care to risk it, while thirty of the seventy Americans were doctors and thought they ought to stay and do what they could for their weak and sickly fellow prisoners. But in the final plan, sixteen men were to try this break for liberty. One of the men was Lieutenant Harold Willis of Boston, an aviator in the famous Lafayette Escadrille. He had been captured after a battle in the air. Not even fourteen months in a German prison could kill the daring spirit of this young lieutenant. Instead, the cruel treatment of the prisoners, the daily contact with the stupid German guards, made him long once more to cut through the clouds and bring down another boche. Accordingly, he became a leader in carrying out the plans for escape. Lieutenant Edward V. Isaacs, of Cresco, Iowa, an officer in the United States Navy, was another leader. He was crossing the Atlantic in the big American transport, President Lincoln, when it was torpedoed by the submarine U-90, on May 31, 1918. He went down with the ship, but came to the surface again and crawled up on a raft where he stayed until one of the lifeboats came by and the men took him off. But the boat had gone but a short distance, when the guilty submarine pushed its nose up through the surface of the water near by. Its commander ordered the lifeboat to draw near and the helpless oarsmen had to obey. When asked the whereabouts of the captain of the vessel, the men in the lifeboat answered that, as far as any of them knew, he had gone down with the ship. Then the commander, probably noticing his uniform, singled out Lieutenant Isaacs, demanded that he come on board the submarine, and informed him that if he did not find the captain, he would take him instead to Germany. Two days later, the U-boat carrying this American officer was sighted by two American destroyers. Immediately the destroyers made for the submarine and tried to sink it. The U-boat quickly submerged and floated far below the surface while the destroyers circled about for several hours dropping many depth bombs, five of which exploded not three hundred yards from the submarine. So great was the shock of these explosions that, in telling of his experiences afterward, Isaacs said it seemed as if the ocean shook the boat much as a dog shakes a rat. During this time not a word was spoken except by the watch officers, who were at their posts like the rest of the crew, and reported to the commander the directions in which the bombs were falling, thus enabling him to move the boat about in a safe course. The bombing continued until nightfall. Then the commander thought he was safe. But the next day, another American warship appeared, and the U-90 made for its home port as fast as possible. Lieutenant Isaacs, more fortunate than many U-boat prisoners, was treated well by the officers and crew. He messed with the officers and heard them most of the time discussing why the United States entered the war. They told Isaacs that the only possible reason was that the United States had loaned so much money to the Allies that she was obliged to enter the war to make sure of being repaid. But Isaacs had no intention of remaining in the U-boat. As it entered neutral waters about four miles off the Danish coast, it began running along above the surface. Isaacs secretly left his room, hurried to the deck, and was just about to dive over into the water, hoping to swim ashore, when Captain Remy, the commander, caught hold of him. He had suspected Isaacs and had followed him from below. "Stupid fool," he exclaimed as he drew him away from the side of the boat and ordered him below. On landing at Wilhelmshaven, Isaacs was questioned by German intelligence officers, and then sent to Karlsruhe where he was again examined with the hope that he would give out information which would be valuable to the Germans. Here with several other prisoners, he was held for three days in a "listening hotel" where dictographs had been strung about the room. The German officers hoped that, left without guards in the room, the prisoners would talk over military matters, not knowing that the dictographs were there to record all that was said and thus reveal all to the Germans. But the prisoners expected some trick, discovered the dictographs, and pulled out the wires so that they would not work. Isaacs remained in Karlsruhe for some time, then was placed on a train with several officers and started for the prison camp at Villingen in Baden. At Karlsruhe he had been shamefully treated and he determined he should never arrive in Baden. On the train he was put in the charge of two guards and so closely was he watched that he despaired of having any chance to escape. But within five miles of his destination, he noticed that one guard became drowsy, while the other had his attention on the passing landscape. Then it was, with the train running forty miles an hour, that he jumped to his feet and dived through the little car window. He landed on his head and knees on the opposite track. Although badly stunned, he struggled to his feet and began to run. By this time the train had been stopped and the guards were pursuing, firing as they came on. Isaacs went some distance but could hardly run for he had badly injured his knees. A bullet whistled by his ear and he dropped and let the guard come up to him. Mad with rage the German kicked him, and beat him with his gun until he broke it. The rest of the guards soon came up. Then they made Isaacs walk the five miles into Baden, beating him now and then on the way. On reaching the camp he was first taken to the officers' quarters and threatened with death if he tried again to escape. After being plastered with paper bandages he was put into solitary confinement for three weeks. So poor was the prison food that had it not been for the nourishment furnished by the American Red Cross, Isaacs never would have recovered. He had been threatened with death if he tried again to escape, but he began at once to make plans and would have gained his liberty much sooner than he did, had not the Russian prisoner attendants each time betrayed his plans before he could try them. And now he and Lieutenant Willis with fourteen other men decided to try again for freedom. The prisoners were sometimes permitted to take walks with the guards about the country. In this way the men who were to escape were able to learn about the roads and the best hiding places. They managed to secure maps and compasses by bribing some of the Russian attendants. But these would only be of help when once outside the camp, and how to get out was a serious question. Some believed that the best way was to get past the guards through the big gate. To climb over the two wire fences, so heavily charged with electricity, seemed entirely impossible. But Isaacs discovered a way across that barbed wire. He had seen two of the prisoners marking out the whitewashed lines on the tennis court where the German officers played each day. The lines were made by the use of two narrow wooden boards, eighteen feet long, fastened together by crosspieces, allowing a small space of about two inches between. While the boards seemed very light, they were so fastened together that they were really quite strong. They could be made even stronger by nailing on more cross-pieces. Then they would form a sort of bridge over which the men could crawl from the barracks' windows to the outer fence, where they could drop to the ground and run from the sentinels. For months the men gathered their necessary materials together. Many of the prisoners, who were not to try to escape, were let into the secret and helped as much as they could. They drew the screws out of the doors and windows, and brought strips of wood from broken provision boxes with which to finish making the bridges. Best of all they secured three pairs of wire cutters, one from a Russian prisoner, and a second from a Russian attendant. The third pair was made by one of the prisoners. This secret collection was a constant source of danger, as the prisoners were searched nearly every day. It is said that one prisoner was given solitary confinement because a map was found sewn in the seat of his trousers. Therefore, much of the work, such as bringing the boards into the barracks and nailing the bridges together, was left until the last. A month before they were to escape, they were suspected and the guard was doubled. Still they worked on and hoped on. Their plans were nearly completed when it was suddenly announced that the camp at Villingen would be used in the future as a prison for Americans only. All other nationalities would be transferred at once to some other camp. This, the prisoners knew, would mean first a thorough searching of every corner and crevice in camp. Thus it seemed necessary to break away at once before this careful inspection should be made, or they probably could not escape at all that winter. For two days they worked steadily and carefully. Night was their best time to escape, but somehow the electric lighting system, as well as the electric current in the wire fences, must be shut off. To do this, it was necessary to find strips of wire for making short-circuiting chains. A few of these strips they cut from the fencing back of the tennis courts. Most of them, however, were taken from the steep prison roof where they were used to hold the slate tiles in place. Nearly all of these wires were drawn out, so that if a whirlwind had suddenly swept across the country, that roof would have been scattered in every direction. All this had to be done very quietly. One or two would work at it while others attracted the attention of the Germans by creating some excitement in distant corners of the camp. The night before the camp was to be inspected, the break was made. The sixteen men were divided into four groups of four each, one in each group acting as a leader. The first group, with Lieutenant Isaacs leading, was to get over the two fences from the windows by crossing on the bridges. The second group, led by Lieutenant Willis, was to cut its way through the wire fences. The third had ready some ladders made of strong rope, by which they hoped to climb over the fences. The last group intended to rush out with the guards when they ran through the gates to catch those who were jumping from the bridges. At 10:30 that night, a signal was given and everything followed like clockwork. One of the prisoners short-circuited the wires, shutting off the electric lighting system and the current in the wire fences. There was no moon, and the camp was left in utter darkness. At first the guards did not suspect anything, thinking the affair just an accident. But immediately Isaacs began cutting away the bars at the window. When this was done, the prisoners helped him and his companions to throw over their bridges. The first man got out upon this flimsy bridge and when he was half way over, the inner end of the board was pushed out farther and farther until it touched the outer fence. Reaching the end, the man sprang to the ground, the inner part of the bridge was drawn back in by the prisoners at the window, and another man crawled out. This was continued until the four men had gone. It had been decided that the lightest man in the company would try getting over the bridge first, and Lieutenant Isaacs being the lightest led his group across. When he dropped to the ground, he landed on his hands and knees not six feet from two German sentries, both of whom fired but did not even touch him. Without waiting for the others he ran into the woods to a spot two miles from camp which he and Lieutenant Willis had chosen for a meeting place, if they should get away safely. Unprepared, as always if taken by surprise, the Germans when they realized the meaning of the disturbance rushed wildly about, one officer shooting frantically straight up into the air. Willis had started cutting a way through the wires; but when his group was fired upon, they decided to change their plans and dash through the gate with the last group as best they could. Willis knew that in the darkness he might easily pass for one of the guards, so carefully had he disguised himself. He wore an old raincoat, decorated with German insignia and numerals, and a large belt-buckle, all cut out of a tin can. He carried a dummy wooden gun, bundles of food, maps, and a compass; and he wore a German cap. He expected that the gates would be opened at once, but they remained locked while the patrol went into the guardhouse to report. But as they marched back again, the gates were thrown open and Willis and the other men dashed out. They sped past the camp toward the dense forest. Willis darted off across the fields to a steep hill up which he ran, the guards firing continually at him. As he reached the summit, he turned into the forest and hastened in the direction he had agreed upon with Isaacs. He soon met him, and together they started off toward the southwest, guided by the compass they had brought with them. They did not see any of the other men, with the exception of one whom Isaacs had heard puffing and grunting past him as they ran from camp. In the darkness he had not been able to recognize him. That night they traveled about twenty-five miles. Hidden in the brush, they slept by day and traveled on again at night. It was a perilous trip through the forest, lasting eight days. Often they could only push their way backwards for long distances, through the terrible thickets. It rained and they were cold and wet. But on the eighth day they found themselves on the top of a dizzy precipice just above the Rhine. There they lay hidden until nightfall, although they were in constant danger of being discovered by German sentinels and townspeople who passed near them. When darkness came, they crawled about for two hours, seeking to find a trail that would lead them down to the river. If only they could cross the river, they were sure of safety. But wherever there was a possible way of reaching the river, there was a German sentry. Once Willis kneeled on a dry twig which snapped. In a trice a German sentinel flashed a bright pocket searchlight--but in the opposite direction. The hearts of the two men sank in fear lest having nearly gained their freedom they should again be captured. Then they decided that they must creep down by one of the little tributaries flowing into the Rhine. So they stepped into the little stream and crawled down it, feeling for loose stones that might rattle and attract the attention of the sentry. After several hours they reached the water's edge, about two o'clock in the morning. The water was freezing cold, as the streams flowing into the river come from the mountains where snow and ice are found nearly the year around. As they stood knee-deep in the water and looked across to the other shore, they doubted whether they could swim the long distance. Here the Rhine is about seven hundred feet wide. Moreover, there are many whirlpools in the river and the current itself is very swift. The men besides were tired and weak from lack of food. But they could not think of turning back, and there was no other way of getting across. So they removed their shoes and outer garments. Isaacs stood talking softly with Willis, when suddenly there was no answer to one of his questions. He moved toward the spot where Willis had been standing, but his feet went from under him and he was carried by the current out into the river. Then he knew that the same thing must have happened to Willis, and that he had not called to him for fear of being heard by the sentry. If the water was cold near the shore, it was colder in the river itself. The men had to fight hard against the current. When about halfway across, Isaacs was caught in a whirlpool which spun him round and round until it left him nearly exhausted. Just as he was thinking that he would have to give up, he made one last mighty effort and reached the shore. When he could gather himself up he discovered that he had landed on the Swiss shore, near Basel. Soon he found a family willing to get up in the middle of the night to give him food and a warm bed. One of the men started out to find Willis, but met a messenger who had been sent by Willis to find Isaacs. The messenger said that Willis had succeeded in reaching the Swiss shore, although some distance from the spot where Isaacs landed. The next day the men went on and finally walked into the French lines. They received a welcome that would warm the coldest heart, and learned that another aviator, Lieutenant George Puryear, who was also one of the men to make the break with them from the prison camp, had arrived before them. They told of the awful conditions in the German camps, of how the officers themselves did not seem to favor Prussia, and of many serious strikes which had occurred in that country, about which the Allies knew nothing. Isaacs had been treated so badly and was so exhausted that he was soon sent to London to rest, and later to his home in the United States where he landed on the day before the armistice was signed,--the first U-boat prisoner to escape. Willis was anxious to get into actual service again and make up for lost time, although he was joyfully informed that peace at last seemed near. He was obliged to wait in Paris until certain formalities were attended to, before he could fight once more. He then went to the front to study the latest improvements that had been made in airplanes during his absence, in order to take his place again in the fighting which, however, was drawing rapidly to a close. ALSACE-LORRAINE On slight pretext, Germany in 1864 and in 1866 had made wars against Denmark and Austria that might easily have been avoided. France took notice of the warlike ambitions of her neighbor and began to prepare for the war that she knew would soon come between her and Germany. The French emperor probably also desired this war, but the French people did not and France was not ready for it. The Prussian chancellor, Bismarck, was a man of "iron and blood," for only by these two forces did he believe the Germans could advance. In 1870, the Spanish Liberals expelled Queen Isabella II and offered the crown of Spain to a Hohenzollern prince. The offer was declined, but after Bismarck saw to what its acceptance might lead, he succeeded in having it renewed. Then the Emperor Napoleon informed King William that he would regard its acceptance as a sufficient ground for war against Germany. The Hohenzollern prince, however, rejected the offer and the matter might have ended here, had not Napoleon directed the French ambassador to secure from King William a promise never to permit a Hohenzollern prince to accept the Spanish crown. King William who was at Ems refused to do this and declined to give the French ambassador another interview as he was leaving Ems that night. He telegraphed an account of the affair to Bismarck who realized that here was his chance to bring on the war he desired. He changed the wording of King William's telegram in such a way that when it was given out the next day, it gave the impression to Germans that their king had been insulted by the French ambassador and to Frenchmen that their ambassador had been insulted by the king of Prussia. "There is little doubt," writes a German historian, "that, had this telegram been worded differently, the Franco-German struggle might have been avoided." French pride would not now allow France to withdraw her request, and the war that Bismarck desired became certain--a war caused by a scrap of paper on which were written German lies signed by German leaders. After reading this story of the falsity of the greatest of all Prussian statesmen, Bismarck, it does not seem strange that another scrap of paper on which the Prussian government had written lies brought England into the World War and assured the defeat of Germany. Poorly prepared, France could not stand long against the Prussian war machine. After a sharp conflict lasting about six months, the French National Assembly at Bordeaux was forced to ratify the unfair treaty which required her to pay a great indemnity in money and to give up the coveted provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, with the exception of Belfort. The beautiful country which had been the home of Jeanne d'Arc, the sacred heroine of France, was to be given over to rough and haughty bands of soldiers such as she had given her life to expel from her beloved France. But France had to choose between losing a small portion of the country, or meeting with complete destruction in war against greatly superior forces who had already destroyed the French military power. [Illustration: Jeanne d'Arc, rising in her stirrups, holds on high her sword, as if to consecrate it for a war of Right. This inspiring statue, located near Grant's Tomb on Riverside Drive, New York City, overlooks the Hudson, where it bade Godspeed to all the American soldiers and sailors going overseas to deliver France from the Hun.] One morning in that fateful year of 1871, a notice was posted in the towns and villages of Alsace and Lorraine telling the people that the next day these provinces would pass from French into German hands. In anticipation of this, petitions from these provinces had continually been sent both to France and Germany declaring deep loyalty only to France. For the last forty-eight years these glowing words have been true. "France cannot consent to it. Europe cannot sanction it. We call upon the Governments and Nations of the whole World to witness in advance that we hold null and void all acts and treaties . . . which so consent to the abandoning to the foreigner all or any part of our Provinces of Alsace and Lorraine." And their plea, drawn up and signed by the fifteen representatives to the Reichstag, is still kept at Metz. Some one has well said that it is "one of the _scraps of paper_ against which the strength of the German Empire has been broken." The Germans after hearing innumerable petitions became exasperated. They imprisoned many of the inhabitants, censored the press, and established such a strict system of passports that "a veritable Chinese wall was raised around the annexed country." And more than this, although the Germans may not always have realized that they were doing so, they humiliated the people by degrading things looked upon by them as holy. For instance, the Kaiser had a statue of himself, upturned moustache and all, placed upon the cathedral of Metz. He wore a Biblical cowl and was pointing impressively to a parchment scroll. He was supposed to represent the prophet Daniel. This statue was found headless in December, 1918. Despite the petitions, for all those years the policy of the government never varied. The chancellor, Bismarck, replied every time that Alsace-Lorraine was not annexed for the sake of the people. They could move to some section still under French control. The provinces were taken from France only to further the interest of the German Empire. "If this were a permanent peace," he said, "we would not have done it. So long as France possesses Strassburg and Metz her strategical position is stronger offensively than ours is defensively." There was going to be another war and Germany needed these provinces for military advantage! But the German government did realize more and more how bitterly opposed to the annexation were these unfortunate people, and decided to crush out everything French in Alsace-Lorraine. The people were forbidden to write or speak the French language; even the signboards at the street crossings were changed to German. How the children spent the last day that French could be taught in the schools is told by a little Alsatian boy. That morning I was very late for school, and was terribly afraid of being scolded, for M. Hamel, the schoolmaster, had said he intended to examine us on the participles, and I knew not a word about them. The thought came into my head that I would skip the class altogether, and so off I went across the fields. The weather was so hot and clear! One could hear the blackbirds whistling on the edge of the wood; in Ripperts' meadow, behind the sawyard, the Prussian soldiers were drilling. All this attracted me much more than the rules about participles; but I had the strength to resist and so I turned and ran quickly back towards the school. In passing before the town hall, I saw that a number of people were stopping before the little grating where notices are posted up. For two years past it was there we learned all the bad news, the battles lost, and the orders of the commandant; so I thought to myself without stopping: "What can it be now?" Then, as I was running across the square, the blacksmith, Wachter, who was there with his apprentice, just going to read the notice, cried out to me:-- "Don't be in such a hurry, little fellow, you will be quite early enough for your school." I thought he was making fun of me, and I was quite out of breath when I entered M. Hamel's little courtyard. Generally, at the beginning of the class, there was a great uproar which one could hear in the street; desks opened and shut, lessons studied aloud all together, with hands over ears to learn better, and the big ruler of the master tapping on the table: "More silence there." I had counted on all this commotion to gain my desk unobserved; but precisely that day all was quiet as a Sunday morning. Through the open window I could see my schoolmates already in their places, and M. Hamel, who was walking up and down with the terrible ruler under his arm. I had to open the door and enter in the midst of this complete silence. You can fancy how red I turned and how frightened I was. But no, M. Hamel looked at me without any anger, and said very gently:-- "Take your place quickly, my little Franz, we were just going to begin without you." I climbed up on the bench and sat down at once at my desk. Only then, a little recovered from my fright, I noticed that our master had on his new green overcoat, his fine plaited frill, and the embroidered black skull-cap which he put on for the inspection days or the prize distributions. Besides, all the class wore a curious solemn look. But what surprised me most of all was to see at the end of the room, on the seats which were usually empty, a number of the village elders seated and silent like the rest of us; old Hansor with his cocked hat, the former mayor, the old postman, and a lot of other people. Everybody looked melancholy; and Hansor had brought an old spelling book, ragged at the edges, which he held wide open on his knees, with his big spectacles laid across the pages. While I was wondering over all this, M. Hamel had placed himself in his chair, and with the same grave, soft voice in which he had spoken to me, he addressed us:-- "My children, it is the last time that I shall hold class for you. The order is come from Berlin that only German is to be taught in the schools of Alsace and Lorraine from now on. The new master arrives tomorrow. Today is your last lesson in French. I ask you to be very attentive." These words quite upset me. Ah, the wretches! this then was what they had posted up at the town hall. My last lesson in French! And I who hardly knew how to write. I should never learn then! I must stop where I was! How I longed now for the wasted time, for the classes when I played truant to go birds'-nesting, or to slide on the Saar! The books which I was used to find so wearisome, so heavy to carry--my grammar, my history--now seemed to me old friends whom I was very sorry to part with. The same with M. Hamel. The idea that he was going away, that I should never see him again, made me forget the punishment and the raps with the ruler. Poor man! It was in honor of this last class that he had put on his Sunday clothes, and now I understood why the elders of the village had come and seated themselves in the schoolroom. That meant that they were grieved not to have come oftener to the school. It was a sort of way of thanking our master for his forty years of good service, and of showing their respect for their country that was being taken from them. I had come as far as this in my reflections when I heard my name called. It was my turn to recite. What would I not have given to have been able to say right through that famous rule of the participles, quite loud and very clear, without a stumble; but I bungled at the first word, and stopped short, balancing myself on my bench, with bursting heart, not daring to raise my head. I heard M. Hamel speak to me:-- "I shall not scold thee, my little Franz, thou must be punished enough without that. See how it is. Every day one says, 'Bah! There is time enough. I shall learn tomorrow.' And then see what happens. Ah! that has been the great mistake of our Alsace, always to defer its lesson until tomorrow. Now those folk have a right to say to us, 'What! you pretend to be French and you cannot even speak or write your language!' In all that, my poor Franz, it is not only thou that art guilty. We must all bear our full share in the blame. Your parents have not cared enough to have you taught. They liked better to send you to work on the land or at the factory to gain a few more pence. And I too, have I nothing to reproach myself with? Have I not often made you water my garden instead of learning your lessons? And when I wanted to fish for trout, did I ever hesitate to dismiss you?" Then from one thing to another M. Hamel began to talk to us about the French language, saying that it was the most beautiful language in the world, the clearest, the most forceful; that we must guard it among us and never forget it, because when a people falls into slavery, as long as it holds firmly to its own tongue, it holds the key of its prison. Then he took a grammar and gave us our lesson. I was astonished to find how well I understood. All he said seemed to me so easy, so easy. I think, too, that I never listened so hard, and that he had never taken such pains to explain. One would have said that before going away the poor man wished to give us all his knowledge, to ram it all into our heads at one blow. That lesson finished, we passed to writing. For that day M. Hamel had prepared for us some quite fresh copies, on which was written in beautiful round hand: _France, Alsace, France, Alsace_. They looked like little banners floating round the class room on the rail of our desks. To see how hard every one tried! And what a silence there was! One could hear nothing but the scraping of the pens on the paper. Once some cock-chafers flew in; but nobody took any heed, not even the little ones, who worked away at their pothooks with such enthusiasm and conscientiousness as if feeling there was something French about them. On the roof of the school the pigeons cooed softly, and I thought to myself, hearing them:-- "Are they to be forced to sing in German too?" From time to time, when I raised my eyes from the page, I saw M. Hamel motionless in his chair, looking fixedly at everything round him, as if he would like to carry away in his eyes all his little schoolhouse. Think of it! For forty years he had been in the same place, in his court outside or with his class before him. Only the benches and the desks had grown polished by the constant rubbing; the walnut trees in the courtyard had grown up, and the honeysuckle, which he had planted himself, now garlanded the windows up to the roof. What a heart-break it must be for this poor man to leave all these things, and to hear his sister coming and going in the room above, packing up their boxes, for they were to go the next day--to leave the country forever. All the same, what courage he had to carry out the class to the end! After the writing we had our history lesson; then the little ones sang all together their Ba, Be, Bi, Bo, Bu. There at the end of the room, old Hansor put on his spectacles, and holding his spelling-book with both hands, he spelt the letters with them. One could see that he too did his best; his voice trembled with emotion, and it was so funny to hear him that we all wanted to laugh and cry at once. Ah! I shall always remember that class. Suddenly the clock of the church rang for noon, then for the Angelus. At the same moment, the trumpets of the Prussians returning from drill pealed out under our windows. M. Hamel rose from his chair, turning very pale. Never had he looked to me so tall. "My friends," he said, "my friends, I--I--" But something choked him. He could not finish the sentence. Then he turned to the blackboard, took a piece of chalk, and pressing with all his might, he wrote as large as he could:-- VIVE LA FRANCE[1] The determination of the people of Alsace and Lorraine not to submit to the pressure of their conquerors was made evident even up to the very day that war was declared in 1914. Von Moltke had predicted that "It will require no less than fifty years to wean the hearts of her lost Provinces from France." Notwithstanding all their efforts, the German leaders in 1890 had said, "After nineteen years of annexation, German influence has made no progress in Alsace." When the German soldiers at the beginning of the World War entered the provinces, their officers said to them, "We are now in enemy country." This remark seems all the more strange because the population of the provinces was largely German. Most of the French citizens had emigrated to France, and all the young men had left to avoid German military service and the possibility of being forced to fight France. Many Germans had moved in. Indeed if at this late day a vote had been taken, no doubt the majority would have expressed the desire to remain under German rule. But Germany still considered the country as an enemy. She knew the whole world disapproved of her seizing the provinces. Therefore it did not surprise the German government to learn that President Wilson, as one of the fourteen points to be observed in making a permanent peace for the world, gave as the eighth,-- "The wrong done to France by Prussia in 1871, in the matter of Alsace-Lorraine, which has unsettled the peace of the world for nearly fifty years should be righted." At the foot of the Vosges mountains near the Lorraine border, the American armies joined those of France. There in the Lorraine sector they fought valiantly and finally drove the enemy headlong before them through the Argonne forest, helping to make it possible for the peacemakers to gather again in the great council hall at Versailles where, nearly half a century before, France had seen the first German emperor crowned and then had been forced to sign the humiliating agreement that later became the Treaty of Frankfort. But now the tables were turned; this meeting was in answer to the plea of a defeated Germany who was to agree to return her stolen property and to make good as far as possible the wrong she had done France and the world. The statue of Strassburg in Paris had been stripped of the mourning which had covered it for nearly fifty years. Germany, as a victor, had indeed been a hard master, not caring in the least for the interests of the people in the conquered territories. How different was the spirit of the French as victors is shown in General Pétain's orders to the French armies after the signing of the armistice. [Illustration: Memorial Day, 1918, was celebrated abroad as well as at home. In Masevaux, the provisional capital of the recaptured Alsatian territory, the American troops, headed by their band, paraded through the streets. In the contingent directly behind the band you can see a delegation of American and French officers and prominent citizens.] As a piece of military literature it ranks with the soundest and the most eloquent ever delivered. In the spirit of President Lincoln's second inaugural address, "With malice towards none, with charity for all," it emphasizes a contrast which will be remembered for generations, to the everlasting shame of Germany and the glory of France. To every true American patriot it means that our armies have been fighting with the flower and chivalry of France, not for revenge, but for the overthrow of oppression, the freedom of the oppressed, and for honorable and permanent peace. To the French Armies:-- During long months you have fought. History will record the tenacity and fierce energy displayed during these four years by our country which had to vanquish in order not to die. Tomorrow, in order to better dictate peace, you are going to carry your arms as far as the Rhine. Into that land of Alsace-Lorraine that is so dear to us, you will march as liberators. You will go further: all the way into Germany to occupy lands which are the necessary guarantees of just reparation. France has suffered in her ravaged fields and in her ruined villages. The freed provinces have had to submit to intolerable, vexatious, and odious outrages, but you are not to answer these crimes by the commission of violences, which, under the spur of your resentment, may seem to you legitimate. You are to remain under discipline and to show respect to persons and property. You will know, after having vanquished your adversary by force of arms, how to impress him further by the dignity of your attitude, and the world will not know which to admire more, your conduct in success or your heroism in fighting. I address a fond and affectionate greeting to our dead, whose sacrifices gave us the victory. And I send a message of salutation, full of sad affection, to the fathers, to the mothers, to the widows and orphans of France, who, in these days of national joy, dry their tears for a moment to acclaim the triumph of our arms. I bow my head before your magnificent flags. Vive la France! (Signed) PETAIN. [1] Translated from the French of Alphonse Daudet. THE CALL TO ARMS IN OUR STREET There's a woman sobs her heart out, With her head against the door, For the man that's called to leave her, --God have pity on the poor! But it's beat, drums, beat, While the lads march down the street, And it's blow, trumpets, blow, Keep your tears until they go. There's a crowd of little children That march along and shout, For it's fine to play at soldiers Now their fathers are called out. So it's beat, drums, beat; And who will find them food to eat? And it's blow, trumpets, blow, Oh, it's little children know. * * * * * There's a young girl who stands laughing, For she thinks a war is grand, And it's fine to see the lads pass, And it's fine to hear the band. So it's beat, drums, beat, To the fall of many feet; And it's blow, trumpets, blow, God go with you where you go. W. M. LETTS. THE KAISER'S CROWN (VERSAILLES, JANUARY 18, 1871) The wind on the Thames blew icy breath, The wind on the Seine blew fiery death, The snow lay thick on tower and tree, The streams ran black through wold and lea; As I sat alone in London town And dreamed a dream of the Kaiser's crown. Holy William, that conqueror dread, Placed it himself on his hoary head, And sat on his throne with his nobles about, And his captains raising the wild war-shout; And asked himself, 'twixt a smile and a sigh, "Was ever a Kaiser so great as I?" From every jewel, from every gem In that imperial diadem, There came a voice and a whisper clear-- I heard it, and I still can hear-- Which said, "O Kaiser great and strong, God's sword is double-edged and long!" "Aye," said the emeralds, flashing green-- "The fruit shall be what the seed has been-- His realm shall reap what his hosts have sown; Debt and misery, tear and groan, Pang and sob, and grief and shame, And rapine and consuming flame!" "Aye," said the rubies, glowing red-- "There comes new life from life-blood shed; And though the Goth o'erride the Gaul. Eternal justice rides o'er all! Might may be Right for its own short day, But Right is Might forever and aye!" "Aye," said the diamonds, tongued with fire; "Grief tracks the pathways of desire. Our Kaiser, on whose head we glow, Takes little heed of his people's woe, Or the deep, deep thoughts in the people's brain That burn and throb like healing pain. "Thinks not that Germany, joyous now, Cares naught for the crown upon his brow, But much for the Freedom--wooed, not won-- That must be hers ere all is done,-- That gleams, and floats, and shines afar, A glorious and approaching star!" "Aye!" said they all, with one accord, "He is the Kaiser, King, and Lord; But kings are small, the people great; And Freedom cometh, sure, though late-- A stronger than he shall cast him down!" This was my dream of the Kaiser's crown. CHARLES MACKAY--1871. THE QUALITY OF MERCY There is an old saying, "Like king, like people," which means that the king is usually not very different from the people whose executive he is. If this is true of kings, it surely must be true of American presidents. With this in mind, contrast the German Kaiser, William II, with Abraham Lincoln. The first constantly talked of himself and God as ruling the world. Boastfully declaring that he was the greatest of all men and that he ruled by divine right, the former German emperor brought upon the world the greatest evil that has ever befallen it through selfish ambition for himself, his family, and for the German autocracy; the other claiming to be a common man, a servant of men, seeking no riches, no throne, no personal power, entirely unselfish, gave his life at last to save a united democracy. Shall we not say that Lincoln served by the right of the divine qualities in him, while the Kaiser turned the world into a hell because of the selfish aims of his nature--aims that are just the opposite of divine? During the American Civil War, Mrs. Bixby, a Massachusetts mother, lost five sons. President Lincoln wrote her the following letter:-- "I have been shown in the files of the War Department a statement of the Adjutant General of Massachusetts that you are the mother of five sons who have died gloriously on the field of battle. I feel how weak and fruitless must be any words of mine which should attempt to beguile you from the grief of a loss so overwhelming. But I cannot refrain from tendering to you the consolation that may be found in the thanks of the Republic they died to save. I pray that our Heavenly Father may assuage the anguish of your bereavement and leave you only the cherished memory of the loved and lost, and the solemn pride that must be yours to have laid so costly a sacrifice upon the altar of freedom." During the World War, Frau Meter, a German mother, lost nine sons. Kaiser William wrote her the following letter:-- "His Majesty the Kaiser hears that you have sacrificed nine sons in defense of the Fatherland in the present war. His Majesty is immensely gratified at the fact, and in recognition is pleased to send you his photograph, with frame and autograph signature." Is it necessary to add a word to make one who reads the two letters understand the difference between the two rulers and the two ideals they represent? God is man's highest ideal of good. Which represents this ideal, Lincoln or the Kaiser? The United States or Germany? A poet says of the Kaiser's letter:-- "What bit of writing plainer tells That neither love nor mercy dwells Within his heart? What picture grim Could better paint the soul of him?" The Kaiser was reported to have said that no family in Germany had escaped loss. Perhaps he was "gratified" at this as he was at the fact that Frau Meter had lost nine sons. One family in Germany lost neither father nor any one of the six adult sons,--the family of Kaiser William II. Certainly no other family in Germany of such a size escaped loss. Would the Kaiser have felt equally "gratified" if his six sons had given up their lives in fighting Germany's war of plunder and conquest? In the last days of the war, American soldiers found upon a German prisoner a postal card with a picture of Quentin Roosevelt lying dead beside his airplane. Below was printed in German the statement that America was so short of fliers, that she had to use her presidents' sons. Germans could not understand that in America the presidents' sons would be the first to offer their services and for work of the most dangerous kind. The sons of the Kaiser were carefully kept out of danger. THE REALLY INVINCIBLE ARMADA The northern coast of Scotland is about as far north as the southern point of Greenland and nearly all of Norway lies still nearer the pole. Across the stretch of ocean between Scotland and Norway, a distance of about three hundred miles, for over four years the English navy kept guard, summer and winter. After the United States entered the war, the entire distance was protected also by mines. The hardships suffered by the crews of these blockading ships during the terrible winters in that northern latitude can never be fully appreciated by any one who did not have to endure them and overcome them. This called for courage of the highest order, and the British sailors proved again, as they have so many times in the past, that they possessed it. For thirty to forty days, each blockading ship kept the seas and then returned to port for a short period of rest. When on blockade, the men were frequently on duty on deck for twenty hours at a time wet through to the skin; they then went below to their berths for a few hours' sleep, to be followed by twenty hours more of duty on deck. "Blow high, blow low, rain, hail, or snow, mines or submarines," said one of them, "we have to go through it." A suspicious vessel is sighted, headed for Norway, Denmark, or Holland. She must be hailed, stopped, and boarded to make sure she is not carrying cotton or rubber, or other contraband of war intended for Germany. No matter how rough the sea or what the temperature, this duty must be done. "We have just crawled into port again," wrote an officer; "what fearful weather it has been, nothing but gales, rain and snow, with rough seas. Two nights out of the last four were terrible and for the last fortnight it seems to have been one incessant gale, sometimes from the east, and then, for a change, from the west, with rain all the time. The strictest lookout must be kept at all times, as with the rough seas that are going now, a submarine's periscope takes a bit of spotting, likewise a floating mine, the lookout hanging on to the rigging in blinding rain, with seas drenching over them for hours at a time, peering into the darkness." W. Macneile Dixon gives the following vivid account of the work of the British navy. "So it goes, and none save these who know the sea can form a picture or imagine at all the unrelaxing toil and strain aboard these ocean outposts that link northern with southern climes and draw their invisible barrier across the waters. The sea, if you would traffic with her, demands a vigilance such as no landsman dreams of, but here you have men who to the vigilance of the mariner have added that of the scout, who to the sailor's task have added the sentry's, and on an element whose moods are in ceaseless change, today bright as the heavens, tomorrow murky as the pit. "To this rough duty in northern seas what greater contrast than that other in southern, the naval bombardment of the Dardanelles? How broad and various the support given by the British fleet to the Allies can thus be judged. Separated each from the other by some thousands of miles, the one fleet spread over leagues of ocean, kept every ship its lonely watch, while the bombarding vessels, concentrated in imposing strength, attempted to force a passage through a channel, the most powerfully protected in the world. Unsuccessfully, it is true, but in the grand manner of the old and vanished days when war had still something of romance, and was less the hideous thing it has become. "We have here at least a standard by which to measure the doings of Britain on the sea. For remember the attempt upon the Dardanelles, with all the strength and energy displayed in it, must be thought of as no more than a minor episode in the work of the navy, not in any way vital to the great issue. It was not the first nor even the second among the tasks allotted to it. For while, first of all, the great vessels under the commander-in-chief paralyzed the activities of the whole German navy, while second in importance, the cruising patrols held all the doors of entrance and exit to the German ports, still another fleet of great battleships remained free to conduct so daring an adventure as the attempt upon the Dardanelles. Nor was this all, for, when the unsupported fleet could do no more, another heroic undertaking was planned upon which fortune beguilingly smiled--the landing on the historic beaches of Gallipoli. "Take, first, the attempt of the ships upon the Straits. In the light of failure no doubt it must be written down a military folly. Ships against forts had long been held a futile and unequal contest. But it was not the forts that saved Constantinople. In the narrow gulf leading to the Sea of Marmora no less than eight mine fields zigzagged their venomous coils across the channel. The strong, unchanging current of the Dardanelles, flowing steadily south, carried with it all floating mines dropped in the upper reaches. Torpedo tubes ranged on the shore discharged their missiles halfway across the Straits. Before warships could enter these waters a lane had to be swept and kept. Daily, therefore, the minesweepers steamed ahead of the fleet to clear the necessary channel. But when thus engaged they became the target of innumerable and hidden guns, secluded among the rocks, in gullies and ruins and behind the shoulders of the hills, in every fold of the landscape. To 'spot' these shy, retiring batteries was of course imperative, but when spotted they vanished to some other coign of vantage, equally inconspicuous, and continued to rain fire upon the minesweepers. The warships poured cataracts of shell along the shores and among the slopes, the sea trembled, and the earth quaked. Amid the devastating uproar the trawlers swept and grappled and destroyed the discovered mines, but almost as fast as they removed them others were floated down to fill their places. Ships that ventured too far in support of the sweepers, like the _Bouvet_ and the _Triumph_, perished; the waterways were alleys of death. Progress indeed was made, but progress at a cost too heavy, and wisdom decreed the abandonment of the original plan. "There remained another way. An army landed on the peninsula might cross the narrow neck of land, demolish the batteries, and free the minesweepers from their destructive fire. Could that be done, it was thought the ships might yet force a passage into the broader waters and approach within easy range of the Turkish capital. After long and fatal delay the attempt was made. What might have been easily accomplished a month or two earlier had increased hour by hour in difficulty. Warned in good time of the coming danger, the Turks converted Gallipoli, a natural fortress, into a position of immeasurable strength. With consuming energy, in armies of thousands, they worked with pick and shovel till every yard of ground commanding a landing place was trench or rifle pit or gun emplacement. An impenetrable thicket of barbed wire ran up and down and across the gullies, stretched to the shore and netted the shallow waters of the beach itself. Then when all that man could do was done, they awaited the British attack in full confidence that no army, regiment, or man could land on that peninsula and live. "No more extraordinary venture than this British landing on a naked beach within point-blank range of the most modern firearms can be read in history or fable. It was a landing of troops upon a foreign shore thousands of miles from home, hundreds from any naval base. Without absolute command of the sea, it could not have been so much as thought of. Men, guns, food, ammunition, even water had to be conveyed in ships and disembarked under the eyes of a hostile army, warned, armed, alert, and behind almost impregnable defenses. "To conceive the preposterous thing was itself a kind of sublime folly; to accomplish it, simply and plainly stated, a feat divine. Though a thousand pens in the future essay the task no justice in words can ever be done to the courage and determination of the men who made good that landing. Put aside for a moment the indisputable fact that the whole gigantic undertaking achieved in a sense nothing whatever. View it only as an exploit, a martial achievement, and it takes rank as the most amazing feat of arms that the world has ever seen or is likely to see. That at least remains, and as that, and no less than that, with the full price of human life and treasure expended, it goes upon the record, immortal as the soul of man. And nothing could be more fitting than that an accomplishment which dims the glory of all previous martial deeds, which marks the highest point of courage and resolution reached by Britain in all her wars, should have been carried through by British, Irish, and Colonial troops, representatives of the whole empire under the guidance and protecting guard, of the British fleet. "At Lemnos, for the more than Homeric endeavor on Homer's sea, lay an assemblage of shipping such as no harbor had ever held. Within sight of Troy they came and went, and in the classic waters ringed round by classic hills waited for the day, a great armada, line upon line of black transports, crowded with the finest flower of modern youth, and beyond them, nearer the harbor mouth, the long, projecting guns and towering hulls of the warships. On April 24th they sailed, while, amid tempests of cheering, as the anchors were got and the long procession moved away, the bands of the French vessels played them to the Great Endeavor. There is no need to tell again the story of the arrival, the stupendous uproar of the bombardments, so that men dizzy with it staggered as they walked, the slaughter in the boats and on the bullet-torn shingle, the making good of the landings and all the subsequent battles on that inhuman coast. They will be told and retold while the world lasts. And now that all is over, the chapter closed, the blue water rippling undisturbed which once was white with a tempest of shrapnel, now that all is over, the armies and the ships withdrawn, and one reflects upon the waste of human life, the gallant hearts that beat no longer, the prodigal expenditure of thought and energy and treasure, there should perhaps mingle with our poignant regret and disappointment no sense of exultation. Yet it surges upward and overcomes all else. For our nature is so molded that it can never cease to admire such doings, the more perhaps if victory be denied the doers. And here at least on the shell-swept beaches, among the rocks and flowery hillsides of Gallipoli, men of the British race wrote, never to be surpassed, one of the world's deathless tales. . . . "There are navies and navies. The old and fighting British navy, whose representatives keep the seas today against the king's enemies, has been heard of once or twice during the present war, but for the most part preserves a certain aristocratic and dignified aloofness from the public gaze. There is, however, another and an older navy which comes and goes under the eyes of all, as it has done any time these three or four centuries. On its six or eight thousand ships, to prove that England is Old England still, the Elizabethan mariner has come to life again, who took war very much as he took peace, unconcernedly, in his day's work. Needless to say no other nation on earth could have produced, either in numbers or quality, for no other nation possessed these men, bred to the sea and the risks of the sea, born where the air is salt, who, undeterred by the hazards of war, which was none of their employ, answered their country's call as in the old Armada days. From the Chinese and Indian seas they came, from the Pacific and Atlantic trade routes, from whaling, it might be, or the Newfoundland fishing grounds or the Dogger Bank--three thousand officers and some two hundred thousand men--to supply the Grand Fleet, to patrol the waterways, to drag for the German mines, to carry the armies of the Alliance, and incidentally, to show the world, what it has perhaps forgotten, that it is not by virtue of their fighting navy that the British are a maritime people, but by virtue of an instinct amounting to genius, rooted in a very ancient and unmatched experience of shipping and the sea. The Grand Fleet is only the child of this service which was already old before the word 'Admiralty' was first employed, which made its own voyages and fought its own battles since Columbus discovered America, and before even that considerable event. These travel-worn ships formed the solid bridge across which flowed in unbroken files the men and supplies to the British and the Allied fronts. "Picture a great railroad which has for its main line a track four or five thousand miles in length, curving from Archangel in Russia to Alexandria in Egypt, a track which touches on its way the coasts of Norway, of the British Isles, of France, of Portugal, of Spain, of Italy, of Greece. Picture from this immense arc of communication branch lines longer still, diverging to America, to Africa, to India, knitting the ports of the world together in one vast railway system. That railroad system, with its engines and rolling stock, its stations and junctions, its fuel stores and offices, over which run daily and nightly the wagon loads, of food, munitions, stores for a dozen countries at war with the Central Powers, is a railroad of British ships. To dislocate, to paralyze it, Germany would willingly give a thousand millions, for the scales would then descend in her favor and victory indubitably be hers. For consider the consequences of interruption in that stream of traffic. Britain herself on the brink of starvation, her troops in France, in Egypt, in Salonica, cut off without food, without ammunition, unable to return to their homes. But for this fleet that bridges the seas, Britain could not send or use a single soldier anywhere save in defense of her own shores. India, Australia, Canada, all her dependencies would be cut off from the Mother Country, the bonds of empire immediately dissolved. Some little importance then may be attached to this matter of bridging the waterways, and some admiration extended towards the men who do it and the manner of the doing. "If you ask what have the Allies gained, take this evidence of a French writer in _Le Temps_: 'If at the beginning of the war we were enabled to complete the equipment of our army with a rapidity which has not been one of the least surprises of the German staff, we owe it to the fleet which has given us the mastery of the seas. We were short of horses. They were brought from Argentina and Canada. We were short of wool and of raw materials for our metal industries. We applied to the stockbreeders of Australia. Lancashire sent us her cottons and cloth, the Black Country its steel. And now that the consumption of meat threatens to imperil our supplies of live stock, we are enabled to avoid danger by the importation of frozen cargoes. For the present situation the mastery of the sea is not only an advantage but a necessity. In view of the fact that the greater part of our coal area is invaded by the enemy the loss of the command of the sea by England would involve more than her own capitulation. She indeed would be forced to capitulate through starvation. But France also and her new ally, Italy, being deprived of coal and, therefore, of the means of supplying their factories and military transport, would soon be at the mercy of their adversaries.' "On this command of the sea rested, then, the whole military structure of the Alliance. It opposed to Germany and her friends not the strength of a group of nations, each fighting its own battle, separate and apart, but the strength of a federation so intimately knit together as to form a single united power which has behind it the inexhaustible resources of the world. Thus the British navy riveted the Great Alliance by operations on a scale hardly imaginable, operations whose breadth and scope beggar all description, since they span the globe itself. As for the men and the spirit in which they work, let him sail on a battleship, a tramp, a liner, or a trawler, the British sailor is always the same, much as he has been since the world first took his measure in Elizabeth's days. 'Like the old sailors of the Queen and the Queen's old sailors.' "A great simplicity is his quality, with something of the child's unearthly wisdom added, and a Ulysses-like cunning in the hour of necessity, an ascetic simplicity almost like the saints', looking things in the face, so that to that fine carelessness everything, all enterprises, hazards, fortunes, shipwreck, if it come, or battle, are but the incidents of a chequered day, and his part merely to 'carry on' in the path of routine and duty and the honorable tradition of his calling. Manifestly his present business is epic and the making of epic, if he knew it; yet not knowing it he grasps things, as the epic paladins always grasp them, by the matter-of-fact, not the heroic, handle. What better stories have the poets to tell than that of Captain Parslow, a Briton if ever there was one, who, refusing to surrender, saved his ship in a submarine attack at the cost of his own life? Mortally wounded as he stood on the ship, the wheel was taken from the dying father's hand by his son, the second mate. Knocked down by the concussion of a shell that gallant son of a gallant father still held to his post and steered the vessel clear. Or have they anything better to relate than the tale of the _Ortega_ and Captain Douglas Kinneir, who, when pursued by a German cruiser of vastly greater speed, called upon his engineers and stokers for a British effort and drove his vessel under full steam, and a trifle more, into the uncharted waters of Nelson's Straits, 'a veritable nightmare for navigators,' the narrowest and ugliest of channels, walled by gloomy cliffs, bristling with reefs, rocks, overfalls, and currents, through which, by the mercy of God and his own daring, he piloted his ship in safety and gave an example to the world of what stout hearts can do. It is such men Germany supposed she could intimidate! "These are but episodes in the long roll of honor. You will find others in the quite peaceful occupation of minesweeping, or the search for mines--'fishing' the navy calls it--that the impartial German scatters to trip an enemy, perhaps a friend, an equal chance and it matters not which, an occupation for humanitarians and seekers after a quiet life. On this little business alone a thousand ships and fourteen thousand fishermen have been constantly engaged. Take the case of Lieutenant Parsons, who was blown up in his trawler, escaped with his life, and undisturbed continued to command his group of sweepers. On that day near Christmas time they blew up eight and dragged up six other mines, while, as incidents within the passage of ten crowded minutes, his own ship and another were damaged by explosions and a third destroyed! Read that short chapter of North Sea history and add this, for a better knowledge of these paths of peace, from the letter of an officer: 'Things began to move rapidly now. There was a constant stream of reports coming from aloft. "Mine ahead, Sir," "Mine on the port bow, Sir"; "There is one, Sir, right alongside," and on looking over the bridge I saw a mine about two feet below the surface and so close that we could have touched it with a boat hook. . . . After an hour at last sighted the minesweepers, which had already started work.' "One may judge of these North Sea activities from the record of a single lieutenant of the Naval Reserve who, besides attending to other matters, destroyed forty or fifty mines, twice drove off an inquisitive German Taube, attacked an equally inquisitive Zeppelin, twice rescued a British seaplane and towed it into safety; rescued in June the crew of a torpedoed trawler, sixteen men, also the crew of a sunk fishing vessel; in July assisted two steamers that had been mined, saving twenty-four of the sailors; in September assisted another steamer, rescued three men from a mined trawler, towed a disabled Dutch steamer and assisted in rescuing the passengers; in November assisted a Norwegian steamer, rescued twenty-four men, and also a Greek steamer which had been torpedoed and rescued forty. "Some day it will all be chronicled, and not the least fascinating record will be that of men who, perhaps, never fired a shot but enlarged their vision of the recesses of the enemy mind in other ways and met his craft by deeper craft, or navigated African rivers, fringed by desolate mangrove swamps, in gunboats, or hammered down the Mediterranean in East Coast trawlers, boys on their first command, or saw with their own eyes things they had believed to be fables. "'We travel about 1000 miles a week, most of it in practically unknown seas, full of uncharted coral reefs, rocks, islands, whose existence even is unknown. And by way of making things still more difficult we keep meeting floating islands. "'I always thought these things were merely yarns out of boys' adventure books. However, I have seen five, the largest about the size of a football field. They are covered with trees and palms, some of them with ripe bananas on them. They get torn away from the swampy parts of the mainland by the typhoons, which are very frequent at this time of year.' "The story of these things cannot be written here; it will fill many volumes. Here an attempt has been made to sketch merely in its broadest outlines some of the activities of British sailors during the greatest of wars. Whatever the future historian will say of the part they bore he will not minimize it, for on this pivot the whole matter turned, on this axis the great circle of the war revolved. He will affirm that, though in respect of numbers almost negligible compared with the soldiers who fought in the long series of land battles, the sailors held the central avenues, the citadel of power. "If it be possible in a single paragraph, let us set before our eyes the work of the British navy and its auxiliaries during these loud and angry years. Let us first recall the fact, that, besides the protection of Britain and her dependencies from invasion, together with the preservation of her overseas trade, to the navy was intrusted a duty it has fulfilled with equal success, the protection of the coasts of France from naval bombardment or attack--no slight service to Britain's gallant ally. Behind this barrier of the British fleet, she continued to arm and munition her armies undisturbed. Recall, too, the French colonial armies as well as our own overseas troops, escorted to the various seats of war--more than seven million men--the vital communications of the Allies, north and south, secured; the supplies and munitions--seven million tons--carried overseas; 1,250,000 horses and mules embarked, carried and disembarked; the left wing of the Belgian force supported in Flanders by bombardment; the Serbian army transferred to a new zone of war; and last, if we may call last what is really first and the mastering cause of all the rest, Germany's immense navy fettered in her ports. Bring also to mind that fifty or sixty of her finest war vessels have been destroyed, besides many Austrian and Turkish; five or six million tons of the enemy's mercantile marine captured or driven to rust in harbor; her trade ruined, a strict blockade of her ports established which impoverishes day by day her industrial and fighting strength; hundreds of thousands of Germans overseas prevented from joining her armies; her wireless and coaling stations over all the world and her colonial empire, that ambitious and costly fabric of her dreams, cut off from the Fatherland and brought helplessly to the ground. "When all this has been passed in review dwell for a moment on the matter reversed--but for the British fleet Germany's will would now be absolute, her emperor the master of the world." "I KNEW YOU WOULD COME" We are all very proud that America was permitted to have a share in the holiest defensive war ever known. Then let us also remember that our share in it was largely made possible by England. While we hesitated, considered, debated, who was it that maintained the freedom of the seas and kept inviolate our coasts? The great, gallant, modest navy of Great Britain. Despite her desperate need of us England uttered no reproaches, and she never seemed to doubt our final decision. It recalls an incident which I discussed with British officers as I stood with them in a concealed observation post on a summit of Vimy Ridge in September. On a dark night a raid on the German trenches was made, and in the party were two brothers, English lads. The raid was successful, but when the men returned one of the brothers was missing. The other pleaded for permission to return and bring him in. The colonel refused on the ground that the attempt would be both dangerous and fruitless. Finally, he yielded to the lad's passionate pleading, and the young soldier crawled out into No Man's Land, returning a half hour later with a machine gun bullet in his shoulder, yet gently carrying the brother, whose spirit rose to the ranks of the greater army just as they reached the trench. "You see, my boy," said the colonel, "it was useless, your brother is gone, and you are wounded." "No, colonel," replied the lad, "it was not useless. I had my reward, for just as I found him out there, he said, 'Is that you, Tom? I knew you would come.'" This seems a fitting moment not only to thank God that we came in time to be of service, but to thank England for her patience and her confidence which have never failed. If after entering the war we are gratified at placing two million men quickly upon the battlefield, let us remember that nearly 1,200,000 of them were transported in British vessels and convoyed by British warships. America is beginning to know England. We honored her before; we felt the tie of blood and speech; we were grateful to her for most of our best. But we never knew England as we know her now. That first hundred thousand that gladly flung their lives away for righteousness' sake; the happy lads of Oxford and Cambridge who gave their joyous youth that joy might not depart from earth; the colonials who came from the ends of the world that the old mother might live, and that honor and justice should not perish; these have added brighter pages to England's records of glory. Today one knows England better and one is very proud to be her ally. For the light which shines from England is steadfast faithfulness to plighted honor, to the safety of her children, and to those ideals of civilization of which she has for centuries been the chief and responsible custodian. REV. ERNEST M. STIPES, D.D. From _The Churchman_, N. Y. THE SEARCHLIGHTS _Political morality differs from individual morality, because there is no power above the State_.--GENERAL VON BERNHARDI. Shadow by shadow, stripped for fight, The lean black cruisers search the sea. Night-long their level shafts of light Revolve and find no enemy. Only they know each leaping wave May hide the lightning and their grave. And, in the land they guard so well, Is there no silent watch to keep? An age is dying; and the bell Rings midnight on a vaster deep; But over all its waves once more The searchlights move from shore to shore. And captains that we thought were dead, And dreamers that we thought were dumb, And voices that we thought were fled Arise and call us, and we come; And "Search in thine own soul," they cry, "For there, too, lurks thine enemy." Search for the foe in thine own soul, The sloth, the intellectual pride, The trivial jest that veils the goal For which our fathers lived and died; The lawless dreams, the cynic art, That rend thy nobler self apart. Not far, not far into the night These level swords of light can pierce: Yet for her faith does England fight, Her faith in this our universe, Believing Truth and Justice draw From founts of everlasting law. Therefore a Power above the State, The unconquerable Power, returns. The fire, the fire that made her great, Once more upon her altar burns. Once more, redeemed and healed and whole, She moves to the Eternal Goal. ALFRED NOYES FIGHTING A DEPTH BOMB All who have read of the sinking of the _Lusitania_, by a torpedo, shot from a German U-boat, realize the terribly destructive force of this modern weapon of war, but many do not know that the depth bomb is even more destructive and must be handled with much greater care to be sure that it does not explode accidentally or prematurely. The bomb usually contains from 100 to 500 pounds of tri-nitro-toluol, or T.N.T., as it is usually called, the most powerful of all explosives. The explosion of a ship loaded with it in Halifax harbor, December 6, 1917, caused almost as great a loss of life and property as a volcanic eruption. When the 500 pounds of T.N.T. is exploded it changes suddenly into nearly 80,000 cubic feet of gas. Now this amount of gas will fill a room 160 feet long, 25 feet wide, and 20 feet high. When the bomb explodes under the water the gas must find room somewhere, and with tremendous force it pushes the water in all directions. If a hollow submarine is near the point of the explosion, its walls will give way easier than the water around it and it is crushed like an empty egg shell. Only very swift boats should drop the depth bombs from their sterns, for the boat must be moving at a rate of at least twenty-five miles an hour to be sure to escape damage from the bombs dropped behind her. John Mackenzie, the hero of this story, writes in regard to the converted yachts used for dropping depth bombs in European waters as follows: "Only destroyers made speed exceeding 25 knots. There were no converted yachts operating in European waters capable of making 25 knots. A very few made 15 to 18 and the majority about 12. Of course we had to take our chances in getting away safely, although we knew that the chances were about even. That is, we were in about as much danger from our depth charges as the enemy was." His statement shows the risks that American sailors were willing to take. The bomb, of course, weighs over one hundred pounds. It is made with one end flattened, upon which it will stand, and in the early types its accidental discharge is rendered practically impossible by a sort of peg called a safety pin, which must be removed before the bomb is dropped. The use of depth bombs against the U-boats made fighting in the German submarines so dangerous and so much to be dreaded, that it is said, as the war drew to a close, all U-boat crews had to be forced into service, and that none of them expected ever to return and see their homes and friends again. In the early days of the war the bombs were carried in cradles, and later in racks or run-ways. From most of the bombs the detonator, which would fire them, was removed; but some were kept ready for instant firing, near the stern of the ship. The early type of bomb was discharged by a length of wire attached to a float. The bomb itself sank, the float remained on the surface of the water and reeled off the wire until the pull upon it discharged the bomb. It can be readily seen that the depth at which the bomb was discharged would depend upon the length of wire attached to the float. Imagine what might follow if one of these bombs, set ready for discharge, should break loose from its case in a storm at sea. Such a terrible accident did happen on the U.S.S. Remlik. The ship was groaning and tossing in a very heavy sea, for a severe storm was raging. She gave a lurch and pitched back with so much force that a wooden box, containing a depth bomb and securely fastened to the after deck, suddenly broke. The bomb rolled out of the box and began to bound back and forth across the deck as the ship lurched and pitched from side to side. The crew seemed stunned, and no orders were issued for concerted action. The frightfulness of the situation was greatly increased when it was observed that the safety pin had dropped out. All expected the next time the bomb struck with force against the rail that the float section would be released and reel off enough wire to fire the detonator and utterly destroy the ship and all aboard. But Chief Boatswain's Mate, John Mackenzie of the Naval Reserve Fleet, needed no orders. He saw what should be done and did not wait for some one to order him to do it. He could not pick up the bomb in his arms and throw it overboard, for it weighed too much, and even if he could this might be the worst thing to do. The ship was laboring and barely holding her own with no headway, although the engines were turning over for 8 knots, and the bomb would no doubt have exploded directly under the ship had it gone overboard. Mackenzie had a plan, and the first step in it was to stop the bomb. He threw himself in front of it and tried to hold it by his arms and the weight of his body, but the weight and the momentum of the moving bomb were too great and he was pushed aside; but he had stopped its movement somewhat so that when it struck the rail on the other side of the deck it did not explode. He jumped for it as it bounded back from the rail and almost stopped it, but it seemed to those looking on that the hundreds of pounds of metal and explosives would roll over his body and seriously injure him. He escaped this, however, and slowed down the movement of the heavy bomb to such an extent that near the opposite rail he was able to grasp it, lying with feet and hands braced in the grating of the gun platform. Then to be sure that it did not escape him until help came, he turned it upright upon its flattened end and sat down upon the most destructive bomb used in war, on the deck, of a ship lurching at sea in a severe storm. Then other members of the crew that had been watching him as if dazed ran to his assistance, and the bomb was soon placed in safety. The commanding officer of the _Remlik_ recommended that Chief Boatswain's Mate, John Mackenzie, be awarded the Medal of Honor. The report to the Secretary of the Navy was in part as follows:-- "Mackenzie in acting as he did, exposed his life and prevented a serious accident to the ship and the probable loss of the ship and the entire crew. Had this depth charge exploded on the quarterdeck, with the sea and the wind that existed at the time, there is no doubt that the ship would have been lost." Mackenzie was awarded by the Navy Department the Medal of Honor, and a gratuity of one hundred dollars; but these awards are of little value compared with the greater reward which comes to him in the admiration and respect of all who read or hear the story of his heroic deed. THE SECOND LINE OF DEFENSE In Norwich, England, stands a memorial which will forever be visited and prized by travelers from every part of the world, and especially by the people of England and of Belgium. It is the statue erected to Edith Cavell, the British nurse who was wrongfully condemned to death for helping innocent women and children to escape from the terrible cruelties of the invading Huns. That her fine courage equals the bravery of any soldier is indicated in the sculptor's work itself. It represents a soldier of the Allies looking up toward her strong, kindly face, raising in his right hand a laurel wreath to place at one side of her, opposite the one already hung at the other. The statue is a symbol of the glorious deeds and the beautiful spirit of the women of France, England, and America, during the awful conflict. It is difficult to realize the complete revolution which took place in the lives of the women of the world when they awakened to the need for their services in connection with the war. In forsaken schoolhouses and barns, as well as in quickly erected hospitals, near the firing lines, they moved quietly in and out among the patients, administering needed medicines, bringing cheer and comfort to the long line of wounded soldiers. At unexpected moments the hospital was bombarded, making it necessary for them hurriedly to transfer their patients to some other building. During a bombardment of a large theater which had been turned into a hospital, several patients were too ill to be moved. So some of the nurses, wearing steel helmets, remained to care for these men while shells burst all around them. [Illustration: This memorial to the memory of Edith Cavell was unveiled by Queen Alexandra in Norwich, England, at the opening of the Nurse Cavell Memorial Home. The statue and the home for district nurses are constant reminders of the nurse, a brave victim of Prussian despotism, who lived a patriot and died a martyr.] Certain dressing stations in which the nurses cared for the most seriously wounded were so near the firing line that the men could be carried to them. Summoned, perhaps by a Red Cross dog, a nurse at times ventured out under the enemy's fire. In the fields or woods lay a badly injured man who must have constant care until darkness would permit bringing him in unseen by the enemy, for the Huns spared neither the wounded nor the Red Cross workers. In the operating rooms, in hospital kitchens, on hospital trains and ships, the nurses gave no thought for their own safety but worked untiringly to save the wounded. But even thousands of miles from the firing line, women were saving lives and winning the victory. There were the girls who assisted the police in the places of the men gone to fight. Gloriously they served during many an air raid over France and England, ready in the face of danger to do their full duty,--like those of Paris, who behaved so bravely that some one suggested they be mentioned in the Orders of the Day. But the commanding officer's reply only reflected the daring spirit of the girls themselves. "No," he said, "we never mention soldiers in orders for doing their duty." There were the women and girls who went to work in fireproof overalls, stopping before entering the shop to be inspected and to give up all jewelry, steel hairpins, and anything else which might cause an explosion of the munitions among which they worked. They might be seen often with their hair hanging in braids as they hurried to and fro between the different sheds, over the narrow wooden platforms, raised from the ground to prevent them from carrying in on the soles of their shoes any particles of grit, iron, steel, or glass, that might cause a spark among the high explosives. So well did these women work that near the end of the war in many places more shells were made in two weeks than previously could be made in a year. The many women, willingly risking their lives in these shops, made this work possible. In England alone, where seventy-five out of every hundred men stepped out to fight, seventy-five out of a hundred women and girls left their homes and stepped in to work or to serve. More tiresome were the long hours spent at machines in large closed factories where army blankets and clothing of all sorts were turned out for the use of the fighting men. Out on the farms the girls could be seen in overalls, plowing furrows in long, sloping fields, and planting potatoes and vegetables to help feed the world. With hard work and small pay, they too helped win the victory. One girl tells how on arriving home from work one night, she found at the house a letter from a friend. "How jolly it must be," she wrote, "and how you must be enjoying it!" That day had been particularly cold and wet and windy, but the girls had worked right through it. When they had finished, they were damp and weary and only glad that it was time for tea. "I don't feel a bit patriotic," said the girl, "and I don't care if I never plant another potato." She was an artist and found farm life very different from sitting in a quiet studio. But planting potatoes was more helpful to her country and so the next morning found her up early and ready to work again. Like this artist many women, unused to common labor, gladly left lives of ease and good times to help win the war even by drudgery. In the case of English women this was particularly true, and would have been true in America if the war had continued much longer. As it was, the women of America responded to the call of service with the same spirit which sent millions of men to the colors. Besides those positions which, left open by men going into war, were filled by women, countless services were performed by them to add to the comfort and happiness of soldiers, sailors, and marines. Knitted articles were made for the needy in the service, and for the destitute in the ravaged war countries. Not a canteen in the whole United States but has seen the untiring devotion of weary workers who whole-heartedly sacrificed their time and household comforts. In Europe the Salvation Army "lassies" worked in the trenches themselves. Hospitals everywhere have been made more grateful sanctuaries by the tender reassurance of the American nurse. As if by one voice the fighters of the nation unite in praise and appreciation of all the women who by their help made the second line of defense. [Illustration: Somewhere in France these Salvation Army "lassies" are baking pies and "doughnuts for the doughboys." Their kitchen is set up in a part of the trenches under constant fire from the German guns. You can see their "box respirators," or gas-masks, worn at the "alert" position. Home cooking for the soldiers made home itself seem not so far away after all!] U. S. DESTROYER _OSMOND C. INGRAM_ If you were standing on the deck of a patrol boat watching for submarines and, looking down at the water, suddenly perceived a torpedo coming directly toward you and knew it would strike the boat beneath your feet in a few seconds, what would you do? A bullet or a cannon ball moves so swiftly that it is not seen. If it is coming straight for you, you only know your danger when it is over and you lie wounded; or your friends know it when it is too late. But a moving torpedo can be seen, and for some seconds one may stand and know a terrible explosion and probable death are approaching him. On October 14, 1917, the United States destroyer _Cassin_ was on duty looking for German submarines. After many hours scouting, a U-boat was discovered five or six miles away, and the _Cassin_ made all speed in its direction; but the U-boat perceived its danger and submerged. The _Cassin_ cruised around for some time, for the U-boat could not be far away and might come to the surface at any moment; but no periscope was to be seen. The patrol boat kept steaming in zigzag lines so that the U-boat would find it more difficult to strike her with a torpedo. Before an hour had passed, the commander of the _Cassin_ discovered the wake of a torpedo, a moving line of white on the surface of the ocean, and knew that in a few seconds the torpedo would strike his boat amidships. To avoid this he ordered full steam ahead, hoping perhaps to avoid being struck at all, and at least not amidships. But he had not seen the torpedo soon enough and it was quickly apparent that it would strike the _Cassin_ on the side and near the stern. Ordinarily this would be less dangerous than if it struck amidships where it would very likely disable the engines and possibly explode the boilers, but in the case of the _Cassin_, avoiding one danger only brought another and a more serious one, for piled on the deck near the stern were boxes of high explosives which would be set off by the striking of the torpedo. Some of the crew had been watching the approach of the torpedo. Most of them were forward and would escape the terrible danger at the stern of the boat. But Gunner's Mate, O. C. Ingram, did not hurry forward; he rushed aft and began to throw overboard the boxes of explosives. He did not stop to see how near the torpedo had come and how much time he had; he simply set to work to save the boat and her crew. Just as he hurled the last box from his hand, the torpedo struck the _Cassin_ with a terrible explosion, throwing Ingram far overboard into the sea. The torpedo had struck the destroyer near the stern, and blew off about thirty feet of the boat. It disabled one of the engines, and the steering gear, but the after bulkhead kept out the water and the destroyer was later towed to port and repaired. Had the explosives not been thrown overboard, the _Cassin_ would doubtless have been sunk and few if any of her crew saved. As it was, Gunner's Mate Ingram was the only one to lose his life, for he drowned before help was able to reach him. The _Cassin_ did not attempt, even after this experience, to get to safety, but remained watching for the reappearance of the submarine. When the U-boat finally came to the surface, she was greeted with several shots from the _Cassin_ and suddenly sank, or submerged. It is thought she was damaged and possibly destroyed. The Secretary of the Navy, Josephus Daniels, sent the following letter to the commander, the other officers, and the crew of the _Cassin_:-- "The Department has received the report of the action between the U. S. S. _Cassin_ and a German submarine on October 15, 1917, and notes with gratification the highly commendable conduct of yourself, the other officers, and the crew of the _Cassin_. The manner in which the _Cassin_ was kept under way with her steering-gear disabled and practically at the mercy of the submarine, and opened fire on her when she appeared, is well worthy of the best traditions of the Navy." [Illustration: The U. S. Destroyer _Fanning_ with depth bombs stored in run-ways on the after deck. These may be instantly released and dropped over the stern. (Refer to page 152.) The high explosives stored in crates on the after deck of the _Cassin_ were in the same general location as the above, but not primed for action.] Sometime later Secretary Daniels told the following story of the naming of a new and very fast destroyer:-- "Awhile ago I was asked to give a name to a new destroyer. I took up first the names of the great admirals, and then the great captains, and all the American heroes of the sea, and all were worthy. And then I thought of Osmond C. Ingram, second-class gunner's mate on the destroyer _Cassin_. I thought of the night when he was on watch and saw a U-boat's torpedo headed for his ship. He was standing near the place where the high explosives were stored, and the torpedo was headed for that spot. In a flash he was engaged in hurling overboard those deadly explosives, which would have destroyed the ship if they remained on board, and he managed to get rid of enough of them to save the lives of all the officers and sailors on board, but he lost his own life. So I named the newest and finest addition to the American navy the _Osmond C. Ingram_." JOYCE KILMER The first poet and author in the American army to give up his life for the cause of freedom was Joyce Kilmer. Like Alan Seeger, another American poet who fell fighting in the Foreign Legion of France, Joyce Kilmer greatly loved life. He loved the flowers and birds and trees. Probably his finest poem is one which he wrote about trees. He loved the people around him, impatient only with those who did not love and make the most of the life that God had given them. He loved children, and simple everyday things, as he shows in one of his latest poems, "The Snowman in the Yard." "But I have something no architect or gardener ever made, A thing that is shaped by the busy touch of little mittened hands; And the Judge would give up his lovely estate, where the level snow is laid, For the tiny house with the trampled yard, the yard where the snowman stands." After his graduation from Columbia University in 1908, he became a teacher of Latin in the high school at Morristown, New Jersey, his home state. He seemed but a lad himself,--tall, with stern, dark eyes, a clear, musical voice, and a winning smile. Jovial, gracious, and gentlemanly in his manners, he made many friends both in his home state and in New York, where he soon took his wife and little son to live. In college he had written some poetry. In New York he hoped to write more. He began his career there as editor of a journal for horsemen. But he did not remain at this work long. He became in turn a salesman in a large New York book store, an assistant editor, and then an editor. When the war broke out, he was a member of the staff of the _New York Times_. He had written several poems, and prose articles for popular magazines and periodicals. At the age of twenty-five he was widely known, enough of a celebrity, in fact, to have his name appear in "Who's Who in America." He liked adventure, as does any American youth. He was always glad to visit a friend who had met with an accident or any other unusual circumstance. He found himself in what he considered an interesting and entertaining predicament when in New York he was struck by a train and had to be carried to a hospital. "Such things did not happen every day," he said, and he took the experience in good humor. Soon after landing in France, he wrote a description of a long march made by his regiment. At the end of the march, the men were too weary even to spread out their blankets, but dropped down to rest on the floor of the loft in the French peasant home where they were billeted for the night. But even that experience was new and interesting. Later, when the men were somewhat rested, they missed one of their mates, and on going down stairs found him with his frozen feet in a tub of cold water furnished him by the peasant woman. The little girl of the home was on his knees, and the two boys were standing beside him--as Joyce Kilmer described them--"_envying_ him" his frozen feet. He also found interesting work at the front, in connection with the trench newspaper, _The Stars and Stripes_. At the dawn of a dark and misty Sunday morning in July, his regiment was ordered to charge across the river Ourcq and take the hill beyond, from where the enemy's machine guns were pouring down a withering rain of bullets. His own battalion, he learned, was not to be in the lead. So he promptly asked and obtained permission to join the leading battalion. Across the river they charged and for five days fought for the heights. But Joyce Kilmer was not there to witness the victory. In the fiercest battles, the bravest officers often go before and lead their men into the fight, thus encouraging them more than if following them or charging at their side. The fight beyond the Ourcq was a fierce one, and the chief officer dashed on ahead of his men. Touching elbows with him was Sergeant Kilmer. When the battalion adjutant was killed, he served, although without a commission, as a sort of aid to the battalion commander. To the very heights he rushed, and threw himself down at a little ridge where he might peer over and seek out the hidden enemy machine gun battery. It was there, lying as if still scouting, that his comrades found him, so like his living self that they did not at first think him dead. They buried him at the edge of a little wood, called the Wood of the Burned Bridge, close to the rippling waters of the Ourcq, and at the foot of the unforgetable hill. Deep and keen was the loss felt by his comrades and his officers. From their pockets many of the men drew forth verses written by the poet about some incident in the trenches or some comrade who had been lost. One of the poems to a lost soldier was read over the poet's grave. A refrain, supposed to be sounded by the bugle, is repeated through the verses, and as these lines were read the sad notes of "taps" sounded faintly from the grove. On his little wooden cross were written the simple words: "Sergeant Joyce Kilmer," then his company and regiment, and "Killed in Action, July 30, 1918." But Joyce Kilmer and his verses will long live in the minds and hearts, not only of his comrades in battle, but of all Americans. Such a buoyant, happy life does not seem to have passed away. Some beautiful tributes to him, written by other American poets, express this thought. One friend at the news of Kilmer's death was reminded of his poem, "Main Street." "God be thanked for the Milky Way that runs across the sky; That is the path my feet would tread whenever I have to die. Some folks call it a Silver Sword, and some a Pearly Crown, But the only thing I think it is, is Main Street, Heaventown." Then the friend touchingly added, "Perhaps Seeger and Kilmer are strolling down Main Street together tonight." ******************* TREES I think that I shall never see A poem lovely as a tree. A tree whose hungry mouth is prest Against the earth's sweet flowing breast; A tree that looks at God all day, And lifts her leafy arms to pray; A tree that may in summer wear A nest of robins in her hair; Upon whose bosom snow has lain; Who intimately lives with rain. Poems are made by fools like me, But only God can make a tree. JOYCE KILMER. BLOCKING THE CHANNEL Bruges is an important city of Belgium made familiar to American boys and girls by Longfellow's beautiful poem, "The Belfry of Bruges." He describes what "the belfry old and brown" has seen. "Till the bell of Ghent responded o'er lagoon and dike of sand, 'I am Roland! I am Roland! there is victory in the land.'" What a terrible story the historian or poet will have to tell who narrates what the belfry of Bruges has seen during the fifty-two months of the World War, a year, we may call it, in which each week had become a month. The port of Bruges, called Zeebrugge or Bruges on the Sea, lies not far from the city, at the mouth of a maritime canal. The entrance to this canal was protected by a great crescent-shaped mole thirty feet high inclosing the harbor. The Germans in the shipbuilding yards at Antwerp built small warships and submarines and sent them over the canals across Belgium to Ostend and Zeebrugge, from where they went out to destroy Allied shipping. The English determined to put an end to this and on the night of April 22, 1918, an expedition was sent to block the channel and to destroy as far as possible the mole which protected it. It has been said that it was "one of the most thrilling and picturesque of the naval operations of the war. To Americans it recalled Hobson's exploit with the Merrimack, at Santiago, while to Englishmen it brought back memories of Sir Francis Drake and his fire ships in the harbor of Cadiz." The fight lasted only an hour but the British lost 588 men, for the channel and the mole were so fully guarded with searchlights, machine guns, and artillery that such an attempt was looked upon by the Germans as foolhardy and doomed to absolute failure. A British cruiser, the _Vindictive_, in charge of Commander Alfred F. B. Carpenter, with two ferryboats, the _Daffodil_ and the _Iris_, were to escort six obsolete British cruisers filled with concrete and sand to the harbor mouths at Ostend and Zeebrugge and to sink them there in the channels. The ferryboats carried sailors and marines who were to attack and destroy the mole. It was thought that this attack would divert the attention of the defenders and make it easier to sink the concrete laden cruisers in the channel. Two old and useless submarines, filled with explosives, were to be blown up against the viaduct joining the mole and the shore. A heavy protective curtain of smoke was essential to the success of the plan. Commander Brock, who was killed during the action, planned the smoke screen and carried it out so successfully that the _Vindictive_ was able to get almost to the mole before being discovered. At Ostend the wind blew from such a direction that the smoke screen did not hide the boats and the attack there on that night was for that reason a failure. It succeeded better later, on May 9, when the battered _Vindictive_ was sunk in the channel. The following is the story of the action at Zeebrugge taken from the official report of the British Admiralty:-- "The night was overcast and there was a drifting haze. Down the coast a great searchlight swung its beam to and fro in the small wind and short sea. From the _Vindictive's_ bridge, as she headed in toward the mole, with the faithful ferryboats at her heels, there was scarcely a glimmer of light to be seen shoreward. Ahead, as she drove through the water, rolled the smoke screen, her cloak of invisibility, wrapped about her by small craft. This was the device of Wing Commander Brock, without which, acknowledges the Admiral in command, the operation could not have been conducted. "A northeast wind moved the volume of it shoreward ahead of the ships. Beyond it, was the distant town, its defenders unsuspicious. It was not until the _Vindictive_, with blue-jackets and marines standing ready for landing, was close upon the mole that the wind lulled and came away again from the southeast, sweeping back the smoke screen and laying her bare to eyes that looked seaward. "There was a moment immediately afterward when it seemed to those on the ships as if the dim, coast-hidden harbor exploded into light. A star shell soared aloft, then a score of star shells. The wavering beams of the searchlights swung around and settled into a glare. A wild fire of gun flashes leaped against the sky, strings of luminous green beads shot aloft, hung and sank. The darkness of the night was supplemented by a nightmare daylight of battle-fired guns and machine guns along the mole. The batteries ashore awoke to life. "It was in a gale of shelling that the _Vindictive_ laid her nose against the thirty-foot high concrete side of the mole, let go her anchor and signaled to the _Daffodil_ to shove her stern in. "The _Iris_ went ahead and endeavored to get alongside likewise. The fire was intense, while the ships plunged and rolled beside the mole in the seas, the _Vindictive_ with her greater draught jarring against the foundations of the mole with every lunge. They were swept diagonally by machine-gun fire from both ends of the mole and by the heavy batteries on shore. "Commander (now Captain) Carpenter commanded the _Vindictive_ from the open bridge until her stern was laid in, when he took up his position in the flame thrower hut on the port side. It is marvelous that any occupant should have survived a minute in this hut, so riddled and shattered is it. "The officers of the _Iris_, which was in trouble ahead of the _Vindictive_, describe Captain Carpenter as handling her like a picket boat. The _Vindictive_ was fitted along her port side with a high false deck, from which ran eighteen brows or gangways by which the storming and demolition parties were to land. "The men gathered in readiness on the main lower decks, while Colonel Elliott, who was to lead the marines waited on the false deck just abaft of the bridge. Captain Halahan, who commanded the blue-jackets, was amidships. The gangways were lowered, and they scraped and rebounded upon the high parapet of the mole as the _Vindictive_ rolled in the seaway. "The word for the assault had not yet been given when both leaders were killed, Colonel Elliott by a shell and Captain Halahan by machine-gun fire which swept the decks. The same shell that killed Colonel Elliott also did fearful execution in the forward Stokes mortar battery. The men were magnificent; every officer bears the same testimony. "The mere landing on the mole was a perilous business. It involved a passage across the crashing and splintering gangways, a drop over the parapet into the field of fire of the German machine guns which swept its length, and a further drop of some sixteen feet to the surface of the mole itself. Many were killed and more wounded as they crowded up the gangways, but nothing hindered the orderly and speedy landing by every gangway. "Lieutenant H. T. C. Walker had his arm shot away by shell on the upper deck, and lay in darkness while the storming parties trod him under. He was recognized and dragged aside by the commander. He raised his remaining arm in greetings. 'Good luck to you,' he called as the rest of the stormers hastened by. 'Good luck.' "The lower deck was a shambles as the commander made the rounds of the ship, yet those wounded and dying raised themselves to cheer as he made his tour. . . . "The _Iris_ had troubles of her own. Her first attempts to make fast to the mole ahead of the _Vindictive_ failed, as her grapnels were not large enough to span the parapet. Two officers, Lieutenant Commander Bradford and Lieutenant Hawkins, climbed ashore and sat astride the parapet trying to make the grapnels fast till each was killed and fell down between the ship and the wall. Commander Valentine Gibbs had both legs shot away and died next morning. Lieutenant Spencer though wounded, took command and refused to be relieved. "The _Iris_ was obliged at last to change her position and fall in astern of the _Vindictive_, and suffered very heavily from fire. A single big shell plunged through the upper deck and burst below at a point where fifty-six marines were waiting for the order to go to the gangways. Forty-nine were killed. The remaining seven were wounded. Another shell in the wardroom, which was serving as a sick bay, killed four officers and twenty-six men. Her total casualties were eight officers and sixty-nine men killed, and three officers and 103 men wounded. "Storming and demolition parties upon the mole met with no resistance from the Germans other than intense and unremitting fire. One after another buildings burst into flame or split and crumbled as dynamite went off. A bombing party working up toward the mole extension in search of the enemy destroyed several machine-gun emplacements, but not a single prisoner rewarded them. It appears that upon the approach of the ships and with the opening of fire the enemy simply retired and contented themselves with bringing machine guns to the short end of the mole." [Illustration: One of the camouflaged guns of the German shore batteries which raked with fire the _Vindictive_, the _Daffodil_, and the _Iris_ when they grappled with the mole, during the night raid. The outer end of this mole, where a viaduct joins the mole to the shore, was destroyed for a distance of sixty to one hundred feet by an old British submarine, loaded with high explosives, running into the channel and blowing itself up at the entrance.] The story of the three block ships that were to be sunk in the channel at Zeebrugge, also from the report of the British Admiralty, is as follows:-- "The _Thetis_ came first, steaming into a tornado of shells from great batteries ashore. All her crew, save a remnant who remained to steam her in and sink her, already had been taken off her by a ubiquitous motor launch, but the remnant spared hands enough to keep her four guns going. It was hers to show the road to the _Intrepid_ and the _Iphigenia_, which followed. She cleared a string of armed barges which defends the channel from the tip of the mole, but had the ill fortune to foul one of her propellers upon a net defense which flanks it on the shore side. "The propeller gathered in the net, and it rendered her practically unmanageable. Shore batteries found her and pounded her unremittingly. She bumped into the bank, edged off, and found herself in the channel again still some hundreds of yards from the mouth of the canal in practically a sinking condition. As she lay she signaled invaluable directions to others, and her commander, R. S. Sneyed, also accordingly blew charges and sank her. Motor launches under Lieutenant Littleton raced alongside and took off her crew. Her losses were five killed and five wounded. "The _Intrepid_, smoking like a volcano and with all her guns blazing, followed. Her motor launch failed to get alongside outside the harbor, and she had men enough for anything. Straight into the canal she steered, her smoke blowing back from her into the _Iphigenia's_ eyes, so that the latter was blinded, and, going a little wild, rammed a dredger, with her barge moored beside it, which lay at the western arm of the canal. She was not clear, though, and entered the canal pushing the barge before her. It was then that a shell hit the steam connections of her whistle, and the escape of the steam which followed drove off some of the smoke and let her see what she was doing. "Lieutenant Stuart Bonham Carter, commanding the _Intrepid_, placed the nose of his ship neatly on the mud of the western bank, ordered his crew away, and blew up his ship by switches in the chart room. Four dull bumps were all that could be heard, and immediately afterward there arrived on deck the engineer, who had been in the engine room during the explosion, and reported that all was as it should be. "Lieutenant E. W. Bullyard Leake, commanding the _Iphigenia_, beached her according to arrangements on the eastern side, blew her up, saw her drop nicely across the canal, and left her with her engines still going, to hold her in position till she should have bedded well down on the bottom. According to the latest reports from air observation, two old ships, with their holds full of concrete, are lying across the canal in a V position, and it is probable that the work they set out to do has been accomplished and that the canal is effectively blocked. A motor launch, under Lieutenant P. T. Deane, had followed them in to bring away the crews and waited further up the canal toward the mouth against the western bank. "Lieutenant Bonham Carter, having sent away his boats, was reduced to a Carley float, an apparatus like an exaggerated life-buoy, with the floor of a grating. Upon contact with the water it ignited a calcium flare and he was adrift in the uncanny illumination with a German machine gun a few hundred yards away giving him its undivided attention. What saved him was possibly the fact that the defunct _Intrepid_ still was emitting huge clouds of smoke which it had been worth nobody's while to turn. He managed to catch a rope, as the motor launch started, and was towed for a while till he was observed and taken on board." A short time after the attack, the Kaiser visited Zeebrugge and gave out the statement that practically no damage had been done and that the channel was still clear. But then an Allied airplane flew over the channel and the mole and secured photographs showing two cruisers sunk in the channel just as had been planned, and effectively blocking it, and also a break in the viaduct sixty to one hundred feet in length. "Only another German lie, this time indorsed by the Kaiser," declared the British papers. A leading German daily said, however, "It would be only foolishness to deny that the British naval forces scored a great success. By a stroke, crazy in its audacity, they penetrated one of the most important strongholds over which the German flag floats." THE FLEET THAT LOST ITS SOUL Sailors and especially fighters on the sea have in all ages possessed the noblest and bravest of souls and the finest morale. This is why the British sailors have felt so bitter about the atrocities committed by the German U-boats. In case a ship is sinking, the members of the crew do not expect to leave her until all the passengers are in the lifeboats, and the captain is always the last man to leave. Sometimes he prefers to go down with his ship so that it may never be said that his soul failed him. For sea fighters in U-boats to disregard this traditional chivalry of the sea and to sink merchant ships without warning and without assuring the passengers of their safety seemed to the sailors of other lands like giving up the high ideals that had grown out of their dangerous calling--like poisoning their souls with deceit and violence. Most naval officers would rather die than surrender. Captain Lawrence, fighting for America in the war of 1812, wounded and dying, cried to his men, "Don't give up the ship." To fight rather than to surrender even in the face of the greatest odds has been for centuries the idea of sea fighters. Admiral Cervera at Santiago in 1898 knew he was outmatched by the American fleet waiting for him off the harbor; but he brought his ships out and made a brave fight in trying to escape. Lieutenant Hobson knew there were terrible odds against him when he and his little company went in under the guns of the forts and attempted to block the channel. In the Russo-Japanese War, the Russians in the Sea of Japan with their ships foul and barnacled after a voyage of thousands of miles were not afraid to face certain defeat. Brave men do not lose their souls in the face of tremendous odds or even in the face of sure death. Did the soul of Private George Dilboy of Somerville, Massachusetts, faint in him when he charged alone the German machine gun? He had come with his platoon up a little rise to a railroad track at the top, when suddenly an enemy machine gun opened fire upon them at about one hundred yards distance. Dilboy did not throw himself on the ground to escape the bullets. No, he raised his rifle to his shoulder and standing in plain sight of the German gunners, began to fire at them. As they were partially hidden he was not sure of his aim. So he ran down the embankment and across a wheat field towards them. The machine gun was immediately turned upon him and before he reached it, he fell with one leg nearly severed above the knee by the rain of lead and with several bullets through his body. Half crouched on the only knee left him, he aimed at the gunners one after another until he had killed or dispersed them all, and then fainted and died. He had advanced in the face of certain death, but had saved the lives of many of his comrades, for the gun had to be captured to gain their objective. The brute is usually a coward at heart. The sinking of unarmed merchant ships and of hospital ships by the German U-boats, the bombing of undefended towns and hospitals, and the firing upon Red Cross workers were acts of brutes and cowards. So it is not strange that the great German fleet which all through the war, except at the battle of Jutland, had hidden in security behind the guns of Heligoland and the defenses of the Kiel Canal lost its soul when, as a last hope, it was ordered out to fight the Allied fleet. The German sailors knew the battle would really be a gigantic sacrifice and refused to fight it for the Fatherland. There is always a very slight chance that through accident or some peculiar combination of unusual circumstances, a battle even against very great odds may be won. The German fleet had this chance--a very, very slight one, to be sure; and did not take it. The fleet had lost its soul. Two weeks later, after the signing of the armistice, the German fleet surrendered to the Allies. It was the greatest, the most amazing, and some add, the most shameful surrender in the naval history of the world. It was also the greatest concentration of sea power and the most magnificent spectacle old ocean has ever witnessed. The surrender was demanded by the terms of the armistice and was made on November 21, according to the program laid down by the commander of the British fleet. It was not the surrender of a foe beaten in a fair battle and yet recognized by his enemies as worthy of his steel. It was the surrender of a foe who declined to fight with the strong and the armed, but who had taken every opportunity to kill the weak and the defenseless. The British sailors could not forget, and they say they never will, the barbarous treatment of their brothers in the merchant marine by the German U-boats. There was therefore none of the sympathy and the fraternization that usually has accompanied a great surrender at sea. On the afternoon of the day before the surrender the following notice was posted on all the Allied ships:-- "Let it be impressed on all--officers and men--that a state of war exists during the armistice. Their relations with officers and men of the German navy with whom they may now be brought in contact are to be strictly of a formal character in dealing with the late enemy, while courteous. "It is obligatory that the methods by which they waged war must not be forgotten. No international compliments are to be paid, and all conversation is forbidden except in regard to the immediate business to be transacted. "If it should be necessary to provide food for the German officers and men, they should not be entertained, but it should be served to them in a place specifically set. If it should be necessary to accept food from the Germans, the request is made that it be similarly served." [Illustration: The British Cruiser _Curacoa_, Admiral Tyrwhitt's flagship, leading out one column of British cruisers at the surrender of the German navy. Overhead is a captive or "kite" balloon. As used in naval work, it is attached to an anchored or moving ship by a small steel cable, by which it is regulated for purposes of observation. The tubular surfaces which give the balloon the appearance of an elephant's head are not filled with hydrogen gas, but are inflated by the winds at high altitudes, thus keeping the balloon relatively steady like a kite with a long tail. The stationary balloon is such a good target for anti-aircraft guns that the observers are supplied with parachutes, the type of which appears on page 341.] Later, notices were posted giving the hour when they were to meet the Germans and requiring every precaution to be taken against treachery. "At 9:40 the Battle Fleet will meet the German fleet. Immediate readiness for action is to be assumed." They would not trust the people to whom solemn treaties were but scraps of paper, and whose necessity made any act however treacherous appear to them to be a right one. The Allied fleets were anchored on the night of November 20 in the Firth of Forth above and below its famous bridge. The United States was represented by the _New York_, the _Florida_, the _Arkansas_, and the _Wyoming_, and France by a cruiser and two destroyers. Ships from Canada, New Zealand, and Australia were also in line. There were nearly four hundred warships in the Allied fleet, including sixty dreadnoughts, fifty cruisers, and over two hundred destroyers. At four o'clock on the morning of Friday, November 21, the great Battle Fleet weighed anchor and one by one steamed out to sea. It was, even in the darkness, a wonderful and thrilling sight, an exhibition of sea power never before seen in the history of mankind. Picture that scene in the gray darkness before the dawn. Mile after mile of mighty dreadnoughts and swift cruisers and destroyers weighing their anchors one by one until four hundred mighty engines of war slipped almost silently from their places, each leaving a trail of black smoke behind. As you imagine the scene as it would appear to the eye, can you realize its significance and what it all meant? Do the people of the United States fully understand that but for England's magnificent fleet their great coast cities would have been bombarded or obliged to pay a ransom; and that without the Grand Fleet the war would have been lost to selfish autocracy? Let us never forget England's service. The German line, each ship flying the German naval flag at the main top, consisted of thirteen of the dreadnought or superdreadnought class, seven light cruisers, and fifty destroyers, and was over twenty miles in length. Each column of the Allied fleet was almost twice as long as this. Over them flew a British naval airplane. The surrendered ships, guarded on both sides, steamed on towards the anchorage selected for them near May Island at the entrance to the Firth of Forth; and reached there about two o'clock in the afternoon. Admiral Beatty from his flagship, the _Queen Elizabeth_, issued the following signal to the fleet: "The German flag will be hauled down at sunset today. It will not be hoisted again without permission." [Illustration: From left to right, Admiral Sir David Beatty, Admiral Rodman, King George, the Prince of Wales, and Admiral Sims on the deck of the U. S. Battleship New York, the flagship of the American warships at the surrender of the German navy.] A little later Admiral Beatty sent the following signal:-- "It is my intention to hold a service of thanksgiving at 6 P.M. today for the victory Almighty God has vouchsafed His Majesty's arms. Every ship is recommended to do the same." And to every ship he sent a message reading:-- "I wish to express to the flag officers, captains, officers and men of the Grand Fleet my congratulations on the victory which it has gained over the sea power of the enemy. The greatness of this achievement is no way lessened by the fact that the final episode did not take the form of a fleet action. Although deprived of this opportunity, which we so long eagerly awaited, and of striking the final blow for the freedom of the world, we may derive satisfaction from the singular tribute that the enemy has accorded the Grand Fleet. Without joining us in action, he has given testimony to the prestige and efficiency of the fleet which is without a parallel in history, and it is to be remembered that this testimony has been accorded to us by those who were in the best position to judge. I desire to express my thanks and appreciation to all who assisted me in maintaining the fleet in instant readiness for action and who have borne the arduous and exacting labors which have been necessary for perfecting the efficiency which has accomplished so much." THE LITTLE OLD ROAD There's a breath of May in the breeze On the little old road; May in hedges and trees, May, the red and the white, May to left and to right, Of the little old road. There's a ribbon of grass either side Of the little old road; It's a strip just so wide, A strip nobody owns, Where a man's weary bones When he feels getting old May lie crushing the gold Of the silverweed flower For a long lazy hour By the little old road. There's no need to guide the old mare On the little old road. She knows that just there Is the big gravel pit (How we played in it As mites of boys In our corduroys!) And that here is the pond With the poplars beyond, And more May--always May, Away and away Down the little old road. There's a lot to make a man glad On the little old road (It's the home-going road), And a lot to make him sad. Ah! he'd like to forget, But he can't, not just yet, With chaps still out there. . . . She's stopping, the steady old mare. Is it here the road bends? So the long journey ends At the end of the old road, The little old road. There's some one, you say, at the gate Of the little old house by the road? Is it Mother? Or Kate? And they're not going to mind That, since "Wypers," [1] I'm blind, And the road is a long dark road? GERTRUDE VAUGHAN. [1] The Battle of Ypres. HARRY LAUDER SINGS Harry Lauder, an extremely popular Scotch singer and entertainer, gave his services to help cheer the soldiers on the western front. The men went wild with enthusiasm and joy wherever he went. One day I was taking Harry to see the grave of his only child, Captain John Lauder of the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders, as fine a lad as ever wore a kilt, and as good and brave a son as ever a father had. As we were motoring swiftly along, we turned into the town of Albert and the first sharp glance at the cathedral showed the falling Madonna and Child. While we lingered a bunch of soldiers came marching through, dusty and tired. Lauder asked the officer to halt his men for a rest and he would sing to them. I could see that they were loath to believe it was the real Lauder until he began to sing. Then the doubts vanished, and they abandoned themselves to the full enjoyment of this very unexpected pleasure. When the singing began, the audience would number about 200; at the finish of it easily more than 2000 soldiers cheered him on his way. It was a strange send-off on the way that led to a grave--the grave of a father's fondest hopes--but so it was. A little way up the Bapaume road the car stopped, and we clambered the embankment and away over the shell-torn field of Courcelette. Here and there we passed a little cross which marked the grave of some unknown hero; all that was written was "A British Soldier." He spoke in a low voice of the hope-hungry hearts behind all those at home. Now we climbed a little ridge, and here a cemetery, and in the first row facing the battlefield was the cross on Lauder's boy's resting place. The father leaned over the grave to read what was written there. He knelt down, indeed he lay upon the grave and clutched it, the while his body shook with the grief he felt. When the storm had spent itself he rose and prayed: "O God, that I could have but one request. It would be that I might embrace my laddie just this once and thank him for what he has done for his country and humanity." That was all, not a word of bitterness or complaint. On the way down the hill, I suggested gently that the stress of such an hour made further song that day impossible. But Lauder's heart is big and British. Turning to me with a flash in his eye he said, "George, I must be brave; my boy is watching and all the other boys are waiting. I will sing to them this afternoon though my heart break!" Off we went again to another division of Scottish troops. There within the hour he sang again the sweet old songs of love and home and country, bringing all very near, and helping the men to realize the deeper what victory for the enemy would mean. DR. GEORGE ADAMS. ******************* Today the journey is ended, I have worked out the mandates of fate, Naked, alone, undefended, I knock at the Uttermost Gate-- Lo, the gate swings wide at my knocking; Across endless reaches I see Lost friends, with laughter, come flocking To give a glad welcome to me. Farewell, the maze has been threaded, This is the ending of strife; Say not that death should be dreaded, 'Tis but the beginning of life. THE THIRTEENTH REGIMENT The World War has shown clearly that all peoples are not alike, that they do not think alike, that they do not feel in the same way about the great things of life and death, and that they do not live alike. England felt very differently from Germany about invading a state whose neutrality both nations had guaranteed. The difference is largely due to education in the home, the church, and the school; but it is also the result of heredity. Races seem to differ naturally in regard to these things. The Germans have always been cruel, hard, and unmerciful, while the French are tender and inclined to be too easy, even with wrongdoers. The Slav is dreamy, musical, and poetic, while the Bulgarians seek to gain their ends by deceit and brute force. In thinking of the nations and the peoples of the Balkan peninsula, we must be sure to distinguish clearly between them, for they are not at all alike. Only at the beginning and at the end of the World War have we heard much of Serbia. At the beginning, two Serbians, who were, however, Austrian subjects, assassinated the Crown Prince of Austria, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, and his wife, on June 28, 1914, at Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia, an Austrian province. Whether the war had been already planned or not, this assassination was used as a reason for Austria's attack upon Serbia. General Putnik, a great commander, was put in charge of the Serbian troops. As General Joffre did in France, he retired before the greatly superior numbers of the enemy, until he was in a position to counterattack and win a victory. Joffre was thus able to save his country from being entirely devastated and defeated, but General Putnik was not. Instead the Serbian army disappeared as a determining force, until near the end of the war when it helped to bring Bulgaria to her knees. The Serbians sing as they go into battle, for, as has been said, they are an imaginative and a musical people. The heroes of today are blended in their visions with the Serbian heroes of ancient days, and their battle songs are of them both, or first of one and then of the other. As they went into their last victorious battles in 1918 against the brutal and lying Bulgarians, they sang a sad but spirited song, the words of which may be translated into English as follows:-- "Colonel Batsicht, the Austrians are a thousand to one, but what does it matter? You are only one, yourself, but you are Colonel Batsicht! Were the Austrians as many as the leaves in the forests and their rush to attack more violent than the flood of the Vardar in the spring time, you would even then be their equal, Colonel Batsicht!" And the marvelous thing about the words of this wonderful battle song is that they are true, and that one man fighting for the right with the spirit and devotion of Colonel Batsicht is always the equal of thousands seeking to establish the wrong. In all the history of the world, nothing has proved this so fully and so clearly as the story of Belgium in the World War. Standing like one man against thousands, she saved the world and herself. Colonel Batsicht was in command of the Thirteenth Regiment of Infantry in the Serbian army at the opening of the war in 1914. When the Austrians attacked in force, General Putnik decided upon a general retirement to save his armies. On the evening of the 27th of November, 1914, while this retirement was being carried out, the commanding general sent the following orders to Colonel Batsicht, "If possible, hold your ground for twenty-four hours. If necessary, sacrifice your regiment to save the Serbian army." Colonel Batsicht sent back word to the commanding general, "I have your orders and they will be carried out." Then he set about preparing to defend the heights which his regiment was holding. At seven o'clock the next morning, sixteen battalions of Austrian infantry, ten batteries, and four squadrons of cavalry attacked the position. At the firing of the first gun, Colonel Batsicht looked at his watch and exclaimed, "The twenty-four hours for which we must hold our ground have now begun!" The Austrians were ten against one and the battle was a furious one. Three times the Austrians were driven back; but from their great numbers and from reinforcements coming up, they soon reformed and renewed the attack and were finally successful in pushing back the Serbian right wing for a short distance. But Colonel Batsicht quickly rallied his forces, and they stood their ground. Then the left wing wavered and the colonel hurried to the left end of his line to reorganize it and encourage the men. He was wounded himself, but this did not stop him and his presence was enough to make his soldiers invincible. So all through the day, Colonel Batsicht directed and encouraged, and at evening the Thirteenth Regiment of Infantry of the Serbian army still held the line although most of their number had been killed and their colonel twice wounded. The Austrians were much disturbed by the heroic resistance of the small body of Serbian soldiers and determined in the early morning of the next day to finish the matter quickly. At dawn they attacked and the Serbians gave way, first on one wing and then on the other, and at last in the center. The reserve was thrown in but could not prevent the Austrians from slowly advancing. It was six o'clock and the Serbians had held the line for twenty-three hours. The few officers that were uninjured urged Colonel Batsicht to order a retreat. "It is no use to struggle longer," replied the colonel. "Order the men to retire." "Come with us," said the officers. "No," replied the colonel, "I cannot. I promised to hold this ground for twenty-four hours, and I must remain for one hour longer." "But we cannot go without you," cried the officers. "Obey my orders! Return to your troops and retire with them!" said the colonel sternly. Military discipline permitted the officers to do nothing but obey. The colonel was left with his orderly upon the top of the hill up which the Austrians were advancing. The orderly continued firing until the first platoon of the enemy were upon them, when he fell, and the colonel was left standing alone. "Where is the Thirteenth Regiment?" asked the Austrian officer. "I am the Thirteenth Regiment," replied the colonel with a smile. "Then surrender," cried the officer. "You insult me by asking me, a colonel in the Serbian army, to surrender," replied the colonel as he raised his revolver. But the Austrians were watching sharply and fired first, and the brave colonel fell mortally wounded. He was carried back of the Austrian lines in an ambulance. When the Austrian general was told the story, he hurried to the hospital and found Colonel Batsicht still alive. The Austrian told him that it was sad indeed to see such a brave man dying and that he was sorry the colonel had not surrendered. "I am not sorry, General," replied the colonel. A few hours later he died, and was buried with military honors. The Serbian soldiers and the Serbian people will never forget him. He has now become one of their national heroes. Their imaginative and poetical natures see him now as one greater than a mere man, as a sort of superman with the attributes of a god. So they sing in the valley of the Vardar and in the meadows and mountains of Montenegro and Albania the sad but spirited song of which the words in English are:-- "Colonel Batsicht, the Austrians are a thousand to one, but what does it matter? You are only one, yourself, but you are Colonel Batsicht! Were the Austrians as many as the leaves in the forests and their rush to attack more violent than the flood of the Vardar in the spring time, you would even then be their equal, Colonel Batsicht!" WHERE ARE YOU GOING, GREAT-HEART? Where are you going, Great-Heart, With your eager face and your fiery grace?-- Where are you going, Great-Heart? "To fight a fight with all my might, For Truth and Justice, God and Right, To grace all Life with His fair Light." Then God go with you, Great-Heart! Where are you going, Great-Heart? "To beard the Devil in his den; To smite him with the strength of ten; To set at large the souls of men." Then God go with you, Great-Heart! Where are you going, Great-Heart? "To end the rule of knavery; To break the yoke of slavery; To give the world delivery." Then God go with you, Great-Heart! * * * * Where are you going, Great-Heart? "To cleanse the earth of noisome things To draw from life its poison-stings; To give free play to Freedom's wings." Then God go with you, Great-Heart! Where are you going, Great-Heart? "To lift Today above the Past; To make Tomorrow sure and fast; To nail God's colors to the mast." Then God go with you, Great-Heart! Where are you going, Great-Heart? "To break down old dividing-lines; To carry out My Lord's designs; To build again His broken shrines." Then God go with you, Great-Heart! Where are you going, Great-Heart? "To set all burdened peoples free; To win for all God's liberty; To 'stablish His Sweet Sovereignty." God goeth with you, Great-Heart! JOHN OXENHAM. ******************* "Let it be your pride, therefore, to show all men everywhere, not only what good soldiers you are, but also what good men you are, keeping yourselves fit and straight in everything, and pure and clean through and through. Let us set for ourselves a standard so high that it will be a glory to live up to it and add a new laurel to the crown of America. My affectionate confidence goes with you in every battle and every test. God keep and guide you!" WOODROW WILSON. THE CAPTURE OF DUN After the Americans had cleared the Saint Mihiel salient, Marshal Foch gave them a task which was probably the most difficult and dangerous of the whole war. They were to move north and west along the Meuse River through the Argonne forest to Sedan. There they would cut one of the two main communication lines of the Germans, the loss of which would mean to them disaster and rout. Just before the signing of the armistice on November 11, the Americans reached Sedan after fighting from September 26 over an almost impassable country with few roads and against the strongest forces the Germans could muster. For four years the Germans had been fortifying this part of the line in every possible way, for they realized the danger to them of a successful advance along the Meuse from Verdun to Sedan. The railroad through Mézières, Sedan, and Montmédy was called in a German order "our life artery." To cut it meant death to the German army. The Argonne forest is a very dense growth of trees and underbrush covering a chain of hills running north and south. It is very difficult for a large army to advance and be supplied with food and munitions without good roads over which to move, and all the roads in this region are poor and, with very few exceptions, run east and west. The Americans, twenty-one divisions or about 750,000 men, took part in the action. They were obliged to move through the valleys above which, on the hillsides, the Germans had stationed innumerable machine guns and light artillery. "It was bitter fighting in the woods, brush and ravines, over a region perfectly registered and plotted by the enemy, where his guns, big and little, could be used with the greatest efficiency. The original nine American divisions in some cases were kept in the line over three consecutive weeks. The American reserves were then thrown in until every division not engaged on another part of the line had been put in action. "It is a fact commented on with pride by the American commanders and complimented by the allies that seven of these divisions that drove their way through this hard action never before had been in an active sector, while green troops, fresh from home, were poured in as replacements. "The Associated Press dispatches from day to day told what these men did; how the enemy was slowly pushed back from his strongest and most vital positions, through one defense system after another, using his finest selected troops, which had been withdrawn in many instances from other portions of the line, in an effort to hold an enemy which he derisively said last spring could not be brought to Europe, and if so would not fight, and even if he tried to fight would not know how to do so." As they advanced, they were obliged to cross the Meuse and capture the town of Dun. This is a simple statement and might be passed over as not very significant, but in its few words, it contains a story of one of the bravest deeds of any army in any war. The Germans knew, of course, that if they could prevent the crossing of the river at this point, the Americans could not capture Sedan and cut their line of communications. It may be that the Americans took them completely by surprise when they attempted the crossing here, and that if the Germans had in the least expected the attempt would be made, they would have been better prepared to defeat it. As it was, however, the Americans were met by a frightful and deadly fire from the enemy behind natural defenses so strong that they believed no army would think of attacking them. The river at this point is about 160 feet wide. Beyond it lies a half mile of mud, and then a canal 60 feet wide with perpendicular walls rising several feet above the surface of the water. On Monday afternoon, just one week before the war ended, the order was given to cross the river, the mud, and the canal and to occupy the west bank. The officers had hesitated to give the command for they realized what it meant in dead and wounded; but the privates also knew and they hoped they would be allowed to make the attempt, which with American soldiers means to succeed. They were there to bring the war to an end, and to press on against every danger was the sure way to end it quickly. Those who could swim the river were first called out. Each one was given the end of a rope long enough to reach across the river; then they jumped in and swam exposing as little of their heads and bodies as possible. The German machine guns were so placed as to cover by their fire every foot of the east bank of the river, and the rifles also of hundreds of Huns across the canal attempted to pick off the swimmers. Many were killed and many others were wounded and left to drown, for it would not do to stop to rescue them. A story is told, however, of two chums swimming side by side. One of them was hit by a bullet in the neck and was saved by the other who swam on supporting him until they reached the opposite bank. Then he stopped long enough to bind up the wound and leave his chum lying flat in the mud while he advanced through the mud and across the canal. Both lived to return home with the victorious army. When the swimmers were across, they held the ropes, which were fastened at the other bank, taut, so that those who could not swim could cross by holding on to them. Some attempted to cross on hastily built rafts and in collapsible canvas boats. More of these were lost than of the swimmers who, partially submerged, were not so good targets for the riflemen. At the same time the engineers were building pontoon bridges and smaller foot bridges. After the first wave of men had crossed the river and the mud and were climbing up the further side of the canal, the engineers were not so greatly delayed by rifle fire and soon had a foot bridge ready over which the troops quickly rushed. The pontoon bridge was destroyed by enemy fire. Many were lost in the mud where progress was slow and where, obliged to stand erect, they made good targets. Those swimmers who reached the canal jumped in, swam across the 60 feet of water, and climbed the opposite bank by using grappling hooks. The Germans had not taken the precaution to build trenches beyond the canal, thinking that the river, the mud, and the canal at this point would offer protection enough. Therefore, when the Americans had succeeded in crossing the canal, the Germans hastily retreated. Probably there were fewer casualties among the Americans than if the attack had been made at what seemed a less dangerous point, for elsewhere along the river the Huns had intrenched themselves. The action was one demanding skill and courage of the highest order. It was carried through successfully because the Americans possessed both of these qualities and realized they were fighting for the noblest cause for which men ever fought. They were willing to give up their today that others might have a secure and happy tomorrow. The capture of Sedan forced the Germans to ask for an armistice and to accept whatever terms were offered. In studying the war and the masterly strategy of Marshal Foch, it should never be forgotten that in a few weeks, the armies under his command would have won the greatest victory ever recorded in history and that more than a million Germans would have been obliged to surrender with all their guns and equipment. A smaller minded or more selfish general than Foch might have declined to grant an armistice in order to gain the credit of such a marvelous victory; but Foch thought of the lives that might be saved by granting the armistice and did not think of his own glory. He has lost none of the credit that belongs to him by doing this, but has gained a higher place in the esteem of men. Nor should it be forgotten that if General Pershing's army had failed in its almost impossible task, no armistice would have been asked for. The war with its suffering and death would have gone over into another year. The same would have been true if the British and French armies had failed. All did the duties assigned them nobly, heroically, and successfully, and the Hun realized that, as always, might was with the forces of right. BOMBING METZ ADAPTED FROM THE ACCOUNT WRITTEN BY RAOUL LUFBERY In January, 1916, I belonged to the Bombing Escadrille 102. One fair day a little after one o'clock, we were ordered to get ready for an expedition. Naturally, we were curious about where we were to go, but it is not usual to name the objective until ready to leave. From the amount of gasoline we were ordered to carry, we all guessed it would be the railroad station at Metz. Forty planes were to take part in the raid, twenty from my Escadrille 102 and twenty from Escadrille 101, led by brave Commander Roisin. At one end of the aviation field, the planes stand in a row facing the wind. The engines are carefully gone over by the machinists, the gunners examine the guns, the bombs are placed in their racks. I carry six bombs, others take eight, nine, and even ten, depending upon the size and condition of the airplane and its engine. We stand ready and wait for the final orders. We are given maps on which the route we are to take is indicated. We all set our watches by that of the commander of the expedition. Fifty minutes after the first plane leaves, we must all be over Nichola-du-port and at an altitude of at least 6000 feet. From there, following the signals which would be given us by the commander, we were to go on; or return to the aviation field, if the weather, the wind, the clouds, or poor grouping of our machines made it necessary. [Illustration: The heroic American ace, Raoul Lufbery, wearing his well-earned decorations just after an official presentation. Behind him stands a member of the French Cabinet.] An engine at the end of the line on our left is purring. The plane starts and rolls along the ground and then takes to the air. A second follows it, and then a third. My machine is number seven. I ask my observer, Allard, if he is ready. He answers, "Yes." I start the engine, give it all the gas, like the others roll along the ground for a few seconds, and then take the air. Just before leaving, Allard informs me that he will try to get a little sleep while I am reaching the proper elevation. He says he will be ready to study the map when we get beyond our trenches. As he can be of no service whatever to me in helping the machine rise, I see no reason to object to his going to sleep if he desires. I turn around and look at him several times while we are climbing up. His eyes are closed, but I doubt his sleeping. He surely has a perfect right to, for very soon he will need all his coolness and strength. 2:20 P.M. I am at the place named, exactly on time. I recognize the commander's machine by the little red flags at the ends of the wings. I get the signal to go on, and I proceed with the group. After the trenches are crossed, the faster planes make a few spirals to allow the slower ones to catch up. The group is now more compact and we go on with the shrapnel bursting now and then around us. This troubles no one of us, however, for only by luck or chance would we be injured. A few or even many holes in the fabric do little or no harm. I watch the country as it spreads out beneath my feet. To my right is the Seille River, its banks washed away by floods so that it looks like a great necklace of ponds. To my left is the Moselle and the canal beside it. They look like two beautiful silver lines which disappear at the north in a cloud of mist. And now I see that that which I call a cloud of mist is only the smoke from the chimneys of Metz. As I get nearer, I can see through this smoke the houses and churches and the long buildings with red tile roofs, which are probably the barracks. A circle of green surrounds the whole. These are the forts; from above they seem quite harmless. In a few minutes I shall be over my objective, the small freight house. The machines in the lead make a half turn so that those behind may overtake them. As my machine is a slow one, I make directly for my objective. I am the first to arrive. The enemy must have expected us, for many of their machines are in the air moving around at different altitudes ready to attack us. One of them is coming to welcome me. I turn quickly to see if Allard, the observer, is wide awake. His machine gun is pointed at the enemy, his fingers are on the trigger. Good. All is ready. At 150 yards, the boche biplane suddenly turns its right flank toward us to allow the gunner to fire. Today such a turn is not necessary, for such machines carry two guns, one fixed and one behind mounted on a pivot so as to fire in any direction. I keep my eyes on the enemy. The black iron crosses are very plainly seen on the rudder and the fuselage. The fight begins. The machine guns spit fire, and the boche dives, seeming to have had enough. I do not follow him, for the way ahead is clear, and I have an important duty to perform. Through the opening in the floor at my feet I see the railroad junction, some trains moving and others standing. I can also see the depots for the freight and munitions. [Illustration: A two-passenger tractor biplane flying near the seashore. The oblong black speck directly under the airplane is an aërial bomb, with guiding fins like a torpedo's, which the bomber, who is sitting in the rear seat, has just released from the rack under him. On most planes a machine gun on a swivel is mounted behind the man in the rear seat. If the plane is a single-seater, the machine gun is stationary, mounted in front of the pilot, and "synchronized," or timed, to fire so that the bullets pass between the blades of the propeller, which is making about 1600 revolutions a minute. In the lower left-hand corner can be seen the wing tip of the plane from which the photograph was taken.] Allard touches my left shoulder and signs for me to keep straight ahead. Another touch and I know he has dropped the bombs. It is done, and I have nothing to do but to turn about and make for home. But now the boches seem to be thick about us. We must be very careful. But in spite of all, we are surprised and attacked by a Fokker fighting plane. He fires a volley into us and is gone before we can get a shot at him. Two or three short "spats" tell me that his aim was good and our machine has been hit. The engine is certainly not injured for it roars on. Allard examines the gasoline tank, but it does not seem to have been struck. The wind is blowing from the north and helps us get home quickly. In a short time, we are back above our trenches. I laugh aloud. Why, I do not know. I look around and see that Allard is also laughing. We are beaming and happy. Now that we are out of danger, we want to talk about it, but the roar of the engine drowns our voices. We have to be patient and wait until we land. Slowing down as we descend, the plane glides sweetly over the Meurthe valley. We volplane gently toward the earth. Little by little things begin to look real. The beautiful green moss changes into forests, the black ribbons into railways, and the white ribbons into highways. What I had thought from a distance to be a huge curtain of black smoke, becomes the beautiful city of Nancy. We are only 800 feet above the field. One more spiral and we land. I examine the machine at once. The fabric of the planes is full of bullet holes. Many of the planes that went with us have not returned. We are told that some of them will not, for they were seen dropping into enemy territory. But one by one, the white specks in the sky come in. At last all of our squadron have returned and the grave and worried look leaves the commander's face. He is indeed pleased and does not hide it. But alas! It is not the same with all the squadrons. There is still time, of course, to find that we are mistaken. The missing planes may appear, but it is to be feared that this night at some of the messes, black bread will be eaten. ******************* The British parliament recognized the brave work of the aviators in the following words: "Far above the squalor and the mud, so high up in the firmament as to be invisible from the earth, they fight the eternal issues of right and wrong. Every fight is a romance, every report is an epic. They are the knighthood of this war. Without fear and without reproach, they have fought, for they have brought back the legendary days of chivalry, not merely by the daring of their exploits, but by the nobility of their spirit." THE UNSPEAKABLE TURK Although the great issues of the war were decided, and victory was finally won, by the fighting on the western front, the British campaigns in Palestine and in Mesopotamia were in no small way responsible for the final result. The fighting in this theater of the war was against the Turkish allies of Germany. The Turks were originally one of the Tartar tribes, dwelling in Asia, east of the Caspian Sea. Many of these tribes passed over into Europe, where they are now known as the Lapps, the Finns, the Bulgarians, and the Magyars or Hungarians. More of these Tartar tribes migrated to Asia Minor and adopted the Mohammedan religion. The Turks were one of these. They served first as hired soldiers, but were finally united by their leader, Seljuk, into a strong people called the Seljukian Turks. Their power grew rapidly and soon they captured the city of Jerusalem. They also invaded Europe and captured Constantinople, in 1453, where they have ever since been a menace to civilization. Less than a year after William II became Emperor of Germany, the imperial yacht, the _Hohenzollern_, steamed through the Mediterranean into the narrow Dardanelles and, saluted by forts on both shores, passed on to Constantinople, the capital of the Moslem Kalif and the Sultan of Turkey, Abdul Hamid II. The head of the Catholic church is called the Pope; the head of the Eastern church, the Patriarch; and the head of the Mohammedan, the Kalif. Just as Catholics, no matter of what country they are citizens, recognize the authority of the Pope in matters of religion, so Mohammedans, with few exceptions, are guided in these matters by the Kalif. William II was accompanied by the Empress, his wife, and this was their first ceremonial visit to any of the crowned heads of Europe. Why did the German Kaiser select Abdul Hamid for this high honor? The Germans were received with great joy. The entire city of Constantinople was decorated with the gorgeous display that only an eastern city makes. The visit was evidently greatly appreciated by the Mohammedan Kalif and the Sultan of Turkey; and his people, at his orders doubtless, made the Germans realize how proud they were at being thus honored by the Kaiser. What attraction brought these two strange monarchs together? And why was the visit repeated nine years later in 1898? Did William II feel in 1889 that Abdul Hamid was a man after his own heart, more nearly so than any other ruler in Europe? And was he sure of it in 1898? Certain it is, that while the greetings were cordial in 1889, they were much more so in 1898; for on this second visit, the Kaiser kissed the Kalif on both cheeks and called him "brother." Then after having made arrangements for the German building and the German control of the Berlin to Bagdad railway, William II went on to Jerusalem. There he stood in homage before the Holy Sepulcher, and afterward before the manger in Bethlehem. A few days later in Damascus, a chief Moslem city, he spoke to the Mohammedan officers then ruling the Holy Land, and in the course of his speech said, "His Majesty, the Sultan Abdul Hamid, and the three hundred million Mohammedans who reverence him as Kalif may be sure that at all times the German Kaiser will be their friend." Abdul Hamid was a Turk, a Mohammedan, and a Sultan. As a Turk, he believed all other people were no better than animals; and that it was no more of a sin to kill a man, woman, or child of another race than it was to kill a dog or a rat. As a Mohammedan, he believed that killing a Christian gained merit in the eyes of Allah (which is the Mohammedan word for God). And as a Sultan, he remembered how he had lost Serbia, Bosnia, Bulgaria, and Roumania. These Balkan states together with Bosnia were formerly a part of Turkey in Europe. Most of their inhabitants were Christians and were more progressive than the Turks. As they advanced in education and wealth, they revolted and gained their independence in 1878. As Turkey lost these, the Sultan feared he might lose Armenia, his last remaining Christian province. This was Turkey's Armenian problem. The Sultan attempted to solve it in true Turkish manner,--adopted later by the Huns in Belgium, but never carried out so relentlessly as in Armenia. Between the two visits of Kaiser William II, Abdul Hamid had been able to put into effect some of the ideas in which he believed. First he made a plan to kill about two million of his subjects living in Armenia. Here it was that Noah is said to have landed with the ark on Mt. Ararat after the flood had partially subsided, and here was a people called Armenians and a country called Armenia long before the time of Christ. But the Turk said in the days of Abdul Hamid, "There is no such country as Armenia," and the Armenians were ordered never to use the word or to speak of their country for it had disappeared, and they now lived in a Turkish province. Abdul Hamid determined the people should also disappear. It seems almost impossible for Americans in the twentieth century to believe that such a story can be true. They can easily believe it of a thousand years ago, but not of twenty-five years ago. Yet it is beyond doubt. Henry Morgenthau, American Ambassador to Turkey during the first two years of the World War, has written the story of the attempts by the Turkish government to massacre the Armenian Christians in 1895 and in 1915. He writes: "Abdul Hamid apparently thought there was only one way of ridding Turkey of the Armenian problem--and that was to rid her of the Armenians. The physical destruction of two million men, women, and children by massacres, organized and directed by the state, seemed to be the one sure way of forestalling the further disruption of the Turkish Empire. . . . Yet Abdul Hamid was not able to accomplish his full purpose. Had he had his will, he would have massacred the whole nation in one hideous orgy." In 1895-96 nearly two hundred thousand Armenians were put to death on one pretext or another, usually in the most horrible ways, and in many cases after the most terrible torture. The entire race would have been exterminated if Christian Europe and America had not risen in protest. But no word of protest came from Abdul Hamid's good friend, William II. Instead, the Kaiser visited, within two years after these terrible massacres, the monarch who was now called throughout Europe, "Abdul the Damned," and kissing him on both cheeks, called him brother! Why did the Kaiser love the Sultan and Kalif so greatly? Perhaps because they were kindred spirits. It certainly could not be because of Abdul Hamid's knowledge and intellectual power, for he was very ignorant, and not at all the type of mind that would impress a German. He was very superstitious and suspicious, always fearing attempts upon his life. A lot of books on chemistry, imported by an American missionary, were seized by the Turkish customs officers because they claimed they were intended to injure the Sultan. When the missionary asked for an explanation, the officer opened one of the books and pointed to the expression H[subscript 2]O, which occurred very frequently in it. Now H[subscript 2]O is the chemical symbol for water and means that two atoms of hydrogen unite with one atom of oxygen to form one molecule of water. However, Abdul Hamid, or his officers, believed that H stood for Hamid, 2 for II, and O for nothing, and that H[subscript 2]O was a secret way of saying to the Christians in Turkey, "Abdul Hamid II is nothing." It is also said that Constantinople was lighted only by gas long after electric lights were used in other large cities, because "the red Sultan," as he was also often called on account of his bloody deeds, would allow neither dynamite nor dynamos to be brought into the city where he lived. He knew of the destructive power of dynamite and could never be made to believe that a dynamo was not equally to be feared! The German Kaiser was not charmed by the brilliancy and the intelligence of the "Great Assassin." He may have admired his deeds but he probably loved him for what he thought he could get out of him and his country. It seems clear now that even in 1889, at the beginning of his reign, William II began to plan a Greater Germany and possibly World Domination. Certainly he soon dreamed of a German Middle Europe reaching from the North Sea to the Persian Gulf and crossed from Berlin to Bagdad by a German controlled railroad. It seems too that he realized he must have Turkey as an ally and that to accomplish his ends, he might possibly be obliged to bring about a Holy War with all the Mohammedan world fighting the Christian. The Mohammedans considered the Kaiser one of themselves and referred to him as "His Islamic Majesty." In the World War he attempted to cause this Holy War but failed because the Mohammedans in Arabia did not recognize the Sultan of Turkey as Kalif. The two holy cities of the Mohammedans in Arabia are Mecca where the prophet, Mohammed, was born and Medina where he died. Whoever rules over these cities is the Mohammedan Kalif. When the Kaiser attempted to bring on a Holy War, the Arabians joined the Allies, founded the independent kingdom of Hedjaz, and recognized its king as the Kalif. The "red Sultan" must have known that the Kaiser would not object to his massacres of the Armenians and the strengthening of Turkish rule, for these only aided the purposes of Germany. But Abdul Hamid was forced to abdicate by a revolution of his own people before the Armenians were exterminated and before the Kaiser's dream was realized. By 1915, however, the "Great Assassin's" power was in the hands of Turks who held the same beliefs and sought to carry out the same plans as he had in 1895. And now England, France, Russia, and Italy, all engaged in war, were unable to interfere, and the Turks felt very sure the United States would not trouble them. Now Enver Pasha and Taalat Pasha, the real rulers of Turkey, determined that there should be no blunder or mistake; they would exterminate the nearly two million Christian Armenians, who were Turkish subjects, and thus remove a serious problem in the management of Turkey and all danger of the Armenians rendering assistance to the Allies. One of the chief indictments of the German government, under William II, is that it uttered no protest while the Armenian men in the vigor of life were taken from the villages by the hundred and shot, or killed in more brutal ways, and the old men, women, and children obliged to march off to a distant desert part of Asia Minor, or to the malarial swamps of the Euphrates. Of course, they nearly all died on the way. About one million Armenians were exterminated in this way in 1915. The German government could have stopped it by a word. But how could they say the word? They had hardly finished their Belgian atrocities and were still deporting men and girls from Belgium and France. No protest came from the Kaiser, his ministers; or his people. The Armenians dress very largely in red. A common costume of women and girls is striking even at a distance because of the amount of red in it. The same is true to a less degree of the men. The hordes of old men, old women, the sick, and the frail, with children of all ages marching mile after mile, often in cold and rain with no food except what they had been able to seize as they were driven on a moment's notice from their homes and villages, leaving their strong men brutally slaughtered, have been called "red caravans of death," and in truth they were caravans of victims seeking, desiring, praying for death, and marching on till death relieved them. In 1915, the Turkish armies in Palestine, under German leadership, attempted to gain possession of the Suez Canal, in order to prevent supplies passing through on Allied ships. Although the Turks made several attempts to block the canal, they were all unsuccessful. After these numerous attacks on the canal, England realized that the only safe way to protect her Egyptian possessions was to gain Palestine. In 1916 a plan was made for an offensive into the Holy Land. The plan was first tried by General Maxwell and then by General Murray, but both attempts were unsuccessful. In June, 1917, the English transferred General Allenby, then fighting on the western front, to the command of the Egyptian expeditionary forces. He immediately began to lay plans for an offensive into Palestine, with the city of Jerusalem as his main objective. The Turks were strongly fortified in southern Palestine, on a line extending from the coast city of Gaza to the inland city of Beersheba. Allenby's plan was to attack the left flank of the enemies' line, capturing Beersheba, where he counted on renewing his water supply. To aid the successful advancement of his main offense, he sent a small body of troops toward the city of Gaza, situated on the enemies' right flank. This was done to draw the Turkish reserves toward Gaza, where they would expect the main offense to take place. The British warships in the Mediterranean helped in this movement, by bombarding the town as the land forces approached it. The plan was put into effect on October 30. On the next day the city of Beersheba was taken by surprise, and the Turkish left flank was routed. After renewing his supply of water at Beersheba, General Allenby advanced on Gaza, which was captured with little resistance. Although greatly hampered by poor water supply and tremendous transportation difficulties, he drove the Turks north and by a successful engagement at Junction Station cut their forces in two. By this time the Turks in Jerusalem were becoming greatly disturbed by Allenby's rapid advance. Enver Pasha, the famous Turkish commander, rushed to the city to rally his generals, but after studying the situation, he left the city the next day. Soon after Enver's hurried departure, General Falkenhayn arrived. Military supplies were moved north of the city and the Germans prepared to leave. The remaining Turks were under the command of Ali Fuad Pasha, who by proclamations and entreaties, tried to rally the people of the city. Meanwhile General Allenby had moved north and captured the city of Jaffa, situated on the Mediterranean, a little northwest of Jerusalem. From Jaffa, by hard fighting he advanced through the Judean hills, towards the Holy City. Jerusalem was occupied by English troops on December 9, 1917, and General Allenby made his official entrance on December 11. Soon after the occupation of the city by the English, a proclamation was read, amidst great cheering, announcing freedom of worship. [Illustration: The official entry of General Allenby into Jerusalem, December 11, 1917. With the exception of a few years, 1099-1187, and 1229-1244, the city, until General Allenby's entry, had been under Mohammedan control from the seventh century. The clock tower is a modernized minaret, on the balcony of which the muezzin summons to prayer the faithful Mohammedans.] Part of the proclamation is as follows. "Since your city is regarded with affection by the adherents of three of the great religions of mankind, and its soil has been consecrated by the prayers and pilgrimages of multitudes of devout people of these three religions for many centuries, therefore, do I make it known to you that every sacred building, monument, holy spot, shrine, traditional site, endowment, pious bequest, or customary place of prayer of whatsoever form of the three religions will be maintained and protected according to the existing customs and beliefs of those to whose faith they are sacred." The capture of Jerusalem was hailed by the entire civilized world as one of the greatest accomplishments of the war. Although it was taken for strategical reasons, the fact that the Holy City was once more in the hands of Christians meant more to the world than the military advantage gained by its capture. Jerusalem is generally thought of only as a peaceful shrine of many nations; it is in reality a fortress more often contested, perhaps, than any other city in the world. Until captured by General Allenby, Jerusalem had been, except for two brief intervals, under Mohammedan control for almost thirteen centuries. Now that it is once more in Christian hands, it appears probable that it will remain so forever. After capturing the city, the English began to strengthen its fortifications against counter-attacks. They also fortified the coast city of Jaffa which they had captured just previous to the advance on Jerusalem. The Turks made several attempts to recapture their lost ground, but all were unsuccessful. The English were unable to resume their offensive the following spring, because of the crisis which compelled them to send a large part of their forces to Europe to check the new German drive on the western front. It was not until September 18, 1918, that General Allenby started his next offensive. The object of this was the capture of Damascus, the capital of Syria. He started his advance on a line extending from Haifa on the coast, across Palestine to the Arabian Desert. Although strongly opposed by a Turkish army numbering at least 100,000 men, he advanced by remarkable forced marching and hard fighting on Damascus, which he occupied October 1, 1918. During the offensive on Damascus, he captured over 70,000 prisoners and 350 guns. Included in these figures were several Turkish commanders and German and Austrian troops numbering more than 200 officers and 3000 privates. Damascus is the most beautiful city in Asiatic Turkey and is the oldest city in the world. There is a Turkish prophecy, many centuries old, made in fact when the Turks were at the height of their power, that some day they would be conquered and driven back to the place from which they came. The prophet said, "When the end is at hand, Damascus will be taken by the infidels. An Imam wearing a green turban and a green robe will ascend to the top of a green minaret with his last salavat. He will call all the faithful about him and they will all then start on a journey to the place from whence they came." Because of this prophecy, there is a Turkish saying known to all Turks educated or ignorant, dweller in city or in obscure village, which reads, _Evelli Sham, Akhuri Sham_. Now _Sham_ is the Turk's name for Damascus, _Evelli_ means first, and _Akhuri_ means last: and the meaning of the saying in English would be something like this, "Damascus is everything to the Turk, and when it falls all is lost." Probably the prophet had no idea that Damascus would or could be taken from the south by forces led across the desert as General Allenby led the English. If Damascus should be captured from the north, all of the Turkish dominion would have to be conquered before the foe reached there. So the Turks have repeated with a feeling of security, _Evelli Sham, Akhuri Sham_. The capture of Damascus opened the way to Aleppo, situated on the Constantinople-Bagdad railroad about 180 miles to the north. The Turkish troops, routed by the rapid advance of the British on Damascus, gave very little resistance to Allenby in his drive on Aleppo. The English entered Aleppo on Saturday morning, October 26, and stopped Turkish traffic on the Constantinople-Bagdad railway at this point. On October 29, General Marshall's forces defeated the Turks at Kaleh Sherghat, cutting off their communications with Mosul. The combined victories of Allenby in Palestine and Marshall in Mesopotamia left the remaining Turkish forces helpless. Turkey signed an armistice October 30, 1918, which was virtually the same as an unconditional surrender, and meant the end of the "unspeakable Turk" in Europe. THE SECRET SERVICE The United States did not declare war till nearly three years after the war had begun in Europe. During most of that time the situation was this: Germany, to win at all, must win at once. The longer the Allies could stave Germany off, the more time they would have to collect arms and armies, powder, food, and ships, and the more certain they would be of winning in the end. Therefore they sent to America, which was rich and had many factories, for tremendous quantities of every sort of war provisions. Of course it was necessary for Germany to prevent the Allies from getting these supplies. It was in the effort to do this that the German spy system became so widespread in the United States. The German government had always kept in direct touch with a number of Germans in America, and in indirect touch with a great many more. So when Germany needed help in America, she called on the German-Americans to hinder in every way possible the sending of aid to Great Britain and France. The United States could not allow any one to blow up American factories and railroads and start strikes among American workmen. Consequently the United States Secret Service and its fellow agencies set to work, and the great fight was on. The opponents, the German Intelligence Office and the American Secret Service, were not so unevenly matched as one might imagine. What advantage the Germans lost by being in the enemy's country they made up by being prepared far in advance, and by knowing just what they wanted to do. And there is always an advantage on the side of the hunted animal. Let us see briefly just what each organization was like. The German service in its heyday was a fearful and wonderful thing. Little by little, as spies were "shadowed," captured, and their papers examined, the whole far-reaching tangle was revealed. One can tell only a little here about this tangle--for to tell it all would take more books than one. In the German system there were five or six names to be remembered. Count von Bernstorff, the German Ambassador and chief plotter; Dr. Heinrich Albert, his assistant and treasurer; Franz von Rintelen, reported to be a near relative to the Kaiser; Captain Franz von Papen, the military attaché; and his partner, Captain Boy-Ed, the naval attaché. From this group at the top, the lines spread down, through business men, doctors, editors, clerks, butlers, and every rank and class in America. "Big Bill" Flynn, for many years the clever chief of the Secret Service, said that he thought there were 250,000 men and women in this country who were working for Germany. Sad to say, not all of them were German by birth; a few, the most dangerous, were native Americans, although they were Germans at heart. Everywhere, in the most unexpected places, these German agents were found, always busily carrying out their orders with regular German blindness, and never questioning or knowing anything about the hideous acts of their superiors. The German machine was, in short, like a huge wheel, with the brains at the hub. The United States fought this contemptible creation with several weapons. The Secret Service was of course the most active; but it was very greatly helped by the Department of Justice, the Naval Intelligence, and the Military Intelligence, as well as by the police departments in the various cities. In fact, one of the greatest troubles at times was that too many agencies would be working on the same case. They stepped on each other's heels. All these branches grew in size during the war, but especially the Naval and Military Intelligence offices. As early as January, 1916, patriotic citizens were quietly serving their government, all unknown even to their own friends, and were collecting pieces of information and hints here and there that, in the end, were of great value. If the Germans had spies in every nook and cranny of our nation, so did we--business men, secretaries, cooks, doctors, and laborers. The Secret Service was everywhere. Again and again, when some devoted German was busily doing his duty to his Fatherland, an American Secret Service agent would lay a hand on his shoulder and show him a ticket to a prison camp. And then, so curious is the German way of thinking, nine times out of ten the German, intensely surprised and very cross at being caught in the act, would insist that he was doing nothing, and that he had a perfect right to do it! Now watch the two forces at war. The German machine was working quietly along, now and then blowing up a factory and now and then being caught red-handed. It had already suffered a severe loss, for Captain von Papen, the military attaché, had been discovered in his work by the British and had been deported. When he reached Germany, by the way, he was given the Order of the Red Eagle by the Kaiser, who doubtless recognized in the bungling plotter a fellow spirit. Thanks to the information gained from von Papen's papers, the United States had a very good idea of what the other Germans in America were doing and began to make arrests. Every afternoon at about five o'clock Dr. Albert, the ambassador's assistant, would leave his office at 45 Broadway, New York, and take the elevated railroad uptown to his luxurious rooms in the German Club. He always carried with him a brown leather dispatch case. The Secret Service men, who had been keeping an eye on him, determined to get that case, because they knew from the way the doctor always held on to it, that it must contain something important. A wise member of the Service was chosen to make the coup. He watched the German closely for many days, and saw that the doctor took a train just at five o'clock every day; that, on the train, he read his evening paper very intently (possibly to see which one of his friends had been arrested last); and that he always walked through the same streets from the railroad to his club. Finally one day the agent decided that he was ready to try for that little brown case. That evening a quiet, well-mannered gentleman, not noticeable in any particular way, took the seat next to Dr. Albert on the train. The doctor spread out his paper with true German disregard for the persons on each side of him, and began to read. Always he held the flat brown case clutched against his side. The train passed several stations and still the doctor hugged his case. Although the car was packed with people, the American carefully avoided crushing against the spy, for fear of alarming him. More stations were left behind, and the doctor had nearly finished his paper. The Secret Service man was getting worried; would he fail? And there were the papers, so close to him. Then the train stopped at the next to the last station. At the same minute Dr. Albert completed his reading, and for the fraction of a moment raised his arm to fold the sheets. With lightning quickness the agent slid the dispatch case away from the doctor's side and stood up. Two or three people jostled him, and he staggered against the doctor. Then he lunged for the door. The doctor finished folding his paper and felt for his case. It was gone. He jumped to his feet and glared around him wildly. "Conductor!" he shouted, "My case! It is gone!" The gates of the car clanged shut and the train started slowly. Down the stairs to the street went the American, quietly and confidently, with the brown leather case under his arm. On the train, Dr. Albert, white of face, was bitterly calling on his German Gott to find his case for him! The next day, and the next, and for many days thereafter, a few modest lines of advertising appeared in New York papers, saying that a brown leather case had been lost on an elevated train and that a small reward would be paid for its return. The advertisement stated that the case was of no value to anyone but the owner. The poor doctor did not dare call attention to his loss by sounding too loud an alarm, for he knew what was in the bag. "Of no value to anyone but the owner!" Not to ninety-nine people out of a hundred, perhaps; but the hundredth man had the case, and he and his chief knew what to make of it. On a windy morning in April, 1916, two American secret agents, dressed, as always, in civilian clothes, were walking down Wall Street toward number 60. From information obtained through the capture of several spies, they knew that in an office at 60 Wall Street a big, polite German, Wolf von Igel, was running an advertising agency that was not an advertising agency. They knew further that Wolf was one of the chief plotters, and that he kept many of the most important German plans locked in a big burglar-proof safe, on which was painted the Imperial German seal. Lastly, and this explains why the two agents were walking to his office at exactly that hour, they knew that some especially important plans would be in the safe and that another dangerous spy would be talking to von Igel. This piece of knowledge had come through one of the many underground ways which so puzzled the Germans. It may have been a "tip" from some American agent who was secretly working with the Germans to spy on them. The Americans pushed open the door, hurried right past the clerk in the outer office, and entered the inner room. Von Igel, who was bending over a packet of papers, looked up. "I'll trouble you for those papers, von Igel," said one of the Americans, stepping up to him. The startled German shoved him back, leaped to the safe door, and slammed it shut. But before he had time to give the knob a twirl, the Secret Service men were upon him. In rushed the clerk, and for a few minutes the four men wrestled and struggled madly all around the little room. But the Americans were powerful, and they had help at hand. They threw the Germans down and sat on them to rest, while the frightened Germans protested. "You have no right to do this," panted von Igel. "This is the property of the Imperial German Government, and cannot be broken into this way!" "That'll be all right," answered one American. "You see it has been broken into." The papers, seventy pounds of them, were packed up and taken away,--with the Germans. As the men were leaving the office, they met the other spy, who was just arriving. It did not take much persuasion to make him go along too. The German Ambassador, von Bernstorff, raised a frightful uproar over this, and claimed that the papers were his. This was a sad mistake on his part, because, when the letters were opened and the plans read, he was asked to remember that he had said they were his. There was enough proof in that seventy pounds to convince even a German. Among other things there came to light their conspiracies to undermine the citizenship of other countries. But now all this was made worse than useless, for its discovery not only laid bare the plot, but also told the names of all the men who were taking part in it. It was the biggest victory scored by either side, and the credit for it goes to our regular Secret Service. Three of the heads of the German beast in America had now been cut off. There remained only von Bernstorff. He lasted nine months longer than the others. The government has not yet told the world all the details of the ambassador's last great defeat, but some were as follows-- Germany now knew that if she were to win at all, it must be immediately. So she decided to carry on her ruthless submarine warfare, and sink all the ships she could, no matter to whom they belonged. She realized that it would make America declare war on her, and in order to offset her coming in, she hit upon the idea of having Mexico attack her on the South, and if possible, Japan on the West. She did not stop to think (she had no time for that) that Japan was one of the Allies, and of course would not make war against her. Perhaps she believed Japan would not remain faithful to the Allies. So the Foreign Office in Berlin wrote to von Bernstorff in Washington, and he in turn was to write to Mexico. The success of the whole scheme depended on secrecy. The arrangements must be made without the United States knowing anything about it. Once again a heavy responsibility was thrown upon our Secret Service. How did they carry it? We have already seen that the Service had its agents in the most unsuspected places. One of the most unsuspected of them all must have gotten to work, for within a week the Service knew that something unusually mysterious was going on inside the German Embassy. Patiently the resourceful agents worked and worked, bit by bit, until at last--they won. They secured the most necessary document of the whole case, the one which Germany was most anxious to keep secret. When it was made public, it caused the greatest sensation of years. Here it is:-- "Berlin, January 19, 1917. (To von Eckhardt, the German Minister in Mexico.) "On the first of February we intend to begin submarine warfare unrestricted. In spite of this it is our intention to endeavor to keep neutral the United States of America. "If this attempt is not successful, we propose an alliance on the following basis with Mexico: that we shall make war together and together make peace. We shall give general financial support, and it is understood that Mexico is to recover the lost territory in New Mexico, Texas, and Arizona. The details are left to you for settlement. "You are instructed to inform the President of Mexico of the above in greatest confidence, as soon as it is certain that there will be an outbreak of war with the United States, and suggest that the President of Mexico on his own initiative should communicate with Japan, suggesting adherence to this plan. At the same time offer to mediate between Germany and Japan. "Please call to the attention of the President of Mexico that the employment of ruthless submarine warfare now promises to compel England to make peace in a few months." "Zimmermann." Alfred Zimmermann was the German Foreign Minister. The German defense to this piece of absolute proof was what we have since learned to expect from Germans;-- "We were not doing it. And anyway, it was not unfriendly, and we had a perfect right to do it." The once great German machine was now without its leaders, and all it could do was to carry on a number of small local agitations, with no directing intelligence. A very few months after the publication of the Zimmermann letter, the United States itself went into the war. Then the constant struggle between detectives and enemy-aliens became even more serious. A new problem faced the Secret Service and its co-workers. That was to keep the German spies over here from sending to Germany information that would be of value to her in a military way. No knowledge of the movements of troops, of fleets, or of supplies must be allowed to leave America. At all costs the war plans must be kept secret. The spies tried to send information to Germany by many different ways, such as by cable to Denmark, Switzerland, or any other neutral European nation, and then by telegraph into Germany; or by telegraph to Mexico, and then by wireless to Germany; or by wireless to a neutral ship on the ocean, which would relay to Germany by her wireless. The first and most important thing for the spy in every case was to get his message out of this country. To prevent this, the United States established censorships. There were telegraph censors, watching the wires into Mexico; there were postal censors, examining the mails; but the most interesting was the cable censor, who had to keep all the cables free from enemy use. Although cable censorship was done by the Navy Department, its work very often overlapped that of the Secret Service. Here is a typical example of how these two worked together, not correct in details but accurately showing the method followed in a great many cases:-- In June, 1917, some of General Pershing's first troops sailed from New York, in number about 15,000 men, in 13 transports. On that very day a Spanish firm in the city filed a cable to Spain, saying:-- "Quote 13 millers at 15 per cent." The censor's suspicious mind, always on the alert for something unusual, saw that this message could easily be a code, which would mean to the man receiving it, "Sailed, 13 transports with 15,000 troops." It was too probable to be an accident, thought the censor, and he decided to watch Mendez & Co. A few days later two more transports sailed, and Mendez filed three more cables, each containing the number 2, with other figures. The censor promptly put the detectives on the trail. The merciless grasp of the Secret Service, which always "gets" its man, then settled about Mendez. The Spaniard could make no move, day or night, that was not immediately known to the Service. In the dead of an autumn night, two agents opened the door of Mendez' office with a master key, and searched his desk. One man ran over all the papers, reading them rapidly in a low voice, while his companion, an expert stenographer, took down the words with lightning speed. This done, they placed a dictagraph in the inner office, working quickly and well. With a final glance around, they left, having completed the work in a remarkably short time. The next day Mendez' telephone was tapped. Then his secretary left, and the new one he hired was a Secret Service agent. The Spaniard never guessed it, for the secretary brought the most trustworthy references. Every time Mendez held a meeting of his group of German agents and talked of how to send information to Germany, the secretary heard all they said, and at once reported it to his chief. Every time Mendez telephoned, a Secret Service agent listened to what he said. Every time he had a conference in his office, if the secretary by chance was not there, the dictagraph made a record of the conversation, and the Service knew about it. Naturally such careful watching won in the end. Mendez, who had caught the German habit of believing that no one was so clever as himself, did not dream of the net that was being woven around him, and went on filing his cable messages which, of course, were not sent. All the information obtained by the Secret Service was sifted, arranged, and confirmed, and Mendez was arrested. With his departure, his whole following was helpless, and settled back to swear at the United States for its tyranny. The patient Secret Service had scored again. So it went. For every German spy or would-be spy in America, there was an agent of the Secret Service, equally resourceful, and more likely to succeed, because, no matter how clumsy his adversary seemed, he never made the mistake of underrating him. "Stupid Yankees," von Papen had called us, while he went about his plotting with child-like faith in his skill at hiding. "Stupid Germans," the Secret Service might have retorted, as it skillfully uncovered all his plotting and sent him back to his Kaiser, where his stupidity was more appreciated. But it took many months of patient, unceasing work, and far the greatest part of it was dull, hard, steady grind. Rarely was there any excitement for the industrious government agents, and more rarely was there any glory, for the work had to be kept secret. Trailing, watching, studying, thinking, always putting two and two together and often finding that they made five instead of four; through day and night, through sun and storm, the officers whose duty it was to catch the spy before he could harm America worked steadily on. That is why America won at home just as she won abroad. Had not the silent army in the United States fought so unceasingly and so skillfully, the army in France would have been paralyzed. When you think of the Great Victory, remember those quiet, unknown men and women at home who did so much to help win it, and give full credit to the Secret Service. ROGER WILLIAM RIIS. AT THE FRONT _What one soldier writes, millions have experienced._ At first the waiting for orders; the wonder of how to adapt one's nature to the conditions that lay ahead. The fear of being afraid. Many times in that last week in London, which now seems so far away, I did aimless, meaningless things that I had done before; wondering if I should ever do them again. Visiting old scenes of happy days, trying, as it were, to conjure up old associations, for fear the chance might not come again. Strange, perhaps, but many of the things I do are strange, and only those who know me best would understand. My good-by to you--and the curtain rose on the first act of the drama that I have been privileged to watch, with every now and then a "walking on" part. The first act was one of absorbing interest, learning the characters of the play, and my mind was filled with wonder at the plot as day by day it unfolded before me. I have tried to write of all the wonders of the Base; its organization and the mastery of an Empire to serve its ideal in its hour of need. The second curtain rose on the trenches, and it is my impressions of this life, rather than of its details, that I would now write. The first and greatest is the way the average man has surmounted the impossible, has brought, as it were, a power to strike that word from his vocabulary. Living in conditions which in previous years would have caused his death, he has maintained his vitality of mind and body. Healthy amid the pestilence of decaying death, of chill from nights spent sometimes waist deep in water; or chattering with cold as misty morning finds him saturated with its clammy cold. Facing death from bullet, shell, and gas, and all the ingenuity that devilish manhood can devise, yet remaining the same cheery, lively animal, wondering when it all will cease. A new spirit of unselfishness has entered the race, or perchance the old selfishness bred by years of peace has died, leaving a cleaner, nobler feeling in its place. Men who before cheated their neighbors, grasping to themselves all that came their way, have learned instinctively to share their little all. The message from Mars, "Halves, partner," has become the general spirit; and yet some say that there is no finer side to war! As for the officers, as a rule, no words for them can be too fine. For they have learned at once to be the leaders and the servants of their men, tiring themselves out for others' comforts. And the men know it; from them can come no class hatred in future years. If danger lies in that direction it must surely come from those who have stayed at home. For myself, I am slowly learning my lesson; learning that death, which seems so near one, seldom shakes one by the hand. Learning to look over the "top" to encourage those whose duty makes them do so. Learning to walk out with a wiring party to "No Man's Land," or to set a patrol along its way. Learning to share the risks that others run so as to win the confidence of my men. Now let me say a word of the demoralizing effects of dugouts: Often it takes a conscious effort to leave its safety or to stay away from it for the dangers of level ground, and this is what all officers must learn; for men can have no confidence in one who, ordering them out, stays underground himself. I am learning, but, oh! so slowly, for mine is not a nature that is really shaped for war. A vivid imagination is here a handicap, and it is those who have little or none who make the best soldiers. At last the "finished and finite clod" has come into his own. Stolid, in a danger he hardly realizes, he remains at his post, while the other, perchance shaking in every limb, has double the battle to fight. My pencil wanders on and I hardly seem to know what I write. Confused thoughts and half-formed impressions crowd through my brain, and from the chaos some reach the paper. What kind of reading do they make? I wonder. * * * * * * I'm awfully tired, but this may well be my last undisturbed night this week, and I know how much letters must mean to you waiting and waiting for news in England. All afternoon I've been wandering about the front line, exploring, and learning to find my way about that desolate waste of devastation representing recently captured ground. One waded knee high amid tangled undergrowth dotted with three-foot stakes, and learned from the map that this was a wood. One looked for a railway, where only a buried bar of twisted metal could be found. One road we could not find at all, so battered was the countryside; and so after five and a half hours' wandering, we returned to a dinner of soup, steak, stewed fruit, and cocoa. Today I noticed for the first time the wonderful variety of insect life in the trenches; flies and beetles of gorgeous and varied color showing against the vivid white of the fresh-cut chalk. Past a famous mining village which for two years has been swept by shell fire, now British, now German, until nothing save the village Crucifix remains unbattered; iron, brick, and concrete, twisted by the awful destructive power of high explosives. Graves dating back to October, 1915, and up to the present time, lie scattered here and there, but each with the name of the fallen one well marked on it, waiting to be claimed when Peace shall come. As I walked the old lines flashed into my head-- "And though you be done to the death, what then, If you battled the best you could? If you played your part in the world of men, Why, the critics will call it good! Death comes with a crawl, or comes with a pounce, And whether he's slow or spry, It isn't the fact that you're dead that counts, But only, _how did you die?_" Strange! but nowhere did I see a German grave other than those with the inscription in English, "A German Soldier killed in action." Dead Germans have I seen, but never a German grave. There seems to be no bird life here, beyond a rare covey of partridges well behind the line, or a solitary lark searching for summer. One misses--oh, so much!--the cheeky chirp of the sparrow or the note of the thrush. We found a stray terrier about yesterday and have adopted it, but I don't think it will go into the front line: there's enough human suffering, without adding innocent canine victims that cannot understand. Here let me say a word for the horses and mules, exposed to dangers and terror (for mules actually come into the trenches to within 200 yards of the line), patiently doing their work, often terrified, often mutilated and never understanding why they have been taken from their peaceful life to the struggle and hardship of war. Much has been written, much is being done, but how few realize it from their point of view. The men are wonderful, their cheerfulness, their ability to work is nothing short of marvelous; but for the others, the animals, their patient slavery is more wonderful, still. Coming over the ridge tonight I saw the distant hills against the after-glow of sunset; the moment was quiet, as one often finds it so; for those few seconds no guns were firing, no shells bursting, and not even the distant "ping" of a rifle was to be heard. It seemed so English, just as though we were on one of our September holidays in the car, looking towards the north hill country that I love so much. Then suddenly the guns started, and we were at war again. There is one of those strange feelings of expectation in the air tonight, as though there were great things pending, and yet all is normal as far as we know. Who knows, perhaps the end is not as far as we believe. A few more days of trial and we shall have earned our next rest. I go to my so-called bed, to try and snatch a few short hours' sleep, lulled by the music of the guns that have started their nightly hate. My love to you. Keep smiling. * * * * * * Picture if you can a flight of twenty-four steps leading into the darkness of the underground. At the foot of this a room, if room it can be called, some thirteen feet by ten by seven high, the walls of tree trunks and railway sleepers, the roof of corrugated iron resting on railway lines; from this hang stalactites of rust, and large and loathsome insects creep about; above lives a colony of rats: such is our living-room, damp with a dampness that reaches one's bones and makes all things clammy to the touch. A couple of tables, a chair, and some boxes, such is our dining-room suite. From this a long, narrow, low passage leads to the kitchen, signalers' and 'phone room, officers' bunks and office. By day and night one stumbles among sleeping soldiers off duty, tired enough to find sleep on the boarded floor. My bed,--a couple of boards and some sand-bags,--is four feet from the ground, too narrow for safety, and yet I sleep. Men who previously grumbled at an eight-hour day, now do eighteen hours for seven days a week--such is war, and such is the spirit in which they take it. Outside--or rather up above--a cold drizzle adds to the general discomfort, "pineapples" drop promiscuously about, but one can hear them coming, save when barrages are about, and the roar of gun and bursting shell drowns all else. One nearly got me this morning. I just ducked in time as it burst on the parapet behind where I was standing--a splinter caught my tin hat, but bounded off. In spite of all, this has been a cheery day. One learns to laugh at Fritz's efforts to kill one, and at the appalling waste of money he spends in misplaced shells; one laughs still more when they fall in his own lines from his own guns, and frantic cries of distress and protest, in the form of colored rockets, fill the air. LIFE, even with all its letters capitals, has its humors. Dire rumors of the postponement of our longed-for rest--but what is rumor, after all? Half of another weary night has passed. I took a morning in bed (five hours, only disturbed twice) and so raised my sleep average to nearly four hours a day. How unreal it seems to be writing with a loaded revolver by one's paper, and a respirator on one's chest. I bet the Huns are sorry that they ever invented gas. You make too much of what I did on Monday, it was nothing wonderful, and had I had time to think, I should probably have funked it. Instinct and training and the excitement of the moment--that is all, just my duty. I did see a brave act that morning, and one that required real pluck, not excitement. I must see a specialist about the injury as soon as I can get an appointment. Still smiling. * * * * * * A long wooden box five feet by three feet "in the cold, dark underground." Here we move and sleep and have our being, under one of the famous battlefields of Europe, a captured German dugout, with German shells bumping on the roof from time to time. Had I but the ability I could paint you a word-picture that might bring to you the wonder of last night's events in their grandeur and their grimness. As it is I must do what little I can. A long straying column along a road as darkness fell; turning westward one saw the splendor of a blood-red sunset where the crimson melted to gold, the gold to green, so often called blue. Against this the silhouetted outlines of slag-heaps and pits and houses, now ruined, now whole. By the roadside little huts some three feet square built by their owners, who gathered around little blazing fires now that their day's work was done. The low drone of homing planes filled the air as one by one they swooped down to earth, or rose on some perilous mission, while bursting shrapnel added golden balls of fire to the firmament of heaven, now a deep, deep blue. To north, to east, to south, yellow-green flashes of guns stabbed the darkness, and the redder glare of bursting shells came ever and anon. Across an open heath, along a road pitted with shell-holes to the skeleton of a shell-smashed town like some ghostly sentinel to the gates of war. Here the sweet smell of a September evening was every now and then rendered hideous by pungent odors through the dead town, where the smell of gas still clung to houses and issued up from cellars. Now trenches lay along the road, and the golden harvest moon turned to silver and flooded the scene, casting long, strange shadows on the ground. A deepening roar, followed by the whizzing scream of shells as hidden batteries poured death into the German lines. A whistle, a roar, a thud, a sudden check, and on as a couple of shells spattered the road ahead. "Halt, off-load the limbers"--on to a crater where our guides awaited us. Here the chalk molds and craters of the shattered German lines along which we walked looked like miniature snow-clad mountains in the moonlight. Destruction everywhere, but a destruction that was grand while it was dreadful. And so to dug-outs, and the night-time "hate" and gas--a doze, and the wonderful dawn of a perfect daybreak. Exploration of trenches, broken by pauses to look at aërial combats far up in the blue, where planes looked like bits of silver dust whirled about by the breeze. Interest covered and crushed every other emotion, and though many of the things that lie about seem loathsome in cold-blooded language, I found nothing of loathing there. Now a human skull with matted ginger hair, but with the top bashed in, now a hand or arm sticking up from some badly-buried body or shell-smashed grave, and everywhere the appalling waste of war--spades, shovels, German clothes, armor, ammunition scattered in a chaos beyond words. Crash! bang! boom! and like rabbits to earth once more; we have been spotted, and whiz-bangs fall--a dozen wasted German shells. Packed like sardines we lie and try to snatch some moments' sleep. With revolvers by our sides, and respirators on our chests, we live in the perpetual night of underground, coming to the surface to work or see a little of God's sunshine or explore, as shells permit and the spirit moves us. Time as a measure has ceased to be and our watches serve just as checks on our movements. I love life, and oh, how I hate it too! G. B. MANWARING. A CAROL FROM FLANDERS 1914 In Flanders on the Christmas morn The trenchéd foemen lay, The German and the Briton born-- And it was Christmas Day. The red sun rose on fields accurst, The gray fog fled away; But neither cared to fire the first, For it was Christmas Day. They called from each to each across The hideous disarray (For terrible had been their loss): "O, this is Christmas Day!" Their rifles all they set aside, One impulse to obey; 'Twas just the men on either side, Just men--and Christmas Day. They dug the graves for all their dead And over them did pray; And Englishman and German said: "How strange a Christmas Day!" Between the trenches then they met, Shook hands, and e'en did play At games on which their hearts are set On happy Christmas Day. Not all the Emperors and Kings, Financiers, and they Who rule us could prevent these things For it was Christmas Day. O ye who read this truthful rime From Flanders, kneel and say: _God speed the time when every day Shall be as Christmas Day_. FREDERICK NIVEN. THE MINER AND THE TIGER On an October day in 1866, David Lloyd George, then a little lad of three years, came with his mother and younger brother to live with his uncle, Richard Lloyd, for his father had died leaving the family penniless. His uncle, a shoemaker and preacher, was educated though poor. In the picturesque little village of Llanystumdwy on the coast of Wales, Lloyd George grew up,--a leader among his mates, not only in his studies but in mischief as well. He was a good thinker and liked to debate with his uncle, and to be in his uncle's shop in the evening when the men of the village gathered to talk over questions of business and politics. As he grew older, he took part in their conversation and was acknowledged by them to have a good mind. When he had finished his ordinary schooling, after which most boys were put to work, his mother and his uncle agreed that the lad ought to receive a good education; that such a capable boy should not all his life be obliged to work by the day at farming. But his mother was penniless, and his uncle had only a few hundred pounds which he had saved to care for himself in his old age. But, though he was often stern with the boy, he loved him, and decided to spend all that he had for his education. He could not know then that he was helping a boy who would be the greatest man in England at a later day. Eagerly Lloyd George entered upon his work at the university, studying especially the subject of law. At graduation time, funds were too low to pay for the official robe which was accustomed to be worn in the profession. But Lloyd George left college and worked in an office until he had acquired the needed sum. Then he went back home and opened a law office. [Illustration: David Lloyd George.] He knew that his home people needed his help, for they were farmers who were continually being taxed or having portions of their land taken from them unjustly by the rich landowners. He knew, too, that the laborers in the Welsh mining districts were unfairly treated. Lloyd George undoubtedly had heard the men talk over their troubles in his uncle's shop. Now he was prepared to defend them, and soon had many clients, for they learned that he could not only sympathize with them, but could plead their cases well. Because he so strongly championed the rights of the miners, and because he himself lived for so long in the mining district, Lloyd George came to be called "The Miner." More and more, renowned lawyers of the country began to hear of him. He carried cases to the high court of London where he won great admiration. Always he fought for the poor and downtrodden people. He began to speak everywhere--on street corners, in the market places, and in public buildings, with such feeling and force that even those who opposed him admired him. They liked his quick wit and good humor, and his honest, direct way of looking at things. In the year 1890 he obtained a seat in the House of Commons. His reputation grew, as through one act after another he sought to make life easier and fairer for the nation's poor. His advance, step by step, to higher seats in the government was met with constant opposition from the rich lords and magistrates. But there was in him an almost unbelievable power for overcoming all obstacles. He was keen to see what was the right thing to be done, then went straight after it, making a new way, if necessary,--breaking down all barriers by means of his own wonderfully skillful schemes. Thus his policy came to be known as one of "make or break." Often the men who opposed him most bitterly at first were afterward his stanchest friends and supporters. No other premier, elected at the beginning of the World War, succeeded in holding the position until the end. He served in many capacities, proving invaluable in all. It became natural for officials or people anywhere, having difficult problems at hand, to send for Lloyd George to settle them. Once 200,000 miners of Wales struck and refused to work again until certain conditions were granted by their employers. Lloyd George had really nothing to do with the case. But the labor officials spent a long time trying to arrive at some agreement, and failed completely. At last they sent for Lloyd George to assist them. He traveled down from London to the miners' camp and in one day reached a settlement and left the men in good humor back at their work again. He was impatient at delay and slowness of action. So when the British soldiers went into the trenches to fight, he determined that they should have as many and as good guns and shells as the enemy. He decided that the government should have all the money it needed to back the great war; for building ships, airplanes, and countless other necessities. With his characteristic straightforward manner, he brought the problems before the people, and thrilled and stirred them mightily by his powerful, searching speeches. He thus secured all that was desired. At the close of the war, he was the chief power in England and whatever he willed was done. Yet Lloyd George was a warm-hearted Welshman who loved the people. Even in war time, he was a jovial, home-loving man. At the royal house, at 11 Downing Street, he lived in sweet companionship with his wife and two daughters, Olwen and Megan--one a young lady, the other a little girl of twelve years. His two sons fought in France. Nor did he forget his aged uncle now past ninety, who staked all that he had for the boy's education. As Premier of England, Lloyd George gladly welcomed him to his royal home. No other name in the past few years, save that of President Wilson, has been so often and so affectionately upon the lips of people in every land as has the name of David Lloyd George. He is a hero worthy of any boy's admiration and emulation. He has made some glorious pages in English history. At the peace table, in all his kindliness and power, he determined to see justice meted out to poor, unfortunate people in all lands. Georges Clemenceau, Premier of France, is another who stands for justice and liberty. He has upheld these virtues with such fierce determination that he has come to be known in France as the "Old Tiger." His father in the days of Napoleon III was a leader of the revolution and aided in the attempts to establish a republic in place of the kingdom. He was thrown into prison, but his son, Georges Clemenceau, became an even greater worker in the cause of freedom. As a young man he, too, was cast into prison because in the midst of an imperial celebration, he shouted on the streets of Paris "Vive la République." After he was released, he realized that he would be treated practically as an exile, and so he came to America. Here for a few years he was instructor in French in a school for girls. After marrying one of his students, he returned with her to France. Through his writings and speeches, he became widely known in Paris for his democratic ideas upon all public questions. At one time a young military officer, Captain Dreyfus, was about to be condemned for high treason. Clemenceau believed him innocent, and proved that the trial was unjust. By his newspaper editorials, he so aroused the people of Paris--those of society as well as the working classes and university students--that a new trial was finally secured for the prisoner. The whole nation was interested in the Dreyfus case, and the youth of France especially hailed Clemenceau as a leader of justice. He was first made premier in 1906, at the age of sixty-six. He served for three years and then again retired to private life. Often his voice alone was raised in objection to laws or regulations which to him seemed unfair. Even when no one shared his ideas, however, he forced the government and the people to listen to him, such a keen and stirring debater was he. For years he continued, as an editor of a newspaper, to struggle for justice for the common people. So unpopular was the "Old Tiger" with his cries of freedom for all, that he had to "tear and claw and bite" his way into society and to power in the government. [Illustration: Georges Clemenceau.] When the World War came, his daily paper, the _Free Man_, told the dangers and weaknesses of the government war measures. Like Lloyd George in England, he dared to propose new and gigantic means for winning the victory. He wrote much to keep high the courage of the French soldiers and the people, defending the just and righteous cause of their country. It is said that in the first three years of the war, he wrote over a thousand such editorials. Then came the great crisis, when the Huns were planning a final drive that should win them the victory. Some one must be chosen who should be able to prepare the armies to strike hard at the enemy. Clemenceau was the man chosen. On October 17, 1917, he was once more made Premier of France, though he was now seventy-eight years old. But his eyes flashed keener, and his mind was more clever and daring than ever in his youth. The man who even in the titles of his newspapers,--_Labor_, _Justice_, _Dawn_, the _Free Man_,--had for years been shouting for liberty, now had a share in the command of the forces of the Allies which were to win the fierce struggle for democracy. In the spring of 1918, when the French feared that they must lose the war, it was Clemenceau who cheered them and urged them on and on in their efforts to win, until at length he gave them the most cheering message of all, "Hold the line, for America comes!" Overcoming all obstacles, he led the nation to victory. Down into the trenches he went, risking his life in the very front lines, that he might go among his soldiers to cheer them, and to let them know that he did not send his men where he would not go himself. His behavior toward his would-be assassin, on February 19, 1919, was in itself a striking example of his daring, fighting spirit. As he rode home in his car from the Peace Conference, a man aimed and fired at him. Instantly Premier Clemenceau pushed open the door of his car, and, while the man continued firing, sprang upon him and grappled with him until the police reached the spot and seized the offender. Five bullets had been shot, only one of which lodged itself in the "Old Tiger's" shoulder, and did no great harm. Even those who opposed Clemenceau's political policies, strongly denounced the attempt upon his life, which had been made by a supposed Russian socialist. Thus this keen, jovial, loyal defender of liberty has come into the love of all his people. An unnamed poilu sent Premier Clemenceau his Croix de Guerre, with the following letter:-- "You have not been given the Croix de Guerre. Here is mine, bearing only two stars. You merit two palms." Clemenceau is reported to have wept when he read the letter. It gave him untold pleasure to serve as the nation's host during the visit of President Wilson--with whom, as representative of the great republic of the United States, he should further help to establish freedom throughout the world. THE LOST BATTALION On December 24, 1918, Lieutenant Colonel Charles W. Whittlesey of Pittsfield, Massachusetts, was presented in the presence of 20,000 people on Boston Common by Major General Edwards with the congressional Medal of Honor, the highest tribute of valor the United States awards. General Edwards presented the medal with these words: "Your heroic act thrilled the entire American Expeditionary Force. It was a piece of stout-hearted work that reflected credit upon the part of yourself and of the men who were serving under you. It sustained the best traditions of American arms and valor. It is a great pleasure to have the presentation assigned to me; I regard it as a sacred duty." Lieutenant Colonel Whittlesey smiled, and straightening up to his full stature of six feet and four inches, simply said, "I thank you, General." The medal was given to reward his courage and determination when with his "lost battalion" he was surrounded by the Germans in the Argonne forest. On the fourth day of suffering in the cold and rain without food or blankets, when their ammunition was almost gone, an American who had been taken prisoner by the Germans was sent to Major Whittlesey--his promotion to Lieutenant Colonel came later--with a written message saying, "Americans, you are surrounded on all sides. Surrender in the name of humanity. You will be well treated." [Illustration: Major General Clarence R. Edwards, former commander of the Twenty-sixth Division, pinning the congressional Medal of Honor on the breast of Lieutenant Colonel Charles W. Whittlesey.] Major Whittlesey's exclamation when he had read the message was very brief and very forceful. It made the Germans understand without further parley that the Americans would never surrender. Major Whittlesey's men cheered his reply. Not one of them, cold, hungry, and almost exhausted, thought for a moment of surrendering. Several days before on the morning of September 26, they had entered the Argonne forest, as a part of the line of American attack. At five-thirty in the morning, they had gone "over the top" in a very heavy fog and behind their creeping barrage toward the German trenches. They had to force their passage through trees, shrubs, vines, and undergrowth grown all together so that it was almost impossible to advance and yet keep in touch with one another as they were ordered to do. They reached the first German trenches which were named the _Ludwig_. The Huns named their trenches so as to identify them readily in orders and upon the maps. These trenches were empty and they went on to a row of fancy concrete and iron dugouts, called by the Germans _Karlsruhe_, where they made their headquarters for the night. The next day they met stubborn resistance from artillery and nests of machine guns, but they were able to make progress. In the first mile they passed over twelve abandoned trench systems. As they went forward they left men behind at regular intervals to keep them in touch with the regimental headquarters. Along this line of men, stationed near enough together to communicate easily with each other, orders, ammunition, and rations could be passed. The Germans knew their plan and as the battalion in the next days gradually got ahead of the main American line and out of touch with it on the flanks, the Huns pushed through, killed part of the men on the line of communication, and surrounded it, placing machine-gun nests in the rear. When Major Whittlesey discovered their predicament, he directed his adjutant, Lieutenant Arthur McKeogh, with two men to make an attempt to get back to regimental headquarters and inform the colonel of the situation. Lieutenant McKeogh has told the story of his success. It is intensely exciting and makes one shiver at the horror of men, who have no personal enmity but might be friends, killing one another, and also makes one thrill with pride and admiration for the courage that dares even to death--not the quick death of the glorious charge, but the slow death of thirst, exhaustion, and fatigue. It shows us the worst and the best of war, and that the worst is too great a price to pay for the best. Lieutenant McKeogh writes in an article in _Collier's_:-- I took Munson and Herschowitz, and on hands and knees, with drawn revolvers, we began a detour of the nests. I was keeping my direction by compass every foot of the way. We had been going a scant ten minutes when shots from a light Maxim and rifles broke out in front. I thought we had been spotted, but after a wait, when we started again, we crawled within a few feet of the real target, now lifeless; he was in khaki and apparently he had strayed from his outfit. During our wait we saw a boche passing through the trees. From the crackling of the brush there seemed to be others. With my lips I made the words "Don't fire" to my runners, and then covered him, in case he saw us. He went by. Realizing that we might have something of a time of it getting through, I motioned the runners to my side, read the messages to them in whispers and had them repeat. Then scooping out a little hole in the sodden leaves under my chin, I buried the messages, with several others from my map case, in fine pieces. Next I impressed upon them that our mission was not to fight unless forced to it, but to get back to the regiment, all of us, if possible; one, certainly. Consequently we would separate when it became necessary. Half an hour's traveling brought us to a broad clearing, cleaving the forest as far as I could see, on a true north-south line. Our direction was south, and the trail down the center of the clearing meant real progress, although I knew trails to be dangerous. We were not long upon it, when suddenly, out of a side trail, two German officers appeared, fifty yards ahead. The one in advance shouted something with "Kamerad" in it. But at the same time he was leveling his pistol at me, and I needed no interpreter. We darted off the trail behind a bush at its edge. The boches fired into the bush as they came. We stretched out and waited. In front of me a bough ran low and parallel to the ground; upon it I rested my pistol, directing it upon the trail through the thin leaves underneath. Presently Herr Offizier came creeping along, bent to the waist and peering through the bush. We looked squarely into each other's eyes as we fired, less than ten feet separating us. Being settled and ready for him, my gun had about a second the better of his. I aimed at his mouth, allowing for the rise of the bullet from the "kick." As he fired I actually felt the concussion against my face, we were so close; then a hot, sharp pain in my right forearm, as if some one had suddenly pushed a white-hot knife blade along under the elbow when I hadn't been looking. Munson and Herschowitz fired too, and there seemed to be shots from the second boche. My own particular duelist dropped back limp after my first shot, although I got off four in quick succession. Now we made for the thick of the woods. My resolution was to stick to them though they should be thick as fish glue. Under good cover Munson dressed my wound. My fingers had begun stiffening up a bit, and I worked them to keep the trigger finger in good trim, thinking at the time what a ludicrous shot I'd be with the left hand. A thought for soldiers in training: Are you ambidextrous? I've never fired a shot with the left. The wound itself was a puzzler. Almost at once the arm swelled until it seemed that a duck egg had been inserted under the flesh. But, feeling around it, there was no hard substance beneath. The sleeve showed two holes within three inches of each other where the cartridge had gone in and out. What probably happened was that my shot had diverted his aim and his bullet had passed under my crooked elbow and armpit, merely searing the forearm in a caressing sort of way. The blood was negligible. Altogether, it was a "cushy blighty," as the Tommy puts it. We reloaded our revolvers to wait for nightfall. There was a bit of stale bread in the bottom of my gas mask, forgotten until now. I split it into three parts, about two mouthfuls for each, and dug out some half-soaked cigarettes. "We'll have a smoke, Jack" (military rank is forgotten sometimes), "if it's the last," I said, and he agreed with a wan sort of smile. Herschowitz whispered that he didn't smoke, and dropped asleep as the words left his mouth. None of us had water. And we were very thirsty. The boys had white, sticky saliva in the corners of their mouths, and, from the feel of mine, I knew that I had too. To the inevitable monody of machine guns, we dozed until dusk came. Then with compass and revolver, one in each hand, I started again upon the eternal crawl. My arm had grown in circumference until the sleeve was tight upon it. Crawling added nothing to its comfort, for to do the crawfish stroke the elbows are pushed out ahead and upon them as anchors the rest of the body is then drawn up. As yet it was not necessary to go so carefully. But when, after hours, we came to a clearing as grateful as I was for the chance of unhampered movement, I dropped to hands and knees. Ten minutes of thus shinning passed without event. Then suddenly a boche voice called out, a little to our front: "_Bist du Deutsch_?" That much German I understood. We flattened. As it happened, we were at the foot of a tree at the base of which grew brush. We lay motionless. Again the voice, with its demand in intonation. Then the bolt of a rifle clicked clearly and the owner of the voice fired. The flash was clear against the night. From the right and left of the flash, and close to it, came other flashes. The bullets whined harmlessly above us. Was this a small, mobile party? If so, they would be slinking about. But during half an hour of their intermittent firing the position of the flashes never changed. That looked like funk holes! And if it was a case of funk holes, by all the nasty little elves of tough luck, _we had stumbled right into a German position_! By watching the direction of the flashes I tried to determine their front. Cupping my hand over the radio-lighted dial of my compass, I studied it in connection with their bursts of fire. They seemed to be firing north. But north was our own battalion front, and theirs, according to the military logic of things, south, unless--unless they had swung in from our flank behind us and had dug in facing our rear! No amount of juggling of the compass could satisfactorily account for the position of those bodies. So I settled down to waiting tactics. Clearly, it's wise to let your enemy think you have moved off while he is most on the alert for your movement. After that he relaxes vigilance, and you stand a better chance of getting away without foreign substances under the skin. I whispered--oh, very softly--that we would stay here for some time. Possibly an hour. And then I fell asleep! Munson woke me by gently pounding on my thigh. I don't remember the time. Must have been around midnight. The funk holes were quiet now, and we wormed away in a new direction without drawing fire. I recollect seeing the shiny hobnails and the horseshoe of steel on the runners' boots as I crawled back past them to take the lead. I wondered at what distance they were visible. Occasionally my helmet would come afoul of a vine or small branch; and then like cathedral bells to my overstrained ears the edge of the helmet would make a little ringing sound. I berated myself for ever having removed its burlap camouflage, though it gathered all the sand in the world to deposit in my hair. Once I heard Munson struggling to restrain a cough. We froze to the ground while he sputtered as softly as he could. And I was to know later what mental as well as physical torture the sensation is. For hours it seemed, painstakingly, inch by inch, we wormed our way out of those funk holes. _Out_, as I thought. But it was deeper into them that we went! I was congratulating myself on leaving the hotbed, as I headed for a bush, when, just at the fringe of it, and almost out of its very leaves, came another demand in German. This was a moment for quick action. It was time for the message to go back by three individuals on different routes. I heard the safety lock of a rifle snapped back. He would fire the next minute. Springing up, I shouted: "Separate!" to the boys, and ran as fast as I could, helter-skelter down the side of a gradual slope. I was making no effort at stooping now. Speed was my salvation, if anything was. Rifles barked all around. For a moment or two I heard the runners crashing through the brush. Several shots hummed past me, but I was too preoccupied to notice them much. I knew I'd have to get cover soon--before they saw and dropped me. Just ahead, in dark outline, I spotted what seemed to be a providential bit of cover. I made for it full tilt, the sloping ground quickening my pace. I hurled myself at it, legs first and spread apart, so as to land in a sitting position. It was so that I did land--right astride the shoulders of a boche. I had selected a German funk hole for cover! As I landed, a second boche who like the first had been squatted down rose to his feet, slowly, it seemed, alongside me. We were both bereft of speech from the surprise; the fellow under me was incapable of locomotion as well, for while I felt him squirm a bit he stayed put. My mind was racing like an overfed gas engine. "What," I thought, "is the convention when one tumbles in upon a pair of Fritzes without the formality of being announced?" I knew I had to gain time until the muscular paralysis from the surprise had passed. Subconsciously I must have been thinking that if only I could speak to him in his native tongue he might believe for the moment that I was one of his own. I cudgeled my brain for a German expression. Then I remembered a masseuse, a very German woman, who has called at my home for years to dress my sister's hair. What was it she used to say so much? What was it? Ah, I knew! "_Was ist los_?" I said triumphantly to my vis-a-vis as he rose to his feet. Amusingly enough, I didn't actually know at the time that it meant "What's the matter?" I had an idea it was a liberal translation of "Who's looney now?" And that seemed pat enough for the occasion. "_Was ist los_?" Fritz repeated with a strong, rising inflection on the "_los_." And at that he drew his overcoat, which apparently had been thrown across his shoulders, high above his head and down over it, as if he were cold. I can see the silhouette of that coat against the stars now. Of course I could have been in the hole no longer than fifteen seconds, but it seemed hours, and every move is deep limned upon my memory. As he lowered the coat, his hands holding the collar at his cheeks, my wits became somewhat normal again. "You idiot!" I said to myself. "You've got a revolver in your right hand." Sharply I brought the muzzle against his left breast and fired twice. Then, crooking my elbow, I reached down, sunk the muzzle into the back of the man under me, and again fired twice. I recall spreading my legs for fear of injuring myself. His body crumpled under me. The first one had fallen backward, supported by the side of the funk hole. His hands seemed to be reaching blindly for something in his belt now. Both their rifles lay extended over the little parapet. He might be trying to get at his trench knife. So I fired again, and without waiting to see the effect of the shot, sprang up and ran wildly down the slope. My breath was coming in gasps. I thought it was all up, for the whole camp--a bivouac of a company it surely was--went into an uproar of shouts and shots and flashes. "_Amerikaner_!" I heard several times. I don't know how far I ran. Not far. For I was expecting to be hit at any moment. Again I found a low-growing bush. And again half-anticipating finding myself with the enemy, I sprawled in under it. My breath was burning my throat. I was horribly thirsty. And my heart was pounding like a pile driver--and every bit as loud. Little by little I squirmed in under the branches. Voices came from half a dozen directions. Some were drawing toward me. About fifteen yards to my right front, shots came steadily from what I knew to be another funk hole. I thought of the shiny hobnails on the runners' boots, and drew my legs up closer. My watch gleamed like a group of flares, and I twisted its face to the under side of my wrist. The voices were very close now. It seemed to be a little party, beating the bushes for me. I saw one fellow's head and shoulders against the sky line. My first thought was of my gun. I knew there was but a single cartridge left. Softly I opened the clips on my cartridge pouch and reloaded. I didn't like lying face down. It was too inviting to a shot in the back. I wanted to roll over and be prepared when they came upon me, to sit up into some sort of firing position. But my white face (and I'll wager it was unwontedly white!) might show up in the dark. So I clawed my fingers into the ground in the hope that I could apply some camouflage in the form of mud. But mud is perverse; it lies yards deep when you don't want it, and is miles away when you do. The ground was wet enough from the rains--so was I, for that matter!--but with spongy, dead leaves. I tried smearing some over the backs of my hands, but when I extended one to get the effect it was as lily-white as milady's; whereat I hastily tucked it back under my gas mask, worn at the "alert" upon my chest. The searchers, meantime, were snaking around among the bushes. Their conversation was as audible as it was meaningless to me--now to my left, next close up, then withdrawing to my right. All this time the "li'l .45" was ready if they got so near that discovery would be inevitable. I hadn't given up hope by any means, but I did let myself picture several boches taking my maps and message books (one of them full of carbon copies) into some dugout. Such odd little thoughts as how long it would take them to find a boche who could read English occurred to me. And from that I was whisked back to a Forty-second Street barber whose English was excellent and who had told me of his service in the German army. Many such reservists must have returned to the Fatherland. I wondered, too, if, in the anticipated exchange of shots, having wounded me, they would kill me outright in reprisal for my killing their two comrades. Oh, it was a cheerful line of speculation! I was deep in it when, above the regular shots of the fellow in the funk hole nearest me, came a rattle of pistol explosions some distance away. "One of the runners," I thought. "Hope he was as lucky as I." Munson told me later that he had run into a boche near a railway track and had dropped him. The chap in the near-by funk hole began to amuse me now. He kept up his shots at fifteen-second intervals for half an hour. I'm inclined to believe those Jerries were more frightened than we. May have thought it was a surprise attack in force. This fellow, for instance, was firing, I knew, at nothing in the world but atmosphere. And in his own mind he may have been bumping off a lot of Yanks lying in wait for the word to charge at his front--wherever in blazes his front was! I got to feeling rather snug about the nervousness of this outfit. And pride cometh also before a cough. After three days of intermittent rain, without overcoat, I had acquired a cold. And now my throat tickled and my nose itched, and I was headed straight for a healthy bark. I sunk my teeth around my forearm--the good one--and let go. It was pretty well smothered and attracted no attention, for the fellow with all the superfluous ammunition remained quiet. Seemingly secure from discovery, I was in no great rush to decide on future plans. But some sort of campaign had to be laid out, for dawn was not many hours away. I think it was about two-thirty, and before light I had to be out of those environs, if ever I was to get out. But at the moment it would have been suicidal to move. The night had become so quiet that I hardly dared raise my head for fear the edge of the helmet would scrape against something. Once, when my head dropped from sleepiness, the helmet brought up against the muzzle of my gun. It sounded like the crack of Doomsday to me. I studied my compass to prevent drowsing. I was satisfied that whatever way I crawled--farther away from or closer to more funk holes--it would be a matter of pure guesswork, so I determined to hit out south when move I did. The sky was sown with stars. As I looked at them I thought of all the untroubled people they were shining upon; saw the theatre crowds on Broadway. "Old stars," I thought, "I wonder if ever I'll see you again." And then smiled at myself for finding time to wax sentimental when practical matters should be engaging me! Next I deplored my luck that there should be stars at all on this night. Wind and rain were what I wanted. Under their cover I stood a fair chance at weaseling off. A visual reconnoissance of the ground immediately in front of me to the south showed, within reach, the stump of a sapling. I couldn't see whether it had been cut by shell fire or for camouflage. Wriggling forward a few feet, I extended my arm outside the bush. It was too clean a cut for shell fire, my fingers told me. Nothing but a sharp ax had severed it so smoothly. Here was one spot I'd circuit before going south--if I would avoid "going west." The night was wearing on, and I caught myself half dozing several times. I kept looking at my watch and telling myself that I mustn't--mustn't sleep. The rawness of early morning did much to keep me awake in my muddy, soggy clothes. At about four o'clock I noticed that the stars were thinning out. If only it _would_ rain! I will always believe that there was something miraculous about the way the heavens were swept clear of those stars, as if a great hand had gathered them in. For soon a wind came up that tossed the tree tops and bent even the bushes. And with it, within a few minutes, a heavy, lashing rain. Nothing could have better suited my purpose. I reached up and snapped off a few branches. No danger now of being heard. The wind was kicking up a delightful rustling. The twigs I inserted under my collar, their leaves thus giving some covering to my face and breaking the line of my helmet. Without loss of time I began crawling, taking care merely to keep low. As I left, a German voice was traveling along what I assumed to be the line of funk holes, yelling "_Posten_!" every few seconds. I figured that it was their "Stand to," or the relieving of a guard, for a little earlier there had been the regular tramp of feet--maybe two squads, from the sound--along a plank walk to my rear. Machine guns were clattering away at their matins in several places in the woods, but I was leaving them farther and farther in my wake--the only wake of mine that I wanted them to attend. Once more it was the struggle with the forest; once more the difficulty of keeping my bearings, constantly watching the delicate compass. But breasting the wilderness didn't matter now. I was hungry and thirsty and so tired that it was a real effort to plow my feet through the undergrowth. But at least, I was done with boche voices. Then I came to a path in the exact center of which was a shell crater nearly full of clay-colored water. I almost fell upon the hole reaching back for my canteen. But as I leaned toward it, a strong smell of mustard gas rose. And I went on! I hadn't gone far along the path when somewhere a boche shouted something, but he was not very near and must have been calling to a comrade. I darted into the woods again, resolved to stay in them if I dropped some place for good. I was awfully tired, and to my surprise found myself staggering. Over fallen trees I climbed, so high that at times I was well above the young saplings. Dawn was breaking now, and it was easier to preserve a sense of direction. I came to another crater. While I took the precaution to smell, I would have drunk, I believe, even had the water been gassed. My mouth was terribly parched. Already I had resorted to shaking the rain-wet young trees over my upturned face; I had even pressed their wet leaves against my tongue. Now I drank--drank till I could hold no more. The water was almost as filthy as Gunga Din's--but it was wonderful! Broad day had come when I reached another such wide clearing as that of our dueling exploit. I was timid of taking it, but it ran south; indeed, it may have been the same. The firing was faint behind me, and I decided to follow it. I was vexed because I could not quite control my steps. My gun was swinging listlessly in my hand, and for the first time in twenty-four hours I pushed it back into its holster. Half an hour's going disclosed a broad road ahead. I was passing untenanted trenches. I heard voices ahead presently and sprang into the bushes at the side. Then I went ahead slowly, with ears keen. The voices grew more distinct; I caught syllables and--it was English, good old English! I tumbled out and approached several Americans standing near a funk hole. I went up to one of them. He looked at me with some concern in his eyes. "My God, but I'm glad to see you!" I said. They were of the Third Battalion, and my exclamation must have startled them, for, of course, I did not know them. "Tell me something in American," I added. My nerves were frayed, I guess, and my voice sounded curiously far-off. "Is anything the matter, sir?" one of them asked. "Nothing at all. I'm on my way back to regiment at Karlsruhe. Will this path take me?" Then I learned that I had reached the Tirpitz trench, the reserve battalion's new position. "Let me go back to the next runner post with you," said one, and made to take my arm. Which annoyed me, naturally. The colonel was about to eat breakfast when I arrived at the fancy dugouts we had taken so many eons ago. I indicated my battalion's position on his map and told him the situation briefly. Lieutenant McKeogh adds, "Relief was sent with ammunition and food on September 30, and on the following day the refreshed command started forward again--again to be cut off, this time for five days." The men in the battalion crouched in the rain and the cold in their shallow and hastily constructed trenches. The Germans kept a constant fire upon them from machine guns and attempted to reach them with their artillery, but fortunately they did not get the exact range. There were machine-gun nests all about them and if a man showed himself ever so little or made any loud noise, he brought upon all of them volleys from the guns and from the trench mortars. At regular intervals all the machine guns would sweep the place with a rain of bullets. Snipers were also constantly on the watch for the exposure of the smallest part of a man's body. They had carried little food with them, for they expected it to follow them along their line of communication. There was water in the swampy little creek in the ravine, but to attempt to reach it by day meant certain death. At night the enemy covered it with machine gun fire, making it almost impossible for the Americans to crawl down and back again. Many did make the venture, and some returned with their canteens full, which they shared with their comrades. Others were found afterward by the stream where they had fallen under the enemy's fire. At regimental headquarters it was known, even before Lieutenant McKeogh got through, that the battalion was surrounded in the forest, unless it had been exterminated or had surrendered. So daily, American aviators flew over the forest attempting to locate the men. They dropped carrier pigeons in boxes hoping some of them might fall into Major Whittlesey's hands and that by them he might send his location to the colonel. They also dropped boxes of food, but neither the pigeons nor the food reached the "lost battalion." Major Whittlesey had no rockets to send up to give his location, and his men could not yell loud enough to make the aviators hear them and locate them, but their yells did help the Germans to get better range for their trench mortars and machine guns. As the days passed the Americans grew more and more exhausted, but their courage and hope continued strong. All would rather die than surrender. Their ammunition was getting so low that the Germans were able to come closer to them, for Major Whittlesey ordered his men only to fire when the Hun was near enough so that they were sure not to miss him. After five days of this terrible exposure and strain, the battalion was rescued by a relief party. Of more than six hundred men at the beginning, three hundred and ninety-four survived at the end of the five days' fighting and suffering. All were completely exhausted, and many wounded. Many were so weak they had to be carried to the rear where warm blankets, warm food, and drink awaited them. But more than this awaited them. Their comrades were waiting for them with happy smiles and proud cheers. A place in history among the valiant deeds of brave and daring men also awaited them. They taught a lesson in pluck and endurance that the world will not allow to be forgotten. To those who read this story of _The Lost Battalion_, Colonel Whittlesey and Lieutenant McKeogh send the following messages:-- The most striking memory of one who returns from abroad is the memory of the enlisted men, who bore the real hardship of the war and did their work in a simple, cheerful way. Charles W. Whittlesey. America's greatest contribution to the World War was--the enlisted man. His calm valor, his smiling self-sacrifice can never be told. Arthur McKeogh 1st Lieut., Inf., U.S.A. [Illustration: Messages from Colonel Whittlesey and Lieutenant McKeogh.] UNITED STATES DAY United States Day was celebrated in Paris on April 20, 1918. On that day, exercises were held in the great hall of the Sorbonne; on April 21, a reception was given the American ambassador, and a great procession marched to the statue of Lafayette. The Stars and Stripes flew from the Eiffel Tower and from the municipal buildings on both days. At the exercises in the Sorbonne on April 20, M. Millerand, president of the French Maritime League, ranked Wilson with Washington and Lincoln. "Washington, Lincoln, Wilson--these are immortal types of the presidency of a democracy--men who, conscious of their responsibilities, assume the duty of guiding the people at whose head they have the honor to be placed, thus realizing the necessary harmony in human affairs between the principle of authority and the principle of liberty. Yes, history will assign to President Wilson a place among the great statesmen of all time, for he has been able to make clear the reasons why honor condemned neutrality and commanded war in order to assure to humanity the blessing of peace." Following the speech, the American and French flags were held aloft, touching each other. Then a French poet, Jean Richepin, recited with great emotion and telling effect, a poem he had composed for the occasion, entitled, "The Kiss of the Flags." Ambassador Sharp saluted the great republic of France and her Allies. In London, the American flag flew on April 20, 1918, where no flag except the British flag had flown in all history, at the top of the Victoria Tower over the Houses of Parliament at Westminster. A solemn and beautiful service was held at St. Paul's Cathedral. The King and Queen and England's greatest men and women attended. These celebrations in Paris and London and elsewhere are of importance to America, because they proved that the world was beginning to realize that the people of the United States were more than money seekers looking only for selfish gain, and therefore weak and unreliable. When America entered the war, a leading German paper said, "We do not think that America's intervention will have an essential effect on the results of the war. The Allies are going to have a momentary advantage, but they will soon be aware that America is like a stick that breaks when one wants to lean on it." Another great German daily gave the following as America's reasons for joining the Allies:-- "First, the desire to have a place at the peace conference; second, the wish to weaken or destroy the love of different peoples for their native lands; third, the hope thereby to be able to increase her military and naval equipment; and fourth, the desire to build up a great American merchant fleet." Because Germany saw in the United States only the love of power and of the Almighty Dollar, she made the terrible mistake that brought about her downfall. With the declaration of war with Germany on April 6, 1917, at least England and France saw the people of America more nearly as they are, lovers and defenders of the highest ideals man has yet felt and spoken. The American soldiers showed a little later at Belleau Wood and in the Argonne forest, that they loved these ideals enough to die for them. The English writer, Hall Caine, described the celebration in London in beautiful and graphic language:-- American Day in London was a great and memorable event. It was another sentinel on the hilltop of time, another beacon fire in the history of humanity. The two nations of Great Britain and America can never be divided again. There has been a national marriage between them, which only one judge can dissolve, and the name of that judge is Death. . . . Two lessons, at least, must be learned from the service of Friday in St. Paul's Cathedral. The first is that the accepted idea of the American Nation as one that weighs and measures all conduct by material values in dollars and cents, must henceforth be banished forever. Thrice already in its short history has it put that hoary old slander to shame, and now once again has it given the lie to it. The history of nations has perhaps no parallel to the high humanity, the splendid self-sacrifice, the complete disinterestedness that brought America into this war, with nothing to gain and everything to lose. It has broken forever with the triple monarchies of murder. To live at peace with crime was to be the accomplice of the criminal. Therefore, in the name of justice, of mercy, of religion, of human dignity, of all that makes man's life worth living and distinguishes it from the life of the brute, America, for all she is or ever can be, has drawn the sword and thrown away the scabbard. God helping her, she could do no other. The second of the lessons we have to learn from the services of Friday is that, having made war in defense of the right, America will make peace the moment the wrong has been righted. No national bargains will weigh with her, no questions of territory, no problems of the balance of power, no calculations of profit and loss, no ancient treaties, no material covenants, no pledges that are the legacy of past European conflicts. Has justice been done? Is the safety of civilization assured? Has reparation been made, as far as reparation is possible, for the outrages that have disgraced the name of man, and for the sufferings that have knocked at the door of every heart in Christendom? These will be her only questions. Let us take heart and hope from them. They bring peace nearer. It was not for nothing that the flags of Great Britain and America hung side by side under the chancel arch on Friday morning. At one moment the sun shot through the windows of the dome and lit them up with heavenly radiance. Was it only the exaltation of the moment that made us think invisible powers were giving us a sign that in the union of the nations, which those emblems stood for, lay the surest hope of the day when men will beat their swords into plowshares and know war no more? The United States of Great Britain and America! God grant the union celebrated in our old sanctuary may never be dissolved until that great day has dawned. NOVEMBER 11, 1918 Sinners are said sometimes to repent and change their ways at the eleventh hour; and on the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month of the year of 1918, the Kaiser, and other German war lords, if they did not repent, at least changed their ways, for at that hour the armistice went into effect and the war was over, with Germany and her allies humbled and defeated. November 11 has become one of the great dates in world history, but it was already great in the history of the nation whose entrance into the World War determined beyond question its final result. In the State House Library in Boston, there lies in a glass case a very precious manuscript. It is the _History of the Plymouth Plantation_ written by Governor William Bradford. It is often called _The Log of the Mayflower_, for it records the journey of the _Mayflower_ carrying the Pilgrims to a land of freedom. It tells the story of the forming of an independent government by members of this little band, strong only in their faith and in their desire for liberty. In the glass case the written manuscript lies open at the record of the solemn compact made in the cabin of the _Mayflower_ in order that all who look may read and know the aims of these few courageous men and women in seeking a new world. This was about 300 years ago, on November 11, 1620. Let us read again the compact of these brave and adventurous souls, who saw the vision of democracy, a dream not realized for the whole world until 298 years later, on November 11, 1918. "In the name of God, Amen. We whose names are under-written, the loyal subjects of our dread sovereign Lord, King James, by the grace of God, of Great Britain, France and Ireland, King, Defender of the Faith &c. having undertaken for the glory of God and advancement of the Christian faith, and honor of our King and country, a voyage to plant the first colony in the Northern parts of Virginia, do by these presents solemnly and mutually in the presence of God, and of one another, covenant and combine ourselves together into a civil body politic, for our better ordering and preservation and furtherance of the ends aforesaid; and by virtue hereof to enact, constitute and frame such just and equal laws, ordinances, acts, constitutions and offices, from time to time, as shall be thought most meet and convenient for the general good of the colony, unto which we promise all due submission and obedience. In witness whereof we have hereunder subscribed our names at Cape Cod the 11th of November, in the year of the reign of our sovereign lord, King James, of England, France, and Ireland the eighteenth and of Scotland the fifty-fourth. Anno Dom. 1620." It is safe to say that from this agreement which Senator Hoar called "the most important political transaction that has ever taken place upon the face of the earth," and from this band of Pilgrims, has come in the three centuries leading up to world democracy a greater influence for freedom and liberty than from any other single source in the affairs of men. How singular that this compact and the armistice with Germany, which is without doubt the most significant transaction between men in all recorded history, should both have been signed on November 11! It has been suggested that hereafter November 11, instead of the last Thursday in November, should be set aside as Thanksgiving Day. It certainly should be forever a day of thanksgiving even if it is not made officially Thanksgiving Day. Sunday night, November 10, the whole world waited in breathless suspense. The armistice conditions had been considered by the German government at a late sitting in Berlin on Sunday afternoon. Hard as they were, the government decided to accept them and telephoned instructions to Spa, the headquarters of the German army, authorizing the German delegates to sign the papers. The messenger was waiting at Spa to carry the information to the German representatives who were at Château de Francfort with Marshal Foch and Admiral Sir Rosslyn Wemyss, first lord of the British navy. He reached them at about two o'clock on Monday morning, November 11, and after some discussion the armistice was signed at five o'clock, to become effective six hours later. Saturday and Sunday, November 9 and 10, the whole world stopped, looked, and listened. Nothing just like it had happened before in the history of mankind. The world is constantly growing smaller as men overcome the difficulty of getting quickly from place to place, and peoples are thereby getting nearer to each other, so that whatever happens to one is of immediate interest to all others. The following description of Sunday night and Monday morning in a newspaper office in a small Massachusetts city is a graphic and interesting account of scenes that were being enacted at the same time all over the world. WAITING FOR THE FLASH Not at once can the mind grasp the full significance of the wonderful event of Monday, and as time goes on, more and more will the world come to realize what the signing of the armistice which ended the war means to present and future generations. Events were moving so rapidly during the dying days of German military might that keeping pace with them was literally out of the question. That Germany was a mere shell, most people who had followed the course of the war believed; and that she must accept dictated terms of armistice from the allies, regardless of their severity, was growing clearer day by day. Events of last Friday made it quite plain that the armistice offered by the allied nations through Marshal Foch was to be signed by Germany within the specified 72 hours. This position was strengthened Saturday afternoon when positive word came that the Kaiser had abdicated. It was the beginning of the definite end. It revealed a power in Germany greater than the power of the Hohenzollerns--the power of an outraged people rising after long years of oppression. From that hour of mid-afternoon on Saturday when the abdication of the Kaiser was "flashed" to the _Sentinel_ over its Associated Press wire, there was no relaxation in its plant. In the press room--which must be ready at a second's notice--men were on guard for every minute until the Kaiser's hour struck on Monday morning at 2.45 o'clock. It mattered not to them that a bed between two rolls of paper was the softest they could find, for couches and easy chairs are no part of a newspaper establishment. Sometimes the thought comes that "newspaper" is but a synonym for "slavery." With the coming of Sunday morning, without the expected word, the vigil was taken up in other directions. The composing, telegraph, and editorial rooms joined in keeping guard. The wire began to tick off its code messages of riots in Berlin, further spreading of the "Red" revolt in the army and navy, the flight of the dethroned Kaiser to Holland, and the other numerous signs all pointing to positive assurance that Germany must sign the armistice terms read to its representatives by Marshal Foch, no matter how stern they might be. In mid-afternoon came a brief message plucked from the air--a Berlin wireless--that the signing of the armistice was expected momentarily. But the hours wore on into late evening, and then came through a dispatch from Washington saying that the delay of the German courier in crossing the line might result in an extension of the 72-hour limit. Cold water never had a chilling effect equal to that. One by one the afternoon papers began to click out "good night" to the main office until only a few remained with the morning paper operators. Around The Associated Press New England circuit it must have been a great day for the tobacco trust, for pipes burn freely under pressure. From apples to dogs, from men who do little and make a big fuss about it to men who do much and keep still about it, goes the discussion between a bite at a sandwich and a sip at a mug of alleged coffee brought in from a lunch room. All the while the clock was moving along to the hour that was to say whether the answer was peace or more war. It was during an argument, surely--for that's the stock in trade in a newspaper office--that it came. What the argument was, and who was winning it and who losing it, is forgotten now, for from the adjoining room of The Associated Press operator at 2.46 o'clock in the morning came the wild exclamation--F-L-A-S-H--The Associated Press signal, very seldom employed, indicating that something big has happened. Three jumps to the operator's side, and there on the paper in his typewriter appeared just three words: "Flash--Armistice signed." It was enough. Action replaced watchful waiting. Not long afterward the bells began to ring and the whistles to blow. The assembling place for the celebration the mayor had ordered was right in front of the _Sentinel_ office, the biggest and most available congregation park in the city. By that time the first _Sentinel_ extra had gone to press, and there was a breathing spell. From the top floor of the _Sentinel_ home everything happening below could be seen. First to arrive in the square was an automobile from Prospect hill, driven by the chairman of the committee on public safety, for he had been notified simultaneously with the mayor. Then another car came up Main street. Then men on foot began to arrive. At first they came in ones and twos and threes, up street and down street and around the corners, and then in droves and swarms. Automobiles increased in number, coming from all directions, with blaring horns and seemingly slight regard for their own safety, but also with much regard for the safety of others. Soon the square was alive, and there will not in our time be another sight like it, for war of conquest is an unpopular business now. The flashing headlights of the motor cars, the screaming horns, the yelling men, women and children, combined to make a picture never to be erased from memory. It was great to have seen it, even though not an immediate part of it. Then the parade started, disappeared down the street, and in due time came back. Later in the day was another parade, and a larger and more formal one. But it was not like the early morning rallying of the "victory clans." Nothing again will ever be like it. A spontaneous celebration of the victorious ending of a terrible struggle that has rocked the world for more than four years has a place by itself. While the city was still seething with jubilant excitement and the main street was getting more and more alive with people every minute, the darkness of night began to give way before the dawn of day. And it was a beautiful dawn, too. The eastern sky did not reveal itself in sullen shade, but in clear color, more calm than brilliant, more in keeping with a message of peace than of strife on earth.[1] These celebrations were in many cases of the strangest character, the chief aim seeming to be to march somewhere in some procession and to make as much noise as possible. In one of the large cities of Massachusetts, the first sight that struck the eyes of citizens rushing into the square was fifty or more of the most prominent business men, each in a tin wash boiler, being drawn by two men over the paved street while its occupant yelled at the top of his voice and beat its sides with a hammer. Auto trucks dashed up and down the streets as long as these were clear, then joined processions or dragged behind them over the pavements four or five empty galvanized ash cans. In New York at the premature celebration, which occurred November 8 when a false report was cabled from Europe saying the armistice was signed, and at the celebration on November 11, thousands of pieces of paper of all sizes were dropped from the windows of the great buildings, scrap baskets were emptied, catalogues, directories, and other pamphlets were torn up and dropped sheet by sheet until in some places the entire street was covered by this "paper snow storm." It is said that it cost the city $80,000 to clean the paper from the streets after the celebration was over. The tolling of church bells all over the country in the very early hours of the morning not only announced to the people the signing of the armistice, but also announced in many places church services of thanksgiving. Some cities and towns held two celebrations beside the so-called "fake" celebration on November 8. The Governor of Massachusetts early on Monday issued a proclamation naming Tuesday, November twelfth, as a legal holiday, but this did not deter the people from celebrating on the eleventh. In Boston all the talcum powder available was purchased and thrown on people's hats and shoulders. When it was brushed off in considerable quantities, it made the pavements look as if they were covered with snow and even more slippery. The chief spectacular feature of the celebration in Boston, however, was the burning on the Common, on Tuesday night, of twenty-five tons of red fire in one great blaze. Similar and perhaps more hilariously happy scenes took place in New York, Philadelphia, Washington, Atlanta, Chicago, San Francisco,--in every great city and hamlet in the country. Soldiers and sailors marched, reviewed by mayors and governors and generals and admirals. Speeches were made and songs were sung. It seemed at times as if everyone had gone crazy. If a person could have ascended high enough in an air plane and could have had the vision to have seen the whole United States, he would have perceived a most wonderful sight--a hundred million people yelling and singing and parading in every nook and corner of this great country. Nothing shows better the horror and hatred of war that was felt by the American people than this wonderful joy at the knowledge that it was all over; and nothing shows better how much liberty and democracy meant to them than their willingness to enter upon war when they so detested it and so much desired to see it done away with forever. Imagine the joy on these days in France and England and Belgium with their great cities lit up again after more than four years of darkness! What wonder that the Belgian boys and girls in Ghent marched up and down the streets singing, "It's a long, long way to Tipperary," the song which was probably the last they had heard on the lips of British soldiers as they were pushed back out of the city by the foe! Meanwhile the adults gathered in groups on the streets and in the cafés and sang "The Marseillaise." No other war correspondent felt and described the war with as much sympathy and power as Philip Gibbs. His description of the rejoicing in Ghent on Tuesday, November 12, is a beautiful and touching story. He writes of the lights and the singing as follows:-- "For the first time in five winters of war, they lighted their lamps with open shutters, and from many windows there streamed out bright beams which lured one like a moth to candle light because of its sign of peace. There were bright stars and a crescent moon in the sky, silvering the Flemish gables and frontages between black shadows and making patterns of laces in the Place d'Armes below the trees with their autumn foliage. "In these lights and in these shadows the people of Ghent danced and sang until midnight chimed. They danced in baker's dozens, with linked arms, men and girls together, singing deep voices and high voices, all mingling, so that when I went to my bedroom and looked out of the casement window, it rose in a chorus from all over the city, like music by Debussy. "One song came as a constant refrain between all the others. It was 'The Marseillaise.' They sang it in crowds and in small groups of soldiers and students, and I followed one man, who walked down a deserted avenue and who, as he walked, sang the song of liberty to himself, brandishing his stick, while his voice rang out with a kind of ecstasy of passion." Messages of congratulation passed from country to country and to armies and navies. Josephus Daniels sent by wireless the following tribute to all United States naval stations and ships:-- "The signing of the armistice makes this the greatest day for our country since the signing of the Declaration of Independence. For the world there has been no day so momentous for liberty. I send greetings and congratulations to all in the naval establishments at home and abroad. The test of war found the navy ready, fit, with every man on his toes. Every day all the men in the service have given fresh proof of devotion, loyalty, and efficiency." President Wilson cabled to King Albert on the day the king was expected to enter Brussels, the Belgian capital, the following message:-- "Never has a national holiday occurred at a more auspicious moment and never have felicitations been more heartfelt than those which it is my high privilege to tender to Your Majesty on this day." "When facing imminent destruction, Belgium by her self-sacrifice won for herself a place of honor among nations, a crown of glory, imperishable though all else were lost. "The danger is averted, the hour of victory come and with it the promise of a new life, fuller, greater, nobler than has been known before. "The blood of Belgium's heroic sons has not been shed in vain." The most terrible and bloody conflict in all history had ended, and the world was saved for the people. The struggle upward by the common people for over a thousand years was not after all to be in vain. Liberty and democracy were now assured to all; the danger of slavery and autocracy was over. It was not strange that a whole world seemed to have gone wild with joy. [1] George H. Godbeer in Fitchburg, Mass., _Daily Sentinel_. IN MEMORIAM [THE FIGHTING YEARS, 1914-1918] Ring out, wild bells, to the wild sky, The flying cloud, the frosty light: The year is dying in the night; Ring out, wild bells, and let him die. Ring out the old, ring in the new, Ring, happy bells, across the snow-- The year is going, let him go; Ring out the false, ring in the true. Ring out the grief that saps the mind, For those that here we see no more; Ring out the feud of rich and poor, Ring in redress to all mankind. Ring out a slowly dying cause, And ancient forms of party strife; Ring in the nobler modes of life, With sweeter manners, purer laws. Ring out the want, the care, the sin, The faithless coldness of the times; Ring out, ring out my mournful rhymes, But ring the fuller minstrel in. Ring out false pride in place and blood, The civic slander and the spite; Ring in the love of truth and right, Ring in the common love of good. Ring out old shapes and foul disease; Ring out the narrowing lust of gold; Ring out the thousand wars of old, Ring in the thousand years of peace. TENNYSON. THE UNITED STATES AT WAR--IN FRANCE _Adapted with a few omissions and changes in language from the report of General Pershing made November 20, 1918, to the Secretary of War._ Upon receiving my orders, I selected a small staff and proceeded to Europe in order to become familiar with conditions at the earliest possible moment. The warmth of our reception in England and France was only equalled by the readiness of the leaders of the Allied armies to assist us in every way. We met and considered the best ways of working together. The French and British armies could not be increased in strength and they had been unable to drive the enemy from his systems of trenches in Belgium and France. It was therefore necessary to plan for an American force large enough to turn the scale in favor of the Allies. The problem before us was one of the very greatest difficulty. The first step was the formation of a General Staff and I gave this my early attention. A well organized General Staff to put into effect the plans of the Commander in Chief is essential to a successful modern army. However capable divisions, battalions, and companies may be as units, success would be impossible unless they worked together. A well organized General Staff trained for war has not hitherto existed in our army. Under the Commander in Chief this staff must carry out the policy of the army as a whole and direct all the details of its preparation, support, and operation. As models to aid us, we had the veteran French General Staff and the experience of the British who had formed a staff to meet the demands of a great army. By selecting from each the features that best met our needs and helped by our own early experience in the war, our great General Staff system was completed. The General Staff is divided into five groups, each with its chief. G. 1 is in charge of the organization and equipment of troops, replacements, overseas shipment, and welfare associations; G. 2 has censorship, gathering and disseminating information, particularly concerning the enemy, preparation of maps, and all similar subjects; G. 3 is charged with all strategic studies and plans and the supervision of the movement of troops and of fighting; G. 4 co-ordinates questions of army supply, necessary construction, transport for troops going into battle, of hospitals and the movement of the sick and wounded; G. 5 supervises the various schools and has general direction of education and training. It was decided that our combat divisions should consist of four regiments of infantry of 3,000 men each with three battalions to a regiment, and four companies of 250 men each to a battalion, and of an artillery brigade of three regiments, a machine gun battalion, an engineer regiment, a trench-mortar battery; a signal battalion, wagon trains, and the headquarters staffs and military police. These with medical and other units, made a total of over 28,000 men, or about double the size of a French or German division. Each corps consisted of six divisions--four combat and one depot and one replacement division--and also two regiments of cavalry. Each army consisted of from three to five corps. With four divisions fully trained, a corps could take over an American sector with two divisions in line and two in reserve, with the depot and replacement divisions prepared to fill the gaps in the ranks. Our purpose was to prepare an American force which should be able to take the offensive in every respect. Accordingly, the development of a self-reliant infantry by thorough drill in the use of the rifle and in the tactics of open warfare was always uppermost. The plan of training after arrival in France allowed a division one month for acclimatization and instruction in small units from battalions down, a second month in quiet trench sectors by battalion, and a third month after it came out of the trenches when it should be trained as a complete division in war of movement. Very early a system of schools was outlined and started which should have the advantage of instruction by officers direct from the front. At the great school centre at Langres, one of the first to be organized, was the staff school, where the principles of general staff work, as laid down in our own organization, were taught to carefully selected officers. Men in the ranks who had shown qualities of leadership were sent to the school of candidates for commissions. A school of the line taught younger officers the principles of leadership, tactics, and the use of the different weapons. In the artillery school, at Saumur, young officers were taught the fundamental principles of modern artillery; while at Issoudun an immense plant was built for training cadets in aviation. These and other schools, with their well-considered curriculums for training in every branch of our organization, were co-ordinated in a manner best to develop an efficient army out of willing and industrious young men, many of whom had not before known even the rudiments of military technique. Both Marshal Haig and General Pétain placed officers and men at our disposal for instructional purposes, and we are deeply indebted for the opportunities given to profit by their veteran experience. The place the American Army should take on the western front was to a large extent influenced by the vital questions of communication and supply. The northern ports of France were crowded by the British Armies' shipping and supplies while the southern ports, though otherwise at our service, had not adequate port facilities for our purposes, and these we should have to build. The already overtaxed railway system behind the active front in Northern France would not be available for us as lines of supply, and those leading from the southern ports of Northeastern France would be unequal to our needs without much new construction. Practically all warehouses, supply depots and regulating stations must be provided by fresh constructions. While France offered us such material as she had to spare after a drain of three years, enormous quantities of material had to be brought across the Atlantic. With such a problem any hesitation or lack of definiteness in making plans might cause failure even with victory within our grasp. Moreover, plans as great as our national purpose and resources would bring conviction of our power to every soldier in the front line, to the nations associated with us in the war, and to the enemy. The tonnage for material for necessary construction for the supply of an army of three and perhaps four million men would require a mammoth program of shipbuilding at home, and miles of dock construction in France, with a corresponding large project for additional railways and for storage depots. All these considerations led to the conclusion that if we were to handle and supply the great forces deemed essential to win the war we must utilize the southern ports of France--Bordeaux, La Pallice, St. Nazaire, and Brest--and the comparatively unused railway systems leading therefrom to the northeast. This would mean the use of our forces against the enemy somewhere in that direction, but the great depots of supply must be centrally located, preferably in the area included by Tours, Bourges, and Châteauroux, so that our armies could be supplied with equal facility wherever they might be serving on the western front. To build up such a system there were talented men in the Regular Army, but more experts were necessary than the army could furnish. Thanks to the patriotic spirit of our people at home, there came from civil life men trained for every sort of work involved in building and managing the organization necessary to handle and transport such an army and keep it supplied. With such assistance the construction and general development of our plans have kept pace with the growth of the forces, and the Service of Supply is now able to discharge from ships and move 45,000 tons daily, besides transporting troops and material in the conduct of active operations. As to organization, all the administrative and supply services, except the Adjutant General's, Inspector General's, and Judge Advocate General's Departments, which remain at general headquarters, have been transferred to the headquarters of the services of supplies at Tours under a commanding General responsible to the Commander-in-Chief for supply of the armies. The Chief Quartermaster, Chief Surgeon, Chief Signal Officer, Chief of Ordnance, Chief of Air Service, Chief of Chemical Warfare, the general purchasing agent in all that pertains to questions of procurement and supply, the Provost Marshal General in the maintenance of order in general, the Director General of Transportation in all that affects such matters, and the Chief Engineer in all matters of administration and supply, are subordinate to the Commanding General of the Service of Supply, who, assisted by a staff especially organized for the purpose, is charged with the administrative co-ordination of all these services. The transportation department under the Service of Supply directs the operation, maintenance, and construction of railways, the operation of terminals, the unloading of ships, and transportation of material to warehouses or to the front. Its functions make necessary the most intimate relationship between our organization and that of the French, with the practical result that our transportation department has been able to improve materially the operations of railways generally. Constantly laboring under a shortage of rolling stock, the transportation department has nevertheless been able by efficient management to meet every emergency. The Engineer Corps is charged with all construction, including light railways and roads. It has planned and constructed the many projects required, the most important of which are the new wharves at Bordeaux and Nantes, and the immense storage depots at La Pallice, Mointoir, and Glèvres, besides innumerable hospitals and barracks in various ports of France. These projects have all been carried on by phases, keeping pace with our needs. The Forestry Service under the Engineer Corps has cut the greater part of the timber and railway ties required. To meet the shortage of supplies from America, due to lack of shipping, the representatives of the different supply departments were constantly in search of available material and supplies in Europe. In order to co-ordinate these purchases and to prevent competition between our departments, a general purchasing agency was created early in our experience to co-ordinate our purchases and, if possible, induce our allies to apply the principle among the allied armies. While there was no authority for the general use of appropriations, this was met by grouping the purchasing representatives of the different departments under one control, charged with the duty of consolidating requisitions and purchases. Our efforts to extend the principle have been signally successful, and all purchases for the allied armies are now on an equitable and co-operative basis. Indeed, it may be said that the work of this bureau has been thoroughly efficient and businesslike. Our entry into the war found us with little of the equipment necessary for its conduct in the modern sense. Among our most important deficiencies in material were artillery, aviation, and tanks. In order to meet our requirements as rapidly as possible, we accepted the offer of the French Government to provide us with the necessary artillery equipment of seventy-fives, one fifty-five millimeter howitzer, and one fifty-five G. P. F. gun, from their own factories for each of the thirty divisions. The wisdom of this course is fully demonstrated by the fact that, although we soon began the manufacture of these classes of guns at home, there were no guns of the calibres mentioned manufactured in America on our front at the date the armistice was signed. The only guns of these types produced at home thus far received in France are 109 seventy-five millimeter guns. In aviation we were in the same situation, and here again the French Government came to our aid until our own aviation program should be under way. We obtained from the French the necessary planes for training our personnel, and they have provided us with a total of 2,676 pursuit, observation, and bombing planes. The first airplanes received from home arrived in May, and altogether we have received 1,379. The first American squadron completely equipped by American production, including airplanes, crossed the German lines on Aug. 7, 1918. As to tanks, we were also compelled to rely upon the French. Here, however, we were less fortunate, for the reason that the French production could barely meet the requirements of their own armies. It should be fully realized that the French Government has always taken a most liberal attitude, and has been most anxious to give us every possible assistance in meeting our deficiencies in these as well as in other respects. Our dependence upon France for artillery, aviation, and tanks was, of course, due to the fact that our industries had not been exclusively devoted to military production. All credit is due our own manufacturers for their efforts to meet our requirements, as at the time the armistice was signed we were able to look forward to the early supply of practically all our necessities from our own factories. The welfare of the troops touches my responsibility as Commander-in-Chief to the mothers and fathers and kindred of the men who came to France in the impressionable period of youth. They could not have the privilege accorded European soldiers during their periods of leave of visiting their families and renewing their home ties. Fully realizing that the standard of conduct that should be established for them must have a permanent influence in their lives and on the character of their future citizenship, the Red Cross, the Young Men's Christian Association, Knights of Columbus, the Salvation Army, and the Jewish Welfare Board, as aids in this work, were encouraged in every possible way. The fact that our soldiers, in a land of different customs and language, have borne themselves in a manner in keeping with the cause for which they fought, is due not only to the efforts in their behalf, but much more to their high ideals, their discipline, and their innate sense of self-respect. It should be recorded, however, that the members of these welfare societies have been untiring in their desire to be of real service to our officers and men. The patriotic devotion of these representative men and women has given a new significance to the Golden Rule, and we owe to them a debt of gratitude that can never be repaid. During our period of training in the trenches some of our divisions had engaged the enemy in local combats, the most important of which was Seicheprey by the 26th on April 20, in the Toul sector, but none had taken part in action as a unit. The 1st Division, which had passed through the preliminary stages of training, had gone to the trenches for its first period of instruction at the end of October, and by March 21, when the German offensive in Picardy began, we had four divisions with experience in the trenches, all of which were equal to any demands of battle action. The crisis which this offensive developed was such that our occupation of an American sector must be postponed. On March 28 I placed at the disposal of Marshal Foch, who had been agreed upon as Commander-in-Chief o the Allied Armies, all of our forces, to be used as he might decide. At his request the 1st Division was transferred from the Toul sector to a position in reserve at Chaumont en Vexin. As German superiority in numbers required prompt action, an agreement was reached at the Abbeville conference of the Allied Premiers and commanders and myself on May 2 by which British shipping was to transport ten American divisions to the British Army area, where they were to be trained and equipped, and additional British shipping was to be provided for as many divisions as possible for use elsewhere. On April 26 the 1st Division had gone into the line in the Montdidier salient on the Picardy battlefront. Tactics had been suddenly revolutionized to those of open warfare, and our men, confident of the results of their training, were eager for the test. On the morning of May 28 this division attacked the commanding German position in its front, taking with splendid dash the town of Cantigny and all other objectives, which were organized and held steadfastly against vicious counterattacks and galling artillery fire. Although local, this brilliant action had an electrical effect, as it demonstrated our fighting qualities under extreme battle conditions, and also that the enemy's troops were not altogether invincible. The Germans' Aisne offensive, which began on May 27, had advanced rapidly toward the River Marne and Paris, and the Allies faced a crisis equally as grave as that of the Picardy offensive in March. Again every available man was placed at Marshal Foch's disposal, and the 3d Division, which had just come from its preliminary training in the trenches, was hurried to the Marne. Its motorized machine-gun battalion preceded the other units and successfully held the bridgehead at the Marne, opposite Château-Thierry. The 2d Division, in reserve near Montdidier, was sent by motor trucks and other available transport to check the progress of the enemy toward Paris. The division attacked and retook the town and railroad station at Bouresches and sturdily held its ground against the enemy's best guard divisions. In the battle of Belleau Wood, which followed, our men proved their superiority and gained a strong tactical position, with far greater loss to the enemy than to ourselves. On July 1, before the 2d was relieved, it captured the village of Vaux with most splendid precision. Meanwhile our 2d Corps, under Major Gen. George W. Read, had been organized for the command of our divisions with the British, which were held back in training areas or assigned to second-line defenses. Five of the ten divisions were withdrawn from the British area in June, three to relieve divisions in Lorraine and in the Vosges and two to the Paris area to join the group of American divisions which stood between the city and any further advance of the enemy in that direction. The great June-July troop movement from the States was well under way, and, although these troops were to be given some preliminary training before being put into action, their very presence warranted the use of all the older divisions in the confidence that we did not lack reserves. Elements of the 42d Division were in the line east of Rheims against the German offensive of July 15, and held their ground unflinchingly. On the right flank of this offensive four companies of the 28th Division were in position in face of the advancing waves of the German infantry. The 3d Division was holding the bank of the Marne from the bend east of the mouth of the Surmelin to the west of Mézy, opposite Château-Thierry, where a large force of German infantry sought to force a passage under support of powerful artillery concentrations and under cover of smoke screens. A single regiment of the 3d wrote one of the most brilliant pages in our military annals on this occasion. It prevented the crossing at certain points on its front while, on either flank, the Germans, who had gained a footing, pressed forward. Our men, firing in three directions, met the German attacks with counter attacks at critical points and succeeded in throwing two German divisions into complete confusion, capturing 600 prisoners. The great force of the German Château-Thierry offensive established the deep Marne salient, but the enemy was taking chances, and the vulnerability of this pocket to attack might be turned to his disadvantage. Seizing this opportunity to support my conviction, every division with any sort of training was made available for use in a counter offensive. The place of honor in the thrust toward Soissons on July 18 was given to our 1st and 2d Divisions in company with chosen French divisions. Without the usual brief warning of a preliminary bombardment, the massed French and American artillery, firing by the map, laid down its rolling barrage at dawn while the infantry began its charge. The tactical handling of our troops under these trying conditions was excellent throughout the action. The enemy brought up large numbers of reserves and made a stubborn defense both with machine guns and artillery, but through five days' fighting the 1st Division continued to advance until it had gained the heights above Soissons and captured the village of Berzy-le-Sec. The 2d Division took Beau Repaire Farm and Vierzy in a very rapid advance and reached a position in front of Tigny at the end of its second day. These two divisions captured 7,000 prisoners and over 100 pieces of artillery. The 26th Division, which, with a French division, was under command of our 1st Corps, acted as a pivot of the movement toward Soissons. On the 18th it took the village of Torcy, while the 3d Division was crossing the Marne in pursuit of the retiring enemy. The 26th attacked again on the 21st and the enemy withdrew past the Château-Thierry-Soissons road. The 3d Division, continuing its progress, took the heights of Mont St. Père and the villages of Chartèves and Jaulgonne in the face of both machine-gun and artillery fire. On the 24th, after the Germans had fallen back from Trugny and Epieds, our 42d Division, which had been brought over from the Champagne, relieved the 26th, and, fighting its way through the Fôret de Fère, overwhelmed the nest of machine guns in its path. By the 27th it had reached the Ourcq, whence the 3d and 4th Divisions were already advancing, while the French divisions with which we were co-operating were moving forward at other points. The 3d Division had made its advance into Ronchères Wood on the 29th and was relieved for rest by a brigade of the 32d. The 42d and 32d undertook the task of conquering the heights beyond Cierges, the 42d capturing Sergy and the 32d capturing Hill 230, both American divisions joining in the pursuit of the enemy to the Vesle, and thus the operation of reducing the salient was finished. Meanwhile the 42d was relieved by the 4th, and the 32d by the 28th, while the 77th Division took up a position on the Vesle. The operations of these divisions on the Vesle were under the 3d Corps, Major Gen. Robert L. Bullard commanding. With the reduction of the Marne salient, we could look forward to the concentration of our divisions in our own zone. In view of the forthcoming operation against the St. Mihiel salient, which had long been planned as our first offensive action on a large scale, the First Army was organized on Aug. 10 under my personal command. While American units had held different sectors along the western front, there had not been up to this time, for obvious reasons, a distinct American sector; but, in view of the important parts the American forces were now to play, it was necessary to take over a permanent portion of the line. Accordingly, on Aug. 30, the line beginning at Port sur Seille, east of the Moselle and extending to the west through St. Mihiel, thence north to a point opposite Verdun, was placed under my command. The American sector was afterward extended across the Meuse to the western edge of the Argonne Forest, and included the 2d Colonial French, which held the point of the salient, and the 17th French Corps, which occupied the heights above Verdun. The preparation for a complicated operation against the formidable defenses in front of us included the assembling of divisions and of corps and army artillery, transport, aircraft, tanks, ambulances, the location of hospitals, and the molding together of all the elements of a great modern army with its own railheads, supplied directly by our own Service of Supply. The concentration for this operation, which was to be a surprise, involved the movement, mostly at night, of approximately 600,000 troops, and required for its success the most careful attention to every detail. The French were generous in giving us assistance in corps and army artillery and we were confident from the start of our superiority over the enemy in guns of all calibres. Our heavy guns were able to reach Metz and to interfere seriously with German rail movements. The French Independent Air Force was placed under my command, which, together with the British bombing squadrons and our air forces, gave us the largest assembly of aviators that had ever been engaged in one operation on the western front. From Les Eparges around the nose of the salient at St. Mihiel to the Moselle River the line was, roughly, forty miles long and situated on commanding ground greatly strengthened by artificial defenses. Our 1st Corps, (82d, 90th, 5th, and 2d Divisions,) under command of Major Gen. Hunter Liggett, resting its right on Pont-à-Mousson, with its left joining our 3d Corps, (the 89th, 42d, and 1st Divisions,) under Major Gen. Joseph T. Dickman, in line to Xivray, was to swing toward Vigneulles on the pivot of the Moselle River for the initial assault. From Xivray to Mouilly the 2d Colonial French Corps was in line in the centre, and our 5th Corps, under command of Major Gen. George H. Cameron, with our 26th Division and a French division at the western base of the salient, was to attack three difficult hills--Les Eparges, Combres, and Amaranthe. Our 1st Corps had in reserve the 78th Division, our 4th Corps the 3d Division, and our First Army the 35th and 91st Divisions, with the 80th and 33d available. It should be understood that our corps organizations are very elastic, and that we have at no time had permanent assignments of divisions to corps. After four hours' artillery preparation, the seven American divisions in the front line advanced at 5 A.M. on Sept. 12, assisted by a limited number of tanks, manned partly by Americans and partly by French. These divisions, accompanied by groups of wire cutters and others armed with bangalore torpedoes, went through the successive bands of barbed wire that protected the enemy's front-line and support trenches in irresistible waves on schedule time, breaking down all defense of an enemy demoralized by the great volume of our artillery fire and our sudden approach out of the fog. Our 1st Corps advanced to Thiaucourt, while our 4th Corps curved back to the southwest through Nonsard. The 2d Colonial French Corps made the slight advance required of it on very difficult ground, and the 5th Corps took its three ridges and repulsed a counter attack. A rapid march brought reserve regiments of a division of the 5th Corps into Vigneulles and beyond Fresnes-en-Woëvre. At the cost of only 7,000 casualties, mostly light, we had taken 16,000 prisoners and 443 guns, a great quantity of material, released the inhabitants of many villages from enemy domination, and established our lines in a position to threaten Metz. This signal success of the American First Army in its first offensive was of prime importance. The Allies found they had a formidable army to aid them, and the enemy learned finally that he had one to reckon with. On the day after we had taken the St. Mihiel salient, much of our corps and army artillery which had operated at St. Mihiel, and our divisions in reserve at other points, were already on the move toward the area back of the line between the Meuse River and the western edge of the Forest of Argonne. With the exception of St. Mihiel, the old German front line from Switzerland to the east of Rheims was still intact. In the general attack all along the line, the operations assigned the American Army as the hinge of this Allied offensive were directed toward the important railroad communications of the German armies through Mézières and Sedan. The enemy must hold fast to this part of his lines, or the withdrawal of his forces, with four years' accumulation of plants and material, would be dangerously imperiled. The German Army had as yet shown no demoralization, and, while the mass of its troops had suffered in morale, its first-class divisions, and notably its machine-gun defense, were exhibiting remarkable tactical efficiency as well as courage. The German General Staff was fully aware of the consequences of a success on the Meuse-Argonne line. Certain that he would do everything in his power to oppose us, the action was planned with as much secrecy as possible and was undertaken with the determination to use all our divisions in forcing decision. We expected to draw the best German divisions to our front and to consume them while the enemy was held under grave apprehension lest our attack should break his line, which it was our firm purpose to do. Our right flank was protected by the Meuse, while our left embraced the Argonne Forest, whose ravines, hills, and elaborate defense, screened by dense thickets, had been generally considered impregnable. Our order of battle from right to left was the 3d Corps from the Meuse to Malancourt, with the 33d, 80th, and 4th Divisions in line and the 3d Division as corps reserve; the 5th Corps from Malancourt to Vauquois, with the 79th, 87th, and 91st Divisions in line and the 32d in corps reserve, and the 1st Corps from Vauquois to Vienne le Château, with the 35th, 28th, and 77th Divisions in line and the 92d in corps reserve. The army reserve consisted of the 1st, 29th, and 82d Divisions. On the night of Sept. 25, our troops quietly took the place of the French, who thinly held the line in this sector, which had long been inactive. In the attack which began on the 26th we drove through the barbed-wire entanglements and the sea of shell craters across No Man's Land, mastering all the first-line defenses. Continuing on the 27th and 28th, against machine guns and artillery of an increasing number of enemy reserve divisions, we penetrated to a depth of from three to seven miles and took the village of Montfaucon and its commanding hill, and other villages. East of the Meuse one of our divisions, which was with the 2d Colonial French Corps, captured Marcheville and Rieville, giving further protection to the flank of our main body. We had taken 10,000 prisoners, we had gained our point of forcing the battle into the open, and were prepared for the enemy's reaction, which was bound to come, as he had good roads and ample railroad facilities for bringing up his artillery and reserves. In the chill rain of dark nights, our engineers had to build new roads across spongy, shell-torn areas, repair broken roads beyond No Man's Land, and build bridges. Our gunners, with no thought of sleep, put their shoulders to wheels and drag ropes to bring their guns through the mire in support of the infantry, now under the increasing fire of the enemy's artillery. Our attack had taken the enemy by surprise, but, quickly recovering himself, he began to fire counter attacks in strong force, supported by heavy bombardments, with large quantities of gas. From Sept. 28 until Oct. 4, we maintained the offensive against patches of woods defended by snipers and continuous lines of machine guns, and pushed forward our guns and transport, seizing strategical points in preparation for further attacks. Other divisions attached to the Allied Armies were doing their part. It was the fortune of our 2d Corps, composed of the 27th and 30th Divisions, which had remained with the British, to have a place of honor in co-operation with the Australian Corps on Sept. 29 and Oct. 1 in the assault on the Hindenburg line where the St. Quentin Canal passes through a tunnel under a ridge. The 30th Division speedily broke through the main line of defense for all its objectives, while the 27th pushed on impetuously through the main line until some of its elements reached Gouy. In the midst of the maze of trenches and shell craters and under crossfire from machine guns the other elements fought desperately against odds. In this and in later actions, from Oct. 6 to Oct. 19, our 2d Corps captured over 6,000 prisoners and advanced over thirteen miles. The spirit and aggressiveness of these divisions have been highly praised by the British Army commander under whom they served. On Oct. 2-9 our 2d and 36th Divisions were sent to assist the French in an important attack against the old German positions before Rheims. The 2d conquered the complicated defense works on their front against a persistent defense worthy of the grimmest period of trench warfare and attacked the strongly held wooded hill of Blanc Mont, which they captured in a second assault, sweeping over it with consummate dash and skill. This division then repulsed strong counter attacks before the village and cemetery of Ste. Etienne and took the town, forcing the Germans to fall back from before Rheims and yield positions they had held since September, 1914. On Oct. 9 the 36th Division relieved the 2d, and in its first experience under fire withstood very severe artillery bombardment and rapidly took up the pursuit of the enemy, now retiring behind the Aisne. The allied progress elsewhere cheered the efforts of our men in this crucial contest, as the German command threw in more and more first-class troops to stop our advance. We made steady headway in the almost impenetrable and strongly held Argonne Forest, for, despite this reinforcement, it was our army that was doing the driving. Our aircraft was increasing in skill and numbers and forcing the issue, and our infantry and artillery were improving rapidly with each new experience. The replacements fresh from home were put into exhausted divisions with little time for training, but they had the advantage of serving beside men who knew their business and who had almost become veterans overnight. The enemy had taken every advantage of the terrain, which especially favored the defense, by a prodigal use of machine guns manned by highly trained veterans and by using his artillery at short ranges. In the face of such strong frontal positions we should have been unable to accomplish any progress according to previously accepted standards, but I had every confidence in our aggressive tactics and the courage of our troops. On Oct. 4 the attack was renewed all along our front. The 3d Corps, tilting to the left, followed the Brieulles-Cunel road; our 5th Corps took Gesnes, while the 1st Corps advanced for over two miles along the irregular valley of the Aire River and in the wooded hills of the Argonne that bordered the river, used by the enemy with all his art and weapons of defense. This sort of fighting continued against an enemy striving to hold every foot of ground and whose very strong counterattacks challenged us at every point. On the 7th the 1st Corps captured Châtel-Chênéry and continued along the river to Cornay. On the east of Meuse sector, one of the two divisions, co-operating with the French, captured Consenvoye and the Haumont Woods. On the 9th the 5th Corps, in its progress up the Aire, took Flêville, and the 3d Corps, which had continuous fighting against odds, was working its way through Brieulles and Cunel. On the 10th we had cleared the Argonne Forest of the enemy. It was now necessary to constitute a second army, and on Oct. 9 the immediate command of the First Army was turned over to Lieut. Gen. Hunter Liggett. The command of the Second Army, whose divisions occupied a sector in the Woëvre, was given to Lieut. Gen. Robert L. Bullard, who had been commander of the 1st Division and then of the 3d Corps. Major Gen. Dickman was transferred to the command of the 1st Corps, while the 5th Corps was placed under Major Gen. Charles P. Summerall, who had recently commanded the 1st Division. Major Gen. John L. Hines, who had gone rapidly up from regimental to division commander, was assigned to the 3d Corps. These four officers had been in France from the early days of the expedition and had learned their lessons in the school of practical warfare. Our constant pressure against the enemy brought day by day more prisoners, mostly survivors from machine-gun nests captured in fighting at close quarters. On Oct. 18 there was very fierce fighting in the Caures Woods east of the Meuse and in the Ormont Woods. On the 14th the 1st Corps took St. Juvin, and the 5th Corps, in hand-to-hand encounters, entered the formidable Kriemhilde line, where the enemy had hoped to check us indefinitely. Later the 5th Corps penetrated further the Kriemhilde line, and the 1st Corps took Champigneulles and the important town of Grandpré. Our dogged offensive was wearing down the enemy, who continued desperately to throw his best troops against us, thus weakening his line in front of our Allies and making their advance less difficult. Meanwhile we were not only able to continue the battle, but our 37th and 91st Divisions were hastily withdrawn from our front and dispatched to help the French Army in Belgium. De-training in the neighborhood of Ypres, these divisions advanced by rapid stages to the fighting line and were assigned to adjacent French corps. On Oct. 31, in continuation of the Flanders offensive, they attacked and methodically broke down all enemy resistance. On Nov. 3, the 37th had completed its mission in dividing the enemy across the Escaut River and firmly established itself along the east bank included in the division zone of action. By a clever flanking movement troops of the 91st Division captured Spitaals Bosschen, a difficult wood extending across the central part of the division sector, reached the Escaut, and penetrated into the town of Audenarde. These divisions received high commendation from their corps commanders for their dash and energy. On the 23d, the 3d and 5th Corps pushed northward to the level of Banthéville. While we continued to press forward and throw back the enemy's violent counter attacks with great loss to him, a regrouping of our forces was under way for the final assault. Evidences of loss of morale by the enemy gave our men more confidence in attack and more fortitude in enduring the fatigue of incessant effort and the hardships of very inclement weather. With comparatively well-rested divisions, the final advance on the Meuse-Argonne front was begun on Nov. 1. Our increased artillery force acquitted itself magnificently in support of the advance, and the enemy broke before the determined infantry, which, by its persistent fighting of the past weeks and the dash of this attack, had overcome his will to resist. The 3d Corps took Ancreville, Doulcon, and Andevanne, and the 5th Corps took Landres et St. Georges and pressed through successive lines of resistance to Bayonville and Chennery. On the 2d, the 1st Corps joined in the movement, which now became an impetuous onslaught that could not be stayed. On the 3d, advance troops surged forward in pursuit, some by motor trucks, while the artillery pressed along the country roads close behind. The 1st Corps reached Authe and Châtillon-sur-Bar, the 5th Corps, Fosse and Nouart, and the 3d Corps, Halles, penetrating the enemy's line to a depth of twelve miles. Our large-calibre guns had advanced and were skillfully brought into position to fire upon the important lines at Montmédy, Longuyon, and Conflans. Our 3d Corps crossed the Meuse on the 5th, and the other corps, in the full confidence that the day was theirs, eagerly cleared the way of machine guns as they swept northward, maintaining complete co-ordination throughout. On the 6th, a division of the 1st Corps reached a point on the Meuse opposite Sedan, twenty-five miles from our line of departure. Their strategical goal which was our highest hope was gained. We had cut the enemy's main line of communications, and nothing but surrender or an armistice could save his army from complete disaster. In all forty enemy divisions had been used against us in the Meuse-Argonne battle. Between Sept. 26 and Nov. 6 we took 26,059 prisoners and 468 guns on this front. Our divisions engaged were the 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, 26th, 28th, 29th, 32d, 33d, 35th, 37th, 42d, 77th, 78th, 79th, 80th, 82d, 89th, 90th, and 91st. Many of our divisions remained in line for a length of time that required nerves of steel, while others were sent in again after only a few days of rest. The 1st, 5th, 26th, 42d, 77th, 80th, 89th, and 90th were in the line twice. Although some of the divisions were fighting their first battle, they soon became equal to the best. On the three days preceding Nov. 10, the 3d, the 2d Colonial, and the 17th French Corps fought a difficult struggle through the Meuse hills south of Stenay and forced the enemy into the plain. Meanwhile, my plans for further use of the American forces contemplated an advance between the Meuse and the Moselle in the direction of Longwy by the First Army, while, at the same time, the Second Army should assume the offensive toward the rich coal fields of Briey. These operations were to be followed by an offensive toward Château-Salins east of the Moselle, thus isolating Metz. Accordingly, attacks on the American front had been ordered, and that of the Second Army was in progress on the morning of Nov. 11 when instructions were received that hostilities should cease at 11 o'clock A.M. At this moment the line of the American sector, from right to left, began at Port-sur-Seille, thence across the Moselle to Vandières and through the Woëvre to Bezonvaux, in the foothills of the Meuse, thence along to the foothills and through the northern edge of the Woëvre forests to the Meuse at Mouzay, thence along the Meuse connecting with the French under Sedan. Co-operation among the Allies has at all times been most cordial. A far greater effort has been put forth by the allied armies and staffs to assist us than could have been expected. The French Government and Army have always stood ready to furnish us with supplies, equipment, and transportation, and to aid us in every way. In the towns and hamlets wherever our troops have been stationed or billeted the French people have everywhere received them more as relatives and intimate friends than as soldiers of a foreign army. For these things words are quite inadequate to express our gratitude. There can be no doubt that the relations growing out of our associations here assure a permanent friendship between the two peoples. Although we have not been so intimately associated with the people of Great Britain, yet their troops and ours when thrown together have always warmly fraternized. The reception of those of our forces who have passed through England and of those who have been stationed there has always been enthusiastic. Altogether it has been deeply impressed upon us that the ties of language and blood bring the British and ourselves together completely and inseparably. There are in Europe altogether, including a regiment and some sanitary units with the Italian Army and the organizations at Murmansk, also including those en route from the States, approximately 2,053,347 men, less our losses. Of this total there are in France 1,338,169 combatant troops. Forty divisions have arrived, of which the infantry of ten have been used as replacements, leaving thirty divisions now in France organized into three armies of three corps each. The losses of the Americans up to Nov. 18 are: Killed and wounded, 36,145; died of disease, 14,811; deaths unclassified, 2,204; wounded, 179,625; prisoners, 2,163; missing, 1,160. We have captured about 44,000 prisoners and 1,400 guns, howitzers, and trench mortars. The duties of the General Staff, as well as those of the army and corps staffs, have been very ably performed. Especially is this true when we consider the new and difficult problems with which they have been confronted. This body of officers, both as individuals and as an organization, has, I believe, no superiors in professional ability, in efficiency, or in loyalty. Nothing that we have in France better reflects the efficiency and devotion to duty of Americans in general than the Service of Supply, whose personnel is thoroughly imbued with a patriotic desire to do its full duty. They have at all times fully appreciated their responsibility to the rest of the army, and the results produced have been most gratifying. Our Medical Corps is especially entitled to praise for the general effectiveness of its work, both in hospital and at the front. Embracing men of high professional attainments, and splendid women devoted to their calling and untiring in their efforts, this department has made a new record for medical and sanitary proficiency. The Quartermaster Department has had difficult and various tasks, but it has more than met all demands that have been made upon it. Its management and its personnel have been exceptionally efficient and deserve every possible commendation. As to the more technical services, the able personnel of the Ordnance Department in France has splendidly fulfilled its functions, both in procurement and in forwarding the immense quantities of ordnance required. The officers and men and the young women of the Signal Corps have performed their duties with a large conception of the problem, and with a devoted and patriotic spirit to which the perfection of our communications daily testifies. While the Engineer Corps has been referred to in another part of this report, it should be further stated that the work has required large vision and high professional skill, and great credit is due their personnel for the high proficiency that they have constantly maintained. Our aviators have no equals in daring or in fighting ability, and have left a record of courageous deeds that will ever remain a brilliant page in the annals of our army. While the Tank Corps has had limited opportunities, its personnel has responded gallantly on every possible occasion, and has shown courage of the highest order. The Adjutant General's Department has been directed with a systematic thoroughness and excellence that surpassed any previous work of its kind. The Inspector General's Department has risen to the highest standards, and throughout has ably assisted commanders in the enforcement of discipline. The able personnel of the Judge Advocate General's Department has solved with judgment and wisdom the multitude of difficult legal problems, many of them involving questions of great international importance. It would be impossible in this brief preliminary report to do justice to the personnel of all the different branches of this organization, which I shall cover in detail in a later report. The navy in European waters has at all times most cordially aided the army, and it is most gratifying to report that there has never before been such perfect co-operation between these two branches of the service. As to the Americans in Europe not in the military service, it is the greatest pleasure to say that, both in official and in private life, they are intensely patriotic and loyal, and have been invariably sympathetic and helpful to the army. Finally, I pay the supreme tribute to our officers and soldiers of the line. When I think of their heroism, their patience under hardships, their unflinching spirit of offensive action, I am filled with emotion which I am unable to express. Their deeds are immortal, and they have earned the eternal gratitude of our country. JOHN J. PERSHING. General, Commander-in-Chief, American Expeditionary Forces. THE UNITED STATES AT WAR--AT HOME When any nation declares war, it immediately brings upon itself unusual problems and difficulties, but probably no other nation ever had such problems to solve and such difficulties to overcome as the United States, immediately after Congress declared a state of war existed with Germany. The United States was not ready for war. She had been a peace loving nation, and although possessed of great natural resources, she had never developed them, to any extent, for the purpose of carrying on war. The cosmopolitan people of the United States had never been put to the severe test of war conditions, and whether or not they would stand together as one great nation was yet to be proved. This meant that when war was declared the United States had to start right at the bottom and build up a mighty fighting nation. This had to be done as quickly as possible, for Germany's plan was to crush her enemies before the United States could bring any help. The first thing that the country was called upon to do was to raise an army. Under ordinary circumstances, the government would call for volunteers. In this way an army could be provided which would be sufficient for usual conditions. The war with Germany, however, was by no means a war in any way like that Americans had taken part in before. The government knew this and realized that the United States would have to raise an army that numbered in the millions. To do this, the volunteer system was found entirely inadequate. So a system of drafting men was worked out for which the government passed the draft law, compelling all men between the ages of 21 and 31 to register for military service. This plan was accepted with great favor by the people, and consequently, the day after registration the government had ten million men in the prime of life from which to pick her army. The draft system was in charge of General Crowder who, as a result of long study on the subject, had devised a system which was not in any way influenced by political pull and was equally fair to both the rich and the poor. Local boards were established for examining the drafted men, and those selected were soon on their way to training camps. To house this great army, the government had to build a great system of army camps. Contracts were given out soon after war was declared and the camps began to spring up almost overnight. The government built 16 draft army camps and 16 national guard camps. There were also numerous other military zones where smaller bodies of troops were trained. The draft army camps were located so as to house the men from different sections of the country, as a glance at the list of camps will show:-- Camp Devens, Massachusetts; Camp Upton, New York; Camp Dix, New Jersey; Camp Meade, Maryland; Camp Lee, Virginia; Camp Jackson, South Carolina; Camp Gordon, Georgia; Camp Sherman, Ohio; Camp Taylor, Kentucky; Camp Custer, Michigan; Camp Grant, Illinois; Camp Pike, Arkansas; Camp Dodge, Iowa; Camp Funston, Kansas; Camp Travis, Texas; Camp Lewis, Washington. These great cities were built in less than four months. If all the buildings of the sixteen cantonments were placed end to end, they would make a continuous structure reaching from Washington to Detroit. Each one of these camps housed between 35,000 and 47,000 men. The sixteen cantonments were capable of providing for a number equal to the combined population of Arizona and New Mexico. The hospitals of these camps were able to take care of as many sick and wounded as are to be found in all the hospitals west of the Mississippi in normal times. Each camp covered many square miles of land which had to be cleared of trees and brush before buildings and roads were completed. [Illustration: This picture shows the standardized style of building used in every army cantonment in the United States. The tar-paper structures in the foreground were used for storehouses and general out-buildings. In the background are the well-built barracks. The company "streets" run between them. Camp Devens, Mass.] To keep these cantonments clean and fit to live in, large numbers of sanitary engineers, medical officers, and scientific experts were kept busy planning and installing the most modern sanitation systems. To command this great army, the government built officers' camps where men best fitted were trained to be officers, and were then sent to the cantonments to help in changing the American citizen into a soldier. War was declared in April, and by the hot weather of summer America was sending troops by the tens of thousands to Europe. The wonderful way in which American shipbuilders had made it possible to transport these soldiers is told later. But before leaving the subject of raising an army, let us first see by means of figures just what the United States had accomplished in this work. In August, 1918, the overseas force alone was seven times as large as the entire United States army sixteen months before, at the declaration of war. In this time she had transported a million and a half troops overseas and had the same number on this side, with the numbers always increasing. In September, 1918, she had another draft and registration, calling men between the ages of 18 and 45. This gave thirteen million more men. The colleges of the country had suffered a great deal because of the two draft laws, as practically all men of college age were liable to military service. To overcome this difficulty, the government established in the fall of 1918, the Student Army Training Corps. This plan allowed all students of military age, who were physically fit, to enlist in the army and receive military training, and at the same time obtain a college education. From these men the government planned to choose future officer material. Although the war came to a close before the plan could be fully carried out, it gave every promise of being a success. It must be evident that perhaps even a greater problem than raising the army was how it was to be transported to Europe. At the beginning of the war, the United States had no ships to use for her necessary task of transporting men and supplies. The ships that were sailing from her ports were all doing their capacity work and could not be used for the new demands. The Shipping Board immediately looked around for yards to place orders for new ships; but there were no yards to fill the orders, as the few the United States had were all overburdened with work. The only remaining solution of the problem was to build new yards. America did it. The United States went into the war with something like thirty steel and twenty-four wood shipyards, employing less than eighty thousand men. In a little over a year's time, there were one hundred and fifty-five yards turning out ships and employing over three hundred and eighty-six thousand men. These men turned out more tonnage every month than the United States had ever turned out in any entire year before the war. Of the new yards, the greatest was the famous Hog Island yard. On what was once a swamp on the Delaware River, just below Philadelphia, the United States built this yard which is the largest in the world. The demand for speed in building resulted in the plan of fabricating the steel before sending it to the yards. By this method the steel is cut and punched before going to the yard where it is then assembled. Thus steel mills at long distances from the shipyards could be doing a very considerable part of building the ships. Perhaps the great increase in shipping can be best stated by a few figures. In the month of January, 1918, America produced 88,507 tons. Six months later in July she produced 631,944 tons. Before the war the official estimate of America's annual shipping production was 200,000 tons. The estimated production for 1919 was 7,500,000 tons. The United States navy at the time of the declaration of war was unprepared for the task ahead of it. It was efficient but not nearly large enough for the tremendous amount of work it was called upon to perform. The troop and supply transports needed convoys. There were hundreds of miles of coast to be patrolled. Merchant ships must be armed with men and guns. All this had to be done, besides the work of aiding the Allied fleets in European waters. The government was not long in seeing the need of a great increase in the naval force and was soon making plans to bring this about. New yards were constructed immediately for the building of warships, and the capacity of the old yards was increased. These yards were soon busy turning out destroyers and battleships at a remarkable speed. The special work of patrolling the coasts for submarines called for a great many small and speedy submarine chasers. Motor boat manufacturers all over the country immediately began to make these swift little craft which were popularly called the "mosquito fleet." Even the great factories of Henry Ford, although already busy turning out thousands of motor cars, found room to build these chasers at their inland factories. They were built on specially constructed flat cars, which were then drawn to the coast, where the ships were launched. As the number of ships increased, the man power was accordingly increased. The navy established a new record by placing a unit of five 14-inch naval guns mounted on specially built railway cars for land duty in France. These guns were the longest range guns in France and were out-distanced only by the great German super guns, the destroying of which was one of their objects. The German super gun fired a small shell for a distance of from sixty to seventy miles. The naval 14-inch guns fired a 1400 lb. shell about twenty-five miles. Although this was a new departure for the navy, it met with the same success which had crowned all of the other war work of this branch of the service. [Illustration: A 10-inch caliber naval gun on a railroad mount at the Aberdeen Proving Grounds, Maryland, where, after official testing, it was destined for the advance into Germany. Railroad artillery played a very important part in the late war because of its great mobility and range. This gun is terrifically effective at a range of fifteen miles. The oil cylinders visible under the gun where it is mounted are not sufficient to take up the recoil, hence the braces which protrude against the wooden platforms sunk into the ground. The bridge-like structure on the rear platform of the car is part of the carrier for the shell in loading, and the arched bar over the breech block a part of the newly invented quick loading device.] In figures the work of the navy stands out prominently. At the time war was declared, the navy had 65,777 men in the service and 197 ships in commission; when the armistice was signed, the navy consisted of 497,030 men and about 2000 ships, out of which 75,000 men and 388 ships were on duty in foreign waters. While army and navy preparations were going on, the business of obtaining munitions and supplies was being very carefully attended to. Before the war there were very few firms making supplies for the government. This meant that the government would have to turn to the great private concerns for its material. These firms dropped all their pre-war work and attended strictly to government orders. The result was that at the end of the summer of 1918 the government was doing business with over 3,000 firms and had over 12,000 contracts in operation. Even small plants invested heavily in increasing their capacity so as to be able to turn out more and better work for the government. The organizing and manufacturing genius of the American people came to the front with a result that the American overseas forces were almost entirely supplied by American products, thereby taking little strength away from the foreign manufacturers. A few facts concerning the production of motor vehicles will give an idea of the immensity of America's manufacturing program. The automobile industry as a whole expended one billion three hundred million dollars in order to expand its factories to fill government orders. By the month of October, 1918, 70,000 motor trucks had been sent overseas. At the end of the war, 5-ton and 10-ton trucks were being built at the rate of 1000 a day, and all trucks, at the rate of shipment then prevailing, would have in a year's time made a procession 300 miles long. If critical persons were to try to point out any weakness in America's preparedness program, they would probably take the production of aircraft as an instance where the government had failed. Although America was slow in producing airplanes, it must be taken into consideration that this was almost entirely a new departure for American manufacturers. The delay in airplane production was due to the fact that there was too much red tape to be unrolled before actual work was begun. The government soon realized this and appointed one man to have entire charge of aircraft production. Under his management the red tape was thrown aside and business-like methods took its place. The combined ability of the automobile engineers of the country produced the Liberty motor which proved to be one of the best airplane engines ever developed to lift great weights. The DeHaviland and Handley-Page, bombing and reconnaissance planes, were immediately equipped largely with the new Liberty. 3180 of the former and 101 of the latter were produced in this country in the year before the armistice was signed. Out of this number 1379 had been shipped overseas. In the meantime the production of planes had been far outstripped by the enlisted and commissioned personnel of the air service. Thousands of cadets and officers were delayed in the ground schools, at the flying schools, and at Camp Dick, Texas, the concentration post for aviation, because of the ruinous shortage of planes, just when the American forces newly brought into the battle zones needed the efficient help of a great fleet of aircraft. Airplanes are rightly called "the eyes of the army." It is unofficially stated that less than 800 American aviators ever saw service over the German lines, and these men, not having American scout planes, used largely foreign models equipped with the famous French Gnome, LeRhone, and Hispano-Suiza motors. American-made machines, whether for bombing, observing, or scouting, went into action for the first time in July, 1918. [Illustration: A photograph from an airplane at 7900 feet, showing Love Field, Dallas, Texas, and a parachute jumper in the "Flying Frolic," November 12, 1918. Parachutes were used by observers to escape from "kite" balloons ignited by German artillery fire, and a new type is being perfected by which aviators may also escape from disabled airplanes.] The American people before the war were the most wasteful people in the world. This was probably due to the fact that the people had never been confronted by a real necessity for economizing. However, when war was declared the government immediately demanded that the people conserve their food. The result was that Americans were soon observing wheatless, meatless, and porkless days with great patriotic fervor. 12,000,000 families signed pledges to observe the rules of the food administration, and hotels and restaurants joined in the great conservation effort. War gardens sprang up by the millions. The country was soon conserving millions of pounds of foodstuffs that would ordinarily have been wasted. A food "hog" was considered in the same light as a traitor! On the same plan as the food administration, the government conducted the conservation of coal. The result was that the essential industries received coal first and the people could get only what was absolutely necessary for heating their homes. Lights were turned out in cities early to save fuel. The "daylight saving" plan from April to November turned the clocks ahead one hour. As a result of all these precautions, the factories were kept going, the ships were not hindered for lack of coal, and America's great preparedness program was carried on without hindrance or delay. It is difficult to realize what gigantic efforts America was putting forth. An illustration from the manufacture of ordnance will help such an understanding. In the fall of 1918, the United States government was spending upon the making of ordnance alone, every thirty days, an amount equal to the cost of the Panama Canal, and it was spending as much or more in several other departments. What a terrible loss war brings to the world! [Illustration: The Red Cross War Fund and Membership poster by A. E. Foringer was one of the most effective produced during the War.] To finance these tremendous preparedness projects, the government called upon the people to lend their money by buying government liberty bonds. This was an entirely new thing for the American people of any generation, but they responded in a manner that showed the government that the people were backing it to the last inch, and that they were out to win as quickly as possible, regardless of cost, or other sacrifices they were called upon to make. The government conducted great loan campaigns. Each one met with greater success than the one preceding it. The bonds were bought by all classes of people, and a man without a bond was like a dog without a home. Of course the great banks and corporations bought millions of dollars worth of bonds, but the great number of small denomination bonds bought by the wage-earning classes was what spelled the success of the loans. The total amount raised by the five loans was approximately twenty-two billion dollars. Besides these great loans, the American people contributed $300,000,000 to two Red Cross funds inside of a year. There were also enormous contributions to the Y. M. C. A., the Knights of Columbus, the War Camp Community Service, the Salvation Army, and allied funds. Although a great deal of credit for the remarkable success of America's preparedness program is due to the fact that she had such wonderful resources, the true underlying reason for her success is the magnificent spirit of the American people. Germany thought that, because of the cosmopolitan make-up of the people and the immensity of the country they occupied, they would not unite as one great nation. The United States has proved for all time that she is one solid indivisible nation with ho thought of anything but the progress and liberty of her country and the world, of the unsullied honor and unquestioned defense of her flag, and of all for which it stands. ******************* It was not his olive valleys and orange groves which made the Greece of the Greek; it was not for his apple orchards or potato fields that the farmer of New England and New York left his plough in the furrow and marched to Bunker Hill, to Bennington, to Saratoga. A man's country is not a certain area of land, but it is a principle; and patriotism is loyalty to that principle. The secret sanctification of the soil and symbol of a country is the idea which they represent; and this idea the patriot worships through the name and the symbol. . . . We of America, with our soil sanctified and our symbol glorified by the great ideas of liberty and religion,--love of freedom and of God,--are in the foremost vanguard of this great caravan of humanity. To us rulers look, and learn justice, while they tremble; to us the nations look, and learn to hope, while they rejoice. Our heritage is all the love and heroism of liberty in the past; and all the great of the Old World are our teachers. GEORGE WILLIAM CURTIS. A CONGRESSIONAL MESSAGE FROM PRESIDENT WILSON'S ANNUAL ADDRESS TO CONGRESS DECEMBER 2, 1918 GENTLEMEN OF THE CONGRESS: The year that has elapsed since I last stood before you to fulfill my Constitutional duty to give the Congress from time to time information on the state of the Union has been so crowded with great events, great processes, and great results, that I cannot hope to give you an adequate picture of its transactions or of the far-reaching changes which have been wrought in the life of our nation and of the world. You have yourselves witnessed these things, as I have. It is too soon to assess them; and we who stand in the midst of them and are part of them are less qualified than men of another generation will be to say what they mean or even what they have been. But some great outstanding facts are unmistakable and constitute, in a sense, part of the public business with which it is our duty to deal. To state them is to set the stage for the legislative and executive action which must grow out of them and which we have yet to shape and determine. A year ago we had sent 145,198 men overseas. Since then we have sent 1,950,513, an average of 162,542 each month, the number in fact rising in May last to 245,951, in June to 278,760, in July to 307,182, and continuing to reach similar figures in August and September--in August 289,570 and in September 257,438. No such movement of troops ever took place before across 3000 miles of sea, followed by adequate equipment and supplies, and carried safely through extraordinary dangers of attack--dangers which were alike strange and infinitely difficult to guard against. In all this movement only 758 men were lost by enemy attacks--630 of whom were upon a single English transport which was sunk near the Orkney Islands. I need not tell you what lay back of this great movement of men and material. It is not invidious to say that back of it lay a supporting organization of the industries of the country and of all its productive activities more complete, more thorough in method and effective in results, more spirited and unanimous in purpose and effort than any other great belligerent had ever been able to effect. We profited greatly by the experience of the nations which had already been engaged for nearly three years in the exigent and exacting business, their every resource and every executive proficiency taxed to the utmost. We were the pupils, but we learned quickly and acted with a promptness and a readiness of coöperation that justify our great pride that we were able to serve the world with unparalleled energy and quick accomplishment. But it is not the physical scale and executive efficiency of preparation, supply, equipment and dispatch that I would dwell upon, but the mettle and quality of the officers and men we sent over and of the sailors who kept the seas, and the spirit of the nation that stood behind them. No soldiers or sailors ever proved themselves more quickly ready for the test of battle or acquitted themselves with more splendid courage and achievement when put to the test. Those of us who played some part in directing the great processes by which the war was pushed irresistibly forward to the final triumph may now forget all that and delight our thoughts with the story of what our men did. Their officers understood the grim and exacting task they had undertaken and performed with audacity, efficiency, and unhesitating courage that touch the story of convoy and battle with imperishable distinction at every turn, whether the enterprise were great or small--from their chiefs, Pershing and Sims, down to the youngest lieutenant; and their men were worthy of them--such men as hardly need to be commanded, and go to their terrible adventure blithely and with the quick intelligence of those who know just what it is they would accomplish. I am proud to be the fellow countryman of men of such stuff and valor. Those of us who stayed at home did our duty; the war could not have been won or the gallant men who fought it given their opportunity to win it otherwise; but for many a long day we shall think ourselves "accurs'd we were not there, and hold our manhood cheap while any speaks that fought," with these at St. Mihiel or Thierry. The memory of those days of triumphant battle will go with these fortunate men to their graves; and each will have his favorite memory. "Old men forget; yet all shall be forgot, but he'll remember with advantages what feats he did that day!" What we all thank God for with deepest gratitude is that our men went in force into the line of battle just at the critical moment when the whole fate of the world seemed to hang in the balance and threw their fresh strength into the ranks of freedom in time to turn the whole tide and sweep of the fateful struggle--turn it once for all, so that thenceforth it was back, back, back for their enemies, always back, never again forward! After that it was only a scant four months before the commanders of the Central Empires knew themselves beaten; and now their very empires are in liquidation! And through it all, how fine the spirit of the nation was. What unity of purpose, what untiring zeal! What elevation of purpose ran through all its splendid display of strength and untiring accomplishment. I have said that those of us who stayed at home to do the work of organization and supply will always wish that we had been with the men whom we sustained by our labor; but we can never be ashamed. It has been an inspiring thing to be here in the midst of fine men who had turned aside from every private interest of their own and devoted the whole of their trained capacity to the tasks that supplied the sinews of the whole great undertaking! The patriotism, the unselfishness, the thorough-going devotion and distinguished capacity that marked their toilsome labors day after day, month after month, have made them fit mates and comrades of the men in the trenches and on the sea. And not the men here in Washington only. They have but directed the vast achievement. Throughout innumerable factories, upon innumerable farms, in the depths of coal mines and iron mines and copper mines, wherever the stuffs of industry were to be obtained and prepared, in the shipyards, on the railways, at the docks, on the sea, in every labor that was needed to sustain the battlelines, men have vied with each other to do their part and do it well. They can look any man-at-arms in the face and say, "We also strove to win and gave the best that was in us to make our fleets and armies sure of their triumph!" And what shall we say of the women--of their instant intelligence, quickening every task that they touched; their capacity for organization and coöperation, which gave their action discipline and enacted the effectiveness of everything they attempted; their aptitude at tasks to which they had never before set their hands; their utter self-sacrifice alike in what they did and in what they gave? Their contribution to the great result is beyond appraisal. They have added a new luster to the annals of American womanhood. The latest tribute we can pay them is to make them the equals of men in political rights as they have proved themselves their equals in every field of practical work they have entered, whether for themselves or for their country. These great days of completed achievements would be sadly marred were we to omit that act of justice. Besides the immense practical services they have rendered, the women of the country have been the moving spirits in the systematic economies by which our people have voluntarily assisted to supply the suffering peoples of the world and the armies upon every front with food and everything else that we had that might serve the common cause. The details of such a story can never be fully written, but we carry them at our hearts and thank God that we can say that we are the kinsmen of such. And now we are sure of the great triumph for which every sacrifice was made. It has come, come in its completeness; and with the pride and inspiration of these days of achievement quick within us we turn to the tasks of peace again--a peace secure against the violence of irresponsible monarchs and ambitious military coteries, and made ready for a new order, for new foundations of justice and fair dealing. PRESIDENT WILSON IN FRANCE On December 14, 1918, President Wilson arrived in Paris. He had by leaving North America done something never done before by an American president; but he was never afraid to establish a new precedent if he believed his duty called upon him to do so. Very rarely have the presidents gone in person before Congress to read their messages, but Woodrow Wilson revived the custom. In leaving the continent, however, he was not reviving an abandoned custom but establishing an entirely new precedent. He sailed on one of the huge American transports, the _George Washington_, and was wildly welcomed upon his arrival at Brest, the American base in France. [Illustration: A photograph of the United States Transport _George Washington_ taken from an airplane convoying the steamer out to sea. From the forward mast is flying the President's flag, distinguishable by the four white stars. At the bow and stern can be seen the naval guns, used formerly in case of submarine attack.] In Paris, at a great dinner given in his honor, he was welcomed by President Poincaré in the following words:-- _Mr. President_: Paris and France awaited you with impatience. They were eager to acclaim in you the illustrious democrat whose words and deeds were inspired by exalted thought, the philosopher delighting in the solution of universal laws from particular events, the eminent statesman who had found a way to express the highest political and moral truths in formulas which bear the stamp of immortality. They had also a passionate desire to offer thanks, in your person, to the great Republic of which you are the chief for the invaluable assistance which had been given spontaneously, during this war, to the defenders of right and liberty. Even before America had resolved to intervene in the struggle she had shown to the wounded and to the orphans of France a solicitude and a generosity the memory of which will always be enshrined in our hearts. The liberality of your Red Cross, the countless gifts of your fellow-citizens, the inspiring initiative of American women, anticipated your military and naval action, and showed the world to which side your sympathies inclined. And on the day when you flung yourselves into the battle with what determination your great people and yourself prepared for united success! Some months ago you cabled to me that the United States would send ever-increasing forces, until the day should be reached on which the Allied armies were able to submerge the enemy under an overwhelming flow of new divisions; and, in effect, for more than a year a steady stream of youth and energy has been poured out upon the shores of France. No sooner had they landed than your gallant battalions, fired by their chief, General Pershing, flung themselves into the combat with such a manly contempt of danger, such a smiling disregard of death, that our longer experience of this terrible war often moved us to counsel prudence. They brought with them, in arriving here, the enthusiasm of Crusaders leaving for the Holy Land. It is their right today to look with pride upon the work accomplished and to rest assured that they have powerfully aided by their courage and their faith. Eager as they were to meet the enemy, they did not know when they arrived the enormity of his crimes. That they might know how the German armies make war it has been necessary that they see towns systematically burned down, mines flooded, factories reduced to ashes, orchards devastated, cathedrals shelled and fired--all that deliberate savagery, aimed to destroy national wealth, nature, and beauty, which the imagination could not conceive at a distance from the men and things that have endured it and today bear witness to it. In your turn, Mr. President, you will be able to measure with your own eyes the extent of these disasters, and the French Government will make known to you the authentic documents in which the German General Staff developed with astounding cynicism its program of pillage and industrial annihilation. Your noble conscience will pronounce a verdict on these facts. Should this guilt remain unpunished, could it be renewed, the most splendid victories would be in vain. Mr. President, France has struggled, has endured, and has suffered during four long years; she has bled at every vein; she has lost the best of her children; she mourns for her youths. She yearns now, even as you do, for a peace of justice and security. It was not that she might be exposed once again to aggression that she submitted to such sacrifices. Nor was it in order that criminals should go unpunished, that they might lift their heads again to make ready for new crimes, that, under your strong leadership, America armed herself and crossed the ocean. Faithful to the memory of Lafayette and Rochambeau, she came to the aid of France, because France herself was faithful to her traditions. Our common ideal has triumphed. Together we have defended the vital principles of free nations. Now we must build together such a peace as will forbid the deliberate and hypocritical renewing of an organism aiming at conquest and oppression. Peace must make amends for the misery and sadness of yesterday, and it must be a guarantee against the dangers of tomorrow. The association which has been formed for the purpose of war, between the United States and the Allies, and which contains the seed of the permanent institutions of which you have spoken so eloquently, will find from this day forward a clear and profitable employment in the concerted search for equitable decisions and in the mutual support which we need if we are to make our rights prevail. Whatever safeguards we may erect for the future, no one, alas, can assert that we shall forever spare to mankind the horrors of new wars. Five years ago the progress of science and the state of civilization might have permitted the hope that no Government, however autocratic, would have succeeded in hurling armed nations upon Belgium and Serbia. Without lending ourselves to the illusion that posterity will be forevermore safe from these collective follies, we must introduce into the peace we are going to build all the conditions of justice and all the safeguards of civilization that we can embody in it. To such a vast and magnificent task, Mr. President, you have chosen to come and apply yourself in concert with France. France offers you her thanks. She knows the friendship of America. She knows your rectitude and elevation of spirit. It is in the fullest confidence that she is ready to work with you. President Wilson replied:-- _Mr. President_: I am deeply indebted to you for your gracious greeting. It is very delightful to find myself in France and to feel the quick contact of sympathy and unaffected friendship between the representatives of the United States and the representatives of France. You have been very generous in what you were pleased to say about myself, but I feel that what I have said and what I have tried to do has been said and done only in an attempt to speak the thought of the people of the United States truly, and to carry that thought out in action. From the first, the thought of the people of the United States turned toward something more than the mere winning of this war. It turned to the establishment of eternal principles of right and justice. It realized that merely to win the war was not enough; that it must be won in such a way and the question raised by it settled in such a way as to insure the future peace of the world and lay the foundations for the freedom and happiness of its many peoples and nations. Never before has war worn so terrible a visage or exhibited more grossly the debasing influence of illicit ambitions. I am sure that I shall look upon the ruin wrought by the armies of the Central Empires with the same repulsion and deep indignation that they stir in the hearts of the men of France and Belgium, and I appreciate, as you do, sir, the necessity of such action in the final settlement of the issues of the war as will not only rebuke such acts of terror and spoliation, but make men everywhere aware that they cannot be ventured upon without the certainty of just punishment. I know with what ardor and enthusiasm the soldiers and sailors of the United States have given the best that was in them to this war of redemption. They have expressed the true spirit of America. They believe their ideals to be acceptable to free peoples everywhere, and are rejoiced to have played the part they have played in giving reality to those ideals in coöperation with the armies of the Allies. We are proud of the part they have played, and we are happy that they should have been associated with such comrades in a common cause. It is with peculiar feeling, Mr. President, that I find myself in France joining with you in rejoicing over the victory that has been won. The ties that bind France and the United States are peculiarly close. I do not know in what other comradeship we could have fought with more zest or enthusiasm. It will daily be a matter of pleasure with me to be brought into consultation with the statesmen of France and her Allies in concerting the measures by which we may secure permanence for these happy relations of friendship and coöperation, and secure for the world at large such safety and freedom in its life as can be secured only by the constant association and coöperation of friends. I greet you not only with deep personal respect, but as the representative of the great people of France, and beg to bring you the greetings of another great people to whom the fortunes of France are of profound and lasting interest. This meeting of the American and the French presidents at a banquet in the French capital is a remarkable incident in the history of the world. The statement of the likelihood of such a meeting would have been ridiculed before the war. [Illustration: President Wilson driving from the railroad station in Paris with President Poincaré of France to the home of Prince Murat, a descendant of Marshal Murat, Napoleon's great cavalry leader.] As we read the speeches, however, and grasp their full meaning, we understand that the most remarkable fact about the historic meeting is that the leaders of two great republics met with minds and hearts set upon justice. They were determined that the weak who had suffered unimaginable wrong should not fail to secure justice because they were weak and they were equally of a mind that the high and mighty who were responsible for these wrongs should not escape justice because they were high and mighty. Many times in the history of the world, meetings of the great have been remembered because of the show of Might, on every hand. The meeting of President Wilson and President Poincaré in Paris on December 14, 1918, will never be forgotten because it was the greatest demonstration the world has ever seen of the power of Right. ******************* Truth forever on the scaffold, Wrong forever on the throne,-- Yet that scaffold sways the future, And, behind the dim unknown, Standeth God within the shadow, Keeping watch above His own. JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL. SERGEANT YORK OF TENNESSEE People will always differ as to what was the most remarkable exploit of the World War. Major General George B. Duncan, one of the American commanders who helped to drive the Germans out of the Argonne forest, has said that Corporal Alvin C. York, a tall, red-headed, raw-boned mountaineer from Tennessee distinguished himself above all men in the achievement of the greatest individual deed in the World War. [Illustration: Sergeant York wearing the French Croix de Guerre and the Congressional Medal of Honor.] Because of his brave acts, Corporal York was made Sergeant York, was given the Croix de Guerre with a palm, and the Congressional Medal of Honor. His own state has made him a colonel for life on the Governor's Staff. Before the officers of York's division, the 82d, Major General C. P. Summerall, a soldier not given to over-praise or exaggeration, commended him in these words: "Corporal York, your division commander has reported to me your exceedingly gallant conduct during the operations of your division in the Meuse-Argonne battle. I desire to express to you my pleasure and commendation for the courage, skill, and gallantry which you displayed on that occasion. It is an honor to command such soldiers as you. Your conduct reflects great credit not only upon the American army, but also upon the American people. Your deeds will be recorded in the history of this great war, and they will live as an inspiration not only to your comrades, but also to the generations that will come after us. I wish to commend you publicly and in the presence of the officers of your division." Corporal York was about thirty years of age, six feet tall, and weighed a little over two hundred pounds. He would not be called handsome, although he was really a fine looking man, with keen gray eyes that could become hard and penetrating when he was greatly moved. He was a gentle man with a soft, quiet voice and a Southern drawl. He was very religious and was the Second Elder in the Church of Christ and Christian Union when he was called to the service of his country. The church to which he belonged did not believe in war. Like the Quakers, its members were "conscientious objectors." It was supposed that Alvin C. York would ask exemption as a "conscientious objector"; but he did not, although his friends begged him to do so. He reported for duty at Camp Gordon, Georgia, on November 14, 1917. He was often troubled however with the feeling that to kill men, even in a righteous war to ensure liberty to all the world, was contrary to his religion and the teachings of the Bible. He finally came to realize that in this belief he was wrong, and that it was his duty, and the duty of every brave man, to meet armed oppression by arms, and when no other way was left, to kill those who would by force take away the life and liberty of others. He was an expert pistol and rifle shot, as are almost all Tennessee and Kentucky mountaineers. In a shooting match with a major of his division, York is said to have hit with his automatic pistol at every shot a penny match-box over one hundred feet distant. His coolness and courage in the face of danger and his skill with the pistol and rifle enabled him to do the impossible--or at any rate, what every one would have declared impossible, before Alvin C. York accomplished it. All through the Argonne forest, from Verdun almost to Sedan, the Americans were obliged to advance between hills, and often over hills covered with dense tangles of shrubs, vines, and trees, among which the Germans had hidden machine-gun nests. Corporal York, on the morning of October 8, 1918, with his battalion was attempting to get behind the machine-gun nests on a hillside and to destroy them. The hill was then only known by number; it is now called York Hill. They were to climb the hill and come down over the crest, as in this way they would get behind the German machine-guns. Sergeant Bernard Early with sixteen men was ordered to undertake the task. Corporal York was one of the men. At the start they were observed and were caught by German fire from three directions. Six of the small company were killed and three wounded, leaving Corporal York with seven privates to advance up the hillside. They succeeded in reaching the crest of the hill, although machine-gun bullets were constantly whipping about them, usually however over their heads in the branches. They came upon an old trench and followed it over the brow of the hill, when suddenly they saw two Germans ahead of them. They fired on the Germans; one ran and escaped, the other surrendered. Going on, they soon discovered a couple of dozen Germans gathered about a small hut beside a stream which ran through the valley below. The Americans opened fire. The Germans dropped their guns, threw up their hands, and yelled, "Kamerad! Kamerad!" This meant they had surrendered. Among them was the major in command. Some of York's seven men were assigned to guard the prisoners and had assembled them, when a hail of machine-gun bullets came from the hillside directly in front of them and across the brook. Every one, Germans included, fell flat on the ground. The Americans had indeed come over the hilltop down behind the German machine-guns, but the gunners had now turned them squarely around and were sending a rain of bullets upon the Americans. They avoided firing upon their German comrades and thus the American privates guarding them were comparatively safe. Corporal York was on the hill above the prisoners and it was difficult for the gunners to hit him without killing or injuring some of their own men. A well-aimed rifle or pistol shot might have done it, however. He had fallen into a path and was somewhat protected by the rise on the side toward the German guns. From here, lying flat upon his face, he coolly aimed his rifle and picked off German after German, after every shot calling upon those left to come down and surrender. His comrades could not assist him, for those who were not with the German prisoners were so situated that to show themselves meant instant death. Seeing York must be taken at any cost, a German lieutenant and seven men sprang up from behind one of the machine-guns, only about one hundred feet distant, and charged upon the red-headed American who was fighting a whole company. The officer who ordered the Germans to charge knew of course that some of them would be killed, but he was sure the remaining ones would capture or kill the American; but York, the man from Tennessee, who was not sure at one time that it was right to fight, did not lose his coolness, his courage, or his skill with the automatic pistol, and a German lieutenant and seven German privates fell before his unerring aim. Then the German commander offered to surrender, and Corporal York and his seven American privates escorted one hundred and thirty-two German prisoners back to the American lines. About forty of these were added to the original number by the capture of another German machine-gun nest on the way back. Corporal York showed the extreme modesty which is characteristic of very brave men, in not mentioning his exploit when he reached his own battalion headquarters. The prisoners had been delivered at another, and it was only by accident that York's superior officers learned of it later. When Sergeant York returned to America, he was received with great pride by the Tennessee Society of New York City, and was granted his first wish to talk over the long-distance telephone with his old mother in Tennessee. He was taken to see the New York Stock Exchange where business was suspended for half an hour while the members cheered him. Thousands of persons on the streets recognized him and crowded around the automobile in which he rode so that the police had to clear a path for the car. At the banquet given in his honor at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, generals, admirals, noted bankers, and members of Congress united in his praise. During the dinner, Sergeant York was unanimously elected an honorary life-member of the Tennessee Society. From New York, he went to Washington, where he was similarly received because of these and other acts of heroism which distinguish him as one of the great soldiers of the World War. After being honorably discharged, he returned to the Tennessee Mountains to marry the girl who had been waiting for him to return from the war. The wedding which took place in a humble mountain home was attended by thousands of people from all over the state. The Governor of Tennessee, a former judge of the district, performed the ceremony, after which York and his bride were his guests at the Executive Mansion in Nashville, where a public reception was given in his honor. Through these tributes to Sergeant York the people of the United States attempted to show their true appreciation and admiration of the courage and fortitude of the non-commissioned officer. PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY [Transcriber's note: Because of the quantity of Unicode characters in these four pages, it was decided to just display them as images. Also, some of the "characters" on these pages are composite, e.g. the double-oh in the Abdul Hamid pronunciation, and not present even in Unicode. In order to see these pages the reader should look at the html version (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/1/9/9/0/19906/19906-h/19906-h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/1/9/9/0/19906/19906-h.zip)] [Illustration: Pronouncing vocabulary--page 367.] [Illustration: Pronouncing vocabulary--page 368.] [Illustration: Pronouncing vocabulary--page 369.] [Illustration: Pronouncing vocabulary--page 370.] After-Days When the last gun has long withheld Its thunder, and its mouth is sealed, Strong men shall drive the furrow straight On some remembered battlefield. Untroubled they shall hear the loud And gusty driving of the rains, And birds with immemorial voice Sing as of old in leafy lanes. The stricken, tainted soil shall be Again a flowery paradise-- Pure with the memory of the dead And purer for their sacrifice. ERIC CHILMAN 
22222	----	A STAR BOOK HOW TO WRITE LETTERS (Formerly THE BOOK OF LETTERS) _A Complete Guide to Correct Business and Personal Correspondence_ BY MARY OWENS CROWTHER GARDEN CITY PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC. NEW YORK CL COPYRIGHT, 1922, BY DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY ALL RIGHTS RESERVED PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES AT THE COUNTRY LIFE PRESS, GARDEN CITY, N. Y. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The forms for engraved invitations, announcements, and the like, and the styles of notepapers, addresses, monograms, and crests are by courtesy of the Bailey, Banks and Biddle Company, Brentano's, and The Gorham Company. The Western Union Telegraph Company has been very helpful in the chapter on telegrams. CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTER I WHAT IS A LETTER? 1 CHAPTER II THE PURPOSE OF THE LETTER 6 CHAPTER III THE PARTS OF A LETTER 1. THE HEADING 10 2. THE INSIDE ADDRESS 12 3. THE SALUTATION 16 4. THE BODY OF THE LETTER 22 5. THE COMPLIMENTARY CLOSE 26 6. THE SIGNATURE 29 7. THE SUPERSCRIPTION 33 CHAPTER IV BEING APPROPRIATE--WHAT TO AVOID COMMON OFFENSES 36 STOCK PHRASES IN BUSINESS LETTERS 38 CHAPTER V PERSONAL LETTERS--SOCIAL AND FRIENDLY INVITATIONS AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 44 THE LETTER OF CONDOLENCE 91 LETTERS OF SYMPATHY IN CASE OF ILLNESS 95 LETTERS OF CONGRATULATION 101 LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION 107 LETTERS OF THANKS 110 LETTERS BETWEEN FRIENDS 118 CHAPTER VI PERSONAL BUSINESS LETTERS 124 CHAPTER VII THE BUSINESS LETTER 135 SALES AND ANNOUNCEMENT LETTERS 146 KEEPING THE CUSTOMER 160 SELLING REAL ESTATE 163 BANK LETTERS 173 LETTERS OF ORDER AND ACKNOWLEDGMENT 182 LETTERS OF COMPLAINT AND ADJUSTMENT 186 CREDIT AND COLLECTION LETTERS 193 LETTERS OF APPLICATION 211 LETTERS OF REFERENCE 217 LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION 220 LETTERS OF INQUIRY 223 CHAPTER VIII THE USE OF FORM PARAGRAPHS 227 CHAPTER IX CHILDREN'S LETTERS 230 CHAPTER X TELEGRAMS 236 CHAPTER XI THE LAW OF LETTERS 247 CHAPTER XII THE COST OF A LETTER 252 CHAPTER XIII STATIONERY, CRESTS AND MONOGRAMS 258 LIST OF TEXT ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE In the business letterhead appear the name of the firm, its address, and the kind of business engaged in 11 Letterheads used by a life insurance company, a law firm, and three associations 13 In the case of widely known firms, or where the name of the firm itself indicates it, reference to the nature of the business is often omitted from letterheads 14 Specimens of letterheads used for official stationery 27 As to the use of the symbol "&" and the abbreviation of the word "Company," the safest plan in writing to a company is to spell its name exactly as it appears on its letterhead 42 Specimen of formal wedding invitation 48 Specimens of formal invitations to a wedding reception 51 Specimen of wedding announcement 54 Specimens of formal dinner invitations 60 Specimens of formal invitations "to meet" 63 Specimens of formal invitations to a dance 68 Specimens of business letterheads 140 Arrangement of a business letter (block form) 144 Arrangement of a business letter (indented form) 145 Specimens of business letterheads used by English firms 207 Specimens of addressed social stationery 259 Specimens of addressed social stationery 260 The monograms in the best taste are the small round ones, but many pleasing designs may be had in the diamond, square, and oblong shapes 262 Specimens of crested letter and notepaper 263 Specimens of monogrammed stationery 266 Specimens of business letterheads 267 Department stores and firms that write many letters to women often employ a notepaper size 270 Specimens of stationery used by men for personal business letters 271 HOW TO WRITE LETTERS CHAPTER I WHAT IS A LETTER? It is not so long since most personal letters, after an extremely formal salutation, began "I take my pen in hand." We do not see that so much nowadays, but the spirit lingers. Pick up the average letter and you cannot fail to discover that the writer has grimly taken his pen in hand and, filled with one thought, has attacked the paper. That one thought is to get the thing over with. And perhaps this attitude of getting the thing over with at all costs is not so bad after all. There are those who lament the passing of the ceremonious letter and others who regret that the "literary" letter--the kind of letter that can be published--is no longer with us. But the old letter of ceremony was not really more useful than a powdered wig, and as for the sort of letter that delights the heart and lightens the labor of the biographer--well, that is still being written by the kind of person who can write it. It is better that a letter should be written because the writer has something to say than as a token of culture. Some of the letters of our dead great do too often remind us that they were not forgetful of posterity. The average writer of a letter might well forget culture and posterity and address himself to the task in hand, which, in other than the most exceptional sort of letter, is to say what he has to say in the shortest possible compass that will serve to convey the thought or the information that he wants to hand on. For a letter is a conveyance of thought; if it becomes a medium of expression it is less a letter than a diary fragment. Most of our letters in these days relate to business affairs or to social affairs that, as far as personality is concerned, might as well be business. Our average letter has a rather narrow objective and is not designed to be literature. We may, it is true, write to cheer up a sick friend, we may write to tell about what we are doing, we may write that sort of missive which can be classified only as a love letter--but unless such letters come naturally it is better that they be not written. They are the exceptional letters. It is absurd to write them according to rule. In fact, it is absurd to write any letter according to rule. But one can learn the best usage in correspondence, and that is all that this book attempts to present. The heyday of letter writing was in the eighteenth century in England. George Saintsbury, in his interesting "A Letter Book," says: "By common consent of all opinion worth attention that century was, in the two European literatures which were equally free from crudity and decadence--French and English--the very palmiest day of the art. Everybody wrote letters, and a surprising number of people wrote letters well. Our own three most famous epistolers of the male sex, Horace Walpole, Gray, and Cowper--belong wholly to it; and 'Lady Mary'--our most famous she-ditto--belongs to it by all but her childhood; as does Chesterfield, whom some not bad judges would put not far if at all below the three men just mentioned. The rise of the novel in this century is hardly more remarkable than the way in which that novel almost wedded itself--certainly joined itself in the most frequent friendship--to the letter-form. But perhaps the excellence of the choicer examples in this time is not really more important than the abundance, variety, and popularity of its letters, whether good, indifferent, or bad. To use one of the informal superlatives sanctioned by familiar custom it was the 'letter-writingest' of ages from almost every point of view. In its least as in its most dignified moods it even overflowed into verse if not into poetry as a medium. Serious epistles had--of course on classical models--been written in verse for a long time. But now in England more modern patterns, and especially Anstey's _New Bath Guide_, started the fashion of actual correspondence in doggerel verse with no thought of print--a practice in which persons as different as Madame d'Arblay's good-natured but rather foolish father, and a poet and historian like Southey indulged; and which did not become obsolete till Victorian times, if then." There is a wide distinction between a letter and an epistle. The letter is a substitute for a spoken conversation. It is spontaneous, private, and personal. It is non-literary and is not written for the eyes of the general public. The epistle is in the way of being a public speech--an audience is in mind. It is written with a view to permanence. The relation between an epistle and a letter has been compared to that between a Platonic dialogue and a talk between two friends. A great man's letters, on account of their value in setting forth the views of a school or a person, may, if produced after his death, become epistles. Some of these, genuine or forgeries, under some eminent name, have come down to us from the days of the early Roman Empire. Cicero, Plato, Aristotle, Demosthenes, are the principal names to which these epistles, genuine and pseudonymous, are attached. Some of the letters of Cicero are rather epistles, as they were intended for the general reader. The ancient world--Babylonia, Assyria, Egypt, Rome, and Greece--figures in our inheritance of letters. In Egypt have been discovered genuine letters. The papyrus discoveries contain letters of unknowns who had no thought of being read by the general public. During the Renaissance, Cicero's letters were used as models for one of the most common forms of literary effort. There is a whole literature of epistles from Petrarch to the _Epistolæ obscurorum virorum_. These are, to some degree, similar to the Epistles of Martin Marprelate. Later epistolary satires are Pascal's "Provincial Letters," Swift's "Drapier Letters," and the "Letters of Junius." Pope, soon to be followed by Lady Mary Montagu, was the first Englishman who treated letter writing as an art upon a considerable scale. Modern journalism uses a form known as the "open letter" which is really an epistle. But we are not here concerned with the letter as literature. CHAPTER II THE PURPOSE OF THE LETTER No one can go far wrong in writing any sort of letter if first the trouble be taken to set out the exact object of the letter. A letter always has an object--otherwise why write it? But somehow, and particularly in the dictated letter, the object frequently gets lost in the words. A handwritten letter is not so apt to be wordy--it is too much trouble to write. But a man dictating may, especially if he be interrupted by telephone calls, ramble all around what he wants to say and in the end have used two pages for what ought to have been said in three lines. On the other hand, letters may be so brief as to produce an impression of abrupt discourtesy. It is a rare writer who can say all that need be said in one line and not seem rude. But it can be done. The single purpose of a letter is to convey thought. That thought may have to do with facts, and the further purpose may be to have the thought produce action. But plainly the action depends solely upon how well the thought is transferred. Words as used in a letter are vehicles for thought, but every word is not a vehicle for thought, because it may not be the kind of word that goes to the place where you want your thought to go; or, to put it another way, there is a wide variation in the understanding of words. The average American vocabulary is quite limited, and where an exactly phrased letter might completely convey an exact thought to a person of education, that same letter might be meaningless to a person who understands but few words. Therefore, it is fatal in general letter writing to venture into unusual words or to go much beyond the vocabulary of, say, a grammar school graduate. Statistics show that the ordinary adult in the United States--that is, the great American public--has either no high school education or less than a year of it. You can assume in writing to a man whom you do not know and about whom you have no information that he has only a grammar school education and that in using other than commonplace words you run a double danger--first, that he will not know what you are talking about or will misinterpret it; and second, that he will think you are trying to be highfalutin and will resent your possibly quite innocent parade of language. In a few very effective sales letters the writers have taken exactly the opposite tack. They have slung language in the fashion of a circus publicity agent, and by their verbal gymnastics have attracted attention. This sort of thing may do very well in some kinds of circular letters, but it is quite out of place in the common run of business correspondence, and a comparison of the sales letters of many companies with their day-to-day correspondence shows clearly the need for more attention to the day-to-day letter. A sales letter may be bought. A number of very competent men make a business of writing letters for special purposes. But a higher tone in general correspondence cannot be bought and paid for. It has to be developed. A good letter writer will neither insult the intelligence of his correspondent by making the letter too childish, nor will he make the mistake of going over his head. He will visualize who is going to receive his letter and use the kind of language that seems best to fit both the subject matter and the reader, and he will give the fitting of the words to the reader the first choice. There is something of a feeling that letters should be elegant--that if one merely expresses oneself simply and clearly, it is because of some lack of erudition, and that true erudition breaks out in great, sonorous words and involved constructions. There could be no greater mistake. The man who really knows the language will write simply. The man who does not know the language and is affecting something which he thinks is culture has what might be called a sense of linguistic insecurity, which is akin to the sense of social insecurity. Now and again one meets a person who is dreadfully afraid of making a social error. He is afraid of getting hold of the wrong fork or of doing something else that is not done. Such people labor along frightfully. They have a perfectly vile time of it, but any one who knows social usage takes it as a matter of course. He observes the rules, not because they are rules, but because they are second nature to him, and he shamelessly violates the rules if the occasion seems to warrant it. It is quite the same with the letter. One should know his ground well enough to do what one likes, bearing in mind that there is no reason for writing a letter unless the objective is clearly defined. Writing a letter is like shooting at a target. The target may be hit by accident, but it is more apt to be hit if careful aim has been taken. CHAPTER III THE PARTS OF A LETTER The mechanical construction of a letter, whether social, friendly, or business, falls into six or seven parts. This arrangement has become established by the best custom. The divisions are as follows: 1. Heading 2. Inside address (Always used in business letters but omitted in social and friendly letters) 3. Salutation 4. Body 5. Complimentary close 6. Signature 7. Superscription 1. THE HEADING The heading of a letter contains the street address, city, state, and the date. The examples below will illustrate: 2018 Calumet Street or 1429 Eighth Avenue Chicago, Ill. New York, N.Y. May 12, 1921 March 8, 1922 [Illustration: In the business letterhead appear the name of the firm, its address, and the kind of business engaged in] When the heading is typewritten or written by hand, it is placed at the top of the first letter sheet close to the right-hand margin. It should begin about in the center, that is, it should extend no farther to the left than the center of the page. If a letter is short and therefore placed in the center of a page, the heading will of course be lower and farther in from the edge than in a longer letter. But it should never be less than an inch from the top and three quarters of an inch from the edge. In the business letterhead appear the name of the firm, its address, and the kind of business engaged in. The last is often omitted in the case of widely known firms or where the nature of the business is indicated by the name of the firm. In the case of a printed or engraved letterhead, the written heading should consist only of the date. The printed date-line is not good. To mix printed and written or typed characters detracts from the neat appearance of the letter. In social stationery the address, when engraved, should be about three quarters of an inch from the top of the sheet, either in the center or at the right-hand corner. When the address is engraved, the date may be written at the end of the last sheet, from the left-hand corner, directly after the signature. [Illustration: Letterheads used by a life insurance company, a law firm, and three associations] [Illustration: In the case of widely known firms, or where the name of the firm itself indicates it, reference to the nature of the business is often omitted from letterheads] 2. THE INSIDE ADDRESS In social correspondence what is known as the inside address is omitted. In all business correspondence it is obviously necessary. The name and address of the person to whom a business letter is sent is placed at the left-hand side of the letter sheet below the heading, about an inch from the edge of the sheet, that is, leaving the same margin as in the body of the letter. The distance below the heading will be decided by the length and arrangement of the letter. The inside address consists of the name of the person or of the firm and the address. The address should comprise the street number, the city, and the state. The state may, in the case of certain very large cities, be omitted. Either of the following styles may be used--the straight edge or the diagonal: Wharton & Whaley Co. Madison Avenue & Forty-Fifth Street New York, N. Y. or Wharton & Whaley Co. Madison Avenue & Forty-Fifth Street New York, N. Y. Punctuation at the ends of the lines of the heading and the address may or may not be used. There is a growing tendency to omit it. The inside address may be written at the end of the letter, from the left, below the signature. This is done in official letters, both formal and informal. These official letters are further described under the heading "Salutation" and in the chapter on stationery. 3. THE SALUTATION _Social Letters_ The salutation, or complimentary address to the person to whom the letter is written, in a social letter should begin at the left-hand side of the sheet about half an inch below the heading and an inch from the edge of the paper. The form "My dear" is considered in the United States more formal than "Dear." Thus, when we write to a woman who is simply an acquaintance, we should say "My dear Mrs. Evans." If we are writing to someone more intimate we should say "Dear Mrs. Evans." The opposite is true in England--that is, "My dear Mrs. Evans" would be written to a friend and "Dear Mrs. Evans" to a mere acquaintance. In writing to an absolute stranger, the full name should be written and then immediately under it, slightly to the right, "Dear Madam" or "Dear Sir." For example: Mrs. John Evans, Dear Madam: or Mr. William Sykes, Dear Sir: The salutation is followed by a colon or a comma. _Business Letters_ In business letters the forms of salutation in common use are: "Dear Sir," "Gentlemen," "Dear Madam," and "Mesdames." In the still more formal "My dear Sir" and "My dear Madam" note that the second word is not capitalized. A woman, whether married or unmarried, is addressed "Dear Madam." If the writer of the letter is personally acquainted with the person addressed, or if they have had much correspondence, he may use the less formal address, as "My dear Mr. Sykes." The salutation follows the inside address and preserves the same margin as does the first line of the address. The following are correct forms: White Brothers Co. 591 Fifth Avenue New York Gentlemen: or White Brothers Co. 591 Fifth Avenue New York Gentlemen: "Dear Sirs" is no longer much used--although in many ways it seems to be better taste. In the case of a firm or corporation with a single name, as Daniel Davey, Inc., or of a firm or corporation consisting of men and women, the salutation is also "Gentlemen" (or "Dear Sirs"). In letters to or by government officials the extremely formal "Sir" or "Sirs" is used. These are known as formal official letters. The informal official letter is used between business men and concerns things not in the regular routine of business affairs. These letters are decidedly informal and may be quite conversational in tone. The use of a name alone as a salutation is not correct, as: Mr. John Evans: I have your letter of-- Forms of salutation to be avoided are "Dear Miss," "Dear Friend," "Messrs." In memoranda between members of a company the salutations are commonly omitted--but these memoranda are not letters. They are messages of a "telegraphic" nature. _Titles_ In the matter of titles it has been established by long custom that a title of some kind be used with the name of the individual or firm. The more usual titles are: "Mr.," "Mrs.," "Miss," "Messrs.," "Reverend," "Doctor," "Professor," and "Honorable." "Esquire," written "Esq." is used in England instead of the "Mr." in common use in the United States. Although still adhered to by some in this country, its use is rather restricted to social letters. Of course it is never used with "Mr." Write either "Mr. George L. Ashley" or "George L. Ashley, Esq." The title "Messrs." is used in addressing two or more persons who are in business partnership, as "Messrs. Brown and Clark" or "Brown & Clark"; but The National Cash Register Company, for example, should not be addressed "Messrs. National Cash Register Company" but "The National Cash Register Company." The form "Messrs." is an abbreviation of "Messieurs" and should not be abbreviated in any way other than "Messrs." The title "Miss" is not recognized as an abbreviation and is not followed by a period. Honorary degrees, such as "M.D.," "Ph.D.," "M.A.," "B.S.," "LL.D.," follow the name of the person addressed. The initials "M.D." must not be used in connection with "Doctor" as this would be a duplication. Write either "Dr. Herbert Reynolds" or "Herbert Reynolds, M.D." The titles of "Doctor," "Reverend," and "Professor" precede the name of the addressed, as: "Dr. Herbert Reynolds," "Rev. Philip Bentley," "Prof. Lucius Palmer." It will be observed that these titles are usually abbreviated on the envelope and in the inside address, but in the salutation they must be written out in full, as "My dear Doctor," or "My dear Professor." In formal notes one writes "My dear Doctor Reynolds" or "My dear Professor Palmer." In less formal notes, "Dear Doctor Reynolds" and "Dear Professor Palmer" may be used. A question of taste arises in the use of "Doctor." The medical student completing the studies which would ordinarily lead to a bachelor's degree is known as "Doctor," and the term has become associated in the popular mind with medicine and surgery. The title "Doctor" is, however, an academic distinction, and although applied to all graduate medical practitioners is, in all other realms of learning, a degree awarded for graduate work, as Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), or for distinguished services that cause a collegiate institution to confer an honorary degree such as Doctor of Common Law (D.C.L.), Doctor of Law and Literature (LL.D.), Doctor of Science (Sc.D.), and so on. Every holder of a doctor's degree is entitled to be addressed as "Doctor," but in practice the salutation is rarely given to the holders of the honorary degrees--mostly because they do not care for it. Do not use "Mr." or "Esq." with any of the titles mentioned above. The President of the United States should be addressed formally as "Sir," informally as "My dear Mr. President." Members of Congress and of the state legislatures, diplomatic representatives, judges, and justices are entitled "Honorable," as "Honorable Samuel Sloane," thus: (Formal) Honorable (or Hon.) John Henley Sir: (Informal) Honorable (or Hon.) John Henley My dear Mr. Henley: Titles such as "Cashier," "Secretary," and "Agent" are in the nature of descriptions and follow the name; as "Mr. Charles Hamill, Cashier." When such titles as "Honorable" and "Reverend" are used in the body of the letter they are preceded by the article "the." Thus, "The Honorable Samuel Sloane will address the meeting." A woman should never be addressed by her husband's title. Thus the wife of a doctor is not "Mrs. Dr. Royce" but "Mrs. Paul Royce." The titles of "Judge," "General," and "Doctor" belong to the husband only. Of course, if a woman has a title of her own, she may use it. If she is an "M.D." she will be designated as "Dr. Elizabeth Ward." In this case her husband's Christian name would not be used. In writing to the clergy, the following rules should be observed: For a Cardinal the only salutation is "Your Eminence." The address on the envelope should read "His Eminence John Cardinal Farley." To an Archbishop one should write "Most Rev. Patrick J. Hayes, D.D., Archbishop of New York." The salutation is usually "Your Grace," although it is quite admissible to use "Dear Archbishop." The former is preferable and of more common usage. The correct form of address for a Bishop is "The Right Reverend John Jones, D.D., Bishop of ----." The salutation in a formal letter should be "Right Reverend and dear Sir," but this would be used only in a strictly formal communication. In this salutation "dear" is sometimes capitalized, so that it would read "Right Reverend and Dear Sir"; although the form in the text seems preferable, some bishops use the capitalized "Dear." The usual form is "My dear Bishop," with "The Right Reverend John Jones, D.D., Bishop of ----" written above it. In the Protestant Episcopal Church a Dean is addressed "The Very Reverend John Jones, D.D., Dean of ----." The informal salutation is "My dear Dean Jones" and the formal is "Very Reverend and dear Sir." In addressing a priest, the formal salutation is "Reverend and dear Sir," or "Reverend dear Father." The envelope reads simply: "The Rev. Joseph J. Smith," followed by any titles the priest may enjoy. The form used in addressing the other clergy is "The Reverend John Jones," and the letter, if strictly formal, would commence with "Reverend and Dear Sir." The more usual form, however, is "My dear Mr. Brown" (or "Dr. Brown," as the case may be). The use of the title "Reverend" with the surname only is wholly inadmissible. In general usage the salutation in addressing formal correspondence to a foreign ambassador is "His Excellency," to a Minister or Chargé d'Affaires, "Sir." In informal correspondence the general form is "My dear Mr. Ambassador," "My dear Mr. Minister," or "My dear Mr. Chargé d'Affaires." 4. THE BODY OF THE LETTER In the placing of a formal note it must be arranged so that the complete note appears on the first page only. The social letter is either formal or informal. The formal letter must be written according to certain established practice. It is the letter used for invitations to formal affairs, for announcements, and for the acknowledgment of these letters. The third person must always be used. If one receives a letter written in the third person one must answer in kind. It would be obviously incongruous to write Mr. and Mrs. John Evans regret that we are unable to accept Mrs. Elliott's kind invitation for the theatre on Thursday, May the fourth as we have a previous engagement It should read Mr. and Mrs. John Evans regret that they are unable to accept Mrs. Elliott's kind invitation for the theatre on Thursday, May the fourth as they have a previous engagement In these notes, the hour and date are never written numerically but are spelled out. If the family has a coat-of-arms or crest it may be used in the centre of the engraved invitation at the top, but monograms or stamped addresses are never so used. For the informal letter there are no set rules except that of courtesy, which requires that we have our thought distinctly in mind before putting it on paper. It may be necessary to pause a few moments before writing, to think out just what we want to say. A rambling, incoherent letter is not in good taste any more than careless, dishevelled clothing. Spelling should be correct. If there is any difficulty in spelling, a small dictionary kept in the desk drawer is easily consulted. Begin each sentence with a capital. Start a new paragraph when you change to a new subject. Put periods (or interrogation points as required) at the ends of the sentences. It is neater to preserve a margin on both sides of the letter sheet. In the body of a business letter the opening sentence is in an important position, and this is obviously the place for an important fact. It ought in some way to state or refer to the subject of or reason for the letter, so as to get the attention of the reader immediately to the subject. It ought also to suggest a courteous personal interest in the recipient's business, to give the impression of having to do with his interests. For instance, a reader might be antagonized by Yours of the 14th regarding the shortage in your last order received. How much more tactful is We regret to learn from your letter of March 14th that there was a shortage in your last order. Paragraphs should show the division of the thought of the letter. If you can arrange and group your subjects and your thoughts on them logically in your mind, you will have no trouble in putting them on paper. It is easier for the reader to grasp your thought if in each paragraph are contained only one thought and the ideas pertaining to it. The appearance of a business letter is a matter to which all too little concern has been given. A firm or business which would not tolerate an unkempt salesman sometimes will think nothing of sending out badly typed, badly placed, badly spelled letters. The first step toward a good-looking letter is proper stationery, though a carefully typed and placed letter on poor stationery is far better than one on good stationery with a good letterhead but poor typing and placing. The matter of correct spelling is merely a case of the will to consult a dictionary when in doubt. The proper placing of a letter is something which well rewards the care necessary at first. Estimate the matter to go on the page with regard to the size of the page and arrange so that the centre of the letter will be slightly above the centre of the letter sheet. The margins should act as a frame or setting for the letter. The left-hand space should be at least an inch and the right-hand at least a half inch. Of course if the letter is short the margins will be wider. The top and bottom margins should be wider than the side margins. The body of the letter should begin at the same distance from the edge as the first line of the inside address and the salutation. All paragraphing should be indicated by indenting the same distances from the margin--about an inch--or if the block system is used no paragraph indentation is made but double or triple spacing between the paragraphs indicates the divisions. If the letter is handwritten, the spacing between the paragraphs should be noticeably greater than that between other lines. Never write on both sides of a sheet. In writing a business letter, if the letter requires more than one page, use plain sheets of the same size and quality without the letterhead. These additional sheets should be numbered at the top. The name or initials of the firm or person to whom the letter is going should also appear at the top of the sheets. This letter should never run over to a second sheet if there are less than three lines of the body of the letter left over from the first page. In the formal official letter, that is, in letters to or by government officials, members of Congress, and other dignitaries, the most rigid formality in language is observed. No colloquialisms are allowed and no abbreviations. [Illustration: Specimens of letterheads used for official stationery] 5. THE COMPLIMENTARY CLOSE The complimentary close follows the body of the letter, about two or three spaces below it. It begins about in the center of the page under the body of the letter. Only the first word should be capitalized and a comma is placed at the end. The wording may vary according to the degree of cordiality or friendship. In business letters the forms are usually restricted to the following: Yours truly (or) Truly yours (not good form) Yours very truly (or) Very truly yours Yours respectfully (or) Respectfully yours Yours very respectfully. If the correspondents are on a more intimate basis they may use Faithfully yours Cordially yours Sincerely yours. In formal official letters the complimentary close is Respectfully yours Yours respectfully. The informal social letter may close with Yours sincerely Yours very sincerely Yours cordially Yours faithfully Yours gratefully (if a favor has been done) Yours affectionately Very affectionately yours Yours lovingly Lovingly yours. The position of "yours" may be at the beginning or at the end, but it must never be abbreviated or omitted. If a touch of formal courtesy is desired, the forms "I am" or "I remain" may be used before the complimentary closing. These words keep the same margin as the paragraph indenting. But in business letters they are not used. 6. THE SIGNATURE The signature is written below the complimentary close and a little to the right, so that it ends about at the right-hand margin. In signing a social letter a married woman signs herself as "Evelyn Rundell," not "Mrs. James Rundell" nor "Mrs. Evelyn Rundell." The form "Mrs. James Rundell" is used in business letters when the recipient might be in doubt as to whether to address her as "Mrs." or "Miss." Thus a married woman would sign such a business letter: Yours very truly, Evelyn Rundell (Mrs. James Rundell). An unmarried woman signs as "Ruth Evans," excepting in the case of a business letter where she might be mistaken for a widow. She then prefixes "Miss" in parentheses, as (Miss) Ruth Evans. A woman should not sign only her given name in a letter to a man unless he is her fiancé or a relative or an old family friend. A widow signs her name with "Mrs." in parentheses before it, as (Mrs.) Susan Briggs Geer. A divorced woman, if she retains her husband's name, signs her letters with her given name and her own surname followed by her husband's name, thus: Janet Hawkins Carr. and in a business communication: Janet Hawkins Carr (Mrs. Janet Hawkins Carr). A signature should always be made by hand and in ink. The signature to a business letter may be simply the name of the writer. Business firms or corporations have the name of the firm typed above the written signature of the writer of the letter. Then in type below comes his official position. Thus: Hall, Haines & Company (typewritten) _Alfred Jennings_ (handwritten) Cashier (typewritten). If he is not an official, his signature is preceded by the word "By." In the case of form letters or routine correspondence the name of the person directly responsible for the letter may be signed by a clerk with his initials just below it. Some business firms have the name of the person responsible for the letter typed immediately under the name of the firm and then his signature below that. This custom counteracts illegibility in signatures. In circular letters the matter of a personal signature is a very important one. Some good points on this subject may be gathered from the following extract from _Printers' Ink_. Who shall sign a circular letter depends largely on circumstances entering individual cases. Generally speaking, every letter should be tested on a trial list before it is sent out in large quantities. It is inadvisable to hazard an uncertain letter idea on a large list until the value of the plan, as applied to that particular business, has been tried out. There are certain things about letter procedure, however, that experience has demonstrated to be fundamental. One of these platforms is that it is best to sign the letter with some individual's name. Covering up the responsibility for the letter with such a general term as "sales department" or "advertising department" takes all personality out of the missive and to that extent weakens the power of the message. But even in this we should be chary of following inflexible rules. We can conceive of circumstances where it would be advisable to have the letter come from a department rather than from an individual. Of course the management of many business organizations still holds that all letters should be signed by the company only. If the personal touch is permitted at all, the extent of it is to allow the writer of the letter to subscribe his initials. This idea, however, is pretty generally regarded as old-fashioned and is fast dying out. Most companies favor the plan of having the head of the department sign the circular letters emanating from his department. If he doesn't actually dictate the letter himself, no tell-tale signs such as the initials of the actual dictator should be made. If it is a sales matter, the letter would bear the signature of the sales manager. If the communication pertained to advertising, it would be signed by the advertising manager. Where it is desired to give unusual emphasis to the letter, it might occasionally be attributed to the president or to some other official higher up. The big name idea should not be overdone. People will soon catch on that the president would not have time to answer all of the company's correspondence. If he has, it is evident that a very small business must be done. A better idea that is coming into wide vogue is to have the letter signed by the man in the company who comes into occasional personal contact with the addressee. One concern has the house salesman who waits on customers coming from that section of the country when they visit headquarters sign all promotion letters going to them. The house salesman is the only one in the firm whom the customer knows. It is reasoned that the latter will give greater heed to a letter coming from a man with whom he is on friendly terms. Another company has its branch managers take the responsibility for circular letters sent to the trade in that territory. Another manufacturer has his salesmen bunched in crews of six. Each crew is headed by a leader. This man has to sell, just as his men do, but in addition he acts as a sort of district sales manager. All trade letters going out in his district carry the crew leader's signature. There is much to be said in favor of this vogue. Personal contact is so valuable in all business transactions that its influence should be used in letters, in so far as it is practicable to do so. The signature should not vary. Do not sign "G. Smith" to one letter, "George Smith" to another, and "G. B. Smith" to a third. A man should never prefix to his signature any title, as "Mr.," "Prof.," or "Dr." A postscript is sometimes appended to a business letter, but the letters "P.S." do not appear. It is not, however, used as formerly--to express some thought which the writer forgot to include in the letter, or an afterthought. But on account of its unique position in the letter, it is used to place special emphasis on an important thought. 7. THE SUPERSCRIPTION In the outside address or superscription of a letter the following forms are observed: A letter to a woman must always address her as either "Mrs." or "Miss," unless she is a professional woman with a title such as "Dr." But this title is used only if the letter is a professional one. It is not employed in social correspondence. A woman is never addressed by her husband's title, as "Mrs. Captain Bartlett." A married woman is addressed with "Mrs." prefixed to her husband's name, as "Mrs. David Greene." This holds even if her husband is dead. A divorced woman is addressed (unless she is allowed by the courts to use her maiden name) as "Mrs." followed by her maiden name and her former husband's surname, as: "Mrs. Edna Boyce Blair," "Edna Boyce" being her maiden name. A man should be given his title if he possess one. Otherwise he must be addressed as "Mr." or "Esq." Titles of those holding public office, of physicians, of the clergy, and of professors, are generally abbreviated on the envelope except in formal letters. It is rather customary to address social letters to "Edward Beech, Esq.," business letters to "Mr. Edward Beech," and a tradesman's letter to "Peter Moore." A servant is addressed as "William White." The idea has arisen, and it would seem erroneous, that if the man addressed had also "Sr." or "Jr." attached, the title "Mr." or "Esq." should not be used. There is neither rhyme nor reason for this, as "Sr." and "Jr." are certainly not titles and using "Mr." or "Esq." would not be a duplication. So the proper mode of address would be Mr. John Evans, Jr. or John Evans, Jr., Esq. The "Sr." is not always necessary as it may be understood. Business envelopes should have the address of the writer printed in the upper left-hand corner as a return address. This space should not be used for advertising. In addressing children's letters, it should be remembered that a letter to a girl child is addressed to "Miss Jane Green," regardless of the age of the child. But a little boy should be addressed as "Master Joseph Green." The address when completed should be slightly below the middle of the envelope and equidistant from right and left edges. The slanting or the straight-edge form may be used, to agree with the indented or the block style of paragraphing respectively. Punctuation at the ends of the lines in the envelope address is not generally used. The post office prefers the slanting edge form of address, thus: (not) ---------------- ---------------- ---------------- ---------------- ---------------- ---------------- If there is a special address, such as "General Delivery," "Personal," or "Please forward," it should be placed at the lower left-hand corner of the envelope. CHAPTER IV BEING APPROPRIATE--WHAT TO AVOID COMMON OFFENSES Under this head are grouped a few of the more common offenses against good form in letter writing; some of these have been touched on in other chapters. Never use ruled paper for any correspondence. Never use tinted paper for business letters. Do not have date lines on printed letterheads. This of course has to do with business stationery. Do not use simplified spelling, if for no other reason than that it detracts from the reader's absorption of the contents of the letter itself. "Enthuse" is not a word--do not use it. Avoid blots, fingermarks, and erasures. Do not use two one-cent stamps in place of a two-cent stamp. Somehow one-cent stamps are not dignified. Never use "Dear Friend," "Friend Jack," "My dear Friend," or "Friend Bliss" as a form of salutation. In the case of a business letter where a salutation for both sexes may be necessary, use "Gentlemen." Never cross the writing in a letter with more writing. Never use "oblige" in the place of the complimentary close. Do not double titles, as "Mr. John Walker, Esq." Write either "Mr. John Walker" or "John Walker, Esq." A woman should never sign herself "Mrs." or "Miss" to a social letter. In business letters (See Chapter 3) it may be necessary to prefix "Mrs." or "Miss" in parentheses to show how an answer should be addressed to her. Never omit "Yours" in the complimentary close. Always write "Yours sincerely," "Yours truly," or whatever it may be. Never write a letter in the heat of anger. Sleep on it if you do and the next morning will not see you so anxious to send it. In some business offices it has become the custom to have typed at the bottom of a letter, or sometimes even rubber-stamped, such expressions as: Dictated but not read. Dictated by but signed in the absence of ----. Dictated by Mr. Jones, but, as Mr. Jones was called away, signed by Miss Walker. While these may be the circumstances under which the letter was written and may be necessary for the identification of the letter, they are no less discourtesies to the reader. And it cannot improve the situation to call them to the reader's attention. In the matter of abbreviations of titles and the like a safe rule is "When in doubt do not abbreviate." Sentences like "Dictated by Mr. Henry Pearson to Miss Oliver" are in bad form, not to speak of their being bad business. They intrude the mechanics of the letter on the reader and in so doing they take his interest from the actual object of the communication. All necessary identification can be made by initials, as: L. S. B.--T. Do not write a sales letter that gives the same impression as a strident, raucous-voiced salesman. If the idea is to attract attention by shouting louder than all the rest, it might be well to remember that the limit of screeching and of words that hit one in the eye has probably been reached. The tack to take, even from a result-producing standpoint and aside from the question of good taste, is to have the tone of the letter quiet but forceful--the firm, even tone of a voice heard through a yelling mob. Do not attempt to put anything on paper without first thinking out and arranging what you want to say. Complimentary closings in business letters, such as "Yours for more business," should be avoided as the plague. STOCK PHRASES IN BUSINESS LETTERS There are certain expressions, certain stock phrases, which have in the past been considered absolutely necessary to a proper knowledge of so-called business English. But it is gratifying to notice the emphasis that professors and teachers of business English are placing on the avoidance of these horrors and on the adoption of a method of writing in which one says exactly what one means and says it gracefully and without stiltedness or intimacy. Their aim seems to be the ability to write a business letter which may be easily read, easily understood, and with the important facts in the attention-compelling places. But for the sake of those who still cling to these hackneyed improprieties (which most of them are), let us line them up for inspection. Many of them are inaccurate, and a moment's thought will give a better method of conveying the ideas. "We beg to state," "We beg to advise," "We beg to remain." There is a cringing touch about these. A courteous letter may be written without begging. "Your letter has come to hand" or "is at hand" belongs to a past age. Say "We have your letter of ----" or "We have received your letter." "We shall advise you of ----" This is a legal expression. Say "We shall let you know" or "We shall inform you." "As per your letter." Also of legal connotation. Say "according to" or "in agreement with." "Your esteemed favor" is another relic. This is a form of courtesy, but is obsolete. "Favor," used to mean "communication" or "letter," is obviously inaccurate. "Replying to your letter, would say," or "wish to say." Why not say it at once and abolish the wordiness? "State" gives the unpleasant suggestion of a cross-examination. Use "say." "And oblige" adds nothing to the letter. If the reader is not already influenced by its contents, "and oblige" will not induce him to be. The telegraphic brevity caused by omitting pronouns and all words not necessary to the sense makes for discourtesy and brusqueness, as: Answering yours of the 21st inst., order has been delayed, but will ship goods at once. How much better to say: We have your letter of 21st October concerning the delay in filling your order. We greatly regret the delay, but we can now ship the goods at once. "Same" is not a pronoun. It is used as such in legal documents, but it is incorrect to employ it in business letters as other than an adjective. Use instead "they," "them," or "it." _Incorrect:_ We have received your order and same will be forwarded. _Correct:_ We have received your order and it will be forwarded. "Kindly"--as in: "We kindly request that you will send your subscription." There is nothing kind in your request and if there were, you would not so allude to it. "Kindly" in this case belongs to "send," as "We request that you will kindly send your subscription." The word "kind" to describe a business letter--as "your kind favor"--is obviously misapplied. There is no element of "kindness" on either side of an ordinary business transaction. The months are no longer alluded to as "inst.," "ult.," or "prox." [abbreviations of the Latin "instant" (present), "ultimo" (past), and "proximo" (next)] as "Yours of the 10th inst." Call the months by name, as "I have your letter of 10th May." "Contents carefully noted" is superfluous and its impression on the reader is a blank. "I enclose herewith." "Herewith" in this sense means in the envelope. This fact is already expressed in the word "enclose." Avoid abbreviations of ordinary words in the body or the closing of a letter, as "Resp. Yrs." instead of "Respectfully yours." The word "Company" should not be abbreviated unless the symbol "&" is used. But the safest plan in writing to a company is to write the name exactly as they write it themselves or as it appears on their letterheads. [Illustration: As to the use of the symbol "&" and the abbreviation of the word "company," the safest plan in writing to a company is to spell its name exactly as it appears on its letterhead] Names of months and names of states may be abbreviated in the heading of the letter but not in the body. But it is better form not to do so. Names of states should never be abbreviated on the envelope. For instance, "California" and "Colorado," if written "Cal." and "Col.," may easily be mistaken for each other. The participial closing of a letter, that is, ending a letter with a participial phrase, weakens the entire effect of the letter. This is particularly true of a business letter. Close with a clear-cut idea. The following endings will illustrate the ineffective participle: Hoping to hear from you on this matter by return mail. Assuring you of our wish to be of service to you in the future. Thanking you for your order and hoping we shall be able to please you. Trusting that you will start an investigation as soon as possible. More effective endings would be: Please send a remittance by return mail. If we can be of use to you in the future, will you let us know? We thank you for your order and hope we shall fill it to your satisfaction. Please investigate the delay at once. The participial ending is merely a sort of habit. A letter used to be considered lacking in ease if it ended with an emphatic sentence or ended with something that had really to do with the subject of the letter. It might be well in concluding a letter, as in a personal leavetaking, to "Stand not on the order of your going." Good-byes should be short. CHAPTER V PERSONAL LETTERS--SOCIAL AND FRIENDLY INVITATIONS AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS _General Directions_ The format of an invitation is not so important as its taste. Some of the more formal sorts of invitations--as to weddings--have become rather fixed, and the set wordings are carried through regardless of the means at hand for proper presentation. For instance, one often sees a wedding invitation in impeccable form but badly printed on cheap paper. It would be far better, if it is impossible to get good engraving or if first-class work proves to be too expensive, to buy good white notepaper and write the invitations. A typewriter is, of course, out of the question either for sending or answering any sort of social invitation. Probably some time in the future the typewriter will be used, but at present it is associated with business correspondence and is supposed to lack the implied leisure of hand writing. The forms of many invitations, as I have said, are fairly fixed. But they are not hallowed. One may vary them within the limits of good taste, but on the whole it is considerably easier to accept the forms in use and not try to be different. If the function itself is going to be very different from usual then the invitation itself may be as freakish as one likes--it may be written or printed on anything from a postcard to a paper bag. The sole question is one of appropriateness. But there is a distinct danger in trying to be ever so unconventional and all that. One is more apt than not to make a fool of one's self. And then, too, being always clever is dreadfully hard on the innocent by-standers. Here are things to be avoided: Do not have an invitation printed or badly engraved. Hand writing is better than bad mechanical work. Do not use colored or fancy papers. Do not use single sheets. Do not use a very large or a very small sheet--either is inappropriate. Do not have a formal phraseology for an informal affair. Do not abbreviate anything--initials may be used in informal invitations and acceptances, but, in the formal, "H. E. Jones" invariably has to become "Horatio Etherington Jones." Do not send an answer to a formal invitation in the first person. A formal invitation is written in the third person and must be so answered. Do not use visiting cards either for acceptances or regrets even though they are sometimes used for invitations. The practice of sending a card with "Accepts" or "Regrets" written on it is discourteous. Do not seek to be decorative in handwriting--the flourishing Spencerian is impossible. Do not overdo either the formality or the informality. Do not use "R.S.V.P." (the initials of the French words "Répondez, s'il vous plaît," meaning "Answer, if you please") unless the information is really necessary for the making of arrangements. It ought to be presumed that those whom you take the trouble to invite will have the sense and the courtesy to answer. In sending an evening invitation where there are husband and wife, both must be included, unless, of course, the occasion is "stag." If the invitation is to be extended to a daughter, then her name is included in the invitation. In the case of more than one daughter, they will receive a separate invitation addressed to "The Misses Smith." Each male member of the family other than husband should receive a separately mailed invitation. An invitation, even the most informal, should always be acknowledged within a week of its receipt. It is the height of discourtesy to leave the hostess in doubt either through a tardy answer or through the undecided character of your reply. The acknowledgment must state definitely whether or not you accept. The acknowledgment of an invitation sent to husband and wife must include both names but is answered by the wife only. The name of a daughter also must appear if it appears in the invitation. If Mr. and Mrs. Smith receive an invitation from Mr. and Mrs. Jones, their acknowledgment must include the names of both Mr. and Mrs. Jones, but the envelope should be addressed to Mrs. Jones only. FORMAL INVITATIONS Wedding invitations should be sent about three weeks--certainly not later than fifteen days--before the wedding. Two envelopes should be used, the name and address appearing on the outside envelope, but only the name on the inside one. The following are correct for formal invitations: _For a church wedding_ (A) _Mr. and Mrs. John Evans Request the Honour of_ ---- (Name written in) _Presence at the Marriage of Their Daughter Dorothy and Mr. Philip Brewster On the Evening of Monday, the Eighth of June at Six o'Clock At The Church of the Heavenly Rest Fifth Avenue, New York City_ [Illustration: Specimen of formal wedding invitation] (B) _Mr. and Mrs. John Evans Request the Honour of Your Presence at The Marriage of Their Daughter Dorothy and Mr. Philip Brewster On Monday, June the Eighth At Six o'Clock At the Church of the Heavenly Rest Fifth Avenue, New York_ _For a home wedding_ _Mr. and Mrs. John Evans Request the Pleasure of_ ---- (Name written in) _Company at the Marriage of Their Daughter Dorothy and Mr. Philip Brewster On Wednesday, June the Tenth At Twelve o'Clock Five Hundred Park Avenue_ Or either of the forms A and B for a church wedding may be used. "Honour of your presence" is more formal than "pleasure of your company" and hence is more appropriate for a church wedding. It is presumed that an invitation to a home wedding includes the wedding breakfast or reception, but an invitation to a church wedding does not. A card inviting to the wedding breakfast or reception is enclosed with the wedding invitation. Good forms are: _For a wedding breakfast_ _Mr. and Mrs. John Evans Request the Pleasure of_ ---- (Name written in) _At Breakfast on Tuesday, June the Fourth at Twelve o'Clock 500 Park Avenue_ _For a wedding reception_ _Mr. and Mrs. John Evans Request the Pleasure of Your Company At the Wedding Reception of Their Daughter Dorothy and Mr. Philip Brewster On Monday Afternoon, June the Third At Four o'Clock Five Hundred Park Avenue_ [Illustration: Specimens of formal invitations to a wedding reception] _For a second marriage_ The forms followed in a second marriage--either of a widow or a divorcée--are quite the same as above. The divorcée uses whatever name she has taken after the divorce--the name of her ex-husband or her maiden name if she has resumed it. The widow sometimes uses simply Mrs. Philip Brewster or a combination, as Mrs. Dorothy Evans Brewster. The invitations are issued in the name of the nearest relative--the parent or parents, of course, if living. The forms are: (A) _Mr. and Mrs. John Evans Request the Honour of Your Presence At the Marriage of Their Daughter Dorothy (Mrs. Philip Brewster) to Mr. Leonard Duncan On Thursday, April the Third At Six o'Clock Trinity Chapel_ (B) _Mr. and Mrs. John Evans Request the Honour of Your Presence At the Marriage of Their Daughter Mrs. Dorothy Evans Brewster to Mr. Leonard Duncan On Thursday, April the Third At Six o'Clock Trinity Chapel_ If there are no near relatives, the form may be: (C) _The Honour of Your Presence is Requested At the Marriage of Mrs. Dorothy Evans Brewster and Mr. Leonard Duncan On Thursday, April the Third At Six o'Clock Trinity Chapel_ In formal invitations "honour" is spelled with a "u." _Recalling an Invitation_ The wedding may have to be postponed or solemnized privately, owing to illness or death, or it may be put off altogether. In such an event the invitations will have to be recalled. The card recalling may or may not give a reason, according to circumstances. The cards should be engraved if time permits, but they may have to be written. Convenient forms are: (A) _Owing to the Death of Mr. Philip Brewster's Mother, Mr. and Mrs. Evans beg to Recall the Invitations for Their Daughter's Wedding on Monday, June the Eighth._ [Illustration: Specimen of wedding announcement] (B) _Mr. and Mrs. John Evans beg to Recall The Invitations for the Marriage of Their Daughter, Dorothy, and Mr. Philip Brewster, on Monday, June the Eighth_ _Wedding announcements_ If a wedding is private, no formal invitations are sent out; they are unnecessary, for only a few relatives or intimate friends will be present and they will be asked by word of mouth or by a friendly note. The wedding may be formally announced by cards mailed on the day of the wedding. The announcement will be made by whoever would have sent out wedding invitations--by parents, a near relative, or by the bride and groom, according to circumstances. The custom with the bride's name in the case of a widow or divorcée follows that of wedding invitations. An engraved announcement is not acknowledged (although a letter of congratulations--see page 101--may often be sent). A card is sent to the bride's parents or whoever has sent the announcements. The announcement may be in the following form: _Mr. and Mrs. John Evans Announce the Marriage of Their Daughter Dorothy to Mr. Philip Brewster On Monday, June the Tenth One Thousand Nineteen Hundred and Twenty-Two_ _Replying to the invitation_ The acceptance or the declination of a formal invitation is necessarily formal but naturally has to be written by hand. It is better to use double notepaper than a correspondence card and it is not necessary to give a reason for being unable to be present--although one may be given. It is impolite to accept or regret only a day or two before the function--the letter should be written as soon as possible after the receipt of the invitation. The letter may be indented as is the engraved invitation, but this is not at all necessary. The forms are: _Accepting_ Mr. and Mrs. Frothingham Smith accept with pleasure Mr. and Mrs. Evans's kind invitation to be present at the marriage of their daughter Dorothy and Mr. Philip Brewster on Monday, June the twelfth at twelve o'clock (and afterward at the wedding breakfast) Or it may be written out: Mr. and Mrs. Frothingham Smith accept with pleasure Mr. and Mrs. Evans's kind invitation to be present at the marriage of their daughter Dorothy and Mr. Philip Brewster on Monday, June the twelfth at twelve o'clock (and afterward at the wedding breakfast). _Regretting_ Mr. and Mrs. Frothingham Smith regret exceedingly that they are unable to accept Mr. and Mrs. Evans's kind invitation to be present at the marriage of their daughter Dorothy and Mr. Philip Brewster on Monday, June the twelfth (and afterward at the wedding breakfast) Or this also may be written out. The portion in parentheses will be omitted if one has not been asked to the wedding breakfast or reception. _For the formal dinner_ Formal dinner invitations are usually engraved, as in the following example. In case they are written, they may follow the same form or the letter form. If addressed paper is used the address is omitted from the end. The acknowledgment should follow the wording of the invitation. (A) _Mr. and Mrs. John Evans Request the Pleasure of_ Mr. and Mrs. Trent's _Company at Dinner On Thursday, October the First at Seven o'Clock and Afterward for the Play (or Opera, etc.)_ _500 Park Avenue_ (B) _Mr. and Mrs. John Evans Request the Pleasure of Mr. and Mrs. Trent's Company for Dinner and Opera on Thursday, October the First at Seven o'Clock_ _Accepting_ Mr. and Mrs. George Trent accept with much pleasure Mr. and Mrs. Evans's kind invitation for dinner on Thursday, October the first, at seven o'clock and afterward for the opera 788 East Forty-Sixth Street _Regretting_ Mr. and Mrs. George Trent regret that they are unable to accept the kind invitation of Mr. and Mrs. Evans for dinner and opera on Thursday, October the first, owing to a previous engagement. 788 East Forty-Sixth Street _For a dinner not at home_ _Mr. and Mrs. John Evans Request the Pleasure of Mrs. and Miss Pearson's Company at Dinner At Sherry's on Friday, March the Thirtieth At Quarter Past Seven o'Clock_ _500 Park Avenue_ _Accepting_ Mrs. Richard Pearson and Miss Pearson accept with much pleasure Mr. and Mrs. Evans's very kind invitation for dinner at Sherry's on Friday, March the thirtieth at quarter past seven o'clock 640 West Seventy-Second Street _Regretting_ Mrs. Richard Pearson and Miss Pearson regret exceedingly that they are unable to accept Mr. and Mrs. Evans's very kind invitation for dinner at Sherry's on Friday, March the thirtieth owing to a previous engagement to dine with Mr. and Mrs. Spencer 640 West Seventy-Second Street [Illustration: Specimens of formal dinner invitations] Or the reply may follow the letter form: _Accepting_ 640 West Seventy-Second Street, March 16, 1920. Mr. and Mrs. Richard Pearson accept with pleasure Mrs. John Evans's kind invitation for Friday evening, March the thirtieth. _Regretting_ 640 West Seventy-Second Street March 16, 1920. Mr. and Mrs. Richard Pearson regret sincerely their inability to accept Mrs. John Evans's kind invitation for Friday evening, March the thirtieth. These acknowledgments, being formal, are written in the third person and must be sent within twenty-four hours. _Dinner "to meet"_ If the dinner or luncheon is given to meet a person of importance or a friend from out of town, the purpose should appear in the body of the invitation, thus: _Mr. and Mrs. John Evans Request the Pleasure of Mr. and Mrs. Trent's Company at Dinner on Thursday, November the Ninth at Eight o'Clock to Meet Mr. William H. Allen_ _To a formal luncheon_ _Mrs. John Evans Requests the Pleasure of Miss Blake's Company at Luncheon To meet Miss Grace Flint on Tuesday, March the Fourth at One o'Clock and Afterward to the Matinée_ _500 Park Avenue_ _Accepting_ Miss Blake accepts with pleasure Mrs. Evans's very kind invitation for luncheon on Tuesday, March the fourth at one o'clock to meet Miss Flint and to go afterward to the matinée 232 West Thirty-First Street _Regretting_ Miss Blake regrets that a previous engagement prevents her from accepting Mrs. Evans's very kind invitation for luncheon on Tuesday, March the fourth at one o'clock to meet Miss Flint and to go afterward to the matinée 832 West Thirty-First Street [Illustration: Specimens of formal invitations "to meet"] _For the reception_ Afternoon receptions and "At Homes" for which engraved invitations are sent out are practically the same as formal "teas." An invitation is engraved as follows: _Mr. and Mrs. John Evans At Home Wednesday Afternoon, September Fourth from Four until Half-Past Seven o'Clock Five Hundred Park Avenue_ These cards are sent out by mail in a single envelope about two weeks or ten days before the event. The recipient of such a card is not required to send either a written acceptance or regret. One accepts by attending the "At Home." If one does not accept, the visiting card should be sent by mail so that it will reach the hostess on the day of the reception. Where an answer is explicitly required, then the reply may be as follows: _Accepting_ Mrs. John Evans accepts with pleasure Mrs. Emerson's kind invitation for Wednesday afternoon November the twenty-eighth _Regretting_ Mrs. John Evans regrets that she is unable to accept Mrs. Emerson's kind invitation for Wednesday afternoon November the twenty-eighth Mrs. John Evans regrets that she is unable to be present at Mrs. Emerson's At home on Wednesday afternoon November the twenty-eighth _Reception "to meet"_ (A) _Mrs. Bruce Wellington Requests the Pleasure of Mrs. Evans's Presence on Thursday Afternoon, April Fifth to Meet the Board of Governors of the Door-of-Hope Society from Four-Thirty to Seven o'Clock_ _Accepting_ Mrs. John Evans accepts with pleasure Mrs. Wellington's kind invitation to meet The Board of Governors of the Door-of-Hope Society On Thursday afternoon, April fifth _Regretting:_ Mrs. John Evans regrets that a previous engagement prevents her from accepting Mrs. Wellington's kind invitation to meet The Board of Governors of the Door-of-Hope Society On Thursday afternoon, April fifth _Mr. and Mrs. John Evans Request the Pleasure of Your Company to Meet General and Mrs. Robert E. Lee on Thursday Afternoon, February Fourth from Four until Seven o'Clock_ _Five Hundred Park Avenue_ If one accepts this invitation, one acknowledges simply by attending. If one is unable to attend, then the visiting card is mailed. If unforeseen circumstances should prevent attending, then a messenger is sent with a card in an envelope to the hostess, to reach her during the reception. _Invitations for afternoon affairs_ For afternoon affairs--at homes, teas, garden parties--the invitations are sent out in the name of the hostess alone, or if there be a daughter, or daughters, in society, their names will appear immediately below the name of the hostess. _Mrs. John Evans The Misses Evans At Home Thursday Afternoon, January Eleventh from Four until Seven o'Clock Five Hundred Park Avenue_ If the purpose of the reception is to introduce a daughter, her name would appear immediately below that of the hostess, as "Miss Evans," without Christian name or initial. If a second daughter is to be introduced at the tea, her name in full is added beneath that of the hostess: _Mrs. John Evans Miss Ruth Evans Miss Evans At Home Friday Afternoon, January Twentieth from Four until Seven o'Clock Five Hundred Park Avenue_ _For balls and dances_ The word "ball" is used for an assembly or a charity dance, never otherwise. An invitation to a private house bears "Dancing" or "Cotillion" in one corner of the card. This ball or formal dance invitation is engraved on a white card, sometimes with a blank space so that the guest's name may be written in by the hostess. It would read thus: (A) _Mr. and Mrs. Charles Elliott Request the Pleasure of Mr. and Mrs. Evans's Company at a Cotillion to Be Held at the Hotel Ritz-Carlton on Saturday, December the Third at Ten o'Clock_ _Please Address Reply to 347 Madison Avenue_ [Illustration: Specimens of formal invitations to a dance] (B) _Mr. and Mrs. Charles Elliott Request the Pleasure of _________________________ Company on Saturday Evening January the Sixth, at Ten o'Clock_ _Dancing 347 Madison Avenue_ An older style of invitation--without the blank for the written name, but instead the word "your" engraved upon the card--is in perfectly good form. The invitation would be like this: (C) _Mr. and Mrs. Charles Elliott Request the Pleasure of Your Company on Saturday Evening, January the Sixth at Ten o'Clock_ _Dancing 347 Madison Avenue_ _Accepting_ Mr. and Mrs. John Evans accept with pleasure Mr. and Mrs. Elliott's very kind invitation to a cotillion to be held at the Hotel Ritz-Carlton On Saturday, December the third at ten o'clock _Regretting_ Mr. and Mrs. John Evans regret exceedingly that they are unable to accept Mr. and Mrs. Elliott's kind invitation to attend a dance on Saturday, January the sixth In sending a regret the hour is omitted, as, since the recipient will not be present, the time is unimportant. (D) _The Honour of Your Presence Is Requested at the Lincoln's Birthday Eve Ball of the Dark Hollow Country Club on Monday Evening, February Eleventh at Half-Past Ten o'Clock 1922_ _Accepting_ Miss Evans accepts with pleasure the kind invitation of the Dark Hollow Country Club for Monday evening, February eleventh at half-past ten o'clock _For christenings_ Christenings are sometimes made formal. In such case engraved cards are sent out two or three weeks ahead. A good form is: _Mr. and Mrs. Philip Brewster Request the Pleasure of Your Company at the Christening of Their Son on Sunday Afternoon, April Seventeenth At Three o'clock at the Church of the Redeemer_ _Accepting_ Mr. and Mrs. Charles Elliot accept with pleasure Mr. and Mrs. Brewster's kind invitation to attend the christening of their son on Sunday afternoon, April seventeenth at three o'clock A reason for not accepting may or may not be given--it is better to put in a reason if you have one. _Regretting_ Mr. and Mrs. Charles Elliott regret that a previous engagement prevents their accepting Mr. and Mrs. Brewster's kind invitation to the christening of their son on Sunday afternoon, April seventeenth INFORMAL INVITATIONS _For a wedding_ An engraved invitation always implies a somewhat large or elaborate formal function. An informal affair requires simply a written invitation in the first person. The informal wedding is one to which are invited only the immediate family and intimate friends. The reason may be simply the desire for a small, quiet affair or it may be a recent bereavement. The bride-to-be generally writes these invitations. The form may be something like this: (A) June 2, 1922. Dear Mrs. Smith, On Wednesday, June the twelfth, at three o'clock Mr. Brewster and I are to be married. The ceremony will be at home and we are asking only a few close friends. I hope that you and Mr. Smith will be able to come. Yours very sincerely, Dorothy Evans. (B) June 16, 1922. Dear Mary, Owing to the recent death of my sister, Mr. Brewster and I are to be married quietly at home. The wedding will be on Wednesday, June the twentieth, at eleven o'clock. We are asking only a few intimate friends and I shall be so glad if you will come. Sincerely yours, Dorothy Evans. _Accepting_ June 7, 1922. Dear Dorothy, We shall be delighted to attend your wedding on Wednesday, June the twelfth, at three o'clock. We wish you and Mr. Brewster every happiness. Sincerely yours, Helen Gray Smith. _Regretting_ June 4, 1922. Dear Dorothy, I am so sorry that I shall be unable to attend your wedding. The "Adriatic" is sailing on the tenth and Father and I have engaged passage. Let me wish you and Mr. Brewster every happiness. Sincerely yours, Mary Lyman. _For dinners and luncheons_ An informal invitation to dinner is sent by the wife, for her husband and herself, to the wife. This invitation must include the latter's husband. It is simply a friendly note. The wife signs her Christian name, her maiden name (or more usually the initial of her maiden name), and her married name. Five Hundred Park Avenue, December 5th, 1922. My dear Mrs. Trent, Will you and Mr. Trent give us the pleasure of your company at a small dinner on Tuesday, December the twelfth, at seven o'clock? I hope you will not be otherwise engaged on that evening as we are looking forward to seeing you. Very sincerely yours, Katherine G. Evans. _To cancel an informal dinner invitation_ My dear Mrs. Trent, On account of the sudden death of my brother, I regret to be obliged to recall the invitation for our dinner on Tuesday, December the twelfth. Sincerely yours, Katherine G. Evans. December 8, 1922. _Accepting_ 788 East Forty-Sixth Street, December 7th, 1922. My dear Mrs. Evans, Mr. Trent and I will be very glad to dine with you on Tuesday, December the twelfth, at seven o'clock. With kind regards, I am Very sincerely yours, Charlotte B. Trent _Regretting_ 788 East Forty-Sixth Street, December 7th, 1922. My dear Mrs. Evans, We regret deeply that we cannot accept your kind invitation to dine with you on Tuesday, December the twelfth. Mr. Trent and I, unfortunately, have a previous engagement for that evening. With cordial regards, I am Yours very sincerely, Charlotte B. Trent. _The daughter as hostess_ When a daughter must act as hostess in her father's home, she includes his name in every dinner invitation she issues, as in the following: 340 Madison Avenue, January 2, 1921. My dear Mrs. Evans, Father wishes me to ask whether you and Mr. Evans will give us the pleasure of dining with us on Wednesday, January the fifteenth, at quarter past seven o'clock. We do hope you can come. Very sincerely yours, Edith Haines. The answer to this invitation of a daughter-hostess must be sent to the daughter, not to the father. _Accepting_ My dear Miss Haines, We shall be delighted to accept your father's kind invitation to dine with you on Wednesday, January the fifteenth, at quarter past seven o'clock. With most cordial wishes, I am Very sincerely yours, Katherine G. Evans. January 5, 1922 _Regretting_ My dear Miss Haines, We regret exceedingly that we cannot accept your father's kind invitation to dine with you on Wednesday, January the fifteenth. A previous engagement of Mr. Evans prevents it. Will you convey to him our thanks? Very sincerely yours, Katherine Gerard Evans. January 5, 1922. _Adding additional details_ The invitation to an informal dinner may necessarily include some additional details. For example: Five Hundred Park Avenue, September 16, 1920. My dear Mr. Allen, Mr. Evans and I have just returned from Canada and we hear that you are in New York for a short visit. We should like to have you take dinner with us on Friday, the twentieth, at half-past seven o'clock, if your time will permit. We hope you can arrange to come as there are many things back home in old Sharon that we are anxious to hear about. Yours very sincerely, Katherine Gerard Evans. Mr. Roger Allen Hotel Gotham New York _Accepting_ Hotel Gotham, September 17, 1920. My dear Mrs. Evans, I shall be very glad to accept your kind invitation to dinner on Friday, September the twentieth, at half-past seven o'clock. The prospect of seeing you and Mr. Evans again is very delightful and I am sure I have several interesting things to tell you. Yours very sincerely, Roger Allen. Mrs. John Evans 500 Park Avenue New York _Regretting_ Hotel Gotham, September 16, 1920. My dear Mrs. Evans, I am sorry to miss the pleasure of accepting your kind invitation to dinner on Friday, September the twentieth. A business engagement compels me to leave New York to-morrow. There are indeed many interesting bits of news, but I shall have to wait for a chat until my next visit. With kindest regards to you both, I am Very sincerely yours, Roger Allen. Mrs. John Evans 500 Park Avenue New York _A last-moment vacancy:_ A last-moment vacancy may occur in a dinner party. To send an invitation to fill such a vacancy is a matter requiring tact, and the recipient should be made to feel that you are asking him to fill in as a special courtesy. Frankly explain the situation in a short note. It might be something like this: 500 Park Avenue, February 16, 1922. My dear Mr. Jarrett, Will you help me out? I am giving a little dinner party to-morrow evening and one of my guests, Harry Talbot, has just told me that on account of a sudden death he cannot be present. It is an awkward situation. If you can possibly come, I shall be very grateful. Cordially yours, Katherine G. Evans. Mr. Harold Jarrett 628 Washington Square South New York _Accepting_ 628 Washington Square South, February 16, 1922. My dear Mrs. Evans, It is indeed a fortunate circumstance for me that Harry Talbot will not be able to attend your dinner. Let me thank you for thinking of me and I shall be delighted to accept. Yours very sincerely, Harold Jarrett. If the recipient of such an invitation cannot accept, he should, in his acknowledgment, give a good reason for declining. It is more considerate to do so. _For an informal luncheon_ An informal luncheon invitation is a short note sent about five to seven days before the affair. 500 Park Avenue, April 30,1922. My dear Mrs. Emerson, Will you come to luncheon on Friday, May the fifth, at half-past one o'clock? The Misses Irving will be here and they want so much to meet you. Cordially yours, Katherine G. Evans. _Accepting_ 911 Sutton Place, May 2, 1922. My dear Mrs. Evans, I shall be very glad to take luncheon with you on Friday, May the fifth, at half-past one o'clock. It will be a great pleasure to meet the Misses Irving. With best wishes, I am Yours sincerely, Grace Emerson. _Regretting_ 911 Sutton Place, May 2, 1922. My dear Mrs. Evans, Thank you for your very kind invitation to luncheon on Friday, May the fifth, but I am compelled, with great regret, to decline it. My mother and aunt are sailing for Europe on Friday and their ship is scheduled to sail at one. I have arranged to see them off. It was good of you to ask me. Very sincerely yours, Grace Emerson. _For an informal tea_ My dear Miss Harcourt, Will you come to tea with me on Tuesday afternoon, April the fourth, at four o'clock? I have asked a few of our friends. Cordially yours, Katherine Gerard Evans. April first Telephone invitations are not good form and may be used only for the most informal occasions. Invitations to the theatre, concert, and garden party, are mostly informal affairs and are sent as brief letters. A garden party is a sort of out-of-doors at home. _To a garden party which is not formal or elaborate_ Locust Lawn, June 29, 1922. My dear Miss Burton, Will you come to tea with me informally on the lawn on Thursday afternoon, July the fourth, at four o'clock? I know you always enjoy tennis and I have asked a few enthusiasts. Do try to come. Cordially yours, Ruth L. Anson. Such an invitation is acknowledged in kind--by an informal note. It may be of interest to read a letter or two from distinguished persons along these lines. Here, for example, is the delightfully informal way in which Thomas Bailey Aldrich invited his friend William H. Rideing to dinner on one occasion:[1] April 6, 1882. Dear Rideing: Will you come and take an informal bite with me to-morrow (Friday) at 6 P. M. at my hamlet, No. 131 Charles Street? Mrs. Aldrich and the twins are away from home, and the thing is to be _sans ceremonie_. Costume prescribed: Sack coat, paper collar, and celluloid sleeve buttons. We shall be quite alone, unless Henry James should drop in, as he promises to do if he gets out of an earlier engagement. Suppose you drop in at my office to-morrow afternoon about 5 o'clock and I act as pilot to Charles Street. Yours very truly, T. B. Aldrich. [1] From "Many Celebrities and a Few Others--A Bundle of Reminiscences," by William H. Rideing. Copyright, 1912, by Doubleday, Page & Co. And one from James Russell Lowell to Henry W. Longfellow:[2] Elmwood, May 3, 1876. Dear Longfellow: Will you dine with me on Saturday at six? I have a Baltimore friend coming, and depend on you. I had such a pleasure yesterday that I should like to share it with you to whom I owed it. J. R. Osgood & Co. sent me a copy of your Household Edition to show me what it was, as they propose one of me. I had been reading over with dismay my own poems to weed out the misprints, and was awfully disheartened to find how bad they (the poems) were. Then I took your book to see what the type was, and before I knew it I had been reading two hours and more. I never wondered at your popularity, nor thought it wicked in you; but if I _had_ wondered, I should no longer, for you sang me out of all my worries. To be sure they came back when I opened my own book again--but that was no fault of yours. If not Saturday, will you say Sunday? My friend is a Mrs. ----, and a very nice person indeed. Yours always, J. R. L. [2] From "Letters of James Russell Lowell," edited by C. E. Norton. Copyright, 1893, by Harper & Bros. George Meredith ("Robin") accepting an informal dinner invitation from his friend, William Hardman ("Tuck"):[3] Jan'y 28, 1863. Dear "at any price" Tuck: I come. Dinner you give me at half-past five, I presume. A note to Foakesden, if earlier. Let us have 5 ms. for a pipe, before we go. You know we are always better tempered when this is the case. I come in full dress. And do the honour to the Duke's motto. I saw my little man off on Monday, after expedition over Bank and Tower. Thence to Pym's, Poultry: oysters consumed by dozings. Thence to Purcell's: great devastation of pastry. Thence to Shoreditch, where Sons calmly said: "Never mind, Papa; it is no use minding it. I shall soon be back to you," and so administered comfort to his forlorn Dad.--My salute to the Conquered One, and I am your loving, hard-druv, much be-bullied Robin. [3] From "The Letters of George Meredith." Copyright, 1912, by Charles Scribner's Sons. By permission of the publishers. _To a theatre_ 347 Madison Avenue, December 8, 1919. My dear Miss Evans, Mr. Smith and I are planning a small party of friends to see "The Mikado" on Thursday evening, December the eighteenth, and we hope that you will be among our guests. We have arranged to meet in the lobby of the Garrick Theatre at quarter after eight o'clock. I do hope you have no other engagement. Very cordially yours, Gertrude Ellison Smith. _Accepting_ My dear Mrs. Smith, I shall be delighted to come to your theatre party on Thursday evening, December the eighteenth. I shall be in the lobby of the Garrick Theatre at a quarter past eight o'clock. It is so kind of you to ask me. Sincerely yours, Ruth Evans. December 12,1919. _Regretting_ My dear Mrs. Smith, With great regret I must write that I shall be unable to join your theatre party on Thursday evening, December the eighteenth. My two cousins are visiting me and we had planned to go to the Hippodrome. I much appreciate your thinking of me. Very sincerely yours, Ruth Evans. For an informal affair, if at all in doubt as to what kind of invitation to issue, it is safe to write a brief note in the first person. Two or more sisters may receive one invitation addressed "The Misses Evans." But two bachelor brothers must receive separate invitations. A whole family should never be included in one invitation. It is decidedly not proper to address one envelope to "Mr. and Mrs. Elliott and family." _To an informal dance_ Invitations to smaller and more informal dances may be short notes. Or a visiting card is sometimes sent with a notation written in ink below the hostess's name and toward the left, as shown below: (A) Mrs. John Evans At Home Dancing at half after nine 500 Park Avenue January the eighteenth R.S.V.P. If the visiting card is used "R.S.V.P." is necessary, because usually invitations on visiting cards do not presuppose answers. The reply to the above may be either formal, in the third person, or may be an informal note. (B) 500 Park Avenue, January 4, 1920. My dear Mrs. Elliott, Will you and Mr. Elliott give us the pleasure of your company on Thursday, January the eighteenth, at ten o'clock? We are planning an informal dance and we should be so glad to have you with us. Cordially yours, Katherine G. Evans. An acknowledgment should be sent within a week. Never acknowledge a visiting-card invitation by a visiting card. An informal note of acceptance or regret is proper. _Accepting_ 347 Madison Avenue, January 10, 1920. My dear Mrs. Evans, Both Mr. Elliott and I shall be delighted to go to your dance on Thursday, January the eighteenth, at ten o'clock. Thank you so much for asking us. Very sincerely yours, Jane S. Elliott. _Regretting_ 347 Madison Avenue, January 10, 1920. My dear Mrs. Evans, Thank you for your kind invitation for Thursday, January the eighteenth; I am so sorry that Mr. Elliott and I shall not be able to accept. Mr. Elliott has been suddenly called out of town and will not be back for two weeks. With most cordial regards, I am Very sincerely yours, Jane S. Elliott. A young girl sends invitations to men in the name of her mother or the person under whose guardianship she is. The invitation would say that her mother, or Mrs. Burton, or whoever it may be, wishes her to extend the invitation. _To a house-party_ An invitation to a house-party, which may imply a visit of several days' duration (a week, ten days, or perhaps two weeks) must state exactly the dates of the beginning and end of the visit. The hostess's letter should mention the most convenient trains, indicating them on a timetable. The guest at a week-end party knows he is to arrive on Friday afternoon or Saturday morning and leave on the following Monday morning. It is thoughtful for the hostess to give an idea of the activities or sports planned. The letter might be somewhat in the following manner: (A) Glory View, August 1, 1922. Dear Miss Evans, Will you be one of our guests at a house-party we are planning? We shall be glad if you can arrange to come out to Glory View on August eighth and stay until the seventeenth. I have asked several of your friends, among them Mary Elliott and her brother. The swimming is wonderful and there is a new float at the Yacht Club. Be sure to bring your tennis racquet and also hiking togs. I enclose a timetable with the best trains marked. If you take the 4:29 on Thursday you can be here in time for dinner. Let me know what train you expect to get and I will have Jones meet you. Most cordially yours, Myra T. Maxwell. _Accepting_ 500 Park Avenue, August 3, 1922. Dear Mrs. Maxwell, Let me thank you and Mr. Maxwell for the invitation to your house-party. I shall be very glad to come. The 4:29 train which you suggest is the most convenient. I am looking forward to seeing you again. Very sincerely yours, Ruth Evans. (B) Hawthorne Hill, January 10, 1920. My dear Anne, We are asking some of Dorothy's friends for this week-end and we should be glad to have you join us. Some of them you already know, and I am sure you will enjoy meeting the others as they are all congenial. Mr. Maxwell has just bought a new flexible flyer and we expect some fine coasting. Be sure to bring your skates. Goldfish Pond is like glass. The best afternoon train on Friday is the 3:12, and the best Saturday morning train is the 9:30. I hope you can come. Very sincerely yours, Myra T. Maxwell. A letter of thanks for hospitality received at a week-end party or a house-party would seem to be obviously necessary. A cordial note should be written to your hostess thanking her for the hospitality received and telling her of your safe arrival home. This sort of letter has come into the title of the "Bread-and-Butter-Letter." 500 Park Avenue, August 18, 1922. Dear Mrs. Maxwell, Having arrived home safely I must tell you how much I appreciate the thoroughly good time I had. I very much enjoyed meeting your charming guests. Let me thank you and Mr. Maxwell most heartily, and with kindest regards I am Sincerely yours, Ruth Evans. _To a christening_ Most christenings are informal affairs. The invitation may run like this: September 8, 1920. My dear Mary, On next Sunday at three o'clock, at St. Michael's Church, the baby will be christened. Philip and I should be pleased to have you there. Sincerely yours, Dorothy Evans Brewster. _To bring a friend_ Often in the case of a dance or an at home we may wish to bring a friend who we think would be enjoyed by the hostess. We might request her permission thus: 600 Riverside Drive, April 25, 1922. My dear Mrs. Dean, May I ask you the favor of bringing with me on Wednesday evening, May the second, my old classmate, Mr. Arthur Price? He is an old friend of mine and I am sure you will like him. If this would not be entirely agreeable to you, please do not hesitate to let me know. Yours very sincerely, Herbert Page. _For a card party_ 500 Park Avenue My dear Mrs. King, Will you and Mr. King join us on Thursday evening next at bridge?[4] We expect to have several tables, and we do hope you can be with us. Cordially yours, Katherine Gerard Evans. March the eighteenth [4] Or whatever the game may be. Sometimes the visiting card is used with the date and the word "Cards" written in the lower corner as in the visiting-card invitation to a dance. This custom is more often used for the more elaborate affairs. _Miscellaneous invitations_ The following are variations of informal party and other invitations: 83 Woodlawn Avenue, November 4, 1921. My dear Alice, I am having a little party on Thursday evening next and I want very much to have you come. If you wish me to arrange for an escort, let me know if you have any preference. Sincerely yours, Helen Westley. 500 Park Avenue, May 12, 1922. My dear Alice, On Saturday next I am giving a small party for my niece, Miss Edith Rice of Albany, and I should like very much to have her meet you. I hope you can come. Very sincerely yours, Katherine G. Evans. THE LETTER OF CONDOLENCE A letter of condolence may be written to relatives, close friends, and to those whom we know well. When the recipient of the condolatory message is simply an acquaintance, it is in better taste to send a visiting card with "sincere sympathy." Flowers may or may not accompany the card. But in any case the letter should not be long, nor should it be crammed with sad quotations and mushy sentiment. Of course, at best, writing a condolence is a nice problem. Do not harrow feelings by too-familiar allusions to the deceased. The letter should be sent immediately upon receiving news of death. When a card is received, the bereaved family acknowledge it a few weeks later with an engraved acknowledgment on a black-bordered card. A condolatory letter may be acknowledged by the recipient or by a relative or friend who wishes to relieve the bereaved one of this task. _Formal acknowledgment engraved on card_ _Mrs. Gordon Burroughs and Family Gratefully acknowledge Your kind expression of sympathy_ The cards, however, may be engraved with a space for the name to be filled in: _____________________________ _Gratefully acknowledge_ _____________________________ _Kind expression of sympathy_ When the letter of condolence is sent from a distance, it is acknowledged by a note from a member of the bereaved family. When the writer of the condolence makes the customary call afterward, the family usually makes a verbal acknowledgment and no written reply is required. _Letters of condolence_ (A) My dear Mrs. Burroughs, May every consolation be given you in your great loss. Kindly accept my deepest sympathy. Sincerely yours, Jane Everett. October 4, 1921 (B) My dear Mrs. Burroughs, It is with the deepest regret that we learn of your bereavement. Please accept our united and heartfelt sympathies. Very sincerely yours, Katherine Gerard Evans. October 5, 1921 (C) My dear Eleanor, May I express my sympathy for you in the loss of your dear mother, even though there can be no words to comfort you? She was so wonderful to all of us that we can share in some small part in your grief. With love, I am Affectionately yours, Ruth Evans. July 8, 1922 (D) My dear Mrs. Burroughs, I am sorely grieved to learn of the death of your husband, for whom I had the greatest admiration and regard. Please accept my heartfelt sympathy. Yours sincerely, Douglas Spencer. October 6, 1921 A letter of condolence that is something of a classic is Abraham Lincoln's famous letter to Mrs. Bixby, the bereaved mother of five sons who died for their country: Washington, November 21, 1864. Dear Madam: I have been shown in the files of the War Department a statement of the Adjutant-General of Massachusetts that you are the mother of five sons who have died gloriously on the field of battle. I feel how weak and fruitless must be any words of mine which should attempt to beguile you from the grief of a loss so overwhelming. But I cannot refrain from tendering to you the consolation that may be found in the thanks of the Republic they died to save. I pray that our Heavenly Father may assuage the anguish of your bereavement, and leave you only the cherished memory of the loved and lost, and the solemn pride that must be yours to have laid so costly a sacrifice upon the altar of freedom. Yours very sincerely and respectfully, Abraham Lincoln. This is the letter[5] that Robert E. Lee, when he was president of Washington College, wrote to the father of a student who was drowned: Washington College, Lexington, Virginia, March 19, 1868. My dear Sir: Before this you have learned of the affecting death of your son. I can say nothing to mitigate your grief or to relieve your sorrow: but if the sincere sympathy of his comrades and friends and of the entire community can bring you any consolation, I can assure you that you possess it in its fullest extent. When one, in the pureness and freshness of youth, before having been contaminated by sin or afflicted by misery, is called to the presence of his Merciful Creator, it must be solely for his good. As difficult as this may be for you now to recognize, I hope you will keep it constantly in your memory and take it to your comfort; pray that He who in His wise Providence has permitted this crushing sorrow may sanctify it to the happiness of all. Your son and his friend, Mr. Birely, often passed their leisure hours in rowing on the river, and, on last Saturday afternoon, the 4th inst., attempted what they had more than once been cautioned against--to approach the foot of the dam, at the public bridge. Unfortunately, their boat was caught by the return-current, struck by the falling water, and was immediately upset. Their perilous position was at once seen from the shore, and aid was hurried to their relief, but before it could reach them both had perished. Efforts to restore your son's life, though long continued, were unavailing. Mr. Birely's body was not found until next morning. Their remains were, yesterday, Sunday, conveyed to the Episcopal church in this city, where the sacred ceremonies for the dead were performed by the Reverend Dr. Pendleton, who nineteen years ago, at the far-off home of their infancy, placed upon them their baptismal vows. After the service a long procession of the professors and students of the college, the officers and cadets of the Virginia Military Academy, and the citizens of Lexington accompanied their bodies to the packetboat for Lynchburg, where they were placed in charge of Messrs. Wheeler & Baker to convey them to Frederick City. With great regard and sincere sympathy, I am, Most respectfully, R. E. Lee. [5] From "Recollections and Letters of General Robert E. Lee," by Capt. Robert E. Lee. Copyright, 1904, by Doubleday, Page & Co. LETTERS OF SYMPATHY IN CASE OF ILLNESS When President Alderman, of the University of Virginia, was forced to take a long rest in the mountains in 1912 because of incipient tuberculosis, the late Walter H. Page, at the time editor of the _World's Work_, wrote the following tenderly beautiful letter of sympathy to Mrs. Alderman: Cathedral Avenue, Garden City, L. I., December 9, 1912. My dear Mrs. Alderman: In Raleigh the other day I heard a rumor of the sad news that your letter brings, which I have just received on my return from a week's absence. I had been hoping that it was merely a rumor. The first impression I have is thankfulness that it had been discovered so soon and that you have acted so promptly. On this I build a great hope. But underlying every thought and emotion is the sadness of it--that it should have happened to _him_, now when he has done that prodigious task and borne that hard strain and was come within sight of a time when, after a period of more normal activity, he would in a few years have got the period of rest that he has won.--But these will all come yet; for I have never read a braver thing than your letter. That bravery on your part and his, together with the knowledge the doctors now have, will surely make his recovery certain and, I hope, not long delayed. If he keep on as well as he has begun, you will, I hope, presently feel as if you were taking a vacation. Forget that it is enforced. There comes to my mind as I write man after man in my acquaintance who have successfully gone through this experience and without serious permanent hurt. Some of them live here. More of them live in North Carolina or Colorado as a precaution. I saw a few years ago a town most of whose population of several thousand persons are recovered and active, after such an experience. The disease has surely been robbed of much of its former terror. Your own courage and cheerfulness, with his own, are the best physic in the world. Add to these the continuous and sincere interest that his thousands of friends feel--these to keep your courage up, if it should ever flag a moment--and we shall all soon have the delight to see and to hear him again--his old self, endeared, if that be possible, by this experience. And I pray you, help me (for I am singularly helpless without suggestions from you) to be of some little service--of any service that I can. Would he like letters from me? I have plenty of time and an eagerness to write them, if they would really divert or please him. Books? What does he care most to read? I can, of course, find anything in New York. A visit some time? It would be a very real pleasure to me. You will add to my happiness greatly if you will frankly enable me to add even the least to his. And now and always give him my love. That is precisely the word I mean; for, you know, I have known Mr. Alderman since he was graduated, and I have known few men better or cared for them more. And I cannot thank you earnestly enough for your letter; and I shall hope to have word from you often--if (when you feel indisposed to write more) only a few lines. How can I serve? Command me without a moment's hesitation. Most sincerely yours, Walter H. Page. To Mrs. Edwin A. Alderman. Joaquin Miller wrote the following letter to Walt Whitman on receiving news that the latter was ill: Revere House, Boston, May 27, '75. My dear Walt Whitman:[6] Your kind letter is received and the sad news of your ill health makes this pleasant weather even seem tiresome and out of place. I had hoped to find you the same hale and whole man I had met in New York a few years ago and now I shall perhaps find you bearing a staff all full of pain and trouble. However my dear friend as you have sung from _within_ and not from _without_ I am sure you will be able to bear whatever comes with that beautiful faith and philosophy you have ever given us in your great and immortal chants. I am coming to see you very soon as you request; but I cannot say to-day or set to-morrow for I am in the midst of work and am not altogether my own master. But I will come and we will talk it all over together. In the meantime, remember that whatever befall you you have the perfect love and sympathy of many if not all of the noblest and loftiest natures of the two hemispheres. My dear friend and fellow toiler good by. Yours faithfully, Joaquin Miller. [6] From "With Walt Whitman in Camden," by Horace Traubel. Copyright, 1905, 1906, by Doubleday, Page & Co. When Theodore Roosevelt was ill in hospital, Lawrence Abbott wrote him this letter:[7] Please accept this word of sympathy and best wishes. Some years ago I had a severe attack of sciatica which kept me in bed a good many days: in fact, it kept me in an armchair night and day some of the time because I could not lie down, so I know what the discomfort and pain are. I want to take this opportunity also of sending you my congratulations. For I think your leadership has had very much to do with the unconditional surrender of Germany. Last Friday night I was asked to speak at the Men's Club of the Church of the Messiah in this city and they requested me to make you the subject of my talk. I told them something about your experience in Egypt and Europe in 1910 and said what I most strongly believe, that your address at the Sorbonne--in strengthening the supporters of law and order against red Bolshevism--and your address in Guildhall--urging the British to govern or go--contributed directly to the success of those two governments in this war. If Great Britain had allowed Egypt to get out of hand instead of, as an actual result of your Guildhall speech, sending Kitchener to strengthen the feebleness of Sir Eldon Gorst, the Turks and Germans might have succeeded in their invasion and have cut off the Suez Canal. So you laid the ground for preparedness not only in this country but in France and England. I know it was a disappointment to you not to have an actual share in the fighting but I think you did a greater piece of work in preparing the battleground and the battle spirit. [7] From "Impressions of Theodore Roosevelt," by Lawrence F. Abbott Copyright, 1919, by Doubleday, Page & Co. In reply Mr. Roosevelt sent Mr. Abbott this note: That's a dear letter of yours, Lawrence. I thank you for it and I appreciate it to the full. _Acknowledgments_ (A) My dear Mr. Spencer, I am grateful to you for your comforting letter. Thank you for your sympathy. Sincerely yours, Mary Cole Burroughs. October 26, 1921. (B) My dear Mrs. Evans, Let me thank you in behalf of myself and my family for your sympathy. Do not measure our appreciation by the length of time it has taken me to reply. We appreciated your letter deeply. Sincerely yours, Mary Cole Burroughs. October 26, 1921. (C) My dear Arthur, I want to thank you for your sympathetic letter received in our bereavement. Sincerely yours, Mary Cole Burroughs. October 26, 1921. (D) Dear Mr. Treadwell, Thank you very much for your sympathy. Your offer to be of service to me at this time I greatly appreciate, but I shall not need to trouble you, although it is comforting to know that I may call on you. I shall never forget your kindness. Sincerely yours, Mary Cole Burroughs. October 24, 1921. This is the note[8] that Thomas Bailey Aldrich wrote to his friend William H. Rideing upon receiving from the latter a note of condolence: Dear Rideing: I knew that you would be sorry for us. I did not need your sympathetic note to tell me that. Our dear boy's death has given to three hearts--his mother's, his brother's and mine--a wound that will never heal. I cannot write about it. My wife sends her warm remembrance with mine to you both. Ever faithfully your friend, T. B. Aldrich. [8] From "Many Celebrities and a Few Others--A Bundle of Reminiscences," by William H. Rideing. Copyright, 1912, by Doubleday, Page & Co. LETTERS OF CONGRATULATION The letter of congratulation must be natural, not stilted, and must be sincere. In congratulating a new acquaintance on a marriage it is not necessary to send more than the visiting card with "heartiest congratulations." To a bride and groom together a telegram of congratulation may be sent on the day of the wedding, as soon as possible after the ceremony. To a bride one does not send congratulations, but "the best of good wishes." The congratulations are for the groom. The following letters will serve as examples for congratulatory letters for different occasions: _On a birthday_ 500 Park Avenue, February 6, 1923. My dear Mrs. Elliott, Congratulations on your birthday! I hope that all your years to come will be as happy and as helpful to others as those past. I am sending you a little gift as a token of appreciation for your kindness to me, which I hope you will enjoy. Most sincerely yours, Katherine G. Evans. _From a gentlemen to a young lady on her birthday_ 500 Park Avenue, April 13, 1922. My dear Miss Judson, May I send you my congratulations on this your birthday? I am sending a little token of my best wishes for you for many years to come. Yours sincerely, Richard Evans. _On a wedding day anniversary_ 500 Park Avenue, June 1, 1923. My dear Charlotte and George, Please accept my heartiest good wishes on this, the fifteenth anniversary of your marriage. May the years to come bring every blessing to you both. Sincerely yours, Katherine Gerard Evans. (B) 500 Park Avenue, December 4, 1922. My dear Mrs. Smith, Congratulations on this the twentieth anniversary of your wedding. Our heartiest wishes to you both from Mr. Evans and me. Yours very sincerely, Katherine Gerard Evans. _On the birth of a child_ 788 East 46th St., August 11, 1923. My dear Dorothy, Congratulations upon the birth of your daughter. May the good fairies shower upon her the gifts of goodness, wisdom, and beauty. Very sincerely yours, Charlotte B. Trent. _On a graduation_ 500 Park Avenue, June 30, 1923. My dear John, It is with great pleasure that I hear of your graduation this year. It is a fine thing to have so successfully finished your college course. May I send my heartiest congratulations? Sincerely yours, Ruth Evans. _On an engagement_ In writing to a girl or a man on the occasion of an engagement to be married there is no general rule if one knows the man or woman. One may write as one wishes. If a stranger is to be received into the family, one writes a kindly letter. 28 Odell Avenue, April 3, 1923. My dear Haines, Let me be among the first to congratulate you on your engagement to Miss Bruce. I have not met her but I know that to reach your high ideals she must indeed be a wonderful girl. I hope I may soon have the pleasure of meeting her. Sincerely yours, Charles Lawson. 500 Park Avenue, May 14, 1923. My dear Miss Bruce, My nephew has told me his great news. I am much pleased to hear that you are soon to come into the family, because I know that the girl of Edward's choice must be sweet and charming. I hope that you will learn to love us for our own sake as well as for Edward's. Sincerely yours, Katherine G. Evans. 500 Park Avenue, September 18, 1923. Dear Helen, The announcement of your engagement to Robert Haines is a delightful surprise. He is, as we all know, a splendid chap. I am so happy that this great happiness has come to you. I hope that I may hear all about it, and with best wishes to you both, I am Affectionately yours, Ruth Evans. On the subject of engagements, perhaps the following letter from Charles Lamb to Fanny Kelly, and her reply, will be of interest--though the unarduous and somewhat prosaic tone of Elia's proposal of marriage--beautifully expressed as it is--is hardly to be recommended as a model calculated to bring about the desired result! Dear Miss Kelly: We had the pleasure, _pain_ I might better call it, of seeing you last night in the new play. It was a most consummate piece of acting, but what a task for you to undergo! At a time when your heart is sore from real sorrow it has given rise to a train of thinking, which I cannot suppress. Would to God you were released from this way of life; that you could bring your mind to consent to take your lot with us, and throw off forever the whole burden of your profession. I neither expect nor wish you to take notice of this which I am writing, in your present over occupied and hurried state--but to think of it at your leisure. I have quite income enough, if that were all, to justify for me making such a proposal, with what I may call even a handsome provision for my survivor. What you possess of your own would naturally be appropriated to those, for whose sakes chiefly you have made so many hard sacrifices. I am not so foolish as not to know that I am a most unworthy match for such a one as you, but you have for years been a principal object in my mind. In many a sweet assumed character I have learned to love you, but simply as F. M. Kelly I love you better than them all. Can you quit these shadows of existence, and come and be a reality to us? Can you leave off harassing yourself to please a thankless multitude, who know nothing of you, and begin at last to live to yourself and your friends? As plainly and frankly as I have seen you give or refuse assent in some feigned scene, so frankly do me the justice to answer me. It is impossible I should feel injured or aggrieved by your telling me at once, that the proposal does not suit you. It is impossible that I should ever think of molesting you with idle importunity and prosecution after your mind [is] once firmly spoken--but happier, far happier, could I have leave to hope a time might come, when our friends might be your friends; our interests yours; our book knowledge, if in that inconsiderable particular we have any like advantage, might impart something to you, which you would every day have it in your power ten thousand fold to repay by the added cheerfulness and joy which you could not fail to bring as a dowry into whatever family should have the honor and happiness of receiving _you_, the most welcome accession that could be made to it. In haste, but with entire respect and deepest affection, I subscribe myself C. Lamb. To this letter Miss Kelly replied: Henrietta Street, July 20, 1819. An early and deeply rooted attachment has fixed my heart on one from whom no worldly prospect can well induce me to withdraw it, but while I thus _frankly_ and decidedly decline your proposal, believe me, I am not insensible to the high honour which the preference of such a mind as yours confers upon me--let me, however, hope that all thought upon this subject will end with this letter, and that you will henceforth encourage no other sentiment towards me than esteem in my private character and a continuance of that approbation of my humble talents which you have already expressed so much and so often to my advantage and gratification. Believe me I feel proud to acknowledge myself Your obliged friend, F. M. Kelly. To C. Lamb, Esq. LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION Letters of introduction should not be given indiscriminately. If the giver of the letter feels that something of benefit may come to both of the persons concerned, then there is no doubt about the advisability of it. But a letter of introduction should not be given to get rid of the person who asks for it. It is not good form to ask for one. If it is really necessary to have one and the friend to be requested knows that you need it, he will probably give you the letter unsolicited. A letter of introduction should not be sealed by the person giving it. It is written in social form and placed in an unsealed envelope addressed to the person to whom the introduction is made. If the letter is a friendly letter, it is enclosed in an additional envelope by the person who requested the letter, sealed, and with his card on which appears his city address, sent to the person addressed. The person addressed, upon the receipt of the letter, calls within three days upon the person who is introduced. It has been customary to deliver a business letter of introduction in person, but on consideration, it would seem that this is not the wisest course. The letters of introduction most in demand are those to very busy men--men of affairs. If one calls personally at the office of such a man, the chance of seeing him on the occasion of presenting the letter is slight. And, as has often been proved in practice, a telephone call to arrange an appointment seldom gets through. The best plan seems to be to mail the letter with a short note explaining the circumstances under which it was written. Sometimes (more often in business) an introduction is made by a visiting card with "Introducing Mr. Halliday" written at the top. This method may be used with a person with whom we are not well acquainted. This introductory card is usually presented in person, but what has been said concerning the letter applies here also. Matters of a personal or private nature should not appear in letters of introduction. (A) New York, N. Y., June 8, 1922. Dear Dick, The bearer of this note, Mr. Donald Ritchie of Boston, expects to be in your town for six months or so. He is an old friend of mine--in fact, I knew him at College--and I think you would like him. He is going to Black Rock in the interest of the Sedgwick Cement Company. He knows nobody in Black Rock, and anything you can do to make his stay pleasant, I shall greatly appreciate. Cordially yours, John Hope. (B) Canajoharie, New York, June 8, 1922. My dear Mrs. Evans, This will introduce to you Miss Caroline Wagner who is the daughter of one of my oldest friends. She will be in New York this winter to continue her music studies. She is a girl of charming personality and has many accomplishments. I am sure you will enjoy her company. She is a stranger in New York and any courtesy you may extend to her I shall be deeply grateful for. Very sincerely yours, Edna Hamilton Miller. Mrs. John Evans 500 Park Avenue New York, N. Y. (C) 8 Beacon Street, Boston, Mass., March 17, 1922. My dear Brent, The bearer, William Jones, is a young acquaintance of mine who is going to live in Cleveland. If there is anything you can do without too much trouble to yourself in recommending a place to board, or assisting him to a situation, I shall be grateful. He has good habits, and if he gets a foothold I am sure he will make good. Yours sincerely, Robert T. Hill. Another letter, already immortal as a literary gem, is Benjamin Franklin's "Model of a Letter of Recommendation of a Person You Are Unacquainted With": Sir, The bearer of this, who is going to America, presses me to give him a letter of recommendation, though I know nothing of him, not even his name. This may seem extraordinary, but I assure you it is not uncommon here. Sometimes, indeed, one unknown person brings another equally unknown, to recommend him; and sometimes they recommend one another! As to this gentleman, I must refer you to himself for his character and merits, with which he is certainly better acquainted than I can possibly be. I recommend him, however, to those civilities, which every stranger, of whom one knows no harm, has a right to; and I request you will do him all the good offices, and show him all the favor, that, on further acquaintance, you shall find him to deserve. I have the honor to be, etc. LETTERS OF THANKS _For a wedding gift_ The letter of thanks for a wedding gift must be sent as soon as possible after the receipt of the gift. The bride herself must write it. When the wedding is hurried or when gifts arrive at the last moment, the bride is not required to acknowledge them until after the honeymoon. In all cases the gift is acknowledged both for herself and her husband-elect or husband. (A) 898 East 53rd Street May 5, 1922. My dear Mrs. Elliott, The bouillon spoons are exquisite. It was simply lovely of you to send us such a beautiful gift. Leonard wishes to express with me our deepest appreciation. With all good wishes, I am Sincerely yours, Dorothy Evans Duncan. (B) 898 East 53rd Street May 8, 1922. My dear Mrs. Callender, This is the first opportunity I have had to thank you for your wonderful gift. But, as you know, our arrangements were changed at the last moment and many of our wedding gifts we did not have time to open before going away. So we hope you will forgive us for the delay. We are now back in town established in our new home and I want you to know how appropriate are those exquisite candlesticks. Mr. Duncan and I are both deeply grateful for your thought of us. Yours most sincerely, Dorothy Evans Duncan. _For a Christmas gift_ 134 Bolton Place December 28, 1923. My dear Alice, Your handsome Christmas gift is something I have wanted for a long time, but never could get for myself. The bag and its beautiful fittings are much admired. I send my warmest thanks for your thoughtfulness in selecting it. Very sincerely yours, Mary Scott. _For a gift received by a girl from a man_ 400 Ellsworth Place April 14, 1922. My dear Mr. Everett, Thank you for your good wishes and for your lovely gift in remembrance of my birthday. It is a charming book and one which I am very anxious to read. It was most kind of you to think of me. Sincerely yours, Katherine Judson. _For a gift to a child_ 798 East 38th Street, December 31, 1923. My dear Mr. Basset, Your wonderful Christmas gift to Barbara came this morning. She is wholly captivated with her beautiful doll and I am sure would thank you for it if she could talk. Let me thank you for your kindness in remembering her. Cordially yours, Dorothy Evans Brewster. _For a gift to another_ 49 Maxwell Avenue, Bayview, Long Island, July 15, 1923. My dear Mr. Haines, I appreciate very much the exquisite flowers which you so kindly sent to Mrs. Evans. She is rapidly improving and will soon be about again. We send our warmest thanks. Very sincerely yours, John Evans. _For favor shown to another_ 500 Park Avenue, November 25, 1922. My dear Mrs. Howard, You were very kind indeed in entertaining my cousin, Mrs. Douglas, during her stay in your city. I am exceedingly grateful and I hope to find some way of reciprocating. Very sincerely yours, Katherine G. Evans. Following are actual letters of thanks written by distinguished persons. Here is one[9] from George Meredith to Lady Granby, acknowledging the receipt of a reproduction of a portrait by her of Lady Marjorie Manners: Box Hill, Dorking, Dec. 26, 1899. Dear Lady Granby: It is a noble gift, and bears the charms to make it a constant pleasure with me. I could have wished for the full face of your daughter, giving eyes and the wild sweep of hair, as of a rivule issuing from under low eaves of the woods--so I remember her. You have doubtless other sketches of a maid predestined to be heroine. I could take her for one. All the women and children are heaven's own, and human still, and individual too. Behold me, your most grateful George Meredith. [9] From "Letters of George Meredith." Copyright, 1912, by Chas. Scribner's Sons. By permission of the publishers. From Lord Alfred Tennyson to Walt Whitman:[10] Farringford, Freshwater, Isle of Wight, Jan'y 15th, 1887. Dear old man: I the elder old man have received your Article in the _Critic_, and send you in return my thanks and New Year's greeting on the wings of this east-wind, which, I trust, is blowing softlier and warmlier on your good gray head than here, where it is rocking the elms and ilexes of my Isle of Wight garden. Yours always, Tennyson. [10] This and the following four letters are from "With Walt Whitman in Camden," by Horace Traubel. Copyright, 1905, 1906, 1912, 1914, by Doubleday, Page & Co. From Ellen Terry to Walt Whitman: Grand Pacific Hotel, Chicago, January 4th, '88. Honored Sir--and Dear Poet: I beg you to accept my appreciative thanks for your great kindness in sending me by Mr. Stoker the little _big_ book of poems--As a Strong Bird, etc., etc. Since I am not personally known to you I conclude Mr. Stoker "asked" for me--it was good of him--I know he loves you very much. God bless you, dear sir--believe me to be with much respect Yours affectionately, Ellen Terry. From Moncure Conway to Walt Whitman: Hardwicke Cottage, Wimbledon Common, London, S. W., Sept. 10, '67. My dear friend: It gave me much pleasure to hear from you; now I am quite full of gratitude for the photograph--a grand one--the present of all others desirable to me. The copy suitable for an edition here should we be able to reach to that I have and shall keep carefully. When it is achieved it will probably be the result and fruit of more reviewing and discussion. I shall keep my eyes wide open; and the volume with O'C.'s introduction shall come out just as it is: I am not sure but that it will in the end have to be done at our own expense--which I believe would be repaid. It is the kind of book that if it can once get out here will sell. The English groan for something better than the perpetual réchauffé of their literature. I have not been in London for some little time and have not yet had time to consult others about the matter. I shall be able to write you more satisfactorily a little later. I hear that you have written something in _The Galaxy_. Pray tell O'Connor I shall look to him to send me such things. I can't take all American magazines; but if you intend to write for _The Galaxy_ regularly I shall take that. With much friendship for you and O'Connor and his wife, I am yours, Moncure Conway. From John Addington Symonds to Walt Whitman: Clifton Hill House, Bristol, July 12, 1877. Dear Mr. Whitman: I was away from England when your welcome volumes reached me, and since my return (during the last six weeks) I have been very ill with an attack of hemorrhage from the lung--brought on while I was riding a pulling horse at a time when I was weak from cold. This must account for my delay in writing to thank you for them and to express the great pleasure which your inscription in two of the volumes has given me. I intend to put into my envelope a letter to you with some verses from one of your great admirers in England. It is my nephew--the second son of my sister. I gave him a copy of _Leaves of Grass_ in 1874, and he knows a great portion of it now by heart. Though still so young, he has developed a considerable faculty for writing and is an enthusiastic student of literature as well as a frank vigorous lively young fellow. I thought you might like to see how some of the youth of England is being drawn towards you. Believe me always sincerely and affectionately yours. J. A. Symonds. From Edward Everett Hale to Dr. Lyman Abbott:[11] Jan. 29, 1900, Roxbury, Monday morning. Dear Dr. Abbott: I shall stay at home this morning--so I shall not see you. All the same I want to thank you again for the four sermons: and to say that I am sure they will work lasting good for the congregation. More than this. I think you ought to think that such an opportunity to go from church to church and city to city--gives you a certain opportunity and honour--which even in Plymouth Pulpit a man does not have--and to congregations such a turning over the new leaf means a great deal. Did you ever deliver the Lectures on Preaching at New Haven? With Love always, Always yours, E. E. Hale. [11] From "Silhouettes of My Contemporaries," by Lyman Abbott. Copyright, 1921, by Doubleday, Page & Co. From Friedrich Nietzsche to Karl Fuchs:[12] Sils-Maria, Oberengadine, Switzerland, June 30, 1888. My dear Friend: How strange! How strange! As soon as I was able to transfer myself to a cooler clime (for in Turin the thermometer stood at 31 day after day) I intended to write you a nice letter of thanks. A pious intention, wasn't it? But who could have guessed that I was not only going back to a cooler clime, but into the _most ghastly_ weather, weather that threatened to shatter my health! Winter and summer in senseless alternation; twenty-six avalanches in the thaw; and now we have just had eight days of rain with the sky almost always grey--this is enough to account for my profound nervous exhaustion, together with the return of my old ailments. I don't think I can ever remember having had worse weather, and this in my Sils-Maria, whither I always fly in order to escape bad weather. Is it to be wondered at that even the parson here is acquiring the habit of swearing? From time to time in conversation his speech halts, and then he always swallows a curse. A few days ago, just as he was coming out of the snow-covered church, he thrashed his dog and exclaimed: "The confounded cur spoiled the whole of my sermon!"... Yours in gratitude and devotion, Nietzsche. [12] From "Selected Letters of Friedrich Nietzsche," edited by Oscar Levy. Copyright, 1921, by Doubleday, Page & Co. In making a donation of £100,000 for branch libraries in the city of Glasgow, this is the letter[13] that Andrew Carnegie sent to the Lord Provost of the city council: My dear Lord Provost: It will give me pleasure to provide the needed £100,000 for Branch Libraries, which are sure to prove of great advantage to the masses of the people. It is just fifty years since my parents with their little boys sailed from Broomielaw for New York in the barque _Wiscassett_, 900 tons, and it is delightful to be permitted to commemorate the event upon my visit to you. Glasgow has done so much in municipal affairs to educate other cities, and to help herself, that it is a privilege to help her. Let Glasgow flourish! So say all of us Scotsmen throughout the World. Always yours, Andrew Carnegie. [13] From "Andrew Carnegie, the Man and His Work," by Bernard Alderson. Copyright, 1902, by Doubleday, Page & Co. LETTERS BETWEEN FRIENDS Dear Grace, Your 'phone call surely caught me napping; but after an hour or so of effort I did recall just how Sato mixed the shrimps and carrots in the dish which you so much enjoyed. First, catch your shrimp! When they have been cleaned and prepared as for a salad, place on ice and _in_ ice, if possible. Grate the carrots on the coarse side of the grater, placing immediately on the salad plates, which of course have already been garnished with lettuce leaves. Then add just a fine sprinkling of chopped apples (I find this the best substitute for alligator pears) and then the shrimps. Pour over this the mayonnaise and serve at once. I do not know what he called it and could not spell it if I did, but you are at liberty to call it anything you like. At all events, I am sure the crowd will agree it is a little different, and I am glad to have been able to give the idea. Cordially yours, Ruth Wilson. July 14, 1921 My dear Mrs. Sampson, I am so glad to know that you have completely recovered from your recent illness. I trust you will soon be able to resume your wonted activities. We all have missed you--at bridge and tennis particularly. Sincerely yours, Mary E. Wells. July 18, 1923 My dear Mr. Baines, I have just heard of your success in getting your book published. I have always had a great admiration for you and your work, and I am sending this little note to assure you of my regard, and to wish you still further successes. Yours very sincerely, Madeleine Strickland. March 10, 1923 My dear Miss Gwynne, I am very sorry that I was out when you called. I hope you will come again soon for I do so much want to see you. Sincerely yours, Katherine G. Evans. February 16, 1923 It may be of passing interest to read a letter or two from distinguished persons to their boyhood friends. Here is one[14] from the late John Burroughs: Esopus, N. Y., June 1, 1883. Dear Tom Brown: I have been a-fishing or I should have answered your letter before. I always go a-fishing about this time of year, after speckled trout, and I always catch some, too. But dog-fighting I have nothing to do with, unless it be to help some little dog whip some saucy big cur. Game birds are all right in their season, but I seldom hunt them. Yet this is about the best way to study them. You want to know how I felt as a boy. Very much as I do now, only more so. I loved fishing, and tramping, and swimming more than I do these late years. But I had not so tender a heart. I was not so merciful to the birds and animals as I am now. Much of what I have put in my books was gathered while a boy on the farm. I am interested in what you tell me of your Band of Mercy, and should like much to see you all, and all the autographs in that pink covered book. Well, youth is the time to cultivate habits of mercy, and all other good habits. The bees will soon be storing their clover honey, and I trust you boys and girls are laying away that which will by and by prove choicest possessions. Sincerely your friend, John Burroughs. [14] From "John Burroughs, Boy and Man," by Dr. Clara Barrus. Copyright, 1920, by Doubleday, Page & Co. The following letter[15] was written when J. J. Hill--perhaps the greatest railroading genius America has ever produced--was twenty years of age. It is one of the few letters written by him at this time of his life that have been preserved: Saint Paul, February 11, 1858. Dear William: Your epistle bearing date of seventeenth ult. came to hand on good time and your fertile imagination can scarcely conceive what an amount of pleasure I derived from it, as it was the first epistle of William to James at St. Paul for a "long back." My surprise at receiving your letter was only surpassed by my surprise at not receiving one from you after you left St. Paul, or sometime during the ensuing season. Still, a good thing is never too late or "done too often." It gave me much pleasure to hear that you were all well and enjoying yourselves in the good and pious (as I learn) little town of Rockwood. I did intend to go to Canada this winter, but it is such a long winter trip I thought I should defer it until summer, when I hope to be able to get away, as I intend to go on the river this summer if all goes as well as I expect. Capt. W. F. Davidson wrote me from Cincinnati about going with him as first clerk on the side-wheel packet _Frank Steele_, a new boat about the size of the _War Eagle_. The Captain is Letter A, No. 1, and I think I shall go with him. If not, I have two or three good offers for coming season on the levee, besides my present berth, which is nevertheless very comfortable. I think it mighty strange that some (of my letters) have not reached home as I wrote several times to my brother Alex. and I never was more surprised in my life than when old Bass handed me a letter of inquiry as to my whereabouts. But after the boats stop running our mails are carried so irregularly that whole bags of mail matter are often mislaid at way stations for weeks and some finally lost or otherwise destroyed. On the tenth of November last I was returning from the Winslow House with Charley Coffin, Clerk of the _War Eagle_, about eleven o'clock, and when we were coming down Fourth Street passing one of those rum holes, two Irishmen, red mouths, came out and, following us, asked us if we would not go back and take a drink. Charley said "no," and we were passing on when two more met us who, along with the other two, insisted that they meant no harm and that we should go in and drink. I told them that I did not drink and that, generally speaking, I knew what I was about. We attempted to go on, but they tried to have us go back, so I hauled off and planted one, two in Paddie's grub grinder, and knocked him off the sidewalk about eight feet. The remainder pitched in and Charley got his arm cut open and I got a button hole cut through my left side right below the ribs. The city police came to the noise and arrested three of them on the spot and the other next day and they turned out to be Chicago Star Cleaners, a name given to midnight ruffians. I was not compelled to keep my bed, but it was some two months before I was quite recovered from the effects of the cut. One day on the levee I was going aboard one of the boats and slipped on the gang plank and sprained my knee, which laid me up for about two weeks. About a week ago my pugnacious friend who gave me his mark escaped from the penitentiary at Stillwater, along with all the rest of the prisoners confined at the time. I am sincerely very grateful to you for your generous offer in your letter and fully appreciate your kindness. But notwithstanding my bad luck I have still "a shot in the locker," about $200, which will put me out of any trouble until spring. Our winter here has been very mild and open. We have scarcely had any snow, but what was altogether unprecedented, rain storms lasting three or four days in succession. Times have been mighty dull here this winter and money scarce. Write to me as soon as you receive this and give me a bird's eye view of Rockwood and its inhabitants. Believe me Yours sincerely, J. J. Hill. Send me some papers. [15] From "The Life of James J. Hill," by Joseph Gilpin Pyle. Copyright, 1916, 1917, by Doubleday, Page & Co. CHAPTER VI PERSONAL BUSINESS LETTERS One does not have to be in business in order to write "business letters." A thousand personal affairs crop up which require letters of a commercial rather than a social nature. There is only one rule--say what you have to say clearly and quickly. Although the letter should be written on the ordinary social stationery and follow the placing and spacing of the social letter, no time should be wasted in trying to make the letter appear friendly and chatty. The clerks in business houses who usually attend to the mail seem to be picked for their obtuseness, and do not often understand a letter which is phrased in other than commonplace terms. Once I overheard a conversation between an Italian shoemaker and a Boston woman over the repairing of a pair of shoes. The woman wanted the soles fastened on with nails. The only word she knew for that operation was "tapped." The only word the shoemaker knew was "nailed." They were absolutely at a deadlock until the shoemaker, knowing that the woman did not want the soles sewed on, proceeded to demonstrate with hammer and nail just what he meant by "nailed." It is well to remember that motion pictures do not accompany letters and hence to take for granted that if a way exists for getting what you mean wrong that way will be found. It is unfortunately safe to take for granted that a personal business letter is going to be read by a moron. _Ordering goods from a department store_ 500 Park Avenue, April 3, 1922. L. Burton & Company, Fifth Ave. & 39th St., New York Gentlemen: Please send me as soon as possible and charge to my account the following goods: 1 doz. hemstitched huck towels, large size, from $12.00 to $15.00 a dozen 2 pairs infants' laced shoes, sizes 4 D and 4-1/2 D. One pair to be returned as I am not certain of the correct size. 3 pairs children's rompers, size 2 years, band knee, 1 all white, 1 white with blue collar, 1 white with pink collar. Very truly yours, Katherine G. Evans (Mrs. John Evans) _To correct an error_ 500 Park Avenue, April 3, 1922. Caldwell Sons Co., 8941 Fifth Avenue, New York, N. Y. Gentlemen: May I call your attention to my account rendered on April 1st? There would seem to be two errors, as follows: Under date of March 18th I am charged with four pairs of silk stockings at $3.50 a pair, although I purchased only three pairs. On March 22nd I am credited with one pair of children's shoes at $5.00. I had two pairs sent on approval, but returned both of them as neither pair fitted. I enclose my check in the sum of $148.96 which is the total less the overcharge. To assist in the adjustment I also enclose the original slip for the stockings and the driver's call receipt for the two pairs of shoes.[16] Very truly yours, Katherine G. Evans. (Mrs. John Evans) [16] Or instead of enclosing these slips it is often better to mention the numbers that appear on them and to retain the slips themselves. _Letter to department store requesting charge account_ 1018 South Elm Street, Chicago, Ill., May 3, 1922. Marshall Field & Co., Chicago, Ill. Gentlemen: I have recently come to live in Chicago and I should like to open a charge account with you. My present accounts are all in New York and I can give you the following references: Lord & Taylor Tiffany & Co. Abercrombie & Fitch Co. J. & J. Slater Lincoln Trust Co. Very truly yours, Alberta T. White. (Mrs. James White) _Asking for estimate for draperies and furnishings_ 500 Park Avenue, May 16, 1922. Forsythe & White, 438 Fifth Avenue, New York, N. Y. Gentlemen: Will you send me an approximate estimate of the cost of materials and labor necessary for the doing of the following work: Slip covers with valances of English hand-blocked linen for two large wing chairs and one chaise-longue. Two reversible portières of the linen for doorways 11 feet high and 8 feet wide. Three pairs curtains for casement windows 6 feet high and 5 feet wide, with pleated valance. These curtains to be of habutai silk. Of course I shall understand that this is purely an approximate estimate. I should like to have this as soon as you can conveniently send it. Very truly yours, Katherine G. Evans. (Mrs. John Evans) _Declining to have work done as estimated_ 500 Park Avenue, May 23, 1922. Forsythe & White, 438 Fifth Avenue, New York, N. Y. Gentlemen: Thank you for your letter of 19th May in answer to mine of the 16th, requesting an estimate for slip covers and curtains. Your estimate calls for more outlay than I should care to make at the present time, so I shall have to postpone the matter until next year. Very truly yours, Katherine G. Evans. (Mrs. John Evans) _Recommendation for a servant_ June 14, 1922. This is to certify that Katrina Hellman has been in my employ as assistant nurse for one year. During that period I have found her honest, capable, and reliable. I can give her an unqualified recommendation. K. G. Evans. (Mrs. John Evans) _For information concerning a servant_ 5300 Deming Place Chicago, Ill., May 9, 1922. Mrs. John Evans, 500 Park Avenue, New York. Dear Madam: I hope you will pardon me, but I should be very much indebted to you for any facts concerning Gaston Duval, who has been in your employ as chauffeur. If you will give me this information I shall treat it as confidential. Yours very truly, Cecelia B. Duke. (Mrs. Samuel Duke) _Answers to request for information concerning a servant_ 500 Park Avenue, New York City, May 13, 1922. Mrs. Samuel Duke, 5300 Deming Place, Chicago, Ill. Dear Madam: I have your inquiry of May the ninth concerning my former chauffeur, Gaston Duval. I am very glad to recommend him. He is sober and honest, and I always found him thoroughly dependable during his fifteen months in my employ. He drives well and is an expert mechanician. Yours very truly, K. G. Evans, (Mrs. John Evans) 500 Park Avenue, New York, N. Y., May 13, 1922. Mrs. Samuel Duke, 5300 Deming Place, Chicago, Ill. Dear Madam: I have your inquiry of May the ninth concerning my former chauffeur, Gaston Duval. I hope that you will not think me discourteous but I should much prefer not to discuss him. Yours very truly, K. G. Evans. (Mrs. John Evans) (In letters which in effect decline to give a recommendation it is wiser not to set out facts or even actually to decline to give the recommendation. See Chapter XI on the Law of Letters. The following letter to a servant, which is an indirect way of declining to recommend, is on the danger line.) _To a servant_ Harbor View, Long Island, August 29, 1921. My dear Margaret, Mrs. Hubert Forbes has written me concerning your qualifications as cook, and asks if I would recommend you in every way. Also I have your request to me for a reference. With regard to your skill in cooking there can be no question. I can recommend you as having served me for two years and I can vouch for your honesty. But, as you know, you are not to be depended on--for instance, to return promptly after your days off or to do any work at all during your frequent disputes with the butler. This I have told Mrs. Forbes. I could not conscientiously do otherwise; but I have asked that she try you in the hope that you have decided to remedy these faults. Very truly yours, F. B. Scott. (Mrs. Harrison Scott) Harbor View, L. I., August 29, 1921. Mrs. Hubert Forbes, Bayshore, L. I. My dear Mrs. Forbes: I have your letter of August twenty-fifth concerning my former cook, Margaret Dickson. She is an extremely good cook. She was with me for two years, and I can vouch for her honesty, but she is not to be depended on--for instance, to return promptly after her days off or to do any work during her frequent quarrels with the butler. But she seems anxious to improve, and if you would care to give her a trial, I think she might be satisfactory in new surroundings. I hope this reply will answer your questions. Very truly yours, Flora B. Scott. _Letter to a former servant_ Dear Delia, If you will not be too busy next week, will you come out and take care of the children for three or four days? Mr. Stone and I expect to be away. I am sure your husband can spare you. You will be surprised at the way Jack is growing. He often speaks of you. Let me know immediately. Cordially yours, B. L. Stone. (Note the signature--the use of initials instead of writing the full name.) _Inquiry concerning house for rental_ 48 Cottage Road, Somerville, Mass., April 8, 1921. Schuyler Realty Company, 49 Fulton Street, Brooklyn, N. Y. Gentlemen: Will you be good enough to send me the following information concerning the house at 28 Bedford Park which you have advertised for rental: Location of the house with regard to subway and L station, and the nearest public school. General character of the immediate neighborhood. Distance to the nearest Methodist Episcopal Church. Condition and kind of plumbing in each of the three bathrooms. Make of furnace and the amount of coal necessary to heat the house. Is the house completely screened? Are there awnings? The floors--of what wood and in what condition are they? Is the cellar dry? Where is the laundry? When can the house be ready for occupancy? I should like to have the facts as soon as you can furnish them. Very truly yours, George M. Hall. _Inquiry concerning house for purchase_ 345 Amsterdam Avenue, Philadelphia, Pa., May 10, 1921. Wheaton Manor Development Co., Dobbs Ferry, New York. Gentlemen: Will you let me know without delay, if possible, if you have any property in your immediate neighborhood fulfilling the following requirements: House--Twelve rooms, four bathrooms, and sun porch. A modern house of stucco and half-timber construction preferred. Ground--about five acres, part woodland, part cleared; lawn, vegetable, and flower garden. Distance from railroad station--not more than fifteen minutes' ride. I do not want to pay more than $25,000. I shall be here until the twentieth of the month. After that a reply will reach me at the Hotel Pennsylvania, New York. Very truly yours, Jerome Hutchinson. _Inquiry concerning a child at school_: 1842 Riverside Drive, New York, N. Y., February 10, 1922. My dear Professor Ritchie, My son John's report for the term just closed is far from satisfactory. While I do not expect perfection from him, I think--in fact, I know--he is capable of better work than is shown by his present rating. I observe that he did not pass in mathematics, a subject in which he was always first in the elementary school. My first thought was that possibly he was not physically well, but his activity in athletics would seem to refute this. This leads me to another thought--perhaps he is giving too much time and interest to athletics. What is your opinion and what course would you recommend? Would it be possible by coaching to have him make up the required averages? As I am leaving New York in two weeks for an extended trip, I would like to take some steps toward improving his scholarship status. Will you let me hear from you as soon as possible? Very truly yours, John Crandall. _Letter ordering Easter gifts from a magazine shopping service_ Quogue, Long Island, March 27, 1922. Standard Shopping Service, 100 West 38th Street, New York, N. Y. Gentlemen: I enclose my check for $25.00 for which please send by express the following articles to Miss Dorothea Allen Sunrise Lodge Highland, Pa. Two sterling silver candlesticks in Colonial pattern at $12.50 each, on Page 178, March issue. Or if you cannot secure them, will you purchase as second choice Two jars in Kashan ware, with blue as the predominating color? Very truly yours, Laura Waite. (Mrs. Herbert Waite) CHAPTER VII THE BUSINESS LETTER A reporter was sent out on a big story--one of the biggest that had broken in many a day. He came back into the office about eight o'clock all afire with his story. He was going to make a reputation on the writing of it. He wanted to start off with a smashing first paragraph--the kind of lead that could not help being read. He knew just what he was going to say; the first half-dozen lines fairly wrote themselves on the typewriter. Then he read them over. They did not seem quite so clever and compelling as he had thought. He pulled the sheet out and started another. By half-past ten he was in the midst of a sea of copy paper--but he had not yet attained a first paragraph. The City Editor--one of the famous old _Sun_ school--grew anxious. The paper could not wait until inspiration had matured. He walked quietly over to the young man and touching him on the shoulder he said: "Just one little word after another, son." And that is a good thought to carry into the composition of a business or any other kind of letter. The letter is written to convey some sort of idea. It will not perfectly convey the idea. Words have their limitations. It will not invariably produce upon the reader the effect that the writer desires. You may have heard of "irresistible" letters--sales letters that would sell electric fans to Esquimaux or ice skates to Hawaiians, collection letters that make the thickest skinned debtor remit by return mail, and other kinds of resultful, masterful letters that pierce to the very soul. There may be such letters. I doubt it. And certainly it is not worth while trying to concoct them. They are the outpourings of genius. The average letter writer, trying to be a genius, deludes only himself--he just becomes queer, he takes to unusual words, constructions, and arrangements. He puts style before thought--he thinks that the way he writes is more important than what he writes. The writer of the business letter does well to avoid "cleverness"--to avoid it as a frightful and devastating disease. The purpose of a business letter is to convey a thought that will lead to some kind of action--immediately or remotely. Therefore there are only two rules of importance in the composition of the business letter. The first is: Know what you want to say. The second is: Say it. And the saying is not a complicated affair--it is a matter of "one little word after another." Business letters may be divided into two general classes: (1) Where it is assumed that the recipient will want to read the letter, (2) Where it is assumed that the recipient will not want to read the letter. The first class comprises the ordinary run of business correspondence. If I write to John Smith asking him for the price of a certain kind of chair, Smith can assume in his reply that I really want that information and hence he will give it to me courteously and concisely with whatever comment on the side may seem necessary, as, for instance, the fact that this particular type of chair is not one that Smith would care to recommend and that Style X, costing $12.00, would be better. The ordinary business letter is either too wordy or too curt; it either loses the subject in a mass of words or loses the reader by offensive abruptness. Some letters gush upon the most ordinary of subjects; they are interspersed with friendly ejaculations such as "Now, my dear Mr. Jones," and give the impression that if one ever got face to face with the writer he would effervesce all over one's necktie. Many a man takes a page to say what ought to be said in four lines. On the other hand, there are letter writers so uncouth in the handling of words that they seem rude when really they only want to be brief. The only cure for a writer of this sort is for him to spend some months with any good English composition book trying to learn the language. The second class of letters--those in which it is presumed that the recipient will not want to read--comprises all the circular letters. These are selling or announcement letters and it is hoped that they will play the part of a personal representative. The great bulk of these letters are sales letters. Their characteristic is that the writer and the reader are unknown to each other. It is not quite accurate to say that the reader will never want to read the letters--no one knows how many of the millions of circular letters sent out are read. A farmer will read practically every letter that comes to him; many business men will throw every circular letter into the waste basket unread. It is well to assume in this kind of letter, however, that the recipient does not want to read it but that he will open and glance at it. It is up to you to make such a good letter that the first glance will cause him to read more. There is no way of catching the man who throws letters away unopened; any attempt to have the envelope tell what the letter should tell is apt to be unfortunate, because it will have no effect upon the inveterate tosser away and may deter even some of those who commonly do open circular mail. The best method is to make the letter look so much like a routine business letter that no one will dare to throw it away without investigation. The cost of a sales letter is not to be reckoned otherwise than by results. The merit of a sales letter is to be judged solely by the results. Therefore it is not a question of what kind of letter one thinks ought to produce results. The single question is what kind of letter does produce results. There is only one way to ascertain results, and that is by test. No considerable expenditure in direct mail solicitation and no form letter should be extensively used without an elaborate series of tests. Otherwise the money may be thrown away. The extent of the tests will depend upon the contemplated expenditure. Every concern that sends out many sales letters keeps a careful record of results. These records show the letter itself, the kind of envelope, the typing, the signature, and the kind of list to which it has been sent. Thus a considerable fund of information is obtained for future use. This information, however, has to be very carefully handled because it may easily become misinformation, for we cannot forget the appeal of the product itself. No one as yet has ever been able to gauge in advance the appeal of a product. Some apparently very bad letters have sold very good products. Some apparently very good letters have quite failed to sell what turned out to be bad products. Therefore, the information that is obtained in the circularizing and sale of one product has to be taken warily when applied to another product. It should be taken only for what it is worth, and that is as a general guide. [Illustration: Specimens of business letterheads] Several concerns with a mind for statistical information have in the past so carefully compiled the effectiveness of their letters, but without regard to the product, that they have discovered an inordinately large number of things that cannot be done and extremely few things that can be done. This is the danger of placing too much faith in previous experience. One of these companies entirely discarded its records of what could not be done and started afresh. They found that several of the methods which they had previously used and discarded happened to do well under changed conditions and with different products. If any large expenditure be contemplated then many tests should be made. The kind of envelope, the manner of addressing, the one cent as opposed to the two-cent stamp, the kind of letterhead, the comparative merits of printing, multigraphing, or electric typewriting, the length and composition of the letter, the effect of the return card, the effect of enclosing a stamped return card or a stamped return envelope, the method of signing, and so on, through each detail, must be tried out. No test is ever conclusive, but very little information of value is to be obtained by circularizing less than five hundred names. These names may be taken sectionally or at random. The sectional method is somewhat better, for then comparison of results in several sections may be made, and it may turn out that it would be well to phrase differently letters for different sections. The returns on the letters are not of themselves conclusive. If one section responds and another does not, it is well to look into business conditions in the sections. It may be that in one section the people are working and that in another there is considerable unemployment. The main point about all of these statistics is to be sure that what one terms results are results, bearing in mind that it is the test and not what one thinks about a letter that counts. It is distinctly harmful for any one to say that a letter should be long or short. It all depends on who is going to get the letter. The tendency in recent years has been toward the very long sales letter. This is because in a large number of cases the long letter has been singularly effective. However, the long letter can be overdone. It is the test that counts. The exact purpose for which a letter is written is to be stated clearly before entering upon the composition. Very few letters will sell articles costing as much as fifty dollars unless perhaps the payments are on the installment plan. Many men of experience put the limit as low as five dollars. Others put it as high as one hundred dollars. It is safe to say that the effectiveness of a letter which is designed to achieve a sale decreases as the price of that which is offered for sale increases. Therefore, most of the letters written concerning more expensive articles are not intended to effect sales. They are designed to bring responses that will furnish leads for salesmen. Other letters are more in the nature of announcements, by which it is hoped prospects may be brought into a store. Where the article offered for sale is quite high in price, the letters sometimes may be very expensively prepared. On one occasion the late John H. Patterson, discovering that his salesmen could not get to the heads of several department stores, ordered some very fine leather portfolios. On each portfolio he had stamped the name of the man who was to receive it. They were gifts such as any one would welcome and which no one could possibly ignore. Inside each portfolio were contained a letter and a number of photographs showing exactly what he desired to have the agents demonstrate. Each gift cost about fifty dollars. He sent the portfolios with his compliments. The secretaries of the men that he wanted to interest could not possibly toss them away. They simply had to give them to their principals. My impression is that the entire expenditure ran to several thousand dollars, but as a result some two hundred thousand dollars in sales were effected, for in practically every case the photographs awakened an interest that led to an appointment with the salesman. The following letters are intended to be suggestive. They cannot honestly be put forward as being more than that. They are all letters that have gained results under certain circumstances. That they will gain results under new and different circumstances is a matter on which no one can speak with any assurance. Every sales letter is a matter of cut and try. Some of these letters may produce results exactly as they stand. Others may better be used in combination. [Illustration: Arrangement of a business letter (block form)] [Illustration: Arrangement of a business letter (indented form)] Whether the letter should have a return card or envelope depends upon circumstances, as also does the inclusion of an illustrated folder. The return card is more valuable with a letter that goes to a home than with a letter that goes to an office. Very few men with stenographers will bother with return cards--their stenographers or secretaries will send a note. On the other hand, letter-writing facilities are not so easily available in the usual home and the card is likely to be used. The putting in of a folder sometimes takes away from the force of the letter. It is often better to reserve the folder for a second letter or for answering an inquiry. For once the prospect has written in for more information the whole purpose of the letter changes. The interest can be presumed, and the object of the letter is to give the greatest possible amount of clear information to the end of causing action. Saying too much in the first letter may give the reader an opportunity to reach a conclusion, when the purpose of the first letter is primarily to get a name--a prospective purchaser. Many a salesman kills a sale by talking too much; so does many a sales letter. SALES AND ANNOUNCEMENT LETTERS To charge customers selling and announcement letters are sent out before the public advertising. (They can also be used as general announcements by eliminating the portions referring particularly to the charge accounts.) _Announcing a sale_ BRICE & HASKELL SOUTH MICHIGAN AVENUE CHICAGO July 31, 1922. Dear Madam: As one of our regular patrons, we are telling you in advance of a coming big sale--The August Furniture Sale, which will begin Monday, August 7th. We should like our charge customers to have first choice of the interesting values before they are announced to the public. Therefore we shall have three Courtesy Days, Thursday, Friday, and Saturday of this week, when you may come in and make your selections at the Sale Prices. Our guide in choosing furniture is our clientèle, so we feel sure you will find the type of furniture here that pleases you--and in greater variety than usual because we complete our collection for this event. Prices this year are very attractive. They have been reduced far lower than you will anticipate. We should like you to have the advantage in these values soon, and hope you will come in one of the three Courtesy Days. Very truly yours, Brice & Haskell. Following are letters of slightly different type: S. BLACK COMPANY 28 WASHINGTON STREET BOSTON, MASS. April 26, 1920. Mrs. Arthur Moore, 1317 Hillside Avenue, Boston, Mass. Dear Madam: Our Spring Sale of Misses' Suits, Coats, Dresses, and Hats will begin Monday, April 30th, continuing throughout the week. This sale presents an unusual opportunity to secure seasonable apparel at decided price concessions. MISSES' SUITS: Smartly tailored suits of English navy serge, navy gabardine, tan covert cloth, imported mixtures, homespuns, and light-weight knit cloths--adapted for town or country usage. A splendid selection of all sizes from 14 to 18 years. MISSES' COATS: Coats for motor, country club, or town wear, in soft velours, burella cloth, and imported coatings. MISSES' DRESSES: Dresses of imported serges and gabardines, for street wear, and a number of exclusive knit cloth models in attractive colorings for sports wear--sizes 14 to 18 years. MISSES' HATS: The balance of our stock of Trimmed Hats at one half their former prices. On account of the greatly reduced prices, none of these goods will be sent on approval, nor can they be returned for credit. Very truly yours, S. Black Company. Note: To our charge customers is extended the privilege of making their selections on Friday and Saturday, April 27th and 28th. SWANSON SONS & COMPANY 29 SUPERIOR AVENUE CLEVELAND, OHIO January 16, 1922. Dear Madam: We enclose advance announcements of our Private Sales of Boys' Heatherweave Clothes and Ironhide Shoes, and we believe you will find the economies presented a great relief after your large Christmas outlays. Of course, such reductions mean that the assortments will quickly be depleted, and we urge you to act promptly in order to secure the full benefit of the available selections. To enable you to do this we are telling you before the public announcement of these sales. Yours very truly, Swanson Sons & Company. This letter encloses a proof of a newspaper advertisement. CALLENDER & CRUMP 2900 EUCLID AVENUE CLEVELAND, O. September 10, 1922. Dear Madam: In appreciation of your patronage we wish to extend to you a personal invitation to attend a private sale of women's tailor-made fall suits (sizes 34 to 46) in some especially well-chosen models. These suits will be priced at the very low figure of $40. Our regular patrons may have first selection before the sale is open to the public, and may thus avoid the discomforts of a public sale. We have arranged to show these suits privately on Friday, October 3, in the fitting department on the sixth floor. If you care to avail yourself of this special opportunity, please bring this letter with you and present it at the fitting department. Very truly yours, Callender & Crump. (Note:--An excellent idea when a special offering of foreign goods is made is to have the letters mailed from Paris or London. The foreign stamp will usually attract attention.) CALLENDER & CRUMP 2900 EUCLID AVENUE CLEVELAND, O. Paris, France, September 1, 1922. Dear Madam: We wish to let you know in advance that our annual sale of Real French Kid gloves, at 89 cents a pair, takes place on Tuesday, October 9, 1922. To insure a choice selection we suggest that you make your purchases early on that day. Very truly yours, Callender & Crump. This is an excellent, matter-of-fact letter that sets out values: LE FEVRE BROTHERS 293 WASHINGTON BLVD DETROIT, MICH. May 11, 1922. Mrs. John Williams, 19 Concourse Ave., Detroit, Mich. Madam: On Monday and Tuesday, May 15th and 16th, we shall hold our ANNUAL SPRING CLEARANCE SALE of seasonable apparel for BOYS, GIRLS, and YOUNG LADIES, offering exceptional values, and an unusual opportunity to secure regular Le Fevre productions at lower prices than we have been able to offer for several years. This sale will include other items which are not enumerated in this announcement. BOYS' WOOL NORFOLK SUITS: Sizes 7 to 15 years. Formerly up to $35.00 _Sale Price_ $14.50, $18.50, and $23.50 BOYS' OVERCOATS: Sizes 3 to 7 years. Formerly up to $32.50 _Sale Price_ $14.50 and $18.50 GIRLS' COATS AND CAPES: Sizes 3 to 16 years. Formerly up to $55.00 _Sale Price_ $19.50 and $29.50 GIRLS' WOOL DRESSES: Sizes 4 to 14 years. Formerly up to $65.00 _Sale Price_ $17.50 and $27.50 YOUNG LADIES' SUITS: Sizes 14 to 18 years. Formerly up to $85.00 _Sale Price_ $24.50 and $39.50 YOUNG LADIES' DRESSES: Sizes 14 to 18 years. Formerly up to $70.00 _Sale Price_ $22.50 and $37.50 YOUNG LADIES' COATS AND CAPES: Sizes 14 to 18 years. Formerly up to $75.00 _Sale Price_ $29.50 and $42.50 GIRLS' AND YOUNG LADIES' TRIMMED AND TAILORED HATS: Formerly up to $30.00 _Sale Price_ $7.50 and $12.50 Sale goods will not be sent on approval, exchanged, nor can they be returned for credit. Yours very truly, Le Fevre Brothers. Our charge customers will have the privilege of making their purchases from this sale on Friday and Saturday, May 12th and 13th. _On opening a store_ This form for the opening of a new store in a town may be used with variations for a reopening after improvements. JAMES BONNER & CO. WICHITA, KAN. April 14, 1922. Mrs. Henry Jerome, 29 Water St., Wichita, Kan. Dear Madam: This is a sale to win friends for a new store. We want you to see our values. Our store is but six weeks old. Our stock is just the same age. Everything that we have is fresh and new. We want you to compare our qualities and prices. We are out to prove to the women of Wichita that we can give style and service at prices they will like. Will you give us the chance to get acquainted? Yours very truly, James Bonner & Co., (Handwritten) _L. Jones_, Manager. _Selling home-made articles_ 19 Waverly Place, Bridgetown, N. J., April 5, 1922. Dear Madam: Have you ever counted the cost of making your pickles, jams, and jellies at home? If you have, and are satisfied that yours is the cheapest way, considering time, labor, and the use of the best materials, then my product will not appeal to you. But before you decide, may I ask you to make a comparison? I make at home in large quantities and according to the best recipes gathered over years of experience, all kinds of pickles and relishes--sweet, sour, dill, chow-chow, piccalilli. My special jams are raspberry, strawberry, plum, peach, and quince. Crabapple is my best liked jelly, and red currant a close second. A very special conserve is a grape and walnut, for which I have a large call, for teas. The peaches I put up in pint and quart jars. I use only the very best vinegar and spices. My products are made only to order and at the lowest possible cost. To do this I must get my orders some time in advance so that I may take advantage of attractive prices on fruits and other ingredients. I append a list of prices which I charged last year. This year they will be no higher and in all probability less. May I get a small trial order from you? Very truly yours, Martha Walker. (Mrs. William Walker) _A letter to recently married people in moderate circumstances_ J. L. BASCOM COMPANY 20 MAIN STREET RICHMOND, VA. May 8, 1922. Dear Madam: This store is for sensible, saving people who want to make every dollar buy its utmost. But sometimes being sensible and saving seems to mean just being commonplace and dowdy. Ours is not that sort of a store. We believe that useful articles ought also to be good looking, and our buying has been so skillful that we believe we are safe in saying that our goods are not only absolutely dependable but also will compare in appearance with any goods anywhere, regardless of price. We think that this statement will mean something to you, for in furnishing a home, although appearance may not be everything, it is certainly a good deal. Between two articles of the same durability the better-looking one is the better. It is our aim not merely to make home furnishing easy but to make a beautiful home at the price of an ugly one. Our experience has been that it does not pay to put into a household any article which in a few years you will get so tired of looking at that you will want to smash it with a hatchet. We have the values and also we have terms that are as good as the values. We enclose a little booklet that will give you a hint of what you can find here. We cannot give you more than a hint. The best way is to come to the store. Tell us your problems, and let us aid you with our experience. Very truly yours, J. L. Bascom Company. _Introducing the mail order department:_ L. GIRARD & CO. ST. LOUIS, MO. April 4, 1922. Mrs. Benjamin Brown, 29 Shadyside Vine Avenue, St. Louis, Mo. Dear Madam: This Spring brings to us many new ideas in merchandise that our buyers have picked up in their travels. In many ways we have now the most interesting stock we have ever been able to show. It is indeed so large and varied that we shall hardly be able to give you more than a suggestion of it in our public advertising. We feel sure that we have something which you have been looking for among the splendid values in both personal and household necessities. You will find that through our individual shopping service purchasing by mail is made most convenient and entirely personal. May we look forward to having again the pleasure of serving you? Very truly yours, L. Girard & Co. _Announcement of overcoats_ THE BARBOUR CLOTHING CO. 2249 WABASH AVENUE CHICAGO October 19, 1921. Mr. Charles Reid, Winnetka, Ill. My dear Sir: In a couple of weeks you are going to think a good deal about your overcoat. Why not start thinking now? We are offering this year the most complete line of overcoats that we have ever been able to buy. We have found that we could buy absolutely first-class coats at absolutely fair prices. We are selling them on the basis on which we bought them, and we bought a lot because we think the values will sell them. The prices are surprisingly low. They range from $20 to $70. At the lowest price we are selling a coat which, if you saw it on the back of a friend, you would think cost at least $50. The highest priced coat is as good as money can buy. If you expected to spend $50 for a coat, you may find that you can get what you want for $20 or $25, or you may find that you will want an even better coat than you had expected to buy. We think that it would be worth your while to look at this stock. Very truly yours, The Barbour Clothing Co. _Selling a farm product (can be used for vegetables, eggs, hams, and bacon or any farm product)_ CORN CENTER NEW JERSEY June 1, 1922. Dear Madam: Do you like perfectly fresh vegetables--right off the farm? What kind of vegetables are you getting? Do you know how long ago they were picked? Perhaps you think that you cannot have absolutely fresh vegetables for your table or that it really makes no difference? Did you ever taste Golden Bantam corn the same day or the day after it was picked? Do you know Golden Bantam or is corn just corn? Do you think that string beans are just string beans? And do you know about stringless string beans? I grow only the thoroughbred varieties. I pick them when they are tender--just right for the palate. And I send them to you the same day that they are picked. I arrange hampers according to the size of the family. The prices, quantities, and selections are on the enclosed card. I will deliver at your door (or send by parcel post) every day, every second day, or as often as you like. You can have the best that is grown in its best season and as fresh as though you were living on a farm. Try a hamper and know what vegetables are! Very truly yours, Henry Raynor. _Storage service_ HOWARD MOTH PROOF BAG CO. WINSTED, CONN. May 2, 1922. Dear Madam: Have you ever taken your best coat to an "invisible mender" and paid him ten dollars to have him mend two moth holes? Have you ever gone to your trunk to take out your furs and found that the moths had got into them? Sometimes they are so badly eaten that they are utterly hopeless and must be thrown away. All this trouble, disappointment, and expense can be avoided if you will only take the precaution this spring to put away your clothing and furs in the Howard Moth Proof Garment Bags. Strongly constructed of a heavy and durable cedar paper, and made absolutely moth-proof by our patented closing device, the Howard bag provides absolute protection against moths. As the Howard bag comes in several sizes, from the suit size, ranging through the overcoat, ulster, and automobile sizes, and as each bag has room for several garments, you can surely have protection for all your clothing at small cost. The hook by which the bag is hung up is securely stapled in place by brass rivets. This bag is so strong and so well designed for service that it will with care last for several years. Very truly yours, The Howard Moth-Proof Bag Co. _A type of Christmas sales letter_ THE PINK SHOP 40 MAIN STREET GRAND RAPIDS, MICH. November 28, 1922. Dear Madam: This is your opportunity to get a lot of fine Christmas stockings at very low cost--if you order at once. The "Camille" is made of beautiful thread silk richly hand embroidered. It comes in black or white, all silk. The "Diana" is a silk stocking with lisle top and soles. It is a fine wearing stocking and comes in all street shades. The "Juliet" is especially attractive as a gift for a girl friend. These stockings are clocked and have all silk feet and lisle tops. The colors are black, beige, and taupe. They are especially good looking worn with saddle pumps. The "Evening Mist" is a fascinating stocking for evening wear. It is sheer, almost cobwebby, and will enhance any evening gown. The colors are gold, silver, light blue, corn, pale green, black, and white. It is splendid for a gift stocking. The "Priscilla" is an excellent stocking for everyday hard wear. It is of heavy lisle, full fashioned and fast color--black or tan. Send your order off now. You will have the advantage of an early selection. Attractive prices are quoted in the circular enclosed. The big holiday rush will soon be on. Make up your order for stockings for Christmas giving, attach remittance for amount and mail to-day. Your order will be filled promptly and if everything does not fully satisfy you, you may return it and get your money back. Yours very truly, The Pink Shop. _An automobile announcement_ MEMPHIS AUTO SUPPLY CO. 29 MAPLE AVENUE MEMPHIS, TENN. March 16, 1924. Dear Sir: Just a few weeks and spring will be here. That means pleasure motoring. When you are getting ready for this new season, you may find that you will need certain things for your car--perhaps a new tire, or a pair of pliers, or an inner tube. But whatever it is, remember that our new stock of accessories is here and we believe that we can supply you with anything you will need. In inviting you to give us part of your trade, we give you this assurance: If any article you buy from us is not entirely right, we will return your money. We hope to see you soon. Yours very truly, Memphis Auto Supply Co. _Changing from a credit to a cash plan (Should be in the nature of a personal letter)_ PELLETIER & CO. 142 CASCO STREET PORTLAND, ME. February 1, 1922. Mrs. John Troy, 14 Ocean Ave., Portland, Me. Dear Madam: When this store was opened ten years ago, we believed that our service would be the most effective if we operated on a credit basis. Therefore we solicited charge accounts, of course taking extreme care that only people of known integrity and substance should be on our books. We have had the privilege of serving you through such an account. There are two fundamental methods of conducting a retail business. The one is on the cash and the other is on the credit plan. In the cash plan all goods are either paid for at the time of purchase or at the time of delivery. In the credit plan, those who have not credit or do not care to use credit pay cash; those who have credit rating charge their purchases and bills are rendered monthly. Credit was not extended by the store as a favor; it formed part of a way of doing business. The favor is on the part of the customer. The charge system has many advantages, principally in the way of permitting the store to know its customers better than it could otherwise. The disadvantage of the credit basis is the expense of bookkeeping which, of course, has to be added into the price of the goods sold. Our losses through unpaid bills have been negligible. Our customers are honest. But it has seemed unfair that the customer who pays cash should have to bear the cost of the credit accounts. As our business has worked out more than fifty per cent. of our whole trade is on the cash basis. After careful consideration we have finally decided to go entirely upon a cash footing in order that we may further reduce our costs of doing business and hence our prices to you. We think that in such fashion we can better serve you. Therefore, on July 1st, which marks the end of our fiscal year, we shall go upon an exclusively cash basis and no longer maintain charge accounts. We think that you will agree when you see the savings reflected in lower prices for the highest grade of goods that the change in policy is a wise one and that you will continue to favor us with your patronage. Very truly yours, Pelletier & Co., (Handwritten) _C. Brown_, Credit Manager. KEEPING THE CUSTOMER _Thanking a new customer_ LARUE BROTHERS SAINT LOUIS, MO. October 4, 1923. Mrs. Lee White, 29 Main Street, St. Louis, Mo. Dear Madam: The purchase which you made yesterday is the first that we have had the pleasure of recording for your account and we want to take this opportunity to thank you for the confidence that you repose in us and to hope that it will be the beginning of a long and happy relation. We shall, from time to time, send you bulletins of our special offerings and we believe that you will be interested in them. Very truly yours, (Handwritten) _J. M. Briggs_, Credit Manager, Larue Brothers. _Where a charge account has been inactive_ S. BLACK COMPANY 28 WASHINGTON STREET BOSTON, MASS. February 5, 1921. Mr. Tudor Sweet, 24 Commonwealth Ave., Boston, Mass. Dear Sir: We have just been looking over our books and are sorry to learn that you have not given us your patronage for some time past. We feel that something may have gone wrong to have caused you to discontinue trading at our store. If you are not fully satisfied with anything you bought from us, remember that we are always eager and ready to adjust the matter to your satisfaction. We shall certainly appreciate it if you will write to us and tell us frankly just what the trouble has been. Will you use the inclosed envelope to let us know? Yours truly, S. Black Company, (Handwritten) _George Sims_, Credit Manager. A. B. SWEETSER & CO. 4000 MAIN STREET COLUMBUS, O. June 8, 1922. Mrs. Arthur Thomas, 25 Spruce Avenue, Columbus, O. Dear Madam: Does our store please you? Sometime ago it probably did and you had an account with us, but we find with regret that you have not used it lately. If we disappointed you, or if something went wrong and possibly your complaint was not properly attended to, we are extremely anxious to know about it. Perhaps there was some lack of courtesy, some annoying error in your bill which we were exasperatingly obtuse in rectifying? Were we stupid in filling some order or did we delay in delivery? Perhaps we did not have just what you were looking for, or our prices seemed higher than elsewhere. Whatever the difficulty, we do want you to know that we try to stand for good service--to supply promptly what you want at the price you want to pay, and always to conduct our business with an unfailing courtesy which will make your shopping a pleasure. Being a woman I may understand your point of view a little better. Will you be quite frank and tell me why you do not buy from Sweetser's now? Either write or call me on the telephone; or, better still, if you are in our neighborhood, can you come in to see me? The information booth is at the door and I can be found in a minute. It might help to talk things over. Sincerely yours, (Handwritten) _Mrs. Margaret B. Williams_, Courtesy Manager, A. B. Sweetser & Co. MEYER, HASKELL & CO. 230 ELM STREET BLOOMFIELD, ILL. March 8, 1923. Mrs. Bruce Wells, 19 Dwight Ave., Bloomfield, Ill. Dear Madam: We very much regret that you do not use more often your charge account at our store, and we hope it is not due to any lack on our part of prompt and intelligent service. We know that with our large and well-assorted stocks of merchandise and competent organization we ought to be able to supply your needs to your complete satisfaction. One of five stores, we have great opportunities for advantageous buying and we can continually undersell others. In this connection permit us to call your attention to our newly installed telephone order department. This department is in charge of competent house shoppers, whose duty it is to satisfy your every want, thus enabling our charge patrons to shop by telephone with perfect certainty. We feel that these advantages may appeal to you and result in our receiving your orders more often. Very truly yours, (Handwritten) _T. Hunter_, Credit Manager, Meyer, Haskell & Co. SELLING REAL ESTATE There are two phases in the writing of letters concerning the sale of real estate. The first phase has to do with the presentation of the proposal in order to arouse sufficient interest in the mind of the prospect to cause him to inspect the property. Comparatively little real estate is sold without personal inspection. The exceptions are offerings of low-priced building sites in distant sections of the country. These are sold sight unseen--else, as a rule, they would never be sold at all. But such real estate selling is more apt to be in the class with fake mining stock than with legitimate buying and selling, and therefore has no place here. The second phase of letters on real estate comprehends the closing of the sale. For instance, let us say that John Hope has gone so far as to look at a property. He apparently wants to buy the property or is at least interested, but the price and conditions of sale do not exactly suit him. He is so situated that he does not want to talk personally with an agent, or perhaps lives too far away. At any rate, the sale has to be closed by mail. The fact which most concerns the buyer of real estate, provided he is otherwise satisfied with a property, is the title. The title is the legal term by which is denoted the exact character of the ownership. Quite frequently an owner may believe that he has a clear title when, as a matter of fact, his title is derived through some testamentary instrument which gives him a holding only for life, or perhaps trusts have been set up in the will which are a charge upon the property, although all of the beneficiaries of the trust have been long since dead. There are many hundreds of possible legal complications affecting the validity of the title and it is usual to-day to have titles insured and, in agreeing to buy, to specify that the "title must be marketable and insurable by a reputable title insurance company." The word "marketable" as here used means a title which is unquestionable. The prospective buyer must also be careful to specify that the title shall be "free and clear" and that all taxes shall be apportioned to the day of settlement. Otherwise the buyer would have to take title subject to a lien of any judgments or other liens of record and also subject to unpaid taxes. A real estate transaction may be very complicated indeed, and it is wise for a buyer to take precautions to the end of seeing that he purchases a piece of real property rather than a right to a lawsuit. Most letters offering real estate for sale are written in response to inquiries generated by an advertisement. The letter offering the property is designed to bring forth a visit from the inquirer. Therefore only the information which seems best adapted to bring about that visit should go into the letter. The temptation is to tell too much, and the danger of telling too much is that one may inadvertently force a negative conclusion. It is better to keep down to the bare, although complete, description rather than to attempt any word painting. The description is best supplemented by one or several photographs. The important points to be summarized are the situation of the house, the architectural style, the material of which it is constructed, the number of rooms, and the size of the lot, with of course a description of any stable, garage, or other substantial out-buildings. These are the elementary points of the description. One may then summarize the number and size of the rooms, including the bathrooms, laundry, and kitchen, the closet spaces, fireplaces, the lighting, the roofing, the floors, the porches, and the decorating. The most effective letter is always the one that catalogues the features rather than describes them. _An agent asking for a list of property_ JONES REALTY CO. HARRISBURG, PA. April 3, 1924. Mr. James Renwick, 126 Pelham Road, Westville, Pa. My dear Sir: I am constantly having inquiries from people who want to buy property in your immediate vicinity, and I am writing to learn whether you would give me the opportunity to dispose of your property for you, if I can obtain an entirely satisfactory price. If you will name the price and the terms at which you would sell, I should be glad to put the property on my list and I believe that I can make a sale. It would be helpful if I had a good description of the property and also one or two good photographs. Of course if you list the property with me that will not bar you from listing it with any other broker unless you might care to put it exclusively in my hands for disposal. My commission is 2-1/2%, the same as charged by other brokers in this vicinity, and I know from experience that I can give you satisfactory service. Very truly yours, Henry Jones. _From an owner instructing an agent to list property_ 126 Pelham Road, Westville, Pa., May 6, 1922. Mr. Henry Jones, Jones Realty Co., Harrisburg, Pa. My dear Sir: I have your letter of May 3rd and I am entirely willing that you should list my property for sale, although I do not want a "For Sale" sign displayed nor do I want the property inspected while I am in it unless by a previously arranged appointment. I enclose a description and a photograph. I will take $25,000 for the place, of which $10,000 has to be paid in cash. I am willing to hold a second mortgage of $5,000 and there is $10,000 already ready against the place, which can remain. Very truly yours, James Renwick. _Selling a property by mail_ 1437 Lawrence Street, Greenville, N. Y., April 20, 1921. Mr. George A. Allen, 789 Fourth Avenue, Hillside, N. Y. My dear Sir: I have your letter of April 17th asking for further particulars on the property which I advertised for sale in last Sunday's _Republic_. I think that by inspecting this property you can gain a much clearer idea of its desirability than I can possibly convey to you in a letter. If you will telephone to me, I will arrange any appointment that suits your convenience. The house is ten years old--that is, it was built when materials and workmanship were first-class. It has been kept up by the owner, has never been rented, and is to-day a more valuable house than when it was originally constructed. It is three stories in height, contains fifteen rooms, four bathrooms, breakfast porch, sun porch, children's breakfast porch, a laundry, butler's pantry, a storage pantry, and a refrigerator pantry. It stands on a plot of ground 150 x 200 feet, which has been laid out in lawn and gardens, and in fact there are several thousand dollars' worth of well-chosen and well-placed plants, including many evergreens and rhododendrons. The trim of the house, including the floors, is hard wood throughout, and the decorations are such that nothing whatsoever would have to be done before occupancy. I enclose two photographs. The owner's price is $60,000, and I know that he would be willing to arrange terms. Very truly yours, R. A. Smith. (Note--Essentially the same letter could be written offering the house for rental, furnished or unfurnished, as the case might be.) 49 Main Street, Albany, N. Y., October 8, 1924. Mr. Henry Grimes, Catskill, N. Y. Dear Sir: The business property that I offered for sale in yesterday's _Republic_ and concerning which I have a letter from you this morning is particularly well suited for a specialty shop or any kind of a store that would be benefited by the passing of large numbers of people before its show windows. It is located at the corner of Third and Main Streets with a frontage of thirty feet on Main Street and runs back seventy feet on Third Street. There is one large show window on Main Street and two on Third Street. It is a three-story brick structure, solidly built, and the upper floors, if they could not be used for your own purposes, will as they stand bring a rental of $200 a month each, and with a few changes could probably be leased at a higher amount. They are at present leased at the above figures, but the leases will expire on January 1st. Both tenants are willing to renew. By actual count this property is on the third busiest corner in town. If you are interested, I should like to discuss the price and terms with you. Very truly yours, Henry Eltinge. _Offering a farm for sale_ Goschen, Ohio, R. F. D. 5, May 5, 1922. Mr. Harry More, Bridgeton, Ohio. Dear Sir: I am glad to get your letter inquiring about my farm. I am acting as my own agent because I think it is a farm that will sell itself on inspection and I would rather split the commission with the buyer than with a middle-man. The farmhouse, barns, and dairy are good, substantial frame buildings, and they have been well painted every second season. There is nothing to be done to them. The house has six rooms and a large, dry cellar. The water is soft and there is plenty of it. The barn is 60 by 50; the poultry house is a big one that I built myself. The sheds are all in first-class condition. This farm contains 240 acres, two miles from Goschen, Ohio, and there is a state road leading into town and to the railroad. We have rural delivery and telephone. The land is high and in first-class cultivation. The orchard has been kept up and there are well-established strawberry and asparagus beds. You will not find a better farm of its kind than this one. I have made a living off it for twelve years and anybody else can, but the only way for you really to find out what the place amounts to is to come down yourself and look it over. If you will let me know when you expect to come I will meet you at the station in my automobile. The price is ten thousand dollars. There is a mortgage of $2,500 that can remain, and, other things being satisfactory, we can arrange the down payment and the terms for the balance. Very truly yours, John Hope. _Accepting an offer_ 340 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa., Dec. 15, 1922. Mr. Joseph Barlow, Haines Crossing, Delaware. Dear Sir: I have your letter of December 12th offering to sell to me the property that we have been discussing for $15,000 of which $3,000 is to be in cash, $5,000 to remain on three-year mortgage at six per cent., and the remaining $7,000 to be cared for by the present mortgage in that amount and which I understand has four years yet to run. I accept your offer as stated by you, with the provision of course that I shall receive a clear and marketable title, insurable by a real estate title company, and that all taxes shall be adjusted as of the day of settlement, which settlement is to take place three months from to-day. If you will have a contract of sale drawn, I shall execute it and at the same time hand you my check for five hundred dollars as the consideration for the contract of purchase. This letter is written in the assumption that the dimensions of the property are such as have been represented to me. I am Very truly yours, Martin Fields. (Note--The above letter replying to an offer to sell would of itself close the contract and the formal contract of sale is unnecessary. A contract is, however, advisable because it includes all the terms within a single sheet of paper and therefore makes for security.) _Letter inquiring as to what may be had_ 534 Gramercy Park, February 8, 1923. Home Development Co., Hastings, N. Y. Dear Sir: I am writing to learn what property you have listed in your vicinity that would seem to meet my particular requirements. I want a house of not less than ten rooms, with some ground around it and not more than fifteen minutes from the railroad station. The house must contain at least two bathrooms, have a good heating plant, and either be in first-class condition or offered at a price that would permit me to put it in first-class condition without running into a great deal of money. I am willing to pay between ten and fifteen thousand dollars. Will you send me a list of properties that you can suggest as possibly being suitable? Very truly yours, Julian Henderson. _Renting apartments_ YOUNG & REYNOLDS 48 GREEN STREET BROOKLYN, N. Y. May 15, 1923. Mr. Robert Pardee, 29 Prentiss Place, Brooklyn, N. Y. Dear Sir: Your name has been handed to me as one who might be interested in leasing one of the extremely attractive apartments in the Iroquois at Number 20 East Third Street, which will be ready for occupancy on September 15th. I enclose a descriptive folder which will give you an idea of the grounds that we have for basing our claim that this is the most convenient apartment house that has ever been erected. The apartments vary in size, as you will see on the plan, and for long leases we can arrange any combination of rooms that may be desired. These features are common to all of the apartments. Every bedroom has a private bathroom. Every living and dining room contains an open fireplace, and every apartment, no matter what its size, is connected with a central kitchen so that service may be had equivalent to that of any hotel and at any hour from seven in the morning until midnight. There is a complete hotel service, all of which is entirely optional with the tenant. We invite your inspection. A number of the apartments have already been leased, but many desirable ones still remain and an early selection will permit of decoration according to your own wishes in ample time for the opening of the building. The renting office is on the premises. Very truly yours, Young & Reynolds. BANK LETTERS The qualities which make a bank popular in a community are, first, safety; second, intelligence; and third, courtesy. One bank has potentially nothing more to offer than has another bank, excepting that of course a very large bank has a greater capacity for making loans than has a small bank. The amount which by law a bank may lend is definitely fixed by the resources of the bank. However, this is not a question of particular concern here, for very large and important accounts are never gained through letter writing. The field that can be reached through letters comprises the substantial householder, the moderate-sized man in business, and the savings depositor. A bank has no bargains to offer. What a man or a woman principally asks about a bank is: "Will my money be safe? Will my affairs be well looked after? Shall I be treated courteously when I go into the bank?" The answers to these questions should be found in the conduct of the bank itself. A bank is not a frivolous institution. Therefore its stationery and the manner of its correspondence should be eminently dignified. It must not draw comparisons between the service it offers and the service any other bank offers. It must not make flamboyant statements. Neither may it use slang, for slang connotes in the minds of many a certain carelessness that does not make for confidence. Above all, a bank cannot afford to be entertaining or funny in its soliciting letters. The best bank letter is usually a short one, and it has been found effective to enclose a well-designed, well-printed card or folder setting out some of the services of the bank, its resources, and its officers. Bank solicitation is very different from any other kind of solicitation. _Soliciting savings accounts_ GUARDIAN TRUST CO. BAYVILLE, N. J. January 15, 1922. Mr. George Dwight, Bayville, N. J. Dear Sir: Some time ago we delivered to you a little home safe for savings, and we are writing to learn how you are making out with it. Have you saved as much as you had expected? Are you waiting to get a certain sum before bringing it in to be credited in your passbook? We are often asked if it is necessary to fill a home safe before bringing it in to have the contents deposited, and we always recommend that the bank be brought in at regular intervals, regardless of the amount saved, for you know the money begins to earn interest only when it is deposited with us. We give to small deposits the same careful attention we give to large deposits, so we suggest that you bring in and deposit whatever you have saved. That will make a start, and once started it is truly surprising how quickly a bank account rolls up. I hope that we may have the benefit of your patronage. Very truly yours, The Guardian Trust Company, (Handwritten) _J. D. Wallace_, Secretary. _Where a savings account is inactive_ GUARDIAN TRUST CO. BAYVILLE, N. J. August 10, 1922. Mr. George Dwight, Bayville, N. J. Dear Sir: A little home bank may be made a power for good. It can accomplish nothing by itself, standing unused in an out-of-the-way place. It can only be an assistant to the saver. It can assist your boy and girl to great things. It can assist you in daily economies upon which big results are often built. It cannot furnish the initiative, but it can be a constant reminder and an ever-ready recipient. Why not _use_ the little bank we delivered to you when you opened your savings account with us to teach the children to save, or to collect together small amounts for yourself. Why not? Very truly yours, (Handwritten) _J. D. Wallace_, Secretary. _Checking accounts_ _A letter soliciting a home account:_ GUARDIAN TRUST CO. POUGHKEEPSIE, N. Y. October 14, 1923. Mrs. Hester Wickes, 59 Market Street, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. Dear Madam: Do you ever have arguments over bills that you have paid in cash? Do you always remember to get a receipt? Do you find it a nuisance to carry cash? Do you know that it is dangerous to keep much cash in the house? There can be no dispute about an account if you pay it with a bank check. Your cancelled check is a perfect receipt. More than that, your bank book shows you when, how much, and to whom you have paid money. It is not only the easy way of paying bills but the safe way. You escape all the danger of carrying or having in the house more than mere pocket money. You will find by opening a checking account with us not only the advantages of paying by check but you will also discover many conveniences and services which we are able to offer to you without any charge whatsoever. I hope that you will call and let us explain our services. I enclose a folder telling you more about the bank than I have been able to tell in this letter. Very truly yours, (Handwritten) _J. D. Wallace_, Secretary. P.S. We have some very attractive styles in pocket check books that might interest you. _Soliciting a commercial account_ THE LOGANSBURG NATIONAL BANK LOGANSBURG, WIS. April 15, 1921. Mr. Fred Haynes, 21 Nassau Street, Logansburg, Wis. Dear Sir: Every man in business is entitled to an amount of credit accommodation in accordance with his resources. It is one of the functions of this bank to help the business of the community by extending credit to those who make the business for the community. We are here to be of service and we should like to serve you. I enclose a folder giving the latest statement of the resources of the bank and something about the organization. Will you not drop in some time and at least permit us to become acquainted? Very truly yours, (Handwritten) _R. T. Newell_, President. _General services_ Trust companies and national banks are very generally extending their services to cover the administration of decedents' estates, to advise upon investments, to care for property, and to offer expert tax services. In most cases, these services are set out in booklets and the letter either encloses the booklet or is phrased to have the recipient ask for the booklet. _Letter proffering general services:_ GRIGGS NATIONAL BANK 28 FIFTH AVE. NEW YORK November 16, 1921. Mr. Henry Larkin, 3428 Cathedral Parkway, New York. Dear Sir: We are writing to call your attention to several services which this bank has at your command and which we should be happy to have you avail yourself of: (1) The Bond Department can give you expert and disinterested advice on investments and can in addition offer you a selection of well-chosen season bonds of whatever character a discussion of your affairs may disclose as being best suited to your needs. (2) Our safe deposit vaults will care for your securities and valuable papers at an annual cost which is almost nominal. (3) We have arrangements by which we can issue letters of credit that will be honored anywhere in the world, foreign drafts, and travellers' checks. (4) If you expect to be away through any considerable period or do not care to manage your own investments, our Trust Department will manage them for you and render periodical accounts at a very small cost. This service is especially valuable because so frequently a busy man fails to keep track of conversion privileges and rights to new issues and other matters incident to the owning of securities. (5) We will advise you, if you like, on the disposition of your property by will, and we have experienced and expert facilities for the administration of trusts and estates. I hope that we may have the opportunity of demonstrating the value of some or all of these services to you; it would be a privilege to have you call and become acquainted with the officers in charge of these various departments. I am Very truly yours, (Handwritten) _Lucius Clark_, President. _A letter offering to act as executor_ GRIGGS NATIONAL BANK 28 FIFTH AVENUE NEW YORK June 25, 1923. Mr. Lawrence Loring, 11 River Avenue, Yonkers, N. Y. Dear Sir: May I call to your attention the question which every man of property must at some time gravely consider, and that is the disposition of his estate after death? I presume that as a prudent man you have duly executed a last will and testament, and I presume that it has been drawn with competent legal advice. But the execution of the will is only the beginning. After your death will come the administration of the estate, and it is being more and more recognized that it is not the part of wisdom to leave the administration of an estate in the hands of an individual. It used to be thought that an executor could be qualified by friendship or relationship, but unfortunately it has been proved through the sad experience of many estates that good intentions and integrity do not alone make a good executor. Skill and experience also are needed. This company maintains a trust department, under the supervision of Mr. Thomas G. Shelling, our trust officer, who has had many years of experience in the administration of estates. Associated with him is a force of specialists who can care for any situation, usual or unusual, that may arise. The services of these men can be placed at your disposal. I can offer to you not only their expert services but also the continuity of a great institution. Individuals die. Institutions do not die. If you will turn over in your mind what may be the situation thirty years hence of any individual whom you might presently think of as an executor, I believe you will be impressed with the necessity for the continuity of service that can be offered only by a corporation. In many cases there are personal matters in the estate which a testator may believe can best be handled only by some of his friends. In such a case it is usual to join the individual executors with a corporate executor. It would be a privilege to be able to discuss these matters with you. Very truly yours, (Handwritten) _Lucius Clark_, President. P.S. Wills are quite frequently lost or mislaid and sometimes months elapse before they are discovered. It is needless to point out the expense and inconvenience which may be entailed. We are happy to keep wills free of charge. _A letter offering tax services_ INTERVALE NATIONAL BANK INTERVALE, N. Y. June 1, 1923. Mr. Michael Graham, Intervale, N. Y. Dear Sir: This bank is prepared to advise you in the preparation of your income and other tax returns. It is a service that is yours for the asking, and we hope that you will avail yourself of it. The department is open during banking hours, but if these hours are not convenient to you, special appointments can be made. Very truly yours, (Handwritten) _Samuel Drake_, President. _A letter giving the record of the bank_ INTERVALE NATIONAL BANK INTERVALE, N. Y. July 6, 1923. Mr. Donald West, Intervale, N. Y. Dear Sir: As a depositor you will be interested in the enclosed booklet which records what the officers and directors think is a notable showing for the bank during the past year. I hope that you will also find it inspiring and will pass it on to a friend who is not a depositor with us. May I thank you for your patronage during the past year, and believe me Very truly yours, (Handwritten) _Samuel Drake_, President. LETTERS OF ORDER AND ACKNOWLEDGMENT _Order where the price of articles is known_ North Conway, N. H., August 19, 1921. Messrs. L. T. Banning, 488 Broadway, New York, N. Y. Gentlemen: Please send me, at your earliest convenience, by United States Express, the following: 1 doz. linen handkerchiefs, tape edge, regular size $ 6.00 1 pr. Triumph garters, silk, black .75 4 white oxford tennis shirts, size 15-1/2 @ $3.00 12.00 6 pr. white lisle socks, size 11 @ $.50 3.00 _________ Total $21.75 I am enclosing a money order for $21.75. Yours very truly, Oscar Trent. Enclosure (Money Order) _Order where the price is not known_ Flint, Michigan, July 14, 1922. The Rotunda, 581 State Street, Chicago, Ill. Gentlemen: Please send as soon as possible the following: 2 prs. camel's hair sport stockings, wide-ribbed, size 9 1 blue flannel middy blouse, red decoration, size 16 1 "Dix make" housedress, white piqué, size 38 1 copy of "Main Street" I enclose a money order for thirty dollars ($30.00) and will ask you to refund any balance in my favor after deducting for invoice and express charges. Very truly yours, Florence Kepp. Encl. M. O. Williamsport, Pa., March 10, 1921. Carroll Bros., 814 Chestnut St., Philadelphia, Pa. Gentlemen: Please send me the following articles by parcels post as soon as possible: 2 doz. paper napkins, apple blossom or nasturtium design 1 "Century" cook book 1 pair "Luxury" blue felt bedroom slippers, leather sole and heel 1 large bar imported Castile soap 1 pair elbow length white silk gloves, size 6-3/4 Enclosed is a money order for $15.00. Please refund any balance due me. Yours truly, Janet M. Bent (Mrs. Elmer Bent) _Formal acknowledgments_ It is still a formal custom to acknowledge some kinds of orders by a printed or an engraved form. Some of the older New York business houses use the engraved forms which arose in the days before typewriters and they are very effective. _General acknowledgment forms_ THE GENERAL STORES CO. CHICAGO, ILL. April 18, 1923. Mr. Walter Crump, 29 Adams Street, Maple Centre, Ill. Dear Sir: We acknowledge with thanks your order No. ______ which will be entered for immediate shipment and handled under our No. ______ to which you will please refer if you have occasion to write about it. If we are unable to ship promptly we will write you fully under separate cover. Very truly yours, The General Stores Co. _S._ THE GENERAL STORES CO., CHICAGO, ILL. June 13, 1922. Mr. Joseph Ward, Wadsworth Hill, Ill. Dear Sir: We have received your order __________ requesting attention to __________ No. __________. Unless special attention is demanded, the routine schedule is on a ten-day basis, and we therefore expect to ______ your instrument on or about __________. In corresponding on this subject please refer to order No. ______. Very truly yours, The General Stores Co. _S._ _In answer to a letter without sufficient data_ THE GENERAL STORES CO. CHICAGO, ILL. September 8, 1922. Mrs. Benjamin Brown, Carr City, Ill. Dear Madam: We thank you for your order recently received for one shirt waist and two pairs of stockings. We were unable to proceed with the order, as the size of the waist was not given. If you would be kind enough to state what size you wish, we shall gladly make immediate shipment. Very truly yours, The General Stores Co. _S._ _Where the goods are not in hand_ L. &. L. YOUNG 600 FIFTH AVENUE NEW YORK, N. Y. November 3, 1921. Mrs. John Evans, 500 Park Avenue, New York, N. Y. Dear Madam: We are out of size 5 B at present in the white kid shoes you desire, but we should be pleased to order a pair for you, if you wish, which would take two weeks. If this is not satisfactory to you, perhaps you will call and select another pair. Kindly let us know what you wish done in this matter. Very truly yours, L. & L. Young. LETTERS OF COMPLAINT AND ADJUSTMENT The letter of complaint is purely a matter of stating exactly what the trouble is. The letter replying to the complaint is purely an affair of settling the trouble on a mutually satisfactory basis. The Marshall Field attitude that "the customer is always right" is the one that it pays to assume. The customer is by no means always right, but in the long run the goodwill engendered by this course is worth far more than the inevitable losses through unfair customers. The big Chicago mail order houses have been built up on the principle of returning money without question. Legalistic quibbles have no place in the answer to a complaint. The customer is rightly or wrongly dissatisfied; business is built only on satisfied customers. Therefore the question is not to prove who is right but to satisfy the customer. This doctrine has its limitations, but it is safer to err in the way of doing too much than in doing too little. _Claims for damaged goods_ This letter is complete in that it states what the damage is. 420 Commonwealth Avenue, Boston, Mass., February 8, 1922. Messrs. Wells & Sons, 29 Summer Street, Boston, Mass. Gentlemen: The furniture that I bought on February 3rd came to-day in good condition with the exception of one piece, the green enamel tea-wagon. That has a crack in the glass tray and the lower shelf is scratched. Will you kindly call for it and, if you have one like it in stock, send it to me to replace the damaged one? Very truly yours, Edna Joyce Link. (Mrs. George Link) 830 Main Street, Saltview, N. Y., May 2, 1921. Acme Dishwasher Co., Syracuse, N. Y. Gentlemen: I regret to inform you that the Acme dishwasher which I purchased from your local dealer, I. Jacobs, on December 4, 1920, has failed to live up to your one-year guarantee. In fact, the dishwasher is now in such bad condition that I have not used it for three weeks. I must therefore request that in accordance with the terms of your guarantee you refund the purchase price of ninety dollars ($90). Very truly yours, Eleanor Scott. (Mrs. Lawrence Scott) _Complaint of poor service_ Webster Corners, Mo., April 24, 1920. Messrs. Peter Swann Co., Kansas City, Mo. Gentlemen: Attention Mr. Albert Brann. On Tuesday last I bought at your store two boys' wash suits. This is Monday and the goods have not yet been delivered. The delay has caused me great inconvenience. If this were the first time that you had been careless in sending out orders I should feel less impatient, but three times within the last four weeks I have been similarly annoyed. On March 3rd I sent back my bill for correction, goods returned not having been credited to my account. On March 15th the bill was again sent in its original form with a "please remit." I again wrote, making explanation, but to date have received no reply. If I must be constantly annoyed in this manner, I shall have to close my account. Very truly yours, Helena Young Tremp. (Mrs. Kenneth Tremp) _Replies to letters of complaint_ WELLS & SONS 29 SUMMER STREET BOSTON, MASS. August 12, 1922. Mrs. Samuel Sloane, Chelsea, Mass. Dear Madam: We have your letter of August 8th in regard to the damaged perambulator. We are very sorry indeed that it was damaged, evidently through improper crating, so that there does not seem to be any redress against the railway. We shall be glad to make a reasonable allowance to cover the cost of repairs, or if you do not think the perambulator can be repaired, you may return it to us at our expense and we will give your account credit for it. We will send you a new one in exchange if you desire. Very truly yours, Wells & Sons. WELLS & SONS 29 SUMMER STREET BOSTON, MASS. May 11, 1923. Mrs. Julia Furniss, 29 Oak Street, Somerville, Mass. Dear Madam: We have received your note of May 8th in regard to the bathroom scales on your bill of May 1st. We do not send these scales already assembled as there is considerable danger of breakage, but we shall send a man out to you on Wednesday the twelfth to set them up for you. The missing height bar will be sent to you. Very truly yours, Wells & Sons. THE STERLING SILVER CO. 2800 FIFTH AVE. NEW YORK December 17, 1923. Mrs. Daniel Everett, 290 Washington Square, New York. Dear Madam: We regret that it will be impossible to have your tea spoons marked as we promised. Marking orders were placed in such quantities before yours was received that the work cannot be executed before December 28th. We are, therefore, holding the set for your further instructions and hope that this will not cause any disappointment. Very truly yours, The Sterling Silver Co. REX TYPEWRITER CO. 20 SO. MICHIGAN AVE. CHICAGO, ILL. November 6, 1922. Mr. John Harris, Wayside, Ill. Dear Sir: We are in receipt of the damaged No. 806 typewriter which you returned, and have forwarded a new typewriter which was charged to your account. Please mail us a freight bill properly noted, showing that the typewriter which you returned was received in a damaged condition, so that the cost of repairs can be collected from the transportation company and the proper credit placed to your account. Very truly yours, Rex Typewriter Co. WELLS & SONS 29 SUMMER STREET BOSTON, MASS. September 25, 1922. Mr. Louis Wright, Quincy, Mass. Dear Sir: Our warehouse headquarters have just informed us in reply to our telegram, that your order No. 263 of September 6th was shipped on September 14th by express direct. We regret the delay, and hope the goods have already reached you. Very truly yours, Wells & Sons. WELLS & SONS 29 SUMMER STREET BOSTON, MASS. June 7, 1923. Mrs. Ralph Curtis, 5928 Commonwealth Ave., Boston, Mass. Dear Madam: We are sorry to learn from your letter of June 5th that you found two buttons missing from your suit. We have no more buttons like the one you enclosed and cannot get any, as the suit is an import. But if you will let us know the number of buttons in the entire set, we will send you a complete set of buttons as nearly like the sample as possible. I hope this will be a satisfactory solution. Very truly yours, Wells & Sons. _A routine letter of adjustment_ HALL BROTHERS 500 FOURTH STREET DAYTON, O. January 28,1923. Mr. Philip Drew, 480 Milk Street, Boston, Mass. Dear Sir: We have received your letter of ______ and regret to learn that ______. We will carefully investigate the matter at once and within a day or two will write you fully. Very truly yours, Hall Brothers. WELLS & SONS 29 SUMMER STREET BOSTON, MASS January 2, 1923. Mr. George Larabee, Sunnyside, Vt. Dear Sir: In compliance with your request of December 27th we shall mail our check to-morrow for $16.98 for the humidor which you returned. We regret very much the delay in this matter. Our only excuse for it is the holiday rush in our delivery department which prevented the delivery of the humidor in time for Christmas. We hope you will overlook the delay and give as another opportunity to serve you. Very truly yours, Wells & Sons. CREDIT AND COLLECTION LETTERS Business is done largely on credit, but comparatively few men in business seem to understand that in the letters concerning accounts lies a large opportunity for business building. The old-style credit man thinks that it is all important to avoid credit losses; he opens an account suspiciously and he chases delinquent accounts in the fashion that a dog goes after a cat. Business is not an affair of simply not losing money: it is an affair of making money. Many a credit grantor with a perfect record with respect to losses may be a business killer; he may think that his sole function is to prevent losses. His real function is to promote business. The best credit men in the country are rarely those with the smallest percentage of losses, although it does happen that the man who regards every customer as an asset to be conserved in the end has very few losses. Therefore, in credit granting, in credit refusing, and in collection, the form letter is not to be used without considerable discrimination. It is inadvisable to strike a personal note, and many firms have found it advantageous to get quite away from the letter in the first reminders of overdue accounts. They use printed cards so that the recipient will know that the request is formal and routine. Another point to avoid is disingenuousness, such as "accounts are opened for the convenience of customers." That is an untrue statement. They are opened as a part of a method of doing business and that fact ought clearly to be recognized. It does not help for good feeling to take the "favoring" attitude. Every customer is an asset; every prospective customer is a potential asset. They form part of the good-will of the concern. Tactless credit handling is the most effective way known to dissipate good-will. _To open a charge account_ 4601 Fourth Avenue, New York, May 3, 1922. Hoyt & Jennings, 32 East Forty Eighth Street, New York. Gentlemen: I desire to open a credit account with your company. Will you let me know what information you desire? Very truly yours, Harold Grant. or, according to the circumstances any of the following may be used: I desire to open a line of credit _________________________ I desire to open an account _______________________________ I desire to maintain an open account ______________________ I desire to maintain a charge account _____________________ _Replies to application for credit_ HOYT & JENNINGS 32 EAST 48TH ST. NEW YORK May 8, 1923. Mr. Harold Grant, 48 Dey Street, New York. Dear Sir: May we thank you for your letter of May 3rd in which you expressed a desire to have an account with us? We enclose a copy of our usual form and trust that we shall have the privilege of serving you. Yours very truly, (Handwritten) _F. Burdick_, Credit Manager, Hoyt & Jennings. HOYT & JENNINGS 32 EAST 48TH STREET NEW YORK May 18, 1923. Mr. Harold Grant, 48 Dey Street, New York. Dear Sir: We are glad to notify you that, in accordance with your request, a charge account has been opened in your name. At the beginning of our new business relations, we wish to assure you that we shall try to give satisfaction, both with our goods and with our service. Whenever you purchase an article, it is simply necessary that you inform the sales person waiting on you that you have a charge account--and then give your name and address. As is customary in our business, a statement of purchases made during the preceding month will be rendered and will be due on the first of each month. We are awaiting with pleasant anticipation the pleasure of serving you. Very truly yours, (Handwritten) _F. Burdick_, Credit Manager, Hoyt & Jennings. _Refusing credit_ (This is one of the most difficult of all letters to write and one in which extreme care should be used for it may happen that the references have not replied accurately or that there may be somewhere an error. Many people entitled to credit have never asked for it and therefore have trouble in giving references. A brusque refusal will certainly destroy a potential customer and is always to be avoided. The best plan is to leave the matter open. Then, if the applicant for credit has really a standing, he will eventually prove it.) HOYT & JENNINGS 32 EAST 48TH STREET NEW YORK Mr. Harold Grant, 48 Dey Street, New York. Dear Sir: May we thank you for your letter of May 5th and for the names of those whom you were kind enough to give as references? The information that we have received from them is unfortunately not quite complete enough for the purposes of our formal records. Would you care to furnish us with further references in order that the account may be properly opened? Or perhaps you would rather call in person. Very truly yours, (Handwritten) _F. Burdick_, Credit Manager, Hoyt & Jennings. _Where an order has been sent in by one who has not opened an account_ GREGORY SUPPLY CO. 114 MAIN STREET BALTIMORE, MD. July 13, 1923. J. K. Cramer & Brothers, New Sussex, Md. Gentlemen: We write to thank you for your order of July 10th, amounting to $320 and we are anxious to make shipment quickly. Our records do not show that we have previously been receiving your orders and hence unfortunately we have not the formal information desired by our credit department so that we can open the account that we should like to have in your name. For we trust that this will be only the first of many purchases. Will you favor us by filling out the form enclosed and mailing it back as soon as convenient? The information, of course, will be held strictly confidential. We are preparing the order for shipment and it will be ready to go out. Yours truly, (Handwritten) _B. Allen_, Credit Manager Gregory Supply Co. LETTERS TO REFERENCES GIVEN BY THE APPLICANT _To a bank_ (A bank will not give specific information) GREGORY SUPPLY CO. 114 MAIN STREET BALTIMORE, MD. July 25, 1923. Haines National Bank, Baltimore, Md. Gentlemen: We have received a request from Mr. Cramer of New Sussex, Md., who informs us that he maintains an account with you for the extension of credit. He has given you as a reference. Will you kindly advise us, in confidence and with whatever particularity you find convenient, what you consider his credit rating? Any other information that you may desire to give will be appreciated. We trust that we may have the opportunity to reciprocate your courtesy. Very truly yours, (Handwritten) _B. Allen_, Credit Manager, Gregory Supply Co. _To a commercial house_ GREGORY SUPPLY CO. 114 MAIN STREET BALTIMORE, MD. July 25, 1923. Bunce & Co., 29 Vine Ave., Baltimore, Md. Gentlemen: We shall be much obliged to you if you will kindly inform us concerning your credit experience with Mr. J. K. Cramer of New Sussex, Md., who desires to open an account with us and who has referred us to you. We shall be happy at any time to reciprocate the courtesy. Yours truly, (Handwritten) _B. Allen_, Credit Manager Gregory Supply Co. _Another letter of the same description in a printed form_ (Name and address to be typewritten in) GREGORY SUPPLY CO. 114 MAIN STREET BALTIMORE, MD. (Date to be typewritten in) Gentlemen: J. K. Cramer, of New Sussex, Md., desires to open an account with our store and has given your name as a reference. Your courtesy in answering the questions given below will be appreciated. We shall be glad to reciprocate it at any time. Yours truly, Gregory Supply Co. (Please fill out and return as soon as convenient.) 1. Has he an account with you now? ________________________ 2. How long has he had the account? _______________________ 3. How does he pay? Prompt ______ Medium ______ Slow ______ 4. Have you ever had difficulty in collecting? ____________ 5. What limit have you placed on the account? _____________ 6. Special information. ___________________________________ _In reply to the above_ (A) BUNCE & COMPANY 89 STATE ST. BALTIMORE, MD. July 29, 1923. Gregory Supply Co., Baltimore, Md. Gentlemen: In reply to your letter of October 14th in which you inquire concerning the responsibility of J. K. Cramer of New Sussex, Md., we are glad to help you with the following information. Mr. Cramer has had a charge account with our store during the last five years. Our records show that he has always met our bills in a satisfactory manner. His account is noted for a monthly limit of $300, but he has never reached it. Our own experience is that Mr. Cramer is a desirable customer. Yours very truly, Bunce & Company. (B) WALSH MACHINE CO. 29 ELM STREET BALTIMORE, MD. July 30, 1923. Gregory Supply Co., Baltimore, Md. Gentlemen: Concerning Mr. J. K. C., about whom you inquired in your letter of October 14th, our records show that our experience with this account has not been satisfactory. We find that during the last five years in which he has had an account with us he has caused us considerable trouble with regard to his payments. At the present moment he owes us $240 for purchases made approximately six months ago, to recover which amount we have instructed our attorneys to institute legal proceedings. We hope that this information will be of assistance to you. Yours very truly, Walsh Machine Co. PLUM BROTHERS 2800 BROAD STREET PHILADELPHIA, PA. July 31, 1923. Gregory Supply Co., 614 Main Street, Baltimore, Md. Gentlemen: We are glad to give you the information you wish concerning our experiences with the A. B. C. Company, about whom you inquire in your letter of April 9th. The company first came to us on November 8, 1920. On that date they purchased from us 50 lawn mowers at a total cost of $500. They took advantage of the discount by paying the bill on November 18th. In January, 1921, they gave us an order for 100 at a total cost of $900. This bill they paid in February. Their latest purchase from us was in July, 1921. At this time their order amounted to 25 lawn mowers. They paid the bill in October after we had sent them several requests for remittance. We trust this information will be of some value to you in determining just what amount of credit you may feel justified in extending to them. Very truly yours, (Handwritten) _H. Plum_, Plum Brothers. _Offering credit_ DWIGHT & DAVIS 89 PARK STREET ALBANY, N. Y. October 9, 1922. Mrs. Herbert Reid, 1400 Fourth Avenue, Albany, N. Y. Dear Madam: Whenever you wish to come in and purchase without cash, it will be a great pleasure to us to open a charge account with you. We have made a record here in the store so that whenever you call it will have been arranged for you to purchase whatever you want. We think you will approve of the character of service and the quality of merchandise. We wish to win not only your patronage, but your friendship for our store. Every up-to-date woman realizes the many benefits, the conveniences, and even prestige she enjoys through having a charge account at a dependable store. A store, in turn, is judged by its charge accounts--it is rated by the women who have accounts there. And so, because of your standing in the community, if you avail yourself of our invitation to do your buying here, you are reflecting credit both on yourself and on us. We hope you will decide to let us serve you--all our facilities are completely at your service. We should like you to feel that our store is especially adapted to your needs. Yours very truly, (Handwritten) _C. Dale_, Credit Manager, Dwight & Davis. SUMMIT BOX COMPANY KANSAS CITY, MO. November 13, 1923. George Harrow & Co., 29 Fifth Street, Kansas City, Mo. Gentlemen: We want to thank you for your order of November 10th, with your check enclosed in full payment. We appreciate the business you have been giving us. The thought has frequently occurred to us that you may desire the advantages of an open account with us. We believe that such an arrangement will make transactions more convenient. We therefore have the pleasure of notifying you that we have noted your account for our regular credit terms of 2% 10 net 30, up to a limit of $500. We hope that both your business and our acquaintance with you will develop to such an extent that it will be a pleasure to extend to you from time to time larger credit accommodations to take care of your increasing needs. The business relations between us have been so agreeable that we feel they will continue so. Please remember that if we can ever be of assistance to you in helping you in your business we only ask that you call upon us. Very truly yours, (Handwritten) _G. Harris_ Credit Manager Summit Box Company. Collection letters may very easily be overdone. The old idea was that any expense or any threat was justified if it got the money, but among the more advanced collection departments common sense has crept in, and it has been ascertained by cost-finding methods that it is not worth while to pursue a small account beyond a certain point and that when that point is reached it is economy to drop the matter. How far it is wise to go in attempting to collect an account is an affair of costs, unless one has a penchant for throwing good money after bad. The point to bear in mind in writing a collection letter is that it is a collection letter--that it is an effort to get money which is owed. It would not seem necessary to emphasize so entirely self-evident a point were it not unfortunately sometimes overlooked and the collection letter made an academic exercise. There is no excuse for a long series of collection letters--say eight or ten of them. After a man has received three or four letters you can take it for granted that he is beyond being moved by words. You must then have recourse to some other mode of reaching him. Drawing on a debtor is also of small use; the kind of a man who will honor a collection draft would pay his bill anyhow. If a debtor has assets and there is no dispute concerning the account, he will usually pay. He may pay because you threaten him, but most people with the ability to owe money are quite impervious to threats, and although a threatening letter may seem to bring results, it can never be the best letter because on the other side of the ledger must be recorded the loss of the customer. The average writer of a collection letter usually gets to threatening something or other and quite often exposes himself to the danger of counter legal action. (See Chapter XI on The Law of Letters.) The most successful collection men do not threaten. The best of them actually promote good-will through their handling of the accounts. The bully-ragging, long-winded collection letter has no place in self-respecting business. The so-called statements of collection by which papers drawn up to resemble writs are sent through the mails, or served, not only have no place in business but many of them are actually illegal. The letters which are appended have been chosen both for their effectiveness and their courtesy. They represent the best practice. It is, by the way, not often wise for the creditor to set out his own need for money as a reason why the debtor should pay the account. It is true that the sympathy of the debtor may be aroused, but the tale of misery may lead him to extend comfort rather than aid. However, several such letters have been included, not because they are good but because sometimes they may be used. _Collection letters_ Most firms have adopted a series of collection letters beginning with the routine card reminder of an overdue account and following with gradually increasingly personal second, third, fourth, and so on, letters. _First letter--printed card_ THE ENCLOSED STATEMENT OF ACCOUNT IS SENT TO YOU AS WE BELIEVE YOU HAVE OVERLOOKED ITS PAYMENT. STONE BROTHERS _Second letter_ STONE BROTHERS NEW YORK March 15, 1917. Miss Grace Duncan, 146 Prospect Park West, Brooklyn, N. Y. Dear Madam: There appears an amount of $29.36 open in your name for the months of October to January which, according to our terms of sale, is now overdue, and if no adjustment is necessary, we trust you will kindly favor us with a check in settlement. Very truly yours, Stone Brothers, New York, (Handwritten) _James Miller_, Collection Manager. [Illustration: Specimens of business letterheads used by English firms] _Third letter_ STONE BROTHERS NEW YORK April 2, 1917. Miss Grace Duncan, 146 Prospect Park West, Brooklyn, N. Y. Dear Madam: Our letters of February 15th and March 15th have brought no reply from you. Since they have not been returned by the Post Office we must presume that you received them. You naturally wish to keep your credit clear. We wish to have it clear. It is really a mutual affair. Will you not send a check and keep the account on a pleasant basis? Very truly yours, Stone Brothers, (Handwritten) _James Miller_, Collection Manager. The amount is $29.36. _Fourth letter_ STONE BROTHERS NEW YORK April 16, 1917. Miss Grace Duncan, 146 Prospect Park West, Brooklyn, New York. Dear Madam: We have no desire to resort to the law to collect the $29.36 due us, but unless your remittance is in our hands by May 1st, we shall take definite steps for the legal collection of your account. May we hear from you at once? Very truly yours, Stone Brothers, (Handwritten) _James Miller_, Collection Manager. The following are collection letters of varying degrees of personal tone. In these seven letters are given the body of the letter, with the salutation and the complimentary close. Headings and signatures have been omitted. Dear Sir: A statement is enclosed of your account, which is now past due. A remittance will be appreciated. Yours truly, Dear Madam: We desire to call your attention again to your past-due account for the month of January for $90.52, a statement of which was mailed to you several weeks ago. We shall appreciate receiving your check in payment of this account by return mail. Very truly yours, Gentlemen: Two weeks ago we mailed you a statement of account due at that time, and as we have heard nothing from you we thought it possible that our letter may have miscarried. We are sending you a duplicate of the former statement, which we hope may reach you safely and have your attention. Very truly yours, _To follow the preceding letter_ Gentlemen: We call your attention to the enclosed statement of account which is now past due. We have sent you two statements previous to this, to which you seem to have given no attention. It may be possible that you have overlooked the matter, but we hope this will be a sufficient reminder and that you will oblige us with a remittance without further delay. Very truly yours, Dear Sir: We are enclosing a statement of your account and we request as a special favor that you send us a remittance previous to the 28th of this month if possible. The amount is small, but not the less important. We have unusually heavy obligations maturing on the first of next month and you will understand that for the proper conduct of business the flow of credit should not be dammed up. In looking over your account for the last few months, it occurs to us that we are not getting a great deal of your business. If this is due to any failure or negligence on our part, perhaps you will undertake to show us where we are lacking because we surely want all of your business that we can get. Very truly yours, _Follow-up letters_ Dear Sir: We wrote you on 18th February and enclosed a statement of your account. We hoped at the time that you would send us a check by return mail. If our account does not agree with your books, kindly let us know at once so that we may promptly adjust the differences. We hope that you can accommodate us as requested in our previous letter and that we will hear from you by the 10th of March. We again assure you that a remittance at this particular time will be greatly appreciated. Also please remember that we want your orders, too. Prices on copper wire are likely to make a sharp advance within a few days. Very truly yours, January 19, 1921. Dear Sir: We are enclosing a statement showing the condition of your account at this writing, and we must ask you to be kind enough to do your utmost to forward us your check by return mail. Our fiscal year closes January 31st and it is naturally our pride and endeavor to have as many accounts closed and in good standing as is possible for the coming year, and this can materialize only with your kind coöperation. Very truly yours, LETTERS OF APPLICATION _Application for position as stenographer_ 648 West 168th Street, New York, N. Y., April 4, 1922. Mr. B. C. Kellerman, 1139 Broad Street, New York, N. Y. Dear Sir: This may interest you: I can take dictation at an average rate of 100 words a minute and I can read my notes. They are always accurate. If you will try me, you will find you do not have to repeat any dictation. I never misspell words. I am nineteen, a high school graduate, quick and accurate at figures. I have a good position now, uptown, but I should prefer to be with some large corporation downtown. I am interested in a position with room at the top. I am willing to work for $18 a week until I have demonstrated my ability and then I know you will think me worth more. A letter or a telephone message will bring me in any morning you say to take your morning's dictation, write your letters, and leave the verdict to you. Will you let me try? Very truly yours, Edith Hoyt. Telephone Riverside 8100 _Application for position as secretary_ 149 East 56th Street, Chicago, Ill., December 1, 1923. Mr. Ralph Hodge, Boone & Co., 2000 So. Michigan Ave., Chicago, Ill. Dear Sir: This is in answer to your advertisement for a secretary. I have had the experience and training which would, I think enable me satisfactorily to fill such a position. I recognize, of course, that whatever my experience and training have been they would be worse than useless unless they could be modified to suit your exact requirements. (Here set out the experience.) The lowest salary I have ever received was twelve dollars a week, when I began work. The highest salary I have received was thirty dollars a week, but I think that it would be better to leave the salary matter open until it might be discovered whether I am worth anything or nothing. Very truly yours, (Miss) Mary Rogers. _Answer to an advertisement from an applicant who has had no experience_ 245 East 83rd Street, Chicago, Ill. Mr. Ralph Hodge, Boone & Co., 2000 So. Michigan Ave., Chicago, Ill. Dear Sir: This is in answer to your advertisement for a secretary, in which you ask that the experience of the applicant be set forth. I have had no experience whatsoever as a secretary. Therefore, although I might have a great deal to learn, I should have nothing to unlearn. I understand what is expected of a secretary, and I hope that I have at least the initial qualifications. I have had a fair education, having graduated from Central High School and the Crawford Business Academy, and I have done a great deal of reading. I am told that I can write a good letter. I know that I can take any kind of dictation and that I can transcribe it accurately, and I have no difficulty in writing letters from skeleton suggestions. Your advertisement does not give the particular sort of business that you are engaged in, but in the course of my reading I have gathered a working knowledge of economics, finance, business practice, and geography, some of which might be useful. I am writing this letter in spite of the fact that you specified that experience was necessary, because one of my friends, who is secretary to a very well-known corporation president, told me that she began in her present place quite without experience and found herself helped rather than handicapped by the lack of it. I am twenty-two years old and I can give you any personal or social references that you might care for. I have no ideas whatsoever on salary. In fact, it would be premature even to think of anything of the kind. What I am most anxious about is to have a talk with you. Very truly yours, (Miss) Margaret Booth. _Applications for position as sales manager_ 1249 Huntington Ave., Boston, Mass. Mr. Henry Jessup, White Manufacturing Co., 89 Milk Street, Columbus, O. Dear Sir: Mr. A. C. Brown of the Bronson Company tells me you are in immediate need of a sales manager for the Western Illinois territory. Western Illinois offers a promising opportunity for the sale of farm implements and devices. During my experience with the Johnson & Jones Company, I got to know the people of this section very well, and I know how to approach them. The farmers are well-to-do and ready for improvements that will better their homes, lands, and stock. There could not be a better place to start. As Mr. Brown will tell you, I have been with the Bronson Company for five years. I started as clerk in the credit office, gradually working out into the field--first as investigator, then salesman, and for the last two years as sales manager of the Western Virginia territory. The returns from this field have increased 100 per cent. since I began. With the hearty coöperation of the men on the road, I have built up a system about which I should like to tell you. It would work out splendidly selling Defiance Harrows in Western Illinois. My home is in Joliet and I want to make my headquarters there. I have no other reason for quitting the Bronson Company, who are very fair as far as salary and advancement are considered. My telephone number is Cherry 100. A wire or letter will bring me to Columbus to talk with you. Very truly yours, Gerald Barbour. 70 Blain Ave., Boston, Mass., May 4, 1921. Mr. John Force, 6 Beacon Street, Boston, Mass. Dear Sir: This letter may be of some concern to you. I am not a man out of a job, but have what most men would consider one that is first-class. But I want to change, and if you can give me a little of your time, I will tell you why and how that fact may interest you. In a word, I have outgrown my present position. I want to get in touch with a business that is wide-awake and progressive; one that will permit me to work out, unhampered, my ideas on office organization and management--ideas that are well-founded, conservative, and efficient. My present position does not give play to initiative. If you at this time happen to be looking for a man really to manage your office, audit accounts, or take charge of credits, my qualifications and business record will show you that I am able to act in any or all of these capacities. I have written with confidence because I am sure of myself, and if I undertake to direct your work, you may be assured that it has a big chance of being successful. If you so desire, I shall be glad to submit references in a personal interview. Very truly yours, Clive Drew. Telephone Winthrop 559-w _Answers to letters of application_ HARRISON NATIONAL BANK TRENTON, N. J. February 2, 1923. Mr. James Russell, 63 State Street, Trenton, N. J. Dear Sir: I wish to acknowledge your letter of application of December 8th. At present we have no vacancies of the type you desire. I am, however, placing your application on file. Very truly yours, Samuel Caldwell. HARRISON NATIONAL BANK TRENTON, N. J. February 2, 1923. Mr. James Russell, 63 State Street, Trenton, N. J. Dear Sir: I wish to acknowledge your letter of application of December 8th. At present we have no vacancies of the type that you desire. However, I should be very glad to have a talk with you on December 12th at my office at four o'clock. Very truly yours, Samuel Caldwell. LETTERS OF REFERENCE _Letter asking for reference_ 468 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa., May 5, 1923. Mr. William Moyer, Triumph Hosiery Co., 4000 Broad Street, Philadelphia, Pa. My dear Mr. Moyer: I am looking for a position as cashier with the Bright Weaving Company. My duties there would be similar in every way to my work in your office, and a recommendation from you would help greatly. Mr. Sawyer, the first vice-president of the Bright Weaving Company, knows you personally, hence an opinion from you would have particular effect. Your kindness would be deeply appreciated, as have been all your kindnesses in the past. Yours very sincerely, Philip Rockwell. A useful practice adopted by some firms is the requirement of a photograph from every applicant for a position. HADDON IRON WORKS PHILADELPHIA, PA. _Paste photograph of applicant here_ April 30, 1917. B. F. Harlow & Co., Paterson, N. J. Dear Sirs: Philip Smith (photo attached) has applied to us for a position as steamfitter. His application states that he has been in your employ for three years and that he is leaving to take a position in this city. As all applicants are required by us to furnish references as to character and ability, we shall appreciate your giving us the following information. Very truly yours, (Handwritten) _Samuel Sloane_, Employment Manager. Is his statement correct? Are his character and habits good? Had he the confidence of his employers? Can he fill the position for which he has applied? Remarks: Signed Dated _Some general letters of recommendation_ March 4, 1923. To Whom It May Concern: I have known the bearer, John Hope, for four years. He is of fine family and has been one of our most highly regarded young men. I would heartily recommend him. Richard Brown. April 18, 1922. Gentlemen: The bearer, George Frothingham, is a young man of my acquaintance whom I know and whose family I have known for some time. They are splendid people. This boy is ambitious and thoroughly reliable. I hope you can find a place for him. Very truly yours, Gerald Law. June 16, 1922. To Whom It May Concern: This is to certify that the bearer, Ernest Hill, is an acquaintance of mine, a man whom I know to be thoroughly trustworthy. Harold Smith. July 12, 1923. Dear Sir: This is to certify that Joseph Rance has been in my employ for eighteen months. He is a most willing and able worker, honest, steady, and faithful. I regret that I was obliged to let him go from my employ. I feel very safe in highly recommending him to you. Very truly yours, George Bunce. _Recommendation for a special position_ HARCOURT MANUFACTURING CO. 29 BOYLSTON STREET BOSTON, MASS. October 10, 1921. Mr. Gordon Edwards, 48 Tremont Street, Boston, Mass. Dear Mr. Edwards: At luncheon last Wednesday you mentioned that you were in need of another advertising writer. If the position is still open, I should like to recommend Mr. Bruce Walker. When I first met Mr. Walker he was with Bellamy, Sears & Co., Boston, and was doing most of their newspaper advertising. His work was so good that I offered him a position as advertising writer with us. He accepted, with the approval of Bellamy Sears & Co., and has been with me for the last three years. He has written for us some of the best drawing copy that we ever used, and his work has been satisfactory in every way. He is original and modern in his advertising ideas, and knows how to express them forcefully but without exaggeration. His English is perfect. I shall greatly regret losing Mr. Walker, but I cannot advance him above his present position, and I agree with him that he is equal to a bigger position than he has here. I hope you can give him the opportunity that he seeks. If you will see him personally, you will oblige both him and me. Very sincerely yours, B. A. Yeomans. _Thanks for recommendation_ 29 Kelley Ave., Cleveland, O., October 4, 1923. Mr. John Saunders, Jones Publishing Co., Cleveland, O. My dear Mr. Saunders: Your influence and kindly interest have secured for me the position with Tully & Clark. I want to thank you for the excellent recommendation which you gave me and to assure you that I shall give my best attention to my new work. Very truly yours, John Dillon. LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION The method of delivering letters of introduction is fully described under social letters of introduction. _Answer to a request for a letter of introduction_ 89 Grand Ave., Detroit, Mich., August 8, 1923. Mr. Albert Hall, 29 Main Street, Detroit, Mich. My dear Mr. Hall: Accompanying this note you find letters of introduction which I hope will be what you want. I am glad to give you these letters and should you need any further assistance of this kind, please consider me at your disposal. Yours truly, Clement Wilks. _General letters of introduction_ 89 Grand Ave., Detroit, Mich., August 8, 1923. This will introduce the bearer, Mr. Albert Hall, whom I personally know as being a gentleman in conduct and reputation. Any courtesy shown to Mr. Hall I shall consider a favor to myself, and I ask for him all possible attention and service. Clement Wilks. June 9, 1923. To Whom It May Concern: The bearer, David Clark, has been an acquaintance of mine for five years. He is a young man of good habits. I would recommend him for any position within his ability. Ellery Saunders. _Special introduction_ (The inside address, heading, and signature are to be supplied) Dear Sir: Mr. Walter Green, whom this will introduce to you, is a member of our Credit Department. He is visiting New York on a personal matter, but he has offered to make a personal investigation of the Crump case and I have advised him to see you, as the man who knows most about that affair. If you can find the time to give him a brief interview, you will do him a favor, and I also shall appreciate it. Yours very truly, __________________ Vice-President. _Introducing a stenographer in order to secure a position for her_ 100 Wall Street, New York, N. Y., February 6, 1921. Mr. William Everett, 347 Madison Avenue, New York, N. Y. My dear Mr. Everett: The bearer of this letter, Miss Mildred Bryan, my stenographer, is available for a position, owing to the fact that I am moving my office to Cincinnati. She is an unusually competent young woman--quick, accurate, intelligent, and familiar with the routine of a law office. If you need a stenographer, you cannot do better than engage Miss Bryan, and I am taking the liberty of giving her this letter for you. Very truly yours, Howard S. Briggs. LETTERS OF INQUIRY _Requests for information_ Bradford Mills, Pa., August 9, 1923. Dr. Louis Elliott, 29 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. My dear Dr. Elliott: I am writing a paper on Vitamines to be read before the Mothers' Club, an organization of Bradford Mills mothers. I have drawn most of my material from your article in the _Medical Magazine_, acknowledging, of course, the source of my information. There are several points, however, on which I am not clear. As it is of great importance that this subject be presented to the mothers correctly, I am addressing you personally to get the facts. 1. Am I to understand that no other foods than those you mention contain these vitamines? 2. Are all the classes of vitamines necessary to life and will a child fed on foods containing all the known vitamines be better conditioned than one fed on only one kind? I shall greatly appreciate your answering my questions. The members of the club have shown surprising interest in this matter of food. Yours sincerely, Mabel Manners. 128 East Forty-Sixth Street, New York, N. Y., June 15, 1922. The Prentiss Candy Co., Long Island City, N. Y. Gentlemen: The _Better Food Magazine_, to which I am a contributor, has asked me to make an investigation of the manufacture of the most widely advertised foods, with a view to writing an article on foods for the magazine. I should like if possible to talk with someone and to make a short visit to the factory. If you can arrange an appointment for me during the next week, will you let me know? I shall greatly appreciate it. Very truly yours, (Miss) Vera Henderson. _Answers to letters of inquiry_ THE PRENTISS CANDY CO. LONG ISLAND CITY, N. Y. June 17, 1922. Miss Vera Henderson, 128 East Forty-Sixth Street, New York, N. Y. Dear Madam: We have your letter of 15th June and we shall be glad to give you any assistance in our power. If you will call at the factory office next week on Tuesday the 22nd or Wednesday the 23rd and present the enclosed card to Mr. Jones, you will get all the information you desire. Very truly yours, (Handwritten) _B. J. Clark_, The Prentiss Candy Co. PINE GROVE LODGE, STANTON, N. Y. ABSOLUTELY FIREPROOF OPEN ALL THE YEAR THE FINEST RESORT HOTEL IN THE COUNTRY May 6, 1921. Mr. Charles Keith, 4000 Madison Ave., New York, N. Y. Dear Sir: We have your letter of May 4th and in answer we are enclosing some of our descriptive literature. We can offer you absolute comfort together with an almost matchless environment in the points of beauty and of suitability for all sports. Our rates are on the American plan. We have the finest American plan kitchen and table anywhere. We enclose a menu. Our single rooms with private bath are $50, $62, and $70 per week up for one person. Rooms without bath, but with hot and cold running water and adjacent to bath are $45 per week. Double rooms with private bath and furnished with two single beds are $95, $105, and $115 per week up for two persons. Rooms for two without bath are $80 per week. These rates hold until September 1st. The difference in rates is caused by the size and location of rooms, but every room is furnished with taste and care. The decorations have been carefully thought out. There are no undesirable rooms at the Lodge and every room is an outside room. Those on the east overlook the 120-acre golf course with a magnificent view of the mountains, and those on the west front the wooded slopes of Sunset Mountain. Stanton affords the greatest combination of scenery, health-giving climate, and facilities for enjoyment. Add to this the comforts and luxuries of a modern hotel such as Pine Grove Lodge and the result is perfect. We feel quite sure you will find a visit here restful or lively--as you will. One of the attractions of the place is its facilities for occupying oneself in one's own way. We shall be glad to make reservation for you at any time or to answer any further inquiries. Yours very truly, Pine Grove Lodge. If you should receive an inquiry for advice, opinion, or information, which you do not care, for some reason, to give, you should at least reply stating that you cannot comply with the request, in as courteous a manner as possible. CHAPTER VIII THE USE OF FORM PARAGRAPHS A considerable part of the day's run of correspondence in a business office has to do with not more than half-a-dozen subjects. Quotations will be asked for. Tenders will be made. Complaints will be made and received. Adjustments of various kinds will be done, and so on, through a list that varies with the particular business of the office. It is advisable to keep the tone of correspondence on a fairly uniform level. Therefore if each letter has to be individually dictated, only a man mentally equipped to write letters can do the dictating. The time of such a man is expensive and often might better be devoted to other matters. Hence the invention of what is known as a form paragraph, which is a standardized paragraph that can be used with slight variations as a section of a great many letters. The result is that most routine mail does not have to be dictated. A letter is merely read, the essential facts dictated or noted on the letter itself, and certain symbols added which tell the stenographer the form paragraphs that are to be used. The letter is then almost mechanically produced. Some companies have gone so extensively into the writing of form paragraphs that they have sections covering practically every subject that can arise. This possibly carrying the idea too far. Convenience may become inconvenience, and there is of course always the danger of getting in a slightly unsuitable paragraph which will reveal to the reader that the letter has not been personally dictated. However, a certain number of form paragraphs considerably reduces the cost of letter writing and also conduces to the raising of the standards, for the mere reading of well-phrased form letters will often induce in an otherwise poor correspondent a certain regard for clear expression. The proper form paragraphs that any concern may profitably use are a matter of specific investigation. The way to get at the list of useful forms is to take all of the letters received and all of the letters written during, say, one or two months and then classify them. A number of letters will have to do with purely individual cases. These letters should be discarded. They are letters which would have to be personally dictated in any event and there is no use wasting time composing forms for them. The remaining letters will fall into divisions, and through these divisions it will become apparent what points in the correspondence arise so frequently and in so nearly the same form as to be capable of being expressed in form paragraphs. There will probably be a number of subjects which can be covered fully by two or three form letters, but a nicer adjustment will usually be had by thinking of form paragraphs rather than of form letters, for skillfully drawn and skillfully used form paragraphs will so closely simulate the personal letter as to leave no doubt in the mind of the reader that considerable trouble has been taken to put the matter before him courteously and exactly. CHAPTER IX CHILDREN'S LETTERS Children's letters may be written on ordinary stationery, but it adds a good deal of interest to their letter writing if they may use some of the several pretty, special styles to be had at any good stationer's. The following examples of children's letters include: Letter of invitation from a child to a child. Letter of invitation from a parent to a child. Letter from a parent to a parent inviting a child. Letter of thanks to an aunt for a gift. Letter to a sick playmate. Letter to a teacher. Letter to a grandmother on her birthday. _Invitation to a birthday party_ April 14, 1921. Dear Frank: I am going to have a birthday party next Friday afternoon, from three-thirty until six o'clock. I hope you will come and help us to have a good time. Sincerely yours, Harriet Evans. 500 Park Avenue _Accepting_ 439 Manhattan Avenue, April 16, 1921. Dear Harriet: It is so kind of you to ask me to your birthday party next Friday afternoon. I shall be very glad to come. Sincerely yours, Frank Dawson. _Regretting_ 439 Manhattan Avenue, April 16, 1921. Dear Harriet: I am very sorry that I cannot go to your birthday party on next Friday. My mother is taking me to visit my cousin, so I shall be away. Thank you for asking me. I hope you will all have a great deal of fun. Sincerely yours, Frank Dawson. _Invitation from a parent to a child_ Dear Ethel: The twins are going to have a little party on Friday afternoon and they would like you to come. Can you come at three-thirty? Tell your mother we will arrange that you get home at six. Cordially yours, Katherine G. Evans. _From a parent to another parent_ Dear Mrs. Heywood: Dorothy will have a birthday on Tuesday, the thirteenth of June. We are planning, if the weather is fine, to have a lawn party. Otherwise we shall have it in the house. She hopes that you will let Madeline come and I am sure they will all have a good time. If you send Madeline at four I will see that she returns home at six. Cordially yours, Bernice Lawson Grant. _To a friend_ Bellville, Lancaster County, Pa., June 14, 1922. Dear Bob: Will you visit us on the farm during your summer vacation? Father has bought me a boat and we can go fishing and swimming. Mabel has a pony and I know she will let us ride him. Please let me know if you may come and if you may stay two weeks. Sincerely yours, Roger Palmer. _Thanks for a gift:_ 159 West Tenth Street. December 12, 1921. Dear Aunt Louise: You were wonderful to think of sending me those fine skates for my birthday. They are just the kind I wanted and I wish to thank you. I shall take good care of them. Your affectionate nephew, John Orr. _To a sick playmate_ 46 Elmwood Avenue, June 16, 1922. Dear Dorothy: I am so sorry you are ill, but your mother says you are getting better. If you like, I shall let you have my book with the poem called "The Land of Counterpane." It is about a sick little boy who is playing with his toy soldiers and people and villages. In the picture they seem to be making him forget he is sick. All the boys and girls hope you will soon be out to play again. Sincerely yours, Betty Foster. _To a teacher_ 500 Park Avenue, New York, N. Y., February 8, 1920. Dear Miss Sewell: I want to thank you for your kindness in helping me with my studies, especially arithmetic. Without your help I should not have been able to pass my examinations. Mother asks that you will come some day next week to take tea with us. Sincerely yours, Susan Evans. _To a grandparent_ Dear Grandmother: I wish you a very happy birthday and I hope you will like the present I sent you. Mother helped me to make it. I send you my best love. Your loving grandchild, Evelyn. Here is a charming letter[17] that Helen Keller when she was ten years of age wrote to John Greenleaf Whittier on the occasion of his birthday: South Boston, Dec. 17, 1890. Dear Kind Poet, This is your birthday; that was the first thought which came into my mind when I awoke this morning; and it made me glad to think I could write you a letter and tell you how much your little friends love their sweet poet and his birthday. This evening they are going to entertain their friends with readings from your poems and music. I hope the swift winged messengers of love will be here to carry some of the sweet melody to you, in your little study by the Merrimac. At first I was very sorry when I found that the sun had hidden his shining face behind dull clouds, but afterwards I thought why he did it, and then I was happy. The sun knows that you like to see the world covered with beautiful white snow and so he kept back all his brightness, and let the little crystals form in the sky. When they are ready, they will softly fall and tenderly cover every object. Then the sun will appear in all his radiance and fill the world with light. If I were with you to-day I would give you eighty-three kisses, one for each year you have lived. Eighty-three years seems very long to me. Does it seem long to you? I wonder how many years there will be in eternity. I am afraid I cannot think about so much time. I received the letter which you wrote to me last summer, and I thank you for it. I am staying in Boston now at the Institution for the Blind, but I have not commenced my studies yet, because my dearest friend, Mr. Anagnos, wants me to rest and play a great deal. Teacher is well and sends her kind remembrance to you. The happy Christmas time is almost here! I can hardly wait for the fun to begin! I hope your Christmas Day will be a very happy one and that the New Year will be full of brightness and joy for you and every one. From your little friend Helen A. Keller. [17] This and the letter following are from "The Story of My Life," by Helen Keller. Copyright, 1902, 1903, by Helen Keller. Published in book form by Doubleday, Page & Co. And the distinguished poet's reply: My dear Young Friend: I was very glad to have such a pleasant letter on my birthday. I had two or three hundred others and thine was one of the most welcome of all. I must tell thee about how the day passed at Oak Knoll. Of course the sun did not shine, but we had great open wood fires in the rooms, which were all very sweet with roses and other flowers, which were sent to me from distant friends; and fruits of all kinds from California and other places. Some relatives and dear old friends were with me through the day. I do not wonder thee thinks eighty-three years a long time, but to me it seems but a very little while since I was a boy no older than thee, playing on the old farm at Haverhill. I thank thee for all thy good wishes, and wish thee as many. I am glad thee is at the Institution; it is an excellent place. Give my best regards to Miss Sullivan, and with a great deal of love I am Thy old friend, John G. Whittier. CHAPTER X TELEGRAMS Perhaps the most important thing to guard against in the writing of telegrams is a choice of words which, when run together, may be read two ways. As there should be no punctuation (and telegraph companies do not hold themselves responsible for punctuation) the sentences must be perfectly clear. There are instances where the use of punctuation has caused trouble. In cases where punctuation is absolutely necessary, as for instance when more than one subject must be covered in the same message, the word "stop" is employed to divide the sentences, as: Will arrive eight-thirty Wednesday stop telephone Gaines am coming stop will be at Hotel Pennsylvania Therefore write sentences so that when they are run together there is only one interpretation. Use no salutation or complimentary closing. Leave out all words that are not necessary to the meaning. Omit first-person pronouns where they are sure to be understood. Do not divide words in a telegram. Compound words are accepted as one word. Numbers should be spelled out, principally because it is more likely to insure correct transmission, and secondly because it costs less. For example, in the ordinal 24th the suffix _th_ is counted as another word. The minimum charge for telegrams is the cost of ten words, not counting the name, address, and signature. Nothing is saved by cutting the message to less than ten words. There is a certain fixed rate of charge for every word over ten. In counting the words, count as one word the following: I--Every word in the name of an individual or a concern as: Clive and Meyer Co. (four words) DeForest and Washburn Co. (four words also, as DeForest is counted as one word). II--Every dictionary word. In the case of cablegrams, words of over fifteen letters are counted as two words. III--Every separate letter as the "M" in "George M. Sykes" (three words). IV--Every figure in a number as 598 (three words). V--Names of states, territories, counties, cities, and villages. VI--Weights and measures, decimal points, punctuation marks within the sentence. To save expense in long messages codes can be used in which one word stands for several words. The Western Union has an established code--or private codes can be arranged. Five letters are allowed as one code word. A word of six or seven letters will thus count as two words. In cablegrams the use of codes is common on account of the higher rate for cablegrams. Since the name, address, date, and signature are all counted, code words are frequently used for the name and address. Code language is allowed only in the first class of cable messages. OCCASIONAL TELEGRAMS A graceful, concise, pertinent, and well-worded "occasional" telegram is frequently not easy to write. The following forms are suggested for the composition of some of these telegrams. The longer forms can be sent most cheaply as Night Letters or Day Letters. A Night Letter of fifty words can be sent for the cost of a ten-word full-rate telegram, i.e., from 30 cents to $1.20, depending on the distance. A Day Letter of fifty words can be sent for one and one half the cost of a ten-word full-rate message, i.e., from 45 cents to $1.80, depending on the distance. _New Year greetings_ Best wishes for the New Year. May it bring to you and your family health, happiness, peace, and prosperity. May it see your hopes fulfilled and may it be rich in the successful accomplishment of your highest aims. Best wishes for a Happy New Year. May peace and happiness be yours in the New Year. May fortune smile upon you and favor you with many blessings. I (We) wish you a Happy New Year, a year big with success and achievement, a year rich with the affection of those who are dear to you, a year mellow with happiness and contentment. What the coming year may hold we can none of us foresee. It is my (our) earnest wish that for you it may bring forth a generous harvest of happiness and good fortune. May the coming year and all that succeed it deal lightly and kindly with you. May the coming year bring you happiness in fullest measure. We think of you with the affection born of our long friendship which the recurring year only strengthens. May the New Year bring you health, happiness, and all other good things. Health, happiness, and contentment, may these be yours in the New Year. May health, happiness, and prosperity be yours in bountiful measure in the year to come. May the New Year be a good year to you and yours--full of health and happiness. May each of the three hundred and sixty-five days of the New Year be a happy one for you. The happiest of New Years to you and yours. May the New Year find you in the enjoyment of health and happiness. _Easter greetings_ Our thoughts turn to you with affection and best wishes at this Easter season with the hope that peace, prosperity, and plenty may attend your life to-day and through all your days to come. Easter Greeting from a friend who thinks of you with constant affection. This Easter Greeting carries to you the affection of an old friend. May this Easter Day find you in the enjoyment of health and happiness. Best wishes for a happy Easter. Best wishes for a happy Easter Day. May your future ever be as bright as the Springtime. Just a message to a friend, to convey to you my wish that this Easter may bring you happiness and good fortune. May Easter gladness fill your heart to-day and may all good attend you. I (We) Wish you joy and happiness at this Eastertide. May happiness and health be yours on this Easter Day and in the days to come. We all join in best wishes for a happy Easter Day to you and your family. Easter Greetings to you and yours. May your Easter be a bright and happy one. We all wish you and yours a happy Easter. Love and best wishes for a happy Easter. My (Our) Easter Greetings go to you. May the day be a joyful one for you. _Thanksgiving Day greetings_ Best wishes for a happy Thanksgiving Day. Good cheer and plenty, the love of your dear ones, the affection of your friends, may all these contribute to a happy Thanksgiving Day. May your Thanksgiving Day be a day of happiness and contentment. May your Thanksgiving Day be full of happiness and all good cheer. That I am (we are) not at home to-day to join in the festivities is a great sorrow to me (us). Love to all the dear family. I never forget the joy of this day at home. Love from one far away. Although I (we) cannot be with you to-day I (we) have the memory of past Thanksgiving Days at home. God bless you all. Think of me (us) as being with you in spirit. My (Our) love to you all. Let us never fail to be thankful that the years only increase the strength of our long friendship. It is with great thanksgiving that I (we) think of my (our) dear ones at home. My (Our) one wish this Thanksgiving Day is that I (we) might be with you. Affectionate wishes for your happiness. Though I (we) cannot be with you at the Thanksgiving Day board, my (our) thoughts are with you to-day. Around the family table think of me (us) as I (we) absent, shall think of you. My (Our) love to all. I (We) can picture you all at home. How I (we) long to be with you. My (Our) love to all the family. _Christmas greetings_ Every good wish for a Merry Christmas and a happy and prosperous New Year. I need not tell you with what affection we are thinking of you and yours at this Christmas season. God bless you all. Every good wish for a Merry Christmas and a happy and prosperous New Year. My (Our) very best wishes for a Merry Christmas. Merry Christmas to you and yours. May your Christmas be a very happy one. Merry Christmas to you and all the family. We all join in wishing you a Merry Christmas. All affection and good wishes for a Merry Christmas to you and yours. That your Christmas be a very happy one is the wish of your sincere friend. May Christmas bring you joy and happiness. You are constantly in my (our) thoughts which carry to you to-day all affectionate wishes for a Happy Christmas. A Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year. Best wishes for a Merry Christmas and Happy New Year. Love and a Merry Christmas to you all. May your Christmas be a merry one and the New Year full of happiness. Affectionate greetings for a Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year. May this Christmas find you well and happy. Love and best wishes to you and yours. May Christmas bring you naught but joy and banish all care and sorrow. ---- joins me in very best wishes for a Merry Christmas. A Merry Christmas to all the dear ones at home. It is my (our) dearest wish that I (we) might be with you at this season of happiness and good-will--Merry Christmas and Happy New Year. _Birthday greetings_ Many happy returns of the day. My (Our) affectionate thoughts and every good wish go to you on this your birthday. May each succeeding year bring to you the best satisfaction which life holds. Many happy returns of the day. Best wishes for a happy birthday. Best wishes for your birthday. May all your ways be pleasant ways and all your days be happy days. Birthday greetings. I (We) wish you a long life and everything that makes a long life worth living. Best wishes for your birthday. May you live long and prosper. My (Our) thoughts are with you on your birthday. May all your days be happy days. I (We) wish you many happy years blessed with health, success, and friendship and filled with all the best that life can hold. We all join in best wishes for a very happy birthday and many years of health and prosperity. We all join in best wishes for a very happy birthday. May your birthday mark the dawn of a year of health, happiness, and good fortune. _Wedding messages_ Sincerest congratulations to the bride and groom from an old friend who wishes you both years of health, happiness, and prosperity. May the future hold only the best for you that this world can give. Heartiest congratulations. I (We) wish you many years of happiness. Mrs. ---- and I join in heartiest congratulations. Hearty congratulations. May your years be many and happy ones. My (Our) sincerest and best wishes for your happiness. We all join in hearty congratulations and best wishes. May happiness, health, and prosperity be with you through the years to come. May all good fortune attend you, may your sky ever be bright, may no clouds of sorrow or trouble shadow it, and may your path be long and filled with joy. Every happiness be yours dear ---- on this your Wedding Day. Let an old family friend send his (her) love and congratulations to the bride and groom. May all good fairies watch over you. May they keep far from you all care and sorrow and brighten your path with sunshine and happiness. To the bride and groom, love and congratulations from an old friend. May this day be the beginning of a long, happy, and prosperous life for you both. _On the birth of a child_ Love to the dear mother and her little son (daughter). Heartiest congratulations and love to mother and son (daughter). We rejoice with you in the happiness that has come into your lives. Love to mother and son (daughter). My best wishes to the newly arrived son (daughter) and to his (her) mother. We are all (I am) delighted to hear the news. Hearty congratulations. A warm welcome to the new arrival and best wishes for his (her) health and happiness. To the dear mother and her little son (daughter) love and every good wish. Hearty congratulations on the arrival of the new son (daughter). _Messages of condolence_ You have my heartfelt sympathy in this hour of your bereavement. I wish I might find words in which to express my sorrow at your loss which is also mine. May you have the strength to bear this great affliction. You have my (our) heartfelt sympathy. My (Our) heartfelt sympathy in your great sorrow. I (We) want you to know with what tender sympathy I am (We are) thinking of you in these days of your bereavement. My (Our) sincere and heartfelt sympathy. I (We) have just heard of your great affliction. Let me (us) send to you my (our) heartfelt sympathy. My (Our) sincere sympathy. In the death of your dear father (mother--wife--sister--brother) I (we) have lost one whom it was my (our) privilege to call my (our) friend. My (our) heartfelt sympathy goes out to you in your sorrow. ---- joins me in the expression of our deepest sympathy. My (Our) love and sympathy go out to you in your great sorrow. I (We) share your sorrow for I (we) have lost a dear friend. All love and sympathy to you and yours. I (We) send you my (our) heartfelt sympathy. To have enjoyed the friendship of your father (husband--brother) I (we) hold one of the greatest privileges of my life (our lives). My (Our) sincere sympathy goes out to you in your heavy affliction. My (Our) love and sympathy in your sudden affliction. I am (We are) greatly shocked at the sad news. You have my (our) deepest sympathy. My (Our) deepest sympathy in your great loss. If there is anything I (we) can do, do not hesitate to let me (us) know. _Congratulation to a school or college graduate_ May your future be as successful as have been your school (college) days. Heartiest congratulations upon your graduation. I am (We are) proud of your success. May the future grant you opportunity and the fulfillment of your hopes. I (We) hear that you have taken class honors. Sincerest congratulations and best wishes. May your Class Day be favored with sunny skies and your life be full of happiness and success. Sincerest congratulations upon your graduation. Congratulations upon your school (college) success, so happily terminated to-day. I (We) regret that I (we) cannot be with you to-day to see you take your new honors. Sincerest congratulations. _Congratulation to a public man_ Heartiest congratulations on your splendid success. We have just heard of your success. Sincere congratulations and best wishes for the future. Heartiest congratulations on your nomination (election). Your nomination (election) testifies to the esteem in which you are held by your fellow citizens. Heartiest congratulations. Congratulations on your victory, a hard fight, well won by the best man. Your splendid majority must be a great satisfaction to you. Sincerest congratulations on your election. Congratulations upon your nomination. You will have the support of the best element in the community and your election should be a foregone conclusion. I wish you every success. You fought a good fight in a good cause. Heartiest congratulations on your splendid success. Nothing in your career should fill you with greater satisfaction than your successful election. I congratulate you with all my heart. No man deserves success more than you. You have worked hard for your constituents and they appreciate it. Heartiest congratulations. Your nomination (election) is received with the greatest enthusiasm by your friends here and by none more than myself. Heartiest congratulations. I congratulate you upon your new honors won by distinguished services to your fellow citizens. Your campaign was vigorous and fine. Your victory testifies to the people's confidence in you and your cause. Warmest congratulations. Congratulations upon your well-won victory and best wishes for your future success. You deserve your splendid success. Sincerest congratulations. I cannot refrain from expressing my personal appreciation of your eloquent address. Warmest congratulations. Your address last night was splendid. What a gift you have. Sincerest congratulations. Heartiest congratulations on your splendid speech of last night. Everybody is praising it. CHAPTER XI THE LAW OF LETTERS--CONTRACT LETTERS There are forty-eight states in this Union, and each of them has its own laws and courts. In addition we have the Federal Government with its own laws and courts. In one class of cases, the Federal courts follow the state laws which govern the particular occasion; in another class of cases, notably in those involving the interpretation or application of the United States statutes, the Federal courts follow Federal law. There is not even a degree of uniformity governing the state laws, and especially is this true in criminal actions, for crimes are purely statutory creations. Therefore it is extremely misleading to give any but the vaguest and most elementary suggestions on the law which governs letters. To be clear and specific means inevitably to be misleading. I was talking with a lawyer friend not long since about general text-books on law which might be useful to the layman. He was rather a commercially minded person and he spoke fervently: "If I wanted to build up a practice and I did not care how I did it, I should select one hundred well-to-do people and see that each of them got a copy of a compendium of business law. Then I should sit back and wait for them to come in--and come in they would, for every mother's son of them would decide that he had a knowledge of the law and cheerfully go ahead getting himself into trouble." Sharpen up a man's knowledge of the law and he is sure to cut himself. For the law is rarely absolute. Most questions are of mixed fact and law. Were it otherwise, there would be no occasion for juries, for, roughly, juries decide facts. The court decides the application of the law. The layman tends to think that laws are rules, when more often they are only guides. The cheapest and best way to decide points of law is to refer them to counsel for decision. Unless a layman will take the time and the trouble most exhaustively to read works of law and gain something in the nature of a working legal knowledge, he had best take for granted that he knows nothing whatsoever of law and refer all legal matters to counsel. There are, however, a few principles of general application that may serve, not in the stead of legal knowledge, but to acquaint one with the fact that a legal question may be involved, for legal questions by no means always formally present themselves in barristers' gowns. They spring up casually and unexpectedly. Take the whole question of contract. A contract is not of necessity a formal instrument. A contract is a meeting of minds. If I say to a man: "Will you cut my lawn for ten dollars?" and he answers, "Yes," as valid a contract is established as though we had gone to a scrivener and had covered a folio of parchment with "Whereases" and "Know all men by these presents" and "Be it therefore" and had wound up with red seals and ribbons. But of course many legal questions could spring out of this oral agreement. We might dispute as to what was meant by cutting the lawn. And then, again, the time element would enter. Was the agreement that the lawn should be cut the next day, or the next month, or the next year? Contracts do not have to be in writing. All that the writing does is to make the proof of the exact contract easier. If we have the entirety of a contract within the four corners of a sheet of paper, then we need no further evidence as to the existence of the contract, although we may be in just as hopeless a mess trying to define what the words of the contract mean. If we have not a written contract, we have the bother of introducing oral evidence to show that there was a contract. Most contracts nowadays are formed by the interchange of letters, and the general point to remember is that the acceptance must be in terms of the offer. If X writes saying: "I will sell you twenty tons of coal at fifteen dollars a ton," and Y replies: "I will take thirty tons of coal at thirteen dollars a ton," there is no contract, but merely a series of offers. If, however, X ships the thirty tons of coal, he can hold Y only at thirteen dollars a ton for he has abandoned his original offer and accepted Y's offer. It can be taken as a general principle that if an offer be not accepted in its terms and a new condition be introduced, then the acceptance really becomes an offer, and if the one who made the original offer goes ahead, it can be assumed that he has agreed to the modifications of the unresponsive acceptance. If X writes to Y making an offer, one of the conditions of which is that it must be accepted within ten days, and Y accepts in fifteen days, then X can, if he likes, disregard the acceptance, but he can waive his ten-day time limit and take Y's acceptance as a really binding agreement. Another point, sometimes of considerable importance, concerns the time when a letter takes effect, and this is governed by the question of fact as to whom the Post Office Department is acting for. If, in making an offer, I ask for a reply by mail or simply for a reply, I constitute the mail as my agent, and the acceptor of that offer will be presumed to have communicated with me at the moment when he consigns his letter to the mails. He must give the letter into proper custody--that is, it must go into the regular and authorized channels for the reception of mail. That done, it makes no difference whether or not the letter ever reaches the offerer. It has been delivered to his agent, and delivery to an agent is delivery to the principal. Therefore, it is wise to specify in an offer that the acceptance has to be actually received. The law with respect to the agency of the mails varies and turns principally upon questions of fact. Letters may, of course, be libelous. The law of libel varies widely among the several states, and there are also Federal laws as well as Postal Regulations covering matters which are akin to libel. The answer to libel is truth, but not always, for sometimes the truth may be spread with so malicious an intent as to support an action. It is not well to put into a letter any derogatory or subversive statement that cannot be fully proved. This becomes of particular importance in answering inquiries concerning character or credit, but in practically every case libel is a question of fact. Another point that arises concerns the property in a letter. Does he who receives a letter acquire full property in it? May he publish it without permission? In general he does not acquire full property. Mr. Justice Story, in a leading case, says: "The author of any letter or letters, and his representatives, whether they are literary letters or letters of business, possess the sole and exclusive copyright therein; and no person, neither those to whom they are addressed, nor other persons, have any right or authority to publish the same upon their own account or for their benefit." But then, again, there are exceptions. CHAPTER XII THE COST OF A LETTER Discovering the exact cost of a letter is by no means an easy affair. However, approximate figures may always be had and they are extremely useful. The cost of writing an ordinary letter is quite surprising. Very few letters can be dictated, transcribed, and mailed at a cost of much less than twelve cents each. The factors which govern costs are variable and it is to be borne in mind that the methods for ascertaining costs as here given represent the least cost and not the real cost--they simply tell you "Your letter costs at least this sum." They do not say "Your letter costs exactly this sum." The cost of a form letter, mailed in quantities, can be gotten at with considerable accuracy. The cost of letters dictated by correspondents or by credit departments or other routine departments is also capable of approximation with fair accuracy, but the cost of a letter written by an executive can really hardly be more than guessed at. But in any case a "not-less-than" cost can be had. In recent years industrial engineers have done a great deal of work in ascertaining office costs and have devised many useful plans for lowering them. These plans mostly go to the saving of stenographers' time through suitable equipment, better arrangement of supplies, and specialization of duties. For instance, light, the kind or height of chair or desk, the tension of the typewriter, the location of the paper and carbon paper, all tend to make or break the efficiency of the typist and are cost factors. In offices where a great deal of routine mail is handled, the writing of the envelopes and the mailing is in the hands of a separate department of specialists with sealing and stamp affixing machines. The proper planning of a correspondence department is a science in itself, and several good books exist on the subject. But all of this has to do with the routine letter. When an executive drawing a high salary must write a letter, it is his time and not the time of the stenographer that counts. He cannot be kept waiting for a stenographer, and hence it is economy for him to have a personal secretary even if he does not write enough letters to keep a single machine busy through more than a fraction of a day. Many busy men do not dictate letters at all; they have secretaries skilled in letter writing. In fact, a man whose salary exceeds thirty thousand dollars a year cannot afford to write a letter excepting on a very important subject. He will commonly have a secretary who can write the letter after only a word or two indicating the subject matter. Part of the qualification of a good secretary is an ability to compose letters which are characteristic of the principal. Take first the cost of a circular letter--one that is sent out in quantities without any effort to secure a personal effect. The items of cost are: (1) The postage. (2) The paper and printing. (3) The cost of addressing, sealing, stamping, and mailing. The third item is the only one that offers any difficulty. Included in it are first the direct labor--the wages of the human beings employed; and, second, the overhead expense. The second item includes the value of the space occupied by the letter force, the depreciation on the equipment, and finally the supervision and the executive expense properly chargeable to the department. Unless an accurate cost system is in force the third item cannot be accurately calculated. The best that can be done is to take the salaries of the people actually employed on the work and guess at the proper charge for the space. The sum of the three items divided by the number of letters is the cost per letter. It is not an accurate cost. It will be low rather than high, for probably the full share of overhead expense will not be charged. It will be obvious, however, that the place to send out circular letters is not a room in a high-priced office building, unless the sending is an occasional rather than a steady practice. Costs in this work are cut by better planning of the work and facilities, setting work standards, paying a bonus in excess of the standards, and by the introduction of automatic machinery. The Post Office now permits, under certain conditions, the use of a machine which prints a stamp that is really a frank. This is now being used very generally by concerns which have a heavy outgoing mail. Then there are sealing machines, work conveyors, and numerous other mechanical and physical arrangements which operate to reduce the costs. They are useful, however, only if the output be very large indeed. The personally dictated letter has these costs: (1) The postage. (2) The stationery. (3) The dictator's time--both in dictating and signing. (4) The stenographer's time. (5) The direct overhead expense, which includes the space occupied, the supervision, the executive overhead, and like items. The troublesome items here are numbers three and five. If the dictator is a correspondent then the calculation of how much it costs him to dictate a letter is his salary plus the overhead on the space that he occupies, divided by the number of letters that he writes in an average month. It takes him longer to write a long than a short letter, but routine letters will average fairly over a period of a month. But an executive who writes only letters that cannot be written by correspondents or lower salaried men commonly does so many other things in the course of a day that although his average time of dictation per letter may be ascertained and a cost gotten at, the figure will not be a true cost, for the dictation of an important letter comes only after a consideration of the subject matter which commonly takes much longer than the actual dictation. And then, again, the higher executive is usually an erratic letter writer--he may take two minutes or twenty minutes over an ordinary ten-line letter. Some men read their letters very carefully after transcription. The cost of this must also be reckoned in. The cost of any letter is therefore a matter of the particular office. It will vary from six or seven cents for a letter made up of form paragraphs to three or four dollars for a letter written by a high-salaried president of a large corporation. A fair average cost for a personally dictated letter written on good paper is computed by one of the leading paper manufacturers, after a considerable survey to be: Postage .0200 Printing letterheads and envelopes .0062 Stenographic wages (50 letters per day, $20.00 per week) .0727 Office overhead .0727 Paper and envelopes .0054 ------ $.1770 The above does not include the expense of dictation. It will pay any man who writes a considerable number of letters to discover what his costs are--and then make his letters so effective that there will be fewer of them. CHAPTER XIII STATIONERY, CRESTS AND MONOGRAMS SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE For all social correspondence use plain sheets of paper, without lines, of white or cream, or perhaps light gray or a very dull blue. But white or cream is the safest. Select a good quality. Either a smooth vellum finish or a rough linen finish is correct. For long letters there is the large sheet, about five by six and one half inches, or it may be even larger. There is a somewhat smaller size, about four and one half by five and one half or six inches for formal notes, and a still smaller size for a few words of congratulation or condolence. The social note must be arranged so as to be contained on the first page only. A man should not, for his social correspondence, use office or hotel stationery. His social stationery should be of a large size. Envelopes may be either square or oblong. In the matter of perfumed stationery, if perfume is used at all, it must be very delicate. Strong perfumes or perfumes of a pronounced type have a distinctly unpleasant effect on many people. It is better form to use none. [Illustration: Specimens of addressed social stationery] [Illustration: Specimens of addressed social stationery. (The first specimen is business stationery in social form)] An inviolable rule is to use black ink. The most approved forms of letter and notepaper (although the use of addressed paper is not at all obligatory and it is perfectly proper to use plain paper) have the address stamped in Roman or Gothic lettering at the top of the sheet in the centre or at the right-hand side about three quarters of an inch from the top. The color used may be black, white, dark blue, dark green, silver, or gold. Country houses, where there are frequent visitors, have adopted the custom of placing the address at the upper right and the telephone, railroad station, and post office at the left. The address may also appear on the reverse flap of the envelope. Crests and monograms are not used when the address is engraved at the top of a letter sheet. Obviously the crowding of address and crest or monogram would not be conducive to good appearance in the letter. A monogram, originally a cipher consisting of a single letter, is a design of two or more letters intertwined. It is defined as a character of several letters in one, or made to appear as one. The letters may be all the letters of a name, or the initial letters of the Christian and surnames. [Illustration: The monograms in the best taste are the small round ones, but many pleasing designs may be had in the diamond, square, and oblong shape] [Illustration: Specimens of crested letter and notepaper] Many of the early Greek and Roman coins bear the monograms of rulers or of the town in which they were struck. The Middle Ages saw the invention of all sorts of ciphers or monograms, artistic, commercial, and ecclesiastical. Every great personage had his monogram. The merchants used them, the "merchant's mark" being the merchant's initials mingled with a private device and almost invariably a cross, as a protection against disaster or to distinguish their wares from those of Mohammedan eastern traders. Early printers used monograms, and they serve to identify early printed books. A famous monogram is the interlaced "H.D." of Henry II and Diane de Poitiers. It appeared lavishly upon every building which Henry II erected. It was also stamped on the bindings in the royal library, with the bow, the quiver, and the crescent of Diana. Monograms and crests on stationery, after a period of disuse, seem to be coming into favor again. The monograms in the best taste are the small round ones, though very pleasing designs may be had in the diamond, square, and oblong shapes. They should not be elaborate, and no brilliant colors should be used. The stamping is best done in black, white, dark green, dark blue, gold, or silver. The crest or monogram may be placed in the centre of the sheet or on the left-hand side about three quarters of an inch from the top. The address may be in the centre or at the right-hand side. But, as noted above, to use both addressed and monogrammed or crested paper is not good taste. The best stationery seems to run simply to addressed paper. Crests and monograms should not be used on the envelope. In the matter of crests and heraldic emblems on stationery and announcements, many families with authentic crests discontinued their use during the war in an effort to reduce everything to the last word in simplicity. However, there are many who still use them. The best engravers will not design crests for families without the right to use them. But the extreme in "crests" is the crest which does not mean family at all, but is a device supposed to give an idea of the art or taste of the individual. For example, a quill or a scroll may be the basis for such a "crest." Really no good reason exists why, in default of a family with a crest, one should not decide to be a crest founder. The only point is that the crest should not pretend to be something it is not--a hereditary affair. [Illustration: Specimens of monogrammed stationery] [Illustration: Specimens of business letterheads] On the use of crests in stationery one authority says: As to the important question of crests and heraldic emblems in our present-day stationery, these are being widely used, but no crests are made to order where the family itself has none. Only such crests as definitely belong to the family are ever engraved on notepaper, cards, or any new style of place cards. Several stationers maintain special departments where crests are looked up and authenticated and such families as are found in Fairbairn's Crests, Burke's Peerage, Almanche de Gotha, the Armoire Général, are utilized to help in the establishment of the armorial bearing of American families. Of course, the College of Heraldry is always available where the American family can trace its ancestors to Great Britain. Many individuals use the coat-of-arms of their mothers, but according to heraldry they really have no right to do so. The woman to-day could use her father's and husband's crests together if the crests are properly in pale, that is, if a horizontal line be drawn to cut the shield in two--the husband's on the left, the father's on the right. If the son wants to use the father's and mother's crest, this must be quartered to conform to rule, the arms of the father to be in the first and fourth quarter; that of the mother in the second and third quarter. The daughter is not supposed to use a coat-of-arms except in lozenge form. The dinner card that reflects the most refined and modern type of usage is a card of visiting card size, with a coat-of-arms in gold and gilt border, on real parchment. These cards are hand-lettered and used as place cards for dinner parties. The use of sealing wax is optional, though a good rule to follow is not to use it unless it is necessary. The wax may be any dark color on white, cream, or light gray paper. Black wax is used with mourning stationery. The best place to stamp a seal is the centre of the flap. It should not be done at all if it cannot be accomplished neatly. The crest or monogram should be quickly and firmly impressed into the hot wax. In selecting stationery it is a good plan to adhere to a single style, provided of course that a good choice of paper and stamping has been made. The style will become as characteristic of you as your handwriting. Distinction can be had in quiet refinement of line and color. The use of the typewriter for social correspondence has some authority--though most of us will want to keep to the old custom of pen and ink. In case this should be employed for some good reason, the letter must be placed in the centre of the page with all four margins left wide. Of course the signature to any typewritten letter must be in ink. BUSINESS STATIONERY For the usual type of business letter, a single large sheet of white paper, unruled, of the standard business size, 8-1/2 x 11 inches, is generally used. The standard envelopes are 6-1/2 x 3-1/2 inches and 10 x 4-1/2, the former requiring three folds of the letter (one across and two lengthwise) and the latter requiring two folds (across). The former size, 6-1/2 x 3-1/2, is much preferred. The latter is useful in the case of bulky enclosures. Bond of a good quality is probably the best choice. Colored papers, while attracting attention in a pile of miscellaneous correspondence, are not in the best taste. Rather have the letter striking for its excellent typing and arrangement. Department stores and firms that write a great many letters to women often employ a notepaper size sheet for these letters. On this much smaller sheet the elite type makes a better appearance with letters of this kind. [Illustration: Department stores and firms that write many letters to women often employ a notepaper size] [Illustration: Specimens of stationery used by men for personal business letters] The letterhead may be printed, engraved, or lithographed, and it is safest done in black. It should cover considerably less than a quarter of the page. It contains the name of the firm, the address, and the business. The addresses of branch houses, telephone numbers, cable addresses, names of officials, and other data may be included. But all flamboyant, colored advertisements, trade slogans, or advertising matter extending down the sides of the letter detract from the actual content of the letter, which it is presumed is the essential part of the letter. For personal business letters, that is, for letters not social but concerning personal affairs not directly connected with his business, a man often uses a letter sheet partaking more of the nature of social stationery than of business. This sheet is usually rather smaller than the standard business size and of heavier quality. The size and shape of these letter sheets are matters of personal preference--7 x 10 inches or 8 x 10 inches--sometimes even as large as the standard 8-1/2 x 11 or as small as 5-1/2 x 8-1/2 or 6 x 8. The smaller size, however, requires the double sheet, and the engraving may be done on the fourth page instead of the first. The inside address in these letters is generally placed at the end of the letters instead of above the salutation. Instead of a business letterhead the sheet may have an engraved name and home or business address without any further business connotations, or it may be simply an address line. THE END 
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6441	----	UNCLE ROBERT'S VISIT BY FRANCIS W. PARKER AND NELLIE LATHROP HELM PREFACE BY THE EDITOR OF THE HOME-READING BOOKS. The publishers take pleasure in offering to the public, in their Home-Reading Series, some books relating to the farm and other aspects of country life as the center of interest, written by Colonel Francis W. Parker, the President of the famous Cook County Normal School, in Chicago. For many years the teachers of the common schools of the country have been benefited by the inventions of Colonel Parker in the way of methods of teaching in the schoolroom. His enthusiasm has led him to consider the best means of arousing the interest of the child and of promoting his self-activity for reasonable purposes. The Pestalozzian movement in the history of education is justly famed for its effort to connect in a proper manner the daily experience of the child with the school course of study. The branches of learning taught to the child by the schoolmaster are necessarily dry and juiceless if they are not thus brought into relation with the child's world of experience. Almost all of the school reforms that have been proposed in the past one hundred years have moved in this line. The effort to seize upon the child's interest and make it the agency for progress has formed the essential feature in each. In this reform movement Colonel Parker has made himself one of the chief influences. The rural school has held a low rank among educational institutions on account of the inferior methods of instruction which have prevailed by reason of the fact that the children were too few and their qualifications too various to permit the forming of classes. Children in various degrees of advancement from ABC's to higher arithmetic, and yet numbering only ten, twenty, or thirty in all, are enrolled under one teacher. Most branches of study could muster only one or two pupils in each class: Five to ten minutes a day is all that can be allowed in such cases for a recitation. No thoroughness of instruction on the part of the teacher is possible, nor is there much improvement to be expected in the method of instruction where classes can not be formed. The benefactor of the country school therefore looks to other devices than class instruction, and the author of this book has shown in what ways the teacher of one of these small schools may extend his influence into the families of his district, encourage home study initiate practical experiments. It is expected that the teacher, besides his daily register in which he records the names and attendance of his own pupils, will keep a list of the youth of the district who have been in attendance on the school but have left to take up the work of the farm, and that he will endeavor by proper means to persuade them to enter upon well-planned courses of reading. Occasional meetings in the evening at central places, or on some afternoons of the week at the schoolhouse itself, will furnish occasions for the discussion of the contents of the books that have been read, and experiments will be suggested in the way of verifying the theories advanced in them. Not only can the mind of the country youth be broadened and enlarged in the direction of literature and art, and of science and history, but it can be made more practical by focusing it upon the problems connected with the agriculture and manufactures of the district. This indicates a career of usefulness for the ambitious teacher of a rural school. There is a large field for the discipline of the directive power open even for the humblest of teachers in the land. These books of Colonel Parker, if read by the school children, and especially by the elder youth who have left school, will suggest a great variety of ways in which real mental growth and increase of practical power may be obtained. The ideal of education in the United States is that the child in school shall be furnished with a knowledge of the printed page and rendered able to get out of books the experience of his fellow-men, and at the same time be taught how to verify and extend his book knowledge by investigations on his environment. This having been achieved by the school, nothing except his indolence, or, to give it a better name, want of enterprise, prevents the individual citizen from growing intellectually and practically throughout his whole life. W. T. HARRIS. WASHINGTON, D.C., August 12, 1897. AUTHOR'S PREFACE Fortunate are the children whose early years are spent in the country in close contact with the boundless riches which Nature bestows. Amid these environments instinct and spontaneity do a marvelous work in the growing minds of children, arousing and sustaining varied and various interests, enhancing mental activities, and furnishing an educative outlet for lively energies. Most fortunate are they to whom, at the moment when the unconscious teachings of Nature need to be supplemented by thoughtful suggestion, wise leadings, and judicious instruction, there comes one with a deep and loving sympathy with child life, an active interest in all that interests them, and a profound respect for all that children do well and for all that they know. Such an one is Uncle Robert. He comes to the children at just the right moment. He directs the sweet strong streams of their lives onward into a channel of earnest inquiry and exalted labor, which is ever broadening and deepening. Uncle Robert's aim in education is to fill each day with acts which make home better, the community better, mankind better; to take from God's bounteous and boundless store of truth and convert it into human life by using it. His method is simple and direct, founded upon the firm rock, Common Sense. It may be briefly stated as follows: 1. A strong belief in the sacredness of work--that work which inspires thought, strengthens the body as well as the mind, and develops the feeling of usefulness. 2. The images the children have acquired and the inferences they have made are used as stepping stones to higher and broader views. 3. So far as it is possible, each child is to discover facts for himself and make original inferences. 4. He understands the limits of children's power to observe and the demand on their part for glimpses into, to them, the great unknown. So he tells them stories of those things which lie beyond their horizon, in order to excite their wonder, intensify their love for the objects that surround them, and make them more careful observers. In this way a hunger and thirst for books is created. 5. He watches carefully the interests of each child, adapting his teachings to the differences in age and personality. 6. Some questions are left unanswered in order to stimulate that healthy curiosity which can be satisfied only by persistent study--the study that begets courage and confidence. 7. He makes farm work and farm life full of intensely interesting problems, ever keeping in mind that the things of which the common environments of common lives are made up are as well worthy of study as are those which lie beyond. Uncle Robert's enthusiasm has for its prime impulse a boundless faith in human progress, brought about by a knowledge of childhood and its possibilities. He believes that every normal child, under wise and loving guidance, may become useful to his fellows, moral in character, strong in intellect, with a body which is an efficient instrument of the soul; in other words, truly educated. Those who read Uncle Robert's Visit should read through the eyes of Susie, Donald, and Frank. The reading, so far as possible, should be accompanied by personal observation, investigation, and experiment. FRANCIS W. PARKER. CHICAGO NORMAL SCHOOL, August 31, 1897. CONTENTS. I. UNCLE ROBERT'S COMING II. FRANK DRAWS A MAP OF THE FARM III. THE NEW THERMOMETER IV. WITH THE ANIMALS V. IN THE FLOWER GARDEN VI. SUNLIGHT AND SHADOW VII. THE BAROMETER VIII. A WALK IN THE WOODS IX. THE BIRDS AND THE FLOWERS X. THE THUNDERSHOWER XI. THE VILLAGE XII. A DAY ON THE RIVER XIII. A RAINY DAY XIV. THE WALK AFTER THE RAIN XV. THE BIG BOOK TOPICAL ANALYSIS OF UNCLE ROBERT'S VISIT. NOTE.--The direct study of earth, air, and water involves the study of plant, animal, and human life. Popular opinion has given the name of geography to these correlated subjects. CHAPTER I.--UNCLE ROBERT'S COMING. The value of the children's knowledge of the farm is warmly recognized by Uncle Robert. The children feel his sympathy for their work, and through it are led to closer study and investigation. The feeling that everything they may see and do is of importance, exalts their daily life. Encourage children to describe the farms on which they live. In such descriptions should come plant and animal life, and the means and processes of farm work. Extend these descriptions to other farms and to any landscapes which the children have observed. CHAPTER II.--FRANK DRAWS A MAP OF THE FARM. All children love to draw, and they will draw with great confidence and boldness unless their critical faculty outruns their skill. Modeling and painting may be very profitably introduced at an early age. Frank's efforts in drawing strengthened his images of the landscape. Arithmetic has a very important place in farm life. It may be used in many ways in forming habits of accuracy and exactness. CHAPTER III.--THE NEW THERMOMETER. The children have their first lesson on the agent of all physical movement and change in organic and inorganic matter. The simple experiments suggested should be continued and enlarged, thus beginning a life study of a subject which is practically unlimited in its importance to man. CHAPTER IV.--WITH THE ANIMALS. Children look upon animals as their particular friends and acquaintances. They talk to them and believe that the animals understand them. A desire to know the habits and habitats of animals is among their strongest interests. By a little wise direction, this interest may be so enhanced as to form a substantial beginning of the study of zoology. CHAPTER V.--IN THE FLOWER GARDEN. Children worship flowers. Probably there are no objects on earth so universally loved by little folks as buds and flowers. Children seek eagerly for flowers by the roadside, in the pastures, fields, and woods. This love, like all instincts, should be carefully cultivated. Children may easily be led to study the forms, colors, and habits of plants. They will always take the keenest interest in the mystery of seeds and shoots, of roots and growing leaves, _if there is a teacher to direct them_. CHAPTER VI.--SUNLIGHT AND SHADOW. We have heat again, and now as an elementary lesson in the distribution of sunshine. Children love to observe continual changes. The shadow is an object of interest. It has an element of mystery about it which borders upon the supernatural. Children observe spontaneously the long shadows of morning and the lengthening shadows of the descending sun. Most farm boys can tell the moment of noon by their shadows. These are all steps in the more difficult problems of lengthening and shortening shadows that mark the changing seasons, and that lead to the theories of the earth's rotation and revolution. Day by day children should note the changes of slant upon the shadow stick which they can easily make for themselves. CHAPTER VII.--THE BAROMETER. Our little friends have their first lesson concerning one of the three great envelopes of the earth-the atmosphere. The knowledge that air has weight does not often come by unaided intuition. The initial experiments may be made very interesting and profitable. The United States Weather Reports are an excellent means for the home study of geography. CHAPTER VIII.--A WALK IN THE WOODS. "There is pleasure in the pathless woods" and "The groves were God's first temples" are lines which appeal strongly to those who have spent hours in the shadows and flickering sunlight of the forest. Trees well arranged make many farmhouses beautiful. Trees by the roadside add much beauty to the landscape and afford places of rest to the traveler. Forests mean moisture to the soil. Their leaves and roots make the best reservoirs for water, to be given out when needed by the growing crops. The forests are full of lessons for the children and the experienced scientist. CHAPTER IX.--THE BIRDS AND THE FLOWERS. The knowledge of a farm child is quite extensive, and generally neither the child nor the parent has any suspicion that such knowledge is of any appreciable value in education. It is clearly within the bounds of possibility for every farm boy and girl to know every bird that lives on the farm in summer or winter, and those who rest there in their migrating flight; to know also the names, the plumage, the habits of all the birds; and to know the nests and nesting places of those who make the farm their summer home. All this study cultivates the child's sense of the beautiful. There is no better color study in the world than that which springs from discriminating love of flowers and of the plumage of birds. Such study creates a kindly feeling toward both animals and plants on the part of the child. It exercises a strong moral power over him. CHAPTER X.--THE THUNDERSHOWER. A thundershower is always a phenomenon of interest and often of fear on the part of children. The clouds of the cumulus form, the rolling of thunder, the lightning flashes, the rushing wind, and the pouring rain are full of important lessons. Fear vanishes as knowledge comes. In the thundershower is the question of the distribution of moisture over the earth's surface, the question of the nature and use of clouds, the movement of the air and wind, the condensation of vapor, and the marvelous powers of electricity. CHAPTER XI.--THE VILLAGE. Geography should ever be in the closest touch with the human side. Nature does a marvelous work, but Nature without society is like a vast storehouse of treasure without a demand for its use. The one weak point in farm life is the lack of opportunity for contact with society. CHAPTER XII.--A DAY ON THE RIVER. A river, creek, lake--in fact, any body of water--is a source of perpetual delight to children. Frank, Donald, and Susie have had the river and creek before them all their lives. Now, under Uncle Robert's teaching, the river will mean very much more to them. They take their first lessons in the work of streams in carving and shaping the earth's surface. The pebbles on the beach and the large, rounded stones will soon have stories of the distant past to tell them. The "Big Book" is opened to them, and they read the stories directly from its pages. CHAPTER XIII.--A RAINY DAY. The children get closer to the question of moisture, its use, and distribution. The rain gauge helps them to measure the rainfall. Then comes the problem of where the water goes after it reaches the ground. "How far down does some of it go?" "When and where does it come out of the ground?" Arithmetic is brought in in measuring the rainfall and its distribution. CHAPTER XIV.--THE WALK AFTER THE RAIN. The problems in Chapter XIII move toward their solution, and new questions are opened. The gully tells of the wearing of the water, and foretells a river valley. The spring helps in the question of underground water. The flowing river quickens the imagination in the direction of the great ocean. CHAPTER XV.--THE BIG BOOK. This chapter should be read by parents to the children, as many sentences need expansion and explanation. Hints are given of great things which lie beyond the child's horizon. Discoveries that have changed mankind are referred to. Children's permanent interests are the keynotes of instruction and the infallible guides of the teacher. To continue and sustain their spontaneous observation and desire for investigation leads directly to the study of the best books, and lays the basis for a thorough and profound study of God's universe. CHAPTER I. UNCLE ROBERT'S COMING. Uncle Robert was coming. His letter, telling when they should expect him, had been received a week before. Every day since had been full of talks and plans for his visit, and now the day was come. Everything was ready. Frank and Donald had harnessed Nell, the old white horse, to the little spring wagon, and had driven to the village to meet the train which was to bring Uncle Robert from New York. Susie, in her prettiest white apron, ran out of the house every few minutes, to be the first to see them when they should come along the road. Mrs. Leonard was putting finishing touches here and there. She went into the kitchen to give Jane a last direction about the supper. Then she went to the east room upstairs, Uncle Robert's room, to be sure that everything was just as she knew he would like it. Susie followed her mother, to see if the violets in the glass on his table were still bright and fresh. She had gathered them herself in the woods that morning. "There they come!" she cried. "I hear the wagon crossing the bridge at the creek!" She ran quickly downstairs and out upon the piazza. A moment more, and the wagon turned in at the gate. "Mother, mother," called Susie, "they're here!" But Mrs. Leonard was already beside her. Her pleasant face glowed with a happy smile as Frank drew rein before the door. Then such a time! Uncle Robert sprang from the seat beside Frank, hugged Mrs. Leonard, then Susie, then both together. Donald, who was seated in the back of the wagon on Uncle Robert's trunk, turned a handspring, landed on his feet somehow or other, and stood grinning at Susie. Mr. Leonard had also heard the sound of the wheels. He hurried from the barn, calling Peter to come and help him carry Uncle Robert's trunk upstairs. Jane came to the door of the dining-room, eager to see the Uncle Robert of whom she had heard so much. Then, with a nod of her head, she ran back, slipped the pan of biscuits into the oven, and put the kettle on to boil. Uncle Robert had come! Everybody was happy. No one more so than Uncle Robert himself. "Now, this is good," he said, when at length they were seated around the supper table. "I feel at home already. Susie, did those violets on my table grow in your garden?" [Illustration: Violets.] "Oh, no," replied Susie. "I found them in the woods by the creek. And the buttercups, didn't you see them in the glass, too?" "Buttercups so early ?" asked Uncle Robert. "Oh, yes, the low ones do come early. You must take me down where they grow some day." "We'll go to-morrow," said Susie. Uncle Robert smiled at the eager little face, and, turning to Mr. Leonard, said: "Frank tells me the farm is looking well this spring." "Yes, it looks fairly well," replied Mr. Leonard. "The seed is all in but the corn. That is a little late. The water on the bottom land stayed longer than usual this year." "Peter thinks we can start the planting to-morrow," said Frank. "Yes," replied his father, "I think so, too." When supper was over they all went out on the side porch. The sun was setting. The air was soft and spring-like. The lilacs along the fence filled the air with fragrance. "Don't you want to see Susie's garden, Robert?" asked Mrs. Leonard, "Yes, indeed," said Uncle Robert. "Susie wrote me some nice little letters about that garden." As they walked along the narrow paths Susie showed him where the seeds were already planted, and told him what she thought she would have in the other beds. "This is phlox," said Susie, leading Uncle Robert by the hand; "and marigolds are here, and sweet peas over there by the fence. That place between mother's garden and mine is filled with rosebushes, syringas, and hollyhocks." "I still call the vegetable garden mine, but the boys do most of the work," said Mrs. Leonard. "That big bush at the end of the row is an elder." "This is to be my pansy bed," said Susie. "The pansies are not set out yet. They are growing in a box in the kitchen window. I love them best of all. Don't they look like funny little faces in bonnets?" [Illustration: Pansies.] "That is what the Germans think, Susie," said Uncle Robert, laughing. "They call them 'little stepmothers.'" "I think it will be safe to put them out soon, Susie," said Mrs. Leonard. "Mother," called Donald from the vegetable garden, "the lettuce and radishes are growing finely, and here's a bean. Oh, there are lots of them just putting their heads through!" They all went over to look at the beans, and then walked down to the end of the garden where the currant and gooseberry bushes grew. "Oh, uncle," exclaimed Susie, "I wish you had come in time to see the trees in blossom! They were all pink and white. It was just lovely! only the flowers stayed such a little while." "I think Susie lived in the orchard those days," said Mrs. Leonard, smiling. "If I wanted her I was very sure to find her there." "I don't blame Susie," said Uncle Robert. "I would have stayed, too. There is nothing sweeter than apple blossoms. But you have other fruits besides apples, haven't you?" [Illustration: Apple Blossoms.] "Oh, yes," said Frank, who had just come from the barn, where he had gone after supper with his father. "There are pears and cherries and a few peach trees. But peaches don't do well here." "The blossoms are lovely," said Susie. "I believe Susie cares more for the flowers than she does for the fruit," said Donald. "I don't. I like the fruit, and plenty of it." "How many kinds of apples have you?" asked Uncle Robert. "About ten," replied Frank. "But father budded quite a number last year. The twigs came from Kansas." "They have fine apples in Kansas some years," said Uncle Robert. "I wonder if the budding is done as it was when I was a boy on the farm in New England." "This is the way father did it," said Frank. "First he cut a little piece of the bark off the twig with the bud on it. He had to do it very carefully with a sharp knife. Then he cut the bark on the branch of the tree like the letter T. He laid it back, and slipped the piece of bark with the bud on under it. Then he bound it all up with soft cotton, and left it to take care of itself." "Did it?" asked Uncle Robert. "Yes," answered Donald. "In a few weeks we took the binding off, and the bark had all grown together around the little bud." [Illustration: Budding] "There were ever so many of them," said Susie, "and they were all alike." "I wish they would hurry up and have some apples on them," said Donald. "If they're better than some we had last year, they'll be pretty good. "Come, children," said Mrs. Leonard. "It is getting damp. I think we'd better go in now." CHAPTER II. FRANK DRAWS A MAP OF THE FARM. After the lamps were lighted and they were all gathered in the sitting-room Uncle Robert began asking the children about the farm. "What do you raise besides corn?" he asked. "Wheat, oats, rye, and potatoes," said Frank. "Then we have the hay fields and the pasture. The woods we drove through coming from town belong to us too." "The house faces east, doesn't it?" said Uncle Robert. "That would make the woods north. Where are all these other fields?" "Back of the barn and the other side of the orchard," said Donald. "Can't some one show me on paper how it is?" asked Uncle Robert. "I don't mean make a picture, but just a plan of it." "Well, I can try," said Frank. "I know just how it is really, but I don't know that I can get it right." Frank found paper and pencil and set to work, while the rest gathered eagerly around and looked on. "This is the river," he said. "There's a big curve in it along our farm. The road runs along the top of the slope, and this is where the house is." "What lies between the house and the river?" asked Uncle Robert. "The big cornfield," said Frank. "That's where we are going to plant to-morrow if it is a pleasant day. And right here, in the corner by the woods, is the spring." "The water comes right out of the ground," said Susie; "and it is as cold as ice." "Here," said Frank, "is the wood. You know we drove through it this afternoon. The woods are on both sides of the creek." "See the crooked line he makes for the creek," said Donald. "That is where the violets and buttercups grow, uncle," said Susie, pointing to the map. "Where does the creek come from?" asked Uncle Robert. "There's a pond away back in the woods," said Donald. "It comes from that; but it is a swamp part of the year." "The cat-tails grow there," said Susie. "Well," said Uncle Robert, "the house, the cornfield, and the woods--is that all of the farm?" "Oh, no!" said Frank. "It is low along the river, but back of the cornfield it gets higher, and that's where the grapes are. On this side of the road is the orchard; and here, between the orchard and the woods, come in the yard and garden." "Don't leave out the barnyard," said Donald. "What's back of the barn?" asked Uncle Robert. "The field of timothy; and next to it is the clover field. That is as far as the farm goes that way." [Illustration: CLOVER TIMOTHY WHEAT OATS RYE] "The wheat field is on the other side of the timothy, Frank," said Donald, "and the oats between that and the road, beside the orchard." "Put in the potatoes along the road," said Susie. "Now all we have left is the rye field over in the corner," said Donald. "That is the way it is this year," said Mr. Leonard, who sat with his paper in his hand. But the paper was unread. He found the group around the table much more interesting. "Now it is all done," said Susie, hopping about on one foot. "Isn't it fun? Let's draw the garden. I can do it." "All right," said Uncle Robert, "you shall; but I think we'd better finish the farm first. Who can tell how many acres there are in each of these lots?" "I know there are twenty in the timothy meadow," said Donald, "because father always calls it the twenty-acre lot." "Write it down on the map, Frank," said Uncle Robert. "How much in the clover field?" "It seems about half as large as the timothy meadow," said Frank. "That's right," said Mr. Leonard; "it is." "There are twenty acres in the wood lot, aren't there, father?" asked Frank. "It isn't quite so wide, but it is longer than the timothy meadow." "Yes," said Mr. Leonard, "there are twenty acres there; and it is as fine woodland as any I know." "There are ten acres in the orchard," said Frank; "and the cornfield is the largest of all." "That must be thirty acres," said Donald. "I remember when father made the pasture smaller, so that we could have more corn." "Yes," said Frank; "and that left ten in the pasture. I remember. And there are fifteen acres each in oats, wheat, and rye; but I don't know how large the potato field is. It is smaller than the others, though--it must be about ten." "Right again," said Mr. Leonard. [Illustration: (figures, addition, subtraction)] "Now we have it all but the yard and garden," said Uncle Robert. "Does any one know how much land they cover?" The father and mother looked on smiling, but said nothing. "It's all the rest of the farm, anyhow," said Susie. "Oh, I know how to find out," said Frank. "We know the whole farm is one hundred and sixty acres. We can add all these figures, and the difference between that and one hundred and sixty will be what's in the yard and garden." So he added all the numbers together and found them to be one hundred and fifty-five. "Yes," exclaimed Donald; "and five more would make it one hundred and sixty." "Then there must be five acres in the yard and garden." said Susie, "Write it down. Frank." "There," said Frank, looking at his work with some pride. "It's all in. Now shall I draw it again and make the lines straighter?" [Illustration: Map of the farm.] "Oh, no; this tells the story very well," said Uncle Robert. "The next time we will measure it off, and make it more carefully." "Not so bad," said Mr. Leonard, as Frank showed him the drawing. "I think it is very good for a first time," said Mrs. Leonard, with an encouraging smile. "With a little practice, my boy, I believe you would draw well." "Mother always believes we can do things," said Frank, laughing. "Tell me more about the river," said Uncle Robert. "Our side is bottom land," said Frank; "but across the river the bank is high and steep. Farther down it is just the other way. The steep bank is on this side, and the low land is opposite." "The river bends the other way down there," said Donald. "I see," said Uncle Robert. "How high is the bank?" "I don't know," answered Frank. "How high is it, father?" "About twenty feet," said Mr. Leonard. "Do you go on the river much?" asked Uncle Robert. "Oh, yes," said Donald. "We have an old boat, and we have been miles on it." "That is, downstream," said Frank. "We have never taken the boat up the river beyond the village, on account of the milldam." "There's an island in the river," said Susie, "between here and the village. We have been there." "How large an island is it?" asked Uncle Robert--"large enough to have a picnic there while I am here?" "Oh, yes," said Susie. "It's just the loveliest place for a picnic! There are trees all over it, and all kinds of wild flowers." "Can't you extend your map, Frank, so as to put in the river to the village, showing the milldam and the island?" suggested Uncle Robert. "You might draw it this way, too," said Donald, "and show how the river bends the other way down here." "Now I want to draw my garden," said Susie, when Frank had finished. Just then the clock on the kitchen shelf struck loudly. "It's bedtime now, dear," said Mrs. Leonard. "Can't you draw your garden to-morrow?" "We'll plant those pansies to-morrow," said Uncle Robert, "and see what can be put in all the other beds. Then we'll draw it, and tell just where everything is." So Susie went to bed happy, and Frank and Donald soon followed. And all were glad that Uncle Robert was really come. CHAPTER III. THE NEW THERMOMETER. The next morning as they left the breakfast table Donald said: "It's going to be warmer to-day." "I think not," said Frank. "When I went to the barn it seemed quite cool." "What do you think, Susie?" asked Uncle Robert. "It was cool under the trees when I went to the spring for a pitcher of water," said Susie, "but it seemed rather warm in the sun. I think it is a lovely morning." "What makes it warm?" asked Uncle Robert. "Why, the sun," replied Donald, looking rather surprised at such a question. "But does the sun make it warm in the winter?" asked Uncle Robert. "The sun is nearer the earth in spring and summer," said Frank confidently. "You are mistaken," said Uncle Robert. "The sun is farther from us in summer than it is in winter." "But it's almost over our heads in summer," said Frank. "How can it be farther away?" "The story of the warmth that the sun gives us is not told by distance," said Uncle Robert, "but by the length of the shadows at noon." "How is that?" asked Donald. "When is your shadow the longest?" asked Uncle Robert. "In the evening," said Donald. "In the morning," said Susie. "When is your shadow the shortest?" "At noon!" they all shouted. "When is it coolest?" "Morning," they replied together. "When is it warmest?" "Noon," said Susie quickly. "Now you are wrong," said Frank. "It is often warmer at one or two o'clock." "Frank is right," said Uncle Robert. "How can we tell just how warm it is at any time?" "If we had a thermometer," said Donald, "that would tell, but we haven't." "There's one at the post office," said Frank, "but I never saw any one look at it unless it was very cold or very hot." "Perhaps we can find one nearer than the post office," said Uncle Robert. "Susie, would you know one if you saw it?" Susie shook her head. "I would," said Donald. "Well," said Uncle Robert, "please go to my room, and if you find a thermometer bring it to me." Donald soon returned, and when Susie saw what he had in his hand she exclaimed: "Is that a thermometer? I never saw anything like that at the post office." "Well, I should think not," said Donald. "This isn't much like the old thing they have up there." "What does it say?" asked Uncle Robert. "Sixty-eight degrees above zero," said Frank, taking the thermometer in his hand. [Illustration: Thermometer.] "That isn't cold, is it, uncle?" asked Donald. "That's just right for the house," said Uncle Robert. "How is it out of doors?" "Let's take it out and see," said Frank. Out on the porch they went and eagerly watched the thermometer. "It's moving--it's going down!" cried Donald. "I'll hang it on this nail," said Frank. "When they looked again Donald said: "It's fifty-six now." "How much colder is it than it was in the house?" asked Uncle Robert. "Twelve degrees," said Frank, counting up the column. "Oh, let's take it in by the stove," said Susie, "and see how far it will go up." "What makes you think it will go up by the stove?" asked Uncle Robert. "Well," answered Susie, "if it goes down when it is cold I should think it would go up when it is warm." Susie took the little instrument, and, going into the kitchen, held it close to the stove. "Come," she called, "it is going up already. See!" "How fast it moves!" said Donald. "Hold it close to the stove, Susie. Maybe it will go to the very top." "Let us put it in cold water," said Frank. "It won't hurt the thermometer, will it?" "Not at all," was the reply. "Try it." So they held it in the bucket of cold spring water. "How fast it goes down now!" said Susie. "I wonder if it will go lower than it did out on the porch. It's down to forty-eight." "Why does Jane set the kettle of cold water on the stove?" asked Uncle Robert, pointing to it. "To boil the water," answered Susie. "What makes the water boil?" "Why, the fire, of course." "How long will the stove stay hot?" "As long as there is fire in it." "Longer than that," said Donald. "It doesn't grow cold the minute the fire is out." "What becomes of all the heat?" asked Uncle Robert. "Oh, it goes all round the room." "Let's put the thermometer in the hot water," said Susie. "Oh, see it go up!" said Donald. "It is one hundred and fifteen already." "What is the difference in degrees between the cold and the hot water?" asked Uncle Robert. "Sixty-seven degrees," said Frank. "What makes the difference in degrees?" "The difference in the heat," said Frank. "If the water was boiling and the thermometer large enough," said Uncle Robert, "it would go to two hundred and twelve." "That would be ninety-seven degrees higher," said Frank. "Wouldn't that be a big thermometer!" exclaimed Susie. "Now put the thermometer on the floor," said Uncle Robert. "It's seventy-two degrees now," said Donald in a few minutes. "Let's put it on the broom," said Susie, "and hold it up to the ceiling." "It's warmer up there," said Frank, looking at the little gray cylinder when they brought it down. "It is six degrees higher than it was on the floor." "Why?" asked Uncle Robert. "The heat must go up there," said Donald. "It goes into the next room when the door is open," said Frank. "Does it go outdoors?" asked Uncle Robert. "Let's open the window and see," said Susie. Frank opened the window, but, instead of feeling the warm air going out, he felt the cool air coming in. "Uncle," asked Donald, "isn't the room full of air already?" "Yes," answered Uncle Robert. "Then I don't see how any more can come in at the window." "Are you sure none goes out?" "I could feel it coming in," said Frank. "Jane," asked Uncle Robert, "have you a candle?" "Here is one, sir," said Jane, taking a candlestick from beside the clock on the shelf. Uncle Robert lighted it and held it near the window, just below the sill. The flame flickered as the air from the window struck it, and then turned straight into the room. He raised it just above the opening. Instantly the flame pointed toward the window, but it did not flicker as it had when held below the sill. "The air must be going out up there," said Frank, "but it doesn't blow so strongly as the air coming in." "The air that comes in is cooler than the air that goes out," said Donald. "What makes the water boil?" asked Uncle Robert, turning to the kettle on the stove, which had now begun to sing. "Why, the heat, of course," said Donald. "What raises the lid?" asked Uncle Robert. "The kettle is too full," said Frank. "It is going to boil over." "Why didn't the water run over when it was cold?" asked Uncle Robert. "The kettle didn't seem full then." "Somehow it seems to get more than full when it boils," said Donald. "See, it is boiling over." Just then Jane took a pan of apples out of the oven. Each one looked like a small volcano. "What happens to the apples when they bake?" asked Uncle Robert. "They just swell up so big their jackets won't hold them," said Donald, laughing. "It is heat that makes the bread rise, isn't it?" asked Frank. "Of course," said Susie. "Don't you know sometimes if the bread doesn't rise, mother says it is because it is too cold?" "There is something besides heat that makes the bread rise," said Uncle Robert. "Yes," replied Susie, "the yeast; but it must be warm--I know it must." "It seems as though everything is bigger when it is hot than when it is cold," said Frank. "And now I believe I understand something that happened not long ago." "What was it?" asked Uncle Robert. "Peter and I were driving to town," began Frank, "and the tire of one of the wagon wheels slipped right off. We managed to get to the blacksmith's shop, and he put the tire in the fire until it was hot. Then he put it on the wheel, but it was still loose. We couldn't have gone a step without its coming off again. He brought cold water and poured over it, and soon it was as tight as could be. I thought the water made the wood of the wheel swell up--you know water does that to the pails and tubs when they leak; but now I believe the fire made the tire larger, and then the cold water made it small again. That is just what happened." [Illustration: The blacksmith shop.] "But air can't grow bigger, can it?" asked Donald. "If you can find an empty bottle, Donald," said Uncle Robert, "perhaps we can soon find out about it." Uncle Robert took a piece of thin rubber out of his pocket and tied it tightly over the mouth of the bottle." "By the way," he said, "is there anything in this bottle? "No," said Susie, looking through the glass. "Oh, yes," said Donald, "there is air in it." "Well," replied Uncle Robert, "please get a pan of hot water, Frank." Frank brought the water, and as Uncle Robert began to put the bottle into it they all exclaimed: "Be careful; you'll break the bottle!" "What will make it break?" asked Uncle Robert, pausing. "Why, the hot water," said Susie. "It always breaks glass if you put it in too quickly," said Donald. [Illustration] "Well, we'll warm it a little first," holding the bottle close to the water. "I think I can try it now." As he spoke he lowered the bottle into the water, and the rubber tied over the neck began to bulge out. "See!" cried Susie. "What makes it do that?" "Try the cold now," said Uncle Robert. "Here, Donald, hold the bottle in this pail of cold water." "The rubber is going down," said Donald in a moment. "It is going right into the bottle." "Does the air in the bottle pull the rubber in with it?" asked Susie. "But, Uncle Robert," said Donald, "what if wagon tires, apples, and air do swell up when they are hot? I don't see what all that has to do with the thermometer." "I think I see," said Frank. "Why wouldn't this gray stuff in the thermometer get bigger when it's hot, if everything else does?" "What is it that moves up and down in the thermometer?" asked Susie. "It is mercury," answered Uncle Robert, "which is sometimes called quicksilver." "It looks like silver," said Susie, examining it closely. "Perhaps you can see this better," said Uncle Robert, taking a small bottle of mercury from his pocket and pouring a little into Donald's hand. "How heavy it is!" exclaimed he, letting it roll about. "It feels just like lead." "It is almost twice as heavy as lead," replied Uncle Robert. "Put it in my hand, Donald," said Susie. "There, you've spilled it on the floor! Just see it run around!" "Is it always soft like this?" asked Frank. "No, it becomes hard when it is very, very cold." "How cold, uncle?" asked Donald, looking at the thermometer. "Thirty-nine or forty degrees below zero," was the reply. "In the coldest of countries alcohol thermometers are used. It must be much colder than that to freeze alcohol." "Why is mercury used, uncle?" asked Frank. "Because it takes a very great heat to make it boil." said Uncle Robert. "Then you have seen how quickly it shows a change of temperature. When it is warm we call it a high temperature, and when it is cold it is called a low temperature." "That is because the mercury goes up when it is hot, and down when it is cold, isn't it?" said Donald. "I wonder how it would feel if it was forty degrees below zero. See, it is away down to there!" "Do you remember that day last winter when Peter froze his ears driving to town?" asked Frank. "Well, it was twenty below that day at the post office. I saw it. But father is calling me; I must go." CHAPTER IV. WITH THE ANIMALS. "Don't forget to set that hen, Donald," called Mr. Leonard, as he and Frank went away together. "I think there are enough of those Plymouth Rock eggs for one more setting." "You ought to see our little chickens, Uncle Robert," said Susie. "They are just too cunning for anything." "When you go to set the hen, Donald," said Uncle Robert, "I will go with you. Then you can show me everything about the barn." Donald went to the storeroom and soon came back with the eggs. "There are thirteen," he said, as he joined Uncle Robert in the porch, "but I think she can take care of them. She's one of the largest hens we have." Then together they went to the henhouse, which stood next to the barn. The chickens, seeing the basket in Donald's hand, ran toward him. "You needn't think I am going to feed you again so soon," he said. "You have had one breakfast this morning." Donald always talked to all the animals as though they could understand him. [Illustration: The poultry yard.] The mother hens paid no attention. With quiet dignity they walked about, their broods of fluffy little chicks looking like balls of gold in the sunshine. With a "Cluck! cluck!" each anxious mother called her children to her as her sharp eyes discovered some new dainty. Then the greedy little yellow things ran as fast as their short legs could carry them to be the first to take the good things from the self-sacrificing mother. "How many little chickens are there?" asked Uncle Robert as they stopped to watch them. "There are forty-six hatched," said Donald. "Three hens are setting, and this one will make four." "I see you have some fine turkeys, too," said Uncle Robert. The big turkey cock spread his tail and strutted about before them as if he understood how much he was admired. "Mother thinks a great deal of her turkeys," said Donald. "They are much harder to raise than the chickens. But mother knows just how to do it. We don't lose many." "Have you ducks and geese, too?" asked Uncle Robert. "Yes," said Donald, "but I don't see any of them about. They must have gone to the creek. There they are," and Donald pointed toward the pasture where a line of white could be seen moving slowly along under the trees. "They march pretty well, don't they?" said Uncle Robert. "Do they always go that way?" "Not always," said Donald, "but very often. When that old drake wants to take a swim, he starts and the rest follow. You'd never catch him walking behind." "As the head of the family I suppose he thinks it is his place to lead," said Uncle Robert, smiling. Donald laughed. "Wouldn't it he funny," he said, "if father made us follow him that way?" They found the hen to whom they were carrying the eggs on an empty nest. Donald drove her off that he might put in the eggs, but she was very cross with him for disturbing her. She walked about with her feathers ruffled up, clucking angrily, but eagerly went back to her nest as soon as they were gone. She moved the eggs about with her feet, placed them to suit herself, and contentedly settled down. Donald then led Uncle Robert into the barn, where old white Nell stood in her stall. Besides Nell there were three strong Normandies in other stalls, and two stalls that were empty. Mr. Leonard had a very large barn. There was the main floor, running through from the two big rolling doors at either end. The great hay mows on both sides, reached by short ladders, held some of last year's cutting. Under the mows were the stalls for the horses and the stanchions for the cattle. A machine for cutting hay stood on the barn floor. Under the barn was a deep, roomy cellar, in one corner of which was the sheep pen, lighted by large windows. Near the barn was a tool house, in which all the tools and machinery were housed during the winter. "It pays to have a nice warm barn and a good place to keep the tools from rusting," said Uncle Robert. "Do you always keep the horses in the barn when they are not in use?" "Oh, no," said Donald. "Sometimes they run in the pasture along the creek. The cows and sheep are there now. After the timothy and clover are cut we'll put them in those fields." "Do you keep many cows?" "We have six cows and two calves," replied Donald. "Father gave one calf to Frank and one to me. They're beauties. All our cows are Jerseys. Frank and I are going to keep ours until they're grown. Then if they give as much milk as the other cows do--and I'm sure they will--we are going to take it to the creamery and sell it. There's a creamery not far from here." "Does your father sell the milk there now?" asked Uncle Robert. "Not now," said Donald. "Mother likes to make the butter herself." "That's why it is so good," said Uncle Robert. "Has Susie a calf too?" [Illustration: The Barn.] Susie, tired of waiting for them to return, had come to see what they were doing. So she answered for herself. "No, uncle," she said, "but I have the prettiest little lambs you ever saw. They always run to me when they see me coming. Please come out to the lot and see them." "How many have you?" asked Uncle Robert. "Two," replied Susie. "They're twins, and are just alike. Their mother is dead. It was cold when they were born. There was snow on the ground. Father brought them into the kitchen in a basket to keep them warm. Mother and I taught them to drink milk, so father gave them to me. I'm going to keep them always." "Father likes us to have our own things to take care of," said Donald. "I think it's ever so much more fun, don't you, uncle?" "Yes, indeed," said Uncle Robert. "But you help take care of all the animals, don't you?" "Oh, yes," replied Donald, "and I like them all; but my calf seems just a little nicer than the rest. I know it isn't any better, really, but I like to think it is my very own." They stopped to watch the pigeons circling about the pigeon house. "I love to watch the pigeons," said Susie. "See all the pretty colors in their feathers!" [Illustration] "Are they very wild?" asked Uncle Robert. "Oh, no," said Susie, "they're very tame. When we throw grain to them they come down all around us." "Come and see my pigs!" shouted Donald, who had run ahead and was looking into the pen. Four white, fat Berkshire pigs lay in the straw, lazily rolling their little eyes toward their friend and feeder. A succession of grunts served for conversation. "I put in fresh straw every day," said Donald, "so my pigs can keep themselves clean. And they have a patent trough to eat out of." "I thought farmers in the West let their pigs run in the woods," said Uncle Robert. "We had a lot of razorbacks for a while, but they didn't pay," said Donald. "Our Berkshires make nice pork." "How warm the sun is getting!" said Uncle Robert as they turned away from the pigpen. "The wind is from the southwest," said Donald, looking at the weather vane on top of the barn. "It always gets warmer when the wind is from that direction." "Uncle," said Susie, "before we begin to plant the seeds let's go and see my lambs." "You go ahead, and I'll get some salt for the sheep," said Donald. "They always run to me when they see me coming with a pan. They know what that means." Donald soon joined them with the pan of salt. "Mother says she can't work in the garden until afternoon," he said, "so we needn't hurry back." As they entered the pasture the sheep were quietly grazing on the slope of the hill, where the grass was nibbled very short. A few lambs were frisking together at the foot of the hill. "See the lambs playing, uncle," said Susie. "The two little ones with long tails and black noses are mine. Aren't they cunning? They'll see me in a minute. Then how they will run!" The quick ears of the sheep caught the sound of their voices. They raised their heads. Donald held out the pan of salt, shaking it gently. In a moment one of the flock started slowly toward them. Donald stopped under one of the large oak trees that grew on the top of the hill. Uncle Robert and Susie stood beside him. The old sheep came nearer. One by one the rest of the flock began to follow. The lambs stopped playing. Susie held out her hand and called softly, "Come, Sally! Come, Billy!" [Illustration: Feeding the sheep.] The two little lambs switched their tails and started up the hill. Donald sprinkled a little of the salt on the ground. Then the whole flock broke into a run, and the sheep were soon eagerly licking up the salt as Donald scattered it about for them. Susie's lambs came straight to her side and began to lick her hands and sniff about her dress. "They think I have something for them," she said. "Let me have some salt, please, Donald." Filling each of her hands with salt, she held them out, and the lambs eagerly licked it from the little round palms. "The cows are down by the creek, uncle," said Donald. "Shall we go to see them? You must see my calf." "Come on," cried Susie, and began to run as fast as she could go. The little lambs, always ready for a play, skipped about her. How merrily Susie did laugh as they ran ahead and then turned around with their noses to the ground and their tails in the air, waiting for her to come and catch them! "They always want me to play with them," she said, quite out of breath, when Uncle Robert and Donald caught up. "What beautiful cows!" exclaimed Uncle Robert as the little Jerseys lifted their shy faces from the grass to look at them. "I never saw finer ones." "That is my calf," said Donald, pointing it out with much pride, "and that one over there is Frank's. The only way we can tell them apart is that Frank's has more black on its face than mine has." [Illustration: Donald's calf.] "Toot-toot-t-o-o-t!" The sound came from the house. "There's the horn!" exclaimed Susie. "It must be dinner time." "So soon?" said Uncle Robert. "How quickly the morning has gone!" "I tell you I'm hungry," said Donald. "I didn't think of it before, but I'm almost starving." CHAPTER V. IN THE FLOWER GARDEN. In the afternoon they all went into the garden. Donald and Mrs. Leonard began at once to set out the tomato plants that had been started in a box. Susie and Uncle Robert walked about, planning where the flower seeds should be planted. "The verbenas are in this bed," said Susie. "I had them last year. I wish they would begin to come up. Don't you think, uncle, it will be nice to have the mignonette in with them?" "Yes," replied Uncle Robert, "but where are your nasturtiums?" "I haven't any nasturtiums," said Susie. "I wish I had. Jennie Wilson's mother had them last year. They bloomed all summer." "We can send for some seeds and get them in time to plant," said Uncle Robert. "Oh, thank you, uncle," exclaimed Susie. "How nice! I'll save this big bed for nasturtiums, and the bachelor's buttons can go over there." [Illustration: Poppies] "The nasturtiums would do better by the fence and the porch," said Uncle Robert. "They like to climb." "All right," said Susie; "then we can have this bed for something else." "Have you any poppies?" asked Uncle Robert, smiling. "Poppies are my favorite flowers." "Are they, uncle? Then we'll have poppies in this bed." "Thank you, dear," replied Uncle Robert, taking out his notebook. "We'll send for the poppy seeds, too." "I think that finishes the beds," said Susie. "Let me see," and, walking down the path, she pointed out where each kind of flower was to grow. "You might draw it now," said Uncle Robert; "then we'll make no mistake." "Oh, goody!" cried Susie. "That's what I'll do. Wait until I get a pencil and paper." "Here is a pencil," said Uncle Robert, taking one from his pocket, "and perhaps this old envelope will do to draw it on." But Susie thought not. "It's too small," she said. "I'll get a nice piece of paper in a minute." Away she ran to the house, and soon came back with a large sheet of fresh white letter paper in one hand and Frank's geography in the other. "I'm going to draw my garden," she called to Donald and her mother, holding up the paper for them to see. "I'll make the paths first," she said, laying the paper on the geography, and taking the pencil from Uncle Robert. "Then I can put in the beds afterward." When the paths were drawn, Susie named the beds and marked them off on the paper. "Please write the names for me, Uncle Robert," she said. "I can't spell all the big words." "I will write them on this paper," said Uncle Robert, "and when you see how they look you can write them on your plan." "Oh, yes," said Susie, "that will be the nicest way." "See, mother," cried Susie, running to her, "this is my garden. Now I know just what is to be in every bed." [Illustration: Susie's garden.] "Where are you going to get poppies?" asked Donald, looking at the plan on the paper. "Uncle Robert is going to send for the seed," answered Susie. "He likes poppies best of all the flowers. We are going to have nasturtiums, too. They are to grow by the porch and the fence." "That will be fine, dear," said Mrs. Leonard. "What a beautiful garden we shall have!" "I can hardly wait," cried Susie, dancing along the walk. "Come, uncle, let's plant what seeds we have now." "Do we need to do anything to the ground," asked Uncle Robert, "before the seeds are put in?" "Only rake over the top a little," said Susie, taking up her rake and going to work. "It has been spaded. See how light and fine it is underneath! Ugh! I wish the old worms would keep out!" "Don't be too hard on the worms," said Uncle Robert. "They are your best helpers." "I don't see how that is, uncle," said Susie, looking up in surprise. "You just said the soil was light and fine," said Uncle Robert. "Don't you know you have to thank the worms for keeping it so?" "Are you sure, uncle?" asked Susie. "I thought the worms ate the plants." "The earthworms never eat the plants," said Uncle Robert. "They eat the soil, and so keep it worked over. It is the cutworm that eats the plants." Just then Donald came over from the vegetable garden. "Why, you've only just begun," he said. "We're all through. Don't those tomato plants look nice?" "Well," said Susie, "you didn't draw your garden. That took a long time, didn't it, uncle? You rake those beds for me, Don, while I put the seeds in." "I'd just as soon," said Donald, taking the rake. "What goes here?" "Mignonette," said Susie. "When any one wants to know about my garden now, they can look at the drawing." Uncle Robert smiled. "What makes you think you'll have mignonette there?" he asked, as Susie marked a little furrow with a stick in the soft, warm soil. "Why, these are mignonette seeds," she replied. "I gathered them myself. Don't you think they'll grow, uncle?" "Certainly I do," replied Uncle Robert. "It would be a pretty dead seed," said Donald, "that wouldn't grow in this soil." "Are seeds alive?" asked Uncle Robert, smiling. "Why, I--I don't know," said Donald, looking puzzled. "I never thought about it. I just said that. They don't look like it, that's a fact, but they surely wouldn't grow if they were dead, would they?" "Do all seeds grow in the same way?" asked Uncle Robert. "I never thought about it," said Donald. "Neither did I," said Susie. "I just know if I plant mignonette, mignonette will grow; and if I plant sweet peas, sweet peas will grow. That's all I ever thought about it." "Would you like to know?" asked Uncle Robert. "Oh, yes," said Susie. "How can we?" asked Donald. "The seeds are in the ground, and we can't see them." "If Susie is willing to dig up one of her sweet peas," said Uncle Robert, "perhaps it will tell us what it has been doing since she planted it last week." "Oh, yes," said Susie. "See if you can find one, Don. I put lots in." Down on their knees went Susie and Donald, and began digging in the soil. "Here is one," said Donald, "just ready to come up, and another close to it. The tip of it must have been through. See, it is green." "Wouldn't it be green in the ground?" asked Susie, looking closely at the tiny plant. "Why, no," said Donald. "Things are never green when they're covered up. It's light that makes things green. Don't you know how yellow the grass gets if a board lies on it, and what yellow stalks the potatoes have when they sprout in the cellar? It must be the light that makes them green." "Oh, yes," said Susie. "But see how big that pea is! It's about twice as big as it was when I planted it." [Illustration: Sprouting pea.] "See," said Donald, "the roots grow from the same place that the stem does. I should think it would be better if one came from one side of the pea, and one from the other." "What becomes of the rest of the seed?" asked Uncle Robert. "I don't know," said Susie. "Is it of any use?" "It is of the greatest use," replied Uncle Robert. "The little pea plant couldn't live without it. It is its food that the mother sweet pea gathered last summer from the soil and air, and stored away in the little round ball for her baby to feed on until it should be big enough to get its own food." "Do you really mean, uncle," cried Susie, with shining eyes, "that the sweet peas I have planted in that bed are the children of those I had last year?" "Why not?" asked Uncle Robert, with a smile. "I never thought of it before," said Susie, looking at the tiny plant in her hand; "but I like it. It seems just like a family." "And that's what it is," said Uncle Robert. "Don't you think this baby had better go back to bed?" said Susie, making a deep hole in the ground. "Wait a moment, Susie," said Uncle Robert. "Suppose we take it for a visit to the beans, and see if they grow like it." So they went to the vegetable garden, where they found a great many plants, each with two strong, thick leaves sticking through the soil. Some were quite green and showed a tiny shoot between them. Others were yellow, with only the tips turned green. "Dig one up, Don," said Susie, "and let's see if it is like the baby pea." Donald pulled one up, but no bean was to be seen. The stem grew straight into the ground, ending with a little bunch of roots. "Where's the bean?" asked Susie. "These two leaves must be the bean," said Donald. "Don't they look like it?" He took a bean from his pocket and held it close to the little plant. "Well, I never!" cried Susie. "If those two leaves aren't just the bean split open! Are they any good that way, uncle?" "Yes, indeed," said Uncle Robert, smiling. "They feed the little bean just as the pea does. But they do even more. What do you think they will do when the sun goes down and the air gets cool?" [Illustration: Sprouting bean.] "Oh, I know." said Donald. "I've seen them lots of times. They just shut together tight." "And that keeps the little bud you see in there as warm as you are in your bed." "Isn't that wonderful?" said Susie. "Why, uncle, it's just as if they could think!" "The leaves drop off after a while," said Donald. "I often see them lying on the ground." "Yes," said Uncle Robert. "When the plant is strong enough to take care of itself, their work is done." "Are there any other plants that make leaves out of the seeds, uncle?" asked Donald. "Oh? yes," replied Uncle Robert. "Squashes and pumpkins do, and many others. Some have more perfect leaves than these. Let us look at the morning glories by the porch." [Illustration: Morning glory.] "They come up every year by themselves," said Susie. She ran to her garden, saying, "I'm going to put this pea-baby to bed again. Do you think it will grow, uncle?" "It may, but it is not good for it to be out of bed too long." "I'll put a stick by it," said Susie, "so I can watch it. Good-by, baby," giving the ground a little pat; "go to sleep." Then she ran after Uncle Robert and Donald. "How thick the morning glories are!" said Donald. "Some of them have several leaves on, but here is one with only two." "They don't look as the bean leaves do," said Susie. "The beans are so thick! These have real leaves." "Yes," said Uncle Robert, "and if you could see them in the seed, you would see these leaves all curled up in their hard coat." "This one is just putting its head through the ground," said Susie, "and it has part of the shell on it yet." "It looks as the little chickens do sometimes," laughed Donald, "when they come out of the nest with a piece of the shell sticking to their backs." "That hard shell is a great protection to the tender plant as it works its way up through the soil," said Uncle Robert. "If these seed leaves are real leaves, uncle," asked Donald, "what feeds the baby morning glories?" "There is plenty of food in the seed around the leaves," said Uncle Robert. "When the seed gets moist in the ground, it becomes so soft that the plant can use it. Have you ever noticed when you were eating corn the little hard bud that grows in each grain close to the cob?" "Yes, uncle," answered Susie. "That is the sweetest part of the corn." "That is the part," said Uncle Robert, "from which the new plant grows, and all the rest of the grain is the food stored up for it." "I wish we had some corn," said Susie, "so we could see it." "I'll go and get some," said Donald. "Oh, do, Don," said Susie, "and while he's gone, Uncle Robert, I can plant the rest of my seeds. I have only a few left." So Donald ran to the cornfield and Susie went to the garden. When he came back she had finished, and they joined Uncle Robert on the piazza. "The corn grows out of the side of the seed," said Donald. "See what a big root it has for such a little plant!" [Illustration: Sprouting corn.] "How pretty those leaves are!" said Susie. "They look like two little green feathers." "Some one else had the same thought, Susie," said Uncle Robert. "Did you ever hear the story the poet Longfellow tells about how the corn came to the Indians? You know it is called 'Indian corn.'" "No, uncle," said Susie. "Do tell us." So as they sat beside him on the piazza. Uncle Robert told the story of Hiawatha and Mondamin. "Hiawatha was a brave young Indian chief," began Uncle Robert, "who wanted to help his people. He knew that there were times when they had no food. In the winter the birds flew away. The 'big sea water,' as they called the great lake, was frozen over, and they could catch no fish. There were no wild berries in the woods. "'Master of Life,' he cried,'must our lives depend on these things?' "He was very unhappy. He could not eat. He lay in his wigwam, fasting and praying for some good to come to his people. "One evening as he lay watching the setting sun he saw a youth coming toward him. His dress was green and yellow, and over his yellow hair he wore a bright green plume. "'The Master of Life has sent me,' said the youth. 'I am Mondamin. It is only by hard labor Hiawatha, that you can gain the answer to your prayer. Rise now, and wrestle with me.' "Hiawatha was weak from fasting, but he did as Mondamin commanded. Until the sun had set they wrestled together. Then Mondamin went away as silently as he had come. "A second time he came, and a third. Then he said: "'You have fought bravely, Hiawatha. I shall come once more. You will conquer me. Then you must take off my dress of green and yellow and my nodding plumes. Make a bed in the soft warm earth for me to lie in. Let nothing come to disturb me as I slumber. Only let the sunshine and the rain fall upon me. You must watch beside me, Hiawatha, until my sleep is over.' "Then he was gone. "When they wrestled the next night it was as Mondamin had said. He was conquered. Then, day after day, Hiawatha came and watched, "'Till at length a small green feather From the earth shot slowly upward.'" "There it is," whispered Susie. "Sh!" said Donald. "Then another and another," continued Uncle Robert, "and before long the corn was waving its long, green foliage in the sunshine. "'It is Mondamin!' cried Hiawatha,'the friend of man, Mondamin!'" "What a lovely story!" cried Susie as Uncle Robert finished. "I wish Frank could have heard it." "We'll find it in your mother's book of Longfellow's poems and let Frank read it," said Uncle Robert. "Let's tell him about the seeds first," said Donald. "He'll like it better then." [Illustration: A stalk of corn.] CHAPTER VI. SUNLIGHT AND SHADOW. It was a busy time on the farm. Only when the day's work was over and they were gathered in the sitting-room was there time for the long talks with Uncle Robert that they all enjoyed so much. "It's wonderful," said Mr. Leonard one evening, looking up from his paper, "how fast the corn is growing. Even the late planting is coming on." "That's because the weather is so warm," said Donald. "I wonder what makes it warm?" said Uncle Robert. "Why, Uncle Robert," exclaimed Susie, "it's spring! That's what makes it warm." "But what makes it spring, little girl?" asked Uncle Robert. "Why, it is always spring in May," said Susie. "I know of a country where it is spring in September," replied Uncle Robert. "How can it be?" asked Susie. "I thought springtime always came in May." "What makes us know that it is spring?" asked Uncle Robert. "Oh, it gets warmer all the time. The birds come, things begin to grow, and the flowers bloom." "But what makes all this happen just now?" "It's the sun," answered Donald from the floor, where he was playing with his great St. Bernard dog, Barri. "You know it rises earlier and sets later every day now than it did a while ago. It's hotter too." "It goes higher at noon," said Frank. "In the middle of summer it is almost straight over our heads, and in the winter it seems ever so much farther to the south. I've often noticed that." "So have I," said Donald. "And in the winter the shadows are longer than they are in summer. It must be because the sun isn't so high up." "Aren't shadows funny?" said Susie. "One day when I was coming in to dinner, just for fun I tried to walk on my shadow, and I could step on my head." "I've done that lots of times," said Donald. "But it's a strange thing. Sometimes I can step clear over my head--I mean in the shadow--and then again I have to step on it." "And when you jump," said Susie, "it spoils it. The shadow always jumps too." "What kind of weather was it when you had to jump to it?" asked Uncle Robert. "I don't remember," said Donald. "Would the weather make any difference?" "I remember," said Susie, "because one time when I was jumping that way I fell down and was almost buried in the snow. "Then it was winter, wasn't it?" asked Uncle Robert. "It must have been," said Frank. [Illustration: Shadow stick.] "And since you told us that the shadows at noon tell why it is warmer in summer than in winter I've been watching them. They get shorter all the time." "How would you like to measure the shadows every day," said Uncle Robert, "and see if you can find out when they are shortest and when they are longest?" "How can we?" asked Susie. "Shadows are so queer." "Yes," said Uncle Robert, "shadows are queer, but, if we take one that doesn't jump as yours does, don't you think we can measure it?" "Of course we can," said Frank. "We can use the house. That always stands still." "The house might do," said Uncle Robert; "but wouldn't it be better to have a shadow stick?" "Where can we get one?" asked Donald. "What is it made of?" asked Frank. "It is like this," said Uncle Robert, taking paper and pencil from his pocket. "There is one long piece of board, and one short one nailed to the end--so," drawing it on the paper. "Oh, that's easy enough made," said Donald. "We can do it ourselves right here in the tool house." "Let's make it to-morrow, Don," said Frank. "It must be set up some place with the upright end turned toward the south, so that just at noon the shadow of the short piece may fall straight on the board. By drawing a line across the board at the top of the shadow and marking the date on it, we can tell how the length of the shadow changes." "Uncle," asked Donald, "when it is winter here, is it summer in some other part of the world?" "Yes," was the reply, "and now that our summer is coming, the people there are beginning to have winter." "Then," said Frank, "when it gets cooler here in the fall it is growing warmer there, and that would make their spring come in September, wouldn't it? Do you see, Susie?" [Illustration: Eskimo scene.] "Yes," answered Susie, "but it seems all mixed up. I thought it was the same as it is here all over the world." "Oh, I didn't," said Donald. "I've read about countries where it is summer all the time, and is so hot that the people don't do anything but lie under the trees and sleep. And there are other countries where it is winter all the time, and the people dress in furs and make their houses of snow and ice. I read all about it in a book once, but it didn't tell why it was so. I knew, of course, the sun had something to do with it." "Why, you know, Don," said Frank, "we learned all that in our geography at school." "Yes," said Donald, "but I never thought about that in the geography as meaning any real country." "What did you think it meant?" asked Uncle Robert. "Oh," said Donald, "just a lesson in the book." "Well," said Frank, "I always thought it was some country, but I never knew where. I didn't think much about it after I said the lesson." "I should think not," said Uncle Robert, not sorry that the teacher had gone away and the school had been closed. "I wish when books tell things they'd tell why they're so," said Frank. "Perhaps if we think about these things," said Uncle Robert, "we may be able to answer some of the 'whys' for ourselves." "We can tell by the thermometer just how warm it is every day," said Susie, "but it won't tell us why." "The shadow stick may help us there," said Uncle Robert. "I am afraid I shall forget," said Donald. "I have some little notebooks in my trunk," said Uncle Robert. "Suppose I give you each one and let you write down what the thermometer and the shadow stick say every day." "What fun that'll be!" cried Susie. "When may we begin?" "To-morrow morning, if you like," replied her uncle. "I will get the books for you now." He went away to his room, and soon returned with the notebooks. "I'll tell you, uncle," said Frank as he thanked Uncle Robert for his book, "how would it do for each of us to look at the thermometer at a different time of the day?" "The very thing!" replied Uncle Robert, well pleased. "You are always up early, Frank, so suppose you look at six in the morning, Susie at twelve o'clock, and Donald at six in the evening. How will that do? Then we shall have the record for the whole day." "I think it will be such fun!" said Susie. "I wonder if our books will be very different." "What makes you think they will be different?" asked Uncle Robert. "It's always hotter at noon than it is at night or in the morning," said Susie. "Do you know," said Uncle Robert, "there are places all over the United States where such records are kept? They are published, and I am to have them sent to me every week." "I wonder if ours will be like them," said Donald, turning over the pages of his notebook. "Even if they should be different." said Uncle Robert, "they may be just as true." "We'll get up early and start the shadow stick the first thing in the morning," said Frank, "so as to have it ready by noon." "How do you know when it is noon?" asked Uncle Robert. "We look at the clock," said Susie. "But noon by the clock is not always noon by the sun," replied Uncle Robert. "How can that be?" asked Donald. "It is noon somewhere on the globe every minute of the twenty-four hours," said Uncle Robert. "The sun is always setting and always rising somewhere." The children were puzzled. "I don't see how that is," said Donald. "Let us see if we can find out," said Uncle Robert. "Frank, you stand at the east end of the room, Donald at the west, and Susie in the middle. Now, we'll play that Frank is in New York, Susie here at home in Illinois, and Donald in Denver. I'll take the lamp and be the sun. You are shadow sticks, you know. Now watch the shadows, and see when they point directly north." Uncle Robert took the lamp and walked slowly from the east side of the room. "My shadow points north," said Frank as Uncle Robert passed him. "Now mine does," said Susie. "And mine last of all," said Donald. Uncle Robert took out his watch. It was ten minutes past eight. "That is Susie's time," he said. "Would it be the same in New York, Frank?" "I think it would be past that," said Frank, "but I don't know how much." "It is ten minutes past nine by the watch in New York," said Uncle Robert. "When would it be that time in Denver?" asked Donald. "In an hour by the watch," said Uncle Robert, "but it would not be the same by the sun." "Then the watches don't tell the true time, do they?" said Frank. "The sun's shadows give us the true time," said Uncle Robert. "We will study the shadows, and by and by may learn how the watches and clocks are regulated. But how do you think people told the time before they had clocks?" "It must have been by the sun," replied Frank. "I can tell by the sun when it is noon," said Donald, "but I don't see how any one can tell any other hour that way." "How do you know when it is noon?" "Why, the sun is highest at noon." said Donald. "and the shadows point straight toward the north." "Early in the morning they point to the west," said Frank, "and in the evening they point to the east." "The people who lived in the world many hundred years ago observed the same thing," said Uncle Robert. "There was nothing so strange to them as the rising and setting of the sun. They loved the light that came with it. They feared the darkness that followed its going away. They told many interesting stories to explain this continued appearance and disappearance. Some thought the sun was a king riding through the sky in a golden chariot. Others looked upon it as a god and worshiped it. "They soon learned that when it went away it was sure to come again, and as they saw how regularly it moved, they felt there must be some power back of it to guide it. Through this they were led to a belief in a Being that controlled all things. "They watched the shadows, too, and saw them change just as you see them every day. They learned that the shadow is shortest when the day is half gone, and they called that time midday. So, by studying the length and direction of the shadows, they soon became able to judge the time of day. "Then some one thought to set up a rod and mark the places where the shadow fell at sunrise, at sunset, and at midday. The space in between was divided for the hours. This was called a sun dial and was the first instrument ever made for telling time." "When was the first one made?" asked Frank. "That is not known," replied Uncle Robert, "but we read in the Bible of the sun dial of King Ahaz, who lived about eight hundred years before the time of Christ. That is the first record we have of one." "How was it made?" asked Donald. "I do not know how the one King Ahaz used was made," said Uncle Robert, "but I can show you how one looked that I saw in an old garden in England. This," drawing a half circle, "is the dial on which the hours were marked. Around this dial there was a border, much cracked, and crumbling away, but I could read the words, 'The sun guides me, the shadow you.' The rod, or gnomon, as it is sometimes called, stood just halfway between the ends. Where would the noon shadow fall, Susie?" [Illustration] "In the middle, wouldn't it?" answered Susie. "And the morning shadow would fall on the west and the evening shadow on the east side," said Frank. "Now we'll put in the shadow stick," said Uncle Robert, drawing a triangle on the paper. "Why don't you make it stand up straight?" asked Donald. "The shadow does not tell the truth," said Uncle Robert, "unless it points in the same way that the north pole does, and that, we know, points to the north star. I will explain this some other time." "Couldn't we make a sun dial?" asked Donald. "I don't believe it would be very hard." "You could make one easily," answered Uncle Robert. "But let's have the shadow stick first," said Frank. Susie went to the window and looked out at the clear star-lighted sky. "Uncle," she said, "the stars all look alike to me, only some are little and some are big. How can people know them by their names?" "Just as anything else is known, dear," replied Uncle Robert, "by close and careful study." "I wish we could study the stars," said Frank. "We will some time," replied Uncle Robert. "Come out on the piazza now, and I will show you the north star. That will be a good beginning." CHAPTER VII. THE BAROMETER. One day when it was Donald's turn to go for the mail he found among Uncle Robert's letters a small paper. On the wrapper he read "United States Weather Report." It had come. There was already quite a line of figures in each of their notebooks. Now they could see what this other record was like. As he left the post office he stopped to look at the old thermometer beside the door. Then he mounted Nell and rode down the village street and out into the pleasant country road. Uncle Robert was waiting for him on the porch, and as Donald rode away to the barn, after giving him the mail, he heard him say: "Here, Frank, is the Weather Report. Open it and look at it while I read my letters." Donald took off the saddle and gave the horse her supper. Then he hurried back to see what Frank had found on the inside of the important-looking wrapper. It proved to be a map with queer, crooked lines all over it, but it did not look at all interesting. "Here it says temperature," said Frank, pointing to a list of figures in the corner. "Perhaps this is what we want." "I don't see any numbers there like mine," said Donald, taking his notebook from his pocket. "Let me help you," said Uncle Robert, laying aside his letters and coming to where they sat on the steps. They made room for him, and, as he took the map, he explained: "This, you see, is a map of the United States. These dotted lines tell about the temperature. For instance, look at this one which is marked fifty degrees. At every place in the country that is touched by this line on the map the thermometer stood at fifty degrees at the time the map was made." [Illustration: United States weather map.] "See," said Susie, "how crooked the line is. Why isn't it straight, uncle?" "Because," was the reply, "as I told you, it goes wherever the temperature was fifty degrees. You remember, the first day we had our thermometer, we found that there are many things which affect the temperature. At some places along this line there are prairies, at others forests, at others lakes, and here," pointing to the map, "there are high mountains. All of these things affect the temperature, and that, of course, changes the direction of the line." "You say Chicago is the nearest station to us, uncle," said Frank, looking down the temperature column. "My record for that day is not so very different from the one given here for Chicago." "Which shows that yours is probably as nearly correct as this is," said Uncle Robert, with an encouraging smile. "But I haven't one number in my book like that," said Susie, looking disappointed. "I don't see why." [Illustration: Susie's notebook] "I do," replied Uncle Robert. "You make your record at noon, and of course, it is warmer then. That is what your book says, does it not?" "Yes," said Susie, "every number in my book is more than that one." "That is right," was the reply, "for this record was made at eight o'clock in the morning, which is nearer Frank's hour than it is yours. So we would expect his to be nearer like this than yours, wouldn't we?" "It isn't like mine either," said Donald. "We may have one some time that will be more like yours," said Uncle Robert, "for these records are made at eight in the evening as well as in the morning." "Uncle," said Frank, looking closely at the map, "here it says 'High,' and there it says 'Low.' What does that mean?" "It means," said Uncle Robert, "that here there is a low barometer, and there the barometer is high." "Barometer," said Donald. "What is a barometer, uncle? Is it like a thermometer?" "Well, not exactly," was the reply. "With the thermometer, you know, we tell the temperature of the air, and with the barometer we tell how heavy it is." "How heavy the air is!" exclaimed Susie. "How funny! Why, uncle, air doesn't weigh anything, does it?" "More than you think, little girl," said Uncle Robert, smiling. "But perhaps we can prove whether it does or not. Frank, will you get a pail of water? Donald, see if you can find a cork some place; and Susie, run in and get a tumbler." When all was ready Uncle Robert asked Frank to fill the pan with water, and Donald to put the cork into it. [Illustration: Experiment No. 1.] "There," said Donald, as the cork floated about on the pan of water. "But I want the cork on the bottom of the pan," said Uncle Robert, "not on the top of the water." "It won't stay there," declared Donald, pushing it into the water again and again with his finger. "It is too light. Corks always float." "How can we make it go to the bottom?" No one could tell. The children looked puzzled. "Let us see what this will do," and, taking the glass from Susie's hand, Uncle Robert turned it over the cork, pressed it down into the water as far as it would go, and held it there. Looking through the glass, they could see the cork lying on the bottom of the pan. "Why, Uncle Robert!" exclaimed Susie, "what--how--" "It's the glass that does it," declared Donald. "But the glass doesn't touch the cork," objected his uncle. "There's air in the glass," said Frank, who had been looking at it quietly as the others talked. "That is what presses it down." "If it's air," said Donald, "why didn't it go down before the glass was put over it? There was just as much air about it then, and more, too." "Let go of the glass, uncle," said Frank, "and see what it will do." Uncle Robert did so, and the glass instantly turned over, while a big bubble of air escaped through the water. "There," said Frank, smiling, "I told you so!" "Then air only presses on things when there is something like the glass to hold it down. Is that so, uncle?" asked Donald. "Let us see," was the reply. [Illustration: Air Pressure. Experiment No. 2.] Filling the glass with water, he placed a piece of paper over it, and quickly turned it upside down. Not a drop of water fell from the glass. The paper, now beneath the water, stayed there as though glued. "Uncle," said Frank, "is it truly the air that holds the paper on and keeps the water in the glass? If it presses that way everywhere, why don't we feel it?" "It is because it presses equally in every direction," replied Uncle Robert. "Put your hand in this pail of water. Do you feel it pressing on your hand?" "No," said Frank. "Place it lower in the water. Does it feel any heavier now?" "Not at all," answered Frank. "But you know that the water is heavy. Lift the pail, Donald." "It is heavy," said Donald, setting it down. "I don't see why Frank didn't feel a little of the weight of it when his hand was under all the water." "It is this way," explained Uncle Robert. "The water pressed on his hand from below as much as from above, and the same on both sides. When you lifted it you felt its weight pressing downward only. Now it is just so with the air. It presses with such equal pressure that we do not realize its weight. It is only when it presses harder from one direction than from another that we feel it." "That's when the wind blows, isn't it, uncle?" asked Donald. "Yes, my boy," was the reply. "You can see how it is out among the trees now." "But, uncle," said Donald, "how can the air be weighed if it presses the same in all directions? It was only when I lifted the whole pail of water that I felt how heavy it was. The air can't be weighed if it presses up just as much as it does down." "But if in some way it could be shut off so that it would only press in one direction?" "It might be," answered Donald, "but I don't see how." Uncle Robert told Susie to put the glass in the water so that it would all be below the surface, and, without taking it from the water, to turn it upside down. She did so, and then began to lift it slowly out of the water. "See," cried Susie, "the water comes with it. The glass is full. Could I lift it clear out that way?" "Try it," said Uncle Robert, smiling. But no; when the edge of the glass came out of the water in the pail, down went the water with a splash. "I see how it is," said Frank, who had watched it closely. "There wasn't any air in the glass to keep the water out, as there was when we turned it over the cork, so the water stayed in it." "But what made it come up out of the pail?" asked Donald. "There wasn't any air under it to press it up." "Would the air pressing on the water around the glass make it do so, uncle?" asked Frank, placing the glass in the water and raising it as Susie had done. "It seems as if it might be that." "That is what it is," replied his uncle. "The air pressing on the water in the pail forces it into the glass, where there is nothing to keep it from rising." "If the glass was longer would the water stay in it just the same?" asked Donald. "Yes," was the reply. "If there was no air in the glass it would have to be very many times as long as this glass is to hold the water that would rise if it had a chance. But come, let us sit down on the steps again, and I will tell you about it." When they were settled he continued: "Over two hundred and fifty years ago there lived a man named Galileo, who learned a great many wonderful things by studying the stars and doing just such things as we have been doing. It was he who made the first thermometer. But there was one question that he could not answer. He found that in a hollow glass tube, closed at one end, water would rise thirty-four feet high, but no higher. He could not tell why. A pupil of his thought he would try the same thing with the heaviest liquid known----" "That was mercury, wasn't it, uncle?" interrupted Donald. "Yes; he used mercury, and found that it rose in the tube just thirty inches. He knew that the mercury was thirteen and six-tenths times as heavy as the water, so he felt sure that it was the pressure of the air that made them both rise in the tube, for thirty-four feet is just thirteen and six-tenths times thirty inches. But they wanted to see if it was really the air, so they took the tube up on a high mountain." "What difference would that make?" asked Susie. "Look at the woodpile out there," said her uncle. "Where do you think the weight of the wood would be the greater? On the ground or halfway to the top?" "On the ground, of course," answered Susie. "Well, they found it was the same with the air. As they went up the mountain the mercury in the tube fell." "That showed that the weight on it was less, didn't it, uncle?" said Frank. "I think that was a very wonderful discovery, don't you?" "It was, indeed," replied Uncle Robert, "and that is how the first barometer was made." [Illustration: Barometer.] "Is that what a barometer is?" asked Donald. "Yes," was the reply, "simply a glass tube about thirty-three or thirty-four inches long, closed at the top, and filled with mercury. It is then placed in a small open cup, called the cistern, into which the mercury flows until the air pressing on it there will let it fall no farther." "Does it always stay at the same height in the tube?" asked Donald. "Oh, no," his uncle answered. "Some days the air is heavier than others, and so presses harder on the mercury." "That would make it rise, wouldn't it?" asked Susie. "Yes, dear." "So, uncle," said Frank, taking up the Weather Report, "where it says 'High' here, it means that the air is heavier than where it says 'Low.' Is that it?" "That's right," replied Uncle Robert; "and when the barometer is low we know there will be a storm." "Well"--and Donald stood up and stretched himself--"I wish I could see a barometer." "You shall," said Uncle Robert "I will send for one. You may carry the letter to the post office to-morrow when you go for the mail." CHAPTER VIII. A WALK IN THE WOODS. It was a beautiful Sunday afternoon. The sun had marked its shortest shadows. They were now pointing toward the northeast. The family had returned from the little village church. Dinner was over, and they had all gone into the cool, shady piazza. Mrs. Leonard and Susie had settled themselves cozily in one corner and were reading together. Mr. Leonard was nodding over the pages of his weekly newspaper. Frank, stretched out on the settee, was absorbed in a new book, while not far away Donald lay under the spreading branches of a spruce tree with Barri by his side. Uncle Robert stood gazing at the green woods, which looked so cool and inviting. "'The groves were God's first temples,'" he said to himself, and then, turning to the others, asked, "Who wants to go for a walk?" "I do," said Frank, springing up. "Come on, Don. Don-ald!" he called, "we're going for a walk." "You'd better come with us," said Uncle Robert to Mrs. Leonard. "I'll get your hat, mother," cried Susie eagerly, running into the house. "Shall we go to the cornfield?" asked Mr. Leonard, picking up his straw hat. "I think it would be cooler in the woods," said Mrs. Leonard. "Oh, yes," said Donald, "let's go up the creek to the pond." The country was in the full glory of early summer. Just beyond the rich green of the great cornfield could be seen the peaceful river. The yellowing grain on the upland waved gently in the breeze. Under the wide-spreading oak trees in the pasture the cows were lazily chewing their cuds. A feeling of quiet pleasure filled the air. "I planted all these trees," said Mr. Leonard as they walked under the maples that grew on either side of the road. "It is wonderful how they have grown. They were like little sticks when I set them out." "The one at the end of the row," said Mrs. Leonard, "was planted the day Frank was born." "It is the largest of them all," said Frank. "That's because it was planted first," said Susie. "I have a tree, too, uncle." "So have I," said Donald. "It is the spruce in the front yard." "We call them our birthday trees," said Susie. "Mine is the elm by the corner of the porch." "That is a very nice custom," said Uncle Robert. "But the trees grow faster than you do." "They don't have anything to do but grow," said Donald. When they reached the bridge they paused to look up and down the creek valley. Through the trees they caught glimpses of the shining river and the waving corn. The creek, a little stream, flowed between the two gentle slopes that formed its valley. "There's a gate under this bridge, uncle," said Donald, "to keep the cows from going down the creek to the cornfield. In the fall, after the corn is cut, we open it, and let them go to the river." "How pleasant it is in here!" said Uncle Robert as they walked farther into the wood. "Just see how damp the ground is under these dead leaves!" said Susie as she pushed them back from a little violet that she was trying to pick with a long stem. "Poor little flowers! How do they ever get through all these leaves? It would be so much easier for them if it was just green grass." [Illustration: The bridge. ] "But then there wouldn't be any flowers," said Mr. Leonard, "or at least they would be very different." [Illustration: HICKORY OAK WILLOW BUTTER-NUT MAPLE WALNUT (leaves)] "It's the leaves that make the soil so rich," said Frank, digging into the ground with a stick. "See how they are mixed all through it!" "Do you know the names of all these trees?" asked Uncle Robert. "I do," said Frank. "I can tell every tree in the wood." "How?" asked Uncle Robert. "By the leaves is the easiest way," said Frank, "but I know some trees by the bark." "I can tell them by the leaves," said Donald. "Try me." So as Uncle Robert pointed to them Donald called them all by name. There were oaks and maples, hickories, walnuts, and butternuts, and close to the creek the overhanging willows. "Can you tell a tree by its shape when you look at it from a distance?" asked Uncle Robert. "I can tell the willows and poplars," said Frank, "and maples, too." "The trees in the pasture have a different shape from those in the woods," said Uncle Robert. "I mean trees of the same kind. How do you explain that?" "Why, the trees in the pasture have a chance to spread out," said Donald. "There isn't so much room in here." "But these trees are taller," said Frank, "and they are straighter, too." "Can you tell the direction of the winds that blow the strongest and longest by the shape of the trees?" asked Uncle Robert. "I never thought of that," said Frank. "The wind doesn't blow in the woods," said Donald. "When we get out into the pasture we'll notice the trees there," said Mr. Leonard. "Isn't this a tiny tree?" said Susie. "I wonder what it is." "That's an oak," said Frank. "The leaves tell that." "Oaks grow from acorns," said Donald. "I'm going to dig this up and see if it grows like the seeds in the garden." "What a long root it has!" said Susie as Donald dug about it. "Don't take it out, Don. Put the dirt back and let it grow to be a tree." [Illustration: Oak sprout.] "How long will it be before it gets as big as these trees, uncle?" asked Frank. "A great many years. Perhaps your father can tell about how old some of these trees are." "I have cut some," said Mr. Leonard, "that were about a hundred years old." "Why, father," exclaimed Susie, "how could you tell?" "Do you know how the end of a log looks when it is sawed off straight?" "I do," said Frank. "There are light and dark rings in it." "Well," was the reply, "one of these rings grows every year." "So if you count the rings you can tell how old the tree is," said Donald. "Isn't that great!" [Illustration: End of a log.] "What time of the year do the trees grow the most?" asked Uncle Robert. "In the spring I should think," said Frank. "That's when the sap begins to run." "What is sap?" "It must be the water that the trees take up from the ground," said Frank. "We've tapped some maple trees for sap," said Donald. "And we could see it run right out of the tree," said Susie. "I've told the children how we used to make maple sugar in New England," said Mrs. Leonard. "Do you remember, Robert, what a quantity of sap it took to make just a little sugar?" "Yes, and I also remember how long I thought it took to boil it down into the wax I was so fond of." "About thirty gallons of sap can be taken from one tree each year," said Mr. Leonard. "But I should think that would hurt the tree," said Frank. "No," replied Uncle Robert, "for the hole they make is only about an inch across. If they were to cut all around the tree, you see, it would stop the running of the sap and kill the tree." "That is called girdling," said Mr. Leonard. "They used to clear off hundreds of acres of land in that way when this country was first settled. Instead of cutting down the trees, they girdled them near the ground. In a very short time they died, because they could get no food from the earth. The dead trees lost their strength, and a strong wind would blow them over. Then they were piled up and burned." "How do you know when a tree is dying?" asked Uncle Robert. "The leaves turn yellow," said Donald. "But the leaves turn yellow in the fall," said Frank, "and the trees do not die." "The leaves of my spruce don't turn yellow in the fall," said Donald. "They stay green all winter." "What makes the leaves green?" asked Uncle Robert. No one answered. "What is the color of the potato sprouts in the cellar?" "Yellow," said Susie. "When you take up a board that has lain on the grass, what is the color of the grass?" "Yellow," said Donald. "Why?" asked Uncle Robert. "Because they don't get any light," said Frank. "You know why we put our plants in the south window in winter?" said Mrs. Leonard. "Oh, yes," said Susie, "because the sun shines in at that window." "Warmth and water and air help trees and plants to grow," said Uncle Robert, "but without sunlight their leaves would be yellow and their stems and branches weak. The greatest forests on earth are where it is very hot and moist. The sun is a wonderful artist, and every leaf it paints makes the tree stronger." "But what makes the leaves turn yellow and red just before they fall off?" asked Frank. "Does the sun paint them then?" "That is a question that no one has been able to answer," replied his uncle. "But how can the sap flow up the tree?" said Donald. "I should think it would run down." "It would unless there was something to draw it up," said Uncle Robert. "I suppose the sun does that, too," said Frank. "Where does it go after it reaches the leaves?" asked Uncle Robert. "Why, back again," said Susie. "No, it doesn't go back--not a drop," laughed Uncle Robert. "Does it dry up?" asked Donald. "What do you mean by drying up?" "It evap-o-rates," said Donald, who liked to use large words. "Does it all go into the air?" asked Frank. "I want you to answer these questions yourselves, children. What do you see on the corn leaves in the early morning?" "Drops of water; but that is dew, isn't it?" asked Frank. Uncle Robert had a way of stopping or changing the subject when he had asked certain questions. He knew that the children would think of them again and try to answer them. "Let's sit down on this log," said Susie. "I want to fix my flowers." As they sat there squirrels ran up the trunks of the trees and laughed at them from the branches. "That is a good shot," said Frank, pointing to a large fox squirrel. "But he knows we won't kill him, and that's the reason he shows himself." "Is it right to shoot the pretty squirrels, Uncle Robert?" asked Susie. "I thought so when I was a boy. I shot a great many of them then. It was fun for me, and I felt very proud when I brought home half a dozen grays. "Once I went home from the city for a summer's rest. I took my gun for a stroll in the oak woods where I had shot so many squirrels. I put my gun against a tree and lay down upon the leaves. Soon I was fast asleep. I dreamed of a group of merry, laughing children running, scampering, playing." [Illustration: The squirrel] "Then my dream became real--not children, but the gray coats, five or six of them, close to me, were running up the trees, jumping from limb to limb, scampering over the ground, chasing each other, laughing as squirrels laugh, and screaming as squirrels scream. I watched the happy playmates, brim full of fun. I have never shot a squirrel since." CHAPTER IX. THE BIRDS AND THE FLOWERS The little family party strolled on through the beautiful woods, following the windings of the creek that was now a tiny stream. [Illustration: The creek in the woods] Here and there were little holes hollowed out by the spring floods. Miniature falls gurgled over dead leaves. Graceful ferns fringed the creek's banks. Mosses covered the bowlders. Through the foliage danced the rays of the bright sun, casting wavering shadows over the leaf-covered ground. "Here is the pond!" cried Susie. But the pond that formed the reservoir of the creek was now nearly drained, and in place of water there was a swamp filled with reeds, rushes, and grasses. A small clear pool remained in the center. [Illustration: Blackbirds.] On the tall reeds swaying to and fro piped a family of blackbirds, busily chattering to each other. Overhead in the cloudless sky floated a huge hawk. "In the spring this ground is all covered with water; it makes quite a large lake," said Mr. Leonard. "You thought of draining off the water and turning the pond into a cornfield, didn't you, father?" asked Mrs. Leonard. "Yes," said Mr. Leonard; "by digging a ditch or making the channel deeper at the outlet, this would become dry land the year around. The soil is deep and rich-better even than the bottom land." "That would spoil the creek, wouldn't it, father?" asked Frank. "Yes, it would run in the spring only," said Mr. Leonard. "Where would the cattle drink in the summer?" asked Donald. "That's the difficulty. The swamp holds enough to keep the cattle in water all summer." "Would the corn more than pay for the loss of the water?" asked Frank. "Yes, I think so," answered his father. "But it would spoil my beautiful creek," said Susie. "Don't do that." "If this swamp were in New England," said Uncle Robert, "the farmers would dig out this rich mud for their poor land." "Oh," cried Susie, "the blue flags are almost in bloom!" "There is one all blossomed out," said Donald. "I'll get it." The boys took an old log and threw it across the wet place, and Donald, balancing himself carefully, went out and picked the blooming flag with its buds. "Thank you, Donald," said Susie, as he handed her the pretty flowers. "I'll put the buds in water and they will open." [Illustration: Blue Flag.] "Do you know the names of all the flowers in your bouquet?" asked Uncle Robert. "Every one of them," said Susie. "This is phlox. There is ever so much of it in the woods now. And this is a trillium. Isn't it big and white? Here is another, only it is red." "We used to call the red ones 'wake-robin' in New England," said Uncle Robert. "I thought they came earlier than the white ones." "They do," said Susie. "They've been here a long time." "The violets are just as pretty as when I came, aren't they?" said Uncle Robert. "Do they stay all summer?" "Not quite," replied Susie. "But they stay a long time in the woods." "What is this?" asked Uncle Robert, pointing to a pale-pink flower on a hairy stem, surrounded by rough green leaves. "That's a wild geranium," said Susie; "but do you think it looks-much like a geranium? I don't." "No, but here is a seed pod," said Uncle Robert. "It looks like the seed of the geranium that grows in the garden. Perhaps that is what gave it the name." [Illustration: Wild geranium.] "I have a flower that you haven't, Susie," said Mrs. Leonard, holding it up for them to see. "Oh," cried Susie, "a yellow lady's slipper! I didn't know they were out yet. Where did you find it?" "I picked it on the bank near the creek while you were talking about the trees," replied her mother. "I wish I could find a pink one," said Susie, looking around. "Isn't it too early for them?" asked Uncle Robert. "They come about the same time as the yellow ones," said Donald, "but we don't find very many of them." "I like the Indian name for that flower," said Mr. Leonard. "Do you mean moccasin flower, father?" asked Frank. "I like that too." [Illustration: Yellow lady's slipper.] "Why don't we call it that?" asked Donald. "Lady's slipper is easier to remember," said Susie. "Here are some bluebells, Susie," said Frank, holding up a handful of the dainty, graceful blossoms. "Give some to mother, and you may have the rest." "How many blue flowers we have!" said Susie. "There aren't any red ones excepting the red trillium, and that's so dark it isn't really red." "It's more purple than red," said Donald. "This isn't the time of the year for red flowers," said Mrs. Leonard. "They come later in the summer and in the fall." "I wonder why there are no red ones in the spring," said Susie. "I saw painted cups along the edge of the timothy meadow yesterday," said Donald. [Illustration: Moccasin flower.] "Oh, did you, Don? Were they truly red, or just yellow?" "No, they were in bloom. They were red." "Let's go home that way," said Susie, "and get some." "I wish all the people in New York could know how restful these woods are," said Uncle Robert, breathing a long breath of the sweet, pure air. "It always seems to me more quiet in the woods on Sunday than on any other day," said Mrs. Leonard. "Do the birds know when it is Sunday?" asked Susie. "If they do," said Uncle Robert, "those blue jays must have forgotten." "Just hear how they scream!" said Frank. "They must be up to their usual trick," said Mr. Leonard, "of tormenting some other bird." "Listen!" said Donald. "It's a sparrow hawk they're after. That's the sparrow hawk's cry, but it's a blue jay that made it. They always mimic them when they chase them. I've watched them lots of times." [Illustration: Blue jay.] "I wish we could see them now!" said Frank. "The hawk will turn on them soon. Then they'll change their tune." "They are having a good time shouting and screaming to each other," said Susie. "What a horrid noise they make!" "They scare away the other birds," said Donald. "How many birds do you know?" asked Uncle Robert. [Illustration: Robin.] "I know all the birds that come around the house and the barn," said Donald. "There are the robins, sparrows, pewees, wrens, swallows, and martins. Then there are the birds in the fields--the larks and the crows. The names of some of the little birds in the woods I do not know." "You have left out the woodpeckers," said Frank, "and the thrushes and catbirds." "And the cherry birds, that look like canaries," said Susie. "Get up early in the morning, just as the sun is rising, and you will hear a chorus," said Mrs. Leonard. "It is a regular morning praise meeting." [Illustration: Woodpecker.] "The oriole, or golden robin, is the handsomest bird of all," said Donald. "A great many birds come in the spring which stay only a few days," said Frank. "Where do they come from, and where do they go?" asked Uncle Robert. "They come from the south, I suppose, where it is warmer. I wonder how they know when it is time to start," said Frank. "And which way to go," added Donald. "And how they decide where to stop and build their nests," said Mrs. Leonard. [Illustration: Oriole.] "Very interesting questions, but no one has answered them yet," said Uncle Robert. "Migrating birds are all found in the south in winter, and we see them in the spring." "What do you mean by mi-grat-ing birds?" asked Susie. "Birds that fly from one part of the country to another," said Uncle Robert. "The bluebird is the first to come," said Donald. "A patch of blue sky," said Uncle Robert. "You forget the geese that screech over our heads in the early spring," said Frank. "They fly in flocks shaped like an arrow." [Illustration: Bluebird.] "The 'bobwhite' is the funniest little bird. One comes right up to my garden fence. It is a shame to shoot them!" said Susie. "It is a shame to kill any bird unless you need it for food. Every time a bird is killed the farmer loses one of his best helpers. The birds work for the farmer from morning to night." "Oh, now you are making fun, Uncle Robert," said Susie. "The birds don't work at all. They just fly around and have a good time." "The crows don't work for the farmer when they pull up his corn," said Frank. "Nor the hawks when they steal his chickens," added Mr. Leonard. "The cherry birds steal the cherries, and the sparrows eat the strawberries," said Susie. "You would soon find out how much the birds do if they should all fly away," said Uncle Robert. [Illustration: Crow. ] "The cankerworms would eat the leaves of the apple and other trees, and insects of all kinds would destroy the crops. The crow taxes the corn in payment for all the good he does. The hawks eat a thousand mice to one chicken--in fact, very few hawks eat chickens, anyway. The cherry birds and sparrows should be allowed a little toll for all the fruit they save. I want you to read a charming book called The Great World's Farm. The author calls birds 'Nature's militia.' The morning song of the birds means 'We are going to help the farmer to-day.'" "That's true," said Mr. Leonard. "The farmers are just learning what a help the birds are to them. We have found that they eat the grubs, the worms, and the bugs before they eat everything else." "Would there be very many more worms than there are now," asked Susie, "if the birds should go away?" "You don't remember, do you, Susie," said her mother, "how many caterpillars there were in the village the year they tried to drive the sparrows away?" "I do," said Donald. "Wasn't it dreadful? Why, Uncle Robert, the leaves were all eaten off the trees, and you could hardly take a step without squashing a caterpillar." "Ugh!" said Susie with a shudder. "I'm glad I was too little to remember it." "But the strange part of it was," said Frank, "that out here we hardly saw a caterpillar all summer." "And our trees were never more beautiful," said Mrs. Leonard. "Perhaps the village sparrows came to visit you," said Uncle Robert. "They must have," said Donald. "The woods were full of them." "I have read," said Uncle Robert, "that some small birds eat every day as much as their own weight in worms and insects." "Oh, my!" said Susie. "I wonder how many worms that would be." "The appetite of the small bird," said Mr. Leonard, looking at Donald with a smile, "must be something like that of a small boy." They had now left the woods and were going toward the timothy meadow to get the painted cups. Donald was right. One corner of the meadow was bright with the vivid red patches. The sun was setting when they reached home. As they passed the woodpile in the back yard Donald said: "I wonder how old that wood is! I'm going to see if I can count the rings." "Show them to me, Donald," said Susie. "I never saw them." Just then the clear, rich song of a bird rang out from the top of a tree on the edge of the woods. "Hark!" said Mr. Leonard. "That is the thrush." They listened until the song was ended. "What a lovely walk we have had!" said Susie. "I'm not a bit tired. Are you, mother?" "Well, a little," said Mrs. Leonard, "but we never had a more delightful afternoon. Thank you, dear," as Frank brought an easy-chair from the house to the porch for her. "Now I shall be rested in a few minutes." "Let me put your flowers in water with mine, mother," said Susie. "Tell Jane to bring our supper out here," said Mrs. Leonard. "It is too pleasant to go in the house." "And tell her to be quick about it," said Donald. "I'm starving!" "As hungry as a sparrow," said Uncle Robert, smiling. While they were eating, the twilight came on. "Listen!" whispered Frank, as a queer, clucking sound was heard among the bushes. Then came the cry: "Whip-poor-will! whip-poor-will!" "I wish I could see a whip-poor-will," said Donald. "They never let me get near enough to them to see how they look." "Let's try this one," said Frank. "It's very near." On tiptoe they slipped off the porch, but the shy bird heard them and flew away. Soon they heard it again: "Whip-poor-will! whip-poor-will!" And another one answered from the edge of the cornfield: "Whip-poor-will! whip-poor-will!" [Illustration: Whip-poor-will. ] CHAPTER X. THE THUNDERSHOWER. It had been growing warmer all day. When Susie looked at the thermometer at noon she wrote "82 degrees" in her little book. As they sat around the dinner table Uncle Robert asked: "Do you find it hot in the meadow to-day?" "Rather warm," replied Mr. Leonard, "but it is fine haying weather. By night we shall have the hay in off that twenty acres, and it will be the finest crop of timothy I have had in years." The haying had begun four days before. For a week Mr. Leonard had visited the field of timothy daily, and when he found the long heads of the graceful grass in full bloom he said: "It is ready. We must begin to-morrow." So the next morning the horses were hitched to the mowing machine, and Peter drove out to the meadow. The plumy heads of the tall timothy swayed on their slender stalks as they bowed before the breeze that swept over the meadow, making it look in the sunshine like the rippling surface of a quiet lake. [Illustration: Mowing the meadow.] It seemed a pity to cut it down, but Peter thought only of the fine hay it would make, as he drove around the meadow again and again, each time coming nearer the center. No sound broke the stillness but the "click, click" of the sharp knives, at the touch of which the tall grass quivered a moment and then fell. In the afternoon Donald rode the rake, to which one of the horses, strong and steady, was hitched. The horse knew his business. He needed no direction from Donald as up and down the meadow he went, with slow and even steps. Donald sat on the small round seat, his hand grasping the lever by which he raised and lowered the long curved teeth of the rake that gathered up the hay and dropped it in long rows called windrows. Mr. Leonard and Frank followed with their pitchforks, and piled the windrows into big round cocks. The sun shone hot and clear. A strong, dry south wind was blowing, and the air was filled with the sweet smell of the newly mown hay. The second day Mr. Leonard rode the machine while Peter and Frank opened the hay that had been cocked the day before, so that it would be nicely dried. By noon it was all cut. The next day they raked it up for the last time and began to stow it away in the big haymows in the barn, where the very smell of it would make the horses hungry. "Susie and I are coming out to help this afternoon," said Uncle Robert, as, after a short rest in the cool porch, the haymakers, started for the meadow again. "We'll take all the help we can get," replied Mr. Leonard. "I am afraid it is going to rain," said Uncle Robert, as he started a little later with Susie for the hayfield. "The barometer has fallen since morning." "But, uncle," said Susie, "I don't see any clouds." [Illustration: Raking and cocking hay.] "Watch, and you'll see them before long," returned Uncle Robert. "What is that in the west now?" "It looks like the beginning of a cloud," said Susie. Mr. Leonard, Peter, and Frank were loading the hay into a big wagon, while Donald raked after them. "There's a shower coming," said Uncle Robert, pointing toward the west. All paused and looked at the bank of clouds just coming into sight along the western horizon. The air was still and sultry. Great beads of perspiration rolled down the faces of the haymakers. "It's going to rain, sure," shouted Mr. Leonard, "and we must hurry or this fine hay will be spoiled. Harness up the horses to the other hayrack, Frank and Donald--be quick!" The boys did not need urging. They felt the need, and ran to the barn. "Bring some extra pitchforks!" shouted their father after them. Uncle Robert pulled off his coat, and the spirit of his boyhood days came back. Susie seized a rake and began to gather the scattered hay and pile it on the cocks. The fresh span of horses galloped into the field. Frank brought them to a stand between two long rows of haycocks. How they all worked! The very horses seemed to understand. They started with a jump to each new cock, and stood perfectly still as one after the other was added to their load. "It is coming!" shouted Peter, swinging his fork to spread the great bundles of hay which came flying up to him. The clouds looked like mountains with snowy peaks as they rose rapidly in the southwest. The mass moved under the sun and the bright silver color changed to blackness. Lightning flashes followed one another quickly. The low rumbling of thunder stirred the still air. "It is coming!" cried Donald, as he took the reins to move to another cock. "G'long!" All was hurry and excitement. Mrs. Leonard and Jane appeared on the scene with rakes in hand. Barri bounded from horse to horse as if that was some help. Suddenly it grew darker. The leaves began to quiver. A curious light crept over the fields. "There is the wind," shouted Frank. "The rain will be here in a minute." Clouds completely covered the sky. Black forms seemed to dart out of their heavy masses. "There's a drop," cried Susie. Then what a wind! Straw hats were whirled away, but there was no time to run after them. "Pile up the hay!" The great loads staggered. "Drive for the barn!" shouted Mr. Leonard. "Some of it must spoil, I suppose. We have done our best." The horses moved off on the run, Frank's team ahead. A roll and a crash of thunder followed a zigzag flash. The hay was under cover, and the rain poured down. [Illustration: The coming storm.] They reached the porch just as it began to fall thick and fast. A moment more and it came down in floods, while at the same time the darkness passed away. "How cool it is growing!" said Mrs. Leonard. "It is twelve degrees cooler than it was at noon," said Donald, looking at the thermometer. "See, the wind has changed. It is from the northeast now." Frank went into the dining-room, and when he came back he said, "The barometer has risen two-tenths of an inch since we looked at it last." It seemed to rain harder than ever. The water was driven in sheets before the strong northeast wind. A stream began to run down the garden path. A vivid flash of lightning was followed quickly by a loud crash of thunder. "That struck somewhere near," said Frank. "I believe it was over in the wood," said Mrs. Leonard. "See," said Uncle Robert in a few moments, pointing to a line of light in the western sky, "it is clearing already. The shower will soon be over." The light in the west grew rapidly. The lightning became less frequent. The thunder rolled farther and farther away. The rain fell less and less heavily. The weather vane that had pointed to the northeast began to waver, and then turned toward the southwest again. It rained steadily but more gently as the clouds rolled away eastward. And then the sun, lower now by two hours than when it was first hidden by the cloud, shone out clear and bright. Instantly everything glistened as with millions of diamonds. Even the air seemed to be filled with them, as though each raindrop was turned into a jewel as it fell. Uncle Robert went to the front of the house and looked toward the dark cloud that was now piled up in the eastern sky. "Come and see the rainbow!" he called. As they looked at the bright and perfect arch that lay against the dark mass of clouds, Susie asked, "What makes rainbows, uncle?" "It is the sun shining on the rain," replied Uncle Robert "This beautiful sunlight is made up of many, many rays. These rays fly from the sun as straight as arrows from a bow, unless something comes in their way to stop them. It seems as though such sharp little arrows of light would go right through raindrops. But they don't. They glance off the little round balls of water and bound up again like rubber balls. "Now you know if you throw a ball straight down at your feet it bounds back into your hands. If you throw it from you, when it strikes the ground it bounds farther away. It is just so with these little arrows of light that we call rays. If the sun is high, as it is at noon, the rays are thrown back to it again. That is why we never have rainbows at noon. But when the sun is low, as it is now, instead of going back to the place they came from, they bound up against that cloud, and so make the wonderful rainbow." "But, uncle," asked Donald, "why do we see so many colors in the rainbow? They are not in the sunlight." "Oh, yes, they are," was the answer. "These rays of light are of the same colors that we see in the rainbow. It takes all of them mixed together to make the clear white light which we call sunlight, and without which nothing could live or grow. "As the raindrops throw them up against that cloud, they are separated again, because some colors are more easily bent than others. The red, you see, is the highest and the violet the lowest in the bow. The raindrops make a prism. You have seen a prism. But through the prism the colors are turned the other way; the red is lowest and the violet highest." "How fast the rainbow is fading away!" said Susie. "I wish it would stay." "The rain is over," announced Donald, leaving them and walking out toward the garden. "The sky is quite clear." "It is getting warm again," said Frank, looking at the thermometer, "but it does not feel hot as it did before the rain." "The barometer is just where it was this morning," said Susie, coming from the dining-room. "It is drying off very fast," said Uncle Robert. "Let us walk out and see how the garden stood its drenching." "Put on your rubbers, Susie," called Mrs. Leonard from the house. As they crossed the yard they passed a pan in the bottom of which the water stood an inch or more deep. "That shows how much rain fell," said Uncle Robert, pointing to the pan. "Do you mean if it had stayed on the ground where it fell it would have been that deep all over?" asked Susie. "Would that have been very much?" "I think it would," was the smiling reply. "You might try to find out how much fell on the garden alone if it was an inch deep all over." Susie shook her head. "I don't know how," she said. "Uncle," said Frank, "in the weather reports they always tell how much rain falls, even if it is only a small part of an inch. How can they tell when it is so little?" "They have what is called a rain gauge, by which a very small amount of rainfall can be measured. By the way, we might have a rain-gauge of our own. It would be easy to make one with the help of a tinsmith. Is there a tinsmith in the village?" "Yes," answered Frank, "but I don't believe he has much to do." "So much the better for us," laughed Uncle Robert. "Susie, while these other people are busy tomorrow, shall we drive to the village and see if we can get the tinsmith to help us make a rain-gauge? I have a little book somewhere that tells just how it should be done." Susie was delighted at the thought of such a day with Uncle Robert, and the boys were so interested in the prospect of having a rain-gauge of their own that they could hardly wait for to-morrow to come. CHAPTER XI. THE VILLAGE. The next morning Frank harnessed Nell for Uncle Robert and Susie to drive into the village to see the tinsmith. It was a delightful ride through the woods and the fields washed clean by the rain. The birds were singing gayly. The air was fresh and clear. Long shadows lay along the road. The tinsmith was sitting by his open door, tilted back in an old wooden chair. As Nell stopped, he brought his chair down on its four legs and said: "Good morning." Uncle Robert lifted Susie out of the wagon and hitched Nell to a post. The tinsmith rose to his feet, smiling to Susie, who said: "This is my Uncle Robert, Mr. Mills. We've come to have a rain-gauge made." "Good morning," said Uncle Robert, turning to Mr. Mills, who looked as if he thought rain gauges were not exactly in his line. "Can you spare us a little time this morning? Susie must have her rain-gauge before the next shower." "Come right in," said Mr. Mills, "and tell me what your rain-gauge looks like. I never heard of such a thing." With Uncle Robert's careful direction he soon understood what they wanted. They saw him well started in the work, and then Uncle Robert said: "Come, Susie, let's go to the post office.--How long before the rain-gauge will be finished?" he asked of Mr. Mills. "Shall we have time to get dinner?" "I think I can have it ready by two o'clock," answered Mr. Mills. "Then we'll take Nell to the hotel," said Uncle Robert. They drove slowly under the big cottonwood trees which shaded the street. "Isn't it nice that it takes such a long time to make a rain-gauge?" said Susie. "Here we are at the hotel now, Uncle Robert. It's such a little way." From the hotel they strolled to the store, the center of life and interest in the village. [Illustration: The village street.] One corner of the store was taken up by the post office. Back from that ran long lines of shelves which reached to the ceiling. Beneath them were bins for flour and sugar. On the lower shelves were canisters of tea, coffee, and spices, and glass candy jars, which looked very inviting to Susie. Some were filled with gay-striped sticks. There were also jars of peppermint lozenges, star--and heart-shaped, with pink mottoes on their white faces. On the upper shelves were rows upon rows of cans covered with gay pictures of fruits and vegetables. Opposite the groceries were long shelves of dry goods. A glass case at one end of the counter was filled with bright-colored ribbons. In the darkness at the back of the store stood the barrels of vinegar, molasses, and kerosene oil. Above them hung rows of well-cured hams and sides of bacon. Near the barrels stood an old rusty stove which bore the marks of long use. Uncle Robert asked for the mail. Susie looked longingly at the glass jars upon the shelf, trusting that Uncle Robert would understand her even if she didn't say anything. "We must have some candy," he said. "Tell Mr. Jenkins what you would like, Susie, while I look at my letters." Susie carefully picked out three sticks of peppermint, three sticks of lemon, and three of cinnamon. "If you please, I'd like some of the mottoes, too." Mr. Jenkins handed down the jar, spread out a clean sheet of wrapping paper, and turned out the candies. Susie selected a dozen hearts, rounds, and stars, with different mottoes, and then wondered if she ought to have lemon drops, too. "Do you think I have enough, uncle?" she asked. Uncle Robert knew pretty well what little girls like. "No, Susie," he said, "you have forgotten the lemon drops, and, let me see, nut candy--we must carry home enough for mother and the boys." Just then a little girl in a pink sunbonnet, carrying an oil can in her hand, came through the open door. "How d' do, Susie," she said, with a shy glance at Uncle Robert. "How d' do," said Susie. "Have some of my candy, Jennie?" holding it out to her. "Uncle Robert bought it for me. There he is," in a loud whisper. "Good morning, Jennie," said Uncle Robert, putting his letters in his pocket. "You haven't been out to see Susie since I have been here." "It's Jennie's mother who had the nasturtiums last year," said Susie. "Have you any now Jennie?" "Yes, but they don't grow well this year," answered Jennie. "Perhaps you need new seeds," said Uncle Robert. "They are apt to do better if they are raised on different soil." "I have some nasturtiums this year, Jennie," said Susie. "They are just beginning to blossom. I'll save you some seed if you want me to." "Come out some day and see Susie's flowers, Jennie," said Uncle Robert kindly, as they left the store. "Good-by, Jennie," said Susie. "Time for dinner," said Uncle Robert. "I'm hungry." Susie's eyes danced. They went into the dining-room and sat down at the long table. Through the window they could see the hotel garden from which the flowers on the table had been gathered. "What shall we do now?" asked Uncle Robert as, after dinner, they stood upon the porch, looking up and down the street. No sound was heard but the sleepy noonday song of the grasshopper and the occasional rattle of a wagon going down to the store. "Let's go to the mill," said Susie. "The mill wasn't running when we passed there this morning," said Uncle Robert. "Suppose we wait until some time when the boys are with us. Then we can go all through it, and see just how wheat is changed into flour." "Oh, yes," said Susie, "that will be the nicest." "We might go to the station and see the train come in," suggested Uncle Robert, looking at his watch. "Oh, that's fun! Come on, uncle," cried Susie, running down the steps. "See, they are all going down now!" "All right," said Uncle Robert, "but don't hurry; there's plenty of time." As they looked down the track they could see the steel rails gleaming in the hot sunshine. The two shining lines stretched away until they seemed to meet in the distance. In the other direction a faint line of smoke appeared over the trees. It grew more and more distinct, until at last an engine rounded the curve and came puffing heavily up the track, pulling a long line of cars behind it. "That's a freight train," said Uncle Robert. "It stops here to let the passenger go by," said the station master, who stood near. "Expecting some one to-day, sir? The train isn't due for ten minutes." "Not to-day," replied Uncle Robert. "Do many trains stop here?" "Not many," said the station master as he hurried away to the switch. [Illustration: A freight train.] The great engine, drawing its heavy load after it, turned into the side track. When the small caboose at the end had passed the switch a man, who was running upon the tops of the cars, waved his arms and the long line stood still. "The engine breathes hard--just like Barri after a long run," said Susie. "I wonder what is in all these cars, uncle." "Here is one marked 'Furniture,' from a large factory in Grand Rapids," said Uncle Robert, reading the white card that was tacked on the side. "It is going to a town in Nebraska." "What funny cars these open ones are!" said Susie; "the ones with the shelves in. What are they for? They're empty, too. I shouldn't think they'd want to drag empty cars about." "These are the cars poultry is shipped in," explained Uncle Robert. "Perhaps they have been to Chicago with chickens for the market, and are on the way back to the place they came from for more." "How many of these big yellow cars there are!" said Susie. "They all have re-frig-re-frig--" "Refrigerator," prompted Uncle Robert. "Oh, I know what a refrigerator is," said Susie. "It's an ice box. Are these cars ice boxes, uncle?" "Yes; the great packing houses at the stock yards in Chicago ship beef all over the country in them. The fruit from California comes in refrigerator cars, too." "There's the train!" cried Susie, "and here comes Mr. Jenkins with the mail." The train came rushing on. Susie thought it was not going to stop. But suddenly it slowed up. The conductor leaped upon the platform. The train stood still. Heads were thrust out of the windows. A few passengers alighted. Brakemen ran along the platform. "All aboard!" shouted the conductor, waving his hand to the engineer, who was leaning out of the cab window watching for the signal. "Ding-dong, ding-dong, puff, puff, toot, toot," and the train was off. "Now we'll go and see if there is any mail for us," said Uncle Robert. "Then we'll go to the tinsmith's." [Illustration: Rain-gauge.] The rain-gauge was just finished. So Susie waited in the shop while Uncle Robert went to the stable for Nell, who pricked up her ears when she saw him. She was beginning to think she had been forgotten. It was late in the afternoon when they reached home. Mrs. Leonard and the boys were looking for them when they drove in at the gate. It took some time to choose just the right place for the rain-gauge, but at last they decided upon a little rise of ground that lay between the house and the orchard. There was first the funnel-shaped receiver, one and one-half inches deep and eight inches in diameter. Below this was a tube two and five-tenths inches in diameter and twenty inches long. At the top of this tube, close to the receiver, there was a small hole. "What is that hole for?" asked Donald. "So if it rains more than enough to fill this tube," explained Susie, who knew all about it, "it can run out of the hole." "Then it will be lost," said Donald. "No," replied Uncle Robert, "it is to be set inside of this cylinder, which is twenty-three and one-half inches long, but only six inches in diameter, and so is smaller than the top of the receiver. "The water that runs from that hole falls into this. By measuring it in the small tube, and adding it to what the tube held before, we can know how much there is in all. One inch in the tube would be one-tenth of an inch in the receiver." "Then twenty inches, or the tube full, would be two inches in the receiver," said Frank. "Yes," said his uncle; "but how shall we make this stand up?" "We might pile stones around it," suggested Donald. "That will be a good way," said Uncle Robert. There were some stones in a pile near the orchard fence. Frank and Donald picked them up and placed them about the rain-gauge until it stood firm. "Well, these stones are of some use after all," said Frank. "I'm glad of it," said Donald. "It seemed as though we should never get them all picked up. I believe stones grow." "These stones tell a wonderful story," said Uncle Robert, smiling. "Oh, uncle, when are you going to tell it to us? To-night?" asked Susie. "Not to-night, my dear. You have had stories enough for one day," and Uncle Robert took her by the hand and started for the house. "We have a regular weather bureau of our own now," said Donald. "I hope it will rain all day long to-morrow." CHAPTER XII. A DAY ON THE RIVER. "Father, can't we have a picnic on the river?" asked Susie. "Please, do let us have a picnic," said Donald. "I think you may," said Mr. Leonard. "You might have it to-morrow. I won't need the boys." "Hurrah!" cried Donald, and Susie skipped and danced for joy. "We'll have to have a nice lunch," said Frank. "What shall it be?" asked Mrs. Leonard. "Oh, we can take some ham sandwiches--" "And some cake and jelly," put in Susie. "And some cold chicken and boiled eggs," added Donald. "Oh," cried Susie, "let us take our eggs along all fresh and boil them! We can take a little pail and--" "I'll tell you what we'll do," interrupted Frank. "We'll take some salt pork, and catch some fish, and have a fry." Frank looked at the barometer and said it was going to be a nice day. The sun was setting clear and bright. The children went to bed happy and dreamed of the fun to-morrow. In the morning Susie rushed out to see if it was good weather. The sun was shining brightly, and she turned and looked at her long shadow that reached clear over the barn. The direction of the shadow was southwest. Donald took a tin can and went out into one corner of the garden, where the soil was dark, rich, and damp, and with a shovel dug up great mud worms, and almost filled his can. Frank got out two cane poles, rigged the lines and hooks, and put on the sinkers. "I want to catch a fish," said Susie. "All right," said Frank; "we'll cut a pole for you when we get on the island. We shall not fish till we get there." Uncle Robert watched the enthusiasm of the children with a pleasant smile. Mrs. Leonard and Susie put up the lunch. "Put in a paper of salt for the fish, please," called Frank. "Don't believe you will catch many fish," said Mr. Leonard. "You know the last time you went you didn't catch any." "It is not a good day for fish," said Uncle Robert; "it is too bright." "We'll get some sunfish, anyway," said Donald, "and perhaps we shall catch a perch or two and a catfish." At last all was ready Frank took the oars from the beams of the shed, Uncle Robert carried the big basket, Donald followed with the fish poles and the can of worms, while Susie brought up the rear with a small tin bucket. Away they went, down the slope and over the bottom land to the mouth of the creek, where the boat was moored. Soon they glided out from the shore under Frank's steady stroke. "We will go up on this side, where it is easier to row," he said. "The current is on the other side next to the bank." "Why do you suppose the current is over there?" asked Uncle Robert. "I don't know," said Frank. "Last spring we had a big flood, and the current was so strong that it took away a lot of earth from that bank. The earth fell down into the river and was carried away. Mr. Davis lost a good deal of land." "Tell me about the flood, Frank," said Uncle Robert. "Last March the ice broke up in the river and went tearing downstream in great blocks," began Frank. "Just below the dam, between the island and that shore," pointing to the woods, "it piled up until there was a big ice jam. You could cross over to the island on foot. Then the water began to rise until it was nearly even with the top of the dam. At first it went round close to the ridge. You see the land is lower there. The part of our cornfield next to the river was an island. Then the water rose higher, and spread all over the bottom land. It made the mouth of the creek close to the slope, and the water came up around the trunks of the trees. "On the other side, where the current is, it didn't get over the bank, but it tore away lots of earth. Three big trees fell into the water and were carried down the river. Ever so many trees came down. Peter and I caught a lot and piled them up for firewood." "Don't you remember, Frank," said Susie, "two or three sheds came down, too?" "The miller thought it would carry away the mill," said Donald. "The water looks pretty clear now. How did it look then?" asked Uncle Robert. "At first it was clear," said Frank. "Then it got just like coffee." "That was the dirt in the water," said Donald. "When the water went down," continued Frank, "the bottom land was all covered with the stuff the river left. Father says the dirt it brought makes the land better." "What do you suppose made the freshet?" asked Uncle Robert. "Oh, they said it was the snow melting, away up the river," answered Donald. "The snow was gone here, but we had lots of rain." "Where is the deepest part of the river?" asked Uncle Robert. "It is quite deep on the other side," said Frank, "but it is shallow over here. Farther down it is deeper in the middle." "Where is the current down there?" asked Uncle Robert. "In the middle of the river," said Frank. "When we go in swimming we can wade out here a long ways before we go over our heads," said Donald. "I wish I could swim," said Susie. "You should learn," said Uncle Robert. "The boys could easily teach you." They rowed steadily up the river. At last they reached the island and landed. It was long and narrow, covered with trees and green grass. Here and there low bushes grew down to the water's edge, while at the upper end there were many boulders, stones, pebbles, and clean white sand. [Illustration: A string of fish.] They brought up the basket and put it in a cool place under a tree. "Now for the fishing!" said Frank. Up the river they could see the dam, and on the left of the dam the flour mill. "There is a nice big pond up above the dam," said Susie. "We ought to go up there some day." "I think it is better fishing there," said Frank, "but we would have to drag the boat around the dam." Uncle Robert stretched himself under the shade of an elm tree. Susie rolled up her sack and put it under his head. The boys went off to try their luck at fishing. They cut a pole for Susie, but she soon tired of sitting still, and came back to pick up sticks for the fire so that everything would be ready to fry the fish. When the boys came back they brought three little sunfish, two perch, and one funny-looking fish with horns, which Frank said was a catfish. Frank and Uncle Robert dressed the fish, while Donald rowed across the river to a place where he knew there was a spring, and soon returned with a pail of clear, sparkling water. Susie spread the cloth in a nice shady place, and unpacked the basket. The eggs were boiled in the tin bucket over the fire. Frank fried the fish, and at last dinner was ready. "Oh, isn't this fun!" said Susie. "Grand!" said Frank. "I'd like to be an Indian and live in the woods all the time," said Donald. "We could make a fort," said Frank, "on that bank of the island and mount cannon, and not allow any ships to come up the river." "Oho!" laughed Donald. "Ships don't come up this river. The water isn't deep enough." "That doesn't matter," said Susie; "we could play they do." After the luncheon was over and the basket packed again they sat about under the trees. "What a good view of the dam there is from here!" said Uncle Robert. "I know why they built the dam there," said Frank. "Just above the dam the water was quite swift." "What makes the water swift?" asked Donald. "Because the bed of the river slopes more there than down here," said Uncle Robert; "and in places on rivers where there are rapids they build dams in order to use the water for the mills." "Oh, yes, I know how they use the water," said Donald. "They have a sluice, and they lift the gate, and the water comes through, and that turns the mill wheels." "In some rivers there are ponds larger than that pond up there, where there are no dams," said Uncle Robert. "Yes," said Frank, "there is a little lake down the river. We will go there some day. It is good fishing. How much better our corn looks than the corn on that hill over there! I tell you, it takes bottom land like ours to raise good corn." "What makes the corn such a beautiful green?" asked Susie. "That is quite a question," said Uncle Robert. "We will try and find out some day. But I want to know what makes the bottom land richer than the land up on the prairie?" "Well," said Frank slowly, "I suppose that the dirt brought down by the river and spread out over it makes it richer." "Where does that dirt come from?" "Way up the river." "If I should call the bottom land a flood-plain," said Uncle Robert, "would you know why?" "Oh, I know," said Donald. "Because the water covers it when there is a flood." "Now what made that flood-plain?" "Wasn't it always there?" "No," said Uncle Robert. "The river made it." "How could the river make the flood-plain?" asked Susie. "Why, you told me a moment ago that the river brought down great quantities of dirt and left it all along the shores," said Uncle Robert. "But it wouldn't bring down enough to make all that field, would it?" asked Donald. "The river is a great worker," said Uncle Robert. "It is at work now, and has been working for many, many long years. It has not only made this flood-plain, but many others. Sometimes the river carries this dirt clear out into the sea, and sometimes it piles it up at its mouth so that a delta is formed." "Oh, yes," said Donald, "we studied about that in geography when we had school, but I didn't know a delta was made that way." "Are there any deltas in this part of the river?" asked Susie. "There may be," replied Uncle Robert, "wherever one stream flows into another." [Illustration: The mill and dam.] "Is there one at the mouth of our creek?" asked Frank. "We will look when we go back," replied Uncle Robert. "Shall we take a walk now?" When they reached the upper end of the island they sat down on some large boulders that formed part of the tiny beach. Just above them was the flood of water pouring over the dam. The bright sunshine made the foam look white and glistening, lighted here and there with colors of the rainbow. The water rumbled and roared as it rushed out of the mill pond. To the left were the flour mill and the village. They could hear the mill wheel turning. They could see a little white church half hidden among the trees. A kingfisher swept by them with a voice like a watchman's rattle. "He knows how to catch fish better than we do," said Donald. Susie picked up some pebbles and put them in her apron. She tried to get a number of colors. Some were nearly red, some were blue, and some were white. "Can you find one that is exactly round?" asked Uncle Robert. "Here's a white one that's almost round," and Susie held up a quartz pebble. "Where do you suppose this little white pebble came from?" asked Uncle Robert. "Did it come from away up the river--a long way?" said Donald. "I think so. One day this pebble was a part of some rock or quarry. How it was broken off, how it came down, how it was made round, is well worth studying." "Oh, tell us about it, please," begged Susie. "We'll read about it together," said Uncle Robert, "in the Big Book." "What book?" asked Donald. "The book that lies all around us, which was written by the Creator of the world," said Uncle Robert. "We are reading a page of it now." "Just under the current out there," said Frank, "the bed of the river is covered with all kinds of stones. Some of them are as big as these boulders. I suppose the river brought them down." "What do you think makes the pebbles round?" asked Uncle Robert. "Maybe the river wears off the rough edges," suggested Frank, thoughtfully. "Yes," said Uncle Robert, "the current of the river rolls them over and over on the river bed, and they rub and grind against each other." "What becomes of the stuff that is worn off from them?" asked Frank. "Don't you see it--there?" said Uncle Robert, pointing to the beach. "Oh, you mean the sand," said Donald, taking up a handful and examining it. "Is that the way the nice white sand is made?" asked Susie. "That's what you meant when you said the river worked," said Frank. "Did these boulders come down the river too?" "The story of the boulders," said Uncle Robert, "is different from the story of the pebbles. The water helped grind the pebbles, but it took ice to make the boulders." "Ice!" the children all exclaimed. "Yes, ice. A long, long while ago this land was covered by a great river, or sea of ice, and that was the time these boulders were made," said Uncle Robert. "Can we read about that in the Big Book?" asked Donald. "Some of it," said Uncle Robert. "There are many wonderful stories in this beautiful world--stories more wonderful than any fairy tale. But we must go home now, children; it's getting late." The setting sun threw long shadows of the trees over the river as they rowed home, and the happy day was done. CHAPTER XIII. A RAINY DAY. It was raining, but no one was surprised. They had expected it. The day before had been one of those warm, midsummer days, beginning with a clear sky and a strong south wind. By noon heavy white clouds that looked like heaps of down floated slowly overhead. [Illustration: The weather vane.] The weather vane, which in the morning had pointed to the south, turned from side to side, as though uncertain which direction it liked best. Toward afternoon it seemed to settle the question in favor of the east. The clouds did not rise higher and become thinner and more scattered, as such clouds do if the weather is fair. They kept their white, billowy edges, and rested heavily on straight bands of dull gray. When the sun set, the scroll--like edges of the clouds were tinged with gold and rose color, but under the glittering fringe remained the solid banks of gray and misty purple. The thermometer had been high all day, for it was very warm. The barometer had slowly but surely fallen. Then, too, the Weather Report, just received, told of a storm that had started in the southwestern part of the country and was moving northeast. Uncle Robert had said, at the rate it was traveling, it might reach them some time the next day. And now it was raining in a quiet, steady way. The clouds had lost their billowy whiteness. They were one dull, heavy, unbroken mass of gray. The wind blew steadily from the southeast. A rainy day was before them. "The very thing we need," said Mr. Leonard. "The corn is just ready for it, and the pastures are beginning to look pretty dry." "Let's go fishing, Don," said Frank. "I'll go and dig some worms while you get the lines ready." "Say we do," said Donald, starting off at once. "Do you want some company, boys?" asked Uncle Robert, smiling. "You bet-ter believe!" said Donald, catching himself just in time. "Hurrah for the rainy day!" cried Frank as he pulled on his rubber boots and coat and went out to dig the worms. "Shall we take the boat?" asked Uncle Robert. "Oh, yes," said Donald. "I'll get the oars." "We'll have fish for dinner to-day, mother," said Frank. "Be sure you come back in time, then," said Mrs. Leonard, smiling. "I wish I was a boy and could go fishing in the rain," said Susie as she watched them start off. Down the hill they went, and Susie, watching them from the front porch, saw them push the boat from the landing and throw out their lines as they drifted down the stream. Then the trees hid them from sight. It was dinner time when they returned. "I told you we'd have fish to-day," said Frank triumphantly, holding up a string of bass and perch. "You boys will have to clean them," said Mrs. Leonard. "Jane is ready to cook them now." "Come on, Don," called Frank. "My, won't they be good!" In the afternoon it ceased to rain. It became lighter and the clouds looked higher and thinner. "It's going to clear off," said Susie, going to the window. "I wonder how much rain has fallen," said Uncle Robert. "I'm going to look at the rain-gauge," said Frank. "I'll go too," said Donald. When they came back they said there were fifteen inches of water in the measuring tube, which, in the receiver, would be an inch and a half. "That would just fill it," said Donald. "Does that mean," asked Susie, "that if the rain had stayed on the ground it would be an inch and a half deep all over?" "Yes," answered Uncle Robert. "Would that be very much?" she asked, taking the rod by which the rain in the gauge was measured and finding the mark for an inch and a half. "We might find out how much it would be on Susie's garden," said Uncle Robert. "Does any one know how large the garden is?" No one knew. "Let's get father's tapeline and measure it," said Frank. "Oh, do," said Susie, always interested in anything about her garden. When they came in Donald said: "It is muddy, but it's beginning to dry off in some places already." "How big is the garden?" asked Susie. "It is forty feet one way," said Frank, "and twenty-five feet the other." "Take your paper and pencil, Frank," said Uncle Robert, "and draw a plan of it. You might make one inch for every ten feet, and see how that will come out." Frank took the paper, pencil, and ruler, and soon he said: "It makes it four inches long and two inches and a half wide." "But remember," said Uncle Robert, "that means forty feet long and twenty-five feet wide." "I'll write it down," said Frank; "then we'll remember." So he wrote "40" on the long side and "25" on the short one. "But we must find out how many square feet there are on the whole surface," said Uncle Robert. "Well," said Frank, "there are forty this way." "So we might think of it as a row across the garden of forty square feet, might we not?" suggested Uncle Robert. "Yes," said Frank; "and if we do that there will be twenty-five rows just like it, won't there?" "Exactly," said Uncle Robert. "How many does that make in all?" "Twenty-five forties," said Frank, pencil in hand. "Why, that's just one thousand." "That sounds pretty big," said Susie. "Especially when you think of the weeds," said Uncle Robert, smiling, "How many square inches would that be, Frank?" "Well," said Frank, "a foot is twelve inches long, and if it is square it is twelve inches wide, too." "Then," said Uncle Robert, "if you call them rows of twelve square inches, how many rows would there be?" "Why, twelve," said Donald. "And so it would be--" "One hundred forty-four," said Frank. "Then," said Uncle Robert, "if there are one hundred forty-four square inches in one foot, how many in one thousand feet?" "One hundred forty-four thousand," said Frank, after a moment's thought. "But the rain-gauge says that an inch and a half of rain has fallen," said Uncle Robert, "and when an inch is as deep as it is long and broad, it is called a cubic inch. How much would one and one-half cubic inches be?" "If this is one inch," said Frank, looking at the paper, "half an inch deep would be half of this, and that, added to this, would be an inch and a half. Isn't that right?" He went to work again, and after a few minutes' silence he said: "It makes two hundred and sixteen thousand inches in all." "What kind of inches did we call them, Donald?" "Cubic inches," said Donald. "If you were to bring a pail of water from the spring," said Uncle Robert, "would you say you had so many inches of water?" "No," said Frank, "it would be quarts, or gallons, or something like that." "Do you know how much a quart or gallon is, Susie?" asked Uncle Robert. "Mother has a quart cup in the pantry," said Susie, "that she measures the milk in sometimes, but I don't know how much a gallon is." "My new milk pail," said Mrs. Leonard, who sat beside the window sewing, "holds just two gallons." "Let's see how many quarts it takes to fill it," said Susie. So they went into the kitchen, and Susie dipped the water with the quart cup into the tin pail. "Eight," she said, when the pail would hold no more. "If the pail holds two gallons, Susie." said Uncle Robert, "how many quarts are there in one gallon?" "Four." said Susie, counting on her fingers. [Illustration: Two gallons. One quart.] "Well," said Uncle Robert as they went back into the dining-room, "now we have found how many quarts there are in a gallon; how shall we find how many gallons two hundred and sixteen thousand cubic inches will make?" "If I knew how many cubic inches there are in one gallon," said Frank, "I could do it." "How shall we find out?" asked Uncle Robert. "We might measure a gallon," said Donald, "and then if we could empty it into a flat pan couldn't we measure that?" "We can try," said Uncle Robert, "if your mother has the pan." "You may use one of those tins I bake biscuit in," said Mrs. Leonard. "I'll get it," said Susie. They measured it and found it was eleven inches long, seven inches wide, and two inches deep. The gallon of water filled it one and one half time. "If it had been three inches deep," said Frank, "the water would have just filled it." "Well," said Uncle Robert, "can you find out how many inches there are in all?" It took some time and several suggestions from Uncle Robert, but at last they found it to be two hundred thirty-one cubic inches. "Now," said Uncle Robert, "can you find how many two hundred thirty-one cubic inches there are in two hundred and sixteen thousand cubic inches?" "I know how," said Frank, figuring rapidly. In a short time he found that two hundred and sixteen thousand cubic inches would make over nine hundred thirty-five gallons. "If you were going to water the garden with the new two-gallon pail," said Uncle Robert, "how many times would you have to fill it?" "If we took two gallons at a time," said Frank, "it would be--wait a minute--it would be four hundred sixty-seven and one half." "My," said Donald, "it makes my arms ache to think of it." "I'm going to find out how much fell on the whole farm some time," said Frank, "but I'm just tired out now." "Where does all the rain come from?" asked Susie. "I don't see how so much water can stay in the clouds." "It doesn't," said Donald, laughing. "That's why it rains." "But where does it all go to?" asked Uncle Robert. "Oh," said Susie, "it just goes into the ground." "Some of it runs off into the river," said Donald. "That's what makes it rise when it rains hard." "I wonder if it has risen much to-day?" said Frank. "We might put on our rubber boots and walk down and see," said Uncle Robert. "It is clearing off finely." "It is almost supper time now," said Mrs. Leonard. "If you'll wait I'll help Jane get it ready, and then you can go as soon as it is over." So they waited, and by the time they started the sun was shining brightly. It would be a whole hour before it would set. CHAPTER XIV. THE WALK AFTER THE RAIN. The sky was clear and bright as if it had been washed by the rain. The trees took on a fresher green. The corn held up its tasseled heads as if conscious of the strength the clouds had given it. The birds, too, rejoiced as they flew from tree to tree, singing their sweetest songs. "How nice it is to get out after being in the house all day," said Susie, skipping along by Uncle Robert's side. "See that lovely blue sky. I wish I had a dress for my doll just that color." "And when we came out this morning," said Uncle Robert, "Donald thought the clouds looked as though they were solid and could never break away." "They're all gone now," said Donald. "I wonder where they went. Aren't the clouds lovely sometimes, uncle? I love to watch them when they look like great piles of snow." "Yes," replied Uncle Robert, "when I was a boy I used to lie for hours under an old apple tree and watch the clouds. I fancied they had very wonderful forms, sometimes giants and dragons and all kinds of animals." [Illustration: The clouds.] "You can see things in them," said Donald. "I often do." "What are clouds made of, uncle?" asked Susie. "I wish I could get close to one and see what it is like." "When people go up in balloons," said Donald, "they go through clouds sometimes." "Have you never been in a cloud?" asked Uncle Robert, smiling. "Oh, no," said Susie. "How could I? I've never been up in a balloon." "I know," was the reply, "but have you never seen anything near the ground that looked at all like a cloud?" "I don't remember," said Susie, shaking her head. "We've seen fogs along the river," said Frank. "They look a little like clouds. You know we see them almost every morning." "Oh, yes," exclaimed Donald. "Don't you remember that fog we had early last spring? Why, uncle, it was so thick we couldn't see the barn from the house." "And, uncle," said Susie, "I went out to the barn with father, and in a few minutes there were little drops of water on my hair, and all over my cloak." "Did it last all day?" asked Uncle Robert. "Oh, no," said Frank, "only for a little while in the morning. Then it went away and the sun came out." "How did it go away?" asked Uncle Robert. "Why," said Donald, "at first it began to get lighter, and we could see things plainer." "And then," chimed in Susie, "it looked as though the fog broke up into pieces that rolled up in the sky, and floated off just like clouds." [Illustration: The gully.] "But what is that we see over the bottom land yonder?" "It looks like fog," said Frank. "More like steam, I think," said Donald. "If it was up there against that blue sky instead of on the ground--" said Uncle Robert. "Then it would be a cloud," said Susie. "Why, I never thought of that." They had gone through the gate in front of the house, and were following the path that led down the slope to the spring. "See how the water has plowed through the ground," said Frank, pointing to a gully the rain had made in the path. "It took a good many rains to make that gully," said Donald. "There was a little creek here for a while," said Frank. "The water has all run off now, but it has spoiled the path." "Will the gully get deeper every time it rains?" asked Susie. "Of course," said Donald. "That's what makes it." "Why does the water run along the path?" asked Uncle Robert. "Because it is lower than the ground on each side," said Frank. "How deep do you think the water will dig into the path if we do not fill it up?" asked Uncle Robert. "Oh, way, way down. I suppose," said Donald. "But if grass grew on the path," said Frank, "the water wouldn't wear the ground away. We will have to fill it up with stones." "See these pebbles, uncle," said Susie. "How did they get here? They look just like those we saw on the island." "Do you remember what I told you about the bowlders on the island?" "Yes, you said the bowlders were made by ice," answered Susie. "Did the ice make these pebbles?" "Perhaps so, and perhaps the river made them and left them here." "What! that river away down there? How could it get up here?" "That river away down there once flowed right over this ground," said Uncle Robert. "This slope," pointing just above, "was its bank, and the ground under our feet its bed." "That must have been a hundred years ago," said Donald. "Yes, a great many hundred years ago. You see the work this bit of a stream has done in the path? Many rivers begin just this way. They are cutting and changing the earth all the time." They had now come to the spring nearly at the foot of the slope. On sultry summer days it was a cool, inviting spot. The low-spreading branches of a beautiful bur oak shaded the little stream where it gushed from the outcropping limestone. "Do you want a drink?" asked Susie, taking the tin dipper which always hung by the spring. "Thank you, dear. How cool it is! It makes me think of the old spring in the hayfield where I used to work when I was a boy." "The rain has not made the spring run any faster," said Donald. "Where does this water come from?" asked Uncle Robert. "From out of the ground," said Susie. "How does it get into the ground?" [Illustration: The spring.] "It's always there, isn't it?" said Susie. "The spring runs all the time. I fill my pail here every day in the summer." "Yes, don't you remember when the wells all dried up last summer," said Frank, "that the spring was all right?" "Well, then, where has the water gone that fell to-day?" asked Uncle Robert. "Most of it has run off into the creek and river," said Donald. "It would look just like a lake if it was an inch and a half deep all over the ground." "Some of it has soaked into the ground," said Frank. "How deep down into the ground?" asked Uncle Robert. "Down to China," laughed Donald. "How deep do you have to dig to find water--to China?" "Our wells are about thirty feet deep," said Frank. "In a dry time there's no water in them." "How is it when you have a long wet spell?" "They are more than half full then." "Have both wells the same depth?" "I think so." "Where does the water in the wells come from?" "It is the rain that has soaked into the ground," said Frank. "How far down does it go?" "It must go down till it finds some hard clay or rock that stops it," said Frank. "What does it do then?" "Then," said Frank slowly, "it must go along on top of the rock or clay." "When does it come out of the ground?" "Oh, I see! The rain goes down until it comes to that lime rock. Then it goes along the rock, and comes out there," said Donald, pointing to the spring. "Does it always?" asked Frank. "I have read of very deep wells that are bored down into the ground more than a thousand feet, and when the augur strikes water the water comes right up to the top of the ground." "You are talking about artesian wells," said Uncle Robert. "Yes, that is the name." [Illustration: Section of hillside.] They had left the spring and were walking down toward the mouth of the creek. The rain had swollen the little stream, and the water was dark with dirt. "See how muddy the water is," said Susie. "The creek must bring down a lot of earth," said Frank. "There are Joe and Dick Davis," said Donald, pointing across the river. "I wonder what they are doing? I'm going to see." Donald ran along to the mouth of the creek, which he reached as the Davis boys began to scramble down the steep bank to the edge of the river. "Hello there!" called Donald. "What are you fellows doing?" "Sticking in the mud," replied Joe Davis, holding up first one foot and then the other, heavy with the stiff clay that hung to it. "Why don't they go around by the path?" said Susie, coming up with Frank and Uncle Robert. "They'll always take the short cut if there is one," laughed Frank. "Come along over here!" he shouted. "All right," sang out Dick, scraping the mud from his shoes. An eddy in the stream just above the steep bank made a quiet place in the current. Here their boat was moored. As they pushed out from the shore they were swept down the stream, but a few strong pulls carried them beyond the swiftest part of the current, and then they easily rowed back to the landing at the mouth of the creek, where the Leonards were waiting for them. "I wish our bank was low like this," said Joe as he leaped from the boat. "We have to go so far downstream before we find a low bank on our side." "I should think you'd rather walk a mile," said Susie, looking at Joe's shoes, "than come down that bank when it's so muddy." "Humph! we don't mind a little mud," said Dick, wiping his feet on the grass. "You've brought some of your land over to us, I see," laughed Uncle Robert. "Mr. Leonard will be obliged to you. He is always glad when the soil is left on his side." "I don't see why it is," said Joe, "that our land is being cut away all the time and yours is getting bigger. It isn't fair." "We can't help it, Joe," said Susie. "It's the river that does it. You ask Uncle Robert. He'll tell you all about it." "I can tell you how it is," said Donald. "You know how strong the current is over on your side? Well, that's the reason your land is washed away. The water flows slower here, so it drops all the stuff it brings with it on our side. See?" "My!" said Dick, with a mischievous twinkle in his eyes, "doesn't he know a lot!" "Well, it's so," declared Donald, giving his head a nod. "You can see it yourself if you keep your eyes open." "My eyes are always open," said Dick, "but that doesn't keep our land." "You ought to have a creek," said Frank, "if you want your land to grow. Just look, uncle, what a lot of dirt has been left here." "It makes quite a delta, doesn't it?" replied Uncle Robert. "Sure enough," said Donald. "You remember the day of our picnic we were going to see if there was one here, and we forgot it." "Now you see where some of the dirt or silt that is brought down by the creek goes," said Uncle Robert. "And all this must have been left here since the flood in the spring. Frank is right. The creek is really building land all the time." "Most of the dirt or--what did you call it--silt goes down the river, doesn't it?" asked Frank. "Our land goes down the river," said Joe; "I've seen it." "And the river is building land for us," said Donald. "Yes," said Uncle Robert, "the river works all the time, tearing down in some places and building up in others. The clouds give us rain, the rain goes down into the ground, and then comes out and runs into the streams, and then--" "Into the ocean," said Frank. "And then--" No one spoke. "And then it rises up from the ocean and comes back again in clouds." "Did those clouds we had this morning come all the way from the ocean?" asked Joe. "I don't see how they could come so far?" "The clouds have swift wings to carry them," replied Uncle Robert. "They travel very far without tiring." "The wind brings the clouds, doesn't it, uncle?" asked Susie. "Yes, they come on the wings of the wind." "Oh," said Joe, "I see." "There's father blowing the horn," said Dick. "We must go." "Come again," said Uncle Robert and the children together. "I wish we could hear more about the river," said Joe to Frank as he helped them push off the boat. "Come over again any day," said Frank. "Uncle Robert will tell you all about it." "I wish he was my uncle, too," said Dick as they pulled out into the stream. "He isn't a bit stuck up and he knows a lot." CHAPTER XV. THE BIG BOOK. "Please tell us another story from the Big Book," begged Susie as the family were all seated on the piazza one beautiful summer evening. The great full moon, like a ball of molten iron, was rising in the east. It plowed a silver path across the river. Fireflies glimmered and sparkled in the dusky shadows of the meadow and in and out of the garden shrubs. The merry chirping of the crickets and the low hum of insect voices filled the air. Down by the creek the whip-poor-will told his one story over and over. "A story from the Big Book!" repeated Uncle Robert. "There are so many and they are all so wonderful. Ever since man was created he has read stories in the earth, water, and sky, and in all living things. Everything he has found in Nature helps him to live and grow wiser and better. We could never understand printed books unless we studied the Big Book. The more we read what God has written the more we shall want to read what other people have found out and put into printed books. The true desire to read these books springs from our love and study of Nature. "It was written for many years that the sun moved around the earth. But Copernicus studied the sun, earth, and stars anew, and he showed that the printed books were wrong by proving that the earth moved around the sun. Galileo read the same story through the telescope that he made. "Steam had always been a very common thing. Hot vapor had risen from heated water ever since fire was discovered, but the real story of steam had not been read until Watt sat long hours by a boiling teakettle. Then came the locomotive, the railroad, and mighty engines driving wheels that work for man." "Wasn't that a good story to read from the Big Book!" said Frank. "Lightning had flashed and thunder rolled throughout the ages. Men feared, wondered, and worshiped that mighty hidden power. Franklin looked straight at the forked lightning and asked, 'What are you?' The answer came in the telegraph that is fast making the nations of the earth one great family. Bell listened long and carefully to sounds, and now I can talk from New York to my friends in Chicago. "Are not these stories from the Big Book as wonderful as miracles? These are only a few of the many stories that have been read. Countless more will be read when children really open their eyes to the 'law of the Lord that converteth the soul.' Great men and great minds have road Nature's revelation in the past, but the time is coming when you and I and all children will read every day and hour the hidden things that surround us like light and press upon us like air. The Creator is writing the Big Book all the time for us--His children. Should we not read what He says there?" The children did not understand all that Uncle Robert said, yet they loved to listen. "We have found that our farm is a very interesting page of the Book," said Mrs. Leonard. "Yes, that is the precious thing about it all. "Whether we look, or whether we listen, We hear life murmur or see it glisten." All eyes were gazing at the moon as it seemed to rise above the trees. The great face of the man in the moon became distinct as he looked down upon the rolling earth. "A beautiful and wonderful world," continued Uncle Robert, "but probably not a bit more wonderful than the countless worlds we see up there. "Just think! we are on a great round ball, and it is moving on its axis from west to east toward the moon. The moon, you know, does not really move over our heads as it seems to do. The round earth rolls upon its axis, and that makes the moon seem to rise higher and higher, and then sink away below the western horizon." "To-morrow night it will come up in the east a little later," said Frank. "Round and round we go upon our ball of earth. The sun seems to rise and set just as the moon does, but it is the world itself that makes the sun and moon seem to rise and set," said Uncle Robert. "What is our earth made of?" asked Donald. "Just what you see before you," answered Uncle Robert. "Under our feet we have the ground, the soil, gravel, sand, and loam, which is made of--" "Ground-up rock," said Frank. "And underneath the soil there is--" "The solid rock," said Frank. "And underneath that?" asked Mr. Leonard. "We do not know, but it is quite certain the solid earth is made of ground-up rock and rock that may be ground. The mills are all at work, grinding all the time." "The mills!" said Susie. "Where are the mills?" "I know one," said Donald. "The river is a great mill. Don't you remember about the pebbles?" "And the glaciers are mills, too," said Frank. [Illustration: Glaciers on the Coast of Norway] "Yes, the rivers, the ice rivers or glaciers, the wind, the frost, heat and cold, all grind masses of rock into bowlders, pebbles, and sand." "The rock has been ground so long I should think there would be nothing left but soil," said Frank. "You saw the limestone down by the spring?" asked Uncle Robert. "Yes," the children said together. "That limestone was once soft mud spread out upon the bottom of the ocean in shallow water." "How do you know that is so, uncle?" questioned Frank. [Illustration: Fossil fish.] "There are many proofs, but the best proof is that in the limestone are found shells of animals that live in the sea," said Uncle Robert. "Fossils," said Mrs. Leonard. "Yes, fossils. They are the remains of plants and animals that lived a very long time ago. Many rocks are almost entirely made of fossils. Fish and shells also have been covered with soft clay and left their imprints. Great beasts have walked in the mud, and we now find their footprints in the hard stone. Coral--you have seen coral?--is often found in limestone. It is made of the shells of little animals, called the polyp, which live in the sea." [Illustration: Coral] "So you see that the firm ground under foot is made of rock, some of which has been ground up over and over again. But there is something else besides rock that makes the world" "Water," said Donald promptly as he looked down upon the river. "Yes, the water is just as much a part of our world as the solid rock and the soil. There is water in the soil and in the solid rock, too. It comes out to us in----" "Springs," said Donald. "Water fills hollows in the earth----" "Ponds and lakes," said Frank. "Water runs down the slopes--" "Streams," said Frank. "Rivers," said Donald. "There is water in the air--mist, fogs, and clouds--and there is much water in the air which we can not see." "Vapor?" asked Frank. "Sometimes water is so thin we can not see it, and again it is so thick and hard that we may walk over it." "Ice," said Susie. "Tiny bits of vapor come together until they become so heavy that they fall to the ground." "Raindrops," said Donald. "Water is sometimes frozen in the clouds in beautiful white crystals, and then they sail down to the earth." "Snowflakes," said Susie. "Sometimes drops start from the clouds and go through very cold air. The cold air freezes them quickly, and then they rattle on the roof and dash on the ground. They cut the corn leaves and destroy the crops." "Hailstones," said Donald. "Oh," said Susie, "I saw a hailstone once as big as an egg." "The lakes are hollows in the ground filled with water. There are many small hollows, and some big ones, but there is one so great that we may call it immense. It is the largest hollow in the world--so large that it occupies three-fourths of the earth's surface." [Illustration: Ocean islands] "The ocean," said Frank. "Yes, the ocean is only a great big hollow filled with water." "How deep is the ocean?" asked Frank. "Very deep in some places--deeper than the height of the highest mountains. In others it is very shallow. In some places bits and masses of land rise out of the ocean." "Islands?" asked Donald. "Four great masses of land rise above the ocean level. These immense rock masses are called--" "Continents," said Frank. "Yes," said Uncle Robert. "We live on one of them." "The continent of North America," said Donald. "Our island rises right out of the river," said Susie. "Rock and water make only a part of our world. We live on the firm earth. But we live in something. Indeed, we live at the bottom of a great, deep ocean, deeper than the water ocean, and broader than the rock and water surface taken all together." "We live at the bottom of an ocean!" said Donald in surprise. "Now you are joking, Uncle Robert," said Susie. "If we lived on the bottom of an ocean we should all drown." "Fish live in the ocean, and we live in an ocean, too--a very deep one, how deep no one really knows. It may be a hundred, or hundreds of miles deep. We see a part of the surface of the earth and of the water, but no one has ever seen the surface of the mighty ocean in which we live." Susie and Donald were puzzled. Frank's face lighted up as he said: "I think you mean the air, Uncle Robert." "You are right, Frank. The great ocean in which we live is the air, or, as it is called, the atmosphere. The atmosphere is just as much a part of our world as the rock and the water. The rock we may call solid, the water fluid, and the air gaseous. Solid, fluid, gas." "How do we know that the atmosphere is so deep?" asked Frank. "We do not know exactly, but there are ways of proving that it is very, very deep. When people began to study the atmosphere they thought it extended about fifty miles from the surface of the earth. Now they are sure that it is much deeper. We know that air has weight, like soil and water. It presses on us and everything else--" "Fifteen pounds to the square inch," said Donald. "We weigh the air with the---" "Barometer," said Susie. "It is heavier at the ocean level than it is on the tops of mountains. We are sure that the higher we go up---" "The less the air weighs," said Frank. "At the height of fifty miles it is thought to have little or no weight, and so people believed that was as far as it extended. But in time they discovered another way of measuring the atmosphere. You have seen falling stars, haven't you?" asked Uncle Robert. [Illustration: Meteors.] "Oh, yes," said the three children together. "I saw a star fall, so fast--just like a rocket. Then the light went out, and I wondered where it went," said Susie. "Falling stars are not stars at all, though they look like them. They are pieces of rock that break off from other worlds and whiz through space." "Oh!" said Susie. "Outside of our atmosphere there may be nothing for these masses of rock to strike against, but just as soon as they come into the air, it tries to stop them. The air is not strong enough to stop them, but it grinds them up." "Grinds them up!" exclaimed Donald. "Isn't that wonderful? But, uncle, what makes them look just like fire?" "If you put an axe or scythe on a dry grindstone and turn the crank, what do you see?" "Sparks of fire," said Frank. "Why do you put grease or oil upon the axles of your buggy?" "To keep them from becoming hot and dry," said Frank. "One time when father and I were on a train there was a hot box, and we had to stop to cool it." "The heat and the sparks of fire are caused by one body rubbing against another. The faster they move, the greater the heat. This rubbing is called friction." "There was a time," said Mr. Leonard, "when fires were started by rubbing two pieces of wood together. Some Indians do so now." "Then the great pieces of rock rub against the air when they whiz through it, and that makes the sparks?" asked Frank. "You are right. We can see the blaze of fire caused by the friction." "I should think the rocks would fall on us and kill us," said Donald. "Most of them are probably ground up into bits of dust before they reach the ground. Some of them, indeed, do strike the ground, and very large ones bury themselves deep in the earth. When we go to the Field Columbian Museum, in Chicago, we shall see these visitors from other worlds. They are called meteoric stones, or meteorites. When they are in the air we call them meteors." "I am going to watch the next one I see," said Susie. "They fly so fast that you hardly see them before they are gone," said Donald. "Men who study the heavens tell of the depth of the atmosphere by the angle the meteor makes in falling, but perhaps you can not understand that now. So you see, children, we live on the bottom of a great ocean of air, and that air, or atmosphere, is a part of our world--the outside part." "How plain it all is," said Mrs. Leonard, "when we think of it this way!" "Now we have the land and the water," said Uncle Robert. "And the atmosphere," put in Donald. "And they are all right here close to us. Here is the land with its hollows, and there," pointing to the river glistening in the moonlight, "is the water, and--" "You can't see the air," said Donald. "We can feel it, anyway," said Susie. "How large is the earth, uncle?" asked Frank. "Eight thousand miles through it and twenty-five thousand miles around it," answered Uncle Robert. "But, uncle, is it all solid rock for eight thousand miles?" "No one knows. The rocky outside of the ball is called the crust of the earth. Miners have dug down nearly four thousand feet, and makers of artesian wells have bored still farther. They always find rock." "I wonder how far four thousand feet would be," said Donald. "A little over three quarters of a mile," said Mr. Leonard. "The farther they go down into the crust of the earth, the warmer they find it. I have been down in a mine thirty-two hundred feet, and it was very hot. No one could have lived there if cool air had not been brought down from the surface. "Some people have thought that inside the crust of the earth the rock is all a molten mass, like melted iron. You have read about volcanoes, and of the lava that is thrown out of them?" "Does that come out of the inside of the earth?" asked Donald. [Illustration: Down in a Gold Mine] "It comes from somewhere in the earth. Some men give their whole lives to the study of these questions, but you know they can not see beneath the crust of the earth. It is thought by some that the weight of the crust would keep the center of the earth a solid mass. So you see there are still many questions unsettled. We know that the crust is moving up and down all the time." "Oh, I hope the land won't rise here!" said Susie. "You wouldn't know it, Susie, if it did," said Uncle Robert, laughing. "Unless there was an earthquake," said Frank. "Or a volcano," said Donald. "I'd like to see one." "I would like to see the ocean," said Frank. "It must be grand to stand on the shore and look way off and not see anything but water." "It is a grand sight, Frank. I have sat on the beach many a time and watched the waves roll in, and thought of the wonderful work the ocean is doing. You know it is the great reservoir that supplies all the land with water." [Illustration: View of the Ocean] "The heat of the sun lifts the water up, or evaporates it. The vapor that makes the clouds rises into the air. The winds blow the vapor many long miles, and some of the clouds come right over our heads. The cold air draws the little bits of vapor together and makes the clouds heavy, and down they fall upon the earth as drops of rain. "Some of the rain runs directly into the streams. Some of the rain water sinks down into the earth; in the gravel it sinks fast; in the sand it sinks slower; and in the loam, clay, and rock it sinks very slowly indeed. The water in the ground dissolves the rock or the loose earth into little particles so fine that the tiny roots, or root hairs, drink them up, and so the rock furnishes a part of the nourishment, or food, of plants. "Without the water that the clouds bring no plant could grow. It gives life and growth to everything that lives, and then sinks deep into the earth. It comes out of the ground again in springs, and flows away in rivulets, brooks, creeks, and rivers--away, and away, back to the ocean again. "On its way to the ocean it wears down the land, carries silt from place to place, spreads it out on beaches, sand bars, bottom lands, deltas, and on the bottom of shallow places in the ocean." "Isn't it strange how everything changes, and how all the changes help us?" said Frank thoughtfully. "Yes, Frank, it is wonderful how the Creator of all things is constantly moving earth, air, and water, and, as you say, making all these changes to help man." "It is the Big Book that tells us of this marvelous world of ours and of other worlds as well. It lies open before us for us to read every day. God has created and is still creating our home, the dwelling place of His children. We must study Him, my dear children, in all He has made. We must learn of His works in order to use everything to make man happier, better, and more useful." Mr. Leonard, who had been listening very attentively to the story, said, as his face lighted with a happy smile: "I never thought of it all in that way before. Every day, in all our work on the farm and in the house--indeed, wherever we may be--we should learn new and beautiful revelations from our Heavenly Father; how much He is constantly giving us, and how thankful we should be." The moon had risen to its full glory over the earth. The waters of the river glistened. The trees, cornfields, and meadows were peaceful and grand, as though they, too, felt the power of the glorious light. Susie put her brown arms around her mother's neck and kissed her good-night. "Oh, how I love the Big Book!" she said. "I wish I could read it as all those great men have read it," said Frank. "So do I," said Donald. "'Day unto day uttereth speech, and night unto night sheweth knowledge,'" mused the mother as her loved ones went to bed with sweet thoughts of a beautiful world and a loving God. 
19721	----	Transcriber's Note: Typographical errors have been corrected. A list of the corrected errors is found at the end of the text along with a list of inconsistently hyphenated words. THE LITERARY WORLD SEVENTH READER BY JOHN CALVIN METCALF PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LITERATURE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA SARAH WITHERS PRINCIPAL ELEMENTARY GRADES AND CRITIC TEACHER WINTHROP NORMAL AND INDUSTRIAL COLLEGE ROCK HILL. S.C. AND HETTY S. BROWNE EXTENSION WORKER IN RURAL SCHOOL PRACTICE WINTHROP NORMAL AND INDUSTRIAL COLLEGE [Illustration] JOHNSON PUBLISHING COMPANY RICHMOND, VIRGINIA COPYRIGHT, 1919 B. F. JOHNSON PUBLISHING COMPANY _All Rights Reserved_ L.H.J. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS For permission to use copyrighted material the authors and publishers express their indebtedness to the Macmillan Company for "A Deal in Bears" from _McTodd_, by W. Cutcliffe Hyne, and for "Sea Fever," by John Masefield; to Duffield & Company and Mr. H. G. Wells for "In Labrador" from _Marriage_; to the John Lane Company for "The Making of a Man" from _The Rough Road_, by W. J. Locke; to Dodd, Mead & Company and Mr. Arthur Dobson for "A Ballad of Heroes," and to Dodd, Mead & Company for "Under Seas," by Count Alexis Tolstoi; to G. P. Putnam's Sons for "Old Ephraim" from _The Hunting Trips of a Ranchman_, by Theodore Roosevelt; to Houghton Mifflin Company for "A Greyport Legend," by Bret Harte, "Midwinter," by John Townsend Trowbridge, "The First Snowfall," by James Russell Lowell, "Among the Cliffs" from _The Young Mountaineers_, by Charles Egbert Craddock (Mary N. Murfree), and for "The Friendship of Nantaquas" from _To Have and to Hold_, by Mary Johnston; to Harper & Brothers for "The Great Stone of Sardis" from _The Great Stone of Sardis_, by Frank R. Stockton, and to Harper & Brothers and Mr. Booth Tarkington for "Ariel's Triumph" from _The Conquest of Canaan_. TABLE OF CONTENTS LEGENDS OF OUR LAND RIP VAN WINKLE _Washington Irving_ 9 THE GREAT STONE FACE _Nathaniel Hawthorne_ 33 THE COURTSHIP OF MILES STANDISH _Henry W. Longfellow_ 59 THE FRIENDSHIP OF NANTAQUAS _Mary Johnston_ 79 HOME SCENES HARRY ESMOND'S BOYHOOD _Wm. Makepeace Thackeray_ 112 THE FAMILY HOLDS ITS HEAD UP _Oliver Goldsmith_ 126 THE LITTLE BOY IN THE BALCONY _Henry W. Grady_ 138 ARIEL'S TRIUMPH _Booth Tarkington_ 141 NATURE AND ANIMALS THE CLOUD _Percy Bysshe Shelley_ 160 NEW ENGLAND WEATHER _Mark Twain_ 162 THE FIRST SNOWFALL _James Russell Lowell_ 166 OLD EPHRAIM _Theodore Roosevelt_ 168 MIDWINTER _John Townsend Trowbridge_ 175 A GEORGIA FOX HUNT _Joel Chandler Harris_ 177 RAIN AND WIND _Madison Julius Cawein_ 192 THE SOUTHERN SKY _Matthew Fontaine Maury_ 193 DAFFODILS _William Wordsworth_ 195 DAWN _Edward Everett_ 196 SPRING _Henry Timrod_ 198 MOVING ADVENTURE AMONG THE CLIFFS _Charles Egbert Craddock_ 201 A DEAL IN BEARS _W. Cutcliffe Hyne_ 217 LOCHINVAR _Sir Walter Scott_ 232 IN LABRADOR _H. G. Wells_ 235 THE BUGLE SONG _Alfred Tennyson_ 258 THE SIEGE OF THE CASTLE _Sir Walter Scott_ 259 MODERN WONDER TALES SEA FEVER _John Masefield_ 334 A GREYPORT LEGEND _Bret Harte_ 335 A HUNT BENEATH THE OCEAN _Jules Verne_ 337 UNDER SEAS _Count Alexis Tolstoi_ 354 A VOYAGE TO THE MOON _Edgar Allan Poe_ 367 THE GREAT STONE OF SARDIS _Frank R. Stockton_ 391 SKETCHES OF THE GREAT WAR A STOP AT SUZANNE'S _Greayer Clover_ 407 THE MAKING OF A MAN _W. J. Locke_ 414 IN FLANDERS FIELDS _John McCrae_ 436 IN FLANDERS FIELDS (AN ANSWER) _C. B. Galbraith_ 436 A BALLAD OF HEROES _Austin Dobson_ 437 DICTIONARY 439 [Illustration: [See page 19] He Was Tempted to Repeat the Draught] [Illustration] RIP VAN WINKLE I Whoever has made a voyage up the Hudson must remember the Catskill Mountains. They are a branch of the great [v]Appalachian[9-*] family, and are seen away to the west of the river, swelling up to a noble height, and lording it over the surrounding country. Every change of season, every change of weather, indeed, every hour of the day, produces some change in the magical hues and shapes of these mountains, and they are regarded by all the goodwives, far and near, as perfect [v]barometers. At the foot of these fairy mountains the traveler may have seen the light smoke curling up from a village, whose shingle roofs gleam among the trees, just where the blue tints of the upland melt away into the fresh green of the nearer landscape. It is a little village of great age, having been founded by some of the Dutch colonists in the early times of the province, just about the beginning of the government of the good Peter [v]Stuyvesant (may he rest in peace!), and there were some of the houses of the original settlers standing within a few years, built of small yellow bricks brought from Holland, having latticed windows and gable fronts, surmounted with weathercocks. In that same village, and in one of these very houses, there lived, many years since, while the country was yet a province of Great Britain, a simple, good-natured fellow, of the name of Rip Van Winkle. He was a descendant of the Van Winkles who figured so gallantly in the [v]chivalrous days of Peter Stuyvesant, and accompanied him to the siege of Fort Christina. He inherited, however, but little of the martial character of his ancestors. I have observed that he was a simple, good-natured man; he was, moreover, a kind neighbor and an obedient, henpecked husband. Certain it is that he was a great favorite among all the goodwives of the village, who took his part in all family squabbles; and never failed, whenever they talked those matters over in their evening gossipings, to lay all the blame on Dame Van Winkle. The children of the village, too, would shout with joy whenever he approached. He assisted at their sports, made their playthings, taught them to fly kites and shoot marbles, and told them long stories of ghosts, witches, and Indians. Whenever he went dodging about the village, he was surrounded by a troop of them, hanging on his skirts, clambering on his back, and playing a thousand tricks on him; and not a dog would bark at him throughout the neighborhood. The great error in Rip's composition was a strong dislike of all kinds of profitable labor. It could not be from the want of perseverance; for he would sit on a wet rock, with a rod as long and heavy as a lance, and fish all day without a murmur, even though he should not be encouraged by a single nibble. He would carry a fowling piece on his shoulder for hours together, trudging through woods and swamps, and up hill and down dale, to shoot a few squirrels or wild pigeons. He would never refuse to assist a neighbor even in the roughest toil, and was a foremost man at all country frolics for husking Indian corn, or building stone fences; the women of the village, too, used to employ him to run their errands, and to do such little odd jobs as their less obliging husbands would not do for them. In a word, Rip was ready to attend to anybody's business but his own; but as to doing family duty, and keeping his farm in order, he found it impossible. His children, too, were as ragged and wild as if they belonged to nobody. His son Rip promised to inherit the habits, with the old clothes, of his father. He was generally seen trooping like a colt at his mother's heels, equipped in a pair of his father's cast-off breeches, which he had much ado to hold up with one hand, as a fine lady does her train in bad weather. Rip Van Winkle, however, was one of those happy mortals, of foolish, well-oiled dispositions, who take the world easy, eat white bread or brown, whichever can be got with least thought or trouble, and would rather starve on a penny than work for a pound. If left to himself, he would have whistled life away in perfect contentment; but his wife kept continually dinning in his ear about his idleness, his carelessness, and the ruin he was bringing on his family. Morning, noon, and night, her tongue was incessantly going, and everything he said or did was sure to produce a torrent of household eloquence. Rip had but one way of replying to all lectures of the kind, and that, by frequent use, had grown into a habit. He shrugged his shoulders, shook his head, cast up his eyes, but said nothing. This, however, always provoked a fresh volley from his wife; so that he was fain to draw off his forces, and take to the outside of the house--the only side which, in truth, belongs to a henpecked husband. Rip's sole [v]domestic adherent was his dog Wolf, who was as much henpecked as his master; for Dame Van Winkle regarded them as companions in idleness, and even looked upon Wolf with an evil eye, as the cause of his master's going so often astray. True it is, in all points of spirit befitting an honorable dog, he was as courageous an animal as ever scoured the woods; but what courage can withstand the ever-enduring and all-besetting terrors of a woman's tongue? The moment Wolf entered the house his crest fell, his tail drooped to the ground or curled between his legs, he sneaked about with a gallows air, casting many a sidelong glance at Dame Van Winkle, and at the least flourish of a broomstick or ladle he would fly to the door with yelping precipitation. Times grew worse and worse with Rip Van Winkle as years of matrimony rolled on. A tart temper never mellows with age, and a sharp tongue is the only edged tool that grows keener with constant use. For a long while he used to console himself, when driven from home, by frequenting a kind of perpetual club of sages, philosophers, and other idle personages of the village, which held its sessions on a bench before a small inn, designated by a [v]rubicund portrait of His Majesty George III. Here they used to sit in the shade of a long, lazy summer's day, talking listlessly over village gossip, or telling endless sleepy stories about nothing. But it would have been worth any statesman's money to have heard the profound discussions which sometimes took place, when by chance an old newspaper fell into their hands from some passing traveler. How solemnly they would listen to the contents, as drawled out by Derrick Van Bummel, the schoolmaster,--a dapper, learned little man, who was not to be daunted by the most gigantic word in the dictionary! and how sagely they would deliberate upon public events some months after they had taken place! The opinions of this [v]junto were completely controlled by Nicholas Vedder, a patriarch of the village, and landlord of the inn, at the door of which he took his seat from morning till night, just moving sufficiently to avoid the sun, and keep in the shade of a large tree; so that the neighbors could tell the hour by his movements as accurately as by a sun-dial. It is true, he was rarely heard to speak, but smoked his pipe incessantly. His adherents, however (for every great man has his adherents), perfectly understood him, and knew how to gather his opinions. When anything that was read or related displeased him, he was observed to smoke his pipe vehemently, and to send forth short, frequent, and angry puffs; but, when pleased, he would inhale the smoke slowly and tranquilly, and emit it in light and placid clouds, and sometimes, taking the pipe from his mouth, and letting the fragrant vapor curl about his nose, would nod his head in approbation. From even this stronghold the unlucky Rip was at length routed by his [v]termagant wife, who would suddenly break in upon the tranquility of the assemblage, and call the members all to naught; nor was that august personage, Nicholas Vedder himself, sacred from the daring tongue of this terrible virago, who charged him with encouraging her husband in habits of idleness. Poor Rip was at last reduced almost to despair; and his only [v]alternative, to escape from the labor of the farm and clamor of his wife, was to take gun in hand and stroll away into the woods. Here he would sometimes seat himself at the foot of a tree, and share the contents of his wallet with Wolf, with whom he sympathized as a fellow-sufferer in persecution. "Poor Wolf," he would say, "thy mistress leads thee a dog's life of it; but never mind, my lad, whilst I live thou shalt never want a friend to stand by thee." Wolf would wag his tail, look wistfully in his master's face; and if dogs can feel pity, I verily believe he [v]reciprocated the sentiment with all his heart. In a long ramble of the kind on a fine autumnal day, Rip had unconsciously scrambled to one of the highest parts of the Catskill Mountains. He was after his favorite sport of squirrel-shooting, and the still solitudes had echoed and reëchoed with the reports of his gun. Panting and fatigued, he threw himself, late in the afternoon, on a green knoll, covered with mountain herbage, that crowned the brow of a precipice. From an opening between the trees he could overlook all the lower country for many a mile of rich woodland. He saw at a distance the lordly Hudson, far, far below him, moving on its silent but majestic course, with the reflection of a purple cloud, or the sail of a lagging bark, here and there sleeping on its glassy bosom, and at last losing itself in the blue highlands. On the other side he looked down into a deep mountain glen, wild and lonely, the bottom filled with fragments from the overhanging cliffs, and scarcely lighted by the reflected rays of the setting sun. For some time Rip lay musing on this scene; evening was gradually advancing; the mountains began to throw their long blue shadows over the valleys; he saw that it would be dark long before he could reach the village, and he heaved a heavy sigh when he thought of encountering the terrors of Dame Van Winkle. As he was about to descend, he heard a voice from a distance, hallooing, "Rip Van Winkle! Rip Van Winkle!" He looked round, but could see nothing but a crow winging its solitary flight across the mountain. He thought his fancy must have deceived him, and turned again to descend, when he heard the same cry ring through the still evening air: "Rip Van Winkle! Rip Van Winkle!"--at the same time Wolf bristled up his back, and giving a low growl, skulked to his master's side, looking fearfully down into the glen. Rip now felt a vague apprehension stealing over him; he looked anxiously in the same direction, and perceived a strange figure slowly toiling up the rocks, and bending under the weight of something he carried on his back. He was surprised to see any human being in this lonely and unfrequented place; but supposing it to be some one of the neighborhood in need of his assistance, he hastened down to yield it. On nearer approach he was still more surprised at the [v]singularity of the stranger's appearance. He was a short, square-built old fellow, with thick bushy hair, and a grizzled beard. His dress was of the antique Dutch fashion,--a cloth jerkin strapped round the waist, and several pair of breeches, the outer one of ample volume, decorated with rows of buttons down the sides. He bore on his shoulder a stout keg that seemed full of liquor, and made signs for Rip to approach and assist him with the load. Though rather shy and distrustful of this new acquaintance, Rip complied with his usual [v]alacrity, and relieving one another, they clambered up a narrow gully, apparently the dry bed of a mountain torrent. As they ascended, Rip every now and then heard long, rolling peals, like distant thunder, that seemed to issue out of a deep ravine, or rather cleft, between lofty rocks, toward which their rugged path conducted. He paused for an instant, but supposing it to be the muttering of one of those transient thundershowers which often take place in mountain heights, he proceeded. Passing through the ravine, they came to a hollow, like a small [v]amphitheater, surrounded by perpendicular precipices, over the brinks of which trees shot their branches, so that you only caught glimpses of the azure sky and the bright evening cloud. During the whole time Rip and his companion had labored on in silence; for though the former marveled greatly, what could be the object of carrying a keg of liquor up this wild mountain, yet there was something strange and incomprehensible about the unknown that inspired awe and checked familiarity. On entering the amphitheater new objects of wonder presented themselves. On a level spot in the center was a company of odd-looking personages playing at ninepins. They were dressed in a quaint, outlandish fashion; some wore short doublets, others jerkins, with long knives in their belts, and most of them had enormous breeches, of similar style with that of the guide's. Their visages, too, were peculiar: one had a large head, broad face, and small, piggish eyes; the face of another seemed to consist entirely of nose, and was surmounted by a white sugar-loaf hat, set off with a little red cock's tail. They all had beards, of various shapes and colors. There was one who seemed to be the commander. He was a stout old gentleman, with a weather-beaten countenance; he wore a laced doublet, broad belt and hanger, high-crowned hat and feather, red stockings, and high-heeled shoes, with roses in them. The whole group reminded Rip of the figures in an old Flemish painting, in the parlor of [v]Dominie Van Shaick, the village parson, which had been brought over from Holland at the time of the settlement. What seemed particularly odd to Rip was that, though these folks were evidently amusing themselves, yet they maintained the gravest faces, the most mysterious silence, and were, withal, the most melancholy party of pleasure he had ever witnessed. Nothing interrupted the stillness of the scene but the noise of the balls, which, whenever they were rolled, echoed along the mountains like rumbling peals of thunder. As Rip and his companion approached them, they suddenly desisted from their play, and stared at him with such fixed, statue-like gaze, and such strange, uncouth countenances, that his heart turned within him, and his knees smote together. His companion now emptied the contents of the keg into large flagons, and made signs to him to wait upon the company. He obeyed with fear and trembling; they quaffed the liquor in profound silence, and then returned to their game. By degrees Rip's awe and apprehension subsided. He even ventured, when no eye was fixed upon him, to taste the beverage, which he found had much of the flavor of excellent Hollands. He was naturally a thirsty soul, and was soon tempted to repeat the draught. One taste provoked another; and he repeated his visits to the flagon so often that at length his senses were overpowered, his eyes swam in his head, his head gradually declined, and he fell into a deep sleep. II On waking he found himself on the green knoll whence he had first seen the old man of the glen. He rubbed his eyes--it was a bright, sunny morning. The birds were hopping and twittering among the bushes, and the eagle was wheeling aloft, and breasting the pure mountain breeze. "Surely," thought Rip, "I have not slept here all night." He recalled the occurrences before he fell asleep. The strange man with a keg of liquor--the mountain ravine--the wild retreat among the rocks--the woe-begone party at ninepins--the flagon--"Oh! that flagon! that wicked flagon!" thought Rip; "what excuse shall I make to Dame Van Winkle?" He looked round for his gun, but in place of the clean, well-oiled fowling piece, he found an old firelock lying by him, the barrel incrusted with rust, the lock falling off, and the stock worm-eaten. He now suspected that the grave revelers of the mountain had put a trick upon him and, having dosed him with liquor, had robbed him of his gun. Wolf, too, had disappeared, but he might have strayed away after a squirrel or partridge. He whistled after him, and shouted his name, but all in vain; the echoes repeated his whistle and shout, but no dog was to be seen. He determined to revisit the scene of the last evening's gambol, and if he met with any of the party, to demand his dog and gun. As he rose to walk, he found himself stiff in the joints, and wanting in his usual activity. "These mountain beds do not agree with me," thought Rip, "and if this frolic should lay me up with a fit of the rheumatism, I shall have a blessed time with Dame Van Winkle." With some difficulty he got down into the glen; he found the gully up which he and his companion had ascended the preceding evening; but to his astonishment a mountain stream was now foaming down it, leaping from rock to rock, and filling the glen with babbling murmurs. He, however, made shift to scramble up its sides, working his toilsome way through thickets of birch, sassafras, and witch-hazel, and sometimes tripped up or entangled by the wild grapevines that twisted their coils from tree to tree, and spread a kind of network in his path. At length he reached to where the ravine had opened through the cliffs to the amphitheater; but no traces of such opening remained. The rocks presented a high, impenetrable wall, over which the torrent came tumbling in a sheet of feathery foam, and fell into a broad, deep basin, black from the shadows of the surrounding forest. Here, then, poor Rip was brought to a stand. He again called and whistled after his dog; he was only answered by the cawing of a flock of idle crows sporting high in air about a dry tree that overhung a sunny precipice; and who, secure in their elevation, seemed to look down and scoff at the poor man's perplexities. What was to be done?--the morning was passing away, and Rip felt famished for want of his breakfast. He grieved to give up his dog and gun; he dreaded to meet his wife; but it would not do to starve among the mountains. He shook his head, shouldered the rusty firelock, and, with a heart full of trouble and anxiety, turned his steps homeward. As he approached the village he met a number of people, but none whom he knew, which somewhat surprised him, for he had thought himself acquainted with every one in the country round. Their dress, too, was of a different fashion from that to which he was accustomed. They all stared at him with equal marks of surprise, and whenever they cast their eyes upon him, invariably stroked their chins. The constant recurrence of this gesture induced Rip, involuntarily, to do the same, when, to his astonishment, he found his beard had grown a foot long! He had now entered the skirts of the village. A troop of strange children ran at his heels, hooting after him, and pointing at his gray beard. The dogs, too, not one of which he recognized for an old acquaintance, barked at him as he passed. The very village was altered; it was larger and more populous. There were rows of houses which he had never seen before, and those which had been his familiar haunts had disappeared. Strange names were over the doors--strange faces at the windows--everything was strange. His mind now misgave him; he began to doubt whether both he and the world around him were not bewitched. Surely this was his native village, which he had left but the day before. There stood the Catskill Mountains--there ran the silver Hudson at a distance--there was every hill and dale precisely as it had always been. Rip was sorely perplexed. "That flagon last night," thought he, "has addled my poor head sadly!" It was with some difficulty that he found the way to his own house, which he approached with silent awe, expecting every moment to hear the shrill voice of Dame Van Winkle. He found the house gone to decay--the roof fallen in, the windows shattered, and the doors off the hinges. A half-starved dog that looked like Wolf was skulking about it. Rip called him by name, but the cur snarled, showed his teeth, and passed on. This was an unkind cut indeed. "My very dog," sighed Rip, "has forgotten me!" He entered the house, which, to tell the truth, Dame Van Winkle had always kept in neat order. It was empty, forlorn, and apparently abandoned. He called loudly for his wife and children--the lonely chambers rang for a moment with his voice, and then all again was silence. III He now hurried forth, and hastened to his old resort, the village inn--but it, too, was gone. A large, rickety wooden building stood in its place, with great gaping windows, some of them broken and mended with old hats and petticoats, and over the door was painted, "The Union Hotel, by Jonathan Doolittle." Instead of the great tree that used to shelter the quiet little Dutch inn of yore, there now was reared a tall, naked pole, with something on the top that looked like a red nightcap, and from it was fluttering a flag, on which was a singular assemblage of stars and stripes; all this was strange and incomprehensible. He recognized on the sign, however, the ruby face of King George, under which he had smoked so many a peaceful pipe; but even this was singularly changed. The red coat was changed for one of blue and buff, a sword was held in the hand instead of a scepter, the head was decorated with a cocked hat, and underneath was painted in large characters, GENERAL WASHINGTON. There was, as usual, a crowd of folk about the door, but none that Rip recollected. The very character of the people seemed changed. There was a busy, bustling tone about it, instead of the accustomed drowsy tranquility. He looked in vain for the sage Nicholas Vedder, with his broad face, double chin, and long pipe, uttering clouds of tobacco smoke instead of idle speeches; or Van Bummel, the schoolmaster, doling forth the contents of an ancient newspaper. In place of these, a lean fellow, with his pockets full of handbills, was haranguing vehemently about rights of citizens--elections--members of congress--Bunker's Hill--heroes of seventy-six--and other words, which were a perfect jargon to the bewildered Van Winkle. The appearance of Rip, with his long, grizzled beard, his rusty fowling piece, his uncouth dress, and an army of women and children at his heels, soon attracted the attention of the tavern politicians. They crowded round him, eyeing him from head to foot with great curiosity. The orator bustled up to him, and, drawing him partly aside, inquired "On which side he voted?" Rip stared in vacant stupidity. Another short but busy little fellow pulled him by the arm, and, rising on tiptoe, inquired in his ear, "Whether he was Federal or Democrat?" Rip was equally at a loss to comprehend the question; when a knowing, self-important old gentleman, in a sharp cocked hat, made his way through the crowd, putting them to the right and left with his elbows as he passed, and planting himself before Van Winkle, with one arm akimbo, the other resting on his cane, his keen eyes and sharp hat penetrating, as it were, into his very soul, demanded, in an austere tone, "What brought him to the election with a gun on his shoulder, and a mob at his heels; and whether he meant to breed a riot in the village?"--"Alas! gentlemen," cried Rip, somewhat dismayed, "I am a poor, quiet man, a native of the place, and a loyal subject of the king, God bless him!" Here a general shout burst from the bystanders--"A tory! a tory! a spy! a refugee! hustle him! away with him!" It was with great difficulty that the self-important man in the cocked hat restored order; and having assumed a tenfold [v]austerity of brow, demanded again of the unknown culprit, what he came there for, and whom he was seeking! The poor man humbly assured him that he meant no harm, but merely came there in search of some of his neighbors. "Well--who are they? Name them." Rip bethought himself a moment, and inquired, "Where's Nicholas Vedder?" There was a silence for a little while, when an old man replied, in a thin, piping voice, "Nicholas Vedder! why, he is dead and gone these eighteen years! There was a wooden tombstone in the churchyard that used to tell all about him, but that's rotten and gone, too." "Where's Brom Dutcher?" "Oh, he went off to the army in the beginning of the war; some say he was killed at the storming of Stony Point; others say he was drowned in a squall at the foot of Anthony's Nose. I don't know; he never came back again." "Where's Van Brummel, the schoolmaster?" "He went off to the wars, too, was a great militia general, and is now in congress." Rip's heart died away at hearing of these sad changes in his home and friends and finding himself thus alone in the world. Every answer puzzled him, too, by treating of such enormous lapses of time, and of matters which he could not understand: war--congress--Stony Point. He had no courage to ask after any more friends, but cried out in despair, "Does nobody here know Rip Van Winkle?" "Oh, Rip Van Winkle!" exclaimed two or three, "oh, to be sure! that's Rip Van Winkle yonder, leaning against the tree." Rip looked, and beheld a precise counterpart of himself, as he went up the mountain--apparently as lazy and certainly as ragged. The poor fellow was now completely confounded. He doubted his own identity, and whether he was himself or another man. In the midst of his bewilderment, the man in the cocked hat demanded who he was, and what was his name. "God knows," exclaimed he, at his wits' end; "I'm not myself--I'm somebody else--that's me yonder--no--that's somebody else got into my shoes--I was myself last night, but I fell asleep on the mountain, and they've changed my gun, and everything's changed, and I'm changed, and I can't tell what's my name, or who I am!" The bystanders began now to look at each other, nod, wink significantly, and tap their fingers against their foreheads. There was a whisper, also, about securing the gun, and keeping the old fellow from doing mischief, at the very suggestion of which the self-important man in the cocked hat retired with some precipitation. At this critical moment a fresh, comely woman pressed through the throng to get a peep at the gray-bearded man. She had a chubby child in her arms, which, frightened at his looks, began to cry. "Hush, Rip," cried she, "hush, you little fool; the old man won't hurt you." The name of the child, the air of the mother, the tone of her voice, all awakened a train of recollections in his mind. "What is your name, my good woman?" asked he. "Judith Gardenier." "And your father's name?" "Ah, poor man, Rip Van Winkle was his name, but it's twenty years since he went away from home with his gun, and never has been heard of since--his dog came home without him; but whether he shot himself, or was carried away by the Indians, nobody can tell. I was then but a little girl." Rip had but one question more to ask; but he put it with a faltering voice: "Where's your mother?" "Oh, she, too, had died but a short time since; she broke a blood-vessel in a fit of passion at a New England peddler." There was a drop of comfort, at least, in this intelligence. The honest man could contain himself no longer. He caught his daughter and her child in his arms. "I am your father!" cried he--"Young Rip Van Winkle once--Old Rip Van Winkle now! Does nobody know poor Rip Van Winkle?" All stood amazed until an old woman, tottering out from among the crowd, put her hand to her brow, and peering under it in his face for a moment, exclaimed, "Sure enough! it is Rip Van Winkle--it is himself! Welcome home again, old neighbor. Why, where have you been these twenty long years?" Rip's story was soon told, for the whole twenty years had been to him but as one night. The neighbors stared when they heard it; some were seen to wink at each other, and put their tongues in their cheeks: and the self-important man in the cocked hat, who when the alarm was over had returned to the field, screwed down the corners of his mouth, and shook his head--upon which there was a general shaking of the head throughout the assemblage. It was determined, however, to take the opinion of old Peter Vanderdonk, who was seen slowly advancing up the road. He was a descendant of the historian of that name, who wrote one of the earliest accounts of the province. Peter was the most ancient inhabitant of the village, and well versed in all the wonderful events and traditions of the neighborhood. He recollected Rip at once, and corroborated his story in the most satisfactory manner. He assured the company that it was a fact, handed down from his ancestor the historian, that the Catskill Mountains had always been haunted by strange beings. It was affirmed that the great Hendrick Hudson, the first discoverer of the river and country, kept a kind of vigil there every twenty years, with his crew of the _Half-moon_; being permitted in this way to revisit the scenes of his enterprise, and keep a guardian eye upon the river and the great city called by his name. His father had once seen them in their old Dutch dresses playing at ninepins in a hollow of the mountain; and he himself had heard, one summer afternoon, the sound of their balls, like distant peals of thunder. To make a long story short, the company broke up and returned to the more important concerns of the election. Rip's daughter took him home to live with her; she had a snug, well-furnished house, and a stout, cheery farmer for a husband, whom Rip recollected for one of the urchins that used to climb upon his back. As to Rip's son and heir, who was the ditto of himself, seen leaning against the tree, he was employed to work on the farm; but showed an hereditary disposition to attend to anything else but his business. WASHINGTON IRVING. =HELPS TO STUDY= "Rip Van Winkle" is the most beautiful of American legendary stories. Washington Irving, the author, taking the old idea of long sleep, as found in "The Sleeping Beauty" and other fairy tales, gave it an American setting and interwove in it the legend of Henry Hudson, the discoverer of the Hudson river, who was supposed to return to the scene of his achievement every twenty years, together with the shades of his crew. I. Where is the scene of this story laid? In which paragraph do you learn when the incident related in the story took place? Why does Irving speak of the mountains as "fairy mountains"? In which paragraph do you meet the principal characters? Give the opinion you form of Rip and his wife. Read sentences that show Rip's good qualities--those that show his faults. What unusual thing happened to Rip on his walk? How was the dog affected? Give a full account of what happened afterward. Tell what impressed you most in this scene. Read aloud the lines that best describe the scenery. II. Describe Rip's waking. What was his worst fear? How did he explain to himself the change in his gun and the disappearance of Wolf? How did he account for the stiffness of his joints? What was still his chief fear? Describe the changes which had taken place in the mountains. With what feeling did he turn homeward? Why? How did he discover the alteration in his own appearance? How did the children and dogs treat him? Why was this particularly hard for Rip to understand? What other changes did he find? What remained unaltered? How did Rip still account for the peculiar happenings? Describe Rip's feelings as he turned to his own house, and its desolation. III. What change had been made in the sign over the inn? Why? What important thing was taking place in the village? Why did the speech of the "lean fellow" seem "perfect jargon" to Rip? Why did he not understand the questions asked him? What happened when Rip made his innocent reply to the self-important gentleman? How did he at last learn of the lapse of time? What added to his bewilderment? How was the mystery explained? Note the question Rip reserved for the last and the effect the answer had upon him. How did Peter Vanderdonk explain the strange happening? What is the happy ending? Do you like Rip? Why? SUPPLEMENTARY READING Urashima--Graded Classics III. Vice Versa--F. Anstey. Peter Pan--James Barrie. The Legend of Sleepy Hollow--Washington Irving. A Christmas Carol--Charles Dickens. Enoch Arden--Alfred Tennyson. FOOTNOTE: [9-*] For words marked [v], see Dictionary. [Illustration: Photograph by Aldrich The Great Stone Face] THE GREAT STONE FACE I One afternoon when the sun was going down, a mother and her little boy sat at the door of their cottage, talking about the Great Stone Face. They had but to lift their eyes, and there it was plainly to be seen, though miles away, with the sunshine brightening all its features. And what was the Great Stone Face? The Great Stone Face was a work of Nature in her mood of majestic playfulness, formed on the perpendicular side of a mountain by some immense rocks, which had been thrown together in such a position as, when viewed at a proper distance, precisely to resemble the features of the human countenance. It seemed as if an enormous giant, or a [v]Titan, had sculptured his own likeness on the precipice. There was the broad arch of the forehead, a hundred feet in height; the nose, with its long bridge; and the vast lips, which, if they could have spoken, would have rolled their thunder accents from one end of the valley to the other. It was a happy lot for children to grow up to manhood or womanhood with the Great Stone Face before their eyes, for all the features were noble, and the expression was at once grand and sweet, as if it were the glow of a vast, warm heart that embraced all mankind in its affections, and had room for more. As we began with saying, a mother and her little boy sat at their cottage door, gazing at the Great Stone Face, and talking about it. The child's name was Ernest. "Mother," said he, while the Titanic visage smiled on him, "I wish that it could speak, for it looks so very kindly that its voice must be pleasant. If I were to see a man with such a face, I should love him dearly." "If an old prophecy should come to pass," answered his mother, "we may see a man, some time or other, with exactly such a face as that." "What prophecy do you mean, dear mother?" eagerly inquired Ernest. "Pray tell me all about it!" So his mother told him a story that her own mother had told to her, when she herself was younger than little Ernest; a story, not of things that were past, but of what was yet to come; a story, nevertheless, so very old that even the Indians, who formerly inhabited this valley, had heard it from their forefathers, to whom, they believed, it had been murmured by the mountain streams, and whispered by the wind among the tree tops. The story said that at some future day a child should be born hereabouts who was destined to become the greatest and noblest man of his time, and whose countenance, in manhood, should bear an exact resemblance to the Great Stone Face. "O mother, dear mother!" cried Ernest, clapping his hands above his head, "I do hope that I shall live to see him!" His mother was an affectionate and thoughtful woman, and felt that it was wisest not to discourage the hopes of her little boy. She only said to him, "Perhaps you may," little thinking that the prophecy would one day come true. And Ernest never forgot the story that his mother told him. It was always in his mind whenever he looked upon the Great Stone Face. He spent his childhood in the log cottage where he was born, and was dutiful to his mother, and helpful to her in many things, assisting her much with his little hands, and more with his loving heart. In this manner, from a happy yet thoughtful child, he grew to be a mild, quiet, modest boy, sun-browned with labor in the fields, but with more intelligence in his face than is seen in many lads who have been taught at famous schools. Yet Ernest had had no teacher, save only that the Great Stone Face became one to him. When the toil of the day was over, he would gaze at it for hours, until he began to imagine that those vast features recognized him, and gave him a smile of kindness and encouragement in response to his own look of [v]veneration. We must not take upon us to affirm that this was a mistake, although the Face may have looked no more kindly at Ernest than at all the world besides. For the secret was that the boy's tender simplicity [v]discerned what other people could not see; and thus the love, which was meant for all, became his alone. II About this time, there went a rumor throughout the valley that the great man, foretold from ages long ago, who was to bear a resemblance to the Great Stone Face, had appeared at last. It seems that, many years before, a young man had left the valley and settled at a distant seaport, where, after getting together a little money, he had set up as a shopkeeper. His name--but I could never learn whether it was his real one, or a nickname that had grown out of his habits and success in life--was Gathergold. It might be said of him, as of [v]Midas in the fable, that whatever he touched with his finger immediately glistened, and grew yellow, and was changed at once into coin. And when Mr. Gathergold had become so rich that it would have taken him a hundred years only to count his wealth, he bethought himself of his native valley, and resolved to go back thither, and end his days where he was born. With this purpose in view, he sent a skillful architect to build him such a palace as should be fit for a man of his vast wealth to live in. As I have said above, it had already been rumored in the valley that Mr. Gathergold had turned out to be the person so long and vainly looked for, and that his visage was the perfect and undeniable likeness of the Great Stone Face. People were the more ready to believe that this must needs be the fact when they beheld the splendid edifice that rose, as if by enchantment, on the site of his father's old weather-beaten farmhouse. The exterior was of marble, so dazzling white that it seemed as though the whole structure might melt away in the sunshine, like those humbler ones which Mr. Gathergold, in his young playdays, had been accustomed to build of snow. It had a richly ornamented portico, supported by tall pillars, beneath which was a lofty door, studded with silver knobs, and made of a kind of variegated wood that had been brought from beyond the sea. The windows, from the floor to the ceiling of each stately apartment, were each composed of but one enormous pane of glass. Hardly anybody had been permitted to see the interior of this palace; but it was reported to be far more gorgeous than the outside, insomuch that whatever was iron or brass in other houses was silver or gold in this; and Mr. Gathergold's bedchamber, especially, made such a glittering appearance that no ordinary man would have been able to close his eyes there. But, on the other hand, Mr. Gathergold was now so accustomed to wealth that perhaps he could not have closed his eyes unless where the gleam of it was certain to find its way beneath his eyelids. In due time, the mansion was finished; next came the upholsterers, with magnificent furniture; then a whole troop of black and white servants, the harbingers of Mr. Gathergold, who, in his own majestic person, was expected to arrive at sunset. Our friend Ernest, meanwhile, had been deeply stirred by the idea that the great man, the noble man, the man of prophecy, after so many ages of delay, was at length to appear in his native valley. He knew, boy as he was, that there were a thousand ways in which Mr. Gathergold, with his vast wealth, might transform himself into an angel of beneficence, and assume a control over human affairs as wide and [v]benignant as the smile of the Great Stone Face. Full of faith and hope, Ernest doubted not that what the people said was true, and that now he was to behold the living likeness of those wondrous features on the mountain side. While the boy was still gazing up the valley, and fancying, as he always did, that the Great Stone Face returned his gaze and looked kindly at him, the rumbling of wheels was heard, approaching swiftly along the winding road. "Here he comes!" cried a group of people who were assembled to witness the arrival. "Here comes the great Mr. Gathergold!" A carriage, drawn by four horses, dashed round the turn of the road. Within it, thrust partly out of the window, appeared the face of a little old man, with a skin as yellow as gold. He had a low forehead, small, sharp eyes, puckered about with innumerable wrinkles, and very thin lips, which he made still thinner by pressing them forcibly together. "The very image of the Great Stone Face!" shouted the people. "Sure enough, the old prophecy is true." And, what greatly perplexed Ernest, they seemed actually to believe that here was the likeness which they spoke of. By the roadside there chanced to be an old beggar woman and two little beggar children, stragglers from some far-off region, who, as the carriage rolled onward, held out their hands and lifted up their doleful voices, most piteously beseeching charity. A yellow claw--the very same that had clawed together so much wealth--poked itself out of the coach window, and dropped some copper coins upon the ground; so that, though the great man's name seems to have been Gathergold, he might just as suitably have been nicknamed Scattercopper. Still, nevertheless, with an earnest shout, and evidently with as much good faith as ever, the people bellowed: "He is the very image of the Great Stone Face!" But Ernest turned sadly from the wrinkled shrewdness of that visage and gazed up the valley, where, amid a gathering mist, gilded by the last sunbeams, he could still distinguish those glorious features which had impressed themselves into his soul. Their aspect cheered him. What did the benign lips seem to say? "He will come! Fear not, Ernest; the man will come!" The years went on, and Ernest ceased to be a boy. He had grown to be a young man now. He attracted little notice from the other inhabitants of the valley, for they saw nothing remarkable in his way of life, save that, when the labor of the day was over, he still loved to go apart and gaze and meditate upon the Great Stone Face. According to their idea of the matter, however, it was a pardonable folly, for Ernest was industrious, kind, and neighborly, and neglected no duty for the sake of this idle habit. They knew not that the Great Stone Face had become a teacher to him, and that the sentiment which was expressed in it would enlarge the young man's heart, and fill it with wider and deeper sympathies than other hearts. They knew not that thence would come a better wisdom than could be learned from books, and a better life than could be molded on the example of other human lives. Neither did Ernest know that the thoughts and affections which came to him so naturally, in the fields and at the fireside, were of a higher tone than those which all men shared with him. A simple soul,--simple as when his mother first taught him the old prophecy,--he beheld the marvelous features beaming down the valley, and still wondered that their human counterpart was so long in making his appearance. By this time poor Mr. Gathergold was dead and buried; and the oddest part of the matter was that his wealth, which was the body and spirit of his existence, had disappeared before his death, leaving nothing of him but a living skeleton, covered over with a wrinkled, yellow skin. Since the melting away of his gold, it had been very generally allowed that there was no such striking resemblance, after all, betwixt the ignoble features of the ruined merchant and that majestic face upon the mountain side. So the people ceased to honor him during his lifetime, and quietly forgot him after his decease. Once in a while, it is true, his memory was brought up in connection with the magnificent palace which he had built, and which had long ago been turned into a hotel for the accommodation of strangers, multitudes of whom came, every summer, to visit that famous natural curiosity, the Great Stone Face. The man of prophecy was yet to come. III It so happened that a native-born son of the valley, many years before, had enlisted as a soldier, and, after a great deal of hard fighting, had now become an illustrious commander. Whatever he may be called in history, he was known in camps and on the battlefield under the nickname of Old Blood-and-Thunder. This war-worn veteran, being now weary of a military life, and of the roll of the drum and the clangor of the trumpet that had so long been ringing in his ears, had lately signified a purpose of returning to his native valley, hoping to find repose where he remembered to have left it. The inhabitants, his old neighbors and their grown-up children, were resolved to welcome the [v]renowned warrior with a salute of cannon and a public dinner; and all the more enthusiastically because it was believed that at last the likeness of the Great Stone Face had actually appeared. A friend of Old Blood-and-Thunder, traveling through the valley, was said to have been struck with the resemblance. Moreover, the schoolmates and early acquaintances of the general were ready to testify, on oath, that, to the best of their recollection, the general had been exceedingly like the majestic image, even when a boy, only that the idea had never occurred to them at that period. Great, therefore, was the excitement throughout the valley; and many people, who had never once thought of glancing at the Great Stone Face for years before, now spent their time in gazing at it, for the sake of knowing exactly how General Blood-and-Thunder looked. On the day of the great festival, Ernest, and all the other people of the valley, left their work and proceeded to the spot where the banquet was prepared. As he approached, the loud voice of the Rev. Dr. Battleblast was heard, beseeching a blessing on the good things set before them, and on the distinguished friend of peace in whose honor they were assembled. The tables were arranged in a cleared space of the woods, shut in by the surrounding trees, except where a vista opened eastward, and afforded a distant view of the Great Stone Face. Over the general's chair, which was a relic from the home of Washington, there was an arch of green boughs and laurel surmounted by his country's banner, beneath which he had won his victories. Our friend Ernest raised himself on his tiptoes, in hopes to get a glimpse of the celebrated guest; but there was a mighty crowd about the tables anxious to hear the toasts and speeches, and to catch any word that might fall from the general in reply; and a volunteer company, doing duty as a guard, pricked with their bayonets at any particularly quiet person among the throng. So Ernest, being of a modest character, was thrust quite into the background, where he could see no more of Old Blood-and-Thunder's face than if it had been still blazing on the battlefield. To console himself he turned toward the Great Stone Face, which, like a faithful and long-remembered friend, looked back and smiled upon him through the forest. Meantime, however, he could overhear the remarks of various individuals who were comparing the features of the hero with the face on the distant mountain side. "'Tis the same face, to a hair!" cried one man, cutting a caper for joy. "Wonderfully like, that's a fact!" responded another. "Like! Why, I call it Old Blood-and-Thunder himself, in a monstrous looking-glass!" cried a third. "And why not? He's the greatest man of this or any other age, beyond a doubt." "The general! The general!" was now the cry. "Hush! Silence! Old Blood-and-Thunder's going to make a speech." Even so; for, the cloth being removed, the general's health had been drunk amid shouts of applause, and he now stood upon his feet to thank the company. Ernest saw him. There he was, over the shoulders of the crowd, from the two glittering epaulets and embroidered collar upward, beneath the arch of green boughs with intertwined laurel, and the banner drooping as if to shade his brow! And there, too, visible in the same glance, appeared the Great Stone Face! And was there, indeed, such a resemblance as the crowd had testified? Alas, Ernest could not recognize it! He beheld a war-worn and weather-beaten countenance, full of energy, and expressive of an iron will; but the gentle wisdom, the deep, broad, tender sympathies were altogether wanting in Old Blood-and-Thunder's visage. "This is not the man of prophecy," sighed Ernest to himself, as he made his way out of the throng. "And must the world wait longer yet?" The mists had gathered about the distant mountain side, and there were seen the grand and awful features of the Great Stone Face, awful but benignant, as if a mighty angel were sitting among the hills and enrobing himself in a cloud vesture of gold and purple. As he looked, Ernest could hardly believe but that a smile beamed over the whole visage, with a radiance still brightening, although without motion of the lips. It was probably the effect of the western sunshine, melting the thin vapors that had swept between him and the object that he had gazed at. But--as it always did--the aspect of his marvelous friend made Ernest as hopeful as if he had never hoped in vain. "Fear not, Ernest," said his heart, even as if the Great Face were whispering him--"fear not, Ernest." IV More years sped swiftly and tranquilly away. Ernest still dwelt in his native valley, and was now a man of middle age. By slow degrees he had become known among the people. Now, as heretofore, he labored for his bread, and was the same simple-hearted man that he had always been. But he had thought and felt so much, he had given so many of the best hours of his life to unworldly hopes for some great good to mankind, that it seemed as though he had been talking with the angels, and had imbibed a portion of their wisdom unawares. It was visible in the calm beneficence of his daily life, the quiet stream of which had made a wide, green margin all along its course. Not a day passed by that the world was not the better because this man, humble as he was, had lived. He never stepped aside from his own path, yet would always reach a blessing to his neighbor. Almost involuntarily, too, he had become a preacher. The pure and high simplicity of his thought, which took shape in the good deeds that dropped silently from his hand, flowered also forth in speech. He uttered truths that molded the lives of those who heard him. His hearers, it may be, never suspected that Ernest, their own neighbor and familiar friend, was more than an ordinary man; least of all did Ernest himself suspect it; but thoughts came out of his mouth that no other human lips had spoken. When the people's minds had had a little time to cool, they were ready enough to acknowledge their mistake in imagining a similarity between General Blood-and-Thunder and the benign visage on the mountain side. But now, again, there were reports and many paragraphs in the newspapers, affirming that the likeness of the Great Stone Face had appeared upon the broad shoulders of a certain eminent [v]statesman. He, like Mr. Gathergold and Old Blood-and-Thunder, was a native of the valley, but had left it in his early days, and taken up the trades of law and politics. Instead of the rich man's wealth and the warrior's sword he had but a tongue, and it was mightier than both together. So wonderfully eloquent was he that, whatever he might choose to say, his hearers had no choice but to believe him; wrong looked like right, and right like wrong. His voice, indeed, was a magic instrument: sometimes it rumbled like the thunder; sometimes it warbled like the sweetest music. In good truth, he was a wondrous man; and when his tongue had acquired him all other imaginable success,--when it had been heard in halls of state and in the courts of princes,--after it had made him known all over the world, even as a voice crying from shore to shore,--it finally persuaded his countrymen to select him for the presidency. Before this time,--indeed, as soon as he began to grow celebrated,--his admirers had found out the resemblance between him and the Great Stone Face; and so much were they struck by it that throughout the country this distinguished gentleman was known by the name of Old Stony Phiz. While his friends were doing their best to make him President, Old Stony Phiz, as he was called, set out on a visit to the valley where he was born. Of course he had no other object than to shake hands with his fellow-citizens, and neither thought nor cared about any effect which his progress through the country might have upon the election. Magnificent preparations were made to receive the [v]illustrious statesmen; a cavalcade of horsemen set forth to meet him at the boundary line of the State, and all the people left their business and gathered along the wayside to see him pass. Among these was Ernest. Though more than once disappointed, as we have seen, he had such a hopeful and confiding nature that he was always ready to believe in whatever seemed beautiful and good. He kept his heart continually open, and thus was sure to catch the blessing from on high, when it should come. So now again, as buoyantly as ever, he went forth to behold the likeness of the Great Stone Face. The cavalcade came prancing along the road, with a great clattering of hoofs and a mighty cloud of dust, which rose up so dense and high that the visage of the mountain side was completely hidden from Ernest's eyes. All the great men of the neighborhood were there on horseback: militia officers, in uniform; the member of congress; the sheriff of the county; the editors of newspapers; and many a farmer, too, had mounted his patient steed, with his Sunday coat upon his back. It really was a very brilliant spectacle, especially as there were numerous banners flaunting over the cavalcade, on some of which were gorgeous portraits of the illustrious statesman and the Great Stone Face, smiling familiarly at one another, like two brothers. If the pictures were to be trusted, the resemblance, it must be confessed, was marvelous. We must not forget to mention that there was a band of music, which made the echoes of the mountains ring with the loud triumph of its strains, so that airy and soul-thrilling melodies broke out among all the heights and hollows, as if every nook of his native valley had found a voice to welcome the distinguished guest. But the grandest effect was when the far-off mountain precipice flung back the music; for then the Great Stone Face itself seemed to be swelling the triumphant chorus, in acknowledgment that, at length, the man of prophecy was come. All this while the people were throwing up their hats and shouting with such enthusiasm that the heart of Ernest kindled up, and he likewise threw up his hat and shouted as loudly as the loudest, "Huzza for the great man! Huzza for Old Stony Phiz!" But as yet he had not seen him. "Here he is now!" cried those who stood near Ernest. "There! There! Look at Old Stony Phiz and then at the Old Man of the Mountain, and see if they are not as like as two twin brothers!" In the midst of all this gallant array came an open [v]barouche, drawn by four white horses; and in the barouche, with his massive head uncovered, sat the illustrious statesman, Old Stony Phiz himself. "Confess it," said one of Ernest's neighbors to him, "the Great Stone Face has met its match at last!" Now, it must be owned that, at his first glimpse of the countenance which was bowing and smiling from the barouche, Ernest did fancy that there was a resemblance between it and the old familiar face upon the mountain side. The brow, with its massive depth and loftiness, and all the other features, indeed, were bold and strong. But the grand expression of a divine sympathy that illuminated the mountain visage might here be sought in vain. Still Ernest's neighbor was thrusting his elbow into his side, and pressing him for an answer. "Confess! Confess! Is not he the very picture of your Old Man of the Mountain?" "No!" said Ernest, bluntly; "I see little or no likeness." "Then so much the worse for the Great Stone Face!" answered his neighbor. And again he set up a shout for Old Stony Phiz. But Ernest turned away, melancholy, and almost despondent; for this was the saddest of his disappointments, to behold a man who might have fulfilled the prophecy, and had not willed to do so. Meantime, the cavalcade, the banners, the music, and the barouches swept past him, with the shouting crowd in the rear, leaving the dust to settle down, and the Great Stone Face to be revealed again, with the grandeur that it had worn for untold centuries. "Lo, here I am, Ernest!" the benign lips seemed to say. "I have waited longer than thou, and am not yet weary. Fear not; the man will come." V The years hurried onward, treading in their haste on one another's heels. And now they began to bring white hairs and scatter them over the head of Ernest; they made wrinkles across his forehead and furrows in his cheeks. He was an aged man. But not in vain had he grown old; more than the white hairs on his head were the wise thoughts in his mind. And Ernest had ceased to be obscure. Unsought for, undesired, had come the fame which so many seek, and made him known in the great world, beyond the limits of the valley in which he had dwelt so quietly. College professors, and even the active men of cities, came from far to see and converse with Ernest; for the report had gone abroad that this simple farmer had ideas unlike those of other men, and a tranquil majesty as if he had been talking with the angels as his daily friends. Ernest received these visitors with the gentle sincerity that had marked him from boyhood, and spoke freely with them of whatever came uppermost, or lay deepest in his heart or their own. While they talked together his face would kindle and shine upon them, as with a mild evening light. When his guests took leave and went their way, and passing up the valley, paused to look at the Great Stone Face, they imagined that they had seen its likeness in a human countenance, but could not remember where. While Ernest had been growing up and growing old, a bountiful Providence had granted a new poet to this earth. He, likewise, was a native of the valley, but had spent the greater part of his life at a distance from that romantic region, pouring out his sweet music amid the bustle and din of cities. Often, however, did the mountains which had been familiar to him in his childhood lift their snowy peaks into the clear atmosphere of his poetry. Neither was the Great Stone Face forgotten, for he had celebrated it in a poem which was grand enough to have been uttered by its lips. The songs of this poet found their way to Ernest. He read them after his customary toil, seated on the bench before his cottage door, where for such a length of time he had filled his repose with thought, by gazing at the Great Stone Face. And now, as he read stanzas that caused the soul to thrill within him, he lifted his eyes to the vast countenance beaming on him so benignantly. "O majestic friend," he said, addressing the Great Stone Face, "is not this man worthy to resemble thee?" The Face seemed to smile, but answered not a word. Now it happened that the poet, though he dwelt so far away, had not only heard of Ernest, but had meditated much upon his character, until he deemed nothing so desirable as to meet this man whose untaught wisdom walked hand in hand with the noble simplicity of his life. One summer morning, therefore, he took passage by the railroad, and, in the decline of the afternoon, alighted from the cars at no great distance from Ernest's cottage. The great hotel, which had formerly been the palace of Mr. Gathergold, was close at hand, but the poet, with his carpetbag on his arm, inquired at once where Ernest dwelt, and was resolved to be accepted as his guest. Approaching the door, he there found the good old man, holding a volume in his hand, which he read, and then, with a finger between the leaves, looked lovingly at the Great Stone Face. "Good evening," said the poet. "Can you give a traveler a night's lodging?" "Willingly," answered Ernest. And then he added, smiling, "Methinks I never saw the Great Stone Face look so hospitably at a stranger." The poet sat down on the bench beside him, and he and Ernest talked together. Often had the poet conversed with the wittiest and the wisest, but never before with a man like Ernest, whose thoughts and feelings gushed up with such a natural freedom, and who made great truths so familiar by his simple utterance of them. Angels, as had been so often said, seemed to have wrought with him at his labor in the fields; angels seemed to have sat with him by the fireside. So thought the poet. And Ernest, on the other hand, was moved by the living images which the poet flung out of his mind, and which peopled all the air about the cottage door with shapes of beauty. As Ernest listened to the poet, he imagined that the Great Stone Face was bending forward to listen, too. He gazed earnestly into the poet's glowing eyes. "Who are you, my strangely gifted guest!" he said. The poet laid his finger on the volume that Ernest had been reading. "You have read these poems," said he. "You know me, then,--for I wrote them." Again, and still more earnestly than before, Ernest examined the poet's features; then turned toward the Great Stone Face; then back to his guest. But his countenance fell; he shook his head, and mournfully sighed. "Wherefore are you sad?" inquired the poet. "Because," replied Ernest, "all through life I have awaited the fulfillment of a prophecy; and when I read these poems, I hoped that it might be fulfilled in you." "You hoped," answered the poet, faintly smiling, "to find in me the likeness of the Great Stone Face. And you are disappointed, as formerly with Mr. Gathergold, and Old Blood-and-Thunder, and Old Stony Phiz. Yes, Ernest, it is my doom. You must add my name to the illustrious three, and record another failure of your hopes. For--in shame and sadness do I speak it, Ernest--I am not worthy." "And why?" asked Ernest. He pointed to the volume. "Are not those thoughts divine?" "You can hear in them the far-off echo of a heavenly song," replied the poet. "But my life, dear Ernest, has not corresponded with my thought. I have had grand dreams, but they have been only dreams, because I have lived--and that, too, by my own choice--among poor and mean realities. Sometimes even--shall I dare to say it?--I lack faith in the grandeur, the beauty, and the goodness which my own works are said to have made more evident in nature and in human life. Why, then, pure seeker of the good and true, shouldst thou hope to find me in yonder image of the divine?" The poet spoke sadly, and his eyes were dim with tears. So, likewise, were those of Ernest. At the hour of sunset, as had long been his frequent custom, Ernest was to speak to an assemblage of the neighboring inhabitants in the open air. He and the poet, arm in arm, still talking together as they went along, proceeded to the spot. It was a small nook among the hills, with a gray precipice behind, the stern front of which was relieved by the pleasant foliage of many creeping plants, that made a [v]tapestry for the naked rock by hanging their festoons from all its rugged angles. At a small elevation above the ground, set in a rich framework of verdure, there appeared a [v]niche, spacious enough to admit a human figure. Into this natural pulpit Ernest ascended and threw a look of familiar kindness around upon his audience. They stood, or sat, or reclined upon the grass, as seemed good to each, with the departing sunshine falling over them. In another direction was seen the Great Stone Face, with the same cheer, combined with the same solemnity, in its benignant aspect. Ernest began to speak, giving to the people of what was in his heart and mind. His words had power, because they accorded with his thoughts; and his thoughts had reality and depth, because they harmonized with the life which he had always lived. The poet, as he listened, felt that the being and character of Ernest were a nobler strain of poetry than he had ever written. His eyes glistening with tears, he gazed reverentially at the venerable man, and said within himself that never was there an aspect so worthy of a prophet and a sage as that mild, sweet, thoughtful countenance with the glory of white hair diffused about it. At a distance, but distinctly to be seen, high up in the golden light of the setting sun, appeared the Great Stone Face, with hoary mists around it, like the white hairs around the brow of Ernest. At that moment, in sympathy with a thought which he was about to utter, the face of Ernest assumed a grandeur of expression, so full of benevolence, that the poet, by an irresistible impulse, threw his arms aloft, and shouted: "Behold! Behold! Ernest is himself the likeness of the Great Stone Face!" Then all the people looked and saw that what the deep-sighted poet said was true. The prophecy was fulfilled. The man had appeared at last. NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE. =HELPS TO STUDY= The Great Stone Face is a rock formation in the Franconia Notch of the White Mountains of New Hampshire, known as "The Old Man of the Mountain." I. What picture do you get from Part I? Tell in your own words what the mother told Ernest about the Great Stone Face. Who had carved the face? How? Find something that is one hundred feet high, and picture to yourself the immensity of the whole face, judging by the forehead alone. Describe Ernest's childhood and his education. II. What reason had the people for thinking that the great man had come in the person of Mr. Gathergold? Explain the reference to Midas. What was there in Mr. Gathergold's appearance and action to disappoint Ernest? What comforted him? Why were the people willing to believe that Mr. Gathergold was the image of the Great Stone Face? What caused them to decide that he was not? What was there to indicate that Ernest would become a great and good man? III. What new character is now introduced? Wherein was Old Blood-and-Thunder lacking in resemblance to the Great Stone Face? Compare him with Mr. Gathergold and decide which was the greater character? How was Ernest comforted in his second disappointment? IV. What kind of man had Ernest become? What figure comes into the story now? Find a sentence that gives a clew to the character of Stony Phiz. Compare him with the characters previously introduced. Why was Ernest more disappointed than before? Where did he again look for comfort? V. What changes did the hurrying years bring Ernest? What sentence indicates who the man of prophecy might be? Who is now introduced in the story? Give the opinion that Ernest and the poet had of each other. Find the sentence which explains why the poet failed. Who was the first to recognize in Ernest the likeness to the Great Stone Face? Why did Hawthorne have a poet to make the discovery? In what way was Ernest great? How had he become so? What trait of Ernest's character is shown in the last sentence? The story is divided into five parts. Make an outline telling what is the topic of each part. SUPPLEMENTARY READING The Sketch Book--Washington Irving. Old Curiosity Shop--Charles Dickens. Pendennis--William Makepeace Thackeray. The Snow-Image--Nathaniel Hawthorne. The Legend Beautiful--Henry W. Longfellow. William Wilson--Edgar Allan Poe. [Illustration: Priscilla and John Alden] THE COURTSHIP OF MILES STANDISH I In the Old Colony days, in Plymouth the land of the Pilgrims, To and fro in a room of his simple and primitive dwelling, Clad in [v]doublet and hose, and boots of [v]Cordovan leather, Strode, with a martial air, Miles Standish the Puritan Captain. Buried in thought he seemed, with hands behind him, and pausing Ever and anon to behold the glittering weapons of warfare, Hanging in shining array along the walls of the chamber,-- Cutlass and corslet of steel, and his trusty [v]sword of Damascus. Short of stature he was, but strongly built and athletic, Broad in the shoulders, deep-chested, with muscles and sinews of iron; Brown as a nut was his face, but his russet beard was already Flaked with patches of snow, as hedges sometimes in November. Near him was seated John Alden, his friend, and household companion, Writing with diligent speed at a table of pine by the window; Fair-haired, azure-eyed, with delicate Saxon complexion. Youngest of all was he of the men who came in the May Flower. (Standish takes up a book and reads a moment.) Suddenly breaking the silence, the diligent scribe interrupting, Spake, in the pride of his heart, Miles Standish the Captain of Plymouth. "Look at these arms," he said, "the warlike weapons that hang here Burnished and bright and clean, as if for parade or inspection! This is the sword of Damascus I fought with in Flanders; this breastplate, Well, I remember the day! once saved my life in a skirmish; Here in front you can see the very dint of the bullet. Had it not been of sheer steel, the forgotten bones of Miles Standish Would at this moment be mold, in the grave in the Flemish morasses." Thereupon answered John Alden, but looked not up from his writing: "Truly the breath of the Lord hath slackened the speed of the bullet; He in his mercy preserved you to be our shield and our weapon!" Still the Captain continued, unheeding the words of the stripling: "See how bright they are burnished, as if in an arsenal hanging; That is because I have done it myself, and not left it to others. Serve yourself, would you be well served, is an excellent [v]adage; So I take care of my arms, as you of your pens and your inkhorn. Then, too, there are my soldiers, my great, invincible army, Twelve men, all equipped, having each his rest and his matchlock, Eighteen shillings a month, together with diet and pillage, And, like Caesar, I know the name of each of my soldiers!" All was silent again; the Captain continued his reading. Nothing was heard in the room but the hurrying pen of the stripling Writing epistles important to go next day by the May Flower, Ready to sail on the morrow, or next day at latest, God willing, Homeward bound with the tidings of all that terrible winter, Letters written by Alden and full of the name of Priscilla, Full of the name and the fame of the Puritan maiden Priscilla. Every sentence began or closed with the name of Priscilla, Till the treacherous pen, to which he confided the secret Strove to betray it by singing and shouting the name of Priscilla! Finally closing his book, with a bang of its [v]ponderous cover, Sudden and loud as the sound of a soldier grounding his musket, Thus to the young man spake Miles Standish the Captain of Plymouth: "When you have finished your work, I have something important to tell you. Be not however in haste; I can wait; I shall not be impatient!" Straightway Alden replied, as he folded the last of his letters, Pushing his papers aside, and giving respectful attention: "Speak; for whenever you speak, I am always ready to listen, Always ready to hear whatever pertains to Miles Standish." Thereupon answered the Captain, embarrassed, and culling his phrases: "'Tis not good for a man to be alone, say the Scriptures. This I have said before, and again and again I repeat it; Every hour in the day, I think it, and feel it, and say it. Since Rose Standish died, my life has been weary and dreary; Sick at heart have I been, beyond the healing of friendship. Oft in my lonely hours have I thought of the maiden Priscilla, Patient, courageous, and strong, and said to myself, that if ever There were angels on earth, as there are angels in heaven, Two have I seen and known; and the angel whose name is Priscilla Holds in my desolate life the place which the other abandoned. Long have I cherished the thought, but never have dared to reveal it, Being a coward in this, though valiant enough for the most part. Go to the damsel Priscilla, the loveliest maiden of Plymouth; Say that a blunt old captain, a man not of words but of actions, Offers his hand and his heart, the hand and heart of a soldier. Not in these words, you know, but this in short is my meaning; I am a maker of war, and not a maker of phrases." When he had spoken, John Alden, the fair-haired, [v]taciturn stripling, All aghast at his words, surprised, embarrassed, bewildered, Trying to mask his dismay by treating the subject with lightness, Trying to smile, and yet feeling his heart stand still in his bosom, Thus made answer and spake, or rather stammered than answered: "Such a message as that, I am sure I should mangle and mar it; If you would have it well done--I am only repeating your maxim-- You must do it yourself, you must not leave it to others!" But with the air of a man whom nothing can turn from his purpose, Gravely shaking his head, made answer the Captain of Plymouth: "Truly the maxim is good, and I do not mean to gainsay it; But we must use it discreetly, and not waste powder for nothing. Now, as I said before, I was never a maker of phrases. I can march up to a fortress and summon the place to surrender, But march up to a woman with such a proposal, I dare not. I'm not afraid of bullets, nor shot from the mouth of a cannon, But of a thundering No! point-blank from the mouth of a woman, That I confess I am afraid of, nor am I ashamed to confess it! Surely you cannot refuse what I ask in the name of our friendship!" Then made answer John Alden: "The name of friendship is sacred; What you demand in that name, I have not the power to deny you!" So the strong will prevailed, subduing and molding the gentler, Friendship prevailed over love, and Alden went on his errand. II So the strong will prevailed, and Alden went on his errand, Out of the street of the village, and into the paths of the forest, Into the tranquil woods, where bluebirds and robins were building Towns in the populous trees, with hanging gardens of [v]verdure, Peaceful, [v]aerial cities of joy and affection and freedom. All around him was calm, but within him commotion and conflict, Love contending with friendship, and self with each generous impulse. So through the Plymouth woods John Alden went on his errand; Saw the new-built house, and people at work in a meadow; Heard, as he drew near the door, the musical voice of Priscilla Singing the hundredth Psalm, the grand old Puritan anthem, Full of the breath of the Lord, consoling and comforting many. Then, as he opened the door, he beheld the form of the maiden Seated beside her wheel, and the carded wool like a snow-drift Piled at her knee, her white hands feeding the ravenous spindle, While with her foot on the treadle she guided the wheel in its motion. So he entered the house; and the hum of the wheel and the singing Suddenly ceased; for Priscilla, aroused by his step on the threshold, Rose as he entered, and gave him her hand, in signal of welcome, Saying, "I knew it was you, when I heard your step in the passage; For I was thinking of you, as I sat there singing and spinning." Awkward and dumb with delight, that a thought of him had been mingled Thus in the sacred psalm, that came from the heart of the maiden, Silent before her he stood. "I have been thinking all day," said gently the Puritan maiden, "Dreaming all night, and thinking all day, of the hedgerows of England,-- They are in blossom now, and the country is all like a garden; Thinking of lanes and fields, and the song of the lark and the linnet, Seeing the village street, and familiar faces of neighbors Going about as of old, and stopping to gossip together. Kind are the people I live with, and dear to me my religion; Still my heart is so sad that I wish myself back in Old England. You will say it is wrong, but I cannot help it; I almost Wish myself back in Old England, I feel so lonely and wretched." Thereupon answered the youth: "Indeed I do not condemn you; Stouter hearts than a woman's have quailed in this terrible winter. Yours is tender and trusting, and needs a stronger to lean on; So I have come to you now, with an offer and proffer of marriage Made by a good man and true, Miles Standish the Captain of Plymouth!" Thus he delivered his message, the dexterous writer of letters,-- Did not [v]embellish the theme, nor array it in beautiful phrases, But came straight to the point and blurted it out like a schoolboy; Even the Captain himself could hardly have said it more bluntly. Mute with amazement and sorrow, Priscilla the Puritan maiden Looked into Alden's face, her eyes dilated with wonder, Feeling his words like a blow, that stunned and rendered her speechless; Till at length she exclaimed, interrupting the ominous silence: "If the great Captain of Plymouth is so very eager to wed me, Why does he not come himself and take trouble to woo me? If I am not worth the wooing, I surely am not worth the winning!" Then John Alden began explaining and smoothing the matter, Making it worse as he went, by saying the Captain was busy,-- Had no time for such things;--such things! the words grating harshly, Fell on the ear of Priscilla; and swift as a flash she made answer: "Has he not time for such things, as you call it, before he is married, Would he be likely to find it, or make it, after the wedding?" Still John Alden went on, unheeding the words of Priscilla, Urging the suit of his friend, explaining, persuading, expanding. But as he warmed and glowed, in his simple and eloquent language, Quite forgetful of self, and full of the praise of his rival, Archly the maiden smiled, and with eyes overrunning with laughter, Said, in a tremulous voice, "Why don't you speak for yourself, John?" With conflicting feelings of love for Priscilla and duty to his friend, Miles Standish, John Alden does not "speak for himself," but returns to Plymouth to tell Standish the result of the interview. Then John Alden spake, and related the wondrous adventure, From beginning to end, minutely, just as it happened; How he had seen Priscilla, and how he had sped in his courtship, Only smoothing a little and softening down her refusal. But when he came at length to the words Priscilla had spoken, Words so tender and cruel: "Why don't you speak for yourself, John?" Up leaped the Captain of Plymouth, and stamped on the floor, till his armor Clanged on the wall, where it hung, with a sound of sinister omen. All his pent-up wrath burst forth in a sudden explosion, E'en as a hand grenade, that scatters destruction around it. Wildly he shouted and loud: "John Alden! you have betrayed me! Me, Miles Standish, your friend! have supplanted, defrauded, betrayed me! You, who lived under my roof, whom I cherished and loved as a brother; Henceforth let there be nothing between us save war, and implacable hatred!" So spake the Captain of Plymouth, and strode about in the chamber, Chafing and choking with rage; like cords were the veins on his temples. But in the midst of his anger a man appeared at the doorway, Bringing in uttermost haste a message of urgent importance, Rumors of danger and war and hostile incursions of Indians! Straightway the Captain paused, and, without further question or parley, Took from the nail on the wall his sword with its scabbard of iron, Buckled the belt round his waist, and, frowning fiercely, departed. Alden was left alone. He heard the clank of the scabbard Growing fainter and fainter, and dying away in the distance. Then he arose from his seat, and looked forth into the darkness, Felt the cool air blow on his cheek, that was hot with the insult, Lifted his eyes to the heavens and, folding his hands as in childhood, Prayed in the silence of night to the Father who seeth in secret. III. A report comes to the settlement that Miles Standish has been killed in a fight with the Indians. John Alden, feeling that Standish's death has freed him from the need of keeping his own love for Priscilla silent, woos and wins her. At last the wedding-day arrives. This was the wedding-morn of Priscilla the Puritan maiden. Friends were assembled together; the Elder and Magistrate also Graced the scene with their presence, and stood like the Law and the Gospel, One with the sanction of earth and one with the blessing of heaven. Simple and brief was the wedding, as that of Ruth and of Boaz. Softly the youth and the maiden repeated the words of betrothal, Taking each other for husband and wife in the Magistrate's presence, After the Puritan way, and the laudable custom of Holland. Fervently then, and devoutly, the excellent Elder of Plymouth Prayed for the hearth and the home, that were founded that day in affection, Speaking of life and death, and imploring Divine benedictions. Lo! when the service was ended, a form appeared on the threshold, Clad in armor of steel, a somber and sorrowful figure! Why does the bridegroom start and stare at the strange apparition? Why does the bride turn pale, and hide her face on his shoulder? Is it a phantom of air,--a bodiless, spectral illusion? Is it a ghost from the grave, that has come to forbid the betrothal? Long had it stood there unseen, a guest uninvited, unwelcomed; Over its clouded eyes there had passed at times an expression Softening the gloom and revealing the warm heart hidden beneath them. Once it had lifted its hand, and moved its lips, but was silent, As if an iron will had mastered the fleeting intention; But when were ended the troth and the prayer and the last benediction, Into the room it strode, and the people beheld with amazement Bodily there in his armor Miles Standish, the Captain of Plymouth! Grasping the bridegroom's hand, he said with emotion, "Forgive me! I have been angry and hurt,--too long have I cherished the feeling; I have been cruel and hard, but now, thank God! it is ended. Mine is the same hot blood that leaped in the veins of Hugh Standish, Sensitive, swift to resent, but as swift in atoning for error. Never so much as now was Miles Standish the friend of John Alden." Thereupon answered the bridegroom: "Let all be forgotten between us,-- All save the dear old friendship, and that shall grow older and dearer!" Then the Captain advanced, and, bowing, saluted Priscilla, Wishing her joy of her wedding, and loudly lauding her husband. Then he said with a smile: "I should have remembered the adage,-- If you would be well served, you must serve yourself; and, moreover, No man can gather cherries in Kent at the season of Christmas!" Great was the people's amazement, and greater yet their rejoicing, Thus to behold once more the sunburnt face of their Captain, Whom they had mourned as dead; and they gathered and crowded about him, Eager to see him and hear him, forgetful of bride and of bridegroom, Questioning, answering, laughing, and each interrupting the other, Till the good Captain declared, being quite overpowered and bewildered, He had rather by far break into an Indian encampment, Than come again to a wedding to which he had not been invited. Meanwhile the bridegroom went forth and stood with the bride at the doorway, Breathing the perfumed air of that warm and beautiful morning. Touched with autumnal tints, but lonely and sad in the sunshine, Lay extended before them the land of toil and privation; But to their eyes transfigured, it seemed as the Garden of Eden, Filled with the presence of God, whose voice was the sound of the ocean. Soon was their vision disturbed by the noise and stir of departure, Friends coming forth from the house, and impatient of longer delaying. Then from a stall near at hand, amid exclamations of wonder, Alden the thoughtful, the careful, so happy, so proud of Priscilla, Brought out his snow-white bull, obeying the hand of its master, Led by a cord that was tied to an iron ring in its nostrils, Covered with crimson cloth, and a cushion placed for a saddle. She should not walk, he said, through the dust and heat of the noonday; Nay, she should ride like a queen, not plod along like a peasant. Somewhat alarmed at first, but reassured by the others, Placing her hand on the cushion, her foot in the hand of her husband, Gayly, with joyous laugh, Priscilla mounted her palfrey. Onward the bridal procession now moved to the new habitation, Happy husband and wife, and friends conversing together. Down through the golden leaves the sun was pouring his splendors, Gleaming on purple grapes, that, from branches above them suspended, Mingled their odorous breath with the balm of the pine and the fir-tree, Wild and sweet as the clusters that grew in the valley of [v]Eshcol. Like a picture it seemed of the primitive, pastoral ages, Fresh with the youth of the world, and recalling Rebecca and Isaac, Old and yet ever new, and simple and beautiful always, Love immortal and young in the endless succession of lovers, So through the Plymouth woods passed onward the bridal procession. HENRY W. LONGFELLOW. =HELPS TO STUDY= Miles Standish was one of the early settlers of Plymouth colony. He came over soon after the landing of the _Mayflower_ and was made captain of the colony because of his military experience. The feeble settlement was in danger from the Indians, and Standish's services were of great importance. He was one of the leaders of Plymouth for a number of years. Longfellow shaped the legend of his courtship into one of the most beautiful poems of American literature, vividly describing the hardships and perils of the early life of New England. I. Where is the scene of the story laid? At what time did it begin? What is the first impression you get of Miles Standish? of John Alden? Read the lines that bring out the soldierly qualities of the one and the studious nature of the other. What lines show that Standish had fought on foreign soil? Read the lines that show John Alden's interest in Priscilla. What request did Standish make of Alden? How was it received? Why did Alden accept the task? II. What time of the year was it? How do you know? Contrast Alden's feelings with the scene around him. What were Priscilla's feelings toward Alden? Quote lines that show this. How did he fulfill his task? With what question did Priscilla finally meet his eloquent appeal in behalf of his friend? How did Standish receive Alden's report? What interruption occurred? III. What report brought about the marriage of John Alden and Priscilla? Read the lines that describe the beauty of their wedding-day. What time of year was it? How do you know? What custom was followed in the marriage ceremony? Look in the Bible for a description of the marriage of Ruth and Boaz. Find other biblical references in the poem. Who appeared at the end of the ceremony? How was he received? Contrast his mood now with the mood when he left to fight the Indians. What adage did he use to show the difference between his age and Priscilla's? Describe the final scene of the wedding--the procession to the new home. Tell what you know of early life in Massachusetts. SUPPLEMENTARY READING Gareth and Lynette--Alfred Tennyson. The Courtin'--James Russell Lowell. Evangeline--Henry W. Longfellow. THE FRIENDSHIP OF NANTAQUAS This story is taken from Mary Johnston's novel, _To Have and to Hold_, which describes the early settlement of Virginia. The most important event of this period was the Indian massacre of 1622. For some years the whites and Indians had lived in peace, and it was believed that there would be no further trouble from the savages. However, Opechancanough, the head chief of the Powhatan confederacy, formed a plot against the white men and suddenly attacked them with great fury. Hundreds of the English settlers were slain. The author of the novel, taking the bare outline of the massacre as given in the early histories, has woven around it the graphic story of Captain Ralph Percy and his saving of the colony. Percy, unlike Miles Standish, is not a historical character. I. A man who hath been a soldier and adventurer into far and strange countries must needs have faced Death many times and in many guises. I had learned to know that grim countenance, and to have no great fear of it. The surprise of our sudden capture by the Indians had now worn away, and I no longer struggled to loose my bonds, Indian-tied and not to be loosened. Another slow hour and I bethought me of Diccon, my servant and companion in captivity, and spoke to him, asking him how he did. He answered from the other side of the lodge that was our prison, but the words were scarcely out of his mouth before our guard broke in upon us, commanding silence. It was now moonlight without the lodge and very quiet. The night was far gone; already we could smell the morning, and it would come apace. Knowing the swiftness of that approach and what the early light would bring, I strove for a courage which should be the steadfastness of the Christian and not the vainglorious pride of the heathen. Suddenly, in the first gray dawn, as at a trumpet's call, the village awoke. From the long communal houses poured forth men, women, and children; fires sprang up, dispersing the mist, and a commotion arose through the length and breadth of the place. The women made haste with their cooking and bore maize cakes and broiled fish to the warriors, who sat on the ground in front of the royal lodge. Diccon and I were loosed, brought without, and allotted our share of the food. We ate sitting side by side with our captors, and Diccon, with a great cut across his head, even made merry. In the usual order of things in an Indian village, the meal over, tobacco should have followed. But now not a pipe was lit, and the women made haste to take away the platters and to get all things in readiness for what was to follow. The [v]werowance of the [v]Paspaheghs rose to his feet, cast aside his mantle, and began to speak. He was a man in the prime of life, of a great figure, strong as a [v]Susquehannock, and a savage cruel and crafty beyond measure. Over his breast, stained with strange figures, hung a chain of small bones, and the scalp locks of his enemies fringed his moccasins. No player could be more skillful in gesture and expression, no poet more nice in the choice of words, no general more quick to raise a wild enthusiasm in the soldiers to whom he called. All Indians are eloquent, but this savage was a leader among them. He spoke now to some effect. Commencing with a day in the moon of blossoms when for the first time winged canoes brought white men into the [v]Powhatan, he came down through year after year to the present hour, ceased, and stood in silence, regarding his triumph. It was complete. In its wild excitement the village was ready then and there to make an end of us, who had sprung to our feet and stood with our backs against a great bay tree, facing the maddened throng. Much the best would it be for us if the tomahawks left the hands that were drawn back to throw, if the knives that were flourished in our faces should be buried to the haft in our hearts; and so we courted death, striving with word and look to infuriate our executioners to the point of forgetting their former purpose in the passion for instant vengeance. It was not to be. The werowance spoke again, pointing to the hills which were dimly seen through the mist. A moment, and the hands clenched upon the weapons fell; another, and we were upon the march. As one man, the village swept through the forest toward the rising ground that was but a few bowshots away. The young men bounded ahead to make the preparation; but the approved warriors and the old men went more sedately, and with them walked Diccon and I, as steady of step as they. The women and children for the most part brought up the rear, though a few impatient hags ran past us. One of these women bore a great burning torch, the flame and smoke streaming over her shoulder as she ran. Others carried pieces of bark heaped with the [v]slivers of pine of which every wigwam has store. The sun was yet to rise when we reached a hollow amongst the low red hills. The place was a natural amphitheater, well fitted for a spectacle. Those Indians who could not crowd into the narrow level spread themselves over the rising ground and looked down with fierce laughter upon the driving of the stakes which the young men had brought. The women and children scattered into the woods beyond the cleft between the hills and returned bearing great armfuls of dry branches. Taunting laughter, cries of savage triumph, the shaking of rattles, and the furious beating of two great drums combined to make a clamor deafening me to stupor. Above the horizon was the angry reddening of the heavens and the white mist curling up like smoke. I sat down beside Diccon on the log. I did not speak to him, nor he to me; there seemed no need of speech. In the [v]pandemonium to which the world had narrowed, the one familiar, matter-of-course thing was that he and I were to die together. The stakes were in the ground and painted red, the wood was properly fixed. The Indian woman who held the torch that was to light the pile ran past us, whirling the wood around her head to make it blaze more fiercely. As she went by she lowered the brand and slowly dragged it across my wrists. The beating of the drums suddenly ceased, and the loud voices died away. Seeing that they were coming for us, Diccon and I rose to await them. When they were nearly upon us, I turned to him and held out my hand. He made no motion to take it. Instead, he stood with fixed eyes looking past me and slightly upward. A sudden pallor had overspread the bronze of his face. "There's a verse somewhere," he said in a quiet voice,--"it's in the Bible, I think--I heard it once long ago: 'I will look unto the hills from whence cometh my help.' Look, sir!" I turned and followed with my eyes the pointing of his finger. In front of us the bank rose steeply, bare to the summit,--no trees, only the red earth, with here and there a low growth of leafless bushes. Behind it was the eastern sky. Upon the crest, against the sunrise, stood the figure of a man--an Indian. From one shoulder hung an otterskin, and a great bow was in his hand. His limbs were bare, and as he stood motionless, bathed in the rosy light, he looked like some bronze god, perfect from the beaded moccasins to the calm, uneager face below the feathered head-dress. He had but just risen above the brow of the hill; the Indians in the hollow saw him not. While Diccon and I stared, our tormentors were upon us. They came a dozen or more at once, and we had no weapons. Two hung on my arms, while a third laid hold of my doublet to rend it from me. An arrow whistled over our heads and stuck into a tree behind us. The hands that clutched me dropped, and with a yell the busy throng turned their faces in the direction whence had come the arrow. The Indian who had sent that dart before him was descending the bank. An instant's breathless hush while they stared at the solitary figure; then the dark forms bent forward for the rush straightened, and there arose a cry of recognition. "The son of Powhatan! The son of Powhatan!" He came down the hillside to the level of the hollow, the authority of his look and gesture making way for him through the crowd that surged this way and that, and walked up to us where we stood, hemmed round but no longer in the clutch of our enemies. "You were never more welcome, Nantaquas," I said to him, heartily. Taking my hand in his, the chief turned to his frowning countrymen. "Men of the [v]Pamunkeys!" he cried, "this is Nantaquas' friend, and so the friend of all the tribes that called Powhatan 'father.' The fire is not for him nor for his servant; keep it for the [v]Monacans and for the dogs of the [v]Long House! The calumet is for the friend of Nantaquas, and the dance of the maidens, the noblest buck and the best of the fish-weirs." There was a surging forward of the Indians and a fierce murmur of dissent. The werowance, standing out from the throng, lifted his voice. "There was a time," he cried, "when Nantaquas was the panther crouched upon the bough above the leader of the herd; now Nantaquas is a tame panther and rolls at the white men's feet! There was a time when the word of the son of Powhatan weighed more than the lives of many dogs such as these, but I know not why we should put out the fire at his command! He is war chief no longer, for [v]Opechancanough will have no tame panther to lead the tribes. Opechancanough is our head, and he kindleth a fire indeed. We will give to this man what fuel we choose, and to-night Nantaquas may look for his bones!" He ended, and a great clamor arose. The Paspaheghs would have cast themselves upon us again but for a sudden action of the young chief, who had stood motionless, with raised hand and unmoved face, during the werowance's bitter speech. Now he flung up his hand, and in it was a bracelet of gold, carved and twisted like a coiled snake and set with a green stone. I had never seen the toy before, but evidently others had. The excited voices fell, and the Indians, Pamunkeys and Paspaheghs alike, stood as though turned to stone. Nantaquas smiled coldly. "This day hath Opechancanough made me war chief again. We have smoked the peace pipe together--my father's brother and I--in the starlight, sitting before his lodge, with the wide marshes and the river dark at our feet. Singing birds in the forest have been many; evil tales have they told; Opechancanough has stopped his ears against their false singing. My friends are his friends, my brother is his brother, my word is his word: witness the armlet that hath no like. Opechancanough is at hand; he comes through the forest with his two hundred warriors. Will you, when you lie at his feet, have him ask you, 'Where is the friend of my friend, of my war chief?'" There came a long, deep breath from the Indians, then a silence in which they fell back, slowly and sullenly--whipped hounds but with the will to break that leash of fear. "Hark!" said Nantaquas, smiling. "I hear Opechancanough and his warriors coming over the leaves." The noise of many footsteps was indeed audible, coming toward the hollow from the woods beyond. With a burst of cries, the priests and the conjurer whirled away to bear the welcome of Okee to the royal worshipper, and at their heels went the chief men of the Pamunkeys. The werowance of the Paspaheghs was one that sailed with the wind; he listened to the deepening sound and glanced at the son of Powhatan where he stood, calm and confident, then smoothed his own countenance and made a most pacific speech, in which all the blame of the late proceedings was laid upon the singing birds. When he had done speaking, the young men tore the stakes from the earth and threw them into a thicket, while the women plucked apart the newly kindled fire and flung the brands into a little nearby stream, where they went out in a cloud of hissing steam. I turned to the Indian who had wrought this miracle. "Art sure it is not a dream, Nantaquas? I think that Opechancanough would not lift a finger to save me from all the deaths the tribes could invent." "Opechancanough is very wise," he answered quietly. "He says that now the English will believe in his love indeed when they see that he holds dear even one who might be called his enemy, who hath spoken against him at the Englishmen's council fire. He says that for five suns Captain Percy shall feast with him, and then shall go back free to Jamestown. He thinks that then Captain Percy will not speak against him any more, calling his love to the white men only words with no good deeds behind." He spoke simply, out of the nobility of his nature, believing his own speech. I that was older, and had more knowledge of men and the masks they wear, was but half deceived. My belief in the hatred of the dark emperor was not shaken, and I looked yet to find the drop of poison within this honey flower. How poisoned was that bloom, God knows I could not guess! By this time we three were alone in the hollow, for all the savages, men and women, had gone forth to meet the Indian whose word was law from the falls of the far west to the Chesapeake. The sun now rode above the low hills, pouring its gold into the hollow and brightening all the world besides. A chant raised by the Indians grew nearer, and the rustling of the leaves beneath many feet more loud and deep; then all noise ceased and Opechancanough entered the hollow alone. An eagle feather was thrust through his scalp lock; over his naked breast, which was neither painted nor pricked into strange figures, hung a triple row of pearls; his mantle was woven of bluebird feathers, as soft and sleek as satin. The face of this barbarian was as dark, cold, and impassive as death. Behind that changeless mask, as in a safe retreat, the subtle devil that was the man might plot destruction and plan the laying of dreadful mines. I stepped forward and met him on the spot where the fire had been. For a minute neither spoke. It was true that I had striven against him many a time, and I knew that he knew it. It was also true that without his aid Nantaquas could not have rescued us from that dire peril. And it was again the truth that an Indian neither forgives nor forgets. He was my saviour, and I knew that mercy had been shown for some dark reason which I could not divine. Yet I owed him thanks and gave them as shortly and simply as I could. He heard me out with neither liking nor disliking nor any other emotion written upon his face; but when I had finished, as though he had suddenly bethought himself, he smiled and held out his hand, white-man fashion. "Singing birds have lied to Captain Percy," he said. "Opechancanough thinks that Captain Percy will never listen to them again. The chief of the Powhatans is a lover of the white men, of the English, and of other white men. He would call the Englishmen his brothers and be taught of them how to rule and to whom to pray"-- "Let Opechancanough go with me to Jamestown," I replied. "He hath the wisdom of the woods; let him come and gain that of the town." The emperor smiled again. "I will come to Jamestown soon, but not to-day or to-morrow or the next day. And Captain Percy must smoke the peace pipe in my lodge above the Pamunkey and watch my young men and maidens dance, and eat with me five days. Then he may go back to Jamestown with presents for the great white father there and with a message from me that I am coming soon to learn of the white man." For five days I tarried in the great chief's lodge in his own village above the marshes of the Pamunkey. I will allow that the dark emperor to whom we were so much beholden gave us courteous keeping. The best of the hunt was ours, the noblest fish, the most delicate roots. We were alive and sound of limb, well treated and with the promise of release; we might have waited, seeing that wait we must, in some measure of content. We did not so. There was a horror in the air. From the marshes that were growing green, from the sluggish river, from the rotting leaves and cold black earth and naked forest, it rose like an [v]exhalation. We knew not what it was, but we breathed it in, and it went to the marrow of our bones. The savage emperor we rarely saw, though we were bestowed so near to him that his sentinels served for ours. Like some god, he kept within his lodge, the hanging mats between him and the world without. At other times, issuing from that retirement, he would stride away into the forest. Picked men went with him, and they were gone for hours; but when they returned they bore no trophies, brute or human. What they did we could not guess. If escape had been possible, we would not have awaited the doubtful fulfillment of the promise made us. But the vigilance of the Indians never slept; they watched us like hawks, night and day. In the early morning of the fifth day, when we came from our wigwam, it was to find Nantaquas sitting by the fire, magnificent in the paint and trappings of the ambassador, motionless as a piece of bronze and apparently quite unmindful of the admiring glances of the women who knelt about the fire preparing our breakfast. When he saw us he rose and came to meet us, and I embraced him, I was so glad to see him. "The Rappahannocks feasted me long," he said. "I was afraid that Captain Percy would be gone to Jamestown before I was back on the Pamunkey." "Shall I ever see Jamestown again, Nantaquas?" I demanded. "I have my doubts." He looked me full in the eyes, and there was no doubting the candor of his own. "You go with the next sunrise," he answered. "Opechancanough has given me his word." "I am glad to hear it," I said. "Why have we been kept at all? Why did he not free us five days agone?" He shook his head. "I do not know. Opechancanough has many thoughts which he shares with no man. But now he will send you with presents for the governor, and with messages of his love for the white men. There will be a great feast to-day, and to-night the young men and maidens will dance before you. Then in the morning you will go." When we had sat by the fire for an hour, the old men and the warriors came to visit us, and the smoking began. The women laid mats in a great half circle, and each savage took his seat with perfect breeding: that is, in absolute silence and with a face like a stone. The peace paint was upon them all--red, or red and white--and they sat and looked at the ground until I had made the speech of welcome. Soon the air was dense with fragrant smoke; in the thick blue haze the sweep of painted figures had the seeming of some fantastic dream. An old man arose and made a long and touching speech, with much reference to calumets and buried hatchets. Then they waited for my contribution of honeyed words. The Pamunkeys, living at a distance from the settlements, had but little English, and the learning of the Paspaheghs was not much greater. I repeated to them the better part of a canto of Master Spenser's _Faery Queen_, after which I told them the moving story of the Moor of Venice. It answered the purpose to admiration. The day wore on, with relay after relay of food, which we must taste at least, with endless smoking of pipes and speeches which must be listened to and answered. When evening came and our entertainers drew off to prepare for the dance, they left us as wearied as by a long day's march. Suddenly, as we sat staring at the fire, we were beset by a band of maidens, coming out of the woods, painted, with antlers upon their heads and pine branches in their hands. They danced about us, now advancing until the green needles met above our heads, now retreating until there was a space of turf between us. They moved with grace, keeping time to a plaintive song, now raised by the whole choir, now fallen to a single voice. The Indian girls danced more and more swiftly, and their song changed, becoming gay and shrill and sweet. Higher and higher rang the notes, faster and faster moved the dark feet; then quite suddenly song and motion ceased together. From the darkness now came a burst of savage cries only less appalling than the war whoop itself. In a moment the men of the village had rushed from the shadow of the trees into the broad, firelit space before us. They circled around us, then around the fire; now each man danced and stamped and muttered to himself. For the most part they were painted red, but some were white from head to heel--statues come to life--while others had first oiled their bodies, then plastered them over with small, bright-colored feathers. Diccon and I watched that uncouth spectacle, that Virginian [v]masque, as we had watched many another one, with disgust and weariness. It would last, we knew, for the better part of the night. For a time we must stay and testify our pleasure, but after a while we might retire, and leave the women and children the sole spectators. They never wearied of gazing at the rhythmic movement. I observed that among the ranks of the women one girl watched not the dancers but us. Now and then she glanced impatiently at the wheeling figures, but her eyes always returned to us. At length I became aware that she must have some message to deliver or warning to give. Once when I made a slight motion as if to go to her, she shook her head and laid her finger on her lips. Presently I rose and, making my way to the werowance of the village, where he sat with his eyes fixed on the spectacle, told him that I was wearied and would go to my hut, to rest for the few hours that yet remained of the night. He listened dreamily, but made no offer to escort me. After a moment he acquiesced in my departure, and Diccon and I quietly left the press of savages and began to cross the firelit turf between them and our lodge. When we had reached its entrance, we paused and looked back to the throng we had left. Every back seemed turned to us, every eye intent upon the leaping figures. Swiftly and silently we walked across the bit of even ground to the friendly trees and found ourselves in a thin strip of shadow. Beneath the trees, waiting for us, was the Indian maid. She would not speak or tarry, but flitted before us as dusk and noiseless as a moth, and we followed her into the darkness beyond the firelight. Here a wigwam rose in our path; the girl, holding aside the mats that covered the entrance, motioned to us to enter. A fire was burning within the lodge and it showed us Nantaquas standing with folded arms. "Nantaquas!" I exclaimed, and would have touched him but that with a slight motion of his hand he kept me back. "Well!" I asked at last. "What is the matter, my friend?" For a full minute he made no answer, and when he did speak his voice matched his strained and troubled features. "My _friend_," he said, "I am going to show myself a friend indeed to the English, to the strangers who were not content with their own hunting-grounds beyond the great salt water. When I have done this, I do not know that Captain Percy will call me 'friend'." "You were wont to speak plainly, Nantaquas," I answered him. "I am not fond of riddles." Again he waited, as though he found speech difficult. I stared at him in amazement, he was so changed in so short a time. He spoke at last: "When the dance is over and the fires are low and the sunrise is at hand, Opechancanough will come to you to bid you farewell. He will give you the pearls he wears about his neck for a present to the governor and a bracelet for yourself. Also he will give you three men for a guard through the forest. He has messages of love to send the white men, and he would send them by you who were his enemy and his captive. So all the white men shall believe in his love." "Well!" I said drily as he paused. "I will bear the messages. What next?" "Your guards will take you slowly through the forest, stopping to eat and sleep. For them there is no need to run like the stag with the hunter behind it." "Then we should make for Jamestown as for life," I said, "not sleeping or eating or making pause?" "Yes," he replied, "if you would not die, you and all your people." In the silence of the hut the fire crackled, and the branches of the trees outside, bent by the wind, made a grating sound against the bark roof. "How die?" I asked at last. "Speak out!" "Die by the arrow and the tomahawk," he answered,--"yea, and by the guns you have given the red men. To-morrow's sun, and the next, and the next--three suns--and the tribes will fall upon the English. At the same hour, when the men are in the fields and the women and children are in the houses, they will strike--all the tribes, as one man; and from where the Powhatan falls over the rocks to the salt water beyond Accomac, there will not be one white man left alive." He ceased to speak, and for a minute the fire made the only sound in the hut. Then I asked, "All die? There are three thousand Englishmen in Virginia." "They are scattered and unwarned. The fighting men of the villages of the Powhatan and the Pamunkey and the great bay are many, and they have sharpened their hatchets and filled their quivers with arrows." "Scattered!" I cried. "Strewn broadcast up and down the river--here a lonely house, there a cluster of two or three--the men in the fields or at the wharves, the women and children busy within doors, all unwarned!" I leaned against the side of the hut, for my heart beat like a frightened woman's. "Three days!" I exclaimed. "If we go with all our speed, we shall be in time. When did you learn this thing?" "While you watched the dance," the Indian answered, "Opechancanough and I sat within his lodge in the darkness. His heart was moved, and he talked to me of his own youth in a strange country, south of the sunset. Also he spoke to me of Powhatan, my father--of how wise he was and how great a chief before the English came, and how he hated them. And then--then I heard what I have told you!" "How long has this been planned?" "For many moons. I have been a child, fooled and turned aside from the trail; not wise enough to see it beneath the flowers, through the smoke of the peace pipes." "Why does Opechancanough send us back to the settlements?" I demanded. "It is his fancy. Every hunter and trader and learner of our tongues, living in the villages or straying in the woods, has been sent back to Jamestown or his home with presents and fair words. You will lull the English in Jamestown into a faith in the smiling sky just before the storm bursts on them in fullest fury." There was a pause. "Nantaquas," I said, "you are not the first child of Powhatan who has loved and shielded the white men." "Pocahontas was a woman, a child," he answered. "Out of pity she saved your lives, not knowing that it was to the hurt of her people. Then you were few and weak and could not take your revenge. Now, if you die not, you will drink deep of vengeance--so deep that your lips may never leave the cup. More ships will come, and more; you will grow ever stronger. There may come a moon when the deep forests and the shining rivers will know us, to whom [v]Kiwassa gave them, no more." "You will be with your people in the war?" I asked. "I am an Indian," was his simple reply. "Come against us if you will," I returned. "Nobly warned, fair upon our guard, we will meet you as knightly foe should be met." Very slowly he raised his arm from his side and held out his hand. His eyes met mine in somber inquiry, half eager, half proudly doubtful. I went to him at once and took his hand in mine. No word was spoken. Presently he withdrew his hand from my clasp, and, putting his finger to his lips, whistled low to the Indian girl. She drew aside the mats, and we passed out, Diccon and I, leaving him standing as we had found him, upright against the post, in the red firelight. Should we ever go through the woods, pass through that gathering storm, reach Jamestown, warn them there of the death that was rushing upon them? Should we ever leave that hated village? Would the morning ever come? It was an alarm that was sounding, and there were only two to hear; miles away beneath the mute stars English men and women lay asleep, with the hour thundering at their gates, and there was none to cry, "Awake!" I could have cried out in that agony of waiting, with the leagues on leagues to be traveled and the time so short! I saw, in my mind's eye, the dark warriors gathering, tribe on tribe, war party on war party, thick crowding shadows of death, slipping through the silent forest ... and in the clearings the women and children! It came to an end, as all things earthly will. When the ruffled pools amid the marshes were rosy red beneath the sunrise, the women brought us food, and the warriors and old men gathered about us. I offered them bread and meat and told them that they must come to Jamestown to taste the white man's cookery. Scarcely was the meal over when Opechancanough issued from his lodge, and, coming slowly up to us, took his seat upon the white mat that was spread for him. Through his scalp lock was stuck an eagle's feather; across his face, from temple to chin, was a bar of red paint; the eyes above were very bright and watchful. One of his young men brought a great pipe, carved and painted, stem and bowl; it was filled with tobacco, lit, and borne to the emperor. He put it to his lips and smoked in silence, while the sun climbed higher and higher and the golden minutes that were more precious than heart's blood went by swiftly. At last, his part in the solemn mockery played, he held out the pipe to me. "The sky will fall, and the rivers will run dry, and the birds cease to sing," he said, "before the smoke of this peace-pipe fades from the land." I took the symbol of peace and smoked it as silently and soberly as he had done before me, then laid it leisurely aside and held out my hand. "Come to Jamestown," I said, "to smoke of the Englishman's pipe and receive rich presents--a red robe like your brother Powhatan, and a cup from which you shall drink, you and all your people." But the cup I meant was that of punishment. The savage laid his dark fingers in mine for an instant, withdrew them, and, rising to his feet, motioned to three Indians who stood out from the throng of warriors. "These are Captain Percy's guides and friends," he announced. "The sun is high; it is time that he was gone. Here are presents for him and my brother the governor." As he spoke, he took from his neck the rope of pearls and from his arm a copper bracelet, and laid both upon my palm. "Thank you, Opechancanough," I said briefly. "When we meet again I will not greet you with empty thanks." We bade farewell to the noisy throng and went down to the river, where we found a canoe and rowers, crossed the stream, and entered the forest, which stretched black and forbidding before us--the blacker that we now knew the dreadful secret it guarded. II After leaving the Indian village, Captain Percy and Diccon found that their guides purposely delayed the march, so that they would not reach Jamestown until just before the beginning of the attack, when it would be too late for them to warn the English, if they suspected anything. Percy and Diccon, in this dilemma, surprised the Indian guides and killed them, then hurried on with all possible speed toward Jamestown. As they hastened through the forest, Diccon was shot by an Indian and mortally wounded; Captain Percy remained with him until his death, and again took up the journey, now alone and greatly fearing that he would arrive too late. The dusk had quite fallen when I reached the neck of land. Arriving at the palisade that protected Jamestown, I beat upon the gate and called to the warden to open. He did so with starting eyes. Giving him a few words and cautioning him to raise no alarm in the town, I hurried by him into the street and down it toward the house that was set aside for the governor of Virginia, Sir Francis Wyatt. The governor's door was open, and in the hall servingmen were moving to and fro. When I came in upon them, they cried out as if it had been a ghost, and one fellow let a silver dish fall to the floor with a clatter. They shook with fright and stood back as I passed them without a word and went on to the governor's great room. The door was ajar, and I pushed it open and stood for a minute on the threshold. They were all there--the principal men of the colony, the governor, the [v]treasurer, [v]West, [v]John Rolfe. At sight of me the governor sprang to his feet; through the treasurer's lips came a long, sighing breath; West's dark face was ashen. I came forward to the table, and leaned my weight upon it; for all the waves of the sea were roaring in my ears and the lights were going up and down. "Are you man or spirit!" cried Rolfe through white lips. "Are you Ralph Percy?" "Yes," I said, "I am Percy." With an effort I drew myself erect, and standing so, told my tidings, quietly and with circumstance, so as to leave no room for doubt as to their verity, or as to the sanity of him who brought them. They listened with shaking limbs and gasping breath; for it was the fall and wiping out of a people of which I brought warning. When all was told I thought to ask a question myself; but before my tongue could frame it, the roaring of the sea became so loud that I could hear naught else, and the lights all ran together into a wheel of fire. Then in a moment all sounds ceased and to the lights succeeded the blackness of outer darkness. When I awoke from the sleep into which I must have passed from that swoon, it was to find myself lying in a room flooded with sunshine. For a moment I lay still, wondering where I was and how I came there. A drum beat, a dog barked, and a man's quick voice gave a command. The sounds stung me into remembrance. There were many people in the street. Women hurried by to the fort with white, scared faces, their arms filled with household gear; children ran beside them; men went to and fro, the most grimly silent, but a few talking loudly. I could not see the palisade across the neck, but I knew that it was there that the fight--if fight there were--would be made. Should the Indians take the palisade, there would yet be the houses of the town, and, last of all, the fort in which to make a stand. I believed not that they would take it, for Indian warfare ran more to ambuscade and surprise than to assault in the open field. The drum beat again, and a messenger from the palisade came down the street at a run. "They're in the woods over against us, thicker than ants!" he cried to West, who was coming along the way. "A boat has just drifted ashore, with two men in it, dead and scalped!" I looked again at the neck of land and the forest beyond, and now, as if by magic, from the forest and up and down the river as far as the eye could reach, rose here and there thin columns of smoke. Suddenly, as I stared, three or four white smoke puffs, like giant flowers, started out of the shadowy woods across the neck. Following the crack of the muskets--fired out of pure bravado by the Indians--came the yelling of the savages. The sound was prolonged and deep, as though issuing from many throats. The street, when I went out into it, was very quiet. All windows and doors were closed and barred. The yelling from the forest had ceased for the moment, but I knew well that it would soon begin with doubled noise. I hurried along the street to the palisade, where all the men of Jamestown were gathered, armed and helmeted and breast-plated, waiting for the foe in grim silence. Through a loophole in the gate of the palisade I looked and saw the sandy neck joining the town to the mainland, and the deep and dark woods beyond, the fairy mantle giving invisibility to the foe. I drew back from my loophole and held out my hand to a woman for a loaded musket. A quick murmur like the drawing of a breath came from our line. The governor, standing near me, cast an anxious glance along the stretch of wooden stakes that were neither so high nor so thick as they should have been. "I am new to this warfare, Captain Percy," he said. "Do they think to use those logs they carry as battering rams?" "As scaling ladders, your honor," I replied. "It is possible that we may have some sword play after all." "We'll take your advice the next time we build a palisade, Ralph Percy," muttered West on my other side. Mounting the breastwork that we had thrown up to shelter the women who were to load the muskets, he coolly looked over the pales at the oncoming savages. "Wait until they pass the blasted pine, men!" he cried. "Then give them a hail of lead that will beat them back to the Pamunkey." An arrow whistled by his ear; a second struck him on the shoulder but pierced not his coat of mail. He came down from his dangerous post with a laugh. "If the leader could be picked off"--I said. "It's a long shot, but there's no harm in trying." As I spoke I raised my gun to my shoulder, but West leaned across Rolfe, who stood between us, and plucked me by the sleeve. "You've not looked at him closely," he said. "Look again." I did as he told me, and lowered my musket. It was not for me to send that Indian leader to his account. Rolfe's lips tightened and a sudden pallor overspread his face. "Nantaquas?" he muttered in my ear, and I nodded yes. The volley that we fired full into the ranks of our foe was deadly, and we looked to see them turn and flee, as they had fled so often before at a hot volley. But this time they were led by one who had been trained in English steadfastness. Broken for the moment by our fire, they rallied and came on yelling, bearing logs, thick branches of trees, oars tied together--anything by whose help they could hope to surmount the palisade. We fired again, but they had planted their ladders. Before we could snatch the loaded muskets from the women a dozen painted figures appeared above the sharpened stakes. A moment, and they and a score behind them had leaped down upon us. It was no time now to skulk behind a palisade. At all hazards, that tide from the forest must be stemmed. Those that were among us we might kill, but more were swarming after them, and from the neck came the exultant yelling of madly hurrying reinforcements. We flung open the gates. I drove my sword through the heart of an Indian who would have opposed me, and, calling for my men to follow, sprang forward. Perhaps thirty came at my call; together we made for the opening. A party of the savages in our midst interposed. We set upon them with sword and musket butt, and though they fought like very devils drove them before us through the gateway. Behind us were wild clamor, the shrieking of women, the stern shouts of the English, the whooping of the savages; before us a rush that must be met and turned. It was done. A moment's fierce fighting, then the Indians wavered, broke, and fled. Like sheep we drove them before us, across the neck, to the edge of the forest, into which they plunged. Into that ambush we cared not to follow, but fell back to the palisade and the town, believing, and with reason, that the lesson had been taught. The strip of sand was strewn with the dead and the dying, but they belonged not to us. Our dead numbered but three, and we bore their bodies with us. Within the palisade we found the English in sufficiently good case. Of the score or more Indians cut off by us from their mates and penned within that death trap, half at least were already dead, run through with sword and pike, shot down with the muskets that there was now time to load. The remainder, hemmed about, pressed against the wall, were fast meeting with a like fate. They stood no chance against us; we cared not to make prisoners of them; it was a slaughter, but they had taken the [v]initiative. They fought with the courage of despair, striving to spring in upon us, and striking when they could with hatchet and knife. They were brave men that we slew that day. At last there was left but the leader--unharmed, unwounded, though time and again he had striven to close with some one of us, to strike and to die striking with his fellows. Behind him was the wall; of the half circle which he faced, well-nigh all were old soldiers and servants of the colony. We were swordsmen all. When in his desperation he would have thrown himself upon us, we contented ourselves with keeping him at sword's length, and at last West sent the knife in the dark hand whirling over the palisade. Some one had shouted to the musketeers to spare him. When he saw that he stood alone, he stepped back against the wall, drew himself up to his full height, and folded his arms. Perhaps he thought that we would shoot him down then and there; perhaps he saw himself a captive amongst us, a show for the idle and for the strangers that the ships brought in. The din had ceased, and we the living, the victors, stood and looked at the vanquished dead at our feet, and at the dead beyond the gates, and at the neck upon which was no living foe, and at the blue sky bending over all. Our hearts told us, and truly, that the lesson had been taught, and that no more forever need we at Jamestown fear an Indian attack. And then we looked at him whose life we had spared. He opposed our gaze with his folded arms and his head held high and his back against the wall. Slowly, as one man and with no spoken word, we fell back, the half circle straightening into a line, and leaving a clear pathway to the open gates. The wind had ceased to blow, and a sunny stillness lay upon the sand and the rough-hewn wooden stakes and a little patch of tender grass. The church bell began to ring. The Indian out of whose path to life and freedom we had stepped glanced from the line of lowered steel to the open gates and the forest beyond, and understood. For a full minute he waited, not moving a muscle, still and stately as some noble masterpiece in bronze. Then he stepped from the shadow of the wall and moved past us, with his eyes fixed on the forest; there was no change in the superb calm of his face. He went by the huddled dead and the long line of the living that spoke no word, and out of the gates and across the neck, walking slowly, that we might yet shoot him down if we saw fit to repent ourselves. He reached the shadow of the trees: a moment, and the forest had back her own. We sheathed our swords and listened to the governor's few earnest words of thankfulness and recognition; and then we set to work to search for ways to reach and aid those who might be yet alive in the plantations above and below us. Presently there came a great noise from the watchers on the river-bank, and a cry that boats were coming down the stream. It was so, and there were in them white men, nearly all of whom had wounds to show, and cowering women and children--all that were left of the people for miles along the James. Then began that strange procession that lasted throughout the afternoon and night and into the next day, when a sloop dropped down from [v]Henricus with the news that the English were in force there to stand their ground, although their loss had been heavy. Hour after hour they came as fast as sail and oar could bring them, the panic-stricken folk, whose homes were burned, whose kindred were slain, who had themselves escaped as by a miracle. Each boatload had the same tale to tell of treachery, surprise, and fiendish butchery. Before the dawning we had heard from all save the remoter settlements. The blow had been struck and the hurt was deep. But it was not beyond remedy, thank God! We took stern measures for our protection, and the wound to the colony was soon healed; vengeance was meted out to those who had set upon us in the dark and had failed to reach the heart. The colony of Virginia had passed through its greatest trial and had survived--for what greater ends, under Providence, I knew not. MARY JOHNSTON. =HELPS TO STUDY= I. Describe the situation in which Percy and Diccon found themselves. What preparations did the Indians make for the death of the two men? How were they interrupted? Tell what happened after the appearance of Nantaquas? How were the five days spent? How did Nantaquas come to the rescue of the white men a second time? What did Opechancanough do to try to deepen the impression of friendship? II. What happened on the way to Jamestown? Describe the scene when Percy entered the governor's house. Give an account of the fight at the palisade. Why was Nantaquas spared? What was the result of the Indian attack? Give your opinion of Nantaquas. Of what Indian in _The Last of the Mohicans_ does he remind you? Of whom does Opechancanough remind you? Find out all you can of life in Virginia at the time this story was written. Compare the life there with the life in Plymouth colony. SUPPLEMENTARY READING Prisoners of Hope--Mary Johnston. My Lady Pokahontas--John Esten Cooke. The Wept of Wish-ton-wish--J. Fenimore Cooper. Hiawatha--Henry W. Longfellow. Old Virginia and Her Neighbors--John Fiske. HARRY ESMOND'S BOYHOOD _Henry Esmond_, by William Makepeace Thackeray, is considered one of the greatest, if not the greatest, of historical novels. It describes life in England during the first years of the eighteenth century, dealing chiefly with people of wealth and high position. "Harry Esmond's Boyhood" narrates the early career of the hero, who was a poor orphan and an inmate of the family of his kinsman, the Viscount of Castlewood. Harry Esmond had lived to be past fourteen years old; had never possessed but two friends, and had a fond and affectionate heart that would fain attach itself to somebody, and did not seem at rest until it had found a friend who would take charge of it. At last he found such a friend in his new mistress, the lady of Castlewood. The instinct which led Harry Esmond to admire and love the gracious person, the fair apparition whose beauty and kindness had so moved him when he first beheld her, became soon a devoted affection and passion of gratitude, which entirely filled his young heart that as yet had had very little kindness for which to be thankful. There seemed, as the boy thought, in every look or gesture of this fair creature, an angelical softness and bright pity--in motion or repose she seemed gracious alike; the tone of her voice, though she uttered words ever so trivial, gave him a pleasure that amounted almost to anguish. It cannot be called love, that a lad of fourteen years of age felt for an exalted lady, his mistress, but it was worship. To catch her glance; to divine her errand, and run on it before she had spoken it; to watch, follow, adore her, became the business of his life. Meanwhile, as is the way often, his idol had idols of her own, and never thought of or suspected the admiration of her little adorer. My Lady had on her side three idols: first and foremost, [v]Jove and supreme ruler, was her lord, Harry's patron, the good [v]Viscount of Castlewood. All wishes of his were laws with her. If he had a headache, she was ill. If he frowned, she trembled. If he joked, she smiled and was charmed. If he went a-hunting, she was always at the window to see him ride away. She made dishes for his dinner; spiced his wine for him; hushed the house when he slept in his chair, and watched for a look when he woke. Her eyes were never tired of looking at his face and wondering at its perfection. Her little son was his son, and had his father's look and curly brown hair. Her daughter Beatrix was his daughter, and had his eyes--were there ever such beautiful eyes in the world? All the house was arranged so as to bring him ease and give him pleasure. Harry Esmond was happy in this pleasant home. The happiest period of all his life was this; and the young mother, with her daughter and son, and the orphan lad whom she protected, read and worked and played, and were children together. If the lady looked forward--as what fond woman does not?--toward the future, she had no plans from which Harry Esmond was left out; and a thousand and a thousand times, in his passionate and impetuous way, he vowed that no power should separate him from his mistress; and only asked for some chance to happen by which he might show his [v]fidelity to her. The second fight which Harry Esmond had was at fourteen years of age, with Bryan Hawkshaw, Sir John Hawkshaw's son, who, advancing the opinion that Lady Castlewood henpecked my Lord, put Harry in so great a fury that Harry fell on him and with such rage that the other boy, who was two years older and far bigger than he, had by far the worst of the assault. It was interrupted by Doctor Tusher, the clergyman, who was just walking out of the dinner-room. Bryan Hawkshaw got up bleeding at the nose, having indeed been surprised, as many a stronger man might have been, by the fury of the attack on him. "You little beggar," he said, "I'll murder you for this." And indeed he was big enough. "Beggar or not," said Harry, grinding his teeth, "I have a couple of swords, and if you like to meet me, as man to man, on the terrace to-night--" And here, the doctor coming up, the [v]colloquy of the young champions ended. Very likely, big as he was, Hawkshaw did not care to continue a fight with such a ferocious opponent as this had been. One day, some time later, Doctor Tusher ran into Castlewood House, with a face of consternation, saying that smallpox had made its appearance at the blacksmith's house in the village, which was also an alehouse, and that one of the maids there was down with it. Now, there was a pretty girl at this inn, called Nancy Sievewright, a bouncing, fresh-looking lass, whose face was as red as the hollyhocks over the pales of the garden behind the inn. Somehow it often happened that Harry Esmond fell in with Nance Sievewright's bonny face. When Doctor Tusher brought the news that the smallpox was at the blacksmith's, Harry Esmond's first thought was of alarm for poor Nancy, and then of shame and disquiet for the Castlewood family, lest he might have brought this infection; for the truth is that Mr. Harry had been sitting in a back room for an hour that day, where Nancy Sievewright was with a little brother who complained of headache, and was lying crying in a chair by the corner of the fire or in Nancy's lap. Little Beatrix screamed at the news; and my Lord cried out, "God bless me!" He was a brave man, and not afraid of death in any shape but this. "We will take the children and ride away to Walcote," he said. To love children and be gentle with them was an instinct rather than merit in Harry Esmond; so much so that he thought almost with a feeling of shame of his liking for them and of the softness into which it betrayed him. On this day the poor fellow had not only had his young friend, the milkmaid's brother, on his knee, but had been drawing pictures and telling stories to the little Frank Castlewood, who was never tired of Harry's tales and of his pictures of soldiers and horses. As luck would have it, Beatrix had not on that evening taken her usual place, which generally she was glad enough to have, on Harry's knee. For Beatrix, from the earliest time, was jealous of every caress which was given her little brother Frank. She would fling away even from the [v]maternal arms, if she saw Frank had been there before her; insomuch that Lady Esmond was obliged not to show her love for her son in presence of the little girl, and embrace one or the other alone. Beatrix would turn pale and red with rage if she caught signs of intelligence or affection between Frank and his mother; would sit apart and not speak for a whole night if she thought the boy had a better fruit or a larger cake than hers; would fling away a ribbon if he had one, and would utter [v]infantile sarcasms about the favor shown her brother. So it chanced upon this very day, when poor Harry Esmond had had the blacksmith's son and the [v]peer's son, alike upon his knee, little Beatrix, who would come to him willingly enough with her book and writing, had refused him, seeing the place occupied by her brother. Luckily for her, she had sat at the farther end of the room, away from him, playing with a spaniel dog which she had, and talking to Harry Esmond over her shoulder, as she pretended to caress the dog, saying that Fido would love her, and she would love Fido and nothing but Fido all her life. When, then, the news was brought that the little boy at the blacksmith's was ill with the smallpox, poor Harry Esmond felt a shock of alarm, not so much for himself as for his mistress's son, whom he might have brought into peril. Beatrix, who had pouted sufficiently, her little brother being now gone to bed, was for taking her place on Esmond's knee. But as she advanced toward him, he started back and placed the great chair on which he was sitting between him and her--saying in the French language to Lady Castlewood, "Madam, the child must not approach me. I must tell you that I was at the blacksmith's to-day and had his little boy on my lap." "Where you took my son afterward," Lady Castlewood said, very angry and turning red. "I thank you, sir, for giving him such company. Beatrix," she said in English, "I forbid you to touch Harry Esmond. Come away, child; come to your room. And you, sir, had you not better go back to the alehouse?" Her eyes, ordinarily so kind, darted flashes of anger as she spoke; and she tossed up her head (which hung down commonly) with the [v]mien of a princess. "Heyday!" said my Lord, who was standing by the fireplace, "Rachel, what are you in a passion about? Though it does you good to get in a passion--you look very handsome!" "It is, my Lord, because Mr. Harry Esmond, having nothing to do with his time here, and not having a taste for our company, has been to the blacksmith's alehouse, where he has some friends." My Lord burst out with a laugh. "Take Mistress Beatrix to bed," my Lady cried at this moment to her woman, who came in with her Ladyship's tea. "Put her into my room--no, into yours," she added quickly. "Go, my child: go, I say; not a word." And Beatrix, quite surprised at so sudden a tone of authority from one who was seldom accustomed to raise her voice, went out of the room with a scared face and waited even to burst out crying until she got upstairs. For once, her mother took little heed of her. "My Lord," she said, "this young man--your relative--told me just now in French--he was ashamed to speak in his own language--that he had been at the blacksmith's all day, where he has had that little wretch who is now ill of the smallpox on his knee. And he comes home reeking from that place--yes, reeking from it--and takes my boy into his lap without shame, and sits down by me. He may have killed Frank for what I know--killed our child! Why was he brought in to disgrace our house? Why is he here? Let him go--let him go, I say, and [v]pollute the place no more!" She had never before uttered a syllable of unkindness to Harry Esmond, and her cruel words smote the poor boy so that he stood for some moments bewildered with grief and rage at the injustice of such a stab from such a hand. He turned quite white from red, which he had been before. "If my coming nigh your boy pollutes him," he said, "it was not so always. Good-night, my Lord. Heaven bless you and yours for your goodness to me. I have tired her Ladyship's kindness out, and I will go." "He wants to go to the alehouse--let him go!" cried my Lady. "I'll be hanged if he shall," said my Lord. "I didn't think you could be so cruel, Rachel!" Her reply was to burst into a flood of tears, and to quit the room with a rapid glance at Harry Esmond, as my Lord put his broad hand on Harry's shoulder. In a little while my Lady came back, looking very pale, with a handkerchief in her hand. Instantly advancing to Harry Esmond, she took his hand. "I beg your pardon, Harry," she said. "I spoke very unkindly." My Lord broke out: "There may be no harm done. Leave the boy alone." She looked a little red, and pressed the lad's hand as she dropped it. "There is no use, my Lord," she said. "Frank was on his knee as he was making pictures and was running constantly from Harry to me. The evil is done, if any." "Not with me," cried my Lord. "I've been smoking." And he lighted his pipe again with a coal. "As the disease is in the village--plague take it!--I would have you leave it. We'll go to-morrow to Walcote." "I have no fear," said my Lady. "I may have had it as an infant." "I won't run the risk," said my Lord. "I'm as bold as any man, but I'll not bear that." "Take Beatrix with you and go," said my Lady. "For us the mischief is done." My Lord, calling away Doctor Tusher, bade him come in the oak parlor and have a pipe. When the lady and the boy were alone, there was a silence of some moments, during which he stood looking at the fire whilst her Ladyship busied herself with the [v]tambour frame and needles. "I am sorry," she said, after a pause, in a hard, dry voice--"I repeat I am sorry that I said what I said. It was not at all my wish that you should leave us, I am sure, unless you found pleasure elsewhere. But you must see that, at your age, and with your tastes, it is impossible that you can continue to stay upon the intimate footing in which you have been in this family. You have wished to go to college, and I think 'tis quite as well that you should be sent thither. I did not press the matter, thinking you a child, as you are indeed in years--quite a child. But now I shall beg my Lord to despatch you as quick as possible; and will go on with Frank's learning as well as I can. And--and I wish you a good night, Harry." With this she dropped a stately curtsy, and, taking her candle, went away through the tapestry door, which led to her apartments. Esmond stood by the fireplace, blankly staring after her. Indeed, he scarce seemed to see until she was gone, and then her image was impressed upon him and remained forever fixed upon his memory. He saw her retreating, the taper lighting up her marble face, her scarlet lip quivering, and her shining golden hair. He went to his own room and to bed, but could not get to sleep until daylight, and woke with a violent headache. He had brought the contagion with him from the alehouse, sure enough, and was presently laid up with the smallpox, which spared the hall no more than it did the cottage. When Harry Esmond had passed through the [v]crisis of the [v]malady and returned to health again, he found that little Frank Esmond had also suffered and rallied from the disease, and that his mother was down with it. Nor could young Esmond agree in Doctor Tusher's [v]vehement protestations to my Lady, when he visited her during her [v]convalescence, that the malady had not in the least impaired her charms; whereas, in spite of these fine speeches, Harry thought that her Ladyship's beauty was very much injured by the smallpox. The delicacy of her rosy complexion was gone; her eyes had lost their brilliancy, her hair fell, and she looked older. When Tusher in his courtly way vowed and protested that my Lady's face was none the worse, the lad broke out and said, "It is worse, and my mistress is not near so handsome as she was." On this poor Lady Castlewood gave a [v]rueful smile and a look into a little mirror she had, which showed her, I suppose, that what the stupid boy said was only too true, for she turned away from the glass and her eyes filled with tears. The sight of these always created a sort of rage of pity in Esmond's heart, and seeing them on the face of the lady whom he loved best, the young blunderer sank down on his knees and besought her to pardon him, saying that he was a fool and an idiot. Doctor Tusher told him that he was a bear, and a bear he would remain, at which speech poor Harry was so dumb-stricken that he did not even growl. "He is my bear, and I will not have him baited, doctor," said my Lady, putting her hand kindly on the boy's head, as he was still kneeling at her feet. "How your hair has come off! And mine, too!" she added with another sigh. "It is not for myself that I care," my Lady said to Harry, when the parson had taken his leave; "but am I very much changed! Alas! I fear 'tis too true." "Madam, you have the dearest, and kindest, and sweetest face in the world, I think," the lad said; and indeed he thought so. For Harry Esmond his benefactress' sweet face had lost none of its charms. It had always the kindest of looks and smiles for him--and beauty of every sort. She would call him "Mr. Tutor," and she herself, as well as the two children, went to school to him. Of the pupils the two young people were but lazy scholars, and my Lord's son only learned what he liked, which was but little. Mistress Beatrix chattered French prettily, and sang sweetly, but this from her mother's teaching, not Harry Esmond's. But if the children were careless, 'twas a wonder how eagerly the mother learned from her young tutor--and taught him, too. She saw the [v]latent beauties and hidden graces in books; and the happiest hours of young Esmond's life were those passed in the company of this kind mistress and her children. These happy days were to end soon, however; and it was by Lady Castlewood's own decree that they were brought to a conclusion. It happened about Christmas-tide, Harry Esmond being now past sixteen years of age. A messenger came from Winchester one day, bearer of the news that my Lady's aunt was dead and had left her fortune of £2,000 among her six nieces. Many a time afterward Harry Esmond recalled the flushed face and eager look wherewith, after this intelligence, his kind lady regarded him. When my Lord heard of the news, he did not make any long face. "The money will come very handy to furnish the music-room and the [v]cellar," he said, "which is getting low, and buy your Ladyship a coach and a couple of horses. Beatrix, you shall have a [v]spinet; and Frank, you shall have a little horse from Hexton fair; and Harry, you shall have five pounds to buy some books." So spoke my Lord, who was generous with his own, and indeed with other folks' money. "I wish your aunt would die once a year, Rachel; we could spend your money, and all your sisters', too." "I have but one aunt--and--and I have another use for the money," said my Lady, turning red. "Another use, my dear; and what do you know about money?" cried my Lord. "I intend it for Harry Esmond to go to college. Cousin Harry," said my Lady, "you mustn't stay any longer in this dull place, but make a name for yourself." "Is Harry going away? You don't mean to say you will go away?" cried out Beatrix and Frank at one breath. "But he will come back, and this will always be his home," replied my Lady, with blue eyes looking a celestial kindness; "and his scholars will always love him, won't they?" "Rachel, you're a good woman," said my Lord. "I wish you joy, my kinsman," he continued, giving Harry Esmond a hearty slap on the shoulder, "I won't balk your luck. Go to Cambridge, boy." When Harry Esmond went away for Cambridge, little Frank ran alongside his horse as far as the bridge, and there Harry stopped for a moment and looked back at the house where the best part of his life had been passed. And Harry remembered, all his life after, how he saw his mistress at the window looking out on him, the little Beatrix's chestnut curls resting at her mother's side. Both waved a farewell to him, and little Frank sobbed to leave him. The village people had good-bye to say to him, too. All knew that Master Harry was going to college, and most of them had a kind word and a look of farewell. And with these things in mind, he rode out into the world. WILLIAM MAKEPEACE THACKERAY. =HELPS TO STUDY= Tell what you find out about the household in which Harry Esmond lived. What impression do you get of each person? What trouble did Harry bring upon the family? What change occurred in his life and now? SUPPLEMENTARY READING The Virginians--William Makepeace Thackeray. The Sir Roger de Coverley Papers--Steele and Addison. THE FAMILY HOLDS ITS HEAD UP The story is an extract from Oliver Goldsmith's famous novel, _The Vicar of Wakefield_. In this book Goldsmith describes the fortunes of the family of Doctor Primrose, a Church of England clergyman of the middle of the eighteenth century. The novel is considered a most faithful picture of English country life in that period. The home I had come to as [v]vicar was in a little neighborhood consisting of farmers who tilled their own grounds and were equal strangers to [v]opulence and poverty. As they had almost all the conveniences of life within themselves, they seldom visited towns or cities in search of [v]superfluity. Remote from the polite, they still retained the [v]primeval simplicity of manners; and, frugal by habit, they scarce knew that temperance was a virtue. They wrought with cheerfulness on days of labor, but observed festivals as intervals of idleness and pleasure. They kept up the Christmas carol, sent love-knots on Valentine morning, ate pancakes on [v]Shrovetide, showed their wit on the first of April, and religiously cracked nuts on [v]Michaelmas-eve. Being apprised of our approach, the whole neighborhood came out to meet their minister, dressed in their finest clothes and preceded by a [v]pipe and [v]tabor: a feast, also, was provided for our reception, at which we sat cheerfully down, and what the conversation wanted in wit was made up in laughter. Our little habitation was situated at the foot of a sloping hill, sheltered with a beautiful underwood behind, and a prattling river before; on one side a meadow, on the other a green. My farm consisted of about twenty acres of excellent land. Nothing could exceed the neatness of my little enclosures, the elms and hedgerows appearing with inexpressible beauty. My house consisted of but one story, and was covered with [v]thatch, which gave it an air of great snugness; the walls on the inside were nicely whitewashed, and my daughters undertook to adorn them with pictures of their own designing. Though the same room served us for parlor and kitchen, that only made it the warmer. Besides, as it was kept with the utmost neatness,--the dishes, plates and coppers being well scoured and all disposed in bright rows on the shelves--the eye was agreeably relieved and did not want richer furniture. There were three other apartments: one for my wife and me; another for our two daughters within our own; and the third, with two beds, for the rest of the children. The little republic to which I gave laws was regulated in the following manner: by sunrise we all assembled in our common apartment, the fire being previously kindled by the servant. After we had saluted each other with proper ceremony--for I always thought fit to keep up some mechanical forms of good breeding, without which freedom ever destroys friendship--we all bent in gratitude to that Being who gave us another day. This duty performed, my son and I went to pursue our usual industry abroad, while my wife and daughters employed themselves in providing breakfast, which was always ready at a certain time. I allowed half an hour for this meal, and an hour for dinner, which time was taken up in innocent mirth between my wife and daughters, and in [v]philosophical arguments between my son and me. As we rose with the sun, so we never pursued our labors after it was gone down, but returned home to the expecting family, where smiling looks, a neat hearth, and a pleasant fire were prepared for our reception. Nor were we without guests; sometimes Farmer Flamborough, our talkative neighbor, and often a blind piper, would pay us a visit and taste our gooseberry wine, for the making of which we had lost neither the recipe nor the reputation. These harmless people had several ways of being good company; while one played, the other would sing some soothing ballad--"Johnny Armstrong's Last Good-Night," or "The Cruelty of Barbara Allen." The night was concluded in the manner we began the morning, my youngest boys being appointed to read the lessons of the day; and he that read loudest, distinctest and best was to have an halfpenny on Sunday to put into the poor-box. This encouraged in them a wholesome rivalry to do good. When Sunday came, it was, indeed, a day of finery, which all my [v]sumptuary edicts could not restrain. How well soever I fancied my lectures against pride had conquered the vanity of my daughters, yet I still found them secretly attached to all their former finery; they still loved laces, ribbons, and bugles, and my wife herself retained a passion for her crimson [v]paduasoy, because I formerly happened to say it became her. The first Sunday, in particular, their behavior served to mortify me. I had desired my girls the preceding night to be dressed early the next day, for I always loved to be at church a good while before the rest of the congregation. They punctually obeyed my directions; but when we were to assemble in the morning at breakfast, down came my wife and daughters, dressed out in all their former splendor--their hair plastered up with [v]pomatum, their faces [v]patched to taste, their trains bundled up in a heap behind and rustling at every motion. I could not help smiling at their vanity, particularly that of my wife, from whom I expected more discretion. In this [v]exigence, therefore, my only resource was to order my son, with an important air, to call our coach. The girls were amazed at the command, but I repeated it, with more solemnity than before. "Surely, you jest!" cried my wife. "We can walk perfectly well; we want no coach to carry us now." "You mistake, child," returned I; "we do want a coach, for if we walk to church in this trim, the very children in the parish will hoot after us." "Indeed!" replied my wife. "I always imagined that my Charles was fond of seeing his children neat and handsome about him." "You may be as neat as you please," interrupted I, "and I shall love you the better for it; but all this is not neatness, but frippery. These rufflings and pinkings and patchings will only make us hated by all the wives of our neighbors. No, my children," continued I, more gravely, "those gowns must be altered into something of a plainer cut, for finery is very unbecoming in us who want the means of [v]decency." This remonstrance had the proper effect. They went with great composure, that very instant, to change their dress; and the next day I had the satisfaction of finding my daughters, at their own request, employed in cutting up their trains into Sunday waist-coats for Dick and Bill, the two little ones; and, what was still more satisfactory, the gowns seemed improved by this [v]curtailing. But the reformation lasted but for a short while. My wife and daughters were visited by the wives of some of the richer neighbors and by a squire who lived near by, on whom they set more store than on the plain farmers' wives who were nearer us in worldly station. I now began to find that all my long and painful lectures upon temperance, simplicity, and contentment were entirely disregarded. Some distinctions lately paid us by our betters awakened that pride which I had laid asleep, but not removed. Our windows again, as formerly, were filled with washes for the neck and face. The sun was dreaded as an enemy to the skin without doors and the fire as a spoiler of the complexion within. My wife observed that rising too early would hurt her daughters' eyes, that working after dinner would redden their noses, and she convinced me that the hands never looked so white as when they did nothing. Instead, therefore, of finishing George's shirts, we now had the girls new-modeling their old gauzes. The poor Miss Flamboroughs, their former gay companions, were cast off as mean acquaintance, and the whole conversation ran upon high life and high-lived company, with pictures, taste, and Shakespeare. But we could have borne all this, had not a fortune-telling gypsy come to raise us into perfect [v]sublimity. The tawny [v]sibyl no sooner appeared than my girls came running to me for a shilling apiece to cross her hand with silver. To say the truth, I was tired of being always wise, and could not help gratifying their request, because I loved to see them happy. I gave each of them a shilling; after they had been closeted up with the fortune-teller for some time, I knew by their looks, upon their returning, that they had been promised something great. "Well, my girls, how have you sped? Tell me, Livy, has the fortune-teller given thee a penny-worth?" "She positively declared that I am to be married to a squire in less than a twelvemonth." "Well, now, Sophy, my child," said I, "and what sort of husband are you to have?" "I am to have a lord soon after my sister has married the squire," she replied. "How," cried I, "is that all you are to have for your two shillings? Only a lord and a squire for two shillings! You fools, I could have promised you a prince and a [v]nabob for half the money." This curiosity of theirs, however, was attended with very serious effects. We now began to think ourselves designed by the stars to something exalted, and already anticipated our future grandeur. In this agreeable time my wife had the most lucky dreams in the world, which she took care to tell us every morning, with great solemnity and exactness. It was one night a coffin and cross-bones, the sign of an approaching wedding; at another time she imagined her daughters' pockets filled with farthings, a certain sign they would shortly be stuffed with gold. The girls themselves had their omens. They saw rings in the candle, purses bounced from the fire, and love-knots lurked in the bottom of every teacup. Toward the end of the week we received a card from two town ladies, in which, with their compliments, they hoped to see our family at church the Sunday following. All Saturday morning I could perceive, in consequence of this, my wife and daughters in close conference together, and now and then glancing at me with looks that betrayed a [v]latent plot. To be sincere, I had strong suspicions that some absurd proposal was preparing for appearing with splendor the next day. In the evening they began their operations in a very regular manner, and my wife undertook to conduct the siege. After tea, when I seemed in fine spirits, she began thus: "I fancy, Charles, my dear, we shall have a great deal of good company at our church to-morrow." "Perhaps we may, my dear," returned I, "though you need be under no uneasiness about that; you shall have a sermon, whether there be or not." "That is what I expect," returned she; "but I think, my dear, we ought to appear there as decently as possible, for who knows what may happen?" "Your precautions," replied I, "are highly commendable. A decent behavior and appearance in church is what charms me. We should be devout and humble, cheerful and serene." "Yes," cried she, "I know that; but I mean we should go there in as proper a manner as possible; not like the scrubs about us." "You are quite right, my dear," returned I, "and I was going to make the same proposal. The proper manner of going is to go as early as possible, to have time for meditation before the sermon begins." "Phoo! Charles," interrupted she, "all that is very true, but not what I would be at. I mean, we should go there [v]genteelly. You know the church is two miles off, and I protest I don't like to see my daughters trudging up to their pew all blowzed and red with walking, and looking for all the world as if they had been winners at a [v]smock race. Now, my dear, my proposal is this: there are our two plough-horses, the colt that has been in our family these nine years and his companion, Blackberry, that has scarce done an earthly thing for this month past. They are both grown fat and lazy. Why should they not do something as well as we? And let me tell you, when Moses has trimmed them a little, they will cut a very tolerable figure." To this proposal I objected that walking would be twenty times more genteel than such a paltry conveyance, as Blackberry was wall-eyed, and the colt wanted a tail; that they had never been broken to the rein, but had an hundred vicious tricks, and that we had but one saddle and [v]pillion in the whole house. All these objections, however, were overruled, so that I was obliged to comply. The next morning I perceived them not a little busy in collecting such materials as might be necessary for the expedition; but as I found it would be a business of time, I walked on to the church before, and they promised speedily to follow. I waited near an hour in the reading desk for their arrival; but not finding them come as I expected, I was obliged to begin, and went through the service, not without some uneasiness at finding them absent. This was increased when all was finished, and no appearance of the family. I therefore walked back by the horseway, which was five miles round, though the footway was but two; and when I had got about half-way home, I perceived the procession marching slowly forward toward the church--my son, my wife, and the two little ones exalted on one horse, and my two daughters upon the other. It was then very near dinner-time. I demanded the cause of their delay, but I soon found, by their looks, that they had met with a thousand misfortunes on the road. The horses had, at first, refused to move from the door, till a neighbor was kind enough to beat them forward for about two hundred yards with his cudgel. Next, the straps of my wife's pillion broke down, and they were obliged to stop to repair them before they could proceed. After that, one of the horses took it into his head to stand still, and neither blows nor entreaties could prevail with him to proceed. They were just recovering from this dismal situation when I found them; but, perceiving everything safe, I own their mortification did not much displease me, as it gave me many opportunities of future triumph, and would teach my daughters more humility. OLIVER GOLDSMITH. =HELPS TO STUDY= Describe the neighborhood and the home to which the vicar took his family; also their manner of living. Relate the two attempts the ladies made to appear at church in great style. What happened to raise the hopes of better days for the daughters? How were these hopes encouraged? What superstitions did the wife and daughters believe? Give your opinion of the vicar and of each member of the family. SUPPLEMENTARY READING The School for Scandal--Richard Brinsley Sheridan. She Stoops to Conquer--Oliver Goldsmith. Life of Oliver Goldsmith--Washington Irving. David Copperfield--Charles Dickens. Barnaby Rudge--Charles Dickens. Some have too much, yet still do crave; I little have, and seek no more. They are but poor, though much they have, And I am rich with little store: They poor, I rich; they beg, I give; They lack, I leave; they pine, I live. SIR EDWARD DYER. THE LITTLE BOY IN THE BALCONY My special amusement in New York is riding on the elevated railway. It is curious to note how little one can see on the crowded sidewalks of this city. It is simply a rush of the same people--hurrying this way or that on the same errands, doing the same shopping or eating at the same restaurants. It is a [v]kaleidoscope with infinite combinations but the same effects. You see it to-day, and it is the same as yesterday. Occasionally in the multitude you hit upon a [v]_genre_ specimen, or an odd detail, such as a prim little dog that sits upright all day and holds in its mouth a cup for pennies for its blind master, or an old bookseller, with a grand head and the deliberate motions of a scholar, moldering in a stall--but the general effect is one of sameness and soon tires and bewilders. Once on the elevated road, however, a new world is opened, full of the most interesting objects. The cars sweep by the upper stories of the houses, and, running never too swiftly to allow observation, disclose the secrets of a thousand homes, and bring to view people and things never dreamed of by the giddy, restless crowd that sends its impatient murmur from the streets below. In a course of several months' pretty steady riding from Twenty-third Street, which is the station for the Fifth Avenue Hotel, to Rector, which overlooks Wall Street, I have made many acquaintances along the route, and on reaching the city my first curiosity is in their behalf. One of these is a boy about six years of age--akin in his fragile body and his serious mien--a youngster that is very precious to me. I first saw this boy on a little balcony about three feet by four, projecting from the window of a poverty-stricken fourth floor. He was leaning over the railing, his white, thoughtful head just clearing the top, holding a short, round stick in his hand. The little fellow made a pathetic picture, all alone there above the street, so friendless and desolate, and his pale face came between me and my business many a time that day. On going uptown that evening just as night was falling, I saw him still at his place, white and patient and silent. Every day afterward I saw him there, always with the short stick in his hand. Occasionally he would walk around the balcony, rattling the stick in a solemn manner against the railing, or poke it across from one corner to another and sit on it. This was the only playing I ever saw him do, and the stick was the only plaything he had. But he was never without it. His little hand always held it, and I pictured him every morning when he awoke from his joyless sleep, picking up his poor toy and going out to his balcony, as other boys go to play. Or perhaps he slept with it, as little ones do with dolls and whip-tops. I could see that the room beyond the window was bare. I never saw any one in it. The heat must have been terrible, for it could have had no ventilation. Once I missed the boy from the balcony, but saw his white head moving about slowly in the dusk of the room. Gradually the little fellow became a burden to me. I found myself continually thinking of him, and troubled with that remorse that thoughtless people feel even for suffering for which they are not in the slightest degree responsible. Not that I ever saw any suffering on his face. It was patient, thoughtful, serious, but with never a sign of petulance. What thoughts filled that young head--what contemplation took the place of what should have been the [v]ineffable upspringing of childish emotion--what complaint or questioning were living behind that white face--no one could guess. In an older person the face would have betokened a resignation that found peace in the hope of things hereafter. In this child, without hope or aspiration, it was sad beyond expression. One day as I passed I nodded at him. He made no sign in return. I repeated the nod on another trip, waving my hand at him--but without avail. At length, in response to an unusually winning exhortation, his pale lips trembled into a smile, but a smile that was soberness itself. Wherever I went that day that smile went with me. Wherever I saw children playing in the parks, or trotting along with their hands nestled in strong fingers that guided and protected, I thought of that tiny watcher in the balcony--joyless, hopeless, friendless--a desolate mite, hanging between the blue sky and the gladsome streets, lifting his wistful face now to the peaceful heights of the one, and now looking with grave wonder on the ceaseless tumult of the other. At length--but why go any further? Why is it necessary to tell that the boy had no father, that his mother was bedridden from his birth, and that his sister pasted labels in a drug-house, and he was thus left to himself. It is sufficient to say that I went to Coney Island yesterday, and watched the bathers and the children--listened to the crisp, lingering music of the waves--ate a robust lunch on the pier--wandered in and out among the booths, tents, and hub-bub--and that through all these pleasures I had a companion that enjoyed them with a gravity that I can never hope to [v]emulate, but with a soulfulness that was touching. As I came back in the boat, the breezes singing through the [v]cordage, music floating from the fore-deck, and the sun lighting with its dying rays the shipping that covered the river, there was sitting in front of me a very pale but very happy bit of a boy, open-eyed with wonder, but sober and self-contained, clasping tightly in his little fingers a short, battered stick. And finally, whenever I pass by a certain overhanging balcony now, I am sure of a smile from an intimate and esteemed friend who lives there. HENRY W. GRADY. ARIEL'S TRIUMPH[141-*] This story is taken from Booth Tarkington's novel, _The Conquest of Canaan_, which gives an admirable description of modern life in an American town. Joe Louden, the hero, and Ariel Tabor, the heroine, were both friendless and, in a way, forlorn. How both of them triumphed over obstacles and won success and happiness is the theme of a book which is notable for keen observation of character and for a quiet and delightful humor. I Ariel had worked all the afternoon over her mother's wedding-gown, and two hours were required by her toilet for the dance. She curled her hair frizzily, burning it here and there, with a slate-pencil heated over a lamp-chimney, and she placed above one ear three or four large artificial roses, taken from an old hat of her mother's, which she had found in a trunk in the store-room. Possessing no slippers, she carefully blacked and polished her shoes, which had been clumsily resoled, and fastened into the strings of each small rosettes of red ribbon; after which she practised swinging the train of her skirt until she was proud of her manipulation of it. She had no powder, but found in her grandfather's room a lump of magnesia, which he was in the habit of taking for heartburn, and passed it over and over her brown face and hands. Then a lingering gaze into her small mirror gave her joy at last; she yearned so hard to see herself charming that she did see herself so. Admiration came, and she told herself that she was more attractive to look at than she had ever been in her life, and that, perhaps, at last she might begin to be sought for like other girls. The little glass showed a sort of prettiness in her thin, unmatured young face; tripping dance-tunes ran through her head, her feet keeping the time--ah, she did so hope to dance often that night! Perhaps--perhaps she might be asked for every number. And so, wrapping an old water-proof cloak about her, she took her grandfather's arm and sallied forth, with high hopes in her beating heart. It was in the dressing-room that the change began to come. Alone, at home in her own ugly little room, she had thought herself almost beautiful; but here in the brightly lighted chamber crowded with the other girls it was different. There was a big [v]cheval-glass at one end of the room, and she faced it, when her turn came--for the mirror was popular--with a sinking spirit. There was the contrast, like a picture painted and framed. The other girls all wore their hair after the fashion introduced to Canaan by Mamie Pike the week before, on her return from a visit to Chicago. None of them had "crimped" and none had bedecked their tresses with artificial flowers. Her alterations of the wedding-dress had not been successful; the skirt was too short in front and higher on one side than on the other, showing too plainly the heavy-soled shoes, which had lost most of their polish in the walk through the snow. The ribbon rosettes were fully revealed, and as she glanced at their reflection, she heard the words, "Look at that train and those rosettes!" whispered behind her, and saw in the mirror two pretty young women turn away with their handkerchiefs over their mouths and retreat hurriedly to an alcove. All the feet in the room except Ariel's were in dainty kid or satin slippers of the color of the dresses from which they glimmered out, and only Ariel wore a train. She went away from the mirror and pretended to be busy with a hanging thread in her sleeve. She was singularly an alien in the chattering room, although she had been born and had lived all her life in the town. Perhaps her position among the young ladies may be best defined by the remark, generally current among them that evening, to the effect that it was "very sweet of Mamie to invite her." Ariel was not like the others; she was not of them, and never had been. Indeed, she did not know them very well. Some of them nodded to her and gave her a word of greeting pleasantly; all of them whispered about her with wonder and suppressed amusement, but none talked to her. They were not unkindly, but they were young and eager and excited over their own interests,--which were then in the "gentlemen's dressing-room." Each of the other girls had been escorted by a youth of the place, and, one by one, joining these escorts in the hall outside the door, they descended the stairs, until only Ariel was left. She came down alone after the first dance had begun, and greeted her young hostess's mother timidly. Mrs. Pike--a small, frightened-looking woman with a ruby necklace--answered her absently, and hurried away to see that the [v]imported waiters did not steal anything. Ariel sat in one of the chairs against the wall and watched the dancers with a smile of eager and benevolent interest. In Canaan no parents, no guardians or aunts were haled forth o' nights to [v]duenna the junketings of youth; Mrs. Pike did not reappear, and Ariel sat conspicuously alone; there was nothing else for her to do, but it was not an easy matter. When the first dance reached an end, Mamie Pike came to her for a moment with a cheery welcome, and was immediately surrounded by a circle of young men and women, flushed with dancing, shouting as was their wont, laughing [v]inexplicably over words and phrases and unintelligible [v]monosyllables, as if they all belonged to a secret society and these cries were symbols of things exquisitely humorous, which only they understood. Ariel laughed with them more heartily than any other, so that she might seem to be of them and as merry as they were; but almost immediately she found herself outside of the circle, and presently they all whirled away into another dance, and she was left alone again. So she sat, no one coming near her, through several dances, trying to maintain the smile of delighted interest upon her face, though she felt the muscles of her face beginning to ache with their fixedness, her eyes growing hot and glazed. All the other girls were provided with partners for every dance, with several young men left over, these latter lounging [v]hilariously together in the doorways. Ariel was careful not to glance toward them, but she could not help hating them. Once or twice between the dances she saw Miss Pike speak appealingly to one of the [v]superfluous, glancing, at the same time, in her own direction, and Ariel could see, too, that the appeal proved unsuccessful, until at last Mamie approached her, leading Norbert Flitcroft, partly by the hand, partly by will power. Norbert was an excessively fat boy, and at the present moment looked as patient as the blind. But he asked Ariel if she was "engaged for the next dance," and, Mamie, having flitted away, stood [v]disconsolately beside her, waiting for the music to begin. Ariel was grateful for him. "I think you must be very good-natured, Mr. Flitcroft," she said, with an air of [v]raillery. "No, I'm not," he replied, [v]plaintively. "Everybody thinks I am, because I'm fat, and they expect me to do things they never dream of asking anybody else to do. I'd like to see 'em even _ask_ 'Gene Bantry to go and do some of the things they get me to do! A person isn't good-natured just because he's fat," he concluded, morbidly, "but he might as well be!" "Oh, I meant good-natured," she returned, with a sprightly laugh, "because you're willing to waltz with me." "Oh, well," he returned, sighing, "that's all right." The orchestra flourished into "La Paloma"; he put his arm mournfully about her, and taking her right hand with his left, carried her arm out to a rigid right angle, beginning to pump and balance for time. They made three false starts and then got away. Ariel danced badly; she hopped and lost the step, but they persevered, bumping against other couples continually. Circling breathlessly into the next room, they passed close to a long mirror, in which Ariel saw herself, although in a flash, more bitterly contrasted to the others than in the cheval-glass of the dressing-room. The clump of roses was flopping about her neck, her crimped hair looked frowzy, and there was something terribly wrong about her dress. Suddenly she felt her train to be [v]grotesque, as a thing following her in a nightmare. A moment later she caught her partner making a [v]burlesque face of suffering over her shoulder, and, turning her head quickly, saw for whose benefit he had constructed it. Eugene Bantry, flying expertly by with Mamie, was bestowing upon Mr. Flitcroft a commiserative wink. The next instant she tripped in her train and fell to the floor at Eugene's feet, carrying her partner with her. There was a shout of laughter. The young hostess stopped Eugene, who would have gone on, and he had no choice but to stoop to Ariel's assistance. "It seems to be a habit of mine," she said, laughing loudly. She did not appear to see the hand he offered, but got on her feet without help and walked quickly away with Norbert, who proceeded to live up to the character he had given himself. "Perhaps we had better not try it again," she laughed. "Well, I should think not," he returned with the frankest gloom. With the air of conducting her home, he took her to the chair against the wall whence he had brought her. There his responsibility for her seemed to cease. "Will you excuse me?" he asked, and there was no doubt he felt that he had been given more than his share that evening, even though he was fat. "Yes, indeed." Her laughter was continuous. "I should think you _would_ be glad to get rid of me after that. Ha, ha, ha! Poor Mr. Flitcroft, you know you are!" It was the deadly truth, and the fat one, saying, "Well, if you'll excuse me now," hurried away with a step which grew lighter as the distance from her increased. Arrived at the haven of a far doorway, he mopped his brow and shook his head grimly in response to frequent rallyings. Ariel sat through more dances, interminable dances and intermissions, in that same chair, in which it began to seem she was to live out the rest of her life. Now and then, if she thought people were looking at her as they passed, she broke into a laugh and nodded slightly, as if still amused over her mishap. After a long time she rose, and laughing cheerfully to Mr. Flitcroft, who was standing in the doorway and replied with a wan smile, stepped out quickly into the hall, where she almost ran into her great-uncle, Jonas Tabor. He was going toward the big front doors with Judge Pike, having just come out of the latter's library, down the hall. Jonas was breathing heavily and was shockingly pale, though his eyes were very bright. He turned his back upon his grandniece sharply and went out of the door. Ariel reëntered the room whence she had come. She laughed again to her fat friend as she passed him, went to the window and looked out. The porch seemed deserted and was faintly illuminated by a few Japanese lanterns. She sprang out, dropped upon the divan, and burying her face in her hands, cried heart-brokenly. Presently she felt something alive touch her foot, and, her breath catching with alarm, she started to rise. A thin hand, issuing from a shabby sleeve, had stolen out between two of the green tubs and was pressing upon one of her shoes. "Sh!" warned a voice. "Don't make a noise!" The warning was not needed; she had recognized the hand and sleeve instantly. It was her playmate and lifelong friend, Joe Louden. "What were you going on about?" he asked angrily. "Nothing," she answered. "I wasn't. You must go away; you know the Judge doesn't like you." "What were you crying about?" interrupted the uninvited guest. "Nothing, I tell you!" she repeated, the tears not ceasing to gather in her eyes. "I wasn't." "I want to know what it was," he insisted. "Didn't the fools ask you to dance! Ah! You needn't tell me. That's it. I've been here, watching, for the last three dances and you weren't in sight till you came to the window. Well, what do you care about that for!" "I don't," she answered. "I don't!" Then suddenly, without being able to prevent it, she sobbed. "No," he said, gently, "I see you don't. And you let yourself be a fool because there are a lot of fools in there." She gave way, all at once, to a gust of sorrow and bitterness; she bent far over and caught his hand and laid it against her wet cheek. "Oh, Joe," she whispered, brokenly, "I think we have such hard lives, you and I! It doesn't seem right--while we're so young! Why can't we be like the others? Why can't we have some of the fun?" He withdrew his hand, with the embarrassment and shame he would have felt had she been a boy. "Get out!" he said, feebly. She did not seem to notice, but, still stooping, rested her elbows on her knees and her face in her hands. "I try so hard to have some fun, to be like the rest--and it's always a mistake, always, always, always!" She rocked herself slightly from side to side. "I'm a fool, it's the truth, or I wouldn't have come to-night. I want to be attractive--I want to be in things. I want to laugh as they do--" "To laugh, just to laugh, and not because there's something funny?" "Yes, I do, I do! And to know how to dress and to wear my hair--there must be some place where you can learn those things. I've never had any one to show me! It's only lately I've cared, but I'm seventeen, Joe--" She faltered, came to a stop, and her whole body was shaken with sobs. "I hate myself so for crying--for everything!" Just then a colored waiter, smiling graciously, came out upon the porch, bearing a tray of salad, hot oysters, and coffee. At his approach, Joe had fallen prone on the floor in the shadow. Ariel shook her head to the proffer of refreshments. "I don't want any," she murmured. The waiter turned away in pity and was reëntering the window when a passionate whisper fell upon his ear as well as upon Ariel's. _"Take it!"_ "Ma'am?" said the waiter. "I've changed my mind," she replied quickly. The waiter, his elation restored, gave of his viands with the [v]superfluous bounty loved by his race when distributing the product of the wealthy. When he had gone, "Give me everything that's hot," said Joe. "You can keep the salad." "I couldn't eat it or anything else," she answered, thrusting the plate between the palms. For a time there was silence. From within the house came the continuous babble of voices and laughter, the clink of [v]cutlery on china. The young people spent a long time over their supper. By and by the waiter returned to the veranda, deposited a plate of colored ices upon Ariel's knees with a noble gesture, and departed. "No ice for me," said Joe. "Won't you please go now?" she entreated. "It wouldn't be good manners," he joked. "They might think I only came for the supper." "Give me the dish and coffee-cup," she whispered, impatiently. "Suppose the waiter came and had to look for them? Quick!" A bottle-shaped figure appeared in the window, and she had no time to take the plate and cup which were being pushed through the palm-leaves. She whispered a word of warning, and the dishes were hurriedly withdrawn as Norbert Flitcroft, wearing a solemn expression of injury, came out upon the veranda. "They want you. Some one's come for you." "Oh, is grandfather waiting?" She rose. "It isn't your grandfather that has come for you," answered the fat one, slowly. "It is Eskew Arp. Something's happened." She looked at him for a moment, beginning to tremble violently, her eyes growing wide with fright. "Is my grandfather--is he sick?" "You'd better go and see. Old Eskew's waiting in the hall. He'll tell you." She was by him and through the window instantly. Mr. Arp was waiting in the hall, talking in a low voice to Mrs. Pike. "Your grandfather's all right," he told the frightened girl quickly. "He sent me for you. Just hurry and get your things." She was with him again in a moment, and seizing the old man's arm, hurried him down the steps and toward the street almost at a run. "You're not telling me the truth," she said. "You're not telling me the truth!" "Nothing has happened to Roger Tabor," panted Mr. Arp. "We're going this way, not that." They had come to the gate, and as she turned to the right he pulled her sharply to the left. "Where are we going?" she demanded. "To your Uncle Jonas's." "Why?" she cried, in supreme astonishment. "What do you want to take me there for? Don't you know that he doesn't like me--that he has stopped speaking to me?" "Yes," said the old man, grimly; "he has stopped speaking to everybody." These startling words told Ariel that her uncle was dead. They did not tell her what she was soon to learn--that he had died rich, and that, failing other heirs, she and her grandfather had inherited his fortune. II It was Sunday in Canaan--Sunday some years later. Joe Louden was sitting in the shade of Main Street bridge, smoking a cigar. He was alone; he was always alone, for he had been away a long time, and had made few friends since his return. A breeze wandered up the river and touched the leaves and grass to life. The young corn, deep green in the bottom-land, moved with a [v]staccato flurry; the stirring air brought a smell of blossoms; the distance took on faint lavender hazes which blended the outlines of the fields, lying like square coverlets on the long slope of rising ground beyond the bottom-land, and empurpled the blue woodland shadows of the groves. For the first time it struck Joe that it was a beautiful day. He opened his eyes and looked about him whimsically. Then he shook his head again. A lady had just emerged from the bridge and was coming toward him. It would be hard to get at Joe's first impressions of her. We can find conveyance for only the broadest and heaviest. At first sight of her, there was preëminently the shock of seeing anything so exquisite in his accustomed world. For she was exquisite; she was that, and much more, from the ivory [v]ferrule of the parasol she carried, to the light and slender foot-print she left in the dust of the road. Joe knew at once that nothing like her had ever before been seen in Canaan. He had little knowledge of the millinery arts, and he needed none to see the harmony of the things she wore. Her dress and hat and gloves and parasol showed a pale lavender overtint like that which he had seen overspreading the western slope. Under the summer hat her very dark hair swept back over the temples with something near trimness in the extent to which it was withheld from being fluffy. It may be that this approach to trimness, after all, was the true key to the mystery of the lady who appeared to Joe. She was to pass him--so he thought--and as she drew nearer, his breath came faster. And then he realized that something wonderful was happening to him. She had stopped directly in front of him; stopped and stood looking at him with her clear eyes. He did not lift his own to her; a great and unaccountable shyness beset him. He had risen and removed his hat, trying not to clear his throat--his everyday sense urging upon him that she was a stranger in Canaan who had lost her way. "Can I--can I--" he stammered, blushing, meaning to finish with "direct you," or "show you the way." Then he looked at her again and saw what seemed to him the strangest sight of life. The lady's eyes had filled with tears--filled and overfilled. "I'll sit here on the log with you," she said. "You don't need to dust it!" she went on, tremulously. And even then he did not know who she was. There was a silence, for if the dazzled young man could have spoken at all, he could have found nothing to say; and, perhaps, the lady would not trust her own voice just then. His eyes had fallen again; he was too dazed, and, in truth, too panic-stricken now, to look at her. She was seated beside him and had handed him her parasol in a little way which seemed to imply that, of course, he had reached for it, so that it was to be seen how used she was to have all such things done for her. He saw that he was expected to furl the dainty thing; he pressed the catch and let down the top timidly, as if fearing to break or tear it; and, as it closed, held near his face, he caught a very faint, sweet, spicy [v]emanation from it like wild roses and cinnamon. "Do you know me?" asked the lady at last. For answer he could only stare at her, dumfounded; he lifted an unsteady hand toward her appealingly. Her manner underwent an April change. She drew back lightly; he was favored with the most delicious low laugh he had ever heard. "I'm glad you're the same, Joe!" she said. "I'm glad you're the same, and I'm glad I've changed, though that isn't why you have forgotten me." He arose uncertainly and took three or four backward steps from her. She sat before him, radiant with laughter, the loveliest creature he had ever seen; but between him and this charming vision there swept, through the warm, scented June air, the dim picture of a veranda all in darkness and the faint music of violins. _"Ariel Tabor!"_ "Isn't it about time you were recognizing me?" she said. * * * * * Sensations were rare in staid, dull, commonplace Canaan, but this fine Sunday morning the town was treated to one of the most memorable sensations in its history. The town, all except Joe Louden, had known for weeks that Ariel Tabor was coming home from abroad, but it had not seen her. And when she walked along the street with Joe, past the Sunday church-returning crowds, it is not quite truth to say that all except the children came to a dead halt, but it is not very far from it. The air was thick with subdued exclamations and whisperings. Joe had not known her. The women recognized her, [v]infallibly, at first sight; even those who had quite forgotten her. And the women told their men. Hence the un-Sunday-like demeanor of the procession, for few towns held it more unseemly to stand and stare at passers-by, especially on the Sabbath. But Ariel Tabor had returned. A low but increasing murmur followed the two as they proceeded. It ran up the street ahead of them; people turned to look back and paused, so that Ariel and Joe had to walk round one or two groups. They had, also, to walk round Norbert Flitcroft, which was very like walking round a group. Mr. Flitcroft was one of the few (he was waddling home alone) who did not identify Miss Tabor, and her effect upon him was extraordinary. His mouth opened and he gazed [v]stodgily, his widening eyes like sun-dogs coming out of a fog. Mr. Flitcroft experienced a few moments of trance; came out of it stricken through and through; felt nervously of his tie; resolutely fell in behind, and followed, at a distance of some forty paces, determined to learn what household this heavenly visitor honored, and thrilling with the intention to please that same household with his own presence as soon and as often as possible. Ariel flushed a little when she perceived the extent of their conspicuousness; but it was not the blush that Joe remembered had reddened the tanned skin of old; for her brownness had gone long ago, though it had not left her merely pink and white. There was a delicate rosiness rising from her cheeks to her temples, as the earliest dawn rises. Joe kept trying to realize that this lady of wonder was Ariel Tabor, but he could not; he could not connect the shabby Ariel, whom he had treated as one boy treats another, with this young woman of the world. Although he had only a dim perception of the staring and whispering which greeted and followed them, Ariel, of course, was thoroughly aware of it, though the only sign she gave was the slight blush, which very soon disappeared. Ariel paused before the impressive front of Judge Pike's large mansion. Joe's face expressed surprise. "Don't you know?" she said. "I'm staying here. Judge Pike has charge of all my property. Come to see me this afternoon." With a last charming smile, Ariel turned and left the dazed young man on the sidewalk. That walk was but the beginning of her triumph. Judge Pike's of a summer afternoon was the swirling social center of Canaan, but on that particular Sunday afternoon every unattached male in the town who possessed the privilege of calling at the big house appeared. They filled the chairs in the wide old-fashioned hall where Ariel received them, and overpoured on the broad steps of the old-fashioned spiral staircase, where Mr. Flitcroft, on account of his size, occupied two steps and a portion of a third. And Ariel was the center of it all! BOOTH TARKINGTON. =HELPS TO STUDY= I. Describe Ariel's pitiful attempts at beautifying herself when dressing for the dance. When did she realize her failure? How were her anticipations of the dance realized? What kind of girl was Mamie Pike? Give reasons for your answer. At what point were you most sorry for Ariel? With what startling news did the evening end? II. Give an account of the meeting between the old playmates. Describe the scenes as they walked along the street. What do you think was the greatest part of Ariel's "triumph?" Was she spoiled by her wealth? How do you know? SUPPLEMENTARY READING Little Women--Louisa M. Alcott. Pride and Prejudice--Jane Austen. FOOTNOTE: [141-*] Copyright by Harper & Brothers. THE CLOUD I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers, From the seas and the streams; I bear light shade for the leaves when laid In their noonday dreams. From my wings are shaken the dews that waken The sweet buds every one, When rocked to rest on their mother's breast, As she dances about the sun. I wield the flail of the lashing hail, And whiten the green plains under; And then again I dissolve it in rain; And laugh as I pass in thunder. I sift the snow on the mountains below, And their great pines groan aghast; And all the night 'tis my pillow white, While I sleep in the arms of the blast. Sublime on the towers of my skyey bowers Lightning, my pilot, sits; In a cavern under is fettered the thunder; It struggles and howls at fits. Over earth and ocean, with gentle motion, This pilot is guiding me, Lured by the love of the [v]genii that move In the depths of the purple sea; Over the rills and the crags and the hills, Over the lakes and the plains, Wherever he dream, under mountain or stream. The spirit he loves remains; And I all the while bask in heaven's blue smile, Whilst he is dissolving in rains. I am the daughter of the earth and water, And the nursling of the sky; I pass through the pores of the ocean and shores; I change, but I cannot die. For after the rain, when, with never a stain, The pavilion of heaven is bare, And the winds and sunbeams, with their convex gleams, Build up the blue dome of air,-- I silently laugh at my own cenotaph, And out of the caverns of rain, I rise and unbuild it again. PERCY BYSSHE SHELLEY. =HELPS TO STUDY= Make a list of the things the cloud does. Read aloud the lines in which the poet tells of each of these. Why is lightning spoken of as the pilot of the cloud? Where does it sit? Where is the thunder? How is the cloud "the daughter of the earth and water"? How "a nursling of the sky"? Explain "I change, but I cannot die." A cenotaph is a memorial built to one who is buried elsewhere. Why should the clear sky be the cloud's cenotaph? How does the reappearing of the cloud unbuild it? NEW ENGLAND WEATHER There is a [v]sumptuous variety about the New England weather that compels the stranger's admiration--and regret. The weather is always doing something there; always attending strictly to business; always getting up new designs and trying them on the people to see how they will go. But it gets through more business in spring than in any other season. In the spring I have counted one hundred and thirty-six different kinds of weather within four and twenty hours. It was I who made the fame and fortune of the man who had that marvelous collection of weather on exhibition at the Centennial, which so astounded the foreigners. He was going to travel around the world and get specimens from all climes. I said, "Don't do it; just come to New England on a favorable spring day." I told him what we could do in the way of style, variety, and quantity. Well, he came, and he made his collection in four days. As to variety, he confessed that he got hundreds of kinds of weather that he had never heard of before. And as to quantity, after he had picked out and discarded all that was blemished in any way, he not only had weather enough, but weather to spare, weather to hire out, weather to sell, weather to deposit, weather to invest, and weather to give to the poor. Old Probabilities has a mighty reputation for accurate prophecy and thoroughly deserves it. You take up the paper and observe how crisply and confidently he checks off what to-day's weather is going to be on the Pacific, down South, in the Middle States, in the Wisconsin region. See him sail along in the joy and pride of his power till he gets to New England, and then see his tail drop. _He_ doesn't know what the weather is going to be in New England. Well, he mulls over it, and by and by he gets out something like this: "Probable northeast to southwest winds, varying to the southward and westward and eastward and points between; high and low barometer, swapping around from place to place; probable areas of rain, snow, hail, and drought, succeeded or preceded by earthquakes with thunder and lightning." Then he jots down this postscript from his wandering mind, to cover accidents: "But it is possible that the program may be wholly changed in the meantime." Yes, one of the brightest gems in the New England weather is the dazzling uncertainty of it. There is certain to be plenty of weather, but you never can tell which end of the procession is going to move first. But, after all, there are at least two or three things about that weather (or, if you please, the effects produced by it) which we residents would not like to part with. If we hadn't our bewitching autumn foliage, we should still have to credit the weather with one feature which compensates for all its bullying vagaries--the ice storm. Every bough and twig is strung with ice beads, frozen dewdrops, and the whole tree sparkles cold and white like the [v]Shah of Persia's diamond plume. Then the wind waves the branches, and the sun comes out and turns all those myriads of beads and drops to prisms that glow and burn and flash with all manner of colored fires; which change and change again, with inconceivable rapidity, from blue to red, from red to green, and green to gold. The tree becomes a spraying fountain, a very explosion of dazzling jewels, and it stands there the [v]acme, the climax, the supremest possibility in art or nature, of bewildering, intoxicating, intolerable magnificence. One cannot make the words too strong. Month after month I lay up hate and grudge against the New England weather; but when the ice storm comes at last I say: "There, I forgive you now; you are the most enchanting weather in the world." MARK TWAIN. =HELPS TO STUDY= Mark Twain's humor was noted for exaggeration. Find examples of exaggeration in this selection. Old Probabilities was the name signed by a weather prophet of the period. How was he affected by New England weather? At what point did Twain drop his fun and begin a beautiful tribute to a New England landscape? How does the tribute close? SUPPLEMENTARY READING Three Men in a Boat--Jerome K. Jerome. The House Boat on the Styx--John Kendrick Bangs. [Illustration: Silence Deep and White] THE FIRST SNOWFALL The snow had begun in the gloaming, And busily all the night Had been heaping fields and highway With a silence deep and white. Every pine and fir and hemlock Wore ermine too dear for an earl, And the poorest twig on the elm tree Was ridged inch deep with pearl. From sheds new roofed with Carrara Came chanticleer's muffled crow, The stiff rails were softened to swan's-down And still fluttered down the snow. I stood and watched by the window That noiseless work of the sky, And the sudden flurries of snowbirds, Like brown leaves whirling by. I thought of a mound in sweet Auburn Where a little headstone stood; How the flakes were folding it gently, As did robins the babes in the wood. Up spoke our own little Mabel, Saying, "Father, who makes it snow?" And I told of the good All-Father Who cares for us here below. Again I looked at the snowfall, And thought of the leaden sky That arched o'er our first great sorrow, When that mound was heaped so high. I remembered the gradual patience That fell from that cloud like snow, Flake by flake, healing and hiding The scar on our deep-plunged woe. And again to the child I whispered, "The snow that husheth all, Darling, the merciful Father Alone can make it fall." Then, with eyes that saw not, I kissed her; And she, kissing back, could not know That _my_ kiss was given to her sister, Folded close under deepening snow. JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL. =HELPS TO STUDY= When did the snow begin? How do you know? What time is it now? Is snow still falling? Read the lines that show this. Of what sorrow does the snow remind the poet? Read the lines which show that peace had come to the parents. Make a list of the comparisons (or similes) used by the poet. Read the lines which show that the storm was a quiet one. Which lines do you like best? OLD EPHRAIM For some days after our arrival on the Bighorn range we did not come across any grizzly. There were plenty of black-tail deer in the woods, and we encountered a number of bands of cow and calf elk, or of young bulls; but after several days' hunting, we were still without any game worth taking home, and we had seen no sign of grizzly, which was the game we were especially anxious to kill, for neither Merrifield nor I had ever seen a bear alive. Sometimes we hunted in company; sometimes each of us went out alone. One day we had separated; I reached camp early in the afternoon, and waited a couple of hours before Merrifield put in an appearance. At last I heard a shout, and he came in sight galloping at speed down an open glade, and waving his hat, evidently having had good luck; and when he reined in his small, wiry cow-pony, we saw that he had packed behind his saddle the fine, glossy pelt of a black bear. Better still, he announced that he had been off about ten miles to a perfect tangle of ravines and valleys where bear sign was very thick; and not of black bear either, but of grizzly. The black bear (the only one we got on the mountains) he had run across by accident. Merrifield's tale made me decide to shift camp at once, and go over to the spot where the bear-tracks were plentiful. Next morning we were off, and by noon pitched camp by a clear brook, in a valley with steep, wooded sides. That afternoon we again went out, and I shot a fine bull elk. I came home alone toward nightfall, walking through a reach of burnt forest, where there was nothing but charred tree-trunks and black mold. When nearly through it I came across the huge, half-human footprints of a great grizzly, which must have passed by within a few minutes. It gave me rather an eery feeling in the silent, lonely woods, to see for the first time the unmistakable proofs that I was in the home of the mighty lord of the wilderness. That evening we almost had a visit from one of the animals we were after. Several times we had heard at night the musical calling of the bull elk--a sound to which no writer has as yet done justice. This particular night, when we were in bed and the fire was smoldering, we were roused by a ruder noise--a kind of grunting or roaring whine, answered by the frightened snorts of the ponies. It was a bear which had evidently not seen the fire, as it came from behind the bank, and had probably been attracted by the smell of the horses. After it made out what we were, it stayed round a short while, again uttered its peculiar roaring grunt, and went off; we had seized our rifles and had run out into the woods, but in the darkness could see nothing; indeed it was rather lucky we did not stumble across the bear, as he could have made short work of us when we were at such a disadvantage. Next day we went off on a long tramp through the woods and along the sides of the canyons. There were plenty of berry bushes growing in clusters; and all around these there were fresh tracks of bear. But the grizzly is also a flesh-eater, and has a great liking for [v]carrion. On visiting the place where Merrifield had killed the black bear, we found that the grizzlies had been there before us, and had utterly devoured the carcass, with cannibal relish. Hardly a scrap was left, and we turned our steps toward where lay the bull elk I had killed. It was quite late in the afternoon when we reached the place. A grizzly had evidently been at the carcass during the preceding night, for his great footprints were in the ground all around it, and the carcass itself was gnawed and torn, and partially covered with earth and leaves--the grizzly has a curious habit of burying all of his prey that he does not at the moment need. The forest was composed mainly of what are called ridge-pole pines, which grow close together, and do not branch out until the stems are thirty or forty feet from the ground. Beneath these trees we walked over a carpet of pine needles, upon which our moccasined feet made no sound. The woods seemed vast and lonely, and their silence was broken now and then by the strange noises always to be heard in the great pine forests. We climbed up along the trunk of a dead tree that had toppled over until its upper branches struck in the limb crotch of another, which thus supported it at an angle half-way in its fall. When above the ground far enough to prevent the bear's smelling us, we sat still to wait for his approach; until, in the gathering gloom, we could no longer see the sights of our rifles. It was useless to wait longer; and we clambered down and stole out to the edge of the woods. The forest here covered one side of a steep, almost canyon-like ravine, whose other side was bare except for rock and sage-brush. Once out from under the trees there was still plenty of light, although the sun had set, and we crossed over some fifty yards to the opposite hillside, and crouched down under a bush to see if perchance some animal might not also leave the cover. Again we waited quietly in the growing dusk until the pine trees in our front blended into one dark, frowning mass. At last, as we were rising to leave, we heard the sound of the breaking of a dead stick, from the spot where we knew the carcass lay. "Old Ephraim" had come back to the carcass. A minute afterward, listening with strained ears, we heard him brush by some dry twigs. It was entirely too dark to go in after him; but we made up our minds that on the morrow he should be ours. Early next morning we were over at the elk carcass, and, as we expected, found that the bear had eaten his fill of it during the night. His tracks showed him to be an immense fellow, and were so fresh that we doubted if he had left long before we arrived; and we made up our minds to follow him up and try to find his lair. The bears that lived on these mountains had evidently been little disturbed; indeed, the Indians and most of the white hunters are rather chary of meddling with "Old Ephraim," as the mountain men style the grizzly. The bears thus seemed to have very little fear of harm, and we thought it likely that the bed of the one who had fed on the elk would not be far away. My companion was a skillful tracker, and we took up the trail at once. For some distance it led over the soft, yielding carpet of moss and pine needles, and the footprints were quite easily made out, although we could follow them but slowly; for we had, of course, to keep a sharp look-out ahead and around us as we walked noiselessly on in the somber half-light always prevailing under the great pine trees. After going a few hundred yards the tracks turned off on a well-beaten path made by the elk; the woods were in many places cut up by these game trails, which had often become as distinct as ordinary footpaths. The beast's footprints were perfectly plain in the dust, and he had lumbered along up the path until near the middle of the hillside, where the ground broke away and there were hollows and boulders. Here there had been a windfall, and the dead trees lay among the living, piled across one another in all directions; while between and around them sprouted up a thick growth of young spruces and other evergreens. The trail turned off into the tangled thicket, within which it was almost certain we should find our quarry. We could still follow the tracks, by the slight scrapes of the claws on the bark, or by the bent and broken twigs; and we advanced with noiseless caution. When in the middle of the thicket we crossed what was almost a breastwork of fallen logs, and Merrifield, who was leading, passed by the upright stem of a great pine. As soon as he was by it, he sank suddenly on one knee, turning half round, his face fairly aflame with excitement; and as I strode past him, with my rifle at the ready, there, not ten steps off, was the great bear, slowly rising from his bed among the young spruces. He had heard us, but apparently hardly knew exactly where or what we were, for he reared up on his haunches sideways to us. Then he saw us and dropped down again on all-fours, the shaggy hair on his neck and shoulders seeming to bristle as he turned toward us. As he sank down on his fore feet, I had raised the rifle; his head was bent slightly down, and when I saw the top of the white bead fairly between his small, glittering, evil eyes, I pulled trigger. Half-rising up, the huge beast fell over on his side in the death throes, the ball having gone into his brain, striking as fairly between the eyes as if the distance had been measured. The whole thing was over in twenty seconds from the time I caught sight of the game; indeed, it was over so quickly that the grizzly did not have time to show fight. He was a monstrous fellow, much larger than any I have seen since. As near as we could estimate, he must have weighed above twelve hundred pounds. THEODORE ROOSEVELT. =HELPS TO STUDY= Theodore Roosevelt, President of the United States from 1901 to 1909, was one of the greatest hunters of the present generation. As he was in weak health as a young man, he went West and lived for some time the life of a ranchman and hunter, killing much wild game. In later years he went on a great hunting trip to Africa, and finally explored the wilds of the Amazon river, in South America, in search of game and adventure. "Old Ephraim" narrates one of his earlier hunting experiences, and is taken from the book, _The Hunting Trips of a Ranchman_. Give an account of the capture of the grizzly bear. Why did not Merrifield fire? Compare the weight of the bear with that of the average cow or horse. Tell of any bear hunt of which you know. SUPPLEMENTARY READING Watchers of the Trail--Charles C. D. Roberts. Monarch, the Bear--Ernest Thompson Seton. Wild Animals I Have Known--Ernest Thompson Seton. African Game Trails--Theodore Roosevelt. MIDWINTER The speckled sky is dim with snow, The light flakes falter and fall slow; Athwart the hill-top, rapt and pale, Silently drops a silvery veil; And all the valley is shut in By flickering curtains gray and thin. But cheerily the chickadee Singeth to me on fence and tree; The snow sails round him as he sings, White as the down of angels' wings. I watch the slow flakes as they fall On bank and briar and broken wall; Over the orchard, waste and brown, All noiselessly they settle down, Tipping the apple-boughs, and each Light quivering twig of plum and peach. On turf and curb and bower-roof The snow-storm spreads its ivory woof; It paves with pearl the garden-walk; And lovingly round tattered stalk And shivering stem its magic weaves A mantle fair as lily-leaves. All day it snows: the sheeted post Gleams in the dimness like a ghost; All day the blasted oak has stood A muffled wizard of the wood; Garland and airy cap adorn The sumach and the wayside thorn, And clustering spangles lodge and shine In the dark tresses of the pine. The ragged bramble, dwarfed and old, Shrinks like a beggar in the cold; In [v]surplice white the cedar stands, And blesses him with priestly hands. Still cheerily the chickadee Singeth to me on fence and tree: But in my inmost ear is heard The music of a holier bird; And heavenly thoughts as soft and white As snow-flakes on my soul alight, Clothing with love my lonely heart, Healing with peace each bruised part, Till all my being seems to be Transfigured by their purity. JOHN TOWNSEND TROWBRIDGE. =HELPS TO STUDY= When did this storm begin? Read lines which show this. Give reasons for your answer. What comparisons are used by the poet in describing the snowfall? Which comparison do you like best? What healing thought does the storm bring to the poet? Compare it with the same thought in _The First Snowfall_. A GEORGIA FOX HUNT[177-*] I In the season of 1863, the Rockville Hunting Club, which had been newly organized, was at the height of its success. It was composed of men too old to go in the army, and of young men who were not old enough, or who, from one cause and another, were exempted from military service. Ostensibly, its object was to encourage the noble sport of fox-hunting and to bind by closer ties the congenial souls whose love for horse and hound and horn bordered on enthusiasm. This, I say, was its [v]ostensible object, for it seems to me, looking back upon that terrible time, that the main purpose of the association was to devise new methods of forgetting the sickening [v]portents of disaster that were even then thick in the air. Any suggestion or plan calculated to relieve the mind from the weight of the horror of those desperate days was eagerly seized upon and utilized. With the old men and the fledgling boys in the neighborhood of Rockville, the desire to escape momentarily the realities of the present took the shape of fox-hunting and other congenial amusements. With the women--ah well! Heaven only knows how they sat dumb and silent over their great anguish and grief, cheering the helpless and comforting and succoring the sick and wounded. It was a mystery to me then, and it is a mystery to me now. About the first of November the writer hereof received a long-expected letter from Tom Tunison, the secretary of the club, who was on a visit to Monticello. It was brief and breezy. "Young man," he wrote, "they are coming. They are going to give us a [v]ruffle. Their dogs are good, but they lack form and finish as well as discipline--plenty of bottom but no confidence. I haven't hesitated to put up our horn as the prize. Get the boys together and tell them about it, and see that our own eleven are in fighting trim. You won't believe it, but Sue, Herndon, Kate, and Walthall are coming with the party; and the fair de Compton, who set all the Monticello boys wild last year when she got back from Macon, vows and declares she is coming, too. Remember the 15th. Be prepared." I took in the situation at a glance. Tom, in his reckless style, had bantered a party of Jasper county men as to the superiority of their dogs, and had even offered to give them an opportunity to gain the silver-mounted horn won by the Rockville club in Hancock county the year before. The Jasper county men, who were really breeding some excellent dogs, accepted the challenge, and Tom had invited them to share the hospitality of the plantation home called "Bachelors' Hall." If the truth must be confessed, I was not at all grieved at the announcement in Tom's letter, apart from the agreeable change in the social atmosphere that would result from the presence of ladies in "Bachelors' Hall." I was eagerly anxious to test the mettle of a favorite hound--Flora--whose care and training had cost me a great deal of time and trouble. Although it was her first season in the field, she had already become the pet and pride of the Rockville club, the members of which were not slow to sound her praises. Flora was an experiment. She was the result of a cross between the Henry hound (called in Georgia the "Birdsong dog," in honor of the most successful breeder) and a Maryland hound. She was a grand-daughter of the famous Hodo and in everything except her color (she was white with yellow ears) was the exact reproduction of that magnificent fox-hound. I was anxious to see her put to the test. It was with no small degree of satisfaction, therefore, that I informed Aunt Patience, the cook, of Tom's programme. Aunt Patience was a privileged character, whose comments upon people and things were free and frequent; when she heard that a party of hunters, accompanied by ladies, proposed to make the hall their temporary headquarters, her remarks were ludicrously indignant. "Well, ef dat Marse Tom ain't de beatinest white man dat I ever sot eyes on--'way off yander givin' way his vittles fo' he buy um at de sto'! How I know what Marse Tom want, an' tel I know, whar I gwineter git um? He better be home yer lookin' atter deze lazy niggers, stidder high-flyin' wid dem Jasper county folks. Ef dez enny vittles on dis plan'ash'n, hits more'n I knows un. En he'll go runnin' roun' wid dem harum-skarum gals twell I boun' he don't fetch dat pipe an' dat 'backer what he said he would. Can't fool me 'bout de gals what grows up deze days. Dey duz like dey wanter stan' up an' cuss dersef' case dey wuzent borned men." "Why, Aunt Patience, your Marse Tom says Miss de Compton is as pretty as a pink and as fine as a fiddle." "Law, chile! you needn't talk 'bout de gals to dis ole 'omen. I done know um fo' you wuz borned. W'en you see Miss Compton you see all de balance un um. Deze is new times. Marse Tom's mammy useter spin her fifteen cents o' wool a day--w'en you see Miss Compton wid a hank er yarn in 'er han', you jes' sen' me word." Whereupon, Aunt Patience gave her head handkerchief a vigorous wrench, and went her way--the good old soul--even then considering how she should best set about preparing a genuine surprise for her young master in the shape of daily feasts for a dozen guests. I will not stop here to detail the character of this preparation or to dwell upon its success. It is enough to say that Tom Tunison praised Aunt Patience to the skies; and, as if this were not sufficient to make her happy, he produced a big clay pipe, three plugs of real "manufac terbacker," which was hard to get in those times, a red shawl, and twelve yards of calico. The fortnight that followed the arrival of Tom's guests was one long to be remembered, not only in the [v]annals of the Rockville Hunting Club but in the annals of Rockville itself. The fair de Compton literally turned the heads of old men and young boys, and even succeeded in conquering the critics of her own sex. She was marvelously beautiful, and her beauty was of a kind to haunt one in one's dreams. It was easy to perceive that she had made a conquest of Tom, and I know that every suggestion he made and every project he planned had for its sole end and aim the enjoyment of Miss Carrie de Compton. It was several days before the minor details of the contest, which was at once the excuse for and the object of the visit of Tom's guests, could be arranged, but finally everything was "[v]amicably adjusted," and the day appointed. The night before the hunt, the club and the Jasper county visitors assembled in Tom Tunison's parlor for a final discussion of the event. "In order," said Tom, "to give our friends and guests an opportunity fully to test the speed and bottom of their kennels, it has been decided to pay our respects to 'Old Sandy'." "And pray, Mr. Tunison, who is 'Old Sandy'?" queried Miss de Compton. "He is a fox, Miss de Compton, and a tough one. He is a trained fox. He has been hunted so often by the inferior packs in his neighborhood that he is well-nigh [v]invincible. He is so well known that he has not been hunted, except by accident, for two seasons. He is not as suspicious as he was two years ago, but we must be careful if we want to get within hearing distance of him to-morrow morning." "Do any of the ladies go with us?" asked Jack Herndon. "I go, for one," responded Miss de Compton, and in a few minutes all the ladies had decided to go along, even if they found it inconvenient to participate actively in the hunt. "Then," said Tom, rising, "we must say good night. Uncle Plato will sound 'Boots and Saddle' at four o'clock to-morrow morning." "Four o'clock!" exclaimed the ladies in dismay. "At four precisely," answered Tom, and the ladies with pretty little gestures of mock despair swept upstairs while Tom brought out cigars for the boys. My friend little knew how delighted I was that "Old Sandy" was to be put through his paces. He little knew how carefully I had studied the peculiarities of this famous fox--how often when training Flora I had taken her out and followed "Old Sandy" through all his ranges, how I had "felt of" both his speed and bottom and knew all his weak points. II Morning came, and with it Uncle Plato's bugle call. Aunt Patience was ready with a smoking hot breakfast, and everybody was in fine spirits. As the eager, happy crowd filed down the broad avenue that led to the hall, the fair de Compton, who had been delayed in mounting, rode by my side. "You choose your escort well," I ventured to say. "I have a weakness for children," she replied; "particularly for children who know what they are about. Plato has told me that if I desired to see all of the hunt without much trouble, to follow you. I am selfish, you perceive." We rode over the red hills and under the russet trees until we came to "Old Sandy's" favorite haunt. Here a council of war was held, and it was decided that Tom and a portion of the hunters should skirt the fields, while another portion led by Miss de Compton and myself should enter and bid the fox good morning. Uncle Plato, who had been given the cue, followed me with the dogs, and in a few moments we were very near the particular spot where I hoped to find the venerable deceiver of dogs and men. The hounds were already sallying hither and thither, anxious and evidently expectant. Five minutes went by without a whimper from the pack. There was not a sound save the eager rustling of the dogs through the sedge and undergrowth. The ground was familiar to Flora, and I watched her with pride as with powerful strides she circled around. Suddenly she paused and flung her head in the air, making a beautiful picture where she stood poised, as if listening. My heart gave a great thump. It was a trick of hers, and I knew that "Old Sandy" had been around within the past twenty-four hours! With a rush, a bound, and an eager cry, my favorite came toward us, and the next moment "Old Sandy," who had been lying almost at our horses' feet, was up and away with Flora right at his heels. A wild hope seized me that my favorite would run into the shy veteran before he could get out of the field. But no! One of the Jasper county hunters, rendered momentarily insane by excitement, endeavored to ride the fox down with his horse, and in another moment Sir Reynard was over the fence and into the woodland beyond, followed by the hounds. They made a splendid but [v]ineffectual burst of speed, for when "Old Sandy" found himself upon the blackjack hills he was foot-loose. The morning, however, was fine--just damp enough to leave the scent of the fox hanging breast high in the air, whether he shaped his course over lowlands or highlands. [Illustration: The Beginning of the Fox Hunt] In the midst of all the confusion that had ensued, Miss de Compton remained cool, serene, and apparently indifferent, but I observed a glow upon her face and a sparkle in her eyes, as Tom Tunison, riding his gallant gray and heading the hunters, easily and gracefully took a couple of fences when the hounds veered to the left. "Our Jasper county friend has saved 'Old Sandy,' Miss de Compton," I said, "but he has given us an opportunity of witnessing some very fine sport. The fox is so badly frightened that he may endeavor in the beginning to outfoot the dogs, but in the end he will return to his range, and then I hope to show you what a cunning old customer he is. If Flora doesn't fail us at the critical moment, you will have the honor of wearing his brush on your saddle." "Youth is always confident," replied Miss de Compton. "In this instance, however, I have the advantage of knowing both hound and fox. Flora has a few weaknesses, but I think she understands what is expected of her to-day." Thus bantering and chaffing each other, we turned our horses' heads in a direction [v]oblique to that taken by the other hunters, who, with the exception of Tom Tunison and Jack Herndon, now well up with the dogs, were struggling along as best they could. For a half mile or more we cantered down a lane, then turned into a stubble field, and made for a hill crowned and skirted by a growth of blackjack, through which an occasional pine had broken, as it seemed, in a vain but noble effort to touch the sky. Once upon the summit of the hills, we had a majestic view upon all sides. The fresh morning breezes blew crisp and cool and bracing, but were not uncomfortable after the exercise we had taken; and as the clouds that had muffled up the east dispersed themselves or were dissolved, the generous sun spread layer upon layer of golden light upon hill and valley and forest and stream. Away to the left we could hear the hounds, and the music of their voices, toyed with by the playful wind, rolled itself into melodious little echoes that broke pleasantly upon the ear, now loud, now faint, now far and now near. The first burst of speed, which had been terrific, had settled down into a steady run, but I knew by the sound that the pace was still tremendous, and I imagined I could hear the silvery tongue of Flora as she led the eager pack. The cries of the hounds, however, grew fainter and fainter, until presently they were lost in the distance. "He is making a straight shoot for the Turner [v]old fields, two miles away," I remarked, by way of explanation. "And pray, why are we here?" Miss de Compton asked. "To be in at the death. (The fair de Compton smiled [v]sarcastically.) In the Turner old fields the fox will make his grand double, gain upon the dogs, head for yonder hill, and come down the ravine upon our right. At the fence here, within plain view, he will attempt a trick that has heretofore always been successful, and which has given him a reputation as a trained fox. I depend upon the intelligence of Flora to see through 'Old Sandy's' [v]strategy, but if she hesitates a moment, we must set her right." I spoke with the confidence of one having experience, and Miss de Compton smiled and was content. We had little time for further conversation, for in a few minutes I observed a dark shadow emerge from the undergrowth on the opposite hill and slip quickly across the open space of fallow land. It crossed the ravine that intersected the valley, stole quietly through the stubble to the fence, and there paused a moment, as if hesitating. In a low voice I called Miss de Compton's attention to the figure, but she refused to believe that it was the same fox we had aroused thirty minutes before. Howbeit, it was the [v]veritable "Old Sandy" himself. I should have known him among a thousand foxes. He was not in as fine feather as when, at the start, he had swung his brush across Flora's nose--the pace had told on him--but he still moved with an air of confidence. Then and there Miss de Compton beheld a display of fox tactics shrewd enough to excite the admiration of the most indifferent--a display of cunning that seemed to be something higher than instinct. "Old Sandy" paused only a moment. With a bound he gained the top of the fence, stopped to pull something from one of his fore feet--probably a cockle bur--and then carefully balancing himself, proceeded to walk the fence. By this time, the music of the dogs was again heard in the distance, but "Old Sandy" took his time. One--two--three--seven--ten--twenty panels of the fence were cleared. Pausing, he again subjected his fore feet to examination, and licked them carefully. Then he proceeded on his journey along the fence until he was at least one hundred yards from where he left the ground. Here he paused for the first time, gathered himself together, leaped through the air, and rushed away. As he did so, the full note of the pack burst upon our ears as the hounds reached the brow of the hill from the lowlands on the other side. "Upon my word!" exclaimed Miss de Compton; "that fox ought to go free. I shall beg Mr. Tunison--" But before she finished her sentence the dogs came into view, and I could hardly restrain a shout of triumph as I saw Flora running easily and unerringly far to the front. Behind her, led by Captain--and so close together that, as Uncle Plato afterward remarked, "You mout kivver de whole caboodle wid a hoss-blanket"--were the remainder of the Tunison kennel, while the Jasper county hounds were strung out behind in wild but heroic confusion. I felt strongly tempted to give the view-halloo, and push "Old Sandy" to the wall at once, but I knew that the fair de Compton would regard the exploit with severe [v]reprobation forever after. Across the ravine and to the fence the dogs came, their voices, as they got nearer, crashing through the silence like a chorus of demons. Now was the critical moment. If Flora should fail me--! Several of the older dogs topped the rails, and scattered through the undergrowth. Flora came over with them, made a small circle, with her sensitive nose to the damp earth, and then went rushing down the fence. Past the point where "Old Sandy" took his flying leap she ran, turned suddenly to the left, and came swooping back in a wide circle. I had barely time to warn Miss de Compton that she must prepare to do a little rapid riding, when my favorite, with a fierce cry of delight that thrilled me through and through, picked up the blazing [v]drag, and away we went with a scream and a shout. I felt in my very bones that "Old Sandy" was doomed. I had never seen Flora so prompt and eager; I had never observed the scent to be better. Everything was auspicious. We went like the wind. Miss de Compton rode well, and the long stretches of stubble land through which the chase led were unbroken by ditch or fence. The pace of the hounds was simply terrific, and I knew that no fox on earth could long stand up before the white demon that led the hunt with such splendor. Five--ten--fifteen minutes we rushed at the heels of the rearmost dogs, until, suddenly, we found ourselves in the midst of the pack. The scent was lost! Flora ran about in wide circles, followed by the greater portion of the dogs. To the left, to the right they went. At that moment, chancing to look back, I caught a glimpse of "Old Sandy," broken down and bedraggled, making his way toward a clump of briars. He had played his last [v]trump and lost. Pushed by the dogs, he had dropped in his tracks and literally allowed them to run over him. I rode at him with a shout; there was a short, sharp race, and in a few moments [v]_La Mort_ was sounded over the famous fox on the horn that the Jasper county boys did not win. JOEL CHANDLER HARRIS. =HELPS TO STUDY= This gives a good picture of a fox hunt in the South in the long ago. Tell what you like best about it. Who is telling the story? Was he young or old? How do you know? What opinion do you form of the "fair de Compton"? See if you can get an old man, perhaps a negro, to tell you of a fox hunt he has seen. SUPPLEMENTARY READING In Ole Virginia--Thomas Nelson Page. Old Creole Days--George W. Cable. Swallow Barn--John P. Kennedy. The Prophet of the Great Smoky Mountains--Charles Egbert Craddock. FOOTNOTE: [177-*] From the _Atlanta Constitution_. RAIN AND WIND I hear the hoofs of horses Galloping over the hill, Galloping on and galloping on, When all the night is shrill With wind and rain that beats the pane-- And my soul with awe is still. For every dripping window Their headlong rush makes bound, Galloping up and galloping by, Then back again and around, Till the gusty roofs ring with their hoofs, And the draughty cellars sound. And then I hear black horsemen Hallooing in the night; Hallooing and hallooing, They ride o'er vale and height, And the branches snap and the shutters clap With the fury of their flight. All night I hear their gallop, And their wild halloo's alarm; The tree-tops sound and vanes go round In forest and on farm; But never a hair of a thing is there-- Only the wind and the storm. MADISON JULIUS CAWEIN. THE SOUTHERN SKY Presently the stars begin to peep out, timidly at first, as if to see whether the elements here below had ceased their strife, and if the scene on earth be such as they, from bright spheres aloft, may shed their sweet influences upon. Sirius, or that blazing world Argus, may be the first watcher to send down a feeble ray; then follow another and another, all smiling meekly; but presently, in the short twilight of the latitude, the bright leaders of the starry host blaze forth in all their glory, and the sky is decked and spangled with superb brilliants. In the twinkling of an eye, and faster than the admiring gazer can tell, the stars seem to leap out from their hiding-places. By invisible hands, and in quick succession, the constellations are hung out; first of all, and with dazzling glory, in the azure depths of space appears the great Southern Cross. That shining symbol lends a holy grandeur to the scene, making it still more impressive. Alone in the night-watch, after the sea-breeze has sunk to rest, I have stood on deck under those beautiful skies, gazing, admiring, rapt. I have seen there, above the horizon at once and shining with a splendor unknown to other latitudes, every star of the [v]first magnitude--save only six--that is contained in the catalogue of the one hundred principal fixed stars. There lies the city on the seashore, wrapped in sleep. The sky looks solid, like a vault of steel set with diamonds. The stillness below is in harmony with the silence above, and one almost fears to speak, lest the harsh sound of the human voice, reverberating through those vaulted "chambers of the south," should wake up echo and drown the music that fills the soul. Orion is there, just about to march down into the sea; but Canopus and Sirius, with Castor and his twin brother, and [v]Procyon, Argus, and Regulus--these are high up in their course; they look down with great splendor, smiling peacefully as they precede the Southern Cross on its western way. And yonder, farther still, away to the south, float the Magellanic clouds, and the "Coal Sacks"--those mysterious, dark spots in the sky, which seem as though it had been rent, and these were holes in the "azure robe of night," looking out into the starless, empty, black abyss beyond. One who has never watched the southern sky in the stillness of the night, after the sea-breeze with its turmoil is done, can have no idea of its grandeur, beauty, and loveliness. MATTHEW FONTAINE MAURY. =HELPS TO STUDY= Do you know any of the stars or the constellations mentioned? Some of them are seen in our latitude, but the southern sky Maury describes is south of the equator. The "Southern Cross" is seen only below the equator. The "Magellan Clouds" are not far from the South Pole. DAFFODILS I wandered lonely as a cloud That floats on high o'er vales and hills, When all at once I saw a crowd, A host of golden daffodils,-- Beside the lake, beneath the trees, Fluttering and dancing in the breeze. Continuous as the stars that shine And twinkle on the milky way, They stretched in never-ending line Along the margin of the bay. Ten thousand saw I at a glance, Tossing their heads in sprightly dance. The waves beside them danced, but they Outdid the sparkling waves in glee,-- A poet could not but be gay In such a [v]jocund company. I gazed, and gazed, but little thought What wealth the show to me had brought. For oft, when on my couch I lie, In vacant or in pensive mood, They flash upon that inward eye Which is the bliss of solitude; And then my heart with pleasure fills, And dances with the daffodils. WILLIAM WORDSWORTH. DAWN I had occasion, a few weeks since, to take the early train from Providence to Boston; and for this purpose I rose at two o'clock in the morning. Everything around was wrapped in darkness and hushed in silence. It was a mild, serene, midsummer night,--the sky was without a cloud,--the winds were [v]whist. The moon, then in the last quarter, had just risen, and the stars shone with a luster but little affected by her presence. Jupiter, two hours high, was the herald of the day; the [v]Pleiades, just above the horizon, shed their sweet influence in the east; Lyra sparkled near the [v]zenith; Andromeda veiled her newly discovered glories from the naked eye in the south; the steady Pointers, far beneath the pole, looked meekly up from the depths of the north to their sovereign. Such was the glorious spectacle as I entered the train. As we proceeded, the timid approach of twilight became more perceptible; the intense blue of the sky began to soften; the smaller stars, like little children, went first to rest; the sister-beams of the Pleiades soon melted together; but the bright constellations of the west and north remained unchanged. Steadily the wondrous transfiguration went on. Hands of angels, hidden from mortal eyes, shifted the scenery of the heavens; the glories of night dissolved into the glories of the dawn. The blue sky now turned more softly gray; the great watch-stars shut up their holy eyes; the east began to kindle. Faint streaks of purple soon blushed along the sky; the whole celestial concave was filled with the inflowing tides of the morning light, which came pouring down from above in one great ocean of radiance; till at length, as we reached the Blue Hills, a flash of purple fire blazed out from above the horizon, and turned the dewy teardrops of flower and leaf into rubies and diamonds. In a few seconds, the everlasting gates of the morning were thrown wide open, and the lord of day, arrayed in glories too severe for the gaze of man, began his state. I do not wonder at the superstition of the ancient [v]Magians, who, in the morning of the world, went up to the hilltops of Central Asia, and, ignorant of the true God, adored the most glorious work of His hand. But I am filled with amazement, when I am told that, in this enlightened age and in the heart of the Christian world, there are persons who can witness this daily manifestation of the power and wisdom of the Creator, and yet say in their hearts, "There is no God." EDWARD EVERETT. =HELPS TO STUDY= What experience did Everett describe? What impresses the mood of the early morning? In what latitude did Everett live? What stars and constellations did he mention? Trace the steps by which he pictured the sunrise. Why did he not wonder at the belief of the "ancient Magians"? What thought does cause amazement? SPRING Spring, with that nameless [v]pathos in the air Which dwells with all things fair-- Spring, with her golden suns and silver rain, Is with us once again. Out in the lonely woods, the jasmine burns Its fragrant lamps, and turns Into a royal court, with green festoons, The banks of dark [v]lagoons. In the deep heart of every forest tree, The blood is all aglee; And there's a look about the leafless bowers, As if they dreamed of flowers. Yet still, on every side we trace the hand Of Winter in the land, Save where the maple reddens on the lawn, Flushed by the season's dawn; Or where, like those strange [v]semblances we find That age to childhood bind, The elm puts on, as if in Nature's scorn, The brown of Autumn corn. [Illustration: The Woods in Spring] As yet the turf is dark, although you know That, not a span below, A thousand germs are groping through the gloom, And soon will burst their tomb. In gardens, you may note, amid the dearth, The crocus breaking earth; And near the snowdrop's tender white and green, The violet in its screen. But many gleams and showers need must pass Along the budding grass, And weeks go by, before the enamored South Shall kiss the rose's mouth. Still there's a sense of blossoms yet unborn, In the sweet airs of morn; One almost looks to see the very street Grow purple at his feet. At times, a fragrant breeze comes floating by, And brings, you know not why, A feeling as when eager crowds await Before a palace gate Some wondrous pageant; and you scarce would start, If from a beech's heart, A blue-eyed [v]Dryad, stepping forth, should say, "Behold me! I am May!" HENRY TIMROD. AMONG THE CLIFFS It was a critical moment. There was a stir other than that of the wind among the pine needles and dry leaves that carpeted the ground. The wary wild turkeys lifted their long necks with that peculiar cry of half-doubting surprise so familiar to a sportsman, then all was still for an instant. The world was steeped in the noontide sunlight, the mountain air tasted of the fresh [v]sylvan fragrance that pervaded the forest, the foliage blamed with the red and gold of autumn, the distant [v]Chilhowee heights were delicately blue. That instant's doubt sealed the doom of one of the flock. As the turkeys stood in momentary suspense, the sunlight gilding their bronze feathers to a brighter sheen, there was a movement in the dense undergrowth. The flock took suddenly to wing,--a flash from among the leaves, the sharp crack of a rifle, and one of the birds fell heavily over the bluff and down toward the valley. The young mountaineer's exclamation of triumph died in his throat. He came running to the verge of the crag, and looked down ruefully into the depths where his game had disappeared. "Waal, sir," he broke forth pathetically, "this beats my time! If my luck ain't enough ter make a horse laugh!" He did not laugh, however; perhaps his luck was calculated to stir only [v]equine risibility. The cliff was almost perpendicular; at the depth of twenty feet a narrow ledge projected, but thence there was a sheer descent, down, down, down, to the tops of the tall trees in the valley far below. As Ethan Tynes looked wistfully over the precipice, he started with a sudden surprise. There on the narrow ledge lay the dead turkey. The sight sharpened Ethan's regrets. He had made a good shot, and he hated to relinquish his game. While he gazed in dismayed meditation, an idea began to kindle in his brain. Why could he not let himself down to the ledge by those long, strong vines that hung over the edge of the cliff? It was risky, Ethan knew, terribly risky. But then,--if only the vines were strong! He tried them again and again with all his might, selected several of the largest, grasped them hard and fast, and then slipped lightly off the crag. He waited motionless for a moment. His movements had dislodged clods of earth and fragments of rock from the verge of the cliff, and until these had ceased to rattle about his head and shoulders he did not begin his downward journey. Now and then as he went he heard the snapping of twigs, and again a branch would break, but the vines which supported him were tough and strong to the last. Almost before he knew it, he stood upon the ledge, and with a great sigh of relief he let the vines swing loose. "Waal, that warn't sech a mighty job at last. But law, if it hed been Peter Birt 'stid of me, that thar wild tur-r-key would hev laid on this hyar ledge plumb till the Jedgmint Day!" He walked deftly along the ledge, picked up the bird, and tied it to one of the vines with a string which he took from his pocket, intending to draw it up when he should be once more on the top of the crag. These preparations complete, he began to think of going back. He caught the vines on which he had made the descent, but before he had fairly left the ledge, he felt that they were giving way. He paused, let himself slip back to a secure foothold, and tried their strength by pulling with all his force. Presently down came the whole mass in his hands. The friction against the sharp edges of the rock over which they had been stretched with a strong tension had worn them through. His first emotion was one of intense thankfulness that they had fallen while he was on the ledge instead of midway in his [v]precarious ascent. "Ef they hed kem down whilst I war a-goin' up, I'd hev been flung down ter the bottom o' the valley, 'kase this ledge air too narrer ter hev cotched me." He glanced down at the somber depths beneath. "Thar wouldn't hev been enough left of me ter pick up on a shovel!" he exclaimed, with a tardy realization of his foolish recklessness. The next moment a mortal terror seized him. What was to be his fate? To regain the top of the cliff by his own exertions was an impossibility. He cast his despairing eyes up the ascent, as sheer and as smooth as a wall, without a crevice which might afford a foothold, or a shrub to which he might cling. His strong head was whirling as he again glanced downward to the unmeasured [v]abyss beneath. He softly let himself sink into a sitting posture, his heels dangling over the frightful depths, and addressed himself resolutely to the consideration of the terrible danger in which he was placed. Taken at its best, how long was it to last? Could he look to any human being for deliverance? He reflected with growing dismay that the place was far from any dwelling, and from the road that wound along the ridge. There was no errand that could bring a man to this most unfrequented portion of the deep woods, unless an accident should hither direct some hunter's step. It was quite possible, nay, probable, that years might elapse before the forest solitude would again be broken by human presence. His brothers would search for him when he should be missed from home,--but such boundless stretches of forest! They might search for weeks and never come near this spot. He would die here, he would starve,--no, he would grow drowsy when exhausted and fall--fall--fall! He was beginning to feel that morbid fascination that sometimes seizes upon those who stand on great heights,--an overwhelming impulse to plunge downward. His only salvation was to look up. He would look up to the sky. And what were these words he was beginning to remember faintly? Had not the [v]circuit-rider said in his last sermon that not even a sparrow falls to the ground unmarked of God? There was a definite strength in this suggestion. He felt less lonely as he stared resolutely at the big blue sky. There came into his heart a sense of encouragement, of hope. He would keep up as long and as bravely as he could, and if the worst should come,--was he indeed so solitary? He would hold in remembrance the sparrow's fall of Scripture. He had so nerved himself to meet his fate that he thought it was a fancy when he heard a distant step. But it did not die away, it grew more and more distinct,--a shambling step that curiously stopped at intervals and kicked the fallen leaves. He sought to call out, but he seemed to have lost his voice. Not a sound issued from his thickened tongue and his dry throat. The step came nearer. It would presently pass. With a mighty effort Ethan sent forth a wild, hoarse cry. The rocks [v]reverberated it, the wind carried it far, and certainly there was an echo of its despair and terror in a shrill scream set up on the verge of the crag. Then Ethan heard the shambling step scampering off very fast indeed. The truth flashed upon him. It was some child, passing on an unimaginable errand through the deep woods, frightened by his sudden cry. "Stop, bubby!" he shouted; "stop a minute! It's Ethan Tynes that's callin' of ye. Stop a minute, bubby!" The step paused at a safe distance, and the shrill pipe of a little boy demanded, "Whar is ye, Ethan Tynes?" "I'm down hyar on the ledge o' the bluff. Who air ye ennyhow?" "George Birt," promptly replied the little boy. "What air ye doin' down thar? I thought it was Satan a-callin' of me. I never seen nobody." "I kem down hyar on vines arter a tur-r-key I shot. The vines bruk, an' I hev got no way ter git up agin. I want ye ter go ter yer mother's house, an' tell yer brother Pete ter bring a rope hyar fur me ter climb up by." Ethan expected to hear the shambling step going away with a [v]celerity in keeping with the importance of the errand. On the contrary, the step was approaching the crag. A moment of suspense, and there appeared among the jagged ends of the broken vines a small red head, a deeply freckled face, and a pair of sharp, eager blue eyes. George Birt had carefully laid himself down on his stomach, only protruding his head beyond the verge of the crag, that he might not fling away his life in his curiosity. "Did ye git it?" he asked, with bated breath. "Git what?" demanded poor Ethan, surprised and impatient. "The tur-r-key--what ye hev done been talkin' 'bout," said George Birt. Ethan had lost all interest in the turkey. "Yes, yes; but run along, bub. I mought fall off'n this hyar place,--I'm gittin' stiff sittin' still so long,--or the wind mought blow me off. The wind is blowing toler'ble brisk." "Gobbler or hen?" asked George Birt eagerly. "It air a hen," said Ethan. "But look-a-hyar, George, I'm a-waitin' on ye an' if I'd fall off'n this hyar place, I'd be ez dead ez a door-nail in a minute." "Waal, I'm goin' now," said George Birt, with gratifying alacrity. He raised himself from his [v]recumbent position, and Ethan heard him shambling off, kicking every now and then at the fallen leaves as he went. Presently, however, he turned and walked back nearly to the brink of the cliff. Then he prostrated himself once more at full length,--for the mountain children are very careful of precipices,--snaked along dexterously to the verge of the crag, and protruding his red head cautiously, began to [v]parley once more, trading on Ethan's necessities. "Ef I go on this errand fur ye," he said, looking very sharp indeed, "will ye gimme one o' the whings of that thar wild tur-r-key?" He coveted the wing-feathers, not the joint of the fowl. The "whing" of the domestic turkey is used by the mountain women as a fan, and is considered an elegance as well as a comfort. George Birt [v]aped the customs of his elders, regardless of sex,--a characteristic of very small boys. "Oh, go 'long, bubby!" exclaimed poor Ethan, in dismay at the [v]dilatoriness and indifference of his [v]unique deliverer. "I'll give ye both o' the whings." He would have offered the turkey willingly, if "bubby" had seemed to crave it. "Waal, I'm goin' now." George Birt rose from the ground and started off briskly, [v]exhilarated by the promise of both the "whings." Ethan was angry indeed when he heard the boy once more shambling back. Of course one should regard a deliverer with gratitude, especially a deliverer from mortal peril; but it may be doubted if Ethan's gratitude would have been great enough to insure that small red head against a vigorous rap, if it had been within rapping distance, when it was once more cautiously protruded over the verge of the cliff. "I kem back hyar ter tell ye," the [v]doughty deliverer began, with an air of great importance, and magnifying his office with an extreme relish, "that I can't go an' tell Pete 'bout'n the rope till I hev done kem back from the mill. I hev got old Sorrel hitched out hyar a piece, with a bag o' corn on his back, what I hev ter git ground at the mill. My mother air a-settin' at home now a-waitin' fur that thar corn-meal ter bake dodgers with. An' I hev got a dime ter pay at the mill; it war lent ter my dad las' week. An' I'm afeard ter walk about much with this hyar dime; I mought lose it, ye know. An' I can't go home 'thout the meal; I'll ketch it ef I do. But I'll tell Pete arter I git back from the mill." "The mill!" echoed Ethan, aghast. "What air ye doin' on this side o' the mounting, ef ye air a-goin' ter the mill? This ain't the way ter the mill." "I kem over hyar," said the little boy, still with much importance of manner, notwithstanding a slight suggestion of embarrassment on his freckled face, "ter see 'bout'n a trap that I hev sot fur squir'ls. I'll see 'bout my trap, an' then I hev ter go ter the mill, 'kase my mother air a-settin' in our house now a-waitin' fur meal ter bake corn-dodgers. Then I'll tell Pete whar ye air, an' what ye said 'bout'n the rope. Ye must jes' wait fur me hyar." Poor Ethan could do nothing else. As the echo of the boy's shambling step died in the distance, a redoubled sense of loneliness fell upon Ethan Tynes. But he endeavored to [v]solace himself with the reflection that the important mission to the squirrel-trap and the errand to the mill could not last forever, and before a great while Peter Birt and his rope would be upon the crag. This idea [v]buoyed him up as the hours crept slowly by. Now and then he lifted his head and listened with painful intentness. He felt stiff in every muscle, and yet he had a dread of making an effort to change his [v]constrained position. He might lose control of his rigid limbs, and fall into those dread depths beneath. His patience at last began to give way; his heart was sinking. The messenger had been even more [v]dilatory than he was prepared to expect. Why did not Pete come? Was it possible that George had forgotten to tell of his danger. The sun was going down, leaving a great glory of gold and crimson clouds and an [v]opaline haze upon the purple mountains. The last rays fell on the bronze feathers of the turkey still lying tied to the broken vines on the ledge. And now there were only frowning masses of dark clouds in the west; and there were frowning masses of clouds overhead. The shadow of the coming night had fallen on the autumnal foliage in the deep valley; in the place of the opaline haze was only a gray mist. And presently there came, sweeping along between the parallel mountain ranges, a somber raincloud. The lad could hear the heavy drops splashing on the tree-tops in the valley, long, long before he felt them on his head. The roll of thunder sounded among the crags. Then the rain came down tumultuously, not in columns but in livid sheets. The lightnings rent the sky, showing, as it seemed to him, glimpses of the glorious brightness within,--too bright for human eyes. He clung desperately to his precarious perch. Now and then a fierce rush of wind almost tore him from it. Strange fancies beset him. The air was full of that wild [v]symphony of nature, the wind and the rain, the pealing thunder, and the thunderous echo among the cliffs, and yet he thought he could hear his own name ringing again and again through all the tumult, sometimes in Pete's voice, sometimes in George's shrill tones. Ethan became vaguely aware, after a time, that the rain had ceased, and the moon was beginning to shine through rifts in the clouds. The wind continued unabated, but, curiously enough, he could not hear it now. He could hear nothing; he could think of nothing. His consciousness was beginning to fail. George Birt had indeed forgotten him,--forgotten even the promised "whings." Not that he had discovered anything so extraordinary in his trap, for it was empty, but when he reached the mill, he found that the miller had killed a bear and captured a cub, and the orphan, chained to a post, had deeply absorbed George Birt's attention. To [v]sophisticated people, the boy might have seemed as [v]grotesque as the cub. George wore an unbleached cotton shirt. The waistband of his baggy jeans trousers encircled his body just beneath his armpits, reaching to his shoulder-blades behind, and nearly to his collar-bone in front. His red head was only partly covered by a fragment of an old white wool hat; and he looked at the cub with a curiosity as intense as that with which the cub looked at him. Each was taking first lessons in natural history. As long as there was daylight enough left to see that cub, did George Birt stand and stare at the little beast. Then he clattered home on old Sorrel in the closing darkness, looking like a very small pin on the top of a large pincushion. At home, he found the elders unreasonable,--as elders usually are considered. Supper had been waiting an hour or so for the lack of meal for dodgers. He "caught it" considerably, but not sufficiently to impair his appetite for the dodgers. After all this, he was ready enough for bed when a small boy's bedtime came. But as he was nodding before the fire, he heard a word that roused him to a new excitement and stimulated his memory. "These hyar chips air so wet they won't burn," said his mother. "I'll take my tur-r-key whing an' fan the fire." "Law!" he exclaimed. "Thar, now! Ethan Tynes never gimme that thar wild tur-r-key's whings like he promised." "Whar did ye happen ter see Ethan?" asked Pete, interested in his friend. "Seen him in the woods, an' he promised me the tur-r-key whings." "What fur?" inquired Pete, a little surprised by this uncalled-for generosity. "Waal,"--there was an expression of embarrassment on the important freckled face, and the small red head nodded forward in an explanatory manner,--"he fell off'n the bluffs arter the tur-r-key whings--I mean, he went down to the ledge arter the tur-r-key, and the vines bruk an' he couldn't git up no more. An' he tole me that ef I'd tell ye ter fotch him a rope ter pull up by, he would gimme the whings. That happened a--leetle--while--arter dinner-time." "Who got him a rope ter pull up by?" demanded Pete. There was again on the important face that indescribable shade of embarrassment. "Waal,"--the youngster balanced this word judicially,--"I forgot 'bout'n the tur-key whings till this minute. I reckon he's thar yit." "Mebbe this hyar wind an' rain hev beat him off'n the ledge!" exclaimed Pete, appalled and rising hastily. "I tell ye now," he added, turning to his mother, "the best use ye kin make o' that boy is ter put him on the fire fur a back-log." Pete made his preparations in great haste. He took the rope from the well, asked the [v]crestfallen and browbeaten junior a question or two relative to the place, mounted old Sorrel without a saddle, and in a few minutes was galloping at headlong speed through the night. The rain was over by the time he had reached the sulphur spring to which George had directed him, but the wind was still high, and the broken clouds were driving fast across the face of the moon. By the time he had hitched his horse to a tree and set out on foot to find the cliff, the moonbeams, though brilliant, were so [v]intermittent that his progress was fitful and necessarily cautious. When the disk shone out full and clear, he made his way rapidly enough, but when the clouds intervened, he stood still and waited. "I ain't goin' ter fall off'n the bluff 'thout knowin' it," he said to himself, in one of these [v]eclipses, "ef I hev ter stand hyar all night." The moonlight was brilliant and steady when he reached the verge of the crag. He identified the spot by the mass of broken vines, and more positively by Ethan's rifle lying upon the ground just at his feet. He called, but received no response. "Hev Ethan fell off, sure enough?" he asked himself, in great dismay and alarm. Then he shouted again and again. At last there came an answer, as though the speaker had just awaked. "Pretty nigh beat out, I'm a-thinkin'!" commented Pete. He tied one end of the cord around the trunk of a tree, knotted it at intervals, and flung it over the bluff. At first Ethan was almost afraid to stir. He slowly put forth his hand and grasped the rope. Then, his heart beating tumultuously, he rose to his feet. He stood still for an instant to steady himself and get his breath. Nerving himself for a strong effort, he began the ascent, hand over hand, up and up and up, till once more he stood upon the crest of the crag. And, now that all danger was over, Pete was disposed to scold. "I'm a-thinkin'," said Pete severely, "ez thar ain't a critter on this hyar mounting, from a b'ar ter a copperhead, that could hev got in sech a fix, 'ceptin' ye, Ethan Tynes." And Ethan was silent. "What's this hyar thing at the end o' the rope?" asked Pete, as he began to draw the cord up, and felt a weight still suspended. "It air the tur-r-key," said Ethan meekly, "I tied her ter the e-end o' the rope afore I kem up." "Waal, sir!" exclaimed Pete, in indignant surprise. And George, for duty performed, was [v]remunerated with the two "whings," although it still remains a question in the mind of Ethan whether or not he deserved them. CHARLES EGBERT CRADDOCK. =HELPS TO STUDY= Tell what happened to Ethan Tynes one day when he was hunting. How was he rescued? What qualities did Ethan show in his hour of trial? Give your opinion of George Birt; of Pete. Find out all you can about life in the mountains of East Tennessee. SUPPLEMENTARY READING The Prophet of the Great Smoky Mountains--Charles Egbert Craddock. The Little Shepherd of Kingdom Come--John Fox, Jr. June--John Fox, Jr. The poetry of earth is ceasing never: On a lone winter evening, when the frost Has wrought a silence, from the stove there shrills The cricket's song, in the warmth increasing ever, And seems to one in drowsiness half lost, The grasshopper's among some grassy hills. JOHN KEATS. A DEAL IN BEARS When a whaling ship is beset in the ice of Davis Straits, there is little work for her second engineer, once the engines have been nicely tallowed down. Now, I am no man that can sit in his berth and laze. If I've no work to do, I get a-thinking about my home at [v]Ballindrochater and the ministry, which my father intended I should have adorned, and what a fool I've made of myself, and this is depressing. I was not over-popular already on the _Gleaner_ on account of some prophecies I had made in anger, which had unfortunately come true. The crew, and the captain, too, had come to fear my prophetic powers. At last I bethought me of sporting on the ice. There was head-money offered for all bears, foxes, seals, musk-oxen, and such like that were shot and gathered. So I went to the skipper, and he gave me a Henry rifle, well rusted, and eight cartridges. "Show me you can use those, McTodd," says he, "and I'll give you more." I made a big mistake with that rusty old gun. I may be a sportsman, but before that I'm an engineer, and it seemed to me that Heaven sent metal into this world to be kept bright and clean. So I took the rifle all to pieces and made the parts as smooth and sweet as you'd see in a gun-maker's shop, barring rust-pits, and gave them a nice daubing of oil against the Arctic weather. Then I put on some thick clothes I had made, and all the other clothes I could get loaned me, and climbed out over the rail on to the [v]floe. The _Gleaner_ lay in a bay some two miles from the shore, and let me tell you, if you do not know it, that Arctic ice is no skating-rink. There are great hills, and knolls, and bergs, and valleys spread all over, and even where it's about level, the underfoot is as hard going as a newly-metalled road before the steam-roller has passed over it. The air was clear enough when I left the bark, and though the [v]mercury was out of use and coiled up snugly in the bulb, it wasn't as cold as you might think, for just then there was no wind. It's a breeze up in the Arctic that makes you feel the chill. There was no sun, of course; there never is sun up there in that dreary winter: but the stars were burning blue and clear, and every now and then a big [v]catherine wheel of [v]aurora would show off, for all the world like a firework exhibition. My! but it was lonely, though, once you had left the ship behind! There was just the scrunching of your feet on the frost [v]rime, and not another sound in the world. Even the ice was frozen too hard to squeak. And overhead in that purple-black Heaven you never knew Who was looking down at you. Out there in that cold, bare, black, icy silence, I had occasion to remember that Neil Angus McTodd had been a sinner in his time, and it made me shiver when I glanced up toward those blue, cold stars and the deep purple darkness that lay between and behind them. It may be that I was thinking less of my hunting than was advisable, for of a sudden I woke up to the sound of heavy feet padding over the crisp frost rime. I turned me round sharply enough, but as far as the dim light carried there was nothing alive to be seen through the gloom. As soon as I stopped, the footsteps stopped, too, and I don't mind admitting that my scalp tickled. However, when I'd hauled up the hammer of the Henry, and it dropped into position with a good, wholesome _cluck_, my nervousness very soon filtered out. There's a comfort about a heavy-bore rifle like a Henry--which is the kind always used by whalers and sealers--that you can't get from those fancy little guns. And then, as it seemed that the animal, whatever it might be, wasn't going to move till I did, I shuffled my high sealskin boots on the crisp snow to make believe that I was tramping again. The creature started after me promptly. It was hard to tell the direction, because every sound in that icy silence was echoed by a thousand bergs and hummocks of ice; but presently from behind a small splintered ridge of the floe there strolled out what seemed to me the largest bear in the Arctic regions. You must know that the night air there has a [v]deceptive light--it enlarges things--and the beast appeared to me as standing some five feet six inches high at the shoulder, and measuring some twenty feet from nose to tail. There was myself and there was the bear in the dark middle of that awful loneliness, with no one to interfere; and as there was only one of us to get home, I preferred it should not be he. So I took a brace on myself, and stood with the Henry ready to fire. There was nothing you might call [v]diffidence about that bear. He slouched along up to me at a steady walk, with the hair and skin on him swinging about as though it was too large for his carcass and he was wearing a misfit. He seemed to look upon me as dinner, and no hurry needful. There was a sort of calm certainty about him that made me angry. I was not what you might call a marksman in those days, and so I set a bit of [v]hummock about ten yards off as a limit where I could not very conveniently miss, and waited until the bear should come opposite that. Well, he came to it right enough in his own time. There was, as I have said before, no diffidence about the creature. And then I raised the Henry and fired her off. _Cluck_ went the hammer on the nipple, but there was no bang. My! it was a misfire, and there was the bear coming down on me as steady and unconcerned as a [v]traction engine! I clawed out that cartridge and crammed in another. The bitter cold of the metal skinned my fingers like escaping steam. Then I cocked the gun again, shouldered it, and pulled trigger again. Once more she wouldn't go off! The bear was now nearly on top of me and was beginning to rear on its hind legs. Somehow the rifle came into my hand muzzle-end, and I hit the great brute across the eyes with the butt hard enough to have felled an ox. I might as well have struck it with a cane. _Whack_ came a big yellow-white paw, the Henry went flying, and my wrists tingled with the jar; and there was I left looking, I've no doubt you'll think, very humorous. The bear might have finished me then if it had chosen. But it must needs turn aside to go snuffling at the rifle and lick the oil off the locks. I turned and footed it. Now, at the best of times, I am no [v]sprinter, and in the great mountain of clothes one wears up there in the cold Arctic night, no man can make much speed. Besides, the way was that uneven it was a case of hands and scramble more often than plain running over the sharp, spiky level. The bear, once he had finished his snuffle and lick at the Henry, came on at a dreadful pace, making nothing of those obstacles that balked me,--he had been born up there, you know. He laid himself out--I could see over my shoulder--like one of those American trotting horses, caring nothing for the ups and downs and ankle-breaking ice. In about two shakes he was snorting at my heels again, till I could almost feel his hot breath. The bundle of clothes hampered me. I stripped off my outer over-all and let it drop behind me. The bear stopped and snuffed that, but I didn't stay to watch him. I got a good fifty [v]fathoms ahead of him whilst he was thus occupied. But presently, when he'd got all his satisfaction out of that, on he comes again, and I had to give him my coat. I hadn't a chance of equaling him in pace, but the trick with the clothing never tired him. Fifty fathoms was the least gain I made over a single piece, and as I got lower down toward my skin he stayed over the clothes longer. But still the _Gleaner_ was a long way off, over very tumbled ice, and there I was careering on in a costume which was barely enough for decency, and certainly insufficient for the climate. However, it was little enough the bear cared for such refinements as those. I stripped off my last garment as I ran, and gained nigh on two hundred yards whilst he investigated it; and there were the bark's upper spars showing above the hummocks half a mile away, with me in nothing but my long seal-skin boots! But there was no help for it. Up came the hot breath behind me, and I leaned up against a hummock and stripped off a boot. I hailed the _Gleaner_ with what breath I had left, but no one gave heed. Away went the other boot, and there I was running, mother-naked, over the jagged floe, leaving blood on every footmark. Right up to the vessel did the outrageous beast chase me, and then when I got on board and called for guns, it slunk away into the shadows of a berg and was seen no more. My feet were cut to the bone; I was frost-nipped in twenty places, and you may imagine I had had a poor enough time of it. But the thought of that canvas over-all which I had thrown away first kept me cheerful. It was indeed a very humorous circumstance. Ye see it was a borrowed one. I got down below to a berth, and the steward, who was rated as a doctor, tended me. But Captain Black put sourness on the whole affair. He came down to my bunk and said, "Where's that Henry?" "Lying quiet on the ice," said I. "Do you mean to say you left that rifle behind? My rifle!" "I did that same. The thing wasn't strong enough to fire a cartridge. I tried two." And then Black used violent and unjustifiable language. I was in no condition to give him a fair exchange. Besides, I made an unfortunate admission. I owned up to taking the rifle apart and cleaning her. I owned up, too, that I'd been free with the oil. Black stuck out his face at me, and his fringe of beard fairly bristled. "And you call yourself an engineer! You talk about having gone through the shops! Put your filthy engine-room oil on my Henry's locks, would you? Why, you idiot, have you yet to learn that oil freezes up here as hard as cheese, and you've made up the lock space of that poor rifle into one solid chunk?" "I never thought of that." "To look at your face, you've yet to start thinking at all." So we had it out, and as I was now aroused, I gave him some words on the inefficient way he ran his ship. At last I threatened to prophesy again, and this cooled him off. I offered to go hunting bears for him and he became quite polite. "I'll make you an offer touching those bears," he said. "For every skin you bring here aboard, I'll give you seven shillings [v]bonus above your share as a member of the ship's company. I'll give you another rifle, two rifles if you like, and a fine bag of cartridges. But, you beggar, I make one condition. You take yourself off and away from the ship to do your hunting. You may make yourself a snow house to stay in, and live on the meat you kill." "You wish to murder me?" "I wish to be rid of you, and that's the truth. Man, I believe you're Jonah resurrected. We've had no luck since first you put your foot on my deck planks. And, what's more, the crew is of my way of thinking. So, refuse my offer, and I'll put you in irons and keep you there till I can fling you ashore at [v]Dundee." Now there is no doubt Black meant what he said, and so I did not waste dignity by arguing with him. I had no taste for the irons, and as for being turned out on the ice--well, I had a plan ahead. But I didn't intend to leave Black more comfortable than I could help. So I shut my eyes and said that the ship would have very bad luck that winter, that there would be much sickness aboard. (This was an easy guess.) I said, considering this fact, I was glad to leave such an unwholesome ship. The crew were just aching to get rid of me. This prophesying sort of grows on a man; once you've started it, you've got to go on with it at all costs, and I could no more resist just letting my few remarks slip round amongst the men than I can resist eating when I'm hungry. The nerves of the _Gleaner_ people were in strings from the cold and the blackness of the Arctic night, and it put the horrors on the lot of them. The one thing they wanted was to see the last of me. They gave me almost anything I fancied, but my means of transport were small. There was a bit of a sledge, which I packed with some food, two Henry rifles and a few tools, five hundred cartridges, and the clothes I stood in. No more could be taken. Then I went on deck into the bitter cold and over the side, and stood on the ice, ready to start on my journey. The crew lined the rail to see me off, and I can tell you their faces were very different. The older ones were savage and cared little how soon Jonah might die. The younger ones were crying to see a fellow driven away into that icy loneliness, far from shelter. But for myself I didn't care. I had method in all this performance. Soon after we were beset in the ice, a family of Esquimaux had come on the _Gleaner_ to pay a polite call and get what they could out of us. They were that dirty you could have chipped them with a scaling hammer, but they were very friendly. One buck who stepped down into the engine room--[v]Amatikita, he said his name was--had some English, and came to the point as straight as anything. "Give me a [v]dlink, Cappie," says he. "This is a dry ship," says I. "Plenty dlink in that box," says he, handling an oil-can. "Oh, if that's what you want, take it," I told him, and he clapped the nozzle between his lips, and sucked down a gill of [v]cylinder lubricating oil as though it had been water. "You seem to like it," I said; "have some more." But that was his fill. He thanked me and asked me to visit his village when I could get away from the ship. And just then some of his friends were caught pilfering, and the whole crew of them were bundled away. Now I had noted that most of these Esquimaux had bits of bearskins amongst their other furs, and it was that I had in mind when I fell out with Captain Black. Amatikita had pointed out the direction in which his village lay, and it was to that I intended making my way with as little delay as possible. But I kept this to myself, and let no word of it slip out on the _Gleaner_. Indeed, when I was over the bark's rails, I headed off due north across the ice. I climbed and stumbled on in this direction till I was well out of their sight and hearing amongst the hummocks, and then I turned at right angles for the shore. The cold up yonder in that Arctic night takes away your breath; it seems to take the manhood out of you. You stumble along gasping. By a chance I came on an Esquimaux sealing, and he beat and thumped me into wakefulness. Then he packed me on to his dog-sleigh, and took my own bit of a sled behind, and set his fourteen-foot whip cracking, and off we set. Well, you have to be pretty far gone if you can stay asleep with an [v]Innuit's dog-sledge jolting and jumping beneath you, and I was well awakened, especially as the Esquimaux sat on top of me. And so in time we brought up at the huts, and a good job, too. I'd been tramping in the wrong direction, so it turned out, and, besides, if I had come to the village, I might well have walked over the top of it, as it was drifted up level with snow. There was a bit of a rabbit-hole giving entrance to each hut, with some three fathoms of tunnel underground, and skin curtains to keep out the draught, but once inside you might think yourself in a [v]stoke-hold again. There was the same smell of oil, and almost the same warmth. I tell you, it was fine after that slicing cold outside. It was Amatikita's house I was brought to, and he was very hospitable. They took off my outer clothes and put them on the rack above the soapstone lamp to dry, and waited on me most kindly. Indeed, they recognized me as a superior at once, and kept on doing it. They put tender young seal-meat in the dish above the lamp, and when it was cooked I ate my part of the stew, and then got up and took the best place on the raised sleeping-bench at the farther side of the hut. I cut a fill for my pipe, lit up and passed the plug, and presently we were all smoking, happy as you please. Amatikita spoke up like a man. "Very pleased to see you, Cappie. What you come for? What you want?" "You're a man of business," I said. "You waste no time. I like that. What I want is bearskins. The jackets of big, white, baggy-trousered polar bears, you know; and I brought along a couple of tip-top rifles for you to get them with. Now, I make you a fair offer. Get me all the bears in the North Polar regions, and you shall have my Henrys and all the cartridges that are left over. And as for the meat, you shall have that as your own share of the game." "You want shoot those bears yourself?" "Not if I can help it. I'm an engineer, and a good one at that. But as a sportsman I've had but little experience, and don't seem drawn toward learning. It is too draughty up here, just at present, for my taste. I'll stay and keep house, and maybe do a bit of repairing and inventing among the furniture. I've brought along a hand-vice and a bag of tools with me, and if you can supply drift-wood and some scrap-iron, I'll make this turf-house of yours a real cottage." The deal was made. I worked away with my tools, and whenever those powdering winter gales eased for a little, Amatikita and his friends would go off with the howling dog-sledges and the Henrys, and it was rare that they'd come back without one bear, and often they'd bring two or even three. These white bears sleep through the black winter months in hollows in the cliffs, and the Esquimaux know their lairs, though it's rare enough they dare tackle them. Small blame, too, you'd say, if you saw the flimsy bone-tipped lances and harpoons, which are all they are armed with. With a good, smashing, heavy-bore Henry rifle it is a different thing. The Esquimaux were no cowards. They would walk up within a yard of a bear, when the dogs had ringed it, and blow half its head away with a single shot. And then they would draw the carcass up to the huts with the dog trains, and the women would skin and dress the meat, and Amatikita and the others would gorge themselves. At last the long winter wore away. Amatikita dived in through the entrance of the hut one day and told me that the ice-floe was beginning to break. The news affected me like the blow of a whip. I went out into the open and found the sun up. The men were overhauling their skin canoes. The snow was wet underfoot and seafowl were swooping around. The floe was still sound where it joined the shore, but two seaward lanes of blue water showed between the ice, and in one of them a whale was spouting pale gray mist. It was high time for me to be off. So the bearskins were fastened by thongs to the sledges and word was shouted to the dog leader of each team. The dogs started, and presently away went the teams full tilt, the sledges leaping and crashing in their wake, with the drivers and a certain Scotch engineer who was unused to such [v]acrobatics clinging on top of the packs. My! but yon was a wild ride over the rotten, cracking, sodden floe, under the fresh, bright sunshine of that Arctic spring morn! Presently round the flank of a small ice-berg we came in view of the _Gleaner_. She was still beset in the ice; but the hands were hard at work beating the ice from the rigging and cutting a gutter around her in the floe, so that she might float when the time came. They knocked off work when we drove up. "Good-day, Captain Black," I said. "I've been troubling myself over bearskins, and I'll ask you for seven shillings head money on twenty-nine." "You've shot twenty-nine bears? You're lying to me." "The skins are there, and you can count them for yourself." His color changed when the Esquimaux passed the skins over the side. And I clambered aboard the ship along with them. W. CUTCLIFFE HYNE. =HELPS TO STUDY= Tell this story briefly, using your own words. What mistake did McTodd make in preparing for the hunt? What amused you most? How did McTodd show his shrewdness, even if he was not a good hunter? What do you learn about the Arctic region? SUPPLEMENTARY READING The Frozen Pirate--W. Clark Russell. The Casting Away of Mrs. Leeks and Mrs. Aleshine--Frank R. Stockton. LOCHINVAR Oh, young Lochinvar is come out of the west:-- Through all the wide Border his steed was the best, And save his good broadsword he weapons had none; He rode all unarmed, and he rode all alone. So faithful in love, and so dauntless in war, There never was knight like the young Lochinvar. He stayed not for [v]brake, and he stopped not for stone, He swam the Esk river where ford there was none; But ere he alighted at Netherby gate The bride had consented, the gallant came late: For a laggard in love, and a dastard in war Was to wed the fair Ellen of brave Lochinvar. So boldly he entered the Netherby Hall, Among bride's-men and kinsmen and brothers and all: Then spoke the bride's father, his hand on his sword (For the poor craven bridegroom said never a word), "Oh, come ye in peace here, or come ye in war, Or to dance at our bridal, young Lord Lochinvar?" "I long wooed your daughter, my suit you denied;-- Love swells like the Solway, but ebbs like its tide-- And now am I come with this lost love of mine, To lead but one measure, drink one cup of wine. There are maidens in Scotland more lovely by far, That would gladly be bride to the young Lochinvar." The bride kissed the goblet; the knight took it up, He quaffed of the wine, and he threw down the cup. She looked down to blush, and she looked up to sigh, With a smile on her lips and a tear in her eye. He took her soft hand, ere her mother could bar,-- "Now tread we a measure!" said young Lochinvar. So stately his form, and so lovely her face, That never a hall such a [v]galliard did grace; While her mother did fret, and her father did fume, And the bridegroom stood dangling his bonnet and plume, And the bride-maidens whispered, "'Twere better by far To have matched our fair cousin with young Lochinvar." One touch to her hand, and one word in her ear, When they reached the hall door, and the charger stood near; So light to the [v]croup the fair lady he swung, So light to the saddle before her he sprung! "She is won! we are gone, over bank, bush, and [v]scar; They'll have fleet steeds that follow," quoth young Lochinvar. There was mounting 'mong Græmes of the Netherby clan; Fosters, Fenwicks, and Musgraves, they rode and they ran; There was racing and chasing on Cannobie lea, But the lost bride of Netherby ne'er did they see. So daring in love, and so dauntless in war; Have ye e'er heard of gallant like young Lochinvar? SIR WALTER SCOTT. =HELPS TO STUDY= Read the poem through and tell the story briefly. Where is the scene laid? _Border_ here means the part of Scotland bordering on England. Who is the hero? Give your opinion of him. Find the expressions used by the poet to inspire admiration for Lochinvar. Give your opinion of the bridegroom. Quote lines that express the poet's opinion of him. What word is used instead of _thicket_ in the second stanza? a _loiterer_? a _coward_? Why do you suppose the bride had consented? Why did her father put his hand on his sword? What reason did Lochinvar give for coming to the feast? Why did he act as if he did not care? Was the bride willing to marry "the laggard in love"? How do you know? Describe the scene as the two danced. What do you suppose was the "one word in her ear"? Read aloud the lines describing Lochinvar's ride to Netherby Hall. Read those describing the ride from the hall. Notice the galloping movement of the verse. IN LABRADOR I Trafford and Marjorie were in Labrador to spend the winter. It was a queer idea for a noted [v]scientist and rich and successful business man to cut himself loose from the world of London and go out into the Arctic storm and darkness of one of the bleakest quarters of the globe. But Trafford had fallen into a discontent with living, a weariness of the round of work and pleasure, and it was in the hope of winning back his lost zest and happiness that he had made up his mind to try the cure of the wilderness. Marjorie had insisted, like a good wife, on leaving children and home and comfort and accompanying him into the frozen wilds. The voyage across the sea and the march inland into Labrador were uneventful. Trafford chose his winter-quarters on the side of a low razor-hacked, rocky mountain ridge, about fifty feet above a little river. Not a dozen miles away from them, they reckoned, was the Height of Land, the low watershed between the waters that go to the Atlantic and those that go to Hudson's Bay. North and north-east of them the country rose to a line of low crests, with here and there a yellowing patch of last year's snow, and across the valley were slopes covered in places by woods of stunted pine. It had an empty spaciousness of effect; the one continually living thing seemed to be the river, hurrying headlong, noisily, perpetually, in an eternal flight from this high desolation. For nearly four weeks indeed they were occupied very closely in fixing their cabin and making their other preparations, and crept into their bunks at night as tired as wholesome animals who drop to sleep. At any time the weather might break; already there had been two overcast days and a frowning conference of clouds in the north. When at last storms began, they knew there would be nothing for it but to keep in the hut until the world froze up. The weather broke at last. One might say it smashed itself over their heads. There came an afternoon darkness swift and sudden, a wild gale, and an icy sleet that gave place in the night to snow, so that Trafford looked out next morning to see a maddening chaos of small white flakes, incredibly swift, against something that was neither darkness nor light. Even with the door but partly ajar, a cruelty of cold put its claw within, set everything that was movable swaying and clattering, and made Marjorie hasten shuddering to heap fresh logs upon the fire. Once or twice Trafford went out to inspect tent and roof and store-shed; several times, wrapped to the nose, he battled his way for fresh wood, and for the rest of the blizzard they kept to the hut. It was slumberously stuffy, but comfortingly full of flavors of tobacco and food. There were two days of intermission and a day of gusts and icy sleet again, turning with one extraordinary clap of thunder to a wild downpour of dancing lumps of ice, and then a night when it seemed all Labrador, earth and sky together, was in hysterical protest against inconceivable wrongs. And then the break was over; the annual freezing-up accomplished; winter had established itself; the snowfall moderated and ceased, and an ice-bound world shone white and sunlit under a cloudless sky. One morning Trafford found the footmarks of some catlike creature in the snow near the bushes where he was accustomed to get firewood; they led away very plainly up the hill, and after breakfast he took his knife and rifle and snowshoes and went after the lynx--for that he decided the animal must be. There was no urgent reason why he should want to kill a lynx, unless perhaps that killing it made the store-shed a trifle safer; but it was the first trail of any living thing for many days; it promised excitement; some [v]primitive instinct perhaps urged him. The morning was a little overcast, and very cold between the gleams of wintry sunshine. "Good-by, dear wife!" he said, and then as she remembered afterward came back a dozen yards to kiss her. "I'll not be long," he said. "The beast's prowling, and if it doesn't get wind of me, I ought to find it in an hour." He hesitated for a moment. "I'll not be long," he repeated, and she had an instant's wonder whether he hid from her the same dread of loneliness that she concealed. Up among the tumbled rocks he turned, and she was still watching him. "Good-by!" he cried and waved, and the willow thickets closed about him. She forced herself to the petty duties of the day, made up the fire from the pile he had left for her, set water to boil, put the hut in order, brought out sheets and blankets to air, and set herself to wash up. She wished she had been able to go with him. The sky cleared presently, and the low December sun lit all the world about her, but it left her spirit desolate. She did not expect him to return until midday, and she sat herself down on a log before the fire to darn a pair of socks as well as she could. For a time this unusual occupation held her attention and then her hands became slow and at last inactive, and she fell into reverie. Thoughts came quick and fast of her children in England so far away. What was that? She flashed to her feet. It seemed to her she had heard the sound of a shot, and a quick, brief wake of echoes. She looked across the icy waste of the river, and then up the tangled slopes of the mountain. Her heart was beating fast. It must have been up there, and no doubt Trafford had killed his beast. Some shadow of doubt she would not admit crossed that obvious suggestion. The wilderness was making her as nervously responsive as a creature of the wild. There came a second shot; this time there was no doubt of it. Then the desolate silence closed about her again. Marjorie stood for a long time, staring at the shrubby slopes that rose to the barren rock wilderness of the purple mountain crest. She sighed deeply at last, and set herself to make up the fire and prepare for the midday meal. Once, far away across the river, she heard the howl of a wolf. Time seemed to pass very slowly that day. Marjorie found herself going repeatedly to the space between the day tent and the sleeping hut from which she could see the stunted wood that had swallowed her husband up, and after what seemed a long hour her watch told her it was still only half-past twelve. And the fourth or fifth time that she went to look out she was set a-tremble again by the sound of a third shot. And then at regular intervals out of that distant brown-purple jumble of thickets against the snow came two more shots. "Something has happened," she said, "something has happened," and stood rigid. Then she became active, seized the rifle that was always at hand when she was alone, fired into the sky, and stood listening. Prompt came an answering shot. "He wants me," said Marjorie. "Something--perhaps he has killed something too big to bring!" She was for starting at once, and then remembered this was not the way of the wilderness. She thought and moved very rapidly. Her mind catalogued possible requirements,--rifle, hunting knife, the oilskin bag with matches, and some chunks of dry paper, the [v]rucksack. Besides, he would be hungry. She took a saucepan and a huge chunk of cheese and biscuit. Then a brandy flask is sometimes handy--one never knows,--though nothing was wrong, of course. Needles and stout thread, and some cord. Snowshoes. A waterproof cloak could be easily carried. Her light hatchet for wood. She cast about to see if there was anything else. She had almost forgotten cartridges--and a revolver. Nothing more. She kicked a stray brand or so into the fire, put on some more wood, damped the fire with an armful of snow to make it last longer, and set out toward the willows into which he had vanished. There was a rustling and snapping of branches as she pushed her way through the bushes, a little stir that died insensibly into quiet again; and then the camping place became very still. Trafford's trail led Marjorie through the thicket of dwarf willows and down to the gully of the rivulet which they had called Marjorie Trickle; it had long since become a trough of snow-covered, rotten ice. The trail crossed this and, turning sharply uphill, went on until it was clear of shrubs and trees, and, in the windy open of the upper slopes, it crossed a ridge and came over the lip of a large desolate valley with slopes of ice and icy snow. Here Marjorie spent some time in following his loops back on the homeward trail before she saw what was manifestly the final trail running far away out across the snow, with the [v]spoor of the lynx, a lightly-dotted line, to the right of it. She followed this suggestion of the trail, put on her snowshoes, and shuffled her way across this valley, which opened as she proceeded. She hoped that over the ridge she would find Trafford, and scanned the sky for the faintest discoloration of a fire, but there was none. That seemed odd to her, but the wind was in her face, and perhaps it beat the smoke down. Then as her eyes scanned the hummocky ridge ahead, she saw something, something very intent and still, that brought her heart into her mouth. It was a big gray wolf, standing with back haunched and head down, watching and scenting something beyond. Marjorie had an instinctive fear of wild animals, and it still seemed dreadful to her that they should go at large, uncaged. She suddenly wanted Trafford violently, wanted him by her side. Also, she thought of leaving the trail, going back to the bushes. But presently her nerve returned. In the wastes one did not fear wild beasts, one had no fear of them. But why not fire a shot to let him know she was near? The beast flashed round with an animal's instantaneous change of pose, and looked at her. For a couple of seconds, perhaps, woman and brute regarded one another across a quarter of a mile of snowy desolation. Suppose it came toward her! She would fire--and she would fire at it. Marjorie made a guess at the range and aimed very carefully. She saw the snow fly two yards ahead of the grisly shape, and then in an instant the beast had vanished over the crest. She reloaded, and stood for a moment waiting for Trafford's answer. No answer came. "Queer!" she whispered, "queer!"--and suddenly such a horror of anticipation assailed her that she started running and floundering through the snow to escape it. Twice she called his name, and once she just stopped herself from firing a shot. Over the ridge she would find him. Surely she would find him over the ridge! She now trampled among rocks, and there was a beaten place where Trafford must have waited and crouched. Then on and down a slope of tumbled boulders. There came a patch where he had either thrown himself down or fallen; it seemed to her he must have been running. Suddenly, a hundred feet or so away, she saw a patch of violently disturbed snow--snow stained a dreadful color, a snow of scarlet crystals! Three strides and Trafford was in sight. She had a swift conviction that he was dead. He was lying in a crumpled attitude on a patch of snow between [v]convergent rocks, and the lynx, a mass of blood-smeared, silvery fur, was in some way mixed up with him. She saw as she came nearer that the snow was disturbed round about them, and discolored [v]copiously, yellow, and in places bright red, with congealed and frozen blood. She felt no fear now and no emotion; all her mind was engaged with the clear, bleak perception of the fact before her. She did not care to call to him again. His head was hidden by the lynx's body, as if he was burrowing underneath the creature; his legs were twisted about each other in a queer, unnatural attitude. Then, as she dropped off a boulder, and came nearer, Trafford moved. A hand came out and gripped the rifle beside him; he suddenly lifted a dreadful face, horribly scarred and torn, and crimson with frozen blood; he pushed the gray beast aside, rose on an elbow, wiped his sleeve across his eyes, stared at her, grunted, and flopped forward. He had fainted. Marjorie was now as clear-minded and as self-possessed as a woman in a shop. In another moment she was kneeling by his side. She saw, by the position of his knife and the huge rip in the beast's body, that he had stabbed the lynx to death as it clawed his head; he must have shot and wounded it and then fallen upon it. His knitted cap was torn to ribbons, and hung upon his neck. Also his leg was manifestly injured--how, she could not tell. It was evident that he must freeze if he lay here, and it seemed to her that perhaps he had pulled the dead brute over him to protect his torn skin from the extremity of cold. The lynx was already rigid, its clumsy paws asprawl,--and the torn skin and clot upon Trafford's face were stiff as she put her hands about his head to raise him. She turned him over on his back--how heavy he seemed?--and forced brandy between his teeth. Then, after a moment's hesitation, she poured a little brandy on his wounds. She glanced at his leg, which was surely broken, and back at his face. Then she gave him more brandy, and his eyelids flickered. He moved his hand weakly. "The blood," he said, "kept getting in my eyes." She gave him brandy once again, wiped his face, and glanced at his leg. Something ought to be done to that, Marjorie thought. But things must be done in order. The woman stared up at the darkling sky with its gray promise of snow, and down the slopes of the mountain. Clearly they must stay the night here. They were too high for wood among these rocks, but three or four hundred yards below there were a number of dwarfed fir trees. She had brought an ax, so that a fire was possible. Should she go back to camp and get the tent? Trafford was trying to speak again. "I got--" "Yes?" "Got my leg in that crack." Was he able to advise her? She looked at him, and then perceived that she must bind up his head and face. She knelt behind him and raised his head on her knee. She had a thick silk neck muffler, and this she supplemented by a band she cut and tore from her inner vest. She bound this, still warm from her body, about him, and wrapped her dark cloak round his shoulders. The next thing was a fire. Five yards away, perhaps, a great mass of purple [v]gabbro hung over a patch of nearly snowless moss. A hummock to the westward offered shelter from the bitter wind, the icy draught, that was soughing down the valley. Always in Labrador, if you can, you camp against a rock surface; it shelters you from the wind, guards your back. "Dear!" she said. "Awful hole," said Trafford. "What?" she cried sharply. "Put you in an awful hole," he said. "Eh?" "Listen," she said, and shook his shoulder. "Look! I want to get you up against that rock." "Won't make much difference," replied Trafford, and opened his eyes. "Where?" he asked. "There." He remained quite quiet for a second perhaps. "Listen to me," he said. "Go back to camp." "Yes," she said. "Go back to camp. Make a pack of all the strongest food--strenthin'--strengthrin' food--you know?" He seemed unable to express himself. "Yes," she said. "Down the river. Down--down. Till you meet help." "Leave you?" He nodded his head and winced. "You're always plucky," he said. "Look facts in the face. Children. Thought it over while you were coming." A tear oozed from his eye. "Don't be a fool, Madge. Kiss me good-by. Don't be a fool. I'm done. Children." She stared at him and her spirit was a luminous mist of tears. "You old _coward_," she said in his ear, and kissed the little patch of rough and bloody cheek beneath his eye. Then she knelt up beside him. "_I'm_ boss now, old man," she said. "I want to get you to that place there under the rock. If I drag, can you help?" He answered obstinately: "You'd better go." "I'll make you comfortable first," she returned. He made an enormous effort, and then, with her quick help and with his back to her knee, had raised himself on his elbows. "And afterward?" he asked. "Build a fire." "Wood?" "Down there." "Two bits of wood tied on my leg--splints. Then I can drag myself. See? Like a blessed old walrus." He smiled and she kissed his bandaged face again. "Else it hurts," he apologized, "more than I can stand." She stood up again, put his rifle and knife to his hand, for fear of that lurking wolf, abandoning her own rifle with an effort, and went striding and leaping from rock to rock toward the trees below. She made the chips fly, and was presently towing three venerable pine dwarfs, bumping over rock and crevice, back to Trafford. She flung them down, stood for a moment bright and breathless, then set herself to hack off the splints he needed from the biggest stem. "Now," she said, coming to him. "A fool," he remarked, "would have made the splints down there. You're--_good_, Marjorie." She lugged his leg out straight, put it into the natural and least painful pose, padded it with moss and her torn handkerchief, and bound it up. As she did so a handful of snowflakes came whirling about them. She was now braced up to every possibility. "It never rains," she said grimly, "but it pours," and went on with her bone-setting. He was badly weakened by pain and shock, and once he spoke to her sharply. "Sorry," he said a moment later. She rolled him over on his chest, and left him to struggle to the shelter of the rock while she went for more wood. The sky alarmed her. The mountains up the valley were already hidden by driven rags of slaty snowstorms. This time she found a longer but easier path for dragging her boughs and trees; she determined she would not start the fire until nightfall, nor waste any time in preparing food until then. There were dead boughs for kindling--more than enough. It was snowing quite fast by the time she got up to him with her second load, and a premature twilight already obscured and exaggerated the rocks and mounds about her. She gave some of her cheese to Trafford, and gnawed some herself on her way down to the wood again. She regretted that she had brought neither candles nor lantern, because then she might have kept on until the cold night stopped her, and she reproached herself bitterly because she had brought no tea. She could forgive herself the lantern, for she had never expected to be out after dark, but the tea was inexcusable. She muttered self-reproaches while she worked like two men among the trees, panting puffs of mist that froze upon her lips and iced the knitted wool that covered her chin. "Why don't they teach a girl to handle an ax?" she cried. II When at last the wolfish cold of the Labrador night had come, it found Trafford and Marjorie seated almost warmly on a bed of pine boughs between the sheltering dark rock behind and a big but well-husbanded fire in front, drinking a queer-tasting but not unsavory soup of lynx-flesh, which she had fortified with the remainder of the brandy. Then they tried roast lynx and ate a little, and finished with some scraps of cheese and deep draughts of hot water. The snowstorm poured incessantly out of the darkness to become flakes of burning fire in the light of the flames, flakes that vanished magically, but it only reached them and wetted them in occasional gusts. What did it matter for the moment if the dim snowheaps rose and rose about them? A glorious fatigue, an immense self-satisfaction, possessed Marjorie; she felt that they had both done well. "I am not afraid of to-morrow now," she said at last. Trafford was smoking his pipe and did not speak for a moment. "Nor I," he said at last. "Very likely we'll get through with it." He added after a pause: "I thought I was done for. A man--loses heart--after a loss of blood." "The leg's better?" "Hot as fire." His humor hadn't left him. "It's a treat," he said. "The hottest thing in Labrador." Later Marjorie slept, but on a spring as it were, lest the fire should fall. She replenished it with boughs, tucked in the half-burnt logs, and went to sleep again. Then it seemed to her that some invisible hand was pouring a thin spirit on the flames that made them leap and crackle and spread north and south until they filled the heavens with a gorgeous glow. The snowstorm was overpast, leaving the sky clear and all the westward heaven alight with the trailing, crackling, leaping curtains of the [v]aurora, brighter than she had ever seen them before. Quite clearly visible beyond the smolder of the fire, a wintry waste of rock and snow, boulder beyond boulder, passed into a [v]dun obscurity. The mountain to the right of them lay long and white and stiff, a shrouded death. All earth was dead and waste, and the sky alive and coldly marvelous, signalling and astir. She watched the changing, shifting colors, and they made her think of the gathering banners of inhuman hosts, the stir and marshaling of icy giants for ends stupendous and indifferent to all the trivial impertinence of man's existence! Marjorie felt a passionate desire to pray. The bleak, slow dawn found Marjorie intently busy. She had made up the fire, boiled water and washed and dressed Trafford's wounds, and made another soup of lynx. But Trafford had weakened in the night; the soup nauseated him; he refused it and tried to smoke and was sick, and then sat back rather despairfully after a second attempt to persuade her to leave him there to die. This failure of his spirit distressed her and a little astonished her, but it only made her more resolute to go through with her work. She had awakened cold, stiff and weary, but her fatigue vanished with movement; she toiled for an hour replenishing her pile of fuel, made up the fire, put his gun ready to his hand, kissed him, abused him lovingly for the trouble he gave her until his poor torn face lit in response, and then parting on a note of cheerful confidence, set out to return to the hut. She found the way not altogether easy to make out; wind and snow had left scarcely a trace of their tracks, and her mind was full of the stores she must bring and the possibility of moving Trafford nearer to the hut. She was startled to see by the fresh, deep spoor along the ridge how near the wolf had dared approach them in the darkness. Ever and again Marjorie had to halt and look back to get her direction right. As it was, she came through the willow scrub nearly half a mile above the hut, and had to follow the steep bank of the frozen river. Once she nearly slipped upon an icy slope of rock. One possibility she did not dare to think of during that time--a blizzard now would cut her off absolutely from any return to Trafford. Short of that, she believed she could get through. Her quick mind was full of all she had to do. At first she had thought chiefly of Trafford's immediate necessities, of food and some sort of shelter. She had got a list of things in her head--meat extract, bandages, [v]corrosive sublimate by way of antiseptic, brandy, a tin of beef, some bread, and so forth; she went over it several times to be sure of it, and then for a time she puzzled about a tent. She thought she could manage a bale of blankets on her back, and that she could rig a sleeping tent for herself and Trafford out of them and some bent sticks. The big tent would be too much to strike and shift. And then her mind went on to a bolder enterprise, which was to get him home. The nearer she could bring him to the log hut, the nearer they would be to supplies. She cast about for some sort of sledge. The snow was too soft and broken for runners, especially among the trees, but if she could get a flat of smooth wood, she thought she might be able to drag him. She decided to try the side of her bunk, which she could easily get off. She would have, of course, to run it edgewise through the thickets and across the ravine, but after that she would have almost clear going up to the steep place of broken rocks within two hundred yards of him. The idea of a sledge grew upon her, and she planned to nail a rope along the edge and make a kind of harness for herself. Marjorie found the camping-place piled high with drifted snow, which had invaded tent and hut, and that some beast, a wolverine she guessed, had been into the hut, devoured every candle-end and the uppers of Trafford's well-greased second boots, and had then gone to the corner of the store-shed and clambered up to the stores. She took no account of its [v]depredations there, but set herself to make a sledge and get her supplies together. There was a gleam of sunshine, though she did not like the look of the sky and she was horribly afraid of what might be happening to Trafford. She carried her stuff through the wood and across the ravine, and returned for her improvised sledge. She was still struggling with that among the trees when it began to snow again. It was hard then not to be frantic in her efforts. As it was, she packed her stuff so loosely on the planking that she had to repack it, and she started without putting on her snowshoes, and floundered fifty yards before she discovered that omission. The snow was now falling fast, darkling the sky and hiding everything but objects close at hand, and she had to use all of her wits to determine her direction: she knew she must go down a long slope and then up to the ridge, and it came to her as a happy inspiration that if she bore to the left she might strike some recognizable vestige of her morning's trail. She had read of people walking in circles when they have no light or guidance, and that troubled her until she bethought herself of the little compass on her watch chain. By that she kept her direction. She wished very much she had timed herself across the waste, so that she could tell when she approached the ridge. Soon her back and shoulders were aching violently, and the rope across her chest was tugging like some evil-tempered thing. But she did not dare to rest. The snow was now falling thick and fast; the flakes traced white spirals and made her head spin, so that she was constantly falling away to the southwestward and then correcting herself by the compass. She tried to think how this zig-zagging might affect her course, but the snow whirls confused her mind and a growing anxiety would not let her pause to think. Marjorie felt blinded; it seemed to be snowing inside her eyes so that she wanted to rub them. Soon the ground must rise to the ridge, she told herself; it must surely rise. Then the sledge came bumping at her heels and she perceived that she was going down hill. She consulted the compass and found she was facing south. She turned sharply to the right again. The snowfall became a noiseless, pitiless torture to sight and mind. The sledge behind her struggled to hold her back, and the snow balled under her snowshoes. She wanted to stop and rest, take thought, sit for a moment. She struggled with herself and kept on. She tried walking with shut eyes, and tripped and came near sprawling. "Oh God!" she cried, "Oh God!" too stupefied for more [v]articulate prayers. She was leaden with fatigue. Would the rise of the ground to the ribs of rock never come? A figure, black and erect, stood in front of her suddenly, and beyond appeared a group of black, straight antagonists. She staggered on toward them, gripping her rifle with some muddled idea of defense, and in another moment she was brushing against the branches of a stunted fir, which shed thick lumps of snow upon her feet. What trees were these? Had she ever passed any trees? No! There were no trees on her way to Trafford. At that Marjorie began whimpering like a tormented child. But even as she wept, she turned her sledge about to follow the edge of the wood. She was too much downhill, she thought, and must bear up again. She left the trees behind, made an angle uphill to the right, and was presently among trees again. Again she left them and again came back to them. She screamed with anger and twitched her sledge along. She wiped at the snowstorm with her arm as though to wipe it away; she wanted to stamp on the universe. And she ached, she ached. Suddenly something caught her eye ahead, something that gleamed; it was exactly like a long, bare, rather pinkish bone standing erect on the ground. Just because it was strange and queer she ran forward to it. As she came nearer, she perceived that it was a streak of barked trunk; a branch had been torn off a pine tree and the bark stripped down to the root. And then came another, poking its pinkish wounds above the snow. And there were chips! This filled her with wonder. Some one had been cutting wood! There must be Indians or trappers near, she thought, and of a sudden realized that the wood-cutter could be none other than herself. She turned to the right and saw the rocks rising steeply, close at hand. "Oh Ragg!" she cried, and fired her rifle in the air. Ten seconds, twenty seconds, and then so loud and near it amazed her, came his answering shot. In another moment Marjorie had discovered the trail she had made overnight and that morning by dragging firewood. It was now a shallow, soft white trench. Instantly her despair and fatigue had gone from her. Should she take a load of wood with her? she asked herself, in addition to the weight behind her, and immediately had a better idea. She would unload and pile her stuff here, and bring him down on the sledge closer to the wood. The woman looked about and saw two rocks that diverged, with a space between. She flashed schemes. She would trample the snow hard and flat, put her sledge on it, pile boughs and make a canopy of blanket overhead and behind. Finally there would be a fine, roaring fire in front. She tossed her provisions down and ran up the broad windings of her pine-tree trail to Trafford, with the sledge bumping behind her. Marjorie ran as lightly as though she had done nothing that day. She found Trafford markedly recovered, weak and quiet, with snow drifting over his feet, his rifle across his knees, and his pipe alight. "Back already"-- He hesitated. "No grub?" The wife knelt over him, gave his rough, unshaven cheek a swift kiss, and rapidly explained her plan. Marjorie carried it out with all of the will-power that was hers. In three days' time, in spite of the snow, in spite of every other obstacle, they were back in the hut, and Trafford was comfortably settled in bed. The icy vastness of Labrador still lay around them to infinite distances on every side, but the two might laugh at storm and darkness now in their cosy hut, with plenty of fuel and food and light. H. G. WELLS. =HELPS TO STUDY= I. Describe the location of Trafford's camp; also the coming of winter. Give in your own words an account of the adventure that befell the two. II. Name some characteristics Marjorie showed in the critical situation. What did she do that impressed you most? What would you have done in similar circumstances? SUPPLEMENTARY READING Youth--Joseph Conrad. Prairie Folks--Hamlin Garland. Northern Lights--Sir Gilbert Parker. THE BUGLE SONG The splendor falls on castle walls The snowy summits old in story; The long light shakes across the lakes, And the wild cataract leaps in glory. Blow, bugle, blow, set the wild echoes flying, Blow, bugle; answer, echoes, dying, dying, dying. O hark, O hear! how thin and clear, And thinner, clearer, farther going! O, sweet and far from cliff and scar The horns of Elfland faintly blowing! Blow, let us hear the purple glens replying: Blow, bugle; answer, echoes, dying, dying, dying. O love, they die in yon rich sky, They faint on hill or field or river; Our echoes roll from soul to soul, And grow for ever and for ever. Blow, bugle, blow, set the wild echoes flying. And answer, echoes, answer, dying, dying, dying. ALFRED TENNYSON. THE SIEGE OF THE CASTLE This story is an extract from Sir Walter Scott's novel, _Ivanhoe_, which describes life in England during the Middle Ages, something more than a century after the Norman Conquest. The hatred between the conquering Normans and the conquered Saxons still continued, and is graphically pictured by Scott. _Ivanhoe_ centers about the household of one Cedric the Saxon, who was a great upholder of the traditions of his unfortunate people. Wilfred of Ivanhoe, Cedric's son, entered the service of the Norman king of England, Richard I, and accompanied him to the Holy Land on the Third Crusade. His father disowned the young knight for what he considered disloyalty to his Saxon blood. Ivanhoe, returning to England, participated in a great tournament at Ashby, in which he won fame under the disguise of the "Disinherited Knight." Among the other knights who took part in the tournament were the Normans, Maurice de Bracy, Reginald Front-de-Boeuf, and Brian de Bois-Guilbert, a Knight Templar. Two sides fought in the tournament, one representing the English, the other representing the foreign element in the land. An unknown knight, clad in black armor, brought victory to the English side, but left the field without disclosing his identity. An archery contest held at the tournament was won by a wonderful bowman who gave his name as Locksley. Ivanhoe, who fought with great valor, was badly wounded. Cedric had been accompanied to Ashby by his beautiful ward, the Lady Rowena, whose wealth and loveliness excited the cupidity of the lawless Norman knights. "The Siege of the Castle" opens with Cedric's discovery of his son's identity, and recounts the stirring incidents that follow the tournament. It gives a wonderful picture of warfare as it was hundreds of years ago, before the age of gunpowder. I When Cedric the Saxon saw his son drop down senseless in the great tournament at Ashby, his first impulse was to order him into the care of his own attendants, but the words choked in his throat. He could not bring himself to acknowledge, in the presence of such an assembly, the son whom he had renounced and disinherited for his allegiance to the Norman king of England, Richard of the Lion Heart. However, he ordered one of the officers of his household, his cupbearer, to convey Ivanhoe to Ashby as soon as the crowd had dispersed. But the man was anticipated in this good office. The crowd dispersed, indeed, but the wounded knight was nowhere to be seen. It seemed as if the fairies had conveyed Ivanhoe from the spot; and Cedric's officer might have adopted some such theory to account for his disappearance, had he not suddenly cast his eyes on a person attired like a squire, in whom he recognized the features of his fellow-servant Gurth, who had run away from his master. Anxious about Ivanhoe's fate, Gurth was searching for him everywhere and, in so doing, he neglected the concealment on which his own safety depended. The cupbearer deemed it his duty to secure Gurth as a fugitive of whose fate his master was to judge. Renewing his inquiries concerning the fate of Ivanhoe, all that the cupbearer could learn was that the knight had been raised by certain well-attired grooms, under the direction of a veiled woman, and placed in a litter, which had immediately transported him out of the press. The officer, on receiving this intelligence, resolved to return to his master, carrying along with him Gurth, the swineherd, as a deserter from Cedric's service. The Saxon had been under intense [v]apprehensions concerning his son; but no sooner was he informed that Ivanhoe was in careful hands than paternal anxiety gave way anew to the feeling of injured pride and resentment at what he termed Wilfred's [v]filial disobedience. "Let him wander his way," said Cedric; "let those leech his wounds for whose sake he encountered them. He is fitter to do the juggling tricks of the Norman chivalry than to maintain the fame and honor of his English ancestry with the [v]glaive and [v]brown-bill, the good old weapons of the country." The old Saxon now prepared for his return to Rotherwood, with his ward, the Lady Rowena, and his following. It was during the bustle preceding his departure that Cedric, for the first time, cast his eyes upon the deserter Gurth. He was in no very placid humor and wanted but a pretext for wreaking his anger upon some one. "The [v]gyves!" he cried. "Dogs and villains, why leave ye this knave unfettered?" Without daring to remonstrate, the companions of Gurth bound him with a halter, as the readiest cord which occurred. He submitted to the operation without any protest, except that he darted a reproachful look at his master. "To horse, and forward!" ordered Cedric. "It is indeed full time," said the Saxon prince Athelstane, who accompanied Cedric, "for if we ride not faster, the preparations for our supper will be altogether spoiled." The travelers, however, used such speed as to reach the convent of Saint Withold's before the apprehended evil took place. The abbot, himself of ancient Saxon descent, received the noble Saxons with the profuse hospitality of their nation, wherein they indulged to a late hour. They took leave of their reverend host the next morning after they had shared with him a [v]sumptuous breakfast, which Athelstane particularly appreciated. The superstitious Saxons, as they left the convent, were inspired with a feeling of coming evil by the behavior of a large, lean black dog, which, sitting upright, howled most piteously when the foremost riders left the gate, and presently afterward, barking wildly and jumping to and fro, seemed bent on attaching itself to the party. "In my mind," said Athelstane, "we had better turn back and abide with the abbot until the afternoon. It is unlucky to travel where your path is crossed by a monk, a hare, or a howling dog, until you have eaten your next meal." "Away!" said Cedric impatiently; "the day is already too short for our journey. For the dog, I know it to be the cur of the runaway slave Gurth, a useless fugitive like its master." So saying and rising at the same time in his stirrups, impatient at the interruption of his journey, he launched his [v]javelin at poor Fangs, who, having lost his master, was now rejoicing at his reappearance. The javelin inflicted a wound upon the animal's shoulder and narrowly missed pinning him to the earth; Fangs fled howling from the presence of the enraged [v]thane. Gurth's heart swelled within him, for he felt this attempted slaughter of his faithful beast in a degree much deeper than the harsh treatment he had himself received. Having in vain raised his hand to his eyes, he said to Wamba, the jester, who, seeing his master's ill humor, had prudently retreated to the rear, "I pray thee, do me the kindness to wipe my eyes with the skirt of thy mantle; the dust offends me, and these bonds will not let me help myself one way or another." Wamba did him the service he required, and they rode side by side for some time, during which Gurth maintained a moody silence. At length he could repress his feelings no longer. "Friend Wamba," said he, "of all those who are fools enough to serve Cedric, thou alone hast sufficient dexterity to make thy folly acceptable to him. Go to him, therefore, and tell him that neither for love nor fear will Gurth serve him longer. He may strike the head from me--he may scourge me--he may load me with irons--but henceforth he shall never compel me either to love or obey him. Go to him and tell him that Gurth renounces his service." "Assuredly," replied Wamba, "fool as I am, I will not do your fool's errand. Cedric hath another javelin stuck into his girdle, and thou knowest he doth not always miss his mark." "I care not," returned Gurth, "how soon he makes a mark of me. Yesterday he left Wilfred, my young master, in his blood. To-day he has striven to kill the only other living creature that ever showed me kindness. By Saint Edward, Saint Dunstan, Saint Withold, and every other saint, I will never forgive him!" At noon, upon the motion of Athelstane, the travelers paused in a woodland shade by a fountain to repose their horses and partake of some provisions with which the hospitable abbot had loaded a [v]sumpter mule. Their repast was a pretty long one; and the interruption made it impossible for them to hope to reach Rotherwood without traveling all night, a conviction which induced them to proceed on their way at a more hasty pace than they had hitherto used. The travelers had now reached the verge of the wooded country and were about to plunge into its recesses, held dangerous at that time from the number of outlaws whom oppression and poverty had driven to despair and who occupied the forests in such large bands as could easily bid defiance to the feeble police of the period. From these rovers, however, Cedric and Athelstane accounted themselves secure, as they had in attendance ten servants, besides Wamba and Gurth, whose aid could not be counted upon, the one being a jester and the other a captive. It may be added that in traveling thus late through the forest, Cedric and Athelstane relied on their descent and character as well as their courage. The outlaws were chiefly peasants and [v]yeomen of Saxon descent, and were generally supposed to respect the persons and property of their countrymen. Before long, as the travelers journeyed on their way, they were alarmed by repeated cries for assistance; and when they rode up to the place whence the cries came, they were surprised to find a horse-litter placed on the ground. Beside it sat a very beautiful young woman richly dressed in the Jewish fashion, while an old man, whose yellow cap proclaimed him to belong to the same nation, walked up and down with gestures of the deepest despair and wrung his hands. When he began to come to himself out of his agony of terror, the old man, named Isaac of York, explained that he had hired a bodyguard of six men at Ashby, together with mules for carrying the litter of a sick friend. This party had undertaken to escort him to Doncaster. They had come thus far in safety; but having received information from a wood-cutter that a strong band of outlaws was lying in wait in the woods before them, Isaac's [v]mercenaries had not only taken to flight, but had carried off the horses which bore the litter and left the Jew and his daughter without the means either of defense or of retreat. Isaac ended by imploring the Saxons to let him travel with them. Cedric and Athelstane were somewhat in doubt as to what to do, but the matter was settled by Rowena's intervention. "The man is old and feeble," she said to Cedric, "the maiden young and beautiful, their friend sick and in peril of his life. We cannot leave them in this extremity. Let the men unload two of the sumpter-mules and put the baggage behind two of the [v]serfs. The mules may transport the litter, and we have led-horses for the old man and his daughter." Cedric readily assented to what was proposed, and the change of baggage was hastily achieved; for the single word "outlaws" rendered every one sufficiently alert, and the approach of twilight made the sound yet more impressive. Amid the bustle, Gurth was taken from horseback, in the course of which removal he prevailed upon the jester to slack the cord with which his arms were bound. It was so negligently refastened, perhaps intentionally, on the part of Wamba, that Gurth found no difficulty in freeing his arms altogether, and then, gliding into the thicket, he made his escape from the party. His departure was hardly noticed in the apprehension of the moment. The path upon which the party traveled was now so narrow as not to admit, with any sort of convenience, above two riders abreast, and began to descend into a dingle, traversed by a brook, the banks of which were broken, swampy, and overgrown with dwarf willows. Cedric and Athelstane, who were at the head of their [v]retinue, saw the risk of being attacked in this pass, but neither knew anything else to do than hasten through the defile as fast as possible. Advancing, therefore, without much order, they had just crossed the brook with a part of their followers, when they were assailed, in front, flank, and rear at once, by a band of armed men. The shout of a "White dragon! Saint George for merry England!" the war cry of the Saxons, was heard on every side, and on every side enemies appeared with a rapidity of advance and attack which seemed to multiply their numbers. Both the Saxon chiefs were made prisoners at the same moment. Cedric, the instant an enemy appeared, launched at him his javelin, which, taking better effect than that which he had hurled at Fangs, nailed the man against an oak-tree that happened to be close behind him. Thus far successful, Cedric spurred his horse against a second, drawing his sword and striking with such inconsiderate fury that his weapon encountered a thick branch which hung over him, and he was disarmed by the violence of his own blow. He was instantly made prisoner and pulled from his horse by two or three of the [v]banditti who crowded around him. Athelstane shared his captivity, his bridle having been seized and he himself forcibly dismounted long before he could draw his sword. The attendants, embarrassed with baggage and surprised and terrified at the fate of their master, fell an easy prey to the assailants; while the Lady Rowena and the Jew and his daughter experienced the same misfortune. Of all the train none escaped but Wamba, who showed upon the occasion much more courage than those who pretended to greater sense. He possessed himself of a sword belonging to one of the domestics, who was just drawing it, laid it about him like a lion, drove back several who approached him, and made a brave though ineffectual effort to succor his master. Finding himself overpowered, the jester threw himself from his horse, plunged into a thicket, and, favored by the general confusion, escaped from the scene of action. Suddenly a voice very near him called out in a low and cautious tone, "Wamba!" and, at the same time, a dog which he recognized as Fangs jumped up and fawned upon him. "Gurth!" answered Wamba with the same caution, and the swineherd immediately stood before him. "What is the matter?" he asked. "What mean these cries and that clashing of swords?" "Only a trick of the times," answered Wamba. "They are all prisoners." "Who are prisoners?" "My lord, and my lady, and Athelstane, and the others." "In the name of God," demanded Gurth, "how came they prisoners? and to whom?" "They are prisoners to green [v]cassocks and black [v]vizors," answered Wamba. "They all lie tumbled about on the green, like the crab-apples that you shake down to your swine. And I would laugh at it," added the honest jester, "if I could for weeping." He shed tears of unfeigned sorrow. Gurth's countenance kindled. "Wamba," he said, "thou hast a weapon and thy heart was ever stronger than thy brain. We are only two, but a sudden attack from men of resolution might do much. Follow me!" "Whither, and for what purpose?" asked the jester. "To rescue Cedric." "But you renounced his service just now." "That," said Gurth, "was while he was fortunate. Follow me." As the jester was about to obey, a third person suddenly made his appearance and commanded them both to halt. From his dress and arms Wamba would have conjectured him to be one of the outlaws who had just assailed his master; but, besides that he wore no mask, the glittering baldric across his shoulders, with the rich bugle horn which it supported, as well as the calm and commanding expression of his voice and manner, made the jester recognize the archer who had won the prize at the tournament and who was known as Locksley. "What is the meaning of all this?" the man demanded. "Who are they that rifle and ransom and make prisoners in these forests?" "You may look at their cassocks close by," replied Wamba, "and see whether they be thy children's coats or no, for they are as like thine own as one green pea-pod is like another." "I will learn that presently," returned Locksley: "and I charge ye, on peril of your lives, not to stir from this place where ye stand until I have returned. Obey me, and it shall be the better for you and your masters. Yet stay; I must render myself as like these men as possible." So saying, he drew a [v]vizard from his pouch, and, repeating his charges to them to stand fast, went to reconnoitre. "Shall we stay, Gurth?" asked Wamba; "or shall we give him [v]leg-bail? In my foolish mind, he had all the equipage of a thief too much in readiness to be himself a true man." "Let him be the devil," said Gurth, "an he will. We can be no worse for waiting his return. If he belongs to that party, he must already have given them the alarm, and it will avail us nothing either to fight or fly." The yeoman returned in the course of a few minutes. "Friend Gurth," he said, "I have mingled among yon men and have learned to whom they belong, and whither they are bound. There is, I think, no chance that they will proceed to any actual violence against their prisoners. For three men to attack them at this moment were little else than madness; for they are good men of war and have, as such, placed sentinels to give the alarm when any one approaches. But I trust soon to gather such a force as may act in defiance of all their precautions. You are both servants, and, as I think, faithful servants of Cedric the Saxon, the friend of the rights of Englishmen. He shall not want English hands to help him in this extremity. Come then with me, until I gather more aid." So saying, he walked through the wood at a great pace, followed by the jester and the swineherd. The three men proceeded with occasional converse but, for the most part, in silence for about three hours. Finally they arrived at a small opening in the forest, in the center of which grew an oak-tree of enormous magnitude, throwing its twisted branches in every direction. Beneath this tree four or five yeomen lay stretched on the ground, while another, as sentinel, walked to and fro in the moonlight. Upon hearing the sound of feet approaching, the watch instantly gave the alarm, and the sleepers as suddenly started up and bent their bows. Six arrows placed on the string were pointed toward the quarter from which the travelers approached, when their guide, being recognized, was welcomed with every token of respect and attachment. "Where is the miller?" was Locksley's first question. "On the road toward Rotherham." "With how many?" demanded the leader, for such he seemed to be. "With six men, and good hope of booty, if it please Saint Nicholas." "Devoutly spoken," said Locksley. "And where is Allan-a-Dale?" "Walked up toward the [v]Watling Street, to watch for the Prior of Jorvaulx." "That is well thought on also," replied the captain. "And where is the friar?" "In his cell." "Thither will I go," said Locksley. "Disperse and seek your companions. Collect what force you can, for there's game afoot that must be hunted hard and will turn to bay. Meet me here at daybreak. And stay," he added; "I have forgotten what is most necessary of the whole. Two of you take the road quickly toward Torquilstone, the castle of [v]Front-de-Boeuf. A set of gallants, who have been [v]masquerading in such guise as our own, are carrying a band of prisoners thither. Watch them closely, for, even if they reach the castle before we collect our force, our honor is concerned to punish them, and we will find means to do so. Keep a good watch on them, therefore, and despatch one of your comrades to bring the news of the yeomen thereabouts." The men promised obedience and departed on their several errands. Meanwhile, their leader and his two companions, who now looked upon him with great respect as well as some fear, pursued their way to the chapel where dwelt the friar mentioned by Locksley. Presently they reached a little moonlit glade, in front of which stood an ancient and ruinous chapel and beside it a rude hermitage of stone half-covered with ivy vines. The sounds which proceeded at that moment from the latter place were anything but churchly. In fact, the hermit and another voice were performing at the full extent of very powerful lungs an old drinking-song, of which this was the burden: Come, trowl the brown bowl to me, Bully boy, bully boy; Come trowl the brown bowl to me: Ho! jolly Jenkin, I spy a knave drinking; Come trowl the brown bowl to me. "Now, that is not ill sung," said Wamba, who had thrown in a few of his own flourishes to help out the chorus. "But who, in the saint's name, ever expected to have heard such a jolly chant come from a hermit's cell at midnight?" "Marry, that should I," said Gurth, "for the jolly Clerk of Copmanhurst is a known man and kills half the deer that are stolen in this walk. Men say that the deer-keeper has complained of him and that he will be stripped of his [v]cowl and [v]cope altogether if he keep not better order." While they were thus speaking, Locksley's loud and repeated knocks had at length disturbed the [v]anchorite and his guest, who was a knight of singularly powerful build and open, handsome face, and in black armor. "By my beads," said the hermit, "here come other guests. I would not for my cowl that they found us in this goodly exercise. All men have enemies, sir knight; and there be those malignant enough to construe the hospitable refreshment I have been offering to you, a weary traveler, into drinking and gluttony, vices alike alien to my profession and my disposition." "Base [v]calumniators!" replied the knight. "I would I had the chastising of them. Nevertheless, holy clerk, it is true that all have their enemies; and there be those in this very land whom I would rather speak to through the bars of my helmet than bare-faced." "Get thine iron pot on thy head, then, sir knight," said the hermit, "while I remove these pewter flagons." He struck up a thundering [v]_De profundis clamavi_, under cover of which he removed the apparatus of their banquet, while the knight, laughing heartily and arming himself all the while, assisted his host with his voice from time to time as his mirth permitted. "What devil's [v]matins are you after at this hour?" demanded a voice from outside. "Heaven forgive you, sir traveler!" said the hermit, whose own noise prevented him from recognizing accents which were tolerably familiar to him. "Wend on your way, in the name of God and Saint Dunstan, and disturb not the devotions of me and my holy brother." "Mad priest," answered the voice from without; "open to Locksley!" "All's safe--all's right," said the hermit to his companion. "But who is he?" asked the Black Knight. "It imports me much to know." "Who is he?" answered the hermit. "I tell thee he is a friend." "But what friend?" persisted the knight; "for he may be a friend to thee and none of mine." "What friend?" replied the hermit; "that now is one of the questions that is more easily asked than answered." "Well, open the door," ordered the knight, "before he beat it from its hinges." The hermit speedily unbolted his portal and admitted Locksley, with his two companions. "Why, hermit," was the yeoman's first question as soon as he beheld the knight, "what boon companion hast thou here?" "A brother of our order," replied the friar, shaking his head; "we have been at our devotions all night." "He is a monk of the church militant," answered Locksley; "and there be more of them abroad. I tell thee, friar, thou must lay down the [v]rosary and take up the [v]quarter-staff; we shall need every one of our merry men, whether clerk or layman. But," he added, taking a step aside, "art thou mad--to give admittance to a knight thou dost not know? Hast thou forgotten our agreement?" "Good yeoman," said the knight, coming forward, "be not wroth with my merry host. He did but afford me the hospitality which I would have compelled from him if he had refused it." "Thou compel!" cried the friar. "Wait but till I have changed this gray gown for a green cassock, and if I make not a quarter-staff ring twelve upon thy pate, I am neither true clerk nor good woodsman." While he spoke thus he stript off his gown and appeared in a close buckram doublet and lower garment, over which he speedily did on a cassock of green and hose of the same color. "I pray thee [v]truss my points," he said to Wamba, "and thou shalt have a cup of sack for thy labor." "[v]Gramercy for thy sack," returned Wamba; "but thinkest thou that it is lawful for me to aid you to transmew thyself from a holy hermit into a sinful forester?" So saying, he accommodated the friar with his assistance in tying the endless number of points, as the laces which attached the hose to the doublet were then termed. While they were thus employed, Locksley led the knight a little apart and addressed him thus: "Deny it not, sir knight, you are he who played so glorious a part at the tournament at Ashby." "And what follows, if you guess truly, good yeoman?" "For my purpose," said the yeoman, "thou shouldst be as well a good Englishman as a good knight; for that which I have to speak of concerns, indeed, the duty of every honest man, but is more especially that of a true-born native of England." "You can speak to no one," replied the knight, "to whom England, and the life of every Englishman, can be dearer than to me." "I would willingly believe so," said the woodsman; "and never had this country such need to be supported by those who love her. A band of villains, in the disguise of better men than themselves, have become masters of the persons of a noble Englishman named Cedric the Saxon, together with his ward and his friend, Athelstane of Coningsburgh, and have transported them to a castle in this forest called Torquilstone. I ask of thee, as a good knight and a good Englishman, wilt thou aid in their rescue?" "I am bound by my vow to do so," replied the knight; "but I would willingly know who you are who request my assistance in their behalf?" "I am," said the forester, "a nameless man; but I am a friend of my country and my country's friends. Believe, however, that my word, when pledged, is as [v]inviolate as if I wore golden spurs." "I willingly believe it," returned the knight. "I have been accustomed to study men's countenances, and I can read in thine honesty and resolution. I will, therefore, ask thee no farther questions but aid thee in setting at freedom these oppressed captives, which done, I trust we shall part better acquainted and well satisfied with each other." When the friar was at length ready, Locksley turned to his companions. "Come on, my masters," he said; "tarry not to talk. I say, come on: we must collect all our forces, and few enough shall we have if we are to storm the castle of Reginald Front-de-Boeuf." II While these measures were taking in behalf of Cedric and his companions, the armed men by whom the latter had been seized hurried their captives along toward the place of security, where they intended to imprison them. But darkness came on fast, and the paths of the wood seemed but imperfectly known to the [v]marauders. They were compelled to make several long halts and once or twice to return on their road to resume the direction which they wished to pursue. It was, therefore, not until the light of the summer morn had dawned upon them that they could travel in full assurance that they held the right path. In vain Cedric [v]expostulated with his guards, who refused to break their silence for his wrath or his protests. They continued to hurry him along, traveling at a very rapid rate, until, at the end of an avenue of huge trees, arose Torquilstone, the hoary and ancient castle of Reginald Front-de-Boeuf. It was a fortress of no great size, consisting of a donjon, or large and high square tower, surrounded by buildings of inferior height. Around the exterior wall was a deep moat, supplied with water from a neighboring rivulet. Front-de-Boeuf, whose character placed him often at feud with his neighbors, had made considerable additions to the strength of his castle by building towers upon the outward wall, so as to flank it at every angle. The access, as usual in castles of the period, lay through an arched [v]barbican or outwork, which was defended by a small turret. Cedric no sooner saw the turrets of Front-de-Boeuf's castle raise their gray and moss-grown battlements, glimmering in the morning sun, above the woods by which they were surrounded than he instantly augured more truly concerning the cause of his misfortune. "I did injustice," he said, "to the thieves and outlaws of these woods, when I supposed such banditti to belong to their bands. I might as justly have confounded the foxes of these brakes with the ravening wolves of France!" Arrived before the castle, the prisoners were compelled by their guards to alight and were hastened across the drawbridge into the castle. They were immediately conducted to an apartment where a hasty repast was offered them, of which none but Athelstane felt any inclination to partake. Neither did he have much time to do justice to the good cheer placed before him, for the guards gave him and Cedric to understand that they were to be imprisoned in a chamber apart from Rowena. Resistance was vain; and they were compelled to follow to a large room, which, rising on clumsy Saxon pillars, resembled the [v]refectories and chapter-houses which may still be seen in the most ancient parts of our most ancient monasteries. The Lady Rowena was next separated from her train and conducted with courtesy, indeed, but still without consulting her inclination, to a distant apartment. The same alarming distinction was conferred on the young Jewess, Rebecca, in spite of the entreaties of her father, who offered money in the extremity of his distress that she might be permitted to abide with him. "Base unbeliever," answered one of his guards, "when thou hast seen thy lair, thou wilt not wish thy daughter to partake it." Without further discussion, the old Jew was dragged off in a different direction from the other prisoners. The domestics, after being searched and disarmed, were confined in another part of the castle. The three leaders of the banditti and the men who had planned and carried out the outrage, Norman knights,--Front-de-Boeuf, the brutal owner of the castle; Maurice de Bracy, a free-lance, who sought to wed the Lady Rowena by force and so had arranged the attack, and Brian de [v]Bois-Guilbert, a distinguished member of the famous order of [v]Knights Templar,--had a short discussion together and then separated. Front-de-Boeuf immediately sought the apartment where Isaac of York tremblingly awaited his fate. The Jew had been hastily thrown into a dungeon-vault of the castle, the floor of which was deep beneath the level of the earth, and very damp, being lower than the moat itself. The only light was received through one or two loop-holes far above the reach of the captive's hand. These [v]apertures admitted, even at midday, only a dim and uncertain light, which was changed for utter darkness long before the rest of the castle had lost the blessing of day. Chains and shackles, which had been the portion of former captives, hung rusted and empty on the walls of the prison, and in the rings of one of these sets of fetters there remained two moldering bones which seemed those of the human leg. At one end of this ghastly apartment was a large fire-grate, over the top of which were stretched some transverse iron bars, half devoured with rust. The whole appearance of the dungeon might have appalled a stouter heart than that of Isaac, who, nevertheless, was more composed under the imminent pressure of danger than he had seemed to be while affected by terrors of which the cause was as yet remote and [v]contingent. It was not the first time that Isaac had been placed in circumstances so dangerous. He had, therefore, experience to guide him, as well as a hope that he might again be delivered from the peril. The Jew remained without altering his position for nearly three hours, at the end of which time steps were heard on the dungeon stair. The bolts screamed as they were withdrawn, the hinges creaked as the wicket opened, and Reginald Front-de-Boeuf, followed by two Saracen slaves of the Templar, entered the prison. Front-de-Boeuf, a tall and strong man, whose life had been spent in public war or in private feuds and broils and who had hesitated at no means of extending his [v]feudal power, had features corresponding to his character, and which strongly expressed the fiercer and more evil passions of the mind. The scars with which his visage was seamed would, on features of a different cast, have excited the sympathy due to the marks of honorable valor; but in the peculiar case of Front-de-Boeuf they only added to the ferocity of his countenance and to the dread which his presence inspired. The formidable baron was clad in a leathern doublet, fitted close to his body, which was frayed and soiled with the stains of his armor. He had no weapon, except a [v]poniard at his belt, which served to counter-balance the weight of the bunch of rusty keys that hung at his right side. The black slaves who attended Front-de-Boeuf were attired in jerkins and trousers of coarse linen, their sleeves being tucked up above the elbow, like those of butchers when about to exercise their functions in the slaughter-house. Each had in his hand a small [v]pannier; and when they entered the dungeon, they paused at the door until Front-de-Boeuf himself carefully locked and double-locked it. Having taken this precaution, he advanced slowly up the apartment toward the Jew, upon whom he kept his eye fixed as if he wished to paralyze him with his glance, as some animals are said to fascinate their prey. The Jew sat with his mouth agape and his eyes fixed on the savage baron with such earnestness of terror that his frame seemed literally to shrink together and diminish in size while encountering the fierce Norman's fixed and baleful gaze. The unhappy Isaac was deprived not only of the power of rising to make the [v]obeisance which his fear had dictated, but he could not even doff his cap or utter any word of supplication, so strongly was he agitated by the conviction that tortures and death were impending over him. On the other hand, the stately form of the Norman appeared to dilate in magnitude, like that of the eagle, which ruffles up its plumage when about to pounce on its defenseless prey. He paused within three steps of the corner in which the unfortunate Hebrew had now, as it were, coiled himself up into the smallest possible space, and made a sign for one of the slaves to approach. The black [v]satellite came forward accordingly, and producing from his basket a large pair of scales and several weights, he laid them at the feet of Front-de-Boeuf and retired to the respectful distance at which his companion had already taken his station. The motions of these men were slow and solemn, as if there impended over their souls some [v]preconception of horror and cruelty. Front-de-Boeuf himself opened the scene by addressing his ill-fated captive. "Most accursed dog," he said, awakening with his deep and sullen voice the echoes of the dungeon vault, "seest thou these scales?" The unhappy Jew returned a feeble affirmative. "In these very scales shalt thou weigh me out," said the relentless baron, "a thousand silver pounds, after the just measure and weight of the Tower of London." "Holy Abraham!" returned the Jew, finding voice through the very extremity of his danger; "heard man ever such a demand? Who ever heard, even in a minstrel's tale, of such a sum as a thousand pounds of silver? What human eyes were ever blessed with the sight of so great a mass of treasure? Not within the walls of York, ransack my house and that of all my tribe, wilt thou find the [v]tithe of that huge sum of silver that thou speakest of." "I am reasonable," answered Front-de-Boeuf, "and if silver be scant, I refuse not gold. At the rate of a mark of gold for each six pounds of silver, thou shalt free thy unbelieving carcass from such punishment as thy heart has never even conceived in thy wildest imaginings." "Have mercy on me, noble knight!" pleaded Isaac. "I am old, and poor, and helpless. It were unworthy to triumph over me. It is a poor deed to crush a worm." "Old thou mayst be," replied the knight, "and feeble thou mayst be; but rich it is known thou art." "I swear to you, noble knight," said Isaac, "by all which I believe and all which we believe in common--" "Perjure not thyself," interrupted the Norman, "and let not thy obstinacy seal thy doom, until thou hast seen and well considered the fate that awaits thee. This prison is no place for trifling. Prisoners ten thousand times more distinguished than thou have died within these walls, and their fate has never been known. But for thee is reserved a long and lingering death, to which theirs was luxury." He again made a signal for the slaves to approach and spoke to them apart in their own language; for he had been a crusader in Palestine, where, perhaps, he had learned his lesson of cruelty. The Saracens produced from their baskets a quantity of charcoal, a pair of bellows, and a flask of oil. While the one struck a light with a flint and steel, the other disposed the charcoal in the large rusty grate which we have already mentioned and exercised the bellows until the fuel came to a red glow. "Seest thou, Isaac," said Front-de-Boeuf, "the range of iron bars above that glowing charcoal? On that warm couch thou shalt lie, stripped of thy clothes as if thou wert to rest on a bed of down. One of these slaves shall maintain the fire beneath thee, while the other shall anoint thy wretched limbs with oil, lest the roast should burn. Now choose betwixt such a scorching bed and the payment of a thousand pounds of silver; for, by the head of my father, thou hast no other [v]option." "It is impossible," exclaimed the miserable Isaac; "it is impossible that your purpose can be real! The good God of nature never made a heart capable of exercising such cruelty!" "Trust not to that, Isaac," said Front-de-Boeuf; "it were a fatal error. Dost thou think that I who have seen a town sacked, in which thousands perished by sword, by flood, and by fire, will blench from my purpose for the outcries of a single wretch? Be wise, old man; discharge thyself of a portion of thy superfluous wealth; repay to the hands of a Christian a part of what thou hast acquired by [v]usury. Thy cunning may soon swell out once more thy shriveled purse, but neither leech nor medicine can restore thy scorched hide and flesh wert thou once stretched on these bars. Tell down thy [v]ransom, I say, and rejoice that at such a rate thou canst redeem thyself from a dungeon, the secrets of which few have returned to tell. I waste no more words with thee. Choose between thy [v]dross and thy flesh and blood, and as thou choosest so shall it be." "So may Abraham and all the fathers of our people assist me!" said Isaac; "I cannot make the choice because I have not the means of satisfying your [v]exorbitant demand!" "Seize him and strip him, slaves," said the knight. The assistants, taking their directions more from the baron's eye and hand than his tongue, once more stepped forward, laid hands on the unfortunate Isaac, plucked him up from the ground, and holding him between them, waited the hard-hearted baron's further signal. The unhappy man eyed their countenances and that of Front-de-Boeuf in the hope of discovering some symptoms of softening; but that of the baron showed the same cold, half-sullen, half-sarcastic smile, which had been the prelude to his cruelty; and the savage eyes of the Saracens, rolling gloomily under their dark brows, evinced rather the secret pleasure which they expected from the approaching scene than any reluctance to be its agents. The Jew then looked at the glowing furnace, over which he was presently to be stretched, and, seeing no chance of his tormentor's relenting, his resolution gave way. "I will pay," he said, "the thousand pounds of silver--that is, I will pay it with the help of my brethren, for I must beg as a mendicant at the door of our synagogue ere I make up so unheard-of a sum. When and where must it be delivered?" he inquired with a sigh. "Here," replied Front-de-Boeuf. "Weighed it must be--weighed and told down on this very dungeon floor. Thinkest thou I will part with thee until thy ransom is secure?" "Then let my daughter Rebecca go forth to York," said Isaac, "with your safe conduct, noble knight, and so soon as man and horse can return, the treasure--" Here he groaned deeply, but added, after the pause of a few seconds,--"the treasure shall be told down on this floor." "Thy daughter!" said Front-de-Boeuf, as if surprised. "By Heavens, Isaac, I would I had known of this! I gave yonder black-browed girl to Sir Brian de Bois-Guilbert, to be his prisoner. She is not in my power." The yell which Isaac raised at this unfeeling communication made the very vault to ring, and astounded the two Saracens so much that they let go their hold of the victim. He availed himself of his freedom to throw himself on the pavement and clasp the knees of Front-de-Boeuf. "Take all that you have asked," said he--"take ten times more--reduce me to ruin and to beggary, if thou wilt--nay, pierce me with thy poniard, broil me on that furnace, but spare my daughter! Will you deprive me of my sole remaining comfort in life?" "I would," said the Norman, somewhat relenting, "that I had known of this before. I thought you loved nothing but your money-bags." "Think not so vilely of me," returned Isaac, eager to improve the moment of apparent sympathy. "I love mine own, even as the hunted fox, the tortured wildcat loves its young." "Be it so," said Front-de-Boeuf; "but it aids us not now. I cannot help what has happened or what is to follow. My word is passed to my comrade in arms that he shall have the maiden as his share of the spoil, and I would not break it for ten Jews and Jewesses to boot. Take thought instead to pay me the ransom thou hast promised, or woe betide thee!" "Robber and villain!" cried the Jew, "I will pay thee nothing--not one silver penny will I pay thee unless my daughter is delivered to me in safety!" "Art thou in thy senses, Israelite?" asked the Norman sternly. "Hast thy flesh and blood a charm against heated iron and scalding oil?" "I care not!" replied the Jew, rendered desperate by paternal affection; "my daughter is my flesh and blood, dearer to me a thousand times than those limbs thy cruelty threatens. No silver will I give thee unless I were to pour it molten down thy [v]avaricious throat--no, not a silver penny will I give thee, [v]Nazarene, were it to save thee from the deep damnation thy whole life has merited. Take my life, if thou wilt, and say that the Jew, amidst his tortures, knew how to disappoint the Christian." "We shall see that," said Front-de-Boeuf; "for by the blessed [v]rood thou shalt feel the extremities of fire and steel! Strip him, slaves, and chain him down upon the bars." In spite of the feeble struggles of the old man, the Saracens had already torn from him his upper garment and were proceeding totally to disrobe him, when the sound of a bugle, twice winded without the castle, penetrated even to the recesses of the dungeon. Immediately after voices were heard calling for Sir Reginald Front-de-Boeuf. Unwilling to be found engaged in his hellish occupation, the savage baron gave the slaves a signal to restore Isaac's garment; and, quitting the dungeon with his attendants, he left the Jew to thank God for his own deliverance or to lament over his daughter's captivity, as his personal or parental feelings might prove the stronger. III When the bugle sounded, De Bracy was engaged in pressing his suit with the Saxon heiress Rowena, whom he had carried off under the impression that she would speedily surrender to his rough wooing. But he found her [v]obdurate as well as tearful and in no humor to listen to his professions of devotion. It was, therefore, with some relief that the free-lance heard the summons at the barbican. Going into the hall of the castle, De Bracy was presently joined by Bois-Guilbert. "Where is Front-de-Boeuf!" the latter asked. "He is [v]negotiating with the Jew, I suppose," replied De Bracy, coolly; "probably the howls of Isaac have drowned the blast of the bugle. But we will make the [v]vassals call him." They were soon after joined by Front-de-Boeuf, who had only tarried to give some necessary directions. "Let us see the cause of this cursed clamor," he said. "Here is a letter which has just been brought in, and, if I mistake not, it is in Saxon." He looked at it, turning it round and round as if he had some hopes of coming at the meaning by inverting the position of the paper, and then handed it to De Bracy. "It may be magic spells for aught I know," said De Bracy, who possessed his full proportion of the ignorance which characterized the chivalry of the period. "Give it to me," said the Templar. "We have that of the priestly character that we have some knowledge to enlighten our valor." "Let us profit by your most reverend knowledge, then," returned De Bracy. "What says the scroll?" "It is a formal letter of defiance," answered Bois-Guilbert; "but, by our Lady of Bethlehem, if it be not a foolish jest, it is the most extraordinary [v]cartel that ever went across the drawbridge of a baronial castle." "Jest!" exclaimed Front-de-Boeuf. "I would gladly know who dares jest with me in such a matter! Read it, Sir Brian." The Templar accordingly read as follows: "I, Wamba, the son of Witless, jester to a noble and free-born man, Cedric of Rotherwood, called the Saxon: and I, Gurth, the son of Beowulph, the swineherd--" "Thou art mad!" cried Front-de-Boeuf, interrupting the reader. "By Saint Luke, it is so set down," answered the Templar. Then, resuming his task, he went on: "I, Gurth, the son of Beowulph, swineherd unto the said Cedric, with the assistance of our allies and confederates, who make common cause with us in this our feud, namely, the good knight, called for the present the Black Knight, and the stout yeoman, Robert Locksley, called Cleve-the-wand: Do you, Reginald Front-de-Boeuf, and your allies and accomplices whomsoever, to wit, that whereas you have, without cause given or feud declared, wrongfully and by mastery, seized upon the person of our lord and master, the said Cedric; also upon the person of a noble and free-born damsel, the Lady Rowena; also upon the person of a noble and free-born man, Athelstane of Coningsburgh; also upon the persons of certain free-born men, their vassals; also upon certain serfs, their born bondsmen; also upon a certain Jew, named Isaac of York, together with his daughter, and certain horses and mules: therefore, we require and demand that the said persons be within an hour after the delivery hereof delivered to us, untouched and unharmed in body and goods. Failing of which, we do pronounce to you that we hold ye as robbers and traitors and will wager our bodies against ye in battle and do our utmost to your destruction. Signed by us upon the eve of Saint Withold's day, under the great oak in the Hart-hill Walk, the above being written by a holy man, clerk to God and Saint Dunstan in the chapel of Copmanhurst." The knights heard this uncommon document read from end to end and then gazed upon each other in silent amazement, as being utterly at a loss to know what it could portend. De Bracy was the first to break silence by an uncontrollable fit of laughter, wherein he was joined, though with more moderation, by the Templar. Front-de-Boeuf, on the contrary, seemed impatient of their ill-timed [v]jocularity. "I give you plain warning," he said, "fair sirs, that you had better consult how to bear yourselves under these circumstances than to give way to such misplaced merriment." "Front-de-Boeuf has not recovered his temper since his overthrow in the tournament," said De Bracy to the Templar. "He is cowed at the very idea of a cartel, though it be from a fool and a swineherd." "I would thou couldst stand the whole brunt of this adventure thyself, De Bracy," answered Front-de-Boeuf. "These fellows dared not to have acted with such inconceivable impudence had they not been supported by some strong bands. There are enough outlaws in this forest to resent my protecting the deer. I did but tie one fellow, who was taken red-handed and in the fact, to the horns of a wild stag, which gored him to death in five minutes, and I had as many arrows shot at me as were launched in the tournament. Here, fellow," he added to one of his attendants, "hast thou sent out to see by what force this precious challenge is to be supported?" "There are at least two hundred men assembled in the woods," answered a squire who was in attendance. "Here is a proper matter!" said Front-de-Boeuf. "This comes of lending you the use of my castle. You cannot manage your undertaking quietly, but you must bring this nest of hornets about my ears!" "Of hornets?" echoed De Bracy. "Of stingless drones rather--a band of lazy knaves who take to the wood and destroy the venison rather than labor for their maintenance." "Stingless!" replied Front-de-Boeuf. "Fork-headed shafts of a cloth-yard in length, and these shot within the breadth of a French crown, are sting enough." "For shame, sir knight!" said the Templar. "Let us summon our people and sally forth upon them. One knight--ay, one man-at-arms--were enough for twenty such peasants." "Enough, and too much," agreed De Bracy. "I should be ashamed to couch lance against them." "True," answered Front-de-Boeuf, drily, "were they black Turks or Moors, Sir Templar, or the craven peasants of France, most valiant De Bracy; but these are English yeomen, over whom we shall have no advantage save what we may derive from our arms and horses, which will avail us little in the glades of the forest. Sally, saidst thou? We have scarce men enough to defend the castle. The best of mine are at York; so is your band, De Bracy; and we have scarce twenty, besides the handful that were engaged in this mad business." "Thou dost not fear," said the Templar, "that they can assemble in force sufficient to attempt the castle?" "Not so, Sir Brian," answered Front-de-Boeuf. "These outlaws have indeed a daring captain; but without machines, scaling ladders, and experienced leaders my castle may defy them." "Send to thy neighbors," suggested the Templar. "Let them assemble their people and come to the rescue of three knights, besieged by a jester and swineherd in the baronial castle of Reginald Front-de-Boeuf!" "You jest, sir knight," answered the baron; "but to whom shall I send? My allies are at York, where I should have also been but for this infernal enterprise." "Then send to York and recall our people," said De Bracy. "If these [v]churls abide the shaking of my standard, I will give them credit for the boldest outlaws that ever bent bow in greenwood." "And who shall bear such a message?" said Front-de-Boeuf. "The knaves will beset every path and rip the errand out of the man's bosom. I have it," he added, after pausing for a moment. "Sir Templar, thou canst write as well as read, and if we can but find writing materials, thou shalt return an answer to this bold challenge." Paper and pen were presently brought, and Bois-Guilbert sat down and wrote, in the French language, an epistle of the following tenor: "Sir Reginald Front-de-Boeuf, with his noble and knightly allies and confederates, receives no defiances at the hands of slaves, bondsmen, or fugitives. If the person calling himself the Black Knight hath indeed a claim to the honors of chivalry, he ought to know that he stands degraded by his present association and has no right to ask reckoning at the hands of good men of noble blood. Touching the prisoners we have made, we do in Christian charity require you to send a man of religion to receive their confession and reconcile them with God; since it is our fixed intention to execute them this morning before noon, so that their heads, being placed on the battlements, shall show to all men how lightly we esteem those who have bestirred themselves in their rescue. Wherefore, as above, we require you to send a priest to reconcile them with God, in doing which you shall render them the last earthly service." This letter, being folded, was delivered to the squire, and by him to the messenger who waited without, as the answer to that which he had brought. IV About one hour afterward a man arrayed in the cowl and frock of a hermit, and having his knotted cord twisted around his middle, stood before the portal of the castle of Front-de-Boeuf. The warder demanded of him his name and errand. "[v]_Pax vobiscum_," answered the priest, "I am a poor brother of the [v]Order of St. Francis who come hither to do my office to certain unhappy prisoners now secured within this castle." "Thou art a bold friar," said the warder, "to come hither, where, saving our own drunken confessor, a rooster of thy feather hath not crowed these twenty years." With these words, he carried to the hall of the castle his unwonted intelligence that a friar stood before the gate and desired admission. With no small wonder he received his master's command to admit the holy man immediately; and, having previously manned the entrance to guard against surprise, he obeyed, without farther scruple, the order given him. "Who and whence art thou, priest?" demanded Front-de-Boeuf. "_Pax vobiscum_," reiterated the priest, with trembling voice. "I am a poor servant of Saint Francis, who, traveling through this wilderness, have fallen among thieves, which thieves have sent me unto this castle in order to do my ghostly office on two persons condemned by your honorable justice." "Ay, right," answered Front-de-Boeuf; "and canst thou tell me, the number of those banditti?" "Gallant sir," said the priest, "[v]_nomen illis legio_, their name is legion." "Tell me in plain terms what numbers there are, or, priest, thy cloak and cord will ill protect thee from my wrath." "Alas!" said the friar, "[v]_cor meum eructavit_, that is to say, I was like to burst with fear! But I conceive they may be--what of yeomen, what of commons--at least five hundred men." "What!" said the Templar, who came into the hall that moment, "muster the wasps so thick here? It is time to stifle such a mischievous brood." Then taking Front-de-Boeuf aside, "Knowest thou the priest?" "He is a stranger from a distant convent," replied Front-de-Boeuf; "I know him not." "Then trust him not with our purpose in words," urged the Templar. "Let him carry a written order to De Bracy's company of Free Companions, to repair instantly to their master's aid. In the meantime, and that the shaveling may suspect nothing, permit him to go freely about his task of preparing the Saxon hogs for the slaughter-house." "It shall be so," said Front-de-Boeuf. And he forthwith appointed a domestic to conduct the friar to the apartment where Cedric and Athelstane were confined. The natural impatience of Cedric had been rather enhanced than diminished by his confinement. He walked from one end of the hall to the other, with the attitude of a man who advances to charge an enemy or storm the breach of a beleaguered place, sometimes ejaculating to himself and sometimes addressing Athelstane. The latter stoutly and [v]stoically awaited the issue of the adventure, digesting in the meantime, with great composure, the liberal meal which he had made at noon and not greatly troubling himself about the duration of the captivity. "_Pax vobiscum_!" pronounced the priest, entering the apartment. "The blessing of Saint Dunstan, Saint Dennis, Saint Duthoc, and all other saints whatsoever, be upon ye and about ye." "Enter freely," said Cedric to the friar; "with what intent art thou come hither?" "To bid you prepare yourselves for death," was the reply. "It is impossible!" said Cedric, starting. "Fearless and wicked as they are, they dare not attempt such open and [v]gratuitous cruelty!" "Alas!" returned the priest, "to restrain them by their sense of humanity is the same as to stop a runaway horse with a bridle of silk thread. Bethink thee, therefore, Cedric, and you also, Athelstane, what crimes you have committed in the flesh, for this very day will ye be called to answer at a higher [v]tribunal." "Hearest thou this, Athelstane?" said Cedric. "We must rouse up our hearts to this last action, since better it is we should die like men than live like slaves." "I am ready," answered Athelstane, "to stand the worst of their malice, and shall walk to my death with as much composure as ever I did to my dinner." "Let us, then, unto our holy [v]gear, father," said Cedric. "Wait yet a moment, good [v]uncle," said the priest in a voice very different from his solemn tones of a moment before; "better look before you leap in the dark." "By my faith!" cried Cedric; "I should know that voice." "It is that of your trusty slave and jester," answered the priest, throwing back his cowl and revealing the face of Wamba. "Take a fool's advice, and you will not be here long." "How meanest thou, knave?" demanded the Saxon. "Even thus," replied Wamba; "take thou this frock and cord and march quietly out of the castle, leaving me your cloak and girdle to take the long leap in thy stead." "Leave thee in my stead!" exclaimed Cedric, astonished at the proposal; "why, they would hang thee, my poor knave." "E'en let them do as they are permitted," answered Wamba. "I trust--no disparagement to your birth--that the son of Witless may hang in a chain with as much gravity as the chain hung upon his ancestor the [v]alderman." "Well, Wamba," said Cedric, "for one thing will I grant thy request. And that is, if thou wilt make the exchange of garments with Lord Athelstane instead of me." "No," answered Wamba; "there were little reason in that. Good right there is that the son of Witless should suffer to save the son of Hereward; but little wisdom there were in his dying for the benefit of one whose fathers were strangers to his." "Villain," cried Cedric, "the fathers of Athelstane were monarchs of England!" "They might be whomsoever they pleased," replied Wamba; "but my neck stands too straight on my shoulders to have it twisted for their sake. Wherefore, good my master, either take my proffer yourself, or suffer me to leave this dungeon as free as I entered." "Let the old tree wither," persisted Cedric, "so the stately hope of the forest be preserved. Save the noble Athelstane, my trusty Wamba! It is the duty of each who has Saxon blood in his veins. Thou and I will abide together the utmost rage of our oppressors, while he, free and safe, shall arouse the awakened spirits of our countrymen to avenge us." "Not so, father Cedric," said Athelstane, grasping his hand--for, when roused to think or act, his deeds and sentiments were not unbecoming his high race--"not so. I would rather remain in this hall a week without food save the prisoner's stinted loaf, or drink save the prisoner's measure of water, than embrace the opportunity to escape which the slave's untaught kindness has [v]purveyed for his master. Go, noble Cedric. Your presence without may encourage friends to our rescue; your remaining here would ruin us all." "And is there any prospect, then, of rescue from without?" asked Cedric, looking at the jester. "Prospect indeed!" echoed Wamba. "Let me tell you that when you fill my cloak you are wrapped in a general's cassock. Five hundred men are there without, and I was this morning one of their chief leaders. My fool's cap was a [v]casque, and my [v]bauble a truncheon. Well, we shall see what good they will make by exchanging a fool for a wise man. Truly, I fear they will lose in valor what they may gain in discretion. And so farewell, master, and be kind to poor Gurth and his dog Fangs; and let my [v]coxcomb hang in the hall at Rotherwood in memory that I flung away my life for my master--like a faithful fool!" The last word came out with a sort of double expression, betwixt jest and earnest. The tears stood in Cedric's eyes. "Thy memory shall be preserved," he said, "while fidelity and affection have honor upon earth. But that I trust I shall find the means of saving Rowena and thee, Athelstane, and thee also, my poor Wamba, thou shouldst not overbear me in this matter." The exchange of dress was now accomplished, when a sudden doubt struck Cedric. "I know no language but my own and a few words of their mincing Norman. How shall I bear myself like a reverend brother?" "The spell lies in two words," replied Wamba: "_Pax vobiscum_ will answer all queries. If you go or come, eat or drink, bless or ban, _Pax vobiscum_ carries you through it all. It is as useful to a friar as a broomstick to a witch or a wand to a conjurer. Speak it but thus, in a deep, grave tone,--_Pax vobiscum_!--it is irresistible. Watch and ward, knight and squire, foot and horse, it acts as a charm upon them all. I think, if they bring me out to be hanged to-morrow, as is much to be doubted they may, I will try its weight." "If such prove the case," said his master, "my religious orders are soon taken. _Pax vobiscum_! I trust I shall remember the password. Noble Athelstane, farewell; and farewell, my poor boy, whose heart might make amends for a weaker head. I will save you, or return and die with you. Farewell." "Farewell, noble Cedric," said Athelstane; "remember it is the true part of a friar to accept refreshment, if you are offered any." Thus exhorted, Cedric sallied forth upon his expedition and presently found himself in the presence of Front-de-Boeuf. The Saxon, with some difficulty, compelled himself to make obeisance to the haughty baron, who returned his courtesy with a slight inclination of the head. "Thy penitents, father," said the latter, "have made a long [v]shrift. It is the better for them, since it is the last they shall ever make. Hast thou prepared them for death?" "I found them," said Cedric, in such French as he could command, "expecting the worst, from the moment they knew into whose power they had fallen." "How now, sir friar," replied Front-de-Boeuf, "thy speech, me thinks, smacks of the rude Saxon tongue?" "I was bred in the convent of Saint Withold of Burton," answered Cedric. "Ay," said the baron; "it had been better for thee to have been a Norman, and better for my purpose, too; but need has no choice of messengers. That Saint Withold's of Burton is a howlet's nest worth the harrying. The day will soon come that the frock shall protect the Saxon as little as the mail-coat." "God's will be done!" returned Cedric, in a voice tremulous with passion, which Front-de-Boeuf imputed to fear. "I see," he said, "thou dreamest already that our men-at-arms are in thy refectory and thy ale-vaults. But do me one cast of thy holy office and thou shalt sleep as safe in thy cell as a snail within his shell of proof." "Speak your commands," replied Cedric, with suppressed emotion. "Follow me through this passage, then, that I may dismiss thee by the postern." As he strode on his way before the supposed friar, Front-de-Boeuf thus schooled him in the part which he desired he should act. "Thou seest, sir friar, yon herd of Saxon swine who have dared to environ this castle of Torquilstone. Tell them whatever thou hast a mind of the weakness of this [v]fortalice, or aught else that can detain them before it for twenty-four hours. Meantime bear this scroll--but soft--canst thou read, sir priest?" "Not a jot I," answered Cedric, "save on my [v]breviary; and then I know the characters because I have the holy service by heart, praised be Saint Withold!" "The fitter messenger for my purpose. Carry thou this scroll to the castle of Philip de [v]Malvoisin; say it cometh from me and is written by the Templar, Brian de Bois-Guilbert, and that I pray him to send it to York with all speed man and horse can make. Meanwhile, tell him to doubt nothing he shall find us whole and sound behind our battlement. Shame on it, that we should be compelled to hide thus by a pack of runagates who are wont to fly even at the flash of our pennons and the tramp of our horses! I say to thee, priest, contrive some cast of thine art to keep the knaves where they are until our friends bring up their lances." With these words, Front-de-Boeuf led the way to a postern where, passing the moat on a single plank, they reached a small barbican, or exterior defense, which communicated with the open field by a well-fortified sally-port. "Begone, then; and if thou wilt do mine errand, and return hither when it is done, thou shalt see Saxon flesh cheap as ever was hog's in the shambles of Sheffield. And, hark thee! thou seemest to be a jolly confessor--come hither after the onslaught and thou shalt have as much good wine as would drench thy whole convent." "Assuredly we shall meet again," answered Cedric. "Something in the hand the whilst," continued the Norman; and, as they parted at the postern door, he thrust in Cedric's reluctant hand a gold [v]byzant, adding, "Remember, I will flay off both cowl and skin if thou failest in thy purpose." The supposed priest passed out of the door without further words. Front-de-Boeuf turned back within the castle. "Ho! Giles jailer," he called, "let them bring Cedric of Rotherwood before me, and the other churl, his companion--him I mean of Coningsburgh--Athelstane there, or what call they him? Their very names are an encumbrance to a Norman knight's mouth, and have, as it were, a flavor of bacon. Give me a stoop of wine, as jolly Prince John would say, that I may wash away the relish. Place it in the armory, and thither lead the prisoners." His commands were obeyed; and upon entering that Gothic apartment, hung with many spoils won by his own valor and that of his father, he found a flagon of wine on a massive oaken table, and the two Saxon captives under the guard of four of his dependants. Front-de-Boeuf took a long draught of wine and then addressed his prisoners, for the imperfect light prevented his perceiving that the more important of them had escaped. "Gallants of England," said Front-de-Boeuf, "how relish ye your entertainment at Torquilstone? Faith and Saint Dennis, an ye pay not a rich ransom, I will hang ye up by the feet from the iron bars of these windows till the kites and hooded crows have made skeletons of you! Speak out, ye Saxon dogs, what bid ye for your worthless lives? What say you, you of Rotherwood?" "Not a [v]doit I," answered poor Wamba, "and for hanging up by the feet, my brain has been topsy-turvy ever since the [v]biggin was bound first around my head; so turning me upside down may peradventure restore it again." "Hah!" cried Front-de-Boeuf, "what have we here?" And with the back of his hand he struck Cedric's cap from the head of the jester, and throwing open his collar, discovered the fatal badge of servitude, the silver collar round his neck. "Giles--Clement--dogs and varlets!" called the furious Norman, "what villain have you brought me here?" "I think I can tell you," said De Bracy, who just entered the apartment. "This is Cedric's clown." "Go," ordered Front-de-Boeuf; "fetch me the right Cedric hither, and I pardon your error for once--the rather that you but mistook a fool for a Saxon [v]franklin." "Ay, but," said Wamba, "your chivalrous excellency will find there are more fools than franklins among us." "What means this knave?" said Front-de-Boeuf, looking toward his followers, who, lingering and loath, faltered forth their belief that if this were not Cedric who was there in presence, they knew not what was become of him. "Heavens!" exclaimed De Bracy. "He must have escaped in the monk's garments!" "Fiends!" echoed Front-de-Boeuf. "It was then the boar of Rotherwood whom I ushered to the postern and dismissed with my own hands! And thou," he said to Wamba, "whose folly could over-reach the wisdom of idiots yet more gross than thyself. I will give thee holy orders, I will shave thy crown for thee! Here, let them tear the scalp from his head and pitch him headlong from the battlements. Thy trade is to jest: canst thou jest now?" "You deal with me better than your word, noble knight," whimpered forth poor Wamba, whose habits of [v]buffoonery were not to be overcome even by the immediate prospect of death; "if you give me the red cap you propose, out of a simple monk you will make a [v]cardinal." "The poor wretch," said De Bracy, "is resolved to die in his vocation." The next moment would have been Wamba's last but for an unexpected interruption. A hoarse shout, raised by many voices, bore to the inmates of the hall the tidings that the besiegers were advancing to the attack. There was a moment's silence in the hall, which was broken by De Bracy. "To the battlements," he said; "let us see what these knaves do without." So saying, he opened a latticed window which led to a sort of projecting balcony, and immediately called to those in the apartment, "Saint Dennis, it is time to stir! They bring forward [v]mantelets and [v]pavisses, and the archers muster on the skirts of the wood like a dark cloud before a hail-storm." Front-de-Boeuf also looked out upon the field and immediately snatched his bugle. After winding a long and loud blast, he commanded his men to their posts on the walls. "De Bracy, look to the eastern side, where the walls are lowest. Noble Bois-Guilbert, thy trade hath well taught thee how to attack and defend, so look thou to the western side. I myself will take post at the barbican. Our numbers are few, but activity and courage may supply that defect, since we have only to do with rascal clowns." The Templar had in the meantime been looking out on the proceedings of the besiegers with deeper attention than Front-de-Boeuf or his giddy companion. "By the faith of mine order," he said, "these men approach with more touch of discipline than could have been judged, however they come by it. See ye how dexterously they avail themselves of every cover which a tree or bush affords and avoid exposing themselves to the shot of our cross-bows? I spy neither banner nor pennon, and yet I will gage my golden chain that they are led by some noble knight or gentleman skillful in the practice of wars." "I espy him," said De Bracy; "I see the waving of a knight's crest and the gleam of his armor. See yon tall man in the black mail who is busied marshaling the farther troop of the rascally yeomen. By Saint Dennis, I hold him to be the knight who did so well in the tournament at Ashby." The demonstrations of the enemy's approach cut off all farther discourse. The Templar and De Bracy repaired to their posts and, at the head of the few followers they were able to muster, awaited with calm determination the threatened assault, while Front-de-Boeuf went to see that all was secure in the besieged fortress. V In the meantime, the wounded Wilfred of Ivanhoe had been gradually recovering his strength. Taken into her litter by Rebecca when his own father hesitated to succor him, the young knight had lain in a stupor through all the experiences of the journey and the capture of Cedric's party by the Normans. De Bracy, who, bad as he was, was not without some [v]compunction, on finding the occupant of the litter to be Ivanhoe, had placed the invalid under the charge of two of his squires, who were directed to state to any inquirers that he was a wounded comrade. This explanation was now accordingly returned by these men to Front-de-Boeuf, when, in going the round of the castle, he questioned them why they did not make for the battlements upon the alarm of the attack. "A wounded comrade!" he exclaimed in great wrath and astonishment. "No wonder that churls and yeomen wax so presumptuous as even to lay leaguer before castles, and that clowns and swineherds send defiances to nobles, since men-at-arms have turned sick men's nurses. To the battlements, ye loitering villains!" he cried, raising his [v]stentorian voice till the arches rang again; "to the battlements, or I will splinter your bones with this truncheon." The men, who, like most of their description, were fond of enterprise and detested inaction, went joyfully to the scene of danger, and the care of Ivanhoe fell to Rebecca, who occupied a neighboring apartment and who was not kept in close confinement. The beautiful young Jewess rejoined the knight, whom she had so signally befriended, at the moment of the beginning of the attack on the castle. Ivanhoe, already much better and chafing at his enforced inaction, resembled the war-horse who scenteth the battle afar. "If I could but drag myself to yonder window," he said, "that I might see how this brave game is like to go--if I could strike but a single blow for our deliverance! It is in vain; I am alike nerveless and weaponless!" "Fret not thyself, noble knight," answered Rebecca, "the sounds have ceased of a sudden. It may be they join not battle." "Thou knowest naught of it," returned Wilfred, impatiently; "this dead pause only shows that the men are at their posts on the walls and expect an instant attack. What we have heard was but the distant muttering of the storm, which will burst anon in all its fury. Could I but reach yonder window!" "Thou wilt injure thyself by the attempt, noble knight," replied the attendant. Then she added, "I myself will stand at the lattice and describe to you as I can what passes without." "You must not; you shall not!" exclaimed Ivanhoe. "Each lattice will soon be a mark for the archers; some random shaft may strike you. At least cover thy body with yonder ancient buckler and show as little of thyself as may be." Availing herself of the protection of the large, ancient shield, which she placed against the lower part of the window, Rebecca, with tolerable security, could witness part of what was passing without the castle and report to Ivanhoe the preparations being made for the storming. From where she stood she had a full view of the outwork likely to be the first object of the assault. It was a fortification of no great height or strength, intended to protect the postern-gate through which Cedric had been recently dismissed by Front-de-Boeuf. The castle moat divided this species of barbican from the rest of the fortress, so that, in case of its being taken, it was easy to cut off the communication with the main building by withdrawing the temporary bridge. In the outwork was a sally-port corresponding to the postern of the castle, and the whole was surrounded by a strong palisade. From the mustering of the assailants in a direction nearly opposite the outwork, it seemed plain that this point had been selected for attack. Rebecca communicated this to Ivanhoe, and added, "The skirts of the wood seem lined with archers, although only a few are advanced from its dark shadow." "Under what banner?" asked Ivanhoe. "Under no ensign of war which I can observe," answered Rebecca. "A singular novelty," muttered the knight, "to advance to storm such a castle without pennon or banner displayed! Seest thou who they are that act as leaders? Or, are all of them but stout yeomen?" "A knight clad in sable armor is the most conspicuous," she replied; "he alone is armed from head to foot, and he seems to assume the direction of all around him." "Seem there no other leaders?" demanded the anxious inquirer. "None of mark and distinction that I can behold from this station," said Rebecca. "They appear even now preparing to attack. God of Zion protect us! What a dreadful sight! Those who advance first bear huge shields and defenses made of plank; the others follow, bending their bows as they come on. They raise their bows! God of Moses, forgive the creatures thou hast made!" Her description was suddenly interrupted by the signal for assault, which was the blast of a shrill bugle, at once answered by a flourish of the Norman trumpets from the battlements. The shouts of both parties augmented the fearful din, the assailants crying, "Saint George for merry England!" and the Normans answering them with cries of "[v]_Beauseant! Beauseant!_" It was not, however, by clamor that the contest was to be decided, and the desperate efforts of the assailants were met by an equally vigorous defense on the part of the besieged. The archers, trained by their woodland pastimes to the most effective use of the longbow, shot so rapidly and accurately that no point at which a defender could show the least part of his person escaped their [v]cloth-yard shafts. By this heavy discharge, which continued as thick and sharp as hail, two or three of the garrison were slain and several others wounded. But, confident in their armor of proof and in the cover which their situation afforded, the followers of Front-de-Boeuf, and his allies, showed an obstinacy in defense proportioned to the fury of the attack, replying with the discharge of their large cross-bows to the close and continued shower of arrows. As the assailants were necessarily but indifferently protected, they received more damage than they did. "And I must lie here like a bedridden monk," exclaimed Ivanhoe, "while the game that gives me freedom or death is played out by the hands of others! Look from the window once again, kind maiden, but beware that you are not marked by the archers beneath--look out once more and tell me if they yet advance to the storm." With patient courage, Rebecca again took post at the lattice. "What dost thou see?" demanded the wounded knight. "Nothing but the cloud of arrows flying so thick as to dazzle mine eyes and hide the bowmen who shoot them." "That cannot endure," remarked Ivanhoe. "If they press not on to carry the castle by pure force of arms, the archery may avail but little against stone walls and bulwarks. Look for the sable knight and see how he bears himself, for as the leader is, so will his followers be." "I see him not," said Rebecca. "Foul craven!" exclaimed Ivanhoe; "does he blench from the helm when the wind blows highest?" "He blenches not! he blenches not!" cried Rebecca. "I see him now; he heads a body of men close under the outer barrier of the barbican. They pull down the piles and palisades; they hew down the barriers with axes. His high black plume floats over the throng, like a raven over the field of the slain. They have made a breach in the barriers--they rush in--they are thrust back! Front-de-Boeuf heads the defenders; I see his gigantic form above the press. They throng again to the breach, and the pass is disputed hand to hand, and man to man. Have mercy, God!" She turned her head from the lattice, as if unable longer to endure a sight so terrible. "Look forth again, Rebecca," urged Ivanhoe, mistaking the cause of her retiring; "the archery must in some degree have ceased, since they are now fighting hand to hand. Look again; there is less danger." Rebecca again looked forth and almost immediately exclaimed: "Holy prophets of the law! Front-de-Boeuf and the Black Knight fight hand to hand in the breach, amid the roar of their followers, who watch the progress of the strife." She then uttered a loud shriek, "He is down! he is down!" "Who is down?" cried Ivanhoe; "tell me which has fallen?" "The Black Knight," answered Rebecca, faintly; then shouted with joyful eagerness, "But no--the name of the Lord of Hosts be blessed!--he is on foot again and fights as if there were twenty men's strength in his single arm. His sword is broken--he snatches an ax from a yeoman--he presses Front-de-Boeuf with blow on blow. The giant stoops and totters like an oak under the steel of a woodsman--he falls--he falls!" "Front-de-Boeuf?" exclaimed Ivanhoe. "Front-de-Boeuf!" answered the Jewess. "His men rush to the rescue, headed by the haughty Templar--their united force compels the champion to pause--they drag Front-de-Boeuf within the walls." "The assailants have won the barriers, have they not?" Ivanhoe eagerly queried. "They have! they have!" answered Rebecca; "and they press the besieged hard on the outer wall. Some plant ladders, some swarm like bees and endeavor to ascend upon the shoulders of each other. Down go stones, beams, and trunks of trees on their heads, and as fast as they bear the wounded to the rear, fresh men supply their places. Great God! hast thou given men thine own image, that it should be thus cruelly defaced by the hands of their brethren!" "Think not of that," said Ivanhoe. "This is no time for such thoughts. Who yield--who push their way?" "The ladders are thrown down," replied Rebecca, shuddering; "the soldiers lie groveling under them like crushed reptiles; the besieged have the better." "Saint George strike for us!" exclaimed the knight; "do the false yeomen give way?" "No," exclaimed Rebecca, "they bear themselves right yeomanly--the Black Knight approaches the postern with his huge ax--the thundering blows he deals you may hear above all the din of the battle. Stones and beams are hailed down on the bold champion--he regards them no more than if they were thistle-down or feathers!" "By Saint John of Acre," cried Ivanhoe, raising himself joyfully on his couch, "methought there was but one man in England that might do such a deed!" "The postern-gate shakes," continued Rebecca; "it crashes--it is splintered by his blows--they rush in--the outwork is won! Oh, God! they hurl the defenders from the battlements--they throw them into the moat--men, if ye indeed be men, spare them that can resist no longer!" "The bridge--the bridge which communicates with the castle--have they won that pass?" "No," replied Rebecca. "The Templar has destroyed the plank on which they crossed--few of the defenders escaped with him into the castle--the shrieks and cries you hear tell the fate of the others! Alas! I see it is more difficult to look on victory than on battle." "What do they now, maiden?" asked Ivanhoe. "Look forth yet again; this is no time to faint at bloodshed." "It is over for the time," answered Rebecca. "Our friends strengthen themselves within the outwork which they have mastered; it affords them so good a shelter from the foeman's shot that the garrison only bestow a few bolts on it from interval to interval, as if to disquiet rather than to injure them." "Our friends," said Wilfred, "will surely not abandon an enterprise so gloriously begun and so happily attained. Oh, no! I will put my faith in the good knight whose ax hath rent heart-of-oak and bars of iron." VI During the interval of quiet which followed the first success of the besiegers, the Black Knight was employed in causing to be constructed a sort of floating bridge, or long raft, by means of which he hoped to cross the moat in despite of the resistance of the enemy. This was a work of some time. When the raft was completed, the Black Knight addressed the besiegers: "It avails not waiting here longer, my friends; the sun is descending in the west, and I may not tarry for another day. Besides, it will be a marvel if the horsemen do not come upon us from York, unless we speedily accomplish our purpose. Wherefore, one of you go to Locksley and bid him commence a discharge of arrows on the opposite side of the castle, and move forward as if about to assault it; while you, true Englishmen, stand by me and be ready to thrust the raft end-long over the moat whenever the postern on our side is thrown open. Follow me boldly across, and aid me to burst yon sally-port in the main wall of the castle. As many of you as like not this service, or are but ill-armed, do you man the top of the outwork, draw your bowstrings to your ears and quell with your shot whoever shall appear upon the rampant. Noble Cedric, wilt thou take the direction of those that remain?" "Not so," answered the Saxon. "Lead I cannot, but my posterity curse me in my grave if I follow not with the foremost wherever thou shalt point the way!" "Yet, bethink thee, noble Saxon," said the knight, "thou hast neither hauberk nor corslet, nor aught but that light helmet, [v]target, and sword." "The better," replied Cedric; "I shall be the lighter to climb these walls. And--forgive the boast, sir knight--thou shalt this day see the naked breast of a Saxon as boldly presented to the battle as ever you beheld the steel corslet of a Norman warrior." "In the name of God, then," said the knight, "fling open the door and launch the floating bridge!" The portal which led from the inner wall of the barbican, now held by the besiegers, to the moat and corresponded with a sally-port in the main wall of the castle was suddenly opened. The temporary bridge was immediately thrust forward and extended its length between the castle and outwork, forming a slippery and precarious passage for two men abreast to cross the moat. Well aware of the importance of taking the foe by surprise, the Black Knight, closely followed by Cedric, threw himself upon the bridge and reached the opposite shore. Here he began to thunder with his ax on the gate of the castle, protected in part from the shot and stones cast by the defenders by the ruins of the former drawbridge, which the Templar had demolished in his retreat from the barbican, leaving the [v]counterpoise still attached to the upper part of the portal. The followers of the knight had no such shelter; two were instantly shot with cross-bow bolts, and two more fell into the moat. The others retreated back into the barbican. [Illustration: [See page 323] He Began to Thunder on the Gate] The situation of Cedric and the Black Knight was now truly dangerous and would have been still more so but for the constancy of the archers in the barbican, who ceased not to shower their arrows on the battlements, distracting the attention of those by whom they were manned and thus affording a respite to their two chiefs from the storm of missiles, which must otherwise have overwhelmed them. But their situation was eminently perilous, and was becoming more so with every moment. "Shame on ye all!" cried De Bracy to the soldiers around him; "do ye call yourselves cross-bowmen and let these two dogs keep their station under the walls of the castle? Heave over the coping stones from the battlement, an better may not be. Get pick-ax and levers and down with that huge pinnacle!" pointing to a heavy piece of stone-carved work that projected from the parapet. At this moment Locksley whipped up the courage of his men. "Saint George for England!" he cried. "To the charge, bold yeomen! Why leave ye the good knight and noble Cedric to storm the pass alone? Make in, yeomen! The castle is taken. Think of honor; think of spoil. One effort and the place is ours." With that he bent his good bow and sent a shaft right through the breast of one of the men-at-arms, who, under De Bracy's direction, was loosening a fragment from one of the battlements to precipitate on the heads of Cedric and the Black Knight. A second soldier caught from the hands of the dying man the iron crow, with which he had heaved up and loosened the stone pinnacle, when, receiving an arrow through his headpiece, he dropped from the battlement into the moat a dead man. The men-at-arms were daunted, for no armor seemed proof against the shot of this tremendous archer. "Do you give ground, base knaves?" cried De Bracy. "[v]_Mountjoy Saint Dennis_! Give me the lever." Snatching it up, he again assailed the loosened pinnacle, which was of weight enough, if thrown down, not only to have destroyed the remnant of the drawbridge, which sheltered the two foremost assailants, but also to have sunk the rude float of planks over which they had crossed. All saw the danger, and the boldest, even the stout friar himself, avoided setting a foot on the raft. Thrice did Locksley bend his shaft against De Bracy, and thrice did his arrow bound back from the knight's armor of proof. "Curse on thy Spanish steel-coat!" said Locksley; "had English smith forged it, these arrows had gone through it as if it had been silk." He then began to call out: "Comrades! friends! noble Cedric! bear back and let the ruin fall." His warning voice was unheard, for the din which the Black Knight himself occasioned by his strokes upon the postern would have drowned twenty war-trumpets. The faithful Gurth indeed sprang forward on the planked bridge to warn Cedric of his impending fate, or to share it with him. But his warning would have come too late; the massive pinnacle already tottered, and De Bracy, who still heaved at his task, would have accomplished it, had not the voice of the Templar sounded close in his ear. "All is lost, De Bracy; the castle burns." "Thou art mad to say so," replied the knight. "It is all in a light flame on the western side," returned Bois-Guilbert. "I have striven in vain to extinguish it." "What is to be done?" cried De Bracy. "I vow to Saint Nicholas of Limoges a candlestick of pure gold--" "Spare thy vow," said the Templar, "and mark me. Lead thy men down, as if to a sally; throw the postern-gate open. There are but two men who occupy the float; fling them into the moat and push across to the barbican. I will charge from the main gate and attack the barbican on the outside. If we can regain that post, we shall defend ourselves until we are relieved or, at least, until they grant us fair quarter." "It is well thought upon," replied De Bracy; "I will play my part." De Bracy hastily drew his men together and rushed down to the postern-gate, which he caused instantly to be thrown open. Scarce was this done ere the portentous strength of the Black Knight forced his way inward in despite of De Bracy and his followers. Two of the foremost instantly fell, and the rest gave way, notwithstanding all their leader's efforts to stop them. "Dogs!" cried De Bracy; "will ye let two men win our only pass for safety?" "He is the devil!" replied a veteran man-at-arms, bearing back from the blows of their sable antagonist. "And if he be the devil," said De Bracy, "would you fly from him into the mouth of hell? The castle burns behind us, villains! Let despair give you courage, or let me forward. I will cope with this champion myself." And well and chivalrously did De Bracy that day maintain the fame he had acquired in the civil wars of that dreadful period. The vaulted passages in which the two redoubted champions were now fighting hand to hand rang with the furious blows they dealt each other, De Bracy with his sword, the Black Knight with his ponderous ax. At length the Norman received a blow, which, though its force was partly parried by his shield, descended yet with such violence on his crest that he measured his length on the paved floor. "Yield thee, De Bracy," said the Black Knight, stooping over him and holding against the bars of his helmet the fatal poniard with which knights despatched their enemies; "yield thee, Maurice de Bracy, rescue or no rescue, or thou art but a dead man. Speak!" The gallant Norman, seeing the hopelessness of further resistance, yielded, and was allowed to rise. "Let me tell thee what it imports thee to know," he said. "Wilfred of Ivanhoe is wounded and a prisoner, and will perish in the burning castle without present help." "Wilfred of Ivanhoe!" exclaimed the Black Knight. "The life of every man in the castle shall answer if a hair of his head be singed. Show me his chamber!" "Ascend yonder stair," directed De Bracy. "It leads to his apartment." The turret was now in bright flames, which flashed out furiously from window and shot-hole. But, in other parts, the great thickness of the walls and the vaulted roofs of the apartments resisted the progress of the fire, and there the rage of man still triumphed; for the besiegers pursued the defenders of the castle from chamber to chamber. Most of the garrison resisted to the uttermost; few of them asked quarter--none received it. The air was filled with groans and the clashing of arms. Through this scene of confusion the Black Knight rushed in quest of Ivanhoe, whom he found in Rebecca's charge. The knight, picking up the wounded man as if he were a child, bore him quickly to safety. In the meantime, Cedric had gone in search of Rowena, followed by the faithful Gurth. The noble Saxon was so fortunate as to reach his ward's apartment just as she had abandoned all hope of safety and sat in expectation of instant death. He committed her to the charge of Gurth, to be carried without the castle. The loyal Cedric then hastened in quest of his friend Athelstane, determined at every risk to himself to save the prince. But ere Cedric penetrated as far as the old hall in which he himself had been a prisoner, the inventive genius of Wamba had procured liberation for himself and his companion. When the noise of the conflict announced that it was at the hottest, the jester began to shout with the utmost power of his lungs, "Saint George and the Dragon! Bonny Saint George for merry England! The castle is won!" These sounds he rendered yet more fearful by banging against each other two or three pieces of rusty armor which lay scattered around the hall. The guards at once ran to tell the Templar that foemen had entered the old hall. Meantime the prisoners found no difficulty in making their escape into the court of the castle, which was now the last scene of the contest. Here sat the fierce Templar, mounted on horseback and surrounded by several of the garrison, who had united their strength in order to secure the last chance of safety and retreat which remained to them. The principal, and now the single remaining drawbridge, had been lowered by his orders, but the passage was beset; for the archers, who had hitherto only annoyed the castle on that side by their missiles, no sooner saw the flames breaking out and the bridge lowered than they thronged to the entrance. On the other hand, a party of the besiegers who had entered by the postern on the opposite side were now issuing into the court-yard and attacking with fury the remnant of the defenders in the rear. Animated, however, by despair and the example of their gallant leader, the remaining soldiers of the castle fought with the utmost valor; and, being well armed, they succeeded in driving back the assailants. Crying aloud, "Those who would save themselves, follow me!" Bois-Guilbert pushed across the drawbridge, dispersing the archers who would have stopped them. He was followed by the Saracen slaves and some five or six men-at-arms, who had mounted their horses. The Templar's retreat was rendered perilous by the number of arrows shot at him and his party; but this did not prevent him from galloping round to the barbican, where he expected to find De Bracy. "De Bracy!" he shouted, "art thou there?" "I am here," answered De Bracy, "but a prisoner." "Can I rescue thee?" cried Bois-Guilbert. "No," said the other. "I have rendered myself." Upon hearing this, the Templar galloped off with his followers, leaving the besiegers in complete possession of the castle. Fortunately, by this time all the prisoners had been rescued and stood together without the castle, while the yeomen ran through the apartments seeking to save from the devouring flames such valuables as might be found. They were soon driven out by the fiery element. The towering flames surmounted every obstruction and rose to the evening skies one huge and burning beacon, seen far and wide through the adjacent country. Tower after tower crashed down, with blazing roof and rafter. The victors, assembling in large bands, gazed with wonder not unmixed with fear upon the flames, in which their own ranks and arms glanced dusky red. The voice of Locksley was at length heard, "Shout, yeomen! the den of tyrants is no more! Let each bring his spoil to the tree in Hart-hill Walk, for there we will make just partition among ourselves, together with our worthy allies in this great deed of vengeance." SIR WALTER SCOTT. =HELPS TO STUDY= I. Tell what you find out about Cedric and his son, Ivanhoe, or the "Disinherited Knight." What impression do you get of Cedric's character? of Athelstane's? What was the first adventure the travelers had? Who was "the sick friend" the Jews were assisting? What further adventure befell the travelers? How did Gurth show his true character? Who came to the aid of Gurth and Wamba? What did Wamba mean by "whether they be thy children's coats or no"? What impression do you get of the stranger? Describe the scene in the hermit's abode. What impression do you get of him? Of the Black Knight? II. Who had made Cedric's party prisoners? Why? Tell what Cedric said when he discovered who his captors were. What disposition was made of the prisoners? Describe the scene in Isaac's cell. How was Front-de-Boeuf interrupted? III. What challenge did the knights receive? How did they answer it? IV. Who came in the character of a priest? What plan did he carry out? How? How did Cedric act his part? Describe the scene when the escape was discovered. How was Front-de-Boeuf prevented from doing Wamba harm? V. How did Ivanhoe fall to the care of Rebecca? Where did Rebecca take her station? Describe the scenes she saw. What knight led the assault? How did Rebecca describe him? Can you guess who the Black Knight was? Whom did Ivanhoe think of when he said, "Methought there was but one man in England that might do such a deed"? VI. What plan did the Black Knight make? How was it executed? Which of the assailants proved themselves especial heroes? What was De Bracy's plan? How was its accomplishment prevented? What plan for escape did the Templar have? How did it end? Tell how Ivanhoe, Rowena, Athelstane and Wamba were liberated. Tell what became of the knights. Who do you think Locksley was? All of the party were rescued except Rebecca, who was carried off by Bois-Guilbert and accused of witchcraft. You will have to read the novel, _Ivanhoe_, to learn of the further adventures of her, Rowena, the Black Knight, and Ivanhoe. SUPPLEMENTARY READING The Talisman--Sir Walter Scott. The White Company--A. Conan Doyle. When Knighthood Was in Flower--Charles Major. The Last of the Barons--Edward Bulwer-Lytton. Don Quixote--Miguel de Cervantes. The Idylls of the King--Alfred Tennyson. Scottish Chiefs--Jane Porter. SEA FEVER I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by; And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking, And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking. I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied; And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying, And the flung spray and the blown [v]spume, and the sea-gulls crying. I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life, To the gull's way and the whale's way where the wind's like a whetted knife; And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover, And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over. JOHN MASEFIELD. A GREYPORT LEGEND They ran through the streets of the seaport town; They peered from the decks of the ships that lay: The cold sea-fog that comes whitening down Was never as cold or white as they. "Ho, Starbuck, and Pinckney, and Tenterden, Run for your shallops, gather your men, Scatter your boats on the lower bay!" Good cause for fear! In the thick midday The hulk that lay by the rotting pier, Filled with the children in happy play, Parted its moorings and drifted clear; Drifted clear beyond reach or call,-- Thirteen children they were in all,-- All adrift in the lower bay! Said a hard-faced skipper, "God help us all! She will not float till the turning tide!" Said his wife, "My darling will hear _my_ call, Whether in sea or heaven she abide!" And she lifted a quavering voice and high, Wild and strange as a sea-bird's cry, Till they shuddered and wondered at her side. The fog drove down on each laboring crew, Veiled each from each and the sky and shore; There was not a sound but the breath they drew, And the lap of water and creak of oar. And they felt the breath of the downs fresh blown O'er leagues of clover and cold gray stone, But not from the lips that had gone before. They came no more. But they tell the tale That, when fogs are thick on the harbor reef, The mackerel-fishers shorten sail; For the signal they know will bring relief, For the voices of children, still at play In a phantom-hulk that drifts alway Through channels whose waters never fail. It is but a foolish shipman's tale, A theme for a poet's idle page; But still, when the mists of doubt prevail, And we lie becalmed by the shores of age, We hear from the misty troubled shore The voice of the children gone before, Drawing the soul to its anchorage! BRET HARTE. =HELPS TO STUDY= Read the poem and tell the story found in it. Why was every one so "cold and white"? What was the great danger? What happened to prevent the sailors' getting to the hulk? What is the tale that is told? What is the thought the poet leaves with us in the last stanza? A HUNT BENEATH THE OCEAN This story is taken from _Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea_, the book that foreshadowed the modern submarine. Monsieur Aronnax, a scientist, with two companions, Ned Land and Conseil, was rescued at sea by a strange craft, the _Nautilus_, owned and commanded by one Captain Nemo, who hated mankind and never went ashore on inhabited land. Monsieur Aronnax remained on the submarine for months in a kind of captivity and met with many wonderful adventures. It should be noted that modern inventions have already outstripped many of the author's imaginings. On returning to my room with Ned and Conseil, I found upon my table a note addressed to me. I opened it impatiently. It was written in a bold clear hand, and ran as follows: "November 16, 1867. To Professor Aronnax, on board the _Nautilus_: Captain Nemo invites Professor Aronnax to a hunting party, which will take place to-morrow morning in the forest of the island of Crespo. He hopes that nothing will prevent the professor from being present, and he will with pleasure see him joined by his companions." "A hunt!" exclaimed Ned. "And in the forests of the island of Crespo!" added Conseil. "Oh, then the gentleman is going on [v]_terra firma_?" asked Ned Land. "That seems to be clearly indicated," said I, reading the letter once more. "Well, we must accept," said Ned. "Once more on dry land, we shall know what to do. Indeed, I shall not be sorry to eat a piece of fresh venison." I contented myself with replying, "Let us see where the island of Crespo is." I consulted the [v]planisphere and in 32° 40' north latitude, and 157° 50' west [v]longitude, I found a small island recognized in 1801 by Captain Crespo, and marked in the ancient Spanish maps as Rocca de la Platta, or Silver Rock. I showed this little rock lost in the midst of the North Pacific to my companions. "If Captain Nemo does sometimes go on dry ground," said I, "he at least chooses desert islands." Ned Land shrugged his shoulders without speaking, and Conseil and he left me. After supper, which was served by the steward, mute and impassive, I went to bed, not without some anxiety. The next morning, the 7th of November, I felt on awakening that the _Nautilus_ was perfectly still. I dressed quickly and entered the saloon. Captain Nemo was there, waiting for me. He rose, bowed, and asked me if it was convenient for me to accompany him. I simply replied that my companions and myself were ready to follow him. We entered the room where breakfast was served. "M. Aronnax," said the captain, "pray share my breakfast without ceremony; we will chat as we eat. Though I promised you a walk in the forest, I did not undertake to find hotels there; so breakfast as a man should who will most likely not have his dinner till very late." I did honor to the repast. It was composed of several kinds of fish, and different sorts of seaweed. Our drink consisted of pure water, to which the captain added some drops of a fermented liquor extracted from a seaweed. Captain Nemo ate at first without saying a word. Then he began: "Professor, when I proposed to you to hunt in my submarine forest of Crespo, you evidently thought me mad. Sir, you should never judge lightly of any man." "But, captain, believe me--" "Be kind enough to listen, and you will then see whether you have any cause to accuse me of folly and contradiction." "I listen." "You know as well as I do, professor, that man can live under water, providing he carries with him a sufficient supply of breathable air. In submarine works, the workman, clad in an [v]impervious dress, with his head in a metal helmet, receives air from above by means of forcing-pumps and [v]regulators." "That is a diving apparatus," said I. "Just so. But under these conditions the man is not at liberty; he is attached to the pump which sends him air through a rubber tube, and if we were obliged to be thus held to the _Nautilus_, we could not go far." "And the means of getting free?" I asked. "It is to use the Rouquayrol apparatus, invented by two of your own countrymen, which I have brought to perfection for my own use and which will allow you to risk yourself without any organ of the body suffering. It consists of a reservoir of thick iron plates, in which I store the air under a pressure of fifty [v]atmospheres. This reservoir is fixed on the back by means of braces, like a soldier's knapsack. Its upper part forms a box in which the air is kept by means of a bellows, and therefore cannot escape unless at its [v]normal tension. In the Rouquayrol apparatus such as we use, two rubber pipes leave this box and join a sort of tent which holds the nose and mouth; one is to introduce fresh air, the other to let out foul, and the tongues close one or the other pipe according to the wants of the [v]respirator. But I, in encountering great pressures at the bottom of the sea, was obliged to shut my head like that of a diver in a ball of copper; and it is into this ball of copper that the two pipes, the inspirator and the expirator, open. Do you see?" "Perfectly, Captain Nemo. But the air that you carry with you must soon be used; when it contains only fifteen per cent of oxygen it is no longer fit to breathe." "Right! But I told you, M. Aronnax, that the pumps of the _Nautilus_ allow me to store the air under considerable pressure; and the reservoir of the apparatus can furnish breathable air for nine or ten hours." "I have no further objections to make," I answered. "I will only ask one thing, captain--how can you light your road at the bottom of the sea?" "With the Ruhmkorff apparatus, M. Aronnax. One is carried on the back, the other is fastened to the waist. It is composed of a [v]bunsen pile, which I do not work with bichromate of potash but with sodium. A wire is introduced which collects the electricity produced, and directs it toward a lantern. In this lantern is a spiral glass which contains a small quantity of carbonic acid gas. When the apparatus is at work, this gas becomes luminous, giving out a white and continuous light. Thus provided, I can breathe and I can see." "Captain Nemo, to all my objections you make such crushing answers that I dare no longer doubt. But if I am forced to admit the Rouquayrol and Ruhmkorff apparatus, I must be allowed some reservations with regard to the gun I am to carry." "But it is not a gun for powder," he said. "Then it is an air-gun?" I asked. "Doubtless. How would you have me manufacture gunpowder on board, without saltpeter, sulphur, or charcoal?" "Besides," I added, "to fire under water in a medium eight hundred and fifty times denser than the air, we must conquer a very considerable resistance." "That would be no difficulty. There exist guns which can fire under these conditions. But I repeat, having no powder, I use air under great pressure, which the pumps of the _Nautilus_ furnish abundantly." "But this air must be rapidly used?" "Well, have I not my Rouquayrol reservoir, which can furnish it at need? A tap is all that is required. Besides, M. Aronnax, you must see yourself that during our submarine hunt we can spend but little air." "But it seems to me that in this twilight, and in the midst of this fluid, which is very dense compared with the atmosphere, shots could not go far or easily prove fatal." "On the contrary," replied Nemo, "with this gun every blow is mortal; however lightly the animal is touched, it falls dead as if struck by a thunderbolt." "Why?" "Because the balls sent by this gun are not ordinary balls, but little cases of glass, of which I have a large supply. These glass cases are covered with a shell of steel and weighted with a pellet of lead; they are real [v]Leyden jars, into which electricity is forced to a very high tension. With the slightest shock they are discharged, and the animal, however strong it may be, falls dead." Captain Nemo then led me aft; and in passing before Ned and Conseil's cabin, I called my two companions, who followed immediately. Conseil was delighted at the idea of exploring the sea, but Ned declined to go when he learned that the hunt was to be a submarine one. We came to a kind of cell near the machinery-room, in which we were to put on our walking-dress. It was, in fact, the arsenal and wardrobe of the _Nautilus_. A dozen diving-suits hung from the partition, awaiting our use. At the captain's call two of the ship's crew came to help us dress in these heavy and impervious clothes, made of rubber without seam and constructed expressly to resist considerable pressure. One might have taken this diving apparatus for a suit of armor, both supple and resisting. It formed trousers and waistcoat; the trousers were finished off with thick boots, weighted with heavy leaden soles. The texture of the waistcoat was held together by bands of copper, which crossed the chest, protecting it from the great pressure of the water and leaving the lungs free to act. The sleeves ended in gloves, which in no way restrained the movement of the hands. There was a vast difference noticeable between this dress and the old-fashioned diving-suit. Captain Nemo and one of his companions, Conseil and myself, were soon enveloped in the dresses; there remained nothing more to be done but inclose our heads in the metal boxes. Captain Nemo thrust his head into the helmet, Conseil and I did the same. The upper part of our dress terminated in a copper collar, upon which was screwed the metal helmet. Three holes, protected by thick glass, allowed us to see in all directions by simply turning our heads in the interior of the head-dress. As soon as it was in position, the Rouquayrol apparatus on our backs began to act; and, for my part, I could breathe with ease. With the Ruhmkorff lamp hanging from my belt, and the gun in my hand, I was ready to set out. But to speak the truth, imprisoned in these heavy garments and glued to the deck by the leaden soles, it was impossible for me to take a step. This state of things, however, was provided for. I felt myself being pushed into a little room next the wardrobe-room. My companions followed, towed along in the same way. I heard a water-tight door, furnished with stopper-plates, close upon us, and we were wrapped in profound darkness. After some minutes, a loud hissing was heard; I felt the cold mount from my feet to my chest. Evidently from some part of the vessel they had, by means of a tap, given entrance to the water, which was invading us and with which the room was soon filled. A second door cut in the side of the _Nautilus_ then opened. We saw a faint light. In another instant our feet trod the bottom of the sea. How can I retrace the impression left upon me by that walk under the waters? Words are impotent to relate such wonders. Captain Nemo walked in front, his companion followed some steps behind. Conseil and I remained near each other, as if an exchange of words had been possible through our metallic cases. I no longer felt the weight of my clothing, or of my shoes, of my reservoir of air, or my thick helmet, in the midst of which my head rattled like an almond in its shell. The light which lit the soil thirty feet below the surface of the ocean astonished me by its power. The solar rays shone through the watery mass easily and dissipated all color, and I clearly distinguished objects at a distance of a hundred and fifty yards. Beyond that the tints darkened into fine gradations of [v]ultramarine and faded into vague obscurity. We were walking on fine, even sand, not wrinkled as on a flat shore, which retains the impression of the billows. This dazzling carpet, really a reflector, repelled the rays of the sun with wonderful intensity, which accounted for the vibration which penetrated every atom of liquid. Shall I be believed when I say that, at a depth of thirty feet, I could see as well as if I was in broad daylight? For a quarter of an hour I trod on this sand; the hull of the _Nautilus_, resembling a long shoal, disappeared by degrees; but its lantern would help to guide us back when darkness should overtake us in the waters. Soon forms of objects outlined in the distance became discernible. I recognized magnificent rocks, hung with a tapestry of [v]zoophytes of the most beautiful kind. It was then about ten o'clock in the morning, and the rays of the sun struck the surface of the waves at rather an oblique angle; at the touch of the light, decomposed by [v]refraction as through a prism, flowers, rocks, plants, and shells were shaded at the edges by the seven solar colors. It was a marvelous feast for the eyes, this complication of colored tints, a perfect [v]kaleidoscope of green, yellow, orange, violet, indigo, and blue! All these wonders I saw in the space of a quarter of a mile, scarcely stopping and following Captain Nemo, who beckoned me on by signs. Soon the nature of the soil changed; to the sandy plain succeeded an extent of slimy mud; we then traveled over a plain of seaweed of wild and luxuriant vegetation. This sward was of close texture and soft to the feet, rivaling the softest carpet woven by the hand of man. While verdure was spread at our feet, it did not abandon our heads. A light network of marine plants grew on the surface of the water. We had been gone from the _Nautilus_ an hour and a half. It was near noon; I knew this by the [v]perpendicularity of the sun's rays, which were no longer refracted. The magical colors disappeared by degrees and the shades of emerald and sapphire were effaced. We walked with a regular step, which rang upon the ground with astonishing intensity; indeed the slightest noise was transmitted with a quickness and vividness to which the ear is unaccustomed on earth, water being a better conductor of sound than air in the [v]ratio of four to one. At this period the earth sloped downward; the light took a uniform tint. We were at a depth of a hundred and five yards. At this depth I could still see the rays of the sun, though feebly; to their intense brilliancy had succeeded a reddish twilight, but we could find our way well enough. It was not necessary to resort to the Ruhmkorff apparatus as yet. At this moment Captain Nemo stopped and waited till I joined him, pointing then to an obscure mass which loomed in the shadow at a short distance. "It is the forest of the island of Crespo," thought I, and I was not mistaken. This under-sea forest was composed of large tree-plants; and the moment we penetrated under its vast [v]arcades I was struck by the singular position of their branches: not an herb which carpeted the ground, not a branch which clothed the trees was either broken or bent, nor did they extend in a [v]horizontal direction; all stretched up toward the surface of the sea. Not a filament, not a ribbon, however thin, but kept as straight as a rod of iron. They were motionless, yet when bent to one side by the hand they directly resumed their former position. Truly it was a region of perpendicularity. I soon accustomed myself to this fantastic position, as well as to the comparative darkness which surrounded us. The sights were very wonderful. Under numerous shrubs as large as trees on land were massed bushes of living flowers--animals rather than plants--of various colors and glowing softly in the obscurity of the ocean depth. Fish flies flew from branch to branch like a swarm of humming-birds, while swarms of marine creatures rose at our feet like a flight of snipes. In about an hour Captain Nemo gave the signal to halt. I, for my part, was not sorry, and we stretched ourselves under an arbor of plants, the long thin blades of which stood up like arrows. I felt an irresistible desire to sleep, an experience which happens to all divers. My eyes soon closed behind the thick glasses and I fell into a heavy slumber. Captain Nemo and his companion, stretched in the clear crystal, set me the example. How long I remained buried in this drowsiness I cannot judge; but when I woke, the sun seemed sinking toward the horizon. Captain Nemo had already risen, and I was beginning to stretch my limbs when an unexpected sight brought me briskly to my feet. A few steps off, a monster sea-spider, about forty inches high, was watching me with squinting eyes, ready to spring on me. Though my diver's dress was thick enough to defend me from the bite of this animal, I could not help shuddering with horror. Conseil and the sailor of the _Nautilus_ awoke at this moment. Captain Nemo pointed out the hideous creature, which a blow from the butt end of a gun knocked over; I saw the claws of the monster writhe in horrible convulsions. This incident reminded me that other animals more to be feared might haunt these obscure depths, against whose attacks my diving-clothes would not protect me. Indeed, I thought that this halt would mark the end of our walk; but I was mistaken, for instead of returning to the _Nautilus_, we continued our bold excursion. The ground was still on the incline; its declivity seemed to be getting greater and to be leading us to lower depths. It must have been about three o'clock when we reached a narrow valley between high walls; thanks to the perfection of our apparatus, we were far below the depth to which divers ever penetrate. At our great depth the darkness thickened; ten paces away not an object was visible. I was groping my way when I suddenly saw a brilliant white light flash out ahead; Captain Nemo had turned on his electric torch. The rest of us soon followed his example, and the sea, lit by our four lanterns, was illuminated for a circle of forty yards. Captain Nemo still plunged onward into the dark reaches of the forest, whose trees were getting scarcer at every step. At last, after about four hours, this marvelous excursion came to an end. A wall of superb rocks rose before us, a heap of gigantic blocks, an enormous granite shore. It was the prop of the island of Crespo. It was the earth! The return now began. Captain Nemo resumed his place at the head of his little band and directed the course without hesitation. I thought we were not following the road we had come, on our return to the _Nautilus_. The new way was very steep and consequently very painful; we approached the surface of the sea rapidly, but this ascent was not so sudden as to cause a too rapid relief from the pressure of the water, which would have been dangerous. Very soon light reappeared and grew, and as the sun was low on the horizon, the refraction edged all objects with a [v]spectral ring. At ten yards deep, we walked amid a shoal of little fishes, more numerous than the birds of the air; but no [v]aquatic game worthy of a shot had as yet met our gaze. Suddenly I saw the captain put his gun to his shoulder and follow a moving object into the shrubs. He fired; I heard a slight hissing and the creature fell stunned at some distance from us. It was a magnificent sea-otter, five feet long and very valuable. Its skin, chestnut-brown above and silvery underneath, would have made one of those beautiful furs so sought after in the Russian and Chinese markets. I admired the curious animal, with its rounded head ornamented with short ears, its round eyes, and white whiskers like those of a cat, and its webbed feet and nails and tufted tail. This precious beast, hunted and tracked by fishermen, has now become very rare and has sought refuge in the northern parts of the Pacific. Captain Nemo's companion threw the sea-otter over his shoulder, and we continued our journey. For an hour a plain of sand lay stretched before us, which sometimes rose to within two yards of the surface of the water. I then saw our image clearly reflected, drawn inversely, and above us appeared an identical group reflecting our movements: in a word, the image was like us in every point, except that the figures walked with their heads downward and their feet in the air. For two hours we followed these sandy plains, then fields of [v]algae very disagreeable to cross. Candidly, I felt that I could do no more when I saw a glimmer of light, which for a half-mile broke the darkness of the waters. It was the lantern of the _Nautilus_. Before twenty minutes were over we should be on board, and I should be able to breathe with ease, for it seemed that my reservoir supplied air very deficient in oxygen. But I did not reckon on an accidental meeting which delayed our arrival for some time. I had remained some steps behind, when presently I saw Captain Nemo come hurriedly toward me. With his strong hand he bent me to the ground, while his companion did the same to Conseil. At first I knew not what to think of this sudden attack, but I was soon reassured by seeing the captain lie down beside me and remain immovable. I was stretched on the ground, just under shelter of a bush of algae, when, raising my head, I saw some enormous mass, casting phosphorescent gleams, pass blusteringly by. My blood froze in my veins as I recognized two formidable sharks. They were man-eaters, terrible creatures with enormous tails and a dull glassy stare--monstrous brutes which could crush a whole man in their iron jaws! I noticed their silver undersides and their huge mouths bristling with teeth, from a very unscientific point of view and more as a possible victim than as a naturalist. Happily the [v]voracious creatures do not see well. They passed without noticing us, brushing us with their brownish fins, and we escaped by a miracle from a danger certainly greater than that of meeting a tiger full-face in a forest. Half an hour later, guided by the electric light, we reached the _Nautilus_. The outside door had been left open, and Captain Nemo closed it as soon as we entered the first cell. He then pressed a knob. I heard the pumps working in the midst of the vessel. I felt the water sinking from around me, and in a few minutes the cell was entirely empty. The inside door then opened, and we entered the vestry. Our diving-dress was taken off, not without some trouble; and fairly worn out from want of food and sleep, I returned to my room in great wonder at this surprising excursion at the bottom of the sea. JULES VERNE. =HELPS TO STUDY= What was the hunt to which the adventurers were invited? Describe the preparations for it. What kind of gun did the hunters carry? Describe the descent to the bottom of the sea and the walk. What impressed you most? Would you care to take a nap at the bottom of the sea? What were the main incidents in the return trip? Find out all you can about divers and about life on the floor of the ocean. SUPPLEMENTARY READING The Mysterious Island--Jules Verne. Thirty Strange Stories--H. G. Wells. The Great Stone of Sardis--Frank R. Stockton. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean--roll! Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain; Man marks the earth with ruin--his control Stops with the shore; upon the watery plain The wrecks are all thy deed, nor doth remain A shadow of man's ravage. LORD BYRON. UNDER SEAS This story is a realistic description of a submarine cruise in the recent war. The _Kate_ was a Russian underwater boat operating against the German fleet in the Baltic Sea. Her experiences in this terrible mode of fighting were the same as those of hundreds of submarines belonging to the various warring powers. It may be observed from the description how marvelous has been the advance of science in the last generation. What Jules Verne imagined in his book, _Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea_, the _Kate_ accomplished. This story of actual war is not less wonderful than the vision of the romancer. Men were placed at the water-pumps, the oxygen containers, air-purifiers and [v]distilling machinery, and the [v]hatchways were thoroughly examined; the gunners took their posts at the torpedo tubes. The order had been given to move about as little as possible, to keep in the berths when not on duty, and not to talk and laugh. Then the watchman left the [v]conning tower, and the main hatchway was [v]hermetically closed. Captain Andrey gave the order to submerge and went over to the navigating compartment. Water rushed into the [v]ballast tanks, the boat grew heavy, and its rolling and pitching ceased: the _Kate_ sank and ran ahead under water, steering by means of the [v]periscope. Andrey pushed a button and a cone of pale blue rays poured from the tube. The [v]screen of the periscope grew alive with tiny waves, passing clouds, and a tail of smoke on the skyline. With his chin resting on his arm, Andrey scanned the image of the sea which lay before him. Presently the smoke vanished, and on the right hand appeared the hazy outline of land. At nightfall, the boat, taking advantage of the darkness, rose to the surface of the sea and sailed without lights. Andrey stood on the bridge throughout the night. The water was placid, the stars were screened by a light mist, and far away to the south the pale blue gleam of an enemy searchlight moved through the clouds. The boat was now approaching a mine field. At dawn, when the greenish-orange light began slowly to pervade the fleecy clouds, the _Kate_ sank to a great depth at a definitely fixed point in the sea. Steering solely by compass and map, she commenced to pick her way under the mines. Yakovlev was in charge of the steering apparatus, while Prince Bylopolsky calculated the [v]side drift and reported to the chief engineer in charge of the motors. Andrey, leaning over the map, gave orders to the man at the wheel. There was no sensation of movement, and it seemed as if the _Kate_ stood still amidst the eery darkness. The men for the most part were stretched on their backs, seeking to consume as little oxygen as possible. In spite of this precaution, however, the air was thick, and the sailors felt a tingling sensation in the ears. Suddenly the boat's keel struck against something hard, and a grating sound broke the stillness. "Stop! Stop!" called out Andrey, dashing forth from the navigating cabin. The pinions cracked and the motors ceased to pulsate. Immediately the air became hot, as in a Turkish bath. Andrey entered the water-tight conning tower, which was flooded with diluted, greenish light from the ports provided for the purpose of giving a view of the surrounding waters. He peered through the glass pane. Vague, blurred forms and shadows gradually became visible in the twilight of the deep. One of the shadows wavered and glided along the window, and the round, tragic eyes of a fish glanced at Andrey. The fish disappeared in the depths below the boat. Evidently the _Kate_ had not run aground, nor were there any submerged reefs in that quarter. Andrey gave an order to raise the boat several feet. Then numerous shadows leaped aside and scattered, and the captain plainly saw a jumbled heap of ropes and ladders. It was obvious that the _Kate_ had blundered into the remains of a sunken ship. The halt was unfortunate--indeed, might prove fatal. The uniform motion of the boat had been disturbed, the [v]orientation lost; the inevitable small error made at the point of submerging must have increased in the course beneath the waves. The _Kate_ had lost her way, and something must be done. Andrey drummed nervously on the window-pane as he thought. It was impossible to stay under water any longer, and yet to rise to the surface meant to be seen and attacked by enemy warships. Only in this way, however, was it possible to determine the boat's position. Andrey, giving an order for the boat to rise slowly, returned to his observation point. The water gradually grew clearer. Suddenly a dark ball moved down to meet the craft. "A mine!" flashed across Andrey's mind, and, overcoming the torpor which had begun to oppress his brain, he ordered the submarine to be swerved from her course. The ball moved away, but another appeared on the right. There was another change of direction. And now everywhere in the midst of the greenish twilight cast-iron shells lay in wait. The _Kate_ was in the toils of a mine net! Sea water, when viewed from a great height, is so transparent that large fishes can even be seen in it. Owing to this fact, the _Kate_ was discovered by two enemy [v]hydroplanes as she rose among the mines toward the surface of the bay. The aircraft were seen, however, and the boat dived again to a great depth. The _Kate_ now blindly groped her way forward. The motors worked at their top speed, and the body of the boat trembled. Hundreds of demons called horsepowers fiercely turned the various wheels, pinions, and shafts. The air was hot and stuffy; the men at the engine, stripped to the waist, worked feverishly. Speed was necessary, for only oxygen enough to sustain the crew for one hour remained in the lead cylinders. Yakovlev still sat at the compass, his elbows on his knees and his hands pressing his head. The men lounged in the cabins and corridors, their faces livid with suffocation. Prince Bylopolsky remained leaning over his [v]logarithmic tables, which had now become useless. From time to time he wiped his face, as if removing a net of invisible cobwebs. Finally he rose to his feet, took a few steps, and fainted dead away. Giving the order to proceed at full speed, Andrey hoped to pass the mine zone, even though some of his men succumbed for lack of air. Pale and excited, his hair in disorder, and his coat unbuttoned, he was everywhere at once, and his voice sustained the failing strength of the half-suffocated crew. Seeing the prince stretched unconscious on a berth, Andrey poured a few drops of brandy in his mouth and kissed his wet, childlike forehead. In making too rapid a movement, lurid flames danced before his eyes, and he bent back, striking his head against a sharp angle of an engine. He felt no pain from the blow. "Bad!" thought Andrey, and crawled over to the emergency oxygen container. He opened the faucet and inhaled the fragrant stream of gas. His head began to swim and a sweet fire ran through his veins. With an effort he rose to his feet. The outlines of the objects around him were strangely distinct, and the faces of the men imploringly turned to him--some of them bearded and high-cheekboned, others tender and childlike--seemed to him touchingly human.... In the corridor Andrey came upon a man standing against the wall and gulping the air like a fish. Seeing the commander, he made an effort to cheer up and mumbled, "Beg pardon, sir; I'm a bit unwell." The captain leaned over and looked into his eyes, which a film of death was already beginning to veil. Andrey, turning to the telephone tube, gave a command to rise. The _Kate_ shook all over and dived upward. The ascent lasted four minutes and a half, at the end of which time the boat stood still and light fell on the screen of the periscope. The sailors crawled up to the main hatchway and unscrewed it. Cold salt air rushed into the boat, swelling the chests of the sufferers and turning their heads; the sensation of free breathing was delicious after the suffocation they had so long endured. Andrey, leaping on the bridge, found the evening sun suspended above vast masses of warm clouds and the sea quiet and peaceful. He began to take observations with the [v]sextant, which shook in his trembling hand. Presently a loud buzzing was heard in the sky, followed by the measured crackling of a machine gun; from the hull of the boat came a sharp rat-a-tat, as if some one was throwing dry peas on it. A hydroplane was circling above the _Kate_. Andrey bit his lip and kept on working; a squad of his men loaded their rifles. The hydroplane swooped down almost to the surface of the sea, then soared with a shrill "F-r-r-r" and flew right over the boat. A clean-shaven pilot sat motionless, his hands on the wheel; below him an observer gazed downward, waiting. Suddenly the latter lifted a bomb and threw it into a tube. The missile flashed in the air and plunged into the sea at the very side of the boat. One of the crew fired his rifle, and the observer threw up his leather-covered arms with outspread fingers. Slowly circling under the fire of the submarine crew, the aircraft rose toward the clouds and sailed off. Over the sky-ridge another aeroplane appeared, looking like a long thin line. Meantime the _Kate_ picked her way with graceful ease across the orange-colored waters as if cutting through molten glass. Andrey, buttoning his coat, said with a grimace, "Well, Yakovlev, the mines are behind us, but what are we going to do now?" "This region is full of reefs and sandbanks," replied Yakovlev. "That's just the trouble. I wouldn't risk sailing under the water. Wait a moment." He raised his hand. A violent whizzing sound came from the west; Andrey ordered greater speed. A [v]grenade hissed on the right, and a jet of water spurted up from the quiet surface. The _Kate_ tacked sharply toward the purpling horizon in the west, and behind, in her shadowy wake, another bomb burst and blossomed out into a small cloud. The boat then turned east again, but now in front of her, on both sides, everywhere, shells burst and sputtered fire. The scouting hydroplane dashed over the submarine like a bat; two pale faces looked down and disappeared. Then right above the stern of the _Kate_ a grenade exploded and one of the sailors dropped his rifle, clutched his face, toppled over the railing, and disappeared beneath the water. "All hands below!" cried Andrey; and, watching where the shells fell thickest, he began to give his orders. The _Kate_ circled like a run-down hare, while all along the darkening skyline the smoking stacks of mine-layers and destroyers were visible as the enemy's ruthless ring rapidly tightened about the submarine. Having had her wireless mast shot off by a shell, the _Kate_ now dashed toward the rocky shore, running awash. Six sparks shot up in the dark and six steel-clad demons hissed above the boat. The long shadow of a ship glided along the shore. The _Kate_ shook, and a sharp-nosed torpedo detached itself from her hull and glided away under the water to meet the [v]silhouette of the vessel. A moment passed, and a fluffy, mountainous mass of fire and water rose from the spot where the stacks of a mine-layer had projected shortly before. The mountain sank and the silhouette disappeared. The _Kate_ entered a baylet among the rocks, submerged, and lay on the sandy sea-bed. Two weeks the submarine remained in the inlet, completely cut off from the rest of the world. By day she hid in the deep, and only under the cover of night did she rise to the surface to get a supply of air. The greatest precautions were necessary, for there was little likelihood that the enemy believed the submarine to be destroyed. At the end of that time some action was inevitable, as the boat's supplies had given out; for three days the crew had fed on fish which one of the men had caught at great risk. Audrey decided to leave the bay and make a supreme effort to run the enemy's cordon. About daybreak, as the _Kate_ was nearing the surface of the sea, the crew became aware of a tremendous muffled cannonade; and when the boat emerged into a white fog, the whole coast shook and echoed with the roar and crash of a sea battle. Broadsides and terrific explosions alternated with the crackling of guns. It was as though a multitude of sea-devils coughed and blew and roared at each other. "Quick, sir," shouted Yakovlev, holding on to the railing; "we can break through now!" His teeth rattled. The preparations for the dash had been completed. A strong gale swept away the fog and drove its torn masses over the sea, laying bare the rocky shore. The _Kate_ dashed out of the bay into the open. The firing was now heard behind and on the right; the road to the port was open at last. The submarine rushed along, ripping in twain the frothing waves. In this moment of exaltation, to return safely to base, simply to do one's duty, seemed too little to these fearless men. The feeling that possessed them was not enthusiasm but a greediness, a yearning for destruction. "We cannot go away like this," Yakovlev shouted in Audrey's ear; "turn back or I will shoot myself!" The man was completely beside himself; his pale face twisted convulsively. Just then the sun arose, turning the rolling sea into a dull orange. Near at hand invisible ships thundered against each other. Suddenly a gray mountain-like shape emerged from the fog, enveloped in flame and smoke. Above its turrets, stacks, and masts fluttered a flag bearing a black eagle. Mad with the thought that the opportunity had come at last, Andrey rushed down the hatchway, knocking over Yakovlev on the way, and loaded the torpedo tube. The _Kate_ submerged a little, and sailing awash, headed straight for the enemy vessel. The shadow of the hostile ship glided along the periscope screen, every now and then wrapping itself into a cloud pierced with fiery needles of shots. The _Kate_ fired a torpedo but missed her aim. Leaning over the screen and biting his lips to bleeding, Andrey examined the tiny image of the vessel, one of the mightiest of battleships. The distance between the _Kate_ and the enemy vessel continued to decrease; the image of the ship already occupied half of the periscope screen. "Another torpedo!" shouted Andrey. At that very instant a blow was struck the boat and the periscope screen grew dark. Andrey ran out from the navigating compartment and shouted: "The periscope is shot away! Full speed forward!" The engineer seized the handle of a lever and asked, "Which way?" "Forward! forward!" Andrey went into the conning tower; straight in front of him foamy eddies whirled furiously. The dark hull of a ship appeared, obscuring the light. "Stop!" shouted Andrey. "Fire another one! Full speed backward!" He closed his eyes. For a moment it seemed to him that the end had come. He was hurled by the explosion of the torpedo into the corridor and dashed against the wall. The outcries of the men were drowned by the muffled thud of the inrushing water. The light went out; the _Kate_ began to rotate and sink. The boat did not stay long in the deep; freed from the weight of two torpedoes, she slowly began to rise, stopped before reaching the surface, and commenced to sink again as the water continued to leak into her hull. A sailor found Andrey in a narrow passage unconscious, though breathing regularly. The man dressed the captain's wounds, but could not bring him to his senses. Another sailor tried to revive Yakovlev, but soon saw that that officer was dead. All the available hands toiled at the pumps, while the engineer and his two assistants worked frantically at the engine. The _Kate_ was near the surface, but as the periscope and the indicator had been destroyed, it was impossible to tell precisely where she was. On the other hand, to unscrew the hatch and look out would subject the boat to the risk of being flooded. Finally, the engineer reported that it was necessary to replace the cylinder, but that this was difficult to do because the supply of candles was giving out. Kuritzyn, a sailor who had assumed command, ordered the men at the pumps to pump until they dropped dead, if necessary, but to raise the boat at least one yard. The men obeyed in grim silence. Presently the last candle went out. "It's all over, boys," said some one, and the pumps stopped. The only sound that now broke the silence was the monotonous splash of water leaking down on the periscope screen. "Follow me," said Kuritzyn hoarsely to two of the men. "Let us unscrew the hatches. What's the use of fooling any longer?" Feeling their way in the darkness, several men followed the leader into the corridor and up the spiral staircase in the main hatchway. When they reached the top, they grasped the bolts of the lid. "Here's our finish," said one of the men. Just then the sound of footsteps on the outside of the boat reached their ears. Some one was walking on the _Kate's_ hull! "Down to the ballast tanks!" Kuritzyn ordered. "When I fire, blow them out. We are ordered not to surrender the boat." With his revolver between his teeth, he pressed the bolt. The lid yielded; light and air rushed into the opening. "Hey, who is there?" Kuritzyn shouted. "Russians, Russians," replied a voice. "Thank God!" said Kuritzyn in a tone of intense gratitude. COUNT ALEXIS TOLSTOI. =HELPS TO STUDY= Tell of the preparations made for the submerging of the _Kate_. Describe the scene within the vessel. What accident halted the boat? Describe the events that followed. Where did the _Kate_ find anchorage? Describe her exit from the bay. What flag was it that bore a black eagle? What was the fate of the ship bearing that flag? SUPPLEMENTARY READING Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea--Jules Verne. The Pilot--J. Fenimore Cooper. A VOYAGE TO THE MOON The moon, being the nearest to the earth of all the heavenly bodies, has always occupied the imagination of men. Many fanciful accounts have been written of voyages to the moon, of which the following story by Edgar Allan Poe is among the best. So wonderful has been the advance of science that it is conceivable that at some distant time in the future the inhabitants of this world may possibly be able to visit the beautiful body which lights the night for us. I After a long and arduous devotion to the study of physics and astronomy, I, Hans Pfaal of Rotterdam, at length determined to construct a balloon of my own along original lines and to try a flight in it. Accordingly I had made an enormous bag out of cambric muslin, varnished with caoutchouc for protection against the weather. I procured all the instruments needed for a prolonged ascent and finally prepared for the inflation of the balloon. Herein lay my secret, my invention, the thing in which my balloon differed from all the balloons that had gone before. Out of a peculiar [v]metallic substance and a very common acid I was able to manufacture a gas of a density about 37.4 less than that of hydrogen, and thus by far the lightest substance ever known. It would serve to carry the balloon to heights greater than had been attained before, for hydrogen is the gas usually used. The hour for my experiment in ballooning finally arrived. I had chosen the night as the best time for the ascension, because I should thereby avoid annoyances caused by the curiosity of the ignorant and the idle. It was the first of April. The night was dark; there was not a star to be seen; and a drizzling rain, falling at intervals, made me very uncomfortable. But my chief anxiety was concerning the balloon, which, in spite of the varnish with which it was defended, began to grow rather heavy with the moisture. I therefore set my assistants to working, and in about four hours and a half I found the balloon sufficiently inflated. I attached the car and put all my implements in it--a telescope, a barometer, a thermometer, an [v]electrometer, a compass, a magnetic needle, a seconds watch, a bell, and other things. I had further procured a globe of glass, exhausted of air and carefully closed with a stopper, not forgetting a special apparatus for condensing air, a copious supply of water, and a large quantity of provisions, such as [v]pemmican, in which much [v]nutriment is contained in comparatively little bulk. I also secured a cat in the car. It was now nearly daybreak, and I thought it high time to take my departure. I immediately cut the single cord which held me to the earth, and was pleased to find that I shot upward with [v]inconceivable rapidity, carrying with all ease one hundred and seventy-five pounds of leaden ballast and able to have carried as much more. Scarcely, however, had I attained the height of fifty yards, when roaring and rumbling up after me in the most [v]tumultuous and terrible manner, came so dense a hurricane of fire and gravel and burning wood and blazing metal that my very heart sunk within me and I fell down in the car, trembling with terror. Some of my chemical materials had exploded immediately beneath me almost at the moment of my leaving earth. The balloon at first collapsed, then furiously expanded, then whirled round and round with sickening [v]velocity, and finally, reeling and staggering like a drunken man, hurled me over the rim of the car; and in the moment of my fall I lost consciousness. I had no knowledge of what had saved me. When I partially recovered the sense of existence, I found the day breaking, the balloon at a [v]prodigious height over a wilderness of ocean, and not a trace of land to be discovered far and wide within the limits of the vast horizon. My sensations, however, upon thus recovering, were by no means so [v]replete with agony as might have been anticipated. Indeed, there was much of madness in the calm survey which I began to take of my situation. I drew up to my eyes each of my hands, one after the other, and wondered what occurrence could have given rise to the swelling of the veins and the horrible blackness of the finger nails. I afterward carefully examined my head, shaking it repeatedly and feeling it with minute attention, until I succeeded in satisfying myself that it was not, as I had more than half suspected, larger than the balloon. It now occurred to me that I suffered great uneasiness in the joint of my left ankle, and a dim consciousness of my situation began to glimmer through my mind. I began to understand that my foot had caught in a rope and that I was hanging downward outside the car. But strange to say! I was neither astonished nor horror-stricken. If I felt any emotion at all, it was a sort of chuckling satisfaction at the cleverness I was about to display in getting myself out of this [v]dilemma. With great caution and deliberation, I put my hands behind my back and unfastened the large iron buckle which belonged to the waistband of my pantaloons. This buckle had three teeth, which, being somewhat rusty, turned with great difficulty on their axis. I brought them, however, after some trouble, at right angles to the body of the buckle and was glad to find them remain firm in that position. Holding with my teeth the instrument thus obtained, I proceeded to untie the knot of my cravat; it was at length accomplished. To one end of the cravat I then made fast the buckle, and the other end I tied, for greater security, tightly around my wrist. Drawing now my body upward, with a prodigious exertion of muscular force, I succeeded, at the very first trial, in throwing the buckle over the car, and entangling it, as I had anticipated, in the circular rim of the wicker-work. My body was now inclined toward the side of the car at an angle of about forty-five degrees; but it must not be understood that I was therefore only forty-five degrees below the [v]perpendicular. So far from it, I still lay nearly level with the plane of the horizon, for the change of position which I had acquired had forced the bottom of the car considerably outward from my position, which was accordingly one of the most extreme peril. It should be remembered, however, that when I fell from the car, if I had fallen with my face turned toward the balloon, instead of turned outwardly from it as it actually was--or if, in the second place, the cord by which I was suspended had chanced to hang over the upper edge instead of through a crevice near the bottom of the car--in either of these cases, I should have been unable to accomplish even as much as I had now accomplished. I had therefore every reason to be grateful, although, in point of fact, I was still too stupid to be anything at all, and hung for perhaps a quarter of an hour in that extraordinary manner, without making the slightest farther exertion, and in a singularly tranquil state of idiotic enjoyment. This feeling, however, did not fail to die rapidly away, and thereunto succeeded horror and dismay, and a sense of utter helplessness and ruin. In fact, the blood so long accumulating in the vessels of my head and throat, and which had hitherto buoyed up my spirits with delirium, had now begun to retire within its proper channels, and the distinctness which was thus added to my perception of the danger merely served to deprive me of the self-possession and courage to encounter it. But this weakness was, luckily for me, of no very great duration. In good time came to my rescue the spirit of despair, and with frantic cries and struggles, I jerked my body upward, till, at length, clutching with a vice-like grip the long-desired rim, I writhed my person over it and fell headlong and shuddering within the car. When I had recovered from the weakness caused by being so long in that position and the horror from which I had suffered, I found that all my implements were in place and that neither ballast nor provisions had been lost. It is now high time that I should explain the object of my voyage. I had been harassed for long by poverty and creditors. In this state of mind, wishing to live and yet wearied with life, my deep studies in astronomy opened a resource to my imagination. I determined to depart, yet live--to leave the world, yet continue to exist--in short, to be plain, I resolved, let come what would, to force a passage, if possible, to the moon. This was not so mad as it seems. The moon's actual distance from the earth was the first thing to be attended to. The mean or average interval between the centers of the two planets is only about 237,000 miles. But at certain times the moon and earth are much nearer than at others, and if I could contrive to meet the moon at the moment when it was nearest earth, the above-mentioned distance would be materially lessened. But even taking the average distance and deducting the [v]radius of the earth and the moon, the actual interval to be traversed under average circumstances would be 231,920 miles. Now this, I reflected, was no very extraordinary distance. Traveling on the land has been repeatedly accomplished at the rate of sixty miles an hour; and indeed a much greater speed may be anticipated. But even at this velocity it would take me no more than 161 days to reach the surface of the moon. There were, however, many particulars inducing me to believe that my average rate of traveling might possibly very much exceed that of sixty miles an hour. The next point to be regarded was one of far greater importance. We know that at 18,000 feet above the surface of the earth we have passed one-half the material, or, at all events, one-half the [v]ponderable body of air upon the globe. It is also calculated that at a height of eighty miles the [v]rarefaction of air is so great that animal life can be sustained in no manner. But I did not fail to perceive that these calculations are founded on our experimental knowledge of the air in the immediate vicinity of the earth, and that it is taken for granted that animal life is incapable of [v]modification. I thought that no matter how high we may ascend we cannot arrive at a limit beyond which no atmosphere is to be found. It must exist, I argued, although it may exist in a state of [v]infinite rarefaction. Having adopted this view of the subject, I had little farther hesitation. Granting that on my passage I should meet with atmosphere essentially the same as at the surface of the earth, I thought that, by means of my very ingenious apparatus for that purpose, I should readily be able to condense it in sufficient quantity for breathing. This would remove the chief obstacle in a journey to the moon. I now turned to view the prospect beneath me. At twenty minutes past six o'clock, the barometer showed an elevation of 26,000 feet, or five miles to a fraction. The outlook seemed unbounded. I beheld as much as a sixteen-hundredth part of the whole surface of the globe. The sea appeared as unruffled as a mirror, although, by means of the telescope, I could perceive it to be in a state of violent agitation. I now began to experience, at intervals, severe pain in the head, especially about the ears, due to the rarefaction of the air. The cat seemed to suffer no inconvenience whatever. I was rising rapidly, and by seven o'clock the barometer indicated an altitude of no less than nine miles and a half. I began to find great difficulty in drawing my breath. My head, too, was excessively painful; and, having felt for some time a moisture about my cheeks, I at length discovered it to be blood, which was oozing quite fast from the drums of my ears. These symptoms were more than I had expected and occasioned me some alarm. At this juncture, very imprudently and without consideration, I threw out from the car three five-pound pieces of ballast. The increased rate of ascent thus obtained carried me too rapidly into a highly rarefied layer of atmosphere, and the result nearly proved fatal to my expedition and myself. I was suddenly seized with a spasm, which lasted for more than five minutes, and even when this in a measure ceased, I could catch my breath only at long intervals, and in a gasping manner--bleeding all the while copiously at the nose and ears and even slightly at the eyes. The cat mewed piteously, and, with her tongue hanging out of her mouth, staggered to and fro in the car as if under the influence of poison. I now too late discovered the great rashness of which I had been guilty in discharging my ballast, and my agitation was excessive. I expected nothing less than death, and death in a few minutes. I lay down in the bottom of the car and endeavored to collect my faculties. In this I so far succeeded as to determine upon the experiment of losing blood. Having no lancet, I was obliged to open a vein in my arm with the blade of a penknife. The blood had hardly commenced flowing when I experienced a sensible relief, and by the time I had lost about half a basin-full most of the worst symptoms were gone. The difficulty of breathing, however, was diminished in a very slight degree, and I found that it would be soon positively necessary to make use of my condenser. By eight o'clock I had actually attained an elevation of seventeen miles above the surface of the earth. Thus it seemed to me evident that my rate of ascent was not only on the increase, but that the progress would have been apparent to a slight extent even had I not discharged the ballast which I did. The pains in my head and ears returned at intervals and with violence, and I still continued to bleed occasionally at the nose; but upon the whole I suffered much less than might have been expected. I now unpacked the condensing apparatus and got it ready for immediate use. The view of the earth at this period of my ascension was beautiful indeed. To the westward, the northward, and the southward, as far as I could see, lay a boundless sheet of apparently unruffled ocean, which every moment gained a deeper and deeper tint of blue. At a vast distance to the eastward, although perfectly discernible, extended the islands of Great Britain, the entire Atlantic coasts of France and Spain, with a small portion of the northern part of the continent of Africa. Of individual edifices not a trace could be found, and the proudest cities of mankind had utterly faded away from the surface of the earth. At a quarter-past eight, being able no longer to draw breath without the most intolerable pain, I proceeded forthwith to adjust around the car the apparatus belonging to the condenser. I had prepared a very strong, perfectly air-tight gum-elastic bag. In this bag, which was of sufficient size, the entire car was in a manner placed. That is to say, the bag was drawn over the whole bottom of the car, up its sides and so on, up to the upper rim where the net-work is attached. Having pulled up the bag and made a complete inclosure on all sides, I was shut in an air-tight chamber. In the sides of this covering had been inserted three circular panes of thick but clear glass, through which I could see without difficulty around me in every horizontal direction. In that portion of the cloth forming the bottom was a fourth window corresponding with a small aperture in the floor of the car itself. This enabled me to see straight down, but I had been unable to fix a similar window above me and so I could expect to see no objects directly overhead. The condensing apparatus was connected with the outer air by a tube to admit air at one end and by a valve at the bottom of the car to eject foul air. By the time I had completed these arrangements and filled the chamber with condensed air by means of the apparatus, it wanted only ten minutes of nine o'clock. During the whole period of my being thus employed, I endured the most terrible distress from difficulty of respiration, and bitterly did I repent the foolhardiness of which I had been guilty in putting off to the last moment a matter of so much importance. But having at length accomplished it, I soon began to reap the benefit of my invention. Once again I breathed with perfect freedom and ease--and indeed why should I not? I was also agreeably surprised to find myself, in a great measure, relieved from the violent pains which had hitherto tormented me. A slight headache, accompanied by a sensation of fulness about the wrists, the ankles, and the throat, was nearly all of which I had now to complain. At twenty minutes before nine o'clock, the mercury attained its limit, or ran down, in the barometer. The instrument then indicated an altitude of twenty-five miles, and I consequently surveyed at that time an extent of the earth's area amounting to no less than one three-hundred-and-twentieth part of the entire surface. At half-past nine, I tried the experiment of throwing out a handful of feathers through the valve. They did not float as I had expected, but dropped down like a bullet and with the greatest velocity, being out of sight in a very few seconds. It occurred to me that the atmosphere was now far too rare to sustain even feathers; that they actually fell, as they appeared to do, with great speed, and that I had been surprised by the united velocities of their descent and my own rise. At six o'clock P. M., I perceived a great portion of the earth's visible area to the eastward involved in thick shadow, which continued to advance with great rapidity, until at five minutes before seven the whole surface in sight was enveloped in the darkness of night. It was not, however, until long after this time that the rays of the setting sun ceased to illumine the balloon, and this fact, although, of course, expected, did not fail to give me great pleasure. In the morning I should behold the rising [v]luminary many hours before the citizens of Rotterdam, in spite of their situation so much farther to the eastward, and thus, day after day, in proportion to the height ascended, I should enjoy the light of the sun for a longer and longer period. I now resolved to keep a journal of my passage, reckoning the days by twenty-four hours instead of by day and night. At ten o'clock, feeling sleepy, I determined to lie down for the rest of the night; but here a difficulty presented itself, which, obvious as it may appear, had escaped my attention up to the very moment of which I am now speaking. If I went to sleep, as I proposed, how could the air in the chamber be renewed in the meanwhile? To breath it more than an hour at the farthest would be impossible; or, even if this term could be extended to an hour and a quarter, the most ruinous consequences might ensue. This dilemma gave me no little anxiety; and it will hardly be believed that, after the dangers I had undergone, I should look upon this business in so serious a light as to give up all hope of accomplishing my ultimate design, and finally make up my mind to the necessity of a descent. But this hesitation was only momentary. I reflected that man is the slave of custom and that many things are deemed essential which are only the results of habit. It was certain that I could not do without sleep; but I might easily bring myself to feel no inconvenience from being awakened at intervals of an hour during the whole period of my repose. It would require but five minutes to renew the air, and the only difficulty was to contrive a method of arousing myself at the proper moment for so doing. This question caused me no little trouble to solve. I at length hit upon the following plan. My supply of water had been put on board in kegs of five gallons each and ranged securely around the interior of the car. I unfastened one of these and, taking two ropes, tied them tightly across the rim of the wicker-work from one side to the other, placing them about a foot apart and parallel, so as to form a kind of shelf, upon which I placed the keg and steadied it. About eight inches below these ropes I fastened another shelf made of thin plank, on which shelf, and beneath one of the rims of the keg, a small pitcher was placed. I bored a hole in the end of the keg over the pitcher and fitted in a plug of soft wood, which I pushed in or pulled out, until, after a few experiments, it arrived at that exact degree of tightness at which the water, oozing from the hole and falling into the pitcher below, would fill the latter to the brim in the period of sixty minutes. Having arranged all this, the rest of the plan was simple. My bed was so contrived upon the floor of the car as to bring my head, in lying down, immediately below the mouth of the pitcher. It was evident that, at the expiration of an hour, the pitcher, getting full, would be forced to run over and to run over at the mouth, which was somewhat lower than the rim. It was also evident that the water, falling from a height, could not do otherwise than fall on my face and awaken me even from the soundest slumber in the world. It was fully eleven by the time I had completed these arrangements, and I at once betook myself to bed with full confidence in my invention. Nor in this matter was I disappointed. Punctually every sixty minutes I was aroused by my trusty clock, when, having emptied the pitcher into the bung-hole of the keg and filled the chamber with condensed air, I retired again to bed. These regular interruptions to my slumber caused me less discomfort than I had anticipated; and when I finally arose for the day, it was seven o'clock and the sun was high above the horizon. I found the balloon at an immense height indeed, and the earth's roundness had now become strikingly manifest. Below me in the ocean lay a cluster of black specks, which undoubtedly were islands. Overhead, the sky was of a jetty black, and the stars were brilliantly visible; indeed they had been so constantly since the first day of ascent. Far away to the northward I saw a thin, white and exceedingly brilliant line, or streak, on the edge of the horizon, and I had no hesitation in supposing it to be the southern disc of the ices of the Polar sea. My curiosity was greatly excited, for I had hopes of passing on much farther to the north, and might possibly, at some period, find myself directly above the Pole itself. I now lamented that my great elevation would, in this case, prevent me from taking as accurate a survey as I could wish. My condensing apparatus continued in good order, and the balloon still ascended without any perceptible change. The cold was intense, and obliged me to wrap up closely in an overcoat. When darkness came over the earth, I went to bed, although it was for many hours afterward broad daylight all around me. The water-clock was punctual in its duty, and I slept until next morning soundly, with the exception of the periodical interruptions. APRIL 4TH. I arose in good health and spirits, and was astonished at the singular change which had taken place in the appearance of the sea. It had lost, in a great measure, the deep tint of blue it had hitherto worn, being now of a grayish-white and of a luster dazzling to the eye. The curve of the ocean had become so evident that the entire mass of water seemed to be tumbling headlong over the abyss of the horizon, and I found myself listening on tiptoe for the echoes of the mighty cataract. The islands were no longer visible; whether they had passed down the horizon to the southeast, or whether my increasing elevation had left them out of sight, it is impossible to say. I was inclined, however, to the latter opinion. The rim of ice to the northward was growing more and more apparent. The cold was by no means so intense. APRIL 5TH. I beheld the singular sight of the sun rising while nearly the whole visible surface of the earth continued to be involved in darkness. In time, however, the light spread itself over all, and I again saw the line of ice to the northward. It was now very distinct and appeared of a much darker hue than the waters of the ocean. I was evidently approaching it, and with great rapidity. I fancied I could again distinguish a strip of land to the eastward, and one also to the westward, but could not be certain. APRIL 6TH. I was surprised at finding the rim of ice at a very moderate distance, and an immense field of the same material stretching away off to the horizon in the north. It was evident that if the balloon held its present course, it would soon arrive above the Frozen Ocean, and I had now little doubt of ultimately seeing the Pole. During the whole of the day I continued to near the ice. Toward night the limits of my horizon very suddenly and materially increased, owing undoubtedly to the earth's form, which is round but flattened near the poles. When darkness at length overtook me, I went to bed in great anxiety, fearing to pass over the object of so much curiosity when I should have no opportunity of observing it. APRIL 7TH. I arose early, and, to my great joy, at length beheld what there could be no hesitation in supposing the northern Pole itself. It was there, beyond a doubt, and immediately beneath my feet; but alas! I had now ascended to so vast a distance that nothing could with accuracy be made out. Indeed, I estimated that at four o'clock in the morning of April the seventh the balloon had reached a height of not less than 7,254 miles above the surface of the sea. At all events I undoubtedly beheld the whole of the earth's diameter; the entire northern hemisphere lay beneath me like a chart, and the great circle of the equator itself formed the boundary line of my horizon. APRIL 8TH. I found a sensible diminution in the earth's size, besides a material alteration in its general color and appearance. The whole area partook in different degrees of a tint of pale yellow, and in some portions had acquired a brilliancy even painful to the eye. My view was somewhat impeded by clouds near the earth, but nevertheless I could easily perceive that the balloon now hovered above the great lakes in North America and was holding a course due south which would soon bring me to the tropics. This circumstance did not fail to give me the most heartfelt satisfaction, and I hailed it as a happy omen of ultimate success. Indeed, the direction I had hitherto taken had filled me with uneasiness, for it was evident that had I continued it much longer, there would have been no possibility of my arriving at the moon at all, which revolves around the earth in the plane of the equator. APRIL 9TH. To-day the earth's diameter was greatly diminished, and the color of the surface assumed hourly a deeper tint of yellow. The balloon kept steadily on her course to the southward, and arrived at nine P. M. over the Mexican Gulf. APRIL 12TH. A singular alteration took place in regard to the direction of the balloon, and, although fully anticipated, afforded me the very greatest delight. Having reached, in its former course, about the twentieth parallel of southern latitude, it turned off suddenly at an acute angle to the eastward, and thus proceeded throughout the day, keeping nearly, if not altogether, in the exact plane of the moon's path around the earth. APRIL 13TH. Great decrease in the earth's apparent size. The moon could not be seen at all, being nearly above me. I still continued in the plane of the moon's path, but made little progress eastward. APRIL 14TH. Extremely rapid decrease in the size of the earth. To-day I became strongly impressed with the idea that the balloon was holding the direct course which would bring it immediately to the moon where it comes nearest the earth. The moon was directly overhead, and consequently hidden from my view. Great and long continued labor was necessary for the condensation of the atmosphere. APRIL 16TH. To-day, looking upward as well as I could, through each of the side windows alternately, I beheld, to my great delight, a very small portion of the moon's disk protruding, as it were, on all sides beyond the huge bulk of the balloon. My agitation was extreme, for I had now little doubt of soon reaching the end of my perilous voyage. Indeed, the labor required by the condenser had increased to such a degree that I had scarcely any respite from exertion. Sleep was a matter nearly out of question. I became quite ill, and my frame trembled with exhaustion. It was impossible that human nature could endure this state of intense suffering much longer. APRIL 17TH. This morning proved an epoch in my voyage. It will be remembered that on the thirteenth the earth had diminished; on the fourteenth, it had still further dwindled; on the fifteenth, a still more rapid decrease was observable; and on retiring for the night of the sixteenth, the earth had shrunk to small size. What, therefore, must have been my amazement, on awakening from a brief and disturbed slumber on the morning of this day, the seventeenth, at finding the surface beneath me so suddenly and wonderfully increased in volume as to seem but a comparatively short distance beneath me! I was thunderstruck! No words can give any adequate idea of the extreme, the absolute horror and astonishment, with which I was seized, possessed and altogether overwhelmed. My knees tottered beneath me--my teeth chattered--my hair started up on end. The balloon then had actually burst! These were the first ideas which hurried through my mind. The balloon had burst! I was falling--falling with the most impetuous, the most wonderful velocity! To judge from the immense distance already so quickly passed over, it could not be more than ten minutes at the farthest before I should meet the surface of the earth and be hurled into annihilation! But at length reflection came to my relief. I paused, I considered, and I began to doubt. The matter was impossible. I could not, in any reason, have so rapidly come down. Besides, although I was evidently approaching the surface below me, it was with a speed by no means commensurate with the velocity I had at first conceived. This consideration served to calm my mind, and I finally succeeded in looking at the matter in its proper point of view. In fact, amazement must have fairly deprived me of my senses when I could not see the vast difference in appearance between the surface below me and the surface of my mother earth. The latter was indeed over my head and completely hidden by the balloon, while the moon--the moon itself in all its glory--lay beneath me and at my feet! I had indeed arrived at the point where the attraction of the moon had proved stronger than the attraction of the earth, and so the moon now appeared to be below me and I was descending upon it. It lay beneath me like a chart, and I studied it with the deepest attention. The entire absence of ocean or sea, and indeed of any lake or river, or body of water whatsoever, struck me at the first glance as the most extraordinary feature in its appearance. APRIL 18TH. To-day I found an enormous increase in the moon's apparent bulk--and the evidently increased velocity of my descent began to fill me with alarm. I had relied on finding some atmosphere at the moon and on the resistance of this atmosphere to [v]gravitation as affording me a chance to land in safety. Should I prove to have been mistaken about the atmosphere, I had nothing better to expect than to be dashed into atoms against the rugged surface of the earth's [v]satellite. And indeed I had now every reason to be terrified. My distance from the moon was comparatively trivial, while the labor required by the condenser was diminished not at all, and I could discover no indication whatever of a decreasing rarity of the air. APRIL 19TH. This morning, to my great joy, about nine o'clock, the surface of the moon being frightfully near and my fears excited to the utmost, the pump of my condenser at length gave evident tokens of an alteration in the atmosphere. By ten, I had reason to believe its density considerably increased. By eleven, very little labor was necessary at the apparatus; and at twelve o'clock, with some hesitation, I ventured to open the car a little and suffered no inconvenience. I finally threw aside the gum-elastic chamber and unrigged it from around the car. As might have been expected, spasms and violent headache were the immediate consequences of an experiment so rash. But this was forgotten in consideration of other things. My approach was still rapid in the extreme; and it soon became certain that although I had probably not been deceived in the expectation of finding a fairly dense atmosphere, still I had been wrong in supposing that atmosphere dense enough to support the great weight contained in the car of the balloon. I was now close upon the planet and coming down with the most terrible rapidity. I lost not a moment, accordingly, in throwing overboard first my ballast, then my water-kegs, then my condensing apparatus and gum-elastic chamber, and finally every article within the car. But it was all to no purpose. I still fell with horrible speed, and was now not more than half a mile from the surface. As a last resource, therefore, having got rid of my coat, hat, and boots, I cut loose from the balloon the car itself, which was of no inconsiderable weight, and thus clinging with both hands to the net-work, I had barely time to observe that the whole country, as far as the eye could reach, was thickly sown with small habitations, ere I tumbled headlong into the very heart of a fantastic city and into the middle of a vast crowd of ugly little people. I turned from them, and gazing upward at the earth so lately left, and left perhaps forever, beheld it like a huge, dull copper shield, fixed immovably in the heavens overhead and tipped on one of its edges with a crescent border of the most brilliant gold. EDGAR ALLAN POE. =HELPS TO STUDY= Describe the balloon Hans constructed. How did he extricate himself from each difficulty he encountered? What characteristic did this show? Note the changes in the appearance of the earth as he made his journey. On what day did he see the North Pole? In what region was he when he saw the moon? What did he find when he reached that body? SUPPLEMENTARY READING From the Earth to the Moon--Jules Verne. The War of the Worlds--H. G. Wells. THE GREAT STONE OF SARDIS[391-*] This fanciful tale is taken from Frank R. Stockton's _The Great Stone of Sardis_. In this book the hero, Roland Clewe, is pictured as a scientist who had made many startling discoveries and inventions at his works in Sardis about the year 1946. One of his inventions was an automatic shell. This was an enormous projectile, the peculiarity of which was that its motive power was contained within itself, very much as a rocket contains the explosives which send it upward. The extraordinary piece of mechanism was of [v]cylindrical form, eighteen feet in length and fourteen feet in diameter. The forward end was [v]conical and not solid, being formed of a number of flat steel rings, decreasing in size as they approached the point of the cone. When not in operation these rings did not touch one another, but they could be forced together by pressure on the point of the cone. One day this shell fell from the supports on which it lay, the conical end down, and ploughed its way with terrific force into the earth--how far no one could tell. Clewe determined to descend the hole in search of the shell by means of an electric elevator. Margaret Raleigh, to whom he was engaged, had gone to the seashore, and during her absence, Clewe planned to make his daring venture. On the day that Margaret left Sardis, Roland began his preparations for descending the shaft. He had so thoroughly considered the machinery and appliances necessary for the undertaking and had worked out all his plans in such detail, in his mind and upon paper, that he knew exactly what he wanted to do. His orders for the great length of chain needed exhausted the stock of several factories, and the engines he obtained were even more powerful than he had intended them to be; but these he could procure immediately, and for smaller ones he would have been obliged to wait. The circular car which was intended to move up and down the shaft, and the peculiar machinery connected with it, together with the hoisting apparatus, were all made in his works. His skilled artisans labored steadily day and night. It was ten days before he was ready to make his descent. Margaret was still at the seashore. They had written to each other frequently, but neither had made mention of the great shaft. Even when he was ready to go down, Clewe said nothing to any one of an immediate intention of descending. There was a massive door which covered the mouth of the pit; this he ordered locked and went away. The next morning he walked into the building a little earlier than was his custom, called for the engineers, and for Bryce, who was to take charge of everything connected with the descent, and announced that he was going down that day. Bryce and the men who were to assist him looked very serious at this. Indeed, if their employer had been any other man than Roland Clewe, it is possible they might have remonstrated with him; but they knew him, and they said and did nothing more than what was their duty. The door of the shaft was removed, the car which had hung high above it was lowered to the mouth of the opening, and Roland stepped within it and seated himself. Above him and around him were placed [v]geological tools and instruments of many kinds, a lantern, food, and drink--everything, in fact, which he could possibly be presumed to need upon this extraordinary journey. A telephone was at his side by which he could communicate at any time with the surface of the earth. There were electric bells; there was everything to make his expedition safe and profitable. Finally he gave the word to start the engines; there were no ceremonies, and nothing was said out of the common. When the conical top of the car had descended below the surface, a steel grating, with holes for the passage of the chains, was let down over the mouth of the shaft, and the downward journey began. In the floor of the car were grated openings, through which Clewe could look downward; but, although the shaft below him was brilliantly illuminated by electric lights placed beneath the car, it failed to frighten him or make him dizzy to look down, for the [v]aperture did not appear to be very far below him. The upper part of the car was partially open, and bright lights shone upon the sides of the shaft. As he slowly descended, Clewe could see the various [v]strata appearing and disappearing in the order in which he knew them. Not far below the surface he passed cavities which he believed had held water; but there was no water in them now. He had expected these pockets, and had feared that upon their edges might be loosened patches of rock or soil, but everything seemed tightly packed and hard. If anything had been loosened, it had gone down already. Down, down he went until he came to the eternal rocks, where the inside of the shaft was polished as if it had been made of glass. The air became warmer and warmer, but Clewe knew that the heat would soon decrease. The character of the rocks changed, and he studied them as he went down, continually making notes. After a time the polished rocky sides of the shaft grew to be of a solemn sameness. Clewe ceased to take notes; he lighted a cigar and smoked. He tried to imagine what he would come to when he reached the bottom; it would be some sort of a cave, he thought, in which his shell had made an opening. He began to imagine what sort of a cave it would be, and how high the roof was from the floor. Clewe then suddenly wondered whether his gardener had remembered what he had told him about the flower-beds in front of the house; he wished certain changes made which Margaret had suggested. He tried to keep his mind on the flower-beds, but it drifted away to the cave below. He thought of the danger of coming into some underground body of water, where he would be drowned; but he knew that was a silly idea. If the shell had gone through [v]subterranean reservoirs, the water of these would have run out, and before it reached the bottom of the shaft would have dissipated into mist. Down, down he went. He looked at his watch; he had been in that car only an hour and a half. Was that possible? He had supposed he was almost at the bottom. Suddenly his mind reverted to the people above and the telephone. Why had not some of them spoken to him? It was shameful! He instantly called Bryce, and his heart leaped with joy when he heard the familiar voice in his ear. Now he talked steadily on for more than an hour. He had his gardener summoned, and told the man all that he wanted done in the flower-beds. He gave many directions in regard to the various operations at the works. There were two or three inventions in which he took particular interest, and of these he talked at great length with Bryce. Suddenly, in the midst of some talk about hollow steel rods, he told Bryce to let the engines run faster; there was no reason why the car should go so slowly. The windlasses moved with a little more rapidity, and Clewe now turned and looked at an indicator which was placed on the side of the car, a little over his head. This instrument showed the depth to which he had descended, but he had not looked at it before, for if anything would make him nervous, it would be the continual consideration of the depth to which he had descended. The indicator showed that he had gone down fourteen and one-eighth miles. Clewe turned and sat stiffly in his seat. He glanced down and saw beneath him only an illuminated hole, fading away at the bottom. Then he turned to speak to Bryce, but to his surprise, he could think of nothing to say. After that he lighted another cigar and sat quietly. Some minutes passed--he did not know how many--and he looked down through the gratings in the floor of the car. The electric light streamed downward through a deep [v]crevice, which did not now fade away into nothingness, but ended in something dark and glittering. Then, as he came nearer and nearer to this glittering thing, Clewe saw that it was his automatic shell, lying on its side; only a part of it was visible through the opening of the shaft which he was descending. In an instant, as it seemed to him, the car emerged from the shaft, and he seemed to be hanging in the air--at least there was nothing he could see except that great shell, lying some forty feet below him. But it was impossible that the shell should be lying on the air! He rang to stop the car. "Anything the matter?" cried Bryce. "Nothing at all," Clewe replied. "It's all right; I am near the bottom." In a state of the highest nervous excitement, Clewe gazed about him. He was no longer in a shaft; but where was he? Look around on what side he would, he saw nothing but the light going out from his lamps, light which seemed to extend indefinitely all about him. There appeared to be no limit to his vision in any direction. Then he leaned over the side of his car and looked downward. There lay the great shell directly under him, although under it and around it, extending as far beneath it as it extended in every other direction, shone the light from his own lamp. Nevertheless, that great shell, weighing many tons, lay as if it rested upon the solid ground! After a few moments, Clewe shut his eyes; they pained him. Something seemed to be coming into them like a fine frost in a winter wind. Then he called to Bryce to let the car descend very slowly. It went down, down, gradually approaching the great shell. When the bottom of the car was within two feet of it, Clewe rang to stop. He looked down at the complicated machine he had worked upon so long, with something like a feeling of affection. This he knew; it was his own. Gazing upon its familiar form, he felt that he had a companion in this region of unreality. Pushing back the sliding door of the car, Clewe sat upon the bottom and cautiously put out his feet and legs, lowering them until they touched the shell. It was firm and solid. Although he knew it must be so, the immovability of the great mass of iron gave him a sudden shock of mysterious fear. How could it be immovable when there was nothing under it--when it rested on air? But he must get out of that car, he must explore, he must find out. There certainly could be no danger so long as he clung to the shell. He cautiously got out of the car and let himself down upon the shell. It was not a pleasant surface to stand on, being uneven, with great spiral ribs, and Clewe sat down upon it, clinging to it with his hands. Presently he leaned over to one side and looked beneath him. The shadows of that shell went down, down, down into space, until it made him sick to look at them. He drew back quickly, clutched the shell with his arms, and shut his eyes. He felt as if he were about to drop with it into a measureless depth of atmosphere. [Illustration: He Put Out One Foot] But he soon raised himself. He had not come down there to be frightened, to let his nerves run away with him. He had come to find out things. What was it that this shell rested upon? Seizing two of the ribs with a strong clutch, he let himself hang over the sides of the shell until his feet were level with its lower side. They touched something hard. He pressed them downward; it was very hard. He raised himself and stood upon the substance which supported the shell. It was as solid as any rock. He looked down and saw his shadow stretching far beneath him. It seemed as if he were standing upon [v]petrified air. He put out one foot and moved a little, still holding on to the shell. He walked, as if upon solid air, to the foremost end of the long [v]projectile. It relieved him to turn his thoughts from what was around him to this familiar object. He found its conical end shattered. After a little he slowly made his way back to the other end of the shell, and now his eyes became somewhat accustomed to the great radiance about him. He thought he could perceive here and there faint signs of long, nearly horizontal lines--lines of different shades of light. Above him, as if it hung in the air, was the round, dark hole through which he had descended. He rose, took his hands from the shell, and made a few steps. He trod upon a horizontal surface, but in putting one foot forward, he felt a slight incline. It seemed to him, that he was about to slip downward! Instantly he retreated to the shell and clutched it in a sudden frenzy of fear. Standing thus, with his eyes still wandering, he heard the bell of the telephone ring. Without hesitation he mounted the shell and got into the car. Bryce was calling him. "Come up," he said. "You have been down there long enough. No matter what you have found, it is time for you to come up." "All right," said Roland. "You can haul me up, but go very slowly at first." The car rose. When it reached the orifice in the top of the cave of light, Clewe heard the conical steel top grate slightly as it touched the edge, for the car was still swinging a little from the motion given to it by his entrance; but it soon hung perfectly vertical and went silently up the shaft. Seated in the car, which was steadily ascending the great shaft, Roland Clewe took no notice of anything about him. He did not look at the brilliantly lighted interior of the shaft; he paid no attention to his instruments; he did not consult his watch, or glance at the dial which indicated the distance he had traveled. Several times the telephone bell rang, and Bryce inquired how he was getting along; but these questions he answered as briefly as possible, and sat looking down at his knees and seeing nothing. When he was half-way up, he suddenly became conscious that he was very hungry. He hurriedly ate some sandwiches and drank some water, and again gave himself up entirely to mental labor. When, at last, the noise of machinery above him and the sound of voices aroused him from his abstraction, and the car emerged upon the surface of the earth, Clewe hastily slid back the door and stepped out. At that instant he felt himself encircled by a pair of arms. Bryce was near by, and there were other men by the engines, but the owner of those arms thought nothing of this. "Margaret!" cried Clewe, "how came you here?" "I have been here all the time," she exclaimed; "or, at least, nearly all the time." And as she spoke she drew back and looked at him, her eyes full of happy tears. "Mr. Bryce telegraphed to me the instant he knew you were going down, and I was here before you had descended half-way." "What!" he cried. "And all those messages came from you?" "Nearly all," she answered. "But tell me, Roland--tell me; have you been successful?" "I am successful," he answered. "I have discovered everything!" Bryce came forward. "I will speak to you all very soon," said Clewe. "I can't tell you anything now. Margaret, let us go. I wish to talk to you, but not until I have been to my office. I will meet you at your house in a very few minutes." And with that he left the building and fairly ran to his office. A quarter of an hour later Roland entered Margaret's library, where she sat awaiting him. He carefully closed the doors and windows. They sat side by side upon the sofa. "Now, Roland," she said, "I cannot wait one second longer. What is it that you have discovered?" "When I arrived at the bottom of the shaft," he began, "I found myself in a cleft, I know not how large, made in a vast mass of transparent substance, hard as the hardest rock and as transparent as air in the light of my electric lamps. My shell rested securely upon this substance. I walked upon it. It seemed as if I could see miles below me. In my opinion, Margaret, that substance was once the head of a comet." "What is the substance?" she asked, hastily. "It is a mass of solid diamond!" Margaret screamed. She could not say one word. "Yes," said he, "I believe the whole central portion of the earth is one great diamond. When it was moving about in its orbit as a comet, the light of the sun streamed through this diamond and spread an enormous tail out into space; after a time this [v]nucleus began to burn." "Burn!" exclaimed Margaret. "Yes, the diamond is almost pure [v]carbon; why should it not burn? It burned and burned and burned. Ashes formed upon it and encircled it; it still burned, and when it was entirely covered with ashes it ceased to be transparent and ceased to be a comet; it became a planet, and revolved in a different orbit. It still burned within its covering of ashes, and these gradually changed to rock, to metal, to everything that forms the crust of the earth." She gazed upon him, entranced. "Some parts of this great central mass of carbon burn more fiercely than other parts. Some parts do not burn at all. In volcanic regions the fires rage; where my great shell went down it no longer burns. Now you have my theory. It is crude and rough, for I have tried to give it to you in as few words as possible." "Oh, Roland," she cried, "it is absurd! Diamond! Why, people will think you are crazy. You must not say such a thing as that to anybody. It is simply impossible that the greater part of this earth should be an enormous diamond." "Margaret," he answered, "nothing is impossible. The central portion of this earth is composed of something; it might just as well be diamond as anything else. In fact, if you consider the matter, it is more likely to be, because diamond is a very original substance. As I have said, it is almost pure carbon. I do not intend to repeat a word of what I have told you to any one--at least until the matter has been well considered--but I am not afraid of being thought crazy. Margaret, will you look at these?" He took from his pocket some shining substances resembling glass. Some of them were flat, some round; the largest was as big as a lemon; others were smaller fragments of various sizes. "These are pieces of the great diamond which were broken when the shell struck the bottom of the cave in which I found it. I picked them up as I felt my way around this shell, when walking upon what seemed to me solid air. I thrust them into my pocket, and I would not come to you, Margaret, with this story, until I had visited my office to find out what these fragments are. I tested them; their substance is diamond!" Half-dazed, she took the largest piece in her hand. "Roland," she whispered, "if this is really a diamond, there is nothing like it known to man!" "Nothing, indeed," said he. She sat staring at the great piece of glowing mineral which lay in her hand. Its surface was irregular; it had many faces; the subdued light from the window gave it the appearance of animated water. He felt it necessary to speak. "Even these little pieces," he said, "are most valuable jewels." "Roland," she suddenly cried, excitedly, "these are riches beyond imagination! What is common wealth to what you have discovered? Every living being on earth could--" "Ah, Margaret," he interrupted, "do not let your thoughts run that way. If my discovery should be put to the use of which you are thinking, it would bring poverty to the world, not wealth, and every diamond on earth would be worthless." She trembled. "And these--are they to be valued as common pebbles?" "Oh no," said he; "these broken fragments I have found are to us riches far beyond our wildest imagination." "Roland," she cried, "are you going down into that shaft for more of them?" "Never, never, never again," he answered. "What we have here is enough for us, and if I were offered all the good that there is in this world, which money cannot buy, I would never go down into that cleft again. There was one moment, as I stood in that cave, when an awful terror shot into my soul that I shall never be able to forget. In the light of my electric lamps, sent through a vast transparent mass, I could see nothing, but I could feel. I put out my foot, and I found it was upon a sloping surface. In another instant I might have slid--where? I cannot bear to think of it!" FRANK E. STOCKTON. =HELPS TO STUDY= What happened to Clewe's automatic shell? What did he decide to do? Tell of the preparations he made for his descent. What occurred when he reached the end of the shaft? Of what was Clewe thinking so intently while making his ascent? Why did he go at once to his office? What conclusion did he reach as to the central part of the earth? What did he have to prove the correctness of his theory? Why was he unwilling ever to make the descent again? This story was written about the end of the nineteenth century: what great scientific discoveries have been made since then? SUPPLEMENTARY READING A Journey to the Center of the Earth--Jules Verne. The Adventures of Captain Horn--Frank R. Stockton. FOOTNOTE: [391-*] Copyright by Harper & Brothers. A STOP AT SUZANNE'S The author of this sketch, a young American aviator, a resident of Richmond, Virginia, was killed in battle in August, 1918. Suzanne is a very pretty girl, I was told, but the charm of "Suzanne's" wasn't with her alone, for, always, one spoke of the deliciously-tasting meal, how nice the old madame is, and how fine a chap is her _mari_, the father of Suzanne. Then of the garden in the back--and before you had finished listening you didn't know which was the most important thing about "Suzanne's." All you knew was that it was the place to go when on an aeroplane voyage. At the pilotage office I found five others ahead of me; all of us were bound in the same direction. We were given [v]barographs, altimeters and maps and full directions as to forced landings and what to do when lost. We hung around the voyage hangar until about eight in the morning, but there was a low mist and cloudy sky, so we could not start out until afternoon; and I didn't have luncheon at "Suzanne's." After noon several of the others started out, but I wanted to plan my supper stop for the second point, so I waited until about four o'clock before starting. Almost before I knew it a village, which on the map was twelve kilometers away, was slipping by beneath me and then off to one side was a forest, green and cool-looking and very regular around the edges. Pretty soon I came to a deep blue streak bordered by trees, and was so interested in it--it wound around under a railroad track, came up and brushed by lots of back gates and, finally, fell in a wide splash of silver over a little fall by a mill--that I forgot all about flying and suddenly woke up to the fact that one wing was about as low as it could get and that the nose of the machine was doing its best to follow the wing. Long before I came to the stopping point, I could see the little white hangar. The field is not large, but it is strange, so you come down rather anxiously, for if you can't make that field the first time, you never will be able to fly, they tell you before leaving. I glided down easily enough, for, after all, it is just that--either you can or you can't--and made a good-enough landing. The sergeant signed my paper, and a few minutes later away I went for "Suzanne's." The next stop is near a little village--Suzanne's village--so when I came to the field and landed I was sure to be too tired to go up again immediately. Instead, off I went to town after making things right with the man in charge. That wasn't a bit difficult, either, for all I did was to wink as hard as I could, and he understood perfectly. I knew where "Suzanne's" was, so I made directly for it. It was a little early, but you should never miss the [v]_apertif_. With that first, success is assured; without it, it is like getting out of bed on the wrong foot. Up I marched to the unimposing door and walked in to the main room--a big room, with long, wooden tables and benches and a zinc bar at one end, where all kinds of bottles rested. It isn't called "Suzanne's," of course; it only has that name among us. As I closed the door behind me and looked about, a _bonne_ was serving several men at a corner table, and behind the bar a big, red-faced, stout man was pouring stuff into bottles. He looked at me a moment and then with a tremendous "_Tiens!_" he came out from behind the tables and advanced toward me. "_Bon jour_," he said; "do you come from far?" "Oh, no," I answered, "only from ----." "_Tiens!_" he repeated; then, "Ah, you are from the school." _L'ecole_, he called it. From _l'ecole_, I admitted, and, taking me by the arm, he led me to a door at the rear. Through this he propelled me, and then in his huge voice he called "_Suzanne, un [v]pilote!_" and I was introduced. As he shut the door, I could just see the corner table with the three old men staring open-mouthed, the wine before them forgotten, the bread and cheese in their hands untasted; then, down the stairs came light steps and a rustle of skirts, and Suzanne was before me with smiling face and outstretched hand. Her instant welcome, the genuine smile! Almost immediately, I understood the fame of this little station, so far from everything but the air route. Her charm is indescribable. She is pretty, she is well dressed, but it isn't that. It is a sincerity of manner, complete hospitality; at once you are accepted as a bosom friend of the family--that is the charm of Suzanne's. After a few questions as to where I came from, how long I had been there, and where I was going, Suzanne led me upstairs to be presented to [v]"_Ma belle mere_," a white-haired old lady sitting in a big, straight-backed chair. Then, after more courtesies had been extended to me, Suzanne preceded me down to the garden and left me alone while she went in to see that the supper was exceptionally good. A soft footstep on the gravel walk sounded behind me, and I turned to see one of the most beautiful women I ever beheld. She was tall and slender, and as she came gracefully across the lawn she swung a little work bag from one arm. All in black she was, with a lace shawl over her bare head. Like every one in that most charming and hospitable house, there was no formality or show about her. She came, smiling, and sat on the bench beside me, drawing open her work bag. I could not help noticing, particularly, her beautiful eyes, for they told the story, a story too common here, except that her eyes had changed now to an expression of resigned peace. Then she told me about Suzanne. Long before, ages and ages ago it seemed, but really only four years, a huge, ungainly bird fell crashing to earth and from the wreck a man was taken, unconscious. He was carried to "Suzanne's," and she nursed him and cared for him until he was well again. "Suzanne was very happy then," madame told me. And no wonder, for the daring aviator and Suzanne were in love. She nursed him back to health, but when he went away he left his heart forever with her. They were engaged, and every little while he would fly over from his station to see Suzanne. Those were in the early days and aviation--well, even at that, it hasn't changed so much. One day a letter came for Suzanne, and with a catch at her throbbing heart she read that her _fiancé_ had been killed. [v]"_Mort pour la patrie_," it said, and Suzanne was never the same afterward. For many months the poor girl grieved, but, finally, she began to realize that what had happened to her had happened to thousands of other girls, too, and, gradually, she took up the attitude that you find throughout this glorious country. Only her eyes now tell the sad story. One evening two men walked into the café and from their talk Suzanne knew they were from _l'ecole_. She sat down and listened to them. They talked about the war, about aviation, about deeds of heroism, and Suzanne drank in every word, for they were talking the language of her dead lover. The two aviators stayed to dinner, but the big room was not good enough. They must come back to the family dinner--to the intimacy of the back room. They stayed all night and left early next morning, but before they left they wrote their names in a big book. To-day, Suzanne has the book, filled full of names, many now famous, many names that are only a memory--that is how it started. When the two pilots went back to _l'ecole_, they spoke in glowing terms of "Suzanne's," of the soft beds, of the delicious dinner, and, I think, mostly of Suzanne. Visitors came after that to eat at "Suzanne's," and to see her famous book. They came regularly and, finally, "Suzanne's" became an institution. Always, a _pilote_ was taken into the back room; he ate with the family, he told them all the news from _l'ecole_, and, in exchange, he heard stories about the early days, stories that will never be printed, but which embody examples of the heroism and intelligence that have done their part to develop aviation. Soon, we went in to dinner, and such a dinner! Truly, nothing is too good for an aviator at "Suzanne's," and they give of their best to these wandering strangers. They do not ask your name, they call every one _Monsieur_, but before you leave you sign the book and they all crowd around to look, without saying anything. Your name means nothing yet, but a year from now, perhaps, who can tell? In the first pages are names that have been bywords for years and some that are famous the world over. After dinner, Suzanne slipped away, presently to reappear with a special bottle and glasses. I felt sure this was part of the entertainment afforded all their winged visitors, for they went about it in a practised manner; each was familiar with his or her part, but to me it was all delightfully new. Our glasses were filled, and Suzanne raised hers up first. Without a word, she looked around the circle. Her eyes met them all, then rested with madame. She had not said a word; it was "papa" who proposed my health, and as the bottoms went up, Suzanne and madame both had a struggle to repress a tear. They were drinking my health, but their thoughts were far away, and in my heart I was wishing that happiness might again come to them. Suzanne certainly deserves it. When I returned to school, they asked, "Did you stop at 'Suzanne's'?" And now to the others, just ready to make the voyage, I always say, "Be sure to stop at 'Suzanne's'." GREAYER CLOVER. THE MAKING OF A MAN I Marmaduke, otherwise Doggie, Trevor owned a pleasant home set on fifteen acres of ground. He had an income of three thousand pounds a year. Old Peddle, the butler, and his wife, the housekeeper, saved him from domestic cares. He led a well-regulated life. His meals, his toilet, his music, his wall-papers, his drawing and embroidery, his sweet peas, his chrysanthemums, his postage stamps, and his social engagements filled the hours not claimed by slumber. In the town of Durdlebury, Doggie Trevor began to feel appreciated. He could play the piano, the harp, the viola, the flute, and the clarionette, and sing a mild tenor. Besides music, Doggie had other accomplishments. He could choose the exact shade of silk for a drawing-room sofa cushion, and he had an excellent gift for the selection of wedding-presents. All in all, Marmaduke Trevor was a young gentleman of exquisite taste. After breakfast on a certain July morning, Doggie, attired in a green shot-silk dressing-gown, entered his own particular room and sat down to think. In its way it was a very beautiful room--high, spacious, well-proportioned, facing southeast. The wall-paper, which Doggie had designed himself, was ivory white, with trimmings of peacock blue. [v]Vellum-bound books filled the cases; delicate water-colors adorned the walls. On his writing-table lay an ivory set: inkstand, pen-tray, blotter, and calendar. Bits of old embroidery, harmonizing with the peacock shades, were spread here and there. A spinet inlaid with ivory formed the center for the arrangement of other musical instruments--a viol, mandolins, and flutes. One tall, closed cabinet was devoted to Doggie's collection of wall-papers. Another held a collection of little dogs in china and porcelain--thousands of them; he got them from dealers from all over the world. An unwonted frown creased Doggie's brow, for several problems disturbed him. The morning sun disclosed, beyond doubt, discolorations, stains, and streaks on the wall-paper. It would have to be renewed. Then, his thoughts ran on to his cousin, Oliver Manningtree, who had just returned from the South Sea. It was Oliver, the strong and masculine, who had given him the name of Doggie years before, to his infinite disgust. And now every one in Durdlebury seemed to have gone crazy over the fellow. Doggie's uncle and aunt had hung on his lips while Oliver had boasted unblushingly of his adventures. Even the fair cousin Peggy, with whom Doggie was mildly in love, had listened open-eyed and open-mouthed to Oliver's tales of shipwreck in distant seas. Doggie had reached this point in his reflections when, to his horror, he heard a familiar voice outside the door. "All right," it said. "Don't worry, Peddle. I'll show myself in." The door burst open, and Oliver, pipe in mouth and hat on one side, came into the room. "Hello, Doggie!" he cried boisterously. "Thought I'd look you up. Hope I'm not disturbing you." "Not at all," said Doggie. "Do sit down." But Oliver walked about and looked at things. "I like your water colors," he said. "Did you collect them yourself!" "Yes." "I congratulate you on your taste. This is a beauty." The appreciation brought Doggie at once to his side. He took Oliver delightedly around the pictures, expounding their merits and their little histories. Doggie was just beginning to like the big fellow, when, stopping before the collection of china dogs, the latter spoiled everything. "My dear Doggie," he said, "is that your family?" "It's the finest collection of the kind in the world," replied Doggie stiffly, "and is worth several thousand pounds." Oliver heaved himself into a chair--that was Doggie's impression of his method of sitting down. "Forgive me, Doggie," he said, "but you're so funny. Pictures and music I can understand. But what on earth is the point of these little dogs?" Doggie was hurt. "It would be useless to try to explain," he said, with dignity. "And my name is Marmaduke." Oliver took off his hat and sent it skimming to the couch. "Look here, old chap," he said, "I seem to have put my foot in it. I didn't mean to, really. I'll call you Marmaduke, if you like, instead of Doggie--though it's a beast of a name. I'm a rough sort of chap. I've had ten years' pretty tough training. I've slept on boards; I've slept in the open without a cent to hire a board. I've gone cold and I've gone hungry, and men have knocked me about, and I've lost most of my politeness. In the wilds if a man once gets the name, say, of Duck-Eyed Joe, it sticks to him, and he accepts it, and answers to it, and signs it." "But I'm not in the wilds," objected Marmaduke, "and haven't the slightest intention of ever leading the unnatural and frightful life you describe. So what you say doesn't apply to me." Oliver, laughing, clapped him on the shoulder. "You don't give a fellow a chance," he said. "Look here, tell me, as man to man, what are you going to do with your life? Here you are, young, strong, educated, intelligent--" "I'm not strong," said Doggie. "A month's exercise would make you as strong as a mule," returned Oliver. "Here you are--what are you going to do with yourself?" "I don't admit that you have any right to question me," said Doggie. "Peggy and I had a talk," declared Oliver. "I said I'd take you out with me to the Islands and give you a taste for fresh air and salt water and exercise. I'll teach you how to sail a schooner and how to go about barefoot and swab decks." Doggie smiled pityingly, but said politely, "Your offer is kind, Oliver, but I don't think that sort of life would suit me." Being a man of intelligence, he realized that Oliver's offer arose from a genuine desire to do him service. But if a friendly bull out of the fulness of its affection invited you to accompany it to the meadow and eat grass, what could you do but courteously decline the invitation? "I'm really most obliged to you, Oliver," said Doggie, finally. "But our ideas are entirely different. You're primitive, you know. You seem to find your happiness in defying the elements, whereas I find mine in adopting the resources of civilization to defeat them." "Which means," said Oliver, rudely, "that you're afraid to roughen your hands and spoil your complexion." "If you like to put it that way." "You're an [v]effeminate little creature!" cried Oliver, losing his temper. "And I'm through with you. Go sit up and beg for biscuits." "Stop!" shouted Doggie, white with sudden anger, which shook him from head to foot. He marched to the door, his green silk dressing-gown flapping about him, and threw it wide open. "This is my house," he said. "I'm sorry to have to ask you to get out of it." And when the door was shut on Oliver, he threw himself, shaken, on the couch, hating Oliver and all his works more than ever. Go about barefoot and swab decks! It was madness. Besides being dangerous to health, it would be excruciating discomfort. And to be insulted for not grasping at such martyrdom! It was intolerable; and Doggie remained justly indignant the whole day long. II Then the war came. Doggie Trevor was both patriotic and polite. Having a fragment of the British army in his house, he did his best to make it comfortable. By January he had no doubt that the empire was in peril, that it was every man's duty to do his bit. He welcomed the newcomers with open arms, having unconsciously abandoned his attitude of superiority over mere brawn. It was every patriotic Englishman's duty to encourage brawn. He threw himself heart and soul into the entertainment of officers and men. They thought Doggie a capital fellow. "My dear chap," one would protest, "you're spoiling us. I don't say we don't like it and aren't grateful. We are. But we're supposed to rough it--to lead the simple life. You're treating us too well." "Impossible!" Doggie would reply. "Don't I know what we owe you fellows? In what other way can a helpless, delicate being like myself show his gratitude and in some sort of way serve his country?" When the sympathetic guest would ask what was the nature of his malady, Doggie would tap his chest vaguely and reply: "Constitutional. I've never been able to do things like other fellows. The least thing bowls me out." "Hard lines--especially just now!" the soldier would murmur. "Yes, isn't it?" Doggie would answer. Doggie never questioned his physical incapacity. His mother had brought him up to look on himself as a singularly frail creature, and the idea was as real to him as the war. He went about pitying himself and seeking pity. The months passed. The soldiers moved away from Durdlebury, and Doggie was left alone in his house. He felt solitary and restless. News came from Oliver that he had accepted an infantry commission and was in France. "A month of this sort of thing," he wrote, "would make our dear old Doggie sit up." Doggie sighed. If only he had been blessed with Oliver's constitution! One morning Briggins, his chauffeur, announced that he could stick it out no longer and was going to enlist. Then Doggie remembered a talk he had had with one of the young officers, who had expressed astonishment at his not being able to drive a car. "I shouldn't have the nerve," he had replied. "My nerves are all wrong--and I shouldn't have the strength to change tires and things." But now Doggie was confronted by the necessity of driving his own car, for chauffeurs were no longer to be had. To his amazement, he found that he did not die of nervous collapse when a dog crossed the road in front of the automobile, and that the fitting of detachable wheels did not require the strength of a Hercules. The first time he took Peggy out driving, he swelled with pride. "I'm so glad you can do something!" she said, after a silence. Although the girl was as kind as ever, Doggie had noticed of late a curious reserve in her manner. Conversation did not flow easily. She had fits of abstraction, from which, when rallied, she roused herself with an effort. Finally, one day, Peggy asked him blankly why he did not enlist. Doggie was horrified. "I'm not fit," he said, "I've no constitution. I'm an impossibility." "You thought you had nerves until you learned to drive the car," she answered. "Then you discovered that you hadn't. You fancy you've a weak heart. Perhaps if you walked thirty miles a day, you would discover that you hadn't that, either. And so with the rest of it." He swung round toward her. "Do you think I'm shamming so as to get out of serving in the army?" he demanded. "Not consciously. Unconsciously, I think you are. What does your doctor say?" Doggie was taken aback. He had no doctor, having no need for one. He made confession of the surprising fact. Peggy smiled. "That proves it," she said. "I don't believe you have anything wrong with you. This is plain talking. It's horrid, I know, but it's best to get through with it once and for all." Some men would have taken deep offense, but Doggie, conscientious if ineffective, was gnawed for the first time by a suspicion that Peggy might possibly be right. He desired to act honorably. "I'll do," he said, "whatever you think proper." "Good!" said Peggy. "Get Doctor Murdoch to overhaul you thoroughly with a view to the army. If he passes you, take a commission." She put out her hand. Doggie took it firmly. "Very well," he said. "I agree." "You're flabby," announced Doctor Murdoch, the next morning, to an anxious Doggie, after some minutes of thumping and listening, "but that's merely a matter of unused muscles. Physical training will set it right in no time. Otherwise, my dear Trevor, you're in splendid health. There's not a flaw in your whole constitution." Doggie crept out of bed, put on a violet dressing-gown, and wandered to his breakfast like a man in a nightmare. But he could not eat. He swallowed a cup of coffee and took refuge in his own room. He was frightened--horribly frightened, caught in a net from which there was no escape. He had given his word to join the army if he should be passed by Murdoch. He had been more than passed! Now he would have to join; he would have to fight. He would have to live in a muddy trench, sleep in mud, eat in mud, plow through mud. Doggie was shaken to his soul, but he had given his word and he had no thought of going back on it. The fateful little letter bestowing a commission on Doggie arrived two weeks later; he was a second lieutenant in a battalion of the new army. A few days afterward he set off for the training-camp. He wrote to Peggy regularly. The work was very hard, he said, and the hours were long. Sometimes he confessed himself too tired to write more than a few lines. It was a very strange life--one he never dreamed could have existed. There was the riding-school. Why hadn't he learned to ride as a boy? Peggy was filled with admiration for his courage. She realized that he was suffering acutely in his new and rough environment, but he made no complaint. Then there came a time when Doggie's letters grew rarer and shorter. At last they ceased altogether. One evening an unstamped envelope addressed to Peggy was put in the letter-box. The envelope contained a copy of the _Gazette_, and a sentence was underlined and adorned with exclamation marks: "Royal Fusileers. Second Lieutenant J. M. Trevor resigned his commission." * * * * * It had been a terrible blow to Doggie. The colonel had dealt as gently as he could in the final interview with him. He put his hand in a fatherly way on Doggie's shoulder and bade him not take the thing too much to heart. He--Doggie--had done his best, but the simple fact was that he was not cut out for an officer. These were merciless times, and in matters of life and death there could be no weak links in the chain. In Doggie's case there was no personal discredit. He had always conducted himself like a gentleman, but he lacked the qualities necessary for the command of men. He must send in his resignation. Doggie, after leaving the camp, took a room in a hotel and sat there most of the day, the mere pulp of a man. His one desire now was to escape from the eyes of his fellow-men. He felt that he bore the marks of his disgrace, obvious at a glance. He had been turned out of the army as a hopeless incompetent; he was worse than a slacker, for the slacker might have latent qualities he was without. Presently the sight of his late brother-officers added the gnaw of envy to his heart-ache. On the third day of his exile he moved into lodgings in Woburn Place. Here at least he could be quiet, untroubled by heart-rending sights and sounds. He spent most of his time in dull reading and dispirited walking. His failure preyed on his mind. He walked for miles every day, though without enjoyment. He wandered one evening in the dusk to Waterloo Bridge and gazed out over the parapet. The river stretched below, dark and peaceful. As he looked down on the rippling water, he presently became aware of a presence by his side. Turning his head, he found a soldier, an ordinary private, also leaning over the parapet. "I thought I wasn't mistaken in Mr. Marmaduke Trevor," said the soldier. Doggie started away, on the point of flight, dreading the possible insolence of one of the men of his late regiment. But the voice of the speaker rang in his ears with a strange familiarity, and the great fleshy nose, the high cheekbones, and the little gray eyes in the weather-beaten face suggested vaguely some one of the long ago. His dawning recognition amused the soldier. "Yes, laddie, it's your old Phineas. Phineas McPhail, M. A.--now private P. McPhail." It was no other than Doggie's tutor of his childhood days. "Very glad to see you," Doggie murmured. Phineas, gaunt and bony, took his arm. Doggie's instinctive craving for companionship made Phineas suddenly welcome. "Let us have a talk," he said. "Come to my rooms. There will be some dinner." "Will I come? Will I have dinner? Laddie, I will." In the Strand they hailed a taxi-cab and drove to Doggie's place. "You mention your rooms," said Phineas. "Are you residing permanently in London?" "Yes," said Doggie, sadly. "I never expect to leave it." A few minutes later they reached Woburn Place. Doggie showed Phineas into the sitting-room. The table was set for Doggie's dinner. Phineas looked around him in surprise. The tasteless furniture, the dreadful pictures on the walls, the coarse glass and the well-used plate on the table, the crumpled napkin in a ring--all came as a shock to Phineas, who had expected to find Marmaduke's rooms a reproduction of the fastidious prettiness of the peacock and ivory room in Durdlebury. "Laddie," he said, gravely, "you must excuse me if I take a liberty, but I cannot fit you into this environment. It cannot be that you have come down in the world?" "To bed-rock," replied Doggie. "Man, I'm sorry," said Phineas. "I know what coming down feels like. If I had money--" Doggie broke in with a laugh. "Pray don't distress yourself, Phineas. It's not a question of money at all. The last thing in the world I've had to think of has been money." "What is the trouble?" Phineas demanded. "That's a long story," answered Doggie. "In the meantime I had better give some orders about dinner." The dinner came in presently, not particularly well served. They sat down to it. "By the way," remarked Doggie, "you haven't told me why you became a soldier." "Chance," replied Phineas. "I have been going down in the world for some time, and no one seemed to want me except my country. She clamored for me at every corner. A recruiting sergeant in Trafalgar Square at last persuaded me to take the leap. That's how I became Private Phineas McPhail of the Tenth Wessex Rangers, at the compensation of one shilling and two pence per day." "Do you like it?" asked Doggie. Phineas rubbed the side of his nose thoughtfully. "In itself it is a vile life," he made answer. "The hours are absurd, the work is distasteful, and the mode of living repulsive. But it contents me. The secret of happiness lies in adapting one's self to conditions. I adapt myself wherever I happen to be. And now, may I, without impertinent curiosity, again ask what you meant when you said you had come down to bed-rock?" All of Doggie's rage and shame flared up at the question. "I've been thrown out of the army!" he cried. "I'm here in hiding--hiding from my family and the decent folk I'm ashamed to meet!" "Tell me all about it, laddie," urged Phineas, gently. Then Doggie broke down, and with a gush of unminded tears found expression for his stony despair. His story took a long time in the telling, and Phineas interjected a sympathetic "Ay, ay," from time to time. "And now," cried Doggie, his young face distorted and reddened, his sleek hair ruffled, and his hands appealingly outstretched, "what am I going to do?" "You've got to go back home," said Phineas. "You've got to whip up all the moral courage in you and go back to Durdlebury." "I won't," said Doggie, "I can't. I'd sooner die than go back there disgraced. I'd sooner enlist as a private soldier." "Enlist?" repeated Phineas, and he drew himself up straight and gaunt. "Well, why not?" "Enlist?" echoed Doggie, in a dull tone. "As a Tommy?" "As a Tommy," replied Phineas. "Enlist!" murmured Doggie. He thought of the alternatives--flight, which was craven; home, which he could not bear. Doggie rose from his chair with a new light in his eyes. He had come to the supreme moment of his life; he had made his great resolution. Yes, he would enlist as a private soldier in the British army. III A year later Doggie Trevor returned to Durdlebury. He had been laid up in hospital with a wounded leg, the result of fighting the German snipers in front of the first line trenches, and he was now on his way back to France. Durdlebury had not changed in the interval; it was Marmaduke Trevor that had changed. He measured about ten inches more around the chest than the year before, and his hands were red and calloused from hard work. He was as straight as an Indian now, and in his rough khaki uniform of a British private he looked every bit a man--yes, and more than that, a veteran soldier. For Doggie had passed through battle after battle, gas attacks, mine explosions, and months of dreary duty in water-filled trenches, where only brave and tough men could endure. He had been tried in the furnace and he had come out pure gold. Doggie entered the familiar Deanery, and was met by Peggy with a glad smile of welcome. His uncle, the Dean, appeared in the hall, florid, whitehaired, benevolent, and extended both hands to the homecoming warrior. "My dear boy," he said, "how glad I am to see you! Welcome back! And how's the wound?" Opening the drawing-room door, he pushed Doggie inside. A tall, lean figure in uniform, which had remained in the background by the fireplace, advanced with outstretched hand. "Hello, old chap!" Doggie took the hand in an honest grip. "Hello, Oliver!" "How goes it?" asked Oliver. "Splendid," said Doggie. "Are you all right?" "Tip-top," answered Oliver. He clapped his cousin on the shoulder. "My hat! you do look fit." He turned to the Dean. "Uncle Edward, isn't he a hundred times the man he was?" In a little while tea came. It appeared to Doggie, handing round the three-tiered cake-stand, that he had returned to some forgotten existence. The delicate china cup in his hand seemed too frail for the material usages of life, and he feared lest he break it, for Doggie was accustomed to the rough dishes of the private. The talk lay chiefly between Oliver and himself and ran on the war. Both men had been at Ypres and at Arras, where the British and German trenches lay only five yards apart. "I ought to be over there now," said Oliver, "but I just escaped shell-shock and I was sent home for two weeks." "My crowd is at the Somme," said Doggie. "You're well out of it, old chap," laughed Oliver. For the first time in his life Doggie began really to like Oliver. Oliver stood in his eyes in a new light, that of the typical officer, trusted and beloved by his men, and Doggie's heart went out to him. After some further talk, the men separated to dress for dinner. "You've got the green room, Marmaduke," said Peggy. "The one with the Chippendale furniture you used to covet so much." "I haven't got much to change into," laughed Doggie, looking down at his uniform. "You'll find Peddle up there waiting for you." When Doggie entered the green room, he found Peddle, who welcomed him with tears of joy and a display of all the luxuries of the toilet and adornment which Doggie had left behind at home. There were pots of [v]pomade and face cream, and nail polish; bottles of hair-wash and tooth-wash; half a dozen gleaming razors; the array of brushes and combs and [v]manicure set in [v]tortoise-shell with his crest in silver; bottles of scent; the purple silk dressing-gown; a soft-fronted shirt fitted with ruby and diamond sleeve-links; the dinner jacket and suit laid out on the glass-topped table, with tie and handkerchief; the silk socks, the glossy pumps. "My, Peddle!" cried Doggie, scratching his closely-cropped head. "What's all this?" Peddle, gray, bent, uncomprehending, regarded him blankly. "All what, sir?" "I only want to wash my hands," said Doggie. "But aren't you going to dress for dinner, sir?" "A private soldier's not allowed to wear [v]mufti," returned Doggie. "Who's to find out?" "There's Mr. Oliver; he's a major." "Ah, Mr. Marmaduke, he wouldn't mind. Miss Peggy gave me my orders, sir, and I think you can leave things to her." "All right, Peddle," laughed Doggie. "If it's Miss Peggy's decree, I'll change my clothes. I have all I want." "Are you sure you can manage, sir?" Peddle asked anxiously, for the time was when Doggie could not stick his legs into his trousers unless Peddle helped him. "Quite," said Doggie. "It seems rather roughing it, here at the Deanery, Mr. Marmaduke, after what you've been accustomed to at the Hall," said Peddle. "That's so," replied Doggie. "And it's martyrdom compared to what it is in the trenches. There we always have a major-general to lace our boots and a field-marshall to hand us coffee." Peddle looked blank, being utterly unable to comprehend the nature of a joke. A little later, when Doggie went downstairs to dinner, he found Peggy alone in the drawing-room. "Now you look more like a Christian gentleman," she said. "Confess: it's much more comfortable than your wretched private's uniform." "I'm not quite so sure," he replied, somewhat ruefully, indicating his dinner jacket, which was tightly constricted beneath the arms. "Already I've had to slit my waistcoat down the back. Poor old Peddle will have a fit when he sees it. I've grown a bit since these elegant rags were made for me." Oliver came in--in khaki. Doggie jumped up and pointed to him. "Look here, Peggy," he said; "I'll be sent to the guard-room." Oliver laughed. "I did change my uniform," he said. "I don't know where my dinner clothes are." "That's the best thing about being a major," spoke up Doggie. "They have heaps of suits. Poor Tommy has but one suit to his name." Then the Dean and his wife entered, and they went in to dinner. It was for Doggie the most pleasant of meals. He had the superbly healthy man's whole-hearted appreciation for unaccustomed good food. There were other and finer pleasures--the table with its exquisite [v]napery and china and glass and silver and flowers. There was the delightful atmosphere of peace and gentle living. And there was Oliver--a new Oliver. Most of all, Doggie appreciated Oliver's comrade-like attitude. It was a recognition of him as a soldier. He had "made good" in the eyes of one of the finest soldiers in the British army, and what else mattered? To Doggie the supreme joy of that pleasurable evening was the knowledge that he had done well in the eyes of Oliver. The latter wore on his tunic the white, mauve, and white ribbon of the Military Cross. Honor where honor was due. But he--Doggie--had been wounded, and Oliver frankly put them both on the same plane of achievement, thus wiping away with generous hand all the hated memories of the past. When the ladies left the room the Dean went with them, and the cousins were left alone. "And now," said Oliver, "don't you think you're a bit of a fool, Doggie?" "I know it," Doggie returned cheerfully. "The army has drummed that into me at any rate." "I mean in staying in the ranks," Oliver went on. "Why don't you apply for the Cadet Corps and get a commission again?" Doggie's brow grew dark. "I will tell you," he replied. "The only real happiness I've had in my life has been as a Tommy. I'm not talking foolishness. The only real friends I've ever made in my life are Tommies. I've a real life as a Tommy, and I'm satisfied. When I came to my senses after being thrown out for incompetence and I enlisted, I made a vow that I would stick it out as a Tommy without anybody's sympathy, least of all that of the people here. And as a Tommy I am a real soldier and do my part." Oliver smiled. "I'm glad you told me, old man. I appreciate it very much. I've been through the ranks myself and know what it is--the bad and the good. Many a man has found his soul that way--" "Heavens!" cried Doggie, starting to his feet. "Do you say that, too?" The cousins clasped hands. That was Oliver's final recognition of Doggie as a soldier and a man. Doggie had found his soul. W. J. LOCKE. IN FLANDERS FIELD In Flanders fields, the poppies blow Between the crosses, row on row, That mark our places. In the sky The larks, still bravely singing, fly, Scarce heard amid the guns below. We are the dead. Short days ago We lived, felt dawn, saw sunset glow, Loved and were loved, and now we lie In Flanders fields. Take up our quarrel with the foe! To you, from failing hands, we throw The torch. Be yours to lift it high! If ye break faith with us who die, We shall not sleep, though poppies blow In Flanders fields. JOHN MCCRAE. IN FLANDERS FIELD (AN ANSWER) In Flanders fields, the cannon boom And fitful flashes light the gloom, While up above, like eagles, fly The fierce destroyers of the sky; With stains the earth wherein you lie Is redder than the poppy bloom, In Flanders fields. Sleep on, ye brave. The shrieking shell, The quaking trench, the startled yell, The fury of the battle hell Shall wake you not, for all is well. Sleep peacefully, for all is well. Your flaming torch aloft we bear, With burning heart an oath we swear To keep the faith, to fight it through, To crush the foe or sleep with you In Flanders fields. C. B. GALBRAITH. A BALLAD OF HEROES Because you passed, and now are not,-- Because in some remoter day Your sacred dust from doubtful spot Was blown of ancient airs away,-- Because you perished,--must men say Your deeds were naught, and so profane Your lives with that cold burden? Nay, The deeds you wrought are not in vain! Though, it may be above the plot That hid your once imperial clay, No greener than o'er men forgot The unregarded grasses sway,-- Though there no sweeter is the lay From careless bird,--though you remain Without distinction of decay,-- The deeds you wrought are not in vain! No. For while yet in tower or cot Your story stirs the pulse's play; And men forget the sordid lot-- The sordid care, of cities gray;-- While yet, beset in homelier fray, They learn from you the lesson plain That life may go, so Honor stay,-- The deeds you wrought are not in vain! ENVOY Heroes of old! I humbly lay The laurel on your graves again; Whatever men have done, men may,-- The deeds you wrought are not in vain! AUSTIN DOBSON. DICTIONARY =a byss´=: a deep gulf. =ac´ me=: height. =ac ro bat´ ics=: gymnastics; athletic exercises. =ad´ age=: saying; proverb. =a e´ ri al=: airy. =a lac´ ri ty=: eagerness; spryness. =al´ der man=: here, a Saxon nobleman. =al´ gæ=: seaweeds. =al ter´ na tive=: a second choice. =A´ ma ti ki´ ta=: an Esquimau. =am´ i ca bly ad just´ ed=: arranged peacefully. =am´ phi the a ter=: a circular building with tiers of seats arranged around an open space. =an´ chor ite=: a hermit. =an´ nals=: records. =aped=: imitated. =ap er tif´= (teef): an appetizer. =ap´ er ture=: opening. =Ap´ pa lach´ ian=: a chain of mountains in the eastern United States. =ap pre hen´ sions=: fears. =a quat´ ic=: of the water. =ar cade´=: an arched gallery. =ar tic´ u late=: in regular words. =at´ mos phere=: air pressure at sea level used as a unit. =au ro´ ra=: the Northern Lights, the red glow in the sky in the Far North. =aus ter´ i ty=: soberness; sternness. =av a ri´ cious= (rish us): greedy of gain. =Bal lin droch´ a ter=: a Scotch village. =ban dit´ ti=: outlaws; bandits. =bar´ bi can=: a tower over a gate or bridge. =bar´ o graph=: an instrument for recording changes in the atmosphere. =ba rom´ e ter=: an instrument that determines the weight of the air, and thereby foretells changes in the weather. =ba rouche´=: a low, open carriage. =bau´ ble=: a wand carried by jesters. =Beau seant= (bo sa on´): "Well-seeming," an ancient French war cry. =be nig´ nant=: kind; helpful. =big´ gin=: a child's cap. =Bois-Guil bert= (bwa guel bare´): a knight of the Order of the Temple. =bo´ nus=: an extra payment not included in wages. =brake=: a thicket. =bre´ vi a ry=: a book containing a church service. =brown-bill=: a weapon consisting of a long staff with a hook-shaped blade at the top. =buf foon´ er y=: jesting; clownishness. =bun´ sen pile=: an electric cell containing zinc covered with sulphuric acid at one end, and carbon surrounded by nitric acid at the other. =buoyed= (booed): kept up; supported. =bur lesque´= (lesk): humorous; not serious. =byz´ ant=: a large gold coin. =ca lum´ ni a tor=: a slanderer. =car´ bon=: one of the chemical elements; charcoal is its best known form. =car´ di nal=: a priest of high rank who wears a small red cap. =car´ ri on=: decaying flesh. =car´ tel=: a defiance; a challenge. =casque= (cask): helmet. =cas´ sock=: a close-fitting garment resembling a modern coat. =catherine wheel=: a firework that turns around when lighted, throwing off a circle of sparks. =ce ler´ i ty=: quickness; promptness. =cel´ lar=: here, a wine-cellar. =che val-glass= (she´ val): a large mirror swinging in a frame. =Chil how´ ee=: a high mountain in east Tennessee. =chiv´ al rous=: knightly; warlike. =churls=: low, rude persons. =circuit-rider=: a preacher who ministers to a number of churches. =cloth-yard=: a yard in length. =col´ lo quy=: a discussion. =com punc´ tion=: remorse; repentance. =cone=: a body tapering to a point. =con´ ning tower=: a raised part of a vessel giving an outlook on the sea. =con strained´=: restricted; unfree. =con´ va les´ cence=: period of recovery. =con ver´ gent=: coming nearly together. =cope=: a long robe. =co´ pi ous ly=: plentifully. =cord´ age=: the ropes on a ship. =Cor´ do van=: made in Cordova, a Spanish city. =cor me´ um e rue ta´ vit=: "the heart of me burst forth." =cor rob´ o ra ted=: confirmed; agreed with. =cor ro´ sive sub´ li mate=: a substance containing mercury and useful for cleaning wounds. =coun´ ter-poise=: a weight used to pull up the drawbridge. =cowl=: a monk's hood. =cox´ comb=: a piece of red cloth worn by jesters on their caps. =crest fall´ en=: humiliated; humbled. =crev´ ice=: hole; opening. =cri´ sis=: critical period. =croup=: the space behind the saddle. =cur tail´ ing=: cutting down. =cut´ lery=: knives and forks. =cyl´ in der=: a part of machinery, like a piston, longer than broad and with a round surface. =cy lin´ dri cal=: shaped like a cylinder, that is, long but with a round surface, as a lead pencil. =decency=: here, a good appearance. =de cep´ tive=: misleading. =dep re da´ tion=: theft; despoiling. =De pro fun´ dis cla ma´ vi=: "I cried from the depths," a Latin psalm. =dif´ fi dence=: shyness. =dil´ a to´ ri ness=: slowness; delay. =dil´ a to ry=: slow. =di lem´ ma=: difficulty. =dis cerned´=: saw; understood. =dis con´ so late ly=: unhappily. =dis til´ ling=: for condensing sweet water from sea water. =dlink=: drink, in broken English. =doit=: a coin of small value. =do mes´ tic=: of the home. =Dom´ i nie=: a name sometimes given clergymen or schoolmasters. =doub´ let=: a garment covering the body from neck to waist. =dough ty= (dou´ ty): valiant; useful. =drag=: the scent of a fox. =dross=: money spoken of contemptuously, as something of no account. =Dry´ ad=: a wood nymph. =du en´ na=: chaperon. =dun=: brownish. =Dun dee´=: a Scotch seaport. =e clipse´=: darkening; obscuring. =ef fem´ i nate=: womanish. =e lec trom´ e ter=: an instrument which indicates the presence of electricity. =em a na´ tion=: a flowing forth. =em bel´ lish=: ornament; touch up. =em´ u late=: rival. =e´ quine=: pertaining to a horse. =Esh´ col=: a scene in the Bible. =ex ha la´ tion=: fumes; vapor. =ex hil´ a ra ted=: lifted up; greatly pleased. =ex´ i gence=: emergency. =ex or´ bi tant=: unreasonable; excessive. =ex pos´ tu la ted=: protested. =fath´ om=: a measure six feet in length. =fer´ rule=: the piece at the end of a parasol or umbrella. =feu´ dal=: relating to a lord of the Middle Ages. =fi del´ i ty=: faithfulness. =fil´ ial= (yal): due from a child to a parent. =first mag´ ni tude=: largest size; most importance. =floe=: the ocean frozen into an ice-field. =fort´ a lice=: a small fortress. =frank´ lin=: a Saxon gentleman. =Front-de-Boeuf= (front de beuf´): a Norman baron. =gab´ bro=: a kind of limestone rock. =gal´ liard= (yard): a gallant, valiant man. =gear=: affair; concern. =ge´ ni i= (e): spirits. =gen re= (zhan´ r): dealing with everyday life. =gen teel´ ly=: like gentlefolk; properly. =ge´ o log´ i cal=: relating to the substance of the earth. =glaive=: a weapon resembling an ax. =gra mer´ cy=: thanks. =gra tu´ i tous=: useless; unnecessary. =grav´ i ta´ tion=: the attraction of great bodies, such as the earth, for other bodies. =gren ade´=: a small bomb. =gro tesque´= (tesk): absurd; unsightly. =gyves= (jives): fetters; irons. =hatch´ way=: an opening in a deck. =Hen´ ri cus=: a settlement on the James river some distance above Jamestown. =her met´ i cal ly=: tightly; impenetrably. =hi la´ ri ously=: uproariously. =hor´ i zon´ tal=: on a level with the ground. =hum´ mock=: a knoll, or hillock. =hy´ dro plane=: an aeroplane which also moves on the water. =il lus´ tri ous=: distinguished; noted. =im port´ ed=: brought in from without. =im per´ vi ous=: impenetrable; not to be pierced. =in´ con ceiv´ a ble=: beyond the understanding. =in ef´ fa ble=: very great; beyond measure. =in´ ef fec´ tu al=: unavailing; without effect. =in ex´ pli ca bly=: not to be explained. =in fal´ li bly=: unerringly. =in´ fin ite= (it): immeasurable. =in i ti a tive= (in ish´ i a tive): an act which begins something. =In´ nu it=: an American Esquimau. =in ter mit´ tent=: unsteady; not regular. =in vin´ ci ble=: not to be conquered. =in vi´ o late=: unbroken; undefiled. =jave´ lin= (jav): a short spear used for throwing. =joc´ u lar´ i ty=: mirth. =joc´ und=: merry; sportive. =Jove=: the king of the gods; here, the chief person of the household. =jun´ to=: a group of men; a council. =ka lei´ do scope=: an instrument in which small pieces of colored glass slide about and form pleasing shapes. =Ki was´ sa=: a name for the Great Spirit, or God. =Knights Templar=: an order of knights serving in Palestine and taking their name from a palace in Jerusalem called Solomon's Temple. =la goons=: lakes connecting with the sea. =La Mort= (mor): "Death," sounded on a horn when the game is killed. =la´ tent=: hidden; not revealed; also, in preparation. =leg-bail=: escape by flight. =Ley´ den jar=: a glass bottle used to accumulate electricity. =log´ a rith´ mic tables=: mathematical tables used to calculate a ship's position. =Long House=: a name for the Iroquois Indians, derived from their long communal houses. =lon´ gi tude=: distance on the earth's surface from east to west. =lu´ mi na ry=: a body that gives light. =Ma belle mere= (mare): "My pretty mother." =Ma´ gi ans=: wise men of ancient Persia. =mal´ a dy=: disease. =Mal voi sin= (mal vwa zan´): a Norman baron. =man´ i cure set=: instruments used on the finger nails. =man´ tel et=: a movable shelter of wood. =ma rau´ ders=: robbers. =mar´ i=: husband. =masque= (mask): a kind of theatrical performance. =mas´ que rad´ ing=: going in disguise. =ma ter´ nal=: motherly. =mat´ ins=: a morning service of the ancient church. =mer´ ce na ry=: a hired soldier; a hireling. =mer´ cu ry=: quicksilver, used in the thermometer. =me tal´ lic=: composed of metal. =Michael mas eve= (mick´ el mas): September 28. =Mi´ das=: a king in Greek myth whose touch turned everything to gold. =mod´ i fi ca´ tion=: change. =Mon´ a cans=: an Indian tribe originally living west of Richmond, Virginia. =mon´ o syl´ la ble=: a single syllable. =Mort pour la patrie=: "Dead for country." =Mount joy St. Dennis= (den ny´): the war cry of ancient France. =muf´ ti= (ty): ordinary clothes. =na bob=: a millionaire: a wealthy man from India. =na´ per y=: table linen. =Naz´ a rene=: a name sometimes applied to Christians, from Jesus of Nazareth. =ne go´ ti a ting=: bargaining. =niche= (nitch): an opening in a wall. =no´ men il´ lis le´ gi o=: "the name of them is legion." =nor´ mal=: accustomed; usual. =nu´ cle us=: a central mass. =nu´ tri ment=: nourishment. =ob´ du rate=: not to be moved. =o bei sance= (o ba´ sans): a bending of the body; a bow. =ob lique´= (leek): a slanting direction. =old fields=: fields no longer cultivated. =o´ pa line=: the color of opals; grayish-white. =O´ pe chan´ ca nough= (no): the leading Indian chief in Virginia in the early period. =op´ tion=: choice. =op´ u lence=: wealth. =order=: a society of monks, with an organization and convents. =o´ ri en ta tion=: adjustment. =os ten´ si ble=: apparent; professed. =pad´ u a soy´=: a rich, heavy silk. =Pa mun´ keys=: an Indian tribe originally living along the Pamunkey and York rivers in Virginia. =pan´ de mo´ ni um=: the place of devils; also, and usually, a riotous scene. =pan´ nier= (yer): a wicker basket. =par´ ley=: talk; discussion. =Pas´ pa heghs= (hays): an Indian tribe of Virginia. =patched=: adorned with small patches of black cloth. =pa´ thos=: sadness. =pa visse´=: a large shield. =Pax´ vo bis´ cum=: "Peace be with you!" =pem´ mi can=: powdered meat pressed into cakes. =per´ i scope=: an instrument projecting above a submarine which gives a view of the sea surface. =per´ pen dic´ u lar=: straight up and down. =per´ pen dic´ u lar´ i ty=: straightness up and down. =pet´ ri fied=: turned to stone. =phil´ o soph´ i cal=: wise; learned. =pil´ lion= (yun): a cushion used by women in riding horseback. =pi lote= (pe loat´): an aeroplane pilot. =pin´ na cle=: summit. =pipe=: a musical instrument resembling a flute. =plain´ tive ly=: complainingly. =plan´ i sphere=: the representation of the earth on a plane; a map of the world. =Ple ia des= (ple´ ya dees): a group of six stars in the constellation Taurus. =pol lute´=: to stain; to befoul. =po made´=: a perfumed ointment. =po ma´ tum=: a perfumed ointment. =pon´ der a ble=: weighable; having heaviness. =pon´ der ous=: heavy; unwieldy. =pon´ iard= (yard): a dagger. =por´ tents=: signs; omens. =Pow´ ha tan=: the James river; also the name of Opechancanough's predecessor. =pre ca´ ri ous=: uncertain; dangerous. =pre´ con cep´ tion=: a foreshadowing; an idea of something to come. =pri me´ val=: original. =prim´ i tive=: original; coming down from afar. =Pro´ cy on= (si): a first-magnitude star. =pro di gious= (pro dij´ us): immense. =pro ject´ ile=: something projected with force, or fired. =pur veyed´=: brought. =quarter-staff=: a short pole, used as a walking-staff and a weapon. =ra´ di us=: the distance from the center of a body to its surface. =rail´ ler y=: jesting. =ran´ som=: a sum paid for the release of a prisoner. =rar´ e fac´ tion=: the making thin; less dense. =ra´ ti o=: rate; measure. =re cip´ ro ca ted=: returned. =re cum´ bent=: lying down. =re fec´ to ry=: a dining-room in a convent. =re frac´ tion=: the bending from a straight line which occurs when a ray of light passes out of the air into water. =reg´ u la tor=: a contrivance for controlling motion. =re mu´ ner a ted=: rewarded; presented with. =re nowned´=: famous. =re plete´=: filled. =rep´ ro ba´ tion=: condemnation; disapproval. =res´ pi ra´ tor=: a device covering the mouth and nose and preventing the breathing of outside air. =ret´ i nue=: a train of attendants. =re ver´ ber a ted=: reflected; echoed. =rime=: hoarfrost. =Rolfe, John=: the first Englishman to plant tobacco in Virginia; the husband of Pocahontas. =rood=: cross. =ro´ sa ry=: a string of beads used in counting prayers. =ru´ bi cund=: ruddy; red. =rucksack=: a napsack worn by Arctic travelers. =rue´ ful=: sad; distressed. =ruffle=: a contest. =sar cas´ ti cal ly=: ironically; humorously. =sat´ el lite=: an attendant; also, a body revolving around another, as the moon. =scar=: a cliff. =sci´ en tist=: one learned in the natural sciences, as chemistry, physics, etc. =screen=: a surface on which the reflection from the periscope is thrown. =sem´ blance=: likeness. =serf=: a kind of slave; an unfree laborer. =sex´ tant=: an instrument used to determine a ship's position by observing the sun and other objects. =Shah=: ruler; king. =shrift=: confession made to a priest. =Shrovetide=: the days just before the beginning of Lent. =sib´ yl=: prophetess. =side drift=: the drift of a vessel to one side or the other of a course. =sil hou ette= (sil oo et´): the black shadow of an object. =sin´ gu lar´ i ty=: strangeness. =smock race=: a race in which the contestants are hampered by garments. =sliv´ er=: a long splinter. =sol´ ace=: comfort. =so phis´ ti ca ted=: experienced; worldly-wise. =spec´ tral=: of graded colors. =spin´ et=: a musical instrument like a piano. =spoor=: trail; foot-marks. =sprint´ er=: a runner; a foot-racer. =spume=: froth; foam. =stac ca´ to=: disconnected; jerky. =states´ man=: one concerned in the governing of a country. =sten to´ ri an=: loud; thundering. =stodg´ i ly=: with distended eyes. =sto´ ic al ly=: patiently; without complaint. =stoke-hold=: the room containing a ship's boilers. =stra´ ta=: the layers of rock composing the crust of the earth. =strat´ e gy=: the use of artifice; clever planning. =Stuy´ ves ant=: a Dutch colonial governor of New York. =sub lim´ i ty=: grandeur; magnificence. =sub´ ter ra´ ne an=: beneath the earth; in a cavity. =sump´ ter mule=: a beast of burden. =sump´ tu a ry=: relating to expense. =sump´ tu ous=: plentiful; extravagant. =su´ per flu´ i ty=: more than is needed. =su per´ flu ous=: not needed. =sur´ plice=: a white outer garment worn by priests. =Sus´ que han´ nocks=: an Indian tribe originally inhabiting Maryland and Pennsylvania. =sword of Damascus=: a sword made from steel wrought in Damascus, Syria. =syl´ van=: of the woods. =sym´ pho ny=: harmony; music. =ta´ bor=: a small drum. =tac´ i turn= (tas): silent. =tam´ bour frame=: frame for embroidery. =tap´ es try=: a curtain for a wall ornamented with worked pictures. =tar´ get=: a small shield. =ter´ ma gant=: quarrelsome; scolding. =ter´ ra fir´ ma=: the firm earth. =thane=: a Saxon land-owner. =thatch=: straw or reeds. =Ti´ tan=: a giant of Greek myth. =tithe=: a tenth. =tor´ toise-shell=: the shell of a turtle. =traction engine=: a locomotive that draws vehicles along roads. =treasurer=: George Sandys. =tri bu´ nal=: a court of justice. =trump=: the card that takes other cards in a game. =truss=: tie. =tu mul´ tu ous=: riotous; very noisy. =ul´ tra ma rine´=: deep blue. =uncle=: a familiar form of address used by jesters. =u nique´= (neek): singular; unusual. =u´ su ry=: unlawful, or excessive interest. =vas´ sals=: subjects; dependents. =ve´ he ment=: passionate; forceful. =ve loc´ i ty=: speed. =vel´ lum=: leather. =ven´ er a´ tion=: respect; reverence. =ver´ dure=: vegetation; green growth. =ver´ i ta ble=: true; unmistakable. =vic´ ar=: a clergyman in charge of a parish. =vis´ count= (vi): a nobleman. =viz´ ard=: a mask. =viz´ or=: here, a mask. =vo ra´ cious= (shus): greedy; very hungry. =Wat´ ling Street=: a Roman road running from Dover to Chester. =wer´ o wance=: a chief of the Virginia Indians. =West, Francis=: afterward governor of Virginia. =whist=: still. =yeo´ man= (yo): a free laborer; often a small land-owner. =ze´ nith=: highest point; summit. =zo´ o phytes=: small sea animals growing together, as coral. Transcriber's Note The following printer's errors have been corrected: 56 Mountain" changed to Mountain." 97 all unwarned! changed to all unwarned!" 119 he shall" changed to he shall," 125 good-bye changed to good-by 130 ruffllings changed to rufflings 151 reëentering changed to reëntering 163 processsion changed to procession 177 calculatued changed to calculated 223 langauge changed to language 230 but to seaward changed to but two seaward 236 Majorie changed to Marjorie 263 attemped changed to attempted 267 altogther changed to altogether 272 miller," changed to miller?" 277 accomodated changed to accommodated 278 rescue?' changed to rescue?" 286 Norman, and let changed to Norman, "and let 305 father, said changed to father," said 310 "Fiends!' changed "Fiends!" 317 "'Nothing changed to "Nothing 326 of proof." changed to of proof. 328 stop them." changed to stop them. 383 April. 5th. changed to April 5th. 386 hugh changed to huge 396 the bottom. changed to the bottom." 402 everything! changed to everything!" 409 said; do you changed to said; "do you 444 unwieldly changed to unwieldy 446 spoor; changed to spoor: Other errors 116 infantile not included in vocabulary section 117 peer not included in the vocabulary section 118 mien not included in the vocabulary section 282 contingent is not defined in the vocabulary section 354 ballast is not defined in the vocabulary section 440 corroborated not marked in the text 443 mari not marked in the text 444 pinnacle not marked in the text Inconsistent hyphenation foot-marks / footmarks north-east / northeast seal-skin / sealskin snow-flakes / snowflakes water-proof / waterproof white-haired / whitehaired 
37683	----	Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they are listed at the end of the text. * * * * * In this version [=e] signifies "e macron"; [)e] "e breve"; [.e] "e with dot above"; and so forth. CHAMBERS'S TWENTIETH CENTURY DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE PRONOUNCING, EXPLANATORY, ETYMOLOGICAL, WITH COMPOUND PHRASES, TECHNICAL TERMS IN USE IN THE ARTS AND SCIENCES, COLLOQUIALISMS, FULL APPENDICES, AND COPIOUSLY ILLUSTRATED EDITED BY REV. THOMAS DAVIDSON ASSISTANT-EDITOR OF 'CHAMBERS'S ENCYCLOPÆDIA' EDITOR OF 'CHAMBERS'S ENGLISH DICTIONARY' LONDON: 47 Paternoster Row W. & R. CHAMBERS, LIMITED EDINBURGH: 339 High Street 1908 * * * * * CHAMBERS'S NEW LARGE TYPE ENGLISH DICTIONARY EDITED BY REV. THOMAS DAVIDSON _Pronouncing_, _Explanatory_, _Etymological_ 1264 pp. Imp. 8vo, cloth, 12/6; hf.-mor., 18/- ------ "The best one volume dictionary in existence." W. & R. CHAMBERS, LIMITED, LONDON AND EDINBURGH. * * * * * PREFACE. This is the third English Dictionary which the present Editor has prepared, and he may therefore lay claim to an unusually prolonged apprenticeship to his trade. It is surely unnecessary for him to say that he believes this to be the best book of the three, and he can afford to rest content if the Courteous Reader receive it with the indulgence extended to his Library Dictionary, published in the spring of 1898. It is based upon that work, but will be found to possess many serviceable qualities of its own. It is not much less in content, and its greater relative portability is due to smaller type, to thinner paper, and still more to a rigorous compression and condensation in the definitions, by means of which room has been found for many additional words. The aim has been to include all the common words in literary and conversational English, together with words obsolete save in the pages of Spenser, Shakespeare, Milton, and the Authorised Version of the Bible. An attempt has been made also to include the common terms of the sciences and the arts of life, the vocabulary of sport, those Scotch and provincial words which assert themselves in Burns, Scott, the Brontës, and George Eliot, and even the coinages of word-masters like Carlyle, Browning, and Meredith. Numberless compound idiomatic phrases have also been given a place, in each case under the head of the significant word. Correctness in technical matters has been ensured by consulting such books as Smyth's _Sailor's Word-Book_, Voyle's _Military Dictionary_, Wilson's _Stock-Exchange Glossary_, Lee's _Glossary of Liturgical and Ecclesiastical Terms_, &c. Besides books of this class, the Editor has made constant use of special books such as Schmidt's _Shakespeare-Lexicon_, Calderwood's edition of Fleming's _Vocabulary of Philosophy_, Jamieson's _Scottish Dictionary_, the _Stanford Dictionary of Anglicised Words and Phrases_, Yule and Burnell's _Anglo-Indian Glossary_, Addis and Arnold's _Catholic Dictionary_, and the Dictionaries of the Bible of Sir William Smith and Dr Hastings. In Latin, his authority is Lewis and Short; in Greek, Liddell and Scott; in Romance Philology, Diez and Scheler; in French, Littré; in Spanish, Velazquez; in German, Weigand and Flügel; in Gaelic, Macleod and Dewar, and M'Bain; in Hebrew, Gesenius. In English etymology the Editor has consulted Professor Skeat's _Dictionary_ and his _Principles of English Etymology_--First and Second Series; the magistral _New English Dictionary_ of Dr James A. H. Murray and Mr Henry Bradley, so far as completed; and the only less valuable _English Dialect Dictionary_ of Professor Wright (begun 1896). Two complete American _English Dictionaries_ still hold the first place as works of reference, Professor Whitney's _Century Dictionary_ and Funk and Wagnall's _Standard Dictionary_. The Editor has great pleasure in acknowledging his personal obligations to his brothers, the Rev. Robert P. Davidson, B.A., of Trinity College, Oxford, and David G. Davidson, M.D., Edinburgh; and to his equally capable and courteous colleagues, Mr J. R. Pairman and David Patrick, LL.D., Editor of _Chambers's Encyclopædia_. T. D. * * * * * CONTENTS. PAGE PREFACE iii EXPLANATIONS TO THE STUDENT v LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THIS DICTIONARY vii THE DICTIONARY 1-1150 PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES 1151 ETYMOLOGY OF NAMES OF PLACES, ETC. 1158 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS, TOGETHER WITH SIGNS AND SYMBOLS USED IN MEDICINE AND MUSIC 1161 CORRECT CEREMONIOUS FORMS OF ADDRESS 1174 PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY OF SCRIPTURE PROPER NAMES 1176 THE MORE COMMON ENGLISH CHRISTIAN NAMES, WITH THEIR ORIGIN AND MEANING 1178 WORDS AND PHRASES IN MORE OR LESS CURRENT USE FROM LATIN, GREEK, AND MODERN FOREIGN LANGUAGES 1184 ADDENDA 1208 * * * * * EXPLANATIONS TO THE STUDENT. THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE WORDS.--Every word is given in its _alphabetical_ order, except in cases where, to save space, derivatives are given after and under the words from which they are derived. Each uncompounded verb has its participles, when irregular, placed after it. Exceptional plurals are also given. When a word stands after another, with no meaning given, its meanings can be at once formed from those of the latter, by adding the signification of the affix: thus the meanings of _Darkness_ are obtained by prefixing the meaning of _ness_, _state of being_, to those of _Dark_. Many words from French and other tongues, current in English usage, but not yet fairly Anglicised, are inserted in the list of Foreign Phrases, &c., at the end, rather than in the body of the Dictionary. THE PRONUNCIATION.--The Pronunciation is given immediately after each word, by the word being spelled anew. In this new spelling, every consonant used has its ordinary unvarying sound, _no consonant being employed that has more than one sound_. The same sounds are always represented by the same letters, no matter how varied their actual spelling in the language. No consonant used has any mark attached to it, with the one exception of _th_, which is printed in common letters when sounded as in _thick_, but in italics when sounded as in _th_en. _Unmarked vowels_ have always their short sounds, as in _lad_, _led_, _lid_, _lot_, _but_, _book_. The _marked vowels_ are shown in the following line, which is printed at the top of each page:-- f[=a]te, fär; m[=e], h[.e]r; m[=i]ne; m[=o]te; m[=u]te; m[=oo]n; _th_en. The vowel _u_ when marked thus, _ü_, has the sound heard in Scotch _bluid_, _gude_, the French _du_, almost that of the German _ü_ in _Müller_. Where more than one pronunciation of a word is given, that which is placed first is more accepted. THE SPELLING.--When more than one form of a word is given, that which is placed first is the spelling in current English use. Unfortunately our modern spelling does not represent the English we actually speak, but rather the language of the 16th century, up to which period, generally speaking, English spelling was mainly phonetic, like the present German. The fundamental principle of all rational spelling is no doubt the representation of every sound by an invariable symbol, but in modern English the usage of pronunciation has drifted far from the conventional forms established by a traditional orthography, with the result that the present spelling of our written speech is to a large extent a mere exercise of memory, full of confusing anomalies and imperfections, and involving an enormous and unnecessary strain on the faculties of learners. Spelling reform is indeed an imperative necessity, but it must proceed with a wise moderation, for, in the words of Mr Sweet, 'nothing can be done without unanimity, and until the majority of the community are convinced of the superiority of some one system unanimity is impossible.' The true path of progress should follow such wisely moderate counsels as those of Dr J. A. H. Murray:--the dropping of the final or inflexional silent _e_; the restoration of the historical _-t_ after breath consonants; uniformity in the employment of double consonants, as in _traveler_, &c.; the discarding of _ue_ in words like _demagogue_ and _catalogue_; the uniform levelling of the agent _-our_ into _-or_; the making of _ea = [)e]_ short into _e_ and the long _ie_ into _ee_; the restoration of _some_, _come_, _tongue_, to their old English forms, _sum_, _cum_, _tung_; a more extended use of _z_ in the body of words, as _chozen_, _praize_, _raize_; and the correction of the worst individual monstrosities, as _foreign_, _scent_, _scythe_, _ache_, _debt_, _people_, _parliament_, _court_, _would_, _sceptic_, _phthisis_, _queue_, _schedule_, _twopence-halfpenny_, _yeoman_, _sieve_, _gauge_, _barque_, _buoy_, _yacht_, &c. Already in America a moderate degree of spelling reform may be said to be established in good usage, by the adoption of _-or_ for _-our_, as _color_, _labor_, &c.; of _-er_ for _-re_, as _center_, _meter_, &c.; _-ize_ for _-ise_, as _civilize_, &c.; the use of a uniform single consonant after an unaccented vowel, as _traveler_ for _traveller_; the adoption of _e_ for _oe_ or _æ_ in _hemorrhage_, _diarrhea_, &c. THE MEANINGS.--The current and most important meaning of a word is usually given first. But in cases like _Clerk_, _Livery_, _Marshal_, where the force of the word can be made much clearer by tracing its history, the original meaning is also given, and the successive variations of its usage defined. THE ETYMOLOGY.--The Etymology of each word is given after the meanings, within brackets. Where further information regarding a word is given elsewhere, it is so indicated by a reference. It must be noted under the etymology that whenever a word is printed thus, BAN, BASE, the student is referred to it; also that here the sign--is always to be read as meaning 'derived from.' Examples are generally given of words that are cognate or correspond to the English words; but it must be remembered that they are inserted merely for illustration. Such words are usually separated from the rest by a semicolon. For instance, when an English word is traced to its Anglo-Saxon form, and then a German word is given, no one should suppose that our English word is derived from the German. German and Anglo-Saxon are alike branches from a common Teutonic stem, and have seldom borrowed from each other. Under each word the force of the prefix is usually given, though not the affix. For fuller explanation in such cases the student is referred to the list of Prefixes and Suffixes in the Appendix. * * * * * LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THIS DICTIONARY. _aor._ aorist. _abbrev._ abbreviation. _abl._ ablative. _acc._ according. _accus._ accusative. _adj._ adjective. _adv._ adverb. _agri._ agriculture. _alg._ algebra. _anat._ anatomy. _app._ apparently. _arch._ archaic. _archit._ architecture. _arith._ arithmetic. _astrol._ astrology. _astron._ astronomy. _attrib._ attributive. _augm._ augmentative. _B._ Bible. _biol._ biology. _book-k._ book-keeping. _bot._ botany. _c._ (_circa_) about. _c._, _cent._ century. _carp._ carpentry. _cf._ compare. _chem._ chemistry. _cog._ cognate. _coll._, _colloq._ colloquially. _comp._ comparative. _conch._ conchology. _conj._ conjunction. _conn._ connected. _contr._ contracted. _cook._ cookery. _corr._ corruption. _crystal._ crystallography. _dat._ dative. _demons._ demonstrative. _der._ derivation. _dial._ dialect, dialectal. _Dict._ Dictionary. _dim._ diminutive. _dub._ doubtful. _eccles._ ecclesiastical history. _e.g._ for example. _elect._ electricity. _entom._ entomology. _esp._ especially. _ety._ etymology. _fem._ feminine. _fig._ figuratively. _fol._ followed; following. _fort._ fortification. _freq._ frequentative. _fut._ future. _gen._ genitive. _gener._ generally. _geog._ geography. _geol._ geology. _geom._ geometry. _ger._ gerundive. _gram._ grammar. _gun._ gunnery. _her._ heraldry. _hist._ history. _hort._ horticulture. _hum._ humorous. _i.e._ that is. _imit._ imitative. _imper._ imperative. _impers._ impersonal. _indic._ indicative. _infin._ infinitive. _inten._ intensive. _interj._ interjection. _interrog._ interrogative. _jew._ jewellery. _lit._ literally. _mach._ machinery. _masc._ masculine. _math._ mathematics. _mech._ mechanics. _med._ medicine. _metaph._ metaphysics. _mil._ military. _Milt._ Milton. _min._ mineralogy. _mod._ modern. _Mt._ Mount. _mus._ music. _myth._ mythology. _n._, _ns._ noun, nouns. _nat. hist._ natural history. _naut._ nautical. _neg._ negative. _neut._ neuter. _n.pl._ noun plural. _n.sing._ noun singular. _N.T._ New Testament. _obs._ obsolete. _opp._ opposed. _opt._ optics. _orig._ originally. _ornith._ ornithology. _O.S._ old style. _O.T._ Old Testament. _p._, _part._ participle. _p.adj._ participial adjective. _paint._ painting. _paleog._ paleography. _paleon._ paleontology. _palm._ palmistry. _pa.p._ past participle. _pass._ passive. _pa.t._ past tense. _path._ pathology. _perf._ perfect. _perh._ perhaps. _pers._ person. _pfx._ prefix. _phil._, _philos._ philosophy. _philol._ philology. _phon._ phonetics. _phot._ photography. _phrenol._ phrenology. _phys._ physics. _physiol._ physiology. _pl._ plural. _poet._ poetical. _pol. econ._ political economy. _poss._ possessive. _Pr.Bk._ Book of Common Prayer. _pr.p._ present participle. _prep._ preposition. _pres._ present. _print._ printing. _priv._ privative. _prob._ probably. _Prof._ Professor. _pron._ pronoun; pronounced; pronunciation. _prop._ properly. _pros._ prosody. _prov._ provincial. _q.v._ which see. _R.C._ Roman Catholic. _recip._ reciprocal. _redup._ reduplication. _refl._ reflexive. _rel._ related; relative. _rhet._ rhetoric. _sculp._ sculpture. _Shak._ Shakespeare. _sig._ signifying. _sing._ singular. _spec._ specifically. _Spens_. Spenser. _subj._ subjunctive. _suff._ suffix. _superl._ superlative. _surg._ surgery. _term._ termination. _teleg._ telegraphy. _Tenn._ Tennyson. _Test._ Testament. _theat._ theatre; theatricals. _theol._ theology. _trig._ trigonometry. _ult._ ultimately. _v.i._ verb intransitive. _voc._ vocative. _v.t._ verb transitive. _vul._ vulgar. _zool._ zoology. * * * * * Amer. American. Ar. Arabic. A.S. Anglo-Saxon. Austr. Australian. Bav. Bavarian. Beng. Bengali. Bohem. Bohemian. Braz. Brazilian. Bret. Breton. Carib. Caribbean. Celt. Celtic. Chal. Chaldean. Chin. Chinese. Corn. Cornish. Dan. Danish. Dut. Dutch. Egypt. Egyptian. Eng. English. Finn. Finnish. Flem. Flemish. Fr. French. Fris. Frisian. Gael. Gaelic. Ger. German. Goth. Gothic. Gr. Greek. Heb. Hebrew. Hind. Hindustani. Hung. Hungarian. Ice. Icelandic. Ind. Indian. Ion. Ionic. Ir. Irish. It. Italian. Jap. Japanese. Jav. Javanese. L. Latin. Lith. Lithuanian. L. L. Low or Late Latin. M. E. Middle English. Mex. Mexican. Norm. Norman. Norw. Norwegian. O. Fr. Old French. Pers. Persian. Peruv. Peruvian. Pol. Polish. Port. Portuguese. Prov. Provençal. Rom. Romance. Russ. Russian Sans. Sanskrit. Scand. Scandinavian. Scot. Scottish. Singh. Singhalese. Slav. Slavonic. Sp. Spanish. Sw. Swedish. Teut. Teutonic. Turk. Turkish. U.S. United States. W. Welsh. * * * * * CHAMBERS'S TWENTIETH CENTURY DICTIONARY. * * * * * [Illustration] the first letter in our alphabet, its corresponding symbol standing first also in many other alphabets derived from the Phoenician. It originated in the hieroglyphic picture of an eagle (Old Egyptian _ahom_), the cursive hieratic form of which was the original of the Phoenician _aleph_, an ox, from a fancied resemblance to its head and horns.--A, as a note in music, is the major sixth of the scale of C; A1, the symbol by which first-class vessels are classed in Lloyd's Register of British and Foreign Shipping, hence first-rate. A, the indefinite article, a broken-down form of An, and used before words beginning with the sound of a consonant. [_An_ was a new development, after the Conquest, of the A.S. numeral _án_, one.] A, ä or [=a], a _prep._, derived from the old prep. _on_, and still used, as a prefix, in _a_foot, _a_field, _a_part, _a_sleep, now_a_days, twice-_a_-day; also with verbal nouns, as _a_-building, to be _a_-doing, to set _a_-going. It is now admitted only colloquially. [Short for A.S. _an_, a dialectic form of _on_, on, in, at. See PREFIXES.] A, ä, a dialectic corruption of _he_ or _she_, as in quoth_a_, (_Shak._) '_A_ babbled of green fields.'--A, usually written _a'_, Scotch for _all_; A, a form of the L. prep. _ab_, from, of, used before consonants, as in Thomas _à_ Kempis, Thomas _à_ Becket, &c. AARDVARK, ard'vark, _n._ the ground-hog of South Africa. [Dut. _aarde_, earth; _vark_, found only in dim. _varken_, a pig.] AARDWOLF, ard'w[=oo]lf, _n._ the earth-wolf of South Africa, a carnivore belonging to a sub-family of the Hyænidæ. [Dut. _aarde_, earth, _wolf_, wolf.] AARONIC, -AL, [=a]-ron'ik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to AARON, the Jewish high-priest, or to his priesthood.--_n._ AA'RON'S-ROD (_archit._), a rod having one serpent twined round it.--AARON'S BEARD, a popular name for a number of cultivated plants--among the best known, a species of Saxifrage (_S. sarmentosa_), usually grown in hanging pots, from which hang long stems, bearing clumps of roundish, hairy leaves. AB, ab, _n._ the eleventh month of the Jewish civil year, and the fifth of the ecclesiastical year, answering to parts of July and August. [Syriac.] ABA, ab'a, _n._ a Syrian woollen stuff, of goat's or camel's hair, usually striped; an outer garment made of this. [Ar.] ABACA, ab'a-ka, _n._ the native name of the so-called Manilla hemp of commerce--really a plantain, much grown in the Philippine Islands. ABACK, a-bak', _adv._ (_naut._) said of sails pressed backward against the mast by the wind--hence (_fig._) TAKEN ABACK, taken by surprise, [A.S. _on bæc._ See ON and BACK.] ABACOT. See BYCOCKET. ABACTINAL, ab-ak'ti-nal, _adj._ (_zool._) remote from the actinal area, without rays.--_adv._ ABAC'TINALLY. ABACTION, ab-ak'shun, _n._ (_law_) the stealing of a number of cattle at once.--_n._ ABAC'TOR, one who does this. [L. _abig[)e]re_, _abactum_, to drive off.] [Illustration] ABACUS, ab'a-kus, _n._ a counting-frame or table: (_archit._) a level tablet on the capital of a column, supporting the entablature:--_pl._ AB'AC[=I].--_ns._ ABACIS'CUS, ABAC'ULUS, dims. of ABACUS; AB'ACIST, one who counts with the abacus. [L.--Gr. _abax_, _abakos_, a board for reckoning on.] ABADDON, a-bad'don, _n._ the destroyer, or angel of the bottomless pit: (_Milton_) the bottomless pit, or abyss of hell itself. [Heb., from _[=a]bad_, to be lost.] ABAFT, a-baft', _adv._ and _prep._ on the aft, hind, or stern part of a ship: behind. [Pfx. _a-_, for A.S. _on_, on, and _bæftan_, after, behind; itself made up of pfx. _be-_, and _æftan_. See AFT.] ABALIENATE, ab-[=a]l'yen-[=a]t, _v.t._ Same as ALIENATE. ABANDON, a-ban'dun, _v.t._ to give up: to desert: to yield (one's self) without restraint (with _to_).--_v.t._ ABAND' (_Spens._), to abandon.--_n._ ABAN'DON (_n_ to be nasalised), freedom from conventional restraints: careless freedom of manners.--_adj._ ABAN'DONED, given up, as to a vice: profligate: completely deserted: very wicked.--_adv._ ABAN'DONEDLY.--_n._ ABAN'DONMENT, act of abandoning: state of being given up: enthusiastic surrender of self to a cause: (_law_) the renunciation of a claim. [O. Fr. _bandon_, from the Teut. root _ban_, proclamation, came to mean decree, authorisation, permission; hence _à bandon_--at will or discretion, _abandonner_, to give up to the will or disposal of some one. See BAN, BANNS.] ABASE, a-b[=a]s', _v.t._ to cast down: to humble: to degrade.--_adjs._ AB[=A]'SED, ABAISSÉ (_her._), depressed.--_n._ ABASE'MENT, state of humiliation. [O. Fr. _abaissier_, to bring low--L. _ad_, to, and root of BASE, adj.] ABASH, a-bash', _v.t._ to confuse with shame or guilt.--_pa.p._ ABASHED' (with _at_, of an occasion; _by_, of a cause).--_n._ ABASH'MENT, confusion from shame. [O. Fr. _esbhir_ (Fr. _s'ébahir_), pr.p. _esbahiss-ant_, to be amazed--L. _ex_, out, and interj. _bah_, expressive of astonishment.] ABATE, a-b[=a]t', _v.t._ to lessen: to deduct (with _of_): to mitigate: (_law_) to put an end to, do away with, as of an action or a nuisance, to render null, as a writ.--_v.i._ to grow less.--_adjs._ AB[=A]T'ABLE, capable of being abated; AB[=A]T'ED, beaten down or cut away, as the background of an ornamental pattern in relief.--_n._ ABATE'MENT, the act of abating: the sum or quantity abated: (_law_) the act of intruding on a freehold and taking possession before the heir, the abandonment of an action, or the reduction of a legacy: (_her._) a supposed mark of dishonour on a coat of arms--apparently never actually used.--ABATED ARMS, those whose edges have been blunted for the tournament. [O. Fr. _abatre_, to beat down--L. _ab_, from, and _bat[)e]re_, popular form of _batu[)e]re_, to beat: conn. with BEAT.] ABATIS, ABATTIS, a'bat-is, _n.sing._ and _pl._ (_fort._) a rampart of trees felled and laid side by side, with the branches towards the enemy. [Fr. See ABATE.] ABATTOIR, a-bat-wär', _n._ a public slaughter-house. [Fr. See ety. of ABATE.] ABATURE, ab'a-t[=u]r, _n._ the trail of a beast of the chase. [Fr.] ABB, ab, _n._ properly woof- or weft-yarn, but sometimes warp-yarn. [Pfx. _a-_, and WEB.] ABBA, ab'a, _n._ father, a term retained in the Gr. text of the New Testament, together with its translation 'father,' hence _Abba father_, applied to God the Father: also a bishop in the Syriac and Coptic Churches. [L.--Gr.--Syriac and Chaldee, _abb[=a]_--Heb. _ab_, father.] ABBACY, ab'a-si, _n._ the office or dignity of an abbot: the establishment under an abbot: an abbey.--_adj._ ABB[=A]'TIAL. [The earlier form was _abbatie_--said by Dr Murray to have been originally a Scotch form.] ABBATE, ab-bä'te, _n._ a title loosely applied to ecclesiastics in Italy.--Also ABATE. [It.] ABBAYE, an _arch._ form of ABBEY. ABBÉ, ab'[=a], _n._ originally the French name for an abbot, but often used in the general sense of a priest or clergyman. Before the Revolution, abbés were often merely holders of benefices, enjoying a portion of the revenues, although in minor orders, or even laymen. They were often tutors in noble families, or men of letters, and were marked by a short violet-coloured robe. ABBESS, ab'es, _n._ the female superior of a religious community of women. [Earlier ABBATESS, fem. of ABBOT.] ABBEY, ab'e, _n._ a monastery of persons of either sex presided over by an abbot or abbess: the church now or formerly attached to it: in Newstead _Abbey_, &c., the name has been retained after the abbatial building had become a private house:--_pl._ ABB'EYS. [O. Fr. _abaïe_ (Fr. _abbaye_)--L. _abbatia_, See ABBA.] ABBOT, ab'ut, _n._ the father or head of an abbey:--_fem._ ABB'ESS.--_n._ AB'BOTSHIP. [L. _abbas_, _abbatis_--ABBA.] ABBREVIATE, ab-br[=e]'vi-[=a]t, _v.t._ to make brief or short: to abridge.--_ns._ ABBREVI[=A]'TION, ABBR[=E]'VIATURE, a shortening, a part of a word put for the whole; ABBR[=E]'VIATOR, one who abbreviates.--_adj._ ABBR[=E]'VIATORY. [L. _abbrevi[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ab_, intensive, and _brevis_, short. See BRIEF.] ABC, ABCEE, [=a]-b[=e]-s[=e]', _n._ the alphabet from its first letters: a first reading-book (_obs._), hence _fig._ the first rudiments of anything.--ABC BOOK (_Shak._), a book to teach the _a_, _b_, _c_, or alphabet. ABDICATE, ab'di-k[=a]t, _v.t._ and _v.i._ formally to renounce or give up office or dignity.--_adj._ AB'DICANT.--_n._ ABDIC[=A]'TION. [L. _ab_, from or off, _dic[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to proclaim.] ABDOMEN, ab-d[=o]'men, _n._ the belly: the lower part of the trunk.--_adj._ ABDOM'INAL.--_adv._ ABDOM'INALLY.--_adj._ ABDOM'INOUS, pot-bellied. [L.] ABDUCE, ab-d[=u]s', _v.t._ an earlier form of ABDUCT.--_adj._ ABDUC'ENT, drawing back: separating. [L. _abduc[)e]re_--_ab_, from _duc[)e]re_, _ductum_, to draw.] ABDUCT, ab-dukt', _v.t._ to take away by fraud or violence.--_ns._ ABDUC'TION, the carrying away, esp. of a person by fraud or force; ABDUC'TOR, one guilty of abduction: a muscle that draws away. [L. _abduc[)e]re_. See ABDUCE.] ABEAM, a-b[=e]m', _adv._ (_naut._) on the beam, or in a line at right angles to a vessel's length. [Pfx. _a-_ (A.S. _on_), on, and BEAM.] ABEAR, a-b[=a]r', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to bear, to behave: (_prov._) to endure or tolerate.--_n._ ABEAR'ANCE, (_obs._) behaviour. [A.S. pfx. _a-_, and BEAR.] ABECEDARIAN, [=a]-be-se-d[=a]'ri-an, _adj._ pertaining to the a, b, c: rudimentary.--ABECEDARIAN PSALMS (as the 119th) or HYMNS are such as are divided into successive portions according to the letters of the alphabet. ABED, a-bed', _adv._ in bed. [Pfx. _a-_, on, and BED.] ABELE, a-b[=e]l', _n._ the white poplar-tree. [Dut. _abeel_; O. Fr. _abel_, _aubel_--Late L. _albellus_, _albus_, white.] ABERDEVINE, ab-[.e]r-de-v[=i]n', _n._ a bird-fancier's name for the siskin. [Ety. uncertain; prob. a fanciful coinage.] ABERRATE, ab'[.e]r-r[=a]t, _v.i._ to wander or deviate from the right way:--_pr.p._ ab'err[=a]ting; _pa.p._ ab'err[=a]ted.--_ns._ ABER'RANCE, ABER'RANCY (_rare forms_).--_adj._ ABER'RANT (_zool._ and _bot._), wandering, deviating in some particulars from its group.--_n._ ABERR[=A]'TION, a wandering from the right path: deviation from truth or rectitude: in science, deviation from the type: abnormal structure or development.--ABERRATION OF LIGHT, an apparent alteration in the place of a star, arising from the motion of the earth in its orbit, combined with the progressive passage of light. [L. _aberr[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ab_, from, _err[=a]re_, to wander.] ABET, a-bet', _v.t._ to incite by encouragement or aid (used chiefly in a bad sense):--_pr.p._ abet'ting; _pa.p._ abet'ted.--_ns._ ABET'MENT; ABET'TER, ABET'TOR, one who abets. [O. Fr. _abeter_--_à_ (--L. _ad_, to), and _beter_, to bait, from root of BAIT.] ABEYANCE, a-b[=a]'ans, _n._ a state of suspension or expectation: temporary inactivity--also ABEY'ANCY.--The _v._ to ABEY is rare. [Fr.--_à_ (--L. _ad_, to), and _bayer_, to gape in expectation, from imitative root _ba_, to gape.] ABHOMINABLE, an earlier spelling of ABOMINABLE. ABHOR, ab-hor', _v.t._ to shrink from with horror: to detest: to loathe:--_pr.p._ abhor'ring; _pa.p._ abhorred'.--_ns._ ABHOR'RENCE, extreme hatred; (_obs._) ABHOR'RENCY.--_adj._ ABHOR'RENT, detesting; repugnant (with _of_).--_ns._ ABHOR'RER, one who abhors; ABHOR'RING (_B._ and _Shak._), object of abhorrence. [L. _abhorr[=e]re_, from _ab_, from, and _horr[=e]re_. See HORROR.] ABIB, [=a]'bib, _n._ the first month of the Jewish ecclesiastical, the seventh of the civil year, later called Nisan, answering to parts of March and April. [Heb., 'an ear of corn'--_[=a]bab_, to produce early fruit.] ABIDE, a-b[=i]d', _v.t._ to bide or wait for: to endure: to tolerate.--_v.i._ to remain in a place, dwell or stay:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ ab[=o]de'.--_n._ ABID'ANCE.--_adj._ ABID'ING, continual.--_n._ an enduring.--_adv._ ABID'INGLY. [A.S. _ábídan_--pfx. _á-_ (= Goth. _us_ = Ger. _er_), and _bídan_, to wait.] ABIDE, a-b[=i]d', _v.t._ (_Shak._ and _Milton_) to redeem, pay the penalty for, suffer. [M. E. _abyen_, confounded with ABIDE. See ABY.] ABIES, ab'i-ez, _n._ the silver-fir.--_adj._ ABIET'IC, pertaining to trees of the genus Abies. [L.] ABIGAIL, ab'i-g[=a]l, _n._ a lady's-maid. [From _Abigail_, 1 Sam. xxv.] ABILITY, a-bil'i-ti, _n._ quality of being able: power: strength: skill.--_n.pl._ ABIL'ITIES, the powers of the mind. [O. Fr. _ableté_ (Fr. _habileté_)--L. _habilitas_--_habilis_, easily handled, from _hab[=e]re_, to have, hold. See ABLE.] ABINTESTATE, ab-in-tes't[=a]t, _adj._ inheriting the estate of one who died without having made a will. [L. _ab_, from, and INTESTATE.] ABIOGENESIS, ab-i-o-jen'es-is, _n._ the origination of living by not-living matter, spontaneous generation.--_adj._ ABIOGENET'IC--_n._ ABIO'GENIST, one who believes in such. [Coined by Huxley in 1870; Gr. _a_, neg., _bios_, life, _genesis_, birth.] ABJECT, ab-jekt', _v.t._ (_obs._) to throw or cast down or away. [L. _abjic[)e]re_, _-jectum_--_ab_, away, _jac[)e]re_, to throw.] ABJECT, ab'jekt, _adj._ cast away: mean: worthless: cowering: base.--_n._ an outcast.--_ns._ ABJEC'TION, AB'JECTNESS, a mean or low state: baseness: degradation.--_adv._ AB'JECTLY. [L. _abjectus_, cast away--_ab_, away, _jac[)e]re_, to throw.] ABJUDGE, ab-juj', _v.t._ (_rare_) to take away by judicial sentence. [L. _ab_, from, and JUDGE.] ABJUDICATE, ab-j[=oo]'di-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to give by judgment from one to another. [L. _ab_, from, and JUDICATE.] ABJURE, ab-j[=oo]r', _v.t._ to renounce on oath or solemnly: to recant: to repudiate.--_n._ ABJUR[=A]'TION, official renunciation on oath of any principle or pretension.--_adj._ ABJUR'ATORY.--_n._ ABJUR'ER. [L. _ab_, from, _jur[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to swear.] ABKARI, ab-kä'ri, _n._ the manufacture or sale of spirituous liquors: the excise duty levied on such.--Also ABKA'RY. [Pers.] ABLACTATION, ab-lak-t[=a]'shun, _n._ a weaning. [L. _ab_, from, _lact[=a]re_, to suckle--_lac_, _lactis_, milk.] ABLATION, ab-l[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of carrying away: (_geol._) the wearing away of rock by the action of water.--_adj._ ABLATI'TIOUS. [L. _ab_, from, _latum_, supine of _ferre_, to bear.] ABLATIVE, ab'lat-iv, _adj._ used as a noun. The name applied to one of the cases in the declension of nouns and pronouns in the Indo-European languages, retained as in Latin and Sanskrit, or merged in another case, as in the genitive in Greek. Its meaning was to express _direction from_ or _time when_.--_adj._ ABLAT[=I]'VAL. [L. _ablativus_--_ab_, from, _ferre_, _latum_, to take; as if it indicated taking away, or privation.] ABLAUT, ab'lowt, _n._ (_philol._) vowel permutation, a substitution of one root vowel for another in derivation, as in s_i_ng, s_a_ng, s_o_ng, s_u_ng, distinct from the phonetic influence of a succeeding vowel, as in the Umlaut. It is especially the change of a vowel to indicate tense-change in strong verbs. [Ger., from _ab_, off, and _laut_, sound.] ABLAZE, a-bl[=a]z', _adj._ in a blaze, on fire: gleaming brightly. [Prep. _a_, and BLAZE.] ABLE, [=a]'bl, _adj._ (comp. A'BLER; superl. A'BLEST) having sufficient strength, power, or means to do a thing: skilful.--_adj._ A'BLE-BOD'IED, of a strong body: free from disability, of a sailor, labourer, &c.: robust.--_adv._ A'BLY. [See ABILITY.] ABLEGATE, ab'le-g[=a]t, _n._ a papal envoy who carries the insignia of office to a newly-appointed cardinal. ABLOOM, a-bl[=oo]m', _adv._ in a blooming state. [Prep. _a_, on, and BLOOM.] ABLUENT, ab'l[=oo]-ent, _adj._ washing or cleaning by a liquid.--_n._ a medicine which carries off impurities from the system. [L. _abluens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _ablu[)e]re_, to wash away--_ab_, from, away, and _lu[)e]re_ = _lav[=a]re_, to wash. See LAVE.] ABLUTION, ab-l[=oo]'shun, _n._ act of washing, esp. the body, preparatory to religious rites: any ceremonial washing, symbolic of moral purification: the wine and water used to rinse the chalice, drunk by the officiating priest.--_adj._ ABLU'TIONARY. [L. _ablutio_--_ab_, away, _lu[)e]re_ = _lav[=a]re_, to wash.] ABNEGATE, ab'ne-g[=a]t, _v.t._ to deny.--_ns._ ABNEG[=A]'TION, renunciation; AB'NEGATOR, one who abnegates or renounces. [L. _ab_, away, and _neg[=a]re_, to deny.] ABNORMAL, ab-nor'mal, _adj._ not normal or according to rule: irregular--also ABNOR'MOUS.--_ns._ ABNORMAL'ITY, ABNOR'MITY.--_adv._ ABNOR'MALLY. [L. _ab_, away from, and NORMAL.] ABOARD, a-b[=o]rd', _adv._ or _prep._ on board: in a ship, or in a train (_Amer._). [Prep. _a_, on, and BOARD.] ABOCOCKE. See BYCOCKET. ABODE, a-b[=o]d', _n._ a dwelling-place: stay. [See ABIDE.] ABODE, a-b[=o]d', _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of ABIDE. ABODEMENT, a-b[=o]d'ment, _n._ (_obs._) a foreboding: an omen. [From ABODE, with suff. _-ment_. See BODE, FOREBODE.] ABOLISH, ab-ol'ish, _v.t._ to put an end to: to annul.--_adj._ ABOL'ISHABLE, capable of being abolished.--_ns._ ABOL'ISHMENT (_rare_); ABOLI'TION, the act of abolishing; ABOLI'TIONISM, advocacy of abolitionist principles; ABOLI'TIONIST, one who seeks to abolish anything, esp. slavery. [Fr. _abolir_, _aboliss_--from L. _abol[=e]re_, _-itum_--_ab_, from, _ol[=e]re_, to grow. The prep. _ab_ here reverses the meaning of the simple verb.] ABOMASUS, ab-[=o]-m[=a]'sus, _n._ the fourth stomach of ruminants, lying close to the omasum or third stomach.--Also ABOM[=A]'SUM. [L. _ab_, and _omasum_, paunch.] ABOMINATE, ab-om'in-[=a]t, _v.t._ to abhor: to detest extremely.--_adj._ ABOM'INABLE, hateful: detestable, an old spelling is ABHOM'INABLE, to agree with a fancied etymology in Lat. _ab homine_.--_n._ ABOM'INABLENESS.--_adv._ ABOM'INABLY.--_n._ ABOMIN[=A]'TION, extreme aversion: anything disgusting or detestable. [L. _abomin[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_, to turn from as of bad omen. See OMEN.] ABORD, a-b[=o]rd', _v.t._ (_arch._) to accost: (_Spens._) astray, at a loss.--_n._ (_Spens._) harbour: act of approaching: manner of approach. [Fr. _aborder_, _à bord_. See ABOARD and BORDER.] ABORIGINAL, ab-o-rij'in-al, _adj._ first, primitive, indigenous.--_adv._ ABORIG'INALLY. ABORIGINES, ab-o-rij'in-[=e]z, _n.pl._ the original inhabitants of a country. [L. See ORIGIN.] ABORT, ab-ort', _v.i._ to miscarry in birth: to remain in a rudimentary state.--_n._ ABOR'TION, premature delivery, or the procuring of such: anything that does not reach maturity: a mis-shapen being or monster.--_adj._ ABORT'IVE, born untimely: unsuccessful: producing nothing: brought forth in an imperfect condition: rudimentary.--_adv._ ABORT'IVELY.--_n._ ABORT'IVENESS. [L. _abor[=i]ri_, _abortus_--_ab_, from, away, _or[=i]ri_, to rise.] ABOUND, ab-ownd', _v.i._ to overflow, be in great plenty: to possess in plenty (with _in_): to be filled with (used with _with_). [O. Fr. _abunder_--L. _abund[=a]re_, to overflow, _ab_, from, _unda_, a wave.] ABOUT, a-bowt', _prep._ round on the outside: around: here and there in: near to: concerning: engaged in.--_adv._ around: nearly: here and there.--BRING ABOUT, to cause to take place; COME ABOUT, to take place; GO ABOUT, to prepare to do; PUT ABOUT, disturbed; TO BE ABOUT, to be astir; TURN ABOUT, alternately. [A.S. _on bútan_; _on_, in, _bútan_, without, itself compounded of _be_, by, and _útan_, locative of _út_, out.] ABOVE, a-buv', _prep._ on the upside: higher than: more than.--_adv._ overhead: in a higher position, order, or power.--_adjs._ ABOVE'-BOARD, open, honourable; ABOVE'-GROUND, alive: not buried. [A.S. _ábúfan_--_á_, on, _bufan_, above, itself compounded of _be_, by, _ufan_, high, upwards, prop. the locative of _uf_, up.] ABRACADABRA, ab-ra-ka-dab'ra, _n._ a cabbalistic word, written in successive lines, each shorter by a letter than the one above it, till the last letter A formed the apex of a triangle. It was worn as a charm for the cure of diseases. Now used generally for a spell or conjuring word: mere gibberish. [First found in 2d-cent. poem (_Præcepta de Medicina_) by Q. Serenus Sammonicus; further origin unknown.] ABRADE, ab-r[=a]d', _v.t._ to scrape or rub off: to wear down by friction. [L. _ab_, off, _rad[)e]re_, _rasum_, to scrape.] ABRAHAM-MAN, [=a]'bra-ham-man, _n._ originally a lunatic beggar from Bethlehem Hospital in London, marked by a special badge. Many sturdy beggars assumed this, hence the phrase TO SHAM ABRAHAM, to feign sickness, still used among sailors. [The wards in the old Bedlam are said to have been distinguished by the names of saints and patriarchs, as _Abraham_. Some find the origin of the name in an allusion to the parable of the beggar Lazarus, who found his rest in _Abraham's_ bosom (Luke xvi.).] ABRANCHIATE, a-brang'ki-[=a]t, _adj._ having no gills.--Also ABRAN'CHIAL. [Gr. _a_, priv., and _brangchia_, gills.] ABRASION, ab-r[=a]'zhun, _n._ the act of rubbing off.--_adj._ and _n._ ABR[=A]'SIVE. [See ABRADE.] [Illustration] ABRAXAS, a-braks'as, _n._ a mystic word, or an amulet, consisting of a gem engraved therewith on some part of it, often bearing a mystical figure of combined human and animal form, used as a charm. [Said to be coined by the Egyptian Gnostic Basilides in 2d century to express 365 in Greek letters; thus [Greek: abraxas] used as numerals = 1 + 2 + 100 + 1 + 60 + 1 + 200. But Mr C. W. King finds its origin in Heb. _ha-b'r[=a]k[=a]h_, 'the blessing,' or 'sacred name,' used as the title of a Gnostic deity representing the 365 emanations of the Divine Pl[=e]r[=o]ma or fullness.] ABRAY, a-br[=a]', ABRAYD, a-br[=a]d', _v.i._ (_Spens._) to start out of sleep: to awake.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to arouse, startle.--The more correct form is _abraid_. [Made up of pfx. _a-_, and _abrédan_. A.S. _breydan_, to twist. See BRAID.] ABREAST, a-brest', _adv._ with fronts in a line: side by side: (_naut._) opposite to. [Prep. _a_, on, and BREAST.] ABRICOCK. See APRICOT. ABRIDGE, a-brij', _v.t._ to make brief or short: to shorten: to epitomise: to curtail, as privileges or authority.--_ns._ ABRIDG'MENT, ABRIDGE'MENT, contraction: shortening of time, labour or privileges: a compendium of a larger work: an epitome or synopsis: (_law_) the leaving out of certain portions Of a plaintiff's demand, the writ still holding good for the remainder. [O. Fr. _abregier_ (Fr. _abréger_)--L. _abbrevi[=a]re_. See ABBREVIATE.] ABROACH, a-br[=o]ch', _adv._ broached: in a condition to let the liquor run out: in a state to be diffused, afloat: astir. [Prep. _a_, and BROACH.] ABROAD, a-brawd', _adv._ on the broad or open space: out of doors: public: in another country. [Prep. _a_, and BROAD.] ABROGATE, ab'ro-g[=a]t, _v.t._ to repeal (a law): to set aside.--_n._ ABROG[=A]'TION, act of repealing or setting aside.--_adj._ AB'ROGATIVE. [L. _ab_, away, _rog[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to ask or propose a law.] ABROOK, a-brook', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to brook, bear, or endure. [Pfx. _a-_, and BROOK, _v._] ABRUPT, ab-rupt', _adj._ the opposite of gradual, as if broken off: sudden: unexpected: precipitous: (_of style_) passing from one thought to another without transitions: (_of manners_) short, rude.--_n._ an abrupt place.--_n._ ABRUP'TION, a sudden breaking off: violent separation: (_Shak._) interruption, pause.--_adv._ ABRUPT'LY.--_n._ ABRUPT'NESS. [L. _abruptus_--_ab_, off, _rump[)e]re_, _ruptum_, to break.] ABSCESS, ab'ses, _n._ a collection of purulent matter within some tissue of the body. [L. _abscessus_--_abs_, away, _ced[)e]re_, _cessum_, to go, to retreat.] ABSCIND, ab-sind', _v.t._ to cut off.--_n._ ABSCIS'SION, act of cutting off, or state of being cut off: (_rhet._) a figure of speech in which the words demanded by the sense are left unsaid, the speaker stopping short suddenly. [L. _abscindo_; _ab_, off, _scindo_, to cut.] ABSCISS, ab'sis, ABSCISSA, ab-sis'sa, _n._ the straight line cut off or intercepted between the vertex of a curve and an ordinate, measured along the principal axis:--_pl._ ABSCISS'ES, ABSCISS'Æ, ABSCISS'AS. [L. _abscissus_, cut off, _pa.p._ of _abscind[)e]re_--_ab_, from, _scind[)e]re_, to cut.] ABSCOND, abs-kond', _v.i._ to hide, or quit the country, in order to escape a legal process. [L. _abscond[)e]re_, _abs_, from or away, _cond[)e]re_, to hide.] ABSENT, abs'ent, _adj._ being away: not present: inattentive--_v.t._ (abs-ent') to keep one's self away.--_ns._ ABS'ENCE, the state of being away or not present: want: inattention; ABSENTEE', one who is absent on any occasion: one who makes a habit of living away from his estate or his office; ABSENTEE'ISM, the practice of absenting one's self from duty or station, esp. of a landowner living away from his estate.--_adv._ AB'SENTLY. [L. _absent-_, pr.p. of _absum_--_ab_, away from, _sum_, _esse_, to be.] ABSINTH, ABSINTHE, ab'sinth, _n._ spirit combined with extract of wormwood.--_adjs._ ABSINTH'IAN, ABSINTH'IATED, impregnated with absinth. [Fr.--L. _absinthium_, wormwood--Gr.] ABSOLUTE, ab'sol-[=u]t, _adj._ free from limits or conditions: complete: unlimited: free from mixture: considered without reference to other things: unconditioned, unalterable: unrestricted by constitutional checks (said of a government): (_gram._) not immediately dependent: (_phil._) existing in and by itself without necessary relation to any other being: capable of being conceived of as unconditioned. In the sense of being finished, perfect, it may be considered as opposed to the Infinite; but, in the sense of being freed from restriction or condition, it is evident the Infinite itself must be absolute. Opposite schools differ on the question whether the Absolute can be known under conditions of consciousness.--_adv._ AB'SOLUTELY, separately: unconditionally: positively: completely.--_ns._ AB'SOLUTENESS; ABSOL[=U]'TION, release from punishment: acquittal: remission of sins declared officially by a priest, or the formula by which such is expressed; AB'SOLUTISM, government where the ruler is without restriction; AB'SOLUTIST, a supporter of absolute government.--_adjs._ ABSOL'UTORY, ABSOLV'ATORY.--THE ABSOLUTE, that which is absolute, self-existent, uncaused. [L. _absolutus_, pa.p. of _absolv[)e]re_. See ABSOLVE.] ABSOLVE, ab-zolv', _v.t._ to loose or set free: to pardon: to acquit: to discharge (with _from_).--_ns._ ABSOLV'ER, one who gives absolution or acquits; ABSOLV'ITOR, a decision favourable to a defender.--_v.t._ ASSOIL'ZIE, in Scots law, to absolve the accused on the grounds that the evidence disproves or does not establish the charge. [L. _ab_, from, _solv[)e]re_, _solutum_, to loose. See SOLVE.] ABSONANT, ab'so-nant, _adj._ discordant: absurd: unnatural (with _to_ or _from_)--opp. to _Consonant_. [L. _ab_, from, _sonant-_, pr.p. of _son[=a]re_, to sound.] ABSORB, ab-sorb', _v.t._ to suck in: to swallow up: to engage wholly.--_n._ ABSORBABIL'ITY.--_adj._ ABSORB'ABLE, that may be absorbed.--_p.adj._ ABSORBED', swallowed up: entirely occupied.--_advs._ ABSORB'EDLY, ABSORB'INGLY.--_adj._ ABSORB'ENT, imbibing: swallowing.--_n._ that which absorbs.--_n._ ABSORP'TION, the act of absorbing: entire occupation of mind.--_adj._ ABSORP'TIVE, having power to absorb.--_n._ ABSORPTIV'ITY. [Fr.--L. _ab_, from, _sorb[=e]re_, _-sorptum_, to suck in.] ABSTAIN, abs-t[=a]n', _v.i._ to hold or refrain from.--_ns._ ABSTAIN'ER, specially one who does not take alcoholic drinks; ABSTEN'TION, a refraining. [Fr. _abstenir_--L. _abs_, from, _ten[=e]re_, to hold. See TENABLE.] ABSTEMIOUS, abs-t[=e]m'i-us, _adj._ temperate: sparing in food, drink, or enjoyments.--_adv._ ABSTEM'IOUSLY.--_n._ ABSTEM'IOUSNESS. [L. _abstemius_--_abs_, from, _temetum_, strong wine.] ABSTERSION, abs-ter'shun, _n._ act of cleansing or washing away impurities.--_v.t._ ABSTERGE', to cleanse, purge.--_adjs._ ABSTER'GENT, serving to cleanse; ABSTER'SIVE, having the quality of cleansing: purgative. [L. _absterg[=e]re_, _-tersum_, to wipe away.] ABSTINENT, abs'tin-ent, _adj._ abstaining from: temperate.--_n._ ABS'TINENCE, an abstaining or refraining, especially from some indulgence (with _from_)--also ABS'TINENCY.--_adv._ ABS'TINENTLY. [See ABSTAIN.] ABSTRACT, abs-trakt', _v.t._ to draw away: to separate: to purloin.--_adj._ ABSTRACT'ED, drawn off (with _from_): removed: absent in mind.--_adv._ ABSTRACT'EDLY.--_ns._ ABSTRACT'EDNESS; ABSTRAC'TION, act of abstracting: state of being abstracted: absence of mind: the operation of the mind by which certain qualities or attributes of an object are considered apart from the rest: a purloining.--_adj._ ABSTRACT'IVE, having the power of abstracting.--_n._ anything abstractive: an abstract.--_adv._ ABS'TRACTLY.--_n._ ABS'TRACTNESS. [L. _abs_, away from, _trah[)e]re_, _tractum_, to draw. See TRACE.] ABSTRACT, abs'trakt, _adj._ general, as opposed to particular or individual (the opposite of _abstract_ is _concrete_--a red colour is an abstract notion, a red rose is a concrete notion; an abstract noun is the name of a quality apart from the thing, as redness).--_n._ summary: abridgment: essence. [L. _abstractus_, as if a quality common to a number of things were drawn away from the things and considered by itself.] ABSTRUSE, abs-tr[=oo]s', _adj._ hidden: remote from apprehension: difficult to be understood.--_adv._ ABSTRUSE'LY.--_ns._ ABSTRUSE'NESS; ABSTRUS'ITY (_Sir T. Browne_). [L. _abstrusus_, thrust away (from observation)--_trud[)e]re_, _trusum_, to thrust.] ABSURD, ab-surd', _adj._ obviously unreasonable or false: ridiculous.--_ns._ ABSURD'ITY, ABSURD'NESS, the quality of being absurd: anything absurd.--_adv._ ABSURD'LY. [L. _absurdus_--_ab_, from, _surdus_, harsh-sounding, deaf.] ABUNDANCE, ab-und'ans, _n._ ample sufficiency: great plenty.--_adj._ ABUND'ANT, plentiful.--_adv._ ABUND'ANTLY. [See ABOUND.] ABUSE, ab-[=u]z', _v.t._ to use wrongly: to pervert: to revile: to violate.--_ns._ ABUSE (ab-[=u]s'), ill use: misapplication: reproach: vituperation; AB[=U]'SION (_Spens._), abuse: deception: reproach.--_adj._ ABUS'IVE, containing or practising abuse: full of abuses: vituperative.--_adv._ ABUS'IVELY.--_n._ ABUS'IVENESS. [L. _ab_, away (from what is right), _uti_, _usus_, to use.] ABUT, a-but', _v.i._ to end: to border (on):--_pr.p._ abut'ting; _pa.p._ abut'ted.--_ns._ ABUT'MENT, that which abuts: (_archit._) what a limb of an arch ends or rests on; ABUT'TAL, an abutment: (_pl._) the boundaries.--_p.adj._ ABUT'TING, facing each other: front to front. [Fr. _abouter_, lit. to join end to end (_à_, to, _bout_, end). See BUTT, the end.] ABY, ABYE, a-b[=i], _v.t._ or _v.i._ (_arch._) to pay the penalty: to suffer for: to give satisfaction.--ABY occurs in Spens. with sense of 'abide.' [Pfx. _a-_, and A.S. _bycgan_. See BUY.] ABYSM, a-bizm', _n._ a form of ABYSS.--_adj._ ABYS'MAL, bottomless: unending.--_adv._ ABYSM'ALLY. [O. Fr. _abisme_, from Lat. _abyssimus_, superl. of _abyssus_, bottomless.] ABYSS, a-bis', _n._ a bottomless gulf: a deep mass of water.--_adj._ ABYSS'AL. [Gr. _abyssos_, bottomless--_a_, without, _byssos_, bottom.] ACACIA, a-k[=a]'shi-a, _n._ a genus of thorny leguminous plants with pinnate leaves. [L.--Gr. _akakia_--_ak[=e]_, a sharp point.] ACADEME, ak-a-d[=e]m', _n._ (_obs._) an academy. ACADEMIC, ak-ad-em'ik, _n._ a Platonic philosopher: a student in a college. [See ACADEMY.] ACADEMY, ak-ad'em-i, _n._ (_orig._) the school of Plato: a higher school: a society for the promotion of science or art.--_adjs._ ACADEM'IC, -AL, of an academy: theoretical as opposed to practical.--_adv._ ACADEM'ICALLY.--_n.pl._ ACADEM'ICALS, the articles of dress worn by members of an academy or college.--_ns._ ACADEMIC'IAN, ACAD'EMIST, a member of an academy, or, specially, of the French Academy, or the Royal Academy in London. [Gr. _Akad[=e]mia_, the name of the garden near Athens where Plato taught.] ACADIAN, a-k[=a]'di-an, _adj._ of or native to Nova Scotia, Acadia being the name given to the country by the first French settlers in 1604. ACAJOU, ak'a-j[=oo], _n._ the gum or resin of a kind of red mahogany. [Origin doubtful. See CASHEW.] ACALEPHA, ak-a-l[=e]'fa, _n._ a class of Radiate marine animals, consisting of soft gelatinous substance. The name was first applied to the Jelly-fish tribe, but later was made to include the true _Medusæ_ or jelly-fishes, and others.--Other forms are ACALEPH and ACALEPHAN. [Gr. _akal[=e]ph[=e]_, a nettle.] ACANTHOPTERYGIAN, ak-an-thop-t[.e]r-ij'i-an, _adj._ having spiny fins. [Gr. _akantha_, thorn, _pteryx_, _pterygos_, a wing, a fin.] [Illustration] ACANTHUS, a-kan'thus, _n._ a prickly plant, called bear's breech or brank-ursine: (_archit._) an ornament resembling its leaves used in the capitals of the Corinthian and Composite orders, &c.--also ACAN'THA.--_adjs._ ACAN'THINE, ACANTH[=A]'CEOUS. [L.--Gr. _akanthos_--_ak[=e]_, a point, _anthos_, a flower.] ACARPOUS, a-kar'pus, _adj._ (_bot._) without, or not producing, fruit. [Gr. _a_, neg., and _karpos_, fruit.] ACARUS, ak'ar-us, _n._ a genus of minute insects, of the class Arachnides, embracing the mites and ticks:--_pl._ AC'AR[=I]. [L.; Gr. _akares_, minute, too small to cut--_a_, neg., _keirein_, to cut short.] ACATALECTIC, a-kat-a-lek'tik, _adj._ having the complete number of syllables as a verse: without defect.--_n._ an acatalectic verse. [L.--Gr. _a_, not, and CATALECTIC.] ACATALEPSY, a-kat-a-lep'si, _n._ incomprehensibility, a term of the sceptic school of Carneades, who thought nothing could be known to certainty by man.--_adj._ ACATALEP'TIC. [Gr. _akatal[=e]psia_--_a_, neg., _kata_, thoroughly, _l[=e]psis_, a seizing--_lambanein_, to take hold.] ACATER, a-k[=a]t'[.e]r, _n._ (_obs._) a caterer.--_n.pl._ ACATES', provisions: food. [O. Fr. _acateor_, _achatour_ (Fr. _acheteur_)--Low L. _accapt[=a]t[=o]r-em_, _accaptare_, to acquire--L. _ad-_, to, and _capt[=a]re_, to seize. See CATES.] ACAULESCENT, a-kaw-les'ent, _adj._ without a stalk: (_bot._) having no stem above ground, or only a very short one.--Also ACAU'LOUS. [_a_, neg., L. _caulis_, a stalk, formed on pattern of ARBORESCENT.] ACCABLE, ak-k[=a]'bl, _v.t._ (_obs._) to crush, to encumber. [Fr. _accabler_, to crush.] ACCADIAN, a-k[=a]'di-an, _adj._ of or belonging to Accad, an ancient city mentioned in Gen. x. 10: the language preserved in the earliest form of cuneiform writing. ACCEDE, ak-s[=e]d', _v.i._ to come to, or arrive at, a place or condition: to join one's self, hence to agree or assent (with _to_).--_ns._ ACCED'ER; ACCED'ING. [L. _acced[)e]re_, _accessum_, to go near to--_ad_, to, _ced[)e]re_, to go. See CEDE.] ACCELERATE, ak-sel'[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.t._ to increase the speed of: to hasten the progress of.--_n._ ACCELER[=A]'TION, the act of hastening: increase of speed.--_adj._ ACCEL'ERATIVE, quickening.--_n._ ACCEL'ERATOR, one who or that which accelerates: a light van to take mails between a post-office and a railway station.--_adj._ ACCEL'ERATORY. [L. _acceler[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ad_, to, _celer_, swift. See CELERITY.] ACCEND, ak-send', _v.i._ (_obs._) to kindle.--_ns._ ACCENDIBIL'ITY, ACCEN'SION.--_adjs._ ACCEND'IBLE, ACCEND'ING. ACCENT, ak'sent, _n._ modulation of the voice: stress on a syllable or word: a mark used to direct this stress: any mode of utterance peculiar to a country, a province, or an individual: (_poet._) a significant word, or words generally: (_pl._) speech, language.--_v.t._ ACCENT', to express or note the accent.--_adj._ ACCENT'UAL, relating to accent.--_n._ ACCENTUAL'ITY.--_adv._ ACCENT'UALLY.--_v.t._ ACCENT'UATE, to mark or pronounce with accent: to make prominent.--_n._ ACCENTU[=A]'TION, the act of marking or of pronouncing accents. [Fr.--L. _accentus_, a tone or note--_ad_, to, _can[)e]re_, to sing.] ACCENTOR, ak-sent'or, _n._ the so-called 'hedge-sparrow' (q.v.). ACCEPT, ak-sept', _v.t._ to receive: to agree to: to promise to pay: (_B._) to receive with favour.--_adj._ ACCEPTABLE (ak-sept'a-bl, or ak'sept-a-bl), to be accepted: pleasing: agreeable.--_ns._ ACCEPT'ABLENESS, ACCEPTABIL'ITY, quality of being acceptable.--_adv._ ACCEPT'ABLY.--_ns._ ACCEPT'ANCE, a favourable reception: an agreeing to terms: an accepted bill; ACCEPT'ANCY, willingness to receive; ACCEPT'ANT, one who accepts--also _adj._; ACCEPT[=A]'TION, a kind reception: the received meaning of a word; ACCEPT'ER, ACCEPT'OR, one who accepts. [L. _accept[=a]re_--_accip[)e]re_, _acceptum_--_ad_, to, _cap[)e]re_, to take.] ACCEPTILATION, ak-sept-il-[=a]'shun, _n._ (_Roman_ and _Scots law_) the remission of a debt through an acquittance by the creditor testifying to the receipt of money which never has been paid--a kind of legal fiction for a free remission: (_theol._) the doctrine that the satisfaction rendered by Christ was not in itself really a true or full equivalent, but was merely accepted by God, through his gracious good-will, as sufficient--laid down by Duns Scotus, and maintained by the Arminians. [L. _acceptilatio_.] ACCESS, ak'ses, or ak-ses', _n._ liberty to come to, approach: increase.--_n._ ACCESSIBIL'ITY.--_adj._ ACCESS'IBLE, that may be approached.--_adv._ ACCESS'IBLY. [See ACCEDE.] ACCESSARY, ak-ses'ar-i, or ak'ses-ar-i. Same as ACCESSORY. _Accessary_ is now the usual spelling of both the adjective and the noun in their legal sense. ACCESSION, ak-sesh'un, _n._ a coming to: increase.--A DEED OF ACCESSION (_Scots law_), a deed by which the creditors of a bankrupt approve of a trust settlement executed by the debtor for the general behoof, and consent to the arrangement proposed. ACCESSORY, ak'ses-sor-i, _adj._ additional: contributing to: aiding: (_law_) participating in a crime, as in reset of theft, and the like.--_n._ anything additional: one who aids or gives countenance to a crime.--_adj._ ACCESS[=O]R'IAL, relating to an accessory.--_adv._ AC'CESSORILY, in the manner of an accessory: by subordinate means. ACCIDENCE, ak'sid-ens, _n._ the part of grammar treating of the inflections of words (because these changes are 'accidentals' of words and not 'essentials'). ACCIDENT, ak'sid-ent, _n._ that which happens: an unforeseen or unexpected event: chance: an unessential quality or property.--_adj._ ACCIDENT'AL, happening by chance: not essential.--_n._ anything not essential.--_ns._ ACCIDENT'ALISM, ACCIDENTAL'ITY.--_adv._ ACCIDENT'ALLY.--THE CHAPTER OF ACCIDENTS, the unforeseen course of events. [L. _accid[)e]re_, to happen--_ad_, to, _cad[)e]re_, to fall.] ACCITE, ak-s[=i]t', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to cite or call, to summon:--_pr.p._ acc[=i]t'ing; _pa.p._ acc[=i]t'ed. [L. _acc[=i]re_, _-citum_--_ad_, to, _ci[=e]re_, _citum_, to call.] ACCLAMATION, ak-klam-[=a]'shun, _n._ a shout of applause--(_poet._) ACCLAIM'.--_v.t._ ACCLAIM', to declare by acclamation.--_adj._ ACCLAM'ATORY, expressing acclamation. [L. _acclam[=a]re_--_ad_, to, _clam[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to shout. See CLAIM.] ACCLIMATISE, ak-kl[=i]m'at-[=i]z, _v.t._ to inure to a foreign climate--also ACCLIM'ATE.--_n._ ACCLIMATIS[=A]'TION, the act of acclimatising: the state of being acclimatised--also ACCLIM[=A]'TION, ACCLIMAT[=A]'TION, the former anomalous, the second used in French. [Fr. _acclimater_, from _à_ and _climat_. See CLIMATE.] ACCLIMATURE, ak-kl[=i]'ma-t[=u]r, _n._ Same as ACCLIMATISATION. ACCLIVITY, ak-kliv'i-ti, _n._ a slope upwards--opp. to _Declivity_, a slope downwards.--_adj._ ACCL[=I]'VOUS, rising as an acclivity--also ACCLIV'ITOUS. [L. _ad_, to, _clivus_, a slope.] ACCLOY, ak-kloi', _v.t._ (_obs._) to cloy or choke: to fill to satiety: to encumber. [See CLOY.] ACCOAST, ak-k[=o]st', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to fly near the earth. [See ACCOST.] ACCOIL, ak-koil', _v.i._ (_Spens._) to gather together. [Through Fr.--L. _ad_, to, _collig[)e]ere_, to collect. See COIL.] ACCOLADE, ak-ol-[=a]d', _n._ a ceremony used in conferring knighthood, formerly an embrace, a kiss, now a slap on the shoulders with the flat of a sword. [Fr.--L. _ad_, to, _collum_, neck.] ACCOMMODATE, ak-kom'mod-[=a]t, _v.t._ to adapt: to make suitable: to adjust: to harmonise or force into consistency (_to_): to furnish or supply (_with_): to provide entertainment for.--_p.adj._ ACCOM'MODATING, affording accommodation: obliging: pliable: easily corrupted.--_n._ ACCOMMOD[=A]'TION, convenience: fitness: adjustment: obligingness: an arrangement or compromise: (_theol._) an adaptation or method of interpretation which explains the special form in which the revelation is presented as unessential to its contents, or rather as often adopted by way of compromise with human ignorance or weakness: a loan of money.--_adj._ ACCOM'MODATIVE, furnishing accommodation: obliging.--_ns._ ACCOM'MODATIVENESS; ACCOM'MODATOR.--ACCOMMODATION BILL, a bill drawn, accepted, or endorsed by one or more persons as security for a sum advanced to another by a third party, as a banker; ACCOMMODATION LADDER, a stairway at the outside of a ship's gangway to facilitate access to boats. [L. _ad_, to, _commodus_, fitting. See COMMODIOUS.] ACCOMPANABLE, ak-kum'pan-a-bl, _adj._ (_obs._) sociable. [From ACCOMPANY.] ACCOMPANY, ak-kum'pan-i, _v.t._ to keep company with: to attend: to support a singer by singing or playing on any instrument an additional part (_with_, of music; _on_, of the instrument).--_ns._ ACCOM'PANIER; ACCOM'PANIMENT, that which accompanies: (_mus._) the assisting of a solo part by other parts, which may consist of a whole orchestra, or a single instrument, or even subservient vocal parts; ACCOM'PANIST, one who accompanies a singer on an instrument to sustain his voice. [Fr. _accompagner_. See COMPANY.] ACCOMPLICE, ak-kom'plis, _n._ an associate, esp. in crime, in modern use (with _of_ and _with_ before a person, and _in_ or _of_ before the crime). [L. _ad_, to, _complex_, _-icis_, joined.] ACCOMPLISH, ak-kom'plish, _v.t._ to complete: to bring about: to effect: to fulfil: to equip.--_adjs._ ACCOM'PLISHABLE, that may be accomplished; ACCOM'PLISHED, complete in acquirements, especially graceful acquirements: polished.--_n._ ACCOM'PLISHMENT, completion: ornamental acquirement. [Fr. _acomplir_--L. _ad_, to, _compl[=e]re_, to fill up. See COMPLETE.] ACCOMPT, ak-komt', _n._ an almost obsolete form of ACCOUNT; ACCOMPT'ABLE, of ACCOUNTABLE; ACCOMPT'ANT, of ACCOUNTANT. ACCORAGE. Same as ACCOURAGE. ACCORD, ak-kord', _v.i._ to agree: to be in correspondence (_with_).--_v.t._ to cause to agree: to reconcile: to grant (_to_, of a person).--_n._ agreement: harmony.--_n._ ACCORD'ANCE, agreement: conformity--also ACCORD'ANCY.--_adj._ ACCORD'ANT, agreeing: corresponding.--_adv._ ACCORD'ANTLY.--_p.adj._ ACCORD'ING, in accordance: agreeing: harmonious.--_adv._ ACCORD'INGLY, agreeably: suitably: in agreement (with what precedes).--ACCORDING AS, in proportion as, or agreeably as; ACCORDING TO, in accordance with, or agreeably to.--OF ONE'S OWN ACCORD, of one's own spontaneous motion. [O. Fr. _acorder_--L. _ad_, to, _cor_, _cordis_, the heart.] ACCORDION, ak-kor'di-on, _n._ a portable musical instrument consisting of a hand-bellows, with keyboard on one side, the keys resting on free metal reeds so arranged that each sounds two notes, one in expanding, the other in contracting the bellows. [From ACCORD.] ACCOST, ak-kost', _v.t._ to speak first to: to address.--_ns._ ACCOST', ACCOST'ING (_obs._), address: greeting.--_adj._ ACCOST'ABLE, easy of access. [O. Fr. _acoster_--Low L. _accost[=a]re_, to be side by side--L. _ad_, to, _costa_, a side.] ACCOUCHEMENT, ak-k[=oo]sh'mong, _n._ delivery in childbed. [Fr. _accoucher_. See COUCH.] ACCOUCHEUR, ak-k[=oo]-sh[.e]r', _n._ a man who assists women in child-birth: a medical practitioner with this speciality:--_fem._ ACCOUCHEUSE (ak-k[=oo]-sh[.e]z'). [Fr.] ACCOUNT, ak-kownt', _v.t._ to reckon: to judge, value.--_v.i._ (with _for_) to give a reason: to give an account of money held in trust.--_n._ a counting: statement: value: sake: a reckoning as to money, as in phrases like, 'to render an account,' 'to settle an account,' 'to square accounts' with any one, &c.--_adj._ ACCOUNT'ABLE, liable to account, responsible (_for_, of the thing; _to_, of the person).--_ns._ ACCOUNT'ABLENESS, ACCOUNTABIL'ITY, liability to give account, responsibility to fulfil obligations.--_adv._ ACCOUNT'ABLY.--_ns._ ACCOUNT'ANCY, the office or work of an accountant; ACCOUNT'ANT, one who keeps, or is skilled in, accounts; ACCOUNT'ANTSHIP, the employment of an accountant; ACCOUNT'-BOOK, a book in which accounts are kept.--ACCOUNT CURRENT, or open account, a course of business dealings still going on between two persons, or a person and a bank.--FOR ACCOUNT OF, on behalf of; FOR THE ACCOUNT, for settlement on the regular fortnightly or monthly settling-day, instead of for cash (of sales on the Stock Exchange).--IN ACCOUNT WITH, in business relations requiring the keeping of an account with some one.--ON or TO ACCOUNT, an instalment or interim payment.--TO MAKE ACCOUNT OF, to set value upon; TO TAKE INTO ACCOUNT, to take into consideration; TO TAKE NO ACCOUNT OF, to overlook. [O. Fr. _acconter_--L. _ad_, to, _comput[=a]re_, to reckon. See COMPUTE, COUNT.] ACCOUPLE, ak-kup'l, _v.t._ (_obs._) to couple or link together. [O. Fr. _acopler_--_à_, to, _cople_. See COUPLE.] ACCOURAGE, ak-kur'[=a]j, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to encourage. [O. Fr. _acorager_--_à_ (L. _ad_), and _corage_ (Fr. _courage_). See COURAGE.] ACCOURT, ak-k[=o]rt', _v.t._ (_Spens._). Same as COURT. ACCOUTRE, ak-k[=oo]'t[.e]r, _v.t._ to dress or equip (esp. a warrior):--_pr.p._ accou'tring; _pa.p._ accou'tred.--_n.pl._ ACCOU'TREMENTS, dress: military equipments--(_Spens._) ACCOU'STREMENTS. [Fr. _accoutrer_, earlier _accoustrer_--of doubtful origin, prob. conn. with O. Fr. _coustre_, _coutre_, a sacristan who had charge of sacred vestments--Low L. _custor_--L. _custos_, a keeper.] ACCOY, ak-koi', _v.t._ (_obs._) to still or quieten: to soothe: to subdue. [O. Fr. _acoyer_--_à_, to, and _coi_, quiet--L. _quiet-um_. See COY.] ACCREDIT, ak-kred'it, _v.t._ to give credit, countenance, authority, or honour to: to furnish with credentials (with _to_, _at_): to vouch for anything belonging to some one--to ascribe or attribute it to him (_with_).--_v.t._ ACCRED'ITATE (_obs._).--_n._ ACCREDIT[=A]'TION, fact of being accredited.--The _pa.p._ ACCRED'ITED, as _adj._, recognised. [Fr. _accréditer_--_à_, to, _crédit_, credit. See CREDIT.] ACCRESCENT, ak-kres'ent, _adj._ growing: ever-increasing.--_ns._ ACCRES'CENCE, gradual growth or increase; ACCR[=E]'TION, the process of growing continuously: the growing together of parts externally, or continuous coherence: that which has grown in such a way, any extraneous addition.--_adj._ ACCR[=E]'TIVE. [L. _ad_, in addition, _cresc[)e]re_, to grow.] ACCREW, ak-kr[=oo]' (_Spens._). Same as ACCRUE. ACCRUE, ak-kr[=oo]', _v.i._ to spring or grow as a natural result (with _from_): to fall to any one by way of advantage (with _unto_, _to_). [O. Fr. _acrewe_, what grows up in a wood to the profit of the owner; _acreistre_--L. _accresc[)e]re_.] ACCUBATION, ak-ku-b[=a]'shun, _n._ a lying or reclining on a couch. [L. _ad_, to, and _cubare_, to lie down.] ACCUMBENT, ak-kumb'ent, _adj._ lying down or reclining on a couch. [L. _ad_, to, _cumb[)e]re_, to lie.] ACCUMULATE, ak-k[=u]m'[=u]l-[=a]t, _v.t._ to heap or pile up: to amass: to take degrees by accumulation, to take a higher degree at the same time with a lower, or at a shorter interval than usual.--_v.i._ to increase greatly: to go on increasing.--_n._ ACCUMUL[=A]'TION, a heaping up: a heap, mass, or pile.--_adj._ ACCUM'ULATIVE, heaping up.--_n._ ACCUM'ULATOR, a thing or person that accumulates, esp. an apparatus for storing electricity. [L.--_ad_, to, _cumulus_, a heap.] ACCURATE, ak'k[=u]r-[=a]t, _adj._ done with care: exact.--_n._ AC'CURACY, correctness: exactness.--_adv._ AC'CURATELY.--_n._ AC'CURATENESS. [L. _accuratus_, performed with care (of things)--_ad_, to, _cura_, care.] ACCURSE, ak-kurs', _v.t._ to curse: to devote to misery or destruction.--_adj._ ACCURS'ED, subjected to a curse: doomed: worthy of a curse: extremely wicked. [Pfx. _à-_, and A.S. _cursian_, to curse.] ACCUSATIVE, ak-k[=u]z'a-tiv, _adj._ accusing.--_n._ (_gram._) the case which expresses the direct object of transitive verbs (in English, the objective)--primarily expressing destination or the goal of motion.--_adj._ ACCUS'ATIVAL. [Fr. _accusatif_--L. _accusativus_, 'of the nature of accusation,' a translation of the Gr. _(pt[=o]sis) aitiatik[=e]_, (the case) 'of accusing,' but also 'of or pertaining to what is caused or effected' (_aitiaton_, effect, _aitia_, cause); hence, properly, the case of the effect.] ACCUSE, ak-k[=u]z', _v.t._ to bring a charge against: to blame (with _of_ before the thing charged, sometimes _for_).--_adj._ ACCUS'ABLE, that may be accused.--_ns._ ACCUS'AL, accusation; ACCUS[=A]'TION, the act of accusing: the charge brought against any one.--_adjs._ ACCUSAT[=O]'RIAL, of an accuser; ACCUS'ATORY, containing accusation.--_n._ ACCUSE (_Shak._), accusation.--_p.adj._ ACCUSED', charged with a crime: usually as a _n._, the person accused.--_ns._ ACCUSE'MENT (_Spens._), a charge; ACCUS'ER, one who accuses or brings a charge against another. [O. Fr. _acuser_--L. _accus[=a]re_--_ad_, to, _causa_, cause.] ACCUSTOM, ak-kus'tum, _v.t._ to make familiar by custom: to habituate (with _to_).--_adj._ ACCUS'TOMARY.--_p.adj._ ACCUS'TOMED, usual: frequent: habituated.--_n._ ACCUS'TOMEDNESS. [O. Fr. _acostumer_ (Fr. _accoutumer_)--_à_, to, _costume_, _coustume_--L. _consuetudinem_. See CUSTOM.] ACE, [=a]s, _n._ the one at dice, also at cards, dominoes, &c.: a single point, an atom. [Fr.--L. _as_, unity--_as_, Tarentine Doric form of Gr. _heis_, one.] ACELDAMA, a-sel'da-ma, _n._ a field of blood--the name given to the field outside Jerusalem bought with the blood-money of Jesus. [Gr.--Aramaic.] ACEPHALAN, a-sef'a-lan, _n._ (_zool._) one of the Acephala, a class of molluscs, which present no traces of a head.--_adj._ ACEPH'ALOUS, without a head. [Gr. _a_, neg., _kephal[=e]_, the head.] ACERBITY, as-[.e]r'bi-ti, _n._ bitterness: sourness: harshness: severity.--_adj._ ACERB'. [Fr.,--L. _acerbitat-em_--L. _acerbus_, harsh to the taste--_acer_, sharp.] ACERIC, a-ser'ik, _adj._ obtained from the maple. [From L. _acer_, a maple-tree.] ACETABULUM, as-[=e]-tab'[=u]-lum, _n._ (_anat._) the cavity which receives the head of the thigh-bone: also a glandular substance found in the placenta of some animals:--_pl._ ACETAB'ULA. [L., a cup-shaped vessel.] ACETIC, as-et'ik, _adj._ of the nature of vinegar: sour--also AC[=E]'TOUS, ACETOSE'.--_n._ ACES'CENCE, a tendency to sourness.--_adj._ ACES'CENT.--_n._ AC'ETATE, salt of acetic acid which is the sour principle in vinegar. [L. _acetum_, vinegar--_ac-[=e]re_, to be sour.] ACETIFY, as-et'i-f[=i], _v.t._ or _v.i._ to turn into vinegar.--_n._ ACETIFIC[=A]'TION. [L. _acetum_, vinegar, and _fac[)e]re_, to make.] ACETOPATHY, as-et-op'a-thi, _n._ the treating of ailments by the external application of dilute acetic acid. [L. _ac[=e]tum_, acid, and Gr. _pathos_, feeling.] ACETYLENE, a-set'i-l[=e]n, _n._ a powerful illuminant gas (C_2H_2) produced commercially from carbide of calcium by means of water. ACHÆAN. See ACHEAN. ACHARNEMENT, ä-shärn'ment (sometimes nasalised as in French), _n._ thirst for blood, ferocity. [Fr. _acharner_, refl. _sacharner_, to thirst for blood.] ACHATES, a-k[=a]ts', _n.pl._ (_Spens._). Same as CATES. ACHATES, ä-k[=a]'tes, _n._ trusty comrade, from the 'fidus Achates' of Virgil's _Æneid_--the constant companion of Æneas in his wanderings after the fall of Troy. ACHE, [=a]k, _n._ a continued pain.--_v.i._ to be in continued pain:--_pr.p._ [=a]ch'ing; _pa.p._ [=a]ched.--_n._ ACH'ING, continued pain or distress. [The verb is properly _ake_, the noun _ache_, as in _speak_ and _speech_. The A.S. noun _æce_ is from the verb _ac-an_, to ache.] ACHENIUM, a-k[=e]'ni-um, _n._ (_bot._) a small hard one-seeded fruit, which does not open when ripe, as in the buttercup.--Also ACHENE'. [From Gr. _a_, neg., and _chainein_, to gape.] ACHERON, ak'k[.e]r-on, _n._ death, hell--from the name of that river in the infernal regions of classical mythology.--_adj._ ACHERON'TIC, deadly. ACHIEVE, a-ch[=e]v', _v.t._ to bring to a head or end: to perform: to accomplish: to carry out successfully: to gain, win.--_adj._ ACHIEV'ABLE, that may be achieved.--_n._ ACHIEVE'MENT, a performance: an exploit: an escutcheon or armorial shield granted in memory of some achievement, applied especially to the escutcheon over the tomb of a dead person, generally called a _hatchment_. [Fr. _achever_, from _à chief (venir)_--Low L. _ad caput venire_, to come to a head. See CHIEF.] ACHILLEAN, ak-il-l[=e]'an, _adj._ like Achilles, the great Greek hero in the Trojan war, brave, swift of foot, unrelenting in wrath.--ACHILLES TENDON, the attachment of the soleus and gastrocnemius muscles of the calf of the leg to the heel-bone, so named from the infant Achilles's mother, Thetis, having held him by the heel when she dipped him into the Styx to make him invulnerable. ACHITOPHEL, ä-hit'[=o]-fel, _n._ an able but unprincipled counsellor, from the name of David's sage counsellor who treacherously abetted the rebellion of Absalom. Dryden in his famous satire applied the name to Shaftesbury.--Also AHITH'OPHEL. ACHROMATIC, a-kr[=o]m-at'ik, _adj._ transmitting light without colour, of a lens or telescope.--_adv._ ACHROMAT'ICALLY.--_n._ ACHROM'ATISM, the state of being achromatic.--_v.t._ ACHROM'ATIZE, to render achromatic. [Gr. _a_, neg., and _chr[=o]ma_, _chromatos_, colour.] ACICULAR, as-ik'[=u]-lar, _adj._ needle-shaped; slender and sharp-pointed.--Also ACIC'ULATE, ACIC'ULATED. [L. _acicula_, dim. of _acus_, a needle.] ACID, as'id, _adj._ sharp: sour.--_n._ a sour substance: (_chem._) one of a class of substances, usually sour, which turn vegetable blues to red, and combine with alkalies, metallic oxides, &c. to form salts.--_adj._ ACID'IFIABLE, capable of being converted into an acid.--_ns._ ACIDIFIC[=A]'TION; ACID'ITY, the quality of being acid or sour--also AC'IDNESS.--_v.t._ ACID'ULATE, to make slightly acid. [L. _ac-[=e]re_, to be sour--root _ak_, sharp.] ACIDIFY, as-id'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to make acid: to convert into an acid:--_pr.p._ acid'ifying; _pa.p._ acid'ified. [L. _acidus_, sour, and _fac[)e]re_, to make.] ACIDIMETER, as-id-im'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring the strength of acids.--_n._ ACIDIM'ETRY, the act of such measurement. [ACID and METER.] ACIDULOUS, as-id'[=u]-lus, _adj._ slightly sour: subacid: containing carbonic acid, as mineral waters: (_fig._) caustic, sharp. [L. _acidulus_, dim. of _acidus_, sour. See ACID.] ACIERAGE, [=a]'s[=e]-[.e]r-[=a]j, _n._ the covering of an engraved copper-plate with a film of iron to ensure durability. [Fr. _acier_, steel--L. _acies_, a sharp point, and _-age_.] ACIFORM, as'i-form, _adj._ needle-shaped. [L. _acus_, a needle, and FORM, from _forma_, shape.] ACINIFORM, a-sin'i-form, _adj._ in clusters like grapes, or having the form of grapes. [L. _acinus_, a grape.] ACKNOW, ak-n[=o]', _v.t._ (_obs._) to know, to recognise.--_adj._ ACKNOWN (_Shak._), known or acquainted. [A.S. _on_, in, on, _cnâwan_, to KNOW.] ACKNOWLEDGE, ak-nol'ej, _v.t._ to own a knowledge of: to own as true: to confess: to admit or give intimation of the receipt of.--_adj._ ACKNOW'LEDGEABLE.--_adv._ ACKNOW'LEDGEABLY.--_n._ ACKNOWLEDGMENT, recognition: admission: confession: thanks: a receipt. [From the _v._ ACKNOW, with suffix _-ledge_.] ACLINIC, ak-lin'ik, _adj._ without inclination, applied to the magnetic equator, which cuts the terrestrial equator, inasmuch as on that line the magnetic needle has no dip, but lies horizontal. [Gr. _aklin[=e]s_--_a_, neg., _klin-ein_, to bend.] ACME, ak'm[=e], _n._ the top or highest point: the culmination or perfection in the career of anything: crisis, as of a disease.--ACME SKATES, the name given to a kind of skates, formed of steel, fixed to the boot by a mechanical device, permitting them to be quickly fixed on or taken off. [Gr. _akm[=e]_--_ak[=e]_, a point.] ACNE, ak'n[=e], _n._ a common skin disease, an inflammation of the sebaceous follicles of the skin, often occurring on the nose. [A corr. of Gr. _akm[=e]_, a point.] ACOCK, a-kok', _adv._ in a cocked manner: defiantly.--A COCK-BILL (_naut._), having the ends pointing upward, as of an anchor hanging by its ring at the cat-head, in a position for dropping; or of the yards when topped up by one lift to an angle with the deck--the symbol of mourning. [Prep. _a_, and COCK.] ACOEMETI, a-sem'[=e]-t[=i], _n.pl._ a congregation of monks founded in 460 near Constantinople, who by alternating choirs kept divine service going on day and night without intermission in their monastery. [Gr. _akoimetoi_, sleepless, _a_, neg., and _koimaein_, to put to sleep.] ACOLD, a-k[=o]ld', _adj._ (_arch._) cold. [A.S. _acóled_, pa.p. of _acólian_; pfx. _a-_, intens., and _cólian_, to COOL.] ACOLYTE, ak'o-l[=i]t, ACOLYTH, ak'o-lith, _n._ an inferior church officer: an attendant or assistant: (_R. C. Church_) one ordained to the fourth of the minor orders, next to the sub-deacon. [Gr. _akolouthos_, an attendant.] ACONITE, ak'o-n[=i]t, _n._ the plant wolf's-bane or monk's-hood: poison.--_adj._ ACONIT'IC.--_n._ ACON'ITINE, the essential principle of aconite. [L. _aconitum_--Gr. _akoniton_.] ACOP, a-kop', _adv._ (_obs._) on the top or head: on high. [Prep. _a_, and A.S. _cop_, _copp_, summit.] ACORN, [=a]'korn, _n._ the seed or fruit of the oak.--_adj._ A'CORNED.--_n._ A'CORN-SHELL, a name for the Bal[)a]nus (L., acorn), a genus of Cirripedes in the class Crustacea. [A.S. _æcern_, prob. from _æcer_, field, hence meaning 'the fruit of the unenclosed land.' The modern form is due to confusion with _oak_ (A.S. _ác_) and _corn_.] ACOSMISM, a-koz'mizm, _n._ refusal to believe in the existence of an eternal world. [Gr., _a_, neg., and _kosmos_, the world.] ACOTYLEDON, a-kot-i-l[=e]'dun, _n._ a plant without distinct cotyledons or seed-lobes.--_adj._ ACOTYL[=E]'DONOUS. [Gr. _a_, neg., and _kotyl[=e]d[=o]n_. See COTYLEDON.] ACOUSTIC, a-kowst'ik, _adj._ pertaining to the sense of hearing or to the theory of sounds: used in hearing, auditory.--_n._ ACOUST'ICS, the science of sound. [Fr.--Gr. _akoustikos_--_akouein_, to hear.] ACOY. Same as ACCOY. ACQUAINT, ak-kw[=a]nt', _v.t._ to make or let one to know: to inform a person of a thing (_with_): to inform (with personal object only).--_ns._ ACQUAINT'ANCE, familiar knowledge: a person whom we know; ACQUAINT'ANCESHIP, familiar knowledge.--_p.adj._ ACQUAINT'ED (_with_), personally known: having personal knowledge of. [O. Fr. _acointer_--Low L. _accognit[=a]re_--L. _ad_, to, _cognitus_, known.] ACQUEST, ak-kwest', _n._ an acquisition or thing acquired. [O. Fr.--L. _acquisitus_, _acquir[)e]re_. See ACQUIRE.] ACQUIESCE, ak-kwi-es', _v.i._ to rest satisfied or without making opposition: to assent (with _in_).--_n._ ACQUIES'CENCE, quiet assent or submission.--_adj._ ACQUIES'CENT, resting satisfied: easy: submissive.--_advs._ ACQUIES'CENTLY, ACQUIES'CINGLY. [L. _acquiesc[)e]re_--_ad_, and _quies_, rest.] ACQUIRE, ak-kw[=i]r', _v.t._ to gain: to attain to.--_n._ ACQUIRABIL'ITY.--_adj._ ACQUIR'ABLE, that may be acquired.--_ns._ ACQUIRE'MENT, something learned or got by effort, rather than a gift of nature; ACQUISI'TION, the act of acquiring: that which is acquired.--_adj._ ACQUIS'ITIVE, desirous to acquire.--_n._ ACQUIS'ITIVENESS, propensity to acquire--one of the phrenologists' so-called faculties, with its special organ. [O. Fr. _aquerre_--L. _acquir[)e]re_, _-quisitum_--_ad_, to, and _quær[)e]re_, to seek.] ACQUIST, ak-kwist', _n._ (_Milton_) a form of ACQUEST. ACQUIT, ak-kwit', _v.t._ to free: to release: to settle, as a debt: to behave or conduct (one's self): to declare innocent (with _of_ before the thing of which acquitted):--_pr.p._ acquit'ting; _pa.p._ acquit'ted.--_ns._ ACQUIT'TAL, a judicial discharge from an accusation; ACQUIT'TANCE, a discharge from an obligation or debt: a receipt in evidence of such a discharge.--_v.t._ (_Shak._), to acquit, clear. [O. Fr. _acquiter_--L. _ad_, to, _quiet[=a]re_, to give rest. See QUIT.] ACRE, [=a]'k[.e]r, _n._ a measure of land containing 4840 sq. yards. The Scotch acre contains 6150.4 sq. yards (48 Scotch--61 imperial acres): the Irish, 7840 sq. yards (50 Irish--81 imperial acres): (_pl._) for lands, estates generally: (_fig._) large quantities of anything.--_n._ A'CREAGE, the number of acres in a piece of land.--_adj._ A'CRED, possessing acres or land. [A.S. _æcer_; Ger. _acker_, L. _ager_, Gr. _agros_, Sans. _ajras_, a plain.] ACRID, ak'rid, _adj._ biting to the taste: pungent: bitter.--_ns._ ACRID'ITY, AC'RIDNESS, quality of being acrid: a sharp, bitter taste. [L. _acer_, _acris_, sharp--root _ak_, sharp.] ACRIMONY, ak'ri-mun-i, _n._ bitterness of feeling or language.--_adj._ ACRIM[=O]'NIOUS, sharp, bitter.--_n._ ACRIM[=O]'NIOUSNESS, the state or quality of being acrimonious: severity. [L. _acrimonia_--_acer_, sharp.] ACRITOCHROMACY, a-krit-o-kr[=o]'ma-si, _n._ inability to distinguish between colours: colour-blindness. [From Gr. _akritos_, undistinguishable (--_a_, neg., and _krinein_, to separate), and _chr[=o]ma_, _-atos_, colour.] ACRITUDE, ak'ri-t[=u]d, _n._ the quality of being acrid: a sharp bitter taste: bitterness of temper or language. [L. _acritudo_--_acer_, sharp.] ACROAMATIC, -AL, ak-ro-a-mat'ik, -al, _adj._ oral, esoteric, secret--applied to the lectures of Aristotle delivered to a select circle of students as opposed to his more popular lectures. [Gr. _akroamatikos_--_akroasthai_, to hear.] ACROBAT, ak'ro-bat, _n._ a rope-dancer: a tumbler: a vaulter.--_adj._ ACROBAT'IC.--_n._ ACROBAT'ISM, the art of the acrobat. [Gr. _akrobatos_, walking on tiptoe; _akros_, point, _batos_--_bainein_, to go.] ACROGEN, ak'ro-jen, _n._ a plant that grows at the top chiefly, as a tree-fern.--_adj._ ACROG'ENOUS. [Gr. _akros_, top, _gen[=e]s_, born.] ACROLITH, ak'ro-lith, _n._ a statue of the earlier Greek artists having the trunk made of wood and the extremities of stone. [Gr. _akrolithos_--_akros_, extreme, and _lithos_, stone.] ACRONYCAL, a-kron'ik-al, _adj._ midnight, applied to stars that rise at sunset and set at sunrise, or opposite to the sun.--_adv._ ACRON'YCALLY. [Gr. _akros_, summit, middle (of time), and _nyx_, _nyktos_, night.] ACROPOLIS, a-kro'pol-is, _n._ a citadel, esp. that of Athens. [Gr. _akropolis_--_akros_, the highest, _polis_, a city.] ACROSPIRE, ak'ro-sp[=i]r, _n._ (_bot._) the first leaf that appears when corn sprouts. [Gr. _akros_, summit, end, _speira_, anything twisted round.] ACROSS, a-kros', _prep._ or _adv._ crosswise: from side to side. [Prep. _a_, and CROSS.] ACROSTIC, a-kr[=o]'stik, _n._ a poem of which, if the first or the last letter of each line be taken in succession, they will spell a name or a sentence.--_adj._ ACR[=O]'STICAL.--_adv._ ACR[=O]'STICALLY.--_n._ ACR[=O]'STICISM, method of acrostics. [Gr. _akros_, extreme, and _stichos_, a line.] ACT, akt, _v.i._ to exert force or influence: to produce an effect: to behave one's self: to feign.--_v.t._ to perform: to imitate or play the part of.--_n._ something done or doing: an exploit: the very process of doing something: a law or decision of a prince or legislative body: an instrument in writing for verification: (_theol._) something done once for all, in opposition to a work: a distinct section of a play: in universities, a public disputation or lecture maintained by a candidate for a degree.--_n._ ACT'ING, action: act of performing an assumed or a dramatic part: feigning.--_adj._ performing some duty temporarily, or for another.--_n._ ACT'OR, one who acts: a stage-player:--_fem._ ACT'RESS.--ACT OF GOD, a result of natural forces, unexpected and not preventable by human foresight.--IN ACT TO, on the very point of doing something.--TO ACT ON, to act in accordance with; TO ACT UP TO, to come up in practice to some expected standard: to fulfil. [L. _ag[)e]re_, _actum_; Gr. _agein_, to put in motion; Sans. _aj_, to drive.] ACTA, ak'ta, _n.pl._ proceedings in a court civil or ecclesiastical, or the minutes of such.--ACTA MARTYRUM, the early accounts of the martyrs; ACTA SANCTORUM, a general name for collections of accounts of saints and martyrs, especially of the great collection of the Bollandists, begun in 1643, interrupted in 1794 at the fifty-third vol. (Oct. 6), but resumed in 1845. ACTINIA, ak-tin'i-a, _n._ a genus of marine animals of the class Polypi, growing on rocks or shells, with numerous tentacles or rays like the petals of a flower, from which they are often called animal flowers or sea-anemones. [From Gr. _aktis_, _aktinos_, a ray.] ACTINIFORM, ak-tin'i-form, _adj._ having a radiated form. [Gr. _aktis_, _aktinos_, ray, and FORM.] ACTINISM, ak'tin-izm, _n._ the chemical force of the sun's rays, as distinct from light and heat.--_adj._ AC'TINIC. [Gr. _aktis_, _aktinos_, a ray.] ACTINOLITE, ak-tin'[=o]-l[=i]t, _n._ a green variety of hornblende. [Gr. _aktis_, _akt[=i]nos_, a ray, _lithos_, a stone.] ACTINOMETER, ak-tin-om'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring the heat-intensity of the sun's rays or the actinic effect of light-rays. [Gr. _aktis_, _aktinos_, ray, and METER.] ACTINOMYCES, ak-ti-no-m[=i]'sez, _n._ the tiny ray-fungus.--_n._ ACTINOMYC[=O]'SIS, an inflammatory disease in cattle, swine, and sometimes man, caused by that fungus. [Gr. _aktis_, _aktinos_, ray, and _myces_, mushroom.] ACTINOZOA, ak'tin-[=o]-z[=o]'a, _n.pl._ one of the three classes of Coelenterata, including sea-anemones, dead-men's fingers, corals, &c. [Gr. _aktis_, _-inos_, a ray; _z[=o]a_, animals.] ACTION, ak'shun, _n._ a state of acting: activity in the abstract: a deed: operation: gesture: a battle: a lawsuit, or proceedings in a court: the movement of events in a drama, novel, &c.--_adj._ AC'TIONABLE, liable to a lawsuit.--_n._ AC'TION-TAK'ING (_Shak._), resenting an injury by a lawsuit instead of fighting it out like a man of honour. ACTIVATE, ak'ti-v[=a]t, _v.t._ (_Bacon_) to make active:--_pr.p._ ac'tiv[=a]ting; _pa.p._ ac'tiv[=a]ted. ACTIVE, akt'iv, _adj._ that acts: busy: nimble: practical, as opposed to speculative: effective: (_gram._) transitive.--_adv._ ACT'IVELY.--_ns._ ACTIV'ITY, ACT'IVENESS. ACTON, ak'tun, _n._ a stuffed leather jacket which used to be worn under a coat of mail. [O. Fr. _auqueton_, through Sp. from Ar. _al-q[=u]tun_.] ACTUAL, akt'[=u]-al, _adj._ real: existing in fact and now, as opp. to an imaginary or past state of things.--_v.t._ ACT'UALISE, to make actual: to realise in action.--_n._ ACTUAL'ITY.--_adv._ ACT'UALLY. ACTUARY, akt'[=u]-ar-i, _n._ a registrar or clerk: one who makes the calculations connected with an insurance office.--_adj._ ACTUA'RIAL. [L. _actuarius (scriba)_, an amanuensis, a clerk.] ACTUATE, akt'[=u]-[=a]t, _v.t._ to put into or incite to action: to influence.--_n._ ACTU[=A]'TION. [L. _actus_, action. See ACT.] ACULEATED, ak-[=u]l-e-[=a]t'ed, _p.adj._ pointed: (_fig._) pungent, incisive. [L. _aculeatus_, _aculeus_, dim. of _acus_, needle.] ACUMEN, ak-[=u]'men, _n._ sharpness: quickness of perception: penetration. [L. See ACUTE.] ACUMINATE, a-k[=u]'min-[=a]t, _adj._ (_bot._) having a long tapering point--also AC[=U]'MINATED.--_v.t._ AC[=U]'MINATE, to sharpen: (_fig._) give point to.--_n._ ACCUMIN[=A]'TION. [L. _acuminatum_, pa.p. of _acumin[=a]re_, to make pointed--_acumen_, a point. See ACUMEN.] ACUPRESSURE, ak-[=u]-presh'[=u]r, _n._ a mode of arresting hemorrhage from cut arteries, by inserting a needle into the flesh so as to press across the mouth of the artery. [L. _acus_, a needle, and PRESSURE.] ACUPUNCTURE, ak-[=u]-pungkt'[=u]r, _n._ an operation for relieving pain by puncturing the flesh with needles. [L. _acus_, a needle, and PUNCTURE.] ACUTE, ak-[=u]t', _adj._ sharp-pointed: keen: opp. of dull: shrewd: shrill: critical.--_adv._ ACUTE'LY.--_n._ ACUTE'NESS.--ACUTE ANGLE, an angle less than a right angle (see ANGLE); ACUTE DISEASE, one coming to a violent crisis, as opp. to _Chronic_. [L. _acutus_, pa.p. of _acu[)e]re_, to sharpen, from root _ak_, sharp.] ADAGE, ad'[=a]j, _n._ an old saying: a proverb. [Fr.--L. _adagium_, from _ad_, to, and root of _aio_, I say.] ADAGIO, a-d[=a]'g[=i]-o, _adv._ (_mus._) slowly.--_n._ a slow movement: a piece in adagio time. [It. _ad agio_, at ease.] ADAM, ad'am, _n._ the first man: unregenerate human nature: a gaoler.--_n._ AD'AMITE, one descended from Adam: one of a 2d-century heretical sect in Northern Africa, and in the 15th in Germany, whose members, claiming the primitive innocence of Eden, went about naked.--_adjs._ ADAMIT'IC, -AL.--_n._ AD'AMITISM. ADAMANT, ad'a-mant, _n._ a very hard stone: the diamond.--_adjs._ ADAMANT[=E]'AN (_Milton_), hard as adamant; ADAMAN'TINE, made of or like adamant: that cannot be broken or penetrated. [L. and Gr. _adamas_, _-antos_--_a_, neg., and _damaein_, to break, to tame. See TAME.] ADAMIC, a-dam'ik, _adj._ relating to Adam. ADAM'S-APPLE, ad'amz-ap'pl, _n._ the angular projection of the thyroid cartilage of the larynx in front of the throat, so called from an idea that part of the forbidden fruit stuck in Adam's throat.--ADAM'S ALE or WINE, water. ADANSONIA, ad-an-s[=o]'ni-a, _n._ the baobab, monkey-bread, or calabash-tree of West Africa. [So called from _Adanson_, a French botanist (1727-1806).] ADAPT, ad-apt', _v.t._ to make apt or fit: to accommodate (with _to_ or _for_).--_ns._ ADAPTABIL'ITY, ADAPT'ABLENESS.--_adj._ ADAPT'ABLE, that may be adapted.--_n._ ADAPT[=A]'TION, the act of making suitable: fitness: (_biol._) the process of advantageous variation and progressive modification by which organisms are adjusted to the conditions of their life--the perfected result of adaptation being a life in harmony with the environment. [Fr.--L. _adapt[=a]re_--_ad_, to, and _apt[=a]re_, to fit.] ADAR, [=a]'dar, _n._ the twelfth month of the Jewish ecclesiastical, the sixth of the civil, year, corresponding to the later part of February and the first part of March. [Heb. _ad[=a]r_.] ADAYS, a-d[=a]z', _adv._ nowadays: at the present time. [Prep. _a_, and gen. sing. of DAY, A.S. _ondæye_.] ADD, ad, _v.t._ to put (one thing) to (another): to sum up (with _to_): to increase.--_adjs._ ADD'ABLE, ADD'IBLE.--_ns._ ADDIBIL'ITY; ADDIT'AMENT (_Charles Lamb_), an addition; ADDI'TION, the act of adding: the thing added: the rule in arithmetic for adding numbers together: title, honour.--_adj._ ADDI'TIONAL, that is added. [L.--_addëre_--_ad_, to, _dãre_, to put.] ADDAX, ad'aks, _n._ a species of large antelope found in Africa, with long twisted horns. [African word.] ADDEEM, ad-d[=e]m', _v.t._ to deem: to adjudge: to award. [Pfx. _ad-_, and DEEM.] ADDENDUM, ad-den'dum, _n._ a thing to be added: an appendix:--_pl._ ADDEN'DA. [L. See ADD.] ADDER, ad'[.e]r, _n._ the popular English name of the viper.--_ns._ AD'DER'S-TONGUE, a genus of ferns the seeds of which grow on a spike resembling a serpent's tongue; AD'DER'S-WORT, a wort or plant, so called from its being supposed to cure the bite of serpents--also called _Snakeweed_. [A.S. _nædre_; cf. Ger. _atter_ for _natter_. _An adder_ came by mistake into use for _a nadder_; the reverse mistake is _a newt_ for _an ewt_ or _eft_.] ADDICT, ad-dikt', _v.t._ to give (one's self) up to (generally in a bad sense): (_B._) to devote or dedicate one's self to.--_adjs._ ADDICT', ADDICT'ED, given up to (with _to_).--_ns._ ADDICT'EDNESS, ADDIC'TION. [L. _addic[)e]re_, _addictum_--_ad_, to, _dic[)e]re_, to declare.] ADDLE, ad'dl, ADDLED, ad'dld, _adj._ diseased: putrid: barren, empty.--_adjs._ AD'DLE-HEAD'ED, AD'DLE-PAT'ED, having a head or pate with addled brains.--_n._ AD'DLEMENT. [M.E. _adele_--A.S. _adela_, mud; cf. Scot, _eddle_, liquid manure.] ADDOOM, ad-d[=oo]m', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to doom, to adjudge, to award. [Pfx. _a-_, and DOOM.] ADDORSED, ad-dorst', _p.adj._ (_her._) turned back to back. ADDRESS, ad-dres', _v.t._ to direct (with _to_): to speak or write to: to court: to direct in writing: to arrange properly: (_arch._) to don: (_refl._) to turn one's skill or energies towards.--_n._ a formal communication in writing: a speech: manners: dexterity: direction of a letter:--_pl._ ADDRESS'ES, attentions of a lover.--TO ADDRESS ONE'S SELF TO A TASK, to set about it. [Fr. _adresser_--Low L. _addirecti[=a]re_--L. _ad_, to, _directum_, straight. See DRESS, DIRECT.] ADDUCE, ad-d[=u]s', _v.t._ to bring forward: to cite or quote.--_adj._ ADD[=U]C'ENT, drawing forward or together, as of the adductor muscles.--_n._ ADD[=U]C'ER.--_adj._ ADD[=U]C'IBLE.--_n._ ADDUC'TION, the act of adducing or bringing forward: the movement by which a part of the body is drawn forward by muscles.--_adj._ ADDUC'TIVE, tending to bring forward. [L. _adduc[)e]re_--_ad_, to, and _ducUere_, to bring.] ADDUCTOR, ad-dukt'ur, _n._ a muscle which draws one part towards another. [See ABDUCTOR.] ADDULCE, ad-duls', _v.t._ (_obs._) to make sweet. [O. Fr. _adoulcir_--L. _ad_, to, _dulcis_, sweet.] ADELPHOUS, a-del'fus, _adj._ (_bot._) united in brotherhoods or bundles, as stamens. [Gr. _adelphos_, brother.] ADENITIS, ad-en-[=i]'tis, _n._ inflammation of the lymphatic glands. [Gr. _ad[=e]n_, a gland, _-itis_, denoting inflammation.] ADENOID, -AL, ad'en-oid, -al, _adj._ of a gland-like shape: glandular. [Gr. _ad[=e]n_, a gland, _eidos_, form.] ADENOTOMY, ad-en-ot'o-mi, _n._ a cutting or incision of a gland. [Gr. _ad[=e]n_, a gland, _tom[=e]_, a cutting.] ADEPT, ad-ept', or ad'ept, _adj._ completely skilled (_in_).--_n._ a proficient.--_n._ ADEP'TION (_Bacon_), attainment. [L. _adeptus_ (_artem_), having attained (an art), _pa.p._ of _adipisci_, to attain--_ad_, to, and _apisci._] ADEQUATE, ad'e-kw[=a]t, _adj._ equal to: proportionate: sufficient.--_adv._ AD'EQUATELY.--_ns._ AD'EQUATENESS, AD'EQUACY, state of being adequate: sufficiency. [L. _adæquatus_, made equal--_ad_, to, and _æquus_, equal.] ADES, _n._ an obsolete variant of HADES. ADHERE, ad-h[=e]r', _v.i._ to stick to: to remain fixed or attached (with _to_): (_Shak._) to be consistent: (_Scots law_) to affirm a judgment.--_n._ ADHER'ENCE, state of adhering: steady attachment.--_adj._ ADHER'ENT, sticking to.--_n._ one who adheres: a follower: a partisan (with _of_)--a less common form is ADHER'ER. [L. _ad_, to, _hær[=e]re_, _hæsum_, to stick.] ADHESION, ad-h[=e]'zhun, _n._ the act of adhering or sticking to: steady attachment: (_path._) a vital union between two surfaces of a living body which have been either naturally or artificially separated.--_adj._ ADHES'IVE, sticky: apt to adhere.--_adv._ ADHES'IVELY.--_n._ ADHES'IVENESS. [See ADHERE.] ADHIBIT, ad-hib'it, _v.t._ to apply to: to use: to attach: to admit: to devote to: to administer.--_n._ ADHIBI'TION, application: use. [L. _adhib[=e]re_, _-itum_--_ad_, to, and _hab[=e]re_, to hold.] ADIANTUM, ad-i-an'tum, _n._ maidenhair, a large genus of ferns. [Gr. _adiantos_, _a_, neg., and _diantos_, capable of being wetted.] ADIAPHORON, a-di-af'or-on, _n.pl._ in theology and ethics, things indifferent--any tenet or usage which is considered as non-essential--also ADIAPH'ORA.--_n._ ADIAPH'ORISM, tolerance in regard to non-essential points in theology.--_adj._ ADIAPH'OROUS. [Gr., from _a_, neg., and _diaphoros_, differing--_dia_, apart, _pherein_, to carry.] ADIATHERMIC, [=a]-d[=i]-a-th[.e]r'mik, _adj._ impervious to radiant heat. [Gr. _a_, neg., _dia_, through, _thermos_, heat.] ADIEU, a-d[=u]', _adv._ (I commend you) to God: farewell.--_n._ a farewell:--_pl._ ADIEUS or ADIEUX (a-d[=u]z'). [Fr. _à Dieu_, to God.] ADIPOCERE, ad'i-p[=o]-s[=e]r, _n._ a fatty, waxy substance resulting from the decomposition of animal bodies in moist places or under water, but not exposed to air. [Through Fr. from L. _adeps_, _adipis_, soft fat, and _cera_, wax.] ADIPOSE, ad'i-p[=o]z, _adj._ fatty.--ADIPOSE TISSUE, the vesicular structure in the animal body which contains the fat. [L. _adeps_, _adipis_, soft fat.] ADIT, ad'it, _n._ an opening or passage, esp. into a mine. [L. _aditus--ad_, to, _[=i]re_, _itum_, to go.] ADJACENT, ad-j[=a]s'ent, _adj._ lying near to: contiguous.--_n._ ADJAC'ENCY, the state of being near: that which is adjacent.--_adv._ ADJAC'ENTLY. [L. _ad_, to, _jac[=e]re_, to lie.] ADJECTIVE, ad'jek-tiv, _n._ a word added to a noun to qualify it, or limit it by reference to quality, number, or position.--_adj._ ADJECT[=I]V'AL.--_adv._ AD'JECTIVELY. [L. _adjectivum (nomen)_, an added (noun)--_adjic[)e]re_, _-jectum_, to throw to, to add--_ad_, to, _jac[)e]re_, to throw.] ADJOIN, ad-join', _v.i._ to lie next to.--_adj._ ADJOIN'ING, joining to: near: adjacent.--_n._ AD'JOINT, a civil officer who assists a French maire: an assistant professor in a French college. [Through Fr. from L. _adjung[)e]re_. See JOIN.] ADJOURN, ad-jurn', _v.t._ to put off to another day: to postpone: to discontinue a meeting in order to reconstitute it at another time or place.--_v.i._ to suspend proceedings and disperse for any time specified, or _sine die_, without such time being specified.--_n._ ADJOURN'MENT, the act of adjourning: the interval it causes.--(_obs._) ADJOURN'AL. [O. Fr. _ajorner_--Low L. _adiurn[=a]re_--L. _ad_, to, Low L. _jurnus_, L. _diurnus_, daily. See JOURNAL.] ADJUDGE, ad-juj', _v.t._ to decide: to assign.--_n._ ADJUDG'MENT, the act of adjudging: sentence. [O. Fr. _ajuger_--L. _adjudic[=a]re_. See JUDGE.] ADJUDICATE, ad-j[=oo]'di-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to determine judicially: to pronounce.--_v.i._ to pronounce judgment.--_ns._ ADJUDIC[=A]'TION (_Eng. law_), an order of the Bankruptcy Court, adjudging the debtor to be a bankrupt, and transferring his property to a trustee; ADJ[=U]'DICATOR. [L. _adjudic[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_.] ADJUNCT, ad'junkt, _adj._ joined or added to.--_n._ the thing joined or added, as a qualifying addition to a name expressing any personal quality, or the like: a person joined to another in some office or service: (_gram._) any word or clause enlarging the subject or predicate: (_logic_) any accompanying quality or non-essential attribute.--_n._ ADJUNC'TION, the act of joining: the thing joined.--_adj._ ADJUNCT'IVE, joining.--_advs._ ADJUNCT'IVELY, ADJUNCT'LY, in connection with. [L. See JOIN.] ADJURATION, ad-j[=oo]r-[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of adjuring: the charge or oath used in adjuring.--_adj._ ADJUR'ATORY, containing an adjuration.--_p.adj._ ADJUR'ING, acting as an adjuration. [Fr.--L. _adjuration-em_.] ADJURE, ad-j[=oo]r', _v.t._ to charge on oath or solemnly: to cause to swear (_B._ and _Milton_). [L.--_ad_, to, _jur[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to swear.] ADJUST, ad-just', _v.t._ to arrange properly (with _to_): to regulate: to settle.--_adj._ ADJUST'ABLE.--_n._ ADJUST'MENT, arrangement. [O. Fr. _ajouster_--Low L. _adjuxt[=a]re_, to put side by side--L. _juxta_, near]. ADJUTAGE, ad'joo-t[=a]j, _n._ Same as _Ajutage_. ADJUTANT, ad'joot-ant, _n._ a regimental staff officer not above the rank of major, specially appointed to assist the commanding officer of a garrison or regiment--there are also adjutants of auxiliary forces, of depôts, of brigade, &c.: a large species of stork or crane found in India.--_ns._ AD'JUTANCY, the office of an adjutant: assistance; AD'JUTANT-GEN'ERAL, the head of his department on the general staff of the army, the executive officer of the commander-in-chief. [L. _adjut[=a]re_ = _adjuv[=a]re_--_ad_, to, _juv[=a]re_, to assist.] ADMEASURE, ad-mezh'[=u]r, _v.t._ to measure: to apportion:--_pr.p._ admeas'[=u]ring; _pa.p._ admeas'[=u]red.--_n._ ADMEAS'UREMENT (see MEASUREMENT). [Fr.--Late L. _admensur[=a]re_--L. _ad_, to, _mensura_, MEASURE.] ADMINICLE, ad-min'i-kl, _n._ anything that aids or supports: an auxiliary: (_law_) any corroboratory evidence.--_adj._ ADMINIC'ULAR.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ ADMINIC'ULATE. [L. _adminiculum_, a support--_ad_, to, _manus_, hand.] ADMINISTER, ad-min'is-t[.e]r, _v.t._ to manage as a steward, substitute, or executor: to supply: to conduct or execute, as offices of religion: to apply: to impose.--_v.i._ to bring aid (with to).--_adjs._ ADMIN'ISTRABLE, that may be administered; ADMIN'ISTRANT.--_n._ ADMINISTR[=A]'TION, the act of administering: management: dispensation of sacraments: the power or party that administers the government of the country.--_adj._ ADMIN'ISTRATIVE, that administers.--_n._ ADMINISTR[=A]'TOR, one who manages or directs: the person to whom is committed, under a commission entitled LETTERS OF ADMINISTRATION, the administration or distribution of the personal estate of any one dying intestate or leaving a will in which no executor is named:--_fem._ ADMINISTR[=A]'TRIX.--_n._ ADMINISTR[=A]'TORSHIP. [Through Fr. from L. _administr[=a]re_--ad, to, and _ministr[=a]re_, to minister.] ADMIRAL, ad'mir-al, _n._ the chief commander of a navy--the ancient English title of Lord High Admiral is now in abeyance, his functions falling to the five Lord Commissioners of the Admiralty, and the High Court of Admiralty: a naval officer of the highest rank. In the British navy, admirals are distinguished into three classes--AD'MIRALS, VICE'-AD'MIRALS, and REAR'-AD'MIRALS; the admiral carrying his colour at the main, the vice-admiral at the fore, and the rear-admiral at the mizzen mast-head. In former times each grade was subdivided into three sections, known as admirals (or vice- or rear-admirals) of the Red, of the White, and of the Blue, respectively: admiral-ship (Milton's _ammiral_) or flag-ship: the chief ship in a fleet of merchantmen.--_ns._ AD'MIRALSHIP, the office of an admiral; AD'MIRALTY, the board of commissioners for the administration of naval affairs: the building where these transact business. [Through Fr. from Ar. _am[=i]r_, a lord, a chief.] ADMIRE, ad-m[=i]r', _v.t._ to have a high opinion of: to love.--_v.i._ (_arch._) to be affected with wonder at.--_adj._ AD'MIRABLE, worthy of being admired.--_n._ AD'MIRABLENESS.--_adv._ AD'MIRABLY.--_ns._ ADMIR'ANCE (_Spens._), admiration; ADMIR[=A]'TION, the act of admiring: wonder, together with esteem, love, or veneration: (_B._, _Shak._, and _Milton_) astonishment.--_adj._ AD'MIRATIVE.--_n._ ADM[=I]R'ER, one who admires: a lover.--_adv._ ADM[=I]R'INGLY. [Fr. _admirer_--L. _ad_, at, _mir[=a]ri_, to wonder.] ADMIT, ad-mit', _v.t._ to allow to enter: to let in: to concede: to acknowledge: to be capable of:--_pr.p._ admit'ting; _pa.p._ admit'ted.--_n._ ADMISSIBIL'ITY.--_adj._ ADMIS'SIBLE, that may be admitted or allowed (generally, or specially as legal proof).--_ns._ ADMIS'SION, ADMIT'TANCE, the act of admitting: anything admitted or conceded: leave to enter.--_adj._ ADMIT'TABLE, that may be admitted.--_adv._ ADMIT'TEDLY. [Through Fr. from L. _admitt[)e]re_, _-missum_--_ad_, to, _mitt[)e]re_, to send.] ADMIX, ad-miks', _v.t._ to mix with something else.--_n._ ADMIX'TURE, what is added to the chief ingredient of a mixture. [L. _ad_, to, and MIX.] ADMONISH, ad-mon'ish, _v.t._ to warn: to reprove mildly.--_n._ ADMON'ISHMENT, admonition. [O. Fr. _admonester_--Late L. _admonest[=a]re_--_admonere_--_ad_, to, _monere_, to warn.] ADMONITION, ad-mon-ish'un, _n._ kind reproof: counsel: advice: ecclesiastical censure.--_adjs._ ADMON'ITIVE, ADMON'ITORY, containing admonition.--_n._ ADMON'ITOR. [L. _admonition-em_. See ADMONISH.] ADNASCENT, ad-nas'ent, _adj._ growing to or upon. [L. _adnascens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _adnasci_--_ad_, to, _nasci_, _natus_, to grow.] ADNATE, ad-n[=a]t', _adj._ (_bot._) growing close to the stem. [L. _adnatus_, usually _agnatus_--_ad_, to, _(g)natus_, born.] ADO, a-d[=oo]', _n._ a to do: bustle: trouble: difficulty: stir or fuss. [Contr. of _at do_ = _to do_, a form of the infin. borrowed from the Scandinavian.] ADOBE, a-d[=o]'b[=a], _n._ and _adj._ a sun-dried brick, or made of such. [Sp. _adobar_, to plaster.] ADOLESCENT, ad-o-les'ent, _adj._ growing to manhood.--_n._ ADOLES'CENCE, the period of youth, in man, from 14 to 25; in woman, from 12 to 21. [Through Fr. from L. _adolescent-em_, _adolesc[)e]re_, to grow, _adol[=e]re_, to magnify.] ADONIS, a-d[=o]'nis, _n._ a beautiful youth, beloved by Aphrodite (Venus): a beau or dandy.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ AD'ONISE, to make beautiful. ADOORS, a-d[=o]rz', _adv._ (_obs._) at doors: at the door. [Prep, _a_, at, and DOOR.] ADOPT, ad-opt', _v.t._ to choose: to take up or embrace: to take into any relationship: to take as one's own what is another's, as a child, &c.--_ns._ ADOP'TIANISM, an 8th-century heresy akin to Nestorianism, that Christ, in respect of his divine nature, was doubtless the Son of God; but that, as to his human nature, he was only declared and adopted to be the first-born Son of God; ADOP'TION, the act of adopting: the state of being adopted: assumption: the taking into one language of words from another: formal acceptance: choice: (_theol._) an act of divine grace by which the redeemed in Christ are admitted to the privileges of the sons of God.--_adjs._ ADOP'TIOUS (_Shak._), adopted; ADOPT'IVE, that adopts or is adopted. [L. _adopt[=a]re_--_ad_, to, and, _opt[=a]re_, to choose.] ADORE, ad-[=o]r', _v.t._ to worship: to love intensely.--_adj._ ADOR'ABLE, worthy of being adored.--_n._ ADOR'ABLENESS.--_adv._ ADOR'ABLY.--_ns._ ADOR[=A]'TION, divine worship, homage: profound regard; ADOR'ER, one who adores: a lover.--_adv._ ADOR'INGLY. [L. _ad_, to, _or[=a]re_, to pray. See ORACLE.] ADORN, ad-orn', _v.t._ to deck or dress: to embellish.--_n._ (_Spens._) adornment.--_adj._ (_Milton_) adorned, ornate.--_n._ ADORN'MENT, ornament: decoration. [O. Fr. _aörner_, _adorner_--L. _adorn[=a]re_--_ad_, to, _orn[=a]re_, to furnish.] ADOWN, a-down', _adv._ and _prep._ down. [A.S. _of-dúne_--_of_, from, _dun_, a hill. See DOWN, a bank.] ADRAD, a-drad', ADREAD, a-dred', _adj._ (_obs._) in a state of fear. [Prob. from A.S. _of-drad_, _of-drede_, to terrify. See DREAD.] ADRIFT, a-drift', _adj._ or _adv._ floating as driven (by the wind): moving at random. [Prep. _a_, and DRIFT.] ADROIT, a-droit', _adj._ dexterous: skilful.--_adv._ ADROIT'LY.--_n._ ADROIT'NESS. [Fr. _à droit_, according to right--L. _directus_, straight. See DIRECT.] ADRY, a-dr[=i]', _adv._ thirsty. [Pfx. _a-_, and DRY.] ADSCITITIOUS, ad-sit-ish'us, _adj._ added or assumed: additional. [L. _adscisc[)e]re_, _-sc[=i]tum_, to take or assume--_ad_, to, _scisc[)e]re_, to inquire--_sc[=i]re_, to know.] ADSCRIPT, ad'skript, _adj._ written after: attached to the soil, of feudal serfs--in this sense also used as a noun. [L. _adscriptus_--_ad_, to, _scrib[)e]re_, to write.] ADULATE, ad'[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to fawn upon, to flatter:--_pr.p._ ad'[=u]l[=a]ting; _pa.p._ ad'[=u]l[=a]ted.--_n._ AD'ULATOR, a servile flatterer.--_adj._ ADULATORY (ad'[=u]-l[=a]-tor-i). [L. _adul[=a]ri_, _adulatus_, to fawn upon.] ADULATION, ad-[=u]-l[=a]'shun, _n._ fawning: flattery. [L. _adul[=a]ri_, _adulatus_, to fawn upon.] ADULLAMITE, ad-ul'am-[=i]t, _adj._ an inhabitant of Adullam, where was a cave to which flocked from all sides to David in exile men in debt, distress, or discontent (1 Sam. xxii. 1, 2). The name was applied by John Bright in 1866 to a Whig secession from the Liberal party. ADULT, ad-ult', _adj._ grown: mature.--_n._ a grown-up person.--_n._ ADULT'NESS. [L. _adultus_--_adolesc[)e]re_, to grow. See ADOLESCENT.] ADULTERATE, ad-ult'[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.t._ to corrupt: to make impure (by mixing).--_v.i._ (_obs._) to commit adultery.--_adj._ defiled by adultery: spurious: corrupted by base elements.--_ns._ ADULT'ERANT, the person or substance that adulterates; ADULTER[=A]'TION, the act of adulterating: the state of being adulterated. [See ADULTERY.] ADULTERY, ad-ult'[.e]r-i, _n._ violation of the marriage-bed, whether one's own or another's: in Scripture applied loosely to unchastity generally.--_n._ ADULT'ERER, a man guilty of adultery:--_fem._ ADULT'ERESS.--_adj._ ADULT'ERINE, resulting from adultery: spurious.--_n._ the offspring of adultery.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ ADULT'ERISE (_arch._).--_adj._ ADULT'EROUS, guilty of adultery. [O. Fr. _avoutrie_, _avoutre_, an adulterer--L. _adulterum_, prob. from _ad_, to, and _alter_, another. The modern form of the word is due to a later approximation to the Latin form.] ADUMBRATE, ad-um'br[=a]t, or ad'-, _v.t._ to give a faint shadow of: to exhibit imperfectly.--_adjs._ ADUM'BRANT, ADUM'BRATIVE, adumbrating or giving a faint shadow.--_n._ ADUMBR[=A]'TION. [L. _adumbratus_, _adumbr[=a]re_--_ad_, to, _umbra_, a shadow.] ADUST, a-dust', _adj._ burnt up or scorched; browned with the sun. [L. _adustus_, pa.p. of _adur[)e]re_, to burn up.] ADVANCE, ad-vans', _v.t._ to put forward: to promote to a higher office: to encourage the progress of: to propose: to supply beforehand: to pay before the money is legally due, to pay on security.--_v.i._ to move or go forward: to make progress: to rise in rank or in value.--_n._ progress: improvement: a rise in price or value: a giving beforehand, also the sum so given: a loan.--_n._ ADVANCE'MENT, promotion: improvement: payment of money in advance.--IN ADVANCE, beforehand. [O. Fr. _avancer_--Late L. _abante_ (Fr. _avant_)--L. _ab ante_, from before.] ADVANTAGE, ad-vant'[=a]j, _n._ superiority over another: gain or benefit: at tennis, the point gained by either side after _deuce_, when both sides stand at an equal score (more commonly VANT'AGE).--_v.t._ to benefit or profit.--_adjs._ ADVAN'TAGEABLE, profitable: convenient (_rare_); ADVANT[=A]'GEOUS, of advantage: useful (with _to_ and _for_).--_adv._ ADVANT[=A]'GEOUSLY.--_n._ ADVANT[=A]'GEOUSNESS.--TO HAVE THE ADVANTAGE OF ANY ONE, to be known by a person without one's self knowing him; TO TAKE AT ADVANTAGE, to avail one's self of any opportunity, often implying an unfair sense. [Fr. _avantage_ (It. _vantaggio_)--Fr. _avant_, before. See ADVANCE.] ADVENE, ad-v[=e]n', _v.i._ to accede: to be superadded to. [Through Fr. from L. _adven[=i]re_, to come to.] ADVENT, ad'vent, _n._ a coming or arrival: the first or the second coming of Christ: the period immediately before the festival of the Nativity, including four Sundays--from the first after St Andrew's Day (November 30) to Christmas eve.--_n._ AD'VENTIST, one who believes in the second coming of Christ to set up a kingdom on the earth: a millenarian--_adj._ ADVENT'UAL (_obs._), relating to Advent. [Through Fr. from L. _adventus_--_ad_, to, _ven[=i]re_, to come.] ADVENTITIOUS, ad-vent-ish'us, _adj._ accidental: additional: foreign: appearing casually.--_adv._ ADVENTI'TIOUSLY.--_adj._ ADVENT'IVE (_Bacon_), adventitious.--_n._ a thing or person coming from without. [See ADVENT.] ADVENTURE, ad-vent'[=u]r, _n._ a risk or chance: a remarkable incident: an enterprise: trial of the issue: risk: a commercial speculation: the spirit of enterprise.--_v.i._ to attempt or dare.--_v.t._ to risk or hazard: (_refl._) to venture.--_v.i._ to risk one's self (with _on_, _into_, _upon_): to dare, go so far as to.--_n._ ADVENT'URER, one who engages in hazardous enterprises: a soldier of fortune, or speculator: one who pushes his fortune by equivocal means, as false pretences, &c.:--_fem._ ADVENT'URESS.--_adjs._ ADVENT'UROUS, ADVENT'URESOME, enterprising: ready to incur risk.--_adv._ ADVENT'UROUSLY.--_n._ ADVENT'UROUSNESS. [O. Fr.--L. _adventurus_, about to happen, fut. perf. of _adven[=i]re_. See ADVENT.] ADVERB, ad'v[.e]rb, _n._ a word added to a verb, adjective, or other adverb to express some modification of the meaning or an accompanying circumstance.--_adj._ ADVERB'IAL, pertaining to an adverb--used also as a _n._--_adv._ ADVERB'IALLY. [L. _ad verbium_--_ad_, to, _verbum_, a word. It is so called, not because it is added to a verb, but because it is a word (_verbum_) joined to, or supplemental of, other words.] ADVERSARIA, ad-v[.e]rs-[=a]r'i-a, _n.pl._ collections of miscellaneous things in a commonplace-book: consecutive notes on any book. [L., lit. things written on the opposite sides of the paper, from _adversus_, against.] ADVERSARY, ad'v[.e]rs-ar-i, _n._ an opponent: an enemy: Satan, as the general adversary of mankind. [O. Fr. _aversier_--L. _adversarius_. See ADVERSE.] ADVERSATIVE, ad-v[.e]rs'a-tiv, _adj._ denoting opposition, contrariety, or variety. [See ADVERSE.] ADVERSE, ad'v[.e]rs, _adj._ acting in a contrary direction (with _to_): opposed to: unfortunate: injurious.--_adv._ AD'VERSELY.--_ns._ AD'VERSENESS, ADVERS'ITY, adverse circumstances: affliction: misfortune. [Through Fr. from L. _adversus_--_ad_, to, and _vert[)e]re_, _versum_, to turn.] ADVERT, ad-v[.e]rt', _v.i._ to turn the mind to (with _to_): to refer to: (_obs._) to regard or observe.--_ns._ ADVERT'ENCE, ADVERT'ENCY, attention to: heedfulness: regard.--_adj._ ADVERT'ENT, attentive: heedful.--_adv._ ADVERT'ENTLY. [O. Fr. _avertir_, _avertiss-ant_--L. _advert[)e]re_--_ad_, to, and _vert[)e]re_, to turn.] ADVERTISE, ad-v[.e]rt-[=i]z', or ad'-, _v.t._ to turn one's attention to: to inform: to give public information or announcement of: (_obs._) to instruct.--_ns._ ADVERT'ISEMENT, the act of advertising or making known: a public notice in a newspaper or periodical: notoriety: (_obs._) news; ADVERT[=I]S'ER, one who advertises: a paper in which advertisements are published.--_p.adj._ ADVERT[=I]S'ING (_Shak._), attentive. [Fr., from L. See ADVERT.] ADVICE, ad-v[=i]s', _n._ counsel: intelligence (usually in _pl._): formal official intelligence about anything: specially skilled opinion, as of a physician or lawyer.--_n._ ADVICE'-BOAT, a swift vessel employed in conveying despatches.--_adjs._ ADVICE'FUL, AVIZE'FULL (_Spens._).--The form ADVISO, advice, counsel (_Sir T. Browne_), and in CARAVAL OF ADVISO = an advice-boat (_Fuller_), is obsolete--modern form AVISO. [O. Fr. _advis_ (Fr. _avis_)--L. _ad visum_, according to what is seen or seems best.] ADVIEW. Same as AVIEW. ADVISE, ad-v[=i]z', _v.t._ to give advice or counsel to: to recommend: to inform (usually with _of_).--_v.i._ to consult (_with_): (_obs._) to deliberate:--_pr.p._ adv[=i]s'ing; _pa.p._ adv[=i]sed'.--_ns._ ADVISABIL'ITY, ADVIS'ABLENESS.--_adj._ ADVIS'ABLE, that may be advised or recommended: prudent: expedient: open to advice.--_adv._ ADVIS'ABLY.--_adjs._ ADVIS'ATORY (_rare_); ADVISED', cautious: deliberate, as in _well-advised_ and _ill-advised_.--_adv._ ADVIS'EDLY, intentionally.--_ns._ ADVIS'EDNESS, deliberate consideration: prudent procedure; ADVISE'MENT (_obs._ or _arch._), counsel, deliberation; ADVIS'ER, one who advises or gives advice; ADVIS'ING (_Shak._), counsel, advice. [O. Fr. _aviser_, from _advis_ or _avis_. See ADVICE.] ADVOCACY, ad'vo-ka-si, _n._ the function of an advocate: a pleading for: defence. [See ADVOCATE.] ADVOCATE, ad'vo-k[=a]t, _n._ an intercessor or defender: one who pleads the cause of another, esp. in a court of law in Scotland and France.--_v.t._ to plead in favour of: to recommend.--_ns._ ADVOC[=A]'TION; AD'VOCATOR.--LORD ADVOCATE, the first law-officer of the crown and public prosecutor of crimes for Scotland. [O. Fr. _avocat_--L. _advocatus_--_advoc[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ad_, to, _voc[=a]re_, to call: to call in (another to help, as in a lawsuit or in sickness).] ADVOUTRER, ad-vow'tr[.e]r, _n._ (_obs._) an adulterer:--_fem._ ADVOU'TRESS. [See ADVOUTRY.] ADVOUTRY, ad-vow'tri, _n._ (_obs._) adultery. [O. Fr. _avoutrie_--L. _adulterium_.] ADVOWSON, ad-vow'zun, _n._ the right of patronage or presentation to a church benefice.--_n._ ADVOWEE', one who has the right of advowson. [O. Fr. _avoëson_--L. _advocation-em_, right of the patron--L. _advocatus_, a patron.] ADYNAMIC, [=a]-di-nam'ik, _adj._ without strength: (_phys._) characterised by the absence of force. [Gr. _a_, neg., and _dynamis_, strength.] ADYTUM, ad'i-tum, _n._ the most sacred part of a heathen temple: the chancel of a church:--_pl._ AD'YTA. [L.--Gr. _adyton_--_a_, neg., and _dyein_, to enter.] ADZE, ADZ, adz, _n._ a carpenter's tool consisting of a thin arched blade with its edge at right angles to the handle. [A.S. _adesa_; ultimate origin unknown.] AE, [=a], or y[=a], modern Scotch form of A.S. _án_, one, used as an adjective. ÆDILE, EDILE, [=e]'d[=i]l, _n._ a magistrate in ancient Rome who had the charge of public buildings, games, markets, police, &c.--_n._ Æ'DILESHIP. [L. _æd[=i]lis_, _ædes_, _-is_, a building.] ÆGIS, [=e]'jis, _n._ (_orig._) a shield given by Jupiter to Minerva: anything that protects. [L.--Gr. _aígis_.] ÆGLOGUE, an archaic form of ECLOGUE. ÆGROTAT, [=e]'gr[=o]-tät, _n._ in the English universities, a medical certificate of inability from illness to attend lectures or examinations.--_n._ ÆGER ([=e]'j[.e]r), sick, the word used at Oxford and Cambridge in excusing absence on account of illness, hence a note certifying a student to be _æger_ or sick. [L., 'he is sick,' 3d pers. sing. pres. indic. of _ægrot[=a]re_, to be sick; _æger_, sick.] ÆNEID, [=e]'n[=e]-id, _n._ an epic poem written by Virgil, the hero of which is Æneas. [L. _Æneis_, _-idos_.] ÆOLIAN, [=e]-[=o]'li-an, _adj._ pertaining to or acted on by the wind: aerial: of Æolis or Æolia, a district of Asia Minor colonised by the Greeks.--Also Æ'[=O]LIC. [_Æolus_, the god of the winds.] ÆOLIPILE, [=e]-ol'i-p[=i]l, _n._ an instrument consisting of a hollow ball of metal partly filled with water, and having a small orifice through which steam escapes on the application of heat, thus turning the ball. It is the first instrument on record for showing the power of steam. [From L. _Æolus_, and _pila_, ball.] ÆON, EON, [=e]'on, _n._ a period of time, an age or one of a series of ages, eternity: the personification of an age, a power emanating from the supreme Deity, with its share in the creation and government of the universe.--_adj._ Æ[=O]'NIAN, eternal. [Gr. _ai[=o]n_.] AERATE, [=a]'[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.t._ to put air into: to supply, or cause to mix, with carbonic acid or other gas, as AERATED WATERS.--_ns._ A'ERATOR, an apparatus for such purpose; AER[=A]'TION, exposure to the action of air: the mixing or saturating with a gas: the oxygenation of the blood by respiration. [L. _aër_, air.] AERIAL, [=a]-[=e]r'i-al, _adj._ belonging to the air: inhabiting or existing in the air: elevated, lofty, ethereal.--_ns._ AERIAL'ITY, AER'IALNESS.--_adv._ AER'IALLY. AERIE, [=a]'ri, or [=e]'ri, _n._ the nest of any bird of prey, esp. an eagle: a house perched on some high or steep place: (_Shak._) the brood in the nest, or a stock of children.--Also AERY, EYRIE, EYRY. [O. Fr. _aire_; Low L. _aeria_, _aerea_--L. _area_, a spot of level ground. The form EYRY seems to have been originally due to a confusion with M. E. _ey_, an egg.] AERIFEROUS, [=a]-[.e]r-if'[.e]r-us, _adj._ carrying or containing air. [L. _aër_, air, and _ferre_, to carry.] AERIFORM, [=a]'[.e]r-i-form, _adj._ having the form or nature of air or gas: unsubstantial, unreal. [L. _aër_, air, and _forma_, form.] AERIFY, [=a]'[.e]r-i-f[=i], _v.t._ to change from a solid or liquid state into air or gas: to fill or combine with air.--_n._ AERIFIC[=A]'TION, act of being aerified or changed from a solid or liquid state into air or gas: act of combining air with anything: state of being filled with air. [L. _aër_, air, and _fac[)e]re_, to make.] AEROBIA, [=a]-[.e]r-[=o]'bi-a, _n.pl._ (_biol._) bacteria that require free oxygen for the maintenance of their vitality.--_adj._ AER[=O]'BIC. AERODYNAMICS, [=a]-[.e]r-o-di-nam'iks, _n._ the science of the motion of the air and other gases, and of their mechanical effects when in motion. [Gr. _a[=e]r_, _aeros_, air, and _dynamis_, power.] AEROLITE, [=a]'[.e]r-o-l[=i]t, _n._ a meteoric stone or meteorite--also A'EROLITH.--_n._ AEROLITHOL'OGY, that branch of science which treats of aerolites.--_adj._ AEROLIT'IC. [Gr. _a[=e]r_, air, _lithos_, a stone.] AEROLOGY, [=a]-[.e]r-ol'o-ji, _n._ the branch of science which treats of the atmosphere.--_adj._ AEROLOG'ICAL.--_n._ AEROL'OGIST. [Gr. _a[=e]r_, _aeros_, air, _logos_, discourse.] AEROMANCY, [=a]-[.e]r-om'an-si, _n._ divination by means of atmospheric phenomena: weather forecasting. [Fr.--L.--Gr. _a[=e]r_, air, _manteia_, divination.] AEROMETER, [=a]-[.e]r-om'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring the weight or density of air and gases. [Gr. _a[=e]r_, and METER.] AEROMETRY, [=a]-[.e]r-om'e-tri, _n._ the measuring of the air, now called pneumatics.--_adj._ AEROMET'RIC. [Gr. _a[=e]r_, _aeros_, air, _metron_, a measure.] AERONAUT, [=a]'[.e]r-o-nawt, _n._ one who makes ascents in a balloon.--_adjs._ AERONAUT'IC, AERONAUT'ICAL.--_n._ AERONAUT'ICS, the science or art of aerial navigation. [Gr. _a[=e]r_, air, _naut[=e]s_, sailor.] AEROPHYTE, [=a]'[.e]r-o-f[=i]t, _n._ a plant nourished by the air, as epiphytal orchids and many lichens. [Gr. _a[=e]r_, air, _phyton_, a plant.] AEROSTAT, [=a]'[.e]r-o-stat, _n._ a machine formed to sustain weights in the air: a flying machine--sometimes applied in the newspapers to the aeronaut himself.--_adj._ AEROSTAT'IC--_n._ AEROST[=A]'TION, the art of raising and guiding balloons. [Gr. _a[=e]r_, _aeros_, air, and _statos_, standing--_hist[=e]mi_, I cause to stand.] AEROSTATICS, [=a]-[.e]r-o-stat'iks, _n._ the science of the equilibrium of air or of elastic fluids: the science of raising and guiding balloons. [Gr. _a[=e]r_, air, _statikos_, relating to equilibrium. See STATICS.] ÆRUGINOUS, [=e]-roo'ji-nus, _adj._ pertaining to or like copper-rust or verdigris. [L. _æruginosus_--_ærugo_, _æruginis_, rust of copper--_æs_, _æris_, brass, copper.] AERY, [=a]'[.e]r-i, _adj._ aerial, incorporeal, spiritual, visionary.--_adj._ AE'RYLIGHT (_Milton_), light as air.--As a noun, AERY is a variant spelling of AERIE. ÆSTHETICS, [=e]s-thet'iks, _n._ the feeling of beauty in objects, the principles of taste and of art: the philosophy of the fine arts.--_n._ ÆS'THETE, a professed disciple of æstheticism, one who affects an extravagant love of art.--_adjs._ ÆSTHET'IC, ÆSTHET'ICAL, pertaining to æsthetics.--_adv._ ÆSTHET'ICALLY.--_ns._ ÆSTHETI'CIAN, ÆSTHET'ICIST, one devoted to æsthetics; ÆSTHET'ICISM, the principles of æsthetics: the cult of the beautiful, applied esp. to an art movement in London in the last quarter of the 19th century, which aimed at carrying art into every home and every relation of life, but made itself ridiculous by its fantastic and superficial dogmatism, and its puerility.--_v.t._ ÆSTHET'ICIZE, to render æsthetic, to refine. [Gr. _aisth[=e]tikos_, perceptive--_aisthanesthai_, to feel or perceive.] ÆSTIVAL, es-t[=i]'val, _adj._ pertaining to the summer. [L. _æstivalis_--_æstas_, summer.] ÆSTIVATION, es-ti-v[=a]'shun, _n._ (_bot._) the manner of folding of the petals in the flower-bud: (_zool._) the act of remaining dormant during the dry season--opposed to _Hibernation_: (_Bacon_) the passing of the summer: a summer retreat. [L. _æstivus_, relating to summer--_æstas_, summer.] ÆTHRIOSCOPE, [=e]'thri-o-sk[=o]p, _n._ an instrument for measuring the minute variations of temperature due to the condition of the sky. [Gr. _aithria_, the open sky, _skopos_, an observer.] ÆTIOLOGY, [=e]-ti-ol'o-ji, _n._ the science or philosophy of causation, esp. an inquiry into the origin and causes of a disease.--_adj._ ÆTIOLOG'ICAL. [L.--Gr. _aitiologia_--_aitia_, cause, _logos_, discourse.] AFAR, a-fär', _adv._ from a far distance (usually preceded by _from_): to a distance (usually followed by _off_). [A.S. _feor_, with prep. _of_ or _on_. See FAR.] AFEAR, AFFEAR, a-f[=e]r', _v.t._ (_obs._) to terrify.--_adj._ AFEARD' (_Shak._), affected with fear, afraid. [Pfx. _a-_, and A.S. _færan_, to frighten.] AFFABLE, af'fa-bl, _adj._ condescending: easy to be spoken to (used with _to_).--_ns._ AFFABIL'ITY, AF'FABLENESS.--_adv._ AF'FABLY. [Fr.--L. _affabilis_--_aff[=a]ri_, to speak to--_ad_, to, and _f[=a]ri_, to speak.] AFFAIR, af-f[=a]r', _n._ that which is to be done: business: any small matter: a battle of minor importance: a matter of intimate personal concern, as a duel--a so-called affair of honour, or an intrigue: (_pl._) transactions in general: public concerns. [O. Fr. _afaire_ (Fr. _affaire_)--_à_ and _faire_--L. _ad_, and _fac[)e]re_, to do. Cf. ADO.] AFFAMISH, af-fam'ish, _v.t._ and _v.i._ (_obs._) to cause to perish from hunger. [Fr. _affamer_--L. _ad_, to, _fames_, hunger.] AFFECT, af-fekt', _v.t._ to act upon: to produce a change upon: to move the feelings: to assign, apply (only in _pass_.).--_adj._ AFFECT'ED, touched with a feeling either for or against (with _by_): full of affectation: feigned.--_adv._ AFFECT'EDLY.--_n._ AFFECT'EDNESS.--_adj._ AFFECT'ING, having power to move the passions: pathetic.--_adv._ AFFECT'INGLY. [L. _affic[)e]re_, _affectum_--_ad_, to, _fac[)e]re_, to do.] AFFECT, af-fekt', _v.t._ to make a show or pretence of, to assume, to counterfeit or pretend to, to take upon one's self to: (_obs._) to aim at, seek to obtain: (_arch._) have a liking for, to love: to practise, wear, or frequent: to haunt or inhabit by preference.--_n._ AFFECT[=A]'TION, a striving after, or an attempt to assume, what is not natural or real: pretence. [L. _affect[=a]re_, freq. of _affic[)e]re_. See AFFECT above.] AFFECTION, af-fek'shun, _n._ kindness or love: attachment: (_Shak._) affectation: an attribute or property: a disposition of mind: a disease or abnormal state of body or mind.--_adjs._ AFFEC'TIONAL; AFFEC'TIONATE, full of affection: loving: (_obs._) eager, passionate, well inclined to; AFFEC'TIONATED (_obs._).--_adv._ AFFEC'TIONATELY.--_n._ AFFEC'TIONATENESS.--_adj._ AFFEC'TIONED (_B._), affected, disposed: (_Shak._) full of affectation. [L. See AFFECT.] AFFEER, af-f[=e]r', _v.t._ to fix the market value of: to reduce to a certain fixed sum.--_adj._ AFFEERED' (_Shak._), confirmed.--_n._ AFFEER'MENT. [O. Fr. _affeurer_--Low L. _affor[=a]re_--L. _ad_, to, _forum_, a market.] AFFERENT, af'f[.e]r-ent, _adj._ (_anat._) bringing to, applied to the nerves that convey sensations to the nerve centres. [L. _afferens_--_ad_, to, and _ferre_, to carry.] AFFETTUOSO, af-fet-t[=oo]-[=o]'so, _adj._ and _adv._ (_mus._) tender, tenderly, with feeling--used as a noun by Burke. AFFIANCE, af-f[=i]'ans, _n._ faith pledged to: marriage contract: trust: affinity (_in_, _on_).--_v.t._ to pledge faith: to betroth.--_adj._ and _n._ AFF[=I]'ANCED, betrothed. [O. Fr. _afiance_, _afier_--L. _ad_, to, _fides_, faith.] AFFIDAVIT, af-fi-d[=a]'vit, _n._ a written declaration on oath. [_Affidavit_, 3d pers. sing. perf. of a Low L. _affid[=a]re_, to pledge one's faith.] AFFIED (_arch._), _pa.p._ of AFFY. AFFILIATE, af-fil'i-[=a]t, _v.t._ to receive into a family as a son, or into a society as a member: to attach to, or connect with, as minor colleges with a university: to impute paternity to, to attribute to, to father on or upon.--_n._ AFFILI[=A]'TION, the act of receiving into a family or society as a member: (_law_) the assignment of an illegitimate child to its father, the assignment of anything to its origin. [L. _affili[=a]re_, to adopt--_ad_, to, _filius_, a son.] AFFINE, af-f[=i]n', _n._ (_obs._) a relation, connection.--_adjs._ AFFINE', AFFINED', related, bound by some tie. [O. Fr.--L. _affinis_, neighbouring--_ad_, to, at, _finis_, a boundary.] AFFINITY, af-fin'i-ti, _n._ nearness of kin, agreement, or resemblance: causal relationship: structural resemblance between languages of ultimately common origin: structural resemblance between plants, animals, or minerals pointing to identity of stock: relationship by marriage, opposed to consanguinity or relationship by blood: (_B._) social relationship: the spiritual relationship between sponsors and their godchild: a mysterious attraction supposed to exist between two persons: (_chem._) the peculiar attraction between the atoms of two simple substances that makes them combine to form a compound.--_adj._ AFFIN'ITIVE. [Fr.--L. _affinitas_--_affinis_, neighbouring--_ad_, at, _finis_, boundary.] AFFIRM, af-f[.e]rm', _v.t._ to assert confidently or positively: to ratify a judgment: to confirm or maintain a statement of one's own or another's: (_log._) to make a statement in the affirmative: (_law_) to make a formal declaration or affirmation, without an oath.--_adj._ AFFIRM'ABLE, that may be affirmed (with _of_).--_n._ AFFIRM'ANCE, affirmation, assertion, confirmation.--_adj._ AFFIRM'ANT--also _n._, one who affirms.--_n._ AFFIRM[=A]'TION, act of asserting: that which is affirmed: (_law_) the solemn declaration made by Quakers and others incapable of taking an oath.--_adj._ and _n._ AFFIRM'ATIVE, that affirms or asserts: positive, not negative: dogmatic.--_adv._ AFFIRM'ATIVELY.--_adj._ AFFIRM'ATORY. [O. Fr. _afermer_--L. _affirm[=a]re_--_ad_, _firmus_, firm. See FIRM.] AFFIX, af-fiks', _v.t._ to fix to: to add: to attach (_to_, _on_, _upon_).--_n._ AF'FIX, an addition to a root, stem, or word, to modify its meaning or use, whether _prefix_ or _suffix_: any appendage or addition. [L. _affig[)e]re_, _-fixum_--_ad_, to, _fig[)e]re_, to fix. See FIX.] AFFLATION, af-fl[=a]'shun, _n._ a breathing upon.--_p.adj._ AFFLAT'ED, inspired. [From L. _affl[=a]re_, _fl[=a]tum_--_ad_, to, and _fl[=a]re_, to breathe.] AFFLATUS, af-fl[=a]'tus, _n._ inspiration, as of the poet or orator: esp. religious inspiration, the divine afflatus = L. _afflatus divinus_. [See INFLATION.] AFFLICT, af-flikt', _v.t._ to give continued pain, distress, or grief: to harass, or vex.--_pa.p._ AFFLICT'ED, harassed by disease of body or mind: suffering.--_adj._ AFFLICT'ING, distressing.--_n._ AFFLIC'TION, state or cause of pain or distress: misery: loss of friends, sickness, persecution. &c.--_adj._ AFFLICT'IVE, causing distress. [L. _afflig[)e]re_, _flictum_--_ad_, to, _flig[)e]re_, to dash to the ground.] AFFLUENT, af'fl[=oo]-ent, _adj._ abounding: wealthy (with _in_).--_n._ a stream flowing into a river or lake.--_ns._ AF'FLUENCE, abundance: wealth; AF'FLUENCY (_obs._).--_adv._ AF'FLUENTLY.--_n._ AF'FLUENTNESS. [L. _afflu[)e]re_, _affluent-em_--_ad_, to, _flu[)e]re_, to flow.] AFFLUX, af'fluks, AFFLUXION, af-flux'shun, _n._ a flowing to: an accession. [L. _afflu[)e]re_, _affluxum_. See AFFLUENT.] AFFORCE, af-f[=o]rs', _v.t._ (_law_) to reinforce a jury or other deliberative body by specially skilled persons.--_n._ AFFORCE'MENT. [O. Fr. _aforcer_--Low L. _exforti[=a]re_--L. _fortis_, strong.] AFFORD, af-f[=o]rd', _v.t._ to yield or produce: to be able to sell, to expend, or to bear the expense of. [M. E. _aforthen_, from A.S. _geforthian_ or _forthian_, to further or cause to come forth.] AFFOREST, af-for'est, _v.t._ to turn land into forest.--_n._ AFFOREST[=A]'TION. [Low L. _afforest[=a]re_--L. _ad_, to, and _foresta_. See FOREST.] AFFRANCHISE, af-fran'chiz, _v.t._ to free from slavery, or from some obligation. [O. Fr. _afranchir_, _afranchiss-_, from _à_, to, _franchir_, to free, _franc_, free. See FRANK.] AFFRAP, af-frap', _v.t._ or _v.i._ (_Spens._) to strike or strike down. [It. _affrappare_--_af_ (_ad_), to, and _frapp[=a]re_ (Fr. _frapper_), to strike.] AFFRAY, af-fr[=a]', _n._ a fight causing alarm: a brawl or fray: terror (_Spens._).--_v.t._ to startle: to frighten: esp. in _pa.p._ AFFRAYED' = afraid. [O. Fr. _afrayer_, _esfreer_ (Fr. _effrayer_)--Low L. _exfredi[=a]re_, to break the king's peace--L. _ex_, and Old High Ger. _fridu_ (Ger. _friede_), peace.] AFFRET, af-fret', _n._ (_Spens._) a furious onset. [Prob. from It. _affrettare_, to hasten.] AFFRIENDED, af-frend'ed, _adj._ (_Spens._) made friends: reconciled. AFFRIGHT, af-fr[=i]t', _v.t._ to frighten--also AFFRIGHT'EN.--_n._ AFFRIGHT', sudden terror.--_pa.p._ AFFRIGHT'ED, frightened.--_adv._ AFFRIGHT'EDLY.--_adj._ AFFRIGHT'FUL (_arch._).--_n._ AFFRIGHT'MENT, sudden fear. [A.S. _afyrhtan_. See FRIGHT.] AFFRONT, af-frunt', _v.t._ to meet face to face: to insult openly: (_Shak._) to throw one's self in the way of.--_n._ contemptuous treatment: an open insult: disgrace.--_adj._ AFFRONTÉ, _fem._ AFFRONTÉE, facing each other: (_her._) of animals represented front to front, or expectant--opp. to _Addorsed_; also looking frontwise, or toward the beholder.--_p.adj._ AFFRONT'ED, insulted, offended.--_adj._ AFFRONT'IVE.--TO PUT AN AFFRONT UPON, TO OFFER AN AFFRONT TO = to openly insult a person. [O. Fr. _afronter_--Low L. _affront[=a]re_--L. _ad_, to, _front-_, the forehead.] AFFUSION, af-f[=u]'zhun, _n._ the act of pouring upon or sprinkling.--Baptism by affusion is effected by the pouring of water on the subject, as distinct from baptism by dipping, or baptism by sprinkling. [L. _affusion-em_, _affund[)e]re_--_ad_, to, _fund[)e]re_, _fusum_, to pour.] AFFY, af-f[=i]', _v.t._ (_obs._) to pledge one's faith to, to betroth.--_v.i._ to trust or confide:--_pr.p._ affy'ing; _pa.p._ aff[=i]ed'. [O. Fr. _afier_--Low L. _aff[=i]d[=a]re_--_ad_, to, _fides_, faith. See AFFIANCE.] AFIELD, a-f[=e]ld', _adv._ to, in, or on the field. AFIRE, a-f[=i]r', _adv._ on fire: in a state of inflammation. AFLAME, a-fl[=a]m', _adj._ and _adv._ flaming: glowing. [Pfx. _a-_, and FLAME.] AFLOAT, a-fl[=o]t', _adv._ or _adj._ floating: at sea: unfixed: in circulation. AFOOT, a-foot', _adv._ on foot: astir. AFORE, a-f[=o]r', _prep._ (_B._ and _Shak._) beforehand, previously. AFOREHAND, a-f[=o]r'hand, _adv._ before the regular time of accomplishment: in advance. AFORESAID, a-f[=o]r'sed, _adj._ said or named before. AFORETHOUGHT, a-f[=o]r'thawt, _adj._ thought of or meditated before: premeditated. AFORETIME, a-f[=o]r't[=i]m, _adv._ in former or past times. AFOUL, a-fowl', _adj._ or _adv._ entangled: in collision (with _of_). AFRAID, a-fr[=a]d', _adj._ struck with fear: timid. [See AFFRAY.] AFRESH, a-fresh', _adv._ anew. AFRICAN, af'rik-an, _adj._ pertaining to Africa--also AF'RIC.--_ns._ AF'RICAN, a native of Africa; AFRICAND'ER, one born of white parents in Cape Colony or other parts of South Africa. [L. _Africus_, _Africanus_--_Afer_, African.] AFRIT, a-frit', _n._ an evil demon in Arabian mythology.--Also AFREET'. [Ar. _`ifr[=i]t_, a demon.] AFRONT, a-frunt', _adv._ (_obs._) in front. AFT, aft, _adj._ or _adv._ behind: near or towards the stern of a vessel. [A.S. _æft-an_.] AFTER, aft'[.e]r, _prep._ and _adv._ behind in place: later in time: following in search of: in imitation of: in proportion to, or in agreement with: concerning: subsequent to, or subsequently: afterward: after the manner of, or in imitation of.--_adj._ behind in place: later in time: more toward the stern of a vessel. [A.S. _æfter_, comp. of _af_, or _of_, the primary meaning being 'more off,' 'farther away;' _-ter_ as a comparative affix is seen in L. _al-ter_, Eng. _o-ther_. See OF.] AFTERBIRTH, aft'[.e]r-b[.e]rth, _n._ the placenta and membranes which are expelled from the uterus of the mother after the birth. AFTERCLAP, aft'[.e]r-klap, _n._ an unexpected event happening after an affair is supposed to be at an end. AFTERCROP, aft'[.e]r-krop, _n._ a second crop in the same year. AFTER-DAMP, aft'[.e]r-damp, _n._ choke-damp, arising in coal-mines after an explosion of fire-damp. AFTEREYE, aft-[.e]r-[=i]', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to look after. AFTERGAME, aft'[.e]r-g[=a]m, _n._ a second game played to reverse the issue of the first, hence the means employed after the first turn of affairs. AFTERGLOW, aft'[.e]r-gl[=o], _n._ the glow often seen in the sky after sunset. AFTERGUARD, aft'[.e]r-gärd, _n._ the men on the quarter-deck and poop who work the after sails, not needing to go aloft: a drudge or person in a mean capacity. AFTER-HANDS, af'ter-handz, _n.pl._ (_Tenn._) future labourers. AFTER-IMAGE, aft'[.e]r-im'[=a]j, _n._ the image that remains for a brief period after the eye has been withdrawn from the object. AFTERINGS, aft'[.e]r-ingz, _n._ the last milk drawn in milking. AFTERMATH, aft'[.e]r-math, _n._ a second mowing of grass in the same season. [See MOW, MEADOW.] AFTERMOST, aft'[.e]r-m[=o]st, _adj._ hindmost. [A.S. _æftemest_; Goth. _af-tuma_, _-tuma_, being equiv. to L. _-tumus_ in _op-tumus_, best. Goth. has also _af-tum-ists_ = A.S. _æf-tem-est_, which is thus a double superlative.--Thus in aftermost, _r_ is intrusive and _-most_ is not the adv. _most_.] AFTERNOON, aft'[.e]r-n[=oo]n, _n._ the time between noon and evening.--_n._ AFT'ER-MORN (_Tenn._), the morrow. AFTERPAINS, aft'[.e]r-p[=a]nz, _n._ the pains which succeed childbirth and the expulsion of the afterbirth. AFTERPIECE, aft'[.e]r-p[=e]s, _n._ a farce or other minor piece performed after a play. AFTERSUPPER, aft'[.e]r-sup-p[.e]r, _n._ the time between supper and bedtime. AFTERTHOUGHT, aft'[.e]r-thawt, _n._ thought or reflection after an action: a later thought. AFTERWARD, aft'[.e]r-ward, AFTERWARDS, aft'[.e]r-wardz, _adv._ in after-time: later: subsequently. [A.S. _æftenweard_.] AGA, AGHA, [=a]'ga, _n._ a Turkish commander or chief officer. [Turk. _agh[=a]_, Pers. _ak_, _aka_, a lord.] AGAIN, a-gen', _adv._ once more: in return: back. [A.S. _on-geán_, again, opposite; Ger. _ent-gegen_.] AGAINST, a-genst', also a-g[=a]nst', _prep._ opposite to: in opposition to: in contact or collision with: in provision for: in exchange for, instead of: (_B._ and _Shak._) by the time that, elliptically for 'against (the time) at which' or 'that I come.' [Formed from _again_, with genitive ending _-es_, as _whilst_ from _while_--the _-t_ being a later addition, as in _amongs-t_, _amids-t_, &c.] AGAMI, ag'a-mi, _n._ the golden-breasted trumpeter, a grallatorial bird of South America. [Native name.] AGAMOGENESIS, a-gam-o-jen'e-sis, _n._ reproduction without sex, found among lower animals and in plants. [Gr. _a_, priv., _gamos_, marriage, _genesis_, reproduction.] AGAMOUS, ag'a-mus, _adj._ (_bot._) having no visible flowers or organs of fructification. [Gr. _agamos_--_a_, neg., and _gamos_, marriage.] AGAPE, ag'a-p[=e], _n._ a love-feast, held by the early Christians at communion time, when contributions were made for the poor:--_pl._ AG'APÆ.--_n._ AGAPEM'ON[=E] (Gr., 'love abode'), a community of religious visionaries with unedifying ideas about the sexual relations, founded in 1859 at Charlinch, near Bridgwater, by one H. J. Prince, formerly an Anglican clergyman. [Gr. _agap[=e]_, love.] AGAPE, a-g[=a]p', _adj._ or _adv._ gaping from wonder, expectation, or attention. [Lit., 'on gape.'] AGARIC, ag'ar-ik, _n._ a family of fungi, including the mushroom. [Gr. _agarikon_.] AGASTRIC, a-gas'trik, _adj._ having no stomach. [Gr. _a_, neg., and _gast[=e]r_, stomach.] AGATE, ag'[=a]t, _n._ a precious stone composed of layers of quartz, of different tints.--_adj._ AGATIF'EROUS. [Gr. _achat[=e]s_, said to be so called because first found near the river _Achates_ in Sicily.] AGATE, a-g[=a]t', _adv._ agoing, on the way. [Prep. _a_, and GATE; a northern word.] AGAVE, a-g[=a]'ve, _n._ a genus of herbaceous plants, natives of the warmer parts of America, which in Mexico usually flower about the seventh or eighth year, the stem rising to a height of forty feet. It is called also the American Aloe and Century Plant, receiving the latter name from the number of years (40-60, popularly a hundred) it takes to flower in our hot-houses. AGAZED, a-g[=a]zd', _adj._ (_Shak._) struck with amazement. [Prob. a variant of AGHAST.] AGE, [=a]j, _n._ the ordinary length of human life: the time during which a person or thing has lived or existed: mature years: legal maturity (at 21 years), or time of life with regard to crime, contracts, marriage, &c.: a period of time: any great period of human history, as the Golden Age, the Bronze Age, the Middle Ages, or of individual history, as the age of infancy, the five--or seven--so-called ages of man: a generation of men: a century.--_v.i._ to grow old:--_pr.p._ [=a]g'ing; _pa.p._ [=a]g'ed.--_adj._ AGED ([=a]j'ed), advanced in age: having a certain age.--_n.pl._ old people.--_n._ AGEDNESS ([=a]j'ed-nes), condition of being aged or old.--_adjs._ AGE'LESS; AGE'LONG. [O. Fr. _edage_ (Fr. _âge_)--L. _ætas_ = _ævitas_--L. _ævum_, age; cog. with EVER.] AGEN, a-gen', _adv._ Same as AGAIN. AGENDA, aj-end'a, _n._ things to be done: a memorandum-book: (_obs._) a ritual. [L. _agendus_, fut. perf. pass. of _ag[)e]re_, to do.] AGENT, [=a]j'ent, _n._ a person or thing that acts or exerts power: any natural force acting on matter: one authorised or delegated to transact business for another.--_n._ AG'ENCY, the office or business, operation or action, of an agent; instrumentality.--LAW AGENT, a general term in Scotland, including Writers to the Signet, Solicitors to the Supreme Court, and Procurators in the sheriff courts--the requirements are an indentured apprenticeship of five years to a law agent, the passing of examinations in general knowledge and in law, and formal admission by the Court of Session. [L. _ag[)e]re_, to do. See ACT.] AGGLOMERATE, ag-glom'[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.t._ to make into a ball: to collect into a mass.--_v.i._ to grow into a mass.--_adjs._ AGGLOM'ERATE, AGGLOM'ERATED, collected into a heap or mass.--_n._ AGGLOMER[=A]'TION, a growing or heaping together: a mass: a cluster.--_adj._ AGGLOM'ERATIVE. [_Agglomer[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ad_, to, L. _glomus_, _glomeris_, a ball. See CLEW, GLOBE.] AGGLUTINATE, ag-gl[=oo]t'in-[=a]t, _v.t._ to cause to adhere by glue or cement.--_adj._ AGGLUT'INANT, uniting or causing to stick together.--_ns._ AGGLUT'INATE, AGGLUT'INATIVE, a classification formerly much used in contrast to _inflectional_, to describe such languages as Turkish, which show, in the words of Whitney, an inferior degree of integration in the elements of their words, or of unification of words, the suffixes and prefixes retaining a certain independence of one another and of the root or stem to which they are added; AGGLUTIN[=A]'TION, the act of uniting, as by glue: adhesion of parts.--_adj._ AGGLUT'INATIVE, tending to or having power to cause adhesion. [L. _agglutin[=a]re_--_ad_, to, _gluten_, glue. See GLUE.] AGGRACE, ag-gr[=a]s', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to grace, to favour.--_n._ kindness: favour. [Low L. _aggrati[=a]re_--L. _ad_, to, _gratia_, grace.] AGGRANDISE, ag'grand-[=i]z, _v.t._ to make great or larger: to make greater in power, rank, or honour.--_ns._ AGGRANDIS[=A]'TION; AGGRANDISEMENT (ag'grand-[=i]z-ment, or ag-grand'iz-ment), act of aggrandising: state of being aggrandised. [Fr., from L. _ad_, to, and _grandis_, large.] AGGRATE, ag-gr[=a]t', _v.t._ (_obs._) to gratify or please. [It. _aggratare_--L. _ad_, to, _gratus_, pleasing. See GRACE.] AGGRAVATE, ag'grav-[=a]t, _v.t._ to make worse: to provoke.--_adj._ AG'GRAVATING.--_adv._ AG'GRAVATINGLY.--_n._ AGGRAV[=A]'TION, a making worse: any quality or circumstance which makes a thing worse: an exaggeration. [L. _aggrav[=a]re_--_ad_, to, _gravis_, heavy. See GRAVE.] AGGREGATE, ag'greg-[=a]t, _v.t._ to collect into a mass: to accumulate.--_v.i._ (_rare_) to add as a member to a society: to combine with.--_adj._ formed of parts taken together.--_n._ the sum total.--_adv._ AG'GREGATELY.--_n._ AGGREG[=A]'TION, act of aggregating: state of being collected together: an aggregate.--_adj._ AG'GREGATIVE. [L. _aggreg[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to bring together, as a flock--_ad_, to, _grex_, _gregis_, a flock.] AGGRESS, ag-gres', _v.i._ to make a first attack: to begin a quarrel: to intrude.--_adj._ AGGRESS'IVE, making the first attack, or prone to do so: offensive as opposed to defensive.--_ns._ AGGRESS'IVENESS; AGGRESS'OR, one who attacks first. [L. _aggredi_, _-gressus_--_ad_, to, _gradi_, to step.] AGGRESSION, ag-gresh'un, _n._ first act of hostility or injury: a breach of the peace: an attack on public privileges. [L. _aggredi_, _-gressus_--_ad_, to, _gradi_, to step.] AGGRIEVE, ag-gr[=e]v', _v.t._ to press heavily upon: to pain or injure. [O. Fr. _agrever_ (Sp. _agraviar_)--L. _ad_, to, and _gravis_, heavy. See GRIEF, GRIEVE.] AGHAST, a-gast', _adj._ stupefied with horror. [Properly _agast_; M. E. _agasten_, to terrify; A.S. intens. pfx. _á-_, and _gæstan_, to terrify. The primary notion of the root _gæs-_ (Goth. _gais-_) is to fix, stick; to root to the spot with terror. See GAZE.] AGILE, aj'il, _adj._ active: nimble.--_n._ AGIL'ITY, quickness of motion: nimbleness--also AG'ILENESS. [Fr.--L. _agilis_--_ag[)e]re_, to do or act.] AGIO, [=a]'ji-o, _n._ the difference between the real and nominal value of money, or between metallic and paper money: the variations from fixed pars or rates of exchange: discount. [It. _agio_, _aggio_, ease, convenience.] AGIOTAGE, aj'i-o-t[=a]j, _n._ exchange business, hence the manoeuvres of speculators to raise or depress the funds: stock-jobbing. AGIST, a-jist', _v.t._ to take in the cattle of others to graze for a certain sum: to charge lands or the like with any public burden.--_ns._ AGIST'MENT, the action of agisting: the price paid for cattle pasturing on the land: a burden or tax; AGIST'OR, AGIST'ER, an officer who takes charge of cattle agisted. [O. Fr. _agister_--L. _jacit[=a]re_, _jac[=e]re_, to lie.] AGITATE, aj'i-t[=a]t, _v.t._ to keep moving: to stir violently: to disturb: to discuss, or keep up the discussion of a question.--_n._ AGIT[=A]'TION, commotion: perturbation of mind: discussion: public excitement.--_adj._ AG'ITATIVE.--_n._ AG'ITATOR, one who excites or keeps up a public agitation. [L. _agit[=a]re_, freq. of _ag[)e]re_, to put in motion. See ACT.] AGLET, AIGLET, [=a]'glet, _n._ the tag or point of the lace or string by which different parts of dress were fastened together, orig. to facilitate passing through the eyelet-holes, afterwards themselves ornamental, like Shakespeare's _aglet-baby_, and still surviving in the so-called _aiguillettes_ or tagged points of braid hanging from the shoulder in some military and naval uniforms: a technical name for white stay-laces. [Fr. _aiguillette_, dim. of _aiguille_, a needle--from L. _acucula_ = _acicula_, dim. of _acus_, a needle.] AGLEY, AGLEE, a-gl[=e]', _adv._ (_Scot._) off the right line: wrong. [Pfx. _a-_, and Scot. _gley_, _gleg_, squint.] AGLIMMER, a-glim'[.e]r, _adv._ in a glimmering state. AGLOW, a-gl[=o]', _adj._ and _adv._ very warm: red-hot. AGNAIL, ag'n[=a]l, _n._ an inflammation round the toe- or finger-nail: a whitlow: a hangnail. [A.S. _angnægl_--_ang_, tight, and _nægl_, a nail; confounded in meaning by the dictionary-makers with Fr. _angonailles_, blotches, sores--Low L. _anguinalia_, carbuncles.] AGNAME, ag'n[=a]m, _n._ a name over and above the name and surname.--_adj._ AG'NAMED, styled by such a name. [L. _ag_ = _ad_, and NAME; formed after L. _agnomen_.] AGNATE, ag'n[=a]t, _adj._ related on the father's side: allied.--_n._ a relation by the father's side.--_adjs._ AGNAT'IC, AGNAT'ICAL.--_adv._ AGNAT'ICALLY.--_n._ AGN[=A]'TION. [L. _agnat-us_--_ad_, to, _nasci_, to be born. See COGNATE.] AGNISE, ag-n[=i]z', _v.t._ (_arch._) to acknowledge, to confess. [L. _agnosc[)e]re_--_ad_, to, _gnosc[)e]re_, _nosc[)e]re_, to know.] AGNOMEN, ag-n[=o]'men, _n._ a surname added to the family name, generally on account of some great exploit, as _Africanus_ to P. Cornelius Scipio. [L.--_ad_, to, and _gnomen_, _nomen_, a name.] AGNOSTIC, ag-nos'tik, _n._ one who holds that we know nothing of things beyond material phenomena--that a First Cause and an unseen world are things unknown and apparently unknowable.--_n._ AGNOS'TICISM. [Coined by Prof. Huxley in 1869 from the word in Acts, xvii. 23; _a_, privative, and Gr. _gn[=o]stikos_, good at knowing. See GNOSTIC.] AGNUS DEI, ag'nus-d[=e]'[=i], a part of the Mass beginning with the words _Agnus Dei_, also the music set to it: a figure of a lamb emblematic of Christ, bearing with its right foot the banner of the cross, and having the nimbus inscribed with the cross around its head: a round cake of wax stamped with such a figure, and blessed by the Pope. [L., lit. 'lamb of God.'] AGO, a-g[=o]', AGONE, a-gon', _adv._ gone: past: since. [Pa.p. of A.S. _[=a]g[=a]n_, to pass away--inten. pfx. _[=a]-_, and _g[=a]n_, to go.] AGOG, a-gog', _adj._ or _adv._ eager: astir. [Perh. connected with O. Fr. _en gogues_; _estre en ses gogues_, to be frolicsome, or Fr. _vivre à gogo_, to live in abundance. The ultimate origin is unknown.] AGOING, a-g[=o]'ing, _adv._ going on: current. AGONE. See AGO. AGONIC, ag'on-ik, _adj._ having or making no angle.--AGONIC LINE, the line of no magnetic variation--an irregular line passing through the magnetic poles of the earth, along which the magnetic needle points directly north or south. [Gr. _ag[=o]nos_; _a_, neg., _g[=o]nia_, angle.] AGONIST, ag'o-nist, _n._ one who contends for a prize in public games.--_adjs._ AGONIST'IC, -AL, relating to athletic contests: combative.--_adv._ AGONIST'ICALLY.--_n._ AGONIST'ICS, the art and theory of games and prize-fighting. [See AGONY.] AGONY, ag'o-ni, _n._ a violent struggle: extreme suffering: the death struggle in particular: Christ's anguish in Gethsemane.--_v.t._ AG'ONISE, to struggle, suffer agony: to subject to agony.--_adj._ AG'ONISING, causing agony.--_adv._ AG'ONISINGLY.--AGONY COLUMN, the part of a newspaper containing special advertisements, as for missing friends and the like. [Gr.--_ag[=o]n_, contest.] AGOOD, a-good', _adv._ (_obs._) in good earnest, heartily. [A.S. pfx. _a-_, and GOOD.] AGORA, ag'o-ra, _n._ an assembly, hence a place of assembly, the market-place. [Gr.] AGOUTA, a-g[=oo]'ta, _n._ a rat-like animal of Hayti. AGOUTI, a-g[=oo]'ti, _n._ a small South American rodent allied to the guinea-pig. [Native word.] AGRAFFE, a-graf', _n._ a kind of clasp or hook. [Fr. _agrafe_, a clasp--Low L. _grappa_, Old High Ger. _chrapfo_ (Ger. _krappen_), a hook.] AGRARIAN, ag-r[=a]'ri-an, _adj._ relating to land, or its management, as in 'agrarian crime,' &c., applied esp. to Roman laws for the equal distribution of the public lands: rural.--_n._ AGR[=A]'RIANISM, an equal division of lands: a political movement in favour of interference with the ordinary conditions of private property in land. [L. _agrarius_--_ager_, a field. See ACRE.] AGREE, a-gr[=e]', _v.i._ to be of one mind: to concur: to assent to: to be consistent, to harmonise: to determine, to settle: to resemble, to suit: (_gram._) to be in concord with--taking the same gender, number, case, or person: to do well with climate, &c. (followed by _with_ before the person or thing agreeing: by _upon_, _on_, _for_, _to_, _in_ before the condition of the agreement):--_pa.p._ agreed'.--_adj._ AGREE'ABLE, suitable: pleasant: favourable to, consenting to.--_n._ AGREE'ABLENESS, suitableness: conformity: quality of pleasing--also AGREEABIL'ITY.--_adv._ AGREE'ABLY.--_n._ AGREE'MENT, concord: conformity: harmony: a bargain or contract. [O. Fr. _agréer_, to accept kindly--L. _ad_, to, and _gratus_, pleasing.] AGRESTIC, a-gres'tik, _adj._ pertaining to the fields: rural: unpolished. [L. _agrestis_--_ager_, a field.] AGRICULTURE, ag'ri-kult-[=u]r, _n._ the art or practice of cultivating the land.--_adj._ AGRICULT'URAL, relating to agriculture.--_n._ AGRICULT'URIST, one skilled in agriculture: a farmer--also AGRICULT'URALIST. [L. _agricultura_--_ager_, a field, _cultura_, cultivation. See CULTURE.] AGRIMONY, ag'ri-mun-i, _n._ a genus of plants of the rose-group, with small yellow flowers and bitter taste. [L. _agrimonia_, for _argemonia_, Gr. _argem[=o]n[=e]_.] AGRIN, a-grin', _adv._ on the grin. AGRISE, a-gr[=i]z', _v.t._ (_obs._) to terrify, to make frightful. [A.S. _[=a]gr[=i]san_, to dread.] AGRONOMIAL, ag-r[=o]-n[=o]'mi-al, _adj._ relating to the management of farms--also AGRONOM'IC.--_n._ AGRON'OMY, agricultural pursuits. [Gr. _agronomos_; _agros_, a field, _nemein_, to deal out.] AGROUND, a-grownd', _adv._ stranded. AGUARDIENTE, a-gwär-di-[.e]n't[.e], _n._ a kind of grape-brandy made in Spain and Portugal: any spirituous liquor, applied even to Mexican pulque. [Sp., from _agua ardiente_, burning water; _agua_--L. _aqua_; _ardiente_, _arder_--L. _ard[=e]re_, to burn.] AGUE, [=a]'g[=u], _n._ a fever coming in periodical fits, accompanied with shivering: chilliness: quaking.--_adj._ A'GUED, struck with ague: shivering: cold; A'GUISH. [O. Fr. _aigue_ (Fr. _aigu_, sharp)--L. _acutus_. See ACUTE.] AGUERRIED, a-ger'id, _adj._ inured to war, or instructed in it. [Fr. _aguerrir_, to make warlike; _à_--Lat. _ad_, to, and _guerre_, war.] AGUISE, a-g[=i]z', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to dress, to adorn. [Pfx. _a-_, and GUISE.] AH, ä, _interj._ an exclamation of surprise, joy, pity, complaint, &c. AHA, ä-hä', _interj._ an exclamation of exultation, pleasure, surprise, or contempt. AHEAD, a-hed', _adv._ farther on: in advance: headlong, as in the phrase 'to go _ahead_.' AHEAP, a-h[=e]p', _adv._ in a heap: in a state of collapse through terror or astonishment. AHEIGHT, a-h[=i]t', _adv._ (_arch._) on high, aloft. AHEM, a-hem', _interj._ a lengthened form of HEM. AHITHOPHEL. See ACHITOPHEL. AHIGH, a-h[=i]', _adv._ an obsolete form of ON HIGH. AHOLD, a-h[=o]ld', _adv._ (_Shak._) near the wind, so as to keep clear of the land. AHORSEBACK, a-hors'bak, _adv._ on horseback. AHOY, a-hoi', _interj._ a nautical term used in hailing. [Form of interj. HOY.] AHULL, a-hul', _adv._ (_naut._) with sails furled, and helm lashed to the lee-side, driving before the wind, stern foremost. AHUNGERED, a-hung'g[.e]rd, _adj._ oppressed with hunger. [Erroneously written AN HUNGERED, as in Bible.] AIBLINS, [=a]b'linz, _adv._ (_Scot._) perhaps, possibly. [See ABLE.] AID, [=a]d, _v.t._ to help, assist.--_n._ help: assistance, as in defending an action: an auxiliary: subsidy or money grant to the king.--_n._ AID'ANCE, aid, help, support.--_adj._ AID'ANT, (_arch._) aiding, helping.--_n._ AID'ER, one who brings aid: a helper.--_adjs._ AID'FUL; AID'LESS.--COURT OF AIDS, the court that supervised the customs duties. [O. Fr. _aider_--L. _adjut[=a]re_--_ad_, and _juv[=a]re_, _jutum_, to help.] AIDE-DE-CAMP, [=a]d'-de-kong, _n._ an officer who carries the orders of a general on the field, and brings him intelligence:--_pl._ AIDES'-DE-CAMP. [Fr., assistant on the field.] AIERY, a variant of AERIE. AIGRETTE, [=a]'gret, _n._ (_zool._) a small white heron: (_bot._) the down attached to vegetable seeds, as in the thistle: a plume composed of feathers, or of precious stones, like a heron's crest. [Fr. _aigrette_.] AIGUILLE, [=a]-gw[=e]l', _n._ a sharp, needle-like peak of rock, applied esp. to many of the peaks near Mont Blanc: a slender boring-drill for blasting. [Fr. See AGLET.] AIGUILLETTE. See AGLET. AIL, [=a]l, _v.i._ to feel pain: to be in trouble.--_v.t._ to trouble, afflict--_obs._ except in impers. phrase 'What ails you?'--_n._ trouble: indisposition.--_n._ AIL'MENT, pain: indisposition: disease. [A.S. _eglan_, to pain. See AWE.] AILANTO, [=e]l-an'to, _n._ a lofty and beautiful tree, native to South-eastern Asia, but grown to shade public walks in France and Italy. Its leaves give food to a species of silkworm--it is sometimes called the Vernis du Japon, or Japan Varnish, apparently by confusion with certain species of Rhus.--Also AILAN'TUS. [Native Amboyna name, meaning 'tree of the gods.'] AILETTE, [=a]l-let', _n._ an iron plate once worn by men-at-arms for defence on the shoulder. [Fr., dim. of _aille_--L. _ala_, a wing.] AIM, [=a]m, _v.i._ to point at with a weapon: to direct the intention or endeavour (_at_): (_obs._) to conjecture.--_v.t._ to point, as a weapon or firearm.--_n._ the pointing of a weapon: the thing pointed at: design: intention.--_adj._ AIM'LESS, without aim.--_adv._ AIM'LESSLY.--_n._ AIM'WORTHINESS, good aim.--TO CRY AIM, in old writers, to encourage archers when shooting by crying 'aim,' hence to applaud or encourage. [O. Fr. _esmer_, to reckon--L. _æstim[=a]re_, to estimate. See ESTIMATE.] AIN'T, [=a]nt, a colloquial contracted form of _are not_--also AN'T = _aren't_, _are not_.--AN'T (_Shak._) occurs as a variant of _on't_ = _on it_, _of it_. AIR, [=a]r, _n._ the fluid we breathe: the atmosphere: any special condition of atmosphere, as in 'the night-_air_,' 'to take the air:' a light breeze: publicity: the bearing of a person: outward appearance, manner, look: an assumed or affected manner: (_mus._) a rhythmical melody: a song, also specially a sprightly song: the soprano part in a harmonised composition, being that which gives it its character: (_pl._) affectation.--_v.t._ to expose to the air: to dry: to expose to warm air: (_obs._) to take an airing.--_ns._ AIR'-BATH, an arrangement for drying substances in air of any desired temperature; AIR'-BED, a bed for the sick, inflated with air; AIR'-BLAD'DER, in some fishes, an organ containing air, by which they maintain their equilibrium in the water; AIR'-BRAKE, a railway brake worked by compressed air.--_adj._ AIR'-BUILT, built in air: having no solid foundation.--_ns._ AIR'-CELL, a cavity containing air; AIR'-CUSH'ION, an air-tight cushion, which can be inflated; AIR'-DRAIN, an ample space at the foot of foundation walls, for the sake of dryness.--_adj._ AIR'DRAWN, drawn in air: visionary: (_Shak._) imaginary.--_ns._ AIR'-EN'GINE, an engine put in motion by air expanded by heat; AIR'-GAS, illuminating gas made by charging atmospheric air with vapour of petroleum or other hydrocarbon; AIR'-GUN, a gun which discharges bullets by means of compressed air.--_adv._ AIR'ILY, gaily.--_ns._ AIR'INESS, state of being airy; openness: liveliness; AIR'ING, exposure to the air or fire: a short excursion in the open air; AIR'-JACK'ET, a jacket with air-tight cavities, which being inflated renders a person buoyant in water.--_adj._ AIR'LESS, void of air: not having free communication with the open air.--_ns._ AIR'-LOCK, a small chamber for the entrance and exit of men and materials, at the top of the caisson or hollow cylinder used for founding the piers of bridges under water; AIR'-PUMP, an instrument for pumping the air out of a vessel; AIR'-SAC, an air-cell or air-space, esp. in the bones of birds; AIR'-SHAFT, a passage for air into a mine; AIR'-SHIP, a navigable balloon; AIR'-SPACE, the cubic content of a room, hospital-ward, or the like, with reference to the respirable air contained in it.--_adj._ AIR'-TIGHT, so tight as not to admit air.--_n._ AIR'-VES'SEL, a vessel or tube containing air.--_adv._ AIR'WARDS, up in the air.--_adj._ AIR'Y, consisting of or relating to air: open to the air: like air: unsubstantial: light of heart: sprightly.--TO TAKE AIR, to get wind, to become publicly known. [Fr.--L. _aër_--Gr.] AIRLING, [=a]r'ling, _n._ (_obs._) a thoughtless, gay person. AIRT, [=a]rt, _n._ (_Scot._) direction, quarter. [Gael. _aird_, _àrd_; Ir. _ard_.] AISLE, [=i]l, _n._ any lateral division of any part of a church, whether of nave, choir, or transept. The word is often erroneously applied to the passage in a church between the pews or seats.--_adj._ AISLED, ([=i]ld), having aisles. [O. Fr. _ele_, _aisle_ (Fr. _aile_)--L. _axilla_, _ala_, a wing.] AIT, [=a]t, _n._ a small island in a river or lake. [A.S. forms, _íget_, _ígeoth_, supply the key to the word, but its history is obscure.] AITCHBONE, [=a]ch'b[=o]n, _n._ the bone of the rump: the cut of beef over this bone. [Orig. _nache-_ or _nage_bone; O. Fr. _nache_, _nage_--L. _nates_, buttock; _a nache_ became _aitch_, and erroneously _edge_-bone.] AJAR, a-jär', _adv._ partly open. [A.S. _on_, on, _cyrr_, a turn.] AJEE, AGEE, a-j[=e]', _adv._ (_Scot._ and _prov._) aside, off the straight, ajar. [Prep. _a_, and _gee_, to move to one side; _jee_, a call to a horse to move to one side.] AJUTAGE, ADJUTAGE, ad'joo-t[=a]j, _n._ a tube adjusted to an orifice through which water is discharged. [Fr.--Fr. _ajouter_. See ADJUST.] AKE, [=a]k, old form of ACHE. AKEE, a-k[=e]', _n._ the fruit of a small African sapindaceous tree, now common in the West Indies. AKIMBO, a-kim'bo, _adj._ with hand on hip and elbow bent outward. [Ety. uncertain; Skeat suggests the Ice. _kengboginn_, bent into a crook, from _kengr_, a crook, twist, kink, and _boginn_, bowed. Others connect the _-kim_ with KEEN.] AKIN, a-kin', _adj._ of kin: related by blood: having the same properties. [OF and KIN.] ALABASTER, al'a-bas-t[.e]r, _n._ a semi-transparent kind of gypsum or sulphate of lime: the fine limestone deposited as stalagmites and stalactites.--_adj._ made of alabaster.--_adj._ ALABAS'TRIAN. [Gr. _alabastros_, said to be derived from _Alabastron_, a town in Egypt.] ALACK, a-lak', _interj._ an exclamation denoting sorrow. ALACK-A-DAY, a-lak'-a-d[=a], _interj._ (_rare_) an exclamation of sadness. [Interj. _ah_, _lak_ (LACK), and DAY.] ALACRITY, a-lak'ri-ti, _n._ briskness: cheerful readiness: promptitude. [L. _alacris_, brisk.] ALALIA, a-l[=a]'li-a, _n._ loss of speech. [Gr. _a_, priv., and _lalein_, to talk.] ALAMEDA, a-la-m[=e]'da, _n._ a public walk or promenade between two rows of trees. [Sp.] ALAMODE, a-la-m[=o]d', _adv._ and _adj._ according to the mode or fashion.--_n._ a light kind of glossy silk for scarfs, hat-bands, &c.--_n._ ALAMODAL'ITY (_rare_).--ALAMODE BEEF, beef larded and stewed with vegetables. [Fr. _à la mode_.] ALAMORT, a-la-mort', _adj._ half-dead: in a depressed condition: dejected. Sometimes erroneously ALL AMORT. [Fr. _à la mort_, to death. See MORTAL.] ALAND, a-land', _adv._ on or to land: landed. ALAR, [=a]'lar, _adj._ of, or having, wings.--Also A'LARY. [L. _ala_, a wing.] ALARM, a-lärm', _n._ notice of danger: sudden surprise with fear: a mechanical contrivance to arouse from sleep: a call to arms.--_v.t._ to call to arms: to give notice of danger: to fill with dread.--_adv._ ALARM'INGLY.--_n._ ALARM'IST, one who excites alarm: one given to prophesy danger.--_adj._ alarming. [Fr. _alarme_--It. _all' arme_, to arms--L. _ad_, to, _arma_, arms.] ALARUM, al-är'um, _n._ and _v.t._ same as ALARM--now used, except poetically, only of an _alarum-clock_. ALAS, a-las', _interj._ expressive of grief.--ALAS THE DAY, ALAS THE WHILE (in old writers), ah! unhappy day, or time. [O. Fr. _ha las_, _a las_ (mod. Fr. _hélas_); _ha!_ and _las_, _lasse_, wretched, weary--L. _lassus_, wearied.] ALATE, a-l[=a]t', _adv._ (_arch._) lately. [A.S. pfx. _a-_, on, and LATE.] ALATE, al'[=a]t, _adj._ winged: (_bot._) bordered by a leafy expansion.--Also AL'ATED. [L. _alatus_--_ala_, a wing.] ALB, alb, _n._ in R.C. churches, a white linen vestment with tight sleeves, reaching to the feet, worn by the officiating priest at the celebration of the eucharist, under the chasuble, cope, or dalmatic. [A.S. _albe_--Low L. _alba_, L. _albus_, white.] ALBACORE, al'ba-k[=o]r, _n._ a large species of the tunny fish, found in West Indian waters. [Port.--Ar. _al_, the, _bukr_, pl. _bak[=a]rat_, a young camel.] ALBATA, al-b[=a]'ta, _n._ a white silvery alloy of nickel, zinc, and copper--also _British plate_ and _German Silver_. [L., _alb[=a]re_, to whiten, _albus_, white.] ALBATROSS, al'ba-tros, _n._ a large, long-winged, web-footed sea-bird of remarkable powers of flight, found abundantly in the Southern Ocean, particularly near the Cape of Good Hope. [Corr. from ALCATRAS (q.v.), perh. with reference to _albus_, white, from its colour.] ALBE, ALE-BE, awl-b[=e]', _obs._ forms of ALBEIT. ALBEIT, awl-b[=e]'it, _adv._ although it be: notwithstanding: even if, although. [All be it (that) = all though it be that] ALBERT, al'bert, _n._ a short kind of watch-chain. [Named from Prince _Albert_, husband of Queen Victoria.] ALBESCENT, al-bes'ent, _adj._ becoming white: whitish.--_n._ ALBES'CENCE. [L. _albescens_, -_entis_, pr.p. of _albesc[)e]re_, to grow white--_albus_, white.] ALBESPYNE, ALBESPINE, al'be-sp[=i]n, _n._ whitethorn, hawthorn. [O. Fr. _albespine_, _aubespine_ (Fr. _aubépine_)--L. _alba spina_, white thorn.] ALBIGENSES, al-bi-jen's[=e]z, _n.pl._ a name applied to antisacerdotal sects in the south of France during the 12th and 13th centuries, infected with Manichæan heresy, and extirpated with the most horrible cruelties. [The town _Albi_.] ALBINO, al-b[=i]'no, _n._ a human being or animal whose skin and hair are abnormally white, and the pupil of the eye of pink colour:--_fem._ ALB[=I]'NESS:--_pl._ ALB[=I]'NOS.--_n._ AL'BINISM, state or condition of being an albino. [Sp. _albino_, whitish--L. _albus_, white.] ALBITE, al'b[=i]t, _n._ a species of mineral of the felspar family, of a white colour, and forming a constituent of many kinds of rocks. [From L. _albus_, white.] ALBUGINEOUS, al-b[=u]-jin'e-us, _adj._ like the white of an egg or of the eye. [L. _albugo_, _albuginis_, whiteness, from _albus_, white.] ALBUM, al'bum, _n._ among the Romans, a white tablet or register on which the prætor's edicts and such public notices were recorded: a blank book for the insertion of portraits, autographs, poetical extracts, memorial verses, postage-stamps, or the like.--_adj._ AL'BUM[=E]'AN, and _n._ AL'BUMESS, whimsical coinages of Charles Lamb. [L. _albus_, white.] ALBUMEN, al-b[=u]'men, _n._ the white of eggs: a like substance found in animal and vegetable bodies.--_ns._ ALB[=U]'MIN, one of the classes of albuminoids, such as are soluble in water, or in dilute acids or alkalis; ALB[=U]'MINATE, one of a class of bodies in which albumin appears in weak combination with a base.--_v.t._ ALBUMINISE' (_phot._), to cover or impregnate with albumen: to coat paper with an albuminous solution.--_adj._ ALB[=U]'MINOUS, like or containing albumen: insipid. [L.--_albus_, white.] ALBUMINOID, al-b[=u]'min-oid, _adj._ like albumen.--_n._ one of a class of nitrogenous compounds derived from animal tissues. [ALBUMEN, and Gr. _eidos_, form.] ALBURNUM, al-burn'um, _n._ in trees, the white and soft parts of wood between the inner bark and the heart-wood.--_adj._ ALBURN'OUS. [L.--_albus_, white.] ALCAHEST. See ALKAHEST. ALCAIC, al-k[=a]'ik, _adj._ of or pertaining to the Greek lyrical poet, Alcæus (_c._ 600 B.C.), or to the kind of verse invented by him. The most common form consists of an anacrusis, a trochee, a spondee, and two dactyls; a second, of a catalectic iambic pentameter, the third foot always being a spondee; a third, of two dactyls followed by two trochees. The most common arrangement was two lines of (1), followed by one of (2) and one of (3). Cf. Tennyson's 'O mighty-mouth'd inventor of harmonies.' ALCAID, ALCAYDE, al-k[=a]d', _n._ a governor: a chief magistrate: a gaoler. [Sp. and Port.--Ar. _alk[=a][=i]d_--_al_, the, _q[=a][=i]d_, a leader, _q[=a]da_, to lead.] ALCALDE, al-kal'd[=a], _n._ a judge. [Sp.--Ar. _al-q[=a]d[=i]_.] ALCATRAS, al'ka-tras, _n._ a name applied loosely to several large ocean birds, as the pelican, gannet, frigate-bird, and even the albatross. [Sp. _alcatraz_, a white pelican.] ALCHEMY, ALCHYMY, al'ki-mi, _n._ the infant stage of chemistry, as astrology was of astronomy.--A chief pursuit of the alchemists was to transmute the other metals into gold, and to discover the elixir of life.--_adj._ ALCHEM'IC--_n._ AL'CHEMIST, one skilled in alchemy. [Ar. _Al-k[=i]m[=i][=a]_--_al_, the, and _k[=i]m[=i][=a]_--late Gr. _ch[=e]meia_, 'transmution,' prob. as specially an Egyptian art, from _Khem_, the native name of Egypt; confused with Gr. _ch[=u]meia_, pouring, from _chein_, to pour, hence the old spellings _alchymy_, _chymistry_.] ALCOHOL, al'k[=o]-hol, _n._ pure spirit, a liquid generated by the fermentation of sugar and other saccharine matter, and forming the intoxicating element of fermented liquors.--_adj._ ALCOHOL'IC, of or like alcohol.--_n._ ALCOHOLIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ AL'COHOLISE, to convert into alcohol, or saturate with it: to rectify.--_n._ AL'COHOLISM, a term employed to denote the symptoms of disease produced by alcoholic poisoning.--ABSOLUTE ALCOHOL, alcohol entirely free from water. [Ar. _al-koh'l_--_al_, the, _koh'l_, fine powder of antimony used in the East to stain the eyelids.] ALCOHOLOMETER, al-k[=o]-hol-om'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for ascertaining the strength of spirits.--_n._ ALCOHOLOM'ETRY, the process of such measurement. [ALCOHOL and METER.] ALCORAN, al'k[=o]-ran, _n._ the Koran. [_Al_, the Arabic article.] ALCOVE, al'k[=o]v, or al-k[=o]v', _n._ a recess in a room: any recess: a shady retreat. [Sp. _alcoba_, a place in a room railed off to hold a bed--Ar. _al_, the, _qobbah_, a vault.] ALDEHYDE, al'd[=e]-h[=i]d, _n._ a volatile fluid with a suffocating smell, obtained by the oxidation of alcohol: a large class of compounds intermediate between alcohols and acids. [From _Al. dehyd._, a contr. for _Alcohol dehydrogenatum_.] ALDER, awl'd[.e]r, _n._ a tree related to the birch, usually growing in moist ground. [A.S. _alor_; Ger. _erle_; L. _alnus_.] ALDER-LIEFEST, awl-d[.e]r-l[=e]f'est, _adj._ (_Shak._) most beloved of all. [The M. E. gen. pl. forms _alra_, _alre_, _aller_, _alder_, survived till about 1600; for _liefest_, see LIEF.] ALDERMAN, awl'd[.e]r-man, _n._ in English and Irish boroughs, a civic dignitary next in rank to the mayor.--They are usually chosen for three years; those of London are chosen for life.--The name was assumed incongruously enough for superior members of the county councils set up in England in 1888: in Anglo-Saxon times, the governor of a shire until by Canute displaced by the earl; thenceforward, any head man of a guild.--_adjs._ ALDERMAN'IC, AL'DERMANLIKE, AL'DERMANLY, pompous and portly. [A.S. _ealdor_ (from _eald_, old), senior, chief; _ealdorman_, ruler, king, chief magistrate.] ALDERN, awl'd[.e]rn, _adj._ made of alder. ALDINE, al'd[=i]n, _adj._ applied to books printed by Aldus Manutius of Venice, in 16th century. ALE, [=a]l, _n._ a beverage made from an infusion of malt by fermentation: a festival, so called from the liquor drunk.--_ns._ ALE'BERRY, a beverage made from ale; ALE'CONNER, an ale-taster, a civic officer appointed to test the quality of the ale brewed--A.S. _cunnere_, a trier; ALE'-HOUSE, a house in which ale is sold. [A.S. _alu_; Ice. _öl_.] ALEATORY, [=a]'l[=e]-a-t[=o]-ri, _adj._ depending on the throw of the dice: dependent on certain contingencies. [L. _[=a]le[=a]t[=o]rius_, _[=a]lea_, a die.] ALEE, a-l[=e]', _adv._ on the lee-side. [See LEE.] ALEFT, a-left', _adv._ on or to the left hand. ALEGAR, al'e-gar, _n._ sour ale. [ALE, and Fr. _aigre_--L. _acer_, sour.] ALEGER, al'e-j[.e]r, _adj._ (_Bacon_) lively, cheerful. [O. Fr. _alègre_--L. _al[=a]cr-em_.] ALEGGE, an obsolete form of ALLEGE. ALEMBIC, al-em'bik, _n._ a vessel used by the old chemists in distillation. [Ar. _al_, the, _anb[=i]q_--Gr. _ambiks_, a cup.] ALENGTH, a-length', _adv._ at full length. [A.S. pfx. _a-_, on, and LENGTH.] ALERCE, a-lers', _n._ the wood of the sandarac-tree: the Chilian _Arbor vitæ_--both of the pine family. [Sp.--Ar. _al arza_, cedar.] ALERT, al-[.e]rt', _adj._ watchful: brisk.--_n._ a sudden attack or surprise.--_adv._ ALERT'LY.--_n._ ALERT'NESS.--UPON THE ALERT, upon the watch. [Fr.--It. _all' erta_, on the erect--_erto_, L. _erectus_, erect.] ALEW, a-l[=u]' (_Spens._) an obsolete form of HALLOO. ALEWIFE, [=a]l'w[=i]f, _n._ a fish of the same genus as the shad, about a foot in length, common on the east coast of North America. [Said to be a corr. of _aloofe_, the Indian name of a fish.] ALEXANDRIAN, al-egz-an'dri-an, _adj._ relating to Alexandria in Egypt, or its school of philosophy: relating to Alexander. ALEXANDRINE, al-egz-an'drin, _n._ a rhyming verse of twelve syllables, six iambic feet, so-called from its use in old French poems on _Alexander_ the Great. It is the ordinary verse of French tragedy. French Alexandrines are arranged in couplets, alternately acatalectic with masculine rhymes, and hypercatalectic with feminine rhymes. ALFA, al'fa, _n._ an African name for esparto grass--also spelt HALFA. ALFALFA, al-fal'fa, _n._ a Spanish name for a variety of lucerne--used also in some parts of the United States. [Sp. _alfalfa_, three-leaved grass; Ar. _alfacfacah_.] ALFRESCO, al-fresk'o, _adv._ on the fresh, as to paint _al fresco_ = on the fresh plaster: in the fresh or cool air. [It.] ALGÆ, al'j[=e], _n._ (_bot._) a division of plants, embracing seaweeds. [L., pl. of _alga_, seaweed.] ALGATES, al'g[=a]ts, _adv._ (_obs._) always, altogether, at all events, nevertheless.--Also AL'GATE. [Lit. _alle gate_, every way. See GATE.] ALGEBRA, al'je-bra, _n._ a method of calculating by symbols--by means of letters employed to represent the numbers, and signs to represent their relations, thus forming a kind of universal arithmetic.--_adjs._ ALGEBR[=A]'IC, -AL, pertaining to algebra.--_n._ ALGEBR[=A]'IST, one skilled in algebra. [It. and Sp., from Ar. _al-jebr_, the resetting of anything broken, hence combination; _jabara_, to reunite.] ALGERINE, al'je-r[=e]n, _adj._ of or belonging to Algeria in Northern Africa.--_n._ a native of Algeria: a pirate. ALGORISM, al'go-rizm, _n._ the Arabic system of numeration: arithmetic.--Also AL'GORITHM [Through O. Fr. and Late L. from Ar. _al-khow[=a]razm[=i]_, the native of Khw[=a]razm, the mathematician Abu Ja'far Mohammed Ben Musa (9th century).] ALGOUS, al'gus, _adj._ relating to or like the algæ or seaweeds. ALGUAZIL, al-gwaz'il, _n._ in Spain, a warrant officer or sergeant. [Sp.--Ar. _al-waz[=i]r_. See VIZIER.] ALGUM, al'gum. Same as ALMUG. ALHAMBRESQUE, al-ham'bresk, _adj._ after the style of the rich ornamentation of the Alhambra, a palace of the Moorish kings of Granada in Spain. ALIAS, [=a]'li-as, _adv._ otherwise.--_n._ an assumed name:--_pl._ A'LIASES. [L. _alias_, at another time, otherwise--_alius_, Gr. _allos_, other.] ALIBI, al'i-b[=i], _n._ the plea that a person charged with a crime was elsewhere when it was committed. [L.--_alius_, other, _ibi_, there.] ALICANT, al'i-kant, _n._ a Spanish wine formerly much esteemed, said to have been made near Alicante in Spain. ALIEN, [=a]l'yen, _adj._ foreign: different in nature: adverse to.--_n._ one belonging to another country: one not entitled to the rights of citizenship.--_n._ AL'IENAGE, state of being an alien. [L. _alienus_--_alius_, other.] ALIENATE, [=a]l'yen-[=a]t, _v.t._ to transfer a right or title to another: to withdraw the affections: to misapply.--_adj._ withdrawn: estranged.--_n._ ALIENABIL'ITY.--_adj._ AL'IENABLE, capable of being transferred to another.--_ns._ ALIEN[=A]'TION; ALIEN[=A]'TOR.--_adj._ AL'IENED, made alien, estranged.--_n._ AL'IENISM, the position of being a foreigner. [L. See ALIEN.] ALIENIST, [=a]l'yen-ist, _n._ one who specially treats mental diseases. [Fr.] ALIFE, a-l[=i]f', _adv._ (_obs._) on my life, as one's life, excessively. ALIGHT, a-l[=i]t', _v.i._ to come down, as from a horse (_from_): to descend: to land anywhere (_upon_): to fall upon. [A.S. _alíhtan_, to come down. See LIGHT, _v._] ALIGHT, a-l[=i]t', _adj._ on fire: lighted up. [_a_, on, and LIGHT. See LIGHT, _n._] ALIGN, a-l[=i]n', _v.t._ to regulate by a line: to arrange in line, as troops.--_n._ ALIGN'MENT, a laying out by a line: arrangement of soldiers in a line or lines: the ground-plan of a railway or road. [Fr. _aligner_--L. _ad_, and _linea_, a line.] ALIKE, a-l[=i]k', _adj._ like one another: having resemblance.--_adv._ in the same manner or form: equally: similarly. [A.S. _gelíc_, _anlíc_, _onlíc_. See LIKE.] ALIMENT, al'i-ment, _n._ nourishment: food: provision for maintenance, alimony: support.--_v.t._ to support, sustain: make provision for the maintenance of.--_adjs._ ALIMENT'AL, supplying food; ALIMENT'ARY, pertaining to aliment: nutritive.--_ns._ ALIMENT[=A]'TION, the act or state of nourishing or of being nourished; ALIMENT'IVENESS (_phrenol._), desire for food or drink; AL'IMONY, an allowance for support made to a wife when legally separated from her husband, or temporarily while the process is pending.--ALIMENTARY CANAL, the principal part of the digestive apparatus of animals, in man extending, with convolutions, about 30 feet from the mouth to the anus--including pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small and large intestine, &c. [L. _alimentum--al[)e]re_, to nourish.] ALINEATION. See ALLINEATION. ALIPED, al'i-ped, _adj._ wing-footed.--_n._ an animal whose toes are connected by a membrane serving as a wing, as the bat. [L. _alipes_--_ala_, a wing, and _pes_, _pedis_, a foot.] ALIQUANT, al'i-kwant, _adj._ an aliquant part of a number is one that will not divide it without a remainder, thus 5 is an aliquant part of 12. [L. _aliquantum_, somewhat, _alius_, another, and _quantus_, how great.] ALIQUOT, al'i-kwot, _adj._ such a part of a number as will divide it without a remainder. [L. _aliquot_, some, several--_alius_, other, _quot_, how many.] ALISMA, al-iz'ma, _n._ a small genus of aquatic plants, the chief being the common water-plantain. [Gr.] ALIVE, a-l[=i]v', _adj._ in life: susceptible. [Prep. _a = on_, and A.S. _lífe_, dat. of _líf_, life.] ALIZARIN, a-liz'a-r[=e]n, _n._ a colouring matter used in the dyeing of Turkey red, formerly extracted from madder, the commercial name of which in the Levant is _alizari_. [Fr.; Ar. _al_, the, and _'aç[=a]rah_, juice pressed out.] ALKAHEST, ALCAHEST, al'ka-hest, _n._ the universal solvent of the alchemists. [A coinage of Paracelsus--on Arabic analogies.] ALKALI, al'ka-li, or -l[=i], _n._ (_chem._) a substance which combines with an acid and neutralises it, forming a salt. Potash, soda, and lime are alkalies; they have an acrid taste (that of soap), and turn vegetable blues to green:--_pl._ AL'KALIES.--_n._ ALKALES'CENCY, tendency to become alkaline.--_adj._ ALKALES'CENT, tending to become alkaline: slightly alkaline.--_n._ ALKALIM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the strength of alkalies.--_adj._ ALKALINE (al'ka-l[=i]n, or -lin), having the properties of an alkali.--_n._ ALKALIN'ITY.--_v.t._ AL'KALISE, to render alkaline:--_pr.p._ al'kal[=i]sing; _pa.p._ al'kal[=i]sed. See ACID. [Ar. _al_-_qal[=i]y_, ashes.] ALKALIFY, al'ka-li-f[=i], _v.t._ to convert into an alkali.--_v.i._ to become alkaline:--_pr.p._ al'kalifying; _pa.p._ al'kalif[=i]ed.--_adj._ ALKALIF[=I]'ABLE, capable of being converted into an alkali. [ALKALI, and L. _fac[)e]re_, to make.] ALKALOID, al'ka-loid, _n._ a vegetable principle possessing in some degree alkaline properties.--_adj._ pertaining to or resembling alkali. [ALKALI, and Gr. _eidos_, form or resemblance.] ALKANET, al'ka-net, _n._ a plant, native of the Levant and Southern Europe, cultivated for its root, which yields a red colouring matter: the dye itself. [Sp. _alcaneta_.] ALKORAN, _n._ Same as ALCORAN. ALL, awl, _adj._ the whole of: every one of: any whatever.--_adv._ wholly: completely: entirely: (_Shak._) only, alone.--_n._ the whole: everything: the totality of things--the universe.--_n._ ALL'-FATH'ER, God.--ALL (_obs._), entirely, altogether, as in 'all to-brake' (Judges, ix. 53). The prefix _to-_ originally belonged to the verb (_tó brecan_), but as verbs with this prefix were rarely used without _all_, the fact was forgotten, and the _to_ was erroneously regarded as belonging to the _all_. Hence came into use _all_-_to_ = wholly, utterly; ALL BUT, everything short of, almost; ALL IN ALL, all things in all respects, all or everything together--(_adverbially_) altogether; ALL OVER, thoroughly, entirely; ALL OVER WITH, finished, done with (also _coll._, ALL UP with); ALL RIGHT, a colloquial phrase expressing assent or approbation; ALL'S ONE, it is just the same; ALL TO ONE (_obs._), altogether.--AFTER ALL, when everything has been considered, nevertheless; AND ALL, and everything else; AND ALL THAT, and all the rest of it, _et cetera_; AT ALL, in the least degree or to the least extent.--FOR ALL, notwithstanding; FOR GOOD AND ALL, finally.--ONCE FOR ALL, once only. [A.S. _all_, _eal_; Ger. _all_, Gael. _uile_, W. _oll._] ALLAH, al'la, _n._ the Arabic name of the one God. [Ar. _al-ilâh_, 'the worthy to be adored.'] ALLANTOIS, a-lan't[=o]-is, _n._ a membranous sac-like appendage for effecting oxygenation in the embryos of mammals, birds, and reptiles.--_adjs._ ALLANT[=O]'IC, ALLAN'TOID. [Gr. _allas_, a sausage.] ALLAY, al-l[=a]', _v.t._ to lighten, relieve: to make quiet or calm.--_n._ ALLAY'MENT (_obs._), state of being allayed: state of rest: that which allays. [M. E. forms, _aleggen_, _aleyen_ (A.S. _a-lecgan_; lecgan, causal of _licgan_, to lie); identical in form, and accordingly confounded in meaning with M. E. words of Latin origin; _alegge_ (later _allege_, now obs.)--L. _allevi[=a]re_; _alaye_ (modern _allay_, _alloy_)--L. _allig[=a]re_; _aleye_ (obs.)--L. _alleg[=a]re_; _alegge_ (modern _allege_)--Low L. _ex-litig[=a]re_.] ALLAY, an obsolete form of ALLOY. ALLEDGE. Old spelling of ALLEGE. ALLEGE, al-lej', _v.t._ to produce as an argument or plea: to assert: (_B_.) to give proofs--_n._ ALLEG[=A]'TION, an assertion.--_p.adj._ ALLEGED', cited, quoted. [Through O. Fr. forms from Low L. _ex-litig[=a]re_, to clear at law. See ALLAY above.] ALLEGIANCE, al-l[=e]j'i-ans, _n._ the duty of a subject to his liege or sovereign.--_adj._ ALL[=E]'GIANT. [L. _ad_, to, and LIEGE.] ALLEGORY, al'le-gor-i, _n._ a description of one thing under the image of another.--_adjs._ ALLEGOR'IC, -al, in the form of an allegory: figurative.--_adv._ ALLEGOR'ICALLY.--_v.t._ AL'LEGORISE, to put in form of an allegory.--_v.i._ to use allegory.--_ns._ AL'LEGORIST, one who uses allegory; ALLEGORIZ[=A]'TION. [Gr. _all[=e]goria_; _allos_, other, and _agoreuein_, to speak.] ALLEGRO, al-l[=e]'gr[=o], _adv._ and _adj._ (_mus._) a word denoting a brisk movement.--_adv._ and _adj._ ALLEGRET'TO, somewhat brisk. [It.--L. _alacer_, brisk.] ALLELUIA, ALLELUIAH, al-le-l[=oo]'ya. Same as HALLELUIAH. ALLEMANDE, al'le-mand, _n._ a name given to various Germain dances: (_mus._) the first movement after the prelude in a suite. [Fr. _Allemande_, German.] ALLENARLY, al-len'ar-li, _adv._ solely, only--obsolete save only in Scotch conveyancing. [All, and _anerly_, formed from _ane_, one.] ALLEVIATE, al-l[=e]v'i-[=a]t, _v.t._ to make light: to mitigate.--_ns._ ALLEVI[=A]'TION; ALLEV'I[=A]TOR. [L. _ad_, _levis_, light.] ALLEY, al'li, _n._ a walk in a garden or shrubbery: a passage in a city narrower than a street: a long narrow enclosure for playing at bowls or skittles:--_pl._ ALL'EYS. [O. Fr. _alee_ (Fr. _allée_), a passage, from _aller_, to go, O. Fr. _aner_, most prob. from L. _adn[=a]re_, to go to by water, or _adit[=a]re_, _ad[=i]re_.] ALLEY, ALLY, al'li, _n._ a name given by boys to a choice taw or large marble. [Contraction of _alabaster_, of which it was originally made.] ALL-FIRED, awl-f[=i]rd', _adj._ (_slang_) infernal.--_adv._ excessively. [A softening of _hell-fired_, U.S.] ALL-FOOLS'-DAY, awl-f[=oo]lz'-d[=a], _n._ April first. [From the sportive deceptions practised on that day.] ALL-FOURS, awl-f[=o]rz', _n.pl._ (preceded by _on_) on four legs, or on two hands and two feet: a game at cards played by two, so called from the four particulars by which the reckoning is made--_high_, _low_, _Jack_, and _the game_: also a game at dominoes. ALL-HAIL, awl-h[=a]l', _interj._ all health! a phrase of salutation. [See HAIL, interj.] ALL-HALLOW, awl-hal'l[=o], ALL-HALLOWS, awl-hal'l[=o]z, _n._ the day of all the holy ones. See ALL-SAINTS. [ALL and HALLOW.] ALL-HALLOW-MASS. See HALLOW-MASS. ALL-HALLOWN, awl-hal'l[=o]n, _n._ (_Shak._) fine summer weather late in the season--near All-hallows-day. ALL-HALLOW-TIDE, awl-hal'l[=o]-t[=i]d, _n._ the time near All-hallows-day. [See HALLOW and TIDE.] ALLHEAL, awl-h[=e]l', _n._ (_obs._) a balsam for all wounds, a panacea--applied to various plants, as the mistletoe, the great valerian, &c. ALLIACEOUS, al-li-[=a]'shus, _adj._ pertaining to, or having the properties of allium or garlic. [L. _allium_, garlic.] ALLIANCE, al-l[=i]'ans, _n._ state of being allied: union by marriage or treaty. [See ALLY.] ALLIGATION, al-li-g[=a]'shun, _n._ (_arith._) a rule for finding the price of a compound of ingredients of different values. [L. _alligatio_, a binding together--_ad_, to, and _lig[=a]re_, to bind.] ALLIGATOR, al'li-g[=a]-tur, _n._ an animal of the crocodile genus, found in America. [Sp. _el lagarto_--L. _lacerta_, a lizard.] ALLINEATION, ALINEATION, al-lin-e-[=a]'shun, _n._ the position of two or more bodies in a straight line with a given point. ALLISION, al-lizh'un, _n._ a striking against. [L. _allisio_, from _allid[)e]re_--_ad_, and _læd[)e]re_, to hurt.] ALLITERATION, al-lit-[.e]r-[=a]'shun, _n._ the recurrence of the same letter at the beginning of two or more words following close to each other, as in Churchill's '_a_pt _a_lliteration's _a_rtful _a_id:' the recurrence of the same initial sound in the first accented syllables of words: initial rhyme--the characteristic structure of versification of Old English and Teutonic languages generally. Every alliterative couplet had two accented syllables, containing the same initial consonants, one in each of the two sections.--_v.i._ ALLIT'ERATE, to begin with the same letter: to constitute alliteration.--_adj._ ALLIT'ERATIVE. [Fr.--L. _ad_, to, and _litera_, a letter.] ALLOCATE, al'lo-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to place: to assign to each his share.--_n._ ALLOC[=A]'TION, act of allocating: allotment: an allowance made upon an account. [L. _alloc[=a]re_, _ad_, to, and _loc[=a]re_, _locus_, a place.] ALLOCUTION, al-lo-k[=u]'shun, _n._ a formal address, esp. of the Pope to his clergy. [L. _allocutionem_--_ad_, to, and _loqui_, _locutus_, to speak.] ALLODIAL, al-l[=o]'di-al, _adj._ held independent of a superior: freehold--opp. to _Feudal_. ALLODIUM, al-l[=o]'di-um, _n._ freehold estate: land held in the possession of the owner without being subject to a feudal superior.--Also ALLOD, ALOD. [Low L. _all[=o]dium_--Ger. _alôd_, _allôd_.] ALLOGRAPH, al'l[=o]-graf, _n._ a writing made by one person on behalf of another. [Gr. _allos_, other, _graph[=e]_, writing.] ALLOPATHY, al-lop'a-thi, _n._ a name given by homeopathists to the current or orthodox medical practice, to distinguish it from their own Homeopathy.--_adj._ ALLOPATH'IC--_ns._ ALLOP'ATHIST, ALLOPATH. [Coined by Hahnemann (1755-1843), Ger. _allopathie_--Gr. _allos_, other, _patheia_, _pathos_, suffering.] ALLOPHYLIAN, al-l[=o]-f[=i]l'i-an, _adj._ of another race, alien--applied by Prichard (1786-1848) to the Turanian or non-Aryan and non-Semitic languages of Europe and Asia.--_n._ ALLOPHYLE'. [L.--Gr. _alloph[=y]los_, of another tribe; _allos_, other, _ph[=y]l[=e]_, a tribe.] ALLOT, al-lot', _v.t._ to divide as by lot: to distribute in portions: to parcel out:--_pr.p._ allot'ting; _pa.p._ allot'ted.--_n._ ALLOT'MENT, the act of allotting: part or share allotted: a portion of a field assigned to a cottager to labour for himself. [O. Fr. _aloter_; _lot_ is Teut., seen in Goth. _hlauts_, A.S. _hlot_.] ALLOTROPY, al-lot'ro-pi, _n._ the property in some elements, as carbon, of existing in more than one form.--_adj._ ALLOT'ROPIC. [Gr.; _allos_, another, and _tropos_, form.] ALLOVERISHNESS, awl-[=o]'v[.e]r-ish-nes, _n._ a general sense of indisposition over the whole body, a feeling of discomfort, malaise.--_adj._ ALL[=O]'VERISH. ALLOW, al-low', _v.t._ to grant: to permit: to acknowledge: to abate: make allowance for: (_obs._) invest, entrust: assert, say (_coll._ in U.S.).--_adj._ ALLOW'ABLE, that may be allowed: not forbidden: lawful.--_n._ ALLOW'ABLENESS.--_adv._ ALLOW'ABLY.--_n._ ALLOW'ANCE, that which is allowed: a limited portion of anything: a stated quantity--of money, &c., to meet expenses: abatement: approbation: permission.--_v.t._ to put any one upon an allowance: to supply anything in limited quantities.--TO MAKE ALLOWANCE FOR, to take excusing circumstances into account. [O. Fr. _alouer_, to grant--L. _ad_, to, and _loc[=a]re_, to place.--ALLOW, in the sense of _approve_ or _sanction_, as used in _B._ and by old writers, has its root in L. _allaud[=a]re_--_ad-_, and _laud[=a]re_, to praise.] ALLOY, al-loi', _v.t._ to mix one metal with another: to reduce the purity of a metal by mixing a baser one with it: (_fig._) to debase: to temper or qualify.--_n._ a mixture of two or more metals (when mercury is one of the ingredients, it is an _amalgam_): a baser metal mixed with a finer: anything that deteriorates.--_n._ ALLOY'AGE, the act of alloying or mixing metals: a mixture of different metals. [O. Fr. _alei_ (Fr. _aloi_), _aleier_--L. _allig[=a]re_. The modern Fr. words _aloi_ and _aloyer_ were confounded with Fr. _à loi_, to law, and the same confusion was transferred into English.] ALL-SAINTS'-DAY, awl-s[=a]nts'-d[=a], _n._ November 1, a feast of the Church in honour of all the saints collectively. [See ALL-HALLOWS.] ALL-SOULS'-DAY, awl-s[=o]lz'-d[=a], _n._ November 2, a feast of the Roman Catholic Church kept in commemoration of all the faithful departed, for the eternal repose of their souls. ALLSPICE, awl'sp[=i]s, _n._ a name given to a kind of spice called Pimenta or Jamaica pepper, from its being supposed to combine the flavour of cinnamon, nutmeg, and cloves. [ALL and SPICE.] ALLUDE, al-l[=u]d', _v.i._ to mention slightly, or convey an indirect reference to, in passing: to refer to.--_n._ ALL[=U]'SION, an indirect reference.--_adj._ ALLUS'IVE, alluding to: hinting at: referring to indirectly.--_adv._ ALLUS'IVELY.--ALLUSIVE ARMS (_her._), also _canting_ or _punning_ arms, and _armes parlantes_, those in which the charges convey reference to the bearer's name or title, as the column of the Colonna family, the Vele calf (O. Fr. _veël_, a calf), the Arundel martlets (O. Fr. _arondel_, a young swallow). [L. _allud[)e]re_--_ad_, at, _lud[)e]re_, _lusum_, to play.] ALLUMETTE, al-[=u]-m[.e]t', _n._ a match for lighting. [Fr.] ALLURE, al-l[=u]r', _v.t._ to draw on as by a lure or bait: to entice.--_n._ ALLURE'MENT.--_adj._ ALLUR'ING, enticing: seductive: charming.--_adv._ ALLUR'INGLY. [O. Fr. _alurer_--_à_, to, _lurer_, to LURE.] ALLUVION, al-l[=u]'vi-un, _n._ land gained from the sea by the washing up of sand and earth. [L. _alluvio_--_allu[)e]re_. See ALLUVIUM.] ALLUVIUM, al-l[=u]'vi-um, _n._ the mass of water-borne matter deposited by rivers on lower lands:--_pl._ ALL[=U]'VIA.--_adj._ ALL[=U]'VIAL. [L.--_allu[)e]re_, to wash to or on--_ad_, and _lu[)e]re_ = _lav[=a]re_, to wash.] ALLY, al-l[=i]', _v.t._ to form a relation by marriage, friendship, treaty, or resemblance.--_pa.p._ and _adj._ ALLIED'.--_n._ ALLY (al-l[=i]', or al'l[=i]), a confederate: a prince or state united by treaty or league:--_pl._ ALL[=I]ES', or AL'L[=I]ES. [O. Fr. _alier_--L. _allig[=a]re_--_ad_, to, _lig[=a]re_, to bind.] ALMA, ALMAH, al'ma, _n._ an Egyptian dancing-girl.--Also ALME, ALMEH. [Ar. _`almah_, learned, _`alamah_, to know.] ALMACANTAR, al-mak-an'tar, _n._ a name for circles of altitude parallel to the horizon, and hence for an astronomical instrument for determining time and latitude. [Ar. _almuqantar[=a]t_, _qantarah_, an arch.] ALMAGEST, al'ma-jest, _n._ a collection of problems in geometry and astronomy, drawn up by the Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy (about 140 A.D.), so named by the Arabs as the greatest and largest on the subject. [Ar. _al_, the, and Gr. _megistos_, greatest.] ALMAIN, al'm[=a]n, _n._ (_obs._) an inhabitant of Germany: a kind of dance music in slow time. [Fr. _Allemand_--_Allemanni_, an ancient German tribe.] ALMANAC, al'ma-nak, _n._ a register of the days, weeks, and months of the year, &c.--_n._ ALMANOG'RAPHER, an almanac-maker. [Most prob. the original of the word as in Fr., It., and Sp. was a Spanish-Arabic _al-man[=a]kh_. Eusebius has _almenichiaka_, an Egyptian word, prob. sig. 'daily observation of things,' but the history of the word has not been traced, and it is hazardous without evidence to connect this with the Arabic word.] ALMANDINE, al'man-d[=i]n, _n._ a red transparent variety of the garnet.--Also AL'MANDIN. [Earlier ALABANDINE--Low L. _alabandina_--_Alabanda_, a town in Caria, a province of Asia Minor, where it was found.] ALMIGHTY, awl-m[=i]t'i, _adj._ possessing all might or power: omnipotent: very powerful generally: (_slang_) mighty, great.--Older form ALMIGHT'.--_adv._ ALMIGHT'ILY.--_ns._ ALMIGHT'INESS, ALMIGHT'YSHIP.--THE ALMIGHTY, God; THE ALMIGHTY DOLLAR, a phrase of Washington Irving's, expressive of the greatness of the power of money. [A.S. _ælmeahtig_. See ALL and MIGHTY.] ALMNER, an old spelling of ALMONER. ALMOND, ä'mund, _n._ the fruit of the almond-tree.--_n.pl._ ALMONDS (ä'mundz), the tonsils or glands of the throat, so called from their resemblance to the fruit of the almond-tree. [O. Fr. _almande_ (Fr. _amande_)--L. _amygdalum_--Gr. _amygdal[=e]_.] ALMONER, al'mun-[.e]r, _n._ a distributer of alms.--_n._ AL'MONRY, the place where alms are distributed. [O. Fr. _aumoner_, _aumonier_ (Fr. _aumônier_)--Low L. _eleemosynarius_ (adj.). See ALMS.] ALMOST, awl'm[=o]st, _adv._ nearly, all but, very nearly. [ALL and MOST.] ALMRY, äm'ri, _n._ Same as ALMONRY. ALMS, ämz, _n._ relief given out of pity to the poor.--_ns._ ALMS'-DEED, a charitable deed; ALMS'-DRINK (_Shak._), leavings of drink; ALMS'-FEE, an annual tax of one penny on every hearth, formerly sent from England to Rome, Peter's pence; ALMS'HOUSE, a house endowed for the support and lodging of the poor; ALMS'-MAN, a man who lives by alms. [A.S. _ælmysse_, through Late L., from Gr. _ele[=e]mosyn[=e]_--_eleos_, compassion. Dr Murray notes the Scot. and North Country _almous_, _awmous_, as an independent adoption of the cognate Norse _almusa_; and the legal ALMOIGN, ALMOIN, perpetual tenure by free gift of charity, from O. Fr., perhaps due to a confusion with _alimonium_.] ALMUCE, an early form of AMICE. ALMUG, al'mug, _n._ the wood of a tree described in the Bible as brought from Ophir in the time of Solomon, for the house and temple at Jerusalem, and for musical instruments--probably the red sandalwood of India. [Heb. _algummîm_, _almuggîm_. The better form is ALGUM.] ALOE, al'[=o], _n._ a genus of plants of considerable medicinal importance, of the 200 species of which as many as 170 are indigenous to the Cape Colony.--The so-called American Aloe is a totally different plant (see AGAVE).--_adj._ AL'OED, planted or shaded with aloes.--The ALOES WOOD of the Bible was the heart-wood of _Aquilaria ovata_ and _Aquilaria Agallochum_, large spreading trees. The wood contains a dark-coloured, fragrant, resinous substance, much prized for the odour it diffuses in burning. [The word was used erroneously in the Septuagint and New Testament as a translation of the Heb. _ah[=a]l[=i]m_, _ah[=a]l[=o]th_ (Gr. _agallochon_), an aromatic resin or wood--called later in Gr. _xylalo[=e]_, from which descend _lignum aloes_, _lign-aloes_, _wood-aloes_, and _aloes-wood_.--A.S. _aluwan_--L. _alo[=e]_--Gr. _alo[=e]_.] ALOES, al'[=o]z, a purgative bitter drug, the inspissated juice of the leaves of several almost tree-like species of aloe. Used both as a _sing. n._, and as a _pl._ of ALOE.--_n._ and _adj._ ALOET'IC, a medicine containing a large proportion of aloes. ALOFT, a-loft', _adv._ on high: overhead: at a great height: (_naut._) above the deck, at the masthead: sometimes used as equivalent to _aloof_ (_Mad. D'Arblay_). [Scand.; Icel. _á lopt_ (pron. _loft_), expressing motion; _á lopti_, expressing positio_n._ Pfx. _a-_ = Icel. _á_ = A.S. _on_, in. See LOFT.] ALONE, al-[=o]n', _adj._ single: solitary: alone of its kind: of itself, or by themselves.--_adv._ singly, by one's self only.--_n._ ALONE'NESS [ALL and ONE.] ALONG, a-long', _adv._ by or through the length of: lengthwise: throughout: onward: (fol. by _with_) in company of.--_prep._ by the side of: near.--_n.pl._ ALONG'SHORE-MEN, labourers employed about the docks or wharves in the Thames and other rivers.--_prep._ ALONG'SIDE, by the side, beside.--ALONG OF, (_arch._ or _dial._) owing to. [A.S. _andlang_--pfx. _and-_, against, and _lang_, LONG.] ALONGST, a-longst', _prep._ (_obs._ except _dial._) along: by the length. [M. E. _alongest_, from _along_, with adv. gen. _-es_.] ALOOF, a-l[=oo]f', _adv._ at a distance: apart.--_n._ ALOOF'NESS, withdrawal from common action or sympathy. [Pfx. _a-_ (--A.S. _on_), on, and LOOF, prob. Dut. _loef._ See LUFF.] ALOPECIA, al-o-p[=e]'si-a, _n._ baldness: a skin-disease producing this. [Gr. _alopekia_, fox-mange.] ALOUD, a-lowd', _adv._ with a loud voice: loudly. [Prep. _a_ (--A.S. _on_), and _hlúd_, noise; Ger. _laut_.] ALOW, a-l[=o]', _adv._ in a low place--opp. to _Aloft_. ALOW, al-low', _adv._ (_Scot._) ablaze. [Prep. _a_, and LOW, a flame.] ALP, alp, _n._ a high mountain:--_pl._ ALPS, specially applied to the lofty ranges of Switzerland.--_adjs._ ALP'EN; ALPINE (alp'in, or alp'[=i]n), pertaining to the Alps, or to any lofty mountains: very high.--_ns._ AL'PINIST, ALPES'TRIAN, one devoted to Alpine climbing. [L.; of Celtic origin; cf. Gael. _alp_, a mountain; allied to L. _albus_, white (with snow).] ALPACA, al-pak'a, _n._ the Peruvian sheep, akin to the llama, having long silken wool: cloth made of its wool. [Sp. _alpaca_ or _al-paco_, from _al_, Arab. article, and _paco_, most prob. a Peruvian word.] ALPENHORN, al'pen-horn, _n._ a long powerful horn, wide and curved at the mouth, used chiefly by Alpine cowherds.--Also ALP'HORN. [Gr. _Alpen_, of the Alps, _horn_, horn.] ALPENSTOCK, alp'n-stok, _n._ a long stick or staff used by travellers in climbing the Alps. [Ger. _Alpen_, of the Alps; _stock_, stick.] ALPHA, al'fa, _n._ the first letter of the Greek alphabet: the first or beginning. [Gr. _alpha_--Heb. _aleph_, an ox, the name of the first letter of the Phoenician and Hebrew alphabet. See A.] ALPHABET, al'fa-bet, _n._ the letters of a language arranged in the usual order.--_n._ ALPHABET[=A]'RIAN, one learning his alphabet, a beginner: a student of alphabets.--_adjs._ ALPHABET'IC, -AL, relating to or in the order of an alphabet.--_adv._ ALPHABET'ICALLY.--_v.t._ AL'PHABETISE, to arrange alphabetically:--_pr.p._ al'phabet[=i]sing; _pa.p._ al'phabet[=i]sed. [Gr. _alpha_, _beta_, the first two Greek letters.] ALPHONSINE, al'fons-[=i]n, _adj._ of Alphonso (X.) the Wise, king of Castile, pertaining to his planetary tables, completed in 1252. ALREADY, awl-red'i, _adv._ previously, or before the time specified.--Sometimes used adjectively = present. [ALL and READY.] ALS, an old form of ALSO. ALSATIAN, al-s[=a]'shi-an, _adj._ of or pertaining to Alsatia (Ger. _Elsass_), a province between France and Germany.--_n._ a rogue or debauchee, such as haunted Alsatia--a cant name for Whitefriars, a district in London between the Thames and Fleet Street, which enjoyed privileges of sanctuary down to 1697, and was consequently infested with lawless characters. See Scott's _Fortunes of Nigel_. ALSO, awl'so, _adv._ in like manner: further. [Compounded of _all_ and _so_; A.S. _al_ and _swá_.] ALT, alt, _n._ high tone, in voice or instrument.--IN ALT, in the octave above the treble stave beginning with G; (_fig._) in an exalted and high-flown mood. ALTALTISSIMO, alt-al-tis'si-mo, _n._ the very highest summit. [It. reduplicated comp. of _alto_, high, and _altissimo_, highest.] ALTAR, awlt'ar, _n._ an elevated place or structure, block or stone, or the like, on which sacrifices were anciently offered: in Christian churches, the table on which the officiating priest consecrates the eucharist: the communion table: (_fig._) a place of worship.--_ns._ ALT'ARAGE, offerings made upon the altar during the offertory, provided for the maintenance of the priest; ALT'AR-CLOTH, the covering of the altar, placed over and around it, of silk, velvet, satin, or cloth, often used as including the frontal (_antependium_), and the super-frontal; ALT'ARPIECE, a decorative screen, retable, or reredos, placed behind an altar--a work of art, whether a sacred painting or sculpture.--_n.pl._ ALT'AR-RAILS, rails separating the sacrarium from the rest of the chancel.--_ns._ ALT'AR-STONE, the slab forming the top or chief part of an altar; ALT'AR-TOMB, a monumental memorial, in form like an altar, often with a canopy. These were often placed over the vaults or burying-place, and frequently on the north and south walls of choirs, aisles, and chantry chapels.--_adj._ ALT'ARWISE, placed like an altar--north and south, at the upper end of the chancel.--FAMILY ALTAR, the practice or the place of private devotional worship in the family; HIGH ALTAR, the principal altar in a cathedral or other church having more than one altar; PORTABLE ALTAR, a small tablet of marble, jasper, or precious stone, used by special license for Mass when said away from the parish altar, in oratories or other similar places. It was termed _super-altare_, because commonly placed upon some other altar, or some fitting construction of wood or stone. [L. _alt[=a]re_--_altus_, high.] ALTAZIMUTH, alt-az'i-muth, _n._ an instrument devised by Sir G. B. Airy for determining the apparent places of the heavenly bodies on the celestial sphere. [A contr. for '_altitude_ and _azimuth_ instrument.'] ALTER, awl't[.e]r, _v.t._ to make different: to change: (_U.S._) to castrate.--_v.i._ to become different: to vary.--_ns._ ALTERABIL'ITY, AL'TERABLENESS.--_adj._ AL'TERABLE, that may be altered.--_adv._ AL'TERABLY.--_adj._ AL'TERANT, altering: having the power of producing changes.--_n._ ALTER[=A]'TION, change.--_adj._ AL'TERATIVE, having power to alter.--_n._ a medicine that makes a change in the vital functions.--_n._ ALTER'ITY (_Coleridge_), the state of being other or different. [L. _alter_, another--_al_ (root of _alius_, other), and the old comp. suffix _-ter_ = Eng. _-ther_.] ALTERCATE, al't[.e]r-k[=a]t, _v.i._ to dispute or wrangle.--_n._ ALTERC[=A]'TION, contention: controversy.--_adj._ ALTERC[=A]'TIVE. [L. _alterc[=a]ri_, _-catus_, to bandy words from one to the other (_alter_).] ALTER EGO, al't[.e]r [=e]'go, _n._ second self, counterpart, double. [L. _alter_, other; _ego_, I.] ALTERNATE, al't[.e]r-n[=a]t, or al-t[.e]r'n[=a]t, _v.t._ to cause to follow by turns or one after the other.--_v.i._ to happen by turns: to follow every other or second time--also AL'TERNISE.--_adjs._ AL'TERN (_Milton_), alternate, acting by turns; ALTER'NANT (_geol._), in alternate layers; ALTER'NATE, one after the other: by turns.--_adv._ ALTER'NATELY.--_ns._ ALTER'NATENESS, ALTER'NACY (_rare_); ALTERN[=A]'TION, the act of alternating: interchange: reading or singing antiphonally.--_adj._ ALTER'NATIVE, offering a choice of two things.--_n._ a choice between two things.--_adv._ ALTER'NATIVELY. [L. _alter_, other.] ALTHÆA, al-th[=e]'a, _n._ a genus of plants including the marsh mallow and the hollyhock. [Gr.] ALTHOUGH, awl-_th_[=o]', _conj._ admitting all that: notwithstanding that. [See THOUGH.] ALTIMETER, al-tim'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring heights.--_adj._ ALTIMET'RICAL.--_n._ ALTIM'ETRY. [L. _altus_, high, and METER.] ALTISSIMO, al-tis'si-mo, _adj._ (_mus._) in phrase 'in altissimo,' in the second octave above the treble stave beginning with G. [It. _altissimo_, superl. of _alto_, high.] ALTITUDE, alt'i-tude, _n._ height: a point or position at a height above the sea: high rank or eminence.--_n.pl._ ALT'ITUDES, passion, excitement.--_adj._ ALTIT[=U]'DINAL.--_n._ ALTITUDIN[=A]'RIAN, one given to flightiness in doctrine or belief. [L. _altitudo_--_altus_, high.] ALTO, alt'o, _n._ (_mus._) properly the same as counter-tenor, the male voice of the highest pitch (now principally _falsetto_), and not the lowest female voice, which is properly _contralto_, though in printed music the second part in a quartet is always called _alto_. [It.--L. _altus_, high.] ALTOGETHER, awl-too-ge_th_'[.e]r, _adv._ all together: wholly: completely: without exception. ALTO-RELIEVO, ALTO-RILIEVO, alt'o-re-l[=e]'vo, _n._ high relief: figures projected by at least half their thickness from the background on which they are sculptured. [It. _alto_, high. See RELIEF.] ALTRUISM, al'tr[=oo]-ism, _n._ the principle of living and acting for the interest of others.--_adj._ ALTRUIST'IC.--_adv._ ALTRUIST'ICALLY. [Fr. _altruisme_, formed by Comte from It. _altrui_--L. _alter_, another.] ALUM, al'um, _n._ a mineral salt, the double sulphate of alumina and potash, used as a mordant in dyeing and for many purposes.--_adj._ AL'UMISH, having the character or taste of alum.--_ns._ AL'UM-SHALE, or -SLATE, a slate consisting mainly of clay, iron pyrites, and coaly matter, from which alum is obtained. [L. _alumen_.] ALUMINA, al-[=u]'min-a, ALUMINE, al'[=u]-min, _n._ one of the earths, the characteristic ingredient of common clay--the oxide of aluminium.--_adj._ AL[=U]'MINOUS, containing alum or alumina. [L. _alumen_, alum.] ALUMINIUM, al-[=u]-min'i-um, _n._ the metallic base of alumina; a metal somewhat resembling silver, and remarkable for its lightness, now made from Bauxite.--ALUMINIUM BRONZE, an alloy lighter than gold, but like it in colour. [First called _Aluminum_ by the discoverer, Sir H. Davy (1778-1829).] ALUMNUS, al-um'nus, _n._ one educated at a college is called an _alumnus_ of it:--_pl._ ALUM'NI.--_n._ ALUM'NIATE, the period of pupilage. [L.,--_al[)e]re_, to nourish.] ALUNITE, al'un-[=i]t, _n._ a mineral consisting of common alum together with normal hydrate of aluminium.--Also ALUM-STONE, ALUMIN'ILITE. ALURE, al-l[=u]r', _n._ (_obs._) a place to walk in, a gallery, a covered passage. [O. Fr. _aleure_, _aller_, to go.] ALVEARY, al've-ar-i, _n._ a beehive: (_anat._) the hollow of the external ear.--_adj._ AL'VEOLATE, pitted like a honeycomb. [L. _alvearium_, beehive--_alveus_, a hollow vessel.] ALVEOLAR, al've-o-lar, _adj._ (_anat._) of or belonging to the sockets of the teeth, as the alveolar arch, the part of the upper jaw in which the teeth are placed--also AL'VEOLARY.--_n._ AL'VEOLE, the hollow or socket of a tooth--more common ALV[=E]'OLUS. ALVINE, al'vin, _adj._ of or from the belly. [From L. _alvus_, belly.] ALWAYS, awl'w[=a]z, ALWAY, awl'w[=a], _adv._ through all ways: continually: for ever. [Gen. case of ALWAY.] AM, am, the 1st pers. sing, of the verb To be. [A.S. _eom_; Gr. _ei-mi_; Lat. _s-u-m_ (_as_-(_u_)-_mi_); Goth. _-im_; Sans. _as-mi_.] AMADOU, am'a-d[=oo], _n._ a soft spongy substance, growing as a fungus on forest trees, used as a styptic and as tinder. [Fr. _amadouer_, to allure (as in the phrase 'to _coax_ a fire'); prob. of Scand. origin; cf. Norse _mata_, to feed.] AMAIN, a-m[=a]n', _adv._ with main force or strength: violently: at full speed: exceedingly. [Pfx. _a-_ = _on_, and MAIN.] AMALGAM, a-mal'gam, _n._ a compound of mercury with another metal: any soft mixture: a combination of various elements: one of the ingredients in an alloy.--_v.t._ AMAL'GAMATE, to mix mercury with another metal: to compound.--_v.i._ to unite in an amalgam: to blend.--_n._ AMALGAM[=A]'TION, the blending of different things: a homogeneous union of diverse elements.--_adj._ AMALGAM[=A]'TIVE. [L. and Gr. _malagma_, an emollient--Gr. _malassein_, to soften.] AMANDINE, am'an-din, _n._ a kind of cold cream prepared from sweet almonds. [Fr.--_amande_, almond.] AMANUENSIS, a-man-[=u]-en'sis, _n._ one who writes to dictation: a copyist: a secretary:--_pl._ AMANUEN'S[=E]S. [L.--_ab_, from, and _manus_, the hand.] AMARACUS, a-mar'a-kus, _n._ (_Tennyson_) marjoram. [L.--Gr.] AMARANTH, -US, am'ar-anth, -us, _n._ a genus of plants with richly-coloured flowers, that last long without withering, as Love-lies-bleeding, early employed as an emblem of immortality.--_adj._ AMARANTH'INE, pertaining to amaranth: unfading. [Through Fr. and L. from Gr. _amarantos_, unfading--_a_, neg., and root _mar_, to waste away; allied to L. _mori_, to die.] AMARYLLIS, am-a-ril'is, _n._ a genus of bulbous-rooted plants, including the narcissus, jonquil, &c. [_Amaryllis_, the name of a country girl in Theocritus and Virgil.] AMASS, a-mas', _v.t._ to gather in large quantity: to accumulate.--_adjs._ AMASS'ABLE.--_pa.p._ AMASSED'.--_n._ AMASS'MENT. [Fr. _amasser_--L. _ad_, to, and _massa_, a mass.] AMASTHENIC, am-as-then'ik, _adj._ uniting all the chemical rays of light into one focus, applied to a lens perfect for photographic purposes. [Gr. _hama_, together, _sthenos_, force.] AMATE, a-m[=a]t', _v.t._ to accompany: (_Spens._) to match. [Pfx. _a-_, and MATE.] AMATE, a-m[=a]t', _v.t._ (_arch._) to subdue, to daunt, to stupefy. [O. Fr. _amatir_, to subdue.] AMATEUR, am'at-[=u]r, or am-at-[=a]r', _n._ one who cultivates a particular study or art for the love of it, and not professionally: in general terms, one who plays a game for pleasure, as distinguished from a professional who plays for money--nearly every game has its special definition to meet its own requirements.--_adjs._ AMATEUR; AMATEUR'ISH, imperfect and defective, as the work of an amateur rather than a professional hand.--_adv._ AMATEUR'ISHLY.--_ns._ AMATEUR'ISHNESS; AMATEUR'ISM, AMATEUR'SHIP. [Fr.--L. _amator_, a lover, _am[=a]re_, to love.] AMATIVE, am'at-iv, _adj._ relating to love: amorous.--_n._ AM'ATIVENESS, propensity to love or to sexuality. [From L. _am[=a]re_, -_[=a]tum_, to love.] AMATORY, am'at-or-i, _adj._ relating to or causing love: affectionate.--_adjs._ AM'ATORY, AMAT[=O]'RIAL, AMAT[=O]'RIAN (_obs._).--_adv._ AMAT[=O]'RIALLY. AMAUROSIS, am-aw-r[=o]'sis, _n._ total blindness when no change can be seen in the eye sufficient to account for it; _Amblyopia_ being partial loss of sight under similar circumstances. The old name was _Gutta serena_--the 'drop serene' of _Paradise Lost_, iii. 25.--_adj._ AMAUR[=O]'TIC. [Gr. _amaur[=o]sis_, _amauros_, dark.] AMAZE, a-m[=a]z', _v.t._ to confound with surprise or wonder.--_n._ astonishment: perplexity (much less common than AMAZE'MENT).--_adv._ AMAZ'EDLY, with amazement or wonder.--_n._ AMAZE'MENT, AMAZ'EDNESS (_rare_), surprise mingled with wonder: astonishment.--_p.adj._ AMAZE'ING, causing amazement, astonishment: astonishing.--_adv._ AMAZ'INGLY. [Pfx. _a-_, and MAZE.] AMAZON, am'az-on, _n._ one of a fabled nation of female warriors: a masculine woman: a virago.--_adj._ AMAZ[=O]'NIAN, of or like an Amazon: of masculine manners: warlike. [Popular Gr. ety. from _a_, neg., _mazos_, a breast--they being fabled to cut off the right breast that they might draw the bow to its head (of course all this is idle); some have suggested an original in the Circassian _maza_, the moon.] AMBAGE, am'b[=a]j, _n._ roundabout phrases: circuitous paths, windings: dark and mysterious courses:--_pl._ AM'BAGES.--_adj._ AMB[=A]'GIOUS, circumlocutory: circuitous.--_adv._ AMB[=A]'GIOUSLY.--_n._ AMB[=A]'GIOUSNESS--_adj._ AMB[=A]'GITORY (_rare_). AMBASSADOR, am-bas'a-dur, _n._ a diplomatic minister of the highest order sent by one sovereign power to another:--_fem._ AMBASS'ADRESS.--_adj._ AMBASSAD[=O]'RIAL.--_n._ AMBASS'ADORSHIP.--_n._ AMBASS'AGE--now usually EMBASSAGE, the position, or the business, of an ambassador: a number of men despatched on an embassy or mission.--AMBASSADOR EXTRAORDINARY, an ambassador sent on a special occasion, as distinguished from the ordinary or resident ambassador. [It. _ambasciadore_--L. _ambactus_, derived by Grimm from Goth. _andbahts_, a servant, whence Ger. _amt_, office; by Zeuss and others traced to a Celtic source, and identified with W. _amaeth_, a husbandman.] AMBE, am'b[=e], _n._ an old mechanical contrivance, ascribed to Hippocrates, for reducing dislocations of the shoulder. [Gr. _amb[=e]_, Ionic for _amb[=o]n_, a ridge.] AMBER, am'b[.e]r, _n._ a yellowish fossil resin, used in making ornaments.--_adjs._ AM'BERED (_obs._), flavoured with amber or ambergris; AMB'ERY. [Fr.--Ar. _`anbar_, ambergris.] AMBERGRIS, am'b[.e]r-gr[=e]s, _n._ a fragrant substance of an ash-gray colour, found floating on the sea or on the seacoast of warm countries, and in the intestines of the spermaceti whale. [Fr. _ambre gris_, gray amber.] AMBERITE, am'be-r[=i]t, _n._ a smokeless powder. AMBIDEXTER, am-bi-deks't[.e]r, _adj._ and _n._ able to use both hands with equal facility: double-dealing, or a double-dealer.--_n._ AMBI'DEXTER'ITY, superior cleverness or adaptability.--_adj._ AMBIDEX'TROUS. [L. _ambo_, both, _dexter_, right hand.] AMBIENT, am'bi-ent, _adj._ going round: surrounding: investing.--_n._ an encompassing sphere: the air or sky. [L. _ambi_, about, _iens_, _ientis_, pr.p. of _eo_, _[=i]re_, to go.] AMBIGUOUS, am-big'[=u]-us, _adj._ of doubtful signification: indistinct: wavering or uncertain: equivocal.--_n._ AMBIG[=U]'ITY, uncertainty or dubiousness of meaning--also AMBIG'UOUSNESS.--_adv._ AMBIG'UOUSLY. [L. _ambiguus_--_ambig[)e]re_, to go about--_ambi_, about, _ag[)e]re_, to drive.] AMBIT, am'bit, _n._ a circuit: a space surrounding a house or town: extent of meaning of words, &c. AMBITION, am-bish'un, _n._ the desire of power, honour, fame, excellence.--_n._ AMBI'TIONIST (_Carlyle_), an ambitious man.--_adj._ AMBI'TIOUS, full of ambition (with _of_, formerly _for_): strongly desirous of anything--esp. power: aspiring: indicating ambition: showy or pretentious.--_adv._ AMBI'TIOUSLY.--_n._ AMBI'TIOUSNESS. [Fr.--L. _ambition_-_em_, the going about--that is, the canvassing for votes practised by candidates for office in Rome--_ambi_, about, and _[=i]re_, _itum_, to go.] AMBLE, am'bl, _v.i._ to move as a horse by lifting together both legs on one side alternately with those on the other side: to move at an easy pace affectedly.--_n._ a pace of a horse between a trot and a walk.--_n._ AM'BLER, a horse that ambles: one who ambles in walking or dancing.--_n._ and _adj._ AM'BLING. [Fr. _ambler_--L. _ambul[=a]-re_, to walk about.] AMBLYGON, am'bli-gon, _adj._ obtuse-angled. [Gr. _amblus_, obtuse, _gonia_, angle.] AMBLYOPIA, am-bli-[=o]'pi-a, _n._ dullness of sight (see AMAUROSIS).--_n._ AMBLYOP'SIS, the bony fish found in the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky, the rudimentariness of whose eyes is due to darkness and consequent disuse. [Gr.--_amblys_, dull, _[=o]ps_, eye.] AMBLYSTOMA, am-blis't[=o]-ma, _n._ a genus of tailed amphibians in the gill-less or salamandroid sub-order--the adult form of axolotl. [Gr. _amblys_, blunt, _stoma_, mouth.] AMBO, am'b[=o], _n._ a kind of reading-desk or pulpit, which in early Christian churches was placed in the choir. The ambo had two ascents--one from the east, and the other from the west. [Gr. _amb[=o]n_, a rising.] AMBROSIA, am-br[=o]'zhi-a, _n._ the fabled food of the gods, which gave immortal youth and beauty to those who ate it: the anointing oil of the gods: any finely-flavoured beverage: something delightfully sweet and pleasing.--_adj._ AMBR[=O]'SIAL, fragrant: delicious: immortal: heavenly.--_adv._ AMBR[=O]'SIALLY.--_adj._ AMBR[=O]'SIAN, relating to ambrosia: relating to St Ambrose, bishop of Milan in the 4th century. [L.--Gr. _ambrosios_ = _ambrotos_, immortal--_a_, neg., and _brotos_, mortal, for _mrotos_, Sans. _mrita_, dead--_mri_ (L. _mori_), to die.] [Illustration] AMBRY, am'bri, _n._ a niche in churches in which the sacred utensils were kept: a cupboard for victuals. [O. Fr. _armarie_, a repository for arms (Fr. _armoire_, a cupboard)--L. _armarium_, a chest for arms--_arma_, arms.] AMBS-ACE, [=a]mz'-[=a]s, _n._ double ace: the lowest possible throw at dice: ill-luck: worthlessness. [O. Fr. _ambes as_--L. _ambas as_. See ACE.] AMBULACRUM, am-b[=u]-l[=a]'krum, _n._ a row of pores in the shell of an echinoderm, as a sea-urchin, through which the tube-feet protrude.--_adj._ AMBUL[=A]'CRAL. [L., a walk--_ambul[=a]re_, to walk.] AMBULANCE, am'b[=u]l-ans, _n._ a carriage which follows an army and serves as a movable hospital for the wounded--also used as an _adj._, as in ambulance wagon.--_n._ AMBULAN'CIER, a man attached to an ambulance.--_adj._ AM'BULANT, walking: moving from place to place: (_rare_) unfixed.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ AM'BULATE (_rare_), to walk.--_p.adj._ AM'BULATING.--_n._ AMBUL[=A]'TION.--_adj._ AM'BULATORY, having the power or faculty of walking: moving from place to place, not stationary: mutable.--_n._ any part of a building intended for walking in, as the aisles of a church, or the cloisters of a monastery: any kind of corridor. [Fr.--L. _ambulans_, _-antis_, pr.p. of _ambul[=a]re_, to walk about.] AMBUSCADE, am'busk-[=a]d, _n._ a hiding to attack by surprise: a body of troops in concealment: the hidden place of ambush--used also as a _verb_.--_n._ AMBUSC[=A]'DO, a now archaic form of AMBUSCADE (common in 17th century):--_pl._ AMBUSC[=A]'DOES. [Fr. _embuscade_. See AMBUSH.] AMBUSH, am'boosh, _n._ and _v._ same meanings as AMBUSCADE.--_n._ AM'BUSHMENT (_B._), ambush. [O. Fr. _embusche_ (mod. _embûche_), _embuscher_, Low L. _embosc[=a]re_--_in_-, in, and _boscus_, a bush.] AMEER, or AMERE, a-m[=e]r', _n._ a title of honour, also of an independent ruler in Mohammedan countries. [Ar. _am[=i]r_. See ADMIRAL.] AMELIORATE, a-m[=e]l'yor-[=a]t, _v.t._ to make better: to improve.--_v.i._ to grow better.--_n._ AMELIOR[=A]'TION, the condition of being made better: improvement or the means of such.--_adj._ AMEL'IORATIVE. [L. _ad_, to, and _melior_, better.] AMEN, [=a]'men', or ä'men', _interj._ so let it be!--_v.t._ to say amen to anything, to ratify solemnly. [Gr.--Heb. _[=a]m[=e]n_, firm, true.] AMENABLE, a-m[=e]n'a-bl, _adj._ easy to be led or governed: liable or subject to.--_ns._ AMENABIL'ITY, AMEN'ABLENESS.--_adv._ AMEN'ABLY. [Fr. _amener_, to lead--_a_ = L. _ad_, and _mener_, to lead--Low L. _min[=a]re_, to lead, to drive (as cattle)--L. _min[=a]ri_, to threaten.] AMENAGE, am'e-n[=a]j, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to manage. [O. Fr. _amenager_. See MANAGE.] AMENANCE, am'e-nans, _n._ (_Spens._) conduct, behaviour. [O. Fr. _amenance_, from root of AMENABLE.] AMEND, a-mend', _v.t._ to correct: to improve: to alter in detail, as a bill before parliament, often so fundamentally as to overthrow entirely the thing originally proposed.--_v.i._ to grow or become better.--_adjs._ AMEND'ABLE, AMEND'ATORY, corrective.--_n._ AMEND'MENT, correction: improvement: an alteration proposed on a bill under consideration: a counter-proposal put before a public meeting: a counter-motion.--_n.pl._ AMENDS', supply of a loss: compensation: reparation. [Fr. _amender_ for _emender_--L. _emend[=a]re_, to remove a fault--_e_, _ex_, out of, and _menda_, a fault.] AMENDE, ä-mend', _n._ a fine, penalty.--AMENDE HONORABLE, a public confession and apology made for any offence. [Fr. See AMEND.] AMENITY, am-en'i-ti, _n._ pleasantness, as regards situation, climate, manners, or disposition. [Fr. _aménité_--L. _amoenitas_--_amoenus_, pleasant, from root of _am_-_[=a]re_, to love.] AMENORRHOEA, AMENORRHEA, a-men-[=o]-r[=e]'a, _n._ absence of menstruation. [From Gr. _a_, priv., _m[=e]n_, month, _roia_, a flowing.] AMENTUM, a-men'tum, AMENT, am'ent, _n._ a scaly sort of spike, as of the willow: a catkin:--_pl._ AMEN'TA.--_adjs._ AMENT[=A]'CEOUS, AMEN'TAL. [L. _amentum_, thong.] AMERCE, a-m[.e]rs', _v.t._ to punish by a fine: to deprive of anything, or inflict loss upon.--_n._ AMERCE'MENT, a penalty inflicted--also AMERC'IAMENT. [O. Fr. _amercier_, to impose a fine--L. _merces_, wages, fine.] AMERICAN, a-mer'ik-an, _adj._ pertaining to America, esp. to the United States.--_n._ a native of America.--_v.t._ AMER'ICANISE, to render American.--_n._ AMER'ICANISM, a custom, characteristic, word, phrase, or idiom peculiar to Americans: condition of being an American citizen: devotion to American institutions. [From _America_, so called unfairly from _Amerigo_ Vespucci, a navigator who explored a small part of South America seven years after the first voyage of Columbus.] AMETHYST, a'meth-ist, _n._ a bluish-violet variety of quartz of which drinking cups used to be made, which the ancients supposed prevented drunkenness.--_adj._ AMETHYST'INE, [Gr. _amethystos_--_a_, neg., _methy-ein_, to be drunken--_meth[=u]_, wine, cog. with Eng. _mead_, Sans. _madhu_, sweet.] AMIABLE, [=a]m'i-a-bl, _adj._ lovable: worthy of love: of sweet disposition.--_ns._ AMIABIL'ITY, AM'IABLENESS, quality of being amiable, or of exciting love.--_adv._ AM'IABLY. [O. Fr. _amiable_, friendly--L. _amicabilis_, from _amicus_, a friend; there is a confusion in meaning with O. Fr. _amable_ (mod. Fr. _aimable_), lovable--L. _amabilis_--_am-[=a]re_, to love.] AMIANTUS, a-mi-ant'us, _n._ the finest fibrous variety of asbestos--it can be made into cloth which when stained is readily cleansed by fire.--Also AMIANTH'US. [Gr. _amiantos_, unpollutable--_a_, neg.,and _miain-ein_, to soil.] AMICABLE, am'ik-a-bl, _adj._ friendly.--_ns._ AMICABIL'ITY, AM'ICABLENESS.--_adv._ AM'ICABLY. [L. _amicabilis_--_amicus_, a friend, _am-[=a]re_, to love.] AMICE, am'is, _n._ a flowing cloak formerly worn by priests and pilgrims: a strip of fine linen, with a piece of embroidered cloth sewn upon it, worn formerly on the head, now upon the shoulders, by Roman Catholic priests in the service of the Mass. [O. Fr. _amit_--L. _amictus_, _amic-[)e]re_, to wrap about--_amb_, about, and _jac-[)e]re_, to throw.] AMICE, am'is, _n._ a furred hood with long ends hanging down in front, originally a cap or covering for the head, afterwards a hood, or cape with a hood, later a mere college hood. [O. Fr. _aumuce_, of doubtful origin; but at any rate cog. with Ger. _mutse_, _mütze_, Scot. _mutch_.] AMID, a-mid', AMIDST, a-midst', _prep._ in the middle or midst: among.--_adv._ AMID'MOST (_W. Morris_), in the very middle of.--_adv._ and _n._ AMID'SHIPS, half-way between the stem and stern of a ship, [_a_, on, and MID.] AMIDE, am'[=i]d, _n._ one of the compound ammonias derived from one or more molecules of common ammonia, by exchanging one or more of the three hydrogen atoms for acid radicals of equivalent acidity. AMINE, am'[=i]n, _n._ one of the compound ammonias, in which one or more of the three hydrogen atoms in ammonia are exchanged for alcohol or other positive radicals, or for a metal. AMILDAR, am'il-dar, _n._ a factor or manager in India: a collector of revenue amongst the Mahrattas. [Hind. _`amald[=a]r_--Ar. _`amal_, work.] AMIR, a-m[=e]r'. Same as AMEER. AMISS, a-mis', _adj._ in error: wrong.--_adv._ in a faulty manner.--_n._ AMISS'IBILITY.--_adjs._ AMISS'IBLE; AMISS'ING, wanting, lost. [_a_, on, and MISS, failure.] AMITY, am'i-ti, _n._ friendship: good-will. [Fr. _amitié_--_ami_--L. _amicitia_, friendship, _amicus_, a friend. See AMICABLE.] AMMIRAL, an old spelling of ADMIRAL. AMMONIA, am-m[=o]n'i-a, _n._ a pungent gas yielded by smelling-salts, burning feathers, &c.: a solution of ammonia in water (properly _liquid ammonia_): a name of a large series of compounds, analogous to ammonia, including _amines_, _amides_, and _alkalamides_.--_adjs._ AMMON'IAC, AMMON[=I]'ACAL, pertaining to, or having the properties of, ammonia.--_ns._ AMMON'IAC, AMMON[=I]'ACUM, a whitish gum resin of bitter taste and heavy smell, the inspissated juice of a Persian umbelliferous plant--used in medicine for its stimulant and expectorant qualities; AMMON'IAPHONE, an instrument invented about 1880, said to improve the quality of the singing and speaking voice, being an apparatus for inhaling peroxide of hydrogen and free ammonia.--_adj._ AMM[=O]N'IATED, containing ammonia.--_n._ AMMON'IUM, the hypothetical base of ammonia. [From _sal-ammoniac_, or smelling-salts, first obtained by heating camel's dung in Libya, near the temple of Jupiter Ammon.] AMMONITE, am'mon-[=i]t, _n._ the fossil shell of an extinct genus of molluscs, so called because they resemble the horns on the statue of Jupiter Ammon, worshipped as a ram. AMMUNITION, am-m[=u]n-ish'un, _n._ anything used for munition or defence: military stores, formerly of all kinds (as still in the word used adjectively, as in ammunition wagon, &c.), now esp. powder, balls, bombs, &c.--_v.t._ to supply with ammunition. [O. Fr. _amunition_. See MUNITION.] AMNESIA, am-n[=e]'si-a, _n._ loss of memory. [Gr. _amnesia_] AMNESTY, am'nest-i, _n._ a general pardon of political offenders: an act of oblivion.--_v.t._ to give amnesty to. [Gr. _a-mnestos_, not remembered.] AMNION, am'ni-on, _n._ the innermost membrane enveloping the embryo of reptiles, birds, and mammals. [Gr.--_amnos_, a lamb.] AMOEBA, a-m[=e]b'a, _n._ a name given to a number of the simplest animals or Protozoa, which consist of unit masses of living matter. They flow out in all directions in blunt processes (_pseudopodia_, 'false feet'), and have thus an endlessly varying form, hence the name:--_pl._ AMOEB'Æ.--_adjs._ AMOEB'IFORM, AMOEB'OID. [Gr. _amoib[=e]_, change.] AMOEBÆAN, am-e-b[=e]'an, _adj._ answering alternately, responsive, as in some of Virgil's eclogues. [L.--Gr. _amoibaios_, _amoib[=e]_, change, alternation.] AMOMUM, a-m[=o]'mum, _n._ a genus of herbaceous tropical plants (nat. ord. _Scitamineæ_), allied to the ginger-plant, several species yielding the cardamoms and grains of paradise of commerce. [Gr. _am[=o]mon_.] AMONG, a-mung', AMONGST, a-mungst', _prep._ of the number of: amidst. [A.S. _on-gemang_--_mengan_, to mingle.] AMONTILLADO, a-mon-til-yä'do, _n._ a dry or little sweet kind of sherry of a light colour and body. [Sp.] AMORET, am'or-et, _n._ (_obs._) a sweetheart. [O. Fr. _amorette_--L. _amor-em_.] AMORETTO, am-or-et'to, _n._ a lover: a cupid:--_pl._ AMORET'TI. [It.] AMORNINGS, a-morn'ingz, _adv._ (_obs._) of mornings. [OF and MORNING.] AMOROSO, am-or-ro'so, _adj._ (_mus._) tender: descriptive of love.--_n._ one in love, a gallant:--_pl._ AMOR[=O]'SI.--_n._ AMOR[=O]'SITY (_rare_), fondness. AMOROUS, am'or-us, _adj._ easily inspired with love: fondly in love (with _of_): relating to love.--_n._ AM'ORIST, a lover: a gallant.--_adv._ AM'OROUSLY.--_n._ AM'OROUSNESS. [O. Fr. _amorous_ (Fr. _amoureux_)--L. _amoros-um_, _amor_, love.] AMORPHA, a-mor'fa, _n._ a genus of North American shrubs of the bean family, the false indigoes or lead-plants--also _bastard_ or _wild indigo_. AMORPHISM, a-mor'fizm, _n._ a state of being amorphous or without crystallisation even in the minutest particles.--_adj._ AMOR'PHOUS, without regular shape, shapeless, uncrystallised. [Gr. _a_, neg., _morph[=e]_, form.] AMORT, a-mort', _adj._ (_obs._ or _arch._ merely) spiritless, dejected.--_n._ AMORTIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ AMORT'[=I]SE, to alienate in mortmain: to convey to a corporation:--_pr.p._ amort'[=i]sing; _pa.p._ amort'[=i]sed. [Fr. _à_, to, _mort_, death. See MORTAL.] AMOUNT, a-mownt', _v.i._ to mount or rise to: to result in: to come in meaning or substance to (with _to_).--_n._ the whole sum: the effect or result. [O. Fr. _amonter_, to ascend--L. _ad_, to, _mont_, _mons_, a mountain.] AMOUR, am-[=oo]r', _n._ a love intrigue, or illicit affection: a love affair (humorously only, for the old innocent sense is now obsolete).--_n._ AMOURETTE', a petty love affair: the love-grass, or quaking-grass: a cupid.--AMOUR PROPRE, self-esteem ready to take offence at slights. [Fr.--L. _amor_, love.] AMOVE, a-m[=oo]v', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to stir up: to affect:--_pr.p._ amov'ing; _pa.p._ amoved'. [L. _admov[=e]re_--_ad_, to, and _mov-[=e]re_, to move.] AMOVE, a-m[=oo]v', _v.t._ to remove, esp. from a place (obsolete except in law). [O. Fr. _amover_--L. _amov[=e]re_, _ab_, from, _mov-[=e]re_, to move.] AMPÈRE, am-pehr', _n._ in electricity, unit of current. [From _Ampère_, a French electrician who died in 1836.] AMPERSAND, am'p[.e]rs-and, _n._ a name formerly in use for the character _&_ (also called _short and_), commonly placed at the end of the alphabet in primers.--Also AM'PERZAND, AM'PUSSY-AND, and simply AM'PASSY. [A corr. of _and per se and_--that is, _&_ standing by itself means _and_.] AMPHIBALUS, am-fib'a-lus, _n._ an ecclesiastical vestment like the chasuble. [L.--Gr., from _amphi_, around, _ball-ein_, to cast.] AMPHIBIA, am-fib'i-a, AMPHIBIALS, AMPHIBIANS, _n.pl._ animals capable of living both under water and on land.--_n._ AMPHIB'IAN.--_adj._ AMPHIB'IOUS. [L.--Gr., from _amphi_, both, _bios_, life.] AMPHIBOLE, am-fib'ol-[=e], _n._ the name of a group of minerals which are essentially silicates of lime and magnesia, but these bases are often partly replaced by alumina, and oxides of iron and manganese--tremolite, nephrite (jade), and hornblende. [Gr.] AMPHIBOLOGY, am-fib-ol'o-ji, _n._ the use of ambiguous phrases or such as can be construed in two senses. A good example is Shakespeare's 'The duke yet lives that Henry shall depose' (2 _Henry VI._, I. iv. 33)--also AMPHIB'OLY.--_adjs._ AMPHIB'OLOUS, AMPHIBOL'IC. [Gr., from _amphi_, on both sides, _ball-ein_, to throw.] AMPHIBRACH, am'fi-brak, _n._ in prosody, a foot of three syllables--a short, a long, and a short, as _[)a]m[=a]r[)e]_. The name is sometimes applied in English to such a word as _amusement_, where an accented syllable falls between two unaccented. [L.--Gr., made up of Gr. _amphi_, on each side, _brachys_, short.] AMPHICTYONIC, am-fik-ti-on'ik, _adj._ The Amphictyonic Council was an old Greek assembly composed of deputies (Amphictyons) from twelve of the leading states.--_n._ AMPHIC'TYONY, an association of such states. [Gr. _amphiktyones_, 'those dwelling around.'] AMPHIMACER, am-fim'a-s[.e]r, _n._ in prosody, a foot of three syllables, the middle one short, and the first and last long, as _c[=a]r[)i]t[=a]s_. Sometimes applied to such Eng. words as _runaway_. [Gr., 'long at both ends;' _amphi_, on both sides, _makros_, long.] AMPHIOXUS, am-f[=i]-oks'us, _n._ the lancelet, one of the lowest backboned animals, found on the sandy coasts of warm and temperate seas. The body is about two inches long and pointed at both ends. [Gr. _amphi_, on both sides, and _oxys_, sharp.] AMPHIPODS, am'fi-pods, _n._ an order of small sessile-eyed crustaceans--a familiar example is the sand-hopper. [Gr. _amphi_, both ways, _pous_, _podos_, a foot.] AMPHISBÆNA, am-fis-b[=e]'na, _n._ a family of lizard-snakes, chiefly found in tropical America, which have their tails so rounded as to give them the appearance of having a head at both ends.--_adj._ AMPHISB[=E]'NIC. [Gr. _amphisbaina_--_amphi_, _amphis_, both ways, and _bain-ein_, to go.] AMPHISCIANS, am-fish'i-anz, _n.pl._ the inhabitants of the torrid zone, whose shadows are thrown both ways--that is, to the north one part of the year, and to the south the other part, according as the sun is north or south of the equator. [Gr. _amphiskios_--_amphi_, both ways, _skia_, a shadow.] AMPHISTOMOUS, am-fis't[=o]-mus, _adj._ having a mouth-like orifice at either end, as some parasitic worms. [Gr., _amphistomos_, double mouthed.] AMPHITHEATRE, am-fi-th[=e]'a-t[.e]r, _n._ an oval or circular edifice having rows of seats one above another, around an open space, called the arena, in which public spectacles are exhibited: anything like an amphitheatre in form.--_adjs._ AMPHITHEAT'RICAL, AMPHITHEAT'RAL.--_adv._ AMPHITHEAT'RICALLY. [Gr. _amphi_, round about, _theatron_, a place for seeing--_theaomai_, to see.] AMPHITRYON, am-fit'ri-on, _n._ a host or entertainer. [From _Amphitryon_ in Molière's comedy, who gives a great dinner. Amphitryon in Gr. mythology was husband of Alcmene, who was deceived by Zeus in her husband's semblance, and so became the mother of Hercules.] [Illustration] AMPHORA, am'f[=o]-ra, _n._ a two-handled vessel or jar used by the Greeks and Romans for holding liquids.--_adj._ AM'PHORIC (_med._), like the sound produced by speaking into an amphora or any large vessel with a small mouth. [Gr. _amphoreus_, _amphiphoreus_--_amphi_, on both sides, _pher-ein_, to bear.] AMPLE, am'pl, _adj._ spacious: large enough: abundant: liberal: copious, or of great length.--_ns._ AM'PLENESS; AMPLI[=A]'TION, enlarging, an enlargement.--_adj._ AMPLI[=A]'TIVE (_rare_).--_adv._ AM'PLY. [Fr.--L. _amplus_, large.] AMPLEXICAUL, am-pleks'i-kawl, _adj._ (_bot._) nearly surrounding the stem--said of sessile leaves. [Modern L. _amplexicaulis_--L. _amplexus_, embrace, and _caulis_, stem.] AMPLIFY, am'pli-f[=i], _v.t._ to make more copious in expression: to add to.--_n._ AMPLIFIC[=A]'TION, enlargement.--_adj._ AMPLIFIC[=A]'TORY.--_n._ AM'PLIFIER, one who amplifies: a lens which enlarges the field of vision. [L. _amplus_, large, and _fac-[)e]re_, to make.] AMPLITUDE, am'pli-t[=u]d, _n._ largeness: abundance: width: splendour: wide range of mind: the distance from the east point of a horizon at which a heavenly body rises, or from the west point at which it sets. [Fr.--L. _amplitudo_.] AMPUL, am'pul, _n._ a small earthenware or glass vessel of an oblong globular form, used for containing consecrated oil or wine and water for the eucharistic service--now more commonly AMPUL'LA. [O. Fr. _ampole_--L. _ampulla_.] [Illustration] AMPULLA, am-pul'la, _n._ a small two-handled flask or bottle for holding liquids or unguents: a vessel for holding consecrated oil or chrism, esp. at the coronation of kings: a kind of cruet of transparent glass for holding the wine and water used at the altar: (_biol._) the dilated end of any canal or duct in an animal body, also the spongiole of a root in plants.--_adjs._ AMPULL[=A]'CEOUS, AM'PULLAR, AM'PULLARY, AM'PULLATE.--_n._ AMPULLOS'ITY, turgidity of language, bombast. [L.; made up of _amb_, on both sides, and _olla_, a jar; or an irregular dim. of _amphora_, a flagon.] AMPUTATE, am'p[=u]t-[=a]t, _v.t._ to cut off, as a limb of an animal.--_n._ AMPUT[=A]'TION. [L. _amb_, round about, _put[=a]re_, to cut.] AMRITA, am-r[=e]'ta, _n._ the drink of the gods in Hindu mythology. [Sans.] AMUCK, a-muk', _adv._ madly: in murderous frenzy--hardly ever used save in the phrase 'to run _amuck_.' [Malay, _amoq_, intoxicated or excited to madness.] AMULET, am'[=u]-let, _n._ a gem, scroll, or other object carried about the person, as a charm against sickness, harm, or witchcraft. [Fr.--L. _amul[=e]tum_, a word of unknown origin; curiously like the mod. Ar. _himalat_, lit. 'a carrier,' applied to a shoulder-belt, by which a small Koran is hung on the breast.] AMUSE, a-m[=u]z', _v.t._ to occupy pleasantly: to divert: to beguile with expectation: (_obs._) occupy the attention with: (_arch._) to beguile.--_adj._ AMUS'ABLE, capable of being amused.--_n._ AMUSE'MENT, that which amuses: pastime.--_adj._ AMUS'ING, affording amusement: entertaining.--_adv._ AMUS'INGLY.--_n._ AMUS'INGNESS.--_adj._ AMUS'IVE (_rare_), having the power to amuse or entertain.--_n._ AMUS'IVENESS. [Fr. _amuser_.] AMUSETTE, am-[=u]-z[.e]t', _n._ a light field-gun invented by Marshal Saxe. [Fr.] AMUTTER, a-mut'[.e]r, _adv._ in a muttering state. AMYGDALATE, a-mig'da-l[=a]t, _adj._ pertaining to, like, or made of almonds.--_adj._ AMYGDAL[=A]'CEOUS, akin to the almond. [L. _amygdala_--Gr. _amygdal[=e]_, an almond.] AMYGDALIN, AMYGDALINE, a-mig'da-lin, _n._ a crystalline principle existing in the kernel of bitter almonds. AMYGDALOID, a-mig'da-loid, _n._ a variety of basaltic rock containing almond-shaped nodules of other minerals, as quartz, felspar.--_adj._ AMYGDALOI'DAL. [Gr. _amygdal[=e]_, and _eidos_, form.] AMYL, am'il, _n._ the fifth in the series of the alcohol radicals, a natural product of the distillation of coal. As thus found, two molecules are united together, usually called _diamyl_, being a colourless liquid with an agreeable smell and burning taste.--_n._ AM'YLENE. [Gr. _amylon_, starchy, fine meal.] AMYLACEOUS, am-i-l[=a]'shus, _adj._ pertaining to or resembling starch. [L. _amylum_, starch--Gr. _amylon_.] AMYLOID, am'i-loid, _n._ a half-gelatinous substance like starch, found in some seeds.--_adj._ AMYLOID'AL. [Gr. _amylon_, the finest flour, starch; lit. 'unground'--_a_, neg., _myl[=e]_, a mill, and _eidos_, form.] AN, an, _adj._ one: the indefinite article, used before words beginning with the sound of a vowel. [A.S. _[=a]n_. See ONE.] AN, an, _conj._ if. [A form of AND.] ANA, [=a]'na, a suffix to names of persons or places, denoting a collection of memorable sayings, items of gossip, or miscellaneous facts, as _Johnsoniana_, _Tunbrigiana_, &c.: applied also to the literature of some special subject, as _Boxiana_, _Burnsiana_, _Shakespeariana_.--_n.pl._ specially a collection of the table-talk of some one. [The neut. pl. termination of L. adjectives in _-anus_ = pertaining to.] ANABAPTIST, an-a-bapt'ist, _n._ one who holds that baptism ought to be administered only to adults (by immersion), and therefore that those baptised in infancy ought to be baptised again.--The name is disclaimed by recent opponents of infant baptism both in England and the Continent.--_v.i._ ANABAP'TISE.--_n._ ANABAPT'ISM.--_adj._ ANABAPTIST'IC. [Gr. _ana_, again, _baptiz-ein_, to dip in water, to baptise.] ANABASIS, an-ab'a-sis, _n._ a military advance into the interior of a country--specially the title of the famous story of the unfortunate expedition of Cyrus the Younger against his brother Artaxerxes, and of the retreat of his 10,000 Greek allies under the conduct of Xenophon. [Gr.; made up of _ana_, up, and _bain-ein_, to go.] ANABLEPS, an'a-bleps, _n._ a genus of bony fishes with open air-bladders, and projecting eyes divided into an upper and lower portion, so that each eye has two pupils. [Gr. _anablepsis_, 'a looking up.'] ANABOLISM, an-ab'ol-izm, _n._ the constructive processes within the protoplasm, by which food or other material, at a relatively low level, passes through an ascending series of ever more complex and unstable combinations, till it is finally worked up into living matter. [Gr. _anabol[=e]_, 'rising up.'] ANACANTHOUS, an-a-kan'thus, _adj._ without spine. [Gr. _an-_, without, _akantha_, spine.] ANACARD, an'a-kard, _n._ the cashew-nut, the fruit of the _Anacardium occidentale_. [Gr., made up of _ana_, according to, and _kardia_, heart, from the shape of the fruit.] ANACATHARSIS, an-a-kath-ar'sis, _n._ vomiting or expectoration.--_n._ ANACATHAR'TIC, a medicine with this effect--expectorants, emetics, sternutatorics, &c. [Gr.; made up of _ana_, up, and _kathair-ein_, to cleanse.] ANACHARIS, an-ak'ar-is, _n._ a North American weed found in ponds and slow streams, which was first found in Britain in 1842, and is now very troublesome in the Trent, Derwent, and other rivers. [Made up of Gr. _ana_, up, and _charis_, grace.] ANACHORISM, a-nak'[=o]-rizm, _n._ (_rare_) something incongruous with the spirit of the country. [Coined on the analogy of _anachronism_, from Gr. _ana_, back, and _ch[=o]rion_, country, with suff. _ism_.] ANACHRONISM, an-a'kron-izm, _n._ an error in regard to time, whereby a thing is assigned to an earlier or to a later age than it belongs to: anything out of keeping with the time.--_v.t._ ANA'CHRONISE.--_n._ ANA'CHRONIST.--_adjs._ ANACHRONIST'IC, ANA'CHRONOUS.--_adv._ ANA'CHRONOUSLY. [Gr. _ana_, backwards, _chronos_, time.] ANACLASTIC, an-a-klas'tik, _adj._ pertaining to refraction: bending back. [Gr. _ana_, back, _klaein_, break off.] ANACOLUTHON, an-a-ko-l[=u]'thon, _n._ want of sequence in the construction of a sentence, when the latter part does not grammatically correspond with the former: a sentence exhibiting an ANACOLUTHIA, or the passing from one construction to another before the former is completed. [Gr. _anakolouthos_--_a_, _an_, neg., and _akolouthos_, following.] ANACONDA, an-a-kon'da, _n._ a large South American water-snake of the Python family, closely related to the boa-constrictor. [Singhalese (?).] ANACREONTIC, an-a-kre-ont'ik, _adj._ after the manner of the Greek poet Anacreon: free, convivial, erotic.--_n._ a poem in this vein.--_adv._ ANACREONT'ICALLY. ANACRUSIS, an-a-kr[=oo]'sis, _n._ (_pros._) an upward beat at the beginning of a verse, consisting of one or two unaccented syllables introductory to the just rhythm. [Gr. from _ana_, up, _krou-ein_, to strike.] ANADEM, an'a-dem, _n._ a band or fillet bound round the head: a wreath or chaplet of flowers. [Gr. _anad[=e]ma_--_ana_, up, and _de-ein_, to bind.] ANADROMOUS, an-ad'r[=o]-mus, _adj._ ascending rivers to spawn. [Gr. _ana_, up, _dromos_, running.] ANÆMIA, an-[=e]m'i-a, _n._ a term employed to denote those conditions in which there is a deficiency of blood or of its red corpuscles: lack or poverty of blood marked by paleness and languor.--_adj._ ANÆM'IC. [Gr.; made up of _an_, neg., _haima_, blood.] ANAEROBIA, an-[=a]-[.e]r-[=o]'bi-a, _n.pl._ (_biol._) bacteria which flourish without free oxygen.--_adj._ ANAER[=O]'BIC. ANÆSTHETIC, an-[=e]s-thet'ik, _adj._ producing insensibility to external impressions.--_n._ a substance, as chloroform or cocaine, that produces insensibility, whether general or local.--_ns._ ANÆSTH[=E]'SIA, ANÆSTH[=E]'SIS, loss of feeling, insensibility.--_adv._ ANÆSTHET'ICALLY.--_v.t._ ANÆS'THETISE. [Gr. _a_, _an_, neg., _aisth[=e]sis_, sensation--_aisthanomai_, to feel.] ANAGLYPH, an'a-glif, _n._ an ornament carved in low relief.--_adj._ ANAGLYPT'IC. [Gr.; _ana_, up, _glyph-ein_, to carve.] ANAGLYPTOGRAPHY, an-a-glip-tog'ra-fi, _n._ the art of engraving so as to give the subject the appearance of being raised from the surface of the paper as if embossed--used in representing coins, &c. [Gr. _anaglyptos_, embossed, and _graphia_, writing.] ANAGOGY, an'a-goj-i, _n._ the mystical interpretation or hidden sense of words.--_adjs._ ANAGOG'IC, ANAGOG'ICAL.--_adv._ ANAGOG'ICALLY. [Gr. _anag[=o]g[=e]_, elevation, _an-ag-ein_, to lift up.] ANAGRAM, an'a-gram, _n._ a word or sentence formed by rewriting (in a different order) the letters of another word or sentence: as, 'live' = 'evil,' 'Quid est veritas? = 'Est vir qui adest,' and 'Florence Nightingale' = 'Flit on, cheering angel.'--Many pseudonyms are merely anagrams, as 'Voltaire' = 'Arouet l. i.'--that is, 'Arouet le jeune (the younger).'--_adjs._ ANAGRAMMAT'IC, ANAGRAMMAT'ICAL.--_adv._ ANAGRAMMAT'ICALLY.--_v.t._ ANAGRAM'MAT[=I]SE, to transpose, so as to form an anagram.--_ns._ ANAGRAM'MATISM, the practice of making anagrams; ANAGRAM'MATIST, a maker of anagrams. [Gr. _ana_, again, _graph-ein_, to write.] ANAGRAPH, an'a-graf, _n._ a catalogue or inventory: a description. [Gr. _anagraph[=e]_--_ana_, up, out, _graph-ein_, to write.] ANAL, [=a]n'al, _adj._ pertaining to or near the anus. ANALECTS, an'a-lekts, _n.pl._ collections of literary fragments--also ANALEC'TA.--_adj._ ANALEC'TIC. [Gr. _analektos_--_analegein_, to collect--_ana_, up, _legein_, to gather.] ANALEPTIC, an-a-lep'tik, _adj._ restorative: comforting. [Gr. _anal[=e]ptikos_, restorative--_anal[=e]psis_, recovery--_ana_, up, and _lamban[=o]_, _l[=e]psomai_, to take.] ANALGESIA, an-al-j[=e]'zi-a, _n._ painlessness, insensibility to pain. [Gr. _an-_, priv., and _algein_, to feel pain.] ANALOGY, an-al'o-ji, _n._ an agreement or correspondence in certain respects between things otherwise different--a resemblance of relations, as in the phrase, 'Knowledge is to the mind what light is to the eye:' relation in general: likeness: (_geom._) proportion or the equality of ratios: (_gram._) the correspondence of a word or phrase with the genius of a language, as learned from the manner in which its words and phrases are ordinarily formed: similarity of derivative or inflectional processes.--_adjs._ ANALOG'ICAL, ANAL'OGIC.--_adv._ ANALOG'ICALLY.--_v.t._ ANAL'OGISE, to explain or consider by analogy:--_pr.p._ anal'og[=i]sing; _pa.p._ anal'og[=i]sed.--_ns._ ANAL'OGISM (_obs._), investigation by analogy: argument from cause to effect; ANAL'OGIST, one who adheres to analogy; ANAL'OGON = analogue.--_adj._ ANAL'OGOUS, having analogy: bearing some correspondence with or resemblance to: similar in certain circumstances or relations (with _to_).--_adv._ ANAL'OGOUSLY.--_ns._ ANAL'OGOUSNESS; AN'ALOGUE, a word or body bearing analogy to, or resembling, another: (_biol._) a term used to denote physiological, independent of morphological resemblance.--Organs are _analogous_ to one another, or are _analogues_, when they perform the same function, though they may be altogether different in structure; as the wings of a bird and the wings of an insect. Again, organs are _homologous_, or _homologues_, when they are constructed on the same plan, undergo a similar development, and bear the same relative position, and this independent of either form or function. Thus the arms of a man and the wings of a bird are homologues of one another, while the wing of a bird and the wing of a bat are both analogous and homologous. [Gr. _ana_, according to, and _logos_, ratio.] ANALPHABETE, an-al'fa-b[=e]t, _n._ and _adj._ one who does not know his alphabet, an illiterate.--_adj._ ANALPHABET'IC. [Gr. _an_, neg., and ALPHABET.] ANALYSIS, an-al'is-is, _n._ a resolving or separating a thing into its elements or component parts--the tracing of things to their source, and so discovering the general principles underlying individual phenomena. Its converse is _synthesis_, the explanation of certain phenomena by means of principles which are for this purpose assumed as established. Analysis as the resolution of our experience into its original elements, is an artificial separation; while synthesis is an artificial reconstruction: (_gram._) the arrangement into its logical and grammatical elements of a sentence or part of a sentence:--_pl._ ANAL'YSES.--_adj._ ANALYS'ABLE.--_n._ ANALYS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ AN'ALYSE, to resolve a whole into its elements: to separate into component parts.--_n._ AN'ALYST, one skilled in analysis, esp. chemical analysis.--_adjs._ ANALYT'IC, -AL, pertaining to analysis: resolving into first principles.--_adv._ ANALYT'ICALLY.--_n.pl._ ANALYT'ICS, the name given by Aristotle to his treatises on logic.--ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY, geometry treated by means of ordinary algebra, with a reference, direct or indirect, to a system of co-ordinates; ANALYTIC METHOD (_logic_) proceeds regressively or inductively to the recognition of general principles, as opposed to the _Synthetic_ method, which advances from principles to particulars. [Gr. _analysis_, _analy-ein_, to unloose, _ana_, up, _ly-ein_, to loose.] ANAMNESIS, an-am-n[=e]s'is, _n._ the recalling of things past to memory: the recollection of the Platonic pre-existence: the history of his illness given by the patient to his physician. [Gr.] ANAMORPHOSIS, an-a-mor'fo-sis, _n._ a figure, appearing from one view-point irregular or deformed, but from another regular and in proportion: (_bot._) a gradual transformation, or an abnormal development of any part.--_adj._ ANAMOR'PHOUS. [Gr.; _ana_, back, _morph[=o]sis_, a shaping--_morph[=e]_, shape.] ANANAS, an-an'as, _n._ the pine-apple: the West Indian penguin.--Also ANAN'A. [Peruvian.] ANANDROUS, an-an'drus, _adj._ without stamens, or male organs, applied to female flowers. [Gr. _an_, neg., and _an[=e]r_, _andros_, a man.] ANANTHEROUS, an-an'th[.e]r-us, _adj._ without anthers. [Gr. _an_, neg., and ANTHER.] ANANTHOUS, an-an'thus, _adj._ without flowers. [Gr. _an_, neg., and _anthos_, a flower.] ANAPÆST, ANAPEST, an'a-pest, _n._ (in verse) a foot consisting of three syllables, two short and the third long, or (in Eng.) two unaccented and the third accented, as _colonnadé_--a familiar example of a poem in this metre is Byron's _Destruction of Sennacherib_.--_adjs._ ANAPÆS'TIC, -AL. [Gr. _anapaistos_, reversed, because it is the dactyl reversed.] ANAPHORA, an'af-or-a, _n._ (_rhet._) the repetition of the same word or phrase in several successive clauses, as in 1 Cor. i. 20. [Gr.; _ana_, back, _pher-ein_, to bear.] ANAPHRODISIAC, an-af-r[=o]-diz'i-ak, _adj._ and _n._ tending to diminish sexual desire, or a drug supposed to have that effect. [Fr. _an_, neg., and adj. from APHRODITE.] ANAPLASTY, an'a-plas-ti, _n._ the reparation of superficial lesions by the use of adjacent healthy tissue, as by transplanting a portion of skin.--_adj._ AN'APLASTIC. [Gr.; that may be formed anew, _ana_, again, _plass-ein_, to form.] ANAPLEROSIS, an'a-pl[=e]-r[=o]'sis, _n._ the filling up of a deficiency, esp. in medicine: the filling up of parts that have been destroyed, as in wounds, cicatrices, &c.--_adj._ ANAPLEROT'IC. [Gr.; from _ana_, up, and _pl[=e]ro-ein_, to fill up.] ANAPTOTIC, an-ap-tot'ik, _adj._ (_philol._) again uninflected--a term sometimes applied to languages which have lost most of their inflections through phonetic decay. [Gr. _ana_, again, _apt[=o]tos_, without case, indeclinable, _apt[=o]s_, _-[=o]tos_, not falling, _pipt-ein_, to fall.] ANARCHY, an'ark-i, _n._ the want of government in a state: political confusion: conflict of opinion.--_adjs._ ANARCH'AL (_rare_); ANARCH'IC, ANARCH'ICAL.--_v.t._ ANARCH'ISE.--_ns._ AN'ARCHISM, anarchy: the negation of government--the name adopted by a phase of revolutionary socialism associated with the names of Proudhon and Bakunin. Their ideal of society was of one without government of any kind, when every man should be a law unto himself; AN'ARCHIST, AN'ARCH, one who promotes anarchy. [Gr. _a_, _an_, neg., _arch[=e]_, government.] ANARTHROUS, an-är'thrus, _adj._ without the article, of Greek nouns: (_entom._) having neither wings nor legs.--_adv._ ANAR'THROUSLY. [Gr. _an_, neg., _arthron_, a joint, the article.] ANASTATIC, an-a-stat'ik, _adj._ furnished with characters standing up, or raised in relief--esp. of the anastatic printing process, in which copies of drawings are printed from fac-similes produced in relief on zinc plates. [Gr. _anastatikos_--_ana_, up, _statikos_, causing to stand--_hist[=e]mi_, to make to stand.] ANASTOMOSIS, an-as-to-m[=o]'sis, _n._ the union or intercommunication of vessels with each other, as seen in the junction of the branches of the arteries.--_v.i._ ANAS'TOMOSE, to communicate in such a way.--_adj._ ANASTOMOT'IC. ANASTROPHE, an-as'tro-fi, _n._ an inversion of the natural order of words, as 'Loud roared the thunder,' for 'The thunder roared,' &c. [Gr.; _ana_, back, and _streph-ein_, to turn.] ANATHEMA, an-ath'em-a, _n._ a solemn ecclesiastical curse or denunciation involving excommunication: any person or thing anathematised: generally, any imprecation or expression of execration.--_n._ ANATHEMATIS[=A]'TION--_v.t._ ANATH'EMATISE, to pronounce accursed.--ANATHEMA MARAN[=A]THA, as in 1 Cor. xvi. 22; _maranatha_ (Syr. _m[=a]ran eth[=a]_, 'our Lord hath come') is properly a mere solemn formula of confirmation, like _Amen_, having no other connection with the antecedent _anathema_--it is so printed in the Revised Version.--It seems to have been used by the early Christians as a kind of watchword of mutual encouragement and hope. So the words in 1 Cor. xvi. 22 are nearly equivalent to the similar expressions in Phil. iv. 5; Rev. xxii. 20. [The classical Gr. _anath[=e]ma_ meant a votive offering set up in a temple, _ana_, up, _tithenai_, to place; the _anath[)e]ma_ of the Septuagint and New Testament meant something specially devoted to evil, as in Rom. ix. 3.] ANATOMY, an-a'tom-i, _n._ the art of dissecting any organised body: science of the structure of the body learned by dissection: a skeleton, a shrivelled and shrunken body, a mummy: (_fig._) the lifeless form or shadow of anything: humorously for the body generally: the detailed analysis of anything, as in Burton's famous treatise, _The Anatomy of Melancholy_.--_adjs._ ANATOM'IC, -AL, relating to anatomy.--_adv._ ANATOM'ICALLY.--_v.t._ ANAT'OMISE, to dissect a body: (_fig._) to lay open minutely.--_n._ ANAT'OMIST, one skilled in anatomy. [Gr. _ana_, up, asunder, _temnein_, to cut.] ANATOPISM, an-at'op-izm, _n._ (_rare_--_Coleridge_) a faulty arrangement. [Gr. _ana_, up, _topos_, a place.] ANATTA, an-at'ta, _n._ the reddish pulp surrounding the seeds of the _Bixa orellana_, a medium-sized tree growing in Guiana and elsewhere. It yields a dye which gives a bright orange tint to cloth, and is much used to add colour to butter and cheese.--Also ANAT'TO, ANNAT'TO, ARNOT'TO. [Supposed to be a native Amer. word.] ANBURY, an'b[.e]r-i, _n._ a disease in turnips, produced by one of the slime-fungi, and usually the result of improper cultivation. It is often confounded with _Finger-and-toe_ (_dactylorhiza_), which is rather a degeneration of the plant than a disease, the bulb branching out into a number of taproots, while the skin remains unbroken. Anbury causes a scabbed and broken skin, and tubercular growths on the roots and at the base of the bulb. [Often explained as a disguised form of A.S. _ampre_, a crooked swelling vein; more probably, a variant of _anbury_ = _angberry_, A.S. _ang-_, pain, as in _ang-nail_.] ANCESTOR, an'ses-tur, _n._ one from whom a person has descended: a forefather:--_fem._ AN'CESTRESS.--_adj._ ANCES'TRAL.--_ns._ AN'CESTOR-WOR'SHIP, the chief element in the religion of China and other countries--erroneously supposed by Herbert Spencer to be the foundation of all religion; AN'CESTRY, a line of ancestors: lineage. [O. Fr. _ancestre_--L. _antecessor_--_ante_, before, _ced[)e]re_, _cessum_, to go.] [Illustration] ANCHOR, ang'kor, _n._ an implement for retaining a ship in a particular spot by temporarily chaining it to the bed of a sea or river. The most common form has two flukes, one or other of which enters the ground, and so gives hold; but many modifications are used, some with movable arms, some self-canting.--Anchors are distinguished as the _starboard_ and _port bowers_, _sheet_, _spare_, _stream_, _kedge_, and _grapnel_, or _boat anchors_: (_fig._) anything that gives stability or security.--_v.t._ to fix by an anchor: to fasten.--_v.i._ to cast anchor: to stop, or rest on.--_ns._ ANCH'ORAGE, the act of anchoring: the place where a ship anchors or can anchor: (_Shak._) the anchor and all the necessary tackle for anchoring: a position affording support: (_fig._) anything that gives a resting-place or support to the mind: duty imposed on ships for anchoring; ANCH'OR-HOLD, the hold of an anchor upon the ground: (_fig._) security.--_adj._ ANCH'ORLESS, without such: unstable.--_n._ MUSHROOM-ANCHOR, an anchor with a saucer-shaped head on a central shank, used for mooring.--AT ANCHOR, anchored.--TO CAST ANCHOR, to let down the anchor, to take up a position; TO WEIGH ANCHOR, to take up the anchor so as to be able to sail away. [A.S. _ancor_--L. _ancora_--Gr. _angkyra_, _angkos_, a bend. Conn. with ANGLE.] ANCHORET, ang'kor-et, ANCHORITE, ang'kor-[=i]t, _n._ one who has withdrawn from the world, especially for religious reasons: a hermit.--The form ANACH'ORET occurs in many books on church history for the recluses of the East in the early history of the church.--_ns._ ANCH'OR (_Shak._), an anchorite--earlier still also an anchoress, as in the book-title _Ancren Riwle_, the 'Rule of Nuns;' ANCH'ORAGE, the retreat of a hermit; ANCH'ORESS, a female anchorite: a nun--also ANC'RESS, ANK'RESS, ANCH'ORITESS.--_adjs._ ANCH'ORETIC, -AL. [Gr. _anach[=o]r[=e]t[=e]s_--_ana_, apart, _ch[=o]rein_, to go.] ANCHOVY, an-ch[=o]'vi, _n._ a small fish of the herring family, much fished in the Mediterranean for pickling, and for a sauce made from it, anchovy-paste, &c.--_n._ ANCH[=O]'VY-PEAR, the fruit of a myrtaceous Jamaica tree, pickled and eaten like the East Indian mango, which it much resembles in taste. [Sp. and Port. _anchova_; Fr. _anchois_. Of doubtful etymology. The Basque _anchoa_, _anchua_, has been connected with _antzua_, dry.] ANCHYLOSIS, ANKYLOSIS, ang-k[=i]-l[=o]'sis, _n._ the coalescence of two bones, or the union of the different parts of a bone: stiffness in a joint through destruction of the articular cartilages, or a thickening and shortening of the natural fibrous tissues around the joint. [Gr.; _angkylos_, crooked.] ANCIENT, [=a]n'shent, _adj._ old: belonging to former times, specifically, of times prior to the downfall of the western Roman empire (476 A.D.): of great age or duration: of past times in a general sense: venerable: antique, old-fashioned.--_n._ an aged man, a patriarch: a superior in age or dignity.--_adv._ AN'CIENTLY.--_ns._ AN'CIENTNESS; AN'CIENTRY, ancientness, seniority: ancestry: dignity of birth: (_Shak._) old people.--_n.pl._ AN'CIENTS, those who lived in remote times, esp. the Greeks and Romans of classical times: (_B._) elders.--THE ANCIENT OF DAYS, a title in the Holy Scriptures for the Almighty, applied by Byron to Athens. [Fr. _ancien_--Low L. _antianus_, old--L. _ante_, before. See ANTIQUE.] ANCIENT, [=a]n'shent, _n._ (_obs._) a flag or its bearer: an ensign. [Corr. of Fr. _enseigne_. See ENSIGN.] ANCILLARY, an'sil-ar-i, _adj._ subservient, subordinate (with _to_). [L. _ancilla_, a maid-servant.] ANCIPITAL, an-sip'i-tal, _adj._ two-headed: double: doubtful: (_bot._) two-edged and flattened.--Also ANCIP'ITOUS. [L. _anceps_, _ancipit-is_, double--_an_ for _amb_, on both sides, and _caput_, the head.] ANCOME, ang'kum, _n._ (_prov._--Scot. _income_) a small inflammatory swelling, coming on suddenly. [Same as INCOME.] AND, and, _conj._ signifies addition, or repetition, and is used to connect words and sentences, to introduce a consequence, &c.--in M. E. (but not A.S.) it was used for _if_, and often also with added _if_, as in Luke xii. 45. _An_ became common for _and_ in this sense, as often in Shakespeare.--It sometimes expresses emphatically a difference in quality between things of the same class, as 'there are friends ... _and_ friends.' [A.S., and in the other Teut. lang.; prob. allied to L. _ante_, Gr. _anti_, over against.] ANDANTE, an-dan'te, _adj._ and _n._ (_mus._) moving with moderate and even expression: a movement or piece composed in andante time.--_adj._ ANDANTI'NO, of a movement somewhat slower than andante, but sometimes meaning 'with less of andante' = somewhat quicker.--ANDANTE AFFETTUOSO, slow but pathetically; ANDANTE CANTABILE, slow, but in a singing style; ANDANTE CON MOTO, slow, but with emotion; ANDANTE GRAZIOSO, slow, but gracefully; ANDANTE MAESTOSO, slow, with majesty; ANDANTE NON TROPPO, slow, but not too much so. [It.--pr.p. of _andare_, to go.] ANDEAN, an-d[=e]'an, _adj._ of or like the Andes Mountains. [Illustration] ANDIRON, and'[=i]-urn, _n._ the iron bars which support the ends of the logs in a wood fire, or in which a spit turns. [O. Fr. _andier_ (Mod. Fr. _landier_--_l'andier_); Low. L. _anderius_, _andena_; further ety. dubious, perhaps ultimately cog. with END. The termination was early confused with _iron_, hence the spellings _and-iron_, _hand-iron_.] ANDROCEPHALOUS, an-dro-sef'a-lus, _adj._ having a human head, as a sphinx or Assyrian bull. [Gr. _an[=e]r_, _andros_, a man, _kephal[=e]_, a head.] ANDROGYNOUS, an-droj'i-nus, _adj._ having the characteristics of both male and female in one individual: hermaphrodite: (_bot._) having an inflorescence of both male and female flowers--also ANDROG'YNAL (_rare_).--_n._ ANDROG'YNY, hermaphroditism. [Gr.; _an[=e]r_, _andros_, a man, and _gyn[=e]_, woman.] ANDROID, an'droid, _n._ an automaton resembling a human being.--Also ANDR[=O]'IDES. ANDROMEDA, an-drom'e-da, _n._ a genus of shrubs of the heath family: the name of a northern constellation. [_Andromeda_, in Greek mythology, a maiden bound to a rock, and exposed to a sea-monster, but delivered by Perseus.] ANE, [=a]n, or yin, Scotch form of ONE. ANEAL, ANELE, an-[=e]l', _v.t._ to anoint with oil: to administer extreme unction. [M. E. _anele_, from an A.S. verb compounded of A.S. _on_, on, and _ele_, oil.] ANEAR, a-n[=e]r', _adv._ nearly: near.--_prep._ near.--_v.t._ to approach, to come near to. ANECDOTE, an'ek-d[=o]t, _n._ an incident of private life: a short story.--_n._ AN'ECDOTAGE, anecdotes collectively: garrulous old age.--_adjs._ AN'ECDOTAL, ANECDOT'ICAL, in the form of an anecdote. [Gr.; 'not published'--_a_, _an_, neg., and _ekdotos_, published--_ek_, out, and _didonai_, to give.] ANELACE. See ANLACE. ANELECTROTONUS, an'el-ek-trot'on-us, _n._ (_phys._) the diminished excitability of a nerve near the anode of an electric current passing through it.--_adj._ AN'ELEC'TRIC, parting readily with its electricity.--_n._ a body which readily gives up its electricity.--_n._ ANELEC'TRODE, the positive pole of a galvanic battery.--_adj._ AN'ELECTROT'ONIC. [Gr. _an_, up, _elektron_, amber.] ANEMOGRAPH, a-nem'[=o]-graf, _n._ an instrument for measuring and recording the direction and velocity of the wind. [Gr. _anemos_, wind, _graphein_, to write.] ANEMOMETER, a-ne-mom'et-[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring the velocity or pressure of the wind.--_adj._ ANEMOMET'RIC.--_n._ ANEMOM'ETRY, the measurement of the force or velocity of the wind. [Gr. _anemos_, wind, and METER.] ANEMONE, a-nem'o-ne, _n._ a plant of the crowfoot family.--_n._ SEA'-ANEM'ONE, a popular name of Actinia and some allied genera of Actinoza. [Gr. _anem[=o]ne_, said to be from _anemos_, wind, because some of the species love exposed and wind-swept situations.] AN-END, an-end', _prep. phrase_, to the end, continuously: upright.--MOST AN-END, almost always. ANENT, a-nent', _prep._ and _adv._ in a line with: against: towards: in regard to, concerning, about. [Mainly prov. Eng. and Scot., M.E. _anent_--A.S. _on-_ _efen_, 'on even with' (dat.).] ANEROID, an'e-roid, _adj._ denoting a barometer by which the pressure of the air is measured without the use of quicksilver or other fluid.--_n._ a contr. of 'aneroid barometer.' [Fr.--Gr. _a_, neg., _n[=e]ros_, wet.] ANEURISM, an'[=u]r-izm, _n._ a soft tumour arising from the dilatation of an artery acting on a part weakened by disease or injury: (_fig._) any abnormal enlargement--_adjs._ AN'EURISMAL, AN'EURISMATIC. [Gr. _aneurysma_--_ana_, up, _eurys_, wide.] ANEW, a-n[=u]', _adv._ afresh: again. [OF and NEW.] ANFRACTUOUS, an-fract-[=u]'us, _adj._ winding, involved, circuitous.--_n._ ANFRACTUOS'ITY. [L. _anfractuösus_, _anfract-us_.] ANGEL, [=a]n'jel, _n._ a divine messenger: a ministering spirit: an attendant or guardian spirit: a person possessing the qualities attributed to such--gentleness, purity, &c.: one supposed to have a special commission, as the head of the Church in Rev. ii. and iii., or the _angel_ of the Catholic and Apostolic Church, who corresponds in a limited sense to the bishop of other Christian denominations: (_poet._) a messenger generally: in art, the conventional figure attributed to the angel--a figure of great beauty, youthful, clothed in flowing garments, with wings: an old Eng. coin = 10s., bearing the figure of an angel.--_n._ AN'GEL-FISH, a voracious fish, allied to the shark, from six to eight feet long, with large, wing-like pectoral fins.--_adjs._ ANGEL'IC (an-), ANGEL'ICAL.--_adv._ ANGEL'ICALLY.--_ns._ ANGELOL'ATRY ([=a]n-), angel-worship; ANGELOL'OGY, the doctrine regarding angels; ANGELOPH'ANY, the manifestation of an angel to man. [Gr. _angelos_, a messenger.] ANGELICA, an-jel'i-ka, _n._ a genus of umbelliferous plants, the roots and seeds of some species of which are used in making gin, bitters, &c.--the tender stalks and midribs of the leaves are candied and used as a confection: confections.--_n._ AN'GEL-WAT'ER, a perfumed liquid, at first made largely from angelica, then from ambergris, rose-water, orange-flower water, &c. [From their supposed magical properties.] ANGELUS, an'je-lus, _n._ the 'Hail, Mary,' or prayer to the Virgin, containing the angelic salutation: the bell rung in Roman Catholic countries at morning, noon, and sunset, to invite the faithful to recite the Angelic Salutation. [From its first words, _'Angelus_ domini nuntiavit Mariæ.'] ANGER, ang'ger, _n._ a strong emotion excited by a real or fancied injury, and involving a desire for retaliation.--_v.t._ to make angry: to irritate.--_adj._ AN'GERLESS.--_advs._ AN'GERLY, a 17th-cent. form (still used in an archaic sense) for ANGRILY; ANG'RILY.--_n._ ANG'RINESS.--_adj._ ANG'RY, excited with anger: inflamed: lowering. [Ice. _angr_; allied to ANGUISH.] ANGEVIN, an'je-vin, _adj._ pertaining to Anjou: relating to the Plantagenet house that reigned in England from 1154 to 1485, its first king, Henry II., being son of Geoffrey V., Count of Anjou, and Matilda, daughter of Henry I. of England. By some the term Angevin is only allowed until the loss of Anjou under John (1204); by others, till the deposition of Richard II. in 1399. ANGINA, an-j[=i]'na, _n._ any inflammatory affection of the throat, as quinsy, croup, &c.: usually in medical phraseology with adjective, as _Angina rheumatica_ = rheumatic sore throat.--ANGINA PECTORIS, a disease of the heart marked by paroxysms of intense pain, beginning at the breastbone and radiating thence mainly towards the left shoulder and arm. [L. _ang[)i]na_. See ANGUISH.] ANGIOCARPOUS, an-ji-[=o]-kar'pus, _adj._ having the fruit in an envelope distinct from the calyx. [Gr. _angeion_, a case, _karpos_, fruit.] ANGIOSPERM, an'ji-o-sperm, _n._ a plant whose ovules or future seeds are enclosed in a closed ovary, and fertilised through the medium of a stigma, while in _Gymnosperms_ the ovule is naked, and the pollen is applied directly to its surface.--_adjs._ ANGIOSPERM'OUS, ANGIOSPERM'AL, ANGIOSPER'MATOUS. [Illustration] ANGLE, ang'gl, _n._ a corner: the point where two lines meet: (_geom._) the inclination of two straight lines which meet, but are not in the same straight line: any outlying corner or nook.--_adj._ ANG'ULAR, having an angle or corner: (_fig._) stiff in manner: the opposite of easy or graceful: bony and lean in figure.--_n._ ANGULAR'ITY.--_adj._ ANG'ULATED, formed with angles. [Fr.--L. _angulus_; cog. with Gr. _angkylos_; both from root _ank_, to bend, seen also in ANCHOR, ANKLE.] ANGLE, ang'gl, _n._ a hook or bend: a fishing-rod with line and hook.--_v.i._ to fish with an angle.--_v.t._ to entice: to try to gain by some artifice.--_ns._ ANG'LER, one who fishes with an angle: a voracious fish about three feet long, not uncommon on British shores, and called also the _Fishing-frog_, the _Sea-devil_, and by the Scotch, _Wide-gab_; ANG'LING, the art or practice of fishing with a rod and line. [A.S. _angel_, a hook, allied to ANCHOR.] ANGLES, ang'glz, _n.pl._ the Low German stock that settled in Northumbria, Mercia, and East Anglia. ANGLICAN, ang'glik-an, _adj._ English: belonging to, or characteristic of, the Church of England.--_n._ ANG'LICANISM, attachment to English institutions, esp. the English Church: the principles of the English Church.--_v.t._ ANG'LICISE, to express in English idiom.--_n._ ANG'LICISM, an English idiom or peculiarity of language.--_v.t._ ANG'LIFY, to make English. ANGLO-, ang'glo, _pfx._ English--used in composition, as _Anglo_-Saxon, &c.--_ns._ ANG'LO-CATH'OLIC, one who calls himself a Catholic of the Anglican pattern, refusing the name of 'Protestant;' used adjectively, as in 'Anglo-Catholic Library;' ANG'LO-CATHO'LICISM.--_adj._ and _n._ ANG'LO-SAX'ON, applied to the earliest form of the English language--the term Old English is now preferred. Properly it should have referred only to the Saxons of Wessex, Essex, Middlesex, and Sussex, as distinct from the Angles.--_ns._ ANG'LO-SAX'ONDOM; ANGLO-SAX'ONISM.--ANGLO-ISRAELITE THEORY, an opinion held by not a few well-meaning persons, innocent of scientific ethnology, that the English are descended from the Israelites who were carried into captivity by the Assyrians under Sargon in 721 B.C. ANGLOMANIA, ang'glo-m[=a]n'i-a, _n._ a mania for what is English: an indiscriminate admiration of English institutions.--_ns._ ANG'LOMAN (_rare_), ANG'LOM[=A]N'IAC. ANGLOPHOBIA, ang-gl[=o]-f[=o]'bi-a, _n._ fear and dislike of England.--_ns._ AN'GLOPHOBE, ANGLOPH[=O]'BIST.--_adj._ ANGLOPH[=O]'BIC. [Fr. _Anglophobe_--L. _Anglo-_, English, Gr. _phobein_, to fear.] ANGORA, ang-g[=o]'ra, _n._ cloth made from the wool of the Angora goat.--ANGORA WOOL, the long white silky hair of the Angora goat, highly valued in manufactures. [_Angora_, a city of Asia Minor, famous for its breed of goats.] ANGOSTURA, ang-gos-t[=oo]'ra, _n._ a town of Venezuela, on the Orinoco (renamed Ciudad Bolivar in 1819), giving its name to an aromatic bitter bark, valuable as a febrifuge and tonic.--ANGOSTURA BITTERS is an essence containing angostura, canella, cinchona, lemon peel, and other aromatics, but much of what is sold under that name contains no angostura, but consists mainly of cheretta or other simple tonic. ANGRY. See ANGER. ANGUINE, ang'gw[=i]n, _adj._ of or like a snake. [L. _anguis_, _anguin-is_, a snake.] ANGUISH, ang'gwish, _n._ excessive pain of body or mind: agony.--_n._ ANG'UISHMENT. [O. Fr. _angoisse_--L. _angustia_, a strait, straitness--_ang-u-[)e]re_, to press tightly: to strangle. See ANGER.] ANHARMONIC, an-har-mon'ik, _adj._ not harmonic: in geometry, a term applied to the section of a line by four points, A, B, C, D, when their mutual distances are such that AB divided by CB is unequal to AD divided by CD; the ratio between these two quotients being called the _anharmonic_ ratio of AC. ANHELATION, an-he-l[=a]'shun, _n._ difficult respiration: shortness of breath. [L. _anhelatio_--_anhel[=a]re_, from _an_, for _amb_, around, and _hal-[=a]re_, to breathe.] ANHUNGERED. See AHUNGERED. ANHYDROUS, an-h[=i]'drus, _adj._ a term applied to a chemical substance free from water.--_n.pl._ ANHY'DRIDES, a term now commonly given to the compounds formerly known as anhydrous acids--in some cases the result of the dehydration of acids, and in all cases representing in their composition the acid _minus_ water.--_n._ ANHY'DRITE, a mineral consisting of anhydrous sulphate of lime, with some slight addition of sea-salt, appearing in several varieties--granular, fibrous, radiated and translucent, compact and of various shades--white, blue, gray, red. [Gr. _a_, _an_, neg., _hyd[=o]r_, water.] ANIGHT, a-n[=i]t', _adv._ (_Shak._) of nights, at night. [OF and NIGHT.] ANIL, an'il, _n._ a plant from whose leaves and stalks indigo is made. [Sp. _anil_; Ar. _an-nil_ for _al-nil_, the indigo plant.] ANILE, an'[=i]l, _adj._ old womanish: imbecile.--_n._ ANIL'ITY, imbecile dotage. [L. _anus_, an old woman.] ANILINE, an'il-in, _n._ a product of coal-tar extensively used in dyeing and other industrial arts. [Port. _anil_, indigo, from which it was first obtained.] ANIMADVERT, an-im-ad-v[.e]rt', _v.i._ to criticise or censure.--_n._ ANIMADVER'SION, criticism, censure, or reproof. [L., to turn the mind to--_animus_, the mind, _ad_, to, and _vert[)e]re_, to turn.] ANIMAL, an'im-al, _n._ an organised being, having life, sensation, and voluntary motion--it is distinguished from a plant, which is organised and has life, but not sensation or voluntary motion: the name sometimes implies the absence of the higher faculties peculiar to man.--_adj._ of or belonging to animals: sensual.--_n._ ANIMALIS[=A]'TION, the act of converting into animal substance, or of endowing with animal attributes: brutalisation.--_v.t._ AN'IMALISE, to endow with animal life: to convert into animal matter:--_pr.p._ an'imal[=i]sing; _pa.p._ an'imal[=i]sed.--_n._ AN'IMALISM, the state of being actuated by animal appetites only: the exercise or enjoyment of animal life, as distinct from intellectual: brutishness: sensuality: (_rare_) a mere animal being.--_adv._ AN'IMALLY, physically merely.--ANIMAL SPIRITS, nervous force: exuberance of health and life: cheerful buoyancy of temper: (_Milton_) the spirit or principle of volition and sensation. [L.--_anima_, air, life, Gr. _anemos_, wind--_a[=o]_, _a[=e]mi_, Sans. _an_, to breathe, to blow.] ANIMALCULE, an-im-al'k[=u]l, _n._ a small animal, esp. one that cannot be seen by the naked eye:--_pl._ ANIMAL'CULES, ANIMAL'CULA.--_adj._ ANIMAL'CULAR. [L. _animalculum_, dim. of ANIMAL.] ANIMATE, an'im-[=a]t, _v.t._ to give life to: to enliven or inspirit: to actuate.--_adj._ living: possessing animal life.--_adj._ AN'IMATED, lively: full of spirit: endowed with life.--_adv._ ANIMAT'EDLY.--_p.adj._ AN'IMATING.--_adv._ ANIMAT'INGLY.--_ns._ ANIM[=A]'TION, liveliness: vigour; AN'IMATOR, he who, or that which, animates. [See ANIMAL.] ANIME, an'im, _n._ the resin of the West Indian locust-tree--used also for other gums and resins. [Said to be Fr. _animé_, living, from the number of insects in it; but perhaps a native name.] ANIMISM, an'im-izm, _n._ a theory which regards the belief in separate spiritual existences as the germ of religious ideas. It is adopted by E. B. Tylor in his _Primitive Culture_ as the minimum definition of religion, being considered to have arisen simply from the evidence of the senses, interpreted by the crude and child-like science of the savage: the theory of Stahl, which regarded the vital principle and the soul as identical.--_n._ AN'IMIST.--_adj._ AN'IMISTIC. [L. _anima_, the soul.] ANIMOSITY, an-im-os'i-ti, _n._ bitter hatred: enmity. [L. _animositas_, fullness of spirit.] ANIMUS, an'im-us, _n._ intention: actuating spirit: prejudice against. [L. _animus_, spirit, soul, as distinguished from _anima_, the mere life.] ANISE, an'is, _n._ an umbelliferous plant, the aromatic seeds of which are used in making cordials. The anise of Matt. xxiii. 23 (Gr. _an[=e]thon_) is properly the dill.--_ns._ AN'ISEED; ANISETTE', a cordial or liqueur prepared from anise seed. [Gr. _anison_.] ANKER, angk'[.e]r, _n._ a liquid measure used in Northern Europe, formerly in England, varying considerably--that of Rotterdam having a capacity of 10 old wine gallons, or 8-1/3 imperial gallons. [Dut.] ANKLE, ANCLE, angk'l, _n._ the joint connecting the foot and leg.--_adj._ ANK'LED, having, or pertaining to ankles.--_n._ ANK'LET, an ornament for the ankle. [A.S. _ancléow_, cog. with Ger. _enkel_, and conn. with ANGLE.] ANKYLOSIS. See ANCHYLOSIS. ANLACE, ANELACE, an'l[=a]s, _n._ a short two-edged knife or dagger, tapering to a point, formerly worn at the girdle. [Low L. _anelacius_; perh. the old Welsh _anglas_.] ANNA, an'a, _n._ an Indian coin worth nominally 1½d sterling, but always the sixteenth part of a rupee. [Hind. _[=a]n[=a]_.] ANNALS, an'alz, _n.pl._ records of events under the years in which they happened: any historical work that follows the order of time in its narrations, separating them off into single years, as the _Annals_ of Tacitus: historical records generally: year-books.--_v.t._ ANN'ALISE, to write annals: to record.--_n._ ANN'ALIST, a writer of annals. [L. _annales_--_annus_, a year.] ANNAT, an'at, ANNATE, an'[=a]t, _n._ the first-fruits, or one year's income, or a specified portion of such, paid to the Pope by a bishop, abbot, or other ecclesiastic, on his appointment to a new see or benefice. It was abolished in England in 1534, and next year the right was annexed to the crown, the fund thus arising being administered for the benefit of the Church of England, afterwards transferred to the governors of Queen Anne's Bounty, next to the Ecclesiastical Commissioners: (_Scots law_) the half-year's stipend payable for the vacant half-year after the death of a parish minister, to which his family or nearest of kin have right under an act of 1672. [Low L. _annata_--L. _annus_, a year.] ANNATTO. See ANATTA. ANNEAL, an-[=e]l', _v.t._ to temper glass or metals by subjecting them to great heat and gradual cooling: to heat in order to fix colours on, as glass.--_n._ ANNEAL'ING. [Pfx. _an-_, and A.S. _ælan_, to burn.] ANNELIDA, an-el'i-da, _n._ a class of animals comprising the red-blooded worms, having a long body composed of numerous rings.--_n._ ANN'ELID. [L. _annellus_, dim. of _annulus_, a ring.] ANNEX, an-neks', _v.t._ to add to the end: to join or attach: to take permanent possession of additional territory: to affix: append (with _to_).--_n._ something added: a supplementary building--often with the Fr. spelling _annexe_.--_n._ ANNEX[=A]'TION, act of annexing.--_n._ and _adj._ ANNEX[=A]'TIONIST.--_ns._ ANNEX'ION, ANNEX'MENT (_Shak._), addition: the thing annexed. [Fr. _annexer_--L. _annex-um_, _annect[)e]re_: _ad_, to, _nect-[)e]re_, to tie.] ANNIHILATE, an-n[=i]'hil-[=a]t, _v.t._ to reduce to nothing: to put out of existence: to render null and void, to abrogate.--_ns._ ANNIHIL[=A]'TION, state of being reduced to nothing: act of destroying: (_theol._) the destruction of soul as well as body; ANNIHIL[=A]'TIONISM, the belief that the soul dies with the body.--_adj._ ANNIHIL[=A]'TIVE.--_n._ ANNIHIL[=A]'TOR, one who annihilates. [L. _annihilatus_, _annihil[=a]re_; _ad_, to, _nihil_, nothing.] ANNIVERSARY, an-ni-v[.e]rs'ar-i, _adj._ returning or happening every year: annual.--_n._ the day of the year on which an event happened or is celebrated: the celebration proper to such, esp. a mass or religious service. [L. _anniversarius_; _annus_, a year, and _vert[)e]re_, _versum_, to turn.] ANNOTATE, an'not-[=a]t, _v.t._ to make notes upon.--_ns._ AN'NOTATION, a note of explanation: comment; AN'NOTATOR, a writer of notes, a commentator. [L. _annot[=a]re_--_ad_, to, _not[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to mark.] ANNOUNCE, an-nowns', _v.t._ to declare: to give public notice of: to make known.--_n._ ANNOUNCE'MENT. [O. Fr. _anoncer_--L. _annunti[=a]re_--_ad_, to, _nunti_, _-[=a]re_, to deliver news.] ANNOY, an-noi', _v.t._ to trouble: to vex: to tease: to harm, esp. in military sense:--_pr.p._ annoy'ing; _pa.p._ annoyed'.--_ns._ ANNOY (now poetic only), ANNOY'ANCE, that which annoys.--_adv._ ANNOY'INGLY. [O. Fr. _anoier_ (It. _annoiare_); noun, _anoi_ (mod. _ennui_), acc. to Diez from L. phrase, _in odio_, as in 'est mihi _in odio_' = 'it is to me hateful.'] ANNUAL, an'n[=u]-al, _adj._ yearly: coming every year: requiring to be renewed every year: performed in a year.--_n._ a plant that lives out one year: a book published yearly, esp. applied to the sumptuous books, usually illustrated with good engravings, much in demand in the first half of the 19th century for Christmas, New Year, and birthday presents.--_adv._ AN'NUALLY. [Through Fr. from L. _annualis_--_annus_, a year.] ANNUITY, an-n[=u]'i-ti, _n._ a payment generally (but not necessarily) of uniform amount falling due in each year during a given term, such as a period of years or the life of an individual, the capital sum not being returnable.--_n._ ANN[=U]'ITANT, one who receives an annuity.--CERTAIN ANNUITY, one for a fixed term of years, subject to no contingency whatever; CONTINGENT ANNUITY, one that depends also on the continuance of some status, as the life of a person whose duration is calculated by the theory of probabilities. An annuity is usually held payable to the end of each year survived; but when, in addition, a proportion of the year's annuity is payable up to the day of death, the annuity is said to be COMPLETE--the ordinary annuity being sometimes, for distinction, referred to as a CURTATE ANNUITY. When the first payment is due in advance, the annuity is known as an ANNUITY DUE; when the first payment is not to be made until the expiry of a certain number of years, it is called a DEFERRED or REVERSIONARY ANNUITY. ANNUL, an-nul', _v.t._ to make null, to reduce to nothing: to abolish:--_pr.p._ annul'ling; _pa.p._ annulled'.--_n._ ANNUL'MENT, the act of annulling. [Fr. _annuler_--Low L. _annull[=a]-re_, to make into nothing--L. _ad-_, to, _nullus_, none.] ANNULAR, an'n[=u]l-ar, _adj._ ring-shaped.--_adjs._ AN'NULATE, AN'NULATED, formed or divided into rings.--_ns._ ANNUL[=A]'TION, a ring or belt: a circular formation; AN'NULET, a little ring: (_archit._) a small flat fillet, encircling a column, &c., used either by itself or in connection with other mouldings: (_her._) a little circle borne as a charge on coats of arms.--_adj._ AN'NULOSE, having rings: composed of rings. [L. _annularis_; _annulus_ or _anulus_, a ring--dim. of _anus_, a rounding or ring.] ANNUNCIATION, an-nun-si-[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of announcing.--_v.t._ ANNUN'CIATE, to proclaim.--_n._ ANNUNCI[=A]'TION-DAY, the anniversary of the Angel's salutation to the Virgin Mary, the 25th of March, Lady-day. [See ANNOUNCE.] ANODE, an'[=o]d, _n._ a term in electrolysis introduced by Faraday to designate the positive pole, or that surface by which the galvanic current enters the body undergoing decomposition (_electrolyte_)--as opp. to _Cathode_, the negative pole. [Gr. _ana_, up, _hodos_, way.] ANODYNE, an'o-d[=i]n, _n._ a medicine that allays pain, whether acting on the nerves and nerve terminations (aconite, belladonna, cocaine), on the brain (chloral, Indian hemp), or on all these parts (opium, bromide of potassium). [Gr.; _a_, _an_, neg., and _odyn[=e]_, pain.] ANOINT, an-oint', _v.t._ to smear with ointment or oil: to consecrate with oil.--_n._ ANOINT'MENT, the act of anointing or state of being anointed.--THE ANOINTED, the Messiah. [= _an_+_oint_. See OINTMENT.] ANOMALY, an-om'al-i, _n._ irregularity: deviation from rule: (_astron._) the angle measured at the sun between a planet in any point of its orbit and the last perihelion.--_adjs._ ANOMALIST'IC, -AL, anomalous: departing from established rules: irregular.--_n._ ANOM'ALITE, an irregular mineral.--_adj._ ANOM'ALOUS, irregular: deviating from rule.--ANOMALISTIC YEAR, the interval that elapses between two successive passages of the earth through its perihelion, or point of nearest approach to the sun = 365 days 6 hr. 13 min. 49 sec., being 4 min. 39 sec. longer than the sidereal year. [Gr. _an[=o]malos_--_a_, _an_, neg., and _homalos_, even--_homos_, same.] ANON, an-on', _adv._ in one (instant): immediately. ANONYMOUS, an-on'im-us, _adj._ wanting a name: not having the name of the author, as distinguished from _pseudonymous_, when another than his real name has been given.--_ns._ AN'ONYM, a person whose name is not given: a pseudonym; ANONYM'ITY, the quality or state of being anonymous.--_adv._ ANON'YMOUSLY. [Gr. _an[=o]nymos_--_a_, _an_, neg., and _onoma_, name.] ANOTHER, an-u_th_'[.e]r, _adj._ not the same: a different or distinct (thing or person): one more: a second: one more of the same kind: any other.--ONE ANOTHER, now used as a compound reciprocal pronoun (of two or more); ONE WITH ANOTHER, taken all together, taken on the average.--YOU'RE ANOTHER, the vulgar _Tu quoque_. [Orig. _an other_.] ANSERINE, an's[.e]r-[=i]n, or -in, _adj._ relating to the goose or goose-tribe: stupid, silly. [L. _anserinus_, _anser_.] ANSWER, an's[.e]r, _v.t._ to reply to: to satisfy or solve: to repay: to suit: to suffer the consequences of.--_v.i._ to reply: to reply favourably: to act in conformity with, as 'to answer the helm:' to be accountable for (with _for_): to correspond: to be advantageous to: to turn out well.--_n._ a reply: a solution.--_adj._ AN'SWERABLE, able to be answered: accountable: suitable: equivalent: proportional (with _to_).--_adv._ AN'SWERABLY.--_n._ AN'SWERER.--_adv._ AN'SWERLESS. [A.S. _andswar-ian_--_andswaru_; _and-_, against, _swerian_, to swear.] ANT, ant, _n._ a small insect: the emmet or pismire.--_ns._ ANT'-BEAR, one of the largest species of the ant-eaters, found in the swampy regions in Central and Southern America, also called the _Great Ant-eater_; ANT'-COW (see APHIDES); ANT'-EAT'ER, a genus of edentate South American quadrupeds, feeding on insects, and chiefly on ants, which they procure by means of their very long cylindrical tongue covered with a viscid saliva; ANT'-HILL, the hillock raised by ants to form their nest: also figuratively applied, as to the earth; ANT'-THRUSH, a general name applied to birds of tropical and sub-tropical countries which feed to a large extent on ants. [A contr. of EMMET--A.S. _æmete_.] AN'T, a contr. of _aren't_, _are not_; colloquial for _am not_, _is not_, _has not_.--AN'T = _on't_, _on it_ (_Shak._). ANTACID, ant-as'id, _n._ a medicine which counteracts acidity.--_adj._ possessing such quality. [Gr. _anti_, against, and ACID.] ANTAGONISM, ant-ag'on-izm, _n._ a contending or struggling against: opposition (with _to_, and also _with_).--_n._ ANTAGONIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ ANTAG'ONISE, to struggle violently against: to counteract the action of an opposite muscle.--_p.adj._ ANTAG'ONISED, made antagonistic, opposed beyond hope of reconciliation.--_n._ ANTAG'ONIST, one who contends or struggles with another: an opponent.--_adjs._ ANTAG'ONIST, ANTAGONIST'IC, contending against: opposed to.--_adv._ ANTAGONIS'TICALLY. [Gr. _anti_, against--_ag[=o]n_, contest. See AGONY.] ANTALKALI, ant-al'ka-li, _n._ anything that counteracts the action of an alkali. [_Ant-_ and ALKALI.] ANTARCTIC, ant-ärkt'ik, _adj._ opposite the Arctic: relating to the south pole or to south polar regions.--_adj._ ANTARCT'ICAL.--_adv._ ANTARCT'ICALLY (_obs._). [Gr. _anti_, opposite, and ARCTIC.] ANTARTHRITIC, ant-ar-thrit'ik, _adj._ counteracting gout. [Gr. _anti_, against, and ARTHRITIC.] ANTASTHMATIC, ant-ast-mat'ik, _adj._ counteracting asthma. [Gr. _anti_, against, and ASTHMATIC.] ANTECEDENT, an-te-s[=e]d'ent, _adj._ going before in time: prior.--_n._ that which precedes in time: (_gram._) the noun or pronoun to which a relative pronoun refers: (_logic_) a statement or proposition from which another is logically deduced: (_math._) the antecedent of a ratio is the first of two terms which compose the ratio--the first and third in a series of four proportionals: (_pl._) previous principles, conduct, history, &c.--_n._ ANTECED'ENCE.--_adv._ ANTECED'ENTLY. [L. _antecedent-em_; _ante_, before, _ced[)e]re_, _cessum_, to go.] ANTECESSOR, an-te-ses'sor, _n._ (_rare_) a predecessor. ANTECHAMBER, an'te-ch[=a]m-b[.e]r, _n._ a chamber or room leading to the chief apartment. [Fr. _anti-chambre_, _ante-chambre_.] ANTECHAPEL, an'te-cha-pl, _n._ the outer part of the west end of a college chapel. [L. _ante_, before, and CHAPEL.] ANTEDATE, an'te-d[=a]t, _n._ a date assigned which is earlier than the actual date.--_v.t._ to date before the true time: to assign an event to an earlier date: to bring about at an earlier date: to be of previous date: to accelerate: to anticipate. [L. _ante_, before, and DATE.] ANTEDILUVIAN, -AL, an-te-di-l[=u]'vi-an, -al, _adj._ existing or happening before the Deluge or Flood: resembling the state of things before the Flood: very old-fashioned, primitive.--_adv._ ANTEDIL[=U]'VIALLY.--_n._ ANTEDIL[=U]'VIAN, one who lived before the Flood: one who lives to be very old. [See DELUGE.] ANTEFIX, an'te-fiks, _n._ (usually in _pl._) term in ancient architecture, used of the ornamental tiles placed on the eaves of buildings to conceal the ends of the common or roofing tiles:--_pl._ AN'TEFIXES, AN'TEFIXA.--_adj._ AN'TEFIXAL. [L. _ante_, before, in front, and _fixum_, _fig[)e]re_, to fix.] ANTELOPE, an'te-l[=o]p, _n._ a quadruped belonging to the hollow-horned section of the order of Ruminants, differing from the goat in its beardless chin--a gregarious, peaceable animal, remarkable for grace, agility, and swiftness. [O. Fr. _antelop_--L. _antalopus_--Gr. _antholops_, of which the origin is uncertain, perhaps from Gr. _anthein_, to blossom, shine, and _[=o]ps_, eye, and thus equivalent to 'bright-eyes.'] ANTELUCAN, an-te-l[=oo]'kan, _adj._ before dawn or daylight. [L. _antelucanus_--_ante_, before, _lux_, _luc-is_, light.] ANTEMERIDIAN, an-te-me-ri'di-an, _adj._ before midday or noon. [See MERIDIAN.] ANTEMUNDANE, an-te-mun'd[=a]n, _adj._ before the existence or creation of the world. [L. _ante_, before, and MUNDANE.] ANTENATAL, an-te-n[=a]'tal, _adj._ existing before birth.--_n._ AN'TE-NA'TI, those born before a certain time, as opposed to _Post'-na'ti_, those born after it--of Scotsmen born before 1603, and Americans before the Declaration of Independence (1776). [L. _ante_, before, and NATAL.] ANTE-NICENE, an'te-n[=i]'s[=e]n, _adj._ before the first general council of the Christian Church held at Nice or Nicæa in Bithynia, 325 A.D. ANTENNÆ, an-ten'[=e], _n.pl._ the feelers or horns of insects, crustaceans, and myriopods.--_adjs._ ANTENN'AL, ANTENN'ARY, ANTENN'IFORM, ANTENNIF'EROUS. [L. _antenna_, a sailyard, the L. translation of Aristotle's _keraiai_, horns of insects, a word also used of the projecting ends of sailyards.] ANTENUPTIAL, an-te-nupsh'al, _adj._ before nuptials or marriage. [L. _ante_, before, and NUPTIAL.] ANTEORBITAL, an-te-or'bit-al, _adj._ situated in front of the eyes. [L. _ante_, before, and ORBIT, eye-socket.] ANTEPASCHAL, an-te-pas'kal, _adj._ relating to the time before Easter. [L. _ante_, before, and PASCHAL.] ANTEPAST, an'te-past, _n._ (_obs._) something to whet the appetite: a foretaste. [L. _ante_, before, and _pastum_, _pasc[)e]re_, to feed.] ANTEPENDIUM, an-te-pend'i-um, _n._ a frontlet, forecloth, frontal, or covering for an altar, of silk, satin, or velvet, often richly embroidered. [L. _ante_, before, and _pend-[)e]re_, to hang.] ANTEPENULT, an-te-pen'ult, _n._ the syllable before the penult or next ultimate syllable of a word: the last syllable of a word but two.--_adj._ ANTEPENULT'IMATE. [L. _ante_, before, and PENULT.] ANTEPRANDIAL, an-te-prand'i-al, _adj._ before dinner. [L. _ante_, before, and _prandium_, dinner.] ANTERIOR, an-t[=e]'ri-or, _adj._ before, in time or place: in front.--_ns._ ANTERIOR'ITY, ANT[=E]'RIORNESS.--_adv._ ANT[=E]'RIORLY. [L.; comp. of _ante_, before.] ANTEROOM, an'te-r[=oo]m, _n._ a room before another: a room leading into a principal apartment. [L. _ante_, before, and ROOM.] ANTEVENIENT, an-te-v[=e]'ni-ent, _adj._ coming before, preceding. [L. _antevenient-em_; _ante_, before, _ven-[=i]re_, to come.] ANTHELION, ant-h[=e]l'yun, _n._ a luminous coloured ring observed by a spectator on a cloud or fog-bank over against the sun:--_pl._ ANTHEL'IA. [Gr. _anti_, opposite, _h[=e]lios_, the sun.] ANTHELMINTIC, an-thel-mint'ik, _adj._ destroying or expelling worms. [Gr. _anti_, against, and _helmins_, _helminthos_, a worm.] ANTHEM, an'them, _n._ a piece of sacred music sung in alternate parts: a piece of sacred music set to a passage from Scripture: any song of praise or gladness.--_v.t._ to praise in an anthem.--_adv._ AN'THEMWISE. [A.S. _antefn_--Gr. _antiph[=on]a_--_anti_, in return, _ph[=o]ne_, the voice. See ANTIPHON.] [Illustration] ANTHER, an'th[.e]r, _n._ the top of the stamen in a flower which contains the pollen or fertilising dust.--_adjs._ AN'THERAL; ANTHERIF'EROUS, bearing anthers; ANTH'EROID, resembling an anther. [L. _anthera_, which meant a medicine extracted from flowers, and consisting esp. of the internal organs of flowers--Gr. _anth[=e]ros_, flowery--_anthos_, a flower.] ANTHERIDIUM, an-ther-id'i-um, _n._ the male reproductive organs of many cryptogams, as ferns, horse-tails, mosses, &c. [L. _anthera_, and _-idium_, Gr. dim. ending.] ANTHEROZOOID, an-ther-o-z[=o]'oid, _n._ a minute moving body in the antheridia of cryptogams. [L. _anthera_, and _zooid_--Gr. _z[=oo]eid[=e]s_, like an animal--_z[=o]on_, animal, and _eidos_, shape.] ANTHOCARPOUS, an-tho-kär'pus, _adj._ (_bot._) bearing fruit resulting from many flowers, as the pine-apple. [From Gr. _anthos_, a flower, _karpos_, fruit.] ANTHOID, an'thoid, _adj._ flower-like. [Gr. _anthos_, a flower, and _-eid[=e]s_, like.] ANTHOLITE, an'tho-l[=i]t, _n._ a flower turned into stone, a fossil flower. [Gr. _anthos_, a flower, _lithos_, stone.] ANTHOLOGY, an-thol'oj-i, _n._ (_lit._) a gathering or collection of flowers: a collection of poems or choice literary extracts, esp. epigrams, orig. applied to the collections of Greek epigrams so called.--_adj._ ANTHOLOG'ICAL. [Gr. _anthos_, a flower, _legein_, to gather.] ANTHOMANIA, an-th[=o]-m[=a]n'ya, _n._ a madness for flowers.----_n._ ANTHOM[=A]N'IAC. [Gr. _anthos_, and _mania_, madness.] ANTHONY (ST), an'ton-i, the patron saint of swineherds: the smallest pig in a litter.--ANTHONY'S FIRE, a popular name for erysipelas. ANTHOZOA, an'tho-z[=o]-a, _n.pl._ another name for Actinozoa, one of the three classes of Coelenterates, including sea-anemones, corals, &c. [Gr. _anthos_, a flower, _z[=o]a_, animals.] ANTHRACENE, an-thra-s[=e]n', _n._ a hydrocarbon obtained as one of the last products in the distillation of coal-tar, of value as the source of artificial alizarin. [Gr. _anthrax_, coal, and _-ene_.] ANTHRACITE, an'thras-[=i]t, _n._ a kind of coal that burns nearly without flame, smell, or smoke, consisting almost entirely of carbon, and not readily ignited.--_adjs._ ANTHRACIF'EROUS, yielding anthracite; ANTHRACIT'IC.--_n._ ANTHRACIT'ISM. [Gr. _anthrakit[=e]s_, coal-like--_anthrax_, coal.] ANTHRAX, an'thraks, _n._ a widely distributed and very destructive disease, most common among sheep and cattle, the first infectious disease proved to be due to the presence of microscopic vegetable organisms (_bacilli_)--other names are _Splenic Apoplexy_, _Splenic Fever_, and as it occurs in man, _Malignant Pustule_ and _Woolsorter's Disease_: a carbuncle or malignant boil.--_adjs._ ANTHRA'CIC, AN'THRACOID. [L.--Gr. _anthrax_; coal, a carbuncle.] ANTHROPICAL, an-throp'ik-al, _adj._ (_rare_) connected with human nature. [Gr. _anthropikos_, human, _anthr[=o]pos_, man.] ANTHROPINISM, an-thr[=o]p'in-ism, _n._ the looking at things in their relation to man. [Gr. _anthropinos_, human (_anthr[=o]pos_), and _-ism_.] ANTHROPOCENTRIC, an-thr[=o]-po-sent'rik, _adj._ centring all the universe in man. [Gr. _anthr[=o]pos_, man, and _kentron_, centre.] ANTHROPOGRAPHY, an-thro-pog'ra-fi, _n._ that branch of anthropology which treats of the human race according to its geographical distribution. [Gr. _anthr[=o]pos_, man, _graphia_, description--_graphein_, to write.] ANTHROPOID, an'throp-oid, _adj._ in the form of or resembling man.--_n._ the anthropoid ape, the highest and most man-like monkey.--_adj._ AN'THROPOIDAL. [Gr. _anthr[=o]pos_, man, _eidos_, form.] ANTHROPOLATRY, an-thro-pol'a-tri, _n._ the giving of divine honours to a human being, a term always employed in reproach. It was used by the Apollinarians against the orthodox Christians of the 4th and 5th centuries, with reference to the doctrine of the perfect human nature of Christ. [Gr. _anthr[=o]pos_, man, _latreia_, worship.] ANTHROPOLITE, an-throp'o-l[=i]t, _n._ human remains turned into stone, fossil human remains. [Gr. _anthr[=o]pos_, man, _lithos_, stone.] ANTHROPOLOGY, an-throp-ol'oj-i, _n._ the science of man, more especially considered as a social animal: the natural history of man in its widest sense, treating of his relation to the brutes, his evolution, the different races, &c.--_adj._ ANTHROPOLOG'ICAL.--_adv._ ANTHROPOLOG'ICALLY.--_n._ ANTHROPOL'OGIST, one versed in anthropology. [Gr. _anthr[=o]pos_, man, and _logos_, discourse--_legein_, to say.] ANTHROPOMETRY, an-thr[=o]-pom'et-ri, _n._ the measurement of the human body to discover its exact dimensions and the proportions of its parts, for comparison with its dimensions at different periods, or in different races and classes.--_adj._ ANTHROPOMET'RIC. [Gr. _anthr[=o]pos_, man, and _metrein_, to measure.] ANTHROPOMORPHISM, an-throp-o-morf'izm, _n._ the representation of the Deity in the form of man or with bodily parts: the ascription to the Deity of human affections and passions.--_adj._ ANTHROPOMORPH'IC.--_v.t._ ANTHROPOMORPH'ISE, to regard as or render anthropomorphous.--_ns._ ANTHROPOMORPH'IST; ANTHROPOMORPH'ITE; ANTHROPOMORPH'ITISM. [Gr. _anthr[=o]pos_, man, _morph[=e]_, form.] ANTHROPOMORPHOSIS, an-thr[=o]-po-morf-os'is, or -morf'os-is, _n._ transformation into human shape.--_adj._ ANTHROPOMORPH'OUS, formed like or resembling man. [Gr. _anthropomorph[=o]sis_--_anthr[=o]pos_, man, and a verb of action, formed from _morph[=e]_, shape.] ANTHROPOPATHISM, an-thro-pop'a-thizm, _n._ the ascription to the Deity of human passions and affections--also ANTHROPOP'ATHY.--_adj._ ANTHROPOPATH'IC.--_adv._ ANTHROPOPATH'ICALLY. [Gr. _anthr[=o]pos_, man, _pathos_, suffering, passion.] ANTHROPOPHAGY, an-thro-pof'aj-i, _n._ cannibalism.--_n.pl._ ANTHROPOPH'AGI, man-eaters, cannibals.--_ns._ ANTHROPOPHAGIN'IAN (_Shak._) a cannibal; ANTHROPOPH'AGITE.--_adj._ ANTHROPOPH'AGOUS. [Gr. _anthr[=o]pos_, man, _phag-ein_, to eat.] ANTHROPOPHUISM, an-thr[=o]-pof'[=u]-izm, _n._ the ascription of a human nature to the gods. [Gr. _anthr[=o]pos_, man, and _phu[=e]_, nature, and _-ism_.] ANTHROPOSOPHY, an-thr[=o]-pos'o-fi, _n._ the knowledge of the nature of men: human wisdom.--_n._ ANTHROPOS'OPHIST, one furnished with the wisdom of men. [Gr. _anthr[=o]pos_, man, and _sophia_, wisdom.] ANTHROPOTOMY, an-thr[=o]-pot'om-i, _n._ anatomy of the human body. [Gr. _anthr[=o]pos_, man, and _temnein_, to cut.] ANTI, ant'i, _pfx._ against, in opposition to, rivalling, simulating. It forms numerous derivatives, alike nouns and adjectives, as _antichrist_, _antipope_, _anticlimax_, _anti-tobacconist_; _anti-Ritualistic_, _anti-Semite_. [Gr. _anti_, against, instead of, &c.] ANTIAR, an'ti-ar, _n._ the upas-tree (see UPAS). [Jav. _antjar_.] ANTI-ATTRITION, an'ti-at-trish'on, _n._ anything which counteracts attrition or friction--also figuratively. [Pfx. ANTI- and ATTRITION.] ANTIBILIOUS, an'ti-bil'yus, _adj._ of use against biliousness. [ANTI- and BILIOUS.] ANTIBURGHER, an-ti-burg'[.e]r, _n._ that section of the Scottish Secession Church which parted from the main body (the _Burghers_) in 1747, holding it unlawful to take the oath administered to burgesses in Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Perth, because of the reference to 'the true religion presently professed within this realm.' They read into it an allusion to the Church as by law established, while others interpreted it as signifying simply the Protestant religion. [ANTI- and BURGHER.] ANTIC, ant'ik, _adj._ grotesque: odd: ridiculous in shape, dress, &c.--_n._ a fantastic or ancient figure, caricaturing or combining grotesquely animal or vegetable forms, or both together: (_Shak._) a grotesque pageant: a buffoon, clown, mountebank: a trick, mostly in _pl._--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to make grotesque.--_v.i._ AN'TICIZE (_Browning_), to play antics. [It. _antico_, equivalent to It. _grottesco_, and orig. used of the fantastic decorations composed of human and other forms found in the remains of ancient Rome--L. _antiquus_.] ANTICATHOLIC, an-ti-kath'o-lik, _adj._ opposed to what is Catholic. [ANTI- and CATHOLIC.] ANTICHLOR, an'ti-kl[=o]r, _n._ a substance used in the making of paper to free the pulp from the injurious after-effects of chlorine. [ANTI- and CHLOR-INE.] ANTICHRIST, an'ti-kr[=i]st, _n._ the great opposer of Christ and Christianity: the name of a great enemy of Christ always expected to appear by the early Church, applied by some to the Pope and his power.--_adj._ ANTICHRISTIAN (-krist'-), relating to Antichrist: opposed to Christianity.--_n._ ANTICHRIST'IANISM.--_adv._ ANTICHRIST'IANLY. [Gr.; _anti_, against, and _Christ-os_.] ANTICIPATE, an-tis'ip-[=a]t, _v.t._ to be beforehand with (another person or thing), to forestall or preoccupy: to take in hand, or consider, before the due time: to foresee: realise beforehand, or count upon as certain: to expect.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to accelerate: to occur earlier than.--_adj._ and _n._ ANTIC'IPANT, anticipating, anticipative.--_n._ ANTICIP[=A]'TION, act of anticipating: assignment to too early a time: foretaste: previous notion, or presentiment: expectation.--_adjs._ ANTI'CIP[=A]TIVE, ANTI'CIP[=A]TORY.--_advs._ ANTICIP[=A]'TIVELY, ANTICIP[=A]'TORILY (_rare_). [L. _anticip[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_[=a]nte_, before, _cap-[)e]re_, to take.] ANTICIVIC, an-ti-siv'ik, _adj._ opposed to citizenship, esp. the conception of it engendered by the French Revolution.--_n._ ANTICIV'ISM. ANTICLIMAX, an-ti-kl[=i]m'aks, _n._ the opposite of climax: a sentence in which the ideas become less important towards the close: also of any descent as against a previous rise--e.g. Waller's 'Under the Tropicks is our language spoke, And part of Flanders hath receiv'd our yoke.' [Gr. _anti_, against, and CLIMAX.] ANTICLINAL, an-ti-kl[=i]n'al, _adj._ sloping in opposite directions.--_n._ (_geol._) applied to strata which are inclined in opposite directions from a common axis--in a roof-like form. [Gr. _anti_, against, _klin-ein_, to lean.] ANTICYCLONE, an-ti-s[=i]'kl[=o]n, _n._ name given to the rotatory flow of air from an atmospheric area of high pressure.--_adj._ ANTICYCLON'IC. [ANTI- and CYCLONE.] ANTIDOTE, an'ti-d[=o]t, _n._ that which is given against anything that would produce bad effects: a counter-poison: (_fig._) anything that prevents evil (with _against_, _for_, _to_).--_adj._ AN'TIDOTAL. [Gr. _antidotos_--_anti_, against, _did[=o]mi_, to give.] ANTIENT. See ANCIENT. ANTIFEBRILE, an-ti-feb'r[=i]l, _adj._ efficacious against fever.--_n._ a substance with such properties.--Also ANTIFEBRIF'IC. ANTI-FEDERAL, an-ti-fed'e-ral, _adj._ opposed to federalism; applied to the U.S. party whose fundamental principle was opposition to the strengthening of the national government at the expense of the States. Later names for the party were Republican, Democratic Republican, and Democratic alone.--_ns._ ANTI-FED'ERALISM; ANTI-FED'ERALIST. ANTIFRICTION, an-ti-frik'shun, _n._ anything which prevents friction. [ANTI- and FRICTION.] ANTI-GALLICAN, an-ti-gal'ik-an, _adj._ and _n._ opposed to what is French: or esp. opposed to the Gallican liberties of the French Church.--_n._ ANTI-GALL'ICANISM. [ANTI- and GALLICAN.] ANTIGROPELOS, an-ti-gr[=o]p'el-os, _n._ waterproof leggings. [Said to be made up from Gr. _anti_, against, _hygros_, wet, and _p[=e]los_, mud. Prob. this barbarous word was orig. an advertisement.] ANTIHELIX, an'ti-h[=e]-liks, _n._ the inner curved ridge of the pinna of the ear:--_pl._ ANTIH[=E]L'ICES.--Also AN'THELIX. ANTI-JACOBIN, an'ti-jak'o-bin, _adj._ opposed to the Jacobins, a party in the French Revolution, hence an opponent of the French Revolution, or of democratic principles.--_n._ one opposed to the Jacobins: a weekly paper started in England in 1797 by Canning and others to refute the principles of the French Revolution.--_n._ AN'TI-JAC'OBINISM. [ANTI- and JACOBIN.] ANTILEGOMENA, an-ti-leg-om'en-a, _n.pl._ a term applied to those books of the New Testament not at first accepted by the whole Christian Church, but ultimately admitted into the Canon--the seven books of 2 Peter, James, Jude, Hebrews, 2 and 3 John, and the Apocalypse.--The other books were called _Homologoumena_, 'agreed to.' [Gr., lit. 'spoken against.'] ANTILOGARITHM, an-ti-log'a-rithm, _n._ the complement of the logarithm of a sine, tangent, or secant. [ANTI- and LOGARITHM.] ANTILOGY, an-til'o-ji, _n._ a contradiction. [Gr. _antilogia_, contradiction, _antilegein_, to contradict.] ANTIMACASSAR, an-ti-mak-as'ar, _n._ a covering for sofas, cushions, &c., to protect them from grease, esp. in the hair, also for ornament. [ANTI- and MACASSAR.] ANTIMASK, ANTIMASQUE, an'ti-mask, _n._ a ridiculous interlude dividing the parts of the more serious mask. [Gr. _anti_, against, and MASK.] ANTIMETABOLE, an-ti-me-tab'ol-e, _n._ (_rhet._) a figure in which the same words or ideas are repeated in inverse order, as Quarles's 'Be wisely worldly, but not worldly wise.' [Gr.] ANTIMETATHESIS, an'ti-me-tath'e-sis, _n._ inversion of the members of an antithesis, as in Crabbe's 'A poem is a speaking picture; a picture, a mute poem.' [Gr.] ANTIMNEMONIC, an-ti-ne-mon'ik, _adj._ and _n._ tending to weaken the memory. [ANTI- and MNEMONIC.] ANTIMONARCHICAL, an-ti-mon-ark'i-kal, _adj._ opposed to monarchy and monarchical principles.--_n._ ANTIMON'ARCHIST. [ANTI- and MONARCHICAL.] ANTIMONY, an'ti-mun-i, _n._ a brittle, bluish-white metal of flaky, crystalline texture, much used in the arts and in medicine.--_adjs._ ANTIM[=O]N'IAL, ANTIMON'IC. [Through Fr. from Low L. _antimonium_, of unknown origin, prob. a corr. of some Arabic word.] ANTI-NATIONAL, an-ti-nash'un-al, _adj._ hostile to one's nation. ANTINEPHRITIC, an-ti-ne-frit'ik, _adj._ acting against diseases of the kidney. [Gr. _anti_, against, and NEPHRITIC.] ANTINOMIANISM, an-ti-n[=o]m'i-an-izm, _n._ the belief that Christians are emancipated by the gospel from the obligation to keep the moral law--a monstrous abuse and perversion of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith, esp. applied to the party of Johann Agricola in the German Reformation.--_n._ and _adj._ ANTINOM'IAN, against the law: pertaining to the Antinomians. [Gr. _anti_, against, _nomos_, a law.] ANTINOMY, an'ti-nom-i, or an-tin'o-mi, _n._ a contradiction in a law: a conflict of authority: conclusions discrepant though apparently logical.--_adjs._ ANTIN[=O]'MIC, ANTIN[=O]'MICAL. [Gr. _anti_, against, _nomos_, a law.] ANTINOUS, an-tin'[=o]-us, _n._ an ideal of youthful manly beauty, from the name of the favourite of the Roman emperor Hadrian so famous in ancient art. ANTIOCHIAN, an-ti-[=o]'ki-an, _adj._ of or pertaining to the city of Antioch, or the eclectic system in philosophy of Antiochus of Ascalon.--_n._ ANTI[=O]'CHIANISM, a school of theology in the 4th and 5th centuries which spread over the whole Græco-Syrian Church, and was a revolt against the allegorical interpretation of Scripture favoured by the Alexandrian school. ANTIODONTALGIC, an-ti-[=o]-dont-alj'ik, _adj._ of use against toothache. [Gr. _anti_, against, _odous_, tooth, and _algein_, to suffer pain.] ANTIPATHY, an-tip'ath-i, _n._ dislike: repugnance: opposition: the object of antipathy (with _against_, _to_, _between_ of persons).--_adjs._ ANTIPATHET'IC, -AL; ANTIPATH'IC, belonging to antipathy: opposite: contrary.--_n._ ANTIP'ATHIST, one possessed by an antipathy. [Gr. _anti_, against, _pathos_, feeling.] ANTIPERIODIC, an-ti-p[=e]-ri-od'ik, _adj._ destroying the periodicity of diseases, such as ague, whose attacks recur at regular intervals: a drug with such an effect, esp. cinchona bark and its alkaloids (quinine), and arsenic. ANTIPERISTALTIC, an-ti-per-i-stal'tik, _adj._ contrary to peristaltic motion: acting upwards. [ANTI- and PERISTALTIC.] ANTIPERISTASIS, an-ti-per-ist'a-sis, _n._ opposition of circumstances: resistance exerted against any train of circumstances. [Gr.; _anti_, against, and _peristasis_, a circumstance--_peri_, around, and _hist[=e]mi_, make to stand.] ANTIPHLOGISTIC, an-ti-floj-ist'ik, _adj._ of remedies acting against heat, or inflammation, as blood-letting, purgatives, low diet.--_n._ a medicine to allay inflammation. [ANTI- and PHLOGISTIC.] ANTIPHON, an'tif-[=o]n, _n._ alternate chanting or singing: a species of sacred song, sung by two parties, each responding to the other--also ANTIPH'ONY.--_adj._ ANTIPH'ONAL, pertaining to antiphony.--_n._ a book of antiphons or anthems--also ANTIPH'ONARY and ANTIPH'ONER.--_adjs._ ANTIPHON'IC, ANTIPHON'ICAL, mutually responsive.--_adv._ ANTIPHON'ICALLY. [Gr.; _anti_, in return, and _ph[=o]n[=e]_, voice. A doublet of ANTHEM.] ANTIPHRASIS, an-tif'ra-sis, _n._ (_rhet._) the use of words in a sense opposite to the true one.--_adjs._ ANTIPHRAS'TIC, -AL, involving antiphrasis: ironical.--_adv._ ANTIPHRAS'TICALLY. [Gr.; _anti_, against, _phrasis_, speech.] ANTIPODES, an-tip'od-[=e]z, _n.pl._ those living on the other side of the globe, and whose feet are thus opposite to ours: the inhabitants of any two opposite points of the globe: places on the earth's surface exactly opposite each other, the region opposite one's own: the exact opposite of a person or thing:--_sing._ AN'TIPODE.--_adjs._ ANTIP'ODAL, ANTIPOD[=E]'AN.--AT ANTIPODES, in direct opposition. [Gr. _anti_, opposite to, _pous_, _podos_, a foot.] ANTIPOLE, an'ti-p[=o]l, _n._ the opposite pole: direct opposite. [ANTI- and POLE.] ANTIPOPE, an'ti-p[=o]p, _n._ a pontiff elected in opposition to one canonically chosen, e.g. those who resided at Avignon in the 13th and 14th centuries. [Gr. _anti_, against, and POPE.] ANTIPOPULAR, an-ti-pop'[=u]-lar, _adj._ adverse to the people or the popular cause. [ANTI- and POPULAR.] ANTIPYRIN, an-ti-p[=i]'rin, _n._ a white crystalline powder, tasteless, colourless, and soluble in water, obtained from coal-tar products by a complex process, with valuable qualities as a febrifuge, but not as an antiperiodic.--_adj._ ANTIPYRET'IC. ANTIQUARY, an'ti-kwar-i, _n._ one who studies or collects old things, esp. the monuments and relics of the past--but not very ancient things, and rather from curiosity than archæological interest.--_adj._ (_Shak._) ancient.--_adj._ and _n._ ANTIQU[=A]R'IAN, connected with the study of antiquities, also one devoted to the study.--_n._ ANTIQU[=A]R'IANISM. [See ANTIQUE.] ANTIQUE, an-t[=e]k', _adj._ ancient: of a good old age, olden (now generally rhetorical in a good sense): old-fashioned, after the manner of the ancients.--_n._ anything very old: ancient relics: an American name for a kind of type of thick and bold face in which the lines are of equal thickness--_Egyptian_ in England.--_v.t._ AN'TIQUATE, to make antique, old, or obsolete: to put out of use:--_pr.p._ an'tiqu[=a]ting; _pa.p._ an'tiqu[=a]ted.--_adj._ AN'TIQUATED, grown old, or out of fashion: obsolete: superannuated.--_n._ ANTIQU[=A]'TION, the making obsolete: abrogation: obsoleteness.--_adv._ ANTIQUE'LY.--_n._ ANTIQUE'NESS.--_adj._ ANTIQ'UISH, somewhat antique.--THE ANTIQUE, ancient work in art, the style of ancient art. [Fr.--L. _antiquus_, old, ancient--_ante_, before.] ANTIQUITY, an-tik'wi-ti, _n._ ancient times, esp. the times of the ancient Greeks and Romans: great age: (_Shak._) old age, seniority: ancient style: the people of old time: (_pl._) manners, customs, relics of ancient times.--_n._ ANTIQUIT[=A]R'IAN, one attached to the practices and opinions of antiquity. [Fr.--L. _antiquitat-em_--_antiquus_, ancient.] ANTIRRHINUM, an-tir-r[=i]'num, _n._ the genus of plants to which Snapdragon belongs. [Neo-Latin, from Gr. _anti_, opposite, and _ris_, _rinos_, nose; from its resemblance to a beast's mouth.] ANTISCIAN, an-tish'i-an, _adj._ of or pertaining to people living on different sides of the equator, whose shadows at noon fall in opposite directions.--_n.pl._ ANTIS'CI[=I]. [Gr.; _anti_, opposite, _skia_, a shadow.] ANTISCORBUTIC, an-ti-skor-b[=u]t'ik, _adj._ acting against scurvy.--_n._ a remedy for scurvy. [Gr. _anti_, against, and SCORBUTIC.] ANTISCRIPTURAL, an-ti-skrip't[=u]r-al, _adj._ opposed to Holy Scripture. [ANTI- and SCRIPTURAL.] ANTI-SEMITES, an'ti-sem'[=i]ts, _n.pl._ the modern opponents of the Jews in Russia, Roumania, Hungary, and Eastern Germany.--_adj._ ANTISEMIT'IC. ANTISEPTIC, an-ti-sept'ik, _adj._ and _n._ counteracting putrefaction and analogous fermentive changes: preventing moral decay.--_adv._ ANTISEPT'ICALLY. [Gr. _anti_, against, and _s[=e]pein_, to rot.] ANTISOCIAL, an-ti-s[=o]sh'al, _adj._ opposed to the principles and usages of society. [ANTI- and SOCIAL.] ANTISPASMODIC, an-ti-spaz-mod'ik, _adj._ opposing spasms or convulsions.--_n._ a remedy for spasms or convulsions. [Gr. _anti_, against, and SPASMODIC.] ANTISPAST, an'ti-spast, _n._ in metre, a foot composed of an iambus and a trochee.--_adj._ ANTISPAST'IC. [Gr. _antispastos_, _antispa-ein_, to draw into a contrary direction.] ANTISTROPHE, an-tis'tr[=o]f-e, _n._ (_poet._) the returning movement from left to right in Greek choruses and dances, the movement of the strophe being from right to left: the stanza of a song alternating with the strophe: an inverse relation.--_adj._ ANTISTROPH'IC, pertaining to the antistrophe. [Gr.; _anti_, against, and _streph-ein_, to turn.] ANTITHEISM, an-ti-th[=e]'izm, _n._ the doctrine which denies the existence of a God.--_n._ ANTITH[=E]'IST.--_adj._ ANTITHEIST'IC. ANTITHESIS, an-tith'e-sis, _n._ a figure in which thoughts or words are set in contrast: a counter-thesis, counter-proposition: opposition: the contrast:--_pl._ ANTITH'ES[=E]S.--_n._ ANT'ITHET (_rare_), an instance of antithesis.--_adjs._ ANTITHET'IC, -AL.--_adv._ ANTITHET'ICALLY. [Gr.; _anti_, against, _tith[=e]mi_, to place.] ANTITOXIN, an-ti-tok'sin, _n._ the name applied to substances present in the blood of an animal which neutralise the action of toxins or bacterial poisons.--_adj._ ANTITOX'IC. ANTITRADE, an'ti-tr[=a]d, _n._ a wind that blows in the opposite direction to the trade-wind--that is, in the northern hemisphere from south-west, and in the southern hemisphere from north-west. ANTITRINITARIAN, an-ti-trin-it-[=a]r'i-an, _n._ and _adj._ opposed to the doctrine of the Trinity.--_n._ ANTITRINITAR'IANISM. ANTITYPE, an'ti-t[=i]p, _n._ that which corresponds to the type: that which is prefigured by the type, as Christ by the paschal lamb.--_adjs._ ANTITYP'AL, -TYP'ICAL. ANTLER, ant'l[.e]r, _n._ a bony outgrowth from the frontal bones of deer--restricted to males, except in the reindeer: branch of a stag's horn.--_adj._ ANT'LERED. [O. Fr. _antoillier_--Late L. _ant(e)ocular-em_ (_ramum_), the branch of a stag's horn in front of the eyes.] ANT-LION, ant'-l[=i]'on, _n._ the larva of an insect of the order Neuroptera, remarkable for the ingenuity of its insect-catching habits. [Trans. of Gr. _murm[=e]kole[=o]n_ in the Septuagint; _murm[=e]x_, ant, _le[=o]n_, lion.] ANTONOMASIA, ant-on-om-[=a]z'i-a, _n._ a figure of speech which uses an epithet on the name of an office or attributive for a person's proper name, e.g. his lordship for an earl; and conversely, e.g. a Napoleon for a great conqueror. [Gr.; _anti_, instead, and _onomazein_, to name, _onoma_, a name.] ANTONYM, ant'[=o]-nim, _n._ a word which is the opposite of another. [Gr. _anti_, against, _onoma_, a name.] ANTRE, an't[.e]r, _n._ a cave or grotto. [Fr.; L. _antrum_, a cave.] ANURA, a-n[=u]'ra, _n.pl._ tailless amphibia, as the frog and toad.--Also ANOU'RA. [Gr. _an-_, priv., _oura_, tail.] ANUS, [=a]n'us, _n._ the lower orifice of the bowels. [L., for _as-nus_, 'sitting-part,' from root _as_, to sit.] ANVIL, an'vil, _n._ an iron block on which smiths hammer metal into shape.--ON or UPON THE ANVIL, in preparation, under discussion. [A.S. _anfilte_, _on filte_; _on_, on, and a supposed _filtan_, to weld, appearing also in FELT.] ANXIOUS, angk'shus, _adj._ uneasy regarding something doubtful: solicitous.--_n._ ANX[=I]'ETY, state of being anxious--_adv._ AN'XIOUSLY.--_n._ AN'XIOUSNESS. [L. _anxius_--_ang-[)e]re_, to press tightly. See ANGER, ANGUISH.] ANY, en'ni, _adj._ one indefinitely: some: whoever. _n._ AN'YBODY, any single individual.--_adv._ ANYHOW, in any way whatever: in any case, at least.--_ns._ AN'YTHING, a thing indefinitely, as opposed to nothing: any whit, to any extent; ANYTHING[=A]'RIAN, one with no beliefs in particular; ANYTHING[=A]'RIANISM--_advs._ AN'YWAY, AN'YWAYS, in any manner: anyhow: in any case; AN'YWHERE, AN'YWHEN, in any place whatever, at any time; AN'YWISE, in any manner, to any degree.--ANY ONE, any single individual, anybody.--AT ANY RATE, whatever may happen, at all events.--IF ANYTHING, if in any degree. [A.S. _ænig_--_an_, one.] AONIAN, [=a]-[=o]'ni-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Aonia_ in Greece, or to the Muses supposed to dwell there.--AONIAN FOUNT, the fountain Aganippe, on a slope of Mount Helicon--the Æonian mount. AORIST, [=a]'or-ist, _n._ the name of certain tenses in the Greek verb expressing indefinite time.--_adj._ AORIST'IC. [Gr. _aoristos_, indefinite--_a_, neg., and _horistos_, _horizein_, _horos_, a limit.] AORTA, [=a]-or'ta, _n._ the great arterial trunk which, rising from the left ventricle of the heart, sends its branches ramifying through the whole body--in man subdivided into the _arch_, the _thoracic aorta_, and the _abdominal aorta_.--_adjs._ AOR'TAL, AOR'TIC. [Gr. _aort[=e]_--_aeir-ein_, to raise up.] APACE, a-p[=a]s', _adv._ at a quick pace: swiftly: fast: said of the flight of time generally. [Prep. _a_, and PACE.] APAGOGIC, -AL, ap-a-goj'ik, -al, _adj._ proving indirectly by an _apagoge_ or reduction to an absurdity, the truth of the thesis being evinced through the falsehood of its opposite--opposed to _direct_ or _ostensive_ proof. [Gr. _apag[=o]g[=e]_, leading away, abduction, _apagein_, to lead off.] APANAGE. See APPANAGE. APART, a-pärt', _adv._ separately: aside: asunder, parted: separate: away from all employment: out of consideration, not considered for the moment (with _from_).--_n._ APART'NESS.--TO SET APART, to separate, consecrate. [Fr. _à part_--L. _a parte_, from the part or side.] APARTMENT, a-pärt'ment, _n._ a separate room in a house occupied by a particular person or party: (_arch._) a suite or set of such rooms--now in this sense the _pl._: (_obs._) a compartment.--_adj._ APARTMENT'AL. [Fr. _appartement_, a suite of rooms forming a complete dwelling, through Low L., from L. _ad_, and _part[=i]re_, to divide--_pars_, a part.] APATHY, ap'ath-i, _n._ want of feeling: absence of passion: indifference.--_adjs._ APATHET'IC, APATHET'ICAL (_rare_).--_adv._ APATHET'ICALLY. [Gr.; _a_, neg., _pathos_, feeling.] APATITE, ap'a-t[=i]t, _n._ a phosphate of lime of great variety of colour. [Gr. _apat[=e]_, deceit, its form and colour being deceptive.] APAY, a-p[=a]', _v.t._ (_arch._) to satisfy, content: (_obs._) to repay. [O. Fr. _apayer_, from L. _ad_, and _pac[=a]re_ _pac-em_, peace.] APE, [=a]p, _n._ a monkey: a monkey without a tail or with a very short one: a simian proper, linking man and the lower animals, and hence termed _Anthropoid_--gorilla, chimpanzee, orang-outang, or gibbon: one who plays the ape, a silly imitator: (_Shak._) an imitator in a good or neutral sense.--_v.t._ to imitate as an ape.--_ns._ APE'DOM; APE'HOOD; AP'ERY, conduct of one who apes, any ape-like action: a colony of apes.--_adj._ AP'ISH, like an ape: imitative: foppish.--_adv._ AP'ISHLY.--_ns._ AP'ISHNESS, AP'ISM (_Carlyle_).--GOD'S APE, a born fool.--TO LEAD APES IN HELL, believed to be the lot of old maids there; TO MAKE ANY ONE HIS APE, TO PUT AN APE IN HIS HOOD (_obs._), to make a fool of any one. [A.S. _apa_; Ger. _affe_.] APEAK, APEEK, a-p[=e]k', _adv._ (_naut._) vertical--the anchor is apeak when the cable is drawn so as to bring the ship's bow directly over it. [_a_, to, and PEAK.] APELLES, a-pel'ez, _n._ any consummate artist, from the great Greek painter _Apelles_, under Alexander the Great. APEPSY, a-pep'si, APEPSIA, a-pep'si-a, _n._ weakness of digestion. [Gr. _apepsia_, indigestion; _a_, priv., _peptein_, to digest.] APERÇU, a-per's[=oo], _n._ a summary exposition: a brief outline. [Fr. _aperçu_, pa.p. of _apercevoir_, to perceive.] APERIENT, a-p[=e]'-ri-ent, _adj._ opening: mildly purgative.--_n._ any laxative medicine. [L. _aperientem_, _aper[=i]re_, to open.] APERT, a-pert', _adj._ (_arch._) open, public--opp. to _Privy_.--_n._ APERT'NESS. [L. _apert-um_, pa.p. of _aper[=i]re_, to open.] APERTURE, a'p[.e]rt-[=u]r, _n._ an opening: the space through which light passes in an optical instrument: a hole. [L. _apertura_--_aper[=i]re_, to open.] APETALOUS, a-pet'al-us, _adj._ (_bot._) without petals. [Gr. _a_, neg., and _petalon_, a petal.] APEX, [=a]'peks, _n._ the summit or point: the vertex of a triangle: the culminating point, climax of anything:--_pl._ APEXES ([=a]'peks-ez), APICES (ap'i-s[=e]z). [L. _apex_, the peak of the flamen's cap.] APHÆRESIS, APHERESIS, a-fer'i-sis, _n._ (_gram._) the taking away of a letter or syllable at the beginning of a word. [Gr. _aphairesis_, a taking away, _apo_, away, and _haire-ein_, to take.] APHANIPTERA, af-an-ip't[.e]r-a, _n.pl._ a small order of insects having but rudimentary scales in place of wings.--_adj._ APHANIP'TEROUS. [Gr. _aphan[=e]s_, invisible, _pteron_, wing.] APHASIA, a-f[=a]'zi-a, _n._ inability to express thought in words by reason of some brain disease: or, more widely still, the loss of the faculty of interchanging thought, without any affection of the intellect or will.--_adj._ APHAS'IC. [Gr.; _a_, neg., _phasis_, speech--_phanai_, to speak.] APHELION, a-f[=e]'li-on, _n._ the point of a planet's orbit farthest away from the sun:--_pl._ APH[=E]'LIA. [Gr. _apo_, from, _h[=e]lios_, the sun.] APHELIOTROPIC, a-f[=e]-li-o-trop'ik, _adj._ turning away from the sun. [Gr. _apo_, away, _h[=e]lios_, sun, and _tropikos_, belonging to turning--_trep-ein_, to turn.] APHEMIA, a-f[=e]m'i-a, _n._ loss of speech caused by difficulty in articulation due to paralysis. [Gr. _a_, neg., and _ph[=e]m[=e]_, voice, fame--_phanai_, to speak.] APHERESIS. See APHÆRESIS. APHESIS, af'es-is, _n._ the gradual loss of an unaccented vowel at the beginning of a word, as in _squire_ = _esquire_--a special form of Aphæresis.--_adj._ APHET'IC. [Coined by Dr Murray. Gr.] APHIS, [=a]'fis, _n._ a family of small 'plant-lice' belonging to the order of hemipterous insects, occurring in temperate regions as parasites on the roots, leaves, stems, &c. of plants. Some kinds are tended, protected, and imprisoned by ants for the 'honey-dew' which they secrete, hence called Ant-cows:--_pl._ APHIDES (af'i-d[=e]z).--_adj._ and _n._ APHID'IAN. [Ety. unknown; one conjecture connects the word with Gr. _apheideis_, unsparing (_a_, neg., and _pheidomai_, to spare), from the remarkable rapidity of propagation.] APHONY, af-on-i, _n._ loss of voice: dumbness--the more common form is APH[=O]'NIA.--_adjs._ APHON'IC, APHON'OUS, voiceless. [Gr. _a_, neg., _ph[=o]n[=e]_, voice.] APHORISM, af'or-izm, _n._ a concise statement of a principle in any science: a brief, pithy saying: an adage.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ APH'ORISE, to coin or use aphorisms.--_ns._ APH'ORISER; APH'ORIST, a writer of aphorisms.--_adj._ APHORIS'TIC, in the form of an aphorism.--_adv._ APHORIST'ICALLY. [Gr. _aphorizein_, to mark off by boundaries--_apo_, from, and _horos_, a limit.] APHRODISIAC, af-ro-diz'-i-ak, _adj._ exciting to sexual intercourse.--_n._ that which excites to sexual intercourse.--_adj._ APHRODIS'IAN, belonging to Venus, devoted to sensual love. [Gr. _aphrodisiakos_--_Aphrodit[=e]_, Venus, the goddess of love.] APHTHÆ, af'th[=e], _n.pl._ small whitish ulcers on the surface of a mucous membrane. [Gr. _aphtha_, mostly in pl. _aphthai_, usually connected with _hapt-ein_, to set on fire.] APHYLLOUS, a-fil'us, _adj._ (_bot._) destitute of leaves. [Gr. _a_, neg., _phyllon_, a leaf.] APIARY, [=a]p'i-ar-i, _n._ a place where bees are kept.--_adjs._ APIAR'IAN, AP'IAN, relating to bees or bee-keeping.--_n._ AP'IARIST, one who keeps an apiary: one who studies the habits of bees. [L. _apiarium_--_apis_, a bee.] APICAL, ap'ik-al, _adj._ relating to the apex, or top.--_adv._ AP'ICALLY. [See APEX.] APICES. See APEX. APICIAN, a-pish'yan, _adj._ relating to _Apicius_, the Roman epicurean in the time of Tiberius: luxurious and expensive in diet. APICULTURE, [=a]'pi-cult-[=u]r, _n._ bee-keeping. [L. _apis_, bee, and _cultura_, keeping--_col[)e]re_, to keep.] APIECE, a-p[=e]s', _adv._ for each piece, thing, or person: to each individually.--_adv._ APIEC'ES (_obs._), in pieces. APINCH, a-pinsh', _adv._ pinching, so as to pinch. [Prep. _a_, and PINCH.] APLACENTAL, ap-la-sen'tal, _adj._ having no placenta. [_a_ and PLACENTAL. See PLACENTA.] APLOMB, a-plom', _n._ the perpendicular, perpendicularity: self-possession, coolness. [Fr. _aplomb_, perpendicular position--_à plomb_, according to plummet.] [Illustration] APLUSTRE, ap-lus't[.e]r, _n._ the ornament rising above the stern of ancient ships, often a sheaf of volutes. [L.--Gr. _aphlaston_.] APNOEA, ap-n[=e]'a, _n._ a cessation of breathing. [Gr. _apnoia_.] APOCALYPSE, a-pok'al-ips, _n._ the name of the last book of the New Testament containing the 'revelation' granted to St John: any revelation or disclosure.--_ns._ APOC'ALYPST, APOC'ALYPT, a revealer of the future.--_adjs._ APOCALYPT'IC, -AL.--_adv._ APOCALYPT'ICALLY.--_n._ APOCALYPT'IST, the writer of the Apocalypse.--APOCALYPTIC NUMBER, the mystical number 666, spoken of in the Apocalypse. The best solution of the riddle is Neron Kesar--Hebrew form of the Latin Nero Cæsar. The vowels _e_ and _a_ are not expressed in the ancient Hebrew writing: accordingly NeRON KeSaR gives N R O N K S R 50 + 200 + 6 + 50 + 100 + 60 + 200 = 666. [Gr.; a revelation, an uncovering--_apo_, from, _kalypt-ein_, to cover.] APOCARPOUS, ap-o-kär'pus, _adj._ (_bot._) having the carpels distinct. [Gr. _apo_, from, _karpos_, fruit.] APOCATASTASIS, a-po-ka-tast'a-sis, _n._ (_theol._) the final restitution of all things, when at the appearance of the Messiah the kingdom of God shall be extended over the whole earth--an idea extended by Origen to imply the final conversion and salvation of all created beings, the devil and his angels not excepted. [Gr.; _apo-kathistanai_, to set up again.] APOCOPATE, a-pok'o-p[=a]t, _v.t._ to cut off the last letter or syllable of a word:--_pr.p._ apoc'op[=a]ting; _pa.p._ apoc'op[=a]ted.--_ns._ APOCOP[=A]'TION; APOCOPE (a-pok'op-[=e]), _n._ the cutting off of the last letter or syllable of a word. [Gr. _apo_, off, _koptein_, to cut.] APOCRYPHA, a-pok'rif-a, _n._ as applied to religious writings = (1) those suitable for the initiated only; (2) those of unknown date and origin; (3) those which are spurious--the term generally means the fourteen books or parts of books known as the Apocrypha of the Old Testament--found in the Septuagint but not the Hebrew or Palestinian canon:--(1) First, or Third, Esdras; (2) Second, or Fourth, Esdras; (3) Tobit; (4) Judith; (5) the parts of Esther not found in Hebrew or Chaldee; (6) The Wisdom of Solomon; (7) The Wisdom of Jesus, the son of Sirach, or Ecclesiasticus; (8) Baruch; (9) The Song of the Three Holy Children; (10) The History of Susannah; (11) Bel and the Dragon; (12) The Prayer of Manasses, king of Judah; (13) First Maccabees; (14) Second Maccabees. The Apocryphal books of the New Testament, as the Protevangelium of James, the Gospel of Thomas, the Gesta Pilati, &c., stand on quite a different footing, never having been accepted by any as canonical, or in any way authoritative: hidden or secret things.--_adj._ APOC'RYPHAL, of doubtful authority. [Gr., 'things hidden'--_apo_, from, _krypt-ein_, to hide.] APODAL, ap'od-al, _adj._ without feet: without ventral fins. [Gr. _a_, neg., _pous_, _podos_, a foot.] APODEICTIC, a-po-d[=i]k'tik, _adj._ a logical term signifying a proposition which is necessarily true--demonstrative without demonstration, beyond contradiction--opp. to _Dialectic_.--_adj._ APODEIC'TICAL.--_adv._ APODEIC'TICALLY. [Gr. _apodeiktikos_--_apodeiknunai_ (_apo_ and _deiknunai_), to show off, demonstrate.] APODIABOLOSIS, a-po-di-a-bol'o-sis, _n._ (_rare_--_Hare_) lowering to the rank of a devil. [Gr. _apo_, and _diabolos_, devil. Formed like APOTHEOSIS.] APODOSIS, a-pod'o-sis, _n._ (_gram._) the consequent clause in a conditional sentence, as opp. to the _Protasis_. [Gr.; _apo_, back, _didonai_, to give.] APODYTERIUM, a-po-di-t[=e]r'i-um, _n._ the apartment in an ancient bath where the clothes were deposited. [Gr.; _apodyein_ (_apo_, from, and _dy-ein_), to undress.] APOGEE, ap'o-j[=e], _n._ properly the greatest distance of the earth from any of the heavenly bodies (the earth being regarded as the centre of the universe in the old Ptolemaic astronomy), now restricted to the sun and moon, the sun's apogee corresponding to the earth's aphelion, and the moon's being the point of its orbit farthest from the earth: the highest point, climax--opp. to _Perigee_.--_adjs._ APOGÆ'IC, APOG[=E]'AN; APOGEOTROP'IC, turning away from the ground (of leaves, &c.).--_adv._ APOGEOTROP'ICALLY.--_n._ APOGE[=O]T'ROPISM. [Gr. _apogaion_; _apo_, from, _g[=e]_, the earth.] APOGRAPH, a'po-graf, _n._ an exact copy. [Gr. _apographon_, a copy--_apo-graph-ein_, to write off, copy.] APOLAUSTIC, a-po-law'stik, _adj._ devoted to the search of enjoyment.--_n._ the philosophy of the pleasurable. [Gr. _apolaustikos_--_apolau-ein_, to enjoy.] APOLLINARIANISM, a-pol-i-n[=a]'ri-an-izm, _n._ the doctrine that the _Logos_, or divine nature in Christ, took the place of the rational human soul or mind, and that the body of Christ was a spiritualised and glorified form of humanity--taught by Apollinaris the younger, Bishop of Laodicea in Syria (died 390 A.D.), condemned as denying the _true_ human nature of Christ by the second Oecumenical Council at Constantinople (381).--_adj._ APOLLIN[=A]'RIAN. APOLLONIAN, a-po-l[=o]n'i-an, _adj._ having the characteristics of Apollo, sun-god of the Greeks and Romans, patron of poetry and music: named from _Apollonius_ of Perga, who studied conic sections in the time of Ptolemy Philopator.--Also APOLLON'IC. APOLLONICON, a-pol-[=o]n'i-kon, _n._ a chamber organ of vast power, supplied with both keys and barrels, first exhibited in 1817. [Formed from _Apollonic_, as _harmonicon_ from _harmonic_.] APOLLYON, a-pol'yun, _n._ the destroyer: Satan (same as ABADDON, Rev. ix. 11). [Gr. _apolly[=o]n_, destroying utterly; _apolly-ein_, _apo-_, and _ollynai_, to destroy.] APOLOGETIC, -AL, a-pol-oj-et'ik, -al, _adj._ excusing: regretfully acknowledging: said or written in defence.--_adv._ APOLOGET'ICALLY.--_n._ APOLOGET'ICS, that branch of theology concerned with the defence of Christianity. It falls under the two heads of _natural_ and _revealed_ theology--in the former it proves the existence of God, of the soul in man, a future state; in the latter, the canonicity, inspiration, and trustworthiness of Scripture. APOLOGUE, a'pol-og, _n._ a fable, parable, or short allegorical story, intended to serve as a pleasant vehicle for some moral doctrine--applied more particularly to one in which the actors are animals or inanimate things, e.g. the apologue of Jotham in Judges, ix. 7-15. [Fr.--Gr. _apologos_, a fable--_apo_, from, _logos_, speech.] APOLOGY, a-pol'oj-i, _n._ something spoken to ward off an attack: a defence or justification: frank acknowledgment of an offence: a poor substitute (with _for_; _of_ is obsolete).--_v.i._ APOL'OGISE, to make excuse: to express regret for a fault (with _for_).--_n._ APOL'OGIST, one who makes an apology: a defender by argument. [Gr.; _apo_, from, _-logia_, speaking--_leg-ein_, to speak.] APOMORPHIA, a-po-morf'i-a, _n._ an alkaloid prepared from morphia by heating hydrochloric acid--a rapid and powerful emetic. [Gr. _apo_, from, and MORPHIA.] APOOP, a-p[=oo]p', _adv._ on the poop, astern. APOPETALOUS, ap-o-pet'al-us, _adj._ (_bot._) having distinct or free petals. [Gr. _apo_, away, and _petalon_, a leaf.] APOPHLEGMATIC, a-po-fleg-mat'ik, _adj._ and _n._ promoting the removal of phlegm. [Gr. _apo-_, and PHLEGMATIC.] APOPHTHEGM, APOTHEGM, a'po-them, _n._ a pithy saying, more short, pointed, and practical than the aphorism need be, e.g. 'God helps them that help themselves.'---_adjs._ APOPHTHEGMAT'IC, -AL, pertaining to the nature of an apophthegm, pithy, sententious.--_adv._ APOPHTHEGMAT'ICALLY.--_v.i._ APOPHTHEG'MATISE, to speak in apophthegms.--_n._ APOPHTHEG'MATIST. [Gr. _apophthegma_--_apo_, forth, and _phthengesthai_, to utter.] APOPLEXY, a'po-pleks-i, _n._ loss of sensation and of motion by a sudden stroke, generally applied by modern medical writers to rupture of a blood-vessel, with hemorrhage in the brain or its membranes, whether with or without consciousness--also figuratively.--_adjs._ APOPLEC'TIC, -AL, pertaining to or causing apoplexy: suffering from, or likely to suffer from, apoplexy.--_adv._ APOPLEC'TICALLY.--_n._ AP'OPLEX (_arch._), apoplexy.--_adj._ AP'OPLEXED (_Shak._), affected with apoplexy. [Gr. _apopl[=e]xia_--_apo_, from, away, and _pl[=e]ss-ein_, to strike.] APOSIOPESIS, a-po-si-o-p[=e]'sis, _n._ a figure by which the speaker suddenly stops as though unable or unwilling to proceed, e.g. Virgil, _Æneid_, i. 135, 'Quos ego----' [Gr.;--_apo-si[=o]pa-ein_, to keep silent, _apo_ and _si[=o]p[=e]_, silence.] APOSTASY, APOSTACY, a-post'a-si, _n._ abandonment of one's religion, principles, or party: a revolt from ecclesiastical obedience, from a religious profession, or from holy orders.--_n._ APOST'ATE, one guilty of apostasy: a renegade from his faith from unworthy motives.--_adj._ false: traitorous: fallen.--_adjs._ APOSTAT'IC, -AL.--_v.i._ APOST'ATISE. [Gr. 'a standing away;' _apo_, from, _stasis_, a standing.] A POSTERIORI, [=a] pos-t[=e]-ri-[=o]'ri, _adj._ applied to reasoning from experience, from effect to cause, as opposed to _a priori_ reasoning, from cause to effect: empirical: gained from experience. _Synthetic_ and _analytic_, _deductive_ and _inductive_, correspond in a general way to _a priori_ and _a posteriori_. [L. _a_ = _ab_, from, _posteriori_, abl. of _posterior_, comp. of _posterus_, after.] APOSTIL, -ILLE, a-pos'til, _n._ a marginal note. [Fr. _apostille_. See POSTIL.] APOSTLE, a-pos'l, _n._ one sent to preach the gospel: specially, one of the twelve disciples of Christ: the founder of the Christian Church in a country, e.g. Augustine, the apostle of the English; Columba, of the Scots; Boniface, of Germany, &c.: the principal champion or supporter of a new system, or of some cause: the highest in the fourfold ministry of the Catholic and Apostolic Church: one of the twelve officials forming a presiding high council in the Mormon Church.--_ns._ APOS'TLESHIP, the office or dignity of an apostle; APOST'OLATE, the office of an apostle: leadership in a propaganda.--_adjs._ APOSTOL'IC, -AL.--_ns._ APOSTOL'ICISM, profession of apostolicity; APOSTOLIC'ITY, the quality of being apostolic--APOSTLES' CREED, the oldest form of Christian creed that exists, early ascribed to the apostles, and indeed substantially, if not strictly, apostolic; APOSTLE SPOONS, silver spoons with handles ending in figures of the apostles, a common baptismal present in the 16th and 17th centuries; APOSTLES, TEACHING OF THE TWELVE--often called merely the _Didach[=e]_ (Gr. 'teaching')--the title of a treatise discovered in 1883 on Christian doctrine and government, closely connected with the last two books (vii.-viii.) of the _Apostolic Constitutions_.--APOSTOLIC CONSTITUTIONS and CANONS, notes of ecclesiastical customs held to be apostolical, written in the form of apostolic precepts, and erroneously ascribed by tradition to Clement of Rome; APOSTOLIC FATHERS, the immediate disciples and fellow-labourers of the apostles, more especially those who have left writings behind them (Barnabas, Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Hermas, Polycarp); APOSTOLIC SEE, the see of Rome; APOSTOLIC VICAR, the cardinal representing the Pope in extraordinary missions.--APOSTOLICAL SUCCESSION, the derivation of holy orders by an assumed unbroken chain of transmission from the apostles through their natural successors, the bishops--the theory of the Catholic Church: the assumption that a ministry so ordained enjoy the succession of apostolic powers and privileges. [Gr.; one sent away, _apo_, away, _stell-ein_, to send.] APOSTROPHE, a-pos'trof-e, _n._ (_rhet._) a sudden turning away from the ordinary course of a speech to address some person or object present or absent, explained by Quintilian as addressed to a person present, but extended by modern use to the absent or dead: a mark (') showing the omission of a letter or letters in a word, also a sign of the modern Eng. genitive or possessive case--orig. a mere mark of the dropping of the letter _e_ in writing.--_adj._ APOSTROPH'IC.--_v.t._ APOS'TROPHISE, to address by apostrophe. [Gr. _apo_, from, and STROPHE, a turning.] APOTHECARY, a-poth'ek-ar-i, _n._ one who prepares and sells drugs for medicinal purposes--a term long since substituted by _druggist_, although still a legal description for licentiates of the Apothecaries' Society of London, or of the Apothecaries' Hall of Ireland. [Through Fr. and L. from Gr. _apoth[=e]k[=e]_, a storehouse--_apo_, away, and _tithe-nai_, to place.] APOTHECIUM, ap-[=o]-th[=e]'si-um, _n._ the spore-case in lichens. [Gr. _apoth[=e]k[=e]_, a storehouse. See APOTHECARY.] APOTHEGM. See APOPHTHEGM. APOTHEOSIS, a-po-th[=e]'o-sis, or a-po-the-[=o]'sis, _n._ deification, esp. the formal attribution of divine honours to a deceased Roman emperor, or special object of the imperial favour--a logical corollary to the worship of ancestors, degenerating naturally by anticipation into the adoration of the living: the glorification of a principle or person: ascension to glory, release from earthly life: resurrection.--_v.i._ APOTH[=E]'OSISE, APOTH'EOSISE. [Gr.; _apotheo-ein_, _apo_, away from what he was, _theos_, a god.] APOZEM, a'po-zem, _n._ a decoction or infusion. [Gr. _apozema_--_apo_, off, and _ze-ein_, to boil.] APPAL, ap-pawl', _v.i._ (_Spens._) to wax faint, fail, decay.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ (_obs._) to dim, weaken: to terrify, dismay:--_pr.p._ appal'ling; _pa.p._ appalled'.--_p.adj._ APPAL'LING, shocking.--_adv._ APPAL'LINGLY. [Perh. from O. Fr. _apalir_, _apallir_, to wax pale, also to make pale. See PALL and PALE.] APPANAGE, APANAGE, ap'pan-[=a]j, _n._ the assignation or conveyance by the crown of lands and feudal rights to the princes of the royal family, a provision for younger sons, a dependency: any perquisite: an adjunct or attribute.--_p.adj._ AP'PANAGED, endowed with an appanage. [Fr. _apanage_--L. _ad_, and _pan-is_, bread.] APPARATUS, ap-par-[=a]'tus, _n._ things prepared or provided, material: set of instruments, tools, natural organs, &c.: materials for the critical study of a document. [L.; _ad_, to, _par[=a]tus_ (_par[=a]re_), prepared.] APPAREL, ap-par'el, _n._ covering for the body, dress: aspect, guise: (_arch._) the rigging of a ship.--_v.t._ to dress, adorn:--_pr.p._ appar'elling or appar'eling; _pa.p._ appar'elled or appar'eled.--_ns._ APPAR'ELLING, APPAR'ELING. [O. Fr. _apareiller_, through obscure Low L. forms from L. _par_, equal, like.] APPARENT, ap-p[=a]r'ent, _adj._ that may be seen: evident: palpable: seeming, as opposed to what really is: (_Shak._) by ellipsis for heir-apparent.--_adv._ APPAR'ENTLY.--_ns._ APPAR'ENTNESS; HEIR'-APPAR'ENT, applied to one who will undoubtedly inherit if he survives the present possessor. [Through Fr. from L. _apparent-em_, _appar[=e]-re_.] APPARITION, ap-par-ish'un, _n._ an appearance--of a visitor, a comet, the appearance in history: an immaterial appearance--of a spirit of the departed, as of a real being, a ghost: (_astron._) the first appearance of a celestial body after occultation.--_adj._ APPARI'TIONAL. [See APPEAR.] APPARITOR, ap-par'it-or, _n._ an officer who attends on a court, or on a magistrate, to execute orders: still applied to the officer of an archiepiscopal, episcopal, archidiaconal, or other ecclesiastical court, sometimes to the beadle of a university bearing the mace: (_rare_) one who appears. [L. See APPEAR.] APPAY, ap-p[=a]', _v.t._ See APAY. APPEACH, ap-p[=e]ch', _v.t._ (_obs._) to accuse, censure, or impeach.--_n._ APPEACH'MENT. [O. Fr. _empechier_--L. _impedic[=a]re_, to catch by the feet--_in_, in, and _pedica_, a fetter. See IMPEACH.] APPEAL, ap-p[=e]l', _v.i._ to call upon, have recourse to (with _to_): to refer (to a witness or superior authority): make supplication or earnest request to a person for a thing: to resort for verification or proof to some principle or person.--_v.t._ to remove a cause (to another court).--_n._ act of appealing: a supplication: removal of a cause to a higher tribunal.--_adjs._ APPEAL'ABLE; APPEAL'ING, relating to appeals.--_adv._ APPEAL'INGLY.--_n._ APPEAL'INGNESS. [O. Fr. _apeler_--_appell[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to address, call by name; also to appeal to, impeach.] APPEAR, ap-p[=e]r', _v.i._ to become visible: to present one's self formally before an authority or tribunal, hence to act as the representative or counsel for another: to be manifest: to be in one's opinion, to seem: to come into view, to come before the public, to be published (of a book): to seem though not real.--_ns._ APPEAR'ANCE, the act of appearing, e.g. in court to prosecute or answer a charge: the publication of a book: the effect of appearing conspicuously, show, parade: the condition of that which appears, form, aspect: outward look or show: a natural phenomenon: an apparition; APPEAR'ER, one that appears: one who puts in an appearance in court.--IT APPEARS (_impers._).--TO ALL APPEARANCE, so far as appears to any one; TO KEEP UP APPEARANCES, to keep up an outward show with intent to conceal the absence of the inward reality; TO PUT IN AN APPEARANCE, to appear in person. [Through Fr. from L. _appar[=e]-re_--_ad_, to, _par[=e]re_, _paritum_, to come forth.] APPEASE, ap-p[=e]z', _v.t._ to pacify: propitiate one who is angry: to quiet: to allay: to pacify by granting demands.--_adj._ APPEAS'ABLE.--_n._ APPEASE'MENT, the action of appeasing: the state of being appeased.--_adv._ APPEAS'INGLY. [O. Fr. _apese-r_, to bring to peace--L. _pac-em_, peace.] APPELLANT, ap-pel'ant, _n._ one who makes an appeal from the decision of a lower court to a higher: one who makes earnest entreaty of any kind: (_obs._) one who challenges another to single combat: one of the clergy in the Jansenist controversy who rejected the bull Unigenitus issued in 1713, appealing to a pope 'better informed,' or to a general council.--_adj._ APPELL'ATE, relating to appeals. [See APPEAL.] APPELLATION, ap-pel-[=a]'shun, _n._ that by which anything is called: a name, especially one attached to a particular person.--_adj._ APPELL[=A]'TIONAL.--_n._ APPELL'ATIVE, a name common to all of the same kind, as distinguished from a proper name: a designation.--_adj._ common to many: general: of or pertaining to the giving of names.--_adv._ APPELL'ATIVELY. [See APPEAL.] APPEND, ap-pend', _v.t._ to hang one thing to another: to add.--_n._ APPEND'AGE, something appended.--_adj._ APPEND'ANT, attached, annexed, consequent.--_n._ an adjunct, quality.--_n._ APPENDIC[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the vermiform appendix of the cæcum.--_adj._ APPENDIC'ULAR, of the nature of or belonging to an appendix.--_n._ APPENDICUL[=A]'RIA, a genus of Ascidians whose members retain the larval vertebrate characters which are lost in the more or less degenerate sea-squirts.--_adj._ APPENDIC'ULATE, furnished with appendages.--_n._ APPEND'IX, something appended or added: a supplement: an addition to a book or document, containing matter explanatory, but not essential to its completeness: (_anat._) a process, prolongation, or projection:--_pl._ APPEND'IXES, APPEND'ICES.--APPENDIX AURICULÆ, the appendix of the auricle of the heart; APPENDICES EPIPLOICÆ, saccular processes, containing fat attached to the serous covering of the large intestine; APPENDIX VERMIFORMIS, or VERMIFORM APPENDIX, a blind process terminating the cæcum in man. [L. _ad_, to, _pend[)e]re_, to hang.] APPENTICE, a-pen'tis, _n._ (_archit._) a pent-house. APPERCEPTION, ap-er-sep'shun, _n._ the mind's perception of itself as a conscious agent: an act of voluntary consciousness, accompanied with self-consciousness. APPERIL, a-per'il, _n._ (_Shak._) peril. [L. _ad_, and PERIL.] APPERTAIN, ap-p[.e]r-t[=a]n', _v.i._ to belong to, as a possession, a right, or attribute.--_n._ APPER'TAINANCE.--_p.adj._ APPERTAIN'ING, proper, appropriate (with _to_).--_n._ APPERTAIN'MENT (_Shak._), that which appertains to any rank or dignity.--_adj._ APPER'TINENT, pertaining or belonging to.--_n._ (_Shak._) that which pertains to anything else. [Through Fr. from L. _ad_, to, _pertin[=e]-re_, to belong. See PERTAIN.] APPETENCY, ap'pet-ens-i, _n._ a seeking after: craving or appetite: desire, especially sensual desire--also AP'PETENCE.--_adj._ AP'PETENT. [L. _appetent-em_, _appet[)e]re_--_ad_, to, _pet[)e]re_, to seek.] APPETITE, ap'pet-[=i]t, _n._ physical craving, accompanied with uneasy sensation (hunger, thirst, sex): natural desire: inclination: desire for food: hunger (with _for_).--_adjs._ AP'PETIBLE, AP'PETITIVE.--_v.t._ AP'PETISE, to create or whet appetite.--_ns._ APPETISE'MENT; APPETIS'ER, something which whets the appetite.--_p.adj._ APPETIS'ING.--_adv._ APPETIS'INGLY. [Through Fr., from L. _appetitus_, _appet[)e]re_.] APPLAUD, ap-plawd', _v.t._ to praise by clapping the hands: to praise loudly: to express loudly approval of anything: to extol.--_n._ APPLAUD'ER.--_p.adj._ APPLAUD'ING.--_adv._ APPLAUD'INGLY.--_n._ APPLAUSE', praise loudly expressed: acclamation.--_adj._ APPLAUS'IVE.--_adv._ APPLAUS'IVELY. [L. _applaud-[)e]re_--_ad_, to, _plaud[)e]re_, _plausum_, to clap. See EXPLODE.] APPLE, ap'l, _n._ the fruit of the apple-tree.--_ns._ AP'PLE-BLIGHT, the rotting substances found on apple-trees, caused by the APPLE-APHIS (see APHIS); AP'PLE-JOHN (_Shak._) a variety of apple considered to be in perfection when shrivelled and withered--also JOHN'-AP'PLE; AP'PLE-PIE, a pie made with apples; AP'PLE-WIFE, AP'PLE-WOM'AN, a woman who sells apples at a stall.--APPLE OF DISCORD, any cause of envy and contention, from the golden apple inscribed 'for the fairest,' thrown by Eris, goddess of discord, into the assembly of the gods, and claimed by Aphrodite (Venus), Pallas (Minerva), and Hera (Juno). The dispute being referred to Paris of Troy, he decided in favour of Aphrodite, to the undying and fatal wrath of Hera against his city; APPLE OF SODOM, or Dead Sea fruit, described by Josephus as fair to look upon, but turning, when touched, into ashes: any fair but disappointing thing; APPLE OF THE EYE, the eyeball: something especially dear; APPLE-PIE ORDER, complete order. [A.S. _æppel_; cf. Ger. _apfel_, Ice. _epli_, Ir. _abhal_, W. _afal_.] APPLIQUÉ, ap'lik-[=a], _n._ work applied to, or laid on, another material, either of metal-work or of lace or the like. [Pa.p. of Fr. _appliquer_.] APPLY, ap-pl[=i]', _v.t._ to lay or put to: to administer a remedy: to bring a general law to bear on particular circumstances: (_obs._) to ascribe: to employ: to fix the mind on: to bring (a ship) to land.--_v.i._ to suit or agree: to have recourse to: to make request: (_Milton_) to assign or impute blame to:--_pr.p._ apply'ing; _pa.p._ appl[=i]ed'.--_adj._ APPL[=I]'ABLE, that may be applied: compliant, well disposed.--_ns._ APPL[=I]'ABLENESS; APPL[=I]'ANCE, anything applied: means used: (_Shak._) compliance.--_ns._ APPLICABIL'ITY, AP'PLICABLENESS.--_adj._ AP'PLICABLE, that may be applied: suitable.--_adv._ AP'PLICABLY.--_n._ AP'PLICANT, one who applies: a petitioner.--_adj._ AP'PLICATE, put to practical use, applied.--_n._ APPLIC[=A]'TION, the act of applying, e.g. the administration of a remedy: diligence: employment, use of anything in special regard to something else, as in the 'application' of a story to real life, the lesson or moral of a fable: close thought or attention: request: a kind of needlework, appliqué: (_obs._) compliance.--_adj._ AP'PLICATIVE, put into actual use in regard to anything: practical.--_adj._ and _n._ AP'PLICATORY, having the property of applying. [O. Fr. _aplier_--L. _applic[=a]re_, _[=a]tum_--_ad_, to, _plic[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to fold.] APPOGGIATURA, ap-pod-ja-t[=u]'ra, _n._ an Italian musical term, designating a form of embellishment by insertion of notes of passage in a melody. [It. _appoggiare_, to lean upon. See APPUI.] APPOINT, ap-point', _v.t._ to fix: to settle: assign, grant: to name to an office: to destine, devote: to equip (_obs._ except in _pa.p._.).--_p.adj._ APPOINT'ED, established: furnished.--_n._ APPOINT'MENT, settlement: engagement: direction: situation: arrangement: (_obs._) allowance paid to a public officer: (_pl._) equipments. [O. Fr. _apointer_, Low L. _appunctare_--L. _ad_, to, _punctum_, a point. See POINT.] APPORTION, ap-p[=o]r'shun, _v.t._ to portion out: to divide in just shares: to adjust in due proportion.--_n._ APPOR'TIONMENT. [L. _ad_, to, and PORTION.] APPOSE, a'p[=o]z, _v.t._ to apply one thing to another, e.g. a seal to a document: to place side by side. [Formed from L. _appon[)e]re_, _-positum_.] APPOS[=I]TE, ap'poz-[=i]t, _adj._ adapted: suitable.--_adv._ AP'POSITELY.--_n._ AP'POSITENESS. [L. _appositus_, pa.p. of _appon[)e]re_, to put to--_ad_, to, _pon[)e]re_, to put.] APPOSITION, ap-poz-ish'un, _n._ the act of adding: state of being placed together or against: juxtaposition: (_gram._) the annexing of one noun to another, in the same case or relation, in order to explain or limit the first: also used of a public disputation by scholars, and still the word in use for the 'Speech Day' at St Paul's School, London.--_adjs._ APPOSI'TIONAL; APPOS'ITIVE, placed in apposition. [See APPOSITE.] APPRAISE, ap-pr[=a]z', _v.t._ to set a price on: to value with a view to sale: to estimate the amount and quality of anything.--_adj._ APPRAIS'ABLE.--_ns._ APPRAIS'AL, appraisement; APPRAISE'MENT, a valuation: estimation of quality; APPRAIS'ER, one who values property: one who estimates quality. [Late in appearing; for some time used in the same sense as _praise_. Perh. formed on analogy of the synonymous PRIZE, APPRIZE.] APPRECIATE, ap-pr[=e]'shi-[=a]t, _v.t._ to estimate justly, to be fully sensible of all the good qualities in the thing judged: to estimate highly: to raise in value, to advance the quotation or price of, as opposed to _depreciate_.--_v.i._ to rise in value.--_adj._ APPR[=E]'CIABLE.--_adv._ APPR[=E]'CIABLY.--_n._ APPRECI[=A]'TION, the act of setting a value on, also specially of a work of literature or art: just--and also favourable--estimation: rise in exchangeable value: increase in value.--_adjs._ APPR[=E]'CIATIVE, APPR[=E]'CIATORY, implying appreciation.--_n._ APPRECI[=A]'TOR, one who appreciates, or estimates justly. [L. _appreti[=a]tus_, pa.p. of _appreti[=a]re_--_ad_, to, and _pretium_, price.] APPREHEND, ap-pre-hend', _v.t._ to lay hold of: to seize by authority: to be conscious of by means of the senses: to lay hold of by the intellect: to catch the meaning of: to consider or hold a thing as such: to fear.--_n._ APPREHENSIBIL'ITY.--_adj._ APPREHENS'IBLE.--_n._ APPREHEN'SION, act of apprehending or seizing: arrest: (_arch._) conscious perception: conception: ability to understand: fear: (_obs._) sensitiveness, sensibility to.--_adj._ APPREHENS'IVE, pertaining to the laying hold of sensuous and mental impressions: intelligent, clever: having an apprehension or notion of: fearful: anticipative of something adverse.--_n._ APPREHENS'IVENESS. [L. _apprehend[)e]re_--_ad_, to, _prehend[)e]re_, _-hensum_, to lay hold of.] APPRENTICE, ap-prent'is, _n._ one bound to another to learn a trade or art: one learning the rudiments of anything, a novice.--_v.t._ to bind as an apprentice.--_ns._ APPRENT'ICEHOOD (_Shak._), apprenticeship; APPRENT'ICESHIP, the state of an apprentice: a term of practical training: specially, a period of seven years.--TO SERVE APPRENTICESHIP, to undergo the training of an apprentice. [O. Fr. _aprentis_, _aprendre_, to learn--L. _apprehend[)e]re_. See APPREHEND.] APPRISE, ap-pr[=i]z', _v.t._ to give notice: to inform. [Fr. _apprendre_, pa.p. _appris_--L. _adprend[)e]re_. See APPREHEND.] APPRIZE, -ISE, a-pr[=i]z', _v.t._ (_Scots law_) to put a selling price on: to value, appreciate.--_n._ APPRIZ'ER, a creditor for whom an appraisal is made. [O. Fr. _apriser_--_à_, to, and _prisier_, to price, prize. See APPRAISE, PRAISE, and PRIZE.] APPROACH, ap-pr[=o]ch', _v.i._ to draw near: to draw nigh (of time or events): to come near in quality, condition, &c.: (_arch._) to come into personal relations with a person.--_v.t._ to come near to: to resemble: attain to: to bring near in any sense.--_n._ a drawing near to in military attack, in personal relations: access: a path or avenue: approximation: (_pl._) trenches, &c., by which besiegers strive to reach a fortress.--_n._ APPROACHABI'LTY.--_adj._ APPROACH'ABLE. [O. Fr. _aprochier_, Low L. _adpropiare_--L. _ad_, to, _prope_, near.] APPROBATION, ap-prob-[=a]'shun, _n._ formal sanction: approval: (_Shak._) confirmation.--_v.t._ AP'PROBATE, to approve authoritatively (_obs._ except in U.S.): (_Scots law_) to approve of as valid.--_adjs._ AP'PROBATORY, AP'PROBATIVE, of or belonging to one who approves.--TO APPROBATE AND REPROBATE, a phrase in Scotch law which means that no one can be permitted to accept and reject the same deed or instrument, analogous in the law of England to Election. [See APPROVE.] APPROOF, ap-pr[=oo]f', _n._ trial, proof: sanction, approbation. APPROPINQUATE, ap-pro-pink'w[=a]t, _v.i._ to come near to.--_ns._ APPROPINQU[=A]'TION, APPROPIN'QUITY. [L. _appropinqu[=a]re_, to approach--_ad_, to, and _propinquus_, near (_prope_).] APPROPRIATE, ap-pr[=o]'pri-[=a]t, _v.t._ to make the private property of any one: to take to one's self as one's own: to set apart for a purpose: (_arch._) to select as suitable (with _to_).--_adj._ set apart for a particular purpose: peculiar: suitable.--_adv._ APPROPRIATELY.--_ns._ APPR[=O]'PRIATENESS; APPROPRI[=A]'TION, the act of appropriating: in Church law, the making over of a benefice to an owner who receives the tithes, but is bound to appoint a vicar for the spiritual service of the parish: in Constitutional law, the principle, that supplies granted by parliament are only to be expended for particular objects specified by itself.--_adj._ APPR[=O]'PRIATIVE.--_ns._ APPR[=O]'PRIATIVENESS; APPR[=O]'PRIATOR, one who appropriates.--APPROPRIATION CLAUSE, a clause in a parliamentary bill, allotting revenue to any special purpose or purposes. [L. _appropri[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ad_, to, _proprius_, one's own. See PROPER.] APPROVE, a-pr[=oo]v', _v.t._ to show, demonstrate (also reflexively): to sanction or ratify: to think well of, to be pleased with, to commend: (_Shak._) to put to the trial, hence also, to convict upon proof.--_v.i._ to judge favourably, to be pleased (with _of_).--_adj._ APPROV'ABLE, deserving approval--_ns._ APPROV'AL, the act of approving: approbation; APPROV'ER, one who approves: (_law_) an accomplice in crime admitted to give evidence against a prisoner.--_adv._ APPROV'INGLY. [O. Fr. _aprover_--L. _approb[=a]re_--_ad_, to, and _prob[=a]re_, to test or try--_probus_, good.] APPROVE, a-pr[=oo]v', _v.t._ (_law_) to turn to one's profit, increase the value of. [Confused with APPROVE, but from O. Fr. _aproer_, _approuer_--_à_, to (L. _ad_), and _pro_, _prou_, advantage. See PROW-ESS.] APPROVEN, ap-pr[=oo]v'n, old _pa.p._ of APPROVE. APPROXIMATE, ap-proks'im-[=a]t, _adj._ nearest or next: approaching correctness.--_v.t._ to bring near.--_v.i._ to come near, to approach.--_adv._ APPROX'IMATELY.--_n._ APPROXIM[=A]'TION, an approach: a result in mathematics not rigorously exact, but so near the truth as to be sufficient for a given purpose.--_adj._ APPROX'IMATIVE, approaching closely. [L. _approxim[=a]re_, _-atum_--_ad_, to, _proximus_, nearest, superl. of _prope_, near.] APPUI, ap-w[=e]', _n._ the reciprocal action between the mouth of the horse and the rider's hand.--_vs.t._ APPUI, APPUY, to support, e.g. to post troops in order to support.--POINT D'APPUI, a point at which troops form as a base of operations. [O. Fr. _apuyer_--Low L. _appodia-re_--L. _ad_, to, and _podium_, support (Fr. _puy_, a hill).] APPULSE, ap-puls', _n._ a striking against: the approach of a planet to a conjunction with the sun or a star.--_n._ APPUL'SION.--_adj._ APPUL'SIVE. [L. _appuls-us_--_appell-[)e]re_, _ad_, towards, _pell-[)e]re_, to drive.] APPURTENANCE, ap-pur'ten-ans, _n._ that which appertains to: an appendage or accessory: (_law_) a right belonging to a property.--_adj._ and _n._ APPUR'TENANT. [O. Fr. _apurtenance_. See APPERTAIN.] APRICATE, ap'ri-k[=a]t, _v.i._ to bask in the sun.--_v.t._ (_rare_) to expose to sunlight.--_n._ APRIC[=A]'TION. [L. _appricat-_, _apric[=a]ri_, to bask in the sun, _apricus_, open to the sun.] APRICOT, [=a]'pri-kot, _n._ a fruit of the plum kind, roundish, pubescent, orange-coloured, of a rich aromatic flavour--older form A'PRICOCK. [Port. _albricoque_ (Fr. _abricot_)--Ar. _al-birquq_. But _b[=i]rquq_ is a corr. of Late Gr. _praikokion_, which is simply the L. _præcoquum_ or _præcox_, early ripe; the form is perh. due to a fancied connection with L. _apricus_, sunny. See PRECOCIOUS.] APRIL, [=a]'pril, _n._ the fourth month of the year.--_n._ A'PRIL-FOOL, one sent upon a bootless errand on the 1st of April, perhaps a relic of some old Celtic heathen festival. In Scotland called _gowk_ (a cuckoo, a fool). [L. _Aprilis_, usually regarded as from _aperire_, as the month when the earth opens to bring forth new fruits.] A PRIORI, [=a] pri-[=o]'r[=i], a term applied to reasoning from what is prior, logically or chronologically, e.g. reasoning from cause to effect; from a general principle to its consequences; even from observed fact to another fact or principle not observed, or to arguing from pre-existing knowledge, or even cherished prejudices; (_Kant_) from the forms of cognition independent of experience.--_ns._ APRI[=O]'RISM, APRI[=O]'RITY; APRI[=O]'RIST, one who believes in Kant's view of a priori cognition. [L. _a_, _ab_, from, _priori_, abl. of _prior_, preceding.] APRON, [=a]'prun, _n._ a cloth or piece of leather worn before one to protect the dress, or as part of a distinctive official dress, as by Freemasons, &c.--aprons of silk or the like are often worn by ladies for mere ornament: the short cassock ordinarily worn by English bishops: anything resembling an apron in shape or use, as a gig-apron, &c.--_v.t._ to cover with, as with an apron.--_adj._ A'PRONED.--_ns._ A'PRON-MAN (_Shak._), a man who wears an apron, a mechanic; A'PRON-STRING, a string by which an apron is attached to the person.--TO BE TIED TO A WOMAN'S APRON-STRINGS, to be bound to a woman as a child is bound to its mother. [O. Fr. _naperon_--_nappe_, cloth, tablecloth--L. _mappa_, a napkin.] APROPOS, a-pro-p[=o]', _adv._ to the purpose: appropriately: in reference to (with _to_ and _of_).--_adj._ opportune. [Fr. _à propos_. See PROPOSE.] APSE, aps, _n._ an arched semicircular or polygonal recess at the east end of the choir of a church--here, in the Roman basilica, stood the prætor's chair.--_adj._ AP'SIDAL.--_n._ APSID'IOLE, a secondary apse, as one of the apses on either side of the central or main apse in a church of triapsidal plan. [See APSIS.] APSIS, ap'sis, _n._ one of the two extreme points in the orbit of a planet, one at the greatest, the other at the least distance from the sun: one of the two points in the orbit of a satellite--one nearest to, the other farthest from, its primary; corresponding, in the case of the moon, to the perigee and apogee:--_pl._ APSIDES (ap'si-d[=e]z).--_adj._ AP'SIDAL. [L. _apsis_--Gr. _hapsis_, a connection, an arch--_hapt-ein_, to connect. See APT.] APT, apt, _adj._ liable: ready for or prone to anything: prompt, open to impressions (with _at_).--_adv._ APT'LY.--_n._ APT'NESS. [L. _apt-us_, fit, suitable, apposite; cog. with Gr. _hapt-ein_.] APTEROUS, ap't[.e]r-us, _adj._ without wings.--_adj._ AP'TERAL, without wings: (_archit._) without lateral columns. [Gr. _a_, neg., _pteron_, a wing.] APTERYX, ap't[.e]r-iks, _n._ a bird found in New Zealand, wingless and tailless, reddish-brown, about the size of a large hen. [Gr. _a_, neg., _pteryx_, wing.] APTITUDE, apt'i-t[=u]d, _n._ fitness: tendency: readiness, teachableness, talent (with _for_). [Low L. _aptitudo_--L. _apt-us_.] APTOTE, ap't[=o]t, _n._ a noun without any variation of cases. [Gr. _apt[=o]tos_--_a_, priv., _pt[=o]sis_, a falling, a case--_pipt-ein_, to fall.] APYRETIC, a-pir-et'ik, _adj._ without pyrexia or fever, especially of those days in which the intermission of fevers occurs in agues--_n._ APYREX'IA. [Gr. _a_, neg., and _pyretos_, fever.] AQUA-FORTIS, [=a]'kwa-for'tis, _n._ nitric acid, a powerful solvent, hence used figuratively.--_ns._ AQUAFORT'IST, one who prepares etchings or engravings by means of aqua-fortis; A'QUA-MIRAB'ILIS, a preparation distilled from cloves, nutmeg, ginger, and spirit of wine; A'QUA-R[=E]'GIA, a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, so called because it dissolves the royal metal, gold; A'QUA TOFA'NA, a poisonous fluid (prepared from arsenic) made in Palermo in the 17th cent. by a woman _Tofana_; A'QUA-VI'TÆ, an old name for alcohol, used of brandy, whisky, &c.; cf. Fr. _eau de vie_, and _usquebaugh_. [L. _aqua_, water, _fortis_, strong.] AQUAMARINE, [=a]'kwa-ma-r[=e]n', _n._ the beryl.--_adj._ bluish-green, sea-coloured. [L. _aqua_, water, _mar[=i]na_--_mare_, the sea.] AQUARELLE, ak-wa-rel', _n._ water-colour painting, or a painting in water-colours.--_n._ AQUAREL'LIST. [Fr.,--It. _acquerella_, _acqua_--L. _aqua_.] AQUARIUM, a-kw[=a]'ri-um, _n._ a tank or series of tanks for keeping aquatic animals, usually made mostly of glass, filled with either fresh or salt water, having rocks, plants, &c. as in nature: an artificial pond or cistern for cultivating water-plants:--_pl._ AQU[=A]'RIUMS, AQU[=A]'RIA. [L.--_aqua_, water.] AQUARIUS, a-kw[=a]'ri-us, _n._ the water-bearer, the eleventh sign of the zodiac, which the sun enters about 21st January, so called from the constellation of the same name, supposed to represent a man holding his left hand upward, and pouring with his right water from a vase into the mouth of the Southern Fish. [L.--_aqua_, water.] AQUATIC, a-kwat'ik, _adj._ relating to water: living or growing in water.--_n.pl._ AQUAT'ICS, amusements on the water, as boating, &c. AQUATINT, [=a]'kwa-tint, _n._ a mode of etching on copper, by which imitations are produced of drawings in Indian ink, &c.--also AQUATINT'A.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ A'QUATINT, to engrave in aquatint. [It. _acqua tinta_--L. _aqua_, water, and _ting[)e]re_, _tinctum_, to wet, to colour.] AQUEDUCT, ak'we-dukt, _n._ an artificial channel for conveying water, most commonly understood to mean a bridge of stone, iron, or wood for conveying water across a valley: also a bridge carrying a canal for the purposes of navigation. [L. _aqua_, water--_duc[)e]re_, _ductum_, to lead.] AQUEOUS, [=a]'kwe-us, _adj._ watery: deposited by water.--_adv._ A'QUEOUSLY.--AQUEOUS HUMOUR, the watery fluid which fills the space between the cornea and the crystalline lens in the eye; AQUEOUS ROCKS, in geology, rocks composed of matter deposited by water. AQUIFEROUS, ak-wif'[.e]r-us, _adj._ bearing water. [L. _aqua_, water, _fero_, I bear.] AQUIFORM, [=a]'kwi-form, _adj._ having the form of water. [L. _aqua_, water, and FORM.] AQUILINE, ak'wil-in, or -[=i]n, _adj._ relating to or like the eagle: curved or hooked, like an eagle's beak. [L. _aquila_.] AQUILON, ak'wi-lon, _n._ (_Shak._) the north wind. [L. _aquilo_, _-onis_.] ARAB, ar'ab, _n._ a native of Arabia: an Arab horse, noted for its gracefulness and speed: a neglected or homeless boy or girl--usually STREET or CITY ARAB.--_adj._ of or belonging to Arabia.--_adj._ AR[=A]B'IAN, relating to Arabia.--_n._ a native of Arabia.--_adj._ AR'ABIC, relating to Arabia, or to its language.--_n._ the language of Arabia.--_ns._ AR'ABISM, an Arabic idiom; AR'ABIST, one skilled in the Arabic language or literature; AR'ABY, a poetical form of _Arabia_. [L. _Arabs_, _Arab-em_--Gr. _Araps_.] ARABA, ar-ä'ba, _n._ a heavy screened wagon used by the Tartars.--Also AR'BA and AR[=O]'BA. [Ar. and Pers. _ar[=a]bah_.] [Illustration] ARABESQUE, ar'ab-esk, _adj._ after the manner of Arabian designs.--_n._ a fantastic painted or sculptured ornament among the Spanish Moors, consisting of foliage and other parts of plants curiously intertwined.--_adj._ AR'ABESQUED, so ornamented. [Fr.--It. _arabesco_; _-esco_ corresponding to Eng. _-ish_.] ARABINE, ar'ab-in, _n._ the essential principle of gum-arabic. ARABLE, ar'a-bl, _adj._ fit for ploughing or tillage. [L. _arabilis_--_ara-re_, cog. with Gr. _aro-ein_, to plough, A.S. _erian_, Eng. EAR (v.t.), Ir. _araim_.] ARACHNIDA, a-rak'ni-da, _n.pl._ a sub-class of Tracheate Arthropoda, embracing spiders, scorpions, mites, &c., first separated by Lamarck from the Insecta of Linnæus.--_adj._ ARACH'NIDAN.--_n._ and _adj._ ARACH'NOID, like a cobweb.--_adjs._ ARACHNOI'DAL, ARACHNOLOG'ICAL.--_n._ ARACHNO'LOGIST, one who devotes himself to the study of arachnida.--ARACHNOID MEMBRANE, one of the three coverings of the brain and spinal cord, situated between the dura-mater and the pia-mater, non-vascular, transparent, thin. [Gr. _arachn[=e]_, spider.] ARAGONITE, ar'a-gon-[=i]t, _n._ a variety of calcium carbonate. [_Aragon_, in Spain.] ARAISE, a-r[=a]z', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to raise from the dead. [Pfx. _a-_, and RAISE.] ARAMAIC, ar-a-m[=a]'ik, _adj._ relating to _Aramæa_, the whole of the country to the north-east of Palestine, or to its language--also ARAM[=E]'AN, AR'AMITE.--_n._ ARAM[=A]'ISM, an Aramaic idiom. ARANEIFORM, ar-a-n[=e]'i-form, _adj._ in the form of a spider.--_adj._ ARAN[=E]'IDAN.--_n._ ARANEOL'OGIST = ARACHNOL'OGIST.--_adj._ ARAN'EOUS, like a spider's web. [L. _ar[=a]nea_, spider, and FORM.] ARAPHOROSTIC, ar-af-or-os'tik, _adj._ (_Lytton_) seamless.--Also AROPHOS'TIC. [Formed from Gr. _arraphos_, unsewed--_a_, neg., and _hropt-ein_, to sew.] ARAUCARIA, ar-aw-k[=a]'ri-a, _n._ a genus of lofty evergreen trees of the natural order Coniferæ or Pines, natives of S. America and Australasia. [_Arauco_, name of a province, whence _Araucania_, a district in S. Chili.] ARBALEST, är'bal-est, _n._ a crossbow of steel or horn used in war and the chase--also AR'BALIST, AR'BLAST, ARC[=U]'BALIST.--_ns._ AR'BALISTER, AR'BALESTER, one armed with an arbalest. [O. Fr. _arbaleste_--L. _arcuballista_--_arcus_, bow, and _ballista_, engine for throwing missiles.] ARBITER, är'bit-[.e]r, _n._ one chosen by parties in controversy to decide between them: a judge having absolute power of decision: an arbitrator: umpire:--_fem._ AR'BITRESS.--_ns._ AR'BITRAGE, exercise of the functions of the arbiter; ARBIT'RAMENT, ARBIT'REMENT, the decision of an arbiter: determination: choice.--_v.i._ AR'BITRATE, to act as an arbiter: to determine.--_ns._ ARBITR[=A]'TION; AR'BITR[=A]TOR (same as ARBITER):--_fem._ AR'BITR[=A]TRIX.--ARBITRATION OF EXCHANGE, the determination of the rate of exchange between two currencies when there are one or more intermediate places through which the operations must pass.--TO SUBMIT TO ARBITRATION, to defer a matter of private, public, or international controversy to the judgment of certain persons selected. [L.--_ar_ = _ad_, to, and _bit-[)e]re_ (cog. with Gr. _bai-nein_), to go or come; sig. one who comes to look on, a witness, a judge.] ARBITRARY, är'bi-trar-i, _adj._ not bound by rules: despotic, absolute, arising from accident rather than from rule, varying, uncertain.--_adv._ AR'BITRARILY.--_n._ AR'BITRARINESS. [L. _arbitrarius_, arbiter.] ARBLAST. See ARBALEST. ARBOR, är'bur, _n._ the Latin word for tree.--_adjs._ ARBOR[=A]'CEOUS, ARB[=O]R'EAL, of tree-like character.--_n._ ARBOR-DAY, in many of the United States, a day yearly set apart for the general planting of trees by school children--in Canada, the first Friday in May.--_adj._ ARB[=O]R'EOUS, of or belonging to trees.--_ns._ ARBORES'CENCE, ARBORIS[=A]'TION, tree-like growth.--_adj._ ARBORES'CENT, growing or formed like a tree: (_archit._) branching like a tree.--_ns._ AR'BORET (_obs._), shrubbery: (_Spens._) a little tree, shrub; ARBOR[=E]'TUM, a place in which specimens of trees and shrubs are cultivated:--_pl._ ARBOR[=E]'TA.--_adj._ ARBORICUL'TURAL.--_ns._ AR'BORICULTURE, forestry, the culture of trees, esp. timber-trees; ARBORICUL'TURIST; AR'BORIST, one who studies trees.--_adj._ AR'BOROUS, formed by trees.--ARBOR VITÆ, a popular name of several evergreen shrubs of the genus Thuja. When the human cerebellum is cut vertically, a tree-like appearance seen receives this name. ARBOR, är'bur, _n._ the main support of a machine: an axis or spindle on which a wheel revolves. [L.] ARBOUR, är'bur, _n._ an enclosed seat in a garden, covered with branches of trees, plants, &c.: a bower: a shaded walk.--_adj._ AR'BOURED. [See HARBOUR.] ARBUTE, är'b[=u]t, _n._ the strawberry-tree: an evergreen shrub, which bears a scarlet fruit somewhat resembling the strawberry.--Also AR'BUTUS. [L. _arbutus_, akin to _arbor_, tree.] ARC, ärk, _n._ a segment of a circle or other curve. [O. Fr.--L. _arcus_, a bow.] ARCADE, ärk-[=a]d', _n._ a row of arches supported by columns--the Gothic counterpart to the classical colonnade: the row of piers, or columns and arches, by which the aisles are divided from the nave of a church, or by which cloisters are enclosed: a walk arched over: a long arched gallery lined with shops on both sides. [Fr.--L. _arcata_, arched. See ARCH.] ARCADIAN, ark-[=a]d'i-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Arcadia_ (_poet._ AR'CADY), a district in Greece whose people were primitive in manners and given to music and dancing: pastoral: simple, innocent.--_n._ ARCAD'IANISM.--_adv._ ARCAD'IANLY. ARCANUM, ärk-[=a]n'um, _n._ a secret: a mystery: a secret remedy or elixir:--_pl._ ARCAN'A.--_adj._ ARCANE' (_rare_). [L.--_arcanus_--_arca_, a chest.] ARCATURE, ar-ka-t[=u]r, _n._ French for arcade, a small arcade: a blind arcade for decorating wall spaces. ARCH, ärch, _n._ a concave construction of stones or other materials, built or turned on a centering over an open space, so as by mutual pressure to support each other and sustain a superincumbent weight.--_v.t._ to cover with an arch: to bend into the form of an arch.--_p.adj._ ARCHED, made with an arch, or like an arch.--_ns._ ARCH'LET, a little arch; ARCH'WAY, an arched or vaulted passage, esp. that leading into a castle.--ARCHES, or COURT OF ARCHES, the ecclesiastical court of appeal for the province of Canterbury, formerly held at the church of St-Mary-le-Bow (or 'of the Arches'), from the arches that support its steeple. [O. Fr.,--L. _arca_, chest.] ARCH, ärch, _adj._ cunning: waggish: roguish: shrewd, now mostly of women and children.--_adv._ ARCH'LY.--_n._ ARCH'NESS. [Derived from the prefix _arch-_, in its use in words like _arch_-rogue, &c.] ARCH, ärch (ärk in _archangel_), _adj._ used as a prefix, now chiefly as an intensive in an odious sense: the first or chief.--_ns._ ARCH'-EN'EMY, a chief enemy: Satan--also ARCH'-FOE; ARCH'-FIEND, the supreme fiend: Satan; ARCH'-FL[=A]'MEN, a chief flamen or priest; ARCH-HE'RESY; ARCH'-HE'RETIC, a leader of heresy; ARCH'-MOCK' (_Shak._), the height of mockery; ARCH'-P[=I]'RATE, a chief pirate; ARCH'-P[=O]'ET, a chief poet: (_obs._) a poet-laureate; ARCH'-PREL'ATE, a chief prelate; ARCH'-PRIEST', a chief priest: in early times, a kind of vicar to the bishop--later, a rural dean: the title given to the superiors appointed by the Pope to govern the secular priests sent into England from the foreign seminaries during the period 1598-1621; ARCH'-TRAIT'OR, a chief traitor, sometimes applied esp. to the devil, or to Judas. [A.S. _arce_, _ærce_, through L. from Gr. _archi_, cog. with _arch-ein_, to begin.] ARCHÆOLOGY, ärk-e-ol'oj-i, _n._ a knowledge of ancient art, customs, &c.: the science which deduces a knowledge of past times from the study of their existing remains.--_adj._ ARCHÆOLOG'ICAL.--_adv._ ARCHÆOLOG'ICALLY.--_n._ ARCHÆOL'OGIST. [Gr. _archaios_, ancient--_arch[=e]_, beginning, and _logos_, discourse.] ARCHÆOPTERYX, [=a]r-k[=e]-op't[.e]r-iks, _n._ the oldest known fossil bird, found in the Jurassic limestone of Bavaria, having a long bony tail of twenty vertebræ. [Gr. _archaios_, ancient, _pteryx_, wing.] ARCHAIC, -AL, ärk-[=a]'ik, -al, _adj._ ancient: obsolete, esp. of language.--_adj._ ARCHÆAN (ärk-[=e]'an), of or belonging to the earliest zoological period.--_n._ ARCHÆOG'RAPHY.--_adj._ ARCHÆOZ[=O]'IC. (Gr. _z[=o][=e]_, life), pertaining to the era of the earliest living beings on the earth.--_adv._ ARCH[=A]'ICALLY.--_n._ ARCH[=A]'ICISM.--_v.t._ AR'CH[=A]ISE, to imitate the archaic.--_ns._ ARCH[=A]'ISM, an archaic or obsolete word or phrase; ARCH[=A]'IST (_Mrs Browning_).--_adj._ ARCH[=A]IS'TIC, affectedly or imitatively archaic. [Gr. _archaikos_--_archaios_, ancient--_arch[=e]_, beginning.] ARCHANGEL, ärk-[=a]n'jel, _n._ an angel of the highest order.--_adj._ ARCHANGEL'IC. [ARCH, chief, and ANGEL.] ARCHBISHOP, ärch-bish'up, _n._ a chief bishop: a metropolitan bishop who superintends the conduct of the suffragan bishops in his province, and also exercises episcopal authority in his own diocese.--_n._ ARCHBISH'OPRIC. [ARCH, chief, and BISHOP.] ARCHDEACON, ärch-d[=e]'kn, _n._ a chief deacon: the ecclesiastical dignitary having the chief supervision of a diocese or part of it, next under the bishop--the 'bishop's eye.'--_ns._ ARCHDEAC'ONRY, the office, jurisdiction, or residence of an archdeacon; ARCHDEAC'ONSHIP, the office of an archdeacon.--_adj._ ARCHID[=I]AC'ONAL.--_n._ ARCHID[=I]AC'ONATE. [ARCH, chief, and DEACON.] ARCHDIOCESE, ärch-d[=i]'o-s[=e]z, _n._ the diocese of an archbishop. [ARCH, chief, and DIOCESE.] ARCHDUKE, ärch-d[=u]k', _n._ a duke of specially exalted rank: a prince of Austria:--_fem._ ARCHDUCH'ESS.--_adj._ ARCHD[=U]'CAL.--_ns._ ARCHDUCH'Y, ARCHDUKE'DOM, the territory of an archduke or archduchess. [ARCH, chief, and DUKE.] ARCHER, ärch'[.e]r, _n._ one who shoots with a bow and arrows:--_fem._ ARCH'ERESS.--_ns._ ARCH'ER-FISH, an acanthopterygious fish of India which catches insects by shooting water at them from its mouth; ARCH'ERY, the art of shooting with the bow: a company of archers. [O. Fr. _archier_--L. _arcari-um_, _arcus_, a bow.] ARCHETYPE, ärk'e-t[=i]p, _n._ the original pattern or model, a prototype.--_adj._ ARCHETYP'AL. [Gr. _archetypon_, _archi-_, and _typos_, a model.] ARCHIEPISCOPAL, ärk-i-ep-is'kop-al, _adj._ belonging to an archbishop.--_ns._ ARCHIEPIS'COPACY, ARCHIEPIS'COPATE, dignity or province of an archbishop. [See EPISCOPAL.] ARCHIL, är'kil, _n._ a colouring substance obtained from various species of lichens. [Corrupt form of ORCHIL--O. Fr. _orchel_, _orseil_ (Fr. _orseille_)--It. _orcello_, origin undetermined.] ARCHILOCHIAN, är-ki-l[=o]'ki-an, _adj._ pertaining to the Greek lyric poet _Archilochus_ of Paros (714-676 B.C.), the supposed originator of iambic metre, noted for the bitterness of his satire--hence the proverbial phrases, 'Archilochian bitterness' and 'Parian verse:' a _lesser Archilochian verse_ = a dactylic hexameter alternating with a penthemim; a _greater Archilochian_, a verse consisting of four dactyls and three trochees. ARCHIMAGE, är'ki-m[=a]j, _n._ a chief magician or enchanter. [Gr. _archi-_, chief, and L. _magus_, a magician.] ARCHIMANDRITE, är-ki-man'dr[=i]t, _n._ in the Greek Church, the superior of a monastery, an abbot: sometimes the superintendent of several monasteries. [Late Gr. _archimandrit[=e]s_--pfx. _archi_, first, and _mandra_, an enclosure, a monastery.] [Illustration] ARCHIMEDEAN, ärk-i-me-d[=e]'an, _adj._ pertaining to _Archimedes_, a celebrated Greek mathematician of Syracuse (287-212 B.C.).--ARCHIMEDEAN SCREW, a machine for raising water, in its simplest form consisting of a flexible tube bent spirally round a solid cylinder, the ends of which are furnished with pivots, so as to admit of the whole turning round its axis.--PRINCIPLE OF ARCHIMEDES, a fundamental law in Hydrostatics, that a body when immersed in a fluid weighs less than it does _in vacuo_ by the weight of the fluid it displaces. ARCHIPELAGO, ärk-i-pel'a-g[=o], _n._ the chief sea of the Greeks, or the Ægean Sea: a sea abounding in small islands, also a group of such islands:--_pl._ ARCHIPEL'AGOES.--_adj._ ARCHIPELAGIC (-aj'ik). [An Italian compound from Gr. _archi-_, chief, _pelagos_, sea.] ARCHITECT, ärk'i-tekt, _n._ a master-builder: one who designs buildings and superintends their erection: a maker: any contriver, as the Creator.--_adjs._ ARCHITECTON'IC, pertaining to architecture: constructive: controlling, having direction: (_metaph._) pertaining to the arrangement of knowledge.--_n._ the science of architecture: the systematic arrangement of knowledge.--_adj._ ARCHITECT'URAL.--_n._ ARCHITECT'URE, the art or science of building: structure: in specific sense, one of the fine arts, the art of architecture--also used of any distinct style, e.g. Gothic, Byzantine architecture. [Gr. _architekt[=o]n_--_archi-_, chief, and _tekt[=o]n_, a builder.] ARCHITRAVE, ärk'i-tr[=a]v, _n._ (_archit._) the lowest division of the entablature resting immediately on the abacus of the column: collective name for the various parts, jambs, lintels, &c. which surround a door or window.--_p.adj._ ARCH'ITRAVED. [It. from Gr. _archi-_, chief, and L. _trab-em_, _trabs_, a beam.] ARCHIVES, ärk'[=i]vz, _n._ the place in which government records are kept: (_pl._) public records--also figuratively in both senses.--_adj._ ARCH'IVAL, pertaining to, or contained in, archives or records.--_n._ ARCH'IVIST, a keeper of archives or records. [Fr.--Gr. _archeion_, magisterial residence--_arch[=e]_, government.] ARCHIVOLT, är'ki-volt, _n._ the band or moulding which runs round the lower part of the archstones of an arch. [Fr. _archivolte_, It. _archivolto_--L. _arcus_, an arch, _volta_, a vault.] ARCHOLOGY, ärk-ol'oj-i, _n._ (_rare_) doctrine of the origin of things: the science of government. [Gr. _arch[=e]_, beginning, _logos_, discourse.] ARCHON, ärk'on, _n._ one of nine chief magistrates of ancient Athens.--_ns._ ARCH'ONSHIP, the office of an archon; ARCH'ONTATE, the archon's tenure of office. [Gr. _arch-ein_, to be first, to rule.] ARCHWISE, ärch'w[=i]z, _adv._ in the form of an arch. [ARCH, and WISE, way.] ARCTIC, ärk'tik, _adj._ relating to the constellation the Great Bear, or to the north, used figuratively to express extreme cold.--ARCTIC CIRCLE, a circle drawn round the North Pole, at a distance of 23½ degrees. [O. Fr. _artique_--L. _arcticus_--Gr. _arktikos_--_arktos_, a bear.] ARCTURUS, ärk-t[=u]'rus, _n._ the Bear-ward, a yellow star in the northern hemisphere, fourth in order of brightness in the entire heavens. [Gr. _arktouros_--_arktos_, a bear, and _ouros_, ward, guard (from its situation at the tail of the bear).] ARCUATE, är'k[=u]-[=a]t, ARCUATED, är'k[=u]-[=a]t-ed, _adj._ bent in the form of a bow.--_n._ ARCU[=A]'TION. [L. _arcuatus_, pa.p. of _arcu-[=a]re_, to bend like a bow--_arcus_, a bow.] ARCUBALIST. See ARBALEST. ARDEB, är'deb, _n._ an Egyptian dry measure of 5½ bushels. [Ar. _irdab_.] ARDENT, ärd'ent, _adj._ burning: fiery: passionate: zealous: fervid.--_adv._ ARD'ENTLY.--_n._ ARD'OUR, warmth of passion or feeling: eagerness: enthusiasm (with _for_)--also ARD'ENCY.--ARDENT SPIRITS, distilled alcoholic liquors, whisky, brandy, &c. The use of the word as = 'inflammable, combustible,' is obsolete, except in this phrase. [L. _ardent-em_, _ard[=e]-re_, to burn.] ARDUOUS, ärd'[=u]-us, _adj._ deep, difficult to climb: difficult to accomplish: laborious.--_adv._ ARD'UOUSLY.--_n._ ARD'UOUSNESS. [L. _arduus_, high; cog. with Celt. _ard_, high.] ARE, ar, _n._ the unit of the French land measure, containing 100 sq. metres = 119.6 English sq. yards. [Fr.--L. _area_.] ARE, är, the plural of the present indicative of the verb _To be_. [Old Northumbrian _aron_, of Scand. origin. This form ousted the older A.S. _sind_, _sindon_. Both are cog. with Sans. _s-anti_, Gr. _eis-in_, L. _sunt_, Ger. _s-ind_.] AREA, [=a]'r[=e]-a, _n._ any plane surface or enclosed space: the sunken space around the basement of a building: (_fig._) extent conceived by the mind: (_geom._) the superficial contents of any figure. [L. _area_.] AREAD, AREDE, a-r[=e]d', _v.t._ (_obs._) to make known, utter: guess: interpret, explain: to counsel, advise. [A.S. _arédan_. See READ.] AREAR, a-r[=e]r', _adv._ in the rear. [A.S. pfx. _a-_, on, to, and REAR.] ARECA, ar'[=e]-ka, _n._ a genus of palm, one species of which, the Betel-nut Palm, or Penang Palm (_Areca catechu_), bears nuts with austere and astringent properties, which are chewed by the Malays with a little lime in a leaf of the betel-pepper, making the lips and spittle red. AREFACTION, ar-e-fak'shun, _n._ (_obs._) the action of drying.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ AR'EFY, to dry up, wither. [L. _arefac[)e]re_, to make dry--_ar[=e]re_, to be dry, and _fac[)e]re_, to make.] ARENA, a-r[=e]'na, _n._ part of the ancient amphitheatre strewed with sand for the combats of gladiators and wild beasts: any place of public contest: a battlefield: place of action of any kind.--_adj._ AREN[=A]'CEOUS, sandy: dry: (_geol._) applied to rocks composed entirely or largely of grains of quartz.--_ns._ AREN[=A]'RIA, the sandwort, a genus of low herbs allied to the chickweeds; AREN[=A]'TION, the application of hot sand to the body as a remedy. [L. _ar[=e]na_, sand.] AREOGRAPHY, [=a]-re-[=o]'gra-fi, _n._ description of the physical features of the planet Mars. [Gr. _Ar[=e]s_, Mars, and _graphein_, to write.] AREOLA, a-r[=e]'o-la, _n._ a small area: (_bot._) any slightly sunk spot, on the surface: (_physiol._) the interstice in the tissue of an organised substance: any circular spot such as that around the human nipple:--_pl._ AR[=E]'OLÆ.--_adj._ AR[=E]'OLATE, divided into small areas.--_n._ AREOL[=A]'TION, division into areolæ. [L. _areola_, a dim. of AREA.] AREOMETER, ARÆOMETER, [=a]-re-om'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for determining specific gravity, called also _Hydrometer_.--_n._ AREOM'ETRY, the measuring the specific gravity of bodies. [Gr. _araios_, thin, and METER.] AREOPAGUS, ar-e-op'ag-us, _n._ Mars' Hill, on which the supreme court of ancient Athens was held: the court itself: also used of any important tribunal.--_n._ AREOP'AGITE, a member of the Areopagus.--_adj._ AREOPAGIT'IC, pertaining to the Areopagus.--_n._ a speech on the model of Isocrates's oration of that name addressed to the Areopagus. [Gr. _Areios pagos_, hill of Ares, or Mars.] ARET, ARETTE, a-ret', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to entrust, commit a charge to. [O. Fr. _arete-r_, _à_-, to, _reter_--L. _reput[=a]re_, to reckon.] ARÊTE, ar-[=a]t', _n._ a sharp ridge: esp. in French Switzerland, a rocky edge on a mountain. [Fr.--L. _arista_, an ear of corn, fish-bone, spine.] AREW, a-r[=oo]', _adv._ (_Spens._) arow, in a row. ARGAL, ar'gal, _adv._ (_Shak._) corruption of L. _ergo_, therefore: hence as a noun = a clumsy piece of reasoning. ARGALI, är'ga-li, _n._ the great wild sheep of Siberia and Central Asia. [Mongol.] ARGAND, ar'gand, _n._ applied to a lamp and gas-burner invented by Aimé _Argand_ (1755-1803). ARGENT, ärj'ent, _adj._ and _n._ silver, or like silver, silvery-white: (_her._) the silver or white colour in armorial bearings: (_poet._) esp. in compounds like _argent_-clear, _argent_-lidded.--_adjs._ ARGENT'AL; ARGENTIF'EROUS, bearing or containing silver; AR'GENTINE, relating to or like silver: sounding like silver.--_n._ (_nat. hist._) white metal coated with silver: a genus of small bony fishes with silvery sides, fished for the nacre which they contain. [Fr.--L. _argentum_, silver.] ARGIL, är'jil, _n._ potter's clay: pure clay or alumina.--_adjs._ ARGILL[=A]'CEOUS, of the nature of clay; ARGILLIF'EROUS, bearing or abounding in clay. [L. _argilla_, Gr. _argilos_, white clay--_arg[=e]s_, white.] ARGIVE, ar'j[=i]v, _adj._ belonging to _Argos_: Greek. ARGOL, är'gol, _n._ a hard crust formed on the sides of wine-vessels, from which cream of tartar and tartaric acid are obtained--generally of a reddish tinge. [Prob. conn. with Gr. _argos_, white.] ARGON, ar'gon, _n._ a constituent element of our atmosphere, discovered in 1894 by Rayleigh and Ramsay. ARGONAUT, är'go-nawt, _n._ one of those who sailed in the ship _Argo_ in search of the golden fleece: also (_nat. hist._) a name of the nautilus, a mollusc of the octopod type.--_adj._ ARGONAUT'IC. [Gr. _Arg[=o]_, and _naut[=e]s_, a sailor.] ARGOSY, är'go-si, _n._ a large merchant-vessel richly laden, esp. those of Ragusa and Venice: also figuratively. [The forms _ragosie_, _rhaguse_, used equally with _argosie_, _argosey_, &c., point to the derivation from It. _Ragusea_, a ship belonging to Ragusa, a great medieval port on the Adriatic, spelt in 16th-cent. English as _Aragouse_, _Arragosa_.] ARGOT, är'go, or är'got, _n._ slang, originally that of thieves and vagabonds: cant. [Fr.; of unknown origin.] ARGUE, ärg'[=u], _v.t._ prove or evince: to prove by argument: to discuss: (_obs._) to accuse.--_v.i._ to offer reasons: to dispute (with _against_, _for_, _with_, _about_):--_pr.p._ arg'[=u]ing; _pa.p._ arg'[=u]ed.--_adj._ ARG'[=U]ABLE, capable of being argued.--_n._ ARG'[=U]ER, one who argues: a reasoner.--TO ARGUE (a person) INTO, or OUT OF, to persuade him into, or out of, a certain course of action. [O. Fr. _arguer_--L. _argut[=a]re_, freq. of _argu[)e]re_, to prove.] ARGUFY, ärg'[=u]-f[=i], _v.i._ to be evidence of something: to be of importance: to argue, wrangle.--_v.t._ to weary with wrangling. [Illiterate corr. of ARGUE.] ARGUMENT, ärg'[=u]-ment, _n._ a statement, or reason based on such, offered as proof: a series of reasons or a step in such: discussion: subject of a discourse: summary of the subject-matter of a book: (_obs._) matter of controversy.--_adjs._ ARGUMENT'ABLE, ARGUMENT'AL.--_n._ ARGUMENT[=A]'TION, an arguing or reasoning.--_adj._ ARGUMENT'ATIVE.--_adv._ ARGUMENT'ATIVELY.--_n._ ARGUMENT'ATIVENESS. [L. _argumentum_. See ARGUE.] ARGUMENTUM, ärg-[=u]-ment'um, _n._ an argument.--The following are forms of _indirect_ argument:--ARGUMENTUM AD HOMINEM, an appeal to the known prepossessions or previous admissions of an opponent; ARGUMENTUM AD IGNORANTIAM, an argument founded on the ignorance of an opponent; ARGUMENTUM AD INVIDIAM, an argument appealing to the prejudices of the person addressed; ARGUMENTUM AD JUDICIUM, an appeal to the common-sense of mankind; ARGUMENTUM AD VERECUNDIAM, an appeal to our reverence for some respected authority; ARGUMENTUM BACULINUM, the argument of the cudgel--most concise of arguments, an appeal to force; ARGUMENTUM PER IMPOSSIBILE, or _Reductio ad absurdum_, the proof of a conclusion derived from the absurdity of a contradictory supposition.--For the _Ontological_, _Cosmological_, _Teleological_, and _Moral_ arguments in Theism, see under these adjectives. ARGUS, ärg'us, _n._ any very quick-eyed or watchful person, from _Argus_, described in Greek mythology as having had a hundred eyes, some of which were always awake: a genus of gallinaceous birds, remarkable for magnificence of plumage--the only known species, the ARGUS PHEASANT, native to Sumatra, &c. [Gr.--_argos_, bright.] ARGUTE, är-g[=u]t', _adj._ shrill in sound: keen: shrewd.--_adv._ ARGUTE'LY.--_n._ ARGUTE'NESS. [L. _argutus_.] ARGYRIA, ar-jir'i-a, _n._ silver poisoning. [Gr. _argyros_, silver.] ARIA, [=a]'ri-a, _n._ an air or rhythmical song introduced in a cantata, oratorio, or opera, and intended for one voice supported by instruments. [It., from root of AIR.] ARIAN, [=a]'ri-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Arius_ of Alexandria (died 336), who denied the divinity of Christ.--_n._ one who adheres to the doctrines of Arius: a Unitarian.--_v.t._ A'RIANISE.--_n._ A'RIANISM, the doctrines of the Arians. ARID, ar'id, _adj._ dry: parched.--_ns._ ARID'ITY, AR'IDNESS. [L. _aridus_.] ARIEL, [=a]'ri-el, _n._ a man's name in the Old Testament, variously explained as 'lion of God,' 'hearth of God:' in later demonology, a water-spirit: an angel: a spirit of the air. [Heb. _ari[=e]l_.] ARIEL, [=a]'ri-el, _n._ a species of gazelle in Western Asia. [Ar. _aryil_.] ARIES, [=a]'ri-[=e]z, _n._ the Ram, the first of the signs of the zodiac, which the sun enters on 21st M_arch._ [L.] ARIETTA, ar-i-et'ta, _n._ a little aria or air.--Also ARIETTE'. [It. _arietta_, dim. of _aria_.] ARIGHT, a-r[=i]t', _adv._ in a right way: rightly. ARIL, ar'il, ARILLUS, a-ril'lus, _n._ a peculiar covering of the seed of some plants, formed by an expansion of the cord (_funiculus_) which attaches the ovule to the placenta, or of the placenta itself.--_adjs._ AR'ILLARY, AR'ILLATED, having an aril. [Low L. _arillus_.] ARIMASPIAN, ar-im-as'pi-an, _adj._ pertaining to the _Arimaspi_, described by Herodotus as a one-eyed and fierce people inhabiting the most northern region in the world, waging perpetual warfare with the neighbouring griffins for their hoarded gold. ARIOT, ä-r[=i]'ot, _adv._ in riot, riotously. ARIPPLE, ä-rip'l, _adv._ in a ripple, rippling. ARISE, a-r[=i]z', _v.i._ to rise up: to come up so as to be heard: to ascend: to come into view: to spring:--_pa.t._ arose'; _pa.p._ aris'en. [Pfx. _a-_, up, out, and RISE.] ARISTARCH, ar'is-tärk, _n._ a severe critic. [From _Aristarchus_, a grammarian of Alexandria about 160 B.C.] ARISTATE, a-ris't[=a]t, _adj._ (_bot._) having awns. [L. _arista_, an awn.] ARISTOCRACY, ar-is-tok'ras-i, _n._ government by the men of best birth or condition: political power of a privileged order: the nobility or chief persons of a state: the upper classes generally, also the persons noted for superiority in any quality, taken collectively--also ARISTARCH'Y (_rare_).--_n._ ARISTOCRAT (ar'is-to-krat, or ar-is'-), one who belongs to or favours an aristocracy: a haughty person.--_adjs._ ARISTOCRAT'IC, -AL, belonging to aristocracy: gentlemanly, stylish.--_adv._ ARISTOCRAT'ICALLY.--_n._ ARISTOCRAT'ISM. [Gr. _aristos_, best, and _kratos_, power.] ARISTOLOCHIA, ar-is-t[=o]-l[=o]'ki-a, _n._ a genus of shrubs, many climbers, specially abundant in tropical South America. [Gr.; _aristos_, best, _locheia_, child-birth, the roots of several species being formerly thought useful in parturition.] ARISTOTELIAN, ar-is-to-t[=e]'li-an, _adj._ relating to _Aristotle_ or to his philosophy. ARITHMANCY, ar'ith-man-si, _n._ divination by numbers.--Also ARITH'MOMANCY. [Gr. _arithmos_, number, and _manteia_, divination.] ARITHMETIC, ar-ith'met-ik, _n._ the science of numbers: the art of reckoning by figures: a treatise on reckoning.--_adj._ ARITHMET'ICAL.--_adv._ ARITHMET'ICALLY.--_n._ ARITHMETIC'IAN, one skilled in arithmetic--ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSION, a series of numbers that increase or diminish by a common difference, as 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22; or 12, 10½, 9, 7½, 6. To find the sum of such a series, multiply the sum of the first and last terms by half the number of terms. [Gr. _arithm[=e]tik[=e]_ (_techn[=e]_, art), relating to numbers--_arithmos_, number.] ARITHMOCRACY, ar-ith-mok'ras-i, _n._ a democracy of mere numbers.--_adj._ ARITHMOCRAT'IC. [A coinage of Kingsley--Gr. _arithmos_, number, _kratia_, rule.] ARITHMOMETER, ar-ith-mom'et-[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for working out arithmetical calculations. [Gr. _arithmos_, number, _metron_, measure.] ARK, ärk, _n._ a chest or coffer: in Jewish history, the wooden coffer in which the Tables of the Law were kept--hence TO TOUCH or LAY HANDS ON THE ARK, to touch irreverently what is sacred (2 Sam. vi. 6): a large floating vessel, like that in which Noah escaped the Deluge (Gen. vi.-viii.).--_adj._ and _n._ ARK'ITE. [A.S. _arc_--L. _arca_, a chest--_arc[=e]re_, to guard.] ARLES, ärlz, or [=a]rlz, _n._ earnest money given in confirmation of a bargain, or of the engagement of a servant.--_ns._ ARLE'-PEN'NY, ARLES'-PEN'NY. [Scot. and northern Eng.; M. E. _erles_--O. Fr. _erres_ (mod. Fr. _arrhes_)--L. _arrha_.] ARM, ärm, _n._ the limb extending from the shoulder to the hand: anything projecting from the main body, as an inlet of the sea, a rail or support from a chair, sofa, or the like: one of the branches into which a main trunk divides: (_fig._) power.--_ns._ ARM'-CHAIR, a chair with arms; ARM'FUL; ARM'-HOLE, the hole in a garment through which the arm is put.--_adv._ ARM'-IN-ARM, with arms interlinked, in close communion.--_adj._ ARM'LESS.--_ns._ ARM'LET, a bracelet; ARM'-PIT, the pit or hollow under the shoulder.--AT ARM'S LENGTH, away from any friendliness or familiarity.--RIGHT ARM, the main support or assistant; SECULAR ARM, the secular or temporal authority, as distinguished from the spiritual or ecclesiastical.--WITH OPEN ARMS, with hearty welcome. [A.S.; cog. with L. _armus_, the shoulder-joint, Gr. _harmos_, a joint.] ARM, ärm, _n._ a weapon: a branch of the military service:--_pl._ ARMS, weapons of offence and defence: war, hostilities: deeds or exploits of war: armorial ensigns.--_v.t._ ARM, to furnish with arms or weapons: to fortify.--_v.i._ to take arms.--_n._ AR'MATURE, armour: any apparatus for defence: a piece of iron connecting the poles of a bent magnet.--_adj._ ARMED (ärmd, or arm'ed), furnished with arms: provided with means of defence: (_bot._) having prickles or thorns: (_her._) having part of the body different in colour from the rest, as a beak, claws, &c. of a bird.--_n.pl._ FIRE'ARMS, such weapons as employ gunpowder, as guns and pistols.--_n._ MAN'-AT-ARMS, a fully equipped and practised fighting man.--_n.pl._ SMALL'-ARMS, such as do not require carriages, as opposed to artillery.--ARMED TO THE TEETH, completely armed.--COLLEGE OF ARMS, the Heralds' College, which grants armorial bearings.--IN ARMS WITH, quartered with; OF ALL ARMS, of every kind of troops; STAND OF ARMS, a complete equipment of arms for one soldier.--THE ARMED EYE, strengthened with a magnifying-glass, as opp. to _naked eye_.--TO LAY DOWN ARMS, to surrender or submit; UP IN ARMS, in readiness to fight. [Through Fr. from L. _arma_; cog. with ARM.] ARMADA, ärm-[=a]'da, _n._ a fleet of armed ships, esp. the self-styled _Invincible_ Armada sent by Philip II. against England in 1588. [Sp.--L. _armata_, _armare_, to arm.] ARMADILLO, ärm-a-dil'o, _n._ a small American edentate quadruped, having its body armed with bands of bony plates:--_pl._ ARMADILL'OS. [Sp., dim. of _armado_, armed.] ARMAGEDDON, är-mag-ed'on, _n._ the great symbolical battlefield of the Apocalypse, in which the final struggle between the powers of good and evil is to be fought out. [The name was no doubt suggested by the famous battlefield of _Megiddo_, in the plain of Esdraelon.] ARMAMENT, ärm'a-ment, _n._ forces armed or equipped for war: munitions of war, esp. the great guns with which a ship is armed. [L. _armamenta_--_arma_.] ARMENIAN, ar-m[=e]'ni-an, _adj._ belonging to _Armenia_, in Western Asia: belonging to the Armenian branch of the Christian Church.--_n._ a native of Armenia. ARMET, är'met, _n._ a helmet introduced about 1450 in place of the basinet, consisting of an iron cap, spreading over the back of the neck, having in front the visor, beaver, and gorget. [Fr.] ARMGAUNT, ärm'gänt, _adj._ (_Shak._ once, _Ant. and Cleop._ I. v. 48), with gaunt limbs (?). The word has not been satisfactorily explained, and is most likely an error. ARMIGER, är'mi-j[.e]r, _n._ an armour-bearer: one entitled to a coat-of-arms: an esquire--also ARMI'GERO (_Shak._).--_adj._ ARMI'GEROUS. [L.; _arma_, arms, _ger[)e]re_, to bear.] ARMILLARY, är'mil-lar-i, or är-mil'lar-i, _adj._ resembling an armlet or bracelet: consisting of rings or circles.--_n._ ARMIL'LA, in archæology, a bracelet: one of the coronation ornaments: the regalia.--ARMILLARY SPHERE, an instrument constructed to show the motions of the heavenly bodies. [L. _armilla_, an _armlet_. See ARM (1).] ARMINIAN, ar-min'yan, _n._ a follower of _Arminius_ (1560-1609), a Dutch divine, who denied the Calvinistic doctrine of absolute predestination, as well as irresistible grace.--_adj._ holding the doctrines of Arminius.--_n._ ARMIN'IANISM. ARMIPOTENT, ärm-ip'[=o]-tent, _adj._ powerful in arms. [L. _arma_, arms, _potens_, _-entis_, powerful.] ARMISTICE, ärm'ist-is, _n._ a short suspension of hostilities: a truce. [Fr.--Low L. _armistitium_, from L. _arma_, arms, _sist[)e]re_--_stitum_, to stop.] ARMOIRE, arm'war, _n._ an ambry or cupboard. [Fr.] ARMORIC, ar-mor'ik, _n._ the language of the inhabitants of _Armorica_, the ancient name for Brittany. [L. _Armoricus_--Celt. _are-mor_, before the sea.] ARMOUR, ärm'ur, _n._ defensive arms or dress: heraldic insignia: plating of ships of war.--_adj._ ARM[=O]'RIAL, belonging to armour, or to the arms of a family.--_ns._ ARM'OUR-BEAR'ER; ARM'OURER, a maker or repairer of, or one who has the charge of, armour.--_adj._ ARM'OUR-PLAT'ED.--_ns._ ARM'OURY, ARM'ORY, the place in which arms are made or kept: a collection of ancient armour; COAT'-ARM'OUR, originally a vest of silk embroidered in colours, worn by a knight over his armour. [See ARM (2).] ARMOZEEN, ARMOZINE, är-mo-z[=e]n', _n._ a kind of taffeta or plain silk, usually black, used for clerical gowns. [Fr. _armoisin_.] ARMY, ärm'i, _n._ a large body of men armed for war and under military command: a body of men banded together in a special cause, whether travestying military methods, as the 'Salvation Army,' or not, as the 'Blue Ribbon Army:' a host: a great number.--_ns._ ARM'Y-CORPS (-k[=o]r), a main division of an army, a miniature army comprising all arms of the service; ARM'Y-LIST, a list of all commissioned officers, issued periodically by the War Office; ARM'Y-WORM, a European grub which collects in vast armies. [Fr. _armée_--L. _armata_, _arm[=a]re_.] ARNICA, är'ni-ka, _n._ a genus of composite plants, of which the species _A. montana_, or Mountain Tobacco, formerly enjoyed a great repute in medicine as a stimulant in paralytic affections, low fevers, &c.--its flowers still yield a tincture externally applied to wounds and bruises. [Mod. L.; origin unknown.] ARNOTTO, ar-not'to. See ANATTA. AROINT, a-roint', _interj._ (_Shak._) away! begone! used only twice in the phrase, '_Aroint_ thee, witch:' to bid begone (_arch._ usage in Browning).--_v.t._ to drive or frighten away. [Origin unknown; perh. in some provincialism, like the Yorkshire _rynd-ta_, 'round-thee,' 'move-round,' spoken to a cow in her stall.] AROMA, a-r[=o]'ma, _n._ sweet smell: the odorous principle of plants: (_fig._) flavour or peculiar charm of any kind.--_adj._ AROMAT'IC, fragrant: spicy.--_v.t._ AR[=O]'MATISE, to render aromatic: to perfume:--_pr.p._ ar[=o]'matising; _pa.p._ ar[=o]'matised. [Through Fr. and L. from Gr. _ar[=o]ma_.] AROSE, a-r[=o]z', _pa.t._ of ARISE. AROUND, a-rownd', _prep._ on all sides of: (_Amer._) round about.--_adv._ on every side: in a circle: (_Amer._) round, all about, [_a_, on, and ROUND.] AROUSE, a-rowz', _v.t._ and _v.i._ same as ROUSE.--_ns._ AROUSE, AROUS'AL (_rare_). AROW, a-r[=o]', _adv._ in a row: one following the other. [Prep. _a_, and ROW.] AROYNT. Same as AROINT. ARPEGGIO, är-pej'[=o], _n._ (_mus._) a chord of which the notes are given, not simultaneously, but in rapid succession. [It. _arpeggiare_, to play upon the harp--_arpa_, harp.] ARPENT, är'pent, _n._ an old French measure for land still used in Quebec and Louisiana = 100 sq. perches, varying with the perch from 1¼ acre to 5/6 of an acre. [Fr.--L. _arepennis_, said to be a Gallic word.] ARQUEBUSE, är'kwi-bus, _n._ an old-fashioned hand-gun--also HAR'QUEBUS.--_n._ ARQUEBUSIER'. [Fr. _arquebuse_--Dut. _haakbus_--_haak_, hook, and _bus_, box, barrel of a gun; Ger. _hakenbüchse_.] ARRACACHA, ar-a-kach'ä, _n._ an umbelliferous plant with esculent roots, native to the northern parts of South America. [Native Ind. name.] ARRACK, ar'ak, _n._ an ardent spirit used in the East, procured from _toddy_ or the fermented juice of the coco and other palms, as well as from rice and _jaggery_ sugar. [Ar. _`araq_, juice.] ARRAH, ar'a, _interj._ Anglo-Irish expletive of emotion, wonder, &c. ARRAIGN, ar-r[=a]n', _v.t._ to call one to account: to put a prisoner upon trial: to accuse publicly.--_ns._ ARRAIGN'ER; ARRAIGN'ING; ARRAIGN'MENT. [O. Fr. _aresnier_--Low L. _arration[=a]re_--L. _ad_, to, _rationem_, reason.] ARRANGE, ar-r[=a]nj', _v.t._ to set in a rank or row: to put in order: to settle: (_mus._) to adapt a composition for instruments or voices for which it was not originally written, as when orchestral or vocal compositions are set for the pianoforte, or the reverse.--_v.i._ to come to an agreement.--_n._ ARRANGE'MENT, act of arranging: classification: settlement. [O. Fr. _arangier_--_à_ (--L. _ad_, to), and _rangier_, _rengier_. See RANGE.] ARRANT, ar'rant, _adj._ downright, notorious (used in a bad sense): unmitigated.--_adv._ AR'RANTLY. [A variant of ERRANT. From its use in phrases like 'arrant thief,' it passed naturally into a general term used with other terms of abuse.] ARRAS, ar'ras, _n._ tapestry: a hanging screen of such hung round the walls of rooms.--_p.adj._ AR'RASED, covered with arras.--_n._ AR'RASENE, an embroidery material of wool and silk stitched in like crewels. [From _Arras_ in Northern France, where first manufactured.] ARRAUGHT, ar-rawt', _adj._ (_Spens._) seized on by force:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of ARREACH. [See REACH.] ARRAY, ar-r[=a]', _n._ order: dress: equipage.--_v.t._ to put in order: to arrange: to dress, adorn, or equip. [O. Fr. _arroi_, array, equipage--L. _ad_, and a Teut. root, found in Eng. READY, Ger. _bereit_, A.S. _ger['æ]de_, preparation, Dan. _rede_, order.] ARREAR, ar-r[=e]r', _n._ that which is in the rear or behind: that which remains unpaid or undone (used mostly in _pl._).--_adv._ ARREAR', backward, behind.--_n._ ARREAR'AGE (_Shak._), arrears. [O. Fr. _arere_, _ariere_ (Fr. _arrière_)--L. _ad_, to, _retro_, back, behind.] ARRECT, a-rekt', _adj._ upright: erected, as the ears: on the alert. [L. _arrectus_.] ARREST, ar-rest', _v.t._ to stop: to seize: to catch the attention: to apprehend by legal authority.--_n._ stoppage: seizure by warrant.--_adj._ ARREST'ABLE, liable to be arrested.--_n._ ARREST[=A]'TION, the act of arresting: arrest.--_adj._ ARREST'IVE, with a tendency to arrest.--_n._ ARREST'MENT (_law_), detention of a person arrested till liberated on bail, or by security: (_Scots law_) the process which prohibits a debtor from making payment to his creditor until another debt due to the person making use of the arrestment by such creditor is paid. [O. Fr. _arester_--L. _ad_, to, _rest[=a]re_, to stand still.] ARRET, ar-ret', or a-r[=a]', _n._ decision: judgment of a tribunal--properly of the king or parliament of France. [Fr. _arrêt_. See ARREST.] ARRIDE, a-r[=i]d', _v.t._ (_Lamb_) to please, gratify. [L. _arrid[=e]-re_.] ARRIÈRE-BAN, är'yer-bän, or ä-r[=e]r'ban, _n._ in feudal times, the sovereign's summons to all freemen to take the field: the army thus collected. [O. Fr. _ariereban_, Old High Ger. _hari_, army, and _ban_, public proclamation.] ARRIS, ar'ris, _n._ a sharp ridge or edge on stone or metal. [See ARÊTE.] ARRIVE, ar-r[=i]v', _v.i._ to reach any place: to attain to any object (with _at_).--_ns._ ARR[=I]V'AL, the act of arriving: persons or things that arrive; ARR[=I]V'ANCE (_Shak._), company arriving. [O. Fr. _ariver_--Low L. _adrip[=a]re_--L. _ad_, to, _ripa_, a bank.] ARROBA, a-r[=o]'ba, _n._ a weight of 25 or more pounds, used in Spanish and Portuguese regions. [Ar.] ARROGATE, ar'rog-[=a]t, _v.t._ to claim as one's own: to claim proudly or unduly.--_ns._ AR'ROGANCE, AR'ROGANCY, undue assumption of importance.--_adj._ AR'ROGANT, claiming too much: overbearing.--_adv._ AR'ROGANTLY.--_n._ ARROG[=A]'TION, act of arrogating: undue assumption. [L. _arrog[=a]re_--_ad_, to, _rog[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to ask, to claim.] ARRONDISSEMENT, ar-ron'd[=e]s-mäng, _n._ a subdivision of a French department, comprising a number of communes. [Fr.--_arrondir_, to make round.] ARROW, ar'r[=o], _n._ a straight, pointed weapon, made to be shot from a bow: any arrow-shaped pin or ornament: the chief shoot of a plant, esp. the flowering stem of the sugar-cane.--_n._ AR'ROW-HEAD, the head or pointed part of an arrow: an aquatic plant native to England, with arrow-shaped leaves rising above the water--reputed good for hydrophobia.--_adj._ AR'ROW-HEAD'ED, shaped like the head of an arrow.--_n._ AR'ROW-SHOT, the distance traversed by an arrow.--_adj._ AR'ROWY, of or like arrows. [A.S. _earh_, _arwe_; cog. with L. _arcus_; akin to Ice. _ör_, _örvar_.] ARROWROOT, ar'r[=o]-r[=oo]t, _n._ a starch obtained from the roots of certain plants growing chiefly in West Indies, and much used as food for invalids and children. [Said to be so named because used by the Indians of South America as an antidote against wounds caused by poisoned _arrows_.] 'ARRY, ar'i, _n._ a jovial vulgar fellow who drops his h's:--_fem._ 'AR'RIET.--_adj._ 'AR'RYISH, in holiday spirits. [From the vulgar Cockney pronunciation of _Harry_.] ARSE, ärs, _n._ the posterior parts of an animal.--_adv._ and _adj._ ARS'Y-VERS'Y, backside foremost, contrary. [A.S. _ears_; Ger. _arsch_, Sw. _ars_; cog. with Gr. _orros_.] ARSENAL, är'se-nal, _n._ a dock possessing naval stores: a public magazine or manufactory of naval and military stores. [It. _arzenale_, _arsenale_ (Sp., Fr. _arsenal_)--Ar. _d[=a]r aççin[=a]`ah_, workshop; _d[=a]r_, house, _al_, the, _cin[=a]`ah_, art.] ARSENIC, ar'sen-ik, _n._ one of the chemical elements: a mineral poison: a soft, gray-coloured metal.--_ns._ AR'SENATE, ARS[=E]'NIATE, a salt of arsenic acid.--_adjs._ ARSEN'IC, -AL, composed of or containing arsenic: in chemistry, applied to compounds; ARS[=E]'NIOUS, of or containing arsenic.--_n._ AR'SENITE, a salt of arsenious acid. [Gr. _arsenikon_, _arsen_, male; the alchemists fancied some metals male, others female.] ARSIS, ar'sis, _n._ grammatical term applied to the elevation of the voice to a higher pitch in speaking: (_mus._) the strong position in a bar: the strong syllable in English metre:--_pl._ AR'S[=E]S. [L.--Gr. _arsis_--_airein_, to lift.] ARSON, ärs'on, _n._ the crime of wilfully burning houses or other buildings.--_ns._ AR'SONITE, AR'SONIST (_rare_). [O. Fr. _arson_--L. _arsion-em_, _ard[=e]re_, _arsum_, to burn.] ART, ärt, 2d pers. sing. of the present tense of the verb _To be_. [A.S. _eart._] ART, ärt, _n._ practical skill guided by rules: human skill as opposed to nature: skill as applied to subjects of taste, the fine arts--music, painting, sculpture, architecture, and poetry: (_pl._) specially used of certain branches of learning to be acquired as necessary for pursuit of higher studies, or for the work of life, as in phrase 'faculty of arts, master of arts:' the rules and methods of doing certain actions: a profession, skilled trade, or craft: contrivance: cunning, artfulness, or address: artifice, special faculty of some kind acquired by practice, skill, dexterity, knack: special faculty of giving expression to æsthetic or artistic quality, as in _art-furniture_, &c., supposed, by the buyer, in this respect, to justify its price.--_adj._ ART'FUL, full of art: (_arch._) dexterous, clever: cunning: produced by art.--_adv._ ART'FULLY.--_n._ ART'FULNESS.--_adj._ ART'LESS, simple: (_rare_) inartistic: guileless, unaffected.--_adv._ ART'LESSLY.--_ns._ ART'LESSNESS; ARTS'MAN, one who cultivates some practical knowledge: (_arch._) a man skilled in arts or in learning.--_n.pl._ ART'-UN'IONS, associations having for their object the promotion of an interest in the fine arts.--ART AND PART, as in the phrase 'to be art and part in,' originally in legal expressions like 'to be concerned in either by art or part'--i.e. either by _art_ in contriving or by _part_ in actual execution; now loosely used in the sense of participating, sharing.--USEFUL ARTS as opposed to _Fine arts_, those in which the hands and body are more concerned than the mind.--SCIENCE and ART differ essentially in their aims--_Science_, in Mill's words, 'takes cognisance of a _phenomenon_, and endeavours to ascertain its _law_; _Art_ proposes to itself an _end_, and looks out for means to effect it.' [L. _ars_, _artis_. See ARM.] ARTEMISIA, är-t[=e]-miz'i-a, _n._ a genus of composite plants, with a peculiarly bitter taste, including Wormwood, Southernwood, &c. ARTERY, är't[.e]r-i, _n._ a tube or vessel which conveys blood from the heart (see AORTA)--also metaphorically: any main channel of communication.--_adj._ ART[=E]R'IAL--_v.t._ ART[=E]R'IALISE, to make arterial.--_ns._ ART[=E]RIOT'OMY, the cutting or opening of an artery, to let blood; ARTER[=I]'TIS, inflammation of an artery. [L.--Gr. _art[=e]ria_, orig. the windpipe most probably--Gr. _air-ein_, to raise. The ancient conception of the artery as an air-duct gave rise to the derivation from Gr. _a[=e]r_, air.] ARTESIAN, är-t[=e]'zhan, _adj._ applied to wells made by boring until water is reached. [From _Artois_ (L. _Artesium_), in the north of France, where the oldest known well of this kind in Europe was sunk in 1126.] ARTHRITIS, ar-thr[=i]'tis, _n._ inflammation of a joint: gout.--_adj._ ARTHRIT'IC, relating to or affecting the joints: gouty. [Gr. _arthritikos_--_arthron_, a joint.] ARTHROPODA, ar-throp'od-a, _n.pl._ a great division of the animal kingdom, the body consisting of a definite number of segments, each having a pair of hollow jointed limbs into which the body muscles proceed. It again divides into two great groups--the water-breathers or Branchiata, and the air-breathers or Tracheata.--_adj._ ARTHROP'ODAL. [Gr. _arthron_, joint, and _pous_, _pod-os_, a foot.] ARTICHOKE, är'ti-ch[=o]k, _n._ a thistle-like, perennial, eatable plant with large scaly heads, like the cone of the pine, now growing wild in the south of Europe, though probably a native of Asia.--JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE, a totally different plant, a species of sunflower, bearing tubers like those of the potato, Jerusalem being a corr. of It. _girasole_ ('turn-sun'), sunflower. By a quibble on Jerusalem, the soup made from it is called _Palestine soup_. [Old It. _articiocco_ (It. _carciofo_)--Old Sp. _alcarchofa_--Ar. _al_-_kharsh[=o]fa_, _al-kharshuf_. Popular definitions are many--e.g. the plant that _chokes_ the _garden_ or the _heart_.] ARTICLE, ärt'i-kl, _n._ a separate element, member, or part of anything: a particular substance: a single clause or term: a distinct point in an agreement, or an agreement looked at as complete, as in 'articles of apprenticeship,' &c.: rules or conditions generally: a section of any document: a literary composition in a journal, newspaper, encyclopædia, &c., treating of a subject distinctly and independently: (_gram._) the name given to the adjectives _the_ (definite article) and _a_ or _an_ (indefinite article).--_v.t._ to draw up or bind by articles: to indict, charge with specific accusations: bind by articles of apprenticeship.--_adj._ ARTIC'ULAR, belonging to the joints.--ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION, regulations for the business of a joint-stock company registered under the Companies Acts; ARTICLES OF FAITH, binding statement of points held by a particular Church; ARTICLES OF WAR, code of regulations for the government and discipline of the army and navy.--IN THE ARTICLE OF DEATH (L. _in articulo mortis_), at the point of death.--LORDS OF THE ARTICLES, a standing committee of the Scottish parliament who drafted the measures to be submitted.--THE THIRTY-NINE ARTICLES, the articles of religious belief finally agreed upon by the entire bishops and clergy of the Church of England in 1562. [L. _articulus_, a little joint--_artus_, a joint.] ARTICULATA, är-tik-[=u]-l[=a]'ta, _n._ one of the great primary divisions of the animal kingdom, according to Cuvier, including those animals of which the body is divided into a number of distinct joints--viz. the higher worms or Annelids, and also the Insects, Crustaceans, Arachnids, and Myriopods. ARTICULATE, är-tik'[=u]l-[=a]t, _adj._ distinct: clear.--_v.t._ to joint: to form into distinct sounds, syllables, or words.--_v.i._ to speak distinctly.--_adv._ ARTIC'ULATELY.--_ns._ ARTIC'ULATENESS; ARTICUL[=A]'TION, a joining as of the bones: part between two joints: distinctness, or distinct utterance: a consonant; ARTIC'ULATOR, one who articulates or speaks: one who articulates bones and mounts skeletons. [L. _articul[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to furnish with joints, to utter distinctly. See ARTICLE.] ARTIFICE, art'i-fis, _n._ artificer's work: a contrivance: a trick or fraud.--_n._ ARTIF'ICER, a workman: an inventor.--_adj._ ARTIFICIAL (ärt-i-fish'yal), made by art: not natural: cultivated: not indigenous: feigned: not natural in manners, affected.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ ARTIFIC'IALISE, to render artificial.--_ns._ ARTIFICIAL'ITY, ARTIFIC'IALNESS.--_adv._ ARTIFIC'IALLY. [L. _artificium_--_artifex_, _-ficis_, an artificer--_ars_, _artis_, and _fac[)e]re_, to make.] ARTILLERY, är-til'[.e]r-i, _n._ offensive weapons of war, esp. cannon, mortars, &c.: the men who manage them: a branch of the military service: gunnery.--_ns._ ARTILL'ERIST, one skilled in artillery or gunnery; ARTILL'ERY-MAN, a soldier of the artillery. [O. Fr. _artillerie_, _artiller_, to arm; through a supposed Low L. _artill[=a]re_--L. _ars_, _artis_, art.] ARTIODACTYLA, är-ti-o-dak'til-a, _n._ a sub-order of the great mammalian order of Ungulata, having the third digit unsymmetrical in itself, but forming a symmetrical pair with the fourth digit--as distinguished from the _Perissodactyla_ (horse, tapir, rhinoceros), which have the third digit of each limb symmetrical in itself, an odd number of digits on the hind-foot, and at least twenty-two dorso-lumbar vertebræ. The Artiodactyla, again, divide into two groups, the Non-Ruminantia and the Ruminantia. ARTISAN, ärt'i-zan, _n._ one skilled in any art or trade: a mechanic. [Fr.--It. _artigiano_, ult. from L. _artitus_, skilled in the arts--_ars_, _artis_, art.] ARTIST, ärt'ist, _n._ one who practises an art, esp. one of the fine arts, as painting, sculpture, engraving, or architecture.--_adjs._ ARTIST'IC, -AL, according to art.--_adv._ ARTIST'ICALLY.--_n._ ART'ISTRY, artistic pursuits: artistic workmanship, quality, or ability. [Fr. _artiste_, It. _artista_--L. _ars_, _artis_, art.] ARTISTE, är-t[=e]st', _n._ one dexterous or tasteful in any art, as an opera dancer, a cook, a hairdresser, &c. [Fr.] ART-UNION. See ART. ARUM, [=a]'rum, _n._ a genus of plants represented in England by the Cuckoo-pint or Wake Robin (_A. maculatum_), whose root yields a wholesome farina known as Portland Sago or Arrowroot. [L.--Gr. _aron_.] ARUNDINACEOUS, a-run-di-n[=a]'shus, _adj._ relating to or like a reed.--Also ARUNDIN'EOUS. [L. _arundinaceus_--_arundo_, a reed.] ARUSPEX, ARUSPICE, ARUSPICY. See HARUSPEX. ARVICOLA, är-vik'[=o]-lä, _n._ the general name of the family of animals to which belong the water-vole and field-vole. [Coined from L. _arvum_, a field, _col[)e]-re_, to inhabit.] ARY, ä'ri, e'ri, _adj._ (_prov._) any. [A modification of _e'er a_ for _ever a_. Cf. NARY.] ARYAN, ar'i-an, or [=a]'ri-an, _adj._ relating to the family of nations otherwise called Indo-European (comprehending the inhabitants of Europe--except the Basques, Turks, Magyars, and Finns--and those of Armenia, Persia, and North Hindustan), or to their languages--Sanskrit, Zend, Greek, Latin, Celtic, Teutonic, Slavonic, Lettic.--_v.t._ ARYANISE'. [L. _arianus_, belonging to _Ariana_ or _Aria_ (Gr. _Areia_), the east part of Ancient Persia--Sans. _Arya_ (cf. Old Pers. _Ariya_, and _Ir[=a]n_, Persia), often traced to a root _ar_, plough.] AS, az, _adv._, _conj._, and _pron._ in that degree, so far, _as ... as_: the consequent in a co-relation expressing quantity, degree, &c., _as ... as_, _such ... as_, _same ... as_: since, because: when, while: expressing merely continuation or expansion, for instance: similarly: for example: while: in like manner: that, who, which (after _such_, _same_).--AS CONCERNING, AS TO, AS FOR, so far as concerns; AS IT WERE, so to speak, in some sort; AS MUCH, the same; AS WELL (AS), just as much (as), equally (with). [A worn-down form of _all-so_, A.S. _all-swá_, wholly so.] AS, as, _n._ in Norse mythology, one of the gods, the inhabitants of _Asgard_:--_pl._ AESIR ([=a]'ser). [Ice. _[=a]ss_, a god (pl. _æsir_)--A.S. _[=o]s_, seen in such proper names as _Os_wold, _Os_ric.] AS, as, _n._ Latin unit of weight, 12 ounces (L. _unciæ_): a copper coin, the unit of the early monetary system of Rome. ASAFOETIDA, as-a-fet'i-da, _n._ a medicinal gum-resin, having an offensive smell, procured by drying the milky juice which flows from the root of the plant _Ferula_ (_Narthex_) _asafoetida_. [Pers. _az[=a]_, mastic, and L. _foetida_, stinking.] ÅSAR, [=e]'sar, _n.pl._ the Swedish name for those long, winding banks and ridges of gravel and sand which occur abundantly in the low grounds of Sweden, supposed to mark the site of sub-glacial streams and rivers.--These _åsar_ are the same as the Irish _eskar_ and the Scotch _kames_. ASARABACCA, as-a-ra-bak'a, _n._ a European plant, a species of _Asarum_, having acrid properties, formerly used in the preparation of snuffs for catarrh, &c. [L. _asarum_, _bacca_, a berry.] ASBESTOS, az-best'os, _n._ an incombustible mineral, a variety of hornblende, of a fine fibrous texture, resembling flax: (_fig._) anything unquenchable.--_adjs._ ASBES'TIC, ASBES'TOUS, ASBES'TINE, of or like asbestos: incombustible. [Gr.; (lit.) unquenchable--_a_, neg., _sbestos_, extinguished.] ASCARIS, as'ka-ris, _n._ a genus of parasitic worms, of the family ASCAR'IDÆ, infesting the small intestines. [Gr. _askaris_, pl. _askarides_.] ASCEND, as-send', _v.i._ to climb or mount up: to rise, literally or figuratively: to go backwards in the order of time.--_v.t._ to climb or go up on: to mount.--_adjs._ ASCEND'ABLE, ASCEND'IBLE.--ASCENDING RHYTHM, in prosody, a rhythm in which the arsis follows the thesis, as an iambic or anapæstic rhythm: opposed to _descending_ rhythms, as the trochaic and dactylic. [L. _ascend[)e]re_, _ascensum_--_ad_, and _scand[)e]re_, to climb.] ASCENSION, as-sen'shun, _n._ a rising or going up.--_adjs._ ASCEND'ANT, -ENT, superior: above the horizon.--_n._ superiority: (_astrol._) the part of the ecliptic rising above the horizon at the time of one's birth; it was supposed to have commanding influence over the person's life, hence the phrase, 'in the ascendant:' superiority or great influence: (_rare_) an ancestor.--_n._ ASCEND'ENCY, controlling influence--also ASCEND'ANCY, ASCEND'ANCE, ASCEND'ENCE (_rare_).--_adj._ ASCEN'SIONAL, relating to ascension.--_n._ ASCEN'SION-DAY, the festival held on Holy Thursday, ten days before Whitsunday, to commemorate Christ's _ascension_ to heaven.--_adj._ ASCEN'SIVE, rising: causing to rise.--_n._ ASCENT', act of ascending: upward movement, as of a balloon: way of ascending: degree of elevation or advancement: slope or gradient: a flight of steps.--LINE OF ASCENT, ancestry.--RIGHT ASCENSION (_astron._), the name applied to one of the arcs which determine the position relatively to the equator of a heavenly body on the celestial sphere, the other being the declinator. [L. _ascensio_--_ascend[)e]re_.] ASCERTAIN, as-s[.e]r-t[=a]n', _v.t._ to determine: to obtain certain knowledge of: (_rare_) to insure, certify, make certain.--_adj._ ASCERTAIN'ABLE.--_n._ ASCERTAIN'MENT. [O. Fr. _acertener_. See CERTAIN.] ASCETIC, as-set'ik, _n._ one who rigidly denies himself ordinary sensual gratifications for conscience' sake, one who aims to compass holiness through self-mortification, the flesh being considered as the seat of sin, and therefore to be chastened: a strict hermit.--_adjs._ ASCET'IC, -AL, excessively rigid: austere: recluse.--_adv._ ASCET'ICALLY.--_n._ ASCET'ICISM. [Gr. _ask[=e]tikos_ (adj. _ask[=e]t[=e]s_), one that uses exercises to train himself--_askein_, to work, take exercise, (_eccles._) to mortify the body.] ASCIAN, ash'yan, _n._ name given to the inhabitants of the torrid zone, who are shadowless at certain seasons, from the sun being right over their heads. [Gr. _askios_, shadowless--_a_, neg., _skia_, a shadow.] ASCIDIANS, a-sid'i-anz, _n.pl._ a group belonging to the tunicate Mollusca, forming a class of degenerate survivors of ancestral vertebrates, asymmetrical marine animals with a tubular heart and no feet, of a double-mouthed flask shape, found at low-water mark on the sea-beach.--_n._ ASCID'IUM, a genus of Ascidians: (_bot._) a pitcher-shaped, leafy formation, as in the _Nepenthes_. [Gr. _askidion_, dim. of _askos_, a leathern bag, wine-skin.] ASCITITIOUS. Same as ADSCITITIOUS. ASCLEPIAD, as-kl[=e]'pi-ad, ASCLEPIADIC, as-kl[=e]-pi-ad'ik, _n._ in ancient prosody, a verse consisting of a spondee, two (or three) choriambi, and an iambus: [--|-uu-|-uu-|u-|]--_adj._ ASCLEPIAD'IC. [_Asclepiad[=e]s_, a Greek poet.] ASCLEPIADS, as-kl[=e]'pi-adz, _n.pl._ an order of Greek physicians, priests of Asclepius or Æsculapius, the god of medicine. [Gr. _askl[=e]pius_, Asclepius.] ASCLEPIAS, as-kl[=e]'pi-as, _n._ a genus of plants, native to North America, giving name to the natural order of the Asclepidaceæ, and containing the milk-weed, swallow-wort, &c. ASCRIBE, a-skr[=i]b', _v.t._ to attribute, impute, or assign.--_adj._ ASCRIB'ABLE.--_n._ ASCRIP'TION, act of ascribing or imputing: any expression of ascribing, or any formula for such, like the one ascribing glory to God repeated at the end of a sermon. [L. _ascrib[)e]re_, _-scriptum_--_ad_, to, _scrib-[)e]re_, to write.] ASEITY, a-s[=e]'i-ti, _n._ self-origination. [L. _a_, from, _se_, self.] ASEPTIC, a-sep'tik, _adj._ not liable to decay or putrefaction.--_n._ ASEP'TICISM. [From Gr. _a_, neg., _s[=e]ptos_, _s[=e]pomai_, to decay.] ASEXUAL, a-seks'[=u]-al, _adj._ without sex, once applied to cryptogams--agamic. [Gr. _a_, neg., and SEXUAL.] ASGARD, as'gärd, _n._ the heaven of Norse mythology, abode of the twelve gods and twenty-six goddesses, and of heroes slain in battle. [Ice. _asgardhr_, _[=a]ss_, a god, _gardhr_, an enclosure.] ASH, ash, _n._ a well-known timber tree, or its wood, which is white, tough, and hard, much used in carpentry and wheel-work: the ashen shaft of a spear, or a spear itself.--_adj._ ASH'EN.--_n._ GROUND'-ASH, or ASH'-PLANT, an ash sapling.--MOUNTAIN ASH, the rowan-tree; QUAKING ASH, the aspen. [A.S. _æsc_--Ger. _esche_, Ice. _askr_.] ASHAKE, a-sh[=a]k', _adv. phrase_, shaking. [Prep. _a_, and SHAKE.] ASHAMED, a-sh[=a]md', _adj._ affected with shame (with _of_ for the cause of shame; _for_, the person).--_v.t._ and _v.i._ ASHAME', to feel shame: to put to shame.--_n._ ASHAMED'NESS.--_p.adj._ ASHAM'ING. [Pa.p. of old verb _ashame_.] ASHES, ash'ez, _n.pl._ the dust or remains of anything burnt: the remains of the human body when burnt: (_fig._) a dead body: used to express pallor, from the colour of wood-ashes, as in 'pale as ashes,' 'ashy-pale.'--_n._ ASH'-BUCK'ET, a box or bucket in which house-ashes and general refuse are collected for removal.--_adjs._ ASH'EN, ASH'EN-GRAY.--_ns._ ASH'ERY, a place where potash or pearl-ash is made; ASH'-HEAP, a heap of ashes and household refuse; ASH'-LEACH, a tub in which alkaline salts are dissolved from wood-ashes; ASH'-PAN, a kind of tray fitted underneath a grate to receive the ashes.--_adjs._ ASH'Y, ASH'Y-GRAY.--TO LAY IN ASHES, to destroy utterly by burning. [A.S. _asce_; Ice. _aska_.] ASHET, ash'et, _n._ (now only _Scot._) a large flat dish in which meat is served. [Fr. _assiette_.] ASHIVER, a-shiv'[.e]r, _adv. phrase_, quivering. ASHKENAZIM, ash-k[=e]-naz'im, _n.pl._ the Polish and German Jews, as distinguished from the _Sephardim_, the Spanish and Portuguese Jews. [Heb. _Ashkenaz_, the name of a northern people in Gen. x., located in Arabia, by later Jews identified with Germany.] ASHLAR, ash'lar, ASHLER, ash'l[.e]r, _n._ hewn or squared stone used in facing a wall, as distinguished from rough, as it comes from the quarry--also in ASH'LAR-WORK, as opposed to _Rubble-work_.--_p.adj._ ASH'LARED.--_n._ ASH'LARING. [O. Fr. _aiseler_--L. _axillaris_, _axilla_, dim. of _axis_, _assis_, axle; also plank (cf. Fr. _ais_, It. _asse_.] ASHORE, a-sh[=o]r', _adv._ on shore. [Prep. _a_, and SHORE.] ASH-WEDNESDAY, ash-wenz'd[=a], _n._ the first day of Lent, so called from the Roman Catholic custom of sprinkling ashes on the head. ASIAN, [=a]zh'yan, or [=a]sh'i-an, ASIATIC, [=a]-zhi-at'ik, or [=a]sh-i-at'ik, _adj._ belonging to Asia: florid in literature or art.--_n._ ASIAT'ICISM, imitation of Asiatic or Eastern manners. ASIDE, a-s[=i]d', _adv._ on or to one side: privately: apart.--_n._ words spoken in an undertone, so as not to be heard by some person present, words spoken by an actor which the other persons on the stage are supposed not to hear: an indirect effort of any kind.--_adj._ private, apart.--TO SET ASIDE, to quash (a judgment). ASINEGO, as-i-n[=e]'go, _n._ (_Shak._) a stupid fellow.--Also ASINI'CO. [Sp. _asnico_--dim. of _asno_, L. _asinus_, ass.] ASININE, as'in-[=i]n, _adj._ of or like an ass.--_n._ ASININ'ITY. [See ASS.] ASK, ask, _v.t._ to seek: to request, inquire, beg, question, invite.--_v.i._ to request: to make inquiry (with _about_ and _for_--as to ask one _after_ or _for_ another). [A.S. _áscian_, _ácsian_; Ger. _heischen_, Ice. _æskja_, Sans. _esh_, to desire.] ASKANCE, a-skans', ASKANT, a-skant', _adv._ sideways: awry: obliquely: with a side glance, or with a side meaning.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to turn aside.--TO EYE, LOOK, or VIEW ASKANCE, to look at with suspicion. [Ety. very obscure; perh. conn. with It. _a schiáncio_, slopingly, or with Ice. _á-ská_, as in ASKEW.] ASKEW, a-sk[=u]', _adv._ obliquely: aside: awry. [See ASKANCE.] ASLAKE, a-sl[=a]k', _v.t._ (_arch._) to slake: to mitigate. [Prep. _a_, and SLAKE.] ASLANT, a-slant', _adj._ or _adv._ obliquely.--Also ASKLENT' (_Scot._). ASLEEP, a-sl[=e]p', _adj._ or _adv._ in sleep: sleeping: in the sleep of death, dead. [Prep. _a_, and SLEEP.] ASLOPE, a-sl[=o]p', _adj._ or _adv._ on the slope. ASMOULDER, a-sm[=o]l'der, _adv. phrase_, smouldering. ASNORT, a-snort', _adv. phrase_, snorting. [Prep. _a_, and SNORT.] ASP, asp, ASPIC, asp'ik, _n._ a popular name applied loosely to various genera of venomous serpents--now chiefly to the _Vipera aspis_ of Southern Europe. Cleopatra's asp was probably the small _Vipera hasselquistii_, or horned viper: the biblical asp (Heb. _pethen_) was probably the Egyptian juggler's snake (_Naja haje_). [L.--Gr. _aspis_.] ASPARAGUS, as-par'a-gus, _n._ a plant cultivated for its young shoots, esteemed as a table delicacy.--_n._ ASPAR'AGINE, a nitrogenised crystallised substance found in asparagus and other vegetables.--_Sparrow-grass_ was long the form of the word in English. [L.--Gr. _asparagos_.] ASPECT, as'pekt (in _Shak._ and elsewhere, as-pekt'), _n._ look: view: appearance, also applied figuratively to the mind: position in relation to the points of the compass: the situation of one planet with respect to another, as seen from the earth.--_v.i._ (_obs._) to look at.--_adj._ AS'PECTABLE, visible, worth looking at. [L. _aspectus_--_ad_, at, _spec[)e]re_, to look.] ASPEN, asp'en, _n._ the trembling poplar.--_adj._ made of or like the aspen: tremulous: timorous.--_adj._ AS'PEN-LIKE. [A.S. _æspe_, Ger. _espe_.] ASPER, as'p[.e]r, _n._ a small silver Turkish coin. ASPERATED. See ASPIRATE. ASPERGES, as-per'jes, _n._ a short service introductory to the mass, so called from the words _Asperges me, Domine, hyssopo et mundabor_ (Ps. li.). ASPERGILL, -UM, as'p[.e]r-jil, -um, _n._ a kind of brush used in R.C. churches for sprinkling holy water on the people.--Also ASPERGE', ASPER'SOIR. [L. _asperg[)e]re_, to sprinkle, and dim. suffix.] ASPERGILLUM, as-p[.e]r-jil'um, _n._ a remarkable genus of boring Lamellibranch Molluscs, in which the shell has the form of an elongated cone, terminating at the lower end in a disc, pierced by numerous small tubular holes.--_n._ ASPERGIL'LUS, the name of a genus of minute fungi or moulds occurring on decaying substances of various kinds. ASPERITY, as-per'i-ti, _n._ roughness: harshness: bitter coldness. [L. _asperitat-em_, _asper_, rough.] ASPERMOUS, a-sp[.e]r'mus, ASPERMATOUS, a-sp[.e]r'ma-tus, _adj._ without seeds. [Gr. _a_, neg., _sperma_, seed.] ASPERSE, as-p[.e]rs', _v.t._ to slander or calumniate: to bespatter (_with_).--_n._ ASPER'SION, calumny: slander: (_Shak._) a shower or spray.--_adjs._ ASPERS'IVE, ASPERS'ORY, tending to asperse: defamatory. ASPERSORIUM, as-per-s[=o]r'i-um, _n._ a vessel used in R.C. churches for holding holy water. ASPHALT, as-falt', or as'falt, ASPHALTUM, as-falt'um, _n._ a black or dark-brown, hard, bituminous substance, anciently used as a cement, and now for paving, cisterns, water-pipes, &c.--_v.t._ ASPHALT', to lay or cover with asphalt.--_adj._ ASPHALT'IC. [Gr. _asphaltos_, from an Eastern word.] ASPHETERISM, as-fet'er-izm, _n._ (_Southey_) denial of the right of private property.--_v.i._ ASPHET'ERISE. [Gr. _a_, neg., and _spheteros_, one's own.] ASPHODEL, as'fo-del, _n._ a kind of lily--in Greek mythology, the peculiar plant of the dead. In Greece they cover the bleakest hillsides with enduring blossom.--_adj._ Elysian. [Gr. _asphodelos_, a plant of the lily kind; cf. Homer's _asphodelos leim[=o]n_, the meadow of the dead. See DAFFODIL.] ASPHYXIA, as-fik'si-a, _n._ (_lit._) suspended animation, suffocation, when the blood is in such a state as to render impossible a sufficiently free exchange of carbonic acid for oxygen--also ASPHYX'Y.--_n._ ASPHYX'IANT, a chemical substance which produces asphyxia.--_adj._ ASPHYX'I[=A]TED.--_ns._ ASPHYXI[=A]'TION; ASPHYX'I[=A]TOR. [Gr., a stopping of the pulse--_a_, neg., _sphyxis_, the pulse.] ASPIC, ASPICK, as'pik, _n._ (_poet._) a venomous serpent. [See ASP.] ASPIC, as'pik, _n._ a savoury meat-jelly containing fish, game, hard-boiled eggs, &c. [Littré suggests its derivation from _aspic_, asp, because it is 'cold as an aspic,' a French proverb.] ASPIRANT, as-p[=i]r'ant, or as'pir-ant, _n._ one who aspires (with _after_, _for_): a candidate.--_adj._ ambitious: mounting up (_rare_ in both senses). [See ASPIRE.] ASPIRATE, as'pir-[=a]t, _v.t._ to pronounce with a full breathing, as the letter _h_ in _house_.--_n._ a mark of aspiration, the rough breathing in Greek (`): an aspirated letter.--_p.adj._ AS'PERATED, made harsh.--_ns._ ASPIR[=A]'TION, pronunciation of a letter with a full breathing: an aspirated sound (like Gr. _ch_, _th_, &c.): drawing air in; ASPIR[=A]'TOR, an apparatus for drawing air or other gases through bottles or other vessels: (_med._) an instrument for removing fluids from the cavities of the body.--_adj._ ASP[=I]R'ATORY, relating to breathing.--TO DROP ONE'S ASPIRATES, not to pronounce _h_, a mark of imperfect education or humble social standing. [See ASPIRE.] ASPIRE, as-p[=i]r' (followed by _to_ or _after_ with the object, or by an infinitive), _v.i._ to desire eagerly: to aim at high things: to tower up.--_n._ ASPIR[=A]'TION, eager desire.--_adj._ ASP[=I]R'ING.--_adv._ ASP[=I]R'INGLY.--_n._ ASP[=I]R'INGNESS. [Fr.--L. _aspir[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ad_, to, _spir[=a]re_, to breathe.] ASPLENIUM, as-pl[=e]'ni-um, _n._ spleenwort, a genus of ferns, mostly tropical, with long or linear _sori_, with _indusium_ arising laterally from above a vein--including the lady-fern, black maiden-hair, &c. [Gr. _aspl[=e]nion_.] ASPORT, as-p[=o]rt', _v.t._ (_rare_) to carry away, esp. in a bad sense.--_n._ ASPORT[=A]'TION, feloniously carrying away. [L. _asport[=a]re_--_abs_, away, and _port[=a]re_, to carry.] ASPOUT, a-spowt', _adv. phrase_, spouting. ASPRAWL, a-sprawl', _adv. phrase_, sprawling. ASPREAD, a-spred', _adv. phrase_, spread out. ASPROUT, a-sprowt', _adv. phrase_, sprouting. ASQUAT, a-skwät', _adv. phrase_, squatting. ASQUINT, a-skwint', _adv._ and _adj._ towards the corner of the eye: obliquely. ASS, as, _n._ a well-known quadruped of the horse family: (_fig._) a dull, stupid fellow.--ASSES' BRIDGE, or PONS ASINORUM, a humorous name for the fifth proposition of the first book of Euclid. [A.S. _assa_, the earlier Teutonic form being _esol_, _esil_ (Goth. _asilus_)--L. _asinus_; Gr. _onos_, ass. Perh. ult. of Semitic origin, as in Heb. _[=a]th[=o]n_, a she-ass.] ASSAFETIDA. Same as ASAFOETIDA. [Illustration] ASSAGAI, ASSEGAI, as'sa-g[=i], _n._ a slender spear of hard wood, tipped with iron, some for hurling, some for thrusting with--used by the South African tribes, notably the war-like Zulus.--_v.t._ to kill or slay with an assagai. [Through Fr. or Port. from Ar. _azzagh[=a]yah_, _az_ = _al_, the _zagh[=a]yah_, a Berber word.] ASSAIL, as-s[=a]l', _v.t._ to assault: to attack.--_adj._ ASSAIL'ABLE.--_ns._ ASSAIL'ANT, one who assails or attacks; ASSAIL'MENT. [O. Fr. _asaillir_--L. _assil[=i]re_--_ad_, upon, and _sal[=i]re_, to leap.] ASSASSIN, as-as'in, _n._ one who, usually for a reward, kills by surprise or secretly.--_v.t._ ASSAS'SINATE, to murder by surprise or secret assault: (_Milton_) to maltreat: also figuratively, to destroy by treacherous means, as a reputation.--_n._ (_obs._) one who assassinates.--_ns._ ASSASSIN[=A]'TION, secret murder; ASSAS'SINATOR. [Through Fr. or It. from Ar. _hashsh[=a]sh[=i]n_, 'hashish-eaters,' a military and religious order in Syria, of the 11th century, who became notorious for their secret murders in obedience to the will of their chief, and fortified themselves for their adventures by _hashish_, an intoxicating drug or drink made from hemp.] ASSAULT, as-sawlt', _n._ a sudden attack: a storming, as of a town: (_Eng. law_) unlawful attempt to apply force to the person of another--when force is actually applied, the act amounts to _battery_: an attack of any sort by arguments, appeals, &c.--_v.t._ to make an assault or attack upon: (_law_) to make an assault.--_n._ ASSAULT'ER.--ASSAULT AT ARMS, a display of attack and defence in fencing. [O. Fr. _asaut_--L. _ad_, upon, _saltus_, a leap, _sal[=i]re_, to leap. See ASSAIL.] ASSAY, as-s[=a]', _v.t._ to determine the proportions of a metal in an ore or alloy: endeavour (more usually _Essay_): (_Spens._) to affect or move: (_Shak._) to put one to the proof, as to accost with a particular purpose, to measure swords with another, &c.: (_poet._) put to proof, examine by trial.--_v.i._ to attempt.--_n._ the determination of the quantity of metal in an ore or alloy: the trial of anything, as in the ancient custom of tasting the drink before handing it to a king or noble: an attempt or endeavour: probation or trial: (_Spens._) ascertained purity.--_ns._ ASSAY'ER, one who assays, esp. metals; ASSAY'ING, the process of assaying or determining the proportion of pure metal in an ore or alloy; ASSAY'-MAS'TER, the officer who determines the amount of gold or silver in coin or bullion. [O. Fr. _assayer_, n. _assai_. See ESSAY.] ASSEGAI, ASSEGAY. Same as ASSAGAI. ASSEMBLE, as-sem'bl, _v.t._ to call or bring together: to collect.--_v.i._ to meet together.--_ns._ ASSEM'BLAGE, a collection of persons or things; ASSEM'BLANCE (_Spens._), an assembling: (_Shak._) semblance: representation; ASSEM'BLY, the act of assembling: the company so assembled: a gathering of persons for any purpose, as for religious worship or social entertainment: specially applied to the lower house of the legislature in some of the United States and British colonies: (_mil._) a drum-beat, esp. that before a march, upon which the soldiers strike their tents; ASSEM'BLY-ROOM, a room in which persons assemble, especially for dancing.--GENERAL ASSEMBLY, in Scotland, Ireland, and the United States, the highest court of the Presbyterian Church; LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY, in many of the British colonies, the title of the lower house of the legislature; NATIONAL ASSEMBLY, the first of the revolutionary assemblies in France, which sat 1789-91--also called the _Constituent Assembly_, superseded in 1791 by the Legislative Assembly. [Fr. _assembler_--Late L. _assimul[=a]re_, to bring together, _ad_, to, _similis_, like. See ASSIMILATE.] ASSENT, as-sent', _v.i._ to think or concur with, to admit as true (with _to_).--_n._ an agreeing or acquiescence: compliance.--_adj._ ASSENT[=A]'NEOUS, ready to agree.--_ns._ ASSENT'ER, ASSENT'OR, one of the eight voters who indorse the proposer and seconder's nomination of a candidate for election to the parliament of the United Kingdom.--_adjs._ ASSEN'TIENT, ASSENT'IVE.--_adv._ ASSENT'INGLY.--_n._ ASSENT'IVENESS.--ROYAL ASSENT, in England, the sovereign's formal acquiescence in a measure which has passed the two Houses of Parliament. [O. Fr. _asenter_, assent--L. _assent[=a]re_, _assent[=i]re_, L. _ad_, to, _sent[=i]re_, to think.] ASSENTATION, as-sen-t[=a]'shun, _n._ obsequious assent, adulation.--_n._ AS'SENTATOR (_obs._).--_adv._ ASSENT'ATORILY (_obs._). [L. _assent[=a]ri_, to flatter, freq. of _assent[=i]ri_, assent, agree.] ASSERT, as-s[.e]rt', _v.t._ to vindicate or defend by arguments or measures (now used only of the cause as object or reflexive): to declare strongly: to lay claim to or insist upon anything: to affirm: (_rare_) to bear evidence of.--_adj._ ASSERT'ABLE.--_ns._ ASSERT'ER, ASSERT'OR, a champion, one who makes a positive statement; ASSER'TION, affirmation: the act of claiming one's rights: averment.--_adj._ ASSERT'IVE, asserting or confirming confidently: positive: dogmatic.--_adv._ ASSERT'IVELY.--_n._ ASSERT'IVENESS.--_adj._ ASSERT'ORY, affirmative.--TO ASSERT ONE'S SELF, to defend one's rights or opinions, sometimes with unnecessary zeal, to thrust one's self forward. [L. _asser[)e]re_ (superl. _assertum_), _aliquem manu in libertatem_, to lay hands on a slave in token of manumission, hence to protect, affirm, declare--_ad_, to, and _ser[)e]re_, to join. Cf. SERIES.] ASSESS, as-ses', _v.t._ to fix the amount of, as a tax (with _upon_): to tax or fine: to fix the value or profits of, for taxation (with _at_): to estimate.--_adj._ ASSESS'ABLE.--_ns._ ASSESS'MENT, act of assessing: a valuation for the purpose of taxation: a tax; ASSESS'OR, a legal adviser who sits beside a magistrate: one who assesses taxes: one who shares another's dignity.--_adj._ ASSESS[=O]'RIAL.--_n._ ASSESS'ORSHIP. [Fr.--L. _assess[=a]re_, freq. of _assid[=e]re_, _assessum_, to sit by, esp. of judges in a court, from _ad_, to, at, _sed[=e]re_, to sit.] ASSETS, as'sets, _n.pl._ the property of a deceased or insolvent person, considered as chargeable for all debts, &c.: the entire property of all sorts belonging to a merchant or to a trading association. [From the Anglo-Fr. law phrase _aver assetz_, to have sufficient, O. Fr. _asez_, enough--L. _ad_, to, _satis_, enough.] ASSEVERATE, as-sev'[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.t._ to declare solemnly--an earlier form is ASSEV'ER.--_adv._ ASSEVERAT'INGLY.--_n._ ASSEVER[=A]'TION, any solemn affirmation or confirmation. [L. _assever[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ad_, to, _severus_, serious. See SEVERE.] ASSIDUITY, as-sid-[=u]'i-ti, _n._ constant application or diligence: (_pl._) constant attentions, as to a lady.--_adj._ ASSID'UOUS, constant or unwearied in application: diligent.--_adv._ ASSID'UOUSLY.--_n._ ASSID'UOUSNESS. [L. _assiduitas_--_assiduus_, sitting close at--_ad_, to, at, _sed[=e]re_, to sit.] ASSIEGE, as-s[=e]j', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to besiege. [See SIEGE.] ASSIENTO, as-[=e]-en'to, _n._ a word especially applied to an exclusive contract between Spain and some foreign nation for the supply of African slaves for its American possessions. [Sp., a seat, a seat in a court, a treaty.] ASSIGN, as-s[=i]n', _v.t._ to sign or mark out to one: to allot: to appoint: to allege: to transfer: to ascribe or refer to: to suggest: to fix, as a time: to point out exactly.--_n._ one to whom any property or right is made over: (_pl._) appendages (_Shak._).--_adj._ ASSIGN'ABLE, that may be assigned.--_ns._ ASSIGN[=A]'TION, an appointment to meet, used chiefly of love-trysts, and mostly in a bad sense: (_Scots law_) the making over of any right to another, equivalent to ASSIGNMENT; ASSIGNEE (as-sin-[=e]'), one to whom any right or property is assigned: (_pl._) the trustees of a sequestrated estate; ASSIGN'MENT, act of assigning: anything assigned: the writing by which a transfer is made: (_Spens._) design. [Fr.--L. _assign[=a]re_, to mark out--_ad_, to, _signum_, a mark or sign.] ASSIGNAT, as-sin-yä', _n._ one of the notes (chiefly for 100 francs = £4 each) in the paper currency first issued in 1790 by the French revolutionary government as bonds on the security of the appropriated church lands. ASSIMILATE, as-sim'il-[=a]t, _v.t._ to make similar or like to: to convert into a like substance, as food in our bodies (with _to_, _with_).--_v.i._ to become like, or to be incorporated in.--_n._ ASSIM'ILABILITY (_Coleridge_).--_adj._ ASSIM'ILABLE.--_n._ ASSIMIL[=A]'TION.--_adj._ ASSIM'IL[=A]TIVE, having the power or tendency to assimilate. [L. _assimil[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ad_, to, _similis_, like.] ASSIST, as-sist', _v.t._ to help.--_v.i._ to be present at a ceremony: (_Shak._) to accompany.--_n._ ASSIST'ANCE, help: relief.--_adj._ ASSIST'ANT, helping or lending aid.--_n._ one who assists: a helper. [L. _assist[)e]re_, to stand by--_ad_, to, _sist[)e]re_.] ASSIZE, as-s[=i]z', _v.t._ to assess: to set or fix the quantity or price.--_n._ a statute settling the weight, measure, or price of anything: (_Scot._) a trial by jury, the jury: judgment, sentence, the Last Judgment: (_pl._) the sessions or sittings of a court held periodically in English counties, at which causes are tried by judges of the High Court of Justice on circuit and a jury.--_n._ ASSIZ'ER, an officer who inspects weights and measures. [O. Fr. _assise_, an assembly of judges, a set rate--_asseoir_--L. _assid[=e]re_.] ASSOCIATE, as-s[=o]'shi-[=a]t, _v.t._ to join with, as a friend or partner: to unite in the same body.--_v.i._ to keep company (_with_): to combine or unite.--_ns._ ASSOCIABIL'ITY, ASS[=O]'CIABLENESS.--_adjs._ ASS[=O]'CIABLE, that may be joined or associated: sociable: companionable; ASS[=O]'CIATE, joined or connected with.--_n._ one joined or connected with another: a companion, friend, partner, or ally.--_ns._ ASS[=O]'CIATESHIP, office of an associate; ASSOCI[=A]'TION, act of associating: union or combination: a society of persons joined together to promote some object.--_adj._ ASS[=O]'CI[=A]TIVE, tending to association.--ASSOCIATION FOOTBALL, the game as formulated by the Football Association (formed in 1863).--ASSOCIATION (OF IDEAS), applied to laws of mental combination which facilitate recollection: similarity: contiguity, repetition. [L. _associ[=a]tum_, _associ[=a]re_--_ad_, to _socius_, a companion.] ASSOIL, as-soil', _v.t._ to loosen from: to absolve or acquit: to solve: (_Spens._) to remove, to let loose, to renew, to get rid of.--_n._ ASSOIL'MENT. [Through Fr. from L.--L. _ab_, from, _solv[)e]re_, to loose.] ASSOIL, as-soil', _v.t._ to soil, stain, or make dirty. [L. _ad_, and SOIL. See SOIL (2).] ASSOILZIE, as-soil'y[=e], _v.i._ to free one accused from a charge: a Scots law term, the same as the archaic _assoil_, to absolve from sin, discharge, pardon. See ABSOLVITOR, under ABSOLVE. [Through Fr. from L. _absolv[)e]re_.] ASSONANCE, as'son-ans, _n._ a correspondence in sound: in Spanish and Portuguese poetry, a kind of rhyme, consisting in the coincidence of the vowels of the corresponding syllables, without regard to the consonants, as in _mate_ and _shape_, _feel_ and _need_.--_adjs._ AS'SSONANT, resembling in sound; AS'SONANTAL, AS'SONANTIC.--_v.t._ AS'SONATE, to correspond in sound. [Fr.--L. _asson[=a]re_, _as_ = _ad-_, to, _son[=a]re_, to sound.] ASSORT, as-sort', _v.t._ to separate into classes: to arrange.--_v.i._ to agree or be in accordance with: to fall into a class with, suit well with: (_arch._) to keep company with.--_p.adj._ ASSORT'ED, classified, arranged in sorts.--_ns._ ASSORT'EDNESS; ASSORT'MENT, act of assorting: a quantity or number of things assorted: variety. [Fr. _assortir_--L. _ad_, to, _sors_, a lot.] ASSOT, as-sot', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to besot, to infatuate.--_p.adj._ ASSOT', or ASSOT'TED (_Spens._), infatuated. [O. Fr. _asoter_--_à_, to, _sot_, foolish. See SOT.] ASSUAGE, as-sw[=a]j', _v.t._ to soften, mitigate, or allay.--_v.i._ to abate or subside: to diminish.--_n._ ASSUAGE'MENT, abatement: mitigation.--_adj._ ASSU[=A]'SIVE, softening, mild. [O. Fr., formed as if from a L. _assuavi[=a]re_--_ad_, to, _suavis_, mild.] ASSUBJUGATE, as-sub'j[=oo]-g[=a]t, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to reduce to subjugation. ASSUEFACTION, as-w[=e]-fak'shun, _n._ (_Sir T. Browne_) the act of accustoming, habituation. [L. _assuefac[)e]re_--_assuetus_, accustomed, and _fac[)e]re_, to make.] ASSUETUDE, as'w[=e]-t[=u]d, _n._ (_obs._) custom, habit. [L. _assuetus_.] ASSUME, as-s[=u]m', _v.t._ to adopt, take in: to take up, to take upon one's self: to take for granted: to arrogate: to pretend to possess.--_v.i._ to claim unduly: to be arrogant.--_adjs._ ASSUM'ABLE, ASSUMP'TIVE, that may be assumed.--_adv._ ASSUM'ABLY, presumably.--_adj._ ASSUMED', appropriated, usurped: pretended: taken as the basis of argument.--_advs._ ASSUM'EDLY, ASSUM'INGLY.--_adj._ ASSUM'ING, haughty: arrogant. [L. _assum[)e]re_--_ad_, to, _sum[)e]re_, _sumptum_, to take.] ASSUMPSIT, a-sump'sit, _n._ an action at law, wherein the plaintiff asserts that the defendant undertook (L. _assumpsit_) to do a certain act and failed to fulfil his promise: in the United States, the most common form of action. ASSUMPTION, as-sum'shun, _n._ act of assuming: a supposition: the thing supposed, a proposition: (_logic_) the minor premise in a syllogism.--ASSUMPTION OF THE VIRGIN, a church festival kept on the 15th of August, based on the notion that after the death of Mary, her soul and body were preserved from corruption and taken up to heaven by Christ and His angels.--DEED OF ASSUMPTION (_Scots law_), a deed executed by trustees under a trust-deed assuming a new trustee or settlement. [L. See ASSUME.] ASSURE, a-sh[=oo]r', _v.t._ to make sure or secure: to give confidence: (_Shak._) to betroth: to tell positively: to insure.--_adj._ ASSUR'ABLE.--_n._ ASSUR'ANCE, confidence: feeling of certainty: self-reliance: impudence: positive declaration: insurance, as applied to lives: the securing of a title to property: (_theol._) subjective certainty of one's salvation: a solemn declaration or promise, a certain proof: surety, warrant.--_adj._ ASSURED', certain: without doubt: insured: overbold.--_adv._ ASSUR'EDLY.--_ns._ ASSUR'EDNESS; ASSUR'ER, one who gives assurance: an insurer or underwriter: one who insures his life. [O. Fr. _aseürer_ (Fr. _assurer_)--Late L. _adsecur[=a]re_--_ad_, to, _securus_, safe. See SURE.] ASSURGENT, as-ur'jent, _adj._ rising, ascending: (_bot._) rising in a curve to an erect position: (_her._) of a bearing depicted as rising from the sea.--_n._ ASSUR'GENCY, the tendency to rise. ASSWAGE. A form of ASSUAGE. ASSYRIAN, as-sir'i-an, _adj._ belonging to Assyria.--_n._ an inhabitant of Assyria: the language of Assyria.--_ns._ ASSYRIOL'OGIST; ASSYRIOL'OGY, the science of Assyrian antiquities. [Gr. _Assurios_--_Assuria_, Assyria.] ASTARE, a-st[=a]r', _adv. phrase_, staring. ASTART, a-start', _v.i._ (_Spens._) to start up suddenly: to happen, fall out.--_adv._ with a start, suddenly. [Pfx. _a-_, and START.] ASTATIC, a-stat'ik, _adj._ having a tendency not to stand still: losing polarity, as a magnetic needle. [Gr. neg., _astatos_--_a_, neg., _statos_, verb. adj. of _histanai_, to stand.] ASTAY, a-st[=a]', _adv._ applied to an anchor when, in lifting it, the cable forms such an angle with the surface of the water as to appear in a line with the stays of the ship. [Prep. _a_, on, and STAY.] ASTER, as't[.e]r, _n._ a genus of plants of the natural order Compositæ, with showy radiated flowers varying from white to lilac-blue or purple, mostly perennial, flowering in late summer and autumn, hence often called in England Michaelmas or Christmas daisies.--CHINA ASTER, the best-known and most valued of the family, brought from China to France by a missionary in the 18th century. [Gr. _ast[=e]r_, a star.] ASTERIAS, as-t[=e]r'i-as, _n._ a genus of Echinoderms, containing the common five-rayed starfish. [Gr. _ast[=e]rias_, a fish--_ast[=e]r_, a star.] ASTERISK, as't[.e]r-isk, _n._ a star, used in printing as a reference to a note at the bottom or on the margin of the page, and sometimes as a mark of the omission of words, thus *.--_n._ AS'TERISM, a group or collection of small stars: a constellation: three asterisks placed to direct attention to a passage: a property of some minerals which show a star-shaped luminous figure when viewed by reflected light--e.g. the asteriated sapphire. [Gr. _asteriskos_, dim. of _aster_, a star.] ASTERN, a-st[.e]rn', _adv._ in the stern: towards the hinder part of a ship: behind. [Prep. _a_, and STERN.] ASTEROID, as't[.e]r-oid, _n._ one of the minor planetary bodies revolving between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.--_adj._ ASTEROID'AL. [Gr. _ast[=e]r_, a star, _eidos_, form.] ASTERT, a-st[.e]rt'. Same as ASTART. ASTHENIA, as-th[=e]-n[=i]'a, _n._ debility, lack of strength.--_adj._ ASTHEN'IC [Gr. _a_, priv., and _sthenos_, strength.] ASTHMA, ast'ma, _n._ a chronic disorder of the organs of respiration, characterised by the occurrence of paroxysms in which the breathing becomes difficult, and accompanied by wheezing and a distressing feeling of tightness in the chest.--_adjs._ ASTHMAT'IC, -AL, pertaining to or affected by asthma.--_adv._ ASTHMAT'ICALLY. [Gr. _asthma_, _asthmat-os_--_az-ein_, to breathe hard, _a-ein_, to blow.] ASTIGMATISM, a-stig'ma-tizm, _n._ a defective condition of the eye, in which rays proceeding to the eye from one point are not correctly brought to a focus at _one_ point.--_adj._ ASTIGMAT'IC. [Gr. _a_, neg., and _stigma_, _stigmat-os_, a point.] ASTIR, a-stir', _prep. phr._ or _adv._ on the move, out of bed, in motion or excitement. [Prep. _a_, and STIR.] ASTOMATOUS, as-tom'a-tus, _adj._ having no mouth, used of a division of the protozoa. ASTONISH, as-ton'ish, _v.t._ to impress with sudden surprise or wonder: to amaze: (_Shak._) to stun--older form ASTON'Y, whence the _p.adj._ ASTON'IED, dazed, bewildered, greatly astonished.--ASTON', ASTUN', ASTONED', ASTUNNED', are obsolete.--_p.adj._ ASTON'ISHED, amazed: (_obs._) stunned.--_adj._ ASTON'ISHING, very wonderful, amazing.--_adv._ ASTON'ISHINGLY.--_n._ ASTON'ISHMENT, amazement: wonder: a cause for astonishment. [From the earlier form, _Astone_; O. Fr. _estoner_; L. _atton[=a]re_, to strike with a thunderbolt.] ASTOUND, as-townd', _v.t._ to amaze, to strike dumb with astonishment:--_pa.p._ astound'ed; _pr.p._ astound'ing.--_pa.p._ ASTOUND' (_arch._).--_p.adj._ ASTOUND'ING. [ASTOUND (adj.) is developed from ASTONED, hence the verb is a doublet of ASTONISH.] ASTRADDLE, a-strad'dl, _adv._ sitting astride. [Prep. _a_, on, and STRADDLE.] [Illustration] ASTRAGAL, as'tra-gal, _n._ (_archit._) a small semicircular moulding or bead encircling a column: a round moulding near the mouth of a cannon: the bars which hold the panes of a window. [Gr. _astragalos_, one of the vertebræ, a moulding.] ASTRAGALUS, as-trag'al-us, _n._ a bone of the foot, forming with the leg-bones the hinge of the ankle-joint, by a convex upper surface and smooth sides. [Gr.] ASTRAKHAN, as'tra-kan, _n._ name given to lamb-skins with a curled wool obtained from _Astrakhan_ on the Caspian Sea: a rough fabric made in imitation of it. ASTRAL, as'tral, _adj._ belonging to the stars: starry: in the science of Theosophy, descriptive of a supersensible substance supposed to pervade all space and enter into all bodies.--ASTRAL BODY, a living form composed of astral fluid, a ghost or wraith; ASTRAL SPIRITS, pervading spirits supposed to animate the heavenly bodies, forming, as it were, their souls--among the most potent of demoniacal spirits in medieval demonology. [L. _astralis_, _astrum_, a star.] ASTRAND, a-strand', _adv._ stranded. [Prep. _a_, on, and STRAND.] ASTRAY, a-str[=a]', _adv._ out of the right way. [Prep. _a_, on, and STRAY.] ASTRICTION, as-trik'shun, _n._ a binding or contraction: restriction.--_v.t._ ASTRICT', to bind, restrict. [L. _astriction-em_, _astring[)e]re_. See ASTRINGENT.] ASTRIDE, a-str[=i]d', _adv._ with the legs apart, or across. [Prep. _a_, on, and STRIDE.] ASTRINGENT, as-trin'jent, _adj._ binding: contracting: strengthening.--_n._ a medicine that causes costiveness.--_v.t._ ASTRINGE', to bind together: to draw tight: hence to render constipated.--_n._ ASTRIN'GENCY.--_adv._ ASTRIN'GENTLY. [L. _astringent-em_, _astring[)e]re_--_ad_, to, _string[)e]re_, to bind.] ASTROLABE, as'tr[=o]-l[=a]b, _n._ an instrument for measuring the altitudes of the sun or stars, now superseded by Hadley's quadrant and sextant. [Gr.; _astron_, a star, _labb-_, _lambano_, I take.] ASTROLATRY, as-trol'a-tri, _n._ the worship of the stars. [Gr. _astron_, a star, _latreia_, worship.] ASTROLOGY, as-trol'o-ji, _n._ the infant stage of the science of the stars, out of which grew _Astronomy_; it was occupied chiefly in determining from the positions and motions of the heavenly bodies their supposed influence on human and terrestrial affairs.--_n._ ASTROL'OGER, one versed in astrology.--_adjs._ ASTROLOG'IC, -AL.--_adv._ ASTROLOG'ICALLY. [Gr. _astrologia_--_astron_, star, _logos_, knowledge.] ASTRONOMY, as-tron'om-i, _n._ the laws or science of the stars or heavenly bodies.--_n._ ASTRON'OMER, one versed in astronomy.--_adj._ ASTRONOM'IC.--_adv._ ASTRONOM'ICALLY.--_v.t._ ASTRON'OMISE. [Gr. _astronomia_--_astron_, star, _nomos_, a law.] ASTROPHEL, as'tro-fel, _n._ a name applied by Spenser to some kind of bitter herb. ASTRUT, a-strut', _adv._ in a strutting manner. [Prep. _a_, on, and STRUT.] ASTUTE, ast-[=u]t', _adj._ crafty: cunning: shrewd: sagacious.--_adv._ ASTUTE'LY.--_n._ ASTUTE'NESS.--The _adj._ AST[=U]'CIOUS, _adv._ AST[=U]'CIOUSLY, and _n._ AST[=U]'CITY are all _rare_. [L. _astutus_--_astus_, crafty, akin perhaps to ACUTE.] ASTYLAR, a-st[=i]'lar, _adj._ without columns. [Gr. _a_, neg., _stylos_, a column.] ASUDDEN, a-sud'en, _adv._ suddenly. [Prep. _a_, and SUDDEN.] ASUNDER, a-sun'd[.e]r, _adv._ apart: into parts: separately. [Prep. _a_, and SUNDER.] ASWARM, a-swärm', _adv._ swarming. [Prep. _a_, and SWARM.] ASWAY, a-sw[=a]', _adv._ swaying. ASWIM, a-swim', _adv._ afloat. ASWING, a-swing', _adv._ swinging. ASWOON, a-sw[=oo]n', _adv._ in a swoon. ASYLUM, a-s[=i]l'um, _n._ a place of refuge for debtors and for such as were accused of some crime: an institution for the care or relief of the unfortunate, such as the blind or insane: any place of refuge or protection. [L.--Gr. _asylon_--_a_, neg., _syl[=e]_, right of seizure.] ASYMMETRY, a-sim'e-tri, _n._ want of symmetry or proportion between parts.--_adjs._ ASYMMET'RIC, -AL.--_adv._ ASYMMET'RICALLY. [Gr. See SYMMETRY.] ASYMPTOTE, a'sim-t[=o]t, _n._ (_math._) a line that continually approaches nearer to some curve without ever meeting it.--_adjs._ ASYMPTOT'IC, -AL.--_adv._ ASYMPTOT'ICALLY. [Gr. _asympt[=o]tos_, not coinciding--_a_, not, _syn_, with, _pt[=o]tos_, apt to fall, _pipt-ein_, to fall.] ASYNARTETE, a-sin'ar-t[=e]t, _adj._ and _n._ not connected, consisting of two members having different rhythms; a verse of such a kind.--Also ASYN'ARTETIC. [Gr.; _a_, neg., _syn_, together, _arta-ein_, to knit.] ASYNCHRONISM, a-sin'kro-nizm, _n._ want of synchronism or correspondence in time.--_adj._ ASYN'CHRONOUS. ASYNDETON, a-sin'de-ton, _n._ (_rhet._) a figure in which the conjunctions are omitted, as in Matt. x. 8.--_adj._ ASYNDET'IC. [Gr.; _a_, neg., _syndetos_, bound together, _syn_, together, _dein_, to bind.] ASYNTACTIC, as-in-tak'tik, _adj._ loosely put together, irregular, ungrammatical. [Gr.; _a_, neg., _syntaktos_, _syntass-ein_, to put in order together.] ASYSTOLE, a-sis'to-l[=e], _n._ (_med._) the condition of a heart the left ventricle of which is unable to empty itself.--Also ASYS'TOLISM. [Made up of Gr. _a_, neg., _systol[=e]_, contraction.] AT, at, _prep._ denoting presence, nearness, or relation. Often used elliptically, as in 'At him, good dog.' [A.S. _æt_; cog. with Goth, and Ice. _at_, L. _ad_; Sans. _adhi_, on.] ATABAL, at'a-bal, _n._ a Moorish kettledrum. [Sp.--Ar. _at-tabl_, the drum.] ATAGHAN. Same as YATAGHAN. ATAVISM, at'av-izm, _n._ frequent appearance of ancestral, but not parental, characteristics in an animal or plant: reversion to an original type.--_adj._ AT'AVISTIC. [L. _atavus_--_avus_, a grandfather.] ATAXIA, at-ak'si-a, ATAXY, a-tax'i, or at'ax-i, _n._ (_med._) irregularity of the functions of the body through disease, esp. inability to co-ordinate voluntary movements, as in _locomotor ataxy_. [Gr.; _a_, neg., _taktos_, _tassein_, to arrange.] ATE, et, or [=a]t, _pa.t._ of EAT. ATE, [=a]'t[=e], _n._ (_myth._) the goddess of mischief and of all rash actions and their results. [Gr.] ATELIER, at-el-y[=a]', _n._ a workshop, esp. an artist's studio. [Fr.] ATHANASIA, ath-a-n[=a]'si-a, _n._ deathlessness.--Also ATHAN'ASY. [Gr.; _athanatos_, _a_, neg., _thanatos_, death.] ATHANASIAN, ath-a-n[=a]z'yan, _adj._ relating to _Athanasius_ (296-373), or to the creed erroneously attributed to him. ATHANOR, ath'a-nor, _n._ a self-feeding digesting furnace, used by the alchemists, in which a uniform heat was maintained. [Ar. _at-tannur_, _at_ = _al_, the _n[=u]r_, fire.] ATHEISM, [=a]'the-izm, _n._ disbelief in the existence of God.--_v.i._ and _v.t._ A'THEISE, to talk or write as an atheist.--_n._ A'THEIST, one who disbelieves in the existence of God.--_adjs._ ATHEIST'IC, -AL.--_adv._ ATHEIST'ICALLY.--_adj._ A'THEOUS (_Milton_), atheistic. [Fr. _athéisme_--Gr. _a_, neg., and _theos_, God.] ATHELING, ath'el-ing, _n._ a member of a noble family, latterly a prince of the blood royal, or the heir-apparent. [A.S. _ætheling_; Ger. _adel_.] ATHENÆUM, ATHENEUM, ath-e-n[=e]'um, _n._ a temple of Ath[=e]na or Minerva at Athens, in which scholars and poets read their works: a public institution for lectures, reading, &c. [Gr. _Ath[=e]naion_--_Ath[=e]na_ or _Ath[=e]n[=e]_, the goddess Minerva.] ATHENIAN, a-th[=e]'ni-an, _adj._ relating to Athens, the capital of Greece.--_n._ a native of Athens. ATHEOLOGY, a-th[=e]-ol'oj-i, _n._ opposition to theology.--_adj._ ATHEOLOG'ICAL. [Gr. _atheos_, without God, _logia_, discourse.] ATHERINE, ath'er-[=i]n, _n._ a genus of small fishes, allied to the Gray Mullet family, abundant in the Mediterranean--one species (_Atherina presbyter_), found on the south coast of England, is often sold as a smelt. [Gr.] ATHERMANCY, ath-er'man-si, _n._ the property of stopping radiant heat.--_adj._ ATHER'MANOUS. [Gr. _a_, neg., _thermain-ein_, to heat.] ATHEROMA, ath'er-[=o]-ma, _n._ a name formerly applied to cysts on the scalp, with contents of the consistence of porridge, but now only used of a common form of inflammation of arteries.--_adj._ ATHEROM'ATOUS. [Gr.; _athar[=e]_, porridge.] ATHIRST, a-th[.e]rst', _adj._ thirsty: eager for. [A.S. _of thyrst_. See THIRST.] ATHLETE, ath'l[=e]t, _n._ a contender for victory in feats of strength: one vigorous in body or mind. The form ATHL[=E]'TA survived till the later half of the 18th century.--_adj._ ATHLET'IC, relating to athletics: strong, vigorous.--_adv._ ATHLET'ICALLY.--_n._ ATHLETICISM (ath-let'i-sizm), the act of engaging in athletic exercises: devotion to athletics.--_n.pl._ ATHLET'ICS, the art of wrestling, running, &c.: athletic sports. [Gr. _athl[=e]t[=e]s_--_athlos_, contest.] ATHRILL, a-thril', _adv._ thrilling. ATHROB, a-throb', _adv._ throbbing. ATHWART, a-thwawrt', _prep._ across.--_adv._ sidewise: wrongly: perplexingly. [Prep. _a_, on, and THWART.] ATILT, a-tilt', _adv._ on tilt: as a tilter. ATIMY, at'i-mi, _n._ loss of honour: in ancient Athens, loss of civil rights, public disgrace. [Gr. _atimia_--_a_, neg., _tim[=e]_, honour.] ATKINS. See TOMMY ATKINS. ATLANTEAN, at-lan-t[=e]'an, _adj._ relating to or like _Atlas_, gigantic: also relating to ATLAN'TIS, according to ancient tradition, a vast island in the Atlantic Ocean, or to Bacon's ideal commonwealth of that name. [See ATLAS.] ATLANTES, at-lan't[=e]z, _n.pl._ figures of men used instead of columns. [From ATLAS.] ATLANTIC, at-lan'tik, _adj._ pertaining to Atlas, or to the Atlantic Ocean.--_n._ the ocean between Europe, Africa, and America. [From Mount _Atlas_, in the north-west of Africa, named from the Titan, Atlas.] ATLAS, at'las, _n._ that piece of the human vertebral column which articulates with the skull, so called because it supports the head: a collection of maps. [Gr. _Atlas_, _Atlantis_, a Titan who bore the world on his shoulders, and whose figure used to be given on the title-page of atlases.] ATLAS, at'las, _n._ a kind of silk-satin manufactured in the East. [Ar.] ATMOLOGY, at-mol'o-ji, _n._ the science of the phenomena of aqueous vapour.--_n._ ATMOL'OGIST. [Gr. _atmos_, vapour, and _logia_, discourse--_legein_, to speak.] ATMOLYSIS, at-mol'i-sis, _n._ a method of separating a mixture of gases by taking advantage of their different rates of passage through a porous septum. [Gr. _atmos_, vapour, and _lysis_, loosing--_lyein_, to loose.] ATMOMETER, at-mom'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring the rate of evaporation from a moist surface. [Gr. _atmos_, vapour, and METER.] ATMOSPHERE, at'mo-sf[=e]r, _n._ the gaseous envelope that surrounds the earth or any of the heavenly bodies: any gaseous medium: a conventional unit of atmospheric pressure: (_fig._) any surrounding influence.--_adjs._ ATMOSPHER'IC, -AL, of or depending on the atmosphere.--_adv._ ATMOSPHER'ICALLY.--ATMOSPHERIC ENGINE, a variety of steam-engine in which the steam is admitted only to the under side of the piston; ATMOSPHERIC HAMMER, a hammer driven by means of compressed air; ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY, a railway where the motive-power is derived from the pressure of the atmosphere acting on a piston working in an iron tube of uniform bore. [Gr. _atmos_, air, _sphaira_, a sphere.] ATOLL, a-tol', or at'ol, _n._ a coral island consisting of a circular belt of coral enclosing a central lagoon. [A Malay word.] ATOM, at'om, _n._ a particle of matter so small that it cannot be cut or divided, the unit of matter; anything very small.--_adjs._ ATOM'IC, -AL, pertaining to atoms.--_ns._ ATOMIC'ITY; ATOMIS[=A]'TION (_med._) the reduction of liquids to the form of spray; AT'OMISM, the doctrine that atoms arranged themselves into the universe: the atomic theory; AT'OMIST, one who believes in atomism.--_adj._ ATOMIS'TIC.--_adv._ ATOMIST'ICALLY.--_n._ AT'OMY, an atom, or mote: (_Shak._) a pygmy.--ATOMIC PHILOSOPHY, a system of philosophy enunciated by Democritus, which taught that the ultimate constituents of all things are indivisible particles, differing in form and in their relations to each other; ATOMIC THEORY, the hypothesis that all chemical combinations take place between the ultimate particles of bodies, uniting each atom to atom, or in proportions expressed by some simple multiple of the number of atoms. [Gr. _atomos_--_a_, not, _temnein_, _tamein_, to cut. See ATOM.] ATOMY, at'om-i, _n._ (_Shak._) a skeleton, walking skeleton. [Formerly also _atamy_ and _natomy_, for _anatomy_, mistakingly divided _an atomy_.] ATONE, at-[=o]n', _adv._ (_Spens._) at one, at once, together. [M.E. also _attone_, earlier _atoon_, _aton_, _at one_, _at on_.] ATONE, at-[=o]n', _v.i._ to give satisfaction or make reparation (with _for_): to make up for deficiencies: (_Shak._) to agree, be in accordance.--_v.t._ to appease, to expiate: (_arch._) harmonise, or reconcile.--_ns._ ATONE'MENT, the act of atoning; reconciliation: expiation: reparation: esp. (_theol._) the reconciliation of God and man by means of the incarnation and death of Christ; ATON'ER.--_adv._ ATON'INGLY. [See ATONE, above.] ATONY, at'on-i, _n._ want of tone or energy: debility: relaxation.--_adj._ AT'ONIC (_pros._), without tone: unaccented. [Gr. _atonia_--_a_, neg., _tonos_, tone, strength. See TONE.] ATOP, a-top', _adv._ on or at the top. [Prep. _a_, and TOP.] ATRABILIAR, at-ra-bil'i-ar, _adj._ of a melancholy temperament: hypochondriac: splenetic, acrimonious.--Also ATRABIL'IARY, ATRABIL'IOUS. [L. _ater_, _atra_, black, _bilis_, gall, bile. See BILE.] ATRAMENTAL, at-ra-men'tal, _adj._ (_Sir T. Browne_) inky, black. [From L. _atramentum_, ink--_atra_, black.] ATREMBLE, a-trem'bl, _adv._ trembling. ATRIP, a-trip', _adv._ said of an anchor when it is just drawn out of the ground in a perpendicular direction--of a sail, when it is hoisted from the cap, sheeted home, and ready for trimming. [Prep. _a_, on, and TRIP.] ATRIUM, [=a]'tri-um, _n._ the entrance-hall or chief apartment of a Roman house. [Prob. orig. the kitchen, and so lit. 'the apartment blackened with smoke'--L. _ater_, black; others connect the word with _ædes_, orig. a fireplace, then a house, a temple.] ATROCIOUS, a-tr[=o]'shus, _adj._ extremely cruel or wicked: heinous: very grievous: execrable.--_adv._ ATR[=O]'CIOUSLY.--_ns._ ATR[=O]'CIOUSNESS; ATROC'ITY, atrociousness: an atrocious act. [L. _atrox_, _atrocis_, cruel--_ater_, black.] ATROPAL, at'ro-pal, _adj._ (_bot._) not inverted. [Gr. _atropos_--_a_, neg., and _trepein_, to turn.] ATROPHY, a'trof-i, _n._ an alteration of the vital processes in a living organism, either animal or vegetable, resulting in a diminution of size and functional activity of the whole organism (_general atrophy_), or of certain of its organs or tissues: emaciation.--_adjs._ ATROPH'IC, AT'ROPHIED. [Gr. _a_, neg., and _troph[=e]_, nourishment.] ATROPIA, a-tr[=o]'pi-a, ATROPIN, ATROPINE, at'ro-pin, _n._ a poisonous alkaloid existing in the deadly nightshade.--_n._ AT'ROPISM, poisoning by atropin. [From Gr. _Atropos_, one of the _Fates_, who cuts the thread of life.] ATTACH, at-tach', _v.t._ to bind or fasten: to seize: to gain over: to connect, associate: to join to in action or function: (_Shak._) to arrest.--_v.i._ to adhere, to be fastened upon: (_rare_) to come into effect.--_adj._ ATTACH'ABLE.--_p.adj._ ATTACHED', fastened, fixed, joined by taste or affection (with _to_), fond, devoted to.--_n._ ATTACH'MENT, a bond of fidelity or affection: the seizure of any one's goods or person by virtue of a legal process. [O. Fr. _atachier_, from _à_ (--L. _ad_), and the root of TACK (q.v.).] ATTACHÉ, a-ta'sh[=a], _n._ a young diplomatist attached to the suite of an ambassador. [Participle of Fr. _attacher_, to attach.] ATTACK, at-tak', _v.t._ to fall upon violently: to assault: to assail with unfriendly words or writing: to begin to affect, fall upon (of diseases).--_n._ an assault or onset: the offensive part in any contest: the beginning of active operations on anything, even dinner: severe criticism or calumny.--_adj._ ATTACK'ABLE. [Fr. _attaquer_. See ATTACH, of which it is a doublet.] ATTAIN, at-t[=a]n', _v.t._ to reach or gain by effort: to obtain: to reach a place: to reach.--_v.i._ to come or arrive: to reach.--_adj._ ATTAIN'ABLE, that may be reached.--_ns._ ATTAIN'ABLENESS, ATTAINABIL'ITY; ATTAIN'MENT, act of attaining: the thing attained: acquisition: (_pl._) acquirements in learning. [O. Fr. _ataindre_--L. _atting-[)e]re_--_ad_, to, _tang-[)e]re_, to touch.] ATTAINDER, at-t[=a]n'd[.e]r, _n._ act of attainting: (_law_) loss of civil rights through conviction for high-treason.--_v.t._ ATTAINT', to convict: to deprive of rights for being convicted of treason: to accuse of: disgrace, stain (from a fancied connection with _taint_).--_n._ (_arch._) the act of touching, a hit (in tilting): (_Shak._) infection: attainder: a stain, disgrace.--Older _pa.p._ ATTAINT'--(_Shak._) corrupted, tainted.--_ns._ ATTAINT'MENT, ATTAINT'URE, state of being attainted. [O. Fr. _ataindre_--L. _atting-[)e]re_. See ATTAIN.] ATTAR, at'ar, _n._ a very fragrant essential oil made in Turkey and other Eastern lands, chiefly from the damask rose.--Also OTTO. [Pers. _atar_.] ATTASK, at-task', _v.t._ to task. [Pfx. _a-_, and TASK.] ATTEMPER, at-tem'p[.e]r, _v.t._ to mix in due proportion: to modify or moderate: to adapt.--_p.adj._ ATTEM'PERED, tempered, mild, regulated. [O. Fr. _atemprer_--L. _attemper[=a]re_--_ad_, to, and _temper[=a]re_. See TEMPER.] ATTEMPT, at-temt', _v.t._ to try or endeavour: to try to obtain: tempt, entice: to make an effort or attack upon.--_v.i._ to make an attempt or trial.--_n._ a trial: endeavour or effort: a personal assault: (_Milton_) temptation: (_law_) any act which can fairly be described as one of a series which, if uninterrupted and successful, would constitute a crime.--_n._ ATTEMPTABIL'ITY.--_adj._ ATTEMPT'ABLE, that may be attempted.--_n._ ATTEMPT'ER (_Milton_), a tempter. [O. Fr. _atempter_--L. _attent[=a]re_--_ad_, and _tem-pt_, _tent[=a]re_, to try--_tend[)e]re_, to stretch.] ATTEND, at-tend', _v.t._ to wait on or accompany: to be present at: to wait for: to give attention (with _to_).--_v.i._ to yield attention: to act as an attendant: to wait, be consequent (with _to_, _on_, _upon_).--_ns._ ATTEND'ANCE, act of attending: (_B_.) attention, careful regard: presence: the persons attending; ATTEND'ANCY (_obs._), attendance, a retinue: (_obs._) relative position.--_adj._ ATTEND'ANT, giving attendance: accompanying.--_n._ one who attends or accompanies: a servant: what accompanies or follows: (_law_) one who owes a duty or service to another.--_ns._ ATTEND'ER, one who gives heed: a companion:--_fem._ ATTEN'DRESS; ATTEND'MENT (_Sir T. Browne_), attention.--_adj._ ATTENT' (_Spens._), giving attention.--_n._ (_Spens._) attention.--IN ATTENDANCE ON, waiting upon, attending. [O. Fr. _atendre_--L. _attend[)e]re_--_ad_, to, _tend[)e]re_, to stretch.] ATTENTION, at-ten'shun, _n._ act of attending, as in to pay, give, call, or attract attention: steady application of the mind: heed: civility, courtesy: care.--_interj._ (_mil._) a cautionary word used as a command to execute some manoeuvre.--_adj._ ATTENT'IVE, full of attention: courteous, mindful.--_adv._ ATTENT'IVELY.--_n._ ATTENTI'VENESS. [L. _attention-em_--_attend-[)e]re_. See ATTEND.] ATTENUATE, at-ten'[=u]-[=a]t, _v.t._ to make thin or lean: to break down into finer parts: to reduce in density: reduce in strength or value, simplify.--_v.i._ to become thin or fine: to grow less.--_n._ ATTEN'UANT, anything possessing this property.--_adjs._ ATTEN'UATE, ATTEN'UATED, made thin or slender: dilute, rarefied:--_n._ ATTENU[=A]'TION, process of making slender: reduction of intensity, density, or force: specially in homeopathy, the reduction of the active principles of medicines to minute doses. [L. _attenu[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ad_, to, _tenuis_, thin.] ATTEST, at-test', _v.t._ to testify or bear witness to: to affirm by signature or oath: to give proof of, to manifest: (_obs._) to call to witness.--_v.i._ to bear witness.--_n._ (_Shak._) witness, testimony.--_adjs._ ATTEST'ABLE, ATTEST'ATIVE.--_ns._ ATTEST[=A]'TION, act of attesting: administration of an oath; ATTEST'OR, ATTEST'ER, one who attests or vouches for. [L. _attest[=a]ri_, _ad_, to, _testis_, a witness.] ATTIC, at'ik, _adj._ pertaining to Attica or to Athens: chaste, refined, elegant like the Athenians.--_v.t._ ATT'ICISE, to make conformable to the language or idiom of Attica.--_v.i._ to use the idioms of the Athenians: to side with the Athenians, to affect Attic or Greek style or manners.--_n._ AT'TICISM.--ATTIC SALT, wit of a dry, delicate, and refined quality. [Gr. _Attikos_, Attic, Athenian, _Attik[=e]_, Attica, perh. from _akt[=e]_, headland, though connected by some with _astu_, city.] ATTIC, at'ik, _n._ (_archit._) a low story above the cornice that terminates the main part of an elevation: a room in the roof of a house. [Introduced in architecture from the idea that the feature to which it alluded was constructed in the Athenian manner.] ATTIRE, at-t[=i]r', _v.t._ to dress, array, or adorn: to prepare.--_n._ dress: any kind of covering, even the plants that clothe the soil: (_Shak._) a dress or costume.--_ns._ ATTIRE'MENT, ATTIR'ING. [O. Fr. _atirer_, put in order--_à tire_, in a row--_à_ (L. _ad_), to, and _tire_, _tiere_, order, dress. See TIER.] ATTITUDE, at'ti-t[=u]d, _n._ posture, or position: gesture: any condition of things or relation of persons viewed as expressing some thought, feeling, &c.--_adj._ ATTITUD'INAL.--_n._ ATTITUDIN[=A]'RIAN, one who studies attitudes.--_v.i._ ATTITUD'INISE, to assume affected attitudes.--_n._ ATTITUDIN[=I]'SER.--TO STRIKE AN ATTITUDE, to assume a position or figure to indicate a feeling or emotion not really felt. [Fr. or It. from L. _aptitudin-em_, _aptus_, fit.] ATTOLLENT, at-tol'lent, _adj._ lifting up, raising.--_n._ a muscle with this function. [L. _attollens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _attoll[)e]re_, to lift up--_ad_, to, _toll[)e]re_, to lift.] ATTORNEY, at-tur'ni, _n._ one legally authorised to act for another--hence the sense of the phrases 'in person' and 'by attorney:' one legally qualified to manage cases in a court of law: a solicitor--a solicitor or attorney prepares cases and does general law business, while a barrister pleads before the courts: (_pl._) ATTOR'NEYS.--_v.t._ ATTOR'NEY (_Shak._), to perform by proxy, to employ as a proxy.--_ns._ ATTOR'NEY-GEN'ERAL, the first ministerial law-officer of the Crown in England and Ireland: the title of the king's attorney in the duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall, and the county palatine of Durham: in the United States, one of the seven officials who constitute the president's cabinet, the head of the department of Justice; ATTOR'NEYSHIP, ATTOR'NEYISM, ATTOR'NEYDOM.--ATTORNEY-AT-LAW, or PUBLIC ATTORNEY, a professional and duly qualified legal agent; ATTORNEY IN FACT, or PRIVATE ATTORNEY, one duly appointed by _letter_ or _power of attorney_ to act for another in matters of contract, money payments, and the like.--LETTER WARRANT, or POWER OF ATTORNEY, the formal instrument by one person authorising another to perform certain acts for him. [O. Fr. _atorne_--Low L. _attornatus_--_atorn[=a]re_, to commit business to another. See TURN.] ATTRACT, at-trakt', _v.t._ to draw to or cause to approach: to allure: to entice: to draw forth.--_adj._ ATTRACT'ABLE, that may be attracted.--_n._ ATTRAC'TION, act of attracting: the force which draws or tends to draw bodies or their particles to each other: that which attracts.--_adj._ ATTRACT'IVE, having the power of attracting: alluring.--_advs._ ATTRACT'IVELY, ATTRACT'INGLY.--_ns._ ATTRACT'IVENESS, ATTRACTABIL'ITY; ATTRACT'OR, ATTRACT'ER, an agent of attraction. [L. _attrah[)e]re_, _attractus_--_ad_, to, _trah[)e]re_, to draw.] ATTRAHENT, at'tra-hent, _adj._ attracting or drawing.--_n._ that which attracts. [L. _attrahens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _attrah[)e]re_. See ATTRACT.] ATTRAP, at-trap', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to adorn with trappings: to dress or array. [L. _ad_, to, and TRAP.] ATTRIBUTE, at-trib'[=u]t, _v.t._ to ascribe, assign, or consider as belonging.--_adj._ ATTRIB'UTABLE.--_ns._ AT'TRIBUTE, that which is attributed: that which is inherent in, or inseparable from, anything: that which can be predicated of anything: a quality or property; ATTRIB[=U]'TION, act of attributing: that which is attributed: commendation.--_adj._ ATTRIB'UTIVE, expressing an attribute.--_n._ a word denoting an attribute. [L. _attribu[)e]re_, -_tributum_--_ad_, to, _tribu_-_[)e]re_, to give.] ATTRIST, at-trist', _v.t._ (_obs._) to sadden. [Fr.--L. _ad_, to, _tristis_, sad.] ATTRITE, at-tr[=i]t', _adj._ worn by rubbing or friction: (_theol._) repentant through fear of punishment, not yet from the love of God.--_n._ ATTRI'TION, the rubbing of one thing against another: a wearing by friction: (_theol._) a defective or imperfect sorrow for sin. [L. _attritus_--_atter_-_[)e]re_--_ad_, and _ter[)e]re_, _tritum_, to rub.] ATTUNE, at-t[=u]n', _v.t._ to put in tune: to make one sound accord with another: to arrange fitly: to make musical.--_n._ ATTUNE'MENT. [L. _ad_, to, and TUNE.] ATWAIN, a-tw[=a]n', _adv._ in twain: (_arch._) asunder. [Prep. _a_, and TWAIN.] ATWEEN, a-tw[=e]n', _adv._ (_Spens._) between. [Prep. _a_, and TWAIN.] ATWIXT, a-twikst', _adv._ (_Spens._) betwixt, between. [Pfx. _a_-, and _'twixt_, BETWIXT.] AUBADE, [=o]-bäd', _n._ a musical announcement of dawn: a sunrise song. [Fr. _aube_, dawn--L. _alba_, white.] AUBERGE, [=o]-b[.e]rj', _n._ an inn.--_adj._ AUBERG'ICAL (_H. Walpole_).--_n._ AUBERGISTE ([=o]-b[.e]rj-[=e]st'). [Fr., of Teut. origin. See HARBOUR.] AUBERGINE, [=o]'ber-j[=e]n, _n._ the fruit of the egg-plant, the brinjal. [Fr. dim. of _auberge_, a kind of peach--Sp. _albérchigo_--Ar. _al_, the, _pérsigo_--L. _persicum_, a peach.] AUBURN, aw'burn, _adj._ reddish brown. [The old meaning was a light yellow, or lightish hue; Low L. _alburnus_, whitish--L. _albus_, white.] AUCTION, awk'shun, _n._ a public sale in which the bidder offers an increase on the price offered by another, and the articles go to him who bids highest.--_v.t._ to sell by auction.--_adj._ AUC'TIONARY.--_n._ AUCTIONEER', one who is licensed to sell by auction.--_v.t._ to sell by auction.--DUTCH AUCTION, a kind of mock auction at which the salesman starts at a high price, and comes down till he meets a bidder. [L. _auction_-_em_, an increasing--_aug[=e]re_, _auctum_, to increase.] AUCTORIAL, awk't[=o]r-i-al, _adj._ of or pertaining to an author or his trade. [L. _auctor_.] AUDACIOUS, aw-d[=a]'shus, _adj._ daring: bold: impudent.--_adv._ AUD[=A]'CIOUSLY.--_ns._ AUD[=A]'CIOUSNESS, AUDACITY (aw-das'i-ti). [Fr. _audacieux_--L. _audax_--_aud[=e]re_, to dare.] AUDIBLE, awd'i-bl, _adj._ able to be heard.--_ns._ AUD'IBLENESS, AUDIBIL'ITY.--_adv._ AUD'IBLY.--_n._ AUD'IENCE, the act of hearing: a judicial hearing: admittance to a hearing: a ceremonial interview: an assembly of hearers: a court of government or justice in Spanish America, also the territory administered by it--Sp. _audiencia_.--_adj._ AUD'IENT, listening: paying attention.--_n._ a hearer. [L. _audibilis_--_aud[=i]re_, to hear, conn. with Ger. _ous_, _[=o]tos_, the ear.] AUDIOMETER, awd-i-om'et-[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring and recording differences in the power of hearing. AUDIPHONE, awd'i-f[=o]n, _n._ an instrument which is pressed against the upper front teeth, the convex side outwards, in order to communicate sounds to the teeth and bones of the skull, thence to the organs of hearing. AUDIT, awd'it, _n._ an examination of accounts by one or more duly authorised persons: a calling to account generally: a statement of account: (_obs._) a periodical settlement of accounts: (_obs._) audience, hearing.--_v.t._ to examine and verify by reference to vouchers, &c.--_ns._ AUDI'TION, the sense of hearing: the act of hearing: (_rare_) something heard; AUD'ITOR, a hearer: one who audits accounts:--_fem._ AUD'ITRESS; AUDIT[=O]R'IUM, in an opera-house, public hall, or the like, the space allotted to the hearers: the reception-room of a monastery; AUD'ITORSHIP.--_adj._ AUD'ITORY, relating to the sense of hearing.--_n._ an audience: a place where lectures, &c., are heard.--AUDIT ALE, an ale of special quality brewed for some Oxford and Cambridge colleges; orig. for use on the day of audit. [L. _auditus_, a hearing--_aud[=i]re_, to hear. See AUDIBLE.] AUGEAN, aw-j[=e]'an, _adj._ filthy: difficult. [From _Augeas_, a fabled king of Elis in Greece, whose stalls, containing 3000 oxen, and uncleaned for thirty years, were swept out by Hercules in one day by his turning the river Alpheus through them.] AUGER, aw'g[.e]r, _n._ a carpenter's tool used for boring holes in wood.--_n._ AU'GER-BIT, an auger that fits into a carpenter's brace (see BRACE). [A corr. of _nauger_, an auger, A.S. _nafugár_--_nafu_, a nave of a wheel, _gár_, a piercer. See NAVE (of a wheel), GORE, a triangular piece.] AUGHT, awt, _n._ a whit: ought: anything: a part. [A.S. _á-wiht_, contr. to _áht_, whence _[=o]ht_, _[=o]ght_, and _ought_. Shakespeare, Milton, and Pope use _ought_ and _aught_ without distinction. _Awiht_ is from _á_, _ó_, ever, and _wiht_, creature, a wight, a thing.] AUGITE, aw'j[=i]t, _n._ one of the Pyroxene group of minerals, closely allied to hornblende, usually of a greenish colour, occurring crystallised in prisms, and forming an essential component of many igneous rocks.--_adj._ AUGIT'IC. [Gr. _aug[=e]_, brightness.] AUGMENT, awg-ment', _v.t._ to increase: to make larger.--_v.i._ to grow larger.--_n._ AUG'MENT, increase: (_gram._) the prefixed vowel to the past tenses of the verb in Sanskrit and Greek. Sometimes applied also to such inflectional prefixes as the _ge-_ of the German perfect participle.--_adjs._ AUGMENT'ABLE, AUGMENT'ATIVE, having the quality or power of augmenting.--_n._ (_gram._) a word formed from another to express increase of its meaning.--_ns._ AUGMENT[=A]'TION, increase: addition: (_her._) an additional charge in a coat-of-arms bestowed by the sovereign as a mark of honour: (_mus._) the repetition of a melody in the course of the piece in notes of greater length than the original: (_Scots law_) an increase of stipend obtained by a parish minister by an action raised in the Court of Teinds against the titular and heritors; AUGMENT'ER. [L. _augmentum_, increase--_aug[=e]re_, to increase, Gr. _auxan-ein_.] AUGUR, aw'gur, _n._ among the Romans, one who gained knowledge of secret or future things by observing the flight and the cries of birds: a diviner; a soothsayer.--_v.t._ to foretell from signs.--_v.i._ to guess or conjecture: to forebode.--_adj._ AU'GURAL.--_ns._ AU'GURSHIP; AU'GURY, the art or practice of auguring: an omen.--The words AU'GURATE and AUGUR[=A]'TION are obsolete. [L.; prob. from _avis_, bird, and root, _gar_, in L. _garr[=i]re_, to chatter, Sans. _gir_, speech.] AUGUST, aw-gust', _adj._ venerable: imposing: sublime: majestic--_adv._ AUGUST'LY.--_n._ AUGUST'NESS. [L. _augustus_--_aug[=e]re_, to increase, honour.] AUGUST, aw'gust, _n._ the eighth month of the year, so called after the Roman emperor _Augustus_ Cæsar. AUGUSTAN, aw-gust'an, _adj._ pertaining to the Emperor Augustus, or to the time in which he reigned (31 B.C.-14 A.D.)--the most brilliant age in Roman literature, hence applied to any similar age, as the reign of Anne in English, or that of Louis XIV. in French literature: classic: refined. AUGUSTINE, aw-gust'in, AUGUSTINIAN, aw-gus-tin'i-an, _n._ one of an order of monks who derive their name and rule from St Augustine: (_theol._) one who holds the opinions of St Augustine, esp. on predestination and irresistible grace.--_adj._ AUGUSTIN'IAN, of or relating to St Augustine.--_n._ AUGUSTIN'IANISM. AUK, awk, _n._ a genus of web-footed sea-birds, with short wings used only as paddles, found in the northern seas. The Great Auk is supposed to have become extinct in 1844. [Ice. _álka_.] AULA, aw'la, _n._ a hall.--_adj._ AUL[=A]'RIAN, relating to a hall.--_n._ at Oxford, a member of a hall, as distinguished from a collegian.--AULA REGIS, also called _Curia Regis_, a name used in English history for a feudal assembly of tenants-in-chief, for the Privy Council, and for the Court of King's Bench. [L. _aula_, a hall.] AULD, awld, _adj._ (_Scot._) old.--_adjs._ AULD'-FAR'RANT (lit. '_favouring_ the old'), old-fashioned, wise beyond their years, as of children; AULD'-WARLD, old-world, ancient.--AULD LANGSYNE, old long since, long ago. AULIC, awl'ik, _adj._ pertaining to a royal court.--AULIC COUNCIL (Ger. _Reichshofrath_), a court or personal council of the Holy Roman Empire, established in 1501 by Maximilian I., and co-ordinate with the Imperial Chamber (_Reichskammergericht_). [L. _aulicus_--_aula_, Gr. _aul[=e]_, a royal court.] AUMAIL, aw-m[=a]l', _v.t._ to enamel: (_Spens._) to figure or variegate. [See ENAMEL.] AUMBRY, awm'bri, _n._ Same as AMBRY. AUMIL, o'mil, _n._ Same as AMILDAR. AUMUCE, aw'm[=u]s, _n._ Same as AMICE. AUNT, änt, _n._ a father's or a mother's sister--also the wife of one's uncle: (_obs._) an old woman, a gossip, a procuress or bawd.--AUNT SALLY, a pastime at English fairs, in which a wooden head is set on a pole, and in the mouth a pipe, which has to be smashed by throwing sticks or the like at it. [O. Fr. _ante_ (Fr. _tante_)--L. _amita_, a father's sister.] AURA, awr'a, _n._ a supposed subtle emanation proceeding from anything, esp. that essence which is claimed to emanate from all living things and to afford an atmosphere for the operations of animal magnetism and such-like occult phenomena: (_fig._) air, distinctive character: (_path._) a sensation as of a current of cold air--a premonitory symptom of epilepsy and hysteria.--_adj._ AUR'AL, pertaining to the air, or to a subtle vapour or exhalation arising from a body. [L. _aura_.] AURAL, awr'al, _adj._ pertaining to the ear.--_adv._ AUR'ALLY. [L. _auris_, ear.] AURATE, awr'[=a]t, _n._ a compound of auric oxide with a base.--_adjs._ AUR'ATED, gold-coloured: compounded with auric acid; AUR'EATE, gilded: golden.--_n._ AUR[=E]'ITY, the peculiar properties of gold. [L. _aurum_, gold.] AURELIA, awr-[=e]l'ya, _n._ the chrysalis of an insect, from its golden colour.--_adj._ AUREL'IAN--formerly also a name for an entomologist devoted esp. to butterflies and moths. [L. _aurum_, gold.] [Illustration] AUREOLA, awr-[=e]'o-la, _n._ in Christian art, the gold colour surrounding the whole figure in sacred pictures, distinct from the _nimbus_, which only covers the head, usually reserved for representations of the three Divine Persons, of Christ, and the Virgin and Child: (_theol._) an increment to the ordinary blessedness of heaven gained by virgins, martyrs, and doctors for their triumph respectively over the flesh, the world, and the devil.--_n._ AUR'EOLE, the aureola: the gold disc round the head in early pictures symbolising glory: (_fig._) a glorifying halo: a halo of radiating light, as in eclipses.--_p.adj._ AUR'EOLED, encircled with an aureole. [L. _aureolus_, dim. of _aureus_, golden.] AURIC, awr'ik, _adj._ pertaining to gold: (_chem._) applied to compounds in which gold combines as a triad. [L. _aurum_, gold.] AURICLE, awr'i-kl, _n._ the external ear: (_pl._) the two upper cavities of the heart into which the blood comes from the veins.--_adj._ AUR'ICLED, having appendages like ears.--_n._ AURIC'ULA, a species of primrose, also called bear's ear, from the shape of its leaf.--_adj._ AURIC'ULAR, pertaining to the ear: known by hearing, or by report.--_adv._ AURIC'ULARLY.--_adjs._ AURIC'ULATE, AURIC'ULATED, ear-shaped.--AURICULAR CONFESSION, secret, told in the ear. [L. _auricula_, dim. of _auris_, the ear.] AURIFEROUS, awr-if'[.e]r-us, _adj._ bearing or yielding gold.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ AUR'IFY, to turn into gold. [L. _aurifer_--_aurum_, gold, _ferre_, to bear.] AURIFORM, awr'i-form, _adj._ ear-shaped. [L. _auris_, ear, and FORM.] AURISCOPE, aw'ri-sk[=o]p, _n._ an instrument for examining the Eustachian passage of the ear. [L. _auris_, ear, and Gr. _skopein_, to look.] AURIST, awr'ist, _n._ one skilled in diseases of the ear. [L. _auris_, ear.] AUROCHS, awr'oks, _n._ the European bison or wild ox. [Ger. _auerochs_. Old High Ger. _ûrohso_, _ur_ (L. _urus_, Gr. _ouros_), a kind of wild ox, and _ochs_, ox.] AURORA, aw-r[=o]'ra, _n._ the dawn: in poetry, the goddess of dawn.--_adjs._ AUR[=O]'RAL, AUR[=O]'REAN.--_adv._ AUR[=O]'RALLY. [Acc. to Curtius, a reduplicated form for _ausosa_; from a root seen in Sans. _ush_, to burn; cog. with Gr. _[=e][=o]s_, dawn, _h[=e]lios_, the sun; Etruscan, _Usil_, the god of the sun.] AURORA BOREALIS, aw-r[=o]'ra b[=o]-r[=e]-[=a]'lis, the northern aurora or light: a luminous meteoric phenomenon of electrical character seen in northern latitudes, with a tremulous motion, and giving forth streams of light.--AURORA AUSTRALIS (aws-tr[=a]'lis), a similar phenomenon in the southern hemisphere:--_pl._ AUR[=O]'RAS. [L. _borealis_, northern--_boreas_, the north wind. See AUSTRAL.] AUSCULTATION, aws-kult-[=a]'shun, _n._ the art of discovering the condition of the lungs and heart by applying the ear or the stethoscope to the part.--_v.i._ to examine by auscultation.--_n._ AUSCULT[=A]'TOR, one who practises auscultation, or an instrument for such: in Germany, a title formerly given to one who had passed his first public examination in law, and who was merely retained, not yet employed or paid by government.--_adj._ AUSCULT'[=A]TORY, relating to auscultation. [L. _auscult[=a]re_, to listen.] AUSONIAN, aw-s[=o]'ni-an, _adj._ Italian. [L. _Ausonia_, a poetical name for Italy.] AUSPICE, aw'spis, _n._ an omen drawn from observing birds: augury--generally used in _pl._ AU'SPICES, protection: patronage: a good start (generally in phrase, UNDER THE AUSPICES OF).--_v.t._ AU'SPICATE, to foreshow: to initiate or inaugurate with hopes of good luck:--_pr.p._ au'spic[=a]ting; _pa.p._ au'spic[=a]ted.--_adj._ AUSPI'CIOUS, having good auspices or omens of success: favourable: fortunate: propitious.--_adv._ AUSPI'CIOUSLY.--_n._ AUSPI'CIOUSNESS. [Fr.--L. _auspicium_--_auspex_, _auspicis_, a bird-seer, from _avis_, a bird, _spec[)e]re_, to observe.] AUSTER, aws't[.e]r, _n._ the south wind. [L.] AUSTERE, aws-t[=e]r', _adj._ harsh: severe: stern: grave: sober: severe in self-discipline, strictly moral or abstinent: severely simple, without luxury.--_adv._ AUSTERE'LY.--_ns._ AUSTERE'NESS, AUSTER'ITY, quality of being austere: severity of manners or life: harshness: asceticism: severe simplicity of style, dress, or habits. [L. _austerus_--Gr. _aust[=e]ros_--_au-ein_, to dry.] AUSTRAL, aws'tral, _adj._ southern.--_adj._ AUSTRALASIAN (aws-tral-[=a]'zhi-an), pertaining to Australasia, or the islands and island-groups that lie to the south of Asia.--_n._ a native or colonist of one of these.--_adj._ AUSTR[=A]'LIAN, of or pertaining to Australia, a large island between the Indian and Pacific Oceans.--_n._ an aboriginal native of Australia proper, later also a white colonist or resident. [L. _australis_--_auster_, the south wind.] AUSTRIAN, aws'tri-an, _adj._ of or pertaining to Austria, an empire of Central Europe.--_n._ a native of Austria. AUSTRINGER, aw'string-[.e]r, _n._ a keeper of goshawks.--Also A'STRINGER. [O. Fr. _ostruchier_, _austruchier_. See OSTRICH.] AUTARCHY, awt'är-ki, _n._ absolute power. [Gr., from _autos_, self, and _archein_, to rule.] AUTHENTIC, -AL, aw-thent'ik, -al, _adj._ real: genuine, as opposed to _counterfeit_, _apocryphal_: original: true: entitled to acceptance, of established credibility. A distinction is sometimes made between _authentic_ and _genuine_--the former, that the writing is trustworthy, as setting forth real facts; the latter, that we have it as it left its author's hands--an _authentic_ history: a _genuine_ text.--_adv._ AUTHENT'ICALLY. [Fr. and L. from Gr. _authent[=e]s_, one who does anything with his own hand--_autos_, self.] AUTHENTICATE, aw-thent'ik-[=a]t, _v.t._ to make authentic: to prove genuine: to give legal validity to: to certify the authorship of.--_ns._ AUTHENTIC[=A]'TION, act of authenticating: confirmation; AUTHENTIC'ITY, quality of being authentic: state of being true or in accordance with fact: genuineness. AUTHOR, awth'or, _n._ one who originates or brings anything into being: a beginner or first mover of any action or state of things: the writer of an original book: elliptically for an author's writings: one's authority for something: an informant:--_fem._ AUTH'ORESS.--_adjs._ AUTH[=O]'RIAL, AUTH'ORISH; AUTHOR[=I]S'ABLE.--_n._ AUTHORIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ AUTH'ORISE, to give authority to: to sanction: to permit: to justify: to establish by authority.--_adj._ AUTH'ORLESS, anonymous.--_ns._ AUTH'ORLING, a petty author; AUTH'ORSHIP, AUTH'ORING, AUTH'ORISM, state or quality of being an author. [Through Fr. from L. _auctor_--_aug[=e]re_, _auctum_, to cause things to increase, to produce.] AUTHORITY, awth-or'it-i, _n._ legal power or right: power derived from office or character: weight of testimony: permission:--_pl._ AUTHOR'ITIES, precedents: opinions or sayings carrying weight: persons in power.--_adj._ AUTHOR'ITATIVE, having the sanction or weight of authority: dictatorial.--_adv._ AUTHOR'ITATIVELY.--_n._ AUTHOR'ITATIVENESS. [L. _auctoritatem_, _auctoritas_, _auctor_.] AUTOBIOGRAPHY, aw-to-b[=i]-og'raf-i, _n._ the biography or life of a person written by himself.--_n._ AUTOBIOG'RAPHER, one who writes his own life.--_adjs._ AUTOBIOGRAPH'IC, -AL. [Gr. _autos_, one's self, _bios_, life, _graphein_, to write.] AUTO-CAR, aw'to-kär, _n._ a vehicle for the road moved from within by steam, electric power, &c. instead of by traction. [Gr. _autos_, self, and CAR.] AUTOCARPOUS, aw-to-kär'pus, _adj._ applied to such fruit as consists only of the pericarp, with no adnate parts. [Gr. _autos_, self, _karpos_, fruit.] AUTOCHTHON, aw-tok'thon, _n._ one of the primitive inhabitants of a country: an aboriginal:--_pl._ AUTOCH'THONS and AUTOCH'THONES.--_adj._ AUTOCH'THONOUS.--_ns._ AUTOCH'THONY, AUTOCH'THONISM, the condition of being autochthonous. [Gr.; made up of _autos_, self, _chth[=o]n_, _chthonos_, the soil; the Athenians claiming to have actually sprung from the soil on which they lived.] AUTOCRAT, aw'to-krat, _n._ one who rules by his own power: an absolute sovereign.--_n._ AUTOC'RACY, an absolute government by one man: despotism.--_adj._ AUTOCRAT'IC,--_adv._ AUTOCRAT'ICALLY. [Gr. _autokrat[=e]s_--_autos_, self, _kratos_, power.] AUTO-DA-FÉ, aw'to-da-f[=a]', _n._ the public declaration of the judgment passed on heretics in Spain and Portugal by the Inquisition, also the infliction of the punishment which immediately followed thereupon, esp. the public burning of the victims:--_pl._ AUTOS-DA-FÉ. [Port. _auto da fé_ = Sp. _auto de fe_; _auto_--L. _actum_, act; _da_--L. _de_, of; and _fe_--L. _fides_, faith.] AUTOGENOUS, aw-toj'e-nus, _adj._ self-generated: independent.--_n._ AUTOG'ENY, a mode of spontaneous generation. [Gr. _autogen[=e]s_, _autos_, self, _genos_, offspring.] AUTOGRAPH, aw'to-graf, _n._ one's own handwriting: a signature: an original manuscript.--_v.t._ to write with one's hand.--_adj._ AUTOGRAPH'IC.--_adv._ AUTOGRAPH'ICALLY.--_n._ AU'TOGRAPHY, act of writing with one's own hand: reproduction of the outline of a writing or drawing by fac-simile. [Gr. _autos_, self, _graph[=e]_, writing.] AUTOGRAVURE, aw-to-grav'[=u]r, _n._ a process of photo-engraving akin to autotype. [Gr. _auto_, self; Fr. _gravure_, engraving.] AUTOLATRY, aw-tol'a-tri, _n._ worship of one's self.--_n._ AUTOL'OGY is merely a justifiable enough scientific study of ourselves. [Gr. _autos_, self, _latreia_, worship.] AUTOLYCUS, aw-tol'i-kus, _n._ a thief: a snapper up of unconsidered trifles: a plagiarist. [From the character in Shakespeare's _Winter's Tale_.] AUTOMATON, aw-tom'a-ton, _n._ a self-moving machine, or one which moves by concealed machinery: a living being regarded as without consciousness: the self-acting power of the muscular and nervous systems, by which movement is effected without intelligent determination: a human being who acts by routine, without intelligence:--_pl._ AUTOM'ATONS, AUTOM'ATA.--_adjs._ AUTOMAT'IC, -AL.--_adv._ AUTOMAT'ICALLY.--_ns._ AUTOM'ATISM, automatic or involuntary action: power of self-moving: power of initiating vital processes from within the cell, organ, or organism, independently of any direct or immediate stimulus from without: the doctrine that animals are automata, their motions, &c., being the result of mechanical laws; AUTOM'ATIST, one who holds the doctrine of automatism. [Gr. _automatos_, self-moving--_autos_, self, and a stem _mat-_, to strive after, to move.] AUTOMOBILE, aw-to-m[=o]'bil, _adj._ self-moving.--_n._ a motor-car. [Gr. _autos_, self, L. _mobilis_, mobile.] AUTOMORPHIC, aw-to-mor'fik, _adj._ marked by automorphism, the ascription to others of one's own characteristics. [Gr. _autos_, self, _morph[=e]_, form.] AUTONOMY, aw-ton'om-i, _n._ the power or right of self-government: (Kant's _philos._) the doctrine that the human will carries its guiding principle within itself.--_adjs._ AUTON'OMOUS, AUTONOM'IC. [Gr.--_autos_, and _nomos_, law.] AUTONYM, aw'ton-im, _n._ a writing published under the author's real name. [Gr. _autos_, self, _onoma_, a name.] AUTOPHAGOUS, aw-tof'ag-us, _adj._ self-devouring.--_n._ AUTOPH'AGY, sustenance by self-absorption of the tissues of the body. [Gr. _autos_, self, _phagein_, to eat.] AUTOPHOBY, aw-tof'ob-i, _n._ a shrinking from making any reference to one's self. [Gr. _autos_, self, _phobia_, fear.] AUTOPHONY, aw-tof'on-i, _n._ observation of the resonance of one's own voice, heard by placing the ear to the patient's chest. [Gr. _autos_, self, _ph[=o]n[=e]_, sound.] AUTOPLASTY, aw'to-plas-ti, _n._ a mode of surgical treatment which consists in replacing a diseased part by means of healthy tissue from another part of the same body. [Gr. _auto-plastos_, self-formed.] AUTOPSY, aw'top-si, _n._ personal inspection, esp. the examination of a body after death.--Also AUTOP'SIA. [Gr.; _autos_, self, _opsis_, sight.] AUTOPTIC, -AL, aw-topt'ik, -al, _adj._ seen with one's own eyes.--_adv._ AUTOPT'ICALLY. [See AUTOPSY.] AUTOSCHEDIASM, aw-to-sked'i-azm, _n._ anything extemporised.--_v.t._ AUTOSCHED'IASE.--_adj._ AUTOSCHEDIAS'TIC. [Gr. _autos_, self, _schedios_, off-hand.] AUTOTHEISM, aw'to-th[=e]-izm, _n._ assumption of divine powers: the doctrine of the self-subsistence of God, esp. of the second person in the Trinity.--_n._ AU'TOTHEIST, a self-deifier. [Gr. _autos_, self, _theos_, a god.] AUTOTYPE, aw'to-t[=i]p, _n._ a true impress or copy of the original: a process of printing from a photographic negative in a permanent black or other pigment.--_v.t._ to reproduce by such a process.--_n._ AUTOTYPOG'RAPHY, a process by which drawings made on gelatine are transferred to a plate from which impressions may be taken. [Gr. _autos_, self, _typos_, a stamp.] AUTUMN, aw'tum, _n._ the third season of the year when fruits are gathered in, popularly comprising the months of August, September, and October--in North America, September, October, and November. Astronomically, in the northern hemisphere, it begins at the autumnal equinox, when the sun enters Libra, 22d September, and ends at the winter solstice, when the sun enters Capricorn, 21st December.--_adj._ AUTUM'NAL.--_adv._ AUTUM'NALLY. [L. _autumnus_, _auctumnus_, anciently referred to aug-[=e]re, as the season of increase; by Corssen and others, to the Sans. _av_, to do good to.] AUXESIS, awk-s[=e]'sis, _n._ gradual deepening in force of meaning: hyperbole. [Gr.] AUXILIAR, awg-zil'yar, AUXILIARY, awg-zil'yar-i, _adj._ helping: subsidiary, as troops.--_ns._ AUXIL'IAR, an auxiliary; AUXIL'IARY, a helper: an assistant: (_gram._) a verb that helps to form the moods and tenses of other verbs. [L. _auxiliaris_--_auxilium_, help--_aug-[=e]re_, to increase.] AVA, ä'va, _n._ native name in the Sandwich Islands for a species of cordyline yielding an intoxicating drink, also called _kava_: any similar drink. AVAIL, a-v[=a]l', _v.t._ to be of value or service to: to benefit: to take the benefit of (used reflexively with _of_).--_v.i._ to be of use: to answer the purpose: (_obs._) to take or draw advantage: (_Amer._) to inform, assure of.--_n._ benefit: profit: service.--_adj._ AVAIL'ABLE, that one may avail one's self of, utilise: profitable: suitable, obtainable: accessible.--_ns._ AVAIL'ABLENESS, AVAILABIL'ITY, quality of being available: power in promoting an end in view: validity.--_advs._ AVAIL'ABLY; AVAIL'INGLY, in an availing manner. [Fr.--L. _ad_, to, _val-[=e]re_, to be strong, to be worth.] AVAIL. Same as AVALE. AVALANCHE, av'al-ansh, _n._ a mass of snow and ice sliding down from a mountain: a snow-slip.--_v.i._ AV[=A]LE' (_Spens._), to descend.--_v.t._ (_Spens._) to cause to descend. [Fr. _avaler_, to slip down--L. _ad_, to, _vall-em_, the valley.] AVANT, av'ang, prefix used as _adj._ in combination, as in AV'ANT-COUR'IER, one who runs before, in _pl._ the skirmishers or advance-guard of an army; AV'ANT-GARDE, the vanguard of an army. [Fr.;--L. _ante_.] AVANTURINE. See AVENTURINE. AVARICE, av'ar-is, _n._ eager desire for wealth: covetousness.--_adj._ AVARI'CIOUS, extremely covetous: greedy.--_adv._ AVARI'CIOUSLY.--_n._ AVARI'CIOUSNESS. [Fr.--L. _avaritia_--_avarus_, greedy--_av[=e]re_, to pant after.] AVAST, a-väst', _interj._ (_naut._) hold fast! stop! [Dut. _houd vast_, hold fast.] AVATAR, a-va-tär', _n._ the descent of a Hindu deity in a visible form: incarnation: (_fig._) supreme glorification of any principle. [Sans.; _ava_, away, down, _tar_, to pass over.] AVAUNT, a-vawnt', _interj._ move on! begone! (_Shak._) used as _n._ 'to give her the _avaunt_.'--_v.i._ (_Spens._) to advance: (_obs._) depart. [Fr. _avant_, forward--L. _ab_, from, _ante_, before.] AVAUNT, a-vawnt', _v.i._ (_Spens._) to advance boastfully. [O. Fr. _avanter_--Low L. _vanitare_, to boast--L. _vanus_, vain.] AVE, [=a]'v[=e], _interj._ and _n._ be well or happy: hail, an address or prayer to the Virgin Mary: in full, _Ave Mar[=i]'a_.--AVE MARIA, or AVE MARY, the Hail Mary, or angelic salutation (Luke, i. 28). [L. _av[=e]re_, to be well or propitious. See ANGELUS.] AVENACEOUS, av'en-[=a]-shus, _adj._ of the nature of oats. [L. _avena_, oats.] AVENGE, a-venj', _v.t._ to vindicate: take vengeance on some one on account of some injury or wrong (with _on_, _upon_; _of_ obsolete).--_adj._ AVENGE'FUL.--_ns._ AVENGE'MENT; AVENG'ER, one who avenges:--_fem._ AVENG'ERESS. [O. Fr. _avengier_--L. _vindic[=a]re_. See VENGEANCE.] AVENS, [=a]'vens, _n._ popular name of two species of _Geum_--the herb bennet (once used to flavour ale) and the sub-alpine mountain-avens. [Fr.] [Illustration] AVENTAIL, AVENTAILE, av'en-t[=a]l, _n._ the flap or movable part of a helmet in front, for admitting air to the wearer. [O. Fr. _esventail_, air-hole--L. _ex_, out, _ventus_, wind.] AVENTRE, a-ven'tr, _v.t._ or _v.i._ (_Spens._) to throw, as a spear or dart. [O. Fr. _venter_, to cast to the wind.] AVENTURE, a-vent'[=u]r, _v.t._ obsolete form of ADVENTURE. AVENTURINE, a-ven't[=u]-rin, _n._ a brown, spangled kind of Venetian glass: a kind of quartz.--Also AVAN'TURINE. [It. _avventura_, chance--because of the accidental discovery of the glass.] AVENUE, av'en-[=u], _n._ the principal approach to a country-house, usually bordered by trees: a double row of trees, with or without a road: a wide and handsome street, with or without trees, esp. in America: any passage or entrance into a place: (_fig._) means of access or attainment. [Fr.: from L. _ad_, to, _ven[=i]re_, to come.] AVER, a-v[.e]r', _v.t._ to declare to be true: to affirm or declare positively: (_law_) to prove or justify a plea:--_pr.p._ aver'ring; _pa.p._ averred.--_n._ AVER'MENT, positive assertion: (_law_) a formal offer to prove a plea: the proof offered. [Fr. _avérer_--L. _ad_, and _verus_, true.] AVERAGE, av'[.e]r-[=a]j, _n._ the mean value or quantity of a number of values or quantities: any expense incurred beyond the freight, payable by the owner of the goods shipped, as in the phrase PETTY AVERAGE: any loss or damage to ship or cargo from unavoidable accidental causes--PARTICULAR AVERAGE. Again, GENERAL AVERAGE is the apportionment of loss caused by measures taken for the ship's safety, as cutting away the masts, throwing overboard cargo, accepting towage, or the like.--_adj._ containing a mean value: ordinary.--_v.t._ to fix an average.--_v.i._ to exist in, or form, a mean quantity. [Dr Murray says the word first appears about 1500 in connection with the maritime trade of the Mediterranean (Fr. _avarie_, Sp. _averia_, It. _avaria_); probably _averia_ is a derivative of It. _avere_ (O. Fr. _aveir_), goods, the original sense being a 'charge on property or goods.' The It. _avere_ and O. Fr. _aveir_ meant goods, substance, cattle--L. _hab[=e]re_, to have. The Old Eng. _aver_ in the same sense is obsolete, but in Scotland _aver_ still means an old horse.] AVERROISM, av-er-[=o]'izm, _n._ the doctrine of the Arabian philosopher Averrhoes (died 1198), that the soul is perishable, the only immortal soul being the world-soul from which individual souls went forth, and to which they return.--_n._ AVERR[=O]'IST, one who holds this doctrine. AVERRUNCATE, a-v[.e]r-ungk'[=a]t, _v.t._ (_rare_) to avert or ward off: to pull up by the roots.--_ns._ AVERRUNC[=A]'TION, act of averting: extirpation; AVERRUNC'[=A]TOR, an instrument for cutting off branches of trees. [L. _averrunc[=a]re_, to avert.] AVERSE, a-v[.e]rs', _adj._ having a disinclination or hatred (with _to_; _from_ is, however, still used): disliking: turned away from anything: turned backward; (_her._) turned so as to show the back, as of a right hand.--_n._ AVERS[=A]'TION (_obs._).--_adv._ AVERSE'LY.--_n._ AVERSE'NESS. [L. _aversus_, turned away, _pa.p._ of _avert-[)e]re_. See AVERT.] AVERSION, a-v[.e]r'-shun, _n._ dislike: hatred: the object of dislike. [See AVERT.] AVERT, a-v[.e]rt', _v.t._ to turn from or aside: to prevent: ward off.--_p.adj._ AVERT'ED.--_adv._ AVERT'EDLY.--_adj._ AVERT'IBLE, capable of being averted. [L. _avert-[=e]re_--_ab_, from, _vert-[)e]re_, to turn.] AVERTIMENT, for ADVERTISEMENT (_Milton_). AVES, [=a]'v[=e]z, _n.pl._ birds. [L.] AVIARY, [=a]'vi-ar-i, _n._ a place for keeping birds.--_n._ A'VIARIST, one who keeps an aviary. [L. _aviarium_--_avis_, a bird.] AVICULTURE, [=a]'vi-kul-t[=u]r, _n._ rearing of birds: bird-fancying. [L. _avis_, bird, and CULTURE.] AVIDITY, a-vid'i-ti, _n._ eagerness: greediness.--_adj._ AV'ID, greedy: eager. [L. _aviditas_--_avidus_, greedy--_av[=e]re_, to pant after.] AVIFAUNA, [=a]'vi-fawn-a, _n._ the whole of the birds found in a region or country: the fauna as regards birds. [L. _avis_, bird, and FAUNA.] AVISED. See BLACK-AVISED. AVISO. See ADVISO (under ADVICE).--AVIS, AVISE, obsolete forms of ADVISE.--_adj._ AVISE'FUL (_Spens._), watchful, circumspect. AVITAL, av'i-tal, _adj._ of a grandfather: ancestral. [L. _avitus_, pertaining to a grandfather (_avus_).] AVIZANDUM, av-iz-an'dum, _n._ (_Scots law_) private consideration of a case by a judge before giving judgment.--Also AVISAN'DUM. [Gerund of Low L. _avisare_, to advise.] AVOCADO, a-vo-kä'do, _n._ the alligator-pear, a West Indian fruit. [Corr. from Mexican.] AVOCATION, a-vo-k[=a]'shun, _n._ formerly and properly, a diversion or distraction from one's regular employment--now, one's proper business = VOCATION: business which calls for one's time and attention: (_arch._) diversion of the thoughts from any employment: the calling of a case from an inferior to a superior court. [Through Fr. from _avocation-em_, a calling away--_ab_, from, _voc[=a]re_, to call.] AVOCET, AVOSET, av'o-set, _n._ a widely spread genus of birds, with webbed feet, long legs, bare thighs, a long, slender, upward-curved, elastic bill, and snipe-like habit. [Fr. _avocette_, It. _avosetta_.] AVOID, a-void', _v.t._ to try to escape from: to shun: (_law_) to invalidate: (_Shak._) to leave, to quit.--_adj._ AVOID'ABLE.--_n._ AVOID'ANCE, the act of avoiding or shunning: act of annulling. [Pfx. _a-_ = Fr. _es_ = L. _ex_, out, and VOID.] AVOIRDUPOIS, av-or-d[=u]-poiz', _adj._ or _n._ a system of weights in which the lb. equals 16 oz. [O. Fr. _aveir de pes_ (_avoir du pois_), to have weight--L. _hab-[=e]re_, to have, _pensum_, that which is weighed.] AVOSET. See AVOCET. AVOUCH, a-vowch', _v.t._ to avow: to assert or own positively: to maintain: guarantee; to appeal to. _v.i._ to give assurance of.--_n._ (_Shak._) evidence.--_adj._ AVOUCH'ABLE.--_n._ AVOUCH'MENT. [O. Fr. _avochier_--L. _advoc[=a]re_, to call to one's aid. See VOUCH.] AVOURE, a-vowr', _n._ (_Spens._) confession, acknowledgment, justification. [See AVOW.] AVOW, a-vow', _v.t._ to declare openly: to own or confess: to affirm or maintain: (_law_) to justify an act done.--_n._ a solemn promise: a vow.--_pa.p._ as _adj._ self-acknowledged.--_adj._ AVOW'ABLE.--_ns._ AVOW'ABLENESS, AVOW'ANCE (_obs._); AVOW'AL, a positive declaration: a frank confession.--_adv._ AVOW'EDLY.--_n._ AVOW'RY (_law_), the act of avowing and justifying in one's own right the distraining of goods: (_obs._) advocacy considered as personified in a patron saint. [O. Fr. _avouer_, orig. to swear fealty to--L. _ad_, and Low L. _vot[=a]re_--_votum_, a vow. See VOW.] AVULSE, a-vuls', _v.t._ to pluck or tear away.--_n._ AVUL'SION, forcible separation. [L. _avell-[)e]re_, _avulsum_.] AVUNCULAR, a-vung'k[=u]-lar, _adj._ pertaining to an uncle.--_v.t._ or _v.i._ AVUNC'ULISE (_Fuller_), to act like an uncle. [L. _avunculus_, an uncle.] AWAIT, a-w[=a]t', _v.t._ to wait or look for: to be in store for: to attend: (_obs._) to lie in wait for, to watch. [Through Fr. from the common Teutonic root of Ger. _wacht_, _en_, Eng. WAIT.] AWAKE, a-w[=a]k', _v.t._ to rouse from sleep: to rouse from a state of inaction.--_v.i._ to cease sleeping: to rouse one's self from sleep or indifference:--_pa.p._ awaked', or awoke'.--_adj._ not asleep: vigilant.--_adj._ AWAK'ABLE, capable of being awakened.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ AWAK'EN, to awake: to rouse into interest or attention: (_theol._) to call to a sense of sin.--_adj._ AWAK'ENABLE.--_ns._ AWAK'ENMENT, AWAK'ING, AWAK'ENING, the act of awaking or ceasing to sleep: an arousing from indifference: a revival of religion.--TO BE AWAKE TO, to be fully aware of anything. [A.S. _awæcnan_. See WAKE, WATCH.] AWANTING, a-wont'ing, _adj._ wanting: missing. [Framed as if from a verb _awant_--mostly Scotch.] AWARD, a-wawrd', _v.t._ to adjudge: to determine.--_n._ judgment: final decision, esp. of arbitrators.--_adj._ AWARD'ABLE, that may be awarded.--_n._ AWARD'MENT. [O. Fr. _ewarder_, _eswarder_, from an assumed Romanic form compounded of _ex_, thoroughly, and _guardare_, watch. See WARD, GUARD.] AWARE, a-w[=a]r', _adj._ wary: informed, conscious (with _of_)--_ns._ AWARE'DOM (_H. Walpole_), AWARE'NESS. [A.S. _gewær_, pfx. _ge-_, and _wær_, cautious. See WARY.] AWARN, a-wawrn', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to warn. [Pfx, _a-_, and WARN.] AWASH, a-wosh', _adv._ on a level with the surface of the water: floating at the mercy of the waves. [Pfx. _a-_, and WASH.] AWASTE, a-w[=a]st', _adv._ wasting. AWATCH, a-wotch', _adv._ watching. AWAVE, a-w[=a]v', _adv._ waving. AWAY, a-w[=a]', _adv._ onward, along: forthwith: in the direction of, about: absent: gone, dead, fainted.--_interj._ begone!--AWAY (elliptically), to go away, esp. imperatively, AWAY! or AWAY WITH YOU!--AWAY WITH HIM = take him away.--FIRE AWAY, fire at once, without hesitation.--I CANNOT AWAY WITH = bear or endure.--MAKE AWAY WITH, to destroy.--ONCE AND AWAY, once in a way (the usual modern form), once.--THERE AWAY, in that direction, thereabout.--TO DO AWAY (_with_), to make an end of anything; TO EXPLAIN AWAY, to explain till the thing that needs explanation is itself removed; TO FALL AWAY (with _from_), to desert; TO FIGHT AWAY, to go on fighting; TO WORK AWAY, to keep on working. [A.S. _a-weg_--prep. _a_, on, _weg_, way, lit. 'on one's way.'] AWE, aw, _n._ reverential fear, or wonder: dread: (_arch._) power to inspire awe.--_v.t._ to strike with or influence by fear.--_adj._ AWE'LESS, without fear.--_n._ AWE'LESSNESS.--_adjs._ AWE'SOME, AW'SOME (_Scot._), full of awe: inspiring awe: weird, dreadful.--_v.t._ AWE'-STRIKE, to strike with awe.--_adjs._ AWE'-STRUCK, struck or affected with awe; AW'FUL, full of awe: dreadful: inspiring respect: expressive of awe: (_slang_) ugly: and as a mere intensive of anything.--_adv._ AW'FULLY (also in _slang_ merely = very).--_n._ AW'FULNESS. [Ice. _agi_, A.S. _ege_, fear; cog. with Gael. _eaghal_; Gr. _achos_, anguish.] AWEARY, a-w[=e]'ri, _adj._ weary (with _of_).--_adj._ AWEA'RIED, weary. [Pfx. _a-_, and WEARY.] A-WEATHER, a-we_th_'[.e]r, _adv._ (_naut._) towards the weather or windward side, in the direction from which the wind blows, applied to the position of a helm when its tiller is moved to the windward side of the ship--opp. to _A-lee_. [Prep. _a_, on, and WEATHER.] A-WEEK, a-w[=e]k', _adv. phrase_, in the week, per week. [Prep. _a_, and WEEK.] A-WEIGH, a-w[=a]', _adv._ in the act of being weighed, as an anchor, when the strain on the cable has just raised it from the bottom. [Prep. _a_, and WEIGH.] AWHAPE, a-hw[=a]p', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to strike: to terrify. [Dr Murray compares the Goth. _af hwapjan_, to choke, which would give an A.S. _ofhweppan_. See WHAP.] AWHILE, a-hw[=i]l', _adv._ for some time: for a short time. [A.S. _áne hwíle_ = a while; combined as early as 13th century.] A-WING, a-wing', _adv. phrase_, on the wing. [Prep. _a_, and WING.] AWKWARD, awk'ward, _adj._ clumsy: ungraceful: embarrassed: difficult to deal with: (_Shak._) unfavourable: (_obs._) froward.--_adj._ AWK'WARDISH.--_adv._ AWK'WARDLY, clumsily, embarrassingly, dangerously.--_n._ AWK'WARDNESS. [Prob. Ice. _afug_, turned wrong way, and suff. _-ward_, expressing direction.] AWL, awl, _n._ a pointed instrument for boring small holes in leather. [A.S. _æl_; cog. with Ice. _alr_, Ger. _ahle_.] AWN, awn, _n._ a scale or husk: beard of corn or grass.--_adjs._ AWNED; AWN'LESS; AWN'Y. [Ice. _ögn_; Ger. _ahne_.] AWNING, awn'ing, _n._ a covering to shelter from the sun's rays. [Perh. due to the Fr. _auvent_, a screen of cloth before a shop window, with Eng. ending _-ing_. Skeat suggests Pers. _áwan_, _áwang_, anything suspended. The history of the word is still unsolved.] AWOKE, a-w[=o]k', did awake--_pa.t._ of AWAKE. AWORK, a-wurk', _adv._ at work. [Prep. _a_, and WORK.] AWRACK, a-rak', _adv._ in a state of wreck. AWRONG, a-rong', _adv._ wrongly. AWRY, a-r[=i]', _adj._ twisted to one side: distorted, crooked: wrong: perverse.--_adv._ unevenly: perversely: erroneously.--TO LOOK AWRY, to look askance at anything; TO WALK AWRY, to go wrong. [Prep. _a_, on, and WRY.] AXE, AX, aks, _n._ a well-known tool or instrument for hewing or chopping, usually of iron with a steel edge:--_pl._ AX'ES. [A.S. _æx_; L. _ascia_; Gr. _axin[=e]_.] AXILE, aks'il, _adj._ lying in the axis of anything, as an embryo in the axis of a seed. AXILLA, aks'il-la, _n._ (_anat._) the armpit.--_ns._ AX'ILLA, AX'IL (_bot._), the angle between the upper side of a branch and the trunk, or a petiole and the stem it springs from.--_adjs._ AX'ILLAR, AX'ILLARY. [L. _axilla_, the armpit.] AXINOMANCY, aks'in-o-man-si, _n._ a mode of divination from the motions of an axe poised upon a stake, or of an agate placed upon a red-hot axe. [Gr. _axin[=e]_, an axe, and _manteia_, divination.] AXIOM, aks'yum, _n._ a self-evident truth: a universally received principle in an art or science.--_adjs._ AXIOMAT'IC, AXIOMAT'ICAL.--_adv._ AXIOMAT'ICALLY. [Gr. _axi[=o]ma_--_axio-ein_, to think worth, to take for granted--_axios_, worth.] AXIS, aks'is, _n._ the axle, or the line, real or imaginary, on which a body revolves: the straight line about which the parts of a body or system are systematically arranged, or which passes through the centre of all the corresponding parallel sections of it, as of a cylinder, globe, or spheroid. The axis of a curved line is formed by a right line dividing the curve into two symmetrical parts, as in the parabola, ellipse, and hyperbola:--_pl._ AXES (aks'[=e]z).--_adj._ AX'IAL.--_adv._ AX'IALLY.--_n._ AX'OID, a curve generated by the revolution of a point round an advancing axis.--AXIS OF A LENS, the right line passing through a lens in such a manner as to be perpendicular to both sides of it; AXIS OF A TELESCOPE, a right line which passes through the centres of all the glasses in the tube; AXIS OF INCIDENCE, the line passing through the point of incidence perpendicularly to the refracting surface; AXIS OF REFRACTION, the continuation of the same line through the refracting medium; AXIS OF THE EQUATOR, the polar diameter of the earth, which is also the axis of rotation; AXIS OF THE EYE, the right line passing through the centres of the pupil and the crystalline lens. [L. _axis_; cf. Gr. _ax[=o]n_, Sans. _aksha_, A.S. _eax_.] AXIS, aks'is, _n._ the hog-deer of India. [L. _axis_, Pliny's name for an Indian quadruped.] AXLE, aks'l, AXLE-TREE, aks'l-tr[=e], _n._ the pin or rod in the nave of a wheel on which the wheel turns: a pivot or support of any kind; the imaginary line of ancient cosmographers on which a planet revolved.--_adj._ AX'LED. [More prob. Norse _öxull_ than a dim. from A.S. _eax_.] AXOLOTL, aks'o-lotl, _n._ a reptile found in Mexico, allied to the tailed batrachia, but distinguished by retaining its gills through life. [Mexican.] AY, [=a], _interj._ ah! oh! alas! esp. in _ay me!_ [M. E. _ey_, _ei_, perh. from Fr. _ahi_, _aï_; cf. Sp. _ay de mi!_] AY, AYE, [=i], _adv._ yea: yes: indeed.--_n._ AYE ([=i]), a vote in the affirmative: (_pl._) those who vote in the affirmative. [Perh. a dial. form of _aye_, ever; perh. a variant of _yea_.] AYAH, [=a]'ya, _n._ a native Indian waiting-maid. [Anglo-Ind.: Hind. _[=a]ya_, derived from the Port. _aia_, nurse.] AYE, AY, [=a], _adv._ ever: always: for ever.--FOR AYE, FOR EVER AND AYE, for ever, to all eternity.--In combination, with sense of 'ever,' as in Shakespeare's 'aye-remaining,' &c. [Ice. _ei_, ever; A.S. _a_; conn. with AGE, EVER.] AYE-AYE, [=i]'[=i], _n._ a quadruped about the size of a hare found in Madagascar, closely allied to the lemurs, with much of the aspect of a squirrel. [Malagasy _aiay_.] AYELP, a-y[.e]lp', _adv._ yelping. AYENBITE, [=i]'en-b[=i]t, _n._ (_obs._) remorse, as in the book-title _Ayenbite of Inwyt_ ('remorse of conscience'). [M. E. _ayen_, again bite.] AYGULETS, obsolete form of AIGLETS. AYME, obsolete form of AIM. AYRY. See EYRY. AZALEA, a-z[=a]'le-a, _n._ a genus of shrubby plants, with fine white, yellow, or crimson flowers, mostly natives of China or North America, closely allied to the rhododendron. [Gr. _azaleos_, dry--_aza_, dryness.] AZIMUTH, az'im-uth, _n._ the arc of the horizon between the meridian of a place and a vertical circle passing through any celestial body.--_adj._ AZ'IMUTHAL, pertaining to the azimuth. [Ar. _as-sum[=u]t_, _as_ = _al_, the, _s[=u]mut_, _samt_, direction. See ZENITH.] AZO-, in combination, for AZOTE. AZOIC, a-z[=o]'ik, _adj._ without life: before the existence of animal life: formed when there was no animal life on the globe, as rocks. [Gr. _a_, neg., and _z[=o][=e]_, life--_za-ein_, to live.] AZONIC, a-zon'ik, _adj._ not limited to a zone, not local. [Gr.; _a_, neg., _z[=o]n[=e]_, a belt region.] AZOTE, a-z[=o]t', _n._ an old name for nitrogen, so called because it does not sustain animal life.--_adj._ AZOT'IC.--_v.t._ AZ'OTISE, to impregnate with acid.--_n._ AZ'OTITE, a salt of azotic or nitrous acid.--_adj._ AZOT'OUS, nitrous. [Gr. _a_, neg., and _za-ein_, to live.] AZOTH, äz'[=o]th, _n._ the alchemist's name for mercury: Paracelsus's universal remedy. [From Ar. _az-z[=a][=u]g_, _az_ = _al_, the, _z[=a][=u]g_, from Pers. _zh[=i]wah_, quicksilver.] AZRAEL, az'r[=a]-el, _n._ in Mohammedan mythology, the angel of death. AZTEC, az'tek, _adj._ relating to or descended from the Aztecs, the dominant tribe in Mexico at the time of the arrival of the Spaniards. AZURE, azh'[=u]r, or [=a]'zh[=u]r, _adj._ of a faint blue: sky-coloured; clear, cloudless.--_n._ a delicate blue colour: the sky.--_adjs._ AZUR[=E]'AN, AZ'URINE, azure.--_n._ AZ'URITE, blue carbonate of copper.--_adjs._ AZ'URN (_Milton_), azure; AZ'URY, bluish. [O. Fr. _azur_--Low L. _azura_--Ar. (_al_) _lazward_, Pers. _l[=a]jward_, lapis lazuli, blue colour.] AZYGOUS, az'i-gus, _adj._ not yoked or joined with another: (_anat._) not one of a pair, as a muscle. [Gr. _azygos_--_a_, neg., and _zygos_, a yoke, from _zeugnumi_, to join.] AZYMOUS, az'i-mus, _adj._ unfermented: unleavened.--_ns._ AZ'YM, AZ'YME, unleavened bread; AZ'YMITE, a member of a church using unleavened bread in the Eucharist--a name applied by the Eastern Church to the Western, as well as to the Armenian and Maronite Churches. [Gr. _azymos_--_a_, neg., _[=e]zym_, leaven.] * * * * * [Illustration] the second letter of our alphabet, called by the Phoenicians _beth_, 'the house,' coresponding to Greek [Greek: beta], '_beta_.'--B in music is the seventh note of the scale of C major; B or B FLAT, a humorous euphemism for the domestic _bug_. BAA, bä, _n._ the cry of a sheep.--_v.i._ to cry or bleat as a sheep.--_n._ BAA'ING. [From the sound.] BAAL, b[=a]'al, _n._ the chief male deity of the Phoenician nations: a false god generally:--_pl._ B[=A]'ALIM.--_ns._ B[=A]'ALISM; B[=A]'ALITE. [Heb.] BABBLE, bab'bl, _v.i._ to speak like a baby: to make a continuous murmuring sound like a brook, &c.: to make a babbling noise: to tell secrets.--_v.t._ to prate: to utter.--_adjs._ BAB'BLATIVE, BAB'BLY.--_ns._ BAB'BLE, BAB'BLEMENT, BAB'BLING, idle senseless talk: prattle: confused murmur, as of a stream; BAB'BLER, one who babbles. [Prob. imit., from the repeated syllable _ba_; cf. Dut. _babbelen_, Ger. _pappelen_, Fr. _babiller_.] BABE, b[=a]b, BABY, b[=a]'bi, _n._ an infant or child: a doll, puppet: the reflection of one's self in miniature seen in the pupil of another's eye.--_ns._ B[=A]'BY-FARM'ER, one who takes in infants to nurse on payment; B[=A]'BYHOOD.--_adj._ B[=A]'BYISH.--_n._ B[=A]'BY-JUMP'ER, a seat suspended from the ceiling of a room by elastic straps, to enable a baby to jump. [Prob. imitative. See BABBLE.] BABEL, b[=a]'bel, _n._ a lofty structure: a confused combination of sounds: a scene of confusion.--_ns._ B[=A]'BELDOM, B[=A]'BELISM. [Heb. _Babel_, explained in Gen. xi. as confusion.] BABIROUSSA, -RUSSA, ba-bi-r[=oo]'sa, _n._ a species of wild hog found in the East Indies, often called the horned or deer hog. [Malay _bâbi_, hog, and _rûsa_, deer.] BABOO, bä'b[=oo], _n._ orig. the Hindu title corresponding to our _Mr_, but often applied disparagingly to a Hindu with a superficial English education, or adjectively as in 'baboo English,' which is more copious than correct, with long and learned words often most ingeniously misapplied.--_ns._ BA'BOODOM, BA'BOOISM. [Hind. _b[=a]b[=u]_.] BABOON, ba-b[=oo]n', _n._ a species of large monkey, having a long face, dog-like tusks, large lips, and a short tail.--_n._ BABOON'ERY.--_adj._ BABOON'ISH. [Fr. _babouin_; remoter origin unknown.] BABYLONIAN, bab-i-l[=o]n'i-an, _adj._ pertaining to Babylon: hence (_fig._) huge, gigantic: Romish, popish (_obs._ from the identification with Rome of the scarlet woman of Rev. xvii.); BABEL-LIKE, confused in language.--Also BABYLON'ISH. BACCALAUREATE, bak-ka-law're-[=a]t, _n._ the university degree of bachelor.--_adj._ BACCALAU'REAN [Low L. _baccalaureus_, corrupted from, _baccalarius_, with some imaginary reference to _bacca lauri_, the laurel berry. See BACHELOR.] BACCARAT, BACCARA, bak-ar-[=a]', _n._ a French game of cards played by any number of betters and a banker. [Fr. _baccara_.] BACCATE, bak'[=a]t, _adj._ having berries: berry-like or pulpy.--_adjs._ BACCIFEROUS (bak-sif'[.e]r-us), bearing berries; BAC'CIFORM, of the shape of a berry; BACCIV'OROUS, living on berries. [L. _baccatus_--_bacca_, a berry.] BACCHANAL, bak'a-nal, _n._ a worshipper of Bacchus: one who indulges in drunken revels: a dance or song in honour of Bacchus.--_adj._ relating to drunken revels--also BACCHAN[=A]'LIAN.--_ns.pl._ BACCHAN[=A]'LIA, BAC'CHANALS, originally feasts in honour of Bacchus: drunken revels.--_n._ BACCHAN[=A]'LIANISM.--_n._ and _adj._ BACCHANT (bak'kant), a priest of Bacchus, the god of wine: a reveller: a drunkard.--_n._ BACCHANTE (bak-kant', bak'kant, bak-kant'i), a priestess of Bacchus, the god of wine: a female bacchanal:--_pl._ BACCHANT'ES.--_adj._ BACCHIC (bak'kik), relating to Bacchus: jovial: drunken. [L. _Bacchanalis_, _Bacchus_, Gr. _Bacchos_, the god of wine.] BACCY, BACCO, abbreviations of TOBACCO. BACHARACH, bak'ar-ak, _n._ an excellent wine named from Bacharach, a town on the Rhine. BACHELOR, bach'el-or, _n._ a young knight who followed the banner of another, as being too young to display his own: an unmarried man: one who has taken his first degree at a university.--_ns._ BACH'ELORHOOD, BACH'ELORSHIP; BACH'ELORISM, habit of a bachelor; BACH'ELOR'S-BUT'TON, the popular name of the double-flowered yellow or white varieties of buttercup.--KNIGHT BACHELOR, title of one who has been knighted, but not attached to any special order. [O. Fr. _bacheler_. Ety. disputed; acc. to Brachet from Low L. _baccalarius_, a farm-servant, orig. a cowherd, from _bacca_, Low L. for _vacca_, a cow.] BACILLUS, ba-sil'us, _n._ properly the name of a distinct genus of Schizomycetes, but popularly used in the same sense as BACTERIUM:--_pl._ BACIL'L[=I].--_adjs._ BACIL'LAR, BACIL'LARY, of the shape or nature of a bacillus, consisting of little rods.--_n._ BACIL'LICIDE, that which destroys bacilli.--_adj._ BACIL'LIFORM. [Low L. _bacillus_, dim. of _baculus_, a rod.] BACK, bak, _n._ a brewer's or dyer's tub or trough. [Dut. _bak_.] BACK, bak, _n._ the hinder part of the body in man, and the upper part in beasts, extending from the neck and shoulders to the extremity of the backbone: put for the whole body in speaking of clothes: the hinder part, or the part opposite to the front side: the convex part of a book, opposite to the opening of the leaves: the thick edge of a knife or the like: the upright hind part of a chair: the surface of the sea, or of a river: the keel and keelson of a ship: (_football_) one of the players stationed behind the 'forwards,' the full back's duty being merely to guard the goal: (_mining_) that side of an inclined mineral lode which is nearest the surface of the ground--the _back_ of a level is the ground between it and the level above.--_adv._ to the place from which one came: to a former state or condition: behind: behind in time: in return: again.--_v.t._ to get upon the back of: to help, as if standing at one's back: to force back: to support one's opinion by a wager or bet--'to back a horse,' to bet money on his winning in a race, 'to back the field,' to bet upon all the horses in a field, against one in particular: to countersign a warrant, or indorse a cheque or bill; to write or print at the back of, as a parliamentary bill, or the like: to put or propel backward, or in the opposite direction, by reversing the action, as of an engine or a boat--hence the phrases, TO BACK THE OARS, TO BACK WATER.--_v.i._ to move or go back.--_n._ BACK'-BAND, a broad strap or chain passing over the cart saddle, and serving to keep up the shafts of a vehicle.--_v.t._ BACK'BITE, to speak evil of any one behind his back or in his absence.--_ns._ BACK'BITER; BACK'BITING; BACK'-BOARD, a board placed at the back of a cart, boat, &c.: a board fastened across the back to straighten the figure; BACK'BOND (_Scots law_), a deed attaching a qualification or condition to the terms of a conveyance or other instrument--used when particular circumstances render it necessary to express in a separate form the limitations or qualifications of a right; BACK'BONE, the bone of the back, the vertebral column: the main support of anything: mainstay: firmness, reliableness; BACK'-DOOR, a door in the back part of a building: (_attrib._) unworthily secret: clandestine.--_adj._ BACKED, as in humpbacked.--_ns._ BACK'-END, the later part of a season: the late autumn; BACK'ER, one who backs or supports another in a contest: one who bets on a horse or the like; BACK'-FALL, a fall on the back in wrestling--also figuratively: a lever in the coupler of an organ; BACK'FRIEND (_obs._), a pretended friend: a backer, a friend who stands at one's back; BACK'GROUND, ground at the back: a place of obscurity: the space behind the principal figures of a picture; BACK'-HAIR, the long hair at the back of a woman's head; BACK'-HAND, the hand turned backwards in making a stroke: handwriting with the letters sloped backwards.--_adj._ BACK'-HAND'ED, with the hand turned backward (as of a blow): indirect.--_ns._ BACK'-HAND'ER, a blow with the back of the hand: an extra glass of wine out of turn, the bottle being passed back; BACK'ING, support at the back: mounting of a horse: the action of putting back: a body of helpers: anything used to form a back or line the back; BACK'ING-DOWN, shirking; BACK'-LASH, the jarring reaction of a wheel in a machine when the motion is not uniform; BACK'-LOG, a log at the back of a fire.--_adj._ BACK'MOST, farthest to the back.--_ns._ BACK'-PIECE, BACK'-PLATE, a piece or plate of armour for the back; BACK'-SET, a setting back, reverse: an eddy or counter-current; BACK'SIDE, the back or hinder side or part of anything: the hinder part of an animal; BACK'-SIGHT, in surveying, a sight taken backwards: the sight of a rifle nearer the stock; BACK'-SLANG, slang in which every word is pronounced backwards.--_v.t._ BACKSLIDE', to slide or fall back in faith or morals:--_pa.p._ backslid', or backslid'den.--_ns._ BACKSLID'ER; BACKSLID'ING.--_n.pl._ BACK'STAIRS, back or private stairs of a house.--_adj._ secret or underhand.--_n.pl._ BACK'STAYS, ropes or stays extending from the topmast-heads to the sides of a ship, and slanting a little backward, to second the shrouds in supporting the mast when strained by a weight of sail in a fresh wind: any stay or support at the back.--_ns._ BACK'STITCH, a method of sewing in which, for every new stitch, the needle enters behind, and comes out in front of, the end of the previous one; BACK'SWORD, a sword with a back or with only one edge: a stick with a basket-handle; BACKSWORD'MAN (_Shak._); BACK'-WASH, a backward current.--_v.t._ to affect with back-wash: to clean the oil from wool after combing.--_n._ BACK'WATER, water held back in a mill-stream or river by the obstruction of a dam below--a pool or belt of water connected with a river, but not in the line of its course or current: water thrown back by the turning of a water-wheel: a backward current of water: the swell of the sea formed by the paddles of a steamship.--_n.pl._ BACK'WOODS, the forest or uncultivated part of a country beyond the cleared country, as in North American BACKWOODS'MAN.--BACK! go back, turn back (_imperatively_).--AT THE BACK OF (in U.S. often BACK OF), in support or pursuit; ON, UPON THE BACK OF, weighing down as a burden.--TO AND BACK (_Shak._), forward and backward.--TO BACK DOWN, to abandon one's opinion or position; TO BACK OUT, to recede from an engagement or promise; TO BACK UP, to give support to; TO BE ON ONE'S BACK, to have come to the end of one's resources; TO BREAK THE BACK OF, to overburden, to complete the hardest part of a task; TO CAST BEHIND THE BACK (_B._), to forgive; TO SET or PUT UP THE BACK, to arouse to resentment; TO THE BACKBONE, thoroughly. [A.S. _bæc_, Sw. _bak_, Dan. _bag_.] BACKARE, BACCARE, bak'[=a]re, _interj._ (_Shak._) back! stand back! [Perh. for _back there!_] BACKET, bak'et (_Scot._), _n._ a shallow wooden trough for carrying ashes, coals, &c. [Fr. _baquet_, dim. of _bac_, back.] BACKGAMMON, bak-gam'un, _n._ a game played by two persons on a board with dice and fifteen men or pieces each. [M.E. _gamen_, play; and named from the fact that the pieces are sometimes taken up and obliged to go _back_--that is, re-enter at the table. Always called _Tables_ till the 17th century.] BACKSHEESH, BACKSHISH, bak'sh[=e]sh, _n._ a gift or present of money in the East, a gratuity or tip. [Pers.] BACKWARD, bak'ward, _adv._ towards the back: on the back: towards the past: from a better to a worse state: in a direction opposite to the normal--also BACK'WARDS.--_adj._ BACK'WARD, keeping back: unwilling: slow: late: dull or stupid.--_n._ the past portion of time.--_n._ BACK'WARDATION, percentage paid by a seller of stock for keeping back its delivery till the following account.--_adv._ BACK'WARDLY.--_n._ BACK'WARDNESS.--BACKWARD AND FORWARD, to and fro.--TO RING BELLS BACKWARD, to ring them, beginning with the bass bell, in order to give tidings of dismay. [BACK, and affix WARD, WARDS, in the direction of.] BACON, b[=a]'kn, _n._ swine's flesh salted or pickled and dried: (_Shak._) a rustic, 'chaw-bacon.'--TO SAVE or SELL ONE'S BACON, i.e. one's own flesh or body. [O. Fr. _bacon_, of Teut. origin; cf. Old High Ger. _bahho_, _bacho_; Ger. _bache_.] BACONIAN, bak-[=o]n'i-an, _adj._ pertaining to Lord Bacon (1561-1626), or to his philosophy, which was inductive or based on experience. BACTERIUM, bak-t[=e]'ri-um, _n._, BACTERIA, bak-t[=e]'ri-a, _n.pl._ Schizomycetes, extremely small, single-celled, fungoid plants, single or grouped, reproducing rapidly by cross division or by the formation of spores, almost always associated with the decomposition of albuminoid substances, and regarded as the germs or active cause of many diseases.--_ns._ BACTERIOL'OGIST; BACTERIOL'OGY, the scientific study of bacteria. [Gr. _bakt[=e]rion_, dim. of _baktron_, stick, staff.] BACULINE, bak'[=u]-l[=i]n, _adj._ pertaining to the stick or cane--in flogging. [L. _baculum_.] BACULITE, bak'[=u]-l[=i]t, _n._ a genus of fossil shells, allied to the ammonites, having a shell of perfectly straight form, tapering to a point. [L. _baculum_, a stick.] BAD, bad, _adj._ ill or evil: wicked: hurtful: incorrect, faulty: unfavourable: painful:--_comp._ WORSE; _superl._ WORST.--_adj._ BAD'DISH, somewhat bad: not very good.--_adv._ BAD'LY.--_ns._ BAD'NESS.--BAD BLOOD, angry feeling; BAD COIN, false coin; BAD DEBTS, debts that cannot be recovered; BAD SHOT, a wrong guess.--TO GO BAD, to decay; TO GO TO THE BAD, to go to ruin; TO THE BAD, to a bad condition: in deficit.--WITH BAD GRACE, unwillingly. [Ety. very obscure. The M. E. _badde_ is referred by Zupitza to A.S. _bæddel_, a hermaphrodite, _bædling_, an effeminate fellow.] BADE, bad, _pa.t._ of BID. BADGE, baj, _n._ a mark or sign by which a person or object is known or distinguished. [M.E. _bage_--Low L. _bagia_, _bagea_, connected by Skeat with Low L. _baga_, a golden ring, from L. _bacca_, _baca_, a berry, also the link of a chain.] BADGER, baj'[.e]r, _n._ a burrowing, nocturnal, hibernating animal about the size of a fox, eagerly hunted by dogs.--_v.t._ to pursue with eagerness, as dogs hunt the badger: to pester or worry.--_ns._ BADG'ER-BAIT'ING, the sport of setting dogs to draw out a badger from its hole; BADG'ER-DOG, a long-bodied and short-legged dog used in drawing the badger--the Ger. _dachshund_.--_adj._ BADG'ER-LEGGED, having legs of unequal length, as the badger was vulgarly supposed to have.--_adv._ BADG'ERLY, like a badger: grayish-haired, elderly.--TO OVERDRAW ONE'S BADGER, to overdraw one's banking account. [Prob. from BADGE and suffix -ARD, in reference to the white mark borne like a badge on its forehead. Derivations connecting the word with O. Fr. _blaier_, thus meaning 'little corn hoarder,' in allusion to a popular notion about the animal's habits, seem to be erroneous.] BADINAGE, bad'in-äzh, _n._ light playful talk: banter. [Fr. _badinage_--_badin_, playful or bantering.] BADMINTON, bad'min-ton, _n._ a cooling summer drink compounded of claret, sugar, and soda-water: a predecessor of lawn-tennis, played with shuttlecocks. [From _Badminton_ in Gloucester, a seat of the Duke of Beaufort.] BAFF, bäf, _v.t._ (_golf_) to strike the ground with a club in playing, and so to send the ball up in the air. BAFFLE, baf'fl, _v.t._ to check or make ineffectual: (_obs._) to cheat, hoodwink, bewilder, bring to nought: (_obs._) to disgrace publicly.--_ns._ BAF'FLE (_obs._), confusion, check; BAF'FLER, a bewilderer, confounder.--TO BAFFLE OUT OF (_obs._), to juggle out of anything. [Prob. Scotch and connected with _bauchle_; but cf. Fr. _beffler_, from O. Fr. _befe_, mockery. Paul Meyer suggests a derivation from Prov. _baf_, interj. of disdain.] BAFT, baft, _n._ a coarse fabric, originally Oriental, now manufactured in and shipped from England. [Pers. _baft_, woven.] BAFT, baft, _n._ _adv._ and _prep._ behind, in the rear (mostly _naut._). [A.S. _beæftan_, from _be_, by, and _æftan_, behind.] BAG, bag, _n._ a sack, pouch: specially the silken pouch to contain the back-hair of the wig: a measure of quantity for produce: a game-bag, i.e. the quantity of fish or game secured: an udder: (_vulg._ in _pl._) trousers.--_v.i._ to bulge, swell out: (_naut._) to drop away from the right course.--_v.t._ to cram full: to put into a bag, specially of game, hence to kill game, to seize, steal:--_pr.p._ bag'ging; _pa.p._ bagged.--_ns._ BAG'GING, cloth or material for bags; BAG'GIT, a salmon that has just spawned.--_adj._ BAG'GY, loose like a bag: inflated, verbose.--_ns._ BAG'MAN, a familiar name for a commercial traveller; BAG'-WIG, an 18th-cent. wig, the back-hair of which was enclosed in an ornamental bag.--BAG AND BAGGAGE, originally a military expression, hence the phrase, 'to march out with bag and baggage,' i.e. with all belongings saved: to make an honourable retreat: now used in the sense of 'to clear out completely.'--BAG OF BONES, an emaciated living being.--IN THE BOTTOM OF THE BAG, remaining as a last resource; THE WHOLE BAG OF TRICKS, every expedient; TO GIVE ONE THE BAG TO HOLD, to engage any one and meanwhile disappear; TO LET THE CAT OUT OF THE BAG, to disclose the secret. [M. E. _bagge_, perh. Scand.; not Celtic, as Diez suggests.] BAGASSE, ba-gas', _n._ refuse in sugar-making. [Fr.; Sp. _bagazo_, husks of grapes or olives after pressing.] BAGATELLE, bag-a-tel', _n._ a trifle: a piece of music in a light style: a game played on a board (7 feet long and 21 inches broad) with nine balls and a cue, the object being to put the balls down into as many numbered holes at the farther semicircular end of the board. [Fr.--It. _bagatella_, a conjurer's trick, a trifle.] BAGGAGE, bag'[=a]j, _n._ the tents, provisions, and other necessaries of an army: (_U.S._) traveller's luggage; a worthless woman: a saucy woman. [O. Fr. _bagage_--_baguer_, to bind up, from which we may infer all the meanings, without reference to Fr. _bagasse_, It. _bagáscia_, a strumpet.] BAGNIO, ban'y[=o], _n._ a bath, esp. one with hot baths: an Oriental place of detention: a stew or house of ill-fame. [It. _bagno_--L. _balneum_, a bath.] [Illustration] BAGPIPE, bag'p[=i]p, _n._ a musical wind-instrument, consisting of a leathern bag fitted with pipes. The Highland bagpipe has five pipes: _a_, the mouthpiece, to keep the bag filled with air; _b_, the chanter, having a reed and finger-holes to produce the melody; and _c_, three drones with reeds, tuned to act as a bass to the chanter: (_pl._) an inflated, senseless talker.--_n._ BAG'PIPER. BAH, bä, _interj._ an exclamation of disgust or contempt. [Fr.] BAHADUR, ba-had'[=oo]r, _n._ a title of respect often added by natives to the names of English officers in India. [Hind. _bahadur_, brave.] BAIGNOIRE, b[=a]n'war, _n._ a box at the theatre on a level with the stalls. [Orig. = 'bathing-box,' Fr. _baigner_, to bathe.] BAIL, b[=a]l, _n._ one who procures the release of an accused person by becoming guardian or security for his appearing in court: the security given: (_Spens._) jurisdiction.--_v.t._ to set a person free by giving security for him: to release on the security of another.--_adj._ BAIL'ABLE.--_ns._ BAIL'-BOND, a bond given by a prisoner and his surety upon being bailed; BAIL'-DOCK, BALE'-DOCK, a room at the Old Bailey, London, in which prisoners were kept during the trials; BAILEE', one to whom goods are delivered in trust upon a contract; BAIL'ER, one who delivers goods to another in trust; BAIL'MENT, a delivery of goods in trust: the action of bailing a prisoner; BAILS'MAN, one who gives bail for another.--TO ACCEPT, ADMIT TO, ALLOW BAIL, are all said of the magistrate; the prisoner OFFERS, SURRENDERS TO HIS BAIL; the one who provides it GOES, GIVES, or STANDS BAIL.--TO GIVE LEG BAIL, to be beholden to one's legs for escape. [O. Fr. _bail_, jurisdiction--_baillier_, to control, deliver. Primarily implying 'custody' or 'charge,' the word became associated with Norm. Fr. _bailler_, to deliver--L. _bajulus_.] BAIL, b[=a]l, _v.t._ (_rare_) to confine.--TO BAIL UP (_Australia_), to secure a cow's head during milking: to disarm travellers so as to be able to rob them without resistance. [Prob. conn. with the preceding word.] BAIL, b[=a]l, _n._ palisades, barriers: a pole separating horses in an open stable. [M. E.--O. Fr. _baile_, perh. from _baillier_, to enclose. Others suggest a derivation from L. _baculum_, a stick.] BAIL, b[=a]l, _n._ one of the cross pieces on the top of the wicket in cricket.--_n._ BAIL'ER, a ball bowled so as to hit the bails. [Prob. conn. with the preceding word.] BAIL, b[=a]l, _v.t._ to clear (a boat) of water with bails or shallow buckets.--_n._ a man or instrument for bailing water out of a ship, pit, &c.--Also spelled BALE. [Fr. _baille_, a bucket, perh. from Low L. _bacula_, dim. of _baca_.] BAILEY, b[=a]l'i, _n._ the outer court of a feudal castle: either of the two courts formed by the spaces between the circuits of walls, hence OUTER and INNER BAILEY.--THE OLD BAILEY in London, the Central Criminal Court, from the ancient _bailey_ between Lud Gate and New Gate. [Fr. _baille_, from Low L. _ballium_.] BAILIE, b[=a]l'i, _n._ a municipal officer in Scotland corresponding to an English alderman: (_obs._) a sheriff's officer; but cf. Scotch WAT'ER-BAIL'IES, constables employed to carry out the Tweed Fisheries Acts: (_obs._) the chief magistrate of a Scottish barony or part of a county, with functions like a sheriff's. [O. Fr. _bailli_, land-steward, officer of justice. See BAILIFF.] BAILIFF, b[=a]l'if, _n._ formerly any king's officer, e.g. sheriffs, mayors, &c., but applied specially to the chief officer of a hundred, still the title of the chief magistrate of various towns (e.g. High-bailiff of Westminster, cf. Bailiff of Dover Castle, also the _bailly_ or first civil officer of the Channel Islands: a sheriff's officer: an agent or land-steward.--_n._ BAIL'IWICK, the jurisdiction of a bailiff. [O. Fr. _baillif_--Low L. _bajulivus_--_bajalus_, carrier, administrator. See BAIL.] BAIRAM, b[=i]'ram, _n._ the name of two Mohammedan festivals--the _Lesser Bairam_ lasting three days, after the feast of Ramadan, and the _Greater Bairam_ seventy days later, lasting four days. [Pers.] BAIRN, b[=a]rn, _n._ (_Scot._) a child.--_adj._ BAIRN'-LIKE.--_ns._ BAIRN'TEAM, BAIRN'TIME, brood of children. [A.S. _bearn_--_beran_, to bear.] BAISEMAIN, b[=a]z'mang, _n._ (_obs._) mostly in _pl._, compliment paid by kissing the hand. [Fr. _baiser_, to kiss, and _main_, hand.] BAIT, b[=a]t, _n._ food put on a hook to allure fish or make them bite: any allurement or temptation: a refreshment taken on a journey, or the time taken up by such.--_v.t._ to set food as a lure: to give refreshment on a journey: to set dogs on a bear, badger, &c.: to worry, persecute, harass.--_v.i._ to take refreshment on a journey. [M. E. _beyten_--Scand. _beita_, to make to bite, causal of _bíta_, to bite.] BAIZE, b[=a]z, _n._ a coarse woollen cloth with a long nap, used mainly for coverings, linings, &c., but in some countries for clothing. [Fr. _baies_, _pl._ of _bai_--L. _badius_, bay-coloured.] BAJAN. See BEJAN. BAKE, b[=a]k, _v.t._ to dry, harden, or cook by the heat of the sun or of fire: to prepare bread or other food in an oven: to harden as by frost.--_v.i._ to work as a baker: to become firm through heat.--_pa.p._ baked (b[=a]kt); _pr.p._ b[=a]k'ing.--_ns._ BAKE'HOUSE, a house or place used for baking in; BAKE'MEAT (_B._), pastry, pies.--_pa.p._ BAK'EN = _baked_.--_ns._ BAK'ER, one who bakes bread, &c.--(_obs._) BAX'TER; BAK'ERY, a bakehouse; BAKE'STONE, a flat stone or plate of iron on which cakes are baked in the oven; BAK'ING, the process by which bread is baked: the quantity baked at one time. [A.S. _bacan_; cog. with Ger. _backen_, to bake, Gr. _phog-ein_, to roast.] BAKSHEESH. See BACKSHEESH. BALAAM, b[=a]'lam, _n._ a prophet who strives to mislead, like Balaam in Numb. xxii.-xxiv.: unimportant paragraphs kept in readiness to fill up a newspaper.--_ns._ B[=A]'LAAM-BOX, or -BAS'KET, a place in which paragraphs such as the foregoing are kept in readiness; B[=A]'LAAMITE.--_adj._ B[=A]LAAMIT'ICAL. BALANCE, bal'ans, _n._ an instrument for weighing, usually formed of two dishes or scales hanging from a beam supported in the middle: act of weighing two things: equality or just proportion of weight or power, as the balance of power: the sum required to make the two sides of an account equal, hence the surplus, or the sum due on an account: what is needed to produce equilibrium, a counterpoise: (_watchmaking_) a contrivance which regulates the speed of a clock or watch.--_v.t._ to weigh in a balance: to counterpoise: to compare: to settle, as an account, to examine and test accounts in book-keeping, to make the debtor and creditor sides of an account agree.--_v.i._ to have equal weight or power, &c.: to hesitate or fluctuate.--_p.adj._ BAL'ANCED, poised so as to preserve equilibrium: well arranged, stable.--_ns._ BAL'ANCER, an acrobat; BAL'ANCE-SHEET, a sheet of paper showing a summary and balance of accounts; BAL'ANCE-WHEEL, a wheel in a watch or chronometer which regulates the beat or rate. [Fr.--L. _bilanx_, having two scales--_bis_, double, _lanx_, _lancis_, a dish or scale.] BALANUS. See ACORN-SHELL. BALAS, bal'as, _n._ a variety of the spinel ruby. [O. Fr. _balais_ (It. _balascio_)--Low L. _balascus_--Pers. _Badakhsh[=a]n_, a place near Samarcand where they are found.] BALATA, bal'a-ta, _n._ the gum of the bullet or bully tree of South America, used as a substitute for gutta-percha in insulating telegraph-wires. BALBUTIENT, bal-b[=u]'shi-ent, _adj._ stammering. [L. _balbutiens_--_balb[=u]t[=i]re_, to stutter.] BALCONY, balk'on-i (18th c., bal-k[=o]'ni), _n._ a stage or platform projecting from the wall of a building within or without, supported by pillars or consoles, and surrounded with a balustrade or railing: in theatres, usually the gallery immediately above the dress circle.--_n._ BAL'CONETTE, a miniature balcony.--_adj._ BAL'CONIED. [It. _balc[=o]ne_--_balco_, of Teut. origin; Old High Ger. _balcho_ (Ger. _balken_), Eng. BALK.] BALD, bawld, _adj._ without hair (feathers, &c.) on the head (or on other parts of the body): bare, unadorned, destitute of literary grace: paltry, trivial: undisguised.--_ns._ BALD'-COOT, popular name for the coot, from its pure white wide frontal plate: a monk--also BALD'ICOOT; BALD'-EA'GLE, a common but inaccurate name for the American white-headed eagle, used as the national emblem.--_adj._ BALD'-FACED, having white on the face, as a horse.--_n._ BALD'HEAD, a person bald on the head.--_adjs._ BALD'-HEADED; BALD'ISH, somewhat bald.--_adv._ BALD'LY.--_ns._ BALD'NESS; BALD'PATE, one destitute of hair: a kind of wild-duck.--_adjs._ BALD'PATE, BALD'PATED, destitute of hair. [Orig. 'shining,' 'white,' Ir. and Gael. _bàl_, 'white' spot; but perh. conn. with _ball_ in the sense of 'rounded,' whence 'smooth,' 'hairless.'] BALDACHIN, bal'da-kin, _n._ silk brocade: a canopy, either supported on pillars, or fastened to the wall, over a throne, pulpit, or altar, &c.: in R.C. processions, a canopy borne over the priest who carries the Host. [It. _baldacchino_, Fr. _baldaquin_, a canopy, from It. _Baldacco_, Bagdad, whence was brought the stuff of which they were made.] BALDERDASH, bawl'd[.e]r-dash, _n._ idle senseless talk: anything jumbled together without judgment: obscene language or writing. [Ety. dub.; but cf. the prov. Eng. _balder_, to use coarse language, Dut. _balderen_, to roar. Some adduce Welsh _baldorrdus_--_baldordd_, idle noisy talk.] BALDMONEY, bawld'mun-i, _n._ popular name for several kinds of Gentian. [Ety. quite unknown.] BALDRICK, bawld'rik, _n._ a warrior's belt or shoulder-sash: (_Spens._) the zodiac, being regarded as a gem-studded belt. [O. Fr. _baldrei_ (Mid. High Ger. _balderich_, girdle)--Low L. _baldringus_, perh. from L. _balteus_.] BALE, b[=a]l, _n._ a bundle, or package of goods: (_obs._) the set of dice for any special game.--_v.t._ to make into bales. [M. E. _bale_, perh. from O. Fr. _bale_--Old High Ger. _balla_, _palla_, ball. See BALL.] BALE, b[=a]l, _v.t._ to throw out water [See BAIL.] BALE, b[=a]l, _n._ evil, injury, mischief: misery: woe.--_adj._ BALE'FUL, full of misery, destructive: full of sorrow, sad.--_adv._ BALE'FULLY.--_n._ BALE'FULNESS.--BLISS AND BALE are often alliteratively opposed; also BOOT AND BALE. [A.S. _bealu_; Old High Ger. _balo_; Ice. _böl_.] BALE, b[=a]l, _n._ (_arch._--_Morris_) a fire, funeral pyre: (_Scot._) a beacon-fire.--_n._ BALE'-FIRE, a blazing fire: a beacon-fire: a bonfire. Spenser confounds with BALE, woe. [A.S. _bæl_; Scand. _bál_; cog. with Gr. _phalos_, bright. See BELTANE.] BALEEN, b[=a]-l[=e]n', _n._ the whalebone of commerce. [Fr.--L. _balæna_, whale.] [Illustration] BALISTRARIA, bal-is-tr[=a]r'i-a, _n._ an aperture or loophole in the wall of a fortification through which crossbowmen might discharge their bolts.--_n._ BAL'ISTER (_obs._), name for an arbalester or crossbowman, also an arbalest or crossbow itself. [Low L. _ballistrarius_, _balistra_, a variant form of _ballista_, a crossbow.] BALK, BAULK, bawk, _n._ a ridge left unploughed, intentionally or through carelessness: (_obs._) an omission: squared timber: a tie-beam of a house, stretching from wall to wall, esp. when laid so as to form a loft, 'the balks:' (_obs._) the beam of a balance: the rope by which fishing-nets are fastened together: a hindrance or disappointment.--_v.t._ to ignore, pass over: refuse: avoid: let slip: to check, disappoint, or elude: to meet arguments with objections.--_v.i._ to swerve, pull up: (_Spens._) lie out of the way.--_n._ BALK'-LINE, in billiards, a line drawn across the table 28½ inches from the face of the bottom cushion--a ball is said to be in balk when within this space. [A.S. _balca_, ridge; Old High Ger. _balcho_.] BALL, bawl, _n._ anything round: any celestial body, esp. the 'globe:' the golden orb borne with the sceptre as the emblem of sovereignty: a globular body to play with in tennis, football, golf, billiards, &c.: any rounded protuberant part of the body: a bullet, or any missile thrown from an engine of war: a rounded mass of anything: a throw or delivery of the ball at cricket: a well-known game played with a ball.--_v.i._ to gather itself into a ball, become clogged.--_ns._ BALL'-CART'RIDGE, a cartridge containing both powder and ball [BALL and CARTRIDGE]; BALL'-COCK, the stopcock of a cistern, attached to one end of a lever, at the other end of which is a hollow metal ball which rises and falls with the [Illustration] water, thus regulating the supply; BALL'-FLOW'ER, an ornament of the decorated style of Gothic architecture, resembling a ball placed in a circular flower.--_adj._ BALL'-PROOF, proof against balls discharged from firearms.--BALL AND SOCKET, a joint formed of a ball partly enclosed in a cup, thus insuring great strength; BALL OF THE EYE, the eye within the lids and socket.--NO BALL, a ball unfairly bowled.--THREE GOLDEN or BRASS BALLS, the sign of a pawnbroker.--TO HAVE THE BALL AT ONE'S FEET, to have a thing in one's power; TO KEEP THE BALL UP or ROLLING, to keep from flagging; TO TAKE UP THE BALL, to take one's turn in anything.--WIDE BALL, one out of the batsman's reach. [M. E. _bal_, Scand. _böllr_; cog. with Old High Ger. _ballo_, _pallo_.] BALL, bawl, _n._ an entertainment of dancing.--_n._ BALL'ROOM.--TO OPEN THE BALL, to begin the dancing, to begin operations. [O. Fr. _bal_, _baller_, to dance--Low L. _ballare_, referred by some to Gr. _ballizein_.] BALLAD, bal'lad, _n._ a simple spirited narrative poem in short stanzas of two or four lines, in which a story is told in straightforward verse, often with great elaborateness and detail in incident, but always with graphic simplicity and force--a sort of minor epic: a simple song, usually of a romantic or sentimental nature, in two or more verses, each sung to the same melody, as in the so-called Ballad Concerts: any popular song, often scurrilous.--_ns._ BAL'LADIST, a writer or singer of ballads; BAL'LAD-MONGER, a dealer in ballads. [Fr. _ballade_, from _ballare_, to dance, being orig. a song sung to the rhythmic movement of a dancing chorus--a dramatic poem sung or acted in the dance, of which a shadow survives in the ring-songs of our children.] BALLADE, ba-lad', _n._ a poem of one or more terns or triplets of seven or eight lined stanzas, each ending with the same line as refrain, and usually an envoy: now frequently used of any poem in stanzas of equal length.--BALLADE ROYAL, stanzas of seven or eight lines of ten syllables--called also _Rime_ or _Rhythm royal_. [An earlier spelling of BALLAD.] BALLADINE, bal'a-d[=e]n, _n._ a female public dancer. [Fr.] BALLAST, bal'last, _n._ heavy matter employed to give a ship sufficient immersion in the water, to insure her safe sailing with spread canvas, when her cargo and equipment are too light: that which renders anything steady.--_v.t._ to load with ballast: to make or keep steady: (_Shak._) load.--_n._ BAL'LAST-HEAV'ER. [Probably the Old Sw. _barlast_--_bar_, bare, and _last_, load, the mere load.] BALLERINA, bal-ler-[=e]n'a, _n._ a female dancer:--_pl._ BALLERINE (bal-ler-in'), BALLERIN'AS. [It.] BALLET, bal'l[=a], _n._ a theatrical exhibition composed of dancing, posturing, and pantomimic action: (_obs._) a dance. [Fr.; dim. of _bal_, a dance.] BALLISTA, BALISTA, bal-lis'ta, _n._ a Roman military engine in the form of a crossbow, which, like the _catapulta_ and the _onager_, propelled large and heavy missiles, chiefly through the reaction of a tightly twisted rope, or else by a violent movement of levers.--_adj._ BALLIS'TIC, projectile.--_ns._ BALLIS'TIC-PEN'DULUM, an instrument for ascertaining the velocity of military projectiles; BALLIS'TITE, an improved kind of gunpowder. [L.--Gr. _ballein_, to throw.] BALLIUM, bal'li-um, _n._ the Low L. form of BAILEY. BALLOON, bal-l[=oo]n', _n._ an inflated air-tight envelope of paper or silk, constructed to float in the air and carry a considerable weight when filled with heated air or light gas: anything inflated, empty: (_obs._) a game played with a large inflated ball.--_v.i._ to ascend in a balloon: to puff out like a balloon.--_n._ BALLOON'IST, an aeronaut. [It. _ballone_, augmentative of _balla_, ball.] BALLOT, bal'ut, _n._ a little ball or ticket used in voting: a method of secret voting by putting a ball or ticket into an urn or box.--_v.i._ to vote by ballot: to select by secret voting (with _for_): draw lots for:--_pr.p._ bal'loting; _pa.p._ bal'loted.--_ns._ BAL'LOTAGE, in France, the second ballot to decide which of two candidates has come nearest to the legal majority; BAL'LOT-BOX, a box to receive balls or tickets when voting by ballot. [It. _ballotta_, dim. of _balla_, ball. See BALL.] BALM, bäm, _n._ an aromatic substance: a fragrant and healing ointment: aromatic fragrance: anything that heals or soothes pain: a tree yielding balm: name of some fragrant garden herbs.--_v.t._ (_arch._) to embalm: (_Shak._) to anoint with fragrant oil: (_arch._) to soothe.--_n._ BALM'INESS.--_adj._ BALM'Y, fragrant: mild and soothing: bearing balm.--BALM, or BALSAM, OF GILEAD, the resin of the tree _Balsamodendron Gileadense_, formerly esteemed as an antiseptic, the name originating in the belief that this is the substance mentioned in the Bible as found in Gilead, and called in the English translation 'balm.' [O. Fr. _basme_--L. _balsamum_. See BALSAM.] BALM-CRICKET, bäm'-krik'et, _n._ (_Tennyson_) a cicada. [Ger. _baum_, a tree, and CRICKET.] BALMORAL, bal-mor'al, _n._ a kind of Scotch cap: a figured woollen petticoat: a kind of boot lacing in front. BALNEOLOGY, bal-ne-ol'o-ji, _n._ the scientific study of bathing and of mineral springs. [L. _balneum_, bath.] BALSAM, bawl'sam, _n._ the common name of a genus of succulent herbaceous plants: a resinous oily substance generally supposed to be derived from a species of Balsamodendron, early famous in the East for its fragrance and medicinal virtues: (_fig._) any healing agent.--_v.t._ to heal: (_rare_) embalm.--_adjs._ BALSAM'IC, BAL'SAMOUS, having the qualities of balsam: soothing; BALSAMIF'EROUS, producing balsam; BAL'SAMY, fragrant.--CANADA BALSAM, a kind of turpentine obtained from the Balm of Gilead fir. [L. _balsamum_--Gr. _balsamon_; prob. of Semitic origin.] BALTIMORE, bal'tim-[=o]r, _n._ a finch-like perching bird of the starling family, very common in North America, called also _Baltimore oriole_, _Fire-bird_, &c. [From Lord _Baltimore_, whose livery was orange and black--its colour.] [Illustration] BALUSTER, bal'ust-[.e]r, _n._ a small pillar used as a support to the rail of a staircase, &c.--_adj._ BAL'USTERED.--_n._ BAL'USTRADE, a row of balusters joined by a rail, forming an ornamental parapet to a balcony, &c. [Fr. _balustre_--Low L. _balaustium_--Gr. _balaustion_, the flower of the pomegranate; from the similarity of form.] BAM, bam, _n._ a slang word for a hoax: a false tale.--_v.t._ to cheat or hoax. [See BAMBOOZLE.] BAMBINO, bam-bi'no, _n._ a term in art descriptive of the child Jesus, esp. of the swaddled figure of the infant Saviour exhibited at Christmas in Catholic churches. [It., dim. of _bambo_.] BAMBOO, bam-b[=oo]', _n._ a gigantic Indian reed or grass, with hollow-jointed stem, and of hard texture. [Malay _bambu_.] BAMBOOZLE, bam-b[=oo]'zl, _v.t._ to deceive: to confound or mystify.--_n._ BAMBOO'ZLEMENT. [Of cant origin--but not Gipsy; first appears about 1700.] BAN, ban, _n._ a proclamation: sentence of banishment: outlawry: anathematisation: a denunciation: a curse.--_v.t._ (_arch._) to curse: (_prov._) to chide or rail upon: to anathematise: to proscribe. [A.S. _bannan_, to summon; the noun _bann_ does not appear in A.S. (which has _gebann_), but is a common Teut. word, as in Old High Ger. and Scand. _bann_. The O. Fr. _ban_ and Low L. _bannum_ are of the same origin.] BAN, ban, _n._ the governor of a BANAT, an old name for the military divisions on the eastern boundaries of the Hungarian kingdom.--_ns._ BANATE, BANNAT. [Pers. _b[=a]n_, lord.] BANAL, b[=a]n'al, or ban'al, _adj._ commonplace, trivial.--_n._ BANAL'ITY, triviality. [Fr.] BANANA, ba-nä'na, _n._ a gigantic herbaceous plant, remarkable for its nutritious fruit. [Sp. or Port. _banana_, from the native name in Guinea.] BANBURY, ban'ber-i, _n._ a kind of cake made at _Banbury_, a town in Oxfordshire. BANCO, bang'ko, _n._ a commercial term meaning the standard money in which a bank keeps its accounts, as distinguished from the current money of the place.--IN BANCO, applied to the sittings of a superior court of common law as a full court distinguished from sittings at Nisi Prius or on circuit. [It. See BANK.] BAND, band, _n._ that by which loose things are held together: (_fig._) a moral bond of restraint or of obligation: a tie or connecting piece: (_pl._) shackles, bonds, fetters (_B._): (_arch._) an agreement or promise given: (_arch._) security given: (_Spens._) a pledge. [M. E. _band_, _bond_; A.S. _bend_, from _bindan_, to bind. See BIND.] BAND, band, _n._ a strip of cloth, or the like, to bind round anything, as a hat-band, waist-band, &c.: a stripe crossing a surface distinguished by its colour or appearance: the neck-band or collar of a shirt, also the collar or ruff worn by both sexes in the 17th century (termed a falling-band later, when turned down over the shoulders): (_pl._) the pair of linen strips hanging down in front from the collar, worn by some Protestant clergymen and by English barristers.--_n._ BAND'AGE, a strip or swathe of cloth used by surgeons to keep a part of the body at rest, to apply pressure, or to retain dressings or apparatus in position--the two chief varieties, the roller and the triangular handkerchief bandage: a piece of cloth used to blindfold the eyes.--_v.t._ to bind with such.--_n._ BAND'BOX, a light kind of box for holding bands, caps, millinery, &c.--_p.adj._ BAND'ED, fastened as with a band: striped with bands: leagued, allied.--_ns._ BAND'FISH, a name given to various kinds of fish with long, thin, flat bodies; BAND'SAW, an endless saw, consisting of a toothed steel belt; BAND'STER, one who binds the sheaves after the reapers. [M. E. _bande_--O. Fr. _bande_, of Teut. origin; cf. A.S. _bindan_; Ger. _binde_, a band, Eng. BIND.] BAND, band, _n._ a number of persons bound together for any common purpose: a troop of conspirators, confederates, &c.: a body of musicians, the company of musicians attached to a particular regiment in the army: (_Scot._) band = bond.--_v.t._ to bind together.--_v.i._ to associate, assemble, confederate.--_ns._ BAND'MASTER, the leader of a band of musicians; BANDS'MAN, a member of a band of musicians; BAND'-STAND, a platform for accommodating a band of musicians.--BAND OF HOPE, an association of young persons--often mere infants--pledged to lifelong abstinence from alcoholic drinks--first instituted about 1847. [Fr. _bande_, of Teut. origin; cf. BEND, BIND.] BAND, band, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to ban or banish. BAND, an obsolete _pa.t._ of BIND. BANDANA, BANDANNA, ban-dan'a, _n._ a kind of silk or cotton coloured handkerchief, with a pattern of spots or diamond prints, originally from India. [Hind. _bandhn[=u]_, the mode of dyeing these, _b[=a]ndh_, a cord.] BANDEAU, ban'd[=o], _n._ a fillet or narrow band worn by women to bind their hair:--_pl._ BAN'DEAUX. [Fr.] BANDELET, band'e-let, _n._ (_archit._) a small flat moulding or fillet surrounding a column. [Fr. _bandelette_.] BANDELIER, ban-de-l[=e]r', _n._ a form of BANDOLEER. BANDEROL, BANDEROLE, ban'de-r[=o]l, _n._ a small banner or streamer, as that borne on the shaft of a lance: (_archit._) a flat band with an inscription common in Renaissance buildings. [Fr.] BANDICOOT, ban'di-k[=oo]t, _n._ a genus of insectivorous marsupials found in Australia: the largest species of rat, found in India and Ceylon, called also _Malabar rat_ and _Pig-rat_. [Telegu _pandikokku_, pig-rat.] BANDIED. See BANDY. BANDIT, ban'dit, _n._ an outlaw: a robber:--_pl._ BAN'DITS, BANDITT'I. [It. _bandito_--Low L. _bannire_, _bandire_, to proclaim. See BAN.] BANDOG, ban'dog, _n._ a dog tied up as a watch-dog, or because of its ferocity. [BAND, fastening, and DOG.] BANDOLEER, BANDOLIER, ban-do-l[=e]r', _n._ a leathern belt worn by musketeers, to which their ammunition was fixed. [O. Fr. _bandouillere_--It. _bandoliera_, _banda_, a band.] BANDOLINE, ban'do-lin, _n._ a gummy substance used for stiffening the hair and keeping it in shape. [Prob. from BAND.] BANDORE, ban-d[=o]r', _n._ a musical instrument like a guitar, with three or more strings. [Sp. _bandurria_, Fr. _mandore_; L. _pandura_, Gr. _pandoura_.] BANDROL, band'r[=o]l, _n._ Same as BANDEROL. BANDS, of clergymen and barristers. See BAND (2). BANDY, ban'di, _n._ a club bent at the end for striking a ball: a game at ball with such a club (_bandy-ball_ = _hockey_).--_v.t._ to beat to and fro as with a bandy: to toss from one to another (as words _with_ any one) = to discuss or debate; to give and take blows or reproaches: (_Shak._) to fight, strive:--_pa.p._ ban'died.--_n._ BAN'DYING.--_adj._ BAN'DY-LEGGED, having bandy or crooked legs. [Fr. _bander_, perh. conn. with _bande_, a side.] BANE, b[=a]n, _n._ destruction: death: mischief: poison.--_v.t._ (_arch._) to harm, to poison.--_adj._ BANE'FUL, destructive.--_adv._ BANE'FULLY.--_n._ BANE'FULNESS. [A.S. _bana_, a murderer; Ice. _bani_, death.] BANG, bang, _n._ a heavy blow: a sudden loud noise: an explosion.--_v.t._ to beat: to strike violently: to slam, as a door: to make a loud noise: to beat or surpass, to bounce upon.--_interj._ BANG, used with verbs like 'go,' &c., and in such a phrase as 'bang off.'--_p.adj._ BANG'ING, dealing blows: overwhelming.--_adj._ BANG'-UP (_slang_), in the height of style or fashion.--_n._ BANG'STER (_prov._), a braggart, a victor. [Scand. _banga_, to hammer; cf. Ger. _bengel_, a cudgel.] BANG, bang, _n._ a woman's hair cut square across the brow.--_p.adj._ BANGED, wearing the hair in such a way.--_n._ BANG'-TAIL, a horse's tail with the end squared. [An Americanism, doubtless from the phrase 'bang off.'] BANG. Same as BHANG. BANGLE, bang'gl, _n._ a ring, bracelet, or anklet.--_adj._ BAN'GLED, adorned with such. [Hind. _bangr[=i]_.] BANIAN, BANYAN, ban'yan, _n._ an Indian tree of the fig family, remarkable for its vast rooting branches: a Hindu trader, esp. from Guzerat, sometimes loosely applied to all Hindus in Western Asia: a loose flannel jacket or gown worn in India.--BANIAN DAYS, a sailor's phrase, meaning days on which no meat is served out, hence days of short commons generally, from the abstinence from flesh of the Banian merchants. [Port. _banian_, perh. through Ar. _bany[=a]n_, from Hind. _banya_--Sans. _vanij_, a merchant.] BANISH, ban'ish, _v.t._ to condemn to exile: to drive away: to expel (with _from_, _out of_).--_n._ BAN'ISHMENT, exile. [Fr. _bannir_--Low L. _bannire_, to proclaim. See BAN.] BANISTER, ban'ist[.e]r, _n._ a corr. of BALUSTER. BANJO, ban'jo, _n._ a musical instrument of the guitar kind, played with the fingers, but without frets to guide the stopping, having a long neck, a body of stretched parchment like a drum, and from five to nine catgut strings. [Corr. of Fr. _bandore_ or _pandore_--L. _pandura_--Gr. _pandoura_.] BANK, bangk, _n._ a mound or ridge of earth: the earthy margin of a river, lake, &c.: the raised edge of a road, railway cutting, &c.: (_min._) the surface at the pit-mouth, as in banksman: rising ground in the sea.--_v.t._ to enclose with a bank: to deposit or pile up: to make up a fire by covering it with a heap of fuel so pressed down as to remain a long time burning slowly--_banked fires_.--_n._ BANKS'MAN, an overseer at a pit-mouth.--FROM BANK TO BANK, from the time the collier begins to descend the pit for his spell of work till he reaches the top again. [M. E. _banke_, of Scand. origin; cog. with BANK, BENCH.] BANK, bangk, _n._ a bench in a galley: a tier or rank of oars: the bench on which judges sat. [O. Fr. _banc_, of Teut. origin, cog. with the foregoing word.] BANK, bangk, _n._ a place where money is deposited: an institution for the keeping, lending, and exchanging, &c. of money: in games of hazard, the money the proprietor, who plays against all the others, has before him.--_v.t._ to deposit in a bank, as money.--_ns._ BANK'-[=A]'GENT, the head of a branch bank; BANK'-BILL, a bill drawn by one bank upon another, payable at a future date, or on demand; BANK'-CHEQUE, an order to pay issued upon a bank; BANK'ER, one who keeps a bank: one employed in banking business:--_fem._ BANK'ERESS; BANK'-HOL'IDAY, a day on which banks are legally closed, bills falling due on these being payable the following day; BANK'ING, the business of a banker.--_adj._ pertaining to a bank.--_ns._ BANK'-NOTE, a note issued by a bank, which passes as money, being payable to bearer on demand; BANK'-PAP'ER, bank-notes in circulation; BANK'-STOCK, a share or shares in the capital stock of a bank; BRANCH'-BANK, a branch office of a bank; SAV'INGS-BANK, one intended originally to develop a spirit of saving amongst the poor.--BANK ANNUITIES, the consolidated three per cent. annuities--British Government funds.--BANK OF ISSUE, one that issues its own notes, or promises to pay; JOINT-STOCK BANK, one of which the capital is subscribed by a large number of shareholders; PRIVATE BANK, one carried on by any number of persons less than ten.--TO BREAK THE BANK, to win, as in faro, from the management a certain sum which has been fixed upon as the limit the bank is willing to lose on any one day; TO PLAY AGAINST THE BANK, to take the risks of a game against the manager who holds the bank, as at rouge-et-noir, &c. [Fr. _banque_, of Teut. origin, cog. with two foregoing words.] BANKRUPT, bangk'rupt, _n._ one who breaks or fails in business; an insolvent person.--_adj._ insolvent: destitute (with _of_).--_n._ BANK'RUPTCY, the state of being or act of becoming bankrupt. [Fr. _banque-route_, It. _banca rotta_.] BANKSIA, bangk'sia, _n._ a genus of Australian shrubs, named in honour of Sir Joseph Banks (1744-1820). BANNER, ban'[.e]r, _n._ a military standard: a flag or ensign bearing some device, as in processions, &c.--_adj._ BAN'NERED, furnished with banners. [O. Fr. _banere_--Low L. _bandum_, _bannum_; cog. with BAND and BIND.] BANNERET, ban'[.e]r-et, _n._ a higher class of knight, inferior to a baron. [Fr. dim. of BANNER.] BANNEROL, ban'[.e]r-ol, _n._ Same as BANDEROL. BANNING, ban'ning, _n._ cursing. [See BAN.] BANNOCK, ban'nok, _n._ a flat home-made cake of oatmeal, barley, or pease-meal. [Gael. _bannach_.] BANNS, banz, _n.pl._ a proclamation of marriage.--TO FORBID THE BANNS, to make formal objection to a projected marriage. [From BAN.] BANQUET, bangk'wet, _n._ a feast: any rich treat or entertainment: a course of sweetmeats, fruit, and wine, separately, or after the principal meal--still used in the Scotch phrase, 'a cake and wine banquet.'--_v.t._ to give a feast to.--_v.i._ to fare sumptuously.--_ns._ BANQ'UETER, BANQ'UETEER; BANQ'UETING; BANQ'UETING-HOUSE. [Fr.;--_banc_, bench, like It. _banchetto_, from _banco_.] BANQUETTE, bang-ket', _n._ a raised way inside a parapet; the long seat behind the driver in a French diligence. [Fr.; It. _banchetta_, dim. of _banca_, seat.] BANSHEE, ban'sh[=e], _n._ a female fairy in Ireland and elsewhere, who makes herself known by wailings and shrieks before a death in the particular family to which she is attached. [Ir. _bean sídhe_, Old Ir. _ben síde_, woman of the fairies.] BANTAM, ban'tam, _n._ a small variety of the common domestic fowl, supposed to be named from _Bantam_ in Java, notable for courage.--_adj._ of bantam-breed: little and combative. BANTER, bant'[.e]r, _v.t._ to assail with good-humoured raillery: to joke or jest at: (_arch._) to impose upon, trick.--_n._ humorous raillery: jesting.--_ns._ BANT'ERER; BANT'ERING.--_adv._ BANT'ERINGLY.--_adj._ BANT'ERY (_Carlyle_). [Ety. quite unknown.] BANTING, bant'ing, _n._ a system of diet for reducing superfluous fat.--_n._ BANT'INGISM. [From W. _Banting_ (1797-1878), a London cabinetmaker, who recommended it to the public in 1863.] BANTLING, bant'ling, _n._ a child. [So called from the _bands_ in which it is wrapped.] BANTU, ban't[=oo], _n._ a native name sometimes applied to the South African family of languages and the peoples speaking these, including Kaffirs and Zulus, Bechuans, and the peoples from the Hottentot country to the Gulf of Guinea. BANXRING, bangks'ring, _n._ a small insectivorous animal of Java and Sumatra. [Jav.] BANYAN. See BANIAN. BAOBAB, b[=a]'o-bab, _n._ a magnificent tree, native to tropical Western Africa, whose trunk is 20 to 30 feet thick, called also the _Monkey-bread Tree_. [African.] BAPHOMET, baf'[=o]-m[.e]t, _n._ the alleged name of a mysterious idol the Templars were accused of worshipping.--_adj._ BAPH'OMETIC. [A medieval corr. of the name _Mahomet_.] BAPTISE, bapt-[=i]z', _v.t._ to administer baptism to: to christen, give a name to.--_n._ BAPT'ISM, immersion in or sprinkling with water as a religious ceremony--a sign and seal of the covenant of grace. It is symbolic of spiritual purification, and as a religious rite marks initiation into the Christian community.--_adj._ BAPTIS'MAL.--_adv._ BAPTIS'MALLY.--_ns._ BAPT'IST, one who baptises: one who approves only of baptising by immersion, and that only to persons who profess their faith in Christ; BAP'TISTERY, a place where baptism is administered, either a separate building or a portion of a church.--BAPTISMAL REGENERATION, the doctrine of the remission of sin original and actual, and of the new birth into the life of sanctifying grace, in and through the sacrament of baptism; BAPTISM BY DESIRE, the grace given to a believer who ardently desires baptism, but dies before he can receive it; BAPTISM FOR THE DEAD, the vicarious baptism of a living Christian for an unbaptised dead Christian, who was thereby accounted baptised and received into bliss--it is supposed to be alluded to in 1 Cor. xv. 29; BAPTISM OF BLOOD, martyrdom for Christ's sake; BAPTISM OF FIRE, the gift of the Holy Spirit: martyrdom by fire for Christ's sake: (_fig._) any trying ordeal to be endured, as a young soldier's first experience of being under fire; CLINICAL BAPTISM, baptism administered to sick persons; CONDITIONAL (or HYPOTHETICAL) BAPTISM, baptism administered to those about whom it is doubtful whether they were baptised or whether the form of their earlier baptism was valid; NAME OF BAPTISM, the Christian or personal name given at baptism; PRIVATE BAPTISM, baptism administered at home, or elsewhere, not in the church. [Gr. _baptiz-ein_--_bapt-ein_, to dip in water.] BAR, bär, _n._ a rod of any solid substance: a bolt: a hindrance or obstruction--the barrier of a city or street, as the bars of York, Temple Bar, a toll-bar: a bank of sand or other matter at the mouth of a river: any terminus or limit (of life)--e.g. as in TO CROSS THE BAR: the railing that encloses a space in a tavern, the counter across which drinks are served, a public-house: the wooden rail dividing off the JUDGE'S SEAT, at which prisoners are placed for arraignment or sentence--hence, TO APPEAR AT THE BAR, TO PASS THE BAR = to be formally referred for trial from a lower court to a higher: any tribunal: the pleaders in a court as distinguished from the judges: a division in music.--_v.t._ to fasten or secure, as with a bar: to hinder or exclude:--_pr.p._ bar'ring; _pa.p._ barred.--_ns._ BAR'-[=I]'RON, iron in malleable bars; BAR'MAID, a female waiter at the bar of a tavern or hotel.--_prep._ BAR'RING, excepting, saving.--_ns._ BAR'RING-OUT, the shutting of the school-room doors and windows by the pupils against the master, in order to enforce assent to their demands; BAR'WOOD, a kind of red dye-wood imported from Africa in bars. [O. Fr. _barre_--Low L. _barra_, perh. of Celt. origin.] BARACAN. Same as BARRACAN. BARAGOUIN, bä-rag-w[=e]n, _n._ any jargon or unintelligible language. [Fr.; from Bret. _bara_, bread, and _gwîn_, wine, supposed to have originated in the Breton soldiers' astonishment at white bread.] BARB, bärb, _n._ the beard-like jag near the point of an arrow, fish-hook, &c.--_v.t._ to arm with barbs, as an arrow, &c.: to shave, trim, mow, to pierce, as with a barb.--_adjs._ BARB'ATE (_bot._), bearing a hairy tuft; BARB'ATED, barbed, bearded.--_n._ BARBE, a term applied by the Waldenses to their teachers.--_adjs._ BARBED, furnished with a barb: of a horse, armed or caparisoned with a barb or bard; BARB'ELLATE (_bot._), having barbed or bearded bristles. [Fr.--L. _barba_, a beard.] BARB, bärb, _n._ a swift kind of horse, the breed of which came from _Barbary_ in North Africa. BARBACAN. See BARBICAN. BARBAROUS, bär'bar-us, _adj._ uncivilised: rude: savage: brutal.--_adjs._ BAR'BARESQUE, pertaining to _Barbary_: barbarous, esp. in art; BARB[=A]R'IAN, uncivilised: savage: without taste or refinement: foreign.--_n._ an uncivilised man, a savage: a cruel, brutal man.--_adj._ BARBAR'IC, foreign: uncivilised.--_n._ BARBARIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ BAR'BARISE, to make barbarous: to corrupt as a language.--_ns._ BAR'BARISM, savage life: rudeness of manners: an incorrect form of speech; BARBAR'ITY, savageness: cruelty.--_adv._ BAR'BAROUSLY.--_n._ BAR'BAROUSNESS. [L.--Gr. _barbaros_, foreign, lit. stammering, from the unfamiliar sound of foreign tongues.] BARBARY APE, bär'bar-i [=a]p, _n._ the magot, or small tailless ape found in Africa and also on the rock of Gibraltar. BARBECUE, bärb'e-k[=u], _v.t._ to roast whole, as a pig: to cure flesh by exposing it on a barbecue.--_n._ a framework on which to dry and smoke meat above a fire: an animal roasted whole: an open floor on which coffee-beans and the like are spread out to dry: (_Amer._) a large social or political entertainment, where the hospitalities are on a lavish scale. [Sp. _barbacoa_--Haytian _barbacòa_, a framework of sticks set upon posts.] BARBEL, bärb'el, _n._ a fresh-water fish with beard-like appendages at its mouth. [O. Fr. _barbel_--Low L. _barbellus_--L. _barba_, a beard.] BARBER, bärb'[.e]r, _n._ one who shaves beards and dresses hair.--_ns._ BARB'ER-MONG'ER (_Shak._), a man decked out by his barber, a fop; BARB'ER-SUR'GEON, one who let blood and drew teeth as well as shaved--the company of Barber-surgeons was incorporated in 1461, but by an act in 1545 barbers were confined to the more humble function.--BARBER'S BLOCK, a round block on which wigs are made; BARBER'S POLE, the barber's sign in England, a pole striped spirally with alternate bands of colours, generally red or black and white, having often a brass basin hung at the end. [Fr.--L. _barba_, a beard.] BARBERRY, bär'ber-i, _n._ a thorny shrub with yellow flowers and red berries, common in hedges. [Low L. _berberis_; the Ar. _barbaris_ is borrowed.] BARBETTE, bar-b[.e]t', _n._ an earthen terrace inside the parapet of a rampart, serving as a platform for heavy guns: in ironclad ships, a heavily armoured redoubt amidships. [Fr.] BARBICAN, bär'bi-kan, _n._ a projecting watch-tower over the gate of a castle or fortified town, esp. the outwork intended to defend the drawbridge. [O. Fr. _barbacane_, also in Sp., Port., and It. forms; perh. of Ar. or Pers. origin. Col. Yule suggests _b[=a]bkh[=a]nah_, gate-house, name in the East for a towered gateway.] BARBULE, bärb'[=u]l, _n._ (_bot._) a small barb or beard: a pointed barb-like process fringing the barbs of a feather. [See BARBEL.] BARCAROLLE, bär'ka-r[=o]l, _n._ a boat-song of the Venetian gondoliers: a musical composition of a similar character. [It. _barcaruolo_, a boatman, from _barca_, a bark, a barge, a boat.] BARD, bärd, _n._ a poet and singer among the ancient Celts: a poet--dims. BARD'LING, BARD'LET, poetaster.--_n._ BARD'-CRAFT (_Browning_).--_adj._ BARD'IC. [Gael. and Ir. _bàrd_.] BARDED, bärd'ed, _adj._ caparisoned, as horses.--_n._ BARD (_obs._), the protective covering of a war-horse or a man-at-arms. [Fr. _barde_--Sp. _albarda_, pack-saddle, perh. from Ar. _al-barda`ah_; _al_, the, and _barda`ah_, mule's pack-saddle.] BARE, b[=a]r, _adj._ uncovered: naked: open to view: poor, scanty: unadorned: (_Shak._) unarmed: mere or by itself: (_Shak._) paltry, desolate: empty: (_Spens._) rude.--_v.t._ to strip or uncover.--_adj._ BARE'BACKED, with bare back: unsaddled.--_n._ BARE'BONE (_Shak._), a very lean person.--_adj._ BARE'FACED, with the face uncovered: (_Shak._) avowed: impudent.--_adv._ BARE'FACEDLY.--_n._ BARE'FACEDNESS.--_adjs._ BARE'FOOT, -ED, having the feet bare, often of some monastic orders; BARE'-GNAWN (_Shak._), gnawed bare; BARE'HEADED, having the head bare; BAR'ISH (_Carlyle_), somewhat bare; BARE'LEGGED, having the legs bare.--_adv._ BARE'LY.--_ns._ BARE'NESS; BARE'SARK, a fierce Norse fighter, a berserker.--_adv._ in a shirt only. [A.S. _bær_; Ger. _baar_, _bar_; Ice. _berr_.] BARE, b[=a]r, old _pa.t._ of BEAR. BARAGE, ba-r[=a]zh', _n._ a light, silky dress-stuff, named from _Barèges_ in the Pyrenees. BARGAIN, bär'gin, _n._ a contract or agreement: a favourable transaction: an advantageous purchase: (_Shak._) chaffering.--_v.i._ to make a contract or agreement: to chaffer: to count on, take into consideration (with _for_): to lose by bad bargaining (with _away_).--_n._ BAR'GAINER.--BARGAIN AND SALE, in law, a mode of conveyance whereby property may be assigned or transferred for valuable consideration.--INTO THE BARGAIN, over and above; TO MAKE THE BEST OF A BAD BARGAIN, to make the best of difficult circumstances; TO SELL ANY ONE A BARGAIN (_Shak._), to befool him; TO STRIKE A BARGAIN, to come to terms about a purchase. [O. Fr. _bargaigner_--Low L. _barcaniare_; acc. to Diez from _barca_, a boat.] BARGE, bärj, _n._ flat-bottomed freight boat, with or without sails, used on rivers and canals: the second boat of a man-of-war: a large pleasure or state boat.--_ns._ BAR'GEE, a bargeman; BARGE'MAN, The manager of a barge; BARGE'-MAS'TER, the proprietor of a barge. [O. Fr. _barge_--Low L. _barga_. Prob. a doublet of BARK, a barge.] [Illustration] BARGE-BOARD, barj'-b[=o]rd, _n._ a board extending along the edge of the gable of a house to cover the rafters and keep out the rain. [The _barge_ here may be conn. with Low L. _bargus_, a gallows.] BARGHEST, bär'gest, _n._ a dog-like goblin portending death. [Perh. conn. with Ger. _berg-geist_, mountain-ghost.] BARIC. See BARIUM. BARILLA, bar-il'a, _n._ an impure carbonate of soda obtained by burning several marine plants (that grow chiefly on the east coast of Spain), used in the manufacture of soap, glass, &c. [Sp. _barrilla_.] BARITONE, bar'i-t[=o]n. Same as BARYTONE. BARIUM, b[=a]'ri-um, _n._ the metal present in heavy spar (sulphate of baryta) and baryta, formerly thought to be white, but now known to possess a yellow colour.--_adj._ BAR'IC. [From BARYTA; cf. _soda_, _sodium_.] BARK, bärk, _n._ the abrupt cry uttered by a dog, wolf, &c.--_v.i._ to yelp like a dog: to clamour.--_v.t._ (_Spens._) to utter with a bark.--_n._ BARK'ER, a shop-tout: (_slang_) a pistol, cannon.--HIS BARK IS WORSE THAN HIS BITE, his angry expressions are worse than his actual deeds. [A.S. _beorcan_, prob. a variety of _brecan_, to crack, snap. See BREAK.] BARK, BARQUE, bärk, _n._ a barge: a ship of small size, square-sterned, without head-rails: technically, a three-masted vessel whose mizzen-mast is _fore-and-aft_ rigged instead of being square-rigged, like the fore and main masts--barks of over 3000 tons are now frequently built.--_ns._ BAR'KANTINE, BAR'QUENTINE, a three-masted vessel, with the fore-mast square-rigged, and the main-mast and mizzen-mast fore-and-aft rigged. [Fr. _barque_--Low L. _barca_; perh. from Gr. _baris_, a Nile-boat.] BARK, bärk, _n._ the rind or covering of the trunk and branches of a tree: that used in tanning or dyeing, or the residue thereof, laid upon a street to deaden the sound, &c.: the envelopment or outer covering of anything.--_v.t._ to strip or peel the bark from: to rub off (_skin_).--_n._ BARK'-BED, a hotbed made of spent bark.--_v.t._ BARK'EN, to dry up into a barky substance.--_v.i._ to become like bark.--_adjs._ BARK'LESS; BARK'Y.--CINCHONA, JESUITS', PERUVIAN BARK, the bark of the cinchona, from which quinine is made. [Scand. _börkr_; Dan. _bark_.] BARKER'S MILL, bärk'[.e]rz mil, a water-wheel invented in the 18th century by Dr _Barker_. BARLEY, bär'li, _n._ a hardy grain used for food, but chiefly for making malt liquors and spirits.--_ns._ BAR'LEY-BREE, -BROTH, strong ale; BAR'LEY-CORN, personified as _John Barleycorn_, the grain from which malt is made: a single grain of barley: a measure of length = 1/3 of an inch; BAR'LEY-SU'GAR, a mixture of sugar with a decoction of pearl-barley, boiled till it is candied; BAR'LEY-WAT'ER, a decoction of pearl-barley; PEARL'-BAR'LEY, the grain stripped of husk and pellicle, and completely rounded by grinding; POT'-BAR'LEY, the grain deprived by milling of its outer husk, used in making broth, &c. [A.S. _bærlíc_, _bere_, and suffix _-líc_.] BARLEY, bär'li, _interj._ (_Scot._) a term used in games in demand of a truce, parley (of which it is most prob. a corruption). BARLEY-BRAKE, bär'li-br[=a]k, _n._ an old country game, originally played by three couples, of which one, left in a middle den called 'hell,' had to catch the others, who could break or separate when about to be overtaken. [Perh. from the grain, _barley_, because often played in a barley-field; or perh. from the word preceding.] BARM, bärm, _n._ froth of beer or other fermenting liquor, used as leaven: yeast.--_adjs._ BARM'Y; BARM'Y-BRAINED, flighty. [A.S. _beorma_; cog. with Dan. _bärme_, Ger. _bärme_.] BARMBRACK, bärm'brak, _n._ a currant-bun. [Ir. _bairigen breac_, speckled cake.] BARM-CLOTH, bärm'-kloth, _n._ (_Morris_) an apron. [A.S. _barm_, bosom, _-beran_, to bear, and CLOTH.] BARMECIDE, bär'me-s[=i]d, _n._ one who offers an imaginary or pretended banquet or other benefit.--_adjs._ BAR'MECIDE, BARMEC[=I]'DAL. [From a story in the _Arabian Nights_, in which a beggar is entertained to an imaginary feast by one of the _Barmecides_, a Persian family who attained to great influence at the court of the Abbasside caliphs.] BARMKIN, bärm'kin, _n._ the rampart of a castle. BARN, bärn, _n._ a building in which grain, hay, &c. are stored.--_v.t._ to store in a barn.--_ns._ and _adjs._ BARN'-DOOR, BARN'-YARD, as in barn-yard fowl.--_n._ BARN'-OWL, the commonest of British owls.--BARN-DOOR, in cricket, used of a player who blocks every ball: humorously, any large target. [A.S. _bere-ern_, contracted _bern_, from _bere_, barley, _ern_, a house.] BARNABY, bärn'a-bi, _n._ form of _Barnabas_, the apostle.--_n._ BAR'NABITE, a member of the congregation of regular canons of St Paul, founded at Milan in 1530, so called from their preaching in the church of St Barnabas there.--BARNABY-DAY, BARNABY BRIGHT, or LONG BARNABY, St Barnabas' Day, 11th June, in Old Style reckoned the longest day. BARNACLE, bär'na-kl, _n._ a shellfish which adheres to rocks and the bottoms of ships: a companion who sticks closely.--_n._ BAR'NACLE-GOOSE, a species of wild goose belonging to the Northern seas, so called from a notion that they were produced from the barnacles mentioned. [O. Fr. _bernaque_--Low L. _bernaca_; by some referred to a supposed form _pernacula_, dim. of _perna_, a kind of shellfish; by others to a Celtic origin.] BARNACLE, bär'na-kl, _n._ an instrument consisting of two branches joined by a hinge, placed on the nose of horses to keep them quiet: (_pl._) a colloquial term for 'spectacles.'--_adj._ BAR'NACLED. [O. Fr. _bernac_, of which _bernacle_ seems to be a dim. form. The sense of 'spectacles' has been traced to O. Fr. _bericle_, eye-glass--_berillus_, beryl; but this is improbable.] BARNEY, bär'ni, _n._ (_slang_) humbug: a prize-fight. BARNUMISE, bär'num-[=i]z, _v.t._ to advertise and display on a great scale.--_n._ BAR'NUMISM. [From _Barnum_, a great showman (1810-91).] BAROGRAPH, bar'o-graf, _n._ a barometer which records automatically variations of atmospheric pressure. [Gr. _baros_, weight, _graphein_, to write.] BAROMETER, bar-om'et-[.e]r, _n._ an instrument by which the weight or pressure of the atmosphere is measured, and changes of weather, or heights above sea-level, indicated.--_adj._ BAROMET'RIC.--_adv._ BAROMET'RICALLY.--_n._ BAROM'ETRY. [Gr. _baros_, weight, _metron_, measure.] BAROMETZ, bar'o-metz, _n._ the hairy prostrate stem of a fern found near the Caspian Sea, at one time supposed to be at once plant and animal, to grow on a stalk, and to eat grass like a lamb, &c.; hence also called, as by Mandeville, the _Scythian Lamb_. [Erroneous form of Russ. _baranetz_, dim. of _baran_, ram.] [Illustration] BARON, bar'on, _n._ a title of rank, the lowest in the House of Peers: formerly a title of the judges of the Court of Exchequer: in feudal times the tenants-in-chief of the Crown, later the peers or great lords of the realm generally: till 1832, the name for the parliamentary representatives of the Cinque Ports: in Germany, the signification, instead of becoming restricted as in England, has become extended--the greater or dynasty barons having all been elevated to higher titles, a large number being designated barons in virtue of a diploma from some reigning prince, the title being used also by all his descendants.--_ns._ BAR'ONAGE, the whole body of barons; BAR'ON-BAIL'IE, a magistrate appointed by the lord-superior in a burgh of barony; BAR'ONESS, a baron's wife, or a lady holding a baronial title in her own right.--_adj._ BAR[=O]N'IAL, pertaining to a baron or barony.--_n._ BAR'ONY, the territory of a baron: in Ireland, a division of a county: in Scotland, a large freehold estate, or manor, even though not carrying with it a baron's title and rank: the rank of baron.--BARON OF BEEF, a joint consisting of two sirloins left uncut at the backbone. [O. Fr. _barun_, _-on_--Low L. _baro_, _-onem_; in the Romance tongues the word meant a man as opposed to a woman, a strong man, a warrior; traced by some to Celt. _bar_, a hero; by others to Old High Ger. _bero_, bearer, carrier.] BARONET, bar'on-et, _n._ the lowest hereditary title in the United Kingdom (of England--now of Great Britain--since 1611; of Scotland--or of Nova Scotia--since 1625; of Ireland, since 1619).--_ns._ BAR'ONETAGE, the whole body of baronets: a list of such; BAR'ONETCY.--_adj._ BARONET'ICAL. [Dim. of BARON.] BAROQUE, bar-[=o]k', _adj._ originally a jeweller's term, but applied in art generally to extravagant ornamental designs: whimsical, odd. [Fr. _baroque_; perh. from L. _verruca_, wart, but referred by some to Ar. _bur[=a]q_, hard earth mixed with stones.] BAROSCOPE, bar'[=o]-sk[=o]p, _n._ an instrument for indicating changes in the density of the air. [Gr. _baros_, weight, _skopein_, to see.] BAROUCHE, ba-r[=oo]sh', _n._ a double-seated four-wheeled carriage with a falling top. [It. _baroccio_--L. _birotus_, two-wheeled, from _bis_, twice, _rota_, a wheel.] BARQUE. Same as BARK (2). BARQUENTINE, bär'ken-t[=e]n, _n._ same as BARKANTINE (q.v. under BARK, a ship). [Formed from BARQUE, like BRIGANTINE from BRIG.] BARRACAN, bar'a-kan, _n._ a thick, strong stuff resembling camlet. [Fr.; It.--Ar. _barrak[=a]n_, a dark dress, Pers. _barak_, a stuff made of camel's hair.] BARRACE, bar'as, _n._ (_obs._) the lists in a tournament. [O. Fr. _barras_--_barre_, bar.] BARRACK, bar'ak, _n._ a building for soldiers, esp. in garrison (generally in _pl._). [Fr. _baraque_ (It. _baracca_, Sp. _barraca_, a tent); acc. to Diez from _barra_, bar.] BARRACOON, bar'a-k[=oo]n, _n._ a depôt for slaves. [Sp.--_barraca_.] BARRACOOTA, -CUDA, bar'a-k[=oo]'ta, -k[=oo]'da, _n._ a voracious West Indian fish.--Also BARRACOU'TA, an Australian food-fish. [Sp.] BARRAGE, bär'[=a]j, _n._ the forming of an artificial bar in order to deepen a river. [Fr. _barrage_--_barre_, bar.] BARRATOR, bar-[=a]t'or, _n._ one who vexatiously stirs up lawsuits, quarrels, &c.--_adj._ BAR'RATROUS.--_adv._ BAR'RATROUSLY.--_n._ BAR'RATRY, fraudulent practices on the part of the master or mariners of a ship to the prejudice of the owners: vexatious litigation, or the stirring up of suits and quarrels among subjects, forbidden under penalties to lawyers: traffic in offices of church or state. [O. Fr. _barateor_--_barat_, deceit; traced by some to Gr. _prattein_, by others to a Celt. or a Scand. origin.] BARREL, bar'el, _n._ a cylindrical wooden vessel made of curved staves bound with hoops: the quantity which such a vessel contains (36 imperial gallons of ale and beer): a certain weight or quantity of other goods usually sold in casks called barrels: anything long and hollow, as the barrel of a gun, or cylindrical and barrel-shaped.--_v.t._ to put in a barrel.--_n._ BAR'REL-BULK, a measurement of five cubic feet.--_p.adj._ BAR'RELLED, having a barrel or barrels: placed in a barrel.--_ns._ BAR'REL-OR'GAN, an organ in which the music is produced by a barrel or cylinder set with pins, the revolution of which opens the key-valves and produces the music; BARREL-VAULT, a vault with a simple semi-cylindrical roof.--_adj._ BAR'REL-VAULT'ED. [Fr. _baril_ (Sp. _barril_, It. _barile_)--Low L. _barile_, _barillus_, possibly from _barra_, bar.] BARREN, bar'en, _adj._ incapable of bearing offspring: unfruitful: dull, stupid: unprofitable (with _of_).--_adj._ BAR'REN-BEAT'EN.--_adv._ BAR'RENLY.--_n._ BAR'RENNESS.--_adjs._ BAR'REN-SPIR'ITED; BAR'REN-WIT'TED. [O. Fr. _barain_, _brahain_, _brehaing_, perh. from _bar_, man, as if 'male-like, not producing offspring.'] BARRET, bar'et, _n._ a flat cap, esp. the BIRETTA (q.v.). [Fr. _barrette_, Sp. _birreta_. See BIRETTA.] BARRICADE, bar'ik-[=a]d, _n._ a temporary fortification raised to hinder the advance of an enemy, as in the street fights of Parisian insurrections.--_v.t._ to obstruct: to fortify.--Earlier form BARRIC[=A]'DO. [Fr.; _barrique_, a cask, the first street barricades having consisted of casks filled with stones, &c. See BAR.] BARRICO, bar-[=e]'ko, _n._ a small cask. [Sp.] BARRIER, bar'i-[.e]r, _n._ a defence against attack: a limit or boundary: a fence, railing, gate where customs are collected: the lists in a tournament: any obstacle that keeps apart: (_pl._) a martial exercise in 15th and 16th centuries.--_v.t._ to shut by means of a barrier.--_n._ BAR'RIER-REEF, a coral-reef surrounding an island or fringing a coast with a navigable channel inside.--BARRIER ACT, an act passed by the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in 1697 as a security against innovations, decreeing that changes in the law of the Church, even when approved by the Assembly, shall not become law till approved also by a majority of presbyteries. [O. Fr. _barrière_--Low L. _barraria_--_barra_, bar.] BARRISTER, bar'is-t[.e]r, _n._ one who is qualified to plead at the bar in an English or Irish law-court.--_adj._ BARRIST[=E]R'IAL.--_n._ BAR'RISTERSHIP.--REVISING BARRISTER, a barrister appointed annually by the English judges to revise the lists and settle who are the persons entitled to vote for members of parliament. [From _barra_, bar, the suffix being undetermined.] BARROW, bar'r[=o], _n._ a small hand or one-wheel carriage used to bear or convey a load.--_n._ BAR'ROW-TRAM, the shaft of a barrow. [M. E. _barewe_, from an assumed A.S. form _bearwe_--_beran_, to bear.] BARROW, bar'r[=o], _n._ originally a mountain, hillock: a mound raised over graves in former times. [A.S. _beorg_; cog. with Ger. _berg_.] BARROW, bar'r[=o], _n._ a long sleeveless flannel garment for infants. [A.S. _beorgan_, to protect.] BAR-SINISTER. Variant of BATON-SINISTER (q.v. under BATON). BARTER, bär't[.e]r, _v.t._ to give one thing in exchange for another (with _for_, _away_).--_v.i._ to traffic by exchanging.--_n._ traffic by exchange of commodities.--_n._ BAR'TERER, one who barters. [Prob. from O. Fr. _barat_.] BARTHOLOMEW-TIDE, bar-thol'o-m[=u]-t[=i]d, _n._ the day of the festival of St Bartholomew, 24th August: the name was also applied to things sold at the fair.--Often spelt BAR'TLEMY.--BLACK BARTHOLOMEW, 24th August 1662, the day on which the Act of Uniformity came into force within the Church of England. [Illustration] BARTISAN, bär'ti-zan, _n._ a small overhanging turret projecting from an angle on the top of a tower. [Apparently an adaptation by Scott of Scot. _bertisene_, traceable to O. Fr. _bretesche_, a parapet of wood.] BARTON, bar'ton, _n._ a farm-yard. [A.S. _bere-tún_, yard, _bere_, barley, and _tún_, enclosure.] BARYCENTRIC, bar-i-sen'trik, _adj._ pertaining to the centre of gravity. [Gr. _barys_, heavy, _kentron_, centre.] BARYTA, ba-r[=i]'ta, BARYTES, ba-r[=i]'t[=e]z, _n._ the earth present in the minerals _witherite_ and _heavy spar_.--_adj._ BARYT'IC, of or containing baryta. [From Gr. _barys_, heavy.] BARYTONE, bar'i-t[=o]n, _n._ a deep-toned male voice between bass and tenor: a singer with such a voice: in Greek, applied to words not having an acute accent on the last syllable. [Through Fr. from Gr. _barys_, heavy, deep, and _tonos_, a tone.] BASALT, bas-awlt', _n._ a hard, dark-coloured rock of igneous origin.--_adj._ BASALT'IC. [L. _basaltes_, an African word.] BASANITE, bas'an-[=i]t, _n._ a kind of quartz serviceable for testing the purity of the precious metals by the marks made. [Gr. _basanos_, touchstone.] BASBLEU. Same as BLUE-STOCKING (q.v. under BLUE). BASCINET. Same as BASINET. BASCULE, bas'k[=u]l, _n._ an apparatus of the lever kind, in which one end is raised while the other is depressed. [Fr. _bas_, down, and _cul_, the posteriors.] BASE, b[=a]s, _n._ that on which a thing rests: foot: bottom: foundation: support: the chief ingredient, as in dyeing and chemistry: the starting-point, in a race: the fixed goal across which the ball is struck in hockey, the fixed stations at base-ball: the point from which the operations of a campaign are conducted: a measured line serving as a basis for trigonometrical calculations: the surface on which a plane or solid figure stands: (_chem._) a term applied to a compound body, generally consisting of a metal united with oxygen; (_archit._) the foot or lower member of a pillar, on which the shaft rests: (_her._) the lower portion of the shield--any figure placed on it is said to be 'in base:' a small portion of the base of a shield parted off by a horizontal line is sometimes called a base.--_v.t._ to found or place on a base:--_pr.p._ b[=a]s'ing; _pa.p._ based (b[=a]st).--_adjs._ BAS'AL, BAS'ILAR, pertaining to or situated at the base, esp. of the skull; BASE'LESS, without a base or foundation.--_ns._ BASE'LESSNESS; BASE'MENT, the base or lowest story of a building.--_adj._ BAS'EN-WIDE (_Spens._), widely extended.--_n._ BASE'-PLATE, the foundation plate of a piece of heavy machinery.--_n.pl._ BAS'ES, a kind of embroidered mantle which hung down from the middle to about the knees or lower, worn by knights on horseback: (_Spens._) armour for the legs.--_ns._ BASE'-STRING, the string of a musical instrument that gives the lowest note; BASE'-V[=I]OL (same as BASS-VIOL).--_adj._ BAS'IC (_chem._), belonging to or of the nature of a base.--_v.t._ BAS'IFY (_chem._), to convert into a salifiable base:--_pr.p._ b[=a]s'ifying; _pa.p._ b[=a]s'if[=i]ed. [Fr.--L.--Gr. _basis_--_ba-_, in _bainein_, to go.] BASE, b[=a]s, _adj._ low in place, value, estimation, or principle: mean: vile: worthless: debased: counterfeit: (_law_) servile, as opposed to _free_: humble: (_B._ and _Shak._) lowly.--_adj._ BASE'-BORN, illegitimate.--_adv._ BASE'LY.--_adj._ BASE'-MIND'ED, of a low mind or spirit: mean.--_n._ BASE'NESS.--_adj._ BASE'-SPIR'ITED, mean-spirited. [Fr. _bas_--Low L. _bassus_, thick, fat, a vulgar Roman word, found also in name _Bassus_.] BASE, b[=a]s, _v.t._ a form of ABASE. BASE, b[=a]s, _n._ an old game played by two sides occupying contiguous spaces, called _bases_ or _homes_, off which any player is liable to be touched with the hand or struck by a ball by the enemy, and so attached to their sides. Forms of this game are known as _Prisoner's Base_ or _Bars_, and _Rounders_, and the national American game of _Base-ball_ is a development from it. BASE-BALL, b[=a]s'-bawl, _n._ a game played with a bat and a ball, and run round bases, marking the circuit to be taken by each player of the inside after striking the ball. There are nine players on each side; the pitcher, of the one side, throws the ball; one of the other side tries to hit it as it passes him; and the runs to the bases are regulated according as the ball falls inside or outside certain lines, &c. A development from rounders, base-ball has been the American national game since 1865. [Coupled with cricket in Jane Austen's _Northanger Abbey_ (written 1798).] BASECOURT, b[=a]s'k[=o]rt, _n._ the outer court of a mansion, which contained the stable-yard and servants' accommodation, as distinguished from the principal quadrangle: an inferior court of justice. [Fr. _basse-court_.] BASENET. Same as BASINET. BASH, bash, _v.t._ to beat or smash in.--_n._ BASH. [Prob. Scand.] BASHAW, ba-shaw', _n._ a pasha: a haughty man--now usually written PASHA or PACHA (q.v.).--_ns._ BASHAW'ISM, BASHAW'SHIP. [Turk.] BASHFUL, bash'f[=oo]l, _adj._ easily confused: modest: shy: wanting confidence.--_v.i._ BASH (_Spens._), to be abashed.--_adv._ BASH'FULLY.--_n._ BASH'FULNESS.--_adj._ BASH'LESS, unashamed. [See ABASH.] BASHI-BAZOUK, bash'i-ba-z[=oo]k', _n._ a Turkish irregular trooper. They are mostly Asiatics, and are brutal plundering ruffians, capable, as in 1876 in Bulgaria, of the most devilish atrocities. [Turk. _bashi-bozuq_.] BASHLYK, bash'lik, _n._ a kind of hood with long ends worn in Russia. [Russ. _bashluik[)u]_, a Caucasian hood.] BASIL, baz'il, _n._ a mainly tropical or subtropical genus of Labiatæ, characterised by a pleasant aromatic smell and taste, and reckoned amongst _sweet herbs_.--SWEET BASIL is an Indian annual long cultivated in Europe for seasoning purposes. [O. Fr. _basile_--L. _basilisca_--Gr. _basilikon_, royal.] BASIL, baz'il, _n._ a sheepskin roughly tanned and undressed. BASIL. See BEZEL. BASILICA, baz-il'ik-a, _n._ among the Romans, a large oblong hall, with double colonnades and a semicircular apse at the end, used for judicial and commercial purposes--many of them were afterwards converted into Christian churches: a magnificent church built after the plan of the ancient basilica.--_adj._ BASIL'ICAN. [L. _basilica_, Gr. _basilik[=e]_ (_oikia_, a house), belonging to a king, from _basileus_, a king.] BASILICON, baz-il'ik-on, _n._ a name given to various kinds of ointment as possessing sovereign virtues. [Gr. _basilikon_, royal.] BASILISK, baz'il-isk, _n._ a fabulous creature, about a foot long, with a black-and-yellow skin and fiery red eyes, so named, according to Pliny, from the crest on the head like a crown--variously regarded as a kind of dragon or cockatrice: in modern zoology, a harmless crested lizard of tropical South America: an ancient brass cannon throwing a shot of about 200 lb. weight. [Gr. _basiliskos_, dim. of _basileus_, a king.] BASIN, b[=a]s'n, _n._ a wide open vessel or dish: any hollow place containing water, as a dock: the area drained by a river and its tributaries. [O. Fr. _bacin_--Low L. _bachinus_, perh. from the Celtic.] [Illustration] BASINET, bas'i-net, _n._ a light globular headpiece worn alone with a visor, or with the great helm resting on the shoulders, worn over it.--Also BAS'NET. BASIS, b[=a]s'is, _n._ the foundation, or that on which a thing rests: the pedestal of a column: the groundwork or first principle:--_pl._ BAS'ES. [See BASE (1).] BASK, bask, _v.i._ to lie in the warmth or sunshine. [Scand. _badask_, to bathe.] BASKET, bas'ket, _n._ a vessel made of plaited twigs, rushes, or other flexible materials.--_ns._ BAS'KETFUL, as much as fills a basket; BAS'KET-HILT, the hilt of a sword with a covering wrought like basket-work to defend the hand from injury; BAS'KET-MAK'ER; BAS'KET-WORK, any structure of interlaced twigs or the like. [Prob. the L. _bascauda_; the W. _basged_ is apparently borrowed from the English.] BASQUE, bask, _adj._ relating to the _Basques_, or their wonderful language, with its extreme variability of dialects--the only example of a consistently incorporating language.--_n._ a native of the Basque provinces: the distinctive language of the Basques: a kind of short-skirted jacket worn by women, a continuation of the bodice a little below the waist.--_adj._ BASQUED (baskt), furnished with a basque.--_n._ BASQ'UINE, an outer petticoat worn by Basque and Spanish women. [Fr. _Basque_--Low L. _Vasco_, an inhabitant of _Vasconia_, whence _Gascony_. The Basques themselves call their tongue _Eskuara_, _Euscara_, whence the Fr. _Euscarien_.] BAS-RELIEF, bä-re-l[=e]f', BASS-RELIEF, bas're-l[=e]f', _n._ (_sculp._) figures which do not stand far out from the ground on which they are formed--also used in the Italian form BASS'O-RILIE'VO. [See BASE, low, and RELIEF.] BASS, b[=a]s, _n._ the low or grave part in music.--_adj._ low, deep, grave.--_v.t._ to sound in a deep tone.--_ns._ BASS'-HORN, a musical wind-instrument, a modification of the bassoon, much lower and deeper in its tones; THOR'OUGH-BASS, the theory of harmony. [See BASE, low.] BASS. Same as BAST. BASS, BASSE, bas, _n._ a marine fish allied to the perch. [A.S. _bærs_; cf. Ger. _bars_, the perch.] BASSA, bas'sa, _n._ Same as BASHAW. BASSET, bas'et, _n._ a short-legged dog used in unearthing foxes and badgers: an old Venetian game at cards, resembling faro, widely popular in the 18th century: (_geol._) the outcrop or emergence of mineral strata at the surface.--_v.i._ to incline upward so as to appear at the surface, to crop up.--_n._ BAS'SET-HORN (It. _corno di bassetto_), the richest and softest of all wind-instruments, similar to a clarionet in tone and fingering, but with a twice-bent wooden tube, having a compass of two and a half octaves. [Fr. _bas_, low.] BASSINET, BASSINETTE, bas'si-net, _n._ a kind of basket with a hood in which an infant is placed as in a cradle: a similarly shaped perambulator. [Fr. dim. of _basin_, a basin.] BASSO, bas'so, _n._ the same as BASS (1): also a bass singer. BASSOON, bas-[=oo]n', _n._ (It. _fagotto_) a musical wind-instrument filling an important place in the modern orchestra, of the reed species, made of maple-wood or plane-tree, its compass from B flat below the bass stave to C in the treble.--The DOUBLE BASSOON (It. _contrafagotto_) sounds an octave lower.--_n._ BASSOON'IST. [It. _bassone_, augmentative of _basso_, low, from root of BASE.] BASS-VIOL, b[=a]s'-v[=i]'ol, _n._ a musical instrument with four strings, used for playing the bass in concerted music; the violoncello. [See BASS, low, and VIOL.] BAST, bast, _n._ the inner bark of the lime-tree: matting made of it. [A.S. _bæst_; Dut., Dan., Ger. _bast_.] BASTARD, bas'tard, _n._ a child born of parents not married.--_adj._ born out of wedlock: not genuine: resembling, but not identical with, the species bearing the name: of abnormal shape or size: false.--_n._ BAS'TARD-BAR, a popular but inaccurate name for the baton-sinister in heraldry.--_v.t._ BAS'TARDISE, to prove to be a bastard.--_adv._ BAS'TARDLY (_obs._).--_ns._ BAS'TARD-WING, three, four, or five feathers springing from the side of the wing of a bird near the point, attached to a bony process which is the homologue of the thumb in some mammalia; BAS'TARDY, BAS'TARDISM, the state of being a bastard.--BASTARD TITLE, an abbreviated title of a book on an otherwise blank page preceding the full title-page; BASTARD TYPES, types cast with an extra deep bevel to obviate the use of leads, as Longprimer face on Pica body. [Fr. _bâtard_; O. Fr. _fils de bast_, son of the pack-saddle, _bast_ (_bât_) being a coarse saddle for beasts of burden.] BASTE, b[=a]st, _v.t._ to beat with a stick. [Prob. conn. with Ice. _beysta_, Dan. _böste_, to beat.] BASTE, b[=a]st, _v.t._ to drop fat or butter over meat while roasting to keep it from burning and to improve the flavour. [Ety. unknown.] BASTE, b[=a]st, _v.t._ to sew slightly or with long stitches. [O. Fr. _bastír_, from Old High Ger. _bestan_, to sew.] BASTILLE, bast-[=e]l', _n._ an old fortress in Paris long used as a stale prison, and demolished by a revolutionary mob in July 1789: any prison regarded as a symbol of tyranny. [Fr.--O. Fr. _bastir_ (Fr. _bâtir_), to build.] BASTINADO, bast-in-[=a]d'o, _v.t._ to beat with a baton or stick, esp. on the soles of the feet (a form of punishment in the East):--_pr.p._ bastin[=a]d'ing or bastin[=a]d'oing; _pa.p._ bastin[=a]d'ed or bastin[=a]d'oed.--_ns._ BASTINADE', BASTIN[=A]D'O. [Sp. _bastonada_, Fr. _bastonnade_--_baston_, _bâton_. See BATON.] BASTION, bast'yun, _n._ a kind of tower at the angles of a fortification.--_adj._ BAST'IONED. [Fr.--O. Fr. _bastir_, to build.] BAT, bat, _n._ a heavy stick: a flat club for striking the ball in cricket, a club for base-balls, a batsman: the clown's sword in a pantomime: a piece of brick: (_slang_) rate of speed, style.--_v.i._ to use the bat in cricket:--_pr.p._ bat'ting; _pa.p._ bat'ted.--_ns._ BAT'TER, BATS'MAN, one who wields the bat at cricket, &c.; BAT'TING, the management of a bat in playing games: cotton fibre prepared in sheets. [Perh. from A.S. _bat_ (a doubtful form), prob. Celt. _bat_, staff.] BAT, bat, _n._ an animal with a body like a mouse, but which flies on wings attached mainly to its fore-feet, but extending along its sides to the hind-feet. [M. E. _bakke_, apparently from Scand.; cf. Dan. _aftenbakke_, evening-bat.] BATABLE, b[=a]t'a-bl, _adj._ debatable, disputable. [A contr. of DEBATABLE.] BATATA, ba-tä'ta, _n._ a plant with tuberous roots, the sweet potato. [Sp. _batata_, potato.] BATAVIAN, ba-t[=a]'vi-an, _adj._ pertaining to the ancient _Batavi_ in the Low Countries, or to the modern Dutch, their descendants. BATCH, bach, _n._ the quantity of bread baked or of anything made or got ready at one time: a set. [From BAKE.] BATE. Same as ABATE. BATE, b[=a]t, _n._ (_Spens._) strife, contention.--_adj._ BATE'-BREED'ING (_Shak._). [Abbrev. of DEBATE.] BATE, b[=a]t, _n._ diminution (_dial._, esp. in combination). BATE, b[=a]t, _v.i._ (_Shak._) to beat the wings impatiently: (_obs._) to be impatient. [O. E. _batre_--Low L. _bat[)e]re_.] BATEAU, bä-to', _n._ a light river-boat, esp. those used on Canadian rivers. [Fr.--O. Fr. _batel_, boat.] BATELESS, b[=a]t'les, _adj._ (_Shak._) that cannot be bated or blunted. BATFOWLING, bat'fowl-ing, _n._ the catching birds at night when at roost. [BAT, club, and FOWL.] BATH, bäth, _n._ water for plunging the body into: a bathing: a house for bathing: a place for undergoing medical treatment by means of bathing: (_phot._) a solution in which plates are plunged:--_pl._ BATHS (bä_th_z).--_ns._ BATH'-BRICK, a preparation of siliceous silt, manufactured at Bridgwater in the form of bricks, and used in cleaning knives; BATH'CHAIR, a large wheeled chair for invalids; BATH'HOUSE; BATH'MAN; BATH'ROOM; BATH'-STONE, a building stone quarried at Bath; BATH'WOMAN; BLOOD'-BATH, a massacre.--BATH GUIDE, a poem of the 18th century, often taken as a type of 'Society' verse.--ORDER OF THE BATH, an English order of knighthood, so named from the bath before installation (including three classes--military and civil knights grand-cross, G.C.B.; knights commanders, K.C.B.; and companions, C.B.). [A.S. _bæth_, cog. with Ger. _bad_.] BATH, bäth, _n._ the largest Jewish liquid measure, containing about six gallons. [Heb.] BATHE, b[=a]_th_, _v.t._ to wash as in a bath: to wash or moisten with any liquid: to moisten, suffuse, encompass.--_v.i._ to take a bath.--_n._ the act of taking a bath.--_ns._ BATH'ING-BOX, a box for bathers to undress and dress in; BATH'ING-MACHINE', a small carriage in which a bather may be carried out into water conveniently deep for bathing. [A.S. _bathian_; Old High Ger. _badôn_, _bathôn_ (Ger. _baden_).] BATHOMETER, bath-om'et-[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for ascertaining depth. [Gr. _bathos_, depth, _metron_, measure.] BATHORSE, baw'hors, _n._ a packhorse carrying the baggage of an officer. [Fr. _bât_, a pack-saddle.] BATHOS, b[=a]'thos, _n._ a ludicrous descent from the elevated to the mean in writing or speech.--_adj._ BATHET'IC, irregularly formed on the analogy of _pathos_, _pathetic_. [Gr. _bathos_, depth, from _bathys_, deep.] BATHYBIUS, bath-ib'i-us, _n._ name given to a supposed low form of life at the bottom of some parts of the deep sea. [Formed from Gr. _bathys_, deep, and _bios_, life.] BATHYMETRY, bath-im'et-ri, _n._ the science of measuring the depth of seas and lakes. [Gr. _bathys_, deep, _metria_, measurement.] BATING, b[=a]t'ing, _prep._ abating, excepting. BATISTE, ba-t[=e]st', _n._ usual French name for cambric: applied in commerce to a fine texture of linen and cotton. [Littré derives from _Baptiste_, the original maker; others from its use in wiping the heads of children after baptism.] BATLET, bat'let, _n._ a wooden mallet used by laundresses for beating clothes. [Dim. of BAT.] BATMAN, bat'man, baw'man, _n._ a man who has charge of a bathorse. [See BATHORSE.] [Illustration] BATON, bat'on, BATOON, ba-toon', _n._ a staff or truncheon, esp. of a policeman: a marshal's staff.--_v.t._ to strike with a baton.--_n._ BAT'ON-SIN'ISTER, a well-known heraldic indication of illegitimacy, improperly called BAR-SINISTER, a diminutive of a bend-sinister, not extending to the sides of the shield, so as to resemble a marshal's baton laid diagonally over the family arms from left to right. [Fr. _bâton_--Low L. _basto_, a stick; of unknown origin.] BATRACHIA, ba-tr[=a]'ki-a, _n.pl._ the order of reptiles which includes the frogs.--_adj._ and _n._ BATR[=A]'CHIAN. [From Gr. _batrachos_, a frog.] BATSWING, bats'wing, _n._ a kind of gas-burner, with a slit at the top which causes the flame to take the shape of a bat's wing. BATTA, bat'ta, _n._ an allowance to officers in the British Indian army in addition to their ordinary pay: subsistence money. [Hind.] BATTAILANT, bat't[=a]l-ant, _adj._ (_Spens._) fighting.--_adj._ BAT'TAILOUS (_arch._), war-like. [Fr. _bataillant_, pr.p. of _batailler_, to fight. See BATTLE.] BATTALIA, bat-t[=a]l'ya, _n._ the order of battle: the main body of an army in array. [It. _battaglia_. Doublet of BATTLE.] BATTALIA PIE, bat-t[=a]l'ya p[=i], titbits in a pie: articles like pin-cushions, embroidered by nuns in convents with scenes from the Bible. [Corrupted from Fr. _béatilles_, dim. formed from L. _beatus_.] BATTALION, bat-al'yun, _n._ a body of soldiers consisting of several companies: a body of men drawn up in battle-array. [Fr.; from root of BATTLE.] BATTELS, bat'lz, _n.pl._ an Oxford term signifying accounts for provisions received from college kitchens and butteries: applied generally to the whole of the sums for tuition, &c., charged in college accounts.--_v.i._ BAT'TILL, BAT'TEL (_Spens._), to fatten. [Late L. _batilli_, perh. conn. with BATTLE, to feed.] BATTEN, bat'n, _v.i._ to grow fat: to live in luxury.--_v.t._ (_obs._) to fatten. [Ice. _batna_, to grow better--_bati_, advantage; cf. Dut. _baten_, to avail.] BATTEN, bat'n, _n._ a piece of board: a ledge, clamp: in ships, a strip of wood used to fasten down the hatches.--_n._ BAT'TENING, battens forming a structure. [Same as BATON.] BATTER, bat'er, _v.t._ to beat with successive blows: to wear with beating or by use: to attack with artillery.--_n._ ingredients beaten along with some liquid into a paste: paste for sticking.--_ns._ BAT'TERING-CHARGE, the full charge of powder for a cannon; BAT'TERING-RAM, an ancient engine for battering down walls, consisting of a large beam with an iron head like that of a ram. [O. Fr. _batre_ (Fr. _battre_), from the root of BAT.] BATTER, bat'[.e]r, _n._ the inclination of a wall from the perpendicular.--_v.i._ to slope backward from the perpendicular. [Perh. from Fr. _battre_, to beat down.] BATTERY, bat'[.e]r-i, _n._ (_Shak._) a wound: a number of cannon with their equipment: the place on which cannon are mounted: the men and horses attending one battery, constituting the unit in the artillery: an instrument used in electric and galvanic experiments: (_law_) an assault by beating or wounding: apparatus for preparing or serving meals.--CROSS BATTERIES, two batteries commanding the same spot from different directions; FLOATING BATTERY (see FLOAT); MASKED BATTERY, a battery in action out of the enemy's view; TO CHANGE ONE'S BATTERY, to alter the direction of attacking. BATTLE, bat'l, _n._ a contest between opposing armies: a fight or encounter: (_arch._) a body of troops in battle array, esp. in phrase 'main battle.'--_v.i._ to contend in fight: to maintain, champion (with _against_, _with_).--_ns._ BAT'TLE-AXE, -AX, a kind of axe once used in battle; BAT'TLE-CRY, a war-shout; BAT'TLEFIELD, the place on which a battle is fought; BAT'TLE-PIECE, a passage, or a painting, describing a battle.--_adj._ BAT'TLE-SCARRED, scarred in battle.--_ns._ BAT'TLESHIP, a war-ship of the first class; PITCHED'-BAT'TLE, a battle fought on chosen ground.--BATTLE ROYAL, a general mêlée--HALF THE BATTLE, said of anything which ensures success.--LINE OF BATTLE, troops in array for battle; LINE-OF-BATTLE SHIP, a ship strong enough to form one of the line.--TO JOIN, DO BATTLE, to fight. [Fr. _bataille_--_battre_, to beat. See BATTER.] BATTLE, bat'l, _adj._ (_dial._) nourishing.--_v.t._ (_obs._) to feed. [Most prob. from Ice. _bati_, improvement. See BATTEN.] BATTLEDOOR, BATTLEDORE, bat'l-d[=o]r, _n._ a light bat for striking a ball or shuttlecock.--NOT TO KNOW A B FROM A BATTLEDOOR, to be thoroughly ignorant. [Sp. _batidor_, a beater, a washing-beetle; but this is doubtful.] BATTLEMENT, bat'l-ment, _n._ a wall or parapet on the top of a building with openings or embrasures, originally used only on fortifications: the towering roof of heaven,--_adj._ BAT'TLEMENTED, fortified with battlements--also _pa.p._ BAT'TLED (_poet._). BATTOLOGY, bat-ol'o-ji, _n._ repetition in speech or writing.--_adj._ BATTOLOG'ICAL. [Gr. _battos_, a person who repeated himself, and _legein_, to speak.] BATTUE, bat-t[=oo]', _n._ a method of hunting in which the woods are beaten and the game driven from cover into some place for the convenience of the shooters: any indiscriminate slaughter. [Fr.--_battre_, to beat.] [Illustration] BAUBLE, baw'bl, _n._ a trifling piece of finery: a child's plaything: a stick surmounted by a head with ass's ears, and forming the mock emblem of the court-jester: a piece of childish foolery: (_Shak._) a foolish person.--_adj._ BAU'BLING (_obs._), trifling. [O. Fr. _babel_, prob. from the root seen in L. _babulus_, a babbler.] BAUDEKIN, bawd'i-kin, BAWDKIN, bawd'kin. Same as BALDACHIN. BAUDRIC, bawd'rik. Same as BALDRICK. BAUDRONS, bawd'runs, _n._ Scotch name for the cat. [Perh. of Celt. origin; cf. Ir. _beadrac_, frolicsome, Gael. _beadrach_, a frolicsome girl.] BAUK, BAULK. Same as BALK. BAUSOND, bawz'ond, _adj._ (_obs._) having white spots, esp. on the forehead, or a white stripe down the face.--_adj._ BAUS'ON-FACED (_Scott_), with a face like a badger. [O. Fr. _bausant_ (It. _balzano_), black and white spotted. Further ety. dub.] BAUXITE, b[=o]'z[=i]t, _n._ a clay found at Les _Baux_, near Arles, yielding alumina.--Also BEAU'XITE. BAVARDAGE, bav-ar-d[=a]j', _n._ chattering. [Fr. _bavard_, garrulous--_bave_, drivel.] BAVIN, bav'in, _n._ a fagot of brushwood.--BAVIN WITS (_Shak._), wits that blaze and die like bavins. [O. Fr. _baffe_, a fagot; but this is doubtful.] BAWBEE, baw-b[=e]', _n._ a halfpenny: originally a Scotch coin of base silver equivalent to six Scotch pennies. [Ety. dub., but very prob. derived from a 16th-cent. Scotch mint-master, the laird of _Sillebawby_; others identify with 'baby.'] BAWBLE. Same as BAUBLE. BAWCOCK, baw'kok, _n._ (_Shak._) a fine fellow. [From Fr. _beau_, fine, and _coq_, a cock.] BAWD, bawd, _n._ a procurer or procuress of women for lewd purposes--_fem._ only since about 1700.--_n._ BAWD'RY.--_adj._ BAWD'Y, obscene, unchaste, filthy.--_n._ BAWD'Y-HOUSE, a brothel. [Perh. abbrev. from BAWD'STROT, a word for a pander, now obsolete, derived from O. Fr. _baldestrot_--_bald_, gay, and perh. the Teut. root found in _strut_.] BAWD, bawd, _n._ (_Shak._) a hare. [Perh. a contr. of BAUDRONS.] BAWL, bawl, _v.i._ to shout or cry out loudly (with _at_, _against_).--_n._ a loud cry or shout.--_n._ BAWL'ER. [Perh. from Low L. _baulare_, to bark like a dog; but cf. Ice. _baula_, to low like a cow, _baula_, a cow.] BAWN, bawn, _n._ a fortification round a house: an enclosure for cattle. [Ir. _bábhun_, enclosure.] BAXTER. See BAKE. BAY, b[=a], _adj._ reddish brown inclining to chestnut.--_n._ elliptical for 'bay-horse.'--_n._ BAYARD (b[=a]'ard), a bay-horse: a name for any horse generally, from 'Bayard,' the famous bay-coloured magic horse given to Renaud by Charlemagne: a man recklessly blind to danger: a fellow bold in his ignorance: a type of the knight, from _Bayard_ (1476-1524), 'the knight without fear and without reproach.' [Fr. _bai_--L. _badius_, chestnut-coloured.] BAY, b[=a], _n._ an inlet of the sea with a wider opening than a gulf: an inward bend of the shore. [Fr. _baie_--Low L. _baia_, a harbour.] [Illustration] BAY, b[=a], _n._ the space between two columns: (_Shak._) the space under one house gable: any recess.--_n._ BAY'-WIN'DOW, any window forming a recess.--_adj._ BAY'-WIN'DOWED. [O. Fr. _baée_--_baer_, to gape, be open; prob. conn. with the foregoing word.] BAY, b[=a], _n._ the laurel-tree: (_pl._) an honorary garland or crown of victory, originally of laurel: literary renown.--_ns._ BAY'BERRY; BAY'-RUM, an aromatic stimulant used for the skin and hair, and prepared by distilling the leaves of the bay-berry (_Pimenta acris_) with rum, or otherwise mixing the volatile oil of the leaves with alcohol. [O. Fr. _baie_, a berry--L. _baca_.] BAY, b[=a], _n._ barking, baying (esp. of a dog when in pursuit): the combined cry of hounds in conflict with a hunted animal: used often of the last stand of a hunted animal when it faces the hounds at close quarters.--_v.i._ to bark (esp. of large dogs).--_v.t._ to bark at: to utter by baying: to follow with barking: to bring to bay.--TO HOLD, KEEP AT BAY, said of the hunted animal; TO STAND, BE, AT BAY, at close quarters. [These senses show a confusion of two distinct words, according to Murray: (1) to hold at bay = O. Fr. _tenir a bay_ = It. _tenere a bada_, _bay_, _bada_, denoting the suspense indicated by the open mouth; (2) in the phrase 'to stand at bay,' the word points to O. Fr. _abai_, barking, _bayer_, to bark.] BAY, BAYE, b[=a], _v.t._ (_Spens._) to bathe. BAYADÈRE, b[=a]-ya-d[=e]r', _n._ a Hindu dancing-girl. [Fr.--Port. _bailadeira_.] BAYONET, b[=a]'on-et, _n._ a stabbing instrument of steel fixed to the muzzle of a musket or rifle: military force: (_pl._) soldiers armed with bayonets.--_v.t._ to stab with a bayonet. [Fr. _baïonnette_, perh. from _Bayonne_, in France, where it was supposed to have been first made; others derive from O. Fr. _bayon_, arrow.] BAYOU, b[=a]'[=oo], _n._ name given to the marshy offshoots of lakes and rivers, esp. in North America. [Perh. corrupted from Fr. _boyau_, gut.] BAY-SALT, b[=a]'-sält, _n._ salt obtained by slow evaporation originally from sea-water. [Prob. from BAY, an inlet, and SALT.] BAZAAR, BAZAR, ba-zär', _n._ an Eastern marketplace or exchange: a fancy fair in imitation of an Eastern bazaar. [Pers. _b[=a]z[=a]r_, a market.] BDELLIUM, del'i-um, _n._ a kind of gum. [Gr. _bdellion_, used to translate, but prob. unconnected with Heb. _b'd[=o]lakh_, Gen. ii. 12.] BE, b[=e], _v.i._ to live: to exist: to have a certain state or quality:--_pr.p._ b[=e]'ing; _pa.p._ been.--_n._ BE'-ALL (_Shak._), the whole being. [A.S. _béon_; Ger. _bin_; Gael. _bi_, to exist; W. _byw_, to live; Gr. _phu-ein_, L. _fui_, _fio_, Sans. _bhu_, to be, orig. meaning to grow.] BEACH, b[=e]ch, _n._ the shore of the sea or of a lake, esp. when sandy or pebbly: the strand.--_v.t._ to haul a boat up on the beach.--_n._ BEACH'-COMB'ER, a long rolling wave: a drunken loafer about the wharfs in Pacific seaports: a settler on a Pacific island who maintains himself by pearl-fishery, and often by less reputable means.--_adjs._ BEACHED, having a beach, driven on a beach; BEACH'Y, pebbly. [Orig. a prov. Eng. word for shingle. The derivation from Ice. _bakki_, bank, is untenable.] BEACON, b[=e]'kn, _n._ a fire on an eminence used as a sign of danger: a hill on which such could be lighted: anything that warns of danger, esp. an erection of stone, wood, or iron often bearing a light, and marking rocks or shoals in rivers or navigable channels.--_v.t._ to act as a beacon to: to light up: to mark by means of beacons.--_n._ FLOAT'ING-BEA'CON, a light-ship. [A.S. _béacn_, a beacon, a sign.] BEAD, b[=e]d, _n._ a little ball pierced for stringing, a series of which forms the _rosary_ or _paternoster_, used in counting the prayers recited: any small ball of glass, amber, &c. strung in a series to form a necklace: a bead-like drop: the small knob of metal forming the front-sight of a gun--whence the Americanism, TO DRAW A BEAD UPON = to take aim at: (_archit._) a narrow moulding with semicircular section.--_v.t._ to furnish with beads.--_v.i._ to form a bead or beads.--_adj._ BEAD'ED, furnished with beads.--_ns._ BEAD'-HOUSE, a house for poor people who were required to pray for the soul of the founder: an almshouse; BEAD'ING, a moulding in imitation of beads.--_adj._ BEAD'-PROOF, of such proof or strength as to carry beads or bubbles when shaken, as alcoholic liquors.--_ns._ BEAD'-ROLL, in pre-Reformation times, a roll or list of the dead to be prayed for, hence a list of names, a long series: a rosary; BEADS'MAN, BEDES'MAN, one employed to pray for others, or one endowed to do so: (_Scot._) a public alms-man or licensed beggar:--_fem._ BEADS'WOMAN.--_adj._ BEAD'Y, bead-like, small and bright (of eyes): covered with beads or bubbles.--TO SAY, TELL, COUNT ONE'S BEADS, to offer a prayer. [A.S. _bed_, _gebed_, a prayer, from _biddan_, to pray. See BID.] BEADLE, b[=e]d'l, _n._ a mace-bearer (esp. of the '_bedels_' or '_bedells_,' official attendants of the Oxford and Cambridge vice-chancellors): a petty officer of a church, college, parish, &c.: a parish officer with the power of punishing petty offenders: in Scotland, used of the 'church-officer' attending on the clergyman: (_obs._) a messenger or crier of a court.--_ns._ BEAD'LEDOM, BEAD'LEHOOD, stupid officiousness; BEAD'LESHIP, BED'ELSHIP, the office of beadle or bedel. [A.S. _bydel_--_béodan_, to proclaim, to bid.] BEADMAN. Same as BEADSMAN (q.v. under BEAD). BEAGLE, b[=e]'gl, _n._ a small hound tracking by scent, formerly much used in hunting hares, but now superseded by the harrier: a spy: a bailiff: a small kind of shark.--The beagle was often followed by men on foot, hence FOOT'-BEA'GLE. [Ety. unknown. The Fr. _bigle_ is borrowed from English. Dr Murray suggests Fr. _bégueule_, from _béer_, to gape, and _gueule_, throat.] BEAK, b[=e]k, _n._ the bill of a bird: anything pointed or projecting: the nose: in the ancient galley, a pointed iron fastened to the prow for piercing the enemy's vessel: (_slang_) a magistrate.--_adj._ BEAKED (b[=e]kt). [O. Fr. _bec_--Low L. _beccus_, of Celt. (Gaulish) origin.] BEAKER, b[=e]k'[.e]r, _n._ a large drinking-bowl or cup, or its contents: a glass vessel marked for measuring liquids, with a beak or pointed mouth, used by chemists. [Scand. _bikarr_ (Scot. _bicker_), prob. from Low L. _bicarium_, acc. to Diez from Gr. _bikos_, a drinking-bowl.] BEAM, b[=e]m, _n._ a large and straight piece of timber or iron forming one of the main supports against lateral pressure of a building, ship, &c.: (_fig._) from the figure of the mote and the beam--Matt. vii. 3: any of the transverse pieces of framing extending across a ship's hull, the greatest width of a ship or boat: the part of a balance from which the scales hang: the pole of a carriage: a cylinder of wood in a loom: a ray of light.--_v.t._ to send forth light: to shine.--_n._ BEAM'-EN'GINE, a steam-engine which has a beam connecting the piston-rod with the crank of the wheel-shaft, as distinguished from one that has its piston-rod directly attached to the crank.--_adv._ BEAM'ILY.--_n._ BEAM'INESS.--_adjs._ BEAM'LESS, without beams: emitting no rays of light; BEAM'Y, shining.--A BEAM SEA, one rolling against the ship's side.--BEFORE THE BEAM, the bearing of any object when seen more in advance than _on_ the beam; ABAFT THE BEAM, the reverse.--LEE or WEATHER BEAM, the side away from _or_ towards the wind.--ON HER BEAM ENDS, a phrase applied to the position of a ship when so much inclined to one side that the beams become nearly vertical.--ON THE STARBOARD BEAM, applied to any distant point out at sea, at right angles to the keel, and on the starboard or right-hand (as viewed from the stern) side of the ship; ON THE PORT BEAM similarly applies to the left hand. [A.S. _béam_, a tree, stock of a tree, a ray of light; Ger. _baum_, a tree; Gr. _phyma_, a growth--_phy-ein_, to grow.] BEAN, b[=e]n, _n._ the name of several kinds of leguminous plants and their seeds: applied also to the seeds of some other plants, from their bean-like form, as the Calabar bean, &c.--_ns._ BEAN'-FEAST, an annual dinner given by employers to their hands, perhaps from there having been served on such occasions _beans_ or a BEAN'-GOOSE, a species of goose said to be so called from its fondness for devouring new-sown beans; BEAN'-KING, the king of the festivities on Twelfth Night, chosen on his finding a bean hidden in the Twelfth Cake. [A.S. _béan_; Ger. _bohne_, W. _ffäen_; L. _faba_.] BEAR, b[=a]r, _v.t._ to carry or support: to endure: to admit of: to be entitled to: to afford: to import: to manage: to behave or conduct one's self: to bring forth or produce.--_v.i._ to suffer: to be patient: to have reference to: to press (with _on_ or _upon_): to be situated:--_pr.p._ bear'ing; _pa.t._ b[=o]re; _pa.p._ b[=o]rne (but the _pa.p._ when used to mean 'brought forth' is _born_).--_adj._ BEAR'ABLE, that may be borne or endured.--_n._ BEAR'ABLENESS.--_adv._ BEAR'ABLY.--_ns._ BEAR'ER, one who or that which bears, esp. one who assists in carrying a body to the grave: a carrier or messenger; BEAR'ING, behaviour: situation of one object with regard to another: relation: that which is borne upon an escutcheon: (_mach._) the part of a shaft or axle in contact with its supports; BEAR'ING-CLOTH, the mantle or cloth in which a child was carried to the font; BEAR'ING-REIN, the fixed rein between the bit and the saddle, by which a horse's head is held up in driving and its neck made to arch.--BEAR HARD (_Shak._), to press or urge; BEAR IN HAND (_Shak._), to keep in expectation, to flatter one's hopes; TO BEAR A HAND, to give assistance; TO BEAR AWAY, to sail away; TO BEAR DOWN (with _upon_ or _towards_), to sail with the wind; TO BEAR OUT, to corroborate; TO BEAR UP, to keep up one's courage; TO BEAR UP FOR (_a place_), to sail towards; TO BEAR WITH, to make allowance for; TO BE BORNE IN (upon the) MIND, to be forcibly impressed upon it; TO BRING TO BEAR, to bring into operation (with _against_, _upon_); TO LOSE ONE'S BEARINGS, to become uncertain as to one's position. [A.S. _beran_; Goth. _bairan_, L. _ferre_, Gr. _pher-ein_, Sans. _bhri_.] BEAR, an obsolete form of BIER. BEAR, b[=a]r, _n._ a heavy quadruped of the order Carnivora, with long shaggy hair and hooked claws: any rude, rough, or ill-bred fellow: one who sells stocks for delivery at a future date, anticipating a fall in price so that he may buy first at an advantage--opp. to _Bull_: the old phrase 'a bearskin jobber' suggests an origin in the common proverb, 'to sell the bearskin before one has caught the bear' (hence TO BEAR, to speculate for a fall): (_astron._) the name of two constellations, the Great and the Little Bear.--_ns._ BEAR'-BER'RY, a trailing plant of the heath family, a species of the Arbutus; BEAR'BINE, a species of convolvulus, closely allied to the bindweed; BEAR'-GAR'DEN, an enclosure where bears are kept; a rude, turbulent assembly.--_adj._ BEAR'ISH, like a bear.--_ns._ BEAR'ISHNESS; BEAR'-LEAD'ER, a person who leads about a bear for exhibition: the tutor or governor of a youth at the university or on travel; BEAR'S'-BREECH, a common name for plants of the genus Acanthus; BEAR'S'-EAR, a common English name for the auricula; BEAR'S'-FOOT, a species of hellebore; BEAR'SKIN, the skin of a bear: a shaggy woollen cloth for overcoats: the high fur cap worn by the Guards in England; BEAR'-WARD, a warden or keeper of bears. [A.S. _bera_; Ger. _bär_; cf. L. _fera_, a wild beast, akin to Gr. _th[=e]r_, Æolian _ph[=e]r_.] BEAR, b[=e]r, _n._ barley, applied in Scotland to the now little grown variety _Hordeum hexastichon_. [A.S. _bere_.] BEARD, b[=e]rd, _n._ the hair that grows on the chin and adjacent parts of a grown man's face: the tuft on the lower jaw of a goat, seal, &c.: the barbel of the cod, loach, &c.; prickles on the ears of corn: the barb of an arrow: the gills of oysters, &c.--_v.t._ to take by the beard: to oppose to the face.--_adj._ BEARD'ED, having a beard: prickly: barbed.--_n._ BEARD'-GRASS, a kind of bearded grass.--_adj._ BEARD'LESS. [A.S.; W. _barf_, Ger. _bart_, Russ. _boroda_, L. _barba_.] BEAST, b[=e]st, _n._ an irrational animal, as opposed to man: a four-footed animal: a brutal person: the Beast, Antichrist in the Revelation--dim. BEAST'IES.--_n.pl._ BEAST'-F[=A]'BLES, stories in which animals play human parts--a widely-spread primitive form of literature, often surviving in more or less developed forms in the more advanced civilisations.--_ns._ BEAST'HOOD; BEAST'LIHEAD (_Spens._), the state or nature of a beast, beastliness; BEAST'LINESS.--_adj._ BEAST'LY, like a beast in actions or behaviour: coarse: obscene: (_colloq._) vile, disagreeable. [O. Fr. _beste_ (Fr. _bête_)--L. _bestia_.] BEASTINGS. Same as BIESTINGS. BEAT, b[=e]t, _v.t._ to strike repeatedly: to break or bruise: to strike, as bushes, in order to rouse game: to thrash: to overcome: to be too difficult for: to spread flat and thin by beating with a tool, as gold by a gold-beater--also TO BEAT OUT.--_v.i._ to give strokes repeatedly: to throb: to dash, as a flood or storm:--_pr.p._ beat'ing; _pa.t._ beat; _pa.p._ beat'en.--_n._ a recurrent stroke: a stroke recurring at intervals, or its sound, as of a watch or the pulse: a round or course, as a policeman's _beat_: a place of resort.--_adj._ weary: fatigued.--_adj._ BEAT'EN, made smooth or hard by beating or treading: trite: worn by use.--_ns._ BEAT'ER, one that beats or strikes: one who rouses or beats up game: a crushing instrument; BEAT'ING, the act of striking: chastisement by blows: regular pulsation or throbbing: rousing of game: exercising the brain.--BEATEN WORK, metal shaped by being hammered on an anvil or block of the necessary shape.--DEAD BEAT, completely exhausted.--TO BEAT ABOUT THE BUSH, to approach a subject in an indirect way; TO BEAT A RETREAT, to retreat, originally to beat the drum as a signal for retreat; TO BEAT OFF, to drive back; TO BEAT OUT, to work out fully, to make gold or silver leaf out of solid metal; TO BEAT THE AIR, to fight to no purpose, or against an imaginary enemy; TO BEAT THE BOUNDS, to trace out the boundaries of a parish in a periodic survey or perambulation, certain natural objects in the line of journey being formally struck with a rod, and sometimes also the boys whipped to make them remember; TO BEAT THE BRAINS, to puzzle one's brains about something; TO BEAT THE TATTOO (_mil._), to sound the drum for evening roll-call; TO BEAT UP, to alarm by a sudden attack: to disturb: to pay an untimeous visit to any one--also in 'to beat up for recruits,' to go about a town to enlist men. [A.S. _béatan_, pa.t. _béot_.] BEATH, b[=e]th, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to bathe. [A.S. _bethian_, to foment.] BEATIFY, b[=e]-at'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to make blessed or happy: to declare to be in the enjoyment of eternal happiness in heaven.--_adjs._ BEATIF'IC, -AL, making supremely happy.--_adv._ BEATIF'ICALLY.--_n._ BEATIFIC[=A]'TION, act of beatifying: (_R.C. Church_) a declaration by the Pope that a person is blessed in heaven, authorising a certain definite form of public reverence payable to him--the first step to canonisation.--BEATIFIC VISION, a glimpse of the glory of heaven, esp. that which first bursts upon the disembodied soul. [L. _beatus_, blessed, and _fac[)e]re_, to make.] BEATITUDE, b[=e]-at'i-t[=u]d, _n._ heavenly happiness, or happiness of the highest kind: (_pl._) sayings of Christ in Matt. v., declaring the possessors of certain virtues to be blessed. [L. _beatitudo_--_beatus_, blessed.] BEAU, b[=o], _n._ a man attentive to dress or fashion: a fop or dandy: a lover:--_pl._ BEAUX (b[=o]z):--_fem._ BELLE.--_n._ BEAU'-ID[=E]'AL, ideal excellence, or an imaginary standard of perfection: the person in which such is realised.--_adj._ BEAU'ISH.--_ns._ BEAU'-MONDE, the gay or fashionable world; _Beaupere'_ (_Spens._), a term of courtesy for 'father,' esp. of ecclesiastical persons: a companion. [Fr. _beau_, _bel_--L. _bellus_, fine, gay, as if for a _benulus_, dim. of _benus_ = _bonus_, good.] BEAUJOLAIS, b[=o]-zh[=o]-l[=a], _n._ a kind of red wine produced in South-eastern France. [From _Beaujolais_, a subdivision of the old province of Lyonnais.] BEAUNE, b[=o]n, _n._ a red wine of Burgundy. [From the town of _Beaune_.] BEAUTY, b[=u]'ti, _n._ a pleasing combination of qualities in a person or object: a particular grace or excellence: a beautiful person, esp. a woman, also applied collectively to the beautiful women of a special place: (_pl._) beautiful passages or extracts from the poets.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to make beautiful.--_adj._ BEAU'TEOUS, full of beauty: fair: handsome.--_adv._ BEAU'TEOUSLY.--_ns._ BEAU'TEOUSNESS; BEAU'TIFIER, one who or that which beautifies or makes beautiful.--_adj._ BEAU'TIFUL, fair: with qualities that give delight to the senses, esp. the eye and ear, or which awaken admiration in the mind.--_adv._ BEAU'TIFULLY.--_v.t._ BEAU'TIFY, to make beautiful: to grace: to adorn.--_v.i._ (_rare_) to become beautiful, or more beautiful.--_ns._ BEAU'TY-SLEEP, the sleep before midnight, considered the most refreshing; BEAU'TY-SPOT, a patch placed on the face to heighten or draw attention to a woman's beauty; a foil, or anything that emphasises beauty by contrast. [O. Fr. _biaute_ (Fr. _beauté_)--Low L. _bellitat-em_--L. _bellus_.] BEAUXITE. See BAUXITE. BEAVER, b[=e]v'[.e]r, _n._ an amphibious rodent quadruped valuable for its fur: the fur of the beaver: a hat made of the beaver's fur: a hat: a glove of beaver fur.--_adj._ BEAV'ERISH (_Carlyle_), like a beaver, merely instinctive.--_n._ BEAV'ERY, a place where beavers are kept. [A.S. _befer_, _beofor_; Dut. _bever_, Ger. _biber_, Gael, _beabhar_, L. _fiber_.] BEAVER, b[=e]v'[.e]r, _n._ in medieval armour, the covering for the lower part of the face, the visor being that for the upper part--later the movable beaver was confounded with the visor.--_adj._ BEAV'ERED. [So called from a fancied likeness to a child's bib. O. Fr. _bavière_, from _bave_, slaver.] BEBEERU, b[=e]-b[=e]'r[=oo], _n._ the native name of the green-heart tree of Guiana.--_n._ BEBEERINE (b[=e]-b[=e]'rin), an alkaloid yielded by it, and used as a substitute for quinine. BEBLUBBERED, be-blub'[.e]rd, _p.adj._ disfigured by weeping [Pfx. _be-_, and BLUBBER.] BECALL, be-kawl', _v.t._ to call names, miscall. BECALM, be-käm', _v.t._ to make calm, still, or quiet.--_p.adj._ BECALMED', motionless from want of wind. [Pfx. _be-_, and CALM.] BECAME, be-k[=a]m', _pa.t._ of BECOME. BECAUSE, be-kawz', _adv._ and _conj._ because of: for the reason that: on account of: for (followed by _of_). [Prep. _by_, and CAUSE.] BECCAFICO, bek-a-f[=e]'ko, _n._ a small bird of the family of Sylviadæ or Warblers, considered a delicacy by the Italians:--_pl._ BECCAFI'COES. [It., from _beccare_ to peck, and _fico_, a fig.] BECHANCE, be-chans', _v.t._ to happen by chance: to befall--_adv._ by chance: accidentally. [A.S. _be-_, by, and CHANCE.] BECHARM, be-chärm', _v.t._ to charm: to enchant. BÊCHE-DE-MER, b[=a]sh'-d[.e]-m[=a]r, _n._ the trepang or sea-slug, a species of Holothuria, much esteemed in China as a food delicacy. [Fr.] BECK, bek, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as BEAK. BECK, bek, _n._ a brook. [Ice. _bekkr_; Ger. _bach_.] BECK, bek, _n._ a sign with the finger or head: a nod: (_Scot._) a gesture of salutation.--_v.i._ to make such a sign.--_v.t._ to call by a nod.--AT ONE'S BECK, subject to one's will. [A contr. of BECKON.] BECKET, bek'et, _n._ (_naut._) a loop of rope having a knot at one end and an eye at the other: a large hook, or a wooden bracket used to keep loose tackle or spars in a convenient place. [Prob. Dut. _bogt_, _bocht_, a 'bend' of rope.] BECKON, bek'n, _v.t._ to nod or make a sign to. [A.S. _bíecnan_--_béacn_, a sign. See BEACON.] BECLOUD, be-klowd', _v.t._ to obscure by clouds: to dim. BECOME, be-kum', _v.i._ to pass from one state to another: to come to be: to be the fate or end of (followed by _of_).--_v.t._ to suit or befit, to grace or adorn fittingly (with _dat._ object):--_pa.t._ bec[=a]me'; _pa.p._ become'.--_adj._ BECOM'ING, suitable to: graceful.--_adv._ BECOM'INGLY.--_n._ BECOM'INGNESS. [A.S. _becuman_. See COME.] BECURL, be-kurl', _v.t._ to curl. BED, bed, _n._ a couch or place to sleep on: a plot in a garden: a place in which anything rests, in carpentry, architecture, &c.: conjugal union, the marriage-bed, matrimonial rights and duties: the channel of a river: (_geol._) a layer or stratum.--_v.t._ to place in bed, as a couple after a wedding: to provide a bed, or to make a bed, for: to sow or plant: to lay in layers.--_v.i._ to cohabit or use the same bed with another:--_pr.p._ bed'ding; _pa.p._ bed'ded.--_ns._ BED'CHAMBER (see BED'ROOM); BED'DING, a collective name for the mattress, bed-clothes, &c., also litter for cattle.--_adj._ BED'FAST, confined to bed.--_ns._ BED'FELLOW, a sharer of the same bed; BED'MAKER, the name at Cambridge and elsewhere for those who make the beds and sweep the rooms in college; BED'-OF-HON'OUR, the grave of a soldier who has fallen in battle; BED'-OF-JUS'TICE (Fr. _lit. de justice_), the king's throne in the Parlement of Paris, also a sitting at which the king was present, chiefly for the registration of his own decrees; BED'PLATE (_mech._), the foundation plate of an engine, lathe, &c.; BED'POST, a post forming an angle of a bedstead, often in former days high enough to support a canopy; BED'PRESSER (_Shak._), a heavy, lazy fellow.--_adjs._ BED'RID, BED'RIDDEN, confined to bed by age or sickness: worn out.--_ns._ BED'RIGHT (_Shak._), the privilege of the marriage-bed; BED'ROCK, the solid rock underneath superficial formations; BED'ROOM, a room in which there is a bed: a sleeping apartment--_Bedchamber_ was the earlier form.--_n.pl._ BED'-SORES, painful ulcers that often arise in a long confinement to bed, esp. over the bony prominences of the body--the lower parts of the spine, the haunch bones, the heel, and the elbow.--_ns._ BED'-STAFF, a staff or stick formerly used about a bed, in old times a handy weapon, whence perhaps the phrase, 'in the twinkling of a bed-staff;' BED'STEAD, a frame for supporting a bed; BED'STRAW, the name applied to a genus of the Rubiaceæ, of which eleven species are found in England, the most familiar our Lady's Bedstraw, or Yellow Bedstraw (_Galium verum_), sometimes called Cheese Rennet from its property of curdling milk; BED'SWERVER (_Shak._), one who is false to his marriage vow; BED'TICK, the case in which feathers, hair, chaff, &c. are put for bedding.--_adv._ BED'WARD, in the direction of bed: towards bedtime.--_n._ BED'WORK (_Shak._), work easily performed, as if done in bed.--BED AND BOARD, food and lodging: full connubial relations; BED OF DOWN, or ROSES, any easy or comfortable place.--LORDS OF THE BEDCHAMBER, twelve officers in the British royal household who wait in turn upon the sovereign's person; in the reign of a queen the office is performed by ladies.--TO BE BROUGHT TO BED, to be confined in child-birth (with _of_); TO KEEP ONE'S BED, to remain in bed; TO LIE IN THE BED ONE HAS MADE, to have to accept the consequences of one's own conduct; TO MAKE A BED, to put a bed in order after it has been used. [A.S. _bed_; Ger. _bett_, Ice. _bedr_.] BEDABBLE, be-dab'l, _v.t._ to dabble or wet. [Pfx. _be-_, and DABBLE.] BEDAD, be-dad', _interj._ an Irish minced oath, from _begad_ = by God. BEDAGGLE, be-dag'l, _v.t._ to soil by dragging along the wet ground. BEDARKEN, be-dark'n, _v.t._ to cover with darkness. BEDASH, be-dash', _v.t._ to bespatter with water. BEDAUB, be-dawb', _v.t._ to daub over or smear with any dirty matter. BEDAZZLE, be-daz'l, _v.t._ to dazzle or overpower by any strong light.--_pa.p._ BEDAZ'ZLED, BEDAZED', stupefied, besotted.--_n._ BEDAZ'ZLEMENT. BEDE. Same as BEAD, a prayer. BEDEAFEN, be-def'n, _v.t._ to make deaf: to stun. BEDECK, be-dek', _v.t._ to deck or ornament. BEDEGUAR, bed'e-gar, _n._ a soft spongy gall found on the branches of some species of roses, esp. the sweet-brier, called also the sweet-brier sponge. [Through Fr. from Pers. and Ar. _b[=a]d[=a]-war_, lit. 'wind-brought.'] BEDEL, b[=e]'dl, BEDELL, be-del', archaic forms of BEADLE (q.v.), still used at Oxford and Cambridge. BEDESMAN. Same as BEADSMAN (q.v. under BEAD). BEDEVIL, be-dev'il, _v.t._ to throw into confusion: to 'play the devil' with: to torment: to treat with devilish malignity.--_pass._ to be possessed of a devil, to be devil-rid.--_n._ BEDEV'ILMENT. BEDEW, be-d[=u]', _v.t._ to moisten gently, as with dew. BEDIGHT, be-d[=i]t', _adj._ (_poet._) adorned. [Pfx. _be-_, and DIGHT.] BEDIM, be-dim', _v.t._ to make dim or dark.--_pa.p._ BEDIMMED'. BEDIZEN, be-d[=i]z'n, _v.t._ to dress gaudily.--_adj._ BEDIZ'ENED.--_n._ BEDIZ'ENMENT. BEDLAM, bed'lam, _n._ an asylum for lunatics: a madhouse: a place of uproar.--_adj._ fit for a madhouse.--_ns._ BED'LAMISM, anything characteristic of madness; BED'LAMITE, a madman. [Corrupted from _Bethlehem_ (St Mary of Bethlehem), the name of a priory in London, afterwards converted into a madhouse.] BEDOUIN, bed'[=oo]-in, _n._ the name given to those Arabs who live in tents and lead a nomadic life. [Fr.--Ar. _b[=a]d[=a]win_, dwellers in the desert.] BEDRAGGLE, be-drag'l, _v.t._ to soil by dragging in the wet or dirt--most common, the _p.adj._ BEDRAG'GLED. [See DRAGGLE.] BEDRAL, bed'ral, _n._ a beadle.--Also BED'ERAL. [A Scand. form of BEADLE.] BEDRENCH, be-drensh', _v.t._ to drench or wet thoroughly. BEDROP, be-drop', _v.t._ to drop upon.--_pa.p._ BEDROPT', sprinkled as with drops: strewn. BEDUCK, be-duk', _v.t._ to duck or plunge under water. BEDUIN, a form of BEDOUIN. BEDUNG, be-dung', _v.t._ to manure: to befoul with dung. BEDUST, be-dust', _v.t._ to cover with dust. BEDWARF, be-dwawrf', _v.t._ to make dwarfish. BEDYE, be-d[=i]', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to dye or stain. BEE, b[=e], _n._ a four-winged insect that makes honey: (_U.S._) a gathering of persons to unite their labour for the benefit of one individual or family, or for some joint amusement or exercise, as 'a quilting bee,' 'a husking bee,' 'a spelling bee' (from the bee's habit of combined labour).--Compound words are BEE'-FLOW'ER, BEE'-GAR'DEN, BEE'-HOUSE, BEE'-MAS'TER.--_ns._ BEE'-BREAD, the pollen of flowers collected by bees as food for their young; BEE'-EAT'ER, a brightly-plumaged family of birds nearly allied to the kingfisher, which feeds on bees; BEE'-GLUE, the soft glutinous matter by which bees fix their combs to the hive; BEE'HIVE, a case or box in which bees are kept, of straw-work, wood, &c.--Scotch _Bee-skep_.--_adj._ shaped like a beehive, dome-shaped.--_ns._ BEE'-LINE, the most direct road from one point to another, like the honey-laden bee's way home to the hive; BEE'-MOTH, a species of moth whose larvæ are very destructive to young bees; BEES'WAX, the wax secreted by bees, and used by them in constructing their cells.--_v.t._ to polish with beeswax.--_n._ BEES'WING, a filmy crust of tartar formed in port and some other wines after long keeping.--_adj._ BEES'WINGED, so old as to show beeswing.--A BEE IN ONE'S BONNET, a whimsical or crazy fancy on some point. [A. S. _béo_; Ger. _biene_.] BEECH, b[=e]ch, _n._ a common forest tree with smooth silvery-looking bark and small edible nuts.--_adj._ BEECH'EN.--_ns._ BEECH'-MAST, the mast or nuts of the beech-tree, which yield a valuable oil; BEECH'-OIL, oil expressed from the nuts of the beech-tree. [A.S. _bóece_, _béce_; Ger. _buche_, L. _fagus_, Gr. _ph[=e]gos_--from root of _phag-ein_, to eat.] BEEF, b[=e]f, _n._ the flesh of an ox or cow:--_pl._ BEEVES, used in original sense, oxen.--_adj._ consisting of beef.--_ns._ BEEF'-EAT'ER (b[=e]f'-[=e]t'[.e]r), a popular name for a yeoman of the sovereign's guard, also of the warders of the Tower of London [the obvious ety. is the right one, there being no such form as _buffetier_, connected with _buffet_, a sideboard, as often stated]; BEEF'INESS; BEEF'STEAK, a thick slice of beef for broiling or frying; BEEF'TEA, a stimulating rather than nutritious food for invalids, being the juice of beef strained off, after simmering chopped beef in water.--_adjs._ BEEF'-WIT'TED, BEEF'-BRAINED, dull or heavy in wits: stupid.--_n._ BEEF'-WOOD, an Australian wood, of reddish colour, used in cabinetwork.--_adj._ BEEF'Y, like beef, fleshy, stolid. [O. Fr. _boef_ (Fr. _boeuf_)--L. _bos_, _bovis_; cf. Gr. _bous_, Gael. _bò_, Sans. _go_, A.S. _cú_.] BEELZEBUB, b[=e]-el'ze-bub, _n._ the name under which the Philistines at Ekron worshipped their god _Baal_ or _Bel_: (_New Test._) the prince of the evil spirits. [Heb. _ba'al z'b[=u]b_, fly-lord.] BEEN, b[=e]n, _pa.p._ of BE. BEENAH, b[=e]'na, _n._ a primitive form of marriage (the name taken from Ceylon) in which the man goes to live with his wife's family--he is an unimportant person in the family, and the children are not counted his, but belong to the family and kindred of the wife. BEER, b[=e]r, _n._ an alcoholic beverage made by fermentation from malted barley flavoured with hops. It was anciently distinguished from ale by being hopped; now _beer_ is the generic name of malt liquor, including ale and porter.--_ns._ BEER'-EN'GINE, BEER'-PUMP, a machine for drawing beer up from the casks to the bar; BEER'-HOUSE, a house where beer or malt liquors are sold; BEER'INESS; BEER'-MON'EY, money given to soldiers in the British army, in lieu of beer and spirits.--_adj._ BEER'Y, of or affected by beer.--BEER AND SKITTLES, a phrase used vaguely for Bohemian pleasures, from a simple form supposed to be a rustic ideal.--BITTER BEER = pale ale, a highly hopped beer made from the very finest selected malt and hops; MILD or SWEET ale being of greater gravity or strength, and comparatively lightly hopped; BLACK BEER, a kind of beer made at Danzig, black and syrupy; SMALL BEER, weak beer, hence trifling things, as in the familiar phrase, 'to think no small beer of one's self.' [A.S. _béor_; Ger. and Dut. _bier_, Ice. _bjorr_.] BEESTINGS, b[=e]st'ingz, _n._ the first milk drawn from a cow after calving. [A.S. _býsting_, _béost_; Ger. and Dut. _biest_.] BEET, b[=e]t, _n._ a plant with a carrot-shaped succulent root, eaten as food, from which sugar is extracted.--_ns._ BEET'-FLY, a two-winged insect, which deposits its eggs on beet or mangel-wurzel, and whose larvæ are injurious to the plant; BEET'ROOT, the root of the beet plant. [A.S. _béte_ (Fr. _bette_)--L. _b[=e]ta_.] BEET, BETE, b[=e]t, _v.t._ (_obs._ except _dial._) to improve, mend, to kindle a fire, to rouse. [A.S. _bóetan_, _bétan_; cf. _bót_, BOOT.] BEETLE, b[=e]'tl, _n._ an order of insects technically known as Coleoptera, usually with four wings, the front pair forming hard and horny covers for those behind, which alone are used in flight.--The BLACK BEETLE or cockroach is not a true beetle. [M.E. _bityl_--A.S. _bitula_, _bitela_, _bítan_, to bite.] BEETLE, b[=e]'tl, _n._ a heavy wooden mallet used for driving wedges, crushing or beating down paving-stones, or the like: a wooden pestle-shaped utensil for mashing potatoes, beating linen, &c.--_n._ BEE'TLE-HEAD, a heavy, stupid fellow.--_adj._ BEE'TLE-HEAD'ED. [A.S. _bíetel_; cog. with _béatan_, to beat.] BEETLE-BROWED, b[=e]'tl-browd, _adj._ with overhanging or prominent brow: scowling.--_v.i._ BEE'TLE, to jut, to hang over--first used by Shakespeare.--_n._ BEET'LING.--_p.adj._ jutting out: prominent: overhanging. [Dr Murray notes that the word is first found in the compound _bitel_-browed, in the 14th century, and favours the explanation, 'with eyebrows like a beetle's'--i.e. projecting eyebrows. See BEETLE (1).] BEEVES, b[=e]vz, _n.pl._ cattle, oxen. [See BEEF.] BEFALL, be-fawl', _v.t._ to fall or happen to: to occur to.--_v.i._ to happen or come to pass: (_Spens._) to fall in one's way:--_pr.p._ befall'ing; _pa.t._ befell'; _pa.p._ befall'en. [A.S. _befeallan_. See FALL.] BEFANA, BEFFANA, be-fä'na, _n._ an Epiphany present or gift--a corruption of _Epiphania_, which name in Italy has become personified for children as a toy-bringing witch or fairy called _La Befana_. BEFIT, be-fit', _v.t._ to fit, or be suitable to: to be proper to, or right for:--_pr.p._ befit'ting; _pa.p._ befit'ted.--_adj._ BEFIT'TING.--_adv._ BEFIT'TINGLY. [Pfx. _be-_, and FIT.] BEFLOWER, be-flow'[.e]r, _v.t._ to cover or besprinkle with flowers. BEFOAM, be-f[=o]m', _v.t._ to bespatter or cover with foam. BEFOGGED, be-fogd', _adj._ enveloped in fog: confused. BEFOOL, be-f[=oo]l', _v.t._ to make a fool of, or deceive: to treat as a fool. BEFORE, be-f[=o]r', _prep._ in front of (_time_ or _place_): in presence or sight of (_Before_ God): under the cognisance of, as in before the court, the magistrate, or the house: previous to: in preference to: superior to.--_adv._ in front: sooner than hitherto.--_conj._ previous to the time when (often with _that_).--_advs._ BEFORE'HAND, before the time: by way of preparation; BEFORE'TIME, in former time.--TO BE BEFOREHAND WITH, to forestall in any action. [A.S. _beforan_. See FORE.] BEFORTUNE, be-for't[=u]n, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to happen to, to befall. BEFOUL, be-fowl', _v.t._ to make foul: to soil. BEFRIEND, be-frend', _v.t._ to act as a friend to: to favour. BEFRINGE, be-frinj', _v.t._ to adorn with fringes. BEG. Same as BEY. BEG, beg, _v.i._ to ask alms or charity, esp. habitually (with _of_, _from_; _for_, of the thing asked).--_v.t._ to ask earnestly: to beseech: to pray: to take for granted what ought to have been proved, esp. in the phrase in logic, 'to beg the question'--the fallacy of the _Petitio Principii_:--_pr.p._ beg'ging; _pa.p._ begged.--_n._ BEG'GAR, one who begs: one who lives by begging: a mean fellow, a poor fellow--often used with a playful and even affectionate sense.--_v.t._ to reduce to beggary: to exhaust or impoverish: (_fig._) to go beyond the resources of, as of description.--_ns._ BEG'GARDOM, the fraternity of beggars; BEG'GARLINESS.--_adj._ BEGGARLY, poor: mean: worthless.--_adv._ meanly.--_ns._ BEG'GAR-MY-NEIGH'BOUR, a game at cards which goes on till one of the players has gained all the other's cards; BEG'GARY, extreme poverty.--_adv._ BEG'GINGLY.--TO BEG OFF, to obtain another's release through entreaty, to seek that one's self may be relieved of some penalty or liability.--TO GO A-BEGGING, to be in want of a purchaser, or of a person to fill it (of a situation, &c.). [The ety. is very obscure; the words _beg_ and _beggar_ first appear in the 13th century, and Dr Murray thinks the most likely derivation is from the O. Fr. _begart_, _begard_, and _begar_ (L. _beghardus_ = _beghard_), or its synonym _beguine_ and derivative verb _beguigner_, _beguiner_, to act the beguin. The _Beghards_ or _Beguines_ were a lay mendicant order, and in the 13th century mendicants calling themselves by these names swarmed over Western Europe.] BEGAD, be-gad', _interj._ a minced oath, softened from 'By God.' BEGAN, b[=e]-gan', _pa.t._ of BEGIN. BEGEM, be-jem', _v.t._ to adorn, as with gems. BEGET, be-get', _v.t._ to produce or cause: to generate: to produce as an effect, to cause:--_pr.p._ beget'ting; _pa.t._ begat', begot'; _pa.p._ begot', begot'ten.--_n._ BEGET'TER, one who begets: a father: the agent that occasions or originates anything. [A.S. _begitan_, to acquire. See GET.] BEGHARD. See BEG. BEGIFT, be-gift', _v.t._ to present with gifts. BEGILD, be-gild', _v.t._ to gild: to cover or overlay with gold-leaf. BEGIN, be-gin', _v.i._ to take rise: to enter on something new: to commence.--_v.t._ to enter on: to commence (with _at_, _with_, _upon_):--_pr.p._ begin'ning; _pa.t._ began'; _pa.p._ begun'.--_ns._ BEGIN'NER, one who begins: one who is beginning to learn or practise anything; BEGIN'NING, origin or commencement: rudiments--(_Spens._) BEGINNE'.--_adj._ BEGIN'NINGLESS. [A.S. _beginnan_ (more usually _onginnan_), from _be_, and _ginnan_, to begin.] BEGIRD, be-gird', _v.t._ to gird or bind with a girdle; to surround or encompass (_with_):--_pa.t._ begirt', begird'ed; _pa.p._ begirt'. [A.S. _begyrdan_. See GIRD.] BEGLERBEG, b[.e]g'l[.e]r-b[.e]g, _n._ the governor of a Turkish province, in rank next to the grand vizier. [Turk., lit. 'bey of beys.'] BEGLOOM, be-gl[=oo]m', _v.t._ to render gloomy. BEGNAW, be-naw', _v.t._ to gnaw or bite, to eat away. BEGONE, be-gon', _interj._ lit. be gone! be off! get away! In WOE'-BEGONE', beset with woe, we have the _pa.p._ of A.S. _begán_, to go round, to beset. BEGONIA, be-g[=o]n'ya, _n._ a genus of plants cultivated in our greenhouses for their pink flowers and their remarkable unequal-sided and often coloured leaves--'Elephant's Ears,' 'Angel's Wings.' [Named from the botanist Michel _Begon_, 1638-1710.] BEGORED, be-g[=o]rd', _adj._ (_Spens._) besmeared with gore. BEGOT, be-got', BEGOTTEN, be-got'n, _pa.p._ of BEGET. BEGRIME, be-gr[=i]m', _v.t._ to grime or soil deeply. BEGRUDGE, be-gruj', _v.t._ to grudge: to envy any one the possession of. BEGUILE, be-g[=i]l', _v.t._ to cheat or deceive: to divert attention from anything tedious or painful: to divert or amuse: to wile any one into some course.--_ns._ BEGUILE'MENT; BEGUIL'ER.--_adv._ BEGUIL'INGLY. [See GUILE.] BEGUINES, beg'in (see BEG).--_n._ BEGUINAGE (beg'in-[=a]j), an establishment for _Beguines_. BEGUM, b[=e]'gum, _n._ a Hindu princess or lady of rank. [Urdu _begam_.] BEGUN, be-gun', _pa.p._ of BEGIN. BEHALF, be-häf', _n._ favour or benefit: cause: sake, account: part--only in phrases 'on,' 'in behalf of,' 'on his behalf.' [M. E. _behalve_--A.S. _be healfe_, by the side. See HALF.] BEHAPPEN, be-hap'n, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to happen to. BEHAVE, be-h[=a]v', _v.t._ to bear or carry, to conduct (with _self_).--_v.i._ to conduct one's self, also to conduct one's self well: to act.--_n._ BEHAVIOUR (be-h[=a]v'yür), conduct: manners or deportment, esp. good manners: general course of life: treatment of others.--TO BE UPON ONE'S BEHAVIOUR, to be placed where one's best behaviour is politic or necessary. [Formed, according to Dr Murray, in 15th century from _be-_ and HAVE; apparently unconnected with A.S. _behabban_.] BEHEAD, be-hed', _v.t._ to cut off the head.--_ns._ BEHEAD'AL (_rare_); BEHEAD'ING, the act of cutting off the head. BEHELD, be-held', _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of BEHOLD. BEHEMOTH, b[=e]'he-moth, _n._ an animal described in the book of Job, usually taken to be the hippopotamus. [Either the pl. of Heb. _behêmâh_, a beast, or a Hebraistic form of the Egyptian _p-ehe-mout_, 'water-ox.'] BEHEST, be-hest', _n._ command: charge. [A.S. _beh['æ]s_, a promise. See HEST.] BEHIGHT, be-h[=i]t', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to promise, to entrust, to speak to, to command, to reckon or esteem to be:--_pr.p._ beh[=i]ght'ing; _pa.t._ beh[=o]te'; _pa.p._ beh[=i]ght.--_n._ (_obs._) a vow, a promise. [A.S. _behátan_, _be-_, and _hátan_, to call.] BEHIND, be-h[=i]nd', _prep._ at the back of (_place_, or as _support_): remaining after or coming after (_time_, _rank_, _order_): inferior to, or not so far advanced as.--_adv._ at the back, in the rear: backward: past.--_adj._ or _adv._ BEHIND'HAND, being behind: tardy, or in arrears of debt, &c.: clandestine. [A.S. _behindan_; Ger. _hinten_. See HIND.] BEHOLD, be-h[=o]ld', _v.t._ to look upon: to contemplate.--_v.i._ to look: to fix the attention:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ beheld'.--_imper._ or _interj._ see! lo! observe!--_adj._ BEHOLD'EN, bound in gratitude: obliged (with _to_).--_n._ BEHOLD'ER, one who beholds: an onlooker.--_adj._ BEHOLD'ING (_Shak._), beholden.--_n._ (_Shak._) sight, contemplation. [A.S. _behealdan_, to hold, observe--pfx. _be-_, and _healdan_, to hold.] BEHOOF, be-h[=oo]f', _n._ benefit: convenience (with _to_, _for_, _on_). BEHOT, BEHOTE (_Spens._) _pa.t._ of BEHIGHT. BEHOVE, BEHOOVE, be-h[=oo]v, _v.t._ to be fit, right, or necessary for--now only used impersonally with _it_.--_adj._ BEHOVE'FUL, useful: profitable.--_adv._ BEHOVE'FULLY (_obs._). [M. E. _behóf_, dat. behove; A.S. _behófian_, to be fit, to stand in need of.] BEHOWL, be-howl', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to howl at. Warburton first suggested this as an emendation for 'behold' in _Midsummer Night's Dream_, V. 379. BEIGE, b[=a]zh, _n._ a woollen fabric made of undyed wool. [Fr.] BEIN, b[=e]n, _adj._ and _adv._ (_Scot._) comfortable: well off: well found: (_slang_) good.--_n._ BEIN'NESS. [M. E. _bene_, of dubious origin; the derivation has been sought in Scand. _beinn_, or in L. _bene_, Fr. _bien_.] BEING, b[=e]'ing, _n._ existence: substance: essence: any person or thing existing.--_adj._ B[=E]'ING, existing, present.--_adj._ B[=E]'INGLESS.--_n._ B[=E]'INGNESS. [From the _pr.p._ of BE.] BEINKED, b[=e]-inkt', _p.adj._ smeared with ink. BEJADE, be-j[=a]d', _v.t._ (_obs._) to tire out. BEJAN, b[=e]'jan, _n._ a freshman at the universities of Aberdeen and St Andrews, and formerly in several continental universities. [Fr. _bejaune_, a novice, from _bec jaune_, 'yellow beak,' a term used for a nestling or unfledged bird.] BEJESUIT, be-j[.e]z'[=u]-it, _v.t._ to initiate or seduce into Jesuitism. BEJEWEL, be-j[=oo]'[.e]l, _v.t._ to deck with jewels. BEKAH, b[=e]'ka, _n._ (_B._) a half-shekel (4.39 drs. avoir.). [Heb.] BEKISS, be-kis', _v.t._ to cover with kisses. BEKNAVE, be-n[=a]v', _v.t._ to call or treat as a knave. BEKNOWN, b[=e]-n[=o]n', _p.adj._ known, acquainted. BELABOUR, be-l[=a]'bur, _v.t._ to beat soundly. BEL-ACCOYLE, bel-ak-koil', _n._ (_Spens._) favourable or kind reception. [O. Fr. _bel acoil_, fair welcome. See ACCOIL.] BELACE, be-l[=a]s', _v.t._ to adorn with lace. BELAMOUR, bel'a-m[=oo]r, _n._ (_Spens._) a gallant: a fair lady: a kind of flower. [Fr. _bel amour_, fair love.] BELAMY, bel'a-mi, _n._ (_Spens._) a good or intimate friend. [Fr. _bel ami_, fair friend.] BELATE, be-l[=a]t', _v.t._ to make late: to retard:--_pr.p._ bel[=a]t'ing; _pa.p._ bel[=a]t'ed.--_p.adj._ BEL[=A]T'ED, made too late: out of date: benighted.--_n._ BEL[=A]T'EDNESS. BELAUD, be-lawd', _v.t._ to laud or praise highly. [Illustration] BELAY, be-l[=a]', _v.t._ (_naut._) to fasten a running rope by coiling it round a cleat or BELAY'ING-PIN: to make fast: (_Spens._) to lay ornament round anything.--BELAY THERE (_naut. slang_), hold! that is enough. [A.S. _belecgan_; Ger. _belegen_, Dut. _beleggen_. See LAY.] BELCH, belch, belsh, _v.t._ to void wind from the stomach by the mouth: to eject violently: to cast up, as of the smoke from a volcano or a cannon.--_n._ eructation. [A.S. _bealcian_; Dut. _balken_.] BELCHER, bel'sher, _n._ a neckerchief with dark-blue ground, mottled with white spots, each having a dark-blue spot in the centre. [From Jim _Belcher_, a famous English boxer.] BELDAM, BELDAME, bel'dam, _n._ an old woman, esp. an ugly one: a hag, a furious woman: (_obs._) a grandmother. [Formed from _dam_, mother, and _bel-_, expressing relationship. Cf. _belsire_.] BELEAGUER, be-l[=e]g'[.e]r, _v.t._ to lay siege to.--_n._ BELEAG'UERMENT. [Dut. _belegeren_, to besiege--_be_, and _leger_, camp. See LEAGUER.] BELEE, be-l[=e]', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to place on the lee-side of. BELEMNITE, bel'em-n[=i]t, _n._ a fossil pointed like a dart, being the internal shell of a genus of cephalopods, formerly known as _Thunder-bolt_, _Thunder-stone_, _Elf-bolt_. [Gr. _belemnit[=e]s_--_belemnon_, a dart.] BELFRY, bel'fri, _n._ the part of a steeple or tower in which bells are hung: a bell-tower, sometimes standing apart: a movable wooden tower, used in the Middle Ages in attacking a fortification.--_adj._ BEL'FRIED, having a belfry. [Orig. and properly a watch-tower, from O. Fr. _berfroi_--Mid. High Ger. _berchfrit_--_frid_, _frit_, a tower, _bergan_, to protect.] BELGARD, bel-gärd', _n._ (_Spens._) fair or kind looks. [It. _bel guardo_, lovely look.] BELGIAN, bel'ji-an, _adj._ belonging to _Belgium_, a country of Europe.--_n._ a native of Belgium. BELGIC, bel'jik, _adj._ pertaining to the _Belgæ_ who anciently possessed Belgium, or to _Belgium_. [L. _Belgicus_--_Belgæ_, the Belgians.] BELGRAVIAN, bel-gr[=a]'vi-an, _adj._ belonging to _Belgravia_ (a fashionable part of London), or to fashionable life: aristocratic. BELIAL, b[=e]l'yal, _n._ a name for the devil, and, in Milton, for one of the fallen angels. Not a proper name in Old Test. [Heb. _b'li-ya`al_, _b'li_, without _ya`al_, usefulness.] BELIE, be-l[=i]', _v.t._ to give the lie to: to speak falsely of: to present in a false character: to counterfeit: to be false to: falsify: (_Shak._) to fill with lies:--_pr.p._ bely'ing; _pa.p._ bel[=i]ed'. [A.S. _be_, and LIE.] BELIEVE, be-l[=e]v', _v.t._ to regard as true: to trust in.--_v.i._ to be firmly persuaded of anything: to exercise faith (with _in_, _on_): to think or suppose.--_n._ BELIEF', persuasion of the truth of anything: faith: the opinion or doctrine believed: intuition, natural judgment (as used by some philosophers).--_adjs._ BELIEF'LESS; BELIEV'ABLE, that may be believed.--_n._ BELIEV'ER, one who believes: a professor of Christianity.--_p.adj._ BELIEV'ING, trustful.--_adv._ BELIEV'INGLY.--THE BELIEF (_arch._), the Apostles' Creed.--TO MAKE BELIEVE, to pretend. [M. E. _bileven_--_bi-_, _be-_, and _leven_. Murray says that _believe_ is an erroneous spelling of the 17th century, prob. after _relieve_. The A.S. form _geléfan_ survived to the 14th century; the present compound, which superseded it, appears in the 12th century.] BELIKE, be-l[=i]k', _adv._ probably: perhaps. [A.S. pfx. _be-_, and LIKE.] BELITTLE, be-lit'l, _v.t._ to make small: to cause to appear small, to depreciate or disparage.--_n._ BELIT'TLEMENT.--_adj._ BELIT'TLING. [Pfx. _be-_, and LITTLE.] BELIVE, be-l[=i]v', _adv._ (_Scot._) with speed: soon, erelong. [M. E. _bi life_; _be_, _bí_, by, _life_, dat. of _l[=i]f_, life.] BELL, bel, _n._ a hollow vessel of metal, which gives forth a ringing sound when struck by the tongue or clapper suspended inside--as in _church-bell_, _hand-bell_, _alarm-bell_, _night-bell_, _marriage-bell_, &c.: a corolla shaped like a bell: the body of a Corinthian or composite capital, without the surrounding foliage: anything bell-shaped, as in _diving-bell_, _bell-glass_, the _bell_ or outward-turned orifice of a trumpet, &c.: a bell rung to tell the hour: (_naut._) the bell struck on shipboard every half-hour as many times as there are half-hours of the watch elapsed--'two bells,' 'three bells,' &c., meaning that there are two or three half-hours past; the watch of four hours is eight bells.--_v.t._ to furnish with a bell, esp. in TO BELL THE CAT, to take the leading part in any hazardous movement, from the ancient fable of the mice who proposed to hang a warning bell round the cat's neck.--_ns._ BELL'COTE (_archit._), an ornamental [Illustration] structure made to contain one or two bells, and often crowned by a small spire; BELL'-CRANK, a rectangular lever in the form of a crank, used for changing the direction of bell-wires; BELL'-FOUND'ER, one who founds or casts bells; BELL'-GLASS, a bell-shaped glass for sheltering flowers; BELL'-HANG'ER, one who hangs and repairs bells; BELL'MAN, one who rings a bell, esp. on the streets, before making public announcements: a town-crier; BELL'-MET'AL, the metal of which bells are made--an alloy of copper and tin; BELL'-PUNCH, a hand-punch containing a signal-bell, used for punching a hole in a ticket in order to keep a record of the number of fares taken; BELL'-RING'ER, one whose business it is to ring a bell on stated occasions: a performer with musical hand-bells; BELL'-ROPE, the rope by which a bell is rung.--_adj._ BELL'-SHAPED.--_ns._ BELL'-TOW'ER, a tower built to contain one or more bells, a campanile; BELL'-TUR'RET, a turret containing a bell-chamber, usually crowned with a spire; BELL'-WETH'ER, the leading sheep of a flock, on whose neck a bell is hung: (_fig._) any loud, turbulent fellow, esp. the leader of a mob.--BELL, BOOK, AND CANDLE, a phrase popularly used in reference to a form of excommunication ending with the words, 'Do to [shut] the book, quench the candle, ring the bell.'--TO BEAR or CARRY OFF THE BELL, to have or to gain the first place. [A.S. _belle_; cog. with Dut. _bel_.] BELL, bel, _n._ a bubble formed in a liquid. [Ety. dub.; cf. Dut. _bel_, a bubble in water, perh. from L. _bulla_, bubble in water.] BELL, bel, _v.i._ to bellow, roar: to utter loudly.--_n._ the cry of a stag at rutting-time. [A.S. _bellan_, to roar; cf. Ger. _bellen_.] BELLADONNA, bel'la-don-na, _n._ the deadly nightshade or dwale, all parts of which are narcotic and poisonous from the presence therein of the alkaloid atropia: the drug prepared from the foregoing. [It. _bella donna_, fair lady; one property of belladonna is to enlarge the pupil, and so add a brilliance to the eyes.] BELLARMINE, bel'lar-m[=e]n, _n._ a large stoneware drinking jug with a big belly and a narrow neck, decorated with a bearded face, originally that of Cardinal _Bellarmine_, made in mockery by the Dutch Protestants. BELLE, bel, _n._ a handsome woman: the chief beauty of a place: a fair lady generally. [Fr. _belle_--L. _bella_, _bellus_.] BELLES-LETTRES, bel-let'r, _n.pl._ polite or elegant literature, including poetry, fiction, criticism, æsthetics, &c.--_ns._ BELLET'RIST, BELLET'TRIST.--_adj._ BELLETRIS'TIC. [Fr., lit. 'fine letters.'] BELLIBONE, bel'i-b[=o]n, _n._ (_Spens._) a beautiful and good woman. BELLICOSE, bel'ik-[=o]s, _adj._ contentious, war-like.--_adv._ BEL'LICOSELY.--_n._ BELLICOS'ITY. [L. _bellicosus_.] BELLIED, bel'lid, _p.adj._ with a belly, esp. a big belly, pot-bellied: bulging: puffed out. [See BELLY.] BELLIGERENT, bel-ij'[.e]r-[.e]nt, _adj._ carrying on regular war.--_n._ a party or person waging such.--_n._ BELLIG'ERENCY. [L. _belligerant-em_, _belliger[=a]re_, to wage war.] BELLONA, bel'l[=o]-na, _n._ the Roman goddess of war--hence (_fig._) a woman of great spirit and vigour. BELLOW, bel'l[=o], _v.i._ to roar like a bull: to make any violent outcry, often with sense of contempt or ridicule: to shout aloud: to roar, as of cannon, the ocean, &c.--with objective, to give forth a loud sound.--_n._ the roar of a bull: any deep sound or cry. [M. E. _belwen_; there is an A.S. _bellan_, to roar.] BELLOWS, bel'l[=o]z, or bel'lus, _n.pl._ an instrument for producing a current of air so as to blow up a fire, either in a kitchen, a furnace, or a forge--or for producing the current of air by which the pipes and reeds of an organ are sounded: (_fig._) that which fans the fire of hatred, jealousy, &c.: the lungs. [Same as BELLY (q.v.); now used only in _pl._, the sing. not having survived the 15th century.] BELLY, bel'li, _n._ the part of the body between the breast and the thighs, containing the bowels: the stomach, as the receptacle of the food: the bowels proper: the womb or uterus: the interior of anything: the bulging part of anything, as a bottle, or any concave or hollow surface, as of a sail: the inner or lower surface of anything, as opposed to the _back_, as of a violin, &c.--_adj._ ventral, abdominal: (_theol._) belonging to the flesh, carnal.--_v.i._ to swell or bulge out.--_ns._ BEL'LY-BAND, a saddle-girth: a band fastened to the shafts of a vehicle, and passing under the belly of the horse drawing it; BEL'LYFUL, a sufficiency; BEL'LY-GOD, one who makes a god of his belly, a glutton.--_p.adj._ BEL'LYING.--_n._ BEL'LY-TIM'BER, provisions. [M. E. _bali_, _bely_--A.S. _bælig_, _belig_; _bælg_, _belg_, bag.] BELOMANCY, bel'o-man-si, _n._ a kind of divination by means of arrows. [Gr. _belos_, a dart, _manteia_, divination.] BELONG, be-long', _v.i._ to go along with: to pertain to: to be one's property: to be a part of, or appendage of, or in any way connected with: to be specially the business of: (_U.S._) to be a native of, or have a residence in.--_n.pl._ BELONG'INGS, circumstances or relations of any person: possessions: persons connected, relatives: accessories. [_Bi-_, _be-longen_, intens. of _longen_, with pfx. _be-_. See LONG.] BELOVED, be-luvd', or be-luv'ed, _p.adj._ much loved, very dear--often compounded with _well-_; _best-_, &c.--_n._ one who is much loved.--_adj._ BELOV'ING (_Shak._) = loving. BELOW, be-l[=o]', _prep._ beneath in place, rank, or quality: underneath: not worthy of.--_adv._ in a lower place: (_fig._) on earth, or in hell, as opposed to heaven. [Pfx. _be-_, and adj. LOW.] BELT, belt, _n._ a girdle, zone, or band: such a piece, as of leather, worn by way of ornament, or given as a prize or badge of victory in wrestling or the like: a broad strip of anything, different in colour or material: that which confines or restrains: (_geog._) a strait.--_v.t._ to surround with a belt, or to invest formally with such, as in knighting a man: to encircle: to thrash with a belt.--_p.adj._ BELT'ED, wearing a belt, of a knight: marked with a belt, as the 'belted kingfisher.'--_n._ BELT'ING, flexible belts for the transmission of motion in machinery, made of leather, indiarubber, &c.--as in _chainbelt_, _crossed belt_, _endless belt_, &c.; a thrashing.--TO HOLD THE BELT, to hold the championship in wrestling, boxing, or the like. [A.S. _belt_; Ice. _belti_, Gael. _balt_, L. _balteus_.] BELTANE, bel't[=a]n, _n._ an ancient Celtic heathen festival, held in the beginning of May, when bonfires were lighted on the hills: the first day of May (O.S.)--one of the four old quarter-days of Scotland, the others being Lammas, Hallowmas, and Candlemas.--_adj._ in _Beltane_ games, &c. [Gael. _bealltainn_, _beilteine_; usually explained as 'Beal's fire,' _Beal_ being a supposed Celtic deity who has been courageously identified with the Baal or Bel of the Phoenicians and other Semitic peoples, and Gael. _teine_, fire. But even this last is doubtful.] BELUGA, be-l[=oo]'ga, _n._ the white whale, one of the dolphin family, closely allied to the narwhal, 12 to 16 feet long, of creamy-white colour, found in droves round Greenland and all over the Arctic seas: applied also to a great Russian sturgeon--the _Acipenser Huso_. [Russ.] BELVEDERE, bel've-d[=e]r, _n._ a pavilion or raised turret or lantern on the top of a house, open for the view, or to admit the cool evening breeze: a summer-house on an eminence in a park or garden. [It. _belvedere_; _bel_, beautiful, _vedere_, a view.] BEMA, b[=e]'ma, _n._ the tribune or rostrum from which Athenian orators made their speeches--hence the apse or chancel of a basilica. [Gr. _b[=e]ma_, a step.] BEMAD, be-mad', _v.t._ to madden. BEMAUL, be-mawl', _v.t._ to maul thoroughly. BEMAZED, be-m[=a]zd', _p.adj._ stupefied, bewildered. BEMBEX, bem'beks, _n._ a genus of solitary sand-wasps, with broad heads and very large eyes, noted for their making a loud buzz during their rapid flight. [Gr. _bembix_.] BEMEAN, be-m[=e]n', _v.t._ to make mean, to lower or debase: (_obs._) to signify. BEMIRE, be-m[=i]r', _v.t._ to soil with mire.--_p.adj._ BEMIRED'. BEMOAN, be-m[=o]n', _v.t._ to lament: bewail: to pity.--_v.i._ to grieve.--_ns._ BEMOAN'ER; BEMOAN'ING. BEMOCK, be-mok', _v.t._ to mock at, to deride. BEMOIL, be-moil', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to bemire, to bedraggle. BEMONSTER, be-mon'ster, _v.t._ to make monstrous: to regard or treat as a monster. BEMOUTH, be-mowth', _v.i._ to declaim, to overpraise. BEMUD, be-mud', _v.t._ to bespatter with mud: to confuse. BEMUDDLE, be-mud'l, _v.t._ to confuse or muddle completely. BEMUFFLE, be-muf'l, _v.t._ to wrap or muffle up completely. BEMUSE, be-m[=u]z', _v.t._ to put in confusion: stupefy. BEN, ben, _n._ a mountain peak. [Gael. _beann_.] BEN, ben, _prep._ and _adv._ in toward the inner apartment of a house.--_n._ the inner apartment of a house, as opposed to the _But_ or kitchen through which one must generally pass first.--TO BE FAR BEN WITH ONE, to be on terms of great intimacy or friendship with; TO LIVE BUT AND BEN, to live respectively in these rooms, in close neighbourhood with any one. [M. E. _binne_--A.S. _binnan_, within.] BENCH, bensh, _n._ a long seat or form with or without a back: a seat in a boat: a mechanic's work-table: a judge's seat: the body or assembly of judges: a tribunal: the dignity of holding an official seat, as the 'bench of bishops,' the 'civic bench.'--_v.t._ to place on or furnish with benches.--_ns._ BENCH'ER, a senior member of an inn of court; BENCH'ERSHIP; BENCH'-MARK, a surveyor's mark cut on a rock, gatepost, wall, or the like, into which a crooked iron is set so as to form a bench or temporary support for the levelling instrument; BENCH'-WAR'RANT, one issued by a judge rather than a justice or magistrate. [A.S. _benc_; cog. with Ger. and Dut. _bank_.] [Illustration] BEND, bend, _v.t._ to curve or bow: to make crooked: to turn or incline--mostly in passive, to be inclined _to_, _towards_, to be given _to_: to subdue: to direct to a certain point: to apply closely, to strain, to nerve one's self to: (_naut._) to tie, fasten, make fast.--_v.i._ to be crooked or curved: to incline in any direction: to stoop: to lean: to bow in submission (with _to_, _before_, _towards_):--_pa.p._ bend'ed or bent.--_n._ a curve or crook: the bent part of anything; (_her._) one of the nine ordinaries, consisting of the space contained between two parallel lines crossing the shield diagonally from dexter chief to sinister base. It is said to occupy a fifth part of the shield unless charged, when it occupies a third part--its diminutives are the _Bendlet_, _Cotise_, and _Ribbon_.--BEND SINISTER, an occasionally occurring variety of the bend, drawn from sinister chief to dexter base. [Old Eng. _bendan_.] BEND, bend, _n._ in leather, half a butt cut lengthwise. BENEATH, be-n[=e]th', _prep._ under, or lower in place: inside of, behind: unworthy the dignity of, unbecoming. [A.S. _bi-nathan_.] BENEDICITE, ben-[=e]-dis'i-te, _n._ the canticle beginning _'Benedicite_ omnia opera Domini' ('O all ye works of the Lord'), from the Apocryphal _Song of the Three Holy Children_--in the Anglican morning service an alternate to the _Te Deum_: the blessing before a repast. BENEDICT, ben'e-dikt, _n._ a common name for a newly married man, esp. a bachelor who has long held out against marriage, but at last succumbed--from _Benedick_ in Shakespeare's _Much Ado about Nothing_.--_adj._ blessed: benign. BENEDICTINE, ben-e-dik'tin, _adj._ pertaining to St Benedict or his monastic rule.--_n._ a Black Friar or monk of the order founded at Monte Cassino by St _Benedict_ of Nursia (480-543), which became famous for its learning: a cordial or liqueur resembling Chartreuse, distilled at Fécamp in Normandy--once distilled by Benedictine monks. BENEDICTION, ben-e-dik'shun, _n._ a solemn invocation of the divine blessing on men or things--a priestly benediction is defined by Romanists as a formula of imperative prayer which transmits a certain grace or virtue to the object over which it is pronounced: a brief and popular service in the Romish Church, consisting of certain canticles and antiphons sung in presence of the host, and concluding with the priest making the sign of the cross over the people with the monstrance, and giving in silence the benediction of the most holy sacrament.--_adj._ BENEDICT'ORY.--_n._ BENEDICT'US, the canticle of Zacharias (Luke, i. 68-79), used in the Roman service of matin-lauds, and occurring after the second lesson in Anglican matins.--_p.adj._ BENEDIGHT' (_Longfellow_), blessed.--APOSTOLIC BENEDICTION, that given in 2 Cor. xiii. 14. BENEFACTION, ben-e-fak'shun, _n._ the act of doing good: a good deed done or benefit conferred: a grant or endowment.--_n._ BENEFAC'TOR, one who gives a benefit to another, esp. one who leaves a legacy to some charitable or religious institution, a patron:--_fem._ BENEFAC'TRESS.--_adj._ BENEFAC'TORY. [L. _benefaction-em_.] BENEFICE, ben'e-fis, _n._ any kind of church promotion or dignity, esp. with cure of souls, such as rectories, vicarages, and other parochial cures, as distinguished from bishoprics, deaneries, cathedral preferments, &c.: an ecclesiastical living.--_adj._ BEN'EFICED, possessed of a benefice. [Through Fr. from L. _beneficium_.] BENEFICENCE, be-nef'i-sens, _n._ active goodness: kindness: charity: a beneficent gift.--_n._ BENEFIC'ENCY (_obs._).--_adjs._ BENEF'ICENT; BENEFICEN'TIAL.--_adv._ BENEF'ICENTLY. [L. _beneficentia_.] BENEFICIAL, ben-e-fish'al, _adj._ useful; advantageous: (_law_) enjoying the usufruct of property.--_adj._ BENEF'IC, of good influence astrologically: beneficent, kindly.--_adv._ BENEFIC'IALLY.--_ns._ BENEFIC'IALNESS; BENEFIC'IARY, a legal term to denote a person who enjoys, or has the prospect of enjoying, any interest or estate held in trust by others. [L. _beneficium_.] BENEFIT, ben'e-fit, _n._ a kindness: a favour: any advantage, natural or other: a performance at a theatre, the proceeds of which go to one of the company.--_v.t._ to do good to.--_v.i._ to gain advantage (with _from_),--_ns._ BEN'EFIT-OF-CLER'GY, in old English law, the exemption of the persons of ecclesiastics from criminal process before a secular judge, they being responsible only to their ordinary. This privilege, at first limited to those in actual orders, was in 1350 extended to all manner of clerks, and in later practice to all who could read, whether of clergy or laity; BEN'EFIT-OF-IN'VENTORY (_Scots law_), a legal privilege whereby an heir secured himself against unlimited liability for his ancestor, by giving up within the _annus deliberandi_ an inventory of his heritage or real estate, to the extent of which alone was the heir liable.--BENEFIT SOCIETIES, associations for mutual benefit chiefly among the labouring classes, better known as _Friendly societies_. [M. E. _benfet_, through Fr. from L. _benefactum_.] BENET, be-net', _v.t._ to catch in a net, to ensnare. BENET, ben'et, _n._ an exorcist, the third of the four lesser orders in the Roman Church. [Through Fr. from L. _benedict-us_, blessed.] BENEVOLENCE, ben-ev'ol-ens, _n._ disposition to do good: an act of kindness: generosity: a gift of money, esp. for support of the poor: (_Eng. hist._) a kind of forced loan or contribution, levied by kings without legal authority, first so called under Edward IV. in 1473.--_adj._ BENEV'OLENT, charitable, generous, well disposed to.--_adv._ BENEV'OLENTLY. [Through Fr. from L. _benevolentia_.] BENGALI, ben-gaw'l[=e], _adj._ of or belonging to _Bengal_.--_n._ a native of Bengal: the language of Bengal.--_n._ BENGAL'-LIGHT, a brilliant signal-light used at sea in a case of shipwreck, and in ordinary pyrotechny for illuminating a district of country--prepared from nitre, sulphur, and the black sulphide of antimony. BENIGHTED, be-n[=i]t'ed, _adj._ overtaken by night: involved in darkness, intellectual or moral: ignorant.--_v.t._ BENIGHT', to involve in such darkness: to cloud with disappointment.--_ns._ BENIGHT'ENING; BENIGHT'ER; BENIGHT'ING; BENIGHT'MENT. [Pfx. _be-_ and NIGHT.] BENIGN, ben-[=i]n', _adj._ favourable, esp. in astrology, as opposed to _malign_: gracious: kindly: (_med._) of a mild type, as opposed to malignant: salubrious.--_n._ BENIG'NANCY, benignant quality.--_adj._ BENIG'NANT, kind: gracious: beneficial.--_adv._ BENIG'NANTLY.--_n._ BENIG'NITY, goodness of disposition: kindness: graciousness: favourable circumstances--of climate, weather, disease, planets.--_adv._ BENIGN'LY. [O. Fr. _benigne_--L. _benignus_, for _benigenus_; _bene_, well, _genus_, born.] BENISON, ben'izn, _n._ benediction, blessing, esp. blessing of God. [O. Fr. _beneiçun_--L. _benediction-em_.] BENITIER, b[=a]-n[=e]'ti[=a], _n._ the vase or vessel for holy water in R.C. churches, known in England as the holy-water font, vat, pot, stone, stock, or stoup. [Fr.--Low L. _benedictarium_--L. _benedictus_.] BENJAMIN, ben'jä-min, _n._ a kind of overcoat formerly worn by men. [Suggested possibly by 'Joseph's coat.' The Gipsy _béngari_, 'waistcoat,' has been proposed as an etymon.] BENJAMIN, ben'jä-min, _n._ gum benjamin, an essence made from benzoin.--_n._ BEN'JAMIN-TREE, a North American aromatic shrub, with stimulant tonic bark and berries: the tree which yields benzoin--_Styrax Benzoin_. [A corr. of BENZOIN.] BENNET, ben'et, _n._ the herb Bennet or common avens (_Geum urbanum_), a yellow-flowered wayside plant throughout Europe. [Through Fr. from L. 'herba _benedicta_,' the flower being a protective against the devil.] BENNET, ben'et, _n._ the same as BENT, indeed an earlier form. BENT, bent, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of BEND. BENT, bent, _n._ leaning or bias: tendency: intention: natural inclination of the mind towards anything: the condition of being bent, curved form: (_rare_) slope or declivity: (_Shak._) a cast, as of the eye: the extent to which a bow may be bent--degree of tension, capacity of endurance, as in the phrase 'to the top of one's bent' = to the full measure of one's inclination. [See BEND.] BENT, bent, _n._ any stiff or wiry grass: the old dried stalks of grasses: a special genus (_Agrostis_) containing about sixty species of grasses, all slender and delicate in appearance, and some useful as pasture-grasses and for hay: a place covered with such, a heath: a hillside.--Often BENT'-GRASS.--BEN'NET is a variant, a name applied to the wild barley-grass.--_adj._ BENT'Y.--TO TAKE TO THE BENT (_Scot._), to fly to the moors, to escape from some danger by flight. [A.S. _beonet_, found in place-names, as _Beonetléah_, Bentley; the history is obscure, but the word is doubtless Teut.; cf. Ger. _binse_.] BENTHAMISM, ben'tham-izm, _n._ a name applied to the social and political doctrines of Jeremy _Bentham_ (1748-1832), whose leading principle is the doctrine of utility, that happiness is identical with pleasure, summed up in Priestley's famous phrase, 'the greatest happiness of the greatest number.' BENUMB, be-num', _v.t._ to make insensible or powerless: to stupefy (now chiefly of _cold_): to deaden the feelings: to paralyse generally.--_p.adj._ BENUMBED'.--_ns._ BENUMBED'NESS, BENUMB'MENT. [Pfx. _be-_ and NUMB.] BENZENE, ben'z[=e]n, _n._ a compound of carbon and hydrogen, discovered by Faraday in 1825, in a tarry liquid resulting from the distillation of oil. It is found amongst the products of the destructive distillation of a great many organic bodies, but the most abundant source is coal-tar. It must not be confounded with _benzine_ or _benzoyl_, which names have at different times been used for benzene.--BEN'ZINE is the name given to a distillate from American petroleum, which is much used as a substitute for turpentine, and for dissolving oils and fats; BEN'ZOYL is the commercial name applied to a mixture of substances, including benzene and its homologues.--BEN'ZOL is synonymous with benzene, while BEN'ZOLINE is a name applied to benzine and impure benzene indiscriminately. BENZOIN, ben'z[=o]-in, or -zoin, _n._ gum benjamin, the aromatic and resinous juice of the _Styrax Benzoin_ of Java and Sumatra. It is used in perfumery, in pastilles, and for incense, and its compound tincture yields Friar's Balsam or Jesuit's Drops, and is used in making court-plaster. [In the 16th century, BENJOIN. Most prob. through It. from Ar. _lub[=a]n j[=a]w[=i]_, frankincense of Java, Sumatra, &c.] BEPAINT, be-p[=a]nt', _v.t._ to paint over: to colour. BEPAT, be-pat', _v.t._ to pat frequently, to beat. BEPATCHED, be-patcht', _p.adj._ mended with patches: wearing patches on the face by way of adornment. BEPEARL, be-p[.e]rl', _v.t._ to cover over with pearls. BEPELT, be-p[.e]lt', _v.t._ to pelt vigorously. BEPEPPER, be-pep'[.e]r, _v.t._ to pelt with a rain of shot or of blows. BEPESTER, be-pest'[.e]r, _v.t._ to vex or pester greatly. BEPITY, be-pit'i, _v.t._ to pity greatly. BEPLUMED, be-pl[=oo]md', _p.adj._ adorned with feathers. BEPOMMEL, be-pom'el, _v.t._ to pommel soundly. BEPOWDER, be-pow'd[.e]r, _v.t._ to powder over. BEPRAISE, be-pr[=a]z', _v.t._ to praise extravagantly. BEPROSE, be-pr[=o]z', _v.t._ to reduce to prose: to discuss in prose, and tediously. BEPUFF, be-puf', _v.t._ to puff out: to praise beyond measure. BEQUEATH, be-kw[=e]th', _v.t._ to leave personal property by will to another: to transmit to posterity, to leave behind: to commit or entrust to any one.--_adj._ BEQUEATH'ABLE.--_ns._ BEQUEATH'AL, BEQUEATH'MENT. [A.S. _becweðan_; pfx. _be-_,and _cweðan_, to say. See QUOTH.] BEQUEST, be-kwest', _n._ act of bequeathing: that which is bequeathed, a legacy. [M. E. _bi-queste_--A.S. _bi'-cwiss_; _bi'-_, a form of pfx. _be-_, _qithan_, to say. See QUOTH.] BERATE, be-r[=a]t', _v.t._ (_U.S._) to scold or chide vigorously. BERBER, b[.e]r'b[.e]r, _n._ and _adj._ a member of one of the Hamitic tribes inhabiting the mountainous regions of Barbary and the northern portions of the Great Desert, originally occupying the whole southern coast of the Mediterranean: the language spoken by the Berbers. [Derived by Barth either from the name of their supposed ancestor, _Ber_, which we recognise in the L. A_-fer_, an African; or from the Gr. and L. term _Barbari_.] BERE, another spelling of BEAR, barley (q.v.). BEREAN, b[=e]-r[=e]'an, _n._ one of an extinct Scottish sect of the 18th century, named from the people of _Berea_ (Acts, xvii. 11, who derived all knowledge of God from the Bible, but differed little from ordinary Calvinists. BEREAVE, be-r[=e]v', _v.t._ to rob a person of anything valued: to leave destitute:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ bereaved'--the latter also BEREFT'.--_adj._ BEREAVED', robbed by death of some dear relative or friend.--_n._ BEREAVE'MENT, the fact or state of being so bereaved. [A.S. _beréafian_, to plunder. See REAVE.] BERET, BERRET, b[.e]r'et, _n._ a flat woollen cap worn by the Basques. [Fr.] BERG, berg, _n._ a mass or mountain of ice.--_ns._ BERG'FALL, the fall of a mountain rock; BERG'FIELD, an expanse of ice covered with bergs. [See ICEBERG.] BERGAMASK, b[.e]r'ga-mask, _adj._ of or pertaining to _Bergamo_, whose natives are clownish in manners and dialect.--_n._ a rustic dance of theirs. BERGAMOT, b[.e]r'ga-mot, _n._ a kind of citron whose aromatic rind yields the well-known oil of Bergamot, used in making pomades, fragrant essences, eau de Cologne, liqueurs, &c.: the essence so extracted. [From the town of _Bergamo_.] BERGAMOT, b[.e]r'ga-mot, _n._ a group of varieties of pear of fine flavour. [Fr.--It.--Turk. _begarm[=u]di_.] BERGMEHL, b[.e]rg'm[=a]l, _n._ a deposit of diatomaceous white earth or powder, that used in Norway to be mixed with flour and used as food. [Ger. 'mountain-flour.'] BERIBERI, ber'i-ber-i, _n._ an Eastern disease marked by anæmia, paralysis, and dropsical symptoms. [Singh.] BERKELEIANISM, berk'l[=e]-an-izm, _n._ the philosophy of Bishop _Berkeley_ (1685-1753), who maintained that the world we see and touch is not an abstract independent substance, of which conscious mind may be an effect, but is the very world which is presented to our senses, and which depends for its actuality on being perceived.--_adj._ and _n._ BERKELEI'AN. BERLIN, b[.e]r'lin, _n._ an old-fashioned four-wheeled covered carriage, with a seat behind covered with a hood--also BER'LINE.--BERLIN BLUE, Prussian blue; BERLIN WOOL, a fine dyed wool for worsted-work, knitting, &c. BERM, b[.e]rm, _n._ a ledge: esp. a fortification. [Fr. _berme_; Ger. _berme_.] BERNARDINE, b[.e]r'nard-in, _adj._ Cistercian. [From St _Bernard_ of Clairvaux, founder of the order.] BEROB, be-rob', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to rob or plunder. BERRY, ber'i, _n._ a popular term for any small succulent fruit, but restricted in botanical language to simple fruits with pericarp succulent throughout, whether developed from superior (grape, potato, bitternut, belladonna, bryony, asparagus, tomato), or more commonly inferior ovary (gooseberry, currant, barberry, bilberry, &c.)--thus, strictly, the strawberry, raspberry, blackberry, are not berries.--_v.i._ to come into berry, to swell.--_adj._ BER'RIED, bearing berries. [A.S. _berie_.] BERSAGLIERI, b[=a]r-sal-y[=a]'r[=e], _n.pl._ the riflemen or sharpshooters of the Italian army, first organised in the Sardinian army in 1836. [It.; pl. of _bersagliere_, _bersaglio_, a mark.] BERSERK, -ER, b[.e]r'serk, -[.e]r, _n._ a Norse warrior whom the sight of the field of battle would fill with a frenzied and resistless fury--'the berserker rage.' [Ice. _berserkr_; Vigfusson explains the word as 'bear-sark,' and most probably a reference to the uncanny Werewolf superstition is involved.] BERTH, b[.e]rth, _n._ a ship's station at anchor; a room or sleeping-place in a ship, a sleeping-carriage, &c.: any allotted or assigned place: a situation or place of employment, usually a comfortable one--even without such a qualifying adjective as 'a snug berth.'--_v.t._ to moor a ship: to furnish with a berth.--TO GIVE A WIDE BERTH TO, to keep well away from generally. [A doublet of BIRTH; from BEAR.] BERYL, b[.e]r'il, _n._ a precious stone resembling the emerald, but colourless, yellowish, greenish yellow or blue--its finer varieties are called precious beryl, and sometimes aquamarine. It has important uses as a magic crystal in which the future becomes visible.--_adj._ beryl-like in colour. [O. Fr. _beryl_--L. _beryllus_--Gr. _b[=e]ryllos_.] BESAINT, be-s[=a]nt', _v.t._ to make a saint of.--_pa.p._ BESAINT'ED, canonised: haunted with saints. BESCATTER, be-skat'[.e]r, _v.t._ to scatter over. BESCRAWL, be-skrawl', _v.t._ to scrawl or scribble over. BESCREEN, be-skr[=e]n', _v.t._ to screen: to overshadow. BESCRIBBLE, be-skrib'l, _v.t._ to write in a scribbling hand: to scribble about or upon. BESEECH, be-s[=e]ch', _v.t._ to entreat, to implore (as a person, _for_ a thing, or _to do_ a thing): to ask or pray earnestly: to solicit--(_Spens._) BESEEKE':--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ besought'.--_ns._ BESEECH'ER; BESEECH'ING.--_adv._ BESEECH'INGLY.--_ns._ BESEECH'INGNESS; BESEECH'MENT. [Pfx. _be-_, and M. E. _sechen_, to SEEK.] BESEEM, be-s[=e]m', _v.t._ to be seemly or fit for: to become: to be fit for or worthy of: (_Spens._) to become or appear.--_ns._ BESEEM'ING, BESEEM'INGNESS--_adv._ BESEEM'INGLY. BESEEN, be-s[=e]n', _pa.p._ of good appearance, comely: well furnished (with _well_).--BESEE' is quite obsolete. BESET, be-set', _v.t._ to surround or set round with anything (now only in _pa.p._): to surround with hostile intentions, to besiege: to occupy so as to allow none to go out or in: to assail, perplex, endanger, as by temptations, obstacles, &c.:--_pr.p._ beset'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ beset'.--_ns._ BESET'MENT; BESET'TER.--_p.adj._ BESET'TING, that besets, as in 'besetting sin.' BESHADOW, be-shad'[=o], _v.t._ to cast a shadow over. BESHAME, be-sh[=a]m', _v.t._ to put to shame. BESHINE, be-sh[=i]n', _v.i._ to light up.--_p.adj._ BESHONE'. BESHREW, be-shr[=oo]', _v.t._ to invoke evil upon, to curse--now only in such mild imprecations as 'beshrew me,' or 'thee'--prob. not imperative but elliptical, like '(I) thank you.' [Pfx. _be-_, and SHREW.] BESIDE, be-s[=i]d', _prep._ and _adv._ by the side of, near: over and above (in this sense, now usually BESIDES'), distinct from: apart from, not falling within, as of a question, resolution, &c.--BESIDE THE MARK, away from the mark aimed at, irrelevant.--TO BE BESIDE ONE'S SELF, to be out of one's senses. [M. E. _bi siden_--A.S. _be si'dan_, by the side (dat.).] BESIDES, be-s[=i]dz', _prep._ and _adv._ in addition, otherwise, aside: over and above, in addition to, away from. [BESIDE, with the _s_ of the _adv._ gen.] BESIEGE, be-s[=e]j', _v.t._ to lay siege to: to beset with armed forces: to throng round.--_n._ BESIEG'ER.--_adv._ BESIEG'INGLY (_rare_), urgently. BESIGH, be-s[=i]', _v.t._ to sigh over. BESING, be-sing', _v.t._ to celebrate in song.--_p.adj._ BESUNG'. BESIT, be-sit', _v.t._ (_obs._) to besiege: to sit well on, as clothes, to become.--_p.adj._ BESIT'TING (_Spens._), becoming. BESLAVE, be-sl[=a]v', _v.t._ to make a slave of: to call slave. BESLAVER, be-sl[=a]v'[.e]r, _v.t._ to slaver or slobber upon: to cover with fulsome flattery. BESLOBBER, be-slob'[.e]r, _v.t._ to besmear with the spittle running from one's mouth: to cover with drivelling kisses: to flatter fulsomely.--_v.t._ BESLUB'BER, to bedaub or besmear. BESMEAR, be-sm[=e]r', _v.t._ to smear over: to bedaub: to pollute. BESMIRCH, be-smirch', _v.t._ to soil, as with smoke or soot: to sully.--_v.t._ BESMUTCH', to besmirch. BESMUT, be-smut', _v.t._ to blacken with soot.--_p.adj._ BESMUT'TED. BESOGNO, BESONIO. Same as BEZONIAN. BESOM, b[=e]'zum, _n._ an implement for sweeping, a broom: any cleansing or purifying agent: (_Scot._) a term of reproach for a woman.--_ns._ B[=E]'SOM-HEAD, a blockhead; B[=E]'SOM-RID'ER, a witch.--TO JUMP THE BESOM (see BROOM). [A.S. _besema_, _besma_; a common Teut. word; Ger. _besen_, Dut. _bezem_.] BESORT, be-sort', _v.t._ (_obs._, _Shak._) to match with, befit, become.--_n._ suitable company. BESOT, be-sot', _v.t._ to make sottish, dull, or stupid: to make a sot of: to cause to dote on: to infatuate (_with_):--_pr.p._ besot'ting; _pa.p._ besot'ted.--_p.adj._ BESOT'TED, infatuated.--_adv._ BESOT'TEDLY.--_n._ BESOT'TEDNESS. BESOUGHT, be-sawt', _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of BESEECH. BESOULED, be-s[=o]ld', _adj._ endowed with a soul. BESPANGLE, be-spang'gl, _v.t._ to adorn with spangles, or with anything sparkling or shining. BESPATE, be-sp[=a]t', _p.adj._ spit upon. BESPATTER, be-spat'[.e]r, _v.t._ to spatter or sprinkle with dirt or anything moist: to defame. BESPEAK, be-sp[=e]k', _v.t._ to speak for or engage beforehand: to stipulate or ask for: to betoken.--_v.i._ (_obs._) to speak:--_pa.t._ besp[=o]ke'; _pa.p._ besp[=o]ke' and besp[=o]k'en.--_n._ an actor's benefit, so called because the actor's friends and patrons bespeak or choose the piece to be performed that night. BESPECKLE, be-spek'l, _v.t._ to mark with speckles or spots. BESPECTACLED, be-spek'ta-kld, _pa.p._ having spectacles on. BESPEED, be-sp[=e]d', _v.t._ to help on.--_p.adj._ BESPED'. BESPICE, be-sp[=i]s', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to season with spice: to drug or poison. BESPOKE, be-sp[=o]k', BESPOKEN, be-sp[=o]k'n, _pa.p._ of BESPEAK, ordered, as boots, clothes, &c. BESPOT, be-spot', _v.t._ to cover with spots.--_p.adj._ BESPOT'TED.--_n._ BESPOT'TEDNESS. BESPOUT, be-spowt', _v.t._ to spout over: to declaim pompously. BESPREAD, be-spred', _v.t._ to spread over: to cover:--_pr.p._ bespread'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ bespread'. BESPRENT, be-sprent', _pa.p._ sprinkled over: scattered. [A.S. _besprengan_. See SPRINKLE.] BESPRINKLE, be-spring'kl, _v.t._ to sprinkle over. BESSEMER, bes'[.e]m-[.e]r, _adj._ derived from the name of the inventor, Sir H. _Bessemer_, applied to steel for rails, tires, ship-plates, &c., prepared by the Bessemer process. BEST, best, _adj._ (serves as _superl._ of GOOD) good in the highest degree: first: highest: most excellent.--_n._ one's utmost endeavour: the highest perfection.--_adv._ (_superl._ of WELL) in the highest degree: in the best manner.--_v.t._ (_coll._) to get the better of.--BEST MAN and BEST MAID, the groomsman and bridesmaid at a wedding.--AT THE BEST, or AT BEST, in the best possible way, at most after every allowance is made; FOR THE BEST, with the best intentions; I WERE BEST = it were best _for me_.--TO HAVE THE BEST OF IT, to gain the advantage in a contest; TO MAKE THE BEST OF ONE'S WAY, to go by the best possible road; TO PUT ONE'S BEST FOOT FOREMOST, to do the best, or to make the best show, one can. [A.S. _betst_, _betest_. See BETTER.] BESTAIN, be-st[=a]n', _v.t._ to stain all over. BESTEAD, be-sted', _v.t._ to help, relieve: to be of use to, to avail.--_v.i._ to profit, be advantageous. BESTEAD, BESTED, be-sted', _p.adj._ set about (_with_): beset (with _by_, of foes; _with_, of dangers, &c.): situated--usually with _ill_, _hard_, &c. BESTIAL, best'i-al, _adj._ like a beast: rude: brutally sensual.--_n._ (_Scot._) a collective name for cattle.--_v.t._ BEST'IALISE, to make like a beast.--_ns._ BEST'IALISM, irrationality; BESTIAL'ITY, beastliness: disgusting vice. [L. _bestialis_. See BEAST.] BESTIARY, best'i-ar-i, _n._ the name given to a class of books of great popularity in the Middle Ages, describing all the animals of creation, real or fabled, generally illustrated by drawings, and allegorised for edification. [Low L. _bestiarium_, a menagerie.] BESTICK, be-stik', _v.t._ to stick over, as with sharp points. BESTILL, be-stil', _v.t._ to make quiet, to hush. BESTIR, be-st[.e]r', _v.t._ to put into lively action: arouse into activity: (_refl._) to rouse one's self--_p.adj._ BESTIR'RING. BESTORM, be-storm', _v.t._ to assail with storms or tumult. BESTOW, be-st[=o]', _v.t._ to stow, place, or put by: to give or confer: to accommodate with quarters: to apply (with _on_ and _upon_): (_refl._, _Shak._) to acquit one's self.--_ns._ BESTOW'AL, act of bestowing: disposal; BESTOW'ER; BESTOW'MENT. BESTRADDLE, be-strad'dl, _v.t._ to bestride. BESTRAUGHT, be-strawt', _adj._ (_obs._) distraught: distracted: mad. [Formed with pfx. _be-_, on the analogy of _distraught_--L. _dis-tractus_.] BESTREAK, be-str[=e]k', _v.t._ to overspread with streaks. BESTREW, be-str[=oo]', _v.t._ to strew or scatter loosely over:--_pa.p._ bestrewed', bestr[=o]wn', bestrewn' (_with_). BESTRIDE, be-str[=i]d', _v.t._ to stride over: to sit or stand across: to defend, protect, from the sense of standing over a fallen man to defend him:--_pa.t._ bestrid', bestr[=o]de'; _pa.p._ bestrid', bestrid'den. BESTUCK, be-stuk', _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of BESTICK, to stick about, adorn: to transfix. BESTUD, be-stud', _v.t._ to adorn as with studs, as the sky with stars. BET, bet, _n._ a wager: something staked to be lost or won on the result of a doubtful issue, as a horse-race, or the like.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to lay or stake, as a bet:--_pr.p._ bet'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ bet or bet'ted.--_ns._ BET'TER, one who bets--also BET'TOR; BET'TING, act of betting or proposing a wager.--AN EVEN BET, an equal chance.--YOU BET, in American slang, certainly. [Prob. shortened from the noun ABET.] BETAKE, be-t[=a]k', _v.t._ to take one's self to, to go (with _self_): to apply or have recourse:--_pa.t._ betook'; _pa.p._ bet[=a]k'en. BETEEM, be-t[=e]m', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to grant, to suffer, to allow. [Most prob. from pfx. _be-_, and TEEM.] BETEL, b[=e]'tl, _n._ the betel-nut, or nut of the areca palm, with lime and the leaves of the Betel-Pepper, chewed by the Malays as a stimulant. [Through Port. from Malay _vettila_.] BETHANKIT, be-thank'it, Scotch for 'God be thanked.' BETHEL, beth'el, _n._ a hallowed spot, a name applied by some Methodists to their places of worship: an old ship fitted up in a port as a place of worship for sailors. [Heb. _B[=e]th-[=e]l_, house of God.] BETHINK, be-thingk', _v.t._ to think on or call to mind: to recollect (generally followed by a reflective pronoun and _of_): to propose to one's self.--_v.i._ to consider:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ bethought (be-thawt'). [A.S. _bithencan_; cf. Ger. _bedenken_. See THINK.] BETHRALL, be-thrawl', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to enslave. BETHUMB, be-thum', _v.t._ to mark with the thumbs:--_pa.p._ bethumbed'. BETHUMP, be-thump', _v.t._ to thump or beat soundly. BETHWACK, be-thwak', _v.t._ to thrash soundly. BETIDE, be-t[=i]d', _v.i._ to happen to, to befall--in third person, and often impersonally, with dative object, now little used save in phrase, 'woe betide!': (_rare_) to betoken:--_pa.p._ (_Shak._) BETID'. [See TIDE.] BETIME, be-t[=i]m', _v.i._ (_Shak._) to betide. BETIMES, be-t[=i]mz', _adv._ in good time: early: seasonably: speedily. [Pfx. _be-_, and TIME, with _adv._ gen. _-s_; like _besides_ from beside.] BETITLE, be-t[=i]'tl, _v.t._ to give a name to. BETOIL, be-toil', _v.t._ to weary with toil. BETOKEN, be-t[=o]'kn, _v.t._ to show by a sign: to foreshow. [See TOKEN.] BETONY, bet'on-i, _n._ a common British labiate plant growing in woods, of great repute in ancient and medieval medicine, used to dye wool yellow. [Fr.--L. _betonica_, _vettonica_.] BETOOK, be-took', _pa.t._ of BETAKE. BETOSSED, be-tost', _pa.p._ (_Shak._) agitated. BETRAY, be-tr[=a]', _v.t._ to give up treacherously: to disclose in breach of trust: to let go basely or weakly: to deceive the innocent and trustful, to seduce: to discover or show: to show signs of.--_ns._ BETRAY'AL, act of betraying; BETRAY'ER, a traitor, the seducer of a trustful girl. [Pfx. _be-_, and O. Fr. _traïr_ (Fr. _trahir_)--L. _trad[)e]re_, to deliver up.] BETRIM, be-trim', _v.t._ to trim or set in order, to deck, to dress. BETRODDEN, be-trod'n, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of BETREAD', to tread over or walk upon. BETROTH, be-troth', _v.t._ to contract or promise in order to marriage: to affiance: (_obs._) to pledge one's self to any cause.--_ns._ BETROTH'AL, BETROTH'MENT, an agreement or contract with a view to marriage. [Pfx. _be-_, and TROTH or TRUTH.] BETTER, bet'[.e]r, _adj._ (serves as _comp._ of GOOD) good in a greater degree: preferable: improved: more suitable: larger: kinder: stronger in health.--_adv._ (_comp._ of WELL) well in a greater degree: more fully or completely: over or more than: with greater advantage: (_pl._) superiors.--_v.t._ to make better (also reflexively, to better one's self), to improve: to benefit: also with intransitive sense, to grow better.--_p.adjs._ BET'TERED, improved, amended; BET'TERING, improving.--_ns._ BET'TERING, BET'TERMENT, BET'TERNESS.--_adj._ BET'TERMOST.--BETTER HALF, a jocose term for a wife, once applied seriously to either wife or husband, and even the soul as opposed to the body.--I HAD BETTER = I should hold it better to--the original construction having been a dative pronoun.--TO BE BETTER OFF, to be in superior circumstances; TO BE BETTER THAN ONE'S SELF, to do more than one had promised; TO GET THE BETTER OF, to gain the advantage over. [A.S. _bet_ (adv.), _betera_, better; Goth. _batiza_, Ger. _besser_. Prob. cog. with BOOT.] BETTY, bet'ti, _n._ a man who troubles himself with the women's work in a household: a _slang_ name for a burglar's jemmy or _jenny_. [_Betty_, _Bet_, familiar abbrev. of _Elizabeth_.] BETUMBLED, be-tum'bld, _adj._ (_Shak._) tumbled or disordered. BETUTOR, be-t[=u]'tor, _v.t._ to tutor or instruct. BETWEEN, be-tw[=e]n', BETWIXT, be-twikst', _prep._ in the middle of two, of space, time, or degree: in the middle or intermediate space, to defend or separate: expressing reciprocal relation from one to another: by the joint action of two or more persons.--_ns._ BETWEEN'-DECKS, the space between any two decks of a ship; BETWEEN'ITY (_rare_), state of being between.--_prep._ BETWEEN'-WHILES, at intervals.--BETWEEN OURSELVES, in confidence; BETWIXT AND BETWEEN, in a middling position.--TO GO BETWEEN, to act as a mediator. [A.S. _betwéonum_ _betweónan_--_be_, and _twegen_, _twa_, two, twain.] [Illustration] BEVEL, bev'el, _n._ a slant or inclination of a surface: an instrument opening like a pair of compasses, and adjustable for measuring angles.--_adj._ having the form of a bevel: slanting.--_v.t._ to form with a bevel or slant:--_pr.p._ bev'elling; _pa.p._ bev'elled.--_ns._ BEV'EL-GEAR, BEV'EL-WHEELS (_mech._), wheels working on each other in different planes, the cogs of the wheels being bevelled or at oblique angles to the shafts.--_p.adj._ BEV'ELLED, cut to an oblique angle, sloped off. [Fr. _biveau_, an instrument for measuring angles; orig. unknown.] BEVER, an obsolete form of BEAVER. BEVERAGE, bev'[.e]r-[=a]j, _n._ drink: a mixture of cider and water: any agreeable liquor for drinking.--_n._ BE'VER, a small repast between meals: (_obs._) a time for drinking.--_v.i._ to take such a repast. [O. Fr. _bevrage_ (Fr. _breuvage_), _beivre_--L. _bibere_, to drink.] BEVY, bev'i, _n._ a brood or flock of birds, esp. of quails: a company, esp. of ladies. [M. E. _bevey_, prob. the same as O. Fr. _bevee_, _buvee_, drink, It. _bevuta_, a draught; the transference of sense being perh. from a drink or a drinking-bout to a drinking-party.] BEWAIL, be-w[=a]l', _v.t._ to lament: to mourn loudly over (esp. the dead).--_v.i._ to utter lamentations.--_adjs._ BEWAIL'ABLE, BEWAIL'ING. [See WAIL.] BEWARE, be-w[=a]r', _v.i._ to be on one's guard: to be suspicious of danger: to take care (with _of_; with clause--_lest_, _that_, _not_, _how_). [From the words _be_ and _ware_ run together. See WARY.] BEWEEP, be-w[=e]p', _v.t._ to weep over, to lament.--_p.adj._ BEWEPT', disfigured by weeping. BEWELTERED, be-wel't[.e]rd, _p.adj._ besmeared by weltering in blood. [Pfx. _be-_, and WELTER.] BEWET, be-wet', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to wet or moisten. BEWIG, be-wig', to cover with a wig.--_p.adj._ BEWIGGED'. BEWILDER, be-wil'd[.e]r, _v.t._ to perplex or lead astray.--_p.adj._ BEWIL'DERED, lost, confused in mind, trackless.--_adj._ BEWIL'DERING.--_adv._ BEWIL'DERINGLY.--_n._ BEWIL'DERMENT, confusion, mental confusion: perplexity. [Pfx. _be-_, and prov. Eng. _wildern_, a wilderness.] BEWITCH, be-wich', _v.t._ to affect by witchcraft (mostly malignantly): to fascinate or charm.--_ns._ BEWITCH'ERY, BEWITCH'MENT.--_adj._ BEWITCH'ING, charming, enchanting.--_adv._ BEWITCH'INGLY. BEWRAY, be-r[=a]', _v.t._ (_B._) to accuse: to point out: to betray or divulge unintentionally. [M. E. _bewreien_, _be-_, and A.S. _wrégan_, to accuse.] BEY, b[=a], _n._ a Turkish governor of a town or province. [Turk. _beg_, pronounced _b[=a]_, a governor.] BEYOND, be-yond', _prep._ on the farther side of: farther onward than: out of reach of: past in time: above, superior to.--BEYOND MEASURE, excessively; BEYOND SEAS, abroad; THE BACK OF BEYOND (_De Quincey_, &c.), a humorous phrase for any place a great way off; TO BE BEYOND ONE, to pass his comprehension; TO GO BEYOND, to surpass: to circumvent: (_B._, _Shak._) to overreach. [A.S. _begeondan_--pfx. _be-_, and _geond_, across, beyond. See YON.] BEZANT, be-zant', or bez'ant, _n._ a gold coin, first struck at _Byzantium_ or Constantinople: (_her._) a small circle or, like a gold coin. BEZEL, bez'l, _n._ the part of the setting of a precious stone which encloses it: the oblique side or face of a cut gem: the grooved flange or rim in which a watch-glass is set: the slope at the edge of a chisel or plane (usually BAS'IL). [From an O. Fr. word represented by mod. Fr. _biseau_; its ult. origin uncertain.] BEZIQUE, be-z[=e]k', _n._ a game at cards for two, three, or four persons, played with two to four packs, from which cards with from two to six pips have been removed. The name _Bezique_ itself is applied to the combination of the knave of diamonds and queen of spades. [Fr. _besigue_, of obscure origin.] BEZOAR, b[=e]'z[=o]r, _n._ a stony concretion found in the stomachs of goats, antelopes, llamas, chamois, &c., formerly esteemed an antidote to all poisons. [Through Sp. _bezaar_ and Ar. _b[=a]zahr_, from Pers. _p[=a]d-zahr_, counter-poison, _zahr_, poison.] BEZONIAN, be-z[=o]'ni-an, _n._ (_Shak._) a beggar, a low fellow. [It. _bisogno_; Sp. _bisoño_, Fr. _bisogne_.] BEZZLE, bez'l, _v.i._ (_obs._) to drink hard: to squander:--_pr.p._ bezz'ling; _pa.p._ bezz'led. [O. Fr. _besiler_. See EMBEZZLE.] BHANG, bang, _n._ the native name for the Indian preparation of hemp which is smoked or swallowed for its narcotic and intoxicating qualities--in Arabic known as _hashish_. [See ASSASSIN. Hind. _bh[=a]ng_; Pers. _bang_; Sans. _bhang[=a]_.] BIAS, b[=i]'as, _n._ a bulge or greater weight on one side of a bowl (in the game of bowling), making it slope or turn to one side: a slant or leaning to one side: a one-sided inclination of the mind, prejudice: any special influence that sways the mind.--_v.t._ to cause to turn to one side: to prejudice or prepossess:--_pa.p._ b[=i]'ased or b[=i]'assed.--_ns._ B[=I]'AS-DRAW'ING (_Shak._), a turn awry; B[=I]'ASING, a bias or inclination to one side. [Fr. _biais_, of dubious origin; Diez suggests L. _bifax_, _bifacem_, two-faced.] BIAXAL, b[=i]-aks'al, _adj._ having two optic axes.--Also BIAXIAL. [L. _bi-_, and AXIAL.] BIB, bib, _n._ a cloth put under an infant's chin: a similar article of dress for adults, worn over the breast or above the apron.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to drink, to tipple.--_adj._ B[=I]B[=A]'CIOUS.--_ns._ BIB[=A]'TION, tippling; BIB'BER, a tippler: chiefly used in composition as (_B._) wine-bibber. [M. E. _bibben_, most prob. from L. _bib-[)e]re_, to drink.] BIB, bib, _n._ a fish of the same genus as the cod and haddock, also called the _Pout_. BIBBLE-BABBLE, bib'bl-bab'bl, _n._ (_Shak._) idle talk. [Reduplication of BABBLE.] BIBLE, b[=i]'bl, _n._ the sacred writings of the Christian Church, consisting of the Old and New Testaments.--_adj._ BIB'LICAL, of or relating to the Bible: scriptural.--_adv._ BIB'LICALLY.--_ns._ BIB'LICISM, biblical doctrine, learning, or literature; BIB'LICIST, B[=I]B'LIST, one versed in biblical learning: one who makes Scripture the sole rule of faith. [Fr.--Low L. _biblia_, fem. sing., earlier neut. pl., from Gr. _ta biblia_, lit. 'the books,' esp. the canonical books of Scripture, _biblion_, a book, dim. of _biblos_, papyrus, paper.] BIBLIOGRAPHY, bib-li-og'raf-i, _n._ the description or knowledge of books, in regard to their authors, subjects, editions, and history.--_n._ BIBLIOG'RAPHER, one versed in bibliography or the history of books.--_adj._ BIBLIOGRAPH'IC. [Gr. _biblion_, a book, _graphia_, description.] BIBLIOLATRY, bib-li-ol'at-ri, _n._ superstitious reverence for the Bible.--_ns._ BIBLIOL'ATRIST, BIBLIOL'ATER, one given to bibliolatry. [Gr. _biblion_, a book, _latreia_, worship.] BIBLIOLOGY, bib-li-ol'[=o]-ji, _n._ an account of books: biblical literature, or theology. [Gr. _biblion_, a book, _logos_, discourse.] BIBLIOMANCY, bib'li-[=o]-man-si, _n._ divination by selecting passages of the Bible at hazard, and drawing from them indications concerning future events. [Gr. _biblion_, a book, _manteia_, divination.] BIBLIOMANIA, bib-li-[=o]-m[=a]n'i-a, _n._ a mania for possessing _rare_ and curious books.--_n._ BIBLIOM[=A]N'IAC, one who has a mania for possessing _rare_ and curious books.--_adj._ BIBLIOMAN[=I]'ACAL. [Gr. _biblion_, a book, and MANIA.] BIBLIOPHILE, bib'li-[=o]-f[=i]l, _n._ a lover of books, esp. a collector of _rare_ books. [Fr.--Gr. _biblion_, a book, _philos_, friend.] BIBLIOPOLE, bib'li-[=o]-p[=o]l, _n._ a bookseller.--Also BIBLIOP'OLIST. [Gr. _biblion_, a book, _p[=o]leein_, to sell.] BIBULOUS, bib'[=u]-lus, _adj._ drinking or sucking in: spongy. [L. _bibulus_--_bib-[)e]re_, to drink.] BICAMERAL, b[=i]-kam'[.e]r-al, _adj._ having two chambers. [L. _bi-_, twice, and _camera_, chamber.] BICARBONATE, b[=i]-kär'bon-[=a]t, _n._ a carbonate or salt having two equivalents of carbonic acid to one equivalent of base. [L. _bi-_, twice, and CARBONATE.] BICE, b[=i]s, _n._ a pale blue or green paint. [Fr. _bis_.] BICENTENARY, b[=i]-sen'te-na-ri, BICENTENNIAL, b[=i]-sen-ten'ni-al, _adj._ pertaining to the two hundredth.--_n._ the two hundredth anniversary. BICEPHALOUS, b[=i]-sef'al-us, _adj._ double-headed. [L. _bis_, twice, and Gr. _k[=e]phal[=e]_, head.] BICEPS, b[=i]'seps, _n._ the muscle in front of the arm between the shoulder and elbow. [L. _biceps_, two-headed--_bis_, twice, and _caput_, head.] BICHROMATE, b[=i]-kr[=o]'m[=a]t, _adj._ having two parts of chromic acid to one of other ingredients. [L. _bis_, twice, and CHROMATE.] BICIPITAL, b[=i]-sip'it-al, _adj._ (_anat._) having two heads or origins.--Earlier form BICIP'ITOUS. BICKER, bik'[.e]r, _v.i._ to contend in a petty way: to quiver: to move quickly and tremulously, as running water.--_n._ a fight, a quarrel: a clattering noise: a short run.--_n._ BICK'ERMENT (_Spens._), bickering, strife. [Acc. to Skeat, _bicker_ = _pick-er_, or _peck-er_, to _peck_ repeatedly with the _beak_.] BICKER, bik'[.e]r, _n._ a bowl for holding liquor, esp. of wood: a vessel made of wooden staves for holding porridge. [Scot. form of BEAKER.] BICONCAVE, b[=i]-kon'k[=a]v, _adj._ concave on both sides. [L. _bi-_, twice, and CONCAVE.] BICONVEX, b[=i]-kon'veks, _adj._ convex on both sides. [L. _bi-_, twice, and CONVEX.] BICORPORATE, b[=i]-kor'por-[=a]t, _adj._ (_her._) double-bodied, as the head of a lion to which two bodies are attached. [L. _bis_, twice, and CORPORATE.] BICUSPID, b[=i]-kus'pid, _adj._ having two cusps: a pre-molar tooth. [L. _bi-_, twice, and CUSP.] BICYCLE, b[=i]'si-kl, _n._ a cycle or velocipede with two wheels furnished with rubber tires, arranged one before the other, impelled by pedals, and steered by transverse handles affixed to the front wheel--also BIKE (_colloq._).--_n._ B[=I]'CYCLIST. [Formed from L. _bi-_, _bis_, twice, and Gr. _kyklos_, a circle.] BID, bid, _v.t._ to offer: to propose: to proclaim, as the banns of marriage: to invite: to command: to make an offer, and to increase the amount offered for a thing--at an auction:--_pr.p._ bid'ding; _pa.t._ bid or bade; _pa.p._ bid, bid'den.--_n._ an offer of a price.--_ns._ BID'DER, one who bids or offers a price; BID'DING, offer: invitation: command; BID'DING-PRAY'ER, a form of prayer directed to be used before all sermons, lectures, and homilies preached apart from the daily service or holy communion--as university sermons, so called because in it the preacher is directed to bid or exhort the people to pray for certain specified objects.--TO BID FAIR, to seem likely. [A.S. _béodan_; Goth. _biudan_, Ger. _bieten_, to offer.] BID, bid, _v.t._ to ask for: (nearly _obs._): to pray. [A.S. _biddan_; Goth. _bidjan_; Ger. _bitten_; the connection with BID, to command, is dub. See BEAD.] BIDE, b[=i]d, _v.t._ and _v.i._ same as ABIDE, to wait for.--_n._ BID'ING (_Shak._), residence, habitation. [A.S. _bídan_; Goth. _beidan_.] BIDENTATE, b[=i]-dent'[=a]t, _adj._ having two teeth.--Also BIDENT'AL. [L. _bi-_; twice, _dens_, _dentis_, a tooth.] BIELD, b[=e]ld, _n._ (_Wordsworth_) shelter: protection. [Scot.; conn. with BOLD.] BIENNIAL, b[=i]-en'yal, _adj._ lasting two years: happening once in two years.--_n._ a plant that lasts two years.--_adv._ BIENN'IALLY. [L. _biennalis_--_bi-_, twice, and _annus_, a year.] BIER, b[=e]r, _n._ a carriage or frame of wood for bearing the dead to the grave. [A.S. _b['æ]r_; Ger. _bahre_, L. _fer-etrum_. From root of verb BEAR.] BIESTINGS. Same as BEESTINGS. BIFACIAL, b[=i]-f[=a]'shyal, _adj._ having two like faces or opposite surfaces. [L. _bi-_, twice, and FACIAL.] BIFFINS, bif'inz, _n._ apples slowly dried in bakers' ovens and flattened into cakes--prepared in great quantities in Norfolk. [Said to be properly _beefins_, because like raw beef.] BIFIDATE, bif'id-[=a]t, _adj._ (_bot._) cleft in two.--Also BIF'ID. [L. _bifidus_--_bi-_, _bis_, twice, and _find[)e]re_, perf. _fidi_, to cleave or split.] BIFLORATE, b[=i]-fl[=o]'r[=a]t, _adj._ bearing two flowers. [L. _bi-_, twice, and _flos_, _floris_, a flower.] BIFOLD, b[=i]'f[=o]ld, _adj._ twofold: (_Shak._) of two kinds. [L. _bi-_, twice, and FOLD.] BIFOLIATE, b[=i]-f[=o]'li-[=a]t, _adj._ having two leaves. [L. _bi-_, twice, and FOLIATE.] BIFORM, b[=i]'form, _adj._ having two forms. [L. _bi-_, twice, and FORM.] BIFURCATE, b[=i]-fur'k[=a]t, BIFURCATED, b[=i]-fur'k[=a]t-ed, _adj._ two-forked; having two prongs or branches.--_n._ BIFURC[=A]'TION, a forking or division into two branches. [L. _bifurcus_--_bi-_, _bis_, twice, _furca_, a fork.] BIG, big, _adj._ large or great: pregnant: great in air, mien, or spirit: loud: pompous, esp. 'to talk big,' 'look big.'--_adjs._ BIG-BELL'IED, having a big belly; pregnant (_with_); BIG'GISH, rather big.--_ns._ BIG'NESS, bulk, size; BIG'WIG (_colloq._), a leading man, a person of some importance. [M. E. _big_; origin very obscure--Skeat suggests that it is _bilg_, the _l_ being dropped, and compares Ice. _belgja_, to puff out.] BIG, big, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to build, to pile up.--_n._ BIG'GIN, anything built, a house. [Sc. _byggja_; A.S. _búian_.] BIGAMY, big'am-i, _n._ the crime of having two wives or two husbands at once.--_n._ BIG'AMIST, one who has committed bigamy. [Fr.--L. _bi-_, _bis_, twice, and Gr. _gamos_, marriage.] BIGG, big, _n._ a kind of barley. [Scand.; Ice. _bygg_, Dan. _byg_.] BIGGIN, big'in, _n._ a child's cap or hood. [Fr. _béguin_, from the cap worn by the _Beguines_, a religious society of women in France.] BIGHT, b[=i]t, _n._ a bend of the shore, or small bay: a bend or coil of a rope. [A.S. _byht_; cf. Dan. and Sw. _bugt_, Dut. _bocht_; from _b[=u]gan_, to bow.] BIGNONIA, big-n[=o]'ni-a, _n._ a genus of tropical plants with trumpet-shaped flowers, named from the Abbé _Bignon_, Louis XIV.'s librarian. BIGOT, big'ot, _n._ one blindly and obstinately devoted to a particular creed or party.--_adj._ BIG'OTED, having the qualities of a bigot.--_n._ BIG'OTRY, blind or excessive zeal, esp. in religious matters. [O. Fr.; of dub. origin; variously conn. with _Visigoth_, they being Arians, while the Franks were orthodox; with Sp. _bigote_, a moustache; with _Beguine_ (q.v.); and by Wace with a worthless legend that the Norman Rollo, in refusing to kiss the foot of Charles the Simple, said, 'Ne se, _bi got_.'] BIJOU, be-zh[=oo]', _n._ a trinket: a jewel: a little box:--_pl._ BIJOUX (be-zh[=oo]').--_n._ BIJOU'TRY, jewellery: small articles of virtu. [Fr.] BIKE, b[=i]k, _n._ a nest of wasps, wild bees, &c.: a swarm of people. [Scot.; ety. dub.] BIKE. See BICYCLE. BILABIATE, b[=i]-l[=a]'bi-[=a]t, _adj._ having two lips, as some corollas. [L. _bi-_, twice, and LABIATE.] BILANDER, b[=i]'land-[.e]r, _n._ a two-masted hoy, having her mainsail bent to the whole length of her yard, hanging fore and aft, and inclined to the horizontal at an angle of about 45º.--Also BY'LANDER. [Dut. _bijlander_.] BILATERAL, b[=i]-lat'[.e]r-al, _adj._ having two sides.--_adv._ BILAT'ERALLY. [L. _bi-_, twice, and LATERAL.] BILBERRY, bil'ber-i, _n._ called also _Whortleberry_, a shrub and its berries, which are dark blue. [Cf. Dan. _böllebær_; Scot. _blaeberry_; Ger. _blaubeere_.] BILBO, bil'b[=o], _n._ a rapier or sword:--_pl._ BILBOES (bil'b[=o]z), fetters. [From _Bilbao_, in Spain.] BILE, b[=i]l, _n._ a thick bitter fluid secreted by the liver--yellow in man and carnivorous animals, green in vegetable feeders: (_fig._) ill-humour.--_n._ BILE'-DUCT, the duct which conveys the bile from the liver and the gall-bladder to the small intestine.--_adjs._ BIL'IARY, belonging to or conveying bile; BIL'IOUS, pertaining to or affected by bile.--_adv._ BIL'IOUSLY. [Fr.--L. _bilis_.] BILGE, bilj, _n._ the bulging part of a cask: the broadest part of a ship's bottom.--_v.i._ to spring a leak by a fracture in the bilge, as a ship.--_ns._ BILGE'-PUMP; BILGE'-WAT'ER.--_adj._ BILG'Y, having the appearance and disagreeable smell of bilge-water. [Most prob. conn. with BULGE.] BILHARZIA, bil'här-zi-a, _n._ a human parasitic flat worm in the fluke or Trematode order, with differentiated sexes. [From the helminthologist, Theodor _Bilharz_.] BILINGUAL, b[=i]-ling'wal, _adj._ of or containing two tongues or languages.--Also BILIN'GUAR. [L. _bilinguis_--_bi-_, twice, _lingua_, tongue.] BILITERAL, b[=i]-lit'[.e]r-al, _adj._ consisting of two letters. [L. _bi-_, twice, and _litera_, a letter.] BILK, bilk, _v.t._ to elude; to cheat. [Perh. a dim. of BALK; at first a term in cribbage.] [Illustration] BILL, bil, _n._ a kind of concave battle-axe with a long wooden handle: a kind of hatchet with a long blade and wooden handle in the same line with it, often with a hooked point, used in cutting thorn hedges or in pruning.--_ns._ BILL'HOOK, a bill or hatchet having a hooked or curved point; BILL'MAN, a soldier armed with a bill. [A.S. _bil_; Ger. _bille_.] BILL, bil, _n._ the beak of a bird, or anything like it, applied even to a sharp promontory, as Portland Bill: the point of the fluke of an anchor--hence BILL'-BOARD, _n._, used to protect the planking from being injured by the bill when the anchor is weighed.--_v.i._ to join bills as doves: to caress fondly.--_adj._ BILLED. [A.S. _bile_, most prob. the same word as the preceding.] BILL, bil, _n._ an account of money: a draft of a proposed law: a written engagement to pay a sum of money at a fixed date: a placard or advertisement: any written statement of particulars: in the criminal law of England, the formal name of a written accusation of serious crime preferred before a grand-jury.--_n._ BILL'-BOOK, a book used in commerce in which an entry is made of all bills accepted and received.--_n.pl._ BILL'-BROK'ERS, persons who, being skilled in the money-market, the state of mercantile and personal credit, and the rates of exchange, engage, either on their own account or that of their employers, in the purchase and sale of foreign and inland bills of exchange and promissory notes: the business of BILL'-DISCOUNT'ERS, or discount-brokers, again, consists in discounting or advancing the amount of bills of exchange and notes which have some time to run before they come due, on the faith of the credit of the parties to the bill.--_n._ BILL'-CHAM'BER, a department of the Court of Session in Scotland which deals with summary business--so called because formerly both summonses and diligence or execution were for the most part commenced by a writ called a bill; BILL'-STICK'ER, one who sticks or posts up bills or placards.--BILL OF ADVENTURE, a writing by a merchant stating that goods shipped by him, and in his name, are the property of another, whose adventure or chance the transaction is--the shipping merchant, on the other hand, undertaking to account to the adventurer for the produce; BILL OF COMPLAINT, the name given in the English Court of Chancery, prior to the Judicature Act of 1873, to the formal statement of the facts and prayer for relief submitted by a plaintiff to the court; BILL OF COSTS, an account stating in detail the charges and disbursements of an attorney or solicitor in the conduct of his client's business; BILL OF EXCEPTIONS, a statement of objections, by way of appeal, against the decision of a judge who is trying a case with a jury in the Court of Session; BILL OF EXCHANGE, a document purporting to be an instrument of pecuniary obligation for value received, and which is employed for the purpose of settling a debt in a manner convenient to the parties concerned; BILL OF FARE, in a hotel, the list of dishes or articles of food; BILL OF HEALTH, an official certificate of the state of health on board ship before sailing; BILL OF LADING, a paper signed by the master of a ship, by which he makes himself responsible for the safe delivery of the goods specified therein; BILL OF MORTALITY, an official account of the births and deaths occurring in a certain district within a given time; BILL OF SALE, in English law, a formal deed assigning personal property, the usual mode of transferring ships, and valuable as mercantile securities over stock-in-trade, furniture, &c.; BILL OF SIGHT, an entry of imported goods of which the merchant does not know the quantity or the quality; BILL OF STORE, a license from the customs authorities to reimport British goods formerly exported; BILL OF VICTUALLING, a list of necessary stores shipped from the bonded warehouse, or for drawback on board vessels proceeding on oversea voyages. [Through Low L. _billa_, from L. _bulla_, anything round, a knob, a seal appended to a charter, hence a document bearing a seal, &c. See BULL, an edict.] BILLET, bil'et, _n._ a little note or paper: a ticket assigning quarters to soldiers.--_v.t._ to quarter or lodge, as soldiers. [Fr.; dim. of BILL.] [Illustration] BILLET, bil'et, _n._ a small log of wood used as fuel: (_archit._) an ornament in Norman architecture resembling billets of wood.--_n._ BILL'ET-HEAD, a billet or round piece of wood fixed in the bow or stern of a whale-boat, round which the harpoon-line is turned when the whale is struck. [Fr. _billette_--_bille_, the young stock of a tree, prob. of Celt. orig., perh. allied to BOLE, the trunk of a tree.] BILLET-DOUX, bil-e-d[=oo]', _n._ a sweet note: a love-letter. [Fr. _billet_, a letter, _doux_, sweet.] BILLIARDS, bil'yardz, _n._ a game played with a cue or mace and balls on a table having pockets at the sides and corners.--_adj._ BILL'IARD.--_n._ BILL'IARD-MARK'ER, a person who marks the points made by the players. [Fr. _billard_--_bille_, a ball.] BILLINGSGATE, bil'ingz-g[=a]t, _n._ foul and abusive language like that once familiar to the ear at _Billingsgate_ (the great fish-market of London). BILLION, bil'yun, _n._ a million or thousand thousand of millions (1,000,000,000,000); or, according to the French method of numeration, one thousand millions (1,000,000,000). [L. _bi-_, twice, and MILLION.] BILLON, bil'on, _n._ base metal: esp. an alloy of silver with copper, tin, or the like. [Fr., from same root as BILLET.] BILLOW, bil'[=o], _n._ a great wave of the sea swelled by the wind: (_poet._) a wave, the sea.--_v.i._ to roll in large waves.--_adjs._ BILL'OWED, BILL'OWY. [Scand.; Ice. _bylgja_; Sw. _bölja_, Dan. _bölge_, a wave. See BILGE, BULGE.] BILLY, BILLIE, bil'i, _n._ a comrade, a companion-in-arms: an Australian bushman's boiling-pan or tea-pot:--_pl._ BILL'IES.--_n._ BILL'Y-GOAT, a he-goat. [Prob. from _Bill_, a familiar abbrev. of William.] BILLYBOY, bil'i-boi, _n._ a bluff-bowed one-masted trading-vessel. [Prob. conn. with BILANDER.] BILLYCOCK, bil'i-kok, _n._ a man's low-crowned felt hat. [From _bully-cocked_, i.e. cocked like the bullies.] BILOBED, b[=i]'l[=o]bd, BILOBULAR, b[=i]-lob'[=u]-lar, _adj._ having two lobes. [L. _bi-_, twice, and _lobe_, a LOBULE.] BILOCATION, b[=i]-lok-[=a]'shun, _n._ the power of being in two places at the same time. [Coined from _bi-_, twice, and LOCATION.] BILOCULAR, b[=i]-lok'[=u]-lar, _adj._ divided into two cells. [L. _bi-_, twice, and L. _loculus_, dim. of _locus_, place.] BIMANA, b[=i]m'an-a, or bim'an-a, _n._ a term used by Blumenbach, Cuvier, &c., to describe the human species in contrast to other mammals--now rarely used, men and monkeys being now zoologically united in the old Linnæan order--Primates.--_adj._ B[=I]'MANOUS. BIMENSAL, b[=i]-mens'al, _adj._ happening once in two months: bimonthly.--_adj._ BIMES'TRIAL, of two months' duration. [L. _bi-_, and _mensis_, a month.] BIMETALLISM, b[=i]-met'al-izm, _n._ the name given to a monetary system in which gold and silver are on precisely the same footing as regards mintage and legal tender.--_adj._ BIMETAL'LIC, adapted to that standard.--_n._ and _adj._ BIMET'ALLIST. [A recent coinage, from Gr. _bi-_, double, and METAL.] BIMONTHLY, b[=i]-munth'li, _adj._ once in two months; also twice a month. [L. _bi-_, two, and MONTH.] BIN, bin, _n._ a place for storing corn, wine. [A.S. _binn_, a manger.] BIN, bin, (_Shak._) used for BE and BEEN. BINARY, b[=i]'nar-i, _adj._ composed of two: twofold.--_adjs._ B[=I]'NATE, growing in pairs: double; BINAUR'AL, having two ears: needing the use of both ears.--BINARY SCALE (_math._), the scale of notation whose radix or base is 2 (instead of 10); BINARY THEORY (_chem._), that which assumes all salts to contain merely two substances, either both simple, or one simple and the other a compound playing the part of a simple body. [L. _binarius_--_bini_, two by two--_bis_, twice.] BIND, b[=i]nd, _v.t._ to tie or fasten together with a band (with _to_, _upon_): to encircle round (with _about_, _with_): to sew a border on: to tie up or bandage a limb, or the like: to fasten together (the leaves of a book) and put a cover on: to lay under obligation to answer a charge: to oblige by oath or promise _to_ or _from_ an action: to restrain, to make fast any one--also of disease, a magic spell, a passion, &c.: to hold or cement firmly: to render hard.--_v.i._ to produce constipation:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ bound.--_n._ a stalk of hops, so called from its twining or binding itself round a pole or tree: the indurated clay of coal-mines: (_mus._) the tie for grouping notes together.--_ns._ BIND'ER, one who binds, as books or sheaves: an attachment to a reaping-machine for tying the bundles of grain cut and thrown off, a reaping-machine provided with such; BIND'ERY (U.S.), a bookbinder's establishment.--_adj._ BIND'ING, restraining: obligatory.--_n._ the act of binding: anything that binds: the covering of a book.--_ns._ BIND'WEED, the convolvulus, a genus of plants, so called from their twining or binding; BINE, the slender stem of a climbing plant.--I DARE or WILL BE BOUND, I will be responsible for the statement. [A.S. _bindan_; cog. with Ger. _binden_, Sans. _bandh_.] BINERVATE, b[=i]-n[.e]rv'[=a]t, _adj._ (_bot._) applied to leaves that have two ribs or nerves: (_entom._) having the wings supported by two nerves. [L. _bi-_, _bis_, twice, and NERVE.] BING, bing, _n._ a heap or pile, often applied like BIN. [Scand.] BINGO, bing'[=o], _n._ a familiar name for brandy. [Prob. B, and STINGO.] BINK, bingk, _n._ a Scotch form of BENCH. BINNACLE, bin'a-kl, _n._ (_naut._) the box in which on shipboard the compass is kept. [Formerly _bittacle_--Port. _bitácola_--L. _habitaculum_, a dwelling-place--_habit-[=a]re_, to dwell.] BINOCLE, bin'o-kl, _n._ a telescope through which an object can be viewed with both eyes at the same time.--_adj._ BINOC'ULAR, having two eyes: suitable for two eyes.--_adv._ BINOC'ULARLY. [L. _bini_, two by two, _oculus_, an eye.] BINOMIAL, b[=i]-n[=o]m'i-al, _adj._ and _n._ (_alg._) a quantity consisting of two terms or parts, as _a_+b.--BINOMIAL THEOREM, a series of analytical formulæ by which any power of a binomial can be expressed and developed. [L. _bi-_, _bis_, twice, and _nomen_, a name, a term.] BINTURONG, bin't[=u]-rong, _n._ the native name for an Indian prehensile-tailed carnivore, akin to the civet. BIO-, b[=i]'[=o], a prefix from Gr. _bios_, life, used in many scientific words to express having organic life.--_adj._ BIOBIBLIOGRAPH'ICAL, dealing with the life and writings of any one.--_n._ B[=I]'OBLAST, a formative cell, a minute mass of bioplasm or protoplasm about to become a definite cell.--_adj._ BIODYNAM'ICAL.--_ns._ BIODYNAM'ICS, that part of biology which deals with vital force; BIOGENESIS (-jen'e-sis), the process of natural generation of life from life, as opposed to spontaneous generation, or abiogenesis.--_adj._ BIOGENET'IC.--_ns._ BIOG'ENIST; BIOG'ENY; BIOMAG'NETISM, animal magnetism; BIOM'ETRY, the measurement or calculation of the probable duration of life; B[=I]'OPLASM, the germinal matter of all living beings. BIOGRAPH, b[=i]'o-graf, _n._ a name sometimes applied to a form of the zoetrope contrived so as to exhibit the successive movements of a living body, thus simulating life. [Gr. _bios_, life, _graphein_, to write, describe.] BIOGRAPHY, b[=i]-og'raf-i, _n._ a written account or history of the life of an individual: the art of writing such accounts.--_n._ BIOG'RAPHER, one who writes biography.--_adjs._ BIOGRAPH'IC, -AL.--_adv._ BIOGRAPH'ICALLY. [Gr. _bios_, life, _graphein_, to write.] BIOLOGY, b[=i]-ol'oj-i, _n._ the science that treats of life or of organised beings, which seeks to classify and generalise the multitude of phenomena presented by and peculiar to the living world.--_adj._ BIOLOG'ICAL.--_adv._ BIOLOG'ICALLY.--_n._ BIOLO'GIST, one who studies biology. [Gr. _bios_, life, _logos_, a discourse.] BIOTAXY, b[=i]'[=o]-tak-si, _n._ classification according to the sum of the morphological character. [Gr. _bios_, life, and TAXIS.] BIOTIC, b[=i]-ot'ik, _adj._ pertaining to life. [Gr. _bios_, life.] BIPAROUS, bip'ar-us, _adj._ bearing two at a birth. [L. _bis_, twice, _par-[)e]re_, to bring forth.] BIPARTITE, bi'part-[=i]t, or b[=i]-pärt'[=i]t, _adj._ divided into two like parts.--_n._ BIPARTI'TION, the act of dividing into two corresponding parts. [L. _bi-_, _bis_, twice, _partitus_, divided--_part-[=i]re_, to divide.] BIPED, b[=i]'ped, _n._ an animal with two feet.--_adjs._ B[=I]'PED, B[=I]'PEDAL, having two feet. [L. _bipes_--_bi-_, _bis_, twice, _ped-em_, foot.] BIPENNATE, b[=i]-pen'[=a]t, BIPENNATED, b[=i]-pen'[=a]t-ed, _adj._ having two wings. [L. _bi-_, and PENNATE.] BIPENNIS, b[=i]-pen'nis, _n._ an axe with two blades, one on each side of the handle, usually seen depicted in the hands of the Amazons. [L.--_bis_, twice, _penna_, wing.] BIPETALOUS, b[=i]-pet'al-us, _adj._ having two petals or flower-leaves. [L. _bi-_, twice, and PETAL.] BIPINNATE, b[=i]-pin'n[=a]t, _adj._ doubly pinnate. [L. _bi-_, twice, and PINNATE.] BIQUADRATIC, b[=i]-kwod-rat'ik, _n._ a quantity twice squared, or raised to the fourth power.--BIQUADRATIC EQUATION, an equation with one unknown quantity raised to the fourth power; BIQUADRATIC ROOT, the square root of the square root of a number. [L. _bi-_ twice, and _quadratus_, squared.] BIQUINTILE, b[=i]-kwin'til, _n._ (_astron._) the aspect of planets when they are twice the fifth part (144 degrees) of a great circle from each other. [L. _bi-_, twice, _quintus_, the fifth.] BIRCH, b[.e]rch, _n._ a hardy forest-tree, with smooth, white bark and very durable wood: a rod for punishment, consisting of a birch twig or twigs.--_adjs._ BIRCH, BIRCH'EN, made of birch. [A.S. _berc_, _bierce_; Ice. _björk_, Sans. _bh[=u]rja_.] BIRD, b[.e]rd, _n._ a general name for feathered animals.--_v.i._ to catch or snare birds.--_ns._ BIRD'-BOLT (_Shak._), a short thick bolt or arrow with a blunted point, used for killing birds without piercing them; BIRD'-CAGE, a cage or box made of wire and wood for holding birds; BIRD'-CALL, an instrument used by fowlers to call or allure birds to them, by imitating their notes; BIRD'-CATCH'ER, one who catches birds: a fowler; BIRD'-CATCH'ING, the art or practice of catching birds; BIRD'-CHER'RY, a bush bearing an astringent wild-fruit in drupes.--_adj._ BIRD'-EYED, having eyes quick of sight, like those of a bird: quick-sighted.--_ns._ BIRD'-FAN'CIER, one who has a fancy for rearing birds: one who keeps birds for sale; BIRD'ING (_Shak._), catching birds by means of hawks trained for the purpose; BIRD'ING-PIECE, a fowling-piece; BIRD'-LIME, a sticky substance used for catching birds; BIRD'-OF-PAR'ADISE, a kind of Eastern bird with splendid plumage; BIRD'S'-EYE, a kind of tobacco; BIRD'S'-NEST, the nest in which a bird lays her eggs and hatches her young; BIRD'-SP[=I]'DER, a species of large spiders which prey on small birds, found in Brazil.--_adj._ BIRD'-WIT'TED, flighty: incapable of sustained attention.--BIRD'S-EYE VIEW, a general view from above, as if by a bird on the wing, a representation of such, a general view or résumé of a subject; BIRD'S-FOOT TREFOIL, the popular name of several leguminous plants, having clusters of cylindrical pods resembling a bird's foot.--A LITTLE BIRD TOLD ME, I heard in a way I will not reveal. [A.S. _brid_, the young of a bird, a bird: either from root of BREED (_bredan_, to breed) or of BIRTH (_beran_, to bear).] BIREME, b[=i]'r[=e]m, _n._ an ancient vessel with two rows of oars. [Fr.--L. _biremis_--_bi-_, twice, and _remus_, an oar.] [Illustration] BIRETTA, bir-et'a, _n._ a square cap worn by clergy--by priests, black; bishops, purple; cardinals, red. [It. _berretta_--Low L. _birretum_, a cap.] BIRK, b[.e]rk, _n._ Scotch and prov. Eng. for BIRCH.--_adj._ BIRK'EN (_Scot._), birchen. BIRKIE, birk'i, _n._ a strutting or swaggering fellow: a fellow generally.--_adj._ active. [_Scot._ A dubious connection with Scand. _berkja_, to bark, boast, has been suggested.] BIRL, birl, _v.t._ to spin anything round: to throw down a coin as one's share in a joint contribution.--_v.i._ to whirl round. [_Scot._, an onomatopoeic word.] BIRLE, birl, _v.t._ and _v.i._ (_Scot._) to ply with drink: to carouse.--_ns._ BIRL'ER (_Cumberland_); BIRL'ING, the act of drawing liquor. [A.S. _byrelian_, _byrele_, a cup-bearer, _beran_, to bear.] BIRLINN, bir'lin, _n._ a chief's barge in the Western Isles. [Gael.] BIRMINGHAMISE, bir'ming-ham-[=i]z, _v.t._ to make up artificially. [See BRUMMAGEM.] BIROSTRATE, b[=i]-ros'tr[=a]t, _adj._ having a double beak. [L. _bi-_, twice, and _rostratus_, beaked--_rostrum_, a beak.] BIRR, bir, _n._ impetus: a violent push: stress in pronunciation: any sharp whirring sound. [_Scot._; Ice. _byrr_, a favouring wind.] BIRSE, birs, _n._ bristle.--_adj._ BIRS'Y.--TO LICK THE BIRSE, to draw a hog's bristle through the mouth--part of the ceremony of citizenship in Selkirk; TO SET UP ONE'S BIRSE, to rouse the wrath of, from the habit of animals bristling up when enraged. [Scot.; A.S. _byrst_.] BIRSLE, birs'l, _v.t._ to scorch, to toast. [Scot.] BIRTH, b[.e]rth, _n._ a ship's station at anchor. [Same as BERTH.] BIRTH, b[.e]rth, _n._ the act of bearing or bringing forth: the offspring born: dignity of family: origin.--_n._ BIRTH'DAY, the day on which one is born, or the anniversary of that day.--_adj._ relating to the day of one's birth.--_ns._ BIRTH'DAY-BOOK, a book in diary form, in which the birthdays of one's friends are entered in their autographs; BIRTH'DOM (_Shak._), birthright; BIRTH'-MARK, a peculiar mark on one's body at birth; BIRTH'NIGHT, the night on which one is born, or the anniversary of that night; BIRTH'PLACE, the place of one's birth; BIRTH'RIGHT, the right or privilege to which one is entitled by birth: native rights.--_adj._ BIRTH'-STRANG'LED (_Shak._), strangled in birth.--_n._ BIRTH'-WORT, a genus of perennial plants, formerly used medicinally in cases of difficult parturition. [M. E. _birÞe_, prob. Scand.; cf. Goth, _ga-baurÞs_, Ger. _ge-burt_.] BIS, bis, _adv._ twice: (_mus._) a direction that a passage is to be repeated [L.].--_n._ B[=I]SEG'MENT, a segment of a line or figure cut into two equal parts.--_adjs._ B[=I]SER'RATE (_bot._), doubly serrate; B[=I]SEX'UAL, of both sexes: (_bot._) applied to flowers which contain both stamens and pistils within the same envelope. BISCAYAN, bis'k[=a]-an, _adj._ and _n._ of or pertaining to the Basque province of _Biscay_ in Spain, or its people: Basque generally: a long heavy musket, or the bullet fired by such. BISCUIT, bis'kit, _n._ hard dry bread in small cakes: a kind of unglazed earthenware. [O. Fr. _bescoit_ (mod. _biscuit_)--L. _bis_, twice, _coqu[)e]re_, _coctum_, to cook or bake.] BISE, b[=e]z, _n._ a cold north or north-east wind prevalent at certain seasons in Switzerland and neighbouring parts of France and Italy. [Fr.] BISECT, b[=i]-sekt', _v.t._ to cut into two equal parts.--_n._ BISEC'TION. [L. _bi_, twice, and _sec[=a]re_, _sectum_, to cut.] BISERIAL, b[=i]-s[=e]'ri-al, _adj._ arranged in two series or rows. [L. _bi-_, and SERIES.] BISHOP, bish'op, _n._ in the Western and Eastern Churches, and in the Anglican communion, a clergyman consecrated for the spiritual direction of a diocese, under an archbishop, and over the priests or presbyters and deacons: a spiritual overseer in the early Christian Church, whether of a local church or of a number of churches--the terms _bishop_ [Gr. _episcopos_] and _presbyter_ [Gr. _presbyteros_] are used interchangeably in the New Testament for the officers who direct the discipline and administer the affairs of a single congregation--the differentiation in function and dignity is, however, well marked by the end of the 2d century: one of the pieces or men in chess, from the upper part being carved into the shape of a bishop's mitre (formerly the _archer_): a wholesome hot drink compounded of red wine (claret, Burgundy, &c.) poured warm or cold upon ripe bitter oranges, sugared and spiced to taste.--_v.t._ (_jocularly_) to play the bishop, to confirm: to supply with bishops: to let milk or the like burn while cooking.--_ns._ BISH'OPESS, a she-bishop, a bishop's wife; BISH'OPRIC, the office and jurisdiction of a bishop: a diocese--also BISH'OPDOM.--BISHOP IN PARTIBUS (see PARTIBUS). [A.S. _biscop_--L. _episcopus_--Gr. _episcopos_, an overseer--_epi_, upon, _skop-ein_, to view.] BISK. See BISQUE (1). BISMAR, bis'mar, _n._ a kind of steelyard still used in Orkney. [Dan. _bismer_.] BISMILLAH, bis-mil'a, _interj._ in the name of Allah or God--a common Mohammedan exclamation. [Ar.] BISMUTH, biz'muth, _n._ a brittle metal of a reddish-white colour used in the arts and in medicine. [Ger. _bismuth_, _wissmuth_; origin unknown.] BISON, b[=i]'son, or bis'on, _n._ a large wild animal like the bull, found in Lithuania, the Caucasus, &c., with shaggy hair and a fatty hump on its shoulders.--The American 'buffalo' is also a bison. [From L. pl. _bisontes_, prob. of Teut. origin; cf. Old High Ger. _wisunt_, A.S. _wesend_.] BISQUE, bisk, _n._ a rich soup made of meat or fish slowly stewed and seasoned, crayfish soup.--Also BISK. [Fr.] BISQUE, bisk, _n._ pottery that has undergone the first firing before being glazed. [See BISCUIT.] BISQUE, bisk, _n._ a term at tennis for the odds given by one player to another, in allowing him to score one point once during the set--a means of equalising a strong and a weak player. [Fr.] BISSEXTILE, bis-sext'il, _n._ leap-year.--_adj._ containing the BISSEXT (L. _bissextus_), or extra day which the Julian calendar inserts in leap-year--the sixth before the kalends of March, 24th February. [L. _bis_, twice, and _sextus_, sixth.] BISSON, bis'son, _adj._ (_Shak._) blind, blinding. [A.S. _bísene_, blind.] BISTORT, bis'tort, _n._ a perennial plant with astringent properties (_Polygonum bistorta_), so named from its twisted roots, called also _Snakeweed_ and _Adder's Wort_. [Fr.--L. _bistorta_; _bis_, twice, _torta_, twisted.] BISTOURY, bis't[=oo]r-i, _n._ a narrow surgical knife for making incisions, having a straight, convex, or concave edge. [Fr.] BISTRE, BISTER, bis't[.e]r, _n._ a pigment of a warm brown colour made from the soot of wood, esp. beechwood.--_adj._ BIS'TRED. [Fr. _bistré_; origin unknown.] BISULCATE, b[=i]-sul'k[=a]t, _adj._ (_zool._) cloven-footed. [L. _bi-_, twice, _sulcus_, a furrow.] BISULPHATE, b[=i]-sul'f[=a]t, _n._ a salt of sulphuric acid, in which one-half of the hydrogen of the acid is replaced by a metal. [L. _bi-_, twice, and SULPHATE.] BIT, bit, _n._ a bite, a morsel: a small piece: the smallest degree: a small tool for boring (see BRACE): the part of the bridle which the horse holds in his mouth (see BRIDLE)--hence, TO TAKE THE BIT IN HIS TEETH, to be beyond restraint.--_v.t._ to put the bit in the mouth; to curb or restrain:--_pr.p._ bit'ting; _pa.p._ bit'ted.--BIT BY BIT, piecemeal, gradually. [From BITE.] BITCH, bich, _n._ the female of the dog, wolf, and fox. [A.S. _bicce_; Ice. _bikkja_.] BITE, b[=i]t, _v.t._ to seize or tear with the teeth: to sting or pain: to wound by reproach: to deceive, or take in--now only passive:--_pa.t._ bit; _pa.p._ bit or bit'ten.--_n._ a grasp by the teeth: a nibble at the bait by a fish: something bitten off: a mouthful.--_v.t._ BITE'-IN, to eat out the lines of an etching with acid: to repress.--_n._ BIT'ER, one who bites: a fish apt to take the bait: a cheat.--_n._ and _adj._ BIT'ING.--TO BITE THE DUST, to fall, to die; TO BITE THE THUMB, to express defiance by putting the thumbnail into the mouth and knocking it against the teeth. [A.S. _bítan_; Goth. _beitan_, Ice. _bita_, Ger. _beissen_.] BITT, bit, _v.t._ (_naut._) to fasten round the BITTS (q.v.). BITTACLE. Same as BINNACLE. BITTER, bit'[.e]r, _adj._ biting or acrid to the taste: sharp: painful.--_n._ any substance having a bitter taste.--_adj._ BITT'ERISH.--_adv._ BITT'ERLY.--_n._ BITT'ERNESS.--_n.pl._ BITT'ERS, a liquid prepared from bitter herbs or roots, and used as a stomachic.--_n._ BITT'ER-SWEET, the Woody Nightshade, a slender, climbing hedge-plant, having red poisonous berries, said to be named from its root, when chewed, having first a bitter, then a sweet taste: (_Shak._) an apple that has a compound taste of sweet and bitter: a mixture of sweet and bitter. [A.S. _bítan_, to bite.] BITTER (_Spens._), used for BITTERN. BITTERN, bit'[.e]rn, _n._ a bird of the heron family, said to have been named from the resemblance of its voice to the lowing of a bull. [M. E. _bittour_--Fr.--Low L. _butorius_ (_bos_, _taurus_).] BITTERN, bit'[.e]rn, _n._ an oily liquid remaining in salt-works after the crystallisation of the salt, and used in the manufacture of Epsom salts. BITTOR, BITTOUR, bit'tur, _n._ (_Dryden_) the bird BITTERN. BITTS, bits, _n._ a frame in the forepart of a ship round which the cables are passed when the vessel rides at anchor. BITUMEN, bi-t[=u]'men, or bit'yu-men, _n._ a name applied to various inflammable mineral substances, as naphtha, petroleum, asphaltum.--_v.t._ BIT[=U]'MINATE, to mix with or make into bitumen--also BIT[=U]'MINISE.--_adjs._ BIT[=U]'MINOUS, BIT[=U]MED' (_Shak._), impregnated with bitumen. [L.] BIVALVE, b[=i]'valv, _n._ an animal having a shell in two valves or parts, like the oyster: a seed-vessel of like kind.--_adj._ having two valves.--_adj._ BIVALV'ULAR. [L. _bi-_, twice, _valva_, a valve.] BIVIOUS, biv'i-us, _adj._ leading two, or different, ways. [L. _bivius_--_bi-_, twice, _via_, a way.] BIVOUAC, biv'[=oo]-ak, _n._ the resting at night of soldiers in the open air, instead of under cover in camp.--_v.i._ to pass the night in the open air:--_pr.p._ biv'ouacking; _pa.p._ biv'ouacked. [Fr.--Ger. _beiwacht_, to watch beside--_bei_ by, _wachen_, to watch.] BI-WEEKLY, b[=i]'-w[=e]k'li, _adj._ properly, occurring once in two weeks, but usually twice in every week. [L. _bi-_, twice, and WEEK.] BIZARRE, bi-zär', _adj._ odd: fantastic: extravagant.--_n._ BIZAR'RERIE. [Fr.--Sp. _bizarro_, high-spirited; acc. to Littré, adapted from Basque _bizarre_, the beard.] BIZCACHA. See VISCACHA. BLAB, blab, _v.i._ to talk much: to tell tales.--_v.t._ to tell what ought to be kept secret (with _out_, _forth_):--_pr.p._ blab'bing; _pa.p._ blabbed.--_n._ an open-mouthed person, a tattler: tattling.--_n._ BLAB'BER, one who blabs. [M. E. _blabbe_, a chatterer, also BLABBER, to babble, with which cf. Norse _blabbra_, Ger. _plappern_.] BLACK, blak, _adj._ of the darkest colour: without colour: obscure: dismal: sullen: horrible: dusky: foul, dirty: malignant: dark-haired, wearing dark armour or clothes.--_n._ black colour: absence of colour: a negro: mourning: the dark smut which attacks wheat: a speck of black on the face, a sooty particle in the air: black clothes, esp. dress trousers.--_v.t._ to make black: to soil or stain: to draw in black.--_n._ BLACK'AMOOR, a black Moor: a negro.--_adjs._ BLACK'-AND-TAN, having black hair on the back, and tan or yellowish-brown elsewhere, esp. of a terrier; BLACK'-A-VISED, of dark complexion (probably originally _black-à-vis_).--_v.t._ BLACK'BALL, to reject in voting by putting a black ball into a ballot-box.--_ns._ BLACK'BALLING, the act of so rejecting a candidate; BLACK'-BAND, iron ore containing enough of coal to calcine it; BLACK'-BEE'TLE, a cockroach; BLACK'BERRY, the berry of the bramble; BLACK'BIRD, a species of thrush of a black colour: a current name for a negro or Polynesian kidnapped for labour; BLACK'BIRDING, the kidnapping of such; BLACK'BOARD, a board painted black, used in schools for writing, forming figures, &c.--_adjs._ BLACK'-BOD'ING, of evil omen; BLACK'-BROWED, having black eyebrows: sullen.--_ns._ BLACK'-CAP, a bird, a species of warbler, so called from its black crown: (_cook._) an apple roasted until it is black, and served up in a custard: the full-dress cap put on by English judges when about to pronounce sentence of death; BLACK'-CATT'LE, oxen, bulls, and cows; BLACK'-CHALK, a variety of clay-slate of a bluish-black colour, used for drawing, and also for making black paint; BLACK'COCK, a species of grouse, common in the north of England and in Scotland; BLACK'-CURR'ANT, a garden shrub with black fruit used in making preserves; BLACK'-DEATH, a name given to the plague of the 14th century from the black spots which appeared on the skin; BLACK'-DRAUGHT, the popular name for a purgative medicine consisting chiefly of senna and Epsom salts; BLACK'-DROP, a liquid preparation of opium, vinegar, and sugar.--_v.t._ BLACK'EN, to make black: to defame.--_adj._ BLACK'FACED, having a black face: dismal.--_ns._ BLACK'-FLAG, the flag of a pirate, or that hoisted at the execution of a criminal--from its colour; BLACK'-FRIAR, a friar of the Dominican order, so called from his black mantle (over a white woollen habit): (_pl._) the region in a city, as London, where their convent stood; BLACKGUARD (blag'ärd), originally applied to the lowest menials about a court, who took charge of the pots, kettles, &c.: a low, ill-conducted fellow.--_adj._ low: scurrilous.--_v.t._ to treat as a blackguard; _v.i._ to play the blackguard.--_n._ BLACK'GUARDISM.--_adv._ BLACK'GUARDLY.--_ns._ BLACK'-HEART'EDNESS; BLACK'-HOLE, formerly the name for the punishment-cell in a barrack: the memorable black-hole in the Fort-William barracks at Calcutta, into which, in in 1756, as many as 146 Europeans were thrust over night, of whom only 23 were found surviving in the morning; BLACK'ING, a substance used for blacking leather, &c.--_adj._ BLACK'ISH.--_ns._ BLACK'-JACK, a vessel for holding drink, originally made of leather: (_naut._) the flag of a pirate; BLACK'-LEAD, a black mineral (plumbago, not lead) used in making pencils, blacking grates, &c.; BLACK'LEG, a low, gambling fellow: a turf-swindler: a term applied by strikers to men willing to work for the wages against which themselves have struck--also BLACK'-NEB; BLACK'-LET'TER, the old English (also called Gothic) letter ([Black-letter]); BLACK'-LIST, a list of defaulters; BLACK'-MAR[=I]'A, the closely covered, usually black-painted van in which prisoners are conveyed between the court and the prison; BLACK'-MON'DAY, Easter Monday, so called on account of the sufferings experienced by the army of Edward III. from the severity of the weather on that day in 1360; BLACK'-MONK, a monk of the order of St Benedict, from his garments; BLACK'NESS; BLACK'-PUDD'ING, a blood-pudding (q.v.).; BLACK'-ROD, the usher of the chapter of the Garter and of the House of Lords, so called from the black wand tipped with a golden lion which he carries; BLACK'-SHEEP, a disreputable member of a family or group; BLACK'SMITH, a smith who works in iron, as opposed to a _Whitesmith_, or one who works in tin; BLACK'THORN, a species of dark-coloured thorn: the sloe: a stick made from its stem.--_adjs._ BLACK'-TRESSED, having black tresses; BLACK-VISAGED (blak'-viz'[=a]jd), having a black visage or appearance.--_n._ BLACK'-WASH, a lotion of calomel and lime-water: anything that blackens.--BLACK AND BLUE, with the livid colour of a bruise in the flesh; BLACK BOOK, an official book bound in black, a book recording the names of persons deserving punishment; BLACK EYE, an eye of which the iris is dark--a point of beauty: a discoloration around the eye due to a blow or fall; BLACK FELLOW, a native in Australia.--IN BLACK AND WHITE, in writing or in print: in art, in no colours but black and white.--TO BE BLACK IN THE FACE, to have the face purple through strangulation, passion, or effort; TO BE IN ANY ONE'S BLACK BOOKS, to have incurred any one's displeasure; TO BLACK OUT, to obliterate with black. [A.S. _blac_, _blæc_, black.] BLACK-ART, blak'-ärt, _n._ necromancy: magic. [Acc. to Trench, a translation of the Low L. _nigromantia_, substituted erroneously for the Gr. _necromanteia_ (see NECROMANCY), as if the first syllable had been L. _niger_, black.] BLACKMAIL, blak'm[=a]l, _n._ rent or tribute formerly paid to robbers for protection: hush-money extorted under threat of exposure or denunciation, esp. of a baseless charge.--_v.t._ to extort money from a person by this expedient. [BLACK and A.S. _mal_, tribute, toll.] BLAD, blad, _n._ a fragment of anything, a good lump. [Scot.] BLADDER, blad'[.e]r, _n._ a thin bag distended with liquid or air: the receptacle for the urine.--_adjs._ BLADD'ERED, BLADD'ERY, swollen like a bladder.--_n._ BLADD'ERWORT, a genus of slender aquatic plants, the leaves floating. [A.S. _bl['æ]dre_--_blawan_; Old Ger. _blahan_, _blajan_, to blow; Ger. _blase_, bladder--_blasen_, to blow; cf. L. _flat-us_, breath.] BLADE, bl[=a]d, _n._ the leaf or flat part of grass or corn: the cutting part of a knife, sword, &c.: the flat part of an oar: a dashing fellow.--_n._ BLADE'BONE, the flat bone at the back of the shoulder: the scapula.--_adj._ BLAD'ED. [A.S. _blæd_; Ice. _blad_, Ger. _blatt_.] BLAE, bl[=a], _adj._ blackish or blue in colour: livid: bleak.--_n._ BLAE'BERRY, Scotch name for the bilberry or whortleberry. [M. E. _blo_, _bloo_--Scand. _blá_.] BLAGUE, blag, _n._ blustering humbug. [Fr.] BLAIN, bl[=a]n, _n._ a boil or blister. [A.S. _blegen_, a blister, prob. from _blawan_, to blow.] BLAME, bl[=a]m, _v.t._ to find fault with: to censure.--_n._ imputation of a fault: crime: censure.--_adj._ BLAM'ABLE, deserving of blame: faulty.--_n._ BLAM'ABLENESS.--_adv._ BLAM'ABLY.--_adj._ BLAME'FUL, meriting blame: criminal.--_adv._ BLAME'FULLY.--_n._ BLAME'FULLNESS.--_adj._ BLAMELESS, without blame: guiltless: innocent.--_adv._ BLAME'LESSLY.--_ns._ BLAME'LESSNESS; BLAME'WORTHINESS, quality of being worthy of blame: blamableness.--_adj._ BLAME'WORTHY, worthy of blame: culpable. [Fr. _blâmer_, _blasmer_--Gr. _blasph[=e]me_-_ein_, to speak ill. See BLASPHEME.] BLANCH, blansh, _v.t._ to whiten.--_v.i._ to grow white. [Fr. _blanchir_--_blanc_, white. See BLANK.] BLANC-MANGE, bla-mawngzh', _n._ a white jelly prepared with milk. [Fr. _blanc_, white, _manger_, food.] BLAND, bland, _adj._ smooth: gentle: mild.--_adv._ BLANDLY.--_n._ BLAND'NESS. [L. _blandus_, perh.--_mla_(_n_)_dus_--Eng. _mild_.] BLAND, bland, _n._ an Orcadian name for butter-milk and water. [Scand. _blanda_.] BLANDISH, bland'ish, _v.t._ to flatter and coax, to cajole.--_n._ BLAND'ISHMENT, act of expressing fondness: flattery: winning expressions or actions. [Fr. _blandir_, _blandiss-_, from L. _bland[=i]ri_.] BLANK, blangk, _adj._ without writing or marks, as in white paper: empty, empty of results: vacant, confused: (_poetry_) not having rhyme.--_n._ a paper without writing: a lottery-ticket having no mark, and therefore valueless: an empty space, a void, or vacancy: (_archery_) the white mark in the centre of a target at which an arrow is aimed, hence the object or aim of anything: a form of document having blank spaces afterwards to be filled in.--_v.t._ to make pale: (_Milton_) to confuse.--_n._ BLANK'-CART'RIDGE, a cartridge without a bullet.--_p.adj._ BLANKED, a minced form of _damned_, from the usual form of printing d----d.--_adv._ BLANK'LY.--_ns._ BLANK'NESS; BLANK'-VERSE, verse without rhyme, esp. the heroic verse of five feet. [Fr. _blanc_, from root of Ger. _blinken_, to glitter--Old High Ger. _blichen_, Gr. _phlegein_, to shine.] BLANKET, blangk'et, _n._ a white woollen covering for beds: a covering for horses, &c.--_v.t._ to cover with a blanket: to toss in a blanket.--_n._ BLANK'ETING, cloth for blankets: the punishment of being tossed in a blanket. [Fr. _blanchet_, dim. of _blanc_, from its null white colour,] BLARE, bl[=a]r, _v.i._ to roar, to sound loudly, as a trumpet.--_n._ roar, noise. [M. E. _blaren_, orig. _blasen_, from A.S. _blæsan_, to blow. See BLAST.] BLARNEY, blar'ni, _n._ pleasing flattery or cajoling talk.--_v.t._ to beguile with such. [_Blarney_ Castle, near Cork, where there is a stone difficult to reach, he who kisses which ever after possesses the gift of blarney.] BLASÉ, bla-z[=a], _adj._ fatigued with pleasures, used up. [Fr. _blaser_.] BLASH, blash, _n._ watery stuff.--_adj._ BLASH'Y. [Scot.] BLASPHEME, blas-f[=e]m', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to speak impiously of, as of God: to curse and swear.--_n._ BLASPHEM'ER.--_adj._ BLAS'PHEMOUS, containing blasphemy: impious.--_adv._ BLAS'PHEMOUSLY.--_n._ BLAS'PHEMY, profane speaking: contempt or indignity offered to God. [Gr. _blasph[=e]me-ein_--_blaptein_, to hurt, _ph[=e]mi_ to speak. See BLAME.] BLAST, blast, _n._ a blowing or gust of wind: a forcible stream of air: sound of a wind instrument; an explosion of gunpowder: anything pernicious.--_v.t._ to strike with some pernicious influence, to blight: to affect with sudden violence or calamity: to rend asunder with gunpowder.--_adj._ BLAST'ED, blighted: cursed, damned.--_ns._ BLAST'-FUR'NACE, a smelting furnace into which hot air is blown; BLAST'-HOLE, a hole in the bottom of a pump through which water enters; BLAST'ING, the separating of masses of stone by means of an explosive substance; BLAST'ING-GEL'ATINE, a powerful explosive made of gun-cotton and nitro-glycerine; BLAST'MENT, withering or shrivelling up caused by blasting; BLAST'-PIPE, a pipe in a steam-engine, to convey the waste-steam up the chimney. [A.S. _bl['æ]st_; cf. Ice. _beása_; Ger. _blasen_.] BLASTODERM, blas'to-derm, _n._ an embryological term applied to the layer or layers of cells arising from the germinal disc, or the portion of a partially segmenting egg which undergoes division. [Gr. _blasto-_, _blastos_, a sprout, _derma_, _dermat-_, skin.] BLATANT, bl[=a]t'ant, _adj._ noisy, clamorous, loud.--_adv._ BLAT'ANTLY. [Prob. a coinage of Spenser.] BLATE, bl[=a]t, _adj._ bashful, timidly awkward. [Scot.; A.S. _blát_, pale.] BLATTER, blat't[.e]r, _v.i._ to talk overmuch, to prate.--_v.i._ to hurry or rush noisily.--_n._ a clatter of words, sound of rapid motion. [L. _blater[=a]re_.] BLAWORT, blä'wort, _n._ the harebell: the corn blue-bottle.--Also BL[=E]'WART. [Scot. BLAE, and _wort_, herb.] BLAY, bl[=a], _n._ the fish _bleak_.--Also BLEY. [See BLEAK, a fish.] BLAZE, bl[=a]z, _n._ a rush of light or of flame: a bursting out or active display: a white spot on the face of a horse or ox: a mark made on a tree by cutting off a strip of bark to mark a track or a boundary.--_v.i._ to burn with a flame: to throw out light.--_n._ BLAZ'ER, a cricket or golf jacket of bright colour.--BLAZES, from the fires of hell, in imprecations like TO BLAZES; also LIKE BLAZES = with fury.--TO BLAZE A TREE, to make a white mark by cutting off a piece of the bark. [A.S. _blæse_, a torch, from root of BLOW.] BLAZE, bl[=a]z, Blazon, bl[=a]'zn, _v.t._ to proclaim, to spread abroad.--_n._ BLAZ'ER (_Spens._), one who spreads abroad or proclaims. [Same as BLARE; BLAZON is the M. E. _blasen_, with the _n_ retained.] BLAZON, bl[=a]'zn, _v.t._ to make public: to display: to draw or to explain in proper terms the figures, &c., in armorial bearings.--_n._ the science or rules of coats-of-arms.--_ns._ BLAZ'ONER, one who blazons: a herald: a slanderer; BLAZ'ONRY, the art of drawing or of deciphering coats-of-arms: heraldry. [Fr. _blason_, a coat-of-arms, from root of BLAZE.] BLEACH, bl[=e]ch, _v.t._ to make pale or white: to whiten, as textile fabrics.--_v.i._ to grow white.--_ns._ BLEACH'ER, one who bleaches, or that which bleaches; BLEACH'ERY, a place for bleaching; BLEACH'-FIELD, a place for bleaching cloth: a bleacher's office or works; BLEACH'ING, the process of whitening or decolourising cloth; BLEACH'ING-GREEN, a green for bleaching clothes on; BLEACH'ING-POW'DER, chloride of lime. [A.S. _bl['æ]can_, from root of BLEAK.] BLEAK, bl[=e]k, _adj._ colourless: dull and cheerless: cold, unsheltered.--_adv._ BLEAK'LY.--_n._ BLEAK'NESS. [A.S. _blæc_, _blâc_, pale, shining; a different word from _blac_ (without accent), black. The root is _blican_, to shine.] BLEAK, bl[=e]k, _n._ a small white river-fish. BLEAR, bl[=e]r, _adj._ (as in BLEAR-EYED, bl[=e]r'-[=i]d) sore or inflamed: dim or blurred with inflammation. [Low Ger. _bleer-oged_, 'blear-eyed.'] BLEAT, bl[=e]t, _v.i._ to cry as a sheep.--_n._ the cry of a sheep, any similar cry, even of the human voice.--_n._ BLEAT'ING, the cry of a sheep. [A.S. _bl['æ]tan_; L. _bal[=a]re_, Gr. _bl[=e]ch[=e]_, a bleating; root _bla-_; formed from the sound.] BLEB, bleb, _n._ a transparent blister of the cuticle: a bubble, as in water. [See BULB.] BLED, bled, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of BLEED. BLEE, bl[=e], _n._ (_Mrs Browning_) complexion, colour. [A.S. _bléo_.] BLEED, bl[=e]d, _v.i._ to lose blood: to die by slaughter: to issue forth or drop as blood: to have money extorted from one: to feel great pity for, as in the phrase, 'the heart bleeds:' to be as red as blood.--_v.t._ to draw blood from, esp. surgically: to extort sums of money from:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ bled.--_n._ BLEED'ING, a discharge of blood: the operation of letting blood.--_adj._ full of compassion: emitting sap: terribly weakened by war: (_Shak._) bloody. [A.S. _blédan_. See BLOOD.] BLEMISH, blem'ish, _n._ a stain or defect: reproach.--_v.t._ to mark with any deformity: to tarnish: to defame.--_n._ BLEM'ISHMENT (_Spens._), the state of being blemished, disgrace. [O. Fr. _blesmir_, _blemir_, pr.p. _blemissant_, to stain, of dubious origin. Prof. Skeat thinks it Scand., Ice. _blâman_, livid colour--_blâr_, BLUE.] BLENCH, blensh, _v.i._ to shrink or start back: to flinch. [From root of BLINK.] BLENCH, blensh, _adj._ or _adv._ based on the payment of a nominal yearly duty.--Also BLANCH. [See BLANK.] BLEND, blend, _v.t._ to mix together: to confound.--_v.i._ to be mingled or mixed:--_pa.p._ blend'ed and blent.--_n._ a mixture:--_n._ BLEND'ING, the act of mingling: the process by which the fusion of paints is effected. [A.S. _blandan_.] BLENDE, blend, _n._ native sulphuret of zinc. [Ger. _blenden_, to dazzle, from the lustre of the crystals.] BLENHEIM, blen'em, _n._ a kind of spaniel named from the Duke of Marlborough's house. BLENNORRHOEA, blen-no-r[=e]'a, _n._ discharge of mucus. [Gr. _blennos_, mucus.] BLENNY, blen'ni, _n._ a genus of acanthopterygious fishes, covered with mucus or slimy matter. [Gr. _blennos_, mucus.] BLENT, blent, (_obs._) _pa.p._ of BLEND--mixed: mingled: (_Spens._) blinded, obscured. BLESS, bles, _v.t._ to invoke a blessing upon: to make joyous, happy, or prosperous: to consecrate by some religious rite, to cross one's self: to extol as holy, to pronounce happy, to invoke the divine favour upon: to wish happiness to: to praise or glorify:--_pa.p._ blessed (blest), or blest.--_adj._ BLESS'ED, happy: prosperous: happy in heaven, beatified.--_adv._ BLESS'EDLY.--_ns._ BLESS'EDNESS; BLESS'ING, a wish or prayer for happiness or success: any means or cause of happiness: (_B._) a gift or present: a form of invoking the favour of God at a meal.--_adv._ BLESS'INGLY.--SINGLE BLESSEDNESS, the celibate life, the unmarried state generally. [A.S. _blétsian_, to bless, prob. from _blót_, sacrifice; the word taken as--_benedic[)e]re_.] BLESS, bles, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to brandish. [BLAZE(?).] BLEST, blest, _pa.p._ of BLESS. BLETHER, ble_th_'er, _v.i._ to talk garrulous nonsense.--_n._ fluent, garrulous nonsense--also BLATH'ER.--_p.adj._ BLETH'ERING, over-talkative.--_ns._ BLETH'ERSKATE, BLATH'ERSKITE (_Amer._), a blustering, noisy, talkative fellow. [M. E. _blather_, of Scand. origin, Ice. _blaðra_, to talk foolishly, _blaðr_, nonsense.] BLEW, bl[=oo], _pa.t._ of BLOW. BLEWITS, bl[=u]'its, _n._ a kind of mushroom. [Fr. BLUE.] BLIGHT, bl[=i]t, _n._ a disease in plants, which blasts or withers them: anything that injures or destroys.--_v.t._ to affect with blight: to blast: to frustrate.--_p.adj._ BLIGHT'ING, withering, blasting. [Dr Murray notes that it first appears in literature in the 17th century; prob. orig. of Scand. origin; cf. Ice. _blettr_, a stain; perh. related to BLEACH, BLEAK.] BLIN, blin, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to cease.--_n._ cessation: stoppage. [A.S. _blinnan_, to cease, pfx. _be-_, and _linnan_, to cease.] BLIND, bl[=i]nd, _adj._ without sight: dark: ignorant or undiscerning: without an opening.--_n._ something to mislead: a window-screen: a shade.--_v.t._ to make blind; to darken, obscure, or deceive; to dazzle.--_pa.p._ bl[=i]nd'ed; _pr.p._ bl[=i]nd'ing.--_ns._ BLIND'AGE (_mil._) a temporary wooden screen faced with earth as a protection against splinters of shell and the like; BLIND'-COAL, non-bituminous coal.--_adj._ BLIND'ED, deprived of sight: without intellectual discernment.--_n._ BLIND'ER, one who or that which blinds; (_pl._) a horse's blinkers.--_adj._ BLIND'FOLD, having the eyes bandaged, so as not to see: thoughtless: reckless.--_v.t._ to cover the eyes: to mislead.--_adj._ BLIND'ING, tending to make blind.--_pr.p._ making blind.--_adv._ BLIND'LY.--_ns._ BLIND'NESS, want of sight, ignorance, folly; BLIND'-SIDE, the side on which a person is blind to danger: weak point; BLIND'WORM, a small reptile, like a snake, having eyes so small as to be supposed blind.--BLIND-MAN'S BUFF, a game in which one of the party is blindfolded and tries to catch the others. [A.S. _blind_; Ice. _blindr_.] BLINK, blingk, _v.i._ to glance, twinkle, or wink: to see obscurely, or with the eyes half-closed: to shine unsteadily.--_v.t._ to shut out of sight: to avoid or evade.--_n._ a glimpse, glance, or wink: a momentary gleam of light, a spark.--_n._ BLINK'ARD, one who blinks or has bad eyes.--_p.adj._ BLINKED, affected with blinking.--_n.pl._ BLINK'ERS, pieces of leather fastened to the cheek-pieces of a horse's head-stall in driving to prevent him seeing in any direction except straightforward. [M. E. a variant of _blenk_, prob. the same as BLENCH (q.v.).] BLIRT, blirt, _n._ (_Scot._) a fit of crying.--_v.i._ to burst into tears. [Prob. the same as BLURT.] BLISS, blis, _n._ the highest happiness: the special happiness of heaven, heaven.--_adj._ BLISS'FUL.--_adv._ BLISS'FULLY.--_n._ BLISS'FULNESS.--_adj._ BLISS'LESS, without bliss. [A.S. _blíðs_, _blíðe_, BLITHE.] BLIST, blist, _pa.t._ (_Spens._) wounded: struck. [From Fr. _blesser_, to wound.] BLISTER, blis't[.e]r, _n._ a thin bubble or bladder on the skin, containing watery matter: a pustule: a plaster applied to raise a blister.--_v.t._ to raise a blister.--_ns._ BLIS'TER-BEE'TLE, BLIS'TER-FLY, the cantharis, or Spanish fly, used for blistering; BLIS'TER-PLAS'TER, a plaster made of Spanish flies used to raise a blister; BLIS'TER-STEEL, BLIS'TERED-STEEL, steel blistered in the process of manufacture, used for making tools, &c.--_adj._ BLIS'TERY. [M. E.; most prob. O. Fr. _blestre_, conn. with Old Norse _blástr_, _blása_, to blow; Ger. _blase_.] BLITHE, bl[=i]th, _adj._ happy: gay; sprightly.--_adv._ BLITHE'LY.--_n._ BLITHE'NESS.--_adj._ BLITHE'SOME, joyous.--_adv._ BLITHE'SOMELY.--_n._ BLITHE'SOMENESS. [A.S. _blíðe_, joyful. See BLISS.] BLIVE, bl[=i]v, _adv._ (_Spens._). Same as BELIVE. BLIZZARD, bliz'ard, _n._ a blinding storm of wind and snow, a snow-squall.--_adjs._ BLIZZ'ARDLY, BLIZZ'ARDOUS. [A modern coinage--most prob. onomatopoeic, on the analogy of _blow_, _blast_, &c.] BLOAT, bl[=o]t, _v.t._ to swell or puff out: to dry by smoke (applied to fish).--_v.i._ to swell or dilate: to grow turgid.--_p.adj._ BLOAT'ED.--_n._ BLOAT'ER, a herring partially dried in smoke, esp. at Yarmouth. [Scand., as in Sw. _blöt_, soft.] BLOB, blob, _n._ a drop of liquid: anything soft and round, like a gooseberry: a round spot. [Imit.] [Illustration] BLOCK, blok, _n._ an unshaped mass of wood or stone, &c.: the wood on which criminals were wont to be beheaded: (_mech._) a pulley together with its framework; a piece of wood on which something is formed: a connected group of houses: an obstruction: a blockhead.--_v.t._ to enclose or shut up: to obstruct: to shape or sketch out roughly.--_n._ BLOCKADE', the blocking up of a place by surrounding it with troops or by ships.--_v.t._ to block up by troops or ships.--_ns._ BLOCK'-HEAD, one with a head like a block, a stupid fellow; BLOCK'-HOUSE, a small temporary fort generally made of logs.--_adj._ BLOCK'ISH, like a block: stupid: dull.--_ns._ BLOCK'-PRINT'ING, printing of BLOCK'-BOOKS, from engraved wooden blocks or pages; BLOCK'-SHIP, a war-ship, inefficient for service in action on account of age, but useful in defence of ports; BLOCK'-SYS'TEM, a system of working trains in which no train is allowed on to a section of line so long as any other train is on that section; BLOCK'-TIN, tin in the form of blocks or ingots. [Widely spread, but acc. to Skeat, of Celt. origin, Gael. _ploc_, Old Ir. _blog_, a fragment. See PLUG.] BLOKE, bl[=o]k, _n._ a fellow, a man familiarly. [Ety. quite unknown--at any rate not Gipsy.] BLONCKET, blongk'et, _adj._ (_Spens._) gray. [Fr. _blanchet_, whitish, dim. of _blanc_, white.] BLONDE, blond, _n._ a person of fair complexion with light hair and blue eyes--opp. to _Brunette_.--_adj._ of a fair complexion: fair. [Fr.] BLOND-LACE, blond'-l[=a]s, _n._ lace made of silk, so called from its colour. BLONT, blont, _adj._ (_Spens._). Same as BLUNT. BLOOD, blud, _n._ the red fluid in the arteries and veins of men and animals: descent, of human beings, good birth: relationship, kindred: elliptically for a blood-horse, one of good pedigree: a rake or swaggering dandy about town: the blood-royal, as in 'princes of blood:' temperament: bloodshed or murder: the juice of anything, esp. if red: the supposed seat of passion--hence temper, anger, as in the phrase, 'his blood is up,' &c.: the sensual nature of man.--_interj._ 'S BLOOD--God's blood.--_adjs._ BLOOD'-BESPOT'TED (_Shak._), spotted with blood; BLOOD'-BOLT'ERED (_Shak._), sprinkled with blood as from a bolter or sieve; BLOOD'-BOUGHT, bought at the expense of blood or life; BLOOD'-FROZ'EN (_Spens._), having the blood frozen or chilled.--_ns._ BLOOD'GUILT'INESS, the guilt of shedding blood, as in murder; BLOOD'HEAT, heat of the same degree as that of the human blood (about 98° Fahr.); BLOOD'-HORSE, a horse of the purest and most highly prized blood, origin, or stock.--_adj._ BLOOD'-HOT, as hot or warm as blood.--_n._ BLOOD'HOUND, a large hound formerly employed in tracing human beings: a blood-thirsty person.--_adv._ BLOOD'ILY.--_adj._ BLOOD'LESS, without blood, dead: without the shedding of blood: (_Shak._) without spirit or activity.--_ns._ BLOOD'-LET'TING, the act of letting blood, or bleeding by opening a vein; BLOOD'-MON'EY, money earned by laying or supporting a capital charge against any one, esp. if the charge be false or made by an accomplice; BLOOD'-POIS'ONING, a name popularly, but loosely, used of pyæmia and allied diseases; BLOOD'-PUD'DING, a pudding made with blood and other materials; BLOOD'-REL[=A]'TION, one related by blood or marriage; BLOOD'-SAC'RIFICE (_Shak._), a sacrifice made with bloodshed; BLOOD'SHED, the shedding of blood: slaughter.--_adjs._ BLOOD'SHOT (of the eye), red or inflamed with blood; BLOOD'-SIZED, sized or smeared with blood.--_n._ BLOOD'-SPAV'IN, a disease of horses consisting of the swelling of a vein on the inside of the hock, from a checking of the blood.--_adj._ BLOOD'-STAINED, stained with blood: guilty of murder.--_ns._ BLOOD'-STONE, a dark-green variety of quartz, variegated with blood-like spots of red jasper, the heliotrope; a brown ore of iron, hematite; BLOOD'-SUCK'ER, an animal that sucks blood, esp. a leech: an extortioner, one who sponges upon another.--_adj._ BLOOD'-SUCK'ING (_Shak._), that sucks or draws blood.--_ns._ BLOOD'-TAX, conscription or universal military service, as drawing from the nation a certain number of lives or recruits annually; BLOOD'-THIRST'INESS, thirst or desire for shedding blood.--_adj._ BLOOD'-THIRST'Y, having a thirst or desire to shed blood.--_ns._ BLOOD'-VES'SEL, a vessel in which blood circulates, a vein or artery; BLOOD'-WORM, a small red earthworm used by anglers.--_adj._ BLOOD'Y, of the nature of blood: stained with blood: murderous, cruel: vulgarly, as an _adj._ emphasising anger or the like: as an _adv._ employed as a mere intensive--most prob. from the habits of the 'bloods' about the beginning of the 18th century (Etheredge, '_bloody_-drunk').--_v.t._ to make bloody.--_n._ BLOOD'Y-BONES, a phrase, together with _Rawhead_, applied to a children's bugbear.--_adjs._ BLOOD'Y-EYED; BLOOD'Y-FACED.--_ns._ BLOOD'Y-FLUX, dysentery, in which the discharges from the bowels are mixed with blood; BLOOD'Y-HAND (_her._), the armorial device of Ulster, hence of baronets.--_adj._ BLOOD'Y-MIND'ED.--_ns._ BLOOD'Y-MIND'EDNESS; BLOOD'Y-SWEAT, a sweat accompanied with the discharge of blood.--AVENGER OF BLOOD, the next-of-kin to a murdered man, whose duty it was to avenge his death--the Hebrew _Goël_.--EATING OF BLOOD, prohibited under the Old Testament dispensation, Jews still killing their own butcher-meat.--IN BLOOD, in full vigour; IN HOT or COLD BLOOD, under or free from excitement or sudden passion. [A.S. _blód_--root _blówan_, to bloom; cog. with Old. Fris. _blód_, Ger. _blut_.] BLOOM, bl[=oo]m, _v.i._ to put forth blossoms: to flower: to be in a state of beauty or vigour: to flourish: to give a bloom or warm tint to anything.--_n._ a blossom or flower: the opening of flowers: rosy colour: the prime or highest perfection of anything: the first freshness of beauty of anything: the flush or glow on the cheek--(_Spens._) BLOSME.--_p.adj._ BLOOM'ING, bright, shining, flourishing: (_slang_) full-blown.--_adjs._ BLOOM'LESS, without bloom; BLOOM'Y, flowery: flourishing. [Ice. _blóm_; cf. Goth. _blôma_, Ger. _blume_.] BLOOMER, bl[=oo]m'[.e]r, _n._ and _adj._ a dress for women, partly resembling men's dress, devised by Mrs _Bloomer_ of New York about 1849, consisting of a jacket with close sleeves, a skirt falling a little below the knee, and a pair of Turkish trousers. BLOOMERY, bl[=oo]m'[.e]r-i, _n._ the first forge through which iron passes after it has been melted from the ore, and where it is made into BLOOMS, or rough ingots, for hammering or drawing out. BLORE, bl[=o]r, _n._ a violent gust of wind. [Prob. related to BLARE and BLOW.] BLOSME. See BLOOM. BLOSSOM, blos'om, _n._ a flower-bud, the flower that precedes fruit.--_v.i._ to put forth blossoms or flowers: to flourish and prosper.--_n._ BLOSS'OMING.--_adj._ BLOSS'OMY, covered with flowers, flowery. [A.S. _blóstm_, _blóstma_, from root of BLOOM.] BLOT, blot, _n._ a spot or stain: an obliteration, as of something written: a stain in reputation.--_v.t._ to spot or stain: to obliterate or destroy: to disgrace: to dry writing with blotting-paper:--_pr.p._ blot'ting; _pa.p._ blot'ted.--_n._ and _adj._ BLOT'TESQUE, a painting executed with heavy blot-like touches, a daub or (_fig._) a vigorous descriptive sketch.--_n._ BLOTTING-P[=A]'PER, unsized paper, used for absorbing ink.--_adj._ BLOT'TY. [Prob. Scand., as in Dan. _plet_, Ice. _blettr_, a spot.] BLOT, blot, _n._ a piece liable to be taken at backgammon: a weak place in anything. [Ety. obscure; Dut. _bloot_, naked.] BLOTCH, bloch, _n._ a dark spot on the skin: a pustule.--_v.t._ to mark or cover with blotches.--_adjs._ BLOTCHED, BLOTCH'Y. [Prob. formed on BLOT.] BLOUSE, blowz, _n._ a loose sack-like outer garment, somewhat like the English smock-frock. [Fr.] BLOW, bl[=o], _n._ a stroke or knock: a sudden misfortune or calamity.--AT A BLOW, by a single action, suddenly; TO COME TO BLOWS, TO EXCHANGE BLOWS, to come to hostilities; WITHOUT STRIKING A BLOW, without a struggle. [A.S. _bléowan_ is doubtful, cog. with Dut. _blouwen_, to dress (beat) flax, Ger. _bl[=a]uen_, to beat hard. The noun appears in the 15th century without evidence of parentage.] BLOW, bl[=o], _v.i._ to bloom or blossom:--_pr.p._ bl[=o]w'ing; _pa.p._ bl[=o]wn. [A.S. _blówan;_ Ger. _blühen_. See BLOOM, BLOSSOM.] BLOW, bl[=o], _v.i._ to produce a current of air: to move, as air or the wind.--_v.t._ to drive air upon or into: to drive by a current of air, as 'to blow away, down,' &c.: to sound, as a wind-instrument: to breathe hard or with difficulty: to spout, as whales: (_prov._) to boast: to spread by report: to fan or kindle:--_pa.t._ blew (bl[=oo]); _pa.p._ blown (bl[=o]n).--_ns._ BLOW'-BALL, the downy head of a dandelion in seed; BLOW'ER, a metal plate put upon the upper part of a fireplace, so as to increase the draught through the fire: a machine for driving a blast of air, as into a furnace; BLOW'-FLY, or _Flesh-fly_, an insect of the order Diptera, and of the large family Muscidæ, to which the common house-fly and blue-bottle belong.--_p.adj._ BLOWN, out of breath, tired: swelled: stale, worthless.--_n._ BLOW'PIPE, a pipe through which a current of air is blown on a flame, to increase its heat: a kind of weapon much used by some of the Indian tribes of South America both in hunting and war, consisting of a long straight tube in which a small poisoned arrow is placed, and forcibly expelled by the breath.--_adj._ BLOW'Y.--TO BLOW HOT AND COLD, to be favourable and unfavourable by turns, to be irresolute; TO BLOW OFF (steam, &c.), to allow to escape, to escape forcibly; TO BLOW ONE'S OWN TRUMPET, to sound one's own praises; TO BLOW OVER, to pass away, to subside, as a danger or a scandal; TO BLOW UP, to shatter or destroy by explosion: to scold; TO BLOW UPON, to take the bloom, freshness, or the interest off anything, to bring into discredit: to inform upon. [A.S. _bláwan_; Ger. _blähen_, _blasen_; L. _flare_.] BLOWZE, blowz, _n._ a ruddy, fat-faced wench.--_adjs._ BLOWZED, BLOWZ'Y, fat and ruddy, or flushed with exercise, dishevelled, slatternly. [Perh. related to root of BLUSH; or of cant origin.] BLUBBER, blub'[.e]r, _n._ the fat of whales and other sea animals.--_v.i._ to weep effusively.--_p.adj._ BLUBB'ERED, of a face swollen with weeping. [M. E. _blober_, _bluber_; most likely onomatopoeic] BLUCHER, bl[=oo]ch'[.e]r, _n._ a strong leather half-boot or high shoe, named from Marshal _Blücher_, the Prussian general at Waterloo. BLUDGEON, blud'jun, _n._ a short stick with a heavy end to strike with. [First in 18th century; origin very obscure; from a cant word conn. with BLOOD.] BLUE, bl[=oo], _n._ the colour of the sky when unclouded--hence the sea, the sky, as in 'a bolt from the blue:' one of the seven primary colours.--_adj._ of the colour blue: learned, pedantic: indecent or obscene, as in _blue_ stories.--_ns._ BLUE'-BEARD, a monster who murders a series of wives in Perrault's famous _conte_, before he is himself cut off: one who is 'unfortunate' with his wives after the fashion of Henry VIII.; BLUE'BELL, a plant that bears blue bell-shaped flowers; BLUE'-BIRD, a small American bird akin to the warblers; BLUE'-BLACK, black with a tinge of blue; BLUE'-BOOK, the name popularly applied to the reports and other papers printed by parliament, because usually stitched up in blue paper wrappers; BLUE'-BOT'TLE, a common name for the Blue Cornflower: a familiar name for a policeman or beadle; BLUE'-CAP, a fish of the salmon kind with blue spots on its head: the blue titmouse: (_Shak._) a Scotchman, from his blue bonnet; BLUE'-EYE, a beautiful little bird in New South Wales, one or the honey-eaters; BLUE'-FISH, a fish of the family Scomberidæ, abundant on the east coast of North America.--_n.pl._ BLUE'-GOWNS, the name commonly given to a former class of privileged mendicants in Scotland--called also the _King's Bedesmen_.--_ns._ BLUE'-GRASS, a permanent grass found in Europe and North America; BLUE'-GUM, a kind of Eucalyptus; BLUE'-JACK'ET, a seaman in the navy, as distinguished from a marine; BLUE'-JAY, a common North American bird of the [Illustration] jay family; BLUE'NESS; BLUE'-NOSE, a nickname for a Nova Scotian; BLUE'-P[=E]'TER, a blue flag with white square in the centre, used in the navy as a signal for sailing; BLUE'PILL, a mercurial pill, used as a purgative in cases of torpid or inflamed liver; BLUE'-STOCK'ING, a name given to learned ladies who display their acquirements in a pedantic manner, to the neglect of womanly graces--about 1750 Mrs Montague and others began to substitute literary conversation for cards, and the name implying a disregard for the conventional costume of polite society was suggested by the blue stockings of Benjamin Stillingfleet--the French _bas bleu_ is a translation; BLUE'-STONE, blue copperas, sulphate of copper; BLUE'-THROAT, or BLUE'-BREAST, a beautiful and melodious bird, nearly allied to the nightingale; BLUE'-WING, a kind of duck, either a sub-genus of Anas, or a special genus Cyanopterus--the best-known species, the Common or Lunate Blue-wing, the Blue-winged Teal of the United States.--_adj._ BL[=U]'ISH, slightly blue.--BLUE BLOOD, aristocratic blood--the _sangre azul_ of the Spanish hidalgoes; BLUE BONNET, a round flat cap of blue woollen, much worn in Scotland: a blue-bonneted Scotch peasant or soldier; BLUE-BOTTLE FLY, the meat-fly or blow-fly; BLUE-COAT BOY, a scholar of Christ's Hospital--also (from the blue coat having formerly been the usual dress of servants) a servant, beadle, soldier; BLUE DEVIL, an evil demon: (_pl._) deep despondency, the apparitions seen in delirium tremens; BLUE FUNK (_slang_), great terror; BLUE RIBBON, a term applied to any great prize, as the Derby stakes--from the blue ribbon worn by Knights of the Garter: the badge assumed by the so-called Blue Ribbon Army introduced from America in 1878; BLUE WATER, the deep sea, as opposed to port or a narrow channel.--LIGHT BLUE, and DARK BLUE, the distinctive colours in their athletic contests of Eton and Cambridge, and of Harrow and Oxford respectively; THE BLUES, the Royal Horse Guards; THE BLUES (for blue devils), a colloquial expression for depression of spirits.--TO BE A BLUE, to be chosen to represent Oxford or Cambridge at an inter-university contest in cricket, football, rowing, or athletics; AN OLD BLUE, one once so chosen.--TO DRINK TILL ALL'S BLUE, until everything around one looks blue; TO LOOK BLUE, to be down-spirited.--TRUE BLUE, faithful to the principles of the political party wearing blue as its colour, in many places identified with Conservative. [M. E. _blew_--O. Fr. _bleu_, of Teut. origin; as also Scand. _blá_, which gave M. E. _bla_, _blo_, and modern _blae_.] BLUFF, bluf, _adj._ blustering: rough and hearty in manners: outspoken: steep.--_n._ a high steep bank overlooking the sea or a river: the act of bluffing at cards, as in poker--hence any kind of boastful swagger intended to impose upon another: (_slang_) an excuse.--_adjs._ BLUFF'-BOWED, having broad and flat bows, as a ship; BLUFF'-HEAD'ED, applied to a ship having her stem too straight up.--_adv._ BLUFF'LY.--_n._ BLUFF'NESS. [Prob. Dut.] BLUNDER, blun'der, _v.i._ to make a gross mistake, to flounder about: to utter thoughtlessly.--_n._ a gross mistake.--_p.adj._ BLUN'DERING, apt to make gross mistakes: apt to stumble.--TO BLUNDER AWAY, to throw away some opportunity or advantage. [M. E. _blondren_; prob. conn. with BLAND; perh. from Ice. _blunda_, to doze.] BLUNDERBUSS, blun'd[.e]r-bus, _n._ a short hand-gun with a wide bore. [Corr. of Dut. _donderbus_--_donder_, thunder, _bus_, a box, barrel of a gun, a gun; Ger. _donnerbüchse_.] BLUNT, blunt, _adj._ having a dull edge or point; rough, outspoken, dull.--_v.t._ to dull the edge or point: to weaken.--_n._ (_slang_) money.--_adj._ BLUNT'ISH.--_adv._ BLUNTLY.--_n._ BLUNT'NESS.--_adj._ BLUNT'-WIT'TED (_Shak._) dull, stupid. [Orig. sleepy, dull; prob. conn. with Ice. _blunda_, to doze; perh. akin to BLIND.] BLUR, blur, _n._ a blot, stain, or spot.--_v.t._ to blot, stain, obscure, or blemish (with _out_, _over_):--_pr.p._ blur'ring; _pa.p._ blurred. [A variety of BLEAR.] BLURT, blurt, _v.t._ to utter suddenly or unadvisedly (with _out_).--_n._ an abrupt outburst.--_p.adj._ BLURT'ING, impulsively frank. [From sound. Cf. BLIRT.] BLUSH, blush, _n._ a red glow on the face caused by shame, modesty, &c.: any reddish colour: sudden appearance.--_v.i._ to show shame or confusion by growing red in the face: to grow red.--_n._ BLUSH'ET (_Ben Jonson_), a young, modest girl.--_adj._ BLUSH'FUL, full of blushes: modest--_n._ BLUSH'ING, the act of turning red: the appearance of colour upon the cheek.--_p.adj._ showing blushes: modest.--_adv._ BLUSH'INGLY.--AT THE FIRST BLUSH, at the first glance.--TO PUT TO THE BLUSH, to cause to blush. [Prob. Scand.; cog. with A.S. _blysa_, a blaze. See BLAZE, BLOWZE.] BLUSTER, blus't[.e]r, _v.i._ to make a noise like a blast of wind: to bully or swagger.--_n._ a blast or roaring as of the wind: bullying or boasting language: a storm of anger.--_n._ BLUS'TERING, a noisy blowing as of a blast: swaggering: noisy pretension.--_adj._ stormy: tumultuous: boastful.--_adv._ BLUS'TERINGLY.--_adjs._ BLUS'TEROUS (_Shak._) noisy: boastful; BLUS'TERY, stormy: (_Carlyle_) swaggering. [An augmentative of BLAST.] BO, b[=o], _interj._ a word used to frighten children.--TO SAY BO TO A GOOSE, to open the mouth, to say even a word. BOA, b[=o]'a, _n._ a genus of serpents which includes the largest species of serpents (the BOA-CONSTRIC'TOR), which kill their prey by constriction or pressure: a long serpent-like coil of fur, feathers, or the like, worn round the neck by ladies. [Perh. conn. with L. _bos_, an ox.] BOAD. Same as ABODE, _pa.p._ of ABIDE: also the same as BODE. BOANERGES, bo-an-erj'es, _n._ a noisy preacher or shouting orator. ['Sons of thunder'--Mark, iii. 17.] BOAR, b[=o]r, _n._ the male of swine, or its flesh.--_adj._ BOAR'ISH, swinish: brutal.--_n._ BOAR'-SPEAR, a spear used in boar-hunting. [A.S. _bár_; Dut. _beer_; Ger. _bär_.] BOARD, b[=o]rd, _n._ a broad and thin strip of timber: a table to put food on: food: a table round which persons meet for some kind of business: any council or authorised body of men, as a 'school-board:' the deck of a ship: (_pl._) the stage: a kind of thick stiff paper, as in pasteboard, Bristol-board, esp. that used in the binding of books.--_v.t._ to cover with boards: to supply with food at fixed terms: to enter a ship: to attack.--_v.i._ to receive food or take meals.--_ns._ BOARD'ER, one who receives board (food): one who boards a ship; BOARD'ING, the act of covering with boards: the covering itself: act of boarding a ship; BOARD'ING-HOUSE, a house where boarders are kept; BOARD'ING-PIKE, a pike used in boarding a ship, or in defending it when attacked; BOARD'ING-SCHOOL, a school in which board is given as well as instruction; BOARD'-SCHOOL, a school under control of a school-board, as elected by the Elementary Education Act of 1870.--_n.pl._ BOARD'-W[=A]'GES, wages allowed to servants to keep themselves in food.--ABOVE BOARD, openly.--BY THE BOARD, over the board or side of a ship--hence, TO GO BY THE BOARD, to be lost or destroyed.--TO SWEEP THE BOARD, to take all the cards. [A.S. _bord_, a board, the side of a ship; Ice. _borð_, the side of a ship: conn. either with BEAR or with BROAD.] BOAST, b[=o]st, _v.i._ to talk vaingloriously: to brag (with _of_),--_v.t._ to brag of: speak proudly or confidently of, esp. justifiably: to magnify or exalt one's self.--_n._ an expression of pride: a brag: the cause of boasting.--_adj._ BOAST'FUL, given to brag.--_adv._ BOAST'FULLY.--_ns._ BOAST'FULNESS, BOAST'ING, ostentatious display: vaunting.--_adj._ BOAST'LESS, without boasting; simple, unostentatious. [M. E. _bost_, of doubtful origin; apparently W. _bostio_, Gael. _bòsd_, a bragging, are borrowed.] BOAT, b[=o]t, _n._ a small open vessel usually moved by oars: a small ship: a vessel like a boat in shape, as a 'sauce-boat.'--_v.i._ to sail about in a boat.--_ns._ BOAT'-HOOK, an iron hook fixed to a pole used for pulling or pushing off a boat; BOAT'-HOUSE, a house or shed for a boat: BOAT'ING, the art or practice of sailing in boats; BOAT'MAN, a man who has charge of a boat: a rower.--IN THE SAME BOAT, in the same circumstances.--TO HAVE AN OAR IN ANOTHER'S BOAT, to meddle with the affairs of others. [A.S. _bát;_ Dut. _boot_; Fr. _bateau_.] BOATSWAIN, b[=o]t'sw[=a]n (_colloq._ b[=o]'sn), _n._ a petty officer on board ship who looks after the boats, rigging, &c., and calls the seamen to duty with a whistle. [BOAT, and _swain_, Scand. _sveinn_, a boy.] BOB, bob, _v.i._ to move quickly up and down, to dangle: to fish with a bob.--_v.t._ to move in a short, jerking manner:--_pr.p._ bob'bing; _pa.p._ bobbed.--_n._ a short jerking motion: a slight blow: anything that moves with a bob or swing: a pendant: a knot of hair, as in BOB'-WIG, one with the ends turned up into short curls: a bunch of lobworms, used in catching eels: any small roundish body: the refrain or burden of a song: a term in bell-ringing--a BOB MINOR is rung upon six bells; a BOB MAJOR on eight; a BOB ROYAL on ten; a BOB MAXIMUS on twelve.--_adj._ BOB'BISH, in good spirits.--_n._ BOB'BLE, the movement of water in commotion. [Perh. Celt., Gael. _baban_, _babag_.] BOB, bob, _n._ (_slang_) a shilling. [Hardly the O. Fr. _bobe_ = 1½d.] BOB, bob, BOBBY, bob'i, _n._ a shortened familiar form of _Robert_: a familiar name for a policeman--from Sir Robert Peel, Home Secretary at the passing of the Metropolitan Police Act of 1828.--_n._ LIGHT'-BOB, a soldier of the light infantry. BOBADIL, bob'a-dil, _n._ a swaggering boaster, from Ben Jonson's _Every Man in his Humour_. BOBBERY, bob'er-i, _n._ a noisy row. [Hindi _b[=a]p re!_ O father!--_Col. Yule_.] BOBBIN, bob'in, _n._ a small piece of wood on which thread is wound.--_n._ BOBB'INET, a kind of fine netted lace made by machines. [Fr. _bobine_, prob. Celt.; cf. Gael. _baban_, a tassel.] BOBOLINK, bob'[=o]-lingk, _n._ a North American singing bird, found in the northern states in spring and summer. [At first _Bob Lincoln_, from the note of the bird.] BOBSTAYS, bob'st[=a]z, _n.pl._ (_naut._) ropes or stays used to confine the bowsprit downward to the stem or cutwater, and counteract the strain of the foremast-stays. BOBTAIL, bob't[=a]l, _n._ a short or cut tail: a word applied in contempt to the rabble, as in 'tag-rag and _bobtail_.'--_adj._ BOB'TAILED, with tail cut short. BOCAGE. See BOSCAGE. BODE, b[=o]d, _v.t._ to portend or prophesy.--_v.i._ to be an omen: to foreshow.--_adj._ BODE'FUL, boding, ominous.--_n._ BODE'MENT, an omen, presentiment.--_pr.p._ BOD'ING, presaging.--_n._ an omen or portent. [A.S. _bodian_, to announce--_bod_, a message; allied to BID.] BODE, b[=o]d (_Spens._). Same as ABODE. BODEGA, bo-d[=e]'ga, _n._ a wine-shop. [Sp.] BODGE, boj, _v.i._ to make bad work, to fail.--_n._ BODG'ER, a botcher, a pedlar. [A form of BOTCH.] BODICE, bod'is, _n._ a woman's outer garment covering the waist and bust: the close-fitting waist or body of a woman's gown. BODIKIN, bod'i-kin, _n._ a form of an oath, ''Od's bodikins' = God's little body. BODKIN, bod'kin, _n._ a small dagger: a small instrument for pricking holes or for dressing the hair: a large blunt needle.--TO SIT, or RIDE, BODKIN, to be wedged in tight between two others. [Prob. conn. with W. _bidog_, a dagger.] BODLE, bod'l, _n._ a Scotch copper coin, equal to about one-sixth of an English penny, the smallest coin. [Said to be named from a mint-master, one _Bothwell_.] BODRAGES, bod'r[=a]-jiz, _n.pl._ (_Spens._) a hostile attack, a raid. [Ir. _buaidhreadh_, a disturbance.] BODY, bod'i, _n._ the whole frame of a man or lower animal: the main part of an animal, as distinguished from the limbs: the main or middle part of anything: matter, as opposed to spirit: substance or substantial quality: a mass: a person: a number of persons united by some common tie.--_v.t._ to give form to: to embody:--_pr.p._ bod'ying; _pa.p._ bod'ied.--_adj._ BOD'ILESS, without a body: incorporeal.--_adv._ BOD'ILY, relating to the body, esp. as opposed to the mind.--_ns._ BOD'Y-COL'OUR, a term applied to paints to express their degree of consistence, substance, and tingeing power; BOD'Y-CUR'ER (_Shak._), a doctor; BOD'YGUARD, a guard to protect the person, esp. of the sovereign; BOD'Y-POL'ITIC, the collective body of the people in its political capacity; BOD'Y SERV'ANT, a personal attendant; BOD'Y-SNATCH'ER, one who secretly disinters the bodies of the dead for the purposes of dissection. [A.S. _bodig_, of dubious origin.] BOEOTIAN, be-[=o]'shyan, _adj._ pertaining to _Boeotia_ in Greece, noted for the dullness of its inhabitants--hence stupid, dull. BOER, b[=oo]r, _n._ a Dutch colonist at the Cape engaged in agriculture. [Dut. _boer_. See BOOR.] BOG, bog, _n._ soft ground: a marsh or quagmire.--_v.t._ to sink or to entangle.--_n._ BOG'-BUTT'ER, a mineral substance, resembling butter, found in Irish bogs.--_adj._ BOGG'Y.--_ns._ BOG'LET, BOG'LAND; BOG'-MOSS, a genus of moss plants; BOG'-OAK, trunks of oak embedded in bogs and preserved from decay--of a deep black colour, often used for making ornaments; BOG'-ORE, a kind of iron ore found in boggy land; BOG'-SPAV'IN, a lesion of the hock-joint of the horse, consisting in distension of the capsule enclosing the joint, usually arising suddenly from a sprain in action; BOG'-TROT'TER, one who lives in a boggy country, hence an Irishman. [Ir. _bogach_; Gael. _bog_, soft.] BOGGARD, BOGGART. See BOGLE. BOGGLE, bog'l, _v.i._ to stop or hesitate as if at a bogle: to start with fright: to make difficulties about a thing: to equivocate.--_n._ a scruple, objection: a bungle.--_n._ BOGG'LER, one who boggles: a doubter: (_Shak._) one who starts from the right path. [See BOGLE.] BOGIE, BOGEY, b[=o]g'i, _n._ a low truck on four wheels, so constructed as to turn easily, a trolly: a revolving under-carriage, as in a locomotive engine. [Ety. unknown; perh. conn. with BOGY, a fiend.] BOGLE, b[=o]g'l, _n._ a spectre or goblin: a scarecrow: a bugbear, or source of terror--also BOGG'LE.--BOGG'ARD is a common form in the North country. [Scot. _bogle_, a ghost; W. _bwg_, a goblin. See BUG.] BOGUS, b[=o]'gus, _adj._ counterfeit, spurious. [An American cant word, of very doubtful origin--it may possibly be ult. related to BOGY.] BOGY, BOGEY, b[=o]g'i, _n._ a goblin: a bugbear or special object of dread, the devil.--_n._ BOG'YISM. [A form of BOGGLE and BOGGARD.] BOHEA, bo-h[=e]', _n._ the lowest quality of black tea: tea generally. [Chin.] BOHEMIAN, bo-h[=e]'mi-an, _n._ and _adj._ applied to persons of loose or irregular habits: an artist or man of letters, or indeed any one, who sets social conventionalities aside.--_n._ BOH[=E]'MIANISM. [Fr. _bohémien_, a gipsy, from the belief that these wanderers came from _Bohemia_.] BOIAR. Same as BOYAR. BOIL, boil, _v.i._ to bubble up from the action of heat: to be hot: to be excited or agitated.--_v.t._ to heat to a boiling state: to cook or dress by boiling.--_ns._ BOIL'ER, one who boils: that in which anything is boiled: a vessel in which steam, usually for a steam-engine, is generated: a vessel for heating water for baths, &c.; BOIL'ING, the bubbling up of any liquid by the application of heat: the act of dressing food by boiling water.--_adj._ bubbling: swelling with heat or passion.--_n._ BOIL'ING-POINT, the temperature at which liquids begin to boil under heat.--TO BOIL DOWN, to reduce in bulk by boiling, to extract the substance of, to epitomise; TO BOIL OVER, to bubble over the sides of the containing vessel, to break out into unrestrained indignation. [O. Fr. _boillir_--L. _bull[=i]re_--_bulla_, a bubble.] BOIL, boil, _n._ an inflamed swelling or tumour. [A.S. _býl_; Ger. _beule_.] BOISTEROUS, bois't[.e]r-us, _adj._ wild: noisy: turbulent: stormy.--_adv._ BOIS'TEROUSLY.--_n._ BOIS'TEROUSNESS. [M. E. _boistous_, approximating, but not in sense, to the O. Fr. _boisteus_, whence modern _boiteux_, lame. The Celtic words throw no light upon its origin.] BOLAS, b[=o]'las, _n._ missiles used by the South American _gauchos_, consisting of balls or stones strung together, swung round the head and hurled, usually so as to entangle the legs of an animal running. [Sp.] BOLD, b[=o]ld, _adj._ daring or courageous: forward or impudent: presumptuous: executed with spirit: striking to the sight, well marked: steep or abrupt.--_v.t._ BOLD'EN (_obs._), to make bold.--_adj._ BOLD'FACED, impudent.--_adv._ BOLD'LY.--_n._ BOLD'NESS.--TO MAKE BOLD, to take the liberty, to make free. [A.S. _bald_; Old High Ger. _bald_, Ice. _ballr_.] BOLE, b[=o]l, _n._ the round stem or body of a tree. [Scand. _bolr_; Ger. _bohle_, a plank.] BOLE, b[=o]l, _n._ an earthy mineral resembling clay in structure, and consisting essentially of silica, alumina, red oxide of iron, and water; the bole of Lemnos, _Lemnian Earth_, is red in colour, and was once used as a tonic and astringent medicine. [Gr. _b[=o]los_, a clod.] BOLE, b[=o]l, _n._ a recess in a wall: an opening to admit light and air. [Scot.; origin unknown.] BOLERO, bo-l[=a]'ro, or bo-l[=e]'ro, _n._ Spanish national dance: also the air to which it is danced. [Sp.] BOLETUS, bol-[=e]'tus, _n._ a genus of fungi, having a pore-like surface occupying the place of gills. [Gr. _b[=o]lit[=e]s_, mushroom.] BOLIDE, bol'[=i]d, _n._ a large meteor or fireball. [Fr.--L. _bolid-em_, _bolis_--Gr. _bolis_, _ballein_, to throw.] BOLIN, an obsolete form of BOWLINE. BOLL, b[=o]l, _n._ one of the round heads or seed-vessels of flax, poppy, &c.: a pod or capsule.--_p.adjs._ BOLLED (b[=o]ld), swollen, podded; BOLLEN (b[=o]ln), swollen (_Shak._). [A form of BOWL; A.S. _bolla_.] BOLL, b[=o]l, _n._ a measure of capacity for grain, &c., used in Scotland and the north of England--in Scotland = 6 imperial bushels; in England, varying from 2 to 6 bushels: also a measure of weight, containing, for flour, 140 lb. [Scot. _bow_; prob. a Scand. word; cf. Ice. _bolli_.] BOLLANDIST, bol'an-dist, _n._ one of the Jesuit writers who continued the _Acta Sanctorum_ (q.v.), begun by John _Bolland_ (1596-1665). BOLLARD, bol'ard, _n._ a post on a wharf to which vessels are secured: a thick piece of wood on the forepart of a whale-boat, round which the line is turned when a whale is harpooned. [Prob. BOLE.] BOLOGNA, bol-[=o]n'ya, _adj._ from a town of Italy, which gives its name to Bologna phial, Bologna phosphorus, and Bologna or 'Polony' sausages.--_adj_. BOLOGN'ESE. BOLOMETER, b[=o]-lom'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring minute amounts of radiant heat. [Gr. _bol[=e]_, ray (_ballein_, to throw), _metron_, a measure.] BOLSTER, b[=o]l'st[.e]r, _n._ a long round pillow or cushion: a pad: anything resembling it in form or use, esp. any piece of mechanism affording a support against pressure.--_v.t._ to support with a bolster: to hold up.--_p.adj._ BOL'STERED, supported: swelled out.--_n._ BOL'STERING, a propping up or supporting. [A.S. _bolster_; from root of BOWL.] BOLT, b[=o]lt, _n._ a bar or pin used to fasten a door, &c.: an arrow: a thunderbolt, as in 'a bolt from the blue.'--_v.t._ to fasten with a bolt: to throw or utter precipitately: to expel suddenly: to swallow hastily.--_v.i._ to rush away (like a bolt from a bow): to start up: (_U.S._) to break away from one's political party.--_ns._ BOLT'-HEAD, the head of a bolt: a chemical flask; BOLT'-ROPE, a rope sewed all round the edge of a sail to prevent it from tearing; BOLT'SPRIT (same as BOWSPRIT).--_adv._ BOLT'-UP'RIGHT, upright and straight as a bolt or arrow.--_n._ BOLT'-UP'RIGHTNESS. [A.S. _bolt_; Old High Ger. _bolz_.] BOLT, b[=o]lt, _v.t._ (better spelling, BOULT), to sift, to separate the bran from, as flour: to examine by sifting: to sift through coarse cloth.--_ns._ BOLT'ER, a sieve: a machine for separating bran from flour; BOLT'ING, the process by which anything is bolted or sifted; BOLT'ING-HUTCH, a hutch or large box into which flour falls when it is bolted. [O. Fr. _bulter_, or _buleter_ = _bureter_, from _bure_--Low L. _burra_, a coarse reddish-brown cloth--Gr. _pyrros_, reddish.] BOLUS, b[=o]'lus, _n._ a rounded mass of anything: a large pill. [L. _bolus_--Gr. _b[=o]los_, a lump.] BOMB, bom, or bum, _n._ a hollow projectile, usually of cast-iron, fired from a mortar, filled with gunpowder and fitted with a time-fuse: any similar missile or case of explosives, as a dynamite bomb.--_n._ BOM'BARD, an engine or great gun for throwing bombs: (_Shak._) a barrel or large vessel for holding liquor.--_v.t._ BOMBARD', to attack with bombs.--_ns._ BOMBARDIER', the lowest non-commissioned officer in the British artillery, formerly a man employed about the mortars and howitzers; BOMBARD'MENT; BOMBAR'DON, a deep-toned brass instrument, with a tube likened to a bombard.--_adj._ BOMB'-PROOF, proof or secure against the force of bombs.--_ns._ BOMB'-SHELL (same as BOMB); BOMB'-VESS'EL, BOMB'-KETCH, a vessel for carrying the mortars used in bombarding from the sea.--BOMBARDIER BEETLE, a name given to several species of beetles, which discharge an acrid volatile fluid with explosive force from the abdomen. [Fr. _bombe_--L. _bombus_--Gr. _bombos_, a humming sound--an imitative word.] BOMBASINE, BOMBAZINE, bom'-, bum-ba-z[=e]n', _n._ a twilled or corded fabric of silk and worsted, or of cotton and worsted.--_n._ BOM'BAX, a genus of silk-cotton trees, native to tropical America. [Fr. _bombasin_--Low L. _bombasinum_--Gr. _bombyx_, silk.] BOMBAST, bom'-, bum'bast, _n._ inflated or high-sounding language: originally cotton or any soft material used for stuffing garments.--_adj._ BOMBAS'TIC, high-sounding: inflated. [Low L. _bombax_, cotton--Gr. _bombyx_, silk.] BOMBAX. See BOMBASINE. BOMBAY-DUCK, bom-b[=a]'-duk, _n._ a fish of the family Scopelidæ, nearly allied to the salmon and trout family, which is salted, dried, and eaten as a relish. BOMBYX, bom'biks, _n._ the silkworm. [Gr.] BON, bong, _adj._ good--French, occurring in some English but not Anglicised phrases, as BON ACCORD, good-will, agreement; BON MOT, a jest or smart saying; BON TON, good style, the fashionable world; BON VIVANT, one who lives well or luxuriously. BONA FIDE, b[=o]'na f[=i]d'[=a], _adv._ and _adj._ in good faith, with sincerity, genuine. [L.] BONANZA, bon-an'za, _n._ a term common in the Pacific States for a rich mass of gold: any mine of wealth or stroke of luck. [Sp.] BONAPARTISM, b[=o]'na-pärt-izm, _n._ attachment to the dynasty of Napoleon _Bonaparte_, Emperor of the French.--_n._ B[=O]'NAPARTIST. BONA-ROBA, b[=o]'na-r[=o]'ba, _n._ (_Shak._) a showy wanton, a courtesan. [It. _buona roba_, lit. a fine gown.] BONBON, bong'bong, _n._ a sweetmeat.--_n._ BONBON'IERE, a fancy box for holding such. [Fr., 'very good'--_bon_, good.] [Illustration] BOND, bond, _n._ that which binds, a band: link of connection or union: a writing of obligation to pay a sum or to perform a contract: any constraining or any cementing force: in building, the connection of one stone or brick with another, made by lapping the one over the other as the work is carried up, as in ENGLISH BOND, FLEMISH BOND, &c.: (_pl._) imprisonment, captivity.--_adj._ bound: in a state of servitude.--_v.t._ to put imported goods in the customs' warehouses till the duties on them are paid--hence BONDED STORES or WAREHOUSES, TO TAKE OUT OF BOND, &c.--_p.adj._ BOND'ED, secured by bond, as duties.--_ns._ BOND'ER, a binding stone or brick; BOND'-HOLD'ER, a person who holds bonds of a private person or public company; BOND'ING, that arrangement by which goods remain in the customs' warehouses till the duties are paid; BOND'MAID, BOND'WOMAN, BONDS'WOMAN, a woman-slave; BOND'MAN, a man-slave; BOND'MANSHIP; BOND'SERV'ANT, a slave; BOND'-SERV'ICE, the condition of a bond-servant: slavery; BOND'-SLAVE, a slave; BONDS'MAN, a bondman or slave: a surety; BOND'-STONE, a stone which reaches a considerable distance into or entirely through a wall for the purpose of binding it together; BOND'-TIM'BER, timber built into a wall as it is carried up for the purpose of binding it together in a longitudinal direction.--BONDED DEBT, the debt of a corporation represented by the bonds it has issued, as contrasted with its _floating_ debt. [A variant of _band_--A.S. _bindan_, to bind.] BONDAGE, bond'[=a]j, _n._ state of being bound: captivity: slavery.--_n._ BOND'AGER, a female outworker in the Border and North country, whom the _hind_ or married cottar was bound to provide for the farm-work. [O. Fr.; Low L. _bondagium_, a kind of tenure. Acc. to Skeat, this is from A.S. _bonda_, a boor, a householder, from Ice. _bóndi_ = _búandi_, a tiller, a husbandman, _búa_, to till, cog. with A.S. _búan_.] BONE, b[=o]n, _n._ a hard substance forming the skeleton of mammalian animals: a piece of the skeleton of an animal: (_pl._) the bones collectively: mortal remains: pieces of bone held between the fingers of the hand and rattled together to keep time to music: dice, as made of bone, ivory, &c.--_v.t._ to take the bones out of, as meat: to seize, to steal.--_ns._ BONE'-ACHE (_Shak._), aching or pain in the bones; BONE'-ASH, BONE'-EARTH, the remains when bones are burnt in an open furnace; BONE'-BLACK, the remains when bones are heated in a close vessel.--_adj._ BONED--used in composition, as high-boned: having bones: having the bones removed.--_ns._ BONE'-DUST, ground or pulverised bones, used in agriculture; BONE'-LACE, lace woven with bobbins, which were frequently made of bone.--_adj._ BONE'LESS, wanting bones.--_ns._ BONE'-SET'TER, one who treats broken bones without being a duly qualified surgeon; BONE'-SH[=A]K'ER, a name familiarly given to the earlier forms of bicycle before india-rubber tires; BONE'-SPAV'IN, a bony excrescence or hard swelling on the inside of the hock of a horse.--_adj._ BON'Y, full of, or consisting of, bones.--A BONE OF CONTENTION, something that causes strife; A BONE TO PICK, something to occupy one, a difficulty, a grievance, controversy, dispute.--TO MAKE NO BONES OF, to have no scruples in regard to something; TO THE BONE, to the inmost part. [A.S. _bán_, Ger. _bein_.] BONFIRE, bon'f[=i]r, _n._ a large fire in the open air on occasions of public rejoicing, &c.--originally a fire in which bones were burnt. [Not Fr. _bon_, good, and FIRE.] BONGRACE, bon'gr[=a]s, _n._ a shade from the sun once worn by women on the front of the bonnet: a broad-brimmed hat or bonnet. [Fr.] BONHOMIE, bon'o-m[=e], _n._ easy good-nature. [Fr.; _bon homme_, a good fellow.] BONIFACE, bon'i-f[=a]s, _n._ a generic name for an innkeeper, like 'mine host' or 'landlord'--from the hearty _Boniface_ of Farquhar's _Beaux' Stratagem_. BONING, b[=o]n'ing, _n._ the act of estimating straightness by looking along a series of poles, as in _boning-rod_ or _telescope_. BONITO, bo-n[=e]to, _n._ a name given to several fishes of the mackerel family--the Stripe-bellied Tunny of the tropical parts of the Atlantic and Pacific; the Mediterranean Bonito; the Plain Bonito. [Sp.] BONNE, bon, _n._ a French nursemaid. [Fr.; _fem._ of _bon_, good.] BONNE-BOUCHE, bon-b[=oo]sh, _n._ a delicious morsel. [Fr.] BONNET, bon'et, _n._ a covering for the head worn by women, without a brim, tied on by strings, and now letting the whole face be seen, although formerly a bonnet (esp. a POKE'-BONN'ET) covered the sides of the face: a soft cap: the velvet cap within a coronet: (_fort._) a small work before the salient or flanked angle of the ravelin: (_naut._) an additional part laced to the foot of jibs, or other fore-and-aft sails, to gather more wind: a wire-covering over a chimney-top: a decoy or pretended player or bidder at a gaming-table or an auction, the accomplice of a thimble-rigger or other petty swindler.--_v.t._ to put a bonnet on: to crush a man's hat over his eyes.--_adj._ and _p.adj._ BONN'ETED.--_ns._ BONN'ET-PIECE, a gold coin of James V. of Scotland, on which the king wears a bonnet instead of a crown; BONN'ET-ROUGE, the red cap of liberty of the French Revolution, shaped like a nightcap.--BONNET LAIRD, a Scotch name for a petty landowner who wore a bonnet, not the hat of the gentry.--BALMORAL BONNET, a flat cap resembling the Scotch (Lowland) bonnet; GLENGARRY BONNET, rising to a point in front, with ribbons hanging down behind; SCOTCH BONNET, of a broad, round, flat shape, of dark-blue colour, with a tuft on the top, the fabric thick-milled woollen, without seam or lining--like the Basque _béret_. [O. Fr.--Low L. _bonnetum_, orig. the name of a stuff.] BONNY, bon'i, _adj._ beautiful: handsome: gay: plump: pleasant-looking: as a general term expressing appreciation = considerable, &c., often ironically: cheerful: (_Shak._) stout, strong.--_adv._ BONN'ILY, beautifully: gaily.--_n._ BONN'INESS, handsomeness: gaiety. [Fr. _bon_, _bonne_--L. _bonus_.] BONSPIEL, bon'sp[=e]l, _n._ a great curling-match. [Dr Murray suggests an assumed Dut. _bondspel_, from _bond_ = _verbond_, 'covenant, alliance, compact,' and; _spel_, play; the word having entered Scotch as a whole, _spiel_, _spel_, having never been in common use for 'play.'] BONUS, b[=o]n'us, _n._ a premium beyond the usual interest for a loan: an extra dividend to shareholders: an extra gratuity paid to workmen: a douceur or bribe. [L. _bonus_, good.] BONZE, bon'ze, _n._ a Buddhist priest. [Jap. _bonzó_ or _bonzi_, a priest.] BOO, BOOH, b[=oo], _interj._ a sound expressive of disapprobation or contempt.--_v.i._ to utter 'boo!' to hoot.--_v.t._ BOO'-HOO', to weep noisily. BOOBY, b[=oo]'bi, _n._ a silly or stupid fellow: a sea-bird, of the gannet tribe, remarkable for its apparent stupidity in allowing itself to be knocked down with a stick.--_adjs._ BOO'BY, BOO'BYISH, like a booby: stupid.--_ns._ BOO'BYISM; BOO'BY-TRAP, a rude form of practical joke among boys, by which something is made to fall upon some one entering a door, or the like. [Sp. _bobo_, a dolt: may prob. be cog. with Ger. _bube_.] BOODLE, b[=oo]d'l, _n._ a crowd, pack--'the whole boodle:' stock-in-trade, capital. [May be conn. with Dut. _boedel_.] BOODLE, b[=oo]d'l, _n._ (_slang_) a stupid noodle. BOODY, b[=oo]d'i, _v.i._ to sulk or mope. [Fr. _bouder_, to pout.] BOOK, book, _n._ a collection of sheets of paper bound together, either printed, written on, or blank: a literary composition: a division of a volume or subject: the Bible: a betting-book, or record of bets made with different people: (_fig._) any source of instruction: the libretto of an opera, &c.: (_pl._) formal accounts of transactions, as minutes of meetings, records kept of his business by a merchant.--_v.t._ to write in a book.--_ns._ BOOK'-ACCOUNT', an account of debt or credit in a book; BOOK'BINDER, one who binds books; BOOK'BINDING, the art or practice of binding or putting the boards on books; BOOK'-CASE, a case with shelves for books; BOOK'-CLUB, an association of persons who buy new books for circulation among themselves; BOOK'-DEBT, a debt for articles charged by the seller in his book-account.--_adj._ BOOK'FUL, full of information gathered from books.--_ns._ BOOK'-HOLD'ER, one who holds the book of the play and prompts the actor in the theatre; BOOK'-HUNT'ER, one who rejoices in discovering _rare_ books; BOOK'ING-OF'FICE, an office where names are booked or tickets are taken.--_adj._ BOOK'ISH, fond of books: acquainted only with books.--_ns._ BOOK'ISHNESS; BOOK'-KEEP'ING, the art of keeping accounts in a regular and systematic manner; BOOK'-LAND, land taken from the _folcland_ or common land, and granted by _bóc_ or written charter to a private owner; BOOK'-LEARN'ING, learning got from books, as opposed to practical knowledge.--_adj._ BOOK'LESS, without books, unlearned.--_ns._ BOOK'LET, a small book; BOOK'-MAK'ER, one who makes up books from the writings of others, a compiler: one who makes a system of bets in such a way that the gains must exceed the losses, entering them in a memorandum book; BOOK'-MAK'ING, the art or practice of compiling books from the writings of others: compilation: systematic betting; BOOK'-MAN, a scholar, student; BOOK'-MARK, something placed in a book to mark a particular page or passage; BOOK'-MATE (_Shak._), a mate or companion in the study of books: a schoolfellow; BOOK'-MUS'LIN, muslin used in bookbinding; BOOK'-OATH (_Shak._), an oath made on the Book or Bible; BOOK'PLATE, a label usually pasted inside the cover of a book, bearing the owner's name, crest, coat-of-arms, or peculiar device; BOOK'-POST, the department in the Post-office for the transmission of books; BOOK'SELLER, one who sells books; BOOK'SELLING; BOOK'SHELF, a shelf on which books are placed; BOOK'SHOP, a shop where books are sold; BOOK'-STALL, a stall or stand, generally in the open air, where books are sold; BOOK'-STAND, a book-stall: a stand or support for holding up a book when reading; BOOK'-TRADE, the trade of dealing in books; BOOK'WORM, a worm or mite that eats holes in books: a hard reader: one who reads without discrimination or profit.--TO BE UPON THE BOOKS, to have one's name in an official list; TO BRING TO BOOK, to bring to account; TO TAKE A LEAF OUT OF ANOTHER'S BOOK, to follow the example of some one; TO TALK LIKE A BOOK, to talk pedantically, or in a preternaturally well-informed manner. [A.S. _bóc_, a book, the beech; Ger. _buche_, the beech, _buch_, a book, because the Teutons first wrote on beechen boards.] BOOM, b[=oo]m, _n._ a pole by which a sail is stretched: a chain or bar stretched across a harbour. [Dut. _boom_, a beam, a tree.] BOOM, b[=oo]m, _v.i._ to make a hollow sound or roar: to go on with a rush, to become suddenly prosperous.--_v.t._ to push anything into sudden prominence:--_pa.p._ boomed (b[=oo]md); _pr.p._ boom'ing.--_n._ a hollow roar, as of the sea, the cry of the bittern, &c.: a sudden increase of activity in business, or the like--often the direct consequence of puffing advertisements or less legitimate intrigues.--_p.adj._ BOOM'ING, rushing with violence. [From a Low Ger. root found in A.S. _byme_, a trumpet, Dut. _bommen_, to drum; like BOMB, of imit. origin.] [Illustration] BOOMERANG, b[=oo]m'e-rang, _n._ a hard-wood missile used by the natives of Australia, shaped like the segment of a circle, and so balanced that when thrown to a distance it returns towards the thrower. [Australian.] BOON, b[=oo]n, _n._ a petition: a gift or favour. [Ice. _bôn_, a prayer; A.S. _ben_.] BOON, b[=oo]n, _adj._ gay, merry, or kind. [Fr. _bon_--L. _bonus_, good.] BOOR, b[=oo]r, _n._ a countryman, a peasant: a Dutch colonist in South Africa: a coarse or awkward person.--_adj._ BOOR'ISH, like a boor: awkward or rude.--_adv._ BOOR'ISHLY.--_n._ BOOR'ISHNESS. [Dut. _boer_; Ger. _bauer_. The A.S. _gebúr_, a farmer, may explain the East Anglian _bor_, neighbour, as a form of address.] BOORD, an obsolete form of BOARD. BOOSE. See BOUSE. BOOT, b[=oo]t, _n._ a covering for the foot and lower part of the leg generally made of leather: an infamous instrument of judicial torture, in which the legs were forced into a strong case and wedges driven in until bone, muscle, and marrow were crushed together--also BOOT'IKIN: a box or receptacle in a coach.--_v.t._ to put on boots.--_n._ BOOT'-CLOS'ER, one who closes the upper leathers of boots.--_pa.p._ BOOT'ED, having boots on, equipped for riding.--_ns._ BOOT'-HOOK, an instrument for pulling on long boots; BOOT'HOSE (_Shak._), hose or stockings used in place of boots; BOOT'-JACK, an instrument for taking off boots; BOOT'LACE, a lace for fastening boots; BOOT'-LAST, BOOT'-TREE, the last or wooden mould on which boots or shoes are made or stretched to keep their shape.--_adj._ BOOT'LESS, without boots: referring also, as in Tennyson's metaphorical use, 'wedded to a bootless calf,' to the ancient custom at a marriage by proxy of the quasi bridegroom putting one unbooted leg into the bride's bed.--_n._ BOOTS, the servant at an inn who cleans the boots, runs messages, &c.--in combination, as Lazy_boots_, Sly_boots_.--BOOT AND SADDLE (a corr. of Fr. _bouteselle_, place saddle), the signal to cavalry to mount.--LIKE OLD BOOTS (_slang_), vigorously, heartily.--SIX FEET IN HIS BOOTS, quite six feet high.--TO DIE IN HIS BOOTS, to be cut off in the midst of health, as by the rope; TO HAVE ONE'S HEART IN ONE'S BOOTS, to be in a state of extreme terror. [O. Fr. _bote_ (mod. _botte_)--Low L. _botta_, _bota_, of dubious origin.] BOOT, b[=oo]t, _v.t._ to profit or advantage.--_n._ advantage: profit: any reparation or compensation paid, like the _man-bote_ of old English law: (_Shak._) booty.--_adj._ BOOT'LESS, without boot or profit: useless.--_adv._ BOOT'LESSLY.--_n._ BOOT'LESSNESS.--TO BOOT, in addition; TO MAKE BOOT OF (_Shak._), to make profit of. [A.S. _bót_, compensation, amends, whence _betan_, to amend, to make BETTER.] BOOTES, bo-[=o]'tez, _n._ a northern constellation beside the Great Bear, containing the bright star Arcturus. [Gr.; an ox-driver.] BOOTH, b[=oo]th, _n._ a hut or temporary erection formed of slight materials: a covered stall at a fair or market. [Ice. _buð_, Ger. _bude_.] BOOTY, b[=oo]t'i, _n._ spoil taken in war or by force: plunder, a prize.--TO PLAY BOOTY, to join with others in order to cheat one player, to play a game with intention to lose. [Ice. _býti_, share--_býta_, to divide.] BOOZE. See BOUSE. BO-PEEP, bo-p[=e]p', _n._ a simple play among children in which one peeps from behind something and cries 'Bo.' BORA, b[=o]'ra, _n._ a strong north-east wind in the upper Adriatic. [Diez explains the word as a Venetian variant of It. _borea_--L. _boreas_; acc. to others, Slav.; cf. Servian _bura_.] BORACHIO, bor-ach'i-o, _n._ a Spanish wine-bottle of leather: a drunken fellow. [Sp. _borracha_.] BORAGE, bur'[=a]j, _n._ a plant of the genus Borago, formerly in great repute as a cordial. [Low L. _borago_.] BORAX, b[=o]'raks, _n._ a mineral salt used for soldering, as a flux in metallurgy, in enamelling and glazing, as a mordant in dyeing, as a substitute for soap, and also in medicine.--_adj._ BORAC'IC, of or relating to borax.--_ns._ BOR'ACITE, a mineral composed of boracic acid and carbonate of magnesia; B[=O]'RATE, a salt of boracic acid.--BORACIC ACID, an acid obtained by dissolving borax, and also found native in mineral springs in Italy. [Through Fr. and Low L. _borax_, _borac-em_, from Ar. _bûraq_.] BORDAR, bord'ar, _n._ a villein who held his hut at his lord's pleasure. [Low L. _bordarius_; of Teut. origin. See BOARD.] BORDEAUX, bor-d[=o]', _n._ claret, wine of _Bordeaux_, a great city in the south-west of France. BORDEL, bor'del, _n._ a house for prostitution. [O. Fr. _bordel_, a cabin--Low L. _borda_.] BORDER, bord'[.e]r, _n._ the edge or margin of anything: the march or boundary of a country, esp. that between England and Scotland: a flower-bed in a garden: a piece of ornamental edging or trimming round a garment, &c.--_v.i._ to resemble (with _on_): to be adjacent (with _upon_, _with_).--_v.t._ to make or adorn with a border: to bound.--_ns._ BORD'ERER, one who dwells on the border of a country; BORD'ER-LAND.--_adj._ BORD'ERLESS. [O. Fr. _bordure_; from root of BOARD.] BORD-RAGING. See BODRAGING. BORDURE, bor'd[=u]r, _n._ (_her._) a border surrounding a shield, generally said to occupy one-fifth of the field. [BORDER.] BORE, b[=o]r, _v.t._ to pierce so as to form a hole; to weary or annoy.--_n._ a hole made by boring: the size of the cavity of a gun; a person or thing that wearies (not from the foregoing, according to Dr Murray, who says both verb and noun arose after 1750).--_ns._ BOR'ER, the person or thing that bores: a genus of sea-worms that pierce wood; a name common to many insects that pierce wood; BOR'ING, the act of making a hole in anything: a hole made by boring: (_pl._) the chips produced by boring. [A.S. _borian_, to bore; cf. Ger. _bohren_; allied to L. _for-[=a]re_, to bore, Gr. _pharynx_, the gullet.] BORE, b[=o]r, did bear, _pa.t._ of BEAR. BORE, b[=o]r, _n._ a tidal flood which rushes with great violence up the estuaries of certain rivers, also called _Eagre_. [Ice. _bára_, a wave or swell.] BOREAS, b[=o]'re-as, _n._ the north wind.--_adj._ B[=O]'REAL. [L. and Gr.] BORIC. Same as BORACIC (q.v. under BORAX). BORN, bawrn,--_pa.p._ of BEAR, to bring forth.--BORN AGAIN, having received new spiritual life or regeneration through Christ.--BORN IN, or WITH, inherited by birth; BORN OF, sprung from.--A BORN FOOL, one whose folly is from his birth--also in compounds, as _English-born_, _eldest-born_, _base-born_, _gently-born_, _well-born_, &c.--IN ONE'S BORN DAYS, in one's life-time. BORNE, b[=o]rn, _pa.p._ of BEAR, to carry. BORNÉ, bor'n[=a], _adj._ limited, narrow-minded. [Fr. pa.p. of _borner_, to limit.] BORON, b[=o]'ron, _n._ a simple non-metallic element present in borax and boracic acid, obtained in crystals which resemble diamonds. [See BORAX.] BOROUGH, bur'[=o], _n._ a town with a corporation and special privileges granted by royal charter; a town that sends representatives to parliament.--_ns._ BOR'OUGH-ENGLISH, a custom in some ancient English boroughs, by which estates descend to the youngest son or the youngest brother; BOR'OUGHMONGER, one who buys or sells the patronage of boroughs; BOR'OUGH-REEVE, the chief municipal official in some unincorporated English towns prior to 1835.--CLOSE or POCKET BOROUGH, a borough the representation of which was in the nomination of some person--common before 1832; COUNTY BOROUGH, a borough of above 50,000 inhabitants, constituted by the Local Government Act of 1888; ROTTEN BOROUGH, one which still returned members to parliament although the constituency had disappeared--all abolished in 1832.--The Scotch terms are grouped under BURGH. [A.S. _burg_, _burh_, a city, from _beorgan_; Ger. _bergen_, to protect.] BORREL, bor'el, _adj._ (_Spens._) rustic, clownish. [O. Fr. _burel_, coarse cloth worn by peasantry.] BORROW, bor'[=o], _v.t._ to obtain on loan or trust: to adopt from a foreign source: to derive one's authority from another (with _from_, _of_).--_p.adj._ BORR'OWED, taken on loan, counterfeit, assumed.--_n._ BORR'OWER.--BORROWING DAYS, the last three days of March (O.S.), supposed in Scotch folklore to have been borrowed by March from April, and to be especially stormy. [A.S. _borgian_--_borg_, _borh_, a pledge, security.] BORSTALL, bor'stal, _n._ a way up a hill, still used in the district of the Downs. [A.S. _beorh_, a hill, and _stigel_, a stile.] BORT, bort, _n._ diamond-dust. [Fr.] BORZOI, bor'zoi, _n._ a breed of dogs of great grace and beauty, in shape like a gigantic greyhound, though covered with a soft coat about the length of a deerhound's. [Russ.] BOSCAGE, bosk'[=a]j, _n._ thick foliage: woodland. [Fr. _boscage_, _bocage_--Low L. _boscus_ (hence Fr. _bois_), conn. with Ger. _busch_, Eng. BUSH.] BOSH, bosh, _n._ used also as _interj._ nonsense, foolish talk or opinions. [Turk. _bosh_, worthless, frequent in Morier's popular novel _Ayesha_ (1834).] BOSKY, bosk'i, _adj._ woody or bushy: shady.--_ns._ BOSK'ET, BOSK (_Tennyson_), a thicket. BOSOM, b[=oo]z'um, _n._ the breast of a human being, or the part of the dress which covers it: (_fig._) the seat of the passions and feelings: the heart: embrace, enclosure, as within the arms: any close or secret receptacle.--_adj._ (in composition) confidential: intimate.--_v.t._ to enclose in the bosom.--ABRAHAM'S BOSOM, the abode of the blessed dead.--TO TAKE TO ONE'S BOSOM, to marry: to make an intimate friend of. [A.S. _bósm_; Ger. _busen_.] BOSON, b[=o]'sn, _n._ a corruption of BOATSWAIN. [Illustration] BOSS, bos, _n._ a knob or stud: a raised ornament.--_v.t._ to ornament with bosses.--_adj._ BOSS'Y, having bosses.--_p.adj._ BOSSED, embossed. [O. Fr. _boce_ (Fr. _bosse_), from Old Ger. _bôzan_, to beat.] BOSS, bos, _n._ the chief or leader: the master, manager, or foreman: the person who pulls the wires in political intrigues.--_adj._ chief: excellent.--_v.t._ to manage or control.--TO BOSS THE SHOW, to be supreme director of an enterprise. [Amer.; from the New York Dutch _baas_, master; cog. with Ger. _base_, a cousin.] BOSTANGI, bos-tan'ji, _n._ a Turkish guard of the palace. [Turk.] BOSTON, bost'on, _n._ a game at cards, somewhat similar to whist. [From _Boston_ in Mass., U.S.] BOSWELLIAN, bos-wel'li-an, _adj._ after the manner of _Boswell_, the famous biographer of Samuel Johnson.--_v.i._ BOS'WELLISE, to write after the manner of Boswell--full of an absolute admiration for one's hero and interest in him descending to the smallest particulars.--_n._ BOS'WELLISM. BOT. See BOTS. BOTANY, bot'an-i, _n._ the science of plants.--_adj._ BOTAN'IC.--_adv._ BOTAN'ICALLY.--_v.i._ BOT'ANISE, to seek for and collect plants for study.--_ns._ BOT'ANIST, one skilled in botany; BOT'ANOMANCY, divination by means of plants, esp. the leaves of the sage and fig.--BOTANY BAY, a famous convict settlement in New South Wales, near to what is now Sydney: convict settlements generally. [Gr. _botan[=e]_, herb, plant--_bosk-ein_, to feed, L. _vescor_, I feed myself; perh. cog. with A.S. _woed_.] BOTARGO, bot-ar'go, _n._ a relish made of mullet or tunny roe. [It.--Ar.] BOTCH, boch, _n._ a swelling on the skin: a clumsy patch: ill-finished work.--_v.t._ to patch or mend clumsily: to put together unsuitably or unskilfully.--_ns._ BOTCH'ER, one who botches; BOTCH'WORK, BOTCH'ERY.--_adj._ BOTCH'Y, marked with or full of botches. [From root of BOSS.] BOTFLY. See BOTS. BOTH, b[=o]th, _adj._ and _pron._ the two: the one and the other.--_conj._ as well: on the one side. [Ice. _bathi_, Ger. _beide_; A.S. _bâ_; cf. L. _am-bo_, Gr. _am-ph[=o]_, Sans. _ubha_, orig. _ambha_.] BOTHER, bo_th_'[.e]r, _v.t._ to perplex or tease.--_ns._ BOTH'ER; BOTHER[=A]'TION.--_adj._ BOTH'ERSOME. [Murray notes that the word first appeared in the writings of Irish-born men, as Dr Sheridan, Swift, and Sterne. Perh. from Ir. _buaidhirt_, trouble.] BOTHY, BOTHIE, both'i, _n._ a humble cottage or hut: a temporary house for men engaged in some common work, esp. the barely furnished quarters provided for farm-servants, generally unmarried men, in the eastern and north-eastern counties of Scotland.--The BOTHY SYSTEM is apparently economical, but is detrimental to health and to morality. BOTONÉ, BOTTONY, bot'un-i, _adj._ (_her._) having buds or knobs at the extremity, applied to a cross having each arm terminated in three buds, like trefoil. [O. Fr. See BUTTON.] BO-TREE, b[=o]'-tr[=e], _n._ the name given in Ceylon to the Pipal or Peepul of India (_Ficus religiosa_), held sacred by the Buddhists, and planted close by every temple. [Singh. _bo_, from Pali _bodhi_, perfect knowledge.] BOTS, BOTTS, botz, _n._ the larvæ of the botfly found in the flesh and in the intestines of animals.--_n._ BOT'FLY, a family of dipterous insects, resembling the blue-bottle fly, which deposit their eggs on cattle. [Ety. unknown; hardly conn. with BITE.] BOTTINE, bot'[=e]n, _n._ a high boot, a half-boot. [Fr., dim. of _botte_, a boot.] BOTTLE, bot'l, _n._ a bundle of hay.--TO LOOK FOR A NEEDLE IN A BOTTLE OF HAY, to engage in a hopeless se_arch._ [O. Fr. _botel_.] BOTTLE, bot'l, _n._ a hollow vessel for holding liquids: the contents of such a vessel: the habit of drinking.--_v.t._ to enclose in bottles.--_n._ BOTT'LE-CHART, one which purports to show the track of sealed bottles thrown from ships into the sea.--_p.adj._ BOTT'LED, enclosed in bottles: shaped or protuberant like a bottle: kept in restraint.--_ns._ BOTT'LE-GLASS, a coarse green glass used in the making of bottles; BOTT'LE-GOURD, or _False Calabash_, a climbing, musky-scented Indian annual, whose fruit is shaped like a bottle, an urn, or a club.--_adjs._ BOTT'LE-GREEN, dark green in colour, like bottle-glass.--BOTT'LE-HEAD, BOTT'LE-NOSED, having a rounded prominent head, with a short snout, as a certain genus of whale.--_ns._ BOTT'LE-HOLD'ER, one who attends upon a boxer at a prize-fight, a backer or supporter generally; BOTT'LE-IMP, an imp supposed to be confined in a bottle; BOTT'LE-WASH'ER, one whose business it is to wash out the bottles, a factotum generally.--A THREE-BOTTLE MAN, one who could drink three bottles without losing his decorum.--TO BOTTLE OFF, to draw from the cask and put into bottles; TO BOTTLE UP (one's wrath, &c.), to keep enclosed as in a bottle; TO BRING UP ON THE BOTTLE, to rear an infant artificially rather than by the breast; TO PASS THE BOTTLE, to make the drink go round; TO PASS THE BOTTLE OF SMOKE, to acquiesce in some falsehood, to make pretence. [O. Fr. _bouteille_, dim. of _botte_, a vessel for liquids--Low L. _butis_, a vessel.] BOTTOM, bot'um, _n._ the lowest part of anything: that on which anything rests or is founded: the sitting part of the human body: the foot of a page, &c.: low land, as in a valley: the keel of a ship, hence the vessel itself: the fundamental character of anything, as physical stamina, financial resources, &c.: the portion of a wig hanging down over the shoulder, as in 'full-bottom'--full-bottomed wig: (_Shak._) a ball of thread.--_v.t._ to found or rest upon: (_Shak._) to wind round or upon.--_adj._ BOTT'OMED.--_ns._ BOTT'OM-GLADE, a glade or open space in a bottom or valley; BOTT'OM-GRASS (_Shak._) grass growing on bottom lands.--_adj._ BOTT'OMLESS.--_n._ BOTT'OMRY, a contract by which money is borrowed on the security of a ship or bottom.--BOTTOMLESS PIT--hell.--AT BOTTOM, in reality.--FROM THE BOTTOM OF THE HEART, from the very heart.--TO BE AT THE BOTTOM OF, to be the real origin of; TO STAND ON ONE'S OWN BOTTOM, to be independent of; TO TOUCH BOTTOM, to reach the lowest point. [A.S. _botm_; Ger. _boden_; conn. with L. _fundus_, bottom, Gael. _bonn_, the sole.] BOTTONY. See BOTONÉ. BOUDOIR, b[=oo]d'war, _n._ a lady's private room. [Fr.--_bouder_, to pout, to be sulky.] BOUFFANT, boof'ang, _adj._ puffed out, in dressmaking. [Fr.] BOUFFE. See OPERA-BOUFFE. BOUGAINVILLÆA, b[=oo]g-[=a]n-vil-[=e]'a, _n._ a neotropical genus of Nyctaginaceæ, frequently trained over trellises or under the roofs of greenhouses, their triplets of flowers almost concealed by rosy or purple bracts. [From the first French circumnavigator of the globe, Louis Antoine de _Bougainville_ (1729-1811).] BOUGH, bow, _n._ a branch of a tree: the gallows. [A.S. _bóg_, _bóh_, an arm, the shoulder (Ger. _bug_, the shoulder, the bow of a ship)--A.S. _bugan_, to bend.] BOUGHT, bawt, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of BUY.--BOUGHT'EN in an archaic form. BOUGHT, bowt, _n._ a bight or bend: (_Spens._) a twist or coil: the bend of a sling in which the stone is placed. [See BIGHT.] BOUGIE, b[=oo]'zhi, _n._ an instrument made of elastic, gum, wax, or metal, for distending contracted mucous canals, as the gullet, bowels, or urethra. [Fr. a 'wax candle,' because the instrument was orig. made of waxed linen, from _Bougie_ in Algeria.] BOUILLABAISSE, b[=oo]-lya-b[=a]s', _n._ a Provençal kind of fish chowder, familiar through Thackeray's appreciative ballad. [Fr.] BOUILLI, b[=oo]'-y[=e], _n._ boiled or stewed meat.--_n._ BOUILLON (b[=oo]-yong), soup. [Fr. See BOIL.] BOULDER, b[=o]ld'[.e]r, _n._ a large stone rounded by the action of water: (_geol._) a mass of rock transported by natural agencies from its native bed.--_adj._ containing boulders.--_n._ BOULD'ER-CLAY (see TILL, 4). [Acc. to Wedgwood, from Swed. _bullra_, Dan. _buldre_, to roar like thunder, as large pebbles do.] BOULEVARD, b[=oo]l'e-vär, _n._ a broad walk or promenade bordered with trees, originally applied to those formed upon the demolished fortifications of a town.--_n._ BOUL'EVARDIER, a frequenter of the boulevards. [Fr.--Ger. _bollwerk_. See BULWARK.] BOULEVERSEMENT, b[=oo]l-vers-mang, _n._ an overturning. [Fr.] BOULT, b[=o]lt, _v.t._ (_Spens._). Same as BOLT (2). BOUN, BOWNE, bown, _v.t._ (used _refl._) to prepare one's self, to have recourse to.--_v.i._ to prepare, dress: to set out, to go to a place--(_Spens._) BOUND. [_Boun_, earlier form of _bound_--revived by Scott.] BOUNCE, bowns, _v.i._ to jump or spring suddenly: to bound like a ball, to throw one's self about: (_obs._) to beat: to burst into or out of a room, &c.: to boast, to exaggerate.--_n._ a heavy, sudden blow: a leap or spring: a boast: a bold lie.--_adv._ and _interj._ expressing sudden movement.--_n._ BOUNC'ER, one who bounces: something big: a bully: a liar.--_adj._ BOUNC'ING, large and heavy: lusty: swaggering. [Dut. _bonzen_, to strike, from _bons_, a blow.] BOUND, bownd, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of BIND, confined, bandaged: intimately connected with--'bound up in:' of books, having a cover of, as 'bound in morocco,' &c. (with _in_): under obligation or necessity to, as 'bound to win.'--_n._ BOUND'-BAIL'IFF, a sheriff's officer, so called from his bond given to the sheriff for the discharge of his duty. BOUND, bownd, _n._ a limit or boundary: the limit of anything, as patience--'to break bounds,' to go beyond what is reasonable or allowable: (_pl._) a border-land, land generally within certain understood limits, the district.--_v.t._ to set bounds to: to limit, restrain, or surround.--_n._ BOUND'ARY, a visible limit: border: termination.--_p.adj._ BOUND'ED, restricted, cramped.--_n._ BOUND'ER, a boisterous or overbearing person.--_adj._ BOUND'LESS, having no limit: vast.--_n._ BOUND'LESSNESS. [O. Fr. _bonne_--Low L. _bodina_, of doubtful origin; cf. Bret. _bonn_, a boundary.] BOUND, bownd, _v.i._ to spring or leap.--_n._ a spring or leap.--_p.adj._ BOUND'ING, moving forward with a bound: leaping.--BY LEAPS AND BOUNDS, by startlingly rapid stages. [Fr. _bondir_, to spring, in O. Fr. to resound--L. _bombit[=a]re_. See BOOM, the sound.] BOUND, bownd, _adj._ ready to go--as in 'outward bound,' &c. [Ice. _búinn_, pa.p of _búa_, to prepare.] BOUNDEN, bownd'n, _adj._ binding: required: obligatory. [From BIND.] BOUNTY, bown'ti, _n._ liberality in bestowing gifts: the gift bestowed: money offered as an inducement to enter the army, or as a premium to encourage any branch of industry.--_adjs._ BOUN'TEOUS, BOUN'TIFUL, liberal in giving: generous.--_advs._ BOUN'TEOUSLY, BOUN'TIFULLY.--_ns._ BOUN'TEOUSNESS, BOUN'TIFULNESS; BOUN'TIHOOD.--LADY BOUNTIFUL, a character in Farquhar's _Beaux' Stratagem_, now used for the great lady of any district. [O. Fr. _bontet_ (_bonté_), goodness--L. _bonitatem_--_bonus_--good.] BOUQUET, b[=oo]k'[=a], _n._ a bunch of flowers: a nosegay: the perfume exhaled by wine. [Fr. _bosquet_, dim. of _bois_, a wood--It. _bosco_. See BOSCAGE, BUSH.] BOURASQUE, b[=oo]-rask', _n._ a tempest. [Fr. _bourrasque_; It. _borasco_, a storm.] BOURBONIST, b[=oo]r'bun-ist, _n._ an adherent of the _Bourbons_, the old French royal dynasty. BOURD, b[=oo]rd, _n._ (_Spens._) a jest, sport.--_n._ BOURD'ER (_obs._), a jester. [O. Fr. _bourde_, origin unknown.] BOURDON, b[=oo]r'dun, _n._ the refrain of a song: a bass stop in an organ or harmonium. [See BURDEN.] BOURDON, b[=oo]r'dun, _n._ (_obs._) a pilgrim's staff: a club. [Fr.--Low L. _burdon-em_, a mule.] BOURG, burg, _n._ Same as BURGH, BOROUGH. BOURGEOIS, bur-jois', _n._ a kind of printing type, larger than brevier and smaller than longprimer. [Fr.--perh. from the name of the typefounder.] BOURGEOISIE, b[=oo]rzh'waw-z[=e], _n._ the middle class of citizens, esp. traders. [From Fr. _bourgeois_, a citizen, often taken as a typical word for the mercantile middle class--used also adjectively, like such in manners or ways of thinking.] BOURGEON, bur'jun, _v.i._ to put forth sprouts or buds: to grow. [Fr. _bourgeon_, a bud, shoot.] BOURIGNIAN, b[=oo]r-in'yan, _adj._ of or pertaining to Antoinette _Bourignon_ (1616-80), a religious visionary who made religion consist in inward emotion, not in knowledge or practice.--BOURIGN'IANISM was strong in Scotland about the beginning of the 18th century, and ministers at ordination renounced it down till 1889. BOURLAW. See BYRLAW. BOURN, BOURNE, b[=o]rn, or b[=oo]rn, _n._ a boundary, a limit, or goal: (_Keats_) domain. [Fr. _borne_, a limit. See BOUND (2).] BOURN, BOURNE. See BURN (1). BOURSE, b[=oo]rs, _n._ an exchange where merchants meet for business. [Fr. _bourse_. See PURSE.] BOURTREE, b[=oo]r'tr[=e], _n._ the elder-tree--also BOUN'TREE.--_n._ BOUR'TREE-GUN, a pop-gun made of a piece of its wood by taking out the pith. [_Scot._; ety. unknown.] BOUSE, BOOZE, BOOSE, b[=oo]z, _v.i._ to drink deeply.--_n._ a drinking bout.--_adj._ BOUS'ING, drinking.--_n._ BOUS'INGKEN, a low drinking-shop.--_adj._ BOUS'Y, inclined to bouse: drunken. [Dut. _buysen_, to drink deeply--_buis_, a tube or flask; allied to BOX.] BOUSTROPHEDON, bow-strof-[=e]'don, _adj._ and _adv._ written ploughwise, alternately from right to left and from left to right--a form of alphabetic writing intermediate between the oldest Greek inscriptions (from right to left, as in Semitic scripts) and the more convenient method of left to right (from 7th century). [Gr.; _bou-strophos_, ox-turning.] BOUT, bowt, _n._ a turn, trial, or round: an attempt: a contest or trial--a fencing bout, or a continued fit of drinking. [Doublet of BIGHT; from root of BOW, to bend.] BOUTADE, b[=oo]-tad', _n._ a sudden outburst. [Fr.; _bouter_, to thrust.] BOUTS-RIMÉS, b[=oo]-r[=e]-m[=a]', _n.pl._ rhyming words given out by some one of a party as the endings of a stanza, the others having to fill up the lines as best they may. [Fr.] BOVINE, b[=o]'v[=i]n, _adj._ pertaining to cattle. [L. _bos_, _bovis_, Gr. _bous_, an ox or cow.] BOVRIL, bov'ril, _n._ a registered trade-mark applied to a special meat extract. [Coined from Gr. _bous_, _bovis_, an ox, and _vril_, the electric fluid represented as the one common origin of the forces in matter, in Lytton's novel _The Coming Race_, 1871.] BOW, bow, _v.i._ to bend the body in saluting a person, acknowledging a compliment, &c.: to submit.--_v.t._ to bend or incline downwards, to crush down (with _down_, _to_, _in_ or _out_, _up_ or _down_).--_n._ a bending of the body in saluting a person.--_adj._ BOW'-BACKED, crook-backed.--A BOWING ACQUAINTANCE, a slight acquaintance.--TO MAKE ONE'S BOW, to retire ceremoniously, to leave the stage. [A.S. _búgan_, to bend; akin to L. _fug-[)e]re_, to flee, to yield.] BOW, b[=o], _n._ a piece of elastic wood or other material for shooting arrows, bent by means of a string stretched between its two ends: anything of a bent or curved shape, as the rainbow: the instrument by which the strings of a violin are sounded: a ring of metal forming a handle: a knot composed of one or of two loops and two ends (_single bow_, _double bow_), a looped knot of ribbons, a necktie or the like, so tied.--_adj._ BOW'BENT (_Milton_), bent like a bow.--_n._ BOW'-BOY, a boy archer: (_Shak._) Cupid.--_n.pl._ BOW'-COM'PASSES, compasses, one leg of which slides on a bow or curved plate of metal to steady its motion: a small pair of compasses for describing circles with ink or pencil.--_adj._ BOWED.--_ns._ BOW'-HAND, in archery, the left hand, the one by which the bow is held: (_mus._) the right hand, the one that draws the bow; BOW'-LEG, a leg crooked like a bow.--_adj._ BOW'-LEGGED, having crooked legs.--_ns._ BOW'LINE, a rope from the weather side of the square sails (to which it is fastened by _bridles_) to the larboard or starboard bow, to keep the sail close to the wind; BOW'MAN, an archer; BOW'SHOT, the distance to which an arrow can be shot from a bow; BOW'STRING, the string by which a bow is drawn: a string with which the Turks strangled offenders; BOW'-WIN'DOW, a bent or semicircular window.--_adj._ BOW'-WIN'DOWED (_slang_), pot-bellied.--_n._ BOW'YER (_obs._), a bowman: a maker of bows.--BOWLINE KNOT, a simple but secure knot, used in fastening the bowline bridles to the cringles.--ON THE BOW HAND, wide of the mark.--TO DRAW THE LONG BOW, to make extravagant statements; TO HAVE TWO (or more) STRINGS TO ONE'S BOW, to have other alternatives. [A.S. _boga_; cog. with Ger. _bogen_.] BOW, bow, _n._ the general name for the stem and forepart of a ship, or that which cuts the water--often used in _pl._, the ship being considered to have starboard and port bows, meeting at the stem.--_ns._ BOW'ER, BOW'ER-ANCH'OR, an anchor at the bow or forepart of a ship--usually two, the _best-bower_ and the _small-bower_; BOW'-OAR, the oar nearest the bow.--A BOLD, or BLUFF, BOW, a broad bow; A LEAN BOW, a narrow one.--ON THE BOW, within 45° of the point right ahead. BOWDLERISE, bowd'l[.e]r-[=i]z, _v.t._ to expurgate a book or writing, to remove indelicate words or phrases, esp. to do so unnecessarily.--_ns._ BOWDLERIS[=A]'TION; BOWD'LERISER; BOWD'LERISM. [From Dr T. _Bowdler_ (1754-1825), who published an expurgated Shakespeare in ten volumes in 1818.] BOWELS, bow'elz, _n.pl._ the interior parts of the body, the entrails, the intestines: the interior part of anything: (_fig._) the heart, pity, tenderness (the emotions being supposed to be seated in the bowels--_B._ and _Shak._).--_v.t._ BOW'EL, to take out the bowels. [O. Fr. _boel_--L. _botellus_, a sausage, also an intestine.] BOWER, bow'[.e]r, _n._ a shady enclosure or recess in a garden, an arbour: an inner apartment, esp. the private room of a lady, a boudoir.--_n._ BOW'ER-BIRD, an Australian bird of the Starling family, remarkable for its habit of making bower-like erections ornamented with gay feathers, shells, &c.--_adj._ BOW'ERY, containing bowers: shady. [A.S. _búr_, a chamber; Scot, _byre_--root A.S. _búan_, to dwell.] BOWER, bow'[.e]r, _n._ the name in euchre for the two highest cards, the knave of trumps, and the other knave of the same colour, the _right_ and _left_ bower respectively. [Ger. _bauer_, peasant.] [Illustration] BOWIE-KNIFE, b[=o]'i-n[=i]f, _n._ a dagger-knife with a blade about twelve inches long, carried in the southern states of America--so named from its inventor, Colonel _Bowie_. BOWL, b[=o]l, _n._ a wooden ball used for rolling along the ground.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to play at bowls: to roll along like a bowl: to throw a ball, as in cricket.--_ns._ BOWL'ER, one who plays at bowls: one who bowls the ball in cricket; BOWL'ING, the act of playing at bowls, or of throwing a ball, as in cricket; BOWL'ING-AL'LEY, a long narrow covered place for bowling; BOWL'ING-GREEN, a green or grassy plat kept smooth for bowling. [Fr. _boule_--L. _bulla_.] BOWL, b[=o]l, _n._ a basin for domestic use, esp. of earthenware or porcelain, nearly hemispherical in shape: a large punch-bowl, for brewing punch in: a round drinking-cup, rather wide than deep--hence 'the bowl,' 'the flowing bowl,' as synonyms for conviviality; the round hollow part of anything. [A.S. _bolla_. See BOLE.] BOWLDER, b[=o]ld'[.e]r, _n._ Same as BOULDER. BOWSE. Same as BOUSE. BOWSPRIT, b[=o]'sprit, _n._ a strong spar projecting over the stem-head or bows of a sailing-ship, and also of a steamship when her stem is of the curved or cutwater description. [Dut. _boegspriet_.] BOX, boks, _n._ a tree remarkable for the hardness and smoothness of its wood--also BOX-TREE (_Shak._): a case or receptacle for holding anything: the contents of a box: a small house or lodge, as a _shooting-box_, &c.: in a theatre, a small enclosure with several seats--_the boxes_ = their occupants, the ladies: an old square pew or similar enclosure, as a _sentry-box_, _signal-box_, &c.: the driver's seat on a carriage: the case in which the ship's compass is kept.--_v.t._ to put into or furnish with boxes: (_slang_) to overturn a watchman in his box.--_ns._ BOX'-BED, a kind of bed once common in Scotch cottages, having its ends, sides, and roof of wood, and capable of being closed in front by two sliding panels; BOX'-DAY, one of the Court of Session vacation days when papers ordered to be deposited in court must be lodged.--_adj._ BOX'EN, made of or like boxwood.--_ns._ BOX'ING-DAY, in England, the day after Christmas, when boxes or presents are given; BOX'-[=I]'RON, a hollow smoothing-iron which is heated by a heater put into it; BOX'-KEEP'ER, an attendant who opens the doors of boxes at theatres or other places of public amusement; BOX'-LOBB'Y, the lobby leading to the boxes in a theatre; BOX'WOOD, wood of the box-tree.--IN THE WRONG BOX, in a false position, in a scrape.--TO BE IN A BOX, to be in a fix; TO BOX HARRY, to take a beefsteak, mutton-chop, or bacon and eggs with tea or ale, instead of the regulation dinner of the commercial traveller; TO BOX THE COMPASS, to name the 32 points in their order and backwards, hence to make a complete roundabout in any opinion. [A.S. _box_--L. _buxus_--Gr. _pyxos_, the tree, _pyxis_, a box.] BOX, boks, _n._ a blow on the head or ear with the hand.--_v.t._ to strike with the hand or fist.--_v.i._ to fight with the fists.--_ns._ BOX'ER; BOX'ING, the act of fighting with the fists: a combat with the fists; BOX'ING-GLOVE, a padded glove worn in boxing. BOXHAUL, boks'hawl, _v.t._ to veer a ship sharp round on her heel, by putting the helm a-lee, bracing the head-yards flat aback, and hauling to windward the head-sheets. BOY, boy, _n._ a male child: a lad: a young man generally, used for 'man' in Ireland and elsewhere: (_Shak._) a camp-follower: (_obs._) knave: a native servant in South India, China, a male negro slave or native labourer in the South Seas.--_v.t._ to play the boy.--_n._ BOY'HOOD.--_adj._ BOY'ISH.--_adv._ BOY'ISHLY.--_n._ BOY'ISHNESS.--BOY'S LOVE, a popular name for southernwood; BOY'S PLAY, trifling. [M. E. _boi_, _boy_; Fris. _boi_; Dut. _boef_, Ger. _bube_.] BOYAR, boy'är, _n._ an order of the old Russian aristocracy, holding the chief military and civil offices prior to the reforms of Peter the Great. BOYCOTT, boy'kot, _v.t._ to shut out from all social and commercial intercourse--a kind of secular excommunication. [From Captain _Boycott_ of County Mayo, who was so treated by his neighbours in Dec. 1880.] BRABBLE, brab'bl, _v.i._ to babble or clamour: to brawl or wrangle.--_n._ (_Shak._) a clamorous contest, a brawl: a quibble. [Dut. _brabbelen_, to stammer, to jabber.] BRACCIO, brach'yo, _n._ an Italian measure of length, varying from half a yard to a yard:--_pl._ BRACCIA (brach-ya). [It., an arm.] [Illustration] BRACE, br[=a]s, _n._ anything that draws together and holds tightly: a bandage: a pair or couple: an instrument of wood or iron used by carpenters and metal-workers for turning boring tools: in printing, a mark connecting two or more words or lines (}): (_pl._) straps for supporting the trousers: ropes for squaring or traversing horizontally the yards of a ship.--_v.t._ to tighten or strengthen, to give firmness to.--_adj._ BRAC'ING, giving strength or tone. [O. Fr. _brace_ (Fr. _bras_), the arm, power--L. _brachium_, Gr. _brachi[=o]n_, the arm, as holding together.] BRACE, br[=a]s, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to embrace, encompass. BRACELET, br[=a]s'let, _n._ an ornament for the wrist. [Fr.; dim. of O. Fr. _brac_. See BRACE.] BRACH, brach, _n._ a dog for the chase, a bitch-hound. [O. Fr. _brachet_, pl. _brachès_, dim. of _brac_--Low L. _bracco_, of Teut. origin.] BRACHIAL, brak'i-al, _adj._ belonging to the arm.--BRACHIAL ARTERY, the great arterial trunk supplying the upper extremity between the armpit and the elbow--the direct continuation of the axillary artery. [See BRACE.] BRACHIOPODA, brak-i-op'o-da, BRACHIOPODS, brak'i-o-pods, _n.pl._ a class of shelled animals having certain affinities with worms and with Polyzoa, but less with molluscs, provided with two long arm-like processes arising from the sides of the mouth, probably respiratory, and certainly serving to waft little food particles to the mouth. [Gr. _brachi[=o]n_, an arm, and _pous_, _pod-os_, a foot.] BRACHYCEPHALIC, brak-i-sef-al'ik (also sef'-), BRACHYCEPHALOUS, brak-i-sef'al-us, _adj._ short-headed, applied in ethnology to skulls of which the breadth is at least four-fifths of the length--opp. to _Dolichocephalic_. BRACHYPTEROUS, brak-ip't[.e]r-us, _adj._ lit. short-winged: having wings which, when folded, do not reach to the base of the tail. [Gr. _brachys_, short, _pteron_, a wing.] BRACK, brak, _n._ a flaw in cloth. [See BREAK.] BRACKEN, brak'en, _n._ fern. [See BRAKE.] BRACKET, brak'et, _n._ a support for something fastened to a wall, the ornamental metal pipe bearing gas-lamps, &c.: (_pl._) in printing, the marks [ ] used to enclose one or more words: one of the side pieces of a gun-carriage, supporting the trunnions.--_v.t._ to support by brackets: to enclose by brackets: to group two names, as in an honour list, implying equality. [Fr. _braguette_; Sp. _bragueta_--L. _braca_, _bracæ_, breeches.] BRACKISH, brak'ish, _adj._ saltish: applied to water mixed with salt or with sea-water.--_n._ BRACK'ISHNESS. [Dut. _brak_, brackish; prob. the same as _brak_, refuse.] BRACT, brakt, _n._ an irregularly developed leaf at the base of the flower-stalk.--_adjs._ BRAC'TEAL, BRAC'TEATE, BRACT'ED, BRAC'TEOLATE.--_n._ BRAC'TEOLE, a little bract at the base of the stalk of a single flower which is itself on a main stalk supporting several flowers.--_adj._ BRACT'LESS, destitute of bracts. [L. _bractea_, a thin plate of metal, gold-leaf.] BRAD, brad, _n._ a small nail having a slight projection at the top on one side instead of a head.--_n._ BRAD'AWL, an awl to pierce holes. [Scot. _brod_, an instrument for pricking with; Ice. _broddr_, a pointed piece of iron.] BRADYPEPTIC, brad-i-pep'tik, _adj._ slow of digestion. [Gr. _bradys_, slow, and PEPTIC.] BRAE, br[=a], _n._ (_Scot._) the slope above a river bank, a hill-slope. [Scand. _brá_.] BRAG, brag, _v.i._ to boast or bluster:--_pr.p._ brag'ging; _pa.p._ bragged.--_n._ a boast or boasting: the thing boasted of: a game at cards, very like poker.--_adj._ BRAG'GING.--_advs._ BRAG'GINGLY, BRAG'LY (_Spens._). [Most prob. Celt.; cf. W. _bragio_, to boast; Ir. _bragaim_. The Fr. _braguer_, to brag, and _bragard_, a braggart, are not the parents of the Eng. word.] BRAGGADOCIO, brag-a-d[=o]'shi-o, _n._ and _adj._ a braggart or boaster: empty boasting. [From _Braggadochio_, a boastful character in Spenser's _Faerie Queene_.] BRAGGART, brag'art, _adj._ boastful.--_n._ a vain boaster.--_n._ BRAGG'ARDISM (_Shak._), boastfulness. [Fr. _bragard_, vain, bragging; prob. of Celt. origin; Diez prefers Scand., and quotes Sw. _brak_, Dan. _brag_, &c.] BRAHMAN, brä'man, BRAHMIN, brä'min, _n._ a person of the highest or priestly caste among the Hindus.--_adjs._ BRAHMAN'IC, -AL, BRAHMIN'IC, -AL, BRAH'MINEE, appropriated to the Brahmans.--_ns._ BRAH'MANISM, BRAH'MINISM, one of the religions of India, the worship of Brahma. [From _Brahma_, the supreme post-Vedic Hindu deity.] BRAID, br[=a]d, _v.t._ to plait or entwine.--_n._ cord, or other texture made by plaiting.--_p.adj._ BRAID'ED, plaited, embroidered, trimmed with braid.--_n._ BRAID'ING, the act of making braids: embroidery with braid. [A.S. _bregdan_; Ice. _bregða_, to weave.] BRAID, br[=a]d, _adj._ (_Shak._) dissembling, deceitful. [A.S. _brægd_, falsehood, from _bregdan_, _brægd_, to weave.] BRAID, br[=a]d, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to upbraid, to reproach. [Prob. from _Abraid_, or BRAID (1).] BRAIDISM, br[=a]d'ism, _n._ mesmerism or hypnotism. [From Dr James _Braid_, who practised it about 1842.] BRAIL, br[=a]l, _n._ a piece of leather to bind up a hawk's wing: (_pl._) the feathers about a hawk's rump: (_naut._) one of the ropes used to truss up a sail.--_v.t._ to haul in, as a sail, by pulling upon the brails. [O. Fr. _brail_--L. _bracale_, a waist-belt for holding up the breeches--_bracæ_.] BRAILLE, br[=a]l, _n._ and _adj._ a kind of type for the blind, having arbitrary signs consisting of varying combinations of six points arranged thus ([Braille pattern]), there being sixty-two possible combinations of these six points. [From Louis _Braille_, the inventor.] BRAIN, br[=a]n, _n._ the term applied to that part of the central nervous system which in vertebrated animals is contained within the cranium or skull, and in the invertebrata, to the nervous ganglia near the head end of the body: the seat of the intellect and of sensation: the intellect.--_v.t._ to dash out the brains of: (_Shak._) to conceive of.--_n._ BRAIN'-COR'AL, the popular name of certain kinds of coral, so called from their general resemblance to a brain.--_p.adj._ BRAINED, having brains.--_n._ BRAIN'-FE'VER, a loose popular term which includes congestion of the brain and its membranes, delirium tremens, and inflammation of the brain substance itself.--_adjs._ BRAIN'ISH (_Shak._), brain-sick, hot-headed, furious; BRAIN'LESS, without brains or understanding: silly.--_n._ BRAIN'-PAN, the skull.--_adj._ BRAIN'-SICK, diseased in the understanding, deranged.--_adv._ BRAIN'SICK'LY (_Shak._).--_n._ BRAIN'-SICK'NESS. [A.S. _brægn_; Dut. _brein_, prov. Ger. _bregen_] BRAIRD, br[=a]rd, _n._ the first shoots of corn or other crop.--_v.i._ to appear above ground. [Orig. _Scot._; A.S. _brerd_, the edge, and _brord_, a point.] BRAISE, br[=a]z, _v.t._ to stew meat together with slices of bacon, &c., properly with a charcoal fire above and below the braising-pan.--_p.adj._ BRAISED. [Fr. _braiser_.] BRAKE, br[=a]k, obsolete, _pa.t._ of BREAK. BRAKE, br[=a]k, _n._ a fern: a place overgrown with ferns or briers; a thicket.--_adj._ BRAK'Y. [A doublet of BRACKEN; ety. dub.] BRAKE, br[=a]k, _n._ an instrument to break flax or hemp: a harrow: a contrivance for retarding by friction the speed of carriages, wagons, trains, or revolving drums.--_adj._ BRAKE'LESS, without a brake.--_ns._ BRAKE'MAN, the man whose business it is to manage the brake of a railway-train; BRAKE'-VAN, the carriage wherein the brake is worked; BRAKE'-WHEEL, the wheel to which a brake is applied. [From root of BREAK; cf. Dut. _braak_, a flax-brake.] BRAKE, br[=a]k, _n._ a handle, as of a pump: a lever for working a machine. [Prob. through O. Fr. _brac_, from L. _brachium_, an arm.] BRAMAH-PRESS, brä'ma-pres, _n._ a hydraulic press invented by Joseph _Bramah_ of London (1748-1814), inventor also of the BRAMAH-LOCK, &c. BRAMBLE, bram'bl, _n._ a wild prickly shrub bearing blackberries, a blackberry bush: any rough prickly shrub.--_ns._ BRAM'BLE-BERR'Y, BRAM'BLE-BUSH, a collection of brambles growing together; BRAM'BLE-FINCH, BRAM'BLING, a bird nearly allied to the chaffinch.--_adj._ BRAM'BLY. [A.S. _brémel_; Dut. _braam_, Ger. _brom-beere_.] BRAME, br[=a]m, _n._ (_Spens._) sharp passion, longing. [It. _brama_.] BRAN, bran, _n._ the refuse of grain: the inner husks of corn sifted from the flour: the coarser part of anything.--_n._ BRAN'FULNESS.--_adj._ BRAN'NY. [O. Fr. _bran_, bran; prob. Celt.] BRANCARD, brank'ard, _n._ a horse litter. [Fr.] BRANCH, bransh, _n._ a shoot or arm-like limb of a tree: anything like a limb of a tree: any offshoot or subdivision, a section or department of a subject: any subordinate division of a business, &c., as a branch-bank or pawn-shop.--_v.t._ to divide into branches.--_v.i._ to spread out as a branch (with _out_, _off_, _from_).--_adj._ BRANCHED.--_ns._ BRANCH'ER, a young hawk or other bird when it leaves the nest and begins to take to the branches; BRANCH'ERY, branches collectively.--_adjs._ BRANCH'ING, furnished with or shooting out branches; BRANCH'LESS.--_ns._ BRANCH'LET, a little branch; BRANCH'-P[=I]'LOT, one who holds the Trinity House certificate; BRANCH'-WORK, ornamental figured patterns.--_adj._ BRANCH'Y.--ROOT AND BRANCH, thoroughly--used also adjectively, as in a 'root-and-branch' policy. [Fr. _branche_--Low L. _branca_, a beast's paw--L. _brachium_.] BRANCHIÆ, brangk'i-[=e], _n.pl._ gills.--_adjs._ BRANCH'IAL; BRANCH'IATE, furnished with branchiæ.--_n._ BRANCHIOP'ODA, a sub-order of Crustaceans in the order with leaf-like feet (Phyllopods), to which the gills are attached. [L.--Gr.] BRAND, brand, _n._ a piece of wood burning or partly burned: a mark burned into anything with a hot iron: a trade-mark, made by burning or otherwise, as on casks: a particular sort of goods, from the trade-marks by which they are known, as cigars, &c.: a sword, so called from its glitter: a mark of infamy: a general name for the fungoid diseases or blights of grain crops--_bunt_, _mildew_, _rust_, and _smut_.--_v.t._ to burn or mark with a hot iron: to fix a mark of infamy upon.--_adj._ BRAND'ED.--_n._ BRAND'ER, a gridiron.--_v.t._ to cook on the gridiron, as beef-steaks.--_p.adjs._ BRAND'ERED, BRAND'ERING.--_ns._ BRAND'ING-[=I]'RON, BRAND'-[=I]'RON, an iron to brand with: a trivet or tripod to set a pot or kettle upon: (_Spens._) a sword--also BRAND'ISE, a trivet; BRAND'LING, a red worm used by anglers, found commonly in tan-pits.--_adj._ BRAND'-NEW, quite new (as if newly from the fire).--_n._ BRAND'RETH, a stand of wood for a cask or hayrick, a rail round a well.--A BRAND FROM THE BURNING, one snatched out of a pressing danger--from Amos, iv. 11. [A.S. _brand_, _brond_, from root of BURN.] BRANDISH, brand'ish, _v.t._ to wave or flourish as a brand or weapon.--_n._ a waving or flourish. [Fr. _brandissant_--_brandir_, from root of BRAND.] BRANDY, brand'i, _n._ an ardent spirit distilled from wine.--_adj._ BRAN'DIED, heartened or strengthened with brandy.--_n._ BRAND'Y-PAWNEE', brandy and water. [Formerly _brandwine_--Dut. _brandewijn_--_branden_, to burn, to distil, and _wijn_, wine; cf. Ger. _branntwein_.] BRANGLE, brang'l, _v.i._ (_arch._) to wrangle, squabble.--_n._ (_obs._) a brawl.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ BRAND'LE, to shake, cause to waver: to waver.--_n._ BRANG'LING, disputing. [Prob. the two words are the same; Fr. _branler_.] BRANK, brangk, _n._ buckwheat. [Prob. Celt.; cf. L. _brance_, a Gallic name of a white kind of corn.] BRANK, brangk, _v.i._ to prance, toss the head: to strut or swagger.--_adj._ BRANK'Y (_Scot._), showy. [Prob. a variant of PRANK.] [Illustration] BRANKS, brangks, _n._ (seldom in _sing._) a scold's bridle, having a hinged iron framework to enclose the head and a bit or gag to fit into the mouth and compress the tongue. [Scot.; ety. very obscure; cf. M. E. _bernak_, whence BARNACLE and BRAKE; Ger. _pranger_, the pillory, Dut. _prang_, a fetter; the Gael. _brangus_, _brangas_, is most prob. borrowed.] BRANKURSINE, brangk'ur-sin, _n._ the plant Acanthus, called also _Bear's-breech_. [Low L. _branca_, _ursina_, a bear's paw.] BRAN-NEW, bran'-n[=u], _adj._ corruption of BRAND-NEW. BRANSLE, bran'sl, _n._ (_obs._) a dance: a song for dance music. [Fr.] BRANT-GOOSE. See BRENT-GOOSE. BRANTLE, bran'tl, _n._ a kind of dance. BRASERO. Same as BRAZIER (q.v. under BRAZE). BRASH, brash, _n._ broken and angular fragments of rock which occasionally form the basement bed of alluvial deposits: fragments of crushed ice: clippings of hedges or trees.--_adj._ BRASH'Y. [Prob. Fr. _brèche_.] BRASH, brash, _n._ a slight attack of illness: an eructation or belching of acid water from the stomach--water-brash: a sudden burst of rain: (_obs._) an attack.--_v.t._ to disturb. [Scot.; prob. onomatopoeic.] BRASS, bräs, _n._ an alloy of copper and zinc: (_fig._) impudence: money in cash: a monumental plate of brass inlaid on slabs of stone in the pavements of ancient churches.--_n.pl._ BRASS'ARTS, the brass pieces which, in plate armour, protected the upper part of the arms, and united the shoulder and elbow pieces.--_ns._ BRASS'-BAND, a band or company of musicians who perform on brass instruments; BRASS'ET, a casque or armour covering for the head: a helmet; BRASS'FOUND'ER, a maker of articles in brass.--_adjs._ BRASS'-PAVED (_Spens._), durable, as if paved with brass; BRASS'-VIS'AGED, brazen-faced, impudent.--_n._ BRASS'Y, a wooden golf-club with a brass sole.--_adj._ of or like brass: impudent: unfeeling: pitiless: harsh in tone. [A.S. _braes_; prob. related to Sw. _brasa_, fire.] BRASSERIE, bras'er-[=e], _n._ in France, any beer garden or saloon. [Fr.] BRASSICA, bras'i-ka, _n._ the turnip and cabbage genus of Cruciferæ. [L.] BRAST. Same as BURST. BRAT, brat, _n._ a contemptuous name for a child, as in 'beggar's brat:' any over-garment of coarse cloth, a child's pinafore, an apron.--_n._ BRAT'CHET, a little brat--better BRAT'LING. [A.S. _bratt_; of Celtic origin, Old Ir. _brat_, a plaid, Gael. _brat_, an apron.] BRATTICE, brat'is, _n._ a wooden partition, as in the shaft of a coal-pit, &c.--_v.t._ to line with wood the sides of a shaft, &c.--_n._ BRATT'ICE-CLOTH, strong tarred cloth used in mines in place of wooden bratticing. [O. Fr. _breteske_--Low L. _bretachia_; prob. Teut.] BRATTLING, brat'ling, _n._ a clattering noise: quarrel: tumult--also BRAT'TLE.--_v.i._ BRAT'TLE, to make a clattering noise. [Onomatopoeic.] BRAVADO, brav-[=a]'do, or brav-ä'do, _n._ a display of bravery: a boastful threat: a swaggerer:--_pl._ BRAV[=A]'DOES.--_v.i._ to play the bravado. [Sp. _bravada_. See BRAVE.] BRAVE, br[=a]v, _adj._ daring, courageous: noble: finely dressed, showy, handsome (Scot. BRAW): a general word for excellent, capital.--_v.t._ to meet boldly: to defy.--_n._ (_obs._) a bully, a hired assassin: a brave soldier, esp. among the North American Indians: (_arch._) bravado: (_arch._) bravo.--_adv._ BRAVE'LY (Scot. BRAW'LY), excellently, well.--_n._ BRAV'ERY, courage: heroism: finery, showy dress. [Fr. _brave_; It. and Sp. _bravo_; prob. from Celt., as in Bret. _braga_, to strut about, Gael. _breagh_, fine. See BRAG.] BRAVO, bräv'o, _n._ a daring villain: a hired assassin:--_pl._ BRAVOES (bräv'[=o]z). [It. and Sp.] BRAVO, bräv'o, _interj._ well done: excellent. [It.] BRAVURA, bräv-[=oo]r'a, _n._ (_mus._) a term applied to a florid air or song with difficult and rapid passages requiring great spirit and dash in execution. [It.] BRAWL, brawl, _n._ a noisy quarrel.--_v.i._ to quarrel noisily: to murmur or gurgle.--_n._ BRAWL'ING, the act of quarrelling noisily.--_adj._ quarrelsome: noisy. [M. E. _brallen_, of doubtful origin; prob. cog. with Dut. _brallen_, Ger. _prahlen_, to boast.] BRAWL, brawl, _n._ a kind of French dance. [Fr. _braule_.] BRAWN, brawn, _n._ muscle, esp. of the arm or calf of the leg: thick flesh: muscular strength: a boar: a preparation of meat made from pig's head and ox-feet, cut up, boiled, and pickled.--_adj._ BRAWNED.--_n._ BRAWN'INESS, quality of being brawny: muscularity.--_adj._ BRAWN'Y, fleshy: muscular: strong. [O. Fr. _braon_, from Old Ger. _brato_, flesh (for roasting), Old Ger. _brâto_ (Ger. _braten_), to roast.] BRAXY, brak'si, _n._ and _adj._ a Scotch name loosely used for several totally different disorders of sheep.--BRAXY MUTTON, the flesh of a braxy sheep; also, generally, of any sheep that has died of disease or accident. [Prob. the original form is _bracks_, the sing. of which is a variant of BREAK.] BRAY, br[=a], _v.t._ to break, pound, or grind small, as in a mortar.--_n._ BRAY'ER, an instrument to grind or spread ink in printing. [O. Fr. _breier_ (Fr. _broyer_); It. _brigare_.] BRAY, br[=a], _n._ the cry of the ass: any harsh grating sound.--_v.i._ to cry like an ass: to give forth harsh sounds, esp. of the trumpet.--_ns._ BRAY'ER, one who brays like an ass; BRAY'ING, the noise of an ass: any harsh noise.--_adj._ making a harsh noise. [O. Fr. _brai_, _brait_; _braire_--Low L. _bragire_, prob. of Celt. origin.] BRAZE, br[=a]z, _v.t._ to solder with an alloy of brass and zinc.--_adj._ BR[=A]'ZEN, of or belonging to brass: impudent.--_v.t._ to face or confront with impudence--as in 'to brazen it out.'--_n._ BR[=A]'ZEN-FACE, one having a brazen or impudent face: one remarkable for impudence.--_adj._ BR[=A]'ZEN-FACED, impudent.--_adv._ BR[=A]'ZENLY.--_ns._ BR[=A]'ZENNESS, BR[=A]'ZENRY, effrontery; BR[=A]'ZIER, BR[=A]'SIER, a pan for holding burning coals--also BRAS'ERO; BR[=A]Z'ING, soldering. [O. Fr. _braser_, to burn; most prob. related to BRASS.] BRAZIER, br[=a]'zi-[.e]r, _n._ one who works in BRASS (q.v.). BRAZIL, bra-zil', _n._ usually BRAZIL'-WOOD, the hard reddish wood of an East Indian tree, known as sappan, used in dyeing.--_n._ BRAZIL'IAN, a native of Brazil, in South America.--_adj._ belonging to Brazil.--_n._ BRAZIL'-NUT, the edible seed of a large tree, native of Brazil. [O. Fr. _bresil_ (Sp. _brasil_, It. _brasile_)--Low L. _brasilium_, a red dye-wood, brought from the East, itself prob. a corr. of some Oriental word. When a similar wood was discovered in South America the country became known as _terra de brasil_, land of red dye-wood, whence _Brasil_, Brazil.] BREACH, br[=e]ch, _n._ a break or opening, as in the walls of a fortress: a breaking of law, &c., violation of contract, covenant, promise, &c.: a quarrel: a broken condition or part of anything, a break: a gap in a fortification--hence 'to stand in the breach,' often used figuratively: a break in a coast-line, bay, harbour, creek (Judges, v. 17).--_v.t._ to make a breach or opening in a wall, &c.--BREACH OF PROMISE, often used simply for breach of promise of marriage; BREACH OF THE PEACE, a violation of the public peace by riot or the like. [A.S. _bryce_, _brice_; related to BREAK.] BREAD, bred, _n._ food made of flour or meal baked: food: livelihood.--_ns._ BREAD'-BAS'KET, a basket for holding bread: (_slang_) the stomach; BREAD'-CHIP'PER (_Shak._), one who chips bread, an under-butler; BREAD'-CORN, corn of which bread is made.--_n.pl._ BREAD'-CRUMBS, bread crumbled down for dressing dishes of fried fish, &c.--_n._ BREAD'FRUIT-TREE, a tree of the South Sea Islands, producing a fruit which, when roasted, forms a good substitute for bread; BREAD'-NUT, the fruit of a tree, a native of Jamaica, closely allied to the breadfruit-tree, which is used as bread when boiled or roasted; BREAD'-ROOM, an apartment in a ship's hold where the bread is kept; BREAD'-ROOT, a herbaceous perennial plant of North America, with a carrot-like root which is used as food; BREAD'-STUD'Y, any branch of study taken up as a means of gaining a living; BREAD'-STUFF, the various kinds of grain or flour of which bread is made; BREAD'-TREE, a tree of South Africa which has a great deal of starch in its stem, and is used as bread by the natives; BREAD'-WIN'NER, one who earns a living for a family.--BREAD BUTTERED ON BOTH SIDES, very fortunate circumstances.--TO TAKE THE BREAD OUT OF ONE'S MOUTH, to deprive of the means of living. [A.S. _bréad_, prob. from a Teut. root meaning a fragment, like the Scot. and Norse country use of 'a _piece_,' for a bit of bread. The usual A.S. word was _hláf_.] BREADED, bred'ed, _pa.p._ (_Spens._) = BRAIDED. BREADTH, bredth, _n._ extent from side to side: width: a style in painting in which details are strictly subordinated to the harmony of the whole composition.--_adv._ BREADTH'WAYS, broadside on. [A.S. _br['æ]du_; Ger. _briete_. See BROAD.] BREAK, br[=a]k, _v.t._ to part by force: to shatter: to crush: to tame, or wear out: to violate, or outrage, as a law, a bargain, &c.: to check by intercepting, as a fall: to interrupt, as silence, or the monotony of anything, or in 'to break one off a habit:' to make bankrupt: to degrade from rank, as an officer.--_v.i._ to part in two: to burst forth: to open or appear, as the morning: to become bankrupt: to crack or give way, as the voice: to dissolve, as frost: to collapse in foam, as a wave: to fall out, as with a friend:--_pa.t._ br[=o]ke; _pa.p._ br[=o]k'en.--_n._ the state of being broken: an opening: a pause or interruption: (_billiards_) a consecutive series of successful strokes, also the number of points attained by such: the dawn.--_ns._ BREAK'AGE, the action of breaking, or its consequences: an interruption; BREAK'-DOWN, a dance, vigorous rather than graceful, in which much noise is made by the feet of the one performer; BREAK'ER, a wave broken on rocks or the shore.--_adj._ BREAK'-NECK, likely to cause a broken neck.--_ns._ BREAK'-PROM'ISE, BREAK'-VOW, one who makes a practice of breaking his promise or vow; BREAK'WATER, a barrier to break the force of the waves.--BREAK A JEST, to utter a jest unexpectedly; BREAK A LANCE WITH, to enter into a contest with a rival; BREAK AWAY, to go away abruptly, as from prison, &c.: to be scattered, as clouds after a storm; BREAK BULK, to open the hold and take out a portion of the cargo; BREAK COVER, to burst forth from concealment, as a fox; BREAK DOWN, to crush down or level: to collapse, to fail completely; BREAK FORTH, to burst out, issue; BREAK GROUND, to commence digging or excavation: to begin; BREAK IN, to train to labour, as a horse; BREAK IN, IN UPON, or INTO, to enter violently or unexpectedly, to interpose abruptly in a conversation, &c.; BREAK LOOSE, to extricate one's self forcibly: to break through all restraint; BREAK NEWS, to make anything known, esp. of bad news, with caution and delicacy; BREAK OFF, to separate by breaking, put an end to; BREAK OUT, to appear suddenly: to break through all restraint; BREAK SHEER (said of a ship riding at anchor), to be forced by wind or tide out of a position clear of the anchor; BREAK THE HEART, to destroy with grief; BREAK THE ICE (_fig._), to get through first difficulties: BREAK UP, to break open; BREAK UPON THE WHEEL, to punish by stretching a criminal on a wheel and breaking his bones; BREAK WIND, to void wind from the stomach; BREAK WITH, to fail out, as friends may do. [A.S. _brecan_; Ger. _brechen_.] BREAK, BRAKE, br[=a]k, _n._ a large wagonette: a carriage frame, all wheels and no body, used in breaking in horses. [BREAK, _v.t._] BREAKER, br[=a]k'[.e]r, _n._ a small water-cask, used on shipboard. [Prob. a corr. of Sp. _bareca_, a barrel.] BREAKFAST, brek'fast, _n._ a break or breaking of a fast: the first meal of the day.--_v.i._ to take breakfast.--_v.t._ to furnish with breakfast.--_ns._ BREAK'FASTING, the act of taking breakfast: a party at breakfast; BREAK'FAST-SET, the china or other ware used at breakfast. BREAM, br[=e]m, _n._ a small fresh-water fish nearly allied to the bleak: a family of sea-breams or Sparidæ. [O. Fr. _bresme_ (Fr. _brême_)--Old Ger. _brahsema_ (mod. Ger. _brassen_).] BREAM, br[=e]m, _v.t._ to clean, as a ship's bottom, by burning off seaweed, shells, &c. [Prob. conn. with BROOM, Dut. _brem_.] BREARE, BRERE, br[=e]r, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as BRIER. BREAST, brest, _n._ the forepart of the human body between the neck and the belly: one of the two mammary glands in women, forming soft protuberances on the chest: the corresponding part of any animal: (_fig._) conscience, disposition, affections.--_v.t._ to bear the breast against: to oppose manfully: to mount.--_n._ BREAST'-BONE, the bone running down the middle of the breast, to which the first seven ribs are attached.--_adv._ BREAST'-DEEP, deep, as up to the breast.--_adj._ BREAST'ED, having a breast.--_adv._ BREAST'-HIGH, high as the breast--_ns._ BREAST'-KNOT, a knot of ribbons worn on the breast; BREAST'PIN, an ornamental pin for the breast; BREAST'PLATE, a plate or piece of armour for the breast: (_B._) an embroidered square of linen worn on the breast of the Jewish high-priest, bearing twelve precious stones, each inscribed with the name of one of the tribes of Israel; BREAST'-PLOUGH, a kind of spade for cutting turf, with a cross-bar against which the breast is pressed; BREAST'RAIL, the upper rail of a breastwork; BREAST'SUMMER, BRES'SUMMER, a summer or beam supporting the whole front of a building in the same way as a lintel supports the portion over an opening; BREAST'-WALL, a retaining wall; BREAST'-WHEEL, a water-wheel which is turned by water delivered upon it at about half its height; BREAST'WORK, a hastily constructed earthwork.--TO MAKE A CLEAN BREAST OF, to make a full confession. [A.S. _bréost_; Ger. _brust_, Dut. _borst_.] BREATH, breth, _n._ the air drawn into and then expelled from the lungs: power of breathing: life: the time occupied by once breathing: a very slight breeze.--_adjs._ BREATH'FUL (_Spens._), full of breath or air, also full of scent or odour; BREATH'LESS, out of breath: dead: excessively eager, as if holding one's breath from excitement.--_n._ BREATH'LESSNESS.--TO CATCH THE BREATH, to stop breathing for an instant; TO SPEND ONE'S BREATH, as in profitless talk; TO TAKE BREATH, to recover freedom of breathing; WITH BATED BREATH, with breath restrained from reverence or fear. [A.S. _br[/æ]th_; Ger. _brodem_, steam, breath.] BREATHE, br[=e]_th_, _v.i._ to draw in and expel breath or air from the lungs: to take breath, to rest or pause: to live.--_v.t._ to draw in and expel from the lungs, as air: to infuse: to give out as breath: to utter by the breath or softly, to whisper: to express: to keep in breath, to exercise: to tire by some brisk exercise.--_ns._ BREATH'ER, one who breathes or lives: a spell of exercise; BREATH'ING, the act of breathing: aspiration, secret prayer: respite.--_adj._ life-like.--_ns._ BREATH'ING-TIME, time to breathe or rest; BREATH'ING-WHILE, time sufficient for drawing breath: any very short period.--TO BREATHE AGAIN, to be relieved from an anxiety; TO BREATHE FREELY, to be at ease; TO BREATHE UPON, to tarnish or soil. [See BREATH.] BRECCIA, brech'ya, _n._ a conglomerate rock composed of angular and unworn fragments, cemented together by lime or other mineral substance.--_adj._ BRECCIATED (brech'y[=a]t-ed), noting rocks composed of breccia, [It.; cf. Fr. _brèche_, breach, flint pebble.] BRED, bred, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of BREED. BREDE, br[=e]d, _n._ an obsolete form of BRAID. BREE, br[=e], _n._ the eyebrow. [Still in Scot.; A.S. _br['æ]w_, _bréaw_; cf. Ger. (_augen_)_braue_.] BREE, br[=e], _n._ the liquor in which anything has been boiled--_barley-bree_. [A.S. _briw_; cf. Ger. _brei_.] BREECH, br[=e]ch, _n._ the lower part of the body behind: the hinder part of anything, esp. of a gun.--_v.t._ to put into breeches: to flog.--_adj._ BREECHED.--_n.pl._ BREECHES (brich'ez), a garment worn by men on the lower limbs of the body, strictly, as distinguished from trousers, coming just below the knee, but often used generally for trousers--(KNEE-BREECHES, see under KNEE).--_n._ BREECH'ING, a part of a horse's harness attached to the saddle, which comes round the breech and is hooked to the shafts: a strong rope attached to the breech of a gun to secure it to a ship's side.--_adj._ (_Shak._) subject to whipping.--_n._ BREECH'-LOAD'ER, a firearm loaded by introducing the charge at the breech instead of the muzzle.--BREECHES BIBLE, a name often given to the Geneva Bible produced by the English Protestant exiles in 1560, so named from the rendering 'breeches' in Gen. iii. 7; BREECHES PART (_theat._), a part in which a girl wears men's clothes.--TO WEAR THE BREECHES, (said of a wife), to usurp the authority of the husband: to be master. [A.S. _bréc_; found in all Teut. languages; cf. Ger. _bruch_, Dut. _brock_.] BREED, br[=e]d, _v.t._ to generate or bring forth: to train or bring up: to cause or occasion.--_v.i._ to be with young: to produce offspring: to be produced or brought forth:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ bred.--_n._ that which is bred, progeny or offspring: kind or race.--_ns._ BREED'-BATE (_Shak._), one who is constantly breeding or producing debate or strife; BREED'ER, one who breeds or brings up; BREED'ING, act of producing: education or manners.--BREEDING IN-AND-IN, pairing of similar forms: marrying always among near relations. [A.S. _brédan_, to cherish, keep warm; Ger. _brüten_, to hatch.] BREEKS, br[=e]ks, _n.pl._ (_Scot._) breeches, trousers. BREER, BRERE, br[=e]r, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to sprout. BREEZE, br[=e]z, _n._ a gentle gale: a wind: a disturbance or quarrel: a whispered rumour.--_adjs._ BREEZE'LESS, without a breeze: motionless; BREEZ'Y, fanned with or subject to breezes.--TO BREEZE UP, to freshen into a breeze. [Old Sp. _briza_, It. _brezza_ (Fr. _brise_, a cold wind).] BREEZE, br[=e]z, _n._ (_Shak._) the gadfly.--Also written BREESE, BRIZE. [A.S. _briosa_.] BREGMA, breg'ma, _n._ the part of the skull where the frontal and the two parietal bones join--sometimes divided into the right and left bregmata.--_adj._ BREGMAT'IC. [Gr.] BREHON, br[=e]'hon, _n._ an ancient Irish judge.--BREHON LAWS, the name given by the English to the system of jurisprudence which prevailed among the native Irish from an early period till towards the middle of the 17th century. [Ir. _breitheamh_, pl. _breitheamhuin_.] BRELOQUE, bre-lok', _n._ an ornament attached to a watch-chain. [Fr.] BREME, BREEM, br[=e]m, _adj._ (_Spens._) fiery, stern, boisterous, sharp. [Prob. related to A.S. _bréman_, to rage.] BREN, bren, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to burn.--_pa.p._ and _adj._ BRENT. [See BURN.] BRENT, brent, _adj._ (_Scot._) lofty: smooth, unwrinkled. [A.S. _brant_, steep; cog. with Ice. _brattr_.] BRENT-GOOSE, brent'-g[=oo]s, _n._ a small species of wild goose, having the head, neck, long wing feathers, and tail black, the belly white, the rest slaty-gray--it visits the British coasts in winter.--Also BRANT'-GOOSE, or BRENT BARNACLE, and often confounded with the barnacle goose. [Prob. _branded_ = brindled.] BRESSUMMER. Same as BREASTSUMMER (q.v. under BREAST). BRETHREN, bre_th_'ren, _pl._ of BROTHER (q.v.). BRETON, bret'un, _adj._ belonging to Brittany or _Bretagne_, in France. BRETTICE. Same as BRATTICE. BRETWALDA, bret-wal'da, _n._ a title of supremacy applied by the _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_ to Egbert and seven earlier kings, whose superiority was more or less acknowledged by other kings. [Lit. 'Lord of the _Britons_,' or 'of Britain.'] BREVE, br[=e]v, _n._ a pope's letter: the longest note now used in music, [Breve]. [It. _breve_--L. _brevis_, short.] BREVET, brev'et, _n._ a military commission entitling an officer to take rank above that for which he receives pay.--_n._ BREVET'CY, the condition of one holding brevet rank. [Fr.--L. _brevis_, short.] BREVIARY, br[=e]v'i-ar-i, _n._ book containing the daily service of the R.C. Church. [Fr. _bréviaire_--L. _brevis_, short.] BREVIATE, br[=e]'vi-[=a]t, _n._ a short compendium: a lawyer's brief. [L. _brevi[=a]tus_--_brevi[=a]re_, to shorten--_brevis_, short.] BREVIER, brev-[=e]r', _n._ a small type between bourgeois and minion, originally used in printing breviaries. BREVITY, brev'it-i, _n._ shortness: conciseness. [L. _brevitas_--_brevis_, short.] BREW, br[=oo], _v.t._ to prepare a liquor, as from malt and other materials: to contrive or plot.--_v.i._ to perform the operation of brewing ale or beer: to be gathering or forming.--_ns._ BREW'AGE, something brewed: mixed liquor; BREW'ER, one who brews; BREW'ERY, BREW'-HOUSE, a place for brewing; BREW'ING, the act of making liquor from malt: the quantity brewed at once; BREW'STER (now only _Scot._), a brewer. [A.S. _bréowan_; cf. Ger. _brauen_.] BRIAR. Same as BRIER (1). BRIAREAN, br[=i]-[=a]'re-an, _adj._ relating to _Briareus_, a hundred-handed giant: hence many-handed. [Gr.--_briaros_, strong.] BRIAR-ROOT. See BRIER (2). BRIBE, br[=i]b, _n._ something given to influence unduly the judgment or corrupt the conduct: allurement.--_v.t._ to influence by a bribe: to gain over.--_v.i._ to practise bribery.--_ns._ BRIB'ER, one who bribes; BRIB'ERY, the act of giving or taking bribes; BRIB'ERY-OATH, an oath taken by an elector that he has not been bribed. [O. Fr. _bribe_, a lump of bread; origin dub.] BRIC-À-BRAC, brik'a-brak, _n._ old curiosities, or other articles of value. [Acc. to Littré, formed after the phrase _de bric et de broc_, 'by hook and by crook.'] BRICK, brik, _n._ an oblong or square piece of burned clay: a loaf of bread in the shape of a brick: (_slang_) a reliable friend, a good fellow.--_v.t._ to lay or pave with brick.--_ns._ BRICK'BAT, a piece of brick; BRICK'CLAY, a clay used in making bricks; BRICK'-DUST, dust made by pounding bricks, a colour like that of brick-dust; BRICK'-EARTH, earth used in making bricks; BRICK'-FIELD, a place where bricks are made; BRICK'-KILN, a kiln in which bricks are burned; BRICK'LAYER, one who lays or builds with bricks; BRICK'LAYING; BRICK'MAKER, one whose trade is to make bricks; BRICK'-TEA, tea pressed into cakes; BRICK'-WORK, a structure formed of bricks.--LIKE A BRICK, with good-will. [Fr. _brique_, from root of BREAK.] BRICKLE, brik'l, _adj._ (_Spens._ and _Scot._) apt to break: weak: troublesome. [Older form of BRITTLE.] BRICOLE, brik'el, or brik-[=o]l', _n._ an ancient engine for throwing stones: the rebound of a ball from the wall of a tennis-court, an indirect stroke. [Fr.--Low L. _briccola_.] BRIDAL, br[=i]d'al, _n._ a marriage feast: a wedding.--_adj._ belonging to a bride or a wedding: nuptial. [BRIDE, and ALE, a feast.] BRIDE, br[=i]d, _n._ a woman about to be married: a woman newly married.--_v.i._ (_Shak._) to act the bride.--_ns._ BRIDE'-ALE (_obs._)--BRIDAL, the ale-drinking at a marriage feast; BRIDE'-BED, the marriage bed; BRIDE'CAKE, the bride's cake, or cake distributed at a wedding; BRIDE'-CHAM'BER, a nuptial apartment; BRIDE'GROOM, a man about to be married: a man newly married; BRIDE'MAID, BRIDE'S'-MAID, BRIDE'MAN, BRIDE'S'-MAN, young unmarried people who attend the bride and bridegroom at a wedding. [A.S. _brýd_; Ice. _brúdr_, Ger. _braut_, a bride.] BRIDEWELL, br[=i]d'wel, _n._ a house of correction: a gaol. [From a palace near St _Bride's Well_ in London.] BRIDGE, brij, _n._ a structure raised across a river, &c., or anything like such: the narrow raised platform whence the captain of a steamer gives directions: a thin upright piece of wood supporting the strings in a violin or similar instrument.--_v.t._ to build a bridge over.--_n._ BRIDGE'-HEAD, a fortification covering the end of a bridge nearest to the enemy's position.--_adj._ BRIDGE'LESS, without a bridge.--_n._ BRIDGE'-OF-BOATS, a bridge resting on boats moored abreast across a piece of water. [A.S. _brycg_; Ger. _brucke_, Ice. _bryggja_.] BRIDGE, brich, _n._ a modification of whist in which the dealer does not turn up the last card, but has the option (which he may pass to his partner) of declaring which suit shall be trumps. BRIDLE, br[=i]'-dl, _n._ the apparatus on a horse's head, by which it is controlled: any curb or restraint: a gesture expressing pride or vanity.--_v.t._ to put on or manage by a bridle: to check or restrain.--_v.i._ to hold up the head proudly or affectedly.--_ns._ BR[=I]'DLE-HAND, the hand which holds the bridle in riding--the left hand; BR[=I]'DLE-PATH, a path or way for horsemen; BR[=I]'DLER, one who governs or restrains as by a bridle; BRI'DLE-REIN, the strap of a bridle.--TO BRIDLE UP (at something), to take something amiss. [A.S. _brídel_; Old High Ger. _brittel_.] BRIDOON, brid'[=oo]n, _n._ the light snaffle usual in a military bridle, in addition to the ordinary bit, controlled by a separate rein. [Fr. _bridon_, _bride_, a bridle.] BRIEF, br[=e]f, _n._ a short account of a client's case for the instruction of counsel: a writ: a short statement of any kind.--_adj._ short: concise.--_adj._ BRIEF'LESS.--_adv._ BRIEF'LY.--_n._ BRIEF'NESS.--IN BRIEF, in few words.--KING'S BRIEFS, royal mandates ordering collections to be made in chapels for building churches, &c.; PAPAL BRIEF, such documents as are issued without some of the solemnities proper to bulls.--THE BRIEF AND THE LONG (_Shak._), the short and the long.--TO BE BRIEF, to speak in a few words; TO HOLD A BRIEF, to be retained as counsel in a case; TO TAKE A BRIEF, to undertake a case. [Fr. _bref_--L. _brevis_, short.] BRIER, br[=i]'er, _n._ a prickly shrub: a common name for the wild rose: (_Scot._) the thorn of the brier--also BR[=I]'AR.--_adjs._ BR[=I]'ERY, BR[=I]'ERED, having briers. [A.S. _brér_.] BRIER, BRIAR, br[=i]'[.e]r, _n._ the white heath, a shrub grown in France, from the root of which tobacco-pipes are made: a pipe of this wood. [Fr. _bruyère_, heath.] [Illustration] BRIG, brig, _n._ a two-masted, square-rigged vessel. [Shortened from Brigantine.] BRIGADE, brig-[=a]d', _n._ a body of troops consisting of two or more regiments of infantry or cavalry, and commanded by a general officer, two or more of which form a division: a band of people more or less organised.--_v.t._ to form into brigades.--_ns._ BRIGADE'-M[=A]'JOR, a staff-officer attached to a brigade; BRIGADIER', BRIGADIER'-GEN'ERAL, a general officer of the lowest grade, who has command of a brigade. [Fr. _brigade_--It. _brigata_--Low L. _briga_, strife.] BRIGAND, brig'and, _n._ a robber or freebooter.--_ns._ BRIG'ANDAGE, freebooting: plundering; BRIG'ANDINE, BRIG'ANTINE, a coat-of-mail, composed of linen or leather, with steel rings or plates sewed upon it. [Fr.--It. _brigante_--_briga_, strife.] BRIGANTINE, brig'an-t[=i]n, _n._ a two-masted vessel, with the mainmast of a schooner and the foremast of a brig. [Fr. _brigantin_--It. _brigantine_, a pirate ship.] BRIGHT, br[=i]t, _adj._ shining: full of light: clear: beautiful: cheerful: clever: illustrious.--_adv._ (_Shak._) brightly: clearly.--_v.t._ BRIGHT'EN, to make bright or brighter.--_v.i._ to grow bright or brighter: to clear up.--_adv._ BRIGHT'LY.--_n._ BRIGHT'NESS.--_adj._ BRIGHT'SOME, bright: brilliant. [A.S. _beorht_; cog. with Goth. _bairhts_, clear, L. _flagr_-_[=a]re_, to flame.] BRIGHT'S-DISEASE, br[=i]ts'-diz-[=e]z', _n._ a generic name for a group of diseases of the kidneys, which may be defined as comprising cases where structural changes in the kidneys, usually inflammatory, but without suppuration, lead to the presence of albumen in the urine. [From Dr Richard _Bright_ (1789-1858).] BRIGUE, brig, _v.i._ to intrigue.--_n._ strife, intrigue.--_n._ BRIGU'ING, canvassing. [Fr. _brigue_; derivation uncertain.] BRILL, bril, _n._ a fish of the same kind as the turbot, spotted with white. [Ety. unknown.] [Illustration] BRILLIANT, bril'yant, _adj._ sparkling: glittering: splendid.--_n._ a diamond of the finest cut (as opposed to _rose-cut_ or other patterns).--_ns._ BRILL'IANCY, BRILL'IANCE.--_adv._ BRILL'IANTLY.--_n._ BRILL'IANTNESS.[Fr. _brillant_, pr.p. of _briller_, to shine, which, like Ger. _brille_, an eyeglass, is from Low L. _beryllus_, a beryl.] BRIM, brim, _n._ the margin or brink of a river or lake: the upper edge of a vessel: the rim of a hat.--_v.t._ to fill to the brim.--_v.i._ to be full to the brim:--_pr.p._ brim'ming; _pa.p._ brimmed.--_adj._ BRIM'FUL, full to the brim.--_n._ BRIM'FULNESS (_Shak._), fullness to the top.--_adjs._ BRIM'LESS, without a brim; BRIMMED, brimful: having a brim--used in composition.--_n._ BRIM'MER, a bowl full to the brim or top.--_adj._ BRIM'MING. [M. E. _brymme_--_bremman_, to roar.] BRIMSTONE, brim'st[=o]n, _n._ sulphur: (_fig._) a virago.--FIRE AND BRIMSTONE! an ejaculation. [Lit. burning stone; from A.S. _brýne_, a burning--_byrnan_, to burn, and STONE; cf. Ger. _bernstein_.] BRINDED, brin'ded, BRINDLED, brin'dld, _adj._ marked with spots or streaks.--_n._ BRIN'DLE, state of being brindled. [See BRAND.] BRINE, br[=i]n, _n._ salt water: the sea.--_ns._ BRINE'-PIT, a pit or pan in which brine is evaporated, so as to form salt: a salt spring; BRINE'-SHRIMP, a small crustacean.--_adjs._ BRIN'ISH, like brine: somewhat salt; BRIN'Y, pertaining to brine or to the sea: salt.--THE BRINY (_slang_), the sea. [A.S. _brýne_, a burning; applied to salt liquor, from its burning, biting quality.] BRING, bring, _v.t._ to fetch: to carry: to procure: to occasion: to draw or lead:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ brought (brawt).--BRING ABOUT, to bring to pass, effect; BRING DOWN, to humble; BRING FORTH, to give birth to, produce; BRING HOME, to prove, to impress; BRING IN, to introduce; BRING OFF, to bring away, as by a boat from a ship, to rescue; BRING ON, to cause to advance; BRING OUT, to express: to produce before the public, as a book, a play, a subscription: to introduce a young woman formally into so-called society; BRING OVER, to convert; BRING ROUND, to restore from illness; BRING TO, to check the course of, as a ship, by trimming the sails so as to counteract each other; BRING UNDER, to subdue; BRING UP, to rear or educate. [A.S. _bringan_, to carry, to bring; allied perh. to BEAR.] BRINJARRY, brin-zhar'i, _n._ a travelling dealer in grain and salt in Southern India. [Hind. _b[=a]nj[=a]ra_.] BRINK, bringk, _n._ the edge or border of a steep place or of a river: (_fig._) the very verge of time, at the very point of something--e.g. TO BE ON THE BRINK OF DEATH. [Dan. _brink_, declivity; Ice. _bringa_, a hillock.] BRIO, br[=i]'o, _n._ liveliness, vivacity. [It. _brio_.] BRIOCHE, bri-osh', _n._ a sponge-cake. [Fr.] BRIONY. Same as BRYONY. BRIQUETTE, bri-ket', _n._ a brick-shaped block of coal formed from coal-dust. [Fr. _briquette_, dim. of _brique_, a BRICK.] BRISK, brisk, _adj._ full of life and spirit: active: sharp: effervescing, as liquors.--_v.t._ to enliven, freshen.--_v.i._ to cheer up.--_adjs._ BRISK'ISH, BRISK'Y, (_Shak._).--_adv._ BRISK'LY.--_n._ BRISK'NESS. [Dr Murray notes that the word is first found in the end of the 16th century; prob. W. _brysg_, swift of foot; cf. Gael. _brisg_, Ir. _briosg_.] BRISKET, brisk'et, _n._ the breast of an animal: the part of the breast next to the ribs. [Fr. _brechet_, _brichet_.] BRISTLE, bris'l, _n._ a short, stiff hair, as of swine.--_v.i._ to stand erect, as bristles.--_v.t._ to cover, as with bristles: to make bristly:--_pr.p._ bris'tling; _pa.p._ brist'led.--_adj._ BRISTLED (bris'ld), furnished with bristles.--_n._ BRIST'LINESS.--_adj._ BRIST'LY, set with bristles: rough.--TO SET UP ONE'S BRISTLES, to show temper. [A.S. _byrst_; Scot. _birse_; cog. with Ger. _borste_, Ice. _burst_.] BRISTOL-BOARD, bris'tul-b[=o]rd, _n._ a smooth pasteboard.--_ns._ BRIS'TOL-BRICK, an earthy material for scouring cutlery, like bath-brick; BRIS'TOL-D[=I]'AMOND, a kind of crystal found near Bristol. [From the town of _Bristol_, in England.] BRISURE, bri-zh[=u]r', _n._ (_fort._) any part of a rampart or parapet which breaks off at an angle from the general direction: (_her._) a variation of a coat-of-arms, showing the relation of a younger to the main line. [Fr.--_briser_, to break.] BRITANNIA-METAL, brit-an'i-a-met'l, _n._ a metallic alloy largely used in the manufacture of spoons, &c. BRITANNIC, brit-an'ik, _adj._ pertaining to _Britannia_ or Great Britain: British.--_adj._ BRITISH, in ethnography, Old Celtic as opposed to Anglo-Saxon: pertaining to Great Britain or its people--_ns._ BRIT'ISHER, a British subject (Amer.); BRIT'ON, a native of Britain. BRITTLE, brit'l, _adj._ apt to break: easily broken: frail.--_ns._ BRITT'LENESS; BRITT'LE-STARS, or _Sand-stars_, one of the classes of Echinodermata, including forms not far removed from starfishes. [A.S. _bréotan_, to break.] BRITZKA, BRITZSKA, brits'ka, _n._ an open four-wheeled carriage with shutters to close at pleasure, and only one seat.--Also BRITSCHKA, BRITSKA. [Polish _bryczka_, dim. of _bryka_, a wagon.] BROACH, br[=o]ch, _n._ a tapering, pointed instrument, used chiefly for boring: a spit: a church spire.--_v.t._ to pierce as a cask, to tap: to open up or begin: to utter.--_n._ BROACH'ER, a broach or spit: one who broaches or utters.--TO BROACH THE ADMIRAL, to steal some liquor from a cask while being carried by rail or otherwise, or when in store; TO BROACH TO, to turn a ship to windward. [Fr. _brocher_, to pierce, _broche_, an iron pin--L. _brocchus_, a projecting tooth.] BROAD, brawd, _adj._ wide: large, free or open: outspoken: coarse, indelicate: of pronunciation, e.g. a broad accent.--_advs._ BROAD, BROAD'LY.--_ns._ BROAD'-AR'ROW, a mark, thus ([Broad arrow]), stamped on materials belonging to Government; BROAD'-BRIM, a hat with a broad brim, such as those worn by Quakers: (_coll._) a Quaker.--_adj._ BROAD'CAST, scattered or sown abroad by the hand: dispersed widely.--_adv._ by throwing at large from the hand, only in phrases, as, 'to scatter broadcast,' &c.--_v.t._ to scatter freely.--_n._ BROAD'CLOTH, a fine kind of woollen fulled cloth, used for men's garments.--_v.t._ BROAD'EN, to make broad or broader.--_v.i._ to grow broad or extend in breadth.--_adj._ BROAD'-EYED (_Shak._), having a wide or extended survey.--_ns._ BROAD'-GAUGE (see GAUGE); BROAD'NESS.--_n.pl._ BROADS, lake-like expansions of rivers.--_ns._ BROAD'SIDE, the side of a ship: all the guns on one side of a ship of war, or their simultaneous discharge: a sheet of paper printed on one side, otherwise named BROAD'SHEET; BROAD'SWORD, a cutting sword with a broad blade: a man armed with such a sword.--BROAD CHURCH, a party within the Church of England which advocates a broad and liberal interpretation of dogmatic definitions and creed subscription--the name was first used in 1833 by W. J. Conybeare. [A.S. _brád_, Goth. _braids_.] BROBDINGNAGIAN, brob-ding-n[=a]'ji-an, _n._ an inhabitant of the fabulous region of _Brobdingnag_ in _Gulliver's Travels_, the people of which were of great stature--hence a gigantic person.--_adj._ gigantic.--_adj._ BROBDINGNAG', immense. BROCADE, brok-[=a]d', _n._ a silk stuff on which figures are wrought.--_adj._ BROCAD'ED, woven or worked in the manner of brocade: dressed in brocade. [It. _broccato_, Fr. _brocart_, from It. _broccare_, Fr. _brocher_, to prick, stitch; from root of BROACH.] BROCAGE, br[=o]k'[=a]j, _n._ Obsolete spelling of BROKAGE (q.v. under BROKER). BROCARD, brok'ärd, _n._ an elementary law or principle: a canon: (_Fr._) a gibe. [Fr. _brocard_, Low L. _brocarda_, from _Brocard_ or Burchard, Bishop of Worms, who published a book of ecclesiastical rules.] BROCCOLI, brok'o-li, _n._ a cultivated kind of cabbage resembling cauliflower, of which it is originally a hardy variety. [It.; _pl._ of _broccolo_, a sprout, dim. of _brocco_, a skewer, a shoot.] BROCH, broh, _n._ the local name applied in the north of Scotland to the ancient dry-built circular castles, known also to the Gaelic-speaking people as _duns_, and to antiquaries as _Pictish towers_.--Also BROGH and BROUGH. [Old Norse _borg_; A.S. _burh_.] BROCH, br[=o]ch, obsolete spelling of BROACH. BROCHURE, bro-sh[=oo]r', _n._ a pamphlet. [Lit. a small book stitched, Fr.--_brocher_, to stitch--_broche_, a needle. See BROACH.] BROCK, brok, _n._ a badger--hence, from the smell, a dirty, stinking fellow.--_adj._ BROCKED (_Scot._), variegated, having a mixture of black and white. [From the Celt., as in Gael. _broc_, a badger, which is from Gael. _breac_, speckled.] BRODE, br[=o]d, _adv._ (_Spens._). Same as ABROAD. BRODEKIN, BRODKIN, br[=o]d'kin, _n._ a buskin. [Fr. _brodequin_.] BROG, brog, _n._ a pointed steel instrument used for piercing holes: (_Scot._) an awl.--_v.t._ to prick. [Ety. dub.; the Gael. _brog_; an awl, is prob. borrowed.] BROGUE, br[=o]g, _n._ a stout coarse shoe: a dialect or manner of pronunciation, esp. the Irish. [Ir. and Gael. _brog_, a shoe.] BROIDER, broid'[.e]r, BROIDERY, broid'[.e]r-i. Same as EMBROIDER, EMBROIDERY.--BROIDERED (_B._) = _Embroidered_. BROIL, broil, _n._ a noisy quarrel: a confused disturbance--(_Scot._) BRUL'YIE, BRUL'ZIE.--_n._ BROIL'ER, one who stirs up broils. [Fr. _brouiller_, to trouble.] BROIL, broil, _v.t._ to cook over hot coals: to grill.--_v.i._ to be greatly heated. [Ety. dub.] BROKE, br[=o]k, _pa.t._ and old _pa.p._ of BREAK.--_p.adj._ BROK'EN, rent asunder: infirm: humbled or crushed: dispersed, routed: altered in direction: shattered in estate or position: incomplete, fragmentary: uncertain.--_adjs._ BROK'EN-BACKED, having the back broken, applied to a ship so loosened in her frame as to droop at both ends; BROK'EN-DOWN, decayed, ruined in character or strength; BROK'EN-HEART'ED, crushed with grief: greatly depressed in spirit.--_adv._ BROK'ENLY.--_ns._ BROK'EN-MAN, one under outlawry, esp. in the Highlands and Border country; BROK'EN-MEAT, the leavings of a banquet; BROK'ENNESS.--_adj._ BROK'EN-WIND'ED, having short breath or disordered respiration, as a horse. BROKER, br[=o]k'[.e]r, _n._ one employed to buy and sell for others: a second-hand dealer: a pander: a commissioner.--_v.i._ BROKE, to bargain, negotiate: (_Shak._) to act as a pander or go-between:--_pr.p._ br[=o]k'ing; _pa.p._ br[=o]ked.--_ns._ BROK'ERAGE, BROK'AGE, the business of a broker: the commission charged by a broker: a commission charged for transacting business for others; BROK'ERY, the business of a broker.--_p.adj._ BROK'ING, doing business as a broker: practised by brokers. [M. E. _brocour_--A.S. _brucan_; Ger. _brauchen_, to use, to profit.] BROMATE. See BROMINE. BROME-GRASS, br[=o]m'-gras, _n._ a kind of grass bearing a strong resemblance to oats. [Gr. _br[=o]mos_, and _bromos_, grass.] BROMINE, br[=o]m'in, _n._ one of the elements, closely allied to chlorine, so called from its disagreeable smell.--_adj._ BROM'IC, pertaining to bromine.--_ns._ BROM'ATE, a combination of bromic acid with a salifiable base; BROM'IDE, a combination of bromine with a base.--BROMIC ACID, an acid composed of bromine and oxygen. [Gr. _br[=o]mos_, a disagreeable odour.] BRONCHIÆ, brongk'i-[=e], _n.pl._ a name given to the ramifications of the windpipe which carry air into the lungs.--_adjs._ BRONCH'IC, BRONCH'IAL.--_n._ BRONCH[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the bronchiæ. [L.--Gr. _bronchia_, the bronchial tubes.] BRONCHO, BRONCO, brong'ko, _n._ (_U.S._) a half-tamed horse. [Sp. _bronco_, rough, sturdy.] BROND. Same as BRAND. BRONZE, bronz, _n._ an alloy of copper and tin used in various ways since the most ancient times: anything cast in bronze: the colour of bronze: (_fig._) impudence.--_adj._ made of bronze: coloured like bronze.--_v.t._ to give the appearance of bronze to: (_fig._) to harden.--_adj._ BRONZED, coated with bronze: hardened.--_ns._ BRONZE'-STEEL, or _Steel-bronze_, a specially hardened bronze; BRONZE'-WING, BRONZE'-PI'GEON, a species of Australian pigeon having wings marked with a lustrous bronze colour.--_v.t._ BRONZ'IFY, to make into bronze.--_ns._ BRONZ'ING, the process of giving the appearance of bronze; BRONZ'ITE, a lustrous kind of diallage.--_adj._ BRONZ'Y, having the appearance of bronze.--BRONZE AGE or PERIOD, a term in prehistoric archæology denoting the condition or stage of culture of a people using bronze as the material for cutting implements and weapons--as a stage of culture coming between the use of stone and the use of iron for those purposes--not an absolute division of time, but a relative condition of culture. [Fr.--It. _bronzo_--L. _Brundusium_, the modern _Brindisi_.] BROO, br[=oo] (mod. Scot.--vowel sounded like Ger. _ü_), _n._ (_Scot._) broth. [Ety. dub.: prob. O. Fr. _bro_, _breu_, broth; prob conn. with BREE.] BROOCH, br[=o]ch, _n._ an ornamental pin or instrument for fastening any article of dress, consisting for the most part either of a ring or disc, or of a semicircle, there being a pin in either case passing across it, fastened at one end with a joint or loop, and at the other with a hook.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to adorn as with a brooch. [Fr. _broche_, a spit. See BROACH.] BROOD, br[=oo]d, _v.t._ to sit upon or cover in order to breed or hatch: to hatch: to cover, as with wings: to mature or foster with care: to meditate moodily upon.--_v.i._ to sit as a hen on eggs: to hover over: to think anxiously for some time: to meditate silently (with _on_, _over_): to be bred.--_n._ something bred: offspring, children, or family: a race, kind: parentage: the number hatched at once.--_adj._ for breeding, as in _brood_-mare, &c.--_adv._ BROOD'INGLY.--_adj._ BROOD'Y, inclined to sit or incubate. [A.S. _bród_; Dut. _broed_; what is hatched.] BROOK, br[=oo]k, _n._ a small stream.--_ns._ BROOK'LET, a little brook; BROOK'LIME, a species of speedwell found in ditches. [A.S. _bróc_, water breaking forth; Dut. _broek_, Ger. _bruch_.] BROOK, br[=oo]k, _v.t._ to enjoy: to bear or endure. [A.S. _búrcan_, to use, enjoy; Ger. _brauchen_, L. _frui_, _fructus_.] BROOL, br[=oo]l, _n._ a deep murmur. [Ger. _brüll_, a roar.] BROOM, br[=oo]m, _n._ a name given to a number of species of shrubs of the closely allied genera Cytisus, Genista, and Spartium: a besom made of its twigs.--_v.t._ to sweep with a broom.--_ns._ BROOM'-CORN, a species of plant resembling maize, cultivated for its seed and its spikes, of which brooms are made; BROOM'-RAPE, a parasitic plant found adhering to the root of broom, clover, &c.; BROOM'STAFF, BROOM'STICK, the staff or handle of a broom.--_adj._ BROOM'Y, abounding in or consisting of broom.--TO MARRY OVER THE BROOMSTICK, or TO JUMP THE BESOM, to go through an irregular form of marriage, in which both jump over a broomstick. [A.S. _bróm_; Ger. _bram_.] BROOSE, brüz, _n._ (_Scot._) a race at weddings in Scotland. [Derivation unknown.] BROSE, br[=o]z, _n._ a simple and nutritious food, made by pouring boiling water or milk on oatmeal, seasoned with salt and butter.--ATHOLE BROSE, a mixture of whisky and honey. [Scot.; O. Fr. _broez_.] BROTH, broth, _n._ an infusion or decoction of vegetable and animal substances in water.--A BROTH OF A BOY (_Irish_), a first-rate fellow. [A.S. _broth_--_bréowan_, to brew. See BREW.] BROTHEL, broth'el, _n._ a house of ill-fame. [M. E. _brothel_--A. S. _broð-en_, ruined, _bréðen_, to go to ruin.] BROTHER, bruth'[.e]r, _n._ a male born of the same parents: any one closely united with or resembling another; associated in common interests, occupation, &c.: a fellow-member of a religious order, a fellow-member of a guild, &c.: a fellow-creature, fellow-citizen, a co-religionist: (_B._) a kinsman: _pl._ BROTH'ERS and BRETH'REN, the latter esp. used in the sense of fellow-membership of guilds, religious communities, &c., and is a name given to certain sections of the Church of Christ, as Christian Brethren, Moravian Brethren, Plymouth Brethren, &c.--_ns._ BROTH'ER-GER'MAN, a brother having the same father and mother, in contradistinction to a _half-brother_, by one parent only; BROTH'ERHOOD, the state of being a brother: an association of men for any purpose; BROTH'ER-IN-LAW, the brother of a husband or wife: a sister's husband.--_adjs._ BROTH'ER-LIKE, BROTH'ERLY, like a brother: kind: affectionate.--_n._ BROTH'ERLINESS, state of being brotherly: kindness. [A.S. _broðor_; cog. with Ger. _bruder_, Gael. _brathair_, Fr. _frère_, L. _frater_, Sans. _bhrátar_.] BROUGHAM, br[=oo]'am, or br[=oo]m, _n._ a one-horse close carriage, either two or four wheeled, named after Lord _Brougham_ (1778-1868). BROUGHT, brawt, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of BRING. BROW, brow, _n._ the eyebrow: the ridge over the eyes: the forehead: the edge of a hill: a gallery in a coalmine running across the face of the coal: (_fig._) aspect, appearance.--_v.t._ BROW'BEAT, to bear down with stern looks or speech: to bully.--_adjs._ BROW'-BOUND, having the brow bound as with a crown: crowned; BROW'LESS, without shame. [A.S. _brú_; Ice. _brün_.] BROWN, brown, _adj._ of a dark or dusky colour, inclining to red or yellow: dark-complexioned: sunburnt.--_n._ a dark-reddish colour: (_slang_) a copper.--_v.t._ to make brown, or give a brown colour to: to roast brown.--_ns._ BROWN'-BESS, the old British flint-lock musket--from the brown walnut stock; BROWN'-BILL, a foot-soldier's or watchman's halbert, painted brown; BROWN'-BREAD, bread of a brown colour, made of unbolted flour; BROWN'-COAL, commonly called _Lignite_, an imperfect kind of coal which exhibits more of its woody structure than ordinary coal; BROWN'-GEORGE, a hard biscuit: a brown earthen vessel; BROWN'ING, the process of imparting a brown colour to iron articles: a preparation for giving a brown colour to gravy, &c., or for dressing brown leather.--_adj._ BROWN'ISH.--_ns._ BROWN'NESS; BROWN'-P[=A]'PER, coarse and strong paper used chiefly for wrapping; BROWN'-SPAR, a name given to certain varieties of dolomite or magnesian limestone, distinguished by their brownish colour; BROWN'-STOUT, a kind of porter; BROWN'-STUD'Y, gloomy reverie: absent-mindedness.--_adj._ BROWN'Y (_Shak._), of a brown colour.--TO DO BROWN (_slang_), to do thoroughly, to deceive or take in completely. [A.S. _brún_; Dut. _bruin_, Ger. _braun_.] BROWNIE, brown'i, _n._ a kind of domestic spirit in the folklore of Scotland, represented as a good-humoured, drudging goblin, who attached himself to farmhouses, and occupied himself overnight in churning, thrashing corn, and the like. [_Brown._] BROWNIST, brown'ist, _n._ one holding the Church principles of Robert _Browne_ (1550-1633), which may be said to have given birth to the Independents or Congregationalists of England. BROWSE, browz, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to feed on the shoots or leaves of plants.--_ns._ BROWSE, BROWS'ING, the shoots and leaves of plants: fodder: the action of the verb browse. [O. Fr. _brouster_ (Fr. _brouter_)--_broust_, a sprout.] BROWST, browst, _n._ (_Scot._) a brewing. [BREW.] BRUCKLE, bruk'l, _adj._ (_Scot._) liable to break, brittle. [A.S. _brucol_--_brekan_, to BREAK.] BRUIN, br[=oo]'in, _n._ a bear, so called from the name of the bear in the famous beast-epic _Reynard the Fox_, just as _reynard_ and _chanticleer_ have also passed from proper names into common names, often written without capitals. [_Bruin_ = _brown_.] BRUISE, br[=oo]z, _v.t._ to crush by beating or pounding: to oppress: to box or fight with the fists: to ride recklessly in hunting, careless alike of horse and crops: to reduce to small fragments.--_n._ a wound made by anything heavy and blunt.--_p.adj._ BRUISED, hurt by a heavy blow, with skin crushed and discoloured.--_n._ BRUIS'ER, one that bruises: a boxer.--_p.adj._ BRUIS'ING, boxing. [A.S. _brýsan_, to crush, with which, says Dr Murray, afterwards coalesced Fr. _brisie-r_; _bruisier_, _bruser_, to break.] BRUIT, br[=oo]t, _n._ noise: something noised abroad: a rumour or report.--_v.t._ to noise abroad: to report: to celebrate. [Fr. _bruit_--Fr. _bruire_; cf. Low L. _brug[=i]tus_; prob. imit.] BRULZIE, BRUILZIE, brül'yi, _n._ Scotch and northern form of BROIL. BRUMAIRE, br[=oo]m[=a]r', _n._ the second month in the French revolutionary calendar, extending from Oct. 22 to Nov. 20. [Fr. _brume_, fog--L. _bruma_, winter.] BRUME, br[=oo]m, _n._ fog.--_adjs._ BRUM'AL, relating to winter; BRUM'OUS, foggy, wintry. [L. _bruma_, winter, contr. from _brevima_, the shortest day.] BRUMMAGEM, brum'a-jem, _adj._ showy but worthless, sham, counterfeit. [From a popular pronunciation of _Birmingham_.] BRUNETTE, br[=oo]n-et', _n._ a girl with a brown or dark complexion. [Fr. dim. of _brun_, brown.] BRUNONIAN, br[=oo]-no'ni-an, _adj._ relating to the system of medicine founded by Dr John _Brown_ of Edinburgh (1736-88)--all diseases _sthenic_, those depending on an excess of excitement, or _asthenic_, those resulting from a deficiency of it. BRUNT, brunt, _n._ the shock of an onset or contest: the force of a blow: the chief stress or crisis of anything.--_v.t._ to bear the brunt of. [Ice. _bruna_, to advance like fire, is usually given; Dr Murray suggests that it may be an onomatopoeia of Eng. itself (cf. DUNT), or connected with _burnt_--Scot. _brunt_.] BRUSH, brush, _n._ an instrument for removing dust, usually made of bristles, twigs, feathers, or stiff grass stems: a kind of hair-pencil used by painters: a painter, one who uses the brush: brushwood: a skirmish or encounter: the tail of a fox: (_elect._) a brush-like discharge of sparks: one of the bundles of copper wires or flexible strips in contact with the commutator of the armature on opposite sides, and which carry off the positive and negative currents of electricity generated.--_v.t._ to remove dust, &c., from by sweeping: to touch lightly in passing: remove (with _off_): to thrash.--_v.i._ to move over lightly: to make off with a rush.--_n._ BRUSH'ING, the act of rubbing or sweeping.--_adj._ in a lively manner: brisk.--_ns._ BRUSH'-WHEEL, a wheel used in light machinery to turn another by having the rubbing surface covered with stiff hairs or bristles; BRUSH'WOOD, rough close bushes: a thicket.--_adj._ BRUSH'Y, rough, rugged.--TO BRUSH UP, to brighten, revive. [O. Fr. _brosse_, a brush, brushwood--Low L. _bruscia_; Diez connects the Fr. with Old High Ger. _burst_, _bursta_, bristle.] BRUSQUE, br[=oo]sk, _adj._ blunt, abrupt in manner, rude.--_adv._ BRUSQUE'LY.--_ns._ BRUSQUE'NESS; BRUSQUE'RIE. [Fr. _brusque_; rude. See BRISK.] BRUSSELS, brus'elz, _n._ contracted from BRUSSELS-CARPET, a kind of carpet in which the worsted threads are arranged in the warp, and are interwoven into a network of linen. Still, the bulk of the carpet consists of wool.--_n.pl._ BRUSS'ELS-SPROUTS, a variety of the common cabbage with sprouts like miniature cabbages. [Named from _Brussels_ in Belgium.] BRUST, brust, _pa.p._ (_Spens._). Same as BURST. BRUTE, br[=oo]t, _adj._ belonging to the lower animals: irrational: stupid: rude.--_n._ one of the lower animals.--_adj._ BRUT'AL, like a brute: unfeeling: inhuman.--_v.t._ BRUT'ALISE, to make like a brute, to degrade.--_v.i._ to live like a brute.--_n._ BRUTAL'ITY.--_adv._ BRUT'ALLY.--_n._ BRUTE'NESS, brute-like state: brutality: (_Spens._) stupidity.--_v.t._ BRUT'IFY, to make brutal, stupid, or uncivilised:--_pr.p._ brutify'ing; _pa.p._ brutif[=i]ed'.--_adj._ BRUT'ISH, brutal: (_B._) unwise.--_adv._ BRUT'ISHLY.--_n._ BRUT'ISHNESS.--THE BRUTE CREATION, the lower animals. [Fr. _brut_--L. _brutus_, dull, irrational.] BRUTUS, br[=oo]'tus, _n._ a kind of wig: a way of wearing the hair brushed back from the forehead, popular at the time of the French Revolution, when it was an affectation to admire the old Romans, as _Brutus_. BRYOLOGY, br[=i]-ol'o-ji, _n._ the study of mosses. [Gr. _bryon_, moss, and _logia_--_legein_, to speak.] BRYONY, br[=i]'o-ni, _n._ a wild climbing plant, common in English hedgerows.--BLACK BRYONY, a climbing plant similar to bryony in habit and disposition, but which may be readily distinguished by its simple, entire, heart-shaped leaves, which are smooth and somewhat glossy. [L.--Gr. _bry[=o]nia_.] BRYOZOA, br[=i]-[=o]-z[=o]'a, _n.pl._ an old name for the Polyzoa, from their resemblance to mosses. BRYTHONIC, br[=i]th-on'ik, _adj._ a name introduced by Prof. Rhys for the second of the two great divisions of Celtic ethnology. The _Goidelic_ or _Gadhelic_ group embraces Irish, Manx, and Gaelic; the _Brythonic_ group, Welsh, Breton, and Cornish. [_Brython_, one of the Welsh words for the Welsh and so-called Ancient Britons.] BUB, bub, _n._ (_slang_) strong drink. BUBALIS, b[=u]'bal-is, _n._ a genus in the Antelope division of hollow-horned, even-toed Ruminants, not to be confused with the genus _Bubalus_, the Buffalo. [Gr.] BUBBLE, bub'l, _n._ a bladder of water blown out with air: anything empty: a cheating scheme.--_adj._ unsubstantial, deceptive.--_v.i._ to rise in bubbles.--_v.t._ to cheat with bubble schemes:--_pr.p._ bubb'ling; _pa.p._ bubb'led.--_adj._ BUBB'LY.--_n._ BUBB'LY-JOCK, a Scotch name for a turkey-cock.--BUBBLE AND SQUEAK, meat and cabbage fried together.--TO BUBBLE OVER, as of a pot boiling, with anger, mirth, &c. [Cf. Sw. _bubbla_, Dut. _bobbel_.] BUBO, b[=u]'bo, _n._ an inflammatory swelling of the glands in the groin or armpit.--_adj._ BUBON'IC, accompanied by buboes.--_n._ B[=U]B'UKLE, a ridiculous word of Fluellen's for a red pimple, corrupted from _bubo_ and _carbuncle_. [L.--Gr. _boub[=o]n_, the groin.] BUCCAL, buk'al, _adj._ pertaining to the cheek. [L.] BUCCANEER, BUCCANIER, buk-an-[=e]r', _n._ one of the piratical adventurers in the West Indies during the 17th century, who plundered the Spaniards chiefly.--_v.i._ to act as a buccaneer.--_n._ BUCCANEER'ING.--_adj._ BUCCANEER'ISH. [Fr. _boucaner_, to smoke meat--Carib. _boucan_, a wooden gridiron. The French settlers in the W.I. cooked their meat on a _boucan_ in native fashion, and were hence called _boucaniers_.] BUCCINATOR, buk-sin-[=a]'tor, _n._ the name of a flat muscle forming the wall of the cheek, assisting in mastication and in the blowing of wind-instruments.--_adj._ BUCCINAT'ORY. [L.;--_buccinare_.] BUCENTAUR, b[=oo]-sen'tawr, _n._ a mythical monster half man and half bull: the state barge of Venice used annually on Ascension Day in the ancient ceremony of the marriage of the state with the Adriatic. [It. _bucentoro_, usually explained as from Gr. _bous_, an ox, _kentauros_, a centaur.] BUCEPHALUS, b[=u]-sef'a-lus, _n._ the famous war-horse of Alexander the Great: a familiar name for a riding-horse. [Gr.; _bous_, ox, _kephal[=e]_, head.] BUCK, buk, _n._ the male of the deer, goat, hare, and rabbit--often used specifically of the male of the fallow-deer: a dashing young fellow.--_v.i._ (of a horse or mule--a BUCK'JUMPER) to attempt to throw by a series of rapid jumps into the air, coming down with the back arched, the head down, and the forelegs stiff: (_U.S._) to make obstinate resistance to any improvements.--_ns._ BUCK'EEN, a poor Irish gentleman, without means to support his gentility; BUCK'-EYE, the American horse-chestnut; BUCK'HORN, the material of a buck's horn; BUCK'-HOUND, a small kind of staghound used for hunting bucks; BUCK'-SHOT, a large kind of shot, used in shooting deer; BUCK'SKIN, a soft leather made of deerskin or sheepskin: a strong twilled woollen cloth, cropped of nap and carefully finished.--_adj._ made of the skin of a buck.--_n.pl._ BUCK'SKINS, breeches made usually of the cloth, not of the leather.--_ns._ BUCK'THORN, a genus of shrubs, the berry of which supplies the sap-green used by painters; BUCK'-TOOTH, a projecting tooth. [A.S. _buc_, _bucca_; Dut. _bok_, Ger. _bock_, a he-goat.] BUCK, buk, _v.t._ to soak or steep in lye, a process in bleaching.--_n._ lye in which clothes are bleached.--_n._ BUCK'-BAS'KET, a basket in which clothes are carried to be bucked. [Ety. obscure; M. E. _bouken_; cog. words are Ger. _bäuchen_, _beuchen_.] BUCKBEAN, buk'b[=e]n, _n._ the marsh-trefoil, a plant common in bogs in Britain. [Corr. of _Bogbean_.] BUCKET, buk'et, _n._ a vessel for drawing or holding water, &c.; one of the compartments on the circumference of a water-wheel, or one of the scoops of a dredging-machine: the leather socket for holding the whip in driving, or for the carbine or lance when mounted: a name given to the pitcher in some orchids.--_ns._ BUCK'ETFUL, as much as a bucket will hold; BUCK'ETING (_U.S._), jerky rowing; BUCK'ET-SHOP, slang term for the offices of 'outside brokers'--mere agents for bets on the rise or fall of prices of stock, &c.; BUCK'ET-WHEEL, a contrivance for raising water by means of buckets attached to the circumference of a wheel.--GIVE THE BUCKET, to dismiss; KICK THE BUCKET (_slang_), to die. [Prob. conn. with A.S. _búc_, a pitcher; or O. Fr. _buket_, a pail. Not Gael. _bucaid_, a bucket.] BUCKIE, buk'i, _n._ (_Scot._) a shellfish such as the whelk: a refractory person. [Scot., prob. related somehow to L. _buccinum_, a shellfish.] BUCKLE, buk'l, _n._ a metal instrument consisting of a rim and tongue, used for fastening straps or bands in dress, harness, &c.--_v.t._ to fasten with a buckle: to prepare for action: to engage in close fight.--_v.i._ to bend or bulge out: to engage with zeal in a task.--_n._ BUCK'LER, a small shield used for parrying. [Fr. _boucle_, the boss of a shield, a ring--Low L. _buccula_, dim. of _bucca_, a cheek.] BUCKRA, buk'ra, _n._ a word used by West Indian and American negroes for a white man--said in a dialect of the Calabar coast to mean 'demon.' BUCKRAM, buk'ram, _n._ a coarse open-woven fabric of cotton or linen made very stiff with size, used for the framework of ladies' bonnets, for the inside of belts and collars of dresses, and for bookbinding: stiffness in manners and appearance.--_adj._ made of buckram: stiff: precise.--_v.t._ to give the quality of buckram. [O. Fr. _boquerant_.] BUCKSHISH. Same as BACKSHEESH. BUCKWHEAT, buk'hw[=e]t, _n._ a species of Polygonum, grown in Germany, Brittany, &c., for feeding horses, cattle, and poultry--buckwheat cakes are esteemed on American breakfast-tables. [Prob. Dut. _boekweit_, or Ger. _buckweize_.] BUCOLIC, -AL, b[=u]-kol'ik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to the tending of cattle: pastoral: rustic, countrified.--_n._ BUCOL'IC, a pastoral poem. [L.--Gr. _boukolikos_--_boukolos_, a herdsman.] BUD, bud, _n._ the first shoot of a tree or plant: used of young people, as a term of endearment.--_v.i._ to put forth buds: to begin to grow.--_v.t._ to put forth as buds: to graft, as a plant, by inserting a bud under the bark of another tree:--_pr.p._ bud'ding; _pa.p._ bud'ded.--_n._ BUD'DING, a method of propagation by means of buds.--_adjs._ BUD'DY; BUD'LESS.--TO NIP IN THE BUD, to destroy at its very beginning. [M. E. _budde_; prob. related to Dut. _bot_, a bud.] BUDDHA, b[=oo]d'da, _n._ an epithet applied to Sakyamuni or Gautama, the founder of the Buddhist religion.--_ns._ BUD'DHISM, the religion founded by Buddha; BUD'DHIST, a believer in Buddhism.--_adjs._ BUDDHIST'IC, BUD'DHIST, pertaining to Buddhism.--ESOTERIC BUDDHISM (see THEOSOPHY). [Sans. _buddha_, wise, from _budh_, to know.] BUDDLE, bud'l, _v.t._ to wash ore with a _buddle_ or inclined hutch over which water flows. BUDGE, buj, _v.i._ and _v.t._ to move or stir.--_n._ BUDG'ER, one who stirs. [Fr. _bouger_--It. _bulicare_, to boil, to bubble--L. _bullire_.] BUDGE, buj, _n._ lambskin fur.--_adj._ pompous: stiff. [Derivation unknown.] BUDGET, buj'et, _n._ a sack with its contents: a compact collection of things: a socket in which the end of a cavalry carbine rests: that miscellaneous collection of matters which aggregate into the annual financial statement made to parliament by the Chancellor of the Exchequer. [Fr. _bougette_, dim. of _bouge_, a pouch--L. _bulga_.] BUFF, buf, _n._ a pliant and uncracking leather used for soldiers' belts and other military purposes, made out of salted and dried South American light ox and cow hides: a military coat: the colour of buff: a light yellow: the bare skin: (_pl._) certain regiments in the British army, so named from their buff-coloured facings--e.g. East Kent Regiment, Ross-shire Buffs.--_ns._ BUFF'-COAT, a strong military coat: a soldier; BUFF'-WHEEL, BUFF'-STICK, a wheel or stick covered with buff-leather or the like, and sprinkled with emery, for polishing.--IN BUFF, naked. [Fr. _buffle_, a buffalo.] BUFF, buf, _n._ (_obs._) a buffet, blow, or stroke.--_v.t._ to strike. [O. Fr. _buffe_, a blow.] BUFFALO, buf'a-l[=o], _n._ a genus of the ox kind, the tame, often domesticated Asiatic buffalo, and the entirely wild and fierce Cape buffalo. The so-called American buffalo is really a 'bison.' [It. _buffalo_, through L. from Gr. _boubalos_.] BUFFER, buf'[.e]r, _n._ a mechanical apparatus for deadening the force of a concussion, as in railway carriages: a fellow, as in 'old buffer.'--_n._ BUFF'ER-STATE, a neutral country lying between two others, whose relations are or may become strained. BUFFET, buf'et, _n._ a blow with the fist, a slap.--_v.t._ to strike with the hand or fist: to contend against.--_n._ BUFF'ETING, a striking with the hand, boxing: contention. [O. Fr. _bufet_--_bufe_, a blow, esp. on the cheek.] BUFFET, buf'et, _n._ a kind of sideboard: a low stool: a refreshment-bar (in this sense often pronounced buf'[=a]). [Fr. _buffet_; origin unknown.] BUFFOON, buf-[=oo]n', _n._ one who amuses by jests, grimaces, &c.: a clown: a fool.--_ns._ BUFF'O, the comic actor in an opera; BUFFOON'ERY, the practices of a buffoon; ludicrous or vulgar jesting. [Fr. _bouffon_--It. _buffone_, _buffare_, to jest.] BUG, bug, _n._ an object of terror.--_ns._ BIG-BUG (_slang_), an aristocrat; BUG'ABOO, a bogy, or object of terror; BUG'BEAR, an object of terror, generally imaginary.--_adj._ causing fright. [M. E. _bugge_, prob. W. _bwg_, a hobgoblin.] BUG, bug, _n._ a name applied loosely to certain insects, esp. to one (_Cimex lectularius_) that infests houses and beds: in America applied to any insect. BUGGERY, bug'g[.e]r-i, _n._ the crime of bestiality, unnatural vice. [Fr. _bougre_--L. _Bulgarus_, a Bulgarian, a heretic.] BUGGY, bug'i, _n._ a name given to several kinds of light carriages or gigs--in America, a light one-horse, four-wheeled vehicle with one seat; in England, two-wheeled; in India, provided with a hood to ward off the sun. [By some conn. with BOGIE; ety. really quite unknown.] BUGLE, b[=u]'gl, BUGLE-HORN, b[=u]'gl-horn, _n._ a hunting-horn, originally a buffalo-horn: a treble musical instrument, usually made of copper, like the trumpet, but having the bell less expanded and the tube shorter and more conical: (_Spens._) a buffalo or wild ox--dim. B[=U]'GLET.--_v.i._ B[=U]'GLE, to sound a bugle.--_n._ B[=U]'GLER, one who plays upon the bugle. [O. Fr. _bugle_;--L. _buculus_, dim. of _bos_, an ox.] BUGLE, b[=u]'gl, _n._ a slender elongated kind of bead, usually black.--_adj._ (_Shak._) like bugles. [Prob. conn. with Low L. _bugulus_; prob. obscurely conn. with Dut. _beugel_, a ring.] BUGLE, b[=u]'gl, _n._ a palæarctic genus of plants of the natural order _Labiatæ_, with blue or sometimes white or purple flowers. [Fr., It. _bugola_--Low L. _bugula_, _bugillo_.] BUGLOSS, b[=u]'glos, _n._ a name popularly applied to many plants of the natural order _Boragineæ_, more strictly to _Anchusa arvensis_, a common weed in corn-fields in Britain. [Fr. _buglosse_--L. _buglossa_--Gr. _bougl[=o]ssos_--_bous_, ox, _gl[=o]ssa_, tongue.] BUGONG, b[=u]'gong, _n._ a noctuoid moth. BUHL, b[=u]l, _n._ unburnished gold, brass, or mother-of-pearl worked in patterns for inlaying: furniture ornamented with such. [From André Charles _Boule_ (1642-1732), a cabinet-maker in the service of Louis XIV.] BUHRSTONE, bur'st[=o]n, _n._ a variety of quartz, containing many small empty cells, which give it a peculiar roughness of surface, particularly adapting it for millstones.--Often BURR'-STONE. [Perh. conn. with BURR, from its roughness.] BUILD, bild, _v.t._ to erect, as a house or bridge: to form or construct, as a railway, &c.--_v.i._ to depend (with _on_, _upon_):--_pa.p._ built or build'ed.--_n._ construction: make.--_ns._ BUILD'ER, one who builds, or who controls the actual work of building; BUILD'ING, the art of erecting houses, &c.: anything built: a house.--_p.adj._ BUILT, formed or shaped.--BUILD IN, to enclose by building; BUILD UP, to close up by building, as a door: to erect any edifice, as a reputation: to edify spiritually, as the church. [A.S. _gebyld_, _bold_, a dwelling, from an assumed _byldan_, to build.] BUIRDLY, bürd'li, _adj._ stalwart, large and well made. [_Scot._, a variant of BURLY.] BUISSON, bw[=e]-song, _n._ a fruit-tree trained on a low stem, the branches closely pruned. [Fr.] BUIST, büst, _n._ (_Scot._) a mark put on sheep or cattle to indicate ownership: a box.--_v.t._ to mark with such. [Ety. dub.] BUKSHI, BUKSHEE, buk'sh[=e], _n._ the paymaster in native Indian states. [Hind. _bakshi_--_baksh_, pay.] BULB, bulb, _n._ an onion-like root: any protuberance or enlargement resembling such.--_v.i._ to form bulbs: to bulge out or swell.--_adjs._ BUL'BAR, BULBED, BUL'BOUS, BULB[=A]'CEOUS, BULB'IFORM, BULBIF'EROUS, BUL'BOSE, BUL'BY.--_ns._ BUL'BULE, a little bulb: a young bulb which grows from an old one; BUL'BUS, a bulb. [L. _bulbus_--Gr. _bolbos_, an onion.] BULBUL, bool'bool, _n._ the Persian nightingale. [Arab.] BULDERING, bul'der-ing, _adj._ (_prov._) hot, sultry. BULGARIAN, bul-g[=a]'ri-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Bulgaria_ or its language.--_n._ a native of Bulgaria: the Bulgarian language (Slavonic).--_n._ BUL'GAR, a member of an ancient Finnic or Ugrian tribe which moved from the Volga towards Bulgaria.--_adj._ BULGAR'IC.--_n._ the ancient language of the foregoing. BULGE, bulj, _n._ the widest part of a cask, a round protuberance, swelling.--_v.i._ to swell out.--_ns._ BUL'GER, a wooden golf-club with a convex face; BUL'GINESS.--_adj._ BUL'GY--TO GET THE BULGE ON ONE (_slang_), to get a decided advantage over a person. [O. Fr. _boulge_, prob. L. _bulga_, a leather knapsack; a Gallic word.] BULIMY, b[=u]l'i-mi, _n._ an unnatural hunger. [Gr.; _bous_, ox, _limos_, hunger.] BULK, bulk, _n._ a stall or framework built in front of a shop.--_n._ BULK'ER, a street thief or strumpet. [Ety. dub.; Prof. Skeat suggests Scand. _bálk-r_, beam, and Dr Murray quotes also an A.S. _bolca_, gangway of a ship.] BULK, bulk, _n._ magnitude or size: the greater part: any huge body or structure: the whole cargo in the hold of a ship.--_v.i._ to be in bulk: to be of weight or importance.--_v.t._ to put or hold in bulk.--_ns._ BULK'HEAD, a partition separating one part of the interior of a ship from another, either transverse or longitudinal, and usually made watertight; BULK'INESS.--_adj._ BULK'Y, having bulk: of great size, unwieldy.--COLLISION BULKHEAD, that nearest the bow--usually the only one in sailing-ships.--TO LOAD IN BULK, to put the cargo in loose; TO SELL IN BULK, to sell the cargo as it is in the hold: to sell in large quantities. [Prob. Scand.; Ice. _bulki_, a heap.] BULL, bool, _n._ the male of the ox kind: an old male whale, fur-seal, &c.: a sign of the zodiac: one who tries artificially and unduly to raise the price of stocks, and speculates on a rise.--_adj._ denoting largeness of size--used in composition, as bull-trout: favourable to the bulls, rising.--_v.t._ to try to raise, as the price of shares, artificially: to copulate with a cow, of a bull.--_v.i._ to be in heat, of a cow.--_ns._ BULL'-BAITING, the sport of baiting or exciting bulls with dogs; BULL'-BAT (_U.S._), the night-hawk or goat-sucker; BULL'-BEEF, the beef or flesh of bulls, coarse beef: (_Shak._, in _pl._) BULL'-BEEVES; BULL'-BEGG'AR, a hobgoblin, &c.; BULL'-CALF, a male calf: a stupid fellow, a lout; BULL'-DANCE, a dance of men only; BULL'DOG, a breed of dogs of great courage, formerly used for baiting bulls, its general appearance that of a smooth-coated, compact dog, low in stature, but broad and powerful, with a massive head, large in proportion to its body: a person of obstinate courage: a short-barrelled revolver of large calibre: a proctor's attendant at Oxford and Cambridge.--_v.t._ BULL'-DOSE (_U.S._) to intimidate, bully: flog.--_n._ BULL'-D[=O]S'ER.--_adj._ BULL'-FACED, having a large face.--_ns._ BULL'-FIGHT, a popular spectacle in Spain, in which a bull is goaded to fury in a kind of circus by mounted _picadores_ armed with lances, and finally despatched by a specially skilful _espada_ or swordsman; BULL'-FIGHT'ER; BULL'-FINCH, a species of red-breasted finch a little larger than the common linnet, closely allied to the grossbeaks and crossbills: a kind of hedge hard to jump; BULL'-FROG, a large North American frog.--_adj._ BULL'-FRONT'ED, having a front or forehead like a bull.--_n._ BULL'-HEAD, or _Miller's Thumb_, a small river fish remarkable for its large, flat head.--_adj._ BULL'-HEAD'ED, impetuous and obstinate.--_n._ BULL'-HEAD'EDNESS.--_adj._ BULL'ISH.--_ns._ BULL'OCK, an ox or castrated bull; BULL'-ROAR'ER, a provincial English name for a boy's plaything, made of an oblong piece of wood, to one end of which a string is tied, then twisted tightly round the finger, when the whole is whirled rapidly round and round until a loud and peculiar whirring noise is produced--the native Australian _turndun_, the _rhombos_ of the Greek mysteries; BULL'S'-EYE, the central boss formed in making a sheet of blown glass (hence _adj._ BULL'S'-EYED), a round piece of glass in a lantern, a policeman's lantern, a round opening or window: the centre of a target, of a different colour from the rest, and usually round: a thick lump of coloured or striped candy; BULL'-TERR'IER, a species of dog, a cross-breed between the bulldog and the terrier; BULL'-TROUT, a large trout of the salmon genus, also migratory in its habits, often called the _Gray Trout_; BULL'-WHACK, a heavy whip.--_v.t._ to lash with such.--_n._ BULL'WORT, the bishop's weed.--BULL INTO, to plunge hastily into.--A BULL IN A CHINA-SHOP, a synonym for a man who does harm through ignorance or fury, a man completely out of place.--TAKE THE BULL BY THE HORNS, to face a danger or difficulty with courage, to take the initiative boldly in a struggle. [M.E. _bole_, prob. Scand. _bole_, _boli_; most prob. cog. with BELLOW.] BULL, bool, _n._ an edict of the pope which has his seal affixed.--_adj._ BULLAN'TIC--_n._ BULL'ARY, a collection of papal bulls. [L. _bulla_, a knob, a leaden seal.] BULL, bool, _n._ a ludicrous blunder in speech implying some obvious absurdity or contradiction, often said to be an especial prerogative of Irishmen--'I was a fine child, but they changed me.' [Prob. O. Fr. _boul_, cheat.] BULL, bool, _n._ drink made by pouring water into a cask that had held liquor. BULLA, bool'a, _n._ a round metal ornament worn by ancient Roman children: a seal attached to a document: anything rounded or globular. [L.] BULLACE, bool'l[=a]s, _n._ a shrub closely allied to the sloe and the plum, its fruit making excellent pies or tarts. [O. Fr. _beloce_, of uncertain origin; prob. Celt.] BULLATE, bul'[=a]t, _adj._ blistered, inflated--_ns._ BULL[=A]'TION; BULLES'CENCE. BULLARY, bul'a-ri, _n._ a house in which salt is prepared by boiling. BULLER, bool'er, _n._ the boiling of a torrent. [Dan. _bulder_.] BULLET, bool'et, _n._ the projectile of lead or other metal discharged from any kind of small-arm: a plumb or sinker in fishing.--_n._ BULL'ET-HEAD, a head round like a bullet: (_U.S._) an obstinate fellow.--_adjs._ BULL'ET-HEAD'ED; BULL'ET-PROOF, proof against bullets. [Fr. _boulet_, dim. of _boule_, a ball--L. _bulla_. See BULL, an edict.] BULLETIN, bool'e-tin, _n._ an official report of public news. [Fr.,--It. _bullettino_.] BULLION, bool'yun, _n._ gold and silver in the mass and uncoined, though occasionally used as practically synonymous with the precious metals, coined and uncoined: a heavy twisted cord fringe, often covered with gold or silver wire.--_n._ BULL'IONIST, one in favour of an exclusive metallic currency. [Ety. dub.; but apparently related to Low L. _bullio_, a boiling, melting.] BULLY, bool'i, _n._ a blustering, noisy, overbearing fellow: a ruffian hired to beat or intimidate any one: a fellow who lives upon the gains of a prostitute: (_obs._) a term of familiarity to either man or woman.--_adj._ blustering: brisk: (_U.S._) first-rate.--_v.i._ to bluster.--_v.t._ to threaten in a noisy way:--_pr.p._ bull'ying; _pa.p._ bull'ied.--_n._ BULL'YISM.--_v.t._ BULL'YRAG (_coll._), to assail with abusive language, to overawe.--_ns._ BULL'YRAGGING; BULL'Y-ROOK, a bully.--BULLY FOR YOU, bravo! [Perh. Dut. _boel_, a lover; cf. Ger. _buhle_.] BULLY, bool'i, _n._ a miner's hammer. BULLY-TREE, bool'i-tr[=e], _n._ a name given to several West Indian sapotaceous trees yielding good timber.--Also BULL'ET-TREE, BULL'ETRIE, BOLL'ETRIE. BULRUSH, bool'rush, _n._ a large strong rush, which grows on wet land or in water--often applied to the cat's-tail (_Typha_).--_adj._ BUL'RUSHY. BULSE, buls, _n._ a bag for diamonds, &c.: a package or certain quantity of such. [Port. _bolsa_--Low L. _bursa_, a purse. See PURSE.] BULWARK, bool'wark, _n._ a fortification or rampart: a breakwater or sea-wall: any means of defence or security.--_v.t._ to defend. [Cf. Ger. _bollwerk_.] BUM, bum, _n._ (_Shak._) the buttocks.--_ns._ BUM'-BAIL'IFF, an under-bailiff; BUM'-BOAT, boat for carrying provisions to a ship, originally a Thames scavenger's boat. [Ety. dub., prob. from _bump_, from sense of 'swelling.'] BUM, bum, _v.i._ to hum or make a murmuring sound, as a bee: (_slang_) to live dissolutely.--_pr.p._ bum'ming; _pa.p._ bummed.--_n._ a humming sound: a spree, debauch: a dissipated fellow. [Onomatopoeic.] BUMBAZE, bum'b[=a]z, _v.t._ to confound, bamboozle. BUMBLE-BEE, bum'bl-b[=e], _n._ a large kind of bee that makes a bumming or humming noise: the humble-bee.--_n._ BUM'-CLOCK (_Scot._), a drone-beetle. [M. E. _bumble_, freq. of BUM, and BEE.] BUMBLEDOM, bum'bl-dom, _n._ fussy pomposity. [From _Bumble_, name of the beadle in Dickens's _Oliver Twist_.] BUMBLE-FOOT, bum'bl-foot, _n._ a disease of domestic fowls, marked by inflammation of the ball of the foot: a club-foot.--_adj._ BUM'BLE-FOOT'ED, club-footed. BUMBLE-PUPPY, bum'bl-pup'i, _n._ whist played regardless of rules: the game of nine-holes.--_n._ BUM'BLE-PUPP'IST, one who plays whist without knowing the game. BUMBO, bum'b[=o], _n._ a punch of rum or gin with sugar, nutmeg, &c. BUMKIN, BUMPKIN, bum'kin, _n._ a short beam of timber projecting from each bow of a ship, for the purpose of extending the lower corner of the foresail to windward: a small outrigger over the stern of a boat, usually serving to extend the mizzen. [From BOOM, and dim. termination _kin_.] BUMMALO, bum'a-l[=o], _n._ a small fish dried and salted all round the coast of India--_Bombay duck_ and _nehar_.--Also BUMMAL[=O]'TI. [East Ind.] BUMMAREE, bum'ar-[=e], _n._ a middleman in the Billingsgate fish-market. [Ety. unknown: hardly the Fr. _bonne marée_, good fresh sea-fish.] BUMMER, bum'[.e]r, _n._ a plundering straggler or camp-follower during the American Civil War: a dissolute fellow, a loafer, a sponge. BUMMLE, bum'l, _v.i._ (_prov._) to blunder.--_n._ an idle fellow. BUMMOCK, bum'ok, _n._ (_Scot._) a brewing of ale. [Ety. unknown.] BUMP, bump, _v.i._ to make a heavy or loud noise.--_v.t._ to strike with a dull sound: to strike against: to overtake and impinge upon the stern or side of a boat by the boat following, the bumper consequently taking the place of the bumped in rank--also 'to make a bump:' to spread out material in printing so as to fill any desired number of pages.--_n._ a dull heavy blow: a thump: a lump caused by a blow, one of the protuberances on the surface of the skull confidently associated by phrenologists with certain distinct qualities or propensities of the mind, hence colloquially for organ: the noise of the bittern.--_n._ BUMP'ER, a cup or glass filled to the brim for drinking a toast: anything large or generous in measure: a crowded house at a theatre or concert.--_adj._ as in a 'bumper house.'--_v.i._ to drink bumpers.--_n._ BUMPOL'OGY, phrenology.--_adj._ BUMP'Y. [Onomatopoeic.] BUMPKIN, bump'kin, _n._ an awkward, clumsy rustic: a clown.--_adj._ BUMP'KINISH. [Prob. Dut. _boomken_, a log.] BUMPTIOUS, bump'shus, _adj._ offensively self-assertive.--_adv._ BUMP'TIOUSLY.--_n._ BUMP'TIOUSNESS. [Prob. formed from BUMP.] BUN, bun, _n._ a kind of sweet cake. [Prob. from O. Fr. _bugne_, a swelling.] BUN, bun, _n._ a dry stalk: a hare's scut: a rabbit. [Prob. Gael. _bun_, a root.] BUNCE, buns, _n._ (_slang_) extra gain--used as an interjection. BUNCH, bunsh, _n._ a number of things tied together or growing together: a definite quantity fastened together, as of linen yarn (180,000 yards), &c.: a cluster: something in the form of a tuft or knot.--_v.i._ to swell out in a bunch.--_v.t._ to make a bunch of, to concentrate.--_adjs._ BUNCH'-BACKED (_Shak._), having a bunch on the back, crook-backed; BUNCHED, humped, protuberant.--_ns._ BUNCH'-GRASS, a name applied to several West American grasses, growing in clumps; BUNCH'INESS, the quality of being bunchy: state of growing in bunches.--_adj._ BUNCH'Y, growing in bunches or like a bunch, bulging.--BUNCH OF FIVES, the fist with the five fingers clenched. [Ety. obscure.] BUNCOMBE. See BUNKUM. BUNDESRATH, b[=oo]n'des-rät, _n._ the Federal Council of the German Empire, its members annually appointed by the governments of the various states. BUNDLE, bun'dl, _n._ a number of things loosely bound together: an aggregation of one or more kinds of tissue traversing other tissues: a definite measure or quantity, as two reams of paper, twenty hanks of linen yarn, &c.--_v.t._ to bind or tie into bundles.--_v.i._ to pack up one's things for a journey, to go hurriedly or in confusion (with _away_, _off_, _out_).--_n._ BUN'DLING, an old custom in Wales, New England, and elsewhere for sweethearts to sleep on the same bed without undressing.--TO BUNDLE OFF, BUNDLE OUT, to send away unceremoniously or summarily. [Conn. with BIND and BOND.] BUNG, bung, _n._ the stopper of the hole in a barrel: a large cork: (_Shak._) a sharper.--_v.t._ to stop up with a bung: to thrash severely.--_ns._ BUNG'-HOLE, a hole in a cask through which it is filled, closed by a bung; BUNG'-VENT, a small hole in a bung to let gasses escape, &c.--BUNG UP, to bruise. [Ety. dub.] BUNGALOW, bung'ga-l[=o], _n._ the kind of house usually occupied by Europeans in the interior of India, and commonly provided for officers' quarters in cantonments.--DÂK-BUNGALOWS are houses for travellers. [Hind. _bangl[=a]_, Bengalese.] BUNGLE, bung'l, _n._ anything clumsily done: a gross blunder.--_v.i._ to act in a clumsy, awkward manner.--_v.t._ to make or mend clumsily: to manage awkwardly.--_p.adj._ BUNG'LED, done clumsily.--_n._ BUNG'LER.--_p.adj._ BUNG'LING, clumsy, awkward: unskilfully or ill done.--_adv._ BUNG'LINGLY. [Ety. obscure; prob. onomatopoeic; Prof. Skeat quotes a dial. Sw. _bangla_, to work ineffectually; Mr F. Hindes Groome suggests Gipsy _bongo_, left, awkward.] BUNION, bun'yun, _n._ a lump or inflamed swelling on the ball of the great toe. [Ety. unknown; Prof. Skeat suggests It. _bugnone_, a botch.] BUNK, bungk, _n._ a box or recess in a ship's cabin, a sleeping-berth anywhere.--_v.i._ to occupy the same bunk, sleep together.--_n._ BUNK'ER, a large bin or chest used for stowing various things, as coals, &c.: a hazard in a golf-links, originally confined to sand-pits, but now often used for hazards generally. [Prob. of Scand. origin; cf. Ice. _bunki_, Dan. _bunke_, a heap.] BUNKO, BUNCO, bung'k[=o], _n._ (_U.S._) a form of confidence-trick by which a simple fellow is swindled or taken somewhere and robbed.--_v.t._ to rob or swindle in such a way.--_n._ BUNK'O-STEER'ER, that one of the swindling confederates who allures the victim. BUNKUM, bung'kum, _n._ empty clap-trap oratory, bombastic speechmaking intended for the newspapers rather than to persuade the audience.--Also BUN'COMBE. [From _Buncombe_, the name of a county in North Carolina. Bartlett quotes a story of how its member once went on talking in congress, explaining apologetically to the few hearers that remained that he was 'only talking for Buncombe.'] BUNNY, bun'i, _n._ a pet name for a rabbit. [Ety. unknown; prob. conn. with Gael. _bun_, a root.] BUNODONT, b[=u]'n[=o]-dont, _adj._ having tuberculate molars--opp. to _Lophodont_. [Gr. _bounos_, a rounded hill, _odous_, _odontos_, a tooth.] BUNSEN, b[=oo]n'sen, or bun'sen, _adj._ applied to some of the inventions of the great chemist, R. W. _Bunsen_ of Heidelberg.--_n._ BUN'SEN-BURN'ER, a gas-burner in which a plentiful supply of air is caused to mingle with the gas before ignition, so that a smokeless flame of low luminosity but great heating power is the result. BUNT, bunt, _n._ a parasitic disease of wheat and other grains.--_adjs._ BUNT'ED, BUNT'Y. [Ety. unknown.] BUNT, bunt, _n._ the bagging part of a fishing-net, a sail, &c.--_v.i._ to belly, as a sail. [Ety. unknown.] BUNT, bunt, _v.i._ to push with the horns, butt: to spring, rear.--_n._ a push.--_n._ BUNT'ING, pushing: a boys' game, played with sticks and a small piece of wood: a strong timber, a stout prop. BUNTER, bunt'[.e]r, _n._ a rag-picker, a low woman. BUNTING, bunt'ing, _n._ a thin worsted stuff of which ships' colours are made. [Ety. dub.] BUNTING, bunt'ing, _n._ a genus of birds in the Finch family nearly allied to the crossbills. BUNTLINE, bunt'l[=i]n, _n._ a rope passing from the foot-rope of a square sail, led up to the masthead and thence on deck, to help in hauling the sail up to the yard. BUOY, boi, _n._ a floating cask or light piece of wood fastened by a rope or chain to indicate shoals, the position of a ship's anchor, &c.--_v.t._ to fix buoys or marks: to keep afloat, bear up, or sustain: to raise the spirits.--_ns._ BUOY'AGE, a series of buoys or floating beacons to mark the course for vessels: the providing of buoys; BUOY'ANCY, capacity for floating lightly on water or in the air: specific lightness: (_fig._) lightness of spirit, cheerfulness.--_adj._ BUOY'ANT, light: cheerful.--_n._ BUOY'ANTNESS. [Dut. _boei_, buoy, fetter, through Romance forms (Norman _boie_), from Low L. _boia_, a collar of leather.] BUPHAGA, b[=u]'f[=a]-ga, _n._ a small genus of African perching birds, nearly related to the starlings, feeding on the larvæ of gadflies and the like, which they find on the backs of cattle, camels, &c.--Also _Beef-eater_ and _Ox-pecker_. [Gr., _bous_, an ox, _phagein_, to eat.] BUPRESTIS, b[=u]-pres'tis, _n._ a genus of beetles, typical of a large family, _Buprestidæ_, those occurring in warmer countries having lively colour and metallic sheen--some known as Golden Beetles. [L.,--Gr. _bouprestis_, _bous_, an ox, _pr[=e]thein_, to swell.] BUR, BURR, bur, the prickly seed-case or head of certain plants, which sticks to clothes: any impediment or inconvenient adherent: any lump, ridge, &c., more or less sharp, a knot on a tree, knot in thread, knob at the base of a deer's horn, &c.: waste raw silk: the sweetbread or pancreas: (_Scot._) club-moss: the name for various tools and appliances, as the triangular chisel for clearing the corners of mortises, &c.: the blank driven out of a piece of sheet-metal by a punch: a partly vitrified brick.--_ns._ BUR'DOCK, a dock with a bur or prickly head; BUR'-THIS'TLE, the spear-thistle.--BUR IN THE THROAT, something seeming to stick in the throat, producing a choking sensation. [Cog. with Dan. _borre_, a bur.] BUR, BURR, bur, _n._ the rough sound of _r_ pronounced in the throat, as in Northumberland--_v.i._ to whisper hoarsely, to murmur. [Usually associated with preceding, but perh. from the sound.] BUR, bur, _n._ in an engraving, a slight ridge of metal raised on the edges of a line by the graver or the dry point, producing an effect like a smear, but dexterously used by some etchers, as Rembrandt, to deepen their shadows. BURBLE, burb'l, _n._ trouble, disorder.--_v.t._ to trouble, confuse. [Scot.; prob. conn. with O. Fr. _barbouiller_, to confound.] BURBOT, bur'bot, _n._ a fresh-water fish, like the eel, having a longish beard on its lower jaw. [Fr. _barbote_--L. _barba_, a beard.] BURD, burd, _n._ (_obs._) for BIRD, a poetic name for a girl or lady.--_n._ BUR'DALANE, the last surviving child of a family. BURDASH, burd'ash, _n._ a fringed sash worn round the waist by fine gentlemen in the time of Anne and George I. BURDEN, bur'dn, _n._ a load: weight: cargo: that which is grievous, oppressive, or difficult to bear, as blame, sin, sorrow, &c.: birth.--_v.t._ to load: to oppress: to encumber.--_adjs._ BUR'DENOUS, BUR'DENSOME, heavy: oppressive.--BURDEN OF PROOF, in legal procedure, signifies the obligation to establish by evidence certain disputed facts. [A.S. _byrthen_--_beran_, to bear.] BURDEN, bur'dn, _n._ part of a song repeated at the end of every stanza, refrain: the leading idea of anything: a load of care, sorrow, or responsibility. [Fr. _bourdon_, a humming tone in music--Low L. _burdo_, a drone or non-working bee.] BURDEN, bur'dn, _n._ (_Spens._) a pilgrim's staff. [See BOURDON.] BURDOCK. See BUR (1). BUREAU, b[=u]r'[=o], _n._ a writing-table or chest of drawers: a room or office where such a table is used: a department for the transacting of public business:--_pl._ BUREAUX (b[=u]r'[=o]), BUREAUS (b[=u]r'[=o]z). [Fr. _bureau_--O. Fr. _burel_, russet cloth--L. _burrus_, red.] BUREAUCRACY, b[=u]r[=o]'kras-i, _n._ a system of government centralised in graded series of officials, responsible only to their chiefs, and controlling every detail of public and private life.--_ns._ BUREAU'CRAT, BUREAU'CRATIST, one who advocates government by bureaucracy.--_adj._ BUREAUCRAT'IC, relating to or having the nature of a bureaucracy.--_adv._ BUREAUCRAT'ICALLY. [BUREAU, and Gr. _kratein_, to govern.] BURETTE, b[=u]-ret', _n._ a flask-shaped vessel for holding liquids, an altar-cruet. [Fr.] BURGAGE, bur'g[=a]j, _n._ a tenure in socage for a yearly rent: a tenure in Scotland in royal burghs under nominal service of watching. [O. Fr.] BURGAMOT. Same as BERGAMOT. BURGANET, bur'ga-net, _n._ a 16th-century helmet.--Also BUR'GONET. [Lit. 'Burgundian.'] BURGEE, bur'j[=e], _n._ a swallow-tailed flag or pennant: a kind of small coal for furnaces. BURGEON, bur'jun, _n._ and _v.i._ Same as BOURGEON. BURGH, bur'[=o], _n._ the Scotch word corresponding to the English BOROUGH.--_ns._ BURG (same as BOROUGH); BURG'AGE, a system of tenure where the king or other person is lord of an ancient borough, city, or town, by which the citizens hold their lands or tenements, for a certain annual rent; BURGESS (bur'jes), BUR'GHER, an inhabitant of a borough: a citizen or freeman: a magistrate of certain towns: one able to take the usual burgesses' oath (see ANTIBURGHER).--_adj._ BUR'GHAL, relating to a burgh.--_n._ BURG'OMASTER, the chief magistrate of a German or a Dutch borough, answering to the English term mayor.--BURGH OF BARONY, a corporation consisting of the inhabitants of a determinate tract of land within the _barony_, and municipally governed by magistrates and a council whose election is either vested in the baron superior of the district, or vested in the inhabitants themselves; BURGH OF REGALITY, a burgh of barony, spiritual or temporal, enfranchised by crown charter, with regal or exclusive criminal jurisdiction within their own territories.--PARLIAMENTARY BURGH, one like Paisley, Greenock, Leith, whose boundaries, as first fixed in 1832, were adopted for municipal purposes, with regard to which they stand practically in the same position as royal burghs; POLICE BURGH, a burgh constituted by the sheriff for purposes of improvement and police, the local authority being the police commissioners; ROYAL BURGH, a corporate body deriving its existence, constitution, and rights from a royal charter, such being either actual and express, or presumed to have existed. BURGLAR, burg'lar, _n._ one who breaks into a house by night to steal.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to commit burglary.--_adj._ BURGL[=A]R'IOUS.--_adv._ BURGL[=A]R'IOUSLY.--_v.t._ BURG'LARISE.--_n._ BURG'LARY, breaking into a house by night to steal. [Ety. dub.] BURGONET. See BURGANET. BURGOO, bur'g[=oo], _n._ a dish made of boiled oatmeal seasoned with salt, butter, and sugar, used by seamen. [Derivation unknown.] BURGRAVE, bur'gr[=a]v, _n._ the governor of a town or castle. [Ger. _burg_-_graf_.] BURGUNDY, bur'gun-di, _n._ a generous French red wine, so called from _Burgundy_, the district where it is made. BURIAL, ber'i-al, _n._ the act of laying a dead body in the grave: interment.--_ns._ BUR'IAL-AISLE, an aisle in a church used for burials; BUR'IAL-GROUND, BUR'IAL-PLACE, a piece of ground set apart for burying.--BURIAL SERVICE, a religious service or form of ritual accompanying a burial; BURIAL SOCIETY, an insurance society for providing the expenses of burial. [A.S. _byrgels_, a tomb. See BURY.] BURIN, b[=u]r'in, _n._ a kind of chisel of tempered steel, used in copper engraving--the distinctive style of a master is frequently described by such expressions as a _soft_, a _graphic_, or a _brilliant_ burin.--_n._ BUR'INIST, an engraver. [Fr.; from root of BORE.] BURKE, burk, _v.t._ to murder, esp. by stifling: hence (_fig._) to put an end to quietly. [From _Burke_, an Edinburgh Irishman (hanged 1829), who committed the crime in order to sell the bodies of his victims for dissection.] BURL, burl, _n._ a small knot in thread, a knot in wood.--_v.t._ to pick knots, &c., from, in finishing cloth.--_ns._ BUR'LING-[=I]'RON; BUR'LING-MACHINE'.--_adj._ BUR'LY, knotty. BURLAP, bur'lap, _n._ a coarse canvas for wrappings, &c.--usually in _pl._ [Origin unknown.] BURLESQUE, bur-lesk', _n._ a ludicrous representation--in speaking, acting, writing, drawing--a low and rude grade of the comic, whose legitimate office is to turn to laughter pretension and affectation.--_adj._ jocular: comical.--_v.t._ to turn into burlesque: to ridicule.--_p.adj._ BURLESQUED', caricatured.--_adv._ BURLESQUE'LY. [It. _burlesco_; prob. from Low L. _burra_, a flock of wool, a trifle.] BURLETTA, bur-let'a, _n._ a musical farce: comic opera. [It.;--dim. of _burla_, a jest.] BURLY, bur'li, _adj._ bulky: boisterous, bluff.--_n._ BUR'LINESS. [M. E. _borlich_; prob. Old High Ger. _burl[=i]h_, high, _b[=o]r_, a height.] BURMESE, bur'm[=e]z, _adj._ relating to _Burma_ in Farther India, or its language.--_n._ a native of Burma, or the language of Burma--also BUR'MAN. BURN, burn, _n._ a small stream or brook: a spring or fountain. [A.S. _burna_; cog. with Dut. and Ger. _born_.] BURN, burn, _v.t._ to consume or injure by fire.--_v.i._ to be on fire: to feel excess of heat: to be inflamed with passion:--_pa.p._ burned or burnt.--_n._ a hurt or mark caused by fire.--_ns._ BURN'ER, the part of a lamp or gas-jet from which the flame arises; BURN'ING, act of consuming by fire: conflagration: inflammation.--_adj._ very hot: scorching: ardent: excessive.--_ns._ BURN'ING-GLASS, a convex lens concentrating the sun's rays at its focus; BURN'ING-HOUSE, a kiln; BURN'ING-MIRR'OR, a concave mirror for producing heat by concentrating the sun's rays; BURN'ING-POINT, the temperature at which a volatile oil in an open vessel will take fire from a match held close to its surface; BURNT'-EAR, a kind of smut in oats, wheat, &c., caused by a microscopic fungus; BURNT'-OFF'ERING, something offered and burned upon an altar as a sacrifice--amongst the Hebrews, apparently offerings of dedication and to some extent of expiation; BURNT'-SIENN'A (see SIENNA); BURN'-THE-WIND (_Scot._), a blacksmith.--BURN A HOLE IN ONE'S POCKET, said of money, when one is eager to spend it; BURN BLUE, to burn with a bluish flame like that of brimstone; BURN DAYLIGHT (_Shak._), to waste time in superfluous actions; BURN DOWN, to burn to the ground; BURN IN, to eat into, as fire: to fix and render durable, as colours, by means of intense heat, to imprint indelibly on the mind; BURNING BUSH, the emblem of the Presbyterian churches of Scotland, with the motto, 'Nec tamen consumebatur,' adopted from Ex. iii. 2, in memory of the unconquerable courage of the Covenanters under the cruel persecutions of the 17th century; BURNING QUESTION, one being keenly discussed; BURN ONE'S BOATS, to cut one's self off, as Cortes did, from all chance of retreat, to stake everything on success; BURN ONE'S FINGERS, to suffer from interfering in others' affairs, from embarking in speculations, &c.; BURN OUT, to destroy by means of burning: to burn till the fire dies down from want of fuel; BURN THE WATER, to spear salmon by torchlight; BURN UP, to consume completely by fire: to be burned completely. [A.S.; the weak verb _boernan_, _boernde_, _boerned_, has been confused with _beornan_, _byrnan_, _barn_, _bornen_; cf. Ger. _brennen_, to burn.] BURNET, bur'net, _n._ the English name of two closely united genera of _Rosaceæ_--the Great Burnet common in meadows all over Europe; the Common Burnet growing on chalky soils, its slightly astringent leaves used in salads or soups, also as an ingredient in 'cool tankard.' [From its _brown_ flowers.] BURNISH, burn'ish, _v.t._ to polish: to make bright by rubbing.--_n._ polish: lustre.--_ns._ BURN'ISHER, an instrument employed in burnishing; BURN'ISHING; BURN'ISHMENT. BURNOUS, bur-n[=oo]s', _n._ a mantle with a hood much worn by the Arabs. [Fr.--Ar. _burnus_.] BURNT, _pa.p._ of BURN (q.v.). BURR. Same as BUR (q.v.). BURREL, bur'el, _n._ a kind of coarse russet cloth in medieval times. [See BUREAU.] BURRO, bur'[=o], _n._ a donkey. [Sp.] BURROCK, bur'ok, _n._ a small weir or dam in a river, to direct the current toward fish-traps. BURROW, bur'[=o], _n._ a hole in the ground dug by certain animals for shelter or defence.--_v.i._ to make holes underground as rabbits: to dwell in a concealed place.--_ns._ BURR'OW-DUCK, the sheldrake or bergander; BURR'OWING-OWL, a small long-legged diurnal American owl nesting in burrows; BURR'OWSTOWN (_Scot._), a town that is a burgh. [Ety. obscure; prob. a variant of Borough--A.S. _beorgan_, to protect.] BURSA, bur'sa, _n._ a pouch or sac, esp. a synovial cavity formed where tendons pass over the harder parts of the body:--_pl._ BUR'SÆ (-s[=e]).--_adj._ BUR'SAL.--_ns._ BURS[=A]'LIS, a muscle moving the nictitating membrane, as in birds; BURSAL'OGY, knowledge about the bursæ. [See BURSAR.] BURSAR, burs'ar, _n._ one who keeps the purse, a treasurer: in Scotland, a student maintained at a university by funds derived from endowment.--_adj._ BURSAR'IAL.--_ns._ BURS'ARSHIP, the office of a bursar; BURS'ARY, in Scotland, the allowance paid to a bursar; BURSE, a purse, an obsolete form of BOURSE.--_adjs._ BURSIC'ULATE, bursiform: resembling a small pouch, or provided with such; BURS'IFORM, pouch-shaped. [Low L. _bursarius_--_bursa_, a purse--Gr. _byrsa_, skin or leather.] BURSCH, b[=oo]rsh, _n._ a German student:--_pl._ BURSCH'EN.--_n._ BURSCH'ENISM. [Ger. _bursch_, a companion, student.] BURST, burst, _v.t._ to break into pieces: to break open suddenly or by violence: to disturb, interrupt.--_v.i._ to fly open or break in pieces: to break forth or away: to break into some sudden expression of feeling--e.g. 'to burst into song:'--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ burst.--_n._ a sudden outbreak: a hard gallop: a spurt: a drunken bout.--BURST IN, to force one's way violently into; BURST INTO BLOSSOM, to begin to blossom; BURST INTO TEARS, to fall a-crying; BURST OUT, to force one's way out violently; BURST UP (_coll._), to explode: to fail, become bankrupt.--A BURST UP, a collapse, failure.--ON THE BURST, on the spree. [A.S. _berstan_; Ger. _bersten_; Gael. _brisd_, to break.] BURSTEN, bur'stn, _obs. pa.p._ of BURST. BURTHEN, bur'thn, _n._ and _v.t._ For BURDEN. BURTON, bur'ton, _n._ a tackle variously used. BURY, ber'i, _v.t._ to hide in the ground: to cover: to place in the grave, as a dead body: to hide or blot out of remembrance:--_pr.p._ bur'ying; _pa.p._ bur'ied.--_ns._ BUR'YING-GROUND, BUR'YING-PLACE, ground set apart for burying the dead: a graveyard.--BURY THE HATCHET, to cease strife. [A.S. _byrgan_, to bury; Ger. _bergen_, to hide.] BURY, ber'i, _n._ a delicate pear of several varieties.--Also BURR'EL, BURR'EL-PEAR. [Cf. the Fr. _beurré_, as in '_Beurré_ d'Angoulême.'] BUS, BUSS, bus, _n._ Short for OMNIBUS. BUSBY, bus'bi, _n._ a fur hat with short bag hanging down from the top on its right side, of the same colour as the facings of the regiment, worn by hussars, and, in the British army, by horse artillerymen also. [Prob. Hung.] BUSCON, bus'kon, _n._ (_U.S._) a miner paid by a percentage of the ore he raises. [Sp.] BUSH, boosh, _n._ a shrub thick with branches: anything of bushy tuft-like shape: any wild uncultivated country, esp. at the Cape or in Australia: a bunch of ivy hung up as a tavern sign, a tavern itself--'Good wine needs no bush.'--_v.i._ to grow thick or bushy.--_v.t._ to set bushes about, support with bushes: to cover seeds by means of the bush-harrow.--_n._ BUSH'-CAT, the serval.--_adj._ BUSHED, lost in the bush.--_ns._ BUSH'-HARR'OW, a light kind of harrow used for covering grass-seeds, formed of a barred frame interwoven with bushes or branches; BUSH'INESS; BUSH'MAN, a settler in the uncleared land of America or the Colonies, a woodsman: one of a native race in South Africa (Dut. _boschjesman_); BUSH'-RANG'ER, in Australia, a lawless fellow, often an escaped criminal, who takes to the bush and lives by robbery; BUSH'-SHRIKE, a tropical American ant-thrush; BUSH'TIT, a small long-tailed titmouse of West America, building a large hanging-nest.--_v.i._ BUSH'-WHACK, to range through the bush: to fight in guerilla warfare.--_ns_. BUSH'-WHACK'ER, a guerilla fighter: a country lout: a short heavy scythe for cutting bushes; BUSH'-WHACK'ING, the habits or practice of bush-whackers: the process of forcing a way for a boat by pulling at the bushes overhanging a stream.--_adj._ BUSH'Y, full of bushes: thick and spreading.--BEAT ABOUT THE BUSH, to go round about anything, to evade coming to the point. [M. E. _busk_, _busch_; from a Teut. root found in Ger. _busch_, Low L. _boscus_, Fr. _bois_.] BUSH, boosh, _n._ the metal box or lining of any cylinder in which an axle works.--_v.t._ to furnish with a bush.--_n._ BUSH'-MET'AL, hard brass, gun-metal, a composition of copper and tin, used for journals, bearings, &c. [Dut. _bus_--L. _buxus_, the box-tree.] BUSHEL, boosh'el, _n._ a dry measure of 8 gallons, for measuring grain, fruit, &c. [O. Fr. _boissiel_, from the root of BOX.] BUSHEL, boosh'el, _v.t._ and _v.i._ (_U.S._) to mend or alter, as men's clothes.--_ns._ BUSH'ELLER; BUSH'ELLING; BUSH'EL-WOM'AN. BUSINESS, biz'nes, _n._ employment: engagment: trade, profession, or occupation: one's concerns or affairs: a matter or affair: (_theat._) action as distinguished from dialogue.--_adj._ BUS'INESS-LIKE, methodical, systematic, practical.--DO THE BUSINESS FOR, to settle, make an end of: to ruin.--GENTEEL BUSINESS (_theat._), such parts as require good dressing.--MAKE IT ONE'S BUSINESS, to undertake to accomplish something or see it done; MEAN BUSINESS, to be in earnest; MIND ONE'S OWN BUSINESS, to confine one's self to one's own affairs.--SEND ABOUT ONE'S BUSINESS, to dismiss promptly. BUSK, busk, _v.t._ or _v.i._ to prepare: to dress one's self. [Ice. _búa_, to prepare, and _-sk_, contr. of _sik_, the recip. pron.--_self_.] BUSK, busk, _n._ the piece of bone, wood, or steel in the front of a woman's stays: a corset.--_adj._ BUSKED. [Fr. _busc_, which Scheler thinks a doublet of _bois_; Littré, the same as It. _busto_, a bust.] BUSK, busk, _v.i._ (_naut._) to cruise along a shore, to beat about: to seek. [Prob. Sp. _buscar_, to seek.] BUSKET, busk'et, _n._ (_Spens._) a little bush. [Illustration] BUSKIN, busk'in, _n._ a kind of half-boot with high heels worn in ancient times by actors of tragedy--hence, the tragic drama as distinguished from comedy: a half-boot.--_adj._ BUSK'INED, dressed in buskins, noting tragedy: tragic: dignified. [Ety. uncertain; cognates may be found in the O. Fr. _brousequin_; Dut. _broos-ken_; Sp. _borceguí_.] BUSKY, busk'i, _adj._ (_Shak._). Same as BOSKY. BUSS, bus, _n._ a rude or playful kiss, a smack.--_v.t._ to kiss, esp. in a rude or playful manner. [M. E. _bass_, prob. from Old Ger. _bussen_, to kiss, but modified by Fr. _baiser_, to kiss, from L. _basium_, a kiss.] BUSS, bus, _n._ a small two-masted Dutch vessel, used in the herring and mackerel fisheries. [O. Fr. _busse_, Low L. _bussa_; cf. Ger. _büse_.] BUSSU-PALM, bus'soo-päm, _n._ a palm growing along the Amazon, with leaves as long as 30 feet and 5 feet broad, forming good thatch. BUST, bust, _n._ a sculpture representing the head and breast of a person: the upper part of the human body, a woman's bosom.--_adj._ BUST'ED, breasted: adorned with busts. [Fr. _buste_; It. and Sp. _busto_.] BUST, bust, _n._ and _v._ a vulgar form of Burst.--_n._ BUST'ER, something large: a frolic: (_slang_) a roisterer. BUSTARD, bus'tard, _n._ a genus of birds, sometimes made the type of a large family, usually ranked in the order of marsh birds like the cranes. [Fr. _bistard_, corr. from L. _avis tarda_, slow bird.] BUSTLE, bus'l, _v.i._ to busy one's self noisily: to be active, often with more noise than actual work.--_n._ hurried activity: stir: tumult.--_n._ BUST'LER. [There is a M. E. _bustelen_, of doubtful relations; perh. conn. with _bluster_, or with Ice. _bustl_, a splash, or with A.S. _bysig_, busy.] BUSTLE, bus'l, _n._ a stuffed pad or cushion worn by ladies under the skirt of their dress, the intention to improve the figure. BUSY, biz'i, _adj._ fully employed: active: diligent: meddling.--_v.t._ to make busy: to occupy:--_pr.p._ busying (biz'i-ing); _pa.p._ busied (biz'id).--_adv._ BUS'ILY.--_n._ BUS'YBODY, one busy about others' affairs, a meddling person.--_adj._ BUS'YLESS (_Shak._), without business.--_n._ BUS'YNESS, state of being busy. [A.S. _bysig_.] BUT, but, _prep._ or _conj._ without: except: besides: only: yet: still.--Used as a noun for a verbal objection; also as a verb, as in Scott's '_but_ me no _buts_.'--_adj._ (_Scot._) outside, as in 'but end.'--BUT AND BEN, a house having an outer and an inner room. [A.S. _be-útan_, _bútan_, without--_be_, by, and _útan_, out--near and yet outside.] BUT, but, _n._ Same as BUTT. BUTCHER, booch'[.e]r, _n._ one whose business is to slaughter animals for food: one who delights in bloody deeds.--_v.t._ to slaughter animals for food: to put to a bloody death, to kill cruelly: (_fig._) to spoil anything, as a bad actor or the like.--_ns._ BUTCH'ER-BIRD, a shrike; BUTCH'ERING, BUTCH'ING, the act of killing for food, or cruelly.--_adv._ BUTCH'ERLY, butcher-like, cruel, murderous.--_ns._ BUTCH'ER-MEAT, BUTCH'ER'S-MEAT, the flesh of animals slaughtered by butchers, as distinguished from fish, fowls, and game; BUTCH'ER'S-BROOM, a genus of plants of the lily order, the common one being an evergreen shrub, a bunch of which is used by butchers for sweeping their blocks; BUTCH'ERY, great or cruel slaughter: a slaughter-house or shambles. [O. Fr. _bochier_, _bouchier_, one who kills he-goats--_boc_, a he-goat; allied to Eng. BUCK.] BUT-END. Same as BUTT-END. BUTLER, but'l[.e]r, _n._ a servant who has charge of the liquors, plate, &c.--_v.i._ to act as butler.--_ns._ BUT'LERSHIP, BUT'LERAGE; BUT'LERY, the butler's pantry. [Norm. Fr. _butuiller_--Low L. _buticularius_. See BOTTLE.] BUTMENT. Same as ABUTMENT. BUTT, but, _v.i._ and _v.t._ to strike with the head, as a goat, &c.--_n._ a push with the head of an animal.--_n._ BUTT'ER, an animal that butts. [O. Fr. _boter_, to push, strike.] BUTT, but, _n._ a large cask: a wine-butt = 126 gallons, a beer and sherry butt = 108 gallons. [Cf. Fr. _botte_, Sp. _bota_, Low L. _butta_.] BUTT, but, _n._ a mark for archery practice: a mound behind musketry or artillery targets: one who is made the object of ridicule.--_n._ BUTT'-SHAFT (_Shak._), a shaft or arrow for shooting at butts with. [Fr. _but_, goal.] BUTT, but, or in longer form, BUTT'-END, _n._ the thick and heavy end: the stump. [Ety. dub.] BUTT, but, _n._ an ox-hide minus the _offal_ or pieces round the margins. BUTTE, b[=u]t, but, _n._ any conspicuous and isolated hill or peak, esp. in the Rocky Mountain region. [Fr.] BUTTER, but'[.e]r, _n._ an oily substance obtained from cream by churning.--_v.t._ to spread over with butter.--_ns._ BUTT'ER-BIRD, the name in Jamaica for the rice-bunting; BUTT'ER-BOAT, a table vessel for holding melted butter; BUTT'ER-BUMP, a bittern; BUTT'ER-BUR, -DOCK, the sweet coltsfoot; BUTT'ERCUP, a plant of the Crowfoot genus, with a cup-like flower of a golden yellow; BUTT'ER-FING'ERS, one who lets a cricket-ball he ought to catch slip through his fingers; BUTT'ER-FISH (see GUNNEL); BUTT'ERFLY, the name of an extensive group of beautiful winged insects: (_fig._) a light-headed person.--_adj._ light, flighty, like a butterfly.--_ns._ BUTT'ERINE, an artificial fatty compound sold as a substitute for butter--since 1887 only allowed to be sold under the names _margarine_ or _oleo-margarine_; BUTT'ER-MILK, the milk that remains after the butter has been separated from the cream by churning; BUTT'ER-NUT, the oily nut of the North American white walnut, the tree itself or its light-coloured close-grained wood: the nut of a lofty timber-tree of Guiana--the _souari-nut_; BUTT'ER-SCOTCH, a kind of toffee containing a large admixture of butter; BUTT'ER-TREE, a genus of plants found in the East Indies and in Africa, remarkable for a sweet buttery substance yielded by their seeds when boiled; BUTT'ER-WIFE, BUTT'ER-WOM'AN, a woman who makes and sells butter; BUTT'ER-WORT, a genus of small plants found in marshy places, so called either from the power of the leaves to coagulate milk, or from their peculiar sliminess.--_adj._ BUTT'ERY, like butter. [A.S. _butere_; Ger. _butter_; both from L. _butyrum_--Gr. _boutyron_--_bous_ ox, _tyros_, cheese.] BUTTERY, but'[.e]r-i, _n._ a storeroom in a house for provisions, esp. liquors.--_ns._ BUTT'ERY-BAR, the ledge for holding tankards in the buttery; BUTT'ERY-HATCH, a half-door over which provisions are handed from the buttery. [Fr. _bouteillerie_, lit. 'place for bottles.' See BUTLER, BOTTLE.] BUTTOCK, but'ok, _n._ the rump or protuberant part of the body behind: a term in wrestling.--_ns._ BUTT'OCK-MAIL (_Scot._), the fine formerly exacted by the Church as part of the discipline for the offence of fornication. [Dim. of BUTT, end.] BUTTON, but'n, _n._ a knob of metal, bone, &c., used to fasten the dress: the knob at the end of a foil: the head of an unexpanded mushroom: the knob of an electric bell, &c.: anything of small value, as in the phrase, 'I don't care a button:' a person who acts as a decoy: (_pl._) young mushrooms, sheep's dung.--_v.t._ to fasten by means of buttons: to close up tightly.--_v.i._ to be fastened with buttons.--_ns._ BUTT'ON-BUSH, a North American shrub of the madder family, having globular flower-heads; BUTT'ON-HOLE, the hole or slit in the dress by which the button is held.--_v.t._ to detain in talk, as if by taking hold of a man by the button.--_ns._ BUTT'ON-HOOK, a hook for pulling the buttons of gloves and shoes through the button-holes; BUTT'ON-WOOD, a small West Indian evergreen tree of the myrobalan family: the plane-tree of the United States--also BUTT'ON-BALL and incorrectly _Sycamore_.--_adj._ BUTT'ONY, decorated with buttons.--BOY IN BUTTONS, a boy servant in livery, a page. [Fr. _bouton_, any small projection, from _bouter_, to push.] BUTTRESS, but'res, _n._ a projecting support built on to the outside of a wall: any support or prop.--_v.t._ to prop or support, as by a buttress. [Acc. to Dr Murray, perh. from O. Fr. _bouterez_, apparently from _bouter_, to push, bear against.] BUTTY, but'i, _n._ (_prov._) a chum, comrade, esp. one who takes a contract for working out a certain area of coal, or a partner in such.--_ns._ BUTT'Y-COLL'IER; BUTT'Y-GANG. BUTYRIC, b[=u]-tir'ik, _adj._ pertaining to or derived from butter.--_n._ B[=U]'TYL, an alcohol radical.--_adj._ BUTYR[=A]'CEOUS, buttery, containing butter.--_n._ B[=U]'TYRATE, a salt of butyric acid.--BUTYRIC ACID, a volatile fatty acid possessing the disagreeable odour of rancid butter. [L. _butyrum_.] BUXOM, buks'um, _adj._ yielding, elastic: gay, lively, jolly.--_n._ BUX'OMNESS, the quality of being buxom: liveliness: gaiety. [M. E. _buhsum_, pliable, obedient--A.S. _búgan_, to bow, yield, and affix SOME.] BUY, b[=i], _v.t._ to purchase for money: to bribe: to obtain in exchange for something:--_pr.p._ buy'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ bought (bawt).--_adj._ BUY'ABLE, capable of being bought.--_n._ BUY'ER, one who buys, a purchaser.--BUY AND SELL (_Shak._), to barter; BUY IN, to purchase a stock: to buy back for the owner at an auction; BUY OFF, or OUT, to gain release from military service by payment of money; BUY OVER, to gain by bribery; BUY UP, to purchase the whole stock. [A.S. _bycgan_; Goth. _bugjan_.] BUZZ, buz, _v.i._ to make a humming noise like bees.--_v.t._ to whisper or spread secretly.--_n._ the noise of bees and flies: a humming sound: a whispered report.--_n._ BUZZ'ER, one who buzzes: (_Shak._) a whisperer or tell-tale.--_adv._ BUZZ'INGLY.--_adj._ BUZZ'Y. [From the sound.] BUZZ, buz, _v.t._ to drink to the bottom. BUZZARD, buz'ard, _n._ a bird of prey of the falcon family: a blockhead: a name for some night moths and cockchafers.--_n._ BUZZ'ARD-CLOCK, a cockchafer, the dor. [Fr. _busard_; prob. from L. _buteo_, a kind of falcon.] BY, b[=i], _prep._ at the side of: near to: through, denoting the agent, cause, means, &c.--_adv._ near: passing near: in presence of: aside, away.--_adv._ BY'-AND-BY, soon, presently.--_ns._ BY'-BLOW, a side blow: an illegitimate child; BY'-COR'NER, an out-of-the-way place; BY'-DRINK'ING (_Shak._), drinking between meals; BY'-ELEC'TION, a parliamentary election during the sitting of parliament: BY'-END, a subsidiary aim; BY'-FORM, a form of a word slightly varying from it; BY'-G[=O]'ING, the action of passing by, esp. IN THE BY-GOING.--_adj._ BY'GONE.--_ns._ BY'-LANE, a side lane or passage out of the common road; BY'-M[=O]'TIVE, an unavowed motive; BY'NAME, a nickname; BY'-PASS'AGE, a side passage.--_adj._ BY'-PAST (_Shak._), past: gone by.--_ns._ BY'PATH, a side path; BY'-PLACE, a retired place; BY'PLAY, a scene carried on, subordinate to and apart from the main part of the play; BY'-PR[=O]'DUCT, an accessory product resulting from some specific process or manufacture; BY'ROAD, a retired side road; BY'ROOM (_Shak._), a side or private room; BY'-SPEECH, a casual speech; BY'STANDER, one who stands by or near one--hence a looker-on; BY'-STREET, an obscure street; BY'-THING, a thing of minor importance; BY'-TIME, leisure time; BY'WAY, a private and obscure way; BY'WORD, a common saying: a proverb: an object of common derision; BY'WORK, work for leisure hours.--BY-THE-BY, BY THE WAY, in passing.--LET BYGONES BE BYGONES, let the past alone. [A.S. _bi_, _big_; Ger. _bei_, L. _ambi_.] BY, BYE, b[=i], _n._ anything of minor importance, a side issue, a thing not directly aimed at: the condition of being odd, as opposed to _even_, the state of being left without a competitor, as in tennis, &c.: in cricket, a run stolen by the batsman on the ball passing the wicket-keeper and long-stop, the batsman not having struck the ball.--BY-THE-BYE, or -BY, incidentally, by the way. BYCOCKET, b[=i]'kok-et, _n._ a turned-up peaked cap worn by noble persons in the 15th century--sometimes erroneously _abacot_. [O. Fr. _bicoquet_, prob. _bi-_ (L. _bis_), double, _coque_, a shell.] BYDE, b[=i]d, _v.i._ Same as BIDE. BYLANDER, obsolete form of BILANDER. BYLAW, BYE-LAW, b[=i]'-law, _n._ the law of a city, town, or private corporation: a supplementary law or regulation. [The same as BYRLAW, from Ice. _byarlög_, Dan. _by-lov_, town-law; Scot. _bir-law_; from Ice. _bua_, to dwell. See BOWER. _By_, town, is the suffix in many place-names. The _by_ in bylaw is generally confused with the preposition.] BYNEMPT, b[=i]-nempt', _pa.t._ of obsolete verb _Bename_ (_Spens._), named. [A.S. pfx. _by-_, _be-_, and _nemnen_, to name. See NAME.] BYOUS, b[=i]'us, _adj._ (_Scot._) extraordinary.--_adv._ BY'OUSLY. BYRE, b[=i]r, _n._ (_Scot._) a cow-house. [A.S. _býre_ _pl._ dwellings--_búr_, a bower. See BOWER.] BYRLADY, bir-l[=a]'di, contraction for _By our Lady_. BYRLAW, bir'law, _n._ a sort of popular jurisprudence formerly in use in Scotland, in villages and among husbandmen, concerning neighbourhood to be kept among themselves.--_n._ BYR'LAW-MAN, still in parts of Scotland, an arbiter, oddsman, or umpire. [A.S. _burh_, a borough.] BYRONIC, b[=i]-ron'ik, _adj._ possessing the characteristics of Lord _Byron_ (1788-1824), or of his poetry, overstrained in sentiment or passion, cynical and libertine.--_adv._ BYRON'ICALLY.--_n._ BY'RONISM. BYSSOLITE, bis'o-l[=i]t, _n._ an olive-green variety of actinolite, in long crystals.--Also AMIAN'TUS. [Gr. _byssos_, byssus, _lithos_, stone.] BYSSUS, bis'us, _n._ a fine yellowish flax, and the linen made from it: the bundle of fine silky filaments by which many shellfish attach themselves to rocks, &c.: a genus of cryptogamic plants of a silky fibrous texture found on decaying wood, in mines, &c., and other dark places.--_adjs._ BYSSIF'EROUS, bearing or having a byssus; BYSS'INE, made of fine linen. [L.--Gr. _byssos_, a fine flaxen or silky substance.] BYZANT, biz'ant. Same as BEZANT. BYZANTINE, biz-an't[=i]n, biz'-, _adj._ relating to _Byzantium_ or Constantinople.--_n._ an inhabitant thereof.--_n._ BYZAN'TINISM, the manifestation of Byzantine characteristics.--BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE, the style prevalent in the Eastern Empire down to 1453, marked by the round arch springing from columns or piers, the dome supported upon pendentives, capitals elaborately sculptured, mosaic or other incrustations, &c.; BYZANTINE CHURCH, the Eastern or Greek Church; BYZANTINE EMPIRE, the Eastern or Greek Empire from 395 A.D. to 1453; BYZANTINE HISTORIANS, the series of Greek chroniclers of the affairs of the Byzantine Empire down to its fall in 1453. * * * * * [Illustration] the third letter of our alphabet, originally having the sound of _g_, then of _k_, and finally, in some languages, equivalent to _s_: (_mus._) name of one of the notes of the gamut, also the sound on which the system is founded--the scale C major has neither flats nor sharps, and therefore is called the _natural scale_. CAABA, kä'a-ba, _n._ the Moslem Holy of Holies, a square building at Mecca, containing the famous Black Stone built into the south-east corner at a height convenient for being kissed. [Ar.] CAAING-WHALE, kä'ing-hw[=a]l, _n._ one of the Cetacea, in the dolphin family, very gregarious, and oftener stranded than any other 'whale'--16 to 24 feet long, and 10 feet in girth. Other names are _Pilot-whale_, _Black-fish_, _Social Whale_, _Grindhval_. [Scot. _ca_, to drive.] CAB, kab, _n._ a public carriage of various sizes and shapes, with two or four wheels, drawn by one horse.--_ns._ CAB'BY, a shortened form of CAB'MAN, one who drives a cab for hire; CAB'-STAND, a place where cabs stand for hire; CAB'-TOUT, one whose business it is to call cabs.--CABMEN'S SHELTER, a place of shelter for cabmen while waiting for hire. [Shortened from CABRIOLET.] CAB, kab, _n._ a Hebrew dry measure = nearly three pints. [Heb. _kab_--_kabab_, to hollow.] CABAL, ka-bal', _n._ a small party united for some secret design: the plot itself: a name in English history esp. given to five unpopular ministers of Charles II. (1672), whose initials happened to make up the word.--_v.i._ to form a party for a secret purpose: to plot:--_pr.p._ cabal'ling.--_n._ CABAL'LER, a plotter or intriguer. [Fr. _cabale_; from CABALA.] CABALLERO, kä-bä-ly[=a]'r[=o], _n._ a Spanish gentleman: a Spanish dance. CABALLINE, kab'a-lin, _adj._ pertaining to, or suited to, a horse. [L. _caballinus_--_caballus_, a horse.] CABARET, kab'a-ret, _n._ a small tavern. [Fr., prob. for _cabanaret_--_cabane_, a hut.] CABAS, CABA, kab'a, _n._ a woman's work-basket or reticule: a rush basket or pannier. [Fr.] CABBAGE, kab'[=a]j, _n._ a well-known kitchen vegetable.--_ns._ CABB'AGE-BUTT'ERFLY, a large butterfly whose larvæ injure the leaves of cabbage and other cruciferous plants; CABB'AGE-MOTH, a moth whose larva feeds on the cabbage; CABB'AGE-PALM, CABB'AGE-TREE, a name given in different countries to different species of palm, the great terminal bud of which is eaten cooked like cabbage, or sometimes also raw in salads; CABB'AGE-ROSE, a species of rose which has a thick form like a cabbage-head; CABB'AGE-WORM, the larva of the cabbage-butterfly or of the cabbage-moth. [Fr. _caboche_, head (_choux cabus_, a cabbage); from L. _caput_, the head.] CABBAGE, kab'[=a]j, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to purloin, esp. a tailor of portions of a customer's cloth.--_n._ cloth so appropriated. CABBALA, CABALA, kab'a-la, _n._ a secret science of the Jewish rabbis for the interpretation of the hidden sense of Scripture, claimed to be handed down by oral tradition.--_ns._ CABB'ALISM, the science of the cabbala; CABB'ALIST, one versed in the cabbala.--_adjs._ CABBALIST'IC, -AL, relating to the cabbala: having a hidden meaning. [Heb. _qabb[=a]l[=a]h_, tradition, _qibb[=e]l_, to receive.] CABER, k[=a]b'[.e]r, _n._ a pole, generally the stem of a young tree, which is poised and tossed or hurled by Highland athletes. [Gael.] CABIN, kab'in, _n._ a hut or cottage: a small room, esp. in a ship, for officers or passengers--hence CAB'IN-PASS'ENGER, one paying for superior accommodation.--_v.t._ to shut up in a cabin.--_v.i._ to dwell in a cabin.--_n._ CAB'IN-BOY, a boy who waits on the officers or those who live in the cabin of a ship. [Fr. _cabane_--Low L. _capanna_.] CABINET, kab'in-et, _n._ (_obs._) a little cabin or hut: (_Shak._) the bed or nest of a beast or bird: a small room, closet, or private apartment: a case of drawers for articles of value: a private room for consultation, esp. a king's--hence THE CABINET, a limited number of the chief ministers who govern England, being the leaders of the majority in parliament.--_ns._ CAB'INET-COUN'CIL, a council or consultation of the members of the Cabinet; CAB'INET-EDI'TION (of a book), one less in size and price than a library edition, but still elegant in format; CAB'INET-MAK'ER, a maker of cabinets and other fine furniture; CAB'INET-PH[=O]'TOGRAPH, one of the size larger than a carte-de-visite. [Dim. of CABIN; cf. mod. Fr. _cabinet_.] CABIRI, ka-b[=i]'r[=i], _n.pl._ ancient divinities of Semitic origin, associated with fire and creative energy, worshipped in mysteries in Lemnos, Samothrace, and Indros--also CABEI'RI.--_adjs._ CABIR'IAN, CABIR'IC. CABLE, k[=a]'bl, _n._ a strong rope or chain which ties anything, esp. a ship to her anchor: a nautical measure of 100 fathoms; a cable for submarine telegraphs composed of wires embedded in gutta-percha and encased in coiled strands of iron wire; a bundle of insulated wires laid underground in a street: a cable-message.--_v.t._ to provide with a cable, to tie up: to transmit a message, or to communicate with any one by submarine telegram.--_ns._ C[=A]'BLEGRAM, a message sent by submarine telegraph cable; C[=A]'BLE-MOULD'ING, a bead or moulding carved in imitation of a thick rope; C[=A]'BLING, a bead or moulding like a thick rope, often worked in flutes: the filling of flutes with a moulding like a cable.--SLIP THE CABLE, to let it run out. [Fr.--Low L. _caplum_, a halter--_cap-[)e]re_, to hold.] CABOB, ka-bob', _n._ an Oriental dish of pieces of meat roasted with herbs: roast meat generally in India. [Ar. _kab[=a]b_.] CABOCHED, CABOSHED, ka-bosht', _adj._ (_her._) bearing the head of an animal, with only the face seen. [Fr. _caboché_--L. _caput_, head.] CABOCHON, ka-b[=o]-shong, _n._ a precious stone polished but uncut.--EN CABOCHON, rounded on top and flat on back, without facets--garnets, moonstone, &c. [Fr.] CABOODLE, ka-b[=oo]'dl, _n._ (_slang_) crowd, company. CABOOSE, ka-b[=oo]s', _n._ the kitchen or cooking-stove of a ship. [Dut. _kombuis_; cf. Ger. _kabuse_.] CABRIOLE. See CAPRIOLE. CABRIOLET, kab-ri-[=o]-l[=a]', _n._ a covered carriage with two or four wheels drawn by one horse. [Fr. See CAPRIOLE. By 1830 shortened into CAB.] CACAO, ka-k[=a]'o, ka-kä'o, _n._ the chocolate-tree, from the seeds of which chocolate is made. [Mex. _cacauatl_.] CACHÆMIA, CACHEMIA, ka-k[=e]'mi-a, _n._ a morbid state of the blood.--_adj._ CACH[=E]'MIC. [Gr. _kakos_, bad, _haima_, blood.] CACHALOT, kash'a-lot, _n._ the sperm-whale. [Fr.] CACHE, kash, _n._ a hiding-place for treasure, for stores of provisions, ammunition, &c.: the stores themselves so hidden.--_v.t._ to hide anything.--_n._ CACHE'POT, an ornamental flower-pot enclosing a common one of earthenware. [Fr. _cacher_, to hide.] CACHET, kash'[=a], _n._ a seal, any distinctive stamp.--LETTRE DE CACHET, a letter under the private seal of the king of France under the old régime, by which the royal pleasure was made known to individuals, and the administration of justice often interfered with. [Fr.] CACHEXY, ka-kek'si, _n._ a bad state of body: a depraved habit of mind.--_adjs._ CACHEC'TIC, -AL. [L.--Gr. _kachexia_--_kakos_, bad, _hexis_, condition.] CACHINNATION, kak-in-[=a]'shun, _n._ loud laughter.--_adj._ CACHIN'NATORY. [L. _cachinnation-em_, _cachinn[=a]re_, to laugh loudly--from the sound.] CACHOLONG, kash'o-long, _n._ a variety of quartz or of opal, generally of a milky colour. [Fr.] CACHOLOT. Same as CACHALOT. CACHOU, kash'[=oo], _n._ a sweetmeat, made in the form of a pill, of extract of liquorice, cashew-nut, or the like, used by some smokers in the hope to sweeten their breath. [Fr.] CACHUCHA, kach'[=oo]ch-a, _n._ a lively Spanish dance. [Sp.] CACIQUE, ka-s[=e]k', _n._ a native chief among the West Indian aborigines. [Haytian.] CACKLE, kak'l, _n._ the sound made by a hen or goose.--_v.i._ to make such a sound.--_ns._ CACK'LER, a fowl that cackles: a talkative, gossiping person; CACK'LING, noise of a goose or hen. [M. E. _cakelen_; cog. with Dut. _hakelen_.] CACODEMON, kak-o-d[=e]'mon, _n._ an evil spirit: (_Shak._) a nightmare. [Gr. _kakos_, bad, and DEMON.] CACODYL, kak'o-dil, _n._ a colourless stinking liquid, composed of arsenic, carbon, and hydrogen. [Gr. _kak[=o]d[=e]s_, ill-smelling.] CACOETHES, kak-o-[=e]'th[=e]z, _n._ an obstinate habit or disposition. [Gr. _kakos_, bad, _[=e]thos_, habit.] CACOGASTRIC, kak-[=o]-gas'trik, _adj._ pertaining to a disordered stomach, dyspeptic. [Gr. _kakos_, bad, _gast[=e]r_, the stomach.] CACOGRAPHY, kak-og'ra-fi, _n._ bad writing or spelling.--_adj._ CACOGRAPH'IC [Gr. _kakos_, bad, and _graphia_, writing.] CACOLET, kak'o-l[=a], _n._ a military mule-litter for sick and wounded. [Fr.; prob. Basque.] CACOLOGY, ka-kol'o-ji, _n._ bad grammar or pronunciation. [Gr. _kakos_, bad, _logos_, speech.] CACOON, ka-k[=oo]n', _n._ a large seed of a tropical climber of the bean family, used for making scent-bottles, snuff boxes, purses, &c.: a purgative and emetic seed of a tropical American climber of the gourd family. CACOPHONY, ka-kof'[=o]-ni, _n._ a disagreeable sound: discord of sounds.--_adjs._ CACOPH'ONOUS, CACOPHON'IC, -AL, CACOPH[=O]'NIOUS, harsh-sounding. [Gr. _kakos_, bad, _ph[=o]n[=e]_, sound.] CACTUS, kak'tus, _n._ an American plant, generally with prickles instead of leaves.--_adj._ CACT[=A]'CEOUS, pertaining to or like the cactus. [Gr., a prickly plant found in Sicily.] CAD, kad, _n._ a low, mean, or vulgar fellow: a bus driver or conductor, a tavern-yard loafer.--_adj._ CAD'DISH. [Short for CADET.] CADASTRAL, ka-das'tral, _adj._ pertaining to a CADASTRE or public register of the lands of a country for fiscal purposes: applied also to a survey on a large scale, like our Ordnance Survey on the scale of 25 inches to the mile. [Fr.--Low L. _capitastrum_, register for a poll-tax--L. _caput_, the head.] CADAVEROUS, ka-dav'[.e]-rus, _adj._ looking like a dead body: sickly-looking.--_n._ CAD[=A]V'ER (_surg._ and _anat._), a corpse.--_adj._ CADAV'ERIC.--_n._ CADAV'EROUSNESS. [L. _cadaver_, a dead body--_cad-[)e]re_, to fall dead.] CADDICE, CADDIS, kad'dis, _n._ the larva of the May-fly and other species of Phryganea, which lives in water in a sheath formed of fragments of wood, stone, shell, leaves, &c., open at both ends--caddis-worms form excellent bait for trout.--_n._ CAD'DIS-FLY. CADDIE, kad'i, _n._ a lad who attends a golfer at play, carrying his clubs: in 18th century a messenger or errand porter in Edinburgh. [See CADET.] CADDIS, kad'dis, _n._ (_Shak._) worsted ribbon. [O. Fr. _cadaz_, _cadas_.] CADDY, kad'i, _n._ a small box for holding tea. [Malay _kati_, the weight of the small packets in which tea is made up.] CADE, k[=a]d, _n._ a barrel or cask. [Fr.--L. _cadus_, a cask.] CADE, k[=a]d, _n._ and _adj._ a lamb or colt brought up by hand, a pet lamb. [Ety. unknown.] CADEAU, kad'o, _n._ a present. [Fr.] CADENAS, kad'e-nas, _n._ in medieval times, a locked casket containing a great man's table requisites, knife, fork, spoon, &c., often in the form of a ship. [O. Fr.,--L. _catena_, a chain.] CADENCE, k[=a]'dens, _n._ the fall of the voice at the end of a sentence: tone, sound, modulation.--_adj._ C[=A]'DENCED, rhythmical.--_n._ C[=A]'DENCY, regularity of movement: (_her._) the relative status of younger sons.--_adj._ C[=A]'DENT (_Shak._), falling.--_n._ CADEN'ZA, a flourish given by a solo voice or instrument at the close of a movement. [Fr.--L. _cad-[)e]re_, to fall.] CADET, ka-det', _n._ the younger or youngest son: a member of the younger branch of a family: in the army, one who serves as a private to become an officer: a student in a military school.--_n._ CADET'SHIP.--CADET CORPS, parties of boys undergoing military training. [Fr. _cadet_, formerly _capdet_--Low L. _capitettum_, dim. of _caput_, the head.] CADGE, kaj, _v.i._ to beg or go about begging.--_n._ CADG'ER, a carrier who collects country produce, a hawker: a fellow who picks up his living about the streets. [Prob. conn. with CATCH.] CADGY, kaj'i, _adj._ (_prov._) frolicsome: wanton. [Cf. Dan. _kaad_, wanton, Ice. _kátr_, merry.] CADI, k[=a]'di, _n._ a judge in Mohammedan countries. [Ar. _q[=a]d[=i]_, a judge.] CADMEAN, kad-m[=e]'an, _adj._ relating to _Cadmus_, who introduced the original Greek alphabet. CADMIA, kad'mi-a, _n._ oxide of zinc, containing from 10 to 20 per cent. of cadmium. [Gr. _kadmia_, _kadmeia_ (_ge_), Cadmean (earth), calamine.] CADMIUM, kad'mi-um, _n._ a white metal occurring in zinc ores. [See CADMIA.] CADRANS, kad'rans, _n._ a wooden instrument by which a gem is adjusted while being cut. [Fr. _cadran_, a quadrant.] CADRE, kad'r, _n._ a nucleus, framework, esp. the permanent skeleton of a regiment or corps, the commissioned and non-commissioned officers, &c., around whom the rank and file may be quickly grouped. [Fr.] [Illustration] CADUCEUS, ka-d[=u]'se-us, _n._ (_myth._) the rod carried by Mercury, the messenger of the gods--a wand surmounted with two wings and entwined by two serpents.--_adj._ CAD[=U]'CEAN. [L., akin to Gr. _k[=e]rukeion_, a herald's wand--_k[=e]rux_, a herald.] CADUCIBRANCHIATE, ka-d[=u]i-si-brang'ki-[=a]t, _adj._ losing the gills on attaining maturity, as all the salamanders.--_n.pl._ CADUCIBRANCHI[=A]'TA. [L. _caducus_, caducous, _branchiæ_, gills.] CADUCOUS, ka-d[=u]'kus, _adj._ falling early, as leaves or flowers.--_n._ CAD[=U]'CITY, transitoriness, senility. [L. _caducus_--_cad-[)e]re_, to fall.] CÆCUM, s[=e]'kum, _n._ a blind sac: a sac or bag having only one opening, connected with the intestine of an animal.--_adj._ CÆ'CAL. [L.--_cæcus_, blind.] CAEN-STONE, k[=a]'en-st[=o]n, _n._ a cream-coloured limestone brought from _Caen_ in France. CÆSAR, s[=e]'zar, _n._ an absolute monarch, an autocrat, from the Roman dictator Caius Julius Cæsar (100-44 B.C.).--_adj._ CÆSAR'EAN, relating to Julius Cæsar.--_ns._ CÆ'SARISM; CÆ'SARIST; CÆ'SARSHIP.--CÆSAREAN OPERATION, the popular name for Hysterotomy, the delivery of a child by cutting through the walls of the abdomen, as is said to have been the case with Cæsar. CÆSIUM, s[=e]z'i-um, _n._ a silver-white, soft, and extensile alkaline metal, almost always found along with rubidium, discovered by Bunsen and Kirchhoff in 1860 by spectrum analysis.--_adj._ CÆS'IOUS, bluish green. [L. _cæsius_, bluish gray.] CÆSURA, CESURA, s[=e]-z[=u]'ra, _n._ a syllable cut off at the end of a word after the completion of a foot: a pause in a verse.--_adj._ CÆS[=U]'RAL. [L.--_cæd[)e]re_, _cæsum_, to cut off.] CAFÉ, käf'[=a], _n._ a coffee-house, a restaurant.--CAFÉ CHANTANT, a public place of entertainment where the guests hear music while sipping their liquor. [Fr.] CAFFEINE, kaf'e-in, or kaf-[=e]'in, _n._ the alkaloid or active principle of coffee and tea. [Fr. _caféine_. See COFFEE.] CAFFRE, kaf'f[.e]r, _n._ more correctly KAFIR (q.v.). CAFTAN, kaf'tan, _n._ a Persian or Turkish vest. [Turk. _qaftán_.] CAGE, k[=a]j, _n._ a place of confinement: a box made of wire and wood for holding birds or small animals: (_mining_) a frame with one or more platforms for cars, used in hoisting in a vertical shaft: the framework supporting a peal of bells.--_v.t._ to imprison in a cage--_p.adj._ CAGED, confined.--_ns._ CAGE'LING, a bird kept in a cage; CAGE'-WORK, open work like the bars of a cage. [Fr.--L. _cavea_, a hollow place.] CAGOT, kag'[=o], _n._ one of an outcast race found scattered in the district of the western Pyrenees, most likely the descendants of lepers. [Fr.; origin unknown.] CAHIER, ka-y[=a]', _n._ a writing-book, memorandum or report: a memorial. [Fr.] CAHOOT, ka-h[=oo]t', _n._ (_U.S._) company or partnership. CAILLACH, k[=i]l'yah, _n._ an old woman. [Gael. _cailleach_.] CAIMAC, CAIMACAM. See KAIMAKAM. CAIMAN. Same as CAYMAN. CAIN, k[=a]n, _n._ a murderer, from _Cain_, who killed his brother Abel (Gen. iv.).--_adj._ CAIN'-COL'OURED (_Shak._), reddish, the traditional colour of the hair of Cain and Judas.--_n._ CAIN'ITE, a descendant of Cain: a member of a 2d-century set of Gnostics who revered Cain and Judas. CAIN, KAIN, k[=a]n, _n._ in old Scots law, rent paid in kind, esp. in poultry, &c.--TO PAY THE CAIN, to pay the penalty. [Ir. and Gael, _cáin_, rent, tax.] CAINOZOIC, k[=a]-no-z[=o]'ik, _adj._ belonging to the third of the great periods of geology, the same as the Tertiary (q.v.). [Gr. _kainos_, newly made, recent, _z[=o]on_, animal.] CAIQUE, kä-[=e]k', _n._ a light skiff used on the Bosporus: the skiff of a galley. [Fr.,--Turk. _kaik_, a boat.] CAIRD, k[=a]rd, _n._ a tramping tinker, a gipsy, a vagrant. [Gael. and Ir. _ceard_.] CAIRN, k[=a]rn, _n._ a heap of stones, esp. one raised over a grave, or as a landmark on a mountain-top.--_n._ CAIRN'GORM-STONE, or simply CAIRNGORM, a name often given by jewellers to brown or yellow quartz or rock-crystal, because found among the Cairngorm Mountains in Aberdeenshire. [Celt. _carn_.] CAISSON, k[=a]s'on, _n._ a tumbril or ammunition wagon: a chest filled with explosive materials: a strong case for keeping out the water while the foundations of a bridge are being built: an apparatus for lifting a vessel out of the water for repairs or inspection: the pontoon or floating gate used to close a dry-dock. [Fr., from _caisse_, a case or chest. See CASE.] CAITIFF, k[=a]'tif, _n._ a mean despicable fellow.--_adj._ mean, base.--_n._ CAI'TIVE (_Spens._), captive, subject. [O. Fr. _caitif_, (Fr. _chétif_)--L. _captivus_, a captive--_cap-[)e]re_, to take.] CAJOLE, ka-j[=o]l', _v.t._ to coax: to cheat by flattery.--_ns._ CAJOLE'MENT, coaxing for the purpose of deluding: wheedling language: flattery; CAJOL'ER; CAJOL'ERY. [Fr. _cajoler_, to chatter; ety. dub.] CAJUPUT, kaj'i-put, _n._ a pungent, volatile, aromatic oil, distilled from the leaves of two trees native to Australia.--Also CAJ'EPUT. [Malay.] CAKE, k[=a]k, _n._ a piece of dough that is baked: a small loaf of fine bread: any flattened mass baked, as _pan_-_cake_, &c., or as soap, wax, tobacco, &c.: a thin hard-baked kind of oaten-bread--whence Scotland is styled the 'Land of Cakes:' fancy bread, sweetened: a composition of bread with butter, sugar, spices, currants, raisins, &c., baked into any form--_plum-cake_, _tea-cake_, _wedding-cake_.--_v.t._ to form into a cake or hard mass.--_v.i._ to become baked or hardened.--_adj._ CAK'Y.--CAKES AND ALE, a phrase covering vaguely all the good things of life.--TO TAKE THE CAKE (_slang_), to carry off the honours, rank first. [Scand. _kaka_; cog. with Ger. _kuche_, Dut. _koek_.] CALABAR-BEAN, käl'a-bär-b[=e]n, _n._ the seed of _Physostigma venenosum_, the ordeal bean of Old Calabar, used in the form of an emulsion in cases of witchcraft, the accused being plainly innocent if he can throw off the poison by vomiting. CALABASH, kal'a-bash, _n._ a tree of tropical America, bearing a large melon-like fruit, the shell of which, called a calabash, is used for domestic purposes, as holding liquids, &c. [Fr. _calebasse_--Sp. _calabaza_--Pers. _kharbuz_, melon.] CALABOOSE, kal'a-b[=oo]s, _n._ a prison in New Orleans, esp. a common lock-up. [Sp. _calabozo_, a dungeon.] CALADIUM, kal-[=a]'di-um, _n._ a genus of plants of the Arum family, with edible starchy root-stocks. [Latinised from Malay _kél[=a]dy_.] CALAMANCO, kal-a-mangk'o, _n._ a satin-twilled woollen stuff, checkered or brocaded in the warp. [Dut. _kalamink_, Ger. _kalmank_, Fr. _calmande_; origin unknown.] CALAMANDER, kal'a-man-d[.e]r, _n._ a hard and valuable cabinet-wood of a brownish colour, with black stripes, brought from India and Ceylon. [Prob. Singh.] CALAMARY, kal'a-mar-i, _n._ a popular name applied to numerous forms of cuttle-fish or Cephalopoda, more esp. to _Loligo vulgaris_.--Also SQUID. [Sp. _calamar_--Fr. _calmar_--L. _calamarius_, _calamus_, a pen.] CALAMINE, kal'a-m[=i]n, _n._ an ore consisting essentially of carbonate of zinc. [Fr.--Low L. _calamina_, most prob. from L. _cadmia_.] CALAMINT, kal'a-mint, _n._ a genus of Labiate plants closely allied to balm and thyme. [Fr.--Low L. _calamentum_, through L. from Gr. _kalaminth[=e]_.] CALAMITE, kal'a-m[=i]t, _n._ a fossil plant abundant in the coal-measures, believed to be a kind of gigantic horse-tails (_Equisetaceæ_). [Formed from L. _calamus_, a reed.] CALAMITY, kal-am'i-ti, _n._ a great misfortune: affliction.--_adj._ CALAM'ITOUS, making wretched, disastrous.--_adv._ CALAM'ITOUSLY, in a calamitous manner.--_n._ CALAM'ITOUSNESS, the quality of producing distress: distress: misery. [Fr. _calamité_--L. _calamitat-em_.] CALAMUS, kal'a-mus, _n._ the traditional name of the sweet flag, which is no doubt the _Calamus aromaticus_ of Roman authors, and probably the sweet calamus and sweet cane of Scripture, but not the fragrant lemon-grass of India: a genus of palms whose stems make canes or rattans: the reed pen used by the ancients in writing. [L.--Gr.] CALASH, ka-lash', _n._ a light low-wheeled carriage with a folding top: a silk and whalebone hood worn by ladies to shade the face. [Fr. _calèche_; of Slav. origin, as Bohem. _kolésa_, Russ. _koleso_, a wheel.] CALAVANCE, kal'a-vans, _n._ a name for certain varieties of pulse.--Also CAR'AVANCE. [Sp. _garbanzo_, chickpea, said to be the Basque _garbantzu_.] CALCANEUM, kal-k[=a]'n[=e]-um, _n._ a bone of the tarsus or ankle, forming in man the prominence of the heel, the _os calcis_: in birds, the hypotarsus.--_adjs._ CALC[=A]'NEAL, CALC[=A]'NEAN. [L., the heel--_calx_, the heel.] CALCAR, kal'kar, _n._ (_bot._) a spur or spur-like projection, esp. from the base of a petal: (_anat._) an eminence in the lateral ventricles of the brain, the hippocampus minor or calcar avis.--_adjs._ CAL'CARATE; CALCAR'IFORM; CAL'CARINE. [L., a spur--_calx_, _calcis_, the heel.] CALCAR, kal'kar, _n._ an oven or furnace for calcining the materials of frit before melting--also _Fritting-furnace_: an arch or oven for annealing. CALCAREOUS, kal-k[=a]'re-us, _adj._ like or containing chalk or lime, whether waters, rocks, or soils.--_n._ CALC[=A]'REOUSNESS.--_adj._ CALCARIF'EROUS, better CALCIF'EROUS, containing lime. [L. _calcarius_, from _calx_, lime.] CALCEAMENTUM, kal-s[=e]-a-men'tum, _n._ a red silk embroidered sandal forming part of the insignia of the Holy Roman Empire. [L.] CALCED, kalst, _adj._ shod, wearing shoes--opp. to _Discalced_--of Carmelites.--_v.t._ CAL'C[=E]ATE, to shoe.--_adjs._ CAL'C[=E]ATE, -D, shod; CAL'C[=E]IFORM (_bot._), having the form of a slipper; CAL'C[=E]OLATE, calceiform. [Low L. _calceus_, a shoe--_calx_, _calcis_, the heel.] CALCEOLARIA, kal-se-o-l[=a]'ri-a, _n._ a South American genus of _Scrophulariaceæ_, largely cultivated as half-hardy or greenhouse plants for the beauty and variety in colour of the two-lipped slipper-like flowers. [L. _calceolus_, dim. of _calceus_, a shoe.] CALCIUM, kal'si-um, _n._ the metal present in chalk, stucco, and other compounds of lime.--_adjs._ CAL'CIC, containing calcium; CAL'CIFIC, calcifying or calcified.--_v.i._ CAL'CIFIC[=A]'TION, the process of calcifying, a changing into lime.--_adjs._ CAL'CIFORM, like chalk, pebbly; CALCIF'UGOUS, avoiding limestone.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ CAL'CIFY, to make calcic: to turn into bony tissue.--_adjs._ CALCIG'ENOUS, forming lime; CALCIG'EROUS, containing lime.--_n._ CAL'CIMINE, a white or tinted wash for ceilings, walls, &c., consisting of whiting, with glue, &c.--_v.t._ to wash with such.--_adj._ CAL'CINABLE, capable of being calcined.--_n._ CALCIN[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ CAL'CINE, or CALCINE', to reduce to a calx or chalky powder by the action of heat, to burn to ashes.--_v.i._ to become a calx or powder by heat.--_ns._ CAL'CITE, native calcium carbonate, or carbonate of lime--also called CALC[=A]'REOUS SPAR and CALC'SPAR; CALC'-SIN'TER, CALC'-TUFF, TRA'VERTIN, a porous deposit from springs or rivers which in flowing through limestone rocks have become charged with calcium carbonate. [Formed from L. _calx_, chalk.] CALCOGRAPHY. See CHALCOGRAPHY. CALCULATE, kal'k[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to count or reckon: to think out: to adapt, fit (only passive, with _for_): (_U.S._) to think, purpose.--_v.i._ to make a calculation: to estimate.--_adjs._ CAL'CULABLE; CAL'CULATING, given to forethought, deliberately selfish and scheming.--_n._ CALCUL[=A]'TION, the art or process of calculating: estimate: forecast.--_adj._ CAL'CUL[=A]TIVE, relating to calculation.--_n._ CAL'CUL[=A]TOR, one who calculates. [L. _calcul[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to reckon by help of little stones--_calculus_, dim. of _calx_, a little stone.] CALCULUS, kal'k[=u]-lus, _n._ a stone-like concretion which forms in certain parts of the body: one of the higher branches of mathematics:--_pl._ CALCULI (kal'k[=u]-li).--_adj._ CAL'CULOSE, stony or like stone: gritty: affected with stone or with gravel.--CALCULUS OF FINITE DIFFERENCES not merely does not consider differentials, but does not assume continuity.--DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS, a method of treating the values of ratios of differentials or the increments of quantities continually varying; INTEGRAL CALCULUS, the summation of an infinite series of differentials. [L.--_calx_.] CALDRON. Same as CAULDRON. CALEDONIAN, kal-e-d[=o]'ni-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Caledonia_, or Scotland.--_n._ a Scotchman. CALEFACTION, kal-e-fak'shun, _adj._ act of heating: state of being heated.--_adj._ CALEF[=A]'CIENT, warming.--_n._ anything that warms: a blister or superficial stimulant.--_adj._ CALEFAC'TIVE, communicating heat.--_n._ CALEFAC'TOR, a small stove.--_adj._ CALEFAC'TORY, warming.--_n._ a room in which monks warmed themselves: a warming-pan, a pome.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ CAL'EFY, to grow warm: to make warm.--_n._ CALES'CENCE, increasing warmth. [L.,--_cal[=e]re_, to grow hot, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] CALENDAR, kal'en-dar, _n._ the mode of adjusting the natural divisions of time with respect to each other for the purposes of civil life: an almanac or table of months, days, and seasons, or of special facts, &c., as in the 'gardener's calendar,' &c.: a list of documents arranged chronologically with summaries of contents, as in 'calendar of state papers:' a list of canonised saints, or of prisoners awaiting trial: any list or record.--_v.t._ to place in a list: to analyse and index.--_ns._ CAL'ENDARER, CAL'ENDARIST. [O. Fr. _calendier_--L. _calendarium_, an account-book, _kalendæ_, calends.] CALENDER, kal'en-d[.e]r, _n._ a press consisting of two rollers for smoothing and dressing cloth, paper, &c.: a person who calenders, properly a calendrer.--_v.t._ to dress in a calender.--_ns._ CAL'ENDERING; CAL'ENDRER, one whose business it is to calender cloth; CAL'ENDRY, a place where calendering is done. [Fr. _calandre_--L. _cylindrus_--L. _kylindros_.] CALENDER, kal'en-d[.e]r, _n._ a word somewhat loosely used for dervish in Persia and Central Asia. [Pers.] CALENDS, kal'endz, _n._ among the Romans, the first day of each month. [L. _Kalendæ_--_cal[)a]re_, Gr. _kalein_, to call, because the beginning of the month was proclaimed.] CALENTURE, kal'en-t[=u]r, _n._ a kind of fever or delirium occurring on board ship in hot climates. [Fr. and Sp.--L. _calent-em_, _cal[=e]re_, to be hot.] CALESCENCE. See CALEFACTION. CALF, käf, _n._ the young of the cow and of some other animals, as marine mammals: calf-skin leather, bookbinding in such: a stupid or a cowardly person:--_pl._ CALVES (kävz).--_ns._ CALF'-LOVE, an attachment between a boy and girl; CALF'S'-FOOT, CALVES'-FOOT, the foot of the calf, used in making a palatable jelly; CALF'-SKIN, the skin of the calf, making a good leather for bookbinding and shoes.--DIVINITY CALF, a dark-brown calf bookbinding, with blind stamping, and without gilding--common in the binding of theological books; GOLDEN CALF, the idol set up by Aaron during the absence of Moses on Sinai, or those erected by Jeroboam at Bethel and Dan: worship of Mammon or wealth; HALF-CALF, a bookbinding in which the back and corners are in calf-skin; MOTTLED CALF, a light coloured bookbinding, decorated by the sprinkling of acid in drops; SMOOTH CALF, a binding in plain or undecorated calf leather.--THE CALVES OF OUR LIPS (Hosea, xiv. 2), an offering of praise (the Septuagint reads, 'The fruit of our lips').--TREE CALF, a bright brown calf bookbinding, stained by acids with a pattern resembling the trunk and branches of a tree. [A.S. _cealf_; Ger. _kalb_.] CALF, käf, _n._ the thick fleshy part of the leg behind.--_adj._ CALF'LESS, with a thin, poor calf. [Ice. _kalfi_; perh. the same word as the preceding.] CALIBAN, kal'i-ban, _n._ a man of beastly nature, from the monster in Shakespeare's _Tempest_. CALIBRE, CALIBER, kal'i-b[.e]r, _n._ the size of the bore of a gun: diameter: intellectual capacity.--_adj._ CAL'IBERED.--_v.t._ CAL'IBR[=A]TE, to determine the calibre of.--_n._ CALIBR[=A]'TION. [Fr. _calibre_, the bore of a gun; prob. L. _qu[=a] libr[=a]_, with what weight, or from Ar. _q[=a]lib_, a form.] CALICO, kal'i-k[=o], _n._ a cotton cloth, first brought from _Calicut_ in India: plain white unprinted cotton cloth, bleached or unbleached: coarse printed cotton cloth.--_adj._ made of calico: spotted--_n._ CAL'ICO-PRINT'ER, one employed in printing calicoes. CALID, kal'id, _adj._ warm.--_n._ CALID'ITY. [L. _calidus_, hot.] CALIF, CALIPH, k[=a]'lif, or kal'if, _n._ the name assumed by the successors of Mohammed.--_ns._ CAL'IFATE, CAL'IPHATE, the office, rank, or government of a calif. [Fr.--Ar. _khal[=i]fah_, a successor.] CALIGINOUS, kal-ij'en-us, _adj._ dim, obscure, dark.--_n._ CALIGINOS'ITY. [L. _caliginos-us_.] CALIGRAPHY. See under CALLIGRAPHY. CALIPASH, kal'i-pash, _n._ the part of a turtle close to the upper shell, consisting of a fatty gelatinous substance of a dull greenish colour.--_n._ CAL'IPEE, the white portion from the belly--a fatty gelatinous substance of a light-yellowish colour. [Prob. corr. of West Ind. words.] CALIPERS, kal'i-p[.e]rz, CALIPER-COMPASSES, kal'i-p[.e]r-kum'pasez, _n.pl._ compasses with legs suitable for measuring the inside or outside diameter of bodies. [Corr. of CALIBER.] CALIPH, CALIPHATE. See CALIF. CALIPPIC, kal-ip'ik, _adj._ four Metonic cycles less one day, or seventy-six years. [From the Greek astronomer _Callipus_, a contemporary of Aristotle.] CALISAYA, kal-i-s[=a]'ya, _n._ a variety of Peruvian bark. CALIVER, kal'i-v[.e]r, _n._ (_Shak._) a kind of light musket. [Same as CALIBRE.] CALIX. See CALYX. CALIXTIN, CALIXTINE, kal-iks'tin, _adj._ of or belonging to the more moderate party among the Hussites, so called from their demanding the cup (L. _calix_) as well as the bread for the laity--also called U'TRAQUISTS (L. _uterque_, both).--_n._ a follower of the Syncretist Lutheran divine, George _Calixtus_ (1586-1656). CALK. See CAULK. CALK, kawk, _n._ a pointed piece of iron on a horse-shoe to prevent slipping--also CALK'IN and CALK'ER.--_v.t._ to provide a shoe with a calk. [L. _calc-em_, _calx_, a heel.] CALK, CALQUE, kawk, _v.t._ to chalk, as the back of a drawing, &c., in order to transfer it, to copy by tracing.--_n._ CALK'ING, the copying of a picture by means of tracing. CALL, kawl, _v.i._ to cry aloud (with _out_; _to_, _after_, _at_, _up_, _down_): to make a short visit (with _upon_, _for_, _at_).--_v.t._ to name: to summon: to appoint or proclaim: to designate or reckon: to select for a special office, as in 'called to be an apostle,' 'to be called to the bar:' (_coll._) to call bad names to some one.--_n._ a summons or invitation: an impulse: a demand: a short visit: a shrill whistle: the cry of a bird: admission to the rank of barrister: an invitation to the pastorate of a congregation, also the written form of such with appended list of names of persons concurring: (_coll._) occasion, cause.--_ns._ CALL'-AT-LARGE, a form of pastoral call sometimes adopted by a presbytery where a congregation is not unanimous, in which the name of the person to be called is not inscribed beforehand, and names cannot be adhibited by mandate; CALL'-BIRD, a bird trained to allure others into snares; CALL'-BOY, a boy who waits upon the prompter in a theatre, and calls the actors when wanted on the stage; CALL'ER, one who pays a short visit; CALL'ING, that station to which a person is called by Providence to fill: one's trade, profession, or occupation; CALL'ING-CRAB, a popular name for the fiddler-crab, which waves its larger claw when disturbed; CALL'-NOTE, the note by which a bird or beast calls its young.--CALL ATTENTION TO, to point out; CALL AWAY, to divert the mind; CALL BACK, to recall; CALL FOR, to ask loudly: claim; CALL FORTH, to bring or summon to action; CALL FOR TRUMPS, to lay down such cards at whist as will induce one's partner to lead a trump; CALL IN, to bring in from outside, as the notes in circulation, &c.; CALL IN QUESTION, to challenge; CALL OFF, to summon away; CALL ON, or UPON, to invoke, appeal to; CALL OUT, to challenge to fight, esp. a duel: to summon to service, bring into operation; CALL OVER, to read aloud a list; CALL TO ACCOUNT, to summon to render an account; CALL UP, to summon from beneath, or to a tribunal. [A.S. _ceallian_; Ice. _kalla_, Dut. _kallen_.] CALL, kawl, _n._ (_Spens._) a caul or cap. CALLANT, käl'ant, _n._ a lad. [A modern Scotch word; Dut. _kalant_.] CALLER, kal'[.e]r, _adj._ fresh: (_Scot._) cool. [Prob. the same as CALVER.] CALLET, kal'et, _n._ (_Shak._) a scold, a woman of bad character, a trull. [Prob. Fr. _caillette_, a frivolous gossip; or prob. the Gael. _caille_, girl, may be related.] CALLID, kal'id, _adj._ shrewd.--_n._ CALLID'ITY, shrewdness. [L. _callidus_, expert.] CALLIGRAPHY, CALIGRAPHY, kal-lig'ra-fi, _n._ fine penmanship; characteristic style of writing.--_adjs._ CALLIGRAPH'IC, -AL.--_ns._ CALLIG'RAPHIST, CALLIG'RAPHER. [Gr., _kalos_, beautiful, _graphein_, to write.] CALLIOPE, kal-[=i]'o-pe, _n._ the muse of epic poetry: an instrument producing musical notes by means of steam-whistles, played by a keyboard. [Gr.] CALLIPERS. Same as CALIPERS. CALLISTHENICS, kal-is-then'iks, _n.pl._ exercises for the purpose of promoting gracefulness as well as strength of body.--_adj._ CALLISTHEN'IC. [Gr. _kalos_, beautiful, _sthenos_, strength.] CALLOUS, kal'us, _adj._ hardened: unfeeling or insensible.--_n._ CALLOS'ITY, a hard swelling on the skin.--_adv._ CALL'OUSLY.--_n._ CALL'OUSNESS. [L. _callosus_--_callus_, hard skin.] CALLOW, kal'[=o], _adj._ not covered with feathers: unfledged, unbearded: inexperienced: low-lying and liable to be submerged.--_n._ an alluvial flat. [A.S. _calu_; Ger. _kahl_, L. _calvus_, bald.] CALLUS, kal'us, _n._ a thickening of the skin: a term employed in old surgical works for the exuded material by which fractures of bones are consolidated together. [L.] CALM, käm, _adj._ still or quiet: serene, tranquil.--_n._ absence of wind--also in _pl._: repose: serenity of feelings or actions.--_v.t._ to make calm: to quiet.--_ns._ CALM'ANT, CALM'ATIVE--in medical language.--_adjs._ CALM'ATIVE, CALM'ANT, CALMED, CALM'Y (_Spens._)--_adv._ CALM'LY.--_n._ CALM'NESS. [Fr. _calme_ (It. _calma_), from Low L. _cauma_--Gr. _kauma_, noonday heat--_kai-ein_, to burn.] CALMUCK. See KALMUCK. CALOMEL, kal'[=o]-mel, _n._ the popular name of one of the compounds of mercury and chlorine, much used in medicine. [Fr. _calomel_, which Littré derives from Gr. _kalos_, fair, _melas_, black.] CALORIC, ka-lor'ik, _n._ heat: the supposed principle or cause of heat.--_n._ CALORES'CENCE, the transmutation of heat rays into luminous rays.--_adj._ CALORIF'IC, causing heat: heating.--_ns._ CALORIFIC[=A]'TION; CALORIM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the specific heat of a body; CALORIM'ETRY, the art or process of measuring heat; CAL'ORIST, one who held heat to be a subtle fluid called caloric; CAL'ORY, the usually accepted thermal unit, being the quantity of heat necessary to raise the temperature of a kilogram of water from 0° to 1° centigrade. [Fr. _calorique_, formed by Lavoisier from L. _calor_, heat.] CALOTTE, kal-ot', _n._ a plain skull-cap or coif worn by R.C. clergy. [Fr.] CALOTYPE, kal'[=o]-t[=i]p, _n._ a kind of photography.--_n._ CAL'OTYPIST, one who makes calotypes. [Gr. _kalos_, beautiful, _typos_, an image. Name given in 1840 by W. H. Fox Talbot (1800-77) to his method of photographing by the action of light on nitrate of silver.] CALOYER, ka-loi'[.e]r, _n._ a Greek monk, esp. of the order of St Basil. [Fr.,--It.--Late Gr. _kalog[=e]ros_, _kalos_, beautiful, _g[=e]ros_, aged.] CALP, kalp, _n._ the name applied in Ireland to beds of shale, sandstone, &c. containing thin seams of coal. CALPAC, CALPACK, kal'pak, _n._ a triangular felt cap, worn by Turks and Tartars. [Turk.] CALQUE. See CALK (3). CALTROP, kal'trop, _n._ an instrument armed with four spikes, so arranged that one always stands upright, used to obstruct the progress of an enemy's cavalry, or of besiegers of a fortification.--Also CAL'TRAP. [A.S. _coltetræppe_, _calcatrippe_--L. _calc-em_, heel, _trappa_, a trap.] CALUMBA, ka-lum'ba, _n._ the root of an East African plant, extensively used in medicine as a stomachic and tonic. [From _Colombo_ in Ceylon.] CALUMET, kal'[=u]-met, _n._ the 'peace pipe' of the North American Indians, a tobacco-pipe having a stem of reed or painted wood about 2½ feet long, decorated with feathers, with a large bowl, usually of soap-stone. [_Calumet_ is a Norman name for a shepherd's pipe (Fr. _chalumeau_--L. _calamellus_, _calamus_), given by the early French settlers from its resemblance.] CALUMNY, kal'um-ni, _n._ false accusation: slander.--_v.t._ CALUM'NI[=A]TE, to accuse falsely: to slander.--_v.i._ to spread evil reports.--_ns._ CALUM'NI[=A]TION; CALUM'NI[=A]TOR.--_adjs._ CALUM'NI[=A]TORY, CALUM'NIOUS, of the nature of calumny: slanderous.--_adv._ CALUM'NIOUSLY.--OATH OF CALUMNY, a method in the law of Scotland for the prevention of calumnious and unnecessary suits, by which both parties at the beginning of a cause swear, either by themselves or their counsel, that the facts set forth by them are true--usual only in actions of divorce, &c. [L. _calumnia_, prob. for _calvomnia_, from _calvi_, _calv[)e]re_, to deceive.] CALVARY, kal'va-ri, _n._ the name of the place where Jesus was crucified: (_R.C._) a series of representations of the various scenes of Christ's crucifixion: an eminence crowned with one or three crosses bearing life-size figures of Jesus and the two thieves. [The Anglicised form of the Vulgate _calvaria_, which was the L. rendering of the Gr. _kranion_, as that again of the Aramaic _gogulth[=o]_ or _gogolth[=a]_ (Heb. _gulg[=o]leth_--Græcised form _golgotha_), all three words meaning skull.] CALVE, käv, _v.i._ to bring forth a calf. [A.S. _cealfian_. See CALF.] CALVERED, kal'verd, _p.adj._ from obsolete verb CAL'VER, to prepare salmon or other fish when freshly caught. [Prob. the same as Scot. _Caller_.] CALVINISM, kal'vin-izm, _n._ the doctrines of the great Genevan religious reformer, John _Calvin_ (1509-1564), as these are given in his _Institutio_, esp. as regards particular election, predestination, the incapacity for true faith and repentance of the natural man, efficacious grace, and final perseverance.--_n._ CAL'VINIST, one who holds the doctrines of Calvin.--_adjs._ CALVINIST'IC, -AL, pertaining to Calvin or Calvinism. CALVITIES, kal-vish'i-[=e]z, _n._ baldness. [L.,--_calvus_, bald.] CALX, kalks, _n._ chalk or lime: the substance of a metal or mineral which remains after being subjected to violent heat:--_pl._ CALXES (kalk's[=e]z), or CALCES (kal's[=e]z). [L. _calx_, lime.] CALYCANTHUS, kal-i-kan'thus, _n._ a small order of square-stemmed aromatic shrubs, natives of North America and Japan. [Made up of CALYX and Gr. _anthos_.] CALYPTRA, ka-lip'tra, _n._ a hood, covering, esp. that of the theca or capsule of mosses.--_adjs._ CALYP'TRATE, furnished with such; CALYP'TRIFORM, CALYPTRIMOR'PHOUS, having the form of a calyptra.--_n._ CALYP'TROGEN, the root-cap. [Gr., a veil.] CALYX, CALIX, kal'iks, or k[=a]'liks, _n._ the outer covering or cup of a flower, its separate leaves termed sepals:--_pl._ CALYCES, or CALYXES.--_adjs._ CAL'YCATE, having a calyx; CALYC[=I]F'EROUS, bearing the calyx; CALYCIFL[=O]'RAL, CALYCIFL[=O]'RATE, CALYCIFL[=O]'ROUS, having the petals and stamens borne upon the calyx; CALYC'IFORM, having the form of a calyx; CAL'YCINE, CALYC'INAL, pertaining to a calyx.--_n._ CAL'YCLE, an accessory calyx outside the true one.--_adjs._ CAL'YCLED, having a calycle; CAL'YCOID, CALYCOI'DEOUS, like a calyx. [L.,--Gr. _kalyx_--_kalyptein_, to cover.] CAM, kam, _n._ (_mech._) a device for changing a regular rotary motion into a reciprocating motion, various forms of which are the cam-wheel and shaft, the heart-wheel, the wiper-wheel, and the eccentric. [Dut. _kam_.] CAMAIEU, kam'[=i]-[=u], _n._ a cameo: a painting in monochrome, or in simple colours not imitating nature: a style of printing pictures producing the effect of a pencil-drawing.--Also CAM'AYEU. [Fr. See CAMEO.] CAMARADERIE, kam-a-rad-r[=e]', _n._ good-fellowship: the intimacy of comradeship. [Fr.] CAMARILLA, kam-ar-il'a, _n._ a body of secret intriguers, esp. of a court party against a king's legitimate ministers: a small room. [Sp. dim. of _camara_, a chamber.] CAMASS, ka-mas', _n._ a small plant growing in the north-western United States, also its nutritious bulb.--_ns._ CAMASS'IA, a genus of liliaceous plants nearly related to the European _Scilla_; CAMASS'-RAT, a small gopher rodent which devours the bulbs of the camass. CAMBER, kam'b[.e]r, _n._ a convexity upon an upper surface, as of a deck amidships, a bridge, or lintel: the curve of a ship's plank: a small dock in the royal yards where timber is loaded and discharged.--_v.t._ to curve ship-planks, to arch slightly. [Fr.--L. _camer[=a]re_, to vault.] CAMBIST, kam'bist, _n._ one skilled in the science of exchange.--_ns._ CAM'BISM, CAM'BISTRY. [It--L. _camb[=i]re_, to exchange.] CAMBERWELL BEAUTY, kam'ber-wel b[=u]'ti, _n._ (_Vanessa antiopa_) a fancy name for one of the largest and most beautiful of British butterflies. CAMBIUM, kam'bi-um, _n._ a layer of vascular tissue formed between the wood and the bark of exogens, in which the annual growth is formed. [Low L.--_cambium_--L. _camb[=i]re_, to change.] CAMBOGE, obsolete form of GAMBOGE. CAMBREL, kam'brel, _n._ a bent piece of wood or iron on which butchers hang the carcasses of animals: the hock of a horse. [Prob. conn. with CAMBER.] CAMBRIAN, kam'bri-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Cambria_ or Wales: Welsh: the name given by Sedgwick in 1836 to a group or series of sedimentary deposits which come next in order to the Archæan System.--_n._ an inhabitant of Cambria, or Wales. [Formed from _Cymry_, Welshmen, or _Cymru_, Wales.] CAMBRIC, k[=a]m'brik, _n._ a kind of fine white linen, originally manufactured at _Cambrai_ in the French department of Nord. CAMBUCA, kam-b[=u]'ka, _n._ a pastoral staff: a curved stick used in the game of pall-mall.--Also CAMBUT'TA. [Low L., of Celt. origin.] CAME, k[=a]m, did come _pa.t._ of COME. CAMEL, kam'el, _n._ an animal of Asia and Africa with one or two humps on its back, used as a beast of burden and for riding.--_adj._ CAM'EL-BACKED, hump-backed.--_ns._ CAM'ELEER, one who drives or rides a camel; CAM'ELINE, camlet.--_adj._ CAM'ELISH, like a camel, obstinate.--_n._ CAM'ELRY, troops mounted on camels.--CAMEL'S HAIR, the hair of the camel: the hair of the squirrel's tail used for paint-brushes; CAMEL'S THORN, a shrub of the bean family which camels eat greedily. [L. _camelus_--Gr. _kam[=e]los_--Heb. _g[=a]m[=a]l_.] CAMELEON. See CHAMELEON. CAMELLIA, ka-mel'ya, _n._ a species of evergreen shrubs, natives of China and Japan, noted for the singular beauty of their flowers. [Named from Kamel, Latinised _Camellus_, a Moravian Jesuit, who collected plants in the Philippine Islands in 1639.] CAMELOPARD, kam'el-[=o]-pärd, or kam-el'[=o]-pärd, _n._ the giraffe. [L.,--Gr. _cam[=e]lopardalis_; from Gr. _kam[=e]los_, the camel, and _pardalis_, the panther.] CAMELOT, kam'lot, _n._ Same as CAMLET. CAMEO, kam'[=e]-[=o], _n._ an engraved gem in which the figure or subject is carved in relief. [It. _camméo_ (Fr. _camée_)--Low L. _cammæus_ traced by Littré to Gr. _kamnein_, to work; by the late Mr C. W. King through an Ar. form, 'an amulet,' from Pers. _camahen_, loadstone, the usual material for Babylonian cylinders.] CAMERA, kam'[.e]r-a, _n._ the variety of camera-obscura used by photographers.--_ns._ CAM'ERA-L[=U]'CIDA, an instrument by which the rays of light from an object are reflected by a specially shaped prism, forming an image on the paper underneath; CAM'ERA-OBSC[=U]'RA, an instrument for throwing the images of external objects on a white surface placed within a dark chamber or box. [L.] CAMERA, kam'[.e]r-a, _n._ a vaulted room: the judge's private chamber (IN CAMERA, of a case heard there rather than in public court).--_adj._ CAM'ER[=A]TED, divided into chambers: arched or vaulted. CAMERONIAN, kam-er-[=o]n'i-an, _n._ a follower of the Covenanter Richard _Cameron_, killed at Airds Moss in 1680, a member of the Reformed Presbyterian Church.--_adj._ pertaining to this party, or to the famous Cameronian regiment (26th Foot, now the First Battalion of Scottish Rifles) in the British army, which had its origin in a body of Cameronians (1689). CAMIS, kam'is, _n._ (_Spens._) a loose robe made of some light material, as silk, &c.: a chemise. [See CHEMISE.] CAMISADE, kam-i-s[=a]d', _n._ a night attack, probably because shirts were often put on over the armour.--Also CAMISAD'O. [Sp., from _camisa_, a shirt.] CAMISARDS, kam'is-ar, _n.pl._ the insurgent Huguenots of the Cevennes, so called from the _camise_ or blouse worn by the peasants. CAMISE, kam'[=e]s, _n._ the usual Arab shirt.--Also CAM'ISO, CAM'ESE. CAMISOLE, kam'is-[=o]l, _n._ a sleeved jacket, a woman's loose morning gown or jacket. CAMLET, kam'let, _n._ a cloth originally made of camel's hair, but now chiefly of wool and goat's hair. [Fr.--Low L. _camelotum_--L. _camelus_.] CAMOMILE, CHAMOMILE, kam'o-m[=i]l, _n._ a plant, or its dried flowers, used in medicine, affording a bitter stomachic and tonic. [Fr.--L.--Gr. _chamaim[=e]lon_, the earth-apple, from the apple-like smell of its blossoms--_chamai_, on the ground, _m[=e]lon_, an apple.] CAMORRA, kam-or'a, _n._ the name of a secret society in the former kingdom of Naples, whose members, the _Camorristi_, for many years terrorised the country.--_ns._ CAMORR'ISM; CAMORR'IST. [It.] CAMP, kamp, _n._ the ground on which an army pitch their tents: the tents of an army, quarters generally, a permanent military station, as at Aldershot: any fortified site in which a force once defended itself, as a Roman or British camp: any temporary quarters for travellers, &c.--_v.i._ to encamp or pitch tents.--_ns._ CAMP'-FOLL'OWER, any one who follows in the train of an army, but takes no part in battle; CAMP'MEET'ING, a religious gathering held in the open air or in a temporary encampment in the fields; CAMP'-SHED'DING, -SHEET'ING, -SHOT, an erection of piles, &c., along the bank of a river or an embankment, for strengthening; CAMP'-STOOL, or -BED'STEAD, a portable folding-stool, a trestle-bed. [Fr. _camp_, a camp--L. _campus_, a plain.] CAMP, kamp, _n._ (_obs._) conflict: an old form of the game of football.--_v.i._ to fight, struggle.--_v.i._ CAM'PLE, to wrangle. [A.S. _camp_, battle; cf. Ger. _kampf_.] CAMPAGNOL, kam-pa-nyol', _n._ a French name for several species of field-mice or voles. CAMPAIGN, kam-p[=a]n', _n._ a large open field or plain: the time during which an army keeps the field: an excursion into the country: an organised series of operations in the advocacy of a political or social cause.--_v.i._ to serve in a campaign.--_ns._ CAMPAGN'A, once equivalent to _champaign_, now used only of the Campagna, an undulating, mostly uncultivated and unhealthy plain around Rome; CAMPAIGN'ER, one who has served in several campaigns. [Fr. _campagne_--L. _campania_--_campus_, a field.] CAMPANERO, kam-pa-n[=e]'ro, _n._ one of the South American bell-birds, the arapunga, &c. [Sp., a bellman.] CAMPANILE, kam-pan-[=e]'l[=a] (sometimes also kam-pan-[=e]l', and even kam'pan-il and kam'pan-[=i]l), _n._ a name adopted from the Italian to signify a bell-tower of the larger kind, and usually applied only to such as are detached from the church: (_pl._ usually CAMPANILES, but sometimes the It. CAMPANILI). [It., from _campana_, a bell.] CAMPANOLOGY, kam-pan-ol'o-ji, _n._ the subject or science of bells or bell-ringing.--_ns._ CAM'PANIST, CAMPANOL'OGIST, one skilled in the same.--_adj._ CAMPANOLOG'ICAL. [It. _campana_, a bell, and Gr. _logos_, a discourse.] CAMPANULA, kam-pan'[=u]-la, _n._ a genus of flowers, commonly known as bell-flowers or bells, usually blue or white, the best-known species the harebell and Scotch bluebell.--The _Canterbury Bells_ is a biennial species--seen in many florists' varieties.--_adjs._ CAMPAN'IFORM, CAMPAN'ULATE, CAMPAN'ULAR.--_n._ CAMPANUL[=A]'RIA, a common genus of Hydroids, with stems simple or branched, the nutritive polyps surrounded by transparent bell-shaped sheaths. [It. _campana_, a bell.] CAMPBELLITE, kam'bel-[=i]t, _n._ a follower of Alexander _Campbell_ (1788-1866), founder of the sect known as the 'Disciples of Christ.' CAMPEACHY, kam'p[=e]ch-i, _adj._ pertaining to the red dye-wood better known as Logwood, first exported from _Campeachy_ in Yucatan. CAMPEADOR, kam-pe-a-d[=o]r', _n._ a warrior. [Sp.] CAMPESTRAL, kam-pes'tral, _adj._ growing in or pertaining to fields.--Also CAMPES'TRIAN. [L. _campestris_, from _campus_.] CAMPHINE, kam'f[=i]n, _n._ rectified oil of turpentine.--Also CAM'PHENE. CAMPHOR, kam'for, _n._ a solid essential oil, mostly obtained from the camphor laurel of India, China, and Japan, having a peculiar hot aromatic taste and a pleasant smell.--_adj._ CAMPHOR[=A]'CEOUS, like camphor.--_v.t._ CAM'PHORATE, to impregnate with camphor.--_adjs._ CAM'PHORATE, CAMPHOR'IC, pertaining to camphor. [Fr. _camphre_--Low L. _camphora_--Malay _kapur_, chalk.] CAMPION, kam'pi-un, _n._ the common name of plants belonging to the genera Lychnis and Silene. [Perh. from L. _campus_, a field.] CAMPO SANTO, kam'po sant'o, _n._ the Italian name for a cemetery or burying-ground, esp. for one enclosed by an arcade. [Lit. 'holy ground,' the earth of that at Pisa having been brought from Palestine.] CAMPYLOSPERMOUS, kam-pi-l[=o]-sper'mus, _adj._ (_bot._) having the albumen of the seed curved at the margin so as to form a longitudinal furrow on the ventral face. [Gr. _kampylos_, curved, _sperma_, a seed.] CAMPYLOTROPAL, kam-pi-lot'r[=o]-pal, _adj._ (_bot._) curved so as to bring the true apex close to the base--of an ovule or seed.--Also CAMPYLOT'ROPOUS. [Gr. _kampylos_, curved, _trepein_, to turn.] CAMSTAIRY, kam-st[=a]r'i, _adj._ perverse, unruly. [Ety. dub.; first part at any rate _cam_, crooked.] CAMSTONE, kam'st[=o]n, _n._ a kind of clay used to whiten doorsteps, &c. CAM-WOOD, kam'-wood, _n._ a dye-wood obtained from _Baphia nitida_, a leguminous tree, a native of Angola. It is at first white, but turns red on exposure to air. [Perh. from African name _kambi_.] CAN, kan, _v.i._ to be able: to have sufficient power:--_pa.t._ COULD.--CAN is used for _gan_ in M. E. and even in Spenser. [A.S. _cunnan_, to know (how to do a thing), to be able, pres. indic. _can_; Goth. _kunnan_, Ger. _können_, to be able. See KNOW.] CAN, kan, _n._ a vessel for holding or carrying liquids, generally of tinned iron, with a handle over the top: a chimney-pot: a vessel of tin-plate in which meat, fruit, &c. are hermetically sealed for exporting--in England usually called a _tin_: a drinking-mug.--_v.t._ to put up for preservation in cans.--_n.pl._ CANNED'-GOODS, meat, fruit, &c. so prepared for preservation.--_n._ CAN'NERY, a place where meat, fish, fruit, &c. are canned. [A.S. _canne_; cf. L. _canna_, a reed, Gr. _kann[=e]_, a reed.] CANAANITE, k[=a]'nan-[=i]t, _n._ a descendant of _Canaan_, the son of Ham: a native of the land of Canaan.--_adj._ C[=A]'NAANITISH. CAÑADA, kan'ya-da, _n._ a narrow cañon. [Sp.] CANADIAN, ka-n[=a]'di-an, _adj._ and _n._ pertaining to _Canada_: a native of Canada.--CANADA BALSAM (see BALSAM). CANAIGRE, ka-n[=a]'ger, _n._ a Texan dock whose root is used in tanning, CANAILLE, ka-n[=a]l', _n._ the mob, the vulgar rabble. [Fr., a dog--L. _canis_.] CANAKIN. See CANNIKIN. CANAL, kan-al', _n._ an artificial watercourse for navigation: a duct in the body for any of its fluids.--_n._ CANAL'-BOAT, a boat for canal traffic.--_adjs._ CANALIC'ULAR, canal-shaped; CANALIC'ULATE, -D, channelled, grooved.--_ns._ CANALIC'ULUS (_anat._), a small furrow or channel; CANALIS[=A]'TION, the construction of canals.--_v.t._ CANAL'ISE, to make a canal through: to convert into a canal. [L. _canalis_, a water-pipe.] CANARD, ka-när', or ka-närd', _n._ an extravagant or lying story. [Fr., lit. 'duck.'] CANARY, ka-n[=a]'ri, _n._ a light sweet wine from the _Canary_ Islands: a bird originally from the Canary Islands: a lively dance.--_adj._ canary-coloured, bright yellow.--_ns._ CAN[=A]'RY-BIRD, a canary: (_slang_) a jail-bird: a mistress; CAN[=A]'RY-GRASS, a grass of which the seed is much used as food for canary-birds; CAN[=A]'RY-WOOD, the dark-coloured timber of two lauraceous trees of the Azores and Madeira. CANARESE, kan-a-r[=e]z', _adj._ pertaining to _Canara_ in western India.--_n._ a native thereof: the language of the Dravidian group, allied to Telegu.--Also KANARESE'. CANASTER, ka-nas't[.e]r, _n._ a kind of tobacco, so called from the rush basket in which it was originally brought from Spanish America. [Sp. _canastra_--L.--Gr. _kanastron_.] CAN-CAN, kan-kan, _n._ a dance in some public balls at Paris and elsewhere, characterised by immodest gestures and postures. [Usually referred to L. _quamquam_, the pronunciation of which was long hotly disputed in the French schools; Littré quotes an O. Fr. _caquehan_, a noisy assembly.] CANCEL, kan'sel, _v.t._ to erase or blot out by crossing with lines: to annul or suppress, as a printed page, &c.: to obliterate: to frustrate: to counterbalance or compensate for: to remove equivalent quantities on opposite sides of an equation:--_pr.p._ can'celling; _pa.p._ can'celled.--_n._ the suppression of a printed page or sheet, the page so cancelled, or the new one substituted. [Fr. _canceller_--L. _cancell-[=a]re_, from _cancelli_, railings, lattice-work, dim. of _cancer_.] CANCELLI, kan-sel'[=i], _n.pl._ cross-pieces forming a lattice-work or grating, as in the division between the choir and the body of a church: (_anat._) reticulations.--_adjs._ CAN'CELLATE, -D, marked latticewise, reticulated.--_n._ CANCELL[=A]'TION.--_adj._ CAN'CELLOUS. [L., a lattice.] CANCER, kan's[.e]r, _n._ the name for an important group of malignant tumours, divided into two groups, _Carcinomata_ and _Sarcomata_, the name being now strictly used only of the former: a constellation between Gemini and Leo, and a sign of the zodiac showing the limits of the sun's course northward in summer: the typical genus of the family _Cancridæ_--_v.i._ CANCER'ATE, to become cancerous.--_ns._ CANCER[=A]'TION; CAN'CERITE, a petrified crab.--_adj._ CAN'CEROUS, of or like a cancer.--_adv._ CAN'CEROUSLY.--_n._ CAN'CEROUSNESS.--_adjs._ CAN'CRIFORM, CAN'CROID, crab-like. [L. _cancer_; cog. with Gr. _karkinos_, a crab.] CANCIONERO, kan-th[=e]-on-[=e]'ro, _n._ a collection of songs. [Sp.] CANDELABRUM, kan-de-l[=a]'brum, _n._ a branched and ornamented candlestick:--_pl._ CANDEL[=A]'BRA. [L.] CANDENT, kan'dent, _adj._ making white: glowing with heat. CANDESCENCE, kan-des'ens, _n._ a white heat.--_adj._ CANDES'CENT. [L. _candesc-[)e]re_, inceptive of _cand-[=e]re_, to glow.] CANDID, kan'did, _adj._ frank, ingenuous: free from prejudice: fair, impartial.--_adv._ CAN'DIDLY.--_n._ CAN'DIDNESS. [Fr. _candide_--L. _candidus_, white--_cand-[=e]re_, to shine.] CANDIDATE, kan'di-d[=a]t, _n._ one who offers himself for any office or honour, so called because, at Rome, the applicant used to dress in white.--_ns._ CAN'DIDATURE, CAN'DIDATESHIP, CAN'DIDACY. [L. _candidatus_, from _candidus_.] CANDIED. See CANDY. CANDLE, kan'dl, _n._ wax, tallow, or other like substance surrounding a wick: a light.--_ns._ CAN'DLE-BERR'Y, the wax-myrtle, also its fruit: the fruit of _Aleurites triloba_, the candle-berry tree; CAN'DLE-BOMB, a small glass bomb filled with water, exploding on being held in a candle-flame; CAN'DLE-COAL (same as CANNEL-COAL); CAN'DLE-DIP'PING, the method of making candles by dipping instead of moulding; CAN'DLE-END, the end-piece of a burnt-out candle; CAN'DLE-FISH, the eulachon, a deep-sea fish of the smelt family found along the north-west coast of America, producing eulachon oil: another West American fish, resembling a pollock--the _black candle-fish_ or _horse-mackerel_; CAN'DLE-HOLD'ER, one who holds a candle to another while working--hence one who renders another slight assistance, or humours him; CAN'DLE-LIGHT, the light of a candle, illumination by means of candles: the time when candles are lighted; CAN'DLE-LIGHT'ER, one whose business is to light the candles: a spill; CAN'DLE-POW'ER, the illuminating power of a standard sperm candle--a unit of luminosity; CAN'DLESTICK, an instrument for holding a candle, originally a stick or piece of wood; CAN'DLE-WAST'ER, one who studies late; CAN'DLE-WOOD, the wood of various West Indian and Mexican resinous trees.--BURN THE CANDLE AT BOTH ENDS, to waste in two directions at once.--NOT FIT TO HOLD A CANDLE TO, not fit even to be some one's inferior, not to be compared with.--SELL BY THE CANDLE, to offer for sale as long as a small piece of candle burns, the bid made just before it goes out being successful.--THE GAME IS NOT WORTH THE CANDLE, the thing is not worth the labour or expense of it. [A.S. _candel_--L. _candela_, from _cand-[=e]re_, to glow.] CANDLEMAS, kan'dl-mas, _n._ a festival of the R.C. Church in honour of the purification of the Virgin Mary, on 2d February, and so called from the number of candles used. [CANDLE and MASS.] CANDOCK, kan'dok, _n._ the yellow water-lily. [CAN (n.) and DOCK.] CANDOUR, kan'dur, _n._ freedom from prejudice or disguise: sincerity: justice: openness. [L. _candor_, whiteness, from _cand[=e]re_, to be shining.] CANDY, kan'di, SUGAR-CANDY, shoog'ar-kan'di, _n._ a sweetmeat made of sugar: anything preserved in sugar.--_v.t._ to preserve or dress with sugar: to congeal or crystallise as sugar.--_v.i._ to become congealed.--_p.adj._ CAN'DIED, encrusted with candy or sugar: (_fig._) sugared, flattering. [Fr. _candi_, from Ar. _qandah_, candy.] CANDY, kan'di, _n._ a South Indian weight, generally containing 20 maunds, about 500 pounds English.--Also CAN'DIE and KAN'DY. [Tamil.] CANE, k[=a]n, _n._ the stem of one of the smaller palms--the calamus or rattan, or the larger grasses--bamboo and sugar-cane: a walking-stick.--_v.t._ to beat with a cane.--_ns._ CANE'-BRAKE, a brake or thicket of canes; CANE'-CHAIR, a chair made of rattan; CANE'-MILL, a mill for bruising sugar-canes for the manufacture of sugar; CANE'-S[=U]'GAR, sugar obtained from the sugar-cane; CANE'-TRASH, refuse of sugar-cane used for fuel in boiling the juice; C[=A]N'ING, a thrashing with a cane.--_adj._ C[=A]N'Y, made of cane.--MALACCA CANE, a walking-cane made without removing the bark from the brown-mottled or clouded stem of the palm, _Calamus Scipionum_, brought from Singapore or Sumatra. [Fr. _canne_--L. _canna_--Gr. _kann[=e]_, a reed.] CANELLA, kan-el'a, _n._ a genus of low aromatic trees, one species the whitewood of wild cinnamon of the West Indies, yielding _canella_ or white cinnamon bark. CANEPHOR, kan'e-f[=o]r, _n._ (_archit._) a female figure bearing a basket on her head. [Gr. _kan[=e]phoros_, one of the bearers upon their heads at the Panathenaic festival of the baskets containing the sacrificial implements.] CANESCENT, ka-nes'ent, _adj._ tending to white: hoary. [L. _canescens_--_can[=e]re_--_canus_, hoary.] CANGUE, CANG, kang, _n._ a Chinese portable pillory borne on the shoulders by petty offenders. [Fr. _cangue_--Port. _cango_, a yoke.] CANICULAR, ka-nik'[=u]-lar, _adj._ pertaining to the Dog-star (CANIC'ULA) or to the Dog-days: (_coll._ and _hum._) pertaining to a dog. [L. _canicularis_, _canicula_, dim. of _canis_, a dog.] CANINE, ka-n[=i]n', _adj._ like or pertaining to the dog.--CANINE APPETITE, an inordinate appetite; CANINE LETTER = R; CANINE TEETH, the four sharp-pointed tearing teeth in most mammals, one on each side of the upper and lower jaw, between the incisors or cutting teeth and the molars or grinders. [L. _caninus_, _canis_, a dog.] CANISTER, kan'is-t[.e]r, _n._ a box or case, usually of tin, for holding tea, shot, &c.: short for canister-shot, or case-shot.--_n._ CAN'ISTER-SHOT (same as CASE-SHOT, q.v.). [L. _canistrum_, a wicker-basket; Gr. _kanastron_--_kann[=e]_, a reed.] CANITIES, ka-nish'i-[=e]z, _n._ whiteness of the hair. CANKER, kang'k[.e]r, _n._ an eating sore: a gangrene: a disease in trees, or in horses' feet: anything that corrupts, consumes, irritates, or decays.--_v.t._ to eat into, corrupt, or destroy: to infect or pollute: to make sour and ill-conditioned.--_v.i._ to grow corrupt: to decay.--_adj._ CANK'ERED, corroded: venomous, malignant: soured: crabbed.--_adv._ CANK'EREDLY.--_n._ CANK'EREDNESS.--_adj._ CANK'EROUS, corroding like a canker.--_n._ CANK'ER-WORM, a worm that cankers or eats into plants.--_adj._ CANK'ERY, affected with canker: (_Scot._) crabbed. [L. _cancer_, a crab, gangrene.] CANNA, kan'na, _n._ a genus of reed-like plants--_Indian shot_: the upright stem of a candlestick, &c.: the tube by which the wine was taken from the chalice. [L., a reed.] CANNA, kan'na, _n._ cotton-grass. [Gael. _cánach_.] CANNABIC, kan'a-bik, _adj._ pertaining to hemp.--_ns._ CANN'ABIN, a resin obtained from the plant _Cannabis Indica_; CANN'ABIS, a genus of urticaceous plants, yielding bhang. CANNEL, kan'el, _n._ a bituminous coal that burns with a bright flame, and is much used for making coal oils and gas.--Also CANN'EL-COAL, CAN'DLE-COAL. [Prob. conn. with CANDLE, because of the similarity in burning.] CANNELURE, kan'e-l[=u]r, _n._ a groove or a fluting: a groove round the cylindrical part of a bullet. [Fr.] CANNIBAL, kan'i-bal, _n._ one who eats human flesh.--_adj._ relating to cannibalism.--_n._ CANN'IBALISM, the practice of eating human flesh.--_adj._ CANNIBALIST'IC--_adv._ CANN'IBALLY (_Shak._). [Sp., a corr. of _Caribals_ (Eng. _Caribs_), the native name of the West India Islanders, who ate human flesh.] CANNIKIN, kan'i-kin, _n._ a small can. [Dim. of CAN.] CANNON, kan'un, _n._ a great gun used in war: a stroke in billiards in which the player hits both the red and his opponent's ball.--_v.i._ to cannonade: to make a cannon at billiards: to collide.--_n._ CANNONADE', an attack with cannon.--_v.t._ to attack or batter with cannon.--_ns._ CANNONAD'ING; CANN'ON-BALL, a ball usually made of cast-iron, to be shot from a cannon; CANN'ON-BIT, or CANN'ON, a smooth round bit; CANN'ON-BONE, the long bone between the knee and the foot of a horse; CANNONEER', CANNONIER', one who manages cannon; CANN'ON-GAME, a form of billiards in which, the table having no pockets, the game consists in making a series of cannons; CANN'ON-MET'AL, an alloy of about 90 parts of copper and 10 of tin, from which cannon are manufactured.--_adj._ CANN'ON-PROOF, proof against cannon-shot.--_ns._ CANN'ONRY, cannonading: artillery; CANN'ON-SHOT, a cannon-ball: the distance to which a cannon will throw a ball. [Fr. _canon_, from L. _canna_, a reed.] CANNOT, kan'ot, _v.i._ to be unable. [CAN and NOT.] CANNULA, kan'[=u]-la, _n._ a surgical tube, esp. that enclosing a trocar or perforator, and the breathing-tube inserted in the windpipe after tracheotomy.--_adj._ CANN'ULATE. [Dim. of _canna_, a reed.] CANNY, kan'i, _adj._ (_Scot._) knowing: shrewd: having supernatural power (see UNCANNY): comfortable: careful in money matters: gentle: sly or pawky.--_adv._ CANN'ILY.--_n._ CANN'INESS.--TO CA' CANNY, to go or act cautiously. [From CAN, to be able.] CANOE, ka-n[=oo]', _n._ a boat made of the hollowed trunk of a tree, or of bark or skins: a skiff driven by paddling.--_v.t._ to paddle a canoe.--_n._ CANOE'IST. [Sp. _canoa_--Haytian _canoa_.] CAÑON, kan-yon', _n._ a deep gorge or ravine between high and steep banks, worn by watercourses. [Sp. _cañon_, a hollow, from root of CANNON.] CANON, kan'un, _n._ a law or rule, esp. in ecclesiastical matters: a general rule: standard: the books of Scripture accepted as the standard or rule of faith by the Christian Church: a species of musical composition: one bound by certain vows over and above those binding upon regular members of his community--a canon _regular_: a clerical dignitary belonging to a cathedral, enjoying special emoluments, and obliged to reside there part of the year: a list of saints canonised: (_print._) a large kind of type.--_n._ CAN'ONESS, a female beneficiary of a regular religious college.--_adjs._ CANON'IC, -AL, according to or included in the canon: regular: ecclesiastical.--_adv._ CANON'ICALLY.--_n.pl._ CANON'ICALS, the official dress of the clergy, regulated by the church canons.--_ns._ CANONIC'ITY, the state of belonging to the canon of Scripture; CANONIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ CAN'ONISE, to enrol in the canon or list of saints.--_n._ CAN'ONIST, one versed in the canon law.--_adj._ CANONIST'IC.--_ns._ CAN'ON-LAW, a digest of the formal decrees of councils, oecumenical, general, and local, of diocesan and national synods, and of patriarchal decisions as to doctrine and discipline; CAN'ONRY, the benefice of a canon.--CANON OF THE MASS, that part of the mass which begins after the 'Sanctus' with the prayer 'Te igitur,' and ends just before the 'Paternoster;' CANON RESIDENTIARY, a canon obliged to reside at a cathedral and take a share in the duty; HONORARY CANON, one having the titular rank of canon in a cathedral, but without duties or emoluments; MINOR CANON, a cleric in orders, attached to a cathedral, his duty being to assist the canons in singing divine service. [A.S., Fr., from L. _canon_--Gr. _kan[=o]n_, a straight rod--_kann[=e]_, a reed.] CANOPHILIST, ka-nof'i-list, _n._ a lover of dogs. [L. _canis_, a dog, Gr. _philein_, to love.] CANOPUS, ka-n[=o]'pus, _n._ a bright star in the southern constellation _Argo navis_: an Egyptian vase for holding the entrails of the body embalmed.--_adj._ CANOP'IC. [L.,--Gr.] CANOPY, kan'o-pi, _n._ a covering over a throne or bed: a covering of state stretched over the head: any covering, as the sky: a roof-like projection over a niche, tomb, statue, &c.: the wooden covering over prebends' stalls in cathedrals, pulpits, altars, &c.--_v.t._ to cover with a canopy:--_pr.p._ can'opying; _pa.p._ can'opied. [Fr. _canapé_--Low L. _canopeum_--Gr. _k[=o]n[=o]peion_, a mosquito curtain--_k[=o]n[=o]ps_, a mosquito.] CANOROUS, kan-[=o]'rus, _adj._ musical: melodious.--_adv._ CAN[=O]'ROUSLY.--_n._ CAN[=O]'ROUSNESS. [L. _canorus_, from _canor_, melody--_can[)e]re_, to sing.] CANSTICK, kan'stik, _n._ (_Shak._) a candlestick. CANT, kant, _v.i._ to speak in a conventional manner: to use the language of thieves, &c.: to talk in an affectedly solemn or hypocritical way.--_n._ a hypocritical or affected style of speech: the language peculiar to a sect: odd or peculiar talk of any kind: _slang_: a common saying: affected use of religious phrases or sentiments.--_n._ CANT'ER, one who cants, a beggar: one who makes hypocritical professions.--_adj._ CANT'ING, whining, pretending to piety: (_her._) allusive (see ALLUSIVE). [L. c_ant[=a]re_, freq. of _can[)e]re_, to sing.] CANT, kant, _n._ an inclination from the level: a toss or jerk: a sloping or tilted position: one of the segments forming a side-piece in the head of a cask: a ship's timber lying obliquely to the line of the keel.--_v.t._ to turn on the edge or corner: to tilt or toss suddenly.--_ns._ CANT'ING, tilting; CANT'ING-COIN; CANT'ING-WHEEL; CANT'-RAIL, a timber running along the tops of the upright pieces in the sides of the body of a railway-carriage and supporting the roof and roof-sticks. [Prob. conn. with Dut. _kant_; Ger. _kante_, corner.] CANT, kant, _n._ sale by auction.--_v.t._ to sell by auction. [O. Fr. _encant_, auction; der. uncertain, cf. Low L. _incant[=a]re_, to put up to auction.] CANT, kant, _adj._ brisk: lively. [Scot.; der. unknown. See CANTY.] CAN'T, känt, a colloquial contraction for CANNOT. CANTAB, kan'tab, for CANTABRIGIAN, _adj._ of or pertaining to Cambridge--Latinised _Cantabrigia_. CANTABANK, kan'ta-bangk, _n._ a strolling singer. [It. _cantambanco_.] CANTALOUP, kan'ta-loop, _n._ a small, ribbed variety of musk-melon. [Fr.,--It. _Cantalupo_, a town near Rome, where it was first grown in Europe.] CANTANKEROUS, kan-tang'k[.e]r-us, _adj._ cross-grained: perverse in temper.--_adv._ CANTAN'KEROUSLY.--_n._ CANTAN'KEROUSNESS. [M. E. _contak_, quarrelling.] CANTAR, kan'tär, _n._ a Turkish weight of 100 rotls or pounds. CANTATA, kan-tä'ta, _n._ originally the name applied to a sort of musical narrative by one person, accompanied by a single instrument; subsequently an air was introduced--the modern concert-aria: now also a choral work, either sacred, and similar to, but shorter than the oratorio, or secular, either lyric or dramatic, but not intended for the stage.--_ns._ CANTA'TE, the 98th Psalm, from its opening words in Latin, 'Cantate Domino;' CAN'TATRICE, a female singer. [It.,--L. _cant[=a]re_, freq. of _can[)e]re_, to sing.] CANTEEN, kan-t[=e]n', _n._ a tin vessel used by soldiers for holding liquors: a barrack-tavern, or refreshment-house for the use of the soldiers. [Fr. _cantine_--It. _cantina_, a cellar; further der. uncertain.] CANTER, kan't[.e]r, _n._ an easy gallop.--_v.i._ to move at an easy gallop.--_v.t._ to make to canter. [Orig. _Canterbury-gallop_, from the easy pace at which the pilgrims rode to the shrine at Canterbury.] CANTERBURY, kan't[.e]r-ber-ri, _n._ a stand with divisions in it for holding books, music, &c.--CANTERBURY BELLS (see CAMPANULA). CANTHARIDES, kan-thar'i-d[=e]z, _n.pl._ Spanish flies, used for blistering.--_adjs._ CANTHAR'IDAL, CANTHARID'IAN, CANTHARID'IC, composed of cantharides.--_n._ CANTHAR'IDINE, the active principle of blistering-flies. [L. _cantharis_, beetle, pl. _cantharides_.] CANTHARUS, kan'tha-rus, _n._ a large two-handled drinking-cup: a laver in the atrium before ancient churches;--_pl._ CAN'THAR[=I], [L.] CANTHUS, kan'thus, _n._ the angle formed by the junction of the eyelids: one of the upper and lower or anterior and posterior extremities of the compound eyes of insects:--_pl._ CAN'THI (-th[=i]). [Gr. _kanthos_, corner of the eye.] CANTICLE, kan'ti-kl, _n._ a song: a non-metrical hymn, esp. one of those used in the public services of the church, as the _Benedicite_: (_pl._) the Song of Solomon.--_n._ CAN'TICUM, a canticle: a part-song in an ancient play. [L. _canticulum_, dim of _canticum_.] CANTILENA, kan-ti-l[=e]'na, _n._ a ballad or light song: a cantus firmus or melody for church use: a singing exercise or solfeggio. [L.] CANTILEVER, kan'ti-l[=e]v-[.e]r, _n._ a large bracket used in architecture for supporting cornices, balconies, and even stairs--the principle has been applied in the construction of bridges to support enormous weights.--Also CAN'TALIVER. [Prob. made up of CANT, angle, and Fr. _lever_, to raise.] CANTILLATE, kan'ti-l[=a]t, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to chant, intone.--_n._ CANTILL[=A]'TION.--_adj._ CAN'TILLATORY. CANTION, kan'shun, _n._ (_Spens._) a song. CANTLE, kan'tl, _n._ a fragment or edge of anything: the protuberant part of the back of a saddle: (_Scot._) the top of the head.--_v.t._ to cut a piece from: to divide.--_ns._ CANT'LET, a fragment, cantle; CANT'LING, the lower course of bricks enclosing a brick-clamp. [CANT, edge.] CANTO, kan't[=o], _n._ division of a song or poem: the treble or leading melody.--_n._ CAN'TOR, the leader of the singing in a church, a precentor.--_adjs._ CANT[=O]'RIAL; CANT[=O]'RIS (gen. of L. _cantor_), of or belonging to the cantor or precentor.--_n._ CAN'TUS, a melody, esp. an ecclesiastical style of music.--CANTO FERMO, the simple melody of the hymns and chants used in the Christian Church of the West from the earliest times. [It.,--L. _cantus_--_can[)e]re_, to sing.] CANTON, kan'tun, _n._ a division of territory, constituting in Switzerland a separate government, in France a subdivision of an arrondissement: (_her._) an ordinary of a shield, being a square occupying generally the dexter, sometimes the sinister, chief of the field.--_v.t._ to divide into cantons: to allot quarters to troops.--_adjs._ CAN'TONAL, pertaining to or divided into cantons; CAN'TONED (_archit._), ornamented at the corners with projecting pilasters: (_her._) placed in the midst of charges occupying the corners.--_n._ CAN'TONMENT (also pronounced can-t[=oo]n'ment), the temporary quarters of troops when taking part in manoeuvres or active operations: in India, permanent military towns, distinct and at some little distance from the principal cities. [O. Fr. _canton_; It. _cantone_, corner, district--_canto_, a corner: cf. CANT (2).] CANTOR. See under CANTO. CANTRED, kan'tred, _n._ a division of the country: a hundred. [W. _cantref_--_cant_, hundred, and _tref_, town.] CANTRIP, kan'trip, _n._ a freak or wilful piece of trickery: a witch's spell. [Scot.; ety. unknown; Jamieson suggested _cant_, to turn over, _raip_, a roap.] CANTUARIAN, kan-t[=u]-[=a]'ri-an, _adj._ pertaining to Canterbury as the archiepiscopal see of the primate of the Church of England. [Low L. _Cantuarius_, _Cantuarensis_--A.S. _Cantware_ (pl.), the people of Kent.] CANTY, kan'ti, _adj._ cheerful, lively.--_n._ CAN'TINESS. [Scot.; cf. Low Ger. _kantig_.] CANVAS, kan'vas, _n._ a coarse cloth made of hemp, used for sails, tents, &c., and for painting on: the sails of a ship.--_v.t._ to cover with canvas.--_ns._ CAN'VAS-BACK, a North American duck, very good eating, its back ashy white, crossed by broken, zigzag, dark lines; CAN'VAS-CLIMB'ER (_Shak._), a sailor; CAN'VAS-STRETCH'ER, a wooden frame on which canvas is stretched for oil-painting; CAN'VAS-WORK, embroidery upon cloth over which canvas has been laid to guide the stitches: an embroidery in Berlin wool on silk canvas with plush-stitch.--UNDER CANVAS, having the sails unfurled, under sail: living in tents. [O. Fr. _canevas_--L. and Gr. _cannabis_, hemp.] CANVASS, kan'vas, _v.t._ to sift, examine: to discuss: to solicit votes, contributions, &c.--_v.i._ to solicit votes, &c. (with _for_).--_n._ close examination: a seeking or solicitation.--_n._ CAN'VASSER. [From CANVAS.] CANY, k[=a]n'i, _adj._ (_Milton_) made of canes. CANYON. Same as CAÑON. CANZONE, kan-z[=o]'n[=a], _n._ a song or air in two or more parts, with passages of fugue and imitation: a series of stanzas in Italian poetry, of various metrical arrangements, and restricted to no set themes--(_dim._) CANZONET', CANZONETTE'. [It., a song (Fr. _chanson_), L. _cantion-em_, _can[)e]re_, to sing.] CAOUTCHOUC, kow'chuk, _n._ the highly elastic juice or gum of a plant which grows in South America and Asia: india-rubber. [Fr.--Carib. _cahuchu_.] CAP, kap, _n._ a woman's head-dress of muslin, or the like: a boy's head-dress, any kind of unbrimmed covering for the head: a cap-like covering of any kind: a cover: the top.--_v.t._ to put on a cap, as the official cap of a degree in some colleges: to outdo or surpass: to cover the end or top: to raise the cap in token of respect:--_pr.p._ cap'ping; _pa.p._ capped.--_n._ CAP'-CASE, a small travelling-case, a chest.--CAP AND BELLS, the characteristic marks of a professional jester; CAP A STORY, QUOTATION, VERSE, &c., to follow one up with another, or with its proper continuation or conclusion; CAP IN HAND, symbolic of reverence or submission; CAP OF LIBERTY, or _Phrygian bonnet_, the conical cap given to a Roman slave on enfranchisement, now the symbol of republicanism; CAP OF MAINTENANCE (see MAINTENANCE).--A FEATHER IN ONE'S CAP, something giving distinction: something to be proud of.--BLACK CAP, that put on by the judge before pronouncing sentence of death; COLLEGE CAP, the so-called square mortarboard, or trencher-cap, worn at English colleges.--PERCUSSION CAP, a small copper cylinder, closed at one end, for conveniently holding the detonating powder which is exploded by the act of percussion in percussion-arms.--SET ONE'S CAP AT, of a woman, to set herself to captivate a man's fancy.--THE CAP FITS, the allusion hits or suits; THROW UP ONE'S CAP, in token of immoderate joy. [A.S. _cæppe_--Low L. _cappa_, a cape or cope.] CAP, kap, _n._ a wooden drinking-bowl, with two handles. [Scot., prob. from A.S. _copp_, a cup; prob. Scand. _koppr_.] CAPA, kä'pa, _n._ a Spanish cloak: fine Cuban tobacco for the outsides of cigars. [Sp.] CAPABLE, k[=a]p'a-bl, _adj._ having ability, power, or skill to do: qualified, competent.--_ns._ CAPABIL'ITY, CAP'ABLENESS. [Fr.,--Low L. _capabilis_--L. _cap[)e]re_, to hold, take.] CAPACITY, kap-as'i-ti, _n._ power of holding or grasping a thing: room: volume: power of mind: character: position enabling one to do something.--_adj._ CAP[=A]'CIOUS, including much: roomy: wide: extensive.--_adv._ CAP[=A]'CIOUSLY.--_n._ CAP[=A]'CIOUSNESS.--_v.t._ CAPAC'ITATE, to make capable: to qualify; CAPACITY FOR HEAT, power of absorbing heat.--LEGAL CAPACITY, the power to alter one's rights or duties by the exercise of free-will, or responsibility to punishment for one's acts. [Fr.,--L. _capacitas_,--_cap[)e]re_, to take, hold.] CAP-À-PIE, kap-a-p[=e]', _adv._ from head to foot, referring to arming, as a knight. [O. Fr. _cap a pie_ (mod. _de pied en cap_)--L. _caput_, head, and _pes_, foot.] CAPARISON, ka-par'is-un, _n._ the covering of a horse: a rich cloth laid over a war-horse: dress and ornaments generally.--_v.t._ to cover with a cloth, as a horse: to dress very richly.--_adj._ CAPAR'ISONED. [Fr. _caparaçon_--Sp. _caparazon_, augmentative of _capa_, a cape, cover--Low L. _cappa_.] CAPE, k[=a]p, _n._ a covering for the shoulders attached as a tippet to a coat or cloak: a sleeveless cloak. [O. Fr. _cape_--Low L. _cappa_.] CAPE, k[=a]p, _n._ a head or point of land running into the sea: a headland: a wine produced in Cape Colony.--_v.i._ (_naut._) to keep a course.--THE CAPE, for the Cape Colony. [Fr. _cap_--L. _caput_, the head.] CAPELIN, kap'e-lin, _n._ a small fish of the smelt family, extremely abundant on the coasts of Newfoundland, and much used as bait in the cod-fishery.--Also CAP'LIN. [Fr. and Sp. _capelan_.] CAPELINE, kap'e-lin, _n._ a small iron skull-cap worn by archers in the middle ages: a light woollen hood worn by ladies going out to an evening party: a surgical bandage for the head.--Also CAP'ELLINE. [Fr.,--Low L. _capella_--_capa_, a cap.] CAPELLET, kap'e-let, _n._ a wen-like swelling on a horse's elbow, or on the back part of his hock. [Fr.,--Low L. _capella_--_capa_, a cap.] CAPELL-MEISTER. Same as KAPELLMEISTER (q.v.). CAPER, k[=a]'p[.e]r, _n._ the pickled flower-bud of the caper-shrub, much grown in Sicily. It has an agreeable pungency of taste, with a slight bitterness, and is much used in sauces, along with boiled mutton, &c.--_n._ C[=A]'PER-TEA, a black tea with a knotty curled leaf. [L. and Gr. _capparis_.] CAPER, k[=a]'p[.e]r, _v.i._ to leap or skip like a goat: to dance in a frolicsome manner.--_n._ a leap: a prank.--_n._ C[=A]'PERER, a dancer.--TO CUT A CAPER, to dance or act fantastically. [See CAPRIOLE.] CAPERCAILZIE, k[=a]-per-k[=a]l'yi, _n._ a species of grouse, almost equal in size to a turkey, and the largest of the gallinaceous birds of Europe.--Also CAPERCAIL'LIE. [Gael. _capull coilie_, large woodcock.] CAPERNAITE, kap-er'na-[=i]t, _n._ a polemical term applied to a believer in transubstantiation--from John, vi. 52.--_adj._ CAPERNAIT'IC.--_adv._ CAPERNAIT'ICALLY. [_Capernaum_, a town in Galilee.] CAPERNOITIE, kap-er-noi'ti, _n._ (_Scot._) head, noddle.--_n._ CAPERNOI'TEDNESS.--_adjs._ CAPERNOI'TY, CAPERNOI'TED, peevish: crabbed. CAPIAS, k[=a]'pi-as, _n._ a judicial writ, commanding the sheriff to arrest the person named in it. [L. _capias_, thou mayst take--L. _cap[)e]re_, to take.] CAPIBARA. Same as CAPYBARA. CAPILLAIRE, kap-il-l[=a]r', _n._ (_orig._) a syrup extracted from the maiden-hair fern: a simple syrup flavoured with orange-flower water. [Fr., 'maiden-hair'--L. _capillaris_. See CAPILLARY.] CAPILLAMENT, ka-pil'a-ment, _n._ a filament or fine fibre. [L. _capillamentum_--_capillus_, hair.] CAPILLARY, kap'il-a-ri, or ka-pil'a-ri, _adj._ as fine or minute as a hair: having a very small bore, as a tube.--_n._ a tube with a bore as fine as a hair: (_pl._) the minute vessels that unite the veins and arteries in animals.--_adj._ CAPILLACEOUS (kap-i-l[=a]'shi-us), hair-like, capillary.--_n._ CAPILLAR'ITY, a name given to certain phenomena which appear when open tubes, having a very small bore, are placed in vessels containing liquids--e.g., if placed in water, the level of the water in the tube will be above that of the general surface.--_adj._ CAP'ILLOSE, hairy. [L. _capillaris_--_capillus_, hair, akin to _caput_, the head, akin to Eng. HEAD.] CAPITAL, kap'it-al, _adj._ relating to the head: involving the loss of the head; chief: principal: excellent.--_n._ the head or top part of a column or pillar: the chief or most important thing: the chief city of a country: a large letter, such as used on title-pages, &c.: the stock or money for carrying on any business.--_n._ CAPITALIS[=A]'TION, the act of converting into capital: printing with capital letters.--_v.t._ CAP'ITAL[=I]SE, to convert into capital or money.--_ns._ CAP'ITALISM, condition of possessing capital: the economic system which generates capitalists; CAP'ITALIST, one who has capital or money.--_adv._ CAP'ITALLY, chiefly: principally: excellently: by capital punishment.--_adj._ CAP'ITATE (_bot._), growing in or shaped like a head.--_ns._ CAPIT[=A]'TION, a numbering of every head or individual: a tax on every head; CAPITE (kap'it-i), an ancient English tenure (_Shak._).--CIRCULATING OR FLOATING CAPITAL consists of the wages paid to the workmen, and of the raw material used up in the processes of industry, &c.; FIXED CAPITAL consists of buildings, machines, tools, &c.--HOLD LANDS IN CAPITE, to hold them directly from the sovereign.--MAKE CAPITAL OUT OF, to turn to advantage. [O. Fr. _capitel_--L. _capitalis_--_caput_, the head.] CAPITAN, kap-i-tan', or kap'i-tan, _n._ the chief admiral of the Turkish fleet.--_n._ CAPITAN'O, a head-man. [See CAPTAIN.] CAPITOL, kap'it-ol, _n._ the temple of Jupiter at Rome, built on the _Capitoline_ hill: (_U.S._) the house where Congress meets.--_adjs._ CAPIT[=O]'LIAN, CAPIT'OLINE. [L. _Capitolium_--_caput_, the head.] CAPITULAR, kap-it'[=u]l-ar, _n._ a statute passed in a chapter or ecclesiastical court: a member of a chapter--also CAPIT'ULARY.--_adj._ relating or belonging to a chapter in a cathedral.--_adv._ CAPIT'ULARLY. [See CHAPTER.] CAPITULATE, kap-it'[=u]l-[=a]t, _v.i._ to treat: to draw up terms of agreement: to yield or surrender on certain conditions or heads.--_ns._ CAPIT'ULANT; CAPITUL[=A]'TION.--_adj._ CAPIT'ULATORY, recapitulatory. [Low L. _capitulatus_, pa.p. of _capitul[=a]re_, to arrange under heads--_capitulum_, a chapter.] CAPITULUM, ka-pit'[=u]-lum, _n._ (_bot._) a close head of sessile flowers, as in COMPOSITÆ: (_anat._) the head of a bone, esp. of a rib--also CAPITEL'LUM.--_adj._ CAPIT'ULAR. [L., dim. of _caput_, head.] CAPLE, CAPUL, k[=a]'pl, _n._ a horse. [M. E. _capel_; cf. Ice. _kapall_; Ir. _capall_; prob. from Low L. _caballus_, a horse.] CAPNOMANCY, kap'no-man-si, _n._ divination by means of smoke. [Gr. _kapnos_, smoke, _manteia_, divination.] CAPOCCHIA, ka-pok'ia, _n._ (_Shak._) a fool. [It.] CAPON, k[=a]'pn, _n._ a castrated cock: a fish: a letter.--_v.t._ C[=A]'PONISE. [A.S. _capun_; L. _capon-em_, Gr. _kap[=o]n_--_koptein_, to cut. See CHOP.] CAPONIERE, kap-[=o]-n[=e]r', _n._ a covered passage across the ditch of a fortified place.--Also CAPONIER'. [Fr.] CAPORAL, kap-or-al', _n._ a kind of shag tobacco. [Fr.] CAPOT, ka-pot', _n._ the winning of all the tricks at the game of piquet, and scoring forty.--_v.i._ to win all the tricks in piquet. [Fr.] CAPOTE, ka-p[=o]t', _n._ a long kind of cloak or mantle. [Fr., dim. of _cape_, a cloak.] CAPPAGH-BROWN, kap'a-brown, _n._ a brown pigment yielded by a bituminous earth from _Cappagh_ near Cork.--Also CAPP'AH-BROWN. CAPRIC, kap'rik, _adj._ in CAPRIC ACID, a fatty acid obtained from butter, &c., having a slightly goat-like smell.--_ns._ CAP'RIN, CAP'RINE, a compound of capric acid and glycerine found in butter. [L. _caper_, a goat.] CAPRICE, ka-pr[=e]s', _n._ a change of humour or opinion without reason: a freak: changeableness.--_ns._ CAPRICCIO (ka-pr[=e]t'cho), a sportive motion: (_mus._) a species of free composition, not subject to rule as to form or figure; CAPRICCIO'SO, a direction in music for a free style.--_adj._ CAPRI'CIOUS (_Shak._), humorous: full of caprice: changeable.--_adv._ CAPRI'CIOUSLY.--_n._ CAPRI'CIOUSNESS. [Fr. _caprice_--It. _capriccio_; perh. from L. _capra_, a she-goat.] CAPRICORN, kap'ri-korn, _n._ one of the twelve signs of the zodiac, like a horned goat. [L. _capricornus_--_caper_, a goat, _cornu_, a horn.] CAPRIFICATION, kap-ri-fi-k[=a]'shun, _n._ a method supposed to hasten the ripening of figs, by puncturing.--_adj._ CAP'RIFORM, goat-shaped. [L. _caprificus_, the wild fig--_caper_, a goat, and _ficus_, a fig.] CAPRIN, CAPRINE. See CAPRIC. CAPRINE, kap'rin, _adj._ like a goat. CAPRIOLE, kap'ri-[=o]l, _n._ a caper: a leap without advancing.--_v.i._ to leap: to caper. [O. Fr. _capriole_--It. _capriola_--L. _caper_, _capra_, a goat.] CAPSICUM, kap'si-kum, _n._ a tropical plant or shrub, from which cayenne pepper is made.--_n._ CAP'SICINE, the active principle of capsicum. [From L. _capsa_, a case, its berries being contained in pods or capsules--_cap[)e]re_, to take, hold.] CAPSIZE, kap-s[=i]z', _v.t._ to upset.--_v.i._ to be upset. [Ety. dub.; Prof. Skeat suggests Sp. _cabezar_, to nod, pitch.] CAPSTAN, kap'stan, _n._ an upright machine turned by spokes so as to wind upon it a cable which draws something, generally the anchor, on board ship. [Fr. _cabestan_, _capestan_, through Low L. forms from L. _cap[)e]re_, to take, hold.] CAPSULE, kap's[=u]l, _n._ the seed-vessel of a plant: a small dish.--_adjs._ CAP'SULAR, CAP'SULARY, hollow like a capsule: pertaining to a capsule; CAP'SULATE, -D, enclosed in a capsule. [Fr.,--L. _capsula_, dim. of _capsa_, a case--_cap[)e]re_, to hold.] CAPTAIN, kap't[=a]n, or kap'tin, _n._ a head or chief officer: the commander of a troop of horse, a company of infantry, or a ship: the overseer of a mine: the leader of a team or club: the head-boy of a school.--_v.t._ to lead.--_ns._ CAP'TAINCY, the rank or commission of a captain; CAP'TAIN-GEN'ERAL, chief commander of an army; CAP'TAINSHIP, CAP'TAINRY (_obs._), rank or condition of a captain: skill in commanding. [O. Fr. _capitaine_--Low L. _capitaneus_, chief--L. _caput_, head.] CAPTION, kap'shun, _n._ the act of taking: an arrest: (_Eng. law_) the formal title of indictments and depositions which shows the authority under which it is executed or taken: in Scotland, prior to 1837, the name given to the formal warrant to apprehend a debtor or other defaulting obligant, which was given in the Bill Chamber after letters of horning had been executed.--_adj._ CAP'TIOUS, ready to catch at faults or take offence: critical: peevish.--_adv._ CAP'TIOUSLY.--_n._ CAP'TIOUSNESS. [L. _captionem_--_cap[)e]re_, to take.] CAPTIVATE, kap'tiv-[=a]t, _v.t._ to charm: to engage the affections.--_adj._ CAP'TIV[=A]TING, having power to engage the affections. [See CAPTIVE.] CAPTIVE, kap'tiv, _n._ one taken: a prisoner of war: one kept in bondage.--_adj._ taken, or kept prisoner in war; charmed or subdued by anything.--_ns._ CAP'TIVAUNCE (_Spens._), captivity; CAPTIV'ITY; CAP'TOR, one who takes a prisoner or a prize; CAP'TURE, the act of taking: the thing taken: an arrest.--_v.t._ to take as a prize: to take by force. [L. _captivus_--_cap[)e]re_, _captum_.] CAPUCCIO, ka-p[=oo]ch'i-o, _n._ (_Spens._) a hood. [It.] CAPUCHE, ka-p[=u]sh', _n._ a hood, esp. that worn by the _Capuchins_.--_n._ CAPUCHIN, (kap'[=u]-chin or kap-[=oo]-sh[=e]n'), a Franciscan monk, so called from the hood he wears: a hooded pigeon. [Fr. _capucin_, It. _cappucino_, a small cowl--Low L. _cappa_. See CAP, CAPE.] CAPUL. See CAPLE. CAPUT, käp'ut, _n._ a head.--CAPUT MORTUUM, the residuum after distillation: worthless residue. CAPYBARA, kap-i-bär'a, _n._ the largest of rodent quadrupeds, native to South America, allied to the guinea-pig. [Brazilian.] CAR (old form CARR), kär, _n._ a vehicle moved on wheels, applied to very various forms--a large and splendid vehicle, as a triumphal car, a funeral car, the two-wheeled Irish jaunting-car; in Birmingham, a four-wheeled cab, as opposed to a hansom (cab); in America, applied to all vehicles for railway travelling, as passenger-car, palace-car, freight-car, &c.; in England, applied only to the carriages of street tramways: a railway carriage: (_poet._) a chariot: the part of a balloon in which the aeronauts sit.--_n._ CAR'MAN, a man who drives a car or cart: a carter. [O. Fr. _car_--Low L. _carra_, _carrus_, itself a Celt. word, seen in Ir. _carr_, Bret. _karr_.] CARABINE. Sec CARBINE. CARACAL, kar'a-kal, _n._ the Persian lynx. [Fr., prob. Turk. _qara_, _qulaq_, black ear.] CARACARA, kar-a-kar'a, _n._ a popular name for the South American _Polyborinæ_, a sub-family of _Falconidæ_, resembling the vultures. [Imit.] CARACK. See CARRACK. CARACOLE, kar'a-k[=o]l, _n._ the half-turn or wheel made by a horseman: a winding stair.--_v.i._ to turn half-round, as cavalry in wheeling: to prance about.--_p.adj._ CAR'ACOLING. [Fr. _caracole_--It. _caracollo_--Sp. _caracol_, the spiral shell of a snail.] CARACT, kar'akt, _n._ mark: sign: character (q.v.). CARAFE, ka-raf', _n._ a water-bottle for the table, [Fr. _carafe_, prob. from Ar. _gharafa_, to draw water.] CARAMBOLA, ka-ram'b[=o]-la, _n._ the acrid pulpy fruit of a small East Indian tree, used for tarts, &c.: the tree itself. CARAMBOLE. See CAROM. CARAMEL, kar'a-mel, _n._ a dark-brown substance produced by the action of heat on sugar, used in colouring whisky, wines, &c.: a kind of confection, usually of chocolate, sugar, and butter.--Also CAR'OMEL. [Fr.--Sp. _caramelo_; further origin dubious.] CARAPA, kar'a-pa, _n._ a genus of tropical trees of natural order _Meliaceæ_, a South American species yielding the useful carap-oil or crab-oil. [_Caraipi_, the native Guiana name.] CARAPACE, kar'a-p[=a]s, _n._ the shell of the crab, tortoise, &c.--_adj._ CARAP[=A]'CIAL. [Fr.--Sp. _carapacho_.] CARAT, kar'at, _n._ a weight of 4 grains: a proportional measure of 1/24 in stating the fineness of gold. [Fr.,--Ar. _q[=i]r[=a]t_, perh. from Gr. _keration_, a seed or bean used as a weight.] CARAUNA, ka-raw'na, _n._ an aromatic resinous substance yielded by a tree on the Amazon, formerly used in plasters.--Also CARAN'NA. CARAVAN, kar'a-van, _n._ a company of travellers associated together for security in crossing the deserts in the East: a company of people: a large close carriage, or any kind of house on wheels.--_ns._ CARAVANEER', the leader of a caravan; CARAVAN'SARY, CARAVAN'SERA, a kind of unfurnished inn where caravans stop. [Pers. _k[=a]rw[=a]nsar[=a][=i]_--_k[=a]rw[=a]n_, caravan, _sar[=a]i_, inn.] CARAVEL, kar'av-el, _n._ a kind of light sailing-vessel. [Fr.,--It. _caravelia_; cf. Low L. _carabus_, Gr. _karabos_, a bark.] CARAWAY, kar'a-w[=a], _n._ a plant with aromatic seeds, used as a tonic and condiment.--_n._ CAR'AWAY-SEED. [Prob. through Sp. from Ar. _karwiy[=a]_; cf. Gr. _karon_.] CARBAZOTIC, kar-b[=a]-zot'ik, _adj._ consisting of carbon and azote. CARBIDE. See CARBON. CARBINE, kär'b[=i]n, _n._ a short light musket--also CAR'ABINE.--_ns._ CARBINEER', CARABINEER', a soldier armed with a carbine. [Fr. _carabine_, O. Fr. _calabrin_, a carbineer--_calabre_, a machine for casting stones--Low L. _chadabula_, Gr. _katabol[=e]_, overthrow. Thus Diez; Littré thinks _calabrin_ from Calabrian.] CARBOLIC ACID, kar-bol'ik as'id, _n._ an acid produced from coal-tar, used as a disinfectant. [L. _carbo_, coal.] CARBON, kär'bon, _n._ an elementary substance, widely diffused, of which pure charcoal is an example.--_n._ CAR'BIDE, a compound of carbon with a metal, formerly called CAR'BURET.--_adjs._ CARBON[=A]'CEOUS, CARBON'IC, pertaining to or composed of carbon.--_n._ CAR'BONATE, a salt formed by the union of carbonic acid with a base.--_adjs._ CAR'BONATED, combined or impregnated with carbonic acid; CARBONIF'EROUS, producing carbon or coal.--_n._ CARBONIS[=A]'TION--_v.t._ CAR'BONISE, to make into carbon.--CARBONIC ACID, an acid formed of carbon and oxygen, generally gaseous, and evolved by respiration and combustion. [Fr. _carbone_--L. _carbon-em_, coal.] CARBONADO, kär-bon-[=a]'do, _n._ (_obs._) a piece of meat cut crossways for broiling on coals.--_v.t._ to cut crossways for broiling: to slash. [Sp. _carbonada_.] CARBONARI, kär-bon-är'i, _n.pl._ members of a secret society in Italy at the beginning of this century, founded to help forward a republican government.--_n._ CARBONAR'ISM. [It., lit. 'charcoal burners.'] CARBOY, kar'boi, _n._ a large bottle of green or blue glass, protected with a frame of basket-work or wood, used for holding sulphuric acid or the like. [Pers. _qar[=a]bah_.] CARBUNCLE, kär'bung-kl, _n._ a fiery-red precious stone: an inflamed ulcer: a pimple on the nose.--_adjs._ CAR'BUNCLED, set with the gem carbuncle; afflicted with carbuncles: having red inflamed spots; CARBUN'CULAR, belonging to or like a carbuncle: red: inflamed. [L. _carbunculus_, dim. of _carbo_, a coal.] CARBURET, same as CARBIDE (q.v. under CARBON).--_adj._ CAR'BURETTED.--_n._ CARBURET'TER, or CARBURET'TOR, an apparatus for charging gases with carbon. CARCAJOU, kär'ka-j[=oo], _n._ the American wolverine. CARCAKE, kar'k[=a]k, _n._ a kind of cake for Shrove Tuesday. [Scot.--A.S. _caru_, grief, and CAKE.] CARCANET, kär'ka-net, _n._ a collar of jewels. [_Carcan_, an obsolete word for an iron collar used for punishment--Low L. _carcannum_, from Teut.] CARCASS, CARCASE, kär'kas, _n._ a dead body or corpse, no longer used of the human body: the framework of anything: a ruin: a kind of bombshell. [Fr. _carcasse_, a skeleton (It. _carcasso_, a quiver), prob. from Late Gr. _tarkasion_, which is perh. the Pers. _tarkash_, a quiver.] CARCINOLOGY, kär-si-nol'[=o]-ji, _n._ that department of zoology which treats of crabs and other crustaceans.--_adj._ CARCINOLOG'ICAL.--_n._ CARCINOL'OGIST. [Gr. _karkinos_, a crab, _logia-legein_, to speak.] CARCINOMA, kar-si-n[=o]ma, _n._ a cancer (see CANCER).--_adj._ CARCIN[=O]'MATOUS.--_n._ CARCIN[=O]'SIS, the growth and development of cancer. [Gr.] CARD, kärd, _n._ a piece of pasteboard marked with figures for playing a game, or with a person's address upon it: a note.--_ns._ CARD'-BOARD, a stiff, finely finished pasteboard; CARD'-CASE, a case for carrying visiting-cards; CARD'-SHARP'ER, one who cheats at cards; CARD'-T[=A]'BLE, a table for playing cards on.--A KNOWING CARD (_slang_), one who is wide awake; A SURE CARD, an undertaking which will be sure to succeed.--HAVE THE CARDS IN ONE'S HANDS, to have everything under one's control; HOUSE OF CARDS, something flimsy or unsubstantial; ON THE CARDS, likely to turn up; PLAY ONE'S CARDS WELL, or BADLY, to make, or not to make, the best of one's chances; SHOW ONE'S CARDS, to expose one's secrets or designs; SPEAK BY THE CARD, to speak with elegance and to the point; THROW UP THE CARDS, to give in: to confess defeat. [Fr. _carte_--L. _charta_, Gr. _chart[=e]s_, paper. CARTE is a doublet.] CARD, kärd, _n._ an instrument for combing wool or flax.--_v.t._ to comb wool, &c.--_n._ CARD'ER, one who has to do with carding wool. [Fr. _carde_--L. _carduus_, a thistle.] CARDAMINE, kär'da-m[=i]n, _n._ a genus of cress, including the cuckoo-flower or lady's smock, &c. [Gr. _kardamin[=e]_--_kardamon_, cress.] CARDAMOM, kär'da-mom, _n._ the capsules of certain tropical plants, which form an aromatic, pungent spice. [L. _cardamomum_--Gr. _kardam[=o]mon_.] CARDECU, kar'de-k[=u], _n._ (_obs._) an old French silver coin. [Fr. _quart d'écu_, quarter of a crown.] CARDIAC, kär'di-ak, _adj._ belonging to the heart: cordial, reviving--also CARDIAC'AL.--_ns._ CAR'DIAC, a disease of the heart: a cordial; CAR'DIALGY, CARDIAL'GIA, an uneasy sensation or burning pain at the upper orifice of the stomach, apparently at the heart--hence called heartburn; CAR'DIOGRAPH, an apparatus for recording by a tracing--CAR'DIOGRAM--the movements of the heart; CAR'DIOID, a geometrical curve, so called from its heart-like form; CARD[=I]T'IS, inflammation of the heart. [L.--Gr. _kardiakos_--_kardia_, the heart.] CARDIGAN, kar'de-gan, _n._ a knitted woollen jacket, named from the Crimean hero, the Earl of _Cardigan_ (1797-1868). CARDINAL, kär'din-al, _adj._ denoting that on which a thing hinges or depends: principal; of a deep scarlet colour, like a cardinal's cassock.--_n._ one of the seventy princes of the church constituting the sacred college at Rome, to whom pertains the right of electing a new pope: a short cloak, formerly worn by ladies.--_ns._ CAR'DINALATE, CAR'DINALSHIP, the office or dignity of a cardinal; CAR'DINAL-BIRD, a species of grosbeak, one of the finest song-birds of America, probably so called from its red plumage.--_adv._ CAR'DINALLY, fundamentally: (_Shak._, _Measure for Measure_, II. i. 81) carnally.--CARDINAL FLOWER (see LOBELIA); CARDINAL NUMBERS, numbers expressing how many; CARDINAL POINTS, the four chief points of the compass--north, south, east, and west; CARDINAL VIRTUES, justice, prudence, temperance, fortitude, so called because the whole of human nature was supposed to hinge or turn upon them--the _natural_ as distinguished from the _theological_ virtues. [Fr.--L. _cardinalis_--_cardo_, _cardinis_, a hinge.] CARDOON, kar-d[=oo]n', _n._ a perennial plant, the prickly artichoke of the Mediterranean region.--Also CHARDOON'. [O. Fr.,--L. _carduus_, a thistle.] CARDUUS, kar'd[=u]-us, _n._ (_Shak._) a thistle.--_n._ CARD[=O]'PHAGUS, a thistle-eater, a donkey. [L.,--Gr. _kardos_, thistle; _phagos_, eater.] CARE, k[=a]r, _n._ anxiety, heedfulness: charge, oversight: the object of anxiety.--_v.i._ to be anxious: to be inclined: to have regard.--_adjs._ CARE'-CRAZED (_Shak._), crazed or broken with care and solicitude; CARE'FUL, full of care: heedful: (_B._) anxious: (_Spens._) dreadful.--_adv._ CARE'FULLY.--_n._ CARE'FULNESS.--_adj._ CARE'LESS, without care: heedless, unconcerned.--_ns._ CARE'LESSNESS; CARE'-TAK'ER, one put in charge of anything, esp. of an Irish farm from which a tenant has been evicted.--_adj._ CARE'WORN, worn or vexed with care.--TAKE CARE, to be careful or cautious; TAKE CARE OF, to look after with care. [A.S. _caru_; Goth. _kara_, sorrow; Ice. _kæra_, to lament; Celt. _car_, care; allied to L. _carus_, dear.] CAREEN, ka-r[=e]n', _v.t._ to lay a ship on her side to repair her bottom and keel.--_v.i._ of a ship, to move with an inclination to one side.--_n._ the position of a ship laid on one side.--_n._ CAREEN'AGE, a place where ships are careened: the cost of careening. [Fr. _carène_--L. _carina_, the bottom of a ship, the keel.] CAREER, ka-r[=e]r', _n._ a racecourse: a race: course of action: manner of life; _v.i._ to gallop: to move or run rapidly. [Fr. _carrière_, a racecourse. See CAR.] CARÊME, kar-[=a]m', _n._ Lent. [Fr.] CARESS, ka-res', _v.t._ to treat with affection: to fondle: to embrace.--_n._ any act or expression of affection. [Fr. _caresser_--It. _carezza_, an endearment; Low L. _caritia_--L. _carus_, dear.] CARET, k[=a]'ret, _n._ a mark, ^, used in writing when a word is left out. [L. _caret_, there is wanting.] CAREX, k[=a]'reks, _n._ a genus of plants including the sedges. [L. _carex_, reed-grass, sedge.] CARFAX, -FOX, kär'faks, -foks, _n._ a place where four roads meet--now used only of particular examples, as at Oxford. [Fr.--L. _quadrifurc-us_, four-forked.] CARGO, kär'go, _n._ what a ship carries: its load. [Sp., from root of CAR.] CARGOOSE, kar'g[=oo]s, _n._ the crested grebe. [Scand.; Ice. _kjarr_, copse wood, and GOOSE.] CARIACOU, kar'i-a-k[=oo], _n._ the Virginian deer of North America.--Also CAR'JACOU. CARIAMA, kär-i-ä'ma, _n._ a South American bird of prey of large size. [Braz. _cariama_.] CARIB, kar'ib, _n._ one of a native race inhabiting parts of Central America and the north of South America--also CAR'IBBEE.--_adj._ CARIBB[=E]'AN. CARIBOU, kar-i-b[=oo]', _n._ the American reindeer. [Can.Fr.] CARICATURE, kar'i-ka-t[=u]r, _n._ a likeness of anything so exaggerated or distorted as to appear ridiculous.--_v.t._ to turn into ridicule by overdoing a likeness: to burlesque. Formerly spelt CARICAT[=U]'RA.--_n._ CARICATUR'IST, one who caricatures. [It. _caricatura_--_carricare_, to load, from root of CAR.] CARIES, k[=a]'ri-[=e]z, _n._ rottenness or decay of a bone.--_adj._ C[=A]'RIOUS, decayed. [L.] CARILLON, kar'il-yong, _n._ a suite of musical bells for playing tunes: the melody played on these. [Fr.,--Low L. _quadrilion-em_, a quaternary, because carillons were formerly rung on four bells.] CARINATE, kar'i-n[=a]t, _p.adj._ keel-shaped: having a prominence on the outer surface. [L. _carinatus_--_carina_, a keel.] CARIOLE, CARRIOLE, kar'i-[=o]l, _n._ a small open carriage: a light cart. [Fr. _carriole_--root of CAR.] CARK, kärk, _n._ (_arch._) care, anxiety, or solicitude.--_v.t._ to burden, harass.--_v.i._ to be anxious.--_adj._ CARK'ING, distressing, causing anxiety. [A.S. _cearig_, careful, anxious--_caru_, _cearu_, care. See CARE.] CARL, kärl, _n._ a husbandman, a clown: a churl: (_Scot._) a niggard.--_ns._ CAR'LINE, an old woman: a witch; CAR'LOT (_Shak._), a churl, peasant. [Scand., Ice. _karl_, a man, a male. See CHURL.] CARLINE, kar'lin, _n._ a genus of plants closely allied to the true thistles. [From a legend that an angel showed the root of one to _Charlemagne_ as a remedy for a plague.] CARLIST, kar'list, _n._ a supporter of the claims of the Spanish pretender Don _Carlos_ de Bourbon (1788-1855), second son of Charles IV., and his representatives, as against Queen Isabella, daughter of Ferdinand VII., and her descendants.--_n._ CAR'LISM, devotion to the Carlist cause. CARLOCK, kar'lok, _n._ a Russian isinglass obtained from the bladder of the sturgeon. [Russ.] CARLOVINGIAN, kär-lo-vin'ji-an, _adj._ relating to a dynasty of Frankish kings, so called from _Carl_ the Great or Charlemagne (742-814). CARLYLESE, kar-l[=i]l'[=e]z, _n._ the vigorous, irregular, hypermetaphorical literary style and phraseology peculiar to Thomas _Carlyle_ (1795-1881).--_adjs._ CARLYL'ESQUE, CARLYL'[=E]AN.--_n._ CARLYL'ISM. CARMAGNOLE, kar'man-y[=o]l, _n._ a. popular song and dance of the French Revolution: a kind of jacket worn by revolutionists at that time, with short skirts, a broad collar and lapels, and several rows of buttons. [Prob. from _Carmagnola_ in Piedmont.] CARMELITE, kär'mel-[=i]t, _n._ a monk of the order of Our Lady of Mount _Carmel_, in Syria, founded there about 1156, made a mendicant order in 1247--the habit brown, with white cloak and scapular, hence the Carmelites were popularly known as the White Friars: a monk or nun of discalced or reformed branch established by St Teresa--the barefooted Carmelites: a variety of pear; a fine woollen stuff like beige. CARMINATIVE, kar-min'a-tiv, _adj._ a medicine to relieve flatulence and pain in the bowels, such as cardamoms, peppermint, ginger, and other stimulating aromatics. [L. _carmin[=a]re_, to card--_carmen_, a card for wool.] CARMINE, kär'm[=i]n, _n._ the red colouring principle obtained from the cochineal insect. [Fr. or Sp. _carmin_--Sp. _carmesí_, crimson--Ar. _qirmazi_, crimson. Same root as CRIMSON.] CARNAGE, kär'n[=a]j, _n._ (_obs._) a heap of slain: slaughter. [Fr.,--It. _carnaggio_, carnage--L. _caro_, _carnis_, flesh.] CARNAL, kär'nal, _adj._ fleshly: sensual: unspiritual: (_Shak._) murderous, flesh-eating.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to convert into flesh, to become fleshy.--_v.t._ CAR'NALISE, to make carnal: to debase carnally:--_pr.p._ cär'nal[=i]sing; _pa.p._ cär'nal[=i]sed.--_ns._ CAR'NALIST, a sensualist: a worldling; CARNAL'ITY state of being carnal.--_adv._ CAR'NALLY,--_adjs._ CAR'NAL-MIND'ED, worldly-minded; CAR'NEOUS, CARNOSE', fleshy: of or like flesh.--_n._ CAR'NIFEX, executioner.--_adj._ CARNIFIC'IAL.--_n._ CARNOS'ITY, a fleshy excrescence growing in and obstructing any part of the body. [L. _carnalis_--_caro_, _carnis_, flesh.] CARNALLITE, kär'nal-[=i]t, _n._ a milk-white or pinkish hydrous chloride of potassium and magnesium found in the salt-mines of Stassfurt in Prussia. [Named from the mineralogist Von _Carnall_ (1804-74).] CARNATION, kar-n[=a]'shun, _n._ flesh-colour: one of the finest of florists' flowers, a double-flowering variety of the clove pink, and existing only in a state of cultivation.--_adj._ CARN[=A]'TIONED, having a flesh-like colour. [L. _carnatio_, fleshiness.] CARNAUBA, kär-nä-[=oo]'ba, _n._ a Brazilian palm yielding a yellowish wax: the wax--also _Brazilian wax_. [Braz.] CARNELIAN, kar-n[=e]'li-an, _n._ the name given to the finer varieties of chalcedony, blood-red or flesh-colour, reddish-brown, reddish-white, or yellow, more rarely milk-white.--Also CORN[=E]'LIAN. CARNIVAL, kär'ni-val, _n._ a feast observed by Roman Catholics just before the fast of Lent: any season of revelry or indulgence: riotous feasting, merriment, or amusement. [It. _carnevale_--Low L. _carnelevarium_, apparently from L. _carnem levare_, to put away flesh.] CARNIVORA, kar-niv'[=o]-ra, _n.pl._ order of flesh-eating animals.--_n._ CAR'NIVORE, a carnivorous animal.--_adj._ CARNIV'OROUS, flesh-eating.--_adv._ CARNIV'OROUSLY.--_n._ CARNIV'OROUSNESS. [L. _caro_, _carnis_, flesh, _vorus_, devouring.] CARNY, CARNEY, kär'ni, _v.t._ (_prov._) to coax, wheedle.--_v.i._ to act in such a way.--_n._ flattery. CAROB, kar'ob, _n._ the algaroba or locust-tree, a tree of the order _Leguminosæ_, native to the Mediterranean countries. [Through Fr. from Ar. _kharr[=u]bah_.] CAROCHE, ka-r[=o]sh', _n._ a coach or carriage. [Fr.,--It. _caraccio_, _carro_--L. _carrus_, car.] CAROL, kar'ol, _n._ a song of joy or praise.--_v.i._ to sing a carol: to sing or warble.--_v.t._ to praise or celebrate in song:--_pr.p._ car'olling; _pa.p._ car'olled.--_n._ CAR'OLLING, the act of the verb to carol. [O. Fr. _carole_; It. _carola_, orig. a ring-dance; acc. to Diez, a dim. of L. _chorus_.] CAROLINGIAN, kar-[=o]-lin'ji-an, _adj._ Same as CARLOVINGIAN (q.v.). CAROLUS, kar'ol-us, _n._ a gold coin of the time of Charles I.--_adj._ CAR'OLINE, belonging to the time of Charles. [L. _Carolus_, Charles.] CAROM, kar'om, _n._ an abbreviation for CARAMBOLE, the same as CANNON in billiards. CAROTID, ka-rot'id, _adj._ relating to the two great arteries of the neck. [Gr. _kar[=o]tides_--_karos_, sleep, the ancients supposing that deep sleep was caused by compression of them.] CAROUSE, kar-owz', _n._ a drinking-bout: a noisy revel.--_v.i._ to hold a drinking-bout: to drink freely and noisily.--_ns._ CAROUS'AL, a carouse: a feast; CAROUS'ER, one who carouses.--_adv._ CAROUS'INGLY. [O. Fr. _carous_, Fr. _carrousse_--Ger. _gar aus_, quite out!--that is, empty the glass.] CAROUSEL, kar-[=oo]'zel, _n._ a tilting match or tournament, to which were added games, shows, and allegorical representations. [Fr.] CARP, kärp, _v.i._ to catch at small faults or errors (with _at_).--_ns._ CARP'ER, one who carps or cavils; CARP'ING, cavilling: fault-finding.--_adv._ CARP'INGLY. [Most prob. Scand., Ice. _karpa_, to boast, modified in meaning through likeness to L. _carp[)e]re_, to pluck, deride.] CARP, kärp, _n._ a fresh-water fish common in ponds. [O. Fr. _carpe_--Low L. _carpa_, prob. Teut.] CARPAL, kär'pal, _adj._ pertaining to the wrist. [Gr. _karpos_, the wrist.] CARPEL, kär'pel, _n._ a modified leaf forming the whole or part of the pistil of a flower.--_adj._ CAR'PELLARY. [Gr. _karpos_, fruit.] CARPENTER, kär'pent-[.e]r, _n._ a worker in timber as used in building houses, ships, &c.--_v.i._ to do the work of a carpenter.--_ns._ CAR'PENTER-BEE, a bee that excavates its nest in wood; CAR'PENTRY, the trade or work of a carpenter, [O. Fr. _carpentier_--Low L. _carpentarius_--_carpentum_, a car, from root of CAR.] CARPET, kär'pet, _n._ the woven or felted covering of floors, stairs, &c.--_v.t._ to cover with a carpet:--_pr.p._ car'peting; _pa.p._ car'peted.--_ns._ CAR'PET-BAG, a travelling-bag, so called because usually made of carpeting; CAR'PET-BAG'GER, one who comes to a place for political or other ends, carrying his whole property qualification for citizenship with him in his carpet-bag; CAR'PET-BEAT'ING, the removing of dust from carpets by beating; CAR'PET-BED'DING, a system of horticulture in which plants are arranged in mosaic or geometrical designs; CAR'PETING, material of which carpets are made: carpets in general; CAR'PET-KNIGHT, one dubbed a knight by mere court favour, not on account of his military exploits--hence an effeminate person; CAR'PET-MONG'ER (_Shak._), an effeminate person; CAR'PET-ROD, one of the narrow rods used to keep a stair carpet in its place.--ON THE CARPET, under discussion. [O. Fr. _carpite_ (Fr. _carpette_)--Low L. _carpeta_, a coarse fabric made from rags pulled to pieces--L. _carp[)e]re_, to pluck.] CARPOLITE, kär'po-l[=i]t, _n._ fruit petrified or converted into stone.--_n._ CARPOL'OGY, the part of botany which treats of the structure of fruits and seeds. [Gr. _karpos_, fruit, _lithos_, a stone, _logos_, a discourse.] CARRACK, kar'rak, _n._ a large ship of burden, which is also fitted for fighting.--Also CAR'ACK. [O. Fr. _carraque_--Low L. _carraca_. Ety. dub.] CARRAGEEN, kar-ra-g[=e]n', _n._ Carrageen moss, or Irish moss--marine alga, common on the British coasts, used for making a highly digestible soup and a kind of blanc-mange, as well as size. [From _Carragheen_, near Waterford in Ireland, where it is found abundantly.] CARRAT. Same as CARAT. CARRAWAY. Same as CARAWAY. CARRIAGE, kar'ij, _n._ act or cost of carrying: a vehicle for carrying: behaviour: bearing: (_Shak._) burden: (_B._) baggage.--_adj._ _Carr'iageable_, that may be conveyed in carriages.--_ns._ CARR'IAGE-COM'PANY, or -PEO'PLE, people who keep their carriages; CARR'IAGE-DRIVE, a road for carriages through parks, &c.; CARR'IAGE-HORSE, a horse that draws a carriage.--CARRIAGE AND PAIR, a turn-out of a carriage and two horses; CARRIAGE FREE, tree of charge for carrying. [See CARRY.] [Illustration] CARRICK-BEND, kar'ik-bend, _n._ (_naut._), a kind of knot, formed on a bight by putting the end of a rope over its standing part, and then passing it. [Perh. conn. with CARRACK, and the root of BIND.] CARRIOLE. See CARIOLE. CARRION, kar'i-un, _n._ the dead and putrid body or flesh of any animal: anything vile.--_adj._ relating to, or feeding on, putrid flesh.--_n._ CARR'ION-CROW, a species of crow which feeds on carrion, small animals, &c. [Fr. _carogne_--Low L. _caronia_--L. _caro_, _carnis_, flesh.] CARRITCH, kar'itch, _n._ (_Scot._) a corrupted form of the word _catechism_.--_n._ CARR'IWITCHET, a quibble. CARRONADE, kar-un-[=a]d', _n._ a short cannon of large bore, first made at _Carron_ in Scotland. CARRON-OIL, kar'on-oil, _n._ a liniment composed of linseed-oil and lime-water. [From its use for burns at _Carron_ Ironworks in Stirlingshire.] CARROT, kar'ut, _n._ a genus of _Umbelliferæ_, having a tapering root of a reddish or yellowish colour: the root itself, which is edible and sweet.--_adj._ CARR'OTY, carrot-coloured, applied to the hair. [Fr. _carotte_--L. _carota_.] CARRY, kar'i, _v.t._ to convey or bear: to lead or transport: to take by force: to effect: to behave or demean: (of money) to be sufficient for a certain purpose: to gain the election of a candidate: to get a bill passed by a majority.--_v.i._ (of a gun, &c.) to reach, indicating the range of its shot:--_pr.p._ carr'ying; _pa.p._ carr'ied.--_n._ the distance a golf-ball goes when struck till it touches the ground: range: the portage of a boat: land across which a boat has to be carried between one navigable stream and another: the position of 'carry arms,' &c.: (_prov._) the sky, cloud-drift.--_ns._ CARR'IER, one who carries, esp. for hire; CARR'Y-ALL, a light, four-wheeled, one-horsed carriage; CARR'YING, the act of one who carries; CARR'Y-TALE (_Shak._), a tale-bearer.--CARRY ALL BEFORE ONE, to bear down all obstacles; CARRY AWAY, to carry off: to excite the feelings: to transport; CARRY OFF, to cause the death of: to gain, to win, as a prize: to cause to pass muster, to make to pass by assurance or dissimulation; CARRY ON, to promote: to continue: to behave in a certain fashion (a term of mild reprobation); CARRY ONE'S POINT, to overrule objections in favour of one's plan; CARRY OUT, to accomplish fully: to carry out for burial; CARRY OUT ONE'S BAT (_cricket_), to leave the wickets without having been put out; CARRY OVER, to induce to join the other party; CARRY THE DAY, or CARRY IT, to be successful: to win the day; CARRY THROUGH, to succeed in accomplishing; CARRY TOO FAR, to exceed reasonable limits; CARRY UP, to continue a building to a certain height: to trace back; CARRY WEIGHT, to possess authority: to have force.--BE CARRIED, to be highly excited: to have the head turned. [O. Fr. _carier_,--Low L. _carric[=a]re_, to cart--L. _carrus_, a car.] CARSE, kärs, _n._ in Scotland, a stretch of alluvial land along the banks of some rivers. [_Scot._; perh. from an obsolete word _car_, a fen; cf. Dan. _kjær_.] CART, kärt, _n._ a two-wheeled vehicle without springs, used for farm purposes, and for conveying heavy loads.--_v.t._ to convey in a cart: to carry publicly in a cart as a punishment--formerly done to bawds.--_ns._ CART'AGE, the act or cost of carting; CART'ER, one who drives a cart; CART'-HORSE, a horse used for drawing a cart; CART'-HOUSE, a shed for keeping carts; CART'-LOAD, as much as a cart can carry; CART'S-TAIL, the hind part of a cart; CART'WAY, a road or way by which carts may pass; CART'WRIGHT, a carpenter who makes carts; T'-CART, a four-wheeled open phaeton, seated for four, its ground-plan resembling a T--see also DOG-CART, MAIL-CART, TAX-CART, &c.--PUT THE CART BEFORE THE HORSE, to reverse the natural order of things.--VILLAGE CART, an uncovered two-wheeled carriage for one horse, with a low body and one seat; WHITECHAPEL CART, or CHAPEL CART, a light two-wheeled spring-cart much used by butchers in delivering goods to their customers. [Ety. uncertain; from A.S. _cræt_, or Ice. _kartr_.] CARTE, kärt, _n._ the fourth position of the wrist in fencing. [Fr. _quart_--L. _quartus_, fourth.] CARTE, kärt, _n._ a bill of fare: (_Scot._), a playing-card: short for _carte-de-visite_.--_ns._ CARTE-BLANCHE', a blank paper, duly signed, and given to a person, to be filled up at his pleasure; CARTE-DE-VISITE', a small photographic portrait pasted on a card; CART'EL, a challenge: an agreement for exchange of prisoners; a card with writing on it.--HAVE CARTE-BLANCHE, to have a commission to act with full discretionary powers. [Fr.,--L. _charta_. See CARD.] CARTESIAN, kar-t[=e]'zhi-an, _adj._ relating to the French philosopher René _Descartes_ (1596-1650), or his philosophy.--CARTESIAN DEVIL, DIVER, or BOTTLE-IMP, a scientific toy named after Descartes, illustrating the principle of specific gravity. CARTHAMINE, kär'tha-min, _n._ a dye obtained in crystals by a chemical process from safflower. [Low L. _carthamus_--Ar. _qartum_, saffron.] CARTHUSIAN, kar-th[=u]'zi-an, _n._ one of an order of monks founded by St Bruno in 1086, noted for their strictness: a scholar of the Charterhouse School.--_adj._ of or pertaining to the order. [L. _Cartusianus_--_Catorissium_, _Chatrousse_, a village in Dauphiné, near which their first monastery was founded.] CARTILAGE, kär'ti-l[=a]j, _n._ in vertebrate animals, a firm elastic substance, of a pearly whiteness, presenting to the unaided eye a uniform and homogeneous appearance: gristle.--_adj._ CARTILAGI'NOUS, pertaining to or consisting of cartilage, gristly. [Fr.,--L. _cartilago_; cog. with _crates_, Gr. _kartalos_.] CARTOGRAPHY, kar-tog'ra-fi, _n._ the art of preparing charts or maps. [L. _charta_, chart, map, and Gr. _graphia_, _graph-ein_, to write.] CARTOMANCY, kär't[=o]-man-si, _n._ a divination by playing-cards. [Low L. _carta_, a card, Gr. _manteia_, divination.] CARTON, kär'ton, _n._ a thin pasteboard, a box made from such: a small disc within the bull's-eye of the target, a shot that strikes this.--_ns._ CAR'TONNAGE, pasteboard: the outer covering of a mummy; CAR'TON-PIERRE', statuary pasteboard, a kind of papier-maché. [Fr. See CARTOON.] CARTOON, kär-t[=oo]n', _n._ a preparatory drawing on strong paper to be transferred to frescoes, tapestry, &c.: any large sketch or design on paper, esp. a representation of current events in a comic paper.--_v.t._ to make a cartoon or working design: to caricature by a cartoon.--_n._ CARTOON'IST, one who makes cartoons. [Fr. _carton_ (It. _cartone_), augmentative of CARTE.] CARTOUCHE, kär-t[=oo]sh', _n._ a case for holding cartridges: formerly a case containing bullets to be discharged from a mortar, but now merely a waterproof canvas case for holding the cartridges of a field battery, one to each ammunition-box: (_archit._) an ornament resembling a scroll of paper with the ends rolled up: an oval figure on ancient Egyptian monuments or papyri enclosing characters expressing royal or divine names.--Also CARTOUCH'. [Fr.,--It. _cartoccio_--L. _charta_, paper.] [Illustration] CARTRIDGE, kär'trij, _n._ a case made of paper, pasteboard, metal, &c., containing the charge for a gun--BLANK'-CAR'TRIDGES contain powder only; BALL'-CARTRIDGES contain a bullet as well.--_ns._ CAR'TRIDGE-BAG, a bag of flannel, merino, &c., for holding a charge for a cannon; CAR'TRIDGE-BELT, a belt having pockets for cartridges; CAR'TRIDGE-BOX, a small box for holding cartridges, carried by soldiers; CAR'TRIDGE-P[=A]'PER, a light-coloured, strong paper, originally manufactured for making cartridges. [A corr. of CARTOUCHE.] CARTULARY, kär't[=u]-lar-i, _n._ a register-book of a monastery, &c.: one who kept the records: the place where the register is kept. [Low L. _chartularium_--L. _chartula_, a document--_charta_, paper.] CARUCATE, kar'u-k[=a]t, _n._ originally an amount of land such as one team of oxen could plough in a season.--_n._ CAR'UCAGE, a tax on the carucate, first imposed by Richard I. in 1198. [Low L. _carruc[=a]ta_, ploughland--_carruca_, plough, from root of CAR.] CARUNCLE, kar-unk'l, _n._ a small fleshy excrescence, as the wattles of the turkey-cock.--_adjs._ CARUN'CULAR, CARUN'CULATE, CARUN'CULOUS. [Fr.--L. _caruncula_.] CARUS, kä'rus, _n._ complete insensibility. [Gr. _karos_, stupor.] CARVE, kärv, _v.t._ to cut into forms, devices, &c.: to make or shape by cutting: to cut up (meat) into slices or pieces: to apportion or distribute: (_Shak._) to speak with suavity.--_v.i._ to exercise the trade of a sculptor.--_p.adj._ CARV'EN, carved.--_ns._ CARV'ER, one who carves: a sculptor: a carving-knife; CARV'ING, the act or art of carving, a branch of sculpture usually performed on wood or ivory: the device or figure carved: the act or art of cutting up meat at table.--CARVE OUT, to hew out: to gain by one's exertions.--CUT AND CARVE, to refine. [A. S. _ceorfan_, to cut; Dut. _kerven_; Ger. _kerben_, to notch.] CARVEL, kär'vel, _n._ older form of CARAVEL.--_adj._ CAR'VEL-BUILT, as distinguished from _clinker-built_ (q.v. under CLINK). CARVY, kär'vi', _n._ Scotch form of CARAWAY. CARYATID, kar-i-at'id, _n._ a female figure used instead of a column to support an entablature:--_pl._ CARYAT'IDES.--_adjs._ CARYAT'IC, CARYAT'IDAL, CARYATID[=E]'AN, CARYATID'IC. [Gr. _Karyatides_.] CARYOPHYLLACEOUS, kar-i-[=o]-fi-l[=a]'shi-us, _adj._ belonging to the natural order _Caryophyllaceæ_;, applied esp. to flowers having five petals with long claws, as in the clove-pink. [Gr. _karyophyllon_, the clove-pink.] CASCABEL, kas'ka-bel, _n._ the whole rear part behind the base-ring of a cannon. [Sp.] CASCADE, kas-k[=a]d', _n._ a waterfall: a trimming of lace or other material in a loose wavy fall.--_v.i._ to fall in cascades. [Fr.,--It.--L. _cad[)e]re_, to fall.] CASCARA, kas'ka-ra, _n._ the _Cascara sagrada_, a Californian bark used as a tonic aperient: the _Cascara amarga_, a bitter Honduras bark.--_n._ CASCARILL'A, the aromatic bitter bark of the West Indian _Croton Eleuteria_. [Sp.] CASCO, kas'k[=o], _n._ a form of boat used at Manila for lading and unlading ships. CASE, k[=a]s, _n._ a covering, box, or sheath: a set: an outer coating for walls: in bookbinding, the boards and back, separate from the book: the frame in which a compositor has his types before him while at work.--_v.t._ to supply with a case.--_n._ CASE'-BOTT'LE, a bottle made to fit into a case with others.--_v.t._ CASE'-HARD'EN, to convert the surface of certain kinds of malleable iron goods into steel, thereby making them harder, less liable to rust, and capable of taking on a better polish.--_ns._ CASE'-HARD'ENING; CASE'-KNIFE, a large knife kept in a case; CASE'MAKER, one who makes cases or covers for books; CASE'MENT, the case or frame of a window: a window that opens on hinges: a hollow moulding.--_adj._ CASE'MENTED, having casements.--_ns._ CASE'-SHOT, canister-shot, an artillery projectile for use at close quarters; CASE'-WORM, the caddice; CAS'ING, the act of the verb CASE: an outside covering of any kind, as of boards, plaster, &c. [O. Fr. _casse_--L. _capsa_--_cap[)e]re_, to take.] CASE, k[=a]s, _n._ that which falls or happens, event: particular state or condition--'in good case' = well off: subject of question or inquiry: an instance of disease: a person under medical treatment: a legal statement of facts: (_gram._) the inflection of nouns, &c.--CASE OF CONSCIENCE (see CONSCIENCE).--IN ANY CASE, at all events: at any rate; IN CASE, in the event that; IN CASE TO, in fit condition for; MAKE OUT ONE'S CASE, to give good reasons for one's statements or position; PUT THE CASE, to suppose an instance: to take for example; THE CASE, the fact, the reality. [O. Fr. _cas_--L. _casus_, from _cad[)e]re_, to fall.] CASEIN, CASEINE, k[=a]'s[=e]-in, _n._ an organic substance, contained in milk and cheese.--_adjs._ C[=A]'S[=E]IC; C[=A]'S[=E]OUS, pertaining to cheese. [Fr.,--L. _caseus_, cheese.] CASEMATE, k[=a]s'm[=a]t, _n._ any bomb-proof vaulted chamber, even when merely used as quarters for the garrison: (_orig._) a loopholed gallery, from which the garrison of a fort could fire upon an enemy who had obtained possession of the ditch.--_adj._ CASE'MATED. [Fr.; der. uncertain.] CASEOUS. See CASEIN. CASERN, ka-s[.e]rn', _n._ a lodging for troops in a town: a barrack. [Fr.,--Sp. _caserna_--_casa_, a house.] CASH, kash, _n._ coin or money: ready money.--_v.t._ to turn into or exchange for money: to pay money for.--_ns._ CASH'-ACCOUNT', an account to which nothing is carried but cash: a form of account with a bank, by which a person is entitled to draw out sums as required by way of loan to a stipulated amount--also called CASH'-CRED'IT; CASH'-BOOK, a book in which an account is kept of the receipts and disbursements of money; CASHIER', a cash-keeper: one who has charge of the receiving and paying of money; CASH'-PAY'MENT, payment in ready money; CASH'-RAIL'WAY, a mechanical device adopted in large shops and warehouses for the interchange of cash between the counters and the cash-desk.--HARD CASH, ready money; OUT OF CASH, or IN CASH, without or with money: out of, or in, pocket. [A doublet of CASE, a box--O. Fr. _casse_, a box.] CASHEW, ka-sh[=oo]', _n._ a spreading tree of no great height, in both the East and West Indies, the fruit of which is a kidney-shaped nut at the end of a pear-shaped fleshy stalk, the kernel of this nut and the fleshy stalk (called the CASHEW'-APP'LE) being both used as food. [Fr. _acajou_--Brazilian _acajoba_.] CASHIER, kash-[=e]r', _v.t._ to dismiss from a post in disgrace: to discard or put away: to annul.--_ns._ CASHIER'ER, one who cashiers; CASHIER'ING, a punishment for officers in the army and navy, severer than dismissal, inasmuch as it disqualifies from entering the public service in any capacity; CASHIER'MENT, dismissal. [Dut. _casseren_, to cashier--L. _cass[=a]re_, _cassus_, void, empty.] CASHMERE, kash'm[=e]r, _n._ a rich kind of shawl made from the _Cashmere_ goat: any similar shawl. CASINO, kas-[=e]'n[=o], _n._ a room for public dancing: a card-game. [It.; from L. _casa_, a cottage.] CASK, kask, _n._ a hollow round vessel for holding liquor, made of staves bound with hoops: a measure of capacity: (_obs._) a casque,--_v.t._ to put in a cask. [Fr. _casque_--Sp. _casco_, skull, helmet, cask.] CASKET, kask'et, _n._ a little cask or case: a small case for holding jewels, &c.: (_U.S._) a coffin. [Ety. uncertain; hardly a dim. of CASK.] CASQUE, CASK, kask, _n._ a cover for the head: a helmet. [A doublet of CASK.] CASSANDRA, kas-an'dra, _n._ a daughter of Priam, king of Troy, beloved by Apollo, who gave her the gift of prophecy, but not of being believed--hence any one who takes gloomy views of the political or social future. CASSAREEP, kas'a-r[=e]p, _n._ a sauce or condiment made from the juice of the cassava, the chief ingredient in the West Indian pepper-pot. CASSATION, kas-s[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of making null or void: (_French law_) the act of annulling the decision of a court or judicial tribunal--hence COURT OF CASSATION, the supreme tribunal. [Low L. _cassation-em_--_cass[=a]re_, to bring to nought.] CASSAVA, kas-sä'va, _n._ the West Indian name of the manioc, and the starch produced from it, called Brazilian Arrowroot, or Tapioca. CASSEROLE, kas'e-r[=o]l, _n._ a stew-pan: the outer part of several dressed dishes. [Fr.] CASSIA, kash'ya, _n._ a coarser kind of cinnamon--also CASS'IA-BARK: the tree which yields the foregoing: a fragrant plant mentioned in Ps. xlv. 8 (Heb. _qeçî'ôth_, prob. the Ind. _orris_ or _costus_): a genus of shrubs of the bean family (_Leguminosæ_), the leaves of several species yielding senna, while the drug known as cassia fistula or purging cassia is derived from the pod of _Cassia fistula_, the bark of which is used in tanning. [L. _casia_--Gr. _kasia_--Heb.] CASSIMERE, kas-i-m[=e]r', _n._ a twilled cloth of the finest wools.--Also KERSEYMERE'. [Corr. of CASHMERE.] CASSINO, kas-s[=e]'no, _n._ a game at cards. [See CASINO.] CASSIOPEIA, kas-i-[=o]-p[=e]'ya, _n._ a constellation in the northern hemisphere, near the North Pole, named after the mother of Andromeda in Greek mythology. CASSITERITE, ka-sit'e-r[=i]t, _n._ a brown native tin dioxide. [L. _cassiterum_--Gr. _kassiteros_, tin.] CASSOCK, kas'ok, _n._ a long loose black robe or outer coat, formerly in common wear, but now worn only by clergy and choristers: a shorter garment, usually of black silk, worn under the Geneva gown by Scotch ministers.--_adj._ CASS'OCKED. [Fr. _casaque_--It. _casacca_, prob. from L. _casa_, a cottage, a covering. Some explain Fr. _casaque_, _casaquin_, It. _casacchino_, as from Ar. _kaz[=a]yand_, a padded jerkin.] CASSOLETTE, kas'[=o]-let, _n._ a censer: a perfume-box with perforated lid. [Fr.,--Sp. _cazoleta_--_cazo_, a saucepan.] CASSONADE, kas-o-n[=a]d', _n._ raw or unrefined sugar. [Fr.] CASSOWARY, kas'[=o]-war-i, _n._ a genus of running birds, nearly related to the true ostrich, and nearer to the American rhea. [Malay _kasu[=a]r[=i]_ or _kasav[=a]r[=i]_.] CAST, kast, _v.t._ to throw or fling: to throw off, shed, drop: to throw down: to throw together or reckon: to mould or shape: (_B._) to consider, to cast or throw up.--_v.i._ to warp:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ cast.--_n._ act of casting: a throw of anything, as the sounding-lead, a fishing-line: the thing thrown, esp. in angling: the distance thrown: a motion, turn, or squint, as of the eye: a chance: a mould: the form received from a mould: manner, stamp, or quality: a shade of colour, a degree of guilt, &c.: the assignment of the various parts of a play to the several actors: the company of actors to whom such have been assigned.--_n._ CAST'AWAY, one cast away, an outcast.--_adj._ worthless, rejected.--_adjs._ CAST (_B._), CAST'ED (_Shak._), cast off.--_ns._ CAST'ING, act of casting or moulding: that which is cast: a mould; CAST'ING-NET, a species of net for fishing; CAST'ING-VOTE, the voice or vote of the president of a meeting, by which he is enabled, when the other votes are equally divided, to cast the balance on the one side or the other; CAST'ING-WEIGHT, the weight which makes the balance cast or turn when exactly poised.--_adj._ CAST'-OFF, laid aside or rejected.--_n._ anything thrown aside.--_n._ CAST'-STEEL, steel that has been melted, cast into ingots, and rolled out into bars.--CAST ABOUT, to contrive, to look about, to search for, as game: (_B._) to turn, to go round; CAST A NATIVITY, to make an astrological calculation; CAST ANCHOR, to moor a ship; CAST AN EYE, A GLANCE, to look at; CAST A THING IN ONE'S TEETH, to bring a reproach against some one; CAST AWAY, to wreck, to waste; CAST DOWN, to deject or depress in mind: to turn the eyes downward; CAST LOOSE, to set loose or adrift; CAST UP, to throw up, to bring up anything as a reproach.--BE CAST (_law_), to be defeated.--THE LAST CAST, the last venture. [Scand.; as Ice. _kasta_, to throw.] CASTALIAN, kas-t[=a]'li-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Castalia_, a fountain in Parnassus, sacred to Apollo and the Muses. [Illustration] CASTANET, kas'ta-net, _n._ a musical instrument of percussion in the form of two hollow shells of ivory or hard wood, which are bound together by a band fastening on the thumb, and struck by the fingers to produce a trilling sound in keeping with the rhythm of the music--much used in Spain as an accompaniment to dances and guitars. [Sp. _castañeta_--L. _castanea_, a chestnut.] CASTE, käst, _n._ a term applied chiefly to distinct classes or sections of society in India, and, in a modified sense, to social distinctions of an exclusive nature among other nations.--LOSE CASTE, to descend in social rank. [A name given by the Portuguese to the classes of people in India; Port. _casta_, breed, race.--L. _castus_, pure, unmixed.] CASTELLAN, CASTELLATED. See CASTLE. CASTIGATE, kas'tig-[=a]t, _v.t._ to chastise: to correct: to punish with stripes.--_ns._ CASTIG[=A]'TION, act of castigating: chastisement: severe punishment; CAS'TIG[=A]TOR, one who castigates.--_adj._ CAS'TIG[=A]TORY. [L. _castig[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, from _castus_, pure.] CASTILIAN, kas-til'yan, _adj._ and _n._ of or belonging to _Castile_, a native of Castile, or the language thereof, standard Spanish.--CASTILE SOAP, a hard soap made with olive-oil and soda. CAST-IRON. See IRON. CASTLE, kas'l, _n._ a fortified house or fortress: the residence of a prince or nobleman, or a large country mansion generally: anything built in the likeness of such: a defensive tower borne on an elephant's back: a large ship, esp. of war.--_v.t._ to enclose or fortify with a castle.--_v.i._ (_chess_) to bring the castle or rook up to the square next the king, and move the king to the other side of the castle.--_n._ CAS'TELLAN, governor or captain of a castle.--_adj._ CAS'TELLATED, having turrets and battlements like a castle.--_n._ CAS'TLE-BUILD'ING, the act of building castles in the air or forming visionary projects.--_adj._ CAS'TLED, furnished with castles.--_n._ CAS'TLE-GUARD, the guard for the defence of a castle.--CASTLES IN THE AIR, or IN SPAIN, groundless or visionary projects.--THE CASTLE, Dublin Castle, the seat of the viceroy and the executive--_Castle influence_, &c. [A.S. _castel_--L. _castellum_, dim. of _castrum_, a fortified place.] CASTOR, kas'tor, _n._ the beaver: a hat made of its fur. [L.,--Gr. _kast[=o]r_; cf. Sans. _kasturi_, musk.] CASTOR, kast'or, _n._ a small wheel on the legs of furniture: a small vessel with perforated top for pepper, &c.--also CAST'ER. [From CAST.] CASTOR-OIL, kas'tor-oil, _n._ a medicinal oil obtained from a tropical plant, the _Ricinus communis_. [Ety. dub.; prob. from _castor_ or _castoreum_, the unctuous substance obtained from two pear-shaped glands in the beaver, formerly much used in midwifery.] CASTRAL, kas'tral, _adj._ belonging to the camp. [L. _castra_.] CASTRAMETATION, kas-tra-me-t[=a]'shun, _n._ the act or art of encamping. [L. _castra_, a camp, _met[=a]ri_, _-atus_, to measure off--_meta_, a boundary.] CASTRATE, kas'tr[=a]t, _v.t._ to deprive of the power of generation, to remove the testicles, geld, emasculate: to take from or render imperfect.--_adj._ CAS'TRATED, expurgated.--_ns._ CASTR[=A]'TION, gelding, expurgation; CASTRATO (kas-trä't[=o]), a male singer castrated in boyhood so as to preserve a soprano or alto voice:--_pl._ CASTRA'TI. [L. _castr[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_.] CASUAL, kash'[=u]-al, _adj._ accidental: unforeseen: occasional.--_n._ a chance or occasional visitor, labourer, pauper, &c.--_n._ CAS'UALISM, the belief that chance governs all things.--_adv._ CAS'UALLY, in a casual manner.--_n._ CAS'UALTY, that which falls out: an accident: a misfortune: (_pl._) losses of a military force by death, desertion, &c.: an incidental charge or payment.--CASUALTIES OF SUPERIORITY, in the feudal law of Scotland, such emoluments arising to the superior as depend on uncertain events--those of non-entry, relief or composition, and escheat alone remaining, but considerably modified by the Conveyancing Act of 1874.--CASUALTY WARD, the ward in a hospital in which accidents are treated; CASUAL WARD, a ward set apart for the use of those who are only occasionally in destitution. [L. _casualis_--_casus_. See CASE.] CASUARINA, kas-[=u]-ar-[=e]n'a, _n._ a genus of Australian trees having thread-like, jointed, pendent branches, with small toothed sheaths at the joints, like the horse-tails--the _Swamp-oak_ and _She-oak_ belong to it, and its wood is the well-known _Beef-wood_. CASUIST, kaz'[=u]-ist, _n._ one who studies and resolves cases of conscience.--_adjs._ CASUIST'IC, -AL, relating to cases of conscience.--_n._ CAS'UISTRY, the science or doctrine of cases of conscience, or the reasoning which enables a man to decide in a particular case between apparently conflicting duties. [Fr. _casuiste_--L. _casus_. See CASE.] CASULA, kas'[=u]-la, _n._ a chasuble. CAT, kat, _n._ a common domestic animal kept to devour mice: a spiteful woman: a movable pent-house used for their protection by besiegers: a double tripod with six legs: a piece of wood tapering at each end, struck with the CAT-STICK in the game of _tip-cat_, this game itself: short for the CAT-O'-NINE'-TAILS, an instrument of punishment consisting of a whip with nine tails or lashes, with three or four knots on each, once used in the army and navy.--_v.t._ to raise the anchor to the cathead.--_ns._ CAT'AMOUNT, a common name in the United States for the cougar or puma--also called _Panther_, _Painter_, and _American lion_; CATAMOUN'TAIN, or CAT O' MOUNTAIN, a leopard, panther, or ocelot: a wild mountaineer.--_adj._ ferocious, savage.--_adj._ CAT-AND-DOG, used attributively for quarrelsome.--_ns._ CAT'-BIRD, an American bird of the thrush family, so called on account of the resemblance of its note to the mewing of a cat; CAT'-CALL, a squeaking instrument used in theatres to express dislike of a play: a shrill whistle or cry.--_v.i._ to sound a cat-call.--_v.t._ to assail with such.--_adj._ CAT'-EYED, having eyes like a cat: able to see in the dark.--_n._ CAT'GUT, a kind of cord made from the intestines of animals, and used as strings for violins, harps, guitars, &c., the cords of clock-makers, &c.: the violin or other stringed instrument: a coarse corded cloth.--_adj._ CAT'-HAMMED, with thin hams like a cat's.--_ns._ CAT'HEAD, one of two strong beams of timber projecting from the bow of a ship, on each side of the bowsprit, through which the ropes pass by which the anchor is raised; CAT'-HOLE, one of two holes in the after part of a ship, through which hawsers may pass for steadying the ship or for heaving astern; CAT'HOOD, state of being a cat or having the nature of a cat; CAT'KIN, a crowded spike or tuft of small unisexual flowers with reduced scale-like bracts, as in the willow, hazel, &c.; CAT'-LAP, any thin or poor drink.--_adj._ CAT'-LIKE, noiseless, stealthy.--_ns._ CAT'LING, a little cat, a kitten: the downy moss on some trees, like the fur of a cat: (_Shak._) a lute-string; CAT'MINT, a perennial plant resembling mint, said to be so called from the fondness cats have for it; CAT'S'-CR[=A]'DLE, a game played by children, two alternately taking from each other's fingers an intertwined cord, so as always to maintain a symmetrical figure; CAT'S'-EYE, a beautiful variety of quartz, so called from the resemblance which the reflection of light from it bears to the light that seems to emanate from the eye of a cat; CAT'S-FOOT, a plant, called also _Ground-ivy_; CAT'-SIL'VER, a variety of silvery mica; CAT'S'-MEAT, horses' flesh, or the like, sold for cats by street dealers; CAT'S'-PAW (_naut._), a light breeze: the dupe or tool of another--from the fable of the monkey who used the paws of the cat to draw the roasting chestnuts out of the fire; CAT'S'-TAIL, a catkin: a genus of aquatic plants of the reed kind, the leaves of which are sometimes used for making mats, seating chairs, &c.: a kind of grass.--_adj._ CAT'-WIT'TED, small-minded, conceited, and spiteful.--CATTED AND FISHED, said of an anchor raised to the cathead and secured to the ship's side.--BELL THE CAT (see BELL).--CARE KILLED THE CAT, even with his proverbial nine lives.--CHESHIRE CATS are proverbially notable for grinning, and KILKENNY CATS proverbially fight till each destroys the other.--RAIN CATS AND DOGS, to pour down heavily.--SEE WHICH WAY THE CAT JUMPS, to watch how things are going to turn before committing one's self.--TURN THE CAT IN THE PAN, to change sides with dexterity.--For GIB-CAT, TABBY-CAT, TOM-CAT, see under GIB, TABBY, &c. [A.S. _cat_; found also in Celt., Slav., Ar., Finn, &c.] CAT, kat, _n._ an old name for a coal and timber vessel on the north-east coast of England.--_adj._ CAT'-RIGGED, having one great fore-and-aft mainsail spread by a gaff at the head and a boom at the foot, for smooth water only. CATABOLISM. See KATABOLISM. CATACAUSTIC, kat-a-kaws'tik, _adj._ (_geom._) belonging to caustic curves formed by reflection (see CAUSTIC). [Gr. _kata_, against, and CAUSTIC.] CATACHRESIS, kat-a-kr[=e]'sis, _n._ (_rhet._) a figure by which a word is used in a sense different from, yet analogous to, its own: a harsh or far-fetched metaphor.--_adjs._ CATACHRES'TIC, -AL.--_adv._ CATACHRES'TICALLY. [L.,--Gr. _katachr[=e]sis_, misuse.] CATACLYSM, kat'a-klizm, _n._ a flood of water: a deluge: great revolution.--_adj._ CATACLYS'MIC. [Gr. _kataklysmos_--_kata_, downward, _klyzein_, to wash.] CATACOMB, kat'a-k[=o]m, _n._ a subterranean excavation used as a burial-place, esp. the famous Catacombs near Rome, where many of the early Christian victims of persecution were buried: any place built with crypt-like recesses for storing books, wine, &c.--_adj._ CAT'ACUMBAL. [It. _catacomba_--Late L. _catacumbas_ (prob. from _ad catacumbas_), prob. from Gr. _kata_, downward, and _kymb[=e]_, a hollow.] CATACOUSTICS, kat-a-kows'tiks, _n._ the part of acoustics which treats of echoes or sounds reflected. [Gr. _kata_, against, and ACOUSTICS.] CATADIOPTRIC, -AL, kat-a-di-op'trik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to instruments by which rays of light are both reflected and refracted. [See CATOPTRIC.] CATADROMOUS, kat-ad'rom-us, _adj._ of fishes, descending periodically for spawning to the lower parts of a river or to the sea. [Gr. _kata_, down, _dromos_, running.] CATAFALQUE, kat-a-falk', _n._ a temporary structure of carpentry representing a tomb or cenotaph placed over the coffin during a lying-in-state: a tomb of state, a funeral car.--Also CATAFAL'CO. [Fr.,--It. _catafalco_. See BALCONY and SCAFFOLD.] CATALAN, kat'al-an, _adj._ of or belonging to _Catalonia_ or its language, a dialect of Provençal.--_n._ a native of Catalonia, or the language thereof. CATALECTIC, kat-a-lek'tik, _adj._ incomplete: applied to a verse wanting one syllable at the end, or terminating in an imperfect foot. [Gr. _katal[=e]ktikos_, incomplete--_katal[=e]gein_, to stop.] CATALEPSY, kat'a-lep-si, _n._ a state of more or less complete insensibility, with absence of the power of voluntary motion, and statue-like fixedness of the body and limbs.--_adj._ CATALEP'TIC. [Gr., from _kata_, down, _lamban[=o]_, _l[=e]psomai_, I seize.] CATALLACTIC, kat-al-ak'tik, _adj._ pertaining to exchange.--_adv._ CATALLAC'TICALLY.--_n._ CATALLAC'TICS, political economy as the science of exchanges. [Made up from Gr. _katalassein_, to exchange.] CATALOGUE, kat'a-log, _n._ a list of names, books, &c.--_v.t._ to put in a catalogue:--_pr.p._ cat'aloguing; _pa.p._ cat'alogued.--_v.t._ CAT'ALOGUISE. [Fr.--Late L.--Gr. _katalogos_, from _kata_, down, _legein_, to choose.] CATALPA, kat-al'pa, _n._ a genus of hardy trees native to the United States and Japan, marked by a low habit, profuse blossoms, and long cigar-like pendent pods.--The common Catalpa, known also as the _Bean-tree_, _Catawba_, _Indian bean_, and _Cigar-tree_, yields a durable wood; as also the western Catalpa or _Shawnee wood_. [From the native Ind. name.] CATALYSIS, ka-tal'i-sis, _n._ (_chem._) the decomposition of a compound and the recomposition of its elements, by the presence of a substance which does not itself suffer change, as in fermentation.--_adj._ CATALYT'IC. [Gr. _katalysis_--_kata_, down, _lyein_, to loosen.] CATAMARAN, kat'a-mar-an', or kat-am'ar-an, _n._ a raft of three pieces of wood lashed together, the middle piece being longer than the others, and serving as a keel--on this the rower squats, and works a paddle--much used in the Madras surf: an old kind of fire-ship, long superseded; an ill-natured woman. [Tamil, 'tied wood.'] CATAMENIA, kat-a-m[=e]'ni-a, _n._ the menstrual discharge.--_adj._ CATAM[=E]'NIAL. [Gr. _katam[=e]nios_--_kata_, again, _m[=e]n_, _m[=e]nos_, a month.] CATAMITE, kat'a-m[=i]t, _n._ a boy kept for unnatural purposes--a corruption of GANYMEDE (q.v.). CATAMOUNT. See CAT. CATAPAN, kat'a-pan, _n._ the governor of Calabria and Apulia for the Byzantine emperor. [Acc. to Littré, from Gr. _katepan[=o] t[=o]n axi[=o]mat[=o]n_, 'he who is placed over the dignities.'] CATAPHONICS, kat-a-fon'iks, _n._ the science of reflected sounds.--_adj._ CATAPHON'IC. [Gr. _kata_, against, _phon[=e]_, sound.] CATAPHRACT, kat'a-frakt, _n._ (_Milton_) a soldier in full armour. [Gr. _kataphrakt[=e]s_, a coat-of-mail--_kata_, inten., and _phrass-ein_, to enclose, protect.] CATAPHYLLARY, kat-a-fil'ar-i, _adj._ pertaining to such rudimentary scale-leaves as are found on various parts of plants, esp. underground.--_n._ CATAPHYLL'UM. [Gr. _kata_, down, _phyllon_, leaf.] CATAPHYSICAL, kat-a-fis'i-kal, _adj._ (_rare_) unnatural. [Gr. _kata_, down, against, _physis_, nature.] CATAPLASM, kat'a-plazm, _n._ a plaster or poultice. [Gr. _kataplasma_, a plaster--_kata-plassein_, to plaster over.] CATAPLEXY, kat'a-plex-i, _n._ the kind of mesmeric sleep of animals under a sudden shock of terror--the state of 'shamming death.'--_adj._ CATAPLEC'TIC. [Gr. _katapl[=e]ssein_, to strike down.] CATAPULT, kat'a-pult, _n._ anciently an engine of war, resembling the ballista, for throwing stones, arrows, &c.: a small forked stick having an elastic string fixed to the two prongs, used by boys for throwing small stones.--_adj._ CATAPUL'TIC.--_n._ CATAPULTIER'. [L. _catapulta_--Gr. _katapelt[=e]s_--_kata_, down, _pallein_, to throw.] CATARACT, kat'a-rakt, _n._ a great fall of water, water-spout, &c.: a waterfall or cascade: an opaque condition of the lens of the eye, painless, unaccompanied by inflammation, occasioning blindness, simply by obstructing the passage of the light. [L. _cataracta_--Gr. _kata_, down, _arass-ein_, to dash, to rush.] CATARRH, kat-är', _n._ a discharge of fluid from the inflammation of a mucous membrane, esp. of the nose, caused by cold in the head: the cold itself.--_adjs._ CATARRH'AL, CATARRH'OUS. [L. _catarrhus_--Gr. _katarrhous_--_kata_, down, _rhe[=e]in_, to flow.] CATARRHINE, CATARHINE, kat'ar-[=i]n, _adj._ pertaining to that one of the two divisions of Quadrumana, including all the Old-World monkeys, having a narrow partition between the nostrils. [Gr. _kata_, down, _hris_, _hrinos_, nose.] CATASTA, kat-äs'ta, _n._ a block on which slaves were exposed for sale: a stage or place for torture. [L.] CATASTASIS, kat-as'tas-is, _n._ the part of the Greek drama in which the development of the action has reached its height: (_rhet._) that part of a speech which states the subject to be discussed. [Gr.] CATASTROPHE, kat-as'tr[=o]-f[=e], _n._ an overturning: a final event: an unfortunate conclusion: a calamity.--_adj._ CATASTROPH'IC--_ns._ CATAS'TROPHISM, the theory in geology that accounts for 'breaks in the succession' by the hypothesis of vast catastrophes--world-wide destruction of floras and faunas, and the sudden introduction or creation of new forms of life, after the forces of nature had sunk into repose; CATAS'TROPHIST, a holder of the foregoing, as opposed to the _uniformitarian_ theory. [Gr., _kata_, down, _strephein_, to turn.] CATAWBA, ka-taw'ba, _n._ a light sparkling wine, produced from a grape of the same name, first found on the banks of the _Catawba_ River in Carolina. CAT-BIRD. See CAT. CAT-CALL. See CAT. CATCH, kach, _v.t._ to take hold of: to apprehend or understand: to seize after pursuit: to trap or ensnare: to take a disease by infection: to take up anything by sympathy or imitation.--_v.i._ to be contagious: to be entangled or fastened in anything;--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ caught (kawt).--_n._ seizure: anything that seizes or holds: that which is caught: anything worth catching: a sudden advantage taken: a specially English form of musical composition, written generally in three or four parts, and in the canon form--originally synonymous with the _round_.--_adj._ CATCH'ABLE, that may be caught.--_ns._ CATCH'ER, one who catches; CATCH'FLY, a popular name of several plants belonging to the genus _Silene_, and of _Lychnis Viscaria_, whose glutinous stems often retain insects settling on them; CATCH'ING, the action of the verb 'to catch:' a nervous or spasmodic twitching.--_adj._ infectious: captivating, attractive.--_ns._ CATCH'MENT-B[=A]S'IN, a term applied to all that part of a river-basin from which rain is collected, and from which, therefore, the river is fed; CATCH'PENNY, any worthless thing, esp. a publication, intended merely to gain money--also _adj._; CATCH'WORD, among actors, the last word of the preceding speaker--the cue: the word at the head of the page in a dictionary or encyclopædia: the first word of a page given at the bottom of the preceding page: any word or phrase taken up and repeated as the watchword or symbol of a party.--_adj._ CATCH'Y, attractive, deceptive, readily caught up, as an air, &c., fitful.--CATCH AT, to snatch at; CATCH FIRE, to become ignited, to be inspired by passion or zeal; CATCH HOLD OF, to seize; CATCH IT, to get a scolding or the like; CATCH ME! an emphatic colloquial phrase implying that there is not the remotest possibility of my doing something suggested; CATCH ON, to comprehend: to catch the popular fancy; CATCH OUT, to put a batsman out at cricket by catching the ball he has batted; CATCH SIGHT OF, suddenly to get a glimpse of; CATCH UP, to overtake; CATCH UP, or AWAY, to lay hold of forcibly. [From O. Fr. _cachier_--Late L. _capti[=a]re_ for _capt[=a]re_, inten. of _cap[)e]re_, to take. See CHASE.] CATCHPOLE, -POLL, kach'p[=o]l, _n._ a constable, petty officer of justice. [Through O. Fr. from Low L. _cachepolus_, _chassipullus_, one who chases fowls. See CHASE and PULLET.] CATCHUP, CATSUP. See KETCHUP. CATE. See CATES. CATECHISE, kat'e-k[=i]z, _v.t._ to instruct by question and answer: to question as to belief: to examine systematically, to take to task.--_adjs._ CATECHET'IC, -AL, relating to a catechism or oral instruction in the first principles, esp. of Christianity.--_adv._ CATECHET'ICALLY.--_ns._ CATECHET'ICS, the art or practice of teaching by question and answer: that part of theology which treats of CATECH[=E]'SIS, or primary oral instruction, as that given to catechumens; CAT'ECHISER; CAT'ECHISING, an examination by questioning; CAT'ECHISM, any compendious system of teaching drawn up in the form of question and answer; CAT'ECHIST, one who catechises, a teacher of catechumens, a native teacher in a mission church.--_adjs._ CATECHIST'IC, -AL, CATECHIS'MAL, pertaining to a catechist or catechism. [L. _catechismus_, formed from Gr. _kat[=e]chiz-ein_, _kat[=e]che-ein_, to din into the ears--_kata_, down, _[=e]ch[=e]_, a sound.] CATECHU, kat'e-shoo, _n._ a substance used in tanning and dyeing, and medicinally as an astringent, obtained from the heart-wood of several East Indian trees, as the betel-nut, &c. [Tamil.] CATECHUMEN, kat-e-k[=u]'men, _n._ one who is being taught the rudiments of Christianity: the appellation given in the early Christian Church to those converted Jews and heathens who had not yet received baptism, but were undergoing a course of training and instruction preparatory to it.--_adj._ CATECHUMEN'ICAL.--_adv._ CATECHUMEN'ICALLY.--_ns._ CATECH[=U]'MENSHIP, CATECH[=U]'MENISM, CATECH[=U]'MENATE. [Gr. _kat[=e]choumenos_, being taught, pr.p. pass. of _kat[=e]che-ein_, to teach.] CATEGORY, kat'e-gor-i, _n._ what may be affirmed of a class: a class or order.--_adjs._ CATEGOREMAT'IC, capable of being used by itself as a term; CATEGOR'ICAL, positive: absolute: without exception.--_adv._ CATEGOR'ICALLY, absolutely: without qualification: expressly.--_n._ CATEGOR'ICALNESS, the quality of being absolute and unqualified.--_n.pl._ CAT'EGORIES (_phil._), the highest classes under which objects of philosophy can be systematically arranged, understood as an attempt at a comprehensive classification of all that exists: in Kant's system, the root-notions of the understanding, the specific forms of the _a priori_ or formal element in rational cognition (_quantity_, _quality_, _relation_, _modality_, &c.).--_v.t._ CAT'EGORISE, to place in a category or list: to class.--_n._ CATEGOR'IST, one who categorises.--CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE, in the ethics of Kant, the absolute unconditional command of the moral law, irrespective of every ulterior end or aim--universally authoritative, belonging to the fixed law of nature--'Act from a maxim at all times fit for law universal.' [Gr. _kat[=e]goria_, _kat[=e]goros_, an accuser, _kata_, down, against, _agora_, assembly.] CATELECTRODE, kat-[=e]-lek'tr[=o]d, _n._ a negative electrode or cathode. [Gr. _kata_, down, and ELECTRODE.] CATENARY, kat-[=e]'nar-i, _n._ the curve formed by a flexible homogeneous cord (such as a chain), hanging freely between two points of support, and acted on by no other force than gravity.--_adj._ relating to a chain, like a chain--also CATEN[=A]'RIAN.--_n._ CAT[=E]'NA, a chain or connected series, as in CATENA PATRUM, a chronological series of extracts from the Fathers on any doctrine of theology.--_v.t._ CAT'EN[=A]TE to connect as in a chain.--_n._ CATEN[=A]'TION. [L. _catenarius_, pertaining to a chain--_cat[=e]na_, chain.] CATER, k[=a]'t[.e]r, _v.i._ to provide food, entertainment, &c. (with _for_).--_ns._ C[=A]'TERER; C[=A]'TERESS; C[=A]'TERING. [Lit. to act as a _cater_, the word being orig. a substantive, and spelled _catour_, an aphetised form of _acater_, _acatour_. See ACATER.] CATERAN, kat'er-an, _n._ a Highland reiver or freebooter, a robber or brigand generally. [Gael. _ceathairne_, peasantry, Ir. _ceithern_, a band of soldiers.] CATER-COUSIN, k[=a]'t[.e]r-kuz'n, _n._ a term implying familiarity, affection, sympathy, rather than kindred. [More prob. conn. with CATER than _quatre_ or _quarter_.] CATERPILLAR, kat'[.e]r-pil-ar, _n._ a grub that lives upon the leaves of plants. [Prob. O. Fr. _chatepeleuse_, 'hairy cat;' _chate_, a she-cat--L. _catus_, _peleuse_, hairy--L. _pilosus_, _pilum_.] CATERWAUL, kat'[.e]r-wawl, _n._ the shriek or cry emitted by the cat when in heat.--_v.i._ to make such a noise, to make any discordant sound: to behave lasciviously: to quarrel like cats.--_n._ CAT'ERWAULING. [The second part is prob. imit.] CATES, k[=a]tz, _n.pl._ dainty food. CATGUT. See CAT. CATHARIST, kath'ar-ist, _n._ one professing a higher standard of purity in life and doctrine, a puritan: esp. a member of a Manichean heretical sect of the Middle Ages, which spread over the whole of southern and western Europe--confounded with the kindred sect of Paulicians, reaching the greatest numbers in southern France, where, as the Albigenses, they were ruthlessly stamped out by the Inquisition.--_n._ CATH'ARISM. [Gr. _katharistai_, _katharizein_, to purify.] CATHARTIC, -AL, kath-ärt'ik, -al, _adj._ having the power of cleansing the stomach and bowels: purgative.--_v.t._ CATH'ARISE, to render absolutely clean.--_ns._ CATHAR'SIS, evacuation of the bowels; CATHART'IC, a purgative medicine; CATHAR'TIN, the purgative principle of senna. [Gr. _kathartikos_, fit for cleansing, _katharos_, clean.] CATHEAD. See CAT. CATHEDRAL, kath-[=e]d'ral, _n._ the principal church of a diocese, in which is the seat or throne of a bishop.--_adj._ belonging to a cathedral.--_n._ CATHED'RA, a bishop's seat, the episcopal dignity--EX CATHEDRA, from the chair, officially given forth.--_adjs._ CATHEDRAL'IC, CATHEDRALESQUE', CATHED'RALED, vaulted like a cathedral.--_n._ CATHED'RALISM, the cathedral system.--_adj._ CATHEDRAT'IC, promulgated _ex cathedra_, authoritative. [L. _cathedra_--Gr. _kathedra_, a seat.] CATHERINE-WHEEL, kath'e-rin-hw[=e]l, _n._ (_archit._) an ornamented window or compartment of a window, of a circular form, with radiating divisions of various colours: (_her._) a wheel set round with teeth: a kind of firework which in burning rotates like a wheel.--CATHERINE PEAR, a small and early variety of pear.--TURN CATHERINE-WHEELS, to make a series of somersaults sideways. [From St _Catherine_ of Alexandria, whom legend makes to suffer martyrdom in the 4th century by torture on a wheel.] CATHETER, kath'e-t[.e]r, _n._ a tube to be introduced through the urethra into the bladder to draw off the urine, or for injecting air or fluids into the Eustachian tube.--_ns._ CATH'ETERISM; CATHETOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring small differences of level of different liquids in tubes; CATH'ETUS, a straight line falling perpendicularly on another straight line or surface. [Gr. _kathetos_, perpendicular, _kathet[=e]r_, from _kathienai_, to send down.] CATHISMA, ka-thiz'ma, _n._ in Greek use, a portion of the psalter, there being altogether twenty cathismata: a troparion or short hymn used as a response. [Gr., _kathizein_, to sit down.] CATHODE, kath-[=o]d', _n._ the negative pole or electrode of a galvanic battery, as opposed to _anode_: the surface in contact with the negative pole: the object to be coated in electroplating--_adj._ CATH'ODAL. [Gr. _kathodos_, a going down, _kata_, down, _hodos_, a way.] CAT-HOLE. See CAT. CATHOLIC, kath'ol-ik, _adj._ universal: general, embracing the whole body of Christians: orthodox, as opposed to _heterodox_ and _sectarian_--applied esp. to the Christian Church before the great schism between the East and the West: liberal, the opposite of exclusive: relating to the name claimed by its adherents for the Church of Rome as the alleged sole visible representative of the church founded by Christ and His apostles--the characteristic marks of the Catholic Church being _universality_, _antiquity_, _unity_: relating to the Roman Catholics.--_n._ an adherent of the R.C. Church.--_v.t._ CATHOL'ICISE, to make Catholic.--_ns._ CATHOL'ICISM, CATHOLIC'ITY, universality: liberality or breadth of view: the tenets of the R.C. Church; CATHOL'ICON, a universal remedy or panacea; CATHOL'ICOS, the Patriarch of Armenia.--CATHOLIC CREDITOR (_law of Scot._), one whose debt is secured over several or the whole subjects belonging to the debtor--e.g. over two or more heritable estates; CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION, the relief of the Roman Catholics from certain vexatious penal regulations and restrictions, granted in 1829; CATHOLIC or GENERAL EPISTLES, the name given to certain epistles in the canon addressed not to particular churches or individuals, but either to the Church universal or to a large and indefinite circle of readers--originally only 1 John and 1 Peter, but, as early as the 3d century, also James, Jude, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John; CATHOLIC KING, a title given specially to the king of Spain.--OLD CATHOLICS, the title assumed by a number of Catholics who at Munich protested against the new dogma of the personal infallibility of the pope in all _ex cathedrâ_ deliverances proclaimed by the Vatican Council in 1870--now a considerable communion or church in Germany and Switzerland. [Gr. _katholicos_, universal--_kata_, throughout, _holos_, the whole.] CATILINE, kat'il-[=i]n, _n._ the type of a daring and reckless conspirator, from L. Sergius _Catilina_, whose plot to destroy Rome was foiled by Cicero, 63 B.C.--_adj._ CAT'ILIN[=A]RIAN. CATKIN. See CAT. CAT-LOG, kat'-log, _n._ (_Shak._). CATALOGUE. CATONIAN, ka-t[=o]'ni-an, _adj._ resembling _Cato_, the Roman Censor (died 149 B.C.), or Cato Uticensis (95-46 B.C.), both remarkable for gravity of manners--hence grave, severe, unbending. CATOPTRIC, kat-op'trik, _adj._ relating to catoptrics or vision by reflection.--_n.pl._ CATOP'TRICS, the part of optics which treats of reflected light. [Gr.; from _katoptron_, a mirror--_kata_, against, _optesthai_, to see.] CAT'S-TAIL. See CAT. CATTLE, kat'l, _n.pl._ beasts of pasture, esp. oxen, bulls, and cows: sometimes also horses, sheep, &c.--_ns._ CATT'LEMAN, one who tends cattle, or who rears them on a ranch; CATT'LE-PLAGUE, plague or disease among cattle, esp. that known as rinderpest or steppe murrain; CATT'LE-SHOW, an exhibition or show of cattle or other domestic animals in competition for prizes. [O. Fr. _catel_, _chatel_--Low L. _captale_, orig. capital, property in general, then esp. animals--L. _capitalis_, chief--_caput_, the head, beasts in early times forming the chief part of property.] CATTY, kat'i, _n._ the Chinese kin or pound, usually a little over 1¼ lb. avoirdupois. CAUCASIAN, kaw-k[=a]'zhi-an, _adj._ pertaining to Mount _Caucasus_ or the country around it.--_n._ the name adopted by Blumenbach for one of his main ethnological divisions of mankind, by him made to include the two great groups, the Aryan and the Semitic; used by later anthropologists for the fair type of man as opposed to the Mongolic or yellow type. CAUCUS, kaw'kus, _n._ a private meeting of political wire-pullers to agree upon candidates to be proposed for an ensuing election, or to fix the business to be laid before a general meeting of their party: applied loosely to any influential committee in a constituency. [Ety. dub.; perh. John Smith's Algonkin word _Caw-cawaassough_, an adviser; perh. a corr. of '_caulkers'_ meetings.'] CAUDAL, kaw'dal, _adj._ pertaining to the tail: having a tail or something like one.--_adj._ CAU'D[=A]TE, tailed. [L. _cauda_.] CAUDEX, kaw'deks, _n._ (_bot._) the stem of a tree, esp. of a palm or tree-fern:--_pl._ CAUD'ICES, CAUD'EXES.--_n._ CAUDICLE, the stalk of the pollen-masses of certain orchids. [L.] CAUDLE, kaw'dl, _n._ a warm drink, sweetened and spiced, given to the sick, esp. women in childbed.--_v.t._ to give a caudle to, to mix. [O. Fr. _chaudel_--L. _calidus_, hot.] CAUDRON, kaw'dron, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as CAULDRON. CAUGHT, kawt, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of CATCH. CAUK, kawk, _n._ chalk: sulphate of baryta or heavy spar. [A form of CHALK.] CAUKER. See CAULK. CAUL, kawl, _n._ a net or covering for the head: the membrane covering the head of some infants at their birth. [O. Fr. _cale_, a little cap, prob. Celt.; cf. Ir. _calla_, a veil, hood.] CAULD, kawld, _n._ (_Scot._) a dam in a stream, a weir. CAULDRIFE, kawld'-r[=i]f, _adj._ (_Scot._) cold, chilly, lifeless, without vigour. CAULDRON, CALDRON, kawl'dron, _n._ a large kettle for boiling or heating liquids. [O. Fr. _caudron_--L. _caldarium_--_calidus_, hot--_cal[=e]re_, to be hot.] CAULESCENT, kaw-les'ent, _adj._ (_bot._) having a stem rising above the ground--also CAULIF'EROUS.--_n._ CAU'LICLE, a rudimentary stem.--_adj._ CAULIC'OLOUS, growing on a stem.--_n.pl._ CAULICUL[=A]'TA, the black or antipatharian corals.--_adj._ CAULIC'UL[=A]TE.--_n._ CAULIC'ULUS, one of the slender stems springing from the _caules_ or main stalks supporting the volutes in the Corinthian capital.--_adjs._ CAUL'IFORM, having the form of a stem; CAULIG'ENOUS, borne upon the stem; CAUL'INARY, CAU'LINE, belonging to a stem.--_n._ CAU'LIS, the stem of a plant: one of the main stems at the angles of the Corinthian capital. [L. _caulis_, a stalk.] CAULIFLOWER, kaw'li-flow'[.e]r, _n._ a variety of cabbage, the eatable part of which is the deformed inflorescence or head. [Earlier _cole-florye_, _colie-florie_--Low L. _cauli-flora_--L. _caulis_, cabbage. See COLE and FLOWER.] CAULK, CALK, kawk, _v.t._ to press oakum and untwisted rope into the seams of a ship to render it watertight.--_ns._ CAULK'ER, one who caulks: a dram: a big lie--also CAUK'ER; CAULK'ING; CAULK'ING-[=I]'RON, an instrument like a chisel used for pressing oakum into the seams of ships. [O. Fr. _cauquer_, to press--L. _cacl[=a]re_, to tread--_calx_, heel.] CAUSE, kawz, _n._ that which produces an effect: that by or through which anything happens: motive: inducement: a legal action between contending parties: sake, advantage: that side of a question which is taken up by an individual or party: (_Shak._) accusation: (_Shak._) matter, affair in general.--_v.t._ to produce: to make to exist: to bring about: (_Spens._) to give excuses.--_conj._ (_dial._) because.--_adj._ CAUS'AL, relating to a cause or causes.--_n._ CAUSAL'ITY, the working of a cause: (_phren._) the faculty of tracing effects to their causes.--_adv._ CAUS'ALLY, according to the order of causes.--_ns._ CAUS[=A]'TION, the act of causing: the bringing about of an effect; the relation of cause and effect; CAUS[=A]'TIONISM, the theory of causation; CAUS[=A]'TIONIST, a believer in the foregoing.--_adj._ CAUS'ATIVE, expressing causation.--_n._ a form of verb or noun expressing such.--_adv._ CAUS'ATIVELY.--_adj._ CAUSE'LESS, having no cause or occasion.--_adv._ CAUSE'LESSLY.--_ns._ CAUSE'LESSNESS; CAUS'ER, one who causes an effect to be produced.--CAUSE CÉLÈBRE, a convenient French term for a specially interesting and important legal trial, criminal or civil.--FINAL CAUSE, the end or object for which a thing is done, esp. the design of the universe; FIRST CAUSE, the original cause or creator of all.--HOUR OF CAUSE (_Scot._), hour or time of trial.--SECONDARY CAUSES, such as are derived from a primary or first cause.--HAVE or SHOW CAUSE, to have to give reasons for a certain line of action; MAKE COMMON CAUSE (_with_), to unite for a common object; SHOW CAUSE (_Eng. law_), to argue against the confirmation of a provisional order or judgment.--For OCCASIONAL CAUSES, see OCCASIONALISM. [Fr.,--L. _causa_.] CAUSERIE, k[=o]z'ri, _n._ a talk or gossip: a paragraph of chat about literature or art; a short and informal essay on any subject in a newspaper or magazine--as in Sainte-Beuve's famous _Causeries du Lundi_. [Fr.] CAUSEWAY, kawz'w[=a], CAUSEY, kawz'e, _n._ a raised way through a marsh: a pathway raised and paved with stone: a paved street.--_v.t._ to pave.--_p.adjs._ CAUSE'WAYED, CAUS'EYED. [CAUSEWAY is formed from CAUSEY and WAY. CAUSEY is in M. E. _causee_--O. Fr. _caucie_--Low L. _calciata_--L. _calx_, heel.] CAUSTIC, kaws'tik, _adj._ burning: (_fig._) bitter, severe, cutting: (_math._) noting an envelope of rays of light proceeding from a fixed point and reflected (_catacaustic_) or refracted (_diacaustic_) by a surface or a curve.--_n._ a substance that exerts a corroding or disintegrating action on the skin and flesh.--_adv._ CAUS'TICALLY.--_n._ CAUSTIC'ITY, quality of being caustic.--CAUSTIC ALKALI (_chem._), a name given to the hydrates of potassium and sodium, called caustic potash and caustic soda respectively; CAUSTIC AMMONIA, ammonia as a gas, or in solution; CAUSTIC LIME, quicklime.--COMMON CAUSTIC, potash; LUNAR CAUSTIC, nitrate of silver in sticks for surgical use. [L.,--Gr. _kaustikos_--_kai-ein_, _kaus-ein_, to burn.] CAUTEL, kaw'tel, _n._ (_Shak._) craft: insidious purpose: caution: wariness: a traditionary caution or written direction about the proper manner of administering the sacraments.--_adj._ CAU'TELOUS (_Shak._), cautious: insidious: artful. [Fr. _cautèle_--L. _cautela_--_cav[=e]re_, _cautum_, to guard against.] CAUTERISE, kaw't[.e]r-[=i]z, _v.t._ to burn with a caustic or a hot iron: (_fig._) to sear.--_ns._ CAU'TER, CAU'TERY, a burning with caustics or a hot iron: a burning iron or caustic used for burning tissue; CAUTERIS[=A]'TION, CAU'TERISM. [Fr. _cautériser_--Low L. _cauteriz[=a]re_--Gr. _kaut[=e]r_, a hot iron--_kai-ein_, to burn.] CAUTION, kaw'shun, _n._ heedfulness: security: warning: a surety: (_Scot._) bail.--_v.t._ to warn to take care.--_adj._ CAU'TIONARY, containing caution: given as a pledge.--_ns._ CAU'TIONER, one who cautions or advises: (_Scots law_) a surety; CAU'TIONRY, the act of giving security for another.--_adj._ CAU'TIOUS, possessing or using caution: watchful: prudent.--_adv._ CAU'TIOUSLY.--_n._ CAU'TIOUSNESS.--CAUTION MONEY, money paid in advance as security for good behaviour. [Fr.,--L. _caution-em_--_cav[=e]re_, to beware.] CAVALCADE, kav-al-k[=a]d', _n._ a train or procession of persons on horseback.--_v.i._ to go in a cavalcade. [Fr., through It. and Low L. forms from L. _caballus_, a horse.] CAVALIER, kav-al-[=e]r', _n._ a knight: a Royalist in the great Civil War: a swaggering fellow: a gallant or gentleman in attendance upon a lady, as her escort or partner in a dance or the like: in military fortification, a raised work so situated as to command the neighbouring country.--_adj._ like a cavalier: gay: war-like: haughty, supercilious, free-and-easy.--_v.i._ to act as cavalier.--_adj._ CAVALIER'ISH.--_n._ CAVALIER'ISM.--_adv._ CAVALIER'LY.--_n._ CAVALIER'O, a cavalier.--CAVALIERE-SERVENTE (It.), one who waits upon a lady, esp. a married lady, with fantastic devotion--a cicisbeo. [Fr.,--It. _cavallo_. See CAVALCADE.] CAVALRY, kav'al-ri, _n._ horse-soldiers: a troop of horse or horsemen. [Fr. _cavallerie_--It. _cavalleria_--L. _caballarius_, horseman.] CAVASS. See KAVASS. CAVATINA, kav-at-[=e]'na, _n._ a short form of operatic air, of a smooth and melodious character, differing from the ordinary aria in consisting only of one part, and frequently appearing as part of a grand scena. [It.] CAVE, k[=a]v, _n._ a hollow place in the earth: a den: any small faction of seceders from a political party.--_v.t._ to hollow out.--_v.i._ to lodge in a cave.--_n._ CAVE'-BEAR (_Ursus spelæus_), a fossil bear of the Quaternary epoch.--_n.pl._ CAVE'-DWELL'ERS, prehistoric men who lived in caves.--_n._ CAV'ING, yielding.--TO CAVE IN, of land, to slip, to fall into a hollow: to yield to outside pressure, to give way, collapse. [Fr.,--L. _cavus_, hollow.] CAVEAT, k[=a]'ve-at, _n._ a notice or warning: a formal warning, entered in the books of a court or public office, that no step shall be taken in a particular matter without notice to the person lodging the caveat, so that he may appear and object. [L., 'let him take care'--_cav[=e]re_, to take care.] CAVENDISH, kav'en-dish, _n._ tobacco moistened and pressed into quadrangular cakes. [Possibly from the name of the original manufacturer.] CAVERN, kav'[.e]rn, _n._ a deep hollow place in the earth.--_v.t._ to put in a cavern: to hollow out, in the form of a cavern.--_adjs._ CAV'ERNED, full of caverns: dwelling in a cavern; CAV'ERNOUS, hollow: full of caverns.--_adv._ CAV'ERNOUSLY.--_adj._ CAVER'N[=U]LOUS, full of little cavities. [Fr.,--L. _caverna_--_cavus_, hollow.] CAVESSON, kav'es-on, _n._ a nose-band for a horse. [Fr.,--It.--L. _capitia_, _capitium_, a head-covering.] CAVETTO, ka-vet'to, _n._ a hollowed moulding whose curvature is the quarter of a circle, used chiefly in cornices. [It.; dim. of _cavo_--L. _cavus_, hollow.] CAVIARE, CAVIAR, kav-i-är', or kav-i-[=a]r' (originally four syllables), _n._ an article of food made from the salted roes of the sturgeon, &c.: (_fig._) something whose flavour is too fine for the vulgar taste. [Prob. the 16th-cent. It. _caviale_; the Turk, _kh[=a]vy[=a]r_ is prob. borrowed.] CAVICORN, kav'i-korn, _adj._ hollow-horned, as a ruminant.--_n._ one of the CAVICOR'NIA, a family contrasted with the solid-horned ruminants, or deer (_Cervidæ_). [L. _cavus_, hollow, _cornu_, a horn.] CAVIE, k[=a]v'i, _n._ a hen-coop or cage. [Dut. _kevie_; Ger. _käfig_.] CAVIL, kav'il, _v.t._ to make empty, trifling objections: to use false arguments:--_pr.p._ cav'illing; _pa.p._ cav'illed.--_n._ a frivolous objection.--_ns._ CAVILL[=A]'TION, CAV'ILLING; CAV'ILLER. [O. Fr. _caviller_--L. _cavill[=a]ri_, to practise jesting--_cavilla_, jesting.] CAVITY, kav'it-i, _n._ a hollow place: hollowness: an opening.--_adj._ CAV'ITIED. [L. _cavitas_, _-tatem_--_cavus_, hollow.] CAVO-RILIEVO, kä'v[=o]-r[=e]-ly[=a]'v[=o], _n._ a kind of relief in which the highest surface is level with the plane of the original stone, which is left round the outlines of the design.--Also INTAGLIO-RILIEVO and COELANAGLYPHIC SCULPTURE. [It. _cavo_, hollow, _rilievo_, relief. See CAVE and RELIEF.] CAVORT, kav-ort', _v.i._ (_U.S. slang_) to curvet, bound. [Explained as a corr. of CURVET.] CAVY, k[=a]v'i, _n._ a genus of Rodents, best known by the domesticated species, the common guinea-pig. [_Cabiai_, the native name in French Guiana.] CAW, kaw, _v.i._ to cry as a crow.--_n._ the cry of a crow--also KAW.--_n._ CAW'ING. [From the sound.] CAWK, kawk, _n._ a miner's familiar name for heavy spar. [Prov. Eng. _cauk_, CHALK.] CAWKER. Same as CALKER. CAXON, kak'son, _n._ a kind of wig formerly worn. [Origin obscure.] CAXTON, kaks'ton, _n._ a book printed by William _Caxton_ (1422-91), the first English printer: a kind of printing-type in imitation of Caxton's. CAY, k[=a], _n._ a low islet, the same as KEY. [Sp. _cayo_.] CAYENNE, k[=a]-en', CAYENNE-PEPPER, k[=a]-en'-pep'[.e]r, _n._ a very pungent red pepper, made from several species of capsicum.--_adj._ CAYENNED', seasoned with cayenne. [Usually referred to _Cayenne_ in French Guiana; but there is little doubt the word is Brazilian.] CAYMAN, k[=a]'man, _n._ a local name loosely applied to various species of alligator--to that of the Mississippi, and more frequently to others found in tropical or subtropical America. [Sp. _caiman_, most prob. Carib.] CAZIQUE, a form of CACIQUE. CEASE, s[=e]s, _v.i._ to give over: to stop: to be at an end (with _from_).--_v.t._ to put an end to.--_n._ (_Shak._) extinction.--_adj._ CEASE'LESS, without ceasing: incessant.--_adv._ CEASE'LESSLY.--_n._ CEAS'ING.--WITHOUT CEASE, continually. [Fr. _cesser_--L. _cess[=a]re_, to give over--_ced[)e]re_, to yield, give up.] CEBADILLA. See CEVADILLA. CEBUS, s[=e]'bus, _n._ a genus of South American monkeys--CEBIDÆ (seb'i-d[=e]) is sometimes applied to all the broad-nosed New-World monkeys (Platyrrhini) with prehensile tails, in contrast to the Pithecidæ. [Gr. _k[=e]bos_.] CECIDOMYIA, ses-i-dom-[=i]'ya, _n._ a genus of dipterous (two-winged) insects in the Tipularia (gnat and mosquito) division. [Gr. _k[=e]kis_, _-idos_, juice.] CECILS, s[=e]'silz, _n.pl._ minced meat, bread crumbs, onions, &c., made up into balls and fried. CECITY, s[=e]'si-ti, _n._ blindness. [L. _cæcitas_--_cæcus_, blind.] CEDAR, s[=e]'dar, _n._ a large evergreen tree remarkable for the durability and fragrance of its wood; applied also to many more or less similar trees, as the Barbadoes cedar, properly a juniper, and the Bastard Barbadoes cedar, properly a _Cedrela_ (used for canoes, cigar-boxes, blacklead pencils).--_adj._ made of cedar.--_adjs._ C[=E]'DARED, covered with cedars; C[=E]'DARN (_Milton_), pertaining to or made of cedar; C[=E]'DRINE, belonging to the cedar-tree; C[=E]'DRY, obsolete form of C[=E]'DARY, having the colour or properties of cedar. [L.--Gr. _kedros_.] CEDE, s[=e]d, _v.t._ to yield or give up to another.--_v.i._ to give way. [L. _ced[)e]re_, _cessum_, to yield, give up.] CEDILLA, se-dil'la, _n._ a mark placed under the letter _c_ (thus _ç_), esp. in French, to show that it is to have its soft sound of _s_, where one would expect the hard, as before _a_, _o_, _u_. [Sp. (Fr. _cédille_, It. _zediglia_), all from _z[=e]ta_, the Greek name of _z_.] CEDRATE, s[=e]'dr[=a]t, _n._ the citron. [Fr.,--L. _citrus_.] CEDRELA, sed'r[=e]-la, _n._ a tropical genus of _Meliaceæ_, allied to mahogany, whose wood is popularly called cedar.--_adj._ CEDREL[=A]'CEOUS. [Gr. _kedrelat[=e]_--_kedros_, cedar, _elat[=e]_, the silver fir.] CEDULA, sed'[=u]-lä, _n._ a South American promissory-note or mortgage-bond on lands. [Sp. Cf. SCHEDULE.] CEE-SPRING, C-SPRING, s[=e]'-spring, _n._ a spring supporting the frame of a carriage, in the shape of a C. CEIL, CIEL, s[=e]l, _v.t._ to overlay the inner roof of a room, generally to plaster it: to wainscot.--_n._ CEIL'ING, the inner roof of a room. [Prob. conn. with Fr. _ciel_, It. _cielo_, Low L. _cælum_, a canopy.] CELADON, sel'a-don, _n._ a pale-green colour. [Fr.] CELANDINE, sel'an-d[=i]n, _n._ swallow-wort, the popular name (and corruption) of _Chelidonium majus_, a perennial papaveraceous (poppy) herb, so named because it was supposed to flower when the swallows appeared, and to perish when they departed. [O. Fr. _celidoine_--Gr. _chelidonion_--_chelid[=o]n_, a swallow.] CELEBRATE, sel'e-br[=a]t, _v.t._ to make famous: to distinguish by solemn ceremonies, as a festival or an event: to perform with proper rites and ceremonies, as mass, the eucharist, marriage, &c.: to publish the praises of.--_n._ CEL'EBRANT, one who celebrates: the principal officiant at the holy communion.--_adj._ CEL'EBRATED, distinguished: famous.--_ns._ CELEBR[=A]'TION, act of celebrating any solemn ceremony, as the eucharist (_high_, if with music, &c.; _low_, if without): an extolling; CELEBR[=A]T'OR, one who celebrates; CELEB'RITY, the condition of being celebrated: fame: notoriety: a person of distinction or fame. [L. _celebr[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_celeber_, frequented.] CELERITY, sel-er'it-i, _n._ quickness: rapidity of motion. [Fr.,--L. _celeritas_--_celer_, quick.] CELERY, sel'er-i, _n._ a kitchen vegetable cultivated for its long blanched succulent stalks. [Fr. _céleri_--L. and Gr. _sel[=i]non_, parsley.] CELESTIAL, sel-est'yal, _adj._ heavenly: dwelling in heaven: in the visible heavens.--_n._ an inhabitant of heaven.--_adv._ CELEST'IALLY.--THE CELESTIAL EMPIRE, a name for China. [Through Fr. from L. _coelestis_--_coelum_, heaven.] CELESTINE, sel'es-t[=i]n, or sel-es'tin, _n._ one of an order of monks following the rule of St Benedict, wearing a white garment with black hood and scapulary, founded about 1254 by Peter da Murrone, who became Pope _Celestine_ V. in 1294, and resigned after five years--'the great refusal' of Dante. CELESTINE, sel'es-tin, _n._ a mineral, native sulphate of strontia.--Also CEL'ESTITE. [From its sky-blue colour.] CELIAC, s[=e]'li-ak, _adj._ Same as COELIAC. CELIBACY, sel'i-bas-i, or se-lib'as-i, _n._ a single life: an unmarried state.--_adjs._ CELIBAT[=A]'RIAN, favouring celibacy; CEL'IBATE, living single.--_n._ one unmarried, or not allowed to marry. [L. _coelebs_, single.] CELL, sel, _n._ a small room in a prison, monastery, &c.: a cave: a small shut cavity: the grave: a unit-mass of living matter, whether rounded off by itself, as in the simplest plants or animals, and in the youngest stage of all organisms, or associated with other cells to form a higher unity.--_adjs._ CELLED, having cells, cellular; CELLIF'EROUS, having or producing cells; CELL'ULAR, CELL'ULATED, consisting of or containing cells.--_n._ CELL'ULE, a little cell.--_adj._ CELLULIF'EROUS, having or producing little cells.--_n._ CELL'ULOID, a hard elastic compound used for ivory, obtained by hydraulic pressure from pyroxylin, mixed with camphor, &c.--_adj._ CELL'ULOSE, containing cells.--_n._ the substance of which the permanent cell-membranes of plants are composed. [O. Fr. _celle_--L. _cella_, conn. with _cel[=a]re_, to cover.] CELLA, sel'a, _n._ the body of the temple, as distinguished from the portico, &c. CELLAR, sel'ar, _n._ any underground room or vault: a cell underground, where stores are kept, esp. wine, &c.--_v.t._ to store in a cellar.--_ns._ CELL'ARAGE, space for cellars: cellars: charge for storing in cellars; CELL'ARER, CELL'ARIST, one who has charge of the cellar: an officer in a monastery who has the charge of procuring and keeping the provisions; CELL'ARET, an ornamental case for holding bottles; CELL'ARMAN, one who has the care of a cellar.--_adj._ CELL'AROUS (_Dickens_), belonging to a cellar: excavated: sunken. [O. Fr. _celier_--L. _cellarium_--_cella_.] CELLO, chel'o, for VIOLONCELLO; sometimes written 'CELLO.--CELLIST, 'CELLIST, for VIOLONCELLIST. CELLULARES, sel-[=u]-l[=a]'rez, _n.pl._ a name sometimes applied to the _Cryptogamia_--properly only to the mosses and lower cryptogams. CELT, selt, _n._ a cutting instrument of stone or bronze found in ancient barrows. [Founded on _Celte_, perh. a misreading for _certe_ ('surely'), in the Vulgate, Job, xix. 24, there being apparently no such Latin word as _celtes_, a chisel.] CELT, selt, _n._ one of the Celts, an Aryan race, now represented by the Bretons, the Welsh, the Irish, and the Scottish Highlanders--also Kelt.--_adj._ CELT'IC.--_ns._ CELT'ICISM, a Celtic idiom or custom; CELTOM[=A]'NIA. [L. _Celtæ_; Gr. _Keltoi_ or _Keltai_.] CEMENT, se-ment', _n._ anything that makes two bodies stick together: mortar: a bond of union.--_v.t._ to unite with cement: to join firmly.--_n._ CEMENT[=A]'TION, the act of cementing: the process by which iron is turned into steel, glass into porcelain, &c.--done by surrounding them with a cement or powder and exposing them to heat.--_adjs._ CEMENT'ATORY, CEMENTI'TIOUS, having the quality of cementing or uniting firmly. [O. Fr. _ciment_--L. _cæmentum_, chip of stone used to fill up in building a wall, _cædimentum_--_cæd[)e]re_, to cut.] CEMETERY, sem'e-t[.e]r-i, _n._ a burying-ground. [Low L. _cæmeterium_--Gr. _koim[=e]t[=e]rion_.] CENACLE, sen'a-kl, _n._ a supper-room, esp. that in which the Last Supper was eaten by Jesus and His disciples. [Fr. _cénacle_--L. _cenaculum_.] CENOBITE. Same as COENOBITE. CENOTAPH, sen'[=o]-taf, _n._ a sepulchral monument to one who is buried elsewhere. [Fr.,--L.--Gr. _kenotaphion_--_kenos_, empty, and _taphos_, a tomb.] CENOZOIC, s[=e]-no-z[=o]'ik, _adj._ Same as CAINOZOIC. CENSE, sens, _v.t._ to burn incense before: (_obs._) to think.--_n._ (_obs._) a public rate or tax: rank, condition. [See CENSUS.] CENSER, sens'[.e]r, _n._ a pan in which incense is burned. [O. Fr. _censier_, _encensier_ (mod. _encensoir_)--Low L. _incensorium_--L. _incend[)e]re_, _incensum_, to burn.] CENSOR, sen'sor, _n._ in ancient Rome, an officer who kept account of the property of the citizens, imposed taxes, and watched over their morals: an officer who examines books or newspapers before they are printed: one who censures or blames.--_adjs._ CENS[=O]'RIAL, belonging to a censor, or to the correction of public morals; CENS[=O]'RIOUS, expressing censure: fault-finding--also CENS[=O]'RIAN.--_adv._ CENS[=O]'RIOUSLY.--_ns._ CENS[=O]'RIOUSNESS; CEN'SORSHIP, office of censor: time during which he holds office.--CENSORSHIP OF THE PRESS, a regulation of certain governments, by which books and newspapers must be examined by officers, whose approval is necessary to their publication. [L.,--_cens[=e]re_, to weigh, to estimate.] CENSURE, sen'sh[=u]r, _n._ an unfavourable judgment: blame: reproof: (_obs._) criticism, judgment generally.--_v.t._ to blame: to condemn as wrong.--_adj._ CEN'SURABLE, deserving of censure: blamable.--_n._ CEN'SURABLENESS.--_adv._ CEN'SURABLY. [L. _cens[=u]ra_, an opinion, a severe judgment--_cens[=e]re_, to estimate or judge.] CENSUS, sen'sus, _n._ an official enumeration of the inhabitants of a country, and of statistics relating to them.--_adj._ CEN'SUAL, relating to or containing a census. [L. _census_, a register.] CENT, sent, _n._ a hundred: an American coin--the hundredth part of a dollar.--_ns._ CENT'AGE, rate by the hundred; CENT'AL, a weight of 100 lb. proposed for general adoption, legalised in 1878.--PER CENT., by the hundred. [L. _centum_, a hundred.] CENTAUR, sen'tawr, _n._ a fabulous monster, half-man, half-horse.--_adj._ CENTAU'RIAN. [L.,--Gr. _kentauros_; ety. dub.] CENTAURY, sen'taw-ri, _n._ an annual with pink or rose-coloured flowers, possessing the tonic and other medicinal virtues of gentian, esteemed in medicine since the days of Galen. CENTENARY, sen'tin-ar-i (also sometimes sen-t[=e]n'ar-i and even sen-ten'ar-i), _n._ a hundred: a century or hundred years.--_adj._ pertaining to a hundred.--_ns._ CENTEN[=A]'RIAN, one a hundred years old; CENTEN[=A]'RIANISM; CENTENIER (sen'ten-[=e]r), a centurion: a police-officer in Jersey. [L.,--_centeni_, a hundred each--_centum_.] CENTENNIAL, sen-ten'i-al, _adj._ happening once in a hundred years.--_n._ a hundredth anniversary. [Coined from L. _centum_, and _annus_, a year.] CENTER. See CENTRE. CENTERING, sen't[.e]r-ing, _n._ (_archit._) the framework upon which an arch or vault of stone, brick, or iron is supported during its construction. CENTESIMAL, sen-tes'i-mal, _adj._ hundredth.--_adv._ CENTES'IMALLY. [L. _centesimus_--_centum_.] CENTIFOLIOUS, sen-ti-f[=o]'li-us, _adj._ hundred-leaved. CENTIGRADE, sen'ti-gr[=a]d, _adj._ having a hundred degrees: divided into a hundred degrees, as the centigrade thermometer constructed by Celsius (1701-44), in which freezing-point is zero and boiling-point is 100° (for its relation to the Fahrenheit scale, see THERMOMETER). [L. _centum_, and _gradus_, a step, a degree.] CENTIGRAMME, sen'ti-gram, _n._ in the Metric System, the hundredth part of a gramme, or .1543248 of a gr. troy. [Fr.,--L. _centum_, a hundred, and GRAMME.] CENTILITRE, sen'ti-l[=e]-tr, _n._ the hundredth part of a litre, a little more than 6/10ths of a cubic inch. [Fr.,--L. _centum_, a hundred, and LITRE.] CENTIME, sen-t[=e]m', _n._ the hundredth part of anything, esp. a French coin, the hundredth part of a franc. [Fr.,--L. _centum_, a hundred.] CENTIMETRE, sen'ti-m[=e]-tr, _n._ a lineal measure, the hundredth part of a metre--0.3937 inches. [Fr.,--L. _centum_, a hundred, _metrum_, Gr. _metron_, a measure.] CENTINEL. Same as SENTINEL. CENTIPEDE, sen'ti-p[=e]d, _n._ a general name for the members of one of the orders of the class _Myriapoda_, being segmented animals bearing jointed appendages, having a well-defined head furnished with feelers and jaws, and breathing by means of air-tubes or tracheæ. [L. _centum_, and _pes_, _pedis_, a foot.] CENTNER, sent'ner, _n._ a common name on the Continent for a hundredweight. CENTO, sen'to, _n._ a name applied to literary trivialities in the form of poems manufactured by putting together distinct verses or passages of one author, or of several authors, so as to make a new meaning: a composition formed by joining scraps from other authors: expressing contempt, a mere string of commonplace phrases and quotations:--_pl._ usually CEN'TOS.--_ns._ CEN'TOIST; CEN'TONISM, CEN'TOISM. [L. _cento_, Gr. _kentr[=o]n_, patchwork.] CENTRE, CENTER, sen't[.e]r, _n._ the middle point of anything, esp. a circle or sphere: the middle: the point toward which all things move or are drawn: the chief leader of an organisation--head-centre: the men of moderate political opinions in the French Chamber, sitting right in front of the president, with extreme men on the right and on the left--further subdivisions are RIGHT-CENTRE and LEFT-CENTRE: the Ultramontane party in Germany.--_v.t._ to place on or collect to a centre.--_v.i._ to be placed in the middle:--_pr.p._ cen'tring, cen'tering; _pa.p._ cen'tred, cen'tered.--_adj._ CEN'TRAL, belonging to the centre, principal, dominant: belonging to a nerve-centre, of affections caused by injury to the brain or spinal cord.--_ns._ CENTRALIS[=A]'TION, CEN'TRALISM, the tendency to administer by the sovereign or central government matters which would be otherwise under local management.--_v.t._ CEN'TRALISE, to draw to a centre.--_n._ CENTRAL'ITY, central position.--_advs._ CEN'TRALLY, CEN'TRICALLY.--_ns._ CEN'TRE-BIT, a joiner's tool, turning on a centre, for boring circular holes--one of the chief tools of the burglar; CEN'TRE-BOARD, a shifting keel, fitted to drop below and in line with the keel proper in order to increase or diminish the draught of a boat--much used in United States racing yachts; CEN'TRE-PIECE, an ornament for the middle of a table, ceiling, &c.--_adjs._ CEN'TRIC, CEN'TRICAL, relating to, placed in, or containing the centre.--_ns._ CEN'TRICALNESS, CENTRIC'ITY; CEN'TRUM, the body of a vertebra.--CENTRAL FIRE, said of a cartridge in which the fulminate is placed in the centre of the base, as opposed to _rim fire_; CENTRAL FORCES, forces whose action is to cause a moving body to tend towards a fixed point called the centre of force.--CENTRE OF ATTRACTION, the point to which bodies tend by the force of gravity; CENTRE OF BUOYANCY, or DISPLACEMENT, the point in an immersed body at which the resultant vertical pressure may be supposed to act; CENTRE OF GRAVITY, a certain point, invariably situated with regard to the body, through which the resultant of the attracting forces between the earth and its several molecules always passes; CENTRE OF INERTIA, or MASS, the centre of a set of parallel forces acting on all the particles of a body, each force being proportional to the mass of the particle on which it acts; CENTRE OF OSCILLATION, the point in a body occupied by that particle which is accelerated and retarded to an equal amount, and which therefore moves as if it were a single pendulum unconnected with the rest of the body; CENTRE OF PERCUSSION, the point in which the direction of a blow, given to a body, intersects the plane in which the fixed axis and the centre of inertia lie, making the body begin to rotate about a fixed axis, without causing any pressure on the axis; CENTRE OF PRESSURE, the point at which the direction of a single force, which is equivalent to the fluid pressure on the plane surface, meets the surface. [Fr.,--L. _centrum_--Gr. _kentron_, a sharp point.] CENTRIFUGAL, sen-trif'[=u]-gal, _adj._ relating to the force directed towards the centre of curvature constantly required to keep a body moving in a curve instead of in its natural straight line: (_bot._) applied to an inflorescence when the development proceeds from the apex towards the base of the axis or leaf, as opposed to _centripetal_, when it is from the base upwards towards the apex.--_n._ CEN'TRIFUGE, a centrifugal machine. [L. _centrum_, and _fug-[)e]re_, to flee from.] CENTRIPETAL, sen-trip'et-al, _adj._ of a force impelling a body towards some point as a centre. [L. _centrum_, and _pet-[)e]re_, to seek.] CENTROBARIC, sen-tro-bar'ik, _adj._ relating to the centre of gravity. [L. _centrum_, and Gr. _baros_, weight.] CENTRODE, sen'tr[=o]d, _n._ a locus traced out by the successive positions of an instantaneous centre of pure rotation. CENTUMVIR, sen-tum'vir, _n._ one of the Roman judges chosen annually for civil suits, originally 105 in number (three from each of the thirty-five tribes):--_pl._ CENTUM'VIR[=I].--_n._ CENTUM'VIRATE. [L. _centum_, a hundred, and _vir_, a man.] CENTUPLE, sen't[=u]-pl, _adj._ hundredfold.--_v.t._ CENT[=U]'PLICATE, to multiply a hundred times.--_n._ CENTUPLIC[=A]'TION. [L. _centuplex_--_centum_, and _plic[=a]re_, to fold.] CENTURY, sen't[=u]-ri, _n._ a hundred, or something consisting of a hundred in number, as sonnets, &c.: a hundred years.--_adj._ CENT[=U]'RIAL.--_ns._ CENT[=U]'RI[=A]TOR, the centuriators of Magdeburg were a group of Reformed divines who in the 16th century compiled a church history in 13 vols., each volume covering a century; CENT[=U]'RION, among the Romans, the commander of a hundred men.--CENTURY PLANT (see AGAVE). [L. _centuria_--_centum_.] CEORL, churl, _n._ before the Norman Conquest an ordinary freeman not of noble birth. [A.S.] CEPHALASPIS, sef-a-las'pis, _n._ a genus of fossil Ganoid fishes found in the Upper Silurian and Devonian measures. [Gr. _kephal[=e]_, the head, _aspis_, a shield.] CEPHALIC, se-fal'ik, _adj._ belonging to the head--also CEPHALIS'TIC.--_ns._ CEPHALAG'RA, gout in the head; CEPHALAL'GIA, CEPH'ALGY, headache.--_adjs._ CEPHALAL'GIC; CEPH'ALATE, having a head, as a mollusc.--_n._ CEPHAL[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the brain.--_adjs._ CEPH'ALOID, in the form of the head: spherical.--_ns._ CEPH'ALO-TH[=O]'RAX, the anterior division of the body in arthropods; CEPHALOT'OMY, the dissection of the head.--_adj._ CEPH'ALOUS, having a head. [Gr. _kephalikos_--_kephal[=e]_, the head.] CEPHALOPODA, sef-al-op'od-a, _n.pl._ the highest class of molluscs, usually large animals, exclusively marine, with well-developed head region, but having the ventral surface grown round the mouth and split up into arms bearing suckers--more commonly _cuttlefish_.--_adj._ CEPH'ALOPOD. [Gr. _kephal[=e]_, the head, _pous_, _podos_, the foot.] CEPHALOPTERA, sef-a-lop't[.e]r-a, _n._ a name formerly used for a genus of rays. [Gr. _kephal[=e]_, the head, _ptera_, wings.] CERAMIC, se-ram'ik, _adj._ pertaining to pottery. [Gr. _keramos_, potter's earth.] CERASINE, ser'a-sin, _n._ the insoluble portion of the gum which exudes from the cherry, &c. [L. _cerasus_, Gr. _kerasos_, the cherry-tree.] CERASTES, se-ras't[=e]z, _n._ a genus of poisonous snakes having a horny process over each eye. [L.; Gr. _kerast[=e]s_--_keras_, a horn.] CERATE, s[=e]'r[=a]t, _n._ a compound of wax with other oily or medicinal substances in such proportions as to form a stiff ointment.--_adj._ C[=E]'RATED.--_n._ CERO'MANCY, divination from figures produced by melted wax when dropped into water. [L. _cer[=a]re_, _cer[=a]tum_, to cover with wax, _cera_, wax.] CERATITIS, ser-a-t[=i]'tis, _n._ inflammation of the cornea.--Also KERAT[=I]'TIS. CERATODE, ser'a-t[=o]d, _n._ the horny skeletal substance of sponges--also CER'ATOSE.--_adjs._ CERAT'ODOUS, CER'ATOSE. CERATOID, ser'a-toid, _adj._ horny. CERAUNIC, se-raw'nik, _adj._ pertaining to, or produced by, thunder.--_ns._ CERAU'NITE, a belemnite; CERAU'NOSCOPE, an apparatus for imitating thunder and lightning in ancient mysteries. [Gr. _keraunos_, a thunderbolt.] CERBERUS, ser'b[.e]r-us, _n._ (_myth._) the monster that guarded the entrance to Hades, a dog with three, according to some a hundred, heads.--_adj._ CERB[=E]'RIAN. [L.--Gr. _Kerberos_.] CERCARIA, ser-k[=a]'ri-a, _n._ the technical name applied to an embryonic form of many flukes.--_adj._ CERC[=A]'RIAN. [Gr. _kerkos_, a tail.] CERE, s[=e]r, _v.t._ to cover with wax.--_n._ the bare waxlike patch at the base of the upper part of the beak in birds.--_adj._ CER[=A]'CEOUS, of or like wax.--_ns._ CER[=A]'GO, a wax-like substance (bee-bread) used by bees as food; CERE'CLOTH, CERE'MENT, a cloth dipped in melted wax in which to wrap a dead body: a winding-sheet or grave-clothes generally.--_adjs._ C[=E]'REOUS, waxy; C[=E]'RIC.--_ns._ C[=E]'RIN, C[=E]'RINE, the portion of wax which dissolves in boiling alcohol: a waxy substance obtained by boiling grated cork in alcohol; C[=E]'ROGRAPH, a writing on wax: an encaustic painting.--_adjs._ CEROGRAPH'IC, -AL.--_ns._ CEROG'RAPHIST; CEROG'RAPHY, the art of writing or engraving on wax.--_adj._ CEROPLAS'TIC, modelled or moulded in wax.--_n._ the art of modelling in wax.--_n._ CER'OSINE, a wax-like substance produced on the surface of certain species of sugar-cane. [L. _cera_, cog. with Gr. _k[=e]ros_, wax; Gr. _graphein_, to write, _plassein_, to mould.] CEREAL. See CERES. CEREBRUM, ser'e-brum, _n._ the front and larger part of the brain.--_adjs._ CEREBELL'AR, CEREBELL'OUS.--_n._ CEREBELL'UM, the hinder and lower part of the brain.--_adj._ CER'EBRAL, pertaining to the cerebrum.--_ns._ CER'EBRALISM, the theory that all mental operations originate in the cerebrum; CER'EBRALIST.--_v.i._ CER'EBRATE, to show brain action.--_n._ CEREBR[=A]'TION, action of the brain, conscious or unconscious, marked by molecular changes in the cerebrum.--_adjs._ CER'EBRIC, cerebral; CEREB'RIFORM, brain-shaped.--_ns._ CER'EBRIN, a name given to several nitrogenous non-phosphorised substances obtained from the brain; CEREBR[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the cerebrum.--_adj._ CER'EBRO-SP[=I]N'AL, relating to the brain and spinal cord together.--CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES, the two great divisions of the cerebrum. [L. _cerebrum_, the brain; prob. cog. with Gr. _kara_, the head, _kranion_, the cranium.] CEREMONY, ser'e-mo-ni, _n._ a sacred rite: the outward form, religious or otherwise: any empty form without inwardness: pomp or state; a portent or omen.--_adj._ CEREM[=O]'NIAL, relating to ceremony.--_n._ outward form: a system of ceremonies.--_n._ CEREM[=O]'NIALISM, adherence to outward form.--_adv._ CEREM[=O]'NIALLY.--_adj._ CEREM[=O]'NIOUS, full of ceremony: particular in observing forms: precise.--_adv._ CEREM[=O]'NIOUSLY.--_n._ CEREM[=O]NIOUSNESS.--MASTER OF CEREMONIES, the person who directs the form and order of the ceremonies to be observed on some public occasion. [Fr.--L. _cærimonia_, sanctity.] CERES, s[=e]'r[=e]z, _n._ the Roman name for the Greek Dem[=e]t[=e]r, goddess of tillage and corn.--_adj._ C[=E]'REAL, relating to corn or edible grain.--_n.pl._ C[=E]'REALS, the grains used as food, such as wheat, barley, &c. [L. prob. from root of _cre[=a]re_, to create.] CEREUS, s[=e]'ri-us, _n._ a large genus of cactuses, including some of the most imposing forms. [L., 'waxen.'] CERGE, s[.e]rj, _n._ a large wax-candle burned before the altar.--Also CIERGE, SERGE. [O. Fr.,--L. _cereus_--_cera_, wax.] CERINTHIAN, ser-in'thi-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Cerinthus_, one of the earliest heretics in the Christian Church, against whose crude Gnosticism the Gospel of John was written, according to Irenæus. CERIPH. Same as SERIF. CERISE, ser-[=e]z', _n._ and _adj._ a light and clear red colour. [Fr., 'cherry.'] CERIUM, s[=e]'ri-um, _n._ a rare metal found in the mineral C[=E]'RITE, which is its hydrated silicate. [Named from the plant _Ceres_.] CERN, s[.e]rn (_Shak._). CONCERN. CEROMANCY. See CERATE. CEROON. See SEROON. CEROPLASTIC. See CERE. CERTAIN, s[.e]r't[=a]n, or s[.e]r'tin, _adj._ sure: not to be doubted: resolved: fixed: regular: inevitable: some: one.--_advs._ CER'TAINLY, (_Scot._) CER'TY, CER'TIE.--_ns._ CER'TITUDE, CER'TAINTY.--'A CERTAIN PERSON,' implying some degree of contempt; A LADY OF A CERTAIN AGE, of an age best not stated accurately--at least no longer young.--FOR CERTAIN, assuredly.--MORAL CERTAINTY, a conviction so justifiable that one is morally entitled to act on it. [O. Fr.,--L. _certus_--_cern-[)e]re_, to decide.] CERTES, s[.e]r't[=e]z, _adv._ certainly: in sooth. [Fr.] CERTIFICATE, s[.e]r-tif'i-k[=a]t, _n._ a written declaration of some fact: a testimonial of character or definite statement of qualifications.--_v.t._ to give a certificate.--_ns._ CERTIFIC[=A]'TION; CERTIF'ICATORY, a certificate--also _adj._--_n._ CER'TIFIER, one who certifies.--_v.t._ CER'TIFY, to make known as certain: to inform: to declare in writing:--_pr.p._ cer'tifying; _pa.p._ cer'tified. [Fr. _certificat_--L. _certific[=a]re_, _certus_, and _fac[)e]re_, to make.] CERTIORARI, s[.e]r-shi-o-r[=a]'ri, _n._ the writ by which, since the abolition of imprisonment for debt and the consequent disuse of the better-known writ, _habeas corpus_, causes are removed from inferior courts of record into the High Court of Justice. [Low L., 'be informed of'--_certior_, comp. of _certus_, certain.] CERULEAN, se-r[=u]'le-an, _adj._ sky-blue: dark-blue; sea-green.--_adj._ CER[=U]'LEOUS. [L. _cæruleus_.] CERULEIN, s[.e]r-[=u]'l[=e]-in, _n._ a coal-tar colour chiefly used in dyeing cotton fabrics, producing fast olive-green shades. CERUMEN, se-r[=u]'men, _n._ the yellow waxy matter secreted in the ear.--_adj._ CER[=U]'MINOUS. [L. _cera_, wax.] CERUSE, s[=e]'r[=oo]s, or ser-[=u]s', _n._ white-lead, the native carbonate of lead.--_n._ C[=E]'RUSITE. [Fr.,--L. _cerussa_, conn. with _cera_, wax.] CERVICAL, s[.e]r'vi-kal, _adj._ belonging to the neck. [Fr.,--L. _cervix_, _cervicis_, the neck.] CERVINE, s[.e]r'v[=i]n, _adj._ relating to deer. [L. _cervinus_, _cervus_, a stag.] CESAREAN. See CÆSAREAN. CESAREVITCH. See CZAR. CESPITOSE, ses'pi-t[=o]s, _adj._ turfy: growing in tufts.--Also CES'PITOUS. [L. _cespes_, _cespitis_, turf.] CESS, ses, _n._ a tax, a local rate.--_v.t._ to impose a tax.--OUT OF ALL CESSE (_Shak._), excessively, immoderately. [Shortened from ASSESS.] CESSATION, ses-[=a]'shun, _n._ a ceasing or stopping: a rest: a pause. [Fr.,--L. _cessation-em_. See CEASE.] CESSE, ses, _v.i._ (_Spens._). Same as CEASE. CESSION, sesh'un, _n._ a yielding up.--_n._ CES'SIONARY, one to whom an assignment has been legally made.--CESSIO BON[=O]RUM (_Scots law_), before 1880 a debtor's surrender of his estate to his creditors in return for a judicial protection from imprisonment in respect of his debts. [Fr.--L. _cession-em_. See CEDE.] CESSPOOL, ses'p[=oo]l, _n._ a pool or hollow in which filthy water collects. [Acc. to Skeat, from Celt. _soss-pool_, a pool into which foul messes flow. Cf. Scot. _soss_, a mixed dirty mess.] CESTOID, ses'toid, _n._ one of a family of flat worms of internal parasitic habit, having a long strap-like body divided into numerous segments: a tapeworm.--Also CESTOID'EAN. [L. _cestus_, Gr. _kestos_, a girdle, a strap, and _eidos_, form.] CESTRACION, ses-tr[=a]'si-on, _n._ a generic name for the hammer-headed sharks. [Formed from Gr. _kestra_, a weapon.] CESTUI, sest'w[=e], _n._ any person who--in such phrases as CESTUI QUE TRUST, a person entitled to the benefit of a trust, a beneficiary in Scots law phraseology. [O. Fr.] [Illustration] CESTUS, ses'tus, _n._ the girdle of Venus, which had power to awaken love: an ancient boxing-glove loaded with lead or iron. [L.--Gr. _kestos_, a girdle.] CESURA. See CÆSURA. CESURE, s[=e]'z[=u]r, _n._ a breaking off: (_Spens._) a cæsura. CETACEA, se-t[=a]'shi-a, _n.pl._ an order of mammals of aquatic habit and fish-like form, including the Toothed whales, or _Odontoceti_, and the Baleen whales, or _Mystacoceti_. To the former belong the Sperm whales, the Bottlenose, the genus Platanista and its allies, and the great family of Dolphins; to the latter, the Right Whale (_Balæna_), the Humpbacks, and the Rorquals.--_n._ CET[=A]'CEAN.--_adj._ CET[=A]'CEOUS.--_n._ CETOL'OGY, that part of zoology which treats of whales. [L.,--Gr. _k[=e]tos_, any sea-monster.] CETEOSAURUS, set-e-o-saw'rus, _n._ a large dinosaurian reptile belonging to the Jurassic system. [Gr. _k[=e]tos_, whale, _sauros_, lizard.] CEVADILLA, sev-a-dil'a, _n._ the dark acrid seeds of a Mexican bulbous plant of the lily family, yielding veratrin, formerly used as an anthelmintic: the plant itself.--Also CEBADILL'A. [Sp.,--L. _cib[=a]re_, to feed, _cibus_, food.] CEYLONESE, s[=e]-lon-[=e]z', _adj._ of or belonging to _Ceylon_.--_n._ a native of Ceylon. CHABLIS, shab'l[=e], _n._ a celebrated white Burgundy wine made at _Chablis_, near Auxerre, in France. CHABOUK, tschä'b[=oo]k, _n._ a Persian horsewhip. [Pers.] CHACE. See CHASE (1). CHACK, chak, _n._ a snack or slight hasty meal. [Imit.] CHACMA, chak'ma, _n._ a South African baboon. CHACO. Same as Shako. CHACONNE, shak-on', _n._ an old dance, with slow movement, the music, a series of variations on a ground bass, mostly eight bars in length, appearing in sonatas as well as ballets. [Fr.,--Sp. _chacona_--Basque _chucun_, pretty.] CHAD, shad, _n._ a kind of fish. [See SHAD.] CHÆTODON, k[=e]'to-don, _n._ a typical genus of a family of bony fishes, known as Squamipennes. [Gr. _chait[=e]_, hair, _odous_, _odont-_, tooth.] CHÆTOPOD, k[=e]'to-pod, _n._ a class of worms including familiar types like the Earthworm, the Fisherman's Lobworm, and the Sea-mouse--often included under the title of Annelids or ringed worms. [Gr. _chait[=e]_, hair, and _pous_, _pod-_, foot.] CHAFE, ch[=a]f, _v.t._ to make hot by rubbing: to fret or wear by rubbing: to cause to fret or rage (with _against_, _at_).--_v.i._ to fret or rage.--_n._ heat caused by rubbing: rage: passion.--_ns._ CHAF'ER (_obs._), a chafing-dish, a saucepan; CHAF'ING-DISH, a dish or vessel in which anything is made hot: a kind of portable grate; CHAF'ING-GEAR, mats, spun-yarn, battens, &c., put upon the rigging and spars of a ship to prevent their being chafed. [Fr. _chauffer_--L. _calefac[)e]re_--_cal[=e]re_, to be hot, and _fac[)e]re_, to make.] CHAFER, ch[=a]f'[.e]r, _n._ a kind of beetle, the cockchafer. [A.S. _cefer_; cog. with Dut. _kever_, Ger. _käfer_.] CHAFF, chaf, _n._ a general name for the husks of corn or other grain as threshed or winnowed: refuse, or worthless matter: light banter, badinage.--_v.t._ to banter, or tease, by some raillery.--_ns._ CHAFF'-CUT'TER, CHAFF'-EN'GINE, a machine for cutting straw or hay into chaff.--_n._ and _p.adj._ CHAFF'ING.--_adv._ CHAFF'INGLY.--_adjs._ CHAFF'LESS; CHAFF'Y. [A.S. _ceaf_; cf. Dut. _kaf_.] CHAFFER, chaf'[.e]r, _v.t._ to buy.--_v.i._ to bargain: to haggle about the price.--_ns._ CHAFF'ERER, a haggler about the price; CHAFF'ERY, buying and selling: (_Spens._) haggling. [M. E. _chapfare_, a bargain, from A.S. _ceap_, price, _faru_, way.] CHAFFINCH, chaf'insh, _n._ a little song-bird of the finch family. [Said to delight in _chaff_. See FINCH.] CHAFFRON. See CHAMFRAIN. CHAFT, chaft, _n._ (_Scot._ and _Northern English_) the jaw. [Ice. _kjaptr_; cf. Sw. _käft_, Dan. _kieft_.] CHAGAN, kag-än', _n._ an early form of KHAN. CHAGRIN, sha-gr[=e]n', _n._ that which wears or gnaws the mind: vexation: annoyance.--_v.t._ to vex or annoy.--_p.adj._ CHAGRINED'. [Fr. _chagrin_, shagreen, rough skin, ill-humour.] CHAIN, ch[=a]n, _n._ a series of links or rings passing through one another: a number of things coming after each other: anything that binds: a connected course or train of events: in surveying, often called Gunter's chain, a measure of 100 links, 66 feet long (10 sq. chains make an acre): (_pl._) fetters, bonds, confinement generally.--_v.t._ to fasten: to fetter: to restrain: (_Shak._) to embrace.--_ns._ CHAIN'-ARM'OUR, chain-mail; CHAIN'-BOLT, a large bolt used to secure the chain-plates to the ship's side; CHAIN'-BRIDGE, a bridge suspended on chains: a suspension-bridge; CHAIN'-C[=A]'BLE, a cable composed of iron links.--_p.adj._ CHAINED, bound or fastened, as with a chain: fitted with a chain.--_n._ CHAIN'-GANG, a gang of convicts chained together.--_adj._ CHAIN'LESS, without chains: [Illustration] unfettered.--_ns._ CHAIN'LET, a small chain; CHAIN'-MAIL, mail or armour made of iron links connected together, much used in Europe in the 12th and 13th centuries; CHAIN'-MOULD'ING, moulding in the form of a chain; CHAIN'-PIER, a pier supported by chains like a chain-bridge.--_n.pl._ CHAIN'-PLATES, on shipboard, iron plates bolted below the channels to serve as attachments for the dead-eyes, through which the standing rigging or shrouds and back-stays are rove and secured.--_ns._ CHAIN'-PUMP, a pump consisting of buckets or plates fastened to an endless iron chain, and used for raising water; CHAIN'-RULE, an arithmetical rule, so called from the terms of the problem being stated as equations, and connected, as if by a chain, so as to obtain by one operation the same result as would be obtained by a number of different operations in simple proportion: the rule for solving problems by compound proportion; CHAIN'-SHOT, two bullets or half-bullets fastened together by a chain, used formerly in naval engagements to destroy rigging, now replaced by case-shot and shrapnel-shell; CHAIN'-STITCH, a peculiar kind of stitch resembling the links of a chain; CHAIN'-WORK, work consisting of threads, cords, &c., wrought with open spaces like the links of a chain: network. [Fr. _chaine_--L. _cat[=e]na_.] CHAIR, ch[=a]r, _n._ a movable seat for one, with a back to it: a covered vehicle for one person, as a sedan-chair: the seat or office of one in authority, as a judge, a bishop, or the person presiding over any meeting--hence 'to take the chair' = to assume the place of president; 'to address the chair' = to direct one's speech to the chairman; 'to support the chair' = to uphold the authority of the chairman--often, when endangered in a public meeting, asserted by cries of '_Chair!_': the seat from which a professor delivers his lectures, the office or function of a professor--'socialists of the chair' = mere doctrinaire or theoretical advocates of socialism: cast-iron supports for rails under the permanent way in a railway, held by wooden wedges, and spiked on to transverse wooden sleepers.--_v.t._ to place in a seat of authority: to carry publicly in triumph.--_n._ CHAIR'-BED, a kind of chair capable of being turned into a bed.--_n.pl._ CHAIR'-DAYS (_Shak._), used figuratively to denote the evening of life.--_ns._ CHAIR'MAN, the man who takes the chair, or presides at an assembly or meeting: one who carries a sedan or Bath chair; CHAIR'MANSHIP; CHAIR'-OR'GAN, a corruption of choir-organ (q.v.); CHAIR'WOMAN. [Fr. _chaire_--L.--Gr. _kathedra_.] CHAISE, sh[=a]z, _n._ a light open carriage for one or more persons: a travelling carriage (see POST-CHAISE).--_adj._ CHAISE'LESS.--_n._ CHAISE-LONGUE, a couch. [Fr., a Parisian pronunciation of _chaire_. See CHAIR.] CHAL, chal, _n._ fellow: person:--_fem._ CHAI. [Gipsy.] CHALCEDONY, kal-sed'[=o]-ni, or kal'-, _n._ a beautiful mineral of the quartz family, consisting of quartz with some admixture of opal--it is generally translucent, has a somewhat waxy lustre, and is in colour generally white or bluish-white.--_adj._ CHALCEDON'IC.--_n._ CHALCED'ONYX, an agate formed of a white opaque chalcedony alternating with a grayish translucent chalcedony. [Prob. from _Chalcedon_, in Asia Minor.] CHALCOGRAPHY, kal-kog'ra-fi, _n._ the art of engraving on copper or brass.--_ns._ CHALCOG'RAPHER, CHALCOG'RAPHIST. [Gr. _chalkos_, copper, _graphein_, to write.] CHALDAIC, kal-d[=a]'ik, CHALDEE, kal'd[=e], _adj._ relating to _Chaldea_.--_n._ the language of the Chaldeans.--_n._ CHAL'D[=A]ISM, a Chaldaic idiom.--_adj._ CHALD[=E]'AN, Chaldaic.--_n._ a native of Chaldea. CHALDER, chawl'd[.e]r, _n._ an old Scotch dry measure, containing 16 bolls. [Prob. a form of CHALDRON.] CHALDRON, chawl'drun, _n._ an old coal-measure, holding 36 heaped bushels (= 25½ cwt.). [Fr. _chaudron_. See CAULDRON.] CHALET, sha-l[=a]', _n._ a summer hut used by Swiss herdsmen among the Alps: a urinal. [Fr.] CHALICE, chal'is, _n._ a cup or bowl: a communion-cup.--_adj._ CHAL'ICED, cup-like. [Fr. _calice_--L. _calix_, _calicis_; Gr. _kylix_, a cup. CALYX is a different word, but from the same root.] CHALK, chawk, _n._ the well-known white substance, a carbonate of lime.--_v.t._ to rub or manure with chalk.--_v.i._ to mark with chalk: in a tavern, to write the score with chalk.--_ns._ CHALK'INESS; CHALK'-PIT, a pit in which chalk is dug; CHALK'-STONE, a stone or piece of chalk: (_pl._) the white concretions formed round the joints in chronic gout.--_adj._ CHALK'Y.--CHALK FOR CHEESE, a small price for a good article.--CHALKING THE DOOR, in Scotland, a form of warning tenants to remove from burghal tenements.--CHALK OUT, to trace out, as with chalk, to plan.--BY A LONG CHALK, by a considerable distance, referring to the habit of scoring with chalk. [A.S. _cealc_, like Fr. _chaux_, is from L. _calx_, limestone.] CHALLENGE, chal'enj, _v.t._ to call on one to settle a matter by fighting or by any kind of contest: to claim as one's own: to accuse; to object to.--_n._ a summons to a contest of any kind, but esp. a duel: a calling of any one or anything in question: exception to a juror: the demand of a sentry.--_adj._ CHALL'ENGEABLE, that may be challenged.--_n._ CHALL'ENGER, one who challenges to a combat of any kind: a claimant: one who objects, calls in question. [O. Fr. _chalenge_, a dispute, a claim--L. _calumnia_, a false accusation--_calvi_, _calv[)e]re_, to deceive.] CHALLIS, shal'is, or shal'i, _n._ a fine fabric of silk and worsted used for ladies' dresses. [Fr.] CHALUMEAU, shal-[=u]-m[=o]', _n._ a musical instrument: a shepherd's pipe. [Fr.,--O. Fr. _chalemel_--Low L. _calamellus_, dim. of _calamus_, a pipe, a reed.] CHALYBEAN, ka-lib'[=e]-an, _adj._ (_Milton_) forged by the Chalybes: well tempered.--_adj._ CHALYB'E[=A]TE, containing iron.--_n._ a water or other liquor containing iron. [Gr. _chalyps_, _chalybos_, steel, so called from the _Chalybes_, a nation in Pontus famous for steel.] CHALYBITE, kal'i-b[=i]t, _n._ native iron protocarbonate--siderite. CHAM, kam, _n._ an obsolete form of KHAN. CHAMADE, sham'ad, _n._ a signal inviting a parley. [Fr.] CHAMBER, ch[=a]m'b[.e]r, _n._ an apartment: the place where an assembly meets: an assembly or body of men met for some purpose, as a chamber of commerce: a hall of justice: a compartment: a cavity: the back end of the bore of a gun.--_v.t._ to put in a chamber: to confine.--_v.i._ to be wanton.--_ns._ CHAM'BER-COUN'CIL (_Shak._), a private or secret council; CHAM'BER-COUN'SEL, -COUN'SELLOR, a counsel who gives his advice privately, but does not plead in court.--_adj._ CHAM'BERED.--_ns._ CHAM'BERER, a man of intrigue: (_Shak._) a gallant; CHAM'BER-FELL'OW, one occupying the same chamber.--_n.pl._ CHAM'BER-HANG'INGS (_Shak._), the hangings or tapestry of a chamber.--_ns._ CHAM'BERING (_B._), lewd behaviour; CHAM'BER-LYE (_Shak._), urine; CHAM'BER-MAID, a female servant who has the care of bedrooms; CHAM'BER-POT, a necessary bedroom vessel--often merely CHAM'BER; CHAM'BER-PRAC'TICE, the business of a chamber-counsellor (q.v.). [Fr. _chambre_--L. _camera_--Gr. _kamara_, a vault, a room.] CHAMBERLAIN, ch[=a]m'b[.e]r-l[=a]n, or -lin, _n._ an officer appointed by a king or nobleman, or by a corporation, to perform domestic and ceremonial duties.--_n._ CHAM'BERLAINSHIP.--LORD CHAMBERLAIN, an officer of high standing in the royal household, having control over all the officers and servants 'above stairs,' except those of the bedchamber, over the establishment attached to the Chapel Royal, the physicians, surgeons, and apothecaries of the household; LORD GREAT CHAMBERLAIN, a hereditary officer who has the government of the palace of Westminster, and upon solemn occasions the keys of Westminster Hall and of the Court of Requests are delivered to him. [O. Fr. _chambrelenc_; Old Ger. _chamerling_--L. _camera_, a chamber, and affix _-ling_ or _-lenc_ = Eng. _-ling_ in _hireling_.] CHAMBERTIN, shang'bert-ang, _n._ a famous red Burgundy from the vineyard of that name near Dijon, in France. CHAMELEON, ka-m[=e]l'yun, _n._ a small lizard famous for changing its colour: (_fig._) an inconstant person.--_adjs._ CHAMEL'EONIC, CHAMEL'EON-LIKE. [L. _chamæleon_--Gr. _chamaile[=o]n_--_chamai_ (= L. _humi_), on the ground, dwarf, and _le[=o]n_, a lion.] CHAMELOT, kam'e-lot, _n._ (_Spens._). CAMLET. CHAMFER, cham'f[.e]r, _n._ a bevel or slope made by paring off the edge of anything originally right-angled, either in wood or stone work: a groove, channel, or furrow.--_v.t._ to cut or grind off bevel-wise, as a corner: to channel or make furrows upon; to flute, as a column.--_adj._ CHAM'FERED, furrowed, grooved, wrinkled. [Fr. _chanfrein_--O. Fr. _chanfraindre_, which acc. to Dr Murray may be from _chant fraindre_--L. _cantum frang[)e]re_, to break the edge or side.] CHAMFRAIN, cham'fren, _n._ a piece of leather or plate of steel to protect the face of a horse in battle.--Also CHAM'FRON, CHAF'FRON. [Fr. _chanfrein_; origin unknown.] CHAMLET, kam'let, _n._ Same as CAMLET. CHAMOIS, sha'moi, sham'i, or sham'waw, _n._ a goat-like species or genus of antelope inhabiting the Alps and other high mountains of southern and central Europe: a soft kind of leather originally made from its skin. [Fr.,--Teut.; cf. mod. Ger. _gemse_, a chamois.] CHAMOMILE. See CAMOMILE. CHAMP, champ, _v.i._ to make a snapping noise with the jaws in chewing.--_v.t._ to bite or chew: to crush: to mash.--_n._ champing.--_n._ CHAMP'ING, the action of the verb _champ_: mashing. [Older form _cham_, most prob. from Scand.] CHAMPAC, cham'pak, _n._ an Indian tree of great beauty, much venerated by Brahminists and Buddhists.--Also CHAM'PAK. [Hind.] CHAMPAGNE, sham-p[=a]n', _n._ a light sparkling wine from _Champagne_ in France. Still or non-effervescent champagne is also made. CHAMPAIGN, sham-p[=a]n', _adj._ level, open.--_n._ an open, level country.--_n._ CHAMP (_her._), the field of a shield.--THE CHAMPAGNE, level land. [A doublet of CAMPAIGN, from O. Fr. _champaigne_--L. _campania_, a plain.] CHAMPERTY, sham'p[.e]r-ti, _n._ an illegal bargain whereby the one party is to assist the other in recovering property, and is to share in the proceeds.--_n._ CHAM'PART, the division of the produce of land, the right of the feudal lord. [Norm. Fr.--L. _campi pars_, part of the field.] CHAMPIGNON, sham-pin'yon, _n._ a mushroom, esp. the Fairy-ring Agaric. [Fr.] CHAMPION, cham'pi-un, _n._ one who fights in single combat for himself or for another: one who defends a cause: a successful combatant: in boxing, running, &c., one who has excelled all others: a hero:--_fem._ CHAM'PIONESS.--_adj._ acting as champion, first: first-class.--_v.t._ (_obs._) to challenge: to defend: to support.--_n._ CHAM'PIONSHIP. [Fr.,--Low L. _campio_, _campion-em_--L. _campus_, a plain, a place for games.] CHANCE, chans, _n._ that which falls out or happens: an unexpected event: risk: opportunity: possibility of something happening: probability: (_pl._) misfortunes.--_v.t._ to risk.--_v.i._ to happen.--_adj._ happening by chance.--_adv._ perchance.--_n._ CHANCE'-COM'ER, one who comes by chance or unexpectedly.--_adjs._ CHANCE'FUL (_Spens._), full of risk or danger, hazardous; CHANC'Y (_coll._), lucky, bringing good luck: also risky, uncertain.--BY CHANCE, accidentally; EVEN CHANCE, the probability being equally for or against.--HOW CHANCE? (_Shak._) how does it happen that?--STAND A GOOD CHANCE, to have a reasonable expectation; TAKE ONE'S CHANCE, to accept what happens: to risk an undertaking; THE MAIN CHANCE, the chief object (often used of matrimony): what is most important. [O. Fr. _cheance_--Low L. _cadentia_--L. _cad[)e]re_, to fall.] CHANCEL, chan'sel, _n._ the eastern part of a church, originally separated from the nave by a screen of lattice-work, so as to prevent general access thereto, though not to interrupt either sight or sound. [O. Fr.,--L. _cancelli_, lattices.] CHANCELLOR, chan'sel-or, _n._ (_Shak._) secretary: the president of a court of chancery or other court: the official who keeps the registers of an order of knighthood: the titular head of a university: (_Scot._) the foreman of a jury.--_ns._ CHAN'CELLORSHIP; CHAN'CELLORY.--CHANCELLOR OF A CATHEDRAL, an officer who formerly had charge of the chapter library, custody of the common seal, superintendence of the choir practices, and headship of the cathedral schools; CHANCELLOR OF A DIOCESE, an ecclesiastical judge uniting the functions of vicar-general and official principal, appointed to assist the bishop in questions of ecclesiastical law, and hold his courts for him; CHANCELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER, the chief minister of finance in the British government; LORD CHANCELLOR, LORD HIGH CHANCELLOR, the presiding judge of the Court of Chancery, the keeper of the great seal, and the first lay person of the state after the blood-royal. [Fr. _chancelier_--Low L. _cancellarius_, orig. an officer that had charge of records, and stood near the _cancelli_ (L.), the crossbars that surrounded the judgment-seat.] CHANCE-MEDLEY, chans'-med-li, _n._ homicide justifiable because done in the hot blood caused by an unprovoked assault--the word has no reference to homicide by accident: inadvertency. [O. Fr. _chance medlée_, mingled chance. 'From the fact that _medley_ is also a noun, and _chance-medley_ a possible combination in the sense of "fortuitous medley," the meaning has often been mistaken' (Dr Murray).] CHANCERY, chan's[.e]r-i, _n._ formerly the highest court of justice next to the House of Lords, presided over by the Lord High Chancellor--now a division of the High Court of Justice: a court of record generally: (_slang_) the position of a boxer's head when under his adversary's arm: (_obs._) the office of a chancellor or ambassador.--CHANCERY OFFICE, in Scotland, an office in the General Register House at Edinburgh, managed by a director, in which all royal charters of novodamus, patents of dignities, gifts of offices, remissions, legitimations, presentations, commissions, and other writs appointed to pass the Great and Quarter Seals are recorded.--IN CHANCERY, in litigation, as an estate: (_slang_) in an awkward predicament. [Fr. _chancellerie_.] CHANCRE, shang'k[.e]r, _n._ an ulcer arising from the direct application of syphilitic poison.--_adjs._ CHAN'CROID, CHAN'CROUS. [Fr.; a form of CANKER.] CHANDELIER, shan-de-l[=e]r', _n._ a frame with branches for holding lights.--_ns._ CHAND'LER, originally a candle maker and dealer: a dealer generally; CHAND'LERING.--_adv._ CHAND'LERLY.--_ns._ CHAND'LERY, goods sold by a chandler; SHIP'-CHAND'LER, dealer in general stores for ships. [Fr.,--Low L. _candelaria_, a candlestick--L. _cand[=e]la_, a candle.] CHANGE, ch[=a]nj, _v.t._ to alter or make different: to put or give for another: to make to pass from one state to another: to exchange.--_v.i._ to suffer change: to change one's clothes.--_n._ the act of changing: alteration or variation of any kind: (_Shak._) exchange: (_Shak._) fickleness: a shift: variety: small coin: also used as a short term for the Exchange.--_ns._ CHANGEABIL'ITY, CHANGE'ABLENESS, fickleness: power of being changed.--_adj._ CHANGE'ABLE, subject or prone to change: fickle: inconstant.--_adv._ CHANGE'ABLY.--_adj._ CHANGE'FUL, full of change: changeable.--_adv._ CHANGE'FULLY.--_ns._ CHANGE'FULNESS; CHANGE'-HOUSE (_Scot._), a small inn or alehouse.--_adj._ CHANGE'LESS, without change: constant.--_ns._ CHANGE'LING, a child taken or left by the fairies in place of another--usually an under-sized, crabbed child: one apt to change; CHANG'ER, one who changes the form of anything: one employed in changing or discounting money; CHANG'ING-PIECE (_Shak._), a fickle person.--CHANGE COLOUR, to blush or turn pale; CHANGE ONE'S MIND, to form a different opinion; CHANGE ONE'S SELF, to change one's clothes; CHANGE ONE'S TUNE, to change from joy to sorrow: to change one's manner of speaking.--PUT THE CHANGE ON, to delude, trick.--RING THE CHANGES, to go through the various changes in ringing a peal of bells: to go over in every possible order: to pass counterfeit money: to bemuddle a shopman into giving too much change. [Fr. _changer_--Late L. _cambi[=a]re_--L. _camb[=i]re_, to barter.] CHANK, changk, CHANK-SHELL, changk'-shel, _n._ the popular name of the shell of several species of Turbinella, a genus of Gasteropod molluscs, natives of the East Indian seas, used as ornaments by Hindu women. [Hind. _cantch_.] CHANNEL, chan'el, _n._ the bed of a stream of water: the deeper part of a strait, bay, or harbour: a strait or narrow sea: a groove or furrow: means of passing or conveying: (_Scot._) gravel.--_v.t._ to make a channel: to furrow: to convey.--_p.adj._ CHANN'ELLED.--THE CHANNEL, the English Channel. [O. Fr. _chanel_, _canel_--L. _canalis_, a canal.] CHANNEL, chan'el, _n._ a flat piece of wood or iron projecting horizontally from a ship's side to spread the shrouds and keep them clear of the bulwarks--_fore_, _main_, and _mizzen channels_. [Corr. of _Chain-wale_. Cf. GUNNEL.] CHANSON, shan'son, _n._ a song.--_n._ CHAN'SONETTE. [Fr.] CHANT, chant, _v.t._ to sing: to celebrate in song: to recite in a singing manner: to sell horses fraudulently.--_n._ song: melody: a kind of sacred music, in which prose is sung.--_ns._ CHANT'ER, CHANT'OR, a singer: a precentor: in a bagpipe, the pipe with finger-holes, on which the melody is played: one who cries up horses; CHANT'RESS; CHANT'RY, an endowment, or chapel, for the chanting of masses; CHANT'Y, a sailor's song, usually with a drawling refrain, sung in concert while raising the anchor, &c. [Fr. _chanter_--L. _cant[=a]re_, _can[)e]re_, to sing.] CHANTAGE, shan-täj', chant'[=a]j, _n._ extortion of money by threats of scandalous revelations. [Fr.] CHANTERELLE, shan-ter-el', _n._ the highest string of the violin, &c.: a yellowish edible mushroom. [Fr.] CHANTICLEER, chant'i-kl[=e]r, _n._ a cock. [From the name of the cock in the old beast-epic of Reynard the Fox.] [O. Fr. _chanter_, to sing, _cler_, clear.] CHAOS, k[=a]'os, _n._ shapeless mass: disorder: the state of matter before it was reduced to order by the Creator.--_adj._ CHAOT'IC, confused.--_adv._ CHAOT'ICALLY. [Gr.] CHAP, chap, _v.i._ to crack: to strike, of a clock, &c.: to knock at a door.--_v.t._ to fissure.--_n._ crack: an open fissure in the skin, caused by exposure to frost: a knock.--_adj._ CHAP'LESS.--_p.adj._ CHAPPED, cracked, of a heavy soil in dry weather, or of the skin in frost: cut short.--_adj._ CHAP'PY. [M. E. _chappen_; cog. with Dut. and Ger. _kappen_.] CHAP, chap, _n._ a fellow, originally a customer, from CHAPMAN.--_n._ CHAP'PIE, a familiar diminutive. CHAP, chap, _n._ generally _pl._ the jaws.--_adj._ CHAP'FALL'EN, a variant of Chop-fallen (q.v.). [Northern Eng. and Scot. _chafts_--Scand., as Ice. _kjaptr_, the jaw.] CHAPARRAL, chap-a-ral', _n._ dense tangled brushwood. [Sp., prob. Basque _achaparra_.] CHAP-BOOK. See CHAPMAN. CHAPE, ch[=a]p, _n._ the plate of metal at the point of a scabbard: the catch or hook by which the sheath of a weapon was attached to the belt.--_adj._ CHAPE'LESS. [Fr.,--Low L. _capa_, a cap.] CHAPEAU, sha-p[=o]', _n._ a hat. [Fr.] CHAPEL, chap'el, _n._ a place of worship inferior or subordinate to a regular church, or attached to a palace, garrison, prison, school, college, &c.: an oratory in a mausoleum, &c., or a cell of a church containing its own altar: a dissenters' place of worship, as of Nonconformists in England, Roman Catholics or Episcopalians in Scotland, &c.: a chapel service--hence 'to keep one's chapels'--to make the requisite number of attendances at such: an association of workmen in a printing-office.--_n._ CHAP'ELRY, the jurisdiction of a chapel.--CHAPEL CART (see CART).--CHAPEL OF EASE, a chapel for worshippers far from the parish church; CHAPEL ROYAL, the oratory of a royal palace; LADY CHAPEL, such a chapel dedicated to the Virgin; PROPRIETARY CHAPEL, one that is the property of a private person or persons. [O. Fr. _capele_--Low L. _cappella_, dim. of _cappa_, a cloak or cope; orig. from the cloak of St Martin.] CHAPERON, shap'e-r[=o]n, _n._ a kind of hood or cap: one who attends a lady in public places as a protector.--_v.t._ to attend a lady to public places.--_n._ CHAP'ERONAGE. [Fr., a large hood--_chape_, a hooded cloak--Low L. _cappa_. See CAPE.] CHAPITER, chap'i-t[.e]r, _n._ the head or capital of a column. [Fr. _chapitel_--Low L. _capitellum_, dim. of L. _caput_, the head.] CHAPLAIN, chap'l[=a]n, or chap'lin, _n._ a clergyman attached to a ship of war, a regiment, a public institution, or private family.--_ns._ CHAP'LAINCY, CHAP'LAINRY, CHAP'LAINSHIP. [O. Fr. _chapelain_--Low L. _capellanus_--_capella_. See CHAPEL.] CHAPLET, chap'let, _n._ a garland or wreath for the head: a circlet of gold, &c.: a string of beads used in counting prayers, one-third of a rosary in length: anything in a string: a metal support of a cylindrical pipe.--_adj._ CHAP'LETED. [O. Fr. _chapelet_--_chape_, a head-dress.] CHAPMAN, chap'man, _n._ one who buys or sells: an itinerant dealer, a pedlar: (_obs._) a purchaser.--_n._ CHAP'-BOOK, a name given to the books which were formerly sold by chapmen. [A.S. _céap-man_--_céap_, trade, and _mann_, man; cf. Ger. _kaufmann_, and see CHEAP.] CHAPTER, chap't[.e]r, _n._ a main division of a book, or of anything: a subject or category generally: an assembly of the canons of a cathedral or collegiate church, or the members of a religious or military order: an organised branch of some society or fraternity.--_v.t._ to put into chapters: to take to task.--_n._ CHAP'TER-HOUSE.--CHAPTER-AND-VERSE, the exact reference to the passage of the authority for one's statements.--THE CHAPTER OF ACCIDENTS, the catalogue of unforeseen events.--TO THE END OF THE CHAPTER, throughout the whole subject. [O. Fr. _chapitre_--L. _capitulum_, dim. of _caput_, the head. From the practice of reading to the assembled canons or monks a _capitulum_ or chapter of their rule, or of the Scriptures, the men themselves came to be called in a body the _capitulum_ or chapter, and their meeting-place the chapter-house.] CHAPTREL, chap'trel, _n._ the capital of a pillar which supports an arch. [Dim. of CHAPITER.] CHAR, chär, _n._ a small fish of the salmon kind, found in mountain lakes and rivers. [Prob. Celt.; cf. Gael, _ceara_, red, blood-coloured.] CHAR, chär, _v.t._ to roast or burn until reduced to carbon or coal, to scorch:--_pr.p._ char'ring; _pa.p._ charred.--_adj._ CHAR'RY, pertaining to charcoal. [Prob. formed from _char_-coal.] CHAR. See CHARE. CHAR-À-BANC, shar'-a-bang, _n._ a long light vehicle with transverse seats. [Fr.] CHARACTER, kar'ak-t[.e]r, _n._ a letter, sign, figure, stamp, or distinctive mark: a mark of any kind, a symbol in writing, &c.: writing generally, handwriting: a secret cipher: any essential feature or peculiarity: nature: (_obs._) personal appearance: the aggregate of peculiar qualities which constitutes personal or national individuality: moral qualities especially, the reputation of possessing such: a formal statement of the qualities of a person who has been in one's service or employment: official position, rank, or status, or a person who has filled such: a person noted for eccentricity: a personality as created in a play or novel (_Shak._ CHAR'ACT).--_v.t._ to engrave, imprint, write: to represent, delineate, or describe.--_n._ CHARACTERIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ CHAR'ACTERISE, to describe by peculiar qualities: to distinguish or designate.--_ns._ CHAR'ACTERISM; CHARACTERIS'TIC, that which marks or constitutes the character.--_adjs._ CHARACTERIS'TIC, -AL, marking or constituting the peculiar nature.--_adv._ CHARACTERIS'TICALLY.--_adj._ CHAR'ACTERLESS, without character or distinctive qualities.--_ns._ CHAR'ACTERLESSNESS; CHAR'ACTERY, writing: impression: that which is charactered.--IN CHARACTER, in harmony with the part assumed, appropriate, as a CHARACTER ACTOR, one who tries to represent eccentricities. [Fr. _caractère_--L. _character_--Gr. _charakt[=e]r_, from _charass-ein_, to cut, engrave.] CHARADE, shar-äd', _n._ a species of riddle, the subject of which is a word proposed for solution from an enigmatical description of its component syllables and of the whole--the charade is often acted. [Fr.; ety. dub. Littré gives Prov. _charrada_, chatter; Prof. Skeat quotes Sp. _charrada_, the speech of a clown.] CHARCOAL, chär'k[=o]l, _n._ charred wood or coal made by charring wood; the carbonaceous residue of vegetable, animal, or mineral substances when they have undergone smothered combustion. [The first element of the word is of doubtful origin.] CHARE, ch[=a]r, CHAR, chär, _n._ an occasional piece of work, an odd job: (_pl._) household work--in America usually CHORE.--_v.i._ to do odd jobs of work: to do house-cleaning.--_n._ CHAR'WOMAN, a woman hired by the day to do odd jobs of domestic work. [A.S. _cerran_, _cierran_, to turn.] CHARET, chär'et, _n._ (_Spens._) same as CHARIOT. CHARGE, chärj, _v.t._ to load, to put into, to fill (_with_): to load heavily, burden: to fill completely: to cause to receive electricity: to lay a task upon one, to enjoin, command: to deliver officially an injunction, as a judge to a jury, a bishop or archdeacon to his clergy, or a senior to a junior minister at a Presbyterian ordination: to bring an accusation against: to exact a sum of money from, to ask as the price.--_v.i._ to make an onset.--_n._ that which is laid on: cost or price: the load of powder, &c., for a gun: attack or onset: care, custody: the object of care, esp. a minister of religion's flock or parish: an accumulation of electricity in a Leyden jar: command: exhortation: accusation: (_pl._) expenses.--_adj._ CHARGE'ABLE, liable to be charged, imputable: blamable: (_B._) burdensome.--_n._ CHARGE'ABLENESS.--_adv._ CHARGE'ABLY.--_adj._ CHARGE'FUL (_Shak._), expensive.--_n._ CHARGE'-HOUSE (_Shak._), a common school where a fee was charged, in distinction to a free-school.--_adj._ CHARGE'LESS.--_n._ CHARG'ER, a flat dish capable of holding a large joint, a platter: a war-horse.--GIVE IN CHARGE, to hand over to the police. [Fr. _charger_--Low L. _carric[=a]re_, to load--L. _carrus_, a wagon. See CAR, CARGO.] CHARGÉ-D'AFFAIRES, shar'zh[=a]-da-f[=a]r', _n._ a fourth-class diplomatic agent, accredited, not to the sovereign, but to the department for foreign affairs--he also holds his credentials only from the minister: the person in charge for the time. [Fr.] CHARILY, CHARINESS. See CHARY. CHARIOT, char'i-ot, _n._ a four-wheeled pleasure or state carriage: a car used in ancient warfare: a light four-wheeled carriage with back-seats.--_v.t._ to carry in a chariot.--_v.i._ to ride in a chariot.--_n._ CHARIOTEER', one who drives a chariot.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to drive or to ride in such. [Fr., dim. of _char_, a CAR.] CHARISM, kar'izm, _n._ a free gift of grace.--_adj._ CHARISMAT'IC. [Gr. _charisma_--_charis_, grace.] CHARITY, char'i-ti, _n._ (_N.T._) universal love: the disposition to think favourably of others, and do them good: almsgiving: (_pl._) affections.--_adj._ CHAR'ITABLE, of or relating to charity: liberal to the poor.--_n._ CHAR'ITABLENESS.--_adv._ CHAR'ITABLY.--COLD AS CHARITY, an ironical phrase implying the coldness of much so-called charity, which should naturally be warm. [Fr. _charité_--L. _caritat-em_, _carus_, dear.] CHARIVARI, shär'i-vär'i, _n._ a French term used to designate a wild tumult and uproar, produced by the beating of pans, kettles, and dishes, mingled with whistling, bawling, groans, and hisses, expressive of displeasure against an individual--the 'rough music' not unknown in England as a popular protest against an unequal marriage, or the like. [Ety. dub.; the word, as suggesting derision, has been adopted as a name by satirical journals.] CHARK, chärk, _v.t._ to burn to charcoal.--_n._ charcoal, coke. CHARLATAN, shär'la-tan, _n._ a mere talking pretender: a quack.--_adj._ CHARLATAN'IC.--_ns._ CHAR'LATANISM, CHAR'LATANRY. [Fr.,--It. _ciarlatano_--_ciarlare_, to chatter, an imit. word.] CHARLES'S WAIN, _n._ a name given to the seven bright stars in Ursa Major, the Plough. [A.S. _Carles wægn_, Carl being Charlemagne.] CHARLEY, CHARLIE, chär'li, _n._ a night-watchman: the small triangular beard familiar in the portraits of _Charles_ I.: the fox.--_n._ CHAR'LEY-PITCH'ER (_slang_), one who makes a living by the thimble-and-pea trick. CHARLOCK, chär'lok, _n._ a plant of the mustard family, with yellow flowers, that grows as a weed in cornfields. [A.S. _cerlic_.] CHARLOTTE, shär'lot, _n._ a dish of apple marmalade covered with crumbs of toast.--CHARLOTTE RUSSE, a custard enclosed in a kind of sponge-cake. CHARM, chärm, _n._ a spell: something thought to possess occult power, a metrical form of words: attractiveness: a trinket worn on a watch-guard: the blended singing of birds, children, &c.: (_pl._) female beauty or other personal attractions: that which can please irresistibly.--_v.t._ to influence by a charm: to subdue by secret influence: to enchant: to delight, to allure.--_adj._ CHARMED, protected, as by a special charm.--_n._ CHARM'ER.--_adj._ CHARM'FUL, abounding with charms.--_p.adj._ CHARM'ING, highly pleasing: delightful: fascinating.--_adv._ CHARM'INGLY.--_adj._ CHARM'LESS, wanting or destitute of charms. [Fr. _charme_--L. _carmen_, a song.] CHARNECO, chär'ne-ko, _n._ (_Shak._) a kind of sweet wine. [Prob. from the name of a village near Lisbon.] CHARNEL, chär'nel, _adj._ of, or pertaining to, a charnel or burial-place, as in 'charnel-vault,' &c.: sepulchral, death-like.--_n._ CHAR'NEL-HOUSE, a place where the bones of the dead are deposited. [O. Fr. _charnel_--Low L. _carn[=a]le_--L. _carnalis_, _caro_, _carnis_, flesh.] CHARON, k[=a]'ron, _n._ in Greek mythology, the ferryman who rowed the shades of the dead across the river Styx in the lower world: a ferryman generally. [Gr.] CHARPIE, shär'p[=e], _n._ lint shredded down so as to form a soft material for dressing wounds. [O. Fr. _charpir_--L. _carp[)e]re_, to pluck.] CHARPOY, char'poi, _n._ the common Indian bedstead, sometimes handsomely wrought and painted. [Hind. _cha[=a]rp[=a][=i]_--Pers. _chih[=a]r-p[=a][=i]_, four feet.] CHARQUI, chär'k[=e], _n._ beef cut into long strips and dried in the sun--jerked beef. [Peruv.] CHARR. Same as CHAR (1). CHART, chärt, _n._ a marine or hydrographical map, exhibiting a portion of a sea or other water, with the islands, coasts of contiguous land, soundings, currents, &c: an outline-map, or a tabular statement giving information of any kind.--_adjs._ CHART[=A]'CEOUS; CHART'LESS. [O. Fr. _charte_--L. _charta_, a paper.] CHARTER, chärt'er, _n._ any formal writing in evidence of a grant, contract, or other transaction, conferring or confirming titles, rights, or privileges, or the like: the formal deed by which a sovereign guarantees the rights and privileges of his subjects, like the famous MAG'NA CHART'A, signed by King John at Runnymede, 15th June 1215, or the CHARTE of Louis XVIII. at the Restoration in 1814, or that sworn by Louis-Philippe, 29th August 1830: any instrument by which powers and privileges are conferred by the state on a select body of persons for a special object, as the 'charter of a bank:' a patent: grant, allowance: immunity.--_v.t._ to establish by charter: to let or hire, as a ship, on contract.--_p.adj._ CHART'ERED, granted or protected by a charter: privileged: licensed: hired by contract. [O. Fr. _chartre_--L. _cartula_, _carta_.] CHARTERHOUSE, chärt'[.e]r-hows, _n._ a Carthusian monastery: the famous hospital and school instituted in London in 1611, on the site of a Carthusian monastery--now transferred--the 'masterpiece of Protestant English charity' in Fuller's phrase.--_ns._ CHAR'TREUSE, a Carthusian monastery, esp. the original one, the Grande Chartreuse near Grenoble in France: a famous liqueur, green, yellow, or white, long manufactured here by the monks from aromatic herbs and brandy: a kind of enamelled pottery: a pale greenish colour; CHAR'TREUX, a Carthusian: the Charterhouse School. CHARTER-PARTY, chärt'[.e]r-pär'ti, _n._ the common written form in which the contract of affreightment is expressed--viz. the hiring of the whole or part of a ship for the conveyance of goods. [Fr. _charte-partie_, lit. a divided charter, as the practice was to divide it in two and give a half to each person. L. _charta part[=i]ta_.] CHARTISM, chärt'izm, _n._ a movement in Great Britain for the extension of political power to the working-classes, rising out of widespread national distress and popular disappointment with the results of the Reform Bill of 1832--its programme, the 'People's Charter,' drawn up in 1838, with six _points_: (1) Manhood Suffrage; (2) Equal Electoral Districts; (3) Vote by Ballot; (4) Annual Parliaments; (5) Abolition of Property Qualification; and (6) Payment of Members of the House of Commons.--_n._ CHART'IST, a supporter of chartism. CHARTOGRAPHY. See CARTOGRAPHY. CHARTREUSE, CHARTREUX. See CHARTERHOUSE. CHARTULARY. Same as CARTULARY. CHARWOMAN. See CHARE. CHARY, ch[=a]r'i, _adj._ sparing: cautious.--_adv._ CHAR'ILY.--_n._ CHAR'INESS. [A.S. _cearig_--_cearu_, care.] CHARYBDIS, kar-ib'dis, _n._ a dangerous whirlpool between Italy and Sicily, and opposite to Scylla, the two together providing a proverbial alternative of ruin hardly to be escaped. CHASE, ch[=a]s, _v.t._ to pursue: to hunt: to drive away, put to flight.--_n._ pursuit: a hunting: that which is hunted: ground abounding in game.--_n._ CHASE'PORT, the porthole at the bow or stern of a vessel, through which the chase-gun is fired.--BEASTS OF CHASE, properly the buck, doe, fox, marten, and roe: wild beasts that are hunted generally.--WILD-GOOSE CHASE, any foolish or profitless pursuit. [O. Fr. _chacier_, _chasser_--L. _capt[=a]re_, freq. of _cap[)e]re_, to take.] CHASE, ch[=a]s, _v.t._ to decorate metal-work, whether hammered or punched up, by engraving the exterior.--_ns._ CHAS'ER, one who practises chasing; CHAS'ING, the art of representing figures in bas-relief by punching them out from behind, and then carving them on the front: the art of cutting the threads of screws. [Short for ENCHASE.] CHASE, ch[=a]s, _n._ a case or frame for holding types: a groove. [Fr. _châsse_, a shrine, a setting--L. _capsa_, a chest. See CASE.] CHASERICULTURE, chas-er-i-kul't[=u]r, _n._ the combined industries of tea-growing and of silk-production. [A combination of Chinese _cha_, tea, _chasze_, the former tea valuers of Canton, and L. _sericum_, silk.] CHASM, kazm, _n._ a yawning or gaping hollow: a gap or opening: a void space.--_adjs._ CHASMED; CHASM'Y. [Gr. _chasma_, from _chain-ein_, to gape; cf. CHAOS.] CHASSE, shäs, _n._ a dram or liqueur taken after coffee, to remove the taste.--Also CHASSE-CAFÉ [Fr. _chasse-café_--_chasser_, to chase, remove.] CHASSÉ, shäs'[=a], _n._ a kind of gliding step in dancing.--_v.t._ to make such a step: (_slang_) to dismiss. [Fr.] CHASSEPOT, shas'po, _n._ the kind of bolt-action breechloading rifle adopted by the French army in 1866. [From Antoine Alphonse _Chassepot_, the inventor.] CHASSEUR, sha-s[=a]r', _n._ a hunter or huntsman: one of a select body of French light troops, either infantry or cavalry; a domestic dressed in military garb in the houses of the great. [Fr. _chasser_, to hunt.] CHASTE, ch[=a]st, _adj._ modest; refined; virtuous: pure in taste and style.--_adv._ CHASTE'LY.--_ns._ CHASTE'NESS, the quality of being chaste; CHAS'TITY, sexual purity: virginity: refinement of language: moderation. [O. Fr. _chaste_--L. _castus_, pure.] CHASTEN, ch[=a]s'n, _v.t._ to free from faults by punishing--hence to punish, to purify or refine: to restrain or moderate.--_p.adj._ CHAS'TENED, purified: modest.--_n._ CHAS'TENMENT. CHASTISE, chas-t[=i]z', _v.t._ to inflict punishment upon for the purpose of correction: to reduce to order or to obedience.--_adj._ CHAST[=I]S'ABLE.--_n._ CHAS'TISEMENT. [Illustration] CHASUBLE, chaz'[=u]-bl, _n._ a sleeveless vestment worn over the alb by the priest while celebrating mass. [O. Fr. _chesible_--Low L. _casubula_--L. _casula_, a mantle, dim. of _casa_, a hut.] CHAT, chat, _v.i._ to talk idly or familiarly:--_pr.p._ chat'ting; _pa.p._ chat'ted.--_n._ familiar, idle talk.--_n._ CHAT'TINESS.--_adj._ CHAT'TY, given to chat, talkative. [Short for CHATTER.] CHAT, chat, _n._ a genus of small birds in the thrush family, of which the wheatear is a familiar example. [From the sound of their voice.] CHATEAU, sha-t[=o]', _n._ a castle, a great country-seat, esp. in France (common in place-names, and connected with wines, as 'Château Lafitte,' 'Château Yqem,' &c.).--_ns._ CHATELAIN (shat'e-l[=a]n), a castellan; CHAT'ELAINE, a female castellan: an ornamental appendage, suitable to a lady chatelaine, consisting of short chains bearing keys, corkscrew, scissors, &c., attached to the waist-belt: a similar thing in miniature attached to the watch-chain.--CHÂTEAU EN ESPAGNE, a castle in the air. [O. Fr. _chastel_ (Fr. _château_)--L. _castellum_, dim. of _castrum_, a fort.] CHATON, sha-tong', _n._ the head of a ring. [Fr.] CHATOYANT, shat-oi'ant, _adj._ with a changing lustre, like a cat's eye in the dark. [Fr.] CHATTA, chät'a, _n._ an umbrella. [Hind.] CHATTEL, chat'l, _n._ any kind of property which is not freehold, distinguished further into _chattels-real_ and _chattels-personal_, the latter being mere personal movables--money, plate, cattle, and the like; the former including leasehold interests.--GOODS AND CHATTELS, all corporeal movables. [O. Fr. _chatel_--Low L. _captale_--L. _capitale_, &c., property, goods.] CHATTER, chat'er, _v.i._ to talk idly or rapidly: to sound as the teeth when one shivers.--_ns._ CHATT'ERBOX, one who chatters or talks incessantly; CHATT'ERER, one that chatters: an idle talker: a significant popular name applied to the birds of a small family of finch-like perching birds, as the Bohemian wax-wing and the cedar bird of America; CHATT'ERING, noise like that made by a magpie, or by the striking together of the teeth: idle talk. [From the sound.] CHATTY, chat'i, _n._ an earthen water-pot in India. [Hind.] CHAUCERIAN, chä-s[=e]'ri-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Chaucer_, or like him.--_n._ a devoted student of Chaucer.--_n._ CHAU'CERISM, anything characteristic of Chaucer. CHAUD-MELLÉ, sh[=o]d-m[=a]'l[=a], _n._ a fight arising in the heat of passion: the killing of a man in such a fight.--Also CHAUD'-MED'LEY. [O. Fr. _chaude-mellee_, hot fight. See MÊLÉE.] CHAUFE, CHAUFF (_Spens._). Forms of CHAFE. CHAUFFER, chaw'f[.e]r, _n._ a metal box for holding fire, a portable furnace or stove. [See CHAFER.] CHAUFFEUR, sh[=o]f-f[.e]r, _n._ a motor-car attendant. [Fr.] CHAUSSES, sh[=o]s, or sh[=o]'sez, _n.pl._ any closely fitting covering for the legs, hose generally: the defence-pieces for the legs in ancient armour.--_n._ CHAUSSURE', a general name for boots and shoes. [O. Fr. _chauces_--L. _calcias_, pl. of _calcia_, hose.] CHAUTAUQUAN, sha-taw'kwan, _adj._ pertaining to a system of instruction for adults by home reading and study under guidance, evolved from the _Chautauqua_ Literary and Scientific Circle, organised in 1878. CHAUVINISM, sh[=o]'vin-izm, _n._ an absurdly extravagant pride in one's country, with a corresponding contempt for foreign nations--the French equivalent of the Jingoism of London music-halls.--_ns._ CHAU'VIN, CHAU'VINIST.--_adj._ CHAUVINIST'IC. [Fr. _chauvinisme_, from _Chauvin_, a figure in _La Cocarde tricolore_.] CHAVENDER, chav'en-der, _n._ the chub or cheven. CHAW, chaw, _n._ (_Spens._) the jaw--usually _pl._--_v.t._ to chew, still used of tobacco.--_n._ CHAW'-B[=A]'CON, a country clown, a rustic fellow.--CHAWED UP, destroyed. [See JAW.] CHAWDRON, chaw'dron, _n._ (_Shak._) part of the entrails of an animal. [O. Fr. _chaudun_.] CHAY, a vulgar form of CHAISE. CHAYA-ROOT. Same as SHAYA-ROOT. CHEAP, ch[=e]p, _adj._ low in price: of a place where prices are low, as 'a cheap market:' of a low price in relation to the value: easily obtained: of small value, or reckoned at such.--_v.t._ CHEAP'EN, to ask the price of a thing: to make cheap, to lower the price of: to lower the reputation of: to beat down the price of.--_n._ CHEAP'ENER.--_adv._ CHEAP'LY.--_n._ CHEAP'NESS.--CHEAP JACK, or JOHN, a travelling hawker who pretends to give great bargains; CHEAP LABOUR, labour paid at a poor rate; CHEAP TRIP, an excursion by rail or steamer at a reduced fare; CHEAP-TRIPPER, one who goes on such a trip.--DIRT CHEAP, ridiculously cheap.--ON THE CHEAP, cheap or cheaply.--TO BE CHEAP OF ANYTHING (_Scot._), to get off with less than one deserved or expected, as of punishment. [Orig. _good cheap_, i.e. a good bargain; A.S. _ceap_, price, a bargain; A.S. _céapian_, Ice. _kaupa_, Ger. _kaufen_, to buy; Scot. _coup_--all borrowed from L. _caupo_, a huckster.] CHEAT, ch[=e]t, _v.t._ to deceive, defraud, impose upon.--_v.i._ to practise deceit.--_n._ a fraud: one who cheats.--_ns._ CHEAT'ER, one who cheats: (_Shak._) an officer who collected the fines to be paid into the Exchequer; CHEAT'ERY (_coll._), cheating.--PUT A CHEAT UPON, to deceive.--TAME CHEATER, a decoy. [M. E. _cheten_, a form of _escheten_, to escheat.] CHECK, chek, _v.t._ to bring to a stand: to restrain or hinder: to rebuke: to control an account, &c., by comparison with certified data, vouchers, &c.: to place in check at chess: to mark with a pattern of crossing lines.--_n._ a term in chess when one party obliges the other either to move or guard his king: anything that checks: a sudden stop, repulse, or rebuff: (_B._, _Shak._) a rebuke: a mark put against items in a list: an order for money (usually written CHEQUE): any counter-register used as security, a counterfoil: a token, of printed paper or metal, given to a railroad passenger to make secure the after-identification of his luggage, to a person leaving his seat in a theatre with the intention of returning, &c.: (_U.S._) a counter used in games at cards--hence 'to pass in one's checks' = to die: a pattern of cross lines forming small squares, as in a chessboard: any fabric woven with such a pattern.--_adj._ (_her._) divided into small squares by transverse, perpendicular, and horizontal lines.--_ns._ CHECK'-CLERK, a clerk who checks accounts, &c.; CHECK'ER, one who hinders or rebukes; CHECK'ER-BOARD, a board on which checkers or draughts is played; CHECK'-KEY, a latch-key; CHECK'MATE, in chess, a check given to the adversary's king when in a position in which it can neither be protected nor moved out of check, so that the game is finished: a complete check: defeat: overthrow.--_v.t._ in chess, to make a movement which ends the game: to defeat.--_ns._ CHECK'-REIN, a coupling rein, a strap hindering the horse from lowering its head; CHECK'-STRING, a string by which the occupant of a carriage may attract the driver's notice; CHECK'-TAK'ER, the collector of admission tickets at a theatre, railway-train, &c.; CHECK'-WEIGH'ER, one who on the part of the men checks the weight of coal sent up to the pit-mouth. [O. Fr. _eschec_, _eschac_ (Low L. _scaccus_, _sc[=a]chus_, It. _scacco_, Sp. _jaque_, Ger. _scach_), through Ar. from Pers. _sh[=a]h_, king--CHECKMATE being O. Fr. _eschec mat_--Ar. _sh[=a]h m[=a]t(a)_, 'the king is dead,' i.e. can make no further move.] CHECKER. See CHEQUER. CHECKER-BERRY, chek'[.e]r-beri, _n._ an American name for the winter-green (q.v.). CHECKERS, chek'[.e]rz, _n.pl._ the game of draughts. CHECKLATON, chek'la-ton, _n._ (_Spens._) a cloth of gold or other rich material.--Also CIC'LATOUN. [O. Fr. _ciclaton_, from Ar., prob. from the same root as _scarlet_.] CHEDDAR, ched'ar, _n._ an excellent kind of cheese first made in Somersetshire. [From the village of _Cheddar_ in Somersetshire.] CHEEK, ch[=e]k, _n._ the side of the face below the eye, the fleshy lateral wall of the mouth: effrontery, impudence, as in 'to have the cheek' to do anything, 'to give cheek:' one of the side-posts of a door or window: the cheek-strap of a horse's bridle, the ring at the end of the bit: anything arranged in internal pairs.--_v.t._ to address insolently.--_ns._ CHEEK'BONE, the bone of the cheek; CHEEK'-POUCH, a dilatation of the skin of the cheek, forming a bag outside the teeth, as in monkeys, &c.; CHEEK'-TOOTH, a molar tooth.--_adj._ CHEEK'Y, insolent, saucy.--CHEEK BY JOWL, side by side.--TO ONE'S OWN CHEEK, for one's own private use. [A.S. _céce_, _céace_, the cheek, jaw; cf. Dut. _kaak_.] CHEEP, ch[=e]p, _v.i._ to chirp, as a young bird.--_n._ any similar sound. [From the sound, like CHIRP.] CHEER, ch[=e]r, _n._ disposition, frame of mind (with _good_, &c.): joy: a shout of approval or welcome: kind treatment: entertainment: fare, food.--_v.t._ to comfort: to encourage: to applaud: to inspirit--'to cheer up.'--_v.i._ in such phrases as 'How cheer'st thou?'--_refl._ as in 'Cheer thee.'--_n._ CHEER'ER, one who, or that which, cheers.--_adj._ CHEER'FUL, of good spirits: joyful: lively.--_advs._ CHEER'FULLY, CHEER'ILY.--_ns._ CHEER'FULNESS; CHEER'INESS; CHEER'ISHNESS (_Milton_), cheerfulness.--_adj._ CHEER'LESS, without comfort: gloomy.--_n._ CHEER'LESSNESS.--_adj._ CHEER'LY, cheerful.--_adv._ in a cheery manner: heartily.--_adj._ CHEER'Y, cheerful: promoting cheerfulness. [O. Fr. _chiere_, the countenance--Low L. _cara_, the face.] CHEESE, ch[=e]z, _n._ a wholesome article of food, made into a round form, from the curd of milk coagulated by rennet, separated from the whey, and pressed into a hard mass.--_ns._ CHEESE'-CAKE, a cake made of soft curds, sugar, and butter, or whipped egg and sugar; CHEESE'-HOP'PER, the larva of a small fly, remarkable for its leaping power, found in cheese; CHEESE'-MITE, a very small insect which breeds in cheese; CHEESE'-MONG'ER, a dealer in cheese; CHEESE'-PAR'ING (_Shak._), paring, or rind, of cheese.--_adj._ mean and parsimonious.--_ns._ CHEESE'-PRESS, a machine in which curds for cheese are pressed; CHEESE'-RENN'ET, the plant Ladies' bed-straw, so called because used as rennet in curdling milk; CHEESE'-VAT, a vat or wooden case in which curds are pressed; CHEES'INESS.--_adj._ CHEES'Y, having the nature of cheese.--CHEESE IT (_slang_), stop, have done, run off.--GREEN CHEESE, cheese not yet dried.--TO MAKE CHEESES, to whirl round and then sink down suddenly so as to make the petticoats stand out like a cheese. [A.S. _cése_, _cýse_, curdled milk (Ger. _käse_)--L. _caseus_.] CHEESE, ch[=e]z, _n._ (_slang_) the correct thing, of excellent quality, [Colonel Yule explains it as Pers. and Hind. _ch[=i]z_, thing, the expression having formerly been common among young Anglo-Indians, e.g. 'These cheroots are the real _ch[=i]z_,' i.e. the real thing.] CHEETAH, ch[=e]'tah, _n._ an Eastern animal like the leopard, used in hunting. [Hind, _ch[=i]t[=a]_--Sans. _chitraka_, _chitrak[=a]ya_, having a speckled body.] CHEF, shef, _n._ a master-cook; a reliquary in the shape of a head.--_adj._ chief, as in CHEF D'OEUVRE, masterpiece, [Fr. See CHIEF.] CHEIROMANCY, k[=i]'ro-man-si, _n._ the art of telling fortunes by the lineaments of the hand--also CHEIROS'OPHY.--_adj._ CHEIROSOPH'ICAL.--_n._ CHEIROS'OPHIST, [Gr. _cheir_, the hand, _manteia_, prophecy.] CHEIROPTERA, k[=i]-rop't[.e]r-a, _n.pl._ the order of Bats.--_adj._ CHEIROP'TEROUS. [Gr. _cheir_, the hand, _pteron_, a wing.] CHEIROTHERIUM, k[=i]-ro-th[=e]r'i-um, _n._ the name originally given to the Labyrinthodont, from its peculiar hand-like impressions in the Triassic rocks.--_adj._ CHEIROTH[=E]'RIAN. [Gr. _cheir_, hand, _th[=e]rion_, beast.] CHELA, k[=e]'la, _n._ the prehensile claw of a crab or scorpion.--_adj._ CH[=E]'LATE.--_n._ CH[=E]'LIFER, the book-scorpion.--_adjs._ CHELIF'EROUS; CH[=E]'LIFORM. [L.,--Gr. _ch[=e]l[=e]_.] CHELA, ch[=e]'la, _n._ a novice in esoteric Buddhism.--_n._ CH[=E]'LASHIP. [Hind. _ch[=e]l[=a]_, servant.] CHELICERA, k[=e]l-is'er-a, _n._ a technical term, usually restricted to the biting organs which form the first pair of appendages in spiders, scorpions, and other Arachnida:--_pl._ CHELIC'ERÆ (-r[=e]). [Gr. _ch[=e]l[=e]_, a crab's claw, _keras_, horn.] CHELONIA, ke-l[=o]'ni-a, _n._ an order of vertebrate animals including the tortoise and turtle.--_adj._ and _n._ CHEL[=O]'NIAN. [Gr. _chel[=o]n[=e]_, a tortoise.] CHEMISE, she-m[=e]z', _n._ a woman's shirt or sark, a smock or shift.--_n._ CHEMISETTE', a kind of bodice worn by women, the lace or muslin which fills up the open front of a woman's dress. [Fr. _chemise_--Low L. _camisia_, a nightgown, surplice.] CHEMISTRY, kem'is-tri, formerly CHYM'ISTRY, _n._ the science which treats of the properties of substances both elementary and compound, and of the laws of their combination and action one upon another.--_adjs._ CHEM'IC, -AL (CHEM'ICO-, in many compound words), CHEMIAT'RIC (a Paracelsian term, Gr. _ch[=e]meia_, chemistry, _iatreia_, medical treatment).--_adv._ CHEM'ICALLY.--_n.pl._ CHEM'ICALS, substances which form the subject of chemical effects.--_ns._ CHEM'ISM, chemical action; CHEM'IST, one skilled in chemistry, specially a druggist or apothecary.--CHEMICAL AFFINITY, the name given to the tendency to combine with one another which is exhibited by many substances, or to the force by which the substances constituting a compound are held together; CHEMICAL NOTATION, a method of expressing the composition of chemical substances and representing chemical changes, by certain known symbols and formulæ; CHEMICAL WORKS, manufactories where chemical processes are carried on for trade, as _alkali works_, &c. [From ALCHEMY (q.v.).] CHEMITYPE, kemi'-t[=i]p, _n._ the chemical process for obtaining casts in relief from an engraving.--_n._ CHEM'ITYPY. CHEMOSH, k[=e]'mosh, _n._ the national god of Moab: any false god. CHENILLE, she-n[=e]l', _n._ a thick, velvety-looking cord of silk or wool (and so resembling a caterpillar), used in ornamental sewing and manufactured trimmings. [Fr. _chenille_, a caterpillar--L. _canicula_, a hairy little dog, _canis_, a dog.] CHEQUE, CHECK, chek, _n._ a money order on a banker payable at demand.--_ns._ CHEQUE'-BOOK, a book containing cheque forms given by a bank to its customers; CHEQ'UER, CHECK'ER, a chess-board: alternation of colours, as on a chess-board: (_pl._) draughts: chess-men.--_v.t._ to mark in squares of different colours: to variegate: interrupt.--_adjs._ CHEQ'UERED, CHECK'ERED, variegated, like a chess-board: varying in character.--_ns._ CHEQ'UER-WORK, any pattern having alternating squares of different colours; BLANK'-CHEQUE, a cheque signed by the owner, but without having the amount to be drawn indicated; CROSS'-CHEQUE, an ordinary cheque with two transverse lines drawn across it, which have the effect of making it payable only through a banker. [See CHECK.] CHERIMOYER, cher-i-moi'er, _n._ a Peruvian fruit resembling the custard-apple.--Also CHIRIMOY'A. CHERISH, cher'ish, _v.t._ to protect and treat with affection: to nurture, nurse: to entertain in the mind.--_n._ CHER'ISHMENT. [Fr. _chérir_, _chérissant_--_cher_, dear--L. _carus_.] CHEROOT, she-r[=oo]t', _n._ a cigar not pointed at either end. [Fr. _cheroute_, representing the Tamil name _shuruttu_, a roll (Colonel Yule).] CHEROOT. See SHAYA-ROOT. CHERRY, cher'i, _n._ a small bright-red stone-fruit: the tree that bears it.--_adj._ like a cherry in colour: ruddy.--_ns._ CHERR'Y-BRAND'Y, a pleasant liqueur made by steeping Morello cherries in brandy; CHERR'Y-LAU'REL, the common English name for the _Cerasus Lauro-Cerasus_ of Asia Minor; CHERR'Y-PEPP'ER, a West Indian species of _Capsicum_; CHERR'Y-PIE, a pie made of cherries; the common heliotrope; CHERR'Y-PIT, a game which consists in throwing cherry-stones into a small hole; CHERR'Y-STONE, the hard seed of the cherry. [A.S. _ciris_--L. _cerasus_--Gr. _kerasos_, a cherry-tree, said to be so named from _Cerasus_, a town in Pontus, from which the cherry was brought.] CHERRY, cher'i, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to cheer. CHERSONESE, ker'so-n[=e]z, _n._ a peninsula, [Gr. _cher-son[=e]sos_--_chersos_, land, dry land, _n[=e]sos_, an island.] CHERT, ch[.e]rt, _n._ a kind of quartz or flint: hornstone.--_adj._ CHERT'Y, like or containing chert. [Prob. Celt.; Ir. _ceart_, a pebble.] CHERUB, cher'ub, _n._ a winged creature with human face, represented as associated with Jehovah, esp. drawing his chariot-throne: a celestial spirit: a beautiful child:--_pl._ CHER'UBS, CHER'UBIM, CHER'UBIMS.--_adjs._ CHERU'BIC, -AL, CHERUBIM'IC, angelic.--_adv._ CHERU'BICALLY.--_n._ CHER'UBIN (_Shak._), a cherub. [Heb. _k'r[=u]b_, pl. _k'r[=u]b[=i]m_.] CHERUP, cher'up, _v.t._ to urge on by chirruping. CHERVIL, ch[.e]r'vil, _n._ an umbelliferous plant, cultivated as a pot-herb, and used in soups and for a garnish, &c., in the same manner as parsley. In Scotland the plant is commonly called _Myrrh_. [A.S. _cerfille_ (Ger. _kerbel_)--L. _cærefolium_--Gr. _chairephyllon_.] CHESIL, chez'il, _n._ gravel: shingle: bran.--Also CHISEL. [A.S. _cisil_.] CHESS, ches, _n._ a game of skill for two persons or parties, played with figures or 'pieces,' which are moved on a chequered board.--_n._ CHESS'-BOARD, the board on which chess is played.--_n.pl._ CHESS'-MEN, pieces used in chess. [Fr. _échecs_; It. _scacchi_; Ger. _schach_. Orig. from Pers. _sháh_, a king.] CHESS, ches, _n._ one of the parallel planks of a pontoon-bridge--generally in _pl._ CHESSEL, ches'el, _n._ a cheese mould or vat. CHEST, chest, _n._ a large strong box: the part of the body between the neck and the abdomen, the thorax.--_adj._ CHEST'ED, having a chest: placed in a chest.--_n._ CHEST'-NOTE, in singing or speaking, a deep note, the lowest sound of the voice. [A.S. _cyst_; Scot. _kist_--L. _cista_--Gr. _kist[=e]_.] CHESTNUT, CHESNUT, ches'nut, _n._ a nut or fruit enclosed in a prickly case: the tree that bears it: (_slang_) a stale joke or story.--_adj._ of a chestnut colour, reddish-brown. [O. Fr. _chastaigne_--L. _castanea_--Gr. _kastanon_, from _Castana_, in Pontus.] CHETVERT, chet'vert, _n._ a Russian dry measure, equal to 8 _chevteriks_. [Illustration] CHEVAL-DE-FRISE, she-val'-de-fr[=e]z, _n._ a piece of timber armed with spikes, used to defend a passage or to stop cavalry:--_pl._ CHEVAUX-DE-FRISE (she-v[=o]'-).--_n._ CHEVAL'-GLASS, a large glass or mirror supported on a frame. [Fr.,--_cheval_, horse; _Frise_, Friesland.] CHEVALIER, shev-a-l[=e]r', _n._ a cavalier: a knight: a gallant. [Fr.,--_cheval_--L. _caballus_, a horse.] CHEVELURE, shev'e-l[=u]r, _n._ a head of hair: a periwig: the nebulous part of a comet. [Fr.,--L. _capillatura_--_capillus_, hair.] CHEVEN, chev'en, _n._ the chub.--Also CHEV'IN. CHEVEREL, chev'[.e]r-el, _n._ a kid: soft, flexible leather made of kid-skin.--_adj._ like kid leather, pliable. [Fr. _chevreau_, a kid--_chèvre_; L. _capra_, a goat.] CHEVESAILE, chev'e-s[=a]l, _n._ an ornamental collar of a coat. [O. Fr. _chevesaile_--_chevece_, the neck.] CHEVIOT, ch[=e]'vi-ot, or chev'i-ot, _n._ a hardy breed of short-wooled sheep reared on the _Cheviot_ Hills: a cloth made from their wool. CHEVISANCE, shev'i-zäns, _n._ (_Spens._) achievement, performance. [Fr.,--_chevir_, to accomplish; _chef_, the head, the end.] [Illustration] CHEVRON, shev'ron, _n._ a rafter: (_her._) the representation of two rafters of a house meeting at the top: the V-shaped band of worsted braid or gold lace worn on the sleeve of a non-commissioned officer's coat.--_adjs._ CHEVRONE', CHEV'RONED. [Fr. _chevron_ (Sp. _cabrio_), a rafter--L. _capreolus_, dim. of _caper_, a goat.] CHEVY, chev'i, CHIVY, chiv'i, _n._ a cry, shout: a hunt.--_v.t._ to chase. [Perh. from 'Chevy Chase,' a well-known ballad relating a Border battle.] CHEW, ch[=oo], _v.t._ to cut and bruise with the teeth: to masticate: (_fig._) to meditate, reflect.--_n._ action of chewing: a quid of tobacco.--_ns._ CHEW'ET, a kind of pie or pudding made of various ingredients mixed together; CHEW'ING-GUM, a preparation made from a gum called _chicle_, produced by a Mexican tree allied to the india-rubber tree, sweetened and flavoured.--CHEW THE CUD, to masticate a second time food that has already been swallowed and passed into the first stomach: to ruminate in thought. [A.S. _ceówan_; Ger. _kauen_; cf. JAW.] CHEWET, ch[=oo]'et, _n._ a chough; (_Shak._) a chatterer. [Fr. _chouette_, an owl.] CHIAN, k[=i]'an, _adj._ pertaining to _Chios_ in the Ægean Sea. CHIANTI, k[=e]-an'ti, _n._ a red wine of Tuscany. CHIAROSCURO, kyär'o-sk[=u]-ro, _n._ distribution or blending of light and shade, the art of representing light in shadow and shadow in light. CHIASM, k[=i]'azm, _n._ (_anat._) a decussation or intersection, esp. that of the optic nerves--also CHIAS'MA.--_n._ CHIAS'MUS (_rhet._), contrast by parallelism in reverse order, as 'Do not live to eat, but eat to live.'--_adj._ CHIAS'TIC. [Gr. _chiasma_, two lines crossed as in the letter X.] CHIAUS, chows, _n._ Same as CHOUSE. CHIBOUK, CHIBOUQUE, chi-book', _n._ a long straight-stemmed Turkish pipe for smoking. [Turk.] CHIC, sh[=e]k, _n._ style, fashion: adroitness.--_adj._ stylish, 'up to the mark.' [Fr.] CHICA, ch[=e]'ka, _n._ an orange-red dye-stuff, obtained by boiling the leaves of the Bignonia, a climber of the banks of the Cassiquiare and the Orinoco. [Native name.] CHICANE, shi-k[=a]n', _v.i._ to use shifts and tricks.--_v.t._ to deceive.--_n._ a trick or artifice.--_ns._ CHIC[=A]'NER, one who chicanes: a quibbler; CHIC[=A]'NERY, trickery or artifice, esp. in legal proceedings: quibbling; CHIC[=A]'NING, quibbling. [Fr. _chicane_, sharp practice at law, most prob. from Late Gr. _tzykanion_, a game at mall, _tzykaniz-ein_, to play at mall--Pers. _tchaug[=a]n_, a crooked mallet.] CHICCORY. See CHICORY. CHICH, chich, _n._ a dwarf pea. Same as CHICK-PEA. CHICHA, ch[=e]ch'a, _n._ a South American liquor fermented from maize. [Haytian.] CHICK, chik, _n._ the young of fowls, esp. of the hen: a child, as a term of endearment.--_ns._ CHICK'A-BID'DY, CHICK'-A-DID'DLE, terms of endearment addressed to children; CHICK'EN, the young of birds, esp. of the hen: its flesh: a child: a faint-hearted person; CHICK'EN-HAZ'ARD, a game at dice (see HAZARD); CHICK'EN-HEART, a cowardly person.--_adj._ CHICK'EN-HEART'ED.--_ns._ CHICK'EN-POX, a contagious febrile disease, chiefly of children, and bearing some resemblance to a very mild form of small-pox; CHICK'LING, a little chicken; CHICK'WEED, a species of stitchwort, and one of the most common weeds of gardens and cultivated fields--for making poultices, and for feeding cage-birds, which are very fond of its leaves and seeds.--MOTHER CAREY'S CHICKEN, a sailor's name for the Stormy Petrel; NO CHICKEN, one no longer young. [A.S. _cicen_; cf. Dut. _kieken_, Ger. _küchlein_.] CHICK-PEA, chik'-p[=e], _n._ a dwarf species of pea cultivated for food in the south of Europe and other places. [Fr. _chiche_--L. _cicer_, and PEA.] CHICORY, CHICCORY, chik'o-ri, _n._ a plant whose long carrot-like root is ground to adulterate coffee.--Also SUC'CORY. [Fr. _chicorée_--L. _cichorium_, succory--Gr. _kich[=o]rion_.] CHIDE, ch[=i]d, _v.t._ to scold, rebuke, reprove by words: to be noisy about, as the sea.--_v.i._ to make a snarling, murmuring sound, as a dog or trumpet:--_pr.p._ chid'ing; _pa.t._ chid, (_obs._) ch[=o]de; _pa.p._ chid, chidd'en.--_ns._ CHID'ER (_Shak._), a quarrelsome person; CHID'ING, scolding. [A.S. _cídan_.] CHIEF, ch[=e]f, _adj._ head: principal, highest, first: (_Scot._) intimate.--_adv._ chiefly.--_n._ a head or principal person: a leader: the principal part or top of anything: (_her._) an ordinary, consisting of the upper part of the field cut off by a horizontal line, generally made to occupy one-third of the area of the shield.--_ns._ CHIEF'-BAR'ON, the President of the Court of Exchequer; CHIEF'DOM, CHIEF'SHIP, state of being chief: sovereignty; CHIEF'ERY, an Irish chieftaincy: the dues paid to a chief; CHIEF'ESS, a female chief; CHIEF'-JUS'TICE (see JUSTICE).--_adj._ CHIEF'LESS, without a chief or leader.--_adv._ CHIEF'LY, in the first place: principally: for the most part.--_ns._ CHIEF'RY, a rent paid to the supreme lord: a chief's lands; CHIEF'TAIN, the head of a clan: a leader or commander:--_fem._ CHIEF'TAINESS; CHIEF'TAINCY, CHIEF'TAINSHIP; CHIEF'TAINRY.--IN CHIEF (_her._) means that the charge is borne in the upper part of the shield: applied to holding land directly from the sovereign: at the head, as commander-_in-chief_. [Fr. _chef_--L. _caput_, the head.] CHIELD, ch[=e]ld, _n._ (_Scot._) a lad, a young man.--Also CHIEL. [A form of CHILD.] CHIFF-CHAFF, chif'-chaf, _n._ a small species of Warbler, so called from the resemblance of its notes to the syllables which form its name. CHIFFON, shif'ong, _n._ any merely ornamental part of a woman's dress.--_n._ CHIFFONIER', an ornamental cupboard: (_Fr._) a rag-picker. [Fr.--_chiffe_, rag.] CHIFFRE, sh[=e]'fr, _n._ (_mus._) a figure used to denote the harmony. [Fr.] CHIG, chig, _v.t._ (_prov._) to chew.--_n._ a chew, quid. CHIGNON, sh[=e]'nyong, _n._ a general term for the long back-hair of women, when gathered up and folded into a roll on the back of the head and neck. [Fr., meaning first the nape of the neck, the joints of which are like the links of a chain--_chaînon_, the link of a chain--_chaîne_, a chain.] CHIGOE, chig'[=o], CHIGRE, CHIGGER, chig'[.e]r, _n._ a species of flea of the West Indies, the female of which buries itself beneath the toe-nails, and produces troublesome sores. [Fr. _chique_.] CHIKARA, chi-kä'rä', _n._ a four-horned goat-like antelope of Bengal. CHIKARA, chik'a'rä, _n._ a Hindu musical instrument of the violin class. CHILBLAIN, chil'bl[=a]n, _n._ a localised inflammation of the skin which occurs in cold weather on hands and feet, more rarely on ears and nose. [CHILL and BLAIN.] CHILD, ch[=i]ld, _n._ an infant or very young person: (_Shak._) a female infant: one intimately related to one older: expressing origin or relation, e.g. child of the East, child of shame, child of God, &c.: a disciple: a youth of gentle birth, esp. in ballads, &c.--sometimes CHILDE and CHYLDE: (_pl._) offspring: descendants: inhabitants:--_pl._ CHIL'DREN.--_ns._ CHILD'-BEAR'ING, the act of bringing forth children; CHILD'BED, the state of a woman brought to bed with child; CHILD'BIRTH, the giving birth to a child: parturition; CHILD'-CROW'ING, a nervous affection with spasm of the muscles closing the glottis.--_adj._ CHILD'ED (_Shak._), possessed of a child.--_n._ CHILD'HOOD, state of being a child: the time of one's being a child.--_adjs._ CHILD'ING (_Shak._), fruitful, teeming; CHILD'ISH, of or like a child: silly: trifling.--_adv._ CHILD'ISHLY.--_ns._ CHILD'ISHNESS, CHILD'NESS, what is natural to a child: puerility.--_adjs._ CHILD'LESS, without children; CHILD'-LIKE, like a child: becoming a child: docile: innocent.--_n._ CHILD'-WIFE, a very young wife.--CHILD'S PLAY, something very easy to do: something slight.--FROM or OF A CHILD, since the days of childhood.--SECOND CHILDHOOD, the childishness of old age.--WITH CHILD, pregnant, e.g. GET WITH CHILD, BE or GO WITH CHILD. [A.S. _cild_, pl. _cild_, later _cildru_, _-ra_. The Ger. equivalent word is _kind_.] CHILDERMAS-DAY, chil'd[.e]r-mas-d[=a], _n._ an anniversary in the Church of England, called also _Innocents' Day_, held 28th December, to commemorate the slaying of the children by Herod. [CHILD, MASS, and DAY.] CHILIAD, kil'i-ad, _n._ the number 1000: 1000 of anything.--_ns._ CHIL'IAGON, a plane figure having 1000 angles; CHIL'IAH[=E]DRON, a solid figure having 1000 sides; CHIL'IARCH, a leader or commander of a thousand men; CHIL'IARCHY, the position of chiliarch; CHIL'IASM, the doctrine that Christ will reign bodily upon the earth for 1000 years; CHIL'IAST, one who holds this opinion. [Gr.,--_chilioi_, 1000.] CHILL, chil, _n._ coldness: a cold that causes shivering: anything that damps or disheartens.--_adj._ shivering with cold: slightly cold: opposite of _cordial_.--_v.i._ to grow cold.--_v.t._ to make chill or cold: to blast with cold: to discourage.--_adj._ CHILLED, made cold: hardened by chilling, as iron.--_n._ CHILL'INESS.--_adj._ CHILL'ING, cooling, cold.--_n._ CHILL'NESS.--_adj._ CHILLY, that chills: somewhat chill.--TAKE THE CHILL OFF, to give a slight heat: to make lukewarm. [A.S. _cele_, _ciele_, cold. See COLD, COOL.] CHILLI, chil'li, _n._ the seed pod or fruit of the capsicum, extremely pungent and stimulant, and employed in sauces, mixed pickles, &c.; when dried and ground, forms the spice called Cayenne pepper. [The Mexican name.] CHILLUM, chil'um, _n._ the part of a hookah containing the tobacco and charcoal balls: a hookah itself: the act of smoking it. [Hind. _chilam_.] CHILTERN HUNDREDS. See HUNDREDS. CHIME, ch[=i]m, _n._ the harmonious sound of bells or other musical instruments: agreement of sound or of relation: harmony: (_pl._) a set of bells.--_v.i._ to sound in harmony: to jingle: to accord or agree: to rhyme.--_v.t._ to strike, or cause to sound in harmony: to say words over mechanically.--CHIME IN, to join in, in agreement; CHIME IN WITH, to agree, or fall in with. [M. E. _chimbe_, prob. O. Fr. _cymbale_--L. _cymbalum_, a cymbal.] CHIME, CHIMB, ch[=i]m, _n._ the rim formed by the ends of the staves of a cask: (_naut._) a hollowed or bevelled channel in the waterway of a ship's deck. [Cog. with Dut. _kim_, Ger. _kimme_, edge.] CHIMER, shim'er, CHIMERE, shi-m[=e]r, _n._ the upper robe worn by a bishop, to which lawn sleeves are attached. [O. Fr. _chamarre_; Sp. _zamarra_, _chamarra_, sheepskin.] CHIMERA, CHIMÆRA, ki-m[=e]'ra, _n._ a fabulous, fire-spouting monster, with a lion's head, a serpent's tail, and a goat's body: any idle or wild fancy: a picture of an animal having its parts made up of various animals: a genus of cartilaginous fishes, often ranked along with the sharks and rays.--_adjs._ CHIMER'IC, -AL, of the nature of a chimera: wild: fanciful.--_adv._ CHIMER'ICALLY. [L.,--Gr. _chimaira_, a she-goat.] CHIMNEY, chim'ni, _n._ a passage for the escape of smoke or heated air from a furnace: in houses, that part of the passage which is built above the roof: anything of a like shape.--_ns._ CHIM'NEY-CAN, or -POT, a cylindrical pipe of earthenware or other material placed at the top of a chimney to increase the draught; CHIM'NEY-COR'NER, in old chimneys, the space between the fire and the wall forming the sides of the fireplace: fireside, commonly spoken of as the place for the aged and infirm; CHIM'NEY-PIECE, a shelf over the fireplace; CHIM'NEY-SHAFT, the stalk of a chimney which rises above the building; CHIM'NEY-STACK, a group of chimneys carried up together; CHIM'NEY-STALK, a very tall chimney; CHIM'NEY-SWALL'OW, the _Hirundo rustica_, a very common swallow: the chimney-swift; CHIM'NEY-SWEEP, CHIM'NEY-SWEEP'ER, one who sweeps or cleans chimneys; CHIM'NEY-TOP, the top of a chimney.--CHIMNEY-POT HAT, a familiar name for the ordinary cylindrical hat of gentlemen. [Fr. _cheminée_--L. _cam[=i]nus_; Gr. _kaminos_, a furnace.] CHIMPANZEE, chim-pan'z[=e], _n._ an African ape, the highest of the anthropoid or more man-like apes, belonging to the same genus as the gorilla. [West African.] CHIN, chin, _n._ the jutting part of the face below the mouth.--UP TO THE CHIN, deeply immersed. [A.S. _cin_; Ger. _kinn_, Gr. _genys_.] CHINA, ch[=i]n'a, _n._ fine kind of earthenware, originally made in _China_: porcelain.--_ns._ CHIN'A-BARK, a common name of cinchona bark (derived not from the empire of China, but from. _Kina_ or _Quina_, the Peruvian name of cinchona--see QUININE); CHIN'A-CLAY, a fine white clay used in making porcelain; CHIN'A-GRASS (_Boehmeria nivea_), a small shrubby-like plant, allied to the nettle, native to China; the fibre of this plant used for making ropes and cordage, and also in China for the manufacture of grass-cloth; CHIN'A-INK (see INK); CHIN'AMAN, a native of China; CHIN'A-ROOT, the root-stock of a Chinese shrubby plant, formerly used in Europe medicinally, but still in the East as a remedy in rheumatic or syphilitic cases; CHIN'A-ROSE, a name applied to several varieties of garden roses; CHIN'A-SHOP, a shop in which china, crockery, &c. are sold; CHIN'A-WARE, porcelain-ware; CHINEE', a Chinaman.--_adj._ CHINESE', of or belonging to China.--CHINA ASTER (see ASTER). CHINCH, chinch, _n._ the bed-bug in America. [Sp.,--L. _cimic-em_.] CHINCHILLA, chin-chil'la, _n._ a small rodent quadruped of South America, valued for its soft gray fur: the fur itself. [Sp.] CHINCOUGH, chin'kof, _n._ a disease, esp. of children, attended with violent fits of coughing: whooping-cough. [For _chink-cough_; Scot. _kink-host_, Dut. _kinkhoest_. See CHINK and COUGH.] CHINE, ch[=i]n, _n._ the spine or backbone: a piece of the backbone and adjoining parts for cooking: a ridge, crest.--_v.t._ (_Spens._) to break the back. [O. Fr. _eschine_, prob. from Old High Ger. _scina_, a pin, thorn.] CHINÉ, sh[=e]-n[=a]', _adj._ mottled in appearance, the warp being dyed in different colours, or from threads of different colours twisted together. [Fr., lit. 'Chinese.'] CHINE, ch[=i]n, _n._ a ravine. [A.S. _cinu_, a cleft.] CHINK, chingk, _n._ a cleft, a narrow opening.--_v.i._ to crack.--_v.t._ to fill up cracks.--_adj._ CHINK'Y, full of chinks. [Apparently formed upon M. E. _chine_, a crack--A.S. _cinu_, a cleft.] CHINK, chingk, _n._ the clink, as of coins.--_v.i._ to give forth a sharp sound. [From the sound.] CHINK, chingk, _n._ a gasp for breath.--_v.i._ to gasp--the northern form _Kink_. [Cf. Dut. _kinken_, to cough; Ger. _keichen_, to gasp.] CHINKAPIN, ching'ka-pin, _n._ the dwarf chestnut, a native of the United States.--Also CHIN'CAPIN. [Ind.] CHINOOK, chin-[=oo]k', _n._ a trader's jargon, consisting of words from French and English, as well as Chinook and other Indian tongues. CHINTZ, chints, _n._ a highly glazed printed calico, with a pattern generally in several colours on a white or light-coloured ground. [Orig. pl. of Hind, _chint_, spotted cotton-cloth.] CHIP, chip, _v.t._ to chop or cut into small pieces: to hew: of chickens, to break the shell of the egg in hatching: to pare away the crust of bread, &c.: to bet:--_pr.p._ chip'ping; _pa.p._ chipped.--_n._ a small piece of wood or other substance chopped off: (_slang_) a sovereign.--_n._ CHIP'-HAT, a cheap kind of hat, made of what is popularly called Brazilian grass, but really consisting of strips of the leaves of a palm (_Chamærops argentea_) imported from Cuba.--_adj._ CHIP'PY, abounding in chips: dry as a chip: seedy from an overdose of liquor.--CHIP IN, to supply one's part.--A CHIP OF THE OLD BLOCK, one with the characteristics of his father. [M. E. _chippen_, to cut in pieces. Conn. with CHOP.] CHIPMUCK, CHIPMUNK, chip'muk, -mungk, _n._ a kind of squirrel, common in North America. CHIPPENDALE, chip'pen-d[=a]l, _adj._ applied to a light style of drawing-room furniture, after the name of a well-known cabinet-maker of the 18th century. The name is also applied to a style of book plates. CHIRAGRA, k[=i]-rag'ra, _n._ gout in the hand.--_adjs._ CHIRAG'RIC, -AL. [Gr.] CHIRIMOYA. See CHERIMOYER. CHIRK, ch[.e]rk, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to grate: to chirp or squeak. [A.S. _cearcian_, to creak.] CHIRL, chirl, _v.i._ to emit a low sound: to warble.--_n._ a kind of musical warble. [Scot., from the sound. See CHIRR.] CHIRM, ch[.e]rm, _v.i._ to cry out: to chirp.--_n._ noise, din, hum of voices. [A.S. _cirman_, to cry out; cf. Dut. _kermen_.] CHIROGNOMY, k[=i]-rog'n[=o]-mi, _n._ the so-called art or science of judging character from the lines of the hand, palmistry.--_adj._ CHIROGNOM'IC. [Gr. _cheir_, the hand, _gn[=o]m[=e]_, understanding.] CHIROGRAPH, k[=i]-rog-raf', _n._ any written or signed document.--_ns._ CHIROG'RAPHER, CHIROG'RAPHIST, one who professes the art of writing---_adj._ CHIROGRAPH'IC--_n._ CHIROG'RAPHY, the art of writing, or penmanship. [Gr. _cheir_, the hand, _graph[=e]_, writing.] CHIROLOGY, k[=i]-rol'o-ji, _n._ the art of discoursing with the hands or by signs, as the deaf and dumb do.--_n._ CHIROL'OGIST, one who converses by signs with the hands. [Gr. _cheir_, the hand, _logia_, a discourse.] CHIROMANCY. Same as CHEIROMANCY. CHIROPODIST, k[=i]-rop'o-dist, _n._ a hand and foot doctor: one who removes corns, bunions, warts, &c. [Gr. _cheir_, the hand, and _pous_, _podos_, the foot.] CHIRP, ch[.e]rp, _n._ the sharp, shrill sound of certain birds and insects.--_v.i._ to make such a sound; to talk in a happy and lively strain.--_v.t._ to cheer.--_n._ CHIRP'ER, a little bird: a chirping-cup.--_adj._ CHIRP'ING, merry: cheering.--_n._ CHIRP'ING-CUP, a cup that cheers.--_adj._ CHIRP'Y, lively: merry. [From the sound.] CHIRR, ch[.e]r, _v.i._ to chirp, as is done by the cricket or grasshopper. [From the sound.] CHIRRUP, chir'up, _v.i._ to chirp: to make a sound with the mouth to urge on a horse: to cheer up. [Lengthened form of CHIRP, and then brought into connection with _cheer up_.] CHIRT, ch[.e]rt, _n._ a squeeze.--_v.t._ to squeeze. [Conn. with CHIRR.] CHIRUR'GEON, CHIRUR'GERY, CHIRUR'GICAL, old forms of SURGEON, SURGERY, SURGICAL.--_adv._ CHIRUR'GEONLY (_Shak._), in a manner becoming a surgeon. [Fr. _chirurgien_--Gr. _cheirourgos_--_cheir_, the hand, _ergon_, a work.] CHISEL, chiz'el, _n._ an iron or steel tool to cut or hollow out wood, stone, &c.: esp. the tool of the sculptor.--_v.t._ to cut, carve, &c. with a chisel: (_slang_) to cheat:--_pr.p._ chis'elling; _pa.p._ chis'elled.--_adj._ CHIS'ELLED, cut with a chisel; (_fig._) having sharp outlines, as cut by a chisel.--_n._ CHIS'ELLING.--_adj._ CHIS'EL-SHAPED.--_n._ CHIS'EL-TOOTH, the scalpriform perennial incisor of a rodent. [O. Fr. _cisel_--L. _cæd[)e]re_, to cut.] CHISEL, chiz'el, _n._ See CHESIL. CHISLEU, chis'l[=u], _n._ the ninth month of the Jewish year, including parts of November and December. [Heb.] CHIT, chit, _n._ a note: an order or pass.--Also CHIT'TY. [Hind. _chitthi_.] CHIT, chit, _n._ a baby: a lively or pert young child: contemptuously, a young woman or girl. [A.S. _cith_, a young tender shoot.] CHITCHAT, chit'chat, _n._ chatting or idle talk: prattle: gossip. [A reduplication of CHAT.] CHITIN, k[=i]'tin, _n._ the substance which forms most of the hard parts of jointed footed animals.--_adj._ CH[=I]'TINOUS. [Fr. _chitine_--Gr. _chiton_, a tunic.] CHITON, k[=i]'ton, _n._ the ancient Greek tunic: a genus of marine molluscs. [Gr. _chit[=o]n_, a tunic] CHITTER, chit'[.e]r, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to shiver.--_n._ CHITT'ERING. [Cf. CHATTER.] CHITTERLING, chit'[.e]r-ling, _n._ the smaller intestines of a pig or other edible animal: a frill--prov. forms, _Chidling_, _Chitling_, _Chitter_. [Ety. dub.] CHIVALRY, shiv'al-ri, _n._ the usages and qualifications of chevaliers or knights: bravery and courtesy: the system of knighthood in feudal times.--_adjs._ CHIVAL'RIC, CHIV'ALROUS, pertaining to chivalry: bold: gallant.--_adv._ CHIV'ALROUSLY.--_n._ CHIV'ALROUSNESS. [Fr. _chevalerie_--_cheval_--Low L. _caballus_, a horse.] CHIVE, ch[=i]v, _n._ an herb like the leek and onion, with small, flat, clustered bulbs: a small bulb.--Also CIVE. [Fr. _cive_--L. _cæpa_, an onion.] CHIVY, chiv'vy, or CHEVY, chev'vy, _n._ a hunting cry.--_v.t._ to chase.--_v.i._ to scamper. [Prob. from the Border battle of _Chevy_ Chase.] CHLAMYS, kl[=a]'mis, _n._ an ancient Greek short cloak or mantle for men: a purple cope: a genus of phytophagous beetles. [Gr.] CHLOASMA, kl[=o]-az'ma, _n._ a skin-disease marked by yellowish-brown patches. [Gr. _chlo[=e]_, verdure.] CHLORINE, kl[=o]'rin, _n._ a yellowish-green gas with a peculiar and suffocating odour.--_ns._ CHL[=O]'RAL, a limpid, colourless, oily liquid, with a peculiar penetrating odour, formed when anhydrous alcohol is acted on by dry chlorine gas; CHL[=O]'RALISM, the habit of using chloral, a morbid state induced by such; CHL[=O]'RATE, a salt composed of chloric acid and a base.--_adj._ CHL[=O]'RIC, of or from chlorine.--_n._ CHL[=O]'RIDE, a compound of chlorine with some other substance, as potash, soda, &c.--_v.t._ CHL[=O]'RIDISE, to convert into a chloride: (_phot._) to cover with chloride of silver--also CHL[=O]'RIDATE.--_n._ CHLORIN[=A]'TION, the process of getting gold, &c., out of ore by the use of chlorine.--_v.t._ CHL[=O]'RINISE, to combine or otherwise treat with chlorine--also CHL[=O]'RINATE.--_ns._ CHL[=O]'RITE, a mineral consisting of silica, alumina, &c., in variable proportions--it is of a green colour, rather soft, and is easily scratched with a knife; CHL[=O]'RODYNE, a patent medicine containing opium, chloroform, &c., used for allaying pain and inducing sleep; CHL[=O]'ROFORM, a limpid, mobile, colourless, volatile liquid, with a characteristic odour and a strong sweetish taste, used to induce insensibility.--_adj._ CHL[=O]'ROID, like chlorine.--_ns._ CHL[=O]ROM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the bleaching powers of chloride of lime; CHL[=O]ROM'ETRY, the process of testing the decolouring power of any compound of chlorine; CHL[=O]'ROPHYL, the ordinary colouring matter of vegetation, consisting of minute soft granules in the cells; CHLOR[=O]'SIS, properly _green-sickness_, a peculiar form of anæmia or bloodlessness, common in young women, and connected with the disorders incident to the critical period of life.--_adjs._ CHL[=O]ROT'IC, pertaining to chlorosis; CHL[=O]'ROUS, full of chlorine.--CHLORIC ACID, a syrupy liquid, with faint chlorine colour and acid reaction. [Gr. _chl[=o]ros_, pale-green.] CHOBDAR, chob'dar, _n._ a frequent attendant of Indian nobles, and formerly also of Anglo-Indian officials of rank, carrying a staff overlaid with silver. [Pers.] CHOCK, chok, _v.t._ to fasten as with a block or wedge.--_n._ a wedge to keep a cask from rolling: a log.--_adjs._ CHOCK'-FULL, CHOKE'-FULL, quite full; CHOCK'-TIGHT, very tight. [See CHOKE.] CHOCOLATE, chok'[=o]-l[=a]t, _n._ a preparation of the seeds of _Theobroma cacao_, made by grinding the seeds mixed with water to a very fine paste: a beverage made by dissolving this paste in boiling water.--_adj._ chocolate-coloured, dark reddish-brown: made of or flavoured with chocolate. [Sp. _chocolate_; from Mex. _chocolatl_, chocolate.] CHODE, ch[=o]d, an obsolete _pa.t._ of CHIDE. CHOICE, chois, _n._ act or power of choosing: the thing chosen: alternative: preference: the preferable or best part.--_adj._ worthy of being chosen: select: appropriate.--_adjs._ CHOICE'-DRAWN (_Shak._), selected with care; CHOICE'FUL (_Spens._), making many choices, fickle.--_adv._ CHOICE'LY, with discrimination or care.--_n._ CHOICE'NESS, particular value: excellence: nicety.--HOBSON'S CHOICE, the alternative of a thing offered or nothing, from _Hobson_, a Cambridge carrier and innkeeper, who insisted on lending out the horse nearest the stable door, or none at all.--MAKE CHOICE OF, to select; TAKE ONE'S CHOICE, to take what one wishes. [Fr. _choix_--_choisir_; cf. CHOOSE.] CHOIR, kw[=i]r, _n._ a chorus or band of singers, esp. those belonging to a church: the part of a church appropriated to the singers: the part of a cathedral separated from the nave by a rail or screen.--_v.i._ (_Shak._) to sing in chorus.--_ns._ CHOIR'-OR'GAN, one of the departments of a cathedral organ, standing behind the _great-organ_, having its tones less powerful, and more fitted to accompany the voice; CHOIR'SCREEN, a screen of lattice-work, separating the choir from the nave, so as to prevent general access thereto, though not to interrupt either sight or sound.--_adj._ CH[=O]'RAL, belonging to a chorus or choir.--_ns._ CH[=O]RAL', CHORALE', a simple harmonised composition, with slow rhythm: a tune written for a psalm or hymn: in R.C. usage, any part of the service sung by the whole choir.--_adv._ CH[=O]'RALLY, in the manner of a chorus: so as to suit a choir. [Fr. _choeur_--L. _chorus_--Gr. _choros_.] CHOKE, ch[=o]k, _v.t._ to throttle: to suffocate: to stop or obstruct: to suppress.--_v.i._ to be choked or suffocated.--_n._ the action of choking.--_n._ CHOKE'-BORE, the bore of a gun when narrowed at the muzzle so as to concentrate the shot: a shot-gun so bored.--_v.t._ to bore in such a way.--_n._ CHOKE'-CHERR'Y, a name given to certain nearly allied species of cherry, natives of North America, whose fruit, though at first rather agreeable, is afterwards astringent in the mouth.--_adj._ CHOKED, suffocated, clogged.--_n._ CHOKE'DAMP, the carbonic acid gas given off by coal which accumulates in coal-mines, and may suffocate those exposed to it.--_adj._ CHOKE'-FULL (see CHOCK-FULL).--_ns._ CHOK'ER, one who chokes: a neckerchief; CHOK'ING, suffocation.--_adj._ smothering.--_adj._ CHOK'Y, tending to choke: inclined to choke.--CHOKE OFF, to put an end to, as if by choking; CHOKE UP, to obstruct completely, to suffocate.--WHITE CHOKER, a white neckerchief worn by clergymen, &c. [Prob. from sound.] CHOKY, ch[=o]'ki, _n._ a prison: a toll-station. [Hind.] CHOLÆMIA, CHOLEMIA, ko-l[=e]'mi-a, _n._ a morbid accumulation of the constituents of bile in the blood.--_adj._ CHOLÆ'MIC. [Gr. _chol[=e]_, bile, _haima_, blood.] CHOLAGOGUE, kol'a-gog, _n._ a purgative causing evacuations of bile.--_adj._ CHOLAGOG'IC. [Gr. _chol[=e]_, bile, _ag[=o]gos_, leading.] CHOLER, kol'[.e]r, _n._ the bile: (_Shak._) biliousness: anger, irascibility.--_adj._ CHOL'ERIC, full of choler: passionate. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _cholera_--_chol[=e]_, bile.] CHOLERA, kol'[.e]r-a, _n._ a highly infectious and deadly disease characterised by bilious vomiting and purging.--_adj._ CHOLER[=A]'IC.--BRITISH CHOLERA, an acute catarrhal affection of the mucous membrane of the stomach and small intestines. [Gr. _cholera_.] CHOLESTERINE, ko-les'te-rin, _n._ a substance occurring abundantly in bile and biliary calculi, probably a monovalent alcohol.--_adj._ CHOLESTER'IC. [Gr. _chol[=e]_, bile, _stereos_, solid.] CHOLIAMB, k[=o]'li-amb, _n._ a variety of iambic trimeter, having a trochee for an iambus as the sixth foot.--_adj._ CHOLIAM'BIC. [L.,--Gr. _ch[=o]liambos_--_ch[=o]los_, lame, _iambos_, iambus.] CHOLTRY, ch[=o]l'tri, _n._ a khan or caravansary for travellers: a shed used as a place of assembly.--Also CHOUL'TRY. [Malayalam.] CHONDRIFY, kon'dri-f[=i], _v.t._ to convert into cartilage.--_v.i._ to be converted into cartilage.--_n._ CHONDRIFIC[=A]'TION. [Gr. _chondros_, cartilage.] CHONDROID, kon'droid, _adj._ cartilaginous.--_ns._ CHON'DRIN, the proper substance of cartilage; CHONDR[=I]'TIS, inflammation of cartilage; CHONDROGEN'ESIS, the formation of cartilage.--_adj._ CHONDROGENET'IC.--_ns._ CHONDROG'RAPHY, a description of the cartilages; CHONDROL'OGY, the knowledge of the cartilages. CHONDROPTERYGIAN, kon-drop-te-rij'i-an, _adj._ gristly-finned, belonging to the _Chondropterygii_, a group of fishes variously defined in different systems. [Gr. _chondros_, cartilage, _pterygion_, dim. of _pteryx_, a wing.] CHOOSE, ch[=oo]z, _v.t._ to take one thing in preference to another: to select.--_v.i._ to will or determine: to think fit:--_pa.t._ ch[=o]se; _pa.p._ ch[=o]s'en.--_ns._ CHOOS'ER (_Shak._), one who chooses; CHOOS'ING, choice: selection.--CANNOT CHOOSE, can have no alternative.--NOT MUCH TO CHOOSE BETWEEN, each about equally bad.--PICK AND CHOOSE, to select with care. [A.S. _céosan_, Dut. _kiesen_.] CHOP, chop, _v.t._ to cut with a sudden blow: to cut into small pieces: (_Milton_) to change: to exchange or barter: (_Milton_) to trade in: to bandy words.--_v.i._ to change about: to shift suddenly, as the wind.--_n._ a blow: a piece cut off: a slice of mutton or pork, containing a rib: a change: vicissitude.--_ns._ CHOP'-HOUSE, a house where mutton-chops and beef-steaks are served: an eating-house; CHOP'PER, one who or that which chops: a cleaver; CHOP'PING-KNIFE, a knife for chopping or mincing meat.--_adj._ CHOP'PY, full of chops or cracks: running in irregular waves--also CHOP'PING.--CHOP AND CHANGE, to buy and sell: to change about; CHOP AT, to aim a blow at; CHOP IN, to break in, interrupt; CHOP LOGIC, to dispute in logical terms: to bandy words; CHOP UP, to cut into small pieces.--A CHOP-LOGIC (_Shak._), a contentious fellow. [A form of CHAP.] CHOP, chop, _n._ the chap or jaw, generally used in _pl._: a person with fat cheeks: the mouth of anything, as a cannon.--_adj._ CHOP'-FALL'EN, lit. having the chop or lower jaw fallen down: cast-down: dejected. [See CHAP (3).] CHOP, chop, _n._ in China and India, an official mark or seal: a license or passport which has been sealed. [Hind. _chh[=a]p_, seal, impression.] CHOPIN, chop'in, _n._ an old French liquid measure containing nearly an English imperial pint: a Scotch measure containing about an English quart. [O. Fr. _chopine_, Old Dut. _schoppe_; Scot. _chappin_, Ger. _schoppen_, a pint.] CHOPINE, chop-[=e]n', chop'in, _n._ a high clog or patten introduced into England from Venice during the reign of Elizabeth. [Sp. _chapin_.] CHOPPING, chop'ing, _adj._ stout, strapping, plump. CHOP-STICKS, chop'-stiks, _n.pl._ two small sticks of wood, ivory, &c., used by the Chinese instead of knife and fork. [_Chop_, a corr. of _kih_, quick.] CHORAGUS, ko-r[=a]'gus, _n._ in Athens, the person appointed to organise the chorus: the leader of a choir.--_adj._ CHORAG'IC, pertaining to a choragus.--CHORAGIC MONUMENT, a small temple on which were dedicated the tripods given in the Dionysian contests to the victorious chorus. [Gr. _chor[=e]gos_--_choros_, chorus, and _agein_, to lead.] CHORAL, CHORALE. See CHOIR. CHORD, kord, _n._ (_mus._) the simultaneous and harmonious union of sounds of a different pitch.--The COMMON CHORD is a note with its third and perfect fifth reckoned upwards. [Formed from ACCORD.] CHORD, kord, _n._ the string of a musical instrument: (_fig._) of the emotions: (_geom._) a straight line joining the extremities of an arc: a straight line joining any two points in the curve of a circle, ellipse, &c. [L. _chorda_--Gr. _chord[=e]_, an intestine.] CHOREA, ko-r[=e]'a, _n._ St Vitus's dance, a nervous disease causing irregular and involuntary movements of the limbs or face. [L.,--Gr. _choreia_, a dancing.] CHOREE, k[=o]'r[=e], _n._ a trochee.--Also CHOR[=E]'US. [L.,--Gr.] CHOREOGRAPHY. See CHORUS. CHOREPISCOPAL, k[=o]-re-pis'ko-pal, _adj._ pertaining to a local or suffragan bishop. [Gr. _ch[=o]ra_, place.] CHORIAMB, k[=o]'ri-amb, _n._ a metrical foot of four syllables, the first and last long, the two others short.--_adj._ and _n._ CHORIAM'BIC. [Gr. _choriambos_--_choreios_, a trochee, _iambos_, iambus.] CHORION, k[=o]'ri-on, _n._ the outer foetal envelope: the external membrane of the seeds of plants:--_pl._ CH[=O]'RIA.--_adj._ CH[=O]'ROID. [Gr.] CHOROGRAPHY, k[=o]-rog'ra-fi, _n._ the description of the geographical features of a particular region.--_adjs._ CHOROGRAPH'IC, -AL; CHOROLOG'ICAL.--_ns._ CHOROL'OGIST; CHOROL'OGY, the science of the geographical distribution of plants and animals. CHORUS, k[=o]'rus, _n._ a band of singers and dancers, esp. in the Greek plays: a company of singers: that which is sung by a chorus: the combination of several voices in one simultaneous utterance: the part of a song in which the company join the singer.--_adj._ CHOREOGRAPH'IC.--_ns._ CHOREOG'RAPHY, CHOROG'RAPHY, the notation of dancing.--_adj._ CH[=O]'RIC.--_ns._ CH[=O]'RIST, CHOR'ISTER, a member of a choir. [L.,--Gr. _choros_, dance.] CHOSE, CHOSEN. See CHOOSE. CHOUGH, chuf, _n._ a kind of jackdaw which frequents rocky places on the seacoast. [A.S. _céo_; from the cry of the bird. See CAW.] CHOULTRY. See CHOLTRY. CHOUSE, chows, _n._ (_obs._) a cheat: one easily cheated: a trick.--_v.t._ to cheat, swindle. [Prob. from Turk. _chaush_, a messenger or envoy.] CHOUT, chowt, _n._ one-fourth part of the revenue extorted by the Mahrattas as blackmail: blackmail, extortion. [Hind. _chauth_, the fourth part.] CHOW-CHOW, chow'-chow, _n._ a mixture of food such as the Chinese use, e.g. preserved pickles.--_adj._ miscellaneous, mixed. [Pigeon-English.] CHOWDER, chow'd[.e]r, _n._ a dish made of a mixture of fish and biscuits. [Fr. _chaudière_, a pot.] CHOWRY, chow'ri, _n._ an instrument used for driving away flies. [Hindi, _chaunri_.] CHREMATISTIC, kr[=e]-ma-tis'tik, _adj._ pertaining to finance.--_n._ CHREMATIS'TICS, the science of wealth. [Gr.,--_chr[=e]ma_, a thing.] CHOY-ROOT. See SHAYA-ROOT. CHRESTOMATHY, kres-tom'a-thi, _n._ a book of selections from foreign languages, usually for beginners.--_adjs._ CHRESTOMATH'IC, -AL. [Gr. _chr[=e]stos_, useful, _mathein_, to know.] CHRISM, krizm, _n._ consecrated or holy oil: unction: confirmation: chrisom. (q.v.).--_adj._ CHRIS'MAL, pertaining to chrism.--_n._ a case for containing chrism: a pyx: a veil used in christening.--_ns._ CHRIS'MATORY, a vessel for containing chrism; CHRIS'OM, a white cloth laid by the priest on a child newly anointed with chrism after its baptism: the child itself.--CHRISOM CHILD (_Shak._), a child still wearing the chrisom cloth: an innocent child. [O. Fr. _chresme_ (Fr. _chrême_)--Gr. _chrisma_, from _chriein_, _chrisein_, to anoint.] CHRIST, kr[=i]st, _n._ the Anointed, the Messiah.--_ns._ CHRIST-CROSS-ROW (kris'-kros-r[=o]), the alphabet, from the use in horn-books of having a cross at the beginning; CHR[=I]ST'S-THORN, a kind of prickly shrub common in Palestine and south of Europe, so called because supposed to have been the plant from which the crown of thorns was made.--_v.t._ CHRISTEN (kris'n), to baptise in the name of Christ: to give a name to.--_ns._ CHRIS'TENDOM, that part of the world in which Christianity is the received religion: the whole body of Christians; CHRIS'TENING, the ceremony of baptism; CHR[=I]ST'HOOD, the condition of being the Christ or Messiah; CHRIST'IAN, a follower of Christ: (_coll._) a human being.--_adj._ relating to Christ or His religion: being in the spirit of Christ.--_v.t._ CHRIST'IANISE, to make Christian: to convert to Christianity.--_ns._ CHRIST'IANISM, CHRISTIAN'ITY, the religion of Christ: the spirit of this religion.--_adjs._ CHRIST'IAN-LIKE, CHRIST'IANLY.--_ns._ CHRIST'IANNESS, CHRIST'LINESS.--_adjs._ CHRIST'LESS, CHRIST'LY.--CHRISTIAN ERA, the era counted from the birth of Christ; CHRISTIAN NAME, the name given when christened, as distinguished from the surname. [A.S. _crist_--Gr. _Christos_--and _chriein_, _chrisein_, to anoint.] CHRISTADELPHIAN, kris-ta-del'fi-an, _n._ a member of a small religious body holding conditional immortality, denying a personal devil, &c.--sometimes called _Thomasites_ from Dr John _Thomas_ of Brooklyn (1805-71). [Lit. 'Brethren of Christ,' Gr. _Christos_, Christ, and _adelphos_, brother.] CHRISTMAS, kris'mas, _n._ an annual festival, originally a mass, in memory of the birth of Christ, held on the 25th of December.--_ns._ CHRIST'MAS-BOX, a box containing Christmas presents: a Christmas gift; CHRIST'MAS-CARD, a card, more or less ornamented, sent from friend to friend at this season; CHRIST'MAS-EVE, the evening before Christmas; CHRIST'MAS-ROSE, or -FLOW'ER, the _Helleborus niger_, flowering in winter; CHRIST'MAS-TREE, a tree, usually fir, set up in a room, and loaded with Christmas presents. [CHRIST and MASS.] CHRISTOLOGY, kris-tol'o-ji, _n._ that branch of theology which treats of the nature and person of Christ.--_adj._ CHRISTOLOG'ICAL.--_n._ CHRISTOL'OGIST. [Gr. _Christos_, and _logia_, a discourse.] CHRISTOM, kris'um, _n._ (_Shak._). Same as CHRISOM, under CHRISM (q.v.). CHRISTOPHANY, kris-tof'a-ni, _n._ an appearance of Christ to men. [Gr. _Christos_, and _phainein_, to appear.] CHROMATIC, kr[=o]-mat'ik, _adj._ relating to colours: coloured: (_mus._) relating to notes in a melodic progression, which are raised or lowered by accidentals, without changing the key of the passage, and also to chords in which such notes occur.--_ns._ CHR[=O]M'ATE, a salt of chromic acid; CHR[=O]MAT'ICS, the science of colours.--_v.t._ CHR[=O]'MATISE, to impregnate with a chromate.--_ns._ CHR[=O]MATOG'RAPHY, a treatise on colours; CHR[=O]MATOL'OGY, the science of colours, or a treatise thereon; CHR[=O]MAT'OPHORE, one of the pigment-cells in animals: one of the granules in protoplasm: one of the brightly coloured bead-like bodies in the oral disc of certain actinias, &c.; CHR[=O]MATOP'SIA, coloured vision; CHR[=O]'MATROPE, an arrangement in a magic-lantern by which effects like those of the kaleidoscope are produced; CHR[=O]'MATYPE, CHR[=O]'MOTYPE, a photographic process by which a coloured impression of a picture is obtained.--_adj._ relating to the chromatype.--_ns._ CHR[=O]ME, CHR[=O]'MIUM, a metal remarkable for the beautiful colours of its compounds.--_adj._ CHR[=O]M'IC.--_ns._ CHR[=O]'MITE, a mineral consisting of oxide of chromium and iron; CHR[=O]'MO-LITH'OGRAPH, or merely CHR[=O]'MO, a lithograph printed in colours; CHR[=O]'MOLITHOG'RAPHY; CHR[=O]'MOSPHERE, a layer of incandescent red gas surrounding the sun through which the light of the photosphere passes--also CHR[=O]MAT'OSPHERE; CHR[=O]'MO-TYPOG'RAPHY, typography in colours; CHR[=O]'MO-XY'LOGRAPH, a picture printed in colours from wooden blocks; CHR[=O]'MO-XYLOG'RAPHY.--CHROMATIC SCALE, a scale proceeding by semitones; CHROMIC ACID, an acid of chromium, of an orange-red colour, much used in dyeing and bleaching. [Gr. _chr[=o]matikos_--_chr[=o]ma_, colour.] CHRONIC, -AL, kron'ik, -al, _adj._ lasting a long time: of a disease, deep seated or long continued, as opposed to _acute_.--_n._ CHRON'IC, chronic invalid. [Gr. _chronikos_--_chronos_, time.] CHRONICLE, kron'i-kl, _n._ a bare record of events in order of time: a history: (_pl._) name of two of the Old Testament books: a story, account.--_v.t._ to record.--_n._ CHRON'ICLER, a historian. [O. Fr. _chronique_--L.--Gr. _chronika_, annals--_chronos_, time.] CHRONOGRAM, kron'o-gram, _n._ an inscription in which the time or date of an event is given by certain of the letters printed larger than the rest. [Gr. _chronos_, time, _gramma_, a letter--_graphein_, to write.] CHRONOGRAPH, kron'o-graf, _n._ a chronogram: an instrument for taking exact measurements of time, or for recording graphically the moment or duration of an event.--_ns._ CHRONOG'RAPHER, a chronicler; CHRONOG'RAPHY, chronology. [Gr. _chronos_, time, _graphein_, to write.] CHRONOLOGY, kron-ol'o-ji, _n._ the science of time.--_ns._ CHRONOL'OGER, CHRONOL'OGIST.--_adjs._ CHRONOLOG'IC, -AL.--_adv._ CHRONOLOG'ICALLY. [Gr. _chronos_, time, _logia_, a discourse.] CHRONOMETER, kron-om'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring time: a watch.--_adjs._ CHRONOMET'RIC, -AL.--_n._ CHRONOM'ETRY, the art of measuring time by means of instruments: measurement of time. [Gr. _chronos_, and _metron_, a measure.] CHRONOSCOPE, kron'[=o]-sk[=o]p, _n._ an instrument for measuring very short intervals of time, esp. with projectiles. CHRYSALIS, kris'a-lis, CHRYSALID, kris'a-lid, _n._ a term originally applied to the golden-coloured resting stages in the life-history of many butterflies, but sometimes extended to all forms of pupæ or nymphs: the shell whence the insect comes:--_pl._ CHRYSAL'IDES (i-d[=e]z).--_adjs._ CHRYS'ALID, CHRYS'ALINE, CHRYS'ALOID. [Gr. _chrysallis_--_chrysos_, gold.] CHRYSANTHEMUM, kris-an'the-mum, _n._ a genus of composite plants to which belong the corn marigold and ox-eye daisy. [Gr. _chrysos_, gold, _anthemon_, flower.] CHRYSELEPHANTINE, kris-el-e-fan'tin, _adj._ noting the art of making statues jointly of gold and ivory. [Gr. _chrysos_, gold, _elephantinos_, made of ivory--_elephas_, _-antos_, ivory.] CHRYSOBERYL, kris'o-ber-il, _n._ a mineral of various shades of greenish-yellow or gold colour. [Gr. _chrysos_, gold, and BERYL.] CHRYSOCOLLA, kris-[=o]-kol'a, _n._ a silicate of protoxide of copper, bluish-green. [Gr. _chrysos_, gold, _kolla_, glue.] CHRYSOCRACY, kri-sok'ra-si, _n._ the rule of wealth. [Gr. _chrysos_, gold, _kratein_, to rule.] CHRYSOLITE, kris'[=o]-l[=i]t, _n._ a yellow or green precious stone. [Gr. _chrysos_, and _lithos_, a stone.] CHRYSOPHAN, kris'[=o]-fan, _n._ an orange-coloured bitter substance found in rhubarb.--_adj._ CHRYSOPHAN'IC. [Gr. _chrysos_, gold, _phan[=e]s_, appearing.] CHRYSOPHILITE, kri-sof'i-l[=i]t, _n._ a lover of gold. CHRYSOPHYLL, kris'[=o]-fil, _n._ the yellow colouring matter in the green chlorophyl pigment of plants.--Also _Xanthophyl_. [Gr. _chrysos_, gold, _phyllon_, a leaf.] CHRYSOPRASE, kris'o-pr[=a]z, _n._ a variety of chalcedony: (_B._) a yellowish-green stone, nature unknown. [Gr. _chrysos_, and _prason_, a leek.] CHRYSOTYPE, kris'o-t[=i]p, _n._ a process of taking pictures by photography, on paper impregnated with a neutral solution of chloride of gold. [Gr. _chrysos_, gold, _typos_, impression.] CHTHONIAN, th[=o]'ni-an, _adj._ pertaining to the under world, subterranean.--Also CHTHON'IC. [Gr. _chth[=o]n_, the ground.] CHUB, chub, _n._ a small fat river-fish.--_adjs._ CHUBBED, CHUB'BY, short and thick, plump; CHUB'-FACED, plump-faced.--_n._ CHUB'BINESS. CHUBB, chub, _n._ a patent lock invented by _Chubb_, a locksmith in London--much used for safes, &c.--Also CHUBB'-LOCK. CHUCK, chuk, _n._ the call of a hen: a chicken (dim. CHUCK'IE): a word of endearment.--_v.i._ to call, as a hen. [A variety of CLUCK.] CHUCK, chuk, _n._ a gentle blow, as under the chin: (_coll._) a toss or throw; any game of pitch and toss.--_v.t._ to pat gently, as under the chin: to toss: to pitch.--_n._ CHUCK'-FAR'THING, a game in which a farthing is chucked into a hole. [Fr. _choquer_, to jolt; allied to SHOCK.] CHUCK, chuk, _n._ a pebble or small stone: a game with such stones, often called CHUCK'IES: an instrument for holding an object so that it can be rotated, as upon the mandrel of a lathe. [Der. uncertain; cf. It. _cioco_, a block, stump.] CHUCK-FULL. Same as CHOCK-FULL (q.v. under CHOCK). CHUCKLE, chuk'l, _n._ a kind of laugh: the cry of a hen.--_v.t._ to call, as a hen does her chickens: to caress.--_v.i._ to laugh in a quiet, suppressed manner, indicating derision or enjoyment.--_n._ CHUCK'LING. [Akin to CHUCK, to call.] CHUCKLE, chuk'l, _adj._ clumsy.--_n._ CHUCK'LE-HEAD, a loutish fellow. [Prob. CHOCK, a log.] CHUFF, chuf, _n._ a clown: a surly fellow.--_n._ CHUF'FINESS, boorishness.--_adj._ CHUF'FY, coarse and surly. [M. E. _chuffe_, _choffe_, a boor (origin unknown), conn. with Scotch _coof_, akin to Ice. _kueif_.] CHUM, chum, _n._ a chamber-fellow: friend or associate, chiefly among schoolboys and students.--_v.i._ and _v.t._ to occupy, or to put one into, the same room with another.--_n._ CHUM'MAGE, the quartering of two or more persons in one room: a fee demanded from a new chum.--_adj._ CHUM'MY, sociable.--_n._ a chimney-sweeper's boy: a chum. [Perh. a mutilation of CHAMBER-FELLOW.] CHUMP, chump, an end lump of wood: a blockhead: the head.--OFF HIS CHUMP--out of his mind. CHUNK, chungk, _n._ a thick piece of anything, as wood, bread, &c. [Perh. related to CHUCK.] CHURCH, church, _n._ a house set apart for Christian worship: the whole body of Christians: the clergy: any particular sect or denomination of Christians: any body professing a common creed, not necessarily Christian.--_v.t._ to perform with any one the giving of thanks in church, more esp. of a woman after childbirth, or of a newly-married couple on first appearing at church after marriage.--_ns._ CHURCH'-ALE, a strong ale brewed for a church festival: the festival at which the ale was drunk; CHURCH'-BENCH (_Shak._), a seat in the porch of a church; CHURCH'-COURT, a court for deciding ecclesiastical causes, a presbytery, synod, or general assembly; CHURCH'-G[=O]'ING, the act of going to church, esp. habitually; CHURCH'ING, the first appearance of a woman in church after childbirth; CHURCH'ISM, adherence to the forms or principles of some church.--_adj._ CHURCH'LESS, not belonging to a church: (_Tennyson_) without church approval.--_ns._ CHURCH'MAN, a clergyman or ecclesiastic: a member or upholder of the established church; CHURCH'-RATE, an assessment for the sustentation of the fabric, &c., of the parish church; CHURCH'-SERV'ICE, the form of religious service followed in a church, order of public worship, a book containing such; CHURCH'-TEXT, a thin and tall form of black-letter print; CHURCHWAR'DEN, an officer who represents the interests of a parish or church: a long clay-pipe; CHURCH'WAY, the public way or road that leads to the church; CHURCH'WOMAN, a female member of the Anglican Church.--_adj._ CHURCH'Y, obtrusively devoted to the church.--_n._ CHURCH'YARD, the burial-ground round a church.--CHURCH HISTORY, the description of the course of development through which the church as a whole, as well as its special departments and various institutions, has passed, from the time of its foundation down to our own day; CHURCH MILITANT, the church on earth in its struggle against evil; CHURCH TRIUMPHANT, the portion of the church which has overcome and left this world.--VISIBLE and INVISIBLE CHURCH (see VISIBLE). [A.S. _circe_ (Scot, _kirk_; Ger. _kirche_)--Gr. _kyriakon_, belonging to the Lord--_Kyrios_, the Lord.] CHURL, churl, _n._ a rustic, labourer: an ill-bred, surly fellow.--_adj._ CHURL'ISH, rude: surly: ill-bred.--_adv._ CHURL'ISHLY.--_n._ CHURL'ISHNESS. [A.S. _ceorl_, a countryman; Ice. _karl_, Ger. _kerl_, a man; Scot. _carl_.] CHURN, churn, _n._ a machine used for the production of butter from cream or from whole milk.--_v.t._ to agitate cream so as to obtain butter.--_v.i._ to perform the act of churning.--_ns._ CHURN'-DRILL, a drill worked by hand, not struck with the hammer, a jumper; CHURN'ING, the act of making butter: the quantity of butter made at once; CHURN'-STAFF, the plunger used in an upright churn: the sun-spurge. [A.S. _cyrin_; Ice. _kirna_, a churn; Dut. and Ger. _kernen_, to churn.] CHURR, ch[.e]r, _n._ a low sound made by certain birds.--_v.i._ to make this sound. [Prob. imit.] CHURRUS, chur'us, _n._ the resinous exudation of _Cannabis indica_, which, in its milder preparations, known as _bhang_, &c., is used as a narcotic and intoxicant. [Hind. _charas_.] CHUSE, ch[=oo]z, _v.t._ a form of CHOOSE. CHUT, chut, _interj._ an expression of impatience. CHUTE, sh[=oo]t, _n._ a waterfall, rapid: a channel down which to pass water, logs, rubbish, &c. [Fr. _chute_, a fall.] CHUTNEE, CHUTNY, chut'ne, _n._ an East Indian condiment, a compound of mangoes, chillies, or capsicum, and lime-juice, &c. [Hind. _chatni_.] CHYLE, k[=i]l, _n._ a white fluid drawn from the food while in the intestines.--_adjs._ CHYL[=A]'CEOUS, CHYLIF'IC, CHYL'OUS; CHYLIFAC'TIVE, having the power to make chyle.--_n._ CHYLIFIC[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ CHYL'IFY, to convert, or be converted, into chyle.--_n._ CHYL[=U]'RIA, a discharge of milky urine. [Fr.,--Gr. _chylos_, juice--_cheein_, to pour.] CHYME, k[=i]m, _n._ the pulp to which the food is reduced in the stomach.--_n._ CHYMIFIC[=A]'TION, the act of being formed into chyme.--_v.t._ CHYM'IFY, to form into chyme.--_adj._ CHYM'OUS. [Gr. _chymos_, from _cheein_.] CHYMICAL, CHYMISTRY, obsolete forms of CHEMICAL, CHEMISTRY. CHYND, ch[=i]nd, _p.adj._ (_Spens._) cut into chines. CIBOL, sib'ol, _n._ a variety of onion. [Fr. _ciboule_ (Sp. _cebolla_)--Low L. _cepola_, dim. of L. _cepa_, an onion.] CIBORIUM, si-b[=o]'ri-um, _n._ (_R.C. Church_) a vessel nearly resembling a chalice, with an arched cover, in which the Host is deposited: a canopy supported on four pillars over the high altar:--_pl._ CIB[=O]'RIA. [L., a drinking-cup--Gr. _kib[=o]rion_, the seed-vessel of the Egyptian bean.] CICADA, si-k[=a]'da, CICALA, si-k[=a]'la, _n._ an insect remarkable for its chirping sound. [L. _cicada_.] CICATRIX, sik-[=a]'triks, or sik'a-triks, _n._ the scar over a wound after it is healed--also CIC'ATRICE: scar in the bark of a tree: (_Shak._) mark, impression.--_ns._ CICATRIC'ULA, the germinating point in the yolk of an egg; CICATRIS[=A]'TION, the process of healing over.--_v.t._ CIC'ATRISE, to help the formation of a cicatrix on a wound or ulcer: to scar.--_v.i._ to heal. [Fr.,--L. _cicatrix_, a scar.] CICELY, sis'e-li, _n._ a genus of umbelliferous plants nearly allied to chervil. [L. and Gr. _seseli_.] CICERONE, chich-er-[=o]'ni, or sis-e-r[=o]'ne, _n._ one who shows strangers the curiosities of a place: a guide.--_v.i._ to act as cicerone.--_adjs._ CICER[=O]'NIAN, CICERON'IC.--_ns._ CICER[=O]'NIANISM, the character of Cicero's Latin style; CICERON'ISM, CICERON'AGE, CICERONE'SHIP, the function of a guide. [It.,--L. _Cicero_, the Roman orator.] CICISBEO, ch[=e]-ch[=e]s-b[=a]'o, _n._ a married woman's gallant or _cavaliere servente_ in Italy:--_pl._ CICISBE'I.--_n._ CICISB[=E]'ISM. [It.] CICLATOUN. See CHECKLATON. CICUTA, si-k[=u]'ta, _n._ a genus of umbelliferous plants with poisonous roots--_water-hemlock_ or _cowbane_. [L., hemlock.] CID, sid, _n._ a chief, captain, a hero, from the famous 11th-cent. Castilian warrior against the Moors, styled _el Cid Campeador_, whose real name was Rodrigo, or Ruy, Diaz (i.e. 'son of Diego'). The name _Cid_ is the Ar. _seid_, _seiyid_, lord. CIDER, s[=i]'d[.e]r, _n._ a drink made from apples.--_ns._ C[=I]'DER-AND, a mixture of cider and other spirits; C[=I]'DER-CUP, a drink of sweetened cider, with other ingredients; C[=I]'DERKIN, an inferior cider. [Fr. _cidre_--L.,--Gr. _sikera_, strong drink--Heb. _shakar_, to be intoxicated.] CI-DEVANT, s[=e]-de-vong', _adj._ former. [Fr.] CIEL. See CEIL. CIERGE. See CERGE. CIGAR, si-gär', _n._ a roll of tobacco-leaves for smoking.--_n._ CIGARETTE', a little cigar made of finely-cut tobacco rolled in thin paper. [Sp. _cigarro_.] CILIA, sil'i-a, _n.pl._ hair-like lashes borne by cells.--_adjs._ CIL'IARY, CIL'I[=A]TE, CIL'I[=A]TED, CILIF'EROUS, having cilia; CIL'I[=I]FORM, very thin and slender like cilia. [L. _cilium_, pl. _cilia_, eyelids, eyelashes.] CILICE, sil'is, _n._ hair-cloth: a penitential garment made of hair-cloth.--_adj._ CILIC'IOUS. [L.,--Gr. _kilikion_, a cloth made of Cilician goat's hair.] CIMAR. Same as SIMAR. CIMBRIC, sim'brik, _adj._ pertaining to the ancient _Cimbri_, a people from central and northern Europe, crushed by Marius, 101 B.C.--Also CIM'BRIAN. [Sometimes made Celtic by a desperate analogy with the name _Cymry_.] CIMEX, si-meks', _n._ a bug.--_adjs._ CIMIC'IC, CIMIC'IOUS.--_n._ CIMICIF'UGA, the genus of bugworts or bugbanes, natural order _Ranunculaceæ_. [L. _cimex_.] CIMIER, s[=e]-my[=a]', _n._ the crest of a helmet. [Fr.] CIMMERIAN, sim-[=e]'ri-an, _adj._ relating to the _Cimmerii_, a tribe fabled to have lived in perpetual darkness: extremely dark. CIMOLITE, sim'[=o]-l[=i]t, _n._ a species of clay, or hydrous silicate of aluminium, used as fuller's earth. [Gr. _kim[=o]lia_, prob. from _Kim[=o]los_, an island of the Cyclades.] CINCH, sinch, _n._ a saddle-girth.--_v.i._ to tighten the cinch. [Sp. _cincha_--L. _cingula_.] CINCHONA, sin-k[=o]'na, _n._ a genus of trees, yielding the bark so much valued in medicine, from which the most important alkaloids, quinine and its congeners, are obtained--also called _Peruvian bark_.--_adjs._ CINCHON[=A]'CEOUS, CINCHON'IC.--_n._ CIN'CHONINE, an alkaloid obtained from the bark of several species of cinchona.--_adj._ CINCHONIN'IC.--_n._ CINCHONIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ CIN'CHONISE, to bring under the influence of cinchona or quinine.--_n._ CIN'CHONISM, a morbid state due to overdoses of cinchona or quinine. [Said to be so named from the Countess of _Chinchon_, who was cured of a fever by it in 1638.] CINCTURE, singk't[=u]r, _n._ a girdle or belt: a moulding round a column.--_v.t._ to gird, encompass.--_adjs._ CINCT, surrounded; CINC'TURED, having a cincture. [L. _cinctura_--_cing[)e]re_, _cinctum_, to gird.] CINDER, sin'd[.e]r, _n._ the refuse of burned coals: anything charred by fire: (_slang_) some strong stimulant put in tea, soda-water, &c.--_ns._ CINDEREL'LA, a scullery-maid; CINDEREL'LA-DANCE, an early dancing-party ending at midnight--from the nursery tale.--_adj._ CIN'DERY. [A.S. _sinder_, scoriæ, slag.] CINEMATOGRAPH. See KINEMATOGRAPH. CINENCHYMA, si-neng'ki-ma, _n._ laticiferous tissue, consisting of irregularly branching and anastomosing vessels.--_adj._ CINENCHYM'ATOUS. [Gr. _kinein_, to move, _engchyma_, infusion.] CINERARIA, sin-e-r[=a]'ri-a, _n._ a genus of plants, with flowers of various colours, chiefly belonging to South Africa, but also grown in greenhouses in Britain and elsewhere. [L. _cinerarius_--_cinis_, _cineris_, ashes.] CINERARY, sin'e-ra-ri, _adj._ pertaining to ashes.--_ns._ CINER[=A]'TION; CINER[=A]T'OR; CIN[=E]'REA, gray or cellular, as distinguished from white or fibrous, nerve tissue.--_adjs._ CIN[=E]'REAL; CIN[=E]'REOUS, ashy-gray; CINERES'CENT, becoming ashy-gray; CINERI'TIOUS, ashy-gray: pertaining to gray nerve tissue. [L. _cinereus_, ashy--_cinis_, _cineris_, ashes.] CINGALESE, sing'ga-l[=e]z, _n._ a native of Ceylon.--_adj._ belonging to Ceylon. CINGULUM, sing'g[=u]-lum, _n._ the girdle of an alb. [L.--_cing[)e]re_, to gird.] CINNABAR, sin'a-bar, _n._ sulphuret of mercury, called vermilion when used as a pigment.--_adj._ vermilion-coloured.--_adjs._ CINNABAR'IC, CINN'ABARINE. [L.,--Gr. _kinnabari_, a dye, from Persian.] CINNAMON, sin'a-mon, _n._ the spicy bark of a laurel in Ceylon: the tree.--_adj._ cinnamon-coloured.--_adjs._ CINNAM'IC, CINNAMON'IC, obtained from, or consisting of, cinnamon.--_n._ CINN'AMON-STONE, a kind of stone found in Ceylon, of a cinnamon or reddish-brown colour, sometimes cut for jewellery. [L. _cinnamomum_--Heb. _kinnamon_.] [Illustration] CINQUE, singk, _n._ the number five as on dice.--_ns._ CINQUE'-CEN'TO (It., 'five hundred'), a phrase sometimes applied, in treating of architecture and art, to the Renaissance period, which began about 1500; CINQUE'-FOIL (_her._), a common bearing representing a flower with five petals borne full-faced and without a stalk: (_bot._) species of plants of the genus _Potentilla_: the five-bladed clover; CINQUE'-PACE (_Shak._), a kind of dance, the pace or movement of which is characterised by five beats.--_n.pl._ CINQUE'-PORTS, the five ancient ports on the south of England lying opposite to France--Sandwich, Dover, Hythe, Romney, and Hastings.--_adj._ CINQUE'-SPOT'TED (_Shak._), having five spots. [Fr.] CIPHER, s[=i]'f[.e]r, _n._ (_arith._) the character 0: any of the nine figures: anything of little value, whether persons or things: a nonentity: an interweaving of the initials of a name: a secret kind of writing.--_v.i._ to work at arithmetic: to write in cipher: of an organ-pipe, to sound independent of the organ: (_Shak._) to decipher.--_ns._ C[=I]'PHERING; C[=I]'PHER-KEY, a key to a cipher or piece of secret writing. [O. Fr. _cifre_, Fr. _chiffre_--Ar. _sifr_, empty.] CIPOLIN, sip'[=o]-lin, _n._ a granular limestone containing mica.--Also CIPOLLINO (ch[=e]-pol-l[=e]'n[=o]). [It.,--_cipolla_, an onion.] CIPPUS, sip'us, _n._ the stocks: a monumental pillar. [L. _cippus_, a post.] CIRCA, sir'ka, _prep._ and _adv._ about, around. [L.] CIRCASSIAN, s[.e]r-kash'yan, _adj._ belonging to _Circassia_, a district of Russia, on the north of Mount Caucasus: a kind of light cashmere of silk and mohair--generally CIRCASSIENNE' (Fr. _fem._). CIRCEAN, s[.e]r-s[=e]'an, _adj._ relating to the beautiful sorceress _Circe_, who transformed the companions of Ulysses into swine by a magic beverage: infatuating and degrading.--Also CIRCÆ'AN. CIRCENSIAN, sir-sen'shi-an, _adj._ relating to the CIRCUS Maximus in Rome, where the games and contests were held.--Also CIRCEN'SIAL (_obs._). [L. _circensis_--_circus_.] CIRCLE, s[.e]r'kl, _n._ a plane figure bounded by one line every point of which is equally distant from a certain point called the centre: the line which bounds the figure: a ring: a planet's orbit: a series ending where it began: a figure in magic; a company surrounding the principal person: those of a certain class or society.--_v.t._ to move round: to encompass.--_v.i._ to move in a circle: to stand in a circle.--_adjs._ CIR'CINATE; CIR'CLED, circular: encircled.--_ns._ CIR'CLER; CIR'CLET; CIR'CLING, motion in a circle: a revolution.--DRESS' CIR'CLE (see DRESS); FAIR'Y-CIR'CLE, -RING (see FAIRY).--REASONING IN A CIRCLE, assuming what is to be proved as the basis of the argument. [A.S. _circul_--L. _circulus_, dim. of _circus_; allied to A.S. _hring_, a ring.] CIRCUIT, s[.e]r'kit, _n._ the act of moving round: area, extent: a round made in the exercise of a calling, esp. the round made by the judges for holding the courts of law: the judges making the round: (_Shak._) diadem.--_v.t._ to go round.--_n._ CIRCUITEER', a judge: one who goes on a circuit.--_adj._ CIRC[=U]'ITOUS, round about.--_adv._ CIRC[=U]'ITOUSLY.--_n._ CIRC[=U]'ITY, motion in a circle: an indirect course.--MAKE A CIRCUIT, to go round. [Fr.,--L. _circuitus_--_circu[=i]re_, _circum_, round, _[=i]re_, to go.] CIRCULAR, s[.e]r'k[=u]-lar, _adj._ round: ending in itself: addressed to a circle of persons.--_n._ a note sent round to a circle or number of persons.--_n._ CIRCULAR'ITY.--_adv._ CIR'CULARLY.--CIRCULAR NOTES, bank-notes issued for the convenience of travellers, being a kind of bill personal to the bearer, who is given also a corresponding 'letter of indication' addressed to foreign bankers. CIRCULATE, s[.e]r'k[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to make to go round as in a circle: to spread: to repeat (of decimals).--_v.i._ to move round: to be spread about.--_adj._ CIR'CULABLE, capable of being circulated.--_ns._ CIR'CULANT; CIRCUL[=A]'TION, the act of moving in a circle: the movement of the blood: the sale of a periodical: the publication of a report or of a book: the money in use at any time in a country.--_adjs._ CIR'CULATIVE, CIR'CULATORY, circulating.--_n._ CIR'CULATOR.--CIRCULATING LIBRARY, one where books are circulated among subscribers. [L. _circul[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_.] CIRCUMAMBAGES, s[.e]r-kum-am'baj-ez, _n.pl._ roundabout ways of speech.--_adj._ CIRCUMAMB[=A]'GIOUS, roundabout in speech.--_ns._ CIRCUMAM'BIENCE, CIRCUMAM'BIENCY.--_adj._ CIRCUMAM'BIENT, going round about.--_n._ CIRCUMBEN'DIBUS, a roundabout method or course: a circumlocution. [L. _circum_, about, _amb[=i]re_, to go round.] CIRCUMAMBULATE, s[.e]r-kum-am'b[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.i._ to walk round about.--_n._ CIRCUMAMBUL[=A]'TION. [L. _ambul[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to walk.] CIRCUMCISE, s[.e]r'kum-s[=i]z, _v.t._ to cut off the foreskin according to the Jewish law: (_fig._) to purify.--_p.adj._ CIR'CUMCISED, that has undergone circumcision: purified, chastened.--_ns._ CIR'CUMCISER, one who circumcises; CIRCUMCI'SION, the act of circumcising. [L. _circumcid[)e]re_, _circumcisum_--_cæd[)e]re_, to cut.] CIRCUMDENUDATION, s[.e]r-kum-de-n[=u]d-[=a]'shun, _n._ (_geol._) denudation or erosion round an elevated tract left isolated. CIRCUMDUCT, s[.e]r'kum-dukt, _v.t._ to lead around or about, to revolve round an imaginary axis so as to describe a cone: (_Scots law_) to close a case to further proof.--_n._ CIRCUMDUC'TION.--_adj._ CIRCUMDUCT'ORY. [L. _circum_, about, _duc[)e]re_, _ductum_, to lead.] CIRCUMFERENCE, s[.e]r-kum'f[.e]r-ens, _n._ the boundary-line of any round body, esp. of a circle: the line surrounding anything: area: compass: distance round.--_adj._ CIRCUMFEREN'TIAL--_n._ CIRCUMFERENT'OR, an instrument used by surveyors and miners for measuring horizontal angles, consisting of a graduated circle, an index, and a magnetic needle suspended over the centre of a circle--now superseded by the _Theodolite_. [L. _circum_, about, _ferre_, to carry.] CIRCUMFLECT, s[.e]r'kum-flekt, _v.t._ to mark with a circumflex.--_ns._ CIR'CUMFLEX, an accent (^) denoting a rising and falling of the voice on a vowel or syllable; CIRCUMFLEX'ION, a bending round. [L. _flect[)e]re_, _flexum_, to bend.] CIRCUMFLUENCE, s[.e]r-kum'fl[=oo]-ens, _n._ a flowing round.--_adj._ CIRCUM'FLUENT, flowing round. [L. _flu[)e]re_, to flow.] CIRCUMFORANEOUS, s[.e]r-kum-f[=o]-r[=a]'ne-us, _adj._ wandering about as from market to market, vagrant.--Also CIRCUMFORA'NEAN. [L., _circum_, about, _forum_, the forum, market-place.] CIRCUMFUSE, s[.e]r-kum-f[=u]z', _v.t._ to pour around.--_p.adj._ CIRCUMFUSED'.--_adj._ CIRCUMFUS'ILE, molten.--_n._ CIRCUMF[=U]'SION. [L. _fund[)e]re_, _fusum_, to pour.] CIRCUMGYRATE, s[.e]r-kum-j[=i]'r[=a]t, _v.i._ to go round and round.--_n._ CIRCUMGYR[=A]'TION.--_adj._ CIRCUMGY'RATORY. [L. _gyr[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to turn.] CIRCUMJACENT, s[.e]r-kum-j[=a]'sent, _adj._ lying round: bordering on every side.--_n._ CIRCUMJA'CENCY. [L. _jacens_, lying--_jac[=e]re_, to lie.] CIRCUMLITTORAL, s[.e]r-kum-lit'[=o]-ral, _adj._ adjacent to the shore-line. [L. _circum_, about, _litus_, _litoris_, the shore.] CIRCUMLOCUTION, s[.e]r-kum-l[=o]-k[=u]'shun, _n._ roundabout speaking: a manner of expression in which many unnecessary words are used.--_v.i._ CIR'CUMLOCUTE, to use circumlocution.--_n._ CIRCUMLOC[=U]'TIONIST, one who practises circumlocution.--_adj._ CIRCUMLOC'UTORY.--CIRCUMLOCUTION OFFICE, a name given by Dickens in _Little Dorrit_ to the government offices, owing to their dilatoriness in attending to business. [L. _loqui_, _locutus_, to speak.] CIRCUMMURE, s[.e]r-kum-m[=u]r', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to wall round. [L. _murus_, a wall.] CIRCUMNAVIGATE, s[.e]r-kum-nav'i-g[=a]t, _v.t._ to sail round.--_adj._ CIRCUMNAV'IGABLE, capable of being circumnavigated.--_ns._ CIRCUMNAVIG[=A]'TION; CIRCUMNAV'IGATOR, one who sails round. [See NAVIGATE.] CIRCUMNUTATION, s[.e]r-kum-n[=u]-t[=a]'shun, _n._ a nodding or turning successively towards all points of the compass, as in the tendrils of plants.--_v.i._ CIRCUMN[=U]'TATE.--_adj._ CIRCUMN[=U]'TATORY. [L. _circum_, about, _nut[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to nod.] CIRCUMPOLAR, s[.e]r-kum-p[=o]'lar, _adj._ situated round the pole. [See POLAR.] CIRCUMPOSE, s[.e]r'kum-p[=o]z, _v.t._ to place round.--_n._ CIRCUMPOSI'TION, the act of placing round. [See POSITION.] CIRCUMSCRIBE, s[.e]r-kum-skr[=i]b', _v.t._ to draw a line round: to enclose within certain limits, to curtail, abridge.--_adj._ CIRCUMSCRIB'ABLE, able to be circumscribed.--_ns._ CIRCUMSCRIB'ER, one who circumscribes; CIRCUMSCRIP'TION, limitation: the line that limits: a circumscribed place.--_adj._ CIRCUMSCRIP'TIVE, marking the external form or outline. [L. _scrib[)e]re_, to write.] CIRCUMSPECT, s[.e]r'kum-spekt, _adj._ looking round on all sides watchfully: cautious: prudent.--_n._ CIRCUMSPEC'TION, watchfulness: caution: examining.--_adj._ CIRCUMSPEC'TIVE, looking around: wary.--_adv._ CIR'CUMSPECTLY.--_n._ CIR'CUMSPECTNESS. [L. _spec[)e]re_, _spectum_, to look.] CIRCUMSTANCE, s[.e]r'kum-stans, _n._ the logical surroundings of an action: an accident or event: ceremony: detail: (_pl._) the state of one's affairs.--_v.t._ to place in particular circumstances:--_pa.p._ CIR'CUMSTANCED.--_adj._ CIRCUMSTAN'TIAL, consisting of details: minute.--_n._ CIRCUMSTANTIAL'ITY, the quality of being circumstantial: minuteness in details: a detail.--_adv._ CIRCUMSTAN'TIALLY.--_n.pl._ CIRCUMSTAN'TIALS, incidentals: details.--_v.t._ CIRCUMSTAN'TIATE, to prove by circumstances: to describe exactly.--CIRCUMSTANTIAL EVIDENCE, evidence which is not positive nor direct, but which is gathered inferentially from the circumstances in the case.--IN GOOD or BAD CIRCUMSTANCES, prosperous or unprosperous; IN, UNDER THE CIRCUMSTANCES, owing to certain conditions. [L. _stans_, _stantis_, standing--_st[=a]re_, to stand.] CIRCUMVALLATE, s[.e]r-kum'val-[=a]t, _v.t._ to surround with a rampart.--_n._ CIRCUMVALL[=A]'TION, a surrounding with a wall: a wall or fortification surrounding a town or fort. [L. _vallum_, rampart.] CIRCUMVENT, s[.e]r-kum-vent', _v.t._ to come round or outwit a person: to deceive or cheat.--_n._ CIRCUMVEN'TION.--_adj._ CIRCUMVENT'IVE, deceiving by artifices. [L. _ven[=i]re_, to come.] CIRCUMVOLVE, s[.e]r-kum-volv', _v.t._ to roll round.--_v.i._ to revolve:--_pr.p._ circumvolv'ing; _pa.p._ circumvolved'.--_n._ CIRCUMVOL[=U]'TION, a turning or rolling round: anything winding or sinuous. [L. _volv[)e]re_, _volutum_, to roll.] CIRCUS, s[.e]r'kus, _n._ a circular building for the exhibition of games: a place for the exhibition of feats of horsemanship: a group of houses arranged in the form of a circle: applied to nature, as, e.g., high hills surrounding a plain.--_n._ CIRQUE (s[.e]rk), a circus: a ring of some sort. [L. _circus_; cog. with Gr. _kirkos_.] CIRRHOPOD, CIRRHOPODA, older forms of CIRRIPED, CIRRIPEDA. CIRRIPEDA, sir-rip'e-da, CIRRIPEDIA, sir-rip-[=e]'di-a, _n._ a degenerate sub-class of Crustacea, including the numerous forms of _Barnacles_ and _Acorn-shells_.--_n._ CIR'RIPED, one of the Cirripeda. [L. _cirrus_, a tuft of hair, and _pes_, a foot.] CIRRUS, sir'us, _n._ the highest form of clouds consisting of curling fibres: (_bot._) a tendril: (_zool._) any curled filament:--_pl._ CIRRI (sir'[=i]).--_adjs._ CIRR'ATE, CIRR'IFORM, like a cirrus; CIRR'IGRADE, moving by cirri.--_n._ CIRR'O-C[=U]'MULUS, a fleecy cloud intermediate between the cirrus and cumulus.--_adj._ CIRR'OSE, with tendrils.--_n._ CIRR'O-STR[=A]'TUS, a mottled-looking cloud intermediate between the cirrus and stratus.--_adj._ CIRR'OUS, having a cirrus. [L.] CISALPINE, sis-alp'in, _adj._ on this side--i.e. on the Roman side--of the Alps.--So CISATLAN'TIC; CISLEITH'AN, on this side the Leitha, which separates the archduchy of Austria and Hungary; CISMON'TANE, on this side the mountains--opp. to _Ultramontane_; CIS'PADANE, on this side the Po; CISPON'TINE, on this side of the bridges, viz. in London, north of the Thames. [L. _cis_, on this side.] CISELURE, s[=e]z'l[=u]r, _n._ the art or operation of chasing, the chasing upon a piece of metal-work.--_n._ CIS'ELEUR, a chaser. [Fr.] CISSOID, sis'soid, _n._ a plane curve consisting of two infinite branches symmetrically placed with reference to the diameter of a circle, so that at one of its extremities they form a Cusp (q.v.), while the tangent to the circle at the other extremity is their common asymptote. [Gr. _kissoeid[=e]s_.] CIST, sist, _n._ a tomb consisting of a stone chest covered with stone slabs.--_adjs._ CIST'ED, containing cists; CIST'IC, like a cist. [See CHEST.] CISTELLA, sis-tel'a, _n._ the capsular shield of some lichens. [L., dim. of _cista_, a box.] CISTERCIAN, sis-ter'shan, _n._ one of the order of monks established in 1098 in the forest of Citeaux (_Cistercium_), in France--an offshoot of the Benedictines. CISTERN, sis't[.e]rn, _n._ any receptacle for holding water or other liquid: a reservoir: in a steam-engine, the vessel surrounding the condenser. [L. _cisterna_, from _cista_, a chest.] CISTUS, sis'tus, _n._ Rock-rose, a genus of exogenous shrubby plants, cultivated for the beauty of their flowers:--_pl._ CIS'TUSES (-[=e]z) and CIS'TI ('t[=i]). [Low L., from Gr. _kistos_, the rock-rose.] CISTVAEN. See KISTVAEN. CIT, sit, _n._ shortened from citizen, and used as a term of contempt:--_fem._ CIT'ESS (_Dryden_). [See CITIZEN.] CITADEL, sit'a-del, _n._ a fortress in or near a city: the place where the guns are kept in an ironclad man-of-war. [It. _cittadella_, dim. of _città_, a city. See CITY.] CITE, s[=i]t, _v.t._ to call or summon: to summon to answer in court: to quote: to name: to adduce as proof.--_adj._ CIT'ABLE, that can be cited.--_ns._ CIT'AL, summons to appear: (_Shak._) accusation, reproof; CIT[=A]'TION, an official summons to appear: the document containing the summons: the act of quoting: the passage or name quoted; CIT[=A]'TOR, one who cites.--_adj._ CIT'[=A]TORY, having to do with citation, addicted to citation. [L. _cit[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to call, inten. of _ci[=e]re_, _c[=i]re_, to make to go.] CITHARA, sith'a-ra, _n._ an ancient musical instrument closely resembling the guitar.--_n._ CITH'ARIST, a player on it.--_adj._ CITHARIST'IC.--_ns._ CITH'ER, CITH'ERN, CIT'TERN, a metal-stringed musical instrument, played with a plectrum. [L.,--Gr. _kithara_. A doublet of GUITAR.] CITIGRADE, sit'i-gr[=a]d, _adj._ moving quickly: applied to a tribe of spiders of remarkably quick motions. [L. _citus_, quick, _gradus_, a step.] CITIZEN, sit'i-zen, _n._ an inhabitant of a city: a member of a state: a townsman: a freeman:--_fem._ CIT'IZENESS.--_adj._ (_Shak._) like a citizen.--_v.t._ CIT'IZENISE, to make a citizen of.--_ns._ CIT'IZENRY, the general body of citizens; CIT'IZENSHIP, the rights of a citizen. [M. E. _citesein_--O. Fr. _citeain_. See CITY.] CITOLE, sit'[=o]l, _n._ a small dulcimer used in medieval times. [O. Fr.,--L. _cithara_.] CITRON, sit'run, _n._ the fruit of the citron-tree, resembling a lemon.--_n._ CIT'RATE, a salt of citric acid.--_adjs._ CIT'REOUS, citrine; CIT'RIC, derived from the citron; CIT'RINE, dark and greenish yellow, like a citron or lemon.--_n._ citrine colour: a rock crystal of this colour.--_ns._ CIT'RON-WOOD, CIT'RUS-WOOD, the most costly furniture-wood of the ancient Romans.--CITRIC ACID, the acid to which lemon and lime juice owe their sourness. [Fr.,--L. _citrus_--Gr. _kitron_, a citron.] CITTERN. Same as CITHER (q.v. under CITHARA). CITY, sit'i, _n._ a large town: a town with a corporation.--_n.pl._ CIT'Y-COMMIS'SIONERS, officials who attend to the drainage, &c.--_n._ CIT'Y-MIS'SION, a mission for evangelising the poor classes in the large cities.--_adj._ CIV'IC, pertaining to a city or citizen.--CITY OF GOD, HEAVENLY CITY, &c., the ideal of the Church of Christ in glory; CITY OF REFUGE, by the Jewish law a city where the perpetrator of an accidental murder might flee for refuge.--ETERNAL CITY, Rome; HOLY CITY, Jerusalem.--THE CITY, THE CITY OF LONDON, that part of London where business is principally carried on. [Fr. _cité_, a city--L. _civitas_, the state--_civis_, a citizen.] CIVE, s[=i]v, _n._ See CHIVE. CIVET, siv'et, _n._ a perfume obtained from the civet or CIV'ET-CAT, a small carnivorous animal of Africa, India, &c. [Fr. _civette_--Ar. _zabad_.] CIVIC. See CITY. CIVIL, siv'il, _adj._ pertaining to the community: having the refinement of city-bred people: polite: commercial, not military: lay, secular, or temporal, not ecclesiastical: pertaining to the individual citizen: (_law_) relating to private relations amongst citizens, and such suits as arise out of these, as opposed to _criminal_: (_theol._) naturally good, as opposed to good through regeneration.--_ns._ CIVIL'IAN, a professor or student of civil law (not canon law): one engaged in civil as distinguished from military and other pursuits; CIV'ILIST, one versed in civil law; CIVIL'ITY, good-breeding: politeness.--_adv._ CIV'ILLY.--_adj._ CIV'IL-SUIT'ED (_Milton_), sombrely clad.--_n._ CIV'ISM, good citizenship, state of being well-affected to the government.--CIVIL DEATH, the loss of all civil and legal but not natural privileges, as by outlawry: CIVIL ENGINEER, one who plans rail-ways, docks, &c., as opposed to a military engineer, or to a mechanical engineer, who makes machines, &c.; CIVIL LAW, as opposed to criminal law: the law laid down by a state regarding the rights of the inhabitants; CIVIL LIST, now the expenses of the sovereign's household only; CIVIL LIST PENSIONS, those granted by royal favour; CIVIL SERVICE, the paid service of the state, in so far as it is not military or naval; CIVIL WAR, a war between citizens of the same state. [L. _civ[=i]lis_--_civis_.] CIVILISE, siv'il-[=i]z, _v.t._ to reclaim from barbarism: to instruct in arts and refinements.--_adj._ CIV'ILISABLE.--_n._ CIVILIS[=A]'TION, state of being civilised--_p.adj._ CIV'ILISED.--_n._ CIV'ILISER. CLABBER, klab'[.e]r, _n._ (_Scot._). [Gael. _clabar_, mud.] CLACHAN, kla'han, _n._ (_Scot._) a small village. [Gael. _clachan_--_clach_, stone.] [Illustration] CLACK, klak, _v.i._ to make a sudden sharp noise as by striking: to chatter: to cackle.--_n._ a sharp, sudden sound; sound of voices: an instrument making this kind of noise: (_coll._) the tongue.--_ns._ CLACK'-BOX, the box containing the clack-valve of an engine; CLACK'-DISH (_Shak._), a wooden dish carried by beggars, having a movable cover which they clacked to attract attention; CLACK'ER; CLACK'-VALVE, a valve used in pumps, having a flap or a hinge which lifts up to let the fluid pass, but prevents the fluid from returning by falling back over the aperture. [From the sound.] CLAD, klad, _pa.t_. and _pa.p._ of CLOTHE. CLAES, kl[=a]z, _n.pl._ Scotch for CLOTHES. CLAG, klag, _v.i._ (_prov._) to stick.--_adj._ CLAG'GY, sticky. [Prob. Scand.; Dan. _klag_, mud.] CLAIM, kl[=a]m, _v.t._ to call for: to demand as a right.--_n._ a demand for something supposed due: right or ground for demanding: the thing claimed.--_adj._ CLAIM'ABLE, that can be claimed.--_n._ CLAIM'ANT, one who makes a claim.--LAY CLAIM TO, to assert a right. [O. Fr. _claimer_--L. _clam[=a]re_, to call out.] CLAIRAUDIENCE, kl[=a]r-awd'i-ens, _n._ the alleged power of hearing things not present to the senses.--_n._ CLAIRAUD'IENT. [Fr. _clair_--L. _clarus_, clear, and AUDIENCE.] CLAIR-OBSCURE, CLARE-OBSCURE, kl[=a]r-ob-sk[=u]r'. Same as CHIAROSCURO (q.v.). [Fr. _clair_--L. _clarus_, clear, and Fr. _obscur_--L. _obscurus_, obscure.] CLAIRSCHACH, kl[=a]r'shäh, _n._ the old Celtic harp strung with wire. CLAIRVOYANCE, kl[=a]r-voi'ans, _n._ the alleged power of seeing things not present to the senses.--_n._ CLAIRVOY'ANT, one who is said to have this power. [Fr., _clair_--L. _clarus_, clear, and Fr. _voir_--L. _vid[=e]re_, to see.] CLAM, klam, _n._ a species of bivalve shellfish: an instrument for holding. [A.S. _clam_, fetter; cf. Ger. _klamm_; Dan. _klamme_.] CLAM, klam, _v.t._ to clog: to smear; _pr.p._ clam'ming; _pa.p._ clammed.--_n._ dampness.--_adv._ CLAM'MILY.--_n._ CLAM'MINESS.--_adj._ CLAM'MY, sticky: moist and adhesive. [A.S. _clæman_, to anoint; cf. Dut., Dan. _klam_, damp.] CLAM, klam, _n._ noise produced in ringing a chime of bells at once.--_v.t._ or _v.i._ to produce a clam. [Prob. onomatopoeic.] CLAMANT, klam'ant, _adj._ calling aloud or earnestly.--_n._ CLAM'ANCY, urgency. [L. _clam[=a]re_, to cry out.] CLAMBER, klam'b[.e]r, _v.i._ to climb with difficulty, grasping with the hands and feet.--_n._ the act of clambering. [From root of CLUMP; cf. Ger. _klammern_--_klemmen_, to squeeze or hold tightly.] CLAMJAMPHRIE, klam-jam'fri, _n._ (_Scot._) rubbish: nonsense: rabble. [Der. uncertain.] CLAMOUR, klam'or, _n._ a loud continuous outcry: uproar; any loud noise.--_v.i._ to cry aloud in demand: to make a loud continuous outcry.--_adj._ CLAM'OROUS, noisy, boisterous.--_adv._ CLAM'OROUSLY.--_ns._ CLAM'-OROUSNESS; CLAM'OURER. [L. _clamor_.] CLAMP, klamp, _n._ a piece of timber, iron, &c., used to fasten things together or to strengthen any framework: any instrument for holding.--_v.t._ to bind with clamps. [From a root seen in A.S. _clam_, fetter; Dut. _klamp_, a clamp, and akin to Eng. CLIP, CLIMB.] CLAMP, klamp, _n._ a heavy tread.--_v.i._ to tread heavily. [Prob. from the sound.] CLAMPER, klam'p[.e]r, _v.t._ to botch up. [Der. unknown; prob. conn. with CLAMP, a piece of timber, &c.] CLAN, klan, _n._ a tribe or collection of families subject to a single chieftain, bearing the same surname, and supposed to have a common ancestor: a clique, sect: a collective name for a number of persons or things.--_adj._ CLAN'NISH, closely united, like the members of a clan.--_adv._ CLAN'NISHLY.--_ns._ CLAN'NISHNESS; CLAN'SHIP, association of families under a chieftain: feeling of loyalty to a clan; CLANS'MAN, a member of a clan. [Gael. _clann_, offspring, tribe--L. _planta_, a shoot.] CLANDESTINE, klan-des'tin, _adj._ concealed or hidden: private: sly.--_adv._ CLANDES'TINELY. [L. _clandestinus_--_clam_, secretly.] CLANG, klang, _v.i._ to produce a sharp, ringing sound.--_v.t._ to cause to clang.--_n._ a sharp, ringing sound, like that made by metallic substances struck together: (_fig._) sound, the cry of some birds.--_n._ CLANG'ING, the sound corresponding to the verb.--_adj._ CLANG'OROUS.--_adv._ CLANG'OROUSLY.--_n._ CLANG'OUR, a clang: a sharp, shrill, harsh sound.--_v.i._ to make a clangour. [L. _clang[)e]re_; Ger. _klang_; formed from the sound.] CLANK, klangk, _n._ a sharp sound, less prolonged than a clang, such as is made by a chain.--_v.t._ or _v.i._ to make or cause a clank.--_n._ CLANK'ING, the action of the verb _clank_.--_adj._ CLANK'LESS, without clank. [Prob. formed under the influence of CLINK and CLANG.] CLAP, klap, _n._ the noise made by the sudden striking together of two things, as the hands: a burst of sound: a slap.--_v.t._ to strike together so as to make a noise: to thrust or drive together suddenly: to fasten promptly: to pat with the hand in a friendly manner: to applaud with the hands: to bang: to imprison--e.g. 'to clap one in prison.'--_v.i._ to strike the hands together: to strike together with noise: to applaud:--_pr.p._ clap'ping; _pa.p._ clapped.--_ns._ CLAP'-BOARD, a thin board used in covering wooden houses; CLAP'-BREAD, a kind of hard-baked oatmeal cake; CLAP'-DISH (same as CLACK-DISH); CLAP'-NET, a kind of net which is made to clap together suddenly by pulling a string; CLAP'PER, one who claps: that which claps, as the tongue of a bell: a glib tongue.--_v.t._ CLAP'PER-CLAW, to claw or scratch: (_Shak._) to scold.--_ns._ CLAP'PING, noise of striking: applause; CLAP'-SILL, the bottom part of the frame on which lock-gates shut--called also _Lock-sill_; CLAP'TRAP (_Shak._), a trick to gain applause: flashy display: empty words; CLAPTRAP'PERY.--_adj._ CLAPTRAP'PISH.--CLAP EYES ON, to see; CLAP HANDS (_Shak._), to make an agreement; CLAP HOLD OF, to seize roughly; CLAP UP (_Shak._), to conclude suddenly. [Ice. _klappa_, to pat; Dut. and Ger. _klappen_.] CLAP, klap, _n._ gonorrhea. [Cf. Dut. _klapoor_.] CLAQUE, klak, _n._ an institution for securing the success of a public performance, by bestowing upon it preconcerted applause.--_n._ CLAQ'UEUR, a member of the claque. [Fr. _claquer_, to clap.] CLARABELLA, klar-a-bel'a, _n._ an organ-stop of a sweet fluty tone. CLARENCE, klar'ens, _n._ a four-wheeled carriage, seated inside for two or more persons. [Named after William IV. when Duke of _Clarence_.] CLARENCEUX, CLARENCIEUX, klar'en-s[=u], _n._ (_her._) the second king-of-arms in England, so named from the Duke of _Clarence_, son of Edward III. CLARENDON, klar'en-don, _n._ (_print._) a form of type having a heavy face. CLARE-OBSCURE. Same as CHIAROSCURO. CLARET, klar'et, _n._ originally applied to wines of a light-red colour, but now used in England for the dark-red wines of Bordeaux: (_slang_) blood.--_v.i._ to drink claret.--_ns._ CLAR'ET-CUP, a drink made up of iced claret, brandy, sugar, &c.; CLAR'ET-JUG, a fancy jug for holding claret. [Fr. _clairet_--_clair_--L. _clarus_, clear.] CLARIFY, klar'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to make clear or pure.--_v.i._ to become clear:--_pr.p._ clar'ifying; _pa.p._ clar'ified.--_ns._ CLARIFIC[=A]'TION; CLAR'IFIER, that which clarifies or purifies. [L. _clarus_, clear, and _fac[)e]re_, to make.] CLARION, klar'i-on, _n._ a kind of trumpet whose note is clear and shrill: the sound of a trumpet, or a sound resembling that of a trumpet.--_ns._ CLAR'INET, CLAR'IONET, a wind-instrument, usually of wood, in which the sound is produced by a single thin reed.--The BASS CLARINET is pitched an octave lower than the ordinary clarinet. [Fr. _clairon_--_clair_--L. _clarus_, clear.] CLARITY, klar'i-ti, _n._ clearness. [M. E. _clarté_--L. _claritas_.] CLARTY, klar'ti, _adj._ (_Scot._) sticky and dirty. [Der. unknown.] CLARY, kl[=a]r'i, _n._ a biennial with clammy stem, large, heart-shaped, rough, doubly crenate leaves, and whorls of pale-blue flowers in loose terminal spikes, with large coloured bracts. [Low L. _sclarea_. Origin unknown.] CLASH, klash, _n._ a loud noise, such as is caused by the striking together of weapons: opposition: contradiction: (_Scot._) chatter, country talk.--_v.i._ to dash noisily together: to meet in opposition: to act in a contrary direction: to disagree: (_Scot._) to gossip.--_v.t._ to strike noisily against.--_n._ CLASH'ING, a striking against: opposition. [Formed from the sound, like Ger. and Sw. _klatsch_.] CLASP, klasp, _n._ a hook for fastening: an embrace.--_v.t._ to fasten with a clasp: to enclose and hold in the hand or arms: to embrace.--_ns._ CLASP'ER, that which clasps: the tendril of a plant; CLASP'ING; CLASP'-KNIFE, a knife the blade of which folds into the handle. [M. E. _clapse_, from the root of A.S. _clyppan_, to embrace. See CLIP.] CLASS, klas, _n._ a rank or order of persons or things: high rank or social standing: a number of students or scholars who are taught together: a scientific division or arrangement: the position in order of merit of students after examination.--_v.t._ to form into a class or classes: to arrange methodically.--_v.i._ to take rank.--_adjs._ CLASS'ABLE, CLASS'IBLE, capable of being classed.--_ns._ CLASS'-FELL'OW, CLASS'-MATE, a pupil in the same class at school or college; CLASS'IC, any great writer or work: a student of the ancient classics: a standard work: (_pl._) Greek, Roman, and modern writers of the first rank, or their works.--_adjs._ CLASS'IC, -AL, of the highest class or rank, esp. in literature: originally and chiefly used of the best Greek and Roman writers: (as opposed to _Romantic_) like in style to the authors of Greece and Rome: chaste, refined, in keeping with classical art: famous for literary or historical reasons.--_ns._ CLASSICAL'ITY, CLASS'ICALNESS, the quality of being classical.--_adv._ CLASS'ICALLY.--_ns._ CLASS'ICISM, a classical idiom; CLASS'ICIST, one versed in the classics, or devoted to their being retained in education; CLASS'-LEAD'ER, the leader of a class in a Methodist church; CLASS'MAN, one who has gained honours of a certain class at the Oxford examinations--opp. to _Passman_.--CLASSIC RACES, the five chief annual horse-races--the Two Thousand, One Thousand, Derby, Oaks, and St Leger.--TAKE A CLASS, to take honours in an examination, as opposed to the mere 'pass.' [Fr. _classe_--L. _classis_, cog. with L. _cal[=a]re_, Gr. _kalein_.] CLASSIFY, klas'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to make or form into classes: to arrange:--_pr.p._ class'ifying; _pa.p._ class'ified.--_adjs._ CLASSIF[=I]'ABLE, capable of being classified; CLASSIF'IC, denoting classes.--_n._ CLASSIFIC[=A]'TION, act of forming into classes: distribution into classes.--_adj._ CLASS'IFIC[=A]TORY.--_n._ CLASS'IF[=I]ER. [L. _classis_, and _fac[)e]re_, to make.] CLASSIS, klas'is, _n._ a group: judicatory. [L.] CLASTIC, klas'tik, _adj._ breaking into fragments, fragmental. [Gr. _klastos_--_klan_, to break.] CLATCH, klach, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to daub.--_n._ mire, anything for daubing. CLATCH, klach, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to finish carelessly, to botch.--_n._ a piece of work spoiled or botched. CLATCH, klach, _n._ (_Scot._) a kind of gig. CLATHRATE, klath'r[=a]t, _adj._ latticed--also CLATH'ROID.--_adjs._ CLATH'ROSE, crossed by deep rectangular furrows; CLATH'RULATE, finely clathrate. [L. _clath-r[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to furnish with a lattice--Gr. _kl[=e]thra_, a lattice.] CLATTER, klat'[.e]r, _n._ a repeated rattling noise: a repetition of abrupt, sharp sounds: noisy talk: (_Burns_) gossip.--_v.i._ to make rattling sounds: to rattle with the tongue: to talk fast and idly.--_v.t._ to strike so as to produce a rattling.--_adv._ CLATT'ERINGLY. [Acc. to Skeat, _clatter_ = _clacker_, a freq. of CLACK.] CLAUDE LORRAINE GLASS, _n._ a convex mirror, usually coloured, employed for viewing landscape. [Named after the painter _Claude Lorraine_ (1600-82).] CLAUDIAN, klaw'di-an, _adj._ pertaining to the Roman emperors of the _Claudian_ gens (Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero), or their period (14-68 A.D.). CLAUDICATION, klaw-di-k[=a]'shun, _n._ a halting, a limp. [L.,--_claudus_, lame.] CLAUGHT, kläht, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to snatch.--_n._ a hold, catch. [Cf. CLEEK.] CLAUSE, klawz, _n._ a sentence or part of a sentence: an article or part of a contract, will, &c.--_adj._ CLAUS'ULAR, pertaining to, or consisting of, a clause or clauses. [Fr. _clause_--L. _clausus_--_claud[)e]re_, to shut.] CLAUSTRAL, klaws'tral, _adj._ cloistral, secluded, pertaining to a claustrum.--_ns._ CLAUSTR[=A]'TION, the act of shutting in a cloister; CLAUSTROPH[=O]'BIA, a morbid dread of confined places.--_adj._ CLAUSTROPHOB'IC. CLAUSTRUM, klaws'trum, _n._ a thin layer of gray matter in the substance of the hemispheres of the brain:--_pl._ CLAUS'TRA. [L.] CLAUT, klat, _n._ a kind of rake: (_Scot._) what is raked, a rakeful.--_v.t._ to scratch, claw.--_n.pl._ CLATS, slops.--_adj._ CLAT'TY, dirty. [Perh. conn. with CLAW.] CLAVATE, -D, kl[=a]'v[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ (_bot._) club-shaped: gradually thickening to the top.--_n._ CLAV[=A]'TION, articulation in a socket.--_adjs._ CLAV'ELLATE, having club-shaped processes; CLAV'IFORM, in the form of a club.--_n._ CLAV'IGER, a club-bearer.--_adj._ CLAVIG'EROUS, club-bearing. [From L. _clava_, a club.] CLAVE, kl[=a]v, _pa.t._ of CLEAVE. CLAVECIN, klav'e-sin, _n._ a harpsichord.--_n._ CLAV'ECINIST (_Browning_), a player on the clavecin. [Fr. _clavecin_--L. _clavis_, a key.] CLAVER, kl[=a]'v[.e]r, _n._ idle talk, gossip.--_v.i._ to talk idly. [Scotch; der. uncertain; cf. Gael. _clabaire_.] CLAVICHORD, klav'i-kord, _n._ an obsolete musical instrument, of the same form as the _Harpsichord_ and _Spinet_.--_n._ CLAV'IHARP, a harp struck with keys like a piano. [L. _clavis_, a key, _chorda_, a string.] CLAVICLE, klav'i-kl, _n._ an important part of the pectoral girdle of vertebrates, best known in the collar-bone of man and in the merry-thought of birds--also CLAVIC'ULA.--_adj._ CLAVIC'ULAR. [Fr. _clavicule_--L. _clavicula_, dim. of _clavis_, a key.] CLAVICORN, klav'i-korn, _adj._ having clavate antennæ.--_n._ a member of the _Clavicornia_, a group of _Coleoptera_ or beetles. [L. _clava_, a club, _cornu_, a horn.] CLAVIER, kla-v[=e]r', _n._ the keyboard of a musical instrument: a stringed instrument, esp. the pianoforte. [Fr.,--L. _clavis_, a key.] CLAVIS, kl[)a]'vis, _n._ a key, hence a clue or aid for solving problems, interpreting a cipher, &c.:--_pl._ CL[=A]'VES.--_n._ CLAV'IGER, one who keeps a key, a custodian.--_adj._ CLAVIG'EROUS, keeping keys. [L., a key.] CLAW, klaw, _n._ the hooked nail of a beast or bird: the whole foot of an animal with hooked nails: anything like a claw: an instrument shaped like a claw.--_v.t._ to scratch or tear as with the claws or nails: to scrape; to seize: (_fig._) to flatter, fawn on.--_n._ CLAW'BACK, a toady, flatterer.--_adj._ CLAWED, having claws.--_ns._ CLAW-HAMM'ER, a hammer with one part of the head divided into two claws, with which to extract nails; CLAW'-HAMM'ER-COAT, a facetious name for a dress-coat.--_adj._ CLAW'LESS.--CLAW ME AND I'LL CLAW THEE, favour me and I shall do you good in return. [A.S. _clawu_; cog. with Ger. _klaue_; akin to CLEAVE, to stick.] CLAY, kl[=a], _n._ a tenacious ductile earth: earth in general: the human body: short for clay-pipe, a tobacco-pipe made of baked clay.--_v.t._ to purify with clay, as sugar.--_adjs._ CLAY'-BRAINED (_Shak._), stupid; CLAY'-COLD, cold as clay, lifeless.--_n._ CLAY'-EAT'ER, one addicted to chewing a fatty clay--in Brazil and elsewhere.--_adjs._ CLAYED, clay-like; CLAY'EY, made of clay: covered with clay.--_n._ CLAY'-GROUND, ground consisting mainly of clay.--_adj._ CLAY'ISH, of the nature of clay.--_ns._ CLAY'-MARL, a whitish chalky clay; CLAY'-MILL, a mill for preparing clay; CLAY'-SLATE, an argillaceous rock, splitting readily into thin sheets; CLAY'STONE, one of the concretionary nodules in alluvial deposits.--WET ONE'S CLAY, to drink. [A.S. _clæg_; cf. Dan. _klæg_, Ger. _klei_.] CLAYMORE, kl[=a]'m[=o]r, _n._ a large sword formerly used by the Scottish Highlanders, the old Celtic one-handed, two-edged longsword, now applied inaccurately to the basket-hilted sword of the officers of Highland regiments. [Gael. _claidheamh-mor_--Gael. and Ir. _claidheamh_, sword, _mor_, great.] CLEAN, kl[=e]'n, _adj._ free from dirt, stain, or whatever defiles: pure: guiltless: neat: complete.--_adv._ quite: entirely: cleverly.--_v.t._ to make clean, or free from dirt.--_ns._ CLEAN'OR, that which cleans; CLEAN'ING, the act of making clean.--_adj._ CLEAN'-LIMBED, having well-proportioned limbs: smart.--_n._ CLEAN'LINESS.--_adj._ CLEAN'LY, clean in habits or person: pure: neat.--_adv._ in a cleanly manner.--_n._ CLEAN'NESS.--_adj._ CLEAN'-TIM'BERED (_Shak._), well-proportioned.--CLEAN BILL OF HEALTH (see BILL OF HEALTH).--HAVE CLEAN HANDS, to be free from the guilt of wrong-doing.--MAKE A CLEAN BREAST OF, to own up frankly, to confess fully; SHOW A CLEAN PAIR OF HEELS, to escape by running.--THE CLEAN THING, the right thing to do. [A.S. _cl['æ]ne_; W., Gael. _glan_, shine, polish; Ger. _klein_, small.] CLEANSE, klenz, _v.t._ to make clean or pure.--_adj._ CLEANS'ABLE.--_ns._ CLEANS'ER, one who, or that which, cleanses; CLEANS'ING, purification. CLEAR, kl[=e]r, _adj._ pure, bright, undimmed: free from obstruction or difficulty: plain, distinct: without blemish, defect, drawback, or diminution: conspicuous: transparent.--_adv._ in a clear manner: plainly: wholly: quite.--_v.t._ to make clear: to empty: to free from obscurity, obstruction, or guilt: to free, acquit, or vindicate; to leap, or pass by or over; to make profit: to settle a bill.--_v.i._ to become clear: to grow free, bright, or transparent.--_ns._ CLEAR'AGE, a piece of land cleared; CLEAR'ANCE, act of clearing: removal of hinderances: a certificate that a ship has been cleared at the custom-house--that is, has satisfied all demands and procured permission to sail.--_adjs._ CLEAR'-EYED, clear-sighted, discerning; CLEAR'-HEAD'ED, having a clear understanding, sagacious.--_ns._ CLEAR'ING, the act of making clear: a tract of land cleared of wood, &c., for cultivation: a method by which bankers exchange cheques and drafts, and arrange the differences; CLEAR'ING-HOUSE, a place in London where such clearing business is done; CLEAR'ING-NUT, the seed of _Strychnos potatorum_, used in the East Indies for clearing muddy water.--_adv._ CLEAR'LY, in a clear manner: distinctly.--_ns._ CLEAR'NESS; CLEAR'-OBSCURE' (see CHIAROSCURO).--_adj._ CLEAR'-SIGHT'ED, having clearness of sight: discerning.--_ns._ CLEAR'-SIGHT'EDNESS; CLEAR'-STARCH'ER, a laundress; CLEAR'-STARCH'ING, the act of stiffening linen with clear starch; CLEAR-STORY (see CLERESTORY).--CLEAR OUT, to be off; CLEAR THE WAY, to make the way open; CLEAR UP, to become clear. [Fr. _clair_--L. _clarus_, clear.] [Illustration] CLEAT, kl[=e]t, _n._ a wedge: a piece of wood nailed across anything to keep it in its place or give it an additional strength: a piece of wood fastened on parts of a ship, and having holes or recesses for fastening ropes.--_v.t._ to strengthen with a cleat. [From a supposed A.S. _cléat_; cf. Dut. _kloot_; Dan. _klode_; Ger. _kloss_.] CLEAVE, kl[=e]v, _v.t._ to divide, to split: to separate with violence: to go through: to pierce.--_v.i._ to part asunder: to crack:--_pr.p._ cleav'ing; _pa.t._ cl[=o]ve or cleft; _pa.p._ clov'en or cleft.--_adj._ CLEAV'ABLE, capable of being cleft.--_ns._ CLEAV'AGE, a condition of rocks in which they split easily into thin plates; CLEAV'ER, one who or that which cleaves: a butcher's chopper; CLEAV'ERS, CLIV'ERS, goose-grass--_Galium aperine_, diuretic and sudorific.--_adj._ CLEAV'ING, splitting. [A.S. _cleófan_; cog. with Ger. _klieben_.] CLEAVE, kl[=e]v, _v.i._ to stick or adhere: to unite:--_pr.p._ cleav'ing; _pa.t._ cleaved or cl[=a]ve; _pa.p._ cleaved.--_n._ CLEAV'ING, the act of adhering. [A.S. _clifian_; cog. with Ger. _kleben_, Dut. _kleven_.] CLECHÉ, klesh'[=a], _adj._ (_her._) voided or hollowed throughout, as a cross showing only a narrow bolder. [Fr.] CLECK, klek, _v.t._ to hatch.--_n._ CLECK'ING, a brood. [Scot.,--Ice. _klekja_; cf. Dan. _klække_, to hatch.] CLEDDYO, kled'y[=o], _n._ an antique leaf-shaped bronze Celtic sword. [W. _cleddeu_, _cleddyf_; L. _gladius_.] CLEEK, kl[=e]k, _n._ a large hook for catching hold of something, used in fishing, &c.: an iron-headed golf-club: a peg.--_v.t._ to seize, snatch. [M. E. _kleken_; perh. related to CLUTCH.] CLEF, klef, _n._ a musical character placed on the staff by which the absolute pitch of the notes is fixed. [Fr., from L. _clavis_; Gr. _kleis_, a key.] CLEFT, kleft, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of CLEAVE. CLEFT, kleft, _n._ an opening made by cleaving or splitting: a crack, fissure, or chink.--Also CLIFT (_B._). [Cf. Ger. _kluft_, Dan. _klyft_, a hole.] CLEFT-PALATE. See PALATE. CLEG, kleg, _n._ the gadfly, horse-fly. [Ice. _kleggi_.] CLEM, klem, _v.i._ and _v.t._ to starve. [Prov. Eng. _clam_; Ger. _klemmen_, to pinch.] CLEMATIS, klem'a-tis, _n._ a creeping plant, called also _Virgin's Bower_ and _Traveller's Joy_. [L.,--Gr. _kl[=e]matis_--_kl[=e]ma_, a twig.] CLEMENT, klem'ent, _adj._ mild: gentle: kind: merciful.--_ns._ CLEM'ENCE (_Spens._), CLEM'ENCY, the quality of being clement: mildness: readiness to forgive.--_adv._ CLEM'ENTLY. [Fr.,--L. _clemens_.] CLENCH, klensh. Same as CLINCH. CLEPE, kl[=e]p, _v.t._ (_arch._) to call: to name.--_pa.p._ YCLEPT. [A.S. _clipian_, to call.] CLEPSYDRA, klep'si-dra, _n._ an instrument used by the Greeks and Romans for measuring time by the trickling of water. [L.,--Gr. _klepsydra_--_kleptein_, _klepsein_, to steal, _hyd[=o]r_, water.] CLERESTORY, CLEAR-STORY, cl[=e]r-st[=o]'ri, _n._ an upper row of windows rising above the adjoining parts of the building, probably so named as admitting _clearness_ or light--esp. applied to the windows in the upper part of the central nave of churches. CLERGY, kl[.e]r'ji, _n._ the ministers of the Christian religion, as holders of an allotted office, in contradistinction to the laity.--_adjs._ CLER'GYABLE, CLER'GIABLE, entitled to or admitting of the benefit of clergy.--_ns._ CLER'GYMAN, one of the clergy, a regularly ordained minister; CLER'GY-WOM'AN, a woman belonging to a clergyman's family.--_adjs._ CLER'IC, -AL, belonging to the clergy: pertaining to a clerk.--_ns._ CLER'IC, a clergyman; CLER'ICALISM, undue influence of the clergy, sacerdotalism; CLER'ICATE, clerical position; CLERIC'ITY, state of being a clergyman; CLER'ISY, the class of learned men, scholars.--CLERGYMAN'S SORE THROAT, chronic pharyngitis.--BENEFIT OF CLERGY, originally an exemption of clergymen, in certain cases, from criminal process before a secular judge, but later covering the first offence of all who could read.--BLACK CLERGY, in Russia, the regular or monastic, as distinct from the secular or parochial, clergy. [Fr. _clergé_--L.,--Gr. _kl[=e]rikos_, from _kl[=e]ros_, a lot, then the clergy.] CLERK, klärk, or klerk, _n._ a clergyman or priest: a scholar: one who leads the responses in the English Church service: in common use, one employed as a writer, assistant, copyist, account-keeper, or correspondent in an office.--_v.i._ to act as clerk.--_adj._ CLER'ICAL, pertaining to a clerk or copyist, as in 'clerical error.'--_ns._ CLERK'DOM, CLERK'SHIP; CLERK'ERY, CLERK'AGE, the work of a clerk.--_adjs._ CLERK'ISH, like a clerk; CLERK'LESS, ignorant; CLERK'-LIKE, scholarly.--_n._ CLERK'LING, a young clerk.--_adj._ CLERK'LY, scholarly.--_adv._ in a scholar-like or learned manner.--CLERK OF THE WEATHER, an imaginary functionary facetiously supposed to direct the weather.--BIBLE CLERK, a scholar who reads the lessons in some college chapels. [A.S. _clerc_, a priest--Late L. _clericus_. See CLERGY.] CLEROMANCY, kler'o-man-si, _n._ divination by lots. [Gr. _kl[=e]ros_, lot, _manteia_, divination.] CLER-STORY, an obsolete form of CLERESTORY. CLEUCH, Cleugh, kl[=u]h, _n._ a ravine with steep and precipitous sides. [Scotch form of CLOUGH.] CLEVE, kl[=e]v, _n._ cliff: hillside. [Now rare. M. E. _cleof_, a variant of CLIFF.] CLEVER, klev'[.e]r, _adj._ able or dexterous: ingenious: skilful: (_U.S._) good-natured.--_ns._ CLEVERAL'ITY, CLEV'ERNESS.--_adj._ CLEV'ERISH, somewhat clever.--_adv._ CLEV'ERLY. [Ety. dub.] CLEW, CLUE, kl[=oo], _n._ a ball of thread, or the thread in it: a thread that guides through a labyrinth: anything that solves a mystery: the corner of a sail.--_v.t._ to coil up into a clew or ball: to truss or tie up sails to the yards.--_n._ CLEW'-GAR'NET (_naut._), a tackle for clewing up the smaller square sails for furling.--_n.pl._ CLEW'-LINES, ropes on the smaller square sails by which they are clewed up for furling. [A.S. _cliwen_; cf. Dut. _kluwen_; Ger. _knäuel_.] CLICHÉ, kl[=e]-sh[=a]', _n._ the impression made by a die in any soft metal: an electrotype or stereotype plate. [Fr.,--_clicher_, to stereotype.] CLICK, klik, _n._ a short, sharp clack or sound: anything that makes such a sound, as a small piece of iron falling into a notched wheel: a latch for a gate.--_v.i._ to make a light, sharp sound.--_ns._ CLICK'-CLACK, a continuous clicking noise; CLICK'ER, the compositor who distributes the copy among a companionship of printers, makes up pages, &c.: one who cuts up leather for the uppers and soles of boots and shoes; CLICK'ING, the action of the verb. [Dim. of CLACK.] CLIENT, kl[=i]'ent, _n._ one who employs a lawyer: a dependent.--_n._ CL[=I]'ENTAGE, the whole number of one's clients: the client's relation to the patron.--_adj._ CL[=I]ENT'AL.--_ns._ CL[=I]'ENTELE, a following: the whole connection of a lawyer, shopkeeper, &c.; CL[=I]'ENTSHIP. [L. _cliens_, for _cluens_, one who hears or listens (to advice), from _clu[=e]re_, to hear.] CLIFF, klif, _n._ (_mus._). Same as CLEF. CLIFF, klif, _n._ a high steep rock: the steep side of a mountain.--_adjs._ CLIFFED, CLIFF'Y, having cliffs: craggy. [A.S. _clif_; Dut. _clif_; Ice. _klif_.] CLIFT. See CLEFT (2). CLIFT, klift, _n._ same as CLIFF, the form arising under the influence of CLEFT.--_adjs._ CLIFT'ED, CLIFT'Y, broken into cliffs. CLIMACTERIC, klim-ak-t[.e]r'ik, or klim-ak't[.e]r-ik, _n._ a critical period in human life, in which some great bodily change is supposed to take place: a critical time.--_adj._ pertaining to such a period: critical.--_adj._ CLIMACTER'ICAL.--THE GRAND CLIMACTERIC, the sixty-third year, supposed to be a critical period for men. [Gr. _klimakt[=e]r_--_klimax_, a ladder.] CLIMATE, kl[=i]'m[=a]t, _n._ the condition of a country or place with regard to temperature, moisture, &c.: (_fig._) character of something.--_v.i._ (_Shak._) to remain in a certain place.--_adjs._ CL[=I]'MATAL, CLIMAT'IC, -AL, relating to climate.--_v.t._ CL[=I]'MATISE (see ACCLIMATISE).--_adj._ CLIMATOGRAPH'ICAL.--_n._ CLIMATOG'RAPHY, a description of climates.--_adj._ CLIMATOLOG'ICAL, relating to climatology.--_ns._ CLIMATOL'OGIST, one skilled in the science of climatology; CLIMATOL'OGY, the science of climates, or an investigation of the causes on which the climate of a place depends; CL[=I]'MATURE (_Shak._), climate. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _klima_, _klimatos_, slope--_klinein_, to slope.] CLIMAX, kl[=i]'maks, _n._ (_rhet._) the arranging of the particulars of a portion of a discourse so as to rise in strength to the last: the last term of the rhetorical arrangement: a culmination.--_v.i._ to ascend in a climax: to culminate.--_adjs._ CLIMACT'IC, -AL, pertaining to a climax.--_adv._ CLIMACT'ICALLY. [Gr. _klimax_, a ladder--from _klinein_, to slope.] CLIMB, kl[=i]m, _v.i._ or _v.t._ to ascend or mount by clutching with the hands and feet: to ascend with difficulty: to mount.--_adj._ CLIMB'ABLE, capable of being climbed.--_ns._ CLIMB'ER, one who or that which climbs: (_pl._) an old-fashioned popular title for several orders of birds whose feet are mainly adapted for climbing: (_bot._) those plants which, having weak stems, seek support from other objects, chiefly from other plants, in order to ascend from the ground; CLIMB'ING. [A.S. _climban_; cf. Ger. _klimmen_; conn. with CLAMBER and CLEAVE, to stick.] CLIME, kl[=i]m, _n._ a country, region, tract. [A variety of CLIMATE.] CLINAMEN, klin-[=a]'men, _n._ inclination. [L. _clin[=a]re_, to incline.] CLINANTHIUM, klin-an'thi-um, _n._ the receptacle in a composite plant. [Gr. _klin[=e]_, a bed, _anthos_, a flower.] CLINCH, klinsh, CLENCH, klensh, _v.t._ to fasten or rivet a nail by bending the point and beating the bent part flat against the object through which the nail was driven: to grasp tightly: to set firmly, as the teeth: to fasten on: (_fig._) to drive home an argument: to settle or confirm.--_n._ something set firmly: the fastening of a nail by beating it back, as in the verb: a pun.--_n._ CLINCH'ER, one that clinches: a decisive argument.--_adj._ CLINCH'ER-BUILT (same as CLINKER-BUILT).--_n._ CLINCH'ER-WORK, the disposition of the side planks of a vessel, when the lower edge of one row overlaps the row next under it. [Causal form of _klink_, to strike smartly; Dut. and Ger. _klinken_, to rivet a bolt.] CLING, kling, _v.i._ to adhere or stick close by winding round: to adhere in interest or affection: to remain by an opinion: of wood, to shrink.--_v.t._ to attach: to shrivel:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ clung.--_n._ adherence.--_adjs._ CLING'STONE, having the pulp adhering firmly to the stone (of peaches)--opp. to _Freestone_; CLING'Y, sticky. [A.S. _clingan_, to shrivel up, to draw together.] CLINIC, -AL, klin'ik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to a bed: (_med._) applied to instruction given in hospitals at the bedside of the patient.--_n._ CLIN'IC, one confined to bed by sickness: the teaching of medicine or surgery practically at the bedside of the patient--also CLIN'IQUE.--_adv._ CLIN'ICALLY.--CLINICAL BAPTISM, baptism administered to persons on their sick-bed; CLINICAL CONVERT, one converted on his death-bed; CLINICAL MEDICINE, or SURGERY, medicine or surgery as taught by clinics, a CLINICAL LECTURE being one delivered to students at the bedside of the sick. [Gr. _klinikos_--_klin[=e]_, a bed, from _klinein_, to recline.] [Illustration] CLINK, klingk, _n._ a ringing sound made by the striking together of sounding bodies: jingle.--_v.t._ to cause to make a ringing sound.--_v.i._ to ring or jingle: to go with a clinking sound.--_n._ CLINK'ER, the name given to the scales or globules of black oxide of iron, obtained from red-hot iron under the blows of a hammer: the slags of iron furnaces: the cindery-like masses which form the crust of some lava-flows.--_adj._ CLINK'ER-BUILT, made of planks which overlap each other below (as distinguished from carvel-built) and are fastened together with clinched nails.--_n._ CLINK'STONE, a greenish-gray or brownish compact, or very finely crystalline igneous rock, splitting into slabs, which give a metallic clink when struck by a hammer. [A form of CLICK and CLANK.] CLINK, klingk, _v.t._ to clinch: to rivet. [Scot. for CLINCH.] CLINOMETER, kl[=i]-nom'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring the angle of inclination or dip of a stratum.--_adj._ CLINOMET'RIC.--_n._ CLINOM'ETRY. [Gr. _klinein_, to incline, _metron_, a measure.] CLINQUANT, klingk'ant, _adj._ shining like tinsel: glittering.--_n._ tinsel: glitter. [Fr.,--Dut. _klinken_, to clink.] CLIO, kl[=i]'o, _n._ the muse of history and epic poetry: (_zool._) a genus of shell-less molluscs in the class of Pteropods, swarming in northern and southern seas, and named by the whalers 'whales' food,' one species of which constitutes a principal part of the food of whales. [Gr. _kleein_, to call.] CLIP, klip, _v.t._ to cut by making the blades of shears meet: to cut off: to debase the coin by cutting off the edges: to diminish.--_v.i._ to go quickly:--_pr.p._ clip'ping; _pa.p._ clipped.--_n._ the thing clipped off, as the wool that has been shorn off sheep: a smart blow.--_adj._ CLIPPED, cut short.--_ns._ CLIP'PER, one that clips: a sharp-built, fast-sailing vessel: (_slang_) a dashing person; CLIP'PING, the act of cutting, esp. debasing coin by cutting off the edges: the thing clipped off.--_adj._ superb: fast-going.--CLIP THE WINGS, to cut a bird's wings to prevent it from flying: (_fig._) to restrain ambition: to deprive of the means of rising. [Prob. from Ice. _klippa_, to cut; Dan. _klippe_.] CLIP, klip, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to embrace: to encircle: to hold firmly.--_n._ an instrument for holding things firm. [A.S. _clyppan_, to embrace; Ice. _klýpa_, to pinch; Ger. _kluppe_, pincers.] CLIQUE, kl[=e]k, _n._ a group of persons in union for a purpose: a party or faction: a gang--used generally in a bad sense.--_adj._ CLIQU'ISH, relating to a clique.--_ns._ CLIQU'ISHNESS; CLIQU'ISM, tendency to form cliques. [Fr.; prob. from root of _click_, and so = a noisy conclave. Acc. to Littré, orig. in sense of CLAQUE.] CLISH-CLASH, klish'-klash, CLISHMACLAVER, klish'makl[=a]v'[.e]r, _n._ gossip. [Scot.] CLISTOGAMY, klis-tog'a-mi, _n._ a peculiar dimorphism in the flowers of a plant when these do not expand and are systematically close or self-fertilised.--_adjs._ CLISTOG'AMOUS, CLISTOGAM'IC. [Gr. _kleistos_, closed, _gamos_, marriage.] CLITELLUM, kli-tel'um, _n._ the saddle of an annelid, as the earthworm:--_pl._ CLITELL'A. [L.] CLITHRAL, klith'ral, _adj._ with a roof that forms a complete covering. [Gr.] CLITORIS, kl[=i]'t[=o]-ris, _n._ a homologue of the penis present, as a rudimentary organ, in the female of many higher vertebrates.--_ns._ CL[=I]'TORISM; CLITOR[=I]'TIS. [Gr.] CLITTER, klit'[.e]r, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to make, or cause to make, a shrill rattling noise.--_n._ CLITT'ER-CLATT'ER, idle talk, chatter. [Related to CLATTER.] CLIVERS. Same as CLEAVERS (q.v. under CLEAVE). CLOACA, kl[=o]-[=a]'ka, _n._ a sewer: a privy: a cavity in birds and reptiles, in which the intestinal and urinary ducts terminate: a sink of moral filth:--_pl._ CLOACÆ (kl[=o]-[=a]'s[=e]).--_adjs._ CLO[=A]'CAL, CLO[=A]'CINAL. [L. _clo[=a]ca_--_clu[)e]re_, to purge.] CLOAK, CLOKE, kl[=o]k, _n._ a loose outer garment: a covering: that which conceals: a disguise, pretext.--_v.t._ to clothe with a cloak: to cover: to conceal.--_ns._ CLOAK'-BAG (_obs._), a portmanteau; CLOAK'-ROOM, a room set apart for keeping cloaks, coats, hats, &c., at a theatre, railway station, &c. [O. Fr. _cloke_, _cloque_--Low L. _cloca_, a bell, also a horseman's cape, because bell-shaped, from root of CLOCK.] CLOAM, kl[=o]m, _n._ and _adj._ earthenware, clay, or made of such. [A.S. _clám_, mud. See CLAY.] CLOBBER, klob'[.e]r, _n._ a paste used by shoemakers to hide the cracks in leather. [Ety. dub.] CLOCK, klok, _n._ a machine for measuring time, marking the time by the position of its 'hands' upon the dial-plate, or by the striking of a hammer on a bell: (_Shak._) the striking of the hour.--_n._ CLOCK'WORK, the works or machinery of a clock: machinery steady and regular like that of a clock.--_adj._ automatic.--GO LIKE CLOCKWORK, to go along smoothly and without a hitch.--KNOW WHAT O'CLOCK IT IS, to be wide awake, to know how things are. [M. E. _clokke_, prob. through O. Fr. from Low L. _cloca_, _clocca_, a bell; mod. Fr. _cloche_, Dut. _klok_; Ger. _glocke_, a bell.] CLOCK, klok, _n._ an ornament worked on the side of a stocking.--_adj._ CLOCKED, ornamented with clocks. CLOCK, klok, _n._ a beetle--common name in Scotland. CLOCK, klok, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to cluck: to hatch.--_n._ CLOCK'ER, a clocking hen. [A.S. _cloccian_; Dut. _klokken_.] CLOD, klod, _n._ a thick round mass or lump, that sticks together, esp. of earth or turf: a concreted mass: the ground: the body of man, as formed of clay: a stupid fellow.--_v.t._ to pelt.--_v.i._ to throw clods: (_Scot._) to throw:--_pr.p._ clod'ding; _pa.p._ clod'ded.--_adjs._ CLOD'DISH; CLOD'DY, abounding in clods: earthy.--_n._ CLOD'HOPPER, a countryman: a peasant: a dolt.--_adj._ CLODHOP'PING, boorish.--_adv._ CLOD'LY.--_ns._ CLOD'PATE, CLOD'POLL, a stupid fellow.--_adj._ CLODPAT'ED, stupid. [A later form of CLOT.] CLOFF, klof, _n._ a cleft. [Cf. Ice. _klof_.] CLOFF, klof, _n._ an allowance, on buying goods wholesale, of 2 lb. in every 3 cwt., after tare and tret have been deducted. [Der. unknown.] CLOG, klog, _n._ a piece of wood: anything hindering motion: an obstruction: an impediment: a shoe with a wooden sole.--_v.t._ to fasten a piece of wood to: to accumulate in a mass and cause a stoppage: to obstruct: to encumber: to put clogs on.--_ns._ CLOG'-AL'MANAC, an early form of almanac having the indicating characters notched on wood, horn, &c.; CLOG'-DANCE, a dance performed with clogs, the clatter keeping time to the music.--_adj._ CLOGGED, encumbered.--_ns._ CLOG'GER, one who makes clogs; CLOG'GINESS.--_adj._ CLOG'GY, lumpy, sticky. [Ety. dub.; prob. related to CLAY; cf. Scot. _clag_, to cover with mud; _claggy_, muddy, sticky.] CLOISON, kloi'son, _n._ a partition, dividing fillet or band.--_n._ CLOI'SONNAGE, the process of executing cloisonné work.--_adj._ CLOISONNÉ, partitioned--of a surface decoration in enamel, the outlines of the design formed by small fillets of metal, the interstices filled with coloured enamel paste, vitrified.--_n._ work of this kind. [Fr.] CLOISTER, klois't[.e]r, _n._ a covered arcade forming part of a monastic or collegiate establishment: a place of religious retirement, a monastery or nunnery: an enclosed place.--_v.t._ to confine in a cloister: to confine within walls.--_adjs._ CLOIS'TERAL, CLOIS'TRAL, CLAUS'TRAL, pertaining or confined to a cloister: secluded; CLOIS'TERED, dwelling in cloisters.--_ns._ CLOIS'TERER, one belonging to a cloister; CLOIS'TER-GARTH, the court or yard enclosed by a cloister; CLOIS'TRESS (_Shak._), a nun.--THE CLOISTER, the monastic life. [O. Fr. _cloistre_ (A.S. _clauster_)--L. _claustrum_--_claud[)e]re_, _clausum_, to shut.] CLOKE, kl[=o]k, _n._ Same as CLOAK. CLOMB, kl[=o]m, old _pa.t._ of CLIMB. CLONIC, klon'ik, _adj._ pertaining to clonus, with alternate convulsive contractions and relaxations of the muscles (of spasms)--opp. to _Tonic_.--_n._ CL[=O]'NUS, a clonic spasm. [Gr.] CLOOP, kloop, _n._ the sound made when the cork is drawn from a bottle. [From the sound.] CLOOT, kloot, _n._ a cloven hoof: (_pl._) the devil.--_n._ CLOOT'IE, the devil, because of his cloven hoof. [Scot.; ety. dub.] CLOSE, kl[=o]s, _adj._ shut up: with no opening: confined, unventilated: stifling: narrow: stingy: near, in time or place: intimate: compact, as opposed to _discursive_: crowded: hidden: reserved: private: secret.--_adv._ in a close manner: tightly; nearly: densely.--_n._ an enclosed place: a small enclosed field: a narrow passage of a street: the precinct of a cathedral.--_adjs._ CLOSE'-BAND'ED, closely united; CLOSE'-BARRED, firmly closed; CLOSE'-BOD'IED, fitting close to the body.--_n._ CLOSE'-CORPOR[=A]'TION, a corporation which fills up its own vacancies, without outside interference.--_adjs._ CLOSE'-FIST'ED, CLOSE'-HAND'ED, penurious, covetous; CLOSE'-GRAINED, with the fibres, &c., close together, compact; CLOSE'-HAULED, noting the trim of a ship when sailing as near as possible to the wind.--_adv._ CLOSE'LY.--_ns._ CLOSE'NESS; CLOSE'-STOOL, a chamber utensil enclosed in a box or stool; CLOSE'-SEA'SON, CLOSE'-TIME, a time of the year when it is against the law to kill certain animals, esp. game.--_adj._ CLOSE'-TONGUED (_Shak._), cautious in speaking. [Fr. _clos_, shut--L. _claud[)e]re_, _clausum_, to shut.] CLOSE, kl[=o]z, _v.t._ to make close: to draw together and unite: to finish.--_v.i._ to come together: to grapple: to come to an end (_with_).--_n._ the manner or time of closing: a pause or stop: the end: junction: (_Shak._) encounter.--_ns._ CLOS'ER, one who concludes; CLOS'ING, enclosing: ending: agreement; CLOS'URE, the act of closing: the end: the stopping of a debate in the House of Commons by the vote of the House.--CLOSE A BARGAIN, to make an agreement; CLOSE WITH, to accede to: to grapple with.--WITH CLOSED DOORS, in private, the public being excluded, as in special cases in court, &c. CLOSET, kloz'et, _n._ a small private room: a recess off a room: a privy: the private chamber of a sovereign, an apartment for private audience or council, or for private or domestic devotions.--_v.t._ to shut up in or take into a closet: to conceal:--_pr.p._ clos'eting; _pa.p._ clos'eted.--_n._ BED'-CLOS'ET, a small recess for a bed. [O. Fr. _closet_, dim. of _clos_. See CLOSE.] CLOT, klot, _n._ a mass of soft or fluid matter concreted, as blood.--_v.i._ to form into clots: to coagulate:--_pr.p._ clot'ting; _pa.p._ clot'ted.--_n._ CLOT'POLL (_Shak._), a clodpoll, a blockhead.--_v.t._ CLOT'TER, to coagulate.--_ns._ CLOT'TINESS; CLOT'TING, coagulation.--_adj._ CLOT'TY.--CLOTTED (also CLOUTED) CREAM, a famous Devonshire dainty, skimmed off milk that has been 'scalded' or heated after standing 24 hours, with a little sugar thrown on the top. [A.S. _clott_, a clod of earth; cf. Dut. _klos_, block; Dan. _klods_; Ger. _klotz_.] CLOTH, kloth, _n._ woven material from which garments or coverings are made: clothing: the usual dress of a trade or profession, esp. the clerical:--_pl._ CLOTHS.--_v.t._ CLOTHE (kl[=o]_th_), to cover with a garment: to provide with clothes: (_fig._) to invest as with a garment: to cover:--_pr.p._ cl[=o]th'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ cl[=o]thed or clad.--_n.pl._ CLOTHES (kl[=o]_th_z, _coll._ kl[=o]z), garments or articles of dress: blankets for a bed.--_ns._ CLOTHES'-BAS'KET, a large basket for holding and carrying clothes; CLOTHES'-BRUSH, a brush for clothes; CLOTHES'-HORSE, CLOTHES'-SCREEN, a frame for hanging clothes on to dry; CLOTHES'-LINE, a rope or wire for hanging clothes on to dry; CLOTHES'-MOTH, one of various tineas whose larvæ feed on furs, woollens, &c., spinning cases out of these; CLOTHES'-PIN, a forked piece of wood to secure clothes on a line; CLOTHES'-PRESS, a place for holding clothes; CLOTH'-HALL, a cloth-exchange building or market; CLOTH'IER, one who makes or sells cloth; CLOTH'ING, clothes, garments: covering; CLOTH'-YARD, formerly the yard by which cloth was measured.--CLOTH OF GOLD, a tissue consisting of threads of gold and silk or wool; CLOTH OF STATE, a canopy; CLOTH-YARD SHAFT, an arrow a cloth-yard long.--CLOTHE IN WORDS, to express ideas in words; CLOTHE ON, or UPON, to invest: to cover.--AMERICAN CLOTH, a kind of enamelled cloth, used for covering chairs, &c.--THE CLOTH, the clerical profession: the clergy. [A.S. _cláth_, cloth; Ger. _kleid_, a garment.] CLOTURE, klot'[=u]r, _n._ Same as CLOSURE. [Fr. _clôture_--L. _claud[)e]re_, _clausum_, to shut.] CLOUD, klowd, _n._ a mass of fog, consisting of minute particles of water, often in a frozen state, floating in the atmosphere: (_fig._) anything unsubstantial: a great number or multitude of anything, as the New Test. 'cloud of witnesses:' anything that obscures, as a cloud: a dark spot on a lighter material: a great volume of dust or smoke: anything gloomy, overhanging, or bodeful.--_v.t._ to overspread with clouds: to darken: to defame: to stain with dark spots or streaks.--_v.i._ to become clouded or darkened.--_ns._ CLOUD'AGE; CLOUD'-BERR'Y, a low plant related to the bramble, found on elevated moors in Britain, with an orange-red berry of delightful flavour.--_adj._ CLOUD'-BUILT, made of clouds, unsubstantial.--_n._ CLOUD'-BURST, a sudden flood of rain over a small area.--_adjs._ CLOUD'-CAPT (_Shak._), capped with or touching the clouds; CLOUD'-COMPEL'LING, driving or collecting the clouds, an epithet of Jupiter; CLOUD'ED, hidden by clouds: (_fig._) darkened: indistinct: variegated with spots, as a 'clouded cane,' &c.--_n._ CLOUD'ERY.--_adv._ CLOUD'ILY.--_ns._ CLOUD'INESS; CLOUD'ING, a cloudy appearance.--_adj._ growing dim.--_adjs._ CLOUD'-KISS'ING (_Shak._), touching the clouds; CLOUD'LESS, unclouded, clear.--_adv._ CLOUD'LESSLY.--_n._ CLOUD'LET, a little cloud.--_adjs._ CLOUD'-TOPPED, covered with or touching the clouds; CLOUD'Y, darkened with, or consisting of, clouds: obscure: gloomy: stained with dark spots: (_coll._) 'shady.'--WAIT TILL THE CLOUDS ROLL BY, to wait for more favourable circumstances.--UNDER A CLOUD, in trouble or disfavour. [A.S. _clúd_, a hill, then a cloud, the root idea being a mass or ball. CLOD and CLOT are from the same root.] CLOUGH, kluf, or klow, _n._ a ravine: a valley. [Scot. _cleuch_; ety. dub.] CLOUR, kl[=oo]r, _n._ a knock: a swelling caused by a knock.--_v.t._ to knock: to raise a bump. [Scot.; cf. Ice. _klór_.] CLOUT, klowt, _n._ a piece of cloth used for mending: a rag: a piece of cloth used by archers to shoot at, then the shot itself: a blow: a cuff.--_v.t._ to mend with a patch: to cover with a cloth: to cuff.--_p.adj._ CLOUT'ED (_Shak._), heavy and patched, as shoes having nails in the soles: covered with a clout.--_adj._ CLOUT'ERLY, clownish.--_ns._ CLOUT'-NAIL, a large-headed nail used for the soles of boots; CLOUT'-SHOE, a shoe having the sole protected by clout-nails. [A.S. _clút_; cf. Ice. _klútr_, a kerchief; Dan. _klud_, rag.] CLOUTED, klowt'ed, _p.adj._ clotted, as cream. [See CLOT.] CLOVE, kl[=o]v, _pa.t._ of CLEAVE.--_n._ CLOVE'-HITCH (see HITCH.) CLOVE, kl[=o]v, _n._ the unexpanded flower-bud of the clove-tree, a native of the Moluccas, used as a spice.--_ns._ CLOVE'-GILL'YFLOWER, a clove-scented species of pink; CLOVE'-PINK, a variety of pink which has an odour like that of cloves. [Fr. _clou_, in full _clou de girofle_, nail of the girofle, so called from the shape of the bud and its stalk--L. _clavus_, a nail.] CLOVEN, cl[=o]v'n, _p.adj._ split: divided.--_adjs._ CLOV'EN-FOOT'ED, CLOV'EN-HOOFED, having the hoof divided, as the ox or sheep.--THE CLOVEN HOOF, applied to any indication of devilish agency or temptation, from the early representation of the devil with cloven hoofs--prob. from Pan, some of whose characteristics he shares. [Pa.p. of CLEAVE, to divide.] CLOVER, kl[=o]v'[.e]r, _n._ a genus of plants containing a great number of species, natives chiefly of temperate climates, affording rich pasturage.--_adj._ CLOV'ERED, covered with clover.--_n._ CLOV'ER-GRASS, clover.--_adj._ CLOV'ERY, abounding in clover.--LIVE IN CLOVER, to live luxuriously or in abundance. [A.S. _cláfre_; Dut. _klaver_; Dan. _klöver_; Ger. _klee_.] CLOWN, klown, _n._ a rustic or country-fellow: one with the rough manners of a countryman: an ill-bred fellow: a fool or buffoon.--_ns._ CLOWN'ERY, a clown's performance; CLOWN'ING, acting the clown.--_adj._ CLOWN'ISH, of or like a clown: coarse and awkward: rustic.--_adv._ CLOWN'ISHLY.--_ns._ CLOWN'ISHNESS; CLOWN'SHIP. [Prob. conn. with CLOD, and CLOT.] CLOY, kloi, _v.t._ to fill to loathing: to satiate: (_Spens._) to gore:--_pr.p._ cloy'ing; _pa.p._ cloyed.--_adjs._ CLOYED, clagged: cumbered; CLOY'ING, satiating; CLOY'LESS (_Shak._) that cannot cloy.--_n._ CLOY'MENT (_Shak._), satiety, surfeit.--_adj._ CLOY'SOME, satiating. [Fr. _clouer_, to drive a nail into, to spike or stop, as a gun, from L. _clavus_, a nail.] CLOY, kloi, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to stroke with a claw. [Perh. a corr. of CLAW.] CLUB, klub, _n._ a heavy tapering stick, knobby or massy at one end, used to strike with: a cudgel: a bat used in certain games: an instrument for playing golf, variously with wooden heads, iron heads, and wooden heads with brass soles: a bunch; one of the four suits of cards: a combination: a clique, set: an association of persons for the joint study of literature, politics, &c., or for social ends: an association of persons who possess a building as a common resort for the members: a club-house, or the house occupied by a club.--_v.t._ to beat with a club: to gather into a bunch: to combine: to throw soldiers into confusion.--_v.i._ to join together for some common end: to combine together: to share in a common expense.--_adjs._ CLUB'BABLE, sociable; CLUBBED, like a club.--_n._ CLUB'BING, beating: combination: a disease in some plants.--_adj._ CLUB'BISH, given to clubs.--_ns._ CLUB'BISM, the club system; CLUB'BIST, CLUB'-FOOT, a deformed foot.--_adj._ CLUB'-FOOT'ED.--_n._ CLUB'-GRASS, a species of grass having a club-shaped articulation.--_v.t._ CLUB'-HAUL, (_naut._), to tack by dropping the lee anchor and slipping the cable.--_adj._ CLUB'HEAD'ED, having a thick head.--_ns._ CLUB'-HOUSE, a house for the accommodation of a club; CLUB'-LAW, government by violence; CLUB'-MAN, one who carries a club: a member of a club; CLUB'-MAS'TER, the manager of, or purveyor for, a club; CLUB'-MOSS, one of the four genera of _Lycopodiaceæ_; CLUB'-ROOM, the room in which a club meets; CLUB'-RUSH, a plant of many varieties of the genus _Scripus_ or rush.--_n.pl._ CLUBS (see CLUMPS). [Ice. and Sw. _klubba_; same root as CLUMP.] CLUCK, kluk, _n._ the call of a hen to her chickens: any similar sound.--_v.i._ to make the sound of a hen when calling on her chickens.--_n._ CLUCK'ING, the noise made by a hen when calling her chickens.--_adj._ that clucks. [From the sound, like Dut. _klokken_, Ger. _glucken_, Dan. _klukke_.] CLUE, kl[=oo] (see CLEW).--_adj._ CLUE'LESS, without trace. CLUMBER, klumb'[.e]r, _n._ a kind of spaniel. [_Clumber_, in Notts, a seat of the Duke of Newcastle.] CLUMP, klump, _n._ a thick, short, shapeless piece of anything: a cluster of trees or shrubs: a thick sole put on in addition.--_v.i._ to walk heavily.--_v.t._ to put in a clump.--_n.pl._ CLUMPS, a parlour game of question and answer--also CLUBS.--_adj._ CLUMP'Y, abounding in clumps: heavy. [Prob. Scand.; Dan. _klump_, a lump. Cf. Ger. _klump_, and CLUB.] CLUMSY, klum'zi, _adj._ shapeless: ill-made: unwieldy: awkward: ungainly.--_adj._ CLUM'SILY.--_n._ CLUM'SINESS. [M. E. _clomsen_, to be stiff or benumbed; most prob. Scand.; allied to CLAMP.] CLUNCH, klunsh, _n._ the miner's name for tough indurated clay, sometimes found in the coal-measures. [Ety. dub.; prob. related to CLUMP.] CLUNG, klung, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of CLING. CLUNK, klungk, _n._ the sound of a liquid coming out of a bottle when the cork has been quickly drawn.--_v.i._ to make such a sound. [Scot.; from the sound.] CLUPEOID, kl[=oo]'p[=e]-oid, _n._ a kind of herring. [L. _clupea_, a kind of fish.] CLUSTER, klus't[.e]r, _n._ a number of things of the same kind growing or joined together: a bunch: a mass: a crowd.--_v.i._ to grow or gather into clusters.--_v.t._ to collect into clusters; to cover with clusters.--_adjs._ CLUS'TERED, grouped; CLUS'TERING, CLUS'TERY.--CLUSTERED COLUMN, a pier which consists of several columns or shafts clustered together. [A.S. _clyster_; Low Ger. _kluster_; cf. CLOT.] CLUTCH, kluch, _v.t._ to close the hand: to carry off: to hold firmly: to seize or grasp.--_n._ a grasp; seizure.--_n.pl._ CLUTCH'ES, the hands or paws: cruelty: rapacity. [M. E. _cloche_, _cloke_, claw; prob. allied to M. E. _clechen_--A.S. _gelæccan_. Cf. LATCH.] CLUTCH, kluch, _n._ (_prov._) a brood of chickens, a 'sitting' of eggs.--_v.t._ to hatch. CLUTTER, klut'[.e]r, _n._ confusion: stir: noise.--_v.i._ to crowd together: to go about noisily.--_v.t._ to pack. [A variant of CLATTER.] CLY, kl[=i], _v.t._ (_slang_) to seize, steal.--_ns._ CLY'-FAK'ER, a pickpocket; CLY'-FAK'ING, pocket-picking. [Prob. related to CLAW; referred by some to Dut. _kleed_, a garment, 'to fake a cly' = to take a garment.] CLYPEUS, klip'[=e]-us, _n._ the shield-like part of an insect's head.--_adjs._ CLYP'[=E]AL, CLYP'[=E]ATE, CLYP'[=E]IFORM, in the shape or form of a shield. [L. _clipeus_, _clypeus_, a shield.] CLYSTER, klis't[.e]r, _n._ a liquid injected into the intestines to wash them out.--_n._ CLYS'TER-PIPE (_Shak._), a pipe or syringe for injecting a clyster. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _klyzein_, to wash out.] CNIDA, kn[=i]'da, _n._ one of the thread-cells of the _Coelenterata_, whence is their power of stinging:--_pl._ CN[=I]'DÆ. [Late L.,--Gr. _knid[=e]_, a nettle.] CO., k[=o], an abbreviation for COMPANY. CO-, k[=o], a common prefix, signifying jointness, accompaniment, connection. [L. _cum_, with.] COACH, k[=o]ch, _n._ a large, close, four-wheeled carriage: a private tutor: a professional trainer in athletics.--_v.t._ to carry in a coach: to tutor, instruct, prepare others for, as an examination or a rowing contest, &c.--_v.t._ to study under a tutor.--_ns._ COACH'-BOX, the seat on which the driver of a coach sits; COACH'DOG, a spotted dog, kept chiefly as an attendant on coaches, called also _Dalmatian Dog_; COACH'EE, COACH'Y, a coachman; COACH'-FELL'OW, a yoke-fellow, comrade; COACH'-HIRE, money paid for the use of a hired coach; COACH'-HORSE, a horse used for drawing a coach; COACH'-HOUSE, a house to keep a coach in; COACH'ING, travelling by coach: tutoring: instruction; COACH'MAN, the driver of a coach; COACH'-OFF'ICE, a booking-office for passengers and parcels by stage-coach; COACH'-STAND, a place where coaches stand for hire; COACH'-WHEEL; COACH'-WHIP.--_adj._ COACH'Y, pertaining to a coach. [Fr. _coche_--Hung. _kocsi_ (pron. kot'shi), from _Kocs_, a place south of Komorn.] COACT, k[=o]-akt', _v.i._ (_Shak._) to act together.--_adj._ COACT'IVE (_Shak._), acting together.--_n._ COACTIV'ITY. COACT, k[=o]-akt', _v.t._ to compel.--_n._ COAC'TION, compulsion.--_adj._ COACT'IVE, compulsory. [L. _cog[)e]re_, _coactum_, to compel.] COADJACENT, k[=o]-ad-j[=a]s'ent, _adj._ contiguous.--_n._ COADJAC'ENCY. [CO- and ADJACENT.] COADJUTANT, k[=o]-ad-j[=oo]'tant, or ko-ad'joo-tant, _adj._ mutually helping or assisting.--_n._ one of several who help another.--_ns._ COADJU'TOR, a helper or assistant: an associate:--_fem._ COADJU'TRESS, COADJU'TRIX; COADJU'TORSHIP. [L. _co_, with, _adjutor_, a helper--_ad_, to, _juv-[=a]re_, to help.] COADUNATE, k[=o]-ad'[=u]-n[=a]t, _v.t._ to unite: to combine.--_n._ COADUN[=A]'TION.--_adj._ COAD'UN[=A]TIVE. [CO-, and L. _adun[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to unite.] CO-AGENCY, k[=o]-[=a]'jen-si, _n._ agency with another.--_n._ CO-[=A]'GENT, one acting with another. COAGULATE, k[=o]-ag'[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to make to curdle or congeal.--_v.i._ to curdle or congeal.--_adj._ clotted: congealed.--_n._ COAGULABIL'ITY.--_adj._ COAG'ULABLE.--_ns._ COAG[=U]'LANT, a substance which causes coagulation, as rennet; COAGUL[=A]'TION.--_adjs._ COAG'UL[=A]TIVE; COAG'UL[=A]TORY.--_n._ COAG'ULUM, what is coagulated. [L. _coagul[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, _co-_, together, _ag-[)e]re_, to drive.] COAITA, k[=o]-[=i]'ta, _n._ a small South American monkey--the red-faced Spider Monkey. COAL, k[=o]l, _n._ a solid, black, combustible substance used for fuel, dug out of the earth: cinder.--_v.i._ to take in coal.--_v.t._ to supply with coal.--_n._ COAL'-BED, a stratum of coal.--_adj._ COAL'-BLACK, black as coal, very black.--_ns._ COAL'-BOX, a box for holding coal; COAL'-BRASS, a name applied to the pyrites in the coal-measures; COAL'FIELD, a field or district containing coal strata; COAL'-FISH, a fish of the cod family, so named from the black colour of its back; COAL'-GAS, the mixture of gases produced by the destructive distillation of coal, chiefly carburetted hydrogen--giving the gaslight in common use; COAL'-HEAV'ER, one employed in carrying coal; COAL'-HOUSE, a covered-in place for keeping coal; COAL'MAN, one who has to do with coals; COAL'-MAS'TER, the owner or lessee of a coalfield; COAL'-MEAS'URE, a measure by which the quantity of coal is ascertained: (_pl._) the group of carboniferous strata in which coal is found (_geol._); COAL'-MINE, COAL'-PIT, a pit or mine from which coal is dug; COAL'-OWN'ER, one who owns a colliery; COAL'-PLANT, a fossil plant of the carboniferous strata; COAL'-SCUTT'LE, a vessel for holding coal; COAL'-TAR, or _Gas-tar_, a thick, black, opaque liquid which condenses in the pipes when coal or petroleum is distilled; COAL'-TRIM'MER, one who stores or shifts coal on board vessels; COAL'-WHIP'PER, one employed in unloading coal from vessels at anchor to barges which convey it to the wharves.--_adj._ COAL'Y, of or like coal.--COALING STATION, a port at which steamships take in coal; COAL-SCUTTLE BONNET, a woman's bonnet, shaped like a coal-scuttle upside down.--BLIND or ANTHRACITE COAL, that which does not flame when kindled; BITUMINOUS COAL, that which does; BROWN COAL (see BROWN); CAKING COAL, a bituminous coal which cakes or fuses into one mass in the fire; CANNEL or PARROT COAL (see CANNEL); CHERRY or SOFT COAL, coal breaking off easily into small, irregular cubes, having beautiful shining lustre; SPLINT, HARD, or BLOCK COAL, plentiful in Scotland, hard, breaking into cuboidal blocks.--BLOW THE COALS, to excite passion; CARRY COALS TO NEWCASTLE, to take a thing where it is least needed; HAUL OVER THE COALS, reprimand--from the discipline applied to heretics; HEAP COALS OF FIRE ON THE HEAD, to excite remorse by returning good for evil (Rom. xii. 20). [A.S. _col_; cog. with Ice. _kol_, Ger. _kohle_.] COALESCE, k[=o]-al-es', _v.i._ to grow together or unite into one body: to associate.--_adj._ COALES'CENT, uniting.--_n._ COALES'CENCE, union. [L. _coalesc[)e]re_, _co-_, together, and _alesc[)e]re_, to grow up.] COALITION, k[=o]-al-ish'un, _n._ act of coalescing, or uniting into one body: a union of persons, states, &c., which agree to sink their differences and act in common: alliance.--_v.i._ C[=O]'ALISE, to make an alliance.--_n._ COALI'TIONIST, one of a coalition. COAMINGS, k[=o]m'ingz, _n.pl._ (_naut._) raised work about the edges of the hatches of a ship to prevent the water from running into the apartments below. [Der. unknown.] COAPTATION, ko-ap-t[=a]'shun, _n._ adaptation of parts to each other. [L.] COARB. See COMARB. COARCTATE, k[=o]-ark't[=a]t, _adj._ compressed.--_n._ COARCT[=A]'TION. [L. _coart[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to compress together.] COARSE, k[=o]rs, _adj._ rough: rude: uncivil: vulgar: harsh: gross.--_adj._ COARSE'-GRAINED, coarse in the grain, as wood: (_fig._) inelegant, gross.--_adv._ COARSE'LY.--_v.t._ COARS'EN, to make coarse.--_n._ COARSE'NESS.--_adj._ COARS'ISH, somewhat coarse. [From phrase 'in course,' hence _ordinary_.] COAST, k[=o]st, _n._ side or border of land next the sea: the seashore: limit or border of a country.--_v.i._ to sail along or near a coast: to travel downhill on a bicycle with the feet on the foot-rests.--_v.t._ to sail by or near to.--_ns._ COAST'ER, a vessel that sails along the coast; COAST'-GUARD, a body of men organised to act as a guard along the coast, originally intended to prevent smuggling.--_adj._ COAST'ING, keeping near the coast: trading between ports in the same country.--_n._ the act of sailing, or of trading, along the coast: advances towards acquaintance, courtship: riding downhill on a bicycle with the feet up.--_ns._ COAST'-LINE, the line or boundary of a coast: shore-line; COAST'-WAIT'ER, a custom-house officer who waits upon and superintends the cargoes of vessels engaged in the coasting trade.--_advs._ COASTWARD, -S, toward the coast; COAST'WISE, along the coast.--_adj._ carried on along the coast. [O. Fr. _coste_ (Fr. _côte_)--L. _costa_, a rib, side.] COAT, k[=o]t, _n._ a kind of outer garment: the hair or wool of a beast: vesture or habit: any covering: a garment worn by women and children, and hanging from the waist downwards: a membrane or layer, such as paint, &c.: a coat of arms.--_v.t._ to clothe: to cover with a coat or layer.--_ns._ COAT'-ARM'OUR, coat of arms: armorial devices; COAT'-CARD, a card bearing the representation of a coated figure, the king, queen, or knave--now, less correctly, called _Court-card_; COATEE', a close-fitting coat with short tails; COAT'ING, a covering: cloth for coats.--COAT OF ARMS, the family insignia embroidered on the surcoat worn over the hauberk, or coat of mail: the heraldic bearings of a gentleman; COAT OF MAIL, a piece of armour for the upper part of the body, made of metal scales or rings linked one with another.--TURN ONE'S COAT, to change one's principles, or to turn from one party to another. [O. Fr. _cote_ (Fr. _cotte_)--Low L. _cottus_, _cotta_, a tunic; the further ety. is uncertain.] COATI, k[=o]-ä'ti, or k[=o]'a-ti, _n._ an American plantigrade carnivorous mammal allied to the raccoons.--Also COÄ'TI-MUN'DI. [Tupi.] COAX, k[=o]ks, _v.t._ to persuade by fondling or flattery: to humour or soothe: to pet.--_ns._ COAX, COAX'ER, one who coaxes.--_adv._ COAX'INGLY. [M. E. _cokes_, a simpleton; of obscure origin.] CO-AXIAL, k[=o]-ak'si-al, _adj._ having the same axis.--_adv._ COAX'IALLY. COB, kob, _n._ a head of maize: a short-legged strong horse for heavy weights: a male swan--also COB'-SWAN.--_ns._ COB'LOAF, a large loaf: (_Shak._) an expression of contempt; COB'NUT, a large variety of the hazel-nut: a game played by children with nuts. [Prob. conn. with COP.] COB, kob, _n._ a kind of composition of clay and straw for building.--_n._ COB'-WALL, a wall built of this. COB, kob, _v.t._ to strike, to thump the buttocks. COBALT, k[=o]'bawlt, _n._ a metal the ores of which are sparingly distributed--in the metallic state found in meteoric stones or aerolites, generally occurring combined with arsenic: a blue pigment, prepared from the foregoing--also C[=O]'BALT-BLUE.--_adj._ of this deep-blue colour.--_adjs._ COBALT'IC; COBALTIF'EROUS.--_n._ C[=O]'BALTITE, a sulpharsenide of cobalt. [Ger. _kobalt_, from _kobold_, a demon, a nickname given by the German miners, because they supposed it to be a mischievous and hurtful metal.] COBBLE, kob'l, _n._ a stone worn smooth by water.--_n._ COBB'LE-STONE, a rounded stone used in paving.--_v.t._ to pave with such. [Ety. dub.] COBBLE, kob'l, _v.t._ to patch up or mend coarsely, as shoes.--_ns._ COBB'LER, one who cobbles or mends shoes: a drink made up of wine, sugar, &c., and sucked through a straw; COBBLER'S PUNCH, a warm drink made of beer, with the addition of spirit, sugar, and spice. [Der. unknown.] CO-BELLIGERENT, k[=o]-be-lij'e-rent, _adj._ and _n._ co-operating in warfare. COBLE, COBBLE, kob'l, _n._ a small flat-bottomed fishing-boat. [Cf. W. _ceubal_, a hollow trunk, a boat.] COBRA, COBRA DA CAPELLO, k[=o]'bra da ka-pel'o, _n._ a poisonous snake, native of the East Indies, which dilates the back and sides of the neck so as to resemble a hood. [Port., lit. 'snake of the hood.'] COBURG, k[=o]'burg, _n._ a thin fabric of worsted with cotton or silk, twilled on one side. [_Coburg_, a town in Germany.] COBWEB, kob'web, _n._ the spider's web or net: any snare or device intended to entrap: anything flimsy or easily broken: anything that obscures.--_n._ COBWEB'BERY.--_adj._ COB'WEBBY. [Prob. shortened from M. E. _atter-cop-web_--A.S. _átor_, poison, and _coppa_--W. _cop_, a head, tuft. See also WEB.] COCA, k[=o]'ka, _n._ a shrub of six or eight feet high, of which the leaves furnish an important narcotic and stimulant.--_ns._ COCAINE (k[=o]'kä-in), a local anæsthetic made from coca-leaves, and much used in dentistry and surgical operations; COCAINIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ C[=O]'CAINISE.--_n._ C[=O]'CAINISM, a morbid condition induced by over-use of cocaine. [Sp.,--Peruv.] COCAGNE, COCAIGNE. Same as COCKAIGNE. COCCIFEROUS, kok-sif'[.e]r-us, _adj._ berry-bearing. [L. _coccum_ (--Gr. _kokkos_), a berry, and _ferre_, to bear.] COCCOLITE, kok'[=o]-l[=i]t, _n._ a variety of pyroxene: a small rounded body found in deep-sea mud.--Also COCC'OLITH. [Gr. _kokkos_, a berry, _lithos_, a stone.] COCCUS, kok'us, _n._ one of the carpels or seed-vessels of a dry fruit: (_zool._) a genus of insects in the order _Hemiptera_, and type of a family including many forms injurious to plants, and a few others useful to man.--_n._ COCC'ULUS, a tropical genus of climbing plants (_Menispermaceæ_).--COCCULUS INDICUS, a drug consisting of the dried fruit of _Anamirta cocculus_, having narcotic and poisonous properties--yielding _picrotoxin_. [L.,--Gr. _kokkos_, a berry.] COCCYX, kok'siks, _n._ (_anat._) the lower bone of the vertebral column:--_pl._ COC'CYGES.--_adjs._ COCCYG'[=E]AL, COCCYG'IAN. [Gr. _kokkyx_, the cuckoo, from its bill.] COCH, koch, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as COACH. COCHIN, k[=o]'chin, _n._ a large-sized variety of the domestic hen, with feathered legs, full breast, small tail.--_n._ C[=O]'CHIN-CHIN'A, a large-sized hen originally from _Cochin-China_.--_adj._ C[=O]'CHIN-CHINESE'. COCHINEAL, koch'i-n[=e]l, _n._ a scarlet dye-stuff consisting of the dried bodies of certain insects gathered from the cactus plant in Mexico, the West Indies, &c.: the insect itself. [Sp. _cochinilla_, dim. of L. _coccinus_--Gr. _kokkos_, a berry, as the cochineal was formerly supposed to be the berry or seed of the plant.] COCHLEA, kok'le-a, _n._ a spiral-shaped shell, esp. the snail-shell: (_anat._) the spiral cavity of the ear.--_adjs._ COCHLEAR'IFORM; COCH'LEARY, COCH'LE[=A]TE, COCH'LE[=A]TED, twisted. [L.,--Gr. _kochlias_, a snail.] COCK, kok, _n._ the male of birds, particularly of the domestic fowl: the time of cock-crowing: a weathercock: a plucky chap, a term of familiarity, as 'Old cock:' a strutting chief or leader: anything set erect: a tap for liquor: part of the lock of a gun, held back by a spring, which, when released by the trigger, produces the discharge.--_v.t._ to set erect or upright: to set up, as the hat: to draw back the cock of a gun: to turn up to one side: to tilt up knowingly, inquiringly, or scornfully.--_v.i._ to strut: to swagger.--_ns._ COCK[=A]DE', a knot of ribbons or something similar worn on the hat as a badge; COCKAL[=O]'RUM, a bumptious little person: a boy's game; COCK'-BROTH, the broth made from a boiled cock; COCK'CHAFER, the May-bug, an insect of a pitchy-black colour, most destructive to vegetation; COCK'-CROW, -ING, early morning, the time at which cocks crow.--_adj._ COCKED, set erect: turned up at one side.--_ns._ COCK'ER, one who follows cock-fighting: a small dog of the spaniel kind employed by sportsmen in pheasant and woodcock shooting; COCK'EREL, a young cock: a young man--also COCK'LE, whence COCK'LE-BRAINED, foolish; COCK'-EYE, a squinting eye: the loop by which a trace is attached to the whipple-tree.--_adj._ COCK'-EYED.--_ns._ COCK'-FIGHT, -ING, a fight or contest between game-cocks: a fight; COCK'-HORSE, a child's rocking-horse.--_adj._ prancing, proud.--_adv._ properly _a-cock-horse_ = _on cock-horse_, on horseback: exultingly.--_ns._ COCK'LAIRD (_Scot._), a yeoman; COCK'LOFT, the room in a house next the roof; COCK'-MATCH, a cock-fight; COCK'PIT, a pit or enclosed space where game-cocks fought: a room in a ship-of-war for the wounded during an action; COCK'ROACH, the common black beetle; COCKS'COMB, the comb or crest on a cock's head: a fop: the name of various plants; COCK'SHUT (_Shak._), twilight, probably referring to the time when poultry are shut up; COCK'-SHY, a free throw at a thing, as for amusement.--_adj._ COCK'-SURE, quite sure, often without cause.--_n._ COCK'SWAIN (see COXSWAIN).--_adjs._ COCK'SY, COX'Y, bumptious.--_n._ COCK'TAIL, a racing horse that is not thoroughbred: one who apes the gentleman: (_U.S._) a drink of spirits flavoured with various ingredients.--_adjs._ COCK'TAILED, having the tail cocked or tilted up; COCK'Y, impudent.--_ns._ COCK'Y-LEEK'Y, soup made of a fowl boiled with leeks; COCK'YOLLY, a nursery or pet name for a bird.--COCK-A-DOODLE-DOO, the cry of the cock; COCK-A-HOOP, a phrase expressing reckless exultation; COCK AND PIE, used as an exclamation (see PIE, 2); COCKED HAT, the old-fashioned three-cornered hat, the triangular pointed hat worn as part of some full-dress uniforms: a note folded into a three-cornered shape; COCK OF THE WALK, chief of a set; COCK'S-FOOT GRASS, a genus of grasses very abundant in Britain, and furnishing an important part of both natural and artificial pastures; COCK THE EYE (_coll., humorous_), to wink.--A COCK-AND-BULL STORY, an incredible tale.--FULL-COCK, when the cock of a gun is drawn full back: when a tap is full open; HALF-COCK, the position of the cock of a gun when drawn back half the whole distance.--KNOCK INTO A COCKED HAT, 'to lick out of shape:' to give a profound beating. [A.S. _coc_; Ice. _kokkr_.] COCK, kok, _n._ a small pile of hay.--_adj._ COCKED, heaped up in cocks. [Sw. _koka_, a lump of earth; Dut. _kogel_; Ger. _kugel_, a ball.] COCK, kok, _n._ (_Shak._) a cock-boat. Now COCK-BOAT. COCK, perversion of the word _God_.--COCK AND PIE (see PIE, 2). COCK-A-BON'DY, kok-a-bon'di, _n._ a fly for angling. [A corr. of Welsh _coch a bon ddu_, red, with black stem.] COCKAIGNE, COCKAYNE, kok-[=a]n', _n._ an imaginary country of luxury and delight. [Ety. dub.; Fr. _cocagne_, acc. to some from L. _coqu[)e]re_, to cook.] COCKATOO, kok-a-t[=oo]', _n._ a popular name for several genera and species of parrots. [Malay, _kakatúa_, prob. from its cry.] COCKATRICE, kok'a-tr[=i]s, _n._ a fabulous monster like a serpent, often confounded with the Basilisk (q.v.), and regarded as possessing similar deadly powers. [O. Fr. _cocatrice_.] COCK-BOAT, kok'-b[=o]t, _n._ a small ship's boat: a small frail boat. [See COG, a small boat.] COCKER, kok'[.e]r, _v.t._ to pamper: to fondle: to indulge. [Ety. dub.; cf. Dut. _kokelen_, O. Fr. _coqueliner_, to dandle.] COCKERNONY, kok'[.e]r-non-i, _n._ (_Scot._) the gathering of a young woman's hair, when it is wrapped up in a band or fillet, commonly called a 'snood' (_Jamieson_). COCKET, kok'et, _n._ the custom-house official seal: a document given by the officers of the custom-house to merchants, as a warrant that their goods are duly entered: the office where such goods are entered. [Perh. a corr. of the words _quo quietus_.] COCKLE, kok'l, _n._ a troublesome weed among corn, with a purple flower. [A.S. _coccel_.] COCKLE, kok'l, _n._ a large and typical genus of bivalve molluscs, having a thick, ribbed, heart-shaped, equal-valved shell.--_adj._ COCK'LED, shelled like a cockle.--_ns._ COCK'LE-HAT, a hat bearing a scallop-shell, the badge of a pilgrim; COCK'LE-SHELL, the shell of a cockle: a frail boat.--THE COCKLES OF THE HEART, the heart itself. [Fr. _coquille_--Gr. _kongchylion_--_kongch[=e]_, a cockle.] COCKLE, kok'l, _v.i._ to pucker into wrinkles or ridges.--_v.t._ to cause to pucker. COCKLE, kok'l, _n._ the fire-chamber of an air-stove. COCKNEY, kok'ne, _n._ (_Shak._) an affected, effeminate person, knowing the manners of the town, but a stranger to what every child else knows: a townsman as opposed to a countryman: one born in London, but strictly in a particular part of London.--_ns._ COCK'NEYDOM, the domain of Cockneys; COCKNEYFIC[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ COCK'NEYFY, to make Cockney.--_adj._ COCK'NEYISH.--_n._ COCK'NEYISM, the dialect or manners of a Cockney.--THE COCKNEY SCHOOL, a school of writers belonging to London, who flourished in the first half of the nineteenth century. [M. E. _coken-ey_, prob. lit. 'cock's egg;' cf. Fr. _coco_, an egg, a darling, a chap. Others would connect with Fr. _coquin_, a rogue--L. _coquus_, a cook.] COCO, COCOA, k[=o]'k[=o], _n._ a palm-tree growing in tropical countries, and producing the coco-nut.--_ns._ C[=O]'CO-NUT, C[=O]'COA-NUT, the well-known fruit of the coco-palm: (_slang_) a man's head. [Port. and Sp. _coco_, a bugbear; applied to the nut from the three marks at the end of it, which form a grotesque face.] COCOA, k[=o]'k[=o], _n._ the seed of the cacao or chocolate tree: a beverage made from the seeds crushed and ground. [A corr. of CACAO.] COCOON, ko-k[=oo]n', _n._ the silken sheath spun by the larvæ of many insects in passing into the pupa or resting stage.--_n._ COCOON'ERY, a place for keeping silkworms when feeding and spinning cocoons. [Fr. _cocon_, from _coque_, a shell--L. _concha_, a shell.] COCTION, kok'shun, _n._ the act of boiling or cooking.--_adj._ COC'TILE, baked: hardened by fire, as a brick. [L. _coqu[)e]re_, _coctum_, to boil, to cook.] COD, kod, CODFISH, kod'fish, _n._ a species of fish much used as food, found in the northern seas.--_ns._ COD'-FISHER; COD'-FISH'ERY; COD'-FISH'ING; COD'LING, a small cod.--COD-LIVER OIL, a medicinal oil extracted from the fresh liver of the common cod. [Ety. dub.] COD, kod, _n._ a husk or shell containing seeds: the scrotum.--_adjs._ COD'DED, enclosed in a cod; COD'DING (_Shak._), wanton.--_n._ COD'-PIECE, a baggy appendage worn in front of the tight hose of the middle ages. [A.S. _codd_, a small bag.] COD, kod, _n._ (_Scot._), a pillow. [Old Dan. _kodde_, Ice. _koddi_, a pillow.] COD, kod, _n._ (_slang_) applied to persons, with various meanings: a joke.--_v.t._ to impose on. [Ety. dub.; conn. with CODGER.] CODDLE, kod'l, _v.t._ to pamper: to fondle: to parboil.--_n._ an effeminate person. [Ety. dub.] CODE, k[=o]d, _n._ a collection or digest of laws: a system of rules and regulations: a system of signs used in the army.--_ns._ CODIFIC[=A]'TION; CODI'F[=I]ER, COD'IST, one who codifies.--_v.t._ COD'IFY, to put into the form of a code: to digest: to systematise:--_pr.p._ cod'ifying; _pa.p._ cod'ified.--CODE TELEGRAM, a telegram whose text in itself has no meaning, but where the words are merely arbitrary symbols for other words known to the receiver.--THE CODE, esp. the rules and regulations regarding government schools and teachers. [Fr. _code_--L. _codex_.] CODEX, k[=o]'deks, _n._ a code: a manuscript volume:--_pl._ CODICES (kod'i-s[=e]z). [L. _codex_ or _caudex_, the trunk of a tree, a set of tablets, a book.] CODGER, koj'[.e]r, _n._ a mean fellow: an old person: a chap. [Prob. a variant of CADGER.] CODICIL, kod'i-sil, _n._ a short writing or note added as a supplement to a will.--_adj._ CODICILL'ARY. [L. _codicillus_, dim. of _codex_.] CODILLA, k[=o]-dil'a, _n._ the coarsest part of hemp or flax, sorted out and separated from the rest. [Dim. of It. _coda_--L. _cauda_, a tail.] CODILLE, k[=o]-dil, _n._ a term at ombre when the player gets fewer tricks than one of his opponents. [Fr.] CODLING, kod'ling, CODLIN, kod'lin, _n._ a variety of apple.--_n._ COD'LIN-MOTH, the moth whose larvæ cause the 'worm-eaten' apples which fall prematurely off. [Ety. dub.] COEFFICIENT, k[=o]-ef-fish'ent, _n._ that which acts together with another thing: (_math._) the numerical or literal factor prefixed to an unknown quantity in any algebraic term.--_n._ COEFFI'CIENCY.--_adv._ COEFFI'CIENTLY. COEHORN, COHORN, k[=o]'horn, _n._ a small mortar for throwing grenades. [From Baron van _Coehoorn_ (1641-1704).] COELENTERATA, s[=e]-len-ter-[=a]'ta, _n._ the technical name for the second lowest alliance of many-celled animals--radially symmetrical, without any body-cavity distinct from the alimentary tube.--_adj._ COELEN'TER[=A]TE. [Gr. _koilos_, hollow, and _enteron_, intestine.] COELIAC, s[=e]'li-ak, _adj._ relating to the belly. [L. _coeliacus_--Gr. _koilia_, the belly.] COEMPTION, ko-emp'shun, _n._ the purchasing of the whole of a commodity: in Roman law, a mode of marriage under the fiction of a mutual sale. [CO-, and L. _em[)e]re_, to buy.] COENESTHESIS, s[=e]-nes-th[=e]'sis, _n._ the general bodily consciousness. [Gr. _koinos_, common, _aisth[=e]sis_, perception.] COENOBITE, CENOBITE, sen'o-b[=i]t, _n._ a monk who lives along with others of a like mind with himself, in contradistinction to anchorites or hermits.--_adjs._ COENOBIT'IC, -AL; CENOBIT'IC, -AL.--_ns._ COEN'OBITISM, CEN'OBITISM; COEN[=O]'BIUM, a religious community. [Gr. _koinobion_--_koinos_, common, and _bios_, life.] COEQUAL, ko-[=e]'kwal, _adj._ equal with another person or thing: of the same rank or dignity.--_n._ one of the same rank.--_n._ COEQUAL'ITY.--_adv._ CO[=E]'QUALLY. COERCE, k[=o]-[.e]rs', _v.t._ to restrain by force: to compel.--_adj._ COER'CIBLE.--_adv._ COER'CIBLY.--_ns._ COER'CION, restraint: government by force; COER'CIONIST.--_adj._ COER'CIVE, having power to coerce: compelling.--_adv._ COER'CIVELY.--_n._ COER'CIVENESS. [L. _coerc[=e]re_--_co-_, together, _arc[=e]re_, to shut in.] CO-ESSENTIAL, k[=o]-es-sen'shal, _adj._ partaking of the same essence.--_n._ CO-ESSENTIAL'ITY. COETANEOUS, k[=o]-[=e]-t[=a]n'e-us, _adj._ of the same age: contemporary. [CO-, and L. _ætas_, _ætatis_, age.] CO-ETERNAL, k[=o]-[=e]-t[.e]r'nal, _adj._ equally eternal with another.--_adv._ CO-ETER'NALLY.--_n._ CO-ETER'NITY. COEVAL, k[=o]-[=e]'val, _adj._ of the same age.--_n._ one of the same age: a contemporary. [L. _coævus_, _co-_, together, and _ævum_, age.] CO-EXIST, k[=o]-egz-ist', _v.i._ to exist at the same time.--_n._ CO-EXIST'ENCE.--_adj._ CO-EXIST'ENT. CO-EXTEND, k[=o]-eks-tend', _v.i._ to extend equally with.--_n._ CO-EXTEN'SION.--_adj._ CO-EXTEN'SIVE. COFF, kof, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to buy.--_pa.p._ COFT. COFFEE, kof'[=e], _n._ a drink made from the seeds of the coffee-tree, a native of Arabia: the powder made by roasting and grinding the seeds.--_ns._ COFF'EE-BEAN, the seed of the coffee-plant; COFF'EE-BERR'Y, the fruit of the coffee-tree; COFF'EE-BUG, the _Lecanium coffeæ_, destructive to the coffee-plant; COFF'EE-CUP, a cup for coffee; COFF'EE-HOUSE, a house where coffee and other refreshments are sold; COFF'EE-MILL, a small mill or machine for grinding coffee-beans; COFF'EE-POT, a pot or vessel in which coffee is prepared and served; COFF'EE-ROOM, a room in a hotel where coffee and other refreshments are served. [Turk. _qahveh_--Ar. _qahwah_, orig. meaning wine.] COFFER, kof'[.e]r, _n._ a chest for holding money or treasure: (_pl._) the whole wealth of a person: a deep panel in a ceiling.--_v.t._ to hoard up.--_n._ COFF'ERDAM, a water-tight structure used in engineering for excluding the water from the foundations of bridges, quay walls, &c., so as to allow of their being built dry.--_adj._ COFF'ERED. [O. Fr. _cofre_, a chest--L. _cophinus_, a basket--Gr. _kophinos_.] COFFIN, kof'in, _n._ the coffer or chest in which a dead body is enclosed.--_v.t._ to place within a coffin.--_n._ COFF'IN-SHIP, a ship that is unsound, and likely to prove fatal to those in it.--DRIVE A NAIL IN ONE'S COFFIN, to do something tending to hasten death or ruin. [O. Fr. _cofin_--L. _cophinus_--Gr. _kophinos_.] COFFLE, kof'l, _n._ a gang, esp. of slaves. [Ar. _q[=a]filah_, a caravan.] COG, kog, _v.t._ to cheat or deceive: to wheedle: to cog dice is to manipulate them so that they may fall in a given way.--_n._ the act of cheating: deception.--_p.adj._ COG'GING, cheating. [No doubt from the succeeding word.] COG, kog, _n._ a catch or tooth on a wheel.--_v.t._ to fix teeth in the rim of a wheel: to stop a wheel by putting a block before it:--_pr.p._ cog'ging; _pa.p._ cogged.--_n._ COG'-WHEEL, a toothed wheel, whose teeth fit into and move another. [M. E. _cogge_; ety. dub.; cf. Sw. _kugge_.] COG, kog, _n._ formerly a large ship of burden or for war: a small boat: a cock-boat. [M. E. _cogge_, perh. from O. Fr. _cogue_, a ship. Cf. Dan. _kogge_, _kog_; Ice. _kuggi_.] COGENT, k[=o]'jent, _adj._ powerful: convincing.--_ns._ C[=O]'GENCE, C[=O]'GENCY, convincing power.--_adv._ C[=O]'GENTLY. [L. _cog[)e]re_, _co-_, together, _ag[)e]re_, to drive.] COGGIE, COGIE, kog'i, _n._ (_Scot._) a small wooden bowl.--Also COG. [Dim. of COGUE (q.v.).] COGGLE, kog'gl, _v.i._ to be unsteady.--_n._ a cobble, a round stone.--_adv._ COG'GLY (_Scot._), shaky. [Cf. Ger. _kugel_, and Dut. _kogel_.] COGITATE, koj'i-t[=a]t, _v.i._ to turn a thing over in one's mind: to meditate: to ponder.--_adj._ COG'ITABLE, capable of being thought.--_n._ COGIT[=A]'TION, deep thought: meditation.--_adj._ COG'IT[=A]TIVE, having the power of thinking: given to cogitating. [L. _cogit[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to think deeply, _co-_, together, and _agit[=a]re_, to put a thing in motion.] COGNAC, k[=o]'nyak, _n._ an excellent quality of French brandy, so called because much of it is made near the town _Cognac_, in Charente. COGNATE, kog'n[=a]t, _adj._ of the same family, kind, or nature: related or allied to.--_n._ one related by blood, a kinsman: a person related to another through the mother, as distinguished from an _agnate_, one related through the father.--_n._ COGN[=A]'TION. [L. _cognatus_--_co-_, together, _(g)nasci_, _(g)natus_, to be born.] COGNITION, kog-nish'un, _n._ certain knowledge: apprehension.--_adj._ COG'NISABLE, that may be known or understood: that may be judicially investigated.--_adv._ COG'NISABLY.--_ns._ COG'NISANCE, COG'NIZANCE, knowledge or notice, judicial or private: observation: jurisdiction: that by which one is known, a badge.--_adj._ COG'NISANT, having cognisance or knowledge of.--_v.t._ COG'NISE, to become conscious of.--_adj._ COG'NITIVE, capable of, or pertaining to, cognition.--HAVE COGNISANCE OF, to have knowledge of. [L., from _cognosc[)e]re_, _cognitum_--_co-_, together, and _nosc[)e]re_, _gnosc[)e]re_, to know.] COGNOMEN, kog-n[=o]'men, _n._ a surname: a nickname: a name: the last of the three names of an individual among the Romans, indicating the house or family to which he belonged.--_adj._ COGNOM'INAL, like-named: relating to a cognomen.--_v.t._ COGNOM'INATE, to name.--_n._ COGNOMIN[=A]'TION. [L.,--_co-_, together, _nomen_, _gnomen_, a name--_nosc[)e]re_, _gnosc[)e]re_, to know.] COGNOSCE, kog-nos', _v.t._ (_Scots law_) to examine: to give judgment: to declare to be an idiot.--_adj._ COGNOS'CIBLE. [L. _cognosc[)e]re_--_co-_, together, and _nosc[)e]re_, to know.] COGNOSCENTE, ko-nyo-shent'e, _n._ one professing a critical knowledge of works of art, and of a somewhat more pretentious character than amateurs:--_pl._ COGNOSCENTI (ko-nyo-shent'[=e]). [It.,--L. _cognosc[)e]re_.] COGNOVIT, kog-n[=o]'vit, _n._ (_law_) an acknowledgment by the defendant in an action that the plaintiff's cause is just. [L. _cognovit actionem_, he has confessed the action.] COGUE, COG, k[=o]g, _n._ (_Scot._) a round wooden vessel for holding milk. [Ety. dub.] COHABIT, k[=o]-hab'it, _v.i._ to dwell together as husband and wife, often of persons not married.--_ns._ COHAB'ITANT, one dwelling with others; COHABIT[=A]'TION. [L. _cohabit[=a]re_--_co-_, together, _habit[=a]re_, to dwell.] CO-HEIR, k[=o]-[=a]r', _n._ a joint heir:--_fem._ CO-HEIR'ESS. COHERE, k[=o]-h[=e]r', _v.i._ to stick together: to follow in proper connection: to be consistent.--_ns._ COHER'ENCE, a sticking together: a consistent connection between several parts: congruity; COHER'ENCY.--_adj._ COHER'ENT, sticking together: connected: consistent in thought or speech.--_adv._ COHER'ENTLY.--_n._ COHER'ER, an apparatus for the reception of the waves in 'wireless' telegraphy.--_adj._ COH[=E]'SIBLE, capable of cohesion.--_n._ COH[=E]'SION, the act of sticking together: a form of attraction by which particles of bodies stick together: logical connection.--_adj._ COH[=E]'SIVE, having the power of cohering: tending to unite into a mass.--_adv._ COH[=E]'SIVELY.--_ns._ COH[=E]'SIVENESS, COHESIBIL'ITY. [L. _cohær[=e]re_, _cohæsum_, _co-_, together, and _hær[=e]re_, to stick.] COHORT, k[=o]'hort, _n._ among the Romans, a body of soldiers from 300 to 600 in number, forming a tenth part of a legion: a band of armed men: any band of men. [Fr.,--L. _cohors_, an enclosed place, a multitude enclosed, a company of soldiers.] COHORTATIVE, k[=o]-hor'ta-tiv, _adj._ encouraging.--_n._ in Heb. grammar, a lengthened form of the imperfect--also _Paragogic future_. [See PARAGOGE.] COIF, koif, _n._ a covering for the head, esp. the close-fitting cap of white lawn or silk originally worn by serjeants-at-law: a covering for the head worn by women.--_v.t._ to provide with a coif: to dress (the hair).--_ns._ COIFF'EUR, a hairdresser; COIFF'URE, a head-dress. [Fr. _coiffe_--Low L. _cofia_, a cap, perh. Old High Ger. _chuppha_, a cap, Ger. _kopf_.] COIGN, koin, _n._ a corner or external angle: a corner-stone: a wedge.--COIGN OF VANTAGE, a position of advantage, either for seeing or acting. [COIN.] COIL, koil, _v.t._ to wind in rings as a rope, a serpent, &c.: to twist: to entangle.--_v.i._ to twist one's self.--_n._ a rope which has been gathered into rings: one of the rings into which a rope is gathered: a wire wound spirally to conduct electricity.--COIL UP, of a serpent, to get into a position for springing: to gather into a ball. [O. Fr. _coillir_ (Fr. _cueillir_)--L. _collig[)e]re_--_col_, together, _leg[)e]re_, to gather.] COIL, koil, _n._ tumult: hubbub: noise: fuss.--MORTAL COIL, the toil and trouble of human life. [Der. unknown; prob. Celt.; Gael. and Ir. _goill_, war.] COIN, koin, _n._ (_Shak._) a corner-stone: a piece of metal legally stamped and current as money.--_v.t._ to convert a piece of metal into money: to stamp; to make, invent, fabricate: (_fig._) to make into.--_ns._ COIN'AGE, the act of coining money: the currency: the pieces of metal coined: the invention, or fabrication, of something new: what is invented; COIN'ER, one who coins money: a maker of counterfeit coins: an inventor; COIN'ING, minting: invention.--COIN MONEY, to make money rapidly.--PAY A MAN IN HIS OWN COIN, to give tit for tat: to give as good as one got. [Fr. _coin_, a wedge, also the die to stamp money--L. _cuneus_, a wedge.] COINCIDE, k[=o]-in-s[=i]d', _v.i._ to fall in with, or agree, in opinion: to correspond: to be identical.--_ns._ COIN'CIDENCE, act or condition of coinciding: the occurrence of an event at the same time as another event, without any apparent connection; COIN'CIDENCY.--_adjs._ COIN'CIDENT, COINCIDENT'AL.--_adv._ COIN'CIDENTLY. [L. _co-_, together, _incid[)e]re_--_in_, in, _cad[)e]re_, to fall.] CO-INHERE, k[=o]-in-h[=e]r', _v.i._ to inhere together.--_n._ CO-INHER'ENCE. CO-INHERITOR, k[=o]-in-her'it-or, _n._ a joint heir.--_n._ CO-INHER'ITANCE. CO-INSTANTANEOUS, k[=o]-in-stan-t[=a]n'e-us, _adj._ exactly simultaneous.--_ns._ CO-INSTANTAN[=E]'ITY, CO-INSTANTAN'EOUSNESS.--_adv._ CO-INSTANTAN'EOUSLY. COIR, koir, _n._ the strong fibre of the husk of the coco-nut, used for making door-mats. [Malay, _k[=a]yar_, cord--_k[=a]yaru_, to be twisted.] COISTRIL, kois'tril, _n._ a groom: (_Shak._) a knave. [See CUSTREL.] COITION, k[=o]-ish'un, _n._ sexual intercourse. [L. _coitio_--_co-_, together, _[=i]re_, _[=i]tum_, to go.] COJOIN, k[=o]-join', _v.t._ (_Shak._). Same as CONJOIN. COKE, k[=o]k, _n._ a form of fuel obtained by the heating of coal in confined spaces whereby its more volatile constituents are driven off.--_v.t._ to make into coke. [Ety. dub.; not before 17th century.] COL, kol, _n._ (_geog._) a depression or pass in a mountain-range. [Fr.,--L. _collum_, a neck.] COLANDER, CULLENDER, kul'end-[.e]r, _n._ a vessel having small holes in the bottom, used as a strainer in cookery.--_ns._ COL[=A]'TION, COL'ATURE, straining. [L. _col[=a]re_, to strain--_colum_, a strainer.] COLBERTINE, kol'ber-tin, _n._ a kind of lace, so called after Jean Baptiste _Colbert_ (1619-83), Minister of Finance to Louis XIV., a great patron of the arts. COLCANNON, kol-kan'on, _n._ an Irish dish, being a stew of pounded cabbage and potatoes with butter. [COLE, cabbage; _cannon_ unknown.] COLCHICUM, kol'chi-kum, _n._ a genus of _Liliaceæ_--the meadow saffron, its corm or seed used for gout and rheumatism. [L.,--Gr. _colchicon_, meadow saffron--_Colchicus_, relating to _Colchis_, the native country of the sorceress Medea.] COLCOTHAR, kol'k[=o]-thar, _n._ a dark-red iron peroxide formed by calcining copperas. COLD, k[=o]ld, _adj._ the opposite of hot: shivering: without passion or zeal: spiritless: unfriendly: indifferent: reserved.--_n._ a relative want of sensible heat: the feeling or sensation caused by the absence of heat: coldness: a spell of cold weather: a disease caused by cold, a catarrhal inflammation of the mucous membrane of the respiratory organs, usually accompanied by hoarseness and coughing: catarrh: chillness.--_adj._ COLD'-BLOOD'ED, having cold blood, as fishes: without feeling: hard-hearted--of persons or actions.--_adv._ COLD'-BLOOD'EDLY.--_ns._ COLD'-BLOOD'EDNESS; COLD'-CHIS'EL, a strong and finely-tempered chisel for cutting cold metal, as distinguished from a blacksmith's chisel for cutting hot iron; COLD'-CREAM, the name applied to a creamy ointment, usually made of almond-oil, spermaceti, white wax, and rose-water, used as a cooling dressing for the skin.--_adjs._ COLD'-HEART'ED, wanting feeling: indifferent; COLD'ISH, somewhat cold.--_adv._ COLDLY.--_ns._ COLD'NESS; COLD'-PIG (_coll._), the application of cold water to wake a person.--_adj._ COLD'-SHORT, brittle when cold: (_fig._) of the temper.--_ns._ COLD'-WAT'ER, water at its natural temperature; COLD'-WITHOUT', brandy with cold water and no sugar.--COLD AS CHARITY, a proverbial phrase expressing ironically great coldness or indifference.--CATCH COLD, TAKE COLD, to acquire the malady--a cold.--GIVE THE COLD SHOULDER, to show indifference: to give a rebuff.--IN COLD BLOOD, with deliberate intent, not under the influence of passion.--LEAVE OUT IN THE COLD, to neglect, ignore.--THROW COLD WATER ON, to discourage. [A.S. _ceald_; Scot, _cauld_, Ger. _kalt_; cog. also with Eng. _cool_, Ice. _kala_, to freeze, L. _gelidus_--_gelu_, frost.] COLE, k[=o]l, _n._ a general name for all sorts of cabbage.--_ns._ COLE'-GARTH, a cabbage garden; COLE'-SEED, the seed of rape; COLE'-WORT, a species of cabbage. [A.S. _cáwel_; Ger. _kohl_, Scot. _kail_; all from L. _colis_, _caulis_, a stem, esp. of cabbage; cf. Gr. _kaulos_.] COLEOPTERA, kol-e-op't[.e]r-a, _n.pl._ an order of insects having two pairs of wings, the outer pair being hard or horny, serving as wing-cases for the true wings: the beetles.--_adjs._ COLEOP'TERAL, COLEOP'TEROUS.--_n._ COLEOP'TERIST. [Gr. _koleos_, a sheath, and _pteron_ (pl. _ptera_), a wing.] COLEORHIZA, kol-[=e]-[=o]-r[=i]'za, _n._ the root-sheath in endogens. [Gr. _koleos_, sheath, _rhiza_, root.] COLIBRI, kol'ib-r[=e], _n._ a kind of humming-bird. [Sp. and Fr. _colibri_, said to be the Carib. name.] COLIC, kol'ik, _n._ a disease attended with severe pain and flatulent distension of the abdomen, without diarrhoea.--_adj._ COL'ICKY, suffering or causing colic.--_n._ COL[=I]'TIS (see COLONITIS under COLON). [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _kolikos_--_kolon_, the large intestine.] COLIN, kol'in, the American quail or partridge. [Ety. dub.] COLISEUM. See COLOSSEUM. COLL, kol, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to embrace or fondle by taking round the neck.--_n._ COLL'ING, embracing. [Fr. _col_--L. _collum_, the neck.] COLLABORATOR, kol-ab'[=o]-r[=a]-tor, COLLABORATEUR, kol-ab'[=o]-ra-t[=a]r, _n._ an associate or assistant in labour, particularly literary or scientific.--_n._ COLLABOR[=A]'TION. [Coined from L. _col_, with, and _labor[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to labour.] COLLAPSE, kol-aps', _n._ a falling away or breaking down: any sudden or complete breakdown or prostration.--_v.i._ to fall together, to contract: to fall or break down: to go to ruin: to lose heart.--_adj._ COLLAPS'IBLE, capable of collapsing. [L. _collapsus_--_col_, together, and _labi_, _lapsus_, to slide or fall.] COLLAR, kol'ar, _n._ something worn round the neck: the part of a garment at the neck: a band round a dog's neck: that part of a horse's harness worn round the neck, to which the traces are attached: a ring: a band.--_v.t._ to seize by the collar: to put a collar on: to capture.--_ns._ COLL'AR-BEAM, a horizontal piece of timber connecting or bracing two opposite rafters, to prevent sagging; COLL'AR-BONE, in man and most mammals the only bone directly connecting the upper extremity with the skeleton of the trunk.--_p.adj._ COLL'ARED, having, or ornamented with, a collar: rolled up and bound with a string, as a piece of meat having the bones removed: captured.--_ns._ COLL'ARETTE, a small collar; COLL'AR-WORK, hard work against the collar: drudgery. [O. Fr. _colier_--L. _coll[=a]re_--_collum_, the neck.] COLLARD, kol'ard, _n._ cole-wort. [See COLE.] COLLATE, kol-[=a]t', _v.t._ to bring together for comparison: to examine and compare, as books, and esp. old manuscripts: to place in or confer a benefice upon: to place in order, as the sheets of a book for binding.--_adj._ COLL[=A]'TABLE.--_ns._ COLL[=A]'TION, act of collating: a bringing together for examination and comparison: presentation to a benefice: a repast between meals, from the habit of reading the _collationes_ or lives of the Fathers during meals in monasteries.--_adj._ COLL[=A]'TIVE, having the power of conferring: of livings where the bishop and patron are one and the same person.--_n._ COLL[=A]'TOR, one who collates or compares: one who bestows or presents. [L. _conferre_, _collatum_--_con_, together, _ferre_, to bring.] COLLATERAL, kol-at'[.e]r-al, _adj._ side by side: running parallel or together; corresponding; descended from the same ancestor, but not directly, as the children of brothers.--_n._ a collateral relation: a contemporary: a rival.--_adv._ COLLAT'ERALLY. [L. _col_, and _latus_, _lateris_, a side.] COLLEAGUE, kol'[=e]g, _n._ one associated with others in some employment--not of partners in business.--_n._ COLL'EAGUESHIP. [Fr. _collègue_--L. _collega_--_col_, together, and _leg[)e]re_, to choose.] COLLEAGUE, kol'[=e]g, _v.i._ to join or unite: to conspire:--_pr.p._ colleaguing (kol-[=e]g'ing); _pa.p._ colleagued (kol-[=e]gd'). [From O. Fr. _colliguer_, to join in alliance--L. _collig[=a]re_, to bind together.] COLLECT, kol-ekt', _v.t._ to assemble or bring together: to infer: to put one's thoughts in order.--_v.i._ to run together: to accumulate.--_ns._ COL'LECT, a short form of prayer, peculiar to the liturgies of the Western Church, consisting of a single sentence, conveying one main petition; COLLECT[=A]'NEA, a selection of passages from various authors: a miscellany.--_adj._ COLLECT'ED, gathered together: having one's senses gathered together: cool: firm--_adv._ COLLECT'EDLY.--_ns._ COLLECT'EDNESS, self-possession: coolness; COLLEC'TION, act of collecting: collecting of money at a religious or public meeting: the money collected: a number of anything: an assemblage: a book of selections: composure: an examination at the end of the terms in certain colleges.--_adj._ COLLECT'IVE, considered as forming one mass or sum: congregated: common: (_Milt._) inferential: (_gram._) expressing a number or multitude.--_adv._ COLLECT'IVELY.--_ns._ COLLECT'IVISM, the economic theory of socialism, that industry should be carried on with a collective capital; COLLECT'IVIST, a socialist--also _adj._; COLLECT'OR, one who collects, as tickets, money, &c.; COLLECT'ORATE, COLLECT'ORSHIP. [L. _collig[)e]re_, _collectum_, from _col_, together, and _leg[)e]re_, to gather.] COLLEEN, kol'[=e]n, _n._ a girl. [Irish _cailín_.] COLLEGE, kol'ej, _n._ an incorporation, company, or society of persons joined together generally for literary or scientific purposes, and often possessing peculiar or exclusive privileges: a member of the body known as the university: (_U.S._) often used as the equivalent of university: a seminary of learning: a literary, political, or religious institution: the edifice appropriated to a college.--_n._ COLL'EGER, inmate of a college: one of the seventy foundationers at Eton College.--_adj._ COLL[=E]'GIAL, pertaining to a college.--_ns._ COLL[=E]'GIAN, a member or inhabitant of a college: (_slang_) inmate of a prison; COLL[=E]'GIANER, a member of a college, a student.--_adj._ COLL[=E]'GIATE, pertaining to or resembling a college: containing a college, as a town; instituted like a college: corporate.--_n._ inmate of a prison, &c.--COLLEGE OF ARMS, HERALDS' COLLEGE, a collegiate body incorporated in 1483, presided over by the Earl Marshal, and including Garter, principal King-of-arms, Clarenceux, and Norroy, besides six heralds and four pursuivants: COLLEGE OF JUSTICE, in Scotland, a great forensic society, composed of judges, advocates, writers to the signet, and solicitors.--COLLEGIATE CHURCH, COLLEGIAL CHURCH, a church so called from having a college or chapter, consisting of a dean or provost and canons, attached to it (in Scotland, a church occupied by two or more pastors of equal rank--also COLLEGIATE CHARGE). [Fr. _collège_--L. _collegium_, from _col_, and _leg[)e]re_, to gather.] COLLET, kol'et, _n._ a ring or collar: the part of a ring which contains the stone. [Fr.,--L. _collum_.] COLLIDE, kol-[=i]d', _v.i._ to dash together: to clash.--_p.adjs._ COLLID'ED, COLLID'ING.--_ns._ COLLI'SION, state of being struck together: conflict: opposition: clashing; COLLI'SION-MAT; a mat for covering a hole in a ship's side caused by a collision. [L. _collid[)e]re_, _collisum_--_col_, together, _læd[)e]re_, to strike.] COLLIE, COLLY, kol'i, _n._ a shepherd's dog. [Ety. dub.] COLLIER, kol'y[.e]r, _n._ one who works in a coal-mine: a ship that carries coal: a sailor in such a ship.--_n._ COLL'IERY, a coal-mine. COLLIGATE, kol'i-g[=a]t, _v.t._ to bind together. [L. _collig[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_col_, together, _lig[=a]re_, to bind.] COLLIMATION, kol-li-m[=a]'shun, _n._ the adjustment of the line of sight of a telescope.--_v.t._ COL'LIM[=A]TE.--_n._ COLLIM[=A]'TOR, a subsidiary telescope used to detect errors in collimation, when adjusting for transit observations. [L. _collim[=a]re_ for _colline[=a]re_, to bring into line with--_col_, together, _linea_, a line.] COLLINEAR, ko-lin'e-ar, _adj._ in the same straight line. COLLIESHANGIE, kol-i-shang'i, _n._ (_Scot._) noisy wrangling or fighting. [Ety. dub.; but perh. from _collie_, a dog, and _shangie_, something attached to his tail.] COLLINGUAL, ko-ling'gwal, _adj._ speaking the same tongue. COLLIQUATE, kol'i-kw[=a]t, _v.t._ to melt.--_adjs._ COLLIQ'UABLE, COLL'IQUANT, melting, wasting; COLLIQ'UATIVE, profuse in flow. [L. _com-_, together, _liqu[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to make melt.] COLLOCATE, kol'[=o]-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to place together: to set: to arrange.--_n._ COLLOC[=A]'TION, act of collocating: disposition in place: arrangement. [L. _colloc[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, _col_, together, _loc[=a]re_, to place.] COLLOCUTOR, COLLOCUTORY. See COLLOQUY. COLLODION, kol-[=o]'di-on, _n._ a gluey solution of gun-cotton in alcohol and ether, used in surgery and photography. [Gr. _koll[=o]d[=e]s_--_kolla_, glue, _eidos_, form, appearance.] COLLOGUE, ko-log', _v.i._ to simulate belief: to conspire: to converse confidentially.--_v.t._ to coax; to flatter. [Prob. from L. _colloqui_, to speak together.] COLLOID, kol'oid, _n._ a name given by Graham, in contradistinction to _crystalloids_, to any soluble substance, which, when exposed to dialysis, does not pass through the porous membrane.--_adj._ COLLOID'AL. [Gr. _kolla_, glue, and _eidos_, form.] COLLOP, kol'op, _n._ a slice of meat, fried or otherwise: (_Shak._) a child.--COLLOP MONDAY, the day before Shrove Tuesday, when collops-and-eggs was eaten.--MINCED COLLOPS (_Scot._), minced meat. COLLOQUY, kol'o-kwi, _n._ a speaking together: mutual discourse: conversation.--_v.i._ (_rare_) to converse.--_n._ COLLOC'[=U]TOR.--_adj._ COLLOC'[=U]TORY.--_v.i._ COLLOQUE', to hold colloquy.--_adj._ COLL[=O]'QUIAL, pertaining to or used in common conversation.--_ns._ COLL[=O]'QUIALISM, a form of expression used in familiar talk; COLL[=O]'QUIALIST.--_adv._ COLL[=O]'QUIALLY.--_v.i._ COLL'OQUISE, to converse.--_n._ COLL'OQUIST, a speaker in a colloquy. [L. _colloquium_, _col_, together, _loqui_, to speak.] COLLOTYPE, kol'o-t[=i]p, _n._ a photographic process much used for book illustrations and advertising purposes. [Gr. _kolla_, glue, and TYPE.] COLLUCTATION, kol-uk-t[=a]'shun, _n._ strife: opposition. [L. _colluct[=a]ri_--_col-_, _luct[=a]ri_, to wrestle.] COLLUDE, kol-[=u]d', _v.i._ to play into each other's hand: to act in concert, esp. in a fraud.--_ns._ COLLUD'ER; COLL[=U]'SION, act of colluding: a secret agreement to deceive: deceit.--_adj._ COLL[=U]'SIVE, fraudulently concerted: deceitful.--_adv._ COLL[=U]'SIVELY. [L. _collud[)e]re_, _collusum_, from _col_, and _lud[)e]re_, to play.] COLLUVIES, ko-l[=u]'vi-[=e]s., _n._ filth: a rabble. [L. 'washings'--_collu[)e]re_, to wash thoroughly.] COLLY, kol'li, _v.t._ to begrime with coal-dust: (_Shak._) to darken.--_p.adj._ COL'LIED. [See COAL.] COLLYRIUM, ko-lir'i-um, _n._ a term for various kinds of eye-salve or eye-wash. [L.,--Gr. _kollyrion_, eye-salve, dim. of _kollyra_, a roll of bread.] COLOCYNTH, kol'[=o]-sinth, _n._ the dried and powdered pulp of a kind of cucumber, much used as a purgative. [L.,--Gr. _kolokynthis_.] COLOGNE-EARTH, ko-l[=o]n'-[.e]rth, _n._ a brown earth prepared from lignite, found originally near _Cologne_, a German city on the Rhine.--COLOGNE WATER, or EAU DE COLOGNE, a perfumed spirit first made at Cologne in 1709 by Jean Farina. COLON, k[=o]'lon, _n._ the mark (:) used to indicate a distinct member or clause of a sentence. [Gr. _k[=o]lon_, a limb, member.] COLON, k[=o]'lon, _n._ that portion of the large intestine which extends from the cæcum to the rectum, which is the terminal portion of the intestinal canal.--_n._ COLON[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the colon. [L.,--Gr. _kolon_, the large intestine.] COLONEL, kur'n[.e]l, _n._ an officer who has command of a regiment;--_ns._ COL'ONELCY, his office or rank; COL'ONELLING, playing the colonel; COL'ONELSHIP, colonelcy: quality of a colonel. [Fr. and Sp. _coronel_; a corr. of It. _colonello_, the leader of a _colonna_, or column--L. _columna_.] COLONNADE, kol-on-[=a]d', _n._ a range of columns placed at regular intervals: a similar row, as of trees. [Fr.,--L. _columna_.] COLONY, kol'on-i, _n._ a name somewhat vaguely applied to the foreign dependencies of a state (a Roman colony was a military settlement planted in subject territory; a Greek colony consisted of a band of emigrants impelled to seek a new home, and connected with their mother-city by no stronger tie than that of sentiment): a body of persons who form a fixed settlement in another country: the settlement so formed: the place they inhabit.--_adj._ COL[=O]N'IAL, pertaining to a colony.--_n._ an inhabitant of a colony, a colonist.--_ns._ COL[=O]N'IALISM, a trait of colonial life or speech; COLONIS[=A]'TION, act or practice of colonising: state of being colonised.--_v.t._ COL'ONISE, to plant or establish a colony in: to form into a colony.--_v.i._ to settle.--_n._ COL'ONIST, an inhabitant of a colony.--COLONIAL ANIMALS, organisms which cannot be fairly regarded as unities, but consist of numerous individuals united in a common life; COLONIAL SYSTEM, the theory that the settlements abroad were to be treated as proprietary domains exploited for the benefit of the mother-country. [L. _colonia_--_colonus_, a husbandman--_col[)e]re_, to till.] COLOPHON, kol'o-fon, _n._ in early printing, the inscription at the end of a book with name, date, &c. [L. _colophon_--Gr. _koloph[=o]n_, the finish.] COLOPHONY, kol-of'o-ni, _n._ the dark-coloured resin got from the distillation of turpentine with water. [Gr., from _Colophon_, in Asia Minor.] COLOQUINTIDA, kol-o-kwin'ti-da, _n._ the colocynth. COLOSSUS, kol-os'us, _n._ a gigantic statue, esp. that of Apollo astride the entrance of the harbour of Rhodes.--_adjs._ COLOSS'AL, like a colossus: gigantic; COLOSS'ALWISE, astride (_Shak._).--_ns._ COLOSS[=E]'UM, COLIS[=E]'UM, Vespasian's amphitheatre at Rome, which was the largest in the world. [L.,--Gr. _kolossos_.] COLOSTRUM, ko-los'trum, _n._ the first milk of a mammal after parturition.--_n._ COLOSTR[=A]'TION, a disease of infants due to colostrum.--_adjs._ COLOS'TRIC, COLOS'TROUS. [L.] COLOUR, kul'ur, _n._ a property of light which causes bodies to have different appearances to the eye: the hue or appearance which bodies present to the eye: appearance of blood in the face: appearance: pretext: tint: paint: false show: kind: (_pl._) a flag, ensign, or standard: paints.--_v.t._ to put colour on: to stain: to paint: to set in a fair light: to exaggerate: to misrepresent.--_v.i._ to show colour: to blush.--_adjs._ COLORIF'IC, containing or producing colours; COL'OURABLE, having a fair appearance: designed to conceal.--_adv._ COL'OURABLY.--_n._ COLOUR[=A]'TION.--_adj._ COL'OUR-BLIND, unable to distinguish between colours.--_n._ COL'OUR-BLIND'NESS.--_adjs._ COL'OURED, having colour: (_Spens._) having a specious appearance, deceitful: of the complexion, other than white.--_ns._ COL'OURING, any substance used to give colour: manner of applying colours: specious appearance; COL'OURIST, one who colours or paints: one who excels in colouring.--_adj._ COL'OURLESS, without colour: transparent: neutral.--_ns._ COL'OURMAN, one who prepares and sells colours; COL'OUR-SER'GEANT, the sergeant who guards the colours of a regiment.--_adj._ COL'OURY, having much colour.--COLOUR A PIPE, to cause a tobacco-pipe, esp. a meerschaum, to take on a brown or black colour, by smoking.--A PERSON OF COLOUR, a person of negro blood.--CHANGE COLOUR, to turn pale: to blush; COME OFF WITH FLYING COLOURS, to do something with great éclat; COME OUT IN ONE'S TRUE COLOURS, to appear in one's real character; DESERT ONE'S COLOURS, to abandon one's post or duty; FAST COLOUR, a colour which does not fade when washed; FIGHT UNDER FALSE COLOURS, to put forward a false pretence as a cover for one's actions; GIVE COLOUR, to give plausibility: HANG OUT FALSE COLOURS, to put up another's flag, to pretend to belong to another party than one really does; HIGH COLOUR, pronounced redness of complexion; LOSE COLOUR, to lose one's good looks; NAIL ONE'S COLOURS TO THE MAST, to commit one's self to some party or plan of action; OFF COLOUR, faded: past one's best; PAINT IN BRIGHT COLOURS, to embellish: to exaggerate; PRIMARY COLOURS, the three colours, red, green, and violet, from which the others, called SECONDARY COLOURS, can be obtained; SHOW ONE'S COLOURS, to show what are one's inclinations, opinions, or character; STICK TO ONE'S COLOURS, to adhere to one's party or opinions; UNDER COLOUR OF, under the pretext of; WITHOUT COLOUR, without disguise: colourless: without individuality. [Fr.,--L. _color_; akin to _cel[=a]re_, to cover, to conceal.] COLPORTEUR, kol'p[=o]rt-[=a]r, or kol'p[=o]rt-[.e]r, _n._ a peddler, esp. one selling tracts and religious books.--_n._ COL'PORT[=A]GE, the distribution of books by colporteurs. [Fr. _colporteur_, from _col_--L. _collum_, the neck, and _porter_--L. _port[=a]re_, to carry.] COLT, k[=o]lt, _n._ a young horse: an awkward fellow: an inexperienced youth: (_B._) a young camel or ass: (_naut._) a rope's end.--_v.i._ (_Spens._) to frisk like a colt.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to cheat: to give the rope's end, to beat.--_adj._ COLT'ISH, like a colt: frisky: wanton.--_ns._ COLT'S'-FOOT, a composite plant with large soft leaves once used for asthma and coughing; COLT'S'-TOOTH, one of a horse's first set of teeth; (_Shak._) love of youthful pleasures: wantonness. [A.S. _colt_; Sw. _kult_, a young boar, a stout boy.] COLTER, COULTER, k[=o]lt[.e]r, _n._ the fore-iron of a plough. [A.S. _culter_--L. _culter_, a knife.] COLUBER, kol'ub-[.e]r, _n._ a genus of non-venomous snakes, of almost world-wide distribution.--_n._ COLUB'RIAD (_Cowper_).--_adj._ COL'UBRINE. [L. _coluber_, a snake.] COLUMBIAN, k[=o]-lum'bi-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Columbia_, a name of America.--_ns._ COLUM'BATE, a salt or compound of columbic acid with a base; COLUM'BITE, the native ore of columbium; COLUM'BIUM, a metallic element now called _niobium_. [_Columbia_, America, from Columbus (1447-1506), its discoverer.] COLUMBINE, kol'um-b[=i]n, _adj._ of or like a dove: dove-coloured.--_n._ a genus of plants (_Aquilegia_) having five coloured sepals, which soon fall off, and five petals, each terminating below in a horn-shaped spur or nectary: in pantomimes, the sweetheart of Harlequin (q.v.).--_ns._ COLUMB[=A]'RIUM, a dovecot or pigeon-house: one of the niches or pigeon-holes in a particular kind of sepulchral chamber in which the urns containing the ashes of dead bodies burned were deposited; COL'UMBARY, a pigeon-house or dovecot. [L. _columba_, a dove.] COLUMEL, COLUMELLA. See COLUMN. COLUMN, kol'um, _n._ a long, round body, used to support or adorn a building: any upright body or mass like a column: a body of troops drawn up in deep files: a perpendicular row of lines in a book.--_ns._ COL'[=U]MEL, a small column; COL[=U]MEL'LA, the central axis of a spiral univalve; the auditory ossicle of the amphibian ear: the central axis of the spore-case of mosses: in the opening of fruits, what remains in the centre after the carpels have split away.--_adjs._ COLUM'NAL, COLUM'NAR, formed in columns.--_n._ COLUMNA'RITY.--_adjs._ COL'UMNED, COLUM'NI[=A]TED, COLUM'NATED, having columns.--_n._ COLUM'NI[=A]TION. [L. _columen_, _columna_, akin to _celsus_, high; Gr. _kol[=o]n[=e]_, a hill.] COLURE, k[=o]-l[=u]r', _n._ (_astron._) one of two great circles supposed to intersect each other at right angles in the poles of the equator. [Gr. _kolourus_--_kolos_, docked, _oura_, tail.] COLZA, kol'za, _n._ a kind of cabbage whose seeds yield oil for lamps. [Dut. _koolzaad_, cabbage-seed.] COMA, k[=o]'ma, _n._ deep sleep: stupor.--_adj._ COM'ATOSE, affected with coma: drowsy. [Gr. _k[=o]ma_.] COMA, k[=o]'ma, _n._ (_bot._) a tuft or bunch of hairy-like appendages as on some seeds: the leafy branches forming the head of a tree: (_astron._) the nebulous envelope surrounding the nucleus of a comet. [L.--Gr. _kom[=e]_, hair of the head.] COMARB, k[=o]'märb, _n._ the head of one of the families composing an old Irish sept: the successor in an ecclesiastical office, abbot, vicar, &c.--Better C[=O]'ARB. [Ir. _comharba_, successor.] COMART, k[=o]'märt, _n._ (_Shak._) an agreement. COMATE, k[=o]'m[=a]t, _n._ (_Shak._) a mate or companion. COMB, k[=o]m, _n._ a toothed instrument for separating and cleaning hair, wool, flax, &c.: the crest of a cock: the top or crest of a wave or of a hill: an aggregation of cells for honey.--_v.t._ to separate, arrange, or clean by means of a comb: to dress with a comb: (_Shak._) to beat.--_v.i._ to break with a white foam, as the top of a wave.--_adj._ COMBED.--_n._ COMB'ER, one who or that which combs wool, &c.--_n.pl._ COMB'INGS, hairs combed off.--_adjs._ COMB'LESS (_Shak._), without a comb; COMB'WISE; COMB'Y.--_n._ CROP'-COMB, a semicircular comb worn by girls.--COMB OFF, to remove. [A.S. _camb_.] COMB, COMBE. See COOMB. COMBAT, kom'bat, or kum'bat, _v.i._ to contend or struggle.--_v.t._ to beat against: to contest: to oppose: to debate.--_n._ a struggle: a fight.--_adjs._ COM'BATABLE, capable of being combated; COM'BATANT, disposed to combat.--_n._ one who combats; COM'BATIVE, inclined to quarrel.--_n._ COM'BATIVENESS.--COMBATANT OFFICER, one who takes part in the action, as opposed to the medical officers, &c., who are NON-COMBATANT. [Fr. _combattre_, to fight--_com_, with, and _battre_, to beat. See BEAT.] COMBER, kom'b[=e]r, _n._ a name applied to the gaper, a sea-perch, and to a species of wrasse. COMBINE, kom-b[=i]n', _v.t._ to join two together: to unite intimately.--_v.i._ to come into close union: to co-operate: (_chem._) to unite and form a new compound.--_n._ a trading syndicate, a trust.--_adj._ COM'BINATE, combined: betrothed.--_ns._ COMBIN[=A]'TION, the act of combining: union of individual things: persons united for a purpose; COMBIN[=A]'TION-ROOM, the college-parlour at Cambridge, for the fellows of a college after dinner, a common-room.--_n.pl._ COMBIN[=A]'TIONS, a women's and children's garment consisting of chemise and drawers combined.--_adjs._ COM'BIN[=A]TIVE; COMB[=I]'NATORY; COMBINED'; COMBIN'ING. [L. _combin[=a]re_, to join--_com_, together, and _bini_, two and two.] COMBROUS (_obs._) = CUM'BROUS. COMBURGESS, kom-bur'jes, _n._ a fellow-burgess. COMBUST, kom-bust', _adj._ burned by the sun: in conjunction with the sun, or apparently very near it, so as to be obscured by its light, said of a planet when it is not more than 8½° from the sun.--_n._ that which is burned.--_v.t._ to burn up.--_adj._ COMBUST'IBLE, liable to take fire and burn: excitable.--_n._ anything that will take fire and burn.--_ns._ COMBUST'IBLENESS, COMBUSTIBIL'ITY, quality of being combustible; COMBUS'TION, a burning: the action of fire on combustible substances: confusion, turmoil: the scientific term for all kinds of consumption through the influence of heat.--_adjs._ COMBUST'IOUS (_Shak._), combustible, inflammable: turbulent; COMBUST'IVE, disposed to take fire.--SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION, burning caused by heat generated in the substance itself. [L. _combur[)e]re_, _combustum_, to consume--_com_, inten., _ur[)e]re_, to burn.] COME, kum (_Shak._), a shortening of BECOME. COME, kum, _v.i._ to move toward this place (the opposite of _go_): to draw near: to arrive at a certain state or condition: to issue: to happen: (_Shak._) to yield; to become: to turn out:--_pr.p._ com'ing; _pa.t._ came; _pa.p._ come.--_n._ COM'ING.--_adj._ COME'-AT-ABLE, accessible; COME ABOUT, to happen; COME ACROSS, to meet; COME AND GO, to have freedom of action (_n._ passage to and fro); COME AT, to reach; COME BY, to come near: to pass: to obtain; COME DOWN, to descend: to be reduced (_n._ a fall); COME DOWN UPON, to be severe with; COME DOWN WITH, to pay down; COME HIGH, or LOW, to cost much, or little; COME HOME, to return to one's house: to touch one's interest or feelings closely (with _to_): (_naut._) to drag or slip through the ground--of an anchor; COME IN, to enter: to give in, to yield: (_fencing_) to get within the opponent's guard (_Shak._); COME IN FOR, to have reason to expect or to have a share; COME IT STRONG (_coll._), to do or say too much; COME OF, to descend from: become of; COME OFF, to come away: to turn out: to escape (_n._ a conclusion: an evasion of duty); COME OUT, to result: to be published: to become evident: to enter society; COME OUT WITH, to let be known: to tell; COME OVER (_Shak._), surpass: to befall: (_slang_) to overreach; COME O' WILL, something that comes of its own accord: an illegitimate child; COME ROUND, to come by a circuitous path: to happen in due course: to change: to recover from a faint; COME SHORT, to fail; COME SHORT OF, to fail to accomplish; COME TO, to obtain: to amount to: to recover consciousness or sanity; COME TO GRIEF, to meet with disaster or ill-fortune; COME TO PASS, to happen; COME TRUE, to be found to have been true; COME UNDER, to be included under; COME UPON, to attack: to affect; to hold answerable: to meet; COME UP WITH, to overtake: reach.--ALL COMERS, any one that likes. [A.S. _cuman_; Ger. _kommen_, to come.] CO-MEDDLE, k[=o]-med'l, _v.t._ to mix: (_Shak._) to temper. COMEDO, kom'e-do, _n._ a small, black-tipped, worm-like mass which is found on the face of some persons. [L. _comed[)e]re_, to eat up.] COMEDY, kom'e-di, _n._ a dramatic piece of a pleasant or humorous character, originally accompanied with dancing and singing.--_ns._ COM[=E]'DIAN, one who acts or writes comedies: an actor:--_fem._ COMÉDIENNE'; COM[=E]DIET'TA, a short comic piece. [L.,--Gr. _k[=o]m[=o]dia_, _k[=o]mos_, revel, _[=o]d[=e]_, song.] COMELY, kum'li, _adj._ pleasing: graceful: handsome.--_adv._ in a comely manner.--_n._ COME'LINESS. [A.S. _cymlic_--_cyme_, suitable, _líc_, like.] COMESTIBLES, kom-est'i-blz, _n.pl._ eatables. [Fr.,--L. _comed[)e]re_, to eat up.] COMET, kom'et, _n._ a heavenly body with an eccentric orbit, having a definite point or nucleus, a nebulous light surrounding the nucleus, and a luminous tail preceding or following the nucleus.--_adjs._ COM'ETARY, COMET'IC.--_ns._ COM'ET-FIND'ER, a telescope of low power used to search for comets; COMETOG'RAPHY; COMETOL'OGY. [Gr. _kom[=e]t[=e]s_, long-haired--_kom[=e]_, the hair.] COMFIT, kum'fit, _n._ a sweetmeat made of fruit and sugar, &c. [A doublet of CONFECT; from Fr. _confit_, _confiture_--L. _confic[)e]re_, to make up.] COMFORT, kum'furt, _v.t._ to relieve from pain or distress: to soothe: to cheer, revive.--_n._ relief: encouragement: ease: quiet enjoyment: freedom from annoyance: whatever gives ease, enjoyment, &c.: a subject of satisfaction.--_adj._ COM'FORTABLE, imparting or enjoying comfort.--_adv._ COM'FORTABLY.--_n._ COM'FORTER, one who administers comfort: (_B._) the Holy Spirit: a long, narrow woollen tippet.--_adj._ COM'FORTLESS, without comfort.--_n._ COM'FORTLESSNESS.--JOB'S COMFORTER, one who, while pretending to comfort, only aggravates the distress. [O. Fr. _conforter_--L. _con_, and _fortis_, strong.] COMFREY, kum'fri, _n._ a genus of _Boraginaceæ_, somewhat coarse perennial herbs. [O. Fr. _confirie_.] COMIC, kom'ik, _adj._ relating to comedy: raising mirth: droll.--_n._ (_coll._) an amusing person: (_coll._) a comic paper.--_adj._ COM'ICAL, funny: queer: ludicrous.--_ns._ COMICAL'ITY, COM'ICALNESS.--_adv._ COM'ICALLY.--_n._ COMIQUE (k[=o]-m[=e]k'), a comic actor or singer. [See COMEDY.] COMITATUS, kom-i-t[=a]'tus, _n._ a prince's escort: a county or shire. [L.] COMITIA, ko-mish'i-a, _n._ the assemblies of the Romans for electing magistrates, passing laws, &c. [L.,--_com_, together, _[=i]re_, _[=i]tum_, to go.] COMITY, kom'i-ti, _n._ courteousness: civility.--COMITY OF NATIONS (_comitas gentium_), the international courtesy by which effect is given to the laws of one state within the territory of another state. [L. _comitas_--_comis_, courteous.] COMMA, kom'a, _n._ (_Shak._) a short part of a sentence: in punctuation, the point (,) which marks the smallest division of a sentence: (_fig._) a brief interval.--INVERTED COMMAS, marks of quotation ("..", '..'). [L.,--Gr. _komma_, a section of a sentence, from _koptein_, to cut off.] COMMAND, kom-mand', _v.t._ to order: to bid: to exercise supreme authority over: (_Shak._) to demand: to cause to act: (_Shak._) to exact: to have within sight, influence, or control.--_v.i._ to have chief authority: to govern.--_n._ an order: authority: message: the ability to overlook or influence: the thing commanded.--_ns._ COMMANDANT', an officer who has the command of a place or of a body of troops, COMMANDANT'SHIP.--_v.t._ COMMANDEER', to compel to military service.--_ns._ COMMAND'ER, one who commands: an officer in the navy next in rank under a captain; COMMAND'ER-IN-CHIEF, the highest staff appointment in the British army: the officer in supreme command of an army, or of the entire forces of the state; COMMAND'ERSHIP; COMMAND'ERY, the district under a commander, specially used in connection with the Templars, the Hospitallers, and other religious orders.--_adj._ COMMAND'ING, fitted to impress or control.--_adv._ COMMAND'INGLY.--_n._ COMMAND'MENT, a command: a precept.--COMMANDER OF THE FAITHFUL, a title of the caliphs.--AT COMMAND, available for use; ON COMMAND, under orders.--TEN COMMANDMENTS, the ten Mosaic laws: (_slang_) the ten finger-nails, used by women in fighting. [Fr. _commander_--L. _commend[=a]re_--_com_, and _mand[=a]re_, to entrust.] COMMEASURE, kom-mezh'[=u]r, _v.t._ to equal in measure: to coincide with.--_n._ COMMEAS'URABLE (same as COMMEN'SURABLE). COMMEMORATE, kom-em'o-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to call to remembrance by a solemn or public act: to celebrate: to preserve the memory of.--_adj._ COMMEM'ORABLE.--_n._ COMMEMOR[=A]'TION, preserving the memory of some person or thing by a solemn ceremony: the specification of individual saints in the prayers for the dead: the great festival of the Oxford academic year, usually taking place on the third Wednesday after Trinity Sunday.--_adjs._ COMMEM'ORATIVE, COMMEM'ORATORY, tending or serving to commemorate.--_n._ COMMEM'ORATOR. [L. _commemoratus_, pa.p. of _commemor[=a]re_, to remember--_com_, inten., and _memor_, mindful.] COMMENCE, kom-ens', _v.i._ to begin: to originate: to take rise.--_v.t._ to begin: to originate: to enter upon: to take a university degree--e.g. 'to commence M.A.'--_n._ COMMENCE'MENT, the beginning: at certain universities the act of taking the degrees: the ceremony when these are conferred. [O. Fr. _comencer_--L. _com_, and _initi[=a]re_, to begin--_in_, into, and _[=i]re_, to go.] COMMEND, kom-end', _v.t._ to give into the charge of: to recommend as worthy: to praise: to adorn, set off.--_n._ (_Shak._) praise.--_adj._ COMMEND'ABLE, worthy of being commended or praised.--_n._ COMMEND'ABLENESS.--_adv._ COMMEND'ABLY.--_ns._ COMMEND'AM, a manner of holding an ecclesiastical benefice till a proper pastor was provided for it--it was provisionally _commended_ to the care of a clerk, and was said to be held _in commendam_; COMMEND[=A]'TION, the act of commending: praise: declaration of esteem: esp. the act of commending the dying or dead to the favour and mercy of God; COM'MEND[=A]TOR, one who holds a benefice _in commendam_.--_adj._ COMMEND'ATORY, commending: containing praise or commendation: presenting to favourable notice or reception.--COMMEND ME TO, remember me kindly to: give me by preference. [L. _commend[=a]re_--_com_, and _mand[=a]re_, to trust.] COMMENSAL, ko-men'sal, _adj._ eating at the same table.--_n._ a messmate.--_n._ COMMEN'SALISM, the intimate but never parasitic association of two organisms, for the benefit of one, or very often of both. [L. _com_, together, _mensa_, a table.] COMMENSURABLE, kom-en's[=u]-ra-bl, _adj._ having a common measure.--_ns._ COMMENSURABIL'ITY, COMMEN'SURABLENESS.--_adv._ COMMEN'SURABLY.--_adj._ COMMEN'SUR[=A]TE, of the same measure with: equal in measure or extent: in proportion with.--_adv._ COMMEN'SUR[=A]TELY.--_ns._ COMMEN'SUR[=A]TENESS, COMMENSUR[=A]'TION. [L. _com_, with, and _mensura_, a measure--_met[=i]ri_, _mensus_, to measure.] COMMENT, kom'ent, _n._ a note conveying an illustration or explanation: a remark, observation, criticism.--_v.i._ (or kom-ent') to make critical or explanatory notes: to annotate: (_Shak._) to meditate.--_ns._ COMM'ENTARY, a comment: a remark: a book consisting of a regular series of comments or notes on another book; COMMENT[=A]'TION, annotation; COMM'ENT[=A]TOR, COMM'ENTER (or COMMENT'ER), COMM'ENTOR (or COMMENT'OR).--_adj._ COMMENTAT[=O]'RIAL, pertaining to the making of commentaries. [Fr.,--L. _comment[=a]ri_--_com_, and L. _mens_, the mind.] COMMERCE, kom'[.e]rs, _n._ interchange of merchandise on a large scale between nations or individuals: extended trade or traffic: intercourse: fellowship.--_v.i._ COMMERCE', to trade: to have communication with.--_adj._ COMMER'CIAL, pertaining to commerce: mercantile.--_n._ commercial traveller.--_ns._ COMMER'CIALISM; COMMER'CIALIST; COMMER'CIALITY.--_adv._ COMMER'CIALLY.--COMMERCIAL ROOM, a room in a hotel set apart for commercial travellers; COMMERCIAL TRAVELLER, a person who transacts business as the accredited travelling representative of a trading house to other trading houses. [Fr.,--L. _commercium_--_com_, with, _merx_, _mercis_, merchandise.] COMMERGE, ko-m[.e]rj', _v.i._ to coincide, agree. COMMINATE, kom'in-[=a]t, _v.t._ to threaten.--_n._ COMMIN[=A]'TION, threatening, denunciation: a recital of God's threatenings made on Ash-Wednesday and at other times in the English Church.--_adjs._ COMM'INATIVE, COMM'INATORY, threatening punishment. [L.,--_com_, inten., and _min[=a]ri_, to threaten.] COMMINGLE, kom-ing'gl, _v.t._ to mingle or mix with.--_adj._ COMMIN'GLED. [L. _com_, together, and MINGLE.] COMMINUTE, kom'in-[=u]t, _v.t._ to reduce to minute particles: to pulverise.--_n._ COMMIN[=U]'TION.--COMMINUTED FRACTURE, the breaking of a bone in several places: a compound fracture. [L. _comminu[)e]re_, _-[=u]tum_, to break into pieces--_com_, and _minu[)e]re_, to make small--root _minus_, less.] COMMISERATE, kom-iz'[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.t._ to feel for the miseries of another: to pity: to condole with.--_adj._ COMMIS'ERABLE, requiring commiseration: pitiable.--_n._ COMMISER[=A]'TION, concern for the sufferings of others: pity.--_adj._ COMMIS'ERATIVE, feeling or expressing sympathetic sorrow.--_n._ COMMIS'ER[=A]TOR. [L. _com_, with, _miser[=a]ri_, to deplore--_miser_, wretched.] COMMISSARY, kom'is-ar-i, _n._ one to whom any charge is committed: a deputy: (_Scots law_) the judge in a commissary court: a higher officer of police: (_eccles._) an officer representing a bishop, and performing his duties in distant parts of the diocese: an officer who furnishes provisions, &c., to an army.--_adj._ COMMISS[=A]'RIAL, pertaining to a commissary.--_ns._ COMMISS[=A]'RIAT, the department charged with the furnishing of provisions, as for an army: the supply of provisions: the office of a commissary; COMM'ISSARY-GEN'ERAL, the head of the department for supplying provisions, &c., to an army; COMM'ISSARYSHIP.--COMMISSARY COURT, a supreme court established in Edinburgh in 1563, with jurisdiction in questions of marriage--its powers conjoined with those of the Court of Session in 1836. [Low L. _commissarius_--L. _committ[)e]re_, _commissum_.] COMMISSION, kom-ish'un, _n._ act of committing: that which is committed: a writing conferring certain powers: authority: the percentage paid in a transaction to an active agent who usually incurs some pecuniary and always some moral responsibility: a body of persons appointed to perform certain duties: a warrant from the head of the state for holding various military offices, whether combatant or non-combatant.--_v.t._ to give a commission to: to empower: to send: to appoint.--_ns._ COMMIS'SION-AG'ENT, COMMIS'SION-MER'CHANT, a person employed to sell goods delivered to him by another (his principal), for a certain percentage--his _commission_ or factorage; COMMISSIONAIRE', a messenger, or light porter: one employed about public places and hotels to undertake light commissions.--_adj._ COMMIS'SIONED.--_ns._ COMMIS'SIONER, one who holds a commission to perform some business: a member of a commission; COMMIS'SIONERSHIP.--COMMISSIONED OFFICER, one appointed by commission--in the navy, the officers from the lieutenant; in the army, from the ensign upwards. [From COMMIT.] COMMISSURE, kom'mis-s[=u]r, _n._ a joint: place where two bodies meet and unite: (_anat._) a term applied to nervous connections between adjacent parts of the nervous system.--_adj._ COMMIS'SURAL. [L., _commissura_, a joining, from root of COMMIT.] COMMIT, kom-it', _v.t._ to give in charge or trust: to consign: to do: to endanger: to involve: to pledge:--_pr.p._ commit'ting; _pa.p._ commit'ted.--_ns._ COMMIT'MENT, act of committing: an order for sending to prison: imprisonment; COMMIT'TAL, commitment: a pledge, actual or implied; COMMIT'TEE, a portion, generally consisting of not less than three members, selected from a more numerous body, to whom some special act to be performed, or investigation to be made, is committed; COMMIT'TEESHIP.--COMMIT ONE'S SELF, to compromise one's self: to pledge one's self wittingly or unwittingly to a certain course; COMMIT TO MEMORY, to learn by heart. [L. _committ[)e]re_--_com_, with, _mitt[)e]re_, to send.] COMMIX, kom-iks', _v.t._ to mix together.--_v.i._ to mix.--_ns._ COMMIX'TION, COMMIX'TURE, act of mixing together: the state of being mixed: the compound formed by mixing: the rite of putting a piece of the host into the chalice, emblematic of the reunion of body and soul at the Resurrection. COMMODIOUS, kom-[=o]'di-us, _adj._ suitable or convenient: roomy, spacious: (_Shak._) serviceable: comfortable.--_n._ COMMODE', a small sideboard: a large, high head-dress formerly worn by ladies: a box for holding a chamber utensil: a night-stool.--_adv._ COMM[=O]'DIOUSLY.--_ns._ COMM[=O]'DIOUSNESS; COMMOD'ITY, convenience: (_Shak._) profit: (_Shak._) parcel: an article of traffic: (_pl._) goods, produce. [L. _commodus_--_com_, with, _modus_, measure.] COMMODORE, kom'o-d[=o]r, _n._ in the royal navy, a rank intermediate between an admiral and a captain: the leading ship in a fleet of merchantmen: the president of a yacht-club, also his vessel at a regatta. [Perh. from Dut. _kommandeur_.] COMMON, kom'un, _adj._ belonging equally to more than one: public: general: usual: frequent: ordinary: easy to be had: of little value: vulgar: of low degree.--_n._ (_Shak._) the commonalty: a tract of open land, used in common by the inhabitants of a town, parish, &c.--_v.i._ (_Shak._) to share.--_adj._ COMMON'ABLE, held in common.--_ns._ COMM'ONAGE, right of pasturing on a common: the right of using anything in common: a common; COMM'ONALTY, the general body of the people without any distinction of rank or authority; COMM'ONER, one of the common people, as opposed to the nobles: a member of the House of Commons: at Oxford, a student who pays for his commons.--_adv._ COMM'ONLY.--_ns._ COMM'ONNESS; COMM'ONPLACE, a common topic or subject: a platitude: a memorandum: a note.--_adj._ common: hackneyed.--_v.i._ to make notes: to put in a commonplace-book.--_n._ COMM'ONPLACE-BOOK, a note or memorandum book.--_n.pl._ COMM'ONS, the common people: their representatives--i.e. the lower House of Parliament or HOUSE OF COMMONS: common land: food at a common table: at Oxford, rations served at a fixed rate from the college buttery: food in general, rations.--_n._ COMM'ON-SENSE, average understanding: good sense or practical sagacity: the opinion of a community: the universally admitted impressions of mankind.--COMMON BENCH, COMMON PLEAS, one of the divisions of the High Court of Justice; COMMON FORMS, the ordinary clauses which are of frequent occurrence in identical terms in writs and deeds; COMMON LAW, in England, the ancient customary law of the land; COMMON PRAYER (BOOK OF), the liturgy of the Church of England; COMMON-RIDING, the Scotch equivalent of BEATING THE BOUNDS (see BEAT); COMMON ROOM, in schools, colleges, &c., a room to which the members have common access.--IN COMMON, together: equally with others.--MAKE COMMON CAUSE WITH, to cast in one's lot with: to have the same interests and aims with.--PHILOSOPHY OF COMMON-SENSE, that school of philosophy which takes the universally admitted impressions of mankind as corresponding to the facts of things without any further scrutiny.--SHORT COMMONS, scant fare, insufficient supply of rations.--THE COMMON, that which is common or usual; THE COMMON GOOD, the interest of the community at large: the corporate property of a burgh in Scotland; THE COMMON PEOPLE, the people in general. [Fr. _commun_--L. _communis_, prob. from _com_, together, and _munis_, serving, obliging.] COMMONWEAL, kom'un-w[=e]l, COMMONWEALTH, kom'un-welth, _n._ the common or public good: the government in a free state: the public or whole body of the people: a form of government in which the power rests with the people, esp. that in England after the overthrow of Charles I. [See WEALTH.] COMMOVE, kom-m[=oo]v', _v.t._ to put in motion: to agitate: to disturb, excite.--_n._ COMM[=O]'TION, a violent motion or moving: excited or tumultuous action, physical or mental: agitation: tumult. [L. _com_, inten., and _mov[=e]re_, _motum_, to move.] COMMUNE, kom'[=u]n, _n._ a corporation: in France, a territorial division governed by a mayor.--The COMMUNE at Paris in 1871 was a revolt against the national government, the principle of the revolt being that each city or district should be ruled independently by its own commune or local government.--_adj._ COMM[=U]'NAL (also COMM'UNAL).--_ns._ COMMUNALIS[=A]'TION; COMM[=U]'NALISM; COMM[=U]'NALIST. [Fr. _commune_. See COMMON.] COMMUNE, kom-[=u]n', _v.i._ to converse or talk together: to have intercourse: to receive Holy Communion.--_ns._ COMM'UNE, converse: talk; COMMUN'ING, conversing: communion. [O. Fr. _comuner_, to share--_comun_, common.] COMMUNICATE, kom-[=u]'ni-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to give a share of, impart: to reveal: to bestow.--_v.i._ to have something in common with another: to have communication: to have intercourse: to partake of Holy Communion.--_ns._ COMMUNICABIL'ITY, COMM[=U]'NICABLENESS, the state of being communicable.--_adj._ COMM[=U]'NICABLE, that may be communicated: affable.--_adv._ COMM[=U]'NICABLY.--_ns._ COMM[=U]'NICANT, one who partakes of Holy Communion; COMMUNIC[=A]'TION, act of communicating: that which is communicated: intercourse: correspondence: a means of communicating, a connecting passage or channel.--_adj._ COMM[=U]'NICATIVE, inclined to communicate or give information: unreserved.--_adv._ COMM[=U]'NICATIVELY.--_n._ COMM[=U]'NICATIVENESS, the quality of being communicative.--_adj._ COMM[=U]'NICATORY, imparting knowledge. [L. _communic[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, from _communis_.] COMMUNION, kom-[=u]n'yun, _n._ act of communing: mutual intercourse: fellowship: common possession: interchange of transactions: union in religious service: the body of people who so unite.--_n._ COMMUN'IONIST, a communicant.--THE COMMUNION, HOLY COMMUNION, the celebration of the Lord's Supper. [L. _communion-em_, from _communis_.] COMMUNISM, kom'[=u]-nizm, _n._ a theory or condition of things according to which private property should be abolished, and all things held in common.--_n._ COMM'UNIST, one who holds such principles.--_adj._ COMMUNIST'IC, pertaining to communism. COMMUNITY, kom-[=u]n'i-ti, _n._ common possession or enjoyment: agreement: communion: (_Shak._) commonness: people having common rights, &c.: the public in general: a body of persons in the same locality, e.g. 'village community:' a monastic body.--_n._ COMMUNIT[=A]'RIAN, a member of a community. [O. Fr.,--L. _communitas_--_communis_.] COMMUTE, kom-[=u]t', _v.t._ to exchange: to exchange a punishment for one less severe.--_n._ COMMUTABIL'ITY.--_adj._ COMMUT'ABLE, that may be commuted or exchanged.--_n._ COMMUT[=A]'TION, the act of commuting: change or exchange of one thing for another: the change of a penalty or rate from a greater to a less.--_adj._ COMM[=U]'TATIVE (or COMM'), relating to exchange: interchangeable.--_adv._ COMM[=U]'TATIVELY.--_n._ COMM'UT[=A]TOR, an apparatus attached to many electric machines for reversing the currents.--_adj._ COMMUT'UAL, mutual. [L. _commut[=a]re_--_com_, with _mut[=a]re_, to change.] COMOSE, k[=o]'m[=o]s, _adj._ hairy, comate. [L. _comosus_.] COMPACT, kom-pakt', _adj._ fastened or packed together: firm: close: brief.--_v.t._ to press closely together: to consolidate: (_Shak._) to confirm.--_adj._ COMPACT'ED, firmly put together: compact.--_adv._ COMPACT'EDLY.--_n._ COMPACT'EDNESS.--_adv._ COMPACT'LY.--_ns._ COMPACT'NESS, state of being compact: closeness: solidity: terseness; COMPAC'TURE (_Spens._) close union or knitting together; COMP[=A]GE', COMP[=A]'GES, a structure of many parts. [Fr.,--L. _com_, _pactus_, pa.p. of _comping[)e]re_--_com_, together, _pang[)e]re_, to fix. Cf. FANG.] COMPACT, kom'pakt, _n._ a mutual bargain or agreement: a league, treaty, or union: (_Shak._) league, in bad sense.--_adj._ united: leagued. [L. _compactum_--_compacisci_, from _com_, with, and _pacisci_, to make a bargain; cf. _pang[)e]re_.] COMPAGINATE, kom-paj'i-n[=a]t, _v.t._ to join, connect.--_n._ COMPAGIN[=A]'TION. [L. _compagin[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_com_, together, and _pang[)e]re_, to fasten, fix.] COMPANION, kom-pan'yun, _n._ one who keeps company or frequently associates with another: an associate or partner: a higher rank of servant, who, though receiving pay, stands rather in the relation of a friend: fellow, in a bad sense.--_v.t._ to accompany.--_adj._ of the nature of a companion: accompanying.--_adjs._ COMPAN'IABLE (_obs._), sociable; COMPAN'IONABLE, fit to be a companion: agreeable.--_n._ COMPAN'IONABLENESS.--_adv._ COMPAN'IONABLY.--_adj._ COMPAN'IONED, having a companion.--_ns._ COMPAN'IONHOOD, COMPAN'IONARY.--_adj._ COMPAN'IONLESS, without a companion.--_n._ COMPAN'IONSHIP. [Fr. _compagnon_, from Low L. _companium_, a mess--L. _com_, with, and _panis_, bread.] COMPANION, kom-pan'yun, _n._ (_naut._) the skylight or window-frame through which light passes to a lower deck or cabin: companion-ladder.--_ns._ COMPAN'ION-LADD'ER, the ladder or stair leading from the deck to the officers' cabin; COMPAN'ION-WAY, a staircase from the deck to a cabin. [Cf. Dut. _kompanje_; O. Fr. _compagne_; It. _compagne_.] COMPANY, kum'pa-ni, _n._ any assembly of persons: a number of persons associated together for trade, &c.: a society: a subdivision of a regiment: the crew of a ship: state of being a companion: fellowship: associates: society: a gathering of people for social intercourse.--_v.t._ to accompany.--_v.i._ to associate.--BE GOOD, or BAD, COMPANY, to have, or to lack, companionable qualities; KEEP COMPANY, to associate with: to court; KNOW A MAN BY HIS COMPANY, to determine his character by the quality of his friends. [Fr. _compagnie_. See COMPANION.] COMPARE, kom-p[=a]r', _v.t._ to set things together, to ascertain how far they agree or disagree: to liken or represent as similar: (_gram._) to inflect an adjective.--_v.i._ to hold comparison.--_n._ (_obs._) comparison: similitude.--_adj._ COM'PARABLE, that may be compared.--_n._ COM'PARABLENESS.--_adv._ COM'PARABLY.--_adj._ COMPAR'ATIVE, pertaining to comparison: estimated by comparing with something else: not positive or absolute: (_gram._) expressing more.--_adv._ COMPAR'ATIVELY.--_n._ COMPAR'ISON, the act of comparing: capacity of being compared: comparative estimate: a simile or figure by which two things are compared: (_gram._) the inflection of an adjective.--BEYOND COMPARE, without any rival. [Fr.,--L. _compar[=a]re_, to match, from _com_, together, _par[=a]re_, to make or esteem equal--_par_, equal.] COMPARE, kom-p[=a]r', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to get or provide. [L. _compar[=a]re_--_com_, inten., _par[=a]re_, to prepare.] COMPARTMENT, kom-pärt'ment, _n._ a separate part or division of any enclosed space: a division of a railway carriage: a division of anything.--_v.t._ COMPART', to divide into parts. [Fr., from _compartir_--L. _com_, with, _part[=i]re_, to part.] COMPASS, kum'pas, _n._ a circuit or circle: space: limit: range, a limit of tones of a voice or instrument: the circumference: girth: an instrument consisting of a magnetised needle, used to steer ships by, &c., the needle indicating on a card the absolute directions at any given time: (_pl._) an instrument consisting of two movable legs, for describing circles, &c.--_v.t._ to pass or go round: to surround or enclose: to besiege: to bring about or obtain: to contrive or plot: to accomplish.--_adj._ COM'PASSABLE, capable of being compassed.--_ns._ COM'PASS-CARD, the circular card of a compass; COM'PASSING, contrivance: design; COM'PASS-PLANE, a plane, convex on the under side, for smoothing curved timber; COM'PASS-SAW, a saw that cuts in a circular manner; COM'PASS-SIG'NAL, a signal denoting a point in the compass; COM'PASS-TIM'BER, curved timber, used for shipbuilding, &c.; COM'PASS-WIN'DOW, a semicircular bay-window.--BOX THE COMPASS (see BOX); FETCH A COMPASS, to go round in a circuit. [Fr. _compas_, a circle, prob. from Low L. _compassus_--L. _com_, together, _passus_, a step.] COMPASSION, kom-pash'un, _n._ fellow-feeling, or sorrow for the sufferings of another: pity.--_v.t._ to pity.--_adjs._ COMPAS'SIONABLE, pitiable; COMPAS'SIONATE, inclined to pity or mercy: merciful.--_v.t._ to have compassion for: to have pity or mercy upon.--_adv._ COMPAS'SIONATELY.--_n._ COMPAS'SIONATENESS. [Fr.,--L. _compassio_--_com_, with, _pati_, _passus_, to suffer.] COMPATIBLE, kom-pat'i-bl, _adj._ consistent: agreeable: that can be endured together.--_ns._ COMPATIBIL'ITY, COMPAT'IBLENESS, the quality of being compatible.--_adv._ COMPAT'IBLY. [Fr.,--L. _com_, with, _pati_, to suffer.] COMPATRIOT, kom-p[=a]'tri-ot, _adj._ of the same country.--_n._ one of the same country.--_adj._ COMPATRIOT'IC.--_n._ COMP[=A]'TRIOTISM. [Fr.,--L. _com_, with, and PATRIOT.] COMPEAR, kom-p[=e]r', _v.i._ (_Scots law_) to appear in court.--_ns._ COMPEAR'ANCE; COMPEAR'ANT. [L. _compar[=e]re_--_com_, together, _par[=e]re_, to appear.] COMPEER, kom-p[=e]r', _n._ one who is equal to another: a companion: an associate.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to equal. [L. _compar_--_com_, with, and _par_, equal.] COMPEL, kom-pel', _v.t._ to drive or urge on forcibly: to oblige: to force: to obtain by hard labour:--_pr.p._ compel'ling; _pa.p._ compelled'.--_adj._ COMPEL'LABLE. [L. _com_, inten., _pell[)e]re_, _pulsum_, to drive.] COMPELLATION, kom-pel-[=a]'shun, _n._ style of address: an appellation.--_adj._ COMPEL'LATIVE.--_n._ compellation. [L. _compell[=a]re_, _-atum_, to address, freq. of _compell[)e]re_.] COMPEND, kom'pend, COMPENDIUM, kom-pen'di-um, _n._ a shortening or abridgment: a book or treatise containing the substance of a larger one: an epitome: an abstract.--_adj._ COMPEN'DIOUS, short: concise: comprehensive.--_adv._ COMPEN'DIOUSLY.--_n._ COMPEN'DIOUSNESS. [L. _compendium_, what is weighed together, or saved (opp. to _dispendium_)--_com_, together, _pend[)e]re_, to weigh.] COMPENSATE, kom'pen-s[=a]t, or kom-pen's[=a]t, _v.t._ to reward suitably: to make amends for: to recompense: to counterbalance.--_n._ COMPENS[=A]'TION, act of compensating: reward for service: amends for loss sustained: (_phys._) the neutralisation of opposing forces.--_adjs._ COMPEN'SATIVE, COMPEN'SATORY, giving compensation.--_n._ COM'PENS[=A]TOR, one who or that which compensates.--COMPENSATION BALANCE, PENDULUM, a balance-wheel or pendulum so constructed as to counteract the effect of the expansion and contraction of the metal under variation of temperature. [L. _com_, inten., and _pens[=a]re_, freq. of _pend[)e]re_, to weigh.] COMPESCE, kom-pes', _v.t._ to restrain. [L. _compesc[)e]re_--_compes_, a fetter--_com_, together, _pes_, a foot.] COMPETE, kom-p[=e]t', _v.i._ to seek or strive with others for something: to contend for a prize.--_n._ COMPETI'TION, the act of competing: common strife for the same object.--_adj._ COMPET'ITIVE, pertaining to or characterised by competition.--_n._ COMPET'ITOR, one who competes: a rival or opponent. [L. _compet[)e]re_--_com_, together, _pet[)e]re_, to seek.] COMPETENT, kom'pe-tent, _adj._ suitable: sufficient: fit: belonging: legally qualified: legitimate.--_ns._ COM'PETENCE, COM'PETENCY, fitness: capacity: sufficiency: competent circumstances: legal power or capacity.--_adv._ COM'PETENTLY. [Fr.,--L. _compet[)e]re_--_com_, with, _pet[)e]re_, to seek, to strive after.] COMPILE, kom-p[=i]l', _v.t._ to write or compose by collecting the materials from other books: to draw up or collect: to compose.--_ns._ COMPIL[=A]'TION, the act of compiling: the thing compiled, a literary work made by gathering the material from various authors; COMPILE'MENT, a compilation; COMPIL'ER, COM'PIL[=A]TOR, one who compiles. [Fr. _compiler_, prob. from L. _compil[=a]re_--_com_, together, _pil[=a]re_, to plunder.] COMPLACENT, kom-pl[=a]'sent, _adj._ showing satisfaction: pleased: inclined to please.--_ns._ COMPL[=A]'CENCE, COMPL[=A]'CENCY, pleasure: satisfaction: complaisance.--_adv._ COMPL[=A]'CENTLY. [L. _complac[=e]re_--_com_, inten., _plac[=e]re_, to please.] COMPLAIN, kom-pl[=a]n', _v.i._ to express grief, pain, censure: to murmur or express a sense of injury: to accuse: to make a mournful sound: to be ill--e.g. 'to complain of a sore throat.'--_n._ complaint.--_ns._ COMPLAIN'ANT, one who complains: (_law_) one who raises a suit, a plaintiff; COMPLAIN'ER, a murmurer: complainant; COMPLAIN'ING, the action of the verb _complain_: complaint.--_adv._ COMPLAIN'INGLY.--_n._ COMPLAINT', a complaining: an expression of grief: a representation of pains or injuries: a finding fault: the thing complained of: a disease: an ailment. [Fr. _complaindre_--Low L. _complang[)e]re_--L. _com_, inten., _plang[)e]re_, bewail.] COMPLAISANT, kom'pl[=a]-zant, or kom-pl[=a]-zant', _adj._ desirous of pleasing; obliging.--_n._ COM'PLAISANCE (or COMPLAISANCE'), care or desire to please: an obliging civility.--_adv._ COM'PLAISANTLY (or COMPLAISANT'LY). [Fr.,--_complaire_--L. _complac[=e]re_.] COMPLECT, kom-plekt', _v.t._ to embrace: to interweave.--_adj._ COMPLECT'ED, interwoven. [L. _complecti_, to embrace--_com_, and _plect[)e]re_, to twine.] COMPLEMENT, kom'ple-ment, _n._ that which completes or fills up: full number or quantity: (_Shak._) politeness.--_v.t._ COMPLEMENT', to supplement: (_arch._) to compliment.--_adjs._ COMPLEMENT'AL, completing: (_Shak._) complimental; COMPLEMENT'ARY, completing: together making up a whole.--COMPLEMENTARY ANGLES, angles which together make up a right angle. [L. _complementum_--_com_, and _pl[=e]re_, to fill.] COMPLETE, kom-pl[=e]t', _adj._ free from deficiency: perfect: finished: entire.--_v.t._ to finish: to make perfect or entire: to accomplish.--_adjs._ COMPL[=E]T'ABLE; COMPL[=E]T'ED.--_adv._ COMPLETE'LY.--_ns._ COMPLETE'NESS, the state of being complete; COMPL[=E]'TION, the act of completing: the state of being complete: fulfilment.--_adjs._ COMPL[=E]T'IVE; COMPL[=E]T'ORY, fulfilling: completing. [L. _compl[=e]re_, _-[=e]tum_, to fill up--_com_, inten., and _pl[=e]re_, to fill.] COMPLEX, kom'pleks, _adj._ composed of more than one, or of many parts: not simple: intricate: difficult.--_n._ a complex whole.--_v.t._ to complicate.--_ns._ COMPLEX'EDNESS, COM'PLEXNESS, COMPLEX'ITY, state of being complex: complication.--_adv._ COM'PLEXLY.--_n._ COMPLEX'US, a complicated system: a large muscle of the back, passing from the spine to the head. [L. _complex_--_com_, together, and root of _plic[=a]re_, to fold. See COMPLICATE.] COMPLEXION, kom-plek'shun, _n._ disposition: colour: quality: colour or look of the skin, esp. of the face: general appearance, temperament, or texture: (_Shak._) bodily constitution.--_v.t._ to give a colour to.--_adjs._ COMPLEX'IONAL, pertaining to the complexion; COMPLEX'IONED, having a certain complexion, or temperament; COMPLEX'IONLESS, colourless: pale. [Fr.,--L. _complexio_, a combination, physical structure of body--_complecti_, _complexus_, to embrace--_plect[)e]re_, to plait.] COMPLIANCE, kom-pl[=i]'ans, _n._ a yielding: agreement: complaisance: assent: submission (in bad sense).--_adj._ COMPL[=I]'ABLE, disposed to comply.--_n._ COMPL[=I]'ANCY, compliance.--_adj._ COMPL[=I]'ANT, yielding: pliant: civil.--_adv._ COMPL[=I]'ANTLY.--IN COMPLIANCE WITH, in agreement with. [See COMPLY.] COMPLICATE, kom'pli-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to twist or plait together: to render complex: to entangle.--_adj._ complex: involved.--_n._ COM'PLICACY, the quality or state of being complicated.--_adj._ COM'PLICATED, intricate, confused.--_n._ COMPLIC[=A]'TION, an intricate blending or entanglement.--_adj._ COM'PLICATIVE, tending to complicate.--COMPLICATED FRACTURE, a fracture where there is some other injury (e.g. a flesh wound not communicating with the fracture, a dislocation, a rupture of a large blood-vessel); COMPLICATION OF DISEASES, a number of diseases present at the same time. [L. _com_, together, and _plic[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to fold.] COMPLICE, kom'plis, _n._ (_Shak._) an associate: an accomplice.--_n._ COMPLIC'ITY, state or condition of being an accomplice: complexity. COMPLIMENT, kom'pli-ment, _n._ an expression of regard or praise: delicate flattery: an expression of formal respect or civility: a present.--_v.t._ COMPLIMENT', to pay a compliment to: to express respect for: to praise: to flatter: to congratulate: to make a present.--_v.i._ to make compliments.--_adjs._ COMPLIMENT'AL, expressing or implying compliment; COMPLIMENT'ARY, conveying, or expressive of, civility or praise: using compliments.--_n._ COMPLIMENT'ER, one who pays compliments.--COMPLIMENTS OF THE SEASON, compliments appropriate to special times, as Christmas and birthdays; LEFT-HANDED COMPLIMENT, a saying intended to seem a compliment, but in reality the reverse; PAY, or PRESENT, ONE'S COMPLIMENTS, to give one's respects or greeting. [Fr. _compliment_--L. _complementum_. See COMPLY.] COMPLINE, COMPLIN, kom'plin, _n._ the 7th and last service of the day, at 9 P.M., completing the canonical hours. [O. Fr. _conplie_ (mod. _complies_)--L. _completa_ (_hora_).] COMPLISH, kom'plish, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to accomplish. COMPLOT, kom'plot, _n._ a conspiracy.--_v.i._ COMPLOT', to plot together, to conspire.--_v.t._ to plan.--_pr.p._ complot'ting; _pa.p._ complot'ted. [Fr.] COMPLUVIUM, kom-pl[=oo]'vi-um, _n._ a quadrangular open space in the middle of a Roman house, which carried the rain-water from the roofs to a basin (_impluvium_) placed below. [L.] COMPLY, kom-pl[=i]', _v.i._ to yield to the wishes of another: to agree or consent to (_with_):--_pr.p._ comply'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ complied'.--_n._ COMPL[=I]'ER, one who complies.--_p.adj._ COMPLY'ING, compliant. [It. _complire_, to fulfil, to suit, to offer courtesies--L. _compl[=e]re_, to fulfil.] COMPO, kom'p[=o], _n._ a mixture of whiting, resin, and glue for ornamenting walls and cornices; a bankrupt's composition. [Abbrev. of COMPOSITION.] COMPONENT, kom-p[=o]'nent, _adj._ making up: forming one of the elements of a compound.--_n._ one of the elements of a compound.--_n._ COMP[=O]'NENCY.--_adj._ COMPONENT'AL. [L. _compon[)e]re_.] COMPORT, kom-p[=o]rt', _v.i._ to agree, suit (_with_).--_v.t._ to bear one's self: to behave.--_n._ manner of acting.--_ns._ COMPORT'ANCE (_Spens._); COMPORT'MENT, behaviour. [L. _comport[=a]re_--_com_, together, and _port[=a]re_, to carry.] COMPOSE, kom-p[=o]z', _v.t._ to form by putting two or more parts or things together: to place in proper order, to put together, to arrange artistically the elements of a landscape for painting: to settle or set at rest: to soothe: to set up or place types in order for printing: to originate or write as author, to set to music.--_p.adj._ COMPOSED', settled, quiet, calm.--_adv._ COMPOS'EDLY.--_ns._ COMPOS'EDNESS; COMPOS'ER, a writer, an author, esp. of a piece of music.--_adj._ COM'POSITE, made up of two or more distinct parts: (_archit._) a blending of the Ionic and the Corinthian orders: (_bot._) belonging to the natural order _Compositæ_, having compound or composite flowers--heads of flowers composed of a number of florets on a common receptacle, surrounded by bracts forming a leafy involucre, like single flowers.--_adv._ COM'POSITELY.--_ns._ COM'POSITENESS; COMPOS'ING-STICK, an instrument with a sliding adjustment, used for holding printing-types before they are put on the galley; COMPOS'ITION, the act of putting together, or that which is put together: the thing composed, as a work in literature, music, or painting: mental constitution: artistic manner, style in writing or painting: a coming together or agreement, an arrangement or compromise: a certain percentage which creditors agree to accept in lieu of the full payment of a bankrupt's debts: (_mech._) the compounding of two velocities or forces into a single velocity or force which shall be their equivalent.--_adj._ COMPOS'ITIVE.--_ns._ COMPOS'ITOR, one who puts together, or sets up, types for printing; COM'POST, COMPOST'URE (_Shak._) a mixture for manure: a kind of plaster; COMP[=O]'SURE, calmness: self-possession: tranquillity.--COMPOSITE CANDLE, one made of a mixture of stearic acid and the stearin of coco-nut oil; COMPOSITE CARRIAGE, a railway-carriage with compartments of different classes; COMPOSITE PORTRAIT, a single portrait produced by combining those of a number of persons; COMPOSITION OF A FELONY, the act of abstaining from prosecution for some consideration--itself punishable by fine and imprisonment. [Fr. _composer_, from L. _cum_, and _paus[=a]re_, to cease, to rest.] COMPOS MENTIS, kom'pos ment'is, _adj. phrase_, in one's right mind--sometimes merely COMPOS. [L.] COMPOSSIBLE, kom-pos'i-bl, _adj._ possible in co-existence with something else.--_n._ COMPOSSIBIL'ITY. [L. _com-_, and POSSIBLE.] COMPOT, kom'pot, _n._ fruit preserved in syrup. [Fr. _compote_.] COMPOTATION, kom-po-t[=a]'shun, _n._ a carouse together.--_ns._ COMPOT[=A]'TIONSHIP; COM'POTATOR, a bottle-companion.--_adj._ COMPOT'ATORY. [L. _compotationem_--_com_, together, _pot[=a]re_, to drink.] COMPOUND, kom-pownd', _v.t._ to mix or combine: to settle or adjust by agreement.--_v.i._ to agree, or come to terms: to bargain in the lump.--_adj._ COM'POUND, mixed or composed of a number of parts: not simple, dealing with numbers of various denominations of quantity, &c., as in 'compound addition,' &c.; or with processes more complex than the simple process, as in 'compound proportion,' &c.--_n._ a mass made up of a number of parts: the usual name in India for the enclosure in which a house stands, with its outhouses, yard, and garden: a compounded drug.--_n._ COMPOUND'ER.--COMPOUND ENGINE, a condensing engine in which the mechanical action of the steam is begun in one cylinder, and ended in a larger cylinder; COMPOUND FRACTURE, a broken bone, communicating with a co-existing skin wound; COMPOUND HOUSEHOLDER, one who pays his rates in his rent, the landlord being immediately chargeable with them; COMPOUND INTEREST, the charge made where--the interest not being paid when due--it is added to the principal, forming the amount upon which the subsequent year's interest is computed; COMPOUND QUANTITY (_alg._), a quantity consisting of more than one term, as _a + b_; COMPOUND TIME (_mus._), time in which each bar is made up of two or more simple bars. [O. Fr., from L. _compon[)e]re_--_com_, together, _pon[)e]re_, to place.] COMPREHEND, kom-pre-hend', _v.t._ to seize or take up with the mind, to understand: to comprise or include.--_ns._ COMPREHENSIBIL'ITY, COMPREHEN'SIBLENESS.--_adj._ COMPREHEN'SIBLE, capable of being understood.--_adv._ COMPREHEN'SIBLY.--_n._ COMPREHEN'SION, power of the mind to understand: (_logic_) the intension of a term or the sum of the qualities implied in the term: the inclusion of Nonconformists within the Church of England.--_adj._ COMPREHEN'SIVE, having the quality or power of comprehending much: extensive: full.--_adv._ COMPREHEN'SIVELY.--_n._ COMPREHEN'SIVENESS. [L. _comprehend[)e]re_, to seize.] COMPRESS, kom-pres', _v.t._ to press together: to force into a narrower space: to condense or concentrate.--_n._ COM'PRESS, soft folds of linen, &c., formed into a pad, and used in surgery to apply any requisite pressure to any part: a wet cloth, covered with waterproof, applied to the skin.--_adj._ COMPRESSED'.--_ns._ COMPRESSIBIL'ITY, COMPRES'SIBLENESS, the property that bodies have of being reduced in volume by pressure--the ratio of the amount of compression per unit volume to the compressing force applied.--_adj._ COMPRES'SIBLE, that may be compressed.--_n._ COMPRES'SION, act of compressing: state of being compressed, condensation.--_adjs._ COMPRES'SIONAL; COMPRES'SIVE, able to compress.--_ns._ COMPRES'SOR, anything that compresses; a muscle that compresses certain parts; COMPRES'SURE.--COMPRESSED-AIR BATH, a strong chamber of iron plates in which a patient can sit, and into which air is driven by a steam-engine to any required pressure; COMPRESSED-AIR MOTOR, any mode of employing air as a motive-power, as in automatic railway-brakes, &c. [L. _compress[=a]re_, _com_, together, and _press[=a]re_, to press--_prem[)e]re_, _pressum_, to press.] COMPRINT, kom-print', _v.t._ to share in printing--of the former privilege shared with the Stationers' Company and the King's Printer by Oxford and Cambridge. COMPRISE, kom-pr[=i]z', _v.t._ to contain, include: to sum up.--_adj._ COMPRIS'ABLE.--_n._ COMPRIS'AL, the act of comprising.--_p.adjs._ COMPRISED', included; COMPRIS'ING, including. [Fr. _compris_, pa.p. of _comprendre_--L. _comprehend[)e]re_. See COMPREHEND.] COMPROMISE, kom'pr[=o]-m[=i]z, _n._ a settlement of differences by mutual concession, adjustment of one's theories or principles.--_v.t._ to settle by mutual agreement and concession: to pledge: to involve or bring into question--to expose one's self to risk of danger or misunderstanding.--_p.adj._ COM'PROMISED, exposed to danger or discredit. [Fr. _compromis_--L. _compromitt[)e]re_, _-missum_--_com_, together, _promitt[)e]re_, to promise.] COMPROVINCIAL, kom-pro-vin'shal, _adj._ (_Spens._) belonging to the same province. COMPT, COMPTER, COMPTIBLE, obs. forms of COUNT, &c. COMPTROLL, COMPTROLLER. See under CONTROL. COMPULSE, kom-puls', _v.t._ to compel.--_adjs._ COMPUL'SATORY, COMPUL'SATIVE (_Shak._), compulsory.--_p.adj._ COMPULSED', compelled.--_ns._ COMPUL'SION, the act of compelling: force: necessity: violence; COMPUL'SITOR (_Scots law_), that which compels.--_adj._ COMPUL'SIVE, coercive: with power to compel.--_adv._ COMPUL'SIVELY; COMPUL'SORILY.--_adj._ COMPUL'SORY, compelled: obligatory: compelling. [L. _compuls[=a]re_, freq. of _compell[)e]re_, to compel.] COMPUNCTION, kom-pungk'shun, _n._ uneasiness of conscience: remorse: regret: pity.--_adj._ COMPUNC'TIOUS, feeling or causing compunction: repentant: remorseful.--_adv._ COMPUNC'TIOUSLY.--WITHOUT COMPUNCTION, with no feeling of sorrow or regret. [O. Fr.,--L. _compunctio_, _-nis_--_com_, inten., and _pung[)e]re_, _punctum_, to prick.] COMPURGATION, kom-pur-g[=a]'shun, _n._ the custom, in Anglo-Saxon law, of permitting the accused to call in witnesses to prove his innocency, by joining their oaths to his: evidence in favour of the accused: vindication.--_n._ COM'PURGATOR, one who testifies to the innocency or veracity of another.--_adjs._ COMPURGAT[=O]'RIAL, COMPUR'GATORY. [L. _compurg[=a]re_, to purify wholly. See PURGE.] COMPURSION, kom-pur'shun, _n._ a pursing together (_Sterne_). COMPUTE, kom-p[=u]t', _v.t._ to calculate: to number: to estimate.--_adj._ COMPUT'ABLE, calculable.--_ns._ COM'PUTANT, COMPUT'ER, COM'PUTIST, a calculator; COMPUT[=A]'TION, act of computing: reckoning: estimate.--_adj._ COMPUT'[=A]TIVE, given to computation.--_n._ COM'PUT[=A]TOR. [L. _comput[=a]re_, from _com_, together, _put[=a]re_, to reckon.] COMRADE, kom'r[=a]d, _n._ a close companion: an intimate associate--_ns._ COM'RADERY; COM'RADESHIP. [Sp. _camarada_, a roomful, a chamber-mate--L. _camera_, a chamber.] COMTISM, komt'ism, _n._ the philosophical system of August _Comte_, the founder of Positivism (1798-1857).--_adj._ COM'TIAN.--_n._ and _adj._ COMT'IST. COMUS, k[=o]'mus, _n._ a god of mirth: a revel. [L.,--Gr. _k[=o]mos_, a revel.] CON., kon, a contraction of L. _contra_, against, as in PRO AND CON., for and against. CON, kon, _v.t._ to study carefully: to commit to memory:--_pr.p._ con'ning; _pa.p._ conned.--_n._ CON'NING, learning by heart; poring over. [A.S. _cunnian_, to try to know--_cunnan_, to know.] CON, CONN, kon, kun, _v.t._ to direct the steering of a ship.--_n._ the act of conning.--_ns._ CON'NING, directing the steering; CON'NING-TOW'ER, the pilot-house of a war-ship. [Prob. conn. with preceding.] CON, kon, _n._ a knock. [Fr. _cogner_, to knock.] CONACRE, kon'[=a]-k[.e]r, _n._ the custom of letting land in Ireland in small portions for a single crop, the rent paid in money or in labour--also CORN'ACRE.--_v.t._ to sublet in conacre.--_n._ CON'ACREISM. CONARIUM, k[=o]-n[=a]'ri-um, _n._ the pineal gland of the brain.--_adj._ CON[=A]'RIAL. [Gr. _k[=o]narion_.] CONATUS, ko-n[=a]'tus, _n._ an effort: an impulse.--_n._ CON[=A]'TION, the faculty of free agency, including desire and volition.--_adj._ CON[=A]'TIVE. [L. _con[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_, to endeavour.] CONCATENATE, kon-kat'e-n[=a]t, _v.t._ to chain or link together: to connect in a series.--_n._ CONCATEN[=A]'TION, a series of links united: a series of things depending on each other. [L. _con_, together, and _catena_, a chain.] CONCAUSE, kon'kawz, _n._ a co-operating cause. CONCAVE, kon'k[=a]v, _adj._ curved, vaulted, or arched, applied to the inner side of any curved line or rounded body, and opposed to _convex_, which is applied to the outside.--_n._ a hollow: an arch or vault.--_adv._ CON'CAVELY.--_n._ CONCAV'ITY, the quality of being concave: the inner surface of a concave or hollow body.--_adjs._ CONC[=A]'VO-CON'CAVE, or DOUB'LE-CON'CAVE, concave on both sides of a lens; CONC[=A]'VO-CON'VEX, concave on one side, and convex on the other. [L. _concavus_, from _con_, inten., and _cavus_, hollow. See CAVE.] CONCEAL, kon-s[=e]l', _v.t._ to hide completely or carefully: to keep secret; to disguise: to keep from telling.--_adjs._ CONCEAL'ABLE, that may be concealed; CONCEALED', hidden.--_n._ CONCEAL'MENT, act of concealing: secrecy: disguise: hiding-place: (_Shak._) a mystery. [O. Fr. _conceler_--L. _concel[=a]re_, from _con_, inten., and _cel[=a]re_, to hide.] CONCEDE, kon-s[=e]d', _v.t._ to cede or give up: to quit: to surrender: to admit: to grant.--_v.i._ to admit or grant.--_n._ CONCED'ER. [L. _conced[)e]re_, _-cessum_--_con_, wholly and _ced[)e]re_, to yield.] CONCEIT, kon-s[=e]t', _n._ over-estimate of one's self: too favourable opinion of one's own good qualities: a pleasant, fantastical, or affected notion: wit: (_Spens._) idea: (_Shak._) understanding: estimate.--_v.t._ to conceive: to think.--_adj._ CONCEIT'ED, clever, witty, fantastical (_obs. uses_): having a high opinion of one's self: egotistical.--_adv._ CONCEIT'EDLY.--_n._ CONCEIT'EDNESS.--_adj._ CONCEIT'LESS (_Shak._), without conceit, stupid.--OUT OF CONCEIT WITH, no longer fond of. [Through a Fr. form _conceit_, from L. _conceptus_, pa.p. of _concip[)e]re_.] CONCEIVE, kon-s[=e]v', _v.t._ to receive into and form in the womb: to form in the mind: to imagine or think: to understand: to express.--_v.i._ to become pregnant: to think.--_ns._ CONCEIVABIL'ITY, CONCEIV'ABLENESS.--_adj._ CONCEIV'ABLE, that may be conceived, understood, or believed.--_adv._ CONCEIV'ABLY.--_adj._ CONCEIVED', imagined, thought. [O. Fr. _concever_--L. _concip[)e]re_, _conceptum_, from _con_, and _cap[)e]re_, to take.] CONCENT, kon-sent', _n._ a harmony or concord of sounds: concert of voices.--_v.i._ (_Spens._) to harmonise. [L. _concentus_, pa.p. of _concin[)e]re_--_con_, together, _can[)e]re_, to sing.] CONCENTRATE, kon'sen-tr[=a]t, or kon-sen'-, _v.t._ to bring towards a common centre: to bring into a closer union: to condense, to render more intense the properties of.--_adj._ CONCEN'TRATED (also CON'-).--_n._ CONCENTR[=A]'TION, act of concentrating: condensation: the keeping of the mind fixed on something.--_adj._ CONCEN'TRATIVE, tending to concentrate.--_n._ CONCEN'TRATIVENESS. [A lengthened form of CONCENTRE.] CONCENTRE, kon-sent'[.e]r, _v.i._ to tend to or meet in a common centre: to be concentric.--_v.t._ to bring or direct to a common centre or point:--_pr.p._ concent'ring; _pa.p._ concent'red or concent'ered.--_adjs._ CONCEN'TRIC, -AL, having a common centre.--_adv._ CONCEN'TRICALLY.--_n._ CONCENTRIC'ITY. [Fr. _concentrer_--L. _con_, with, _centrum_, the centre.] CONCEPT, kon'sept, _n._ a thing conceived, a general notion.--_ns._ CONCEP'TACLE, that in which anything is contained, a receptacle: (_bot._) a pericarp of one valve, a follicle: a cavity enclosing the reproductive cells in certain plants and animals; CONCEP'TION, the act of conceiving: the thing conceived; the formation in the mind of an image or idea: a notion: (_Shak._) a mere fancy: a plan: a concept; CONCEP'TIONIST.--_adjs._ CONCEP'TIOUS (_Shak._), fruitful; CONCEPT'IVE, capable of conceiving mentally; CONCEP'TUAL, pertaining to conception.--_ns._ CONSEP'TUALISM, the doctrine in philosophy that universals have an existence in the mind apart from any concrete embodiment; CONCEP'TUALIST, one who holds this doctrine.--_adj._ CONCEPTUALIS'TIC. [L. _concip[)e]re_, _-ceptum_, to conceive.] CONCERN, kon-sern', _v.t._ to relate or belong to: to affect or interest: to make uneasy: to trouble: to have to do with: to be affected.--_n._ that which concerns or belongs to one: interest: regard: anxiety: a business, or those connected with it.--_adj._ CONCERNED', having connection with: interested: anxious.--_adv._ CONCERN'EDLY.--_n._ CONCERN'EDNESS.--_prep._ CONCERN'ING, regarding: pertaining to.--_n._ CONCERN'MENT, a thing in which one is concerned: an affair: importance: interest: interference. [Fr.,--L. _concern[)e]re_, _con_, together, _cern[)e]re_, to see.] CONCERT, kon's[.e]rt, _n._ union or agreement in any undertaking: harmony: musical harmony: a musical entertainment.--_v.t._ CONCERT', to frame or devise together: to arrange, adjust.--_p.adj._ CONCERT'ED, mutually planned: arranged.--_ns._ CONCERTINA (kon-ser-t[=e]'na), a musical instrument consisting of a pair of bellows, usually polygonal, the sounds produced by free vibrating reeds of metal, as in the accordion; CONCER'TO, a musical composition for a solo instrument, with orchestral accompaniments.--CONCERT PITCH (_mus._), the pitch at which instruments for concert use are tuned. [Fr. _concerter_--It. _concert[=a]re_, to sing in concert.] CONCESSION, kon-sesh'un, _n._ the act of conceding: the thing conceded: a grant.--_adj._ CONCES'SIBLE.--_n._ CONCESSIONAIRE', one who has obtained a concession.--_adj._ CONCES'SIONARY.--_n._ CONCES'SIONIST.--_adj._ CONCES'SIVE, implying concession. [CONCEDE.] CONCETTO, kon-chet'to, _n._ an ingenious turn of expression: a conceit:--_pl._ CONCET'TI.--_n._ CONCET'TISM, the use of concetti. [It.,--L. _conceptum_, conceit.] CONCH, kongk, _n._ a marine shell: a spiral shell used by the Tritons as a trumpet, and still used by some African peoples in war: a name for the native whites of the Bahamas, owing to their use of conchs as food: (_archit._) the semidome of an apse; the apse itself.--_n._ CONCHIF'ERA, a term applied by Lamarck to bivalve molluscs and to very different Brachiopods.--_adjs._ CONCHIF'EROUS, having a shell; CONCH'IFORM, conch-shaped.--_n._ CONCH'OID, a plane curve invented to solve the problem of trisecting a plane angle, doubling the cube, &c.--_adjs._ CONCHOID'AL, pertaining to a conchoid: shell-like, applied to the fracture of a mineral; CONCHOLOG'ICAL, pertaining to conchology.--_ns._ CONCHOL'OGIST; CONCHOL'OGY, that branch of natural history which deals with the shells of molluscs. [L. _concha_--Gr. _kongch[=e]_; Sans. _cankha_, a shell; conn. with COCKLE.] CONCHA, kong'ka, _n._ the central cavity of the outer ear: the outer ear: (_archit._) conch. [L. _concha_.] CONCIERGE, kong-si-erj', _n._ a warden: a janitor. [Fr.; der. unknown.] CONCILIAR, kon-sil'i-ar, _adj._ pertaining to a council.--Also CONCIL'IARY. CONCILIATE, kon-sil'i-[=a]t, _v.t._ to gain, or win over: to gain the love or good-will of such as have been indifferent or hostile: to pacify.--_v.i._ to make friends.--_adj._ CONCIL'IABLE (_obs._).--_n._ CONCILI[=A]'TION, act of conciliating.--_adj._ CONCIL'I[=A]TIVE.--_n._ CONCIL'I[=A]TOR.--_adj._ CONCIL'IATORY. [L. _concili[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_concilium_, council.] CONCINNITY, kon-sin'i-ti, _n._ harmony: congruity: elegance.--_adj._ CONCINN'OUS, elegant: harmonious. [L. _concinnus_, well adjusted.] CONCIPIENT, kon-sip'i-ent, _adj._ that which conceives.--_n._ CONCIP'IENCY. CONCISE, kon-s[=i]s', _adj._ cut short: brief.--_v.t._ (_Milt._) to mutilate.--_adv._ CONCISE'LY.--_ns._ CONCISE'NESS, the quality of being concise: terseness [Fr.,--L. _concid[)e]re_, _concisum_, from _con_, and _cæd[)e]re_, to cut.] CONCISION, kon-sizh'on, _n._ mutilation: (_B._) circumcision: conciseness. CONCLAMATION, kon-kla-m[=a]'shun, _n._ a shout of many together. CONCLAVE, kon'kl[=a]v, _n._ the room in which cardinals meet to elect a pope: the body of cardinals: any close assembly.--_n._ CON'CLAVIST, an attendant on a cardinal in conclave. [L. _conclave_, from _con_, together, _clavis_, a key.] CONCLUDE, kon-kl[=oo]d', _v.t._ to close: to end: to oblige.--_v.i._ to end: to infer: to form a final judgment.--_p.adj._ CONCLUD'ED, finished: settled.--_adj._ CONCLUD'ING, final, closing.--_n._ CONCLU'SION, act of concluding: the end, close, or last part: inference: judgment: an experiment: (_Shak._) a riddle.--_adjs._ CONCLUS'IVE, CONCLU'SORY, final: convincing.--_adv._ CONCLUS'IVELY.--_n._ CONCLUS'IVENESS.--IN CONCLUSION, finally.--TO TRY CONCLUSIONS, to experiment: to engage in a contest. [L. _conclud[)e]re_, _conclusum_--_con_, together, _claud[)e]re_, to shut.] CONCOCT, kon-kokt', _v.t._ to digest: to prepare or mature: to make up a mixture: to plan, devise: to fabricate.--_ns._ CONCOCT'ER, CONCOCT'OR; CONCOC'TION, act of concocting: ripening: preparation of a medical prescription, &c.: a made-up story.--_adj._ CONCOCT'IVE, pertaining to concoction. [L. _concoqu[)e]re_, _concoctum_--_con_, together, and _coqu[)e]re_, to cook, to boil.] CONCOMITANT, kon-kom'i-tant, _adj._ accompanying or going along with: conjoined with.--_n._ he who or that which accompanies.--_ns._ CONCOM'ITANCE, CONCOM'ITANCY, state of being concomitant.--_adv._ CONCOM'ITANTLY. [L. _con_, with, and _comitans_, pr.p. of _comit[=a]ri_, to accompany--_comes_, a companion.] CONCORD, kon'kord, or kong'-, _n._ state of being of the same heart or mind: union: harmony: agreement: a combination of notes which is pleasant to the ear.--_v.i._ to agree: to harmonise.--_n._ CONCORD'ANCE, agreement: an index or dictionary of the leading words or passages of a book, esp. of the Bible.--_adj._ CONCORD'ANT, harmonious, united.--_adv._ CONCORD'ANTLY.--_n._ CONCORD'AT, a term, though sometimes used of secular treaties, generally employed to denote an agreement made between the pope and a secular government.--_adj._ CONCOR'DIAL, harmonious. [Fr. _concorde_--L. _concordia_--_concors_, of the same heart, from _con_, together, _cor_, _cordis_, the heart.] CONCORPORATE, kon-kor'por-[=a]t, _v.t._ to unite in one body.--_adj._ united in one body. [L. _con_, together, and CORPORATE.] CONCOURSE, kon'k[=o]rs, or kong'-, _n._ an assembly of persons or things running or drawn together: (_Scots law_) concurrence of an officer, who has legal right to grant it. [Fr.,--L. _concursus_--_con_, together, _curr[)e]re_, to run.] CONCREATE, kon'kr[=e]-[=a]t, _v.t._ to create with or at the same time. CONCREMATION, kon-kr[=e]-m[=a]'shun, _n._ a burning up or together, cremation. CONCRESCENCE, kon-kres'ens, _n._ increment: a growing together of cells or other organisms. [L. _concrescentia_--_con_, together, _cresc[)e]re_, to grow.] CONCRETE, kon'kr[=e]t, _adj._ formed into one mass: the opposite of _abstract_, and denoting a particular thing: made of concrete.--_n._ a mass formed by parts growing or sticking together: a mixture of lime, sand, pebbles, &c., used in building.--_v.t._ CONCR[=E]TE', to form into a solid mass.--_v.i._ to harden.--_adv._ CONCR[=E]TE'LY.--_ns._ CONCR[=E]TE'NESS; CONCR[=E]'TION, a mass concreted: a growth forming in certain parts of the body, as calculi, &c.--_adjs._ CONCR[=E]'TIONARY; CONCR[=E]T'IVE, having power to concrete. [L. _concretus_--_con_, together, _cresc[)e]re_, _cretum_, to grow.] CONCREW, kon-kr[=oo]', _v.i._ (_Spens._) to concrete. CONCUBINE, kong'k[=u]-b[=i]n, _n._ a woman who cohabits or lives with a man without being married.--_n._ CONC[=U]'BINAGE, state of living together as man and wife without being married.--_adj._ CONC[=U]'BINARY. [Fr.,--L. _concubina_--_con_, together, _cub[=a]re_, to lie down.] CONCUPISCENCE, kon-k[=u]'pis-ens, _n._ violent desire: sexual appetite: lust.--_adjs._ CONC[=U]'PISCENT, CONC[=U]'PISCIBLE. [Fr.,--L. _concupiscentia_--_concupisc[)e]re_--_con_, inten., _cup[)e]re_, to desire.] CONCUPY, kong'k[=u]-pi, _n._ (_Shak._) concubine, or concupiscence, according to Schmidt. CONCUR, kon-kur', _v.i._ to run together: to meet in one point: to coincide: to act together: to agree: to assent to:--_pr.p._ concur'ring; _pa.p._ concurred'.--_ns._ CONCUR'RENCE, the meeting of lines: union: joint action: assent; CONCUR'RENCY.--_adj._ CONCUR'RENT, of lines meeting in the same point: coming, acting, or existing together: united: accompanying.--_n._ one that concurs: a competitor: one who accompanies a sheriff's officer as witness.--_adv._ CONCUR'RENTLY.--_adj._ CONCUR'RING, agreeing. [L. _concurr[)e]re_, from _con_, together, _curr[)e]re_, _cursum_, to run.] CONCUSS, kon-kus', _v.t._ to disturb: to overawe: to coerce.--_n._ CONCUS'SION, state of being shaken: a violent shock caused by the sudden contact of two bodies: any undue pressure or force exerted upon any one.--_adj._ CONCUSS'IVE, having the power or quality of concussion. [L. _concussus_--_con_, together, _quat[)e]re_, to shake.] CONCYCLIC, kon-s[=i]'klik, _adj._ (_geom._) lying on the circumference of one circle. CONDEMN, kon-dem', _v.t._ to pronounce guilty: to censure or blame: to sentence to punishment: to give up to some fate: to pronounce unfit for use.--_adj._ CONDEM'NABLE, blamable.--_n._ CONDEMN[=A]'TION, state of being condemned: blame: cause of being condemned.--_adj._ CONDEM'NATORY, expressing or implying condemnation.--_p.adj._ CONDEMNED', pronounced to be wrong, guilty, or useless: belonging or relating to one who is sentenced to punishment, e.g. 'condemned cell:' declared dangerous and to be removed, as a house, bridge, &c. [L. _condemn[=a]re_, from _con_, inten., and _damn[=a]re_, to damage.] CONDENSE, kon-dens', _v.t._ to compress or reduce by pressure into smaller compass: to reduce to a denser form, as vapour to liquid.--_n._ CONDENSABIL'ITY, the quality of being condensable.--_adj._ CONDENS'ABLE, capable of being compressed.--_v.t._ CONDENS'[=A]TE, to condense: to compress into a closer form.--_v.i._ to become dense: to harden:--_pr.p._ condens'[=a]ting; _pa.p._ condens'[=a]ted.--_ns._ CONDENS[=A]'TION, act of condensing; CONDENS'ER, an apparatus for reducing vapours to a liquid form: an appliance for collecting or condensing electricity. [L. _condens[=a]re_--_con_, inten., and _densus_, dense.] CONDESCEND, kon-de-send', _v.i._ to descend willingly from a superior position: to act kindly to inferiors: to deign: to comply: to lower one's self.--_n._ CONDESCEND'ENCE, condescension: (_Scots law_) an articulate statement annexed to a summons, setting forth the allegations in fact upon which an action is founded.--_adj._ CONDESCEND'ING, yielding to inferiors: courteous: obliging: patronising.--_adv._ CONDESCEND'INGLY.--_n._ CONDESCENS'ION, affability to inferiors: courtesy: graciousness.--CONDESCEND UPON, to specify: to mention. [L. _con_, inten., and _descend[)e]re_, to descend.] CONDIDDLE, kon-did'l, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to steal. CONDIGN, kon-d[=i]n', _adj._ well merited: adequate (of punishment).--_adv._ CONDIGN'LY.--_n._ CONDIGN'NESS. [L. _condignus_--_con_, wholly, _dignus_, worthy.] CONDIMENT, kon'di-ment, _n._ a seasoning used at table to give a flavour to the ordinary solid or liquid food.--_v.t._ to pickle. [L. _condimentum_--_cond[=i]re_, to preserve, to pickle.] CONDITION, kon-dish'un, _n._ state in which things exist: a particular manner of being: quality: rank, as 'a person of condition:' pre-requisite: temper: a term of a contract: proposal: arrangement: (_logic_) that which must precede the operation of a cause: (_law_) a provision that upon the occurrence of an uncertain event an obligation shall come into force, or shall cease, or that the obligation shall not come into force until a certain event.--_v.i._ to make terms.--_v.t._ to agree upon: to restrict, limit: to determine.--_adj._ CONDI'TIONAL, depending on conditions.--_n._ CONDITIONAL'ITY.--_adv._ CONDI'TIONALLY.--_v.t._ CONDI'TIONATE, to condition: to qualify.--_adj._ CONDI'TIONED, having a certain condition, state, or quality: circumstanced: depending: relative--the opposite of _absolute_.--CONDITIONING HOUSE, an establishment in which the true weight, length, and condition of articles of trade and commerce are determined scientifically--the first in England established at Bradford in 1891. [L. _condicio_, _-nis_, a compact (later false spelling _conditio_)--_condic[)e]re_--_con_, together, _dic[)e]re_, to say.] CONDOLE, kon-d[=o]l', _v.i._ to grieve with another: to sympathise in sorrow: (_Shak._) to grieve.--_adj._ CONDOL'ATORY, expressing condolence.--_ns._ CONDOLE'MENT, CONDOL'ENCE, expression of grief for another's sorrow.--_adj._ CONDOL'ENT, sympathetic. [L. _con_, with, _dol[=e]re_, to grieve.] CONDONE, kon-d[=o]n', _v.t._ to forgive: to pass over.--_n._ CONDON[=A]'TION, forgiveness: in the legal phraseology of Britain and the United States, forgiveness granted by the injured party, which may be urged by the guilty party as a defence against an action of divorce on the ground of adultery. [L. _con_, inten., _don[=a]re_, to give. See DONATION.] CONDOR, kon'dor, _n._ a large vulture found among the Andes of South America. [Sp.,--Peruv. _cuntur_.] CONDOTTIERE, kon-dot-ti-[=a]'re, _n._ a leader of a band of military adventurers who sold their services to any party in any contest:--_pl._ CONDOTTIERI (-[=a]'r[=e]). [It.,--_condotto_, way--L. _con_, and _duc[)e]re_, to lead.] CONDUCE, kon-d[=u]s', _v.i._ to tend to some end: to contribute.--_ns._ CONDUCE'MENT (_Milt._), CONDUC'IBLENESS, CONDUC'IVENESS.--_adjs._ CONDUC'IBLE, CONDUC'IVE, leading or tending: having power to promote: advantageous.--_advs._ CONDUC'IBLY, CONDUC'IVELY. [L. _con_, together, _duc[)e]re_, _ductum_, to lead.] CONDUCT, kon-dukt', _v.t._ to lead or guide: to convey (water): to direct: to manage: to behave: (_elect._) to carry or transmit.--_ns._ CON'DUCT, act or method of leading or managing: guidance: escort: guide: management: behaviour; CONDUCTIBIL'ITY.--_adjs._ CONDUCT'IBLE, capable of conducting heat, &c.: capable of being conducted or transmitted.--_n._ CONDUC'TION, act or property of conducting or transmitting: transmission by a conductor, as heat.--_adj._ CONDUCT'IVE, having the quality or power of conducting or transmitting.--_ns._ CONDUCTIV'ITY, a power that bodies have of transmitting heat and electricity; CONDUCT'OR, the person or thing that conducts: a leader: a manager: a leader of an orchestra: one in charge of a bus, &c.: that which has the property of transmitting electricity, heat, &c.--_n.fem._ CONDUCT'RESS. [L. _conductus_--_conduc[)e]re_. See CONDUCE.] CONDUIT, kun'dit, or kon'-, _n._ a channel or pipe to lead or convey water, &c.: a kind of fountain. [Fr. _conduit_--L. _conductus_--_conduc[)e]re_, to lead.] CONDYLE, kon'dil, _n._ a protuberance at the end of a bone serving for articulation with another bone, esp. that by which the occipital bone of the skull is articulated to the spine.--_adj._ CON'DYLOID.--_n._ CONDYL[=O]'MA, a growth about the anus or generative organs. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _kondylos_, knuckle.] [Illustration] CONE, k[=o]n, _n._ a solid pointed figure with a circular base: fruit shaped like a cone, as that of the pine, fir, &c.: anything shaped like a cone.--_ns._ CONE'-SHELL, a family of Gasteropod molluscs, with substantial conical shells; CONE'-WHEAT, a variety of wheat, with conical-shaped spike.--_adjs._ CONIC, -AL, having the form of or pertaining to a cone.--_adv._ CON'ICALLY.--_ns._ CON'ICALNESS, CONIC'ITY.--_adj._ CON'ICO-CYLIN'DRICAL.--_n._ CON'ICS, that part of geometry which deals with the cone and its sections.--_adj._ C[=O]'NIFORM, in the form of a cone.--CONIC SECTION, a figure made by the section of a cone by a plane. [Fr. _cone_--L.,--Gr. _k[=o]nos_, a peak, a peg.] CONEY. See CONY. CONFAB, kon-fab', _v._ and _n._ coll. forms of CONFAB'UL[=A]TE, CONFABUL[=A]'TION.--_adj._ CONFAB'ULAR.--_n._ CONFAB'UL[=A]TOR.--_adj._ CONFAB'UL[=A]TORY. CONFABULATE, kon-fab'[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.i._ to talk familiarly together: to chat.--_n._ CONFABUL[=A]'TION. [L. _con_, together, _fabul[=a]ri_, to talk--_fabula_, a tale, fable.] CONFARREATION, kon-far-re-[=a]'shun, _n._ a Roman mode of marriage, made in the presence of the high-priest and ten witnesses, at which bread made of spelt was eaten together.--_adj._ CONFAR'REATE. [L. _confarreatio_--_confarre[=a]re_, to unite by bread, to marry--_con_, with, _far_, a species of grain.] CONFECT, kon'fekt, _n._ fruit, &c., prepared with sugar: a sweetmeat: a comfit.--_v.t._ CONFECT', to prepare: to preserve.--_n._ CONFEC'TION, composition, compound: a composition of drugs: a sweetmeat: the French word for a ready-made article of dress for women's wear.--_v.t._ to make a confection, in its various uses.--_ns._ CONFEC'TIONARY (_B._), a confectioner: a sweetmeat: a place where confections are made: confectionery; CONFEC'TIONER, one who makes confections; CONFEC'TIONERY, a confectioner's shop: the business of a confectioner: sweetmeats in general. [L. _confic[)e]re_, _confectum_, to make up together--_con_, together, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] CONFEDERATE, kon-fed'[.e]r-[=a]t, _adj._ leagued together: allied.--_n._ one united in a league: an ally: an acomplice.--_v.i._ and _v.t._ to league together or join in a league.--_ns._ CONFED'ERACY, a league or mutual engagement: persons or states united by a league: a conspiracy; CONFEDER[=A]'TION, a league: alliance, esp. of princes, states, &c.--_adj._ CONFED'ER[=A]TIVE, of or belonging to a confederation. [L. _confoeder[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_con_, together, _foedus_, _foed[)e]ris_, a league.] CONFER, kon-f[.e]r', _v.t._ to give or bestow: to compare (notes), collate--abbrev. CF.--_v.i._ to talk or consult together:--_pr.p._ confer'ring; _pa.p._ conferred'.--_ns._ CONFEREE', one conferred with; CON'FERENCE, the act of conferring: an appointed meeting for instruction or discussion.--_adjs._ CONFEREN'TIAL; CONFER'RABLE.--_n._ CONFER'RER, one who confers. [Fr.,--L. _conferre_--_con_, together, _ferre_, to bring.] CONFERVA, kon-f[.e]r'va, _n._ a genus of lower fresh-water Algæ, forming slimy masses or tufts in ponds and stagnent pools, easily recognised by their unbranched filaments.--_adj._ CONFER'VOID. [L. _conferva_, a kind water-plant.] CONFESS, kon-fes', _v.t._ to acknowledge fully, esp. something wrong: to own or admit: to make known, as sins to a priest: to hear a confession, as a priest.--_v.i._ to make confession.--_ns._ CONFES'SION, acknowledgment of a crime or fault: avowal; a statement of one's religious belief: acknowledgment of sin to a priest; CONFES'SIONAL, the seat or enclosed recess where a priest hears confessions.--_adj._ pertaining to confession.--_ns._ CONFES'SIONALISM; CONFES'SIONALIST.--_adj._ CONFES'SIONARY, of or belonging to confession.--_n._ a confessional.--_ns._ CONFESS'OR, one who professes the Christian faith, or a priest who hears confessions and grants absolution: one who endures persecution but not death:--_fem._ CONFESS'ORESS; CONFESS'ORSHIP.--_adjs._ CONFESSED', CONFEST', admitted: avowed: evident.--_advs._ CONFESS'EDLY, CONFEST'LY.--CONFESSION OF FAITH, a formulary embodying the religious beliefs of a church or sect: a creed.--CONFESS TO, to admit, acknowledge; STAND CONFESSED, to be revealed. [Fr. _confesser_--L. _confit[=e]ri_, _confessus_--_con_, sig. completeness, and _fat[=e]ri_--_f[=a]ri_, to speak.] CONFIDE, kon-f[=i]d', _v.i._ to trust wholly or have faith (with _in_): to rely.--_v.t._ to entrust, or commit to the charge of.--_ns._ CONFIDANT', one confided in or entrusted with secrets: a bosom-friend:--_fem._ CONFIDANTE'; CON'FIDENCE, firm trust or belief: faith: self-reliance: firmness: boldness: presumption; CON'FIDENCY.--_adj._ CON'FIDENT, trusting firmly: having full belief: positive: bold.--_n._ a confidential friend.--_adj._ CONFIDEN'TIAL, (given) in confidence: admitted to confidence: private.--_advs._ CONFIDEN'TIALLY; CON'FIDENTLY.--_n._ CONFID'ER, one who confides.--_adj._ CONFID'ING, trustful.--_adv._ CONFID'INGLY.--_n._ CONFID'INGNESS.--CONFIDENCE TRICK, a swindler's trick, whereby a person is induced to hand over money as a mark of confidence in the swindler; CONFIDANT PERSON, in Scots law, a confidential person, partner, agent, &c. [L. _confid[)e]re_--_con_, sig. completeness, and _fid[)e]re_, to trust.] CONFIGURATION, kon-fig-[=u]-r[=a]'shun, _n._ external figure or shape: outline: relative position or aspect, as of planets.--_vs.t._ CONFIG'URATE, CONFIG'URE, to shape. [L. _configuratio_--_con_, together, and _figur[=a]re_, to form. See FIGURE.] CONFINE, kon'f[=i]n, _n._ border, boundary, or limit--generally in _pl._: (kon-f[=i]n') confinement: (_Shak._) a prison.--_v.t._ CONFINE', to border; to be adjacent to: to limit, enclose: to imprison.--_adjs._ CONFIN'-ABLE; CONFINED', limited: imprisoned: narrow; CONFINE'LESS (_Shak._), without bound: unlimited.--_ns._ CONFINE'MENT, state of being shut up: restraint: imprisonment: restraint from going abroad by sickness, and esp. of women in childbirth; CONFIN'ER. one within the confines: (_Shak._) an inhabitant.--_adj._ CONFIN'ING, bordering: limiting.--BE CONFINED, to be limited: to be in child-bed. [Fr. _confiner_--L. _confinis_, bordering--_con_, together, _finis_, the end.] CONFIRM, kon-f[.e]rm', _v.t._ to strengthen: to fix or establish: to ratify: to verify: to assure: to admit to full communion.--_adj._ CONFIRM'ABLE.--_n._ CONFIRM[=A]'TION, a making firm or sure: convincing proof: the rite by which persons are admitted to full communion in the R.C., Greek, Lutheran, Anglican, and other Churches.--_adjs._ CONFIRM'ATIVE, tending to confirm; CONFIRM'ATORY, giving additional strength to: confirming; CONFIRMED', settled: inveterate.--_ns._ CONFIRMEE', one to whom anything is confirmed; CONFIRM'ER; CONFIRM'ING. [O. Fr. _confermer_--L. _confirm[=a]re_--_con_, inten., and _firm[=a]re_--_firmus_, firm.] CONFISCATE, kon'fis-k[=a]t, or kon-fis'-, _v.t._ to appropriate to the state, as a penalty: to take possession of.--_adj._ forfeited to the public treasury.--_adjs._ CONFIS'CABLE, CONFIS'CATORY, of the nature of confiscation.--_ns._ CONFISC[=A]'TION, the act of confiscating; CON'FISC[=A]TOR, one who confiscates. [L. _confisc[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_con_, together, _fiscus_, a basket.] CONFIT, kon'fit, _n._ (_obs._). Same as COMFIT. CONFITEOR, kon-fit'[=e]-or, _n._ a form of prayer or confession used in the Latin Church. [L. _confiteor_, I confess.] CONFITURE, kon'fit-[=u]r, _n._ (_obs._). Same as COMFITURE. CONFIX, kon-fiks', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to fix firmly. [L. _config[)e]re_, _-fixum_--_con_, inten., _fig[)e]re_, to fix.] CONFLAGRATE, kon'fla-gr[=a]t, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to burn up.--_adj._ CONFLAG'RANT (_Milt._) burning.--_n._ CONFLAGR[=A]'TION, a great burning or fire. [L. _conflagr[=a]re_--_con_, inten., and _flagr[=a]re_, to burn. See FLAGRANT.] CONFLATE, kon-fl[=a]t', _v.t._ to blow together: to produce: to combine two variant readings of a text into one.--_n._ CONFL[=A]'TION. [L. _conflatus_--_confl[=a]re_, to blow together--_con_, and _fl[=a]re_, to blow.] CONFLICT, kon'flikt, _n._ violent collision: a struggle or contest: a battle: a mental struggle.--_v.i._ CONFLICT', to fight: contend: to be in opposition: to clash.--_adj._ CONFLICT'ING, clashing: contradictory.--_n._ CONFLIC'TION.--_adj._ CONFLICT'IVE, tending to conflict. [L. _conflig[)e]re_--_con_, together, and _flig[)e]re_, to strike.] CONFLUENCE, kon'floo-ens, _n._ a flowing together: the place of meeting, as of rivers: a concourse: the act of meeting together.--_adj._ CON'FLUENT, flowing together: uniting.--_n._ a stream uniting and flowing with another.--_adv._ CON'FLUENTLY.--_n._ CON'FLUX, a flowing together. [L. _conflu[)e]re_, _confluxum_, from _con_, together, _flu[)e]re_, to flow.] CONFORM, kon-form', _v.t._ to make like or of the same form with: to adapt.--_v.i._ to be of the same form; to comply: to obey.--_n._ CONFORMABIL'ITY, state of being conformable.--_adj._ CONFORM'ABLE, corresponding in form: suitable: compliant.--_adv._ CONFORM'ABLY.--_ns._ CONFORM[=A]'TION, particular form, shape, or structure: adaptation; CONFORM'ER, CONFORM'IST, one who conforms, esp. with the worship of the Established Church; CONFORM'ITY, likeness: compliance: consistency.--IN CONFORMITY WITH, in accordance with. [L. _conform[=a]re_--_con_, with, and _form[=a]re_--_forma_, form.] CONFOUND, kon-fownd', _v.t._ to overthrow, defeat: to mingle so as to make the parts indistinguishable: to throw into disorder: to perplex: to astonish.--_p.adj._ CONFOUND'ED, confused: astonished: (_coll._) consummate, egregious (a term of disapprobation).--_advs._ CONFOUND'EDLY (_coll._), hatefully, shamefully: cursedly; CONFOUND'INGLY, astonishingly.--CONFOUND YOU, an execration or curse. [O. Fr. _confondre_--L. _confund[)e]re_, _-fusum_--_con_, together, _fund[)e]re_, to pour.] CONFRATERNITY, kon-fra-t[.e]r'ni-ti, _n._ a brotherhood: clan: brotherly friendship. CONFRÈRE, kong-fr[=a]r, _n._ a colleague: a fellow-member or associate. [Fr.,--L. _con_, together, _frater_, a brother.] CONFRONT, kon-frunt', _v.t._ to stand in front of: to face: to oppose: to bring face to face: to compare.--_n._ CONFRONT[=A]'TION, the bringing of people face to face. [Fr. _confronter_--Low L.,--L. _con_, together, and _frons_, the front. See FRONT.] CONFUCIAN, kon-f[=u]'shyan, _adj._ of or belonging to _Confucius_, the Chinese philosopher (551-479 B.C.).--_ns._ CONF[=U]'CIANISM; CONF[=U]'CIANIST. CONFUSE, kon-f[=u]z', _v.t._ to pour or mix together so that things cannot be distinguished: to throw into disorder: to perplex.--_v.i._ to be confused.--_adj._ CONFUSED', perplexed: disordered.--_adv._ CONFUS'EDLY, in a confused manner: disorderly.--_ns._ CONFUS'EDNESS, state of being confused: disorder; CONF[=U]'SION, the state of being confused: disorder: shame: overthrow: perplexity: embarrassment: turmoil.--_adj._ CONF[=U]'SIVE. [A doublet of CONFOUND.] CONFUTE, kon-f[=u]t', _v.t._ to prove to be false: to refute: to put an end to.--_adj._ CONF[=U]T'ABLE.--_n._ CONFUT[=A]'TION.--_adj._ CONF[=U]T'ATIVE, tending to confute.--_n._ CONFUTE'MENT. [L. _confut[=a]re_--_con_, inten., and _futis_, a water-vessel, from _fund[)e]re_, to pour: to overthrow. See FUTILE.] CONGÉ. See CONGEE. CONGEAL, kon-j[=e]l', _v.t._ to freeze: to change from fluid to solid by cold: to solidify, as by cold.--_v.i._ to pass from fluid to solid, as by cold: to stiffen: to coagulate.--_adj._ CONGEAL'ABLE.--_ns._ CONGEAL'ABLENESS; CONGEAL'MENT, CONGEL[=A]'TION, act or process of congealing: anything congealed. [L. _congel[=a]re_, from _con_, and _gelu_, frost.] CONGEE, kon'j[=e], CONGÉ, kong'j[=a], _n._ a bow: dismissal: leave to depart.--_v.i._ to take leave: to bow.--CONGÉ D'ÉLIRE (_Fr._), permission to elect: permission given by the crown to a dean and chapter to elect a bishop. [Fr. _congé_--L. _commeatus_, leave of absence--_com_, together, and _me[=a]re_, to go.] CONGENER, kon'je-n[.e]r, or kon-j[=e]'n[.e]r, _n._ a person or thing of the same kind or nature.--_adj._ akin.--_adjs._ CONGENER'IC, -AL, of the same genus, origin, or nature; CONGEN'EROUS, of the same nature or kind; CONGENET'IC, alike in origin. [L.,--_con_, with, and _genus_, _generis_, kind.] CONGENIAL, kon-j[=e]'ni-al, _adj._ of the same genius, spirit, or tastes: kindred, sympathetic: suitable.--_n._ CONGENIAL'ITY.--_adv._ CONG[=E]'NIALLY. [L. _con_, with, and _genialis_, genial. See GENIAL.] CONGENITAL, kon-jen'i-tal, _adj._ begotten or born with, said of diseases or deformities dating from birth.--_adv._ CONGEN'ITALLY. [L. _congenitus_, from _con_, together, _gign[)e]re_, _genitum_, to beget.] CONGER, kong'g[.e]r, _n._ a marine bony fish in the eel family, 3 to 6 feet long--also CON'GER-EEL: a company of co-operating booksellers. [L.,--Gr. _gongros_.] CONGERIES, kon-j[=e]'ri-[=e]z, _n._ a collection of particles or small bodies in one mass. [L.,--_con_, together, _ger[)e]re_, _gestum_, to bring.] CONGEST, kon-jest', _v.t._ to bring together, or heap up: to accumulate.--_adjs._ CONGEST'ED, affected with an unnatural accumulation of blood: overcrowded; CONGEST'IBLE.--_n._ CONGEST'ION, an accumulation of blood in any part of the body: fullness: an overcrowded condition.--_adj._ CONGEST'IVE, indicating or tending to congestion. [L. _conger[)e]re_, _congestum_--_con_, together, and _ger[)e]re_, _gestum_, to bring.] CONGIARY, kon'ji-ar-i, _n._ a gift to the Roman people or soldiery, originally in corn, oil, &c., each receiving a _congius_ or gallon--afterwards given in money. [L. _congiarium_--_congius_, the Roman gallon.] CONGLOBE, kon-gl[=o]b', _v.t._ or _v.i._ to collect together into a globe or round mass:--_pr.p._ congl[=o]b'ing; _pa.p._ congl[=o]bed'.--_adj._ CONGLOB'ATE, formed into a globe or ball.--_v.t._ to form into a globe or ball.--_n._ CONGLOB[=A]'TION.--_v.i._ CONGLOB'[=U]LATE, to gather into a globule or small globe. [L. _con_, together, and _glob[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_globus_, a ball, globe.] CONGLOMERATE, kon-glom'[.e]r-[=a]t, _adj._ gathered into a clew or mass.--_v.t._ to gather into a ball.--_n._ a rock composed of pebbles cemented together.--_n._ CONGLOMER[=A]'TION, state of being conglomerated: a collection of things. [L. _conglomer[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_con_, together, and _glomus_, _glomeris_, a clew, akin to _globus_.] CONGLUTINATE, kon-gl[=oo]'tin-[=a]t, _v.t._ to glue together: to heal by uniting.--_v.i._ to unite or grow together.--_p.adj._ CONGLU'TINANT.--_n._ CONGLUTIN[=A]'TION, a joining by means of some sticky substance: healing.--_adj._ CONGLU'TIN[=A]TIVE, having power to conglutinate.--_n._ CONGLU'TIN[=A]TOR. [L. _conglutin[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_con_, together, and _gluten_, glue.] CONGOU, kong'g[=oo], _n._ a kind of black tea.--Also CONGO. [Chinese _kung-fu_, labour, referring to the labour expended in producing the tea.] CONGRATULATE, kon-grat'[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to wish joy to on any fortunate event: to felicitate: to consider one's self fortunate in some matter.--_adj._ CONGRAT'ULANT, expressing congratulation.--_n._ a congratulator.--_ns._ CONGRATUL[=A]'TION, act of congratulating: an expression of joy or sympathy; CONGRAT'ULATOR.--_adj._ CONGRAT'ULATORY. [L. _congratul[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_--_con_, inten., _gratul[=a]ri_--_gratus_, pleasing.] CONGREE, kon-gr[=e]', _v.i._ (_Shak._) to agree together: to accord. [L. _con_, together, and Fr. _gré_, good-will--L. _gratus_, pleasing.] CONGREET, kon-gr[=e]t', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to salute mutually. [L. _con_, together, and GREET.] CONGREGATE, kong'gre-g[=a]t, _v.t._ to gather together: to assemble.--_v.i._ to flock together.--_p.adj._ CONGREGAT'ED, assembled: aggregated.--_n._ CONGREG[=A]'TION, the act of congregating: an assemblage of persons or things: (_O.T._) a name given to the children of Israel: a body of people united to worship in a particular church: the name given to the body of Protestant Reformers in Scotland in the time of Mary.--_adj._ CONGREG[=A]'TIONAL, pertaining to a congregation.--_ns._ CONGREG[=A]'TIONALISM, a form of church government in which each congregation is independent in the management of its own affairs--also called _Independency_; CONGREG[=A]'TIONALIST, adherent of Congregationalism. [L. _congreg[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_con_, together, and _grex_, _gregis_, a flock.] CONGRESS, kong'gres, _n._ a meeting together or assembly, as of ambassadors, &c., for political purposes: the federal legislature of the United States.--_v.i._ to meet in congress.--_adj._ CONGRES'SIONAL.--_n._ CON'GRESSMAN, a member of congress. [L. _con_, together, and _gradi_, _gressus_, to step, to go.] CONGREVE, kong'gr[=e]v, _n._ a rocket for use in war, invented by Sir William _Congreve_ (1772-1828).--_n._ CON'GREVE-MATCH, a kind of lucifer match, invented by Congreve. CONGRUE, kong-gr[=oo]', _v.i._ (_Shak._) to agree.--_ns._ CONG'RUENCE, CONG'RUENCY, agreement: suitableness.--_adj._ CONG'RUENT, agreeing: suitable: congruous: used of two numbers which, when divided by the same number, give the same remainder.--_n._ CONGRU'ITY, agreement between things: consistency: fitness.--_adj._ CONG'RUOUS, suitable: fit: consistent.--_adv._ CONG'RUOUSLY.--_n._ CONG'RUOUSNESS. [L. _congru[)e]re_, to run together.] CONIA. See CONIUM. CONIC, -AL; CONICS. See CONE. CONIFERÆ, kon-if'[.e]r-[=e], _n.pl._ an order of exogenous plants, including pines, firs, &c., which bear cones, in which the seed is contained.--_n._ CON'IFER, one of the foregoing.--_adj._ CONIF'EROUS, cone-bearing, as the fir, &c. [CONE, and L. _ferre_, to bear.] CONIFORM. See CONE. CONIMA, kon'i-ma, _n._ a fragrant resin for making pastilles. CONINE, k[=o]'nin, _n._ an alkaloid forming the poisonous principle of hemlock.--Also C[=O]'NIA, C[=O]'NICINE. [Gr. _k[=o]neion_, hemlock.] CONIROSTRAL, k[=o]n-i-ros'tral, _adj._ having a strong conical beak.--_n.pl._ CONIROS'TRES, a group of insessorial birds with such. [CONE, and L. _rostralis_--_rostrum_, a beak.] CONJECT, kon-jekt', _v.i._ (_Shak._) to conjecture. CONJECTURE, kon-jekt'[=u]r, _n._ a forecast: an opinion formed on slight or defective evidence: an opinion without proof: a guess: an idea.--_v.t._ to make conjectures regarding: to infer on slight evidence: to guess.--_adjs._ CONJECT'URABLE, that may be conjectured; CONJECT'URAL, involving conjecture: given to conjecture.--_adv._ CONJECT'URALLY. [L. _conjic[)e]re_, _conjectum_, to throw together--_con_, together, and _jac[)e]re_, to throw.] CONJEE, CONGEE, kon'j[=e], _n._ water in which rice has been boiled, much used for invalids. [Anglo-Indian--Tamil _kañji_. Origin unknown.] CONJOIN, kon-join', _v.t._ to join together: to combine.--_v.i._ to unite.--_adjs._ CONJOINED', united: in conjunction; CONJOINT', joined together: united.--_adv._ CONJOINT'LY. [Fr. _conjoindre_--L. _con_, together, and _jung[)e]re_, _junctum_, to join. See JOIN.] CONJUGAL, kon'joo-gal, _adj._ pertaining to marriage.--_n._ CONJUGAL'ITY.--_adv._ CON'JUGALLY. [L. _conjugalis_--_conjux_, one united to another, a husband or wife--_con_, and _jugum_, a yoke.] CONJUGATE, kon'joo-g[=a]t, _v.t._ (_gram._) to give the various inflections or parts of a verb.--_adj._ joined: connected.--_n._ a word agreeing in derivation with another word.--_adjs._ CON'JUGATED, CONJUG[=A]'TIONAL, CON'JUGATIVE, conjugate.--_ns._ CON'JUGATENESS; CON'JUGATING; CONJUG[=A]'TION, the act of joining: union: (_gram._) a term applied to a connected view or statement of the inflectional changes of form that a verb undergoes in its various relations: a class of verbs inflected in the same manner.--CONJUGATE AXES, two axes in a conic section, such that each is parallel to the tangent at the extremity of the other; CONJUGATE FOCI (see FOCUS); CONJUGATE MIRRORS, two mirrors set face to face so that the rays emitted from the focus of one are first reflected from it to the and thence to its focus; CONJUGATION OF CELLS, a mode of reproduction in which two apparently similar cells unite, as in Amoeba, Diatoms, &c. [L. _conjug[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_con_, together, and _jug[=a]re_--_jugum_, a yoke.] CONJUNCT, kon-junkt', _adj._ conjoined: concurrent.--_n._ CONJUNC'TION, connection, union: (_gram._) a word that connects sentences, clauses, and words: one of the aspects of the planets, when two heavenly bodies have the same longitude--i.e. when the same perpendicular to the ecliptic passes through both.--_adj._ CONJUNC'TIONAL, relating to a conjunction.--_adv._ CONJUNC'TIONALLY.--_adj._ CONJUNC'TIVE, closely united: serving to unite: connective: (_gram._) introduced by a conjunction.--_adv._ CONJUNC'TIVELY.--_n._ CONJUNC'TIVENESS.--_adv._ CONJUNC'TLY, conjointly: in union.--_n._ CONJUNC'TURE, combination of circumstances: important occasion, crisis.--GRAND CONJUNCTIONS, those where several planets or stars are found together. [L.,--_conjung[)e]re_. See CONJOIN.] CONJURE, kun'j[.e]r and kon-j[=oo]r' (_con'jure_, generally of the art of legerdemain, &c.; _conjure'_, of actions treated as religious or solemn), _v.i._ to practise magical arts: to make an invocation: (_obs._) to conspire.--_v.t._ to call on or summon by a sacred name or in a solemn manner: to implore earnestly: to compel (a spirit) by incantations: to enchant: to raise up or frame needlessly; to effect by jugglery:--_pr.p._ con'juring; _pa.p._ con'jured.--_ns._ CONJUR[=A]'TION, act of summoning by a sacred name or solemnly: enchantment; CON'JUR[=A]TOR, a conspirator; CONJURE'MENT, adjuration; CON'JURER, -OR, one who practises magic: an enchanter: (kon-j[=oo]'ror) one bound by oath with others; CON'JURING, magic-working: the production of effects apparently miraculous by natural means; CON'JURY, magic. [Fr.,--L. _con_, together, and _jur[=a]re_, to swear.] CONK, kongk, _n._ the nose.--_n._ CONK'Y (_slang_), a person with a large nose. [Mr F. Hindes Groome suggests that it may be back slang, _conk_ being the illiterate spelling of the Gipsy _knoc_, nose.] CONNASCENT, kon-nas'ent, _adj._ born or produced at the same time.--_ns._ CONNAS'CENCE, CONNAS'CENCY. [L. _con_, with _nasci_, to be born.] CONNATE, kon'[=a]t, _adj._ born with one's self: innate: allied: congenial.--_adj._ CONNAT'URAL, of the same nature with another.--_v.t._ CONNAT'URALISE.--_n._ CONNAT'URALITY.--_adv._ CONNAT'URALLY.--_ns._ CONNAT'URALNESS; CONN[=A]'TURE. [L. _con_, with, and _nasci_, _natus_, to be born.] CONNE, kon, _v.t._ (_Spens._) form of CON, to know. CONNECT, kon-ekt', _v.t._ to tie or fasten together: to establish a relation between: to associate.--_p.adj._ CONNECT'ED, joined: united.--_adv._ CONNECT'EDLY, in a connected manner.--_ns._ CONNECT'ER, -OR, one who or that which connects.--_adj._ CONNECT'IBLE, capable of being connected.--_ns._ CONNEC'TION, CONNEX'ION, act of connecting: that which connects: a body or society held together by a bond: coherence: intercourse: context: relation: intimacy: a relative.--_adjs._ CONNECT'IVE, CONNEX'IVE (_obs._), binding together.--_n._ a word that connects sentences and words.--_adv._ CONNECT'IVELY.--CONNECTIVE TISSUE, one of the four sets of the commonest classification of animal tissues, including a great variety--e.g. bone, cartilage, ligaments, and enswathing membranes. [L. _con_, together, and _nect[)e]re_, to tie.] CONNICTATION, kon-ik-t[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of winking. [L. _con_, and _nictare_, _-[=a]tum_, to wink.] CONNIVE, kon-[=i]v', _v.i._ to wink at a fault: to take no notice: to have a private understanding.--_ns._ CONNIV'ANCE, CONNIV'ANCY, CONNIV'ENCE, CONNIV'ENCY.--_adj._ CONNIV'ENT.--_n._ CONNIV'ER. [Fr.,--L. _conniv[=e]re_, to wink.] CONNOISSEUR, kon-es-sehr', or kon-is-[=u]r', _n._ one who knows a subject well; a critical judge in art, music, &c.--_n._ CONNOISSEUR'SHIP, the skill of a connoisseur. [Fr. _connoître_--L. _cognosc[)e]re_, to know.] CONNOTE, kon-[=o]t', _v.t._ to signify secondarily: to imply along with an object the inherent attributes: to include.--_v.t._ CON'NOT[=A]TE, to connote.--_n._ CONNOT[=A]'TION, implication of something more than the denotation of an object: the aggregation of attributes connoted by a term.--_adjs._ CONNOT'[=A]TIVE, CONN[=O]'TIVE. [L. _con_, with, and NOTE.] CONNUBIAL, kon-[=u]'bi-al, _adj._ pertaining to marriage or to the marriage state: nuptial.--_n._ CONNUBIAL'ITY.--_adv._ CONN[=U]'BIALLY. [L. _con_, and _nub[)e]re_, to marry. See NUPTIAL.] CONNUMERATE, kon-n[=u]'me-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to count conjointly.--_n._ CONNUMER[=A]'TION. CONNUSANCE, kon'[=u]-sans, _n._ an obs. form of COGNISANCE. CONOID, k[=o]n'oid, _n._ anything like a cone in form.--_adjs._ CONOID'IC, -AL, CON'OID, CONOID'AL. [Gr. _k[=o]nos_, a cone, _eidos_, form.] CO-NOMINEE, k[=o]-nom-i-n[=e]', _n._ a joint-nominee. CONQUADRATE, kon-kwod'r[=a]t, _v.t._ to square with another. CONQUASSATE, kon-kwas'[=a]t, _v.t._ to shake. CONQUER, kong'k[.e]r, _v.t._ to gain by force or with an effort: to overcome or vanquish.--_v.i._ to be victor.--_adj._ CON'QUERABLE, that may be conquered.--_n._ CON'QUERABLENESS.--_adj._ CON'QUERING, victorious.--_adv._ CON'QUERINGLY.--_ns._ CON'QUEROR, one who conquers: a victor:--_fem._ CON'QUERESS; CON'QUEST, the act of conquering: that which is conquered or acquired by physical or moral force: the act of gaining the affections of another.--MAKE A CONQUEST, to conquer.--THE CONQUEROR, William I. of England (L. CONQUES'TOR); THE CONQUEST, the acquisition of the throne of England by William, Duke of Normandy, in 1066. [O. Fr. _conquerre_--L. _conquir[)e]re_,--_con_, inten., _quær[)e]re_, to seek.] CONQUISTADOR, kong-kwis'ta-d[=o]r, _n._ a conqueror, applied to the conquerors of Mexico and Peru. [Sp.,--L. _conquir[)e]re_. See CONQUER.] CONSANGUINE, kon-sang'gwin, _adj._ related by blood: of the same family or descent--also CONSANGUIN'EOUS.--_n._ CONSANGUIN'ITY, relationship by blood: opposed to affinity or relationship by marriage. [L. _consanguineus_--_con_, with, _sanguis_, blood.] CONSCIENCE, kon'shens, _n._ the knowledge of our own acts and feelings as right or wrong: sense of duty: scrupulousness: (_Shak._) understanding: the faculty or principle by which we distinguish right from wrong.--_adjs._ CON'SCIENCE-PROOF, unvisited by any compunctions of conscience; CON'SCIENCE-SMIT'TEN, stung by conscience; CONSCIEN'TIOUS, regulated by a regard to conscience: scrupulous.--_adv._ CONSCIEN'TIOUSLY.--_n._ CONSCIEN'TIOUSNESS.--_adj._ CON'SCIONABLE, governed or regulated by conscience.--_n._ CON'SCIONABLENESS.--_adv._ CON'SCIONABLY.--CONSCIENCE CLAUSE, a clause in a law, affecting religious matters, to relieve persons of conscientious scruples, esp. one to prevent their children being compelled to undergo particular religious instruction; CONSCIENCE MONEY, money given to relieve the conscience, by discharging a claim previously evaded; CASE OF CONSCIENCE, a question in casuistry.--GOOD, or BAD, CONSCIENCE, an approving or reproving conscience.--IN ALL CONSCIENCE, certainly: (_coll._) by all that is right and fair.--MAKE A MATTER OF CONSCIENCE, to act according to conscience: to have scruples about.--MY CONSCIENCE! a vulgar exclamation of astonishment, or an asseveration.--SPEAK ONE'S CONSCIENCE (_Shak._), to speak frankly: to give one's opinion. [Fr.,--L. _conscientia_, knowledge--_consc[=i]re_, to know well--_con_, and _sc[=i]re_, to know.] CONSCIOUS, kon'shus, _adj._ having the feeling or internal knowledge of something: aware: having the faculty of consciousness.--_adv._ CON'SCIOUSLY.--_n._ CON'SCIOUSNESS, the waking state of the mind: the knowledge which the mind has of its own acts and feelings: thought. [L. _conscius_--_consc[=i]re_, to know.] CONSCRIBE, kon-'skr[=i]b', _v.t._ to enlist by conscription.--_adj._ CON'SCRIPT, enrolled, registered.--_n._ one enrolled and liable to serve as a soldier or sailor.--_v.t._ to enlist.--_n._ CONSCRIP'TION, a compulsory enrolment for naval or military service: the obtaining recruits by compulsion.--_adj._ CONSCRIP'TIONAL.--CONSCRIPT FATHERS (_patres conscripti_), the senators of ancient Rome. [L. _conscrib[)e]re_, to enrol--_con_, together, _scrib[)e]re_, to write.] CONSECRATE, kon'se-kr[=a]t, _v.t._ to set apart for a holy use: to render holy or venerable; to hallow; to devote.--_adj._ consecrated: devoted: sanctified.--_ns._ CON'SECRATEDNESS; CONSECR[=A]'TION, the act of devoting to a sacred use; CON'SECRATOR.--_adj._ CON'SECRATORY, making sacred. [L. _consecr[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to make wholly sacred--_con_, and _sacr[=a]re_, to set apart as sacred--_sacer_, sacred.] CONSECTANEOUS, kon-sek-t[=a]'n[=e]-us, _adj._ following as a natural consequence. CONSECTARY, kon-sek'ta-ri, _n._ a deduction, corollary. [L. _consect[=a]ri_, freq. of _consequi_. See CONSECUTION.] CONSECUTION, kon-se-k[=u]'shun, _n._ a train of consequences or deductions: a series of things that follow one another: (_mus._) succession of similar intervals in harmony.--_adj._ CONSEC'UTIVE, following in regular order: succeeding or resulting.--_adv._ CONSEC'UTIVELY--_n._ CONSEC'UTIVENESS. [L. _consequi_--_con_, and _sequi_, _secutus_, to follow.] CONSENESCENCE, kon-s[=e]-nes'ens, _n._ the state of growing old.--Also CONSENES'CENCY. CONSENSUS, kon-sen'sus, _n._ agreement of various parts: agreement in opinion: unanimity.--_n._ CONSEN'SION, mutual consent.--_adj._ CONSEN'SUAL, relating to consent.--_adv._ CONSEN'SUALLY.--CONSENSUAL CONTRACT, a contract requiring merely the consent of the parties. [L. _consent[=i]re_. See CONSENT.] CONSENT, kon-sent', _v.i._ to be of the same mind: to agree: to give assent: to yield: to comply.--_v.t._ (_Milt._) to allow.--_n._ agreement: accordance with the actions or opinions of another: concurrence: advice, counsel.--_adj._ CONSENT[=A]'NEOUS, agreeable or accordant: consistent with.--_adv._ CONSENT[=A]'NEOUSLY--_ns._ CONSENT[=A]'NEOUSNESS, CONSENTAN[=E]'ITY.--_n._ CONSEN'TIENCE, state of being consentient: imperfect consciousness.--_adj._ CONSEN'TIENT, agreeing in mind or in opinion.--_adv._ CONSENT'INGLY.--AGE OF CONSENT, the age at which a person is considered in the eyes of the law competent to give consent to certain acts; BE OF CONSENT (_Shak._), to be accessory; WITH ONE CONSENT, unanimously. [L. _consent[=i]re_--_con_, with, _sent[=i]re_, to feel, to think.] CONSEQUENCE, kon'se-kwens, _n._ that which follows or comes after as a result: effect: influence: importance: (_pl._) a round game describing the meeting of a lady and gentleman and its consequences, each player in turn writing a part of the story, not knowing what the others have written.--_v.i._ (_Milt._) to draw inferences.--_adj._ CON'SEQUENT, following as a natural effect or deduction.--_n._ that which follows: the natural effect of a cause.--_adj._ CONSEQUEN'TIAL, following as a result: casual: pompous.--_advs._ CONSEQUEN'TIALLY; CON'SEQUENTLY. [Fr.,--L. _consequi_--_con_, together, and _sequi_, to follow.] CONSERTION, kon-ser'shun, _n._ junction, adaptation. CONSERVE, kon-s[.e]rv', _v.t._ to keep entire: to retain: to preserve: (_obs._) to preserve in sugar.--_n._ something preserved, as fruits in sugar.--_adj._ CONSER'VABLE.--_n._ CONSER'VANCY, a court having authority to preserve the fisheries, &c., on a river: the act of preserving.--_p.adj._ CONSER'VANT.--_n._ CONSERV[=A]'TION, the act of conserving: the keeping entire.--_adj._ CONSERV[=A]'TIONAL.--_n._ CONSER'VATISM, the opinions and principles of a Conservative.--_adj._ CONSER'VATIVE, tending or having power to conserve.--_n._ (_politics_) one who desires to preserve the institutions of his country against innovation and change: one averse to change and progress.--_ns._ CONSER'VATIVENESS; CONSERVATOIRE (kon-ser-va-twär'), CONSERVAT[=O]'RIUM, a name given by the Italians to schools instituted for the purpose of advancing the study of music and maintaining its purity; CON'SERV[=A]TOR, one who preserves from injury or violation: a guardian, custodian:--_fem._ CONSER'VATRIX; CONSER'VATORSHIP; CONSER'VATORY, a storehouse: a greenhouse or place in which exotic plants are kept: a school of music.--_adj._ preservative.--_n._ CONSER'VER.--CONSERVATION OF ENERGY, the law that the total amount of energy in a material system cannot be varied, provided the system neither parts with energy to other bodies nor receives it from them; CONSERVATION OF MATTER, the experimentally ascertained fact that no process at the command of man can either destroy or create even a single particle of matter.--CONSERVATORS OF THE PEACE, a title usually applied to knights elected in each shire, from the 12th century onwards, for the conservation of the peace. [L. _conserv[=a]re_--_con_, together, and _serv[=a]re_, to keep.] CONSIDER, kon-sid'[.e]r, _v.t._ to look at closely or carefully: to think or deliberate on: to take into account: to attend to: to reward.--_v.i._ to think seriously or carefully: to deliberate.--_adj._ CONSID'ERABLE, worthy of being considered: important: more than a little.--_n._ CONSID'ERABLENESS.--_adv._ CONSID'ERABLY.--_n._ CONSID'ERANCE (_Shak._), consideration.--_adjs._ CONSID'ER[=A]TE, CONSID'ERATIVE (_obs._), thoughtful: serious: prudent: thoughtful for the feelings of others.--_adv._ CONSID'ERATELY.--_ns._ CONSID'ERATENESS, thoughtfulness for others; CONSIDER[=A]'TION, deliberation: importance: motive or reason: compensation, reward: the reason or basis of a compact: (_law_) the thing given or done or abstained from by agreement with another, and in view of that other giving, doing, or abstaining from something.--_prep._ CONSID'ERING, in view of: seeing that.--_adv._ CONSID'ERINGLY, with consideration. [Fr.--L. _consider[=a]re_, supposed to have been orig. a term of augury--_con_, and _sidus_, _sideris_, a star.] CONSIGN, kon-s[=i]n', _v.t._ to give to another: to sign or seal: to transfer: to entrust: to commit: to transmit for sale or custody.--_adj._ CONSIGN'ABLE.--_ns._ CONSIGN[=A]'TION; CONSIG'NATORY, one who signs a document jointly.--_adj._ CONSIGNED', given in trust.--_ns._ CONSIG'NATURE, complete signature: joint signing; CONSIGNEE', one to whom anything is consigned or entrusted; CONSIGN'ER, CONSIGN'OR; CONSIGN'MENT, the act of consigning: the thing consigned: the writing by which anything is made over: in Mercantile Law, goods placed in the hands of an agent or factor for sale, or for some other specified purpose. [Fr.,--L. _consign[=a]re_, to attest.] CONSIGNIFY, kon-sig'ni-f[=i], _v.t._ to signify or indicate in connection with something else.--_n._ CONSIGNIFIC[=A]'-TION.--_adj._ CONSIGNIF'ICATIVE. CONSILIENCE, kon-sil'i-ens, _n._ concurrence: coincidence.--_adj._ CONSIL'IENT, agreeing. [L. _con_, together, and _sal[=i]re_, to leap.] CONSIMILAR, kon-sim'i-lar, _adj._ like each other.--_ns._ CONSIMIL'ITUDE, CONSIMIL'ITY. [L. _consimilis_.] CONSIST, kon-sist', _v.i._ to exist, subsist: to co-exist: to agree.--_ns._ CONSIST'ENCE, CONSIST'ENCY, a degree of density: substance: agreement: the quality of being self-consistent.--_adj._ CONSISTENT, fixed: not fluid: agreeing together: uniform in thought or action.--_adv._ CONSIST'ENTLY.--_adjs._ CONSIST[=O]'RIAL, CONSIST[=O]'RIAN.--_n._ CONSIST'ORY, properly a place of assembly: the particular place where the privy-council of the Roman emperor met, the council itself: an assembly or council: a spiritual or ecclesiastical court in the R.C. Church, consisting of the pope and cardinals, and determining all such matters as the appointment of cardinals, bishops, &c.; in the Lutheran Church, exercising a supervision over religion and education, over the clergy, schoolmasters, and theological candidates; in the Reformed Church, the kirk-session, or the presbytery.--CONSIST IN, to lie in: to depend upon: to be composed of; CONSIST OF, to be made up of. [L. _consist[)e]re_--_con_, together, _sist[)e]re_, to stand.] CONSOCIATE, kon-s[=o]'shi-[=a]t, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to associate together.--_p.adj._ CONS[=O]'CIATED.--_n._ CONSOCI[=A]'TION, companionship (_with_): association: alliance. [L. _consoci[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_con_, with, _soci[=a]re_, to associate--_socius_, a companion.] CONSOLE, kon-s[=o]l', _v.t._ to give solace or comfort: to cheer in distress.--_adj._ CONSOL'ABLE, that may be comforted.--_v.t._ CON'SOLATE (_Shak._), to console.--_ns._ CONSOL[=A]'TION, solace: alleviation of misery: a comforting circumstance; CONSOL[=A]'TION-MATCH, -RACE, &c., a race, &c., in which only those who have been previously unsuccessful may compete.--_adj._ CONSOL'ATORY.--_n._ CON'SOLER:--_fem._ CON'-SOL[=A]TRIX. [L. _con_, inten., and _sol[=a]ri_, to comfort.] CONSOLE, kon's[=o]l, _n._ (_archit._) a projection resembling a bracket, frequently in the form of the letter S, used to support cornices, or for placing busts, vases, or figures on: the key-desk of an organ.--_n._ CON'SOLE-TA'BLE, a table having one of its sides supported against a wall by consoles or brackets. [Fr. _console_; prob. conn. with CONSOLIDATE.] CONSOLIDATE, kon-sol'i-d[=a]t, _v.t._ to make solid: to form into a compact mass: to unite into one.--_v.i._ to grow solid or firm: to unite.--_adj._ made firm or solid: united.--_p.adj._ CONSOL'IDATED.--_n._ CONSOLID[=A]'TION, act of making or becoming solid: confirmation.--_adj._ CONSOL'IDATIVE, tending to consolidate: having the quality of healing.--_n._ CONSOL'IDATOR, one who or that which consolidates.--CONSOLIDATION ACTS, acts of parliament which combine into one general statute several special enactments. [L. _consolid[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_con_, inten., and _solidus_, solid.] CONSOLS, kon'solz, _n.pl._ (short for CONSOLIDATED ANNUITIES) that part of the British national debt which consists of several stocks consolidated into one fund. CONSOMMÉ, kon-so-m[=a]', _n._ a kind of soup made from meat by slow boiling. [Fr.,--L. _consumm[=a]re_, to consummate.] CONSONANT, kon'son-ant, _adj._ consistent: suitable: harmonious.--_n._ an articulation which can be sounded only with a vowel: a letter of the alphabet other than a vowel.--_ns._ CON'SONANCE, a state of agreement: agreement or unison of sounds: (_mus._) a combination of notes which can sound together without the harshness produced by beats: concord; CON'SONANCY, harmony.--_adj._ CONSONANT'AL.--_adv._ CON'SONANTLY.--_adj._ CON'SONOUS, harmonious. [L. _consonans_, _-antis_, pr.p. of _conson[=a]re_, to harmonise--_con_, with, and _son[=a]re_, to sound.] CONSORT, kon'sort, _n._ a partner: a companion: a wife or husband: an accompanying ship: (_obs._) a number of people: an orchestra: former spelling for concert.--_v.t._ CONSORT' (_Shak._), to accompany: to associate (_with_).--_v.i._ to associate or keep company: to agree.--_p.adj._ CONSORT'ED, associated.--_n._ CON'SORTSHIP.--IN CONSORT, in company: in harmony. [L. _consors_, from _con_, with, and _sors_, _sortis_, a lot.] CONSPECIES, kon-sp[=e]'sh[=e]z, _n._ (_zool._) a subspecies or variety.--_adj._ CONSPECIF'IC. CONSPECTUS, kon-spek'tus, _n._ a comprehensive survey: a synopsis.--_n._ CONSPECT[=U]'ITY (_Shak._), sight: the eye. [L. _conspectus_--_conspic[)e]re_, to look at.] CONSPICUOUS, kon-spik'[=u]-us, _adj._ clearly seen: visible to eye or mind: prominent.--_ns._ CONSPIC[=U]'ITY, CONSPIC'UOUSNESS.--_adv._ CONSPIC'UOUSLY. [L. _conspicuus_--_conspic[)e]re_--_con_, inten., _spic[)e]re_, to look.] CONSPIRE, kon-sp[=i]r', _v.i._ to plot or scheme together: to agree: to concur to one end.--_v.t._ to plan, devise.--_n._ CONSPIR'ACY, the act of conspiring: a banding together for an evil purpose: a plot: concurrence.--_adj._ CONSPIR'ANT, conspiring.--_ns._ CONSPIR[=A]'TION, conspiracy; CONSPIR'ATOR, one who conspires:--_fem._ CONSPIR'ATRESS.--_adj._ CONSPIRAT[=O]'RIAL.--_n._ CONSPIR'ER (_Shak._), conspirator.--_adv._ CONSPIR'INGLY. [L. _conspir[=a]re_--_con_, together, _spir[=a]re_, to breathe.] CONSPISSATE, kon-spis'[=a]t, _v.t._ to inspissate.--_n._ CONSPISS[=A]'TION. CONSPURCATION, kon-spur-k[=a]'shun, _n._ (_obs._) defilement. [L. _conspurc[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to defile.] CONSTABLE, kun'sta-bl, _n._ formerly a state-officer of the highest rank: the warden of a castle: a peace-officer: a policeman.--_ns._ CON'STABLERY, the charge of a constable; CON'STABLESHIP; CON'STABLEWICK, the district of a constable; CON'STABLING, acting as a constable or policeman; CONSTAB'ULARY, the body of constables of a district, town, &c.--_adj._ of or pertaining to constables, or peace-officers.--CONSTABLE OF FRANCE, chief of the household under the old French kings, then commander-in-chief of the army, judge in questions of chivalry, tournaments, and martial displays.--HIGH CONSTABLE, one of two constables ordained in every hundred or franchise, to make the view of armour, and to see to the conservation of the peace; HIGH CONSTABLE OF SCOTLAND, the first subject in Scotland after the blood-royal; LORD HIGH CONSTABLE OF ENGLAND, the seventh great officer of the crown, and formerly a judge in the court of chivalry.--OUTRUN THE CONSTABLE, to go too fast: to get into debt.--SPECIAL CONSTABLE, a person sworn in by the justices to preserve the peace, or to execute warrants on special occasions. [O. Fr. _conestable_ (Fr. _connétable_)--L. _comes stabuli_, count of the _stabulum_, stable.] CONSTANT, kon'stant, _adj._ fixed: unchangeable: firm: continual: faithful.--_n._ (_math._) a term or quantity which does not vary throughout a given investigation: that which remains unchanged.--_n._ CON'STANCY, fixedness: unchangeableness: faithfulness: (_Shak._) perseverance: (_Shak._) certainty.--_adv._ CON'STANTLY. [L. _constans_, _-antis_, from _const[=a]re_, to stand firm--_con_, inten., _st[=a]re_, to stand.] CONSTANTIA, kon-stan'shi-a, _n._ a wine produced around _Constantia_ in Cape Colony. CONSTANTINIAN, kon-stan-tin'yan, _adj._ pertaining to the Roman emperor, _Constantine_ the Great (A.D. 274-337). CONSTANTINOPOLITAN, kon-stan'ti-no-pol'it-an, _adj._ of or pertaining to _Constantinople_. CONSTAT, kon'stat, _n._ a certificate of what appears (_constat_) on record touching a matter given by the auditors of the Exchequer: an attested copy of the enrolment of letters patent. CONSTELLATE, kon'stel-[=a]t, or kon-stel'[=a]t, _v.t._ to cluster.--_v.i._ to be fated, according to the position of the stars: to cluster together.--_n._ CONSTELL[=A]'TION, a group of stars: an assemblage of persons distinguished in some way: (_astrol._) a particular disposition of the planets, supposed to influence the course of human life or character.--_adj._ CONSTEL'LATORY. [L. _constellatus_, studded with stars--_con_, with, _stell[=a]re_--_stella_, a star.] CONSTERNATE, kon'ster-n[=a]t, _v.t._ to fill with dismay.--_n._ CONSTERN[=A]'TION, terror which throws into confusion: astonishment: dismay. [L. _constern[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, from _con_, wholly, _stern[)e]re_, to strew.] CONSTIPATE, kon'stip-[=a]t, _v.t._ to stop up: to make costive: (_obs._) to press together.--_n._ CONSTIP[=A]'TION, costiveness, an irregular and insufficient action of the bowels. [L. _con_, together, _stip[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to pack.] CONSTITUTE, kon'stit-[=u]t, _v.t._ to set up: to establish: to form or compose: to appoint: to determine.--_n._ CONSTIT'UENCY, the whole body of voters for a member of parliament.--_adj._ CONSTIT'UENT, constituting or forming: essential: elemental: component.--_n._ an essential or elemental part: one of those who elect a representative, esp. in parliament.--_n._ CONSTIT[=U]'TION, the act of constituting: the natural condition of body or mind: disposition: a system of laws and customs established by the sovereign power of a state for its own guidance: the established form of government: a particular law or usage.--_adj._ CONSTIT[=U]'TIONAL, inherent in the natural frame: natural: agreeable to the constitution or frame of government: essential: legal: of a sovereign who rules subject to fixed laws.--_n._ a walk for the sake of one's health.--_v.t._ CONSTIT[=U]'TIONALISE, to make constitutional.--_ns._ CONSTIT[=U]'TIONALISM, adherence to the principles of the constitution; CONSTIT[=U]'TIONALIST, CONSTIT[=U]'TIONIST, one who favours the constitution; CONSTITUTIONAL'ITY, the state or quality of being constitutional.--_adv._ CONSTIT[=U]'TIONALLY.--_adj._ CON'STITUTIVE, that constitutes or establishes: having power to enact, &c.: essential. [L. _constitu[)e]re_, _constitutum_, from _con_, together, and _statu[)e]re_, to make to stand, to place.] CONSTRAIN, kon-str[=a]n', _v.t._ to urge with irresistible power: to force, compel: to distress: to confine: to limit: to cause constraint.--_adj._ CONSTRAIN'ABLE.--_p.adj._ CONSTRAINED', forced, compelled: embarrassed.--_adv._ CONSTRAIN'EDLY.--_n._ CONSTRAINT', irresistible force: compulsion: confinement: repression of one's feelings: embarrassment. [O. Fr. _constraindre_--L. _constring[)e]re_--_con_, together, _string[)e]re_, to press. See STRAIN.] CONSTRICT, kon-strikt', _v.t._ to press together: to contract: to cramp.--_p.adj._ CONSTRICT'ED, narrowed: cramped: (_bot._) contracted or tightened, so as to be smaller in some parts than in others.--_n._ CONSTRIC'TION, a pressing together: contraction: tightness.--_adj._ CONSTRICT'IVE.--_n._ CONSTRICT'OR, that which constricts or draws together: a large serpent which crushes its prey in its folds--the Boa-constrictor (q.v.). [L. _constring[)e]re_, _constrictum_.] CONSTRINGE, kon-strinj', _v.t._ to draw together: to cause to contract.--_v.i._ to contract.--_n._ CONSTRIN'GENCY.--_adj._ CONSTRIN'GENT, having the quality of contracting. [L. _constring[)e]re_.] CONSTRUCT, kon-strukt', _v.t._ to build up: to compile: to put together the parts of a thing: to make: to compose.--_adj._ constructed.--_adjs._ CONSTRUCT'ABLE, CONSTRUCT'IBLE, able to be constructed.--_ns._ CONSTRUCT'ER, CONSTRUCT'OR; CONSTRUC'TION, the act of constructing: anything piled together, building: manner of forming: (_gram._) the arrangement of words in a sentence: interpretation: meaning.--_adjs._ CONSTRUC'TIONAL, pertaining to construction; CONSTRUCT'IVE, capable of constructing: not direct or expressed, but inferred.--_adv._ CONSTRUCT'IVELY.--_ns._ CONSTRUCT'IVENESS, the faculty of constructing; CONSTRUCT'URE.--CONSTRUCT STATE, in Hebrew and other Semitic languages, the state of a noun depending on another noun, which in Aryan languages would be in the genitive case--e.g. House of God--house being in the construct state.--BEAR A CONSTRUCTION, to allow of a particular interpretation. [L. _constru[)e]re_, _-structum_--_con_, _stru[)e]re_, to build.] CONSTRUE, kon'str[=oo], or kon-str[=oo]', _v.t._ to exhibit the arrangement in another language: to translate: to explain: to interpret: to infer.--_v.i._ to admit of grammatical analysis.--CON'STER, an old form. [L. _constru[)e]re_, _constructum_, to pile together.] CONSTUPRATE, kon'st[=u]-pr[=a]t, _v.t._ (_obs._) to deflower.--_n._ CONSTUPR[=A]'TION. CONSUBSIST, kon-sub-sist', _v.i._ to subsist together. CONSUBSTANTIAL, kon-sub-stan'shal, _adj._ of the same substance, nature, or essence, esp. of the Trinity.--_ns._ CONSUBSTAN'TIALISM, the doctrine of consubstantiation; CONSUBSTAN'TIALIST, one who believes in consubstantiation; CONSUBSTANTIAL'ITY.--_adv._ CONSUBSTAN'TIALLY, with sameness of substance.--_v.t._ CONSUBSTAN'TI[=A]TE, to unite in one common substance or nature.--_v.i._ to become so united.--_adj._ united in one common substance.--_ns._ CONSUBSTANTI[=A]'TION (_theol._), the Lutheran doctrine of the actual, substantial presence of the body and blood of Christ co-existing in and with the bread and wine used at the Lord's Supper; CONSUBSTANTI[=A]'TIONIST. [L. _con_, with, and SUBSTANTIAL.] CONSUETUDE, kon'swe-t[=u]d, _n._ custom: familiarity.--_adj._ CONSUET[=U]'DINARY, customary.--_n._ an unwritten law established by usage, derived by immemorial custom from antiquity: a ritual of customary devotions. [L. _consuetudo_, custom.] CONSUL, kon'sul, _n._ one of the two chief-magistrates in the Roman republic: one commissioned to reside in a foreign country as an agent for, or representative of, a government.--_n._ CON'SULAGE, duty paid to a consul for protection of goods.--_adj._ CON'SULAR, pertaining to a consul.--_n._ a man of consular rank.--_ns._ CON'SULATE, the office, residence, or jurisdiction of a consul; CON'SULSHIP, the office, or term of office, of a consul. [L.] CONSULT, kon-sult', _v.t._ to ask advice of: to decide or act in favour of: to look up to for information or advice: to discuss: to consider: to take measures for the advantage of any one.--_v.i._ to consider in company: to take counsel.--_n._ (kon-sult', or kon'sult) the act of consulting: a meeting for consultation: a council: a meeting for conspiracy or intrigue.--_ns._ CONSUL'TA, a meeting of council; CONSULT[=A]'TION, deliberation, or a meeting for such, esp. of physicians or lawyers.--_adj._ CONSULT'ATIVE, of or pertaining to consultation, esp. of bodies taking part in a consultation without voting on the decision.--_ns._ CONSULTEE', the person consulted; CONSULT'ER, one who consults.--_adjs._ CONSULT'ING, of a physician or lawyer who gives advice; CONSULT'IVE, pertaining to consultation; CONSULT'ORY, CONSULT'ATORY. [L. _consult-[=a]re_, inten. of _consul-[)e]re_, to consult.] CONSUME, kon-s[=u]m', _v.t._ to destroy by wasting, fire, evaporation, &c.: to use up: to devour: to waste or spend: to exhaust.--_v.i._ to waste away.--_adj._ CONSUM'ABLE.--_adv._ CONSUM'EDLY, exceedingly--originally a fantastic variant of _confoundedly_, and prob. influenced in meaning by _consummately_.--_ns._ CONSUM'ER, as opposed to _producer_, he who uses an article produced; CONSUM'ING, wasting or destroying. [L. _consum-[)e]re_, to destroy--_con_, sig. completeness, _sum-[)e]re_, _sumptum_, to take.] CONSUMMATE, kon'sum-[=a]t, or kon-sum'[=a]t, _v.t._ to raise to the highest point: to perfect or finish: to make marriage legally complete by sexual intercourse.--_adj._ complete, supreme, perfect of its kind.--_adv._ CONSUMM'ATELY, perfectly.--_n._ CONSUMM[=A]'TION, act of completing: perfection: conclusion of life or of the universe: the subsequent intercourse which makes a marriage legally valid.--_adj._ CONSUMM'ATIVE.--_n._ CON'SUMMATOR.--_adj._ CONSUMM'ATORY. [L. _consummare_, to perfect--_con_, with, and _summus_, highest, perfect.] CONSUMPTION, kon-sum'shun, _n._ the act of using up or consuming--the converse of _production_--also CONSUMPT'; _pulmonary consumption_, a more or less rapidly advancing process of lung destruction, with progressive emaciation--phthisis, tuberculosis.--_adj._ CONSUMP'TIVE, wasting away: inclined to the disease consumption.--_adv._ CONSUMP'TIVELY.--_ns._ CONSUMP'TIVENESS, a tendency to consumption; CONSUMPTIV'ITY. [See CONSUME.] CONSUTE, kon's[=u]t, _adj._ (_entom._) marked as if with stitches, as the wing-covers of some beetles.--_adj._ CONS[=U]'TILE (_obs._), stitched together. [L. _consu[)e]re_, _-sutum_, to sew together.] CONTABESCENT, kon-tab-es'ent, _adj._ wasting away, atrophied.--_n._ CONTABES'CENCE. [L. _contabescentem_--_contabesc[)e]re_, to waste away.] CONTABULATE, kon-tab'[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to floor with boards.--_n._ CONTABUL[=A]'TION. [L., _con_, with, _tabula_, a board.] CONTACT, kon'takt, _n._ touching or close union: meeting: (_math._) coincidence, as of two curves, in two or more successive points.--_adj._ CONTACT'UAL, pertaining to contact.--BE IN CONTACT (_with_), to be touching anything; MAKE CONTACT, to complete an electrical current. [L. _conting-[)e]re_, _contactum_, to touch--_con_, wholly, _tang[)e]re_, to touch.] CONTADINA, kon-ta-d[=e]'na, _n._ an Italian peasant woman:--_pl._ CONTADI'NE (-ne), CONTADI'NAS. [It.] CONTAGION, kon-t[=a]'jun, _n._ transmission of a disease from the sick to the healthy, either by direct contact of a part affected with the disease, or through the medium of the excretions or exhalations of the body.--_n._ CONT[=A]'GIONIST, one who believes that certain diseases are contagious.--_adj._ CONT[=A]'GIOUS, that may be communicated by contact.--_adv._ CONT[=A]'GIOUSLY.--_ns._ CONT[=A]'GIOUSNESS; CONT[=A]'GIUM, the supposed morbific matter by means of which disease spreads.--CONTAGIOUS DISEASES ACTS, a series of laws passed in 1865 and succeeding years for the better regulation of prostitutes in certain seaport and military towns. [L. _contagion-em_--_con_, together, _tang[)e]re_, to touch.] CONTAIN, kon-t[=a]n', _v.t._ to comprise, to include: (_B._) to restrain, esp. the sexual appetite.--_adj._ CONTAIN'ABLE, that may be contained.--_ns._ CONTAIN'ANT, CONTAIN'ER. [Through Fr. from L. _contin[=e]re_--_con_, together, _ten[=e]re_, to hold.] CONTAMINATE, kon-tam'i-n[=a]t, _v.t._ to defile by touching or mixing with: to pollute: to corrupt: to infect.--_adj._ CONTAM'INABLE.--_n._ CONTAMIN[=A]'TION, pollution.--_adj._ CONTAM'INATIVE. [L. _contamin[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_contamen_ (for _contagmen_), pollution. See CONTACT.] CONTANGO, kon-tang'go, _n._ a percentage paid by the buyer to the seller of stock for keeping back its delivery to the next settling-day, continuation--opp. to _Backwardation_. [From CONTINUE.] CONTECK, kon'tek, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as CONTEST. [O. Fr. _contek_, prob. conn. with _contekier_, to touch.] CONTEMN, kon-tem', _v.t._ to despise: to neglect, to disregard.--_n._ CONTEM'NER. [Fr.,--L. _contemn[)e]re_, _-temptum_, to value little--_con_, inten., _temn[)e]re_, to slight.] CONTEMPER, kon-temp'[.e]r, _v.t._ to blend together, to qualify by mixture: to adapt to anything.--_ns._ CONTEMPER[=A]'TION (_obs._), CONTEM'PERATURE. [L. _contemper[=a]re_.] CONTEMPLATE, kon'tem-pl[=a]t, or kon-tem'pl[=a]t, _v.t._ to consider or look at attentively: to meditate on or study: to intend.--_v.i._ to think seriously: to meditate (with _on_, _upon_).--_adj._ CONTEMP'LABLE.--_ns._ CONTEM'PLANT, CONTEMP'LATIST; CONTEMPL[=A]'TION, continued study of a particular subject: a meditation written, or a subject for such.--_adj._ and _n._ CONTEM'PLATIVE, given to contemplation.--_adv._ CONTEM'PLATIVELY.--_ns._ CONTEM'PLATIVENESS; CON'TEMPL[=A]TOR, one who contemplates: a student. [L. _contempl[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_, to mark out carefully a _templum_ or place for auguries--_con_, sig. completeness, and _templum_. See CONSIDER and TEMPLE.] CONTEMPORANEOUS, kon-tem-po-r[=a]'ne-us, _adj._ living, happening, or being at the same time.--_n._ CONTEMPORAN[=E]'ITY (_geol._), does not imply that two systems were precisely synchronous, but merely that each occupies the same relative position in the succession of systems.--_adv._ CONTEMPOR[=A]'NEOUSLY.--_ns._ CONTEMPOR[=A]'NEOUSNESS; CONTEM'PORARINESS.--_adj._ CONTEM'PORARY, contemporaneous, occupying the same period (_with_).--_n._ one who lives at the same time: a rival newspaper or magazine.--_v.t._ CONTEM'PORISE, to make contemporary in mind. [L. _con_, together, and _temporaneus_--_tempus_, time.] CONTEMPT, kon-tempt', _n._ scorn: disgrace: (_law_) disregard of the rules or an offence against the dignity of a court (with _of_, _for_).--_ns._ CONTEMPTIBIL'ITY, CONTEMPT'IBLENESS.--_adj._ CONTEMPT'IBLE, despicable.--_adv._ CONTEMPT'IBLY.--_adj._ CONTEMPT'UOUS, haughty, scornful.--_adv._ CONTEMPT'UOUSLY.--_n._ CONTEMPT'UOUSNESS. [See CONTEMN.] CONTEND, kon-tend', _v.i._ to strive: to struggle in emulation or in opposition: to dispute or debate (with _against_, _for_, _with_, _about_): to urge one's course.--_ns._ CONTEND'ENT, CONTEND'ER, one who contends.--_p.adj._ CONTEND'ING, striving.--_n._ CONTEN'TION, a violent straining after any object: strife: debate.--_adj._ CONTEN'TIOUS, quarrelsome.--_adv._ CONTEN'TIOUSLY.--_n._ CONTEN'TIOUSNESS. [L. _contend[)e]re_, _-tentum_--_con_, with, _tend[)e]re_, to stretch.] CONTENEMENT, kon-ten'[=e]-ment, _n._ land connected with a tenement. CONTENT, kon-tent', or kon'tent, _n._ that which is contained: the capacity or extent of anything: the substance: (_pl._) the things contained: the list of subjects treated of in a book. [See CONTAIN.] CONTENT, kon-tent', _adj._ having the desires limited by present enjoyment: satisfied.--_n._ satisfaction--often 'heart's content.'--_interj._ = I am content, agreed!--the formula of assent in the House of Lords.--_v.t._ to make content: to satisfy the mind: to make quiet: to please.--_n._ CONTENT[=A]'TION (_obs._).--_adj._ CONTENT'ED, content.--_adv._ CONTENT'EDLY.--_ns._ CONTENT'EDNESS, CONTENT'MENT.--_adj._ CONTENT'LESS, without content: discontented. [Fr.,--L. _contentus_, contained, hence satisfied--_con_, and _ten[=e]re_, to hold.] CONTERMINOUS, kon-t[.e]r'min-us, _adj._ having a common boundary: coincident with: co-extensive with in time, substance, &c.--Also CONTER'MINABLE, CONTER'MINAL, CONTER'MINANT, CONTER'MINATE. [L. _conterminus_, neighbouring--_con_, together, and _terminus_, a boundary.] CONTEST, kon-test', _v.t._ to call in question or make the subject of dispute: to strive for.--_n._ CON'TEST, a struggle for superiority: strife: debate.--_adj._ CONTEST'ABLE.--_ns._ CONTEST'ANT, one who contests; CONTEST[=A]'TION, the act of contesting: contest: strife: emulation.--_p.adj._ CONTEST'ED.--_adv._ CONTEST'INGLY, by contest.--CONTESTED ELECTION, an election for a member of parliament or the like, where more than one competitor offer themselves. [Fr.,--L. _contest[=a]ri_, to call to witness--_con_, and _test[=a]ri_, to be a witness--_testis_, a witness.] CONTEXT, kon'tekst, _n._ the parts of a discourse or treatise which precede and follow a special passage and fix its true meaning.--_adj._ CONTEXT'UAL--_adv._ CONTEXT'UALLY.--_n._ CONTEXT'URE, the interweaving of parts into a whole: the structure or system of anything: any interwoven fabric: the composition of a writing.--_v.t._ (_Carlyle_) to weave. [L. _contextus_, _contex[)e]re_--_con_, together, _tex[)e]re_, _textum_, to weave.] CONTICENT, kon'tis-ent, _adj._ (_Thackeray_) silent. [L. _conticent-em_, _con_, and _tac[=e]re_, to be silent.] CONTIGNATION, kon-tig-n[=a]'shun, _n._ joining together: any structure so joined: a framework or stage. [L. _contignation-em_--_contign[=a]re_--_con_, _tignum_, wood.] CONTIGUOUS, kon-tig'[=u]-us, _adj._ touching, adjoining: near.--_ns._ CONTIG[=U]'ITY, CONTIG'UOUSNESS.--_adv._ CONTIG'UOUSLY. [L. _contiguus_--_conting[)e]re_, to touch on all sides--_con_, wholly, _tang[)e]re_, to touch.] CONTINENT, kon'ti-nent, _n._ a large extent of land not broken up by seas: the mainland of Europe: one of the great divisions of the land surface of the globe.--_adj._ restraining the indulgence of pleasure, esp. sexual: temperate: virtuous.--_ns._ CON'TINENCE, CON'TINENCY, the restraint imposed by a person upon his desires and passions: self-restraint in sexual indulgence, often absolute: chastity.--_adj._ CONTINENT'AL, characteristic of a continent, as of climate, &c.: pertaining to the European continent, or to the colonies of North America at the period of independence.--_n._ CONTINENT'ALISM, anything peculiar to the usage of the Continent.--_adv._ CON'TINENTLY.--CONTINENTAL SYSTEM, the name given to Napoleon's plan for shutting out England from all commercial connection with Europe. [L. _continentem_--_contin[=e]re_, to contain--_con_, together, _ten[)e]re_, to hold.] CONTINGENT, kon-tin'jent, _adj._ dependent on something else: liable but not certain to happen: accidental.--_n._ an event which is liable but not certain to occur: a share or proportion, esp. of soldiers.--_ns._ CONTIN'GENCE, CONTIN'GENCY.--_adv._ CONTIN'GENTLY. [L. _contingent-em_--_con_, _tang[)e]re_, to touch.] CONTINUE, kon-tin'[=u], _v.t._ to draw out or prolong: to extend or increase in any way: to unite without break: to persist in.--_v.i._ to remain in the same place or state: to last or endure: to persevere.--_adjs._ CONTIN'UABLE, that may be continued; CONTIN'UAL, without interruption: unceasing.--_adv._ CONTIN'UALLY.--_n._ CONTIN'UANCE, duration: uninterrupted succession: stay.--_adjs._ CONTIN'UANT; CONTIN'U[=A]TE, close united: (_Shak._) unbroken.--_ns._ CONTINU[=A]'TION, constant succession: extension; CONTINU[=A]'TION-DAY, the same as CONTANGO-DAY, that on which contangoes are fixed.--_adj._ CONTIN'U[=A]TIVE, continuing.--_n._ CONTIN'U[=A]TOR, one who continues or keeps up a series or succession.--_adj._ CONTIN'UED, uninterrupted: unceasing: extended.--_adv._ CONTIN'UEDLY.--_ns._ CONTIN'UEDNESS; CONTIN'UER, one who continues, or has the power of persevering; CONTIN[=U]'ITY, state of being continuous: uninterrupted connection.--_adj._ CONTIN'UOUS, joined together without interruption.--_adv._ CONTIN'UOUSLY.--_ns._ CONTIN'UOUSNESS; CONTIN'[=U]UM, a continuous thing:--_pl._ CONTIN'UA. [Fr.,--L. _continu[=a]re_--_continuus_, joined, connected, from _contin[=e]re_.] CONTLINE, kont'l[=i]n, _n._ in the stowage of casks the space between them: the spiral intervals formed between the strands of a rope, by their being twisted together. [Prob. _cant_.] CONTO, kont'o, _n._ a Portuguese money of account, a million reis = £220. CONTORNIATE, kon-tor'ni-[=a]t, _n._ a coin or medal with a deep groove round the disc.--_adj._ having this. CONTORNO, kon-tor'no, _n._ contour or outline. [It.] CONTORT, kon-tort', _v.t._ to twist or turn violently: to writhe.--_adj._ CONTORT'ED, twisted: folded or twisted back upon itself, as some parts of plants.--_ns._ CONTOR'TION, a violent twisting; CONTOR'TIONIST, a gymnast who practises contorted postures: one who twists words and phrases.--_adj._ CONTORT'IVE, expressing contortion. [L. _con_, inten., and _torqu[=e]re_, _tortum_, to twist.] CONTOUR, kon't[=oo]r, or kon-t[=oo]r', _n._ the outline: the line which bounds the figure of any object.--_v.t._ to mark with contour lines.--CONTOUR LINES, lines drawn in a map through points all at the same height above sea-level--usually on the British Ordnance Survey maps at intervals of 50 feet. [Fr. _con_, and _tour_, a turning--L. _tornus_--Gr. _tornos_, a lathe.] CONTRA, kon'tra, _adv._ and _prep._ against, opposite: in front of: to the contrary: a doublet of COUNTER- (_mus._), signifying an octave lower than the typical form, as in _contrabass_, &c. See Appendix. CONTRABAND, kon'tra-band, _adj._ contrary to law: prohibited.--_n._ illegal traffic: prohibition: prohibited goods.--_ns._ CON'TRABANDISM, trafficking in contraband goods; CON'TRABANDIST, a smuggler.--CONTRABAND OF WAR, a name applied to certain commodities, as military stores, and even coal in an age of war steamers, not to be supplied by neutral to belligerent powers. [Sp. _contrabanda_--It. _contrabbando_--L. _contra_, against, L. L. _bandum_, ban.] CONTRABASS, kon'tra-b[=a]s, _n._ the double-bass viol, giving the lower octave to the bass in the orchestra.--_adj._ applied to other instruments taking a similar part.--Also CONTRABAS'SO and COUNT'ERBASE. CONTRACT, kon-trakt', _v.t._ to draw together: to lessen: to shorten: to acquire: to incur: to bargain for: to betroth.--_v.i._ to shrink: to become less.--_n._ CON'TRACT, an agreement on fixed terms: a bond: a betrothment: the writing containing an agreement.--_adj._ CONTRACT'ED, drawn together: narrow: mean.--_adv._ CONTRACT'EDLY.--_ns._ CONTRACT'EDNESS; CONTRACTIBIL'ITY, CONTRACT'IBLENESS.--_adjs._ CONTRACT'IBLE, capable of being contracted; CONTRACT'ILE, tending or having power to contract.--_ns._ CONTRACTIL'ITY; CONTRAC'TION, act of contracting: a word shortened by rejecting a part of it: a symbol for shortening in palæography, &c.--_adj._ CONTRACT'IVE, tending to contract.--_n._ CONTRACT'OR, one of the parties to a bargain or agreement: one who engages to execute work or furnish supplies at a fixed rate.--_adj._ CONTRACT'UAL.--CONTRACT ONE'S SELF OUT OF, to get rid of some general obligation by making a special contract; CONTRACT WORK, work done for a fixed sum estimated beforehand and paid down for the whole job. [L. _contractus_--_con_, together, _trah[)e]re_, to draw.] CONTRA-DANCE. See COUNTRY-DANCE. CONTRADICT, kon-tra-dikt', _v.t._ to oppose by words: to assert the contrary: to deny: to be contrary to in character.--_adj._ CONTRADICT'ABLE.--_n._ CONTRADIC'TION, act of contradicting: a speaking against: denial: inconsistency.--_adj._ CONTRADIC'TIOUS.--_advs._ CONTRADIC'TIOUSLY (_rare_), CONTRADIC'TORILY.--_adjs._ CONTRADICT'IVE, CONTRADICT'ORY, affirming the contrary: inconsistent.--_n._ CONTRADICT'ORINESS, the quality of being contradictory, [L. _contradic[)e]re_, _-dictum_.] CONTRADISTINCTION, kon-tra-dis-tingk'shun, _n._ distinction by contrast.--_adj._ CONTRADISTINCT'IVE, distinguishing by opposite qualities.--_v.t._ CONTRADISTIN'GUISH, to mark the difference between two things by contrasting their different qualities. CONTRAFISSURE, kon'tra-fish-[=u]r, _n._ (_surg._) a fracture or contusion of the skull at a place opposite that on which the blow was received. CONTRAHENT, kon'tra-hent, _adj._ entering into a contract.--_n._ a contracting party. [L. _contrahent-em_--_contrah[)e]re_.] CONTRA-INDICATE, kon'tra-in'di-k[=a]t, _v.t._ of a disease, to show symptoms adverse to a particular treatment.--_ns._ CON'TRA-IN'DICANT, CON'TRA-INDIC[=A]'TION. CONTRAIRE, kon-tr[=a]r, _adj._ an obsolete form of CONTRARY. CONTRALATERAL, kon-tra-lat'e-ral, _adj._ occurring on the opposite side. CONTRALTO, kon-tral't[=o], _n._ the deepest or lowest species of musical voice in boys, in eunuchs, and best of all in women. [See ALTO and COUNTER (1).] CONTRAPLEX, kon'tra-pleks, _adj._ (_teleg._) having two currents or messages passing in opposite directions at the same time. CONTRAPOSITION, kon'tra-po-zish'un, _n._ opposition, contrast: (_logic_) an immediate inference, which consists in denying the original subject of the contradictory of the original predicate.--_adj._ CON'TRA-POS'ITIVE. CONTRAPTION, kon-trap'shun, _n._ (_U.S._) a contrivance. CONTRAPUNTAL. See COUNTERPOINT. CONTRA-ROTATION, kon'tra-r[=o]-t[=a]'shun, _n._ rotation in a contrary direction. CONTRARY, kon'tra-ri, _adj._ opposite: contradictory--CONTRA'RIANT (_rare_).--_n._ a thing that is contrary or of opposite qualities.--_n.pl._ CON'TRARIES, things opposite in quality: (_logic_) propositions which destroy each other.--_n._ CONTRAR[=I]'ETY, opposition: inconsistency.--_adv._ CON'TRARILY.--_n._ CON'TRARINESS.--_adj._ CONTR[=A]'RIOUS, showing contrariety: repugnant: opposite.--_advs._ CONTR[=A]'RIOUSLY, contrarily; CON'TRARIWISE, on the contrary way or side: on the other hand. [L. _contrarius_--_contra_, against.] CONTRAST, kon-trast', _v.i._ to stand in opposition to.--_v.t._ to set in opposition, in order to show superiority or give effect.--_n._ CON'TRAST, opposition or unlikeness in things compared: exhibition of differences.--_adj._ CONTRAST'IVE. [Fr. _contraster_--L. _contra_, opposite to, _st[=a]re_, to stand.] CONTRATE, kon'tr[=a]t, _adj._ having cogs or teeth arranged in a manner contrary to the usual one, or projecting parallel to the axis. CONTRA-TENOR. Same as COUNTER-TENOR (q.v. under COUNTER, 1). CONTRAVALLATION, kon-tra-val-[=a]'shun, _n._ a fortification built by besiegers about the place invested. [L. _contra_, opposite, _vall[=a]re_, _[=a]tum_, to fortify.] CONTRAVENE, kon-tra-v[=e]n', _v.t._ to oppose.--_n._ CONTRAVEN'TION, act of contravening: opposition: obstruction. [L. _contra_, against, _ven[=i]re_, to come.] CONTRAYERVA, kon-tra-y[.e]r'va, _n._ a stimulating and tonic aromatic root of tropical America. [Sp. _contrayerba_--L. _contra_, against, _herba_, a herb.] CONTRETEMPS, kon-tr-tang', _n._ something happening inopportunely or at the wrong time, anything embarrassing, a hitch. [Fr. _contre_--L. _contra_, against, and Fr. _temps_--L. _tempus_, time.] CONTRIBUTE, kon-trib'[=u]t, _v.t._ to give along with others: to give for a common purpose: to furnish an article to a newspaper, &c.: to pay a share.--_v.i._ to give or bear a part.--_adj._ CONTRIB'UTARY, paying a share, contributable, subject to contribution.--_n._ CONTRIB[=U]'TION, a collection: a levy or charge imposed upon a people: anything furnished to a common stock: a written composition supplied to a jointly written book, newspaper, &c.--_adjs._ CONTRIB'UTIVE, CONTRIB'UTORY, giving a share: helping.--_n._ CONTRIB'UTOR. [L. _con_, with, _tribu[)e]re_, _-utum_, to give.] CONTRIST, kon-trist', _v.t._ (_obs._) to sadden.--_n._ CONTRIST[=A]'TION. [Fr.,--L. _contrist[=a]re_--_con_, inten., and _tristis_, sad.] CONTRITE, kon'tr[=i]t, _adj._ broken-hearted for sin: penitent.--_adv._ CON'TRITELY.--_ns._ CON'TRITENESS; CONTRI'TION, deep sorrow for sin: remorse. [L. _contritus_--_conter-[)e]re_--_con_, wholly, _ter-[)e]re_, to bruise.] CONTRITURATE, kon-trit'[=u]-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to pulverise together. CONTRIVE, kon-tr[=i]v', _v.t._ to plan: to invent: to bring about or effect: to plot.--_adj._ CONTRIV'ABLE, that may be contrived.--_ns._ CONTRIV'ANCE, CONTRIVE'MENT, act of contriving: the thing contrived: invention: design: artifice; CONTRIV'ER, a schemer, a manager. [O. Fr. _controver_--_con-_, _trover_, to find--L. _turb[=a]re_, to disturb.] CONTRIVE, kon-triv', _v.t._ (_obs._) to spend, as time. [L. _conter-[)e]re_, _contritum_, perf. _contr[=i]vi_, to wear out.] CONTROL, kon-tr[=o]l', _n._ restraint: authority: command.--_v.t._ to check: to restrain: to govern:--_pr.p._ contr[=o]l'ling; _pa.p._ contr[=o]lled'.--Formerly COMPTROLL', COUNTROL', CONTROUL'.--_adj._ CONTROL'LABLE, capable of, or subject to, control.--_ns._ CONTROL'LER, COMPTROL'LER, one who checks the accounts of others by a counter-roll; CONTROL'LERSHIP; CONTROL'MENT, act or power of controlling: state of being controlled: control. [Fr. _contrôle_, from _contre-rôle_, a duplicate register--L. _contra_, against, _rotulus_, a roll.] CONTROVERT, kon'tro-v[.e]rt, _v.t._ to oppose: to argue against: to refute.--_adj._ CONTROVER'SIAL, relating to controversy.--_n._ CONTROVER'SIALIST, one given to controversy.--_adv._ CONTROVER'SIALLY.--_ns._ CON'TROVERSY, a debate: contest: resistance.--_adj._ CONTROVERT'IBLE.--_adv._ CONTROVERT'IBLY.--_n._ CON'TROVERTIST. [L. _contra_, against, and _vert-[)e]re_, to turn.] CONTUMACIOUS, kon-t[=u]-m[=a]'shus, _adj._ opposing lawful authority with contempt: obstinate: stubborn.--_adv._ CONTUM[=A]'CIOUSLY.--_ns._ CONTUM[=A]'CIOUSNESS; CON-TUMAC'ITY; CON'TUMACY, obstinate disobedience or resistance. [L. _contumax_, _-acis_, insolent, from _con_, and _tum-[=e]re_, to swell, or _temn-[)e]re_, to despise.] CONTUMELY, kon't[=u]-mel-i, _n._ rudeness: insolence: reproach.--_adj._ CONTUM[=E]'LIOUS, haughtily reproachful: insolent.--_adv._ CONTUM[=E]'LIOUSLY.--_n._ CONTUM[=E]'LIOUSNESS. [L. _contumelia_, which is prob. from the same source as _contumacy_.] CONTUND, kon-tund', _v.t._ to bruise or pound.--_v.t._ CONT[=U]SE', to beat or bruise: to crush.--_n._ CONT[=U]'SION, act of bruising; state of being bruised; a bruise.--_adj._ CONT[=U]'SIVE, apt to bruise. [L. _contund[)e]re_, _contusum_--_con_, and _tund[)e]re_, to bruise.] CONUNDRUM, kon-un'drum, _n._ a sort of riddle containing some odd or fanciful resemblance between things quite unlike: any puzzling question. [Ety. dub.] CONVALESCE, kon-val-es', _v.i._ to regain health.--_ns._ CONVALES'CENCE, CONVALES'CENCY, gradual recovery of health and strength.--_adj._ CONVALES'CENT, gradually recovering health.--_n._ one recovering health. [L. _con_, and _valesc-[)e]re_--_val-[=e]re_, to be strong.] CONVALLARIA, kon-va-l[=a]'ri-a, _n._ a genus of _Liliaceæ_, its only species the Lily-of-the-valley. [L. _convallis_, a sheltered valley.] CONVECTION, kon-vek'shun, _n._ the process of transmission of heat or electricity through liquids or gases by means of currents.--_adj._ CONVEC'TIVE, occasioned by convection. [L.,--_con_, and _veh[)e]re_, to carry.] CONVENANCE, kong've-nangs, _n._ what is suitable or proper: (_pl._) the conventional usages or social proprieties. [Fr.] CONVENE, kon-v[=e]n', _v.i._ to come together: to assemble.--_v.t._ to call together.--_adj._ CONV[=E]'NABLE.--_n._ CONVEN'ER, one who convenes a meeting: the chairman of a committee. [Fr.,--L. _conven-[=i]re_, from _con_, together, and _ven[=i]re_, to come.] CONVENIENT, kon-v[=e]n'yent, _adj._ suitable: handy: commodious.--_adj._ CONVEN'ABLE (_obs._), fitting.--_ns._ CONVEN'IENCE, CONVEN'IENCY, suitableness: an advantage: any particular domestic accommodation, as a closet, &c.--_adv._ CONVEN'IENTLY. [L. _conven[=i]re_.] CONVENT, kon'vent, _n._ an association of persons secluded from the world and devoted to a religious life: the house in which they live, a monastery or nunnery.--_adj._ CONVENT'UAL, belonging to a convent.--_n._ a monk or nun; a member of one of the two divisions of the Franciscans, following a mitigated rule--the other being the _Observants_. [Through Fr. from L. _convent-um_, _conven[=i]re_, to come together.] CONVENTICLE, kon-vent'i-kl, _n._ applied in contempt to a meeting for worship of dissenters from the Established Church, applied esp. to the field-preachings of the Presbyterian ministers in the persecutions under Charles II. and James II.: any private, clandestine, or irregular meeting.--_v.i._ to hold such.--_n._ CONVEN'TICLER. [L. _conventiculum_, a secret meeting of monks, dim. of _conventus_.] CONVENTION, kon-ven'shun, _n._ an assembly, esp. of representatives or delegates for some common object: any extraordinary assembly called upon any special occasion: any temporary treaty: an agreement: established usage: fashion.--_adj._ CONVEN'TIONAL, formed by convention: growing out of tacit agreement or custom: customary: not spontaneous.--_v.t._ CONVEN'TIONALISE.--_ns._ CONVENTIONALISM, that which is established by tacit agreement, as a mode of speech, &c.; CONVEN'TIONALIST, one who adheres to a convention, or is swayed by conventionalism; CONVENTIONAL'ITY, state of being conventional: that which is established by use or custom.--_adv._ CONVEN'TIONALLY.--_adj._ CONVEN'TIONARY, acting under contract.--_ns._ CONVEN'TIONER, CONVEN'TIONIST. [Fr.,--L. _convention-em_. See CONVENE.] CONVERGE, kon-v[.e]rj', _v.i._ to tend to one point.--_ns._ CONVER'GENCE, CONVER'GENCY, act or quality of tending to one point.--_adjs._ CONVER'GENT, CONVER'GING, tending to one point. [L. _con_, together, and _verg[)e]re_, to bend, to incline.] CONVERSAZIONE, kon-v[.e]r-sat-se-[=o]'ne, _n._ a meeting for conversation, particularly on literary subjects:--_pl._ CONVERSAZI[=O]'NI (-n[=e]). [It.] CONVERSE, kon-v[.e]rs', _v.i._ to have intercourse: to talk familiarly.--_n._ CON'VERSE, familiar intercourse: conversation.--_adj._ CONVERS'ABLE, disposed to converse: sociable.--_adv._ CONVERS'ABLY.--_ns._ CON'VERSANCE, CON'VERSANCY, state of being conversant: familiarity.--_adj._ CON'VERSANT, acquainted by study: familiar; (_B._) walking or associating with.--_n._ CONVERS[=A]'TION, intercourse: talk: familiar discourse; (_B._) behaviour or deportment.--_adj._ CONVERS[=A]'TIONAL.--_ns._ CONVERS[=A]'TIONALIST, CONVERS[=A]'TIONIST, one who excels in conversation; CONVERS[=A]'TIONISM, a colloquialism.--_adj._ CONVER'SATIVE, ready to talk. [Fr.,--L. _convers[=a]ri_, to live with--_con_, inten., and _vers[=a]re_, to turn much--_vert[)e]re_, to turn.] CONVERT, kon-vert', _v.t._ to change or turn from one thing, condition, or religion to another: to change from an irreligious to a holy life: to alter one thing into another: to apply to a particular purpose.--_n._ CON'VERT, one converted: one who has become religious, or who has changed his religion.--_adj._ CON'VERSE, reversed in order or relation.--_n._ that which is the opposite of another: a proposition converted or turned about--i.e. one in which the subject and predicate have changed places.--_adv._ CON'VERSELY.--_ns._ CONVER'SION, change from one thing, state, or religion to another: (_theol._) the conscious change of heart impelling the repentant sinner to a new life: appropriation to a special purpose: (_logic_) act of interchanging the terms of a proposition; CON'VERTEND, the proposition to be converted; CONVERT'ER, one who converts: a vessel in which materials are changed from one condition to another; CONVERTIBIL'ITY, CONVERT'IBLENESS.--_adjs._ CONVERT'IBLE, CONVER'SIVE (_obs._), that may be converted: equivalent.--_adv._ CONVERT'IBLY.--_n._ CON'VERTITE, a convert, a reformed woman. [L. _convert[)e]re_, _conversum_--_con_, and _vert[)e]re_, to turn.] CONVEX, kon'veks, _adj._ rising into a round form on the outside, the reverse of _concave_.--_n._ the vault of heaven, &c.--_adj._ CONVEXED', made convex.--_adv._ CONVEX'EDLY.--_ns._ CONVEX'ITY, CON'VEXNESS, roundness of form on the outside.--_adv._ CON'VEXLY.--_adjs._ CONVEX'O-CON'CAVE, convex on one side, and concave on the other; CONVEX'O-CON'VEX, convex on both sides. [L. _convexus_--_conveh-[)e]re_--_con_, together, and _veh[)e]re_, to carry.] CONVEY, kon-v[=a]', _v.t._ to carry: to transmit: to impart: to steal: to communicate, as ideas: to make over in law.--_adj._ CONVEY'ABLE.--_ns._ CONVEY'AL; CONVEY'ANCE, the means of conveying: a vehicle of any kind: (_law_) the act of transferring property: the writing which transfers it; CONVEY'ANCER, one whose business is the preparation of deeds for the transference of property; CONVEY'ANCING, the business of a conveyancer; CONVEY'ER. [O. Fr. _conveier_--L. _con_, along with, and O. Fr. _veie_--L. _via_, a way.] CONVICINITY, kon-vi-sin'i-ti, _n._ neighbourhood. CONVICT, kon-vikt', _v.t._ to prove guilty: to pronounce guilty.--_n._ CON'VICT, one convicted or found guilty of crime, esp. one who has been condemned to penal servitude.--_ns._ CONVIC'TION, act of convincing: strong belief: a proving guilty: (_theol._) the condition of being consciously convicted of sin; CON'VICTISM, the convict system.--_adj._ CONVICT'IVE, able to convince or convict.--CARRY CONVICTION, to bear irresistibly the stamp or proof of truth; UNDER CONVICTION, in such a state of awakened consciousness. [From root of CONVINCE.] CONVINCE, kon-vins', _v.t._ to subdue the mind by evidence: to satisfy as to truth or error: (_B._) to convict: to refute.--_n._ CONVINCE'MENT.--_adjs._ CONVINC'IBLE; CONVINC'ING, producing conviction.--_adv._ CONVINC'INGLY. [L. _convinc[)e]re_, _con_, sig. completeness, and _vinc[)e]re_, _victum_, to conquer.] CONVIVIAL, kon-viv'i-al, _adj._ feasting in company: relating to a feast: social: jovial.--_v.i._ CONVIVE' (_Shak._), to feast together.--_n._ a companion at table.--_ns._ CONVIV'IALIST, a convivial fellow; CONVIVIAL'ITY.--_adv._ CONVIV'IALLY. [L.,--_convivium_, a living together, a feast--_con_, together, and _viv[)e]re_, to live.] CONVOKE, kon-v[=o]k', _v.t._ to call together: to assemble--also CON'VOC[=A]TE.--_n._ CONVOC[=A]'TION, act of convoking: a provincial synod of clergy, the ancient ecclesiastical council of the archbishop, esp. those of the provinces of Canterbury and York in the Church of England: the great legislative assembly of the university at Oxford and elsewhere.--_adj._ CONVOC[=A]'TIONAL.--_n._ CONVOC[=A]'TIONIST. [L. _convoc[=a]re_--_con_, together, and _voc[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to call.] CONVOLVE, kon-volv', _v.t._ to roll together, or one part on another.--_adjs._ CON'VOLUTE, -D, rolled together, or one part on another.--_n._ CONVOL[=U]'TION, a twisting: a fold. [L. _con_, together, _volv[)e]re_, _-utum_, to roll.] CONVOLVULUS, kon-vol'v[=u]-lus, _n._ a genus of twining or trailing plants, called also _Bindweed_. [L.,--_convolv[)e]re_.] CONVOY, kon-voy', _v.t._ to accompany for protection.--_n._ CON'VOY, the act of convoying: protection: that which convoys or is convoyed, esp. a ship or ships of war guarding a fleet of merchant-vessels, also the ships so protected: an honourable escort: a supply of stores, &c., under escort. [Fr. _convoyer_. See CONVEY.] CONVULSE, kon-vuls', _v.t._ to agitate violently: to affect by spasms.--_adj._ CONVUL'SIBLE, subject to convulsion.--_n._ CONVUL'SION, any involuntary contraction of the voluntary muscles of the body, esp. such seizures in which the body is thrown into violent spasmodic contractions, the sensibility and voluntary motion being for a time suspended: any violent disturbance.--_adjs._ CONVUL'SIONAL, CONVUL'SIONARY, pertaining to convulsions.--_n.pl._ CONVUL'SIONARIES, a fanatical sect of Jansenists who sprang up in France about 1730.--_adj._ CONVULS'IVE, attended with convulsions: spasmodic.--_adv._ CONVULS'IVELY.--_n._ CONVULS'IVENESS. [L. _con_, inten., and _vell[)e]re_, _vulsum_, to pluck, to pull.] CONY, CONEY, k[=o]'ni, or kun'i, _n._ a rabbit: (_B._) translation of Heb. _shâphân_, the _Hyrax syriacus_, or rock-badger: (_obs._) an equivocal term of endearment for a woman.--_n._ C[=O]'NY-BURR'OW, a rabbit-warren.--_v.t._ C[=O]'NY-CATCH (_Shak._), to cheat.--_ns._ C[=O]NY-CATCH'ER, a cheat; C[=O]'NY-WOOL, rabbits' fur. [Prob. through O. Fr. _connil_, from L. _cuniculus_, a rabbit.] CONYZA, k[=o]-n[=i]'za, _n._ a genus of strong-smelling herbaceous composite plants--applied formerly to the fleabanes. [Gr.] COO, k[=oo], _v.i._ to make a sound as a dove: to caress fondly, usually in phrase, 'to bill and coo:'--_pr.p._ c[=oo]'ing; _pa.p._ c[=oo]ed.--_n._ the sound emitted by doves.--_adv._ COO'INGLY. [From the sound.] COOEE, k[=oo]'[=e], COOEY, koo'i, _n._ the signal-call of the native Australians in the bush.--_v.i._ to make such. COOF, küf, _n._ (_Scot._) a stupid fellow. [Prob. M. E. _cofe_, the modern _Cove_, a fellow.] COOK, kook, _v.t._ to prepare food: to manipulate for any purpose, or falsify, as accounts, &c.: to concoct.--_n._ one whose business is to cook.--_ns._ COOK'ERY, the art or practice of cooking; COOK'ERY-BOOK, a book of receipts for cooking dishes.--_n.pl._ COOK'ING-APP'LES, &c., apples, &c., sold specially for cooking.--_ns._ COOK'ING-RANGE, a stove adapted for cooking several things at once; COOK'-ROOM, a room in which food is cooked; COOK'-SHOP, an eating-house.--TO COOK ONE'S GOOSE (_slang_), to finish off, to kill. [A.S. _cóc_, a cook (Ger. _koch_), borrowed from L. _coquus_.] COOK, kook, _v.i._ to make the sound of the cuckoo. COOK, kook, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to appear and disappear by turns. COOKIE, kook'i, _n._ a kind of sweet cake used at tea.--_n._ COOKIE-SHINE, a tea-party. [Dut. _koekje_, a cake.] COOL, k[=oo]l, _adj._ slightly cold: free from excitement: calm: not zealous, ardent, or cordial: indifferent: impudent: colloquially of a large sum of money, as 'a cool thousand.'--_v.t._ to make cool: to allay or moderate, as heat, excitement, passion, &c.--_v.i._ to grow cool.--_n._ that which is cool: coolness.--_n._ COOL'ER, anything that cools: a vessel in which something is cooled--e.g. 'a butter-cooler.'--_adjs._ COOL'-HEAD'ED, not easily excited: capable of acting with composure; COOL'ISH, somewhat cool; COOL'LY (_Spens._), cool.--_adv._ in a cool manner: indifferently: impudently.--_ns._ COOL'NESS, moderate cold: indifference: want of zeal; COOL'-TANK'ARD, a cooling drink of wine and water, with lemon-juice, spices, and borage: a local name of borage; COOLTH (_dial._), coolness. [A.S. _cól_; Ger. _kühl_. See COLD and CHILL.] COOLIE, COOLY, k[=oo]l'i, _n._ an Indian or Chinese labourer who has emigrated under contract to a foreign land: a European's name for a hired native labourer in India and China. [Prob. _Kuli_, a tribe of Guzerat; or orig. Tamil, cf. _k[=u]li_, hire.] COOM, k[=oo]m, _n._ matter that gathers at the naves of wheels: soot that gathers at the mouth of an oven: coal-dust. [Prob. conn. with Ger. _kahm_, mould gathered on liquids.] COOM, k[=oo]m, _n._ (_Scot._) the wooden centering on which a bridge is built: anything arched or vaulted.--_adj._ COOM'-CEILED, said of a garret with the inside ceiling sloping from the wall. [Origin obscure.] COOMB, COMB, k[=oo]m, _n._ a deep little wooded valley: a hollow on the flank of a hill. [A.S. _cumb_, a hollow.] COOMB, COMB, k[=oo]m, _n._ a measure of capacity = 4 bushels. [A.S. _cumb_, a measure.] COON, k[=oo]n, _n._ the raccoon: a sly fellow.--A GONE COON, one whose case is hopeless. [U.S.] COONTIE, COONTY, k[=oo]n'ti, _n._ the arrowroot plant of Florida. COOP, k[=oo]p, _n._ a tub, cask, or barrel: a box or cage for fowls or small animals.--_v.t._ to confine in a coop: to shut up or confine.--_n._ COOP'ER, one who makes tubs, casks, &c.: a mixture of stout and porter.--_v.t._ to repair (tubs, &c.): to prepare, patch up.--_ns._ COOP'ERAGE, the work or workshop of a cooper: the sum paid for a cooper's work; COOP'ERING; COOP'ERY, the business of a cooper. [A.S. _cýpe_, a basket; cf. Ger. _kufe_.] COOPER, k[=oo]p'[.e]r, _n._ a floating grog-shop.--_v.i._ to supply fishing-boats at sea with liquor. [See COPER.] CO-OPERATE, k[=o]-op'[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.i._ to work together.--_n._ CO-OPER[=A]'TION, joint operation; the association of a number of persons for the cheaper purchasing of goods, or for carrying on some branch of industry.--_adjs._ CO-OP'ER[=A]TIVE, CO-OP'ERANT, working together.--_n._ CO-OP'ER[=A]TOR.--CO-OPERATING GRACE (_theol._), the R.C., Arminian, and Socinian doctrine that the human will co-operates with the divine in the matter of saving grace. [CO-, together, and OPERATE.] CO-OPT, k[=o]-opt', _v.t._ to elect into any body by the votes of its members.--_ns._ CO-OPT[=A]'TION, CO-OP'TION.--_adj._ CO-OP'TATIVE. [L. _coopt[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_co-_, together, _opt[=a]re_, to choose.] CO-ORDINATE, k[=o]-or'di-n[=a]t, _adj._ holding the same order or rank.--_v.t._ to make co-ordinate.--_n._ a co-ordinate element: each of a system of two or more magnitudes used to define the position of a point, line, or plane, by reference to a fixed system of lines, points, &c.--_n._ CO-OR'DINANCE, a joint ordinance.--_adv._ CO-OR'DINATELY.--_ns._ CO-OR'DINATENESS, the state of being co-ordinate: equality of rank, &c.; CO-ORDIN[=A]'TION, state of being co-ordinate.--_adj._ CO-OR'DINATIVE, indicating co-ordination. COOST, küst, a Scotch form of CAST. COOT, k[=oo]t, _n._ a short-tailed water-fowl, with a characteristic white spot--an extension of the bill--on the forehead; hence called _bald_, as in phrase, 'bald as a coot.' [M. E. _cote_; cf. Dut. _koet_.] COOT, küt, _n._ (_Scot._) the ankle.--_adj._ COOT'IE, having legs clad with feathers. [Scot.; cf. Dut. _koot_; Flem. _keute_.] COP, kop, _n._ a conical ball of thread on a spindle--also COP'PIN: (_obs._) a top or head of anything.--_adj._ COPPED, rising to a cop or head. [A.S. _cop_, _copp_.] COP, kop, _v.t._ (_slang_) to capture.--_ns._ COP, COP'PER (_slang_), a policeman. COPAIBA, ko-p[=a]'ba, _n._ a balsam obtained from an American tree, much used in medicine.--Also COPAI'VA. [Sp.,--Braz.] COPAL, k[=o]'pal, _n._ a resinous substance used in varnishes. [Sp.,--Mex. _copalli_, resins generally.] COPARTNER, k[=o]-pärt'ner, _n._ a joint partner.--_ns._ COPART'NERSHIP, COPART'NERY, COPAR'CENER, COPAR'CENARY. [L. _co-_, together, and PARTNER.] COPATAIN, kop'a-t[=a]n, _adj._ (_Shak._) of a hat, high-crowned like a sugar-loaf. COPATRIOT. A form of COMPATRIOT. COPE, k[=o]p, _n._ a covering: a cap or hood: anything spread overhead: a coping: an ecclesiastical vestment worn over the alb or surplice in processions, at solemn lauds and vespers, but not by the celebrant at mass, semicircular, without sleeves and with a hood, fastened across the breast with a clasp or morse, the straight edge usually ornamented with a broad orphrey.--_v.t._ to cover with a cope.--_ns._ COPE'-STONE, COP'ING-STONE, the stone which copes or tops a wall; COP'ING, the covering course of masonry of a wall. [From root of CAP.] COPE, k[=o]p, _v.t._ to barter or exchange. [Cf. Dut. _koopen_.] COPE, k[=o]p, _v.i._ to contend.--_v.t._ to vie with, esp. on equal terms or successfully: to match.--_n._ COPES'MATE (_Shak._), a companion. [Fr. _couper_--L. _colaphus_, a blow with the fist.] COPECK, KOPECK, k[=o]'pek, _n._ a Russian copper coin, worth from ¼ to 1/3 of a penny English. [Russ.] COPER, k[=o]p'[.e]r, _n._ a ship employed in surreptitiously supplying strong drink to deep-sea fishermen--often spelt COOPER.--_v.i._ to supply liquor in such a way. [Dut. _kooper_--_koopen_, to trade; cf. Ger. _kaufen_, to buy; A.S. _ceápan_.] COPERNICAN, ko-p[.e]r'ni-kan, _adj._ relating to _Copernicus_, the famous Prussian astronomer (1473-1543), or to his system. COPHOSIS, k[=o]-f[=o]'sis, _n._ total deafness. [Gr.,--_k[=o]phos_, deaf.] COPHOUSE, kop'hows, _n._ a tool-house. COPIER. See COPY. COPIOUS, k[=o]'pi-us, _adj._ plentiful: overflowing: not concise.--_adv._ C[=O]'PIOUSLY.--_n._ C[=O]'PIOUSNESS. [L. _copiosus_--_copia_, plenty--_co-_, inten., and _ops_, _opis_, wealth.] COPLAND, kop'land, _n._ a piece of ground terminating in a cop or acute angle. COPOPSIA, k[=o]-pop'si-a, _n._ fatigue of sight. [Gr. _k[=o]phos_, dull, _opsis_, sight.] CO-PORTION, k[=o]-por'shun, _n._ (_Spens._) equal portion or share. COPOS, kop'os, _n._ a morbid lassitude. [Gr.] COPPER, kop'[.e]r, _n._ a moderately hard metal of a fine red colour, perhaps the first metal employed by man: money made of copper--e.g. 'a copper' = a penny or halfpenny: a vessel made of copper.--_adj._ made of copper: copper-coloured.--_v.t._ to cover with copper.--_adj._ COPP'ER-BOTT'OMED, having the bottom covered with copper, as a ship--_n._ COPP'ER-CAP'TAIN, one who styles himself captain without grounds.--_adjs._ COPP'ER-FACED, faced with copper, as type; COPP'ER-FAS'TENED, fastened with copper bolts.--_ns._ COPP'ER-HEAD, a United States snake: (_U.S._) a northern sympathiser with the South in the Civil War; COPP'ERING, the act of sheathing with copper: a covering of copper.--_adjs._ COPP'ERISH, COPP'ERY, C[=U]'PREOUS, containing or like copper.--_ns._ COPP'ER-NICK'EL, arsenical nickel, niccolite; COPP'ER-NOSE, a red nose caused by intemperance; COPP'ERPLATE, a plate of polished copper on which something has been engraved: an impression taken from the plate; COPP'ER-PYR[=I]'TES, a double sulphide of copper and iron of yellow hue; COPP'ER-SMITH, a smith who works in copper; COPP'ER-WORK, a place where copper is wrought or manufactured; COPP'ERWORM, the ship-worm.--HOT COPPERS, parched tongue and throat after a bout of drinking. [Low L. _cuper_--L. _cuprum_, a contr. of _cyprium aes_, 'Cyprian brass,' because found in _Cyprus_.] COPPERAS, kop'[.e]r-as, _n._ sulphate of iron, used in dyeing black, or making ink. [Fr. _couperose_ (It. _copparosa_)--L. _cupri rosa_, rose of copper--so Diez.] COPPICE, kop'is, COPSE, kops, _n._ a wood of small growth for periodical cutting.--_n._ COPSE'WOOD.--_adj._ COP'SY. [O. Fr. _copeiz_, wood newly cut--Low L. _colp[=a]re_, to cut--L. _colaphus_, a blow with the fist.] COPPIN. See COP (1). COPPLE, kop'l, _n._ (_obs._) a crest on a bird's head.--_n._ COPP'LE-CROWN.--_adj._ COPP'LE-CROWNED. COPPLE-STONE, an obsolete form of COBBLE-STONE. COPRA, kop'ra, _n._ the dried kernel of the coco-nut, yielding coco-nut oil. [Port., from Malay.] CO-PRESENCE, ko-prez'ens, _n._ presence together.--_adj._ CO-PRES'ENT. COPROLITE, kop'ro-l[=i]t, _n._ fossilised excrement of animals in Palæozoic, Mesozoic, and Tertiary strata.--_adj._ COPROLIT'IC. [Gr. _kopros_, dung, _lithos_, a stone.] COPROLOGY, kop-rol'oj-i, _n._ the unclean in literature and art. [Gr. _kopros_, dung, _logia_, discourse.] COPROPHAGAN, kop-rof'a-gan, _n._ a dung-beetle.--_n._ COPROPH'AGIST, a dung-eater.--_adj._ COPROPH'AGOUS, dung-eating. [Gr. _kopros_, dung, _phagein_, to eat.] COPSEWOOD. See COPPICE. COPT, kopt, _n._ a Christian descendant of the ancient Egyptians.--_adj._ COP'TIC.--_n._ the language of the Copts. [A corr. of Gr. _Aigyptios_, Egyptian.] COPULA, kop'[=u]-la, _n._ that which joins together: a bond or tie: (_logic_) the word joining the subject and predicate.--_adj._ COP'ULAR.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ COP'UL[=A]TE, to unite in sexual commerce.--_n._ COPUL[=A]'TION, act of copulating.--_adj._ COP'UL[=A]TIVE, uniting.--_n._ (_gram._) a conjunction that unites ideas as well as words.--_adj._ COP'UL[=A]TORY. [L.,--_co-_, together, _ap-[)e]re_, to join.] COPY, kop'i, _n._ an imitation from an original pattern, a transcript: that which is imitated: a specimen of penmanship to be imitated: the original work from which an imitation or reproduction is made: manuscript for printing.--_v.t._ to write, paint, &c. after an original: to imitate: to transcribe:--_pa.p._ cop'ied.--_ns._ COP'IER, COP'YER, one who copies: an imitator; COP'Y-BOOK, a book in which copies are written or printed for imitation; COP'YHOLD (_Eng. law_), a species of estate or right of holding land, for which the owner can only show the copy of the rolls originally made by the steward of the lord's court; COP'YHOLDER, one who has a tenure of land by copyhold; COP'YING-PRESS, a machine for copying manuscript letters by pressure; COP'YISM, the practice of the copyist; COP'YIST, one whose business is to copy documents; COPY'RIGHT, the exclusive right of an author or his heirs to multiply copies of a written or printed composition, or of a work of art (for books in England the term is forty-two years, or the life of the author and seven years, whichever is longer).--_adj._ protected by copyright.--_v.t._ to secure the copyright of.--A COPY OF VERSES, a set of verses, esp. a college exercise. [Fr. _copie_, from L. _copia_, plenty; in Low L. a transcript.] COQUELICOT, k[=o]k'li-ko, _n._ (_Jane Austen_) a brilliant red, the colour of the red poppy. [Fr.] COQUET, COQUETTE, ko-ket', _v.i._ to excite admiration or love.--_v.t._ to trifle with in love: to flirt with: to dally with:--_pr.p._ coquet'ting; _pa.p._ coquet'ted.--_ns._ C[=O]'QUETRY, act of coquetting: attempt to attract admiration, without serious affection: deceit in love: any kind of prettiness; COQUETTE', a vain woman who seeks admiration from mere vanity: a flirt.--_adj._ COQUET'TISH, practising coquetry: befitting a coquette.--_adv._ COQUET'TISHLY.--_n._ COQUET'TISHNESS. [Fr. _coqueter_--_coquet_, dim. of _coq_, a cock.] COQUILLA, kok-il'ya, _n._ the nut of a Brazil palm, whose mottled, dark-brown endosperm is used by button-makers and turners. [Sp.; dim. of _coca_, shell.] COQUIMBITE, k[=o]-kim'b[=i]t, _n._ a yellowish hydrous sulphate of iron--also _white copperas_. COQUIMBO, k[=o]-kim'b[=o], _n._ the burrowing owl of South America. COQUITO, k[=o]-k[=e]'t[=o], _n._ a beautiful Chilian palm. [Sp., dim. of _coco_, coco-nut.] COR, kor, _n._ a Hebrew measure, the same as the homer, containing 10 ephahs or baths (10 bushels and 3 gallons). CORACLE, kor'a-kl, _n._ a small oval rowboat used in Wales, made of skins or oilcloth stretched on wickerwork. [W. _corwgl_--_corwg_, anything round; Gael. _curach_, a wicker-boat.] CORACOID, kor'a-koid, _adj._ shaped like a crow's beak.--_n._ (_anat._) an important paired bone in the breast-girdle, forming along with the scapula the articulation for the fore-limb, and always lying ventrally. [Gr. _korax_, _korakos_, a crow, and _eidos_, form.] CO-RADICATE, k[=o]-rad'i-k[=a]t, _adj._ (_philol._) of the same root. CORAGE. See COURAGE. CORAGGIO, kor-adj'o, _interj._ courage! [It.] CORAL, kor'al, _n._ a hard substance of various colours growing on the bottom of the sea, composed of the skeletons of zoophytes: a child's toy made of coral.--_adj._ made of or like coral.--_n._ COR'AL-IS'LAND.--_adjs._ CORALL[=A]'CEOUS, like, or having the qualities of, coral; CORALLIF'EROUS, containing coral; CORAL'LIFORM, having the form of coral; CORALLIG'ENOUS, producing coral; COR'ALLINE, of, like, or containing coral.--_n._ a limy seaweed of a delicate pinkish or purplish colour, common on British coasts: a coral-like substance.--_n._ COR'ALLITE, a petrified substance, in the form of coral.--_adjs._ COR'ALLOID, -AL, in the form of coral: resembling coral.--_ns._ COR'AL-RAG, a limestone rock formed chiefly of petrified coral found in the oolite system; COR'AL-REEF, a reef or bank formed by the growth and deposit of coral; COR'AL-SEA, the part of the Pacific between Australia on the west and the New Hebrides on the east; COR'AL-SNAKE, a small venomous snake, in the same family as the cobra; COR'AL-TREE, a small tropical tree or shrub, producing long spikes of beautiful red flowers resembling coral; COR'AL-WOOD, a hard South American cabinet-wood, first yellow, then red; COR'AL-WORT, a cruciferous plant in English woods--called also _Tooth-wort_ or _Tooth-violet_. [O. Fr.,--L. _coralium_--Gr. _korallion_.] CORANACH. See CORONACH. CORANTO, ko-rant'o, _n._ a rapid and lively kind of dance. [Fr. _courante_--L. _curr[)e]re_, to run.] CORB, korb, _n._ an iron basket used in raising coal. [L. _corbis_, a basket.] CORBAN, kor'ban, _n._ anything devoted to God in fulfilment of a vow. [Heb. _qorb[=a]n_, an offering, sacrifice.] CORBE, korb, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as CORBEL. CORBEAU, kor-b[=o]', _n._ a dark-green colour, almost black. [Fr., 'a raven.'] CORBEIL, kor'bel, _n._ (_fort._) a basket filled with earth, and set up as a protection from the fire of the enemy. [Fr. _corbeille_--L. _corbicula_, dim. of _corbis_, a basket.] CORBEL, kor'bel, _n._ (_archit._) a projection of stone or wood from the face of a wall, supporting pillars or other superincumbent weights.--_adj._ COR'BELLED.--_ns._ COR'BELLING; COR'BEL-T[=A]'BLE, a row of corbels and the parapet or cornice they support. [O. Fr. _corbel_--Low L. _corvellus_, dim. of _corvus_, a raven.] CORBICULUM, kor-bik'[=u]-lum, _n._ the flattened hairy outer surface of the hind-tibia of a bee, used for carrying pollen:--_pl._ CORBIC'ULA.--_adj._ CORBIC'ULATE. [L., dim. of _corbis_, a basket.] CORBIE, kor'bi, _n._ a raven, crow.--CORBIE MESSENGER (_Scot._), one who returns too late, or not at all; CORBIE-STEPS, the stepped slopes of gables--also _Crow-steps_. [O. Fr. _corbin_--L. _corvus_, a crow.] CORCASS, kor'kas, _n._ a salt-marsh in Ireland. [Ir.] CORCHORUS, kor'ko-rus, _n._ a genus of tropical plants cultivated for their fibre, which is the jute of commerce. [Gr.] CORCLE, kork'l, _n._ the embryo in the seed of a plant.--Also COR'CULE. [L. _corculum_, dim. of _cor_, heart.] CORD, kord, _n._ a small rope or thick kind of string: something resembling a cord, as 'spinal cord,' 'umbilical cord,' &c.: (_fig._) anything that binds or restrains: a measure of firewood, originally determined by the use of a cord or string.--_v.t._ to supply with a cord: to bind with a cord.--_n._ CORD'AGE, a quantity of cords or ropes, as the rigging of a ship, &c.--_adj._ CORD'ED, fastened with cords: furrowed, as with cords: (_her._) wound about with cords: piled in 'cords.'--_ns._ CORD'-GRASS, a genus of grasses of which one species found in muddy salt-marshes is used for making ropes; CORD'ING, the act of binding: cordage; CORD'ITE, an approved smokeless gunpowder, so called from its cord-like appearance; CORD'-WOOD, wood put up in 'cords.' [Fr. _corde_--L. _chorda_. See CHORD.] CORDELIER, kor-de-l[=e]r', _n._ a Franciscan friar, so named from the knotted cord worn by him as a girdle: (_pl._) name of a club in the French Revolution, from its meeting-place being an old convent of the Cordeliers. [O. Fr. _cordel_, dim. of _corde_, a rope.] CORDIAL, kor'di-al, _adj._ hearty: with warmth of heart: sincere: affectionate: reviving the heart or spirits.--_n._ anything which revives or comforts the heart: a medicine or drink for refreshing the spirits.--_adjs._ COR'DATE (_bot._), heart-shaped; COR'DIAL-HEART'ED.--_v.i._ COR'DIALISE, to become cordial, to fraternise.--_ns._ CORDIAL'ITY, COR'DIALNESS.--_adv._ COR'DIALLY.--_adj._ COR'DIFORM, in the form of a heart. [Fr.,--L. _cor_, _cordis_, the heart.] CORDILLERA, kor-dil-y[=a]'ra, _n._ a name applied in America to a chain of mountains, as the Andes and Rocky Mountains. [Sp.,--Old Sp. _cordilla_--L. _chorda_, cord.] CORDINER, kor'di-n[.e]r, _n._ Same as CORDWAINER. CORDON, kor'don, _n._ a cord or ribbon bestowed as a badge of honour: (_fort._) a row of stones along the line of a rampart: in military operations, a line of sentries within sight of each other, guarding a place to prevent the passage of unauthorised persons.--CORDON BLEU, originally the blue ribbon which in France supported the insignia of the order of the Holy Ghost--transferred to other first-class distinctions, and playfully to a first-class cook; CORDON SANITAIRE, a line of sentries to guard a place infected with contagious disease. [Fr.] CORDOVAN, kor'do-van, CORDWAIN, kord'w[=a]n, _n._ goatskin leather, originally from _Cordova_ in Spain.--_ns._ CORD'WAINER, a worker in cordovan or cordwain: a shoemaker; CORD'WAINERY. CORDUROY, kor'du-roi, _n._ a ribbed kind of fustian, a cotton stuff made after the fashion of velvet: (_pl._) trousers made of corduroy.--_adj._ made of corduroy. [Perh. Fr. _corde du roi_, king's cord.] CORE, k[=o]r, _n._ the heart: the inner part of anything, esp. of fruit.--_v.t._ to take out the core of fruit.--_adjs._ CORED, having the core removed; CORE'LESS, without core: pithless: hollow.--_n._ COR'ER, an instrument for removing the core. [Ety. dub.; perh. conn. with L. _cor_, the heart.] CORE, k[=o]r, _n._ a number of people. [See CORPS.] CO-REGENT, k[=o]-r[=e]'jent, _n._ a joint-regent. COREGONUS, ko-reg'o-nus, _n._ a genus of fishes in the salmon family, found esp. near the coast.--_adj._ COREG'ONINE. CO-RELATION, CO-RELATIVE. See CORRELATE. CO-RELIGIONIST, k[=o]-re-lij'un-ist, _n._ one of the same religion as another. CO-RESPONDENT, k[=o]-re-spond'ent, _n._ (_law_) a man charged with adultery, and proceeded against along with the wife, who is the _respondent_. CORF, korf, _n._ a variant of CORB (q.v.). CORIACEOUS, k[=o]r-i-[=a]'shus, _adj._ leathery: of or like leather. [L. _corium_--Gr. _chorion_, skin, leather.] CORIANDER, k[=o]r-i-an'd[.e]r, _n._ an annual plant, the seeds of which when fresh have an offensive smell, used as a medicine, spice, &c.--_n._ CORIAN'DER-SEED. [Fr.,--L. _coriandrum_--Gr. _koriannon_.] CORINTHIAN, kor-inth'i-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Corinth_, a city of Greece: pertaining to an ornate order of Greek architecture, (_M. Arnold_) to an over-brilliant literary style: profligate.--_n._ a profligate: a man of fashion, a 'swell.'--_n._ COR'INTH (_obs._), a brothel, from the notorious licentiousness of Corinth.--_v.i._ CORINTH'IANISE, to be licentious.--CORINTHIAN BRASS, BRONZE, an alloy made in Corinth, much valued in ancient times: assurance or effrontery. CORIUM, k[=o]'ri-um, _n._ the innermost layer of the skin. [L., a hide.] CO-RIVAL, CO-RIVALRY, CO-RIVALSHIP. See CORRIVAL. CORK, kork, _n._ the outer bark of the cork-tree, an oak found in the south of Europe, &c.: a stopper made of cork: any stopper.--_adj._ made of cork.--_v.t._ to stop with a cork: to stop up.--_ns._ CORK'AGE, corking or uncorking of bottles: a charge made by hotel-keepers for uncorking of bottles when the liquor has not been supplied from the house; CORK'-CUT'TER, one employed in cutting corks for bottles, &c.: an instrument used for this.--_adj._ CORKED, stopped by a cork: tainted by the cork, as wine: blackened by burnt cork.--_ns._ CORK'ER, a finisher: (_slang_) something conclusive; CORK'ING-PIN, a large pin, probably from fastening the hair to a pad of cork; CORK'-JACK'ET, a jacket made of or lined with cork, to aid in swimming; CORK'-LEG, an artificial leg, partly of cork; CORK'-SCREW, a screw for drawing corks from bottles.--_adj._ like a cork-screw in shape.--_v.i._ to move in a spiral manner.--_v.t._ to pull out with difficulty, as a cork: to obtain information from by force or cunning.--_n._ CORK'-TREE, a species of oak from which cork is obtained.--_adj._ CORK'Y, of or resembling cork: (_Shak._) withered. [Sp. _corcho_--L. _cortex_, bark, rind.] CORM, korm, CORMUS, kor'mus, _n._ sometimes called a _solid bulb_--the short, bulb-like subterranean stem of many plants--e.g. crocus. [Gr. _kormos_, the lopped trunk of a tree.] CORMOPHYTE, kor'm[=o]-f[=i]t, _n._ a plant having a true axis of growth--also COR'MOGEN.--_adj._ CORMOPHYT'IC. CORMORANT, kor'mo-rant, _n._ a genus of web-footed sea-birds, of great voracity: a glutton. [Fr. _cormoran_, from L. _corvus marinus_, the sea-crow.] CORN, korn, _n._ a grain or kernel: seeds that grow in ears, as wheat, rye, &c.: grain of all kinds.--_v.t._ to form into grains; to sprinkle with salt in grains: to salt.--_ns._ CORN'-BALL (_U.S._), a ball of popped corn, sweetened, with white of egg; CORN'-BRAND'Y, spirits made from grain; CORN'-BEE'TLE, a small beetle, the larva of which is very destructive to grain; CORN'BRASH, a member of the Lower Oolites (see OOLITE); CORN'-CAKE (_U.S._), a cake made of Indian-corn meal; CORN'-CHAND'LER, a dealer in corn; CORN'-COB, the elongated, woody receptacle constituting the ear of maize; CORN'-COCK'LE, a tall beautiful weed, with large purple flowers, common in corn-fields; CORN'-CRAKE, one of the true rails, with characteristic cry, frequenting corn-fields.--_adj._ CORNED, granulated; salted.--_ns._ CORN'-EXCHANGE', a mart where grain is sampled and sold; CORN'-FAC'TOR, a wholesale dealer in corn; CORN'-FIELD, a field in which corn is growing; CORN'-FLAG, the popular name of plants of genus _Gladiolus_; CORN'-FLOUR, the name applied to the finely-ground flour of maize or Indian corn; CORN'-FLOW'ER, a well-known composite weed of corn-fields, having a beautiful deep azure flower; CORN'-FLY, CORN'-MOTH, insects very destructive to corn; CORN'ING-HOUSE, a place where corn is granulated; CORN'-LAND, ground suitable for growing corn; CORN'-LAW, a law made for the restriction and regulation of the trade in corn: esp. in _pl._ (in England), laws that restricted the importation of corn by imposing a duty, repealed in 1846; CORN'-LOFT, a granary; CORN'-MAR'IGOLD, a chrysanthemum common in corn-fields; CORN'-M[=E]'TER, an official measurer of corn; CORN'-MILL, a mill for grinding corn; CORN'-PARS'LEY, a European grain-field flower (_Petroselinum segetum_); CORN'-PIPE, a pipe made by slitting the joint of a green stalk of corn; CORN'-POPP'Y, the common red poppy, a troublesome weed growing in corn-fields; CORN'-RENT, a fluctuating rent paid in corn, not money; CORN'-RIG (_Scot._), a ridge in a corn-field; CORN'-SAL'AD, a genus of humble annual weeds, found in corn-fields, of which some are used as spring salads; CORN'STONE, a kind of mottled limestone, often concretionary, usually occurring in those systems which are largely composed of reddish sandstones; CORN'-VAN, a machine for winnowing corn; CORN'-WEEV'IL, a small insect very destructive to stored grain.--_adj._ CORN'Y, like corn, produced from corn: (_slang_) tipsy.--CORN-COB PIPE, a tobacco-pipe with the bowl made of the cob of Indian corn.--CORN IN EGYPT, an expression signifying abundance, in reference to Gen. xlii. 2. [A.S. _corn_; Goth. _kaurn_; akin to L. _granum_.] CORN, korn, _n._ a small hard growth chiefly on the toe or foot, resulting from an increase of thickness of the cuticle, caused by excessive pressure or friction on the part.--_adj._ COR'NEOUS, horny.--_n._ CORN'-PLAS'TER, a remedial plaster applied to a corn.--_adj._ CORN'Y, of or pertaining to corns: horny.--TREAD ON ONE'S CORNS, to injure one's feelings. [O. Fr.,--L. _cornu_, a horn.] CORNAGE, korn'[=a]j, _n._ an ancient tenure of land in the north country, the tenant being bound to blow a horn in case of a Scottish foray. CORNEA, kor'ne-a, _n._ the transparent horny membrane which forms the front covering of the eye.--_adj._ COR'NEAL. CORNEL, kor'nel, _n._ the cornelian cherry or dogwood, a small tree native to southern Europe.--Also COR'NEL-TREE, CORN[=E]'LIAN-TREE. [O. Fr. _cornille_--Low L. _corniola_, _cornolium_--L. _cornus_, cornel.] CORNELIAN, kor-n[=e]'li-an, _n._ a precious stone, a variety of chalcedony.--Also CARN[=E]'LIAN (q.v.). [Fr. _cornaline_--L. _cornu_, a horn.] CORNER, kor'n[.e]r, _n._ the point where two lines meet: a secret or confined place: an embarrassing position, difficulty: (_obs._) a point in a rubber at whist: a free kick given to the opposite side when a player in football kicks the ball over his own goal-line: an operation by which the whole of a stock or commodity is bought up, so that speculative sellers are compelled to buy, to meet their engagements, at the corner-men's own price.--_v.t._ to supply with corners: to put in a corner: to put in a fix or difficulty.--_adj._ COR'NERED, having corners: put in a difficult position.--_n._ COR'NER-STONE, the stone which unites the two walls of a building at a corner: the principal stone, esp. the corner of the foundation of a building--hence (_fig._) something of very great importance.--_n.pl._ COR'NER-TEETH, the lateral incisors of a horse, above and below.--_adv._ COR'NER-WISE, with the corner in front: diagonally.--CUT OFF A CORNER, to take a short cut; DONE IN A CORNER, done secretly: DRIVE INTO A CORNER, to put in a fix: to bring to bay; KEEP A CORNER, to reserve a place; THE CORNER (_slang_), Tattersall's betting-rooms in London, till 1867 at Hyde Park Corner; TURN THE CORNER, to go round the corner: to get past a difficulty; WITHIN THE FOUR CORNERS OF, contained in (of a document, &c.). [O. Fr. _corniere_--L. _cornu_.] CORNET, kor'net, _n._ a brass treble wind-instrument, with a cup mouthpiece--also COR'NET-À-PIS'TON, _-ons_: formerly the lowest grade of commissioned officer in the cavalry--the office was abolished in 1871, sub-lieutenant being substituted.--_ns._ COR'NETCY, the commission or rank of a cornet; COR'NETIST, COR'NIST, a solo cornet-player. [Fr. _cornet_, dim. of _corne_, a horn, trumpet. See CORN, lit. horn.] CORNICE, kor'nis, _n._ (_classical archit._) the uppermost member of the entablature, surmounting the frieze: plaster mouldings round the ceiling of rooms at its junction with the walls.--_v.t._ to furnish with a cornice.--_p.adj._ COR'NICED.--_ns._ COR'NICE-HOOK, -POLE, -RAIL, a hook, pole, rail, for hanging pictures, curtains, &c.--_n._ COR'NICE-RING, a ring or moulding on a cannon next below the muzzle-ring. [Fr.,--It., perh. Gr. _kor[=o]nis_, a curved line; cf. L. _corona_.] CORNICULATE, kor-nik'[=u]-l[=a]t, _adj._ horned: shaped like a horn.--_n._ COR'NICLE, a little horn or horn-like process.--_adj._ CORNIF'IC, producing horn.--_n._ CORNIFIC[=A]'TION.--_adjs._ COR'NIFORM, in the form of a horn; CORNI'GEROUS, bearing horns. [L. _cornu_, horn, _forma_, form, _ger[)e]re_, to bear.] CORNISH, korn'ish, _adj._ pertaining to Cornwall.--_n._ the people or dialect of Cornwall.--_n._ CORN'ISHMAN. CORNO, kor'no, _n._ the French horn.--CORNO DI BASSETTO, the basset-horn: an organ-stop. [It.,--L. _cornu_, a horn.] CORNOPEAN, kor-n[=o]'pe-an, _n._ Same as CORNET-À-PISTON. [See CORNET.] CORNU, kor'n[=u], _n._ a horn (a horn-like part or process):--_pl._ COR'NUA.--_adj._ COR'NUAL.--CORNU AMMONIS, the hippocampus major. [L.] CORNUBIANITE, kor-n[=u]'bi-an-[=i]t, _n._ a dark-blue laminated rock found in Cornwall with granite. CORNUCOPIA, kor-n[=u]-k[=o]'pi-a, _n._ the horn of plenty: according to the fable, the horn of the goat that suckled Jupiter, placed among the stars as an emblem of plenty.--_adj._ CORNUC[=O]'PIAN, plentiful. [L. _cornu_, and _copia_, plenty.] CORNULITES, kor-n[=u]-l[=i]'tez, _n.pl._ a genus of tubicolous annelids. CORNUTE, kor-n[=u]t', _v.t._ (_obs._) to make a cuckold.--_adjs._ CORNUTE', -D, having horns.--_n._ CORNUT'O (_obs._), a cuckold. [L. _cornutus_, horned--_cornu_, horn.] COROCORE, kor'[=o]-k[=o]r, _n._ a Malay form of boat. CORODY. See CORRODY. COROLLA, k[=o]-rol'a, _n._ the inner circle or whorl of the floral envelopes.--_adjs._ COROLL[=A]'CEOUS; COROLLATE, -D.--_n._ COR'OLLET, a floret of an aggregate flower.--_adjs._ COROLLIF'EROUS; COROLLI'FLOROUS, COROLLIFL[=O]'RAL; COROLL'IFORM; COROLL'INE. [L. _corolla_, dim. of _corona_, a crown.] COROLLARY, kor-ol'a-ri, or kor'ol-a-ri, _n._ an inference or deduction from recognised facts: a consequence or result. [L. _corollarium_, a garland--_corolla_.] CORONA, ko-r[=o]'na, _n._ (_archit._) the large, flat, projecting member of a cornice which crowns the entablature: (_bot._) the crown-like appendage at the top of compound flowers: (_astron._) the luminous circle or halo which surrounds the moon during a solar total eclipse: (_anat._) a term used to signify the upper surface of certain parts of the body: a round pendent chandelier:--_pl._ usually COR[=O]'NÆ.--_n._ COR'ONAL, a crown or garland: the frontal bone of the skull.--_adjs._ COR'ONAL, COR'ONARY, pertaining to a crown, or to the top of the head; COR'ON[=A]TE, -D, crowned, applied to shells with a row of projections round the apex.--_ns._ CORON[=A]'TION, the act of crowning a sovereign; COR[=O]'NIS, a sign (') marking a crasis, as [Greek: kan] = [Greek: kai an]; COR'ONULE (_bot._), an appendage like a small crown. [L. _corona_, a crown.] CORONACH, kor'o-nah, _n._ a funeral dirge or lamentation. [Ir. _coranach_, Gael. _corranach_.] CORONER, kor'o-n[.e]r, _n._ an officer whose duty is to hold inquest into the causes of accidental or suspicious deaths. [Late L. _coronator_--L. _corona_.] CORONET, kor'o-net, _n._ a small crown inferior to the sovereign's, worn by the nobility: an ornamental head-dress: the part of a horse's pastern just above the coffin--also COR'NET.--_adj._ COR'ONETED. [O. Fr., dim. of _corone_, crown.] CORONOID, kor'o-noid, or kor-[=o]'noid, _adj._ (_anat._) resembling the beak of a crow, as the coronoid process of the lower jaw. [Gr. _kor[=o]n[=e]_, a crow, _eidos_, form.] COROZO, kor-[=o]'zo, _n._ a South American tree from whose seed is formed vegetable ivory. CORPORAL, kor'po-ral, _n._ in the British army, the grade of non-commissioned officer next in rank to a sergeant; in the navy, a petty officer under a master-at-arms.--_n._ COR'PORALSHIP. [Fr. _caporal_--It. _caporale_--_capo_, the head--L. _caput_, the head.] CORPORAL, kor'po-ral, _adj._ belonging or relating to the body: having a body: not spiritual.--_n._ the cloth used in Catholic churches for covering the elements of the Eucharist--also COR'PORALE, COR'PORAS (_obs._).--_n._ CORPORAL'ITY, state of being corporal--opp. to _Spirituality_.--_adv._ COR'PORALLY.--_adj._ COR'PORATE, legally united into a body so as to act as an individual: belonging to a corporation: united.--_adv._ COR'PORATELY.--_ns._ COR'PORATENESS; CORPOR[=A]'TION, a body or society authorised by law to act as one individual: rotundity of figure, a pot-belly.--_adj._ COR'POR[=A]TIVE.--_n._ COR'POR[=A]TOR, a member of a corporation.--_adj._ CORP[=O]'REAL, having a body or substance; material.--_v.i._ and _v.t._ CORP[=O]'REALISE.--_ns._ CORP[=O]'REALISM, materialism; CORP[=O]'REALIST, a materialist; CORPOREAL'ITY.--_adv._ CORP[=O]'REALLY.--_ns._ CORPOR[=E]'ITY; CORPORIFIC[=A]'TION, act of corporifying.--_v.t._ CORPOR'IFY, to embody: solidify.--CORPORAL PUNISHMENT, punishment inflicted on the body, as flogging, &c.--AGGREGATE CORPORATION, a corporation consisting of several persons; SOLE CORPORATION, a corporation which consists of one person and his successors. [L. _corporalis_--_corpus_, _corp[)o]ris_, the body.] CORPOSANT, kor'po-zant, _n._ St Elmo's fire, a ball of fire sometimes seen about a ship during a storm. [Port.,--L. _corpus sanctum_, holy body.] CORPS, k[=o]r, _n._ a division of an army forming a tactical unit--usually CORPS D'ARMÉE, or _army corps_:--_pl._ CORPS (k[=o]rz).--CORPS DE BALLET, the company of ballet dancers at a theatre; CORPS DE GARDE, the body of soldiers stationed on guard, their station, a guard-house; CORPS DIPLOMATIQUE, the whole diplomatic staff at a particular capital. [Fr., from L. _corpus_.] CORPSE, korps, or kors, _n._ the dead body of a human being.--_ns._ CORPSE'-CAN'DLE, a light seen hovering over a grave--an omen of death; CORPSE'-GATE, the lichgate (see LICHGATE). [M. E. _corps_, earlier _cors_--O. Fr. _cors_, the body--L. _corpus_.] CORPUS, kor'pus, _n._ a body: any special structure or function in the body; the whole body of literature on any subject.--_ns._ COR'PULENCE, COR'PULENCY, fleshiness of body; excessive fatness.--_adj._ COR'PULENT, fleshy or fat.--_adv._ COR'PULENTLY.--_n._ COR'PUSCLE, a minute particle; a physical atom--also CORPUS'CULE.--_adjs._ CORPUS'CULAR, CORPUSCUL[=A]'RIAN, pertaining to corpuscles.--_ns._ CORPUSCUL[=A]'RIAN, one who holds the corpuscular philosophy; CORPUSCULAR'ITY.--CORPUS CHRISTI, the festival in honour of the Consecrated Host, held on the Thursday after the festival of the Trinity; CORPUS DELICTI, a criminal law term in Scotland to signify the body or substance of the crime charged.--CORPUSCULAR THEORY OF LIGHT, or EMISSION THEORY (see EMIT). [L. _corpus_, the body.] CORRADIATE, kor-r[=a]d'[=i]-[=a]t, _v.i._ to radiate together.--_n._ CORRADI[=A]'TION. CORRAL, kor-al', _n._ an enclosure for cattle, &c.--_v.t._ to form such. [Sp.] CORRECT, kor-ekt', _v.t._ to make right: to remove faults: to punish: to counterbalance: to bring into a normal state.--_adj._ made right or straight: free from faults: true.--_adjs._ CORRECT'ABLE, CORRECT'IBLE.--_adv._ CORRECT'LY.--_n._ CORREC'TION, amendment: punishment: bodily chastisement.--_adjs._ CORREC'TIONAL, CORRECT'IVE, tending, or having the power, to correct.--_ns._ CORREC'TIONER (_Shak._), one who administers correction; CORRECT'IVE, that which corrects; CORRECT'NESS; CORRECT'OR, he who, or that which, corrects: a director or governor.--_adj._ CORRECT'ORY, corrective.--UNDER CORRECTION, subject to correction--often used as a formal expression of deference to a superior authority. [L. _corrig[)e]re_, _correctum_--_cor_, inten., _reg[)e]re_, to rule.] CORREG'IDOR, ko-rej'i-d[=o]r, _n._ the chief magistrate of a Spanish town. CORRELATE, kor'e-l[=a]t, _v.i._ to be mutually related, as father and son.--_n._ CORREL[=A]'TION.--_adj._ CORREL'ATIVE, mutually or reciprocally related.--_n._ a person or thing correspondingly related to another person or thing.--_adv._ CORREL'ATIVELY.--_ns._ CORREL'ATIVENESS, CORRELATIV'ITY. [Coined from L. _cor_, with, and RELATE.] CORRELIGIONIST. See CO-RELIGIONIST. CORREPTION, kor-ep'shun, _n._ shortening in pronunciation: (_obs._) reproof. CORRESPOND, kor-e-spond', _v.i._ to answer, suit, agree (with _to_, _with_): to hold intercourse, esp. by sending and receiving letters.--_ns._ CORRESPOND'ENCE, CORRESPOND'ENCY, suitableness, harmony, relation of agreement: friendly intercourse: communication by means of letters: letters which pass between correspondents.--_adj._ CORRESPOND'ENT, agreeing with: suitable.--_n._ one with whom intercourse is kept up by letters: one who contributes letters to a journal.--_adv._ CORRESPOND'ENTLY.--_adj._ CORRESPOND'ING, correspondent: answering: suiting: carrying on correspondence by letters.--_adv._ CORRESPOND'INGLY.--_adj._ CORRESPON'SIVE, corresponding: answering.--DOCTRINE OF CORRESPONDENCES, the theory of Swedenborg that there is a spiritual antitype corresponding to every natural object, and that Scripture contains the key to these correspondences. [Coined from L. _cor_, with, and _respond[=e]re_.] CORRIDOR, kor'i-d[=o]r, _n._ a passage-way or open gallery communicating with separate chambers.--_n._ CORR'IDOR-TRAIN, a train in which one can pass along from one carriage to another without having to leave the train. [Fr.,--It. _corridore_, a runner, a running--It. _correre_, to run--L. _curr[)e]re_.] CORRIE, kor'i, _n._ a term applied in Scotland and Ireland to semicircular recesses or cirques in mountains, generally flanked by steep and lofty hills. [Gael. _coire_, a cauldron, or large pot.] CORRIGENDUM, kor-i-jen'dum, _n._ that which requires correction:--_pl._ CORRIGEN'DA, corrections to be made in a book. [L., gerundive of _corrig[)e]re_, to correct.] CORRIGENT, kor'i-jent, _adj._ corrective.--_n._ a corrective. CORRIGIBLE, kor'i-ji-bl, _adj._ that may be corrected: open to correction.--_n._ CORRIGIBIL'ITY. CORRIVAL, kor-r[=i]'val, _n._ a fellow-rival: a competitor: an equal.--_adj._ contending: emulous.--_v.i._ and _v.t._ to rival: to vie with.--_ns._ CORR[=I]'VALRY; CORR[=I]'VALSHIP. [L. _con_, with, and RIVAL.] CORROBORATE, kor-ob'o-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to confirm: to make more certain.--_adjs._ CORROB'ORANT, CORROB'ORATIVE, tending to confirm.--_n._ that which corroborates.--_ns._ CORROBOR[=A]'TION, confirmation; CORROB'ORATOR.--_adj._ CORROB'ORATORY, corroborative. [L. _cor_, inten., and _robor[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to make strong. See ROBUST.] CORROBOREE, ko-rob'[=o]-ri, _n._ Australian name for a gathering of aborigines, held on moonlight nights, when they engage in dancing and other exercises. CORRODE, kor-[=o]d', _v.t._ to eat away by degrees: to rust.--_v.i._ to be eaten away.--_adj._ CORROD'ENT, having the power of corroding.--_n._ that which corrodes.--_ns._ CORRODIBIL'ITY, CORROSIBIL'ITY, CORR[=O]'SIBLENESS.--_adjs._ CORROD'IBLE, CORROS'IBLE, that may be corroded.--_n._ CORR[=O]'SION, act of eating or wasting away.--_adj._ CORROS'IVE, having the quality of eating away.--_n._ that which has the power of corroding.--_adv._ CORROS'IVELY.--_n._ CORROS'IVENESS.--CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE, the popular name of the highly poisonous bichloride of mercury (mercuric chloride). [L. _cor_, inten., _rod[)e]re_, _rosum_, to gnaw.] CORRODY, CORODY, kor'o-di, _n._ an allowance: pension: originally the right of the lord to claim free lodging from the vassal. [O. Fr. _conroi_.] CORRUGATE, kor'oo-g[=a]t, _v.t._ to wrinkle or draw into folds.--_p.adjs._ CORR'UGANT; CORR'UGATED.--_ns._ CORRUG[=A]'TION, the act of wrinkling or being wrinkled: a wrinkle; CORR'UGATOR (_anat._) one of the two muscles that wrinkle the brow.--CORRUGATED METAL, metal passed between pairs of rollers with ridged surfaces, the ridges of one fitting into the hollows of the other, the plates operated on being bent and compressed into the wavy outline of the rolls. [L. _cor_, inten., _rug[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to wrinkle--_ruga_, a wrinkle.] CORRUPT, kor-upt', _v.t._ to make putrid: to defile: to mar: to debase: to bribe.--_v.i._ to rot: to lose purity.--_adj._ putrid: depraved: defiled: not genuine: full of errors.--_ns._ CORRUPT'ER; CORRUPTIBIL'ITY, CORRUPT'IBLENESS.--_adj._ CORRUPT'IBLE, liable to be corrupted.--_adv._ CORRUPT'IBLY.--_ns._ CORRUP'TION, rottenness: putrid matter: impurity: bribery; CORRUP'TIONIST, one who defends or who practises corruption.--_adj._ CORRUPT'IVE, having the quality of corrupting.--_adv._ CORRUPT'LY.--_n._ CORRUPT'NESS. [L. _cor_, inten., and _rump[)e]re_, _ruptum_, to break.] CORSAGE, kor's[=a]j, _n._ the bodice or waist of a woman's dress. [O. Fr.,--_cors_--L. _corpus_, the body.] CORSAIR, kor's[=a]r, _n._ a pirate: a pirate's vessel. [Fr. _corsaire_, one who makes the course or ranges--L. _cursus_, a running--_curr[)e]re_, to run.] CORSE, kors, _n._ a poetic form of CORPSE. CORSELET. Same as CORSLET. CORSET, kor'set, _n._ a closely-fitting inner bodice, stiffened with whalebone, &c., and laced up: stays. [Dim. of O. Fr. _cors_--L. _corpus_, the body.] CORSLET, CORSELET, kors'let, _n._ a cuirass, formerly the usual body-covering of pikemen, chiefly of leather, and pistol-proof.--_p.adj._ CORS'LETED. [Fr. _corselet_, dim. of O. Fr. _cors_--L. _corpus_, the body.] CORSNED, kors'ned, _n._ a kind of ordeal, wherein the accused was required to swallow consecrated bread and cheese; if it stuck in his throat he was pronounced guilty. [A.S. _corsn['æ]d_--_cor_, trial, from _coren_, pa.p. of _céosan_, to choose, and _sn['æ]d_, a piece, from _snídan_, to cut.] CORTEGE, kor-t[=a]zh', _n._ a train of attendants: a procession, a funeral procession. [Fr.,--It. _corteggio_--_corte_, court.] CORTES, kor'tes, _n._ the parliament of Spain and Portugal. [Sp., pl. of _corte_, a court.] CORTEX, kor'teks, _n._ the bark or skin of a plant: a covering.--_adjs._ COR'TICAL, pertaining to the cortex: external; COR'TICATE, -D, furnished with bark; CORTICIF'[.E]ROUS, producing bark; CORTIC'IFORM, resembling bark; COR'TICOLE, CORTIC'OLOUS, growing on bark; COR'TICOSE, barky. [L. _cortex_, _corticis_, bark.] CORTILE, kor-t[=e]'le, _n._ an enclosed courtyard within a building, generally roofless. [It.] CORUNDUM, ko-run'dum, _n._ a mineral consisting of mere alumina, yet of great specific gravity--about four times that of water--and second in hardness only to the diamond. [Hind. _kurund_.] CORUSCATE, kor'us-k[=a]t, _v.i._ to sparkle: to throw off flashes of light.--_adj._ CORUS'CANT, flashing.--_n._ CORUSC[=A]'TION, a glittering: sudden flash of light. [L. _corusc[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to vibrate, glitter.] CORVÉE, kor-v[=a]', _n._ the obligations on the inhabitants of districts to perform gratuitous labour (such as the maintenance of roads) for the sovereign or feudal lord. [Fr.,--Low L. _corrogata_--L. _corrog[=a]re_--_cor_, together, _reg[=a]re_, to ask.] CORVET. Same as CURVET. CORVETTE, kor-vet', _n._ a flush-decked vessel, ship, or barque, rigged, having only one tier of guns, either on the upper or main deck. [Fr.,--Sp. _corbeta_--L. _corb[=i]ta_, a slow-sailing ship, from _corbis_, a basket.] CORVINE, kor'v[=i]n, _adj._ pertaining to the crow.--_n._ COR'VUS, the typical genus of _Corvinæ_: a hooked ram for destroying walls: a southern constellation: a grappling-hook in ancient Roman naval warfare. [L. _corvinus_--_corvus_, a crow.] CORYBANT, kor'i-bant, _n._ a priest of Cybele, whose rites were accompanied with noisy music and wild dances:--Eng. _pl._ COR'YBANTS; L. _pl._ CORYBANTES (kor-i-ban't[=e]z).--_adj._ CORYBAN'TIC, wildly excited.--_n._ COR'YBANTISM. [Gr. _korybas_, _korybantos_.] CORYDALINE, kor'id-a-lin, _n._ an alkaloid obtained from the root of _Corydalis tuberosa_. CORYDON, kor'i-don, _n._ generic name for a rustic. [L. and Gr. proper name applied to a shepherd.] CORYLUS, kor'i-lus, _n._ a genus of small trees, including the common hazel. [L.] CORYMB, kor'imb, _n._ (_bot._) a convex flower-cluster of indefinite inflorescence.--_adjs._ CORYM'BIATE, -D; CORYMBIF'EROUS; CORYM'BOSE, CORYM'BOUS, CORYM'BULOUS. [L. _corymbus_--Gr. _korymbos_, a cluster.] CORYMBUS, ko-rim'bus, _n._ the knot on the top of the head into which girls gathered their hair. [Gr.] CORYPHA, kor'i-fa, _n._ a genus of tropical Asian palms with fan-shaped leaves. [Gr. _koryph[=e]_, the top.] CORYPHÆUS, kor-i-f[=e]'us, _n._ the chief or leader, esp. the leader of a chorus.--_n._ CORYPHÉE (kor-i-f[=a]'), the principal _danseuse_ in the ballet. [L.,--Gr. _koryphaios_--_koryph[=e]_, the head.] CORYPHENE, kor'i-f[=e]n, _n._ a fish of the genus _Coryphæna_, which includes the dolphins. [Gr.] CORYSTES, ko-ris't[=e]z, _n.pl._ a genus of long-armed crabs, of family _Corystidæ_. [Gr. _korys_, helmet.] CORYZA, ko-r[=i]'za, _n._ a cold in the head. [L.,--Gr.] COSAQUE, kos-ak', _n._ a cracker bon-bon. COSCINOMANCY, kos'i-no-man-si, _n._ an ancient mode of divination by a sieve and pair of shears. [Gr. _koskinon_, a sieve, _manteia_, divination.] COSE, k[=o]z, _v.i._ to make one's self cosy.--_adj._ COSH (_Scot._), cosy, snug. [See COSY.] COSECANT, k[=o]-s[=e]'kant, _n._ (_trig._) the secant of the complement of an angle. COSEISMAL, k[=o]-s[=i]s'mal, _adj._ experiencing an earthquake shock simultaneously at all points.--Also COSEIS'MIC. CO-SENTIENT, k[=o]-sen'shi-ent, _adj._ perceiving together. COSH. See COSE. COSHER, kosh'[.e]r, _v.t._ to pamper, to coddle.--_v.i._ to chat in a friendly way. COSHERY, kosh'[.e]r-i, _n._ the ancient right of an Irish chief to quarter himself and his retainers on his tenantry--also COSH'ERING.--_v.i._ COSH'ER, to live on dependants.--_n._ COSH'ERER. [Ir. _coisir_, a feast.] COSIER. Same as COZIER. CO-SIGNATORY, k[=o]-sig'na-t[=o]-ri, _adj._ uniting with others in signing: one who does so.--_adj._ CO-SIGNIF'ICATIVE, having the same signification. COSINAGE, kus'n[=a]j, _n._ collateral relationship.--Also COS'ENAGE. CO-SINE, k[=o]'-s[=i]n, _n._ the sine of the complement of a given angle (whose co-sine it is). COSMETIC, koz-met'ik, _adj._ improving beauty, esp. that of the complexion.--_n._ a preparation for beautifying the skin and hair.--_adj._ COSMET'ICAL.--_adv._ COSMET'ICALLY.--_v.t._ COSMET'ICISE.--_n._ COSMET'ICISM. [Gr. _kosm[=e]tikos_--_kosmein_--_kosmos_, order.] COSMIC. See COSMOS. COSMOGONY, koz-mog'o-ni, _n._ the theory of the origin of the universe and its inhabitants--also COSMOG'ENY.--_adjs._ COSMOGONET'IC; COSMOG'ONAL, COSMOGON'IC, -AL, relating to cosmogony.--_n._ COSMOG'ONIST, one who speculates on the origin of the universe. [Gr. _kosmogonia_--_kosmos_, and root of _gignesthai_, to be born.] COSMOGRAPHY, koz-mog'ra-fi, _n._ a description of the world: the science of the constitution of the universe.--_n._ COSMOG'RAPHER.--_adjs._ COSMOGRAPH'IC, -AL. [Gr.,--_kosmos_, and _graphein_, to write.] COSMOLOGY, koz-mol'o-ji, _n._ the science of the universe as a whole: a treatise on the structure and parts of the system of creation.--_adj._ COSMOLOG'ICAL.--_n._ COSMOL'OGIST, one versed in cosmology.--_adj._ COSMOPLAS'TIC, moulding the universe. [Gr. _kosmos_, and _logia_, discourse.] COSMOPOLITAN, koz-mo-pol'i-tan, _n._ a citizen of the world: one free from local or national prejudices--also COSMOP'OLITE.--_adj._ belonging to all parts of the world: unprejudiced.--_ns._ COSMOPOL'ITANISM, COSMOP'OLITISM, COSMOPOL'ICY (_Shelley_).--_adjs._ COSMOPOL'ITIC, -POLIT'ICAL. [Gr. _kosmopolit[=e]s_--_kosmos_, and _polit[=e]s_, a citizen--_polis_, a city.] COSMORAMA, koz-mo-rä'ma, _n._ a view, or a series of views, of different parts of the world.--_adj._ COSMORAM'IC. [Gr. _kosmos_, and _horama_, a spectacle.] COSMOS, koz'mos, _n._ the world as an orderly or systematic whole--opp. to _Chaos_: order.--_adjs._ COS'MIC, relating to the cosmos: orderly; COS'MICAL, cosmic: (_astron._) happening at sunrise: rising with the sun.--_adv._ COS'MICALLY.--_ns._ COS'MISM, the notion of the cosmos as a self-existing whole; COS'MIST, a secularist; COS'MOCRAT, ruler of the world.--_adj._ COSMOCRAT'IC.--_ns._ COS'MOLABE, a kind of astrolabe--also _Pantocosm_; COSMOL'ATRY, worship paid to the world; COSMOM'ETRY, the art of measuring the world; COS'MOSPHERE, an apparatus for showing the position of the earth at any given time with reference to the fixed stars; COSMOTH[=E]'ISM, the belief that identifies God with the cosmos: pantheism.--_adjs._ COSMOTHET'IC, -AL, assuming an external world. [Gr.] CO-SPHERED, k[=o]-sf[=e]rd', _adj._ being in the same sphere. COSS, kos, _n._ a measure of distance in India, averaging about 1¾ mile. [Hindi _k[=o]s_--Sans. _kroça_, a call.] COSSACK, kos'ak, _n._ one of a people in south-eastern Russia, forming splendid light cavalry. [Turk.] COSSAS, kos'az, _n.pl._ plain muslins. [East Ind.] COSSET, kos'set, _n._ a lamb reared in the house without a dam: a pet.--_v.t._ to fondle. [Ety. dub.] COST, kost, _v.t._ to bring a certain price: to require to be laid out or suffered:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ cost.--_n._ what is laid out or suffered to obtain anything: (_pl._) expenses of a lawsuit.--_adj._ COST'-FREE, free of charge.--_n._ COST'LINESS.--_adv._ COST'LY, of great cost: high-priced: valuable.--COST PRICE, the price which the merchant pays.--PRIME COST, the price of production, without regard to profit. [O. Fr. _couster_ (Fr. _coûter_)--L. _const[=a]re_, to stand at.] COSTAL, kos'tal, _adj._ relating to the ribs, or to the side of the body.--_adjs._ COS'T[=A]TE, -D, ribbed: having the appearance of ribs. [L. _costa_, a rib.] COSTARD, kos'tard, _n._ a large kind of apple: the human head (contemptuously).--_ns._ COS'TARDMONGER, COS'TER, COS'TERMONGER, a seller of apples and other fruit: an itinerant seller of fruit: a term of abuse. [Perh. from L. _costa_, a rib.] COSTEAN, kos-t[=e]n', _v.i._ to try to find a lode by sinking pits down to bed-rock.--_ns._ COST'-BOOK, a book containing the names and shares of the joint adventurers in a mine; COSTEAN'ING; COSTEAN'-PIT. [Corn. _cothas_, dropped, _stean_, tin.] COSTIVE, kos'tiv, _adj._ having the motion of the bowels too slow: constipated.--_adv._ COS'TIVELY.--_n._ COS'TIVENESS, slowness in the action of the bowels. [Fr. _constipé_. See CONSTIPATE.] COSTMARY, kost'm[=a]r-i, _n._ a herbaceous perennial composite of southern Europe, introduced from Italy in 1568, and cultivated in gardens for the fragrance of the leaves. [L. _costum_--Gr. _kostos_, an Oriental aromatic plant, and _Maria_, the Virgin Mary.] COSTREL, kos'trel, _n._ a kind of bottle with ears, to be hung at the waist. [O. Fr. _costerel_.] COSTUME, kos-t[=u]m', or kos't[=u]m, _n._ the manner of dressing prevalent at a particular period or place: dress, esp. a woman's dress.--_v.t._ to dress.--_p.adj._ COSTUMED'.--_ns._ COSTUM'ER, COSTUM'IER, one who makes or deals in costumes. [Fr.,--It.,--Low L. _costuma_--L. _consuetudo_, custom.] CO-SUPREME, k[=o]-s[=u]-pr[=e]m', _n._ (_obs._) a sharer with another in supremacy. CO-SURETY, k[=o]-sh[=oo]r'ti, _n._ one who is surety along with others. COSY, COZY, k[=o]'zi, _adj._ (_Scot._) snug: comfortable.--_n._ a covering used for a teapot, to keep the tea warm--also TEA'-C[=O]'SY.--_adv._ C[=O]'SILY. [Ety. dub.] COT, kot, _n._ a small dwelling, a cottage.--_ns._ COT'-FOLK (_Scot._), cottars; COT'-HOUSE, a house occupied by a cottar; COT'-LAND, land belonging to a cottage; COT'-QUEAN (_Shak._), a man who busies himself with women's affairs.--_adj._ COT'TED, lined with cots.--_n._ COT'-TOWN, a number of cot-houses. [A.S. _cot_; cf. Ice. _kot_, Dut. _kot_.] COT, kot, _n._ a small bed: a swinging bed of canvas, suspended from the beams of a ship, for the officers: a bed for a child, a crib. [Anglo-Ind.--Hind. _kh[=a]t_.] COT, kot, _n._ a small boat. [Ir.] CO-TANGENT, k[=o]-tan'jent, _n._ the tangent of the complement of an angle. COTE, k[=o]t, _n._ a cot: a place for animals, as _dove-cote_ or _dove-cot_, _sheep-cote_. [A.S. _cote_. Cf. COT (1).] COTE, k[=o]t, _v.t._ to pass by: to outstrip, leave behind. [Der. obscure; perh. conn. with COAST.] COTEMPORANEOUS, -TEMPORARY. Same as CONTEMPORANEOUS, -TEMPORARY. CO-TENANT, k[=o]-ten'ant, _n._ one who is a tenant along with another.--_n._ CO-TEN'ANCY. COTERIE, k[=o]'te-r[=e], _n._ a number of persons meeting familiarly for social, literary, or other purposes. [Fr.; orig. a number of peasants obtaining a joint tenure of land from a lord--Low L. _cota_, a hut. See COT.] COTERMINOUS. Same as CONTERMINOUS. COTHURN, k[=o]'thurn, COTHURNUS, k[=o]-thur'nus, _n._ a buskin or high boot laced in front, worn in tragic performances. [L. _cothurnus_--Gr. _kothornos_.] COTICULAR, ko-tik'[=u]-lar, _adj._ pertaining to whetstones. [L.] CO-TIDAL, k[=o]-t[=i]d'al, _adj._ noting an equality in the tides, applied to lines on a chart or map passing through places that have high tide at the same time. COTILLION, ko-til'yun, COTILLON, ko-ti'yong, _n._ a brisk dance by eight persons. [Fr.,--_cotte_, a coat--Low L. _cotta_, a tunic. See COAT.] COTINGA, k[=o]-ting'ga, _n._ a genus of passerine birds of bright plumage, represented by six species in central and in tropical South America. [Native name.] COTISE, COTTISE, k[=o]'tis, _n._ (_her._) one of the diminutives of the bend (q.v.).--_v.t._ to border a bend, &c., with cotises, barrulets, &c. [Fr. _cotice_; origin obscure.] COTONEASTER, k[=o]-t[=o]-ni-as't[.e]r, _n._ a genus of shrubs or small trees, closely allied to the hawthorn and medlar. [Formed from L. _cotonea_, quince.] COTSWOLD, kots'wold, _n._ a breed of sheep.--COTSWOLD LIONS, sheep. COTTA, kot'a, _n._ a surplice. [Low L. _cotta_.] COTTABUS, kot'a-bus, _n._ an amusement in ancient Greece among young men, consisting in throwing wine into a vessel, success at which betokened fortune in love. [L.,--Gr. _kottabos_.] COTTAGE, kot'[=a]j, _n._ a small dwelling-house, esp. of labourers, varying greatly in size, appearance, and comfort: a country residence.--_adj._ COTT'AGED, covered with cottages.--_n._ COTT'AGER, one who dwells in a cottage, esp. of labourers.--COTTAGE ALLOTMENTS, pieces of land allotted to cottagers to be cultivated as gardens; COTTAGE PIANO, a small upright piano. [See COT.] COTTAR, COTTER, kot'[.e]r, _n._ (_Scot._) a peasant occupying a cot or cottage for which he has to give labour.--_ns._ COTT'IER, a cottar: an Irish tenant; COTT'IERISM, the cottier system of land tenure. COTTER, kot'[.e]r, _n._ a pin or wedge for fastening and tightening. [Origin obscure.] COTTON, kot'n, _n._ a soft substance like fine wool, got from the pods of the cotton-plant: cloth made of cotton.--_adj._ made of cotton.--_v.t._ to provide with cotton.--_v.i._ to agree: to be attached to (the connection of the intransitive meanings is unknown).--_ns._ COTTONADE', a name given to an inferior kind of cotton cloth; COTT'ON-GIN, a machine for separating the seeds from the fibre of cotton; COTT'ON-GRASS, a genus of _Cyperaceæ_ in which the _perigone_ or covering of united bracts, which in this order enclose the ripening ovary, is developed into long, silky, or cottony hairs; COTTONOC'RACY, the cotton planting or the cotton manufacturing interest; COTT'ON-PLANT, one of various plants of the genus _Gossypium_, natural order _Malvaceæ_, yielding the textile substance cotton; COTT'ON-PRESS, a press for compressing cotton into bales; COTT'ON-SEED, the seed of the cotton-plant, yielding a valuable oil; COTT'ON-SPIN'NER, one who spins cotton, or employs those who do; COTT'ON-TAIL, the ordinary United States rabbit; COTT'ON-THIS'TLE, a strong thistle covered with a cottony down; COTT'ON-TREE, the American cotton-wood: the Indian _Bombax malabaricum_; COTT'ON-WEED, cudweed or everlasting; COTT'ON-WOOD, any one of several American species of poplar; COTT'ON-WOOL, cotton in its raw or woolly state.--_adj._ COTT'ONY, like cotton: soft: downy. [Fr. _coton_--Ar. _qutun_.] COTYLE, kot'i-l[=e], _n._ an ancient Greek drinking-cup: (_zool._) a cup-like cavity:--_pl._ COT'YLÆ, or COT'YLES.--_adj._ COTYL'IFORM. [Gr.] COTYLEDON, kot-i-l[=e]'don, _n._ (_bot._) the term applied to the seed-leaves of the embryo: the seed-leaf.--_adjs._ COTYL[=E]'DONARY; COTYL[=E]'DONOUS, pertaining to or having cotyledons or seed-lobes; COT'YLOID, cup-shaped. [L.,--Gr. _kotyl[=e]d[=o]n_--_kotyl[=e]_, a cup.] COUCAL, k[=oo]'kal, _n._ a genus of common bush-birds in Africa and India. COUCH, kowch, _v.t._ to lay down on a bed, &c.: to lower: to level: to arrange in language, to express: to depress or remove a cataract in the eye.--_v.i._ to lie down for the purpose of sleep, concealment, &c.: to bend or stoop in reverence.--_n._ any place for rest or sleep: a bed: the lair of a wild beast.--_adj._ COUCH'ANT, couching or lying down: (_her._) of a beast lying down with his head up.--_ns._ COUCH'-FELL'OW, COUCH'-MATE, a bed-fellow; COUCHING.--COUCH A SPEAR, to fix it in its rest at the side of the armour. [Fr. _coucher_, to lie down--L. _colloc[=a]re_, to place--_com_, together, _locus_, a place.] COUCH, kowch, COUCH-GRASS, kowch'-gras, _n._ a grass of the same genus with wheat, but a widespread and troublesome weed. [A variant of QUITCH.] COUCHEE, k[=oo]'sh[=a], _n._ an evening party or reception. [Fr. _couché_. See COUCH.] COUGAR, k[=oo]'gar, _n._ an American animal, same as the puma. [Fr. _couguar_, from native name.] COUGH, kof, _n._ an effort of the lungs to throw off injurious matter, accompanied by a harsh sound, proceeding from the throat.--_v.i._ to make this effort.--_v.t._ to expel from the throat or lungs by a cough.--_ns._ COUGH'-DROP, -LOZ'ENGE, a sweetmeat taken to cure coughing; COUGH'ER; COUGH'ING,--COUGH DOWN, to drown a speaker's voice by coughing, so that he must stop. [M. E. _coughen_; cf. Dut. _kuchen_, Ger. _keuchen_, _keichen_, to gasp.] COULD, kood, _pa.t._ of CAN. [M. E. _coude_, _couth_--A.S. _cúðe_ for _cunðe_, was able; _l_ is inserted from the influence of _would_ and _should_.] COULÉE, k[=oo]-l[=a]', or k[=oo]'li, _n._ a ravine, esp. one worn out by water. [Fr.,--_couler_, to flow.] COULEUR, kool'[=a]r, _n._ French word for COLOUR.--_n._ COUL'EUR-DE-ROSE', rose colour.--_adv._ in a favourable light: fanciful. COULISSE, k[=oo]-lis', _n._ a piece of grooved wood, as the slides in which the side-scenes of a theatre run--hence, the side-scene of a theatre. [Fr.,--_couler_, to glide, to flow--L. _col[=a]re_, to flow.] COULOIR, kool-wär, _n._ a gully filled with snow. [Fr.] COULOMB, koo-lom', _n._ the unit of quantity in measuring current electricity: the quantity furnished by a current of one ampere in one second. [From the French physicist, C. A. de _Coulomb_ (1736-1806).] COULTER. See COLTER. COUMARINE, koo'ma-rin, _n._ a crystalline compound obtained in Tonka beans, &c.--also CU'MARIN.--_adjs._ COU'MARIC, COUMARIL'IC. COUNCIL, kown'sil, _n._ an assembly called together for deliberation or advice: the body of men constituting such an assembly: the body of men directing the affairs of the city: an assembly of ecclesiastics met to regulate doctrine or discipline (_diocesan_, _provincial_, _national_, _general_, or _oecumenical_).--_ns._ COUN'CIL-BOARD, the board or table round which a council meets for deliberation: the council itself; COUN'CIL-CHAM'BER, the room where a council is held; COUN'CILLOR, a member of a council, esp. of a common council; COUN'CIL-MAN, a member of a municipal council.--COUNCIL OF WAR, a conference of military or naval officers called to meet and consult with the commander.--GENERAL COUNCIL, one called by an invitation to the church at large, also OECUMENICAL, if received by the Catholic Church in general--as the first seven, 325-787.--IN COUNCIL, in the council-chamber: in giving advice.--PRIVY-COUNCIL (see PRIVY). [Fr. _concile_--L. _concilium_.] COUNSEL, kown'sel, _n._ consultation: deliberation: advice: plan: purpose: one who gives counsel, a barrister or advocate.--_v.t._ to give advice: to warn:--_pr.p._ coun'selling; _pa.p._ coun'selled.--_n._ COUN'SEL-KEEP'ER (_Shak._), one who can keep counsel or a secret.--_adjs._ COUN'SEL-KEEP'ING (_Shak._), keeping counsel or secrets; COUN'SELLABLE, that may be counselled.--_ns._ COUN'SELLOR, one who counsels: a barrister; COUN'SELLORSHIP.--COUNSEL OF PERFECTION, a declaration of our Lord's, not absolutely imperative, but commended as the means of reaching greater perfection; KEEP COUNSEL, to keep a secret; KING'S COUNSEL (K.C.), a barrister-at-law appointed by letters-patent--the office is honorary, but gives the right of precedence in all the courts. [Fr. _conseil_--L. _consilium_, advice--_consul[)e]re_, to consult.] COUNT, kownt, _n._ on the Continent, a title of nobility equal in rank to an English earl:--_fem._ COUNT'ESS, the wife of a count or earl (fem. of _earl_).--_ns._ COUNT'SHIP, a count's dignity or domain (also used as a title); COUN'TY, a portion of a country separated for the administration of justice: a shire; COUN'TY-FAM'ILY, a family of the nobility or gentry (COUN'TY-PEOPLE), with estates and a seat in the county. [O. Fr. _conte_--L. _comes_, _comitis_, a companion, _con_, with, _[=i]re_, _itum_, to go.] COUNT, kownt, _v.t._ to number, sum up: to ascribe: esteem: consider.--_v.i._ to add to or increase a number by being counted to it: to depend.--_n._ act of numbering: the number counted: a particular charge in an indictment.--_adj._ COUNT'ABLE, capable of being counted.--_ns._ COUNT'ER, he who or that which counts: that which indicates a number: a piece of metal, &c., used in reckoning: a table on which money is counted or goods laid; COUNT'ING-HOUSE, COUNT'ING-ROOM, the house or room in which merchants keep their accounts and transact business.--_adj._ COUNT'LESS, that cannot be counted: innumerable.--_n._ COUNT'-WHEEL, a wheel with notched edge controlling the stroke of a clock in sounding the hours. [O. Fr. _cunter_ (Fr. _compter_)--L. _comput[=a]re_.] COUNTENANCE, kown'ten-ans, _n._ the face: the expression of the face: appearance.--_v.t._ to favour or approve.--_n._ COUN'TENANCER.--CHANGE COUNTENANCE, to change the expression of the face; HIS COUNTENANCE FELL, he became dejected or angry; IN COUNTENANCE, unabashed--opp. to _Out of countenance_. [O. Fr. _contenance_--L. _continentia_, restraint, demeanour--L. _contin[=e]re_, to contain.] COUNTER, kown't[.e]r, _adv._ against: in opposition.--_adj._ contrary: opposite.--_n._ that which is counter of opposite: (_mus._) the voice-part set in immediate contrast with the air: (_fencing_) a parry in which one foil follows the other in a small circle: the part of a horse's breast between the shoulders and under the neck: (_naut._) the part of a ship between the water-line and the knuckle of the stern.--_v.t._ COUNTERACT', to act counter or in opposition to: to hinder or defeat.--_n._ COUNTERAC'TION.--_adj._ COUNTERACT'IVE, tending to counteract.--_n._ one who or that which counteracts.--_adv._ COUNTERACT'IVELY.--_ns._ COUN'TER-AG'ENT, anything which counteracts; COUN'TER-APPROACH', a work thrown up outside a besieged place to command or check the approaches of the besieger; COUN'TER-ATTRAC'TION, attraction in an opposite direction.--_adj._ COUN'TER-ATTRACT'IVE, attracting in an opposite direction.--_v.t._ COUNTERBAL'ANCE, to balance by weight on the opposite side: to act against with equal weight, power, or influence.--_ns._ COUN'TERBALANCE, an equal weight, power, or agency working in opposition; COUN'TERBASE (see CONTRABASS); COUN'TER-BATT'ERY (_mil._), a battery erected to oppose another; COUN'TER-BLAST, something done in opposition to another thing; COUN'TER-BOND, a bond to protect from contingent loss one who has given bond for another.--_v.t._ COUN'TER-BRACE (_naut._), to brace or fasten (the head-yards and after-yards) in opposite ways.--_n._ the lee-brace of the fore-topsail-yard.--_n._ COUN'TERBUFF, a stroke that stops motion or causes a recoil.--_v.t._ to drive back by such.--_ns._ COUN'TER-CAST (_Spens._), a contrary cast, counterplot, trick; COUN'TER-CAST'ER (_Shak._), one who casts accounts: a book-keeper--used in contempt; COUN'TER-CHANGE, (_Shak._), exchange, reciprocation.--_p.adj._ COUN'TERCHANGED', exchanged: (_her._) intermixed or set one against the other, as the colours of the field and charge.--_n._ COUN'TER-CHARGE, a charge brought forward in opposition to another charge.--_v.t._ COUN'TERCHARM, to destroy or dissolve the effects of another charm.--_n._ that which destroys the effects of another charm.--_v.t._ COUN'TER-CHECK, to check by some obstacle: to rebuke.--_ns._ COUNTER-CHECK', a check in opposition to another: a rebuke; COUNTER-CLAIM, kown't[.e]r-kl[=a]m, _n._ a cross-demand brought forward as a partial or complete set-off against another claim.; COUN'TER-CURR'ENT, a current flowing in an opposite direction; COUN'TER-DRAIN, a drain alongside a canal, &c., to carry off water oozing out.--_v.t._ COUN'TERDRAW, to trace on oiled paper or other transparent material.--_ns._ COUN'TER-EV'IDENCE, evidence brought forward in opposition to other evidence; COUN'TERFOIL, the corresponding part of a bank cheque, &c., retained by the giver; COUN'TER-FORCE, an opposing force; COUN'TER-FORT (_fort._), a buttress, or arch behind the revetments or retaining walls of the ditches of permanent fortifications; COUN'TER-GAUGE, an adjustable scribing gauge for marking the measurements of a mortise on a piece to be tenoned; COUN'TER-GUARD (_fort._), an outwork consisting of two lines of rampart running parallel to the faces of the bastion, to guard the bastion from being breached; COUN'TER-IN'FLUENCE, an opposing influence; COUN'TER-IRR'ITANT, an agent or substance applied to the skin so as to redden, to vesicate, or to produce pustules, &c.; COUN'TER-IRRIT[=A]'TION, an artificial irritation produced in one part of the body to act in opposition to and remove already existing irritation; COUN'TERLIGHT (_paint._), a light opposite to any object, disturbing the effect of its light.--_v.i._ COUN'TERMARCH, to march back or in a direction contrary to a former one.--_n._ a marching backward or in a direction different from a former one: (_mil._) an evolution by which a body of men change front, and still retain the same men in the front rank: change of measures.--_n._ COUN'TERMARK, an additional mark put on a bale of goods belonging to several merchants, so that it may not be opened except in the presence of all the owners: a mark put on standard metal by the London Goldsmiths' Company in addition to the artificer's: an artificial cavity made in the teeth of horses to disguise their age.--_v.t._ COUN'TERMINE, to make a mine in opposition to: to oppose by means of a countermine: (_fig._) to frustrate by secret working:--_pr.p._ countermin'ing; _pa.p._ countermined'.--_ns._ COUN'TER-MINE (_mil._), a mine or chamber excavated by the besieged to counteract or destroy the mines made by the besiegers: (_fig._) any means of counteraction; COUN'TER-M[=O]'TION, an opposite motion; COUN'TER-MOVE, -MOVE'MENT, a contrary move, movement.--_v.t._ COUN'TERMURE, to fortify a wall with another wall.--_ns._ COUN'TER-[=O]'PENING, an aperture or vent on the opposite side, or in a different place; COUN'TER-PACE, a step in opposition to another, a contrary measure.--_adj._ COUN'TER-PALED (_her._), divided equally, as an escutcheon, first palewise, then by a line fesswise, with two tinctures countercharged.--_ns._ COUN'TER-PAROLE', a word in addition to the password; COUN'TERPART, the part that answers to another part: that which fits into or completes another, having the qualities which another lacks, and so an opposite.--_adj._ COUN'TER-PASS'ANT (_her._), denoting two animals in a coat of arms represented as passing each other the contrary way.--_n._ COUN'TERPLEA, a replication to a plea or request.--_v.t._ COUNTERPLEAD', to plead the contrary of; COUN'TERPLOT', to plot against in order to frustrate another plot:--_pr.p._ counterplot'ting; _pa.p._ counterplot'ted.--_n._ a plot or stratagem opposed to another plot.--_v.t._ COUN'TERPOISE, to poise or weigh against or on the opposite side: to act in opposition to with equal effect.--_n._ an equally heavy weight in the other scale--(_Spens._) COUN'TERPOYS.--_ns._ COUN'TER-POIS'ON, a poison used as the antidote of another; COUN'TER-PRES'SURE, opposing pressure; COUN'TER-PROOF, an inverted impression obtained from a newly printed proof of an engraving, by laying it, while the ink is still wet, upon plain paper, and passing it through the press; COUN'TER-REVOL[=U]'TION, a subsequent revolution counteracting the effect of a previous; COUN'TER-ROLL, a copy of the rolls relating to appeals, inquests, &c., serving as a check on another's roll; COUN'TER-ROUND, a body of officers which goes to inspect the rounds.--_adj._ COUN'TERS[=A]'LIENT (_her._), salient in opposite directions.--_n._ COUN'TERSCARP (_fort._), the side of the ditch nearest to the besiegers and opposite to the scarp.--_v.t._ COUNTERSEAL' (_Shak._), to seal along with others.--_ns._ COUN'TER-SECUR'ITY, security given to one who has become surety for another; COUN'TER-SENSE, an interpretation contrary to the real sense.--_v.t._ COUNTERSIGN', to sign on the opposite side of a writing: to sign in addition to the signature of a superior, to attest the authenticity of a writing.--_ns._ COUN'TERSIGN, a military private sign or word, which must be given in order to pass a sentry: a counter-signature; COUN'TER-SIG'NAL, a signal used as an answer [Illustration] to another; COUN'TER-SIG'NATURE, a name countersigned to a writing.--_v.t._ COUN'TERSINK, to bevel the edge of a hole, as for the head of a screw-nail (_a_ _a_ in fig.)--it is usually done by a COUNTERSINK-BIT (_b_ in fig.) in a brace.--_ns._ COUN'TER-STAND, opposition, resistance; COUN'TER-STATE'MENT, a statement in opposition to another statement; COUN'TER-STROKE (_Spens._), a stroke given in return for another stroke; COUN'TER-TAL'LY, a tally serving as a check to another; COUN'TER-TEN'OR, name applied to alto when sung by a male voice (so called because a contrast to tenor); COUN'TER-TIME, the resistance of a horse that interrupts his cadence and the measure of his manège: resistance, opposition; COUN'TERTURN, a turn in a play different from what was expected.--_v.t._ COUNTERVAIL', to be of avail against: to act against with equal effect: to be of equal value to: to compensate [COUNTER and AVAIL].--_n._ COUN'TER-VIEW, an opposing view: a posture in which two persons face each other: opposition: contrast.--_v.t._ COUN'TER-VOTE, to vote in opposition to; COUN'TER-WEIGH, to weigh against, counterbalance.--_ns._ COUN'TER-WEIGHT, a weight in an opposite scale.--_v.i._ COUN'TER-WHEEL, to wheel in an opposite direction.--_n._ COUN'TER-WORK, a work raised in opposition to another.--_v.t._ to work in opposition to.--_p.adj._ COUN'TER-WROUGHT. [Fr.,--L. _contra_, against.] COUNTER, kown't[.e]r, _n._ (_Spens._) encounter.--_v.t._ to encounter: to contradict. COUNTERFEIT, kown't[.e]r-fit, -f[=e]t, _v.t._ to imitate: to copy without authority: to forge.--_n._ something false or copied, or that pretends to be true and original.--_adj._ pretended: made in imitation of: forged: false.--_n._ COUN'TERFEITER, one who counterfeits.--_adv._ COUN'TERFEITLY, in a counterfeit manner: falsely.--_n._ COUN'TER-FES'ANCE (_Spens._), act of counterfeiting: forgery. [O. Fr. _contrefet_, from _contrefaire_, to imitate--L. _contra_, against, _fac[)e]re_, to do.] COUNTERMAND, kown-t[.e]r-mand', _v.t._ to give a command in opposition to one already given: to revoke.--_n._ a revocation of a former order.--_adj._ COUNTERMAND'ABLE. [O. Fr. _contremander_--L. _contra_, against, and _mand[=a]re_, to order.] COUNTERPANE, kown't[.e]r-p[=a]n, _n._ a coverlet for a bed, stitched or woven in squares.--Older form COUN'TERPOINT. [A corr. of O. Fr. _contrepointe_, which is a corr. of _coultepointe_--L. _culcita puncta_, a stitched pillow or cover. See QUILT.] COUNTERPOINT, kown't[.e]r-point, _n._ (_mus._) the art of combining melodies: the setting of a harmony of one or more parts to a melody: the art of composition.--_adj._ CONTRAPUNT'AL.--_n._ CONTRAPUNT'IST. [Fr.,--_contre_, against, _point_, a point.] COUNTRY, kun'tri, _n._ a rural region as distinct from a town: a tract of land: the land in which one was born, or in which one resides.--_adj._ belonging to the country: rustic: rude.--_p.adj._ COUN'TRIFIED.--_v.t._ COUN'TRIFY, to make rustic.--_ns._ COUN'TRY-BOX, a country-house; COUN'TRY-DANCE, a dance practised by country people: a dance in which an indefinite number of couples can take part, the gentlemen being arranged at the commencement on one side, and the ladies on the other.--_n.pl._ COUN'TRY-FOLK, the inhabitants of the country.--_ns._ COUN'TRY-HOUSE, -SEAT, the residence of a country gentleman; COUN'TRYMAN, one who lives in the country: a farmer: one born in the same country with another; COUN'TRY-SIDE, a district or part of the country; COUN'TRY-WOMAN, a woman who dwells in the country: a woman born in the same country.--COUNTRY COUSIN, a relative from the country, unaccustomed to town sights or manners; COUNTRY GENTLEMAN, a landed proprietor who resides on his estate in the country; COUNTRY TOWN, a small town in a rural district, depending on the agricultural industry of the surrounding country.--GO TO THE COUNTRY, in parliamentary usage, to appeal to the feeling of the community by a general election. [O. Fr., _contrée_--Low L. _contrata_, _contrada_, an extension of L. _contra_, over against.] COUNTY. See COUNT (1). COUP, k[=oo], _n._ a blow, stroke, a successful hit: (_billiards_) the act of putting a ball in a pocket without having hit another ball.--COUP D'ÉTAT, a sudden or violent stroke of state policy, as that by which Louis Napoleon subverted the constitution (Dec. 2, 1851); COUP DE GRÂCE, the finishing blow by which a tortured man is put out of pain, any decisive stroke generally; COUP DE MAIN, a sudden and overpowering attack; COUP DE MAÎTRE, a master-stroke; COUP DE THÉÂTRE, a sudden and sensational turn in a piece: COUP D'OEIL, a general view of a scene or subject taken in at a glance. [Fr.,--L.,--_colaphos_, a blow.] COUP, kowp, _v.t._ to exchange or barter.--_n._ COUP'ER, a dealer. [Scot., from Ice., _kaupa_, to buy.] COUP, kowp, _v.t._ to overturn. [Scot.; perh. originally the same word as COPE.] COUPÉ, k[=oo]-p[=a], _n._ the front part of a French stagecoach: a four-wheeled carriage seated for two inside, with a separate seat for the driver: the front compartment of a railway carriage.--_adj._ COUPED (_her._), cut evenly off, as the head or limb of an animal. [Fr. _couper_, to cut.] COUPEE, koo-p[=e]', _n._ in dancing, a salute to a partner, while resting on one foot and swinging the other backward or forward. [Fr.,--_couper_, to cut.] COUPLE, kup'l, _n._ that which joins two things together: two of a kind joined together, or connected: two: one pair at a dance: a pair: esp. of married or betrothed persons: (_statics_) a pair of equal forces acting on the same body in opposite and parallel directions.--_v.t._ to join together.--_v.i._ to pair sexually.--_ns._ COUP'LEMENT, union: a couple; COUP'LER, one who or that which couples or unites; COUP'LET, two lines of verse that rhyme with each other; COUP'LING, that which connects, an appliance for transmitting motion in machinery; COUP'LING-BOX, the box or ring of metal connecting the contiguous ends of two lengths of shafts; COUP'LING-PIN, a pin or bolt used in coupling machinery.--_adj._ WELL-COUPLED, of a horse, well formed at the part where the back joins the rump. [O. Fr. _cople_--L. _copula_.] COUPON, k[=oo]'pong, _n._ a billet, check, or other slip of paper cut off from its counterpart: one of a series of tickets which are vouchers that certain payments will be made or services be performed, at various times or places, in consideration of money paid: a dividend or interest warrant presented for payment by holders of debentures. [Fr.,--_couper_, to cut off.] COUPURE, koo-p[=u]r', _n._ an entrenchment made by the besieged behind a breach: a passage cut to facilitate sallies. [Fr.,--_couper_, to cut.] COURAGE, kur'[=a]j, _n._ the quality that enables men to meet dangers without fear: bravery: spirit.--_interj._ take courage!--_adj._ COUR[=A]'GEOUS, full of courage: brave.--_adv._ COUR[=A]'GEOUSLY.--_n._ COUR[=A]'GEOUSNESS.--DUTCH COURAGE, a fictitious courage induced by drinking; PLUCK UP ONE'S COURAGE, to nerve one's self to something daring; THE COURAGE OF ONE'S CONVICTIONS, courage to act up to or consistently with one's opinions. [O. Fr. _corage_ (Fr. _courage_), from L. _cor_, the heart.] COURANT, k[=oo]-ränt', _adj._ (_her._) in a running attitude.--_ns._ COURANTE', COURANT', an old dance with a kind of gliding step. [See CURRENT.] COURAP, koo-rap', _n._ an itching skin disease, common in India, with eruptions on face, breast, groin, &c. COURB, k[=oo]rb, _v.i._ (_Shak._) to bend, stoop to supplicate.--_adj._ (_Shak._) bent. [Fr.,--L. _curv[=a]re_, to bend.] COURBARIL, koor'ba-ril, _n._ gum animé. COURBETTE. Same as CURVET. [Fr.,--It. _corvetta_.] COURE, obsolete form of COWER. COURIER, k[=oo]'ri-[.e]r, _n._ a runner: a messenger: a state messenger: a travelling attendant: a frequent title of newspapers. [Fr.,--L. _curr[)e]re_, to run.] COURSE, k[=o]rs, _n._ the act of running: the road or tract on which one runs: the direction pursued: a voyage: a race: regular progress from point to point: habitual method of procedure: a prescribed series, as of lectures, &c.: each of the successive divisions of a meal, as dinner: conduct: a range of bricks or stones on the same level in building: (_naut._) one of the sails bent to a ship's lower yards, as the main-sail, called the _main-course_, the fore-sail or _fore-course_, and the cross-jack or _mizzen-course_: (_pl._) the menses.--_v.t._ to run, chase, or hunt after.--_v.i._ to move with speed, as in a race or hunt.--_ns._ COURS'ER, a runner: a swift horse: one who courses or hunts; COURS'ING, hunting with greyhounds; COURS'ING-JOINT, a joint between two courses of masonry.--IN COURSE, in regular order: (_coll._) of course; OF COURSE, by natural consequence, or by settled rule. [Fr. _cours_--L. _cursus_, from _curr[)e]re_, _cursum_, to run.] COURT, k[=o]rt, _n._ a space enclosed: a space surrounded by houses: the palace of a sovereign: the body of persons who form his suite or council: attention: civility, as 'to pay court:' (_law_) the hall of justice; the judges and officials who preside there: any body of persons assembled to decide causes, whether civil, military, or ecclesiastical.--_v.t._ to pay attentions to: to woo: to solicit: to seek.--_ns._ COURT'-BAR'ON, the assembly of freehold tenants of a manor under a lord; COURT'-CARD (see COAT-CARD); COURT'-CUP'BOARD (_Shak._), a movable cupboard or sideboard on which plate was displayed; COURT'-DAY, a day on which a judicial court sits; COURT'-DRESS, the special regulation costume worn on state or ceremonious occasions; COURT'-DRESS'ER, a flatterer.--_adj._ COURTEOUS (kurt'yus), of court-like manners: polite: respectful: obliging.--_adv._ COURTEOUSLY (kurt'-).--_ns._ COURTEOUSNESS, (kurt'-); COURT'-FOOL, a fool or jester, formerly kept at court for amusement; COURT'-GUIDE, a guide to, or directory of, the names and residences of the nobility in a town; COURT'-HAND, a modification of the Norman handwriting, as distinguished from the modern or Italian handwriting, in use in the English law-courts from the 16th century to the reign of George II.; COURT'-HOUSE, a building where the law-courts are held; COURT'IER, one who frequents courts or palaces: one who courts or flatters; COURT'IERISM, the behaviour or practices of a courtier.--_adv._ COURT'IERLY.--_ns._ COURT'ING, paying addresses to a woman, wooing; (_Spens._) attendance at court; COURT'-LEET, a court of record held in a manor before the lord or his steward; COURT'LET, a petty court.--_adj._ COURT'-LIKE, courtly: polite.--_ns._ COURT'LINESS; COURT'LING, a hanger-on at court.--_adj._ COURT'LY, having manners like those at a court: elegant.--_ns._ COURT'-MAR'TIAL, a court held by officers of the army or navy for the trial of offences against military or naval laws:--_pl._ COURTS'-MAR'TIAL; one improvised in time of war round an upturned drum for summary judgment is a DRUMHEAD COURT-MARTIAL; COURT'-PLAS'TER, sticking-plaster made of silk, originally applied as patches on the face by ladies at court; COURT'-ROLL, the record of a court of justice; COURT'SHIP, courtly behaviour: the act of wooing with intention to marry; COURT'-SWORD, a light dress-sword worn as part of court-dress; COURT'YARD, a court or enclosed ground before a house.--COURT HOLY WATER, empty compliments: (_obs._) flattery. [O. Fr. _cort_ (Fr. _cour_)--Low L. _cortis_, a courtyard--L. _cors_, _cohors_, an enclosure; akin to Gr. _chortos_, an enclosed place, L. _hortus_, a garden. See YARD.] COURTESAN, -ZAN, k[=o]rt'e-zan, or kurt'e-zan, _n._ a court-mistress: a woman of the town, a whore. [Fr.,--It. _cortigiana_.] COURTESY, kort'e-si, or kurt'e-si, _n._ courtliness: elegance of manner: an act of civility or respect: a curtsy: (_law_) the life interest which the surviving husband has in the real or heritable estate of his wife.--_v.i._ to make a curtsy.--_pr.p._ court'esying; _pa.p._ court'esied.--_n.pl._ COURT'ESY-T[=I]'TLES, titles really invalid, but allowed by the usage of society--as to children of peers. [O. Fr. _courtoisie_.] COUSCOUS, kus'kus, _n._ an African dish of granulated flour steamed over broth. [Ar. _kuskus_.] COUSIN, kuz'n, _n._ formerly a kinsman generally; now, the son or daughter of an uncle or aunt: a term used by a sovereign in addressing another, or to one of his own noblemen: something kindred or related to another.--_ns._ COUS'IN-GER'MAN, a first cousin: something closely related; COUS'INHOOD, COUS'INSHIP.--_adj._ COUS'INLY, like, or having the relation of, a cousin.--_n._ COUS'INRY, cousins collectively.--FIRST COUSINS, children of brothers and sisters--also called _Cousins-german_, _Full cousins_; FIRST COUSIN ONCE REMOVED, the son or daughter of a cousin-german--sometimes loosely called _Second cousin_; SECOND COUSINS, the children of first cousins. [Fr.,--L. _consobrinus_--_con_, sig. connection, and _sobrinus_ for _sororinus_, applied to the children of sisters--_soror_, a sister.] COUTEAU, koo-t[=o]', _n._ a large knife.--COUTEAU DE CHASSE, a hunting-knife. [Fr.] COUTER, k[=oo]'t[.e]r, _n._ (_slang_) a sovereign. [Said to be from Gipsy _cuta_, a gold piece.] COUTH, k[=oo]th (_Spens._), obsolete _pa.t._ of CAN. [See COULD.] COUTHIE, k[=oo]th'i, _adj._ friendly, kindly. [Scot.] COUVADE, k[=oo]-väd', _n._ a custom among savages in many parts of the world for the father to take to his bed at the birth of a child, and submit to certain restrictions of food, &c. [Erroneously attributed to the Basques; the O. Fr. _couvade_, from _couver_, to hatch, never having had this special meaning.] COVE, k[=o]v, _n._ a small inlet of the sea: a bay: a cavern or rocky recess: (_archit._) a concave arch or vault.--_v.t._ to overarch, and thus form a hollow.--_adj._ COVED, formed with an arch.--_n._ COVE'LET, a small cove. [A.S. _cófa_, a room; Ice. _kofi_, Ger. _koben_.] COVE, k[=o]v, _n._ (_slang_) a fellow, a customer:--_fem._ COV'ESS--_dim._ COV'EY. [Prob. conn. with CHAP.] COVEN, k[=o]v'en, _n._ a muster of witches.--_n._ COV'ENTREE, a point of muster before a Scottish mansion. COVENANT, kuv'e-nant, _n._ a mutual agreement: the writing containing the agreement: an engagement entered into between God and a person or a people--the _Old Covenant_, the Jewish dispensation; the _New Covenant_, the new relation to God opened up by Jesus Christ.--_v.i._ to enter into an agreement: to contract or bargain.--_n._ COV'ENANT-BREAK'ER, one who violates a covenant.--_adj._ COV'ENANTED, holding a position under a covenant or contract.--_ns._ COVENANTEE', the person to whom a covenant is made; COV'ENANTER (usually in Scot. COVENANT'ER), one who signed or adhered to the _Scottish National Covenant_ of 1638--the _Solemn League and Covenant_ of 1643 was in effect an international treaty between Scotland and England for securing civil and religious liberty; COV'ENANTOR, that party to a covenant who subjects himself to the penalty of its breach.--COVENANT OF GRACE, REDEMPTION, that by which life is freely offered to sinners on condition of faith in Christ; COVENANT OF WORKS, that made with Adam as federal representative of the human race on condition of obedience. [O. Fr.,--L. _con_, together, and _ven[=i]re_, to come.] COVENT, kov'ent, _n._ (_Shak._) a convent. COVENTRY, kuv'ent-ri, _n._--in phrase, TO SEND TO COVENTRY = to shut a man out of any special society. COVER, kuv'[.e]r, _v.t._ to hide: to clothe: to extend over: to brood or sit on: to be sufficient for: to protect: to table a coin of equal value in wagering: to copulate with--esp. of a stallion: to screen: to aim directly at.--_v.i._ to spread over so as to conceal something: to lay a table for a meal: to put one's hat on.--_n._ that which protects: undergrowth, thicket, concealing game, &c.: the table requisites for one person--plate, knife, fork, napkin, &c.: deceitfulness: a swindler's confederate.--_adj._ COV'ERED, intended or used for shelter or concealment: roofed over: with the hat on.--_ns._ COVER'ED-WAY; COV'ERT-WAY (_fort._), a path about thirty feet wide outside the ditch of a fort, and so far sunk below the crest of the glacis as to afford cover or shelter to the soldiers; COVER'ING, anything that covers.--_adj._ COV'ERT, covered: concealed: secret.--_n._ a place that covers or affords protection.--_ns._ COV'ERT-COAT, a short light overcoat; COV'ERT-COAT'ING, cloth for such.--_adv._ COV'ERTLY, in a covered or concealed manner.--_n._ COV'ERTURE, covering, shelter: (_law_) the condition of a married woman as legally under the protection of her husband.--COVER INTO, to transfer into; COVER SHORTS, to buy in such stocks as have been sold short, in order to meet one's engagements, &c.; COVER THE BUCKLE, to execute a difficult step in dancing. [Fr. _couvrir_ (It. _coprire_)--L. _co-oper[=i]re_--_con_, and _oper[=i]re_, to cover.] COVERLET, kuv'[.e]r-let, _n._ a bedcover.--Also COV'ERLID. [Fr. _couvrelit_, _couvre_, _lit_--L. _lectum_, a bed.] COVET, kuv'et, _v.t._ to desire or wish for eagerly: to wish for what is unlawful.--_v.i._ to desire (with _for_).--_adjs._ COV'ETABLE; COV'ETED.--_adv._ COV'ETINGLY.--_ns._ COV'ETISE (_obs._), covetousness: ardent desire; COV'ETIVENESS (_obs._), acquisitiveness.--_adj._ COV'ETOUS, inordinately desirous: avaricious.--_adv._ COV'ETOUSLY.--_n._ COV'ETOUSNESS. [O. Fr. _coveiter_ (Fr. _convoiter_)--L. _cupiditat-em_--_cup[)e]re_, to desire.] COVEY, kuv'i, _n._ a brood or hatch of partridges: a small flock of birds--said of game: a party, a set. [O. Fr. _covée_--L. _cub[=a]re_, to lie down.] COVIN, kuv'in, _n._ a compact: a conspiracy.--_adjs._ COV'INOUS, COV'ENOUS, deceitful. [O. Fr. _covin_--Late L. _convenium_--L. _convena_, a meeting--_con_, together, _ven[=i]re_, to come.] COVING, k[=o]'ving, _n._ the projection of upper stories over lower: the vertical sides connecting the jambs with the breast of a fireplace. [See COVE.] COW, kow, _n._ the female of the bovine animals: the female of certain other animals, as the elephant, &c.--older plurals, _Kine_ and _Kye_, the latter now only Scotch.--_ns._ COW'-BANE, the water-hemlock, often destructive to cattle; COW'-BERR'Y, the red whortleberry; COW'-BIRD, -BUNT'ING, an American starling which accompanies cattle, and drops its eggs into other birds' nests; COW'-BOY, a boy who has the care of cows: (_U.S._) a man who has the charge of cattle on a ranch; COW'-CALF, a female calf; COW'-CATCH'ER (_U.S._), an apparatus on the front of railway engines to throw off obstacles; COW'-CHER'VIL, -PARS'LEY, -WEED, an umbelliferous European plant of the hedges and woods; COW'FEEDER, a dairyman, cowherd; COW'-GRASS, the zigzag clover: a variety of red clover; COW'-HEEL, an ox-foot stewed to a jelly; COW'HERD, one who herds cows; COW'HIDE, the hide of a cow: the hide of a cow made into leather: a coarse whip made of twisted strips of cowhide.--_v.t._ to whip with a cowhide.--_n._ COW'-HOUSE, a place in which cows are stalled, a byre.--_adj._ COW'ISH, like a cow: (_Shak._) cowardly.--_ns._ COW'-LEECH, a cow-doctor; COW'LICK, a tuft of turned-up hair on the forehead; COW'-PARS'NIP, an umbelliferous plant, used as food for hogs and cattle; COW'-PLANT, a perennial plant of Ceylon, with a milky juice; COW'-POX, a disease which appears in pimples on the teats of the cow, the matter thereof used for vaccination; COW'-TREE, a South American tree that produces a nourishing fluid resembling milk; COW'-WHEAT, a genus of annual plants, with yellow flowers and seeds somewhat like grains of wheat. [A.S. _cú_, pl. _cý_; Ger. _kuh_; Sans. _go_.] COW, kow, _v.t._ to subdue: keep under: to dishearten.--_adjs._ COWED, depressed; COW'ISH (_Shak._), easily cowed, timorous: mean. [Perh. from Ice. _kúga_; Dan. _kue_, to subdue.] COWAN, kow'an, _n._ (_Scot._) a mason who never served an apprenticeship: one who tries to enter a mason's lodge, or the like, surreptitiously. COWARD, kow'ard, _n._ a faint-hearted person: one without courage.--_v.t._ to intimidate.--_adjs._ COW'ARD, COW'ARDLY, afraid of danger: timid: mean.--_ns._ COW'ARDICE, want of courage: timidity.--COW'ARDREE (_Spens._); COW'ARDLINESS.--_adv._ COW'ARDLY.--_n._ COW'ARDSHIP (_Shak._), the quality of being a coward. [O. Fr. _couard_ (It. _codardo_)--L. _cauda_, a tail.] COWDIE-GUM, -PINE; COWRIE-PINE. See KAURI. COWER, kow'er, _v.i._ to sink down through fear, &c.: to crouch, for protection or in fear.--_adv._ COW'ERINGLY. [Cf. Ice. _kúra_, Dan. _kure_, to lie quiet.] COWHAGE, kow'[=a]j, _n._ the hairs of the pods of a tropical climbing plant of the bean family, administered as a mechanical vermifuge, the pods themselves or the plant. [Hind. _kaw[=a]nch_, _ko[=a]nch_.] COWL, kowl, _n._ a cap or hood: a monk's hood: the badge of monkhood: a monk: a cover for a chimney.--_v.t._ to make a monk of: to cover like a cowl.--_adj._ COWLED, wearing a cowl. [A.S. _cufle_; Ice. _cofl_; akin to L. _cucullus_, hood.] COWL-STAFF, kowl'-staf, _n._ (_Shak._) a staff or pole on which a basket or vessel is supported between two persons. [O. Fr. _cuvele_--L. _cupella_, dim. of _cupa_, a cask, and staff.] COWRIE, COWRY, kow'ri, _n._ a large genus of Gasteropods, including over a hundred species, some of which are familiar as decorative objects, and as a medium of exchange with uncivilised peoples. [Hindi _kaur[=i]_.] COWSLIP, kow'slip, _n._ a beautiful and fragrant species of primrose, common in English pastures.--_adj._ COW'SLIP'D, covered with cowslips. [A.S. _cú_, cow, _slyppe_, perh. cow-dung.] COXCOMB, koks'k[=o]m, _n._ a strip of red cloth notched like a cock's comb, which professional fools used to wear: a fool: a fop.--_adjs._ COXCOM'BICAL, COXCOM'ICAL, foppish: vain.--_n._ COXCOMBICAL'ITY.--_adv._ COXCOM'BICALLY.--_n._ COX'COMBRY, the manner of a coxcomb. [COCKSCOMB.] COXINESS, koks'i-nes, _n._ state of being cocksy, bumptiousness. COXSWAIN, COCKSWAIN, kok'sw[=a]n, or kok'sn, _n._ a seaman who steers a boat, and under the superior officer takes charge of it. [COCK, a boat, and SWAIN.] COY, koy, _adj._ modest: bashful: shy.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to caress: (_Shak._) to disdain.--_adj._ COY'ISH, somewhat coy.--_adv._ COY'ISHLY.--_n._ COY'ISHNESS.--_adv._ COY'LY.--_n._ COY'NESS. [Fr. _coi_--L. _quietus_, quiet.] COYOTE, ko-y[=o]t'e, _n._ a prairie wolf, abundant in Mexico and Texas. [Mex. _coyotl_.] COYPU, koi'p[=oo], _n._ a large rodent in the porcupine section of the order, common in South America--living in burrows near water, feeding on aquatic plants. [Native name.] COYSTREL, COYSTRIL. Same as COISTRIL. COZ, kuz, _n._ a contraction of COUSIN. COZE, k[=o]z, _n._ (_Jane Austen_) a cosy chat. COZEN, kuz'n, _v.t._ to flatter: to cheat.--_ns._ COZ'ENAGE, the practice of cheating: deceit; COZ'ENER. [Perh. from Fr. _cousiner_, to claim kindred for one's own advantage, play the parasite--_cousin_, a cousin.] COZIER, COSIER, k[=o]'zi-[.e]r, _n._ a cobbler. [O. Fr. _cousere_--L. _consu[)e]re_, to sew together.] COZY. See COSY. CRAB, krab, _n._ a popular name applied to any of the short-tailed division of decapod crustaceans: a sign in the zodiac: a portable winch: a sour-tempered person: the lowest throw at hazard--two aces.--_adj._ CRABB'ED, ill-natured: harsh: rough: difficult, perplexing.--_adv._ CRABB'EDLY.--_n._ CRABB'EDNESS.--_adj._ CRAB'-FACED, having a sour, peevish countenance.--_n._ CRAB'ITE, a fossil crab or crayfish.--_adj._ CRAB'-LIKE, moving like a crab.--_n._ CRAB'-LOUSE, a crab-shaped louse infesting the hair of the pubis, &c.--_n.pl._ CRAB'S'-EYES, the scarlet seeds of an East Indian bead-tree: a concretion of carbonate of lime in the stomach of the cray-fish.--_v.i._ CRAB'-S[=I]'DLE, to go sideways like a crab.--_n.pl._ CRAB'-YAWS, a name applied to the tumours of framboesia on the soles and palms.--CATCH A CRAB, in rowing, to sink the oar too deeply in the water: to miss the water altogether in making the stroke. [A.S. _crabba_; Ger. _krabbe_.] CRAB, krab, CRAB-APPLE, krab'-ap-l, _n._ a wild bitter apple.--_ns._ CRAB'-STICK, a stick made out of the crab-tree; CRAB'-TREE, the tree that bears crab-apples.--_adj._ like a crab-tree, crooked. [Perh. conn. with CRABBED.] CRAB-OIL, CRAB-WOOD. See CARAPA. CRABRO, kr[=a]'br[=o], _n._ the typical genus of _Crabronidæ_, a family of fossorial hymenopters: a hornet. [L.] CRACK, krak, _v.i._ to utter a sharp sudden sound: to split: to boast: to chat.--_v.t._ to produce a sudden noise: to break into chinks: to split: to break partially or wholly: to open (a bottle).--_n._ a sudden sharp splitting sound: a chink: a flaw: a blow, a smack: friendly chat: (_slang_) housebreaking: a craze: one who has a craze: a pert boy.--_adj._ (_coll._) excellent.--_n._ CRACK'-BRAIN, a crazy person.--_adjs._ CRACK'-BRAINED; CRACKED, rent: damaged: crazy.--_ns._ CRACK'ER, one who or that which cracks: a boaster, a lie: the pin-tail duck: (_U.S._) a thin crisp biscuit: a bonbon, or a small firework, exploding when pulled asunder: (_U.S._) a poor white; CRACK'-HALT'ER, CRACK'-HEMP (_Shak._), CRACK'-ROPE, one likely to be hanged.--_adj._ CRACK'-JAW, of a word, hard to pronounce.--_ns._ CRACKS'MAN, a burglar; CRACK'-TRYST, one who breaks an engagement.--CRACK CREDIT, to destroy one's credit; CRACK TRYST, to break an engagement; CRACK UP, to praise. [A.S. _cracian_, to crack; cf. Dut. _kraken_, Gael. _crac_.] CRACK, krak, _n._ (_Scot._) a moment, an instant. CRACKLE, krak'l, _v.i._ to give out slight but frequent cracks.--_n._ the giving out of slight cracks.--_ns._ CRACK'LIN, a kind of china-ware, purposely cracked in the kiln as an ornament; CRACK'LING, the rind of roast pork: (_pl._) skinny parts of suet without tallow: three stripes of velvet worn on the sleeves of students at St John's College, Cambridge.--_adj._ CRACK'LY, brittle.--_n._ CRACK'NEL, a light, brittle biscuit: (_pl._) pieces of fat pork fried crisp. CRACOVIAN, kra-k[=o]'vi-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Cracow_.--_ns._ CRACOVIENNE', a graceful Polish dance, resembling the mazourka: the music for such; CRAC'OWE, a long-toed boot fashionable under Richard II. CRADLE, kr[=a]'dl, _n._ a bed or crib in which children are rocked: (_fig._) infancy: the place where one is born and brought up: a frame in which anything is imbedded: a case for a broken limb: a frame under a ship for launching it: a box on rockers for washing auriferous dirt.--_v.t._ to lay or rock in a cradle: to nurture.--_adj._ CR[=A]'DLED, laid in a cradle.--_ns._ CR[=A]'DLE-SCYTHE, a broad scythe used in a cradle for cutting grain; CR[=A]'DLE-WALK, an avenue arched over with trees; CR[=A]'DLING.--FROM THE CRADLE, from birth, from the first. [A.S. _cradol_; ety. obscure.] CRAFT, kraft, _n._ cunning: artifice: dexterity: art: trade: occupation: small ships.--_v.i._ to exercise one's craft (_Shak._, _Cor._, IV. vi. 118).--_adv._ CRAFT'ILY.--_n._ CRAFT'INESS.--_adj._ CRAFT'LESS, free from craft.--_ns._ CRAFTS'MAN, one engaged in a craft; CRAFTS'MANSHIP, CRAFT'MANSHIP; CRAFTS'MASTER, one skilled in a craft.--_adj._ CRAFT'Y, having skill: cunning: deceitful. [A.S. _cræft_; Ger. _kraft_, power.] CRAG, krag, _n._ a rough steep rock or point: (_geol._) a bed of gravel mixed with shells.--_adjs._ CRAG'GED, CRAG'GY, full of crags or broken rocks: rough: rugged.--_ns._ CRAG'GEDNESS, CRAG'GINESS; CRAGS'MAN, one skilled in climbing rocks. [W. _craig_, a rock, _car-eg_, a stone; Gael. _creag_, _carraig_.] CRAG, CRAGGE, krag, _n._ the neck.--Scotch forms, CRAIG, CRAIG'IE. [Cf. Dut. _kraag_, Ger. _kragen_, the neck.] CRAKE, kr[=a]k, _v.i._ to utter a cry like a crow, &c.--_n._ CRAKE'-BERR'Y, the crow-berry. CRAKE, kr[=a]k, _n._ a crow, raven, corncrake: (_obs._) a boast. [See CORNCRAKE.] CRAM, kram, _v.t._ to press close: to stuff: to fill to superfluity: (_slang_) to make believe false or exaggerated tales: to teach for a special examination, only giving instruction useful for passing that examination.--_v.i._ to eat greedily: to get up a subject by cram:--_pr.p._ cram'ming; _pa.p._ crammed.--_n._ a crush: (_slang_) a lie: information that has been crammed: the system of cramming.--_adjs._ CRAM'-FULL; CRAM'MABLE; CRAMMED.--_n._ CRAM'MER, one who prepares students for examination by cramming them. [A.S. _crammian_; Ice. _kremja_, to squeeze; Dan. _kramme_, to crumple.] CRAMBO, kram'bo, _n._ a game in which one gives a word to which another finds a rhyme: rime.--_ns._ CRAM'BOCLINK, -JINGLE, riming. [Prob. from L. _crambe repetita_, cabbage served up again.] CRAMBUS, kram'bus, _n._ a genus of pyralid moths, the veneers or grass-moths--family _Crambidæ_, subfamily _Crambinæ_. [Gr. _krambos_, dry.] CRAME, kr[=a]m, _n._ (_Scot._) a booth for selling goods. CRAMOISY, kram'oiz-i, CRAMESY, kram'ez-i, _adj._ and _n._ crimson. [See CRIMSON.] CRAMP, kramp, _n._ an involuntary and painful contraction of a voluntary muscle or group of muscles: restraint: a piece of iron bent at the ends, for holding together wood, stone, &c.: a tool used by carpenters and others, having a movable part which can be screwed tight so as to press things together.--_adj._ hard to make out (used of handwriting): cramped: narrow.--_v.t._ to affect with spasms: to confine: to hinder: to fasten with a cramp-iron.--_ns._ CRAMP'BARK, the popular American name of the medicinal _Viburnum Oxycoccus_; CRAMP'-BONE, the patella of the sheep, an old charm for cramp; CRAMP'-FISH, the electric ray or torpedo; CRAMP'-[=I]'RON, a piece of metal bent at both ends for binding things together; CRAMP'ON, a grappling-iron: a pointed plate for the foot in hill-climbing; CRAMP'-RING, a ring formerly blessed by the sovereign on Good-Friday against cramp and the falling sickness.--_adj._ CRAMP'Y, affected or diseased with cramp: producing cramp.--BATHER'S CRAMP, the popular name for paralysis attacking a person while bathing; WRITER'S CRAMP, or _Scrivener's palsy_, a common disease affecting those in the habit of constant writing, the muscles refusing to obey only on attempting to write. [O. Fr. _crampe_; cf. Dut. _kramp_, Ger. _krampf_.] CRAN, kran, _n._ a measure of capacity in Scotland for herrings when just taken out of the net. It amounts to 37½ imperial gallons, and comprises about 750 herrings on an average.--COUP THE CRAN (_Scot._), to be upset. [Prob. from Gael. _crann_, a measure.] CRANBERRY, kran'ber-i, _n._ a genus of small evergreen shrubs growing in peaty bogs and marshy grounds: the berry much used for tarts. [For _crane-berry_; a late word; origin obscure; cf. Ger. _kranbeere_ or _kranich-beere_.] CRANCH. Same as CRAUNCH. CRANE, kr[=a]n, _n._ a large wading bird, with long legs, neck, and bill: a bent pipe for drawing liquor out of a cask: a machine for raising heavy weights--both named from their likeness to the bird.--_v.t._ to raise with a crane.--_v.i._ to stretch out the neck: to pull up before a jump.--_ns._ CRAN'AGE, the use of a crane: the price paid for the use of it; CRANE'-FLY, a genus of dipterous insects, nearly allied to the gnats, with very long legs.--_adj._ CRANE'-NECKED.--_n._ CRANE'S'-BILL, the Geranium, from a lengthened appendage of the seed-vessel. [A.S. _cran_; Ger. _kranich_, W. _garan_.] CRANE. Same as CRANIUM. CRANIUM, kr[=a]'ni-um, _n._ the skull: the bones enclosing the brain.--_adj._ CR[=A]'NIAL, pertaining to the cranium.--_n._ CRANIOG'NOMY, cranial physiognomy.--_adj._ CRANIOLOG'ICAL.--_ns._ CRANIOL'OGIST, one skilled in craniology; CRANIOL'OGY, the study of skulls: phrenology; CRANIOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the skull; CRANIOM'ETRY, the measurement of skulls; CRANINOS'COPIST, a phrenologist; CRANIOS'COPY, phrenology; CRANIOT'OMY (_obstetrics_), the act of breaking down the head of the foetus. [Low L. _cranium_--Gr. _kranion_, from _kar[=e]_, the head.] CRANK, krangk, _n._ a crook or bend: a conceit in speech: a whim: (_mach._) a lever or arm on a shaft, driven by hand or by a connecting-rod, its object being to convert reciprocating motion into rotary motion.--_v.i._ to move in a zizag manner.--_v.t._ to shape like a crank: to provide with a crank.--_adj._ crooked: crabbed: loose or slack.--_adv._ CRANK'ILY.--_n._ CRANK'INESS.--_adj._ CRANK'Y, crooked: infirm: full of whims: cross. [M. E. _kranke_--A.S. _crincan_, to yield; cf. Ger. _krank_.] CRANK, krangk, _adj._ brisk: merry. [Origin unknown.] CRANK, krangk, CRANK-SIDED, krangk-s[=i]'ded, _adj._ (_naut._) liable to be upset--_n._ CRANK'NESS, liability to be upset. [Ety. uncertain.] CRANKLE, krangk'l, CRINKLE, kringk'l, _n._ a turn, winding, or wrinkle, an angular protuberance.--_v.t._ to bend: to twist. CRANNOG, kran'og, _n._ the name given in Scotland and Ireland to a fortified island (partly natural and partly artificial) in a lake, once used as a dwelling-place and place of refuge. [Gael. _crann_, a tree.] CRANNY, kran'i, _n._ a rent: a chink: a secret place.--_v.i._ to enter crannies.--_adj._ CRANN'IED, having crannies, rents, or fissures. [Fr. _cran_, a notch.] CRANREUCH, kran'ruh, _n._ (_Scot._) hoar-frost. [Gael.] CRANTS, krantz, _n._ (_Shak._) the garland carried before the bier of a maiden and hung over her grave. [From Ger. _kranz_, a wreath, a garland.] CRAPE, kr[=a]p, _n._ a thin silk fabric, tightly twisted, without removing the natural gum--usually dyed black, used for mournings.--_adj._ made of crape.--_v.t._ to clothe with crape: to frizzle (hair).--_adj._ CRAP'Y. [O. Fr. _crespe_ (Fr. _crêpe_)--L. _crispus_, crisp.] CRAPPIT-HEAD, krap'it-hed, _n._ a haddock's head stuffed with a compound of oatmeal, suet, onions, and pepper. [_Crappit_, from a Scotch word, _crap_, to cram.] CRAPULENCE, krap'[=u]-lens, _n._ sickness caused by an overdose of drink.--_adjs._ CRAP'ULOUS, CRAP'ULENT. [Fr. _crapule_--L. _crapula_, intoxication.] CRARE, CRAYER, kr[=a]r, _n._ a trading vessel. [O. Fr. _craier_--Late L. _craiera_; origin dub.] CRASE. Obsolete form of CRAZE. CRASH, krash, _n._ a noise as of things breaking or being crushed by falling; the shock of two bodies meeting: the failure of a commercial undertaking.--_v.i._ to fall to pieces with a loud noise: to move with such a noise.--_v.t._ to dash in pieces. [From the sound.] CRASH, krash, _n._ a coarse strong linen. CRASIS, kr[=a]'sis, _n._ the mixture of different elements in the constitution of the body: temperament: (_gram._) the mingling or contraction of two vowels into one long vowel, or into a diphthong. [Gr. _krasis_--_kerannynai_, to mix.] CRASS, kras, _adj._ gross: thick: dense: stupid.--_ns._ CRASSAMENT'UM, the thick part of coagulated blood: the clot; CRASS'ITUDE, coarseness: density: stupidity.--_adv._ CRASS'LY.--_n._ CRASS'NESS.--_n.pl._ CRASSUL[=A]'CEÆ, an order of herbaceous or shrubby, succulent plants--including the _Stone-crop_ and _House-leek_. [O. Fr. _cras_--L. _crassus_.] CRATÆGUS, kra-t[=e]'gus, _n._ a genus of thorny shrubs, of the rose family, in north temperate regions. [Gr.] CRATCH, krach, _n._ a crib to hold hay for cattle, a manger.--_n.pl._ CRATCHES, a swelling on a horse's pastern, under the fetlock. [Fr. _crèche_, a manger; from a Teut. root, whence also crib.] CRATE, kr[=a]t, _n._ a wicker-work case for packing crockery in, or for carrying fruit. [L. _cratis_, a hurdle. See CRADLE.] CRATER, kr[=a]t'[.e]r, _n._ the bowl-shaped mouth of a volcano.--_adjs._ CRAT'ERIFORM, or CRATER'IFORM, shaped like a crater; CRAT'EROUS. [L.,--Gr. _krat[=e]r_, a large bowl for mixing wine, from _kerannynai_, to mix.] CRAUNCH, kranch. A form of CRUNCH. CRAVAT, kra-vat', _n._ a kind of neckcloth worn chiefly by men.--_v.t._ to dress in a cravat.--_adj._ CRAVAT'TED, wearing a cravat. [Fr. _cravate_--introduced in 1636 from the _Cravates_ or Croatians.] CRAVE, kr[=a]v, _v.t._ to beg earnestly: to beseech: to demand or require: to long for.--_ns._ CRAV'ER, one who craves: a beggar; CRAV'ING, desire: longing. [A.S. _crafian_, to crave; Ice. _krefja_.] CRAVEN, kr[=a]v'n, _n._ a coward: a spiritless fellow.--_adj._ cowardly: spiritless.--_v.t._ to render spiritless.--_adv._ CRAV'ENLY.--_n._ CRAV'ENNESS.--TO CRY CRAVEN, to surrender. [M. E. _cravant_--O. Fr. participle _cravanté_, corresponding to L. _crepant-em_, _crep[=a]re_, to rattle, to break; some explain M. E. _cravant_ as O. Fr. _creant_, as in _recreant_.] CRAW, kraw, _n._ the crop, throat, or first stomach of fowls: the stomach of animals generally. [M. E. _crawe_; not found in A.S.; cf. Dut. _kraag_, neck.] CRAWFISH. See CRAYFISH. CRAWL, krawl, _v.i._ to move slowly along the ground, as a worm: to creep: to move feebly, stealthily, or sneakingly: to be covered with crawling things.--_n._ the act of crawling.--_ns._ CRAWL'ER, one who or that which crawls: a reptile; CRAWL'ING.--_adv._ CRAWL'Y (_coll._), with a creepy feeling. [Scand.; Ice. _krafla_, Dan. _kravle_; Ger. _krabbeln_, to creep.] CRAWL, krawl, _n._ a pen for keeping fish: a kraal. CRAX, kraks, _n._ the typical genus of birds of family _Cracidæ_. CRAYFISH, kr[=a]'fish, CRAWFISH, kraw'fish, _n._ a large fresh-water crustacean in the long-tailed division of the order _Decapoda_: the small spiny lobster. [M. E. _crevice_--O. Fr. _crevice_ (Fr. _écrevisse_, a crayfish)--Old High Ger. _krebiz_, a CRAB.] CRAYON, kr[=a]'on, _n._ a pencil made of chalk or pipeclay, variously coloured, used for drawing: a drawing done with crayons.--_v.t._ to draw with a crayon.--IN CRAYONS, of a picture, made by crayons. [Fr. _crayon_--_craie_, chalk, from L. _creta_, chalk.] CRAZE, kr[=a]z, _v.t._ to weaken: to derange (applied to the intellect): (_obs._) to break.--_v.i._ to become mad.--_n._ a crack or flaw: insanity.--_adj._ CRAZED, deranged.--_adv._ CRAZ'ILY.--_ns._ CRAZ'INESS; CRAZ'ING-MILL, a mill for crushing tin-ore.--_adj._ CRAZ'Y, frail: insane: demented. [Scand.; Sw. _krasa_, Dan. _krase_, to crackle; whence also Fr. _écraser_, to crush.] CREAGH, CREACH, kreh, _n._ a foray, raid: booty. [Gael.] CREAK, kr[=e]k, _v.i._ to make a sharp, grating sound, as of a hinge, &c.--_n._ a grating noise, as of an unoiled hinge.--_adv._ CREAK'ILY.--_adj._ CREAK'Y. [From the sound, like _crake_ and _croak_.] CREAM, kr[=e]m, _n._ the oily substance which forms on milk, yielding butter when churned: the best part of anything: any cream-like preparation, as _cold cream_ for the skin, &c., or any dish largely made of cream, or like cream, as _chocolate-cream_, _ice-cream_, _whipped-cream_, &c.--_v.t._ to take off the cream.--_v.i._ to gather or form cream.--_ns._ CREAM'-CAKE, a kind of cake filled with custard made of cream, &c.; CREAM'-CHEESE, cheese made of cream.--_adj._ CREAM'-COL'OURED, of the colour of cream, light yellow.--_n._ CREAM'ERY, an establishment where butter and cheese are made from the milk supplied by a number of producers: a shop for milk, butter, &c.--_adj._ CREAM'-FACED, pale-faced.--_ns._ CREAM'-FRUIT, the fruit of a creeping West African plant of the dogbane family, yielding a cream-like juice; CREAM'INESS.--_adj._ CREAM'-LAID, of a cream-colour and laid, or bearing linear water-lines as if laid.--_ns._ CREAM'-NUT, the Brazil nut; CREAM'-SLICE, a wooden blade for skimming cream from milk.--_adjs._ CREAM'-WOVE, woven of a cream-colour; CREAM'Y, full of or like cream: gathering like cream.--CREAM OF TARTAR, a white crystalline compound made by purifying argol, bitartrate of potash. [O. Fr. _cresme_, _creme_--L. _chrisma_.] CREANCE, kr[=e]'ans, _n._ the cord which secures the hawk while being trained. [Fr.] CREANT, kr[=e]'ant, _adj._ creating: formative. CREASE, kr[=e]s, _n._ a mark made by folding or doubling anything: (_cricket_) a line indicating the boundaries of a particular space, as the position of a batter and bowler.--_v.t._ to make creases in anything.--_v.i._ to become creased.--_adj._ CREAS'Y, full of creases. [Prob. Celt., as Bret. _kr[=i]z_, &c.] CREASE. See CREESE. CREASOTE. See CREOSOTE. CREATE, kr[=e]-[=a]t', _v.t._ to bring into being or form out of nothing: to beget: to form: to invest with a new form, office, or character: to produce.--_adj._ CRE[=A]T'ABLE.--_n._ CRE[=A]'TION, the act of creating, esp. the universe: that which is created, the world, the universe.--_adj._ CRE[=A]'TIONAL.--_ns._ CRE[=A]'TIONISM, the theory of special creation, opp. to _Evolutionism_: the theory that God immediately creates a soul for every human being born--opp. to _Traducianism_; CRE[=A]'TIONIST.--_adj._ CRE[=A]'TIVE, having power to create: that creates.--_adv._ CRE[=A]'TIVELY.--_ns._ CRE[=A]'TIVENESS; CRE[=A]'TOR, he who creates: a maker:--_fem._ CRE[=A]'TRIX, CRE[=A]'TRESS; CRE[=A]'TORSHIP.--_adjs._ CREA'TURAL, CREA'TURELY, pertaining to a creature or thing created.--_ns._ CREATURE (kr[=e]'t[=u]r), whatever has been created, animate or inanimate, esp. every animated being, an animal, a man: a term of contempt or of endearment: a dependent, instrument, or puppet; CREA'TURESHIP.--THE CREATOR, the Supreme Being, God.--CREATURE COMFORTS, material comforts, food, &c.: liquor, esp. whisky. [L. _cre[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_; Gr. _krain-ein_, to fulfil.] CREATINE, kr[=e]'a-tin, _n._ a constant and characteristic constituent of the striped muscle of vertebrates--also KRE'ATINE.--_adj._ CREAT'IC, relating to flesh.--_n._ CRE'ATININE, dehydrated form, a constant constituent of urine, found also in fish muscles. [Gr. _kreas_, _kreatos_, flesh.] CRÈCHE, kresh, _n._ a sort of public nursery for children, while their mothers are at work. [Fr.] CREDENCE, kr[=e]'dens, _n._ belief: trust: the small table beside the altar on which the bread and wine are placed before being consecrated.--_n._ CREDEN'DUM, a thing to be believed, an act of faith:--_pl._ CREDENDA.--_adjs._ CR[=E]'DENT, easy of belief; CREDEN'TIAL, giving a title to belief or credit.--_n._ that which entitles to credit or confidence: (_pl._) esp. the letters by which one claims confidence or authority among strangers.--_ns._ CREDIBIL'ITY, CRED'IBLENESS.--_adj._ CREDIBLE (kred'-), that may be believed.--_adv._ CRED'IBLY.--_n._ CRED'IT, belief: esteem: reputation: honour: good character: sale on trust: time allowed for payment: the side of an account on which payments received are entered: a sum placed at a person's disposal in a bank on which he may draw to its amount.--_v.t._ to believe: to trust: to sell or lend to on trust: to enter on the credit side of an account: to set to the credit of.--_adj._ CRED'ITABLE, trustworthy: bringing credit or honour.--_n._ CRED'ITABLENESS.--_adv._ CRED'ITABLY.--_ns._ CRED'ITOR, one to whom a debt is due:--_fem._ CRED'ITRIX; CR[=E]'DO, the Creed, or a musical setting of it for church services; CRED[=U]'LITY, credulousness: disposition to believe on insufficient evidence.--_adj._ CRED'ULOUS, easy of belief: apt to believe without sufficient evidence: unsuspecting.--_adv._ CRED'ULOUSLY.--_ns._ CRED'ULOUSNESS; CREED, a summary of articles of religious belief, esp. those called the Apostles', Nicene, and Athanasian: any system of belief. [Fr.,--Low L. _credentia_--L. _credent-_, believing, pr.p. of _cred[)e]re_.] CREEK, kr[=e]k, _n._ a small inlet or bay of the sea, or the tidal estuary of a river: any turn or winding: in America and Australia, a small river.--_adj._ CREEK'Y, full of creeks: winding. [Prob. Scand., Ice. _kriki_, a nook; cf. Dut. _kreek_, a bay.] CREEL, kr[=e]l, _n._ a basket, esp. an angler's basket. [Prob. Celt; cf. Old Ir. _criol_, a chest.] CREEP, kr[=e]p, _v.i._ to move on the belly, like a snake: to move slowly: to grow along the ground or on supports, as a vine: to fawn or cringe: to have the physical sensation of something creeping over or under the skin: to shudder at from fear or repugnance: to drag with a creeper, as a river-bottom:--_pr.p._ creep'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ crept.--_ns._ CREEP'ER, a creeping plant: a genus of small climbing birds; CREEP'-HOLE, a hole into which to creep: a subterfuge; CREEP'IE, a low stool, the old Scotch stool of repentance.--_adv._ CREEP'INGLY.--_adj._ CREEP'Y. [A.S. _creópan_; Dut. _kruipen_.] CREESE, CREASE, kr[=e]s, _n._ a Malay dagger with a wavy blade--also KRIS.--_v.t._ to stab with a creese. CREESH, kr[=e]sh, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to grease.--_n._ grease.--_adj._ CREESH'Y. [O. Fr. _craisse_--L. _crassus_, fat.] CREMAILLERE, kre-mal-y[=a]r', _n._ a line of fortification built zigzag to give wider range in firing. [Fr.] CREMATION, krem-[=a]'shun, _n._ act of burning, esp. of the dead.--_v.t._ CREMATE'.--_ns._ CREM[=A]'TIONIST, one who advocates cremation; CREMAT'OR, CREMAT[=O]R'IUM, CREM'ATORY, a place where cremation is done.--_adj._ CREMAT[=O]R'IAL. [L.,--_crem[=a]re_, to burn.] CREMONA, krem-[=o]'na, _n._ a superior kind of violin made at _Cremona_ in Italy.--_adj._ CREMONESE'. CREMOR, kr[=e]'mor, _n._ thick juice. CREMOSIN, krem'[=o]-zin, _n._ crimson (_Spens._). CRENATE, -D, kr[=e]'n[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ (_bot._) having the edge notched.--_ns._ CR[=E]'NA, a furrow or notch; CREN[=A]'TION; CREN'ATURE.--_adjs._ CREN'ULATE, -D, finely notched or crenate. [L. _crena_, a notch.] CRENEL, kren'el, CRENELLE, kre-nel', _n._ (_archit._) an opening in a parapet for shooting through: a battlement--dim. CREN'ELET.--_n._ CRENAUX (kr[=e]'n[=o]), crenellations or loopholes in a fortress.--_v.t._ CREN'ELLATE.--_adjs._ CRENELL[=A]T'ED, furnished with battlements: indented.--_n._ CRENELL[=A]'TION.--_adjs._ CRENELLE' (_her._), embattled; CRENELLED', having embrasures. [Fr.,--Low L. _crena_, a notch.] CREOLE, kr[=e]'[=o]l, _n._ and _adj._ strictly applied in the former Spanish, French, and Portuguese colonies of America, Africa, and the East Indies to natives of pure European blood (_sangre azul_), in opposition to immigrants themselves born in Europe, or to the offspring of mixed blood, as mulattoes, quadroons, Eurasians, &c.: (_U.S._) applied only to the native French stock in Louisiana: a negro born in the West Indies--earlier CRE[=O]'LIAN. [Fr. _créole_--Sp. _criollo_, contr. of _criadillo_, 'a little nursling,' dim. of _criado_--_criar_, lit. to create, also to bring up, to nurse--L. _cre[=a]re_.] CREOPHAGOUS, kr[=e]-of'a-gus, _adj._ flesh-eating. [Gr. _kreas_, flesh, _phagein_, to eat.] CREOSOTE, kr[=e]'o-s[=o]t, CREASOTE, kr[=e]'a-s[=o]t, _n._ an oily, colourless liquid obtained from the tar produced by the destructive distillation of wood. [Gr. _kreas_, flesh, _s[=o]t[=e]r_, saviour--_s[=o]z-ein_, to save.] CREPANCE, kr[=e]'pans, _n._ a wound on a horse's hind ankle-joint, caused by striking with the shoe of the other hind-foot.--Also CR[=E]'PANE. [L. _crep[=a]re_, to break.] CRÊPE, kr[=a]p, _v.t._ to frizz, as hair. [See CRAPE.] CREPITATE, krep'i-t[=a]t, _v.i._ to crackle, snap.--_adj._ CREP'ITANT, crackling.--_n._ CREPIT[=A]'TION, the characteristic sound detected in the lungs by auscultation.--_adj._ CREP'IT[=A]TIVE.--_n._ CREP'ITUS. [L. _crepit[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, freq. of _crep[=a]re_, to crack, rattle.] CREPON, krep'on, _n._ a woollen or silk crapy stuff. [Fr.] CREPT, krept, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of CREEP. CREPUSCULAR, kre-pus'k[=u]-lar, _adj._ of or pertaining to twilight--also CREPUS'CULOUS.--_ns._ CREPUS'CULE, CREPUS'CLE, twilight. [L. _crepusculum_--_creper_, dusky, obscure.] CRESCENDO, kres-en'd[=o], _adv._ (_mus._) gradually increasing in force or loudness.--_n._ a passage marked by this.--Often _cres._, _cresc._, or [Crescendo symbol]. CRESCENT, kres'ent, _adj._ increasing: shaped like the new or old moon.--_n._ the moon as she increases towards half-moon: a figure like the crescent moon, as that on the Turkish standard: the standard itself: the Turkish power: a range of buildings in curved form.--_n._ CRES'CENTADE, a religious war for Islam.--_adjs._ CRES'CENTED, CRESCENT'IC, formed like a crescent; CRES'CIVE (_Shak._), increasing. [L. _crescens_, _crescent-is_, pr.p. of _cresc[)e]re_, to grow.] CRESS, kres, _n._ the name of several species of plants like the water-cress, which grow in moist places, and have pungent leaves used as salads and medicinally.--_adj._ CRESS'Y, abounding in cresses. [A.S. _cresse_, _cerse_; cf. Dut. _kers_, Ger. _kresse_.] CRESSET, kres'et, _n._ an iron basket, jar, or open lamp filled with combustible material, placed on a beacon, lighthouse, wharf, &c.: a torch generally. [O. Fr. _cresset_, _crasset_ (Fr. _creuset_)--Old Dut. _kruysel_, a hanging lamp.] CREST, krest, _n._ the comb or tuft on the head of a cock and other birds: the summit of anything, as a roof-ridge, hill, wave: the mane of a horse, &c.: (_anat._) a ridge along the surface of a bone: a plume of feathers or other ornament on the top of a helmet: (_her._) an accessory figure originally surmounting the helmet, placed on a wreath, &c., also used separately as a personal cognisance on plate, &c.--_v.t._ to furnish with, or serve for, a crest, to surmount.--_p.adj._ CREST'ED, having a crest: (_bot._) having an elevated appendage like a crest.--_adjs._ CREST'FALLEN, dejected: heartless; CREST'LESS, without a crest: not of high birth.--_ns._ CREST'-MARINE', rock samphire; CRESTOL'ATRY, toadyism. [O. Fr. _creste_ (mod. _crête_)--L. _crista_.] CRETACEOUS, kr[=e]-t[=a]'shus, _adj._ composed of or like chalk.--_adj._ CR[=E]'T[=A]TED, rubbed with chalk.--_n._ CRETIFAC'TION.--_v.i._ CR[=E]'TIFY, to become impregnated with salts of lime. [L. _cretaceus_, from _creta_, chalk.] CRETIC, kr[=e]'tik, _adj._ and _n._ Cretan, belonging to _Crete_: a metrical foot consisting of one short syllable between two long.--_n._ CR[=E]'TISM, a lie. CRETINISM, kr[=e]'tin-izm, _n._ a state of defective mental development, associated with bodily deformity or arrested growth, occurring esp. in connection with enlargement of the thyroid gland or goitre in the lower Alpine valleys.--_n._ CR[=E]'TIN, one affected with cretinism.--_adjs._ CR[=E]'TINOUS, CR[=E]'TINISED. [Fr. _crétin_--Swiss _crestin_--L. _christian-us_, prob. implying that, after all, they are human, or that they are (from their fatuousness) incapable of sin--cf. the frequent use of _innocent_.] CRETONNE, kret-on', or kret'on, _n._ a strong printed cotton fabric used for curtains or for covering furniture. [Fr., prob. from _Creton_ in Normandy.] CRETOSE, kr[=e]'t[=o]s, _adj._ chalky. CREUTZER. Same as KREUTZER. CREUX, kr[.e], _n._ the reverse of relief in sculpture, intaglio. [Fr.] CREVASSE, krev-as', _n._ a crack or split, esp. applied to a cleft in a glacier: (_U.S._) a breach in a canal or river bank.--_v.t._ to fissure with crevasses. [Fr.] CREVET, krev'et, _n._ a variant of CRUET, a goldsmith's melting-pot. CREVICE, krev'is, _n._ a crack or rent: a narrow opening. [O. Fr. _crevace_--L. L.,--L. _crep[=a]re_, to creak.] CREW, kr[=oo], _n._ a company, squad, or gang, often in a bad or contemptuous sense: a ship's company. [O. Fr. _creue_, increase--_croistre_, to grow.] CREW, kr[=oo], _pa.t._ of CROW. CREWE, kr[=oo], _n._ (_Spens._) a cruse. [O. Fr. _crue_.] CREWEL, kr[=oo]'el, _n._ a fine worsted yarn used for embroidery and tapestry: work in crewels.--_v.t._ to work in such.--_ns._ CREW'ELIST; CREW'ELLERY. [Orig. a monosyllable, _crule_, _crewle_; ety. dub.] CREWELS, kr[=oo]'elz, _n.pl._ (_Scot._) the king's evil, scrofula. [Fr. _[=e]crouelles_.] CRIB, krib, _n._ the rack or manger of a stable: a stall for oxen: a child's bed; a small cottage or hovel, a confined place: (_coll._) a translation of a classic baldly literal, for lazy schoolboys.--_v.t._ to put away in a crib, confine: to pilfer: to plagiarise:--_pr.p._ crib'bing; _pa.p._ cribbed.--_n._ CRIB'-BIT'ING, a vicious habit of horses, consisting in biting the manger. [A.S. _crib_; Ger. _krippe_.] CRIBBAGE, krib'[=a]j, _n._ a game at cards played by two, three, or four persons, so called from _crib_, the name given to certain cards laid aside from his hand by each player, and which belong to the dealer.--_n._ CRIBB'AGE-BOARD, a board with holes for keeping by means of pegs the score at cribbage. CRIBBLE, krib'l, _n._ a coarse screen or sieve used for sand, gravel, or corn: coarse flour or meal.--_v.t._ to sift or riddle.--_adjs._ CRIB'R[=A]TE, CRIB'ROSE, perforated like a sieve.--_n._ CRIBR[=A]'TION, act of sifting.--_adj._ CRIB'RIFORM, shaped like a sieve. [L. _cribellum_, dim. of _cribrum_, a sieve.] CRIBELLUM, kri-bel'um, _n._ an accessory spinning-organ of certain spiders--also CRIBRELL'UM:--_pl._ CRIBELL'A. CRIBLÉ, kr[=e]-bl[=a], _adj._ punctured like a sieve, dotted. [Fr.] CRICETUS, kri-s[=e]'tus, _n._ the typical genus of _Cricetinæ_, a sub-family of muroid rodents with cheek-pouches. CRICK, krik, _n._ a spasm or cramp of the muscles, esp. of the neck. [Prob. onomatopoeic.] CRICKET, krik'et, _n._ a saltatory, orthopterous insect, allied to grasshoppers and locusts. [O. Fr. _criquet_; cf. Dut. _krekel_, Ger. _kreckel_.] CRICKET, krik'et, _n._ an outdoor game played with bats, a ball, and wickets, between two sides of eleven each.--_v.i._ to play at cricket.--_ns._ CRICK'ETER, one who plays at cricket; CRICK'ET-MATCH, a match at cricket. [Fr. _criquet_; further ety. dub. Not the A.S. _crycc_, a stick.] CRICKET, krik'et, _n._ (_Scot._) a low stool. CRICOID, kr[=i]'koid, _adj._ (_anat._) ring-shaped. [Gr. _krikos_, a ring, and _eidos_, form.] CRIED, kr[=i]d, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of CRY.--_n._ CR[=I]'ER, one who cries or proclaims, esp. an officer whose duty is to make public proclamations.--CRIED DOWN, or _Decried_, denounced, belittled; CRIED UP, extolled. CRIME, kr[=i]m, _n._ a violation of law: an act punishable by law: offence: sin.--_adjs._ CRIME'FUL, criminal; CRIME'LESS, without crime, innocent; CRIMINAL (krim'-), relating to crime: guilty of crime: violating laws.--_n._ one guilty of crime.--_ns._ CRIM'INALIST, one versed in criminal law; CRIMINAL'ITY, guiltiness.--_adv._ CRIM'INALLY.--_v.t._ CRIM'IN[=A]TE, to accuse.--_n._ CRIMIN[=A]'TION, act of criminating: accusation.--_adjs._ CRIM'IN[=A]TIVE, CRIM'IN[=A]TORY, involving crimination or accusation.--_ns._ CRIMINOL'OGIST; CRIMINOL'OGY, that branch of anthropology which treats of crime and criminals.--_adj._ CRIM'INOUS, criminal--now chiefly in the phrase 'a criminous clerk.'--_n._ CRIM'INOUSNESS.--CRIMINAL CONVERSATION, often CRIM. CON., adultery. [Fr.,--L. _crimen_.] CRIMINE, CRIMINI, krim'i-ne, _interj._ an ejaculation of surprise or impatience. CRIMP, krimp, _adj._ made crisp or brittle.--_v.t._ to wrinkle: to plait: to make crisp: to seize or decoy sailors or soldiers.--_n._ one who presses or decoys.--_ns._ CRIMP'AGE, act of crimping; CRIMP'ER, one who or that which crimps or corrugates; CRIMP'ING-[=I]'RON, an iron instrument used for crimping hair; CRIMP'ING-MACHINE', a machine for forming crimps or plaits on ruffles.--_v.t._ CRIMP'LE, to contract or draw together: to plait: to curl. [A dim. of _cramp_; Dut. _krimpen_, to shrink.] CRIMSON, krim'zn, _n._ a deep red colour, tinged with blue: red in general.--_adj._ deep red.--_v.t._ to dye crimson.--_v.i._ to become crimson: to blush. [M. E. _crimosin_--O. Fr. _cramoisin_; from Ar. _qermazi_, the cochineal insect, from which it is made.] CRINAL, kr[=i]'nal, _adj._ of or belonging to the hair.--_adjs._ CRIN'ATE, -D, having hair; CRINICUL'TURAL, relating to the culture or growth of the hair; CRINIG'EROUS, hairy; CR[=I]'NITE, hairy: (_bot._) resembling a tuft of hair. [L. _crinalis_--_crinis_, the hair.] CRINE, kr[=i]n, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to shrink or shrivel. [Gael. _crìon_, dry.] CRINGE, krinj, _v.i._ to bend or crouch with servility: to submit: to fawn: to flatter with mean servility.--_n._ a servile obeisance.--_ns._ CRINGE'LING, CRIN'GER, one who cringes.--_adv._ CRIN'GINGLY, in an obsequious manner. [Related to A.S. _crincan_, _cringan_, to shrink. Cf. CRANK, weak.] CRINGLE, kring'gl, _n._ a small piece of rope worked into the bolt-rope of a sail, and containing a metal ring or thimble. [Teut.; cf. Ger. _kringel_.] CRINITE. See CRINAL, CRINOIDEA. CRINKLE, krink'l, _v.t._ to twist, wrinkle, crimp.--_v.i._ to wrinkle up, curl.--_n._ a wrinkle.--_adj._ CRINK'LY, wrinkly.--_n._ and _adj._ CRINK'UM-CRANK'UM, a word applied familiarly to things intricate or crooked. CRINOIDEA, kr[=i]-noid'[=e]-a, _n.pl._ a class of _Echinodermata_, sometimes called feather-stars or sea-lilies, and well known in fossil forms as encrinites or stone-lilies.--_n._ CRI'NITE, a fossil crinoid.--_adjs._ and _ns._ CRINOID', CRINOID'EAN.--_adj._ CRINOID'AL. [Gr. _krinon_, a lily, and _eidos_, form.] CRINOLINE, krin'o-lin, _n._ a name originally given by the French _modistes_ to a stiff fabric of horse-hair, employed to distend women's attire: a hooped petticoat or skirt made to project all round by means of steel-wire: a netting round ships as a guard against torpedoes.--_n._ CRIN'OLETTE, a small crinoline causing the dress to project behind only--akin to the _bustle_ and _dress-improver_.--_adj._ CRIN'OLINED. [Fr., _crin_--L. _crinis_, hair, and _lin_--L. _linum_, flax.] CRINOSE, kr[=i]'n[=o]s, _adj._ hairy. [L. _crinis_, hair.] CRIO-SPHINX, kr[=i]'[=o]-sfingks, _n._ a ram-headed sphinx. [Gr. _krios_, a ram, _sphingx_, a sphinx.] CRIPPLE, krip'l, _n._ a lame person.--_adj._ lame.--_v.t._ to make lame: to lame: disable, impair the efficiency of.--_ns._ CRIPP'LEDOM; CRIPP'LING, a prop set up as a support against the side of a building. [A.S. _crypel_; conn. with CREEP.] CRISIS, kr[=i]'sis, _n._ point or time for deciding anything, the decisive moment or turning-point:--_pl._ CRISES (kr[=i]'s[=e]z). [Gr. _krisis_, from _krinein_, to separate.] CRISP, krisp, _adj._ curling closely: having a wavy surface: so dry as to be crumbled easily: brittle, or short, as 'crisp cakes,' &c.: fresh and bracing, as 'crisp air:' firm, the opposite of limp or flabby, as a 'crisp style' in writing.--_v.t._ to curl or twist: to make crisp or wavy.--_adjs._ CRIS'P[=A]TE, -D, having a crisped or wavy appearance.--_ns._ CRISP[=A]'TION; CRISP'ATURE, a curling; CRISP'ER, one who or that which crisps; CRISP'ING-[=I]'RON, -PIN, a curling-iron.--_adv._ CRISP'LY.--_n._ CRISP'NESS.--_adj._ CRISP'Y. [A.S.,--L. _crispus_.] CRISPIN, kris'pin, _n._ a shoemaker, from _Crispin_ of Soissons, the patron saint of shoemakers, martyred 25th October 287. CRISS-CROSS, kris'-kros, _n._ a mark formed by two lines in the form of a cross, as the signature of a person unable to write his name: a child's game played on a slate, the lines being drawn in the form of a cross.--_v.i._ to intersect frequently. CRISTATE, kris't[=a]t, _adj._ crested.--_n._ CRIS'TA, a crest.--_adjs._ CRIS'TIFORM; CRISTIM'ANOUS, having crested claws. CRITERION, kr[=i]-t[=e]'ri-on, _n._ a means or standard of judging: a test: a rule, standard, or canon:--_pl._ CRIT[=E]'RIA. [Gr., from _krit[=e]s_, a judge.] CRITH, krith, _n._ a chemical unit of mass for gases, the mass of one litre of hydrogen. [Gr. _krith[=e]_, barley.] CRITHOMANCY, krith'o-man-si, _n._ divination by the meal strewed over the victims of sacrifice. [Gr. _krith[=e]_, barley, and _manteia_, divination.] CRITIC, krit'ik, _n._ one skilled in estimating the quality of literary or artistic work: a professional reviewer: one skilled in textual or biblical criticism, literature, the fine arts, &c.: a fault-finder.--_adj._ CRIT'ICAL, relating to criticism: discriminating: captious: decisive.--_adv._ CRIT'ICALLY.--_ns._ CRIT'ICALNESS, CRITICAL'ITY; CRIT'ICASTER, CRIT'ICKIN, a petty critic.--_adj._ CRITIC[=I]S'ABLE.--_v.t._ CRIT'ICISE, to pass judgment on: to censure.--_ns._ CRIT'ICISM, the art of judging, esp. in literature or the fine arts: a critical judgment or observation; CRITIQUE (kri-t[=e]k'), a critical examination of any production: a review.--CRITICAL ANGLE, the least angle of incidence at which a ray is totally reflected; CRITICAL PHILOSOPHY, that of Kant as based on a critical examination of the faculty of knowledge; CRITICAL POINT, that temperature below which a substance may, and above which it cannot, be liquefied by pressure alone.--HIGHER or HISTORICAL CRITICISM, as distinguished from _Textual_ or _Verbal criticism_, the inquiry into the composition, date, and authenticity of the books of Scripture, from historical and literary considerations. [Gr. _kritikos_--_krinein_, to judge.] CROAK, kr[=o]k, _v.i._ to utter a low hoarse sound, as a frog or raven: to grumble: to forebode evil: to utter croakingly: (_slang_) to die.--_n._ the sound of a frog or raven.--_n._ CROAK'ER.--_adv._ CROAK'ILY.--_n._ CROAK'ING.--_adj._ CROAK'Y. [From the sound. Cf. CRAKE, CROW.] CROAT, kr[=o]'at, _n._ a native of _Croatia_, esp. one serving as a soldier in the Austrian army. CROCEOUS, kr[=o]'shi-us, _adj._ saffron-coloured. CROCHE, kr[=o]'she, _n._ one of the buds or knobs at the top of a deer's horn. [Fr.] CROCHET, kr[=o]'sh[=a], _n._ a kind of handiwork in fancy worsted, cotton, or silk--an extensive system of looping, by means of a small hook.--_v.i._ to do such work. [Fr. _crochet_--_croche_, _croc_, a hook.] CROCIDOLITE, kro-sid'o-l[=i]t, _n._ a mineral consisting mainly of silicate of iron, in asbestos-like fibres. [From Gr. _krokis_, _-idos_, cloth, and _lithos_, stone.] CROCK, krok, _n._ a pot or jar.--_n._ CROCK'ERY, earthenware: vessels formed of baked clay. [A.S. _croc_; Ger. _krug_; perh. of Celt. origin, as in W. _crochan_, a pot, Gael. _krogan_, a pitcher.] CROCK, krok, _n._ dirt, smut.--_v.i._ to dirty. CROCK, krok, _n._ an old ewe: an old horse. [Cf. Norw. and Sw. _krake_, a poor beast.] CROCKET, krok'et, _n._ (_archit._) an ornament on the angles of spires, canopies, &c., like curled leaves or flowers. CROCODILE, krok'o-d[=i]l, _n._ a genus of large amphibious saurian reptiles, including the crocodile of the Nile, and also the alligators and gavials.--_adj._ and _n._ CROCODIL'IAN.--_n._ CROCODIL'ITY, captious arguing.--CROCODILE TEARS, affected tears, hypocritical grief--from the old story that crocodiles (which have large lachrymal glands) shed tears over the hard necessity of killing animals for food. [O. Fr. _cocodrille_--L. _crocodilus_--Gr. _krokodeilos_, a lizard.] CROCUS, kr[=o]'kus, _n._ a bulbous plant with brilliant yellow or purple flowers: (_slang_) a quack doctor. [L. _crocus_--Gr. _krokos_; prob. of Eastern origin, as Heb. _karkom_, and Ar. _kurkum_, saffron.] CROFT, kroft, _n._ a small piece arable land adjoining a dwelling: a kind of small farm.--_ns._ CROFT'ER; CROFT'ING. [A.S. _croft_; perh. cog. with Dut. _kroft_, or with Gael. _croit_.] CROISSANT. Same as CRESCENT. CROMA, kr[=o]'ma, _n._ (_mus._) an eighth note, or quaver.--Also CROME. CROME, kr[=o]m, CROMB, kr[=oo]m, _n._ a hook or crook.--_v.t._ to draw with such. [Cf. Dut. _kram_.] CROMLECH, krom'lek, _n._ a term applied in Brittany to a group of standing stones, a stone circle: formerly applied to a dolmen, with which it is still sometimes confounded in England (see DOLMEN). [W. _cromlech_--_crom_, curved, circular, and _llech_, a stone.] CROMORNA, kr[=o]-mor'na, _n._ a clarinet-like reed-stop in an organ. [Fr.,--Ger. _krummhorn_.] CRONE, kr[=o]n, _n._ an old woman, usually in contempt--sometimes an old man. [Perh. O. Fr. _carogne_, a crabbed woman; or Celt., as in Ir. _crion_, withered.] CRONET, kr[=o]'net, _n._ the hair growing over the top of a horse's hoof. CRONY, kr[=o]n'i, _n._ an old and intimate companion. [Ety. unknown.] CROODLE, kr[=oo]d'l, _v.i._ to cower down, or cling close to anything. [Prob. related to _Cuddle_.] CROODLE, kr[=oo]d'l, _v.i._ (_Scot._), to coo like a dove, to coax. CROOK, kr[=oo]k, _n._ a bend, anything bent: a curved tube used to lower the pitch of a cornet, &c.: the bending of the body in reverence: a staff bent at the end, as a shepherd's or bishop's: an artifice or trick: (_Spens._) gibbet.--_v.t._ to bend or form into a hook: to turn from the straight line or from what is right.--_v.i._ to bend or be bent.--_n._ CROOK'BACK (_Shak._), a hunchback.--_adj._ CROOK'BACKED; CROOK'ED, bent like a crook: not straight: deviating from rectitude, perverse.--_adv._ CROOK'EDLY.--_n._ CROOK'EDNESS.--_adjs._ CROOK'-KNEED; CROOK'-SHOUL'DERED.--A CROOK IN THE LOT, any trial in one's experience. [Prob. Scand.; cf. Ice. _krókr_, Dan. _krog_.] CROOL, krool, _v.i._ to mutter. [Imit.] CROON, kr[=oo]n, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to utter a low, monotonous, inarticulate sound like a baby: to sing or hum in an undertone.--_n._ CROON'ING, a low murmuring sound. [Cf. Dut. _kreunen_, to groan.] CROP, krop, _n._ all the produce of a field of grain: anything gathered or cropped: an entire ox-hide: the craw of a bird: (_archit._) a finial: a whip-handle: the cutting the hair short.--_v.t._ to cut off the top or ends: to cut short or close: to mow, reap, or gather.--_v.i._ to yield:--_pr.p._ crop'ping; _pa.p._ cropped.--_n._ CROP'-EAR, one having cropped or cut ears.--_adj._ CROP'FUL (_Milt._), satiated.--_ns._ CROP'PER, one who or that which crops: a plant which furnishes a crop: one who raises a crop for a share of it: a kind of fancy pigeon remarkable for its large crop; CROP'PING, act of cutting off: the raising of crops: (_geol._) an outcrop; CROP'PY, one of the Irish rebels of 1798 who cut their hair short in imitation of the French Revolutionists.--_adj._ CROP'-SICK, sick of a surfeit.--CROP OUT, to appear above the surface; CROP UP, to come up incidentally. [A.S. _crop_, the top shoot of a plant, the crop of a bird; Dut. _crop_, a bird's crop.] CROPPER, krop'[.e]r, _n._ a fall; failure.--COME A CROPPER, to have a fall, perhaps from phrase 'neck and crop.' CROQUET, kr[=o]'k[=a], _n._ a game in which two or more players try to drive wooden balls, by means of long-handled mallets, through a series of arches set in the ground. [North Fr. _croquet_, a dial. form of _crochet_, dim. of _croc_, _croche_, a crook.] CROQUETTE, krok-et', _n._ a ball of minced meat or fish, seasoned and fried. [Fr. _croquer_, to crunch.] CRORE, kr[=o]r, _n._ the sum of ten millions, or one hundred lacs. [Hind.] [Illustration] CROSIER, CROZIER, kr[=o]'zh[.e]r, _n._ a cross mounted on a staff, borne before archbishops and patriarchs--often confounded with the pastoral staff.--_adj._ CR[=O]'SIERED. [O. Fr. _crocier_--Late L. _crociarius_--L. _crux_, a cross.] [Illustration] CROSS, kros, _n._ a gibbet on which malefactors were hung, consisting of two pieces of timber, one placed crosswise on the other, either thus [Latin cross] or [St Andrew's cross]: the instrument on which Christ suffered, and thus the symbol of the Christian religion: the sufferings of Christ: the atonement effected by these: a representation of the cross, a staff surmounted by a cross, a monument, model, or ornament in the form of a cross, esp. that in this form in the centre of a town at which proclamations are made, &c.: (_Scot._) a signal or call to arms sent throughout a district, being a cross of two sticks charred and dipped in blood (FIERY CROSS): the transverse part of an anchor, or the like: a surveyor's cross-staff: anything that crosses or thwarts: a crossing or crossway: adversity or affliction in general.--_v.t._ to mark with a cross, or to make the sign of the cross.--_ns._ CROSS'-AISLE, a transept aisle of a cruciform church; CROSS'-BEAR'ER, one who carries a cross in a procession; CROSS'-BUN, a bun marked with the form of a cross, eaten on Good-Friday; CROSS'ING, the making the sign of the cross; CROSS'-STITCH, a double stitch in the form of a cross; CROSS'LET, a little cross.--CROST, obsolete _pa.p._ of CROSS.--CROSS-AND-PILE, the obverse and reverse side of a coin, head and tail; CROSS OF CALVARY, the Latin cross or cross of crucifixion elevated on three steps; CROSS OF JERUSALEM, one having each arm capped by a cross-bar; CROSS OF LORRAINE, a cross with two horizontal arms, combining the Greek and Latin crosses; CROSS OF ST JAMES, a Latin cross figured as a sword; CROSS OF ST PATRICK, the saltier cross of Ireland (red on a white ground).--CROSS ONE'S MIND, to flash across the mind; CROSS THE PATH OF ANY ONE, to thwart him.--ANSATE CROSS (_crux ansata_), a common symbol of immortality in ancient Egypt; ARCHIEPISCOPAL CROSS, the pastoral staff surmounted by a cross; BUDDHIST CROSS, the gammadion or fylfot, with returned arms, a symbol found in prehistoric remains in Italy and elsewhere; CAPITAL CROSS, a Greek cross having each extremity terminated in an ornament like a Tuscan capital; CAPUCHIN-CROSS, a cross having each arm terminated by a ball; CELTIC CROSS, a type of cross found in Ireland and in the north and west of Scotland, varying from a cross incised on a flat slate to an elaborate cruciform monument--some crosses of this type show Scandinavian workmanship, and hence are often called RUNIC CROSSES; GREEK CROSS, an upright cross with limbs of equal length--the well-known CROSS OF ST GEORGE (red on a white ground); LATIN CROSS (_crux immissa_), an upright cross having the lower limb longer than the others; MALTESE CROSS, the badge of the knights of Malta, converging to a point in the centre, with two points to each limb; NORMAN CROSS, an elaborate memorial cross like a Gothic turret set on the ground, or on the base of a few steps, with niches for figures and pinnacles; PATRIARCHAL CROSS, a cross with two horizontal bars; ROUEN CROSS, a cross in fretwork, as a brooch or pendant; ST ANDREW'S CROSS (_crux decussata_), or CROSS SALTIER, a cross of two shafts of equal length crossed diagonally at the middle--the saltier cross of Scotland (white on a blue ground); ST ANTHONY'S CROSS (_crux commissa_), shaped like a [St Anthony's cross]; SOUTHERN CROSS, a constellation in the Antarctic region where the stars are in the form of a cross. [O. Fr. _crois_ (Fr. _croix_)--L. _cruc-em_, orig. an upright post to which latterly a cross-piece was added.] CROSS, kros, _adj._ lying across: transverse: oblique: opposite: adverse: ill-tempered: interchanged: dishonest: balancing, neutralising.--_adv._ across.--_n._ a crossing or mixing of breeds, esp. of cattle: something intermediate in character between two other things: dishonest practices, esp. in a sporting contest when one of the parties corruptly allows himself to be beaten.--_v.t._ to lay one body or draw one line across another: to cancel by drawing cross lines: to pass from side to side: to write across a bank-cheque the name of a banking company, or simply '& Co.' between the lines, to be filled up with the name of a banking company, through whom alone it may be paid: to obstruct: to thwart: to interfere with.--_v.i._ to lie or be athwart: to move or pass from place to place.--_n._ CROSS'-AC'TION (_law_), an action brought by the defender against the pursuer in the same cause.--_adjs._ CROSS'-ARMED, having the arms crossed: (_bot._) brachiate; CROSS'-BAND'ED, having the grain of the veneer run across that of the rail--of a hand-rail.--_n._ CROSS'-BAR, a transverse bar: a kind of lever.--_adj._ CROSS'-BARRED.--_ns._ CROSS'-BEAM, a large beam stretching across a building and serving to hold its sides together; CROSS'-BENCH, in the House of Lords, certain benches so placed, on which independent members sometimes sit; CROSS'-BILL, a bill brought by the defendant in a Chancery suit against the plaintiff; CROSS'-BILL, a genus of birds resembling bullfinches, linnets, &c., with the mandibles of the bill crossing each other near the points; CROSS'-BIRTH, a birth in which the child lies transversely in the uterus.--_v.t._ CROSS'BITE, to bite the biter.--_n.pl._ CROSS'-BONES, a figure of two thigh-bones laid across each other--together with the skull, a conventional emblem of death.--_ns._ CROSS'BOW, a weapon for shooting arrows, formed of a bow placed crosswise on a stock; CROSS'BOWER, -BOWMAN, one who uses a crossbow.--_adj._ CROSS'-BRED.--_ns._ CROSS'-BREED, a breed produced by the crossing or intermixing of different races; CROSS'-BREED'ING; CROSS'-BUTT'OCK, a particular throw over the hip in wrestling; CROSS'-CHEQUE (see CHEQUE).--_adj._ CROSS'-COUN'TRY, across the fields rather than by the road.--_n._ CROSS'-CUT, a short road across from one point to another.--_v.t._ to cut across.--_ns._ CROSS'CUT-SAW, a large saw worked by two men, one at each end, for cutting beams crosswise; CROSS'-DIVI'SION, the division of any group into divisions that cut across each other and produce confusion.--_adj._ CROSSED, marked by a line drawn crosswise, often denoting cancellation: folded: cruciate.--_n._ CROSS'-EXAMIN[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ CROSS'-EXAM'INE, to test the evidence of a witness by subjecting him to an examination by the opposite party.--_adj._ CROSS'-EYED, having a squint.--_ns._ CROSS'-FERTILIS[=A]'TION, the fecundation of a plant by pollen from another; CROSS'-FIRE (_mil._), the crossing of lines of fire from two or more points; CROSS'-GAR'NET, a T-shaped hinge.--_adjs._ CROSS'-GAR'TERED (_Shak._), wearing the garters crossed on the leg; CROSS'-GRAINED, having the grain or fibres crossed or intertwined: perverse: contrary: intractable.--_ns._ CROSS'-GRAIN'EDNESS; CROSS'-GUARD, the bar, at right angles to the blade, forming the hilt-guard of a sword; CROSS'-HATCH'ING, the art of shading by parallel intersecting lines; CROSS'-HEAD, a beam across the head of something, esp. the bar at the end of the piston-rod of a steam-engine; CROSS'ING, act of going across: the place where a roadway, &c. may be crossed: intersection: act of thwarting: cross-breeding.--_adj._ CROSS'-LEGGED, having the legs crossed.--_adv._ CROSS'LY.--_ns._ CROSS'NESS; CROSS'-PATCH, an ill-natured person; CROSS'-PIECE, a piece of material of any kind crossing another: (_naut._) a timber over the windlass, with pins for belaying the running rigging; CROSS'-PUR'POSE, a contrary purpose: contradictory conduct or system: an enigmatical game; CROSS'-QUAR'TERS, an ornament of tracery like the four petals of a cruciform flower: a quatrefoil.--_v.t._ CROSS'-QUES'TION, to question minutely, to cross-examine.--_ns._ CROSS'-REF'ERENCE, a reference in a book to another title or passage; CROSS'-ROAD, a road crossing the principal road, a bypath; CROSS'-ROW (same as CHRIST-CROSS-ROW); CROSS'-SEA, a sea that sets at an angle to the direction of the wind; CROSS'-SILL, a railroad sleeper lying under the rails transversely as a support to the stringer; CROSS'-SPRING'ER, a cross-rib in a groined vault; CROSS'-STAFF, a surveying instrument consisting of a staff surmounted with a brass circle divided into four equal parts by two intersecting lines; CROSS'-STONE, chiastolite: staurolite: harmotome; CROSS'-TIE, in a railroad, a timber placed under opposite rails as a support; CROSS'-TIN'ING, a mode of harrowing crosswise.--_n.pl._ CROSS'TREES, pieces of timber placed across the upper end of the lower-masts and top-masts of a ship.--_ns._ CROSS'-VAULT'ING, vaulting formed by the intersection of two or more simple vaults; CROSS'WAY, a way that crosses another; CROSS'-WIND, an unfavourable wind, a side-wind.--_adv._ CROSS'WISE, in the form of a cross: across.--CROSS AS TWO STICKS, particularly perverse and disagreeable.--CROSS THE PATH of any one, to thwart him; CROSS ONE'S MIND, to flash across the mind. CROSSE, kros, _n._ the implement used in _lacrosse_. CROSSETTE, kro-set', _n._ a small projecting part of an impost-stone at the extremity of an arch: a shoulder in an arch-stone fitting into the stone next to it. [Fr.] CROTALARIA, kr[=o]-ta-l[=a]'ri-a, _n._ a genus of _Leguminosæ_, the rattlewort. [Gr. _krotalon_, a rattle.] CROTALIDÆ, kr[=o]-tal'i-d[=e], _n.pl._ a family of venomous serpents, including rattlesnakes, copper-heads, &c. CROTALO, kr[=o]'ta-l[=o], _n._ a Turkish musical instrument, like the ancient cymbalum. CROTCH, kroch, _n._ a fork, as of a tree: the bifurcation of the human body.--_adj._ CROTCHED. [Ety. obscure.] CROTCHET, kroch'et, _n._ a hook: a note in music, equal to half a minim, [Crotchet]: a crooked or perverse fancy: a whim, or conceit.--_adjs._ CROTCH'ETED, CROTCH'ETY, having crotchets or peculiarities: whimsical.--_n._ CROTCH'ETEER, a crotchety person. [Fr. _crochet_, dim. of _croche_, a hook. See CROCHET.] CROTON, kr[=o]'ton, _n._ a genus of tropical plants, producing a brownish-yellow oil, having a hot, biting taste.--_ns._ CR[=O]'TONATE, a salt formed by the union of crotonic acid with a base; CR[=O]'TON-OIL, a powerful purgative oil, expressed from the seeds of the _Croton tiglium_, also used externally.--CROTON'IC ACID, an acid obtained from croton-oil. [Gr. _krot[=o]n_, a tick or mite, which the seed of the plant resembles.] CROTTLES, krot'ls, _n.pl._ lichens used for dyeing. [Gael. _crotal_.] CROUCH, krowch, _v.i._ to squat or lie close to the ground: to cringe: to fawn. [Possibly _crook_.] CROUCHED-FRIARS = CRUTCHED-FRIARS. See CRUTCH. CROUCH-WARE, krowch'-w[=a]r, _n._ a finely finished pottery made with an admixture of pipe-clay in Shropshire: the famous salt-glazed stoneware made at Burslem. CROUP, kr[=oo]p, _n._ a severe disease in the throat of children, accompanied by a hoarse cough.--_v.i._ to cry or speak hoarsely.--_n._ CROUP'INESS.--_adjs._ CROUP'OUS, CROUP'Y. [A.S. _kropan_, to cry; Scot. _roup_, _croup_, hoarseness; from the sound.] CROUP, kr[=oo]p, _n._ the rump of a horse: the place behind the saddle.--_n._ CROUP'ON (_obs._), the croup: the human buttocks. [Fr. _croupe_, a protuberance; allied to CROP.] CROUPADE, kroo-p[=a]d', _n._ in the manège, a leap in which the horse draws up his hind-legs toward the belly. [Fr.] CROUPER, kr[=oo]p'[.e]r, _n._ obsolete form of CRUPPER. CROUPIER, kr[=oo]'pi-[.e]r, _n._ one who sits at the lower end of the table as assistant-chairman at a public dinner: a vice-president: he who watches the cards and collects the money at the gaming-table. [Fr., 'one who rides on the croup.'] CROUSE, kr[=oo]s, _adj._ (_Scot._) lively, pert.--_adv._ boldly, pertly.--_adv._ CROUSE'LY. [M. E. _cr[=u]s_; cf. Ger. _kraus_, Dut. _kroes_, crisp, cross.] CROUT, krowt, _n._ See SAUER-KRAUT. CROW, kr[=o], _n._ a large bird, generally black, of the genus _Corvus_, which includes magpies, nut-crackers, jays, choughs, &c.: the cry of a cock: a crow-bar.--_v.i._ to croak: to cry as a cock, in joy or defiance: to boast, swagger (with _over_):--_pa.t._ crew (kr[=oo]) or crowed; _pa.p._ crowed.--_ns._ CROW'-BAR, a large iron bar mostly bent at the end, to be used as a lever; CROW'-BERR'Y, a small creeping shrub, producing small black berries; CROW'-FLOW'ER (_Shak._), perhaps the same as CROW'FOOT, a common weed, the flower of which is like a crow's foot, the buttercup: crow's-foot: a number of lines rove through a long wooden block, supporting the backbone of an awning horizontally; CROW'-KEEP'ER (_Shak._), a scarecrow; CROW'-QUILL, a pen made of the quill of a crow, &c., for fine writing or etching; CROW'S'-BILL, CROW'-BILL (_surg._), a kind of forceps for extracting bullets, &c., from wounds; CROW'S'-FOOT, one of the wrinkles produced by age, spreading out from the corners of the eyes: (_mil._) a caltrop; CROW'S'-NEST (_naut._), a shelter at the top-gallant mast-head of whalers for the man on the lookout.--_n.pl._ CROW'-STEPS (see CORBIE).--_n._ CROW'-TOE (_Milt._), probably the same as CROWFOOT.--AS THE CROW FLIES, in a straight line; EAT CROW, or BOILED CROW, to be forced to do something very disagreeable; HAVE A CROW TO PLUCK WITH, to have something to settle with some one. [A.S. _crawe_, a crow, _crawan_, to cry like a cock; imit.] CROWD, krowd, _n._ a number of persons or things closely pressed together, without order: the rabble: multitude.--_v.t._ to gather into a lump or crowd: to fill by pressing or driving together: to compress.--_v.i._ to press on: to press together in numbers: to swarm.--_p.adj._ CROWD'ED.--CROWD SAIL, to carry a press of sail for speed. [A.S. _crúdan_, to press.] CROWD, krowd, _n._ (_obs._) an ancient musical instrument of the nature of the violin.--_n._ CROWD'ER (_obs._), a fiddler. [W. _crwth_, a hollow protuberance, a fiddle; Gael., Ir. _cruit_.] CROWDIE, krowd'i, _n._ a mixture of meal and water: (_Scot._) brose. [Der. unknown.] CROWN, krown, _n._ the diadem or state-cap of royalty: regal power: the sovereign: honour: reward, as the 'martyr's crown:' the top of anything, esp. of the head: completion: accomplishment; a coin stamped with a crown, esp. the silver 5s. piece--used also as the translation of the old French _écu_, worth from six francs (or livres) to three francs: a size of paper, because originally water-marked with a crown: (_archit._) a species of spire or lantern, formed by converging flying-buttresses.--_v.t._ to cover or invest with a crown: to invest with royal dignity: to adorn: to dignify: to complete happily.--_ns._ CROWN'-AG'ENT, a solicitor in Scotland who prepares criminal prosecutions; CROWN'-ANT'LER, the uppermost antler of the horn of a stag; CROWN'-COL'ONY, a colony whose administration is directly under the home government; CROWN DERBY PORCELAIN (see PORCELAIN).--_p.adj._ CROWNED, having or wearing a crown: rewarded: consummated.--_ns._ CROWN'ER (_Shak._), a corruption of coroner; CROWN'ET, a coronet: (_Shak._) that which crowns or accomplishes; CROWN'-GLASS, a kind of window-glass formed in circular plates or discs; CROWN'-IMP[=E]'RIAL, a plant, a species of fritillary; CROWN'ING.--_n.pl._ CROWN'-JEW'ELS, jewels pertaining to the crown or sovereign.--_ns._ CROWN'-LAND, land belonging to the crown or sovereign; CROWN'-LAW'YER, the lawyer who acts for the crown in criminal cases.--_adj._ CROWN'LESS.--_ns._ CROWN'LET, a small crown; CROWN'-LIV'ING, a church living in the gift of the crown; CROWN-OFFICE, the office for the business of the crown side of the King's Bench: the office in which the great seal is affixed; CROWN'-P[=A]'PER, in England, a printing-paper of the size 15 × 20 in.: in America, a writing-paper 15 × 19 in.; CROWN'-POST, the same as KING-POST (q.v.); CROWN'-PRINCE, the prince who succeeds to the crown; CROWN'-SAW, a circular saw made by cutting teeth round a cylinder; CROWN'-WHEEL, a wheel resembling a crown, with teeth or cogs set at right angles to its plane; CROWN'-WIT'NESS, a witness for the crown in a criminal prosecution instituted by it; CROWN'WORK (_fort._), an outwork composed of a bastion between two curtains, with demi-bastions at the extremes.--CROWN OF THE CAUSEWAY, the middle of the street. [O. Fr. _corone_ (Fr. _couronne_)--L. _corona_; cf. Gr. _kor[=o]nos_, curved.] CROZE, kr[=o]z, _n._ the groove in the staves of a cask in which the edge of the head is set. CROZIER. See CROSIER. CRUCIAL, kr[=oo]'shi-al, _adj._ testing, searching, from the practice of marking a testing instance with a cross to draw attention to it.--_adj._ CRU'CI[=A]TE (_bot._), arranged in the form of a cross, as leaves or petals. [Fr. _crucial_, from L. _crux_, _crucis_, a cross.] CRUCIAN, CRUSIAN, kroo'shi-an, _n._ the German carp, having no barbels. CRUCIBLE, kr[=oo]'si-bl, _n._ an earthen pot for melting ores, metals, &c. [Low L. _crucibulum_, most prob. from L. _crux_.] CRUCIFERÆ, kroo-sif'[.e]r-[=e], _n._ a natural order of exogenous plants (many edible), having a corolla of four petals arranged in the form of a cross.--_n._ CRUC'IFER, a cross-bearer in a procession.--_adj._ CRUCIF'EROUS (_bot._), bearing four petals in the form of a cross. [L. _crux_, _crucis_, a cross, _ferre_, to bear.] CRUCIFY, kr[=oo]'si-f[=i], _v.t._ to put to death by fixing the hands and feet to a cross: to subdue completely: to mortify: to torment:--_pa.p._ cru'cified.--_ns._ CRUCIF[=I]'ER, one who crucifies; CRU'CIFIX, a figure or picture of Christ fixed to the cross; CRUCIFIX'ION, death on the cross, esp. that of Christ.--_adjs._ CRU'CIFORM, in the form of a cross; CRUCIG'EROUS, bearing a cross. [O. Fr. _crucifier_--L. _crucifig[)e]re_, _crucifixum_--_crux_, and _fig[)e]re_, to fix.] CRUDE, kr[=oo]d, _adj._ raw, unprepared: not reduced to order or form: unfinished: undigested: immature.--_adv._ CRUDE'LY.--_ns._ CRUDE'NESS; CRUD'ITY, rawness: unripeness: that which is crude.--_adj._ CRUD'Y (_Shak._), crude, raw. [L. _crudus_, raw.] CRUEL, kr[=oo]'el, _adj._ disposed to inflict pain, or pleased at suffering: void of pity, merciless, savage: severe.--_adj._ CRU'EL-HEART'ED, delighting in cruelty: hard-hearted: unrelenting.--_adv._ CRU'ELLY.--_ns._ CRU'ELNESS (_obs._); CRU'ELTY. [Fr. _cruel_--L. _crudelis_.] CRUET, kr[=oo]'et, _n._ a small jar or phial for sauces and condiments.--_n._ CRU'ET-STAND, a stand or frame for holding cruets. [Acc. to Skeat, prob. formed from Dut. _kruik_, a jar = Eng. _crock_; and acc. to E. Müller, dim. of O. Fr. _cruye_ (mod. Fr. _cruche_, _cruchette_, a jar), from root of _crock_.] CRUISE, kr[=oo]z, _v.i._ to sail to and fro: to rove on the sea.--_n._ a sailing to and fro: a voyage in various directions in search of an enemy, or for the protection of vessels.--_n._ CRUIS'ER. [Dut. _kruisen_, to cross--_kruis_, a cross.] CRUISIE. See CRUSIE. CRUISKEN, kroos'ken, _n._ (_Ir._) a small bottle.--Also CRUIS'KEEN. CRUIVE, CRUVE, kr[=oo]v, _n._ (_Scot._) a sty, hovel: a wattled hedge built on tidal flats for catching fish. CRULLER, krul'[.e]r, _n._ a cake cut from rolled dough made of eggs, butter, sugar, flour, &c., fried crisp in boiling lard. [Cf. Dut. _krullen_, to curl.] CRUMB, krum, _n._ a small bit or morsel of bread: a small particle of anything: the soft part of bread.--_v.t._ to break into crumbs: to fill with crumbs.--_ns._ CRUMB'-BRUSH, a brush for sweeping crumbs off the table; CRUMB'-CLOTH, a cloth laid under a table to keep falling crumbs from the carpet.--_adjs._ CRUMB'Y, CRUM'MY, in crumbs: soft. [A.S. _cruma_; Dut. _kruim_; Ger. _krume_; allied to _crimp_.] CRUMBLE, krum'bl, _v.t._ to break into crumbs: to scatter in crumbs.--_v.i._ to fall into small pieces: to decay.--_n._ a crumb: that which crumbles easily.--_adj._ CRUMB'LY, apt to crumble, brittle. [Orig. dim. of CRUMB; Dut. _kruimelen_; Ger. _krümeln_.] CRUMENAL, kr[=oo]'me-nal, _n._ (_Spens._) a purse. [From L. _crumena_, a purse.] CRUMP, krump, _adj._ crooked: wrinkled.--_ns._ CRUM'MY, a cow with a crumpled horn; CRUMP'ET, a kind of crumby or soft cake or muffin.--_adj._ CRUMP'Y, crump: easily broken. [A.S. _crump_--_crumb_, crooked; Ger. _krumm_. Cf. CRAMP, CRIMP.] CRUMPLE, krump'l, _v.t._ to contort: to mark with or draw into folds or wrinkles: to crease.--_v.i._ to become wrinkled: to contract or shrink.--_adj._ CRUMP'LED.--_n._ CRUMP'LING. [Formed from CRUMP.] CRUNCH, krunsh, _v.t._ to crush with the teeth: to chew anything hard, and so make a noise.--_n._ the act of crunching. [From the sound; cf. Fr. _grincer_.] CRUNKLE, krunk'l, _v.i._ to crumple. CRUNT, krunt, _n._ (_Scot._) a blow on the head. CRUOR, kr[=oo]'or, _n._ coagulated blood.--_n._ CRU'ORINE, the red colouring matter of blood corpuscles. CRUP, krup, _adj._ (_prov._) brittle. CRUPPER, krup'[.e]r, _n._ a strap of leather fastened to the saddle and passing under the horse's tail to keep the saddle in its place: the hind part of a horse. [Fr. _cropière_--_crope_, the croup.] CRURAL, kr[=oo]'ral, _adj._ belonging to or shaped like a leg. [L. _cruralis_, from _crus_, _cruris_, the leg.] CRUSADE, kroo-s[=a]d', _n._ a military expedition under the banner of the cross to recover the Holy Land from the Turks: any daring or romantic undertaking.--_v.i._ to go on a crusade.--_n._ CRUSAD'ER, one engaged in a crusade. [Fr. _croisade_--Prov. _crozada_--_croz_, a cross--L. _crux_, a cross.] CRUSADO, kroo-s[=a]'do, _n._ a Portuguese coin, so called because marked with a cross. [Port. _cruzado_.] CRUSE, kr[=oo]z, _n._ an earthen pot: a small cup or bottle. [Cf. Ice. _krus_; Dan. _kruus_; Ger. _krause_.] CRUSET, kr[=oo]'set, _n._ a goldsmith's crucible. [Fr. _creuset_.] CRUSH, krush, _v.t._ to break or bruise: to squeeze together: to beat down or overwhelm: to subdue: to ruin.--_v.i._ to become broken under pressure.--_n._ a violet squeezing: a vast crowd of persons or things.--_adj._ CRUSHED, broken by pressure: subdued: oppressed.--_ns._ CRUSH'ER, he who, or that which, crushes or subdues: (_slang_) a policeman; CRUSH'-HAT, a hat so constructed as to collapse and become flat: an opera-hat.--_adj._ CRUSH'ING, bruising: overwhelming.--_adv._ CRUSH'INGLY.--_n._ CRUSH'-ROOM, a room in a theatre, &c., where the audience may promenade during the intervals of the entertainment.--CRUSH A CUP, to empty a cup: to quaff.--CRUSHED STRAWBERRY, of the colour of strawberries that have been crushed. [O. Fr. _croissir_; per. cog. with Mid. High Ger. _krosen_, to crunch.] CRUSIE, CRUSY, kr[=oo]z'i, _n._ (_Scot._) a lamp which burns oil. [From CRUSET.] CRUST, krust, _n._ the hard rind or outside coating of anything: the outer part of bread: covering of a pie, &c.: (_geol._) the solid exterior of the earth.--_v.t._ to cover with a crust or hard case.--_v.i._ to gather into a hard crust.--_adj._ CRUST[=A]T'ED, covered with a crust.--_n._ CRUST[=A]'TION, an adherent crust.--_adv._ CRUST'ILY.--_n._ CRUST'INESS.--_adj._ CRUST'Y, of the nature of or having a crust, as port or other wine: having a hard or harsh exterior: hard: snappy: surly. [O. Fr.,--L. _crusta_, rind.] CRUSTA, krus'ta, _n._ something, as a gem, prepared for inlaying: a hard coating: a cocktail served in a glass, its rim encrusted in sugar:--_pl._ CRUSTÆ ([=e]). CRUSTACEA, krus-t[=a]'shi-a, _n.pl._ a large class of Arthropod animals, almost all aquatic, including crabs, lobsters, shrimps, sand-hoppers, wood-lice, water-fleas, barnacles, acorn-shells, &c.--_n._ CRUST[=A]'CEAN, one of the crustacea.--_adj._ CRUSTACEOLOG'ICAL.--_ns._ CRUSTACEOL'OGIST; CRUSTACEOL'OGY, the science which treats of the crustacea.--_adjs._ CRUST[=A]'CEOUS, CRUST[=A]'CEAN, pertaining to the crustacea, or shellfish. CRUT, krut, _n._ (_prov._) a dwarf. CRUTCH, kruch, _n._ a staff with a cross-piece at the head to place under the arm of a lame person: any support like a crutch.--_v.t._ to support: to prop.--_v.i._ to go on crutches.--_adj._ CRUTCHED, marked by the sign of or wearing a cross.--_n.pl._ CRUTCHED'-FR[=I]'ARS, an order of friars so called from the sign of the cross which they wore--_Crouched-_ or _Crossed-friars_. [From root of CROOK; perh. modified by L. _crux_.] CRUX, kruks, _n._ a cross: (_fig._) something that occasions difficulty. [L. _crux_, a cross.] CRWTH, kröth, _n._ an old Welsh stringed instrument, four of its six strings played with a bow, two twitched by the thumb. [W.] CRY, kr[=i], _v.i._ to utter a shrill loud sound, esp. one expressive of pain or grief: to lament: to weep: to bawl.--_v.t._ to utter loudly: to proclaim or make public:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ cried.--_n._ any loud sound, esp. of grief or pain: a fit of weeping: a pack of hounds, hence of people: particular sound uttered by an animal: bawling: lamentation: prayer: clamour:--_pl._ CRIES.--_ns._ CR[=I]'ER; CRY'ING, act of calling loudly: weeping.--_adj._ calling loudly: claiming notice: notorious.--CRY AGAINST, to protest against; CRY DOWN, to condemn: to decry; CRY OFF, to withdraw from a bargain; CRY ON, to call upon: to invoke; CRY UP, to praise: extol.--A FAR CRY, a great distance; GREAT CRY AND LITTLE WOOL, appearance without reality: much ado about nothing; HUE AND CRY (see HUE); IN FULL CRY, in full pursuit, used of dogs in hunt; WITHIN CRY OF, within hearing distance. [Fr. _crier_--L. _quirit[=a]re_, to scream--freq. of L. _queri_, to lament.] CRYOLITE, kr[=i]'o-l[=i]t, _n._ a mineral found on the coast of Greenland, consisting mainly of a fluoride of aluminium in combination with fluoride of sodium. [Gr. _kryos_, frost, and _lithos_, a stone.] CRYOPHORUS, kr[=i]-of'o-rus, _n._ an instrument for showing the decrease of temperature in water by evaporation. [Gr. _kryos_, frost, and _pherein_, to bear.] CRYPT, kript, _n._ an underground cell or chapel, esp. one used for burial.--_adjs._ CRYP'TIC, -AL, hidden: secret: unseen. [L. _crypta_--Gr. _krypt[=e]_--_kryptein_, to conceal. Doublet of GROT.] CRYPTOGAMIA, krip-to-g[=a]'mi-a, _n._ the class of flowerless plants, or those which have their fructification concealed.--_n._ CRYP'TOGAM.--_adjs._ CRYPTOG[=A]'MIAN, CRYPTOGAM'IC, CRYPTOG'AMOUS.--_ns._ CRYPTOG'AMIST; CRYPTOG'AMY. [Gr. _kryptos_, concealed, and _gamos_, marriage.] CRYPTOGRAM, krip't[=o]-gram, _n._ a cryptograph.--_ns._ CRYPTAD'IA, things to be kept secret; CRYPTOL'OGY, secret language; CRYP'TONYM, a secret name. CRYPTOGRAPHY, krip-tog'ra-fi, _n._ the art of secret writing: the character or cipher so used.--_ns._ CRYPT'OGRAPH; CRYPTOG'RAPHER.--_adjs._ CRYPTOGRAPH'IC, -AL. [Gr. _kryptos_, secret, and _graphein_, to write.] CRYSTAL, kris'tal, _n._ a superior kind of quartz, clear like ice: (_chem._) a piece of matter which has assumed a definite geometrical form, with plane faces.--_adjs._ CRYS'TAL, CRYS'TALL[=I]NE, consisting of or like crystal in clearness, &c.; CRYS'TALFORM; CRYS'TALL[=I]SABLE, capable of being crystallised or formed into crystals.--_n._ CRYSTALL[=I]S[=A]'TION, the act of crystallising.--_v.t._ CRYS'TALL[=I]SE, to reduce to the form of a crystal.--_v.i._ to assume a crystalline form.--_ns._ CRYS'TALLITE; CRYSTALLOGEN'ESIS.--_adj._ CRYSTALLOGEN'IC.--_n._ CRYSTALLOG'RAPHER, one skilled in crystallography.--_adj._ CRYSTALLOGRAPH'IC--_n._ CRYSTALLOG'RAPHY, the science of crystallisation.--_adj._ CRYS'TALLOID, having the form of a crystal.--_n._ a name given by Graham to a class of substances which when in solution pass easily through membranes.--_n._ CRYS'TALLOMANCY, a mode of divination by means of transparent bodies. [O. Fr. _cristol_--L. _crystallum_--Gr. _krystallos_, ice--_kryos_, frost.] CTENOID, t[=e]'noid, _adj._ comb-shaped, applied by Agassiz to the scales and fins of certain fishes, as the perch, &c.--_adj._ and _n._ CTENOID'EAN. [Gr. _kteis_, _ktenos_, a comb, _eidos_, form.] CTENOPHORA, ten-of'o-ra, _n.pl._ a sub-class of Coelenterates--beautifully delicate, free-swimming marine organisms, generally globular, moving by means of comb-like plates. [Gr. _kteis_, _ktenos_, a comb, _pherein_, to carry.] CUB, kub, _n._ the young of certain animals, as foxes, &c.: a whelp: a young boy or girl (in contempt).--_v.i._ to bring forth young:--_pr.p._ cub'bing; _pa.p._ cubbed.--_adjs._ CUB'BISH, like a cub: awkward; CUB'-DRAWN (_Shak._), drawn or sucked by cubs.--_n._ CUB'HOOD.--_adj._ CUB'LESS, without cubs. [Prob. Celt., as Ir. _cuib_, a whelp, from _cu_, a dog.] CUB, kub, _n._ a cattle-pen: chest. CUBAN, k[=u]'ban, _n._ a native of the island of _Cuba_ in the West Indies.--_adj._ pertaining to Cuba. CUBE, k[=u]b, _n._ a solid body having six equal square faces, a solid square: the third power of a number, as--2 × 2 × 2 = 8.--_v.t._ to raise to the third power.--_ns._ C[=U]'BAGE, CUB[=A]'TION, C[=U]'BATURE, the act of finding the solid or cubic content of a body: the result thus found.--_adjs._ C[=U]'BIC, -AL, pertaining to a cube: of the third power or degree: solid.--_adv._ C[=U]'BICALLY.--_n._ C[=U]'BICALNESS, state or quality of being cubical.--_adjs._ C[=U]'BIFORM; C[=U]'BOID, CUBOID'AL, resembling a cube in shape.--CUBE ROOT, the number or quantity that produces a given cube by being raised to the third power--thus 2 is the cube root of 8. [Fr.,--L. _cubus_--Gr. _kybos_, a die.] CUBEB, k[=u]'beb, _n._ the dried berry of _Piper cubeba_, a climbing shrub, native to Sumatra--useful as a stomachic and carminative in indigestion, for piles and for sore throats.--_n._ CUBEB'IN, a crystallising substance in cubebs. [Fr. _cubèbe_--Ar. _kab[=a]bah_.] CUBICA, k[=u]'bi-ka, _n._ a fine worsted for linings. CUBICLE, k[=u]'bi-kl, _n._ a bedroom. CUBIT, k[=u]'bit, _n._ a measure employed by the ancients, equal to the length of the arm from the elbow to the tip of the middle-finger, from 18 to 22 inches--also C[=U]'BITUS.--_adj._ C[=U]'BITAL, of the length of a cubit. [L. _cubitum_, the elbow; cf. L. _cub[=a]re_, to lie down.] CUCKING-STOOL, kuk'ing-st[=oo]l, _n._ a stool in which scolds and other culprits were placed, usually before their own door, to be pelted by the mob. [Mentioned in Domesday Book as in use in Chester, and called _cathedra stercoris_. From an obs. word _cuck_, to ease one's self; cf. Ice. _kúka_.] CUCKOLD, kuk'old, _n._ a man whose wife has proved unfaithful.--_v.t._ to wrong (a husband) by unchastity.--_v.t._ CUCK'OLDISE, to make a cuckold.--_adv._ CUCK'OLDLY (_Shak._).--_ns._ CUCK'OLD-MAK'ER; CUCK'OLDOM, state of a cuckold: act of adultery; CUCK'OLDRY, adultery. [O. Fr. _cucuault_--_cucu_, cuckoo.] CUCKOO, kook'k[=oo], _n._ a bird which cries cuckoo, remarkable for laying its eggs in the nests of other birds.--_ns._ CUCK'OO-BUD (_Shak._), name of a plant; CUCK'OO-CLOCK, a clock in which the hours are told by a cuckoo-call; CUCK'OO-FLOW'ER, a species of Cardamine--called also _Lady's Smock_; CUCK'OO-PINT, the Wake-robin, _Arum maculatum_; CUCK'OO-SPIT, -SPIT'TLE, a frothy spittle, made by many insects parasitic on plants, surrounding the larvæ and pupæ. CUCULLATE, -D, k[=u]'kul-l[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ hooded: shaped like a hood. [L. _cucullatus_--_cucullus_, a hood.] CUCUMBER, k[=u]'kum-b[.e]r, _n._ a creeping plant, with heart-shaped leaves, rough with bristly hairs, and large oblong fruit used as a salad and pickle--a native of southern Asia.--_adj._ CUCUM'IFORM. [L. _cucumis_, _cucumeris_.] CUCURBIT, k[=u]'kur-bit, _n._ a chemical vessel used in distillation, originally shaped like a gourd.--_adjs._ CUCUR'BITAL, CUCURBIT[=A]'CEOUS, pertaining to the _Cucurbitaceæ_, mostly herbaceous climbers, as the gourd, melon, &c.; CUCUR'BITIVE, like a gourd-seed. [Fr. _cucurbite_--L. _cucurbita_, a gourd.] CUD, kud, _n._ the food brought from the first stomach of a ruminating animal back into the mouth and chewed again.--_n._ CUD'WEED, the popular name for many species of plants covered with a cottony down.--CHEW THE CUD, to meditate. [A.S. _cwidu_.] CUDBEAR, kud'b[=a]r, _n._ a purple or violet coloured powder prepared from a lichen, used in dyeing. [A corr. of _Cuthbert_--from Dr _Cuthbert_ Gordon, who first made it an article of commerce.] CUDDLE, kud'l, _v.t._ to hug: to embrace: to fondle.--_v.i._ to lie close and snug together.--_n._ a close embrace. [Perh. a freq. of M. E. _couth_, cosy.] CUDDY, kud'i, _n._ a small cabin or cookroom, in the fore-part of a boat or lighter: in large vessels, the officers' cabin under the poopdeck. [Origin uncertain; cf. Fr. _cahute_; Dut. _kajuit_; Ger. _kajüte_.] CUDDY, kud'i, _n._ the right of a lord to entertainment from his tenant: rent: (_Spens._) _Cuddeehih_. [Corr. of Ir. _cuid oidhche_--_cuid_, a share, _oidhche_, night.] CUDDY, CUDDIE, kud'i, _n._ a donkey: (_Scot._) a stupid person. [Perh. formed from _Cuthbert_.] CUDGEL, kud'jel, _n._ a heavy staff: a club.--_v.t._ to beat with a cudgel:--_pr.p._ cud'gelling; _pa.p._ cud'gelled.--_ns._ CUD'GELLER; CUD'GELLING.--_adj._ CUD'GEL-PROOF, not to be hurt by beating.--TAKE UP THE CUDGELS, to engage in a contest. [A.S. _cycgel_.] CUE, k[=u], _n._ the last words of an actor's speech serving as a hint to the next speaker: any hint: the part one has to play. [Acc. to some from Fr. _queue_, tail, as the ending words of the last speech; in 17th cent. written Q, and derived from L. _quando_, 'when,' i.e. when the actor was to begin.] CUE, k[=u], _n._ a twist of hair at the back of the head: a rod used in playing billiards.--_v.t._ of the hair, to form in a cue. [Fr. _queue_--L. _cauda_, a tail.] CUFF, kuf, _n._ a stroke with the open hand.--_v.t._ to strike with the open hand: to beat. [Origin obscure; cf. Sw. _kuffa_, to knock.] CUFF, kuf, _n._ the end of the sleeve near the wrist: a covering for the wrist: a handcuff (q.v.). [Prob. cog. with COIF.] CUFF, kuf, _n._ Scotch form of SCRUFF.--CUFF OF THE NECK. See SCRUFF. CUFFIN, kuf'in, _n._ a man: a justice of the peace. [Thieves' slang.] CUFIC, k[=u]f'ik, _adj._ of or pertaining to Cufa, esp. applied to the kind of writing of the scholars of _Cufa_ in Asiatic Turkey, seat of the most expert copyists of the Koran. CUIRASS, kwi-ras', or k[=u]-, _n._ a defensive covering for the breast and back, of leather or iron fastened with straps and buckles, &c.--_v.t._ to furnish with such.--_n._ CUIRASSIER', a horse-soldier armed with such. [Fr. _cuirasse_--_cuir_, leather--L. _corium_, skin leather.] CUIR-BOUILLI, kw[=e]r-b[=oo]'lyi, _n._ leather softened by boiling, then dried, retaining the impressions made on it.--Also CUIR-BOUILLY. CUISINE, kwe-z[=e]n', _n._ a kitchen or cooking department: cookery.--_n._ CUISIN'IER, a cook. [Fr. (It. _cucina_)--L. _coquina_--_coqu[)e]re_, to cook.] CUISSE, kwis, CUISH, kwish, _n._ armour for the thighs, consisting of iron plates laid horizontally over each other and riveted together. [Fr. _cuisse_ (It. _coscia_, the thigh)--L. _coxa_, the hip.] CUITER, küt'[.e]r, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to fondle, pamper. CUITTLE, küt'l, _v.t._ to curry: (_Scot._) to cajole. CULCH, kulch, _n._ (_prov._) rubbish. CULDEE, kul'd[=e], _n._ one of a fraternity of monks living in Scotland in the 8th century in groups of cells. [Acc. to Reeves and Skene, the old Ir. _céle dé_, 'servants of God,' or 'companions of God'--Latinised by Boece into _Culdei_, as if _cultores Dei_.] CUL-DE-FOUR, k[=oo]-de-foor, _n._ (_archit._) a sort of low spherical vault, oven-like.--_ns._ CUL-DE-LAMPE, an ornamental design used in filling up blank spaces in a book; CUL-DE-SAC, a street, &c., closed at one end: a blind alley. [Fr. _cul_, bottom--L. _culus_; Fr. _four_, furnace, _lampe_, lamp, _sac_, sack.] CULET, k[=u]'let, _n._ the small flat surface at the back or bottom of a brilliant: the part of armour protecting the body behind, from the waist downwards--also CULETTE. [O. Fr., _cul_--L. _culus_, the rump.] CULEX, k[=u]'leks, _n._ the typical genus of _Culicidæ_ or gnats--_adj._ CULIC'IFORM, gnat-like. [L.] CULINARY, k[=u]'lin-ar-i, _adj._ pertaining to the kitchen or to cookery: used in the kitchen. [L. _culinarius_--_culina_, a kitchen.] CULL, kul, _v.t._ to select, pick out.--_ns._ CULL'ER; CULL'ING. [Fr. _cueillir_, to gather--L. _collig[)e]re_--_col_, together, _leg[)e]re_, to gather. Doublet of COLLECT.] CULLENDER. See COLANDER. CULLET, kul'et, _n._ refuse glass. CULLION, kul'yun, _n._ a wretch: a cowardly fellow.--_adj._ CULL'IONLY (_Shak._), mean, base. [Fr. _couillon_, a poltroon (It. _coglione_)--L. _coleus_, a leather bag.] CULLIS, kul'is, _n._ a gutter in a roof: a groove, as for a side-scene in a theatre. [Fr. _coulisse_.] CULLY, kul'i, _n._ a mean dupe.--_v.t._ to deceive meanly:--_pa.p._ cull'ied.--_ns._ CULL, a dupe; CULL'YISM, state of being a cully. [Prob. a contr. of CULLION.] CULM, kulm, _n._ the stalk or stem of corn or of grasses.--_v.i._ to form a culm.--_adj._ CULMIF'EROUS, having a culm. [L. _culmus_, a stalk.] CULM, kulm, _n._ coal-dust: name given in some parts of England to anthracite or stone-coal.--_adj._ CULMIF'EROUS, producing culm. [See COOM.] CULMEN, kul'men, _n._ highest point: the median length-wise ridge of a bird's upper mandible. [L.] CULMINATE, kul'min-[=a]t, _v.i._ (_astron._) to be vertical or at the highest point of altitude: to reach the highest point (with _in_).--_adj._ CUL'MINANT, at its highest point.--_n._ CULMIN[=A]'TION, act of culminating: the top: (_astron._) transit of a body across the meridian or highest point for the day. [Low L. _culmin[=a]re_, from L. _culmen_, properly _columen_, a summit.] CULOTTIC, kul-ot'ic, _adj._ wearing trousers: (_Carlyle_) respectable. [Fr. _culotte_, breeches.] CULPABLE, kul'pa-bl, _adj._ faulty: criminal.--_ns._ CULPABIL'ITY, CUL'PABLENESS, liability to blame.--_adv._ CUL'PABLY.--_adj._ CUL'PATORY, expressive of blame. [O. Fr. _coupable_--L. _culpabilis_--_culpa_, a fault.] CULPRIT, kul'prit, _n._ one in fault: a criminal: (_Eng. law_) a prisoner accused but not yet tried. [From the fusion in legal phraseology of _cul._ (_culpable_, _culpabilis_), and _prit_, _prist_ (O. Fr. _prest_), ready. Not _culpate_--law L. _culpatus_, a person accused.] CULT, kult, _n._ a system of religious belief, worship.--Also CULT'US. [L. _cultus_--_col[)e]re_, to worship.] CULTER, kul't[.e]r, _n._ obsolete form of COULTER.--_adjs._ CULTIROS'TRAL, CULTUROS'TRAL; CUL'TRATE, -D, shaped like a pruning-knife; CUL'TRIFORM, in the form of a pruning-knife: sharp-edged. CULTISM, kult'ism, _n._ a style of writing after the manner of Luis de Góngora y Argote (1561-1627), a Spanish lyric poet--_estilo culto_, being florid, pedantic, often obscure.--_ns._ CULT'IST, CULT'ORIST. [Sp. _culte_, elegant--L. _cultus_.] CULTIVATE, kul'ti-v[=a]t, _v.i._ to till or produce by tillage: to prepare for crops: to devote attention to: to civilise or refine.--_adjs._ CUL'TIVABLE, CULTIVAT'ABLE, capable of being cultivated.--_ns._ CULTIV[=A]'TION, the art or practice of cultivating: civilisation: refinement; CUL'TIVATOR.--CULTIVATE A PERSON'S FRIENDSHIP, to endeavour to get his good-will. [Low L. _cultiv[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--L. _col[)e]re_, to till, to worship.] CULTURE, kul't[=u]r, _n._ cultivation: the state of being cultivated: refinement the result of cultivation.--_v.t._ to cultivate: to improve.--_adjs._ CUL'TURABLE; CUL'TURAL.--_p.adj._ CUL'TURED, cultivated: well educated: refined.--_adj._ CUL'TURELESS. [L. _cult[=u]ra_--_col[)e]re_.] CULTUS. See CULT. CULVER, kul'v[.e]r, _n._ a dove: a pigeon.--_n._ CUL'VER-KEY, an herb, probably the columbine, having key-shaped flowerets.--_adj._ CUL'VERTAILED, dovetailed. [A.S. _culfre_, prob. from L. _columba_.] CULVERIN, kul'v[.e]r-in, _n._ one of the earlier forms of cannon of great length, generally an 18-pounder, weighing 50 cwt.--_ns._ CUL'VERINEER; DEM'I-CUL'VERIN, a 9-pounder, weighing 30 cwt. [Fr. _coulevrine_, from _couleuvre_, a serpent.] CULVER'S PHYSIC, ROOT, _n._ popular name of a kind of speedwell, the rhizome of _Veronica virginica_, used medicinally. [Prob. from one Dr _Culver_.] CULVERT, kul'v[.e]rt, _n._ an arched channel of masonry for carrying water beneath a road, railway, &c. [Perh. from Fr. _couler_, to flow--L. _col[=a]re_.] CULVERTAGE, kul'ver-t[=a]j, _n._ degradation of a vassal to the position of a serf. [O. Fr. _culvert_, a serf.] CUMBENT, kum'bent, _adj._ lying down; reclining. [L. _cumbens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _cumb[)e]re_, to lie down.] CUMBER, kum'b[.e]r, _v.t._ to trouble or hinder with something useless: to retard, trouble.--_n._ encumbrance: cumbering.--_adj._ CUM'BERED, hampered: obstructed.--_ns._ CUM'BERER; CUM'BER-GROUND, a useless thing, from Luke, xiii. 7.--_adj._ CUM'BERLESS, unencumbered.--_ns._ CUM'BERMENT, CUM'BRANCE, encumbrance.--_adjs._ CUM'BERSOME, unwieldy: heavy; CUM'BROUS, hindering: obstructing: heavy.--_adv._ CUM'BROUSLY.--_n._ CUM'BROUSNESS. [O. Fr. _combrer_, to hinder--Low L. _cumbrus_, a heap; corr. of L. _cumulus_, a heap.] CUMBRIAN, kum'bri-an, _adj._ (_geol._) of or pertaining to a system of slaty rocks best developed in Cumberland and Westmorland, now merged in the Cambrian or Silurian system. CUMIN, CUMMIN, kum'in, _n._ an umbelliferous plant, common in Egypt, and cultivated in southern Europe and India--its seeds, resembling the caraway, valuable as carminatives. [L. _cuminum_--Gr. _kyminon_, cog. with Heb. _kammôn_.] CUMMER, kum'[.e]r, KIMMER, kim'[.e]r, _n._ a gossip: a woman: (_Scot._) a girl. [Fr. _commère_--L. _con_, with, _mater_, mother.] CUMMERBUND, kum'[.e]r-bund, _n._ a waist-belt, a sash. [Anglo-Ind.--Pers. _kamarband_, a loin-band.] CUMSHAW, kum'shaw, _n._ a gift, a tip. [Pidgin-English.] CUMULATE, k[=u]m'[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to heap together: to accumulate.--_adjs._ CUM'ULATE, -D, heaped up.--_n._ CUMUL[=A]'TION (= _Accumulation_).--_adj._ CUM'ULATIVE, increasing by successive additions.--_adv._ CUM'ULATIVELY. [L. _cumul[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_cumulus_, a heap.] CUMULUS, k[=u]'m[=u]-lus, _n._ a heap; a kind of cloud common in summer, consisting of rounded heaps with a darker horizontal base.--_adjs._ C[=U]'MULIFORM; C[=U]'MULOSE.--_n._ C[=U]'MULO-STR[=A]'TUS, a cloud looking like a combination of the _cumulus_ and _stratus_. [L. _cumulus_, a heap, and _stratus_.] CUNABULA, k[=u]-nab'ul-a, _n.pl._ a cradle. [L.] CUNARDER, k[=u]n-ard'[.e]r, _n._ one of a certain line of steamships between England and America. [Founded by Sir Samuel _Cunard_ (1787-1865).] CUNCTATOR, kungk-t[=a]'tor, _n._ one who delays or puts off.--_n._ CUNCT[=A]'TION, delay.--_adjs._ CUNCT[=A]'TIOUS, CUNCT[=A]'TIVE, CUNCT[=A]'TORY, inclined to delay. [L.,--_cunct[=a]ri_, to delay.] CUNEAL, k[=u]'ne-al, CUNEATE, k[=u]'ne-[=a]t, _adj._ of the form of a wedge.--_adjs._ CUN[=E]'IFORM, C[=U]'NIFORM, wedge-shaped--specially applied to the old Babylonian and Assyrian writing, of which the characters have a wedge-shape. [L. _cuneus_, a wedge.] CUNETTE. See CUVETTE. CUNNING, kun'ing, _adj._ knowing: skilful: artful: crafty.--_n._ knowledge: skill: faculty of using stratagem to accomplish a purpose: artifice.--_adv._ CUNN'INGLY.--_n._ CUNN'INGNESS, quality of being cunning: artfulness, slyness. [A.S. _cunnan_, to know.] CUP, kup, _n._ a vessel used to contain liquid: a drinking-vessel: the liquid contained in a cup: that which we must receive or undergo: afflictions: blessings.--_v.i._ to extract blood from the body by means of cupping-glasses: (_Shak._) to make drunk:--_pr.p._ cup'ping; _pa.p._ cupped.--_ns._ CUP'-BEAR'ER, one who attends at a feast to fill out and hand the wine; CUPBOARD (kub'urd), a place for keeping victuals, dishes, &c.--_v.t._ to store.--_ns._ CUP'BOARD-LOVE, -FAITH, love or faith indulged in for a material end; CUP'FUL, as much as fills a cup:--_pl._ CUP'FULS; CUP'-GALL, a cup-shaped gall in oak-leaves; CUP'-L[=I]'CHEN, or -MOSS, a species of _Cladonia_; CUP'MAN, a boon companion; CUP'PER, a cup-bearer: one professionally engaged in cupping; CUP'PING, the application of cups from which the air has been exhausted to a scarified part of the skin for the purpose of drawing blood; CUP'PING-GLASS, a glass used in the operation of cupping; DRY'-CUP'PING, the application of cups without previous scarification; LOV'ING-CUP, a cup (from which all drink) passed round at the close of a feast.--CRY CUPBOARD, to cry for food; IN HIS CUPS, under the influence of liquor; MANY A SLIP BETWEEN THE CUP AND THE LIP, a proverb signifying that something adverse may occur at the last moment. [A.S. _cuppe_ (Fr. _coupe_, It. _coppa_, a cup, the head); all from L. _cupa_, _cuppa_, a tub.] CUPEL, k[=u]'pel, _n._ a small vessel used by goldsmiths in assaying precious metals.--_v.t._ to assay in a cupel.--_n._ CUPELL[=A]'TION, the process of assaying precious metals. [L. _cupella_, dim. of _cupa_. See CUP.] CUPIDITY, k[=u]-pid'i-ti, _n._ covetousness.--_n._ C[=U]'PID, the god of love. [L. _cupiditas_--_cup[)e]re_, to desire.] CUPOLA, k[=u]'po-la, _n._ a spherical vault, or concave ceiling, on the top of a building: the internal part of a dome: a dome.--_v.t._ to furnish with such. [It.; dim. of Low L. _cupa_, a cup--L. _cupa_, a tub.] CUPREOUS, k[=u]p'r[=e]-us, CUPRIC, k[=u]p'rik, _adj._ of or containing copper.--_adj._ CUPRIF'EROUS, producing copper.--_n._ C[=U]'PRITE, the red oxide of copper. [L. _cuprum_, copper, _ferre_, to bear.] CUPRESSUS, k[=u]-pres'us, _n._ the cypress genus of coniferous trees. [L.] CUPULE, k[=u]'p[=u]l, _n._ (_bot._) a shortened axis with a number of more or less cohering bracts enclosing the ripening fruit--also C[=U]'PULA.--_adj._ CUPULIF'EROUS, bearing cupules. [L. _cupula_, dim. of _cupa_, a tub, and _ferre_, to carry.] CUR, kur, _n._ a worthless dog, of low breed: a churlish fellow.--_adj._ CUR'RISH.--_adv._ CUR'RISHLY.--_n._ CUR'RISHNESS. [M. E. _curre_; cf. Old Dut. _korre_, Dan. _kurre_, to whir.] CURAÇOA, koo-ra-s[=o]'a, _n._ a liqueur so named from the island of _Curaçao_ in the West Indies, where it was first made.--Also CURAÇA'O. CURARI, koo-rä'ri, _n._ a poison used by South American Indians for their arrows--also CURA'RA.--_n._ CURA'RINE, a highly poisonous alkaloid extracted from curari. [From the native name.] CURASSOW, k[=u]-ras'[=o], _n._ a large turkey-like South American bird. CURATE, k[=u]r'[=a]t, _n._ one who has the cure of souls: an inferior clergyman in the Church of England, assisting a rector or vicar.--_ns._ CUR'ACY, CUR'ATESHIP, the office, employment, or benefice of a curate. [Low L. _curatus_, from L. _cura_, care.] CURATOR, k[=u]r-[=a]'tor, _n._ one who has the charge of anything: a superintendent: one appointed by law as guardian: a member of a board for electing university professors and the like:--_fem._ CUR[=A]'TRIX.--_n._ CUR[=A]'TORSHIP, the office of a curator. [L. _curator_, an overseer--_cur[=a]re_, to cure.] CURB, kurb, _v.t._ to bend to one's will: to subdue: to restrain or check: to furnish with or guide by a curb.--_n._ that which curbs: a check or hinderance: a chain or strap attached to the bit of a bridle for restraining the horse.--_adjs._ CURB'ABLE; CURB'LESS.--_ns._ CURB'-ROOF, a roof whose upper rafters have a less inclination than the lower ones; CURB'STONE, KERB'STONE, a stone placed edgeways against earth or stone work to check it. [Fr. _courber_, from L. _curvus_, crooked, bent.] CURCH, kurch, _n._ a covering for the head, a kerchief. CURCULIO, kur-k[=u]'li-o, _n._ the fruit-weevil. [L.] CURCUMA, kur'k[=u]-ma, _n._ a genus of plants yielding turmeric.--_n._ CUR'CUMINE, the colouring matter of turmeric. [Fr.,--Ar. _kurkum_, saffron.] CURD, kurd, _n._ milk thickened or coagulated: the cheese part of milk, as distinguished from the whey.--_n._ CURD'INESS.--_v.i._ CURD'LE, to turn into curd: to congeal: to thicken.--_v.t._ to congeal.--_adj._ CURD'Y, like or full of curd. [Prob. Celt.; Gael. _gruth_, Ir. _cruth_.] CURE, k[=u]r, _n._ care of souls or spiritual charge: care of the sick: act of healing: that which heals: a remedy, or course of remedial treatment.--_v.t._ to heal: to preserve, as by drying, salting, &c.:--_pr.p._ c[=u]r'ing; _pa.p._ c[=u]red.--_adj._ CUR'ABLE, that may be cured.--_ns._ CUR'ABLENESS, CURABIL'ITY, quality of being curable; CURE'-ALL, a panacea.--_adjs._ CUR'ATIVE, CUR'ATORY, tending to cure; CURE'LESS, that cannot be cured.--_ns._ CUR'ER, one who cures: a physician; CUR'ING-HOUSE, a house or place in which anything is cured, esp. a building in which sugar is drained, as in the West Indies. [O. Fr. _cure_---L. _cura_, care; not the same as CARE.] CURÉ, k[=u]'r[=a], _n._ a parish priest in France. CURFEW, kur'f[=u], _n._ in feudal times the ringing of a bell at eight o'clock, as a signal to put out all fires and lights. [O. Fr. _covrefeu_; _couvrir_, to cover, _feu_, fire--L. _focus_.] CURIA, k[=u]'ri-a, _n._ one of the ten divisions of a Roman tribe: a building in which the senate met, a provincial senate: a court, legislative or judicial: the court of the papal see.--_ns._ C[=U]'RIALISM; C[=U]'RIALIST.--_adj._ CURIALIST'IC. [L.] CURIET, k[=u]'ri-et, _n._ (_Spens._) a cuirass. CURIO, k[=u]'ri-o, _n._ any article of virtu or bric-à-brac, or anything considered rare and curious.--_n._ CURI[=O]'SO, a collector or admirer of curios. CURIOUS, k[=u]'ri-us, _adj._ anxious to learn: inquisitive: showing great care or nicety: skilfully made: singular: rare.--_n._ CURIOS'ITY, state or quality of being curious: inquisitiveness: that which is curious: anything rare or unusual.--_adv._ C[=U]'RIOUSLY.--_n._ C[=U]'RIOUSNESS.--CURIOUS ARTS (_B._), magical practices. [Fr. _curieux_--L. _curiosus_--_cura_.] [Illustration] CURL, kurl, _v.t._ to twist into ringlets: to coil.--_v.i._ to shrink into ringlets: to rise in undulations: to writhe: to ripple: to play at the game of curling.--_n._ a ringlet of hair, or what is like it: a wave, bending, or twist.--_adjs._ CURLED; CURLED'-PATE (_Shak_.), having curled hair.--_ns._ CURL'ER, one who, or that which, curls: a player at the game of curling; CURL'ICUE, a fantastic curl; CURL'IEWURLIE (_Scot._), any fantastic round ornament; CURL'INESS; CURL'ING, a game, common in Scotland, consisting in hurling heavy smooth stones along a sheet of ice.--_ns.pl._ CURL'ING [=I]'RONS, CURL'ING-TONGS, an iron instrument used for curling the hair.--_n._ CURL'ING-STONE, a heavy stone with a handle, used in curling.--_adjs._ CURL'Y, having curls: full of curls; CURL'Y-HEAD'ED. [M. E. _crull_; Dut. _krullen_, Dan. _krolle_, to curl.] CURLEW, kur'l[=u], _n._ one of the wading-birds, having a very long slender bill and legs, and a short tail. [O. Fr. _corlieu_; prob. from its cry.] CURMUDGEON, kur-muj'un, _n._ an avaricious, ill-natured fellow: a miser.--_adj._ CURMUD'GEONLY. [Earlier _corn-mudgin_; _mudge_, _mooch_; M. E. _muchen_--O. Fr. _mucier_, to hide.] CURMURRING, kur-mur'ing, _n._ a rumbling sound, esp. that made in the bowels by flatulence. [Imit.] CURR, kur, _v.i._ to cry like an owl, to purr like a cat, &c. [Imit.] CURRACH, -AGH, kur'ach, _n._ a coracle. [Gael.] CURRANT, kur'ant, _n._ a small kind of raisin or dried grape imported from the Levant: the fruit of several species of ribes.--_ns._ CURR'ANT-JELL'Y; CURR'ANT-WINE. [From _Corinth_.] CURRENT, kur'ent, _adj._ running or flowing: passing from person to person: generally received: now passing: present.--_n._ a running or flowing: a stream: a portion of water or air moving in a certain direction: course.--_n._ CURR'ENCY, circulation: that which circulates, as the money of a country: general estimation.--_adv._ CURR'ENTLY.--_n._ CURR'ENTNESS, state of being current: general acceptance.--PASS CURRENT, to be received as genuine. [L. _currens_, _-ent-is_--_curr[)e]re_), to run.] CURRICLE, kur-i'kl, _n._ a two-wheeled open chaise, drawn by two horses abreast: a chariot.--_n._ CURRIC'ULUM, a course, esp. the course of study at a university. [L. _curriculum_, from _curr[)e]re_.] CURRISH, CURRISHLY, &c. See CUR. CURRY, kur'i, _n._ a kind of sauce or seasoning much used in India, compounded of pepper, ginger, and other spices: a stew mixed with curry-powder.--_n._ CURR'Y-POW'DER. [Tamil _kari_, sauce.] CURRY, kur'i, _v.t._ to dress leather: to rub down and dress a horse: to beat: to scratch:--_pr.p._ curr'ying; _pa.p._ curr'ied.--_ns._ CURR'IER, one who curries or dresses tanned leather; CURR'Y-COMB, an iron instrument or comb used for currying or cleaning horses; CURR'YING.--CURRY FAVOUR (corruption of CURRY FAVELL, to curry the chestnut horse), to seek favour by flattery. [O. Fr. _correier_ (mod. _corroyer_), _conrei_, outfit, from a supposed Low L. form _conred[=a]re_, _con-_, with, _r[=e]d[=a]re_, seen in Array.] CURRY, CURRIE, obsolete forms of QUARRY. CURSE, kurs, _v.t._ to invoke or wish evil upon: to devote to perdition: to vex or torment.--_v.i._ to utter imprecations: to swear.--_n._ the invocation or wishing of evil or harm upon: evil invoked on another: torment: any great evil.--_adj._ CURS'ED, under a curse: blasted by a curse: hateful.--_adv._ CURS'EDLY.--_ns._ CURS'EDNESS; CURS'ER; CURS'ING.--_adj._ CURST, cursed: deserving a curse: ill-tempered: shrewish: froward.--_n._ CURST'NESS, state of being curst: peevishness: frowardness. [A.S. _cursian_--_curs_, a curse; ety. dub.; not conn. with Cross.] CURSITOR, kur'si-tor, _n._ a clerk or officer in the Court of Chancery who makes out original writs. [Low L. _cursitor_, from the words '_de cursu_,' applied in the statute to ordinary writs.] CURSIVE, kur'siv, _adj._ written with a running hand, of handwriting: flowing.--_adv._ CUR'SIVELY. [Low L. _cursivus_--L. _curr[)e]re_, to run.] CURSORIAL, kur-s[=o]'ri-al, _adj._ adapted for running.--_n.pl._ CURS[=O]'RES, an order of birds variously limited. CURSORY, kur'sor-i, _adj._ hasty: superficial: careless.--_adj._ CUR'SORARY (_Shak._), cursory.--_adv._ CUR'SORILY.--_n._ CUR'SORINESS. [L. _curr[)e]re_, _cursum_, to run.] CURST. See CURSE. CURSUS, kur'sus, _n._ a race-course: a form of daily prayer or service; an academic curriculum. [L.] CURT, kurt, _adj._ short: concise: discourteously brief or summary.--_adj._ CURT'[=A]TE, shortened or reduced; applied to the distance of a planet from the sun or earth reduced to the plane of the ecliptic.--_n._ CURT[=A]'TION.--_adv._ CURT'LY.--_n._ CURT'NESS. [L. _curtus_, shortened.] CURTAIL, kur-t[=a]l', _v.t._ to cut short: to cut off a part: to abridge:--_pr.p._ curtail'ing; _pa.p._ curtailed'.--_ns._ CURTAIL'MENT; CURTAIL'-STEP, the rounded step at the bottom of a stair. [Old spelling _curtal_, O. Fr. _courtault_ (It. _cortaldo_)--L. _curtus_.] CURTAIN, kur'tin, _n._ drapery hung round and enclosing a bed, &c.: the part of a rampart between two bastions.--_v.t._ to enclose or furnish with curtains.--_n._ CUR'TAIN-LEC'TURE, a lecture or reproof given in bed by a wife to her husband.--BEHIND THE CURTAIN, away from public view; DRAW THE CURTAIN, to draw it aside, so as to show what is behind, or in front of anything so as to hide it. [O. Fr. _cortine_--Low L. _cortina_; prob. L. _cors_, _cortis_, a court.] CURTAL, kur'tal, _n._ a horse with a curt or docked tail: anything docked or cut short.--_adj._ docked or shortened.--_n._ CUR'TAL-FR[=I]'AR (_Scott_), a friar with a short frock. [Fr. _courtaud_--_court_. See CURTAIL.] CURTAL-AX, kur'tal-aks, CURT-AXE, kurt'aks, _n._ (_Spens._), a short, broad sword. [A corr. of the earlier forms _coutelas_, _curtelas_. See CUTLASS.] CURTILAGE, kur'til-[=a]j, _n._ a court attached to a dwelling-house. [O. Fr. _courtillage_. See COURT.] CURTSY, CURTSEY, kurt'si, _n._ an obeisance, made by bending the knees, proper to women and children.--_v.i._ to make a curtsy. [See COURTESY.] CURULE, k[=u]'r[=oo]l, _adj._ applied to a chair in which the higher Roman magistrates had a right to sit. [L. _curulis_--_currus_, a chariot.] CURVE, kurv, _n._ anything bent: a bent or curved line: an arch.--_v.t._ to bend: to form into a curve.--_adjs._ CUR'V[=A]TE, -D, curved or bent in a regular form.--_n._ CURV[=A]'TION.--_adj._ CUR'VATIVE.--_n._ CUR'VATURE, a curving or bending: the continual bending or the amount of bending from a straight line.--_adjs._ CURVED; CUR'VICAUDATE, having a crooked tail; CURVICOS'TATE, having curved ribs; CURVIF[=O]'LIATE, having curved leaves; CUR'VIFORM; CUR'VING; CURVIROS'TRAL, with the bill curved downward; CUR'VITAL, of or pertaining to curvature.--_n._ CUR'VITY, the state of being curved. [L. _curvus_, crooked.] CURVET, kur'vet, kur-vet', _n._ a light leap of a horse in which he raises his forelegs together, next the hindlegs with a spring before the forelegs touch the ground: a leap, frolic.--_v.i._ (kur-vet', kur'vet) to leap in curvets: to frisk:--_pr.p._ curvet'ting, curvet'ing; _pa.p._ cur'veted. [It. _corvetta_, dim. of _corvo_--L. _curvus_.] CURVILINEAR, kur-vi-lin'i-ar, CURVILINEAL, kur-vi-lin'i-al, _adj._ bounded by curved lines.--_n._ CURVILINEAR'ITY. [L. _curvus_, and _linearis_--_linea_, a line.] CUSCUS, kus'kus, _n._ the grain of the African millet. Same as COUSCOUS. [Fr. _couscou_.] CUSCUS, kus'kus, _n._ the fibrous root of an Indian grass, used for making fans, &c. [Pers. _khas khas_.] CUSHAT, koosh'at, _n._ the ringdove or wood-pigeon. [A.S. _cúscute_, the former part of dub. origin, the latter derived from _scéotan_, to shoot.] CUSHION, koosh'un, _n._ a case filled with some soft, elastic stuff, for resting on: a pillow: the 'pillow' used in making bone-lace: an engraver's pad: the rubber of an electrical machine: a pad supporting a woman's hair: the elastic lining of the inner side of a billiard-table: a body of steam remaining in the cylinder of a steam-engine, acting as a buffer to the piston.--_v.t._ to seat on or furnish with a cushion.--_p.adj._ CUSH'IONED, furnished with a cushion, padded: having cushion-tires.--_ns._ CUSH'IONET, a little cushion; CUSH'ION-TIRE, a bicycle tire made of india-rubber tubing, with india-rubber stuffing.--_adj._ CUSH'IONY, like a cushion, soft. [O. Fr. _coissin_--L. _coxinum_, _coxa_, hip.] CUSK, kusk, _n._ the torsk: the burbot. CUSP, kusp, _n._ a point: the point or horn of the moon, &c.: (_archit._) a small projecting ornament common in Gothic tracery.--_adjs._ CUS'PID[=A]TE, -D (_bot._), having a sharp end, as the canine teeth. [L. _cuspis_, _cuspid-is_, a point.] CUSPIDOR, kus'pi-dor, _n._ a spittoon.--Also CUS'PIDORE. [Port.,--L. _conspu[)e]re_, to spit upon.] CUSS, kus, _n._ (_slang_) a fellow: an expletive.--_adj._ CUSS'ED, cursed.--_n._ CUSS'EDNESS, contrariness. [Obviously CURSE; prob. in the personal sense with a supposed reference to CUSTOMER.] CUSTARD, kus'tard, _n._ a composition of milk, eggs, &c., sweetened and flavoured.--_ns._ CUS'TARD-APP'LE, the fruit of a West Indian tree, having an eatable pulp, like a custard; CUS'TARD-COFF'IN (_Shak._), the paste or crust which covers a custard. [Earlier _custade_, a corr. of _crustade_, a pie with crust. See CRUST.] CUSTODY, kus'to-di, _n._ a watching or guarding: care: security: imprisonment.--_adj._ CUST[=O]'DIAL.--_ns._ CUST[=O]'DIAN, CUS'TODE, CUST[=O]'DIER, CUS'TOS, one who has care, esp. of some public building. [L. _custodia_, from _custos_, _custodis_, a keeper.] CUSTOM, kus'tum, _n._ what one is wont to do: usage: frequent repetition of the same act: regular trade or business: a tax on goods: (_pl._) duties imposed on imports and exports.--_adj._ CUS'TOMABLE, customary: common.--_adv._ CUS'TOMARILY.--_n._ CUS'TOMARINESS.--_adjs._ CUS'TOMARY, according to use and wont: holding or held by custom; CUS'TOMED, accustomed: usual.--_ns._ CUS'TOMER, one accustomed to frequent a certain place of business: a buyer: (_slang_) a person; CUS'TOM-HOUSE, the place where customs or duties on exports and imports are collected.--_adj._ CUS'TOM-SHRUNK (_Shak._), having fewer customers than formerly. [O. Fr. _custume_, _costume_--L. _consuetud-inem_, _consuesc[)e]re_, to accustom.] CUSTREL, kus'tr[.e]l, _n._ attendant on a knight: a villain. [O. Fr. _coustillier_, _coustille_, a dagger.] CUT, kut, _v.t._ to make an incision in: to cleave or pass through: to divide: to carve, hew, or fashion by cutting: to wound or hurt: to affect deeply: to shorten: to break off acquaintance with, to pass intentionally without saluting: to renounce, give up: to castrate: to perform or execute, as 'to cut a caper.'--_v.i._ to make an incision: to pass, go quickly: (_slang_) to run away, to be off: to twiddle the feet rapidly in dancing:--_pr.p._ cut'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ cut.--_n._ a cleaving or dividing: a stroke or blow: an act of unkindness: the card obtained by cutting or dividing the pack: an incision or wound: a piece cut off: an engraved block, or the picture from it: manner of cutting, or, fashion: (_pl._) a lot.--_n._ CUT'AWAY', a coat with the skirt cut away in a curve in front--also _adj._--_ns._ CUT'-OFF, that which cuts off or shortens, a straighter road, a shorter channel cut by a river across a bend: a contrivance for saving steam by regulating its admission to the cylinder; CUT'PURSE (_Shak._), one who stole by [Illustration] cutting off and carrying away purses (the purses being worn at the girdle): a pickpocket; CUT'TER, the person or thing that cuts: in a tailor's shop, the one who measures and cuts out the cloth: a small vessel with one mast, a mainsail, a forestaysail, and a jib set to bowsprit-end, any sloop of narrow beam and deep draught; CUT'-THROAT, an assassin: ruffian; CUT'TING, a dividing or lopping off: an incision: a piece cut off: a paragraph from a newspaper: a piece of road or railway excavated: a twig; CUT'-WA'TER, the fore-part of a ship's prow.--CUT A DASH, or FIGURE, to make a conspicuous appearance; CUT-AND-COME-AGAIN, abundant supply, from the notion of cutting a slice, and returning at will for another; CUT-AND-COVER, a method of forming a tunnel by cutting out, arching it over, and then covering in; CUT-AND-DRY, or CUT-AND-DRIED, ready made, without the merit of freshness--from the state of herbs in the shop instead of the field; CUT AND RUN, to be off quickly; CUT DOWN, to take down the body of one hanged by cutting the rope: to reduce, curtail; CUT IN, to strike into, as to a conversation, a game at whist; CUT IT TOO FAT, to overdo a thing; CUT OFF, to destroy, put to an untimely death: intercept: stop; CUT OFF WITH A SHILLING, to disinherit, bequeathing only a shilling; CUT ONE'S STICK, to take one's departure; CUT OUT, to shape: contrive: debar: supplant: to take a ship out of a harbour, &c., by getting between her and the shore; CUT SHORT, to abridge: check; CUT THE COAT ACCORDING TO THE CLOTH, to adapt one's self to circumstances; CUT THE TEETH, to have the teeth grow through the gums--of an infant; CUT THE THROAT OF (_fig._), to destroy utterly; CUT UP, to carve: eradicate: criticise severely: turn out (well or ill) when divided into parts; CUT UP ROUGH, to become quarrelsome.--A CUT ABOVE (_coll._), a degree or stage above; SHORT CUT, or NEAR CUT, a short way. [Prob. W. _cwtau_, shorten.] CUTANEOUS. See CUTIS. CUTCH, kuch, _n._ the commercial name for catechu, from the Indian name _kut_. CUTCHERRY, kuch'[.e]r-i, _n._ an office for public business, a court-house.--Also CUTCH'ERY. [Hind.] CUTE, k[=u]t, _adj._ an aphetic form of ACUTE. CUTHBERT, kuth'bert, _n._ the apostle of Northumbria (635-687), whose name lives in (ST) CUTHBERT'S BEADS, a popular name for the perforated joints of encrinites found on Holy Island; (ST) CUTHBERT'S DUCK, the eider-duck. CUTIKINS, k[=oo]'ti-kinz, _n.pl._ (_Scot._) spatterdashes--also CUITIKINS. CUTIS, k[=u]'tis, _n._ the skin: the true skin, as distinguished from the cuticle.--_adj._ CUT[=A]N'EOUS, belonging to the skin.--_n._ C[=U]'TICLE, the outermost or thin skin.--_adj._ CUTIC'ULAR, belonging to the cuticle. [L.] CUTLASS, kut'las, _n._ a short, broad sword, with one cutting edge, used in the navy. [Fr. _coutelas_, augmentative of _couteau_, knife, from L. _cultellus_, dim. of _culter_, a ploughshare, a knife.] CUTLER, kut'l[.e]r, _n._ one who makes or sells knives.--_n._ CUT'LERY, the business of a cutler: edged or cutting instruments in general. [Fr. _coutelier_, _coutel_, knife.] CUTLET, kut'let, _n._ a slice of meat cut off for cooking, esp. of mutton or veal--generally the rib and the meat belonging to it. [Fr. _côtelette_, dim. of _côte_, from L. _costa_, a rib.] CUTTLE, kut'l, _n._ a kind of mollusc, remarkable for its power of ejecting a black inky liquid--also CUTT'LE-FISH.--_n._ CUTT'LE-BONE, the internal shell or bone of the cuttle-fish, used for making tooth-powder and for polishing the softer metals. [A.S. _cudele_.] CUTTO, CUTTOE, kut'o, _n._ a large knife. CUTTY, kut'i, _adj._ (_Scot._) short, curtailed.--_n._ a short clay pipe: a short, dumpy girl: applied to a woman, a term of reprobation, serious or playful.--_n._ CUTT'Y-STOOL, the stool of repentance in old Scotch church discipline. [CUT.] CUVETTE, küv-et', _n._ a trench sunk along the middle of a dry ditch or moat.--Also CUNETTE'. [Fr.] CYANOGEN, s[=i]-an'o-jen, _n._ a compound of carbon, obtained by decomposing the cyanide of mercury by heat, so called from being an essential ingredient in the formation of Prussian blue.--_n._ CY'ANATE, a salt of cyanic acid.--_adj._ CYAN'IC, of or belonging to cyanogen.--_ns._ CY'ANIDE, a direct compound of cyanogen with a metal; CY'ANINE, the blue colouring matter of violets, &c.; CY'ANITE, a mineral composed of alumina and silica, generally sky-blue; CYANOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the degrees of blueness of the sky or ocean; CYAN[=O]'SIS, morbid lividness of the skin, blue jaundice.--_adj._ CYANOT'IC.--_ns._ CYAN'OTYPE, a photograph on paper sensitised by a cyanide; CYAN'URET, a cyanide.--CYANIC ACID, an acid composed of cyanogen and oxygen. [Gr. _kyanos_, blue.] CYAR, s[=i]'ar, _n._ the internal auditory meatus. CYATHIFORM, s[=i]'a-thi-form, _adj._ like a cup a little widened at top. CYCAD, s[=i]'kad, _n._ an order allied to _Coniferæ_, but in appearance rather resembling ferns and palms.--_adj._ CYCAD[=A]'CEOUS. [Formed from Gr. _kykas_, an erroneous form of _koikas_, _koiks_, the doom-palm.] CYCLAMEN, sik'lä-men, _n._ a genus of _Primulaceæ_, native to southern Europe. [Formed from Gr. _kyklamis_, _-inos_.] CYCLE, s[=i]'kl, _n._ a period of time in which events happen in a certain order, and which constantly repeats itself: an imaginary circle or orbit in the heavens: a series of poems, prose romances, &c., centring round a figure or event--also CY'CLUS: an abbreviation for bicycle and tricycle.--_v.i._ to move in cycles: to ride or take exercise on a bicycle or tricycle.--_adjs._ CY'CLIC, -AL, pertaining to or containing a cycle.--_ns._ CY'CLIST, for bicyclist or tricyclist; CY'CLOGRAPH, an instrument for describing the arcs of circles that have too large a curvature for compasses; CY'CLOID, a figure like a circle: a curve made by a point in a circle, when the circle is rolled along a straight line.--_adj._ CYCLOID'AL.--_ns._ CYCLOID'IAN, one of the fourth order of fishes, according to the classification of Agassiz, having cycloid scales with smooth edges, as the salmon; CYCLOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring circular arcs: an apparatus attached to the wheel of a cycle for registering the distance traversed; CY'CLORN, a cycle-horn. [Gr. _kyklos_, a circle.] CYCLONE, s[=i]'kl[=o]n, _n._ a circular or rotatory storm.--_adj._ CYCLON'IC. [Coined from Gr. _kykl[=o]n_, pr.p. of _kykloein_, to whirl round--_kyklos_.] CYCLOPÆDIA, CYCLOPEDIA, s[=i]-kl[=o]-p[=e]'di-a, _n._ the circle or compass of human knowledge: a work containing information on every department, or on a particular department, of knowledge, usually arranged alphabetically.--_adjs._ CYCLOPÆ'DIC, CYCLOPE'DIC. [Gr. _kyklos_, a circle, and _paideia_, learning.] CYCLOPS, s[=i]'klops, _n._ one of a fabled race of giants who lived chiefly in Sicily, with one eye in the middle of the forehead: a genus of minute freshwater copepods with an eye in front:--_pl._ CYCL[=O]'PES.--_adjs._ CYCLOP[=E]'AN, CYCLOP'IC, relating to or like the Cyclops: giant-like: vast: pertaining to a prehistoric style of masonry with immense stones of irregular form. [Gr. _kykl[=o]ps_--_kyklos_, a circle, and _[=o]ps_, an eye.] CYCLORAMA, s[=i]-klo-rä'ma, _n._ a circular panorama painted on the inside of a cylindrical surface appearing in natural perspective. [Formed from Gr. _kyklos_, circle, _horama_, view.] CYCLOSIS, s[=i]-kl[=o]'sis, _n._ circulation, as of blood. CYCLYOLOSTOMOUS, s[=i]-klos't[=o]-mus, _adj._ round-mouthed, as a lamprey. CYCLOSTYLE, s[=i]'klo-st[=i]l, _n._ an apparatus for multiplying copies of a writing. [Formed from Gr. _kyklos_, circle, and STYLE.] CYDER. Same as CIDER. CYGNET, sig'net, _n._ a young swan. [Acc. to Diez, a dim. of Fr. _cygne_, whose old form _cisne_ (Sp. _cisne_, a swan) is from Low L. _cecinus_, not conn. with L. _cygnus_, Gr. _kyknos_, a swan.] CYLINDER, sil'in-d[.e]r, _n._ a solid circular or roller-like body, whose ends are equal parallel circles: (_mech._) applied to many cylindrical parts of machines, as any rotating cylindrical portion of a printing-press.--_adjs._ CYLINDR[=A]'CEOUS, somewhat cylindrical; CYLIN'DRIC, -AL, having the form or properties of a cylinder.--_n._ CYLINDRIC'ITY.--_adj._ CYLIN'DRIFORM, in the form of a cylinder.--_n._ CYL'INDROID, a body like a cylinder, but having its base elliptical. [Gr. _kylindros_, _kylindein_, to roll.] CYMA, s[=i]'ma, _n._ a moulding of the cornice, an ogee.--_ns._ CYM'AGRAPH, an instrument for tracing the outline of mouldings; CYM[=A]'TIUM, a cyma. [Gr. _kyma_, a billow.] CYMAR, si-mär', _n._ a loose light dress worn by ladies. [See CHIMER.] CYMBAL, sim'bal, _n._ a hollow brass, basin-like, musical instrument, beaten together in pairs.--_ns._ CYM'BALIST, a cymbal-player; CYM'BALO, the dulcimer.--_adj._ CYM'BIFORM, boat-shaped. [L. _cymbalum_--Gr. _kymbanon_--_kymb[=e]_, the hollow of a vessel.] CYME, s[=i]m, _n._ a young shoot: (_bot._) term applied to all forms of inflorescence which are definite or centrifugal.--_adjs._ CYM'OID, CYM'OSE, CYM'OUS. [L. _cyma_--Gr. _kyma_, a sprout.] CYMOPHANE, s[=i]'m[=o]-f[=a]n, _n._ chrysoberyl.--_adj._ CYMOPH'ANOUS, opalescent. [Formed from Gr. _kyma_, wave, _phainein_, to show.] CYMRIC, kim'rik, _adj._ Welsh.--_n._ CYM'RY, the Welsh, [W. _Cymru_, Wales.] CYNANCHE, si-nang'k[=e], _n._ a name of various diseases of the throat or windpipe, esp. quinsy. [Gr., _ky[=o]n_, a dog, _anchein_, to throttle.] CYNIC, -AL, sin'ik, -al, _adj._ dog-like: surly: snarling: austere; misanthropic.--_ns._ CYNAN'THROPY, lycanthropy; CYN'IC, one of a sect of philosophers founded by Antisthenes of Athens (born c. 444 B.C.), characterised by an ostentatious contempt for riches, arts, science, and amusements--so called from their morose manners: a morose man: a snarler; CYN'ICISM, surliness: contempt for human nature: heartlessness, misanthropy.--_adv._ CYN'ICALLY.--_n._ CYN'ICALNESS. [Gr. _kynikos_, dog-like--_ky[=o]n_, _kynos_, a dog; cf. L. _can-is_.] CYNOCEPHALUS, s[=i]-no-sef'al-us, _n._ the dog-faced baboon: a race of men with dogs' heads. [Gr. _ky[=o]n_, _kynos_, dog, _kephal[=e]_, head.] CYNOSURE, sin'o-sh[=oo]r, or s[=i]', _n._ the dog's tail, a constellation (_Ursa minor_) containing the north-star; hence anything that strongly attracts attention or admiration. [Gr. _ky[=o]n_, _kynos_, a dog, _oura_, a tail.] CYPERUS, sip-[=e]'rus, _n._ a tropical genus of _Cyperaceæ_.--_adj._ CYPER[=A]'CEOUS, belonging to, or like, sedge plants. [From Gr. _kypeiros_, sedge.] CYPHER. Same as CIPHER. CY PRES, s[=e] pr[=a], in the law of charitable trusts in England, the principle of applying the money to some object _as near as possible_ to the one specified, when this has become impracticable. [O. Fr.] CYPRESS, s[=i]'pres, _n._ an evergreen tree whose branches used to be carried at funerals; hence a symbol of death.--_adj._ CYP'RINE. [O. Fr. _ciprès_ (Fr. _cyprès_)--L. _cupressus_--Gr. _kyparissos_.] CYPRIAN, sip'ri-an, _adj._ belonging to the island of _Cyprus_: lewd, licentious--Cyprus being the place where Venus was worshipped.--_n._ a native of Cyprus--also CYP'RIOT: a lewd woman. CYPRUS, s[=i]'prus, _n._ a thin, transparent, black stuff, a kind of crape.--_n._ CY'PRUS-LAWN (_Milt._). [Prob. named from the island of _Cyprus_.] CYRENAIC, s[=i]-rin-[=a]'ik, _adj._ pertaining to _Cyrene_, or to the hedonism of its philosopher Aristippus, a pupil of Socrates. CYRILLIC, sir-il'ik, _adj._ pertaining to the alphabet attributed to St _Cyril_ (9th cent.), distinguished from the other Slavonic alphabet, the Glagolitic. CYST, sist, _n._ a bag in animal bodies containing morbid matter.--_adjs._ CYST'IC, CYST'IFORM, CYSTOID', having the form of, or contained in, a cyst or bag.--_ns._ CYS'TICLE, a small cyst; CYST[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the bladder; CYS'TOCELE, a hernia formed by the protrusion of the bladder; CYST[=O]'MA, a tumour containing cysts; CYSTOT'OMY, the operation of cutting into the bladder to remove extraneous matter. [Low L. _cystis_--Gr. _kystis_, a bladder.] CYTHEREAN, sith-e-r[=e]'an, _adj._ pertaining to Venus. [L. _Cythereus_--_Cythera_, an island in the Ægean Sea (now _Cerigo_), celebrated for the worship of Venus.] CYTISUS, sit'i-sus, _n._ a group of hardy leguminous shrubby plants, with yellow, white, or purple flowers, chiefly in the warmer temperate parts of the Old World. [Gr. _kytisos_.] CYTOBLAST, s[=i]'to-blast, _n._ the nucleus or germinal spot of a cellule, from which the organic cell is developed.--_n._ CYTOGEN'ESIS, cell-formation. [Gr. _kytos_, a vessel, _blastanein_, to bud.] CZAR, TSAR, tsär, or zär, _n._ the emperor of Russia:--_fem._ CZARI'NA, TSARI'NA.--_ns._ CZAR'EVITCH, TSAR-, a son of a czar.--CESAR'EVITCH is the title of the eldest son, and CESAREV'NA, of his wife.--_ns._ CZAREV'NA, TSAREV'NA, a daughter of a czar. [Russ. _tsari_, a king; conn. with Ger. _kaiser_, ult. from L. _cæsar_, a king or emperor.] CZARDAS, zär'das (Hung. pron. chär'dosh), _n._ a Hungarian national dance, consisting of two sections--a slow movement called a _lassu_ or _lassan_, and a quick step, the _friss_ or _friska_. CZECH, tshek, _n._ a member of the most westerly branch of the Slavic family of races, the term including the Bohemians, or Czechs proper, the Moravians, and the Slovaks: the language of the Czechs, Bohemian, closely allied to Polish.--_adj._, also CZECH'IC. * * * * * [Illustration] the fourth letter in our alphabet, as well as in the Phoenician, Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, from which last it was immediately derived--its sound the soft dental mute: (_mus._) the second note in the natural scale. DAB, dab, _v.t._ to strike gently with something soft or moist, to smear:--_pr.p._ dab'bing; _pa.p._ dabbed.--_n._ a gentle blow: a small lump of anything soft or moist: a species of flounder of light-brown colour, with small dark spots and rough, close-set scales.--_ns._ DAB'BER, a sort of pad for dabbing ink on engraved wood blocks or plates; DAB'CHICK, a small water-fowl, a kind of grebe. [First about 1300; cf. Old Dut. _dabben_, to pinch; Ger. _tappe_, a pat. Confused with DAUB and TAP.] DAB, dab, _n._ an expert person.--_n._ DAB'STER (_coll._). [Prob. a corr. of ADEPT.] DABBLE, dab'l, _v.t._ to spatter with moisture.--_v.i._ to play in water with hands or feet: to do anything in a trifling way.--_n._ DABB'LER, one who does things superficially.--_adv._ DABB'LINGLY. [Freq. of DAB.] DA CAPO, dä kä'p[=o], a term in music, frequently placed at the end of a movement, indicating that the performer must return to the beginning of the music--usually written _D.C._ [It., 'from the beginning'--L. _de_, from, _caput_, head.] DACE, d[=a]s, DARE, d[=a]r, DART, därt, _n._ a small river fish of the carp family, and of the same genus as the roach, chub, minnow, &c. [M. E. _darce_--O. Fr. _dars_--Low L. _dardus_, a dart or javelin--of Teut. origin. So called from its quickness.] DACHSHUND, daks'hoond, _n._ a badger-dog. [Ger. _dachs_, a badger, _hund_, dog.] DACKER, dak'[.e]r, DAKER, d[=a]'k[.e]r, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to lounge, saunter.--Also DAIK'ER. DACOIT, da-koit', _n._ one of a gang of robbers in India and Burma--also DAKOIT'.--_ns._ DACOIT'Y, DACOIT'AGE, robbery by gang-robbers, brigandage. [Hind. _d[=a]k[=a][=i]t_, a robber.] DACRYOMA, dak-ri-[=o]'ma, _n._ stoppage of the tear duct. [Formed from Gr. _dakry_, a tear.] DACTYL, dak'til, _n._ in Latin and Greek poetry, a foot of three syllables, one long followed by two short, so called from its likeness to the joints of a finger; in English, a foot of three syllables, with the first accented, as _mer_'rily, _vi_'olate.--_adjs._ DAC'TYLAR, DACTYL'IC, relating to or consisting chiefly of dactyls.--_ns._ DACTYL'IOMANCY, divination by means of a finger-ring; DAC'TYLIST; DACTYLOG'RAPHY, the science of finger-rings; DACTYLOL'OGY, the art of talking with the fingers, like the deaf and dumb. [L. _dactylus_--Gr. _daktylos_, a finger.] DAD, dad, DADDY, dad'i, _n._ father, a word used by children.--_n._ DADD'Y-LONG-LEGS, the crane-fly, a familiar insect with long body, legs, and antennæ. [Prob. Celt., W. _tad_, Bret, _tad_, _tat_; cf. Gr. _tata_.] DAD, dad, _v.t._ to throw against something: to dash.--_n._ a lump: a piece: a blow. [Der. unknown.] DADDLE, dad'l, _v.i._ to walk in an unsteady manner, as a child or very old person: to totter:--_pr.p._ dadd'ling; _pa.p._ dadd'led. [Perh. conn. with DAWDLE.] DADDLE, dad'l, _n._ (_slang_) the hand. DADDOCK, dad'ok, _n._ (_prov._) the heart of a rotten tree. DADO, d[=a]'do, _n._ in classical architecture, the cubic block forming the body of a pedestal: a skirting of wood along the lower part of the walls of a room, often represented merely by wall-paper, painting, &c. [It.,--L. _datus_ (_talus_, a die, being understood), given or thrown forth--_d[=a]re_, to give.] DÆDAL, d[=e]'dal, DÆDALIAN, de-d[=a]'li-an, _adj._ formed with art: displaying artistic skill: intricate. [From L. _Dædalus_, Gr. _Daidalos_, the mythical artist who constructed the Cretan labyrinth.] DÆMON, d[=e]'mon, _n._ a spirit holding a middle place between gods and men, like the dæmon or good genius of Socrates.--_adj._ DÆ'MONIC, supernatural: of power or intelligence more than human. [L. _dæmon_--Gr. _daim[=o]n_, a spirit, a genius, and later a devil. See DEMON.] DAFF, daf, _v.i._ to play, to play the fool.--_n._ DAFF'ING (_Scot._), foolery, gaiety. [M. E. _daf_, deaf, prob. Ice. _dawfr_ (Sw. _döf_, Dan. _döv_), deaf.] DAFF, daf, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to put off. [A variant of DOFF.] DAFFODIL, daf'o-dil, DAFFODILLY, daf'o-dil-i, DAFFODOWNDILLY, daf'o-down-dil'i, _n._ a yellow flower of the lily tribe--also called _King's spear_. [M. E. _affodille_--O. Fr. _asphodile_--Gr. _asphodelus_; the _d_ is prefixed accidentally.] DAFT, daft, _adj._ (_Scot._) silly, weak-minded, insane, unreasonably merry.--_adv._ DAFT'LY.--_n._ DAFT'NESS. [See DAFF.] DAG, dag, _n._ a dagger: a hand-gun or heavy pistol, used in the 15th and 16th centuries.--Also DAGGE. [Fr. _dague_; Celt.; cf. Bret. _dag_.] DAGGER, dag'[.e]r, _n._ a short sword for stabbing at close quarters: (_print._) a mark of reference ([Dagger]), the double dagger ([Double Dagger]) being another.--AT DAGGERS DRAWN, in a state of hostility; LOOK DAGGERS, to look in a hostile manner. [M. E. _dagger_--W. _dagr_ (Ir. _daigear_); cf. Fr. _dague_.] DAGGLE, dag'l, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to wet or grow wet by dragging on the wet ground.--_n._ DAGG'LE-TAIL, a slattern.--_adj._ slatternly. [Freq. of prov. Eng. _dag_, to sprinkle, from a Scand. root seen in Sw. _dagg_.] DAGO, d[=a]'go, _n._ (_U.S._) a name applied loosely to Spanish- and Italian-born men. [Prob. a corr. of Sp. _Diego_--L. _Jacobus_.] DAGOBA, dag'o-ba, _n._ in Ceylon, a dome-like structure of solid masonry, containing relics of a Buddhist saint. [Singh. _d[=a]gaba_.] DAGON, d[=a]'gon, _n._ the national god of the Philistines, half-man, half-fish. [Heb. _d[=a]g[=o]n_--_dag_, fish.] DAGUERREOTYPE, da-ger'o-t[=i]p, _n._ a method of taking pictures on metal plates by the light of the sun: a photograph fixed on a plate of copper by a certain process.--_adj._ DAGUER'R[=E]AN.--_n._ DAGUERR[=E]'OTYPY, the art of daguerreotyping. [Fr., from Louis _Daguerre_ (1789-1851).] DAGWOOD. See DOGWOOD. DAHABEEAH, da-ha-b[=e]'a, _n._ a Nile-boat with oars, one or two masts, and lateen sails.--Also DAHABI'EH, DAHABI'YEH. [Ar. _dahab[=i]ya_.] DAHLIA, d[=a]l'i-a, _n._ a genus of garden plants with large flowers. [From _Dahl_, a Swedish botanist.] DAIDLE, d[=a]'dl, _v.i._ a Scotch form of _daddle_: also to draggle.--_adj._ DAID'LING, feeble: dawdling. DAIKER, d[=a]'ker, _v.i._ (_prov._) to deck out. DAILY, d[=a]'li, _adj._ and _adv._ every day.--_n._ a daily paper. DAIMIO, d[=i]'myo, _n._ a Japanese territorial noble under the old feudal system. [Jap.] DAINTY, d[=a]n'ti, _adj._ pleasant to the palate: delicate: fastidious: (_Spens._) elegant.--_n._ that which is dainty, a delicacy.--_adj._ DAINT (_Spens._).--_adv._ DAIN'TILY.--_n._ DAIN'TINESS. [M. E. _deintee_, anything worthy or costly. O. Fr. _daintié_, worthiness--L. _dignitat-em_--_dignus_, worthy.] DAIRY, d[=a]'ri, _n._ the place where milk is kept, and butter and cheese made: an establishment for the supply of milk.--_ns._ DAI'RY-FARM; DAI'RYING; DAI'RYMAID; DAI'RYMAN. [M. E. _deye_.--Ice. _deigja_, a dairymaid; orig. a kneader of dough.] DAIS, d[=a]'is, _n._ a raised floor at the upper end of the dining-hall where the high table stood: a raised floor with a seat and canopy: the canopy over an altar, &c. [O. Fr. _dais_--Low L. _discus_, a table--L. _discus_, a quoit--Gr. _diskos_, a disc.] DAISY, d[=a]'zi, _n._ a common wild-flower, growing in pastures and meadows--the name given also to other plants, as the _Ox-eye daisy_, which is a chrysanthemum.--_adj._ DAI'SIED, covered with daisies.--_n._ DAI'SY-CUT'TER, a fast-going horse that does not lift its feet high: a cricket-ball skimmed along the ground. [A. S. _dæges eáge_, day's eye, the sun.] DAK, däk, DAWK, dawk, _n._ in India, the mail-post: travelling in palanquins carried by relays of bearers. [Hind. _d[=a]k_, a relay of men.] DAKOIT. See DACOIT. DALAI-LAMA. See LAMA. DALE, d[=a]l, DELL, del, _n._ the low ground between hills: the valley through which a river flows.--_n._ DALES'MAN, specifically, an inhabitant of the dales of the Lake District. [Ice. _dalr_, Sw. _dal_; Ger. _thal_.] DALI, dä'li, _n._ a timber-tree of Guiana, its wood used for staves, &c. DALILA. See DELILAH. DALL, dal, _n._ a tile with incised surface: (_pl._) rapids. DALLOP, dal'op, _n._ (_prov._), a tuft of grass. DALLY, dal'i, _v.i._ to lose time by idleness or trifling: to play: to exchange caresses:--_pa.p._ dall'ied.--_ns._ DALL'IANCE, dallying, toying, or trifling: interchange of embraces: delay; DALL'IER, a trifler. [M. E. _dalien_, to play; prob. from A.S. _dweligan_, to err; cf. Ice. _dvala_, to delay, Dut. _dwalen_, to err; prob. conn. with _dwell_.] DALMAHOY, dal'ma-hoi, _n._ a bushy bob-wig, worn in the 18th cent. by chemists, &c. DALMATIAN, dal-m[=a]'shun, _adj._ belonging to _Dalmatia_, a strip of Austrian territory along the Adriatic.--DALMATIAN DOG, the spotted coach-dog, resembling the pointer in shape. DALMATIC, dal-mat'ik, _n._ a loose-fitting, wide-sleeved ecclesiastical vestment, worn specially by deacons in the R.C. Church, also sometimes by bishops. [Low L. _dalmatica_, a robe worn by persons of rank in the early Christian centuries, on the pattern of a dress worn in _Dalmatia_.] DALT, dält, _n._ (_Scot._) a foster-child. [Gael. _dalta_.] DALTONISM, dal'ton-izm, _n._ colour-blindness: inability to distinguish certain colours.--_adj._ DALT[=O]'NIAN. [So called from the chemist John _Dalton_ (1766-1844), who had this infirmity.] DAM, dam, _n._ an embankment to restrain water: the water thus confined.--_v.t._ to keep back water by a bank:--_pr.p._ dam'ming; _pa.p._ dammed. [Teut.; Dut. _dam_, Ger. _damm_, &c.] DAM, dam, _n._ a mother, applied to quadrupeds. [A form of _dame_.] DAMAGE, dam'[=a]j, _n._ hurt, injury, loss: the value of what is lost: (_coll._) cost: (_pl._) the pecuniary reparation due for loss or injury sustained by one person through the fault or negligence of another.--_v.t._ to harm.--_v.i._ to take injury.--_adj._ DAM'AGEABLE. [O. Fr. _damage_ (Fr. _dommage_)--L. _damnum_, loss.] DAMAN, dam'an, _n._ the Syrian hyrax, the cony of the Bible. [Syrian.] DAMAR. Same as DAMMAR. DAMASCENE, da'mas-[=e]n, _adj._ of _Damascus_.--_v.t._ same as DAMASKEEN. DAMASK, dam'ask, _n._ figured stuff, originally of silk, now of linen, cotton, or wool, the figure being woven, not printed.--_v.t._ to flower or variegate, as cloth.--_adj._ of a red colour, like that of a damask rose.--_v.t._ DAMASKEEN', to decorate metal (esp. steel) by inlaying or encrusting on it patterns like damask in other metals: to ornament with flowery patterns, to damask.--_ns._ DAMASKEEN'ING, DAMASCEEN'ING, the watered or striated structure seen in certain sword-blades and other weapons: the ornamental incrustation with gold and silver of steel and iron surfaces; DAMASKIN', a Damascus blade: a damaskeened blade; DAM'ASK-PLUM, the damson; DAM'ASK-ROSE, a species of pink-rose; DAM'ASK-STEEL, Damascus steel; DAM'ASSIN, damask with flowered patterns in gold or silver thread.--DAMASCUS BLADE, a Damascus sword, the surface marked by wavy and variegating lines. [From _Damascus_, in Syria, where damask was orig. made.] DAMBOARD, dam'b[=o]rd, DAMBROD, dam'brod, _n._ (_Scot._) a draughtboard, the pieces being _dams_. [Fr. _jeu de dames_, copied by the Germans as _damenspiel_, by the Swedes as _damspel_, &c., perhaps from the movement of the pieces being like those of the queen (_reine_ or _dame_) in chess.] DAME, d[=a]m, _n._ the mistress of a house: a matron: a noble lady.--_ns._ DAME'-SCHOOL, a school for children kept by a woman; DAME'S'-V[=I]'OLET, a genus of cruciferous plants, formerly cultivated by ladies in pots for its sweet scent at night. [Fr. _dame_--L. _domina_, a mistress, fem. of _dominus_, a master.] DAMMAR, dam'mar, _n._ a resin, used for making varnish, obtained from a genus of East Indian conifers. DAMN, dam, _v.t._ to censure or condemn: to sentence to eternal punishment: to doom.--_n._ an oath: a curse.--_adj._ DAM'NABLE, deserving or tending to damnation: hateful: pernicious.--_n._ DAM'NABLENESS.--_adv._ DAM'NABLY.--_n._ DAMN[=A]'TION, condemnation: (_theol._) the punishment of the impenitent in the future state: eternal punishment.--_adj._ DAM'NATORY, consigning to damnation.--_p.adj._ DAMNED, sentenced to everlasting punishment: hateful: a profane intensive, meaning merely thorough (often written d----d, and softened into _darned_, _dashed_, &c.).--_adv._ very, exceedingly.--_adj._ DAMNIF'IC.--_n._ DAMNIFIC[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ DAM'NIFY, to cause loss to.--_adj._ DAM'NING, exposing to condemnation. [Fr. _damner_--L. _damn[=a]re_, to condemn--_damnum_, loss.] DAMOCLEAN, dam-[=o]-cl[=e]'an, _adj._ like _Damocles_, flatterer of Dionysius of Syracuse, taught the insecurity of happiness by being made to sit through the feast with a sword suspended by a single hair over his head. DAMOSEL, dam'o-sel, _n._ Same as DAMSEL. DAMP, damp, _n._ vapour, mist: moist air: lowness of spirits: (_pl._) dangerous vapours in mines, &c.--_v.t._ to wet slightly: to chill: to discourage: to check: to make dull.--_adj._ moist, foggy: sometimes in the form DAMP'Y.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ DAMP'EN, to make or become damp or moist.--_n._ DAMP'ER, that which checks or moderates: a mechanical appliance for reducing currents, musical vibration, &c.: (_Australia_) a kind of unfermented bread.--_adj._ DAMP'ISH, somewhat damp.--_n._ DAMP'ISHNESS.--_adv._ DAMP'LY.--_n._ DAMP'NESS.--DAMPING OFF (_hort._), the death of plants from excess of moisture. [M. E. _dampen_; akin to Dut. _damp_, Ger. _dampf_, vapour.] DAMSEL, dam'zel, _n._ a young unmarried woman: a girl. [O. Fr. _damoisele_ (Fr. _demoiselle_), a page--Low L. _domicellus_, dim. of L. _dominus_, a lord.] DAMSON, dam'zn, _n._ a rather small oval fruited variety of the common plum, esteemed for preserving. [Shortened from _Damascene_--_Damascus_.] DAN, dan, _n._ a title of honour equivalent to Master or Sir. [O. Fr. _dan_. (Sp. _don_; Port. _dom_)--L. _dominus_, lord. See DAME.] DAN, dan, _n._ (_prov._) a box for carrying coal: a tub. DANAKIL, dan'a-kil, _n._ the name given to the numerous nomad and fisher tribes on the coast of North-east Africa. [Ar.] DANCE, dans, _v.i._ to move with measured steps to music: to spring.--_v.t._ to make to dance or jump.--_n._ the movement of one or more persons with measured steps to music: the tune to which dancing is performed.--_ns._ DANCE'-M[=U]'SIC, music specially arranged for accompanying dancing; DANC'ER, one who practises dancing; DANC'ING, the act or art of moving in the dance; DANC'ING-GIRL, a professional dancer; DANC'ING-MAS'TER, a teacher of dancing.--DANCE A BEAR (_obs._), to exhibit a performing bear; DANCE ATTENDANCE, to wait obsequiously; DANCE OF DEATH, a series of allegorical paintings symbolising the universal power of death, represented as a skeleton; DANCE UPON NOTHING, to be hanged.--LEAD A PERSON A DANCE, to set him on an undertaking under false hopes: to delude.--MERRY DANCERS, the aurora. [O. Fr. _danser_, from Teut.; Old High Ger. _danson_, to draw along.] DANCETTE, dan-set', _n._ (_her._) a zigzag or indented line or figure: the chevron or zigzag moulding common in Romanesque architecture--also _adj._ [O. Fr. _dent_, _dant_, tooth, notch--L. _dens_.] DANDELION, dan-de-l[=i]'un, _n._ a common plant with a yellow flower, its leaves with jagged tooth-like edges. [Fr. _dent de lion_, tooth of the lion.] DANDER, dan'd[.e]r, DAUNDER, dawn'd[.e]r, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to walk leisurely or idly. [Akin to _dandle_.] DANDER, _n._ a form of DANDRUFF (_vulg._), anger: passion.--RAISE A PERSON'S DANDER, to put him in a temper. DANDER, _n._ (_Scot._) furnace cinders. [Ety. dub.] DANDLE, dan'dl, _v.t._ to play with: to fondle or toss in the arms, as a baby. [Prob. Teut.; cf. Ger. _tändeln_--_tand_, a toy.] DANDRIFF, dand'rif, DANDRUFF, dand'ruf, _n._ a scaly scurf which forms on the surface of the skin under the hair and beard. [Perh. from W. _ton_, surface, skin, and _drwg_, bad (Skeat).] DANDY, dan'di, _n._ a foppish, silly fellow: one who pays much attention to dress.--_v.t._ DAN'DIFY, to dress up as a dandy.--_adv._ DAN'DILY, like a dandy.--_ns._ DAN'DY-BRUSH, a hard brush of whalebone bristles; DAN'DY-COCK, a bantam; DAN'DY-F[=E]'VER (see DENGUE); DAN'DY-HORSE, a velocipede.--_adj._ DAN'DYISH.--_n._ DAN'DYISM. [Perh. from Fr. _dandin_, a ninny; and prob. from root of _dandle_.] DANDY, dan'di, _n._ a sloop-like vessel having a jigger-mast abaft.--_n._ DANDY-RIGGED CUTTER. DANDYPRAT, dan'di-prat, _n._ a dwarf: an urchin. [Ety. dub.] DANE, d[=a]n, _n._ a native of _Denmark_.--_adj._ DAN'ISH, belonging to Denmark.--_n._ the language of the Danes--(_Spens._) DANISK. DANEGELD, d[=a]n'geld, _n._ a tax imposed in the 10th cent., to buy off the Danes or to defend the country against them. [A.S. _Dene_, Danes, _geid_, a payment.] DANG, dang, _v.t._ a minced form of _damn_. DANGER, d[=a]n'j[.e]r, _n._ peril, hazard, or risk: insecurity: (_obs._) power.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to endanger.--_adj._ DAN'GEROUS, full of danger: unsafe: insecure.--_adv._ DAN'GEROUSLY.--_ns._ DAN'GEROUSNESS; DAN'GER-SIG'NAL. [O. Fr. _dangier_, absolute power (of a feudal lord), hence power to hurt.--Low L. _dominium_, feudal authority--L. _dominus_, a lord. See DUNGEON.] DANGLE, dang'gl, _v.t._ to hang loosely or with a swinging motion: to follow any one about.--_v.t._ to make to dangle.--_n._ DAN'GLER, one who dangles about others, esp. about women. [Scand., Dan. _dangle_, to dangle; cf. Ice. _dingla_, to swing; Sw. _danka_, to saunter.] DANIEL, dan'yel, _n._ in phrase A SECOND DANIEL, a wise judge, with reference to the interposition of the wise young Daniel to save Susannah, in one of the Apocryphal additions to the book of Daniel. DANITE, dan'[=i]t, _n._ one of a secret society amongst the early Mormons. [In allusion to Gen. xlix. 16, 17.] DANK, dangk, _adj._ moist, wet.--_n._ (_Milt._) water.--_adj._ DANK'ISH, somewhat dank or damp. [Perh. conn. with _dew_. See also DAGGLE.] DANNEBROG, d[=a]n'e-brog, _n._ the second of the Danish orders instituted by King Waldemar in 1219. [Dan., 'the Danish banner.'] DANSEUSE, dong-süz', _n._ a female dancer: a ballet dancer. [Fr.] DANSKER, dan'sk[.e]r, _n._ (_Shak._) a Dane. DANTEAN, dan'te-an, DANTESQUE, dan'tesk, _adj._ like the poet _Dante_: sublime: austere.--_ns._ DAN'TIST, a Dante scholar; DANTOPH'ILIST, a lover of Dante. DANTON, dan'ton, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to subdue, to daunt. [A form of _daunt_.] DANUBIAN, dan-[=u]'bi-an, _adj._ pertaining to or bordering on the _Danube_.--DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES, a name applied to Moldavia and Wallachia. DAP, dap, _v.i._ to drop the bait gently into the water. DAPHNE, daf'n[=e], _n._ a genus of shrubs or small trees. [Gr.] DAPPER, dap'[.e]r, _adj._ quick: little and active: neat: spruce.--_n._ DAPP'ERLING, a dapper little fellow. [Dut. _dapper_, brave; cf. Ger. _tapfer_, quick, brave.] DAPPLE, dap'l, _adj._ marked with spots.--_v.t._ to variegate with spots.--_adjs._ DAPP'ERLY (_Scot._), variegated; DAPP'LE-BAY, of bay colour, variegated with dapples; DAPP'LED; DAPP'LE-GRAY. [See DIMPLE.] DARBIES, där'biz, _n.pl._ (_slang_) handcuffs. [App. from the personal name _Darby_.] DARBYITES, där'bi-[=i]ts, _n.pl._ a name given to the Plymouth Brethren. [From their principal founder, J. N. _Darby_ (1800-82).] DARE, d[=a]r, _v.i._ to be bold enough: to venture:--_pa.t._ durst.--_v.t._ to challenge: to defy.--_n._ (_Shak._) boldness, a challenge.--_n._ DARE'-DEV'IL, a rash, venturesome fellow.--_adj._ unreasonably rash and reckless.--_adjs._ DARE'FUL (_Shak._), full of daring, adventurous; DAR'ING, bold: courageous: fearless.--_n._ boldness.--_n._ DAR'ING-DO (see DERRING-DOE).--_adj._ DAR'ING-HARD'Y (_Shak._), foolhardy.--_adv._ DAR'INGLY.--I DARE SAY, I suppose. [A.S. _durran_, pres. _dearr_; Goth. _daursan_; akin to Gr. _tharsein_.] DARE, d[=a]r, _v.t._ to frighten, terrify. [M. E. _daren_, to be in fear; cf. Dan. _dirre_, to tremble.] DARE, d[=a]r. Same as DACE. DARG, darg, _n._ a day's work: (_Scot._) a task. [Contr. from _dawerk_, _day-wark_, day-work.] DARIC, dar'ik, _n._ an old gold coin larger than an English sovereign, named after _Darius_ I. of Persia. DARK, därk, _adj._ without light: black, or somewhat black: gloomy: difficult to understand: unenlightened: secret: sinister.--_n._ absence of light: obscurity: a state of ignorance.--_adv._ (_Shak._) in a state of dark.--_v.t._ DARK'EN, to make dark: to render ignorant: to sully.--_v.i._ to grow dark or darker.--_n._ DARK'-HOUSE (_Shak._), a mad-house.--_adj._ DARK'ISH, somewhat dark: dusky.--_v.i._ DARK'LE, to grow dark.--_adv._ and _adj._ DARK'LING, dark: in the dark.--_advs._ DARK'LINGS (_poet._), in the dark; DARK'LY.--_n._ DARK'NESS.--_adj._ DARK'SOME, dark: (_poet._) gloomy.--_ns._ DARK'Y, DARK'EY, a negro: (_slang_) a policeman's lantern.--DARK AGES, the period of intellectual darkness in Europe, from the 5th to the 15th century.--DARKEN THE DOOR, to enter in at the door.--A DARK HORSE, in racing, a horse whose capabilities are not known: a candidate about whom it is not known till the last moment that he is a candidate.--KEEP DARK, to be silent or secret; KEEP IT DARK, to conceal.--THE PRINCE OF DARKNESS, Satan. [A.S. _deorc_.] DARLING, där'ling, _n._ a little dear: one dearly beloved: a favourite. [_Dear_, and dim. suff. _-ling_ = _l-ing_.] DARN, därn, _v.t._ to mend a hole by imitating the texture of the stuff.--_n._ the place darned.--_n._ DARN'ING-NEEDLE. [W. _darn_, a piece, a patch.] DARN, därn, _v.i._ a minced form of _damn_. DARNEL, där'nel, _n._ an annual of the rye-grass genus, the tares of Scripture. [Prob. conn. with O. Fr. _darne_, stupid, from its supposed narcotic properties.] DARRAIGN, DARRAIN. See DERAIN. DART, därt, _n._ a pointed weapon for throwing with the hand: anything that pierces.--_v.t._ to hurl suddenly: to send or shoot forth.--_v.i._ to start or shoot forth rapidly--freq. DAR'TLE.--_adv._ DART'INGLY. [O. Fr. _dart_; from a Low Ger. root.] DART. See DACE. DARTER, därt'[.e]r, _n._ a genus of birds nearly allied to cormorants, heron-like in gait and gesture. DARTRE, där'tr, _n._ herpes.--_adj._ DAR'TROUS. [Fr.] DARWINISM, där'win-ism, _n._ the theory of the origin of species propounded by C. _Darwin_ (1809-82).--_adjs._ DARWIN'IAN, DARWIN'ICAL. DASH, dash, _v.t._ to throw violently: to break by throwing together: to throw water suddenly: to bespatter: to destroy or frustrate: to mix or adulterate.--_v.i._ to strike against: to break against, as water: to rush with violence.--_n._ a violent striking: a rushing or violent onset: a blow: a mark (--) at a break in a sentence: ostentation: a slight admixture.--_ns._ DASH'-BOARD, a board or leathern frame in front of a carriage, to keep off splashes of mud; DASH'ER, one who dashes: (_coll._) one who makes a great show.--_adj._ DASH'ING, rushing: reckless: hasty and rash: gallant.--_adv._ DASH'INGLY.--_ns._ DASH'-POT, a device for preventing too sudden motion in some part of an apparatus; DASH'-WHEEL, a wheel-shaped box with compartments, in which cotton cloth is washed by the revolution of the wheel in liquid.--DASH OFF, to sketch hastily; DASH OUT, to knock out by striking against something. [M. E. _daschen_, _dassen_, to rush, or strike with violence--Scand.; cf. Dan. _daske_, to slap]. DASTARD, das'tard, _n._ a cowardly fellow.--_adj._ shrinking from danger: cowardly.--_adj._ and _adv._ DAS'TARDLY.--_ns._ DAS'TARDNESS, DAS'TARDLINESS, DAS'TARDY. [From a Scand. stem _dast_ = Eng. _dazed_, and Fr. suffix _-ard_. See DAZE.] DASYMETER, da-sim'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for testing the density of gases. [Gr. _dasys_, thick, _metron_, measure.] DASYPUS, das'i-pus, _n._ a genus of armadillos. DASYURE, das'i-y[=oo]r, _n._ a small carnivorous quadruped of Australia and Tasmania. [Formed from Gr. _dasys_, hairy, _oura_, tail.] DATA, d[=a]'ta, _n.pl._ facts given or admitted from which other facts may be deduced:--_sing._ D[=A]'TUM. [L. _datum_, _data_, given--_d[)a]re_, to give.] DATARY, d[=a]'ta-ri, _n._ an officer in the papal chancery, who dates and despatches documents, grants, &c.--_n._ DAT[=A]'RIA, the office of such. [Low L. _datarius_--L. _datum_--_d[)a]re_, to give.] DATE, d[=a]t, _n._ the time of any event: a stipulated time: age, period of time.--_v.t._ to affix the date to.--_v.t._ to reckon: to begin.--_adj._ DATE'LESS, without date: without fixed limit: undatable.--OUT OF DATE, antiquated; UP TO DATE, adapted or corrected to the present time: modern. [O. Fr. _date_--L. _datum_, as in _datum Romæ_ = given or written at Rome.] DATE, d[=a]t, _n._ the fruit of the date-palm.--_ns._ DATE'-PALM, DATE'-TREE, the tree on which it grows, a native of the northern half of Africa and the south-west of Asia; DATE'-PLUM; DATE'-SUG'AR. [Fr. _datte_--L. _dactylus_--Gr. _daktylos_, a finger.] DATIVE, d[=a]t'iv, _adj._ that is given or appointed.--_n._ the dative case, the oblique case of nouns, &c.--generally indicated in English by _to_ or _for_. [L. _dativus_.] DATOLITE, dat'[=o]-l[=i]t, _n._ a vitreous calcium borosilicate. DATUM, d[=a]'tum (see DATA).--_n._ D[=A]'TUM-LINE, the horizontal base-line from which heights and depths are measured. DATURA, d[=a]-t[=u]'ra, _n._ a genus of plants, of which one, _D. stramonium_, or thorn-apple, has strongly narcotic properties.--_n._ DAT'URINE, a poisonous alkaloid in the foregoing. [Hind. _dhat[=u]r[=a]_.] DAUB, dawb, _v.t._ to smear: to paint coarsely.--_n._ a coarse painting.--_ns._ DAUB'ER, one who daubs: a coarse painter; DAUB'ERY, DAUB'RY (_Shak._), a daubing, or crudely artful device; DAUB'ING.--_adj._ DAUB'Y, sticky. [O. Fr. _dauber_, to plaster--L. _dealb[=a]re_, to whitewash--_de_, down, and _albus_, white.] DAUD, daud, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to knock, thump.--_n._ a lump: large piece.--Also DAWD. DAUGHTER, daw't[.e]r, _n._ a female child: a female descendant: woman (generally).--_ns._ DAUGH'TER-IN-LAW, a son's wife; DAUGH'TERLINESS; DAUGH'TERLING, a little daughter.--_adj._ DAUGH'TERLY, like or becoming a daughter. [A.S. _dohtor_; Scot. _dochter_, Ger. _tochter_, Gr. _thygat[=e]r_.] DAUNDER, DAUNER. Same as DANDER. DAUNT, dänt, or dawnt, _v.t._ to frighten: to discourage: to subdue.--_adj._ DAUNT'LESS, not to be daunted.--_adv._ DAUNT'LESSLY.--_n._ DAUNT'LESSNESS.--_v.t._ DAUN'TON, to subdue: to dare. [O. Fr. _danter_ (Fr. _dompter_)--L. _domit[=a]re_--_dom[=a]re_, to tame.] DAUPHIN, daw'fin, _n._ the name given to the eldest son of the king of France, from 1349 down to 1830:--_fem._ DAU'PHINESS. [O. Fr. _daulphin_ (Fr. _dauphin_)--L. _delphinus_, a dolphin. From the dolphins in the crest of Viennois.] DAUR, dawr, a Scotch form of _dare_. DAUTIE. See DAWTIE. DAUW, daw, _n._ the South African name of Burchell's zebra. DAVENPORT, d[=a]'ven-port, _n._ a small ornamental writing-desk. [From the maker.] DAVENPORT-TRICK, d[=a]'ven-port-trik, _n._ the artifice by which a man can free himself from ropes wound round him and tied. [Illustration] DAVIT, d[=a]v'it, _n._ one of a pair of pieces of timber or iron, projecting over a ship's side or stern, having tackle to raise a boat by. [Cf. Fr. _davier_, a forceps.] DAVY, d[=a]'vi, DAVY-LAMP, d[=a]'vi-lamp, _n._ the safety-lamp for coal-miners of Sir Humphry _Davy_ (1778-1829). DAVY JONES, d[=a]'vi j[=o]nz, _n._ a sailor's familiar name for the (malignant) spirit of the sea, the devil; hence DAVY JONES'S LOCKER, of the sea, as the grave of men drowned at sea. [Said by some to be a compound of _Duffy_, a West Indian spirit name, and _Jonah_.] DAW, daw, _v.i._ an old English form of _dawn_. DAW, daw, _n._ a bird of the crow kind: a jackdaw.--_adj._ DAW'ISH. [From its cry.] DAWDLE, daw'dl, _v.i._ to waste time by trifling: to act or move slowly.--_n._ DAW'DLER. [Allied to _dandle_ and _dandy_.] DAWK. See DAK. DAWN, dawn, _v.i._ to become day: to begin to grow light: to begin to appear.--_n._ daybreak: beginning.--Also DAWN'ING. [A.S. _dagian_, to dawn, _dæg_, day.] DAWNERING = dandering. [See DANDER (1).] DAWTIE, daw'ti, _n._ (_Scot._) a darling: a beloved child--also DAUT'IE.--_v.t._ DAUT, to fondle. DAY, d[=a], _n._ the time of light, from sunrise to sunset: the time from morning till night: twenty-four hours, the time the earth takes to make a revolution on her axis--this being the _solar_ or _natural_ day as distinguished from the _sidereal_ day, between two transits of the same star: a man's period of existence or influence: a time or period.--_ns._ DAY'-BED (_Shak._), a couch or sofa; DAY'-BLIND'NESS, a defect of vision, in which objects are best seen by a dim light; DAY'-BOOK, a book in which merchants, &c., enter the transactions of every day; DAY'BREAK; DAY'-COAL, the upper stratum of coal; DAY'-DREAM, a dreaming or musing while awake; DAY'-FLY, a fly which lives in its perfect form only for a day, one of the ephemera; DAY'-L[=A]'BOUR; DAY'-L[=A]'BOURER; DAY'LIGHT; DAY'-LIL'Y, a flower whose blossoms last only for a day, the hemerocallis.--_adj._ DAY'LONG, during the whole day.--_ns._ DAY'-PEEP (_Milt._), the dawn; DAY'-SCHOL'AR, a boy who attends a boarding-school during the school-hours, but boards at home; DAY'-SCHOOL, a school held during the day, as opposed both to a night-school and to a boarding-school; DAY'-SIGHT = night-blindness; DAYS'MAN, one who appoints a day to hear a cause: an umpire; DAY'SPRING, dawn; DAY'STAR, the morning star; DAY'TIME.--_adj._ DAY'-WEA'RIED (_Shak._), wearied with the work of the day.--_n._ DAY'-WORK.--DAY BY DAY, daily; DAY OF DOOM, the judgment day; DAYS OF GRACE, three days allowed for payment of bills, &c., beyond the day named.--NAME THE DAY, to fix the day of marriage.--ONE OF THESE DAYS, an indefinite reference to the near future.--THE DAY, the time spoken of: (_Scot._) to-day; THE OTHER DAY, not long ago; THE TIME OF DAY, a greeting, as, 'to give a person the time of day,' to greet him. [A.S. _dæg_; Ger. _tag_; not conn. with L. _dies_.] DAYAK. See DYAK. DAY-WOMAN, d[=a]'-woom'an, _n._ (_Shak._) a dairymaid. DAZE, d[=a]z, _v.t._ to stun, to stupefy. [Ice. _dasa_, to be breathless; cf. A.S. _dwæs_, foolish.] DAZZLE, daz'l, _v.t._ to daze or overpower with any strong light: to confound by brilliancy, beauty, or cleverness.--_ns._ DAZZ'LEMENT, the act of dazzling: that which dazzles; DAZZ'LER; DAZZ'LING.--_adv._ DAZZ'LINGLY. [Freq. of _daze_.] DEACON, d[=e]'kn, _n._ in Episcopal churches, a member of the order of clergy under priests: in some Presbyterian churches, an officer, distinct from the elders, who attends to the secular affairs of the church: in Congregational and some other churches, an officer who advises the pastor, distributes the elements at the Communion, and dispenses charity: in Scotland, the master of an incorporated company:--_fem._ DEA'CONESS, a female servant of the Christian society in the time of the apostles: in a convent, a nun who has the care of the altar: one of an order of women in some Protestant churches who nurse the sick and tend the poor.--_ns._ DEA'CONHOOD, DEA'CONRY, DEA'CONSHIP. [L. _diaconus_--Gr. _diakonos_, a servant.] [Illustration] DEAD, ded, _adj._ without life: death-like: at rest, of a ball: cold and cheerless: without vegetation: utter: unerring.--_v.t._ to deaden, dull.--_adv._ in a dead manner.--_n._ the time of greatest stillness, as 'the dead of night.'--_adjs._ DEAD'-ALIVE', DEAD'-AND-ALIVE', dull, uneventful; DEAD'-BEAT, quite overcome; DEAD'-BORN, still-born.--_n.pl._ DEAD'-CLOTHES, clothes in which to bury the dead.--_n._ DEAD'-COL'OURING, the first broad outlines of a picture.--_adjs._ DEAD'-DO'ING (_Spens._), putting to death, destructive; DEAD'-DRUNK, completely drunk.--_v.t._ DEAD'EN, to make dead: to deprive partly of vigour or sensation: to blunt: to lessen.--_ns._ DEAD'-EYE, (_naut._), a round, flattish wooden block with a rope or iron band passing round it, and pierced with three holes for a lanyard; DEAD'-FALL, a trap operated by a weight that, when its support is removed, falls upon and kills or holds an animal; DEAD'-FREIGHT, money paid for the empty space in a ship by a person who engages to freight her, but fails to make out a full cargo; DEAD'-HEAD (_U.S._), one who is allowed, without payment, to ride in a public carriage, sit in a theatre, or hold a privilege having a money value; DEAD'-HEAT, a heat or race in which no one gains the advantage; DEAD'-HOUSE, the house or room where (in hospitals, police-offices, &c.) dead bodies are kept till buried: a mortuary; DEAD'-LETT'ER, a letter undelivered and unclaimed at the post-office: a law or ordinance which has been made but never enforced; DEAD'-LEV'EL, a stretch of land without any rising ground: sameness; DEAD'-LIFT, a lift made without help, leverage, &c.; hence an effort under discouraging conditions.--_n.pl._ DEAD'-LIGHTS, storm-shutters for a cabin window.--_ns._ DEAD'LINESS; DEAD'-LOCK, the case when matters have become so complicated that all is at a complete standstill.--_adj._ DEAD'LY, causing death: fatal: implacable.--_adv._ in a manner resembling death.--_ns._ DEAD'LY-NIGHT'SHADE, the plant Belladonna (q.v.); DEAD'-MARCH, a piece of solemn music played at funeral processions, esp. of soldiers; DEAD'-MEAT, the flesh of animals ready for the market.--_n.pl._ DEAD'-MEN, empty bottles after a carouse.--_ns._ DEAD'NESS; DEAD'-NETT'LE, a genus of plants of the natural order _Labiatæ_, so called because they resemble nettles but do not sting; DEAD'-PAY, continued pay dishonestly drawn for men actually dead; DEAD'-RECK'ONING, an estimation of a ship's place simply by the log-book; DEAD'-ROPE, a rope not running in any block; DEAD'-SET, a determined and prolonged attempt; DEAD'-SHOT, an unerring marksman.--_adj._ DEAD'-STROKE, without recoil.--_ns._ DEAD'-WALL, a wall unbroken by windows or other openings; DEAD'-WA'TER, the eddy water closing in behind a ship's stern as she sails; DEAD'-WEIGHT, a heavy or oppressive burden; DEAD'-WIND, a wind coming directly ahead or opposed to a ship's course; DEAD'-WOOD, pieces of timber laid on the upper side of the keel at either end, useless material; DEAD'-WORK, work, itself unprofitable, which is necessary as a preliminary, as the opening of a mine.--DEAD AS A DOOR-NAIL, absolutely dead; DEAD LANGUAGE, one no longer spoken; DEAD-MEN'S BELLS, the foxglove; DEAD-MEN'S FINGERS, a very common coelenterate belonging to the _Actinozoa_--also _Cow-paps_ and _Mermaid's glove_; DEAD-MEN'S SHOES, a situation formerly held by some one now dead; DEAD'S PART (_Scots law_), the part of a man's movable property which he may bequeath by will, and which is not due to wife and children.--BE DEAD SET AGAINST, to be utterly opposed to.--PUT THE DEAD WOOD ON (_U.S. slang_), to gain a great advantage over. [A.S. _deád_; Goth. _dauths_, Ger. _todt_, from root of _die_.] DEAF, def, _adj._ dull of hearing: unable to hear at all: not willing to hear: inattentive.--_v.t._ DEAF'EN, to make deaf, partly or altogether: to stun: to render impervious to sound.--_n._ DEAF'ENING, stuffing put into floors, partition-walls, &c. to prevent sounds from passing through.--_adv._ DEAF'LY.--_ns._ DEAF'-MUTE, one who is both deaf and dumb; DEAF'NESS. [A.S. _deáf_; Dut. _doof_, Ger. _taub_.] DEAL, d[=e]l, _n._ a portion; an indefinite quantity: a large quantity; the act of dividing cards: (_U.S._) a bargain: a fir or pine board: timber.--_v.t._ to divide, to distribute: to throw about: to deliver.--_v.i._ to transact business: to act: to distribute cards.--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ dealt (delt).--_ns._ DEAL'ER, one who deals: a trader; DEAL'-FISH, a genus of ribbon-fishes; DEAL'ING, manner of acting towards others: intercourse of trade. [A.S. _d['æ]lan_--_d['æ]l_, a part; Ger. _theilen_--_theil_, a part or division. A doublet of _dole_. By some, however, _deal_, a plank, is taken as a doublet of _thill_, from A.S. _thel_, a plank.] DEAMBULATORY, d[=e]-am'b[=u]-la-to-ri, _n._ a passage or aisle round the choir and apse of a church. [L. _deambul[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to walk about.] DEAN, d[=e]n, _n._ a small valley.--Also DENE. [A.S. _denu_, a valley. Cf. DEN.] DEAN, d[=e]n, _n._ a dignitary in cathedral and collegiate churches who presides over the other clergy: the president of faculty in a college; the chief chaplain of the Chapel Royal: the chief judge of the Court of Arches: the president of a trade-guild.--_ns._ DEAN'ERY, the office of a dean: a dean's house; DEAN'SHIP, the office or dignity of a dean.--DEAN OF ARCHES, dean of the Court of Arches (see ARCH); DEAN OF FACULTY, president of the Faculty of Advocates in Scotland: DEAN OF GUILD, a municipal functionary in Scotland, who has authority over building and altering of houses.--RURAL DEAN, one who, under the bishop, has the special care and inspection of the clergy in certain parishes. [O. Fr. _deien_ (Fr. _doyen_)--Low L. _decanus_, a chief of ten--L. _decem_, ten.] DEAR, d[=e]r, _adj._ high in price: costly: scarce: highly valued: beloved: (_Shak._), earnest, inmost.--_n._ one who is dear or beloved.--_adv._ at a high price.--_adj._ DEAR'-BOUGHT.--_n._ DEAR'LING (_Spens._), a darling.--_adj._ DEAR'-LOVED.--_adv._ DEAR'LY.--_ns._ DEAR'NESS; DEAR'Y, one who is dear. [A.S. _deóre_, _dýre_; cog. with Ger. _theuer_.] DEAR, d[=e]r, _interj._ indicating surprise, pity, or other emotion, as in 'Oh dear!' 'Dear me!' 'Dear, dear!'--prob. elliptical in 'Dear help us!' &c. [Sometimes doubtfully referred to _Dio mio_ (It. 'My God'), or to some compound of Fr. _Dieu_.] DEARN, DEARNFUL, DERNLY. See DERN, &c. DEARTH, d[.e]rth, _n._ dearness, high price: scarcity: want: famine; barrenness.--_adj._ DEARTH'FUL (_Scot._), expensive. DEASIL, d[=e]'sh[=e]l, _n._ (_Scot._) motion according to the apparent course of the sun--opp. to _Withershins_.--Also DEA'SOIL, DEI'SHEAL, DEA'SIUL. [Gael.] DEARTICULATE, d[=e]-ar-tik'[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to disjoint. DEASPIRATE, d[=e]-as'pir-[=a]t, _v.t._ to remove the aspirate. DEATH, deth, _n._ state of being dead: extinction or cessation of life: manner of dying: mortality: a deadly plague: cause of death: spiritual lifelessness: the killing of the animal in hunting.--_ns._ DEATH'-ADD'ER, a poisonous Australian snake; DEATH'-AG'ONY, the struggle often preceding death; DEATH'-BED, the bed on which one dies, the last illness; DEATH'-BELL, the passing bell; DEATH'-BLOW, a blow that causes death; DEATH'-DAMP, a cold, clammy sweat preceding death.--_n.pl._ DEATH'-D[=U]'TIES, duties paid to government on the inheritance of property, real or personal, after the death of the former owner.--_n._ DEATH'-FIRE, a kind of light supposed to presage death.--_adjs._ DEATH'FUL, DEATH'LY, deadly, destructive; DEATH'LESS, never dying: everlasting.--_n._ DEATH'LESSNESS.--_adj._ DEATH'-LIKE (_Shak._), like a dead person, deadly.--_n._ DEATH'LINESS.--_adj._ DEATH'-MARKED, marked for or by death, destined to die.--_n._ DEATH'-MASK, a plaster-cast taken from the face after death.--_adj._ DEATH'-PRAC'TISED (_Shak._), threatened with death by malicious arts.--_ns._ DEATH'-RATE, the proportion of deaths to the population; DEATH'-RATT'LE, a rattling in the throat which sometimes accompanies the last uneasy breathings of a dying person; DEATH'S'-DOOR, the point of death; DEATH'S'-HEAD, the skull of a human skeleton, or a figure of it; DEATH'S'-MAN (_Shak._), the public executioner; DEATH'-STROKE, a death-blow; DEATH'-THROE, the dying agony; DEATH'-T[=O]'KEN (_Shak._), a sign or token of impending death, a plague-spot; DEATH'-TRAP, an unsafe building, vessel, or place that shuts up its occupants to almost certain death; DEATH'-WARR'ANT, an order from the authorities for the execution of a criminal; DEATH'-WATCH, a watch by a dying person: a popular name for several insects which produce a ticking noise, specially audible in the stillness of a death-chamber; DEATH'-WOUND, a wound which caused death.--DEATH'S'-HEAD MOTH, a species of hawk-moth, having pale markings on the back of the thorax somewhat like a skull.--BE DEATH ON, to be fond of, to be good at; BE IN AT THE DEATH, in hunting, to be up on the animal before the dogs have killed it.--DO, or PUT, TO DEATH, to kill: to cause to be killed.--GATES, or JAWS, OF DEATH, death's door, the point of death.--TO DEATH, expressive of intensity, very much. [A.S. _deáth_; Ger. _tod_. See DEAD and DIE.] DEAVE, d[=e]v, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to render deaf. [See DEAF.] DEAW, d[=u], _v.t._ (_Spens._) to bedew. DEBACLE, de-bak'l, _n._ a breaking up of ice on a river: (_geol._) a sudden flood of water leaving its path strewed with debris. [Fr. _débâcle_; _de_, and _bâcler_, to bar--L. _baculus_, a stick.] DEBAR, de-bär', _v.t._ to bar out from: to exclude: to hinder:--_pr.p._ debar'ring; _pa.p._ debarred'.--_n._ DEBAR'MENT. [L. _de_, from, and _bar_.] DEBARK, de-bärk', _v.t._ or _v.i._ to land from a ship or boat: to disembark.--_ns._ DEBARK[=A]'TION, DEBARC[=A]'TION. [Fr. _débarquer_--_des_ = L. _dis_, away, and _barque_, a ship.] DEBARRASS, de-bär'as, _v.t._ to disembarrass, disentangle, free. [Fr. _débarrasser_; _de_, and _barre_, a bar.] DEBASE, de-b[=a]s', _v.t._ to lower: to make mean or of less value: to adulterate.--_adj._ DEBASED', degraded: (_her._) reversed.--_n._ DEBASE'MENT, degradation.--_adj._ DEBAS'ING, tending to lower or degrade.--_adv._ DEBAS'INGLY. [L. _de_, down, and _base_, low.] DEBATE, de-b[=a]t', _n._ a contention in words or argument: (_obs._) strife.--_v.t._ to contend for in argument: (_arch._) to fight for.--_v.i._ to deliberate: to join in debate.--_adjs._ DEBAT'ABLE, liable to be disputed; DEBATE'FUL (_Spens._), quarrelsome.--_ns._ DEBATE'MENT (_Spens._, _Shak._), controversy; DEBAT'ER.--_adv._ DEBAT'INGLY.--DEBATABLE LAND, a tract of border land between Esk and Sark claimed both by England and Scotland. [O. Fr. _debatre_--L. _de_, and _batu[)e]re_, to beat.] DEBAUCH, de-bawch', _v.t._ to lead away from duty or allegiance: to corrupt with lewdness: to pervert.--_v.i._ to indulge in revelry.--_n._ a fit of intemperance or debauchery.--_p.adj._ DEBAUCHED', corrupt: profligate.--_adv._ DEBAUCH'EDLY.--_ns._ DEBAUCH'EDNESS; DEB'AUCHEE, a libertine; DEBAUCH'ER; DEBAUCH'ERY, excessive intemperance: habitual lewdness; DEBAUCH'MENT. [O. Fr. _desbaucher_ (Fr. _débaucher_), to corrupt--_des_ = L. _dis_, and _baucher_, to hew--_bauche_ or _bauc_, a beam, a course of stones.] DEBEL, de-bel', _v.t._ (_Milt._) to conquer in war. [Fr. _débeller_--L. _debell[=a]re_--_de_, from, and _bell[=a]re_, to carry on war, from _bellum_, war.] DEBENTURE, de-bent'[=u]r, _n._ a written acknowledgment of a debt: a deed of mortgage given by a railway or other company for borrowed money: a certificate entitling an exporter of imported goods to a repayment of the duty paid on their importation.--_p.adj._ DEBENT'URED, entitled to drawback or debenture, as goods. [L. _debentur_, there are due, 3d pers. pl. pass. of _deb[=e]re_, to owe--the first word of the receipt.] DEBILITATE, de-bil'i-t[=a]t, _v.t._ to make weak: to impair the strength of.--_adj._ DEB'ILE (_arch._), weak, feeble.--_ns._ DEBILIT[=A]'TION; DEBIL'ITY, weakness and languor: a weak action of the animal functions. [L. _debilit[=a]re_, _[=a]tum_--_debilis_, weak--_de_, not, _habilis_, able. See ABILITY.] DEBIT, deb'it, _n._ a debt or something due: an entry on the debtor side of an account.--_v.t._ to charge with debt: to enter on the debtor side of an account.--_n._ DEB'ITOR (_Shak._), a debtor. [L. _debitum_, what is due, from _deb[=e]re_, to owe.] DEBITUMINISE, d[=e]-bi-t[=u]'mi-n[=i]z, _v.t._ to deprive of bitumen. DÉBLAI, d[=a]-bl[=a]', _n._ the earth excavated from a ditch to form a parapet. [Fr.] DEBONAIR, deb-o-n[=a]r', _adj._ of good appearance and manners: elegant: courteous: gay.--_adv._ DEBONAIR'LY.--_n._ DEBONAIR'NESS. [Fr. _de_, of, _bon_, good, _air_, appearance, manner.] DEBOSH, de-bosh', an old form of _debauch_. DEBOUCH, de-b[=oo]sh', _v.i._ to march out from a narrow pass or confined place.--_ns._ DEBOUCH'MENT, the act of debouching; DEBOUCHURE', the mouth of a river or strait. [Fr. _déboucher_--_de_, from, _bouche_, the mouth--L. _bucca_, the cheek.] DÉBOUCHÉ, de-boo-sh[=a]', _n._ an opening, a passage: a market. [Fr.] DEBRIS, de-br[=e]', _n.sing._ and _pl._ rubbish: ruins: a mass of rocky fragments. [Fr., from _briser_, akin to _bruise_.] DEBRUISED, de-br[=oo]zd', _p.adj._ (_her._) surmounted or partly covered by one of the ordinaries. [O. Fr. _debrusier_--_de_, apart, _brusier_, to break.] DEBT, det, _n._ what one owes to another: what one becomes liable to do or suffer: a state of obligation or indebtedness: a duty: (_B._) a sin.--_p.adj._ DEBT'ED (_Shak._), indebted, obliged to.--_ns._ DEBT'EE, a creditor; DEBT'OR, one who owes a debt: the side of an account on which debts are charged.--DEBT OF HONOUR, a debt not recognised by law, but binding in honour--esp. gambling and betting debts; DEBT OF NATURE, death.--ACTIVE DEBT, a debt due to one, as opposed to _Passive debt_, a debt one owes; FLOATING DEBT, miscellaneous public debt, like exchequer and treasury bills, as opposed to _Funded debt_, that which has been converted into perpetual annuities like consols in Britain.--IN ONE'S DEBT, under a pecuniary obligation to one. [O. Fr. _dette_--L. _debitum_, _deb[=e]re_, to owe.] DÉBUT, de-bü' (_u_ sounded as in Scot. _gude_), _n._ a beginning or first attempt: a first appearance before the public, as of an actor, &c.--_n._ DÉBUTANT', one who makes his first appearance before the public:--_fem._ DÉBUTANTE'. [Fr. _début_, a first stroke--_débuter_--_de_, from, _but_, aim, mark.] DECACHORD, dek'a-kord, _n._ an ancient musical instrument with ten strings: anything having ten parts. [Gr. _dekachordos_--_deka_, ten, and _chord[=e]_, a string.] DECACUMINATED, d[=e]-ka-k[=u]'mi-n[=a]-ted, _adj._ having the top cut off. DECADE, dek'[=a]d, DECAD, dek'ad, _n._ a group of ten, esp. a series of ten years.--_adj._ DEC'ADAL. [Fr. _décade_--Gr. _dekas_--_deka_, ten.] DECADENCE, dek'a-dens, or de-k[=a]'-, DEC'ADENCY (or de-k[=a]'-), _n._ state of decay: a term for a school in modern French literature not distinguished for vigour or originality.--_adj._ DEC'ADENT (or de-k[=a]'-), decaying.--_n._ something decaying or decayed. [Fr.,--Low L. _decadentia_, from L. _de_, down--_cad[)e]re_, to fall.] DECAGON, dek'a-gon, _n._ a plane figure of ten angles and sides.--_adj._ DECAG'ONAL. [Gr. _deka_, and _g[=o]nia_, an angle.] DECAGRAMME, DECAGRAM, dek'a-gram, _n._ a weight of ten grammes, equal to 0.353 oz. [Fr.,--Gr. _deka_, ten, and _gramma_, a weight; L. _granum_, a grain.] DECAGYNIA, dek-a-jin'i-a, _n._ a class of plants in the Linnæan system having ten pistils.--_adjs._ DECAGYN'IAN, DECAG'YNOUS. [Gr. _deka_, ten, _gyn[=e]_, a woman.] DECAHEDRON, dek-a-h[=e]'dron, _n._ a solid figure having ten faces.--_adj._ DECAH[=E]'DRAL. [Gr. _deka_, and _hedra_, a seat.] DECALCIFY, de-kal'si-f[=i], _v.i._ to deprive of lime: to take the calcareous matter out of bones, teeth, &c.--_n._ DECALCIFIC[=A]'TION. [L. _de_, away from, _calx_, _calcis_, lime, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] DECALCOMANIA, d[=e]-kal-k[=o]-m[=a]'ni-a, _n._ the process of transferring pictures to marble, glass, wood, &c. [Fr.] DECALITRE, dek'a-l[=e]t-[.e]r, _n._ a French measure, ten litres: equal to 2½ imperial gallons. [Fr.,--Gr. _deka_, ten, and _litra_, a pound.] DECALOGUE, dek'a-log, _n._ the ten commandments.--_n._ DECAL'OGIST. [Gr. _deka_, ten, _logos_, a discourse.] DECAMERON, de-kam'e-ron, _n._ Boccaccio's hundred tales, supposed to be told in ten days.--_adj._ DECAMERON'IC. [From Gr. _deka_, ten, _h[=e]mera_, a day.] DECAMETRE, dek'a-m[=e]t-[.e]r, _n._ a French measure of ten metres, or 32.8 feet. [Fr. _décamètre_--Gr. _deka_, ten, _metron_, a measure. See METRE.] DECAMP, de-kamp', _v.i._ to go away, esp. secretly.--_n._ DECAMP'MENT. [Fr. _décamper_.] DECANAL, dek'an-al, _adj._ pertaining to a dean or deanery. DECANDRIA, de-kan'dri-a, _n._ a class of plants in the Linnæan system having ten stamens.--_adjs._ DECAN'DRIAN, DECAN'DROUS. [Gr. _deka_, ten, and _an[=e]r_, _andros_, a man.] DECANGULAR, dek-ang'g[=u]-lar, _adj._ having ten angles. [Gr. _deka_, ten, and L. _angulus_, an angle.] DECANT, de-kant', _v.t._ to pour off, leaving sediment: to pour from one vessel into another.--_ns._ DECANT[=A]'TION; DECANT'ER, an ornamental bottle for holding decanted liquor. [Fr. _décanter_ (It. _decantare_)--_de_, from, and Low L. _cantus_, a side or corner.] DECAPHYLLOUS, dek-a-fil'us, _adj._ having ten leaves. [Gr. _deka_, ten, _phyllon_, a leaf.] DECAPITATE, de-kap'i-t[=a]t, _v.t._ to take the head from: to behead.--_n._ DECAPIT[=A]'TION. [Low L. _decapit[=a]re_--L. _de_, from, and _caput_, _capitis_, the head.] DECAPOD, dek'a-pod, _n._ one of the shellfish which have ten feet or claws, as the crab.--_adjs._ DECA'PODAL, DECA'PODOUS. [Gr. _deka_, ten, and _pous_, _podos_, a foot.] DECARBONATE, de-kär'bon-[=a]t, _v.t._ to deprive of carbon--also DECAR'BONISE, DECAR'BURISE.--_ns._ DECARBONIS[=A]'TION, DECARBURIS[=A]'TION. [_De_, from, _carbon_.] DECASTICH, dek'a-stik, _n._ a poem of ten lines. [Gr. _deka_, ten, and _stichos_, a row, a verse.] DECASTYLE, dek'a-st[=i]l, _n._ a portico with ten columns in front. [Gr. _deka_, ten, _stylos_, a column.] DECASYLLABIC, dek-a-sil-ab'ik, _adj._ having ten syllables. [Gr. _deka_, ten, _syllab[=e]_, a syllable.] DECAUDATE, de-kaw'd[=a]t, _v.t._ to cut off the tail of. [L. _de_, and _cauda_, tail.] DECAY, d[=e]-k[=a]', _v.i._ to fall away from a state of health or excellence: to waste away.--_v.t._ to cause to waste away: to impair.--_n._ a falling into a worse or less perfect state: a passing away: loss of fortune: (_obs._) misfortune.--_p.adj._ DECAYED', reduced in circumstances.--_n._ DECAYED'NESS. [O. Fr. _decair_--L. _de_, from _cad[)e]re_, to fall.] DECEASE, d[=e]-s[=e]s', _n._ death.--_v.i._ to die.--_p.adj._ DECEASED', dead. [O. Fr. _deces_ (Fr. _décès_)--L. _decessus_--_de_, away, _ced[)e]re_, _cessum_, to go.] DECEIT, de-s[=e]t', _n._ act of deceiving: anything intended to mislead another: fraud: falseness.--_adj._ DECEIT'FUL, full of deceit: disposed or tending to deceive: insincere.--_adv._ DECEIT'FULLY.--_n._ DECEIT'FULNESS. [O. Fr., from L. _decip[)e]re_, _deceptum_, to deceive.] DECEIVE, de-s[=e]v', _v.t._ to mislead or cause to err: to cheat: to disappoint.--_adj._ DECEIV'ABLE, that may be deceived: exposed to imposture.--_n._ DECEIV'ABLENESS.--_adj._ DECEIV'ABLY.--_n._ DECEIV'ER. [Fr. _décevoir_--L. _decip[)e]re_, _deceptum_--_de_, from _cap[)e]re_, to take, catch.] DECEMBER, de-sem'b[.e]r, _n._ the tenth month among the Romans, who began their year with March: with us, the twelfth month of the year.--_adj._ DECEM'BERLY, wintry, cold.--_n._ DECEM'BRIST, one of those who took part in the Russian conspiracy of December 1825. [L. _decem_, ten.] DECEMDENTATE, d[=e]-sem-den't[=a]t, _adj._ having ten points or teeth. DECEMFID, d[=e]-sem'fid, _adj._ divided into ten parts. DECEMLOCULAR, d[=e]-sem-lok'[=u]-lar, _adj._ ten-celled. DECEMPEDAL, d[=e]-sem'ped-al, _adj._ having ten feet. DECEMVIR, de-sem'vir, _n._ one of ten magistrates who at one time had absolute power in ancient Rome:--_pl._ DECEM'VIRS, or (L.) DECEMVIRI (d[=e]-sem'vi-r[=i]).--_adj._ DECEM'VIRAL.--_n._ DECEM'VIR[=A]TE, a body of ten men in office: the term of office of decemvirs. [L. _decem_, ten, and _vir_, a man.] DECENNARY, de-sen'ar-i, _n._ a period of ten years--also DECENN'IUM.--_adj._ DECENN'IAL, consisting of or happening every ten years. [L. _decem_, ten, and _annus_, a year.] DECENNOVAL, de-sen'[=o]-val, _adj._ pertaining to the number 15. DECENT, d[=e]'sent, _adj._ becoming: seemly: proper: modest: moderate: tolerable.--_n._ D[=E]'CENCY, becomingness: modesty.--_adv._ D[=E]'CENTLY. [L. _decens_, _decentis_, pr.p. of _dec[=e]re_, to be becoming.] DECENTRALISE, de-sen'tral-[=i]z, _v.t._ to withdraw from the centre: to transfer functions from the central government to local centres.--_n._ DECENTRALIS[=A]'TION. [L. _de_, neg., and _centralise_.] DECEPTION, de-sep'shun, _n._ act of deceiving: the means by which it is sought to deceive.--_n._ DECEPTIBIL'ITY.--_adjs._ DECEPT'IBLE, capable of being deceived; DECEP'TIOUS (_Shak._), deceitful; DECEP'TIVE, tending to deceive: misleading.--_adv._ DECEP'TIVELY.--_n._ DECEP'TIVENESS.--_adj._ DECEP'TORY, tending to deceive. [O. Fr.,--Low L. _deceptio_, _-nis_--_decip[)e]re_, to deceive.] DECERN, de-s[.e]rn', _v.t._ and _v.i._ (_Scots law_) to judge: to decree: to pass judgment. [O. Fr. _decerner_--L. _decern[)e]re_--_de_, and _cern[)e]re_, to distinguish.] DECESSION, de-sesh'un, _n._ departure. [See DECEASE.] DECHARM, d[=e]-chärm', _v.t._ to disenchant. DECHRISTIANISE, de-krist'yan-[=i]z, _v.t._ to turn from Christianity: to destroy Christian elements. DECIARE, de'si-är, _n._ the tenth part of an are. [Fr.,--L. _deci-_ (in _decimus_), and _are_.] DECIDE, de-s[=i]d', _v.t._ to determine: to end: to settle: to resolve.--_adjs._ DECID'ABLE, capable of being decided; DECID'ED, determined: clear, unmistakable: resolute.--_adv._ DECID'EDLY. [O. Fr. _decider_--L. _decid[=e]re_--_de_, away, _cæd[)e]re_, to cut.] DECIDUOUS, de-sid'[=u]-us, _adj._ that fall in autumn, as leaves: not permanent.--_n._ DECID'UA, a membrane of the uterus discharged after parturition.--_adj._ DECID'U[=A]TE.--_n._ DECID'UOUSNESS.--DECIDUOUS TREES, those which annually lose and renew their leaves. [L. _deciduus_--_decid[)e]re_, _de_, from, _cad[)e]re_, to fall.] DECIGRAMME, de'si-gram, _n._ the tenth part of a gramme. [See GRAMME (3).] DECILITRE, des'i-l[=e]-t[.e]r, _n._ a measure of capacity equal to 1/10 litre. DECILLION, de-sil'yun, _n._ a million raised to the tenth power: in the French and American notation, a thousand raised to the eleventh power. DECIMAL, des'i-mal, _adj._ numbered or proceeding by tens.--_n._ a fraction having ten or some power of ten for its denominator.--_v.t._ DEC'IMALISE, to reduce to the decimal system.--_ns._ DEC'IMALISM; DEC'IMALIST.--_adv._ DEC'IMALLY.--DECIMAL NOTATION, a system of writing numbers based on ten and powers of ten, like our ordinary system; DECIMAL SYSTEM, a system whose units are tens and powers of tens, esp. in the French _metric system_ of weights and measures. [Fr.,--Low L. _decimalis_--_decem_, ten.] DECIMATE, des'i-m[=a]t, _v.t._ to take the tenth part of: to put to death every tenth man.--_ns._ DECIM[=A]'TION, a military punishment, by which every tenth man was selected by lot and put to death or otherwise punished; DEC'IMATOR. [L. _decim[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_decimus_, tenth.] DECIME, de-s[=e]m', _n._ a French coin equal to 1/10 franc. DECIMETRE, des'i-m[=e]-t[.e]r, _n._ a measure of length equal to 1/10 metre. DECIPHER, de-s[=i]'f[.e]r, _v.t._ to uncipher or read secret writing: to make out what is unintelligible or obscure: to reveal.--_adj._ DECI'PHERABLE.--_n._ DECI'PHERMENT. [L. _de_, neg. and _cipher_.] DECISION, de-sizh'un, _n._ the act of deciding: settlement: judgment: the quality of being decided in character.--_adj._ DEC[=I]'SIVE, having the power of deciding: showing decision: final: positive.--_adv._ DEC[=I]'SIVELY.--_n._ DEC[=I]'SIVENESS.--_adj._ DEC[=I]'SORY, decisive. [See DECIDE.] DECISTÈRE, des-i-st[=a]r, _n._ a cubic measure equal to 1/10 stere. DECITIZENISE, d[=e]-sit'i-zen-[=i]z, _v.t._ to deprive of citizenship. DECIVILISE, d[=e]-siv'i-l[=i]z, _v.t._ to reduce from a civilised to a more savage state. DECK, dek, _v.t._ to cover: to clothe: to adorn: to furnish with a deck, as a vessel.--_n._ a covering: a horizontal platform extending from one side of a vessel to the other, thereby joining them together, and forming both a floor and a covering: the part of a pack of cards that remains after the deal, or the part of a pack necessary for playing such games as bezique, &c.--_ns._ DECK'-CAR'GO, cargo stowed on the deck of a vessel; DECK'-CHAIR, a light chair of spars and canvas, to be used on board ship; DECK'ER, the person or thing that decks: a vessel which has a deck or decks, used only in composition, as _a three-decker_, a ship with three decks; DECK'-HAND, a person employed on deck; DECK'-HOUSE, a house or box on deck; DECK'ING, adornment; DECK'-LOAD, a deck-cargo; DECK'-PASS'AGE, a passage securing only the right of being on deck, without cabin accommodation; DECK'-PASS'ENGER; FLUSH'-DECK, a deck continuous from stem to stern at the same level (see QUARTER-DECK); GUN'-DECK, a deck on which guns are carried; HUR'RICANE-DECK, a light partial deck over the saloon of some steamers; MAIN'-DECK, the deck below the spar-deck; SPAR'-DECK, the upper deck of a ship. [Dut. _dekken_, to cover; Ger. _decken_; akin to L. _teg[)e]re_.] DECKLE, dek'l, _n._ the gauge on a paper-making machine.--_n._ DECK'LE-EDGE, the raw or ragged edge of handmade paper.--_adj._ DECK'LE-EDGED, having a rough uncut edge. [Ger.] DECLAIM, de-kl[=a]m', _v.i._ to make a set or rhetorical speech: to harangue: to recite in public.--_ns._ DECLAIM'ANT, DECLAIM'ER.--_p.adj._ DECLAIM'ING.--_ns._ DECLAM[=A]'TION, act of declaiming: a set speech in public: display in speaking.--_adj._ DECLAM'ATORY, of the nature of declamation: appealing to the passions: noisy and rhetorical merely. [L. _declam[=a]re_--_de_, inten., _clam[=a]re_, to cry out.] DECLARE, de-kl[=a]r', _v.t._ to make known: to announce: to assert: to make a full statement of, as of goods at a custom-house.--_v.i._ to make a statement: to show cards in order to score.--_adj._ DECL[=A]R'ABLE, capable of being declared, exhibited, or proved.--_ns._ DECLAR'ANT, one who makes a declaration; DECLAR[=A]'TION, act of declaring: that which is declared: a written affirmation: in the criminal law of Scotland, the statement made by the prisoner before the magistrate: in common law, the pleading in which the plaintiff in an action at law sets forth his case against the defendant.--_adjs._ DECLAR'ATIVE, DECLAR'ATORY, explanatory.--_advs._ DECLAR'ATIVELY, DECLAR'ATORILY.--_n._ DECLAR'ATOR, a form of action in the Court of Session in Scotland, with the view of having a fact judicially ascertained and declared.--_adj._ DECLARED', avowed.--_adv._ DECLA'REDLY, avowedly.--DECLARATORY ACT, an act intended to explain an old law which had become obscure or a subject of controversy. [Fr. _déclarer_, from L. _declar[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_de_, wholly, _clarus_, clear.] DECLENSION, de-klen'shun, _n._ a falling off: decay: descent: (_gram._) change of termination for the oblique cases. [See DECLINE.] DECLINE, de-kl[=i]n', _v.i._ to bend or turn away from (a straight line); to deviate: to refuse: to bend down: to fail or decay: to stoop or condescend: to draw to an end.--_v.t._ to bend down: to turn away from: to refuse: to avoid: (_gram._) to give the changes of a word in the oblique cases.--_n._ a falling off: deviation: decay: a gradual sinking of the bodily faculties, consumption.--_adjs._ DECLIN'ABLE, having inflection for the oblique cases; DECL[=I]'NAL, bending downward; DEC'LINANT (_her._), having the tail hanging down--also DEC'LIVANT.--_ns._ DECLIN[=A]'TION, act of declining: a sloping or bending downward: deviation: (_astron._) distance from the celestial equator; DEC'LIN[=A]TOR, an instrument determining declination.--_adj._ DECLIN'ATORY, containing a declination or refusal--_ns._ DECLIN'ATURE, act of declining or refusing: (_law_) a plea declining the jurisdiction of a judge; DECLINOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the DECLINATION OF THE COMPASS--i.e. the deviation of the magnetic needle from the true north. [Fr. _décliner_--L. _de_, down, away from, _clin[=a]re_, to bend. See LEAN.] DECLIVITY, de-kliv'i-ti, _n._ a place that declines, or slopes downward, opposite of _acclivity_: inclination downward: a gradual descent.--_adjs._ DECLIV'ITOUS, DECL[=I]'VOUS. [Fr.,--L. _declivitas_--_de_, downward, _clivus_, sloping, akin to _clin[=a]re_.] DECOCT, de-kokt', _v.t._ to prepare by boiling: to extract the substance of by boiling: to boil: to devise.--_adjs._ DECOC'TIBLE, DECOC'TIVE.--_ns._ DECOC'TION, an extract of anything got by boiling; DECOC'TURE, a substance prepared by decoction. [L. _decoqu[)e]re_, _decoctum_--_de_, down, _coqu[)e]re_, to cook.] DECODE, de-k[=o]d', _v.t._ to translate the symbols in a code telegram into ordinary language. DECOLLATE, de-kol'[=a]t, _v.t._ to behead.--_p.adj._ DECOLL'ATED, rounded off, as the apex of a shell.--_n._ DECOLL[=A]'TION, the act of beheading: a picture of a decapitation, esp. of the head of St John the Baptist on a charger: the festival of the Baptist, Aug. 29. [L. _decoll[=a]re_--_de_, from, _collum_, the neck.] DECOLLETÉ, d[=a]-kol-e-t[=a]', _adj._ with neck uncovered: of dress, low cut. [Fr. _décolleter_, to bare the neck and shoulders. Cf. DECOLLATE.] DECOLOUR, de-kul'ur, _v.t._ to deprive of colour--also DECOL'OURISE.--_n._ DECOL'ORANT, a substance that bleaches or removes colour.--_v.t._ DECOL'ORATE, to deprive of colour.--_ns._ DECOLOR[=A]'TION, removal or absence of colour; DECOLORIS[=A]'TION. [Fr. _décolorer_--L. _decolor[=a]re_--_de_, from, _color_, colour.] DECOMPLEX, d[=e]'kom-pleks, _adj._ repeatedly compound. DECOMPOSE, de-kom-poz', _v.t._ to separate the parts composing anything: to resolve into original elements.--_v.i._ to decay, rot.--_adj._ DECOMPOS'ABLE.--_n._ DECOMPOSI'TION, act of decomposing: decay or dissolution: also the compounding of things already compound. [L. _de_, neg., and _compose_.] DECOMPOSITE, d[=e]-kom-poz'it, or de-kom'-, _adj._ compound a second time or more than once. [L. _de_, and _composite_.] DECOMPOUND, de-kom-pownd', _v.t._ to compound again: to compound things already compounded; also, to divide a thing into its constituent parts.--_adj._ compounded a second time.--_adj._ DECOMPOUND'ABLE. [L. _de_, and _compound_.] DECONCENTRATE, de-kon-sen'tr[=a]t, or de-kon'sen-tr[=a]t, _v.t._ to scatter.--_n._ DECONCENTR[=A]'TION. [_De_, and _concentrate_.] DECONSECRATE, de-kon'se-kr[=a]t, _v.t._ to deprive of the character given by consecration: to secularise.--_n._ DECONSECR[=A]'TION. DECORATE, dek'o-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to ornament, to beautify: to honour with a badge or medal.--_adj._ DEC'ORATED.--_n._ DECOR[=A]'TION, ornament: badge of an order.--_adj._ DEC'OR[=A]TIVE, ornamental.--_ns._ DEC'OR[=A]TIVENESS; DEC'OR[=A]TOR.--DECORATED STYLE (_archit._), a style of Gothic architecture, elaborated and richly decorated, which prevailed till near the end of the 14th century.--DECORATION DAY, May 30th, when the memory of the soldiers who fell in the American Civil War of 1861-65 is honoured by the decoration of their graves, speeches, processions, &c. [L. _decor[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_decus_, what is becoming--_dec[=e]re_, to be becoming.] DECOROUS, de-k[=o]'rus, or dek'o-rus, _adj._ becoming: suitable: proper: decent.--_adv._ DEC[=O]'ROUSLY.--_ns._ DEC[=O]'ROUSNESS; DEC[=O]'RUM, that which is becoming in outward appearance: propriety of conduct: decency. [L. _decorus_, becoming.] DECORTICATE, de-kor'ti-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to deprive of the bark, husk, or peel.--_n._ DECORTIC[=A]'TION. [L. _decortic[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_de_, from, and _cortex_, bark.] DECOY, de-koy', _v.t._ to allure: to entrap: to lure into a trap.--_n._ anything intended to allure into a snare: an apparatus of hoops and network for trapping wild-ducks--sometimes _duck-coy_.--_n._ DECOY'-DUCK, a wild-duck tamed and trained to entice others into a trap: (_fig._) one employed to allure others into a snare. [L. _de_, down, and O. Fr. _coi_, quiet; the earlier verb _to coy_ was confused with the Dut. _kooi_--L. _cavea_, a cage. See COY.] DECRASSIFY, d[=e]-kras'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to make less crass. DECREASE, de-kr[=e]s', _v.i._ to become less: to be diminished by degrees in size or power.--_v.t._ to make less: to lessen gradually.--_n._ a growing less: loss.--_adv._ DECREAS'INGLY. [O. Fr. _decrois_, a decrease--L. _descresc[)e]re_--_de_, from, _cresc[)e]re_, to grow.] DECREE, de-kr[=e]', _n._ an order by one in authority: an edict or law: a judicial decision: a predetermined purpose.--_v.t._ to decide or determine by sentence in law: to appoint.--_v.i._ to make a decree:--_pr.p._ decree'ing; _pa.p._ decreed'.--_adjs._ DECREE'ABLE, capable of being decreed; DECR[=E]'TIVE, having the force of a decree; DEC'R[=E]TORY, DECRET[=O]'RIAL, established by a decree: determining: judicial.--DECREE NISI (L. _nisi_, unless), a decree that becomes absolute unless cause be shown to the contrary--granted esp. in divorce cases. [O. Fr. _decret_--L. _decretum_--_decern[)e]re_, to decide.] DECREET, de-kr[=e]t', _n._ (_Scots law_) a court judgment. DECREMENT, dek're-ment, _n._ the act or state of decreasing: the quantity lost by decrease. [L. _decrementum_.] DECREPIT, de-krep'it, _adj._ worn out by the infirmities of old age: in the last stage of decay.--_ns._ DECREP'ITNESS; DECREP'ITUDE, state of being decrepit or worn out with age. [L. _decrepitus_, noiseless, very old--_de_, not, _crepitus_, a noise.] DECREPITATE, de-krep'i-t[=a]t, _v.i._ to crackle, as salts when heated.--_v.t._ to roast so as to cause a continual crackling, to calcine.--_n._ DECREPIT[=A]'TION. [L. _de_, inten., _crepit[=a]re_, to rattle much, freq. of _crep[=a]re_.] DECRESCENT, de-kres'ent, _adj._ becoming gradually less.--_n._ (_mus._) DECRESCEN'DO = Diminuendo (q.v.). [L.] DECRETAL, de-kr[=e]'tal, _adj._ pertaining to a decree.--_n._ a decree, esp. of the pope: a book containing decrees: spec. in _pl._ the second part of the canon law, the decrees of various popes determining points of ecclesiastical law.--_n._ DECR[=E]'TIST, in medieval universities, a student of the decretals, a student of law.--_adjs._ DECR[=E]'TIVE; DECR[=E]'TORY, pertaining to a decree, judicial. [L. _decretalis_--_decretum_.] DECREW, de-kr[=oo]', _v.i._ (_Spens._) to decrease. [For _decrue_--O. Fr. _decru_, pa.p. of _decroistre_. See DECREASE.] DECROWN, d[=e]-krown', _v.t._ to discrown. [Fr. _découronner_, to discrown.] DECRUSTATION, d[=e]-krus-t[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of removing a crust. DECRY, de-kr[=i]', _v.t._ to cry down: to condemn: to censure as worthless: to blame:--_pa.p._ decried'.--_ns._ DECR[=I]'AL; DECR[=I]'ER. [Fr. _de(s)_ = L. _dis_, and _crier_, to cry. See CRY.] DECUMAN, dek'[=u]-man, _adj._ principal, large--of waves, &c.: connected with the principal gate of a Roman camp (near which the 10th cohort of the legion was stationed).--_n._ a great wave, as every tenth wave was supposed to be. [L. _decumanus_--_decem_, ten.] DECUMBENT, de-kum'bent, _adj._ lying down: reclining on the ground.--_ns._ DECUB[=A]'TION, DECUM'BENCE, DECUM'BENCY, the act or posture of lying down.--_adj._ DEC[=U]'BITAL--_n._ DEC[=U]'BITUS, a recumbent position, as of one sick in bed: a bed-sore.--_adv._ DECUM'BENTLY.--_n._ DECUM'BITURE, the time when a sick person takes to bed. [L. _decumbens_--_de_, down, and _cumb[)e]re_, for _cub[=a]re_, to lie.] DECUPLE, dek'[=u]-pl, _adj._ tenfold.--_n._ a number ten times repeated.--_v.t._ to make tenfold. [Fr. _décuple_--L. _decem_, ten, and _plic[=a]re_, to fold.] DECURION, d[=e]-k[=u]'ri-on, _n._ an officer in a Roman army over ten soldiers--a DEC'URY or DEC[=U]'RIA: any overseer of ten.--_n._ DEC[=U]'RIONATE. [L.] DECURRENT, de-kur'ent, _adj._ running or extending downward.--_n._ DECURR'ENCY.--_adv._ DECURR'ENTLY.--_n._ DECUR'SION, a running down: a military manoeuvre or parade.--_adj._ DECUR'SIVE.--_adv._ DECUR'SIVELY. [L. _decurrens_--_de_, down, _curr[)e]re_, _cursum_, to run.] DECURTATE, d[=e]-kur't[=a]t, _adj._ cut short, abridged.--_v.t._ to cut short. [L. _decurt[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to cut short.] DECUSSATE, de-kus'[=a]t, _v.i._ to cross in the form of an X: to cross, as lines, &c.--_adjs._ DECUSS'ATE, -D, crossed: arranged in pairs which cross each other, like some leaves.--_adv._ DECUSS'ATELY.--_n._ DECUSS[=A]'TION. [L. _decuss[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_decussis_, a coin of ten asses (_decem asses_) marked with X, symbol of ten.] DEDAL, DEDALIAN. See DÆDAL. DEDICATE, ded'i-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to set apart and consecrate to some sacred purpose: to devote wholly or chiefly: to inscribe to any one.--_adj._ devoted: (_Shak._) dedicated.--_ns._ DED'ICANT, one who dedicates; DEDICATEE (ded'i-k[=a]-t[=e]'), one to whom a thing is dedicated; DEDIC[=A]'TION, the act of dedicating: an address to a patron, prefixed to a book; DED'IC[=A]TOR, one who dedicates.--_adjs._ DEDICAT[=O]'RIAL, DED'IC[=A]TORY, of or pertaining to a dedication. [L. _dedic[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_de_, down, _dic[=e]re_, to declare.] DEDIMUS, ded'i-mus, _n._ a writ commissioning one not a judge to act as a judge--from its first word. [L., _dedimus_, we have given, _d[)a]re_, to give.] DEDUCE, de-d[=u]s', _v.t._ to draw from: to infer a truth or opinion from what precedes or from premises.--_ns._ DEDUCE'MENT, what is deduced; DEDUCIBIL'ITY, the quality of being deducible.--_adj._ DEDUC'IBLE, that may be deduced or inferred.--_v.t._ DEDUCT', to take from: to separate: to subtract.--_adj._ DEDUCT'IBLE.--_n._ DEDUC'TION, (1) the act of deducing: that which is deduced: the drawing of a particular truth from a general, antecedently known, as distinguished from _Induction_, rising from particular truths to a general; (2) the act of deducting: that which is deducted: abatement.--_adj._ DEDUCT'IVE, that is, or that may be, deduced from premises or accepted principles.--_adv._ DEDUCT'IVELY. [L. _deduc[)e]re_, _deductum_--_de_, from _duc[)e]re_, _ductum_, to lead.] DEE, d[=e], _v.i._ Scotch for _die_. DEED, d[=e]d, _n._ something done: an act: an exploit: a legal transaction: the written evidence of it.--_adj._ DEED'FUL (_Tenn._), marked by deeds or exploits.--_adv._ DEED'ILY.--_adjs._ DEED'LESS (_Shak._), not having performed deeds; DEED'Y, industrious, active.--DEED OF SAYING (_Shak._), performance of what has been said or promised.--IN DEED, in reality. [A.S. _dæd_--_dón_, to do; Ger. _that_--_thun_, to do.] DEED, d[=e]d, a Scotch form of _indeed_. DEEM, d[=e]m, _v.t._ or _v.i._ to judge: to think: to believe.--_n._ (_Shak._) opinion.--_ns._ DEEM'STER, DEMP'STER, one who pronounces judgment, a judge--esp. one of the two in the Isle of Man. [A.S. _déman_, to form a judgment--_dóm_, doom.] DEEP, d[=e]p, _adj._ extending far down or far from the outside: difficult to understand: secret: wise and penetrating: cunning: very still: profound: profoundly learned in a language: intense, heart-felt: sunk low: low or grave: (of a road) encumbered with mud, sand, or ruts.--_adv._ in a deep manner.--_n._ that which is deep: the sea: anything profound or incomprehensible.--_adjs._ DEEP'-BROWED, of high intellectual powers; DEEP'-DRAW'ING (of ships), requiring considerable depth to float in; DEEP'-DRAWN; DEEP'-DYED, thorough-going, extreme--in a bad sense.--_v.t._ DEEP'EN, to make deeper in any sense: to increase.--_v.i._ to become deeper.--_adjs._ DEEP'-FET (_Shak._), fetched or drawn from a depth; DEEP'-LAID.--_adv._ DEEP'LY.--_adjs._ DEEP'-MOST, deepest; DEEP'-MOUTHED, with deep voice.--_n._ DEEP'NESS.--_adjs._ DEEP'-READ, profoundly versed; DEEP'-SEA, pertaining to the deeper parts of the sea; DEEP'-SEAT'ED, firmly seated; DEEP'-TONED, having a deep tone. [A.S. _deóp_; Ger. _tief_. Cf. DIP, DIVE.] DEER, d[=e]r, _n._ a quadruped of several species, as the stag, reindeer, &c.; in M. E., any kind of animal.--_ns._ DEER'-HAIR, heath club-rush; DEER'-HERD; DEER'-HOUND; DEER'-LICK, a spot of salt ground whither deer come to lick the earth; DEER'-MOUSE, a common name for several species of American mice--so called from their agility; DEER'-NECK, a thin, ill-shaped neck--of horses; DEER'-SKIN, the skin of the deer, or leather made therefrom; DEER'-STALK'ER; DEER'-STALK'ING, the hunting of deer by stalking, or stealing upon them unawares. [A.S. _deór_; Ger. _thier_, Dut. _dier_; Ice. _dýr_. There is no connection with Gr. _th[=e]r_, L. _fera_, a wild beast.] DEFACE, de-f[=a]s', _v.t._ to destroy or mar the face or external appearance of, to disfigure: to obliterate.--_n._ DEFACE'MENT, act of defacing: injury to form or appearance: that which defaces.--_adv._ DEF[=A]'CINGLY. [O. Fr. _desfacer_--_des_ = L. _dis_, away, _facies_, face.] DEFALCATE, de-fal'k[=a]t, _v.t._ to deduct a part of, of money, &c.: to embezzle money held on trust.--_ns._ DEFALC[=A]'TION, a diminution: a misappropriation of funds entrusted to one; DEF'ALC[=A]TOR, a defaulter. [Low L. _difalc[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to cut away--L. _dis-_, off, _falc[=a]re_, to cut--_falx_, _falcis_, a sickle.] DEFAME, de-f[=a]m', _v.t._ to take away or destroy the good fame or reputation of: to speak evil of: to charge falsely.--_n._ (_Spens._) infamy.--_n._ DEFAM[=A]'TION, the act of defaming: calumny: slander.--_adv._ DEFAM'ATORILY.--_adj._ DEFAM'ATORY, containing defamation: injurious to reputation: calumnious.--_p.adj._ DEF[=A]'MING. [O. Fr. _defamer_--L. _diffam[=a]re_--_dis_, away, _fama_, report.] DEFAULT, de-fawlt', _n._ a fault, failing, or failure: defect: neglect to do what duty or law requires: failure to account for money entrusted to one's charge: offence.--_v.i._ to fail through neglect of duty: to fail to appear in court when called upon.--_n._ DEFAULT'ER, one who fails to appear in court, or to account for money entrusted to his care, or to settle a debt of honour.--JUDGMENT BY DEFAULT, judgment given against a person because he fails to plead or make an appearance in court. [O. Fr. _defaute_ and _default_--_de_ = L. _dis_, apart, and _faute_.] DEFEASANCE, de-f[=e]z'ans, _n._ undoing: defeat.--_adjs._ DEFEAS'ANCED, liable to be forfeited; DEFEAS'IBLE, that may be defeated or annulled.--_n._ DEFEAS'IBLENESS.--DEED OF DEFEAS'ANCE (_Eng. law_), an instrument which defeats the operation of some other deed or estate; and that which in the same deed is called a condition, in a separate deed is a defeasance. [O. Fr. _defaisance_--_defaire_, to undo.] DEFEAT, de-f[=e]t', _v.t._ to frustrate: to ruin.--_n._ a frustration of plans: ruin: overthrow, as of an army in battle.--_n._ DEFEAT'URE (_Spens._), defeat: disfigurement, disguise. [O. Fr. _defait_, _defaire_, to undo--L. _dis_, neg. _fac[)e]re_, to do.] DEFECATE, def'e-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to clear from dregs or impurities: to purify from extraneous matter.--_v.i._ to void excrement.--_n._ DEFEC[=A]'TION. [L. _defæc[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to cleanse--_de_, from, _fæx_, _fæcis_, dregs.] DEFECT, de-fekt', _n._ a deficiency: a want: imperfection: blemish: fault.--_n._ DEFECTIBIL'ITY.--_adj._ DEFECT'IBLE, liable to imperfection: deficient.--_ns._ DEFEC'TION, a failure, a falling away from duty: revolt; DEFEC'TIONIST.--_adj._ DEFEC'TIVE, having defect: wanting in some necessary quality: imperfect: faulty: insufficient.--_adv._ DEFECT'IVELY.--_n._ DEFECT'IVENESS.--THE DEFECTS OF ONE'S QUALITIES, virtues carried to excess, the faults apt to accompany or flow from good qualities. [L. _defic[)e]re_, _defectum_, to fail--_de_, down, and _fac[)e]re_, to do.] DEFENCE, de-fens', _n._ a defending: protection: vindication: (_law_) a defendant's plea.--_pa.p._ DEFENC'ED (_B._), fortified.--_adj._ DEFENCE'LESS.--_adv._ DEFENCE'LESSLY.--_n._ DEFENCE'LESSNESS. [See DEFEND.] DEFEND, de-fend', _v.t._ to keep off anything hurtful: to guard or protect: to maintain against attack: (_obs._) to prohibit, forbid: (_law_) to resist, as a claim: to contest.--_adj._ DEFEND'ABLE, that may be defended.--_ns._ DEFEND'ANT, a defender: (_law_) a person accused or sued; DEFENDEE', one who is defended; DEFEND'ER; DEFEN'SATIVE, a protection; DEFENSIBIL'ITY.--_adjs._ DEFENS'IBLE, that may be defended; DEFENS'IVE, DEFEN'SORY, serving to defend: in a state or posture of defence.--_n._ that which defends: posture of defence.--_adv._ DEFENS'IVELY.--DEFENDER OF THE FAITH, a title borne by the sovereigns of England since Henry VIII., on whom it was conferred in 1521 for his book against Luther.--BE ON THE DEFENSIVE, to be in the position to defend one's self. [L. _defend[)e]re_, _defensum_, to ward off--_de_, off, and obs. _fend[)e]re_, to strike.] DEFER, de-f[.e]r', _v.t._ to put off to another time: to delay:--_pr.p._ defer'ring; _pa.p._ deferred'.--_ns._ DEFER'MENT; DEFER'RER, a procrastinator.--DEFERRED ANNUITY (see ANNUITY); DEFERRED PAY, an allowance paid to soldiers on their discharge, or to their relations on their death; DEFERRED SHARES, shares issued by a trading company, but not entitling the holder to a full share of the profits of the company, and sometimes to none at all, until the expiration of a specified time or the occurrence of some event. [L. _differre_--_dis_, asunder, _ferre_, to bear, carry.] DEFER, de-f[.e]r, _v.i._ to yield to the wishes or opinions of another, or to authority.--_v.t._ to submit to or lay before:--_pr.p._ defer'ring; _pa.p._ deferred'.--_n._ DEF'ERENCE, a deferring or yielding in judgment or opinion: regard: submission.--_adj._ DEF'ERENT, bearing away, carrying off.--_n._ a deferent duct (as opposed to an _afferent_ one) in the human body.--_adj._ DEFEREN'TIAL, expressing deference or respect.--_adv._ DEFEREN'TIALLY. [L. _deferre_--_de_, down, and _ferre_, to bear.] DEFERVESCENCE, de-fer-ves'ens, _n._ abatement of heat: coolness: decrease of feverish symptoms.--Also DEFERVES'CENCY. [L. _defervesc[)e]re_, to cease boiling--_de_, down, and _fervesc[)e]re_, from _ferv[=e]re_, to boil.] DEFEUDALISE, d[=e]-f[=u]'dal-[=i]z, _v.t._ to deprive of feudal character. DEFFLY (_Spens._). For DEFTLY. DEFIANCE, de-f[=i]'ans, _n._ the act of defying: a challenge to combat: aggressiveness: contempt of opposition.--_adj._ DEF[=I]'ANT, full of defiance, insolently bold.--_adv._ DEF[=I]'ANTLY.--_n._ DEF[=I]'ANTNESS.--_adj._ DEF[=I]'ATORY, bidding defiance.--BID DEFIANCE TO, to defy. DEFIBRINATE, de-f[=i]'bri-n[=a]t, _v.t._ to deprive of fibrine--also DEF[=I]'BRINISE.--_n._ DEFIBRIN[=A]'TION. DEFICIENT, de-fish'ent, _adj._ wanting.--_n._ DEFIC'IENCY (sometimes DEFIC'IENCE), defect.--_adv._ DEFIC'IENTLY.--_ns._ DEFIC'IENTNESS; DEF'ICIT, deficiency, esp. of revenue, as compared with expenditure. [L., _defic[)e]re_.] DEFILE, d[=e]-f[=i]l', or d[=e]'f[=i]l, _v.i._ to march off in file or line, or file by file.--_n._ a long narrow pass or way, in which troops can march only in file, or with a narrow front.--_v.t._ DEFIL[=A]DE', to plan a fortification so as to protect it from enfilading fire.--_n._ DEFILE'MENT. [Fr. _défiler_--L. _dis_, and _filum_, a thread.] DEFILE, de-f[=i]l', _v.t._ to pollute or corrupt: to violate.--_ns._ DEFILE'MENT, act of defiling: foulness; DEFIL'ER. [L. _de_, and A.S. _fýlan_, _fúl_, foul.] DEFILIATION, de-fil-i-[=a]'shun, _n._ depriving a parent of his child. [L. _de_, neg., and _filius_, a son.] DEFINE, de-f[=i]n', _v.t._ to fix the bounds or limits of: to determine with precision: to describe accurately: to fix the meaning of.--_adj._ DEFIN'ABLE, that may be defined.--_n._ DEFINE'MENT (_Shak._), description.--_adj._ DEF'INITE, defined: having distinct limits: fixed: exact: clear.--_adv._ DEF'INITELY.--_ns._ DEF'INITENESS; DEFINI'TION, a defining: a description of a thing by its properties: an explanation of the exact meaning of a word, term, or phrase.--_adj._ DEFIN'ITIVE, defining or limiting: positive: final.--_n._ (_gram._) an adjective used to limit the signification of a noun.--_adv._ DEFIN'ITIVELY.--_ns._ DEFIN'ITIVENESS; DEFIN'ITUDE, definitiveness. [Fr.,--L. _defin[=i]re_, _-[=i]tum_, to set bounds to--_de_, _finis_, a limit.] DEFLAGRATE, def'la-gr[=a]t, _v.i._ or _v.t._ to burn down: to burn rapidly.--_ns._ DEFLAGRABIL'ITY, combustibility; DEFLAGR[=A]'TION; DEF'LAGRATOR, a galvanic instrument for producing rapid combustion. [L. _deflagr[=a]re_--_de_, down, _flagr[=a]re_, to burn.] DEFLECT, de-flekt', _v.i._ or _v.t._ to turn aside: to swerve or deviate from a right line or proper course.--_p.adj._ DEFLECT'ED (_bot._), bent abruptly downward.--_ns._ DEFLEC'TION, DEFLEX'ION, deviation.--_adj._ DEFLEC'TIVE, causing deflection.--_n._ DEFLEC'TOR, a diaphragm in a lamp, stove, &c., by which the flame and gases are brought together and the combustion improved.--_v.t._ DEFLEX' (_zool._, _bot._), to bend down.--_adj._ DEFLEXED'.--_n._ DEFLEX'URE, deviation. [L. _de_, from, and _flect[)e]re_, _flexum_, to bend, turn.] DEFLORATE, de-fl[=o]'r[=a]t, _adj._ past the flowering state, as an anther after it has shed its pollen.--_n._ DEFLOR[=A]'TION, the act of deflowering. DEFLOWER, DEFLOUR, de-flowr', _v.t._ to deprive of flowers: to deprive of grace and beauty: to ravish.--_n._ DEFLOW'ERER. [O. Fr. _deflorer_--Low L. _deflor[=a]re_, to strip flowers off--L. _de_, neg., _flos_, _floris_, a flower.] DEFLUENT, def'l[=oo]-ent, _adj._ running down, decurrent.--_n._ DEFLUX'ION, a discharge of fluid in the body. [L. _deflu[)e]re_--_de_, down, _flu[)e]re_, _fluxum_, to flow.] DEFOLIATE, de-f[=o]'li-[=a]t, _v.t._ to deprive of leaves.--_adjs._ DEF[=O]'LIATE, -D.--_ns._ DEFOLI[=A]'TION, the falling off of leaves: the time of shedding leaves; DEF[=O]'LIATOR. [Low L. _defoli[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_de_, off, _folium_, a leaf.] DEFORCE, de-f[=o]rs', _v.t._ (_law_) to keep out of possession by force: (_Scots law_) to resist an officer of the law in the execution of his duty.--_ns._ DEFORCE'MENT; DEFORC'IANT, one who deforces; DEFORCI[=A]'TION, a legal distress. [Fr. _de_ = L. _dis_, and _force_.] DEFOREST, de-for'est, _v.t._ to disforest: to deprive of forests.--_n._ DEFOREST[=A]'TION. DEFORM, de-form', _v.t._ to alter or injure the form of: to disfigure.--_adj._ (_Milt._) hideous, unshapely.--_n._ DEFORM[=A]'TION.--_p.adj._ DEFORMED', misshapen.--_adv._ DEFORM'EDLY.--_ns._ DEFORMED'NESS; DEFORM'ER; DEFORM'ITY, state of being deformed: want of proper form: ugliness: disfigurement: anything that destroys beauty: an ugly feature or characteristic. [L. _deformis_, ugly--_de_, from, _forma_, beauty.] DEFOUL, de-fowl', _v.t._ to defile. [A.S. _fúl_, foul, whence by vowel change of _ú_ to _ý_, _fýlan_.] DEFRAUD, de-frawd', _v.t._ to deprive of by fraud: to withhold wrongfully: to cheat or deceive.--_ns._ DEFRAUD'MENT, DEFRAUD[=A]'TION. [L. _defraud[=a]re_--_de_, from, and _fraus_, _fraudis_, fraud.] DEFRAY, de-fr[=a]', _v.t._ to discharge the expenses of anything: to pay: (_Spens._) to appease:--_pr.p._ defray'ing; _pa.p._ defrayed'.--_ns._ DEFRAY'MENT, DEFRAY'AL. [O. Fr. _defrayer_--_de_, and _frais_, expense--Low L. _fractum_, breakage, damage, expense.] DEFT, deft, _adj._ handy, clever.--_adv._ DEFT'LY.--_n._ DEFT'NESS. [M. E. _defte_, _dafte_, simple, meek; A.S. _ge-dæfte_, meek--_dæftan_, _gedæftan_, prepare, make fit; the stem appears in _ge-daf-en_, to fit.] DEFUNCT, de-funkt', _adj._ having finished the course of life, dead.--_n._ a dead person.--_n._ DEFUNC'TION (_Shak._), death.--_adj._ DEFUNC'TIVE (_Shak._), pertaining to the dead. [L. _defungi_, _defunctus_, to finish--_de_, and _fungi_, to perform.] DEFY, de-f[=i]', _v.t._ to challenge: to brave: (_obs._) to discard, dislike:--_pr.p._ defy'ing; _pa.p._ defied'.--_n._ (_Dryden_) a defiance.--_n._ DEF[=I]'ER. [O. Fr. _defier_--Low L. _diffid[=a]re_, to renounce faith or allegiance--L. _dis_, asunder, and _f[=i]d[)e]re_, to trust--_f[)i]des_, faith.] DÉGAGÉ, d[=a]-ga-zh[=a]', _adj._ unembarrassed, unconstrained, easy. [Pa.p. of Fr. _dégager_, to disentangle.] DEGAR'NISH = DISGARNISH (q.v.). DEGENERATE, de-jen'[.e]r-[=a]t, _adj._ having departed from the high qualities of race or kind: become base--also DEGEN'EROUS (_obs._).--_v.i._ to fall from a nobler state: to be or to grow worse.--_v.i._ DEGEN'DER (_Spens._), to degenerate.--_ns._ DEGEN'ERACY, DEGENER[=A]'TION, the act or process of becoming degenerate: the state of being degenerate.--_adv._ DEGEN'ERATELY.--_n._ DEGEN'ERATENESS.--_adj._ DEGEN'ERATING.--_n._ DEGENER[=A]'TIONIST, one who believes that the tendency of man is not to improve, but to degenerate.--_adj._ DEGEN'ERATIVE, tending or causing to degenerate. [L. _degener[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to depart from its kind--_de_, from, down, _genus_, _gen[)e]ris_, kind.] DEGERMINATOR, de-j[.e]r'mi-n[=a]-tor, _n._ an apparatus for splitting grains and removing the germs. [L. _de_, neg., and _germen_, a germ.] DEGLUTINATE, de-gl[=oo]'tin-[=a]t, _v.t._ to separate things that are glued together by softening the glue:--_pr.p._ deglu'tin[=a]ting; _pa.p._ deglu'tin[=a]ted. [L. _deglutin[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_de_, neg., and _glutin[=a]re_--_gluten_, glue.] DEGLUTITION, deg-l[=oo]-tish'un, _n._ the act or power of swallowing.--_adjs._ DEGLU'TITIVE, DEGLU'TITORY. [Fr.,--L. _de_, down, and _glut[=i]re_, to swallow. See GLUT.] DEGRADE, de-gr[=a]d', _v.t._ to lower in grade or rank: to deprive of office or dignity: to lower in character, value, or position: to disgrace.--_n._ DEGRAD[=A]'TION, disgrace: degeneration: abortive structural development: a lowering in dignity.--_p.adjs._ DEGRAD'ED, reduced in rank: base: low: (_her._) placed on steps; DEGRAD'ING, debasing: disgraceful. [Fr. _dégrader_--L. _de_, down, and _gradus_, a step. See GRADE.] DEGREE, de-gr[=e]', _n._ a grade or step: one of a series of advances: relative position: rank: extent: a mark of distinction conferred by universities, whether earned by examination or granted as a mark of honour: the 360th part of a circle: 60 geographical miles: nearness of relationship: comparative amount of guilt: one of the three stages (_positive_, _comparative_, _superlative_) in the comparison of an adjective or an adverb.--BY DEGREES, by little and little, gradually; FORBIDDEN DEGREES, the degrees of consanguinity and affinity within which it is not permitted to marry; SONGS OF DEGREES, or _Songs of ascents_, Psalms cxx.-cxxxiv., either because sung by the Jews returning from captivity, or by the Jews coming up annually to attend the feasts at Jerusalem; TO A DEGREE, to a great degree, to an extreme. [Fr. _degré_--L. _de_, _gradus_, a step.] DEGUST, d[=e]-gust', _v.t._ to taste, to relish.--_v.i._ to have a relishing taste.--_v.t._ DEGUST'[=A]TE (same as DEGUST).--_n._ DEGUST[=A]'TION, the act of tasting. [L. _de_, down, and _gust[=a]re_, to taste.] DEHISCE, d[=e]-his', _v.i._ to gape, to open as the capsules of a plant.--_n._ DEHIS'CENCE.--_adj._ DEHIS'CENT. [L. _dehiscens_, pr.p. of _dehisc[)e]re_--_de_, inten., and _hisc[)e]re_, to gape.] DEHORT, de-hort', _v.t._ to exhort from, to dissuade.--_n._ DEHORT[=A]'TION, dissuasion.--_adjs._ DEHOR'TATIVE, DEHOR'TATORY, dissuasive.--_n._ DEHORT'ER. [L. _dehort[=a]ri_--_de_, neg., and _hort[=a]ri_, to exhort.] DEHUMANISE, de-h[=u]'ma-n[=i]z, _v.t._ to deprive of specifically human qualities. [L. _de_, neg., and _humanise_.] DEHYDRATE, de-h[=i]'dr[=a]t, _v.t._ to deprive of water, chemically.--_v.i._ to lose water.--_n._ DEHYDR[=A]'TION. [L. _de_, neg., Gr. _hyd[=o]r_.] DEICIDE, d[=e]'i-s[=i]d, _n._ the killing of a god: the putting to death of Jesus Christ. [From a supposed Low L. form _deicidium_--_deus_, a god, and _cæd[)e]re_, to kill.] DEICTIC, d[=i]k'tik, _adj._ proving directly.--_adv._ DEIC'TICALLY. [Gr. _deiktikos_--_deiknynai_, to show.] DEID-THRAW, d[=e]d'-thraw, _n._ (_Scot_.) death-throe. DEIFY, d[=e]'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to exalt to the rank of a god: to worship as a deity: to make god-like:--_pr.p._ d[=e]'ifying; _pa.p._ d[=e]'ified.--_adjs._--DEIF'IC, -AL, making god-like or divine.--_n._ DEIFIC[=A]'TION, the act of deifying: a deified embodiment.--_adj._ D[=E]'IFORM, god-like in form or character. [Fr. _déifier_--L. _deific[=a]re_--_deus_, a god, and _fac[)e]re_, to make.] DEIGN, d[=a]n, _v.i._ to condescend.--_v.t._ to give: to allow: (_obs._) to favour. [Fr. _daigner_--L. _dign[=a]ri_, to think worthy--_dignus_, worthy.] DEIL, d[=e]l, Scotch form of _devil_. DEINOTHERIUM, d[=i]-no-th[=e]'ri-um, _n._ = DINOTHERIUM. DEIPAROUS, d[=e]-ip'a-rus, _adj._ bearing a god--of the Virgin. [L. _deus_, a god, _par[)e]re_, to bring forth.] DEIPNOSOPHIST, d[=i]p-nos'[=o]-fist, _n._ one who converses learnedly at dinner, a table-philosopher--from the title of a work by Athenæus. [Gr. _deipnon_, dinner, _sophist[=e]s_--_sophos_, wise.] DEIST, d[=e]'ist, _n._ one who believes in the existence of God, but not in revealed religion.--_n._ D[=E]'ISM, the creed of a deist.--_adjs._ DEIST'IC, -AL.--_adv._ DEIST'ICALLY. [Fr. _déiste_, _déisme_--L. _deus_, a god.] DEITY, d[=e]'i-ti, _n._ the divinity: godhead: a god or goddess: the Supreme Being. [Fr.,--Low L. _deitas_--L. _deus_, god; Sans. _deva_--_div_, to shine.] DEJECT, de-jekt', _v.t._ to cast down the countenance or spirits of.--_adj._ (_Shak._) cast down.--_adj._ DEJECT'ED, cast down: dispirited.--_adv._ DEJECT'EDLY.--_ns._ DEJECT'EDNESS; DEJEC'TION, lowness of spirits: (_pl._) fæcal discharge (also _dejecta_).--_adj._ DEJEC'TORY, promoting evacuations. [L. _dejic[)e]re_, _-jectum_--_de_, down, _jac[)e]re_, to cast.] DELAINE, d[=e]-l[=a]n', _n._ an untwilled light dress material, originally of wool--also _Muslin-de-laine_. DELAPSE, d[=e]-laps', _v.i._ (_obs._) to sink down.--_n._ DELAP'SION. DELATE, de-l[=a]t', _v.t._ to carry on: to publish: to charge with a crime.--_ns._ DEL[=A]'TION; DELAT'OR. [L. _deferre_, _del[=a]tum_, to bring a report against, to inform--_de_, inten., _ferre_, to bear.] DELAY, de-l[=a]', _v.t._ to put off to another time: to defer: to hinder or retard.--_v.i._ to pause, linger, or put off time.--_n._ a putting off or deferring: a lingering: hinderance:--_pr.p._ delay'ing; _pa.p._ delayed'.--_n._ DELAY'ER.--_adv._ DELAY'INGLY. [O. Fr. _delaier_--L. _differre_, _dil[=a]tum_--_dis_, apart, _ferre_, to carry.] DELAY, de-l[=a]', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to temper, dilute, weaken. [Fr. _délayer_, dilute--L. _deliqu[=a]re_, clarify.] DELE, d[=e]'l[=e], _v.t._, delete, efface, a direction in proof-reading to remove a superfluous letter or word, usually marked thus [Dele symbol].--_adjs._ DEL'EBLE, DEL'IBLE, that can be deleted. [L., imper. of _del[=e]re_, to delete.] DELECTABLE, de-lekt'a-bl, _adj._ delightful: pleasing.--_n._ DELECT'ABLENESS.--_adv._ DELECT'ABLY.--_n._ DELECT[=A]'TION, delight. [Fr.,--L. _delectabilis_--_delect[=a]re_, to delight.] DELEGATE, del'e-g[=a]t, _v.t._ to send as a legate or representative: to entrust or commit to.--_n._ one who is delegated: a deputy or representative: (_U.S._) a person elected to represent a territory in congress, as distinguished from the representatives of the States.--_adj._ delegated, deputed.--_ns._ DELEG[=A]'TION, DEL'EGACY, a delegating: the persons delegated. [L. _de_, away, and _legare_, _-[=a]tum_, to send as ambassador.] DELETE, de-l[=e]t', _v.t._ to blot out: to erase: to destroy.--_n.pl._ DELEN'DA, things to be deleted or erased.--_n._ DEL[=E]'TION.--_adjs._ DEL[=E]'TIVE, DEL[=E]'TORY. [L. _del[=e]re_, _del[=e]tum_, to blot out.] DELETERIOUS, del-e-t[=e]'ri-us, _adj._ tending to destroy life: hurtful or destructive: poisonous.--_adv._ DELET[=E]'RIOUSLY.--_n._ DELET[=E]'RIOUSNESS. [Gr. _d[=e]l[=e]t[=e]rios_, hurtful--_deleisthai_, to hurt.] DELF, delf, _n._ a contraction for DELFT'WARE, a kind of earthenware originally made at _Delft_, Holland. DELF, delf, _n._ a drain, ditch: (_her._) a charge representing a square sod. [A.S. _dælf_--_delfan_, to dig.] DELIAN, d[=e]'li-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Delos_ in the Ægean Sea, birthplace of Apollo and Artemis. DELIBATE, del'i-b[=a]t, _v.t._ (_obs._) to sip.--_n._ DELIB[=A]'TION. DELIBERATE, de-lib'[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.t._ to weigh well in one's mind.--_v.i._ to consider the reasons for and against anything: to reflect: to consider.--_adj._ well considered: considering carefully: slow in determining: cautious.--_adv._ DELIB'ERATELY.--_ns._ DELIB'ERATENESS; DELIBER[=A]'TION, the act of deliberating: mature reflection: calmness: coolness.--_adj._ DELIB'ERATIVE, proceeding or acting by deliberation.--_adv._ DELIB'ERATIVELY. [L. _deliber[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_de_, inten., and _libr[=a]re_, to weigh--_libra_, a balance.] DELICATE, del'i-k[=a]t, _adj._ pleasing to the senses, esp. the taste: dainty: nicely discriminating or perceptive: of a fine, slight texture or constitution: tender: frail, not robust: requiring nice handling: refined in manners: gentle, polite, considerate: luxurious.--_n._ DEL'ICACY, state or quality of being delicate: refinement: nicety: tenderness, weakness: luxuriousness: anything delicate or dainty.--_adv._ DEL'ICATELY, in a delicate manner: (_B._) luxuriously.--_n._ DEL'ICATENESS, state of being delicate: (_B._) delicacy, luxury.--_n.pl._ DEL'ICATES (_B._), delicacies. [L. _delic[=a]tus_--_deliciæ_, allurements, luxury--_delic[)e]re_--_de_, inten., _lac[)e]re_, to entice.] DELICE, del'is, _n._ (_Spens._) flower delice, the iris. [See FLEUR-DE-LIS.] DELICIOUS, de-lish'us, _adj._ full of delicacies: highly pleasing to the senses: affording exquisite pleasure.--_n._ DEL'ICE, (_Spens._), delight: a delight or delightful thing.--_adv._ DELI'CIOUSLY, in a delicious manner: (_B._) luxuriously.--_n._ DELI'CIOUSNESS. [L. _deliciosus_--_deliciæ_.] DELICT, de-likt', _n._ a transgression, a misdemeanour. [L. _delictum_, an offence--_de_, and _linqu[)e]re_, to leave.] DELIGATION, del-i-g[=a]'shun, _n._ a binding up, ligature. DELIGHT, de-l[=i]t', _v.t._ to please highly.--_v.i._ to have or take great pleasure: to be greatly pleased.--_n._ a high degree of pleasure: extreme satisfaction: that which gives great pleasure.--_p.adj._ DELIGHT'ED, greatly pleased: (_Shak._) delightful.--_adjs._ DELIGHT'FUL, DELIGHT'SOME, full of delight.--_adv._ DELIGHT'FULLY.--_n._ DELIGHT'FULNESS.--_adj._ DELIGHT'LESS, affording no delight. [O. Fr. _deliter_--L. _delect[=a]re_, inten. of _delic[)e]re_.] DELILAH, d[=e]-l[=i]'la, _n._ the Philistine woman who befooled Samson: a courtesan who seduces a man to betray secrets: a light woman, strumpet.--Also DAL[=I]'LA. DELIMIT, de-lim'it, _v.t._ to fix or mark the limit of.--_n._ DELIMIT[=A]'TION. DELINEATE, de-lin'e-[=a]t, _v.t._ to mark out with lines: to represent by a sketch or picture: to portray: to describe accurately in words.--_adj._ DELIN'EABLE.--_ns._ DELINE[=A]'TION, the act of delineating: a sketch, representation, or description (sometimes DELIN'EAMENT); DELIN'EATOR. [L. _deline[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_de_, down, and _linea_, a line.] DELINQUENT, de-ling'kwent, _adj._ failing in duty.--_n._ one who fails in or leaves his duty: a transgressor: a criminal.--_n._ DELIN'QUENCY, failure in or omission of duty: a fault: a crime.--_adv._ DELIN'QUENTLY. [L. _delinquens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _delinqu[)e]re_--_de_, inten., and _linqu[)e]re_, to leave.] DELIQUESCE, del-i-kwes', _v.i._ to melt and become liquid by absorbing moisture, as certain salts, &c.--_v.i._ and _v.t._ DEL'IQUATE, DELIQ'UIATE, to melt.--_ns._ DELIQUES'CENCE, DELIQUI[=A]'TION.--_adj._ DELIQUES'CENT, liquefying in the air. [L. _deliquesc[)e]re_--_de_, inten., _liquesc[)e]re_, to become fluid--_liqu[=e]re_, to be fluid.] DELIQUIUM, de-lik'wi-um, _n._ liquefaction by absorption of moisture. [Fr.,--Low L. _deliquium_--L. _de_, down, and _liqu[=e]re_, to melt.] DELIRIOUS, de-lir'i-us, _adj._ wandering in mind: light-headed: insane.--_n._ DELIR[=A]'TION, madness, an aberration.--_adj._ DELIRIF[=A]'CIENT, producing delirium.--_n._ any substance with this quality.--_adv._ DELIR'IOUSLY.--_ns._ DELIR'IOUSNESS; DELIR'IUM, state of being delirious: strong excitement: wild enthusiasm.--DELIRIUM TREMENS, a delirious disorder of the brain produced by excessive drinking, and often marked by convulsive or trembling symptoms. [L. _delirus_, crazy--_de_, from, and _lira_, a furrow; _tremens_, the pr.p. of _trem[)e]re_, to tremble.] DELITESCENT, del-i-tes'ent, _adj._ lying hid or concealed--e.g. the germs of an infectious disease.--_n._ DELITES'CENCE. [L. _delitescens_, pr.p. of _delitesc[)e]re_--_de_, from, and _latesc[)e]re_--_lat[=e]re_, to lie hid.] DELIVER, de-liv'[.e]r, _v.t._ to liberate or set free from restraint or danger: to rescue from evil or fear: to give up or part with: to communicate: to pronounce: to give forth, as a blow, a ball, &c.: to disburden a woman of a child in childbirth.--_adj._ DELIV'ERABLE.--_ns._ DELIV'ERANCE, act of delivering or freeing: act of transferring from one to another: parturition: the utterance of a judgment or authoritative opinion; DELIV'ERER; DELIV'ERY, the act of delivering: a giving up: the act or manner of speaking in public, of discharging a shot, of throwing a cricket-ball, of pouring water, &c.: the act of giving birth.--GENERAL DELIVERY, the delivery of letters from a post-office window to the persons to whom they are addressed--opp. to house to house delivery; GAOL, or JAIL, DELIVERY (see GAOL). [Fr. _délivrer_--L. _de_, from, _liber[=a]re_, to set free--_liber_, free.] DELIVERLY, de-liv'[.e]r-li, _adv._ (_Shak._) nimble manner. [O. Fr. _delivre_, free--L. _de_, and _liber_, free.] DELL. See DALE. DELLA-CRUSCAN, del-la-krus'kan, _adj._ belonging to, or resembling, the old Florentine Accademia _della Crusca_ (1582), esp. of a group of sentimental English poetasters resident in Florence about 1784--crushed by Gifford's _Baviad_ in 1794. DELLA-ROBBIA, del-la-rob'ya, _n._ a term applied to enamelled terra-cotta, said to have been invented by Luca _della Robbia_. DELPH, an erroneous spelling of DELF. DELPHIAN, del'fi-an, _adj._ relating to _Delphi_, a town of ancient Greece, or to the famous oracle which was there.--Also DEL'PHIC. DELPHIN, del'fin, _adj._ pertaining to the _dauphin_ of France, or to an edition of the Latin classics prepared for his use, 64 vols., 1674-1730. DELPHINIDÆ, del-fin'i-d[=e], _n._ a family of cetaceans, including dolphins, grampuses, &c. [L. _delphinus_, a dolphin.] DELPHINIUM, del-fin'i-um, _n._ a genus of _Ranunculaceæ_ comprising the larkspurs and stavesacre. [Formed from Gr. _delphinion_, larkspur.] DELTA, del'ta, _n._ the fourth letter of the Greek alphabet, the capital form of which is [Delta]: a tract of land of like shape formed at the mouth of a river.--_n._ DELTAFIC[=A]'TION, the process of forming a delta.--_adj._ DEL'TOID, of the form of the Greek [Delta]: triangular.--DELTA METAL, a hard alloy of copper, zinc, and iron--the three metals symbolised by the triangular shape; DELTOID MUSCLE, the large triangular muscle of the shoulder. [Gr.,--Heb. _daleth_, a tent-door.] DELUBRUM, de-l[=u]'brum, _n._ a temple, shrine, sanctuary: a church having a font, a fort. [L.] DELUCE. See FLEUR-DE-LIS. DELUDE, de-l[=u]d', _v.t._ to play or impose upon: to deceive.--_adj._ DELUD'ABLE.--_n._ DELUD'ER. [L. _delud[)e]re_, to play--_de_, down, _lud[)e]re_, _lusum_, to play.] DELUGE, del'[=u]j, _n._ a great overflow of water: a flood: esp. that in the days of Noah.--_v.t._ to inundate: to overwhelm as with water. [Fr.,--L. _diluvium_--_dilu[)e]re_--_dis_, away, _lu[)e]re_, to wash.] DELUNDUNG, de-lun'dung, _n._ the weasel-cat of Java and Malacca, a small carnivore akin to the civet. DELUSION, de-l[=u]'zhun, _n._ the act of deluding: the state of being deluded: a false belief: error.--_adj._ DEL[=U]'SIONAL, pertaining to delusions, afflicted with such.--_n._ DEL[=U]'SIONIST.--_adjs._ DEL[=U]'SIVE, DEL[=U]'SORY, apt or tending to delude: deceptive.--_adv._ DEL[=U]'SIVELY.--_n._ DEL[=U]'SIVENESS. [See DELUDE.] DELVE, delv, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to dig with a spade.--_n._ (_Spens._) a place dug out, a ditch, a cave.--_n._ DELV'ER. [A.S. _delfan_, to dig; conn. with _dale_, _dell_.] DEMAGNETISE, de-mag'net-[=i]z, _v.t._ to deprive of magnetic power.--_n._ DEMAGNETIS[=A]'TION. DEMAGOGUE, dem'a-gog, _n._ a leader of the people: a popular and factious orator.--_adjs._ DEMAGOGIC, -AL (-goj').--_ns._ DEMAGOGISM, DEMAGOGUISM (dem'a-gog-ism); DEM'AGOGUERY, DEMAGOGY (-goj'). [Fr.,--Gr. _d[=e]mog[=o]gos_--_d[=e]mos_, the people, _agogos_, leading--_agein_, to lead.] DEMAIN. See DEMESNE. DEMAND, d[=e]-mand', _v.t._ to claim: to ask earnestly or authoritatively: to call for: to question.--_n._ the asking for what is due: an asking for with authority: a claim: earnest inquiry.--_adj._ DEMAND'ABLE, that may be demanded.--_n._ DEMAND'ANT, one who demands: a plaintiff:--_fem._ DEMAND'RESS.--IN GREAT DEMAND, much sought after. [Fr.,--Low L. _demand[=a]re_, to demand--L. _de_, from, and _mand[=a]re_, to put into one's charge.] DEMARCATION, DEMARKATION, de-mark-[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of marking off or setting bounds to: division: a fixed limit.--_v.t._ DEMAR'CATE, to mark off or limit. [Fr.,--_dé_, off, and _marquer_, to mark. See MARK.] DEMATERIALISE, d[=e]-ma-t[=e]'ri-al-[=i]z, _v.t._ to deprive of material qualities. DEME, d[=e]m, _n._ a subdivision of ancient Attica and of modern Greece, a township: (_biol._) any differentiated aggregate of cells. [Gr. _d[=e]mos_.] DEMEAN, de-m[=e]n', _v.t._ to conduct (with _self_): to behave.--_n._ DEMEANOUR, conduct--(_Spens._) DEMAYNE, DEMEASNURE. [O. Fr. _demener_--_de_, inten., and _mener_, to lead--Low L. _min[=a]re_, to drive cattle, L. _min[=a]ri_, to threaten.] DEMEAN, de-m[=e]n', _v.t._ to make mean: to lower. [More prob. on the analogy of _debase_, from _de_, and _mean_, low, than the same word as the preceding with specialised sense.] DEMENT, de-ment', _v.t._ to drive crazy, render insane.--_adj._ insane, demented.--_n._ a demented person.--_v.t._ DEMENT'[=A]TE, to dement.--_p.adj._ DEMENT'ED, out of one's mind: insane: suffering from dementia. [L. _demens_, _dementis_, out of one's mind--_de_, from, and _mens_, the mind.] DÉMENTI, d[=a]-mong-t[=e], _n._ a contradiction. [Fr. _démentir_, to give the lie to.] DEMENTIA, de-men'shi-a, _n._ general mental enfeeblement, with loss of memory, reason, feeling, and will: often the consequence of acute mania. [L. _de_, neg., and _mens_, _mentis_, mind.] DEMERIT, de-mer'it, _n._ ill-desert: fault: crime. [O. Fr. _demerite_, desert, also a fault--Low L. _demeritum_, a fault, _demer[=e]re_, to deserve--L. _de_, fully, _mer[=e]re_, to deserve.] DEMERSED, d[=e]-merst', _adj._ (_bot._) growing under water.--_n._ DEMER'SION. DEMESMERISE, de-mes'mer-[=i]z, _v.t._ to relieve from mesmeric influence.--_n._ DEMESMERIS[=A]'TION. DEMESNE, de-m[=e]n', DEMAIN, de-m[=a]n', _n._ a manor-house, with lands adjacent to it not let out to tenants: any estate in land. [Forms of _domain_.] DEMI-BASTION, dem'i-bast'yun, _n._ a kind of half-bastion, consisting of one face and one flank. [Fr. _demi_--L. _dimidius_, half, and _bastion_.] DEMI-CADENCE, dem'i-k[=a]'dens, _n._ (_mus._) a half-cadence. DEMI-CANNON, dem'i-kan'un, _n._ (_Shak._) an old gun which threw a ball of from 30 to 36 lbs. DEMI-CULVERIN, dem'i-cul've-rin, _n._ an old kind of cannon which threw a shot of 9 or 10 lbs. DEMI-DEIFY, dem'i-d[=e]'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to treat as a demi-god. DEMI-DEVIL, dem'i-dev'il, _n._ a half-devil. DEMI-DISTANCE, dem'i-dis'tans, _n._ (_fort._) the distance between the outward polygons and the flank. DEMI-DITONE, dem'i-d[=i]-t[=o]n, _n._ (_mus._) a minor third. DEMIGOD, dem'i-god, _n._ half a god: one whose nature is partly divine, esp. a hero fabled to be the offspring of a god and a mortal:--_fem._ DEM'I-GODD'ESS. [Fr. _demi_, half, and _god_.] DEMI-GORGE, dem'i-gorj, _n._ (_fort._) the part of the polygon remaining after the flank is raised, going from the curtain to the angle of the polygon. DEMI-JOHN, dem'i-jon, _n._ a glass bottle with a full body and narrow neck, enclosed in wicker-work. [Fr. _dame-jeanne_, Dame Jane, analogous to _Bellarmine_, _gray-beard_. Not from the town _Damaghan_.] DEMI-LANCE, dem'i-lans, _n._ a short, light spear of the 16th century; a soldier armed with such a weapon. DEMI-LUNE, dem'i-l[=oo]n, _n._ (_fort._) a half-moon: an old name for _Ravelin_. [L. _demi_, half, and Fr. _lune_--L. _luna_, the moon.] DEMI-MONDE, dem'i-mond, _n._ women in an equivocal position, kept women: the prostitute class generally. DEMIREP, dem'i-rep, _n._ a woman of dubious reputation.--_n._ DEM'IREPDOM, shady women collectively. [Said to be a contraction of _demi-reputation_.] DEMISE, d[=e]-m[=i]z', _n._ a transferring: death, esp. of a sovereign or a distinguished person: a transfer of the crown or of an estate to a successor.--_v.t._ to send down to a successor: to bequeath by will.--_adj._ DEM[=I]'SABLE. [O. Fr. _demise_, pa.p. of _desmettre_, to lay down--L. _dimitt[)e]re_, to send away--L. _dis_, aside, and _mitt[)e]re_, _missum_, to send.] [Illustration] DEMI-SEMIQUAVER, dem'i-sem'i-kw[=a]-v[.e]r, _n._ (_mus._) a note equal in time to the half of a semiquaver. [Fr. _demi_, half, and _semiquaver_.] DEMISS, de-mis', _adj._ (_Spens._) humble. [L. _demissus_, pa.p. of _demitt[)e]re_. See DEMISE.] DEMISSION, de-mish'un, _n._ a lowering: degradation: depression: relinquishment: resignation.--_adj._ DEMISS'IVE (_obs._), humble.--_adv._ DEMISS'LY. [L. _demission-em_. See DEMISE.] DEMIT, de-mit', _v.t._ to dismiss: to relinquish: to resign. [See DEMISE.] DEMIURGE, dem'i-urj, _n._ the maker of the world: among the Gnostics, the creator of the world and of man, subordinate to God the supreme--also DEMIUR'GUS.--_adj._ DEMIUR'GIC. [Gr. _d[=e]miourgos_--_d[=e]mos_, the people, and _ergon_, a work.] DEMI-VOLT, dem'i-volt, _n._ a half-turn of a horse, the forelegs being raised in the air. [Fr. _demi-volte_--_demi_, half, and _volte_, a leap. See VAULT.] DEMI-WOLF, dem'i-woolf, _n._ (_Shak._) a half-wolf, the offspring of a dog and a wolf. DEMOBILISE, de-mob'il-[=i]z, _v.t._ to take out of mobilisation: to disband.--_n._ DEMOBILIS[=A]'TION. [Fr.] DEMOCRACY, de-mok'ra-si, _n._ a form of government in which the supreme power is vested in the people collectively, and is administered by them or by officers appointed by them: the people, esp. the common people in the United States, the democratic party--also DEMOC'RATY (_Milt._).--_n._ DEM'OCRAT, one who adheres to or promotes democracy as a principle: a member of the democratic party in the United States, who preserve carefully the local liberties of states and of individuals, opposing national centralisation, and supporting a wide franchise, low tariff duties for the interests of the revenue rather than protection, and a limited public expenditure.--_adjs._ DEMOCRAT'IC, -AL, relating to democracy: insisting on equal rights and privileges for all.--_adv._ DEMOCRAT'ICALLY.--_adj._ DEMOCRATIF[=I]'ABLE, capable of being made democratic.--_v.t._ DEMOCRATISE', to render democratic.--_n._ DEMOC'RATIST, a democrat. [O. Fr.,--Gr. _d[=e]mokratia_--_d[=e]mos_, the people, and _kratein_, to rule--_kratos_, strength.] DEMOGORGON, d[=e]-mo-gor'gon, _n._ a mysterious deity or diabolical magician first mentioned about 450 A.D., and regarded as an object of terror. [Gr. _daim[=o]n_, deity, _gorgos_, terrible.] DEMOGRAPHY, d[=e]-mog'ra-fi, _n._ vital and social statistics, as applied to the study of nations and races.--_n._ DEMOG'RAPHER.--_adj._ DEMOGRAPH'IC. [Gr. _d[=e]mos_, the people, _graphein_, to write.] DEMOISELLE, dem-wa-zel', _n._ (_Shak._) a young lady: a crane-like bird of peculiarly graceful form. [Fr. See DAMSEL.] DEMOLISH, de-mol'ish, _v.t._ to destroy, lay in ruins, to ruin.--_n._ DEMOLI'TION, act of pulling down: ruin. [Fr. _démolir_--L. _demol[=i]ri_, to throw down--_de_, down, and _mol[=i]ri_, to build--_moles_, a heap.] DEMOLOGY, de-mol'o-j[=i], _n._ same as DEMOGRAPHY: the theory of the origin and development of nations. [Gr. _d[=e]mos_, the people, _logia_, a discourse.] DEMON, d[=e]'mon, _n._ an evil spirit, a devil: sometimes like DÆMON, a friendly spirit or good genius:--_fem._ D[=E]'MONESS.--_adjs._ DEM[=O]'NIAC, DEM[=O]N[=I]'ACAL, pertaining to or like demons or evil spirits: influenced by demons.--_ns._ DEM[=O]'NIAC, a human being possessed by a demon or evil spirit.--_adv._ DEMON[=I]'ACALLY.--_n._ DEMON[=I]'ACISM, state of being a demoniac.--_adj._ DEM[=O]'NIAN (_Milt._).--_ns._ DEM[=O]'NIANISM, DEM[=O]'NIASM, possession by a demon.--_v.t._ D[=E]'MONISE, to convert into a demon: to control or possess by a demon.--_ns._ D[=E]'MONISM, a belief in demons; D[=E]'MONIST, a believer in demons; DEMONOC'RACY, the power of demons; DEMONOL'ATRY, the worship of demons; DEMONOL'ATER, one who worships such; DEMONOLOGY, an account of, or the study of, demons and their agency.--_adjs._ DEMONOLOG'IC, -AL.--_ns._ DEMONOL'OGIST, a writer on demonology; DEMONOM[=A]'NIA, a form of mania in which the subject believes himself possessed by devils; DEMON'OMY, the dominion of demons; D[=E]'MONRY, demoniacal influence. [L. _dæmon_--Gr. _daim[=o]n_, a spirit, genius; in N. T. and Late Greek, a devil.] DEMONETISE, d[=e]-mon'e-t[=i]z, _n._ to divest of value as money.--_n._ DEMONETIS[=A]'TION. DEMONSTRATE, de-mon'str[=a]t, _v.t._ to show or point out clearly: to prove with certainty.--_adj._ DEMON'STRABLE, that may be demonstrated.--_ns._ DEMON'STRABLENESS, DEMONSTRABIL'ITY.--_adv._ DEMON'STRABLY.--_ns._ DEMONSTR[=A]'TION, a pointing out: proof beyond doubt: expression of the feelings by outward signs: expression of sympathy with political or social opinions, with a man or body of men, by a mass-meeting, a procession, &c.: show: a movement of troops or ships to exhibit military intention, or in war to deceive the enemy.--_adj._ DEMON'STRATIVE, making evident: proving with certainty: of the nature of proof: given to the manifestation of one's feelings.--_adv._ DEMON'STRATIVELY.--_ns._ DEMON'STRATIVENESS; DEM'ONSTRATOR, one who proves beyond doubt: one who teaches: (_anat._) one who teaches anatomy from the dissected parts.--_adj._ DEMON'STRATORY, demonstrative. [L. _demonstr[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_de_, inten., and _monstr[=a]re_, to show.] DEMORALISE, de-mor'al-[=i]z, _v.t._ to corrupt in morals: to lower the _morale_--that is, to deprive of spirit and confidence: to throw into confusion.--_n._ DEMORALIS[=A]'TION, act of demoralising: corruption or subversion of morals.--_p.adj._ DEMORAL[=I]S'ING. DEMOS, d[=e]'mos, _n._ the people, esp. the lower classes.--_adj._ DEMOT'IC, pertaining to the people: popular: in Egypt. ant., of a kind of writing distinguished from the hieratic, or priestly, and from hieroglyphics. [Gr.] DEMOSTHENIC, de-mos-then'ik, _adj._ of or like _Demosthenes_, the Athenian orator: eloquent. DEMPSTER. Same as DEEMSTER (q.v. under DEEM). DEMPT, demt (_Spens._). _Pa.p._ of DEEM. DEMULCENT, de-mul'sent, _adj._ soothing. [L. _demulcent-em_--_de_, and _mulc[=e]re_, to stroke, to soothe.] DEMUR, de-mur', _v.i._ to hesitate from uncertainty or before difficulty: to object:--_pr.p._ demur'ring; _pa.p._ demurred'.--_n._ a stop: pause, hesitation.--_adj._ DEMUR'RABLE.--_ns._ DEMUR'RAGE, an allowance made for undue delay or detention of a vessel in port: compensation paid by the freighter to the owner of the same: allowance for undue detention of railway-wagons, &c.; DEMUR'RER, one who demurs: (_law_) a plea in law that, even if the opponent's facts are as he says, they yet do not support his case. [Fr. _demeurer_--L. _demor[=a]ri_, to loiter, linger--_de_, inten., and _mor[=a]ri_, to delay--_mora_, delay.] DEMURE, de-m[=u]r', _adj._ sober: staid: modest: affectedly modest: making a show of gravity.--_adv._ DEMURE'LY.--_n._ DEMURE'NESS. [O. Fr. _de (bons) murs_, of good manners--L. _de_, of, _mores_, manners.] DEMY, de-m[=i]', _n._ a size of paper 22½ by 17½ in.; in the United States 21 by 16 in. [Fr. _demi_--L. _dimidium_, half--_di_, apart, _medius_, the middle.] DEMY, de-m[=i]', _n._ a holder of certain scholarships in Magdalen College, Oxford.--_n._ DEMY'SHIP. [Ety. same as above.] DEN, den, _n._ the hollow lair of a wild beast: a kind of pit, a cave: a haunt of vice or misery: (_coll._) a private retreat for work: (_prov._) a narrow valley.--_v.i._ to retire to a den. [A.S. _denn_, a cave, and _denu_, a valley.] DEN, den, _n._ (_obs._) for good-e'en, good-even. DENARY, den'ar-i, _adj._ containing ten.--_n._ the number ten.--_n._ DEN[=A]'RIUS, the chief Roman silver coin under the Republic, divided into ten asses, and worth 9-2/5d. [L. _denarius_--_deni_--_decem_, ten.] DENATIONALISE, de-nash'un-al-[=i]z, _v.t._ to deprive of national rights.--_n._ DENATIONALIS[=A]'TION. DENATURALISE, de-nat'[=u]-ral-[=i]z, _v.t._ to make unnatural; to deprive of naturalisation. DENAY, de-n[=a]', _obs._ form of DENY, DENIAL. DENDRACHATE, den'dra-k[=a]t, _n._ arborescent agate.--MOSS'-AG'ATE. [Gr. _dendron_, tree, _achat[=e]s_, agate.] DENDRIFORM, den'dri-form, _adj._ having the appearance of a tree. [Formed from Gr. _dendron_, a tree, and L. _forma_, form.] DENDRITE, den'dr[=i]t, _n._ a mineral in which are figures resembling plants.--_adjs._ DENDRIT'IC, -AL, tree-like, arborescent: marked with branching figures like plants. [Gr. _dendrit[=e]s_, of a tree--_dendron_, a tree.] DENDRODONT, den'dr[=o]-dont, _n._ a fish of extinct fossil genus _Dendrodus_, having teeth of dendritic structure.--_adj._ having such teeth.--_n._ DENDRODEN'TINE, the form of branched dentine seen in compound teeth, produced by the interblending of the dentine, enamel, and cement. [Gr. _dendron_, a tree, and _odous_, _odontos_, tooth.] DENDROID, den'droid, _adj._ having the form of a tree. [Gr. _dendron_, a tree, and _eidos_, form.] DENDROLITE, den'dro-l[=i]t, _n._ a petrified or fossil plant. [Gr. _dendron_, a tree, and _lithos_, a stone.] DENDROLOGY, den-drol'o-ji, _n._ a treatise on trees: the natural history of trees.--_adj._ DENDROLOG'ICAL.--_n._ DENDROL'OGIST. [Gr. _dendron_, a tree, and _logia_, a discourse.] DENDROMETER, d[.e]n-drom'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for ascertaining the height of a tree. [Gr. _dendron_, tree, _metron_, measure.] DENE, d[=e]n, _n._ a small valley.--_n._ DENE'-HOLE, an ancient artificial excavation in the chalk formations of Kent and Essex. [A form of _dean_. Cf. DEN.] DENEGATION, d[=e]-ne-g[=a]'shun, _n._ denial. [L. _deneg[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to deny--_de_, inten., and _neg[=a]re_, to deny.] DENGUE, deng'g[=a], _n._ an acute tropical epidemic fever, seldom fatal--also _breakbone-fever_, _dandy-fever_. [The Spanish _dengue_, refusing, prudery, from L. _deneg[=a]re_, to deny, seems to have been confused with _dandy-fever_.] DENIAL, de-n[=i]'al, _n._ act of denying or saying no: contradiction: refusal: rejection.--_adj._ DEN[=I]'ABLE, that may be denied.--_n._ DEN[=I]'ER, one who denies. DENIER, de-n[=e]r', _n._ (_Shak._) an old small French silver coin: also later, a copper coin of the value of 1/12 sou--hence a very trifling sum. [Fr.,--L. _denarius_.] DENIGRATION, de-ni-gr[=a]'shun, _n._ a making or becoming black--esp. the blackening of a man's character.--_v.t._ DEN'IGRATE (_obs._). [L. _de_, inten., _nigr[=a]re_, to blacken, _niger_, black.] DENIM, den'im, _n._ coloured twilled cotton goods for overalls, &c. DENITRATE, d[=e]-n[=i]'tr[=a]t, _v.t._ to free from nitric acid.--_ns._ DENITR[=A]'TION; DEN[=I]'TRIFICATOR. DENIZEN, den'i-zn, _n._ an inhabitant (human or animal): one admitted to the rights of a citizen.--_v.t._ to make a denizen of: to provide with occupants.--_v.i._ to inhabit.--_ns._ DENIZ[=A]'TION, act of making one a citizen; DEN'IZENSHIP. [O. Fr. _deinzein_--_deinz_, _dens_ (Fr. _dans_), within--L. _de intus_, from within.] DENNET, den'et, _n._ a light gig. DENOMINATE, d[=e]-nom'in-[=a]t, _v.t._ to give a name to: to call.--_adj._ DENOM'INABLE.--_n._ DENOMIN[=A]'TION, the act of naming: a name or title: a collection of individuals called by the same name: a sect.--_adj._ DENOMIN[=A]'TIONAL, belonging to a denomination or sect.--_n._ DENOMIN[=A]'TIONALISM, a denominational or class spirit or policy: devotion to the interests of a sect.--_adj._ DENOM'INATIVE, giving or having a title.--_adv._ DENOM'INATIVELY.--_n._ DENOM'INATOR, he who, or that which, gives a name: (_arith._) the lower number in a vulgar fraction, which names the parts into which the integer is divided. [L. _de_, and _nomin[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to name--_nomen_, a name.] DENOTE, d[=e]-n[=o]t', _v.t._ to note or mark off: to indicate by a sign: to signify or mean: (_log._) to indicate the objects comprehended in a class.--_adj._ DEN[=O]'TABLE.--_n._ DENOT[=A]'TION, that which a word names or indicates, in contradistinction to that which it _connotes_ or signifies.--_adj._ DEN[=O]'TATIVE.--_adv._ DEN[=O]'TATIVELY.--_n._ DEN[=O]TE'MENT (_Shak._), a sign or indication. [Fr.,--L. _denot[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_de_, inten., and _not[=a]re_, to mark--_nota_, a mark or sign.] DÉNOUEMENT, d[=a]-n[=oo]'mong, _n._ the unravelling of a plot or story: the issue, event, or outcome. [Fr. _dénouement_ or _dénoûment_; _dénouer_, to untie--_de_, neg., and _nouer_, to tie--L. _nodus_, a knot.] DENOUNCE, de-nowns', _v.t._ to inform against or accuse publicly: (_U.S._) to claim the right of working a mine, as being abandoned or insufficiently worked.--_ns._ DENOUNCE'MENT (same as DENUNCIATION); DENOUNC'ER. [Fr. _dénoncer_--L. _denunti[=a]re_--_de_, inten., and _nunti[=a]re_, to announce.] DENSE, dens, _adj._ thick, close, compact: impenetrably stupid.--_n._ a thicket.--_adv._ DENSE'LY.--_ns._ DENSE'NESS; DENS'ITY, the quality of being dense: the proportion of mass to bulk or volume: the quantity of matter per unit of bulk. [L. _densus_, thick.] DENSIMETER, den-sim'et-[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for ascertaining the comparative density or specific gravity of a substance. [L. _densus_, dense, and _metrum_ (Gr. _metron_), measure.] DENT, dent, _n._ a small hollow made by the pressure or blow of a harder body on a softer.--_v.t._ to make a mark by means of a blow.--_p.adj._ DENT'ED, marked with dents: indented. [A variant of _dint_.] DENT, dent, _n._ a notch.--_v.t._ to notch. [Confused with the preceding, but from Fr. _dent_, tooth--L. _dens_, _dentis_.] DENTAGRA, den-tag'ra, _n._ a tooth-drawing forceps: toothache. DENTAL, den'tal, _adj._ belonging to the teeth: produced by the aid of the teeth.--_n._ an articulation or letter pronounced chiefly with the teeth.--_adj._ DEN'TARY, belonging to dentition, bearing teeth.--_n._ the distal element of the jaw of vertebrates below mammals.--DENTAL ENGINE, a mechanical appliance giving a rotary motion to a dentist's boring instruments. [L. _dens_, _dentis_, a tooth. See TOOTH.] DENTATE, -D, den't[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ toothed: notched: set as with teeth. [L. _dentatus_, toothed, _dens_, a tooth.] DENTEL. See DENTIL. DENTEX, den'teks, _n._ a voracious sparoid fish. DENTICLE, den'ti-kl, _n._ a small tooth.--_adjs._ DENTIC'UL[=A]TE, -D, having notches.--_n._ DENTICUL[=A]'TION. [L. _denticulus_, dim. of _dens_, a tooth.] DENTIFORM, den'ti-form, _adj._ having the form of a tooth or of teeth. [L. _dens_, _dentis_, tooth, and _forma_, form.] DENTIFRICE, den'ti-fris, _n._ a substance used in rubbing or cleaning the teeth. [Fr.,--L. _dentifricium_, from _dens_, and _fric[=a]re_, to rub.] DENTIGEROUS, den-tij'e-rus, _adj._ bearing teeth. [Illustration] DENTIL, den'til, _n._ a denticle: (_pl._) small square blocks or projections in the bed-mouldings of the cornices of columns--also DEN'TEL.--_adj._ DEN'TILATED. [See DENTICLE.] DENTILINGUAL, den-ti-ling'-gwal, _adj._ formed between the teeth and the tongue, as _th_ in _thin_, _this_.--_n._ a consonant so formed.--Also DENTOLING'UAL. [L. _dent-_, _dens_, a tooth, _lingua_, the tongue.] DENTINE, DENTIN, den'tin, _n._ the substance of which the tooth is formed, under the enamel. [L. _dens_, _dentis_, a tooth.] DENTIROSTRAL, den-ti-ros'tral, _adj._ having the mandibles of the beak toothed or notched, as certain birds. [L. _dens_, _dentis_, a tooth, and _rostrum_, a beak.] DENTIST, den'tist, _n._ one who remedies diseases of the teeth, or inserts artificial teeth.--_v.i._ DEN'TISE, to cut one's teeth.--_ns._ DEN'TISTRY, the business of a dentist; DENTI'TION, the cutting or growing of teeth: the conformation, number, and arrangement of the teeth. DENTOID, den'toid, _adj._ formed or shaped like a tooth. [L. _dens_, _dentis_, a tooth, and Gr. _eidos_, form.] DENTOLINGUAL. See DENTILINGUAL. DENUDE, de-n[=u]d', _v.t._ to make nude or naked: to lay bare.--_n._ DENUD[=A]'TION, a making nude or bare: (_geol._) the wearing away of rocks by water and atmospheric action, whereby the underlying rocks are laid bare. [L. _denud[=a]re_--_de_, inten., and _nud[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to make naked--_nudus_, naked.] DENUNCIATE, de-nun'shi-[=a]t, _v.t._ same as DENOUNCE.--_ns._ DENUNCIATION (-shi-[=a]'-, or -si-[=a]'-), any formal declaration: act of denouncing: a threat; DENUN'CIATOR, one who denounces.--_adj._ DENUN'CIATORY, containing a denunciation: threatening. DENY, de-n[=i]', _v.t._ to gainsay or declare not to be true: to reject: to refuse admission to: to disown:--_pr.p._ deny'ing; _pa.p._ denied'.--_adv._ DENY'INGLY.--DENY ONE'S SELF, to deny one's self the indulgence of bodily appetites and carnal inclinations: to exercise self-denial. [Fr. _denier_--L. _deneg[=a]re_--_de_, inten., and _neg[=a]re_, to say no. See NEGATION.] DEOBSTRUENT, de-ob'str[=oo]-ent, _adj._ (_med._) removing obstructions. DEODAND, d[=e]'o-dand, _n._ in old English law, a personal chattel which had been the immediate, accidental cause of the death of a human being, forfeited to the crown for pious uses. [L. _deo_, to God, _dandum_, that must be given--_d[)a]re_, to give.] DEODAR, de-o-där', _n._ a cedar much praised by Indian poets: the _Cedrus Deodara_ of the Himalayas. [Sans. _Deva-d[=a]ru_, divine tree--a name given to various coniferous trees growing in sacred places.] DEODATE, d[=e]'[=o]-d[=a]t, _n._ a gift from God. [L. _deo_, to God, _datum_, given part, pa.p. of _d[)a]re_, to give.] DEODORISE, d[=e]-[=o]'dor-[=i]z, _v.t._ to take the odour or smell from.--_ns._ DEODORIS[=A]'TION; DE[=O]'DORISER, a substance that destroys or conceals unpleasant smells. DEONTOLOGY, d[=e]-on-tol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the science of duty, ethics.--_adj._ DEONTOLOG'ICAL.--_n._ DEONTOL'OGIST. DEOPPILATE, d[=e]-op'i-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to free from obstruction.--_n._ DEOPPIL[=A]'TION.--_adj._ DEOP'PILATIVE. DEOXIDATE, de-oks'i-d[=a]t, _v.t._ to take oxygen from, or reduce from the state of an oxide--also DEOX'IDISE.--_ns._ DEOXID[=A]'TION; DEOXID[=I]'SER, a substance that deoxidises. DEOXYGENATE, de-oks-ij'en-[=a]t, _v.t._ to deprive of oxygen.--Also DEOXY'GENISE. DEOZONISE, de-[=o]-z[=o]n'[=i]z, _v.t._ to deprive of ozone. DEPAINT, de-p[=a]nt', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to paint: depict. DEPART, de-pärt', _v.i._ to go away: to quit or leave: to die: (_obs._) to separate from one another.--_v.t._ (_obs._) to separate, divide.--_ns._ DEPART'ER; DEPART'ING; DEPART'URE, act of departing: a going away from a place: deviation: the distance in nautical miles made good by a ship due east or west: death.--A NEW DEPARTURE, a change of purpose or method, a new course of procedure.--THE DEPARTED, the deceased. [Fr. _départir_--L. _de_, from, and _part[=i]ri_, to part, to divide.] DEPARTMENT, de-pärt'ment, _n._ a part: a separate part of business or duty: a section of the administration: a division of a country, esp. of France.--_adj._ DEPARTMENT'AL.--_adv._ DEPARTMENT'ALLY. DEPASTURE, de-pas't[=u]r, _v.t._ to eat bare.--_v.i._ to graze. DEPAUPERISE, de-paw'per-[=i]z, _v.t._ to remove from the state of paupers.--_v.t._ DEPAU'PERATE, to impoverish. DEPEINCT, de-p[=a]nt', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to paint. DEPEND, de-pend', _v.i._ to hang down: to be sustained by or connected with anything: to be pending: to rely: to rest.--_adjs._ DEPEND'ABLE, that may be depended on; DEPEND'ENT, depending, relying on, contingent, relative.--_n._ a subordinate: a hanger-on--also DEPEND'ANT.--_ns._ DEPEND'ENCE, state of being dependent, reliance, trust: that on which one depends--also DEPEND'ANCE; DEPEND'ENCY, same as DEPENDENCE, in the additional sense of a foreign territory dependent on the mother-country, a kind of subordinate colony without self-government.--_adj._ DEPEND'ING, still undetermined.--_adv._ DEPEND'INGLY. [Fr. _dépendre_--L. _depend[=e]re_--_de_, from, and _pend[=e]re_, to hang.] DEPERSONALISE, d[=e]-per'son-al-[=i]z, _v.t._ to take away the characteristics that constitute the personality of. DEPHLEGMATE, de-fleg'm[=a]t, _v.t._ (_chem._) to free from water.--_ns._ DEPHLEGM[=A]'TION; DEPHLEGM[=A]'TOR. DEPHLOGISTICATE, de-flo-jis'ti-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to deprive of phlogiston, once supposed to be the principle of heat.--DEPHLOGISTICATED AIR, the name given by Priestley to oxygen when discovered by him in 1774. DEPICT, de-pikt', _v.t._ to paint carefully: to make a likeness of: to describe minutely. [L. _deping[)e]re_, _depictum_--_de_, inten., _ping[)e]re_, to paint.] DEPICTURE, de-pikt'[=u]r, _v.t._ to picture: to paint: to represent:--_pr.p._ depict'[=u]ring; _pa.p._ depict'[=u]red. DEPILATE, dep'i-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to remove the hair from.--_ns._ DEPIL[=A]'TION; DEPIL'ATORY, an application for removing superfluous hairs.--_adj._ possessing this quality. DEPLANTATION, d[=e]-plan-t[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of clearing from plants or of transplanting. DEPLETE, de-pl[=e]t', _v.t._ to empty, reduce, exhaust.--_n._ DEPL[=E]'TION, the act of emptying or exhausting: (_med._) the act of relieving congestion or plethora, by purging, blood-letting, or reduction of the system by abstinence.--_adjs._ DEPL[=E]'TIVE, DEPL[=E]'TORY. [L. _depl[=e]re_, _depl[=e]tum_, to empty, _de_, neg., _pl[=e]re_, to fill.] DEPLICATION, dep-li-k[=a]'shun, _n._ an unfolding or unplaiting. DEPLORE, de-pl[=o]r', _v.t._ to feel or express deep grief for.--_adj._ DEPLOR'ABLE, lamentable: sad.--_n._ DEPLOR'ABLENESS.--_adv._ DEPLOR'ABLY.--_n._ DEPLOR[=A]'TION (_obs._), lamentation.--_adv._ DEPLOR'INGLY. [Fr.,--L. _deplor[=a]re_--_de_, inten., _plor[=a]re_, to weep.] DEPLOY, de-ploy', _v.t._ to unfold: to open out or extend.--_v.i._ to open: to extend from column into line, as a body of troops.--_ns._ DEPLOY', DEPLOY'MENT. [Fr. _déployer_--L. _dis_, apart, and _plic[=a]re_, to fold. Doublet of DISPLAY.] DEPLUME, de-pl[=oo]m', _v.t._ to take the plumes or feathers from.--_n._ DEPLUM[=A]'TION. DEPOLARISE, de-p[=o]'lar-[=i]z, _v.t._ to deprive of polarity.--_n._ DEPOLARIS[=A]'TION. DEPONE, de-p[=o]n', _v.t._ to testify upon oath. [L. _depon[)e]re_--_de_, down, and _pon[)e]re_, to place.] DEPONENT, de-p[=o]'nent, _adj._ (_gram._) applied to verbs with a passive form but an active signification.--_n._ one who makes a deposition, esp. under oath, or whose written testimony is used as evidence in a court of justice. [L., pr.p. of _depon[)e]re_.] DEPOPULATE, de-pop'[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to deprive of population, to dispeople.--_v.i._ to become dispeopled.--_adj._ depopulated.--_ns._ DEPOPUL[=A]'TION, act of depopulating: havoc: destruction; DEPOP'ULATOR. [L. _depopul[=a]ri_, _depopul[=a]tus_--_de_, inten., and _popul[=a]ri_, to spread over a country, said of a hostile people (L. _populus_)--hence to ravage, to destroy. Some make it a freq. of _spoli[=a]re_, to plunder.] DEPORT, de-p[=o]rt', _v.t._ to transport, to exile: to behave.--_ns._ DEPORT[=A]'TION, transportation, exile; DEPORT'MENT, carriage, behaviour. [Fr.,--L. _deport[=a]re_--_de_, away, and _port[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to carry.] DEPOSE, de-p[=o]z', _v.t._ to remove from a high station: to degrade: to strip: to attest: (_Shak._) to examine on oath.--_adj._ DEPOS'ABLE.--_n._ DEPOS'AL. [Fr.,--L. _de_, from, _paus[=a]re_, to pause, (late) to place.] DEPOSIT, de-poz'it, _v.t._ to put or set down: to place: to lay up or past: to entrust.--_n._ that which is deposited or put down: (_geol._) rocks produced by precipitation from a fluid medium, by settling from a solution in water: something entrusted to another's care, esp. money put in a bank: a pledge: a bailment where one entrusts goods to another to be kept without recompense--in Scots law, DEPOSIT[=A]'TION.--_ns._ DEPOS'ITARY, a person with whom anything is left for safe keeping: a guardian--sometimes DEPOS'ITORY.--_adj._ DEPOS'ITIVE.--_ns._ DEPOS'ITOR; DEPOS'ITORY, a place where anything is deposited--sometimes DEPOS'ITARY. [Fr.,--L. _depositum_, placed--_depon[)e]re_, from _de_, and _pon[)e]re_, to put down.] DEPOSITION, dep-o-zish'un, _n._ act of deposing: act of deponing: declaration, testimony taken authoritatively, to be used as a substitute for the production of the witness in open court: removal: act of depositing: what is deposited, sediment. DEPOT, dep'[=o], de'p[=o], or d[=e]'p[=o], _n._ a place of deposit: a storehouse: a military station where stores are kept and recruits trained: the headquarters of a regiment: the portion of a regiment that remains at home when the rest go on foreign service: (_U.S._) a railway station. [Fr. _depôt_--L. _depon[)e]re_, _-positum_.] DEPRAVE, de-pr[=a]v', _v.t._ to make bad or worse: to corrupt.--_n._ DEPRAV[=A]'TION, act of depraving: state of being depraved: depravity.--_adj._ DEPR[=A]VED', corrupt.--_adv._ DEPR[=A]V'EDLY.--_ns._ DEPR[=A]V'EDNESS; DEPRAVE'MENT, vitiation.--_adv._ DEPR[=A]V'INGLY.--_n._ DEPRAV'ITY, a vitiated or corrupt state of moral character: extreme wickedness: corruption: (_theol._) the hereditary tendency of man toward sin: original sin. [Fr.,--L. _deprav[=a]re_--_de_, inten., _pravus_, bad.] DEPRECATE, dep're-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to try to ward off by prayer: to desire earnestly the prevention or removal of: to regret deeply: to argue against.--_adj._ DEP'RECABLE, that is to be deprecated.--_n._ DEPREC[=A]'TION, act of deprecating, earnest prayer, esp. a special petition against some evil, in litanies.--_adv._ DEP'RECATINGLY.--_adjs._ DEP'RECATIVE, DEP'RECATORY, tending to avert evil by prayer: having the form of prayer.--_n._ DEP'RECATOR. [L. _deprec[=a]ri_, _deprec[=a]tus_--_de_, away, and _prec[=a]ri_, to pray.] DEPRECIATE, de-pr[=e]'shi-[=a]t, _v.t._ to lower the worth of: to undervalue: to disparage.--_v.i._ to fall in value.--_n._ DEPRECI[=A]'TION, the falling of value: disparagement.--_adjs._ DEPR[=E]'CIATIVE, DEPR[=E]'CIATORY, tending to depreciate or lower.--_n._ DEPR[=E]'CIATOR. [L. _depreti[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_de_, down, and _pretium_, price.] DEPREDATE, dep're-d[=a]t, _v.t._ to plunder or prey upon: to rob: to lay waste: to devour.--_ns._ DEPRED[=A]'TION, act of plundering: state of being depredated; DEP'REDATOR.--_adj._ DEP'REDATORY. [L. _depræd[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_--_de_, inten., and _præd[=a]ri_--_præda_, plunder.] DEPREHEND, dep're-hend, _v.t._ to catch, seize: to apprehend. [Through Fr. from L. _deprehend[)e]re_--_de_, and _prehend[)e]re_, to take.] DEPRESS, de-pres', _v.t._ to press down: to let down: to lower: to humble: to make subject: to dispirit or cast a gloom over.--_n._ DEPRES'SANT (_med._), a sedative.--_p.adj._ DEPRESSED', pressed down: lowered: humbled: dejected: dispirited.--_adj._ DEPRES'SING, able or tending to depress.--_adv._ DEPRES'SINGLY.--_ns._ DEPRES'SION, a falling in or sinking: a lowering: a fall of the barometer: a hollow: abasement: dejection; DEPRES'SOR, an oppressor: a muscle that draws down: a surgical instrument for squeezing down a soft part. [L. _deprim[)e]re_, _-pressum_--_de_, down, and _prim[)e]re_, to press.] DEPRIVE, de-pr[=i]v', _v.t._ to take away from one his own: in take from: to dispossess: to degrade (a clergyman) from office: to bereave.--_n._ DEPRIV[=A]'TION, act of depriving: state of being deprived: degradation from office: loss: bereavement: suffering from hardship.--_adj._ DEPRIV'ATIVE.--_n._ DEPRIVE'MENT. [Low L. _depriv[=a]re_, to degrade--L. _de_, from, and _priv[=a]re_, to deprive--_privus_, one's own.] DE PROFUNDIS, d[=e] pr[=o]-fun'dis, 'Out of the depths,' the first words of the 130th Psalm--also used as a name for this penitential psalm. [L.] DEPTH, depth, _n._ deepness: the measure of deepness down or inwards: a deep place: the sea: the middle, as depth of winter: abstruseness: extent of sagacity and penetration.--_adj._ DEPTH'LESS, having no depth.--OUT OF ONE'S DEPTH, in water where one cannot touch bottom: in water too deep for one's safety: beyond one's faculties.--THE DEPTHS, the lowest pitch of humiliation and misery. [Not in A.S.; Skeat makes it Ice. _dýpð_, from _djúpr_, deep.] DEPURATE, dep'[=u]-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to purify: sometimes to render impure.--_ns._ DEPUR[=A]'TION; DEP'URATOR.--_adj._ DEP'URATORY. [Low L. _depur[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to purify--L. _de_, and _pur[=a]re_, to purify--_purus_, pure.] DEPUTE, de-p[=u]t', _v.t._ to appoint or send, as a substitute or agent: to send with a special commission: to make over one's powers to another.--_adj._ in Scotland, appointed deputy (as in _sheriff-depute_--often called simply the _depute_).--_n._ DEPUT[=A]'TION, act of deputing: the person or persons deputed or appointed to transact business for another: persons sent to state a case before a government official.--_v.t._ DEP'UTISE, to appoint as deputy.--_v.i._ to act as such.--_n._ DEP'UTY, one deputed or appointed to act for another: a delegate or representative, or substitute. [Fr.,--L. _deput[=a]re_, to cut off, (late) to select.] DERACINATE, de-ras'i-n[=a]t, _v.t._ to pluck up by the roots. [Fr. _déraciner_--L. _de_, and _radix_, _rad[)i]cis_, a root.] DERAIL, de-r[=a]l', _v.t._ to cause to leave the rails.--_n._ DERAIL'MENT. DERAIN, de-r[=a]n', _v.t._ to prove: to justify: to win by fighting: to prepare for battle: to arrange in order of battle.--Also DERAIGN', DARRAIN', DARRAYNE'. [O. Fr. _derainier_, _desraisnier_--Late L. _deration[=a]re_, to vindicate--L. _de_ or _dis_, and _ration[=a]re_, to discourse; _ratio_, reason.] DERANGE, de-r[=a]nj', _v.t._ to put out of place or order: to disorder.--_p.adj._ DERANGED', disordered: insane.--_n._ DERANGE'MENT, disorder; insanity. [Fr. _déranger_--_dé_ (L. _dis_), asunder, and _ranger_, to rank.] DERAY, de-r[=a]', _v.t._ to derange.--_v.i._ to go wild.--_n._ tumult, disorder. [O. Fr. _desreer_--_des_, neg., and _rei_, _roi_, order. See ARRAY.] DERBEND, der'bend, _n._ a wayside Turkish guardhouse. DERBY, där'bi, _n._ a great horse-race held annually on the Derby Day, on the Wednesday before Whitsuntide, on Epsom Downs, near London, so called from the Derby stakes, instituted by the Earl of _Derby_ in 1780; a rounded felt hat with narrow brim.--_ns._ DER'BYSHIRE-NECK, a form of the disease _goitre_, occurring in Derbyshire; DER'BYSHIRE-SPAR, a fluorspar found in Derbyshire. DER-DOING, der-d[=oo]'ing, _adj._ (_Spens._) doing daring deeds. [See DERRING-DOE.] DERELICT, der'e-likt, _adj._ forsaken: abandoned.--_n._ anything forsaken or abandoned.--_n._ DERELIC'TION, act of forsaking, unfaithfulness or remissness: state of being abandoned: land gained from the water by a change of water-line. [L. _derelinqu[)e]re_, _-lictum_,--_de_, inten., and _linqu[)e]re_, to leave.] DERELIGIONISE, d[=e]-r[=e]-lij'on-[=i]z, _v.t._ to make irreligious. DERIDE, de-r[=i]d', _v.t._ to laugh at: to mock.--_n._ DERID'ER.--_adj._ DERID'INGLY. [L. _derid[=e]re_--_de_, inten., and _rid[=e]re_, to laugh.] DERISION, de-rizh'un, _n._ act of deriding: mockery: a laughing-stock.--_adjs._ DER[=I]'SIVE, DER[=I]S'ORY, mocking.--_adv._ DER[=I]'SIVELY.--_n._ DER[=I]'SIVENESS. DERIVE, de-r[=i]v', _v.t._ to draw from, as water from a river; to take or receive from a source or origin: to infer: (_ety._) to trace a word to its root.--_adj._ DER[=I]V'ABLE.--_adv._ DER[=I]V'ABLY.--_adj._ DER'IVATE, derived.--_n._ a derivative.--_n._ DERIV[=A]'TION, act of deriving: a drawing off or from: the tracing of a word to its original root: that which is derived: descent or evolution of man or animals.--_adj._ DERIV[=A]'TIONAL.--_n._ DERIV[=A]'TIONIST.--_adj._ DERIV'ATIVE, derived or taken from something else: not radical or original.--_n._ that which is derived: a word formed from another word.--_adv._ DERIV'ATIVELY. [O. Fr. _deriver_--L. _deriv[=a]re_--_de_, down from, _rivus_, a river.] DERM, d[.e]rm, _n._ the skin--also DER'MA, DER'MIS.--_adjs._ DER'MAL, DER'MIC, DERMAT'IC, pertaining to the skin: consisting of skin.--_n._ DERMATOG'RAPHY, anatomical description of the skin--also DERMOG'RAPHY.--_adjs._ DER'MATOID, of the form of skin: skin-like; DERMATOLOG'ICAL.--_ns._ DERMATOL'OGIST; DERMATOL'OGY, the branch of physiology which treats of the skin; DER'MATOPHYTE, a parasitic fungus on the skin; DER'MATOSKEL'ETON, the bony integument of many reptiles, insects, and crustaceans--also DERMOSKEL'ETON.--_adj._ DERMOGAS'TRIC, connecting the skin and the stomach. [Gr. _derma_, _dermatos_, the skin--_derein_, to flay.] DERN, d[.e]rn, _adj._ secret: hidden: (_Shak._) dreadful--also DEARN.--_adjs._ DERN'FUL, DEARN'FUL, solitary: mournful.--_advs._ DERN'LY, DEARN'LY, secretly: sorrowfully: grievously. [M. E. _dern_, _dærne_--A.S. _dyrne_, _derne_, secret.] DEROGATE, der'o-g[=a]t, _v.i._ to lessen by taking away: to detract.--_adj._ (_Shak._) degenerate.--_adv._ DER'OG[=A]TELY (_Shak._), in a derogatory manner.--_n._ DEROG[=A]'TION, a taking from: detraction: depreciation.--_adv._ DEROG'ATORILY.--_n._ DEROG'ATORINESS.--_adj._ DEROG'ATORY, detracting: injurious. [L. _derog[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to repeal part of a law--_de_, down from, and _rog[=a]re_, to propose a law.] DERRICK, der'ik, _n._ an apparatus for lifting weights, closely resembling a crane.--FLOATING DERRICK, a derrick mounted on a special boat: a beam supported at an angle between the perpendicular and horizontal, with tackle for raising heavy weights. [From _Derrick_, the name of a hangman in the early part of the 17th century.] DERRING-DOE, der'ring-d[=oo], _n._ daring action. [M. E. _dorryng-don_, _duryng-do_, &c., as in Chaucer; taken over by Spenser in the spellings _derring-doe_ and _der-doing_, with the noun _derring-doer_. _Daring-do_ should be the modern English form.] DERRINGER, der'in-jer, _n._ a short-rifled pistol, with one barrel--from the inventor, an American. DERTH, d[.e]rth, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as DEARTH. DERVISH, d[.e]r'vish, _n._ among Mohammedans, a member of one of the numerous orders of monks who profess poverty and lead an austere life. [Pers. _darvísh_, a dervish--lit., a poor man.] DESART, des'art, _n._ an old form of DESERT. DESCANT, des'kant, _n._ the air in a four-part song: a discourse or disquisition under several heads.--_v.i._ DESCANT', to discourse at length: to comment. [O. Fr. _descant_--L. _dis_, apart, and _cantus_, a song--_cant[=a]re_, to sing.] DESCEND, d[=e]-send', _v.i._ to climb down: to pass from a higher to a lower place or condition: to pass from general to particulars: to fall upon or invade: to be derived.--_v.t._ to go down upon: to go to the bottom of.--_n._ DESCEND'ANT, one who descends, as offspring from an ancestor.--_adjs._ DESCEND'ENT, descending or going down: proceeding from an ancestor; DESCEND'IBLE, that may descend or be descended: capable of transmission by inheritance, heritable.--_p.adj._ DESCEND'ING.--_n._ DESCEN'SION.--_adj._ DESCEN'SIONAL.--_n._ DESCENT', act of descending: transmission by succession: motion or progress downward: slope: a falling upon or invasion: derivation from an ancestor: a generation, a degree in genealogy: descendants collectively.--DESCENT FROM THE CROSS, a picture representing Christ being taken down from the cross. [Fr. _descendre_--L. _descend[)e]re_--_de_, down, _scand[)e]re_, to climb.] DESCRIBE, d[=e]-skr[=i]b', _v.t._ to trace out or delineate: to give an account of.--_adj._ DESCRIB'ABLE.--_n._ DESCRIB'ER. [L. _describ[)e]re_--_de_, down, and _scrib[)e]re_, _scriptum_, to write.] DESCRIPTION, de-skrip'shun, _n._ act of describing: an account of anything in words: definition: sort, class, or kind.--_adj._ DESCRIP'TIVE, containing description.--_adv._ DESCRIP'TIVELY.--_n._ DESCRIP'TIVENESS. DESCRIVE, de-skr[=i]v', _v.t._ an obsolete form of _describe_. DESCRY, de-skr[=i]', _v.t._ to discover by the eye: to espy:--_pr.p._ descry'ing; _pa.p._ descried'.--_n._ discovery: (_Shak._) a thing discovered. [O. Fr. _descrire_ for _descrivre_--L. _describ[)e]re_: a doublet of _describe_. Others derive the word from O. Fr. _descrier_, _decryer_, proclaim, announce--_des-_, _de-_, and _crier_, to cry, in which case it would be a doublet of _decry_.] DESECRATE, des'e-kr[=a]t, _v.t._ to divert from a sacred purpose: to profane.--_ns._ DESECRAT'ER, -OR, DESECR[=A]'TION, act of desecrating: profanation. [L. _desecr[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_de_, away from, and _sacr[=a]re_, to make sacred--_sacer_, sacred.] DESERT, de-z[.e]rt', _n._ the reward or punishment deserved: claim to reward: merit--_adj._ DESERT'LESS, without merit. [See DESERVE.] DESERT, de-z[.e]rt', _v.t._ to leave: to forsake.--_v.i._ to run away: to quit a service, as the army, without permission.--_ns._ DESERT'ER, one who deserts or quits a service without permission; DESER'TION, act of deserting: state of being deserted: wilful abandonment of a legal or moral duty or obligation. [L. _deser[)e]re_, _desertum_--_de_, neg., and _ser[)e]re_, to bind.] DESERT, dez'[.e]rt, _adj._ deserted: desolate: uninhabited: uncultivated: a desolate or barren place: a wilderness: a solitude. [O. Fr. _desert_--L. _desertum_, _deser[)e]re_, to desert, unbind.] DESERVE, de-z[.e]rv', _v.t._ to earn by service: to merit.--_v.i._ to be worthy of reward.--_adj._ DESERV'ING, worthy.--_n._ desert.--_advs._ DESERV'INGLY, DESERV'EDLY, according to desert: justly. [Fr.,--L. _deserv[=i]re_--_de_, inten., _serv[=i]re_, to serve.] DESHABILLE, des-a-bil', _n._ an undress: a careless toilet. [Fr. _déshabillé_, undressed--_des_ = L. _dis_ = _un_, not, and _habiller_, to dress.] DESICCATE, de-sik'[=a]t, or des'i-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to dry up.--_v.i._ to grow dry.--_adjs._ DESIC'CANT, DESIC'CATIVE, drying: having the power of drying.--_n._ an application that tends to dry up sores.--_n._ DESICC[=A]'TION, the act of desiccating: state of being desiccated. [L. _desicc[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to dry up--_de_, and _siccus_, dry.] DESIDERATE, de-sid'[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.t._ to long for or earnestly desire a thing: to want or miss.--_n._ DESIDER[=A]'TION, the act of desiderating: the thing desiderated.--_adj._ DESID'ERATIVE, implying desire, as in desiderative verb.--_n._ DESIDER[=A]'TUM, something desired or much wanted:--_pl._ DESIDER[=A]'TA. [L. _desider[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to long for. A doublet of _desire_.] DESIGHTMENT, d[=e]-s[=i]t'ment, _n._ disfigurement. DESIGN, de-z[=i]n', or de-s[=i]n', _v.t._ to draw: to form a plan of: to contrive: to intend.--_n._ a drawing or sketch: a plan in outline: a plan or scheme formed in the mind: plot: intention.--_adj._ DESIGN'ABLE.--_v.t._ DES'IGN[=A]TE, to mark out so as to make known: to show: to name.--_ns._ DESIGN[=A]'TION, a showing or pointing out: name: title; DES'IGN[=A]TOR.--_adv._ DESIGN'EDLY, by design: intentionally.--_n._ DESIGN'ER, one who furnishes designs or patterns: a plotter.--_adjs._ DESIGN'FUL, full of design; DESIGN'ING, artful: scheming: deceitful.--_n._ the art of making designs or patterns.--_adj._ DESIGN'LESS.--_n._ DESIGN'MENT, the design or sketch of a work: (_Shak._) intention, purpose, enterprise.--THE ARGUMENT FROM DESIGN, the argument for the existence of God derived from the evidences of design in creation. [Fr.,--L. _design[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_de_, and _signum_, a mark.] DESILVER, de-sil'v[.e]r, _v.t._ to deprive of silver: to extract the silver from--also DESIL'VERISE.--_n._ DESILVERIS[=A]'TION. DESINE, de-s[=i]n', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to denote. DESIPIENCE, de-sip'i-ens, _n._ (_rare_) silliness, nonsense.--_adj._ DESIP'IENT, foolish. [L. _desipiens_, _desip[)e]re_, to be foolish, _de-_, neg., _sap[)e]re_, to be wise.] DESIRE, de-z[=i]r', _v.t._ to long for the possession of: to wish for: to request, ask: (_B._) to regret.--_v.i._ to be in a state of desire.--_n._ an earnest longing for: eagerness to obtain: a prayer or request: the object desired: lust.--_adj._ DESIR'ABLE, worthy of desire: pleasing: agreeable.--_ns._ DESIR'ABLENESS, DESIRABIL'ITY.--_adv._ DESIR'ABLY.--_adj._ DESIRE'LESS.--_n._ DESIR'ER.--_adj._ DESIR'OUS, full of desire: anxious to obtain: eager.--_adv._ DESIR'OUSLY.--_n._ DESIR'OUSNESS. [Fr. _désirer_--L. _desider[=a]re_. See DESIDERATE.] DESIST, de-sist', _v.i._ to stop: to forbear.--_ns._ DESIST'ANCE, -ENCE, a desisting. [Fr.,--L. _desist[)e]re_--_de_, away, and _sist[)e]re_, to cause to stand.] DESK, desk, _n._ a sloping table for the use of writers or readers, often fitted with drawers, &c.: a shut-up writing-box: a pulpit or lectern.--_n._ DESK'-WORK, work done at a desk, professional labours of a clerk or author. [M. E. _deske_--L. _discus_. It is a variant of _dish_ and _disc_.] DESMAN, des'man, _n._ a kind of musk-rat, found in Russia and the Pyrenees. [Sw. _desman_, musk; Ice. _des_, musk.] DESMID, des'mid, _n._ one of a group of microscopic algæ. [Formed as a dim. of Gr. _desmos_, a chain.] DESMINE, des'min, _n._ a zeolitic mineral occurring in clusters. [Gr. _desmos_, a band.] DESMODIUM, des-m[=o]'di-um, _n._ a genus of leguminous plants to which the _D. gyrans_, or telegraph plant, belongs. [Gr. _desmos_, chain, _eidos_, form.] DESMOID, des'moid, _adj._ arranged in bundles. [Gr. _desmos_, a chain, a bundle, and _eidos_, form.] DESMOLOGY, des-mol'o-ji, _n._ the anatomy of the ligaments.--_ns._ DESMOG'RAPHY, the description of these; DESMOT'OMY, their dissection. [Gr. _desmos_, a ligament, and _logia_, a discourse.] DESOLATE, des'o-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to make solitary: to deprive of inhabitants: to lay waste.--_adj._ solitary: destitute of inhabitants: laid waste.--_adv._ DES'OLATELY.--_ns._ DES'OLATENESS; DESOLAT'ER, -OR; DESOL[=A]'TION, waste: destruction: a place desolated.--_adj._ DES'OLATORY. [L. _desol[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_de_, inten., and _sol[=a]re_, to make alone--_solus_, alone.] DESPAIR, de-sp[=a]r', _v.i._ to be without hope: to despond.--_n._ want of hope: utter hopelessness: that which causes despair.--_adj._ DESPAIR'FUL (_Spens._).--_p.adj._ DESPAIR'ING, apt to despair: full of despair.--_adv._ DESPAIR'INGLY. [O. Fr. _desperer_--L. _desper[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_de_, neg., and _sper[=a]re_, to hope.] DESPATCH, de-spach', DISPATCH, dis-pach', _v.t._ to send away hastily: to send out of the world: to put to death: to dispose of: to perform speedily.--_v.i._ (_Shak._) to make haste.--_n._ a sending away in haste: dismissal: rapid performance: haste: the sending off of the mails: that which is despatched, as a message, esp. telegraphic.--_ns._ DESPATCH'-BOAT, a government vessel for carrying despatches; DESPATCH'-BOX, a box for containing official despatches; DESPATCH'ER.--_adv._ DESPATCH'FUL (_Milt._), swift.--HAPPY DESPATCH, a playful name given to the Japanese _hara-kiri_ or judicial suicide; PNEUMATIC DESPATCH (see PNEUMATIC). [O. Fr. _despeecher_ (mod. Fr. _dépêcher_); acc. to Littré, from an assumed Low L. _despedic[=a]re_, to remove obstacles (_pedica_, a fetter), the opp. of _impedic[=a]re_. See IMPEACH.] DESPERADO, des-p[.e]r-[=a]'d[=o], _n._ a desperate fellow: one reckless of danger: a madman:--_pl._ DESPER[=A]'DOS. [Sp. _desesperado_--L. _desper[=a]tus_.] DESPERATE, des'p[.e]r-[=a]t, _adj._ in a state of despair: hopeless: beyond hope: fearless of danger: rash: furious.--_adv._ DES'PERATELY.--_ns._ DES'PERATENESS, DESPER[=A]'TION, state of despair: disregard of danger: fury. [See DESPAIR.] DESPICABLE, des'pi-ka-bl, _adj._ deserving to be despised: contemptible: worthless.--_ns._ DES'PICABLENESS, DESPICABIL'ITY.--_adv._ DES'PICABLY. [L. _despic[)e]re_, to despise.] DESPIGHT, de-sp[=i]t', an old form of _despite_. DESPISE, de-sp[=i]z', _v.t._ to look down upon with contempt: to scorn.--_adj._ DESPIS'ABLE.--_ns._ DESP[=I]'SAL, contempt; DESPIS'EDNESS (_Milt._); DESPIS'ER. [O. Fr. _despiz_, _despire_--L. _despic[)e]re_--_de_, down, _spec[)e]re_, to look.] DESPITE, de-sp[=i]t', _n._ a looking down upon with contempt: violent malice or hatred.--_prep._ in spite of: notwithstanding.--_adj._ DESPITE'FUL.--_adv._ DESPITE'FULLY.--_n._ DESPITE'FULNESS.--_adj._ DESPIT'EOUS (_Spens._). [O. Fr. _despit_ (mod. _dépit_)--L. _despectus_--_despic[)e]re_.] DESPOIL, de-spoil', _v.t._ to spoil completely: to strip: to bereave: to rob.--_ns._ DESPOIL'ER; DESPOLI[=A]'TION, DESPOIL'MENT. [O. Fr. _despoiller_ (mod. _dépouiller_)--L. _despoli[=a]re_--_de_, inten., and _spolium_, spoil.] DESPOND, de-spond', _v.i._ to lose hope or courage: to despair.--_ns._ DESPOND'ENCE, DESPOND'ENCY, state of being without hope: dejection.--_adj._ DESPOND'ENT, desponding: without courage or hope: sad.--_advs._ DESPOND'ENTLY; DESPOND'INGLY. [L. _despond[=e]re_, to promise, to give up or devote to, to give up or resign, to lose courage, to despond--_de_, away, and _spond[=e]re_, to promise.] DESPOT, des'pot, _n._ one invested with absolute power: a tyrant.--_n._ DES'POTAT, a territory governed by a despot.--_adjs._ DESPOT'IC, -AL, pertaining to or like a despot: having absolute power: tyrannical.--_adv._ DESPOT'ICALLY.--_ns._ DESPOT'ICALNESS, DES'POTISM, absolute power: tyranny; DESPOTOC'RACY, government by a despot. [O. Fr. _despot_--Low L. _despotus_--Gr. _despot[=e]s_, a master.] DESPUMATE, de-sp[=u]'m[=a]t, or des'p[=u]-m[=a]t, _v.i._ to throw off in foam or scum.--_n._ DESPUM[=A]'TION. [L. _despum[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_de_, off, and _spuma_, foam.] DESQUAMATE, des'kwa-m[=a]t, _v.i._ to scale off.--_n._ DESQUAM[=A]'TION, a scaling off: the separation of the cuticle or skin in scales.--_adjs._ DESQUAM'ATIVE, DESQUAM'ATORY. [L. _desquam[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_de_, off, and _squama_, a scale.] DESSE, des, _n._ (_Spens._) a dais. DESSERT, dez-[.e]rt', _n._ fruits, confections, &c., served at the close of an entertainment after the rest has been taken away.--_ns._ DESSERT'-SERV'ICE, the dishes used for dessert; DESSERT'-SPOON, a spoon smaller than a table-spoon and larger than a tea-spoon, used not so much for dessert as for pudding. [O. Fr. _dessert_, _desservir_, to clear the table--_des_, away, and _servir_, to serve--L. _serv[=i]re_.] DESSIATINE, DESSYATINE, des'ya-tin, _n._ a Russian measure of land, 2.7 English acres. [Russ. _desyatina_, a measure of land, a tenth; _desyati_, ten.] DESTEMPER. See DISTEMPER (1). DESTINE, des'tin, _v.t._ to ordain or appoint to a certain use or state: to fix: to doom--also DES'TINATE (_obs._).--_ns._ DESTIN[=A]'TION, the purpose or end to which anything is destined or appointed: end: purpose: design: fate: place to which one is going; DES'TINY, the purpose or end to which any person or thing is destined or appointed: unavoidable fate: necessity. [Fr.,--L. _destin[=a]re_--_de_, inten., and root _sta-_, in _st[=a]re_, to stand.] DESTITUTE, des'ti-t[=u]t, _adj._ left alone: forsaken: in want, needy--_v.t._ to forsake: to deprive.--_n._ DESTITU'TION, the state of being destitute: deprivation of office: poverty. [L. _destitu[)e]re_, _-[=u]tum_--_de_, away, and _statu[)e]re_, to place.] DESTROY, de-stroy', _v.i._ to unbuild or pull down: to overturn: to ruin: to put an end to:--_pr.p._ destroy'ing:--_pa.p._ destroyed'.--_n._ DESTROY'ER. [O. Fr. _destruire_ (Fr. _détruire_)--L. _destru[)e]re_, _destructum_--_de_, down, and _stru[)e]re_, to build.] DESTRUCTION, de-struk'shun, _n._ act of destroying: overthrow: physical or moral ruin: death: a destructive plague.--_adj._ DESTRUC'TIBLE, liable to be destroyed.--_ns._ DESTRUCTIBIL'ITY, DESTRUC'TIBLENESS.--_n._ DESTRUC'TIONIST, one engaged in destruction: one who believes in the final annihilation of the damned.--_adj._ DESTRUC'TIVE, causing destruction: mischievous: ruinous: deadly.--_adv._ DESTRUC'TIVELY.--_ns._ DESTRUC'TIVENESS; DESTRUC'TIVIST, a representative of destructive principles, as in Biblical criticism; DESTRUC'TOR, a destroyer: a furnace for burning up refuse. DESUDATION, des-[=u]-d[=a]'shun, _n._ a violent sweating: an eruption of small pimples on children. [L. _desud[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, _de_, inten., and _sud[=a]re_, to sweat.] DESUETUDE, des'we-t[=u]d, _n._ disuse: discontinuance of custom, habit, or practice. [L. _desuetudo_--_desu[=e]tum_, _desuesc[)e]re_--_de_, neg., and _suesc[)e]re_, to become used.] DESULPHUR, de-sul'fur, _v.t._ to free of sulphur: to take sulphur out of the ore--also DESUL'PHUR[=A]TE, DESUL'PHURISE.--_n._ DESULPHUR[=A]'TION. DESULTORY, des'ul-tor-i, _adj._ jumping from one thing to another: without rational or logical connection: rambling: hasty: loose.--_adv._ DES'ULTORILY.--_n._ DES'ULTORINESS. [L. _desultorius_, of or pertaining to a vaulter, inconstant, _desultor_, a vaulter, _desil[=i]re_, _-sultum_, to leap--_de_, from, and _sal[=i]re_, to jump.] DETACH, de-tach', _v.t._ to unfasten: to take from or separate: to withdraw: to send off on special service.--_v.i._ to separate one's self.--_adj._ DETACH'ABLE.--_p.adj._ DETACHED', unconnected: separate: free from care, passion, ambition, and worldly bonds.--_adv._ DETACH'EDLY.--_ns._ DETACH'EDNESS; DETACH'MENT, state of being separated: that which is detached, as a body of troops. [Fr. _détacher_--_de_, neg., and root of _attach_.] DETAIL, de-t[=a]l', _v.t._ to relate minutely: to enumerate: to set apart for a particular service.--_v.i._ to give details about anything.--_n._ (de-t[=a]l', or d[=e]'t[=a]l) a small part: an item: a particular account.--_adj._ DETAILED', giving full particulars: exhaustive.--IN DETAIL, circumstantially, point by point. [O. Fr. _detailler_--_de_, inten., and _tailler_, to cut. See TAILOR.] DETAIN, de-t[=a]n', _v.t._ to hold from or back: to stop: to keep: to keep in custody.--_ns._ DETAIN'ER, one who detains: (_law_) the holding of what belongs to another: a warrant to a sheriff to keep in custody a person already in confinement: DETAIN'MENT (same as DETENTION). [O. Fr. _detenir_--L. _detin[=e]re_--_de_, from, and _ten[=e]re_, to hold.] DETECT, de-tekt', _v.t._ (_lit._) to uncover--hence to discover: to find out.--_adjs._ DETECT'ABLE, DETECT'IBLE.--_ns._ DETECT'ER, -OR, one who detects: an apparatus for detecting something, as a detector-lock, which shows if it has been tampered with; DETEC'TION, discovery of something hidden: state of being found out.--_adj._ DETECT'IVE, employed in detecting.--_n._ a policeman employed in the investigation of special cases of crime, or in watching special classes of wrong-doers, usually not in uniform.--PRIVATE DETECTIVE, one employed by a private person to gain information, or to watch his interests. [L. _detectum_, _deteg[)e]re_--_de_, neg., and _teg[)e]re_, _tectum_, to cover.] DETENTION, de-ten'shun, _n._ act of detaining: state of being detained: confinement: delay.--_n._ DETENT', something to check motion: a catch, esp. in a clock or watch. [See DETAIN.] DETER, de-t[.e]r', _v.t._ to frighten from: to hinder or prevent:--_pr.p._ deter'ring; _pa.p._ deterred'.--_n._ DETER'MENT. [L. _deterr[=e]re_--_de_, from, _terr[=e]re_, to frighten.] DETERGE, de-t[.e]rj', _v.t._ to wipe off; to cleanse (as a wound).--_ns._ DETERG'ENCE, DETERG'ENCY.--_adj._ DETERG'ENT, cleansing: purging.--_n._ that which cleanses. [L. _deterg[=e]re_, _detersum_--_de_, off, and _tergere_, to wipe.] DETERIORATE, de-t[=e]'ri-o-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to make worse.--_v.i._ to grow worse.--_p.adj._ DET[=E]'RIORATED, spoilt: of inferior quality.--_n._ DETERIOR[=A]'TION, the act of making worse: the state of growing worse.--_adj._ DET[=E]'RIORATIVE.--_n._ DETERIOR'ITY (_obs._), worse state. [L. _deterior[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to make worse--_deterior_, worse--obs. _deter_, lower--_de_, down; cf. _inter-ior_.] DETERMINE, d[=e]-t[.e]r'min, _v.t._ to put terms or bounds to: to limit: to fix or settle the form or character of: to influence; to put an end to: to define.--_v.i._ to come to a decision: to resolve.--_adj._ DETER'MINABLE, capable of being determined, decided, or finished.--_ns._ DETER'MINABLENESS, DETERMINABIL'ITY.--_adj._ DETER'MINANT, serving to determine.--_n._ that which serves to determine: in mathematical analysis, a symbolical method used for different processes, as for the solution of equations by inspection.--_adj._ DETER'MIN[=A]TE, determined or limited: fixed: decisive.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to determine.--_adv._ DETER'MIN[=A]TELY.--_n._ DETERMIN[=A]'TION, that which is determined or resolved on: end: direction to a certain end: resolution: fixedness of purpose: decision of character.--_adjs._ DETER'MIN[=A]TIVE, that determines, limits, or defines; DETER'MINED, firm in purpose: fixed: resolute.--_adv._ DETER'MINEDLY.--_n._ DETER'MINISM, the doctrine that all things, including the will, are determined by causes--the converse of free-will: necessitarianism.--_n._ DETER'MINIST.--_adj._ DETERMINIS'TIC. [Fr.,--L. _determin[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_de_, neg., and _terminus_, a boundary.] DETERRENT, de-t[.e]r'ent, _adj._ serving to deter.--_n._ anything that deters or prevents. [See DETER.] DETERSION, de-t[.e]r'shun, _n._ act of cleansing. [See DETERGE.] DETERSIVE, de-t[.e]r'siv, _n._ Same as DETERGENT. DETEST, de-test', _v.t._ to hate intensely.--_adj._ DETEST'ABLE, worthy of being detested: extremely hateful: abominable.--_n._ DETEST'ABLENESS.--_adv._ DETEST'ABLY.--_n._ DETEST[=A]'TION, extreme hatred. [Fr.,--L. _detest[=a]ri_--_de_, inten., and _test[=a]ri_, to call to witness, execrate--_testis_, a witness.] DETHRONE, de-thr[=o]n', _v.t._ to remove from a throne.--_ns._ DETHRONE'MENT; DETHRONIS[=A]'TION. DETONATE, det'o-n[=a]t, _v.i._ to explode.--_v.t._ to cause to explode.--_ns._ DETON[=A]'TION, an explosion with report; DET'ONATOR, a detonating substance: an apparatus for the explosion of a detonating substance, as a percussion-cap.--DETONATING POWDER, powder, such as the fulminates, which explodes easily by impact or heating, and which may be used to cause other substances to explode. [L. _deton[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_de_, down, and _ton[=a]re_, to thunder.] DETORT, de-tort', _v.t._ to distort.--_ns._ DETOR'SION, DETOR'TION. [L. _detorqu[=e]re_, _detortum_; _de_, away, and _torquere_, twist.] DETOUR, de-t[=oo]r', _n._ a winding: a circuitous way. [Fr. _dé_, for L. _dis_, asunder, and _tour_, a turning.] DETRACT, de-trakt', _v.t._ to take away, abate: to defame.--_v.i._ to take away reputation (with _from_): to reduce in degree: diminish.--_ns._ DETRACT'ER, -OR:--_fem._ DETRACT'RESS.--_adv._ DETRACT'INGLY.--_n._ DETRAC'TION, depreciation: slander.--_adjs._ DETRACT'IVE, DETRAC'TIOUS, DETRACT'ORY, tending to detract: derogatory. [L. _de_, from, and _trah[)e]re_, to draw.] DETRAIN, de-tr[=a]n', _v.t._ to set down out of a railway train, as troops.--_v.i._ to come out of a train. DETRIMENT, det'ri-ment, _n._ diminution: damage: loss.--_adj._ DETRIMENT'AL. [L. _detrimentum_--_de_, off, and _ter[)e]re_, _tritum_, to rub.] DETRITUS, de-tr[=i]'tus, _n._ a mass of substance gradually rubbed or worn off solid bodies: an aggregate of broken or loosened fragments, esp. of rock.--_n._ DETRI'TION, a wearing away. [L.,--_de_, off, and _ter[)e]re_, _tritum_, to rub.] DETRUDE, de-tr[=oo]d', _v.t._ to thrust down.--_n._ DETRU'SION. [L. _de_, down, and _trud[)e]re_, to thrust] DETRUNCATE, de-trung'k[=a]t, _v.t._ to cut off from the trunk: to lop off: to shorten.--_n._ DETRUNC[=A]'TION. [L. _detrunc[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_de_, off, _trunc[=a]re_, lop.] DETUMESCENCE, d[=e]-t[=u]-mes'ens, _n._ diminution of swelling--opp. to _Intumescence_. DEUCE, d[=u]s, _n._ a card or die with two spots: (_lawn tennis_) a term denoting that each side has gained three points ('forty all').--_n._ DEUCE'-ACE, a throw of two dice, one of which turns up deuce and the other ace. [Fr. _deux_, two--L. _duos_, accus. of _duo_, two.] DEUCE, d[=u]s, _n._ the devil--in exclamatory phrases.--_adj._ DEUCED (d[=u]'sed, or d[=u]st), devilish: excessive.--_adv._ confoundedly. DEUTEROCANONICAL, d[=u]'t[.e]r-o-ka-non'ik-al, _adj._ pertaining to a second canon of inferior authority--the O. T. Apocrypha and the N. T. Antilegomena. [Gr. _deuteros_, second, _kan[=o]n_, rule.] DEUTEROGAMY, d[=u]-t[.e]r-og'a-mi, _n._ second marriage, esp. of the clergy, after the death of the first wife.--_n._ DEUTEROG'AMIST, one who allows such. [Gr. _deuteros_, second, _gamos_, marriage.] DEUTERONOMY, d[=u]-t[.e]r-on'o-mi, or d[=u]'t[.e]r-on-o-mi, _n._ the fifth book of the Pentateuch, containing a repetition of the decalogue and laws given in Exodus.--_adjs._ DEUTERONOM'IC, -AL.--_ns._ DEUTERON'OMIST, DEU'TERO-IS[=A]'IAH, the assumed author of the later prophecies of Isaiah. [Gr. _deuteros_, second, _nomos_, law.] DEUTEROSCOPY, d[=u]-t[.e]r-os'ko-pi, _n._ second-sight. [Gr. _deuteros_, second, _skopia_--_skopein_, to look.] DEUTOPLASM, d[=u]'t[=o]-plasm, _n._ secondary, nutritive plasm, or food-yolk.--_adjs._ DEUTOPLAS'MIC, DEUTOPLAS'TIC. DEUTOXIDE, d[=u]t-oks'[=i]d, _n._ an old name for a compound of two parts of oxygen with one of a base. [Gr. _deuteros_, second, and _oxide_.] DEUTZIA, dewt'si-a, or doit'si-a, _n._ a genus of saxifragaceous plants with panicles of white flowers, introduced from China and Japan. [Named after _Deutz_, a Dutch naturalist.] DEVALL, de-val', _v.i._ (_Scot._) to cease.--_n._ a stop. DEVANAGARI, d[=a]-va-nä'ga-ri, _n._ the character in which Sanskrit is usually written and printed. [Sans. 'town-script of the gods,' a term app. coined by an Indian scholar.] DEVAPORATION, d[=e]-vap-[=o]-r[=a]'shun, _n._ the change of vapour into water. DEVASTATE, dev'as-t[=a]t, _v.t._ to lay waste: to plunder.--_ns._ DEVAST[=A]'TION, act of devastating: state of being devastated: havoc; DEVAST[=A]'VIT, a waste of the estate of a deceased person by the executor. [L. _devast[=a]re_, _[=a]tum_--_de_, inten., _vast[=a]re_, to lay waste.] DEVELOP, d[=e]-vel'op, _v.t._ to unroll: to unfold: to lay open by degrees: to promote the growth of: (_phot._) to make the latent picture visible by chemical applications.--_v.i._ to grow into: to open out: to evolve:--_pr.p._ devel'oping; _pa.p._ devel'oped.--_n._ DEVEL'OPMENT, a gradual unfolding: a gradual growth: evolution: (_math._) the expression of a function in the form of a series.--_adj._ DEVELOPMENT'AL, pertaining to development.--_adv._ DEVELOPMENT'ALLY.--DOCTRINE OF DEVELOPMENT, the theory of the evolution of new species from lower forms. [Fr. _développer_, opposite of _envelopper_; both perh. from a Teut. root found in Eng. _lap_, to wrap.] DEVEST, de-vest', _v.t._ (_law_) to alienate: to deprive of: to strip. [A form of _divest_.] DEVIATE, d[=e]'vi-[=a]t, _v.i._ to go from the way: to turn aside from a certain course: to err.--_v.t._ to cause to diverge.--_ns._ DEVI[=A]'TION, a going out of the way: a turning aside; error; D[=E]'VIATOR, one who deviates.--DEVIATION OF THE COMPASS, departure of the mariner's compass from the magnetic needle, due to the ship's magnetism--either from the iron of which it is built or the iron which it carries. [L. _devi[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_de_, from, _via_, a way.] DEVICE, de-v[=i]s', _n._ that which is devised or designed: contrivance: power of devising: genius: (_her._) the emblem borne upon a shield: a picture of some kind, with a motto illustrative of a man's life or character, borne by an individual rather than by a family.--_adj._ DEVICE'FUL (_Spens._), full of devices. [O. Fr. _devise_. See DEVISE.] DEVIL, dev'l, _v.t._ (_cook._) to season highly and broil.--_v.i._ to perform another man's drudgery (esp. to devil for a barrister). DEVIL, dev'l, _n._ the supreme spirit of evil, Satan: any evil spirit: a false god: a very wicked person: a fellow, as in 'Poor devil:' an expletive, in 'What the devil,' &c.--_ns._ DEV'ILDOM; DEV'ILESS; DEV'ILET; DEV'IL-FISH, a name for the fishing-frog or angler, for the giant-ray of the United States, and for other large and ugly fishes; DEV'IL-IN-THE-BUSH, a garden flower, also called _Love-in-a-mist_.--_adj._ DEV'ILISH, fiendish, malignant.--_adv._ (_coll._) very: exceedingly.--_adv._ DEV'ILISHLY.--_ns._ DEV'ILISM; DEV'ILKIN.--_adj._ DEV'IL-MAY-CARE, reckless, audacious.--_ns._ DEV'ILMENT; DEV'IL-ON-THE-NECK, an old instrument of torture; DEV'ILRY; DEV'ILSHIP; DEV'ILTRY; DEV'IL-WOR'SHIP, the worship of the devil, or of devils; DEV'IL-WOR'SHIPPER.--DEVIL A BIT, not at all; DEVIL OF A MESS, a very bad mess.--DEVIL'S ADVOCATE, a name given to the Promoter of the Faith, an advocate at the papal court, whose duty it is to propose all reasonable objections against a person's claims to canonisation; DEVIL'S BIT, a popular name for scabious; DEVIL'S BOOKS, playing-cards; DEVIL'S COACH-HORSE, a large dark-coloured beetle; DEVIL'S DOZEN, thirteen (like baker's dozen); DEVIL'S DUNG, a popular name for asafoetida; DEVIL'S DUST, shoddy made by a machine called the _devil_; DEVIL'S OWN, a name given to the 88th Regiment in the Peninsular war, as also to the Inns of Court volunteers; DEVIL'S SNUFF-BOX, the puff-ball, a kind of fungus; DEVIL'S TATTOO (see TATTOO); DEVIL TO PAY, serious trouble ahead--said to be from the difficulty of _paying_, or caulking, an awkward and inaccessible seam in a ship.--CARTESIAN DEVIL (see CARTESIAN); PRINTER'S DEVIL, the youngest apprentice in a printing-office: a printer's errand-boy; TASMANIAN DEVIL, the ursine dasyure, a Tasmanian carnivore.--PLAY THE DEVIL WITH, to bring to utter ruin. [A.S. _deóful_, _deófol_--L. _diabolus_--Gr. _diabolos_, from _diaballein_, to throw across, to slander, from _dia_, across, and _ballein_, to throw; cf. Ger. _teufel_, Fr. _diable_, It. _diavolo_, Sp. _diablo_.] DEVIOUS, d[=e]'vi-us, _adj._ from or out of the way: roundabout: erring.--_adv._ D[=E]'VIOUSLY.--_n._ D[=E]'VIOUSNESS. [L. _devius_. See DEVIATE.] DEVISE, de-v[=i]z', _v.t._ to imagine: to scheme: to contrive: to give by will: to bequeath.--_v.i._ to consider, scheme.--_n._ act of bequeathing: a will: property bequeathed by will.--_adj._ DEVIS'ABLE.--_ns._ DEVIS'AL; DEVIS[=E][E]', one to whom real estate is bequeathed; DEVIS'ER, one who contrives; DEVIS'OR, one who bequeaths. [O. Fr. _deviser_, _devise_--Low L. _divisa_, a division of goods, a mark, a device--L. _divid[)e]re_, _divisum_, to divide.] DEVITALISE, de-v[=i]'ta-l[=i]z, _v.t._ to deprive of vitality or life-giving qualities.--_n._ DEVITALIS[=A]'TION. DEVITRIFY, de-vit'ri-f[=i], _v.t._ to take away or greatly diminish the vitreous quality of.--_n._ DEVITRIFIC[=A]'TION, loss or diminution of the vitreous nature. DEVOCALISE, de-v[=o]'ka-l[=i]z, _v.t._ to make voiceless: to reduce the vowel element in a sound or syllable. DEVOID, de-void', _adj._ destitute: free from. [O. Fr. _desvoidier_, _des_--L. _dis-_, away, _voidier_--L. _vidu[=a]re_, _viduus_, deprived.] DEVOIR, dev-wawr', _n._ what is due, duty: service: an act of civility. [Fr.,--L. _deb[=e]re_, to owe.] DEVOLUTION, dev-ol-[=u]'shun, _n._ a passing from one person to another. [See DEVOLVE.] DEVOLVE, de-volv', _v.t._ to roll down: to hand down: to deliver over.--_v.i._ to roll down: to fall or pass over.--_n._ DEVOLVE'MENT. [L. _devolv[)e]re_, _-vol[=u]tum_--_de_, down, _volv[)e]re_, _-[=u]tum_, to roll.] DEVONIAN, de-v[=o]'ni-an, _adj._ belonging to _Devonshire_: belonging to a system of geological strata which abound in Devonshire, closely corresponding to Old Red Sandstone. DEVONPORT, dev'on-p[=o]rt, _n._ a small ornamental writing-table, fitted with drawers, &c. DEVONSHIRE CREAM = CLOTTED CREAM. See CLOT. DEVOTE, de-v[=o]t', _v.t._ to vow: to set apart or dedicate by solemn act: to doom: to give up wholly.--_adj._ DEV[=O]T'ED, given up, as by a vow: doomed: strongly attached: zealous.--_adv._ DEV[=O]T'EDLY.--_ns._ DEV[=O]T'EDNESS; DEVOT[=E][=E]', one wholly or superstitiously devoted, esp. to religion: a fanatic; DEV[=O]TE'MENT (_Shak._); DEV[=O]'TION, consecration: giving up of the mind to the worship of God: piety: prayer: strong affection or attachment: ardour: (_pl._) prayers: (_obs._) religious offerings: alms.--_adj._ DEV[=O]'TIONAL.--_ns._ DEV[=O]'TIONALIST, DEV[=O]'TIONIST.--_adv._ DEV[=O]'TIONALLY. [L. _devov[=e]re_, _dev[=o]tum_--_de_, a way, and _vov[=e]re_, to vow.] DEVOUR, de-vowr', _v.t._ to swallow greedily: to eat up: to consume or waste with violence or wantonness: to destroy: to gaze intently on.--_n._ DEVOUR'ER.--_adj._ DEVOUR'ING.--_adv._ DEVOUR'INGLY.--_n._ DEVOUR'MENT. [O. Fr. _devorer_--L. _devor[=a]re_--_de_, inten., and _vor[=a]re_, to swallow. See VORACIOUS.] DEVOUT, de-vowt', _adj._ given up to religious thoughts and exercises: pious: solemn: earnest.--_adv._ DEVOUT'LY.--_n._ DEVOUT'NESS. [O. Fr. _devot_--L. _devotus_. See DEVOTE.] DEW, d[=u], _n._ moisture deposited from the air on cooling, esp. at night, in minute specks upon the surface of objects: early freshness (esp. in DEW OF HIS YOUTH).--_v.t._ to wet with dew: to moisten.--_ns._ DEW'BERR'Y, a kind of bramble or blackberry having a bluish dew-like bloom on the fruit; DEW'-CLAW, a rudimentary inner toe of a dog's hind-foot; DEW'DROP; DEW'FALL, the falling of dew, the time it falls; DEW'POINT, the temperature at which dew begins to form; DEW'-RETT'ING, the process of rotting away the gummy part of hemp or flax by exposure on the grass to dew and rain; DEW'STONE, a Nottinghamshire limestone; DEW'-WORM, the common earthworm.--_adj._ DEW'Y.--MOUNTAIN DEW (_slang_), whisky, originally illicitly distilled or smuggled spirits. [A.S. _deáw_; cf. Ice. _dögg_, Ger. _thau_, dew.] DEW, d[=u], _n._ an obsolete spelling of _due_. DEWAN, d[=e]-wan', _n._ in India, a financial minister, the native steward of a business-house.--_ns._ DEWAN'I, DEWAN'NY, the office of dewan. [Hind.] DEWITT, d[=e]-wit', _v.t._ to lynch--from the fate of Jan and Cornelius _De Witt_ in Holland in 1672. DEWLAP, d[=u]'lap, _n._ the pendulous skin under the throat of oxen, dogs, &c.: the fleshy wattle of the turkey.--_adjs._ DEW'LAPPED, DEW'LAPT. [Prob. _dew_ and A.S. _læppa_, a loose hanging piece.] DEXTER, deks't[.e]r, _adj._ on the right-hand side: right: (_her._) of that side of the shield on the right-hand side of the wearer, to the spectator's _left_.--_n._ DEXTER'ITY, right-handedness: cleverness: readiness and skill: adroitness.--_adjs._ DEX'TEROUS, DEX'TROUS, right-handed: adroit: subtle.--_adv._ DEX'TEROUSLY.--_n._ DEX'TEROUSNESS.--_adj._ DEX'TRAL, right, as opposed to left.--_n._ DEXTRAL'ITY, right-handedness.--_adv._ DEX'TRALLY.--_adjs._ DEX'TRO-G[=Y]'RATE, causing to turn to the right hand; DEX'TRORSE, DEXTROR'SAL, rising from right to left. [L. _dexter_; Gr. _dexios_, Sans. _dakshina_, on the right, on the south.] DEXTRINE, deks'trin, _n._ starch altered by the action of acids, diastase, or heat till it loses its gelatinous character, so called because when viewed through polarised light it turns the plane of polarisation to the right.--_n._ DEX'TROSE, a glucose sugar, found in grapes, &c., and manufactured from starch by means of sulphuric acid. [Fr.,--L. _dexter_.] DEY, d[=a], _n._ a dairy-maid. [See DAIRY.] DEY, d[=a], _n._ a name given to the pasha or governor of Algiers before the French conquest. [Turk, _dái_, orig. a maternal uncle, a familiar title of the chief of the Janizaries.] DHARMA, där'ma, _n._ the righteousness that underlies the law: the law. [Sans.] DHOBIE, d[=o]'bi, _n._ an Indian washerman. [Hind.] DHOLE, d[=o]l, _n._ the Indian wild dog. [Ind. word.] DHOOLY, d[=oo]'li, _n._ a covered litter.--Also DOO'LIE. [Hind. _doli_.] [Illustration] DHOW, dow, _n._ a native vessel on the eastern African and western Indian coasts, with lateen sails: an Arab slaver. DHURRA. Same as DURRA. DIABASE, d[=i]'a-b[=a]s, _n._ a compact igneous rock, an altered form of basalt--included under the popular names _greenstone_ and _trap_.--_adj._ DIAB[=A]'SIC. DIABATERIAL, d[=i]-a-ba-t[=e]'ri-al, _adj._ crossing the boundaries. [Gr. _diabatos_--_dia_, across, _bainein_, to go.] DIABETES, d[=i]-a-b[=e]'t[=e]z, _n._ a disease marked by a morbid and excessive discharge of urine.--_adjs._ DIABET'IC, -AL. [Gr., from _diabainein_, _dia_, through, and _bainein_, to go.] DIABLERIE, DIABLERY, di-ab-le-r[=e]', _n._ magic: the black art: sorcery. [Fr.,--_diable_. See DEVIL.] DIABOLIC, -AL, d[=i]-a-bol'ik, -al, _adj._ devilish.--_adv._ DIABOL'ICALLY.--_v.t._ DIAB'OLISE, to render devilish.--_ns._ DIAB'OLISM, devilish conduct: sorcery or black magic; DIABOL'OGY, the doctrine of devils. [L.,--Gr. _diabolikos_, _diabolos_, the devil. See DEVIL.] DIACATHOLICON, d[=i]-a-ka-thol'i-kon, _n._ a purgative electuary. DIACAUSTIC, d[=i]-a-kaws'tik, _adj._ pertaining to curves formed by the intersections of rays of refracted light.--_n._ a curve so formed. [Formed from Gr. _dia_, through, and _caustic_.] DIACHASTIC, d[=i]-a-kas'tik, _adj._ cleaving apart. [Gr.] DIACHYLON, d[=i]-ak'i-lon, DIACHYLUM, d[=i]-ak'i-lum, _n._ common sticking-plaster. [Gr. _diachylos_--_dia_, and _chylos_, juice.] DIACHYMA, d[=i]-ak'i-ma, _n._ the parenchyma of leaves. [Gr. _dia_, through, _chyma_, juice.] DIACODIUM, d[=i]-a-k[=o]'di-um, _n._ a syrup of poppies. [L.,--Gr. _dia_, through, _k[=o]deia_, a poppy-head.] DIACONATE, d[=i]-ak'o-n[=a]t, _n._ the office of a deacon.--_adj._ DIAC'ONAL, pertaining to a deacon. DIACONICON, d[=i]-a-kon'i-kon, _n._ a sacristy for sacred vessels, in a Greek church, on the south side of the bema or sanctuary. DIACOUSTIC, d[=i]-a-kows'tik, _adj._ pertaining to the refraction of sound through various mediums.--_n._ DIACOUS'TICS, the branch of physics which deals with refracted sounds. [Formed from Gr. _dia_, through, and _acoustics_.] DIACRITIC, -AL, d[=i]-a-krit'ik, -al, _adj._ distinguishing between--used of marks or points attached to the letters of various languages. [Gr. _diakritikos_, _diakrinein_--_dia_, between, and _krinein_, to distinguish. See CRITIC.] DIACTINE, d[=i]-ak'tin, _adj._ having two rays.--Also DIAC'TINAL. DIACTINIC, d[=i]-ak-tin'ik, _adj._ capable of transmitting the actinic rays of the sun. DIADELPHOUS, d[=i]-a-del'fus, _adj._ grouped together in two sets--of the stamens of plants.--_n._ D[=I]'ADELPH. [Formed from Gr. _di-_, double, and _adelphos_, brother.] DIADEM, d[=i]'a-dem, _n._ a band or fillet worn round the head as a badge of royalty: a crown: royalty.--_adj._ D[=I]'ADEMED, wearing a diadem.--DIADEM SPIDER, the common garden spider--from its markings. [O. Fr. _diademe_--L. _diadema_--Gr. _diad[=e]ma_--_dia_, round, and _deein_, to bind.] DIADEXIS, d[=i]-a-dek'sis, _n._ (_path._) the transformation of one disease into another, differing both in location and character. [Gr.] DIADOCHI, d[=i]-ad'o-k[=i], _n._ the generals who became monarchs of the various kingdoms (Syria, Egypt, &c.) into which the empire of Alexander the Great split after his death (323 B.C.). [Gr. _diadochos_, succeeding, a successor; _diadechesthai_, to succeed.] DIADROM, d[=i]'a-drom, _n._ a course or passing: a vibration. [Gr.] DIÆRESIS, DIERESIS, d[=i]-[=e]r'e-sis, _n._ a mark (¨) placed over one of two vowels to show that each is to be pronounced separately, as _aërial_:--_pl._ DIÆR'ESES, DIER'ESES. [Gr.,--_dia_, apart, _hairein_, to take.] DIAGLYPH, d[=i]'a-glif, _n._ an intaglio. [Gr.] DIAGNOSIS, d[=i]-ag-n[=o]'sis, _n._ the distinguishing a disease by means of its symptoms: a brief description:--_pl._ DIAGN[=O]'SES.--_v.t._ D[=I]'AGNOSE, to ascertain from symptoms, as a disease.--_adj._ D[=I]AGNOS'TIC, distinguishing: characteristic.--_n._ that by which anything is known: a symptom.--_n.pl._ DIAGNOS'TICS, the branch of medicine to which the skill in noting and interpreting symptoms belongs. [Gr., _dia_, between, _gn[=o]sis_--_gn[=o]nai_, to know.] DIAGOMETER, d[=i]-a-gom'e-t[.e]r, _n._ a form of electroscope for ascertaining conducting power. [Gr. _diagein_, to conduct, _metron_, a measure.] DIAGONAL, d[=i]-ag'o-nal, _adj._ through the corners, or from an angle to an opposite angle of a four or many sided figure.--_n._ a straight line so drawn.--_adv._ DIAG'ONALLY.--DIAGONAL SCALE, a scale for laying down small fractions of the unit of measurement, the parallel lines drawn lengthwise on its surface being divided into sections by lines drawn crosswise, and in one end section being intersected by a series of other parallel lines drawn obliquely at equal distances across them. [Fr.,--L. _diagonalis_, from Gr. _diag[=o]nios_--_dia_, through, and _g[=o]nia_, a corner.] DIAGRAM, d[=i]'a-gram, _n._ a figure or plan drawn in outline to illustrate any statement: a record traced by an automatic indicator.--_adj._ DIAGRAMMAT'IC.--_adv._ DIAGRAMMAT'ICALLY.--_n._ D[=I]'AGRAPH, an instrument for enabling unskilled persons to draw objects in outline.--_adj._ DIAGRAPH'IC. [L.,--Gr. _diagramma_--_dia_, round, _graphein_, to write.] DIAHELIOTROPIC, d[=i]-a-h[=e]-li-[=o]-trop'ik, _adj._ (_bot._) turning transversely to the light.--_n._ DIAHELIOT'ROPISM. [Gr. _dia_, across, and _heliotropic_.] DIAL, d[=i]'al, _n._ an instrument for showing the time of day by the sun's shadow: a timepiece: the face of a watch or clock: a circular plate on which a movable index shows the degree of pressure, &c.--_v.t._ to measure, as with a dial.--_ns._ D[=I]'ALIST, a maker of dials: one skilled in dialling; D[=I]'ALLING, the art of constructing dials: the science which explains the measuring of time by the sun-dial: surveying by help of a compass with sights, such as is called a 'miner's dial;' D[=I]AL-PLATE. [M. E. _dial_--Low L. _dialis_, daily--L. _dies_, a day.] DIALECT, d[=i]'a-lekt, _n._ a variety or form of a language peculiar to a district: a non-literary vernacular: a peculiar manner of speaking.--_adj._ DIALECT'AL.--_adv._ DIALECT'ALLY.--_ns._ DIALECT'ICISM; DIALECTOL'OGIST; DIALECTOL'OGY. [Through Fr. and L. from Gr. _dialektos_, speech, manner of speech, peculiarity of speech--_dia_, between, _legein_, to speak.] DIALECTIC, -AL, d[=i]-a-lek'tik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to dialect or to discourse: pertaining to dialectics: logical.--_ns._ DIALEC'TIC, DIALECT'ICS, art of discussing: that branch of logic which teaches the rules and modes of reasoning.--_adv._ DIALEC'TICALLY.--_n._ DIALECTI'CIAN, one skilled in dialectics, a logician. [Gr. _dialektikos_.] DIALLAGE, d[=i]-al'a-j[=e], _n._ (_rhet._) a figure of speech by which arguments, after having been considered from various points of view, are all brought to bear upon one point. [Gr.] DIALLAGE, d[=i]'al-[=a]j, _n._ a mineral nearly allied to augite, brown, gray, or green in colour, laminated in structure, with a metallic lustre when broken across.--_adjs._ DIALLAG'IC, DIAL'LAGOID. [Gr. _diallag[=e]_, change--_dia_, between, _allassein_, to change--_allos_, other.] DIALOGITE, d[=i]-al'[=o]-j[=i]t, _n._ a rose-red carbonate of manganese--also _Rhodochrosite_. DIALOGUE, d[=i]'a-log, _n._ conversation between two or more persons, esp. of a formal or imaginary nature.--_v.i._ and _v.t._ (_Shak._) to put into dialogue form.--_adjs._ DIALOG'IC, DIALOGIST'IC, -AL (-loj-), in the form of a dialogue.--_v.i._ DIAL'OGISE ('oj-), to discourse in dialogue.--_n._ DIAL'OGIST ('oj-), a speaker in, or writer of, a dialogue. [Fr.,--L. _dialogus_--Gr. _dialogos_, a conversation--_dialegesthai_, to discourse.] DIALURIC, d[=i]-a-l[=u]'rik, _adj._ pertaining to alloxan and uric acid.--_n._ DIAL[=U]'RATE, a salt of dialuric acid. DIALYSIS, d[=i]-al'i-sis, _n._ (_chem._) the separation of substances by diffusion through a membranous septum or partition: diæresis: dissolution:--_pl._ DIAL'YSES.--_adj._ DIALYS'ABLE.--_v.t._ D[=I]'ALYSE, to separate by dialysis.--_n._ D[=I]'ALYSER.--_adj._ DIALYT'IC. [Gr. _dialysis_--_dia_, asunder, _lyein_, to loose.] DIAMAGNETIC, d[=i]-a-mag-net'ik, _adj._ cross-magnetic--applied to any substance, such as a rod of bismuth or glass, which, when suspended between the poles of a magnet, arranges itself across the line joining the poles (a rod of iron or of sealing-wax so held arranges itself parallel to the line joining the poles, and is said to be _Paramagnetic_).--_adv._ DIAMAGNET'ICALLY.--_n._ DIAMAG'NETISM, the form of magnetic action possessed by diamagnetic bodies: the branch of magnetism which deals with diamagnetic phenomena. [Gr. _dia_, through, _magn[=e]t[=e]s_, _magn[=e]s_, a magnet.] DIAMANTIFEROUS, d[=i]-a-man-tif'er-us, _adj._ yielding diamonds. [Fr. _diamantifère_.] DIAMESOGAMOUS, d[=i]-a-me-sog'a-mus, _adj._ (_bot._) fertilised by intermediary means. DIAMETER, d[=i]-am'e-t[.e]r, _n._ the measure through or across: a straight line passing through the centre of a circle or other figure, terminated at both ends by the circumference.--_adjs._ DIAM'ETRAL, DIAMET'RIC, -AL, in the direction of a diameter: pertaining to the diameter: like the opposite ends of the diameter (as in _diametrical opposition_).--_advs._ DIAM'ETRALLY, in a diametral manner; DIAMET'RICALLY, exactly.--TACTICAL DIAMETER, the space covered by a steamer in turning 180° out of her original course. [Through Fr. and L. from Gr. _diametros_--_dia_, through, _metrein_, to measure.] DIAMOND, d[=i]'a-mond, _n._ the most valuable of all gems, and the hardest of all substances: a four-sided figure with two obtuse and two acute angles: one of the four suits of cards: one of the smallest kinds of English printing type.--_adj._ resembling diamonds: made of diamonds: marked with diamonds: lozenge-shaped, rhombic.--_ns._ D[=I]'AMOND-BEE'TLE, a beautiful sparkling South American weevil; D[=I]'AMOND-CUT'TING, diamond-setting; D[=I]'AMOND-DRILL, an annular borer whose bit is set with borts; D[=I]'AMOND-DUST, D[=I]'AMOND-POW'DER, the powder made by the friction of diamonds on one another in the course of polishing.--_adjs._ D[=I]'AMONDED, furnished with diamonds; DIAMONDIF'EROUS, yielding diamonds.--_n._ D[=I]'AMOND-WHEEL, a wheel covered with diamond-dust and oil for polishing diamonds and other precious stones.--DIAMOND CUT DIAMOND, the case of an encounter between two very sharp persons.--ROUGH DIAMOND, an uncut diamond: a person of great worth, though of rude exterior and unpolished manners. [M. E. _adamaunt_--O. Fr. _adamant_--L. _adamanta_, accus. of _adamas_--Gr. _adamas_, _adamantos_, adamant--_a_, not, _damaein_, to tame.] DIANA, di-[=a]'na, or d[=i]-an'a, _n._ an ancient Italian goddess of light, the moon-goddess, representative of chastity and hunting, afterwards identified with the Greek Artemis.--DIANA OF THE EPHESIANS, a goddess of fertility worshipped at _Ephesus_. DIANDRIA, d[=i]-an'dri-a, _n._ a class of plants in the Linnæan system having two stamens.--_n._ DIAN'DER, a plant with two stamens.--_adjs._ DIAN'DRIAN, DIAN'DROUS. [Gr. _dis_, twice, double, _an[=e]r_, _andros_, a man.] DIANODAL, d[=i]-a-n[=o]'dal, _adj._ (_math._) passing through a node. DIANOETIC, d[=i]-a-n[=o]-et'ik, _adj._ capable of thought, thinking: belonging to the ratiocinative faculties of the mind. [Gr. _diano[=e]tikos_--_dia_, through, _noein_, to think.] DIANTHUS, d[=i]-an'thus, _n._ the genus of herbaceous flowers to which carnations and pinks belong. [Gr. _dianth[=e]s_--_dis_, _di-_, two, _anthos_, a flower.] DIAPASON, d[=i]-a-p[=a]'zon, _n._ a whole octave: a harmony: a full volume of various sounds in concord: correct pitch: the two foundation-stops of an organ (_open_ and _stopped diapason_)--(_Spens._) D[=I]'APASE. [Gr. _dia_, through, and _pas[=o]n_, gen. pl. of _pas_, all--part of the Gr. phrase, _dia pas[=o]n chord[=o]n symph[=o]nia_, concord through all the notes.] DIAPEDESIS, d[=i]-a-pe-d[=e]'sis, _n._ (_physiol._) the migration of white blood-corpuscles through the walls of the blood-vessels without apparent rupture.--_adj._ DIAPEDET'IC. [Gr., _dia_, through, _p[=e]dan_, to leap.] DIAPENTE, d[=i]-a-pen't[=e], _n._ (_mus._) the interval of a fifth: a composition in pharmacy of five ingredients. [Gr.] [Illustration] DIAPER, d[=i]'a-p[.e]r, _n._ unbleached linen cloth woven in slightly defined figures, used for towels, &c.: a pattern for ornamentation, woven, not coloured, in textiles: a floral or geometric pattern in low relief in architecture, often repeated over a considerable surface.--_v.t._ to variegate with figures, as diaper.--_n._ D[=I]'APERING. [O. Fr. _diaspre_, _diapre_--Low L. _diasprus_--Byzantine Gr. _diaspros_, _dia_, through, _aspros_, white.] DIAPHANOUS, d[=i]-af'a-nus, _adj._ shining or appearing through, transparent, clear--also DIAPHAN'IC.--_ns._ D[=I]'APHANE, a diaphanous figured silk fabric; DIAPHANOM'ETER, an instrument for testing the transparency of the air; DIAPHAN'OSCOPE, a darkened box for viewing transparent positive photographs; DIAPHAN'OTYPE, a picture produced by colouring on the back a positive lightly printed on translucent paper, and placing this exactly over a strong duplicate print.--_adv._ DIAPH'ANOUSLY.--_ns._ DIAPH'ANOUSNESS, DIAPHAN[=E]'ITY. [Gr. _diaphanes_--_dia_, through, and _phainein_, to show, shine.] DIAPHONICS, d[=i]-a-fon'iks, _n._ Same as DIACOUSTICS. [Gr. _dia_, through, _phon[=e]_, sound.] DIAPHORETIC, d[=i]-a-fo-ret'ik, _adj._ promoting perspiration.--_n._ a sudorific or medicine that increases perspiration.--_n._ DIAPHOR[=E]'SIS, perspiration artificially induced. [Gr.,--_diaphorein_, to carry off--_dia_, through, _pherein_, to bear.] DIAPHRAGM, d[=i]'a-fram, _n._ a thin partition or dividing membrane: the midriff, a structure separating the chest from the abdomen: a metal plate with a central hole, for cutting off side-rays in a camera, &c.--_adjs._ DIAPHRAGMAT'IC, DIAPHRAG'MAL.--_n._ DIAPHRAGMAT[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the diaphragm. [Gr. _diaphragma_--_dia_, across, _phragnynai_, to fence.] DIAPHYSIS, d[=i]-af'i-sis, _n._ (_bot._) an abnormal elongation of the axis of a flower or of an inflorescence: (_anat._) the continuity of a bone between its two ends. [Gr. _dia_, through, _phyesthai_, to grow.] DIAPLASIS, d[=i]-ap'la-sis, _n._ (_surg._) reduction, of a dislocation, &c.--_adj._ DIAPLAS'TIC. [Gr.] DIAPNOIC, d[=i]-ap-n[=o]'ik, _adj._ producing slight perspiration--also DIAPNOT'IC--_n._ a mild diaphoretic. DIAPOSITIVE, d[=i]-a-poz'i-tiv, _n._ a transparent photographic positive, such as a lantern slide. DIAPYETIC, d[=i]-a-p[=i]-et'ik, _adj._ producing suppuration.--_n._ a medicine with this property.--_n._ DIAPY[=E]'SIS, suppuration. [Gr.] DIARCHY, d[=i]'ar-ki, _n._ a form of government in which two persons are jointly vested with supreme power--less correctly D[=I]'NARCHY. [Formed from Gr. _di-_, two, _archein_, to rule.] DIARRHOEA, DIARRHEA, d[=i]-a-r[=e]'a, _n._ a persistent purging or looseness of the bowels.--_adjs._ DIARRHOE'AL, DIARRHOE'IC, DIARRHOET'IC (also -RH[=E]'AL, -RH[=E]'IC, -RHET'IC). [Gr. _diarroia_--_dia_, through, and _rhein_, to flow.] DIARTHROSIS, d[=i]-ar-thr[=o]'sis, _n._ the general name for all forms of articulation which admit of the motion of one bone upon another, free arthrosis--including _Enarthrosis_, _Ginglymus_, and _Cyclarthrosis_. [Gr.] DIARY, d[=i]'a-ri, _n._ a daily record: a journal.--_adjs._ DI[=A]'RIAL, DI[=A]'RIAN.--_v.t._ or _v.i._ D[=I]'ARISE.--_n._ D[=I]'ARIST, one who keeps a diary. [L. _diarium_.] DIASCORDIUM, d[=i]-a-skor'di-um, _n._ an electuary prepared with scordium or water-germander. [Gr. _dia_, through, and _skordion_.] DIASKEUAST, d[=i]-as-kew'ast, _n._ a reviser: an interpolator.--_n._ DIASKEU'ASIS, reviewing. [Gr. _diaskeuazein_, to make ready--_dia_, through, _skeuos_, a tool.] DIASPORA, d[=i]-as'por-a, _n._ dispersion, used collectively for the dispersed Jews after the Babylonian captivity, and also in the apostolic age for the Jews living outside of Palestine. [Gr. _dia_, through, _speirein_, to scatter.] DIASPORE, d[=i]'a-sp[=o]r, _n._ a grayish, infusible hydrate of aluminium. DIASTALTIC, d[=i]-a-stal'tik, _adj._ (_Greek mus._) dilated, extended: bold. [Gr., _diastellein_, to expand.] DIASTASE, d[=i]'as-t[=a]s, _n._ a peculiar ferment developed during the germination of all seeds, which has the power of converting starch into dextrine and then into sugar.--_adj._ DIASTAT'IC--_adv._ DIASTAT'ICALLY. [Gr. _diastasis_, division--_dia_, through, _histanai_, _st[=e]nai_, to stand.] DIASTASIS, d[=i]-as'ta-sis, _n._ (_surg._) separation of bones without fracture. [Gr.] DIASTEMA, d[=i]-a-st[=e]'ma, _n._ a natural space between two consecutive teeth, or series of teeth.--_adj._ DIASTEMAT'IC. [Gr.] DIASTOLE, d[=i]-as'to-l[=e], _n._ dilation of the heart, auricles, and arteries--opp. to _Systole_, or contraction of the same: the protracting of a short syllable, as before a pause.--_adj._ DIASTOL'IC. [Gr. _diastol[=e]_--_dia_, asunder, and _stellein_, to place.] DIASTYLE, d[=i]'a-st[=i]l, _adj._ (_archit._) marked by wide intercolumniation. [Gr.] DIATESSARON, d[=i]-a-tes'a-r[=o]n, _n._ a harmony of the four gospels, esp. the earliest, that of Tatian (prob. 110-180 A.D.): (_mus._) the interval of a fourth: an electuary of four ingredients. [Gr., for _dia tessar[=o]n_, through, or composed of four.] DIATHERMAL, d[=i]-a-th[.e]r'mal, _adj._ letting heat through, permeable by radiating heat--also DIATHER'MANOUS, DIATHER'MOUS, DIATHER'MIC.--_ns._ DIATHER'MANCE, -CY. [Gr. _dia_, through, _thermos_, heat.] DIATHESIS, d[=i]-ath'e-sis, _n._ a particular condition or habit of body, esp. one predisposing to certain diseases: a habit of mind.--_adj._ DIATHET'IC. [Gr.,--_dia_, asunder, _tithenai_, to place.] DIATOM, d[=i]'a-tom, _n._ one of an order of microscopic unicellular algæ, of the _Diatomaceæ_.--_adj._ DIATOM[=A]'CEOUS.--_n._ DIAT'OMITE, diatomaceous earth. [Gr. _diatomos_--_dia_, through, _temnein_, to cut.] DIATOMIC, d[=i]-a-tom'ik, _adj._ consisting of two atoms. [Gr. _di-_, _dis_, two, and _atom_.] DIATOMOUS, d[=i]-at'[=o]-mus, _adj._ having crystals with one distinct diagonal cleavage. DIATONIC, d[=i]-a-ton'ik, _adj._ proceeding by the tones and intervals of the natural scale in music.--_adv._ DIATON'ICALLY. [Gr.,--_dia_, through, _tonos_, tone.] DIATRIBE, d[=i]'a-tr[=i]b, _n._ a continued discourse or disputation: an invective harangue.--_n._ D[=I]'ATR[=I]BIST, a writer or utterer of such. [Gr. _diatrib[=e]_--_dia_, through, _tribein_, to rub, wear away.] DIB, dib, _v.i._ to dip, as in angling:--_pr.p._ dib'bing; _pa.p._ dibbed. [A form of _dab_.] DIB, dib, _n._ one of the small bones of a sheep's leg: (_pl._) a children's game, played by throwing up such small bones or stones (DIB'-STONES) from the palm and catching them on the back of the hand--(_Scot._) _Chuckie-stanes_, or _Chucks_: (_slang_) money. DIBASIC, d[=i]-b[=a]'sik, _adj._ having two bases: of acids, with two atoms of hydrogen replaceable by a base or bases. [Gr. _di-_, two, and _basic_.] DIBBLE, dib'l, _n._ a pointed tool used for making holes to put seed or plants in--also DIBB'ER.--_v.t._ DIBB'LE, to plant with a dibble.--_v.i._ to make holes: to dip, as in angling.--_n._ DIBB'LER. [Freq. of _dib_, a form of _dab_.] DIBRANCHIATA, d[=i]-brang-ki-[=a]'ta, _n._ one of the two orders of cephalopoda, having two gills.--_adj._ DIBRAN'CHIATE. [Gr._ di-_, two, _branchia_, gills.] DICACITY, dik-as'i-ti, _n._ raillery, pert speech.--_adj._ DIC[=A]'CIOUS. [L. _dicax_, sarcastic.] DICAST, DIKAST, d[=i]'kast, _n._ one of the 6000 Athenians annually chosen to act as judges.--_n._ DICAS'TERY, their court. [Gr. _dikast[=e]s_, _dik[=e]_, justice.] DICATALECTIC, d[=i]-kat-a-lek'tik, _adj._ doubly catalectic, both at the middle and end of the verse. [Gr. _di-_, double. See CATALECTIC.] DICE, _pl._ of DIE, 2 (q.v.).--_v.i._ to play with dice. DICE-COAL, d[=i]s'-k[=o]l, _n._ a kind of coal which readily splits into cubical pieces. DICENTRA, d[=i]-sen'tra, _n._ a genus of plants including the flower Bleeding-heart (_D. spectabilis_).--Also DIEL'YTRA. [Gr. _di-_, double, _kentron_, a point.] DICEPHALOUS, d[=i]-sef'a-lus, _adj._ two-headed. [Gr. _dikephalos_--_di-_, double, _kephal[=e]_, a head.] DICHASTASIS, d[=i]-kas'ta-sis, _n._ spontaneous subdivision.--_adj._ DICHAS'TIC. [Gr.] DICHLAMYDEOUS, d[=i]-kla-mid'[=e]-us, _adj._ having both a calyx and a corolla. DICHOGAMY, d[=i]-kog'a-mi, _n._ an arrangement for preventing the self-fertilisation of hermaphrodite flowers, the stamens and stigmas ripening at different times.--_adj._ DICHOG'AMOUS. [Gr. _dicha_, in two, _gamos_, marriage.] DICHORD, d[=i]'kord, _n._ an ancient two-stringed lute. DICHOTOMY, d[=i]-kot'o-mi, _n._ a division into two parts.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ DICHOT'OMISE.--_adj._ DICHOT'OMOUS.--_adv._ DICHOT'OMOUSLY. [Gr., from _dicha_, in two, and _temnein_, to cut.] DICHROISM, d[=i]'kr[=o]-izm, _n._ the property of showing different colours when viewed in different directions exhibited by doubly refracting crystals.--_adjs._ DICHR[=O]'IC, DICHROIS'TIC.--_n._ D[=I]'CHROSCOPE, an instrument for testing the dichroism of crystals.--_adj._ DICHROSCOP'IC. DICHROMATISM, d[=i]-kr[=o]'ma-tizm, _n._ (_zool._) the quality of presenting, in different individuals, two different colours or systems of colouration.--_adj._ DICHROMAT'IC. DICHROMISM, d[=i]-kr[=o]'mizm, _n._ an inability to distinguish more than two of the primary colours.--_adj._ DICHR[=O]'MIC. DICHT, diht, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to wipe. DICK, dik, _n._ (_slang_) fine words, for _Dictionary_: for _Declaration_, as 'to take one's dick,' and prob. 'up to dick' = excellent, also properly. DICKENS, dik'enz, _n._ the deuce, the devil, as in 'What the dickens.'--PLAY THE DICKENS WITH, to play the deuce with. [For _devil_, confused with _Dickon_ = Richard.] DICKER, dik'[.e]r, _n._ (_Amer._) petty trade by barter, &c.--_v.i._ to haggle. [Prob. the obs. _dicker_, the number ten, esp. of hides or skins.] DICKEY, DICKY, dik'i, _n._ a leathern apron for a gig, &c.: the driver's seat in a carriage: a seat for servants at the back of a carriage: a false shirt-front. [Perh. from _dick_, a prov. Eng. word for a leathern apron; Prob. Dut. _dek_, a cover.] DICKY, DICKEY, dik'i, _n._ (_East Anglian_) an ass.--_n._ DICK'Y-BIRD, a small bird. [From _Dick_, familiar of Richard--like _Jack_, in jackass.] DICLINIC, d[=i]-klin'ik, _adj._ (_crystal._) having two of the intersections of the axes oblique.--Also D[=I]'CLINATE, D[=I]'CLINOUS. DICLINOUS, d[=i]'kli-nus, _adj._ having the stamens and pistils in separate flowers.--_n._ D[=I]'CLINISM. [Gr. _di-_, asunder, and _klin[=e]_, a bed.] DICOCCOUS, d[=i]-kok'us, _adj._ (_bot._) formed of two cocci. DICOELOUS, d[=i]-s[=e]'lus, _adj._ cupped or hollowed at both ends. DICOTYLEDON, d[=i]-kot-i-l[=e]'don, _n._ a plant having two seed-lobes.--_adj._ DICOTYL[=E]'DONOUS. [Gr. _di-_, two, and _cotyledon_.] DICROTIC, d[=i]-krot'ik, _adj._ double-beating--also D[=I]'CROTOUS.--_n._ D[=I]'CROTISM. [Gr., _di-_, two, _krotos_, beat.] DICTATE, dik't[=a]t, _v.t._ to tell another what to say or write: to communicate with authority: to point out: to command--(_arch._ DICT).--_n._ an order, rule, or direction: impulse.--_ns._ DICT[=A]'TION, act, art, or practice of dictating: overbearing command; DICT[=A]'TOR, one invested for a time with absolute authority--originally an extraordinary Roman magistrate:--_fem._ DICT[=A]'TRESS, DICT[=A]TRIX.--_adj._ DICTAT[=O]'RIAL, like a dictator: absolute: authoritative.--_adv._ DICTAT[=O]'RIALLY.--_ns._ DICT[=A]'TORSHIP, DIC'TATURE.--_adj._ DIC'TATORY. [L. _dict[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_dic[)e]re_, to say.] DICTION, dik'shun, _n._ a saying or speaking: manner of speaking or expressing: choice of words: style. [L., from _dic[)e]re_, _dictum_, to say.] DICTIONARY, dik'shun-a-ri, _n._ a book containing the words of a language alphabetically arranged, with their meanings, etymology, &c.: a lexicon: a work containing information on any department of knowledge, alphabetically arranged. [Low L. _dictionarium_. See DICTION.] DICTUM, dik'tum, _n._ something said: a saying: an authoritative saying:--_pl._ DIC'TA. [L.] DICTYOGEN, dik'ti-o-jen, _n._ a plant with net-veined leaves. [Gr. _diktyon_, a net; _-gen[=e]s_, producing.] DICYNODONT, di-sin'o-dont, _n._ an extinct reptile, allied to tortoises on one hand and mammals on the other. [Formed from Gr. _di-_, two, _cy[=o]n_, dog, and _odous_, _odontos_, tooth.] DID, did, DIDST, didst, _pa.t._ of DO. DIDACHE, did'a-k[=e], _n._ the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles (see under APOSTLE). [Gr., 'teaching.'] DIDACTIC, -AL, di-dak'tik, -al, _adj._ fitted or intended to teach: instructive: perceptive.--_adv._ DIDAC'TICALLY.--_n._ DIDAC'TICISM.--_n.pl._ DIDACTICS, the art or science of teaching. [Gr. _didaktikos_--_didaskein_, to teach; akin to L. _doc-[=e]re_, _disc-[)e]re_.] DIDACTYL, d[=i]-dak'til, _adj._ having only two digits--also DIDAC'TYLOUS.--_n._ DIDAC'TYL, an animal with two toes only on each foot. DIDAPPER, did'ap-[.e]r, _n._ a water-bird that is constantly dipping or diving under water--also called the _Dabchick_. [A compound of _dive_ and _dapper_ (which is a variant of _dipper_). See DIP and DIVE.] DIDASCALIC, did-as-kal'ik, _adj._ didactic. DIDDER, did'[.e]r, _v.i._ (_prov._) to shake. DIDDLE, did'l, _v.t._ to cajole, swindle.--_n._ DIDD'LER. DIDECAHEDRAL, d[=i]-dek-a-h[=e]'dral, _adj._ (_crystal._), having five planes on each extremity. DIDELPHIA, d[=i]-del'fi-a, _n.pl._ the marsupialia, or marsupial implacental mammals, one of the three sub-classes of Mammalia.--_adjs._ DIDEL'PHIAN, DIDEL'PHIC. [Gr. _di-_, double, _delphys_, womb.] DIDO, d[=i]'d[=o], _n._ (_slang_) an antic caper.--CUT UP DIDOES, to behave in an extravagant way. DIDODECAHEDRAL, d[=i]-do-dek-a-h[=e]'dral, _adj._ of a six-sided-prism, truncated on the lateral edges, and acuminated on the extremities with six planes. DIDRACHMA, d[=i]-drak'ma, _n._ a double drachma. DIDUCTION, d[=i]-duk'shun, _n._ separation by withdrawing one part from the other. DIDUNCULUS, di-dung'k[=u]-lus, _n._ a remarkable genus of pigeons--the tooth-billed pigeon of Samoa. DIDYMIUM, d[=i]-dim'i-um, _n._ a supposed element discovered in 1841, so named from being, as it were, _twin_ brother of lanthamum. DIDYMOUS, did'i-mus, _adj._ twin. DIDYNAMIA, did-i-n[=a]'mi-a, _n._ a class of plants in the Linnæan system having in the flower four stamens in pairs of unequal length.--_adjs._ DIDYN[=A]'MIAN, DIDYN'AMOUS. [Gr. _di-_, double, _dynamis_, strength.] DIE, d[=i], _v.i._ to lose life: to perish: to wither: to languish: to become insensible:--_pr.p._ dy'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ died (d[=i]d).--_adj._ DIE'-AWAY', languishing.--DIE AWAY, to disappear by degrees, become gradually inaudible; DIE GAME, to keep up one's spirit to the last; DIE HARD, to struggle hard against death, to be long in dying; DIE OFF, to die quickly or in large numbers; DIE OUT, to become extinct, to disappear. [From a Scand. root seen in Ice. _deyja_, Dan. _d[ö]e_, Scot. _dee_; akin to Mid. High Ger. _touwen_, whence Ger. _tod_, _todt_. The A.S. word is _steorfan_, whence our _starve_.] DIE, d[=i], _n._ a small cube used in gaming by being thrown from a box: any small cubical body: hazard:--_pl._ DICE (d[=i]s).--_n._ DICE'-BOX.--_adj._ DICED, ornamented with square or diamond-shaped figures.--_ns._ DICE'-PLAY; DICE'-PLAY'ER, D[=I]'CER; D[=I]'CING-HOUSE.--THE DIE IS CAST, the question is decided. [O. Fr. _det_, pl. _dez_ (Prov. _dat_, It. _dado_), from Low L. _dadus_--L. _d[=a]tus_, given or cast (_talus_, a piece of bone used in play, being understood). Doublets, _dado_, _date_.] DIE, d[=i], _n._ a stamp for impressing coin, &c.: the cubical part of a pedestal:--_pl._ DIES (d[=i]z).--_ns._ DIE'-SINK'ER; DIE'-SINK'ING, the engraving of dies; DIE'-STOCK, a contrivance for holding the dies used in screw-cutting; DIE'-WORK, ornamentation of a metal surface by impressions with a die. [See above.] DIEB, d[=e]b, _n._ a jackal of northern Africa. DIEGESIS, d[=i]-e-j[=e]'sis, _n._ (_rhet._) in an oration, the narration of the facts. [Gr.] DIELECTRIC, d[=i]-e-lek'trik, _adj._ non-conducting: transmitting electric effects without conducting.--_n._ a substance through which electric force acts. [Gr. _dia_, through, and _electric_.] DIELYTRA, d[=i]-el'i-tra, _n._ an erroneous name for _dicentra_. DIESIS, d[=i]'e-sis, _n._ (_mus._) the difference in tone between a major and a minor semitone: (_print._) the double dagger (++). DIES IRÆ, d[=i]'[=e]z [=i]'r[=e], _n._ the name given (from the opening words) to a famous hymn on the last judgment (_c._ 1250 A.D.). [L., 'day of wrath.'] DIES NON, d[=i]'[=e]z non, a day on which law courts may not be held. [From L. _dies non juridicus_, same as _dies nefastus_, an unlawful day.] DIET, d[=i]'et, _n._ mode of living, with especial reference to food: food prescribed by a physician: allowance of provisions.--_v.t._ to furnish with food.--_v.i._ to eat: to take food according to rule.--_n._ DIET[=A]'RIAN, one who observes prescribed rules for diet.--_adj._ D[=I]'ETARY, pertaining to diet or the rules of diet.--_n._ course of diet: allowance of food, esp. in large institutions.--_ns._ D[=I]'ET-DRINK, medicated liquor; D[=I]'ETER (_Shak._), one who diets or prepares food by rule.--_adjs._ DIETET'IC, -AL, pertaining to diet.--_adv._ DIETET'ICALLY.--_ns._ DIETET'ICS, rules for regulating diet; DIETET'IST, one who lays stress on diet; D[=I]'ETIST, an authority on diet. [Fr. _diète_--Low L. _diæta_--Gr. _diaita_, mode of living, diet.] DIET, d[=i]'et, _n._ an assembly of princes and delegates, the chief national council in several countries in Europe: (_Scots law_) the proceedings under a criminal libel: a clerical or ecclesiastical function in Scotland, a _diet of worship_.--_n._ D[=I]'ETINE, a minor or local diet.--DESERT THE DIET, to abandon criminal proceedings under a particular libel--in Scotch usage. [O. Fr. _diete_--Low L. _diæta_--Gr. _diaita_; or acc. to Littré, from L. _dies_, a (set) day, with which usage cf. Ger. _tag_, a day, _reichstag_.] DIFFARREATION, di-far-[=e]-[=a]'shun, _n._ the parting of a cake of spelt--a ceremony at a Roman divorce. [L.] DIFFER, dif'[.e]r, _v.i._ to be unlike, distinct, or various (used by itself, or followed by _with_, _from_, _to_): to disagree (with _from_, _with_): to fall out, dispute (_with_):--_pr.p._ diff'ering; _pa.p._ diff'ered.--_ns._ DIFF'ERENCE, DIFF'ERENCY (_Shak._), dissimilarity: the quality distinguishing one thing from another: a contention or quarrel: the point in dispute: the excess of one quantity or number over another: (_her._) the modification of an achievement of arms to indicate the wearer's relation to the head of the house, as by marks of cadency.--_v.t._ to make a difference between things.--_adj._ DIFF'ERENT, distinct: separate: unlike: not the same (with _from_, not _to_).--_n._ DIFFEREN'TIA (_logic_), the characteristic quality or attribute of a species.--_adj._ DIFFEREN'TIAL, creating a difference: special: (_math._) pertaining to a quantity or difference infinitely small (see CALCULUS).--_adv._ DIFFEREN'TIALLY.--_v.t._ DIFFEREN'TI[=A]TE, to make different: to create a difference between: to classify as different.--_v.i._ to become different by specialisation: (_math._) to obtain the differential or differential coefficient of.--_n._ DIFFERENTI[=A]'TION, the act of distinguishing or describing a thing by giving its differentia: exact definition: a change by which organs or structures become specialised or modified: (_math._) the act or process of differentiating.--_adv._ DIFF'ERENTLY.--DIFFERENTIAL GEAR, gear for communicating differential motion; DIFFERENTIAL MOTION, an apparatus by which the difference of two velocities is communicated, as in the DIFFERENTIAL SCREW, a combination of male and female screws; DIFFERENTIAL THERMOMETER, a thermometer for marking minute differences of temperature. [L. _differre_--_dif_ (= _dis_), apart, _ferre_, to bear.] DIFFICULT, dif'i-kult, _adj._ not easy: hard to be done: requiring labour and pains: hard to please: not easily persuaded.--_adv._ DIFF'ICULTLY.--_n._ DIFF'ICULTY, laboriousness: obstacle: objection: that which cannot be easily understood or believed: embarrassment of affairs: a quarrel. [The adj. was formed from _difficulty_, in place of the old form _difficile_. Fr. _difficulté_--L. _difficultas_ = _difficilitas_--_difficilis_--_dif_ (= _dis_), neg., and _facilis_, easy.] DIFFIDENT, dif'i-dent, _adj._ wanting faith in: distrustful of one's self: modest: bashful.--_n._ DIFF'IDENCE, want of confidence: want of self-reliance: modesty: bashfulness.--_adv._ DIFF'IDENTLY. [L., pr.p. of _diffid[)e]re_, to distrust--_dif_ (= _dis_), neg., _f[=i]d[)e]re_, to trust--_f[)i]des_, faith.] DIFFLUENT, dif'loo-ent, _adj._ tending to flow away readily. DIFFORM, dif'orm, _adj._ not uniform, irregular in form.--_n._ DIFFOR'MITY. DIFFRACT, dif-frakt', _v.t._ to break or separate into parts, as rays of light.--_n._ DIFFRAC'TION, a name for certain phenomena connected with light passing through a narrow opening or by the edge of an opaque body: the spreading of the rays, with interference phenomena, coloured and other.--_adj._ DIFFRAC'TIVE.--_n._ DIFFRANGIBIL'ITY.--_adj._ DIFFRAN'GIBLE. [L. _diffring[)e]re_, _diffractum_--_dis_, asunder, _frang[)e]re_, to break.] DIFFUSE, dif-[=u]z', _v.t._ to pour out all round: to send out in all directions: to scatter: to circulate: to publish.--_v.i._ to spread, as a liquid does.--_pa.p._ and _adj._ DIFFUSED', spread widely: loose.--_adv._ DIFFUS'EDLY.--_ns._ DIFFUS'EDNESS; DIFFUS'ER; DIFFUSIBIL'ITY.--_adj._ DIFFUS'IBLE, that may be diffused.--_ns._ DIFF[=U]'SION, a spreading or scattering abroad: extension: distribution: in the case of gases or liquids in contact, mixture through each other; DIFF[=U]'SION-TUBE, an instrument for determining the rate of diffusion for different gases.--_adj._ DIFFUS'IVE, extending: spreading widely.--_adv._ DIFFUS'IVELY.--_n._ DIFFUS'IVENESS. [L. _diffund[)e]re_, _diff[=u]sum_--_dif_ (= _dis_), asunder, _fund[)e]re_, to pour out.] DIFFUSE, dif-[=u]s', _adj._ diffused: widely spread: wordy: not concise.--_adv._ DIFFUSE'LY.--_n._ DIFFUSE'NESS. DIG, dig, _v.t._ to excavate: to turn up the earth: to cultivate with a spade: to poke or thrust, as one's elbow into another's side, or spurs into a horse.--_v.i._ to till the ground; to occupy one's self in digging; (_U.S. slang_) to study hard:--_pr.p._ dig'ging; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ dug, (_B._) digged.--_n._ a thrust, a poke: (_U.S. slang_) a hard student.--_adj._ DIG'GABLE, that may be dug.--_n._ DIG'GER, a person or animal that digs: a machine for digging, as a _steam-digger_.--_n.pl._ DIG'GINGS, places where mining is carried on, esp. for gold: (_slang_, orig. American) lodgings, rooms.--DIG IN, to cover over by digging: to work hard; DIG OUT (_U.S. slang_), to decamp.--DIGGER INDIANS, degraded Indian tribes of California and Nevada, who live by digging roots. [Prob. O. Fr. _diguer_, to dig; of Teut. origin.] DIGAMMA, d[=i]-gam'ma, _n._ an obsolete letter of the Greek alphabet, having the force of our W. [So called from its form ([Digamma]), like one capital [Gamma] (gamma) placed over another.] DIGAMY, dig'a-mi, _n._ a second marriage.--_n._ DIG'AMIST.--_adj._ DIG'AMOUS (_bot._), androgynous. [Gr. _dis_, twice, and _gamos_, marriage.] DIGASTRIC, d[=i]-gas'trik, _adj._ double-bellied, or fleshy at each end, as is one of the muscles of the lower jaw. [Gr. _di-_, double, _gast[=e]r_, the belly.] DIGENESIS, d[=i]-jen'e-sis, _n._ reproduction by two methods, a sexual followed by an assexual.--_adj._ DIGENET'IC. DIGEST, di-jest', _v.t._ to dissolve food in the stomach: to soften by heat and moisture: to distribute and arrange: to prepare or classify in the mind: to think over.--_v.i._ to be dissolved in the stomach: to be softened by heat and moisture.--_adv._ DIGEST'EDLY.--_n._ DIGEST'ER, one who digests: a close vessel in which by heat and pressure strong extracts are made from animal and vegetable substances.--_n._ DIGESTIBIL'ITY.--_adj._ DIGEST'IBLE, that may be digested.--_n._ DIGES'TION, the dissolving of the food in the stomach: orderly arrangement: exposing to slow heat, &c.--_adj._ DIGEST'IVE, pertaining to digestion: promoting digestion.--_adv._ DIGEST'IVELY. [L. _diger[)e]re_, _digestum_, to carry asunder or dissolve--_di_ (= _dis_), asunder, and _ger[)e]re_, to bear.] DIGEST, d[=i]'jest, _n._ a body of laws collected and arranged, esp. the Justinian code of civil laws. [L. _digesta_, neut. pl. of _digestus_, pa.p. of _diger[)e]re_, to carry apart, to arrange.] DIGHT, d[=i]t, _adj._ disposed, adorned.--_adv._ finely.--Also DIGHT'LY. [A.S. _dihtan_, to arrange, prescribe, from L. _dict[=a]re_, to dictate, whence Ger. _dichten_, to write poetry, and the Scotch verb _dight_, to dress, used of stones, flour, &c.] DIGIT, dij'it, _n._ a finger's breadth or ¾ inch: from the habit of counting on the fingers, any one of the nine numbers: the twelfth part of the diameter of the sun or moon.--_adj._ DIG'ITAL, pertaining to the fingers.--_n._ finger: a key of a piano, &c.--_ns._ DIGIT[=A]'LIA, DIG'ITALINE, DIG'ITALIN, the active principles of digitalis; DIGIT[=A]'LIS, a genus of plants, including the foxglove; DIGIT[=A]'RIA, a genus of grasses with digitate spikes.--_adjs._ DIGITATE, -D, consisting of several finger-like sections.--_adv._ DIG'ITATELY.--_n._ DIGIT[=A]'TION, finger-like arrangement: a finger-like process.--_adj._ DIGIT'IFORM, formed like fingers; DIG'ITIGRADE, walking on the toes.--_n._ an animal that walks on its toes, as the lion--opp. to _Plantigrade_.--_ns._ DIG'ITIGRADISM; DIGIT[=O]'RIUM, a small portable instrument used for making the fingers flexible for piano-playing. [L. _digitus_, a finger or toe, akin to Gr. _daktylos_.] DIGLYPH, d[=i]'glif, _n._ (_archit._) an ornament consisting of a double groove. DIGNIFY, dig'ni-f[=i], _v.t._ to invest with honour: to exalt:--_pr.p._ dig'nifying; _pa.p._ dig'nified.--_n._ DIGNIFIC[=A]'TION.--_adj._ DIG'NIFIED, marked with dignity: exalted: noble: grave. [Low L. _dignific[=a]re_--_dignus_, worthy, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] DIGNITY, dig'ni-ti, _n._ the state of being dignified: elevation of mind or character: grandeur of mien: elevation in rank, place, &c.: degree of excellence: preferment: high office: a dignitary.--_n._ DIG'NITARY, one in a dignified position or rank, esp. in the church. [Fr. _dignité_--L. _dignitas_--_dignus_, worthy.] DIGRAPH, d[=i]'graf, _n._ two letters expressing but one sound, as _ph_ in _digraph_. [Gr. _di-_, twice, _graph[=e]_, a mark, a character--_graphein_, to write.] DIGRESS, di-gres', _v.i._ to step aside or go from the main subject: to introduce irrelevant matter.--_n._ DIGRES'SION, a going from the main point: a part of a discourse not upon the main subject.--_adjs._ DIGRES'SIONAL, DIGRESS'IVE, of the nature of a digression: departing from the main subject.--_adv._ DIGRESS'IVELY. [L. _digredi_, _digressus_--_di_, aside, _gradi_, to step. See GRADE.] DIGYNIA, d[=i]-jin'i-a, _n._ an order of plants having in the flower two styles or a deeply cleft style.--_adjs._ DIGYN'IAN, DIG'YNOUS. [Gr. _dis_, twice, and _gyn[=e]_, a woman.] DIHEDRAL, d[=i]-h[=e]'dral, _adj._ having two sides, or two plane faces--also DI[=E]'DRAL.--_n._ DIH[=E]'DRON. [Gr. _di-_, two, _hedra_, a seat.] DIHEXAGONAL, d[=i]-heks-ag'[=o]-nal, _adj._ twelve-sided. DIHEXAHEDRAL, d[=i]-heks-a-h[=e]'dral, _adj._ pertaining to a six-sided prism having three planes on the extremities.--_n._ DIHEXAH[=E]'DRON. DIJUDICATE, d[=i]-j[=oo]'di-k[=a]t, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to judge between two: to decide.--_n._ DIJUDIC[=A]'TION. [L. _di_, asunder, and _judic[=a]re_, judge.] DIKE, d[=i]k, _n._ a trench, or the earth dug out and thrown up: a ditch: a mound raised to prevent inundation: in Scotland, a wall (_Dry-stane dike_, a wall without mortar; _Fail-dike_, a wall of turf), sometimes even a thorn-hedge: (_geol._) a wall-like mass of igneous rock in the fissures of stratified rocks.--_v.t._ to surround with a dike or bank. [A.S. _díc_; Dut. _dijk_, Ger. _teich_, a pond; perh. conn. with Gr. _teichos_, a wall or rampart. See DIG, _Ditch_.] DILACERATE, di-las'[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.t._ to rend or tear asunder.--_n._ DILACER[=A]'TION. [L. _di_, asunder, and _lacerate_.] DILAPIDATE, di-lap'i-d[=a]t, _v.t._ to pull stone from stone: to lay waste: to suffer to go to ruin.--_adj._ DILAP'IDATED, in ruins.--_ns._ DILAPID[=A]'TION, the state of ruin: impairing of church property during an incumbency: (_pl._) money paid at the end of an incumbency by the incumbent or his heirs for the purpose of putting the parsonage, &c. in good repair for the succeeding incumbent; DILAP'IDATOR. [L. _dilapid[=a]re_--_di_, asunder, _lapis_, _lapidis_, a stone.] DILATE, di-l[=a]t', _v.t._ to spread out in all directions: to enlarge: the opposite of _contract_.--_v.i._ to widen: to swell out: to speak at length.--_ns._ DIL[=A]TABIL'ITY, DIL[=A]T'ANCY, DILAT[=A]'TION, DIL[=A]'TION, expansion.--_adjs._ DIL[=A]T'ABLE, that may be dilated or expanded; DIL[=A]'TANT.--_ns._ D[=I]'LAT[=A]TOR, DIL[=A]T'OR, DIL[=A]T'ER.--_adj._ DIL[=A]T'IVE. [L. _dilatus_ (used as pa.p. of _differre_), from _di_ (= _dis_), apart, and _latus_, borne.] DILATORY, dil'a-tor-i, _adj._ slow: given to procrastination: loitering: tending to delay.--_adv._ DIL'ATORILY.--_n._ DIL'ATORINESS. [L. _dilatorius_, extending or putting off (time). See DILATE.] DILEMMA, di-lem'a, _n._ a form of argument in which the maintainer of a certain proposition is committed to accept one of two alternative propositions each of which contradicts his original contention: a position where each of two alternative courses (or of all the feasible courses) is eminently undesirable: a trying practical difficulty. The argument was called a 'horned syllogism,' and the victim compared to a man certain to be impaled on one or other of the horns of an infuriated bull, hence the HORNS OF A DILEMMA: the usual phrase LANDED IN A DILEMMA is, or suggests, a mixed metaphor.--_adj._ DILEMMAT'IC. [L.,--Gr. _dil[=e]mma_--_di-_, twice, double, _l[=e]mma_, an assumption--_lambanein_, to take.] DILETTANTE, dil-et-an'te, _n._ one who loves the fine arts, but in a superficial way and without serious purpose (the _amateur_ usually practises them): a dabbler in art, science, or literature:--_pl._ DILETTAN'TI ('T[=E]).--_adj._ DILETTAN'TISH.--_ns._ DILETTAN'TISM, DILETTAN'TEISM. [It., pr.p. of _dilettare_, to take delight in--L. _delect[=a]re_, to delight.] DILIGENT, dil'i-jent, _adj._ steady and earnest in application: industrious.--_n._ DIL'IGENCE, steady application: industry: (_Scots law_) a warrant to produce witnesses, books, &c., or a process by which persons or goods are attached: a French or continental stage-coach (also pronounced d[=e]-l[=e]-zhongs)--also DILL'Y.--_adv._ DIL'IGENTLY. [Fr.,--_diligens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of L. _dilig[)e]re_, to choose.] DILL, dil, _n._ an umbelliferous annual, the seeds used in medicine.--_n._ DILL'-WA'TER, a stomachic and carminative. [A.S. _dile_; Ger. and Sw. _dill_.] DILLING, dil'ing, _n._ a darling: the youngest child, the weakling of a litter. DILLY-BAG, dil'i-bag, _n._ an Australian native-made rush or bark-bag.--Also DILL'I, DILL'Y. DILLY-DALLY, dil'i-dal'i, _v.i._ to loiter, trifle. [A kind of reduplication of _dally_. Cf. SHILLY-SHALLY.] DILOGY, dil'[=o]-ji, _n._ repetition: intentional ambiguity.--_adj._ DILOG'ICAL. DILUCIDATE, di-l[=u]'si-d[=a]t, _v.t._ (_obs._) to elucidate.--_adj._ DIL[=U]'CID.--_n._ DILUCID[=A]'TION. DILUTE, dil-[=u]t', _v.t._ to make thinner or more liquid: to diminish the strength, flavour, &c. of, by mixing, esp. with water.--_v.i._ to become mixed.--_adj._ diminished in strength by mixing with water.--_adj._ DIL'UENT, diluting.--_n._ that which dilutes.--_ns._ DILUTE'NESS; DIL[=U]'TION. [L. _dilu[)e]re_, _dil[=u]tum_--_di_, away from, _lu[)e]re_, to wash.] DILUVIUM, dil-[=u]'vi-um, _n._ an inundation or flood: (_geol._) a deposit of sand, gravel, &c. made by extraordinary currents of water--also DIL[=U]'VION.--_adjs._ DIL[=U]'VIAL, DIL[=U]'VIAN, pertaining to a flood, esp. that in the time of Noah: caused by a deluge: composed of diluvium.--_n._ DIL[=U]'VIALIST, one who explains geological phenomena by the Flood. [L. _diluvium_--_dilu[)e]re_.] DIM, dim, _adj._ not bright or distinct: obscure: mysterious: not seeing clearly.--_v.t._ to make dark: to obscure.--_v.i._ to become dim:--_pr.p._ dim'ming; _pa.p._ dimmed.--_adv._ DIM'LY.--_adj._ DIM'MISH, somewhat dim.--_n._ DIM'NESS. [A.S. _dim_; akin to Ice. _dimmr_, dark, and Ger. _dämmerung_, twilight.] DIME, d[=i]m, _n._ the tenth part of an American dollar, 10 cents, nearly equal to 5d.--DIME MUSEUM, a cheap show; DIME NOVEL, a cheap novel, usually sensational. [Fr., orig. _disme_, from L. _decima_ (_pars_, a part, being understood), a tenth part.] DIMENSION, di-men'shun, _n._ usually in _pl._, measure in length, breadth, and thickness (the three dimensions of space): extent: size.--_adjs._ DIMEN'SIONAL, concerning dimension (one-dimensional, two-dimensional, three-dimensional space = space of one, two, three dimensions); DIMEN'SIONED, having dimension; DIMEN'SIONLESS.--DIMENSION WORK, masonry in stones of specified size.--FOURTH DIMENSION, an additional dimension attributed to space by a hypothetical speculation. [Fr.,--L. _dimensio_--_dimet[=i]ri_, _dimensus_--_di_(= _dis_), apart, _met[=i]ri_, to measure.] DIMEROUS, dim'e-rus, _adj._ consisting of two parts: (_bot._) with two members in each whorl: (_entom._) having two-jointed tarsi.--_n._ DIM'ERISM. [Gr., _di-_, double, _meros_, a part.] DIMETER, dim'e-t[.e]r, _adj._ containing two metres or measures.--_n._ a verse of two measures. [L.,--Gr. _dimetros_--_di-_, twice, _metron_, a measure.] DIMETHYLANILINE, di-meth-il-an'i-lin, _n._ an oily liquid: aniline heated with methyl alcohol and hydrochloric acid--from which dyes are obtained. [L. _di-_, twice, _methyl_, and _aniline_.] DIMETRIC, d[=i]-met'rik, _adj._ (_crystal._) tetragonal. DIMIDIATE, di-mid'i-[=a]t, _adj._ divided into halves: having a shape that appears as if halved.--_v.t._ (_her._) to represent the half of.--_n._ DIMIDI[=A]'TION. [L. _dimidi[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to halve--_dimidius_; half--_dis_, twice, _medius_, the middle.] DIMINISH, di-min'ish, _v.t._ to make less: to take a part from: to degrade.--_v.i._ to grow or appear less: to subside.--_adj._ DIMIN'ISHABLE.--_p.adj._ DIMIN'ISHED, made smaller, humbled: (_mus._) lessened by a half-step, as an interval.--_adv._ DIMIN'ISHINGLY. [Coined by adding _di_ to the word _minish_, an imitation of L. _diminu[)e]re_--_di_ = _dis_, apart, _minu[)e]re_, to make less.] DIMINUENDO, di-min-[=u]-en'd[=o], _adv._ (_mus._) a direction to let the sound die away, marked thus [Diminuendo symbol]. [It.,--L. _diminuendus_, fut. part. pass. of _diminu[)e]re_, _dimin[=u]tum_, to lessen.] DIMINUTION, dim-in-[=u]'shun, _n._ a lessening: degradation.--_adj._ DIMIN'UTIVE, of a diminished size: small: contracted.--_n._ (_gram._) a word formed from another to express a little one of the kind.--_adv._ DIMIN'UTIVELY.--_n._ DIMIN'UTIVENESS. DIMISSORY, dim'is-or-i, _adj._ sending away or giving leave to depart to another jurisdiction. [L. _dimissorius_--_dimitt[)e]re_, _dimissum_.] DIMITY, dim'i-ti, _n._ a kind of stout white cotton cloth, striped or figured in the loom by weaving with two threads. [Through the L., from Gr. _dimitos_--_di-_, twice, _mitos_, a thread.] DIMORPHISM, d[=i]-mor'fizm, _n._ (_bot._) a state in which two forms of flower, leaf, &c. are produced by the same species of plant: the property of crystallising in two forms.--_adjs._ DIMOR'PHIC, DIMOR'PHOUS. [Gr. _di-_, twice, _morph[=e]_, form.] DIMPLE, dim'pl, _n._ a small hollow: a small natural depression on the face.--_v.i._ to form dimples.--_v.t._ to mark with dimples.--_p.adj._ DIM'PLED.--_n._ DIM'PLEMENT.--_adj._ DIM'PLY. [Dim. of _dip_, with inserted _m_. Another dim. is _dapple_.] DIMYARIAN, dim-i-[=a]'ri-an, _adj._ double-muscled (of bivalve shells like the clam)--also DIM'YARY.--_n.pl._ DIMY[=A]'RIA. [Gr. _di-_, two, _mys_, a muscle.] DIN, din, _n._ a loud continued noise.--_v.t._ to assail (the ears) with noise: to annoy with clamour: to obtrude noisily (as to din one's complaints into their ears):--_pr.p._ din'ning; _pa.p._ dinned.--_adj._ DIN'FUL. [A.S. _dyn_, _dyne_; cf. Ice. _dynr_, Dan. _dön_, noise.] DINANDERIE, d[=e]-nong'de-r[=e], _n._ domestic utensils of copper, esp. such as are quaint and artistic--applied also to Indian and Levantine brass-ware. [Fr., from _Dinant_ in Belgium.] DINAR, d[=e]-när', _n._ an ancient Arab gold coin of 65 grains weight. [L. _denarius_.] DINARCHY. See DIARCHY. DINDLE. See DINNLE. DINE, d[=i]n, _v.i._ to take dinner.--_v.t._ to give a dinner to.--_n._ (_obs._) dinner-time.--_ns._ DIN'ER-OUT, one who goes much to dinner-parties; DINETTE', a preliminary dinner, luncheon; DIN'ING-HALL; DIN'ING-ROOM; DIN'ING-T[=A]'BLE.--DINE OUT, to dine elsewhere than at home; DINE WITH DUKE HUMPHREY, to go without a meal, like those who, unable to procure a dinner, loitered about Duke Humphrey's Walk in Old St Paul's. [O. Fr. _disner_ (Fr. _dîner_)--Low L. _disjun[=a]re_, for _disjejun[=a]re_, to break one's fast--L. _dis-_, and _jejunus_, fasting (cf. _Déjeuner_). Others explain _disnare_ as from _decen[=a]re_--L. _de_, inten., and _cen[=a]re_, to dine.] DING, ding, _v.t._ to throw, dash, or hurl: to beat: (_arch._) to urge or enforce: (_Scot._) to defeat, non-plus--also, as _v.i._, to be defeated: to descend, fall, as of continued heavy rain or snow falling.--DING DOUN (_Scot._), to knock or throw down. [M. E. _dingen_; cf. Ice. _dengja_, Sw. _dänga_, to bang.] DING, ding, _v.i._ to ring, keep sounding.--_v.t._ to reiterate to a wearisome degree.--_n._ DING'-DONG, the sound of bells ringing: monotony: sameness. [Imit. Cf. RING.] DINGLE, ding'gl, _n._ a little hollow or narrow valley. [Prob. conn. with _dimple_ and _dip_.] DINGLE-DANGLE, ding'gl-dang'gl, _adv._ hanging loose: swinging backwards and forwards. [A duplication of DANGLE.] DINGO, ding'g[=o], _n._ the native dog of Australia. DINGY, DINGEY, ding'gi, _n._ the smallest ship's boat: in India, a canoe. [Beng. _ding[=i]_, a boat.] DINGY, din'ji, _adj._ of a dim or dark colour: dull: soiled.--_n._ DIN'GINESS. [Acc. to Skeat = _dungy_.] DINIC, din'ik, _adj._ relating to vertigo or dizziness.--_n._ a remedy for dizziness. [Gr. _dinos_, whirling.] DINK, dingk, _adj._ (_Scot._) braw, trim.--_v.t._ to dress neatly. DINMONT, din'mont, _n._ a Border name for a wether between the first and second shearing. DINNER, din'[.e]r, _n._ the chief meal of the day: a feast.--_ns._ DINNERETTE', a little dinner; DINN'ER-HOUR.--_adj._ DINN'ERLESS.--_ns._ DINN'ER-T[=A]'BLE; DINN'ER-TIME; DINN'ER-WAG'ON, a set of light movable shelves for a dining-room. [O. Fr. _disner_, prop. breakfast. See DINE.] DINNLE, din'l, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to tingle.--_n._ a thrill.--Also DIN'DLE. DINOCERAS, d[=i]-nos'er-as, _n._ an extinct genus of mammals found in Wyoming, approaching the elephant in size, and named from three pairs of osseous protuberances on the skull. [Formed from Gr. _deinos_, terrible, _keras_, horn.] DINORNIS, d[=i]-nor'nis, _n._ a genus of large extinct birds, the bones of which are found in New Zealand. [Formed from Gr. _deinos_, terrible, and _ornis_, a bird.] DINOSAUR, d[=i]'no-sawr, _n._ a gigantic extinct reptile, which attained a length of eighty feet. [Formed from Gr. _deinos_, terrible, and _sauros_, lizard.] DINOTHERIUM, d[=i]-no-th[=e]'ri-um, _n._ an extinct animal of huge size, with elephant-like tusks and trunk. [Gr. _deinos_, terrible, _th[=e]rion_, a beast.] DINT, dint, _n._ a blow or stroke: the mark of a blow (often DENT): force: power (as in 'by dint of').--_v.t._ to make a dint in. [A.S. _dynt_, a blow; Scot. _dunt_, a blow with a dull sound, Ice. _dyntr_.] DIOCESE, d[=i]'[=o]-s[=e]s, _n._ the circuit or extent of a bishop's jurisdiction.--_adj._ DIOCESAN (d[=i]-os'es-an, or d[=i]'[=o]-s[=e]-san), pertaining to a diocese.--_n._ a bishop as regards his diocese: one of the clergy in the diocese. [Through Fr. and L. from Gr. _dioik[=e]sis_, _dioikein_, to keep house--_di_, for _dia_, sig. completeness, _oikein_, to manage a household--_oikos_, a house.] DIODON, d[=i]'o-don, _n._ a genus of globe-fishes which have all their teeth consolidated on the jaws, so as to make them like the beak of a bird. [Gr. _dis_, twice, double, _odous_, _odontos_, a tooth.] DIOECIA, d[=i]-[=e]'shi-a, _n._ a class of plants having the stamens on one plant and the pistils on another.--_adjs._ DIOE'CIOUS, DIOE'CIAN.--_adv._ DIOE'CIOUSLY.--_n._ DIOE'CIOUSNESS. [Gr. _di-_, twice, _oikos_, a house.] DIOGENIC, d[=i]-o-jen'ik, _adj._ resembling the Cynic philosopher _Diogenes_ (412-323 B.C.), cynical. DIONÆA, d[=i]-[=o]-n[=e]'a, _n._ Venus's fly-trap: an American insectivorous plant. [L., from Gr., a name of Aphrodite or Venus, from her mother _Di[=o]n[=e]_.] DIONYSIA, d[=i]-o-niz'i-a, _n.pl._ dramatic and orgiastic festivals in honour of _Dionysus_ (Bacchus), god of wine.--_adjs._ DIONYS'IAC, DIONYS'IAN. DIOPHANTINE, d[=i]-o-fan't[=i]n, _adj._ pertaining to the Alexandrian mathematician _Diophantus_ (c. 275 A.D.).--DIOPHANTINE ANALYSIS, the part of algebra which treats of finding particular rational values for general expressions under a surd form. DIOPSIDE, d[=i]-op'sid, _n._ a grayish and readily cleavable variety of pyroxene. [Gr., _dia_, through, _opsis_, a view.] DIOPSIS, d[=i]-op'sis, _n._ a genus of dipterous insects, of the fly family. DIOPTASE, d[=i]-op't[=a]s, _n._ emerald copper ore. DIOPTRATE, d[=i]-op'tr[=a]t, _adj._ (_entom._) divided transversely. [Illustration] DIOPTRIC, -AL, d[=i]-op'trik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to dioptrics.--_ns._ DIOP'TER, an ancient form of theodolite: the index-arm of a graduated circle; DIOP'TRICS, the part of optics which treats of the transmission of light from one medium to another.--DIOPTRIC SYSTEM, in lighthouses (as opposed to _reflecting system_), illumination from a central lamp whose rays are transmitted through a combination of lenses. [Gr. _dia_, through, _opt-_, as in _opsesthai_, to see, &c.] DIORAMA, d[=i]-[=o]-rä'ma, _n._ an exhibition of pictures, illuminated, and viewed through an opening in the wall of a darkened chamber.--_adj._ DIORAM'IC. [Gr. _dia_, through, _horama_, a sight.] DIORISM, d[=i]'[=o]-rizm, _n._ distinction, definition.--_adjs._ DIORIS'TIC, -AL.--_adv._ DIORIS'TICALLY. [Gr. _diorizein_, to divide, _dia_, through, _horos_, a boundary.] DIORITE, d[=i]'o-r[=i]t, _n._ a crystalline granular igneous rock composed of feldspar and hornblende. [Gr. _diorizein_, to distinguish--_dia_, through, _horos_, a boundary.] DIORTHOSIS, d[=i]-or-th[=o]'sis, _n._ (_surg._) the reduction of a dislocation, the correction of a deformity: a critical revision of a text.--_adj._ DIORTHROT'IC. [Gr., _dia_, through, _orthos_, straight.] DIOSCOREA, di-os-k[=o]r'e-a, _n._ a genus of twining plants, containing the yams.--_n._ DIOSCOR[=A]'CEÆ, the order to which Dioscorea belongs.--_adj._ DIOSCOR[=A]'CEOUS. [From the 1st-cent. Greek physician _Dioscorides_.] DIOSCURI, di-os-k[=u]'ri, _n.pl._ Castor and Pollux, as sons of Jupiter. [Gr. _Dios_, gen. of Zeus (Jupiter), and _koros_ (Ion. _kouros_), a son, a lad.] DIOSMOSIS, d[=i]-oz-m[=o]'zis, _n._ the transfusion of a liquid through a membrane.--Also DIOS'MOSE. [Gr. _dia_, through, _[=o]smos_, a pushing--_[=o]thein_, to thrust.] DIOTA, d[=i]-[=o]'ta, _n._ a two-handled Roman vase. DIOTHELISM, d[=i]-oth'e-lizm, _n._ the doctrine that Christ during His life on earth possessed two wills, a human and a divine--opp. to _Monothelism_--also DYOTH'ELISM.--_n._ DIOTH'ELITE, one who holds this. DIOXIDE, d[=i]-oks'[=i]d, _n._ an oxide containing two equivalents of oxygen to one of a metal. [Gr. _di-_, twice, and _oxide_.] DIP, dip, _v.t._ to dive or plunge into any liquid for a moment: to lower and raise again (as a flag): to baptise by immersion.--_v.i._ to sink: to enter slightly: to look cursorily: to incline downwards:--_pr.p._ dip'ping; _pa.p._ dipped.--_n._ inclination downwards: a sloping: (_geol._) the angle a stratum of rock makes with a horizontal plane: a bath: a candle made by dipping a wick in tallow.--DIP OF THE HORIZON, the angle of the horizon below the level of the eye; DIP OF THE NEEDLE, the angle a balanced magnetic needle makes with the plane of the horizon, measured by the DIPPING NEEDLE, or _Compass_. [A.S. _dyppan_, causal of _dýpan_, to plunge in--_deóp_, deep; cf. Dan. _dyppe_; Ger. _taufen_, to immerse.] DIPCHICK, dip'chik, _n._ Same as DABCHICK. DIPETALOUS, d[=i]-pet'a-lus, _adj._ having two petals. [Gr. _di-_, twice, and _petal_.] DIPHTHERIA, dif-th[=e]'ri-a, _n._ a throat disease in which the air-passages become covered and impeded with a leathery membrane, and a dangerous fever is present.--_adj._ DIPHTHERIT'IC. [A coinage of 1859 from Gr. _diphthera_, leather.] DIPHTHONG, dif'thong, or dip'thong, _n._ two vowel-sounds pronounced as one syllable.--_adj._ DIPHTHONG'AL, relating to a diphthong.--_adv._ DIPHTHONG'ALLY.--_n._ DIPHTHONG[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ DIPH'THONGISE. [Through Fr. from Gr. _diphthongos_, with two sounds--_di-_, twice, _phthongos_, sound.] DIPHYCERCAL, dif-i-ser'kal, _adj._ having the tail symmetrical (of fishes).--Also DIPH'YCERC. [Formed from Gr. _diphy[=e]s_, of double nature, _kerkos_, a tail.] DIPHYLLOUS, d[=i]-fil'us, _adj._ having two leaves. [Gr. _di-_, twice, and _phyllon_, a leaf.] DIPHYODONT, dif'i-[=o]-dont, _adj._ having two sets of teeth.--_n._ a mammal possessing such. DIPHYSITE, dif'i-s[=i]t, _n._ one who holds the doctrine of DIPH'YSITISM, or the belief of the existence of two natures in Christ, a divine and a human--opp. to _Monophysite_; less correctly DIOPH'YSITE, DIOPHYS'ITISM. [Gr. _di-_, two, _physis_, nature.] DIPLEIDOSCOPE, di-pl[=i]'d[=o]-sk[=o]p, _n._ an instrument for ascertaining the moment of passage of the sun or a star over the meridian. [Formed from Gr. _diploos_, double, _eidos_, appearance, _skopein_, to view.] DIPLEX, d[=i]'pleks, _adj._ pertaining to the transmission of two simultaneous messages over one wire in the same direction. DIPLOE, dip'l[=o]-[=e], _n._ (_anat._) the spongy tissue between the hard inner and outer tables of the skull. DIPLOGENIC, dip-l[=o]-jen'ik, _adj._ producing two bodies.--_n._ DIPLOGEN'ESIS, the production in duplicate of parts normally single. [Gr. _diploos_, double, _genesis_, generation.] DIPLOMA, di-pl[=o]'ma, _n._ a writing conferring some honour or privilege, as a university degree, &c.--_v.t._ to furnish with a diploma. [L.,--Gr. _dipl[=o]ma_, a letter folded double--_diploos_, double.] DIPLOMACY, di-pl[=o]'ma-si, _n._ the art of negotiation, esp. of treaties between states: political skill.--_n._ DIPLOMAT'IC, a minister at a foreign court: (_pl._) the science of deciphering ancient writings, as charters, decrees, &c.--paleography.--_adjs._ DIPLOMAT'IC, -AL, pertaining to diplomacy: skilful in negotiation.--_adv._ DIPLOMAT'ICALLY.--_v.i._ and _v.t._ DIPL[=O]'MATISE, to practise, or effect by, diplomacy.--_ns._ DIPL[=O]'MATIST, DIP'L[=O]MAT, one skilled in diplomacy; DIPLOMATOL'OGY, the study or science of diplomatics, charters, decrees, &c.--DIPLOMATIC CORPS, or _Corps diplomatique_, the whole body of foreign diplomatists resident at any court. DIPLOPIA, dip'-l[=o]'pi-a, _n._ double vision. DIPLOZOON, dip-l[=o]-z[=o]'on, _n._ a remarkable flat worm or Trematode, consisting of two organisms fused together. [Gr. _diploos_, double, _z[=o]on_, an animal.] DIPNOI, dip'noi, _n.pl._ the lung fishes.--_adj._ DIP'NOOUS, having both lungs and gills. DIPODY, dip'o-di, _n._ (_pros._) a double foot. DIPOLAR, d[=i]-p[=o]'lar, _adj._ having two poles. DIPPER, dip'[.e]r, _n._ a genus of birds in the Thrush family that find their food by diving into streams or lakes: a kind of Baptist or Dunker. DIPRISMATIC, d[=i]-priz-mat'ik, _adj._ doubly prismatic. DIPSACUS, dip'sa-kus, _n._ the teasel. [Gr. _dipsa_, thirst, because the leaf-axils hold water.] DIPSAS, dip'sas, _n._ a snake whose bite was believed to cause intense thirst: a genus of non-venomous snakes. [Gr. _dipsas_--_dipsa_, thirst.] DIPSECTOR, dip'sekt-or, _n._ an instrument for observing the dip of the horizon. [_Dip_ and _sector_.] DIPSOMANIA, dip-s[=o]-m[=a]'ni-a, _n._ a morbid craving for alcoholic stimulants.--_ns._ DIPSOM[=A]'NIAC, one who suffers from the foregoing; DIPSOP'ATHY, treatment by restricting a patient's drink; DIPS[=O]'SIS, morbid thirst. [Gr. _dipsa_, thirst, and _mania_, madness.] DIPTERA, dip'ter-a, _n.pl._ two-winged insects or flies.--_ns._ DIP'TERAN, a dipterous insect; DIP'TEROS, a building with double peristyle or colonnade.--_adjs._ DIP'TEROUS, DIP'TERAL. [Gr. _dipteros_, two-winged, _di-_, twice, _pteron_, a wing.] DIPTYCH, dip'tik, _n._ a double-folding writing-tablet: a register of bishops, saints, &c. read aloud during the eucharist: a pair of pictures as folding-tablets. [Gr. _diptychos_--_di-_, and _ptyssein_, to fold.] DIRDUM, dir'dum, _n._ (_Scot._) uproar: a scolding. DIRE, d[=i]r, _adj._ dreadful: calamitous in a high degree--(_poet._) DIRE'FUL.--_adv._ DIRE'FULLY.--_n._ DIRE'FULNESS. [L. _dirus_; cf. Gr. _deinos_, frightful.] DIRECT, di-rekt', _adj._ quite straight: straightforward: in the line of descent: outspoken: sincere: unambiguous: unsophisticated in manner.--_v.t._ to keep or lay quite straight: to point or aim straightly or correctly: to point out the proper course to: to guide: to order: to mark with the name and residence of a person.--_v.i._ to act as director.--_n._ DIREC'TION, aim at a certain point: the line of course in which anything moves: guidance: command: the body of persons who guide or manage a matter: the written name and residence of a person.--_adjs._ DIREC'TIONAL; DIRECT'IVE, having power or tendency to direct.--_adv._ DIRECT'LY, in a direct manner: without intermediary: immediately (in time and otherwise).--_ns._ DIRECT'NESS; DIRECT'OR, one who directs: a manager or governor: a counsellor: a father confessor or spiritual guide: part of a machine or instrument which guides its motion:--_fem._ DIRECT'RESS, DIRECT'RIX.--_ns._ DIRECT'OR[=A]TE, DIRECT'ORSHIP, the office, or a body of, directors.--_adjs._ DIRECT[=O]'RIAL; DIRECT'ORY, containing directions: guiding.--_n._ a body of directions: a guide: a book with the names and residences of the inhabitants of a place: a body of directors: the _Directoire_, or French Republican government of 1795-99.--_n._ DIRECT'RIX, a line serving to describe a circle. [L. _dirig[)e]re_, _directum_--_di_, apart, and _reg[)e]re_, to rule, to make straight.] DIRGE, d[.e]rj, _n._ a funeral song or hymn. [Contracted from _dirige_, the first word of an antiphon sung in the office for the dead--the words from the Vulgate, Psalm v. 8. L. _dirig[)e]re_, to direct.] DIRHEM, dir'hem, _n._ an oriental weight and silver coin, originally two-thirds of an Attic drachma.--Also DIR'HAM, DER'HAM. [Ar., Pers., and Turk. modifications of the Greek _drachm[=e]_, a drachma or dram.] DIRIGIBLE, dir'i-ji-bl, _adj._ that can be directed.--_adj._ DIR'IGENT, directing. [See DIRECT.] DIRIMENT, dir'i-ment, _adj._ nullifying. [L. _dirim[)e]re_.] DIRK, d[.e]rk, _n._ a Highland dagger or poniard: a side-arm worn by midshipmen and cadets of the royal navy.--_v.t._ to stab with a dirk. [Scot. _durk_; from the Celt., as in Ir. _duirc_.] DIRK, d[.e]rk, _adj._ (_Spens._) dark.--_v.t._ (_Spens._) to darken. [See DARK.] DIRL, dirl, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to thrill, vibrate.--_n._ a vibration, a sensation of tingling as after a blow. DIRT, d[.e]rt, _n._ any filthy substance, such as dung, mud, &c.: loose earth.--_v.t._ to make dirty.--_n._ DIRT'-BED, a quarryman's term for several layers in the Purbeck group.--_adj._ DIRT'-CHEAP, cheap as dirt, very cheap.--_n._ DIRT'-EATING, a practice of using some kinds of clay for food, as among the Ottomacs of South America: a morbid impulse to eat dirt, amongst negroes (_Cachexia Africana_) and pregnant women.--_adv._ DIRT'ILY.--_ns._ DIRT'INESS; DIRT'-PIE, clay moulded by children's hands in the form of a pie.--_adjs._ DIRT'-ROTTEN (_Shak._), wholly decayed; DIRT'Y, foul, filthy: unclean in thought or conversation: despicable: mean.--_v.t._ to soil with dirt: to sully:--_pr.p._ dirt'ying; _pa.p._ dirt'ied.--EAT DIRT, submissively to acquiesce in a humiliation; THROW DIRT AT, to abuse scurrilously or slanderously. [M. E. _drit_--Scand., Ice. _drit_, excrement.] DIS, dis, _n._ a name for Pluto, sometimes the infernal world. [L., cog. with _deus_, _divus_.] DISABLE, dis-[=a]'bl, _v.t._ to deprive of power: to weaken: to disqualify.--_ns._ DIS[=A]'BLEMENT, DISABIL'ITY, want of power; want of legal qualification: disqualification. DISABUSE, dis-ab-[=u]z', _v.t._ to undeceive: to set right. DISACCOMMODATE, dis-a-kom'[=o]-d[=a]t, _v.t._ to put to inconvenience.--_n._ DISACCOMMOD[=A]'TION. DISACCORD, dis-ak-kord', _v.i._ (_Spens._) to refuse to accord, to dissent.--_adj._ DISACCORD'ANT. DISACCUSTOM, dis-a-kus'tom, _v.t._ to make a habit to be lost through disuse. DISACKNOWLEDGE, dis-ak-nol'ej, _v.t._ to refuse to acknowledge, disown. DISADORN, dis-a-dorn', _v.t._ to deprive of ornaments. DISADVANCE, dis-ad-vans', _v.t._ to cause to retreat: (_Spens._) to draw back. DISADVANTAGE, dis-ad-vant'[=a]j, _n._ want of advantage: what is unfavourable to one's interest: loss: injury.--_adjs._ DISADVAN'TAGEABLE (_obs._); DISADVANT[=A]'GEOUS, attended with disadvantage: unfavourable.--_adv._ DISADVANT[=A]'GEOUSLY.--_n._ DISADVANT[=A]'GEOUSNESS. DISADVENTUROUS, dis-ad-ven't[=u]r-us, _adj._ unfortunate.--_ns._ DISADVEN'TURE, DISAVEN'TURE (_Spens._), a mishap.--_adj._ DISAVEN'TROUS (_Spens._), unfortunate. DISAFFECT, dis-af-fekt', _v.t._ to take away the affection of: to make discontented or unfriendly.--_pa.p._ and _adj._ DISAFFECT'ED, ill-disposed, disloyal.--_adv._ DISAFFECT'EDLY.--_ns._ DISAFFECT'EDNESS, DISAFFEC'TION, state of being disaffected: want of affection or friendliness: disloyalty: hostility: ill-will.--_adj._ DISAFFEC'TIONATE. DISAFFIRM, dis-af-f[.e]rm', _v.t._ to deny (what has been affirmed): to contradict.--_ns._ DISAFFIRM'ANCE, DISAFFIRMA'TION. DISAFFOREST, dis-af-for'est, _v.t._ to deprive of the privilege of forest laws: to bring into the condition of common land.--_ns._ DISAFFOREST[=A]'TION, DISAFFOR'ESTMENT (see DISFOREST). [L. _dis_, neg., and Low L. _afforest[=a]re_, to make into a forest. See FOREST.] DISAGGREGATE, dis-ag'greg-[=a]t, _v.t._ to separate into component parts.--_n._ DISAGGREG[=A]'TION. DISAGREE, dis-a-gr[=e]', _v.i._ to differ or be at variance: to dissent: to quarrel: to prove unsuitable or a source of annoyance, as of food disagreeing with the stomach.--_adj._ DISAGREE'ABLE, not agreeable: unpleasant: offensive.--_ns._ DISAGREE'ABLENESS, DISAGREEABIL'ITY.--_n.pl._ DISAGREE'ABLES, annoyances.--_adv._ DISAGREE'ABLY.--_n._ DISAGREE'MENT, want of agreement: difference: unsuitableness: dispute. DISALLOW, dis-al-low', _v.t._ not to allow: to refuse permission to: to deny the authority of: to reject.--_adj._ DISALLOW'ABLE.--_n._ DISALLOW'ANCE. DISALLY, dis-al-l[=i]', _v.t._ to break the alliance of: (_Milt._) to separate, sunder. DISANCHOR, dis-angk'ur, _v.t._ to free from the anchor.--_v.i._ to weigh anchor. DISANIMATE, dis-an'i-m[=a]t, _v.t._ to deprive of spirit or animation: (_Shak._) to deject. DISANNEX, dis-a-neks', _v.t._ to disjoin. DISANNUL, dis-an-nul', _v.t._ to annul completely.--_ns._ DISANNUL'LER; DISANNUL'MENT, DISANNUL'LING. DISANOINT, dis-a-noint', _v.t._ to undo the anointing or consecration of. DISAPPARAL, dis-ap-par'el, _v.t._ to disrobe. DISAPPEAR, dis-ap-p[=e]r', _v.i._ to vanish from sight.--_n._ DISAPPEAR'ANCE, a ceasing to appear: removal from sight, flight, secret withdrawal. DISAPPOINT, dis-ap-point', _v.t._ to frustrate of what is appointed: to deprive one of what he expected.--_p.adjs._ DISAPPOINT'ED, balked: frustrated: (_Shak._) unprepared or ill-prepared; DISAPPOINT'ING, causing disappointment.--_n._ DISAPPOINT'MENT, the defeat of one's hopes: frustration: the vexation accompanying failure. [O. Fr. _desapointer_--_des_ = L. _dis_, away, and _apointer_, to appoint. See APPOINT.] DISAPPROBATION, dis-ap-prob-[=a]'shun, _n._ censure: dislike.--_adjs._ DISAP'PROB[=A]TIVE, DISAP'PROB[=A]TRY. DISAPPROPRIATE, dis-ap-pr[=o]'pri-[=a]t, _v.t._ to take away from that to which anything has been appropriated.--_adj._ deprived of appropriation. DISAPPROVE, dis-a-pr[=oo]v', _v.t._ to give an unfavourable opinion of, to regard as bad or blameworthy (usually followed with _of_): to reject.--_n._ DISAPPROV'AL.--_adv._ DISAPPROV'INGLY. DISARM, diz-ärm', _v.t._ to deprive of arms: to render defenceless: to quell: to deprive of the power to hurt: to reduce to a peace footing.--_v.i._ to disband troops, reduce national armaments to a peace footing.--_n._ DISARM'AMENT. [O. Fr. _desarmer_, _des_--L. _dis-_, neg., _armer_, to arm.] DISARRANGE, dis-ar-r[=a]nj', _v.t._ to undo the arrangement of: to disorder: to derange.--_n._ DISARRANGE'MENT. DISARRAY, dis-ar-r[=a]', _v.t._ to break the array of: to throw into disorder: to strip of array or dress.--_n._ want of array or order: undress. [O. Fr. _desarroi_, _des_--L. _dis_, away, _arroi_. See ARRAY.] DISARTICULATE, dis-ar-tik'[=u]l-[=a]t, _v.t._ to separate the joints of.--_n._ DISARTICUL[=A]'TION. DISASSOCIATE, dis-as-s[=o]'shi-[=a]t, _v.t._ to disconnect things associated: to dissociate.--_n._ DISASSOCI[=A]'TION. DISASTER, diz-as't[.e]r, _n._ an adverse or unfortunate event: a great and sudden misfortune: calamity.--_adj._ DISAS'TROUS, calamitous, ruinous: gloomy, foreboding disaster.--_adv._ DISAS'TROUSLY. [O. Fr. _desastre_, _des_--L. _dis_, with evil sense, _astre_--L. _astrum_, a star, destiny.] DISATTACH, dis-a-tach', _v.t._ to undo what is attached.--_n._ DISATTACH'MENT. DISATTIRE, dis-at-t[=i]r', _v.t._ to divest of attire or dress: (_Spens._) to undress. DISATTUNE, dis-at-t[=u]n', _v.t._ to put out of harmony. DISAUTHORISE, dis-aw'thor-[=i]z, _v.t._ to deprive of authority. DISAVENTURE (_Spens._) = disadventure. DISAVOUCH, dis-a-vowch', _v.t._ to disavow. DISAVOW, dis-a-vow', _v.t._ to disclaim knowledge of, sanction of, or connection with: to disown: to deny.--_n._ DISAVOW'AL. [O. Fr. _desavouer_, _des_--L. _dis_, away, _avouer_, to avow.] DISBAND, dis-band', _v.t._ to break up a band: to disperse, esp. of troops.--_v.i._ to break up.--_n._ DISBAND'MENT. [O. Fr. _desbander_, _des_--L. _dis_, neg., _bander_.] DISBAR, dis-bär', _v.t._ to expel a barrister from the bar. DISBARK, dis-bärk', _v.t._ to land from a ship: to disembark. [O. Fr. _desbarquer_, _des_--L. _dis_, neg., _barque_, bark.] DISBARK, dis-bärk', _v.t._ to strip of bark, to bark. DISBELIEVE, dis-be-l[=e]v', _v.t._ to refuse belief or credit to: to deny the truth of, esp. of religious dogmas.--_ns._ DISBELIEF'; DISBELIEV'ER. DISBENCH, dis-bensh', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to drive from a bench or seat: to deprive of the privilege of a bencher (e.g. in the Inns of Court). DISBEND, dis-bend', _v.t._ to unbend. DISBLOOM, dis-bl[=oo]m', _v.t._ to deprive of bloom or blossoms. DISBODIED, dis-bod'id, _adj._ disembodied. DISBOSOM, dis-booz'um, _v.t._ to make known, reveal. DISBOWEL, dis-bow'el, _v.t._ (_fig._) to disembowel:--_pr.p._ disbow'elling; _pa.p._ disbow'elled. DISBRANCH, dis-bransh', _v.t._ to break off, as a branch from a tree: to sever. DISBUD, dis-bud', _v.t._ to deprive of buds or shoots. DISBURDEN, dis-bur'dn, DISBURTHEN, dis-bur'_th_n, _v.t._ to unburden or rid of a burden: to free. DISBURSE, dis-burs', _v.t._ to pay out.--_n._ DISBURSE'MENT, a paying out: that which is paid out. [O. Fr. _desbourser_, _des_--L. _dis_, apart, and _bourse_, a purse.] DISC, DISK, disk, _n._ the face of a round plate, any flat, round object: the face of a celestial body: (_bot._) the flat surface of an organ, as a leaf, any flat, round growth.--_adjs._ DISC'AL; DISCIF'EROUS; DISCIFL[=O]'RAL; DIS'CIFORM. [L. _discus_--Gr. _diskos_, a round plate, a quoit--_dikein_, to cast. See DESK, DISH.] DISCAGE, dis-k[=a]j', _v.t._ to take out of a cage. DISCALCED, dis-kalsd', _adj._ without shoes, barefooted, a term for a branch of the Carmelite order. [L. _discalce[=a]tus_--_dis_, neg., and _calce[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to shoe, _calceus_, a shoe--_calx_, the heel.] DISCANDY, dis-kan'di, _v.i._ (_Shak._) to dissolve or melt from a state of being candied. DISCANT, dis'kant. Same as DESCANT. DISCAPACITATE, dis-ka-pas'i-t[=a]t, _v.t._ to incapacitate. DISCARD, dis-kärd, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to throw away, as not needed or not allowed by the game, said of cards: in whist, to throw down a (useless) card of another suit when one cannot follow suit and cannot or will not trump: to cast off: to discharge: to reject.--_n._ the act of discarding: the card or cards thrown out of the hand.--_n._ DISCARD'MENT. DISCASE, dis-k[=a]s', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to remove a case or covering from, to undress. DISCEPT, dis-ept', _v.i._ (_Browning_) to dispute, debate.--_n._ DISCEPT[=A]'TION.--_adj._ DISCEPT[=A]'TIOUS.--_n._ DISCEPT[=A]'TOR.--_adj._ DISCEPTAT[=O]'RIAL. [L. _disceptare_, _-[=a]tum_, to contend.] DISCERN, diz-[.e]rn', _v.t._ to distinguish clearly by the eye or understanding: to judge (sometimes with _between_).--_n._ DISCERN'ER.--_adj._ DISCERN'IBLE.--_adv._ DISCERN'IBLY.--_p.adj._ DISCERN'ING, discriminating, acute.--_n._ DISCERN'MENT, power or faculty of discriminating: judgment: acuteness. [L. _discernUere_--_dis_, thoroughly, and _cern[)e]re_, to sift, perceive.] DISCERP, di-serp', _v.t._ to separate.--_n._ DISCERPIBIL'ITY, capability of being disunited.--_adjs._ DISCERP'IBLE, DISCERP'TIBLE.--_n._ DISCERP'TION.--_adj._ DISCERP'TIVE. [L. _discerp[)e]re_, to tear in pieces.] DISCHARGE, dis-chärj', _v.t._ to free from a load or charge: to unload or remove the cargo: to set free: to acquit: to dismiss: to fire, as a gun: to let out or emit: to perform, as duties: to pay, as an account.--_n._ act of discharging: unloading: acquittance: dismissal: a flowing out: payment: performance: that which is discharged.--_n._ DISCHARG'ER. [O. Fr. _descharger_--_des_, apart, and _charger_, to load.] DISCHARITY, dis-char'i-ti, _n._ want of charity. DISCHARM, dis-chärm, _v.t._ to remove the charm, or power of a charm, from. DISCHURCH, dis-church', _v.t._ to deprive of church rank or privileges. DISCIDE, dis-s[=i]d', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to cut asunder, to divide. [L. _dis_, asunder, and _coed[)e]re_, to cut.] DISCINCT, dis-singkt', _adj._ ungirded. [L. _discing[)e]re_, _-cinctum_, to ungird.] DISCIPLE, dis-[=i]'pl, _n._ one who professes to receive instruction from another: one who follows or believes in the doctrine of another: a follower, esp. one of the twelve disciples of Christ.--_v.t._ (_Spens._) to teach.--_n._ DISC[=I]'PLESHIP.--DISCIPLES OF CHRIST, a denomination of American Baptists, also known as _Campbellites_. [Fr.,--L. _discipulus_, from _disc[)e]re_, to learn; akin to _doc[=e]re_, to teach.] DISCIPLINE, dis'i-plin, _n._ instruction: training, or mode of life in accordance with rules: subjection to control: order: severe training: mortification: punishment: an instrument of penance or punishment.--_v.t._ to subject to discipline: to train: to educate: to bring under control: to chastise.--_adjs._ DIS'CIPLINABLE; DIS'CIPLINAL.--_ns._ DIS'CIPLINANT, one who subjects himself to a certain discipline, esp. one of an order of Spanish flagellants; DISCIPLIN[=A]'RIAN, one who enforces strict discipline; DISCIPLIN[=A]'RIUM, a scourge for penitential flogging.--_adj._ DIS'CIPLINARY, of the nature of discipline--_n._ DIS'CIPLINER, one who disciplines.--FIRST, and SECOND, BOOK OF DISCIPLINE, two documents (1560 and 1578) embodying the constitution and order of procedure of the Church of Scotland from the period of the Reformation. [L. _disciplina_, from _discipulus_.] DISCISSION, di-sish'un, _n._ an incision into a tumour or cataract. [See DISCIDE.] DISCLAIM, dis-kl[=a]m', _v.t._ to renounce all claim to: to refuse to acknowledge or be responsible for: to reject.--_v.i._ to give up all claim (with _in_).--_ns._ DISCLAIM'ER, a denial, disavowal, or renunciation; DISCLAM[=A]'TION, a disavowal. [O. Fr. _disclaimer_--L. _dis_, apart, _clam[=a]re_, to cry out.] DISCLOSE, dis-kl[=o]z', _v.t._ to unclose: to open: to lay open: to bring to light: to reveal.--_n._ DISCL[=O]'SURE, act of disclosing: a bringing to light or revealing: that which is disclosed or revealed. [O. Fr. _desclos_--L. _disclud[=e]re_--_dis_, apart, _claud[)e]re_, to shut, close.] DISCOBOLUS, dis-kob'o-lus, _n._ 'the disc-thrower,' the name of several famous statues of athletes. [L.,--Gr. _diskos_, a quoit, _ballein_, to throw.] DISCOID, -AL, dis'koid, -al, _adj._ having the form of a disc. [Gr. _diskos_, and _eidos_, form.] DISCOLOUR, dis-kul'ur, _v.t._ to take away colour from: to change or to spoil the natural colour of: to alter the appearance of: to mark with other colours, to stain: to dirty, disfigure.--_n._ DISCOLOR[=A]'TION, act of discolouring: state of being discoloured: stain.--_p.adj._ DISCOL'OURED, stained, &c.: (_Spens._) many-coloured. [O. Fr. _descolorer_--L. _dis_, apart, and _color[=a]re_--_color_; colour.] DISCOMFIT, dis-kum'fit, _v.t._ to disconcert, to balk: to defeat or rout;--_pr.p._ discom'fiting; _pa.p._ discom'fited.--_n._ (_Milt._) defeat.--_n._ DISCOM'FITURE. [O. Fr. _desconfit_, pa.p. of _desconfire_--L. _dis_, neg., _confic[)e]re_, to prepare--_con_, inten., _fac[)e]re_, to make.] DISCOMFORT, dis-kum'furt, _n._ want of comfort: uneasiness: pain.--_v.t._ to deprive of comfort: to make uneasy: to pain: to grieve.--_adj._ DISCOM'FORTABLE, causing discomfort: uncomfortable. [O. Fr. _desconforter_--_des_, apart, _conforter_, to comfort.] DISCOMMEND, dis-kom-end', _v.t._ to blame.--_adj._ DISCOMMEND'ABLE.--_ns._ DISCOMMEND'ABLENESS, DISCOMMEND[=A]'TION. DISCOMMISSION, dis-kom-ish'un, _v.t._ (_Milt._) to deprive of a commission. DISCOMMODE, dis-kom-[=o]d', _v.t._ to incommode.--_adj._ DISCOMM[=O]'DIOUS.--_adv._ DISCOMM[=O]'DIOUSLY.--_n._ DISCOMMOD'ITY, inconvenience. DISCOMMON, dis-kom'un, _v.t._ to deprive of the right of common, or, at Oxford and Cambridge, of dealing with undergraduates. DISCOMMUNITY, dis-kom-[=u]n'i-ti, _n._ want of community. DISCOMPOSE, dis-kom-p[=o]z', _v.t._ to deprive of composure: to disarrange, to disorder: to disturb: to agitate.--_n._ DISCOMP[=O]'SURE. DISCONCERT, dis-kon-s[.e]rt', _v.t._ to deprive of harmony or agreement: to disturb: to frustrate: to defeat: to put out of countenance.--_n._ DISCON'CERT, disunion; DISCONCER'TION, confusion; DISCONCERT'MENT. [O. Fr. _disconcerter_--_des_ = L. _dis_, apart, and _concerter_, to concert.] DISCONFORMABLE, dis-kon-form'a-bl, _adj._ not conformable.--_n._ DISCONFORM'ITY, want of conformity: inconsistency. DISCONGRUITY, dis-kon-gr[=oo]'i-ti, _n._ incongruity. DISCONNECT, dis-kon-ekt', _v.t._ to separate or disjoin (with _from_).--_p.adj._ DISCONNECT'ED, separated: loosely united, as of a discourse.--_adv._ DISCONNECT'EDLY.--_n._ DISCONNEC'TION. DISCONSENT, dis-kon-sent', _v.i._ to differ, dissent. DISCONSOLATE, dis-kon's[=o]-l[=a]t, _adj._ without consolation or comfort: hopeless: sad.--_adv._ DISCON'SOLATELY.--_ns._ DISCON'SOLATENESS, DISCONSOL[=A]'TION. [L. _dis_, neg., and _consol[=a]ri_, _consol[=a]tus_, to console.] DISCONTENT, dis-kon-tent', _adj._ not content: dissatisfied: ill-humoured: peevish.--_n._ want of content: dissatisfaction: ill-humour.--_v.t._ to deprive of content: to stir up to ill-will.--_adj._ DISCONTENT'ED, dissatisfied.--_adv._ DISCONTENT'EDLY.--_n._ DISCONTENT'EDNESS.--_adj._ DISCONTENT'FUL.--_p.adj._ DISCONTENT'ING, not contenting or satisfying: (_Shak._) discontented.--_n._ DISCONTENT'MENT, the opposite of contentment: ill-humour. DISCONTINUE, dis-kon-tin'[=u], _v.t._ to cease to continue: to put an end to: to leave off: to stop.--_v.i._ to cease: to be separated from.--_ns._ DISCONTIN'UANCE, DISCONTINU[=A]'TION, a breaking off or ceasing; DISCONTIN[=U]'ITY.--_adj._ DISCONTIN'UOUS, not continuous: broken off: separated: interrupted by intervening spaces.--_adv._ DISCONTIN'UOUSLY. [O. Fr. _discontinuer_--L. _dis_, neg., and _continu[=a]re_, to continue.] DISCOPHORA, dis-kof'[=o]-ra, _n.pl._ the discoidal hydrozoans--jelly-fishes, &c.--_n._ DISCOPH'ORAN, one of the foregoing.--_adj._ DISCOPH'OROUS, having a gelatinous bell or disc. [Gr.] DISCORD, dis'kord, _n._ opposite of _concord_: disagreement, strife: difference or contrariety of qualities: a combination of inharmonious sounds: uproarious noise.--_v.i._ DISCORD', to disagree.--_ns._ DISCORD'ANCE, DISCORD'ANCY.--_adj._ DISCORD'ANT, without concord or agreement: inconsistent: contradictory: harsh: jarring.--_adv._ DISCORD'ANTLY.--_adj._ DISCORD'FUL (_Spens._).--APPLE OF DISCORD (see APPLE). [O. Fr. _descord_--L. _discordia_--_dis_, neg., and _cor_, _cordis_, the heart.] DISCORPORATE, dis-kor'p[=o]-r[=a]t, _adj._ disembodied. DISCOUNSEL, dis-kown'sel, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to dissuade. [O. Fr. _desconseillier_--_des_, apart, and _conseillier_, to counsel.] DISCOUNT, dis'kownt, _n._ a sum taken from the reckoning: a sum returned to the payer of an account: a deduction made for interest in advancing money on a bill.--_v.t._ DISCOUNT', to allow discount: to advance money on, deducting discount: to put a reduced value on, as in an extravagant statement or fabulous story.--_v.i._ to practise discounting.--_adj._ DISCOUNT'ABLE.--_ns._ DIS'COUNT-BROK'ER, one who cashes notes or bills of exchange at a discount; DISCOUNT'ER.--AT A DISCOUNT, below par: not sought after: superfluous: depreciated in value. [O. Fr. _descompter_, _des_--L. _dis_, away, _compter_, to count.] DISCOUNTENANCE, dis-kown'ten-ans, _v.t._ (_obs._) to put out of countenance: to abash: to refuse countenance or support to: to discourage.--_n._ cold treatment: disapprobation. [O. Fr. _descontenancer_, _des-_, neg., _contenance_, countenance.] DISCOURAGE, dis-kur'[=a]j, _v.t._ to take away the courage of: to dishearten: to seek to check by showing disfavour to.--_n._ DISCOUR'AGEMENT, act of discouraging: that which discourages: dejection.--_p.adj._ DISCOUR'AGING, disheartening, depressing.--_adv._ DISCOUR'AGINGLY. [O. Fr. _descourager_. See COURAGE.] DISCOURSE, dis-k[=o]rs', _n._ speech or language generally: conversation: the reasoning faculty: a treatise: a sermon.--_v.i._ to talk or converse: to reason: to treat formally.--_v.t._ to utter or give forth.--_n._ DISCOURS'ER (_Shak._).--_adj._ DISCOURS'IVE. [Fr. _discours_--L. _discursus_--_dis_, away, _curr[)e]re_, to run.] DISCOURTEOUS, dis-kurt'yus, _adj._ wanting in good manners; uncivil: rude.--_adv._ DISCOURT'EOUSLY.--_ns._ DISCOURT'EOUSNESS, DISCOURT'ESY. [O. Fr. _descourtois_, _des_--L. _dis_, neg., _cortois_, courteous.] DISCOUS, disk'us, _adj._ disc-like: broad: flat. DISCOVER, dis-kuv'[.e]r, _v.t._ to uncover: to lay open or expose: to exhibit: to make known: to find out: to espy.--_adj._ DISCOVERABLE.--_ns._ DISCOV'ERER; DISCOV'ERY, the act of finding out: the thing discovered. [O. Fr. _descouvrir_, _des_--L. _dis_, away, _couvrir_, to cover.] DISCOVERT, dis-kuv'ert, _adj._ (_law_) not under the bonds of matrimony, either of a spinster or widow.--_n._ DISCOV'ERTURE. [Lit. uncovered, unprotected; O. Fr. _descovert_. See DISCOVER.] DISCREDIT, dis-kred'it, _n._ want of credit: bad credit: ill-repute: disgrace.--_v.t._ to refuse credit to, or belief in: to deprive of credibility: to deprive of credit: to disgrace.--_adj._ DISCRED'ITABLE, not creditable: disgraceful.--_adv._ DISCRED'ITABLY. DISCREET, dis-kr[=e]t', _adj._ having discernment: wary: circumspect: prudent.--_adv._ DISCREETLY.--_n._ DISCREET'NESS. [O. Fr. _discret_--L. _discr[=e]tus_--_discern[)e]re_, to separate, to perceive.] DISCREPANCY, dis-krep'an-si, or dis'krep-an-si, _n._ disagreement, variance of facts or sentiments--(_obs._) DISCREP'ANCE.--_adj._ DISCREP'ANT, contrary, disagreeing. [Through Fr. from L. _discrepan(t)s_, different--_dis_, asunder, and _crepans_, pr.p. of _crep[=a]re_, to sound.] DISCRETE, dis-kr[=e]t', _adj._ separate: consisting of distinct parts: referring to distinct objects--opposite of _concrete_.--_adv._ DISCRETE'LY.--_n._ DISCRETE'NESS.--_adj._ DISCRET'IVE, separating: disjunctive.--_adv._ DISCRET'IVELY. [A doublet of _discreet_.] DISCRETION, dis-kresh'un, _n._ quality of being discreet: prudence: liberty to act at pleasure.--_adjs._ DISCRE'TIONAL, DISCRE'TIONARY, left to discretion: unrestricted,--_advs._ DISCRE'TIONALLY, DISCRE'TIONARILY.--AGE, YEARS, OF DISCRETION, mature years; AT DISCRETION, according to one's own judgment; BE AT ONE'S DISCRETION, to be completely under another person's power or control; SURRENDER AT DISCRETION, to surrender unconditionally, that is, to another's discretion. [Through Fr. from L. _discretion-em_, _discern[)e]re_, _-cr[=e]tum_.] DISCRIMINATE, dis-krim'i-n[=a]t, _v.t._ to note the difference: to distinguish: to select from others.--_v.i._ to make a difference or distinction: to distinguish.--_adv._ DISCRIM'INATELY.--_p.adj._ DISCRIM'INATING, noting distinctions: gifted with judgment and penetration.--_adv._ DISCRIM'INATINGLY.--_n._ DISCRIMIN[=A]'TION, act or quality of distinguishing: acuteness: discernment, judgment.--_adj._ DISCRIM'INATIVE, that marks a difference: characteristic: observing distinctions.--_adv._ DISCRIM'INATIVELY.--_n._ DISCRIM'IN[=A]TOR. [L. _discrimin[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_discrimen_, _discriminis_, that which separates, _discern[)e]re_, discern.] DISCROWN, dis-krown', _v.t._ to deprive of a crown. DISCULPATE, dis-kul'p[=a]t, _v.t._ to free from blame. DISCUMBER, dis-kum'b[.e]r, _v.t._ to disencumber. DISCURE, dis-k[=u]r', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to discover. DISCURSIVE, dis-kur'siv, _adj._ running from one thing to another: roving, desultory: proceeding regularly from premises to conclusion: intellectual, rational.--_ns._ DISCUR'SION, desultory talk: act of reasoning; DISCUR'SIST, a disputer.--_adv._ DISCUR'SIVELY.--_n._ DISCUR'SIVENESS.--_adj._ DISCUR'SORY, discursive.--_n._ DISCUR'SUS, argument. [See DISCOURSE.] DISCUS, dis'kus, _n._ a quoit, disc. [L.,--Gr. _diskos_.] DISCUSS, dis-kus', _v.t._ to examine in detail, or by disputation: to debate: to sift: (_coll._) to consume, as a bottle of wine.--_adj._ DISCUSS'ABLE.--_n._ DISCUS'SION, debate: (_surg._) dispersion of a tumour.--_adjs._ DISCUSS'IVE, DISC[=U]'TIENT, able or tending to discuss or disperse tumours.--_n._ DISC[=U]'TIENT, a medicine with this property. [L. _discut[)e]re_, _discussum_--_dis_, asunder, _quat[)e]re_, to shake.] DISDAIN, dis-d[=a]n', _v.t._ to think unworthy: to reject as unsuitable: to scorn.--_n._ a feeling of scorn or aversion: haughtiness.--_adjs._ DISDAINED' (_Shak._), disdainful; DISDAIN'FUL.--_adv._ DISDAIN'FULLY.--_n._ DISDAIN'FULNESS. [O. Fr. _desdaigner_--L. _dedign[=a]ri_, _de_, _dis_, neg., and _dignus_, worthy.] DISEASE, diz-[=e]z', _n._ a disorder or want of health in mind or body: ailment: cause of pain.--_v.t._ (_Spens._) to make uneasy.--_p.adj._ DISEASED', affected with disease.--_n._ DISEAS'EDNESS.--_adj._ DISEASE'FUL. [O. Fr. _desaise_, _des_--L. _dis_, neg., _aise_, ease.] DISEDGE, dis-ej', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to deprive of the edge: to blunt; to dull. DISEDIFY, dis-ed'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to do the reverse of edifying: to scandalise.--_n._ DISEDIFIC[=A]'TION. DISEMBARK, dis-em-bärk', _v.t._ to land persons, troops, &c.: to take out of a ship.--_v.i._ to quit a ship: to land.--_ns._ DISEMBARK[=A]'TION, DISEMBARK'MENT. [O. Fr. _desembarquer_, _des-_--L. _dis_, neg., _embarquer_. See EMBARK.] DISEMBARRASS, dis-em-bär'as, _v.t._ to free from embarrassment or perplexity.--_n._ DISEMBARR'ASSMENT. [O. Fr. _disembarrasser_, _des_--L. _dis_, neg., _embarrasser_. See EMBARRASS.] DISEMBELLISH, dis-em-bel'ish, _v.t._ to deprive of embellishment. DISEMBITTER, dis-em-bit'[.e]r, _v.t._ to free from bitterness. DISEMBODY, dis-em-bod'i, _v.t._ to take away from or out of the body (esp. of disembodied spirits): to discharge from military service or array.--_n._ DISEMBOD'IMENT. DISEMBOGUE, dis-em-b[=o]g', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to discharge at the mouth, as a stream.--_n._ DISEMBOGUE'MENT. [Sp. _desembocar_, _des_--L. _dis_, asunder, _embocar_, to enter the mouth, _em-_--L. _im_, _in_, into, _boca_--L. _bucca_, a cheek, the mouth.] DISEMBOSOM, dis-em-b[=oo]z'um, _v.t._ to separate from the bosom: to disburden one's self of a secret. DISEMBOWEL, dis-em-bow'el, _v.t._ to take out the bowels of: to tear out the inside of a thing.--_n._ DISEMBOW'ELMENT. DISEMBRANGLE, dis-em-brang'gl, _v.t._ to free from dispute. DISEMBROIL, dis-em-broil', _v.t._ to free from broil or confusion. DISEMBURDEN, dis-em-bur'dn, _v.t._ to disburden. DISEMPLOY, dis-em-ploi', _v.t._ to relieve of employment.--_adj._ DISEMPLOYED'. DISENABLE, dis-en-[=a]'bl, _v.t._ to make unable: to disable: (_obs._) to deprive of power. DISENCHAIN, dis-en-ch[=a]n', _v.t._ to free from restraint. DISENCHANT, dis-en-chant', _v.t._ to free from enchantment, to disillusionise.--_ns._ DISENCHANT'ER:--_fem._ DISENCHANT'RESS; DISENCHANT'MENT. [O. Fr. _desenchanter_, _des_--L. _dis_, neg., _enchanter_, to enchant.] DISENCLOSE, dis-en-kl[=o]z', _v.t._ to free from the condition of being enclosed: to dispark.--Also DISINCLOSE. DISENCUMBER, dis-en-kum'b[.e]r, _v.t._ to free from encumbrance: to disburden.--_n._ DISENCUM'BRANCE. DISENDOW, dis-en-dow', _v.t._ to take away the endowments (esp. of an established church).--_adj._ DISENDOWED'.--_n._ DISENDOW'MENT. DISENFRANCHISE, dis-en-fran'chiz, _v.t._ (_rare_) to disfranchise: to deprive of suffrage.--_n._ DISENFRAN'CHISEMENT. DISENGAGE, dis-en-g[=a]j', _v.t._ to separate or free from being engaged: to separate: to set free: to release.--_ns._ DISENGAG'EDNESS; DISENGAGE'MENT. [O. Fr. _desengager_, _des-_--L. _dis_, neg., _engager_, to engage.] DISENNOBLE, dis-en-n[=o]'bl, _v.t._ to deprive of title, or of what ennobles: to degrade. DISENROL, dis-en-r[=o]l', _v.t._ to remove from a roll. DISENSHROUD, dis-en-shrowd', _v.t._ to divest of a shroud, to unveil. DISENSLAVE, dis-en-sl[=a]v', _v.t._ to free from bondage. DISENTAIL, dis-en-t[=a]l', _v.t._ to break the entail of (an estate): to divest.--_n._ the act of disentailing. DISENTANGLE, dis-en-tang'gl, _v.t._ to free from entanglement or disorder: to unravel: to disengage or set free.--_n._ DISENTANG'LEMENT. DISENTHRAL, DISENTHRALL, dis-en-thrawl', _v.t._ to free from enthralment.--_n._ DISENTHRAL'MENT. DISENTHRONE, dis-en-thr[=o]n', _v.t._ (_Milt._) to dethrone. DISENTITLE, dis-en-t[=i]'tl, _v.t._ to deprive of title. DISENTOMB, dis-en-t[=oo]m', _v.t._ to take out from a tomb. DISENTRAIL, dis-en'tr[=a]l, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to disembowel. DISENTRANCE, dis-en-trans', _v.t._ to awaken from a trance or deep sleep: to arouse from a reverie.--_n._ DISENTRANCE'MENT. DISENTWINE, dis-en-tw[=i]n', _v.t._ to untwine. DISENVELOP, dis-en-vel'op, _v.t._ to free from that in which a thing is enveloped, to unfold. DISENVIRON, dis-en-v[=i]'ron, _v.t._ to deprive of its environment. DISESPOUSE, dis-es-powz', _v.t._ (_Milt._) to separate after espousal or betrothment. DISESTABLISH, dis-es-tab'lish, _v.t._ to take away what has been established or settled, esp. of the standing of church as established by law.--_n._ DISESTAB'LISHMENT. DISESTEEM, dis-es-t[=e]m', _n._ want of esteem: disregard.--_v.t._ to disapprove: to dislike.--_n._ DISESTIM[=A]'TION. DISFAME, dis-f[=a]m', _n._ evil reputation. DISFAVOUR, dis-f[=a]'vur, _n._ want of favour: displeasure: dislike.--_v.t._ to withhold favour from: to disapprove: to oppose.--_n._ DISF[=A]'VOURER. DISFEATURE, dis-f[=e]'t[=u]r, _v.t._ to deprive of a feature: to deface. DISFELLOWSHIP, dis-fel'[=o]-ship, _n._ want of, or exclusion from, fellowship.--_v.t._ to excommunicate. DISFIGURE, dis-fig'[=u]r, _v.t._ to spoil the figure of: to change to a worse form: to spoil the beauty of: to deform.--_ns._ DISFIG'UREMENT, DISFIGUR[=A]'TION. [O. Fr. _desfigurer_--L. _dis_, neg., _figur[=a]re_, to figure.] DISFLESH, dis-flesh', _v.t._ to deprive of flesh, to disembody. DISFOREST, dis-for'est, _v.t._ to strip of trees: to disafforest. DISFORM, dis-form', _v.t._ to alter the form of. DISFRANCHISE, dis-fran'chiz, _v.t._ to deprive of a franchise, or of rights and privileges, esp. that of voting for a M.P.--_n._ DISFRAN'CHISEMENT. DISFROCK, dis-frok', _v.t._ to unfrock, deprive of clerical garb. DISFURNISH, dis-fur'nish, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to strip, render destitute.--_n._ DISFUR'NISHMENT. DISGARNISH, dis-gar'nish, _v.t._ to despoil. DISGARRISON, dis-gar'i-sn, _v.t._ to deprive of a garrison. DISGAVEL, dis-gav'el, _v.t._ to relieve from the tenure of gavelkind. DISGLORIFY, dis-gl[=o]'ri-f[=i], _v.t._ (_Milt._) to deprive of glory. DISGODDED, dis-god'ed, _adj._ deprived of divinity. DISGORGE, dis-gorj', _v.t._ to discharge from the throat: to vomit: to throw out with violence: to give up what has been seized.--_n._ DISGORGE'MENT. [O. Fr. _desgorger_, _des_, away, _gorge_, throat. See GORGE.] DISGOSPEL, dis-gos'pel, _v.i._ to act in a manner not becoming the gospel. DISGOWN, dis-gown', _v.t._ or _v.i._ to deprive of his gown: to divest one's self of a clerical gown, to renounce orders. DISGRACE, dis-gr[=a]s', _n._ state of being out of grace or favour, or of being dishonoured: cause of shame: dishonour.--_v.t._ to put out of favour: to bring disgrace or shame upon.--_adj._ DISGRACE'FUL, bringing disgrace: causing shame: dishonourable.--_adv._ DISGRACE'FULLY.--_ns._ DISGRACE'FULNESS; DISGR[=A]'CER.--_adj._ DISGR[=A]'CIOUS (_Shak._), ungracious, unpleasing. [O. Fr.,--L. _dis_, neg., and _gratia_, favour, grace.] DISGRADE, dis-gr[=a]d', _v.t._ to deprive of any rank or status.--_n._ DISGRAD[=A]'TION. DISGREGATION, dis-gr[=e]-g[=a]'shun, _n._ separation, esp. of molecules. DISGRUNTLE, dis-grun'tl, _v.t._ (_prov._) to disappoint, disgust.--_adj._ DISGRUN'TLED, rendered sulky. [_Dis-_ and _gruntle_, to grunt, to be sulky.] DISGUISE, dis-g[=i]z', _v.t._ to change the guise or appearance of: to conceal by a dress intended to deceive, or by a counterfeit manner and appearance: to intoxicate (usually 'disguised in liquor')--_n._ a dress intended to conceal the wearer: a false appearance: change of behaviour in intoxication.--_adv._ DISGUIS'EDLY.--_ns._ DISGUIS'EDNESS; DISGUISE'MENT; DISGUIS'ER; DISGUIS'ING. [O. Fr. _desguiser_--_des_, neg., _guise_, manner, guise.] DISGUST, dis-gust', _n._ loathing: strong dislike.--_v.t._ to excite disgust in: to offend the taste of: to displease.--_adv._ DISGUST'EDLY.--_adjs._ DISGUST'ING, DISGUST'FUL.--_adv._ DISGUST'INGLY.--_ns._ DISGUST'INGNESS, DISGUST'FULNESS. [O. Fr. _desgouster_--_des_ (= L. _dis_), and _gouster_--L. _gust[=a]re_, to taste.] DISH, dish, _n._ a plate: a vessel in which food is served: the food in a dish: a particular kind of food: the condition of having a dish shape, concavity of form.--_v.t._ to put in a dish, for table: (_coll._) to outwit, to defeat.--_ns._ DISH'-CLOUT, DISH'-CLOTH; DISH'-COV'ER, a cover for a dish to keep it hot.--_adj._ DISH'-FACED; having a round, flat face.--_ns._ DISH'FUL; DISH'ING, putting in a dish.--_adj._ hollow like a dish.--_n._ DISH'-WA'TER, water in which dishes have been washed.--DISH UP, to serve up, esp. figuratively of old materials cooked up anew. [A.S. _disc_, a plate, a dish, a table--L. _discus_. Doublets, _disc_ and _desk_; cf. Ger. _tisch_, a table.] DISHABILITATE, dis-ha-bil'i-t[=a]t, _v.t._ to disqualify: to attaint.--_n._ DISHABILIT[=A]'TION. DISHABILLE, dis-a-bil'. Same as DESHABILLE. DISHABIT, dis-hab'it, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to drive from a habitation. [O. Fr. _deshabiter_--L. _dis_, neg., _habit[=a]re_, to inhabit.] DISHALLOW, dis-hal'[=o], _v.t._ to desecrate. DISHARMONY, dis-har'mo-ni, _n._ lack of harmony: discord: incongruity.--_adj._ DISHARM[=O]'NIOUS.--_adv._ DISHARM[=O]'NIOUSLY.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ DISHAR'MONISE, to put out of, or be out of, harmony. DISHEARTEN, dis-härt'n, _v.t._ to deprive of heart, courage, or spirits: to discourage: to depress.--_adjs._ DISHEART'ENED; DISHEART'ENING. DISHELM, dis-helm', _v.t._ to divest of a helmet. DISHERIT, dis-her'it, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to disinherit.--_ns._ DISHER'ISON; DISHER'ITOR. [O. Fr. _desheriter_--L. _dis_, neg., Late L. _heredit[=a]re_, to inherit.] DISHEVEL, di-shev'el, _v.t._ to disorder the hair: to cause the hair to hang loose.--_v.i._ to spread in disorder:--_pr.p._ dishev'elling; _pa.p._ dishev'elled.--_n._ DISHEV'ELMENT. [O. Fr. _discheveler_--Low L. _discapill[=a]re_, to tear out or disorder the hair--L. _dis_, in different directions, _capillus_, the hair.] DISHOME, dis-h[=o]m', _v.t._ to deprive of a home. DISHONEST, diz-on'est, _adj._ not honest: wanting integrity: disposed to cheat: insincere: (_Shak._) unchaste.--_adv._ DISHON'ESTLY.--_n._ DISHON'ESTY. [O. Fr. _deshonneste_, _des_--L. _dis_, neg., _honneste_--L. _honestus_, honest.] DISHONOUR, diz-on'ur, _n._ want of honour: disgrace: shame: reproach.--_v.t._ to deprive of honour: to disgrace: to cause shame to: to seduce: to degrade: to refuse the payment of, as a cheque.--_adjs._ DISHON'ORARY, causing dishonour; DISHON'OURABLE, having no sense of honour: disgraceful.--_n._ DISHON'OURABLENESS.--_adv._ DISHON'OURABLY.--_n._ DISHON'OURER. [O. Fr. _deshonneur_, _des_--L. _dis_, neg., _honneur_--L. _honor_, honour.] DISHORN, dis-horn', _v.t._ to deprive of horns. DISHORSE, dis-hors', _v.t._ to unhorse. DISHUMOUR, dis-h[=u]'mur, _n._ ill-humour. DISILLUDE, dis-il-l[=u]d', _v.t._ to free from illusion.--_n._ DISILL[=U]'SION, a freeing from illusion: state of being disillusionised.--_v.t._ to free from illusion, disenchant.--_adj._ DISILL[=U]'SIONARY.--_v.t._ DISILL[=U]'SIONISE.--_n._ DISILL[=U]'SIONMENT.--_adj._ DISILL[=U]'SIVE. DISILLIUMINATE, dis-il-l[=u]'mi-n[=a]t, _v.t._ to destroy the light of, to darken. DISIMAGINE, dis-i-maj'in, _v.t._ to banish from the imagination. DISIMMURE, dis-im-m[=u]r', _v.t._ to release from imprisonment. DISIMPASSIONED, dis-im-pash'und, _adj._ free from the influence of passion, tranquil. DISIMPRISON, dis-im-priz'n, _v.t._ to free from prison or restraint.--_n._ DISIMPRIS'ONMENT. DISIMPROVE, dis-im-pr[=oo]v', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to render worse, to grow worse. DISINCARCERATE, dis-in-kär's[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.t._ to free from prison.--_n._ DISINCARCER[=A]'TION. DISINCLINATION, dis-in-kli-n[=a]'shun, _n._ want of inclination: unwillingness.--_v.t._ DISINCLINE', to turn away inclination from: to excite the dislike or aversion of.--_adj._ DISINCLINED', not inclined: averse. DISINCLOSE. See DISENCLOSE. DISINCORPORATE, dis-in-kor'po-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to deprive of corporate rights.--_n._ DISINCORPOR[=A]'TION. DISINDIVIDUALISE, dis-in-di-vid'[=u]-al-[=i]z, _v.t._ to deprive of individuality. DISINFECT, dis-in-fekt', _v.t._ to free from infection: to purify from infectious germs.--_ns._ DISINFECT'ANT, anything that destroys the causes of infection; DISINFEC'TION; DISINFECT'OR. DISINGENUOUS, dis-in-jen'[=u]-us, _adj._ not ingenuous: not frank or open: crafty.--_adv._ DISINGEN'UOUSLY.--_n._ DISINGEN'UOUSNESS. DISINHERIT, dis-in-her'it, _v.t._ to cut off from hereditary rights: to deprive of an inheritance.--_ns._ DISINHER'ISON, act of disinheriting; DISINHER'ITANCE. DISINHUME, dis-in-h[=u]m', _v.t._ to take out of the earth, to disinter. DISINTEGRATE, dis-in'te-gr[=a]t, or diz-, _v.t._ to separate into integrant parts: to break up.--_adjs._ DISIN'TEGRABLE, DISIN'TEGRATIVE.--_ns._ DISINTEGR[=A]'TION; DISIN'TEGRATOR, a machine for crushing or pulverising oil-cake, mineral ores, &c. DISINTER, dis-in-t[.e]r', _v.t._ to take out of a grave: to bring from obscurity into view.--_n._ DISINTER'MENT. DISINTERESTED, dis-in't[.e]r-est-ed, _adj._ not interested or influenced by private feelings or considerations: impartial: unselfish, generous.--_adv._ DISIN'TERESTEDLY.--_n._ DISIN'TERESTEDNESS.--_adj._ DISIN'TERESTING (_obs._), not interesting. [Corr. of _disinterest_ = _disinteress'd_, O. Fr. _des_--L. _dis_, neg., _interessé_, interested in. See INTEREST.] DISINTHRAL. Same as DISENTHRAL. DISINTRICATE, dis-in'tri-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to free from intricacy. DISINURE, dis-in-[=u]r', _v.t._ (_Milt._) to render unfamiliar. DISINVEST, dis-in-vest', _v.t._ to divest.--_n._ DISINVEST'ITURE, the action of disinvesting. DISINVIGORATE, dis-in-vig'or-[=a]t, _v.t._ to weaken. DISINVOLVE, dis-in-volv', _v.t._ to unfold, to disentangle. DISIPPUS, di-sip'us, _n._ an American papilionid butterfly. DISJASKIT, dis-jas'kit, _adj._ (_Scot._) jaded, worn out. [Prob. _dejected_.] DISJOIN, dis-join', or diz-, _v.t._ to separate what has been joined.--_v.t._ DISJOINT', to put out of joint: to separate united parts: to break the natural order or relations of things: to make incoherent.--_p.adj._ DISJOINT'ED, incoherent, esp. of discourse: badly assorted.--_adv._ DISJOINT'EDLY.--_n._ DISJOINT'EDNESS. [O. Fr. _desjoindre_--L. _disjung[)e]re_--_dis_, apart, _jung[)e]re_, to join.] DISJUNCT, dis-jungkt', _adj._ disjoined--_n._ DISJUNC'TION, the act of disjoining: disunion: separation.--_adj._ DISJUNCT'IVE, disjoining: tending to separate: (_gram._) uniting sentences but disjoining the sense, or rather marking an adverse sense.--_n._ a word which disjoins.--_adv._ DISJUNCT'IVELY.--_ns._ DISJUNCT'OR; DISJUNCT'URE. [O. Fr. _desjoinct_, _desjoindre_. See above.] DISJUNE, a Scotch form of _dejeune_, _dejeuner_ (q.v.). DISK. Same as DISC. DISLEAF, dis-l[=e]f', _v.t._ to deprive of leaves.--Also DISLEAVE'. DISLEAL, dis-l[=e]l', _adj._ (_Spens._) disloyal, dishonourable. [See DISLOYAL.] DISLIKE, dis-l[=i]k', _v.t._ to be displeased with: to disapprove of: to have an aversion to.--_n._ disinclination: aversion: distaste: disapproval.--_adjs._ DISLIKE'ABLE, DISLIK'ABLE; DISLIKE'FUL (_Spens._)--_v.t._ DISLIK'EN (_Shak._), to make unlike.--_n._ DISLIKE'NESS (_obs._), unlikeness. [L. _dis_, neg., and _like_; the genuine Eng. word is _mislike_.] DISLIMB, dis-lim', _v.t._ to tear the limbs from. DISLIMN, dis-lim', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to strike out what has been limned or painted, to efface. DISLINK, dis-lingk', _v.t._ to unlink, to separate. DISLOAD, dis-l[=o]d', _v.t._ to unload, to disburden. DISLOCATE, dis'l[=o]-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to displace: to put out of joint.--_adv._ DISLOC[=A]'TEDLY.--_n._ DISLOC[=A]'TION, a dislocated joint: displacement: (_geol._) a 'fault,' or displacement of stratified rocks. [Low L. _disloc[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--L., _dis_, apart, _loc[=a]re_, to place.] DISLODGE, dis-loj', _v.t._ to drive from a lodgment or place of rest: to drive from a place of hiding or of defence.--_v.i._ to go away.--_n._ DISLODG'MENT. [O. Fr. _desloger_, _des_--L. _dis_, apart, _loger_, to lodge.] DISLOIGN, dis-loin', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to put far apart or at a distance, to remove. [O. Fr. _desloignier_, _des_--L. _dis_, apart, _loignier_, to remove.] DISLOYAL, dis-loi'al, _adj._ not loyal: false to one's sovereign: faithless: treacherous.--_adv._ DISLOY'ALLY.--_n._ DISLOY'ALTY. [O. Fr. _desloyal_, _des_--L. _dis_, neg., _loyal_, _leial_--L. _legalis_, legal.] DISLUSTRE, dis-lus't[.e]r, _v.t._ to deprive of lustre. DISMAL, diz'mal, _adj._ gloomy: dreary: sorrowful: depressing.--_adv._ DIS'MALLY.--_ns._ DIS'MALNESS, DISMAL'ITY.--_n.pl._ DIS'MALS, mournings.--THE DISMALS, the dumps. [O. Fr. _dismal_ = L. _dies mali_, evil, unlucky days. Skeat makes O. Fr. _dismal_ correspond to Low L. _decimalis_, of a tenth, pertaining to tithes--L. _decimus_, tenth--_decem_, ten.] DISMAN, dis-man', _v.t._ to deprive of men (of a country, or ship): to unman: to deprive of human character (of the body by death). DISMANTLE, dis-man'tl, _v.t._ to strip: to deprive of furniture, fittings, &c., so as to render useless: of a fortified town, to raze the fortifications. [O. Fr. _desmanteller_--_des_--L. _dis_, away, _manteler_, _mantel_, a mantle.] DISMASK, dis-mask', _v.t._ to strip a mask from: to remove a disguise from: to uncover. [O. Fr. _desmasquer_, _des_--L. _dis_, neg., _masquer_, to mask.] DISMAST, dis-mast', _v.t._ to deprive of a mast or masts.--_n._ DISMAST'MENT. DISMAY, dis-m[=a]', _v.t._ to terrify: to discourage.--_n._ loss of strength and courage through fear.--_n._ DISMAY'EDNESS.--_adj._ DISMAY'FUL (_Spens._). [A hybrid word, from an O. Fr. _desmayer_--_des_ (= L. _dis_), and Old High Ger. _magan_ (Ger. _mögen_) = A.S. _magan_, to have might or power. See MAY.] DISMAYD, dis-m[=a]d', _adj._ (_Spens._) misshapen, deformed. DISMAYL, dis-m[=a]l', _v.t._ to deprive of mail: (_Spens._) to break open one's coat of mail. [O. Fr. _desmailler_, _des_--L. _dis_, neg., _maille_, mail.] DISME, d[=e]m, _n._ a tenth: (_Shak._) the number ten. [O. Fr. See DIME.] DISMEMBER, dis-mem'b[.e]r, _v.t._ to divide member from member: to separate a limb from the body: to disjoint: to tear to pieces.--_ns._ DISMEM'BERMENT; DISMEM'BRATOR. [O. Fr. _desmembrer_, _des_--L. _dis_, neg., _membre_, a member.] DISMISS, dis-mis', _v.t._ to send away: to despatch: to discard: to remove from office or employment: (_law_) to reject, to put out of court, to discharge.--_ns._ DISMISS'AL, DISMIS'SION.--_adjs._ DISMISS'IVE, DISMISS'ORY. [L. _dis_, away, _mitt[)e]re_, _missum_, to send.] DISMORTGAGE, dis-mor'g[=a]j, _v.t._ to redeem from mortgage. DISMOUNT, dis-mownt', _v.i._ to come down: to come off a horse.--_v.t._ to throw or bring down from any elevated place: to throw off their carriages, as cannon: to unhorse. [O. Fr. _desmonter_, _des_--L. _dis_, neg., _monter_, to mount.] DISNATURED, dis-n[=a]'t[=u]rd, _adj._ unnatural, devoid of natural affection.--_v.t._ DISNAT'URALISE, to make alien or unnatural. DISNEST, dis-nest', _v.t._ to dislodge from a nest. DISOBEDIENT, dis-o-b[=e]'di-ent, _adj._ neglecting or refusing to obey.--_n._ DISOB[=E]'DIENCE, neglect or refusal to obey: violation of orders.--_adv._ DISOB[=E]'DIENTLY. DISOBEY, dis-o-b[=a]', _v.t._ to neglect or refuse to obey or do what is commanded. [O. Fr. _desobeir_--_des_ (= L. _dis_), and _obeir_, to obey.] DISOBLIGE, dis-o-bl[=i]j', _v.t._ to offend by an act of unkindness or incivility: to do something against the wishes of another: to injure slightly.--_n._ DISOBLIG[=A]'TION, freedom from obligation: act of disobliging.--_adj._ DISOB'LIGATORY, releasing from obligation.--_n._ DISOBLIGE'MENT.--_adj._ DISOBLIG'ING, not obliging: not careful to attend to the wishes of others: unaccommodating: unkind.--_adv._ DISOBLIG'INGLY.--_n._ DISOBLIG'INGNESS. [O. Fr. _desobliger_, _des_ (= L. _dis_), neg., _obliger_, to oblige.] DISOMATOUS, d[=i]-s[=o]'ma-tus, _adj._ having two bodies. DISORBED, dis-orbd', _adj._ (_Shak._) thrown from its orbit, as a star. DISORDER, dis-or'd[.e]r, _n._ want of order: confusion: disturbance: breach of the peace: disease.--_v.t._ to throw out of order: to disarrange: to disturb: to produce disease.--_adj._ DISOR'DERED, confused, deranged.--_n._ DISOR'DERLINESS.--_adj._ DISOR'DERLY, out of order: in confusion: irregular: lawless: defying the restraints of decency.--_adv._ confusedly: in a lawless manner.--DISORDERLY HOUSE, a brothel. [O. Fr. _desordre_, _des_ (= L. _dis_), neg., _ordre_, order.] DISORDINATE, dis-or'din-[=a]t, _adj._ (_rare_) not in order: irregular.--_adv._ DISOR'DINATELY. DISORGANISE, dis-or'gan-[=i]z, _v.t._ to destroy the organic structure of: to break up a union of parts: to disorder.--_adj._ DISORGAN'IC.--_n._ DISORGANIS[=A]'TION. DISORIENT, dis-[=o]'ri-ent, _v.t._ to turn from the east: to confuse as to direction in general--also DISORIEN'TATE.--_n._ DISORIENT[=A]'TION. DISOWN, diz-[=o]n', _v.t._ to refuse to own or acknowledge as belonging to one's self: to deny: to repudiate, cast off--_n._ DISOWN'MENT. DISOXYDATE, dis-ok'si-d[=a]t, _v.t._ to deoxidate or deprive of oxygen.--Also DISOX'YGENATE. DISPACE, dis-p[=a]s', _v.i._ (_Spens._) to pace to and fro, to range about. DISPARAGE, dis-par'[=a]j, _v.t._ to dishonour by comparison with what is inferior: to lower in rank or estimation: to talk slightingly of.--_ns._ DISPAR'AGEMENT; DISPAR'AGER.--_adv._ DISPAR'AGINGLY. [O. Fr. _desparager_--_des_ (--L. _dis_), neg., and Low L. _paragium_, equality of birth--L. _par_, equal.] DISPARATE, dis'par-[=a]t, _adj._ unequal: incapable of being compared.--_n._ DISPARATE'NESS.--_n.pl._ DIS'PARATES, things or characters of different species. [L. _dispar[=a]tus_--_dis_, neg., and _par[=a]re_, make equal.] DISPARITY, dis-par'i-ti, _n._ inequality: unlikeness so great as to render comparison difficult and union unsuitable. DISPARK, dis-pärk', _v.t._ to throw open enclosed ground. DISPART, dis-pärt', _v.t._ to part asunder: to divide, to separate.--_v.i._ to separate.--_n._ the difference between the thickness of metal at the breech and the mouth of a gun. DISPASSION, dis-pash'un, _n._ freedom from passion: a calm state of mind.--_adj._ DISPAS'SION[=A]TE, free from passion: unmoved by feelings: cool: impartial.--_adv._ DISPAS'SION[=A]TELY. DISPATCH. Same as DESPATCH. DISPATHY, dis'pa-thi, _n._ difference of feeling, the opposite of _sympathy_. DISPAUPERISE, dis-paw-per-[=i]z', _v.t._ to free from pauperism or from paupers.--_v.t._ DISPAU'PER, to declare no longer a pauper. DISPEACE, dis-p[=e]s', _n._ lack of peace: dissension. [A recent coinage from _dis_, neg., and _peace_.] DISPEL, dis-pel', _v.t._ to drive away: to make disappear: to banish:--_pr.p._ dispel'ling; _pa.p._ dispelled'. [L. _dispell[)e]re_--_dis_, away, _pell[)e]re_, to drive.] DISPENCE, dis-pens' (_Spens._). Same as DISPENSE. DISPEND, dis-pend', _v.t._ (_arch._) to expend, pay out. [O. Fr.,--L. _dis_, out of, and _pend[)e]re_, to weigh.] DISPENSABLE, dis-pens'a-bl, _adj._ that may be dispensed, or dispensed with: (_arch._) pardonable.--_ns._ DISPENSABIL'ITY, DISPENS'ABLENESS. DISPENSARY, dis-pens'ar-i, _n._ a place where medicines are dispensed, esp. to the poor, gratis. DISPENSATION, dis-pen-s[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of dispensing or dealing out: various methods or stages of God's dealing with His creatures--_Patriarchal_, _Mosaic_, _Christian_: the distribution of good and evil in the divine government: license or permission to neglect a rule.--_adjs._ DISPENS'ATIVE, DISPENS'ATORY, granting dispensation.--_advs._ DISPENS'ATIVELY, DISPENS'ATORILY.--_n._ DISPENS'ATORY, a book containing medical prescriptions.--_adj._ DISPENS'ING. DISPENSE, dis-pens', _v.t._ to deal out in portions: to distribute: to administer: (_Spens._) to pay for.--_n._ expense: profession: abundance.--_adj._ DISPENSED'.--_n._ DISPENS'ER.--DISPENSE WITH, to permit the want of: to do without. [Fr. _dispenser_--L. _dis_, asunder, _pensare_, inten. of _pend[)e]re_, to weigh.] DISPEOPLE, dis-p[=e]'pl, _v.t._ to empty of inhabitants. DISPERMOUS, d[=i]-sp[.e]rm'us, _adj._ having only two seeds. [Gr. _di-_, twofold, _sperma_, a seed.] DISPERSE, dis-p[.e]rs', _v.t._ to scatter in all directions: to spread: to diffuse: to drive asunder: to cause to vanish.--_v.i._ to separate: to spread abroad: to vanish.--_n._ DISPERS'AL.--_adv._ DISPERS'EDLY.--_ns._ DISPERS'EDNESS; DISPERS'ER.--_adj._ DISPERS'IVE, tending to disperse. [L. _dispergere_, _dispersum_--_di_, asunder, apart, _sparg[)e]re_, to scatter.] DISPERSION, dis-p[.e]r'shun, _n._ a scattering, or state of being scattered: (_med._) the removal of inflammation: (_opt._) the separation of light into its different rays: the Diaspora (q.v.). DISPERSONATE, dis-per'son-[=a]t, _v.t._ to divest of personality. DISPIRIT, dis-pir'it, _v.t._ to dishearten: to discourage.--_p.adj._ DISPIR'ITED, dejected: feeble, spiritless.--_adv._ DISPIR'ITEDLY.--_n._ DISPIR'ITEDNESS.--_p.adj._ DISPIR'ITING, disheartening.--_n._ DISPIR'ITMENT. DISPITEOUS, dis-pit'e-us, _adj._ pitiless.--_adv._ DISPIT'EOUSLY.--_n._ DISPIT'EOUSNESS. [See DESPITE.] DISPLACE, dis-pl[=a]s', _v.t._ to put out of place: to disarrange: to remove from a state, office, or dignity.--_adj._ DISPLACE'ABLE.--_n._ DISPLACE'MENT, a putting out of place: the difference between the position of a body at a given time and that occupied at first: the quantity of water displaced by a ship afloat. [O. Fr. _desplacer_--L. _dis_, neg., and _place_.] DISPLANT, dis-plant', _v.t._ to remove anything from where it has been planted or placed: to drive from an abode.--_n._ DISPLANT[=A]'TION. [Through Fr. from L. _dis_, neg., and _plant[=a]re_, to plant.] DISPLAY, dis-pl[=a]', _v.t._ to unfold or spread out: to exhibit: to set out ostentatiously: (_print._) to make prominent by large type, wide spacing, &c.--_n._ a displaying or unfolding: exhibition: ostentatious show.--_p.adj._ DISPLAYED', unfolded: spread: printed in prominent letters: (_her._) erect, with wings expanded, as a bird.--_n._ DISPLAY'ER. [O. Fr. _despleier_--_des_ (= L. _dis_), neg., and _plier_, _ploier_--L. _plic[=a]re_, to fold; doublet, _deploy_. See PLY.] DISPLE, dis'pl, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to discipline, chastise. [A contraction of _disciple_.] DISPLEASE, dis-pl[=e]z', _v.t._ to offend: to make angry in a slight degree: to be disagreeable to.--_v.i._ to raise aversion.--_n._ DISPLEAS'ANCE (_Spens._), displeasure.--_adj._ DISPLEAS'ANT (_obs._).--_p.adj._ DISPLEASED', vexed, annoyed.--_adv._ DISPLEAS'EDLY.--_n._ DISPLEAS'EDNESS.--_p.adj._ DISPLEAS'ING, causing displeasure: giving offence.--_adv._ DISPLEAS'INGLY.--_n._ DISPLEAS'INGNESS. [O. Fr. _desplaisir_, _des_--L. _dis_, neg., _plaisir_, to please.] DISPLEASURE, dis-plezh'[=u]r, _n._ the feeling of one who is offended: anger: cause of irritation.--_v.t._ (_arch._) to displease, offend. DISPLENISH, dis-plen'ish, _v.t._ to deprive of plenishing or furniture, implements, &c.: to sell the plenishing of.--_n._ DISPLEN'ISHMENT. DISPLODE, dis-pl[=o]d', _v.t._ (_Milt._) to discharge, to explode.--_v.i._ to explode.--_n._ DISPLO'SION. [L. _displod[)e]re_--_dis_, asunder, _plaud[)e]re_, to beat.] DISPLUME, dis-pl[=oo]m', _v.t._ to deprive of plumes or feathers. DISPONDEE, d[=i]-spon'd[=e], _n._ a double spondee.--_adj._ DISPOND[=A]'IC. DISPONE, dis-p[=o]n', _v.t._ (_arch._) to set in order, dispose: (_Scots law_) to make over to another: to convey legally.--_n._ DISPON[=EE]', the person to whom anything is disponed. [Fr.,--L. _dispon[)e]re_, to arrange.] DISPONGE, DISPUNGE, dis-punj', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to sprinkle, as with water from a sponge. DISPORT, dis-p[=o]rt', _v.t._ and _v.i._ usually reflexive, to divert, amuse, enjoy one's self: to move in gaiety.--_n._ DISPORT'MENT. [O. Fr. _desporter_ (with _se_), to carry one's self away from one's work, to amuse one's self, from _des_ (= L. _dis_), and _porter_--L. _port[=a]re_, to carry. See SPORT.] DISPOSE, dis-p[=o]z', _v.t._ to arrange: to distribute: to apply to a particular purpose: to make over by sale, gift, &c.: to bestow: to incline.--_n._ disposal, management: behaviour, disposition.--_adj._ DISPOS'ABLE.--_n._ DISPOS'AL, the act of disposing: order: arrangement: management: right of bestowing.--_p.adj._ DISPOSED', inclined, of a certain disposition (with _well_, _ill_, &c.).--_adv._ DISPOS'EDLY, in good order: with measured steps.--_n._ DISPOS'ER.--_p.adj._ DISPOS'ING, that disposes.--_adv._ DISPOS'INGLY.--DISPOSE OF, to place in any condition: to apply to any purpose: to part with: to get rid of: to sell. [Fr. _disposer_, _dis_--L. _dis_, asunder, _poser_, to place.] DISPOSITION, dis-po-zish'un, _n._ arrangement: plan for disposing one's property, &c.: natural tendency: temper: (_N.T._) ministration: (_Scots law_) a giving over to another = conveyance or assignment in Eng. phraseology--often 'disposition and settlement,' a deed for the disposal of a man's property at his death.--_adjs._ DISPOSI'TIONAL; DISPOSI'TIONED; DISPOS'ITIVE.--_adv._ DISPOS'ITIVELY.--_ns._ DISPOS'ITOR, a planet that disposes or controls another; DISP[=O]'SURE (_obs._), disposal, arrangement: disposition. [Fr.,--L., from _dis_, apart, _pon[)e]re_, to place.] DISPOSSESS, dis-poz-zes', _v.t._ to put out of possession.--_n._ DISPOSSESS'OR. DISPOST, dis-p[=o]st', _v.t._ to displace. DISPRAISE, dis-pr[=a]z', _n._ blame: reproach: dishonour.--_v.t._ to blame: to censure.--_n._ DISPRAIS'ER.--_adv._ DISPRAIS'INGLY. [O. Fr. _despreisier_, _des_--L. _dis_, neg., _preisier_, to praise.] DISPREAD, dis-pred', _v.t._ to spread in different ways.--_v.i._ to spread out: to expand.--Spenser has the forms _dispred_, _dispredden_, _disprad_. DISPRINCED, dis-prinst', _p.adj._ (_Tenn._) deprived of the appearance of a prince. DISPRISON, dis-priz'n, _v.t._ to set free. DISPRIVACIED, dis-priv'a-sid, _adj._ deprived of privacy. DISPRIVILEGE, dis-priv'i-lej, _v.t._ to deprive of a privilege. DISPRIZE, dis-pr[=i]z', _v.t._ to set a low price upon: to undervalue. DISPROFESS, dis-pr[=o]-fes', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to cease to profess. DISPROFIT, dis-prof'it, _n._ loss, damage. DISPROOF, dis-pr[=oo]f', _n._ a disproving: refutation. DISPROPERTY, dis-prop'[.e]r-ti, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to deprive of any property. DISPROPORTION, dis-pro-p[=o]r'shun, _n._ want of proportion, symmetry, or suitableness of parts: inequality.--_v.t._ to make unsuitable in form or size, &c.--_n._ DISPROPOR'TIONABLENESS.--_adv._ DISPROPOR'TIONABLY.--_adjs._ DISPROPOR'TIONAL, DISPROPOR'TIONABLE (_arch._).--_advs._ DISPROPOR'TIONALLY, DISPROPOR'TIONABLY (_arch._).--_adj._ DISPROPOR'TIONATE, not proportioned: unsymmetrical: unsuitable to something else in some respect.--_adv._ DISPROPOR'TIONATELY.--_n._ DISPROPOR'TIONATENESS. DISPROPRIATE, dis-pr[=o]'pri-[=a]t, _v.t._ to disappropriate. DISPROVE, dis-pr[=oo]v', _v.t._ to prove to be false or not genuine: to refute: (_arch._) to disapprove.--_n._ DISPROV'AL. [O. Fr. _disprover_. See PROVE.] DISPURSE, dis-purs', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to take out of the purse, to pay. DISPURVEY, dis-pur-v[=a]', _v.t._ (_arch._) to deprive of provisions.--_n._ DISPURVEY'ANCE (_Spens._). DISPUTE, dis-p[=u]t', _v.t._ to make a subject of argument: to contend for: to oppose by argument: to call in question.--_v.i._ to argue: to debate.--_n._ a contest with words: an argument: a debate: a quarrel.--_adj._ DIS'PUTABLE, that may be disputed: of doubtful certainty.--_n._ DIS'PUTABLENESS.--_adv._ DIS'PUTABLY.--_ns._ DIS'PUTANT, DISPUT'ER; DISPUT[=A]'TION, a contest in argument: an exercise in debate.--_adjs._ DISPUT[=A]'TIOUS, DISPUT'ATIVE, inclined to dispute, cavil, or controvert.--_adv._ DISPUT[=A]'TIOUSLY.--_n._ DISPUT[A]'TIOUSNESS.--BEYOND, or WITHOUT, DISPUTE, indubitably, certainly. [O. Fr. _disputer_--L. _disput[=a]re_--_dis_, apart, and _put[=a]re_, to think.] DISQUALIFY, dis-kwol'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to deprive of the qualities necessary for any purpose: to make unfit: to disable.--_n._ DISQUALIFIC[=A]'TION, state of being disqualified: anything that disqualifies or incapacitates. DISQUIET, dis-kw[=i]'et, _adj._ (_obs._) unquiet, uneasy, restless.--_n._ want of quiet: uneasiness, restlessness: anxiety.--_v.t._ to render unquiet: to make uneasy: to disturb.--_adjs._ DISQU[=I]'ETFUL; DISQU[=I]'ETIVE, DISQU[=I]'ETING.--_adv._ DISQU[=I]'ETLY (_Shak._).--_ns._ DISQU[=I]'ETNESS, DISQU[=I]'ETUDE.--_adj._ DISQU[=I]'ETOUS. DISQUISITION, dis-kwi-zish'un, _n._ a careful inquiry into any matter by arguments, &c.: an essay.--_adjs._ DISQUISI'TIONAL, DISQUISI'TIONARY, DISQUIS'ITORY, DISQUIS'ITIVE, pertaining to or of the nature of a disquisition. [L. _disquisitio_--_disquir[)e]re_, _disquisitum_--_dis_, inten., _quær[)e]re_, to seek.] DISRANK, dis-rangk', _v.t._ to reduce to a lower rank: to throw into confusion. DISRATE, dis-r[=a]t', _v.t._ (_naut._) to reduce to a lower rating or rank, as a petty officer. DISREGARD, dis-re-gärd', _v.t._ to pay no attention to.--_n._ want of attention: neglect: slight.--_adj._ DISREGARD'FUL--_adv._ DISREGARD'FULLY. DISRELISH, dis-rel'ish, _v.t._ not to relish: to dislike the taste of: to dislike.--_n._ distaste: dislike: disgust.--_p.adj._ DISREL'ISHING, offensive. DISREMEMBER, dis-re-mem'b[.e]r, _v.t._ (_vul._) not to remember, to forget. DISREPAIR, dis-re-p[=a]r', _n._ state of being out of repair. DISREPUTE, dis-re-p[=u]t', _n._ ill-character: discredit--also DISREPUT[=A]'TION.--_adj._ DISREP'UTABLE, in bad repute: disgraceful.--_ns._ DISREP'UTABLENESS, DISREPUTABIL'ITY (_rare_).--_adv._ DISREP'UTABLY. DISRESPECT, dis-re-spekt', _n._ want of respect: discourtesy: incivility.--_v.t._ (_arch._) not to respect.--_adjs._ DISRESPECT'ABLE (_rare_), not respectable; DISRESPECT'FUL, showing disrespect: irreverent: uncivil.--_adv._ DISRESPECT'FULLY.--_n._ DISRESPECT'FULNESS. DISROBE, dis-r[=o]b', _v.t._ to undress: to uncover. DISROOT, dis-r[=oo]t', _v.t._ to tear up by the roots. DISRUPT, dis-rupt', _v.t._ to burst asunder, to break up.--_n._ DISRUP'TION, the act of breaking asunder: the act of bursting and rending: breach: in Scottish ecclesiastical history, the separation of the party who became the Free Church from the Established Church for the sake of spiritual independence (1843).--_adj._ DISRUP'TIVE, causing, or accompanied by, disruption. [L. _disruptus_, _diruptus_, _dirump[)e]re_--_dis_, asunder, _rump[)e]re_, to break.] DISS, dis, _n._ an Algerian reedy grass used for cordage. DISSATISFACTORY, dis-sat-is-fak'tor-i, _adj._ causing dissatisfaction: unable to give content.--_ns._ DISSATISFAC'TION, state of being dissatisfied: discontent: uneasiness; DISSATISFAC'TORINESS. DISSATISFY, dis-sat'is-f[=i], _v.t._ not to satisfy: to make discontented: to displease.--_adj._ DISSAT'ISFIED, discontented: not pleased. DISSEAT, dis-s[=e]t', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to deprive of, or remove from, a seat. DISSECT, dis-sekt', _v.t._ to cut asunder: to cut into parts for the purpose of minute examination: to divide and examine: to analyse and criticise (often hostilely, as a man's character or motives).--_adj._ DISSECT'IBLE.--_ns._ DISSECT'ING; DISSEC'TION, the act or the art of cutting in pieces a plant or animal in order to ascertain the structure of its parts: anatomy.--_adj._ DISSECT'IVE, tending to dissect.--_n._ DISSECT'OR.--DISSECTED MAP, PICTURE, a map or picture on a board cut into pieces, so that the putting of them together forms a puzzle. [L. _dissec[=a]re_, _dissectum_--_dis_, asunder, _sec[=a]re_, to cut.] DISSEIZE, dis-s[=e]z', _v.t._ to deprive of seizin or possession of an estate of freehold: to dispossess wrongfully.--_ns._ DISSEIZ'IN; DISSEIZ'OR. DISSEMBLE, dis-sem'bl, _v.t._ to represent a thing as unlike what it actually is: to put an untrue semblance upon: to disguise: to conceal: (_Shak._) to make unlike.--_v.i._ to assume a false appearance: to play the hypocrite: to dissimulate--_ns._ DISSEM'BLANCE (_rare_), want of resemblance: the act of dissembling; DISSEM'BLER; DISSEM'BLING.--_p.adj._ deceiving, hypocritical.--_adv._ DISSEM'BLINGLY. [O. Fr. _dessembler_, to be unlike, from L. _dissimul[=a]re_--_dissimilis_, unlike--_dis_, neg., and _similis_, like.] DISSEMINATE, dis-sem'i-n[=a]t, _v.t._ to sow or scatter abroad: to propagate: to diffuse.--_n._ DISSEMIN[=A]'TION.--_adj._ DISSEM'INATIVE.--_n._ DISSEM'INATOR. [L. _disseminare_, _-[=a]tum_--_dis_, asunder, _semin[=a]re_, to sow--_semen_, _seminis_, seed.] DISSENT, dis-sent', _v.i._ to think differently: to disagree in opinion: to differ (with _from_).--_n._ the act of dissenting: difference of opinion: a protest by a minority: a differing or separation from an established church.--_ns._ DISSEN'SION, disagreement in opinion: discord: strife; DISSENT'ER, one who separates on conscientious grounds from the service and worship of an established church: a nonconformist; DISSENT'ERAGE, condition of dissenters; DISSENT'ERISM (_rare_).--_adj._ DISSEN'TIENT, declaring dissent: disagreeing.--_n._ one who disagrees: one who declares his dissent.--_p.adj._ DISSENT'ING.--_adv._ DISSENT'INGLY.--_adj._ DISSEN'TIOUS (_Shak._), disposed to discord, contentious. [Fr.,--L. _dissent[=i]re_, _dissensum_--_dis_, apart from, _sent[=i]re_, to think.] DISSEPIMENT, dis-sep'i-ment, _n._ (_bot._) a partition in compound ovaries formed by the union of the sides of their carpels.--_adj._ DISSEPIMENT'AL. [Low L. _dissepimentum_, a partition--L. _dissæp[=i]re_--_dis_, apart, _sep[=i]re_, to hedge in.] DISSERTATE, dis'er-t[=a]t, _v.i._ to discourse--(_arch._) DISSERT'.--_n._ DISSERT[=A]'TION, a formal discourse: a treatise.--_adjs._ DISSERT[=A]'TIONAL, DISSERT[=A]'TIVE.--_n._ DIS'SERT[=A]TOR. [Fr.,--L. _dissert[=a]re_, inten. of _disser[)e]re_, to discuss--_dis_, _ser[)e]re_, to put in a row.] DISSERVE, dis-serv', _v.t._ to do the opposite of serving: (_rare_) to injure.--_n._ DISSERV'ICE, injury: mischief: an ill turn.--_adj._ DISSERV'ICEABLE. [O. Fr. _desservir_--L. _dis_, neg., _serv[=i]re_, to serve.] DISSETTLE, dis-set'l, _v.t._ to unsettle.--_adj._ DISSETT'LED.--_n._ DISSETT'LEMENT. DISSEVER, dis-sev'[.e]r, _v.t._ to sever: to part in two: to separate: to disunite.--_ns._ DISSEV'ERANCE, DISSEVER[=A]'TION, DISSEV'ERMENT, a dissevering or parting.--_p.adj._ DISSEV'ERED, disunited. [O. Fr. _dessevrer_--L. _dis_, apart, _seper[=a]re_, to separate.] DISSHEATHE, dis-sh[=e]th', _v.t._ to unsheathe. DISSIDENT, dis'i-dent, _adj._ dissenting.--_n._ a dissenter.--_n._ DISS'IDENCE, disagreement. [L. _dissidens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _dissid[=e]re_--_dis_, apart, _sed[=e]re_, to sit.] DISSIGHT, dis-s[=i]t', _n._ an unsightly object. DISSILIENT, dis-sil'yent, _adj._ (_bot._) bursting open with elastic force.--_n._ DISSIL'IENCE. [L. _dissiliens_, _-entis_--_dis_, asunder, _sal[=i]re_, to leap.] DISSIMILAR, dis-sim'i-lar, _adj._ not similar: unlike in any respect: of different sorts.--_ns._ DISSIMILAR'ITY, DISSIMIL'ITUDE, unlikeness: want of resemblance.--_adv._ DISSIM'ILARLY.--_ns._ DISSIMIL[=A]'TION, the act of rendering dissimilar; DISSIM'ILE, the opposite of a simile, a comparison by contrast. DISSIMULATE, dis-sim'[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to pretend the contrary of: to pretend falsely: to conceal.--_v.i._ to practise dissimulation, play the hypocrite.--_ns._ DISSIMUL[=A]'TION, the act of dissembling: a hiding under a false appearance: false pretension: hypocrisy; DISSIMUL[=A]'TOR. [L. _dissimul[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to dissimulate--_dis_, neg., _similis_, like.] DISSIPATE, dis'i-p[=a]t, _v.t._ to scatter: to squander: to waste.--_v.i._ to separate and disappear: to waste away: (_coll._) to be dissolute in conduct.--_adj._ DISS'IPABLE, that may be dissipated.--_p.adj._ DISS'IPATED, dissolute, esp. addicted to drinking.--_n._ DISSIP[=A]'TION, dispersion: state of being dispersed: scattered attention: a dissolute course of life, esp. hard drinking.--_adj._ DISS'IPATIVE, tending to dissipate or disperse: connected with the dissipation of energy. [L. _dissip[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_dis_, asunder, and obs. _sup[=a]re_, which appears in _insip[)e]re_, to throw into.] DISSOCIATE, dis-s[=o]'shi-[=a]t, _v.t._ to separate from a society or company: to disunite: to separate.--_n._ DISSOCIABIL'ITY.--_adjs._ DISS[=O]'CIABLE, not sociable: ill associated: incongruous: capable of being dissociated; DISS[=O]'CIAL, not social.--_v.t._ DISS[=O]'CIALISE, to make unsocial.--_n._ DISSOCI[=A]'TION.--_adj._ DISS[=O]'-CIATIVE (_chem._), tending to dissociate. [L. _dissoci[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_dis_, asunder, _soci[=a]re_, to unite.] DISSOLUBLE, dis'ol-[=u]-bl, or dis-zol'[=u]-bl, _adj._ dissolvable.--_ns._ DISSOLUBIL'ITY, DISSOL'UBLENESS, capacity of being dissolved. DISSOLVE, di-zolv', _v.t._ to loose asunder: to separate or break up: to put an end to (as a parliament): to melt: to destroy, as by fire: (_arch._) to resolve, as doubts.--_v.i._ to break up: to waste away: to crumble: to melt.--_adj._ DISS'OL[=U]TE, loose, esp. in morals: lewd: licentious.--_adv._ DISS'OL[=U]TELY.--_ns._ DISS'OL[=U]TENESS; DISSOL[=U]'TION, the breaking up of an assembly: change from a solid to a liquid state: a melting: separation of a body into its original elements: decomposition: destruction: death; DISSOL[=U]'TIONISM; DISSOL[=U]'TIONIST.--_ns._ DISSOLVABIL'ITY, DISSOLV'ABLENESS.--_adjs._ DISSOLV'ABLE, DISSOLV'IBLE, capable of being dissolved or melted.--_n._ and _adj._ DISSOLV'ENT, a solvent having the power to melt. [L. _dissolv[)e]re_, _-solutum_--_dis_, asunder, _solv[)e]re_, _sol[=u]tum_, to loose.] DISSONANT, dis'o-nant, _adj._ not agreeing or harmonising in sound: without concord or harmony: disagreeing.--_n._ DISS'ONANCE, disagreement of sound: want of harmony: discord: disagreement: (_spec._) a combination of musical sounds which produces beats--also DISS'ONANCY. [Fr.,--L. _dissonans_, _-antis_--_dis_, apart, _son[=a]re_, to sound.] DISSUADE, dis-sw[=a]d', _v.t._ to advise against: to try to divert from anything by advice or persuasion: to succeed in persuading not to.--_ns._ DISSU[=A]'DER; DISSU[=A]'SION.--_adj._ DISSU[=A]'SIVE, tending to dissuade.--_n._ that which tends to dissuade.--_adv._ DISSU[=A]'SIVELY.--_n._ and _adj._ DISSU[=A]'SORY (_rare_). [Fr.,--L. _dissuad[=e]re_--_dis_, apart, _suad[=e]re_, _suasum_, to advise.] DISSUNDER, dis-sun'd[.e]r, _v.t._ to sunder. DISSYLLABLE, dis-sil'a-bl, _n._ a word of only two syllables.--_adj._ DISSYLLAB'IC.--_n._ DISSYLLABIFIC[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ DISSYLLAB'IFY, to make into two syllables.--_n._ DISSYLL'ABISM, the character of having only two syllables. [Through Fr. and L. from Gr. _di-_, twice, _syllab[=e]_, a syllable.] DISSYMMETRY, dis-sim'e-tri, _n._ want of symmetry.--_adjs._ DISSYMMET'RIC, -AL, of similar shape, but not capable of being superposed, as right and left hand gloves, crystals with different optical properties, &c. DISTAFF, dis'taf, _n._ the stick which holds the bunch of flax, tow, or wool in spinning.--DISTAFF SIDE, the female part of a family. [A.S. _distæf_, from _dise_ = Low Ger. _diesse_, the bunch of flax on the staff; and _stæf_ = Eng. staff. See DIZEN.] DISTAIN, dis-t[=a]n', _v.t._ to stain: to sully. [O. Fr. _desteindre_, to take away the colour of--L. _dis_, neg., and _ting[)e]re_, to stain. See STAIN.] DISTAL, dis'tal, _adj._ (_anat._) at the end.--_adv._ DIS'TALLY. [Formed on the analogy of _central_, from DISTANCE.] DISTANCE, dis'tans, _n._ a space or interval between: remoteness: opposition: reserve of manner: in horse-racing, the space measured back from the winning-post which a horse, in heat-races, must reach when the winner has covered the whole course, in order to run in the final heat.--_v.t._ to place at a distance: to leave at a distance behind.--_adj._ DIS'TANCELESS, not allowing a distant view--said of hazy weather: having no indications of distance--said of certain pictures.--KEEP ONE AT A DISTANCE, to treat with reserve; KEEP ONE'S DISTANCE, to abstain from familiarity with, to keep aloof from. [See DISTANT.] DISTANT, dis'tant, _adj._ at a certain distance: remote, in time, place, or connection: not obvious: indistinct: reserved in manner.--_adv._ DIS'TANTLY. [Fr.,--L. _distans_, _-tantis_--_dis_, apart, _stans_, _stantis_, pr.p. of _st[=a]re_, to stand.] DISTASTE, dis-t[=a]st', _n._ oppositeness or aversion of taste: dislike of food: dislike: disgust.--_v.t._ (_arch._) to dislike: (_obs._) to offend: (_Shak._) to spoil the taste of.--_v.i._ (_Shak._) to be distasteful.--_adj._ DISTASTE'FUL, nauseous to the taste: unpleasant: (_Shak._) indicating distaste.--_adv._ DISTASTE'FULLY.--_n._ DISTASTE'FULNESS. DISTEMPER, dis-tem'p[.e]r, _n._ a coarse mode of painting, in which the colours are mixed in a watery glue, white of egg, &c., chiefly used in scene-painting and in staining paper for walls.--Also DESTEM'PER. [Same ety. as succeeding word.] DISTEMPER, dis-tem'p[.e]r, _n._ a morbid or disorderly state of body or mind: disease, esp. of animals, specifically a typhoid inflammation of the mucous membranes of young dogs: ill-humour.--_v.t._ to derange the temper: to disorder or disease.--_adj._ DISTEM'PERATE, not temperate, immoderate: diseased.--_n._ DISTEM'PERATURE (_arch._), want of proper temperature: intemperateness, disturbance: uneasiness of mind: indisposition.--_p.adj._ DISTEM'PERED, disordered: intemperate, ill-humoured, put out of sorts. [O. Fr. _destemprer_, to derange--L. _dis_, apart, _temper[=a]re_, to govern.] DISTEND, dis-tend', _v.t._ to stretch in all directions: to swell.--_v.i._ to swell.--_n._ DISTENSIBIL'ITY, capacity for distension.--_adjs._ DISTEN'SIBLE, that may be stretched; DISTEN'SIVE, capable of stretching or of being stretched; DISTENT' (_Spens._), distended.--_ns._ DISTEN'TION, DISTEN'SION, act of distending or stretching: state of being stretched: (_rare_) breadth. [Fr.,--L. _distend[)e]re_--_dis_, asunder, _tend[)e]re_, _tensum_ or _tentum_, to stretch.] DISTHENE, dis'th[=e]n, _n._ cyanite--so called from its positive and negative electric properties. [Gr. _di-_, two, _sthenos_, strength.] DISTHRONE, dis-thr[=o]n', _v.t._ (_obs._) to dethrone--(_Spens._) DISTHR[=O]N'ISE. DISTICH, dis'tik, _n._ a couple of lines or verses, making complete sense: a couplet.--_adj._ having two rows.--_adj._ DIS'TICHOUS (_bot._), arranged in two rows. [L.,--Gr. _distichos_--_dis_, twice, _stichos_, a line.] DISTIL, dis-til', _v.i._ to fall in drops; to flow gently: to use a still.--_v.t._ to let or cause to fall in drops: to convert a liquid into vapour by heat, and then to condense it again: to extract the spirit or essential oil from anything by evaporation and condensation:--_pr.p._ distil'ling; _pa.p._ distilled'.--_adj._ DISTIL'LABLE.--_ns._ DISTIL'L[=A]TE, the product of distillation; DISTILL[=A]'TION, the act of distilling.--_adj._ DISTIL'LATORY, of or for distilling.--_ns._ DISTIL'LER; DISTIL'LERY, a place where distilling is carried on; DISTIL'LING, the action of the verb _distil_, distillation; DISTIL'MENT (_Shak._), that which is distilled.--DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION, the collection of the volatile matters released when a substance is destroyed by heat in a close vessel (as coal in making gas); FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION, the separation by distilling liquids having different boiling-points, the heat being gradually increased and the receiver changed. [O. Fr. _distiller_--L. _distill[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_de_, down, _still[=a]re_, to drop--_stilla_, a drop.] DISTINCT, dis-tingkt', _adj._ separate: different: well-defined: clear: (_Spens._, _Milt._) adorned.--_adj._ DISTINCTIVE, marking or expressing difference.--_adv._ DISTINCT'IVELY.--_n._ DISTINCT'IVENESS.--_adv._ DISTINCT'LY.--_ns._ DISTINCT'NESS; DISTINCT'URE, distinctness. [See DISTINGUISH.] DISTINCTION, dis-tingk'shun, _n._ separation or division: that which distinguishes or gives distinction: difference: eminence: characteristic dignity and elegance of style: honourable treatment. DISTINGUISH, dis-ting'gwish, _v.t._ to mark off, set apart (often with _from_): to recognise by characteristic qualities: to discern critically: to separate by a mark of honour: to make eminent or known.--_v.i._ to make or show distinctions or differences, to recognise the difference (with _from_, _between_).--_adj._ DISTING'UISHABLE, that may be capable of being distinguished.--_adv._ DISTING'UISHABLY.--_p.adj._ DISTING'UISHED, illustrious.--_n._ DISTING'UISHER.--_p.adj._ DISTING'UISHING, peculiar.--_n._ DISTING'UISHMENT (_Shak._), distinction. [Through Fr. from L. _distingu[)e]re_, _distinctum_--_dis_, asunder, _stingu[)e]re_, to prick, conn. with Gr. _stizein_, to mark. See STING.] DISTOMA, dis't[=o]-ma, _n._ the genus of trematode worms to which the liver-fluke belongs. [Gr. _distomos_, two-mouthed--_dis_, and _stoma_, the mouth.] DISTORT, dis-tort', _v.t._ to turn a different way: to force out of the natural or regular shape or direction: to turn aside from the true meaning: to pervert: to misrepresent.--_p.adj._ DISTORT'ED.--_n._ DISTOR'TION, a twisting out of regular shape: crookedness: perversion.--_adj._ DISTORT'IVE, causing distortion. [L. _dis_, asunder, _torqu[=e]re_, _tortum_, to twist.] DISTRACT, dis-trakt', _v.t._ to draw in different directions--applied to the mind or attention: to confuse: to harass: to render crazy: to divert.--_adj._ DISTRACT'ED.--_adv._ DISTRACT'EDLY.--_n._ DISTRACT'EDNESS.--_adjs._ DISTRACT'IBLE; DISTRACT'ILE (_bot._), carried widely apart.--_n._ DISTRAC'TION, state of being distracted: perplexity: agitation: madness: a diversion.--_adj._ DISTRACT'IVE, causing perplexity. DISTRAIN, dis-tr[=a]n', _v.t._ to seize, esp. goods for debt, esp. for non-payment of rent or rates.--_v.i._ to seize the goods of a debtor.--_adj._ DISTRAIN'ABLE.--_ns._ DISTRAIN'MENT; DISTRAIN'OR, DISTRAIN'ER; DISTRAINT', seizure of goods. [O. Fr. _destraindre_--L. _dis_, asunder, _string[)e]re_, to draw tight.] DISTRAIT, dis'tr[=a], _adj._ absent-minded. [Fr.] DISTRAUGHT, dis-trawt', _adj._ distracted: perplexed. [See DISTRACT.] DISTRESS, dis-tres', _n._ extreme pain: that which causes suffering: calamity: misfortune: (_arch._) compulsion: act of distraining goods.--_v.t._ to afflict with pain or suffering: to harass: to grieve: to distrain.--_p.adj._ DISTRESSED'.--_adj._ DISTRESS'FUL.--_adv._ DISTRESS'FULLY.--_n._ DISTRESS'FULNESS.--_p.adj._ DISTRESS'ING.--_adv._ DISTRESS'INGLY. [O. Fr. _destresse_--L. _distring[)e]re_, _districtum_, to pull asunder.] DISTRIBUTE, dis-trib'[=u]t, _v.t._ to divide amongst several: to deal out or allot: to classify: to give a logical term its fullest extension.--_n._ DISTRIB'UEND, that which is to be distributed.--_adjs._ DISTRIB'UTABLE, that may be divided; DISTRIB'UTARY, distributing.--_ns._ DISTRIB'UTER, -OR; DISTRIB[=U]'TION, allotment: classification: the application of a general term to all the objects denoted by it.--_adjs._ DISTRIB[=U]'TIONAL; DISTRIB'UTIVE, that distributes, separates, or divides: giving to each his own.--_n._ a word, like _each_ or _every_, that indicates the several individuals of a number.--_adv._ DISTRIB'UTIVELY.--GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, the department of science that treats of the distribution of animals and plants over certain areas of the globe. [L. _distribu[)e]re_--_dis_, asunder, _tribu[)e]re_, _trib[=u]tum_, to allot.] DISTRICT, dis'trikt, _n._ a portion of territory defined for political, judicial, educational, or other purposes (as a registration district, a militia district, the District of Columbia): a region.--_v.t._ to divide into districts. [Fr.,--L. _districtus_--_distring[)e]re_, to draw tight.] DISTRINGAS, dis-tring'gas, _n._ an old writ directing a sheriff or other officer to distrain. [Second pers. sing. pres. subj. of Late L. _distring[)e]re_, to distrain.] DISTROUBLE, dis-trub'l, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to trouble greatly, to perplex. [L. _dis_, inten., and _trouble_.] DISTRUST, dis-trust', _n._ want of trust: want of faith or confidence: doubt.--_v.t._ to have no trust in: to disbelieve: to doubt.--_adj._ DISTRUST'FUL, full of distrust: apt to distrust: suspicious.--_adv._ DISTRUST'FULLY.--_n._ DISTRUST'FULNESS.--_adj._ DISTRUST'LESS. DISTUNE, dis-t[=u]n', _v.t._ to put out of tune. DISTURB, dis-turb', _v.t._ to throw into confusion: to agitate: to disquiet: to interrupt.--_n._ DISTURB'ANCE, agitation: tumult: interruption: perplexity.--_adj._ and _n._ DISTURB'ANT, disturbing.--_adjs._ DISTURB'ATIVE; DISTURBED'.--_n._ DISTURB'ER. [O. Fr. _distourber_--L. _disturb[=a]re_, _dis_, asunder, _turb[=a]re_, to agitate--_turba_, a crowd.] DISTYLE, dis'til, _n._ a portico with two columns. [Gr. _distylos_--_di-_, two, and _stylos_, column.] DISULPHATE, d[=i]-sul'f[=a]t, _n._ a sulphate containing one atom of hydrogen replaceable by a base.--_n._ DISUL'PHIDE, a sulphide containing two atoms of sulphur to the molecule--also DISUL'PHURET.--_adj._ DISULPH[=U]'RIC, containing two sulphuric-acid radicals. DISUNIFORM, dis-[=u]'ni-form, _adj._ not uniform.--_n._ DISUNIFORM'ITY. DISUNION, dis-[=u]n'yun, _n._ want of union: breaking up of union or concord: separation.--_n._ DISUN'IONIST, promoter of disunion. DISUNITE, dis-[=u]-n[=i]t', _v.t._ to separate what is united: to sever or sunder.--_v.i._ to fall asunder: to part.--_n._ DIS[=U]'NITY, state of disunion. DISUSE, dis-[=u]s', or dis'[=u]s, _n._ cessation or giving up of use or custom.--_v.t._ (dis-[=u]z') to cease to use or practise.--_n._ DISUSAGE (dis-[=u]z'-), gradual cessation of use or custom. DISVALUE, dis-val'[=u], _v.t._ (_Shak._) to diminish in value, disparage. DISVOUCH, dis-vowch', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to discredit, contradict. DISWARREN, dis-wor'en, _v.t._ to deprive of the character of a warren. DISWEAPON, dis-wep'un, _v.t._ to disarm. DISYLLABLE. See DISSYLLABLE. DISYOKE, dis-y[=o]k', _v.t._ (_Tenn._) to free from the yoke. DIT, dit, _n._ (_Spens._) a ditty. [See DITTY.] DITAL, dit'al, _n._ a digital key for raising the pitch of a guitar a semitone. [It.,--L. _digitus_, a finger.] DITCH, dich, _n._ a trench dug in the ground: any long narrow receptacle for water.--_v.i._ to make a ditch or ditches.--_v.t._ to dig a ditch in or around: to drain by ditches.--_ns._ DITCH'-DOG (_Shak._), a dead dog rotting in a ditch; DITCH'ER, a ditch-maker. [A corr. of _dike_.] DITE, d[=i]t, _v.t._ (_Spens._). Same as DIGHT. DITETRAGONAL, d[=i]-tet-rag'o-nal, _adj._ twice tetragonal. DITETRAHEDRAL, d[=i]-tet-ra-h[=e]'dral, _adj._ twice tetrahedral. DITHEISM, d[=i]'th[=e]-izm, _n._ the doctrine of the existence of two supreme gods.--_n._ D[=I]'THEIST.--_adjs._ DITHEIST'IC, -AL. [Gr. _di-_, two, and _theos_, a god.] DITHYRAMB, dith'i-ram, _n._ an ancient Greek hymn sung in honour of Bacchus: a short poem of a like character.--_adj._ DITHYRAM'BIC, of or like a dithyramb: enthusiastic: wild and boisterous. [L.,--Gr. _dithyrambos_, a hymn in honour of Bacchus.] DITOKOUS, dit'[=o]-kus, _adj._ producing two at a birth. [Gr. _di-_, two, _tiktein_, to bring forth.] DITONE, d[=i]'t[=o]n, _n._ an interval containing two tones, a major third. DITRICHOTOMOUS, d[=i]-tri-kot'[=o]-mus, _adj._ divided into twos and threes. DITRIGLYPH, d[=i]-tr[=i]'glif, _n._ a space for two triglyphs in the entablature between columns.--_adj._ DITRIGLYPH'IC. DITROCHEE, d[=i]-tr[=o]'k[=e], _n._ a trochaic dipody.--_adj._ DITR[=O]'CHEAN. DITTANDER, di-tan'd[.e]r, _n._ pepperwort: dittany. DITTANY, dit'a-ni, _n._ a genus of aromatic perennial plants, formerly much used medicinally as a tonic. [O. Fr. _dictame_--L. _dictamnus_--Gr. _diktamnos_; prob. from Mt. _Dikt[=e]_ in Crete.] DITTAY, dit'[=a], _n._ (_Scots law_) an indictment, charge. [O. Fr. _ditté_--L. _dict[=a]tum_. Cf. DITTY, DICTATE.] DITTIED, dit'id, _adj._ (_Milt._) sung, as a ditty. DITTO, dit'[=o], contracted DO., _n._ that which has been said: the same thing.--_adv._ as before, or aforesaid: in like manner.--_n.pl._ DITT'OS, a suit of clothes of the same colour throughout. [It. _ditto_--L. _dictum_, said, pa.p. of _dic[)e]re_, to say.] DITTOGRAPHY, di-tog'ra-fi, _n._ mechanical repetition of letters or words in copying a manuscript. [Gr. _dittos_, double, _graphein_, to write.] DITTOLOGY, di-tol'o-ji, _n._ a double reading. [Gr. _dittologia_--_dittos_, double, _graphein_, to write.] DITTY, dit'i, _n._ a song: a little poem to be sung. [O. Fr. _ditie_--L. _dict[=a]tum_, neut. of _dict[=a]tus_, perf. part. of _dict[=a]re_, to dictate.] DITTY-BAG, dit'i-bag, _n._ a sailor's bag for needles, thread, &c.--Also DITT'Y-BOX. DIURETIC, d[=i]-[=u]-ret'ik, _adj._ promoting the discharge of urine.--_n._ a medicine causing this discharge.--_n._ DIUR[=E]'SIS, the excessive discharge of urine. [Fr.,--Gr. _diour[=e]tikos_--_dia_, through, _ouron_, urine.] DIURNAL, d[=i]-ur'nal, _adj._ daily: relating to or performed in a day.--_n._ a service-book containing the day hours, except matins (a night-office): a diary, journal.--_n._ DIUR'NALIST, a journalist.--_adv._ DIUR'NALLY. [L. _diurn[=a]lis_--_dies_, a day. See JOURNAL.] DIUTURNAL, d[=i]-[=u]-tur'nal, _adj._ lasting long.--_n._ DIUTUR'NITY. DIV, d[=i]v, _n._ an evil spirit of Persian mythology. DIVA, d[=i]'va, _n._ a popular female singer: a prima-donna. [It.,--L. _diva_, fem. of _divus_, divine.] DIVAGATION, d[=i]-va-g[=a]'shun, _n._ a digression, deviation.--_v.i._ D[=I]'VAGATE, to wander about.--_adv._ DIVAGUE'LY. [L. _divag[=a]ri_, to wander.] DIVAN, di-van', _n._ the Turkish council of state: a court of justice: used poetically of any council or assembly: a council-chamber with cushioned seats: a sofa: a smoking-room: a collection of poems. [Ar. and Pers. _díwán_, a long seat.] DIVARICATE, d[=i]-var'i-k[=a]t, _v.i._ to part into two branches, to fork: to diverge.--_v.t._ to divide into two branches.--_adj._ widely divergent, spreading apart.--_n._ DIVARIC[=A]'TION. [L. _divaric[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_dis_, asunder, _varic[=a]re_, to spread the legs--_varus_, bent apart.] DIVE, d[=i]v, _v.i._ to dip or plunge into water: to go headlong into a recess, forest, &c.: to plunge or go deeply into any matter.--_n._ a plunge into water: a swoop.--_n._ DIV'ER, one who dives: a pearl-diver: one who works from a diving-bell or in a diving-dress beneath water: a bird expert at diving--specifically, the genus diver or loon of northern seas--loosely, auks, grebes, penguins, &c.: (_slang_) a pickpocket. [A.S. _dýfan_, _dúfan_; Ice. _dýfa_. See DIP.] DIVELLENT, d[=i]-vel'ent, _adj._ drawing asunder. DIVELLICATE, d[=i]-vel'i-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to pull in pieces. DIVERGE, di-v[.e]rj', _v.i._ to incline or turn apart: to tend from a common point in different directions: to vary from the standard.--_ns._ DIVERGE'MENT; DIVERG'ENCE, DIVERG'ENCY, a tendency to recede from one point.--_adj._ DIVERG'ENT.--_adv._ DIVERG'INGLY. [L. _dis_, asunder, _verg[)e]re_, to incline.] DIVERS, d[=i]'v[.e]rz, _adj._ sundry: several: more than one: (_B._) same as DIVERSE. [See DIVERT.] DIVERSE, d[=i]'v[.e]rs, or div-[.e]rs', _adj._ different: unlike: multiform: various.--_adv._ D[=I]'VERSELY, or DIVERSE'LY. DIVERSIFY, di-v[.e]r'si-f[=i], _v.t._ to make diverse or different: to give variety to:--_pr.p._ diver'sifying; _pa.p._ diver'sified.--_adj._ DIVERSIF[=I]'ABLE.--_n._ DIVERSIFIC[=A]'TION.--_adj._ DIVER'SIFORM, of diverse or various forms. [Fr.,--Low L. _diversific[=a]re_--_diversus_, diverse, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] DIVERSION, di-v[.e]r'shun, _n._ act of diverting or turning aside: that which diverts: amusement, recreation: something done to turn the attention of an enemy from the principal point of attack. DIVERSITY, di-v[.e]r'si-ti, _n._ state of being diverse: difference: unlikeness: variety. DIVERT, di-v[.e]rt', _v.t._ to turn aside: to change the direction of: to turn the mind from business or study: to amuse.--_n._ DIVERT'IMENTO (_obs._), diversion: (_mus._) a ballet-interlude.--_adj._ DIVERT'ING.--_adv._ DIVERT'INGLY.--_n._ DIVERT'ISEMENT, diversion: a short ballet between the acts of a play.--_adj._ DIVERT'IVE, tending to divert. [Fr.,--L. _divert[)e]re_, _diversum_--_dis_, aside, _vert[)e]re_, to turn.] DIVERTICLE, di-ver'ti-kl, _n._ (_anat._) a diverticulum, cæcum, or blind tubular process.--_adjs._ DIVERTIC'ULAR, DIVERTIC'ULATED. DIVES, d[=i]'v[=e]s (L. 'the rich man'), _n._ a name used as if a proper name for the rich man at whose gate Lazarus lay (Luke, xvi. 19): a rich and luxurious person.--_n._ DIV'ITISM, condition of being rich. DIVEST, di-vest', _v.t._ to strip or deprive of anything.--_adj._ DIVEST'IBLE.--_ns._ DIVEST'ITURE, DIVEST'MENT (_rare_). [L. _devest[=i]re_--_dis_, neg., _vest[=i]re_, to clothe--_vestis_, a garment.] DIVIDE, di-v[=i]d', _v.t._ to part asunder: to part among, to allot, &c.: to set at variance: to separate into two parts (as in voting).--_v.i._ to part or open: to break friendship: to vote by separating into two bodies.--_n._ (_coll._) the act of dividing: (esp. in _U.S._) a watershed.--_adj._ DIVID'ABLE (_rare_), divisible: (_Shak._) divided.--_adv._ DIVID'EDLY.--_n._ DIVID'ER, that which divides: a kind of compasses for dividing lines, &c.--_adj._ DIVID'ING, separating.--_n._ separation.--_n._ DIVID'ING-EN'GINE, an instrument for graduating the scales of scientific apparatus.--_adjs._ DIVID'UAL (_Milt._), shared in common with others; DIVID'UOUS, special, accidental. [L. _divid[)e]re_, _divisum_--_dis_, asunder, root _vid_, to separate.] DIVIDEND, div'i-dend, _n._ that which is to be divided: the share of a sum divided that falls to each individual, by way of interest or otherwise.--DECLARE A DIVIDEND, to announce the sum per cent. a trading concern is prepared to pay its shareholders. [L. _dividendum_--_divid[)e]re_.] DIVIDIVI, div'i-div-i, _n._ the curved pods of the leguminous tree, _Cæsalpinia coriaria_, imported for tanning and dyeing. [Native name.] DIVINE, di-v[=i]n', _adj._ belonging to or proceeding from God: devoted to God's service: holy: sacred: excellent in the highest degree.--_n._ one skilled in divine things: a minister of the gospel: a theologian.--_v.t._ to foresee or foretell as if divinely inspired: to guess or make out.--_v.i._ to profess or practise divination: to have forebodings.--_ns._ DIVIN[=A]'TION, the act or practice of divining: instinctive prevision: prediction: conjecture; DIV'IN[=A]TOR, DIV[=I]N'ER, one who divines or professes divination: a conjecturer:--_fem._ DIVIN'ERESS.--_adjs._ DIVINAT[=O]'RIAL, DIVIN'A-TORY, relating to divination, conjectural.--_adv._ DIVINE'LY.--_ns._ DIVINE'NESS; DIVIN'ING-ROD, a rod, usually of hazel, used by those professing to discover water or metals under ground.--_vs.t._ DIV'INISE, DIVIN'IFY, to treat as divine. [Fr.,--L. _divinus_, from _divus_, _deus_, a god.] DIVING, d[=i]v'ing, _n._ the action of the verb _to dive_.--_adj._ that dives. [Illustration] DIVING-BELL, d[=i]v'ing-bel, _n._ a hollow vessel or chamber, originally bell-shaped, open at the bottom and supplied with air by a tube from above, in which one may descend into and work under water.--_n._ DIV'ING-DRESS, the water-tight costume of a diver, with special provision for receiving air, &c. [See DIVE.] DIVINITY, di-vin'i-ti, _n._ godhead: the nature or essence of God: God: a celestial being: any god: the science of divine things: theology.--DIVINITY HALL (_Scot._), a theological college, or the theological department in a university. [See DIVINE.] DIVISION, di-vizh'un, _n._ act of dividing: state of being divided: that which divides: a partition: a barrier: the portion divided or separated: part of an army or military force: separation: difference in opinion, &c.: disunion: (_arith._) the rule or process of finding how many times one number is contained in another.--_n._ DIVISIBIL'ITY.--_adj._ DIVIS'IBLE, capable of being divided or separated.--_adv._ DIVIS'IBLY.--_adjs._ DIVI'SIONAL, DIVI'SIONARY, pertaining to or marking a division or separation; DIV[=I]S'IVE, forming division or separation: creating discord.--_ns._ DIV[=I]S'IVENESS; DIVIS'OR (_arith._), the number which divides the dividend. DIVORCE, di-vors', _n._ the legal separation of husband and wife: the sentence by which a marriage is dissolved.--_v.t._ to separate: to sunder: to dissolve the marriage-contract of: to put away.--_adj._ DIVORCE'ABLE.--_ns._ DIVORCEE', a divorced person; DIVORCE'MENT (_B._), divorce; DIVOR'CER.--_adj._ DIVOR'CIVE, having power to divorce. [Fr.,--L. _divortium_--_divort[)e]re_, another form of _divert[)e]re_. See DIVERT.] DIVOT, div'ot, _n._ (_Scot._) a piece of turf.--FEAL AND DIVOT (_Scots law_), a right of cutting sods and turfs for certain purposes. [Origin unknown.] DIVOTO, d[=e]-v[=o]'t[=o], _adj._ (_mus._) devout, solemn. [It.] DIVULGE, di-vulj', _v.t._ to spread abroad among the vulgar or the people: to make public: to reveal.--_v.t._ DIVUL'GATE, to publish.--_n._ DIVULG[=A]'TION. [Fr.,--L. _divulg[=a]re_--_dis_, among, _vulg[=a]re_, _vulgus_, the common people. See FOLK.] DIVULSION, di-vul'shun, _n._ act of pulling or rending asunder or away.--_adj._ DIVUL'SIVE, tending to pull asunder. [L. _divulsion-em_, _divell[)e]re_, _divulsum_--_dis_, asunder, _vell[)e]re_, _vulsum_, to pull.] DIZAIN, di-z[=a]n', _n._ a poem in ten stanzas. [Fr.,--_dix_, ten--L. _decem_, ten. Cf. DOZEN.] DIZEN, d[=i]'zn, or diz'n, _v.t._ to dress gaudily: (_obs._) to dress: to deck. [From an Eng. form found also in Low Ger. _diesse_, the bunch of flax on the distaff.] DIZZARD, diz'ard, _n._ a blockhead. DIZZY, diz'i, _adj._ giddy: confused: causing giddiness.--_v.t._ to make dizzy: to confuse.--_adv._ DIZZ'ILY.--_n._ DIZZ'INESS, giddiness.--_p.adj._ DIZZ'YING, making dizzy. [A.S. _dysig_, foolish, allied to _dwaes_, stupid; cf. Dan. _dösig_; drowsy; also DAZE, DOZE.] DJEREED. See JEREED. DO, d[=oo], _v.t._ to perform any action: to bring about or effect: to accomplish or finish: to prepare: to put or bring into any form or state: to cheat, swindle.--_v.i._ to act or behave:--_pr.p._ do'ing; _pa.t._ did; _pa.p._ done (dun).--In 'Do come,' 'I do love him,' _Do_ is intensive; _Do_ serves as substitute for other verbs to save repeating them (as in 'I didn't mean to speak, but if I do,' &c.).--_n._ endeavour, duty: a trick, hoax.--_n._ DO'-ALL, a factotum.--_p.adj._ DO'ING, active (as in 'Up and doing').--DO AWAY WITH, to abolish, destroy; DO BROWN, to cook or roast to brownness: (_slang_) to make a fool of; DO FOR, to suit: to provide for: to ruin: (_vulg._) to kill; DO INTO, to translate; DO MACBETH, &c., to represent that part in a play; DO ONE PROUD (_coll._), to make one feel flattered; DO OVER, to do again: to cover over, as with paint; DO THE CITY, to visit the sights of the city; DO TO DEATH, to murder; DO UP, put up, make tidy, arrange, tie up, dress (linen): to utterly fatigue; DO WELL (to be angry), to be justified in being angry, &c.: to prosper; DO WITH, to make use of: to meddle with: to get on with; DO WITHOUT, not to be dependent on, to dispense with.--BE DONE FOR, to be defeated or ruined.--HAVE DONE, desist; HAVE DONE WITH, to cease interest in; HAVE TO DO WITH, to have a connection with.--WHAT'S TO DO? what is the matter? [A.S. _dón_, _dyde_, _gedón_; Dut. _doen_, Ger. _thun_; conn. with Gr. _tithenai_, to put, place.] DO, d[=oo], _v.i._ to fare or get on, as to health: to succeed: to suffice: to suit or avail (cf. 'This will do,' 'This will never do,' 'This will do for me well enough'). [Prov. Eng. _dow_, to avail, to be worth; from A.S. _dugan_, to be worth; Ger. _taugen_, to be strong, to be worth. See DOUGHTY.] DO, d[=o], _n._ the syllable or name for the first tone or keynote of the musical scale--the others being _re_, _mi_, _fa_, _sol_, _la_, _ti_, initial syllables of lines in an old Latin hymn in honour of John the Baptist. DO, d[=oo], _n._ same as ADO: (_slang_) a swindle. DOAB, do'äb, _n._ in India, land between two rivers. [Hind. _do[=a]b_, _du[=a]b_.] DOABLE, d[=oo]'a-bl, _adj._ (_rare_) that can be done. DOAT, d[=o]t, _v.i._ same as DOTE.--_n._ DOAT'ING-PIECE, darling. DOBBIN, dob'bin, _n._ a workhorse. [Fr. _Dobbin_, a form like _Robin_ for _Robert_. Cf. DICKY, JACKASS.] DOBBY, DOBBIE, dob'i, _n._ a dotard: a brownie: an attachment to a loom for weaving small figures. DOBCHICK, dob'chik, _n._ Same as DABCHICK. DOBHASH, d[=o]'bash, _n._ an interpreter. [Hind. _dobhash[=i]_.] DOCENT. See PRIVAT DOCENT. DOCETISM, do-s[=e]'tizm, _n._ a 2d-century heresy, which denied the human nature of Christ, affirming that His body was only a semblance.--_n.pl._ DOC[=E]'TÆ.--_adjs._ DOC[=E]'TIC, DOCETIS'TIC.--_ns._ DOC[=E]'TISM; DOC[=E]'TIST. [Gr. _dok[=e]tai_, those of this belief--_dokein_, to seem.] DOCH-AN-DORIS, doch'an-d[=o]'ris, _n._ a stirrup-cup, a parting-cup.--Also DOCH-AN-DORACH, DEUCH-AN-DORIS. [Gael., _deoch_, drink, _an_, the, _doruis_, gen. of _dorus_, door.] DOCILE, d[=o]'s[=i]l, or dos'il, _adj._ teachable: ready to learn: easily managed--(_obs._) DOC'IBLE.--_ns._ DOC'IBLENESS, DOCIL'ITY, teachableness.--_adj._ D[=O]'CIOUS (_U.S._).--_n._ DOC'ITY. [Fr.,--L. _docilis_--_doc[=e]re_, to teach.] DOCIMASY, dos'i-ma-si, _n._ the art by which the nature and proportions of an ore are determined: assaying: examination of poisons.--_n._ DOCIMAS'TES, a genus of humming-birds with enormously long beak.--_adj._ DOCIMAS'TIC--_n._ DOCIMOL'OGY, a treatise on the art of assaying. [Gr. _dokimasia_, examination--_dokimazein_, to test--_dechesthai_, to take, approve.] DOCK, dok, _n._ a troublesome weed with large leaves and a long root.--_n._ DOCK'-CRESS, the nipplewort. [A.S. _docce_; perh. from Gael. _dogha_, a burdock.] DOCK, dok, _v.t._ to cut short: to curtail: to cut off: to clip.--_n._ the part of a tail left after clipping. [Prob. W. _tocio_, to cut short; or Old Ice. _dockr_, a stumpy tail.] DOCK, dok, _n._ an enclosure or artificial basin near a harbour or river, for the reception of vessels: the box in court where the accused stands: in a railway station, the place of arrival and departure of a train.--_v.t._ to place in a dock.--_ns._ DOCK'AGE, accommodation in docks for ships: dock-dues; DOCK'ER, one who works in the docks; DOCK'-MAS'TER, the person superintending a dock; DOCK'-WARR'ANT, a warehouse receipt; DOCK'YARD, a naval establishment with docks, building-slips, stores, &c.; DRY'-DOCK, a dock which can be laid dry by dock-gates, pumping, &c.--also called GRAV'ING-DOCK, because suitable for cleaning or graving the sides and bottoms of ships; FLOAT'ING-DOCK, a dock which floats in the water, but can by pumping out its hollow sides be raised high in the water with any ship that has been floated into it, and then emptied of water by further pumping; WET'-DOCK, a dock maintaining a level nearly uniform with that of high water. [Old Dut. _dokke_; perh. from Low L. _doga_, a canal--Gr. _doch[=e]_, a receptacle--_dechesthai_, to receive.] DOCKET, dok'et, _n._ a summary of a larger writing: a bill or ticket affixed to anything: a label: a list or register of cases in court.--_v.t._ to make a summary of the heads of a writing: to enter in a book: to mark the contents of papers on the back:--_pr.p._ dock'eting; _pa.p._ dock'eted. [Dim. of _dock_, to curtail; sometimes _docquet_, as if French.] DOCTOR, dok'tur, _n._ one who has received from a university the highest degree in a faculty: a physician: a medical practitioner: a cleric especially skilled in theology or ecclesiastical law.--_v.t._ to treat as a doctor does: to adulterate: to make alterations on: to falsify: to address as doctor: to create a doctor.--_v.i._ to take physic: to practise medicine.--_adj._ DOC'TORAL.--_ns._ DOC'TORATE, DOC'TORSHIP; DOC'TORESS, DOC'TRESS, a female physician.--DOCTORS' COMMONS, before the establishment of the Divorce Court and Probate Court in 1857, the college of the doctors of civil law in London, incorporated by royal charter in 1768; DOCTOR'S STUFF, medicine. [L., 'a teacher'--_docere_, to teach.] DOCTRINAIRE, doc'tri-n[=a]r, _n._ an unpractical theorist, disposed to carry principles to logical but unworkable extremes: in France, in 1815-30, one of a school who desired a constitution like that of Britain.--_adj._ theorist.--_ns._ DOCTRIN[=A]'RIAN, one given to theory; DOCTRIN[=A]'RIANISM, blind adhesion to one-sided principles. [Fr.,--Late L. _doctrinarius_.] DOCTRINE, dok'trin, _n._ a thing taught: a principle of belief: what the Scriptures teach on any subject: (_B._) act or manner of teaching.--_adj._ DOC'TRINAL, relating to or containing doctrine: relating to the act of teaching.--_adv._ DOC'TRINALLY. [Fr.,--L. _doctr[=i]na_, _doc[=e]re_, to teach.] DOCUMENT, dok'[=u]-ment, _n._ a paper containing information or the proof of anything.--_v.t._ to furnish with documents: to support or prove by documents.--_adjs._ DOCUMENT'AL, DOCUMENT'ARY, relating to or found in documents.--_n._ DOCUMENT[=A]'TION, preparation or use of documentary evidence and authorities--used in realistic fiction by the school of Zola of faithful reproduction of the records, real or supposed, of actual lives (the so-called _document humain_).--DOCUMENTARY HYPOTHESIS, the hypothesis that the Pentateuch consists of two or more originally distinct documents. [Fr.,--L. _documentum_--_doc[=e]re_, to teach.] DOD, dod, _v.t._ (_prov._) to clip, poll, lop.--_p.adj._ DOD'DED, polled, hornless.--_ns._ DOD'DLE, a pollard; DOD'DY, a cow without horns. DODDART, dod'art, _n._ (_obs._) hockey. DODDER, dod'[.e]r, _n._ a leafless, twining, pale-coloured parasitic plant.--_p.adj._ DODD'ERED, overgrown with dodder. [A.S. _dodder_; Ger. _dotter_.] DODDER, dod'[.e]r, _v.t._ or _v.i._ to shake, tremble.--_p.adj._ DODD'ERING, trembling: pottering. [Cf. TODDLE.] DODDY, dod'i, _adj._ (_Scot._) crabbed. DODECAGON, d[=o]-dek'a-gon, _n._ a plane figure having twelve equal angles and sides. [Gr. _d[=o]deka_, twelve, _g[=o]nia_, an angle.] DODECAGYNIA, d[=o]-dek-a-jin'i-a, _n._ a Linnæan order of plants having twelve styles.--_adjs._ DODECAGYN'IAN, DODECAG'YNOUS. [Illustration] DODECAHEDRON, d[=o]-dek-a-h[=e]'dron, _n._ a solid figure, having twelve equal pentagonal bases or faces.--_adj._ DODECAH[=E]'DRAL. [Gr. _d[=o]deka_, twelve, _hedra_, a base, a side.] DODECANDRIA, d[=o]-de-kan'dri-a, _n._ a Linnæan class of plants having twelve stamens.--_adj._ DODECAN'DROUS. [Gr. _d[=o]deka_, twelve, _an[=e]r_, _andros_, a man.] DODECAPETALOUS, d[=o]-dek-a-pet'a-lus, _adj._ having twelve petals. [Gr. _d[=o]deka_, twelve, _petalon_, a petal.] DODECASTYLE, d[=o]'dek-a-st[=i]l, _adj._ (_archit._) having twelve columns in front.--_n._ a portico with such. DODECASYLLABLE, d[=o]-dek-a-sil'a-bl, _n._ a word of twelve syllables.--_adj._ DODECASYLLAB'IC. DODGE, doj, _v.i._ to start aside or shift about: to evade or use mean tricks: to shuffle or quibble.--_v.t._ to evade by a sudden shift of place: to trick.--_n._ an evasion: a trick: a quibble.--_ns._ DODG'ER; DODG'ERY, trickery.--_adj._ DODG'Y. [Cf. _dodder_, _toddle_, _diddle_; Scot. _daddle_, _doddle_.] DODIPOLL, DODDYPOLL, dod'i-p[=o]l, _n._ a blockhead. DODKIN, dod'kin, _n._ a doit.--Also DOIT'KIN. DODMAN, dod'man, _n._ (_prov._) a snail. DODO, d[=o]'d[=o], _n._ a large clumsy bird, about the size of a turkey, and without the power of flight--it was once found in Mauritius and Madagascar, but became extinct about the end of the 17th century. [Port. _doudo_, silly.] DODONÆAN, d[=o]-d[=o]-n[=e]'an, _adj._ pertaining to _Dodona_ in Epirus, or its oracle sacred to Zeus, situated in a grove of oaks.--Also DOD[=O]'NIAN. DOE, d[=o], _n._ John Doe and Richard Roe, names of an imaginary plaintiff and opponent in the old legal action for ejectment, and proverbial term for a legal action. DOE, d[=o], _n._ the female of the fallow-deer or buck.--_n._ DOE'SKIN, the skin of a doe: a smooth, close-woven woollen cloth. [A.S. _dá_; Dan. _daa_, a deer.] DOER, d[=oo]'[.e]r, _n._ one who does anything; one who habitually performs: an agent. DOES, duz, 3d pers. sing. pres. indic. of DO. DOFF, dof, _v.t._ to do or take off: to rid one's self of. [A contr. of _do off_.] DOFFER, dof'[.e]r, _n._ the part of a carding-machine which strips the cotton from the cylinder when carded. DOG, dog, _n._ a domestic quadruped of the same genus as the wolf, and akin to the fox, varying in size from small terriers to huge Newfoundlands, mastiffs, and St Bernards: a mean scoundrel: a term of contempt: a fellow (as a jolly dog): one of two constellations of stars: an andiron: an iron hook for holding logs of wood: a dogfish: a cock, as of a gun.--_adj._ male (opposed to bitch), as in dog-fox, dog-ape.--_v.t._ to follow as a dog: to follow and watch constantly: to worry with importunity:--_pr.p._ dog'ging; _pa.p._ dogged.--_ns._ DOG'-BANE, a plant with an intensely bitter root, valued for its medicinal properties, said to be poisonous to dogs; DOG'-BEE, a drone; DOG'-BELT, a broad leather belt round the waist for drawing dans or sledges in the low workings of coal-mines; DOG'-BIS'CUIT, biscuit made for dogs, sometimes containing scraps of meat; DOG'-BOLT (_obs._), a contemptible fellow; DOG'-BOX, the part of a railway wagon in which dogs are carried; DOG'-BR[=I]'ER, the brier dogrose; DOG'CART, a two-wheeled carriage with seats back to back, so called from sporting-dogs being originally carried inside the box.--_adj._ DOG'-CHEAP, very cheap.--_n._ DOG'-COLL'AR, a collar for dogs: a kind of stiff collar on a woman's dress: a close-fitting clerical collar.--_adj._ DOG'-FACED.--_ns._ DOG'-FAN'CIER, one who has a fancy for, or who deals in dogs; DOG'FISH, a popular name for various small species of shark, common on British and American coasts; DOG'-FOX, a male fox; DOG'GER.--_adj._ DOG'GISH, like a dog: churlish: brutal.--_adv._ DOG'GISHLY.--_n._ DOG'GISHNESS.--_p.adj._ DOG'GONED (_vulg._), confounded.--_n._ DOG'-GRASS, a coarse perennial grass common in uncultivated grounds, akin to _couch-grass_, _dog-wheat_, &c.--_adjs._ DOG'-HEAD'ED; DOG'-HEART'ED.--_ns._ DOG'-HOLE, a hole fit only for dogs: a mean dwelling; DOG'-HOUSE, -KENN'EL; DOG'-LEECH, one who treats the diseases of dogs; DOG-LETT'ER, the letter or sound _r_--also _Canine letter_; DOG'-LOUSE; DOG'-PARS'LEY, fool's parsley; DOG'ROSE, a wild-rose, a brier; DOG'S'-EAR, the corner of the leaf of a book turned down like a dog's ear.--_v.t._ to turn down the corners of leaves.--_p.adjs._ DOG'S'-EARED, DOG'-EARED.--_ns._ DOG'S'-FENN'EL, May-weed; DOG'SHIP, the quality or personality of a dog.--_adj._ DOG'-SICK.--_n._ DOG'SKIN, leather made from the skin of a dog, or from sheepskin in imitation of it.--_adj._ made of such.--_ns._ DOG'-SLEEP, a light sleep broken by the slightest noise; DOG'S'-MEAT, coarse meat, scraps and refuse sold as food for dogs; DOG'S'-MER'CURY, the _mercurialis perennis_; DOG'S'-NOSE, a kind of mixed drink; DOG'S'-TAIL-GRASS, a common British pasture grass.--_n.pl._ DOG'-STONES, a name for various British species of orchis.--_ns._ DOG'S'-TONGUE, the hound's-tongue plant, _Cynoglossum officinale_; DOG'-TICK.--_adjs._ DOG'-TIRED, DOG'-WEA'RY (_Shak._), tired as a dog, completely worn out.--_ns._ DOG'-TRICK, an ill-natured trick; DOG'-TROT, a gentle trot like that of a dog; DOG'-VANE, a small vane of thread, cork, and feathers placed on the weather gunwale to show the direction of the wind; DOG'-V[=I]'OLET, the common name of _Viola canina_ and other scentless species of wild violet; DOG'-WHEAT, a name of DOG-GRASS; DOG'-WHELK, the popular name for univalve molluscs of the genus _Nassa_; DOG'WOOD, a tree or shrub of the cornel genus, valuable on account of the hardness of the wood.--_interj._ DOG ON IT! a minced oath (for God damn it!).--GO TO THE DOGS, to be ruined; NOT TO LEAD THE LIFE OF A DOG, to lead a life so wretched that even a dog would not be content with it; THROW, GIVE, or SEND TO THE DOGS, to throw away or abandon. [M. E. _doggë_; not in A.S.; Dut. _dog_, a mastiff; Ger. _dogge_, _docke_.] DOGBERRY, dog'ber-ri, _n._ the fruit of a species of dogwood: a stupid, obstinate fellow, from the old watchman in Shakespeare's _Much Ado about Nothing_. DOGDAYS, dog'd[=a]z, _n.pl._ the period when the dogstar rises and sets with the sun (generally reckoned July 3d to August 11th)--erroneously supposed to be the time when dogs are specially liable to hydrophobia. DOGE, d[=o]j, _n._ formerly the chief-magistrate in Venice and Genoa.--_ns._ DOGARESS'A, the wife of a doge; DOG'ATE, DOGE'ATE, DOGE'SHIP. [It., prov. for _duce_ = Eng. _duke_--L. _dux_, a leader--_duc[)e]re_, to lead.] DOGGED, dog'ed, _adj._ surly like an angry dog: sullen: obstinate.--_adv._ (_slang_) very.--_adv._ DOGG'EDLY.--_n._ DOGG'EDNESS. DOGGER, dog'[.e]r, _n._ a two-masted Dutch fishing-vessel.--_n._ DOGG'ERMAN. [Dut.] DOGGER, dog'er, _n._ a sandy and oolitic ironstone. DOGGEREL, dog'[.e]r-el, _n._ irregular measures in burlesque poetry, so named in contempt: worthless verses.--_adj._ irregular in rhythm, mean.--Also DOG'GREL. [Usually assumed to be from _dog_, but no good ground for this.] DOGGY, dog'i, _adj._ fond of dogs. DOG-HEAD, dog'-hed, _n._ the hammer of a gun-lock. DOG-LATIN, dog'-lat'in, _n._ barbarous or bad Latin. [See DOGGEREL.] DOGMA, dog'ma, _n._ a settled opinion: a principle or tenet: a doctrine laid down with authority.--_adjs._ DOGMAT'IC, -AL, pertaining to a dogma: asserting a thing as if it were a dogma: asserting positively: overbearing.--_adv._ DOGMAT'ICALLY.--_n._ DOGMAT'ICS (_theol._), the statement of Christian doctrines, systematic theology.--_v.i._ DOG'MATISE, to state one's opinion dogmatically or arrogantly.--_ns._ DOG'MATISER; DOG'MATISM, dogmatic or positive assertion of opinion; DOG'MATIST, one who makes positive assertions; DOGMATOL'OGY, the science of dogma.--_adj._ DOG'MATORY. [Gr., 'an opinion,' from _dokein_, to think, allied to L. _decet_.] DOG-SHORES, dog'-sh[=o]rz, _n.pl._ the pieces of timber used to shore up a vessel, to keep it from falling or from starting during the preparations for launching, knocked aside when the ship is ready to be launched. DOGSTAR, dog'stär, _n._ Sirius, a star of the first magnitude, whose rising and setting with the sun gave name to the dogdays. [Illustration] DOG-TOOTH, dog'-t[=oo]th, _n._ a moulding for doors and windows in later Norman architecture, consisting of a series of ornamented conical projections: a canine tooth. DOG-WATCHES, dog'-woch'ez, _n.pl._ on shipboard, the two watches 4-6 P.M. and 6-8 P.M., consisting each of two hours only, instead of four. DOILT, doilt, _adj._ (_Scot._) crazy, foolish.--Also DOILED. DOILY, doi'li, _n._ (_obs._) an old kind of woollen stuff: a small napkin used at dessert. [From _Doily_ or _Doyley_, a famous haberdasher.] DOINGS, d[=oo]'ingz, _n.pl._ things done, events: proceedings: behaviour. DOIT, doit, _n._ a small Dutch coin worth about half a farthing: a thing of little or no value. [Dut. _duit_.] DOITED, doit'ed, _p.adj._ a Scotch form of DOTED. DOKE, d[=o]k, _n._ (_prov._) a dimple, dint. DOLABELLA, d[=o]-la-bel'a, _n._ a genus of tectibranchiate gasteropods. DOLABRA, d[=o]-l[=a]'bra, _n._ an ancient Roman cutting or digging implement, of various shapes.--_adj._ DOLAB'RIFORM, like a hatchet or cleaver, used of leaves, also of shells straight and thick at one side, and thin at the other. [L. _dolabra_, a cleaver.] DOLCE, d[=o]l'che, _adj._ (_mus._) sweet.--_n._ a soft-toned organ-stop.--_adv._ DOLCEMEN'TE (_mus._), softly and sweetly. [It.] DOLDRUMS, dol'drumz, _n.pl._ (_naut._) those parts of the ocean about the equator where calms and baffling winds prevail: low spirits. [Prob. conn. with _dold_, stupid, or _dol_ = dull.] DOLE, d[=o]l, _v.t._ to deal out in small portions.--_n._ a share distributed: something given in charity: a small portion. [A doublet of _deal_, to divide.] DOLE, d[=o]l, _n._ pain: grief: (_arch._ and _poet._) heaviness at heart.--_adj._ DOLE'FUL, full of dole or grief: melancholy.--_adv._ DOLE'FULLY.--_n._ DOLE'FULNESS.--_adjs._ D[=O]'LENT (_obs._), DOLE'SOME, dismal.--_adv._ DOLE'SOMELY. [O. Fr. _doel_ (Fr. _deuil_), grief--L. _dol[=e]re_, to feel pain.] DOLERITE, dol'er-[=i]t, _n._ basaltic greenstone. [Fr.,--Gr. _doleros_, deceptive, it being hard to distinguish from real greenstone.] DOLICHOCEPHALIC, dol-i-ko-sef-al'ik, _adj._ long-headed, a term used to denote a head whose diameter from front to back is longer than from side to side--also DOLICHOCEPH'ALOUS.--_ns._ DOLICHOCEPH'ALY, DOLICHOCEPH'ALISM. [Formed from Gr. _dolichos_, long, _kephal[=e]_, the head.] DOLICHOS, dol'i-kos, _n._ a genus of leguminous plants allied to the Haricot. [Gr., long.] DOLICHOSAURUS, dol-i-k[=o]-saw'rus, _n._ the typical genus of DOLICOSAU'RIA, a group of fossil _Lacertilia_ of the Cretaceous formation. DOLICHOTIS, dol-i-k[=o]'tis, _n._ a genus of long-eared South American rodents. [Gr. _dolichos_, long, _ous_, _[=o]tos_, the ear.] DOLICHURUS, dol-i-k[=u]'rus, _n._ a dactylic hexameter with a redundant syllable at the end, the sixth foot being a dactyl. [Gr., long-tailed.] DOLIUM, d[=o]'li-um, _n._ a Roman earthenware jar for wine, oil, grain, &c.:--_pl._ D[=O]'LIA. [L.] DOLL, dol, _n._ a puppet or toy-baby for a child: a pretty but silly woman: the smallest or pet pig in a litter.--_ns._ DOLL'DOM; DOLL'HOOD; DOLL'SHIP; DOLL'S'-HOUSE. [Prob. from _Dolly_, familiar dim. of _Dorothy_.] DOLLAR, dol'ar, _n._ a silver coin (= 100 cents) of U.S.A., Mexico, Singapore, &c. The U.S.A. dollar = about 4s. 2d. sterling.--_adjs._ DOLL'ARED; DOLL'ARLESS.--_ns._ DOLLAROC'RACY; DOLL'ARSHIP. [Ger., short for _Joachimsthaler_, because first coined at the silver mines in Joachimsthal (Joachim's dale) in Bohemia--Low Ger. _daler_, Sw., Dan. _daler_.] DOLLOP, dol'op, _n._ a lump.--Also DALL'OP. [Prob. cog. with Norw. dial. _dolp_, a lump.] DOLLY, dol'i, _n._ a complimentary offering of flowers, sweetmeats, &c. on a tray. [Anglo-Ind.,--Hindi, _d[=a]l[=i]_.] DOLLY, dol'i, _n._ dim. of DOLL.--_adj._ babyish.--_n._ DOLL'INESS. DOLLY, dol'i, _n._ a wooden shaft attached to a disc with projecting arms, used for stirring clothes in a washing-tub; somewhat similar pieces of apparatus in mining, pile-driving, &c.--_v.t._ to wash (clothes) in a tub: to beat (red-hot metal) with a hammer: to crush ore with a dolly, to obtain or yield by this method.--_adj._ DOLL'IED.--_n._ DOLL'IER. [Prob. from _Dolly_, the familiar form of _Dorothy_.] DOLLY-SHOP, dol'i-shop, _n._ a marine store, a low pawn-shop--often having a black doll as signboard. DOLLY VARDEN, dol'i vär'den, _n._ a flowered muslin dress for women, with pointed bodice and tucked-up skirt: a large hat, one side bent downwards, abundantly trimmed with flowers. [Named from _Dolly Varden_, a character in Dickens's _Barnaby Rudge_.] DOLMAN, dol'man, _n._ a Turkish robe with slight sleeves and open in front: a hussar's jacket, worn like a cloak, with one or both sleeves hanging loose. [Fr.,--Turk. _d[=o]l[=a]m[=a]n_.] [Illustration] DOLMEN, dol'men, _n._ a stone table: the French name for a cromlech, a prehistoric structure of two or more erect unhewn stones, supporting a large flattish stone. [Fr. _dolmen_; usually explained as Bret. _dolmen_--_dol_, _taol_, table, _men_, a stone. But _tolmen_ in Cornish meant 'hole of stone.'] DOLOMITE, dol'o-m[=i]t, _n._ a magnesian limestone, so called from the French geologist D. Guy de _Dolomieu_ (1750-1801).--_adj._ DOLOMIT'IC. DOLOUR, d[=o]'lor, _n._ pain: grief: anguish.--_adjs._ DOLORIF'EROUS, DOLORI'FIC, causing or expressing dolour, pain, or grief.--_adv._ DOLOR[=O]'SO (_mus._), noting a soft and pathetic manner.--_adj._ DOL'OROUS, full of dolour, pain, or grief: doleful.--_adv._ DOL'OROUSLY.--_n._ DOL'OROUSNESS.--DOLOURS OF THE VIRGIN, the prophecy of Simeon, the flight into Egypt, the three days' loss of Jesus, the meeting of Him on the way to Calvary, the crucifixion, the descent from the cross, the entombment. [Fr.,--L. _dol[=e]re_, to grieve.] DOLPHIN, dol'fin, _n._ an animal of the whale kind, closely resembling the porpoise, about 8 or 10 feet long: the coryphæna, a fish about 5 feet in length, noted for the brilliancy of its colours when dying.--_ns._ DOL'PHINET (_Spens._), a female dolphin; DOL'PHIN-FLY, a black aphis or plant-louse, destructive to bean-plants. [O. Fr. _daulphin_--L. _delphinus_--Gr. _delphis_, _-phinos_.] DOLT, d[=o]lt, _n._ a dull or stupid fellow.--_adj._ DOLT'ISH, dull: stupid.--_adv._ DOLT'ISHLY.--_n._ DOLT'ISHNESS. [_Dolt_ = _dulled_ or blunted. See DULL.] DOM, dom, _n._ the Portuguese form of _Don_: also a title given to certain Catholic dignitaries and members of some monastic orders, esp. the Benedictine. [L. _dominus_, lord.] DOMAIN, do-m[=a]n', _n._ what one is master of or has dominion over: an estate: territory: ownership of land: the scope or range of any subject or sphere of knowledge.--_adjs._ DOMAIN'AL, DOM[=A]'NIAL. [Fr.,--L. _dominium_, _dominus_, a master.] DOMAL, d[=o]m'al, _adj._ relating to a house. [L. _domus_, a house.] DOMBOC, d[=o]m'b[=o]k, _n._ a collection of laws made by authority of King Alfred, but now lost. [A.S. _dóm_, judgment, law, and _bóc_, book.] DOMDANIEL, dom-dan'yel, _n._ a hall under the sea inhabited by a sorcerer and his disciples: (_Carlyle_) an infernal cave, den of iniquity generally. [Fr.,--Gr. _d[=o]ma Dani[=e]l_, house of Daniel.] DOME, d[=o]m, _n._ a structure raised above the roof of large buildings, usually hemispherical: a large cupola: a cathedral: (_poet._) a building.--_v.t._ to furnish with a dome.--_adjs._ DOMED, DOM'ICAL, having a dome. [L. _domus_, a house; Fr. _dôme_, It. _duomo_, Ger. _dom_.] DOME, d[=o]m, _n._ (_Spen._). Same as DOOM. DOMESDAY-, DOOMSDAY-BOOK, d[=oo]mz'd[=a]-book, _n._ a book compiled by order of William the Conqueror, containing a survey of all the lands in England, their value, owners, &c.--so called from its authority in judgment (A.S. _dóm_) on the matters contained in it. DOMESTIC, do-mes'tik, _adj._ belonging to the house: remaining much at home: private: tame: not foreign.--_n._ a servant in the house: (_pl._) articles of home manufacture, esp. home-made cotton cloths.--_adv._ DOMES'TICALLY.--_v.t._ DOMES'TIC[=A]TE, to make domestic or familiar: to tame.--_ns._ DOMESTIC[=A]'TION; DOMESTIC[=A]'TOR; DOMESTIC'ITY.--DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE, the architecture of mansions, dwelling-houses, cottages, &c.; DOMESTIC ECONOMY, the principles of thrifty housekeeping. [Fr.,--L. _domesticus_--_domus_, a house.] DOMET, dom'et, _n._ a kind of plain cloth, in which the warp is cotton and the weft woollen. DOMICILE, dom'i-sil, _n._ a house: an abode: a man's legal place of residence.--_v.t._ to establish a fixed residence.--_adjs._ DOM'ICILED; DOMICIL'IARY, pertaining to the domicile.--_v.t._ DOMICIL'I[=A]TE, to establish in a permanent residence.--_n._ DOMICILI[=A]'TION.--DOMICILIARY VISIT, a visit, under authority, to a private house for the purpose of searching it. [Fr.,--L. _domicilium_--_domus_, a house.] DOMINANT, dom'in-ant, _adj._ prevailing: predominant.--_n._ (_mus._) the fifth note of the scale in its relation to the first and third.--_ns._ DOM'INANCE, DOM'INANCY, ascendency.--_adv._ DOM'INANTLY. [L. _dominans_, _-antis_, pr.p. of _domin[=a]ri_, to be master.] DOMINATE, dom'in-[=a]t, _v.t._ to be lord over: to govern: to prevail over, to be the chief feature of.--_n._ DOMIN[=A]'TION, government: absolute authority: tyranny.--_adj._ DOM'INATIVE, governing: (_rare_) arbitrary.--_n._ DOM'INATOR (_Shak._), a ruler or governor: a ruling influence. [L. _domin[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_, to be master--_dominus_, master--_domare_ = Eng. _tame_.] DOMINEER, dom-in-[=e]r', _v.i._ to rule arbitrarily: to command haughtily: to be overbearing.--_adj._ DOMINEER'ING, overbearing. [Prob. through Dut. from O. Fr. _dominer_--L. _domin[=a]ri_.] DOMINICAL, do-min'ik-al, _adj._ belonging to our Lord, as the Lord's Prayer, the Lord's Day.--DOMINICAL LETTER, one of the first seven letters of the alphabet, used in calendars to mark the Sundays throughout the year. [Low L. _dominicalis_--L. _dominicus_--_dominus_, lord, master.] DOMINICAN, do-min'i-kan, _adj._ belonging to St _Dominic_ or to the _Dominicans_.--_n._ a friar or monk of the order of St Dominic--_Fratres Predicatores_, founded in 1215--the _Black Friars_, from their black mantle. DOMINIE, dom'i-ni, _n._ (_Scot._) a schoolmaster, a tutor: in parts of the United States, a clergyman. [L. _domine_, voc. case of _dominus_, lord, master, sir.] DOMINION, do-min'yun, _n._ lordship: highest power and authority: control: the country or persons governed, esp. the Dominion of Canada: (_pl._, _B._) a class of angelic spirits (Col. i. 16).--_n._ DOMIN'IUM, the ownership of a thing.--DOMINION DAY, a Canadian festival on the anniversary of the union of the provinces, 1st July 1867. DOMINO, dom'i-no, _n._ a cape with a hood worn by a master or by a priest: a long cloak of black silk with a hood, used at masked balls, a person wearing such: one of the oblong pieces with which the game of DOM'INOES (-n[=o]z) is played, usually twenty-eight in number, divided into two compartments, each of which is blank or marked with from one to six spots. [Sp. _domino_--L. _dominus_.] DOMINUS. See DOMINIE. DON, don, _n._ a Spanish title, corresponding to English Sir, formerly applied only to noblemen, now to all classes: a fellow of a college, a college authority: (_coll._) a swell, adept:--_fem._ DOÑA, in English, usually with the Italian spelling, DON'NA.--_adj._ DON'NISH, pertaining to a don: with the airs of a don.--_ns._ DON'NISM, self-importance; DON'SHIP, rank or dignity of a don. [Sp.,--L. _dominus_.] DON, don, _v.t._ to do or put on: to assume:--_pr.p._ don'ning; _pa.p._ donned. [A contr. of _do on_.] DONAT, do'nat, _n._ a grammar, a primer.--Also DON'ET. [O. Fr. _donat_, from Ælius _Donatus_, author about 358 A.D. of a long famous Latin grammar.] DONATION, do-n[=a]'shun, _n._ act of giving: that which is given, a gift of money or goods: (_law_) the act by which a person freely transfers his title to anything to another.--_n._ D[=O]'NARY, a thing given to a sacred use.--_v.t._ DON[=A]TE', to present a gift.--_n._ DON'ATIVE, a gift: a gratuity: a benefice presented by the founder or patron without reference to the bishop.--_adj._ vested or vesting by donation.--_ns._ DON[=A]'TOR, one who makes a gift, a donor; DON'ATORY (_Scots law_), one to whom lands escheated to the crown are made over; DONEE', the person to whom a gift is made; D[=O]'NOR, a giver: a benefactor.--DONA NOBIS, the last section of the mass, beginning 'Dona nobis pacem.' [Fr.,--L. _don[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_donum_, a gift--_d[)a]re_, to give.] DONATISTS, don'a-tists, _n.pl._ the members of an African sect in the Christian Church of the 4th and 5th centuries, who protested against any diminution of the extreme reverence paid to martyrs, who treated the lapsed severely, and rebaptised converts from the Catholic Church.--_n._ DON'ATISM.--_adjs._ DONATIS'TIC, -AL. [From _Donatus_, one of their leaders.] DONE, dun, _pa.p._ of DO, often with sense of utterly exhausted: so DONE UP, DONE OUT. DONGA, dong'ga, _n._ the South African name for a channel or gully formed by the action of water. DONJON, dun'jun, _n._ a strong central tower in ancient castles, to which the garrison retreated when hard pressed. [A doublet of _dungeon_.] DONKEY, dong'ki, _n._ the ass.--_ns._ DON'KEY-EN'GINE, a small engine used in steam-vessels for loading and unloading, pumping water into the boilers, &c.; DON'KEY-PUMP, an extra steam-pump. [Still regarded as slang in 1823. Perh. = _dun-ik-ie_, a double dim. of _dun_, from its colour; or from _Duncan_, cf. DICKY.] DONNA. See DON. DONNERED, don'erd, _adj._ (_Scot._) stupefied, stunned.--Also DONN'ERD, DONN'ERT. DO-NOTHING, d[=oo]'-nuth'ing, _n._ one who does nothing: a lazy or idle person: a fainéant.--_ns._ DO-NOTH'INGISM, DO-NOTH'INGNESS. DONSIE, don'si, _adj._ (_Scot._) unlucky, perverse: neat, trim: sickly. DON'T, d[=o]nt. For _do not_. DONZEL, don'zel, _n._ a page or squire:--_fem._ DONZEL'LA. DOOB, d[=oo]b, _n._ Indian name for the dog's-tooth grass. DOOD, d[=oo]d, _n._ a riding camel or dromedary. [Beng.] DOODLE, d[=oo]d'l, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to dandle. DOODLE, d[=oo]d'l, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to drone, as a bagpipe. DOOK, d[=oo]k, _n._ (_Scot._) a plug of wood driven into a wall to hold a nail, &c. DOOLEFULL, d[=oo]l'fool, _adj._ (_Spens._) = DOLEFUL.--_ns._ DOOL'-TREE, DULE'-TREE (_Scot._), a tree that marks a place of mourning. DOOLIE. See DHOOLY. DOOM, d[=oo]m, _n._ judgment: condemnation: destiny: ruin: final judgment: a picture of the Last Judgment.--_v.t._ to pronounce judgment on: to sentence: to condemn:--_pr.p._ d[=oo]m'ing; _pa.p._ d[=oo]med.--_adjs._ DOOMED, under sentence; DOOM'FUL (_Spens._), full of doom, ruin, or destructive power.--_adv._ DOOMS (_Scot._) very, exceedingly.--_ns._ DOOMS'DAY, the day of doom, the day when the world will be judged; DOOMS'DAY-BOOK (see DOMESDAY); DOOMS'MAN, one who pronounces doom or sentence, a judge.--CRACK OF DOOM, the signal for the final dissolution of all things, the last trump. [A.S. _dóm_, judgment.] DOOM-PALM, d[=oo]m'-päm, _n._ a kind of African palm, with a branched stem, tufts of fan-shaped leaves, and a fruit as big as an apple. DOOR, d[=o]r, _n._ the usual entrance into a house, room, or passage: the wooden frame on hinges closing up the entrance: a means of approach or access.--_ns._ DOOR'-BELL; DOOR'-CASE, the frame which encloses a door; DOOR'-CHEEK (_Scot._), one of the side-posts of a door; DOOR'-KEEP'ER; DOOR'-KNOCK'ER; DOOR'-MAT; DOOR'-NAIL; DOOR'-PLATE, a plate on or at a door with the householder's name on it; DOOR'-POST, the jamb or side-piece of a door; DOOR'-SILL, the threshold of a doorway; DOOR'-STEAD, a doorway; DOOR'-STEP, DOOR'-STONE, the step-stone; DOOR'WAY, the entrance or passage closed by the door; DOOR'-YARD, a yard about the door of a house; FOLD'ING-DOOR, a door in two halves, each of which may be folded back against the wall.--DARKEN ONE'S DOOR, to cross one's threshold; DEATH'S DOOR, on the point of death, in great danger of death; NEXT DOOR TO, in the house next to: near to, bordering upon, very nearly; OUT OF DOORS, in the open air; SHOW TO THE DOOR, to dismiss with ignominy. [A.S. _duru_; Ger. _thor_, _thür_; Gr. _thyra_, L. _fores_ (_pl._), a door.] DOP, dop, _n._ a copper cup with a wooden handle, in which a gem is soldered to be held while being cut or polished. [Dut.] DOP, dop, _v.i._ to dip or duck.--_n._ a diving bird. DOPE, d[=o]p, _n._ any thick liquid used as a lubricant, axle-grease: any absorbent material holding a thick liquid, as cotton-waste, or a substance used to hold nitro-glycerine. [Prob. Dut. _doop_, a dipping.] DOPPER, dop'er, _n._ a member of a rigid religious sect in South Africa. DOPPLERITE, dop'ler-[=i]t, _n._ a substance derived from the maceration of peat. [From _Doppler_, a German physicist.] DOQUET, dok'et, a form of _docket_. DOR, dor, _n._ (_obs._) a scoff, mockery, as 'to give (any one) the dor.' [Prob. Ice. _dór_, scoff.] DOR, DORR, dor, _n._ a kind of dung-beetle, also called _Dor-beetle_ and _Dor-fly_; a cockchafer (in U.S. called _Dor-bug_): (_obs._) a drone. [A.S. _dora_, a humble-bee.] DORADO, d[=o]-rä'd[=o], _n._ the dolphin, so called from its beautiful colour when dying. [Sp., from _dorar_, to gild--L. _deaur[=a]re_, _[=a]tum_. See DORY, EL DORADO.] DORCAS, dor'kas, _n._ given in Acts, ix. 36, as the Greek translation of _Tabitha_ (Aramaic, 'female gazelle'), the name of the Christian woman of Joppa, famous for her good works, esp. the making of clothes for the poor--hence DORCAS SOCIETIES, ladies' societies for making and providing clothes for the poor. DOREE. See DORY. DOR-HAWK, dor'-hawk, _n._ the common goatsucker, night-jar, or fern-owl. DORIAN, d[=o]'ri-an, _adj._ and _n._ belonging to _Doris_ in Greece, Doric: a native of Doris. DORIC, dor'ik, _adj._ belonging to _Doris_ in Greece, denoting one of the Greek orders of architecture, distinguished by its simplicity and solidity.--_n._ one of the modes of Greek music: a dialect of the Greek language distinguished by the use of broad vowel sounds: any dialect having this character, as Scotch.--_ns._ DOR'ICISM, DOR'ISM, a peculiarity of the Doric dialect. [Fr. _dorique_--L. _Doricus_--Gr. _D[=o]ris_.] DORKING, dork'ing, _n._ a square-bodied breed of poultry, variously coloured, and with five claws on each foot--so named from _Dorking_ in Surrey. DORLACH, dor'lah, _n._ a bundle, a knapsack.--Also DOR'LOCH. [Gael.] DORMANT, dor'mant, _adj._ sleeping: at rest: not used, in abeyance (as a title): in a sleeping posture: (_archit._) leaning.--_n._ a crossbeam: a joist.--_n._ DOR'MANCY, quiescence.--_ns._ DOR'MER-WIN'DOW, a vertical window, esp. of a sleeping-room (formerly called _dormer_), on the sloping roof of a house; DORMI'TION, sleeping.--_adj._ DOR'MITIVE, causing sleep (of medicine), as opium.--_ns._ DOR'MITORY, a large sleeping-chamber with many beds; DOR'MOUSE, a small rodent intermediate between the squirrel and the mouse, so called because torpid in winter:--_pl._ DOR'MICE; DOR'TOUR (_Spens._) a dormitory. [Fr. _dormir_--L. _dorm[=i]re_, to sleep.] DORMY, DORMIE, dor'mi, _adj._ a term applied to one player at golf, when he is as many holes ahead as there remain holes to be played. DORNICK, dor'nik, _n._ a kind of stout figured linen, originally made at _Doornik_, or Tournay, in Belgium. DORP, dorp, _n._ a rare form of _thorp_, village. DORSAL, dor'sal, _adj._ pertaining or belonging to the back.--_adv._ DOR'SALLY.--_n._ DORSE (_obs._), the back of a writing: a dossal: the back.--_adj._ DORSIBRANCH'IATE, having gills on the back.--_n._ one of the _Dorsibranchiata_, including free marine worms.--_adjs._ DORSIF'EROUS, dorsigerous: dorsiparous; DORSIG'EROUS, carrying on the back; DOR'SIGRADE, walking on the back of the toes; DORSIP'AROUS, bearing fruit on the back: hatching young upon the back; DOR'SISPIN'AL, pertaining to both the back and the spine; DORSIVEN'TRAL, DORSABDOM'INAL, pertaining to the back and the belly; DORSOCAU'DAL, superior and posterior in direction or position; DORSOCER'VICAL, pertaining to the back of the neck.--_n._ DORSOFLEX'ION, a bending of the back, a bow.--_adjs._ DORSOLAT'ERAL, pertaining to the back and the side; DORSOLUM'BAR, pertaining to the whole dorsal region of the trunk--also DORSILUM'BAR; DORSOM[=E]'DIAN, situated in the middle of the back; DORSOMES'AL, lying along the middle line of the back--also DORSIMES'AL; DORSOPLEU'RAL, pertaining to the back and the side.--_n._ DORS'UM.--SEND TO DORSE, to throw on the back. [Fr.,--L. _dorsum_, the back.] DORSE, dors, _n._ a young cod. [Low Ger. _dorsch_.] DORTY, dor'ti, _adj._ (_Scot._), pettish: delicate. DORY, d[=o]'ri, _n._ a fish of a golden-yellow colour.--Also JOHN DORY and DOREE. [Fr. _dorée_, from _dorer_, to gild--L. _deaur[=a]re_, to gild--_de_, of, with, and _aurum_, gold. _John_ is simply the ordinary name.] DOSE, d[=o]s, _n._ the quantity of medicine given to be taken at one time: a portion: anything disagreeable that must be taken.--_v.t._ to order or give in doses: to give anything nauseous to.--_ns._ D[=O]S'AGE, a practice or method of dosing; DOSIM'ETER, an apparatus for measuring minute quantities of liquid.--_adj._ DOSIMET'RIC.--_n._ DOSOL'OGY, the science of doses--also DOSIOL'OGY. [O. Fr. _dose_--Gr. _dosis_, a giving--_did[=o]mi_, I give.] DOSEH, d[=o]'se, _n._ a religious ceremony at Cairo during the festival of the Moolid, in which the sheik rides on horseback over the prostrate bodies of dervishes. DOSSAL, dos'sal, _n._ a cloth hanging, of various colours at various festivals, for the back of an altar and the sides of the chancel of a church.--Also DOS'SEL. [Late L. _dossale_, _dorsale_--L. _dorsum_, the back.] DOSSER, dos'er, _n._ a rich hanging of tapestry for the walls of a hall or of a chancel: a pannier. DOSS-HOUSE, dos'-hows, _n._ a very cheap lodging-house.--_n._ DOSS'ER, one who lodges in a doss-house. [Perh. from _doss_, a prov. Eng. name for a hassock.] DOSSIL, dos'il, _n._ a plug, spigot: a cloth roll for wiping ink from an engraved plate in printing: (_surg._) a pledget of lint for cleaning out a wound. [O. Fr. _dosil_--Late L. _ducillus_, a spigot.] DOST, dust, 2d pers. sing. pres. indic. of DO. DOT, dot, _n._ any small mark made with a pen or sharp point.--_v.t._ to mark with dots: to diversify with objects.--_v.i._ to form dots:--_pr.p._ dot'ting; _pa.p._ dot'ted.--DOT AND CARRY, in addition, to set down the units and carry over the tens to the next column. [Prob. related to the Dut. _dot_, a little lump.] DOTATION, d[=o]-t[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of bestowing a dowry on a woman: an endowment.--_n._ DOT, a marriage portion.--_adj._ D[=O]'TAL, pertaining to dowry or to dower. [Low L. _dotation-em_--L. _dot[=a]re_, to endow.] DOTE, d[=o]t, _v.i._ (_arch._) to be stupid or foolish: to be weakly affectionate: to show excessive love--formerly also spelt _Doat_.--_ns._ D[=O]T'AGE, a doting: childishness of old age: excessive fondness; D[=O]T'ANT (_Shak._), a dotard; D[=O]T'ARD, one who dotes: one showing the weakness of old age, or excessive fondness.--_adj._ D[=O]T'ED (_Spens._), stupid.--_n._ D[=O]T'ER, one who dotes.--_p.adj._ and _n._ D[=O]T'ING.--_adjs._ D[=O]T'ISH, silly; DOT'TLE (_Scot._), stupid.--_n._ a dotard.--_adj._ DOT'TY, feeble in mind: tottering. [Old Dut. _doten_, to be silly, Scot. _doitet_, stupid; Fr. _radoter_, to rave, is from the same root.] DOTH, duth, 3d pers. sing. pres. indic. of DO. DOTTEREL, dot'[.e]r-el, _n._ a kind of plover, named from its apparent stupidity in allowing itself to be approached and caught: a stupid fellow, a dupe. [Also spelt _dottrel_, from _dote_.] DOTTLE, dot'l, _n._ (_Scot._) a plug, esp. the tobacco at the bottom of a pipe after smoking, sometimes put on the top of fresh tobacco after refilling. DOUANE, d[=oo]-än', _n._ a custom-house.--_n._ DOUAN'IER, a custom-house officer. [Fr.] DOUAR, DOWAR, dow'ar, _n._ a cluster of Arab tents in a circle. DOUAY BIBLE. See RHEMISH (version). DOUBLE, dub'l, _adj._ twofold: twice as much: of extra weight, size, or quality: two of a sort together: in pairs: acting two parts, insincere.--_adv._ DOUB'LY. [O. Fr. _doble_--L. _duplus_--_duo_, two, and _plus_, akin to _plenus_, full.] DOUBLE, dub'l, _v.t._ to multiply by two, to be the double of: to fold: to repeat: to clench: to pass round or by.--_v.i._ to increase to twice the quantity: to turn sharply back on one's course in running.--_n._ twice as much: a duplicate: an actor's substitute: a quick pace (short for double-quick): one's wraith or apparition: one's exact counterpart: a trick: (_eccles._) a feast on which the antiphon is said both before and after the psalms.--_adjs._ DOUB'LE-ACT'ING, applying power in two directions: producing a double result; DOU'BLE-BANKED, having two men at each oar, or having two tiers of oars one above the other, as in ancient galleys; DOUB'LE-BARR'ELLED, having two barrels.--_n._ DOUB'LE-BASS, the lowest-toned instrument of violin form.--_adjs._ DOUB'LE-BIT'ING, cutting on either side; DOUB'LE-BREAST'ED, of a coat having two breasts, one to be folded over the other.--_ns._ DOUB'LE-CHARGE, to charge with a double measure; DOUB'LE-DEAL'ER, a deceitful person; DOUB'LE-DEAL'ING, duplicity.--_adj._ DOUB'LE-DECKED, having two decks above water-line.--_n._ DOUB'LE-DECK'ER, a double-decked frigate.--_adj._ DOUB'LE-DYED, twice dyed: deeply imbued (as a double-dyed villain).--_n._ DOUB'LE-EA'GLE (_U.S._), a gold coin worth $20, or £4, 2s. 2d.: the heraldic representation of an eagle with two heads, as in the arms of Russia and Austria.--_adj._ DOUB'LE-EDGED, having two edges: cutting or working both ways.--_ns._ DOUB'LE-END'ER, anything having two ends alike: a cross-cut sawing machine, with two adjustable circular saws, for sawing both ends of timber; DOUB'LE-EN'TRY (_book-k._), a method by which two entries are made of each transaction.--_adjs._ DOUB'LE-EYED, having a deceitful countenance; DOUB'LE-FACED, hypocritical, false.--_ns._ DOUB'LE-F[=A]'CEDNESS; DOUB'LE-FIRST, at Oxford, a degree with first-class honours in mathematics and classics: one who takes such a degree.--_adj._ DOUB'LE-FLOW'ERED, having double flowers, as a plant.--_v.t._ DOUB'LE-GILD, to gild with double coatings of gold: to gloze over.--_n._ DOUB'LE-GLOS'TER, Gloucestershire cheese of extra richness.--_adjs._ DOUB'LE-HAND'ED, having two hands, two-handled; DOUB'LE-HEAD'ED, having two heads; DOUB'LE-HEART'ED, treacherous; DOUB'LE-HUNG, suspended, as a window-sash, so as to move either upward or downward; DOUB'LE-LOCKED, locked with two locks or bolts: locked by two turns of the key, as in very few locks but many novels; DOUB'LE-MANNED, furnished with twice the complement of men; DOUB'LE-MEAN'ING, deceitful; DOUB'LE-MIND'ED, undetermined, wavering.--_n._ DOUB'LE-MIND'EDNESS.--_adj._ DOUB'LE-N[=A]'TURED, having a twofold nature.--_n._ DOUB'LENESS, the state of being double: duplicity.--_adj._ and _adv._ DOUB'LE-QUICK, the pace next a run.--_n._ the double-quick pace.--_v.t._ DOUB'LE-SHADE (_Milt._), to double the natural darkness.--_adj._ DOUB'LE-SHOT'TED, of cannon, with two shots in them.--_ns._ DOUB'LE-SHUFF'LE (see SHUFFLE); DOUB'LE-STOP'PING, playing on two stopped strings of a violin at once; DOUB'LE-STOUT, extra strong stout or porter.--_adj._ DOUB'LE-TONGUED, deceitful.--_n._ DOUB'LING, the act of making double: a turning back in running: a trick: a plait or fold.--_adj._ shifting, manoeuvring. DOUBLE ENTENDRE, doobl' ong-tongdr, _n._ an equivoque, a word or phrase with two meanings, one usually more or less indecent. [Fr. of 17th century, superseded now by (_mot_) _à double entente_.] DOUBLET, dub'let, _n._ a pair: an inner garment: name given to words that are really the same, but vary somewhat in spelling and signification, as _desk_, _disc_, and _dish_, _describe_ and _descry_. [O. Fr., dim. of _double_.] DOUBLOON, dub-loon', _n._ an obsolete Spanish gold coin double the value of a pistole--varying from 33s. in 1772 to 20s. 8d. in 1848. [Sp. _doblon_.] DOUBT, dowt, _v.i._ to waver in opinion: to be uncertain: to hesitate: to suspect: to believe with fear or hesitation: (_Scot._) to think, even without the sense of hesitation.--_v.t._ to hold in doubt: to distrust.--_p.adj._ DOUBT'ED (_Spens._), questioned: feared, redoubted. [O. Fr. _douter_--L. _dubit[=a]re_, akin to _dubius_, doubtful, moving in two (_duo_) directions.] DOUBT, dowt, _n._ uncertainty of mind: suspicion: fear: a thing doubted or questioned.--_adj._ DOUBT'ABLE.--_n._ DOUB'TER.--_adj._ DOUBT'FUL, full of doubt: undetermined: not clear: not secure: suspicious: not confident.--_adv._ DOUBT'FULLY.--_n._ DOUBT'FULNESS.--_p.adj._ DOUBT'ING, that doubts, undecided.--_advs._ DOUBT'INGLY; DOUBT'LESS, without doubt: certainly; DOUBT'LESSLY. DOUC, dook, _n._ a species of monkey in Cochin-China. DOUCE, d[=oo]s, _adj._ (_obs._) sweet: (_Scot._) sober, peaceable, sedate.--_adv._ DOUCE'LY.--_n._ DOUCE'NESS.--_n.pl._ DOUC'ETS, the stones of a deer.--_n._ DOUCEUR (d[=oo]-s[.e]r'), sweetness of manner (_obs._): something intended to please, a present or a bribe. [Fr. _doux_, _douce_, mild--L. _dulcis_, sweet.] DOUCHE, d[=oo]sh, _n._ a jet of water directed upon the body from a pipe: an apparatus for throwing such. [Fr.,--It. _doccia_, a water-pipe--L. _duc[)e]re_, to lead.] DOUCINE, doo-s[=e]n', _n._ (_archit._) a cyma recta. [Fr.] DOUGH, d[=o], _n._ a mass of flour or meal moistened and kneaded, but not baked.--_adjs._ DOUGH'-BAKED, half-baked, defective in intelligence; DOUGH'FACED (_U.S._) pliable, truckling.--_n._ DOUGH'INESS.--_adj._ DOUGH'-KNEAD'ED (_Milt._), soft.--_n._ DOUGH'-NUT, sweetened dough fried in fat.--_adj._ DOUGH'Y, like dough: soft. [A.S. _dáh_; Ger. _teig_, Ice. _deig_, dough; prov. _dow_ and _duff_.] DOUGHTY, dow'ti, _adj._ able, strong: brave.--_adv._ DOUGH'TILY.--_n._ DOUGH'TINESS. [A.S. _dyhtig_, valiant--_dugan_, to be strong; Ger. _tüchtig_, solid.] DOUM-PALM. Same as DOOM-PALM. DOUP, dowp, _n._ (_Scot._) bottom, buttocks.--_n._ CAN'DLE-DOUP, a candle-end. [Cf. Ice. _daup_.] DOUR, d[=oo]r, _adj._ (_Scot._) obstinate: bold. [Fr.,--L. _durus_, hard.] DOURA. See DURRA. DOUSE, DOWSE, dows, _v.t._ to plunge into water.--_v.i._ to fall suddenly into water. [Cf. Sw. _dunsa_, fall heavily. Prob. from sound; cf. _souse_.] DOUSE, DOWSE, dows, _v.t._ to strike: to strike or lower a sail.--_n._ a heavy blow. [Prob. related to Old Dut. _dossen_, to beat.] DOUSE, DOWSE, dows, _v.t._ to put out, extinguish (esp. in the _slang_ DOUSE THE GLIM, put out the light). [Prob. a corr. of the obs. verb _dout_ below; more likely a particular use of _douse_, to strike.] DOUT, dowt, _v.t._ to put out, extinguish.--_n._ DOUT'ER. [_Do out._] DOVE, duv, _n._ a pigeon (esp. in comp., as _ringdove_, _turtle-dove_, &c.): a word of endearment: an emblem of innocence, gentleness, also of the Holy Spirit--the 'Holy Dove' (Matt. iii. 16).--_v.t._ to treat as a dove.--_ns._ DOVE'-COL'OUR, a grayish, bluish, pinkish colour; DOVE'COT, -COTE, a small cot or box in which pigeons breed.--_adjs._ DOVE'-DRAWN (_Shak._), drawn by doves; DOVE'-EYED, meek-eyed.--_ns._ DOVE'-HOUSE, a dovecot; DOVE'LET, a small dove.--_adj._ DOVE'-LIKE, innocent.--_ns._ DOVE'S'-FOOT, the common name for _Geranium molle_; DOVE'SHIP, the character or quality of a dove.--FLUTTER THE DOVECOTS, to disturb commonplace, conventional people, as the eagle would a dovecot (see Shak., _Cor._ V. vi. 115). [A.S. _dufe_ in _dúfe-doppa_; Ger. _taube_.] DOVEKIE, duv'ki, _n._ the little auk, a diving bird of the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans. DOVER, d[=o]'ver, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to slumber lightly, doze off.--_v.t._ to send off into a light sleep.--_n._ a slight unsettled sleep. DOVER'S POWDER, d[=o]'verz pow'der, _n._ a valuable sudorific medicine, compounded of ipecacuanha root, powdered opium, and sulphate of potash. [From Dr Thomas _Dover_, 1660-1742.] [Illustration] DOVETAIL, duv't[=a]l, _n._ a mode of fastening boards together by fitting pieces shaped like a wedge or a dove's tail spread out (_tenons_) into corresponding cavities (_mortises_).--_v.t._ to fit one thing into another. DOW, dow, _v.i._ (_obs._) to be good for a purpose: (_Scot._) to be able.--_p.adjs._ DOCHT, DOUGHT. [A.S. _dugan_.] DOWAGER, dow'a-j[.e]r, _n._ a widow with a dower or jointure: a title given to a widow to distinguish her from the wife of her husband's heir. [O. Fr. _douagere_--Low L. _dotarium_--L. _dot[=a]re_, to endow.] DOWDY, dow'di, _adj._ untidy, carelessly dressed, soft and slack in habit.--_n._ an untidy woman.--_adv._ DOW'DILY.--_ns._ DOW'DINESS, DOW'DYISM.--_adj._ DOW'DYISH. [Ety. unknown.] DOWEL, dow'el, _n._ a pin of wood or iron inserted in the edges of two adjacent boards for the purpose of fastening them together.--_v.t._ to fasten by means of dowels.--_ns._ DOW'EL-JOINT; DOW'EL-PIN. [Prob. related to Ger. _döbel_, a plug.] DOWER, dow'[.e]r, _n._ a jointure, that part of the husband's property which his widow enjoys during her life--sometimes used for DOW'RY.--_adjs._ DOW'ABLE, that may be endowed; DOW'ERED, furnished with dower.--_n._ DOW'ER-HOUSE, the house set apart for the widow.--_adj._ DOW'ERLESS. [O. Fr. _douaire_--Low L. _dotarium_--L. _dot[=a]re_, to endow.] DOWF, dowf, _adj._ (_Scot._) dull, heavy, spiritless.--_n._ DOWF'NESS. [Prob. Ice. _daufr_, deaf.] DOWIE, dow'i, _adj._ (_Scot._) dull, low-spirited, sad. [Prob. A.S. _dol_, dull.] DOWLAS, dowlas, _n._ a coarse linen cloth. [From _Daoulas_ or _Doulas_, near Brest, in Brittany.] DOWLE, dowl, _n._ (_Shak._) a portion of down in a feather. DOWN, down, _n._ the soft hair under the feathers of fowls: the hairy covering of the seeds of certain plants: anything which soothes or invites to repose.--_n._ DOWN'-BED.--_p.adj._ DOWNED, filled or covered with down.--_ns._ DOWN'INESS; DOWN'-QUILT.--_adj._ DOWN'Y, covered with or made of down: like down: soft: soothing: (_slang_) knowing.--THE DOWNY (_slang_), bed. [Ice. _dúnn_; Ger. _daune_, _dune_.] DOWN, down, _n._ a bank of sand thrown up by the sea (same as DUNE): a treeless land: (_pl._) a tract of hilly land, used for pasturing sheep, as the North Downs (Kent) and South Downs (Sussex)--also given to the famous roadstead off the east coast of Kent, inside the Goodwin Sands. [A.S. _dún_, a hill; prob. from Celt. _dun_, as in _Dun_keld, &c.] DOWN, down, _adv._ from a higher to a lower position: on the ground: from earlier to later times: from thick to thin, from large to small (to boil down, to cut down): from more to less (to beat down a price).--_prep._ along a descent: from a higher to a lower position or state.--_v.t._ to knock down: to dispirit--also used as a kind of interjection, with _get_, _go_, _come_, _kneel_, &c. understood.--_n._ a tendency to be down upon, a grudge against: a descent, reverse of fortune.--_v.i._ DOWN'-BEAR, to bear or press down.--_adj._ DOWN'CAST, dejected.--_ns._ DOWN'COME, a fall, ruin, a heavy pour of rain; DOWN'-DRAUGHT, a current of air downwards; DOWN'-EAST'ER, one living 'down east' from the speaker, a New Englander, and esp. an inhabitant of Maine; DOWN'FALL, fall, failure, humiliation, ruin: a falling down, as of rain.--_adjs._ DOWN'FALLEN, ruined; DOWN'-GYVED (_Shak._), hanging down like fetters.--_n._ DOWN'-HAUL, a rope by which a jib, &c., is hauled down when set.--_adjs._ DOWN'-HEART'ED, dejected; DOWN'HILL, descending, sloping.--_n._ DOWN'-LINE, the line of a railway leading from the capital, or other important centre, to the provinces.--_adj._ DOWN'LOOKED (_Dryden_), downcast, gloomy.--_ns._ DOWN'-LY'ING, time of retiring to rest: a woman's lying-in; DOWN'POUR, a heavy fall of rain, &c.--_adv._ DOWN'RIGHT (_obs._), perpendicular: in plain terms: utterly.--_adj._ plain spoken: brusque: utter (as in _downright madness_).--_ns._ DOWN'RIGHTNESS; DOWN'RUSH, a rushing down (as of gas, hot air, &c.); DOWN'-SET'TING, a setting down, a snub; DOWN'-SIT'TING, sitting down, time of rest (Ps. cxxxix. 2).--_advs._ DOWN'STAIRS, in, or to, a lower story; DOWN'-STREAM, with the current.--_ns._ DOWN'-THROW, act of throwing down, state of being thrown down: a sinking of strata below the level of the surrounding beds; DOWN'-TRAIN, a railway train proceeding from the chief terminus.--_adj._ DOWN'-TRODDEN, trampled on, tyrannised over.--_advs._ DOWN'WARD, DOWN'WARDS, from higher to lower: from source to outlet: from more ancient to modern: in the lower part.--_adj._ DOWN'WARD.--DOWN EAST (_U.S._), in or into Maine and adjoining parts of New England; DOWN IN THE MOUTH, in low spirits; DOWN ON ONE'S LUCK, in ill-luck; DOWN SOUTH, in the southern states; DOWN TO THE COUNTRY, away into the country, from London (hence 'down to the Derby,' 'down to Scotland'); DOWN WITH YOUR MONEY, lay it down, pay it.--A DOWN-TRAIN, a train away from London.--LAY DOWN THE LAW, to expound authoritatively. [A corr. of M. E. _a-dawn_, _adun_--A.S. _of dúne_, 'from the hill'--A.S. _dún_, a hill.] DOWRY, dow'ri, _n._ the property which a woman brings to her husband at marriage--sometimes used for _dower_. [See DOWER.] DOWSE, dows, _v.t._ and _v.i._ See DOUSE. DOWSE, dows, _v.i._ to use the divining-rod.--_n._ DOWS'ER, a water diviner. DOXOLOGY, doks-ol'o-ji, _n._ a hymn expressing praise and honour to the Trinity.--_adj._ DOXOLOG'ICAL. [Gr. _doxologia_--_doxa_, praise, and _legein_, to speak.] DOXY, dok'si, _n._ (_Shak._) a mistress: a woman of loose character. [Prob. conn. with East Fries. _dok_, a bundle, Low Ger. _dokke_.] DOXY, dok'si, _n._ opinion--'Orthodoxy,' said Warburton, 'is my doxy--heterodoxy is another man's doxy.' [Gr. _doxa_, opinion.] DOYEN, dwaw'yong, _n._ dean, senior member (of an academy, diplomatic corps, &c.). [Fr.,--Lat. _d[=e]canus_.] DOYLEY. See DOILY. DOZE, d[=o]z, _v.i._ to sleep lightly, or to be half-asleep: to be in a dull or stupefied state.--_v.i._ to spend in drowsiness (with _away_).--_n._ a short light sleep.--_adj._ DOZED, drowsy.--_v.t._ D[=O]'ZEN (_Scot._), to stupefy.--_v.i._ to become stupefied.--_ns._ D[=O]'ZER; D[=O]'ZINESS; D[=O]'ZING.--_adj._ D[=O]'ZY, drowsy. [From a Scand. root, seen in Ice. _dúsa_, Dan. _döse_, to dose.] DOZEN, duz'n, _adj._ two and ten, or twelve.--_n._ a collection of twelve articles.--_adj._ DOZ'ENTH.--BAKER'S DOZEN, DEVIL'S DOZEN, thirteen. [O. Fr. _dozeine_--L. _duodecim_--_duo_, two, and _decem_, ten.] DRAB, drab, _n._ a low, sluttish woman: a whore.--_v.i._ to associate with bad women.--_ns._ DRAB'BER, one who herds with drabs; DRAB'BINESS.--_adjs._ DRAB'BISH, DRAB'BY, sluttish. [Celt.; Gael. _drabag_; Ir. _drabog_, slut.] DRAB, drab, _n._ thick, strong, gray cloth: a gray or dull-brown colour, perh. from the muddy colour of undyed wool. [Fr. _drap_, cloth--Low L. _drappus_, prob. Teut.] DRABBET, drab'et, _n._ a coarse linen fabric made at Barnsley. DRABBLE, drab'l, _v.t._ to besmear with mud and water.--_n._ DRABB'LING, a manner of fishing for barbels with a rod and long line passed through a piece of lead. [Cf. _drivel_, _dribble_; prob. conn. with _drab_, a low woman.] DRABBLER, drab'ler, _n._ an additional piece of canvas, laced to the bottom of the bonnet of a sail, to give it greater depth. DRACANTH, drak'anth, _n._ gum tragacanth. DRACÆNA, dra-s[=e]'na, _n._ the tree which produces the resin called Dragon's-blood.--_n._ DRAC[=I]'NA, the red resin of dragon's-blood used to colour varnishes--also DRACINE', DRAC[=O]'NIN. [Low L. _dracæna_, a she-dragon--Gr. _drakaina_, fem. of _drak[=o]n_, dragon.] DRACHM, dram, _n._ See DRACHMA, DRAM. DRACHMA, drak'ma, _n._ an ancient Greek weight, and silver coin of different values: a modern Greek coin = above 9½d. sterling. [Gr. _drachm[=e]_--_drassesthai_, to grasp with the hand.] DRACO, dr[=a]'k[=o], _n._ a northern constellation: a dragon-lizard. DRACONIAN, dra-k[=o]'nyan, _adj._ severe, as was the legislation, of _Draco_, the Athenian archon (621 B.C.).--Also DRACON'IC. DRACONTIUM, dr[=a]-kon'shi-um, _n._ a genus of American araceous plants: the root of the skunk-cabbage. [Gr.,--_drak[=o]n_, a dragon.] DRACUNCULUS, dr[=a]-kun'k[=u]-lus, _n._ a herbaceous genus of _Araceæ_; a dragonet or goby of genus _Callionymus_: a genus of worms, the guinea-worm. [L., dim, of _draco_, a dragon.] DRAD, drad, _p.adj._ or _n._ form used by Spenser for _dread_ and _dreaded_. DRAFF, draf, _n._ dregs: the refuse of malt that has been brewed from.--_adjs._ DRAFF'ISH, DRAFF'Y, worthless. [Prob. related to Dut. _draf_, Ger. _träber_.] DRAFT, dräft, _n._ anything drawn: a selection of men from an army, &c.: an order for the payment of money: lines drawn for a plan: a rough sketch: the depth to which a vessel sinks in water.--_v.t._ to draw an outline of: to compose and write: to draw off: to detach.--_ns._ DRAFT'-BAR, a swingle-tree, the bar to which the coupling of a railway-carriage is attached; DRAFT'-HORSE, a horse used for drawing the plough, heavy loads, &c., in distinction to a carriage or saddle horse; DRAFT'-OX, an ox used for drawing loads; DRAFTS'MAN, one who draws plans or designs; DRAFTS'MANSHIP. [A corr. of DRAUGHT.] DRAFTS, dräfts, _n.pl._ a game. [See DRAUGHTS.] DRAG, drag, _v.t._ to draw by force: to draw slowly: to pull roughly and violently: to explore with a drag-net or hook.--_v.i._ to hang so as to trail on the ground: to be forcibly drawn along: to move slowly and heavily:--_pr.p._ drag'ging; _pa.p._ dragged.--_n._ a net or hook for dragging along to catch things under water: a heavy harrow: a device for guiding wood to the saw: a mail-coach: a long open carriage, with transverse or side seats: a contrivance for retarding carriage-wheels in going down slopes: any obstacle to progress: an artificial scent (anise-seed, &c.) dragged on the ground for foxhounds trained to the pursuit (DRAG'-HOUNDS) to follow: (_billiards_) a push somewhat under the centre of the cue-ball, causing it to follow the object-ball a short way.--_ns._ DRAG'-BAR, a strong iron bar for connecting railway-carriages together--also DRAW'-BAR; DRAG'-BOLT, a strong bolt passing through the drag-bar of railway-carriages, and serving to fasten the coupling; DRAG'-CHAIN, the chain that connects engine and tender, or carriages and wagons, with one another; DRAG'-MAN, a fisherman who uses a drag-net; DRAG'-NET, a net to be dragged or drawn along the bottom of water to catch fish; DRAGS'MAN, the driver of a drag or coach. [A.S. _dragan_; Ger. _tragen_. Acc. to Curtius, nowise conn. with L. _trah[)e]re_.] DRAGANTIN, dra-gan'tin, _n._ a mucilage obtained from gum tragacanth. DRAGGLE, drag'l, _v.t._ or _v.i._ to make or become wet and dirty by dragging along the ground.--_n._ DRAGG'LE-TAIL, a slut.--_adj._ DRAGG'LE-TAILED. [Freq. of _drag_, and a doublet of _drawl_.] DRAGOMAN, drag'o-man, _n._ an interpreter or guide in Eastern countries:--_pl._ DRAG'OMANS. [Fr., from Ar. _tarjumân_--_tarjama_, to interpret. See TARGUM.] DRAGON, drag'un, _n._ a fabulous winged serpent: the constellation Draco: a fierce person: the flying lizard of the East Indies.--_ns._ DRAG'ONET, a little dragon: a genus of fishes of the goby family; DRAG'ON-FLY, an insect with a long body and brilliant colours.--_v.t._ DRAG'ONISE, to turn into a dragon: to watch like a dragon.--_adjs._ DRAG'ONISH, DRAG'ON-LIKE.--_n._ DRAG'ONISM, watchful guardianship.--_adj._ DRAGONNÉ (_her._), like a dragon in the hinder part, and a lion or the like in the fore part.--_ns._ DRAG'ON'S-BLOOD, the red resinous exudation of several kinds of trees in the W. and E. Indies, used for colouring; DRAG'ON'S-HEAD, a plant of genus _Dracocephalum_, of the mint family (_Labiatæ_): (_her._) tenné or tawny when blazoning is done by the heavenly bodies; DRAG'ON-SHELL, a cowry; DRAG'ON'S-WORT, tarragon or snake-weed; DRAG'ON-TREE (same as DRACÆNA). [Fr.,--L. _draco_, _draconis_--Gr. _drak[=o]n_, from aorist of _derk-esthai_, to look.] DRAGONNADE, drag-on-[=a]d', _n._ the persecution of French Protestants under Louis XIV. by raids of dragoons: abandonment of a place to the violence of soldiers. [Fr., from _dragon_, dragoon.] DRAGOON, dra-g[=oo]n', _n._ formerly a soldier trained to fight either on horseback or on foot, now applied only to heavy cavalry as opposed to hussars and lancers.--_v.t._ to give up to the rage of soldiers: to compel by violent measures.--_n._ DRAGOON'-BIRD, the umbrella-bird. [Fr. See DRAGON.] DRAGSMAN. See DRAG. DRAIL, dr[=a]l, _n._ the iron bow of a plough from which the traces draw: a piece of lead round the shank of the hook in fishing.--_v.i._ to draggle. DRAIN, dr[=a]n, _v.t._ to draw off by degrees: to filter: to clear of water by drains: to make dry: to drink dry: to exhaust.--_v.i._ to flow off gradually.--_n._ a watercourse: a ditch: a sewer: (_slang_) a drink: exhausting expenditure.--_adj._ DRAIN'ABLE.--_ns._ DRAIN'AGE, the drawing off of water by rivers or other channels: the system of drains in a town; DRAIN'AGE-BASIN, the area of land which drains into one river; DRAIN'AGE-TUBE, a tube of silver, india-rubber, glass, &c., introduced by a surgeon into a wound or abscess to draw off pus, &c.; DRAIN'ER, a utensil on which articles are placed to drain; DRAIN'ING-EN'GINE, a pumping-engine for mines, &c.; DRAIN'ING-PLOUGH, a form of plough used in making drains; DRAIN'-PIPE; DRAIN'-TILE; DRAIN'-TRAP, a contrivance for preventing the escape of foul air from drains, but admitting the water into them. [A.S. _dréahnigan_--_dragan_, to draw.] DRAKE, dr[=a]k, _n._ the male of the duck.--_n._ DRAKE'STONE, a flat stone thrown along the surface of water so as to graze it and then rebound. [Ety. dub.; cf. prov. Ger. _draak_; O. High Ger. _antrahho_, Ger. _enterich_, the first element usually explained as _eend_, _end_, _anut_, 'duck.'] DRAKE, dr[=a]k, _n._ a dragon: a fiery meteor: a beaked galley, or Viking ship of war: an angler's name for species of _Ephemera_. [A.S. _draca_, dragon--L. _draco_.] DRAM, dram, _n._ a contraction of DRACHM: 1/16th of an oz. avoirdupois: formerly, with apothecaries, 1/8th of an oz.: as much raw spirits as is drunk at once.--_v.i._ to drink a dram.--_v.t._ to give a dram to.--_ns._ DRAM'-DRINK'ER; DRAM'-SHOP. [Through Fr. and L., from Gr. _drachm[=e]_. See DRACHMA.] DRAMA, dram'a, _n._ a story of human life and action represented by actors imitating the language, dress, &c. of the original characters: a composition intended to be represented on the stage: dramatic literature: theatrical entertainment: a series of deeply interesting events.--_adjs._ DRAMATIC, -AL, belonging to the drama: appropriate to or in the form of a drama: with the force and vividness of the drama.--_adv._ DRAMAT'ICALLY.--_n._ DRAMAT'ICISM.--_adj._ DRAM'AT[=I]SABLE.--_n._ DRAMATIS[=A]'TION, the act of dramatising: the dramatised version of a novel or story.--_v.i._ DRAM'AT[=I]SE, to compose in, or turn into, the form of a drama or play.--_n._ DRAM'ATIST, a writer of plays.--DRAM'ATIS PERS[=O]'NÆ (-[=e]), the characters of a drama or play. [L.,--Gr. _drama_, _dramatos_--_draein_, to do.] DRAMATURGY, dram'a-tur-ji, _n._ the principles of dramatic composition: theatrical art.--_ns._ DRAM'ATURGE, DRAM'ATURGIST, a playwright.--_adj._ DRAM'ATURGIC. [Through Fr. from Gr. _dramatourgia_, _dramatourgos_, playwright--_drama_, and _ergon_, a work.] DRAMMOCK, dram'ok, _n._ meal and water mixed raw. DRANK, drangk, _pa.t._ of DRINK. DRANT, drant, _v.i._ and _v.t._ (_prov._) to drawl, to drone.--_n._ a droning tone. DRAPER, dr[=a]p'[.e]r, _n._ one who deals in drapery or cloth:--_fem._ DRAP'ERESS.--_n._ DRAP-DE-BERRY, a woollen cloth, coming from _Berry_ in France.--_v.t._ DRAPE, to cover with cloth.--_p.adj._ DRAP'ERIED, draped.--_n._ DRAP'ERY, cloth goods: hangings of any kind: the draper's business: (_art_) the representation of the dress of human figures.--_v.t._ to drape.--_n._ DRAP'ET (_Spens._), cloth, coverlet. [Fr. _drapier_--_drap_, from a Teut. root. See DRAB.] DRAPPIE, DRAPPY, drap'i, _n._ (_Scot._) a little drop, esp. of spirits. DRASTIC, dras'tik, _adj._ active, powerful.--_n._ a medicine that purges quickly or thoroughly.--_adv._ DRAS'TICALLY. [Gr. _drastikos_--_draein_, to act, to do.] DRAT, drat, _v.t._ a minced oath used to express vexation, as 'Drat the boy!' [Aphetic from God rot!] DRATCHELL, drach'el, _n._ (_prov._) a slut.--Also DROTCH'ELL. DRAUGHT, dräft, _n._ act of drawing: force needed to draw: the act of drinking: the quantity drunk at a time: outline of a picture: that which is taken in a net by drawing: a chosen detachment of men: a current of air: the depth to which a ship sinks in the water.--_v.t._ (more commonly DRAFT), to draw out.--_n._ DRAUGHT'-EN'GINE, the engine over the shaft of a coal-pit.--_n.pl._ DRAUGHT'-HOOKS, large iron hooks fixed on the cheeks of a cannon-carriage.--_ns._ DRAUGHT'-HOUSE (_B._), a sink, privy; DRAUGHT'INESS; DRAUGHT'-NET, a drag-net.--_n.pl._ DRAUGHTS, a game in which two persons make alternate moves (_draughts_) on a checkered board, called the DRAUGHT'BOARD, with pieces called DRAUGHTS'MEN--U.S. _checkers_, Scot. _dambrod_.--_n._ DRAUGHTS'MAN (see DRAFTSMAN).--_adj._ DRAUGHT'Y, full of draughts or currents of air. [M. E. _draht_--A.S. _dragan_, to draw. See DRAG, _v._, and DRAW.] DRAVE, dr[=a]v, old _pa.t._ of DRIVE. DRAVIDIAN, dra-vid'i-an, _n._ of the non-Aryan stock to which the Tamil, Telugu, Canarese, and Malay[=a]lam speaking peoples of Southern India belong: of the languages of these races. [Sans. _Dr[=a]vida_, an ancient province of Southern India.] DRAW, draw, _v.t._ to pull along: to bring forcibly towards one: to entice, attract: to coax into giving information: to make one express himself (also to DRAW OUT A MAN): to inhale: to take out: to evoke or bring out by some artifice: to extract by pulling: to cast lots: to extract the essence of: to eviscerate (hang, _draw_, and quarter): to manufacture (wire) by drawing through a small hole: to deduce: to lengthen: to extend to the full length (as in drawing a bow): to force to appear (as a badger from its hole): to receive (as revenues): to demand money by a draft: to make a picture of, by lines drawn: to describe: to require a depth of water for floating.--_v.i._ to pull: to practise drawing: to move: to approach: to have a free current (of a chimney):--_pa.t._ drew (dr[=oo]); _pa.p._ drawn.--_n._ the act of drawing: anything drawn: a drawn or undecided game.--_adj._ DRAW'ABLE.--_ns._ DRAW'BACK, a disadvantage: a receiving back some part of the duty on goods on their exportation; DRAW'-BAR (same as DRAG-BAR); DRAW'-BOY, the boy who pulls the cords of the harness in figure-weaving, a mechanical device for this purpose; DRAW'BRIDGE, a bridge that can be drawn up or let down at pleasure; DRAW[=E][=E]', the person on whom a bill of exchange is drawn; DRAW'ER, he or that which draws: one who draws beer or fetches liquor in a tavern: a thing drawn out, like the sliding box in a case: (_pl._) a close under-garment for the lower limbs; DRAW'-GEAR, the apparatus by which railway-cars are coupled; DRAW'ING, the art of representing objects by lines drawn, shading, &c.: a picture: the distribution of prizes, as at a lottery; DRAW'ING-BOARD; DRAW'ING-FRAME, a machine in which carded wool, cotton, or the like is drawn out fine; DRAW'ING-KNIFE, a knife with a handle at each end, used by coopers for shaving hoops by drawing it towards one; DRAW'ING-MAS'TER; DRAW'ING-P[=A]'PER; DRAW'ING-PEN; DRAW'ING-PEN'CIL; DRAW'ING-ROOM, in engineering, a room where plans and patterns are drawn; DRAW'ING-T[=A]'BLE, a table which can be extended in length by drawing out sliding leaves; DRAW'-NET (same as DRAG-NET); DRAW'-PLATE, a plate of steel or ruby with a hole drilled in it through which wire, tubing, or the like is drawn to make it more slender; DRAW'-WELL, a well from which water is drawn up by a bucket and apparatus.--DRAW A BEAD ON (see BEAD); DRAW A BLANK (see BLANK); DRAW A COVER, to send the hounds into a cover to frighten out a fox; DRAW BLANK, to do so, but find no fox; DRAW BACK, to retire: to withdraw from an engagement; DRAW CUTS, to cast lots; DRAW IN, to reduce, contract: to become shorter; DRAW IT FINE, to be too precise; DRAW IT MILD, to state a thing without exaggeration; DRAW NEAR, to approach; DRAW OFF, to take wine, ale, &c. out of a barrel: to retire; DRAW ON, to approach (of a fixed date); DRAW ON ONE'S IMAGINATION, to make imaginative or lying statements; DRAW ON ONE'S MEMORY, to try to remember; DRAW OUT, to leave the place (of an army), &c.; DRAW OVER, to persuade to desert to the other side; DRAW REIN, to slacken speed, to stop; DRAW THE LINE, to fix a limit; DRAW UP, to form in regular order: to arrange or to be arranged (as troops): to compose (as a protest, &c.): to stop (as in driving a carriage).--IN DRAWING, correctly drawn; OUT OF DRAWING, inaccurately drawn, or drawn in violation of the principles of drawing. [A later form of DRAG.] DRAWCANSIR, draw'kan-s[.e]r, _n._ a blustering fellow, a braggart. [The name of a character in Buckingham's _Rehearsal_ (1671).] DRAWING-ROOM, draw'ing-r[=oo]m, _n._ a room to which the company withdraws after dinner: a reception of company at court.--DRAWING-ROOM CAR, a railway-carriage fitted up as a drawing-room. [Orig. _Withdrawing-room_.] DRAWL, drawl, _v.i._ (_obs._) to dawdle: to speak in a slow, lengthened tone.--_v.t._ to utter (words) in a slow and sleepy manner.--_n._ a slow, lengthened utterance.--_n._ DRAWL'ER.--_adv._ DRAWL'INGLY.--_n._ DRAWL'INGNESS. [Freq. of _draw_, as _draggle_ of _drag_.] DRAWN, drawn, _part._ and _adj._ from DRAW, esp. in 'a drawn game or battle,' undecided.--DRAWN AND QUARTERED, disembowelled and cut into quarters.--AT DAGGERS DRAWN, openly hostile. DRAY, dr[=a], _n._ a low strong cart for heavy goods; that which is dragged or drawn.--_ns._ DRAY'AGE; DRAY'-HORSE; DRAY'MAN; DRAY'-PLOUGH. [A.S. _dræge_, from _dragan_. See DRAG, _v._] DRAZEL, dr[=a]z'el, _n._ (_prov._) a slut. DREAD, dred, _n._ fear: awe: the objects that excite fear.--_adj._ dreaded: inspiring great fear or awe.--_v.t._ to regard with terror: to regard with reverence.--_adjs._ DREAD'ABLE; DREAD'FUL, (_orig._) full of dread: producing great fear or awe: terrible.--_adv._ DREAD'FULLY.--_n._ DREAD'FULNESS.--_adj._ DREAD'LESS, free from dread: intrepid.--_adv._ DREAD'LESSLY.--_n._ DREAD'LESSNESS.--_adj._ DREAD'LY (_Spens._) dreadful.--_ns._ DREAD'NAUGHT, DREAD'NOUGHT, one who dreads nothing--hence, a garment of thick cloth defending against the weather: the cloth of which it is made.--PENNY DREADFUL, a cheap sensational serial or tale, usually bloody in subject and vulgar in tone. [M. E. _dreden_--A.S. _on-dr['æ]dan_, to fear; Ice. _ondréda_, Old High Ger. _in-tratan_, to be afraid.] DREAM, dr[=e]m, _n._ a train of thoughts and fancies during sleep, a vision: something only imaginary.--_v.i._ to fancy things during sleep: to think idly.--_v.t._ to see in, or as in, a dream:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ dreamed or dreamt (dremt).--_ns._ DREAM'ER; DREAM'ERY, a place favourable to dreams: dream-work.--_adj._ DREAM'FUL (_Tenn._), dreamy.--_n._ DREAM'HOLE, one of the holes in the walls of steeples, towers, &c., for admitting light.--_adv._ DREAM'ILY.--_n._ DREAM'INESS.--_adv._ DREAM'INGLY.--_n._ DREAM'LAND, the land of dreams, reverie, or imagination.--_adj._ DREAM'LESS, free from dreams.--_ns._ DREAM'WHILE, the duration of a dream; DREAM'WORLD, a world of illusions.--_adj._ DREAM'Y, full of dreams: appropriate to dreams: dream-like. [M. E. _dream_, _dr[=e]m_, not recorded in A.S., but pointing to an assumed A.S. _dréam_, cog. with O. High Ger. _troum_, O. Norse _draum_, &c. This is distinct from the A.S. _dréam_, mirth, minstrelsy, being ultimately related to _dreug-_, _draug-_, _drug-_, to deceive, the radical sense therefore 'illusion.'] DREAR, dr[=e]r, DREARY, dr[=e]r'i, _adj._ gloomy: cheerless.--_adv._ DREAR'ILY.--_ns._ DREAR'IMENT, DREAR'ING, DREAR'IHEAD, DREAR'IHOOD (_Spens._), dreariness, cheerlessness; DREAR'INESS.--_adj._ DREAR'ISOME, desolate, forlorn. [A.S. _dreórig_, mournful, bloody--_dreór_, gore.] DREDGE, drej, _n._ an instrument for dragging: a drag-net for catching oysters, &c.: a machine for taking up mud or zoological specimens from the bottom of the sea: a floating machine for deepening a harbour or river by gathering up mud from the bottom by means of buckets on an endless chain--also DREDG'ER, DREDG'ING-MACHINE'.--_v.t._ DREDGE, to gather with a dredge: to deepen with a dredge. [Conn. with _drag_.] DREDGE, drej, _v.t._ to sprinkle flour on meat while roasting.--_ns._ DREDG'ER, DREDGE'-BOX, DREDG'ING-BOX, a utensil for dredging. [O. Fr. _dragie_, sugar-plum, mixed grain for horses--Gr. _trag[=e]mata_, spices.] DREE, dr[=e], _v.i._ to endure, bear, esp. in DREE ONE'S WEIRD, to abide one's destiny. [Scot.; A.S. _dre[=o]gan_, suffer, perform; Prov. Eng. _dree_, Scot. _dreich_, _dreigh_, all meaning wearisome.] DREGS, dregz, _n.pl._ impurities in liquor that fall to the bottom, the grounds: dross: the vilest part of anything.--_ns._ DREG'GINESS, DREG'GISHNESS.--_adj._ DREG'GY, containing dregs: muddy: foul. [Prob. Scand.; Ice. _dreggjar_.] DREICH, dr[=e]h, _adj._ (_Scot._) long, tiresome. [See DREE.] DRENCH, drensh, _v.t._ to fill with drink or liquid: to wet thoroughly: to soak: to physic by force: (_obs._) to drown.--_n._ a draught: a dose of physic forced down the throat.--_n._ DRENCH'ER. [A.S. _drencan_, to give to drink, from _drincan_, to drink; Ger. _tränken_, to soak. See DRINK.] DRENT, drent (_Spens._), obsolete _pa.t._ of DRENCH. DRESS, dres, _v.t._ to put straight or in order, as troops: to put clothes upon: to prepare: to cook: to trim: to deck: to cleanse a sore: to manure.--_v.i._ to come into line: to put on clothes:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ dressed or drest.--_n._ the covering or ornament of the body: a lady's gown: style of dress.--_ns._ DRESS'-CIR'CLE, part of a theatre (usually the first gallery) set apart for people in evening dress; DRESS'-COAT, a fine black coat with narrow or cut-away skirts, worn when in full dress; DRESS'ER, one who dresses: a medical student who dresses wounds: a table on which meat is dressed or prepared for use: a kind of kitchen sideboard with rows of shelves for plates, dishes, &c.--_n.pl._ DRESS'-GOODS, cloths for making women's and children's gowns, frocks, &c.--_ns._ DRESS'ING, dress or clothes: manure given to land: matter used to give stiffness and gloss to cloth: the sauce, &c., used in preparing a dish for the table, stuffing, &c.: the bandage, &c., applied to a sore: an ornamental moulding: a thrashing; DRESS'ING-CASE, a case of toilet requisites used in dressing one's self: DRESS'ING-GOWN, a loose garment used in dressing, or in deshabille; DRESS'ING-JACK'ET, DRESS'ING-SACK, a jacket worn by women in dressing: DRESS'ING-ROOM; DRESS'ING-T[=A]'BLE; DRESS'MAKER, a person who makes gowns or dresses for women.--_adj._ DRESS'Y, fond of dress.--EVENING DRESS, FULL DRESS, the costume prescribed by fashion for evening receptions, dinners, balls, &c. [O. Fr. _dresser_, to prepare--L. _dirig[)e]re_, _directum_, to direct.] DREST, drest, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of DRESS. DREVILL, an old form of DRIVEL, a slave. DREW, dr[=oo]--did draw--_pa.t._ of DRAW. DRIB, drib, _v.t._ to cut off in small portions: to filch or steal: to lead on by degrees. [Akin to DRUB.] DRIBBLE, drib'l, _v.i._ to fall in small drops: to drop quickly: to slaver, as a child or an idiot.--_v.t._ to let fall in drops: to give out in small portions: at football, &c., to keep the ball moving forward little by little.--_v.t._ DRIB, to dribble, drivel.--_n._ a driblet.--_ns._ DRIB'BLER; DRIB'LET, DRIB'BLET, a small drop: a small quantity. [Dim. of DRIP.] DRICKSIE. See DROXY. DRIER, dr[=i]'[.e]r, _n._ that which dries: a machine for extracting moisture from wet cloths, grain, &c.: a substance causing paint to dry more rapidly. DRIFT, drift, _n._ a driving: a heap of matter driven together, as snow: the direction in which a thing is driven: a slow current in the sea caused by the wind: leeway: the object aimed at: the meaning of words used: (_geol._) detritus, such as broken rock, sand, gravel: (_mining_) a horizontal excavation or passage.--_v.t._ to drive into heaps, as snow.--_v.i._ to be floated along: to be driven into heaps.--_ns._ DRIFT'AGE, that which is drifted: the amount of deviation from a ship's course due to leeway; DRIFT'-AN'CHOR, an anchor for keeping the ship's head to the wind; DRIFT'-BOLT, a steel bolt used to drive out other bolts; DRIFT'-ICE, floating masses of ice drifting before the wind; DRIFT'LAND, an old tribute paid for the privilege of driving cattle through a manor.--_adj._ DRIFT'LESS, without drift or aim.--_ns._ DRIFT'-MIN'ING, gold-mining by means of drifts in the gravel and detritus of old river-beds; DRIFT'-NET, a net kept upright in the water by floats above and weights below; DRIFT'-SAIL, a sail immersed in the water, used for lessening the drift of a vessel during a storm; DRIFT'-WAY, a road over which cattle were driven: (_min._) drift; DRIFT'-WEED, gulf-weed: tangle; DRIFT'-WOOD, wood drifted by water.--_adj._ DRIFT'Y, full of or forming drifts. [See DRIVE.] DRILL, dril, _v.t._ to bore, pierce: to make with a drill: to exercise soldiers, pupils, &c.--to sow seeds, &c., in rows.--_n._ an instrument for boring stone, metal, teeth, or hard substances (not wood), actuated by a kind of bow, by a brace, or otherwise: a large boring instrument used in mining: a ridge with seed or growing plants on it (turnips, potatoes, &c.): the plants in such a row: the machine for sowing the seed in drill-husbandry.--_ns._ DRILL'-BAR'ROW, a grain-drill driven by hand; DRILL'-HAR'ROW, a harrow for working between drills; DRILL'-HUS'BANDRY, the method of sowing seed in drills or rows; DRILL'ING-MACHINE', DRILL'ING-LATHE, DRILL'-PRESS, machines for boring with a drill or drills; DRILL'-MAS'TER, one who teaches drill, one who trains in anything, esp. in a mechanical manner; DRILL'-PLOUGH, a plough for sowing grain in drills; DRILL'-SER'GEANT, a sergeant who drills soldiers. [Prob. borrowed from Dut. _drillen_, to bore; _dril_, _drille_, a borer.] DRILL, dril, _n._ a species of baboon found in Western Africa, resembling the mandrill, but smaller. [A contr. of _mandrill_.] DRILLING, dril'ing, _n._ stout twilled linen or cotton cloth.--Also DRILL. [Ger. _drillich_, ticking--L. _trilix_, three-threaded; _tres_, three, _licium_, thread.] DRILY, same as DRYLY. See under DRY, _adj._ DRINK, dringk, _v.t._ to swallow, as a liquid: to empty, as a glass, bowl, &c.: to take in through the senses.--_v.i._ to swallow a liquid: to take intoxicating liquors to excess:--_pr.p._ drink'ing; _pa.t._ drank; _pa.p._ drunk.--_n._ something to be drunk: intoxicating liquor.--_adj._ DRINK'ABLE.--_ns._ DRINK'ABLENESS; DRINK'ER, a tippler; DRINK'-HAIL, the customary old English reply to a pledge in drinking (_wæs hail_, 'health or good luck to you,' was answered with _drinc hail_, 'drink good health or good luck'); DRINK'ING-BOUT; DRINK'ING-FOUNT'AIN; DRINK'ING-HORN; DRINK'-MON'EY, a gratuity, ostensibly given to buy liquor for drinking to the health of the giver; DRINK'-OFF'ERING, an offering of wine, oil, blood, &c. to God or the gods.--DRINK HIMSELF DRUNK, to drink until he is drunk; DRINK IN, to absorb rain, &c., as dry land does; DRINK OFF, to quaff wholly and at a gulp; DRINK THE OTHERS UNDER THE TABLE, to continue drinking and remain (comparatively) sober after the others have completely collapsed; DRINK TO, DRINK TO THE HEALTH OF, to drink wine, &c., with good wishes for one's health; DRINK UP, to exhaust by drinking.--IN DRINK, intoxicated.--STRONG DRINK, alcoholic liquor. [A.S. _drincan_; Ger. _trinken_.] [Illustration] DRIP, drip, _v.i._ to fall in drops: to let fall drops.--_v.t._ to let fall in drops:--_pr.p._ drip'ping; _pa.p._ dripped.--_n._ a falling in drops: that which falls in drops: the edge of a root.--_ns._ DRIP'PING, that which falls in drops, as fat from meat in roasting; DRIP'PING-PAN, a pan for receiving the dripping from roasting meat; DRIP'-STONE, a projecting moulding over doorways, &c., to throw off the rain.--RIGHT OF DRIP, right in law to let the drip from one's roof fall on another's land. [A.S. _dryppan_--_dréopan_.] DRIVE, dr[=i]v, _v.t._ to force along: to hurry one on: to guide, as horses drawing a carriage: to convey or carry in a carriage: to force in, as nails with a hammer: to push briskly: to urge, as a point of argument, a bargain, &c.: to compel: to send away with force, as a ball in cricket, golf, tennis: to chase game towards sportsmen.--_v.i._ to press forward with violence: to be forced along, as a ship before the wind: to go in a carriage: to tend towards a point: to strike at with a sword, the fist, &c.:--_pr.p._ dr[=i]v'ing; _pa.t._ dr[=o]ve; _pa.p._ driv'en.--_n._ an excursion in a carriage: a road for driving on: the propelling of a ball in cricket, &c.: the chasing of game towards the shooters, or the sport so obtained, or the ground over which the game is driven: urgent pressure: pushing the sale of a special article by reduction of prices.--_ns._ DRIV'ER, one who or that which drives, in all senses: a club used in golf to propel the ball from the teeing-ground; DRIV'ING-BAND, the band or strap which communicates motion from one machine, or part of a machine, to another; DRIV'ING-SHAFT, a shaft from a driving-wheel communicating motion, to machinery; DRIV'ING-WHEEL, a main wheel that communicates motion to other wheels: one of the main wheels in a locomotive.--DRIVE FEATHERS, DOWN, to separate the lighter from the heavier by exposing them to a current of air.--DRIVE TO ONE'S WITS' END, to perplex utterly.--LET DRIVE, to aim a blow. [A.S _drífan_, to drive; Ger. _treiben_, to push.] DRIVEL, driv'l, _v.i._ to slaver like a child: to be foolish: to speak like an idiot:--_pr.p._ driv'elling; _pa.p._ driv'elled.--_n._ slaver: nonsense.--_n._ DRIV'ELLER, a fool. [M. E. _drevelen_, _dravelen_; related to DRIBBLE.] DRIVEL, driv'l, _n._ (_Spens._) a drudge. [Cf. Old Dut. _drevel_, a scullion.] DRIZZLE, driz'l, _v.i._ to rain in small drops.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to shed in small drops.--_n._ a small, light rain.--_adj._ DRIZZ'LY. [Freq. of M. E. _dresen_--A.S. _dreósan_, to fall; Norw. _drjosa_, Goth. _driusan_.] DROGER, DROGHER, dr[=o]'ger, _n._ a West Indian coasting vessel, with long masts and lateen sails. DROGUE, dr[=o]g, _n._ the drag of boards, attached to the end of a harpoon-line, checking the progress of a running whale. DROGUET, dr[=o]-g[=a]', _n._ a ribbed woollen dress fabric, a variety of rep. [Fr.] DROICH, dr[=o]h, _n._ a dwarf.--_adj._ DROICH'Y, dwarfish. [Gael.] DROIL, droil, _v.i._ to drudge. [Dut. _druilen_, to loiter.] DROIT, drwa, _n._ right; duty. [Fr.] DROLL, dr[=o]l, _adj._ odd: amusing: laughable.--_n._ one who excites mirth: a jester.--_v.i._ to practise drollery: to jest.--_ns._ DROLL'ERY; DROLL'ING.--_adjs._ DROLL'ISH, rather droll; DROLL'Y. [Fr., prob. from Dut. _drollig_, odd--_trold_, a hobgoblin; cf. Ger. _droll_, a short thick person.] DROMEDARY, drum'e-dar-i, _n._ a thoroughbred one-humped Arabian camel.--_ns._ DROMED[=A]'RIAN, DROM'EDARIST. [Fr.,--Low L. _dromedarius_--Gr. _dromas_, _dromados_, running--_dramein_, 2 aor. infin. of _trechein_, to run.] DROMOND, drom'ond, _n._ a swift medieval ship of war.--Also DROM'ON. [O. Fr.,--Late L. _dromo_--Gr. _dromon_--_dromos_, a running, _dramein_, to run.] DROMOS, drom'os, _n._ a Greek race-course: an entrance-passage or avenue, as to a subterranean treasury, &c.--_adjs._ DROM'IC, -AL, pertaining to a race-course: basilican. [Gr.,--_dramein_, to run.] DRONE, dr[=o]n, _n._ the male of the honey-bee: one who lives on the labour of others, like the drone-bee: a lazy, idle fellow.--_adj._ DRON'ISH, like a drone: lazy, idle.--_adv._ DRON'ISHLY.--_n._ DRON'ISHNESS.--_adv._ DRON'Y. [A.S. _drán_, the bee; Dan. _drone_.] DRONE, dr[=o]n, _v.i._ to make a low humming sound.--_n._ the bass-pipe of a bagpipe.--_n._ DRONE'-PIPE, a pipe producing a droning sound. [M. E. _drounen_, to roar; not found in A.S. Cf. Dut. _dreunen_, Ger. _dröhnen_.] DROOL, drool, _v.i._ to slaver--a form of DRIVEL. DROOP, dr[=oo]p, _v.i._ to sink or hang down: to grow weak or faint: to decline.--_v.t._ to let sink.--_n._ a drooping position.--_adv._ DROOP'INGLY, in a drooping manner. [Ice. _drúpa_, to droop. See DROP.] DROP, drop, _n._ a small particle of liquid which falls at one time: a very small quantity of liquid: anything hanging like a drop: a fall: a trap in the gallows scaffold, the fall of which allows the criminal to drop: a device for lowering goods into a ship's hold.--_v.i._ to fall in small particles: to let drops fall: to fall suddenly: to come to an end: to fall or sink lower.--_v.t._ to let fall in drops: to let fall: to let go, dismiss, break off, as an acquaintance: to utter casually: to write and send (a note) in an off-hand manner: to set down from a carriage:--_pr.p._ drop'ping; _pa.p._ dropped.--_ns._ DROP'-DRILL, an apparatus for dropping seed and manure into the soil simultaneously; DROP'-HAMM'ER, DROP'-PRESS, a swaging, stamping, or forging machine having either a regular or intermittent motion; DROP'LET, a little drop; DROP'-LETT'ER (_U.S._), a letter posted in any place merely for local delivery; DROP'-NET, a net suspended from a boom, to be suddenly dropped on a passing shoal of fish; DROP'PING, that which is dropped: (_pl._) dung, esp. of fowls.--_adj._ DROP'-RIPE, so ripe as to be ready to drop from the tree.--_ns._ DROP'-SCENE, a painted curtain suspended by pulleys, which drops in front of the stage in a theatre; DROP'-STONE, a stalactic variety of calcite.--_adv._ DROP'-WISE (_Tenn._), by drops.--_n._ DROP'-WORT, the _Spiræa Filipendula_.--DROP ASTERN (_naut._), to pass or move towards the stern; DROP AWAY, OFF, to depart, disappear; DROP DOWN, to sail, move, or row down a coast, or down a river to the sea; DROP IN, to come in casually; DROP OUT, to disappear from one's place; DROP SERENE, an old medical name for _amaurosis_, literally translated from L. _gutta serena_.--A DROPPING FIRE, a continuous irregular discharge of small-arms.--PRINCE RUPERT'S DROPS, drops of glass which have fallen in a melted state into cold water, and have assumed a tadpole-like shape, the whole falling to dust with a loud report if the point of the tail be nipped off. [A.S. _dropa_, a drop--_dreópan_, to drop; Dut. _drop_, Ger. _tropfe_.] DROPSY, drop'si, _n._ an unnatural collection of water in any part of the body.--_adjs._ DROP'SICAL, DROP'SIED (_Shak._), affected with dropsy.--_n._ DROP'SICALNESS. [Through Fr. from L. _hydropisis_--Gr. _hydr[=o]ps_--_hyd[=o]r_, water.] DROSERA, dros'er-a, _n._ a genus of small herbaceous plants of the order _Droseraceæ_, generally inhabiting marshy places. [Formed from Gr. _droseros_--_drosos_, dew.] DROSHKY, drosh'ki, DROSKY, dros'ki, _n._ a low four-wheeled open carriage much used in Russia. [Russ. _drozhki_.] DROSOMETER, dr[=o]-som'e-ter, _n._ an instrument for measuring the quantity of dew condensed on the surface of a body left in the open air. [Gr. _drosos_, dew, _metron_, measure.] DROSS, dros, _n._ the scum which metals throw off when melting: waste matter: refuse: rust.--_n._ DROSS'INESS.--_adj._ DROSS'Y, like dross: impure: worthless. [A.S. _drós_, from _dreósan_, to fall; cf. Dut. _droesem_; Ger. _druse_.] DROUGHT, drowt, DROUTH, drowth, _n._ dryness: want of rain or of water: thirst.--_ns._ DROUGHT'INESS, DROUTH'INESS.--_adjs._ DROUGHT'Y, DROUTH'Y, full of drought: very dry: wanting rain, thirsty. [A.S. _drúgathe_, dryness--_drúgian_, to dry.] DROUK, DROOK, dr[=oo]k, _v.t._ to drench: (_Scot._) to duck.--_p.adjs._ DROUK'IT, DROOK'IT. [Ice. _drukna_, to be drowned; cf. Dan. _drukne_.] DROVE, dr[=o]v, _pa.t._ of DRIVE.--_n._ a number of cattle, or other animals, driven.--_n._ DROV'ER, one whose occupation is to drive cattle: (_Spens._) a boat. [A.S. _dráf_--_drífan_, to drive.] DROW, drow, _n._ a kind of elves supposed to belong to Shetland, inhabiting caves--also TROW, a variant of _troll_. DROW, drow, _n._ (_Scot._) a drizzling mist. DROWN, drown, _v.t._ to drench or sink in water: to kill by placing under water: to overpower: to extinguish.--_v.t._ to be suffocated in water. [A.S. _druncnian_, to drown--_druncen_, pa.p. of _drincan_, to drink. See DRENCH.] DROWSE, drowz, _v.i._ to be heavy with sleep: to look heavy and dull.--_v.t._ to make heavy with sleep: to stupefy.--_n._ a half-sleeping state.--_ns._ DROWS'IHEAD, DROWS'IHED (_Spens._), drowsiness, sleepiness.--_adv._ DROWS'ILY.--_n._ DROWS'INESS.--_adj._ DROWS'Y, sleepy: heavy: dull: inducing sleep. [A.S. _drúsian_, to be sluggish; Dut. _dreósen_, to fall asleep.] DRUB, drub, _v.t._ to beat or thrash:--_pr.p._ drub'bing; _pa.p._ drubbed.--_n._ DRUB'BING, a cudgelling. [Murray suggests Ar. _daraba_, to beat, bastinado, _darb_, a beating.] DRUDGE, druj, _v.i._ to work hard: to do very mean work.--_n._ one who works hard: a slave: a menial servant.--_ns._ DRUDG'ER; DRUDG'ERY, DRUDG'ISM, the work of a drudge: uninteresting toil: hard or humble labour.--_adv._ DRUDG'INGLY. [Ety. unknown. Some suggest Celt., as in Ir. _drugaire_, a drudge.] DRUG, drug, _n._ any substance used in the composition of medicine: an article that cannot be sold, generally owing to overproduction.--_v.t._ to mix or season with drugs: to dose to excess.--_v.i._ to prescribe drugs or medicines:--_pr.p._ drug'ging; _pa.p._ drugged.--_n._ DRUG'GIST, one who deals in drugs. [O. Fr. _drogue_, prob. from Dut. _droog_, dry; as if applied orig. to dried herbs.] DRUG, drug, _n._ (_Shak._) a drudge. DRUGGET, drug'et, _n._ a woven and felted coarse woollen fabric, chiefly used for covering carpets--hence called in some parts of Britain _crumbcloth_. [O. Fr. _droguet_, dim. of _drogue_, a drug, trash. See above.] DRUID, dr[=oo]'id, _n._ a priest among the ancient Celts of Britain, Gaul, and Germany, who worshipped under oak-trees: a member of a benefit society (founded 1781), its lodges called _groves_:--_fem._ DRU'IDESS.--_adjs._ DRUID'IC, -AL, DRU'IDISH.--_n._ DRU'IDISM, the doctrines which the Druids taught: the ceremonies they practised. [L. pl. _druidæ_--Celt. _druid_--whence Old Ir. _drai_, Ir. and Gael. _draoi_, magician. Littré accepts the ety. from Celt. _derw_, an oak, which is from the same root as Gr. _drys_, an oak.] DRUM, drum, _n._ an instrument of percussion, in which a skin of parchment, stretched on a frame of wood or metal, is beaten with an instrument called a drumstick: anything shaped like a drum: the tympanum or middle portion of the ear: (_archit._) the upright part of a cupola: (_mech._) a revolving cylinder: formerly a large and tumultuous evening party (said to be so called because rival hostesses vied with each other in beating up crowds of guests).--_v.i._ to beat a drum: to beat with the fingers.--_v.t._ to drum out, to expel: to summon:--_pr.p._ drum'ming; _pa.p._ drummed.--_ns._ DRUM'HEAD, the head of a drum (see COURT-MARTIAL): the top part of a capstan; DRUM'-M[=A]'JOR, the chief drummer of a regiment (now called _sergeant-drummer_); DRUM'MER, one who drums: (_U.S._) a commercial traveller; DRUM'STICK, the stick with which the drum is beat: the leg of a cooked fowl. [From a Teut. root found in Dut. _trom_, Ger. _trommel_, a drum; prob. imit.] DRUM, drum, _n._ a small hill or ridge of hills, used in many place-names, as _Drum_glass, _Drum_sheugh, &c. [Ir. _druim_, the back.] DRUMBLE, drum'bl, _v.i._ (_Shak._) to be sluggish. DRUMLY, drum'li, _adj._ (_Scot._) muddy: gloomy. DRUMMOCK, drum'ok. Same as DRAMMOCK (q.v.). DRUMMOND-LIGHT, drum'ond-l[=i]t, _n._ the lime-light or oxy-hydrogen light invented by Captain T. _Drummond_ (1797-1840). [See LIME-LIGHT.] DRUNK, drungk, _pa.p._ of DRINK.--_p.adj._ intoxicated: saturated.--_n._ a drunken bout: a drunk person.--_n._ DRUNK'ARD, one who frequently drinks to excess: a habitual drinker.--_p.adj._ DRUNK'EN, given to excessive drinking: worthless, besotted: resulting from intoxication.--_adv._ DRUNK'ENLY.--_n._ DRUNK'ENNESS, excessive drinking: habitual intemperance. DRUPE, dr[=oo]p, _n._ a fleshy fruit containing a stone, as the plum, &c.--_adj._ DRUP[=A]'CEOUS, producing or pertaining to drupes or stone-fruits.--_n._ DRUP'EL, a little drupe. [L. _drupa_--Gr. _dryppa_, an over-ripe olive--_drypep[=e]s_, ripened on the tree, from _drys_, a tree, and _peptein_, to cook; cf. _drupet[=e]s_--_drys_, and _piptein_, to fall.] DRUSE, dr[=oo]s, _n._ (_mining_) a rock cavity lined with crystals, a geode or _vug_. [Ger.] DRUSE, dr[=oo]s, _n._ one of a remarkable people inhabiting a mountainous district in the north of Syria, with a peculiar religion interwoven from the Bible and the Koran.--_adj._ DRUS'IAN. DRUXY, druk'si, _adj._ of timber, having decayed spots concealed by healthy wood.--Also DRICK'SIE. DRY, dr[=i], _adj._ free from, deficient in, moisture, sap: not green: not giving milk: thirsty: uninteresting: (_obs._) hard: frigid, precise: free from sweetness and fruity flavour (of wines, &c.).--_v.t._ to free from water or moisture: to exhaust.--_v.i._ to become dry, to evaporate entirely--both used also with prep. _up_:--_pr.p._ dry'ing; _pa.p._ dried.--_n._ and _adj._ DRY'ASDUST, the pretended editor or introducer of some of Scott's novels--a synonym for a dull and pedantic though learned person.--_v.t._ DRY'-BEAT (_Shak._), to beat severely, or so as to be dry.--_ns._ DRY'-BOB, a slang name used at Eton for boys who play cricket, football, &c.--opp. to the _Wet-bob_, who makes rowing his recreation; DRY'-DOCK (see DOCK).--_adj._ DRY'-EYED, tearless.--_n._ DRY'-FOOT (_Shak._), like a dog which pursues game by the scent of its foot.--_n.pl._ DRY'-GOODS, drapery, &c., as distinguished from groceries, hardware, &c.--_n._ DRY'-LIGHT, a clear, unobstructed light: an unprejudiced view.--_advs._ DRY'LY, DR[=I]'LY.--_ns._ DRY'-MEAS'URE (see MEASURE); DRY'NESS; DRY'-NURSE, a nurse who feeds a child without milk from the breast; DRY'-PLATE, a sensitised photographic plate, with which a picture may be made without the preliminary use of a bath; DRY'-POINT, a sharp needle by which fine lines are drawn in copperplate engraving; DRY'-ROT, a decay of timber caused by fungi which reduce it to a dry, brittle mass: (_fig._) a concealed decay or degeneration.--_v.t._ DRY'-SALT, to cure meat by salting and drying.--_ns._ DRY'SALTER, a dealer in gums, dyes, drugs, &c.: (_obs._) or in salted or dry meats, pickles, &c.; DRY'SALTERY.--_adj._ DRY'-SHOD, without wetting the shoes or feet.--_n._ DRY'-STEAM, steam containing no unevaporated water.--_adj._ DRY'-STONE, built of stone without mortar, as some walls.--_n._ DRY'-STOVE, a kind of hot-house for preserving the plants of dry, warm climates.--CUT AND DRIED (see CUT).--HIGH AND DRY (see HIGH). [A.S. _dr['y]ge_; cf. Dut. _droog_, Ger. _trocken_.] DRYAD, dr[=i]'ad, _n._ (_Greek myth._) a nymph of the woods: a forest-tree. [Gr. _dryas_, from _drys_, a tree.] DUAL, d[=u]'al, _adj._ consisting of two.--_ns._ D[=U]'AD, a pair of objects looked at as one; D[=U]'AL-CONTROL', any joint control or jurisdiction, as of England and France in Egypt; D[=U]'ALISM (_philos._), that view which seeks to explain the world by the assumption of two radically independent and absolute elements--e.g. (1) the doctrine of the entire separation of spirit and matter, thus being opposed both to _idealism_ and to _materialism_; (2) the doctrine of two distinct principles of good and of evil, or of two distinct divine beings of these characters; D[=U]'ALIST, a believer in dualism.--_adj._ DUALIS'TIC, consisting of two: relating to dualism.--_ns._ DUAL'ITY, doubleness: state of being double; D[=U]'AL-SCHOOL, a school for both boys and girls; D[=U]'ARCHY, government by two. [L.,--_duo_, two.] DUALIN, d[=u]-al'in, _n._ an explosive compound of sawdust, saltpetre, and nitro-glycerine. DUAN, d[=u]'an, _n._ a division of a poem, canto. [Gael.] DUB, dub, _v.t._ to confer knighthood, from the ceremony of striking the shoulder with the flat of a sword: to confer any name or dignity: to smooth with an adze: to rub a softening and waterproof mixture into, as leather: to dress a fly for fishing:--_pr.p._ dub'bing; _pa.p._ dubbed.--_n._ DUB'BING, the accolade: a preparation of grease for softening leather--also DUB'BIN. [Conn. with O. Fr. _a-douber_, to equip with arms; but O. Fr. _dober_ may be Teut.] DUB, dub, _n._ (_Scot._) a pool of foul water: a puddle. DUBIOUS, d[=u]'bi-us, _adj._ doubtful: undetermined: causing doubt: of uncertain event or issue.--_adv._ D[=U]'BIOUSLY.--_ns._ D[=U]'BIOUSNESS, DUB[=I]'ETY, DUBIOS'ITY, doubtfulness. [L. _dubius_.] DUBITATE, d[=u]'bi-t[=a]t, _v.i._ to doubt, hesitate.--_adj._ D[=U]'BITABLE.--_ns._ D[=U]'BITANCY, DUBIT[=A]'TION.--_adj._ D[=U]'BITATIVE.--_adv._ D[=U]'BITATIVELY. [L. _dubiti[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_.] DUCAL, d[=u]'kal, _adj._ pertaining to a duke.--_adv._ D[=U]'CALLY. DUCAT, duk'at, _n._ a gold coin, formerly much used on the Continent, its commonest value being about 9s. 4d., though there were silver ducats in Italy worth 3s. 4d.--_n._ DUCATOON', an old silver coin in Venice and elsewhere, worth 5 to 6 shillings. [O. Fr. _ducat_--It. _ducato_--_ducatus_, a duchy. The name was applied to an Apulian silver coin of 1140. The first gold ducat struck at Venice in 1284 bore the legend--'Sit tibi Christe datus quem tu regis iste _Ducatus_' ('Be this duchy, which thou rulest, dedicated to thee, O Christ'), which may have helped to spread the name, though it did not originate it.] DUCHY, duch'i, _n._ the territory of a duke, a dukedom.--_ns._ DUCH'ESS, the consort or widow of a duke; DUCH'Y-COURT, the court of a duchy, esp. that of the duchy of Lancaster. DUCK, duk, _n._ a kind of coarse cloth for small sails, sacking, &c. [Dut. _doeck_, linen cloth; Ger. _tuch_.] DUCK, duk, _v.t._ to dip for a moment in water.--_v.i._ to dip or dive: to lower the head suddenly: to cringe, yield.--_n._ a quick plunge, dip: a quick lowering of the head or body, a jerky bow.--_ns._ DUCK'ER, one who ducks: a diving-bird; DUCK'ING; DUCK'ING-POND; DUCK'ING-STOOL, a stool or chair in which scolds were formerly tied and ducked in the water as a punishment. [A.S. _dúcan_, to duck, dive; Ger. _tauchen_, Dut. _duiken_.] DUCK, duk, _n._ name given to any member of the family _Anatidæ_, the prominent marks of which are short webbed feet, with a small hind-toe not reaching the ground, the netted scales in front of the lower leg, and the long bill: the female duck as distinguished from the male _drake_: in cricket (originally _duck's egg_), the zero (0), which records in a scoring-sheet that a player has made no runs: (_coll._) a darling, sweetheart: a financial defaulter--esp. LAME DUCK: also of things.--_ns._ DUCK'-ANT, a Jamaican termite nesting in trees; DUCK'-BILL, an aquatic burrowing and egg-laying Australian mammal, about 18 inches long, with soft fur, broadly webbed feet, and depressed duck-like bill--also called _Duck-mole_, _Platypus_, and _Ornithorhynchus_.--_adj._ DUCK'-BILLED, having a bill like a duck.--_n._ DUCK'-HAWK, the moor-buzzard or marsh-harrier: the peregrine falcon of the United States.--_adj._ DUCK'-LEGGED, short-legged.--_ns._ DUCK'LING, a young duck; DUCK'S'-FOOT, the lady's mantle; DUCK'-WEED, a name for several species of _Lemna_ and _Wolffia_ growing in ditches; BOMBAY DUCK, bummals; WILD'-DUCK, the mallard.--BREAK ONE'S DUCK (_cricket_), to make one's first run (see above); MAKE, PLAY, DUCKS AND DRAKES, to use recklessly: squander, waste (with _with_, _of_)--from the skipping of a flat stone across the surface of water. [A.S. _duce_, a duck, from, _dúcan_, to duck, dive.] DUCT, dukt, _n._ a tube conveying fluids in animal bodies or plants. [L. _ductus_--_duc[)e]re_, to lead.] DUCTILE, duk'til, _adj._ easily led: yielding: capable of being drawn out into threads.--_ns._ DUCTILIM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the ductility of metals; DUCTIL'ITY, capacity of being drawn out without breaking. [Fr.,--L. _ductilis_--_duc[)e]re_, to lead.] DUD, dud, _n._ (_coll._) in _pl._ poor or ragged clothes, tatters.--_n._ DUD'DERY, a shop where old clothes are sold, rags collectively.--_adj._ DUD'DY, ragged. [There is a M. E. _dudd_, birrus, a cloak, which may be Celt.] DUDDER, dud'er, _n._ (_prov._) confusion. DUDE, d[=u]d, _n._ (_slang_) a fop or dandy, esp. remarkable for the exquisite make and quality of his clothes.--_adj._ D[=U]'DISH.--_n._ D[=U]'DISM. [Hardly from _dud_.] DUDEEN, d[=u]-d[=e]n', _n._ a short clay tobacco-pipe. DUDGEON, duj'un, _n._ resentment: grudge. [There is an Anglo-Fr. _digeon_, wood hafts of knives, &c., but a connection cannot be stated. Skeat suggests dubiously W. _dygen_, malice, _dychan_, a jeer.] DUDGEON, duj'un, _n._ the haft of a dagger: a small dagger. [See above.] DUE, d[=u], _adj._ owed: that ought to be paid or done to another: proper: appointed, under engagement to be ready, arrive, &c.--_adv._ exactly: directly.--_n._ that which is owed: what one has a right to: perquisite: fee or tribute.--_adj._ DUE'FUL (_Spens._), proper, fit.--GIVE THE DEVIL HIS DUE, to give a fair hearing or fair-play to one of notorious character. [O. Fr. _deu_, pa.p. of _devoir_--L. _deb[=e]re_, to owe.] DUE, d[=u], _v.t._ (_Shak._) to endue. DUEL, d[=u]'el, _n._ a combat between two persons, prearranged, and fought under fixed conditions, generally on an affair of honour--happily harmless in France: any fight or struggle between two parties: single combat to decide a quarrel.--_v.i._ to fight in a duel:--_pr.p._ d[=u]'elling; _pa.p._ d[=u]'elled.--_ns._ D[=U]'ELLER, D[=U]'ELLIST; D[=U]'ELLING, fighting in a duel: the practice of fighting in single combat; DUELL'O, a duel: the laws which regulate duelling.--_adj._ D[=U]'ELSOME, given to duelling. [It. _duello_--L. _duellum_, the original form of _bellum_--_duo_, two.] DUENNA, d[=u]-en'a, _n._ an old lady who acts the part of governess in Spain: an old lady who acts as guardian to a younger. [Sp. _dueña_, a form of _doña_, mistress--L. _domina_, fem. of _dominus_, lord.] DUET, d[=u]-et', DUETTO, d[=u]-et'o, _n._ a composition in music for two voices, instruments, or instrumentalists.--_ns._ DUETTI'NO, a simple duet; DUET'TIST. [It. _duetto_, _due_, two--L. _duo_, two.] DUFF, duf, _n._ dough: a stiff flour pudding boiled in a bag; decaying vegetable matter, fallen leaves: coaldust. [From _dough_.] DUFF, duf, _v.t._ to manipulate an article so as to make it look like new: to alter the brands on stolen cattle. DUFFEL, duf'l, _n._ a thick, coarse woollen cloth, with a thick nap--also DUFF'LE: (_U.S._) change of flannels. [Dut., from _Duffel_, a town near Antwerp.] DUFFER, duf'[.e]r, _n._ a dull plodding person: a fogy, useless old fellow: a counterfeit coin: a claim or mine which proves unproductive.--_ns._ DUFF'ERDOM, DUFF'ERISM. DUFFER, duf'[.e]r, _n._ a peddler of dubious goods, sham jewellery, &c.: one who fakes up sham articles, or duffs cattle. DUG, dug, _n._ the nipple of the pap, esp. applied to that of a cow or other beast. [Cf. Sw. _dægga_, Dan. _dægge_, to suckle a child. See DAIRY.] DUG, dug, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of DIG.--_n._ DUG'OUT, a boat made by hollowing out the trunk of a tree. DUGONG, d[=u]-gong', _n._ a kind of herb-eating whale, from 8 to 20 feet long, found in Indian seas--the supposed original of the mermaid. [Malayan _d[=u]yong_.] DUIKER, DUYKER, d[=i]'k[.e]r, _n._ a small South African antelope. [Dut.] [Illustration] DUKE, d[=u]k, _n._ the highest order of nobility next below that of _prince_: (_B._) a chieftain: on the Continent, a sovereign prince.--_ns._ DUKE'DOM, the title, rank, or territories of a duke; DUKE'LING, a petty duke; DUK'ERY, a duke's territory or seat; DUKE'SHIP.--THE DUKERIES, a group of ducal seats in Nottinghamshire. [O. Fr. _duc_--L. _dux_, _ducis_, a leader--_duc[)e]re_, to lead.] DULCAMARA, dul-ka-m[=a]'ra, _n._ a name for the Bittersweet (q.v.). [Formed from L. _dulcis_, sweet, _amara_, bitter.] DULCET, duls'et, _adj._ sweet to the taste, or to the ear: melodious, harmonious.--_n._ DULCIFIC[=A]'TION.--_adj._ DULCIF'LUOUS, flowing sweetly.--_v.t._ DUL'CIFY, to make sweet.--_ns._ DULCIL'OQUY, a soft manner of speaking; DUL'CITE, DUL'CITOL, DUL'COSE, a saccharine substance derived from various plants--in its crude form, _Madagascar manna_; DUL'CITUDE, sweetness.--DULCIFIED SPIRIT, a compound of alcohol with mineral acid. [O. Fr. _doucet_, dim. of _dols_ (Fr. _doux_)--L. _dulcis_, sweet.] DULCIMER, dul'si-m[.e]r, _n._ a musical instrument resembling a flat box, with sounding-board and bridges, across which run wires tuned by pegs at the sides, and played on by striking the wires with a small piece of wood in each hand, or more usually with two cork-headed hammers: a Jewish musical instrument, according to Gesenius, a double pipe with a bag. [Sp. _dulcemele_--L. _dulce melos_, a sweet song--_dulcis_, sweet; _melos_ = Gr. _melos_, a song.] DULCINEA, dul-sin'[=e]-a, or dul-sin-[=e]'a, _n._ sweetheart. [From _Dulcinea_ del Toboso, the name given by Don Quixote to the mistress of his imagination.] DULE, dool, _n._ (_Scot._) woe.--_n._ DULE'-TREE, the gallows. [See DOLE.] DULIA, d[=u]-l[=i]'a, _n._ (_R.C. Church_) that inferior veneration due to saints and angels.--_n._ DULOC'RACY, government by slaves. [Gr. _douleia_--_doulos_, a slave.] DULL, dul, _adj._ slow of hearing, of learning, or of understanding: insensible: without life or spirit: slow of motion: drowsy: sleepy: sad: downcast: cheerless: not bright or clear: cloudy: dim, obscure: obtuse: blunt.--_v.t._ to make dull or stupid: to blunt: to damp: to cloud.--_v.i._ to become dull.--_n._ DULL'ARD, a dull and stupid person: a dunce.--_adjs._ DULL'-BRAINED (_Shak._), of dull brain or intellect: stupid; DULL'-BROWED, of gloomy brow or look; DULL'-EYED (_Shak._), having eyes dull or wanting expression; DULL'ISH, somewhat dull: wearisome.--_ns._ DULL'NESS, DUL'NESS, the stale or quality of being dull.--_adjs._ DULL'-SIGHT'ED; DULL'-WIT'TED; DULL'Y, somewhat dull.--_adv._ DULL'Y. [A.S. _dol_--_dwelan_, to err; Dut. _dol_, Ger. _toll_, mad.] DULSE, duls, _n._ an edible seaweed, with red, deeply-divided fronds, eaten in Ireland and elsewhere. [Gael, _duileasg_--_duille_, a leaf, _uisge_, water.] DULY, d[=u]'li, _adv._ properly: fitly: at the proper time. [See DUE.] DUMB, dum, _adj._ without the power of speech: silent: soundless.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to render dumb.--_n.pl._ DUMB'-BELLS, double-headed weights swung in the hands for the purpose of developing the arms, muscles of the chest, &c.--_n._ DUMB'-CANE, a plant of the order _Araceæ_, aberrant in its almost arborescent character, but agreeing with them in its acridity, which is in none of them more highly developed.--_adv._ DUMB'LY, in silence: mutely.--_ns._ DUMB'NESS; DUMB'-SHOW, gesture without words: pantomime; DUMB'-WAIT'ER, a movable platform used for conveying food, dishes, &c. at meals: a stand with revolving top for holding dessert, &c.--_vs.t._ DUMFOUND', -ER, to strike dumb: to confuse greatly: to astonish.--_ns._ DUM'MERER, a dumb person, esp. a rogue who feigns dumbness; DUM'MINESS; DUM'MY, one who is dumb: a mere tool of another, man of straw: a sham package in a shop: the fourth or exposed band when three persons play at whist.--STRIKE DUMB, to silence with astonishment. [A.S. _dumb_; Ger. _dumm_, stupid, Dut. _dom_.] DUMBLEDORE, dum'bl-d[=o]r, _n._ (_prov._) the bumble-bee: the brown cockchafer. DUM-DUM, dum'-dum, _n._ a soft-nosed expanding bullet, first made at _Dum Dum_ in British India. DUMOSE, d[=u]'m[=o]s, _adj._ thorny--also D[=U]'MOUS.--_n._ DUMOS'ITY. [L. _dumus_, a thorn-bush.] DUMP, dump, _v.t._ to throw down: to unload.--_n._ a thud: a place for the discharge of loads, or for rubbish: (_pl._) money (_slang_). [Cf. Dan. _dumpe_, Norw. _dumpa_, to fall plump.] DUMP, dump, _n._ dullness or gloominess of mind, ill-humour, low spirits--now only used in the _pl._: (_Shak._) a melancholy strain, any tune.--_adj._ DUMP'ISH, depressed in spirits.--_adv._ DUMP'ISHLY.--_n._ DUMP'ISHNESS. [Prob. related to Old Dut. _domp_, mist; or Ger. _dumpf_, gloomy.] DUMP, dump, _n._ a deep hole in a river-bed, a pool. [Prob. Norse _dump_, a pit.] DUMPLING, dump'ling, _n._ a kind of thick pudding or mass of paste. [Dim. of _dump_, in _dumpy_.] DUMPY, dump'i, _adj._ short and thick.--_n._ a dumpy person or animal, esp. one of a breed of very short-legged fowls.--_n._ DUMPI'NESS.--_v.t._ DUM'PLE, to make or cook, as a dumpling: to bend into a dumpy shape.--_n._ DUMP'Y-LEV'EL, a spirit-level used in surveying, having a short telescope with a large aperture. [From a provincial form _dump_, a clumsy piece.] DUN, dun, _adj._ of a dark colour, partly brown and black: dark.--_v.t._ (_U.S._) to cure and brown, as cod.--_v.i._ to become dun-coloured.--_ns._ DUN'-BIRD, the pochard; DUN'-COW, the shagreen ray; DUN'-D[=I]V'ER, the merganser; DUN'-FISH, codfish cured by dunning.--_adj._ DUN'NISH, somewhat dun. [A.S. _dun_, most prob. Celt.; W. _dwn_, dusky, Gael. _donn_, brown.] DUN, dun, _v.t._ to demand a debt with din or noise: to urge for payment:--_pr.p._ dun'ning; _pa.p._ dunned.--_n._ one who duns: a demand for payment. [Allied to DIN.] DUN, dun, _n._ a hill: a fortified mound. [A.S. _dún_--Celt.; in many place-names, as _Dun_bar, _Don_caster.] DUNCE, duns, _n._ one slow at learning: a stupid person.--_ns._ DUNCE'DOM, the class of dunces; DUN'CERY, stupidity; DUN'CIAD, the epic of dunces, the world of dunces--name of a famous poem by Pope.--_adjs._ DUN'CISH, DUNCE'-LIKE. [_Duns_ Scotus (died 1308), the Subtle Doctor, leader of the schoolmen, from him called _Dunses_, who opposed classical studies on the revival of learning--hence any opposer of learning, a blockhead.] DUNCH, dunsh, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to push with the elbow: to gore with the horns, as a bull. [Hardly related to Sw. _dunka_, to beat; Dan. _dunke_, a thump.] DUNDER, dun'd[.e]r, _n._ lees, dregs. DUNDERFUNK, dun'd[.e]r-fungk, _n._ ship-biscuit, soaked in water, mixed with fat and molasses, and baked in a pan.--Also DAN'DYFUNK. DUNDERHEAD, dun'd[.e]r-hed, _n._ a stupid person--also DUN'DERPATE.--_adj._ DUN'DERHEADED.--_n._ DUN'DER-HEADISM. DUNDREARY, dun-dr[=e]r'i, _adj._ like Lord _Dundreary_--in Sothern's creation of the part, a lisping and brainless dandy, wearing long side-whiskers. DUNE, d[=u]n, _n._ a low hill of sand on the seashore. [An earlier form of _down_, a hill.] DUNG, dung, _n._ the excrement of animals: refuse litter mixed with excrement.--_v.t._ to manure with dung.--_v.i._ to void excrement.--_ns._ DUNG'-BEE'TLE, the dor-beetle: (_pl._) the scarabæoid beetles generally; DUNG'-FORK, a fork used for moving stable manure; DUNG'HILL, a heap of dung: any mean situation; DUNG'MERE, a manure-pit.--_adj._ DUNG'Y. [A.S. _dung_; cf. Dan. _dynge_, a heap; Ger. _dung_.] DUNGAREE, dung'ga-ri, _n._ a coarse Indian calico: (_pl._) trousers of such.--Also DUNG'EREE. [Hindi.] DUNGEON, dun'jun, _n._ (_orig._) the principal tower of a castle: a close, dark prison: a cell under ground.--_v.t._ to confine in a dungeon.--_n._ DUN'GEONER, a gaoler. [O. Fr. _donjon_--Low L. _domnion-em_--L. _dominus_, a lord.] DUNKER, dungk'[.e]r, _n._ a member of a sect of German-American Baptists who practise triple immersion.--Also TUNK'ER. [Ger.] DUNLIN, dun'lin, _n._ the red-backed sandpiper. [A dim. of _dun_.] DUNLOP, dun-lop', _n._ a rich cheese made of unskimmed milk--from _Dunlop_ in Ayrshire. DUNNAGE, dun'[=a]j, _n._ on shipboard, a name applied to loose wood of any kind laid in the bottom of the hold to keep the cargo out of the bilge-water, or wedged between parts of the cargo to keep them steady. [Ety. unknown.] DUNNIEWASSAL, DUNIWASSAL, dun-i-was'al, _n._ (_Scot._) a gentleman of inferior rank. [Gael. _duin' uasal_--_duine_, a man, _uasal_, gentle.] DUNNING, dun'ing, _n._ the process of browning and curing cod-fish. DUNNOCK, dun'ok, _n._ the hedge-sparrow. DUNNY, dun'i, _adj._ (_prov._) deaf. DUNSTABLE, dun'stä-bl, _n._ a hat, bonnet, &c. of plaited straw, first made at _Dunstable_ in Bedfordshire.--DUNSTABLE ROAD, HIGHWAY, anything plain and direct. DUNT, dunt, _n._ (_Scot._) a blow or stroke, the wound made by such.--_v.t._ to strike, beat. [See DINT.] DUNT, dunt, _n._ (_prov._) the gid or sturdy in sheep, &c. DUO, d[=u]'o, _n._ a song in two parts. [L. _duo_, two.] DUODECAHEDRON, d[=u]-o-dek-a-h[=e]'dron, _n._ Same as DODECAHEDRON. DUODECENNIAL, d[=u]-o-de-sen'i-al, _adj._ occurring every twelve years. [L. _duodecim_, twelve, _annus_, year.] DUODECIMAL, d[=u]-o-des'i-mal, _adj._ computed by twelves: twelfth: (_pl._) a method of calculating the area of a rectangle when the length and breadth are stated in feet and inches.--_adjs._ DUODECIM'FID, divided into twelve parts; DUODEC'IMO, formed of sheets folded so as to make twelve leaves.--_n._ a book of such sheets--usually written 12mo.--DUODECIMAL SCALE, the name given to the division of unity into twelve equal parts. [L. _duodecim_, twelve--_duo_, two, and _decem_, ten.] DUODECUPLE, d[=u]-o-dek'[=u]-pl, _adj._ twelvefold: consisting of twelve. [L. _duodecim_, _plic[=a]re_, to fold.] DUODENARY, d[=u]-[=o]-den'a-ri, _adj._ relating to twelve, twelvefold. DUODENUM, d[=u]-o-d[=e]'num, _n._ the first portion of the small intestines, so called because about twelve fingers'-breadth in length:--_pl._ DUOD[=E]'NA.--_adj._ DUOD[=E]'NAL. [Formed from L. _duodeni_, twelve each.] DUOLITERAL, d[=u]-[=o]-lit'er-al, _adj._ consisting of two letters. DUOLOGUE, d[=u]'[=o]-log, _n._ a piece spoken between two. DUOMO, d[=u]-[=o]'mo, _n._ a cathedral. [It. See DOME.] DUP, dup, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to undo a door. [From _do_ and _up_. Cf. _don_ and _doff_.] DUPE, d[=u]p, _n._ one easily cheated: one who is deceived or misled.--_v.t._ to deceive: to trick.--_n._ DUPABIL'ITY.--_adj._ D[=U]'PABLE.--_n._ D[=U]'PERY, the art of deceiving others. [Fr. _dupe_; of uncertain origin.] DUPION, d[=u]'pi-on, _n._ a cocoon spun by two silkworms together, also the silk of such.--Also DOU'PION. [Fr.] DUPLEX, d[=u]'pleks, _adj._ twofold: double.--_adjs._ D[=U]'PLE, double: twofold; D[=U]'PLICATE, double: twofold.--_n._ another thing of the same kind: a copy or transcript.--_v.t._ to double: to fold.--_n._ DUPLIC[=A]'TION.--_adj._ D[=U]'PLICATIVE.--_ns._ D[=U]'PLICATURE, a doubling: anything doubled: the fold of a membrane; DUPLIC'ITY, doubleness: insincerity of heart or speech: deceit; D[=U]'PLY, a second reply in Scots law.--THE DUPLICATION OF THE CUBE was a problem eagerly discussed by the early Greek geometers. [L. _duplic[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_duplex_--_duo_, two, _plic[=a]re_, to fold.] DURA. See DURRA. DURABLE, d[=u]r'a-bl, _adj._ able to last or endure: hardy: permanent.--_ns._ DUR'ABLENESS, DURABIL'ITY, quality of being durable: power of resisting decay.--_adv._ DUR'ABLY.--_ns._ DUR'ANCE, continuance: imprisonment: duress; DUR'ANT, a strong cloth in imitation of buff-leather; DUR[=A]'TION, continuance in time: time indefinitely: power of continuance. [Fr.,--L. _durabilis_--_dur[=a]re_, to last.] DURA MATER, d[=u]'ra m[=a]'t[.e]r, _n._ the exterior membrane of the brain and spinal column distinguished from the other two, the arachnoid and the pia mater. DURAMEN, d[=u]-r[=a]'m[.e]n, _n._ the inner and fully ripened wood of dicotyledonous trees. [L.,--_durus_, hard.] DURBAR, dur'bar, _n._ an audience-chamber: a reception or levee, esp. a reception of native princes held by the Viceroy of India: the body of officials at a native court. [Pers. _dar-bár_, a prince's court, lit. a '_door_ of _admittance_.'] DURDUM. Same as DIRDUM. DURE, d[=u]r, _v.i._ (_obs._) to endure, last, or continue.--_adj._ DURE'FUL (_Spens._), enduring, lasting. [Fr. _durer_--L. _dur[=a]re_--_durus_, hard.] DURESS, d[=u]r'es, or d[=u]r-es', _n._ constraint: imprisonment: constraint illegally exercised to force a person to perform some act. [O. Fr. _duresse_--L. _duritia_--_durus_, hard.] DURGA, d[=oo]r'ga, the wife of Siva (q.v.). DURGAN, dur'gan, _n._ a dwarf, any undersized creature.--_adj._ DUR'GY. [Related to _dwarf_.] DURHAM, dur'am, _n._ one of a particular breed of shorthorned cattle--from the English county. DURIAN, d[=u]'ri-an, _n._ a lofty Indian and Malayan fruit-tree (genus _Durio_), with leaves resembling those of the cherry, and large bunches of pale-yellow flowers.--Also D[=U]'RION. [Malay _duryon_.] DURING, d[=u]'ring, _prep._ for the time a thing lasts: in the course of. [Orig. pr.p. of obs. _dure_, to last.] DURMAST, dur'mast, _n._ a sub-species or variety of oak. DURN, durn, _n._ (_prov._) a door-post.--Also DERN. DUROY, d[=u]-roi', _n._ an obsolete form of _corduroy_. DURRA, dur'ra, _n._ a genus of grasses closely allied to sugar-cane and beard-grass--also called _Durra millet_ and _Indian millet_ or _Sorgho grass_. Much cultivated in Asia, Africa, and the south of Europe.--Also DOUR'A, DHUR'RA, and DUR'A. [Ar.] DURST, durst, _pa.t._ of DARE, to venture. [A.S. _dorste_, pa.t. of _dear_, to dare.] DUSH, dush, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to throw down. DUSK, dusk, _adj._ darkish: of a dark colour.--_n._ twilight: partial darkness: darkness of the colour.--_v.t._ to occasion a dusky appearance.--_v.i._ DUSK'EN, to grow dark.--_adv._ DUSK'ILY.--_n._ DUSK'INESS.--_adj._ DUSK'ISH, rather dusky: slightly dark or black.--_adv._ DUSK'ISHLY.--_n._ DUSK'ISHNESS.--_adv._ DUSK'LY.--_n._ DUSK'NESS.--_adj._ DUSK'Y, partially dark or obscure: dark-coloured: sad: gloomy. [A.S. _dox_, _dosc_, dark--further history of word obscure.] DUST, dust, _n._ fine particles of matter: a cloud of powdery matter present in the atmosphere: powder: earth: the grave, where the body becomes dust: a mean condition: gold-dust--hence money.--_v.t._ to free from dust: to sprinkle with dust.--_ns._ DUST'-BALL, a disease of horses, in which grain-dust forms a ball in the intestine; DUST'-BIN, a bucket, box, &c. for holding dust and rubbish; DUST'-BRAND, smut (q.v.); DUST'-BRUSH, a light brush for removing dust from walls, &c.; DUST'-CART, a cart for conveying dust and rubbish from the streets; DUST'-CONTRACT'OR, one who has made a contract to remove dust, &c., as from yards; DUST'ER, one who dusts: a cloth or brush used for removing dust; DUST'-HOLE, a dust-bin; DUST'INESS; DUST'MAN, a scavenger; DUST'-PAN, a pan or shovel for removing dust swept from the floor.--_adj._ DUST'Y, covered or sprinkled with dust: like dust.--_ns._ DUST'Y-FOOT (see PIE-POWDER); DUST'Y-MILL'ER, the auricula, from the white dust upon its leaves.--DUST A PERSON'S JACKET, to give him a drubbing.--BITE THE DUST (see BITE); DOWN WITH THE DUST, pay down the money, originally with reference to gold-_dust_; KICK UP A DUST, to make a stir or uproar; RAISE A DUST, to create a disturbance; THROW DUST IN A PERSON'S EYES, to delude or deceive a person. [A.S. _dúst_; cf. Ger. _dunst_, vapour, Dut. _duist_, meal-dust.] DUTCH, duch, _adj._ belonging to Holland or its people--in old writers rather applied to the Germans: heavy, clumsy, as in _Dutch-built_, _-buttocked_, &c.--_n._ DUTCH'MAN, a native of Holland.--DUTCH AUCTION, COURAGE, TILES (see AUCTION, COURAGE, TILE); DUTCH CARPET, a mixed material of cotton and wool for floor coverings; DUTCH CHEESE, a small round cheese made on the Continent from skim-milk; DUTCH CLINKERS, a hard brick for paving stables, &c.; DUTCH CLOVER, white clover; DUTCH CONCERT, a concert in which singers sing their various songs simultaneously, or each one sings a verse of any song he likes between bursts of some familiar chorus; DUTCH DROPS, a balsam, or popular nostrum, of oil of turpentine, tincture of guaiacum, &c.; DUTCH LIQUID, an oily substance obtained by mixing chlorine and olefiant gases--not miscible with water, readily dissolving in ether and alcohol, producing anæsthesia; DUTCH METAL, sometimes called _Dutch gold_ or _Dutch leaf_, is an alloy of copper and zinc; DUTCH OVEN (see OVEN); DUTCH PINK (see PINK); DUTCH RUSH, the scouring-rush; DUTCH WIFE, an open frame of rattan or cane used in the Dutch Indies, to rest the limbs upon in bed.--TALK LIKE A DUTCH UNCLE, to rebuke with kindness. [Ger. _deutsch_, (lit.) belonging to the people--Old High Ger. _diutisk_, of which _-isk_ = the Eng. suffix _-ish_, and _diut_ = A.S. _theod_, Goth. _thiuda_, a nation. See TEUTONIC.] DUTY, d[=u]'ti, _n._ that which is due: what one is bound by any obligation to do: obedience: military service: respect or regard: one's proper business: tax on goods.--_adj._ D[=U]'TEOUS, devoted to duty: obedient.--_adv._ D[=U]'TEOUSLY.--_n._ D[=U]'TEOUSNESS.--_adjs._ D[=U]'TIABLE, subject to custom duty; D[=U]'TIED, subjected to duties and customs; D[=U]'TIFUL, attentive to duty: respectful: expressive of a sense of duty.--_adv._ D[=U]'TIFULLY.--_n._ D[=U]'TIFULNESS.--_adj._ D[=U]'TY-FREE, free from tax or duty. [Formed from Anglo-Fr. _deu_ or _due_ (mod. Fr. _dú_) and suffix _-ty_. See DUE (1).] DUUMVIRATE, d[=u]-um'vi-r[=a]t, _n._ the union of two men in the same office: a form of government in ancient Rome.--_n._ D[=U]UM'VIR, one of two associated in the same office.--_adj._ D[=U]UM'VIRAL. [L. _duo_, two, and _vir_, a man.] DUVET, dü-v[=a]', _n._ a quilt stuffed with eider-down or swan's-down. [Fr.] DUX, duks, _n._ a leader: the head boy in a school or class. [L., a leader.] DWALE, dw[=a]l, _n._ (_bot._) deadly nightshade: a stupefying drink: (_her._) a black colour. [Ice. _dvöl_, _dvali_, delay, sleep.] DWALE, dw[=a]l, _n._ (_obs._) error: a heretic.--_adj._ perverse. [A.S. _dwala_, error.] DWALM, DWAUM, dwäm, _n._ (_Scot._) a swoon, a sudden sickness.--_v.i._ to fail in health. [A.S. _dwolma_, confusion.] DWARF, dwawrf, _n._ an animal or plant that does not reach the ordinary height: a diminutive man.--_v.t._ to hinder from growing: to make to appear small.--_adjs._ DWARF'ISH, DWARF, like a dwarf: very small: despicable.--_adv._ DWARF'ISHLY.--_n._ DWARF'ISHNESS.--DWARFED TREES, small trees growing in flower-pots, a characteristic ornament in Chinese and Japanese houses and gardens. [A.S. _dweorg_; Dut. _dwerg_, Ice. _dvergr_, Ger. _zwerg_.] DWELL, dwel, _v.i._ to abide in a place: to remain: to rest the attention: to continue long.--_v.t._ (_Milt._) to inhabit, to place:--_pr.p._ dwell'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ dwelled or dwelt.--_ns._ DWELL'ER; DWELL'ING, the place where one dwells: habitation: continuance; DWELL'ING-HOUSE, a house used as a dwelling, in distinction from a place of business or other building; DWELL'ING-PLACE, a place of residence. [A.S. _dwellan_, to cause to wander, to delay, from _dwal_ or _dol_, the original of Eng. _dull_.] DWINDLE, dwin'dl, _v.i._ to grow less: to waste away: to grow feeble: to become degenerate.--_v.t._ to lessen.--_n._ decline.--_n._ DWIN'DLEMENT. [Dim. of DWINE.] DWINE, dw[=i]n, _v.i._ to pine: (_Scot._) to waste away. [A.S. _dwínan_, to fade; cf. Ice. _dvína_, Dan. _tvine_, to pine away.] DYAD, d[=i]'ad, _n._ a pair of units treated as one: (_chem._) an atom, radical, or element having a combining power of two units: (_biol._) a secondary unit of organisation consisting of an aggregate of monads.--_adj._ DYAD'IC. DYAK, d[=i]'ak, _n._ the Malay name for the race who constitute the bulk of the aboriginal population of Borneo, divided into innumerable tribes, differing pretty widely in language, customs, and degrees of savageness.--Also DAY'AK. DYE, d[=i], _n._ (_Spens._). Same as DIE (2). DYE, d[=i], _v.t._ to stain: to give a new colour to:--_pr.p._ dye'ing; _pa.p._ dyed.--_n._ colour: tinge: stain: a colouring liquid.--_ns._ DYE'-HOUSE, a building in which dyeing is done; DYE'ING, the art of imparting colours to textile and other materials, such as cotton, silk, wool, and leather; DY'ER, one whose trade is to dye cloth, &c.; DY'ER'S-BROOM, a European shrubby plant, thoroughly naturalised in some parts of North America--a well-known source of yellow colouring matter; DY'ER'S-WEED, the woad, weld, or yellow weed, yielding a yellow dye; DYE'-STUFF, material used in dyeing; DYE'-WOOD, any wood from which material is obtained for dyeing; DYE'-WORK, an establishment for dyeing. [A.S. _deágan_, to dye, from _deág_ or _deáh_, colour.] DYING, d[=i]'ing, _pr.p._ of DIE.--_adj._ destined for death: mortal: declining: occurring immediately before death, as dying words: supporting a dying person, as a dying-bed: pertaining to death.--_n._ death.--_adv._ DY'INGLY.--_n._ DY'INGNESS.--DYING DECLARATION (_law_), the declaration made by a person convinced of his impending death, and who does not expect to survive the trial of the accused. [See DIE (1).] DYKE. Same as DIKE. DYNACTINOMETER, din-ak-tin-om'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring the actinic force of light. [Gr. _dynamis_, force, _aktis_, _aktinos_, a ray, _metron_, a measure.] DYNAM, d[=i]'nam, _n._ a unit of work, a foot-pound: the resultant of all the forces acting on a body. DYNAMETER, d[=i]-nam'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring the magnifying power of a telescope.--_adj._ DYNAMET'RICAL, pertaining to a dynameter. [Gr. _dynamis_, power, and _metron_, a measure.] DYNAMIC, -AL, di-nam'ik, -al, _adj._ relating to force: relating to the effects of forces in nature: causal.--_n._ DYNAM'IC, a moving force.--_adv._ DYNAM'ICALLY.--_ns._ DYNAM'ICS, the science which treats of matter and motion, where the nature of the moving body and the cause of its motion are both considered; DY'NAMISM, a theory which explains the phenomena of the universe by some immanent energy: operation of force; DY'NAMIST.--_adj._ DYNAMIS'TIC. [Gr. _dynamikos_--_dynamis_, power--_dynasthai_, to be able.] DYNAMITE, din'a-m[=i]t, _n._ a powerful explosive agent, consisting of absorbent matter, as porous silica, saturated with nitro-glycerine.--_v.t._ to blow up with dynamite.--_ns._ DYN'AMITARD, DYN'AMITER, a ruffian who would use dynamite to destroy bridges, gaols, &c. [Gr. _dynamis_.] DYNAMO, d[=i]'na-mo, _n._ a contraction of DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINE, a machine for generating electric currents by means of the relative movement of conductors and magnets.--_adjs._ DY'NAMO-ELECTRIC, -AL.--_ns._ DYNAMOG'ENY, production of increased nervous activity; DYNAM'OGRAPH, a recording dynamometer: an instrument for marking the degree of compression of an elliptic spring. DYNAMOMETER, din-am-om'e-t[.e]r, _n._ originally an instrument for measuring force, such as the pull exerted by a horse in drawing a cart: the name now usually given to instruments for measuring power.--_adjs._ DYNAMOMET'RIC, -AL. [Gr. _dynamis_, power, and _metron_, a measure.] DYNASTY, din'as-ti, or d[i]'nas-ti, _n._ a succession of kings of the same family.--_n._ DY'NAST, a ruler.--_adj._ DYNAS'TIC, belonging to a dynasty. [Gr. _dynasteia_--_dynast[=e]s_, a lord, _dynasthai_, to be able.] DYNE, d[=i]n, _n._ the unit of force in the centimetre-gramme-second (C.G.S.) system. DYOPHYSITE, d[=i]-of'i-z[=i]t, _n._ a holder of the doctrine of the coexistence of two natures, the divine and the human, in Christ--also DIPH'YSITE.--_adjs._ DYOPHYSIT'IC, -AL.--_n._ DYOPH'YSITISM. DYOTHELETE, d[=i]-oth'e-l[=e]t, _adj._ holding the doctrine that Christ had two wills, a divine and a human--also DYOTH'ELITE.--_n._ one who holds the foregoing.--_ns._ DYOTH'ELITISM, DYOTH'ELISM. DYSÆSTHESIA, dis-es-th[=e]'si-a, _n._ impaired sensation, partial insensibility.--_adj._ DYSÆSTHETIC. [Gr., _dys_, hard, _aisth[=e]tos_--_aisthanesthai_, to feel.] DYSCHROA, dis'kr[=o]-a, _n._ discoloration of the skin from disease.--Also DYS'CHROIA. DYSCRASIA, dis-kr[=a]'si-a, _n._ (_path._) an altered condition of the blood and fluids of the system, leading to constitutional diseases, as dropsy, cancer, delirium tremens, lead-poisoning, &c. [From Gr. _dys_, bad, _krasis_, a mixture.] DYSENTERY, dis'en-ter-i, _n._ a form of disease accompanied by discharges from the bowels, and differing from diarrhoea chiefly in being attended by marked fever and pain, as also by the presence of blood and inflammatory products in the discharges. It is a disease of the mucous membrane of the colon or great intestine.--_adj._ DYSENTER'IC. [Gr. _dysenteria_, _dys_, ill, _entera_, entrails.] DYSLOGISTIC, dis-l[=o]-jis'tik, _adj._ conveying censure, opprobrious.--_adv._ DYSLOGIS'TICALLY.--_n._ DYS'LOGY, dispraise. DYSMENORRHOEA, dis-men-[=o]-r[=e]'a, _n._ difficult or painful menstruation.--_adjs._ DYSMENORRHOE'AL, -IC. DYSNOMY, dis'n[=o]-mi, _n._ bad legislation. DYSODYLE, -ILE, dis'[=o]-d[=i]l, _n._ a yellow or grayish laminated bituminous mineral, often found with lignite, burning vividly, with an odour of asafoetida. [Gr. _dys[=o]d[=e]s_--_dys_, ill, _ozein_, to smell.] DYSOPSIA, dis-op'si-a, _n._ dimness or difficulty of vision.--Also DYS[=O]'PIA, DYSOP'SY. DYSOREXIA, dis-[=o]-rek'si-a, _n._ an impaired or depraved appetite.--Also DYS'OREXY. DYSPATHY, dis'pa-thi, _n._ antipathy, dislike--opposite of _Sympathy_.--_adj._ DYSPATHET'IC. DYSPEPSIA, dis-pep'si-a, _n._ a scientific term for indigestion--also DYSPEP'SY.--_n._ DYSPEP'TIC, a person afflicted with dyspepsia.--_adjs._ DYSPEP'TIC, -AL, afflicted with, pertaining to, or arising from indigestion.--_adv._ DYSPEP'TICALLY. [Gr. _dyspepsia_--_dys_, hard, _pessein_, _pepsein_, to digest.] DYSPHAGIA, dis-f[=a]'ji-a, _n._ difficulty in swallowing--also DYS'PHAGY.--_adj._ DISPHAG'IC. DYSPHONIA, dis-f[=o]'ni-a, _n._ difficulty in producing sounds. [Gr. _dys_, ill, _ph[=o]n[=e]_, sound.] DYSPHORIA, dis-f[=o]'ri-a, _n._ impatience under affliction, morbid restlessness. DYSPHUISTIC, dis-f[=u]-is'tik, _adj._ ill-sounding, inelegant. DYSPNOEA, disp-n[=e]'a, _n._ difficulty of breathing.--_adjs._ DYSPNOE'AL, DYSPNOE'IC. [Gr. _dys_, ill, _pno[=e]_, breathing.] DYSTELEOLOGY, dis-tel-[=e]-ol'o-ji, _n._ the doctrine of purposelessness, or denial of 'final causes:' the study of apparently functionless rudimentary organs in animals and plants.--_adj._ DYSTELEOLOG'ICAL.--_n._ DYSTELEOL'OGIST. DYSTHESIA, dis-th[=e]'si-a, _n._ a morbid habit of body, resulting in general discomfort and impatience.--_adj._ DYSTHET'IC. DYSTHYMIC, dis-thim'ik, _adj._ depressed in spirits. DYSTOMIC, dis-tom'ik, _adj._ having an imperfect fracture or cleavage.--Also DYS'TOMOUS. DYSURIA, dis-[=u]'ri-a, _n._ a difficulty of passing urine--also DYS'URY.--_adj._ DYS[=U]'RIC. [Gr. _dys_, ill, _ouron_, urine.] DYTISCUS, d[=i]-tis'kus, _n._ a genus of water-beetles, including a common large British species, _D. marginalis_--also DYT'ICUS.--_adj._ DYTIS'CID. [Formed from Gr. _dyt[=e]s_, a diver.] DYVOUR, d[=i]'v[=oo]r, _n._ (_Scot._) a bankrupt.--_n._ DYV'OURY, bankruptcy. [Generally conn. with Fr. _devoir_, to owe. The old phrase 'drowned in debt' suggests a connection with _diver_.] DZEREN, dz[=e]'ren, _n._ the Mongolian antelope.--Also DZ[=E]'RON--called also _Goitered antelope_, _Yellow goat_. DZIGGETAI, dzig'ge-t[=i], _n._ a species of wild ass, more horse-like than the others, inhabiting the elevated steppes of Tartary--prob. the _hemionus_ (half-ass) of Herodotus and Pliny. [Mongol.] * * * * * Corrections made to printed original. Under "Accomplish":--"especially graceful acquirements"; "grateful" in original. Under "Aflame":--"Pfx. a-, and Flame."; "Pfx. a-, and Glowing." in original. Under "Aphaniptera":--"adj. Aphanip'terous"; "Appenip'terous" in original. Under "Appreciate":--"rise in exchangeable value"; "risk" in original. Under "Artichoke":--"girasole ('turn-sun')"; "girasole ('twin-sun')" in original. Under "Begonia":--"'Elephant's Ears,'"; "'Elephant's,' 'Earl's,'" in original. Under "Catenary":--"v.t. Catenate", the word "Catenate" is missing in the original. 
673	----	None 
41288	----	[Illustration: A PICTURE STORY--PARTS 1 AND 2] [Illustration: A PICTURE STORY--PARTS 3 AND 4] BEGINNERS' BOOK IN LANGUAGE A BOOK FOR THE THIRD GRADE BY H. JESCHKE JOINT AUTHOR OF "ORAL AND WRITTEN ENGLISH" BOOK ONE AND BOOK TWO GINN AND COMPANY BOSTON - NEW YORK - CHICAGO - LONDON ATLANTA - DALLAS - COLUMBUS - SAN FRANCISCO * * * * * COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY GINN AND COMPANY ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 622.1 The Athenæum Press GINN AND COMPANY - PROPRIETORS BOSTON - U.S.A. * * * * * PREFACE How shall we bring it about that children of the third grade speak as spontaneously in the schoolroom as they do on the playground when the game is in full swing? How shall we banish their schoolroom timidity and self-consciousness? How shall we obtain from them a ready flow of thought expressed in fitting words? How shall we interest them in the improvement of their speech? How shall we inoculate them against common errors in English? How shall we displace with natural, correct, and pointed written expression the lifeless school composition of the past, the laborious production of which was of exceedingly doubtful educational value and gave pleasure neither to child nor to teacher? These are some of the questions to which this new textbook for the third grade aims to give constructive answers. Needless to say, much more is required in the way of answer than a supply of raw material for language work or a graded sequence of formal lessons in primary English. It is the purpose of the present book to provide a series of schoolroom situations, so built up as to give pupils delightful experiences in speaking and writing good English. Since one can no more teach without the interest of the pupil than see without light, these situations have for their content the natural interests of children. They therefore include child life and the heroic aspects of mature life, fairies and fairyland, and the outer world, particularly animal life. Then, each situation is considerably extended, not only that interest may be conserved but also that it may be cumulative. Instead of the rope of sand that one finds in the textbook of unrelated assignments, there is offered here an interwoven unity of nearly a dozen inclusive groups of interrelated lessons, exercises, drills, and games. Among these groups are the fairy group, the Indian group, the fable group, the valentine group, and the circus group. These groups or situations call for much physical activity, pantomime, dramatization. They provide for story-telling of great variety; for instruction and practice in punctuation, capitalization, and other points of form; for habit-creating drills in good English; for correct-usage games; for simple letter writing; for novel exercises in book making; and, second in importance to none of these, for the improvement by the pupils themselves of their oral and written composition,--all the work being socialized and otherwise variously motivated from beginning to end. Careful experiments made with children of the third grade while these lessons were still in manuscript insure that the book will produce the desired results under ordinary school conditions. Very exceptional work may be expected where teachers conscientiously read the entire book at the beginning of the school year and enter into the spirit of it. That they may do this with the least expenditure of time and energy, the lessons have been provided with cross references and numerous notes. THE AUTHOR CONTENTS SECTION PAGE 1. Study of a Picture Story 1 2. Story-Telling 3 3. Making Stories Better 4 4. Study of a Poem. "Queen Mab" _Thomas Hood_ 6 5. Story-Telling 9 6. Correct Usage--_Saw_ 11 7. Study of a Fable. "The Ants and the Grasshoppers" _Æsop_ 13 8. Telling a Fable 18 9. Making up Fables 19 10. Correct Usage--_Saw_, _Seen_ 21 11. Words sometimes Mispronounced 23 12. More Making up of Fables 24 13. Story-Telling 26 14. Telling about Indians. "An Indian Boy's Training" _Charles A. Eastman_ 28 15. Studying Words 33 16. More Telling about Indians 35 17. Still More Telling about Indians 38 18. Correct Usage--_Have_ 40 19. The Names of the Months 41 20. Making Riddles 44 21. Correct Usage--_Did_, _Done_ 45 22. Telling Fairy Stories. "Peter and the Strange Little Old Man" 47 23. Study of a Poem. "The Fairy Folk" _Robert M. Bird_ "A Child's Song" _William Allingham_ 52 24. More Telling of Fairy Stories. "Peter Visits the Strange Little Old Man's Workshop" 56 25. Making Riddles 65 26. Making Riddles Better 65 27. Study of a Poem. "The Light-Hearted Fairy" _Unknown_ 68 28. Correct Usage--_Rang_, _Sang_, _Drank_ 70 29. Making up Fairy Stories 72 30. Writing Dates 74 31. Telling Interesting Things 75 32. Story-Telling. "Jack and Jill" _Louisa M. Alcott_ 76 33. Explaining Things 80 34. Words sometimes Mispronounced 81 35. Telling Interesting Things. "How the Eskimo builds his House" 82 36. Study of a Poem. "Jack Frost" _Gabriel Setoun_ 87 37. Game 90 38. Correct Usage--_May_, _Can_ 92 39. Talking over Plans 94 40. Letter Writing 95 41. More Letter Writing 97 42. Still More Letter Writing 102 43. Improving Letters 103 44. Study of a Poem. "Mr. Nobody" _Unknown_ 104 45. Making a Little Book 107 46. Correct Usage--_No_, _Not_, _Never_ 109 47. Telling Interesting Things 111 48. Study of a Picture Story 114 49. Correct Usage--_Went_, _Saw_, _Came_, _Did_ 119 50. Two Punctuation Marks 120 51. Another Study of a Picture Story 121 52. Letter Writing 123 53. Words sometimes Mispronounced 124 54. Story-Telling. "The Daughter of Ceres" 125 55. Telling Interesting Things. "The Return of Spring" 131 56. Story-Telling. "Ceres and Apollo" 133 57. Correct Usage--_I am not_ 141 58. Riddles 141 59. Story-Telling. "Ceres and Pluto" 144 60. Talking over Plans 150 61. Letter Writing 152 62. Addressing Letters 153 63. Telling Interesting Things 155 64. Making Riddles 158 65. Telling about Wild Animals 159 66. Making a Little Book 162 67. Correct Usage--_Good_, _Well_ 163 68. Talking over the Telephone 165 69. Words sometimes Mispronounced 166 70. Talking over Vacation Plans 166 NOTES TO THE TEACHER i INDEX xiii BEGINNERS' BOOK IN LANGUAGE[A] =1. Study of a Picture Story[1]= The four pictures at the beginning of this book tell a story. It is about a boy of your age. His name is Tom. Let us try to read that picture story. Perhaps you have already done so. Perhaps you have already found out what happened to Tom. =Oral Exercise.=[2] 1. Look at the first of the four pictures. What is happening? Perhaps the owl thinks that the little man is a little animal. Perhaps the owl wants to eat him for supper. What might the owl say if it could talk? Say it as if you were the owl. You know, of course, that the little man is an elf. And of course he does not want to be eaten. What is he doing? Call for help as if you were an elf. Remember that the owl is after you. Call with all your might. Call as if you were frightened. [A] NOTE TO TEACHER. Immediately preceding the Index are the Notes to the Teacher. Cross references to these are given in the text, as on the present page. Note 1 may be found on the page that follows page 168. See the surprised look on Tom's face. Play that you are picking flowers in a meadow. Suddenly you hear a call for help. Show the class how you look up and about you to see what is the matter. What might you say when you notice the owl and the elf? 2. Look at the brave boy in the second picture. He has dropped his flowers and run over to the elf. What is he doing? What is he shouting? Do these things as if you were Tom in this picture. Play this part of the story with two classmates. 3. The good elf has taken Tom to a wonderful tree in the woods. What do you think he is saying to Tom? Should you be a little afraid to open the door if you were Tom? Why? What questions might Tom ask before he opens it? Play that you and a classmate are Tom and the elf in the third picture, standing in front of the door in the tree. Talk together as they probably talked together. Some of your classmates may be other elves, peeking out from behind large trees. 4. Just as Tom reached out his hand to open the door in the tree, what do you think happened? Look at the sleepy but surprised boy in the fourth picture. Why is he surprised? Play that you are Tom. Show the class how you would look as you awoke from the exciting dream.[3] What should you probably say? Play this part of the story with a classmate. The classmate plays that she is the mother. What do you think the mother is saying to Tom? What might Tom answer? 5. Now you and several classmates will wish to play the entire story.[4] Then it will be fun to see others[5] play it in their way. Perhaps these will play it better. Each group of pupils playing the story tries to show exactly what happened, by what the players say and do and by the way they look. =2. Story-Telling= Tom awoke just as he was opening the door in the tree. We do not know what would have happened next. Perhaps there was a stairway behind the door. Perhaps this led to a beautiful garden in which were flowers of many colors and singing birds. We do not know whom Tom might have met in that garden. We do not know what might have happened there. =Oral Exercise.= 1. Play that you are Tom. Tell the class your dream. But make believe that you did not wake up just as you were opening the door. Tell your classmates what happened to you after you opened it. Perhaps you found yourself in a room that was full of elves. Perhaps the king of the elves was there. How did he show that he was glad that you had saved the life of one of his elves? What did he say? Did the elves clap their hands? Did they play games with you in the woods? Or perhaps the room was full of playthings, like a large toystore. Perhaps the elf told you to choose and take home what you wanted most. As you and your classmates tell the dream, it will be fun to see how different the endings are. 2. It may be that the teacher will ask you and some classmates to play the best dream story that is told. The first part of it you have already played. Play it over with the new ending. The pupil who added this may tell his classmates how to play it. Should he not be one of the players? He will know, better than any one else, exactly what should be said and done.[6] =3. Making Stories Better[7]= On the morning when Tom awoke from his dream he found his mother at his bedside. The first thing he did was to tell her his strange dream. This is what he said: Mother, I dreamed about a door. It was in the trunk of a tree. A kind elf showed it to me. I drove away a wicked owl that was trying to carry the elf away. =Oral Exercise.= 1. Do you think that Tom told his dream very well? Did he begin at the beginning or at the end of it? Did he leave anything out? 2. Does Tom's story tell what he was doing when he first saw the elf? Does it tell how the elf looked?[8] How might Tom have begun his story? 3. Does Tom's story tell how he drove the owl away? What might Tom have said about this? Look at the second picture of the story and see what it tells. 4. Tom's story says nothing about going into the woods. It does not tell what was written on the strange door. Look again at the third picture. What does it tell you that Tom left out? * * * * * The questions you have been answering are much like the questions that Tom's mother asked him. When he answered them, Tom saw that he had not told his dream very well. "I left out some of the most interesting things," Tom said, as he thought it over on his way to school. A few days after this, Tom's teacher asked the pupils whether they remembered any of their dreams. Tom raised his hand. The teacher asked him to tell his dream. This is what he told his classmates: I dreamed that I was picking flowers. The sun was shining, and the meadow was beautiful. Suddenly I heard a cry. Some one was calling for help. I turned and saw a big owl. Its claws were spread out. It was trying to get hold of a little elf and carry him away. I ran to help the elf. The owl flew up in the air. I waved my arms and shouted and frightened it away. The good elf said that I had saved his life. He led me into the woods where there were very large trees. In the side of one of the largest I saw a little door. OPEN ME AND STEP IN was written on it. At first I was afraid to go near the door. But the good little elf told me to fear nothing. Just as I reached out my hand to open the door, I awoke. =Oral Exercise.= Did Tom tell the class the same dream he told his mother? Read again what he told her. Now point out where he made it better. What did he add? Which additions do you like most? =4. Study of a Poem= Some say that one of the fairies brings the dreams. They say that it is Queen Mab, a queen of the fairies, who brings them. The following poem tells about this good fairy, who flutters down from the moon. It tells how she waves her silver wand above the heads of boys and girls when they are asleep. Then, at once, they begin to dream. They dream of the pleasantest things. They dream of delicious fruit trees and bubbling fountains. Sometimes, like Tom, they dream of an elf or a dwarf who leads them over fairy hills to fairyland itself.[9] QUEEN MAB A little fairy comes at night, Her eyes are blue, her hair is brown, With silver spots upon her wings, And from the moon she flutters down. She has a little silver wand, And when a good child goes to bed, She waves her wand from right to left And makes a circle round its head. And then it dreams of pleasant things, Of fountains filled with fairy fish, Of trees that bear delicious fruit And bow their branches at a wish, Of pretty dwarfs to show the ways Through fairy hills and fairy dales. THOMAS HOOD (Abridged)[10] =Oral Exercise.= 1. Let us make sure that we understand this poem. Find the following words in it and tell what you think each one means:[11] flutters wand circle fountains delicious branches dwarfs dales 2. Have you ever read about fairies? Tell the class how you think a fairy looks. If you tell it well, you may draw on the board with colored chalk your picture of a fairy. Explain your picture to the class. [Illustration] 3. Play that you are holding a wand in your hand. Wave it as you think the fairy waved it round the head of a sleeping child. =Written Exercise.= Copy that part of the poem which you like best. Copy all the little marks that you find. Write capital letters where you find them. Every line of the poem begins with a capital letter. Perhaps you can do this copying without making a mistake.[12] =Memory Exercise.=[13] Read the poem aloud over and over until you can say it without looking at the book. Then stand before the class and recite it. If you make a mistake, you must take your seat. The pupil who saw your mistake may then recite the poem. =5. Story-Telling= =Oral Exercise.= Think of some dreams you have had. Choose the one that the class would probably like to hear most, but not one that will take long to tell. Explain to the class how the dream began, what came next, what after that, and how it ended. If you cannot remember any dream, make up one. It may be that you can make up one that will be more wonderful than any real dream of your classmates.[14] But do not make it too long. =Group Exercise.=[15] After you have told your dream, your classmates will point out what they liked in the story itself and in your way of telling it. Then they will explain to you how you might have told it better. Perhaps, like Tom, you left out many interesting little points. =Oral Exercise.= Make believe you dreamed that, as you were on your way to school one morning, you came upon a big elephant standing on the sidewalk. Tell the class what you did in your dream and how you got to school. Or play you dreamed that a smiling elf met you on your way to school. He gave you a pretty box. He told you to open it when you reached the schoolroom. Tell your classmates what you found in it. Or make believe you dreamed that a lion came into the school. Tell the class what you did. Were you and the teacher the only brave ones in the room? Tell what some of your classmates did in your dream. Or play you dreamed that you found a gold coin in the schoolyard. When you could not learn who the owner was, you made a plan for spending the money for the school. Tell the class about this plan. Perhaps the teacher will ask you and the other pupils to play some of these dream stories, if they are very interesting. =Written Exercise.= 1. The teacher will write on the board one or more of the stories told by you and the other pupils.[16] The class will read them carefully and point out where each could be made better.[17] Copy one that the teacher has rewritten. The next exercise, which you may read at once, will tell you why you should do this copying without making mistakes. 2. Now the teacher will cover with a map the story on the board that you have copied, and will read it to you, while you write it again.[18] This exercise will show whether you can write a story without making any mistakes. You will need to know where to put capital letters and the little marks that are placed at the ends of sentences. Besides, you will need to know the spelling of words. 3. Compare what you have written with what is on the board. Look for three things: (1) Capital letters (2) The mark at the end of each sentence (3) The spelling of words Did you have everything right? If not, correct the mistakes you made. =6. Correct Usage--_Saw_= Some pupils use the word _seen_ when they should use _saw_. Mistakes of this kind spoil stories, just as a song is spoiled when some one sings wrong notes. Let us begin to get rid of these unpleasant mistakes by learning how to use the word _saw_ correctly.[19] =Oral Exercise.= The word _saw_ is used correctly in the three sentences that follow. Read these sentences aloud several times. 1. Tom said he saw an owl in his dream. 2. I saw a pretty dollhouse in my dream last night. 3. I dreamed that I saw a beautiful yellow bird sitting on a fruit tree and singing. =Game.= Let all the pupils, except one, play that they have fallen asleep. When they have closed their eyes and rested their heads on their folded arms, the one pupil who plays that she is Queen Mab tiptoes up and down between the rows of seats. With a fairy wand she makes a circle round several heads. Then the fairy disappears, the class wakes up, and each pupil who has had a dream tells his classmates the most interesting one thing that he saw in it. Thus, one pupil might say: I saw an elf. He was sitting in front of the door of his tree-house. He was making a toy for a little boy. Another pupil might say: I saw a dwarf. He was riding over the fruit-tree tops. He was on the back of a beautiful eagle. Another might say: I saw an owl. It had big, round, shiny eyes. It looked at me, but I was not afraid. Still another might say: I saw a fine white horse. It had a golden harness. A brave soldier sat on its back. Each pupil begins with the words _I saw_ and tries to say something that is very different from what his classmates say they dreamed, and much more wonderful.[20] =7. Study of a Fable= =Oral Exercise.= Did you ever read the story or fable of the ants and the grasshoppers? Read it carefully as it is told on this and the next pages. See whether you can tell your classmates the lesson that it teaches. [Illustration] THE ANTS AND THE GRASSHOPPERS In a field one summer day some ants were busily at work. They were carrying grain into their storehouses. As they plodded steadily to and fro under their loads, they were watched by a number of grasshoppers. The grasshoppers were not working. Instead, they were sunning themselves by the roadside. Now and then these idle fellows droned out a lazy song, or joined in a dance, or amused themselves by making fun of the ants. But the ants were tireless workers. They kept steadily on. Nothing could take their minds off their business. "Why don't you come with us and have some fun?" at last called one of the grasshoppers to the ants. "Oh, stop that work," another cried. "Come and have a good time, as we are doing!" But the ants kept right on with their work. "Winter is coming," said an ant. He was busily pushing a rich grain of wheat before him. "We need to get ready for the days when we can gather no food. You had better do the same." "Ah, let winter take care of itself," the grasshoppers shouted, all together. "We have enough to eat to-day. We are not going to worry about to-morrow." But the ants kept on with their work. The grasshoppers kept on with their play. When winter came, the grasshoppers had no food. One after another they died. At last only one was left. Sick with hunger, he went to the house of an ant and knocked at the door. "Dear ant," he began, "will you not help a poor fellow who has nothing to eat?" The ant looked him over a few seconds. "So it is you, is it? As I remember, you are the lazy fellow who did not believe in work. I do not care to have anything to do with you." And he turned his back on the lazy fellow. Sadly the grasshopper made his way to another door and knocked again. "You have nothing to eat?" cried the ant that lived here, in great surprise. "Tell me, what were you doing while the weather was warm? Did you lay nothing by?" "No," replied the grasshopper. "I felt so happy and gay that I did nothing but dance and sing." "Well, then," answered the ant, "you will have to dance and sing now, as best you can. We ants never borrow. We ants never lend." And he showed the lazy fellow out of the place. The hungry grasshopper dragged himself to a third house. "I am sorry," said the ant that opened the door. "I can spare you nothing. All that I have I need for my own family. If you spent the summer without working, you will have to spend the winter without eating." And he shut the door in the grasshopper's face.--ÆSOP =Oral Exercise.= 1. Show the class how you would carry a heavy load. Play that a bag of wheat stood before you. Lift it from the ground, balance it on one of your shoulders, walk with it across the room, and set it carefully down in the corner. Then go back for another, and another. Let several classmates do the same. 2. Play that you and several classmates are the ants in the fable, busily carrying loads from the field to the storehouses. What might you ants be saying to each other while you work? Should you speak of the sunny day, of the pleasant field, of the fun of working together? Should you probably speak of the pleasure of seeing the grain pile up in the storehouses? Should you be thinking, now and then, of the long, cold winter ahead? What might you say about it? What might you say to each other as you pass the grasshoppers loafing by the roadside? 3. Show the class how you would walk about if you had nothing to do all day long. Would your walk be brisk? Should you look wide-awake? Play that you and several classmates are the grasshoppers in the fable. What will you do? Will you walk lazily to and fro before the class, one of you twanging a guitar, another singing, and the third dancing about? What might you grasshoppers be saying to each other about the weather? What might you say about the busy ants you see passing by with loads on their backs? What might you say about the coming winter? 4. Play the part of the fable that tells what happened in the summer. First the ants will be seen at their work. They talk with each other as they work. They say what they think about the lazy grasshoppers they see in the distance. Now the grasshoppers slowly come along, humming tunes. They talk about the beautiful summer. They laugh at the hard-working ants. At last they call to the ants and invite these to join them in a dance or in a song. Read the fable to see what each thinks and says and does in this part of the story. 5. Now play that winter has come. You and several classmates may be the grasshoppers. You are shivering in the cold and have no food to eat. Remember, you grasshoppers are not singing and dancing now. What might you say to each other about the summer that is gone? One grasshopper dies of hunger. What might the others say? Another dies. What does the last one say to himself and decide to do? 6. Can you see the last grasshopper going from house to house, begging for food? How does he look? Show the class how he walks and how he talks. What does he say at each door? 7. With three classmates, that will be the three ants, play the last part of the fable,--the part in which the last grasshopper goes from door to door. The fable tells what each ant says and does. 8. Another group of pupils may now play the whole story. Let them do it in their own way.[5] If the story is played well, the class will see everything as it happened. =8. Telling a Fable= The fable of the ants and the grasshoppers may be told in different ways.[21] You could tell it as if you were one of the ants. In that case the story might begin in this way: I am a busy ant. I really have no time to stop to talk with you. But perhaps a few minutes' rest will do me good. Yes, I will tell you about the grasshoppers. One day last summer I noticed some of these good-for-nothing fellows near the field where I was working. They were sunning themselves by the roadside. They were too lazy to work. Or you could tell the fable as if you were one of the grasshoppers. Then it would perhaps begin as follows: I am a grasshopper. I had a hard time last winter. All my companions died then. I think it is wonderful that I am still alive. But my health has been ruined. You see, last summer we grasshoppers did not feel like doing any work. We thought it was more fun to dance and sing and to laugh at the ants. We thought they were foolish to work so hard. =Oral Exercise.= Tell the fable of the ants and the grasshoppers in your own way. As you speak to your classmates, shall you play that you are an ant or a grasshopper? =Group Exercise.= As each pupil tells the fable, the class will listen to see whether any important parts have been left out. The class should tell each speaker where he did well and where the fable might have been told better. There is a good way and a poor way of telling a story. Do you not remember the two ways in which Tom told his dream? =9. Making up Fables= As you know, the fable of the ants and the grasshoppers teaches the lesson that during worktime one should work. The same lesson could be taught by other stories. Let us try to make up a fable of our own. Our fable should show what happens to those who will not work. =Oral Exercise.= 1. What animals shall we have in our story to take the place of the ants? They must be very busy animals. They must be good workers. They must not waste their time in idleness. They must not play when they should be going about their business. Would bees do? Now, what animals shall take the place of the grasshoppers? What do you think of butterflies for this part? 2. Make up a fable about bees and butterflies and tell it to your classmates. Will you tell it as if you were one of the bees? Or will you be a butterfly? Or will you tell the fable as if you were a bird or a field mouse that saw all that happened and heard all that was said? =Group Exercise.= After each telling of the fable you and the other pupils should tell the story-teller, first, what things in his story you liked, and, second, what could be made better. Sometimes pupils do not speak loud enough for the class to hear. Sometimes they do not seem strong enough to stand squarely on their two feet while they are speaking. They seem to need to hold on to a chair or table, so as not to fall. Those who stand well and speak with a clear, ringing voice should be praised for it by their classmates.[22] =Oral Exercise.= Read the following ideas for stories. Perhaps you can make up a story from one of them that the class would like to hear. Perhaps you can make up a very interesting story that the class would like to play. 1. There are two dogs living in neighboring houses. One is too lazy to watch his master's house. The other is faithful. When a burglar comes, the faithful dog drives him away. Then the burglar enters the neighbor's house. There he finds the lazy watchdog fast asleep. What happens next morning when the master of each dog learns what took place during the night? 2. The billboards say that a circus is coming. In a month it will be in a certain city where two boys live. These two boys plan to go. They need to earn the money for the tickets. One of them begins at once and works steadily. The other is unwilling to give up his play. =10. Correct Usage--_Saw_, _Seen_= Some time ago we began to learn about the correct use of the word _saw_. Some pupils use _saw_ when only _seen_ is correct, and _seen_ when only _saw_ is correct. The following sentences show the correct use of these two troublesome words: 1. I _saw_ some ants busily at work. 2. _Have_ you _seen_ them? 3. Have you ever _seen_ a grasshopper at work? 4. I never _saw_ one. 5. But I _have_ often _seen_ ants at work. 6. _Has_ your brother _seen_ the ant hill in the field? =Oral Exercise.= 1. In any of the sentences above do you find _saw_ used with _have_ or _has_? Do you find _seen_ used in any sentence without _have_ or _has_? Can you make a rule for the use of _saw_ and _seen_? 2. Using what you have just learned about _saw_ and _seen_, fill the blanks below with the correct one of the two words: 1. The grasshoppers ---- the ants, and the ants ---- them. 2. I have ---- many ants and many grasshoppers. 3. Has any one ever ---- this grasshopper doing any work? 4. I once ---- two ants carrying a heavy grain of wheat together. 5. I ---- them at work. 6. Have you ---- the ants carrying grain this summer? 7. My brother once ---- a beehive. 8. He ---- hundreds of bees. 9. I have never ---- butterflies gathering food for the winter. =Game.= 1. The teacher sends one of the class from the room. The remaining pupils close their eyes. The teacher tiptoes to one of them and shows him a pencil (or a book or a cap) belonging to the pupil in the hall. When that one returns to the room, he asks each of his classmates in turn, "George (or Fred or Mary), have you seen my pencil?" The answer is, "No, Tom (or Lucy or John), I have not seen your pencil," until at last the pupil is reached who has seen it. He answers, "Yes, Tom, I have seen it." Then he in turn leaves the room, and another round of the game begins. 2. The teacher points to one pupil after another and asks each, "What did you see on your way to school?" The answers come: 1. I saw many children all going in the same direction. 2. I saw a poster of the circus that is coming to town next week. 3. I saw a farmer driving a cow. 4. I saw a policeman. Each answer begins with the words _I saw_. After half a dozen pupils have spoken, the one who gave the most interesting reply[23] takes the teacher's place. He asks his classmates a question beginning with the words _What did you see?_ He might say: 1. What did you see at church last Sunday? 2. What did you see when you visited your grandfather? 3. What did you see when you went to the woods? After half a dozen answers, another pupil becomes the questioner. Each pupil tries to ask interesting questions and to give interesting answers.[20] =11. Words sometimes Mispronounced= It often happens that a story is spoiled because the person who tells it makes mistakes in English. It is as unpleasant to hear a mistake in a speaker's language as it is to see a spot on a picture. You have already learned the proper use of _saw_ and _seen_. In this lesson we shall take up another matter. Sometimes pupils do not pronounce all their words correctly. We must get rid of mistakes of this kind, too. =Oral Exercise.= 1. Pronounce each word in the following list as your teacher pronounces it to you: can catch just when where why what which while often three because 2. Read the entire list rapidly, but speak each word distinctly and correctly. 3. Use in sentences the words in the list above. =12. More Making up of Fables= Of course you have heard the fable of the foolish little chick. That chick paid no attention to its mother's warning to stay near her. You probably remember that it boldly wandered away from her and was caught by a hawk. =Oral Exercise.= 1. If there are any pupils in the class who do not know the fable of the foolish chick, some pupil who remembers it clearly should tell it to them, so that all may know it. What is the lesson of that fable? 2. Make up a short fable like the one of the careless chick and the hawk. Read the following list of ideas for such a fable. Perhaps it will help you to make up an interesting story to tell the class. Perhaps the class will wish to play your story. The Foolish Lamb and the Wolf The Bear Cub and the Bear Trap The Heedless Puppy and the Automobile The Reckless Mouse and the Cat [Illustration] =Group Exercise.= The teacher will write on the board the best of the fables that you and your classmates make. Then you and they may try to improve these fables, as Tom improved the story of his dream. Make each one as interesting as you can.[24] Think of bright things to add to each one. =Written Exercise.= Copy from the board one of the fables that the class has improved. Write capital letters and punctuation marks where you find them in the fable. What you write should be an exact copy of what is on the board.[25] Do you think that there is any one in the class who can make such an exact copy? Are you that one? =13. Story-Telling= =Oral Exercise.= Did you ever see a sign with the words SAFETY FIRST? Explain to your classmates what you think it meant. The three pictures on the opposite page tell three stories. Each story teaches the lesson, "Safety First." =Oral Exercise.= 1. Make up a story that you and your classmates may play. Let it fit one of the three pictures. Tell it to the class. 2. Together with two or three classmates, whom you may choose yourself, play your story. Perhaps you and the other players will meet before or after school, and then you can tell them how each one must look, what he must do, and what he must say, in playing his part. Try to do it all without the teacher, but if you need the teacher's help, ask for it. Play the story once or twice before playing it in the presence of the class. =Group Exercise.= Other pupils will play their stories. The class will tell what it likes and what it does not like in the playing of each story. These questions will help to show whether a story was well played: 1. Did the players say enough? 2. Did the players speak clearly, distinctly, and loud enough? 3. Did the players look and act like the persons in the story? 4. How might the story have been played better? [Illustration: SAFETY FIRST] =14. Telling about Indians[26]= [Illustration] Long ago there were no cities and no railroads in our country. The white men had not yet come. Only Indians lived here. As you probably know, their houses were tents made of skins. They had no guns, but hunted with bows and arrows. Their clothes were very different from those we wear. =Oral Exercise.= 1. You have probably read or heard interesting things about the Indians. What can you tell your classmates about them? 2. Of course you know that Indian children were not sent to school as you are. They did not learn to read books. Do you know what they did learn? Tell the class what you know about it. 3. Read what an Indian says in the following true story. When this Indian boy grew to be a young man, he learned English. He has written a number of books about his boyhood. As you read what follows, notice how many things you are told which you never heard of before. Perhaps you had thought that little Indian boys were never afraid of the dark. This story tells how they get over it. What else does it tell that is interesting to you? AN INDIAN BOY'S TRAINING[B] My uncle was my teacher until I reached the age of fifteen years. He was strict and good. When I left the tepee in the morning, he would say: "Boy, look closely at everything you see." At evening, on my return, he used to question me for an hour or so. He asked me to name all the new birds that I had seen during the day. I would name them according to the color, or the shape of the bill, or their song, or their nest, or anything about the bird that I had noticed. Then he would tell me the correct name. One day he told me what to do if a bear or a wild-cat should attack me. "You must make the animal fully understand that you have seen him and know what he is planning to do. If you are not ready for a battle, that is, if you are not armed, the only way to make him turn away from you is to take a long, sharp-pointed pole for a spear and rush toward him. No wild beast will face this unless he is cornered and already wounded." [B] Copyright, 1913, by Little, Brown and Company. [Illustration: KNIFE IN ITS BEADED CASE] When I was still a very small boy, my stern teacher began to give sudden war whoops over my head in the morning while I was sound asleep. He expected me to leap up without fear, grasp my bow and arrows or my knife, and give a shrill whoop in reply. If I was sleepy or startled and hardly knew what I was about, he would laugh at me and say that I would never become a warrior. Often he would shoot off his gun just outside the tepee while I was yet asleep, at the same time giving bloodcurdling yells. After a time I became used to this. My uncle used to send me off after water when we camped after dark in a strange place. Perhaps the country was full of wild beasts. There might be scouts from warlike bands of Indians hiding in that very neighborhood. Yet I never objected, for that would have shown cowardice. I picked my way through the woods, dipped my pail in the water, and hurried back. I was always careful to make as little noise as a cat. Being only a boy, I could feel my heart leap at every crackling of a dry twig or distant hooting of an owl. At last I reached the tepee. Then my uncle would perhaps say, "Ah, my boy, you are a thorough warrior." Then he would empty the pail, and order me to go a second time. Imagine how I felt! But I wished to be a brave man as much as a white boy desires to be a great lawyer or even President of the United States. Silently I would take the pail and again make the dangerous journey through the dark.--CHARLES A. EASTMAN (OHIYESA), "Indian Child Life" (Adapted) [Illustration: INDIAN ARROWS] =Oral Exercise.= 1. Play that you are an Indian boy or girl. Make believe that you are walking through the dark woods. Remember, there may be wild beasts in the woods, or the scouts of warlike Indian bands. Show the class how you would walk and how you would look about you as you picked your way to a spring to fetch water for the camp. Tell the class what you might see and hear on this dangerous trip. [Illustration: A TEPEE] 2. Now let three or four of your classmates be white boys and girls. They are passing carefully through the same woods. Let these white children show the class exactly how they would make their way through the woods. What might they be whispering to each other? 3. Play that suddenly you and the white hunters meet in these dangerous woods. At first you see them a little distance away. What do you try to do? But they have also seen you. What do they try to do? At length you find that they are friendly, and they see that they need not fear you. When you meet them, what might you say to them? What questions might you ask them? What might they ask you? 4. Make believe that the white boys and girls know very little about Indian boys, and that they wonder why you are not in school studying your lessons. What will you tell them? When they ask you whether you never learn anything, tell them what you have learned in the woods. 5. Now tell them that you know nothing about the schools to which white children go. Ask them to tell you why they go to school and what they do there. Ask them more questions until they have told you all about their school. =15. Studying Words= When the first white men who came to this country met the Indians, they learned from them some new words. The white men used these Indian words more and more. To-day we think of the words as English words, and we have almost forgotten where we got them. In talking about Indians we shall need these words. Let us learn them at once. Then we shall make no mistakes when we use them. [Illustration: STONE HATCHET] =Oral Exercise.= 1. Listen carefully as the teacher pronounces each word in this list of Indian words. Then pronounce it the same way. Then read the entire list distinctly and rapidly without making a single mistake. tepee squaw wampum hominy toboggan wigwam papoose moccasin tomahawk tobacco 2. Which of these words do you already know? Make sentences using each of these to show that you know what they mean. Learn the meaning of the others and then use them in sentences. =Group Exercise.= With each of the Indian words in the list make one interesting sentence. This the teacher will write on the board. Then the entire class will make it as much better as possible. The teacher will write the improved sentence on the board under the other one. Thus, with the first word in the list, you might give this sentence: The hunter saw a tepee. The class tries to make the sentence more interesting. At last the following sentence is seen on the board: The brave Indian hunter saw a large new tepee in the woods. =16. More Telling about Indians= One way of starting fire was for several of the boys to sit in a circle and, one after another, to rub two pieces of dry, spongy wood together until the wood caught fire.--CHARLES A. EASTMAN (Ohiyesa), "Indian Child Life" [Illustration: FLINT KNIVES] =Oral Exercise.= 1. Do you know in what kind of houses the Indians lived? Explain to the class how large you think an Indian house was, how it was made, and what kind of door it had. If you can, draw on the board a picture of the tepee about which you are talking. 2. In which of the following questions are you interested most? You probably know something about it already. Learn as much more as you can. Ask your teacher and your father and mother, and try to find something about it in books. Then tell your classmates what you know. If you can draw on the board[26] a picture of the thing about which you are talking, it may help your classmates to understand you better. Or you may make a drawing on paper with colored crayons. 1. What sort of boat did Indians use and how did they make it? 2. What did the Indians wear? 3. How were the Indian babies taken care of? 4. What did the Indians use for money? 5. How are the Indians of to-day different from the Indians whom the first white men saw? =Group Exercise.= 1. After each pupil's talk the class should explain to the speaker, first, what they liked in the talk, and, second, how the talk might have been better. 2. One of these talks the teacher will write on the board.[16] Then the whole class should study it together, improving it as much as possible. The following questions may help in this work: 1. Is anything important left out? 2. What could be added to make the talk more interesting? =Written Exercise.= 1. When the talk that you have just been studying has been rewritten on the board in its improved form, copy it. Before doing so, read the exercise that follows. It will show you why it is very important that you try to copy the talk without making a single mistake. Look out for the spelling of words, for the capital letters, and for the punctuation marks. In this way you will be preparing for the battle in the next exercise. 2. The entire class may now be divided into two Indian tribes. The tribes are to have a battle in the schoolroom. The battle will be a writing battle. It will show which tribe can write from dictation[18] with the fewer mistakes. What you have just copied from the board is to be used for this dictation. Before the exercise begins, each tribe may give its war whoop. [Illustration: WALKING STICKS USED BY THE OLD MEN OF A TRIBE] 3. Compare what you have written with what is on the board.[12] How many mistakes in spelling have you made? How many times have you written small letters where there should be capitals? How many punctuation marks have you forgotten? How many mistakes have all the Indians in your tribe made? Did your tribe make fewer mistakes than the other tribe? Then your tribe may give its war whoop as a sign of victory. The losing tribe must remain silent. =17. Still More Telling about Indians= What boy would not be an Indian for a while when he thinks of the freest life in the world? This life was mine. Every day there was a real hunt.--CHARLES A. EASTMAN (OHIYESA), "Indian Child Life" =Oral Exercise.= 1. What did Indian boys and girls enjoy that you do not have? What pleasant things do you enjoy that the Indian children had never heard of before the white men came to this country? 2. Make believe that you are an Indian boy or girl. Play that you have been asked by the teacher to visit the school. The teacher asks you to tell about your pleasant life in a tepee in the woods, and why you are glad you are an Indian. The teacher will meet you at the door, lead you before the class, and say something like this: Boys and girls, I want to introduce you to our visitor. As you see, he is an Indian boy, who has come to us from his home in the woods. He will tell us why he likes the Indian life and why he would not exchange places with us. What will you say to the class? [Illustration: BARK WIGWAM WITH CURVED ROOF] 3. Now play that the class is a tribe of Indians. You have been captured by them as you were wandering through the woods.[27] They want you to live with them and to grow up with the Indian boys and girls. Stand before this Indian tribe. Tell them bravely why you would rather stay with the white men. Ask them to let you return to your home. Give good reasons why they should do so. Which of the following ideas will you use in your talk? 1. You would rather spend your life in the city than in the woods. 2. You like the white men's houses and ways of living better than those of the Indians. 3. You want to learn to read better so that you may enjoy many storybooks of which you have heard. =18. Correct Usage--_Have_[28]= A game that Indians often played was called "Finding the Moccasin." The players formed a circle around one who stood in the center and was "it." They passed a small toy moccasin quickly from hand to hand. The one in the center tried to guess who had it. If he guessed right, then the player who had the moccasin became "it" for the next game. [Illustration: MOCCASINS] =Game.= Make believe that you and your classmates are a band of Indians playing "Finding the Moccasin." Make a small moccasin of paper or cloth. Pass it quickly from hand to hand as you stand in a circle. Be careful that the player in the center does not see you passing it. He will ask one after another in the circle, "Have you the moccasin?" The answer will always be, "No, I haven't (or have not) the moccasin," until the one who does have it answers, "Yes, I have the moccasin." Then this player is "it" for the next game. =19. The Names of the Months= Here are two lists of names. The second gives the Indian names for the months. As you see, the Indians use the word _moon_ instead of the word _month_. January Snow Moon February Hunger Moon March Crow Moon April Wild-Goose Moon May Planting Moon June Strawberry Moon July Thunder Moon August Green-Corn Moon September Hunting Moon October Falling-Leaf Moon November Ice-Forming Moon December Long-Night Moon =Oral Exercise.= 1. As you read the two lists above, do you see the reason for each Indian name? Do you like the Indian names as well as the names we use? Which Indian name do you like best of all? Which do you think could be improved? Can you make up other names for the twelve months?[29] 2. Can you name the twelve months in order? Remember to pronounce all the _r's_ in _February_. 3. Let twelve pupils be the twelve months. Let the pupil who is January speak first. He should tell who he is and what he brings. He might speak as follows: I am January. The Indians call me Snow Moon. I bring cold weather, ice, and snow. Healthy boys and girls like me. When I am here, they can go coasting and skating. When I bring too much cold, they stay indoors by the fire and read books about Indians. [Illustration: INDIAN SLED, OR TOBOGGAN] In this way each of the twelve pupils may tell the class what kind of month he is. =Group Exercise.= After each month has spoken, the class should tell him, first, what was specially good in his talk, and then, what might have been better. These questions will help the class to see how good each talk was: 1. What was the best thing in the talk? 2. Did the speaker leave out anything interesting? 3. Did he use too many _and's_?[30] =Written Exercise.= You and eleven classmates may go to the board. The teacher will name a month for each pupil. Each is to write a sentence that tells what he likes to do in one of the months. If you are to write what you like to do in November, you might write a sentence like the following: In November I like to read books and play games by the warm fire. While the twelve pupils are writing on the board, the pupils in their seats will write on paper. [Illustration: STONE AX] Do not forget that the name of every month begins with a capital letter. Do not forget that the word _I_ is always written as a capital letter. =Group Exercise.= 1. The class may now point out any mistakes there are in each of the twelve sentences on the board. These questions will help pupils to find mistakes: 1. Is the name of the month spelled correctly? Does it begin with a capital letter? 2. Does the sentence begin with a capital letter? 3. Does the sentence end with a period? 4. If the word _I_ is used, is it written as a capital letter? 2. Now the sentences that pupils wrote at their desks may be read. Those that are very good may be written on the board under the ones about the same months. Then the class will point out mistakes in them, if there are any. =20. Making Riddles= =Oral Exercise.= 1. Can you guess either one of the following riddles? I come once in a year. I always bring Santa Claus with me. When I leave, a new year begins at once. What am I? I come once a year. Turkeys do not like me, but everybody else gives thanks after I have been here several weeks. What am I? 2. Make riddles about the months, for your classmates to guess. Begin your riddles like the two above. [Illustration: WOODEN BOWL] =Game.= Twelve pupils stand in a row in front of the class. The teacher whispers to each the name of one of the months. The game is for the class to arrange these pupils in the order of the months of the year. Of course January will be placed at the beginning of the row. December will be placed at the end. Each pupil in the row makes a riddle about the month he is. The class must guess who is January, who is February, and so on to December. Those who guess the riddles may be the months in the second game. =Group Exercise.= Pupils who make very good riddles may write them on the board. Then the class will try to make them still better. [Illustration: BUFFALO-HORN SPOONS] =Written Exercise.= When the riddles on the board have been corrected, copy the one or two you like best. Take these copies home to show to your parents. Write the name of the month under each riddle you copy. Begin that name with a capital letter. How will you make sure that you have spelled it right? =21. Correct Usage--_Did, Done_= Some pupils spoil their talks and stories because they make mistakes in using _did_ and _done_. They say _did_ when they should say _done_, and _done_ when they should say _did_. The sentences at the top of the next page show these words used correctly: 1. The Indian boy _did_ a brave deed. 2. He _has done_ deeds of bravery before. 3. I never _did_ anything so daring. 4. _Have_ you _done_ your work? 5. I _had done_ my work long before you spoke. =Oral Exercise.= 1. As you read the sentences above, try to find out when it is right to use _did_ and when _done_. 2. Read the sentences again. Now notice that nowhere is the word _done_ used unless _has_ or _have_ or _had_ is used in the same sentence. Is this true of the word _did_ also? Let us remember, then, never to use _done_ alone, and never to use _did_ with _have_ or _has_ or _had_. [Illustration: EARTHEN COOKING POT] =Game=.[31] 1. One of the pupils plays that he or she is an old Indian squaw. All the other pupils are her children. She stands before them and says: "Children, I must go to the river. I must see whether the warriors are catching many fish for supper. I want you all to stay here in the tepee and finish your work." In a little while the squaw returns from the river. She walks up and down the aisles and asks each of her children this question: "Have you done your work?" Each one answers: "No, I have not done my work, but I think that John (pointing to the next pupil) has done his." The questions and answers go on until every pupil in the class has spoken. Then those who made no mistake in their answers join in an Indian dance. They march up and down the aisles, clapping their hands and chanting, "All good Indians have done their work." 2. The old Indian squaw again leaves and again returns to her children. This time she asks each one, "What were you doing while I was gone?" Each one answers, "I did the work you gave me to do." All those who answer correctly join in an Indian dance, singing, "I did my work yesterday, and I have done my work to-day."[32] =22. Telling Fairy Stories[33]= PETER AND THE STRANGE LITTLE OLD MAN[9] On the edge of a great forest there once lived a toymaker and his little family. Although he worked hard, he was very poor. His wife had to help him whittle and paint the toys, which he sent to the nearest village to be sold. "Times are hard," the toymaker said one night to his wife, "I cannot save any money. Christmas is near at hand, and I am afraid we shall have no presents for the boys." They had two boys. These looked as like as two peas from the same pod, but they were very unlike at heart. Peter, the younger one, made his father and mother very happy. Joseph, the elder, caused them much worry. The toymaker would say: "Put wood on the fire, boys. We cannot work if we are not warm." Peter would go to the shed at once, bring in an armful of wood, put some of it in the stove and the rest in the woodbox. All the while Joseph would stay in the warm room and would not lift a finger to help him. So it was with everything. Peter worked steadily at his father's side most of the day, whittling and gluing and painting toys, while Joseph slipped away and spent his time in idleness and play. In the evening it was Peter who helped his mother dry the dishes. One day as the three workers were busily bent over the bench, a knock was heard at the door. They were surprised to see standing outside a strange little old man, no higher than the tabletop. "Excuse me," he said, lifting his red cap very politely. "I have lost my way. Would one of the boys kindly be my guide through the woods?" "Yes, of course," answered the toymaker. He looked from one of his sons to the other, wondering which one to send. He hoped that Joseph would offer to go, because he was the elder. But Joseph was already shaking his head very hard and turning away. Peter caught his father's look and put on his hat and coat. "I know all the paths," he said to the stranger, "and will help you find your way." They started off at once. When they had gone a short distance, it began to snow. They trudged along just the same until the ground was covered with a thick white blanket as far as they could see. They talked very little, but kept their eyes open for the way, and hurried along. At last they reached a place where four great oak trees stood in a row, as if some one had planted them so. "This is the place," said the little old man. He took a golden whistle from his pocket and blew it. A low sweet tone came from it, that sounded like pleasant music in the silent woods. In a moment a large sleigh, drawn by eight prancing reindeer, appeared before them. The little old man motioned Peter to follow him and jumped in. As soon as Peter had jumped in too, they drove away as fast as they could go, bells ringing, and sparks flying as the reindeer's hoofs struck the ground. Now and then the strange little old man spoke to the reindeer. They seemed to know his voice. He called each by name, "Now, Dasher," and "Now, Dancer," and "Get up, Prancer." Then they dashed and danced and pranced faster than ever. They had been moving over the ground in this way for more than an hour. Then Peter saw in the distance a building that was longer and wider and higher than any building he had ever seen or heard about. As they got nearer, a steady buzzing sound was heard. Peter thought it was the sound of machinery. He thought a thousand wheels must be turning and humming within. As he looked and listened, the sleigh suddenly came to a stop. They stood at the entrance to the mighty building. "What is this building?" asked Peter. "This is my workshop," said the strange little old man, as he jumped out of the sleigh. "Some day I shall take you inside. You are the kind of boy I like. I know how you help your father and mother. To-day you have helped me. Here is a little present to take home with you." He placed something in Peter's hand. Then he hurried up the broad stairs and into the workshop. The big door slammed shut behind him, and at that very moment the sleigh, the reindeer, and the workshop itself suddenly disappeared. Much to his surprise Peter found himself alone in the woods and not far from his father's hut. He wondered whether he had only dreamed all that had happened. No, that could not be, for he still held in his hand a small leather bag, the present from the little man. Holding this tightly, he hurried to his home. You may imagine the surprise of his parents and his brother when he told his story. They asked him to tell it again and again. Each one examined the small leather bag. There were two beautiful gold coins in it. Peter gave these to his father and mother. His father patted him on his curly head. "We shall spend these for Christmas," he said. =Oral Exercise.= 1. Which part of this story do you like best? Tell your classmates what sort of picture you would make with colored crayons for this part of the story. Explain exactly what will be in the picture. Then make the picture. 2. Why did the strange little old man help Peter? Do you know any story in which a fairy helps good people? 3. Think of the fairy stories that you have heard or read. What is the name of the one you like best? Would it not be fun for each pupil to tell the class his favorite fairy story? When you tell yours, do not let it be too long. Tell only the important parts of it.[22] =Group Exercise.= After each story, you and your classmates should tell the speaker what you liked in his story and in his telling of it. Then tell what you did not like. =23. Study of a Poem= =Oral Exercise.= 1. Tell your classmates how you think fairies look. How tall do you think they are? What kind of clothes do they wear? After you have answered these questions, draw on the board or on paper, with colored chalks or crayons, a picture of a fairy. 2. Do fairies always walk or run, or can they fly, or have they tiny horses and wagons? 3. Can you see the picture of the fairies in the following lines? What do those lines tell you about fairies that you did not know before? Their caps of red, their cloaks of green, Are hung with silver bells, And when they're shaken with the wind Their merry ringing swells. And riding on the crimson moths With black spots on their wings, They guide them down the purple sky With golden bridle rings. ROBERT M. BIRD, "The Fairy Folk" 4. Where do you think the fairies live? What do they eat? The following poem gives one answer to these questions, and tells us still more about fairies. What is the name of the poem? The child that sings it is afraid of fairies. Do you know any other children that are afraid of them? [Illustration: "AND RIDING ON THE CRIMSON MOTHS"] A CHILD'S SONG Up the airy mountain, Down the rushy glen, We daren't go a-hunting For fear of little men; Wee folk, good folk, Trooping all together; Green jacket, red cap, And white owl's feather! Down along the rocky shore Some make their home, They live on crispy pancakes Of yellow tide-foam; Some in the reeds Of the black mountain-lake, With frogs for their watchdogs, All night awake. Up the airy mountain, Down the rushy glen, We daren't go a-hunting For fear of little men; Wee folk, good folk, Trooping all together; Green jacket, red cap, And white owl's feather! WILLIAM ALLINGHAM (Abridged) =Oral Exercise.= 1. Let us make sure that we understand every line of this pretty poem or song. In the first line, why is the mountain called _airy_? A _rushy glen_ is a narrow valley in which many rushes or swamp reeds grow. Have you ever seen such a place? Draw a picture of a rushy glen. 2. Which lines in the first part of the poem tell about fairies? These fairies go in a troop or band or company. Which line tells us that? With colored crayons draw a picture of a fairy wearing a green jacket, a red cap, and a white owl's feather. 3. The second part, or stanza, of the poem tells where some of these fairies live. What do some of them do all the night? As they watch, who keeps them company? 4. When you read this poem, does it seem to be a song? Do you like the way it reads? Which part do you like best? Draw with colored crayons a picture for this part. Before you draw, explain how the picture looks in your mind. Perhaps you will draw a picture of a troop of fairies, or of a fairy in the reeds with fairy watchdogs near by. =Memory Exercise.= Which do you like better, this poem you have just studied or the part of another poem about fairies that is printed before this? Read aloud, several times, the one you like better, until you can say it without once looking at the book. =24. More Telling of Fairy Stories= PETER VISITS THE STRANGE LITTLE OLD MAN'S WORKSHOP Over a week had passed since Peter's ride in the strange little old man's sleigh, but the little man had not come again. Peter was beginning to fear that he might never return. One afternoon, however, just as the early winter twilight began to darken the great forest, the jingling of sleighbells was heard in front of the toymaker's hut. "Whoa, Dasher! Steady, Dancer! Whoa, Prancer!" was what Peter heard as he pressed his face against the windowpane. Yes, there were the reindeer, and there, bundled up to his chin in furs, was the strange little old man. He saw Peter at once and made signs to the boy to come along with him. Peter could not put on his cap and coat fast enough. In less than a minute he had climbed into the sleigh, tucked himself in snugly, and was flying over the frozen, snow-covered ground by the side of his strange companion. Soon they had left the lighted hut far behind them and were making their way through the woods on an old logging road that Peter knew. After a while, however, they reached parts of the forest that Peter had never seen. Here grew trees whose names he had never heard. Now and then he caught glimpses of animals that were unlike any of those with which he was familiar. Peter was so much interested in these that he hardly noticed the great building, the little man's workshop, until the sleigh had stopped before the main door of it. But then he forgot everything else. The big shop was brightly lighted in every story, and the steady hum of machinery filled the evening air. "We're working overtime now," explained the little man. "You see, Christmas is near." The humming grew louder and the lights seemed a great deal brighter, as they entered the building. Peter was much excited. When the inner doors were opened, and Peter stood in the great roaring workshop itself, he could hardly believe his eyes. Before him, in long rows, he saw a thousand pounding and buzzing machines, all running at full speed. Ten thousand workbenches stood in orderly rows beyond the machines. The unending room fairly swarmed with busy workmen, like a hive over-flowing with bees. And such workmen! Each wore a green coat and a red cap, decorated with a white owl's feather. Each was no higher than Peter's knee. They were fairies. As he stood there, trying to understand it all, troop after troop of the fairies passed him. They were pushing long, high baskets, that stood on wheels. Down the long room they rolled these and through a great double swinging door at the other end. These baskets were filled to the top with playthings. Some held dolls, some sleds, some drums. Others were full of various kinds of musical instruments. Still others gave forth the pleasantest smells. They contained cookies and ginger snaps and all sorts of Christmas goodies. [Illustration] "Why, they are all Christmas things!" cried Peter in great surprise, turning to the strange little old man at his side. But the strange little old man was gone, and Peter stood alone in the doorway of this wonderful Christmas workshop. Before he could decide what to do, a group of little workmen called him by name, as pleasantly as if they had known him all his life. "Peter, come and help us with this basket!" "I will," answered Peter. He was glad to join in the work. Hanging coat and cap on a near-by hook, he put his shoulder against one of the heavy baskets. Soon he had it rolling merrily down the long aisle. Past machines that sawed boards he pushed it, past planing wheels, past long rows of benches where the workers were hammering or gluing or painting, past wide ovens where the little bakers were busy over hundreds of pans of frosted gingerbread--on and on, down the great room he pushed it so fast that his wee comrades were almost left behind. As he passed machines and benches and ovens, the workmen looked up from their work an instant. They smiled at the newcomer. "When you get through with that," shouted the workmen at the saws, "come and help us with these boards." "All right, I will," said Peter as he moved along with his basket. "When you get through with the sawing," cried the planers, "come and help us." Peter smiled at them. "I will," he shouted back as loud as he could, so as to be heard above the noise of the machinery. "When you finish planing," the painters called to him next, "come and help us." "I will," Peter replied. "I like to paint, anyway." Now he passed the bakers. They tossed him a cooky. "When you finish painting," they said, "perhaps you will come and help us." "That I gladly will," answered Peter in his pleasantest tone. It was quieter here, and he did not need to shout. At last he reached the double swinging door. Through this he had seen basket after basket disappear before him. Here was the storeroom. It was even larger than the workroom. The walls were lined with shelves, on which were placed the Christmas things. This was an interesting place, but Peter had no time to stay. He was eager to help at the machine saws, at the planing machines, at the workbenches, and in the bakeshop. So he hurried back to these. He did first one thing, then another, as he was needed. He was used to work and liked to help. The fairies were careful workers and jolly comrades. Now and then they sang as they worked. Then the machines themselves, like the fingers and arms and legs of the workmen, seemed to move faster and the work to be easier. Suddenly a loud but very pleasant whistle sounded through the mighty workshop. It was the signal for a recess. The machines stopped. The fairies laid down their tools and brushes. All was quiet for a time. Now another kind of fun began. The fairies started various games. They formed rings and danced round and round as they sang: "Oh, who is so merry, so merry, heigh ho! As the light-hearted fairy? heigh ho, Heigh ho!" They played at guessing riddles. These were about toys. "You see," whispered a fairy who explained everything to Peter, "when the snow comes, and Christmas is near, we leave our homes in the woods and spend our winters making toys for all the good children in the world. Sometimes we cannot make all the toys we need, but we do not wish a single child anywhere to be without a Christmas." Peter soon learned that the fairies took pride in speaking correctly. Those who sometimes made mistakes played special games to help themselves get over bad speaking habits. At one place they stood like soldiers in a row and pronounced words that were printed on the board. "Don't you sometimes wish for the woods and moonlight nights?" asked Peter. He could not hear the answer. At a signal the machinery had started again. The fairies were hurrying back to their places. Peter took his place with the rest. He worked steadily at one job and another. The time flew by. Another whistle blew, and it was time to stop for the day. Then the strange little old man appeared. "It's time for you to go back home," he said. "Should you like to be here always?" "Oh, yes," answered Peter. "But I have pleasant work to do at home too." The strange little old man took a ring from his pocket and held it up before the boy's eager face. "You are the kind of boy I like," he said. "You are willing to help and work. Take this ring home with you. I give it to you. It is a magic ring. Wear it on Christmas Day. On that day wish any one thing you please. The ring will get it for you." While he was talking they had walked to the main door of the building. Peter had put on his cap and coat. Now the door stood open, and they said good-bye. Peter walked slowly down the steps, staring at the magic ring on his finger. When he reached the last step, he turned and looked back. In the doorway stood the strange little old man, watching him. Peter thought he looked different. Yes, he seemed taller and stouter than before. He seemed jollier. Peter glanced at the red cap, red coat, and leather leggings he wore. He noticed the laughing face, the twinkling eyes, rosy cheeks, and white beard. [Illustration] "Can this be Santa Claus?" he thought. Instantly the great workshop disappeared. Peter found himself, as before, not far from his father's house. His parents and brother caught sight of him as he came out of the forest, and they ran out to meet him. They listened in astonishment to what he told them he had seen. They could not admire enough the magic ring on his finger. =Oral Exercise.=[34] 1. What interested you most as you read the story about Peter? What kind of picture should you make with colored crayons for the part of the story you liked best? Draw the picture after you have told your classmates about it. 2. Do you remember what kind of boy Peter's brother, Joseph, was? What do you think he would have done if he, instead of Peter, had been in that workshop? What might have happened to him? 3. Play the part of the story about Peter that tells of Peter and the fairies as they worked together in the great toyshop. Who shall be Peter? Who shall be the fairies at the saws? Who shall be the bakers? Who shall be the painters? What toys and things will you make? 4. Play the same part of the story but as it would have happened if Joseph had been there instead of Peter. 5. Make believe that, as you awoke one Saturday morning, you found a letter on your pillow. When you read it, you learned that it was from a fairy. This fairy invited you to meet him at the old tree near the school-house. When you met him there, you and he went off into the woods. Tell your classmates what happened. It may be that your story will be somewhat like that of Peter. Still, you may have seen and heard and done things that were very different. =25. Making Riddles= You remember that during the recess in Santa Claus's workshop some of the fairies made riddles. Peter said that these were about toys. Here are two they might have made: It has two arms, two legs, and a head, like a human being, but it cannot walk or work or talk. What is it? I spend most of my life in a little wooden box. I press against its cover day and night. I want to get out. Oh, how I leap when some one opens the box! Oh, how frightened little girls and boys look when they first see me! What am I? =Oral Exercise.= 1. Of course you have guessed the first of these two riddles. But can you guess the second one? 2. Make riddles for your classmates to guess, about toys and other things that are suitable for Christmas presents. =26. Making Riddles Better= A schoolgirl once made this riddle: It makes beautiful colors. Children like it. What is it? The answer is, a box of crayons. =Oral Exercise.= Do you think this riddle can be made better? Is anything important left out? Is it bright enough? Try to make a better riddle about the box of crayons. A schoolmate changed the riddle of the box of crayons. He thought this was better: We are twelve little men in a little tight box. Each one of us writes his name in a different color. What are we? =Oral Exercise.= Which of the two riddles do you like better? Can you tell why? Does the first riddle say anything about the box? Does it tell that anything is in a box? Three other schoolmates made up other riddles about the box of crayons. Here they are: We are a band of fairies living in our cozy little home. Each of us wears in his cap a feather of a different color. What are we? I am a piece of the rainbow caught and put in a little tight jail. A little schoolgirl uses parts of me when she draws pictures. What am I? We are a company of soldiers. Each of us wears a cap of a different color. We spend most of our time in a small pasteboard fort. When we go out, we are sure to make our mark. What are we? =Oral Exercise.= 1. Of all the riddles of the box of crayons, which do you think is the best? Which is the second best? Which is the poorest? 2. Now again make riddles about toys and Christmas presents. But you should now be able to make better ones than you did before. =Group Exercise.= 1. The class, after a riddle has been guessed, should point out what is good in it and then should tell how it might be made better. Should it be made shorter? Should it be made longer? How could it be made brighter? 2. The best riddles should be repeated slowly, so that the teacher may write them on the board. Now these may be read over, and the class may try to make each one better.[20] The teacher will rewrite each in its improved form.[35] =Written Exercise.= 1. Copy the riddle that the class likes best. As you copy, notice the spelling of the words, the capital letter at the beginning of each sentence, and the mark at the end of each sentence. This careful copying will prepare you for the next exercise. 2. Write from dictation the riddle that you have copied. Then correct any mistakes.[36] These questions will help you to find out whether you have made any: 1. Is every word spelled correctly? 2. Does every sentence begin with a capital letter? 3. Is every sentence followed by the right kind of punctuation mark? =27. Study of a Poem= You read in the story of Peter's visit to Santa Claus's workshop that the fairy workers sometimes sang while they worked. At recess too they had songs. One of these you will probably enjoy very much. As you read it you can see the fairies dancing in a ring in the moonlight. THE LIGHT-HEARTED FAIRY Oh, who is so merry, so merry, heigh ho! As the light-hearted fairy? heigh ho, Heigh ho! He dances and sings To the sound of his wings With a hey and a heigh and a ho. Oh, who is so merry, so airy, heigh ho! As the light-headed fairy? heigh ho, Heigh ho! His nectar he sips From the primroses' lips With a hey and a heigh and a ho. Oh, who is so merry, so merry, heigh ho! As the light-footed fairy? heigh ho, Heigh ho! The night is his noon And the sun is his moon, With a hey and a heigh and a ho. UNKNOWN Would it not be pleasant to dance in a ring with your classmates? You might play that you are all fairies, and you might say this poem while you dance. Each pupil could make a red cap of paper. He might stick a white owl's or a white chicken's feather in it as fairies do. He could wear it while reciting the poem. But, first of all, you must make sure that you understand every line of the song, else you cannot say it well. =Oral Exercise.=[37] 1. What do you like about this poem? Have you noticed that the fairy is called _light-hearted_ in the first stanza of the poem, but light-headed in the second and _light-footed_ in the third? 2. What do fairies drink? The second stanza tells. They find this delicious sweet drink in the cups of flowers. 3. As you know, fairies are rarely, if ever, seen in the daytime. The night is their day, when they dance and sing and do good deeds. What is meant in the poem by the line, _The night is his noon_? What is the fairies' sunlight? =Memory Exercise.= 1. Read this poem aloud a number of times. You will not have to read it often before you will be able to say it without the book. When you know it, recite it to the class as well as you can. Wear your red cap and think of the merry, airy, light-hearted fairy as you recite it. That will help you to say it in a lively way. 2. Perhaps the teacher will permit the five or six pupils who have recited best to form a ring in front of the class and dance round and round as they recite the poem. Then the class may point out what might have been done better. Perhaps other bands of fairies will recite, each trying to recite best. =28. Correct Usage--_Rang_, _Sang_, _Drank_= The story about Peter does not tell us the words with which some of the fairies had trouble. If some fairies are like some pupils, then they need to learn how to use the words _rang_, _sang_, and _drank_ correctly. =Oral Exercise.= 1. As you read the following sentences, notice that _rang_, _sang_, and _drank_ are not used with _have_ or _has_ or _had_. Are _rung_, _sung_, and _drunk_ used with _have_ or _has_ or _had_? 1. I _rang_ the bell for the teacher. 2. Have you ever _rung_ it? 3. I _sang_ the Christmas song. 4. Have you ever _sung_ it? 5. I _drank_ the grape juice. 6. Have you ever _drunk_ apple juice? 7. The fairies danced and _sang_, and _drank_ nectar. 8. They had _rung_ the bell. 9. They had _sung_ that song before. 10. He has never _drunk_ nectar. 2. Which of the six words that you have been studying in this lesson are used with _have_ or _has_ or _had_? Which are not used with them? Make these two lists. Would it be right to make the following rule? Never use _rang_ or _sang_ or _drank_ with _have_ or _has_ or _had_. 3. Using what you have just learned, fill the blanks in the following sentences with the right words, _rang_ or _rung_, _sang_ or _sung_, _drank_ or _drunk_: 1. The strange little old man had already ---- his morning coffee. 2. He ---- an old song that he had ---- many times before. 3. When he had ---- a silver bell, a troop of fairies appeared. 4. Peter is not a fairy. He has never ---- nectar. 5. But he has often ---- the song he heard the fairies sing. 6. He has never ---- a silver bell. 7. Have you ever ---- the school bell? 8. Have you ever ---- spring water? =Game.= Let the girls of the class, working together in a group, write on the board six sentences in which _rang_, _sang_, and _drank_ are used correctly. Let the boys in the same way write six sentences in which _rung_, _sung_, and _drunk_ are used correctly. The boys will correct the girls' sentences, and the girls the boys'. The teacher will decide whether the boys or the girls made fewer mistakes, and which group wrote the more interesting sentences. Then all the sentences may be read aloud by several groups of pupils in turn, each trying to read the most clearly. =29. Making up Fairy Stories= The magic ring that Santa Claus gave Peter would bring him any one thing that he might wish. When Christmas morning came, he had only to say his wish, and it would be fulfilled.[38] =Oral Exercise.= 1. Suppose that you had such a magic ring. What would be your one big wish? It will be fun to see whether you and your classmates have the same wish. 2. What do you think Peter himself wished when Christmas morning came? What happened then? Tell your classmates the story of Peter's wish on Christmas Day, exactly as you think everything happened. =Group Exercise.= One or two of the best stories about Peter's wish should be told a second time. This time the teacher will write them on the board. Now you and the other pupils should read them carefully to see where they can be made better.[20] These questions may help in this work: 1. Can better words be used for some of those in the story? 2. Should some of the _and's_ be left out? 3. Can anything be added to make the story interesting? =Written Exercise.= Silently read one of the improved stories, perhaps more than once, noticing the spelling of the words, the capital letter at the beginning of each sentence, and the mark at the end of each sentence. Write it from dictation. Then compare your paper with what is written on the board, and correct any mistakes you may have made. =Oral Exercise.= Suppose that Peter lost the magic ring before Christmas came. Who might have found it? What might have happened then? Make up a story to tell this. You might call it "The Lost Magic Ring." Try to make up a fairy story that your classmates will be very glad to hear. Try to think of some wonderful happenings for it. Perhaps the following ideas will help you to begin your story: 1. When Peter learned that he had lost the magic ring, and could find it nowhere, he started off at once into the woods. He wanted to find the strange little old man and tell him what had happened. Peter had not gone very far when he met a giant. On the giant's finger Peter saw his magic ring. What did he do? 2. Peter's careless and lazy brother, Joseph, saw the magic ring on the window sill. Peter always laid it there when he washed his hands. Joseph took the ring in order to tease his brother. Then the thought came to him that he would wish himself something on Christmas Day. On Christmas morning he placed the fairy ring on his finger and spoke his wish. What was that wish? Was the wish fulfilled, or did a fairy appear to punish the boy? What happened then? 3. The strange little old man himself took the ring from Peter's finger while Peter was asleep. Why did he do this? Did he want to see what Peter would do? Did he plan to give him another ring instead,--a ring that held three wishes instead of one? How did Peter find the strange little old man? When and where did he receive the more wonderful ring? What were his three wishes on Christmas morning?[39] =30. Writing Dates= If you were asked to write on a slip of paper your name and the date of your birth, could you do it? Of course you know how to write your name. Some time ago you learned to write the names of the months. Now you are to learn how to write dates. You will need to know this when you begin letter writing, which will be soon. =Written Exercise.= 1. Here are two dates: January 1, 1918 December 25, 1917 The first date is that of a New Year's Day some time ago. The second date is that of Christmas more than a year ago. See the little mark (,), called a comma, between the year and the day of the month. Write the date of the last New Year's Day; of the next New Year's Day. Write the date of last Christmas; of next Christmas. 2. Write the date of your birth; the date of the birth of your mother; of a friend. 3. Write from dictation the list of dates that your teacher will give you.[40] =31. Telling Interesting Things= Now the Christmas vacation is over. Of course you had a good time. Of course Santa Claus brought you something. It would be fun for every pupil to tell the class about his Christmas. Probably each one's Christmas was different in some ways from that of his classmates. =Oral Exercise.=[41] 1. Did Santa Claus come to your home? Did you see him? If you did, tell the class how he looked. Show the class how he walked into the house. How did he talk? What did he say? 2. Tell the other pupils what Santa Claus brought you. If he brought you a little engine, or a sand machine, or a small airplane, or a steamship that runs by clockwork, or a baby sewing machine, or a music box, or a doll stove on which one can really cook, or some other interesting toy, explain to the class exactly how it works. Perhaps it would be pleasant if each pupil brought a toy to school and held it up before the class while he explained how it works. 3. What was the best fun you had during the Christmas vacation? Tell the class about it. =32. Story-Telling= JACK AND JILL[C] [Illustration] "Clear the lulla!" was the general cry on a bright December afternoon. All the boys and girls of Harmony village were out enjoying the first good snow of the season. Up and down three long coasts they went as fast as legs and sleds could carry them. One smooth path led into the meadow. One swept across the pond, where skaters were darting about like waterbugs. The third, from the very top of the steep hill, ended abruptly at a rail fence near the road. There was a group of lads and lasses sitting or leaning on this fence to rest after an exciting race. [C] Copyright by Little, Brown and Company. Down came a gay red sled. It carried a boy who seemed all smile and sunshine, so white were his teeth, so golden was his hair, so bright and happy his whole air. Behind him clung a little gypsy of a girl. She had black eyes and hair, cheeks as red as her hood, and a face full of fun and sparkle. "It's just splendid! Now, one more, Jack!" cried the little girl, excited by the cheers of a sleighing party that passed them. "All right, Jill," answered he, and they started back up the hill. Proud of his skill, Jack made up his mind that this last "go" should be the best one of the afternoon. But they started off, talking so busily that Jill forgot to hold tight and Jack to steer carefully. No one knows how it happened. They did not land in the soft drift of snow or stop before they reached the fence. Instead, there was a great crash against the bars, a dreadful plunge off the steep bank beyond, and, before any one could see what was happening, a sudden scattering of girl, boy, sled, fence, earth, and snow, all about the road. There were two cries, and then silence. Down rushed boys and girls, ready to laugh or cry, as the case might be. They found Jack sitting up, looking about him with a queer, dazed expression, while an ugly cut on the forehead was bleeding. This sobered the boys and frightened the girls half out of their wits. "He's killed! He's killed!" wailed one of the girls, hiding her face and beginning to cry. "No, I'm not. I'll be all right when I get my breath. Where's Jill?" asked Jack stoutly, though still too giddy to see straight.--LOUISA M. ALCOTT, "Jack and Jill" (Adapted) =Oral Exercise.= 1. Make believe that you are the Jack or the Jill in the story. Play that the accident has just happened. You are lying in the snow. Your classmates are standing around you wondering whether you are alive or dead. Slowly you sit up. What do they do and say? Let some of your classmates do and say these things. What do you say? What happens next? Play the story up to the time when the doctor looks you over and says that you will have to stay in bed a long time.[42] 2. Again make believe that you are Jack or Jill. Play that the accident happened some time ago. Tell your classmates about that afternoon's coasting and how it ended. Could you walk home that day? Did the other children lay you both on sleds and slowly draw you to your homes? What did your mother do and say when she saw you coming? Did they put you to bed at once and run for the doctor? What did the doctor do and say? 3. Do you own a sled? Tell the class about this sled. Tell about going coasting on it. 4. What can one do with a sled besides go coasting? What was the best fun you ever had with your sled? Where were you? What did you do? After you have told the class about the fun you had, you may make one or two pictures about it with colored crayons. Perhaps the following list will help you to remember some good times you have had: 1. The first sled ride that I remember 2. Hitching behind with a sled 3. A race down a hill on sleds 4. The toboggan slide 5. The longest hill I ever coasted down 6. The steepest hill I ever coasted down 7. Six of us on a bob 5. Did you ever have an accident with your sled? Accidents sometimes happen. Perhaps you are very careful and have never had any trouble. But you have probably heard of accidents and narrow escapes. Tell the class of one, and explain how it might have been avoided. =33. Explaining Things= Winter is here. There are many games to play and many pleasant things to do after school and on Saturdays. You would enjoy talking with your classmates about these. Perhaps you can plan some good times together. =Oral Exercise.= Make believe that your class is having a meeting to plan some fun for after school and Saturdays. What games do you think would be best? Think out a clear plan. Then stand before your classmates and explain it to them. Tell exactly how it is to be carried out. Tell where, when, and everything else they must know. The following list may help you to make a good plan:[43] 1. A skating party some Saturday 2. A skating race to see who is the best boy skater and who is the best girl skater in the class 3. Building one or two snow forts 4. A snowball battle between your class and another 5. A straw ride 6. A game of shinny, or hockey, between your class and another 7. A class tramp with the teacher through the woods or parks 8. A basket-ball game between your class and another 9. A class party at some one's house 10. A coasting party =Group Exercise.= After the plans have been told, you and your classmates must decide which one you will carry out. You may wish to ask some of the speakers questions. At last the class may vote. =34. Words sometimes Mispronounced= Some pupils do not know how to speak certain words correctly. If they did, their talks would be much more pleasing.[44] =Oral Exercise.= 1. Pronounce the following words as your teacher pronounces them to you, in a clear, strong, and pleasant voice. Then read the whole list as rapidly as you can without speaking any word indistinctly or incorrectly. looking seeing walking running jumping smiling laughing crying teasing speaking talking hearing saying eating paying 2. Use in sentences each of the words in the list above. Try to make sentences that will give pleasure to your classmates. Anybody can use the word _looking_ to make uninteresting sentences like these: Some one is _looking_ for me. I am _looking_ for some one. He is _looking_ at me. Try to make sentences like these: The boys were looking at Jack's big red sled. The girls were looking for a story-book at the public library. The hunter was looking at the panther, and the panther was looking at him. Perhaps the teacher will write the best sentences on the board, or let the pupils who give them write them on the board.[20] =35. Telling Interesting Things= Far north of us lies a part of the world where it is very cold both in summer and in winter. It is so cold there that trees cannot live. No cities are to be seen there, and no farms. The people who make their homes in this world of ice and snow live by hunting and fishing. They are called Eskimos. Their clothes are warm suits made of the fur of the polar bear, the seal, and the reindeer. Let us learn about the Eskimos. HOW THE ESKIMO BUILDS HIS HOUSE The house in which an Eskimo family lives is made of ice and snow. First the builder makes a ring on the snow-covered ground. This he makes as large as he wishes the house to be. On this ring he places blocks of snow. Then he lays more blocks on top of these. Each row or ring of blocks is a little smaller than the row or ring below it. As more and more rows of blocks are laid, these rows at last close the top like a roof. Then snow is shoveled over it, until not a crack remains in the solid wall. [Illustration] Now a narrow hallway is made. This is the only way into the house. It is long, and the opening is hung with skins. The Eskimos creep through it on their hands and knees. There is only one window in the Eskimo's house. It is a small hole in the wall, over the low hallway. There is no glass in it, but it is covered with a thin skin that keeps out the wind and cold.[45] =Oral Exercise.= 1. Can you think of a good reason why the Eskimos have no such houses as ours? Why have they no fine large coal or wood stoves in that cold country? What would happen if an Eskimo placed our kind of stove in his house and started a roaring fire in it? 2. The Eskimo has only three things with which to build. What are they? If you had only snow and the skins and bones of animals to work with, what kind of house should you make? Can you think of any way in which you could make the Eskimo house warmer or safer? 3. Does the Eskimo way of building a house give you an idea of a good way of building a snow fort? Tell your classmates what you think would be the best way of building one. Shall you put a roof over it? 4. Play that you are an Eskimo. Make believe that you are in the frozen North and are just beginning to build yourself a new house. You have already drawn a ring on the snow-covered ground. Draw a ring on the floor of the schoolroom with a piece of chalk. Other pupils will play that they have come to the Far North in a ship. They will pretend that they know nothing about the way Eskimos live or build their houses. They stand around while you work at your new house. They ask you many questions about it. Stop in your work and explain it to them. Remember that they know nothing at all about it. Perhaps some of their questions will seem very stupid to you. But patiently explain to these strangers everything they want to know. =Group Exercise.= The class will tell you and the other pupils how the meeting between the Eskimo and the strangers might have been played better. But first they will point out what they liked in the play. Several other groups of pupils will each try to show the class how the meeting should be played. [Illustration] =Oral Exercise.= Find out from a book or from your parents or your teacher some interesting fact about the Eskimos and the country where they live. Let it be something that you think the class does not know. The other pupils will do the same. Then each one will stand before the class and tell what he has learned. Some might tell about how cold it is in this North-Pole part of the world. Some might tell about polar bears, seals, reindeer, or walruses. Some might tell the class what Eskimos eat and how they cook their food. Some might tell about the inside of the Eskimo house. Other pupils might tell the class about some of the men from our country who traveled in this cold part of the world. Some of these men wished to reach the North Pole. =Group Exercise.= When each pupil has spoken, some of those who spoke best will tell again what they said. The teacher will write on the board what they say. Now the class will try to make this better. The following questions will help the class improve what has been written on the board:[46] 1. What is the best part of the account on the board? 2. Is anything important left out? 3. Could anything be left out because it is not needed? 4. Are too many _and's_ used? 5. What could be added to make the account better? =Written Exercise.= When all the accounts on the board have been rewritten, study the one the teacher selects. Notice the spelling of the hard words. Notice the capital letter at the beginning of each sentence and the punctuation mark at the end of each sentence. This study will make it easier for you to write the account from dictation without making any mistakes. Write it from dictation. =36. Study of a Poem= You remember, of course, that the house of snow in which Eskimos live has only one window. But this is only a hole in the wall, covered with a thin skin. There is no glass in it. So the little Eskimo boys and girls do not know the wonderful things that Jack Frost sometimes pencils on the windowpanes when children are asleep. The Eskimo children could not understand the poem below. But you have seen these sights on your own windows--castles, high and rocky places, knights with waving plumes, and trees and fruits and flowers. You will learn from the poem how Jack Frost paints them there.[9] JACK FROST The door was shut, as doors should be, Before you went to bed last night; Yet Jack Frost did get in, you see, And left your window silver white. He must have waited till you slept; And not a single word he spoke, But pencilled on the panes, and crept Away again before you woke. And now you cannot see the hills Nor fields that stretch beyond the lane; But there are fairer things than those His fingers traced on every pane. Rocks and castles towering high; Hills and dales and streams and fields; And knights in armor riding by, With nodding plumes and shining shields. And here are little boats, and there Big ships with sails spread to the breeze; And yonder, palm trees waving fair On islands set in silver seas. And butterflies with gauzy wings; And herds of cows and flocks of sheep; And fruits and flowers and all the things You see when you are sound asleep. For creeping softly underneath The door when all the lights are out, Jack Frost takes every breath you breathe, And knows the things you think about. He paints them on the windowpane In fairy lines with frozen steam; And when you wake you see again The lovely things you saw in dream. GABRIEL SETOUN =Oral Exercise.= 1. How did Jack Frost get into the house? Has he visited your house this winter? Did he pencil, or trace, on your windows some of the pictures of which the poem speaks? Which ones? 2. What is a castle? What is a knight? What is a knight's armor? What is a knight's plume? Can you draw a picture of it on the board for those who do not know how it looks? Why did knights have shields? Draw a picture of a shield on the board. 3. Can you draw on the board a picture of a palm tree? Draw an oak or an apple tree beside it, so that every one will see how a palm tree is different. Explain your drawings. 4. Which part, or stanza, of the poem do you like best? Read it so that your classmates may see why you like it. 5. Play that you are Jack Frost. Show the class how you tiptoed into the room and out again without waking any one. Think of the following questions, and tell the class what you did last night when all children were sound asleep: 1. Did you visit more than one home? 2. What did you paint on the windowpanes? 3. Did you paint the same pictures in all houses? =Memory Exercise.= When you understand every stanza in this poem, read the whole poem aloud several times. Perhaps the teacher will read with you, so that you may be sure to read correctly. After a few readings you will find that you can say the poem without looking at the book. It will be fun to see which pupils will know it first. But which pupils can recite it best?[47] =37. Game= =Group Exercise.= 1. Did you ever telephone? Make believe that you are telephoning to a classmate. Hold the make-believe telephone in your hands and call for the pupil with whom you wish to talk. He will take up his make-believe telephone and answer you. Ask him some questions. Listen to what he says. Reply to what he asks. In this way carry on a conversation with him. 2. The class will listen, and when you have finished talking they will tell you what they liked and what they did not like in the telephone conversation. The following questions[15] will help the class to decide how the talks might have been better: 1. What interesting thing was said by the speakers? 2. Was any poor English used? 3. Were the voices of the speakers pleasant? 4. What might have been said that the speakers did not say? 3. Other pairs of pupils may now telephone. Each pair will of course try to make their conversation as bright as they can. The class will enjoy listening to the bright talks. 4. Would it not be a good plan, before going on with this game of telephoning, for the class to make a telephone directory? All names beginning with _A_ could be written on one page of a little notebook that you could make. All names beginning with _B_ would go on another page. And so it would go on, through the _C's_, the _D's_, the _E's_, to the end of the alphabet. Then each name could be given a number, just as in telephone books. Perhaps the teacher will bring a telephone directory to class and explain it to you. [Illustration] 5. It might be fun to place in your telephone directory such names as Jack Frost, Santa Claus, Peter the toymaker's son, Joseph his brother, Queen Mab, the busy ant, the lazy grasshopper, and some of the Indians and Eskimos that you have come to know in this book. Then you could telephone to these. One pupil would be Jack Frost and would always answer when Jack Frost's number rang. Another would be Santa Claus, another would be Peter the toymaker's son, another Queen Mab, and so on. 6. You and your classmates may now have the following conversations over the make-believe class telephone: 1. A conversation between Queen Mab and Jack Frost about some pupils in your class 2. A conversation between Peter and Joseph about the lost magic ring 3. A conversation between the ant and the grasshopper in the fable 4. A conversation between an Indian boy and a white boy 5. A conversation between two fairies, one in the woods and one in Santa Claus's workshop 6. A conversation between a polar bear and a boy hunter (the bear objects to being hunted) 7. A conversation between an Eskimo girl and a girl in your class 8. A conversation between Santa Claus and the teacher about some pupils in your class 9. A conversation between two girls about a plan for a good time next Saturday with which to surprise the class 10. A conversation between two girls about a new dress that one of them will soon wear to school =38. Correct Usage--_May_, _Can_= A mistake that pupils sometimes make is to use the word _can_ when they mean the word _may_. These two words do not have the same meaning. The following conversation shows this: "Mother, can I eat another piece of pie?" once asked a boy at the dinner table. "I suppose you can, Tom," replied his mother. "You have teeth to bite and chew, and there is room in your stomach for another piece. Yes, I suppose you _can_ eat another piece. But you _may_ not, because I want to save it for to-morrow." =Oral Exercise.= 1. Read the following sentences and try to tell the difference in meaning between _may_ and _can_: 1. I can run faster than you. 2. I can write my name. 3. May I write my name in your notebook? Will you let me? 4. May I run over to George's house, mother? 5. I can do many things. 6. May I read the book Santa Claus gave you? 7. I can read books. 2. Do you see that when you say, "I can do this," you mean, "I am able to do this"? What do you mean when you say, "May I go to the moving-picture theater, Mother?" Do you mean, "Will you permit me to go?" 3. Fill each blank in the sentences below with the right word, _may_ or _can_: 1. John, ---- you spell _Eskimo_? 2. Father, ---- I go with John to the game? 3. Miss Brown, ---- I change my seat? 4. Miss Brown, ---- you see me when I stand here? 5. Mary, ---- you find that book for me? 6. ---- you touch the ceiling when you are on the chair? 7. ---- I go home at three o'clock, Miss Smith? 8. Miss Smith, ---- I borrow a pencil of Ruth? 9. Miss Smith, ---- you speak French? 10. Miss Smith, ---- I have another sheet of paper? =Game.= 1. Let the boys write on the board a number of sentences in which _may_ is used correctly. Then let the girls do the same. Now let the girls read the boys' sentences. The boys will read those written by the girls. Who made the fewer mistakes? 2. After all sentences have been corrected (if they need to be corrected), let the boys read their sentences aloud, and the girls theirs. The teacher will tell whose reading was the better. =39. Talking over Plans= Valentine Day is near at hand. Why could not your class plan a special good time for that day? Other classes have done it. One plan would be for pupils to send each other valentines. You could have a post office right in the schoolroom. One of the pupils could be the postmaster. It would be the business of the postmaster to see that each valentine went to the right person. =Group Exercise.= Make plans with your classmates for Valentine Day. Think out what should be done and how it should be done. Then stand before the class and explain your plan. The other pupils will explain theirs. At last the whole class will choose the one that seems best. The following questions will help in the making of plans: 1. How shall the class post office be run? 2. Who shall be the class postmaster? What shall he do? Shall there be letter carriers? 3. Would it be more fun for pupils to send short notes to each other than valentines bought at the store? Perhaps red-paper borders could be pasted around the edges of the letters? Some of the letters might be from Jack Frost, Queen Mab, Peter, and other friends you have met in this book. =40. Letter Writing= First of all, in getting ready for Valentine Day, you will need to learn how to write letters. =Oral Exercise.= 1. Who wrote the first of the following letters? How can you tell? Who wrote the second? To whom is it written? To whom is the first written? Dear Jill: The doctor says that I am perfectly well again. I should like to go coasting Saturday. Shall we go together? I want to show you how careful I can be in steering a sled. Jack Dear Jack: My mother will not let me go coasting. I wish you would come over to my house Saturday. We could write valentine letters together, to our friends. We could pop some corn too. Jill 2. Do you see the little mark (:) after the words _Dear Jack_ and _Dear Jill_ in these two letters? That mark must always[48] be written there in a letter. Next, do you see how the first line in each letter is different from the other lines? The first line of a letter must always begin a little to the right of the other lines. Notice where the name of the writer of each letter is placed. Is there any mark after it? =Written Exercise.= 1. In order that you may not forget the points you have just learned about letter writing, copy Jack's letter to Jill. Then compare your copy with the letter as it stands in the book, and correct mistakes. 2. Now read carefully Jill's letter to Jack. Notice once more exactly how the different parts of the letter are written. Write the letter from dictation. Then correct what you have written by comparing it with the letter in the book. It is well that you now know how to write a letter. There is at this very time an important letter that needs to be written by you. As you know, the teacher will soon choose some one in your class to be the postmaster for Valentine Day. Whom do you want for that position? Perhaps you would like to be postmaster yourself. Or do you want to be one of the letter carriers? The next exercise will give you a chance to tell the teacher. =Written Exercise.= It would take too much of the teacher's time to listen to each pupil's opinion about those post-office questions.[49] Then, too, the teacher might not remember all that each pupil said. So there is only one thing to do. Each pupil must write his ideas and wishes in a letter to the teacher. Write your letter, beginning it thus: Dear Teacher: Tell in your letter exactly what you would tell the teacher in a private talk. No one but the teacher will see your letter.[50] =41. More Letter Writing= When Valentine Day comes, you will wish to write very good letters to your classmates. You already know how to write a letter, but it is another matter to write a bright letter. Do you remember that boy, Tom, who once dreamed about an owl and an elf? One day Tom told his mother that his school was planning a special good time for Valentine Day. "We shall have a post office in our room," he said. "Everybody is to send everybody else letters." "What kind of letters are they to be?" asked his mother. "Well," answered Tom, "each pupil is to write at least one bright letter about himself. Those who receive the letters have to guess who wrote them. You see, we do not sign our names." Tom had already written his letter, and he showed it to his mother. It was to his best friend, Fred. Here it is: Dear Fred: I am four feet three inches tall. I weigh seventy-five pounds. I like to run and jump. I like to read books, too. I am your best friend. Somebody =Oral Exercise.= What do you think of Tom's letter to Fred? Is it a bright letter? How does every sentence in it begin? Do you like to have all the sentences begin the same way? Tom's mother read the letter. Then she read it again. Then she said, "Tom, you can do better than that." Tom was surprised. He thought it was a good letter. "Are there any mistakes in it?" he asked. "No, there is not a single mistake in it," answered his mother. "You have the right mark after the words _Dear Fred_. You have begun every sentence with a capital letter. You have the right mark at the end of every sentence. But, Tom, it isn't a bright letter." "How shall I make it bright?" asked Tom. His mother smiled. "Look at the first sentence in your letter," she said. "It tells that you are four feet three inches tall. How uninteresting that is! Who cares to know your exact height, down to an inch! Why not say instead, 'I am a funny little blue-eyed chap with brown hair all over the top of my head'! Would not that be much brighter than 'I am four feet three inches tall'? Now look at the next sentence. It tells that you weigh seventy-five pounds. How uninteresting that is! Is some one thinking of buying you by the pound, as if you were a little pig or a calf? Why not say instead, 'I am as round and fat as a ball of butter'? Look at the third sentence. It says that you like to run and jump. That is true. You do like to run and jump. But why not tell it in a bright way? You might have said, 'My brother says I can run like a deer and jump like a frog.'" Tom took the letter back and gave a shout. "I see what you mean," he cried. "I'll write the whole letter over." A little later he showed his mother the following: Dear Fred: I am a funny little blue-eyed chap with brown hair all over the top of my head. I am as round and fat as a ball of butter. My brother says I can run like a deer and jump like a frog. My sister says I am a bookworm. But rather than be a deer or a frog or a bookworm, I want to be your best friend. Somebody =Oral Exercise.= Which of the letters that Tom wrote do you like better? Can you tell why? Point out bright sentences in his first letter. Point out interesting sentences in his second letter. Tom was very much pleased that he had written his letter over. "The next time I have to write a letter," he said, "I shall write two, and send the second one." "That's a good plan," said his mother. "First write the best letter you can. Then read it over and make it better." Tom began at once to write more letters for Valentine Day. "It's fun," he said, "and the teacher told us that we might send more than one if we cared to." He followed the new plan of writing a first letter, rather rapidly, and then slowly writing it over and making it better. Then he would throw away the first. Tom worked more than an hour. At the end of that time he showed his mother three letters. Here is one, written to a schoolmate named Marjorie: Dear Marjorie: I have two blue eyes and a roof of brown hair. Besides, I have a nose, a mouth, and two ears. But I must not tell you any more, or you will guess who I am. My name is short and begins with _T_. Somebody Tom's next letter was written to George, the biggest and strongest boy in the room. He and Tom were good friends. Probably Tom wrote the letter in order to have some fun with George. This is it: Dear George: I am the boy who can spank you. I think I shall do it soon, if I feel like it. Better be good when I am near. Of course you know who I am. My name is short and begins with _T_. Better be good, George. Somebody Tom's mother asked whether this letter might not hurt George's feelings. "Oh, no," laughed Tom. "He knows that I am only joking. Why, he is so big and strong, he could spank me, if he wanted to." Tom's third letter was to a friend whose name was Mary. Tom liked to tease her. Only a few days before, he had thrown snowballs at her. Here is the letter: Dear Mary: I am the very, _very_ good boy who _never_ teases you. I never pull your hair. I never throw more than one snowball at you, at a time. Somebody =Oral Exercise.= 1. Which one of the three letters by Tom do you like best? Read the sentence or sentences in it that you like specially. 2. What plan does Tom follow in writing letters? Why did he decide to follow this plan? =42. Still More Letter Writing= =Written Exercise.= 1. Write a letter for Valentine Day. Write it to one of your classmates. Have your letter tell about yourself, just as Tom's told about himself. Sign it _Somebody_, and let the receiver guess who wrote it. Better write the letter twice. Make the first one as good as you can, but write it rather rapidly. Then read it over carefully and make it better wherever you can. Let the second letter be the one you send. 2. If you would like to write more than one letter, as Tom did, do so; but it is better to write one very carefully than two or three carelessly. Now all the letters should be taken to the class post-office. Each letter should be folded and should show on the outside the name of the person to whom it is to go. Perhaps the class postmaster will have a box for all this mail. In this the letters may be kept until Valentine Day. On that day the entire mail should be sorted by the postmaster. All the letters for each row may be placed in a separate pile. The letter carriers, one for each row, will deliver them. =43. Improving Letters= After the Valentine letters have been read, and the writer of each has been guessed, it will be time to copy some[51] of the letters on the board for the following exercise. =Group Exercise.= 1. The first letter on the board should be read carefully by the class. You and your classmates should tell clearly what you like and what you do not like in it. The teacher will rewrite it on the board as the class tells how it can be made better. The following questions will help in this work: 1. Is the letter as good as it might be? 2. What do you like best in it? 3. Can you tell how it may be made better? 4. What bright thought might be put in the letter? 5. Are there any mistakes in the letter? 2. Other Valentine letters should be studied in the same way. =44. Study of a Poem= Our friend Tom, who wrote the bright letter we read a few days ago, was somewhat careless about putting his things in their proper places. "I wonder where my cap is," he shouted one morning, just as it was time to hurry to school. "Where did you put it?" his mother asked quietly. "On the hook in the hall," answered Tom. "Well," said his mother with a smile, "if you are sure you put it there, Mr. Nobody must have taken it away. Perhaps he threw it on a chair in the kitchen or on the table in the hall." And there, to be sure, on a chair or table somewhere in the house, or even on the floor, the cap was found. Mr. Nobody had put it there. On another day Tom was unable to find a story-book he had been reading. "I'm sure I put it back in the bookcase," he said. "Isn't it there now?" asked his mother. "No!" "Then Mr. Nobody must have been reading it," she answered. "He always forgets to put the books back where they belong. Perhaps he left it on the lounge, where you were reading last night." And there, to be sure, in a corner of the lounge, was the lost book. In Tom's house Mr. Nobody was always doing mischief. He was always mislaying Tom's things. He was always tearing his books, leaving doors ajar, and making finger marks on the doors. Now and then he spilled the ink on Tom's desk. He usually forgot to put Tom's boots where they belonged. He was so careless and forgetful that he got Tom into trouble nearly every day. Does Mr. Nobody visit your house, too? If he does, you will understand the following poem about him: MR. NOBODY I know a funny little man, As quiet as a mouse, Who does the mischief that is done In everybody's house! There's no one ever sees his face, And yet we all agree That every plate we break was cracked By Mr. Nobody. 'Tis he who always tears our books, Who leaves the door ajar; He pulls the buttons from our shirts, And scatters pins afar; That squeaking door will always squeak For, prithee, don't you see, We leave the oiling to be done By Mr. Nobody. He puts damp wood upon the fire, That kettles cannot boil; His are the feet that bring in mud, And all the carpets soil. The papers always are mislaid, Who had them last but he? There's no one tosses them about But Mr. Nobody. The finger marks upon the door By none of us are made; We never leave the blinds unclosed, To let the curtains fade. The ink we never spill, the boots That lying round you see Are not our boots; they all belong To Mr. Nobody. UNKNOWN =Oral Exercise.= 1. Read the poem again in order to see which of the four stanzas you like best. Can you tell why? Look through the poem and tell all the things that Mr. Nobody does. Which of them has he done at your house? 2. Did you ever see Mr. Nobody at your house? Do you think you could catch sight of him if you looked in the mirror? Make believe that you did see him at your house. Tell your classmates exactly how he looked.[52] =Group Exercise.= As each pupil gives the class a picture of Mr. Nobody the class will say whether this picture looks like the pupil speaking. Then the class will point out what they liked and what they did not like in that pupil's way of speaking. These questions will help in this work: 1. Did the pupil stand squarely on both feet, or was he so weak that he had to hold onto a chair or desk to keep from falling over? 2. Did he speak so clearly that every one in the class could understand him? 3. Did he make a stop at the end of every sentence and drop his voice there to show that the sentence was finished? 4. Did he use too many _and's_? =45. Making a Little Book= Would it not be pleasant for you and your classmates to make a class picture book? Perhaps you do not know how to make one. This is the way. Every pupil writes a few sentences that tell how he looks. These give the reader a picture of each writer. Then these pictures are all put together in a little book. One pupil might write this picture of herself: I am a short little girl with straight yellow hair, blue eyes, and red cheeks. My mother says I am always giggling. So my picture would show my round face covered with smiles. Another pupil might write as follows: I am a boy with black hair that is curly, brown eyes, and a long, thin nose. You would know me by my size, for I am the tallest pupil in the room. =Written Exercise.= Write a picture of yourself. Write what will help a reader to see you as you are. You need not say that you have two eyes, two ears, two arms, and two legs. But if you have only one leg, or only one arm, say that. If you wear your hair in two braids, say that. Perhaps you will write twice, using the first writing as a help for the improved second writing, as Tom learned to do when he wrote letters. [Illustration] =Group Exercise.= 1. When every pupil has finished his picture of himself, all these should be given to the teacher. Then the teacher will read one after another aloud, and the class will try to tell whose picture each one is. You see, this will be like a game. If the class cannot guess a picture, the teacher will read the name of the writer. Then the class will explain what should be added to the writing, or changed in it, so that it may give a true picture of the writer. 2. You and your classmates should now rewrite your pictures, making them better. After that they should be neatly copied. Then[53] all these pictures should be fastened together to form a book. A cover should be made for the book, on which may be written words like these: +----------------------------------+ | PICTURE BOOK | | | | OF THE | | | | THE PUPILS OF MISS SMITH'S ROOM | | | =46. Correct Usage--_No, Not, Never_= _I haven't_ means _I have not_ _you don't_ means _you do not_ _he doesn't_ means _he does not_ _never_ means _not ever_ It is a common mistake to use two _not_-words in a sentence when one is enough. Each of the following sentences is correct. Each contains only one _not_-word. 1. I have _never_ seen your father. 2. I _haven't_ ever seen your father. 3. I have _no_ money in my pocket. 4. I _haven't_ any money in my pocket. 5. I _don't_ see any mistakes in this example. 6. I see _no_ mistakes in this example. 7. I _don't_ ever go down that street at night. 8. I _never_ go down that street at night. =Oral Exercise.= 1. Point out the _not_-word in each of the eight sentences above. Are there any sentences there that need another _not_-word? Do you see that the second sentence is only another way of saying the first? Which sentence do you like better, the first or the second? The third or the fourth? The fifth or the sixth? The seventh or the eighth? 2. Say each of the following sentences in another way without changing the meaning: 1. I haven't any ink. 2. He has no book. 3. She hasn't any paper, and I haven't a pencil. 4. I have no ticket. 5. My father doesn't do any work on Saturday. 6. My father does not play any kind of instrument. 7. Haven't you ever seen a circus? 8. I have no pocketknife. 9. I haven't seen a ball game this year. 10. He had no money to spend. =Game.= A pupil, who may be called _John_, is sent from the room. The teacher gives a flower, a piece of colored paper, a thermometer, or some other object that is not usually found in pupils' desks, to a member of the class. Then John is told that he may return. TEACHER: John, some one in this room has a flower (or whatever the object may be) in his desk. Try to guess whose desk it is. You may ask any of your classmates whether they have it. JOHN (to a classmate): Have you that flower in your desk? THE CLASSMATE (if he does not have it): I have no flower in my desk (or, I haven't any flower in my desk). THE CLASSMATE (if he has it): I have it in my desk. Here it is. [Illustration] =47. Telling Interesting Things= =Oral Exercise.= 1. What kind of dog should you like to have for your pet? Stand in front of the class and tell your classmates why you like that kind of dog and what you would do with him. 2. Dogs can do many useful things. Tell the class of a remarkable thing you have seen a dog do. If you cannot do that, tell of some intelligent and brave deed which you have heard that a dog did. Perhaps the following list will help you: 1. Some dogs are faithful watchdogs. They may be trusted to guard a house, a small child, an automobile, or a flock of sheep. 2. Some dogs are used in hunting. 3. Some dogs are good rat catchers. 4. Some dogs are taught tricks. Such dogs are sometimes seen at the circus. 5. In some countries dogs are used to haul carts; in others they draw sleds. 6. The St. Bernard dog and the Newfoundland dog are famous as life-savers. 7. Dogs make good playmates for boys and girls. 3. Think of a dog you like. Without telling what kind of dog he is, make your classmates see exactly how he looks. There is no need of saying that the dog has four legs, two ears, two eyes, and a tail. Every dog has these. But tell what the class must know in order to see the dog as you see him in your mind. Perhaps you will make the class see a picture something like one of the following: I My dog has long hair but he himself is short. He looks like a white muff. His bark and bite are sharp, but no one is afraid of him. He might just as well be a rabbit. [Illustration: After a painting by Landseer] II The dog I am thinking about is nearly as tall as I am. He is so heavy that I cannot lift him off the ground. He is so strong that he can carry me. His beautiful brown and white hair is long and curly. He is a good dog, and I should feel safe with him anywhere on the darkest night. =Group Exercise.=[54] 1. The class will try to guess the kind of dog each pupil tells about. Then it will tell each speaker (1) what was good in his talk, and (2) where the talk might have been better. 2. Some of the talks should be given a second time. This time the teacher will write them on the board.[16] How can each of them be made better? 3. You and your classmates might make an interesting dog picture book. After writing about each dog, you could draw his picture or cut it out of a magazine and paste it beside what you have written.[55] =48. Study of a Picture Story= I =Oral Exercise.= 1. What is happening in the first picture on the next page? Does the dog want to go along? Why do the boys not take him? 2. Make believe that you are the boy on the back seat in the boat. Look at the dog as that boy looks at him. Hold up your finger as the boy does. What does that mean? Now, as your boat slowly moves from shore, talk to the dog. Are you sorry that he must stay? How do you show that? Do you sternly warn him not to leave his post? =Group Exercise.= 1. Some of your classmates will now play that they are talking to the dog. Each tries to show how it really happened. 2. The class will tell what it likes in each pupil's talking and playing, and what it does not like. The following questions will help the class: 1. Did the pupil talk as he really would talk to his dog if the class were not there to hear him? 2. What was the best thing he said? 3. What might he have said that he left out? [Illustration: AN UNFINISHED STORY] =Oral Exercise.= 1. You and a classmate may now play that you are the two boys in the first picture. Make believe that you are just arriving at the lake on your bicycles. Jump off and lean them against trees.[56] Talk about the lake and the beautiful day. Look the boat over and talk about your plan to go rowing. Talk about where to leave the bicycles. Decide to have the dog watch them. Explain this to the dog. Tell him you are sorry that he cannot go along. Then untie the boat, jump in, and push off. One of you is rowing. The other is sitting on the back seat and talking to the dog. 2. Two other pupils, and two others, may now play the same happenings.[57] They should try to talk exactly as they would if they were really the boys in the picture. Those two boys probably talked all the time. =Group Exercise.= The class will tell what it likes in each playing of the picture, and what it thinks could be done better. The following questions will be useful in these talks: 1. Did the boys jump off their make-believe bicycles as if these were real? Did they lean them carefully against trees? 2. Did they talk together as if they were really on a day's picnic? 3. Did they get into the boat carefully? Did one of them row the make-believe boat as if it were a real boat? Did he look back now and then to see where he was going? 4. Which two boys played the picture best? Which two talked the best? II In the second picture the boys are seen on the water, well out from shore. They have just made an unpleasant discovery. =Oral Exercise.= 1. Play that you are one of the boys in the boat and have suddenly discovered your dog in the water near by. Look as you think this boy looked. Say what you think he said to the dog. Say what he said to the boy rowing the boat. 2. Now, with a classmate, play this part of the story. Begin where you stopped in the first picture. You have left the dog on shore and are rowing out into the middle of the lake. What can you see out there? What do you say to each other? Think of the things that two boys out in a boat would talk about,--birds flying by, fish, the sky, the depth of the water, whether they could swim ashore. Say these things. Then, right in the middle of your good time, the dog! After you have scolded him, you and your classmate talk together about what to do. What does each say, and what do you decide? =Group Exercise.= Other pupils will now play this part of the story in their own way. Each two will try to show the others the best way. After each playing, the class will talk about it. These questions will help the class to see whether the playing was good or not: 1. Did the players talk enough? What more could each one have said? 2. Did they act and move as if they were sitting in a boat out on a lake or as if they were standing on dry land? 3. Did they lean over the edge of the boat and look for fish? Did they speak about how the shore looked from the middle of the lake? Did they see other boats on the water? =Oral Exercise.= How did the story end? Did the boys row on and let the dog swim after them until he got tired and returned to shore? Or did they take the wet animal into the boat and leave the bicycles to take care of themselves? What happened then? Were the bicycles still there when the boys returned from their boat ride? Tell your classmates how you think the story ended. If the ending is a good one, the teacher may ask you and other pupils to play it. =Group Exercise.= The teacher will write some of the story endings on the board. Perhaps one or two pupils who have told good endings may write these on the board. Then the class will try to make each one better.[58] The following questions will help in this class work: 1. Does every sentence begin with a capital letter? 2. Does every sentence end with the right kind of mark? 3. Are there mistakes in any sentence? 4. Where can better words be used than those of the writer? 5. Where can a sentence or two be added to make the story better? =Written Exercise.= Of all the story endings that have been corrected and rewritten on the board, the best one should now be copied. As you copy, notice the spelling of the hard words, the capitals, and the punctuation marks. Then, together with two or three classmates, correct your work and theirs. =49. Correct Usage--_Went_, _Saw_, _Came_, _Did_= An interesting game is sometimes played by pupils, which teaches them to use four words, _went_, _saw_, _came_, and _did_, correctly. Besides, it teaches them to have sharp eyes. =Game.= Many things are placed on the teacher's desk. At a word all the pupils in the class march past the desk and try to see everything on it as they pass. When they have returned to their seats, the teacher asks questions that the pupils answer. For example: TEACHER (to first pupil): Tom, what did you do? TOM: I _went_ to your desk, I _saw_ a pencil on it, and I _came_ to my seat. That is what I _did_. TEACHER (to the next pupil): Mary, what did you do? MARY: I _went_ to your desk, I _saw_ a knife on it, and I _came_ to my seat. That is what I _did_. Each pupil must name an object on the desk that no other pupil has spoken of. One of these objects the teacher has marked on its under side. The pupil who names that object wins the game, if he has made no mistake in his language, and he may go to the desk and mark another object for the next game. In this second game only those may play who made no mistake in the first. =50. Two Punctuation Marks= You already know that every sentence must begin with a capital letter. Besides, you have learned that some sentences end with a little mark (.) that is called a period, and some with a mark (?) that is called a question mark. =Written Exercise.= In order to prepare for the game on the next page, copy the following sentences on the board.[59] Put capital letters where they belong. Place the right mark, a period or a question mark, at the end of each sentence. 1. what do you see on the side of the mountain 2. a large dog is standing in a snowdrift and barking 3. does he want to call us to him 4. these Saint Bernard dogs are very intelligent 5. they are beautiful dogs 6. what happened to the two boys who went boating on the lake 7. did they take the disobedient dog back to shore 8. the next picture in this book shows what they did 9. what should you have done =Game.= The class is divided into two equal sides. Five pupils of one side go to the board. Each pupil writes a question. The questions may be about dogs or horses or Indians or anything that the class may choose. When they are written, the whole class reads them carefully to see whether there are any mistakes in them. Every mistake that is pointed out counts one score for the side that finds it. When the questions have been corrected, five pupils of the other side write the answers. These, in turn, are read by the class for mistakes. Then five more questions are written by five other pupils, and so on. When one of the two sides has made a certain score, twenty-five or more or less, the game ends. The side first reaching that score wins. =51. Another Study of a Picture Story= Of course you remember the two boys whose dog followed them out into the lake. When they rowed back to land, they found the bicycles untouched. Nobody seemed to have passed there. Still, the boys were afraid to leave them, and of course they could not take them along in the rowboat. =Oral Exercise.= 1. What plan are the boys carrying out in the first picture on the next page? Do you think it is a good plan? Could you think out a better one? Explain it to your classmates. [Illustration: A STORY TO FINISH] 2. Look at the second picture and tell what has happened since the boys tied the dog to the bicycles. How did the boat happen to upset? Is this dog a good swimmer? Could he probably save the drowning boy if he were not tied? What will happen next? This exciting story might end in several ways. Tell the class how you think it ended. Begin your story with the tying of the dog. =52. Letter Writing= It is over a month since you mailed a letter in the class post office. Shall we have another letter-writing day? It might be fun for all the pupils to send short letters to each other. =Written Exercise.= 1. Think of a question that you would like to ask one of your classmates.[60] It may be something you really want to know, or it may be a question that you are asking just for fun. It does not matter. Write a short note asking the question. 2. Before mailing the letter, read it over several times with one of the following questions in your mind at each reading: 1. Have you begun the letter correctly? If it begins with a greeting like _Dear Tom_ or _Dear Mary_, there should be this mark (:) after the name of the pupil to whom you are writing. 2. Have you written your own name in the right place at the end of the letter? No mark should follow your name. 3. Does the first line of the letter begin a little more to the right than the lines below it? 4. Did you place a question mark at the end of the question you are asking? 5. Would it be a good plan to write your letter over so that it will be one of the best and neatest letters in the class post office? 3. The class letter carrier will bring you the letter that one of your classmates has sent you. Write a letter[61] answering the question you have been asked. You know how to write dates. Place in the upper right-hand corner of your letter the date of your writing. The following letter shows the date written in the right place and in the right way: March 25, 1919 Dear Tom: The question you sent me is the same as the one my letter asks you. I wonder whether the answers will be the same. My answer is, Yes, I do want to go to the woods next Saturday. Fred =53. Words sometimes Mispronounced= It is very pleasant to listen to speakers who make no mistakes in pronouncing words. In the list below are some of the words that give trouble to some pupils. =Oral Exercise.= 1. Listen carefully as the teacher pronounces the words in the following list. Then read the whole list as rapidly as you can, pronouncing no word incorrectly or indistinctly. again Tuesday picture I wish drowned you threw Italian could have window into chimney to-morrow nothing February just 2. Ask your classmates questions in which the words above are used. The answers, too, should use words from the list. =54. Story-Telling= THE DAUGHTER OF CERES Long ago there lived on the earth a good goddess or fairy whose name was Ceres.[62] It was she who made the corn and the grass and the flowers grow. She drove over the fields in her magic chariot and waved her wand. Then the trees put forth green leaves, the grain sprouted, and the fruits glistened in red and gold colors. She was the queen of all growing plants. Ceres had an only daughter, of whom she was very fond. Her name was Proserpina.[62] One day Proserpina begged her mother to allow her to go into the meadow to gather flowers. "You hardly ever let me wander in the fields, Mother," she said. "Other girls go. Do let me go to-day. I shall be gone only a short time." Ceres did not like to let her daughter go. She feared some harm might come to the little girl. But Proserpina begged so piteously that, finally, Ceres agreed. "But," she said, "you must not go farther than the brook that borders the meadow. Do not cross that. I want to be able to see you when I look out of my window." Proserpina promised gladly. In a minute she had put on her bonnet and had kissed her mother good-bye. With a basket on her arm she ran gaily toward the near-by fields. They were dotted, on this sunny morning, with the most beautiful flowers. Ceres at her window watched the happy girl for a time. Then she returned to her work, for she was always very busy. Proserpina, like a butterfly that is glad to use its wings, wandered delightedly from flower to flower. Never had the sunshine seemed brighter and pleasanter. Never had the birds sung more happily. Never had she seen such beautiful flowers. The violets seemed larger and sweeter than ever before. The roses, the pinks, and the lilacs seemed to be wearing holiday clothes. In a short time she had filled not only her basket but also her apron with the choicest blossoms. Then she sat in the tall grass and clover to make some wreaths. She decided to make one for herself and a large, beautiful one for her mother. As she sat there in the sunshine and twined the stems of flowers into pretty wreaths, she suddenly heard a low murmuring. It seemed to come from near by. She listened. The sound kept steadily on. She arose to see what it was. A few steps showed her that she had heard only the murmuring and splashing and babbling of a little brook. It bordered the meadow in which she had been gathering flowers and was the very brook that her mother had told her not to cross. And now a strange thing happened. As Proserpina stood beside the running water, she saw, just a little distance on the other side, a large shrub such as she had never set eyes on before. It was completely covered with the most wonderful flowers in the world. Before she knew what she was doing she had stepped lightly across the brook. The nearer she came to the beautiful plant, the more attractive it looked; and when she stood close to it, its beauty seemed richer than anything she had ever seen. There were a hundred flowers on it. Each had a color of its own. All together they made one beautiful bouquet. Proserpina was so charmed with what she saw that she did nothing at first but look and look at the magical sight. At length, however, she made up her mind to pull the shrub up and carry it home. "I will plant it in our garden at home," she said. So she took hold of the thick stem at the center of the plant and pulled. It would not come up. She tried harder and loosened it a little. Then she grasped it firmly near the ground with both hands, and pulled and pulled with all her might. Suddenly, up came the shrub, roots and all, so suddenly that Proserpina nearly fell. A deep hole had been left in the soil where the plant had grown. As Proserpina looked at this hole, it grew wider and wider and deeper and deeper. In a few moments it had grown so deep that the bottom seemed to be entirely gone. Suddenly a tall man arose from the black depths. He wore a helmet and carried a shield. As soon as he saw the frightened maiden, he made a sign to her to come nearer. "Do not be afraid," he said. "I shall do you no harm. I have come to take you to my palace. You may live there as long as you please." Proserpina was so frightened that she wanted to run away. But she was not able to move. "No, no," she cried. "I don't want to go to your palace. I want to go to my mother." The stranger leaped swiftly to where she stood. He caught her in his arms. In a moment he had jumped with her into the deep and almost bottomless opening. There, far down, stood a golden chariot, drawn by six coal-black horses. Into this chariot the stranger stepped, carrying the frightened girl. He laid her gently on the floor of the car and took the reins in his hands. They were off at once at a furious pace. In a minute they had left the meadows and the brook far behind them. Then the opening slowly closed. Nowhere was there left the least mark or sign to tell what had happened. [Illustration] =Oral Exercise.= 1. What did you like best in this story? Do you like the ending? How do you wish it had ended? 2. With a classmate play the first part of the story. This is the part that tells about Ceres and Proserpina before Proserpina goes to the meadow. What does Proserpina say? What does Ceres say? 3. Now with another pupil play the part of the story that tells what happened after Proserpina crossed the brook. First, she sees the beautiful shrub. What does she say when she sees that? Next, she tries to pull it up. How she tugs and tugs at it! This must be shown in the playing. What does she say as she pulls away at it? How does she look and what does she say when she sees the deep hole that grows wider and deeper every moment? Last, the stranger is seen. He and Proserpina talk together before he carries her away. Does Proserpina scream as the stranger picks her up? Scream as if you were being carried away. 4. Now that spring is here, shall you be going into the fields and woods to gather flowers? Tell the class the best places you know, how to reach them, and what flowers may now be found there. Do you know any place where some rare wild flower grows every year? What is the most beautiful wild flower you have ever found or seen? 5. Did you ever see a brook? If you did, tell your classmates how a brook looks. How is it different from a river or a lake? Can you tell the class where to go to see a brook? =55. Telling Interesting Things[63]= THE RETURN OF SPRING Have you noticed any signs that spring is coming? The bluebirds are usually among the first to tell us that winter is over. Soon after, the robins tell the same glad story. Then the song sparrow puts the good news into a beautiful song. At about this time boys and girls begin to talk of going into the woods for flowers. But the air still seems a little too cold. The ground is still too wet. The tramps into the country are put off a while. In the meantime a pretty flower, an early dandelion perhaps, shows itself here and there along the roadside or on a green lawn. Then, suddenly, one fine warm day, a boy brings to school a handful of yellow marsh marigolds. He found them in the low meadows. Now every boy and girl starts out, and spring flowers are seen in every schoolroom and in every home. Gradually the pleasant weather grows still warmer. One boy sees a snake. Another finds a turtle. These have been enjoying their long winter sleep deep down, a yard or more, in the ground. Now they are glad to lie in the pleasant sunshine, as if they needed to thaw out. In the ponds the frogs sing day and night. More and more flowers start up, more and more birds arrive and begin to build their nests. Boys play marbles and make willow whistles. Farmers start their early plowing. A veil of delicate green shows clearly on the forest trees. Spring has come. =Written Exercise.= Make a list of all the birds you know. Make a list of all the flowers you know. Make a third list of all the flowers, birds, and animals other than birds, that you have seen this spring. =Correction Exercise.= The teacher will now write three lists on the board. The first will give the names of all the birds the class knows. The second will name all the flowers the class knows, and the third all the flowers and all the birds and other animals that have been seen this spring. Compare your own lists with those on the board, and correct any mistakes in spelling that you may have made. =Group Exercise.= Think of one of the birds or flowers or animals in your three lists. Tell your classmates an interesting fact about it. Tell it in two or three sentences. Thus, you might choose the bluebird from your list and say: A pair of bluebirds is building a nest in a bird-box my father put up. They lived in the same box last year. Your classmates will tell about some bird or flower or animal in their lists. The teacher will write some or all these groups of sentences on the board,[64] or ask some of the pupils to write their own on the board. Then the class will try to improve each of these short accounts. Thus, what was said about the bluebird might be changed to read as follows: A bluebird family has rented the birdhouse that my father built in our back yard. They seem to like it, for they lived there last year. Perhaps they will buy it some day and decide to live there always. Or: Mr. and Mrs. Bluebird have started housekeeping in a little flat near my home. I saw them getting the straw mattress ready. They are old neighbors, for they lived here last summer. =56. Story-Telling= CERES AND APOLLO[62] Ceres, the good queen of fruit trees, grains, vegetables, and all growing plants, returned to her work after watching Proserpina run gaily to the meadow to pick flowers. She was very busy. Now and then during the afternoon she went to the window. She wanted to make sure that her daughter was in sight and safe. She saw the girl sit down in the long grass. "The child is getting a little tired, I suppose," she said. "She will be coming home before long." But an hour passed, and Proserpina had not yet returned. "She has probably fallen asleep in the soft grass," said her mother. "When she awakes, she will run home as fast as her legs will carry her." But when another hour had slipped by, and Proserpina was still not in sight, Ceres became greatly worried. "I wonder what has happened," she cried, as she hurried outdoors. She ran into the meadow. She called. Here and there she found a withered flower that the girl had dropped. At length Ceres reached the place where Proserpina had sat in the grass and where, as Ceres supposed, she had fallen asleep. There was nothing here but an unfinished wreath beside a pile of flowers. Ceres hastened to the brook. Yes, there in the soft ground on the edge of the water Proserpina's footprint was plainly to be seen. A little farther on, Ceres came upon the shrub that Proserpina had pulled out of the soil. But no other trace of the girl could she discover anywhere. A farmer chanced to be passing. He was on his way home from the fields where he had been at work all day. Ceres called to him. "Have you seen a little girl around here to-day?" The farmer thought a moment. Then he shook his head. A little later Ceres met an old woman in a meadow. The old woman was gathering herbs. She had seen no girl. It was not only human beings whom Ceres asked about her daughter. She asked the animals too. A robin on a tree top was merrily singing his evening song. Ceres asked him. A pair of squirrels were chattering noisily in a pine tree. Ceres stopped a minute to question them. But no one had seen the lost maiden. At last night fell. Ceres left the fields and entered the open road. At the door of every house she knocked. Wondering and pitying faces looked at her curiously as she told her story. Some asked her to come in and rest a while. But Ceres had no thought of rest. All night long she kept up her search, and when morning came she was far from home. She looked about her in the early light. She found that she had wandered to that far eastern place where the sun rises and begins the day. In a few minutes, indeed, Apollo, the sun-god, appeared. He was all ready to drive his sun-chariot across the sky. In this way he gives light and warmth to the people of the earth. His six white horses wore golden harness, which jingled pleasantly as they pranced about. They were anxious to be off. Apollo held them in check with a firm hand, when he saw Ceres approaching. [Illustration] "What brings you here before sunrise, Mother Ceres?" he called to her gaily, for he had known her a long time. Then he saw that her eyes were red with weeping, and he leaped from his chariot to take her hand. "What has happened?" he asked in a gentle tone. "Oh, Apollo," cried Ceres, while the tears streamed down her cheeks, "I have lost Proserpina. Only yesterday I allowed her to go into the meadow near my house to gather flowers. She did not return, and I can find no trace of her. Oh, tell me, have you seen her? You see everything as you drive across the sky." Apollo thought a moment. "Let me see," he said. "Could that have been little Proserpina I saw in Pluto's[62] chariot--" "In Pluto's chariot?" cried Ceres. "What would she be doing in Pluto's chariot?" "It was she," said Apollo. "Now that I think of it, I am certain it was she." Then Apollo told Ceres all that had happened. He told her about the shrub of marvellous flowers. He told of the hole that its roots left in the ground. He told of Pluto and his six black horses, and of how Pluto had carried off Proserpina. "He will never bring her back," said Apollo. Then Ceres dried her tears. Her face grew stern and cold. She stood straight and held her head high, like a queen. "He will bring her back," she said. "I shall make him bring her. Until he does, I shall allow nothing on the earth to grow. Until he brings Proserpina to me, no tree shall put forth leaves or fruit, no grass shall become green, no grain shall sprout,--nothing, nothing at all, shall grow on the earth." Scarcely had she said this when a change came over the earth. The leaves on trees and shrubs everywhere grew yellow and dropped to the ground. The green fields became brown and gray. Fruits rotted on the stem, and vegetables dried where they grew. Even flowerbeds lost their bloom and became patches of dry stalks. Mother Ceres looked upon all these changes with a hard heart. "Never," she said, "will the earth grow green again, until my daughter is returned to me." =Oral Exercise.= 1. Play that you are Ceres working in her house and glancing out of the window now and then. Say what she said when she saw Proserpina sit down in the long grass. Say what she said when, after several hours, her daughter was still absent. Say it in the way you think she said it. Now show your classmates how she hurried into the meadow to find Proserpina; how she picked up the half-finished wreath and crossed the brook; how she looked when she saw her daughter's footprint in the soft ground near the brook. What do you think she was thinking then? 2. One of your classmates will be the farmer in the story, another the old woman, another the robin, two others the pair of squirrels. Still other pupils will be the people in the houses at whose doors Ceres knocks. Now play that you are Ceres looking for her daughter, and asking everywhere for her. Remember how Ceres must have felt. Show that feeling in what you say and in the way you say it. The pupils playing the other speakers in the story will answer your questions. Try not to ask your questions always in the same words. =Group Exercise.= 1. Now let other groups of pupils play this part of the story. 2. Each time[57] the class will say what they liked and what they did not like. The following questions should be answered by the class: 1. Did the pupil playing Ceres look very much worried over Proserpina's not returning? Several pupils should try to show the class how the player ought to have looked. 2. Did the pupil playing Ceres talk like a worried person? Several pupils should show how Ceres probably did talk. 3. Did the pupil playing Ceres talk enough? What might she say as she looks out of the window now and then? What might she say when she finds the unfinished wreath? What might she say when she sees Proserpina's footprint and, a little farther along, the beautiful shrub pulled out of the ground? 4. Did the pupils playing the farmer, the old woman, the robin, the squirrels, and the other people speak as persons really would speak if a poor woman should ask them where her daughter was? What might these say that none of the players said? 5. Did the pupil playing Ceres ask each of the other players the same question in the same way? Would it be better if this player asked the question differently of different persons? Should this player grow more worried and more excited all the time? =Oral Exercise.= 1. Make believe that you are Apollo. Obtain a long rope and harness your six horses. Choose six classmates to be the horses, but first explain to the class how you plan to harness them. Then drive them up and down in front of the class once or twice. As you do so, you see Ceres coming toward you. You pull in your horses in great surprise. Show your classmates this surprise. What might you say in a low tone to yourself to express this surprise? 2. Talk with Ceres. The pupil playing Ceres will answer you very sadly at first. But at the end of the story the manner of Ceres changes. How does Apollo look and what does he say when Ceres declares that nothing shall grow on earth until Proserpina is returned? =Group Exercise.= 1. Several pairs of pupils should play the meeting between Apollo and Ceres. Each pair should try to show the class exactly how they think Apollo and Ceres looked and spoke and acted. 2. Then the class will tell what they liked and what they did not like in each playing. 3. Now the entire story should be played several times. After each time the class will explain to the players how the story might have been played better. =57. Correct Usage--_I am not_[65]= =Game.= The teacher asks a pupil to stand before the class. This pupil plays that he is a certain bird, flower, or animal other than a bird, that is seen in the woods in the spring, but he tells no one except the teacher what he is. The class must guess this. No pupil may guess more than once, and only ten guesses are allowed the whole class. The pupil before the class says nothing except that he is or is not the bird, flower, or animal guessed. The game moves along as follows: FIRST GUESSER: Are you a dandelion, John? PUPIL BEFORE THE CLASS: No, Fred, I am not a dandelion. SECOND GUESSER: Are you a turtle, John? PUPIL BEFORE THE CLASS: No, Mary, I am not a turtle. THIRD GUESSER: Are you a song sparrow, John? PUPIL BEFORE THE CLASS: Yes, Nellie, I am a song sparrow. The pupil who guesses correctly is the next flower or bird. If no one of the ten guesses is correct, the pupil before the class says, "Classmates, I am a song sparrow." Then he names the pupil who is to take his place in the game. =58. Riddles= One day our old friend Tom read his mother a riddle he had made. This is it: I am a tiny little thing and have an orange face. What am I? "Can you guess it, mother?" he asked. "A dandelion," she answered. "Yes, that's right," said Tom. "What do you think of it?" "It's a pretty good little riddle," his mother replied, "but I think you can make it better. Is _orange_ the best word for a dandelion? And should you not put in something to show that you do not mean a bird? Your riddle, as it is, would do for a yellow bird as well as for a dandelion." Tom thought this over. Then he wrote the following riddle: I am a tiny little thing with a bright yellow face. I have no legs or wings, but I come and go with spring. What am I? Tom's mother was very much pleased with this riddle, and so was Tom. Tom thought he could not make it the least bit better. The next day, however, he had made the riddle over once more. "This," said Tom, "is the very best that I can do." Here it is: My face is bright yellow. I have hundreds of brothers and sisters. We have fine parties on the lawn. I cannot walk, but I can fly when I am old and white-haired. What am I? =Oral Exercise.= 1. Which of Tom's three riddles do you like the best? Which do you care for least? Why? Do you think the third riddle is too long? What is in the third riddle that you do not find in the second? 2. Can you make a riddle of your own about the dandelion? 3. Make riddles for your classmates to guess, about flowers, birds, and animals that are seen in the spring. =Written Exercise.= Write on paper the best riddle of a bird or a flower that you can make. Then, as Tom did, think it over a little longer and try to make it better. When you think it is so bright that your classmates will be much pleased with it, read it to them.[66] =Group Exercise.= Some of the riddles should now be copied neatly on the board. It will be fun for the whole class to try to make them better. The very best ones the teacher will copy in a book to show to other classes.[35] =Written Exercise.= 1. Copy the riddle or riddles that your teacher chooses. As you copy them, notice the spelling of the words, the capital letters, the punctuation marks, and the beginning of the first line of each riddle. This will help you to write the riddles correctly when you reach the next exercise. Together with another pupil, correct your copy and his. 2. Write from dictation the riddles you have copied. Then correct any mistakes you may have made. You may do this work of correcting either alone or with one or more other pupils. =59. Story-Telling= CERES AND PLUTO In the underground world, where Pluto was king, stood a magnificent palace, in which he lived. The pillars that held up the roof were of solid gold. Jewels of many colors shone and sparkled in the walls. Two persons were talking together in a room in this wonderful building. One of these, who was no other than the lost Proserpina, was crying. Before her stood Pluto. He was trying to comfort her. "Why do you keep on weeping day after day?" he asked. "Look about you and see what a beautiful place it is to which I have brought you." Proserpina only shook her head and cried the harder. "I do not care how beautiful it is," she said. "I want to go back to my mother. I want to see the sunshine and the blue sky, and the flowers growing in the meadows." Pluto pointed to the jewels that gleamed from the walls and floor and ceiling of the palace. Some were red as roses, others blue as violets. Still others shone yellow as dandelions or purple as lilacs or green as the young grass that grows on the banks of brooks. "There are flowers for you," said he. "See all their colors! And these flowers are unlike those on the earth, that last only a day or a week. These never wither and never fade." But Proserpina did not so much as look at the jewels that Pluto praised so highly. "Please take me back to the earth," she begged. "If you will do that, I shall always think of you as a kind king. Perhaps I should visit you now and then." Pluto smiled and shook his head. "I do not dare let you go back to the earth, Proserpina," he explained. "I am almost sure you would never come back to me. Think how lonely I should be down here. I should have no one to share my palace and my riches with me. But let me tell what I will do." He took the golden crown from his head. It was the most splendid crown in all the world. He held it out before her. It sparkled with a thousand lights. The most skilful goldsmiths in Pluto's kingdom had made it. "This," said Pluto, "I will give you, if you will stay with me." Before Proserpina could answer, the bark of a dog was heard outside the palace wall. It was Pluto's giant mastiff. He was a huge three-headed dog that guarded the palace gate. Some one was coming. A minute later a loud knock sounded on the door. At once this flew open and showed a tall young man standing there. His face was flushed and he was breathless, as if he had run a long distance. [Illustration] When the stranger saw the king and Proserpina, he drew himself up to his full height and made a deep bow. "What is it?" asked Pluto. The tall stranger stepped into the room. He was still breathing hard. "I am the bringer of sad news, King Pluto," he began. "I come from the earth to let you know what has happened." "Well, what has happened?" impatiently asked the king. "The earth has lost its color and its beauty," answered the stranger. "Nothing grows any more. Where once there were beautiful fields and orchards, now there is nothing but the uncovered ground and bare branches to be seen. And Ceres sends me to you with this message, O Pluto. Until you return her daughter, not a blade of grass, not a shoot of corn shall grow, not a flower shall bloom, not a tree shall put forth leaves, on the whole earth that was once so green and wonderful." Pluto smiled at these words. "What care I," he said, "whether anything grows on the earth!" Then he saw that Proserpina was weeping. His voice grew softer. "What does Ceres want me to do?" he asked. "She wants you to return that which you have taken away," was the solemn answer. "That," said Pluto, "I will never do." The messenger of Ceres turned to go, without another word. Proserpina stepped forward and stopped him. "I have a plan," she said, "that will help us all." She turned to Pluto. "Let me spend half of every year with Mother Ceres," she said, "and I will gladly spend the other half with you." Pluto looked at her and made no answer. He did not like being alone in his great palace six months of every year. But then he thought of how unhappy Proserpina would be if he never allowed her to see her mother again. He did not wish her to be unhappy. At last he said, "I will do it." Proserpina clapped her hands. She laughed and danced about. "Six months here," she said, "and six months on earth. That will make six months of green and bloom on earth, and six months of bare branches and empty fields. Every year when I start back to the earth, things will begin to grow and bud and blossom. That will be spring. Every year when I return to this underground world, the leaves will fall from the trees, the grass will become yellow, and flowers will wither and fade. That will be fall." Proserpina at once prepared for her journey back to the earth. When she had said good-bye to Pluto, Ceres's messenger led the way. They passed the growling three-headed dog. They passed the iron gates of Pluto's kingdom. Far ahead they saw a bright light. It was the sunshine of the earth. They hastened toward it. As they hurried along, Proserpina noticed that the dry fields began to change. Green grass sprang up in them, and flowers. A veil of green covered all the shrubs and trees, and fruit blossoms began to unfold. The farmers had been sad over the long winter. Now they worked merrily in the fields, glad at the coming of spring. It was not long before Proserpina saw that she had reached the meadow in which she had gathered flowers. Yes, there was the brook she had crossed without really meaning to do it. There was the place where she had sat in the grass to weave wreaths. And there, at the edge of the meadow, stood her mother's house. Hurrying from it and toward Proserpina with outstretched arms was Mother Ceres herself. =Oral Exercise.= 1. Make believe that you are Proserpina in the story above. Think how you would feel if you were in an underground palace far from your mother. A classmate will play that he is King Pluto. Ask him to let you go back. Speak as Proserpina probably spoke. Pluto will answer you. He will try to explain to you that you ought to stay with him. 2. Make believe that you are the messenger from Ceres. Make the deep bow that he made when he saw the king. Tell the king what is happening on the earth. Give him the message from Ceres. 3. You and two classmates should now play the story. Would it be a good plan to have some one play the dog? =Group Exercise.= 1. Now three other pupils[67] should play the story, and then three others. Each group will try to show the class exactly how everything happened in the story. Each player will try to look and act and speak exactly as he thinks the person in the story did. 2. The class will praise what is good in the playing and point out what might be done better. =60. Talking over Plans= Why couldn't the class plan a spring festival? It might be held on a Friday afternoon. Every pupil could invite his parents and friends. The festival would be one way of showing how glad you and your classmates are that spring has come. =Oral Exercise.= 1. Make a plan for a spring festival.[68] Then stand before the class and tell the other pupils what your plan is. The following questions may help you to make a plan that your classmates will enjoy carrying out: 1. Shall the festival be held in the schoolroom or outdoors? 2. Shall you decorate the room with spring flowers? 3. Shall the festival begin with a march by the pupils? 4. Do you know a suitable story that could be played by a group of pupils? 5. Could some suitable poems be recited? 6. Would it be a good plan to have each pupil play that he is a spring flower or a bird and make a riddle about himself for the visitors to guess? 7. How shall visitors be invited? Shall each pupil write a letter inviting somebody and mail it in the United States Post Office? 2. It would be fun to have you and a classmate talk the spring festival over on the class telephone. Of course this is only a make-believe telephone, but two pupils can talk to each other over it just as well as if it were real. Tell your classmate at the other end of the telephone what you think of the spring-festival plan. Ask him questions about it. He will ask you questions. 3. Use the class telephone to invite persons to the spring festival. Different classmates of yours will play that they are Mr. Brown and Mrs. Brown and others whom you wish to invite. Tell them about the spring festival. Tell them why the class will have it, and what it is to be like. Then invite them to come. =Group Exercise.= The class of course hears these telephone conversations. After each one the class should talk about it with the following questions[69] in mind: 1. Did the speakers telephone in clear, pleasant voices that could easily be heard? 2. Were the speakers polite to each other? 3. Did the speakers make any mistakes in English? Did they pronounce any words incorrectly? 4. Did the speakers say bright things that every one likes to hear? 5. Can you think of anything the speakers might have said to make the telephone talk more interesting? =61. Letter Writing= A few days before the spring festival you will be inviting your parents and friends to come to it. You could write short letters asking them to come. You could take your letters to their houses or you could send the invitations by mail.[70] Here is an invitation to the spring festival. It was written, as you see, by a boy named George Smith to his friend Mr. Brown. +----------------------------------+ | May 9, 1919 | | | | Dear Mr. Brown: | | | | Come to our spring festival. | | | | George Smith | | | =Oral Exercise.= What do you think of George Smith's invitation? What do you think Mr. Brown will say when he receives it? Does George Smith seem to be a very polite boy? How could the invitation be made more polite? What should the invitation tell about the spring festival? =Written Exercise.= Write one of your invitations for the spring festival. Put in it all that you think such an invitation should say to the one who receives it. Before you begin it, notice how the following greetings are written. This may help you in writing yours.[71] Dear Mr. Brown: Dear Mrs. Brown: Dear Miss Brown: Dear Friend: Dear Uncle: Dear Teacher: =Group Exercise.= A number of the invitations should now be copied neatly on the board. Then you and your classmates may point out what is good in each, and may try to make each one better. =62. Addressing Letters= If you send your invitations by mail, you will need to know how to write the addresses on the envelopes. Perhaps you can learn this most quickly by carefully copying addresses that are correctly written. Before copying them you should read them with care. Notice every capital letter and punctuation mark. =Oral Exercise.= Read the name of the person to whom each of the following envelopes is addressed. Is it placed nearer the top or the bottom edge of the envelope? Is it nearer the right or the left edge of the envelope? Is it placed exactly in the middle of the envelope? Is the second line of the address exactly under the first line? Is the third line exactly under the second line? +-----------------------------+ | | | Mr. James Smith | | 46 Oak Street | | Toledo, Ohio | +-----------------------------+ +-----------------------------+ | | | Mrs. Henry Jones | | 1616 Superior Street | | Portland, Oregon | +-----------------------------+ =Written Exercise.= 1. Draw lines to mark off an envelope on your paper. Then copy the first of the addresses above. Mark off another envelope, and copy the second address.[72] 2. Cut figures of paper the size and shape of an envelope, and on each write one of the following addresses: 1. The address of your father 2. The address of your mother 3. Your own address 4. The address of a friend not in the class 5. The address of a friend who is a classmate =63. Telling Interesting Things= =Oral Exercise.= 1. When did you last go to the circus?[73] Of course you remember many interesting things about it. Think of these a minute; then tell your classmates about them. Perhaps the following questions will help you remember: 1. Did you see the circus come to town early in the morning? 2. Did you see the men putting up the tents? 3. Did you see the parade? 4. Where did you buy your ticket? 5. What did you see first when you entered the tent? 6. What did you like best of all you saw and heard? 2. If you were old enough to travel with a circus, and if your parents would allow you to go, what should you most like to be? Should you like to be an animal trainer? Should you like to be a horseback rider? Should you like to be a juggler, a tightrope walker, or a clown? Tell your classmates what you would be if you could join a circus. Besides, tell what that kind of performer needs to know and do. Tell how he does some of his tricks. You and your classmates may now plan to make a book about the circus. Each pupil should write a page for it. One could tell about the parade, another about the tents and the seats and the rings, another about the horses, another about the jugglers, another about the trapeze performers, and so on. When all the pages are finished, they should be bound and a cover put on them. On the cover might be written or printed in large letters:[74] +----------------------------------+ | THE CIRCUS BOOK | | | | MADE BY | | | | THE PUPILS OF MISS SMITH'S CLASS | | | =Written Exercise.= Choose what you will write about for the circus book. Think what you can say that your classmates will enjoy reading. Then write the account. Better write a short and bright account than a long and stupid one. First, write on your paper rather rapidly the best account you can. When this is finished, read it several times and try to make it better. If you were writing about the juggler, your first, rapidly written account might read like this: THE JUGGLER AT THE CIRCUS There was a juggler at the circus. I cannot tell all the tricks he did. It must take a long time to learn to do tricks. I wish I could do some. Of course this first, rapid account can be made much better. It does not tell how the juggler looked. It does not tell clearly what he did. After you have added these and other points, the account might be like this one: THE JUGGLER AT THE CIRCUS I saw the wonderful Japanese juggler at the circus. He was dressed in red silk. He stood in the ring before all the people. I saw him do one trick after another. It was like magic. He threw five shiny, sharp knives up in the air. He kept them flying up and down without dropping one. =Group Exercise.= Some of the circus stories should be copied neatly on the board. Then the whole class may try to make them better before they are copied on the pages of the circus book.[75] =64. Making Riddles= =Oral Exercise.= Make believe that you are one of the performers or one of the animals in a circus. Tell your classmates two facts about yourself: (1) what you look like and (2) what you do. But do not tell what you are. Thus, you might say: I look just like you, but I spend much of my time in a cage. No, I am not a monkey. It is my business to be in a cage. Lions are afraid of me, and I am afraid of them, but you can see us side by side in the same circus cage in every parade. What am I? Or you might say: My face is pale, and my clothes are white. I look like a very foolish, sad, and solemn person. Everybody laughs at me. I don't mind it. It is my business to look silly. If I did not look silly, I should lose my place in the circus. What am I? Your classmates will try to guess what you are. =Group Exercise.= 1. Some of the riddles may now be written on the board. Then the class will try to make them better. The teacher will write each improved riddle beside the one from which it was made. 2. When everybody in the class has made a riddle, and all the riddles have been guessed, you and the other pupils will enjoy having a circus parade. In this circus parade the whole class marches around the room and up and down the aisles. Each pupil plays, as he did in making the riddles, that he is one of the performers or one of the animals in a circus. Each without speaking tries to show what performer or animal he is. For example, if you are a circus horse, show it by prancing about, but do not lose your place in the parade. If you are an elephant, show it by your walk. You might use a piece of rope or cloth for an elephant's trunk. If you are a horseback rider, show it by talking to your horse in low tones and by holding him in line. If you are a clown, show it by acting as clowns do.[76] If you are a musician, play your instrument as you march. Perhaps the teacher will let the parade pass into the hall, so that the piano may be played as the class marches. =65. Telling about Wild Animals[77]= Sometimes boys and girls play menagerie. Each makes believe that he is the keeper or trainer of some wild animal. When his turn comes, he stands before the class and tells about the animal that is supposed to be in a cage at his side. [Illustration: AFRICAN LION] =Oral Exercise.= Choose the animal of which you will play that you are the keeper. Then tell the class about this animal. Tell everything interesting that you know or can find out about it. Perhaps the following list of questions will help you to think of what to say: 1. What does the animal look like? What is its size, color, and shape? 2. Where does the animal live? 3. How does it live? How does it obtain its food? 4. Is the animal very different from most wild animals in any important ways? 5. Can it be easily tamed? =Group Exercise.= 1. The two following accounts are such as a make-believe trainer might give of a lion. One of these is much better than the other. Can you tell which is the better one? 2. What do you like in the first account? Notice that all of the sentences begin in the same way. Do you like that? 3. Do you like the word _frames_ in the second account? What is the difference in meaning between _dangerous_ and _cruel_? 4. After each talk the class should tell whether that talk was more like the first or the second of these accounts: I The lion is a large animal. It has four legs, one on each corner. Its body is covered with yellow hair. It has a shaggy mane. It has a long tail. It lives in the wild parts of Africa. It will eat human beings. II Ladies and gentlemen, the big animal that you see in this cage is a lion. See his beautiful yellow coat. See the shaggy mane that frames his head. You probably know that the lion is a dangerous beast. But do you know that he is the most dangerous and cruel of all the wild animals? The father of this fine-looking specimen before you was caught in Africa. Human bones and several copper bangles were found in his den. [Illustration: BENGAL TIGER] =66. Making a Little Book= Now you and your classmates are ready to make a book about wild animals. Every page of the book should contain a short but interesting account of some wild animal. A cover of stiff paper might have these words written or printed on it: +---------------------------------+ | | | A BOOK ABOUT WILD ANIMALS | | | | WRITTEN AND MADE BY | | | | THE PUPILS OF MISS SMITH'S ROOM | | | =Written Exercise.= Write your page[78] for the class book about wild animals. Better write it twice. After the first, rather rapid writing is finished, read it over several times and try to make it better. Try to put better words in the places of some of those you used. Try to add a bright sentence or two. Leave out sentences and words that are not needed. Copy what you then have. =Group Exercise.= Before each pupil's account is put in the book, that account should be read by the class to make sure that there are no mistakes in it. The class might be divided into a number of groups of five or six pupils each. Each group could then correct its five or six accounts. The pupils of each group would work together, correcting one account at a time.[79] In this work of finding mistakes the following questions[80] will be useful: 1. Does every sentence in the account begin with a capital letter? 2. Does every sentence end with a period or question mark? 3. Is every word correctly spelled? 4. Are there any mistakes in English? =67. Correct Usage--_Good, Well_= Some pupils make the mistake of using the word _good_ when they should use _well_. The word _good_ is correctly used to tell what sort of person or thing you are speaking of. Thus, you may say, "He is a _good_ writer." The word _well_, on the other hand, usually tells _how_ something is done. Thus, you may say, "He writes _well_." =Game.= Tom plays that he is the manager of a circus. His classmates want to work in the circus. Each one makes up his mind what kind of work he will play that he can do. Then one after another raises his hand and asks Tom for a position. For instance, Fred says: "Tom, have you a position for me in your circus?" Tom answers: "What kind of work can you do well, Fred?" Fred says: "I am a good ticket seller. I can sell tickets well." Then Nellie asks: "Tom, have you a position for me in your circus?" Tom answers: "What kind of work can you do well, Nellie?" Nellie replies: "I am a good cook. I can cook well." Other pupils are good musicians, they can play well; or good tightrope walkers, they can walk the tightrope well; or good singers, they can sing well; or good drivers of horses, they can drive horses well; or good shoemakers, they can repair shoes well. After each pupil has told what he can do well, all those who made no mistake in speaking to the manager of the circus may march around the room, saying or singing, "We are good circus workers. We do our work well." =68. Talking over the Telephone= =Oral Exercise.= Talk to a classmate over the make-believe class telephone.[81] Play that he is the ticket seller in a circus. You want to know about the prices of seats. Ask the time at which the doors are open. Ask him whether you and your two children may all go in on one ticket. He will say no to the last question. Try to make him see that he should let you in on one ticket. Then telephone to other classmates. The following ideas[82] for telephone talks will help you think of what to say: 1. Telephone to the lion trainer. Tell him that you want to become a lion trainer. Ask him what you must do to get ready for this work. Ask his advice about it. Perhaps he will tell you something interesting about lions. 2. Telephone to the keepers and trainers of other wild animals. 3. Telephone to the clown, or the juggler, or the tightrope walker, or the horseback rider. 4. Telephone to a pupil and try to make a plan with him for going to the circus to-morrow. Where shall you meet him? How will you prove to your parents and to your teacher that it will do you more good to spend the afternoon at the circus than in school? 5. Telephone to a classmate and ask him where the circus is to be. Play that you are a new pupil in the school and do not know the roads and streets very well. Keep asking the classmate questions about how to reach the circus grounds. He should answer so clearly that a stranger would not miss the way. =69. Words sometimes Mispronounced= =Oral Exercise.= Pronounce each of the following words clearly and distinctly as the teacher pronounces it to you. Then pronounce the entire list as rapidly as you can, but still clearly, distinctly, and correctly. horse because engine evening eleven lying lion address library elm perhaps something often father theater bouquet across iron parade fourth third =Game.= Ask a classmate a question that has in it one of the words in the list above. The classmate will answer your question, using the same word from the list. If he pronounces the word correctly, he will ask a classmate a question containing another word from the list. And so it will go on until every one in the class has both asked and answered a question. =70. Talking over Vacation Plans= Soon the school term will come to an end. Then the long summer vacation will begin. What good times you will have! Perhaps your parents have already made plans for you. Perhaps they have planned a trip away. Or it may be that they will send you to the summer school. Or, like most pupils, perhaps you will spend the summer at home. You will play outdoors with boys and girls who live near you. =Oral Exercise.= Tell your classmates what you think you will be doing during the coming summer vacation. Perhaps the following questions will help you: 1. What games do you think you will play during the summer? 2. Shall you go to any city parks? What can you see and do there? 3. Shall you go swimming or boating? Shall you go on a picnic to a pleasant place? 4. Shall you go to the public library? 5. Shall you take a trip away from home? Earlier in this book you read about fairies. You know what wonderful things they can do. They can make wishes come true. If a fairy came to your schoolroom and spoke to you and your classmates, you might be very much surprised. But you would be still more surprised if the fairy stood before the class, perhaps on the top of the teacher's desk where all could see, and made this little speech in a tiny but musical voice: Boys and girls, I have been very glad all the year to see you having such good times together in this room. I think that young folks who enjoy school as much as you do should have a very pleasant vacation too. As you see, I have brought my magic wand with me. Watch me as I wave it in the air. Yes, I am waving it more than once. I want to make a ring in the air for every boy and girl in the class. There, I have done it. Now each of you may have a wish, just as Peter was given a wish by the strange little old man. Each of you may wish a summer vacation exactly as he would like it best. All these wishes will come true. Some of you boys will probably wish for a trip to the moon in a magic airplane. The trip is yours the moment you speak your wish. Some of you girls will probably wish to spend the two summer months in fairyland. Your wish, too, will come true. Now I must say good-bye. Before I leave I shall make one more circle in the air with my wand. For whom is this? It is for the teacher. When the wishing begins, the teacher must have a wish, too. When the fairy left the room, the planning and wishing would begin. Each pupil would probably have a wish very different from that of his classmates. Some of the plans and wishes would be very interesting. It would be fun to hear them all. =Oral Exercise.= Tell your classmates how you would like to spend the long summer vacation if you could spend it any way you wished.[83] =NOTES TO THE TEACHER= (The page number following each note number indicates the first appearance of the note in the text) =Note 1= (page 1). Although the lessons in this book are addressed to the pupil, it will probably be advisable for the teacher to reproduce the procedure of the first ones orally and independently of the text, rather than to confront the class at once with the printed page. In some instances, however, it will be preferred from the beginning to work out each lesson as it stands, the class reading and studying the text with the teacher (the "study recitation"). In no case should there be haste. If the teacher finds that the Christmas lessons cannot easily be reached by December, or the valentine lessons by early February, much depending on the class, judicious omissions are advised. The plan of the text makes this both permissible and easy. The teacher is asked to read the Preface and is strongly urged to read the entire book, including the Notes, at the beginning of the year's work. =Note 2= (page 1). The spirit of play should pervade the composition period. Pupils should feel as free and happy as on the playground. It is suggested that they be encouraged to "let go" when they are playing stories. Let there be much action, even exaggerated action. Let there be unembarrassed speaking, even if it be sometimes a little louder than necessary. Let there be energetic pantomime. When animals are imitated, or sleepy boys, or elves, let it be done with a will, perhaps even ludicrously. This freedom and abandon of play and fun will help lay the foundation for natural, vigorous, and interesting self-expression. =Note 3= (page 2). A number of pupils may be asked to show how the sleepy boy looked as he wakened. Let each one lie on the platform or floor before the class, apparently fast asleep; then awaken and stretch and yawn prodigiously; and finally awake fully and realize lazily that mother is at the bedside. This may represent an awakening from dreamless sleep. Next, let each player awake with a start, as Tom may have done after his exciting dream. It may be advisable with some classes, as a preliminary "warming up," to ask that (for example) flying a kite, riding a horse, picking flowers, sweeping and dusting a room, rowing a boat, be represented in pantomime. =Note 4= (page 3). No finished dramatic product is looked for in these exercises. The ends are (1) the pupils' keen pleasure in the activity and expression involved in the play; (2) the creation of a situation that means for the pupils freedom and absence of self-consciousness; (3) purposeful speech by the children "in the situation"; (4) development of increasing interest in the story as a basis for further, and now story-telling, expression work. _No_ rehearsing, _no_ memorizing of speeches, but originality, extemporaneous expression, natural, spontaneous speech, are desired. Later on, different pupils should be asked to be managers of plays, selecting players, giving stage directions, urging the actors to speak more, to act more naturally, etc. =Note 5= (page 3). It is desirable that all pupils take part in the dramatizations, and not only the favored or the forward few. Besides, each pupil should be encouraged to play the part _as he sees it_. Originality, not thoughtless imitation, is desired. It is the _differences_ that will be recognized as interesting and valuable in schoolrooms where individuality is encouraged; and it is the differences that justify repeated playing of the same story before the same audience. See Note 57. =Note 6= (page 4). It is astonishing and delightful how well little people do when they are permitted to take the initiative and to assume responsibility. Frequently pupils should be allowed to work out a play alone, the teacher helping only when asked or when the situation calls loudly for her assistance. =Note 7= (page 4). If the purpose of language teaching is the improvement of pupils' speaking and writing, pupils must speak and write abundantly. But they must do more. Two garrulous housewives may gossip over the back fence for years and at the end of that time speak no better than at the beginning. The same grammatical errors with which they began, the same infelicities of expression, the same lack of organization, the same meager and overworked vocabulary, the same mispronunciations and slovenly utterance, will still be there. Why is this? The reason indicates clearly that it is not enough that pupils speak and speak and write and write. This is only half the battle. In addition there must be continual attention to the problem of improvement in speaking and writing. This improvement is a task of years, and only one step can be taken at a time. In these first lessons criticism should be directed mainly to the matter of the pupil's expressing himself fully. See Notes 20 and 64. =Note 8= (page 5). As pupils suggest improvements, Tom's dream should be rewritten on the board, sentence by sentence, the point being throughout that Tom did not tell all that he had in mind. The class will greatly enjoy and profit by seeing Tom's original bald, fragmentary story become a vivid narrative, full of interesting detail and realistic color. See Note 64. Later this should be compared with Tom's improved narrative as it stands on pages 5 and 6. Pupils should not conclude, however, that _length_ is necessarily a virtue in compositions. What is desired is not mere fullness but fullness of interesting detail. =Note 9= (page 7). After pupils have read the introduction to the poem, or the teacher has freely developed one (see Note 1), the poem should be read aloud by the teacher, in order that the class may be impressed at once with its rhythm and thought. A second reading by the teacher, immediately following the first, may be advisable, in order to deepen the first favorable impression. With most classes every selection in the book should be read, the first time, by the teacher to the class. Many teachers memorize the poems, reciting instead of reading them. =Note 10= (page 7). Some teachers will desire to use the second half of this poem. Judiciously employed, that half will be greatly enjoyed by children and will, in fact, give added point to the first half. =Note 11= (page 7). When the force of each word has been explained, pupils should use it in sentences of their own and thus show that they understand its meaning. =Note 12= (page 8). Far better than the traditional correction of completed papers by the teacher at home it is for the teacher to walk up and down the aisles while pupils are busy copying, and to point out sympathetically their mistakes, making concrete and constructive suggestions where they are needed. =Note 13= (page 9). The best way for the pupil to memorize, as is well stated in Pillsbury's "Essentials of Psychology," page 192, is "to read through the whole selection from beginning to end, and to repeat the reading until all is learned, rather than to learn bit by bit." The teacher should join the class in reading the poem aloud repeatedly, in order that pupils may have the right emphasis and expression while they memorize. =Note 14= (page 9). Pupils will enjoy, in this connection, hearing some of the wonderful tales, which might very well have been fantastic dreams, of Baron Munchhausen. See "Tales from Munchhausen," edited by Edward Everett Hale (D. C. Heath & Co.). The telling of dreams involving comical situations should by no means be discouraged. The funnier they are, other things being equal, the better. =Note 15= (page 9). The term _group exercise_ designates in this book those class activities in which pupils manage the matter in hand mainly themselves, or in which they work together on a problem as in a laboratory. =Note 16= (page 10). It is suggested that the term _sentence_ be used incidentally by the teacher while writing on the board. The beginning capital letter and the final punctuation mark (period or question mark) should be pointed out, as well as capital _I_, also incidentally. Besides, the terms _punctuation mark_, _period_, and _question mark_ should receive passing notice. The object is to give pupils a preliminary acquaintance with these technicalities. No definition of the sentence should be attempted in this grade, but the foundation for sentence sense may be laid successfully. =Note 17= (page 10). Improvement here should take the form of adding interesting and significant details, as was done on pages 4 and 5 in the improvement of Tom's dream. The matter of variety in expression may be lightly touched. By no means should the work be formal or heavy or above the heads or interests of the pupils. So far as possible let them make the suggestions. =Note 18= (page 10). Let the dictation clearly indicate, by a dropping of the voice and by a pause, the end of each sentence. Thus the dictation work will be a drill rather than a test in the writing of sentences. Preparation for dictation work may include counting the capital letters in the selection to be written, counting the periods, etc. It is suggested that occasionally the pupils be asked to repeat each sentence aloud as it is read by the teacher, and then write it. =Note 19= (page 11). See page 21 for the fuller presentation of _saw_ and _seen_. In this connection the teacher need hardly be reminded that good English is largely a matter of habit rather than of knowledge, and that repetition under stimulus and in the atmosphere of interest is the means of establishing habits. Of course the game is one of the best of these means. =Note 20= (page 12). Encourage originality. Applaud unusual conceptions. Let pupils give free rein to their imaginations. Some of the best sentences may be written on the board, both for their content interest and to emphasize again the capital letter at the beginning, the punctuation mark at the end, and capital _I_. Besides, work in variety of expression or in amplification may profitably become an incident of the game. Thus, a sentence like "I saw an automobile" offers a real opportunity. It should be placed on the board. By means of questions the class should be led to amplify it, to give it definition, color, interest. What sort of automobile was it? Was it new or old? Where was it? Who was in it? Etc. Finally the original meager sentence becomes, "I saw an old, unwashed automobile that stood by the roadside with the driver asleep on the back seat," or, "I saw a shining new automobile spin noiselessly down the street with three laughing children on the back seat." See Notes 7 and 64. =Note 21= (page 18). While the fable of the ants and the grasshoppers is occupying the attention of the pupils certain classic phrasings of its lesson may profitably be put on the board. See Proverbs, Chapter VI, verses 6-11, besides the quotations below. A lesson devoted to the study of these may be given, followed by exercises in copying and memorizing. "Whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap." "Work while it is day: for the night cometh, when no man can work." "There is a time for work and a time for play." "He that will not work shall not eat." "When you play, play with all your might. When you work, do not play at all." =Note 22= (page 20). Pupils should stand before the class as they tell their stories. Only when they _face_ their classmates can they speak _to_ them effectively. There is no good in pupils' speaking unless they speak _to_ some one. They must, like adults, have a real audience and something to tell that audience which it does not already know. Or, if there be repetition, this must be for a purpose that is of interest to the audience and therefore to the speaker. =Note 23= (page 23). A little talk on "Sharp Eyes" is suggested. =Note 24= (page 25). The expansion should not go too far. There is no virtue in mere length. Quality of work should be emphasized. Besides, one of these fables, the shortest one, is to be used in the subsequent exercise in copying. =Note 25= (page 25). The work in copying should be motivated by placing before the pupils the problem involved, namely, making an exact reproduction of the original. _Can it be done?_ This is the question before the class. Copy only a part of a fable rather than make the exercise too long. See Note 12. =Note 26= (page 28). It is suggested that the room be decorated appropriately for these lessons that deal with Indian subject matter. Possibly a small Indian tepee may be pitched in one corner of the schoolroom. A Navajo rug may adorn the wall, and pictures of Indian weapons, tools, utensils, and other articles of various kinds may be drawn in color on the board. Besides the book quoted in the text, Frederick Starr's "American Indians" (Heath) and Gilbert L. Wilson's "Myths of the Red Children" (Ginn), from the latter of which the Indian illustrations in the present textbook have been taken with the kind permission of Mr. Wilson, will be found replete with authoritative information. At the discretion of the teacher this problem of room decoration may be solved in a series of group exercises in English (see Note 15), each pupil expressing his views as he stands before the class. Pupils will enjoy drawing tepees, tomahawks, Indian chiefs, squaws, and papooses on paper with colored crayons; dressing dolls as Indians; dressing themselves as Indians; making tepees, canoes, etc. out of paper and cardboard; making an Indian scene on the sand table. The following are war whoops or Indian calls: "Ki-yi, whoo-oo! Ki-yi, ki-yi, ki-yi, whoo-oo!" and "Boom, boom, boom, boom, boom, boom, boom, boom!" =Note 27= (page 39). It is suggested that this exercise be preceded by a pantomime in which a pupil plays that he is wandering through the woods, while the class pretend that they are Indians waylaying him. Some may approach on the river in canoes. Some may follow his tracks on the ground. The women and the papooses would remain in the safe background. Finally the boy is captured. Then a little extemporized dramatization takes place before the captured boy makes his speech. Sensitive children should perhaps be informed that such captures no longer happen. =Note 28= (page 40). This game is designed to help stop the incorrect use of _got_. If some chicken feathers can be obtained, each player may wear one. =Note 29= (page 41). Some Indians call January "Cold Moon," April "Green-Grass Moon," May "Song Moon," June "Rose Moon," and November "Mad Moon." =Note 30= (page 42). The antidote for the _and_ habit is not a _don't_ but a _do_. If pupils are trained to drop the voice at the ends of sentences and to make a pause there, not only will many thoughtless _and's_ remain unspoken, but sentence sense will be developed. Let the class read the January selection in the text, exaggerating the pause at the end of each sentence. =Note 31= (page 46). The teacher should not hesitate to modify any game to suit the needs of the class. Games 1 and 2 on pages 46 and 47 should be played on different days, to avoid confusion. Few mistakes will be made in these easy games, nor are mistakes desirable. The repetition of the correct form is desirable. It must not be a thoughtless repetition. =Note 32= (page 47). Parent coöperation in the work of eradicating common errors is to be sought. Some schools send cards to the pupils' homes, explaining the errors for the removal of which the teachers ask the help of the parents. =Note 33= (page 47). Pictures of fairies should now be drawn on the board, in order to help create the proper atmosphere for the present lessons. Later in the month let Christmas decorations be added. Perhaps a small Christmas tree could be brought in and ornamented with inexpensive colored papers. See Note 26. The story in the text may be used for story-telling, although it is given here merely to create an appropriate atmosphere for the pupils' stories and as a prelude to the work of the next weeks. It depends very much on the class whether teachers will read or freely retell the stories and other selections in the book or whether they will utilize them for reading lessons or for study recitations. With many classes it will be decidedly best for the teacher to read or reproduce the stories and selections. See Notes 1 and 9. =Note 34= (page 64). A number of possible exercises suggest themselves here. Thus, several lesson periods might profitably be devoted to each pupil's explaining how to make a toy or other Christmas thing. If correlation with manual training be possible, pupils may actually make toys, Christmas cards, New Year's cards, and calendars. This may be handled dramatically. Pupils may play that they are a band of fairies going to Santa Claus to offer their services in the great toyshop. One pupil is Santa Claus. He asks each pupil to _explain_ what he can do in the way of making Christmas things. Then he puts them to work. See the game in section 67. =Note 35= (page 67). Teachers who preserve the best riddles will find them useful means of stimulating subsequent classes to their best endeavor. A riddle book may gradually be made by a teacher's successive classes, each class contributing its best. Only worthy pieces of work may be included. Thus a school or a schoolroom tradition in English may be made to grow up, whose educational value would be not inconsiderable. =Note 36= (page 67). An exchange of papers, or the correction of each paper by a small group of pupils working as a team, will often prove desirable. =Note 37= (page 69). Very incidentally during the study of the poem, use the word _stanza_ to designate each of the three large sections of it, and call attention to the interesting fact that every line of poetry begins with a capital letter. =Note 38= (page 72). The teacher may read or tell the class the Spanish fairy tale "The Three Wishes" (see Wiggin and Smith's "Tales of Laughter," Doubleday, Page & Company). The story of Midas should be postponed until the fourth grade. See "Oral and Written English" (Ginn), Book One, page 100. =Note 39= (page 74). The last lesson period preceding Christmas may be given to the teacher's reading aloud "A Visit from St. Nicholas," by Clement C. Moore. =Note 40= (page 75). Dictate twelve dates, one in each month. Remind the pupils of the spelling of _February_ and of the fact that the names of the months begin with capital letters. =Note 41= (page 75). Let children of foreign parentage tell about their unusual customs. Let them realize, as they tell about their home traditions, that they are making a most interesting contribution to the class entertainment. =Note 42= (page 78). Pupils will enjoy and profit by a pantomimic presentation of the scene, as a preparation for the real dramatization. Let one pupil show how Jack slowly and painfully rose from the ground. Let another show the alarmed mother, another the wise doctor. Then ask each actor what the person represented might have said. See Notes 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 27. =Note 43= (page 80). Other subjects will readily suggest themselves: as, a toboggan party, making an ice rink, trapping for muskrats or rabbits, fishing through the ice, ice boating, visiting the museum, visiting the zoo, visiting the botanical gardens, visiting the aquarium, a class dance, a class workshop for making things of wood, paper, or cloth. The meeting may be presided over by a member of the class. Set speeches should be required and order maintained. The discussion should not lapse into undirected, fragmentary conversation. It is not enough for a pupil to say, "Let us go to the museum next Saturday afternoon." The speech should say when and where the class is to meet, how long it is to stay, what it is to do when it reaches the museum, who the leader is to be, whether the teacher is to be invited, and why this plan is preferable to the others proposed. For seat work the class may make a picture book of winter fun, using colored crayons. An opportunity will here be incidentally offered to impress pupils with the fact that _if they could only write their thoughts_ they might now make a real book about winter fun, and not simply a picture book. The promise may be made that as soon as they learn to write their thoughts well, they will be given a chance to make books. =Note 44= (page 81). The moment a word is mispronounced in the story-telling or other exercises, it should be added to a list kept on the board. Pupils will soon become alert for errors of this kind. From such a small beginning may well grow a class language conscience, a class pride in its English, and thus finally an individual conscientiousness in the use of the mother tongue. =Note 45= (page 83). Freely rendered after Chance's "Little Folks of Many Lands." Other books containing suitable material are Andrews's "The Seven Little Sisters" and "Each and All," as well as Peary's "Snow Baby" and "Children of the Arctic." Some Eskimos do have houses of wood, mainly driftwood, but others do not. It is with these latter that the present lessons are concerned. =Note 46= (page 86). It is advised that, as pupils suggest improvements, each account be rewritten by the teacher. The improved account should be placed on the board beside the original, so that the differences may be apparent to all. Teachers should guide in these criticisms and reconstructions, but very gently, leaving pupils free to suggest and change, making them responsible for the improvement, putting nothing down that does not appeal to the class, thus _confronting the pupils with the problem of making each account better_ and permitting them to feel and to enjoy the full challenge of this problem. =Note 47= (page 89). Parents may be invited to hear the class recite poems. This will give an occasion and reason for reviewing the poems learned during the year. =Note 48= (page 96). It seems inadvisable, in the present state of conflicting usage, to follow the greeting of some letters with a comma and of others with a colon. Not only may this arbitrary distinction prove embarrassing when a writer does not wish definitely to commit himself as to whether his letter is strictly business or merely friendly, but it also compels the teaching of two forms where one will do. =Note 49= (page 97). Since the question may arise, why the subject should not become a matter of class discussion, it is advised that emphasis be placed on the fact that each pupil would probably prefer to talk the matter over with the teacher privately. Few pupils would like to announce publicly their desire to be postmaster, but all would be willing to tell this wish to the teacher alone. All these individual conferences, however, would be impracticable for the reasons stated in the text. There thus arises a real occasion and need for the personal letter from each pupil to the teacher. =Note 50= (page 97). This will probably prove the strategic time for a conference between the teacher and each pupil. The letter written by each pupil alone should be made the occasion for this meeting. Sympathetic, constructive suggestions by the teacher, covering letter form (just taught) as well as the capitalization and punctuation of sentences, will do much toward giving letter writing a promising start with the class. =Note 51= (page 103). Some of the best letters, as well as some of the poorest, should be utilized for criticism, in order that pupils may appreciate the excellence of the best and, on the other hand, may have ample opportunity for constructive, improving work in making over the poorest. See Note 20. =Note 52= (page 106). This exercise involves, of course, the description of each pupil by himself. It is suggested that the spirit of play and fun be permitted to permeate the exercise, in order that wooden descriptions, mere catalogues of qualities, may be avoided. =Note 53= (page 109). A committee of pupils, or several committees, may profitably be appointed to see that each pupil rewrites and copies neatly his sketch of himself. The committee would have charge of the making of the book after each sketch has been finished. During this work the need may arise of learning ways of lettering book titles. Then and there the teacher should study titles of books and articles with the class and inductively teach the rule that the first and every important word in a title should begin with a capital letter. =Note 54= (page 113). Do not hurry in these critical exercises. Continue each one as long as the interest of the pupils will permit. =Note 55= (page 114). If pupils manifest a desire at this point to talk about ponies, horses, goats, chickens, ducks, pigeons, rabbits, or other domestic animals, this desire should be utilized for a series of exercises similar to those about dogs. =Note 56= (page 116). Pupils should arrive on their bicycles in animated talk, should dismount and lean the bicycles very carefully against the tree. Then they should step cautiously into the boat. When the boat leaves shore, the boy in the stern is sitting half twisted around and talking to his dog, while the other boy is seated squarely, well braced, so that he may row with steady strokes. Two girls may play the story as if it were about two girls. =Note 57= (page 116). Repetition in these dramatizations must always have a clear and justifiable purpose that pupils understand. For instance, having a new audience (the pupils from another room or a visitor) would usually constitute a good reason for a second performance. Then, repetition before the _same_ audience might be justified by the endeavor to improve the playing by introducing more action or more speech and thus achieving a better representation, which the class recognizes as desirable. But every wise teacher knows that the play must stop before it has lost its savor. See Note 5. =Note 58= (page 118). If this exercise is to reach the maximum of profit for the class, it will include constructive work in word study, variety in expression, expansion by happy additions of words and sentences, contraction, rearrangement, combination of sentences, shortening of sentences, the striking out of needless _and's_, as well as attention to mistakes in grammar. Only one critical question should be considered at each reading. =Note 59= (page 120). Nine pupils may work at the board at the same time, each writing one of the nine sentences. =Note 60= (page 123). Teachers will arrange matters tactfully, that every pupil may receive a letter from one of his classmates. Pupils may write more than one letter if they wish, but the postmaster should accept no slovenly mail. =Note 61= (page 124). It is recommended that this correspondence be permitted to continue as long as pupils take pleasure in it. There should be allowed great freedom of content. Let pupils tease each other, poke fun at each other, even ask silly questions. See Note 2. =Note 62= (page 125). Pronounced s[=e]´r[=e]z, pr[=o]-sûr´p[i]-n[_.a_], [_.a_]-p[o]l´[=o], pl[=o]o´t[=o]. =Note 63= (page 131). Since the next dozen lessons or more assume the spring-time as their background, it is strongly recommended that the room be fittingly decorated. If a class excursion could be made into the woods or to a river or park, it should be done. Some time during this group of lessons dramatization may take the form of playing that the schoolroom is a meadow or a wood in which pupils wander about picking flowers, seeing birds and animals. These they describe to the class. =Note 64= (page 133). By seeing written products grow in clearness, force, interest, beauty, and language effectiveness as the class faces the problem of improving them, by seeing the better word displace the good and the phrase of color the colorless one, by watching the vague thought give way to the vivid thought, pupils will be impressed as in no other way with the fact that the first draft of any written expression, brief or long, is merely the first draft, merely a basis, a beginning, a preliminary sketch, for the finished written composition. See Notes 7 and 20. =Note 65= (page 141). By having another pupil stand before the class and speak for the pupil who is a bird, flower, or animal (replying, for instance, "No, he is not a dandelion" or "Yes, he is a sparrow") the game _I am not_ is easily transformed into the game _He is not_. Similarly, the games _He has not_ and _He does not_ may easily be devised. =Note 66= (page 143). A classroom correspondence, that is, a class exchange of riddles through the class post office, may be desirable at this time. =Note 67= (page 149). The playing of this story, the preliminary pantomime, the discussion before and after, the playing by different groups in friendly rivalry, may well occupy several English periods. =Note 68= (page 150). It is recommended that a real spring festival be held. See Percival Chubb's "Festivals and Plays" (Harpers). A committee of pupils may be appointed to take charge of it. =Note 69= (page 151). During the telephone game the teacher may now and then take the receiver and show what clear, polite, efficient telephoning is. In fact, the entire game may be played between the teacher on the one side and different pupils in succession on the other. =Note 70= (page 152). Sending by mail may not seem advisable in some schools; but if it is decided on, it should be preceded by an exercise on the writing of addresses. =Note 71= (page 153). The writing of the titles _Mr._, _Mrs._, and _Miss_ should not be made the object of any extended drill at this time. Pupils should know how to write them for the purposes of the present exercises and of a few of the succeeding exercises. =Note 72= (page 154). While some pupils are copying at their desks, others may copy at the board. The latter will write copies for class criticism. Then other addresses, supplied by the teacher, may be written from dictation or copied, other pupils now writing at the board. =Note 73= (page 155). It will be delightful to decorate the schoolroom for this lesson and the lessons immediately following. Pictures of wild animals, of trick riders, of circus parades, should be hung on the walls. It would be the best of good luck if a large circus poster could be obtained and fastened on the front wall. See Note 26. =Note 74= (page 156). In many schools the making of the book will be doubly enjoyed if the carrying out of the plan is put in charge of several committees of pupils, after the work has been initiated by the teacher. =Note 75= (page 157). A committee of pupils, or several such committees, may now take upon itself the work of helping in the improvement of the remaining circus stories, their final copying, and their arrangement in the book. The whole class may be divided into six or eight small groups for this coöperative work. The teacher, apparently in the far background, is in reality in the thick of the work. See Note 79. =Note 76= (page 159). A march may be played while the parade is on its way around the room. Let fun and play abound. Let pantomime be as extravagant as these dictate. The parade may well precede as well as follow the making of riddles. In fact, there might be an alternation of making riddles with marching, a short march following each half-dozen riddles. =Note 77= (page 159). Wood's "Animals: their Relation and Use to Man" (Ginn) is recommended to teachers who wish interesting and reliable information about lions, tigers, elephants, and other wild animals. =Note 78= (page 163). For the sake of difference from the preceding oral work it may be desirable to let each animal tell its own story in the written accounts for the class book. Each animal may say where it came from, how it used to live, how it was caught, how it likes to travel with a circus, and what it would do if it were free again. =Note 79= (page 163). While this correction work is apparently entirely in the hands of the pupils, the teacher should make the most of the situation, first, by allowing pupils to feel the weight of responsibility (for a book with mistakes is no book at all, since it cannot be shown to other pupils and teachers), and, second, by imperceptibly and constructively assisting in the finding and correcting of mistakes. The teacher should pass from group to group, ready to help where help is needed, but very cautious about interfering or dominating or overturning the delicate balance of enjoyment, responsibility, and coöperative endeavor in any social group of workers. =Note 80= (page 163). Only one question should be considered at one critical reading. =Note 81= (page 165). The more realistic this can be made, the more fun there will be for the pupils, and the more profit for them from the English teacher's point of view. Each child should have a telephone number. A "Central" should answer rings and make connections. A little bell might be used. Toy telephones might be employed. The children are to play at telephoning, with emphasis on the _play_. Not until we have a deep stream of pleasure running in the class consciousness can we float the technical freight for whose sure delivery to the pupils the language teacher is responsible. =Note 82= (page 165). Pupils will enjoy pretending to telephone to the animals in the circus. These may tell how they like circus life, what they think of their trainers, whether they would like to return to their homes in the wilds, what they think of other animals in the menagerie tent, and which kinds of people they like to have look at them. For still further variation, the different circus animals, as well as the circus people, may telephone to each other. =Note 83= (page 168). If written work be desired at this time, it is suggested that this oral exercise be followed with the making of a book of vacation wishes or vacation plans. INDEX (The numbers refer to pages. The Notes designated are the Notes to the Teacher, printed at the end of the text) Address on envelope, 153, 154, 155 Alcott, Louisa M., _Jack and Jill_, 76, 77, 78 Allingham, William, _A Child's Song_, 54 _And_ habit, the, 42, 72, 86, 107; Notes 30 and 58 Bible, quotations from, Note 21 Bird, Robert M., _The Fairy Folk_, 52 _Came_, 119, 120 _Can_, _may_, 92, 93, 94 Capitalization, Notes 16, 40, and 53; drill in, 8, 11, 25, 37, 45, 67, 72, 86, 119, 143, 163; sentences, 11, 25, 37, 67, 72, 86, 99, 118, 163; months, 41, 42, 43, 45, Note 40; _I_, 43; names of persons, 90, 91; titles, 153; to begin every line of poetry, Note 37 _Ceres, The Daughter of_, 125-129; _Ceres and Apollo_, 133-138; _Ceres and Pluto_, 144-149 Christmas, Notes 33, 34, 39, and 41 Circus, 155-166 Colon, 96, 99, 123, 153 Comma, 74 Committee of pupils, Note 53 Completing unfinished story, 3, 4, 72, 73, 74, 114, 116, 117, 118, 119 Copying, 8, 10, 25, 37, 45, 67, 96, 119, 143, 154; Notes 12 and 25 Correct Usage, Notes 19, 28, and 32; _saw_, 11, 12; _saw_, _seen_, 21, 22, 23, 119, 120; _have_, 40, 41; _did_, _done_, 45, 46, 47, 119, 120; _rang_, _sang_, _drank_, 70, 71; _may_, _can_, 92, 93, 94; _no_, _not_, _never_, 109, 110, 111; _went_, _came_, 119, 120; _I am not_, 141; _good_, _well_, 163, 164 Correlation, Notes 26 and 34 Criticism of compositions, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, 19, 20, 26, 42, 43, 51, 72, 73, 86, 90, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 109, 113, 114, 116, 118, 123, 124, 132, 133, 139, 140, 142, 143, 149, 151, 153, 157, 158, 161, 163, Notes 7, 8, 12, 17, 36, 50, 51, 53, 64, and 79; questions for, 26, 36, 42, 43, 67, 72, 86, 90, 98, 99, 103, 114, 116, 118, 123, 124, 139, 140, 151, 163, Note 80 Dates, 74, 75, 124; Note 40 Decoration of schoolroom, Notes 26, 33, 63, and 75 Description, exercises in, 8, 42, 52, 106, 112, 113, 158, 160, 161, 163; Notes 52 and 63 Dictation, 10, 37, 67, 73, 86, 96, 143; Note 18 _Did_, _done_, 45,46, 47, 119, 120 _Doesn't_, Note 65 Dogs, 111-123 Double negative, 109, 110, 111 Dramatization, 1, 2, 3, 8, 10, 15, 16, 26, 31, 32, 33, 38, 39, 42, 64, 69, 70, 75, 84, 89, 91, 92, 114, 116, 117, 130, 138, 139, 140, 149; Notes 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 27, 42, 56, 57, and 63 _Drank_, 70, 71 Dreams, telling, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 12; Note 14 Eastman, Charles A. (Ohiyesa), _An Indian Boy's Training_, 29; starting a fire, 35; character of Indian life, 38 Eskimos, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86; Note 45 Explanation, 28, 35, 36, 39, 75, 79, 80, 111, 116, 121, 123, 130, 150, 159, 160, 166, 167, 168; Notes 34 and 43 Fables, 13-25; _The Ants and the Grasshoppers_, 13 Fairies and fairy stories, 1-8, 47-74, 167, 168 Foreign children, Note 41 Game, 12, 22, 23, 40, 44, 45, 46, 47, 71, 90, 94, 109, 111, 119, 121, 164, 166; Notes 28, 31, and 69 _Good_, _well_, 163, 164 _Got_, 40, 41 Greeting of a letter, 96, 97, 99, 123, 153; Note 48 Group exercise, 9, 19, 20, 26, 34, 36, 42, 43, 45, 51, 67, 72, 81, 85, 95, 103, 107, 108, 114, 117, 118, 132, 133, 139, 140, 143, 149, 151, 153, 157, 158, 161, 163; Notes 15, 53, 58, and 79 _Hasn't_, Note 65 _Have_, _got_, 40, 41 Hood, Thomas, _Queen Mab_, 7 _I_, 43 _I am not_, 141; Note 65 Improvement in English, 4, 5, 6, 10, 19, 25, 35, 36, 42, 65, 66, 67, 72, 81, 82, 86, 90, 98, 99, 100, 101, 103, 107, 109, 113, 118, 133, 142, 143, 149, 151, 153, 157, 158, 161, 163; Notes 7, 8, 17, 20, 24, 46, 50, 51, 53, and 64 Indention, 96, 124 _Indian Boy's Training, An_, 29 Indians, 28-47; Notes 26 and 29 Individuality, Notes 5 and 20 Initiative, Note 6 _Isn't_, Note 65 Letter writing, 95-103, 123, 124, 152-155; Notes 49, 50, and 66 Making a book: class picture book, 107-109; dog picture book, 114; circus book, 156, 157; book about wild animals, 162, 163 _May_, _can_, 92, 93, 94 Memory exercise, 9, 59, 69, 89; Note 13 Months, 41-45; Note 29 _Mr._, _Mrs._, _Miss_, 153; Note 71 Names, writing, 90, 91 Negative words, 109-111 Observation, 22, 23; Note 23 Optional work. _See_ the Preface Oral Composition. Not listed, since practically every page of the book would be included Pantomime, 2, 8, 12, 15, 16, 17, 31, 32, 33, 69, 75, 78, 84, 89, 114, 116, 117, 138, 139, 140, 159; Notes 2, 3, 27, 42, 56, and 76 Parent coöperation, Notes 32 and 47 Period, 8, 11, 25, 67, 72, 86, 118, 120, 121, 163 _Peter and the Strange Little Old Man_, 47; _Peter Visits the Strange Little Old Man's Workshop_, 56 Picture, as basis for composition (_see_ Notes 26 and 33): frontispiece; _Safely First_, 27; _An Unfinished Story_, 115; _A Story to Finish_, 122 Picture, making a, with colored chalk or crayon, 8, 35, 36, 51, 52, 55, 64, 89; Notes 26 and 33 Poem, study of: _Queen Mab_, 6-9; _The Fairy Folk_, 52; _A Child's Song_, 54, 55; _The Light-Hearted Fairy_, 68-70; _Jack Frost_, 87-89; _Mr. Nobody_, 104-107 Post office, class, 94, 95, 97, 102, 103, 124; Notes 60 and 66 Posture, pupil's, while speaking, 20, 107 Project. _See_ Situation. _See also_ Note 46 Pronunciation, 23, 24, 34, 81, 82, 124, 125, 166; Notes 44 and 62 Punctuation, Note 16; sentence, 8, 11, 25, 37, 67, 72, 86, 99, 118, 119, 143, 163; period, 8, 11, 25, 37, 67, 72, 86, 118, 120, 121, 163; comma, 74; letter, 95, 96, 97, 99, 124; colon, 96, 99, 123; question mark, 120, 121, 124, 163 Question mark, 120, 121, 124, 163 Questions used in criticism of oral and written compositions, 26, 36, 42, 43, 67, 72, 86, 90, 98, 99, 103, 114, 116, 118, 123, 124, 139, 140, 151, 163; Note 80 _Rang_, 70, 71 Responsibility, Note 6 Review. _See_ Group exercise. _See also_ Notes 15 and 47 Rhythm in poems, 55, 68, 69, 70 Riddles, 44, 45, 65, 66, 67, 141, 142, 143, 158, 159; Note 35 _Safety First_, 26, 27 Salutation of a letter. _See_ Greeting _Sang_, 70, 71 _Saw_, _seen_, 11, 12, 21, 22, 23, 119, 120 Sentence study, 10, 11, 24, 25, 34, 35, 36, 43, 44, 67, 71, 72, 73, 86, 94, 97, 113, 119, 120, 121, 133, 143, 157, 158, 163; Notes 16 and 58 Setoun, Gabriel, _Jack Frost_, 87, 88 Situation, long (_see_ the Preface): dreams, 1-12; fables, 13-25; Indians, 28-47; fairies and Santa Claus, 47-74; winter, Eskimos, Jack Frost, 80-92; valentines, 94-109; dogs, 111-123; spring-time, 125-151; circus, 155-166; vacation plans, 166-168 Spelling, 11, 37, 42, 45, 67, 72, 86, 119, 132, 143; Note 40 Spring festival, Note 68 Stanza, 55, 69, 89, 106; Note 37 Story-telling, 3, 4, 9, 10, 18, 19, 20, 21, 24, 26, 47, 51, 56, 64, 72, 73, 74, 76, 78, 79, 118, 123, 125, 133, 144; Notes 22 and 38 Study recitation, the, Notes 1 and 33 Telephone directory, making a, 90, 91 Telephoning, 90-92, 151, 165; Notes 69, 81, and 82 Telling interesting things, 28, 35, 36, 38, 39, 75, 82-86, 111, 131, 155, 160 Titles, 153; Note 53 Unfinished story, completing, 3, 4, 72-74, 114, 116-119 Vacation plans, 166, 167, 168 Valentine projects, 94, 95, 97, 102, 103 Variety in expression, Note 58 Voice, 20, 107, 151; Note 30 _Well_, _good_, 163, 164 _Went_, 119, 120 Word study, 7, 33, 34, 35, 55, 69, 72, 118; Notes 11 and 58 Written composition, 45, 97, 102, 108, 114, 118, 123, 124, 143, 156, 163; Notes 43, 49, and 64 * * * * * Transcriber's Notes: Pronunciation key for Note 62: "=" indicates a long vowel (macron above), [o] and [i] indicate short vowels (breve above), and ".a" appears as the "a" with a dot above. Phonetics shown in note 62 are more easily read in the html version of this book. 
26056	----	[Transcriber's Notes: About this book: _A booke called the Foundacion of Rhetorike_ was published in 1563. Only five copies of the original are known to exist. This e-book was transcribed from microfiche scans of the original in the Bodleian Library at Oxford University. The scans can be viewed at the Bibliothèque nationale de France website at http://gallica.bnf.fr.</p> Typography: The original line and paragraph breaks, hyphenation, spelling, capitalization, punctuation, inconsistent use of an acute accent over "ee", the use of u for v and vice versa, and the use of i for j and vice versa, have been preserved. All apparent printer errors have also been preserved, and are listed at the end of this document. The following alterations have been made: 1. Long-s has been regularized as s. 2. The paragraph symbol, resembling a C in the original, is rendered as ¶. 3. Missing punctuation, hyphens, and paragraph symbols have been added in brackets, e.g. [-]. 4. A decorative capital followed by a capital letter is represented here as two capital letters, e.g. NAture. 5. Except for the dedication, which is in modern italics, the majority of the original book is in blackletter font, with some words in a modern non-italic font. All modern-font passages are marked by underscores. 6. Sidenotes have been placed in-line, approximately where they appear in the original. 7. Incorrect page numbers have been corrected, but are included in the list of printer errors at the end of this e-book. 8. Abbreviations and contractions represented as special characters in the original have been expanded as noted in the table below. A "macron" means a horizontal line over a letter. "Supralinear" means directly over a letter; "sublinear" means directly under a letter. The "y" referred to below is an Early Modern English form of the Anglo-Saxon thorn character, representing "th," but identical in appearance to the letter "y." Original Expansion vowel with macron vowel[m] or vowel[n] y with supralinear e y^e (i.e., the) accented q with semicolon q[ue] w with supralinear curve w[ith] e with sublinear hook [ae] Pagination: This book was paginated using folio numbers in a recto-verso scheme. The front of each folio is the recto page (the right-hand page); the back of each folio is the verso page (the left-hand page in a book). In the original, folio numbers (beginning after the table of contents) are printed only on the recto side of each leaf. For the reader's convenience, all folio pages in this e-book, including the verso pages, have been numbered in brackets according to the original format, with the addition of "r" for recto and "v" for verso, e.g., [Fol. x.r] is Folio 10 recto, [Fol. x.v] is Folio 10 verso. Sources consulted: The uneven quality of the microfiche scans, as well as the blackletter font and some ink bleed-through in the original, made the scans difficult to read in some places. To ensure accuracy, the transcriber has consulted the facsimile reprint edited by Francis R. Johnson (Scholars' Facsimiles and Reprints, New York, 1945). The facsimile reprint was prepared primarily from the Bodleian copy, with several pages reproduced from the copy in the Chapin Library at Williams College, Williamstown, Massachusetts, where the Bodleian copy was unclear.] ¶ A booke cal- _led the Foundacion of Rhetorike, be-_ cause all other partes of _Rhetorike_ are grounded thereupon, euery parte sette forthe in an Oracion vpon questions, verie profitable to bee knowen and redde: Made by Ri- chard Rainolde Maister of Arte, of the Uniuersitie of Cambridge. 1563. _Mens. Marcij. vj._ _¶ Imprinted at London, by Ihon Kingston._ THE EPISTLE DEDICATORIE ¶ _To the right honorable and my singuler good Lorde,_ my Lorde Robert Dudley, Maister of the Queenes Maiesties horse, one of her highes pri- uie Counsaile, and knight of the moste honou- rable order of the Garter: Richard Rai- nolde wisheth longe life, with increase of honour. _ARISTOTLE the famous Phi- losopher, writing a boke to king Alexa[n]der, the great and migh- tie conquerour, began the Epi- stle of his Booke in these woor- des. Twoo thynges moued me chieflie, O King, to betake to thy Maiesties handes, this worke of my trauile and labour, thy nobilitie and vertue, of the whiche thy nobilitie encouraged me, thy greate and singuler vertue, indued with all humanitie, forced and draue me thereto. The same twoo in your good Lordshippe, Nobilitie and Vertue, as twoo migh- tie Pillers staied me, in this bolde enterprise, to make your good Lordshippe, beyng a Pere of honour, indued with all nobilitie and vertue: a patrone and possessoure of this my booke. In the whiche although copious and aboundaunte eloquence wanteth, to adorne and beau- tifie thesame, yet I doubte not for the profite, that is in this my trauaile conteined, your honour indued with all singuler humanitie, will vouchsaufe to accepte my willyng harte, my profitable purpose herein. Many fa- mous menne and greate learned, haue in the Greke tongue and otherwise trauailed, to profite all tymes their countrie and common wealthe. This also was my ende and purpose, to plante a worke profitable to all ty- mes, my countrie and common wealthe._ _And because your Lordshippe studieth all singula- ritie to vertue, and wholie is incensed thereto: I haue compiled this woorke, and dedicated it to your Lorde- shippe, as vnto who[m] moste noble and vertuous. Wher- in are set forthe soche Oracions, as are right profitable to bee redde, for knowledge also necessarie. The duetie of a subiecte, the worthie state of nobilitie, the prehe- minent dignitie and Maiestie of a Prince, the office of counsailours, worthie chiefe veneracion, the office of a Iudge or Magestrate are here set foorthe. In moste for- tunate state is the kyngdome and Common wealthe, where the Nobles and Peres, not onelie daiely doe stu- die to vertue, for that is the wisedome, that all the graue and wise Philophers searched to attaine to. For the ende of all artes and sciences, and of all noble actes and enterprises is vertue, but also to fauour and vphold the studentes of learnyng, whiche also is a greate ver- tue. Whoso is adorned with nobilitie and vertue, of necessitie nobilitie and vertue, will moue and allure the[m] to fauour and support vertue in any other, yea, as Tul- lie the moste famous Oratour dooeth saie, euen to loue those who[m] we neuer sawe, but by good fame and brute beutified to vs. For the encrease of vertue, God dooeth nobilitate with honour worthie menne, to be aboue other in dignitie and state, thereupon vertue doeth encrease your Lordshipps honor, beyng a louer of vertue and worthie no- bilitie._ Your lordshippes humble ser- uaunt Richard Rainolde. _To the Reader._ APHTHONIVS a famous man, wrote in Greke of soche declamacions, to en- structe the studentes thereof, with all fa- cilitée to grounde in them, a moste plenti- ous and riche vein of eloquence. No man is able to inuente a more profitable waie and order, to instructe any one in the ex- quisite and absolute perfeccion, of wisedome and eloquence, then _Aphthonius Quintilianus_ and _Hermogenes_. Tullie al- so as a moste excellente Orator, in the like sorte trauailed, whose Eloquence and vertue all tymes extolled, and the of- spryng of all ages worthilie aduaunceth. And because as yet the verie grounde of Rhetorike, is not heretofore intreated of, as concernyng these exercises, though in fewe yeres past, a learned woorke of Rhetorike is compiled and made in the Englishe toungue, of one, who floweth in all excellencie of arte, who in iudgement is profounde, in wisedome and elo- quence moste famous. In these therefore my diligence is em- ploied, to profite many, although not with like Eloquence, beutified and adorned, as the matter requireth. I haue cho- sen out in these Oracions soche questions, as are right ne- cessarie to be knowen and redde of all those, whose cogitacio[n] pondereth vertue and Godlines. I doubte not, but seyng my trauaile toucheth vertuous preceptes, and vttereth to light, many famous Histories, the order of arte obserued also, but that herein the matter it self, shall defende my purpose aga- inste the enuious, whiche seketh to depraue any good enter- prise, begon of any one persone. The enuious manne though learned, readeth to depraue that, which he readeth, the ignoraunt is no worthie Iudge, the learned and godlie pondereth vp- rightly & sincerely, that which he iudgeth, the order of these Oracions followeth afterward, and the names of the[m]. ¶ _The contentes of_ this Booke. AN Oracion made, vpon the Fable of the Shepher- des and the Wolues, the Wolues requestyng the Bandogges: wherein is set forthe the state of eue- ry subiecte, the dignitie of a Prince, the honoura- ble office of counsailours. An Oracion vpon the Fable of the Ante and the Gres- hopper, teachyng prouidence. An Oracion Historicall, howe Semiramis came to bee Quéene of Babilon. An Oracion Historicall, vpon Kyng Richard the thirde sometyme Duke of Glocester. An Oracion Historicall, of the commyng of Iulius Ce- ser into Englande. An Oracion Ciuill or Iudiciall, vpon Themistocles, of the walle buildyng at Athenes. An Oracion Poeticall vpon a redde Rose. A profitable Oracion, shewyng the decaie of kingdomes and nobilitie. An Oracion vpon a Sentence, preferryng a Monarchie, conteinyng all other states of common wealthe. The confutacion of the battaile of Troie. A confirmacion of the noble facte of Zopyrus. An Oracion called a Common place against Theues. The praise of Epaminundas Duke of Thebes, wherein the grounde of nobilitée is placed. The dispraise of Domicius Nero Emperour of Roome. A comparison betwene Demosthenes and Tullie. A lamentable Oracion of Hecuba Queene of Troie. A descripcion vpon Xerxes kyng of Persia. An Oracion called _Thesis_, as concerning the goodly state of Mariage. An Oracion confutyng a certaine lawe of Solon. [Fol. j.r] _The foundacion of_ Rhetorike. NAture hath indued euery man, with a certain eloquence, and also subtili- [Sidenote: Rhetorike and Logike giuen of na- ture.] tée to reason and discusse, of any que- stion or proposicion propounded, as _Aristotle_ the Philosopher, in his Booke of _Rhetorike_ dooeth shewe. These giftes of nature, singuler doe flowe and abounde in vs, accordyng to the greate and ample indumente and plentuousnes of witte and wisedome, lodged in vs, there- fore Nature it self beyng well framed, and afterward by arte [Sidenote: Arte furthe- reth nature.] and order of science, instructed and adorned, must be singular- lie furthered, helped, and aided to all excellencie, to exquisite [Sidenote: Logike.] inuencion, and profounde knowledge, bothe in _Logike_ and [Sidenote: Rhetorike.] _Rhetorike_. In the one, as a Oratour to pleate with all facili- tee, and copiouslie to dilate any matter or sentence: in the other to grounde profunde and subtill argument, to fortifie & make stronge our assercion or sentence, to proue and defende, by the [Sidenote: Logike.] force and power of arte, thinges passyng the compasse & reach of our capacitée and witte. Nothyng can bee more excellently [Sidenote: Eloquence.] giuen of nature then Eloquence, by the which the florishyng state of commonweales doe consiste: kyngdomes vniuersally are gouerned, the state of euery one priuatelie is maintained. The commonwealth also should be maimed, and debilitated, [Sidenote: Zeno.] except the other parte be associate to it. _Zeno_ the Philosopher comparing _Rhetorike_ and _Logike_, doeth assimilate and liken [Sidenote: Logike.] them to the hand of man. _Logike_ is like faith he to the fiste, for euen as the fiste closeth and shutteth into one, the iointes and partes of the hande, & with mightie force and strength, wrap- [Sidenote: Similitude[.] Logike.] peth and closeth in thynges apprehended: So _Logike_ for the deepe and profounde knowlege, that is reposed and buried in it, in soche sort of municion and strength fortified, in few wor- des taketh soche force and might by argumente, that excepte [Fol. j.v] like equalitée in like art and knowledge doe mate it, in vain the disputacion shalbe, and the repulse of thaduersarie readie. [Sidenote: Rhetorike like to the hande.] _Rhetorike_ is like to the hand set at large, wherein euery part and ioint is manifeste, and euery vaine as braunches of trées [Sidenote: Rhetorike.] sette at scope and libertee. So of like sorte, _Rhetorike_ in moste ample and large maner, dilateth and setteth out small thyn- ges or woordes, in soche sorte, with soche aboundaunce and plentuousnes, bothe of woordes and wittie inuencion, with soche goodlie disposicion, in soche a infinite sorte, with soche pleasauntnes of Oracion, that the moste stonie and hard har- tes, can not but bee incensed, inflamed, and moued thereto. [Sidenote: Logike and Rhetorike absolute in fewe.] These twoo singuler giftes of nature, are absolute and perfect in fewe: for many therebe, whiche are exquisite and profound in argument, by art to reason and discusse, of any question or proposicion propounded, who by nature are disabled, & smal- lie adorned to speake eloquently, in whom neuertheles more aboundaunt knowlege doeth somtymes remaine then in the other, if the cause shalbe in controuersie ioined, and examined to trie a manifeste truthe. But to whom nature hath giuen soche abilitée, and absolute excellencie, as that thei can bothe [Sidenote: The vertue of eloquence.] copiouslie dilate any matter or sentence, by pleasauntnes and swetenes of their wittie and ingenious oracion, to drawe vn- to theim the hartes of a multitude, to plucke doune and extir- pate affeccio[n]s and perturbacions of people, to moue pitee and compassion, to speake before Princes and rulers, and to per- swade theim in good causes and enterprises, to animate and incense them, to godlie affaires and busines, to alter the cou[n]- saill of kynges, by their wisedome and eloquence, to a better state, and also to be exquisite in thother, is a thing of all most [Sidenote: Demosthe- nes. Tisias. Gorgias. Eschines[.] Tullie. Cato.] noble and excellent. The eloquence of Demosthenes, Isocra- tes, Tisias, Gorgias, Eschines, were a great bulwarke and staie to Athens and all Grece, Rome also by the like vertue of Eloquence, in famous and wise orators vpholded: the wise and eloquente Oracions of Tullie againste Catiline. The graue and sentencious oracions of Cato in the Senate, haue [Fol. ij.r] [Sidenote: The Empe- rors of Rome famous in Eloquence.] been onelie the meane to vpholde the mightie state of Rome, in his strength and auncient fame and glorie. Also the Chro- nicles of auncient time doe shewe vnto vs, the state of Rome could by no meanes haue growen so meruailous mightie, but that God had indued the whole line of Cesars, with sin- guler vertues, with aboundaunt knowlege & singuler Elo- quence. Thusidides the famous Historiographer sheweth, [Sidenote: Thusidides.] how moche Eloquence auailed the citees of Grece, fallyng to [Sidenote: Corcurians.] dissencio[n]. How did the Corcurians saue them selues from the [Sidenote: Pelopone- sians.] inuasio[n] and might, of the Poloponesians, their cause pleated before the Athenians, so moche their eloquence in a truthe [Sidenote: Corinthians[.]] preuailed. The Ambassadours of Corinth, wanted not their copious, wittie, and ingenious Oracions, but thei pleated before mightie, wise, and graue Senators, whose cause, ac- cordyng to iudgeme[n]t, truthe, and integritée was ended. The [Sidenote: Lacedemo- nians. Vitulenia[n]s. Athenians.] eloque[n]t Embassages of the Corinthia[n]s, the Lacedemonia[n]s, & the Vituleneans, the Athenians, who so readeth, shall sone sée that of necessitee, a common wealth or kyngdome must be fortefied, with famous, graue, and wise counsailours. How [Sidenote: Demosthe- nes.] often did Demosthenes saue the co[m]mon wealthes of Athens, how moche also did that large dominion prospere and florish [Sidenote: Socrates. Cato. Crassus. Antonius. Catulus. Cesar.] by Isocrates. Tullie also by his Eloque[n]t please, Cato, Cras- sus, Antonius, Catulus Cesar, with many other, did support and vphold the state of that mightie kyngdo[m]. No doubte, but that Demosthenes made a wittie, copious, and ingenious o- racions, when the Athenians were minded to giue and be- [Sidenote: Philippe the kyng of the Macidonia[n]s[.]] take to the handes of Philip kyng of the Macedonians, their pestiferous enemie moste vile and subtell, the Orators of A- thens. This Philip forseyng the discorde of Grece, as he by subtill meanes compassed his enterprices, promised by the faithe of a Prince, to be at league with the Athenians, if so be thei would betake to his handes, the eloquente Oratours of [Sidenote: The saiyng of Philippe.] Athens, for as long saith he, as your Oratours are with you declaryng, so longe your heddes and counsaill are moued to variaunce and dissencion, this voice ones seased emong you, [Fol. ij.v] [Sidenote: Demosthe- nes.] in tranquilitée you shalbee gouerned. Demosthenes beyng eloquente and wise, foresawe the daungers and the mischie- uous intent of him, wherevpon he framed a goodly Oracion vpon a Fable, whereby he altered their counsaile, and repul- sed the enemie. This fable is afterward set forth in an Ora- cion, after the order of these exercises, profitable to _Rhetorike_. ¶ A Fable. [Sidenote: The ground of al learning[.]] FIrste it is good that the learner doe vnderstand what is a fable, for in all matters of learnyng, it is the firste grounde, as Tullie doeth saie, to knowe what the thing is, that we may the bet- [Sidenote: What is a fable.] ter perceiue whervpo[n] we doe intreate. A fable is a forged tale, co[n]taining in it by the colour of a lie, a matter [Sidenote: Morall.] of truthe. The moralle is called that, out of the whiche some godlie precepte, or admonicion to vertue is giuen, to frame and instruct our maners. Now that we knowe what a fable is, it is good to learne also, how manifolde or diuers thei be, [Sidenote: Three sortes of fables. i. A fable of reason.] I doe finde three maner of fables to be. The first of theim is, wherein a man being a creature of God indued with reason, is onely intreated of, as the Fable of the father and his chil- dren, he willing the[m] to concorde, and this is called _Rationalis fabula_, whiche is asmoche to saie, as a Fable of men indued [Sidenote: ii. Morall.] with reason, or women. The second is called a morall fable, but I sée no cause whie it is so called, but rather as the other is called a fable of reasonable creatures, so this is contrarilie named a fable of beastes, or of other thinges wanting reason or life, wanting reason as of the Ante and the Greshopper, or of this the beame caste doun, and the Frogges chosyng their [Sidenote: iii. Mixt.] king. The thirde is a mixt Fable so called, bicause in it bothe man hauyng reason, and a beaste wantyng reason, or any o- ther thing wanting life, is ioyned with it, as for the example, of the fable of the woodes and the housebandman, of whom [Sidenote: Poetes in- uentours of fables.] he desired a helue for his hatchet. Aucthours doe write, that Poetes firste inuented fables, the whiche Oratours also doe [Fol. iij.r] vse in their perswasions, and not without greate cause, both [Sidenote: Oratours vse fables.] Poetes and Oratours doe applie theim to their vse. For, fa- [Sidenote: Good doctrin in fables.] bles dooe conteine goodlie admonicion, vertuous preceptes [Sidenote: Hesiodus.] of life. Hesiodus the Poete, intreatyng of the iniurious dea- lyng of Princes and gouernours, against their subiectes, ad- monished them by the fable of the Goshauke, and the Nigh- [Sidenote: Ouide.] tyngale in his clause. Ouid also the Poete intreated of di- uers fables, wherein he giueth admonicion, and godly coun- [Sidenote: Demosthe- nes vsed fa- bles.] saile. Demosthenes the famous Oratour of Athens, vsed the fable of the Shepeherdes, and Wolues: how the Wol- ues on a tyme, instauntlie required of the Shepeherdes their bande dogges, and then thei would haue peace and concorde with theim, the Shepeherdes gaue ouer their Dogges, their Dogges deliuered and murdered, the shepe were immediat- ly deuoured: So saieth he, if ye shall ones deliuer to Philip, the king of the Macedonians your Oratours, by whose lear- nyng, knowlege and wisedome, the whole bodie of your do- minions is saued, for thei as Bandogges, doe repell all mis- cheuous enterprises and chaunses, no doubte, but that raue- nyng Wolfe Philip, will eate and consume your people, by this Fable he made an Oracion, he altered their counsailes and heddes of the Athenians, from so foolishe an enterprise. Also thesame Demosthenes, seyng the people careles, sloth- full, and lothsome to heare the Oratours, and all for the flo- rishing state of the kingdome: he ascended to the place or pul- pet, where the Oracions were made, and began with this fa- [Sidenote: The fable of Demosthe- nes, of the Asse and the shadowe.] ble. Ye men of Athens, saied he, it happened on a tyme, that a certaine man hired an Asse, and did take his iourney from Athens to Megara, as we would saie, fro[m] London to Yorke, the owner also of the Asse, did associate hymself in his iour- ney, to brynge backe the Asse againe, in the voyage the weather was extreame burning hotte, and the waie tedious the place also for barenes and sterilitée of trees, wanted sha- dowe in this long broyle of heate: he that satte one the Asse, lighted and tooke shadowe vnder the bellie of the Asse, and [Fol. iij.v] because the shadowe would not suffice bothe, the Asse beyng small, the owner saied, he muste haue the shadowe, because the Asse was his, I deny that saieth the other, the shadowe is myne, because I hired the Asse, thus thei were at greate con- tencion, the fable beyng recited, Demosthenes descended fro[m] his place, the whole multitude were inquisitiue, to knowe [Sidenote: The conten- cion vpon the shadowe and the Asse.] the ende about the shadowe, Demosthenes notyng their fol- lie, ascended to his place, and saied, O ye foolishe Athenians, whiles I and other, gaue to you counsaill and admonicio[n], of graue and profitable matters, your eares wer deafe, and your mindes slombred, but now I tell of a small trifeling matter, you throng to heare the reste of me. By this Fable he nipped their follie, and trapped them manifestlie, in their owne dol- tishenes. Herevpon I doe somwhat long, make copie of wor- [Sidenote: Fables well applied bee singuler.] des, to shewe the singularitee of fables well applied. In the tyme of Kyng Richard the thirde, Doctour Mourton, beyng Bishop of Elie, and prisoner in the Duke of Buckynghams house in Wales, was often tymes moued of the Duke, to speake his minde frelie, if king Richard wer lawfully king, and said to him of his fidelitée, to kepe close and secret his sen- tence: but the Bishop beyng a godlie man, and no lesse wise, waied the greate frendship, whiche was sometyme betwene the Duke & King Richard, aunswered in effect nothyng, but beyng daily troubled with his mocions & instigacions, spake a fable of Esope: My lorde saied he, I will aunswere you, by [Sidenote: The fable of the Bisshop of Elie, to the duke of Buc- kyngham.] a Fable of Esope. The Lion on a tyme gaue a commaunde- ment, that all horned beastes should flie from the woode, and none to remain there but vnhorned beastes. The Hare hea- ring of this commaundement, departed with the horned bea- stes from the woodde: The wilie Foxe metyng the Hare, de- maunded the cause of his haste, forthwith the Hare aunswe- red, a commaundemente is come from the Lion, that all hor- ned beastes should bee exiled, vpon paine of death, from the woode: why saied the Foxe, this commaundement toucheth not any sorte of beast as ye are, for thou haste no hornes but [Fol. iiij.r] knubbes: yea, but said the Hare, what, if thei saie I haue hor- nes, that is an other matter, my lorde I saie no more: what he ment, is euident to all men. In the time of king He[n]ry theight (a prince of famous me- morie) at what time as the small houses of religio[n], wer giuen ouer to the kinges hand, by the Parliament house: the bishop of Rochester, Doctour Fisher by name stepped forthe, beyng greued with the graunt, recited before them, a fable of Esope to shewe what discommoditee would followe in the Clergie. [Sidenote: The fable of the Bisshop of Rochester, againste the graunt of the Chauntries.] My lordes and maisters saieth he, Esope recited a fable: how that on a tyme, a housebande manne desired of the woodes, a small helue for his hatchet, all the woodes consented thereto waiyng the graunt to be small, and the thyng lesse, therevpo[n] the woodes consented, in fine the housbande man cut doune a small peece of woodde to make a helue, he framyng a helue to the hatchette, without leaue and graunt, he cut doune the mightie Okes and Cedars, and destroyed the whole woodd, then the woodes repented them to late. So saith he, the gift of these small houses, ar but a small graunt into the kinges ha[n]- des: but this small graunt, will bee a waie and meane to pull doune the greate mightie fatte Abbees, & so it happened. But there is repentau[n]ce to late: & no profite ensued of the graunte. ¶ An Oracion made by a fable, to the first exer- cise to declame by, the other, bee these, { A Fable, a Narracion. _Chria_, } { Sentence. Confutacion, } An Oracion { Confirmacion. Common place. } made by a { The praise. The dispraise. } { The Comparison, _Ethopeia_. } { A Discripcion. _Thesis, Legislatio_ } OF euery one of these, a goodlie Oracio[n] maie be made these excercises are called of the Grekes _Progimnas- mata_, of the Latines, profitable introduccions, or fore exercises, to attain greater arte and knowlege in _Rhetorike_, [Fol. iiij.v] and bicause, for the easie capacitée and facilitée of the learner, to attain greater knowledge in _Rhetorike_, thei are right pro- fitable and necessarie: Therefore I title this booke, to bee the foundacio[n] of _Rhetorike_, the exercises being _Progimnasmata_. I haue chosen out the fable of the Shepeherdes, and the Wolues, vpon the whiche fable, Demosthenes made an elo- quente, copious, and wittie Oracion before the Athenians, whiche fable was so well applied, that the citée and common wealth of Athens was saued. [Sidenote: The firste exercise.] ¶ A fable. These notes must be obserued, to make an Oracion by a Fable. ¶ Praise. 1. Firste, ye shall recite the fable, as the aucthour telleth it. 2. There in the seconde place, you shall praise the aucthoure who made the fable, whiche praise maie sone bee gotte of any studious scholer, if he reade the aucthours life and actes ther- in, or the Godlie preceptes in his fables, shall giue abundant praise. 3. Then thirdlie place the morall, whiche is the interpreta- cion annexed to the Fable, for the fable was inuented for the moralles sake. 4. Then orderlie in the fowerth place, declare the nature of thynges, conteined in the Fable, either of man, fishe, foule, beaste, plante, trées, stones, or whatsoeuer it be. There is no man of witte so dulle, or of so grosse capacitée, but either by his naturall witte, or by reading, or sences, he is hable to saie somwhat in the nature of any thyng. 5. In the fifte place, sette forthe the thynges, reasonyng one with an other, as the Ant with the Greshopper, or the Cocke with the precious stone. 6. The[n] in the vj. place, make a similitude of the like matter. 7. Then in the seuenth place, induce an exa[m]ple for thesame matter to bée proued by. 8. Laste of all make the _Epilogus_, whiche is called the con- clusion, and herein marke the notes folowyng, how to make [Fol. v.r] an Oracion thereby. ¶ An Oracion made vpon the fable of the Shepeherdes and the wolues. ¶ The fable. THe Wolues on a tyme perswaded the Shepeher- des, that thei would ioyne amitée, and make a league of concord and vnitee: the demaunde plea- sed the Shepeherdes, foorthwith the Wolues re- quested to haue custodie of the bande Dogges, because els thei would be as thei are alwaies, an occasion to breake their league and peace, the Dogges beyng giuen ouer, thei were one by one murthered, and then the Shepe were wearied. ¶ The praise of the aucthour. THe posteritee of tymes and ages, muste needes praise the wisedome and industrie, of all soche as haue lefte in monumentes of writyng, thynges worthie fame, [Sidenote: Inuentours of al excellent artes and sci- ences, com- mended to the posteritee.] what can bee more excellently set foorthe: or what deserueth chiefer fame and glorie, then the knowledge of artes and sci- ences, inuented by our learned, wise, and graue au[n]cestours: and so moche the more thei deserue honour, and perpetuall commendacions, because thei haue been the firste aucthours, and beginners to soche excellencies. The posteritée praiseth [Sidenote: Apelles. Parthesius. Polucletus.] and setteth forth the wittie and ingenious workes of Apelles, Parthesius, and Polucletus, and all soche as haue artificial- ly set forth their excellent giftes of nature. But if their praise for fame florishe perpetuallie, and increaseth for the wor- thines of theim, yet these thynges though moste excellent, are [Sidenote: The ende of all artes, is to godlie life.] inferiour to vertue: for the ende of artes and sciences, is ver- tue and godlines. Neither yet these thynges dissonaunt from vertue, and not associate, are commendable onely for vertues sake: and to the ende of vertue, the wittes of our auncestours were incensed to inuent these thynges. But herein Polucle- tus, Apelles, and Perthesius maie giue place, when greater [Sidenote: Esope wor- thie moche commendacio[n][.]] vertues come in place, then this my aucthour Esope, for his godly preceptes, wise counsaill and admonicion, is chiefly to [Fol. v.v] bée praised: For, our life maie learne all goodnes, all vertue, [Sidenote: Philophie in fables.] of his preceptes. The Philosophers did neuer so liuely sette forthe and teache in their scholes and audience, what vertue [Sidenote: Realmes maie learne concorde out of Esopes fables.] and godlie life were, as Esope did in his Fables, Citees, and common wealthes, maie learne out of his fables, godlie con- corde and vnitee, by the whiche meanes, common wealthes florisheth, and kingdoms are saued. Herein ample matter ri- seth to Princes, and gouernours, to rule their subiectes in all [Sidenote: Preceptes to Kynges and Subiectes. Preceptes to parentes and children.] godlie lawes, in faithfull obedience: the subiectes also to loue and serue their prince, in al his affaires and busines. The fa- ther maie learne to bring vp, and instructe his childe thereby. The child also to loue and obeie his parentes. The huge and monsterous vices, are by his vertuous doctrine defaced and extirpated: his Fables in effect contain the mightie volumes and bookes of all Philosophers, in morall preceptes, & the in- [Sidenote: The content of al Lawes.] finite monume[n]tes of lawes stablished. If I should not speake of his commendacion, the fruictes of his vertue would shewe his commendacions: but that praise surmounteth all fame of [Sidenote: A true praise comme[n]ded by fame it self.] glory, that commendeth by fame itself, the fruictes of fame in this one Fable, riseth to my aucthour, whiche he wrote of the Shepeherd, and the Wolues. ¶ The Morall. WHerein Esope wittely admonisheth all menne to be- ware and take heede, of cloked and fained frendship, of the wicked and vngodlie, whiche vnder a pretence and offer of frendship or of benefite, seeke the ruin, dammage, miserie or destruccion of man, toune, citée, region, or countree. ¶ The nature of the thyng. OF all beastes to the quantitée of his bodie, the [Sidenote: The Wolue moste raue- ning & cruell.] Wolue passeth in crueltee and desire of bloode, alwaies vnsaciable of deuouryng, neuer conten- ted with his pray. The Wolfe deuoureth and ea- teth of his praie all in feare, and therefore oftentymes he ca- steth his looke, to be safe from perill and daunger. And herein [Fol. vj.r] his nature is straunge fro[m] all beastes: the iyes of the Wolfe, tourned from his praie immediatlie, the praie prostrate vnder [Sidenote: The Wolues of all beastes, moste obliui- ous.] his foote is forgotten, and forthwith he seeketh a newe praie, so greate obliuion and debilitée of memorie, is giuen to that beaste, who chieflie seketh to deuoure his praie by night. The [Sidenote: The Wolue inferiour to the bandogge[.]] Wolues are moche inferior to the banddogges in strength, bi- cause nature hath framed the[m] in the hinder parts, moche more weaker, and as it were maimed, and therefore the bandogge dooeth ouermatche theim, and ouercome them in fight. The Wolues are not all so mightie of bodie as the Bandogges, of diuers colours, of fight more sharpe, of lesse heddes: but in [Sidenote: The Dogge passeth all creatures in smellyng.] smellyng, the nature of a Dogge passeth all beastes and creatures, whiche the historie of Plinie dooe shewe, and Ari- stotle in his booke of the historie of beastes, therein you shall knowe their excellente nature. The housholde wanteth not faithfull and trustie watche nor resistaunce, in the cause of the [Sidenote: Plinie.] maister, the Bandogge not wantyng. Plinie sheweth out of his historie, how Bandogges haue saued their Maister, by their resistaunce. The Dogge of all beastes sheweth moste loue, and neuer leaueth his maister: the worthines of the ba[n]- dogge is soche, that by the lawe in a certaine case, he is coun- ted accessarie of Felonie, who stealeth a Bandogge from his maister, a robberie immediatly folowing in thesame family. [Sidenote: The worthi- nes of Shepe[.]] As concernyng the Shepe, for their profite and wealthe, that riseth of theim, are for worthines, waiyng their smalle quantitie of bodie, aboue all beastes. Their fleshe nourisheth purely, beyng swete and pleasaunt: their skinne also serueth [Sidenote: The wolle of Shepe, riche and commo- dious.] to diuers vses, their Wolles in so large and ample maner, commmodious, seruyng all partes of common wealthes. No state or degrée of persone is, but that thei maie goe cladde and adorned with their wolles. So GOD in his creatures, hath [Sidenote: Man a chief creature.] created and made man, beyng a chief creatour, and moste ex- cellent of all other, all thinges to serue him: and therefore the [Sidenote: Stoike Phi- losophers.] Stoicke Philosophers doe herein shewe thexcellencie of man to be greate, when all thinges vpon the yearth, and from the [Fol. vj.v] yearth, doe serue the vse of man, yet emong men there is a di- uersitee of states, and a difference of persones, in office and co[n]- [Sidenote: The office of the shepeher- des, are pro- fitable and necessarie.] dicion of life. As concernyng the Shepherde, he is in his state and condicion of life, thoughe meane, he is a righte profi- table and necessarie member, to serue all states in the commo[n] wealthe, not onely to his maister whom he serueth: for by his diligence, and warie keping of the[m], not onely from rauenyng beastes, but otherwise he is a right profitable member, to all [Sidenote: Wealth, pro- fit, and riches riseth of the Wolles of Shepe.] partes of the common wealth. For, dailie wée féele the co[m]mo- ditie, wealth and riches, that riseth of theim, but the losse wée féele not, except flockes perishe. In the body of man God hath created & made diuerse partes, to make vp a whole and abso- lute man, whiche partes in office, qualitée and worthinesse, are moche differing. The bodie of man it self, for the excellent workemanship of God therein, & meruailous giftes of nature [Sidenote: Man called of the Philo- sophers, a lit- tle worlde.] and vertues, lodged and bestowed in thesame bodie, is called of the Philosophers _Microcosmos_, a little worlde. The body of man in all partes at co[n]cord, euery part executing his func- cion & office, florisheth, and in strength prospereth, otherwise [Sidenote: The bodie of man without concord of the partes, peri- sheth.] thesame bodie in partes disseuered, is feeble and weake, and thereby falleth to ruin, and perisheth. The singuler Fable of Esope, of the belie and handes, manifestlie sheweth thesame [Sidenote: The common wealthe like to the bodie of manne.] and herein a florishing kingdom or common wealth, is com- pared to the body, euery part vsing his pure vertue, stre[n]gth & [Sidenote: Menenius.] operacion. Menenius Agrippa, at what time as the Romai- were at diuision against the Senate, he vsed the Fable of E- sope, wherewith thei were perswaded to a concorde, and vni- [Sidenote: The baseste parte of the bodie moste necessarie.] tée. The vilest parte of the bodie, and baseste is so necessarie, that the whole bodie faileth and perisheth, thesame wantyng although nature remoueth them from our sight, and shame fastnes also hideth theim: take awaie the moste vilest parte of the bodie, either in substaunce, in operacion or function, and forthwith the principall faileth. So likewise in a kyngdome, or common wealth, the moste meane and basest state of man taken awaie, the more principall thereby ceaseth: So God to [Fol. vij.r] [Sidenote: The amiable parte of the body doe con- siste, by the baseste and moste defor- meste.] a mutuall concorde, frendship, and perpetuall societie of life, hath framed his creatures, that the moste principall faileth, it not vnited with partes more base and inferiour, so moche the might and force of thynges excellente, doe consiste by the moste inferiour, other partes of the bodie more amiable and pleasaunt to sight, doe remain by the force, vse and integritée of the simpliest. The Prince and chief peres doe decaie, and al the whole multitude dooe perishe: the baseste kinde of menne [Sidenote: The Shepe- herdes state necessarie.] wantyng. Remoue the Shepeherdes state, what good follo- weth, yea, what lacke and famine increaseth not: to all states [Sidenote: The state of the husbande manne, moste necessarie.] the belie ill fedde, our backes worse clad. The toilyng house- bandman is so necessarie, that his office ceasyng vniuersallie the whole bodie perisheth, where eche laboureth to further and aide one an other, this a common wealth, there is pro- sperous state of life. The wisest Prince, the richest, the migh- tiest and moste valianntes, had nede alwaies of the foolishe, the weake, the base and simplest, to vpholde his kingdomes, not onely in the affaires of his kyngdomes, but in his dome- sticall thinges, for prouisio[n] of victuall, as bread, drinke, meat[,] clothyng, and in all soche other thynges. Therefore, no office or state of life, be it neuer so méete, seruyng in any part of the [Sidenote: No meane state, to be contempned.] common wealthe, muste bée contemned, mocked, or skorned at, for thei are so necessarie, that the whole frame of the com- mon wealth faileth without theim: some are for their wicked behauiour so detestable, that a common wealthe muste séeke [Sidenote: Rotten mem[-] bers of the co[m][-] mon wealth.] meanes to deface and extirpate theim as wéedes, and rotten members of the bodie. These are thefes, murtherers, and ad- ulterers, and many other mischiuous persones. These godly Lawes, vpright and sincere Magistrates, will extirpate and cutte of, soche the commo wealth lacketh not, but rather ab- horreth as an infectiue plague and Pestilence, who in thende through their owne wickednesse, are brought to mischief. [Sidenote: Plato.] Read Plato in his booke, intiteled of the common wealth who sheweth the state of the Prince, and whole Realme, to stande and consiste by the vnitee of partes, all states of the co[m]- [Fol. vij.v] [Sidenote: A common wealth doe consiste by vnitie of all states.] mon wealth, in office diuers, for dignitée and worthines, bea- ring not equalitée in one consociatée and knit, doe raise a per- fite frame, and bodie of kingdome or common wealthe. [Sidenote: Aristotle. What is a co[m]- mon wealth.] Aristotle the Philosopher doeth saie, that a co[m]mon welth is a multitude gathered together in one Citée, or Region, in state and condicion of life differing, poore and riche, high and low, wise and foolishe, in inequalitee of minde and bodies dif- feryng, for els it can not bée a common wealthe. There must be nobles and peres, kyng and subiect: a multitude inferiour and more populous, in office, maners, worthines alteryng. [Sidenote: A liuely exa[m]- ple of commo[n] wealthe.] Manne needeth no better example, or paterne of a common wealthe, to frame hymself, to serue in his state and callyng, then to ponder his owne bodie. There is but one hedde, and many partes, handes, feete, fingers, toes, ioyntes, veines, si- newes, belie, and so forthe: and so likewise in a co[m]mon welth there muste be a diuersitee of states. ¶ The reasonyng of the thynges conteined in this Fable. THus might the Wolues reason with them sel- ues, of their Embassage: The Wolues dailie molested and wearied, with the fearce ragyng Masties, and ouercome in fight, of their power and might: one emong the reste, more politike and wise then the other, called an assemble and counsaill of [Sidenote: The counsail of Wolues.] Wolues, and thus he beganne his oracion. My felowes and compaignions, sithe nature hath from the beginnyng, made vs vnsaciable, cruell, liuyng alwaies by praies murthered, and bloodie spoiles, yet enemies wée haue, that séeke to kepe vnder, and tame our Woluishe natures, by greate mightie Bandogges, and Shepeherdes Curres. But nature at the firste, did so depely frame and set this his peruerse, cruell, and bloodie moulde in vs, that will thei, nill thei, our nature wil bruste out, and run to his owne course. I muse moche, wai- yng the line of our firste progenitour, from whence we came [Fol. viij.r] firste: for of a man wee came, yet men as a pestiferous poison doe exile vs, and abandon vs, and by Dogges and other sub- [Sidenote: Lycaon.] till meanes doe dailie destroie vs. Lycaon, as the Poetes doe faine, excedyng in all crueltées and murthers horrible, by the murther of straungers, that had accesse to his land: for he was king and gouernor ouer the Molossians, and in this we maie worthilie glorie of our firste blood and long auncientrée, that [Sidenote: The firste progenie of Wolues.] he was not onelie a man, but a kyng, a chief pere and gouer- nour: by his chaunge and transubstanciacion of bodie, wée loste by him the honour and dignitee due to him, but his ver- tues wée kepe, and daily practise to followe them. The fame [Sidenote: The inuen- cion of the Poet Ouide to compare a wicked man, to a Wolue.] of Lycaons horrible life, ascended before Iupiter, Iupiter the mightie God, moued with so horrible a facte, left his heauen- lie palace, came doune like an other mortall man, and passed doune by the high mountaine Minalus, by twilighte, and so to Licaons house, our firste auncestoure, to proue, if this [Sidenote: Lycaon.] thing was true. Lycaon receiued this straunger, as it semed doubtyng whether he were a God, or a manne, forthwith he feasted him with mannes fleshe baked, Iupiter as he can doe [Sidenote: Lycaon chau[n]- ged into a Wolue.] what he will, brought a ruine on his house, and transubstan- ciated hym, into this our shape & figure, wherein we are, and so sens that time, Wolues were firste generated, and that of manne, by the chaunge of Lycaon, although our shape is chaunged from the figure of other men, and men knoweth [Sidenote: Wolue. Manne.] vs not well, yet thesame maners that made Wolues, remai- neth vntill this daie, and perpetuallie in men: for thei robbe, thei steale, and liue by iniurious catching, we also robbe, al- so wée steale, and catche to our praie, what wee maie with murther come to. Thei murther, and wee also murther, and so in all poinctes like vnto wicked menne, doe we imitate the like fashion of life, and rather thei in shape of men, are Wol- ues, and wee in the shape of Wolues menne: Of all these thynges hauyng consideracion, I haue inuented a pollicie, whereby we maie woorke a slauter, and perpetuall ruine on the Shepe, by the murther of the Bandogges. And so wée [Fol. viij.v] shall haue free accesse to our bloodie praie, thus we will doe, wee will sende a Embassage to the Shepeherdes for peace, [Sidenote: The counsail of Wolues.] saiyng, that wee minde to ceasse of all bloodie spoile, so that thei will giue ouer to vs, the custodie of the Bandogges, for otherwise the Embassage sent, is in vaine: for their Dogges being in our handes, and murthered one by one, the daunger and enemie taken awaie, we maie the better obtain and en- ioye our bloodie life. This counsaill pleased well the assem- ble of the Wolues, and the pollicie moche liked theim, and with one voice thei houled thus, thus. Immediatlie co[m]muni- cacion was had with the Shepeherdes of peace, and of the gi- uyng ouer of their Bandogges, this offer pleased theim, thei co[n]cluded the peace, and gaue ouer their Bandogges, as pled- ges of thesame. The dogges one by one murthered, thei dis- solued the peace, and wearied the Shepe, then the Shepeher- des repented them of their rashe graunt, and foly committed: [Sidenote: The counsail of wicked me[n] to mischief.] So of like sorte it alwaies chaunceth, tyrauntes and bloodie menne, dooe seke alwaies a meane, and practise pollicies to destroye all soche as are godlie affected, and by wisedome and godlie life, doe seke to subuerte and destroie, the mischeuous [Sidenote: The cogita- cions of wic- ked men, and their kyngdo[m] bloodie.] enterprise of the wicked. For, by crueltie their Woluishe na- tures are knowen, their glorie, strength, kyngdome and re- nowne, cometh of blood, of murthers, and beastlie dealynges and by might so violent, it continueth not: for by violence and blooddie dealyng, their kyngdome at the last falleth by blood and bloodilie perisheth. The noble, wise, graue, and goodlie counsailes, are with all fidelitée, humblenes and sincere har- [Sidenote: The state of counsailours worthie chief honour and veneracion.] tes to be obeied, in worthines of their state and wisedome, to be embraced in chief honour and veneracion to bee taken, by whose industrie, knowledge and experience, the whole bodie of the common wealth and kyngdome, is supported and sa- ued. The state of euery one vniuersallie would come to par- dicion, if the inuasion of foraine Princes, by the wisedom and pollicie of counsailers, were not repelled. The horrible actes of wicked men would burste out, and a confusion ensue in al [Fol. ix.r] states, if the wisedom of politike gouernors, if good lawes if the power and sword of the magistrate, could uot take place. The peres and nobles, with the chief gouernour, standeth as [Sidenote: Plato.] Shepherds ouer the people: for so Plato alledgeth that name well and properlie giuen, to Princes and Gouernours, the [Sidenote: Homere.] which Homere the Poete attributeth, to Agamemnon king of Grece: to Menelaus, Ulisses, Nestor, Achillas, Diomedes, [Sidenote: The Shepe- herdes name giue[n] to the of- fice of kyngs.] Aiax, and al other. For, bothe the name and care of that state of office, can be titeled by no better name in all pointes, for di- ligent kepyng, for aide, succoryng, and with all equitie tem- peryng the multitude: thei are as Shepeherdes els the selie poore multitude, would by an oppression of pestiferous men. The commonaltee or base multitude, liueth more quietlie [Sidenote: The state or good counsai- lers, trou- blous.] then the state of soche as daily seke, to vpholde and maintaine the common wealthe, by counsaill and politike deliberacion, how troublous hath their state alwaies been: how vnquiete from time to time, whose heddes in verie deede, doeth seke for a publike wealth. Therefore, though their honor bée greater, and state aboue the reste, yet what care, what pensiuenesse of minde are thei driuen vnto, on whose heddes aucthoritée and regiment, the sauegard of innumerable people doeth depend. [Sidenote: A comparison from a lesse, to a greater.] If in our domesticall businesse, of matters pertainyng to our housholde, euery man by nature, for hym and his, is pensiue, moche more in so vaste, and infinite a bodie of co[m]mon wealth, greater must the care be, and more daungerous deliberacion. We desire peace, we reioyce of a tranquilitée, and quietnesse to ensue, we wishe, to consist in a hauen of securitée: our hou- ses not to be spoiled, our wiues and children, not to bee mur- [Sidenote: The worthie state of Prin- ces and coun- sailours.] thered. This the Prince and counsailours, by wisedome fore- sée, to kéepe of, all these calamitées, daungers, miseries, the whole multitude, and bodie of the Common wealthe, is without them maimed, weake and feable, a readie confusion to the enemie. Therefore, the state of peeres and nobles, is with all humilitée to be obaied, serued and honored, not with- out greate cause, the Athenians were drawen backe, by the [Fol. ix.v] wisedome of Demosthenes, when thei sawe the[m] selues a slau- ter and praie, to the enemie. ¶ A comparson of thynges. WHat can bée more rashly and foolishly doen, then the Shepeherdes, to giue ouer their Dogges, by whose might and strength, the Shepe were saued: on the o- ther side, what can be more subtlie doen and craftely, then the Wolues, vnder a colour of frendship and amitee, to séeke the [Sidenote: The amitie of wicked menne.] blood of the shepe, as all pestiferous men, vnder a fained pro- fer of amitée, profered to seeke their owne profite, commoditee and wealthe, though it be with ruine, calamitie, miserie, de- struccion of one, or many, toune, or citée, region and countree, whiche sort of men, are moste detestable and execrable. ¶ The contrarie. AS to moche simplicitie & lacke of discrecion, is a fur- theraunce to perill and daunger: so ofte[n]times, he ta- [Sidenote: To beleue lightly, afur- theraunce to perill.] steth of smarte and woe, who lightly beleueth: so con- trariwise, disimulacio[n] in mischeuous practises begon w[ith] fre[n]d- ly wordes, in the conclusion doeth frame & ende pernisiouslie. ¶ The _Epilogus_. THerefore fained offers of frendship, are to bee taken heede of, and the acte of euery man to bee examined, proued, and tried, for true frendship is a rare thyng, when as Tullie doth saie: in many ages there are fewe cou- ples of friendes to be found, Aristotle also co[n]cludeth thesame. ¶ The Fable of the Ante, and Greshopper. ¶ The praise of the aucthour. [Sidenote: The praise of Esope.] ESope who wrote these Fables, hath chief fame of all learned aucthours, for his Philosophie, and giuyng wisedome in preceptes: his Fables dooe shewe vnto all states moste wholsome doctrine of vertuous life. He who- ly extolleth vertue, and depresseth vice: he correcteth all states and setteth out preceptes to amende them. Although he was deformed and ill shaped, yet Nature wrought in hym soche [Fol. x.r] vertue, that he was in minde moste beautifull: and seing that the giftes of the body, are not equall in dignitie, with the ver- tue of the mynde, then in that Esope chiefly excelled, ha- uyng the moste excellente vertue of the minde. The wisedom [Sidenote: Cresus.] and witte of Esope semed singuler: for at what tyme as Cre- sus, the kyng of the Lidians, made warre against the Sami- ans, he with his wisedome and pollicie, so pacified the minde of Cresus, that all warre ceased, and the daunger of the coun- [Sidenote: Samians.] tree was taken awaie, the Samia[n]s deliuered of this destruc- cion and warre, receiued Esope at his retourne with many honours. After that Esope departyng from the Isle Samus, wandered to straunge regions, at the laste his wisedome be- [Sidenote: Licerus.] yng knowen: Licerus the kyng of that countrée, had hym in soche reuerence and honor, that he caused an Image of gold to be set vp in the honour of Esope. After that, he wanderyng [Sidenote: Delphos.] ouer Grece, to the citée of Delphos, of whom he beyng mur- thered, a greate plague and Pestilence fell vpon the citee, that reuenged his death: As in all his Fables, he is moche to bee commended, so in this Fable he is moche to be praised, which he wrote of the Ante and the Greshopper. ¶ The Fable. IN a hotte Sommer, the Grashoppers gaue them sel- ues to pleasaunt melodie, whose Musicke and melo- die, was harde from the pleasaunt Busshes: but the Ante in all this pleasaunt tyme, laboured with pain and tra- uaile, she scraped her liuyng, and with fore witte and wise- [Sidenote: Winter.] dome, preuented the barande and scarce tyme of Winter: for when Winter time aprocheth, the ground ceasseth fro[m] fruict, [Sidenote: The Ante.] then the Ante by his labour, doeth take the fruicte & enioyeth it: but hunger and miserie fell vpon the Greshoppers, who in the pleasaunt tyme of Sommer, when fruictes were aboun- dauute, ceassed by labour to put of necessitée, with the whiche the long colde and stormie tyme, killed them vp, wantyng al sustinaunce. [Fol. x.v] ¶ The Morall. HEre in example, all menne maie take to frame their owne life, and also to bryng vp in godlie educacion their children: that while age is tender and young, thei maie learne by example of the Ante, to prouide in their grene and lustie youth, some meane of art and science, wher- by thei maie staie their age and necessitée of life, al soche as do flie labour, and paine in youth, and seeke no waie of Arte and science, in age thei shall fall in extreme miserie and pouertée. ¶ The nature of the thyng. NOt without a cause, the Philosophers searchyng the nature and qualitee of euery beaste, dooe moche com- [Sidenote: The Ante.] mende the Ante, for prouidence and diligence, in that not oneie by nature thei excell in forewisedome to the[m] selues, [Sidenote: Manne.] but also thei be a example, and mirrour to all menne, in that thei iustlie followe the instincte of Nature: and moche more, where as men indued with reason, and all singulare vertues and excellent qualitées of the minde and body. Yet thei doe so moche leaue reason, vertue, & integritée of minde, as that thei had been framed without reason, indued with no vertue, nor adorned with any excellent qualitée. All creatures as nature hath wrought in them, doe applie them selues to followe na- ture their guide: the Ante is alwaies diligent in his busines, and prouident, and also fore séeth in Sommer, the sharpe sea- son of Winter: thei keepe order, and haue a kyng and a com- mon wealthe as it were, as nature hath taught them. And so haue all other creatures, as nature hath wrought in the[m] their giftes, man onelie leaueth reason, and neclecteth the chief or- namentes of the minde: and beyng as a God aboue all crea- tures, dooeth leese the excellent giftes. A beaste will not take excesse in feedyng, but man often tymes is without reason, and hauyng a pure mynde and soule giuen of God, and a face to beholde the heauens, yet he doeth abase hymself to yearth- [Sidenote: Greshopper.] lie thynges, as concernyng the Greshopper: as the Philoso- phers doe saie, is made altogether of dewe, and sone perisheth[.] [Fol. xj.r] The Greshopper maie well resemble, slothfull and sluggishe persones, who seke onely after a present pleasure, hauyng no fore witte and wisedom, to foresée tymes and ceasons: for it is [Sidenote: A poincte of wisedome.] the poinct of wisedo[m], to iudge thinges present, by thinges past and to take a co[n]iecture of thinges to come, by thinges present. ¶ The reasonyng of the twoo thynges. THus might the Ante reason with her self, althoughe the seasons of the yere doe seme now very hotte, plea- [Sidenote: A wise cogi- tacion.] saunt and fruictfull: yet so I do not trust time, as that like pleasure should alwaies remaine, or that fruictes should alwaies of like sorte abounde. Nature moueth me to worke, and wisedome herein sheweth me to prouide: for what hur- teth plentie, or aboundaunce of store, though greate plentie commeth thereon, for better it is to bee oppressed with plen- tie, and aboundaunce, then to bee vexed with lacke. For, to whom wealthe and plentie riseth, at their handes many bee releued, and helped, all soche as bee oppressed with necessi- tie and miserie, beyng caste from all helpe, reason and proui- dence maimed in theim: All arte and Science, and meane of life cutte of, to enlarge and maintain better state of life, their [Sidenote: Pouertie.] miserie, necessitie, and pouertie, shall continuallie encrease, who hopeth at other mennes handes, to craue relief, is decei- ued. Pouertie is so odious a thing, in al places & states reiected for where lacke is, there fanour, frendship, and acquaintance [Sidenote: Wisedome.] decreaseth, as in all states it is wisedome: so with my self I waie discritlie, to take tyme while tyme is, for this tyme as a [Sidenote: Housebande menne.] floure will sone fade awaie. The housebande manne, hath he not times diuers, to encrease his wealth, and to fill his barne, at one tyme and ceason: the housebande man doeth not bothe plante, plowe, and gather the fruicte of his labour, but in one tyme and season he ploweth, an other tyme serueth to sowe, and the laste to gather the fruictes of his labour. So then, I must forsee time and seasons, wherin I maie be able to beare of necessitie: for foolishly he hopeth, who of no wealth and no abundaunt store, trusteth to maintain his own state. For, no- [Fol. xj.v] [Sidenote: Frendship.] thyng soner faileth, then frendship, and the soner it faileth, as [Sidenote: Homere.] fortune is impouerished. Seyng that, as Homere doeth saie, a slothfull man, giuen to no arte or science, to helpe hymself, or an other, is an vnprofitable burdein to the yearth, and God dooeth sore plague, punishe, and ouerthrowe Citees, kyng- domes, and common wealthes, grounded in soche vices: that the wisedome of man maie well iudge, hym to be vnworthie of all helpe, and sustinaunce. He is worse then a beast, that is not able to liue to hymself & other: no man is of witte so vn- [Sidenote: Nature.] descrite, or of nature so dulle, but that in hym, nature alwa- yes coueteth some enterprise, or worke to frame relife, or help [Sidenote: The cause of our bearth.] to hymself, for all wée are not borne, onelie to our selues, but many waies to be profitable, as to our owne countrie, and all partes thereof. Especiallie to soche as by sickenes, or infirmi- tie of bodie are oppressed, that arte and Science can not take place to help the[m]. Soche as do folowe the life of the Greshop- per, are worthie of their miserie, who haue no witte to foresée seasons and tymes, but doe suffer tyme vndescretly to passe, [Sidenote: Ianus.] whiche fadeth as a floure, thold Romaines do picture Ianus with two faces, a face behind, & an other before, which resem- ble a wiseman, who alwaies ought to knowe thinges paste, thynges presente, and also to be experte, by the experience of many ages and tymes, and knowledge of thynges to come. ¶ The comparison betwene the twoo thynges. WHat can be more descritlie doen, then the Ante to be so prouident and politike: as that all daunger of life, & necessitie is excluded, the stormie times of Winter ceaseth of might, & honger battereth not his walles, hauyng [Sidenote: Prouidence.] soche plentie of foode, for vnlooked bitter stormes and seasons, happeneth in life, whiche when thei happen, neither wisedo[m] nor pollicie, is not able to kepe backe. Wisedome therefore, it is so to stande, that these thynges hurte not, the miserable ende of the Greshopper sheweth vnto vs, whiche maie be an example to all menne, of what degree, so euer thei bee, to flie [Fol. xij.r] slothe and idelnesse, to be wise and discrite. ¶ Of contraries. [Sidenote: Diligence.] AS diligence, prouidence, and discrete life is a singu- lare gift, whiche increaseth all vertues, a pillar, staie and a foundacion of all artes and science, of common wealthes, and kyngdomes. So contrarily sloth and sluggish- nesse, in all states and causes, defaseth, destroyeth, and pul- leth doune all vertue, all science and godlines. For, by it, the mightie kyngdome of the Lidia[n]s, was destroied, as it semeth [Sidenote: Idelnes.] no small vice, when the Lawes of Draco, dooe punishe with death idelnesse. ¶ The ende. [Sidenote: The Ante.] THerefore, the diligence of the Ante in this Fable, not onelie is moche to be commended, but also her example is to bee followed in life. Therefore, the wiseman doeth admonishe vs, to go vnto the Ant and learne prouidence: and also by the Greshopper, lette vs learne to auoide idelnes, leste the like miserie and calamitie fall vpon vs. ¶ Narratio. THis place followyng, is placed of Tullie, after the exordium or beginnyng of Oracion, as the seconde parte: whiche parte of _Rhetorike_, is as it were the light of all the Oracion folowing: conteining the cause, mat- ter, persone, tyme, with all breuitie, bothe of wordes, and in- uencion of matter. ¶ A Narracion. A Narracion is an exposicion, or declaracion of any thyng dooen in deede, or els a settyng forthe, for- ged of any thyng, but so declaimed and declared, as though it were doen. A narracion is of three sortes, either it is a narracion hi- storicall, of any thyng contained, in any aunciente storie, or true Chronicle. [Fol. xij.v] Or Poeticall, whiche is a exposicion fained, set forthe by inuencion of Poetes, or other. Or ciuill, otherwise called Iudiciall, whiche is a matter of controuersie in iudgement, to be dooen, or not dooen well or euill. In euery Narracion, ye must obserue sixe notes. 1. Firste, the persone, or doer of the thing, whereof you intreate. 2. The facte doen. 3. The place wherein it was doen. 4. The tyme in the whiche it was doen. 5. The maner must be shewed, how it was doen. 6. The cause wherevpon it was doen. There be in this Narracion, iiij. other properties belo[n]ging[.] 1. First, it must be plain and euident to the hearer, not obscure, 2. short and in as fewe wordes as it maie be, for soche amatter. 3. Probable, as not vnlike to be true. 4. In wordes fine and elegante. ¶ A narracion historicall, vpon Semiramis Queene of Babilon how and after what sort she obtained the gouernment thereof. [Sidenote: Tyme. Persone.] AFter the death of Ninus, somtime kyng of Ba- bilon, his soonne Ninus also by name, was left to succede hym, in all the Assirian Monarchie, Semiramis wife to Ninus the firste, feared the tender age of her sonne, wherupon she thought [Sidenote: The cause. The facte.] that those mightie nacions and kyngdomes, would not obaie so young and weake a Prince. Wherfore, she kept her sonne from the gouernmente: and moste of all she feared, that thei [Sidenote: The waie how.] would not obaie a woman, forthwith she fained her self, to be the soonne of Ninus, and bicause she would not be knowen to bee a woman, this Quene inuented a newe kinde of tire, the whiche all the Babilonians that were men, vsed by her commaundement. By this straunge disguised tire and appa- rell, she not knowen to bee a woman, ruled as a man, for the [Sidenote: The facte. The place.] space of twoo and fourtie yeres: she did marueilous actes, for she enlarged the mightie kyngdome of Babilon, and builded [Fol. xiij.r] thesame citée. Many other regions subdued, and valiauntlie ouerthrowen, she entered India, to the whiche neuer Prince came, sauing Alexander the greate: she passed not onely men in vertue, counsaill, and valiaunt stomacke, but also the fa- mous counsailours of Assiria, might not contende with her in Maiestie, pollicie, and roialnes. For, at what tyme as thei knewe her a woman, thei enuied not her state, but maruei- led at her wisedome, pollicie, and moderacion of life, at the laste she desiryng the vnnaturall lust, and loue of her soonne Ninus, was murthered of hym. ¶ A narracion historicall vpon kyng Ri- chard the third, the cruell tiraunt[.] [Sidenote: The persone[.]] RIchard duke of Glocester, after the death of Ed- ward the fowerth his brother king of England, vsurped the croune, moste traiterouslie and wic- kedlie: this kyng Richard was small of stature, deformed, and ill shaped, his shoulders beared not equalitee, a pulyng face, yet of countenaunce and looke cruell, malicious, deceiptfull, bityng and chawing his nether lippe: of minde vnquiet, pregnaunt of witte, quicke and liue- ly, a worde and a blowe, wilie, deceiptfull, proude, arrogant [Sidenote: The tyme. The place.] in life and cogitacion bloodie. The fowerth daie of Iulie, he entered the tower of London, with Anne his wife, doughter to Richard Erle of Warwick: and there in created Edward his onely soonne, a child of ten yeres of age, Prince of Wa- les. At thesame tyme, in thesame place, he created many no- ble peres, to high prefermente of honour and estate, and im- mediatly with feare and faint harte, bothe in himself, and his [Sidenote: The horrible murther of king Richard[.]] nobles and commons, was created king, alwaies a vnfortu- nate and vnluckie creacion, the harts of the nobles and com- mons thereto lackyng or faintyng, and no maruaile, he was a cruell murtherer, a wretched caitiffe, a moste tragicall ty- raunt, and blood succour, bothe of his nephewes, and brother George Duke of Clarence, whom he caused to bee drouned in a Butte of Malmsie, the staires sodainlie remoued, wher- [Fol. xiij.v] [Sidenote: The facte.] on he stepped, the death of the lorde Riuers, with many other nobles, compassed and wrought at the young Princes com- myng out of Wales, the .xix. daie of Iuly, in the yere of our lorde .1483. openly he toke vpon him to be king, who sekyng hastely to clime, fell according to his desart, sodainly and in- gloriously, whose Embassage for peace, Lewes the Frenche king, for his mischeuous & bloodie slaughter, so moche abhor- red, that he would neither sée the Embassador, nor heare the Embassage: for he murthered his .ij. nephues, by the handes [Sidenote: The tyme. The maner how.] of one Iames Tirrell, & .ij. vilaines more associate with him the Lieutenaunt refusyng so horrible a fact. This was doen he takyng his waie & progresse to Glocester, whereof he was before tymes Duke: the murther perpetrated, he doubed the good squire knight. Yet to kepe close this horrible murther, he caused a fame and rumour to be spread abrode, in all par- tes of the realme, that these twoo childre[n] died sodainly, there- [Sidenote: The cause.] by thinkyng the hartes of all people, to bee quietlie setteled, no heire male lefte a liue of kyng Edwardes children. His mischief was soche, that God shortened his vsurped raigne: he was al together in feare and dread, for he being feared and dreaded of other, did also feare & dread, neuer quiete of minde faint harted, his bloodie conscience by outward signes, conde[m]- pned hym: his iyes in euery place whirlyng and caste about, [Sidenote: The state of a wicked ma[n].] his hand moche on his Dagger, the infernall furies tormen- ted him by night, visions and horrible dreames, drawed him from his bedde, his vnquiet life shewed the state of his consci- ence, his close murther was vttered, fro[m] the hartes of the sub- iectes: thei called hym openlie, with horrible titles and na- mes, a horrible murtherer, and excecrable tiraunt. The peo- [Sidenote: A dolefull state of a quene.] ple sorowed the death of these twoo babes, the Queene, kyng Edwardes wife, beeyng in Sanctuarie, was bestraught of witte and sences, sounyng and falling doune to the grounde as dedde, the Quéene after reuiued, knéeled doune, and cal- led on God, to take vengaunce on this murtherer. The con- science of the people was so wounded, of the tolleracion of the [Fol. xiiij.r] [Sidenote: The wicked facte of kyng Richard, a horror and dread to the commons.] facte, that when any blustryng winde, or perilous thonder, or dreadfull tempest happened: with one voice thei cried out and quaked, least God would take vengauce of them, for it is al- waies séen the horrible life of wicked gouernors, bringeth to ruin their kyngdom and people, & also wicked people, the like daungers to the kyngdome and Prince: well he and his sup- porters with the Duke of Buckyngham, died shamefullie. [Sidenote: God permit meanes, to pull doune tyrauntes.] The knotte of mariage promised, betwene Henrie Erle of Richemonde, and Elizabeth doughter to kyng Edward the fowerth: caused diuerse nobles to aide and associate this erle, fledde out of this lande with all power, to the attainmente of the kyngdome by his wife. At Nottyngham newes came to kyng Richard, that the Erle of Richmonde, with a small co[m]- paignie of nobles and other, was arriued in Wales, forthe- with exploratours and spies were sent, who shewed the Erle [Sidenote: Lichefelde. Leicester.] to be encamped, at the toune of Litchfield, forthwith all pre- paracion of warre, was set forthe to Leicester on euery side, the Nobles and commons shranke from kyng Richarde, his [Sidenote: Bosworthe[.]] power more and more weakened. By a village called Bos- worthe, in a greate plaine, méete for twoo battailes: by Lei- cester this field was pitched, wherin king Richard manfully fightyng hande to hande, with the Erle of Richmonde, was [Sidenote: Kyng Ri- chard killed in Bosworth fielde.] slaine, his bodie caried shamefullie, to the toune of Leicester naked, without honor, as he deserued, trussed on a horse, be- hinde a Purseuaunte of Armes, like a hogge or a Calfe, his hedde and his armes hangyng on the one side, and his legges on the other side: caried through mire and durte, to the graie Friers churche, to all men a spectacle, and oprobrie of tiran- nie this was the cruell tirauntes ende. ¶ A narracion historicall, of the commyng of Iulius Cesar into Britaine. [Sidenote: The tyme. The persone.] WHen Iulius Cesar had ended his mightie and huge battailes, about the flood Rhene, he marched into the regio[n] of Fraunce: at thesame time repairing with a freshe multitude, his Legio[n]s, but the chief cause of his warre [Fol. xiiij.v] in Fraunce was, that of long time, he was moued in minde, [Sidenote: The cause. The fame and glorie of Britaine.] to see this noble Islande of Britain, whose fame for nobilitée was knowen and bruted, not onelie in Rome, but also in the vttermoste la[n]des. Iulius Cesar was wroth with the[m], because in his warre sturred in Fraunce, the fearce Britaines aided the Fenche men, and did mightilie encounter battaill with the Romaines: whose prowes and valiaunt fight, slaked the proude and loftie stomackes of the Romaines, and droue the[m] [Sidenote: The prowes of Iulius Cesar.] to diuerse hasardes of battaill. But Cesar as a noble warrier preferryng nobilitee, and worthinesse of fame, before money or cowardly quietnes: ceased not to enter on y^e fearce Britai- nes, and thereto prepared his Shippes, the Winter tyme fo- lowyng, that assone as oportunitee of the yere serued, to passe [Sidenote: The maner how. Cesars com- municacion with the mar[-] chauntes, as concernyng the lande of Britaine.] with all power against them. In the meane tyme, Cesar in- quired of the Marchauntes, who with marchaundise had ac- cesse to the Islande: as concernyng the qua[n]titée and bignes of it, the fashion and maner of the people, their lawes, their or- der, and kinde of gouernmente. As these thynges were in all poinctes, vnknowen to Cesar, so also the Marchau[n]tes knewe [Sidenote: The ware & politike go- uernement of y^e Britaines. Aliaunce in tyme traite- rous.] no more tha[n] the places bordring on the sea side. For, the Bri- taines fearing the traiterous and dissembled hartes of aliau[n]- ces, politikelie repelled them: for, no straunger was suffered to enter from his Shippe, on the lande, but their marchaun- dice were sold at the sea side. All nacions sought to this land, the felicitee of it was so greate, whereupon the Grekes kno- wyng and tastyng the commoditée of this Islande, called it by [Sidenote: Britain som- tyme called of the Grekes Olbion, not Albion.] a Greke name _Olbion_, whiche signifieth a happie and fortu- nate countrie, though of some called _Albion_, tyme chaunged the firste letter, as at this daie, London is called for the toune of kyng Lud. Cesar thereupon before he would marche with [Sidenote: Caius Uo- lusenus, Em[-] bassadour to Britaine.] his armie, to the people of Britain, he sent Caius Uolusenus a noble man of Rome, a valiaunte and hardie Capitaine, as Embassadour to the Britaines, who as he thoughte by his Embassage, should knowe the fashion of the Island, the ma- ner of the people, their gouernemente. But as it seemeth, the [Fol. xv.r] Embassadour was not welcome. For, he durste not enter fro[m] his Ship, to dooe his maisters Embassage, Cesar knewe no- [Sidenote: Comas A- trebas, seco[n]de Embassador from Cesar.] thing by him. Yet Cesar was not so contented, but sent an o- ther Embassadour, a man of more power, stomack, and more hardie, Comas Atrebas by name, who would enter as an Embassadour, to accomplish the will & expectacion of Cesar, Comas Atrebas was so welcome, that the Britains cast him in prison: Embassages was not common emong theim, nor the curteous vsage of Embassadours knowen. Al these thin- ges, made Cesar more wrothe, to assaie the vncourtous Bris[-] [Sidenote: Cassibelane king of Lon- don, at the a- riue of Cesar[.] Cassibelane a worthie Prince.] taines. In those daies Cassibelan was kyng of London, this Cassibelan was a prince of high wisedom, of manly stomacke and valiaunt in fight: and for power and valiauntnesse, was chosen of the Britaines, chief gouernour and kyng. Dissen- cion and cruell warre was emong the[m], through the diuersitie of diuers kinges in the lande. The Troinouau[n]tes enuied the [Sidenote: Imanue[n]cius[.]] state of Cassibelan, bicause Immanuencius, who was kyng of London, before Cassibelan, was put to death, by the coun- sail of Cassibelan. The sonne of Immanuencius, hearing of the commyng of Cesar, did flie traiterouslie to Cesar: The Troinouauntes fauoured Immanue[n]cius part, & thereupon [Sidenote: The Troy- nouauntes by treason let in Cesar.] promised, as moste vile traitours to their countrie, an ente- ryng to Cesar, seruice and homage, who through a self will, and priuate fauour of one, sought the ruine of their countrie, and in the ende, their own destruccion. But Cassibelan gaue many ouerthrowes to Cesar, and so mightelie encountred with hym, so inuincible was the parte of Cassibelane: but by treason of the Troinouauntes, not by manhod of Cesars po- wer, enteryng was giuen. What house can stande, where- [Sidenote: Treason a confusion to the mightiest dominions.] in discord broile? What small power, is not able to enter the mightiest dominions or regions: to ouercome the strongeste fortresse, treason open the gate, treason giuyng passage. Al- though Cesar by treason entered, so Cesar writeth. Yet the fame of Cesar was more commended, for his enterprise into Britain, and victorie: then of all his Conquest, either against [Fol. xv.v] [Sidenote: A sente[n]ce gra[-] uen of Bri- taine, in the commendaci- on of Cesar.] Pompey, or with any other nacion. For in a Piller at Rome this sentence was engrauen: Of all the dominions, Citees, and Regions, subdued by Cesar, his warre atte[m]pted against the fearce Britaines, passeth all other. After this sort Cesar entred our Islande of Britaine by treason. ¶ A narracion iudiciall, out of Theusidides, vpon the facte of Themistocles. THe Athenians brought vnder the thraldome of the Lacedemonians, soughte meanes to growe mightie, and to pull them from the yoke, vnder the Lacedemonians. Lacedemonia was a citee enuironed with walles. Athenes at thesame tyme without walles: whereby their state was more feeble, and power weakened. Themistocles a noble Sage, and a worthie pere of Athens: gaue the Athenia[n]s counsaile to wall their citée stro[n]gly, and so forthwith to be lordes and rulers by them selues, after their owne facion gouerning. In finishing this enterprise, in all poinctes, policie, and wittie conuei- aunce wanted not. The Lacedemonians harde of the pur- pose of the Athenians, & sent Embassadours, to knowe their doynges, and so to hinder them. Themistocles gaue counsaill to the Athenians, to kepe in safe custodie, the Embassadours of Lacedemonia, vntill soche tyme, as he from the Embas- sage was retourned fro[m] Lacedemonia. The Lacedemonians hearyng of the commyng of Themistocles, thought little of the walle buildyng at Athens. Themistocles was long loo- ked for of the[m], because Themistocles lingered in his Embas- sage, that or the matter were throughly knowen: the walle of Athens should be builded. The slowe commyng of The- mistocles, was blamed of the Lacedemonians: but Themi- stocles excused hymself, partly infirmitie of bodie, lettyng his commyng, and the expectacion of other, accompaignied with hym in this Embassage. The walle ended, necessitie not artificiall workemanship finishing it, with al hast it was ended: then Themistocles entered the Senate of Lacedemo- [Fol. xvj.r] nia, and saied: the walle whom ye sought to let, is builded at Athens, ye Lacedemonians, that wee maie be more strong. Then the Lacedemonians could saie nothyng to it, though thei enuied the Athenians state, the walle was builded, and leste thei should shewe violence or crueltie on Themistocles, their Embassabours were at Athens in custodie, whereby Themistocles came safe from his Embassage, and the Athe- nians made strong by their walle: this was politikely dooen of Themistocles. ¶ A narracion Poeticall vpon a Rose. WHo so doeth maruaile at the beautée and good- ly colour of the redde Rose, he must consider the blood, that came out of Uenus the Goddes foot. The Goddes Uenus, as foolishe Poetes dooe feigne, beyng the aucthour of Loue: loued Ado- nis the soonne of Cynara kyng of Cypres. But Mars called the God of battaile, loued Uenus, beyng nothyng loued of Uenus: but Mars loued Uenus as feruently, as Uenus lo- ued Adonis. Mars beyng a God, loued Uenus a goddes, but Uenus onely was inflamed with the loue of Adonis, a mor- tall man. Their loue was feruent, and exremely set on fire in bothe, but their kinde and nature were contrary, wherev- pon Mars beyng in gelousie, sought meanes to destroie, faire amiable, and beautifull Adonis, thinkyng by his death, the loue of Uenus to be slaked: Adonis and Mars fell to fighting Uenus as a louer, ranne to helpe Adonis her louer, and by chaunce she fell into a Rose bushe, and pricked with it her foote, the blood then ran out of her tender foote, did colour the Rose redde: wherevpon the Rose beyng white before, is v- pon that cause chaunged into redde. [¶] _Chria._ _CHria_, this profitable exercise of _Rhetorike_, is for the porfite of it so called: it is a rehersall in fewe wordes, of any ones fact, or of the saiyng of any man, vpo[n] the [Fol. xvj.v] whiche an oracion maie be made. As for example, Isocrates did say, that the roote of learnng was bitter, but the fruictes pleasaunt: and vpon this one sentence, you maie dilate a am- ple and great oracion, obseruyng these notes folowyng. The saiyng dooeth containe so greate matter, and minister soche plentie of argumente. Aucthors intreatyng of this exercise, doe note three sortes to bee of theim, one of theim a _Chria verball_, that is to saie, a profitable exercise, vpon the saiyng of any man, onely con- teinyng the wordes of the aucthour, as the sentence before. The seconde is, conteinyng the facte or deede of the per- sone: As Diogines beyng asked of Alexander the Greate, if he lacked any thyng, that he was able to giue hym, thinkyng his demau[n]de vnder his power, for Diogenes was at thesame tyme warmyng hymself in the beames of the Sunne: Dio- genes aunswered, ye take awaie that, that ye are not able to giue, meanyng that Alexander by his bodie, shadowed hym, and tooke awaie that, whiche was not in his power to giue, Alexander tourned hymself to his men, and saied, if I were not Alexander, I would be Diogenes. The thirde is a _Chria_ mixt, bothe _verball_ and notyng the facte, as Diogenes seyng a boie wanton & dissolute, did strike his teacher with a staffe, vtteryng these woordes: why dooest thou teache thy scholer so dissolutlie. You shall learne to make this exercise, obseruyng these notes. Firste, you shall praise the aucthour, who wrote the sen- tence, waighing his life, if his life be vnknowen, and not easie to finde his sentence or sentences: for godlie preceptes will minister matter of praise, as if these saiynges bee recited, thei are sufficient of them selues, to praise the aucthour. Then in the seconde place, expounde the meanyng of the aucthour in that saiyng. Then shewe the cause, why he spake this sentence. Then compare the matter, by a contrary. [Fol. xvij.r] Then frame a similitude of thesame. Shewe the like example of some, that spake the like, or did the like. Then gather the testimonies of more writers of thesame[.] Then knit the conclusion. ¶ An Oracion. ISocrates did saie, that the roote of learnyng is was bit- ter, but the fruictes were pleasaunt. ¶ The praise. THis Oratour Isocrates, was an Athenian borne, [Sidenote: Lusimachus[.]] who florished in the time of Lusimachus the chief gouernor of Athens: this Isocrates was brought vp in all excelle[n]cie of learning, with the moste fa- [Sidenote: Prodicus. Gorgias Le- ontinus.] mous and excellent Oratour Prodicus, Gorgias Leontinus indued him with all singularitie of learnyng and eloquence. The eloque[n]ce of Isocrates was so famous, that Aristotle the [Sidenote: Demosthe- nes learned eloquence of Isocrates.] chief Pholosopher, enuied his vertue & praise therin: Demo- sthenes also, who emong the Grecians chieflie excelled, lear- ned his eloquence, of the Oracions whiche Isocrates wrote, to many mightie and puisaunt princes and kinges, do shewe his wisedome, & copious eloque[n]ce, as to Demonicus the king to Nicocles, Euagoras, against Philip the king of the Mace- donia[n]s, by his wisedome and counsaill, the Senate and vni- uersal state of Athens was ruled, & the commons and multi- tude thereby in euery part florished: chieflie what counsaill, what wisedome, what learnyng might bee required, in any man of high fame and excellencie: that fame was aboundant[-] ly in Isocrates, as in all his Oratio[n]s he is to be praised, so in this sentence, his fame importeth like commendacion. ¶ The exposicion. IN that he saieth, the roote of learnyng is bitter, and the fruictes pleasaunt: he signifieth no excellent qua- [Sidenote: All excellen- cie with labor is attained.] litie or gift, vertue, arte or science can bee attained, except paine, labour, diligence, doe plant and sette thesame: [Fol. xvij.v] but when that noble gift, either learnyng, or any excellente qualitee, is lodged and reposed in vs, then we gather by pain- full labours, greate profite, comforte, delectable pleasures, wealth, glorie, riches, whiche be the fruictes of it. ¶ The cause. AND seyng that of our owne nature, all men are en- clined from their tender yeres and infancie, to the ex- tirpacion of vertue, folowyng with all earnest studie and gréedie, the free passage to vice, and specially children, whose iudgementes and reason, are not of that strengthe, to rule their weake mindes and bodies, therefore, in them chief- lie, the roote of learning is bitter, because not onely many ye- res thei runne their race, in studie of arte and science. With care and paine also, with greuous chastisment and correccio[n], thei are compelled by their teachers and Maisters, to appre- hende thesame: the parentes no lesse dreaded, in the educacio[n] of their children, in chastisement and correction, so that by all [Sidenote: The roote of learnyng bit- ter.] meanes, the foundacion and roote of all learnyng, in what sort so euer it is, is at the firste vnpleasaunte, sower, and vn- sauerie. To folowe the times and seasons, appoincted for the same, is moste painfull, and in these painfull yeres: other greate pleasures, as the frailtie of youth, and the imbecilitie of nature iudgeth, dooeth passe by, but in miserable state is [Sidenote: Who is a vn- fortunate childe.] that childe, and vnfortunate, that passeth the flower of his youth and tender yeres, instructed with no arte or Science, whiche in tyme to come, shalbe the onelie staie, helpe, the pil- ler to beare of the sore brent, necessitie, and calamities of life. [Sidenote: Good educa- cion the foun- dacion of the Romaine Empire.] Herein the noble Romaines, laied the sure foundacion of their mightie dominion, in the descrite prouidente, and poli- tike educacion of children: to whom the Grecians gaue, that necessarie bulwarke and faundacion, to set vp all vertue, all arte and science. In Grece no man was knowen, to liue in that common wealth, but that his arte and science, gaue ma- nifest probacion and testimonie, how and after what sorte he liued. The Romaines in like sorte, the sworde and aucthori- [Fol. xviij.r] tie of the Magistrate, executyng thesame, did put forthe, and draw to the attainment of learnyng, art or science, all youth hauyng maturitie and ripenesse to it, and why, because that in a common wealth, where the parentes are vndescrete and foolishe, as in all common wealthes, there are not a fewe, but many, thei not ponderyng the state of the tyme to come, bringing vp their children without all ciuilitie, vnframed to vertue, ignoraunt of all arte and science: the children of their owne nature, vnbrideled, vntaught, wilfull, and heddie, doe run with free passage to all wickednes, thei fall into al kinde of follie, oppressed with all kinde of calamitie, miserie, and [Sidenote: Euill educa- cion bringeth to ruine migh[-] tie kingdoms[.]] vnfortunate chaunces, whiche happen in this life. Nothyng doeth soner pulle doune a kyngdome, or common wealthe, then the euill and leude educacion of youth, to whom neither substaunce, wealth, riches, nor possessions doe descende, from their auncestours and parentes, who also of them selues wa[n]t all art, science and meanes, to maintain them to liue, who of them selues are not able to get relief, for onely by this mea- nes, life is maintained, wealth and riches ar possessed to ma- ny greate siegniories, landes, and ample possessions, left by their parentes, and line of auncetours, haue by lacke of ver- tuous educacion, been brought to naught, thei fell into ex- treme miserie, pouertie, and wantyng learnyng, or wealth, to maintaine their state and delicate life, thei haue robbed, spoiled, murthered, to liue at their owne will. But then as rotten, dedde, and putride members fro[m] the common wealth thei are cutte of by the sworde, and aucthoritie of the Magi- strate. What kyngdome was more mightie and strong, then [Sidenote: Lydia.] the kyngdome of Lidia, whiche by no other meanes was brought to ruine and destruccion, but by idlenes: in that thei were kepte from all vertuous exercise, from the studie of ar- tes and sciences, so longe as thei meditated and liued in the schoole of vertuous life: no nacion was hable to ouerthrowe them, of them selues thei were prone and readie, to practise all [Sidenote: Cyrus.] excellencie. But Cyrus the kyng of Persians, by no other [Fol. xviij.v] meanes was able to bring them weaker. He toke from the[m] al furtherance to artes, destroied all occupacio[n]s of vertue wher- vpon by commaundeme[n]t aud terrour, wer driuen to practise [Sidenote: The decay of a kyngdome.] the vaine and pestiferous practise, of Cardes and Dice. Har- lottes then schooled them, and all vnhoneste pastyme nurte- red them, Tauernes an quaffyng houses, was their accusto- med and moste frequented vse of occupacion: by this meanes their nobilitie and strengthe was decaied, and kyngdome made thrall. Ill educacion or idlenes, is no small vice or euill when so mightie a prince, hauyng so large dominions, who[m] all the Easte serued and obaied. Whose regimente and go- uernemente was so infinite, that as Zenophon saieth, tyme [Sidenote: The mightie dominions of Cyrus.] would rather want, then matter to speake of his mightie and large gouernement, how many nacions, how diuerse people and valiaunte nacions were in subieccion to hym. If this mightie Prince, with all his power and populous nacions, was not hable to giue the ouerthrowe, to the kyngdome of [Sidenote: Euill educa- cion.] Lidia, but by ill educacion, not by marciall atte[m]ptes, sworde or battaill: but by giuyng them scope and libertie, to dooe as he would. No doubt but that Cyrus sawe, by the like exam- ple of other kyngdomes, this onelie pollicie to bee a ruine [Sidenote: Pithagoras.] of that kyngdome. Pythagoras the famous and godlie Phi- losopher, saued the kyngdome and people of Crotona, thei leauyng all studie of arte, vertue and science. This people of [Sidenote: Catona.] Crotona, was ouercome of the people of Locrus, thei left all exercise of vertue, neclectyng the feates of chiualrie, whervpo[n] Pythagoras hauyng the profitable and godlie lawes of Ly- curgus, which he brought from Lacedemonia: and the lawes of Minos kyng of Creta, came to the people of Crotona, and by his godlie teachyng and Philosophie, reuoked & brought backe the people, giuen ouer to the neglectyng of all vertue, declaryng to them the nobilitie and excellencie thereof, he li- uely set foorthe the beastlinesse of vice. Pithagoras recited to them, the fall and ruine of many regions, and mightie king- domes, whiche tooke after those vices. Idlenes beyng forsa- [Fol. xix.r] ken, vertue embrased, and good occupacions practised, the kyngdome and people grewe mightie. [Sidenote: Lycurgus.] Emong the godlie lawes of Lycurgus, Lycurgus omit- ted not to ordaine Lawes, for the educacion of youthe: in the whiche he cutte of all pamperyng of them, because in tender yeres, in whose bodies pleasure harboreth, their vertue, sci- ence, cunnyng rooteth not: labour, diligence, and industrie [Sidenote: Uertue. Uice.] onelie rooteth vertue, and excellencie. Uices as vnprofitable weedes, without labour, diligence and industrie growe vp, and thereby infecteth the minde and bodie, poisoneth all the mocions, incensed to vertue and singularitie. Who euer at- tained cunnyng, in any excellent arte or science, where idle- nes or pleasure helde the swaie. Philosophie sheweth, plea- [Sidenote: Pleasure. Idlenes. Ignoraunce.] sure to bée vnmete for any man of singularitie, for pleasure, idlenes, and ignoraunce, are so linked together, that the pos- session of the one, induceth the other. So many godlie monu- me[n]tes of learning, had not remained to this posteritie of ours and of all ages: if famous men in those ages and tymes, had hu[n]ted after immoderate pleasure. Thindustrie of soche, who left to the posteritie of all ages, the knowlege of Astronomie is knowen: the monumentes of all learnyng of lawes, and of all other woorkes of antiquitie, by vertue, noble, by indu- strie, labour, and moderacion of life in studie, not by plea- sure and wantones, was celebraied to all ages. The migh- tie volumes of Philosophers, bothe in morall preceptes, and in naturall causes, knewe not the delicate and dissolute life of these our daies. Palingenius enueighyng against the pa[m]- pered, and lasciuious life of man, vttereth a singulare sente[n]ce _Qui facere et qui nosce, cupit quam plurima et altum, In terris virtute aliqua sibi querere nomen: Hunc vigilare opus est, nam non preclara geruntur, Stertendo, et molles detrectat gloria plumas._ Who so coueteth to purchase fame by actes, or whose minde hunteth for aboundaunte knowledge, or by vertue in this life, to purchause good fame. He had not nede to slugge [Fol. xix.v] and slepe in his doynges: for good fame is not vpholded by gaie Pecockes feathers. Of this, Demosthenes the famous Oratour of Athens, vttereth a worthie saiyng to the Athe- nians in his Epistle: if any will iudge Alexander the greate, to be famous and happie, in that he had successe in all his do- [Sidenote: Alexander the great, co[m]- mended for diligence.] ynges, let this be his cogitacion, that Alexander the greate, alwaies did inure hymself to doe thynges, and manfullie to assaie that he enterprised. The felicitie of his successe came to hym not slepyng, or not cogitatyng thereof: Alexander the greate now dedde, Fortune seketh with whom she maie ac- companie, and associate her self. Thusidides comparyng the Lacedemonians, and the A- thenians together, shewed a rare moderacion, and tempera- ture of life, to be in the Athenians: wherupon thei are moste commended, and celebrated to the posteritie. ¶ The contrarie. EUen as idlenes and a sluggishe life, is moste pleasant to all soche, as neglecte vertuous exercises, and god- lie life. So paine, labour, and studie, bestowed and emploied, in the sekyng out of vertue, arte, or science is moste pleasaunt to well affected mindes: for no godlie thyng can be attained to, without diligence and labour. ¶ The similitude. EUen as housbandmen, with labour and trauaile, dooe labour in plantyng and tillyng the grounde, before thei receiue any fruicte of thesame. Euen so no vertue, arte, or science, or any other thyng of ex- cellencie is attained, without diligence and labour bestowed thereto. ¶ The example. LEt Demosthenes, the famous Oratour of Athenes, bee an example of diligence to vs, who to auoide all let from studie, vsed a meanes to kepe hymself ther- to: preuentyng also the industrie of artificers. Thesame De- [Fol. xx.r] mosthenes, wrote seuen tymes out the storie of Thusidides, to learne thereby his eloquence and wisedome. ¶ The testimonie. PLinie, Plato, and Aristotle, with many other mo, are like examples for diligence to vs: who wrote vpon vertue and learnyng like sentences. ¶ The conclusion. THerefore, Isocrates dooeth pronounce worthelie, the roote of learning and vertue to be bitter, and the fru- tes pleasaunte. ¶ A Sentence. THe Oracion, whiche must be made by a sente[n]ce is in al partes like to _Chria_, the profitable exer- cise, onelie that the Oracion made vpon a sen- tence, as aucthours do saie: hath not alwaie the name of the aucthour prefixed in the praise, a small matter of difference, who so can make the one, is ex- pert and exquisite in the other, aucthours doe define a sente[n]ce in this maner. A sentence is an Oracion, in fewe woordes, shewyng a godlie precept of life, exhorting or diswadyng: the [Sidenote: _Gnome._] Grekes dooe call godly preceptes, by the name of _Gnome_, or _Gnomon_, whiche is asmoche to saie, a rule or square, to direct any thyng by, for by them, the life of manne is framed to all singularitie. Thei are diuers sortes of sentences, one exhor- teth, an other diswadeth, some onely sheweth: there is a sen- tence simple, compounde, profitable, true, & soche like. Frame your Oracion vpon a sentence, as in the Oracion before. { 1. The praise of the aucthour. { 2. The exposicion of the sentence. { 3. A confirmacion in the strength of the cause. { 4. A conference, of the contrarie. { 5. A similitude. { 6. The example. { 7. The testimonie of aucthors, shewing y^e like. { 8. Then adde the conclusion. [Fol. xx.v] ¶ An Oracion vpon a sentence. ¶ The sentence. In a common wealthe or kyngdome, many kynges to beare rule, is verie euill, let there be but one kyng. ¶ The praise of the aucthour. HOmere, who of all the Poetes chiefly excelled, spake this sentence in the persone of Ulisses, vpon the king Agamemnon, kyng of Grece. This Homere intrea- ting of all princely affaires, and greate enterprices of the Grecians: and of the mightie warre againste the Troians, emong whom soche discorde rose, that not onely the warre, for lacke of vnitie and concorde, continued the space of tenne yeres. But also moche blood shed, hauocke, and destruccion, came vpon the Grecians, vttered this sente[n]ce. This Homere for his learnyng and wisedome remaineth, intteled in many monumentes of learnyng: with greate fame and commen- [Sidenote: The praise of Homere.] dacion to all ages. What Region, Isle, or nacion is not, by his inuencion set foorthe: who although he were blinde, his minde sawe all wisedome, the states of all good kyngdomes [Sidenote: The content of Homers bookes.] and common wealthes. The verie liuely Image of a Prince or gouernour, the faithfull and humble obedie[n]ce of a subiect, toward the prince, the state of a capitaine, the vertue and no- ble qualities, that are requisite, in soche a personage, be there set forthe. The perfite state of a wiseman, and politike, is in- treated of by hym. The Iustice, and equitie of a Prince, the strength of the bodie, all heroicall vertues: also are set forthe his eloquence and verse, floweth in soche sorte, with soche pleasauntnes: so copious, so aboundaunt, so graue and sen- tencious, that his singularitie therein excelleth, and passeth. [Sidenote: Alexander.] The mightie prince Alexander, in all his marciall enter- prices, and great conquestes, did continually night by night, [Sidenote: The Ilias of Homere, mete for prin- ces to looke vpon.] reade somewhat of the Ilias of the Poete Homere, before he slepte, and askyng for the booke, saied: giue me my pillowe. Alexander as it semeth, learned many heroical vertues, poli- cie, wisedome, & counsaill thereof, els he occupied in so migh- [Fol. xxj.r] tie and greate warres, would not emploied studie therein. Iulius Cesar the Emperour, commendeth this Poete, for his singularitie, his commendacion giueth, ample argu- ment, in this singulare sentence, whiche preferreth a Monar- chie aboue all states of common wealthes or kyngdome. ¶ The exposicion. HOmere the Poete, signified by this one sentence, no kyngdome or common wealthe can prospere, or flo- rishe to continue, where many holde gouernement as kynges. For, the mindes of many rulers and princes, doe moste affecte a priuate wealthe, commoditie and glorie: and where, many doe beare soche swaie and dominion, the com- mon wealth can not be good. For, thei priuatly to theim sel- ues, doe beare that regiment, and alwaie with the slaughter of many, do seke to attain and clime, to the whole gouerme[n]t[.] ¶ The cause. [Sidenote: The state of many kinges in one lande.] MAny occasions dooe rise, whereby many princes, and gouernours in a common wealth, be diuerslie affec- ted, so that the gouernme[n]t of many, can not prosper. For, bothe in quiete state, their counsailes must bee diuerse, and vncertaine: and where thei so differ, the kyngdome stan- deth in great ieopardy and daunger. Isocrates intreatyng of [Sidenote: Athenes.] a Monarchie, sheweth that the common wealth of Athenes, whiche detested and refused, that forme and state, after the ruine and fall of their citee: beyng vnder the thraldome of the Lacedemonia[n]s, bothe in their externall chiualrie and feates, bothe by sea and by lande, and also in regimente otherwise, their citee grewe mightie, and state stedfast. [Sidenote: Carthage in a monarchie.] The Carthagineans also, gouerned by one, had their go- uernment stedfaste, and kyngdome roiall: who in puisaunte actes, might compare with the noble Romaines. As the obe- dience to one ruler and chief gouernour, sekyng a common wealth, is in the hartes of the subiectes: feruent and maruei- lous with loue embraced, so the Maiestie of hym is dreade, [Fol. xxj.v] with loue serued, and with sincere harte, and fidelitie obeied, [Sidenote: The state of many kinges in one lande.] his maners folowed, his lawes imitated. Many gouernours bearyng regiment, as their maners be diuers, and fashion of life: euen so the people bee like affected, to the diuersitie of di- uers princes. And if we weigh the reuolucion of the heauens and the marueiles of God therein, the maker of thesame, who [Sidenote: A monarchie in heauen.] beyng one God, ruleth heauen and yearth, and all thynges co[n]tained in thesame. The heauen also adorned with many a [Sidenote: One Sunne[.]] starre, and cleare light, haue but one Sunne to gouerne the[m]: who being of a singulare vertue aboue the rest, by his vertue and power, giueth vertue to the reste. Also in small thynges [Sidenote: The Ante. The Bee.] the Ante and the Bee, who for prouidence and wisedome, ar moche commended: haue as it were a common wealth, and a king to gouerne the[m], so in all thinges as a confusion, the state of many kings is abhorred in gouernme[n]t. After the death of [Sidenote: Constancius[.] Licinius[.] Marabodius[.]] Constantinus the greate, Constancius his sonne was made Emperour, and Licinius with him, partaker in felowship of the Empire. But forthwith, what blood was shed in Italie, with all crueltie, vntill Constancius had slaine Licinius, partaker of the Empire, and Marabodius was slaine also, whom Licinius did associate with hym in the gouernment. So moche princes and chief gouernours, doe hate equalitie, [Sidenote: Pompey. Cesar. Marius. Silla.] or felowship in kingdomes. After thesame sort, in this migh- tie Monarchie of Rome, diuerse haue attempted at one and sondrie tymes, to beare the scepter and regiment therein, but that mightie Monarchie, could not suffer but one gouernor. The kyngdome of Thebes, was in miserable state, the twoo sonnes of Oedipus, Eteocles, and Polunices: striuing bothe [Sidenote: Assiria the first monar- chie.] to be Monarche, and onely kyng. The kyngdome of Assiria, whiche was the golden kyngdome, and the first Monarchie: hauyng .36. kynges by succession, continued .1239. yeres, this kyngdome for all nobilitie and roialnes excelled, and all in a Monarchie. The kyngdome of the Medes, in a Monarchie florished in wealthe and glorie and all felicitie: who in domi- nion had gouernmente .300. lackyng .8. yeres. After that, the [Fol. xxij.r] [Sidenote: The monar- chie of the Medes. The Persia[n]. Macedonia.] monarchie of the Medes ceased, the Persia[n] people rose migh- tie, bothe in people and Princes, and continued in that state 236 and 7 monethes. Macedonia rose from a base and meane people, to beare the whole regiment, and power ouer all king[-] domes. So God disposeth the state and seate of princes, ouer- throwyng often tymes mightier kyngdomes at his will: the continuaunce of this Monarchie was .157. and eight mone- [Sidenote: Asia[.] Siria[.]] thes, ten kynges linealie descendyng. Asia and Siria, was gouerned by one succedyng in a sole gouernement. Nicanor gouerned Siria .32. yeres. In the other Antigonus raigned, Demetrius Poliorchetes one yere, Antiochus Soter also, the scepter of gouernment, left to the succession of an other, then Antiochus Soter, ruled all Asia and Siria, hauyng .16. kin- [Sidenote: Egipte in a Monarchie[.]] ges whiche in a monarchie, co[n]tinued 189 yeres. The Egipci- ans, had famous, wise, and noble princes, whose kyngdome and large dominion, in all felicitée prospered: whiche was in the tyme of Ninus, the first king of the Assiria[n]s, who hauing 10. princes, one by one succedyng, Cleopatra their Quéene, gouerning, stoode in a monarchie .288. This one thyng she- weth, that kinde of gouernmente to bee roiall, and moste fa- mous, not onely for the felicitée and glory therof: but also for the permanent and stedfast state thereof. Aristotle and Plato setteth forthe, thother formes of gouernme[n]t. But in all those, no long co[n]tinuaunce of felicitee, nor of happy state can appere [Sidenote: Tirannis[.] Nero[.] Domicianus[.] Caligula.] in them, as for the contrarie to a Monarchie, is tirannis, pe- stiferous, and to be detested, where one man gouerneth to his priuate gaine, pillyng and polyng his subiectes, murderyng with all crueltie, neither Lawe nor reason, leadyng thereto: but will bearyng regiment ouer lawe, Iustice and equitee, whiche princes often tymes see not. How the wilfull rashe- nes, or tirannicall minde doeth abase them, and make them, though in vtter porte thesame princes, yet in verie déede, thei [Sidenote: What doeth beautifie the throne of a Prince[.]] bee thrall and slaue to beastlie affeccion. Nothyng dooeth so moche adorne and beautifie, the seate and throne of a prince, as not onely to beare dominion, ouer mightie people and re- [Fol. xxij.v] [Sidenote: Aristocratia.] gions, then to be lorde ouer hymself. The state of a fewe pée- res or nobles, to holde the chief and whole gouernment, who bothe in vertue, learnyng, and experience dooe excelle, is a goodlie state of common wealth. But the profe of that com- mon wealthe and ende sheweth, and the maner of Princes: who, although thei be, of life godlie, wise, graue, expert and politike. For, these vertues or ornamentes, ought to be repo- sed in soche noble personages, thei doe marueilously chaunge and alter: So honour and preeminente state, puffeth theim vp, and blindeth theim, that euery one in the ende, seeketh to climbe ouer all, as hed and gouernour. Shewe me one kinde of this state, and forme of gouernmente, whiche either longe prospered, or without bloodshed, and destruccion of the rest of the nobles and peres, haue not caught the whole regimente. Seyng that in all common wealthes and kingdomes, equa- litée or felowshippe, will not be suffred in gouernmente: for, it can not bee, that this forme of common wealthe maie bée [Sidenote: The ende of Aristocratia.] good, as Aristotle and Plato sheweth: The ende of this go- uernemente, fell euer to one, with a ruine of the kingdome [Sidenote: Politcia.] and people. The multitude to beare dominion, and though a publike wealth bée sought for a tyme, moche lesse thei conti- nue in any good state: for in the ende, their rule and gouerne- ment, will be without rule, order, reason, modestie, and their lawe must bee will. The other three states, are the refuse of good common wealthes, not to bée tollerated in any region. [Sidenote: Tirannis.] The one of them is a tyraunte, to bée gouernour onely to his owne glorie, with crueltie tormented his subiectes, onelie to [Sidenote: Oligarthia.] haue his will and lust, ouer all lawe, order, and reason. The nobilitée rulyng to them selues, euery one for his owne time[.] [Sidenote: Democratia.] The third, the base and rude multitude, euery one for hym- self, and at his will. This troublous state, all Regions and common wealthes, haue felte in open sedicions and tumul- tes, raised by theim, it is a plagued and pestiferous kinde of gouernemente. The example of a good Monarchie, is of greate force, to confounde the state of al other common weal- [Fol. xxiij.r] thes, and formes of Regimente. [Sidenote: A monarchie preferred of the Persians[.]] The nobilitée of Persia hauyng no kyng, linially des- cendyng, to rule that mightie dominion of Persia, Cambises beyng dedde, the vsurper murthered, thei tooke counsaill in their assemble, what state of gouernment was beste, thei ha- uyng the profe of a Monarchie: in their longe counsaill, thei knewe the felicitie of that state, thei knewe as it seemed, the perilous state of the other gouernmentes. If these noble and peres had been ambicious, and that eche of them would haue had felowshippe, or participacion in kyngdomes: thei would not haue preferred a Monarchie aboue the reste. The anti- quitie of that tyme sheweth, their personages, wisedome, grauitie, and maiestie was soche, that eche one of theim was mete for his vertues, to haue a whole kyngdome. If Aristo- cratia would haue contented them, then was tyme and occa- sion offered, no kyng remainyng to haue preferred that state. [Sidenote: The duetie of al noble peres[.]] But thei as vpright nobles, sincere and faithfull, hauyng al- together respecte to a publique wealthe: to a permanent state and felicitie of kingdome, sought no participacion by priuate wealthe, to dissolue this Monarchie. But thei beyng moste godlie, eche were content to proue, whose chaunce might be, to set vp againe that Monarchie. The kyngdome at the laste [Sidenote: Darius.] came to the handes of Darius, who was after kyng of the Persians. This is a goodly example, to shewe the worthines of a Monarchie, the Persian kingdome after many yeres de- clinyng, from his power and state, not for any faulte of go- [Sidenote: Kyngdomes rise and fall.] uernment, but God as he seeth tyme, raiseth vp kyngdomes and plucketh them doune. Afterward Darius the kyng, not able to make his parte good with Alexander the Greate: of- fered to hym the greatest parte of his kyngdome, euen to the flood of Euphrates, and offred his daughter to wife: Alexan- der was content to take the offer of Darius, so that he would bee seconde to hym, and not equall with hym in kyngdome. [Sidenote: The answer of Alexander to Darius, as co[n]cernyng a monarchie.] For, Alexander saied, that as the worlde can not bee gouer- ned with twoo Sunnes, neither the worlde can suffer twoo [Fol. xxiij.v] mightie kingdomes: wherupon it is manifest, that no king- dome will suffer equalitie or felowship, but that if the will & minde of Princes might brust out, the state of all the worlde, would bee in one mightie gouernours handes. For, alwaies [Sidenote: Alexa[n]der the great prefar- red a Mo- narchie.] Princes dooe seke to a sole regimente. Alexander the greate co[n]querour also, preferring for worthines a Monarchie, at the tyme of his death, demaunded who[m] he would haue to succede him in his mightie dominio[n]s, he by one signifiyng a Monar- chie, saiyng: _Dignissimus_, that is to saie, the worthiest. After [Sidenote: Alexanders monarchie fel by many kin- ges. Antipater. Crates. Meliagrus. Perdiccas. Ptolomeus. Learcus. Cassander. Menander. Leonatus. Lusimacus. Eumenes[.] Seleucus.] the death of Alexander, Antipater caught the gouernmente of Macedonia and Grece, and Crates was Treasurer. Me- leagrus and Perdiccas caught other of his dominions, then Ptolemeus possessed Egipte, Africa and a parte of Arabia, Learcus, Cassander, Mena[n]der, Leonatus, Lusimachus, Eu- menes, Seleucus and manie other, who were for their wor- thines in honor and estimacion with Alexander, caught in- to their handes other partes of his dominions, euerie one se- kyng for his time, his owne priuate glorie, dignitie, and ad- uauncemente, but not a publike wealthe, and so in fine, am- bicion broiled in their loftie stomackes, eche to attaine to o- thers honor. Whereupon bloodshed, destruction of the peo- ple and countries, the fall of these Princes ensued. So moche kingdomes hate equalitie or felowship: let vs laie before our [Sidenote: Fraunce. Spaine. Germanie. Britaine.] iyes, the kyngdomes nere at hand. Fraunce, from the tymes of Faramundus vntill this daie haue stoode, and did florishe in a Monarchie. The state of Spaine, from the tyme of the firste kyng, vntill this daie, hath florished continually in a Monarchie. The great seigniories of Germanie, by one suc- cedyng in gouernment, haue been permanent in that good- lie state. Our noble Isle of Britain from Brutus, hath stoode by a Monarchie: onely in those daies, the state of gouernme[n]t chaunged, at the commyng of Iulius Cesar, Emperour of Rome. The lande beyng at diuision, and discorde, through the diuersitie of diuerse kynges: so moche the state of diuerse kynges in one lande, is to be expelled, or the gouernment of [Fol. xxiiij.r] the base multitude, to haue vniuersally power of dominion, or the state of peres, to bee chief in regiment, no kyng lefte to commaunde ouer the people, and nobles, or els there can not be but discorde in thende, whiche pulleth doune moste migh- tie Regions and dominions, so that the beste state, the moste stedfaste and fortunate, is in all tymes, in all ages, in all la- wes, and common wealthes, where one king sekyng the ad- uauncement, wealthe, glorie, of hym and his people. ¶ The contrarie. THat housholde or familie, can not be well gouerned, where many and diuerse beareth gouernment, nec- lectyng the state prosperous vniuersallie: for where obedience is drawen to diuers and many, there can not bee good gouernment, nor faithfull obedience. And so in a king- dome where one chiefly gouerneth, and to a common wealth there the hartes of the subiectes, be moste knitte to obaie. ¶ The similitude. EUen as thei, whiche serue one maister, shall soneste with labour please, and with fidelitie, accomplishe his will and pleasure. For, the maners of many me[n] be diuerse, and variable, so in a Monarchie, the state of one is sone obaied, the minde and lawe of one Prince sone folowed, his Maiestie dreaded and loued. ¶ The example. LET the fower chief Monarchies of the Assirian, the Persian, Grecian, and the Romaine, whiche haue continued from the beginnyng mightie, moste hap- pie, bee an example herein. If that state of gouernement, had not been chiefe of all other, those mightie kyngdomes would not haue preferred, that kinde of gouernment. ¶ The testimonie of auncient writers. THerefore, Aristotle, Plato, and all the chief Philoso- phers, intreatyng of the administracion of a common wealthe: doe preferre before all states of gouernment [Fol. xxiiij.v] a Monarchie, bothe for the felicitie of it, and stedfaste state. ¶ The conclusion. HOmere therefore deserueth greate commendacion, for this one sentence, whiche preferreth a Monarchie before all states. ¶ The destruccion. THis exercise of _Rhetotike_, is called destruccion, or subuersion, because it is in a oracion, a certain re- prehension of any thyng declaimed, or dilated, in the whiche by order of art, the declaimer shall pro- cede to caste doune by force, and strengthe of reason, the con- trarie induced. In this exercise of _Rhetorike_, those proposicions are to be subuerted, whiche are not manifeste true, neither it so repu- gnaunt from reason, as that there can appere no holde, to in- duce a probable reason to confounde thesame. But soche pro- posicions are meete for this parte, as are probable in both si- des, to induce probabilitie of argument, to reason therupon. 1. It shall behoue you firste, for the entryng of this matter, to adde a reprehension there against those, whiche haue con- firmed as a truthe, that, whiche you will confute. 2. In thesame place, adde the exposion, and meanyng of his sentence. 3. Thirdly, shew the matter to be obsure, that is vncertain[.] 4. Incrediblie. 5. Impossible. 6. Not agreyng to any likelihode of truthe. 7. Uncomlie to be talked of. 8. Unprofitable. This exercise of _Rhetorike_ doeth contain in it al strength of arte, as who should saie, all partes of _Rhetorike_, maie co- piouslie be handled in this parte, called confutacion, so am- ple a matter Tullie doeth note this parte to be. ¶ The theme or proposicion of this Oracion. [Fol. xxv.r] It is not like to be true, that is said of the battaill of Troie. ¶ The reprehension of the auc- thor, and of all Poetes. NOt without a cause, the vanities of Poetes are to bee reproued, and their forged inuencions to bee reiected: in whose writynges, so manifestlie are set forthe as a truthe, and Chronicled to the posteritie of ages and times, soche forged mat- [Sidenote: The vanities of Poetes.] ters of their Poeticall and vain wittes. Who hath not heard of their monsterous lies against God, thei inuentyng a gene- alogie of many Goddes procreated, where as there is but one God. This vanitie also thei haue set forthe, in their mo- numentes and woorkes. How a conspiracie was sometyme emong the Goddes and Goddes, to binde the great God Iu- piter. How impudentlie doe thei set forthe the Goddes, to bee louers of women, and their adulterous luste: and how thei haue transformed theim selues, into diuers shapes of beastes and foules, to followe after beastly luste. The malice and en- uie of the Goddes, one to an other: The feigne also the heaue[n] to haue one God, the sea an other, helle an other, whiche are mere vanities, and false imaginacio[n]s of their Poeticall wit- tes. The like forged inuencion haue thei wrote, of the migh- [Sidenote: The battaill of Troie .x. yeres for a herlotte.] tie and terrible battaill bruted of Troie, for a beautifull har- lot susteined ten yeres. In the whiche, not onely men and no- ble péeres, gaue the combate of battaile, but the Goddes toke partes against Goddes, and men wounded Goddes: as their [Sidenote: The vain in- uention of Poetes.] lies exceade all nomber, because thei bee infinite, so also thei passe all truthe, reason, and iudgemente. These fewe exam- ples of their vanities and lies, doe shewe the feigned ground and aucthoritie of the reste. Accordyng to the folie and super- sticiousnes of those tymes, thei inuented and forged folie vp- pon folie, lye vpon lye, as in the battaill of Troie, thei aggra- uate the dolour of the battaill, by pitifull and lamentable in- [Sidenote: Plato reie- cteth Poetes from the com[-] mon wealth.] uencion. As for the Poetes them selues, Plato in his booke, made vpon the administracion of a common wealth, maketh [Fol. xxv.v] theim in the nomber of those, whiche are to bee banished out of all common wealthes. ¶ The exposicion. HOmere dooeth saie, and many other Poetes, that the warres of the Grecians against the Troians, was for beautifull Helena, and continued tenne yeres. The Goddes and Goddis toke partes, and all the people of Grece, aided Menelaus, and the kyng Aga- memnon, to bryng home again Helena, neclecting their own countrie, their wife and chidre[n], for one woma[n]. The Grekes inuentyng a huge and mightie horse made of Firre trée, and couered with brasse, as huge as a mou[n]tain, out of the whiche the Grecians by treason issuyng, brought Troie to ruine. ¶ The obscuritie of the matter. IT semeth a matter of folie, that so many people, so mightie nacions should bee bewitched, to raise so mightie a armie, hassardyng their liues, leauyng their countrie, their wiues, their children, for one [Sidenote: Helena.] woman: Be it so, that Helena passed all creatures, and that Nature with beautie had indued her with all vertue, and sin- gularitie: yet the Grecians would not be so foolishe, that vni- uersallie thei would seke to caste doune their owne wealthe, and moche more the common wealthe of Grece, and kyng- dome to stande in perill. Neither is it to be thought, the Gre- cians, sekyng to aduau[n]ce the beautie of Helena: would leaue [Sidenote: The cause of the forged in- uencion.] their owne state. But it is like, the wittes of Poetes did im- magine so forged a Chronicle, that the posteritie of ages fol- lowyng, should rather wounder at their forged inuencion, then to beleue any soche warre truly mencioned. There was no soche cause, seyng that the kyngdome of Grece, fell by no title of succession to Helena, for them to moue warre, for, the bringyng backe of that beutifull harlotte Helena. Neither in Helena was there vertue, or honestie of life, to moue and ex- asperate the Grecians, to spende so greate treasures, to raise [Fol. xxvj.r] [Sidenote: No commen- dacion in vp- holdyng and maintainyng of harlottes.] so mightie an armie on euery side. What comme[n]dacion had the Troians to aduaunce Helena, and with all roialnesse to entreate her, she beyng a harlotte: the folie of the Grecians and the Troians, is so on euery side so greate, that it can not be thought, soche a warre truely chronicled. If violence and power, had taken Helena from her housebande, and not her [Sidenote: Helena follo- wed Paris.] owne will and luste, caught with the adulterous loue of Pa- ris, beyng a straunger. If her moderacion of life had been so rare, as that the like facte for her chastitie, had not been in a- ny age or common wealthe, her vertues would haue giuen occasion: The Princes and nobles of Grece to stomacke the matter. The example of the facte, would with all praise and [Sidenote: Uertuous life, worthie commendaci- on in al ages. Lucrecia. Tarquinius the kyng ba- nished for ra- uishyng Lu- crecia, and all of his name banished.] commendacion be mencioned, and celebrated to al ages. Lu- cretia for her chastite, is perpetuallie to be aduanunced, wher- vpon the Romaines banished Tarquinius their kyng, his stocke and name from Rome. The rare chastite of Penelope, is remainyng as a example herein: So many snares laied to caste doune her vertuous loue towarde her housebande U- lisses. But Ulisses made hauocke by murder, on these gaie and gallante Ruffins, who in his absence sought to alienate [Sidenote: Penelopes chastitie.] and withdrawe, the chaste harte of Penelope, consumyng his substance. A greater example remaineth in no age, of the like chastite. As for the battaile of Troie, raised for Helena, could wise men, and the moste famous nobles of Grece: So occupie their heddes, and in thesame, bothe to hasarde their liues for a beautifull strumpet or harlot. The sage and wise [Sidenote: Nestor. Ulisses.] Nestor, whom Agamemnon for wisedome preferred, before the moste of the péeres of Grece, neither it Ulisses wanted at thesame tyme, hauyng a politike and subtill hedde, to with- drawe theim from so leude and foolishe a enterprise. Grece [Sidenote: Grece the lande of faire women.] wanted not beautifull creatures, Nature in other had besto- wed amiable faces, personage, and comelie behauiour. For, at those daies, Grece thei called _Achaida calligunaica_, that is, Grece the lande of faire women. The dolorous lamentacion of the Ladies and Matrons in Grece, would haue hindered [Fol. xxvj.v] soche a foolishe enterprise, seyng their owne beautie neclec- ted, their honestie of life caste vp to perilles, one harlot of in- [Sidenote: Uncomelie.] numerable people followed and hunted after, in whom neither honestie, vertue, nor chastite was harbored. ¶ Uncredible. ALthough the folie of men is greate, and the will of princes and gouernours beastlie and rashe, yet by no meanes it can be so many yeres, so greate folie to take roote in their hartes, and that the wisedom [Sidenote: Beautie without ver- tue, nothyng of valour.] of the Grecia[n]s, should not rather caste of as naught, the beau- tie of Helena: rather then the whole multitude, the state of the Prince, the welfare of the subiecte, to stande in perill for [Sidenote: Beautie a poison, in a adulterous mynde.] the beautie of one. What is beautie, when a beastlie and ad- ulterous minde is possessed: Beautie without chastitie, har- boreth a monsterous rabelmente of vices, a snare and baite, [Sidenote: Beautie sone fadeth.] to poison other. Beautie in fewe yeres, is not onely blemi- shed, but decaied, and wholie extinguished: it is vncredible, that the Grecians would seeke to bryng home Helena, who had loste the chaste loue toward her housband, beyng caught [Sidenote: Paris Hele- nas louer. Phrigia.] with the adulterous loue of Paris, soonne to Priamus kyng of Troie. The lande of Phrigia was a mightie Region, the people noble, puissaunte in warre: the kyng for nobilitie of actes famous. The Citee of Troie, wherein the kyng helde his Scepter of gouernement, was riche, mightie, and popu- lous: ruled and gouerned, by the wisedome and policie of fa- mous counsailours, so that by all meanes it is vncredible, [Sidenote: Uncomelie.] without any possibilitie. Thei neclectyng their owne state and kyngdo[m], so to preferre the beautie of one, that the whole multitude of Grece thereby to perishe. It is a matter vncre- [Sidenote: Grece the fountain of al learnyng.] dible in all Grece, whiche for the fame of wisedome, is moste celebrated emong all nacions, not one wiseman at thesame tyme to be therein: whose cou[n]saile and politike heddes, might ponder a better purpose. Grece, whiche was the mother and fountaine of all artes and sciences, all Eloquence, Philoso- phie, wisedome flowyng from theim, and yet wisedome to [Fol. xxvij.r] want in their breastes. Reason can not make any perswasion that any probabilitie can rise, of any soche matter enterpri- sed, what could the intent be of the Grecians, as concerning [Sidenote: Menelaus housbande to Helena.] Menelaus. In Menelaus there was no wisedom, to seke and hunte after Helena, or by any meanes to possesse her, she be- yng a harlotte, her loue alienated, her hart possessed with the loue of an other manne: foolishlie he hopeth to possesse loue, [Sidenote: Harlottes loue dissem- bled.] that seeketh to enioye the cloked, poisoned, and dissembled harte of a harlotte, Grece was well ridde of a harlotte, Troie [Sidenote: Troians.] harbouryng Helena. In the Troians it is not to be thought, that either the kyng, or nobles, for a harlotte, would see the the people murthered, their owne state, the king to be in dan- [Sidenote: Grecians.] ger of ruine. In the Grecians there was neither wisedome, neither commendacion, to pursue with a maine hoste, with a greate Nauie of Shippes, to bryng backe againe a harlotte, whose enterprise rather might better bee borne, to banishe & exile soche a beastlie disposed persone. The Troians mighte [Sidenote: Absurditie.] well scorne the Grecians, if that the possession of a beautifull moste amiable, and minsyng harlotte, was of soche valour, estimacion, and price with theim, not onely the beautie of all other to bee reiected. But moste of all the vertuous life, and chastitie of all their matrons and honourable Ladies, to bee caste of as naught. Grece that had the name of all wisedome, [Sidenote: The defence of Helena.] of all learnyng and singularitie, might rather worthelie bee called, a harbouryng place of harlottes: a Stewe and vphol- der of whoredome, and all vncleanes. Wherefore, these ab- surdities ought to bee remoued, from the minde and cogita- cion of all menne, that should worthelie ponder the state of [Sidenote: Troie a king[-] dome of whor[-] dome.] Grece. Troie of like sorte to bee a kyngdome and common wealthe of all vice: whoredome in soche price with the kyng, and people, that moste fortunate should the harlotte bee, and the adulterour in soche a common wealthe, that for adulte- rous loue, putteth rather all their state to hasarde and perill, for the maintenaunce of beastlie loue, brutishe societie moste in price with soche a nacion, chastitie, and moderaciou of life, [Fol. xxvij.v] abandoned and caste of. ¶ Unpossible, and not agreyng. [Sidenote: Nature ab- horreth the warre of the Grecians.] IF wee weigh naturall affeccion, it can not bee, that the Grecians so moche abhorring fro[m] nature, should cast of the naturall loue of their wifes, their children and countrie, to bryng home againe, by slaughter of infinite people: soche an one as had left honestie, and chaste loue of her housbande. For, what praise can redounde to the Greci- [Sidenote: Helena.] ans by warre, to bryng home Helena, though she of all crea- tures was moste beautifull, beyng a harlotte: followyng the bridell and will of an other man. Maie shame or commenda- cion rise to the Troians, can wisedome, counsaile, or grauitie, [Sidenote: Priamus.] defende the adulterous luste of Priamus soonne, yea, could Priamus so loue Helena, for Paris his sonnes sake, as that he had rather venter the ruine and destruccion of his citée, and the falle of his people, the murder and ruine of his children, and wife for the beautie of one. For what is beautie, where honestie and vertue lacketh, it is an vncomly matter, though the Poetes so faigne it, not onely that in heauen, a contencio[n] should fall emong the Goddises of their beautie, or that Iu- piter of whom thei make an ignoraunt God, to chuse Paris the kynges sonne of Troie, chief arbitratour & Iudge of that matter, to who[m] he should giue the golde[n] Apell to her beautie, as chief of al other, was ascribed these thynges, are vndecent to thinke of the Goddeses, and moste of all, to thinke there is more Goddes then one. And euen as these are vanities, and forged imaginacions of the Goddes, so of the battaile. ¶ Uncomelie and vnprofitable. THE daunger of many people doeth shewe, that no soche thyng should happen, either of the Grecians or of the Troians: for, it is a matter dissonaunt fro[m] all truthe, that thei should so moche neclecte the quiete state, and prosperous renoume of their kyngdome, in all tymes and ages, since the firste constitucion of all Monar- [Fol. xxviij.r] chies and kyngdomes. Who euer harde soche a forged mat- ter to be Chronicled, and set forthe. Or who can giue credite to soche warre, to be enterprised of so small a matter: to leaue the state of waightier thynges for one woman. All the wo- men of that countrie to stande in perill, the slaughter of their deare housbandes, the violent murder of their children to in- sue. Therefore, the wilfulnesse of people and princes, are the cause of the falle and destruccion, of many mightie kyngdo- mes, and Empires. The fall of Grece ensued, when the chief [Sidenote: Ambicion. Cesar fell by ambicion.] citées, Athenes and Lacedemonie tooke partes, and did con- federate diuers citees to them, to assiste theim, and aide theim in battaile onely: ambicion and desire of glorie, moued bothe [Sidenote: Discorde.] the Athenians and Lacedemonians, fro[m] concorde and vnitie by whiche meanes, the power, glory, and stre[n]gth of all king- [Sidenote: Pompey.] domes falleth. Ambicion was the cause that mightie Pom- pey fell, and died violently. Cesar likewise caught with am- bicion, not bearyng the equalitée, or superioritie of Pompei, was tourned of violentlie fro[m] Fortunes whéele. Many prin- ces of like sorte and kingdomes. By ambicion onely, had the cause of their ruine. The glorie of the Assirian Monarchie grewe moste mightie, by the ambicion of Ninus kyng of Babilon: the ofspring of Ninus, whiche were kynges line- allie descendyng to the firste kyngdome of the Medes, bothe inlarged their kyngdomes, and also had the decaie of theim by ambicion. Let the Medes also associate them selues to the[m], from Arbactus the first kyng, vnto Astiages the laste: the be- ginnyng and falle of the Persian Monarchie. The mightie [Sidenote: Romulus kil[-] led Remus by ambicion.] state of Grece, the seate Imperiall of Rome, by ambicio[n] first extolled theim selues: and also by it, their glorie, scepter, and kyngdome was translated, but the falle of Troie came not, by ambicion, that the Grecians sought. But as the Poetes doe faigne, the beautie of one woman so wounded their har- tes, that the Grecians did hasarde, the perilles of their coun- trie. The Troians so moche estemed, the beautie of Helena, as that the state of all their kyngdome perished. It was no [Fol. xxviij.v] glorie nor honour to the Grecians, to resiste by armour, and to defende the violente takyng awaie of Helena, from her housbande: nor it was no honour, the Grecians to pursue by armour, the takynge awaie of Helena, beyng a harlotte. So that by no meanes it can followe, these thynges to bee true, of the battaile of Troie. ¶ Confirmacion. The other part, contrary to destruccion or subuersion, is called confirmacion. Confirmacion, hath in it so greate force of argumente, to stablishe and vpholde the cause or proposicion: as destruccion hath in castyng doune the sentence or proposicion. Confirmacion is a certain oracion, whiche with a certain reprehension of the persone or facte, by order and waie of art, casteth doune, the contrary propounded. As in the other parte called destruccion, those proposici- ons are to bee subuerted, whiche are not manyfestlie true, with all other notes before specified: so in contrariwise, this oracion by contrary notes is declaimed by, as for example. 1. It shall behoue you first, for the entring of the oracion, to induce a reprehension againste those, whiche haue confuted as a truthe, that whiche you will confirme. 2. In the seconde parte, place the exposicion and meanyng of the aucthours sentence. 3. Shewe the matter to be manifest. 4. Credible. 5. Prossible. 6. Agreyng to the truthe. 7. Shewe the facte comelie. 8. Profitable. This exercise of _Rhetotike_, doeth contain in it all stre[n]gth of arte, as who should saie, all partes of _Rhetorike_ maie co- piouslie bee handled in this parte, called confirmacion. You maie as matter riseth, ioigne twoo notes together, as the reason of the argumente cometh in place, whiche Apthonius [Fol. xxix.r] a Greke aucthour herein vseth. As manifest and credible, pos- sible and agreyng to truthe, comelie and profitable, but in al these, as in all the reste: the theme or proposicion by it self, is to bee placed, the reprehension of the aucthour by it self, the exposicion of the theme by it self. ¶ The theme or proposicion. IT is true that is saied of Zopyrus, the noble Per- sian, who ve[n]tered his life: & did cause the deformi- tie of his bodie, for the sauegarde of this countrie. ¶ The praise. [Sidenote: Iustinus.] IUstinus the Historiographer, for worthinesse of fame and wisedome, deserueth in the poste- ritie of all tymes, immortall fame, by whom the famous actes of Princes, and other noble [Sidenote: Chronicles moste neces- sary to be red.] men, doe remaine Chronicled. Giuyng exam- ples of all valiauntnesse and vertue: for, bothe the actes and worthie feactes of Princes, would passe as vnknowen in all ages, excepte the worthinesse of them, were in monumentes of writyng Chronicled. For, by the fame of their worthines, and vertues, co[m]mon wealthes and kyngdomes, doe stablishe and make Lawes, the hartes of people are incensed, and in- flamed, to the like nobilitie of actes, and famous enter- [Sidenote: The worthi- nesse of histo- ries.] prices, Histories of auncient tymes, bee vnto vs witnesses of all tymes and ages, of kyngdomes and common wealthes, a liuely example. A light to all truthe and knowlege, a schole- [Sidenote: What is a hi- storie.] maister: of maners a memorie of life, for, by it we se the wise- dom of all ages, the forme of the beste and florishing common wealthes. We learne by the vertues of Princes and gouer- nours, to followe like steppe of vertue: to flie and auoide vi- ces, and all soche thynges, as are to the destruccion and de- [Sidenote: An ignorant life, a brutish life.] caie, of realme and countrie. How brutishe wer our life, if we knewe no more then we se presently, in the state of our com- mon wealthe and kyngdome. The kyngdomes of all Prin- ces and common wealthes that now florisheth, doe stande by [Fol. xxix.v] the longe experience, wisedome, pollicy, counsaile, and god- lie lawes of Princes of auncient times, no smal praise and [Sidenote: The know- lege of Histo- ries maketh vs as it were liuyng in all ages. Historiogri- phers.] commendation can be attributed, to all suche as doe trauell in the serching out the veritie of auncient Histories, for bi the knoledge of them, we are as it were liuyng in all ages, the fall of all kyngdomes is manifeste to vs, the death of Prin- ces, the subuersions of kingdomes and common wealthes, who knoweth not the first risyng & ende of the Assiriane mo- narchie, the glorie of the Persians, and the ruynge of the same, the mightie Empire of the Grekes, risyng & fallyng, the Romane state after what sorte florishyng and decaiyng, so that no state of common wealthe or kyngdome is vnkno- wen to vs, therefore Iustine, and all suche as doe leue to the posteritie, the state of al things chronicled, deserue immortal commendacions. ¶ The exposicion. [Sidenote: The treason of the Assy- rians.] IN the time of Darius kyng of the Persians, the Assyria[n]s who ware subiects to him, sence the time of Cirus the firste kynge of the Persians, rebel- led, inuaded and toke the myghtie Citie of Babi- lon, whiche beyng possessed, with much difficultie, and not [Sidenote: Darius.] withoute greate daungers coulde bee attained. Darius the kynge hearyng of the treason of the Assyrians and that the [Sidenote: Babilon ta- ken of the As- syrians.] mightie Citie of Babilon was taken, was very wroth wai- ynge with him selfe, that there by, the ruyne of the Persian kyngdome mighte happen. Zopyrus one of the .vij. noble Peres of Persia, seing the daunger of the countrie, the state of the Prince, and the welfare of the subiectes to decaie, in the safegarde of his countrie, leuyng all priuate commoditie, for the behoufe and felicitie of the Persian kyngdome, did ven- [Sidenote: The fact of Zopyrus.] ter his owne life, commaunded his seruauntes at home to teare and re[n]te his bodie with whippes, to cut of his nose, his lippes and his eares, these thinges being vnknowen to Da- rius the kynge. As sone as Darius sawe Zopyrus so torne [Fol. xxx.r] [Sidenote: Zopyrus cau[-] sed the defor- mitie of his bodie, for the good state of his countrie.] and deformed, bewailed his state being astonished, at so hor- rible a faict: but Zopyrus shewed to the kynge his hole in- tente and purpose that he mynded to go to Babylon, whiche the Assyrians dyd traitorouslie possesse, & complained as that these things had ben don by the tyrannie and crueltie of Da- rius, he we[n]t to Babilon, and there complained of the cruel- tie of his kyng, whereby purchasyng the fauor and loue of the Assyrians, he shewed them how Darius came to be kyng not by worthines, not by vertue, not by the common consent of men, but by the neynge of a horse. Zopyrus therefore ad- monished them, that they should trust more to their armour, [Sidenote: The pollicie of Zopyrus.] then to their walles, he willed them to proclame ope[n] warre, forthwith they encountred with the Persians, and for a time victorie fel on the Babilonians side, suche was the pollice of Zopyrus. The Assyrians reioised of the successe and felicitie of their warres, the king of the Babilonians gaue to Zopy- rus, the chiefe power & office, to leede a mightie armie, of the whiche beynge Lieutenaunt, he betraied the Babilonians and their Citie. ¶ Manifeste. [Sidenote: Trogus Po[m][-] peius.] NOt onlie Trogus Pompeius the famous Historio- grapher, and Iustine which tooke the Story of him, but also the Greke writers doe sette forthe, as matter of truthe, the valiaunte enterprises of Zopyrus: so that the straunge and mightie facte of him can not seme vncredible, [Sidenote: Zopyrus.] hauyng testimonie of it in all ages. Zopyrus hauing not re- spect to his owne life, to his owne priuate wealthe or glorie, did thereby put of the daunger that insued to the Persiane kyngdome: It maie seme a greate matter, to a mynde not well affected towarde his countrie, to destroie or deforme his [Sidenote: The saiyng of Tullie.] owne bodie, for the sauegarde of countrie or common welth. But if we waie the State of oure bearth, oure countrie cha- lengeth more at oure handes then frindes or parentes, so [Sidenote: Plato. Aristotel.] muche price Plato the Philosopher, and Aristotle doe attri- bute vnto our countrie, the volumes of all lawes and bokes [Fol. xxx.v] doe prefare oure naturall countrie before the priuate state of [Sidenote: The state of a publike wealthe, is to bee preferred before a pri- uate wealth. Pericles.] owne manne, wealthe, glorie, honor, dignitie, and riches of one or fewe, the Statutes of all Princes, sekyng the glorie of their countrie, doe prefare a vniuersal welthe, before a pri- uate and particulare commoditie. Pericles the noble Athe- nian in his oration made to the Athenians, sheweth that the glorie and welthe of one man or manie, cannot plante suche glorie, and renowne to their countrie, as that in all partes thereby to be beautified and decorated, but whe[n] glorie a hap- pie and florishyng state redoundeth to the kyngdome, the subiectes, the nobelles and hye peres, the gouuernour stan- deth happie and fortunate. Who so hopeth in sparing costes and charges, monie or ornaments, to the behouf and imploi- ment of his countrie and not by all meanes to his power and strength aydeth and defendeth his naturall countrie, from [Sidenote: A good sub- iecte is redie to liue and die for his countrie.] the daunger and inuasion of his enemie, what state inioyeth he, or what wealth remaineth priuatlie, when the trone and scepter of his kyng faileth, the enemie wasteth, spoileth and destroieth all partes of his state, with the reste his life pe- risheth, so that no daunger, coste, is to bee refused, to serue the kingdom and prince, by whose scepter, iustice, lawes, and equitie we are gouuerned, there is no subiect well affected, but that he onlie liueth to proffite his countrie, to liue & dye therein. ¶ Probabell. IF only Zopyrus had enterprised this valiaunt act, and that no memorie were remainyng in anie age of the noble acts of other men, it may seme not true- lie chronacled, but from time to time, in all ages & co[m]mon wealthes, famous men for their acts & nobilitie haue ben, whiche with like courrage and magnanimitie haue sa- [Sidenote: Horacius Co[-] cles.] ued their countrie, by the losse of their owne liues. Horatius Cocles is bothe a witnesse and a light to the same, by whose aduenture the mightie and stronge Citie Rome was saued: For at what time as the Hetruscians entred on the citie, and [Fol. xxxj.r] were on the bridge, Horatius cocles defendid the ende of the same, baryng of the brunte, and stroke of the enemie, vntill the Romans, for the sauegarde of the cytie, had broken doun the bridge, as sone as Horatius Cocles sawe the Cytie thus deliuered, and the repulse of the enemie, he lepte with his ar- mours into the flud Tibar, it semed he had not regard to his life, that beyng burdened with the waighte and grauitie of his armour, durst venter his life to so main and depe a water. [Sidenote: Marcus Attilius.] Marcus Attilius in the defence of his Prince, his right hand being cut of, the which he laide on the ship of the Massilians, forthwith he apprehended with the lefte hand, and ceased not [Sidenote: Cynegerus.] vntill he hadde soouncke thesame ship. Cynegerus the Athe- nian lineth by fame and like nobilitie of actes, ve[n]teryng his life for his countrie. The mightie cytie of Athenes, brought [Sidenote: Hismenias. Thrasibulus[.]] vnder the dominions of the Lacedemonians. Thrasibulus, Hismenias and Lisias bi their aduenture, and noble atchiue reduced Athenes to his felicitie so moche loue, soo faithefull hartes they hadde towardes theire countreie. Leonides the King of the Lacedemonians, defendyng the narow straights of the cytie Thermopolie with fower thousand men against the mightie and huge armie of Xerxes, for Xerxes contemned [Sidenote: Leonides kyng of the Lacedemo- nians.] theire smalle number and armie: Leonides the kyng hearde that the place and hill of the battell was preue[n]tid of .xx. thou- sande enemies, he exorted his souldiours parte of them to de- parte vntill a better time might be locked for, and onlie with the Lacedemonians he proued the conflicte and the combate, although the campe of Xerxes was mightier & more in num- ber: yet Leonides the kyng thought it good for the sauegarde of his contrie, for saieth he, I must rather saue it, then to haue respecte to my life, although the oracle of Delphos had fore- shewed, that euen Leonides muste die in the fielde or battell of the enemie, and therefore Leonides entred battail, & com- fortid his men for their countrie sake, as to die therein, there- fore he preuented the narrowe straightes of the countrie, and the dangerous places, where the force of the enemie mought [Fol. xxxj.v] bruste in, he lingered not, leste the enemie mighte compasse him in, but in the quiet season of the nighte, he set vppon his enemie vnloked for, and they beynge but sixe hundred men [Sidenote: Leonides.] with the kyng Leonides, brust into the ca[m]pe of their enemies beyng sixe hundred thousand menne, their valiauntnes was suche, and the ouerthowe of their enemies so great, and Xer- xes the kyng hauyng two woundes, retired with shame and [Sidenote: Agesilaus. Conon.] loste the honor. Agesilaus and Conon valiaunte in actes, and excellynge in all nobilitie, what great and mightie dan- gers haue thei atchiued and venterid for their countrie sake, howe moche haue thei neglectid their owne wealth, riches, life and glorie, for the aduauncement and honor of their cou[n]- [Sidenote: Lisander.] trie. Lisander also the Lacedemonian, was indued with like nobilitie with faithfull and syncéer harte towarde his coun- [Sidenote: Archidamus[.] Codrus.] try. Archidamus also lieth not in obliuio[n], whose fame death buried not the famous aduenture of Codrus kyng of the A- thenians is maruelous and almoste incredible, but that the Histores, truelie set forth, and declare a manifest truthe ther- [Sidenote: Epamniun- das.] of, who is more famous then Epaminundas, bothe for vir- tue, nobilitie and marciall feates among the Thebans, the [Sidenote: Grecians.] mightie armie of the Grecians, at the longe sege of Troie, what valiaunte Capitains hadde thei, whiche in the defence [Sidenote: Troians.] of their countrie hasarde their life: the Troians also wanted not for proues valiauntnes and al nobilitie, their péeres and [Sidenote: Romans.] nobles: amonge the Romans, what a greate number was of noble peres, whose studie alwaies was to liue and dye in the glorie, aide and defence of their countrie, for he liueth not by whose cowardlines fainted harte and courage, the contrie [Sidenote: Who liueth in shame.] or kyngdome standeth in perrill, he liueth in shame, that re- fuseth daunger, coste or charge, in the defence or procuryng, better state to his countrie. The worthie saiyng of Epami- nundas declareth, who liueth to his countrie, who diyng va- liauntlie in the felde, beyng thrust thorow with the speare of his enemie, asked those questions of these that stoede by him at the poincte of deathe, is my speare manfullie broken, and [Fol. xxxij.r] my enemies chassed awaie, the whiche things his co[m]panions [Sidenote: Epameunn- das a most no[-] ble and vali- aunt pere.] in warre affirmed, then saide he: nowe your Capitaine Epa- minundas beginneth to liue in that he dieth valiauntlie for his countrie, and in the proffite & aduauncement of the same, a worthie man, noble and valiaunte, his sentence also was worthie to be knowen, and followed of all suche as bee well affected and Godlie mynded to their countrie. Marcus Mar- cellus of like sorte, and Titus Manlius Torquatus, & Sci- pio Aemilianus, Marcus Attilius shewed in what hye price our naturall countrée ought to bee had, by their valiaunt at- chifes, and enterprises: I might passe by in sile[n]ce Scipio Ca- to, and Publius Scipio Nasica, but that thei by like fame, honour and glorie liue immortall to their countrie, the same also of Uibeus, Ualerius Flaccus, and Pedanius Centurio giueth ampell and large matter to all menne, endued with nobilitie and valiaunt proues, for the defence of their coun- trie with Quintus Coccius, Marcus Sceua and Sceuola. ¶ Possibilitie. THere nedeth no doute to rise of possibilitie, seinge that examples doe remain of famous men, of god- lie and well affected persones, whiche haue with like magnanimitie putte in daunger their life, to [Sidenote: The order of Athenes.] saue their Prince, kyngdome, and countrie. Greate honour was giuen of the Athenians, to soche noble and valiaunte men, whiche ventered their liues for their common wealthe, to maintaine the florishyng state thereof. The eloquente and [Sidenote: Thusidides.] copious oracion of Thusidides, the true, faithfull, and elo- quente Historiographer doeth shewe: what honour and im- mortall fame was attributed, to all soche as did venter their liues, in the florishyng state of their countrie, in supportyng, mainteinyng, and defendyng thesame. Who, although thei loste their liues, whiche by death should bee dissolued, their fame neuer buried, liueth with the soule to immortalitie, the losse of their Priuate wealthe, glorie, riches, substaunce, or dignitie, hath purchased and obtained fame, that withereth [Fol. xxxij.v] not, and glorie that faileth not. ¶ Agreyng and comelie. BOthe the true Histories, doe leaue in commenda- cion, the facte of Zopyrus, and the noble and wor- thie enterprises of other: whiche haue giuen the like assaie, and their fame is celebrated and titeled with immortall commendacion and glorie, to the posteritie [Sidenote: The duetie of all good subiectes.] of all ages followyng. What harte can bee so stonie, or bru- tishly affected, that wil not venter his life, goodes, landes, or possessions: if with the daunger of one, that is of hymself, the whole bodie and state of his countrie, is thereby supported, and saued. What securitie and quietnesse remained, what wealth, honour, or fame to Zopyrus: if not onely Zopyrus had perished, but the kyng & people vniuersally had been de- stroied. Therevpon Zopyrus weighing and co[n]sideryng, the [Sidenote: The cause of our birthe.] state of his birthe, that his countrie chalenged his life, rather then the dissolucion of the whole kyngdome, the decaie of the Prince, the takyng awaie of the scepter, the slaughter of in- finite people to ensue. He was borne to be a profitable mem- ber to his countrie, a glorie and staie to thesame: and not spa- ryng his life, or shunnyng the greate deformitie of his bo- die, to bee a ruine of thesame. Was it not better that one pe- rished, then by the securitie of one, a whole lande ouer run- ned, as partes thereby spoiled: it was the duetie of Zopirus, to take vpon hym that greate and famous enterprise. It was also comelie, the kyngdome standyng in perill, a sage and descrite persone to preuente and putte of, soche a daunger at [Sidenote: The facte of Zopyrus.] hande: The faicte altogether sheweth all vertue and greate singularitie, and a rare moderacion of minde, to cast of all re- spectes and excuses, forsakyng presentlie honour, quietnesse and obiecting himself to perill, he sawe if he onelie died, or by ieopardie saued his countrie, many thereby liued, the kyng- dome & people florished, where otherwise, he with his Prince and kyngdome might haue perished. ¶ Proffitable. [Fol. xxxiij.r] [Sidenote: The fact of Zopyrus.] AL the power of the Babilonians, was by his pol- icie throwen doune, the Citee taken, the enemie brought to confusion: on the other side, the Persi- ans rose mightie, soche a mightie enemie put vn- derfoote. The fame of Zopyrus and glorie of the facte, will neuer be obliterated, or put out of memorie, if this were not profitable to the kyngdome of Persia: if this were not a re- noume to the prince and people, and immortall glory to Zo- [Sidenote: Zopyrus de- formed, a beautie of his countree.] pryus iudge ye. Zopyrus therfore, beautified his countrée, by the deformitie of his bodie. Better it wer to haue many soche deformed bodies, then the whole state of the realme destroied or brought to naught: if we weigh the magnanimitie of that man, and his enterprise, there is so moche honour in the fact, that his fame shall neuer cease. ¶ A common place. [Sidenote: Why it is cal- led a common place.] A Common place is a Oracion, dilatyng and ampli- fiyng good or euill, whiche is incidente or lodged in any man. This Oracion is called a common place, because the matter conteined in it, doeth agree vniuersally to all menne, whiche are partakers of it, and giltie of thesame[.] A Oracion framed againste a certaine Thefe, Extorcio- ner, Murderer, or Traitor, is for the matter conteined in it, metelie and aptlie compiled, against all soche as are giltie of theft, murder, treason, or spotted with any other wickednes. This oracion of a common place, is like to the laste argu- ment or _Epilogus_ of any oracion, whiche the Grekes doe call _Deuterologian_, whiche is as moche to saie, as a rehearsall of that whiche is spoken of before. Wherefore, a common place hath no _exhordium_, or be- ginnyng, yet neuerthelesse, for the profite and exercise of the learner, you maie place soche a _proemium_, or beginnyng of the oracion, as maie be easie to induce the learner. This parte of _Rhetorike_ is large to intreate vpon, for the aboundaunce of matter. This part of _Rhetorike_ is large to intreate vpon, for the [Fol. xxxiij.v] aboundaunce of matter. The common place, whiche Aphthonius intreateth of, is to be aplied against any man, for the declaimor to inuade, ei- ther against vices, or to extoll and amplifie his vertues. This oracion of a common place, serueth bothe for the ac- cuser and the defender. For the accuser, to exasperate and moue the Iudges or hearers, against the offender, or accused. For the defendour to replie, and with all force & strength of matter, to mollifie and appease the perturbacions of the Iudges and hearers, to pulle doune and deface the contrarie alledged. There is greate force in this oracion, on bothe the sides. Properlie this kinde of _Rhetorike_, is called a common place, though it semeth to be made againste this man, or that man: because the matter of thesame shall properly pertain to all, giltie of thesame matter. [Sidenote: Pristianus.] Pristianus sheweth, that this parte of _Rhetorike_, is as it were a certaine exaggeracion of reason, to induce a manifest probacion of any thyng committed. As for example, a Theife taken in a robberie, in whom neither shamefastnesse, nor sparcle of grace appereth against soche a one: this oracion maie be made, to exasperate the Iud- ges from all fauour or affeccion of pitie, to be shewed. ¶ The order of the Oracion followeth with these notes to be made by. ¶ The firste Proheme. DEmosthenes the famous Orator of Athenes in his oracio[n] made against Aristogito[n] doeth saie, [Sidenote: What are Lawes.] that Lawes wherewith a common wealthe, ci- tie or Region is gouerned, are the gifte of God, a profitable Discipline among men, a restraint to with holde and kepe backe, the wilfull, rashe, and beastilie [Sidenote: Aristotle. Plato.] life of man, and therupo[n] Aristotle and Plato doe shewe, that through the wicked behauour of men, good lawes were first [Fol. xxxiiij.r] ordained, for, of ill maners, saie thei, rose good lawes, where [Sidenote: Order.] lawes doe cease, and good order faileth, there the life of man will growe, rude, wild and beestlie: Man beyng a chiefe crea- [Sidenote: Man borne by nature to societee.] ture or God, indued with manie singuler vertues, is framed of nature to a mutuall and Godlie societie of life, without the whiche moste horrible wolde the life bee, for not onlie by concorde and agremente, the life of man dothe consiste but al things on the earth haue therin their being: the heauens and lightes conteined in the same, haue a perpetuall harmonie & concente in finishyng their appointed race. The elementes [Sidenote: All thinges beyng on the yearth, dooe consiste by a harmonie or concorde.] of the worlde, where with the nature and substaunce of all thinges, doe consiste onlie by a harmonie and temperature of eche parte, haue their abidyng increase & prosperous beyng, otherwise their substaunce, perisheth and nature in all partes decaieth: Kyngdomes and common wealthes doe consiste in a harmonie, so long as vertue and all singularitie tempereth their state and gouernemente, and eche member thereof obe- ieth his function, office and callynge, and as partes of the- same bodie, euerie one as nature hath ordained theim occu- piyng, their roume and place, the vse of euerie parte, all to the vse and preseruacion of the hole bodie, and as in the bodie so in the common wealthe, the like concorde of life oughte to be in euery part, the moste principall parte accordyng to his di- gnitie of office, as moste principall to gouerne thother inferi- or partes: and it thei as partes moste principal of thesame bo- die with all moderacion and equabilitie te[m]peryng their state, [Sidenote: Order con- serueth com- mon wealth.] office and calling. The meanest parte accordyng to his lowe state, appliyng hym selfe to obeie and serue the moste prin- cipall: wherein the perfecte and absolute, frame of common wealthe or kyngdome is erected. And seyng that as the Phi- losophers doe saie, of ill maners came good lawes, that is to saie, the wicked and beastlie life of man, their iniurius beha- uiour, sekyng to frame themselues from men to beastes mo- [Sidenote: Euil maners was the occa- sion of good Lawes.] ued the wise and Godlie, elders to ordaine certaine meanes, to rote discipline, whereby the wickedlie disposed personne [Fol. xxxiiij.v] should bee compelled to liue in order, to obeie Godlie lawes, to the vpholdyng of societie. Therefore, all suche as dissolue lawes, caste doune good order, and state of common wealth, out as putride and vnprofitable weedes, to be extirpated and plucked vp from Citie and Common wealthe, from societie, who by mischeuous attemptes seke, to extinguishe societie, amitie, and concord in life. Princes & gouernors with al other magistrates ought in their gouernment to imitate the prac- tise of the Phisician, the nature of man, wekedned and made feble with to moche abundaunce of yll humors, or ouermoch with ill bloode replenished, to purge and euacuate that, and all to the preseruacion and healthe of the whole bodie: for so was the meanyng of the Philosopher, intreatyng of the po- litike, gouernment of kingdome and commonwealth, when [Sidenote: Theiues not mete to be in any societie.] thei compared a kingdome to the bodie of man: the thefe and robber as a euill and vnprofitable member, and all other as without all right, order, lawe, equitie and iustice, doe breake societie of life, bothe against lawe and nature: possessing the goodes of a other man, are to bee cutte of, as no partes, méete to remaine in any societie. ¶ The seconde Proheme. [Sidenote: Why theiues and wicked men, are cut of by lawe.] THe chifest cause that moued gouernours and ma- gistrates, to cutte of the race of theues, and viole[n]te robbers, and of all other mischeuous persons, was that by them a confusion would ensue in al states. What Citee could stande in prosperous state, yea, or what house priuatlie inhabited, where lawes and aucthoritee were exiled: where violence, will, luste, and appetite of pestiferous men, might without terrour bee practised. If the labour and industrie of the godlie, should be alwaie a praie to y^e wicked, and eche mannes violence and iniurious dealyng, his owne lawe, the beaste in his state, would bee lesse brutishe and in- iurious. Who so seketh to caste doune this societée, he is not méete to be of any societée, whiche he dissolueth. Who so rob- beth or stealeth, to liue by the gooddes of an other manne, as [Fol. xxxv.r] his possession, is by violence and againste Nature: so by vio- [Sidenote: A due rewar[-] des for thie- ues and mur- therers.] lence and against nature, their pestiferous doinges do frame their confusion: their execrable & destetable purpose, do make theim a outcaste from all good people, and as no members thereof, cut of from all societée, their euill life rooteth perpetu- al ignomie and shame. And thus is the tragicall ende of their enterprise. ¶ The contrarie. [Sidenote: Democratia.] HErein the lose and dissolute state of gouernmente called of the Grekes Democratia, haue conten- ted the wilfull heddes of pestiferous men: where- in euery man must bee a ruler. Their owne will is their Lawe: there luste setteth order, no Magistrate, but euery one to hymself a Magistrate. All thynges in common, as long as that state doeth remain emong the wicked, a most happie state coumpted, a wished state to idell persones, but it [Sidenote: The thiefe. The mur- therer.] continueth not. Herein the murtherer, the thiefe were meete to be placed. The greater thiefe, the better manne: the moste execrable murtherer, a moste mete persone, for soche state of gouernemente. There is no nacion vnder the Sunne, but that one tyme or other, this troublous state hath molested theim: and many haue sought to sette vp soche a monsterous state of regiment, a plagued common wealthe, and to be de- tested. Soche was the order of men, when thei liued without lawes. When the whole multitude were scattered, no citee, Toune, or house builded or inhabited, but through beastlie maners, beastlie dispersed, liued wilde and beastlie. But the wise, sage, and politike heddes reduced by wisedome, into [Sidenote: Houses. Families. Tounes. Citees.] a societie of life, nature leadyng thereto: Houses and habita- cions, were then for necessitie made, families multiplied, vil- lages and Tounes populouslie increased, and Citees raised emong so infinite people. Nature by God inuented and sta- blished Lawe, and the sage and wise persones, pronounced and gaue sentence vpon Lawes. Whereupon, by the obedi- ence of lawes, and preeminente aucthoritie of Magistrates: [Fol. xxxv.v] The state of mightie Kyngdomes and Common wealthes, haue growen to soche a roialnesse and loftie state, many fa- mous kingdomes haue been on the face of the yearth: many noble Princes from tyme to tyme succedyng, whiche with- [Sidenote: Obedience of Lawes did stablishe the mightie mo- narchies.] out a order of godlie lawes, could not haue continued. What was the cause that the mightie Monarchies, continued many hundred yeres: did the losse of dissolute life of subiectes and Princes, cause thesame but good lawes, and obedience to or- ders. Therefore, where Magistrates, bothe in life and office, [Sidenote: The life of the Magi- strate, a lawe[.]] liue in the obedience of Lawes: the multitude inferiour, by example of the Magistrates singularitie, incensed dooe place before them, their example of life, as a strong lawe. [Sidenote: The Epistle of Theodosi- uus Empe- ror of Rome[.]] Theodosius Emperor of Rome, writyng to Uolusianus his chief Pretor, as concernyng his office, in these woordes, saieth: _Digna vox est maiestate regnantis legibus alligatum se principem profiteri. Adeo de autoritate Iuris nostra pendet autoritas et reuera maius imperio est submittere legibus prin[-] cipatum & oraculo presentis edicti quod nobis licere non pa- timur alijs indicamus._ It is a worthie saiyng, and meete for the Maiestie of a Prince, to acknowledge hymself vnder his lawe. For, our aucthoritie, power, and sworde, doeth depende vpon the force, might, and aucthoritie of Lawes, and it pas- seth all power and aucthoritie, his gouernemente and kyng- dome to be tempered by lawe, as a moste inuiolable Oracle and decrée, so to doe as we prouulgate to other. Whereupon it is manifeste, what force godlie lawes gaue to the Prince, what aucthoritie. Take lawes awaie, all order of states fai- [Sidenote: Princes Lawe.] leth, the Prince by Lawe, is a terrour to the malefactour: his Maiestie is with all humblenesse serued, feared, and obeied. By lawes, his state maketh hym as a God, emong menne, at whose handes the preseruacion of eche one, of house, citee and countrie is sought. Seing bothe lawes and the Prince, hane that honour and strength, that without them, a _Chaos_ a con- fusion would followe, in the bodie of all common wealthes and kyngdomes. Let them by aucthoritie and lawe bee con- [Fol. xxxvj.r] founded, that practise to subuerte aucthoritie, to neclecte the Prince, and his godlie lawes. ¶ The exposicion. [Sidenote: Theiues and all iniurious persones.] THe theife, or any other iniurious persone, doeth seke to bée aboue all lawes, exempted from all order, vn- der no obedience, their pestiferous dealyng, dooe vt- [Sidenote: Demosthe- nes in Ari- stogiton.] ter thesame: For, as Demosthenes the famous Orator of A- thenes doeth saie. If that wicked men cease not their viole[n]ce if that good men in all quietnes and securitie, can not enioye their owne goddes, while lawe and aucthoritie of the magi- strate, seuerelie and sharply vseth his aucthoritie and sword. If dailie the heddes of wicked men, cease not to subuerte la- wes, orders, and decrees godlie appoincted. Whiles that in all Citees and common wealthes, the Princes and gouer- [Sidenote: The force of lawes.] nours, are by lawes a terror to them. Lawes then ceasyng, the dreadfull sente[n]ce of the Iudge and Magistrate wanting. The sworde vndrawen, all order confounded, what a con- fusion would followe: yea, what an open passage would bee lefte open to all wickednesse. The terrour of Lawes, the sworde and aucthoritie of the Magestrate, depresseth and put[-] teth doune, the bloodie cogitacions of the wicked, and so hin- dereth and cutteth of, many horrible and bloodie enterprises. Els there would bee neither Prince, Lawe, nor subiecte, no hedde or Magistrate: but euery manne his owne hedde, his owne lawe and Magistrate, oppression and violence should bee lawe, and reason, and wilfull luste would bee in place of reason, might, force, and power, should ende the case. Where- fore, soche as no lawe, no order, nor reason, will driue lo liue as members in a common wealthe, to serue in their functio[n]. [Sidenote: Wicked men burdeins of the yearth.] Thei are as Homere calleth the:m, burdeins to the yearth, for thei are of no societie linked with Nature, who through wickednesse are disseuered, abhorryng concorde of life, socie- tie and felowship. Whom sinister and bitter stormes of for- tune, doe daiely vexe and moleste, who in the defence of their [Fol. xxxvj.v] [Sidenote: Maimed sol- diours muste be prouided for.] countrie are maimed, and thereby their arte and science, for, imbecilitie not practised, all art otherwise wantyng, extreme pouertee fallyng on them, reason muste moue, and induce all hartes, to pitée chieflie their state: who in defence and main- teinaunce of our Countrie, Prince, and to the vpholdyng of our priuate wealthe at home, are become debilitated, defor- med and maimed, els their miseries will driue them to soche hedlesse aduentures, that it maie bee saied, as it was saied to [Sidenote: The saiyng of a souldiour to Alexander the greate.] Alexander the Greate. Thy warres, O Prince, maketh ma- ny theues, and peace will one daie hang them vp. Wherein the Grecians, as Thusidides noteth, had a carefull proui- dence, for all soche as in the defence of their Countrie were maimed, yea, euen for their wiues, and children of all soche, as died in warre, to be mainteined of the commo[n] charge and threasure of Grece. Reade his Oracion in the seconde booke, made vpon the funerall of the dedde soldiours. ¶ A comparison of vices. [Sidenote: The dru[n]kard[.] The proude persone. The prodigal[.] The couei- teous. The robber.] THe dronkarde in his state is beastlie, the proude and arrogante persone odious, the riotous and prodigall persone to be contempned, the couei- tous and nigardlie manne to bee reiected. But who so by violence, taketh awaie the goodes of an other man, or by any subtill meanes, iniustlie possesseth thesame, is detestable, with all seueritée to be punished. The [Sidenote: The adul- terer. The harlot.] adulterer and the harlotte, who by brutishe behauiour, leude affection, not godlines leadyng thereto: who by their vnchast behauior, and wanton life doe pollute, and co[n]taminate their bodie, in whom a pure minde ought to be reposed. Who tho- rowe beastly affeccion, are by euill maners transformed to beastes: and as moche as in theim lieth, multipliyng a bru- [Sidenote: The homi- cide.] tishe societie. The homicide in his state more horrible, accor- dyng to his outragious and bloodie life, is to bee tormented, in like sort all other vices, accordyng to their mischiues, rea- son, Lawe and Iustice, must temper and aggrauate due re- [Fol. xxxvij.r] ward, and sentence to them. ¶ The sentence. [Sidenote: Thefte horri[-] ble amo[n]g the Scitheans.] NO vice was more greuous, and horrible emong the Scithians then thefte, for this was their sai- yng: _Quid saluum esse poterit si licet furari_, what can be safe, if thefte bee lefull or tolerated. Herein [Sidenote: A sentence a- genst thefte.] the vniuersalle societée of life is caste doune, hereby a confu- sion groweth, and a subuersion in all states immediatlie fol- loweth, equitee, iustice, and all sincere dealyng is abaundo- ned, violence extirpateth vertue, and aucthoritie is cutte of. ¶ The digression. THE facte in other maie be with more facilitée to- lerated, in that to theim selues, the facte and con- uersacion of life is moste pernicious, and hurtfull, but by soche kinde of menne, whole kyngdomes and common wealthes would bee ouerthrowen. And for a prosperous state and common wealthe, a common woe and [Sidenote: Horrible vi- ces.] calamitée would fall on them, tumultes and vprores main- tained, right and lawe exiled: neither in field quietnes, welth or riches, houses spoiled, families extinguished, in all places sedicion, warre for peace, violence for right, will and lust for [Sidenote: Userers.] lawe, a hedlesse order in all states. And as concernyng Usu- rers, though their gaines be neuer so ample, and plentifull, to enriche them, whereby thei growe to be lordes, ouer many thousandes of poundes: yet the wealthe gotten by it, is so in- iurious, that thei are a greate plague, to all partes of the co[m]- mon wealthe: so many daungers and mischiues, riseth of the[m][.] Cato the noble and wise Senator of Rome, being demaun- ded diuers questions, what was firste to bee sought, in a fa- milie or housholde, the aunsweres not likyng the demaun- [Sidenote: The sentence of Cato a- gainst vsu- rers. Usure is mur[-] ther.] der: this question was asked, O Cato, what sente[n]ce giue you of Usurie, that is a goodlie matter to bee enriched by. Then Cato aunswered in fewe woordes. _Quid hominem occidere._ What saie you to be a murderer? Soche a thyng saieth he, is [Fol. xxxvij.v] Usurie. A brief sentence againste Usurers, but wittely pro- nounced from the mouth of a godlie, sage, noble, and descrite persone, whiche sentence let the Usurer, ioigne to his Usury retourned, and repeate at the retourne thereof, this sentence [Sidenote: The sentence of Cato a dis- comfort to v- surers.] of Cato, I haue murthered. This one sentence will discou- rage any Usurer, knowyng hymself a murtherer. Though moche more maie be spoken against it, this shalbe sufficient. The Hebrues calleth Usurie, by the name of _Shecke_, that is a bityng gaine, of the whiche many haue been so bitten, that whole families haue been deuoured, & beggerie haue been their gaine. And as Palingenius noteth. _Debitor aufugiens portat cum fænore sortem._ The debtour often tymes saieth he, runneth awaie, and carieth with hym, the debte and gaines of the Usurie. The Grekes calleth Usurie _Tokos_, that is properlie the trauaile of women of their childe: soche is their Usurie, a daungerous gettyng. Demosthenes likeneth their state as thus, as if ter- restriall thynges should be aboue the starres: and the heaue[n]s [Sidenote: Usure a dan- gerous gaue.] and celestialle bodies, gouerned by the base and lowe terre- striall matters, whiche by no meanes, can conserue the ex- cellencie of them, for, of them onely, is their matter, substau[n]ce and nature conserued. ¶ Exclusion of mercie. WHerefore, to whom regimente and gouerne- mente is committed, on whose administracion, the frame of the co[m]mon wealth doe staie it self: thei ought with al wisedome and moderacion, to procede in soche causes, whose office in wor- [Sidenote: Princes and magistrates be as Gods on the earth.] thinesse of state, and dignitée, maketh the[m] as Goddes on the yearth, at whose mouthes for wisedome, counsaill, and for- tunate state, infinite people doe depende. It is no smal thing in that their sword & aucthoritée, doeth sette or determine all thinges, that tendereth a prosperous state, whereupon with all integritée and equitée, thei ought to temper the affeccions of their mynde: and accordyng to the horrible facte, and mis- [Fol. xxxviij.r] chiues of the wicked, to exasperate & agrauate their terrible iudgemente, and to extirpate from the yearth, soche as be of [Sidenote: The homicide. The Theue. The Adulte- rer.] no societie in life. The bloodie homicide, the thief, the adul- terer, for by these all vertue is rooted out, all godlie societie extinguished, citees, realmes, and countrées, prostrate & pla- gued for the toleracion of their factes, against soch frendship in iudgemente muste cease, and accordyng to the state of the cause, equitee to retaine frendship, money muste not blinde, nor rewardes to force and temper Iudgementes: but accor- dyng to the veritee of the cause, to adde a conclusion. Wor- [Sidenote: Whey the pi- ctures of ma- gistrates bee picturid with- oute handes.] thelie the pictures of Princes, Gouernours and Magistrates in auncient tymes doe shewe this, where the antiquitée ma- keth theim without handes, therein it sheweth their office, and iudgemente to proceade with equitée, rewardes not to blind, or suppresse the sinceritée of the cause. Magistrates not to bee bounde to giftes, nor rewardes to rule their sentence. _Alciatus_ in his boke called _Emblemata, in senatu[m] sancti prin- cipis_. [Sidenote: Princes and magistrates graue & con- stante.] _Effigies manibus trunc[ae] ante altaria diuum Hic resident, quarum lumine capta prior Signa potestatis summ[ae], sanctiq[ue] senatus, Thebanis fuerant ista reperta viris. Cur resident? Quia mente graues decet esse quieta Iuridicos, animo nec variare leui. Cur sine sunt manibus? Capiant ne xenia, nec se Pollicitis flecti muneribus ve sinant. Cecus est princeps quod solis auribus, absq[ue] Affectu constans iussa senatus agit._ Where vertue and integritée sheweth it self, in the persone and cause, to vpholde and maintein thesame. Roote out hor- rible vices from common wealthe, that the more surer and stronge foundacion of vertue maie be laied: for, that onelie cause, the scepter of kinges, the office of magistrates was left to the posteritée of all ages. ¶ Lawfull and iuste. [Fol. xxxviij.v] ¶ Lawfull and iust. [Sidenote: Lawes giue equitie to all states.] SEyng that lawes bee godlie, and vniuersally thei temper equitée to all states, and giue according to iustice, euery man his owne: he violateth vertue, that dispossesseth an other manne of his own, and [Sidenote: What driueth y^e magistrate to horrible sentence a- gainst wicked persons.] wholie extinguisheth Iustice. And thereupon his beastly life by merite forceth and driueth, lawe and Magistrate, to terri- ble iudgement. For, who so against right, without order, or lawe, violateth an other man, soche a one, lawes of iustice, muste punishe violentlie, and extirpate from societée, beyng a dissoluer of societee. ¶ Profitable. IF soche wicked persones be restrained, and seuerelie punished, horrible vices will be rooted out: all artes[,] sciences, and godlie occupacions mainteined, vphol- ded and kept. Then there must bée a securitée in all states, to [Sidenote: Magistrate. Subiect.] practise godlines, a mutuall concorde. The Magistrate with equitée, the subiecte with faithful and humble obedience, ac- complishyng his state, office, and callyng. Whereupon by good Magistrates, and good subiectes, the common wealthe and kyngdom is in happie state stablished. For, in these twoo [Sidenote: Plato.] poinctes, as Plato doeth saie, there is vertuous rule, and like obedience. ¶ Easie and possible. [Sidenote: The begyn- nyng of vice is to be cut af.] AL this maie easely be doen, when wickednes is cutte of, in his firste groweth, when the magistrate driueth continually, by sworde and aucthoritée, all menne to obedience, bothe of lawes and gouernuurs. Then in al good common wealthes, vices are neuer tolerated to take roote: be- cause the beginnyng and increase of vices, is sone pulled vp, his monsterous kyngdome thereby ouerthrowen. ¶ The conclusion. SO doyng, happie shall the kyng be, happie kyngdome, and moste fortunate people. [Fol. xxxix.r] ¶ The parte of Rhetorike, called praise. His Oracion, which is titeled praise, is a declamacio[n] of the vertuous or good qualitées, propertees belon- gyng to any thyng, whiche doeth procede by certaine notes of arte. All thynges that maie be seen, with the iye of man, tou- ched, or with any other sence apprehended: that maie be prai- sed, or dispraised. { Manne. Citees. } { Fisshe. Floodes. } { Foule. Castles. } { Beaste. Toures. } As { Orchardes. Gardeins. } { Stones. Stones. } { Trees. Artes. } { Plantes. Sciences. } { Mettals. } Any vertue maie be praised, as wisedome, rightuousnes[,] fortitude, magnanimitée, temperaunce, liberalitée, with all other. These are to be celebrated with praise. The persone, as Iulius Cesar, Octauius Augustus, Hieremie, Tullie, Cato, Demosthenes. Thynges, as rightuousnes, temperaunce. Tymes, as the Spryng tyme of the yere, Sommer, Har- uest, Winter. Places, as Hauens, Orchardes, Gardeins, Toures, Castles, Temples, Islandes. Beastes wantyng reason, as Horse, Shepe, Oxen[,] Pla[n]- ntes, as Uines, Oliues. In the praise of vertue, this maie be saied. THe excellencies of it, the antiquitee and originalle be- ginnyng thereof, the profite that riseth to any region by it, as no kyngdome can consiste without vertue, [Fol. xxxix.v] and to extoll the same, in makyng a comparison, with other giftes of nature, or with other giftes of fortune, more infe- riour or base. [Sidenote: Wherein the praise of a ci- tie consisteth[.]] Upon a citée, praise maie be recited, consideryng the good- lie situacion of it, as of Paris, Uenice, London, Yorke: con- sideryng the fertilitie of the lande, the wealthe and aboun- daunce, the noble and famous goueruours, whiche haue go- uerned thesame. The first aucthors and builders of thesame, the politike lawes, and godlie statutes therein mainteined: The felicitée of the people, their maners, their valeaunt pro- wes and hardines. The buildyng and ornatures of thesame, with Castles, Toures, Hauens, Floodes, Temples: as if a manne would celebrate with praise. The olde, famous, and [Sidenote: The praise of London. Brutus buil[-] ded Londo[n] in the .x. yeare of his raine.] aunciente Citée of London, shewyng the auncient buildyng of thesame: the commyng of Brutus, who was the firste au- cthor and erector of thesame. As Romulus was of the migh- tie Citée Rome, what kyngs haue fro[m] tyme to tyme, lineal- ly descended, and succeded, bearing croune and scepter there- in: the valiauntnes of the people, what terror thei haue been to all forraine nacions. What victories thei haue in battaile obteined, how diuers nacions haue sought their amitée and [Sidenote: Fraunce and Scotlande vpholded by y^e gouernors of this lande.] league. The false Scottes, and Frenche menne truce brea- kers: many and sonderie tymes, losyng their honour in the field, and yet thei, through the puissaunt harte of the kynges of this lande, vpholdyd and saued, from the mighte and force [Sidenote: Cambridge. Oxforde.] of other enemies inuadyng theim. The twoo famous Uni- uersitées of this lande, from the whiche, no small nomber of greate learned men and famous, haue in the co[m]mon wealthe sprong, with all other thynges to it. The praise of a Kyng, Prince, Duke, Erle, Lorde, Ba- ron, Squire, or of any other man be maie declaimed of obser[-] uing the order of this parte of _Rhetorike_. This parte of _Rhetorike_ called praise, is either a particu- ler praise of one, as of kyng Henry the fifte, Plato, Tullie, Demosthenes, Cyrus, Darius, Alexander the greate. [Fol. xl.r] Or a generalle and vniuersalle praise, as the praise of all the Britaines: or of all the citezeins of London. ¶ The order to make this Oracion, is thus declared. Firste, for the enteryng of the matter, you shall place a _exordium_, or beginnyng. The seconde place, you shall bryng to his praise, _Genus eius_, that is to saie: Of what kinde he came of, whiche dooeth consiste in fower poinctes. { Of what nacion. } { Of what countrée. } { Of what auncetours. } { Of what parentes. } After that you shall declare, his educacion: the educacion is conteined in thrée poinctes. { Institucion. } In { Arte. } { Lawes. } Then put there to that, whiche is the chief grounde of al praise: his actes doen, whiche doe procede out of the giftes, and excellencies of the minde, as the fortitude of the mynde, wisedome, and magnanimitée. Of the bodie, as a beautifull face, amiable countenaunce[,] swiftnesse, the might and strength of thesame. The excellencies of fortune, as his dignitée, power, au- cthoritee, riches, substaunce, frendes. In the fifte place vse a comparison, wherein that whiche you praise, maie be aduaunced to the vttermoste. Laste of all, vse the _Epilogus_, or conclusion. ¶ The example of the Oracion. ¶ The praise of Epaminundas. IN whom nature hath powred singuler giftes, in whom vertue, & singularitée, in famous en- terprises aboundeth: whose glorie & renoume, rooteth to the posteritée, immortall commen- dacion. In the graue, their vertues and godlie [Fol. xl.v] [Sidenote: Obliuion.] life, tasteth not of Obliuion, whiche at the length ouerthro- weth all creatures, Citées, and regions. Thei liue onelie in all ages, whose vertues spreadeth fame and noble enterpri- [Sidenote: Who liue in all ages.] ses, by vertue rooteth immortalitée. Who so liueth, as that his good fame after death ceaseth not, nor death with the bo- die cutteth of their memorie of life: Soche not onely in life, but also in death are moste fortunate. In death all honor, di- [Sidenote: Good fame chieflie rou- teth after death.] gnitée, glorie, wealthe, riches, are taken from vs: The fame and glorie of singulare life is then, chieflie takyng his holde and roote, wise men and godlie, in life, knowen famous, af- ter death, remain moste worthie & glorious. Who knoweth [Sidenote: Tullie. Demosthe- nes. Iulius Ce- sar. Octauius Augustus. Uespasianus[.] Theodosius. Traianns. Adrianus.] not of Tullie, the famous Oratour of Rome. Doeth De- mosthenes lieth hidden, that noble Oratour of Athenes. Is not y^e fame of Iulius Cesar, Octauius Augustus remainyng of Uespasianus: of Theodosius, of Traianus, of Adrianus, who by praise minded, be left to the ende of al ages. Soche a one was this Epaminundas, the famous Duke of Thebe, whose vertues gaue hym honour in life, and famous enter- prises, immortalitée of fame after death. What can bee saied more, in the praise and commendacion, of any peere of estate, then was saied in the praise of Epaminundas, for his ver- tues were so singulare, that it was doubted, he beyng so good a manne, and so good a Magistrate, whether he were better manne, or better Magistrate: whose vertues were so vnited, that vertue alwaies tempered his enterprises, his loftie state as fortune oftentymes blindeth, did not make hym vnmind- full of his state. No doubt, but that in all common wealthes, famous gouernours haue been, but in all those, the moste parte haue not been soche, that all so good men, and so good magistrates: that it is doubted, whether thei were better me[n], [Sidenote: Good man, good magi- strate, boothe a good man and a good magistrate.] or better magistrates. It is a rare thyng to be a good manne, but a more difficult matter, to bee a good Magistrate: and moste of all, to be bothe a good man, and a good Magistrate. Honour and preeminent state, doeth sometyme induce obli- uion, whereupon thei ought the more vigilantlie to wade: [Fol. xlj.r] in all causes, and with all moderacion, to temper their pree- [Sidenote: The saiynge of the Philo- sophers.] minent state. The Philosophers ponderyng the brickle and slippere state of fortune, did pronounce this sentence: _Diffici- lius est res aduersas pati, quam fortunam eflantem ferre_, it is more easie to beare sharpe and extreme pouertie, then to rule and moderate fortune, because that the wisest menne of all [Sidenote: Obliuion.] haue as Chronicles doe shewe, felte this obliuion, that their maners haue been so chaunged, as that natures molde in the[m] had ben altered or nuelie framed, in the life of Epaminu[n]das moderacion and vertue, so gouerned his state, that he was a honor and renowne to his state, nothing can be more ample in his praise, then that which is lefte Chronicled of him. [¶] Of his countrie. EPaminundas was borne in Thebe a famous citie in [Sidenote: Cadmus. Amphion. Hercules.] Beotia, the which Cadmus the sone of Agenor buil- ded, whiche Amphion did close & enuiron with wal- les, in the whiche the mightie and valiaunt Hercules was borne, & manie noble Princes helde therin scepter, the which Citie is tituled famous to the posterity by the noble gouern- ment of Epaminundas. ¶ Of his auncetours. EPaminundas came not of anie highe nobilitie or blood, but his parentes were honeste and verteous who as it semed were verie well affected to vertue, instructyng their soonne in all singulare and good qualities, for by good and vertuous life and famous enter- prises from a meane state, manie haue bene extolled to beare scepter, or to attaine greate honour, for as there is a begyn- [Sidenote: Nobility rose by vertue.] nyng of nobilitie, so there is an ende, by vertue and famous actes towarde the common wealthe, nobilite first rose. The [Sidenote: Cesar. Scipio.] stock of Cesar and Cesars was exalted from a meaner state, by vertue onelie to nobilitie. Scipios stocke was not alwais noble, but his vertues graffed nobilitie to the posteritie of his line and ofspryng followynge. And euen so as their fa- [Fol. xlj.v] mous enterprices excelled, nobilite in theim also increased. [Sidenote: Catilina.] Catilina wicked, was of a noble house, but he degenerated from the nobilitie of his auncestours, the vertues that graf- fed nobilitie in his auncestors, were first extinguished in Ca- [Sidenote: Marcus Antonius.] iline. Marcus Antonius was a noble Emperour, a Prince indued with all wisedome and Godlie gouernme[n]t, who was of a noble pare[n]tage, it what a wicked sonne succeded him, the [Sidenote: Commodus.] father was not so godlie, wise, and vertuous, as Commo- dus was wickedlie disposed and pestiferous. There was no vertue or excellence, méete for suche a personage, but that Marcus attained to. Who for wisedome was called Marcus Philosophus, in his sonne what vice was the[m] that he practi- sed not, belie chier, druncknes and harlottes, was his delite, his crueltie and bluddie life was suche that he murthered all the godlie and wise Senatours, had in price with Marcus [Sidenote: Seuerus.] his father. Seuerus in like maner, was a noble and famous Emperor, in the Senate moste graue, politike, and in his [Sidenote: Marcus Antonius Caracalla.] warres moste fortunate, but in his sonne Marcus Antoni- nus Caracalla, what wickednes wanted, whose beastlie life is rather to be put in silence, then spoken of. In the assemble of the Grecians, gathered to consulte vpon the contencion of [Sidenote: Aiax. Ulisses.] Achilles armour, Aiax gloriouslie aduaunceth hymself of his auncestrie, from many kinges descended, whom Ulisses his aduersarie aunswered: makyng a long and eloquente Ora- cion, before the noble péeres of Grece, concernyng Aiax his auncetours. These are his woordes. _Nam genus et proauos et que non fecimus ipsi, Vix ea nostra voco, sed enim quia retulit Aiax, esse Iouis pronepos._ As for our parentage, and line of auncetours, long before vs, and noble actes of theirs: as we our selues haue not doen the like, how can we call, and title their actes to be ours. Let them therefore, whiche haue descended from noble blood, and famous auncetours: bee like affected to all nobilitée of their auncetours, what can thei glory in the nobilitée of their aun- [Fol. xlij.r] cetours. Well, their auncetours haue laied the foundacion, [Sidenote: Nobilitee.] and renoume of nobilitee to their ofspryng. What nobilitee is founde in them, when thei builde nothyng, to their aunce- tours woorke of nobilitée. Euen as their auncetours, noblie endeuoured them selues, to purchase and obtain, by famous actes their nobilitée) for, nobilitée and vertue, descendeth al- waies to the like) so thei contrary retire and giue backe, fro[m] all the nobiliée of their auncestours, where as thei ought, [Sidenote: A beginnyng of nobilitee.] with like nobilitée to imitate them. Many haue been, whiche through their wisedome, and famous enterprises, in the af- faires of their Prince, worthelie to honour haue been extol- led and aduaunced: who also were the firste aucthours and founders of nobiliée, to their name and ofspring. Whose of- spring indued with like nobilitée of vertues, and noble actes haue increased their auncestors glorie: the childre[n] or ofspring lineally descendyng, hauyng no part of the auncestours glo- rie, how can thei vaunte them selues of nobiliée, whiche thei lacke, and dooe nothyng possesse thereof, Euen from lowe [Sidenote: Galerius a Shepherds sonne Empe- ror of Rome. Probus a Gardeiners sonne, Em- perour.] birthe and degrée. Galerius Armentarius was aduaunced, euen from a Shepherdes sonne, to sit in the Imperiall seat of Roome. Galerius Maximinus whom all the Easte obaied, his vertues and noble acts huffed hym to beare scepter in the Empire of Roome. Probus a Gardiners soonne, to the like throne and glorie asce[n]ded, so God disposeth the state of euery man, placyng and bestowing dignitée, where it pleaseth him as he setteth vp, so he pulleth doune, his prouidence & might is bounde to no state, stocke, or kindred. ¶ Of his educacion. EPaminu[n]das beyng borne of soche parentes, was brought vp in all excellente learnyng, for, vnder hym Philippe the kyng of the Macedonians, the soonne of Amintas, was brought vp. This Epa- minundas, the Histories note hym to be a chief Philosopher, and a capitaine moste valiaunte. In Musike, in plaiyng, and [Fol. xlij.v] singyng finelie to his Instrumente, notable and famous, no kinde of learnyng, arte, or science, wanted in his breaste: So greate and aboundante were his vertues, that aboue all go- uernours, whiche haue been in Thebe, his name and fame is chieflie aduaunced. ¶ The praise of his actes. [Sidenote: The dutie of good gouer- nors.] EPaminundas beyng moste valiaunte and no- ble, leauing all priuate commoditée, glory, and riches a side: sought the renoume of his coun- tree, as all rulers and gouernours ought to do. [Sidenote: Howe a king[-] dome riseth to all felicitie.] For, a kyngdome or common wealth, can not rise to any high nobilitée or Roialnesse, where gouernours, rulers, and magistrates, neclecting the vniuersall, and whole body of the common wealthe, doe cogitate and vigilantly en- deuour them selues, to stablish to them and theirs, a priuate, peculiar, and domesticall profite, glorie, or renoume. Couei- teousnes, whiche is in all ambicious Magistrates the poison, plague, destruccion, and ruine of the beste and florishing co[m]- mon wealthes, of al wickednes and mischief the roote: a vice, [Sidenote: Couetousnes a great euill.] whereupon all vice is grounded, from whom all mischiefe floweth, all execrable purposes issueth. That wanted in Epaminundas, for in the ende of his life, his coffers were so thin and poore, that euen to his Funerall, money wanted to solempnise thesame. Priuate glorie nor excesse, was hunted after of hym, yet his vertues were of soche excellencie, that honour, dignitée, and preeminent state, was offered and gi- uen to hym vnwillinglie. This Epaminundas was in go- uernement so famous, and so vertuouslie and politikelie ru- led thesame, that he was a glorie, renoume, honour, and fe- licitée to his kingdome, by his state. Before the time of Epa- [Sidenote: Beotia. Thebes.] minundas, the countree of Beotia was nothyng so famous in their enterprises: neither the citee of Thebe so roiall, puis- saunt or noble, the antiquitee of that tyme sheweth, that E- paminundas wantyng the power of Thebes, their glorie, strength, and felicitee fell and decaied. The learning of Epa- [Fol. xliij.r] minundas and knowlege, was so aboundant and profounde bothe in Philosophie, and in all other artes and sciences, that it was wounderfull. In chiualrie and in feates of warre, no péere was more couragious and bolde, or hardie, neither in that, whiche he enterprised, any could be of greater counsaile in hedde more pollitike, of minde more sage and wittie: his gouernement so good, that beyng so good a Magistrate, it is doubted, whether he be better man, or better Magistrate, E- paminundas died in the defence of his countrée. The Athe- nians were enemies to the Thebanes, and many greate bat- tailes were assaied of theim and foughten: and often tymes the Athenians felt many bitter stormes, and fortune loured of them, he beyng so valiaunt a capitain. Epaminundas be- yng dedde, the Athenians ceased to practise, any one parte of chiualrie, their prowesse and dexteritée decaied: thei hauyng no aliaunte, and forraine enemie to moleste theim, or whom [Sidenote: A valiant ca- pitain, to his countrie a pil[-] lar[,] to his ene[-] mie, a occasio[n] to dexteritie.] thei feared. So that a famous, wise, pollitike, and valiaunte capitaine, is not onely a staie, a pillar and strong bulwarke to his countrée. But also forraine nacions, hauyng one, who[m] for his valiauntnes thei dreade, doe practise and inure them selues, to all dexteritee, counsaile, wisedome, and pollicie: soche a one was Epaminundas, to his enemies and cou[n]trée. ¶ The comparison. [Sidenote: Hector. Achilles. Numa Pom[-] peius. Adrianus.] NEither Hector of Troie, nor Achilles of Grece, might bee compared with Epaminundas, Numa Pompili- us was not more godlie, Adriane the Emperour of Roome, no better learned, nor Galba the Emperour more valiaunte, Nerua no more temperate, nor Traianus more noble, neither Cocles nor Decius, Scipio nor Marcus Regu[-] lus, did more valianntly in the defence of their countrie, soche a one was this Epaminundas. ¶ The conclusion. OF many thynges, these fewe are recited, but if his whole life and vertues, wer worthely handeled: fewe would beleue, soche a rare gouernour, so vertuous a [Fol. xliij.v] Prince, so hardie and valiaunte a capitaine, to haue remai- ned in no age. ¶ The parte of Rhetorike, called dispraise. THis parte of _Rhetorike_, which is called dispraise, is a in- uectiue Oracion, made againste the life of any man. This part of _Rhetorike_, is contrary to that, whiche is be- fore set, called _laus_, that is to saie, praise: and by contrary no- tes procedeth, for the Oratour or declaimer to entreate vpo[n]. This parte of _Rhetorike_, is called of the Grekes _Psogos_. In praise, we extoll the persone: First by his countrée. Then by his auncestours and parentes. In the third place, by his educacion and institucion. Then in the fowerth place, of his actes in life. In the fifte place vse a comparison, comparyng the per- sone with other, whiche are more inferiour. Then the conclusion. Now in dispraise, contrarily we doe procede. Firste, in the dispraise of his countrée. Of his auncetours and parentes. His educacion is dispraised. Then his actes and deedes of life. Also in your comparison with other, dispraise hym. Then in the laste place, adde the conclusion. All thynges that maie be praised, maie be dispraised. ¶ The dispraise of Nero. [Sidenote: Uertue.] AS vertue meriteth commendacion and immor- tall renoume, for the nobilitée and excellencie reposed in it: so ougle vices for the deformitée of them, are in mynd to be abhorred and detested, and with all diligence, counsaile, and wisedome [Sidenote: Uice.] auoided. As pestiferous poison extinguisheth with his cor- rupcion and nautinesse, the good and absolute nature of all thinges: so vice for his pestiferous nature putteth out vertue and rooteth out with his force all singularitée. For, vice and [Fol. xliiij.r] vertue are so of nature contrary, as fire and water, the vio- lence of the one expelleth the other: for, in the mansion of ver- tue, vice at one tyme harboreth not, neither vertue with vice [Sidenote: What is ver- tue.] can be consociate or vnited, for, vertue is a singuler meane, or Mediocrite in any good enterprise or facte, with order and reason finished. Whose acte in life, doeth repugne order and reason, disseuered from all Mediocrite, soche do leaue iustice, equitée, wisedome, temperaunce, fortitude, magnanimitée, and al other vertues, bothe of minde and body: onely by ver- tues life men shewe theim selues, as chief creatures of God, with reason, as a moste principall gifte, beautified and deco- rated: In other giftes, man is farre inferiour to beastes, both in strength of bodie, in celeritée and swiftnesse of foote, in la- bour, in industrie, in sense, nothyng to bee compared to bea- stes, with beastes as a peculier and proper thyng, wee haue our bodie of the yearth: but our minde, whiche for his diuini- tée, passeth all thynges immortall, maketh vs as gods emo[n]g other creatures. The bodie therefore, as a aliaunt and forain enemie, beyng made of a moste base, moste vile and corrup- tible nature, repugneth the mynde. This is the cause, that wickednesse taketh soche a hedde, and that the horrible facte and enterprise of the wicked burste out, in that, reason exiled and remoued from the minde, the ougle perturbacions of the minde, haue their regiment, power, and dominio[n]: and where soche state of gouernemente is in any one bodie, in priuate and domesticalle causes, in forraine and publike affaires, in kyngdome and co[m]mon wealthe. Uertue fadeth and decaieth, and vice onely beareth the swaie. Lawe is ordered by luste, and their order is will, soche was the tyme and gouernment of this wicked Nero. ¶ Of his countree. NEro was a Romaine borne, though in gouerne- ment he was wicked, yet his cou[n]trée was famous, and noble: for, the Romaines wer lordes and hed- des ouer all the worlde. The vttermoste Indians, [Fol. xliiij.v] the Ethiopes, the Persians, feared the maiestie and auctho- [Sidenote: Rome.] ritée of the Romaines. From Romulus, who was the firste founder, and builder of that Citee: the Romaines bothe had their name of hym, and grew afterward to marueilous pui- saunt roialnes. There was no nacion vnder the Sunne, but it dreaded their Maiestie, or felte their inuincible handes: there hath been many mightie kyngdomes, on the face of the yearth, but no kyngdome was able, with like successe and fe- licitée in their enterprise, or for like famous gouernors, and continuance of their state, to compare with them. This was, and is, the laste mightée Monarchie in the worlde. Roome a olde aunciente citée, inhabited firste of the Aborigines, which [Sidenote: Carthage.] came from Troie. The prouidence of God, so disposeth the tymes and ages of the world, the state of kyngdomes, by the fall of mightier kyngdomes, meaner grewe to power and glorie. The Carthagineans, contended by prowes, and ma- gnanimitee, to be lordes ouer the Romaines. Carthage was a greate, mightie, olde, auncient & famous citée, in the whiche valiaunte, wise, and pollitike gouernours, helde therein re- giment, long warres was susteined betwene the Romaines and Carthagineans, emong whom infinite people, and ma- ny noble péeres fell in the duste. Fortune and happie successe fell to the Romaines: the people of Carthage va[n]quished, and prostrate to the grounde. Scipio the noble Consull, beyng at the destruccion of it, seeyng with his iye, Carthage by fire brunte to ashes, saied: _Talis exitus aliquando erit Rome_: eue[n] [Sidenote: Destruction of Rome to ashes in time.] as of Carthage, like shall the destruccion of Rome bee, as for continuaunce of the Romaine state, of their glorie, power, and worthie successe, no nacion vnder the Sunne, can com- pare with theim: soche was the state of Rome, wherein wic- ked Nero raigned. ¶ Of his anncestours. DOmitianus Nero, the sonne of Domitius Enobar- bus, Agrippina was his mothers name: this Agrip- pina, was Empresse of Rome, wife to Claudius Ti- [Fol. xlv.r] [Sidenote: Agrippina.] berius, the daughter of his brother Germanicus. This A- grippina, the Chronicle noteth her, to be indued with al mis- chief and crueltée: For, Tiberius her housbande, hauyng by his firste wife children, thei were murthered by her, because she might, thei beyng murthered, with more facilitée, fur- ther the Empire, to her soonnes handes, many treasons con- spired against them oftentimes, Agrippina poisoned her hus- bande, then Nero succeded. ¶ Of his educacion. [Sidenote: Seneca schol maister to Nero.] SEneca the famous Poete & Philosopher, was schole- maister to Nero, who brought hym vp in all nobili- tie of learnyng, mete for his state: though that Nero was wickedlie of nature disposed, as his beastlie gouerne- ment sheweth, yet wickednes in him, was by the seueritie of Seneca, and his castigacion depressed: for Traianus Empe- rour of Rome, would saie, as concernyng Nero, for the space of fiue yeres, no Prince was like to hym, for good gouerne- ment, after fiue yeres, losely and dissolutly he gouerned. ¶ Of his actes. [Sidenote: The dreame of Agrippina mother to Nero, in his concepcion.] THis Nero, at what tyme as his mother was con- ceiued of him, she dreamed that she was conceiued of a Uiper: for, the young Uiper alwaies killeth his dame. He was not onely a Uiper to his mo- ther whom he killed, but also to his kyngdome and common wealthe a destroier, whiche afterward shalbe shewed, what [Sidenote: Nero a viper[.]] a tyraunte and bloodie gouernour he was. This Nero made in the Citee of Rome, the rounde seates and scaffoldes, to be- holde spectacles and sightes, and also the bathes. He subdued [Sidenote: Pontus. Colchis. Cappadocia. Armenia.] Pontus a greate countrée, whiche ioineth to the sea Pontus: whiche countrée containeth these realmes, Colchis, Cappa- docia, Armenia, and many other countrées, and made it as a Prouince, by the suffraunce of Polemon Regulus, by whose name it was called Pontus Polemoniacus. He ouer came the Alpes, of the king Cotteius, Cottius the king being dedde[.] [Fol. xlv.v] [Sidenote: Nero vnwor[-] thie to be chron[-] icled. Seneca.] The life followyng of Nero was so abhominable, that the shame of his life, will make any man a fraied, to leaue any memorie of hym. This Domitius Nero, caused his Schole- maister Seneca to be put to death, Seneca chosing his owne death, his veines beyng cutte in a hotte bathe died, bicause he corrected wicked Nero, to traine hym to vertue. He was out- ragious wicked, that he had co[n]sideracion, neither to his own honestie, nor to other, but in continuaunce, he tired hymself as virgines doe when thei marie, callyng a Senate, the dou- rie assigned, and as the maner of that solemnitée is, many re- sortyng and frequentyng, in maidens tire and apparell. He [Sidenote: The shamful life of Nero.] went beyng a man, to be maried as a woman: beside this, at other tymes he cladde hymself with the skin of a wilde beast, and beastlie did handle that, whiche Nature remoueth from the sight. He defiled hymself with his owne mother, whom he killed immediatlie. He maried twoo wiues, Octauia, and Sabina, otherwise called Poppea, firste murtheryng their [Sidenote: Galba. Caius Iu- lius.] housbandes. In that tyme Galba vsurped the Empire, and Caius Iulius: as sone as Nero heard that Galba came nere towardes Rome, euen then the Senate of Rome had deter- mined, that Nero should bee whipped to death with roddes, accordyng to the old vsage of their auncestours, his necke yo- ked with a forke. This wicked Nero, seyng himself forsaken of all his friendes, at midnight he departed out of the Citée, Ephaon, and Epaphroditus waityng on hym, Neophitus and Sporus his Eunuche: whiche Sporus before tyme, had [Sidenote: The death of Nero.] Nero assaied to frame and fashion out of kinde. In the ende, Nero thruste himself through, with the poinct of his sworde, his wicked man Sporus, thrustyng foreward his trembling hande: this wicked Nero before that, hauyng none to mur- ther hym, he made a exclamacion, in these woordes. Is there neither friende nor enemie to kill me, shamefullie haue I li- ued, and with more shame shall I die, in the .xxxij. yere of his age he died. The Persians so entirely loued hym, that after his death thei sente Ambassadours, desiryng licence to erecte [Fol. xlvj.r] to hym a monumente, all countrées and Prouinces, and the whole Citée of Rome, did so moche reioyce of his death, that thei all wearyng the Toppintant hattes, whiche bonde men doe vse to ware, when thei bée sette at libertie, and so thei tri- umphed of his death, deliuered from so cruell a tyraunte. ¶ A comparison. [Sidenote: Nero. Caligula. Domitianus[.] Antoninus.] AS for wicked gouernement, Nero doeth make Ca- ligula like to Comodus, Domitianus, Antoninus Caracalla, thei were all so wicked, that the Senate of Rome thought it méete, to obliterate their name, from all memorie and Chronicle, because of their wickednesse. ¶ The conclusion. MOche more the life and gouernement of wicked Ne- ro, might be intreated of, but this shall be sufficient: to shewe how tyrannically and beastly, he gouerned vnmete of that throne. ¶ A comparison. A Comparison, is a certain Oracion, shewyng by a collacion the worthines, or excelle[n]cie of any thing: or the naughtines of thesame, compared with any other thyng or thynges, either equalle, or more in- feriour. In a comparison good thynges, are compared with good as one vertue with an other: as wisedome & strength, whiche of them moste auaileth in peace and warre. Euill thynges maie bee compared with good, as Iustice, with iniustice, wisedome with foolishnes. Euill thynges maie be compared, with euill thynges, as wicked Nero, compared to Domitianus, or Caligula to Co[m]- modus, theft to homicide, drunkenes with adulterie. Small thynges maie be compared with greate: the king with his subiect, the Elephant or Camell to the Flie, a Cro- codile to the Scarabe. In a comparison, where argumente is supputated on [Fol. xlvj.v] bothe the sides, worthelie to praise, or dispraise. Where a comparison is made, betwene a thyng excel- lente, and a thyng more inferiour: the comparison shall pro- cede with like facilitee. All thynges that maie bee celebrated with praise, or that meriteth dispraise: al soche thynges maie be in a comparison. The persone, as Cato being a wise man, maie be compa- red with Nestor, the sage péere of Grece: Pompei with Ce- sar, as Lucane compareth them, and so of all other men. Thynges maie bee compared, as golde with siluer: one mettall with an other. Tymes maie be compared, as the Spryng with Som- mer: Harueste with Winter. Places maie be compared, as London with Yorke, Ox- forde with Cambridge. Beastes without reason, as the Bée with the Ante, the Oxe with the Shepe. Plantes, as the Uine, and the Oliue. First, make a _proemium_ or beginnyng to your co[m]parison[.] Then compare them of their countrée. Of their parentes. Of their auncestours. Of their educacion. Of their actes. Of their death. Then adde the conclusion. ¶ A comparison betwene De- mosthenes and Tullie. TO speake moche in the praise of famous men, no argument can wante, nor plentie of matter to make of them, a copious and excellent Ora- cion. Their actes in life through nobilitée, will craue worthelie more, then the witte and penne of the learned, can by Eloquence expresse. Who can worthelie expresse and sette foorthe, the noble Philosopher [Fol. xlvij.r] [Sidenote: Plato. Aristotle.] Plato, or Aristotle, as matter worthelie forceth to commend, when as of them, all learnyng, and singularitée of artes hath flowen. All ages hath by their monuments of learning, par- ticipated of their wisedome. Grece hath fostered many noble wittes, from whom all light of knowlege, hath been deriued by whose excellencie Rome in tyme florishyng, did seeke by nobilitée of learnyng, to mate the noble Grecians. So moche Italie was adorned, and beautified with the cunnyng of the Grecians. Emong the Romaines many famous Oratours and other noble men hath spronge vp, who for their worthi- nesse, might haue contended with any nacion: either for their [Sidenote: Tullie.] glorie of learnyng, or noble regiment. Emong whom Tul- lie by learning, aboue the rest, rose to high fame, that he was a renoume to his countree: to learnyng a light, of all singuler Eloquence a fountaine. Whom Demosthenes the famous Oratour of Athenes, as a worthie mate is compared with, whom not onely the nobilitée, and renoume of their Coun- trée shall decorate, but the[m] selues their owne worthines & no- bilitée of fame. No age hath had twoo more famous for lear- nyng, no common wealthe hath tasted, twoo more profitable to their countrée, and common wealthe: for grauitée and cou[n]- saile, nor the posteritée of ages, twoo more worthie celebra- [Sidenote: Thusidides.] cion. Thusidides speakyng, in the commendacion of famous men sheweth: as concernyng the fame of noble men, whose [Sidenote: The enuious manne.] vertue farre surmounteth the[m], and passeth al other. Thenui- ous man seketh to depraue, the worthinesse of fame in other, [Sidenote: The igno- raunte.] his bragging nature with fame of praise, not decorated. The ignoraunte and simple nature, accordyng to his knowlege, iudgeth all singularitée, and tempereth by his owne actes the praise of other. But the fame of these twoo Oratours, nei- ther the enuious nature can diminishe their praise, nor the ignoraunt be of them a arbitrator or iudge, so worthely hath all ages raised fame, and commendacion of their vertues. ¶ Of their countree. [Fol. xlvij.v] IN Grece Demosthenes, the famous Oratour of A- thenes was borne, whose Countrée or Citee, lacketh no co[m]mendacion: either for the nobilitée of the lande, or glorie of the people. What nacion vnder the Sunne, hath not heard of that mightie Monarchie of Grece: of their migh- tie citees, and pollitike gouernaunce. What famous Poetes how many noble Philosophers and Oratours, hath Grece brede. What science and arte, hath not flowne from Grece, so that for the worthinesse of it, it maie bee called the mother of all learnyng. Roome also, in whom Tullie was brought vp, maie contende in all nobilitée, whose power and puisant glorie, by nobilitée of actes, rose to that mightie hed. In bothe soche excellencie is founde, as that no nacion might better contende, of their singularitée and honour of countrée, then Grece and Rome: yet first from the Grekes, the light of Phi- losophie, and the aboundant knowledge of all artes, sprange to the Romaines, from the Grecians. The Godlie Lawes, wherewith the Romaine Empire was decorated and gouer- ned, was brought from the Grecians. If the citee maie bee a honour and glorie, to these twoo Oratours, or their Citees a singuler commendacion, there wanteth in bothe, neither ho- nour, or nobilitée. ¶ Of their auncestours, and parentes. BOthe Demosthenes and Tullie were borne, of ve- rie meane parentes and auncestours: yet thei tho- rowe their learnyng and vertues, became famous, ascendyng to all nobilitée. Of their vertues and learnyng, not of their auncestours, nobilitée rose to them. ¶ Of the educacion. THE singuler vertues of theim bothe, appered euen in their tender youth: wherupon thei being brought vp, in all godlie learnyng and noble Sciences, thei became moste noble Oratours, and by their copious Elo- quence, counsaile, and wisedom, aspired to nobilitée & honor. ¶ Of their scholyng. [Fol. xlviij.r] BOthe were taught of the mouthe of the best learned, Demosthenes of Iseus, a man moste Eloquent: Ci- cero of Philo and Milo, famous in wisedome and Eloquence. ¶ Of their exercise. CIcero did exercise hymself verie moche, to declaime, bothe in Greke and Latine, with Marcus Piso, and with Quintus Pampeius. Demosthenes wanted not industrie and labour, to attain to that singularitée, whi- che he had, bothe in Eloquence, and pronounciacion. ¶ Of the giftes of their minde. IN bothe, integritee, humanitee, magnanimitee, and all vertue flowed: at what time as Demosthe- nes was commaunded of the Athenians, to frame a accusacion, againste a certaine man, Demosthe- nes refused the acte. But when the people, and the whole multitude, were wrothe with hym, and made a exclamacion against hym, as their maner was. Then Demosthenes rose, and saied: O ye men of Athenes, againste my will, you haue me a counsailer, or pleater of causes before you: but as for a accuser, & calumniator, no, not although ye would. Of this sorte Tullie was affected, excepte it were onely in the saue- gard of his conutrée: as against Catiline, bothe were of god- lie, and of vpright conuersacion, altogether in Mediocrite, and a newe leadyng their life. ¶ Of their actes. DEmosthenes and Tullie bothe, gaue them selues to trauail, in the causes and affaires of their com- mon wealthe, to the preseruacion of it. How ve- hemently did Demosthenes pleate, and ingeni- ouslie handle the cause of all his countrée, against Philip, for the defence of their libertee: whereupon he gatte fame, and greate glory. Whereby not onely, he was coumpted a great wise counsailour: but one of a valiaunte stomacke, at whose [Fol. xlviij.v] [Sidenote: Darius. Philip. Demosthe- nes.] wisedome, all Grece stode in admiracion. The kyng of Per- sia, laboured to enter fauour with him. Philip the king of the Macedonians, would saie often tymes, he had to doe against a famous man, notyng Demosthenes. Tullie also by his E- loquence and wisedome, saued Roome and all partes of that dominion, from greate daungers. ¶ Of their aucthoritee. THeir aucthoritee and dignitee was equalle, in the common wealthe: For, at their twoo mouthes, Roome and Athenes was vpholed. Demosthenes was chief in fauour with Caretes, Diophetes, Le[-] ostines, Cicero with Pompei: Iulius Cesar, ascending to the chief seate and dignitée of the Consulship. ¶ Of a like fall that happened to them, before their death. YOu can not finde soche twoo Orators, who borne of meane & poore parentes, that attained so greate honour, who also did obiecte themselues to tyran- tes a like, thei had losse of their children a like, bothe were out of their countree banished men, their returne was with honour, bothe also fliyng, happened into the han- des of their enemies. ¶ Of their death. [Sidenote: Antipater. Demosthe- nes. Archias. Marcus Antonius. Tullie.] BOthe a like, Demosthenes and Tully wer put to death, Demosthenes died, Antipater gouernyng by the handes of Archias. Cicero died by the com- maundement of Marcus Antonius: by Herenius his hedde was cutte of, and sette in Marcus Antonius halle. His handes also were cutte of, with the whiche he wrote the vehement Oracions against Marcus Antonius. ¶ The conclusion. TO speake as moche as maie bee saied, in the praise of theim: their praise would rise to a mightie volume, but this is sufficiente. [Fol. xlix.r] ¶ _Ethopoeia._ _Ethopoeia_ is a certaine Oracion made by voice, and la- mentable imitacion, vpon the state of any one. This imitacion is in { _Eidolopoeia._ } iij. sortes, either it is. { _Prosopopoeia._ } { _Ethopoeia._ } That parte, whiche is called _Ethopoeia_ is that, whiche hath the persone knowne: but onely it doeth faigne the ma- ners of thesame, and imitate in a Oracion thesame. _Ethopoeia_ is called of Priscianus, a certaine talkyng to of any one, or a imitacio[n] of talke referred to the maners, apt- ly of any certaine knowen persone. Quintilianus saieth, that _Ethopoeia_ is a imitacion of o- ther meane maners: whom the Grekes dooe calle, not onelie _Ethopoeia_, but _mimesis_, & this is in the maners, and the fact. This parte is as it were, a liuely expression of the maner and affeccion of any thyng, whereupon it hath his name. The _Ethopoeia_ is in three sortes. The firste, a imitacion passiue, whiche expresseth the af- fection, to whom it parteineth: whiche altogether expresseth the mocion of the mynde, as what patheticall and dolefull o- racion, Hecuba the quene made, the citee of Troie destroied, her housbande, her children slaine. The second is called a morall imitacio[n], the whiche doeth set forthe onely, the maners of any one. The thirde is a mixt, the whiche setteth forthe, bothe the maners and the affection, as how, and after what sorte, A- chilles spake vpon Patroclus, he beyng dedde, when for his sake, he determined to fight: the determinacion of hym she- weth the maner. The frende slaine, the affection. In the makyng of _Ethopoeia_, lette it be plaine, and with- out any large circumstaunce. [Fol. xlix.v] In the makyng of it, ye shall diuide it thus, to make the Oracion more plaine, into three tymes. { A presente tyme. } { A tyme paste. } { A tyme to come. } _Eidolopoeia_ is that part of this Oracion, whiche maketh a persone knowne though dedde, and not able to speake. [Sidenote: _Eidolopoeia_[.]] _Eidolopoeia_ is called of Priscianus, a imitacion of talke of any one, vpon a dedde manne, it is then called _Eidolopoeia_, when a dedde man talketh, or communicacion made vpon a dedde manne. _Eidolopoeia_, when a dedde manne talketh, is set forthe of Euripides, vpon the persone of Polidorus dedde, whose spi- rite entereth at the Prologue of the tragedie. Hector slain, speaketh to Eneas in _Eidolopoeia_. O Eneas thou goddes sonne, flie and saue thy self, from this ruine and fire: the enemies hath taken the walles, and loftie Troie is prostrate to the grounde. I would haue thought, I had died valiantlie inough to my countrée, and my father Priamus, if with this my right hande, Troie had bee defended. Polidorus beyng dedde, in _Eidolopoeia_ talketh to Eneas whiche Uirgil sheweth in his thirde booke of Eneados. Iulia the wife of Pompei beyng dedde, spake to Pompe, preparyng his arme against Cesar, _Eidolopoeia_. Reade Lu- cane, in the beginnyng of his thirde booke. Tullie vseth _Eidolopoeia_, when he maketh talke vpon Hiero beyng dedde. If that kyng Hiero were reduced fro[m] his death, who was a aduauncer of the Romaine Empire, with what counte- naunce, either Siracusa or Rome, might be shewed to hym, whom he maie beholde with his iyes. His countree brought to ruin, & spoiled, if that kyng Hiero should but enter Rome, euen in the firste entryng, he should beholde the spoile of his countree. Tullie also vseth the like _Eidolopoeia_, as thus, vpon Lu- [Fol. l.r] cius Brutus dedde. [Sidenote: Lucius Brutus.] If it so wer, that Lucius Brutus, that noble and famous manne were on liue, and before your presence: would he not vse this oracion: I Brutus, somtyme did banishe and cast out for crueltee, the state and office of kinges, by the horrible fact of Tarquinius, againste Lucretia, and all that name bani- shed, but you haue brought in tyrauntes. I Brutus did re- duce the Romain Empire, to a fredome and libertée: but you foolishly can not vphold and maintein, thesame giuen to you. I Brutus, with the daunger of my life, haue saued my coun[-] tree of Roome, but you without all daunger, lose it. ¶ _Prosopopoeia._ AS co[n]cerning _Prosopopoeia_, it is as Pristianus saith, when to any one againste nature, speache is feigned to bee giuen. Tullie vseth for a like example this, when he maketh Roome to talke againste Cateline. ¶ _Prosopopoeia_ of Roome. [Sidenote: Catiline.] NO mischief hath been perpetrated, this many yeres, but by thee Catiline, no pestiferous acte enterprised, without thee: thou a lone, for thy horrible murther perpetrated vpon the citee of Rome, for the spoile and robbe- ries of their gooddes art vnpunished. Thou onelie haste been of that force and power, to caste doune all lawes and aucthori- tee. Although these thinges were not to be borne, yet I haue borne them: but now thy horrible factes are come to soche an issue, that I feare thy mischiues. Wherfore leaue of Cateline and deminishe this feare from me, that I maie be in securitée[.] Lucane the Poete, intreating of mightie and fearce war- res, againste Pompei and Cesar, maketh Roome to vse this _Prosopopoeia_ againste Cesar. _Quo tenditis vltra quo fertis mea signa viri, Si iure venitis si aues hucusq[ue] licet._ _Prosopopoeia_ is properlie, when all thinges are faigned bothe the maners, the persone, as of Roome in this place. [Fol. l.v] ¶ What lamentable Oracion Hecuba Quene of Troie might make, Troie being destroied. [Sidenote: Kyngdomes.] WHat kyngdome can alwaies assure his state, or glory? What strength can alwaies last? What [Sidenote: Okes. Cedars.] power maie alwaies stande? The mightie O- kes are somtyme caste from roote, the Ceadars high by tempestes falle, so bitter stormes dooe force their strength. Soft waters pearseth Rockes, and ruste the massie Iron doeth bryng to naught. So nothyng can by stre[n]gth so stande, but strength maie ones decaie: yea, mightie kingdoms in time decaie haue felt. Kingdomes weake haue rose to might, and mightie kyngdomes fallen, no counsaile can preuaile, no power, no strength, or might in lande. God disposeth Princes seates, their kyngdome there with stan- des. I knewe before the brickell state, how kyngdomes ruine caught, my iye the chaunge of fortune sawe, as Priamus did aduaunce his throne, by fauour Fortune gat, on other For- tune then did froune, whose kingdom did decaie. Well, now [Sidenote: Fortune hath no staie.] I knowe the brickle state, that fortune hath no staie, all rashe her giftes, Fortune blind doeth kepe no state, her stone doth roule, as floodes now flowe, floodes also ebbe. So glory doth remaine, sometyme my state on high, was sette in Princelie throne, my porte and traine ful roiall was, a kyng my father also was, my housband scepter held. Troie and Phrigia ser- ued his becke, many kynges his power did dreade, his wille their power did serue. The fame of Troie and Brute, his glorie and renoume, what landes knoweth not? But now his falle, all toungues can speake, so greate as glorie was, though kyngdomes stronge was sette, loftie Troie in duste prostrate doeth lye, in blood their glorie, people, kyng are fal- len, no Quene more dolefull cause hath felte. The sorowes depe doe passe my ioyes, as Phebus light with stormes caste [Sidenote: Hector.] doune. Hectors death did wounde my hart, by Hectors might Troie stiffe did stande, my comforte Hector was, Priamus ioye, of Troie all the[m] life, the strength, and power, his death [Fol. lj.r] did wound me for to die, but alas my dolefull and cruell fate to greater woe reserueth my life, loftie Troie before me felle, sworde, and fire hath seate and throne doune caste. The dedde on heapes doeth lye, the tender babes as Lions praies [Sidenote: Priamus.] are caught in bloode, before my sight, Priamus deare mur- dered was, my children also slain, who roiall were, and prin- ces mates. No Queene more ioye hath tasted, yet woe my io- yes hath quite defaced. My state alwaie in bondage thrall, to serue my enemies wille, as enemie wille, I liue or dye. No cruell force will ridde my life, onely in graue the yearth shal close my woes, the wormes shall gnawe my dolefull hart in graue. My hedde shall ponder nought, when death hath sence doune caste, in life I sought no ioye, as death I craue, no glorie was so wished as death I seeke, with death no sence. In prison depe who dolefull lieth, whom Fetters sore dooeth greue. Their dolefull state moste wisheth death, in dongion deepe of care my harte moste pensiue is, vnhappie state that wisheth death, with ioye long life, eche wight doeth craue, in life who wanteth smart? Who doeth not féele, or beare som- time, a bitter storme, to doleful tune, mirth full oft chaunged is, the meaner state, more quiet rest, on high, who climes more deper care, more dolefull harte doeth presse, moste tempestes hie trees, hilles, & moutaines beare, valleis lowe rough stor- mes doeth passe, the bendyng trees doeth giue place to might by force of might, Okes mightie fall, and Ceders high ar re[n]t from the roote. The state full meane in hauen hath Ancre caste, in surgyng seas, full ofte in vaine to saue the maste, the shippe Ancre casteth. ¶ The descripcion. THis exercise profitable to _Rhetorike_, is an Ora- cio[n] that collecteth and representeth to the iye, that which he sheweth, so Priscianus defineth it: some are of that opinion, that descripcion is not to bee placed emo[n]g these exercises, profitable to _Rhetorike_. Because [Fol. lj.v] that bothe in euery Oracion, made vpon a Fable, all thyn- ges therein conteined, are liuely described. And also in euery Narracion, the cause, the place, the persone, the time, the fact, the maner how, ar therin liuely described. But most famous and Eloquente men, doe place descripcion, in the nomber of these exercises. Descripcio[n] serueth to these things, the person, as the Poete Lucane describeth Pompei & Cesar: the person is described, thynges or actes, tymes, places, brute beastes. _Nec coiere pares, alter vergentibus annis In senium longo que toge, tranquilior vsu. Dedidicit. &c._ Homer describeth the persone of Thersites, in the second booke of his Ilias. Homer setteth out Helena, describing the persone of Me- nalaus and Ulisses, in the fowerth booke of Ilias. Thynges are described, as the warres attempted by sea and lande, of Xerxes. Lucan describeth the war of the Massilia[n]s against Cesar[.] Thusidides setteth forthe in a descripcion, the warres on the sea, betwene the Corcurians, and the Corinthians. Tymes are described, as the Spryng tyme, Sommer, Winter, Harueste, Daie, Night. Places are described, as Citees, Mountaines, Regions, Floodes, Hauens, Gardeines, Temples: whiche thynges are sette out by their commoditees, for Thusidides often ty- mes setteth forthe Hauens and Citees. Lucane also describeth at large, the places, by the whiche the armie of Cesar and Pompei passed. The descripcion of a- ny man, in all partes is to bee described, in mynde and bodie, what he was. The acttes are to bee described, farre passed, by the pre- sente state thereof, and also by the tyme to come. As if the warre of Troie, should be set forthe in a descrip- cion, it must bée described, what happened before the Greci- ans arriued at Troie, and how, and after what sorte it was [Fol. lij.r] ouerthrowne, & what thing chaunced, Troie being destroid. So likewise of Carthage, destroied by the Romaines. Of Hierusalem, destroied by Titus Uespasianus, what ad- monicion thei had before: of what monsterous thynges hap- pened also in that ceason: Of a Comete or blasyng Starre, and after that what followed. Lucane also setteth forthe the warres of Pompe and Ce- sar, what straunge and marueilous thynges fell of it. ¶ A descripcion vpon Xerxes. WHen Darius was dedde, Xerxes his soonne did succede hym, who also tooke vpon him to finishe the warres, bego[n] by his father Darius, against Grece. For the whiche warres, preperacion was made, for the space of fiue yeres, after that [Sidenote: The armie of Xerxes.] Xerxes entered Grece, with seuen hundred thousande Persi- ans, and thrée hundred thousande of forrain power aided him that not without cause, Chronicles of aunciente tyme dooe shewe, mightie floodes to be dried vp of his armie. The migh[-] tie dominions of Grece, was not hable to receiue his houge, and mightie power, bothe by sea and lande: he was no small Prince, whom so many nacions, so mightie people followed hym, his Nauie of Shippes was in nomber tenne hundred [Sidenote: Xerxes a cowarde.] thousande, Xerxes had a mightie power, but Xerxes was a cowarde, in harte a childe, all in feare the stroke of battaile moued. In so mightie an armie it was marueile, the chiefe Prince and Capitaine to be a cowarde, there wanted neither men, nor treasure, if ye haue respecte to the kyng hymself, for cowardlinesse ye will dispraise the kyng, but his threasures beeyng so infinite, ye will maruaile at the plentie thereof, whose armie and infinite hoste, though mightie floodes and streames, were not able to suffice for drinke, yet his richesse [Sidenote: Xerxes laste in battaile, and first to runne awaie.] semed not spente nor tasted of. Xerxes hymself would be laste in battaile to fight, and the firste to retire, and runne awaie. In daungers he was fearfull, and when daunger was paste, [Fol. lij.v] he was stoute, mightie, glorious, and wonderfull crakyng, [Sidenote: The pride of Xerxes.] before this hassarde of battaile attempted. He thought hym self a God ouer nature, all landes and Seas to giue place to hym, and puffed with pride, he forgatte hymself: his power was terrible, his harte fainte, whereupon his enteryng into Grece was not so dreaded, as his flight fro[m] thence was sham[-] full, mocked and scorned at, for all his power he was driuen backe from the lande, by Leonides king of the Lacedemoni- ans, he hauing but a small nomber of men, before his second battaile fought on the Sea: he sente fower thousande armed men, to spoile the riche and sumpteous temple of Apollo, at Delphos, from the whiche place, not one man escaped. After that Xerxes entered Thespia, Platea, and Athenes, in the whiche not one man remained, those he burned, woorkyng his anger vpon the houses: for these citees were admonished to proue the maisterie in wodden walles, whiche was ment to bee Shippes, the power of Grece, brought into one place [Sidenote: Themi- stocles.] Themistocles, fauoryng their part, although Xerxes thought otherwise of Themistocles, then Themistocles perswaded Xerxes to assaie the Grecians. Artemisia the Quene of Hali- carnasis aided Xerxes in his battaile: Artemisia fought man[-] fullie, Xerxes cowardly shronke, so that vnnaturally there was in the one a manlie stomacke, in the other a cowardlie harte. The men of Ionia, that fought vnder Xerxes banner, by the treason of Themistocles, shra[n]ke from Xerxes, he was not so greate a terrour or dreade, by his maine hoste, as now smally regarded & least feared. What is power, men, or mo- ney, when God chaungeth and pulleth doune, bothe the suc- cesse, and kyngdome of a Prince. He was in all his glorie, a vnmanlie, and a cowardly prince, yet for a time happie state fell on his side, now his might and power is not feared. He flieth awaie in a Fisher boate, whom all the worlde dreaded and obaied, whom all Grece was not able to receiue, a small boate lodgeth and harboureth. His owne people contemned hym at home, his glorie fell, and life ingloriously ended, who[m] [Fol. liij.r] whom God setteth vp, neither treason nor malice, power nor money can pull doune. Worthelie it is to be pondered of all Princes, the saiyng of Uespasianus Emperour of Rome, at a certain time a treason wrought and conspired against him, the conspiratours taken, Uespasianus satte doune betwene [Sidenote: The saiyng of Uespasi- anus.] theim, commaunded a sworde to be giuen to either of theim, and saied to them: _Nonne videtis fato potestatem dari._ Dooe you not see? Power, aucthoritée, and regimente, by the ordi- [Sidenote: A sentence comfortable to al princes.] naunce of God, is lefte and giuen to princes: A singuler sen- tence, to comforte all good Princes in their gouernemente, not to feare the poisoned hartes of men, or the traiterous har- tes of pestiferous men. No man can pull doune, where God exalteth, neither power can set vp and extoll, where God dis- plaseth or putteth doune: Soche is the state of Princes, and their kyngdomes. ¶ _Thesis._ _THesis_, is a certain question in consultacion had, to bée declaimed vpon vncertaine, notyng no certaine per- sone or thyng. As for example. Whether are riches chieflie to be sought for, in this life, as of all good thynges, the chief good. Whether is vertue the moste excellente good thynge in this life. Whether dooe the giftes of the mynde, passe and excelle the giftes and vertues of Fortune, and the bodie. Whether doeth pollicie more auaile in war, then stre[n]gth of menne. Who so will reason of any question of these, he hath nede with reason, and wittie consultacion to discourse, and to de- claime vpon thesame. The Greke Oratours doe call this exercise _Thesis_, that is to saie, a proposicion in question, a question vncertain, in- cluded with no certaintée, to any perticuler thyng. [Fol. liij.v] The Latine men doeth call it a question infinite, or vni- uersall: Tullie in his booke of places called Topickes, doeth call _Thesis_, _Propositum_, that is to saie, a question, in deter- minacion. Priscianus calleth it _positionem_, a proposicion in question on ether parte to be disputed vpon. As for example. Whether is it best to marie a wife? Whether is frendship aboue all thynges to be regarded. Is warre to be moued vpon a iuste cause? Is the Greke tongue mete, and necessarie to be learned? There is an other kinde of question called _hypothesis_, _hy[-] pothesis_ is called _questio finita_, that is to saie, a question cer- taine notyng a certaine persone, or thyng, a certaine place, tyme, and so forthe. As for example. Is it mete for Cesar to moue warre against Pompei? Is not there a certain persone? Is the Greke tongue to be learned of a Diuine? Is the Greke tongue meete for a Phisicion? In this kinde of exercises, famous men of auncient time did exercise youth, to attain bothe wisedome and Eloquence therby, to make a discourse vpo[n] any matter, by art of lerning[.] Aristotle the famous Philosopher, did traine vp youthe, to be perfite in the arte of eloquence, that thei might with all copiousnes and ingenious inuencion handle any cause. Nothing doeth so moche sharpe and acuate the witte and capacitée of any one, as this kinde of exercise. It is a goodly vertue in any one man, at a sodain, to vtter wittely and ingeniouslie, the secrete and hid wisedome of his mynde: it is a greate maime to a profounde learned man, to wante abilitée, to vtter his exquisite and profounde knowe- ledge of his mynde. ¶ _Thesis._ THis question _Thesis_, which is a question, noting no cer- taine persone or thyng: is moche like to that Oracion, [Fol. liiij.r] intreated of before, called a Common place. ¶ A Common place. BUt a Common place, is a certaine exaggeracion of matter, induced against any persone, conuicted of a- ny crime, or worthie defence. ¶ _Thesis._ _Thesis_ is a reasonyng by question, vpon a matter vncer- taine. _Thesis_, that is to saie, a questio[n] generall is in two sortes. { Ciuill. A question { { Contemplatiue. QUestions Ciuill are those, that dooe pertaine to the state of a common wealth: and are daily practised in the common wealthe. As for example. Is it good to marie a wife. Is Usurie lefull in a citee, or common wealthe. Is a Monarchie the beste state of gouernement. Is good educacion the grounde and roote, of a florishyng common wealthe. ¶ A contemplatiue question. THe other _Thesis_ is a question contemplatiue, which the Grekes dooe call _Theoricas_, because the matter of them is comprehended in the minde, and in the in[-] telligence of man. The example. Is the soule immortall? Had the worlde a beginnyng? Is the heauen greater then the yearth? { Simple. A question is either { { Compounde. Is it good for a man to exercise hymself in wrastlyng, or [Fol. liiij.v] Is it profitable to declaime. [¶] A compounde. Is vertue of more value then gold, to the coueitous man[?] Doeth wisedome more auaile, then strength in battaile? Doe olde men or young men, better gouerne a common wealthe? Is Phisicke more honourable then the Lawe? A Oracion made vpon _Thesis_, is after this sorte made. Use a _exordium_, or beginnyng. Unto the whiche you maie adde a Narracion, whiche is a exposicion of the thyng doen. Then shewe it lawfull. Iuste. Profitable. And possible. Then the conclucion. To this in some parte of the Oracion, you maie putte in certaine obieccions, as thus. Upon this question: Is it good to marie a wife? In Mariage is greate care, and pensiuenesse of minde, by losse of children, or wife, whom thou loueste. There is also trouble of dissolute seruauntes. There is also greate sorowe if thy children proue wicked and dissolute. The aunswere to this obiection, will minister matter to declaime vpon. ¶ Is it good to Marie. SInce the tyme of all ages, and the creacio[n] of the worlde, GOD hath so blessed his creacion, and meruailous workemanship in manne: as in all his other creatures, that not onelie his omnipo- teucie, is therby set forthe. But also from tyme to tyme, the posteritee of men, in their ofspring and procrea- [Sidenote: Kyngdomes continue by mariage and co[m]mon welth[.]] cion, doe aboundantlie commonstrate thesame. The state of all kyngdomes and common wealthes: by procreacion deri- ued, haue onelie continued on the face of the yearth, thereby [Fol. lv.r] many hundred yeres. How sone would the whole worlde be dissolued, and in perpetuall ruine, if that God from tymes and ages, had not by godlie procreacion, blessed this infinite [Sidenote: The dignitee of man, she- weth the worthines of mariage.] issue of mankinde. The dignitée of man in his creacion, she- weth the worthie succession, maintained by procreation. In vaine were the creacion of the worlde, if there were not as manne so excellente a creature, to beholde the creatour, and his meruailous creacion. To what vse were the Elementes and Heauens, the Starres and Planettes, all Beastes and Foules, Fisshe, Plantes, Herbes and trees, if men wer not, for mannes vse and necessitée, all thinges in the yearth were made and procreated. Wherein the Stoike Philosophers do note the excellencie of man to be greate: for saie thei, _Que in terris gignuntur omnia ad vsum hominum creari_. To what vse then were all thynges, if man were not, for whose cause, vse, & necessitée these thynges were made. If a continuaunce of Gods procreacion were not, immediatlie a ruine and ende would ensue of thinges. What age remaineth aboue a hun- dred yeres? If after a hu[n]dred yeres, no issue wer to be, on the [Sidenote: Godlie pro- creacion.] face of the yearth, how sone wer kyngdoms dissolued, where as procreacion rooteth, a newe generacion, issue and ofspring, and as it were a newe soule and bodie. A continuaunce of la- wes, a permanente state of common wealthe dooeth ensue. Though the life of manne be fraile, and sone cutte of, yet by Mariage, man by his ofspryng, is as it were newe framed, his bodie by death dissolued, yet by issue reuiued. Euen as Plantes, by the bitter season of Winter, from their flowers fadyng and witheryng: yet the seede of them and roote, vegi- table and liuyng, dooe roote yerelie a newe ofspryng or flo- [Sidenote: A similitude.] wer in them. So Mariage by godlie procreacion blessed, doth perpetually increase a newe bodie, and therby a vaste world, and infinite nacions or people. Xerxes the mightie kyng of Persia, vewing and beholding his maine and infinite hoste, wéeped: who beyng demaunded, why he so did. _Doleo inquit post centum annos, neminem ex hijs superesse._ It is a pitée- [Fol. lv.v] fulle and dolefull case, that after a hundred yeres, not one of these noble capitaines, and valiant soldiers to be left. ¶ The obieccion. But you will saie parauenture, mariage is a greate bon- dage, alwaies to liue with one. ¶ The solucion. To followe pleasure, and the beastlie mocions of the mynde: what libertée call you that, to liue in a godly, meane, [Sidenote: The libertie in mariage.] and Mediocritée of life, with thy spoused wife. There is no greater ioye, libertée, or felicitée, who so practiseth a dissolute life: whose loue and luste is kindeled, and sette on fire with a [Sidenote: A brutishe societie with harlottes.] harlotte, he followeth a brutishe societée. What difference is there, betwene them and beastes? The beaste as nature lea- deth, he obaieth nature. Reason wanteth in beastes, manne then indued with reason, whiche is a guide to all excellencie how is it that he is not ruled by reason. Whom GOD hath clothed and beautified, with all vertue and all singularitée: If a godly conuersacion of life, moueth thée to passe thy daies without mariage, then must the mocions of thy minde, be ta- [Sidenote: Chastitee in mariage.] med and kepte vnder. Other wise, execrable is thy purpose, and determinacio[n] of the life. If thou hopest of loue of a harlot though thou enioye her otherwise, thou art deceiued. Bac- chis the harlot, whom Terence maketh mencion of, in the persone of her self, sheweth the maners of all harlots to An- tiphila, saiyng. _Quippe forma impulsi nostra nos amatores colunt: Hec vbi immutata est, illi suum animum alio conferunt. Nisi prospectu[m] est interea aliquid nobis, deserte viuimus._ For saieth she, the louer anamoured with our loue, and sette on fire therewith, it is for our beautie and fauour: but when beautie is ones faded, he conuerteth his loue to an o- ther, whom he better liketh. But that we prouide for our sel- ues in the meane season, wée should in the ende liue vtterlie forsaked. But your loue incensed with one, whose maners and life contenteth you: so you bothe are linked together, [Fol. lvj.r] [Sidenote: The loue of a harlotte.] that no calamitée can separate you: who so hopeth loue of a harlotte, or profite, he maie hope as for the fructe of a withe- red tree, gaine is all their loue, vice their ioye and delite. In vertue is libertée, in vertue is felicitee, the state of mariage is vertuous, there can be no greater bo[n]dage, then to obaie ma- ny beastly affections, to the whiche whoredome forceth hym vnto, Loue is fained, cloked amitée, a harte dissembled, ma- ny a mightie person and wise, hath been ouerthrowen by the deceiptes of harlottes: many a Citee plagued, many a region ouerthrowen for that mischief, to obaie many affections is a greate bondage. Who so serueth the beastlie affections of his [Sidenote: Hercules. Omphala.] mynde to that purpose, he must also as Hercules to Ompha- la bee slaue, not onely to his owne will and affection: but to the maners, will, and exspectacion of the harlotte. So serued Thraso, and Phedria Thais, that Gorgious harlot, Antony and Iulius Cesar, Cleopatra, this is a bondage, to liue slaue from reason and all all integritee, to a monsterous rableme[n]t [Sidenote: The harlot- tes lesson, to her louers.] of vices, who so serueth a harlot, thei must learne this lesson. _Da mihi & affer_, giue and bryng. The women of Scithia, abhorryng the godly conuersa- cion of mariage, with their housbandes, lefte theim, who in tyme ware so mightie, that thei repelled theim by force: thei called mariage not Matrimonie, but bondage. For, the chro- nicles doe testifie, thei became conquerours ouer many kyn- ges, all Asia obaied them: thei did builde many a great citee, and for theire successe, thei might compare with many prin- [Sidenote: The life of the Amazo- nes.] ces. These women were called Amazones afterwarde, the order of their life was this, ones in the yere thei would en- ioye the compainie of a man: if it so were that thei had a man childe, the father to haue it, if a daughter, then thei possessed her, and foorthwith burned her right pappe: for thei were all Archers, and wonderfully excelled therein, but in the ende, [Sidenote: Thalestris.] thei came all to ruine. One of them, Thalestris their Quene in the tyme of Alexander the Greate, came to Alexander, thinkyng that he had been, some monstrous man of stature: [Fol. lvj.v] [Sidenote: The offer of a woman to Alexander.] whom, when she did beholde (for Alexander was of no migh- tie stature) did contemne hym, and offered him hand to hande [Sidenote: The answer of Alexander to the offer.] to fight with hym. But Alexander like a wise Prince, saied to his men, if I should ouercome her, that were no victorie, nor manhoode againste a woman: and being ouercome, that were greater shame, then commendacion in all my victories and conquestes, but afterwarde, there was a greate familia- ritée betwene them. The adulterer and the adulteris, neuer prospereth, for many mischiues are reserued, to that wicked and beastly loue. Sincere loue is not rooted, frendship colou- red: the sober and demure countenaunce, is moche to be com- mended in a chaste woman, whose breaste pondereth a chaste [Sidenote: The facte of the matrones of Rome.] life. The facte of the matrones of Rome, semeth straunge to be tolde, of Papirius a Senators soonne, beyng taken to the Senate house, of his father: the childe beyng indued with a singuler wit, harde many causes in the assemble, talked and consulted vpo[n], at his retourne home, his mother was inqui- sitiue of their consultacion, to heare somewhat. The childe was commaunded by his father, to vtter no secrete that he heard, wherevpon of a long tyme, he refused his mothers de- maunde: but at the laste subtelie, he satisfied his mothers re- [Sidenote: Papirius.] quest. Truth it is, my father willed me, to vtter no secret, you keping my counsaill, I will shewe you, it is concluded by the Senate house, that euery man shall haue twoo wiues, that is a straunge matter, saieth the mother: foorthwith she had communicacion with all the matrones of Roome, that could doe somewhat in this matter, thei also full willyngly assem- bled themselues, to let this purpose, to the Senate house, thei went to vtter, their swollen griues. The Senators were a- mased at their commyng, but in this matter bolde thei were, [Sidenote: The Oracio[n] of a matrone, to the Sena- tours.] to enterprise that, whiche thei wer greued at. A Dame more eloquente then all the reste, and of stomacke more hardie, be- gan in these woordes. Otherwise then right, we are iniuri- ously handled, and that in this assemble, that now we should be caste of and neclected: that whereas it is concluded in this [Fol. lvij.r] counsaile, that euery manne should haue twoo wiues, more meter it were, that one woman should haue twoo housban- des. Straunge it was in the Senators eares soche a request, whereupon a proofe made how that rumour rose, Papirius was found the aucthor, who tolde before the Senate, his mo- ther alwaies inquisitiue to knowe that, whiche he should not tell, and thereupon he faigned that, whiche he might better tell. It is to be supposed the Senators mused thereat, and the matrones of Rome went home ashamed: but their secrete co- gitacion of minde was manifest, what willingly in hart thei wished. What greater felicitee can there bee, then in a vnitée of life, the housebande to liue with his wife. The beastes in their kinde, doe condemne mannes brutishe affections here- in: there is no facte that sheweth a man or woman, more like to beastes, then whoredome. ¶ The obieccion. But you will saie, many calamitées happeneth in mariage? ¶ The solucion. Fortunne herein is to bee blamed, and not mariage, if a- ny misfortune happeneth to manne therein, the felicitée and [Sidenote: Eleccion in Mariage.] quiet state that any man enioieth thereby. The discrete elec- cion is therein approued, in the state it self, nothyng can bee founde worthie reprehension, if a man will impute the bit- ter stormes of life to mariage: whatseouer happeneth, our owne reason maie iudge contrary. Place before thy iyes all the affaires, and occupacions of this life, bee all tymes plea- saunte to the housebande man, many a colde storme perceth his bodie, and many a mightie tempeste, dooeth molest hym and greue hym. Sommer is not the tyme, to caste his seede in the grounde, or implowyng to occupie hymself: shall he ther- fore leaue his housebandrie, or doeth he rather neclecte it, his diligence therein is the more, and labour more industrious. From whence commeth the tempeste, the stormes and bitter seasons? From his house, from his wife, from his art and oc- cupacion, all those thynges by violence are expelled from the [Fol. lvij.v] aire. No state of life is able to giue riches, healthe, or securitée [Sidenote: Emperours.] to his state. There hath been princes and Emperours, nedie, full of infirmitées and sickenes, in daungerous state, oppres- sed with many calamitées: was their dignitie and office, the cause of their calamitées? No, God tempreth the state of eue- ry one, how, and after what sorte to possesse thesame. Some [Sidenote: Mariage.] are fulle fortunate in Mariage, if Mariage were of necessitée the cause, then all should be onely fortunate, or onely vnfor- tunate: then in mariage is not the cause, if in marige the ma- ners doe disagrée, and loue is extinguished, blame thyn own [Sidenote: The Mari- ners.] maners, thy choise, and thy eleccion. The Mariner that pas- seth the daungerous Seas, and by dreadfull tempestes, and huffyng waues is alwaies in perille, and many often tymes [Sidenote: The Mar- chauntes.] drouned. The Marchaunt lesyng his marchaundise by ship- wrack, shall thei impute the daunger and losse, to their wife at home? Or doe the Mariners leaue for all these tempestes, their arte of Nauigacion? Or the owner breake his shippe? Or the Marchaunt proue no aduentures, because of his losse, and many haue been of this sort drouned. No. But more ear- [Sidenote: Warre.] nestlie thei dooe assaie theim selues thereto. Because warre spoileth many a man of his life, doe Princes therefore, leaue to moue armour againste the enemie, but because, who so in the defence of his countrée, dieth manfullie, is worthelie ad- uaunced, and in perpetuall memorie, no daunger is refused, because euill thynges happeneth in life, is the state of good thynges to be auoided and eschued. Were it not vnsemelie, if housebande men, for no storme or tempeste, doe leaue their state, their laborious and rough co[n]dicion of life, nor the ship- man his arte of Nauigacion, because he seeth many drouned venteryng thesame, and he hymself often tymes in daunger, nor the soldiour or capitain, their perilous condicion of life, doe leaue for daunger. Should Mariage bée lesse sette by, be- cause alwaies riches and quietnes happeneth not. ¶ The obieccion. The losse of a good wife and children, is a greate grefe to [Fol. lviij.r] any man, and a cause to blame mariage. ¶ The aunswere. [Sidenote: The lawe of Nature.] You your self are borne to dye, thei also by death obaye likewise Nature, this is the Lawe of Nature ones to dye, whiche you séeme to blame. Then the death of thy wife and childre[n], is not the blame in Mariage. What is the cause that you dye? Natures imbecillitée and weakenes, then in theim[.] Mariage is not the cause: Nature in her firste molde hath so framed all, wherefore doe you ascribe that to mariage, that is founde faultée in Nature. Thei die that marie not, what infirmitie, daunger or peril happeneth to any in mariage, as sharpe and perilous, doe molest and torment the other. If any manne by death, leaseth a right honeste wife, clothed with all chastitée, demurenesse, sobrietée, and also with all singulari- tée of vertue adorned: he hath loste a rare treasure, a iewell of [Sidenote: A chaste wo- man.] price, not in all to bee founde. Did you loue your wife, that was so goodlie, so honeste and vertuous: there was greate cause saie you, for her vertuous sake, God hath chosen her fro[m] a mortall creature, to immortalitée, with her it can not bée better. There is no cause why you should blame mariage, for the losse of her, or of thy children, or for the losse of thee, she to blame mariage. If for thy owne sake, this sorowe bee, _Est seipsum amantis non amici_, it is then of a self loue, to thy self, not for her cause: for I muste aunswere as Lelius did to Affricanus, _Cum ea optime esseactu[m] quis neget, quid est quod no[n] assecuta est immortalitatem_. Who can deny saieth he, but that with her it can not bee better? What is it that she hath not attained. Immortalitée. She was vertuous, chaiste, so- ber, descrete, of behauiour womanlie: for her vertues belo- ued. Well, now she hath immortalitee and blesse, are you so- rie thereat, that were enuious. Did you loue her liuyng, loue her also departed, her vertuous shewed vnto vs, her immor- talitée. ¶ The obieccion. There is a care for the wife and children, if the housband [Fol. lviij.v] dye before theim. ¶ The aunswere. [Sidenote: A wretched executour.] If thou leaue them riches, hope not that thy riches shalbe a staie to theim, though thei bee innumerable: a wretched, a miserable executour, wasteth and destroieth oftentymes, the fruictes of thy trauaile, who reioyseth more of thy death, then of thy life. Or thy childrens father in Lawe, shall spoile and spende with a merie harte, that whiche thou haste long tera- [Sidenote: Gods pro- uidence.] uailed for. Staie thy self and thyne vpon Gods prouidence, for it hath been seen, many a riche widowe, with infinite treasure lefte, to her children also like porcions descendyng: afterwarde bothe wife and children, haue been brought to miserie and beggerlie state. Otherwise, poore children com- mitted to the prouidence of God, and vertuouslie brought vp, and the wife in like state, yet thei haue so passed their daies, that thei haue rose to a goodlie state. See that thy richesse bée not iniuriouslie gotten by falshode, by liyng, by Usurie, if it so be, then _Male parta male dilabuntnr_. That is this, gooddes euill gotte, euill spente, soche riches neuer giue déepe roote to their ofspryng. That is an euill care, by a iniurious care, to purchase thynges and gooddes wickedlie. Also mariage taketh awaie widowhed, and doeth repare with a newe freshe mariage, the lacke and priuacion of the [Sidenote: Death. Mariage.] other. She that was by death left a widowe, mariage again hath coupled her to a newe housbande: and doeth restore that whiche death tooke awaie. That that death dissolueth and destroieth, mariage increaseth, augme[n]teth, and multiplieth. Bee it so, but mariage is a painfull life, it forceth euery one to trauaile, to vpholde and maintaine his state, I commende not the idell life, neither a life occupied to no vertuous ende. Nature moueth euery manne to loue hymself and his, so thy care and paine be to a godlie purpose. It is commendable. It is the duetie of euery man, as his power, witte, and industrie is able, to emploie thereto his cogitacion. To laboure for thy wife, whom thou loueste, and deare children, thy laboure is [Fol. lix.r] pleasure, the ioye easeth thy labour. To behold thy self in thy children, thei beyng vertuouslie broughte vp, it is a goodlie [Sidenote: The mariage of a chaste woman.] comfort, to liue with a chaste woman, sober and continente, her vertues be a continuall pleasure, a passyng ioye. In ma- riage ought to be greate deliberacion, whom thou chosest to thy continuall compainie or felowshippe, her life paste well knowen, her parentes and kindrede how honeste and vertu- ous, her maners, her fame, how commendable, her counti- [Sidenote: The choise of a wife.] naunce sober, a constaunt iye, and with shamefastnes beau- tified, a mouthe vttering fewe woordes discretlie. She is not to be liked, who[m] no vertuous qualitées in her educacio[n], beu- tifieth and adorneth, the goodlie qualitees sheweth, the well framed and nurtured mynde. These thynges maie be suffi- ciente, to shewe what excellencie is in mariage and how ne- cessarie it is, to the procreacion and preseruacio[n] of mankind. ¶ _Legislacio._ ¶ A Oracion either in the defence of a Lawe, or againste a Lawe. MAny learned menne are in this opinion, that vpon a Lawe alledged, a Oracion maie bee made in the defence of it: or matter maie be suppeditated, to in- uaigh by force of argument againste it. Although the lawe alleged be in maner the whole cause, bicause it doeth co[n]tain al the matter included in the oracion. In this Oracion, the persone is induced to be spoken vp- pon, vnknowne, vncertaine: wherefore it is to be placed, ra- ther in the state and forme of consultacion, and to bée exami- ned with iudgement. The induccion of a Lawe, is in twoo sortes. A confirmacion of any olde Lawe, or a confutacion. As for example. The Ciuill Lawe doeth well commende, bondmen to be manumised, that is, to be made free. The lawe is herein to be praised, that willeth the cou[n]sail of the parentes & frendes, to be knowne before the contracte. [Fol. lix.v] Upon a Lawe alledged, worthelie matter maie rise, waigh- yng the godlie ende, whereunto the Lawe was firste inuen- ted, decreed and stablished, what profite thereof ensueth and foloweth. What it is to vertue a mainteiner, otherwise if it be not profitable? What moued any one to frame and ordain soche a Lawe, as was to a common wealthe vnprofitable, to vertue no aider, if it were a profitable Lawe and godlie, it is as Demosthenes saieth, of God inuented, though by famous [Sidenote: Lawe.] wise, and godlie menne, stablished and decréed. Good Lawes tempereth to all states equitee and iustice, without fauour or frendship, no more to the one then the other. The order to make an Oracion by a lawe, is in this sort. First, make a prohemiu[m] or beginning to enter your matter. In the seconde place, adde a contrary to that, whiche you will entreate vpon. Then shewe it lawful. Iuste. Profitable. Possible. You maie as in _Thesis_, whiche was the Oracion before, vse a contradiction or obiection: and to that make an answere or solucion. ¶ A confutacion of that Lawe, whiche suffered adultrie to bee punished with death, no iudgement giuen thereupon. [Sidenote: The moste rigorous and moste cruell lawe of Solo[n][.]] SOlon, who was a famous Philosopher, in the time of Cresus king of Lidia, and a lawe giuer to the Athenians: by whose Lawes and godlie meanes, the Athenians were long and prospe- rouslie gouerned. Emong many of his lawes, this Solon set forthe againste adulterers. _Fas esse deprehen- denti mæchum in ipso adulterio interficere_: it shalbee lawfull saieth he, who so taketh an adulterer in his beastlie facte, to kill hym. Solon beyng a wise man, was more rigorous and cruell, in this one Lawe, then he ought to be. A meruailous [Fol. lx.r] matter, and almoste vncredible, so wise, so noble and worthy a Lawe giuer, to bruste out with soche a cruell and bloodie lawe, that without iudgement or sentence giuen, the matter neither proued nor examined, adulterie to be death. Where- fore, reason forceth euery manne, to Iudge and ponder with [Sidenote: Adulterie a horrible vice.] hymself, that either adulterie is a moste horrible vice, moste beastlie & pestiferous, and not mete to tary vpon the censure, and sentence of a Iudge: or Solon was not so wise, discrete, and a politike persone, but a rashe and fonde lawe giuer, that in soche a terrible voice, he should burste out, as adulterie so horrible, as not worthie to be pondered, examined and boul- ted of in Iudgemente. The Athenians receiued that Lawe, thei did also obaie his other lawes. Their dominions there- by in felicitée was gouerned: there was no populous nom- ber of adulterers, to let that Lawe, thei liued moste godlie, a straunge worlde, a rare moderacion of that age and people. [Sidenote: Plato aga- inste adultrie made a lawe.] Plato the godlie Philosopher, who lefte in his woorkes, and monumentes of learnyng, greate wisedome and also godlie Lawes in his bookes: intiteled vpon Lawes, and gouerne- ment of a common wealth, did not passe by in silence, to giue and ordain a Lawe against adulterie. Who also as it semed Iudged adulterie as moste horrible and detestable, in his .ix. booke _de Legibus_. This is the Lawe. _Adulteram deprehen- sam impune occidi a viro posse._ The adultrous woman saith he, taken in the crime, her housbande maie without daunger of death, or feare of punishement slea her. A straunge matter twoo so noble, so famous for wisedome, to make adulterie present death, no Iudgement or sentence of Magistrate, pro- cedyng to examine and iudge, vpon the state of the cause. A man maie saie, O goodlie age, and tyme in vertue tempered, eche state as seemeth brideled and kepte vnder, and farre fro[m] voluptuousnes remoued. There was no stewes or Baudes houses, where soche Lawes and Lawmakers were. Sobrie- tée was in maides, and chastitée harboured in matrones and wedded wiues, a harte inuiolable to honeste conuersacion. [Fol. lx.v] Where adulterie is cutte of, there many detestable vices, [Sidenote: Catos sen- tence vpon adulterie.] and execrable purposes are remoued. Cato the sage Peere of Rome, indued with like seueritée, did fauour that lawe and highlie extolled it. Although adulterie bee a detestable vice horrible, yea, although it be worthie death, better it were by iudgemente, and the sentence of the Magistrate, the faute to [Sidenote: Lawe.] bee determined: then at the will of euery manne, as a Lawe by death to bee ended, the common wealthe shalbee in more quiet state, when the horrible factes of wicked menne, by the [Sidenote: The Iudge, a liuely lawe.] Lawe made worthie of deathe: are neuerthelesse by a liuelie Lawe, whiche is the Iudge, pronounced and condemned, ac- cordyng to the Lawe. Els many mischiues might rise in all kyngdomes and common wealthes, vnder a colour of lawe, many a honeste persone murthered: and many a murtherer, by cloke of a Lawe, from daunger saued. In Rome somtime a Lawe there was ordained againste adulterie, whiche was called _Lex Iulia_, this Lawe Octauius Augustus set foorthe. The Lawe was thus, _Gladio iussit animaduerti in adulteros_[.] The lawe commaunded adulterers to be hedded. The chro- nicles of aunciente tymes herein doe shew, and the decrées of auncient elders also, how horrible a thing adulterie is, when thei punishe it with death. Who knoweth not emo[n]g the Is- raelites, and in the olde lawe thei wer stoned to death. Well as Magistrates are in common wealthes remoued, or as ti- mes chaunge, lawes also are chaunged and dissolued: and as the Prouerbe is, _Lex vt Regio_, the Lawes are accordyng to the Region. Afterwarde Ualerius Publicola, a man ascen- dyng to high nobilitée of honour, and fame emong, the Ro- maines gaue this Lawe. _Qua neminem licebat indicta causa necare._ By this lawe it was not lefull, any manne to be put [Sidenote: A godly law.] to death, their cause not examined in Iudgemente, this was a goodlie Lawe. Then afterwarde, Lawe giuers rose in the common wealth, that with more facilitee tolerated that vice, then wickednesse flowed, adulterie not punished by death. And sence that, the Romaine Empire, wrapped and snared [Fol. lxj.r] with soche mischiues hath decaied, in fame, nobilitée and ver- tue. Many a parte of their dominion plagued, deuoured, and [Sidenote: The good manne.] destroied. The good and godlie menne, nede not to feare any Lawe godlie, their life beyng in vertue and godlines nurtu- red. The terrible sentence of a lawe, forceth the good and god- lie, to perseuere and continue in godlines. The terrible sen- [Sidenote: Lawe.] tence of a Lawe, cutteth of the wicked enterprises of pestife- rous menne. Uice where lawe is not to correcte, will inure it [Sidenote: Uice as a lawe by cu- stome.] self by custome as a Lawe, or borne and tolerated againste a [Sidenote: Adulterie.] Lawe. Therefore as adulterie without Iudgemente, to bee punished worthie of death is vngodlie: so it ought not to bee passed ouer, or tolerated in any Region or common wealth, as no lawe seuerely to punishe thesame. ¶ The contrarie. AL other lawes doe differ, from that rigorous lawe of Solon and Plato herein, yea, and though thei be vices horrible, yet thei ar not determined, with out the sente[n]ce of the Magistrate and Iudge. But this cruell Lawe of Solon, doeth repugne all lawes, stabli- [Sidenote: The lawe v- niuersall and equall to all menne.] shed in all Citees and common wealthes. And sithe the lawe is of hymself vniuersall, with equitée, giuing and tempering to all states. Fonde muste that Lawe bee of Solon, whiche rashely, without consideracion of iudgement doeth procede, no man ought in his own cause, to be his own iudge or Ma- gistrate. This is argument sufficient to confounde the lawe of Solon. All Lawes are repugnaunte to that, because with Iudgement thei procede against vices moste pestiferous. In [Sidenote: Thefte.] common wealthes Theft is by lawe, pronounced worthie of death, whereupon also the Magistrate and Iudge, determi- neth the matter, and heareth of bothe the action of the case, before he condempneth, so in all other mischiues. But you maie saie, many mischiues riseth of adulterie. Although it so be, the Iudge determineth vpon Murder, whiche is in like sort horrible, soche also as dooe séeke to caste into perill their countrée, and by treason to destroie thesame, [Fol. lxj.v] Iudgemente proceadeth by determinacion of the Lawe and Iudge. And so in all other wicked factes, and mischiuous en- terprises, the Iudgement in euery cause procedeth, as Lawe [Sidenote: The Iudge a liuely lawe.] and right willeth, from the mouthe of the Iudge, he beyng a liuelie Lawe, to the Lawe written. The cruell Lawe of So- lon, is like to the phantasie and wille of a tyraunte, who, as phantasie and will leadeth, murdereth at his pleasure, whose will is alwaies a sufficient Lawe to hymself, as who should [Sidenote: The will of a tyraunte his owne lawe.] saie, so I wille, so I commaunde, my wille shall stande for a Lawe: but godlie lawes doe iustlie, accordyng to reason and vertue, tempereth the cause of euery man. No godlie Lawe, maketh the accuser his owne Iudge. ¶ Lawfull. [Sidenote: Lawes were made for two causes.] WHo so by Lawe is iudged, and the offence proued, there is no excuse in the malefactour, nor suspicion seing that, accordyng to lawe, the fact is punished, and as Demosthenes saieth, twoo thynges moued the wise Elders to make Lawes, that the wicked should bee hindered, and cutte of from their purpose, and that good men seyng by a lawe, the actes of pestiferous men kepte vnder, by the terrour of them, are afraied to commit the like facte. This was euen accordyng to lawe. The terrible sentence of a law executed, vpon moste wicked persones, doe kepe vnder many a mischiuous enterprise, whiche through the dolefull and la- mentable ende of the wicked, doe driue and force all other to all godlines. ¶ Iuste. THe accuser by Lawe and Iudge, is able to defende hymself, whe[n] his cause is ended accordyng to law. Uertue thereby vpholded, when by order of lawe, vice is condempned. The malifactour hath no ex- cuse, all staie and colour remoued, the accuser by iuste Lawe pleateth, when the law is thereby supported and saued. And herein a greate parte of Iustice is placed, when the fauour of the Iudge or frendship, is onely on the cause, the persone nec- [Fol. lxij.r] lected, that is Iustice, to giue to euery one his owne. ¶ Profitable. IT must be profitable to the whole bodie of the com- mon wealthe, when by the Iustice of godlie lawes, vertue is in high price aduaunced, vice by the open sentence, and manifeste profe conuicted, the malefa- ctour shall be knowen, the sincere and godlie deliuered, and from tyme to tyme maintained. Lawes as thei be vniuersall so thei openlie ought to giue sentence. ¶ Possible. THen without lawe to procede, and iudgemente of the Magistrate, as Solon did in this lawe, it were not possible, any common wealthe to florishe ther- by. Therefore in Iudgemente ought the cause of euery one to be pleated and examined, that thereby all suspi- cion, & greuous enormitées, maie be put of. Uice is not there- fore tolerated, because for a tyme, Iudgemente ceaseth, but hereupon vices are more depely rooted out, all people know- yng the determinacion of the lawe, and the manifest sente[n]ce of the Iudge heard. A terrour ensueth to al malefactours and pestiferous men, good men are incensed to all godlines, whe[n] vice by Lawe is condempned, cutte of, and destroied. Good menne by Lawe and aucthoritée, vpholded and maintained. [Sidenote: The state of good lawes.] This is the state of good lawes, by order to procede, the cause in Iudgemente examined, the facte proued, vertue in any persone vpholded, vice in all caste doune and defaced, so there is good Lawe, as Demosthenes saieth, sincere Iudge, and sentence inuiola- ble. * * * * * [Transcriber's Note: The following is a list of printer errors in the original.] Page Original Correct Fol. j.r faith he faith be Fol. ij.r Poloponesians Peloponesians Fol. ij.r oracions, when oracion, when Fol. v.r Perthesius Parthesius Fol. vj.v Romai- Romains [or Romaines] Fol. vij.r valianntes valiauntes Fol. vij.r commo wealth commo[n] wealth Fol. ix.r uot not Fol. ix.r state or state of Fol. ix.v comparson comparison Fol. x.r aboundauute aboundaunte Fol. x.v oneie onelie Fol. xj.r fanour fauour Fol. xiiij.r vengauce vengau[n]ce Fol. xiiij.v Fenche Frenche Fol. xv.r Bristaines Britaines Fol. xvj.r porfite profite Fol. xvj.v learnng learning [or learnyng] Fol. xvij.r is was was Fol. xvij.r Pholosopher Philosopher Fol. xvij.v faundacion foundacion Fol. xviij.v aud and Fol. xviij.v Catona Crotona Fol. xix.r celebraied celebrated Fol. xx.v intteled intiteled Fol. xxj.r gouerme[n]t gouernme[n]t Fol. xxij.v Politcia Politia Fol. xxiiij.v Rhetotike Rhetorike Fol. xxiiij.v exposion exposicion Fol. xxiiij.v Incrediblie Incredible Fol. xxv.r The feigne Thei feigne Fol. xxvij.r the the the Fol. xxvij.r moderaciou moderacion Fol. xxviij.v Prossible Possible Fol. xxviij.v Rhetotike Rhetorike Fol. xxix.r Fol. xxxj. Fol. xxix. Fol. xxix.v Historiogriphers Historiographers Fol. xxxj.r Fol. xxxiij. Fol. xxxj. Fol. xxxj.r lineth liueth Fol. xxxj.v ouerthowe ouerthrowe Fol. xxxj.v Epamniundas Epaminundas Fol. xxxij.r Epameunndas Epaminundas Fol. xxxiij.r Zopryus Zopyrus Fol. xxxiiij.r or God of God Fol. xxxiiij.r wekedned wekened Fol. xxxv.r destetable detestable Fol. xxxv.v Theodosiuus Theodosius Fol. xxxv.v prouulgate promulgate Fol. xxxv.v hane haue Fol. xxxvj.r goddes goodes [or gooddes] Fol. xxxvj.r lo liue to liue Fol. xxxvj.r the:m theim Fol. xxxvij.r Fol. xxxix. Fol. xxxvij. Fol. xxxvij.v dangerous gaue dangerous game Fol. xxxviij.v cut af cut of Fol. xxxviij.v gouernuurs gouernours Fol. xxxix.r Fol. xxxvij. Fol. xxxix. Fol. xxxix.r His Oracion THis Oracion Fol. xxxix.v goueruours gouernours Fol. xl.v Traianns Traianus Fol. xlij.r nobilitée) for nobilitée (for Fol. xliij.r valianntly valiauntly Fol. xliiij.v anncestours auncestours Fol. xlviij.r conutrée countrée Fol. liiij.v omnipoteucie omnipotencie Fol. lvj.r all all all Fol. lvij.r whatseouer whatsoeuer Fol. lviij.v terauailed trauailed Fol. lviij.v dilabuntnr dilabuntur The original contains the following additional printer errors: Fol. j.r Decorative capital "N" reversed Fol. xxxiij.r Last sentence repeated Fol. xxxviij.v Section heading repeated Fol. liij.r First word repeats last word on previous page Fol. liiij.r Remainder of last sentence missing? The following do not appear to be printer errors, as they are consistently used in the original: "thesame" for "the same"; "shalbe" for "shall be"; the use of "a" instead of "an" before a noun beginning with a vowel; the combination of "the" and a word beginning with "e" into a single word, as in "theight" for "the eight." 
30294	----	[Transcriber's Notes: 1. Italic text is rendered with underscores _like this_, and bold with equal signs =like this=. 2. Misprints and punctuation errors were corrected. A list of corrections can be found at the end of the text.] THE CENTURY HANDBOOK OF WRITING BY GARLAND GREEVER _AND_ EASLEY S. JONES NEW YORK THE CENTURY CO. 1927 Copyright, 1918, by THE CENTURY CO. PRINTED IN U.S.A. PREFACE This handbook treats essential matters of grammar, diction, spelling, mechanics; and develops with thoroughness the principles of sentence structure. Larger units of composition it leaves to the texts in formal rhetoric. The book is built on a decimal plan, the material being simplified and reduced to one hundred articles. Headings of these articles are summarized on two opposite pages by a chart. Here the student can see at a glance the resources of the volume, and the instructor can find immediately the number he wishes to write in the margin of a theme. The chart and the decimal scheme together make the rules accessible for instant reference. By a device equally efficient, the book throws upon the student the responsibility of teaching himself. Each article begins with a concise rule, which is illustrated by examples; then follows a short "parallel exercise" which the instructor may assign by adding an _x_ to the number he writes in the margin of a theme. While correcting this exercise, the student will give attention to the rule, and will acquire theory and practice at the same time. Moreover, every group of ten articles is followed by mixed exercises; these may be used for review, or imposed in the margin of a theme as a penalty for flagrant or repeated error. Thus friendly counsel is backed by discipline, and the instructor has the means of compelling the student to make rapid progress toward good English. Although a handbook of this nature is in some ways arbitrary, the arbitrariness is always in the interest of simplicity. The book does have simplicity, permits instant reference, and provides an adequate drill which may be assigned at the stroke of a pen. TABLE OF CONTENTS SENTENCE STRUCTURE COMPLETENESS OF THOUGHT 1. Fragments wrongly used as sentences 2. Incomplete constructions 3. Necessary words omitted 4. Comparisons not logically completed 5. Cause and reason 6. _Is when_ and _is where_ clauses 7. Undeveloped thought 8. Transitions 9. EXERCISE A. Incomplete sentences B. Incomplete constructions C. Incomplete logic D. Undeveloped thought and transitions UNITY OF THOUGHT 10. Unrelated ideas in one sentence 11. Excessive detail 12. Stringy sentences to be broken up 13. Choppy sentences to be combined 14. Excessive coördination 15. Faulty subordination of the main thought 16. Subordination thwarted by _and_ 17. The _and which_ construction 18. The comma splice 19. EXERCISE A. The comma splice B. One thought in a sentence C. Excessive coördination D. Upside-down subordination CLEARNESS OF THOUGHT REFERENCE 20. Divided reference 21. Weak reference 22. Broad reference 23. Dangling participle or gerund COHERENCE 24. General incoherence 25. Logical sequence 26. Squinting modifier 27. Misplaced word 28. Split construction 29. EXERCISE A. Reference of pronouns B. Dangling modifiers C. Coherence PARALLEL STRUCTURE 30. Parallel structure for parallel thoughts 31. Correlatives CONSISTENCY 32. Shift in subject or voice 33. Shift in number, person, or tense 34. Mixed constructions 35. Mixed imagery USE OF CONNECTIVES 36. The exact connective 37. Repetition of connective with gain in clearness 38. Repetition of connective with loss in clearness 39. EXERCISE A. Parallel structure B. Shift in subject or voice C. Shift in number, person, or tense D. The exact connective E. Repetition of connectives EMPHASIS 40. Emphasis by position 41. Emphasis by separation 42. Emphasis by subordination 43. The periodic sentence 44. Order of climax 45. The balanced sentence 46. Weak effect of the passive voice 47. Repetition effective: a Words; b Structure 48. Repetition offensive: a Words; b Structure 49. EXERCISE A. Lack of emphasis in general B. Loose structure C. Repetition GRAMMAR 50. Case: a Nominative, especially after _than_ or _as_; b Nominative _who_ and _whoever_; c Predicate nominative; d Objective; e Objective with infinitive; f Possessive; g Possessive with gerund; h Possession by inanimate objects; i Agreement of pronouns 51. Number: a _Each_, _every one_, etc.; b _Those kind_, etc.; c Collective nouns; d _Don't_ 52. Agreement--not to be thwarted by: a Intervening nouns; b _Together with_ phrases; c _Or_ or _nor_ after subject; d _And_ in the subject; e A predicate noun; f An introductory _there_ 53. _Shall_ and _will_ 54. Principal parts. List 55. Tense, mode, auxiliaries: a Tense in dependent clauses or infinitives; b The past perfect; c Present tense for a general statement; d Mode; e Auxiliaries 56. Adjective and adverb: a Adjective misused for adverb; b Ambiguous cases; c After verbs pertaining to the senses 57. A word in a double capacity 58. List of the terms of grammar 59. EXERCISE A. Case of pronouns B. Agreement C. _Shall_ and _will_ D. _Lie, lay; sit, set; rise, raise_ E. Principal parts of verbs F. General DICTION 60. Wordiness 61. Triteness 62. The exact word 63. Concreteness 64. Sound 65. Subtle violations of good use: a Faulty idiom; b Colloquialism 66. Gross violations of good use: a Barbarisms; b Improprieties; c Slang 67. Words often confused in meaning. List 68. Glossary of faulty diction 69. EXERCISE A. Wordiness B. The exact word C. Words sometimes confused in meaning D. Colloquialisms, slang, faulty idioms SPELLING 70. Recording errors 71. Pronouncing accurately 72. Logical kinship in words 73. Superficial resemblances. List 74. Words in _ei_ and _ie_ 75. Doubling a final consonant 76. Dropping final _e_ 77. Plurals: a Plurals in _s_ or _es_; b Nouns ending in _y_; c Compound nouns; d Letters, figures, and signs; e Old plurals; f Foreign plurals 78. Compounds: a Compound adjectives; b Compound nouns; c Numbers; d Words written solid; e General principle 79. SPELLING LIST (500 words, 200 in bold-face type) MISCELLANEOUS 80. Manuscript: a Titles; b Spacing; c Handwriting 81. Capitals: a To begin a sentence or a quotation; b Proper names; c Proper adjectives; d In titles of books or themes; e Miscellaneous uses 82. Italics: a Titles of books; b Foreign words; c Names of ships; d Words taken out of context; e For emphasis 83. Abbreviations: a In ordinary writing; b In business writing 84. Numbers: a Dates and street numbers; b Long figures; Sums of money, etc. 85. Syllabication: a Position of hyphen; b Division between syllables; c Monosyllabic words not divided; d One consonant between syllables; e Two consonants between syllables; f Prefixes and suffixes; g Short words; h Misleading division 86. Outlines: a Topic Outline; b Sentence Outline; c Paragraph Outline; d Indention; e Parallel form; f Faulty coördination; g Too detailed subordination 87. Letters: a Heading; b Inside address and greeting; c Body, Language; d Close; e Outside address; f Miscellaneous directions; g Model business letter; h Formal notes 88. Paragraphs: a Indention; b Length; c Dialogue 89. EXERCISE Capitals, numbers, abbreviations, etc. PUNCTUATION 90. The Period: a After sentences; b But not after fragments of sentences; c After abbreviations 91. The Comma: a Between clauses joined by _but_, _for_, _and_; b But NOT to splice clauses not joined by a conjunction; c After a subordinate clause preceding a main clause; d To set off non-restrictive clauses and phrases; e To set off parenthetical elements; f Between adjectives; g Between words in a series; h Before a quotation; i To compel a pause for clearness; j Superfluous uses 92. The Semicolon: a Between coördinate clauses not joined by a conjunction; b Between long coördinate clauses; c Before a formal conjunctive adverb; d But not before a quotation 93. The Colon: a To introduce a formal series or quotation; b Before concrete illustrations of a previous general statement 94. The Dash: a To enclose a parenthetical statement; b To mark a breaking-off in thought; c Before a summarizing statement; d But not to be used in place of a period; e Not to be confused with the hyphen 95. Parenthesis Marks: a Uses; b With other marks; c Confirmatory symbols; d Not used to cancel words; e Brackets 96. Quotation Marks: a With quotations; b With paragraphs; c In dialogue; d With slang, etc.; e With words set apart; f Quotation within a quotation; g Together with other marks; h Quotation interrupted by _he said_; i Omission from a quotation; j Unnecessary in the title of a theme, or as a label for humor or irony 97. The Apostrophe: a In contractions; b To form the possessive; c To form the possessive of nouns ending in _s_; d Not used with personal possessive pronouns; e To form the plural of certain signs and letters 98. The Question Mark: a After a direct question; b Not followed by a comma within a sentence; c In parentheses to express uncertainty; d Not used to label irony; e The Exclamation Point 99. EXERCISE 100. GENERAL EXERCISE TO THE STUDENT When a number is written in the margin of your theme, you are to turn to the article which corresponds to the number. Read the rule (printed in bold-face type), and study the examples. When an _r_ follows the number on your theme, you are, in addition, to copy the rule. When an _x_ follows the number, you are, besides acquainting yourself with the rule, to write the exercise of five sentences, to correct your own faulty sentence, and to hand in the six on theme paper. If the number ends in 9 (9, 19, 29, etc.), you will find, not a rule, but a long exercise which you are to write and hand in on theme paper. In the absence of special instructions from your teacher, you are invariably to proceed as this paragraph requires. Try to grasp the principle which underlies the rule. In many places in this book the reason for the existence of the rule is clearly stated. Thus under 20, the reason for the rule on parallel structure is explained in a prologue. In other instances, as in the rule on divided reference (20), the reason becomes clear the moment you read the examples. In certain other instances the rule may appear arbitrary and without a basis in reason. But there is a basis in reason, as you will observe in the following illustration. Suppose you write, "He is twenty one years old." The instructor asks you to put a hyphen in _twenty-one_, and refers you to 78. You cannot see why a hyphen is necessary, since the meaning is clear without it. But tomorrow you may write. "I will send you twenty five dollar bills." The reader cannot tell whether you mean twenty five-dollar bills or twenty-five dollar bills. In the first sentence the use of the hyphen in _twenty-one_ did not make much difference. In the second sentence the hyphen makes seventy-five dollars' worth of difference. Thus the instructor, in asking you to write, "He is twenty-one years old," is helping you to form a habit that will save you from serious error in other sentences. Whenever you cannot understand the reason for a rule, ask yourself whether the usage of many clear-thinking men for long years past may not be protecting you from difficulties which you do not foresee. Instructors and writers of text books (impressive as is the evidence to the contrary) are human, and do not invent rules to puzzle you. They do not, in fact, invent rules at all, but only make convenient applications of principles which generations of writers have found to be wisest and best. THE CENTURY HANDBOOK OF WRITING SENTENCE STRUCTURE COMPLETENESS OF THOUGHT The first thing to make certain is that the thought of a sentence is complete. A fragment which has no meaning when read alone, or a sentence from which is omitted a necessary word, phrase, or idea, violates an elementary principle of writing. =Fragments Wrongly Used as Sentences= =1. Do not write a subordinate part of a sentence as if it were a complete sentence.= Wrong: He stopped short. Hearing some one approach. Right: He stopped short, hearing some one approach. [Or] Hearing some one approach, he stopped short. Wrong: The winters are cold. Although the summers are pleasant. Right: Although the summers are pleasant, the winters are cold. Wrong: The hunter tried to move the stone. Which he found very heavy. Right: The hunter tried to move the stone, which he found very heavy. [Or] The hunter tried to move the stone. He found it very heavy. Note.--A sentence must in itself express a complete thought. Phrases or subordinate clauses, if used alone, carry only an incomplete meaning. They must therefore be attached to a sentence, or restated in independent form. Elliptical expressions used in conversation may be regarded as exceptions: Where? At what time? Ten o'clock. By no means. Certainly. Go. Exercise: 1. My next experience was in a grain elevator. Where I worked for two summers. 2. The parts of a fountain pen are: first, the point. This is gold. Second, the body. 3. The form is set rigidly. So that it will not be displaced when the concrete is thrown in. 4. There are several reasons to account for the swarming of bees. One of these having already been mentioned. 5. Since June the company has increased its trade three per cent. Since August, five per cent. =Incomplete Constructions= =2. Do not leave uncompleted a construction which you have begun.= Wrong: You remember that in his speech in which he said he would oppose the bill. Right: You remember that in his speech he said he would oppose the bill. [Or] You remember the speech in which he said he would oppose the bill. Wrong: He was a young man who, coming from the country, with ignorance of city ways, but with plenty of determination to succeed. Right: He was a young man who, coming from the country, was ignorant of city ways, but had plenty of determination to succeed. Wrong: From the window of the train I perceived one of those unsightly structures. Right: From the window of the train I perceived one of those unsightly structures which are always to be seen near a station. Exercise: 1. As far as his having been deceived, there is a difference of opinion on that matter. 2. The fact that he was always in trouble, his parents wondered whether he should remain in school or not. 3. People who go back to the scenes of their childhood everything looks strangely small. 4. It was the custom that whenever a political party came into office, for the incoming men to discharge all employees of the opposite party. 5. Although the average man, if asked whether he could shoot a rabbit, would answer in the affirmative, even though he had never hunted rabbits, would find himself badly mistaken. =Necessary Words Omitted= =3. Do not omit a word or a phrase which is necessary to an immediate understanding of a sentence.= Ambiguous: I consulted the secretary and president. [Did the speaker consult one man or two?] Right: I consulted the secretary and the president. [Or] I consulted the man who was president and secretary. Ambiguous: Water passes through the cement as well as the bricks. Right: Water passes through the cement as well as through the bricks. Wrong: I have had experience in every phase of the automobile. Right: I have had experience in every phase of automobile driving and repairing. Wrong: About him were men whom he could not tell whether they were friends or foes. Right: About him were men regarding whom he could not tell whether they were friends or foes. [Or, better] About him were men who might have been either friends or foes. Exercise: 1. When still a small boy, my family moved to Centerville. 2. Constantly in conversation with some one broadens our ideas and our vocabulary. 3. It was a trick which opposing teams were sure to be baffled. 4. They departed for the battle front with the knowledge they might never return. 5. At the banquet were all classes of people; I met a banker and plumber. =Comparisons= =4. Comparisons must be completed logically.= Wrong: His speed was equal to a racehorse. Wrong: Of course my opinion is worth less than a lawyer. Wrong: The shells which are used in quail hunting are different than in rabbit hunting. Compare a thing with another thing, an abstraction with another abstraction. Do not carelessly compare a thing with a part or quality of another thing. Always ask yourself: What is compared with what? Right: His speed was equal to that of a racehorse. Right: Of course my opinion is worth less than a lawyer's. Right: The shells used in quail hunting are different from those used in rabbit hunting. Self-contradictory: Chicago is larger than any city in Illinois. Right: Chicago is larger than any other city in Illinois. Impossible: Chicago is the largest of any other city in Illinois. Right: Chicago is the largest of all the cities in Illinois. [Or] Chicago is the largest city in Illinois. Note.--After a comparative, the subject of the comparison should be excluded from the class with which it is compared; after a superlative, the subject of the comparison should be included within the class. Wrong: {taller of all the girls. {tallest of any girl. Right: {taller than any other girl [comparative]. {tallest of all the girls [superlative]. Exercise: 1. The climate of America helps her athletes to become superior to other countries. 2. This tobacco is the best of any other on the market. 3. You men are paid three dollars more than any other factory in the city. 4. I thought I was best fitted for an engineering course than any other. 5. Care should be taken not to turn in more cattle than the grass in the pasture. =Cause and Reason= =5. A simple statement of fact may be completed by a _because_ clause.= Right: I am late because I was sick. =But a statement containing _the reason is_ must be completed by a _that_ clause.= Wrong: The reason I am late is because I was sick. [The "reason" is not a "because"; the "reason" is the fact of sickness.] Right: The reason I am late is that I was sick. =_Because_, the conjunction, may introduce an adverbial clause only.= Wrong: Because a man wears old clothes is no proof that he is poor. [A _because_ clause cannot be the subject of _is_.] Right: The fact that a man wears old clothes is no proof that he is poor. [Or] The wearing of old clothes is not proof that a man is poor. Note.--_Because of_, _owing to_, _on account of_, introduce adverbial phrases only. _Due to_ and _caused by_ introduce adjectival phrases only. Wrong: He failed, due to weak eyes. [Due is an adjective; it cannot modify a verb.] Right: His failure was {due to } weak eyes {caused by} {because of } Right: He failed {owing to } weak eyes. {on account of} Exercise: 1. The reason why I would not buy a Ford car is because it is too light. 2. My second reason for coming here is because of social advantages. 3. Because John is rich does not make him happier than I. 4. Because I like farming is the reason I chose it. 5. The only reason why vegetation does not grow here is because of the lack of water. =_is when_ or _is where_ Clauses= =6. Do not use a _when_ or _where_ clause as a predicate noun. Do not define a word by saying it is a "when" or a "where". Define a noun by another noun, a verb by another verb, etc.= Wrong: The great event is when the train arrives. Right: The great event is the arrival of the train. Wrong: Immigration is where foreigners come into a country. Right: Immigration is the entering of foreigners into a country. Wrong: A simile is when one object is compared with another. Right: A simile is a figure of speech in which one object is compared with another. Note.--A definition of a term is a statement which (1) names the class to which the term belongs, and (2) distinguishes it from other members of the class. Example. A quadrilateral is a plane figure having four sides and four angles. To test a definition ask whether it separates the term defined from all other things. If the definition does not do this, it is incomplete. Define _California_ (so as to exclude other states), _window_ (so as to exclude _door_), _star_ (exclude _moon_), _night_, _rain_, _circle_, _Bible_, _metal_, _mile_, _rectangle_. Exercise: 1. The pistol shot is when the race begins. 2. A snob is when a man treats others as inferior socially. 3. The wireless telegraph is where messages are sent a long distance through the air. 4. The definition of usury is where one charges interest higher than the legal rate. 5. Biology is when one studies plant and animal life. =Undeveloped Thought= =7. Do not halfway express an idea. If the idea is important, develop it. If it is not important, omit it.= Incomplete: We were now quite sure that we had lost our way, and Jack said he had a business engagement that night. Better: We were now quite sure that we had lost our way, a fact which was all the more annoying as Jack said he had a business engagement that night. Puzzling: Since McAndrew had inherited money, his suitcase was plastered with labels. Right: Since McAndrew had inherited money, he had traveled extensively. His suitcase was plastered with the labels of foreign hotels. Careless: In looking for gasoline troubles, we forgot to see whether the tank was supplied. Right: In looking for the cause of the trouble, we forgot to see whether the tank was supplied with gasoline. Note.--In giving information about books, do not confuse the title with the contents or some part of the contents. Be accurate in referring to the time, scene, action, plot, or characters. Loose thinking: Shakespeare's _Hamlet_ occurs in Denmark [The scene is laid?]. Many passages are powerful, especially the grave-digging [Is grave-digging a passage?]. The character of Horatio is a noble fellow [conception], and the same is true of Ophelia [Ophelia a fellow?]. The drama takes place over several weeks. [The action covers a period of several weeks.] Exercise: 1. The victrola brings to the home the world's musical ability. 2. The user of Dietzgen instruments is not vexed by numerous troubles that accompany the inferior makes. 3. To the picnicker rainy weather is bad weather, while the farmer raises a big crop. 4. Some diseases can be checked by preventives, and in many cases can be of great use to an army. 5. This idea of breaking all records held for eating is naturally harmful to the digestion, and these important organs may thank their stars that Christmas does not come very often. =Transitions= The state of mind of a writer is not the state of mind of his reader. The writer knows his ideas, and has spent much time with them. The reader meets these ideas for the first time, and must gather them in at a glance. The relation between two ideas may be clear to the writer, and not at all clear to the reader. Therefore, =8. In passing from one thought to another, make the connection clear. If necessary, insert a word, a phrase, or even a sentence, to carry the reader safely across.= Space transition needed: We were surprised to see a house in the distance, but we went to the door and knocked. [This sentence does not give a reader the effect of distance.] Better: We were surprised to see a house in the distance. _But we hastened toward it with thoughts of a warm meal and a good lodging. We entered the yard_, and went up to the door, and knocked. Exterior-interior transition needed: We noticed that the house was built of cobblestones. There was a broad window from which we could look out upon the small stream that dashed down the rocky hillside. Better: We noticed that the house was built of cobblestones. _We went inside, and found that the living room was large and airy._ There was a broad window from which we could look out upon the small stream that dashed down the rocky hillside. Cause transition lacking: The Romans were great road-builders. They wished to maintain their empire. Better: The Romans were great road-builders, _because means of moving troops quickly were necessary_ to the maintenance of their empire. General-to-particular transition needed: Modern machinery often makes men its slaves. Last summer I worked for the Chandler Company. [This gap in thought occurs oftenest between the first two sentences of a paragraph or theme.] Better: Modern machinery often makes men its slaves. _This truth is well illustrated by my own experience._ Last summer I worked for the Chandler Company. Transition to be improved by changing order: A careless trainer may spoil a good colt. A good horse can never be made of a vicious colt. [Here the order of ideas is: "Trainer ... colt. Horse ... colt." Turn the last sentence end for end.] Better: A careless trainer may spoil a good colt. And a vicious colt can never be made a good horse. [Now the order of ideas is "Trainer ... colt. Colt ... horse."] Transition to be improved by removal of a disturbing element: Our class in physics last week visited a pumping station in which the Corliss type of steam engine is used. _The engines are manufactured by the Allis-Chalmers Company of Milwaukee, Wisconsin._ This type of engine is used because it has several advantages. [The italicized sentence should be omitted here, and used later in the theme.] Note.--The divisions of thought within a paragraph may likewise be indicated by connectives: _however_, _on the other hand_, _equally important_, _another interesting problem is_, _for this reason_, _the remedy for this_, _so much for_, _it remains to mention_, _of course I admit_, _finally_. (For a longer list see 36.) Such phrases are also useful in linking one paragraph to another. When a student first learns the art, he is likely to use transition phrases in excess, and produce something like the following: "When I have to write a theme, I first think of my subject. As soon as I have my subject, I take out my paper. On the paper I then make a rough outline." This abuse of transition causes an overlapping of thought, like shingles laid three inches to the weather. An abrupt transition is better than wordiness. Exercise: 1. The shore looked far off. Then we reached it. 2. A light snow was falling last night. This is a good day for hunting rabbits. 3. A dollar is often a large sum. I sold newspapers when I was a boy. 4. Many English words still preserve their old meanings. There is the teller in the bank. 5. We had to walk half a mile across the pastures in the fresh morning air. Exercise indoors does not arouse much zest or enthusiasm. =9.= EXERCISE IN COMPLETENESS OF THOUGHT =A. Fragments Misused as Sentences= Rewrite the following statements in sentences each of which expresses a complete thought. 1. He gave me a flower. Which was wilted. 2. The gasoline flows through the supply tube to the carburetor. Where it should vaporize and enter the cylinders. 3. People of all ages were there. Old men, young women, and even children. 4. He told us that you had a good standing among business men. That you always met your bills promptly. 5. Excuse Everett Smith from school this morning. He having the measles. 6. The internal combustion engine may be either one of two types. The two cycle or the four cycle. 7. The young men and women acted like children. Who should have known better. 8. There was a cross cow in the pasture. Which had long horns. 9. Bacteria are microscopic organisms. Especially found where milk or some other substance decomposes. 10. We pass on down the street. The buildings rising two or three stories high on either side. 11. The Y. M. C. A. enables you to keep your religious interests alive. As well as to associate with clean young men. 12. She wasted her time on foolish clothes. While her mother took in washing. 13. He was dressed in a ridiculous fashion. Wearing, for instance, an orange necktie. 14. The point is similar to that of the ordinary steel pen, except that it is made of gold. Gold being used on account of its greater smoothness and durability. 15. Tire troubles have been made less formidable by the invention of a compact, efficient little vulcanizer. A factory for making which is now being built. =B. Incomplete Constructions= Improve the following statements. Supply missing words. Make sure that each construction and each sentence is complete. 1. When one year old, my mother died. 2. Yours received, and in reply would say your order has been filled. 3. While in there a man came in and bought a quarter's worth of soap. 4. War is largely dependent upon the engineers to design new machinery. 5. When you talk to a man look at him, not the floor or ceiling. 6. In writing a book, an author's first one is usually not very good. 7. Every summer while in high school, our family has gone to our cottage on Lake Michigan. 8. When a boy, Mary was my best friend. 9. There is, however, another reason a person should know how to swim. 10. I think more of her than anyone else. 11. Corrupt laws are often the means rich people obtain the earnings of others. 12. A hundred dollars invested in a warning signal, future accidents would be prevented. 13. Electric transmission is sometimes used on automobiles more of an experiment than anything else. 14. Was delighted to hear from you. Glad to hear you entered the wholesale business. Wish you success. 15. As a rule people eat too much. This point should be noticed, and not overwork the digestive organs. =C. Incomplete Logic= The following sentences are inadequate statements of cause, comparison, etc. Complete the thought. 1. His neck is as long as a giraffe. 2. His name was David Meek, from New Hampshire. 3. The Pacific Ocean is larger than any ocean. 4. Because he never worked led to his failure. 5. A monitor is where a heavily armored boat of light draft can go near the shore. 6. Democracy is when people, through representatives, govern themselves. 7. The story of _Huckleberry Finn_ is in reality Mark Twain himself. 8. Because a man has money is no reason why he should be lazy. 9. The character of Sydney Carton is the real hero of this novel. 10. A forester leads an interesting life is the reason I want to be one. 11. Tact is where a man anticipates the criticism of others, and acts with discretion. 12. The comfort of a modern house is much greater than the old-time house. 13. Free trade is when no revenue is collected on imports, beyond enough to run the government. 14. The cost of room, board, and tuition is low at this school, compared to the more fashionable schools. 15. The theme of this novel tells how a peasant, Jean Valjean, from a convict comes to be a respected citizen. =D. Undeveloped Thought and Transitions= Complete the thought of the following sentences, and secure a smooth transition between parts. 1. As you enter this room, to the left is an interesting painting of the Canterbury Pilgrims. 2. Poe delights in fantastic plots. A pirate's treasure chest was discovered in _The Gold Bug_. 3. I got up and ate a bite of breakfast. A few of my friends came over. We went to play golf. 4. All the loose material on the trail is carried off by the rush of the water. The last time I was on it was in early summer, and I found it in this rough condition. 5. I managed to find the softest board in the floor and went to sleep. Some of the boys found pleasure in arousing me with a shower of cold water. 6. Under guise of friendly escort the Indians accompanied the inhabitants of the fort a few miles. Only three escaped the massacre. 7. Many people say that in civil engineering it depends on the prosperity of the country; in hard times they do not build and in good times they do build. 8. Canada has more forests than minerals. Canada has made only a start in the lumber industry. The minerals are found, for the most part, in the mountain district near Lake Superior. 9. Thanksgiving day, as we are told, is a day on which our Puritan forefathers gathered round the roast turkey and gave thanks to God for his goodness. Last Thanksgiving I was at home. 10. The old method was to dig the holes by hand, and drop two or three kernels in each hole. Corn has become a staple crop. Machinery is used. The preparing of a field for corn has become a science. UNITY OF THOUGHT Unity means oneness. A sentence should contain one thought. It may contain two or more statements only when these are closely related parts of a larger thought or impression. A writer should make certain, first, that his thought has unity; and second, that this unity will be obvious to the reader. =Unrelated Ideas in One Sentence= =10. Do not combine ideas which have no obvious relation to each other. Place the ideas in separate sentences. Or, write the ideas as one sentence, making their relation obvious.= Wrong: The Spartans did not care for literature, and lived in the southern part of Greece. Wrong: The coffee business is not difficult to learn, and the most important work in preparing coffee for the market is the roasting of the green berries. The simplest method of correction is to divide the sentence. Right: The Spartans lived in the southern part of Greece. They did not care for literature. Right: The coffee business is not difficult to learn. The most important work in preparing the coffee for the market is the roasting of the green berries. Another method of correction is to subordinate one idea to the other, or to change the wording until the relation between the ideas is obvious. Right: The Spartans, who lived in the southern part of Greece, did not care for literature. Right: The coffee business is not difficult to learn, since the only important work in preparing the coffee for the market is the roasting of the green berries. Exercise: 1. Franklin is often regarded as the typical American, and wrote an interesting autobiography. 2. Coal miners wear little oil lamps in their caps, and they seldom receive very good wages. 3. My neighbor, Mr. Houghton, was always a very good friend of mine, and died last night. 4. I dropped the clock and injured the works, but the jeweler told me it would be cheaper for me to buy a new clock. 5. The next thing the camper should do is to make a bed, and the branches of the spruce are the best. =Excessive Detail= =11. Do not encumber the main idea of a sentence with superfluous details. Place some of the details in another sentence, or omit them.= Faulty: In the town in which I live there are several large churches, and about six o'clock one morning, in a violent storm, one of these churches was struck by lightning. Right: In my home town there are several large churches. One morning about six o'clock, in a violent storm, one of these churches was struck by lightning. Wrong: In 1836, in Baltimore, Poe married Virginia Clemm, his cousin, who was hardly more than a child, being then fourteen years old, while Poe himself was twenty-eight, and to her he wrote much of his best verse. Right: In 1836 Poe married Virginia Clemm. Poe was then twenty-eight, and Virginia was only fourteen. To this girl Poe wrote much of his best verse. Exercise: 1. The house with the red tile roof is the finest in the city, and is owned by Mr. Saunders, who made his money speculating in land. 2. Then the engine tilted and fell over on one side, and the boiler exploded and added to the frightful scene. 3. The deer whose antlers you see over the fireplace as you enter the room was shot by my Uncle Will, who is now in South America on a hunting expedition. 4. The seeds, which have previously been soaked in water over night, are now planted carefully, not too deep, in straight rows sixteen inches apart, the best time being in April, when the ground is soft and has been thoroughly spaded. 5. One day last week my employer, Mr. Conway, a jolly, peculiar man, raised my salary, first telling me I was about to be discharged, and laughing at me when I looked so surprised. =Stringy Sentences to be Broken up= =12. Avoid stringy compound sentences. The crude, rambling style which results from their use may be corrected by separating the material into shorter sentences, or by subordinating lesser ideas to the main thought.= Faulty: The second speaker had sat quietly waiting, and he was a man of a different type, and he began calmly, yet from the very first words he showed great earnestness. Right: The second speaker, who had sat quietly waiting, was a man of a different type. He began calmly, yet from his very first words he showed great earnestness. Faulty: There are many stops on the organ which control the tones of the different pipes and one has to learn how and when to use these and this takes time and practice. Right: On the organ are many stops which control the tones of the different pipes. To learn how and when to use these takes time and practice. Faulty: He published prose fiction, and this was then the accepted literary form, and the drama was neglected. Better: He published prose fiction, which was then the accepted literary form, the drama being neglected. [This sentence makes three statements in a diminishing series. The important idea is expressed in a main clause; a less important explanation is fitted into a relative clause; and a still less important comment takes a parenthetical phrase at the end.] Note.--One of the crying faults of the immature writer is that by excessive coördination he obscures the fine shades of meaning. When two clauses are joined, the meaning will very often be more exact if one is subordinated to the other. For a list of subordinating connectives, see 36. Exercise: 1. He went down town, and it began to rain, and so he decided to go to the city library. 2. There is an old saying which I have often heard and I believe in it to a certain extent, and it runs as follows: The more you live at your wit's end, the more the wit's end grows. 3. Our salesman, Mr. Powers, has spoken very favorably of your firm, and we feel that our relations will be most pleasant, and the report of the commercial agencies is sufficient evidence of your good financial standing. 4. There was no escaping from this churn, so one of the frogs, after a brief struggle thought that he might just as well die one time as another, and so he gave up and sank to the bottom. 5. Socrates did no writing himself, and the only information we have of him we get from the writings of his pupils and from later writers, and our most reliable knowledge comes from two of these writers, Plato and Xenophon. =Choppy Sentences to be Combined= =13. Do not use two or three short sentences to express ideas which will make a more unified impression in one sentence. Place subordinate ideas in subordinate grammatical constructions.= Excessive predication: Excavating is the first operation in street paving. The excavating is usually done by means of a steam shovel. The shovel scoops up the dirt and loads it directly into wagons. Right: Excavating, the first operation in street paving, is usually done by a steam shovel which loads the dirt directly into wagons. Monotonous: The doe is wading along the shore. She is nibbling the lily pads as she goes. Now she moves slowly around the point. She has a little spotted fawn with her. The fawn frolics along at the heels of his mother. Better: Wading along the shore, the doe nibbles the lily pads by the way, and moves slowly around the point. A spotted fawn frolics at her heels. Primer style: Rooms are marked on the floor. These rooms are about fourteen feet square. Better: The floor is marked off into rooms about fourteen feet square. Note.--An occasional short sentence is permissible, even desirable. Successive short sentences may be used to express rapid action, or emphatic assertion, or deliberate simplicity. Otherwise, avoid them. Exercise. 1. Decatur has wide streets. The streets are paved with brick, asphalt, and creosote blocks. 2. Sixteen posts are set in a row. All of these are at equal intervals. 3. The boat approaches the leeward side of the ship. This side is the side protected from the wind. 4. The _Scientific American_ reports the progress of science. It explains new inventions. It makes practical applications of scientific principles. 5. The beans are usually harvested about the middle of September. They are cut when the plants turn color at the roots and the beans turn white. They are cut by a bean-cutter which takes two rows at a time. =Excessive Coördination= In structure a sentence may be A. Simple: The rain fell. B. Compound: The rain continued and the stream rose. C. Complex: When the rain ceased, the flood came. In B, the clauses are of almost equal importance, and the first is coördinated with the second. In C, the clauses are not of equal importance, and the first is subordinated to the second. _And_ is a coördinating conjunction. _When_ is a subordinating conjunction. For a list of connectives see 36. =14. Do not use coördination when subordination will secure a more clear and emphatic unit of thought. Especially do not coördinate a main idea with an explanatory detail.= The speech of children connects all ideas, important and unimportant, with _and_. Discriminating writers place minor ideas in subordinate clauses, consign still less important ideas to participial or prepositional phrases, and omit trivial details altogether. Childish: I went down town and saw a crowd standing in the street, and wanted to know what was the matter, and so I went up and asked a man. Right: When I went down town, I saw a crowd standing in the street, and since I wanted to know what was the matter, I asked a man. [Two clauses are subordinated by the use of _when_ and _since_. This change abolishes two _ands_. The words _went up and_ are struck out. One _and_ remains, and deserves to remain, for it joins two ideas which are truly coördinate.] Main idea not emphasized: I talked with an old man and his name was Ned. Better: I talked with an old man named Ned. [A participial phrase replaces a clause. The name is now subordinated.] Main idea not emphasized: Developing is the next step in preparing the film, and it is very important. Better: Developing, the next step in preparing the film, is very important. [An appositional phrase replaces the first predicate.] Main idea not emphasized: They began their perilous journey, and they had four horses. Right [emphasizing _perilous journey_]: With four horses they began their perilous journey. [A prepositional phrase replaces a clause.] Right [emphasizing _having the horses_]: When they began their perilous journey, they had four horses. [A subordinate clause replaces a main clause.] Capable of greater unity: The frog is a stupid animal, and may be caught with a hook baited with red flannel. [Is the writer trying to tell us _how to catch frogs_, or merely that _frogs are stupid_? Coördination makes the two ideas appear equally important.] Right [emphasizing _frogs are stupid_]: The fact that the frog can be caught with a hook baited with red flannel proves his stupidity. Right [emphasizing _how to catch frogs_]: The frog, being stupid, will bite at a piece of red flannel. Exercise. 1. Men were sent to Panama and could not live in such unsanitary conditions. 2. When a letter came and it bore a familiar handwriting, I always opened it eagerly. 3. West Hickory is the name of the place where the tannery is situated, and it is a laboring man's town. 4. She wore a dress and it was silk, and cost her father a lot of money. 5. Every race horse has a care taker or groom, and this man spends all his time and makes the horse comfortable. =Faulty Subordination of the Main Thought= =15. Do not put the principal statement of a sentence in a subordinate clause or phrase.= This violation of unity is sometimes called "upside-down subordination". Faulty: I was going down the street, when I heard an explosion. [If _hearing the explosion_ is the main thought, it should be placed in the main clause.] Right: When I was going down the street, I heard an explosion. Faulty: Longstreet received orders to attack the Federal right wing, which he did immediately. Right: As soon as Longstreet received orders, he attacked the Federal right wing. Faulty: I suspected that it would rain, although I did not take an umbrella. Right: Although I suspected that it would rain, I did not take an umbrella. Exercise: 1. An old man used to work for us, who died yesterday. 2. He became angry, saying he positively refused to go. 3. He is a bright boy, although I should not want to trust him with my pocketbook. 4. He had an ambition which was to become the best lawyer in the state by the time he was forty years old. 5. The cable breaks and the elevator starts to drop, when the safety device always operates at once to prevent an accident. =Subordination Thwarted by _and_= =16. Do not attach to a main clause by means of _and_, a word, phrase, or clause which you intend shall be subordinate. The presence of _and_ thwarts subordination.= Wrong: Major went to bed, and leaving the work unfinished. Right: Major went to bed, leaving the work unfinished. Wrong: He ran home and with coat tails flying. Right: He ran home with coat tails flying. Exercise: 1. They denied my request, and giving no reason for the refusal. 2. He gave me his answer and in few words. 3. The girl stood on the edge of the cliff, and thus showing that she was not afraid. 4. A telegraph line is leased by the Associated Press, and thus giving the newspapers quick service. 5. When the summer passed, the fisherman returned home for the winter, and where he renewed his acquaintance with the villagers. =The _and which_ construction= =17. Use _and which_ (or _but which_), _and who_ (or _but who_) only between relative clauses similar in form. Between a main clause and a relative clause, _and_ or _but_ thwarts subordination.= Wrong: This is an important problem, and which we shall not find easy to solve. Right: This problem is an important problem, which we shall not find easy to solve. Right: This problem is one _which_ is important, _and which_ we cannot easily solve. Wrong: _Les Miserables_ is a novel of great interest and which everybody should read. Right: _Les Miserables_ is a novel of great interest, and one which everybody should read. Wrong: Their chief opponent was Winter, a shrewd politician, but who is now less popular than he was. Right: Their chief opponent was Winter, a shrewd politician, who is now less popular than he was. Note.--Rule 17 is sometimes briefly stated: "Do not use _and which_ unless you have already used _which_ in the sentence." This statement is generally true, but an exception must be made for sentences like the following: Right: "He told me what countries he had visited, and which ones he liked most." Exercise: 1. Just outside is a small porch looking out over the street, and which can be used for sleeping purposes. 2. She is a woman of pleasing personality, and who can converse intelligently. 3. It is a difficult task, but which can be accomplished in time. 4. He is a good-looking man, but who is very snobbish. 5. The rule made by the conference of college professors in 1896, and which has been followed ever since, applies to the case we are considering. =Unity Thwarted by Punctuation= =The Comma Splice= =18. Do not splice two independent statements by means of a comma. Write two sentences. Or, if the two statements together form a unit of thought, combine them (1) by a comma plus a conjunction, (2) by a semicolon, or (3) by reducing one of the statements to a phrase or a subordinate clause.= Wrong: The town has two railroads, it was founded when oil was discovered. Right: The town has two railroads. It was founded when oil was discovered. Wrong: The speed of the car seemed slower than it really was, this was due, no doubt, to the absence of all noise. [Here are three commas. The reader cannot quickly discover which one marks the great division of thought.] Right: The speed of the car seemed slower than it really was. This was due, no doubt, to the absence of all noise. Wrong: The winters were long and cold, nothing could live without shelter. Right: The winters were long and cold. Nothing could live without shelter. Right: The winters were long and cold, and nothing could live without shelter [For the use of the comma, see 91a]. Right: The winters were long and cold; nothing could live without shelter [For the use of the semicolon see 92]. Right: The winters were so long and cold that nothing could live without shelter. Exception.--Short coördinate clauses which are parallel in structure and leave a unified impression, may be joined by commas, even though the conjunctions be omitted. Right: All was excitement. The ducks quacked, the pigs squealed, the dogs barked. [The general idea _excitement_ gives the three clauses a certain unity.] Exercise: 1. The key is turned to the right, this unlocks the door. 2. The author keeps one guessing, there is no hint how the story will end. 3. The farmer is independent, he has no task-master. 4. There has been a change of government, in fact there has been a revolution. 5. Lamb had failed in poetry, in the drama, and in the novel, in the essay, at last, he succeeded. =19.= EXERCISE IN UNITY OF THOUGHT =A. The Comma Splice= Rewrite the following material in sentences each of which is a unit of thought. Most of the statements should be summarily cut apart. If you decide that others taken together have unity of thought, combine them (1) by a comma plus a conjunction, (2) by a semicolon, or (3) by reducing one of the statements to a phrase or a subordinate clause. 1. The canoe is long and narrow, it is made of birch bark. 2. I decided to serve tea, of course cream and sugar would be needed. 3. Some men hunt rabbits for market purposes only, they are the sportsman's enemies. 4. This city furnished many boats for the siege of Calais, when these boats returned they brought the plague with them. 5. The bottom of the box is then put in, it is nailed to the sides. 6. It is not easy to become a good musician, one must practice continually. 7. The Northern and Southern states could not be separate nations, there was no natural boundary between them. 8. The telephone is a great invention, it is very useful to the farmer. 9. Why would no one come to help me, my feet ached and I was thirsty. 10. I know a girl who has a cynical disposition, she is always criticizing. 11. I went into the office hopeless, a dime stood between me and starvation. 12. The construction of the bridge has much to do with the tone of a violin, it should be lower on the side nearest the E string. 13. A private expense account does not require much labor or time, just one hour a week will suffice to keep tract of all expenditures. 14. We offer you sixty dollars a month to start, this is all we can afford to pay at present. 15. He wanted personal success but would not shirk a duty or harm any one in any way to gain that success, at all times he forgot his own personal importance and was ready to do any task set before him. =B. One Thought in a Sentence= By dividing, subordinating, or logically combining the following statements, secure unity of thought. 1. She was born in Atlanta, Georgia, on September 30, 1902, where she has lived ever since and is now well known. 2. Franklin was kindly, shrewd, and capable, and was the representative of the United States in France. 3. She said that Mrs. Brown was ill and that she was just caring for the baby, she loved babies anyway, she said. 4. One Sunday afternoon there was an excursion to Beaver and several of us decided to go and take our lunches and return on the eight o'clock car. 5. He gave me the dimensions of the room. The dimensions were ten by twelve feet. 6. Good grades may be obtained in two ways: by honest work, and by cheating; however any one who cheats is doing himself more harm than good. 7. The wall studding is made of two-by-fours. These two-by-fours are placed sixteen inches apart. 8. The returning Crusaders brought with them oriental learning, and found the peasantry impoverished. 9. The articles in this magazine are of high quality. The articles are well written and attractively illustrated. 10. A Japanese woman going abroad at night must carry a lighted lamp and must not speak to any one, women do not have much freedom in Japan. 11. The sugar beets are irrigated by river water. They are irrigated by means of furrows. The furrows run between the rows of beets. The beets are irrigated once a week. 12. The referee asked each captain if his men were ready, after which he blew the whistle, and the game was on, and within five minutes our team scored a touchdown. 13. The ground should be harrowed as soon as possible after it is plowed. It is a good plan to harrow the ground on the same day that it is plowed, or on the day following. 14. Choose the middle of the prepared ground, which is about eighty-five by fifty feet, as your starting point, measure twenty-four feet east and west and set the net posts; then, after marking off the different courts with tape, you are ready for a good game of tennis. 15. There are two places on the island suitable for plays: one in the bungalow and the other down on the sandy point; the latter lends itself to the purpose readily, there are two trees which make a splendid support for wires on which to hang the curtain, and just east of these the ground slopes enough to make a natural amphitheater. =C. Excessive Coördination= The ideas in the following sentences are loosely strung together with coördinating conjunctions. Place the important idea in the main clause. Subordinate other ideas by reducing each to a dependent clause, or a phrase, or a word. 1. Chris has a new coat and it is double-breasted. 2. I had a dog, and his name was Scratcher. 3. He gave a laugh but it was forced. 4. The woodcock is so foolish and deliberately walks into a trap. 5. The engineers fastened rafts to the piles, and which were pulled up when the tide rose. 6. Students often sit all doubled up, and raising their feet high on the table. 7. Dunlap is carrying a palette, but without any paint on it. 8. The government has been successful in its suit, and the tobacco trust was dissolved. 9. The British troops had no protection against poisonous gas and the use of gas by the enemy was unexpected. 10. I make it a rule to study one thing at least an hour and no long rest between. 11. The concrete is spread in a layer, and this is about nine inches thick, and the width being ten feet. 12. Rockwell is our postmaster, and is accommodating, but he has a disposition to be curious. 13. At the Gatun Dam there are concrete locks, and the purpose of these is to lift vessels into the lake. 14. They say to tourists that objects are historic but which are not historic at all. 15. I was lying quietly in the hammock, and I happened to look up in the tree, and there was a green bird and eating a cherry. 16. They disputed for a time, and afterward the officer became angry, and whipped out his sword. 17. A mirage is an illusion and the traveler thinks he sees water when there really is none. =D. Upside-down Subordination= In the following sentences the important idea is buried in a subordinate clause or phrase. Rescue this main idea, express it in the main clause, and if possible subordinate the rest of the sentence to it. 1. I spoke to her on the street, when she did not answer. 2. She thanked me for my assistance, also asking me to come and visit her the following Sunday. 3. The water froze in the buckets, although they did not burst. 4. The crows cawed angrily and circling around in one place. 5. He is threatened with tuberculosis, although he will not sleep in the open air. 6. We had hacked the bark, the tree dying after a few months. 7. One of the contestants was from Wendover College, who received the prize. 8. You ask a person what a spiral staircase is, when he will go to showing you by motions of his hand. 9. It was about three o'clock, and we decided to return home, which we did. 10. The plumber came, stopping the leak as soon as he arrived. 11. Benton sold stamps, in which business he grew rich. 12. The sun's heat beats down upon the brick tenements, which is terrible. 13. The chemist tested the purity of the water, but which he found unfit to drink. 14. Montaigne wrote an essay on "Solitude," where he pointed out the disadvantages of travel. 15. The house is set close to the edge of the bluff, overlooking a wide bend of the Alleghany River. 16. Things had been going from bad to worse among the Indians, and some Sioux were entertaining a few Chippewas, and murdered them, when the government took a hand in the affair. 17. The slight knowledge of metals and wide-awake observation of an inexperienced miner discovered gold in Arizona. CLEARNESS OF THOUGHT Clearness is fundamental. The writer should be content, not when his meaning may be understood, but only when his meaning cannot be misunderstood. He may attain this entire clearness by giving attention to five matters: Reference (20-23) Coherence (24-28) Parallel Structure (30-31) Consistency (32-35) Use of Connectives (36-38) REFERENCE By the use of pronouns, participles, and other dependent words, language becomes flexible and free. But each dependent part must refer without confusion to a word which is reasonably near, and properly expressed. Ordinarily a reader expects a pronoun or a participle to refer to the nearest noun (or pronoun) or to an emphatic noun. =Divided Reference= =20. A pronoun should be placed near the word to which it refers, and separated from words to which it might falsely seem to refer. If this method does not secure clearness, discard the pronoun and change the sentence structure.= Uncertain reference of _which_: He dropped the bundle in the mud which he was carrying to his mother. [The reader for a moment refers the pronoun to the wrong noun. Bring _which_ nearer to its proper antecedent _bundle_.] Right: He dropped in the mud the bundle which he was carrying to his mother. Vague reference of _this_: My failure in mathematics was serious. My grades in English, history, and Latin were good enough. But this brought down my average. [_This?_ What _this_? Five nouns intrude between the pronoun _this_ and its proper antecedent _failure_.] Right: In English, history, and Latin I received fairly good grades. But in mathematics I received a failure. This brought down my average. Remote reference of _it_: If you want to make a good speech, take your hands out of your pockets, open your mouth wide, and throw yourself into it. Right: If you want to make a good speech, take your hands out of your pockets, open your mouth wide, and throw yourself into what you are saying. [Or, better] Take your hands out of your pockets, open your mouth wide, and throw yourself into the speech. Ambiguous reference of _he_: John spoke to the stranger, and he was very surly. Right: John spoke to the stranger, who was very surly. [Or] John spoke in a surly manner to the stranger. Note.--The reference of relative and demonstrative pronouns is largely dependent upon their position. The reference of a personal pronoun (_he_, _she_, _they_, etc.) is not so much dependent upon its position, the main consideration being that the antecedent shall be emphatic (See the next article.) Exercise: 1. He was driving an old mule attached to a cart that was blind in one eye. 2. There is a grimy streak on the wall over the radiator which can be removed only with great difficulty. 3. The feet of Chinese girls were bandaged so tightly when they were babies that they could not grow. 4. He gave me a receipt for the money which he told me to keep. 5. After the pictures have been taken and the film has been removed, they are sent to the developing room where it is developed and dried. =Weak Reference= =21. Do not allow a pronoun to refer to a word not likely to be central in the reader's thought; a word, for example, in the possessive case, or in a parenthetical expression, or in a compound, or not expressed at all. Make the pronoun refer to an emphatic word.= Wrong: When a poor woman came to Jane Addams' famous Hull House, she always gave help. [_Poor woman_ and _Hull House_ are the emphatic words, to which any pronoun used later is instinctively referred by the reader.] Right: When a poor woman came to Jane Addams' famous Hull House, she always received help. [Or] When a poor woman came to Hull House, Jane Addams always gave help. Wrong: In biology, which is the study of plants and animals we find that they are made up of unitary structures called cells. [Since the words _plants and animals_ occur only in a parenthetical clause, the reader is surprised to find them used as an antecedent.] Right: In the study of biology we find that plants and animals are made up of unitary structures called cells. Wrong: This old scissors-grinder sharpens them for the whole neighborhood. [The center of interest in the reader's mind is a man, not scissors.] Right: This old scissors-grinder sharpens scissors for the whole neighborhood. Wrong: I always liked engineers, and I have chosen that as my profession. Right: I always liked engineering, and I have chosen it as my profession. Absurd: When the baby is through drinking milk, it should be disconnected and put in boiling water. [The central idea in the reader's mind is _baby_, not _milk-bottle_. The writer may have been thinking about the _bottle_, but he did not make the word emphatic; in fact, he did not express it at all.] Right: When the baby is through drinking milk, the bottle should be taken apart and put in boiling water. Note.--Ordinarily, do not refer to the title in the first line of a theme. The reader expects you to assert something, and face forward, not to turn back to what you have said in the title. Faulty: Color Photography I am interested in this new development of science. For a long time I ... Right: Color Photography Taking pictures in color has long appealed to me as an interesting possibility ... Exercise: 1. In Shakespeare's play _Othello_ he makes Iago a fiend. 2. The noodle-cutter is a kitchen device which saves time in making this troublesome dish. 3. The life of a forester is interesting, and I intend to follow that profession. 4. He took down his great-grandfather's old sword, who had carried it at Bunker Hill. 5. I was always making experiments in science, and I naturally acquired a liking for periodicals of that nature. =Broad Reference= =22. Do not use a pronoun to refer broadly to a general idea. Supply a definite antecedent or abandon the pronoun.= Wrong: The tapper strikes the gong, which continues as long as the push button is pressed. [The writer intends that _which_ shall refer to the entire preceding clause, but the reference is intercepted by the word _gong_.] Right [supplying a definite antecedent]: The tapper strikes the gong, a process which continues as long as the push button is pressed. [Or, abandoning the pronoun] The tapper strikes the gong as long as the push button is pressed. Wrong: Read the directions which are printed on the bottle and it may save you from making a mistake. Right [supplying a definite antecedent]: Read the directions which are printed on the bottle. This precaution may save you from making a mistake. [Or, abandoning the pronoun] Reading the directions on the bottle may prevent a mistake. Wrong: The managers told him they would increase his salary if he would represent them in South America. He refused that. Right: The managers told him they would increase his salary if he would represent them in South America. He refused the offer. Exception.--It cannot be maintained that a pronoun must _always_ have one definite word for its antecedent. Many of the best English authors occasionally use a pronoun to refer to a clause. But the reference must always be clear. Note.--Impersonal constructions must be used with caution. "It is raining" is correct, although _it_ has no antecedent. We desire that the antecedent shall be vague, impersonal. But unnecessary use of the indefinite _it_, _you_, or _they_ should be avoided. Faulty: It says in our history that Columbus was an Italian. Right: Our history says that Columbus was an Italian. Not complimentary to the reader: You aren't hanged nowadays for stealing. Right: No one is hanged nowadays for stealing. Faulty: They are noted for their tact in France. Right: The French are noted for their tact. Exercise: 1. You use little slang in your paper which is commendable. 2. They had no reinforcements which caused them to lose the battle. 3. The carbon must be removed from pig iron to make pure steel, and that is done by terrific heat. 4. Our stenographer spends most of her spare time at a cheap movie theater, which is in itself an index of her character. 5. It says in the new rules that you aren't allowed in the building on Sunday. =Dangling Participle or Gerund= =23. A participle, being dependent, must refer to a noun or pronoun. The noun or pronoun should be within the sentence which contains the participle, and should be so conspicuous that the participle will be associated with it instantly and without confusion.= Wrong: Coming in on the train, the high school building is seen. [Is the building coming in? If not, who is?] Right: Coming in on the train, one sees the high school building. A sentence containing a dangling participle may be corrected (1) by giving the word to which the participle refers a conspicuous position in the sentence, or (2) by replacing the participial phrase by some other construction. Wrong: Having taken our seats, the umpire announced the batteries. Right: Having taken our seats, we heard the umpire announce the batteries. [Or] When we had taken our seats, the umpire announced the batteries. Wrong: She was for a long time sick, caused by overwork. [The participle _caused_ should not modify _sick_. A participle is used as an adjective, and should therefore modify a noun.] Right--using an adjectival modifier: She had a long sickness, {caused by} overwork. {due to } Right--using an adverbial modifier: {because of } She was for a long time sick {owing to } overwork. {on account of} =When a gerund phrase (_in passing_, _while speaking_ etc.) implies the action of a special agent, indicate what the agent is. Otherwise the phrase will be dangling.= Faulty: In talking to Mr. Brown the other day, he told me that you intend to buy a car. Better: In talking to Mr. Brown the other day, I learned that you intend to buy a car. Faulty: The address was concluded by reciting a passage from Wordsworth. Better: The speaker concluded his address by reciting a passage from Wordsworth. [Or] The address was concluded by the recitation of a passage from Wordsworth. Note.--Two other kinds of dangling modifier, treated elsewhere in this book, may be briefly mentioned here. A phrase beginning with the adjective _due_ should refer to a noun; otherwise the phrase is left dangling (See 5 Note). An elliptical sentence (one from which words are omitted) is faulty when one of the elements is left dangling (See 3). Faulty: I was late _due_ to carelessness [Use _because of_]. Ludicrous: My shoestring always breaks when hurrying to the office at eight o'clock [Say _when I am hurrying_]. Exercise: 1. Coming out of the house, a street car is seen. 2. While engaged in conversation with my host and hostess, my maid placed upon the table a steaming leg of lamb. 3. A small quantity of gold is thoroughly mixed with a few drops of turpentine, using the spatula to work it smooth. 4. After being in the oven twenty minutes, open the door. When fully baked, you are ready to put the sauce on the pudding. 5. Entering the store, a soda fountain is observed. Passing down the aisle, a candy counter comes into view. The rear of the store is bright and pleasant, caused by a skylight. COHERENCE The verb _cohere_ means to stick or hold firmly together. And the noun _coherence_ as applied to writing means a close and natural sequence of parts. Order is essential to clearness. =General Incoherence= =24. Every part of a sentence must have a clear and natural connection with the adjoining part. Like or related parts should normally be placed together.= Bring related ideas together: Little Helen stood beside the horse wearing white stockings and slippers. Right: Little Helen, in white stockings and slippers, stood beside the horse. Keep unlike ideas apart: The colors of purple and green are pleasing to the eye as found in the thistle. Right: The purple and green colors of the thistle are pleasing. Distribute unrelated modifiers, instead of bunching them: I found a heap of snow on my bed in the morning which had drifted in through the window. [Subject verb--object--place--time--explanation.] Right: In the morning I found on my bed a heap of snow which had drifted in through the window. [Time--subject verb--place--object--explanation.] Bring related modifiers together: When he has prepared his lessons, he will come, as soon as he can put on his old clothes. [Condition--main clause--condition.] Right: When he has prepared his lessons and put on his old clothes, he will come. [Condition and condition--main clause.] Exercise: 1. He was gazing at the landscape which he had painted with a smiling face. 2. She turned the steak with a fork which she was cooking for dinner every few minutes. 3. Dickens puts the various experiences he had in the form of a novel when he was a boy. 4. If the roads are made of dirt, the farmer has to wait, if the weather is rainy, till they dry. 5. We received practically very little or none at all experience in writing themes. =Logical Sequence= =25. Place first in the sentence the idea which naturally comes first in thought or in the order of time.= Faulty: We went to the station from the house after bidding all goodby. Right: We said goodby to all, and went from the house to the station. =Do not begin one idea, abandon it for a second, and then return to the first. Complete one idea at a time.= Faulty: She looked up as he approached and smoothed her hair. [The writer begins a main clause, changes to a subordinate clause, and then attempts to add more to the main clause. Unfortunately the last two verbs appear to be coördinate.] Right: She looked up and smoothed her hair as he approached. [Or] As he approached she looked up, and smoothed her hair. =Ordinarily, let a second thought begin where the first leaves off.= Faulty: An orange grove requires plenty of water. The young trees will die if they do not have plenty of water. [The order of ideas is: "Grove ... water. Trees ... water." Reverse the order of the second sentence.] Right: An orange grove requires plenty of water. For without water the young trees will die. [Now the order of ideas is: "Grove ... water. Water ... trees."] Exercise: 1. I boarded the train, after buying a ticket. 2. I dropped my pen when the whistle blew and sighed. 3. Unless the bank clerk has ability he will never be successful unless he works faithfully and hard. 4. I remember the days when Rover was a pup. Now he is not half so interesting as he was then. 5. A chessboard is divided into sixty-four squares, and there is plenty of room between the opposing armies for a terrific battle, since each army occupies only sixteen squares. =Squinting Modifier= =26. Avoid the squinting construction. That is, do not place between two parts of a sentence a modifier that may attach itself to either. Place the modifier where it cannot be misunderstood.= Confusing: I told him when the time came I would do it. [_When the time came_ is said to "squint" because the reader cannot tell whether it looks forward to the end of the sentence, or backward to the beginning.] Right: When the time came, I told him I would do it. [Or] I told him I would do it when the time came. Confusing: Some friends I knew would enjoy the play. [_I knew_ squints.] Right: Some friends would enjoy the play, I knew. Confusing: The orator whom every one was calling for enthusiastically hurried to the platform. [_Enthusiastically_ squints.] Clear: The orator whom every one was enthusiastically calling for hurried to the platform. Exercise: 1. The man who laughs half the time does not understand the joke. 2. Playing football in many ways improves the mind. 3. When she reached home much to her disgust the door was locked. 4. When the lightning struck for the first time in my life I was afraid. 5. The landlord wrote that he would if the rent were not paid in thirty days eject the tenant. =Misplaced Word= =27. Such an adverb as _only_, _ever_, _almost_, should be placed near the word it modifies, and separated from words which it might falsely seem to modify. Such a conjunction as _nevertheless_, if required with a clause, should usually be placed near the beginning.= Illogical: I only need a few dollars. Right: I need only a few dollars. Illogical: I don't ever intend to go there again. Right: I don't intend ever to go there again. [Or] I intend never to go there again. Illogical: She has the sweetest voice I nearly ever heard. Right: She has nearly [or _almost_] the sweetest voice I ever heard. Tardy use of conjunction: I intend to try. I do not expect to accomplish much, however. Right: I intend to try. I do not, however, expect to accomplish much. Exercise: 1. Students are only admitted to one lecture. 2. This is the smallest book I almost ever saw. 3. He is so poor he hasn't any food, scarcely. 4. She had one dress that she never expected to wear. 5. The difficulties were tremendous. He said that he would do his best, nevertheless. =Split Construction= =28. Elements that have a close grammatical connection should not be separated awkwardly or carelessly. These elements are: (a) subject and verb, or verb and object; (b) the parts of a compound verb; and (c) the parts of an infinitive.= Awkward: One in the struggle for efficiency should not become a machine. Better: In the struggle for efficiency one should not become a machine. Awkward: What use of an education could a girl who married a penniless rogue and afterwards knew nothing but hard labor, make? Better: What use of an education could a girl make who married a penniless rogue and afterward knew nothing but hard labor? Crude: He was unable to even so much as stir a foot. Better: He was unable even to stir a foot. Note.--It is often desirable to separate the forms enumerated under (a) and (b) above, either for emphasis (See 40) or to avoid a bunching of modifiers at the end of a sentence (See 24). The whole point of rule 28 is not to depart from a natural order needlessly. Exercise: 1. One thing the beginner must remember is to not get excited. 2. Ralph, when he heard the news, came flying out of the house. 3. The president called together, for the need was urgent, his cabinet. 4. Bryce said that it is more patriotic to judiciously vote than to frantically wave the American flag. 5. About the time Florence Nightingale had to give up her plans, a war between Turkey, England, and France on one side and Russia on the other, broke out. =29.= EXERCISE IN CLEARNESS OF THOUGHT =A. Reference of Pronouns= In the following sentences make the reference of pronouns exact and unmistakable. 1. Brown wrote to Roberts that he had made a mistake. 2. We heard a voice through the door which told us to enter. 3. There is a walk leading from the street to the house which is made of thin slabs of stone. 4. A milking stool was beside the cow on which he was accustomed to sit. 5. Should a community, such as a small village, spend the money they do on roads? 6. This magazine prints many special articles on politics and social reforms that are always instructive. 7. I wish I could do something for the protection of birds in our country which is neglected. 8. After a man has failed in one business, it is no sign he will fail in every other. 9. Sometimes cane syrup is mixed with the maple syrup, which reduces the value of the product. 10. It means hard and diligent work to study Latin, but it strengthens our brain or at least it gives it good exercise. 11. In the class room the students become acquainted, which may develop into lifelong friendships. 12. He was delighted with a ride on horseback, which animal he had been familiar with in his childhood on the farm. 13. It says in our history that the battle of New Orleans was fought after the treaty of peace had been signed. 14. Sparks flew about in the air, and it reminded me of a huge Fourth of July celebration. 15. The doctor gave me medicine to stop the dull pain in my head. This made me feel much better. =B. Dangling Modifiers= Remembering that a participle is used as an adjective and must therefore refer to a noun or pronoun, correct the following sentences. Gerund phrases and a few elliptical sentences are included in the list. 1. Having planned the basement, the next thing considered was the first floor. 2. Glancing around the room, the ugly wall paper at once confronted me. 3. After ringing the bell, and waiting a few moments, a maid came to the door. 4. When selecting a site for an orchard, it should be well drained. 5. Not being a skilled dancer, my feet moved awkwardly. 6. Having no watch, the clock must be consulted. 7. He was sick, caused by eating too much dessert. 8. Radium is very difficult to get, making it the most valuable metal. 9. One man goes home and beats his wife, resulting in internal injuries. 10. Over the paper and kindling a few small chunks of coal are scattered, taking care not to choke the draft. 11. In speaking of character, it does not mean to be a governor or a general. 12. This town draws trade for a radius of twenty miles, thus accounting for the large volume of business. 13. While talking to Ralph yesterday, he spoke about his recent success in the hardware business. 14. The bus holds fifteen people, and when full, the bus man shuts the door. 15. If bright and pleasant, the rabbit will be found sitting at the entrance of his burrow. =C. Coherence= Secure a clear, smooth, natural order for the following sentences. 1. I have a lot for sale near the city limits. 2. Many men can only speak their native tongue. 3. I saw yesterday, crossing the street, a beautiful woman. 4. They entered the room, and sitting on the floor they saw a baby. 5. I put down my book when the clock struck and yawned. 6. She dropped the money on the sidewalk which she was carrying home. 7. The horse did not notice that the gate was open for several minutes. 8. It was worth the trouble. I do not wish to have the experience again, however. 9. My first trip away from home, of any distance, was made on a steamboat from St. Louis to New Orleans. 10. He gazed at a young man who was waving his hands violently, called a cheer leader. 11. Any soil will grow some variety of strawberry, except sand and clay. 12. I turned triumphantly to Will, who was still gazing at the place where the muskrat sank with a beaming face. 13. Only the interest, the principal being kept intact, is spent. 14. A student should see that external conditions are favorable for study, such as light, temperature, and clothing. 15. Draw a heavy line using a ruler to connect New York and San Francisco across the map. PARALLEL STRUCTURE When the structure of a sentence is simple and uniform, the important words strike the eye at once. Compare the following: Parallel: Beggars must not be choosers. Confusing: Beggars must not be the one who choose. A reader gives attention partly to the structure of a sentence, and partly to the thought. The less we puzzle him with our structure, the more we shall impress him with our thought. Parallel: Seeing is believing. [Attention goes to the thought.] Confusing: Seeing is to believe. [Attention is diverted to _structure_.] The reader's expectation is that uniform structure shall accompany uniform ideas, and that a departure from uniformity shall indicate a change of thought. =Parallel Structure for Parallel Thoughts= =30. Give parallel structure to those parts of a sentence which are parallel in thought. Do not needlessly interchange an infinitive with a participle, a phrase with a clause, a single word with a phrase or clause, a main clause with a dependent clause, one voice or mode of the verb with another, etc.= Faulty: Riding is sometimes better exercise than to walk. Right: Riding is sometimes better exercise than walking. [Or] To ride is sometimes better exercise than to walk. Faulty: He had two desires, of which the first was for money; in the second place, he wanted fame. Right: He had two desires, of which the first was for money and the second for fame. [Or] He had two desires: in the first place, he wanted money; in the second, fame. Faulty: His rival handled cigars of better quality and having a higher selling price. Right: His rival handled cigars of better quality and higher price. Faulty: When you have mastered the operation of shifting gears, and after a little practice you will be a good driver. Right: When you have mastered the operation of shifting gears, and had a little practice, you will be a good driver. [Or] After you master the gears and have a little practice, you will be a good driver. Faulty. These are the duties of the president of a literary society: (a) To preside at regular meetings, (b) He calls special meetings, (c) Appointment of committees. Right: These are the duties of the president of a literary society: (a) To preside at regular meetings, (b) To call special meetings, (c) To appoint committees. Faulty: She was actively connected with the club, church, and with several organized charities. [Here parallelism is obscured by the omission from the second phrase of both the preposition and the article.] Right: She was actively connected with the club, with the church, and with several organized charities. Faulty: He was red-faced, awkward, and had a disposition to eat everything on the table. [The third element is like the others in thought, and should have similar form.] Right: He had a red face, an awkward manner, and a disposition to eat everything on the table. [Or] He was red-faced, awkward, and voracious. Note.--Avoid misleading parallelism. For ideas _different_ in kind, do _not_ use parallel structure. Wrong: He was hot, puffing, and evidently had run very hard. [The third element is unlike the others in thought; hence the _and_ is misleading.] Right: He was hot and puffing; evidently he had run very hard. Confusing: He was admired for his knowledge of science, and for his taste for art, and for this I too honor him. [The last _for_ gives a false parallelism to unlike thoughts.] Better: He was admired for his scientific knowledge and for his artistic taste. I honor him for both these qualities. Exercise: 1. The duties of the secretary are to answer correspondence, and keeping the minutes of the meetings. 2. This process is the most difficult; it costs the most; and is most important. 3. I make it a rule to be orderly, spend no money foolishly, and keep still when I have nothing to say. 4. The cotton is put up in bales about five feet in length and three feet wide and four thick, and one of them weighing about five hundred pounds. 5. Considerations of economy that one should bear in mind when planning a house are: first, a rectangular ground-plan; second, a one-chimney plan; third, to have only one stairway; fourth, eliminate as many doors as possible; fifth, the bathroom should be above the kitchen so as to reduce the cost of plumbing; and lastly, the rooms should be few and large rather than small and many of them. =Correlatives= Conjunctions that are used in pairs are called correlatives; for example, _not only_ ... _but also_ ..., _both_ ... _and_ ..., _either_ ... _or_ ..., _neither_ ... _nor_ ..., _not_ ... _or_ ..., _whether_ ... _or_ .... =31. Correlatives should usually be followed by elements parallel in form; if a predicate follows one, a predicate should follow the other; if a prepositional phrase follows one, a prepositional phrase should follow the other; and so on.= Faulty: He was not only courteous to rich customers but also to poor ones. [Here the phrases intended to be balanced against each other are _to rich customer's_ and _to poor ones_. As the sentence stands, it is the word _courteous_ that is balanced against _to poor ones_.] Right: He was courteous not only to rich customers but also to poor ones. Faulty: She could neither make up her mind to go nor could she decide to stay. Right: She could neither make up her mind to go nor decide to stay. [Or] She could not make up her mind either to go or to stay. Faulty: I talked both with Brown and Miller. [Here one conjunction is followed by a preposition and the other by a noun.] Right: I talked with both Brown and Miller. [Or] I talked both with Brown and with Miller. Exercise: 1. He was courteous to both friends and his enemies. 2. Such conduct is not only dangerous to society but becomes a national disgrace as well. 3. She had neither affectation of manners nor was she sharp-tongued. 4. After reading Thoreau's _Walden_ I appreciate not only the style but also I am inclined to believe in his ideas. 5. The good that the delegates derive from the convention not only helps them, but they tell others what happened. CONSISTENCY =Shift in Subject or Voice= =32. Do not needlessly shift the subject, voice, or mode in the middle of a sentence. Keep one point of view, until there is a reason for changing.= Faulty: In the stream which the road led over, fish were plentiful. [Here the first mental picture is of a stream. Then the thought is jerked away to the road above. Then it returns to the fish in the stream.] Right: In the stream which flowed under the roadway, fish were plentiful. Faulty: Mark Twain was born in the West, but the East was his home in later years. [The change of subject is uncalled for.] Right: Mark Twain was born in the West, but lived in the East in his later years. [Or] The West was the birthplace of Mark Twain, and the East was his home in his later years. Faulty: A careful driver can go fifteen miles on a gallon of gasoline, and at the same time very little lubricating oil is used. [The shift from active to passive voice is awkward and confusing.] Right: A careful driver can go fifteen miles on a gallon of gasoline, and at the same time use very little lubricating oil. Faulty: When a problem in chemistry is given, or when we wish to calculate certain formulas, we find that a knowledge of mathematics is indispensable. Right: When a problem in chemistry is given, or when certain formulas are to be calculated, a knowledge of mathematics is indispensable. [Or] When we face a problem in chemistry, or wish to calculate certain formulas, we find that a knowledge of mathematics is indispensable. Faulty: Next the ground should be harrowed. Then you sow the wheat. [The subject changes from _ground_ to _you_. One verb explains what _should_ be done, the other what somebody _does_.] {is } Right: Next the ground { } harrowed. Then it {should be} {is } { } sown to wheat. [Or] Next you should harrow {should be} the ground. Then you should sow the wheat. Exercise: 1. One end of a camera carries the film, and the lens and shutter are in the other end. 2. When an athlete is in training, good healthful food should be eaten. 3. An engineer's time is not devoted to one branch of science, but should include many. 4. By having only five men in charge of our city government, they would have more power, and we could then fix responsibility. 5. There are two main classes of cake, sponge and butter. We are taught to make both in cooking school. I like the sponge cake. The butter cake is preferred by most persons. =Shift in Number, Person, or Tense= =33. Avoid an inconsistent change in number, person, or tense.= Faulty change in number: One should save their money. Right: People should save their money. [Or] A man should save his money. Faulty change in person: Place the seeds in water, and in a few days a person can see that they have started to grow. Right: Place the seeds in water, and in a few days you will see that they have started to grow. Faulty change in number: Take your umbrella with you. They will be needed today. Right: Take your umbrella with you. You will need it today. Faulty change in tense: Freedom means that a man may conduct his affairs as he pleases so long as he did not injure anybody else. Right: Freedom means that a man may conduct his affairs as he pleases so long as he does not injure anybody else. Faulty change in tense: When he heard the news, he hurries down town and buys a paper. Right: When he heard the news, he hurried down town and bought a paper. Note.--A change of tense within a sentence is desirable and necessary in certain instances, for which see 55. Sometimes, for the sake of vividness, past events are described in the present tense, as if they were taking place before our eyes. This usage is called the _historical present_. A shift to the historical present should not be made abruptly, or frequently, or for any subject except an important crisis. Exercise: 1. A person should be careful of their conduct. 2. Sentences should be so formed that the reader feels it to be a unit. 3. One should make the best of their surroundings and their possessions, provided they cannot better them. 4. When he sees me coming, he looked the other way. 5. Silas Marner lost many of his habits of solitude, and goes out among his neighbors. =Mixed Constructions= =34. Do not make a compromise between two constructions.= Faulty: I cannot help but go. Right: I cannot help going. [Or] I cannot but go. [Or] I can but go. Faulty: They are as following: Right: They are as follows: [Or] They are the following: Faulty: He tried, but of no avail. Right: He tried, but to no avail. [Or] He tried, but his effort was of no avail. Faulty: There is no honor to be on this committee. Right: It is no honor to be on this committee. [Or] There is no honor in being on this committee. Faulty: Sparks from the chimney caught the house on fire. Right: Sparks from the chimney set the house on fire. [Or] The house caught fire from the sparks from the chimney. Note.--The double negative and kindred expressions (_not hardly_, _not scarcely_, etc.) are an especially gross form of mixed construction. Wrong: He isn't no better now than he was then. [Logically, not no better means _better_. The two negatives cancel each other and leave an affirmative.] Right: He isn't any better now than he was then. [Or] He is no better now than he was then. Wrong: She couldn't see her friend nowhere. Right: She couldn't see her friend anywhere. [Or] She could see her friend nowhere. Wrong: We couldn't hardly see through the mist. Right: We could hardly see through the mist. [Or] We couldn't see well through the mist. Exercise: 1. He doesn't come here no more. 2. I cannot help but make this error. 3. I remember scarcely nothing of the occurrence. 4. I would not remain there only a few days. 5. John would not do this under no circumstances. =Mixed Imagery= =35. Avoid phrases which may call up conflicting mental images. When using metaphor, simile, etc., carry one figure of speech through, instead of shifting to another, or dropping suddenly back into literal speech.= Crude: The Republicans have gained a foothold in the heart of the cotton belt. Right: The Republicans have gained a foothold in the South. Crude: He traveled a rough road and climbed with his burden the ladder of success, where he is a glowing example and guide to other men. [The suggestion which a reader with a sense of humor may get is, that a man starts out as a traveler, suddenly becomes a hod-carrier, and is then transformed into a bonfire or a lighthouse.] Right: He traveled a rough road, but found success. Other men followed in his steps. Incongruous: Spring came scattering flowers, and there was rain a great per cent of the time. [This sentence mingles the language of poetry with the language of science. It should be fanciful, or else literal, throughout.] Right: Spring came scattering flowers and rain. [Or] Spring came with much rain and many flowers. Inconsistent use of irony: The phonograph was shrieking, "Waltz me around again, Willie." I am sure I love that beautiful song. The taste of the people who attend these cheap theaters is deplorable. [The three sentences should be ironical throughout, or not ironical at all.] Exercise: 1. We should meet the future from the optimistic point of view. 2. General Wolfe put every ounce of his life into the capture of Quebec. 3. A key-note of sincerity should be the mainspring of a well-built speech. 4. He went drifting down the sands of time on flowery beds of ease. 5. The blank in my mind crystallized into action. USE OF CONNECTIVES =The Exact Connective= =36. Use a connective which expresses the exact relation between two clauses. Distinguish between time and cause, concession and condition, etc. Do not overwork _and_, _so_, or _while_.= Misleading: _While_ he is sick, he is able to walk. [Use _though_.] Misleading: Miss Brown sang, _while_ her sister spoke a piece. [Use _but_.] Faulty. Work hard _when_ you want to succeed. [Use _if_.] Faulty: They will be sorry _without_ they do this. [Use _unless_.] Faulty: Little poetry is read, _only_ at times when it is compulsory. [Use _except_.] Faulty. The early morning and evening are the best times to find ducks, _and_ we did not see many flying. [Use _and for that reason_.] Faulty: Corbin says: "In America sportsmanship is almost a passion," _and_ in England "the player very seldom forgets that he is a man first and an athlete afterward." [Use _whereas_.] Note.--_So_ is an elastic word that covers a multitude of vague meanings. Language has need of such a word, and in many instances (especially when the relation between clauses is obvious and does not need to be pointed out) _so_ serves well enough. Use it, but not as a substitute for more exact connectives. Beware of falling into the "_so_-habit." Abuse of _so_ as a vague coördinating connective: So I went to call on Mrs. Woods, and so she told me about Mrs. White's new gown; so then I missed the car, and so of course our supper is late. [Strike out every _so_.] Abuse of _so_ as a subordinating connective: You may go, _so_ you keep still. [Use _provided_.] _So_ you do only that, I shall be satisfied. [Use _though_.] Permissible: I was excited, so I missed the target. _So_ may sometimes be used to express result. But when a clause of result is important and needs emphasis, it is perhaps better to strike out _so_ and subordinate the preceding clause. Right: In my excitement I missed the target. Right: Because I was excited, I missed the target. Right: Being excited, I missed the target. =List of Connectives= =A. With Coördinate Clauses, expressing= =1. Addition:= and, besides, furthermore, again, in addition, in like manner, likewise, moreover, then too, and finally. =2. Contrast:= but, and yet, however, in spite of, in contrast to this, nevertheless, notwithstanding, nor, on the contrary, for all that, rather still, but unhappily, yet unfortunately, whereas. =3. Alternative:= or, nor, else, otherwise, neither, nor, or on the other hand. =4. Consequence:= therefore, hence, consequently, accordingly, in this way, it follows that, the consequence is, and under such circumstances, wherefore, thus, as a result, as a consequence. =5. Explanation:= for example, for instance, in particular, more specifically, for, because. =6. Repetition for emphasis:= in other words, that is to say, and assuredly, certainly, in fact, and in truth, indeed it is certain, undoubtedly, for example, in the same way, as I have said. =B. With Subordinate Adverb Clauses, expressing= =1. Time:= when, then, before, while, after, until at last, as long as, now that, upon which, until, whenever, whereupon, meanwhile. =2. Place:= where, whence, whither, wherever. =3. Degree or Comparison:= as, more than, rather than, than, to the degree in which. =4. Manner:= as, as if, as though. =5. Cause:= because, for, as, inasmuch as, since, owing to the fact that, seeing that, in that. =6. Purpose:= that, so that, in order that, lest. =7. Result:= that is, so that, but that. =8. Condition:= if, provided that, in case that, on condition that, supposing that, unless. =9. Concession:= though, although, assuming that, admitting that, granting that, even if, no matter how, notwithstanding, of course. =C. With Adjective Clauses.= Adjective or relative clauses are introduced by who, which, that, or an equivalent compound. Exercise: Insert within the parentheses all the connectives that might conceivably be used, and underscore the one which you consider to be most exact: 1. He is not a broad-minded man; ( ) he has many prejudices. 2. A number of friends came in, bringing refreshments, ( ) we spent a delightful evening. 3. We ought to return now, for it is growing dark; ( ) I told Mary we would be home at six o'clock. 4. I do not believe that climate is responsible for many of the differences between races, ( ) Taine says that it is. 5. She took the letter from me and read it slowly, ( ) her eyes filled with tears. =Repetition of Connective with a Gain in Clearness= =37. Connectives that accompany a parallel series should be repeated when clearness requires.= Preposition to be repeated: He was regarded as a hero by all who had known him at school, and especially his old school mates. Right: He was regarded as a hero _by_ all who had known him at school, and especially _by_ his old school mates. Sign of the infinitive to be repeated: He wishes to join with those who love freedom and justice, and end needless suffering. Right: He wishes _to_ join with those who love freedom and justice, and _to_ end needless suffering. Conjunction to be repeated: Since he was known to have succeeded in earlier enterprises, though confronted by difficulties that would have taxed the ability of older men, and his powers were now acknowledged to be mature, he was put in charge of the undertaking. Right: _Since_ he was known to have succeeded in earlier enterprises, though confronted by difficulties that would have taxed the ability of older men, and _since_ his powers were now acknowledged to be mature, he was put in charge of the undertaking. Conjunction to be repeated: He explained that the strikers asked only a fair hearing, since their contentions were misunderstood; were by no means in favor of the violent measures to which the public had grown accustomed; and had no desire to resort to bloodshed and the destruction of property. Right: He explained _that_ the strikers asked only a fair hearing, since their contentions were misunderstood; _that_ they were by no means in favor of the violent measures to which the public had grown accustomed; and _that_ they had no desire to resort to bloodshed and the destruction of property. Exercise: 1. The place is often visited by fishermen who catch some strange varieties of fish and especially summer tourists. 2. The worth of a man depends upon his character, not his possessions. 3. He was delighted with that part of the city which overlooked the harbor and bay, and especially the citadel on the highest point. 4. Although he was so youthful in appearance that the recruiting officer must have known he was under twenty-one, and had not yet become a fully naturalized citizen, his effort to enlist met with immediate success. 5. In the course of his speech he said that he was a foreigner, he came to this country when he was fourteen years old, landing in New York with his only possessions tied in a handkerchief, went to work in an iron foundry, and after many years of toil he found himself at the head of a great industry. =Repetition of Connective with a Loss in Clearness= =38. Do not complicate thought by persistent repetition of elements beginning with _that_, _which_, _of_, _for_, or _but_, and NOT parallel in structure.= Complicated repetition of _that_: He gave a quarter to the boy that brought the paper that printed the news that the war was ended. [_That_, _which_, and _who_ are often used carelessly to form a chain of subordinate clauses. Three successive subordinations are all that a reader can possibly keep straight; ordinarily a writer should not exceed two. But in parallel structure (See 30 and 37) the number of _that_, _which_, or _who_ clauses does not matter; a writer may fill a page with them and not confuse the reader at all.] Right: He gave the boy a quarter for bringing him the paper with the news that the war was ended. Complicated repetition of _of_: The East Side Civics Club is an organization of helpers of the helpless of the lower classes of the city. Right: The East Side Civics Club is organized to help the helpless poor of the city. Complicated repetition of _for_: The general was dismayed, for he had not expected resistance, for he had thought the power of the enemy was shattered. Right: The general was dismayed; he had not expected resistance, for he had thought the power of the enemy was shattered. Complicated repetition of _but_: He was undoubtedly a brave man, but now he was somewhat alarmed, but he would not turn back. Right: He was undoubtedly a brave man; though now somewhat alarmed, he would not turn back. [Or] He was undoubtedly a brave man. He was now somewhat alarmed, but he would not turn back. Note.--Guard against the _but_-habit. Frequent recurrence of _but_ makes the reader's thought "tack" or change its course too often. There are ways to avoid an excessive use of _but_ and _however_. When one wishes to write about two things, A and B, which are opposed, he need not rush back and forth from one idea to the other. Let him first say all he wants to say about A. Then let him deliberately use the adversative _but_, and proceed to the discussion of B. In the following paragraph on "Whipping Children" the writer tries to be on both sides of the fence at once. Confusing: It is easier to punish a child for a misdeed, than to explain and argue. _But_ the gentler method is better. _Yet_ we all admit that the birch must be used sometimes. _However_, if it is used only for serious trangressions, the child will have a sense of proportion regarding what offenses are grave. _But_ for ordinary small misdemeanors I think we need a new motto: Spoil the rod and spare the child. Right: It is easier to punish a child for a misdeed than to explain and argue. And of course we all admit that the birch must be used sometimes. _But_ if it is used only for serious transgressions, the child will have a sense of proportion regarding what offenses are grave. For ordinary small misdemeanors I think we need a new motto: Spoil the rod and spare the child. Exercise: 1. He did not agree at first, but hesitated for a time, but finally said that he would go along. 2. Push down on the foot lever, which closes a switch which starts an electric motor which turns the flywheel so that the gasoline engine starts. 3. Apple dumplings are good, but they must be properly baked, but fortunately this is not difficult to do. 4. The work of the course consists partly of the study of the principles of grammar and of rhetoric, partly of the writing of themes, partly of oral composition, and partly of the reading and study of models of English prose. 5. The landscape which lay before me was one which was different from any which I had ever seen before. There was one thing which impressed me, and that was the miles and miles of grass which stretched and undulated away from the hill on which I stood. =39.= EXERCISE IN CLEARNESS OF THOUGHT =A. Parallel Structure= Give parallel structure to elements which are parallel in thought. 1. Baskets are of practical value as well as being used for ornaments. 2. The Book of Job ought to be interesting to a student, or for anybody. 3. The important considerations are whether the soil is sandy, and if it is well drained, and that it shall be easily cultivated. 4. A flower garden is a source of profit--profit not measured in money but in pleasure. 5. He was successful in business, and also attained success in the political world. 6. Whether his object was writing for pastime, or to please a friend, or money, we do not know. 7. Always praise your enemy, because if you whip him your glory is increased, and if he whips you it lets you down easy. 8. Either the ship will sink in the rough sea or go to pieces on the shore. 9. An athlete must possess strength, nerve, and be able to think quickly. 10. We were interested in buying some dry-goods, and at the same time see the sights of the great city. 11. Some people talk foolishness, and others on serious subjects, and some keep still. 12. Not only she noticed my condition, but commented on it. 13. He abides by neither the laws of God nor man. He spoke both to Harry and Tom. 14. It is good for the health of one's mind to get new ideas every day, and expressing them clearly in writing. 15. Everyone who is capable of understanding the tax laws should know them and how they are abused. 16. I began by making applications at federal, state, and city employment bureaus for a position as cost accountant, salesman, or clerical work. 17. The damage to the trunk was caused by rough handling and not from faults in construction. 18. Pope, Swift, Addison, and Defoe were four satirists, but differing greatly in their work. 19. The occupants of these buildings are engaged in various kinds of business, namely: shoe-shining, shoe repair shops, cleaning and pressing clothes, confectionery stores, and restaurants. 20. I sing of geese: of the Biblical goose, that blew his bugle from the roof of Noah's Ark; the classical goose that picked his livelihood along the shores of the Ægean; of the historical goose, that squawked to save old Rome; the mercenary goose, laying the golden egg; and, finally, of the roast goose. =B. Shift in Subject or Voice= Rewrite the following sentences, avoiding all unnecessary shift in construction. 1. After you decide on the plan of the house, your attention is turned to the materials of construction. 2. Editors are careful to use words that are exact, yet simple, and the use of technical terms is not generally considered to be good. 3. Bank accounts should be balanced once a month in order that you may know your exact standing. 4. We should have our athletic contest between the weakest students, and in that way they will become physically strong. 5. When one is making a long-distance run, several cautions should be borne in mind by him. 6. In melody the poem is good, but the author's ideas are eccentric. 7. Lincoln's sentences are plain, blunt, and to the point. He lacks the ornate eloquence of Jefferson. 8. The operator places a large shovelful of concrete in the mold, and the mixture is made solid by tamping. 9. He might become angry, but it was over in a few minutes. 10. The pauper chanced to gain entrance to the royal palace, and while there the young prince is met by him. 11. When the weather is hot, plowing is accomplished very slowly with horses, while on the tractor the heat has no effect. 12. First, one should mix one-half cup of corn syrup and one cup of brown sugar; then one cup of cream and the flavoring are added. 13. In the college situated in a small town there are dormitories for the student, but in the cities they usually room where they please. 14. An education should enable us to tell the valuable from the cheap book, and by it we should be able to tell the true from the counterfeit man. 15. Moisten the sand thoroughly and set the box in a warm place, and in about a week's time it can readily be seen by the way the grains have sprouted which ears of seed corn have greatest vitality. =C. Shift in Number, Person, or Tense= Rewrite the following sentences, removing all inconsistency in grammatical form. 1. Every one has a right to their own opinion. 2. Bryant rushed to the window and shouts at the postman. 3. The life of the honey bee has been studied, and their activities found to be remarkable. 4. He says to me, "Are you ready?" And I answered, "No." 5. When a person keeps a store, you should remember the names and faces of your customers. 6. An automobile is expensive, and they are liable to become an elephant on your hands. 7. If one studies the market, he would find that prices rise every year. 8. If one went to Europe, he will find everything different. 9. Since these tires were different in construction, the method of repairing will vary. 10. Contentment is a state of mind in which one is satisfied with themselves and their surroundings. 11. It is easy to catch 'possums if you can find the rascal. 12. The writer of a theme should not waste time on a long introduction, and get to the facts of your subject as quickly as possible. 13. Shakespeare's comedies are great fun. I prefer it to tragedy. 14. Often a man will knock at the door, and finds no one at home. 15. Too much attention will spoil a child. They should not be entertained every minute. =D. The Exact Connective= Each of the following sentences contains an idea which is, or may be, subordinate to another idea. (1) Decide what kind of subordinate relation should exist between the ideas. (2) Determine what connective best expresses this relation. (Consult 36 for a list of connectives.) (3) Write the sentence as it should be. 1. Wealth is a good thing, while honest wealth is better. 2. Spend an hour in the open air every day when you want to keep your health. 3. The rattlesnake gives warning and it is only afterward that he strikes. 4. South Americans are our national neighbors, and we as a nation should understand them. 5. The city man knows nothing about a cow, only that it has horns. 6. He got up early in order that he might be able to see the sunrise. 7. The tenderfoot saw the funnel-shaped cloud when he made for a cyclone cellar. 8. Men fear what they do not understand, and a coward is one who is ignorant. 9. Hinting did not influence her; then he tried scolding. 10. The valet spilled the wine, and the duke started up with an oath. 11. While he writhed on the ground, he was not really hurt. 12. He will not cash the check without you indorse it. 13. We want this work done by the first of April, so please send an estimate soon. 14. He had traveled everywhere, and he had a vivid recollection of only three scenes: Niagara Falls, the Jungfrau, and Lake Como. 15. I never hear him talk but he makes me angry. 16. Animals have some of the same feelings as human beings have. 17. It was four o'clock and we decided to return and be home for supper. =E. Repetition of Connectives= In the following sentences determine whether repetition is desirable or undesirable, and change the sentences accordingly. 1. With the coming of meal time, the potatoes are removed from the fire with a fork with a long handle. 2. His clothes were brushed and neat, but patched and repatched. But still he could be bright and cheery. 3. To no other magazine do I look forward to the arrival of its new issue, more than I do to the _World's Work_. 4. At the time the book was written, I believe Forster was considered to be almost the best biographer living at that time. 5. The freshman has no spirit until the sophomores have provoked him until he resists until he finds that he has spirit. 6. Some socialists are against the present system of initiative, referendum, and recall, but advocate a system much like it but applied in a different way. 7. The gun with which the Germans bombarded Paris with had a range of seventy-five miles. 8. Basketball is a game that I have played for years, and I am greatly interested in. 9. This is the lever which throws the switch which directs the train that takes the track that goes to Boston. 10. Short talks were made by the captain, the coach, and by the faculty. 11. At this school one can study to be a doctor, dentist, farmer, a lawyer, or an engineer. 12. I like to cross the harbor on the ferry, to dodge in and out among the ships, see the gulls dart among the waves, smell the sharp tang of salty air, and to feel the rocking motion of the boat. 13. In the sultry autumn, and when the winter's storms came, and when in spring the winds whistled, and in the summer's heat, he always wore the same old coat. 14. He knew that if he did not ignite the piece of wet bark this time, that he could not dry his clothing or broil the bacon. 15. The next speaker said that the need was critical, the schools must be enlarged, and that the paving now begun must be completed, and a new board of health should be created, that the interest on past debts had to be paid, and the city treasury was at this moment out of funds. EMPHASIS =Emphasis by Position= =40. Reserve the emphatic positions in a sentence for important words or ideas. (The emphatic positions are the beginning and the end--especially the end.)= Weak ending: Then like a flash a vivid memory of my uncle's death came to me. Weak: I demand the release of the prisoners, in the first place. Weak: This principle is one we cannot afford to accept, if my understanding of the question is correct. Place the important idea at the end. Secure, if possible, an emphatic beginning. "Tuck in" unimportant modifiers. Emphatic: Like a flash came to me a vivid memory of my uncle's death. Emphatic: I demand, in the first place, the release of the prisoners. Emphatic: This principle, if my understanding of the question is correct, is one we cannot afford to accept. Exercise: 1. "War is inevitable," he said. 2. The cat had been poisoned to all appearances. 3. There are several methods of learning to swim, as everyone knows. 4. A liar is as bad as a thief, in my estimation. 5. He saw a fight below him in the street, happening to look out of the window. =Emphasis by Separation= =41. An idea which needs much emphasis may be detached, and allowed to stand in a sentence by itself.= Faulty: The flames were by this time beyond control, and the walls collapsed, and several firemen were hurt. [The ideas here are too important to be run together in one sentence.] Right: By this time the flames were beyond control, and the walls collapsed. Several firemen were hurt. A quotation gains emphasis when it is separated from what follows. Faulty: "The best laid schemes o' mice an' men Gang aft a-gley," are some lines from Burns which McDonald was always quoting. Right: "The best laid schemes o' mice an' men Gang aft a-gley." McDonald was always quoting these lines from Burns. Direct discourse is more emphatic when it is separated from explanatory phrases, particularly from those which follow. Faulty: Mosher leaped to the stage and shouted defiantly, "I will never consent to that!" and he looked as if he meant what he said. Right: Mosher leaped to the stage and shouted his defiance: "I will never agree to that!" And he looked as if he meant what he said. Exercise: 1. After the tents are pitched, the beds made, and the fires started, the first meal is cooked and served, and this meal is the beginning of camp-life joy. 2. He tried to make his wife vote for his own, the Citizen's Party, but she firmly refused. 3. At the word of command the dog rushed forward; the covey rose with a mighty whir, and the hunter fired both barrels, and the dog looked in vain for a dead bird, and then returned disconsolate. 4. I sat and gazed at the motto, "Aim high, and believe yourself capable of great things," which my mother had placed there for me. 5. "A Book of Verses underneath the Bough, A Jug of Wine, a Loaf of Bread, and Thou Beside me singing in the Wilderness." were the four things Omar Khayyam wanted to make him happy. =Emphasis by Subordination= =42. Do not place the important idea of a sentence in a subordinate clause or phrase. Make the important idea grammatically independent. If possible, subordinate the rest of the sentence to it.= Faulty: He had a manner which made me angry. Faulty: The fire spread to the third story, when the house was doomed. Faulty: For years the Indians molested the white people, thereby causing the settlers to want revenge. The important idea should not be placed in a _which_ clause, or a _when_ clause, or a participial phrase. Right: His manner made me angry. Right: When the fire spread to the third story, the house was doomed. Right: Years of molestation by the Indians made the white men want revenge. Exercise: 1. I was riding on the train, when suddenly there was an accident. 2. There are two windows in each bedroom, thus insuring good ventilation. 3. Yonder is the house which is my home. 4. He saw that argument was useless, so he let her talk. 5. His clothes were very old, making him look like a tramp. =The Periodic Sentence= A sentence is periodic when the completion of the main thought is delayed until the end. This delay creates a feeling of suspense. A periodic sentence is doubly emphatic: it has emphasis by position because the important idea comes at the end; it has emphasis by subordination because all ideas except the last one are grammatically dependent. =43. To give emphasis to a loosely constructed sentence, turn it into periodic form.= Loose: I saw two men fight a duel, many years ago, on a moonlit summer night, in a little village in northern France. [What is most important, the time? the place? or the actual duel? Place the important idea last.] Periodic: Many years ago, on a moonlit summer night, in a little village in northern France, I saw two men fight a duel. Loose: We left Yellowstone Gateway for the ride of our lives in a six-horse tally-ho. [Place the important idea last, _and make all other ideas grammatically subordinate_.] Periodic: Leaving Yellowstone Gateway in a six-horse tally-ho, we had the ride of our lives. Loose: The river was swollen with incessant rain, and it swept away the dam. [Which is the important idea? Why not make it appear more important by subordinating everything to it?] Periodic: The river, swollen with incessant rain, swept away the dam. Loose: War means to have our pursuit of knowledge and happiness rudely broken off, to feel the sting of death and bereavement, to saddle future generations with a burden of debt and national hatred. Periodic: To have our pursuit of knowledge and happiness rudely broken off, to feel the sting of death and bereavement, to saddle future generations with a burden of debt and national hatred--this is war. Exercise: 1. I am happy when the spring comes, when the sun is warm, when the fields revive. 2. He cares nothing for culture, for justice, for progress. 3. As the boat gathered speed, the golden sun was setting far across the harbor. 4. He amassed a great fortune, standing there behind his dingy counter, discounting bills, pinching coins, buying cheap and selling dear. 5. The shattered aqueducts, pier beyond pier, melt into the darkness, from the plains to the mountains. =Order of Climax= =44. In a series of words, phrases, or clauses of noticeable difference in strength, use the order of climax.= Wrong order: He was insolent and lazy. Weak ending: Literature has expanded into a sea, where before it was only a small stream. Weak ending: As we listened to his story we felt the sordid misery and the peril and fear of war. Emphatic: He was lazy and insolent. Emphatic: The stream of literature has swollen into a torrent, expanded into a sea. Emphatic: As we listened to his story we felt the fear, the peril, the sordid misery of war. Exercise: 1. We boarded the train, after having bought our tickets and checked our baggage. 2. War brings famine, death, disease after it. 3. They have broken up our homes, enslaved our children, and stolen our property. 4. In the old story, the drunken man, carried into the duke's palace, sees himself surrounded with luxury, and imagines himself a true prince, after waking up. 5. The becalmed mariners were famished, hungry. =The Balanced Sentence= =45. Two ideas similar or opposite in thought gain in emphasis when set off, one against the other, in similar constructions.= Weak and straggling: This paper, like many others, has many bad features, but in some ways it is very good. The news articles are far better than the editorials, which are feeble. Balanced structure: This paper is in some respects good; in other respects very poor. The news articles are impressive, the editorials are feeble. Weak and complicated: From the East a man who lives in the West can learn a great deal, and an Easterner ought to be able to understand the West. Balanced: A Westerner can learn much from the East, and an Easterner needs to understand the West. Weak: Both Mill and Macaulay influenced the younger writers. Mill taught some of them to reason, but many more of them learned from Macaulay only a superficial eloquence. Balanced: Both Mill and Macaulay influenced the younger writers. If Mill taught some of them to reason, Macaulay tempted many more of them to declaim. Note.--Although excessive use of balance is artificial, occasional use of it is powerful. It can give to writing either dignity (as in an oration) or point (as in an epigram). Observe how many proverbs are in balanced structure. "Seeing is believing.--Nothing venture, nothing have.--For every grain of wit there is a grain of folly.--You cannot do wrong without suffering wrong.--An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth." Note the effective use of balance in Emerson's _Essays_, particularly in _Compensation_; and in the Old Testament, particularly in _Psalms_ and _Proverbs_. Exercise: 1. Machinery is of course labor-saving, but countless men are thrown out of work. 2. There is a difference between success in business and in acquiring culture. 3. I attend concerts for the pleasure of it, and to get an understanding of music. 4. The stag in the fable admired his horns and blamed his feet; but when the hunter came, his feet saved him, and afterward, caught in the thicket, he was destroyed by his horns. 5. We do not see the stars at evening, sometimes because there are clouds intervening, but oftener because there are glimmerings of light; thus many truths escape us from the obscurity we stand in, and many more from the state of mind which induces us to sit down satisfied with our imaginations and of our knowledge unsuspicious. [This sentence is correctly balanced, except at the end.] =The Weak Effect of the Passive Voice= =46. Use the active voice unless there is a reason for doing otherwise. The passive voice is, as the name implies, not emphatic.= Weak: Your gift is appreciated by me. Better: I appreciate your gift. Weak and vague: His step on the porch was heard. Better: His step sounded on the porch. [Or] I heard his step on the porch. The passive voice is especially objectionable when by failing to indicate the agent of the verb it unnecessarily mystifies the reader. Vague: The train was seen speeding toward us. Better: We saw the train speeding toward us. Exercise: 1. Their minds were changed frequently as to what profession should be taken up by them. 2. A gun should be examined and oiled well before a hunter starts. 3. Finally the serenaders were recognized. 4. In athletics a man is developed physically. 5. If a man uses slang constantly, a good impression is not made. =Effective Repetition= =47a. The simplest and most natural way to emphasize a word or an idea is to repeat it.= The Bible is the best standard of simplicity and dignity in our language, and the Bible uses repetition constantly. A word or idea that is repeated must, of course, be important enough to deserve emphasis. Fairly emphatic: He works and toils and labors, but he seems never to get anywhere. Very emphatic: Work, work, work, all he does is work, and still he seems never to get anywhere. Fairly emphatic: How did the general meet this new menace? He withdrew before it! Very emphatic: How did the general meet this new menace? He withdrew! He retreated! He ran away! Homely but emphatic: "I went under," said the old salt; "bows, gunnels, and starn--all under." Deliberately too emphatic: Everywhere we hear of efficiency--efficiency experts, efficiency bureaus, efficiency methods, in the office, in the school, in the home--until one longs to fly to some savage island beyond the reach of inhuman modern science. =b. Not only words, but an entire grammatical structure may be repeated on a large scale for emphasis.= Weak: We hope that this shipment will reach you in good condition, and that you will favor us with other orders in the future, which will be given prompt and courteous attention. [This sentence is flimsy and spineless because the writer had a timid reluctance to repeat.] Strong: We hope that this shipment will reach you in good condition. We believe that the quality of our goods will induce you to send us a second order. We assure you that such an order will receive prompt and courteous attention. [Note the emphasis derived from the resolute march of the expressions _We hope_, _We believe_, _We assure_.] Emphatic: Through the patience, the courage, the high character of Alfred the country was saved--saved from the rapacities of fortune, saved from the malignancy of its enemies, saved from the sluggish despair of the people of England themselves. Emphatic and natural: This corner of the garden was my first playground. Here I made my first toddling effort to walk. Here on the soft grass I learned the delight of out-of-doors. Here I became acquainted with the bull-frog, and the bumble-bee, and the neighbor's dog. Emphatic and delightful: He maketh me to lie down in green pastures; he leadeth me beside the still waters. He restoreth my soul; he leadeth me in the paths of righteousness for his name's sake. Exercise: 1. He kept digging away for gold through long years. 2. Breaking against the shore, came innumerable waves. 3. Sand, sagebrush, shimmering flat horizon. I could not endure the barren monotony of the desert. 4. We want you to come and visit us, and bring along a good appetite and your customary high spirits. Plan to stay a long time. 5. 'Twas bitter cold outside. The cat meowed until I had to let her in. =Offensive Repetition= Careless repetition attracts attention to words that do not need emphasis. It is extremely annoying to the reader. =48a. Unless a word or phrase is repeated deliberately to gain force or clearness, its repetition is a blunder. Get rid of recurring expressions in one of three ways: (1) by substituting equivalent expressions, (2) by using pronouns more liberally, (3) by rearranging the sentence so as to say once what has awkwardly been said twice.= Each of these schemes is illustrated below. =1.= Repetition cured by the use of equivalent expressions (synonyms). Bad: _Just_ as we were half way down the lake, _just_ off Milwaukee, we _began_ to feel a slight motion of the ship and the _wind began_ to freshen. The _wind began_ to blow more fiercely from the south and the waves _began_ to leap high. The boat _began_ to pitch and roll. Right: _Just_ as we were half way down the lake, _opposite_ Milwaukee, we began to feel a slight motion of the ship, for the wind _had_ freshened. Before long _a gale_, _blowing_ from the south, _kicked up a heavy sea and caused_ the boat to pitch and roll. [Notice how combining the last two sentences helps to solve the problem of the last _began_, besides giving firmer texture to the construction.] =2.= Repetition cured by the use of pronouns. (In using this method, one should take care that the reference of the pronouns is clear.) Bad: The _Law Building_, the _Commerce Building_, and the _Science Building_ are close together. The _Commerce Building_ is south of the _Law Building_, and the _Science Building_ is south of the _Commerce Building_. The _Law Building_ is old and dilapidated. The _Commerce Building_ is a red brick _building_, trimmed in terra-cotta. The _Science Building_ resembles the _Commerce Building_. Right: The Law, Commerce, and Science Buildings are close together in a row. _The first of these_ is old and dilapidated. South of it stands the Commerce Building, _which_, because of _its_ red brick and terra-cotta trimmings, somewhat resembles the Science Building. =3.= Repetition cured by rearranging and condensing. Bad: The _autumn_ is my favorite of all the _seasons_. While _autumn_ in the _city_ is not such a pleasant _season_ as _autumn_ in the country, yet even in the _city_ my preference will always be for the _autumn_. Right: My favorite season is autumn. I like it best in the country, but even in the city it is the best time of the year. =b. Avoid a monotonous repetition of sentence structure. To give variety to successive sentences: (1) vary the length, (2) vary the beginnings, (3) avoid a series of similar compound sentences, (4) interchange loose with periodic structure, (5) use rhetorical question, exclamation, direct discourse, (6) avoid an excessive use of participles or adjectives.= =1.= Vary the length of sentences. Bad: Walter came up the path carrying Betty in his arms. She was wet from head to toe. Damp curls clung to her pale face. Water dripped from her clothes. One hand hung loosely over Walter's arm. The other held a live duckling. She had saved the little duck from drowning. This was Betty's first day in the country. Right: Walter came up the path carrying Betty in his arms--little Betty who was spending her first day in the country. She was wet from head to toe; damp curls clung to her pale face, and water dripped from her clothes. In one hand she held a live duckling. Her face lighted with courage as she told how she jumped into the pond and saved the little duck from drowning. =2.= Vary the beginnings of sentences. Do not allow too many sentences to begin with the subject, or with a time clause, or with a participle, or with _so_. When you have finished a composition, rapidly read over the opening words of each sentence, to see if there is sufficient variety. Bad [too many sentences begin directly with the subject]: Our way is circuitous. A sharp turn brings us round a rocky point. The road drops suddenly into a little valley. The roof of a house appears in a grove of trees below. A cottage is there and a flower garden. An old-fashioned well is near the door. Right: Presently, on our circuitous way, we make a sharp turn round a rocky point. Before us the road drops suddenly into a little valley. In a grove of trees below appears the roof of a house, and as we draw nearer we see a cottage surrounded by flowers. Nothing could be more attractive to a weary traveler than the old-fashioned well near the door. =3.= Avoid a series of similar compound sentences, especially those of two parts of equal length, joined by _and_ or _but_. Bad: Ring was a sheep dog, and tended the flock with his master. One day there came a deep snow, and the flock did not return. They found the herder frozen stiff, and the dog shivering beside him. Right: Ring was a sheep dog, and tended the flock with his master. One day there came a deep snow. When the flock failed to return, the men became uneasy, and began to search. They found the herder frozen stiff, with the dog shivering beside him. =4.= Change occasionally from loose to periodic or balanced structure (See 43 and 45). Monotonous: I stood at the foot of Tunbridge hill. I saw on the horizon a dense wood, which, in the evening sunlight, was veiled in purple haze [Loose]. On the left was the village, the houses appearing like specks in the distance [Loose]. Nearer on the right was the creek, winding through the willows [Loose]. The creek approached nearer until it reached the dam, over which it rushed tumultuously [Loose]. Near by was a thicket of tall trees, through which I could see the white tents of my fellow campers, and their glowing camp fires [Loose]. Right: Far south from Tunbridge hill, on the dim horizon, I saw, veiled in the evening haze, a dense wood [Periodic, long, conveying the idea of distance better than a loose sentence]. On my left stood the village, the houses like specks; on my right wound the creek, nearer and nearer through the willows [Balanced]. The creek advanced by slow sinuous turns, until, reaching the dam, it plunged over tumultuously [Loose]. Through a thicket of tall trees, near at hand, I could see the white tents of my fellow campers, and their glowing camp fires [Periodic through the middle of the sentence; then loose]. =5.= Use question, exclamation, direct quotation. Somewhat flat: He asked me the road to Camden. I did not know. I told him to ask Thurber, who knew the country well. Better: He asked me the road to Camden. The road to Camden? How should I know? "Ask Thurber," I said impatiently; "he knows this country. I'm a stranger." =6.= Avoid an excessive use of participles. Do not pile adjectives around every noun. Above all, do not form a habit of using adjectives in pairs or triplets. Bad: Sitting by the window, I saw a sharp, dazzling flash of lightning, and heard a loud rumbling crash of heavy thunder, warning me of the coming of the storm. Darting across the gray, leaden sky, the quick, jagged lightning flashed incessantly. The tall stately poplar trees thrashed around in the boisterous wind. Then across the window, like a great white curtain, swept the streaming, blinding rain. Right: I sat by the window. Suddenly a sharp flash of lightning and a roll of thunder gave warning of the approach of a storm. Soon lightning zig-zagged across the sky incessantly. The wind huddled the poplar trees. Then like a white curtain across the window streamed the rain. Exercise: 1. The parts of the tables are not put together at the factory, but the different parts are shipped in different shipments. 2. In order to convince the reader that the present management of farms is inefficient, I shall give some examples of efficiency in the farm management on some farms with which I am acquainted. 3. When one wishes to learn how to swim one must first become accustomed to the water. The best way to become accustomed to the water is to go into it frequently. After one has become accustomed to the water he may begin to learn the strokes. 4. _The Life of Sir Walter Scott_, written by J. G. Lockhart, is an interesting biography of this great writer. It consists of a short biography by Scott himself, and also consists of a continuation of this biography by his son-in-law, J. G. Lockhart. 5. If a piece of steel is kept hot for several seconds, it will lose some of its hardness. If kept hot longer, it will lose more of its hardness. Along with losing its hardness it will lose its brittleness. If the piece of steel is heated continually it will lose nearly all its hardness and brittleness. In other words, it will lose its "temper." =49.= EXERCISE IN EMPHASIS =A. Lack of Emphasis in General= Make the following sentences emphatic. 1. The man is a thief who fails in business but continues to live in luxury. 2. The plant was withered and dry, not having been watered for over a week. 3. Much time is saved in Chicago by taking the elevated cars, if you have a great distance to travel. 4. The clock struck eleven, when he immediately seized his hat and left. 5. These liberal terms should be taken advantage of by us. 6. The study of biology has proved very interesting, as far as I have gone. 7. Who is this that comes to the foot of the guillotine, crouching, trembling? 8. They must pay the penalty. Their death is necessary. They have caused harm enough. 9. I intend to get up fifteen minutes earlier, thereby giving myself time to eat a good breakfast. 10. The book was reread several times, for I never grew tired of it. 11. "What is the aim of a university education?" the speaker asked. 12. A bicycle is sometimes ridden when a tire contains no air, total ruin resulting from the weight of the rim upon the flat tire. 13. He sprang forward the instant the pistol cracked, since the start of a sprint is very important, and one cannot overdo the practicing of it. 14. Sometimes the fuses fail to burn, or burn too fast, causing an explosion before the workmen are prepared for it. 15. How father made soap was always a mystery to me. Cracklings saved from butchering time, lye, and water went into the kettle on a warm spring day and came out in the form of soap a few hours later, to my great astonishment. =B. Loose or Unemphatic Structure= Make the following sentences more emphatic by throwing them into periodic form. 1. It was Tom, as I had expected. 2. I will not tell, no matter how you beg. 3. The supremacy of the old river steamboat is gone forever, unless conditions should be utterly changed. 4. Across the desert he traveled alone, and over strange seas, and through quaint foreign villages. 5. The hot water dissolves the glue in the muresco, making the mixture more easily applied. 6. Visions of rich meadows and harvest-laden fields now pass before my eyes, as I sit by the fire. 7. Some of the women were weeping bitterly, thinking they would never see their homes again. 8. I splashed along on foot for three miles after night in a driving rain. 9. Very high rent is demanded, thus keeping the peasants constantly in debt. 10. Roderigo was in despair because he had been rejected by Desdemona, and was ready to end his life, by the time Iago entered. 11. Through storm and cold the open boat was brought to the shore at last, after toil and suffering, with great difficulty. 12. The car came to a violent stop against a rock pile, after it demolished two fences, upset a hen-house, and scared a pig out of his wits. 13. The Panama Canal is the fulfilment of the dreams of old Spanish adventurers, the desires of later merchant princes, and the demand of modern nations for free traffic on the seas. 14. The fiddle yelled, and the feet of the dancers beat the floor, and the spectators applauded, and the room fairly rang. 15. The man with the best character, not the man with most money, will come out on top in the end. =C. Faulty Repetition= Repetition in the following sentences is objectionable, because it attracts attention to words or constructions that do not need to be emphasized. Improve the sentences, avoiding unnecessary repetition. 1. He is a great friend of boys, and views things from the boys' point of view. 2. In the case of the strike at Lawrence, Massachusetts, the real cause was low wages caused by immigration and child labor. 3. First, a subject must be chosen, and in choosing a subject, choose one that you know something about. 4. There are great opportunities in the field of science, and a scientist who makes a mark in the world of science makes a mark for himself everywhere. 5. While the practical man is learning skill in the practical world, the college man is attaining a development of mentality that will surpass that of the practical man when the college man learns the skill of the practical man. 6. The field is dragged and rolled. Dragging and rolling leaves the ground smooth and ready for planting. 7. A great number and variety of articles appears in every issue. There is a complete review of each subject. It is treated in a short, but thorough manner. 8. They gave me a hearty welcome. They stood back and looked at me. They wanted to see if three months in the city had made any changes in me. But they said it had not. 9. Engineering is looked upon by many students as an easy and uninteresting study, but to my knowledge it is not uninteresting and easy. Engineering is probably one of the hardest courses in college. To me it is also the most interesting. 10. A duck hunter should have a place to hunt where ducks are frequently found in duck season. Ducks often light in the backwater along a river, and in ponds. They are often found in small lakes. Corn fields are common feeding places for ducks. Ducks make regular trips to cornfields within reach of a body of water such as a river or lake. It is their nature to spend the night in the water, and in the morning and in the evening they go out to the fields to feed. GRAMMAR =Case= =50a. The subject of a verb is in the nominative case, even when the verb is remote, or understood (not expressed).= Wrong: They are as old as us. Right: They are as old as we [are]. Wrong: He is taller than her. Right: He is taller than she [is]. Note.--_Than_ and _as_ are conjunctions, not prepositions. When they are followed by a pronoun merely, this pronoun is not their object, but part of a clause the rest of which may be understood. The case of this pronoun is determined by its relation to the rest of the unexpressed clause. Sometimes the understood clause calls for the objective: "I like his brother better than [I like] him." _Than whom_, though ungrammatical, is sanctioned by usage. =b. Guard against the improper attraction of _who_ into the objective case by intervening expressions like _he says_.= Wrong: The man whom they believed was the cause of the trouble left the country. [_They believed_ is parenthetical, and the subject of _was_ is _who_.] Right: The man who they believed was the cause of the trouble left the country. Wrong: Whom do you suppose made us a visit? Right: Who do you suppose made us a visit? =Guard against the improper attraction of _who_ or _whoever_ into the objective case by a preceding verb or preposition.= Wrong: Punish whomever is guilty. [The pronoun is the subject of _is_. The object of _punish_ is the entire clause _whoever is guilty_.] Right: Punish whoever is guilty. Wrong: The mystery as to whom had rendered him this service remained. [The pronoun is the subject of _had rendered_. The object of the preposition is the entire clause _who had rendered him this service_.] Right: The mystery as to who had rendered him this service remained. =c. The predicate complement of the verb _to be_ (in any of its forms, _is_, _was_, _were_, _be_, etc.) is in the nominative case.= _To be_ never takes an object, because it does not express action. Wrong: Was it her? Was it them? It is me. Right: Was it she? Was it they? Is it I. Wrong: The happiest people there were him and his mother. Right: The happiest people there were he and his mother. =d. The object of a preposition or a verb is in the objective case.= Wrong: Some of we fellows went fishing. Right: Some of us fellows went fishing. Wrong: That seems incredible to you and I. Right: That seems incredible to you and me. Wrong: Who did they detect? Right: Whom did they detect? =e. The "assumed" subject of an infinitive is in the objective case.= Right: I wanted him to go. [_Him to go_ is the group object of the verb _wanted_. _To go_, being an infinitive, cannot assert an action, and consequently cannot take a subject. But _to go_ implies that something is at least capable of action. _Him_ is the latent or assumed subject of the action implied in _to go_.] Right: _Whom_ do you wish _to be_ your leader? [_Whom_ is the assumed subject of the infinitive _to be_.] =f. A noun or pronoun used to express possession is in the possessive case.= Do not omit the apostrophe (See 97) from nouns, or from the pronouns _one's_ and _other's_. Most of the other possessive pronouns do not require an apostrophe. Right: The man's hair is gray. Right: The machine does its work well. [_It's_ would mean _it is_.] Right: One should do one's duty. =g. A noun or pronoun linked with a gerund should be in the possessive case whenever the use of the objective case might cause confusion.= Faulty: Is there any criticism of Arthur going? Right: Is there any criticism of Arthur's going? Right: I had not heard of his being sick. Right, but slightly less desirable: I had not heard of him being sick. Note.--In other instances than those in which clearness is involved many good writers use the objective case with the gerund. But even in these instances most writers prefer the possessive case. =h. It is usually awkward and slightly illogical to attribute possession to inanimate objects.= Awkward: The farm's management. Better: The management of the farm. Awkward: The stomach's lining. Better: The lining of the stomach. Note.--Usage justifies many exceptions, particularly (1) expressions that involve time or measure, _a day's work_, _a hair's breadth_, _a year's salary_, _a week's vacation_, _a cable's length_; and (2) expressions that involve personification, explicit or implied, _Reason's voice_, _the law's delay_, _for mercy's sake_, _the heart's desire_, _the tempest's breath_. =i. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, gender, and number, but not in case.= Right: _I, who am_ older, know better. Right: Tell _me, who am_ older, your trouble. Right: Many a man has saved _himself_ by counsel. Exercise: 1. I am as old as (he, him). They may be pluckier than (we, us). Nobody is less conceited than (she, her). 2. He gave help to (whoever, whomever) wanted it. The girls (who, whom) they say have the worst taste are on a committee to select the class pin. 3. Four of (we, us) boys were left without a cent. That is a good investment for her cousin and (she, her). 4. It was (he, him). It is (they, them). The sole occupants of the car were his chum and (he, him). 5. I had not heard of (his, him) being sick. She does not approve of (our, us) being late to dinner. (They, them) who labor now the Master will reward. =Number= =51a. _Each_, _every_, _every one_, _everybody_, _anybody_, _either_, _neither_, _no one_, _nobody_, and similar words are singular.= Wrong: Everybody did their best. Right: Everybody did his best. Wrong: Each of my three friends were there. Right: Each of my three friends was there. Wrong: Either of the candidates are capable of making a good officer. Right: Either of the candidates is capable of making a good officer. =b. Do not let _this_ or _that_ when modifying _kind_ or _sort_ be attracted into the plural by a following noun.= Wrong: He knew nothing of those kind of activities. Right: He knew nothing of that kind of activities. Wrong: I never did like these sort of post cards. Right: I never did like this sort of post cards. =c. Collective nouns may be regarded as singular or plural, according to the meaning intended.= Right: The crowd is waiting. Right: The crowd are not agreed. Right: Webster maintained that the United States is an inseparable union; Hayne that the United States are a separable union. English usage: The government were considering a new bill regarding labor. American usage: The government was glad to place our troops at the disposal of General Foch. =d. Do not use _don't_ in the third person singular. Use _doesn't_. _Don't_ is contraction of _do not_.= Wrong: He don't get up early on Sunday morning. Right: He doesn't get up early on Sunday morning. Exercise: 1. She said not to buy those sort of carpet tacks. These kind of apples won't keep. I don't care for these boasting kind of travelers. 2. Neither of us were in condition to run the race. Every one assured Mrs. Merton they had spent a pleasant evening. 3. He don't suffer much now. I don't care if she don't come today. 4. Each of us in that dismal waiting room were angry with the agent for telling us the train was not late. 5. No one of the girls will tell their age. It don't matter. =Agreement= =52a. A verb agrees in number with the subject, not with a noun which intervenes between it and the subject.= Wrong: The size of the plantations vary. Right: The size of the plantations varies. Wrong: The increasing use of luxuries are a menace to the country. Right: The increasing use of luxuries is a menace to the country. Wrong: The prices of grain fluctuates in response to the demand. Right: The prices of grain fluctuate in response to the demand. [Or] The price of grain fluctuates in response to the demand. =b. The number of the verb is not affected by the addition to the subject of words introduced by _with_, _together with_, _no less than_, _as well as_, and the like.= Wrong: The mayor of the city, as well as several aldermen, have investigated the charges. Right: The mayor of the city, as well as several aldermen, has investigated the charges. =c. Singular subjects joined by _or_ or _nor_ take a singular verb.= Wrong: Either the second or the third of the plans they have devised are acceptable. Right: Either the second or the third of the plans they have devised is acceptable. =d. A subject consisting of two or more nouns joined by _and_ takes a plural verb.= Right: The hunting and fishing are good. =e. A verb should agree in number with the subject, not with a predicate noun.= Wrong: The weak point in the team were the fielders. Right: The weak point in the team was the fielders. Wrong: Laziness and dissipation is the cause of his failure. Right: Laziness and dissipation are the cause of his failure. =f. In _There is_ and _There are_ sentences the verb should agree in number with the noun that follows it.= Wrong: There is very good grounds for such a decision. Right: There are very good grounds for such a decision. Wrong: There was present a man, two women, and a child. Right: There were present a man, two women, and a child. Exercise: 1. The sound of falling acorns (is, are) one of the delights of an autumn evening. Eye strain through ill-fit glasses (is, are) injurious to the general health, but reading without glasses (is, are) often more harmful still. 2. Neither the baritone nor the tenor (has, have) as good a voice as the soprano. The guitar or the mandolin (is, are) always out of tune. 3. The Amazon with its tributaries (affords, afford) access to sea. The conductor of the freight train, along with the engineer and fireman of the passenger, (was, were) injured. 4. Ghost stories late at night (is, are) a crime against children. My reason for knowing that it is six o'clock (is, are) the factory whistles. 5. There (was, were) in the same coach a dozen singing freshmen. Years of experience in buying clothes (gives, give) me confidence in my judgment. =_Shall_ and _Will_, _Should_ and _Would_= Although there is a tendency to disregard subtle distinctions between _shall_ and _will_ in ordinary speech, it is desirable to preserve the more important distinctions in written discourse. =53. To express simple futurity or mere expectation, use _shall_ with the first person (both singular and plural) and _will_ with the second and third.= I shall go. We shall walk. You will play. You will hear. He will sing. They will reply. =To express resolution or emphatic assurance, reverse the usage; that is, use _will_ with the first person (both singular and plural), and _shall_ with the second and third.= I will; I tell you, I will. We will not be excluded. You shall do what I bid. You shall not delay us. He shall obey me. They shall pay the tribute. In asking questions, use the form expected in the answer. "Shall I go?" I asked myself musingly. "Shall we take a walk?" "You promise. But will you pay?" "Will it rain tomorrow?" _Should_ and _would_ follow the rules given for _shall_ and _will_. Mere statement of a fact: I [or We] should like to go. You [or He or They] would of course accept the offer. Resolution or emphatic assurance: I [or We] would never go under terms so degrading. You [or He or They] should decline; honor demands it. _Should_ has also a special use in the subjunctive (in all persons) to express a condition; and _would_ has a special use (in all persons) to express a wish, or customary action. If it should rain, I shall not go. If I should remain, it would probably clear off. Would that I could swim! He [I, We, You, They] would often sit there by the hour. Exercise: 1. I (shall, will) probably do as he says. I'm determined; I (shall, will) go! We (shall, will) see what tomorrow (shall, will) bring forth. 2. The train (shall, will) whistle at this crossing, I suppose. When the log is nearly severed, it (shall, will) begin to pinch the saw. The weather (shall, will) be warmer tomorrow. 3. Johnny, you (shall, will) not go near those strawberries! He (shall, will) not leave us in this predicament. I repeat it, he (shall, will) not! We (shall, will) never sell this good old horse. 4. (Shall, will) this calico fade? (Shall, will) you give the organ grinder some money? (Shall, will) I raise the window? (Should, would) I ask his permission? 5. If you (should, would) visit his laboratory, you (should, would) learn how a starfish preserved in alcohol smells. You (shall, will) all die some day, my friends. (Shall, will) I ever forget this? Time (shall, will) tell. =Principal Parts= =54. Use the correct form of the past tense and past participle.= Avoid _come_, _done_, _bursted_, _knowed_, _says_ for the past tense; and [_had_] _eat_, [_had_] _froze_, [_have_] _ran_, [_has_] _went_, [_has_] _wrote_, [_are_] _suppose_ for the past participle. Memorize the principal parts of difficult verbs. The principal parts are the present tense, the past tense, and the past participle. A good way to recall these is to repeat the formula: Today I _sing_; yesterday I _sang_; often in the past I have _sung_. The principal parts of _sing_ are _sing_, _sang_, _sung_. A list of difficult verbs is given below. bear bore borne born begin began begun bend bent bent bid bid bid bade bidden bite bit bit bitten bleed bled bled blow blew blown break broke broken burn burnt burnt burned burned burst burst burst catch caught caught choose chose chosen come came come deal dealt dealt dive dived dived do did done drag dragged dragged draw drew drawn dream dreamt dreamt dreamed dreamed drink drank drunk drive drove driven drown drowned drowned dwell dwelt dwelt dwelled dwelled eat ate eaten fall fell fallen fight fought fought flee fled fled fly flew flown flow flowed flowed freeze froze frozen get got got go went gone grow grew grown hang hung hung hang hanged hanged hold held held kneel knelt knelt know knew known lay laid laid lead led led lend lent lent lie lay lain lie lied lied loose loosed loosed lose lost lost mean meant meant pay paid paid prove proved proved read read read rid rid rid ride rode ridden ring rang rung rise rose risen run ran run say said said see saw seen set set set shake shook shaken shine shone shone show showed shown shrink shrank shrunk sing sang sung sit sat sat slink slunk slunk speak spoke spoken spend spent spent spit spit spit spat spat steal stole stolen swear swore sworn sweep swept swept swim swam swum take took taken tear tore torn throw threw thrown thrust thrust thrust tread trod trod trodden wake woke waked waked wear wore worn weave wove woven weep wept wept write wrote written Exercise: 1. Adams ---- (past tense of _draw_) another glass of cider and ---- (past tense of _drink_) it. When those squashes once ---- (past tense of _begin_), they ---- (past tense of _grow_) like mad. 2. The thermometer had ---- (past participle of _fall_) twenty degrees, and three water pipes had ---- (past participle of _freeze_). Afterward one ---- (past tense of _burst_). 3. Annie had ---- (past participle of _speak_) a piece, and Nancy had ---- (past participle of _write_) a poem, and Isabel had nearly ---- (past participle of _burst_) with envy. 4. He ---- (past tense of _do_) a brave deed; he ---- (past tense of _swim_) straight for the whirlpool. I had ---- (past participle of _know_) him before, and had ---- (past participle of _shake_) hands with him. 5. He ---- (past tense of _come_) home late, and has ---- (past participle of _eat_) his dinner. Now he has ---- (past participle of _go_) down town. He has ---- (past participle of _ride_) before. I ---- (past tense of _see_) him. He ---- (past tense of _run_) swiftly. =Tense, Mode, Auxiliaries= =55a. In dependent clauses and infinitives, the tense is to be considered in relation to the time expressed in the principal verb.= Wrong: I intended to have gone. [The principal verb _intended_ indicates a past time. In that past time I intended to do something. What? Did I intend _to go_, or _to have gone_?] Right: I intended to go. Wrong: We hoped that you would have come to the party. [The principal verb _hoped_ indicates a past time. In that past time our hope was that you _would_ come, not that you _would have come_.] Right: We hoped that you would come. =b. When narration in the past tense is interrupted for reference to a preceding occurrence, the past perfect tense is used.= Wrong: In the parlor my cousin kept a collection of animals which he shot. Right: In the parlor my cousin kept a collection of animals which he had shot. =c. General statements equally true in the past and in the present are usually expressed in the present tense.= Faulty: He said that Venus was a planet. Right: He said that Venus is a planet. =d. The subjunctive mode of the verb _to be_ is used to express a condition contrary to fact, or a wish.= Faulty: If he was here, I should be happy. Right: If he were here, I should be happy. Faulty: I wish that I was a man. Right: I wish that I were a man. =e. Use the correct auxiliary. Make sure that the tense, mode, or aspect of successive verbs is not altered without reason.= Wrong: By giving strict obedience to commands, a soldier _learns_ discipline, and consequently _would have_ steady nerves in time of war. [_Learns_ should be followed by _will have_.] Wrong: An automobile _should be_ kept in good working order so that its life _is_ lengthened. [_Should be_ is properly followed by _may be_.] Exercise: 1. Every one hoped that you would have spoken. 2. I saw it in the window. It was the very book I wanted so long. 3. If I was sick, I should go home. 4. They expected to have won the game. 5. The Masons never invite men to join their lodge, but if a person expresses a desire to join, his friends would probably be able to secure membership for him. =Adjective and Adverb= =56a. Do not use an adjective to modify a verb.= Crude: He spoke slow and careful. Right: He spoke slowly and carefully. Crude: He sure did good in his classes. Right: He surely did well in his classes. =b. In such sentences as _He stood firm_ and _The cry rang clear_ the modifier should be an adjective if it refers to the subject, an adverb if it refers to the verb.= Right: The sun shines bright on my old Kentucky home. [Here the thought is that the sun which shines is bright.] Right: He worked diligently. [Here the modifier refers to the manner of working rather than to the person who works. It should therefore be an adverb.] Right: It stood immovable. The shot rang loud. He becomes angry. The weeds grow thick. They remain obstinate. He seems intelligent. =c. After a verb pertaining to the senses, _look_, _sound_, _taste_, _smell_, _feel_, an adjective is used to denote a quality pertaining to the subject.= (An adverb is used only when the reference is clearly to the verb.) She looks _beautiful_. [Not _beautifully_.] The dinner bell sounds _good_. [Not _well_.] My food tastes _bad_. [Not _badly_.] That flower smells _bad_. [Not _badly_.] I feel good [_in good spirits_.] I feel well [_in good health_. An adjectival use of _well_.] I feel bad [_in bad health or spirits_. "I feel badly" would mean "My sense of touch is impaired."] Exercise: 1. They fought ---- (heroic, heroically). Dave stumbled ----(awkward, awkwardly). 2. Margaret ---- (sure, surely) worked ---- (faithful, faithfully) in economics. 3. At this reply the teacher grew ---- (wrathful, wrathfully). I hear you ---- (plain, plainly). 4. I feel ---- (giddy, giddily). Your rose looks ---- (sweet, sweetly). No perfume smells so ---- (dainty, daintily). 5. That salad tastes ---- (good, well). I feel ---- (bad, badly) today. Your voice sounds ---- (good, well) and ----(familiar, familiarly). =A Word in a Double Capacity= =57. Do not use a verb, conjunction, preposition, or noun in a double capacity when one of the uses is ungrammatical.= Wrong [verb]: An opera house was built in one part of town, and two churches in another. Right: An opera house was built in one part of town, and two churches were built in another. Wrong [verb]: He always has and will do it. Right: He always has done it, and always will do it. Wrong [conjunction]: He was as old, if not older, than any other man in the community. Right: He was as old as any other man in the community, if not older. Wrong [preposition]: He was fond and diligent in work. Right: He was fond of work and diligent in it. Wrong [noun]: He is one of the most skilful, if not the most skilful, tennis players in the state. Right: He is one of the most skilful tennis players in the state, if not the most skilful. Exercise: 1. He is as old, if not older, than she is. 2. Two boats were in the water, and one on the shore. 3. From childhood he has, and to old age he will, have many hobbies. 4. A visit to a ten cent store is better, or at least as good, as a visit to a circus. You see as many or more queer things than in any show. 5. One of the greatest, if not the greatest, secrets in keeping our health, is to keep our teeth in good condition. A famous physician said that one of the next, if not the very next, marked advance in medical science will be through discoveries in the realm of dentistry. Parts of Speech, Other Grammatical Terms, Conjugation The Parts of Speech and Their Uses =Noun.= A noun is a name. It may be =proper= (_Philip Watkins_), or =common=. Common nouns may be =concrete= (_man_, _windmill_), or =abstract= (_gratitude_, _nearness_). =A= noun applied to a group is said to be =collective= (_family_, _race_). The uses of a noun =are=: to serve as the subject of a verb, to serve as the object of a verb or a preposition, to be in apposition with another noun (Jenkins, our _coach_), to indicate possession (_Joseph's_ coat of many colors); and less frequently, to serve as an adjective (the _brick_ sidewalk) or adverb (John went _home_), and to indicate direct address (_Jehovah_, help us!). =Pronoun.= A pronoun is a word which takes the place of a noun. It may be =personal= (_I_, _thou_, _you_, _he_, _she_, _it_, _we_, _they_), =relative= (_who_, _which_, _what_, _that_, _as_, and compounds _whoever_, _whichsoever_, etc.), =interrogative= (_who_, _which_, _what_), =demonstrative= (_this_, _that_, _these_, _those_), or =indefinite= (_some_, _any_, _one_, _each_, _either_, _neither_, _none_, _few_, _all_, _both_, etc.). Strictly speaking, the last two groups, demonstratives and indefinites, are adjectives used as pronouns. Certain pronouns are also used as adjectives, notably the =possessives= (_my_, _his_, _their_, etc.) and the relative or interrogative _which_ and _what_. The addition of _-self_ to a personal pronoun forms a =reflexive pronoun= or =intensive= (I blamed _myself_. You _yourself_ are at fault). A noun for which the pronoun stands is called the =antecedent=. The uses of pronouns are in general the same as those of nouns. In addition, relatives serve as connectives (the man _who_ spoke), interrogatives ask questions (_what_ man?), and demonstratives point out (_that_ man). =Verb.= A verb is a word or word-group which makes an assertion about the subject. It may express either action or mere existence. It may be =transitive= (_trans_ meaning "across"; hence action carried across, requiring a receiver of the act; Brutus _stabbed_ Cæsar; Cæsar is _stabbed_) or =intransitive= (not requiring a receiver of the act: Montgomery _fell_). Its meaning is dependent upon its voice, mode, and tense. Voice shows the relationship between the subject and the assertion made by the verb. The =active voice= shows the subject as actor (They _elected_ Washington); the =passive voice=, as acted upon (Washington _was elected_). (A transitive verb may be active or passive, but an intransitive verb has no voice.) Mode indicates the manner of predicating an action, whether as assertion, condition, command, etc. There are three modes in English. The =indicative mode= affirms or denies (He _went_. She _did not dance_.) The =subjunctive= expresses condition or wish (If he _were_ older, he would be wiser. Would that I _were_ there!). The =imperative= expresses command or exhortation (_Remain_ there. _Go!_ _Let_ us pray). =Modal auxiliaries= with these three modes form =modal aspects= of the verb. There are as many different aspects as there are auxiliaries. Aspects are sometimes spoken of as separate modes or called collectively the "potential mode." Tense expresses the time of the action or existence. The tenses are the =present=, the =past=, the =future= (employing the auxiliaries _shall_ and _will_), the =perfect= (employing _have_), the =past perfect= (employing _had_), and the =future perfect= (employing _shall have_ and _will have_). =Verbals= are certain forms of the verb used as other parts of speech (noun, adjective, adverb). For the verbal forms, infinitive, gerund, and participle, see the separate headings. =Adjective.= An adjective is a word used to modify a noun or pronoun. An adjective may be =attributive= (_bright_ sun, _cool-headed_ adventurers) or =predicate= (The field is _broad_. The meat tastes _bad_. I want this _ready_ by Christmas). Adjectives assume three forms known as degrees of comparison. The =positive degree= indicates the simple quality of the object without reference to any other. The =comparative degree= indicates that two objects are compared (Stanley is the _older_ brother). The =superlative degree= indicates that three or more objects are compared (Stanley is the _oldest_ child in the family) or that the speaker feels great interest or emotion (A _most excellent_ record). Ordinarily _er_ or _r_ is added to the positive to form the comparative, and _est_ or _st_ to the positive to form the superlative (brave, braver, bravest). But some adjectives (sometimes those of two, and always those of more than two, syllables) prefix _more_ (or _less_) to the positive to form the comparative, and _most_ (or _least_) to the positive to form the superlative (beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful). Some adjectives express qualities that do not permit comparison (_dead_, _four-sided_, _unique_). =Adverb.= An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb (She played _well_; _unusually_ handsome; _very_ sternly); or, more rarely, a verbal noun (Walking _fast_ is good for the health), a preposition (The ship drifted _almost_ upon the breakers), or a conjunction (It came _just_ when we wished). Certain adverbs (_fatally_, _entirely_) do not logically admit of comparison. Those that do are compared like adjectives of more than two syllables (_slowly_, _more_ or _less slowly_, _most_ or _least slowly_). =Preposition.= A preposition is a connective _placed before_ a substantive (called its object) in order to subordinate the substantive to some other word in a sentence (The boast _of_ heraldry, the pomp _of_ power. He ran _toward_ the enemy _without_ fear). =Conjunction.= A conjunction is a word used to _join together_ words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. A =coördinate conjunction= connects elements of equal rank (See 36). =Correlative conjunctions= are conjunctions used in pairs (See 31). A =subordinate conjunction= is one that connects elements unequal in rank (See 36). When a conjunction, in addition to its function as a connective, indicates a relation of time, place, or cause, it is often called a =conjunctive adverb= or =relative adverb=. =Interjection.= An interjection is a word _thrown into_ speech to express emotion. It has no grammatical connection with other words. (_Oh_, is that it? _Well_, I'll do it. _Hark!_) =Other Grammatical Terms= =Absolute expression.= An expression (usually composed of a substantive and a participle, perhaps with modifiers) which, though not formally and grammatically joined, is in thought related to the remainder of the sentence. (_The relief party having arrived_, we went home. _This disposed of_, the council proceeded to other matters. _Defeated_, he was not dismayed.) =Antecedent.= A substantive to which a pronoun or participle refers. Literally, _antecedent_ means _that which goes before_; but sometimes the antecedent follows the dependent word. (The _man_ who hesitates is lost. Entering the store, _we_ saw a barrel of apples.) _Man_ is the antecedent of the pronoun _who_, and _we_ is the antecedent of the participle _entering_. =Auxiliary.= _Be_, _have_, _do_, _shall_, _will_, _ought_, _may_, _can_, _must_, _might_, _could_, _would_, _should_, etc., when used with participles and infinitives of other verbs, are called auxiliary verbs. =Case.= The relation of a substantive to other words in the sentence as shown by inflectional form or position. The subject of a verb, or the predicate of the verb _to be_, is in the nominative case. The object of a verb or preposition, or the "assumed subject" of an infinitive, is in the objective case. A noun or pronoun which denotes possession is in the possessive case. =Clause.= A portion of a sentence which contains a subject and a verb, perhaps with modifiers. The following sentence contains one dependent (subordinate) and one independent (principal) clause: _When the storm ceased, the grove was a ruin_. =Conjugation.= The inflectional changes in the verb to indicate person, number, tense, voice, mode, and modal aspect. =Declension.= The changes in a noun, pronoun, or adjective to indicate person, number, or case. =Ellipsis, elliptical expression.= An expression partially incomplete, so that words have to be understood to complete the meaning. An idea or relation corresponding to the omitted words is present, at least vaguely, in the mind of the speaker. Elliptical sentences are usually justifiable except when the reader cannot instantly supply the understood words. Examples of proper ellipses: You are as tall as I [am tall]. Is your sister coming? I think [my sister is] not [coming]. I will go if you will [go]. [I give you] Thanks for your advice. =Gerund.= A verbal in _-ing_ used as a noun. (I do not object to your _telling_. His _having deserted_ us makes little difference.) The gerund may be regarded as a special form of the infinitive. =Infinitive.= A verbal ordinarily introduced by _to_ and used as a noun (_To err_ is human). In such sentences as "The road to follow is the river road," _follow_ may be regarded as the noun of a phrase (compare _the road to Mandalay_), or the entire phrase may be regarded as an adjective. Similarly, in "He hastened to comply," _comply_ may be regarded as a noun or _to comply_ as an adverb. After certain verbs (_bid_, _dare_, _help_, _make_, _need_, etc.) the _to_ is omitted from the infinitive group. (He bids me _go_. I need not _hesitate_.) =Inflection.= Change in the form of a word to show a modification or shade of meaning. At a very early period in our language there was a separate form for practically every modification. Although separate forms are now less numerous, _inflection_ is still a convenient term in grammar. Its scope is general: it includes the declension of nouns, the comparison of adjectives and adverbs, and the conjugation of verbs. =Modify.= To be grammatically dependent upon and to limit or alter the quality of. In the expression "The very old man," _the_ and _old_ modify _man_, and _very_ modifies _old_. =Participle.= A verbal used as an adjective, or as an adjective with adverbial qualities. In the sentence "Mary, being oldest, is also the best liked," _being oldest_ refers exclusively, or almost exclusively, to the subject and is therefore adjectival. In such sentences as "He fell back, exhausted" and "Running down the street, I collided with a baby carriage," the participle refers in part to the verb and is therefore adverbial as well as adjectival. =Phrase.= A group of words forming a subordinate part of a sentence and not containing a subject and its verb. Examples: _With a whistle and a roar_ the train arrived [prepositional phrase]. _Bowing his head_, the prisoner listened to the verdict of the jury [participial phrase]. In a loose, untechnical sense _phrase_ may refer to any short group of words, even if the group includes a subject and its verb. =Predicate.= The word or word-group in a sentence which makes an assertion about the subject. It consists of a finite verb with or without objects or modifiers. =Predicate adjective.= An adjective in the predicate, usually linked with the subject by some form of the verb _to be_ (_is_, _was_, _were_, etc.). (John is _lazy_. The soldiers were very _eager_.) =Predicate noun.= A noun linked with the subject by some form of the verb _to be_. (John is _halfback._ They were our _neighbors._) =Sentence.= A sentence is a group of words containing (1) a subject (with or without modifiers) and a predicate (with or without modifiers) and not grammatically dependent on any words outside of itself; or (2) two or more such expressions related in thought. Sentences of type 1 are simple or complex; sentences of type 2 are compound. A =simple sentence= contains one independent clause (The dog barks angrily). A =complex sentence= contains one independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses (The dog barks when the thief appears). A =compound sentence= contains two or more independent clauses (The dog barks, and the thief runs). =Substantive.= A noun or a word standing in place of a noun. (The _king_ summoned _parliament_. The _bravest_ are the _tenderest_. _She_ was inconsolable.) A =substantive phrase= is a phrase used as a noun. (_From Dan to Beersheba_ is a term for the whole of Israel.) A =substantive clause= is a clause used as a noun. (_That he owed the money_ is certain.) =Syntax.= Construction; the grammatical relation between the words, phrases, and clauses in a sentence. =Verbal.= Any form of the verb used as another part of speech. Infinitives, gerunds, and participles are verbals. They are used to express action without asserting it, and cannot, therefore, have subjects or be used as predicate verbs. =Abridged Conjugation of the verb _to take_= =Tense= =Active Voice= =Passive Voice= =Indicative Mode= =Present= I take I am taken =Past= I took I was taken =Future= I shall (will) take I shall (will) be taken =Perfect= I have taken I have been taken =Past Perfect= I had taken I had been taken =Future Perfect= I shall (will) have taken I shall (will) have been taken =Subjunctive Mode= =Present= If I take If I be taken =Past= If I took If I were taken =Perfect= If I have taken If I have been taken =Past Perfect= If I had taken If I had been taken =Imperative Mode= =Present= Take =Modal Aspects= (Modal aspects, formed by combining auxiliaries with the main verb, give special meanings--emphatic, progressive, etc.--to the primary modes. Since there are almost as many aspects as there are auxiliaries, only a few can be enumerated here.) =Tense= =Active Voice= =Passive Voice= { =Emphatic:= I do take { =Progressive:= I am taking I am being taken =Present= { =Contingent:= I may take I may be taken =Indicative= { =Potential:= I can take I can be taken { =Obligative:= I must take I must be taken { =Etc.= { =Emphatic:= I did take { =Progressive:= I was taking I was being taken =Past= { =Contingent:= I might take I might be taken =Indicative= { =Potential:= I could take I could be taken { =Obligative:= I must take I must be taken { =Etc.= { =Emphatic:= If I do take { =Progressive:= If I be taking =Present= { =Contingent:= If I might take =Subjunctive= { =Potential:= If I could take { =Obligative:= If I must take { =Etc.= =Present= { =Emphatic:= Do take =Imperative= { =Progressive:= Be taking =Verbals= =Infinitive= =Active Voice= =Passive Voice= =Present:= To take To be taken =Perfect:= To have taken To have been taken =Gerund= =Present:= Taking Being taken =Perfect:= Having taken Having been taken =Participle= =Present:= Taking Being taken =Past:= Taken =Perfect:= Having taken Having been taken Exercise: Copy a page of good prose from any book, leaving wide spaces between the lines. Indicate the part of speech of every word. This may be done by abbreviations placed beneath the words. For example: "Von Arden, having fallen into a very unquiet _noun_ _part._ _prep._ _art._ _adv._ _adj._ slumber, dreamed that he was an aged man _noun_ _verb_ _conj._ _pers pro._ _verb_ _art._ _adj._ _noun_ who stood beside a window." _rel. pro._ _verb_ _prep._ _art._ _noun_ =59.= EXERCISE IN GRAMMAR =A. Case of Pronouns= Determine the correct form of the pronoun. 1. It is (I, me). 2. No one knows better than (she, her). 3. Then came the whistle for Gerald and (I, me). 4. It was (they, them). 5. Alice can drive a car as well as (he, him). 6. It was (she, her) (who, whom) you saw on the car. 7. John, you may go with Dan and (I, me). 8. If I were (she, her), I could not think of accepting the questionable honor. 9. One evening four of (we, us) girls decided to go to the theater. 10. Others are older than (we, us). 11. (Who, Whom) do you imagine will be our next president? 12. He does not approve of (our, us) walking on the grass. 13. Counsel will be given to (they, them) who ask for it. 14. That seems strange to you and (I, me). 15. Her mother has more regular features than (she, her). 16. Women (who, whom) some people would call "quiet" are often the wisest. 17. Between you and (I, me), I'm hungry. 18. The thought of (it, its) coming by parcel post never entered my mind. 19. He never discovered (who, whom) his enemy was. 20. In case of a fumble, the ball is given to (whoever, whomever) recovers it. =B. Agreement= Determine the correct form of the verb. 1. He (don't, doesn't) care for music. 2. The swimming, boating, and fishing (is, are) good. 3. Each one of the two hands of the clock (is, are) made of gold. 4. The ore is sorted and the cars having good ore (is, are) hauled to the smelter. 5. A deck of ordinary playing cards consisting of fifty-two cards (is, are) used. 6. It is safe to say that only one out of every ten of the great number of students (realizes, realize) the value of economy. 7. In spite of all obstacles, the construction of the three hundred trestles and the twenty scaffolds (was, were) completed. 8. Some nights may seem still, yet there (is, are) always noises. 9. The exact meaning of such words as _inspiration_, _prophecy_, and _orthodox_ (puzzles, puzzle) laymen. 10. Hard roads (is, are) an important matter to all country people. 11. There (has, have) been many lives lost in Arctic exploration. 12. Personal gifts inspired by good will and directed by careful thought (is, are) the very best kind of charity. 13. In Lincoln's replies to Douglas there (is, are) no flights or oratory. 14. The conciseness of these lines (is, are) to be admired. 15. A constant stream of wagons and horses (was, were) passing as the circus was unloaded. 16. Nevertheless there (exists, exist) a certain class of students who are socially submerged. 17. She (doesn't, don't) care for olives. 18. "Current Events" (is, are) a very useful department of this magazine. 19. No people (lives, live) in that house. 20. The corporal, together with two other members of the patrol, (was, were) captured by the enemy. =C. _Shall_ and _Will_, _Should_ and _Would_= Determine the correct form of the verb. 1. Perhaps I (shall, will) be able to go. 2. I tell you, I (shall will) not allow that dog in the car. 3. It is odd what a person (shall, will) do in a time of excitement. 4. They have never seen anything like it, and probably they never (shall, will). 5. "Johnny, you (shall, will) not go!" Johnny knew that further begging was useless. 6. As we (shall, will) find by investigation, our coast fortifications are few. 7. I (shouldn't, wouldn't) do that for anything. 8. I (should, would) think you (should, would) enjoy your bicycle. 9. (Shall, will) you go driving with us? 10. Do you think it (shall, will) rain? 11. Where (shall, will) I hang my hat? 12. (Should, would) you go if I (should, would) ask you? 13. Rover (should, would) stay in the house all the time, if we (should, would) let him. 14. I promised that I (should, would) be at the station early, lest we (should, would) miss the train. 15. You (shall, will) have much trouble with that cold, I'm afraid. =D. _Lie_, _lay_; _sit_, _set_; _rise_, _raise_= Fix in mind the following principal parts: I lie I lay I have lain I lay I laid I have laid I sit I sat I have sat I set I set I have set I rise I rose I have risen I raise I raised I have raised _Lie_, _sit_, _rise_ are used intransitively; _lay_, _set_, _raise_ are used transitively. _Lay_, _set_, _raise_ are causatives; that is, _to lay_ means _to cause to lie_, etc. Insert a correct form of the verb _lie_ or _lay_: 1. I ---- here and watch the clouds. My dog is ----ing at my feet. 2. In the evening I ---- aside all cares. I ---- down on the couch and read. Yesterday I ---- there an hour. 3. The children have ---- in bed until seven o'clock. John has ---- his coat on a chair. He ---- there asleep now. 4. ---- the shovel down. The garden is now ---- out in rows. ---- down and take a little rest. 5. Smoke ---- along the horizon. Snow was ----ing here yesterday. He is ----ing plans for the future. Insert a correct form of the verb _sit_ or _set_: 6. Jerome ---- the box on the floor. Then he ---- on the box. 7. Four people are ----ing at the table. Who ---- the lamp there? 8. I had ---- there an hour. They had ---- the pitcher outside the door. 9. I often ---- up late. Last night I ---- up late. I must ----the alarm clock. 10. ---- the package down. ---- down and rest. While we are ----ing there the gardener is ----ing out the plants. Insert a correct form of the verb _rise_ or _raise_: 11. ---- up and speak! ---- the window. 12. He quickly ---- his head. The cork had gone under, but now it ---- again to the surface. 13. During the night the bread ---- to the top of the pan. 14. The invalid slowly ---- himself in his bed. 15. The river has already ---- and overflowed its banks. =E. Principal Parts of Verbs= In the following sentences supply the correct form of the verb. 1. He ---- (past tense of _come_) to this country in 1887. 2. He has ---- (past participle of _eat_) breakfast and ---- (past participle of _go_) to the office. 3. Have you ---- (past participle of _ride_) far? I have ----(past participle of _drive_) ten miles. 4. I am sure it was Henry who ---- (past tense of _do_) it, for I ---- (past tense of _see_) him running away as fast as he could go. 5. The wind has ---- (past participle of _tear_) down the chimney and ---- (past participle of _blow_) down the tree. 6. After he ---- (past tense of _lie_) down, he remembered he had left his books ---- (present participle of _lie_) in the orchard. 7. He ---- (past tense of _throw_) the ball so hard that the window was ---- (past participle of _break_) into a hundred pieces. 8. The man ---- (past tense of _give_) warning before we had ---- (past participle of _go_) too far. 9. After we had ---- (past participle of _ride_) about ten miles we ---- (past tense of _come_) upon a stretch of hard road. 10. Where ---- (past tense of _be_) you? You ----n't (past tense of _be_) at home when I ---- (past tense of _ring_) the bell. 11. The harness was ---- (past participle of _break_ or _burst_) beyond repair. Who ---- (past tense of _break_) it? 12. I ---- (past tense of _take_) four shots at the rabbit, but every shot ---- (past tense of _go_) wild. 13. He has ---- (past participle of _swim_) across the harbor, and has ---- (past participle of _break_) the record. 14. I had ---- (past participle of _drink_) buttermilk for several weeks. I ---- (past tense of _begin_) to gain weight. 15. When we had ---- (past participle of _sit_) there an hour and ---- (past participle of _eat_) all we wanted, Jim ---- (past tense of _draw_) out his purse and ---- (past tense of _give_) the waiter a dollar. =F. General= Improve the grammar of the following sentences. 1. Those kind of lamps are ugly. 2. It don't interest me any more. 3. Nobody may enter the hall tonight without their admittance cards. 4. One does not need to strain their ears while at the movies. 5. Nearly all people eat too much, too fast, and too irregular. 6. Don't take this letter too serious. 7. He done the best he could with these kind of tools. 8. Every person with a cold was blowing their nose. 9. It would help considerable if you would speak to the manager about existing conditions. 10. If I were the mayor, I could not do as good as he does. 11. Talk polite to your customers. 12. It is important that a salesman has a good memory. 13. Each tube must be capable of withstanding a pressure of five hundred pounds per square inch before they are lowered into place. 14. She is as tall, if not taller, than he is. 15. He always has and always will say that. 16. He is one of the worst, if not the very worst, player on the team. 17. Final examinations require time and study that would not otherwise be done. 18. I feel badly. He talks rude. It smells fragrantly. DICTION =Wordiness= =60. Avoid wordiness. Strike out words not essential to the thought.= Roundabout impersonal construction: There are many interesting things which may be seen in New York. [12 words.] Better: Many interesting things may be seen in New York. [9 words.] Clause to be reduced to a phrase: The skeleton which stood in the office of Dr. Willard was terrifying to little Cecil. [15 words.] Right: The skeleton in Dr. Willard's office was terrifying to little Cecil. [11 words.] Clause and phrase each to be reduced to a word: Men who cared only for their individual interests were now in a state of discouragement. [15 words.] Right: Selfish men were now discouraged. [5 words.] Separate predication in excess: That day I was shocking wheat behind the binder. Shocking wheat behind the binder was my usual job in harvest. That day while I was working at this job, I found a nest full of partridge eggs. [37 words.] Right: That day, while shocking wheat behind the binder, my usual job in harvest, I found a nest full of partridge eggs. [21 words.] Ponderous scientific terms for simple ideas: Since, according to the physicists, the per cent of efficiency of a machine is equal to the amount of energy put in, divided by the amount of useful work performed, it naturally follows that in all human activities, unnecessary friction, since it lowers the amount of nervous energy, is going to lower the per cent of efficiency. While we may never reach an astonishing degree of efficiency by economizing nervous energy, nevertheless, if we consistently and perseveringly try to spare ourselves all unnecessary labor and exertion, we shall have an abundant supply of energy to direct into channels of usefulness. [100 words.] Right: If we economize our strength, we can make our actions more efficient and useful. [14 words.] Inflated writing: She was supreme in beauty among the daughters of Eve whom his ravished eyes had hitherto beheld. [17 words.] Right: She was the most beautiful woman he had ever seen. [10 words.] Note.--A special form of wordiness is tautology--the useless repetition of an idea in different words. Gross tautology: He had an entire monopoly of the whole fruit trade. [This is like saying "black blackbird."] Right: He had a monopoly of the fruit trade. Tautological expressions: this here where at return back ascend up repeat again biography of his life good benefits fellow playmates Hallowe'en evening important essentials indorse on the back connect up meet up with combined together perfectly all right utter absence of quite round absolutely annihilated still continue to absolutely new creation necessary requisite total effect of all this Exercise: 1. The people who act the parts in a play want the people who witness the performance to applaud them. 2. There is an oily grass which is found on the prairie, and which is called mesquite grass, and it covers the prairie. 3. You wish to call the operator. You take the receiver from the hook. By taking the receiver from the hook you call the operator. 4. At last the employer of the men, and those who were employed by him, having compromised their difficulties, effected a settlement, and reached an amicable understanding agreeable to both parties. 5. The two merchants joined up their forces together in order to secure a monopoly of the entire trade of the village. There was one absolutely essential preliminary which they thought must necessarily precede everything else. It was that they should take all the old shop-worn articles and dispose of them by selling them as bargains at a reduced rate. =Triteness= =61. Avoid trite or hackneyed expressions.= Such expressions may be tags from everyday speech (_the worse for wear_, _had the time of my life_); or stale phrases from newspapers (_taken into custody_, _the officiating clergyman_); or humorous substitutions (_ferocious canine_, _paternal ancestor_); or forced synonyms (_gridiron heroes_, _the Hoosier metropolis_); or conventional fine writing (_reigns supreme_, _wind kissed the tree-tops_); or oft-repeated euphemisms (_limb_ for _leg_, _pass away_ for _die_); or overworked quotations from literature (_monarch of all I survey_, _footprints on the sands of time_). List of trite expressions: along these lines meets the eye feathered songsters a long-felt want the last sad rites launched into eternity last but not least doomed to disappointment at one fell swoop sadder but wiser did justice to a dinner a goodly number budding genius beggars description a dull thud silence broken only by wended their way abreast of the times trees stood like sentinels method in his madness sun-kissed meadows tired but happy hoping you are the same nipped in the bud the happy pair seething mass of humanity specimen of humanity with bated breath green with envy the proud possessor too full for utterance a pugilistic encounter conspicuous by its absence with whom they come in contact exception proves the rule favor with a selection as luck would have it more easily imagined than described where ignorance is bliss Exercise: 1. Halleck returned from his trip considerably the worse for wear. 2. The baby whom she had promised to keep quiet proved to be a foeman worthy of her steel. 3. I first saw the light of day in New Orleans. It was in the Crescent City also that my dear mother passed away. 4. Americans come off second best in a vocalizing encounter with umlauted _u_, while Germans and Frenchmen wage sanguinary battles with our _th_. 5. The daily scramble for dear life to get aboard a trolley was like taking arms against a sea of troubles. Even standing room was conspicuous by its absence. Sheridan began to think along the line of getting to the office in some other way. =The Exact Word= =62. Find the exact word. Do not be content with a loose meaning. Seek the verb, the noun, the adjective, the adverb, or the phrase which expresses your thought with precision.= Such words as _said_, _proposition_, and _nice_ are often used too loosely. Observe the possible gain in definiteness by substitution. For _said_ (verb): _declared_, _related_, _insisted_, _exclaimed_, _added_, _repeated_, _replied_, _admitted_, _commented_, _corrected_, _protested_, _explained_, _besought_, _interrupted_, _inquired_, _stammered_, _sighed_, _murmured_, or _thundered_. For _proposition_ (noun): _transaction_, _undertaking_, _venture_, _recourse_, _suggestion_, _overture_, _proposal_, _proffer_, _convenience_, _difficulty_, _thesis_, or _doctrine_. For _nice_ (adjective): _discriminating_, _precise_, _fastidious_, _dainty_, _neat_, _pretty_, _pleasant_, _fragrant_, _delicious_, _well-behaved_, _good_, or _moral_. Inexact verb: He had not sufficiently _regarded_ the difficulties of the task [Use _considered_]. Inexact noun: Promptness is an _item_ which a manager should possess [Use _quality_]. Inexact adjective: He looked _awfully funny_ when I told him he had made a mistake [Use _surprised_]. Inexact phrasing throughout: Health is first in every line of activity. A man who has it does not hold it with enough respect, and make efforts enough to keep it. Right: Health is indispensable to success in any work. Even those who have it do not realize its value. Exercise: 1. He was proud of the honorable record he had gained. 2. He resolved that some day he would be a banker, and I shall tell you how he tried to do so. 3. Isn't the sunset grand? Isn't it nice to be out of doors? 4. The mystery as to which ones of the piano keys to play was hard for him to acquire. 5. If the package comes by freight, you must negotiate the proposition of getting it home; but if it comes by express, the delivery is done free. =Concreteness= =63. Concrete words are often more effective than vague, general, or abstract words.= Not specific: She held herself aloof from her brothers' games and amusements. Concrete: She never played soldier or sailed paper boats with her brothers. No appeal to the senses: I liked to watch the servant girl as she moved about the kitchen, preparing our morning repast. Concrete: I liked to watch Norah as she fried our crisp breakfast bacon and browned our buckwheat cakes. Flat, not readily visualized: The first inhabitants overcame the barriers to settlement about a century ago. Concrete: Rough backwoodsmen broke through the underbrush and swamp-land a century ago. Exercise: 1. The scientist discovered a bird in a tree. 2. Our hostess set before us many good things to eat. 3. The sailor was carving queer figures on a piece of soft wood. 4. The night watchman heard something that made him suspicious. 5. I stood at the door of the shop to watch the astonishing things the blacksmith was doing. =Sound= =64. Avoid the frequent repetition of a sound, especially if it be harsh or unpleasant.= Bad: He is an exceedingly orderly secretary. Better: As a secretary he is very systematic. [Or] The secretary is very systematic. Bad: Immediately the squirrel hid himself behind the hickory tree. Better: Immediately the squirrel dodged behind the hickory tree. Unfortunate rime: Bert did not dare to go home with wet hair. Better: Bert did not dare to go home with his hair wet. [Or] Bert was afraid to go home with wet hair. Exercise: 1. That Christmas happened to be unusually happy. 2. I fear we must sit near the rear of the room. 3. The Jackies went clambering and scurrying up the rigging. 4. The ship slips anchor while the idlers sip tea on the deck. 5. The third treasure-seeker heard a thud. His pick had struck an obstruction. =Subtle Violations of Good Use: Faulty Idioms, Colloquialisms= =65. Avoid subtle violations of good use, particularly (a) faulty idioms and (b) colloquialisms.= =a. Make your expression conform to English idiom.= A faulty idiom is an expression which, though correct in grammar and general meaning, combines words in a manner contrary to usage. Idioms are established by custom, and cannot be explained by logical rules. "I enjoy to read" is wrong, not because the words offend logic or grammar, but merely because people do not instinctively make that combination of words. "I like to read" and "I enjoy reading" are good idioms. =Faulty Idioms= =Correct Idioms= in the city Toledo in the city of Toledo in the year of 1920 in the year 1920 I hope you a good time I wish you a good time the Rev. Hopkins the Reverend Mr. Hopkins possessed with ability possessed of ability stay to home stay at home different than different from independent from independent of in search for in search of Observe that many idioms are concerned with prepositions. Make sure that a verb or adjective is accompanied by the right preposition. Study the following list of correct idioms: accused of (a theft) accused by (a person) accord with (a person) agree with (a person) agree to (a proposal) agreeable to angry at (things or persons) angry with (a person) careful about (an affair) careful of (one's money) comply with convenient to (a person) convenient for (a purpose) correspond to (things) correspond with (persons) dissent from enamored of entrust to free from listen to part from (a person) part with (a thing) pleased with resolve on sympathize with take exception to =b. Do not carry the standards of conversation into formal writing.= Colloquial usage is more free than literary usage. The colloquial sentence _That's the man I talked with_ becomes in writing _That is the man with whom I talked._ The colloquial sentence _It was a cold day but there wasn't any wind blowing_ is a loose string of words. Written discourse requires greater tension and more care in subordinating minor ideas: _The day, though cold, was still._ Contractions are proper in conversation, and in personal or informal writing. In formal writing they are not appropriate. And do not let such expressions as _He doesn't_, _We aren't_, _It's proved_, used in talk by careful speakers, mislead you into expressions like _He don't_, _We ain't_, _It's proven_, which violate even colloquial good use. Exercise: 1. He confessed of his inability to comply to the demand. 2. Is he from Irish descent? Is humor characteristic with the Irish? 3. She was not to home, but I was reluctant against leaving. 4. He dissented to the opinion of the committee's majority, for his ideas were utterly different than theirs. 5. He got a few jobs as a carpenter that summer, but they didn't pay him much, and so he went to loafing around, and he's been at it ever since. =Gross Violations of Good Use: Barbarisms, Improprieties, Slang= =66. Avoid gross violations of good use, particularly (a) barbarisms, (b) improprieties, and (c) slang.= =a. Barbarisms are distortions of words in good use, or coinages for which there is no need.= Examples: _to concertize_, _to burgle_ or _burglarize_, _to jell_, _alright_, _a-plenty_, _most_ (for _almost_), _performess_, _fake_, _pep_, _tasty_, _illy_, _complected_, _undoubtably_, _nowheres_, _soph_, _lab_, _gents_. =b. Improprieties are words wrenched from one part of speech to another, or made to perform an unnatural service.= Examples: _to suspicion_, _to gesture_, _to suicide_, _a steal_, _a try_, _a go_, _an invite_, _the eats_, _humans_, _some_ or _real_ or _swell_ (as adverbs), _like_ (as a conjunction). =c. Slang is speech consisting either of uncouth expressions of illiterate origin, or of legitimate expressions used in grotesque or irregular senses.= Though sometimes (witness eighteenth century _mob_, and nineteenth century _buncombe_) it satisfies a real need and becomes established in the language, in most instances it is short-lived (witness the thieves' talk in _Oliver Twist_, or passages from any comic opera song popular five years ago). Vicious types of slang are: Expressions of vulgar origin (from criminal classes, the prize ring, the vaudeville circuit, etc.): _get pinched_, _down and out_, _took the count_, _bum hunch_, _nix on the comedy stuff_, _get across_. Language strained or distorted for novel effect: _performed the feed act at a bang-up gastronomic emporium_, _bingled a tall drive that made the horsehide ramble out into center garden_. Blanket expressions used as substitutes for thinking: _corking_, _stunning_, _ain't it fierce?_, _can you beat it?_, _going some_, _just so I get by with it_. The use of the last-named type is most to be regretted. It leads to a mental habit of phonographic repetition, with no resort to independent thinking. If a man really desires to use slang, let him invent new expressions every day, and make them fit the specific occasion. Exercise: 1. I disremember what sort of an outfit he wore. 2. Helen's as light-complected a girl as you'll run across, I calculate. 3. His ad brought a first-rate gent to hold down the job. 4. Thompson hasn't stability, or it seems like it. He ain't got no gumption. He's too easy enthused. 5. The grub was to of cost us two bits, but we didn't have the dough. We gets outside the food, and when the cashier ain't lookin', we runs out the door and beats it. =Words Often Confused in Meaning= =67. Do not confuse or interchange the meanings of the following words:= =_Accept_ and _except_.= _Accept_ means _to receive_; _except_ as a verb means _to exclude_ and as a preposition means _with the exception of_. =_Affect_ and _effect_.= _Affect_ is not used as a noun; _effect_ as a noun means _result_. As verbs, _affect_ means _to influence in part_; _effect_ means _to accomplish totally_. "His story affected me deeply." "The Russians effected a revolution." _Affect_ also has a special meaning _to feign_. "She had an affected manner." =_Allusion_ and _illusion_.= _Allusion_ means _a reference_; _illusion_ means a _deceptive appearance_. "A Biblical allusion." "An optical illusion." =_Already_ and _all ready_.= _Already_ means _by this time_ or _beforehand_; _all ready_ means _wholly ready_. "I have already invited him." "Dinner is all ready." "We are all ready for dinner." =_Altogether_ and _all together_.= _Altogether_ means _wholly_, _entirely_; _all together_ means _collectively, in a group_. "He is altogether honest." "The King sent the people all together into exile." =_Can_ and _may_.= _Can_ means _to be able_; _may_ means _to have permission_. _Can_ for _may_ has a certain colloquial standing, but is condemned by literary usage. =_Emigrate_ and _immigrate_.= _Emigrate_ means _to go out from a country_; _immigrate_ means _to enter into a country_. The same man may be an _emigrant_ when he leaves Europe, and an _immigrant_ when he enters America. =_Healthy_ and _healthful_.= _Healthy_ means _having health_; _healthful_ means _giving health_. "Milk is healthful." "The climate of Colorado is healthful." "The boy is healthy." =_Hanged_ and _hung_.= _Hanged_ is the correct past tense of _hang_ in the sense _put to death, hanged on the gallows_; _hung_ is the correct past tense for the general meaning _suspended_. =_Hygienic_ and _sanitary_.= Both words mean _pertaining to health_. _Hygienic_ is used when the condition is a matter of personal habits or rules; _sanitary_ is used when the condition is a matter of surroundings (water supply, food supply, sewage disposal, etc.) or the relations of numbers of people. =_Instants_ and _instance_.= _Instants_ means _small portions of time_; _instance_ means _an example_. =_Later_ and _latter_.= _Later_ means _more late_; _latter_ means _the second in a series of two_. "The latter" is used in conjunction with the phrase "the former." =_Lead_ and _led_.= _Led_ is the past tense of the verb _to lead_. _Lead_ is the present tense. =_Learn_ and _teach_.= _Learn_ means _to get knowledge of_; _teach_ means _to give knowledge of_ or _to_. "The instructor _teaches_ (not _learns_) me physics." "He learns his lessons easily." =_Leave_ and _let_.= _Leave_ means _to abandon_; _let_ means _to permit_. =_Less_ and _fewer_.= _Less_ refers to quantity; _fewer_ refers to number. "He has _fewer_ (not _less_) horses than he needs." =_Liable_, _likely_, and _apt_.= _Likely_ merely predicts; _liable_ conveys the additional idea of harm or responsibility. _Apt_ applies usually to persons, in the sense of _having natural capability_, and sometimes to things, in the sense of _fitting_, _appropriate_. "It is likely to be a pleasant day." "I fear it is liable to rain." "He is liable for damages." "He is an apt lad at his books." "That is an apt phrase." =_Lie_ and _lay_.= _Lay_, a transitive verb, means _to cause to lie_. "I lay the book on the table and it lies there." "Now I lay me down to sleep." A source of confusion between the two words is that the past tense of _lie_ is _lay_: I lie down to sleep. I lay the book on the table. I lay there yesterday. I laid it there yesterday. I have lain here for hours. I have laid it there many times. =_Like_ and _as_ or _as if_.= _Like_ is in good use as a preposition, and may be followed by a noun; _as_ is in good use as a conjunction, and may be followed by a clause. "He is tall like his father." "He is tall, as his father is." "It looks _as if_ (not _like_) it were going to rain." =_Lose_ and _loose_.= _Lose_ means _to cease having_; _loose_ as a verb means _to set free_, and as an adjective, _free, not bound_. =_Majority_ and _plurality_.= In a loose sense, _majority_ means the _greater part_. More strictly, it means the number by which votes cast for one candidate exceed those of the opposition. A _plurality_ is the excess of votes received by one candidate over his nearest competitor. In an election A receives 500 votes; B, 400 votes; and C, 300 votes. A has a plurality of 100, but no majority. =_Practical_ and _practicable_.= _Practical_ means _not theoretical_; _practicable_ means _capable of being put into practice_. "A practical man." "The arrangement is practicable." =_Principal_ and _principle_.= _Principal_ as an adjective means _chief_ or _leading_; _principle_ as a noun means a _general truth_. _Principal_ as a noun means a _sum of money_, or the _chief official of a school_. =_Proof_ and _evidence_.= In a law court, _proof_ is _evidence sufficient to establish a fact_; _evidence_ is _whatever is brought forward in an attempt to establish a fact_. "The evidence against the prisoner was extensive, but hardly proof of his guilt." In ordinary speech, _proof_ is sometimes loosely used as a synonym for _evidence_. =_Pseudo-_ and _quasi-_.= As a prefix, _pseudo-_ means _false_; _quasi-_ means literally _as if_, hence _seeming_, _so-called_. "Phrenology is a pseudo-science." "A quasi-evolutionary doctrine." =_Quiet_ and _quite_.= _Quiet_ is an adjective meaning _calm_, _not noisy_; _quite_ is an adverb meaning _entirely_. =_Respectfully_ and _respectively_.= _Respectfully_ means _in a courteous manner_; _respectively_ means _in a way proper to each_. "Yours _respectfully_" (not _respectively_). "He handed the commissions to Gray and Hodgins respectively." =_Rise_ and _raise_.= _Rise_ is an intransitive verb; _raise_ is a transitive verb. "I rise to go home." "I raise vegetables." "I raise the stone from the ground." =_Sit_ and _set_.= _Set_, a transitive verb, means _to cause to sit_. "He sets it in the corner and it sits there." The past tense of _sit_ is _sat_. I sit down. I always set it in its place. He sat in this very chair. I set it in its place yesterday. He has sat there an hour. I have always set it just here. =_Stationary_ and _stationery_.= _Stationary_ is an adjective meaning _fixed_; _stationery_ is a noun meaning _writing material_. =_Statue_, _stature_, and _statute_.= _Statue_ means a _carved_ or _moulded figure_; _stature_ means _height_; _statute_ means a _law_. Exercise: 1. Insert _affect_ or _effect_: Noise does not ---- my studying. It has little ---- on me. By the exercise of will power I was able to ---- a change. 2. Insert _healthy_ or _healthful_: New Mexico has a ---- climate, Graham bread is ----. You will be ---- if you take exercise. 3. Insert _later_ or _latter_: I will see you ----. Here are two plans: the former is complex; the ---- is simple. Sooner or ---- you will learn the rule. 4. Insert _less_ or _fewer_: They have ---- money than we; we have ---- pleasures than they. It seems to me there are ---- accidents. 5. Insert _principal_ or _principle_: The ---- part of a clock is the pendulum, which swings regularly, according to a ---- of science. My ---- reason for trusting him is that he is a man of ----. He is the ---- of the high school. The widow spends the interest on the money, but keeps the ---- intact. =Glossary of Faulty Diction= =68. Avoid faulty diction.= =_Ad_= (for _advertisement_). Avoid in formal writing and speaking. =_Ain't_.= Never correct. Say _I'm not_, _you_ [_we_, _they_] _aren't_, _he_ [_she_, _it_] _isn't_. =_All the farther_, _all the faster_.= Crude. Use _as far as_, _as fast as_, in such sentences as "This is all the farther I can go." =_As_.= (a) Incorrect in the sense of _that_ or _whether_. "I don't know _whether_ (not _as_) I can tell you." "Not _that_ (not _as_) I know." (b) _As ... as_ are correlatives. _Than_ must not replace the second _as_. Right: "As good as or better than his neighbors." "As good as his neighbors, or better [than they]." See 57. =_Auto_.= An abbreviation not desirable in formal writing. =_Awful_.= Means _filling with awe_ or _filled with awe_. Do not use in the sense of _uncivil_, _serious_, or _ludicrous_, or (in the adverbial form) in the sense of _very_, _extremely_. =_Balance_.= Incorrect when used in the sense of _remainder_. =_Because_.= Not to be used for _the fact that_. "_The fact that_ (not _because_) he is absent is no reason why we should not proceed." See 5. =_Between_.= Used of two persons or things. Not to be confused with _among_, which is used of more than two. =_Blame on_.= A crudity for _put the blame on_ or _blame_. Faulty: "Don't blame it on me." Better: "Don't blame me." =_Borned_.= A monstrosity for _born_. "I was _born_ (not _borned_) in 1899." =_Bursted_.= The past tense of _burst_ is the same as the present. =_Bust_ or _busted_.= Vulgar for _burst_. Right: "The balloon burst." "The bank failed." =_But what_.= _That_ is often preferable. "I do not doubt _that_ (not _but what_) he is honest." =_Canine_.= An adjective. Not in good use as a noun. =_Cannot help but_.= A confusion of _can but_ and _cannot help_. "I can but believe you"; or "I cannot help believing you"; not "I cannot help but believe you." See 34. =_Caused by_.= To be used only when it refers definitely to a noun. Wrong: "He was disappointed, caused by the lateness of the train." The noun _disappointment_ should be used instead of the verb _disappointed_. Then caused will have a definite reference. Right: "His disappointment was caused by the lateness of the train." See 23. =_Claim_.= Means _to demand as a right_. Incorrect for _maintain_ or _assert_. =_Considerable_.= An adjective, not an adverb. "He talked _considerably_ (not _considerable_) about it." =_Could of_.= An illiterate form arising from slovenly pronunciation. Use _could have_. Avoid also _may of_, _must of_, _would of_, etc. =_Data_.= Plural. The singular (seldom used) is _datum_. Compare _stratum_, _strata_; _erratum_, _errata_. =_Demean_.= Means _to conduct oneself_, not _to lower_ or _to degrade_. =_Different than_.= _Different from_ is to be preferred. _Than_ is a conjunction. The idea of separation implied in _different_ calls for a preposition, rather than a word of comparison. =_Disremember_.= Not in good use. =_Done_.= A gross error when used as the past tense of _do_, or as an adverb meaning _already_. "_I did it_ (not _I done it_)." "I've _already_ (not _done_) got my lessons." =_Don't_.= A contraction for _do not_; never to be used for _does not_. The contraction of _does not_ is _doesn't_. See 51d. =_Drownded_.= Vulgar for _drowned_. =_Due to_.= To be used only when it refers definitely to a noun. Faulty: "He refused the offer, due to his father's opposition." Right: "His refusal of the offer was due to his father's opposition." The noun _refusal_ should be used instead of the verb _refused_. Then _due_ will have a definite reference. See 5. =_Enthuse_.= Not in good use. =_Etc._= An abbreviation for the Latin _et cetera_, meaning _and other_ [things]. _Et_ means _and_. _And etc._ is therefore grossly incorrect. Do not write _ect._ =_Expect_.= Means _to look forward to_. Hardly correct in the sense of _suppose_. =_Fine_.= Use cautiously as an adjective, and not at all as an adverb. Seek the exact word. See 62. =_Former_.= Means the first or first named of two. Not to be used when more than two have been named. The corresponding word is _latter_. =_For to_.= Incorrect for _to_. "I want _you_ (not _for you_) to listen carefully." "He made up his mind _to_ (not _for to_) accept." =_Gent_.= A vulgar abbreviation of _gentleman_. =_Good_.= An adjective, not an adverb. Wrong: "He did good in mathematics." Right: "He did well in mathematics." "He did good work in mathematics." =_Gotten_.= An old form now usually replaced by _got_ except in such expressions as _ill-gotten gains_. =_Guess_.= Expresses conjecture. Not to be used in formal composition for _think_, _suppose_, or _expect_. =_Had of_.= Illiterate. "I wish I _had known_ (not _had of known_) about it." =_Had ought_.= A vulgarism. "He _ought_ (not _had ought_) to have resigned." "We _oughtn't_ (not _hadn't ought_) to make this error." =_Hardly_.= Not to be used with a negative. See 34. =_Home_.= Do not use when you mean simply _house_. =_Human_ or _humans_.= Not in good use as a noun. Say _human being_. Right: "The house was not fit for _human beings_ (not _humans_) to live in." =_If_.= Do not use for _whether_. "I can't say _whether_ (not _if_) the laundry will be finished today." =_In_.= Often misused for _into_. "He jumped _into_ (not _in_) the pond." =_It's_.= Means _it is_; not to be written for the possessive _its_. =_Kind of_.= (a) Should not modify adjectives or verbs. "He was _somewhat_ (not _kind of_) lean." "_She partly suspected_ (not _She kind of suspected_) what was going on." (b) When using with a noun, do not follow by _a_. "That kind of man"; not "That kind of a man." =_Like_.= To be followed by a substantive; never by a substantive and a verb. "He ran like a deer." "Do _as_ (not _like_) I do." "She felt _as if_ (not _like_) she was going to faint." _Like_ is a preposition; _as_ is a conjunction. =_Literally_.= Do not use where you plainly do not mean it, as in the sentence, "I was literally tickled to death." =_Loan_.= _Lend_ is in better use as a verb. =_Locate_.= Do not use for _settle_ or _establish oneself_. =_Lose out_.= Not used in formal writing. Say _lose_. =_Lots of_.= A mercantile term which has a dubious colloquial standing. Not in good literary use for _many_ or _much_. =_Might of_.= A vulgarism for _might have_. =_Most_.= Do not use for _almost_. "_Almost_ (not _most_) all." =_Myself_.= Intensive or reflexive; do not use when the simple personal pronoun would suffice. "I saw them myself." "Some friends and _I_ (not _myself_) went walking." =_Neither_.= Used with _nor_, and not with _or_. "Neither the man whom his associates had suspected _nor_ (not _or_) the one whom the police had arrested was the criminal." "She could neither paint a good picture _nor_ (not _or_) play the violin well." =_Nice_.= Means _delicate_ or _precise_. _Nice_ is used in a loose colloquial way to indicate general approval, but should not be so used in formal writing. Right: "He displayed nice judgment." "We had a _pleasant_ (not _nice_) time." See 62. =_Nowhere near_.= Vulgar for _not nearly_. =_Nowheres_.= Vulgar. =_O_ and _Oh_.= _O_ is used with a noun in direct address; it is not separated from the noun by any marks of punctuation. _Oh_ is used as an interjection; it is followed by a comma or an exclamation point. "Hear, O king, what thy servants would say." "Oh, dear!" =_Of_.= Do not use for _have_ in such combinations as _should have_, _may have_, _ought to have_. =_Off of_.= _On_, _upon_, or some equivalent expression is usually preferable. =_Ought to of_.= A vulgarism for _ought to have_. =_Over with_.= Crude for _over_. =_Pants_.= _Trousers_ is the approved term in literary usage. _Pants_ (from _pantaloons_) has found some degree of colloquial and commercial acceptance. =_Party_.= Not to be used for _person_, except in legal phrases. =_Phone_.= A contraction not employed in formal writing. Say _telephone_. =_Plenty_.= A noun; not in good use as an adjective or an adverb. "He had _plenty of_ (not _plenty_) resources." "He had _resources in plenty_ (not _resources plenty_)." =_Proposition_.= Means a _thing proposed_. Do not use loosely, as in the sentence: "A berth on a Pullman is a good proposition during a railway journey at night." See 62. =_Proven_.= Prefer _proved_. =_Providing_.= Prefer _provided_ in such expressions as "I will vote for him _provided_ (not _providing_) he is a candidate." =_Quite a_.= Colloquial in such expressions as _quite a while_, _quite a few_, _quite a number_. =_Raise_.= _Rear_ or _bring up_ is preferable in speaking of children. "She _reared_ (not _raised_) seven children." =_Rarely ever_.= Crude for _rarely_, _hardly ever_. =_Real_.= Crude for _very_ or _really_. "She was _very_ (not _real_) intelligent." "He was _really_ (not _real_) brave." =_Remember of_.= Not to be used for _remember_. =_Right smart_ and _Right smart of_.= Extremely vulgar. =_Same_.= No longer used as a pronoun except in legal documents. "He saw her drop the purse and restored _it_ (not _the same_) to her." =_Scarcely_.= Not to be used with a negative. See 34. =_Seldom ever_.= Crude for _seldom_, _hardly ever_. =_Shall_.= Do not confuse with _will_. See 53. =_Sight_.= _A sight_ or _a sight of_ is very crude for _many_, _much_, _a great deal of_. "_A great many_ (not _a sight_) of them." =_So_.= Not incorrect, but loose, vague, and often unnecessary. (a) As an intensive, the frequent use of _so_ has been christened "the feminine demonstrative." Hackneyed: "I was so surprised." Better: "I was much surprised." Or, "I was surprised." (b) As a connective, the frequent use of _so_ is a mark of amateurishness. See 36 Note. =_Some_.= Not to be used as an adverb. "She was _somewhat_ (not _some_) better the next day." Wrong: "He studied some that night." Right: "He did some studying that night." =_Somewheres_.= Very crude. Use _somewhere_. =_Species_.= Has the same form in singular and plural. "He discovered a new _species_ (not _specie_) of sunflower." =_Such_.= (a) To be completed by _that_, rather than by _so that_, when a result clause follows. "There was such a crowd _that_ (not _so that_) he did not find his friends." (b) To be completed by _as_, rather than by _that_, _who_, or _which_, when a relative clause follows. "I will accept such arrangements _as_ (not _that_) may be made." "He called upon such soldiers _as_ (not _who_) would volunteer for this service to step forward." =_Superior than_.= Not in good use for _superior to_. =_Sure_.= Avoid the crude adverbial use. "It _surely_ (not _sure_) was pleasant." In answer to the question, "Will you go?" either _sure_ or _surely_ is correct, though _surely_ is preferred. "[To be] sure." "[You may be] sure." "[I will] surely [go]." =_Suspicion_.= A noun. Never to be used as a verb. =_Take and_.= Often unnecessary, sometimes crude. Redundant: "He took the ax and sharpened it." Better: "He sharpened the ax." Crude: "He took and nailed up the box." Better: "He nailed up the box." =_Tend_.= In the sense _to look after_, takes a direct object without an interposed _to_. _Attend_, however, is followed by _to_. "The milliner's assistant _tends_ (not _tends to_) the shop." "I shall _attend to your wants in a moment_." =_That there_.= Do not use for _that_. "I want _that_ (not _that there_) box of berries." =_Them_.= Not to be used as an adjective. "_Those_ (not _them_) boys." =_There were_ or _There was_.= Avoid the unnecessary use. Crude: "There were seventeen senators voted for the bill." Better: "Seventeen senators voted for the bill." =_These sort_, _These kind_.= Ungrammatical. See 51b. =_This here_.= Do not use for _this_. =_Those_.= Do not carelessly omit a relative clause after _those_. Faulty: "He is one of those talebearers." Better: "He is a talebearer." [Or] "He is one of those talebearers whom everybody dislikes." =_Those kind_, _those sort_.= Ungrammatical. See 51b. =_Till_.= Do not carelessly misuse for _when_: "I had scarcely strapped on my skates _when_ (not _till_) Henry fell through an air hole." =_Transpire_.= Means _to give forth_ or _to become known_, not _to occur_. "The secret _transpired_." "The sale of the property _occurred_ (not _transpired_) last Thursday." =_Try_.= A verb, not a noun. =_Unique_.= Means _alone of its kind_, not _odd_ or _unusual_. =_United States_.= Ordinarily preceded by _the_. "The United States raised a large army." (Not "United States raised a large army.") =_Up_.= Do not needlessly insert after such verbs as _end_, _rest_, _settle_. =_Used to could_.= Very crude. Say _used to be able_ or _once could_. =_Very_.= Accompanied by _much_ when used with the past participle. "He was _very much_ (not _very_) pleased with his reception." =_Want to_.= Not to be used in the sense of _should_, _had better_. "You _should_ (not _You want to_) keep in good physical condition." =_Way_.= Not to be used for _away_. "Away (not _way_) down the street." =_Ways_.= Not to be used for _way_ in referring to distance. "A little _way_ (not _ways_)." =_When_.= (a) Not to be used for _that_ in such a sentence as "It was in the afternoon that the races began." (b) A _when_ clause is not to be used as a predicate noun. See 6. =_Where_.= (a) Not to be used for _that_ in such a sentence as "I see in the paper that our team lost the game." (b) A _where_ clause is not to be used as a predicate noun. See 6. =_Where at_.= Vulgar. "Where is he? (not _Where is he at_?)" =_Which_.= Do not use for _who_ or _that_ in referring to persons. "The friends _who_ (not _which_) had loved him in his boyhood were still faithful to him." =_Who_.= Do not use unnecessarily for _which_ or _that_ in referring to animals. Do not use the possessive form _whose_ for _of which_ unless the sentence is so turned as practically to require the substitution. =_Will_.= Do not confuse with _shall_. See 53. =_Win out_.= Not used in formal writing or speaking. =_Woods_.= Not ordinarily to be used as singular. "_A wood_ (not _A woods_)." =_Would have_.= Do not use for _had_ in if clauses. "If you _had_ (not _would have_) spoken boldly, he would have granted your request." =_Would of_.= A vulgarism for _would have_. =_You was_.= Use _You were_ in both singular and plural. =_Yourself_.= Intensive or reflexive; do not use when the personal pronoun would suffice. "_You_ (not _Yourself_) and your family must come." Exercise: 1. Be sure the gun works alright. I was already when you came. 2. He talked considerable, but I couldn't scarcely remember what all he said. 3. I never suspicioned that John could of been guilty of forging his father's note. It don't seem hardly possible. 4. The island was not inhabited by humans. It was different than any place I ever remember of. One sailor and myself climbed a sand hill, but we couldn't see any signs of life anywheres. 5. Hawkeye walked a ways into a woods. He was a right smart at ease, for he had Kildeer with him. =69.= EXERCISE IN DICTION =A. Wordiness= Strike out all that is superfluous, and make the following sentences simple and exact. 1. Some students lack the ability of being able to spell. 2. He seems to enjoy the universal esteem of all men. 3. The mind rebels against the enforced discipline imposed upon it by others. 4. This is the house that was constructed and erected by a young fellow who went by the common name of Jack. 5. There are invariably people in the world who always want to get something for nothing. I saw some today crowding round a soap man who was giving away free samples gratis. 6. Strawberries which grow in the woods or anywhere like that have a flavor that is better than that of those which grow in gardens. 7. The people showed Jackson the greatest honor it is within their power to bestow by electing him president. 8. It was an old man of about sixty years, and he carried a cane to support himself with when he took a walk. He pulled out his watch to see what time it was every few minutes. 9. My favorite magazine is the one called _Popular Mechanics_. I like it because it appeals to me. 10. There is a bird, and that bird is the cuckoo, that seems to think it unnecessary to build its own nest, and so it occupies any nest that it happens to find. 11. It is a good plan to follow if one would like to be able to develop his memory to make it a rule to learn at least a few lines of poetry every night before going to bed. 12. In the annals of history there is no historical character more unselfish than the character of Robert E. Lee. 13. There are quite a few hotels in Estes Park, which is in Colorado, but the one that is the most picturesque and striking so that you remember it a long time on account of its unusual surroundings is Long's Peak Inn. 14. It is often, but not always, a good sign that when one person is quick to suspect another person of disloyalty or dishonesty that he himself is disloyal or dishonest. 15. The canine quadruped was under suspicion of having obliterated by a process of mastication that article of sustenance which the butcher deposits at our posterior portal. =B. The Exact Word= Substitute, for inaccurate words and phrases, expressions which carry an exact and reasonable meaning. 1. Ostrich eggs made into omelets are a funny experience. 2. A small back porch can be built which will enter directly into the kitchen. 3. Ruskin uses a great deal of unfamiliar words. 4. Reading will broaden the point of view of a student. 5. To visit the plant in operation is indeed a spectacular sight. 6. My plants grew and looked nicer than any I ever saw. 7. I place little truth in that article, since it appeared in a strong partisan paper. 8. The manufacturing of automobiles has gained to quite an extent. 9. Emerson has some real clever thoughts in his essays. 10. I do not mean to degrade our local street car system, for indeed, it is good along some lines. 11. I want to attain a greater per cent of efficiency in my study. 12. Imagination is an important part in the successful writing of themes. 13. His employer praised him for the preparation he had done. 14. I used water-wings as a sort of a "safety first" until I learned how to swim. 15. In order to prevent infection from disease, two big things are necessary. 16. The pastor delivered the announcements and after the collection had been obtained, he presented the sermon of the morning. 17. Another factor in my career that winter was that I became a part of the orchestra. 18. It was a mighty nice party that Mrs. Jones gave and everybody seemed to have an awfully nice time. 19. The more general word socialism might be divided into three distinct classes, namely: the political party, the theoretical socialist, and last what might be called a general tendency. 20. Starting with the pioneer days and up to the present time every energy was set forth to lay low the forests and to get homes from the wilderness. =C. Words Sometimes Confused in Meaning= Use the word which accurately expresses the thought. 1. The climate of California is very (healthful, healthy). 2. (Leave, let) me have the book. 3. He is afraid that he will (loose, lose) his position. 4. The (principal, principle) speaker of the day was Colonel Walker. 5. I cannot run (as, like) he can. 6. An hour ago he (laid, lay) down to sleep. 7. I fear we are (liable, likely) to be punished. 8. The scolding did not much (affect, effect) him. 9. The light roller presses down the bricks so that the steam roller will break (fewer, less) of them. 10. Whittier makes many (allusions, illusions) to the Bible. 11. Bread will (raise, rise) much more quickly in a warm place than in a place where there is a draft. 12. It hardly seems (credible, creditable) that a small child could walk ten miles. 13. I can't write a letter on this (stationary, stationery). 14. He (sets, sits) at the head of the table. 15. He spoke to the stranger (respectfully, respectively). 16. Did the president (affect, effect) a settlement of the strike? 17. I cannot (accept, except) help from anyone. 18. Are the guests (already, all ready) for dinner? 19. Is the train moving or (stationary, stationery)? 20. It is (apt, likely, liable) to be pleasant tomorrow. =D. Colloquialism, Slang, Faulty Idiom, etc.= The diction of the following sentences is incorrect or inappropriate for written discourse. Improve the sentences. 1. I was kind of tired this morning, but now I feel alright. 2. I should of known better. 3. A young lady and myself went walking. 4. He is out of town for a couple days. 5. I feel some better now. 6. He will benefit greatly from the results. 7. The Puritans were a very odd acting people. 8. I like camping because of many reasons. 9. Cook your meal, and after you are finished eating, wash the dishes. 10. He is a regular genius of a bookkeeper. 11. It is hard to see how humans can live in such tenements. 12. The soldiers destroyed property without the least regard of who owned it. 13. She was crazy for an invite to the hop. 14. It was up to me to get out before there was something doing. 15. The Gettysburg Address is very simple of understanding though very strong of meaning. 16. When we become located in a desirable locality, we intend to pay off some of our social indebtedness. 17. Have some local glass dealer to mend the broken door, and send us the bill for the same. 18. The first part of Franklin's _Autobiography_ is different than the latter part, which he wrote after the Revolutionary War. 19. In 1771 a fellow by the name of Arkwright established a mill in which spinning machines were run by water power. 20. Each day has brought closer to home the truth that the condition of mankind in one part of the world is certain to effect the equilibrium of mankind in most all other parts of the world. SPELLING No one is able to spell all unusual words on demand. But every one must spell correctly even unusual words in formal writing. The writer has time or must take time to consult a dictionary. The best dictionaries are _Webster's New International Dictionary_, the _Standard Dictionary_ (less conservative than Webster's), the _Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia_ (Volume 2 of the _Century_ is the best place to look for proper names), and _Murray's New English Dictionary_ (very thorough, each word being illustrated with numerous quotations to show historical development). An abridged edition of one of these (the price is one to three dollars) should be accessible to each student who cannot buy the larger volumes. The best are: _Webster's Secondary School Dictionary_, _Funk and Wagnalls Desk Standard Dictionary_, the _Oxford Concise Dictionary_, and _Webster's Collegiate Dictionary_. But the student will be spared constant recourse to the dictionary, and will save himself much time and many humiliations, if he will employ the rules and principles which follow. =Recording Errors= =70. Keep a list of all the words you misspell, copying them several times in correct form.= Concentrate your effort upon a few words at a time--upon those words which you yourself actually misspell. The list will be shorter than you think. It may comprise not more than twenty or thirty words. Unless you are extraordinarily deficient, it will certainly not comprise more than a hundred or a hundred and fifty. Find where your weakness lies; then master it. You can accomplish the difficult part of the task in a single afternoon. An occasional review, and constant care when you write, will make your mastery permanent. After this, and only after this, begin slowly to learn the spelling of words which you do not yourself use often, but which are a desirable equipment for all educated men. See the list under 79. _Concentrate your efforts upon a few words at a time._ It is better to know a few exactly than a large number hazily. Form the mental habit of being always right with a small group of words, and extend this group gradually. Exercise: Prepare for your instructor a corrected list of words which you have misspelled in your papers to the present time. =Pronouncing Accurately= =71. Avoid slovenly pronunciation.= Careful articulation makes for correctness in spelling. Watch the vowels of unaccented syllables; give them distinct (not exaggerated) utterance, at least until you are familiar with the spelling. Examples: _sep=a=rate_, _opp=o=rtunity_, _ever=y=body_, _soph=o=more_, _d=i=vine_. Sound accurately all the consonants between syllables, and do not sound a single consonant twice. Examples: _can=d=idate_, _gover=n=ment_, _su=r=prise_ (not _supp=r=ise_), _o=m=i=ss=ion_ (compare _o=cc=a=s=ion_), _de=f=er_ (compare _di=ff=er_). Sound the _g_ in final _-ing_. Examples: _eating_, _running_. Pronounce the _-al_ of adverbs derived from adjectives in _-ic_ or _-al_. Examples: _tragically_, _occasionally_, _generally_, _ungrammatically_. Do not transpose letters; place each letter where it belongs. Examples: _p=er=spiration_ (not _p=re=spiration_), _tra=g=edy_ (not _tra=d=e=g=y_). Note.--The principle of phonetic spelling as stated above applies to many words, but by no means to all. The Simplified Spelling Board would extend this principle by changing the spelling of words to correspond with their actual sounds. It recommends such forms as _tho_, _thru_, _enuf_, _quartet_, _catalog_, _program_. If the student employs these forms, he must use them consistently. Many writers oppose simplified spelling; many advocate it; many compromise. Others desire to supplant our present alphabet with one more nearly phonetic, and prefer, until this fundamental reform takes place, to preserve our present spelling as it is. Exercise: Copy the following words slowly, pronouncing the syllables as you write: _accidentally_, _accommodate_, _accurately_, _artistically_, _athletics_ (not _atheletics_), _boundary_, _candidate_, _cavalry_, _commission_, _curiosity_, _defer_, _definite_, _description_, _despair_, _different_, _dining room_, _dinned_, _disappoint_, _divide_, _divine_, _emphatically_, _eighth_, _everybody_, _February_, _finally_, _goddess_, _government_, _hundred_, _hurrying_, _instinct_, _laboratory_, _library_, _lightning_, _might have_ (not _might of_), _naturally_, _necessary_, _occasionally_, _omission_, _opinion_, _opportunity_, _optimist_, _partner_, _perform_, _perhaps_, _perspiration_, _prescription_, _primitive_, _privilege_, _probably_, _quantity_, _really_, _recognise_, _recommend_, _reverence_, _separate_, _should have_ (not _should of_), _sophomore_, _strictly_, _superintendent_, _surprise_, _temperance_, _tragedy_, _usually_, _whether_. =Logical Kinship in Words= =72. Get help in spelling a difficult word by thinking of related words.= To think of _ridiculous_ will prevent your writing _a_ for the second _i_ of _ridicule_; to think of _ridicule_ will prevent your writing _rediculous_. To think of _prepare_ will prevent your writing _preperation_; to think of _preparation_ will forestall _preparitory_. To think of _busy_ will save you from the monstrosity _buisness._ To think of the prefixes _re-_ (meaning _again_) and _dis-_ (meaning _not_), and the verbs _commend_ and _appoint_, will prevent your writing _recommend_ or _disappoint_ with a double _c_ or _s_. Note.--The relationship between words is not always a safe guide to spelling. Observe _four_, _forty_; _nine_, _ninth_; _maintain_, _maintenance_; _please_, _pleasant_; _speak_, _speech_; _prevail_, _prevalent_. Do not confuse the following prefixes, which have no logical connection: _ante-_ (before) _anti-_ (against, opposite) _de-_ (from, about) _dis-_ (apart, away, not) _per-_ (through, entirely) _pre-_ (before) Exercise: 1. Write the nouns corresponding to the following verbs: _prepare_, _allude_, _govern_, _represent_, _degrade_. 2. Write the adjectives corresponding to the following nouns and the nouns corresponding to the following adjectives: _desperation_, _academy_, _origin_, _ridiculous_, _miraculous_, _grammatical_, _arithmetical_, _busy_. 3. Write the adverbs corresponding to the following adjectives: _real_, _sure_, _actual_, _hurried_, _accidental_, _incidental_, _grammatical_. 4. Copy the following pairs of related words or related forms of words: _labor, laboratory_; _debate, debater_; _base, based_; _deal, dealt_; _chose, chosen_; _mean, meant_. 5. Write each of the following words with a hyphen between the prefix and the body of the word: _describe_, _description_, _disappoint_, _disappear_, _disease_, _dissatisfy_, _dissever_, _permit_, _perspire_, _prescription_, _preconceive_, _recommend_, _recollect_, _reconsider_, _antedate_, _antecedent_, _anticlimax_, _antitoxin_. =Superficial Resemblances between Words= =73. Guard against misspelling a word because it bears a superficial resemblance, in sound or appearance, to some other word.= Most of the words in the following list have no logical connection; the resemblance is one of form only (_angel_, _angle_). But a few words are included which are different in spelling in spite of a logical relation (_breath_, _breathe_). accept (to receive) except (to exclude, with exclusion of) advice (noun) advise (verb) affect (to influence in part) effect (to bring to pass totally) allusion (a reference) illusion (a deceiving appearance) all right almost already altogether always alley (a back street) ally (a confederate) altar (a structure used in worship) alter (to make otherwise) angel (a celestial being) angle (the meeting place of two lines) baring (making bare) barring (obstructing) bearing (carrying) born (brought into being) borne (carried) breath (noun) breathe (verb) capital (a city) capitol (a building) canvas (a cloth) canvass (to solicit) clothes (garments) cloths (pieces of cloth) coarse (not fine) course (route, method of behavior) conscious (aware) conscience (an inner moral sense) dairy diary device (noun) devise (verb) desert (a barren country) dessert (food) dining room dinning disappear disappoint disavowal dissatisfaction dissimilar dissipate dissuade decent (adjective) descent (downward slope or motion) dissent (a disagreement) dual (adjective) duel (noun) formally (in a formal way) formerly (in time past) forth forty four fourth freshman freshmen (not used as adjective) gambling (wagering money on games of chance) gamboling (frisking or leaping with joy) guard regard hear here hinder hindrance holly (a tree) holy (hallowed, sacred) wholly (altogether) hoping (from _hope_) hopping instance (an example) instants (periods of time) isle (an island) aisle (a narrow passage) its (possessive pronoun) it's (contraction of _it is_) Johnson, Samuel Jonson, Ben later (comparative of _late_) latter (the second) lead (present tense) led (past tense) lessen (verb) lesson (noun) liable (expresses responsibility or disagreeable probability) likely (expresses probability) loose (free, not bound) lose (to suffer the loss of) maintain maintenance nineteenth ninetieth ninety ninth past (adjective, adverb, preposition) passed (verb, past tense) peace (a state of calm) piece (a fragment) perceive perform persevere persuade purchase pursue personal (private, individual) personnel (the body of persons engaged in some activity) Philippines Filipino plain (clear; adjective) plain (flat region; noun) plane (flat; adjective) plane (geometrical term; noun) planed (past tense of _plane_) planned (past tense of _plan_) pleasant please precede proceed } succeed } these three are the exceed } "double _e_ group" concede intercede recede supersede pre cé dence (act or right of preceding) préc e dents (things said or done before, now used as authority or model) presence (state of being present) presents (gifts) prevail prevalent principal (chief, leading, the leading official of a school, a sum of money) principle (a general truth) quiet (still) quite (completely) rain reign (rule of a monarch) rein (part of a harness) respectfully ("Yours respectfully") respectively (in a way proper to each--should never be used to close a letter) right rite (ceremony) write shone (past tense of _shine_) shown (past tense of _show_) seize siege sight (view, spectacle) site (situation, a plot of ground reserved for some use) cite (to bring forward as evidence) speak speech Spencer, Herbert (scientist) Spenser, Edmund (poet) stationary (not moving) stationery (writing materials) statue (a sculptured likeness) stature (height, figure) statute (a law) steal (to take by theft) steel (a variety of iron) than then their (belonging to them) there (in that place) they're (they are) therefor (to that end, for that thing) therefore (for that reason) till until to too two track (an imprint, or a road) tract (an area of land) tract (a treatise on religion) village villain wandering wondering weak (not strong) week (seven days) weather whether whole (entire) hole (an opening) who's (who is) whose (the possessive of _who_) your (indicates possession) you're (contraction of _you are_) Exercise: 1. Insert _to_, _too_, or _two_: He is ---- tired ---- walk the ----miles ---- the town. Then ----, it is ---- late ---- catch a car. It is ---- minutes of ----. It is ---- bad. 2. Insert _lose_ or _loose_: You will ---- your money if you carry it ---- in your pocket. We are ----ing time. The sailor ----ens the rope. Did you ---- your ticket? 3. Insert _speak or speech_: I was ----ing with our congressman about his recent ----. I ---- from experience. 4. Insert _plan_ or _plane_: The architect's ---- was accepted. The carpenter's ---- cuts a long shaving. The carpenter does not ---- the house. 5. Insert _quite_ or _quiet_: The baby is ----ly sleeping. She is ---- well now, but last night she was ---- sick. Be ----. Walk ----ly when you go. =Words in _ei_ or _ie_= =74. Write _i_ before _e_ When sounded as _ee_ Except after _c_.= Examples: _believe_, _grief_, _chief_; but _receive_, _deceive_, _ceiling_. Exceptions: _Neither financier seized either species of weird leisure._ (Also a few uncommon words, like _seignior_, _inveigle_, _plebeian_.) Rules based on a key-word, lice, Alice, Celia (_i_ follows _l_ and _e_ follows _c_) apply after two consonants only, and do not help one to spell a word like _grief_. Rule 74 applies after all consonants. Note.--The words in which the sound is _ee_ are the words really difficult to spell. When the sound is any other than _ee_ (especially when it is _a_), _i_ usually follows _e_. Examples: _veil_, _weigh_, _freight_, _neighbor_, _height_, _sleight_, _heir_, _heifer_, _counterfeit_, _foreign_, etc. Exceptions: _ancient_, _friend_, _sieve_, _mischief_, _fiery_, _tries_, etc. Exercise: Write the following words, supplying _ei_ or _ie_: _conc--t_, _retr--ve_, _dec--tful_, _n--ce_, _y--ld_, _p--ce_, _s--ge_, _s--ze_, _rec--pt_, _n--ther_, _w--rd_, _rel--ve_, _l--sure_, _f--ld_, _v--n_, _r--gn_, _sover--gn_, _sl--gh_, _br--f_, _dec--ve_, _r--n_, _f--nt_, _perc--ve_, _w--ld_, _gr--vous_, _--ther_. =Doubling a Final Consonant= =75. Monosyllables and words accented on the final syllable, if they end in one consonant preceded by a single vowel, double the consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel.= Examples: (a) Words derived from monosyllables: _plan-ned_, _clan-nish_, _get-ting_, _hot-test_, _bag-gage_, (b) Words derived from words accented on the final syllable: _begin-ning_, _repel-lent_, _unregret-ted_. Note 1.--There are four distinct steps in the application of this rule. (1) The primary word must be found. To decide whether _begging_ contains two _g's_, we must first think of _beg_. (2) The primary word must be a monosyllable or a word accented on the final syllable. _Hit_ and _allot_ meet this test; _open_ does not. _Deferred_ and _differed_, _preferred_ and _proffered_, _committed_ (or _committee_) and _prohibited_ double or refrain from doubling the final consonant of the primary word according to the position of the accent. The seeming discrepancy between _preferred_ and _preferable_, between _conferred_ and _conference_, is due to a shifting of the accent to the first syllable in the case of _preferable_ and _conference_. (3) The primary word must end in one consonant. _Trace_, _oppose_, _interfere_, _help_, _reach_, and _perform_ fail to meet this test, and therefore in derivatives do not double the last consonant. _Assurance_ has one _r_, as it should have; _occurrence_ has two _r's_, as it should have. (4) The final consonant of the primary word must be preceded by a single vowel. This principle excludes the extra consonant from _needy_, _daubed_, and _proceeding_, and gives it to _running_. Note 2.--After _q_, _u_ has the force of _w_. Hence _quitting_, _quizzes_, _squatter_, _acquitted_, _equipped_, and similar words are not really exceptions to the rule. Exercise: 1. Write the present participle (in _-ing_) of _din_ (not _dine_), _begin_, _sin_ (compare _shine_), _stop_, _prefer_, _rob_, _drop_, _occur_, _omit_, _swim_, _get_, _commit_. 2. Write the past tense (in _-ed_) of _plan_ (not _plane_), _star_ (compare _stare_), _stop_ (compare _slope_), _lop_ (not _lope_), _hop_ (not _hope_), _fit_, _benefit_, _occur_ (compare _cure_), _offer_, _confer_, _bat_ (compare _abate_). =Final _e_ before a Suffix Beginning with a Vowel= =76. Words that end in silent _e_ usually drop the _e_ in derivatives or before a suffix beginning with a vowel.= Examples: _bride_, _bridal_; _guide_, _guidance_; _please_, _pleasure_; _fleece_, _fleecy_; _force_, _forcible_; _argue_, _arguing_; _arrive_, _arrival_; _conceive_, _conceivable_; _college_, _collegiate_; _write_, _writing_; _use_, _using_; _change_, _changing_; _judge_, _judging_; _believe_, _believing_. Note 1.--Of the exceptions some retain the _e_ to prevent confusion with other words. Exceptions: _dyeing_, _singeing_, _mileage_, _acreage_, _hoeing_, _shoeing_, _agreeing_, _eyeing_. The exceptions cause comparatively little trouble. One rarely sees _hoing_ or _shoing_; he often sees _hopeing_ and _inviteing_. Note 2.--After _c_ or _g_ and before a suffix beginning with _a_ or _o_ the _e_ is retained. The purpose of this retention is to preserve the soft sound of the _c_ or _g_. (Observe that _c_ and _g_ have the hard sound in _cable_, _gable_, _cold_, _go_.) Examples: _peaceable_, _changeable_, _noticeable_, _serviceable_, _outrageous_, _courageous_, _advantageous_. Exercise: 1. Write the present participle of the following words: _use_, _love_, _change_, _judge_, _shake_, _hope_, _shine_, _have_, _seize_, _slope_, _strike_, _dine_, _come_, _place_, _argue_, _achieve_, _emerge_, _arrange_, _abide_, _oblige_, _subdue_. 2. Write the present participle of the following words: _singe_, _tinge_, _dye_, _agree_, _eye_. 3. Write the _-ous_ or _-able_ form of the following words: _trace_, _love_, _blame_, _move_, _conceive_, _courage_, _service_, _advantage_, _umbrage_. 4. Write the adjectives which correspond to the following nouns: _force_, _sphere_, _vice_, _sense_, _fleece_, _college_, _hygiene_. 5. Write the nouns which correspond to the following verbs: _please_, _guide_, _grieve_, _arrive_, _oblige_, _prepare_, _inspire_. =Plurals= =77a. Most nouns add _s_ or _es_ to form the plural.= Examples: _word_, _words_; _fire_, _fires_, _negro_, _negroes_; _Eskimo_, _Eskimos_; _leaf_, _leaves_ (_f_ changes to _v_ for the sake of euphony); knife, knives. =b. Nouns ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant (or by _u_ as _w_) change the _y_ to _i_ and add _es_ to form the plural.= Examples: _sky_, _skies_; _lady_, _ladies_; _colloquy_, _colloquies_; _soliloquy_, _soliloquies_. =Other nouns ending in _y_ form the plural in the usual way.= Examples: _day_, _days_; _boy_, _boys_; _monkey_, _monkeys_; _valley_, _valleys_. =c. Compound nouns usually form the plural by adding _s_ or _es_ to the principal word.= Examples: _sons-in-law_, _passers-by_; but _stand-bys_, _hat-boxes_, _writing-desks_. =d. Letters, signs, and sometimes figures, add _'s_ to form the plural.= Examples: Cross your t's and dot your i's; ?'s; $'s; 3's or 3s. =e. A few nouns adhere to old declensions.= Examples: _ox_, _oxen_; _child_, _children_; _goose_, _geese_; _foot_, _feet_; _mouse_, _mice_; _man_, _men_; _woman_, _women_; _sheep_, _sheep_; _deer_, _deer_; _swine_, _swine_. =f. Words adopted from foreign languages sometimes retain the foreign plural.= Examples: _alumnus_, _alumni_; _alumna_, _alumnæ_; _fungus_, _fungi_; _focus_, _foci_; _radius_, _radii_; _datum_, _data_; _medium_, _media_; _phenomenon_, _phenomena_; _stratum_, _strata_; _analysis_, _analyses_; _antithesis_, _antitheses_; _basis_, _bases_; _crisis_, _crises_; _oasis_, _oases_; _hypothesis_, _hypotheses_; _parenthesis_, _parentheses_; _thesis_, _theses_; _beau_, _beaux_; _tableau_, _tableaux_; _Mr._, _Messrs._ (_Messieurs_); _Mrs._, _Mmes._ (_Mesdames_). Exercise: Write the singular and plural of the following words: _day_, _sky_, _lady_, _wife_, _leaf_, _loaf_, _negro_, _potato_, _tomato_, _pass_, _glass_, _boat_, _beet_, _flash_, _crash_, _bead_, _box_, _passenger_, _messenger_, _son-in-law_, _Smith_, _Jones_, _jack-o'-lantern_, _hanger-on_, _stratum_, _datum_, _phenomenon_, _crisis_, _basis_, _thesis_, _analysis_. =Compounds= =78a. Use a hyphen between two or more words which serve as a single adjective before a noun:= _iron-bound bucket_, _well-kept lawn_, _twelve-inch main_, _normal-school teacher_, _up-to-date methods_, _twentieth-century ideas_, _devil-may-care expression_, _a twenty-dollar-a-week clerk_. =But when the words follow the noun, the hyphen is omitted.= _The lawn is well kept. Methods up to date in every way_. =Also adverbs ending in _-ly_ are not ordinarily made into compound modifiers:= _nicely kept lawn_, _securely guarded treasure_. =b. Use a hyphen between members of a compound noun when the second member is a preposition, or when the writing of two nouns solid or separately might confuse the meaning:= _runner-up_, _kick-off_; _letting-down of effort_, _son-in-law_, _jack-o'-lantern_, _Pedro was a bull-fighter_, _a woman-hater_, _Did you ever see a shoe-polish like this?_ =c. Use a hyphen in compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine, and in fractions according to the following examples:= _Twenty-three_, _eighty-nine_; but _one hundred and one_. _Twenty-third_, _one-hundred-and-first man_. _Three-fourths_, _four and two-thirds_, _thirty-hundredths_, _thirty-one hundredths_. But omit the hyphen in simple fractions when loosely used: _Three quarters of my life are spent._ _One third of his fortune._ =d. A hyphen is not used in the following common words:= _airship_, _altogether_, _anybody_, _baseball_, _basketball_, _everybody_, _football_, _goodby_, _herself_, _handbook_, _himself_, _inasmuch_, _itself_, _midnight_, _myself_, _nevertheless_, _nobody_, _nothing_ (but _no one_), _nowadays_, _railroad_, _themselves_, _together_, _typewritten_, _wherever_, _without_, _workshop_, _yourself_, _newspaper_, _sunset_. =e. For words that do not come within the scope of rules, consult an up-to-date dictionary.= Compounds tend, with the passing of time, to grow together. Once men wrote _steam boat_, later _steam-boat_, and finally _steamboat_. New-coined words are usually hyphenated; old words are often written solid. The degree of intimacy between the parts of a compound word affects usage; thus we write _sun-motor_, but _sunbeam_; _birth-rate_, but _birthday_; _cooling-room_, but _bedroom_; _non-conductor_, but _nonsense_. The ease with which a vowel blends with the consonant of a syllable adjoining it affects usage; thus _self-evident_, but _selfsame_; _non-existent_, but _nondescript_; _un-American_, but _unwise_. Many compounds, however, are still uncontrolled by usage; whether they should be written as two words or one, whether with or without the hyphen, the dictionaries themselves do not agree. Exercise: Copy the following expressions, inserting hyphens where they are necessary: _twenty two years old_, _twenty two dollar bills_ _make forty dollars_, _twenty seven eighths inch boards_, _a normal school graduate_, _two handled boxes_, _a cloth covered basket_, _blood red sun_, _water tight compartment_, _sixty horse power motor_, _seven dollar bathing suits_, _a happy go lucky fellow_, _germ destroying powder_, _he had a son in law_, _passers by on the street_, _the kick off is at three o'clock_, _dark complexioned woman_, _silver tongued orator_, _a dish like valley_, _a rope like tail_, _a fish shaped cloud_, _a touch me not expression_, _will o' the wisp_, _well to do merchant_, _rough and tumble existence_. =79.= SPELLING LIST The English language comprises about 450,000 words. Of these a student uses about 4000 (although he may understand more than twice that number when he encounters them in sentences). Of these, in turn, not more than four or five hundred are frequently misspelled. The following list includes nearly all of the words which give serious trouble. Certain American colleges using this list require of freshmen an accuracy of ninety per cent. absurd academy =accept= =accidentally= =accommodate= accumulate accustom acquainted acquitted =across= addressed =adviser= aeroplane =affects= aggravate alley allotted =all right= ally already altar alter =altogether= alumnus =always= =amateur= =among= analogous analysis =angel= angle annual anxiety apparatus =appearance= appropriate arctic =argument= =arising= =arithmetic= arrange arrival ascend asks =athletic= audience auxiliary awkward balance barbarous baring barring baseball =based= bearing =becoming= before beggar =begging= =beginning= =believing= =benefited= =biscuit= boundaries brilliant =Britain= =Britannica= buoyant bureau =business= =busy= =calendar= =candidate= =can't= cemetery =certain= =changeable= =changing= characteristic chauffeur =choose= chose chosen =clothes= =coarse= column =coming= commission =committee= comparative =compel= compelled competent concede conceivable =conferred= conquer conqueror conscience conscientious considered continuous control =controlled= coöperate country =course= =courteous= courtesy cruelty cylinder =dealt= debater deceitful decide decision deferred =definite= descend =describe= =description= derived =despair= =desperate= destroy device devise dictionary difference digging dilemma =dining room= dinning =disappear= =disappoint= disavowal discipline disease =dissatisfied= dissipate distinction distribute =divide= =divine= =doctor= =don't= dormitories drudgery dying ecstasy =effects= =eighth= eliminate =embarrass= eminent encouraging =enemy= =equipped= especially =etc.= everybody exaggerate exceed excellent except exceptional exhaust exhilarate =existence= expense experience explanation familiar fascinate =February= fiery fifth =finally= financier forfeit formally =formerly= forth =forty= =fourth= frantically fraternity =freshman= (adj.) =friend= fulfil furniture gallant gambling =generally= goddess =government= governor =grammar= grandeur =grievous= guard guess guidance harass haul =having= height hesitancy =holy= =hoping= huge =humorous= =hurriedly= hundredths hygienic =imaginary= imitative immediately immigration impromptu imminent incidentally incidents incredulous =independence= indispensable induce influence =infinite= =instance= instant =intellectual= intelligence =intentionally= intercede irresistible =its= it's itself invitation =judgment= =knowledge= laboratory =ladies= =laid= =later= =latter= =lead= =led= liable library =lightning= likely literature loneliness =loose= =lose= =losing= lying maintain =maintenance= manual manufacturer =many= marriage Massachusetts material =mathematics= mattress =meant= messenger =miniature= minutes =mischievous= Mississippi misspelled momentous month murmur muscle mysterious =necessary= =negroes= =neither= nickel nineteenth ninetieth =ninety= ninth =noticeable= =nowadays= oblige obstacle =occasion= occasionally occur =occurred= =occurrence= occurring =o'clock= officers =omitted= =omission= =opinion= opportunity =optimistic= =original= outrageous overrun paid pantomime =parallel= =parliament= particularly =partner= =pastime= peaceable =perceive= perception peremptory =perform= =perhaps= =permissible= perseverance pérsonal personnél =perspiration= persuade pertain pervade physical picnic picnicking =planned= =pleasant= politics politician =possession= possible practically =prairie= =precede= precédent précedents =preference= =preferred= prejudice =preparation= =primitive= =principal= =principle= prisoner =privilege= =probably= =proceed= prodigy profession =professor= proffered prohibition promissory =prove= purchase pursue putting quantity =quiet= =quite= quizzes rapid =ready= =really= recede =receive= recognize =recommend= =reference= =referred= =regard= region =religion= =religious= repetition replies representative =restaurant= rheumatism ridiculous sacrilegious safety =sandwich= schedule science scream screech =seems= =seize= sense =sentence= =separate= sergeant several shiftless =shining= shone shown =shriek= =siege= similar =since= smooth soliloquy =sophomore= speak specimen =speech= statement =stationary= =stationery= statue stature statute steal steel stops =stopped= =stopping= =stories= stretch =strictly= succeeds successful summarize =superintendent= supersede =sure= =surprise= syllable symmetrical =temperament= =tendency= than =their= there therefore =they're= thorough thousandths till to =too= =together= =tragedy= track =tract= transferred tranquillity translate treacherous treasurer =tries= =trouble= =truly= =Tuesday= two typical tyranny universally =until= =using= =usually= vacancy vengeance vigilance village =villain= weak =wear= weather =Wednesday= week =weird= welfare where wherever =whether= which whole =wholly= =who's= whose wintry wiry within without =women= world =writing= written your =you're= Note 1.--The following words have more than one correct form, the one given here being preferred. abridgement acknowledgment analyze ax boulder caliber catalog center check criticize develop development dulness endorse envelop esthetic gaiety gild gipsy glamor goodby gray inquire medieval meter mold mustache odor program prolog skilful theater Note 2.--In a few groups of words American spelling and English spelling differ. American spelling gives preference to _favor_, _honor_, _labor_, _rumor_; English spelling gives preference to _favour_, _honour_, _labour_, _rumour_. American spelling gives preference to _civilize_, _apprize_; _defense_, _pretense_; _traveler_, _woolen_; etc. English spelling gives preference to _civilise_, _apprise_; _defence_, _pretence_; _traveller_, _woollen_; etc. MISCELLANEOUS =Manuscript= =80a. Titles.= Center a title on the page. Capitalize important words. It is unnecessary to place a period after a title, but a question mark or exclamation point should be used when one is appropriate. Do not underscore the title, or unnecessarily place it in quotation marks. Leave a blank line under the title, before beginning the body of the writing. =b. Spacing.= Careful spacing is as necessary as punctuation. Place writing on a page as you would frame a picture, crowding it toward neither the top nor the bottom. Leave liberal margins. Write verse as verse; do not give it equal indention or length of line with prose. Connect all the letters of a word. Leave a space after a word, and a double space after a sentence. Leave room between successive lines, and do not let the loops of letters run into the lines above or below. =c. Handwriting.= Write a clear, legible hand. Form _a_, _o_, _u_, _n_, _e_, _i_, properly. Write out _and_ horizontally. Avoid unnecessary flourishes in capitals, and curlicues at the end of words. Dot your _i's_ and cross your _t's_; not with circles or long eccentric strokes, but simply and accurately. Let your originality express itself not in ornate penmanship, or unusual stationery, or literary affectations, but in the force and keenness of your ideas. =Capitals= =81a. Begin with a capital a sentence, a line of poetry, or a quoted sentence. But if only a fragment of a sentence is quoted, the capital should be omitted.= Right: He said, "The time has come." Right: The question is, Shall the bill pass? Right: They said they would "not take no for an answer." Right: "The good die first, And they whose hearts are dry as summer dust Burn to the socket."--Wordsworth. =b. Begin proper names, and all important words used as or in proper names, with capitals.= Words not so used should not begin with capitals. Right: Mr. George K. Rogers, the Principal of the Urbana High School, a college president, the President of the Senior Class, a senior, the Second Corps of the Army of Northern Virginia, three battalions of infantry, the Fourth of July, on the tenth of June, the House of Representatives, an assembly of delegates, a Presbyterian church, the separation of church and state, the Baptist Church, the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, a creek known as Black Oak Creek, the Republican Party, a party that advocates high tariff, Rocky Mountains, The Bible, God, The Christian Era, Wednesday, in the summer, living in the South, turning south after taking a few steps to the east, one morning, O dark-haired Evening! italic type, watt, pasteurize, herculean effort. =c. Begin an adjective which designates a language or a race with a capital.= Right: A Norwegian peasant, Indian arrowheads, English literature, the study of French. =d. In the titles of books or themes capitalize the first word and all other important words.= Prepositions, conjunctions, and articles are usually not important. Right: _The English Novel in the Time of Scott_, _War and Peace_, _Travels with a Donkey_, _When I Slept under the Stars_. =e. Miscellaneous uses. Capitalize the pronoun _I_, the interjection _O_, titles that accompany a name, and abbreviations of proper names.= Right: Battery F, 150 F. A.; Mobile, Ala.; Dr. Stebbins. Exercise: 1. the teacher said, "let me read you a famous soliloquy." he began: "to be, or not to be: that is the question." 2. the chinese laundry man does not write out his lists in english. 3. the _la fayette tribune_ says that a Principal of a School has been elected to congress. 4. mr. woodson, the lecturer, said that "the title of a book may be a poem." he mentioned _christmas eve on lonesome_ by john fox, jr. 5. i like architecture. as i approached the british museum, i noticed the ionic colonnade that runs along the front. the first room i visited was the one filled with marbles which lord elgin brought from the parthenon at athens. =Italics= In manuscript, a horizontal line drawn under a letter or word is a sign for the printer to use italic type. =82a. Quoted titles of books, periodicals, and manuscripts are usually italicized.= Right: I admire Shakespeare's _Hamlet_. [The italics make the reader know that the writer means, _Hamlet_ the play, not Hamlet the man.] Right: John Galsworthy's novel, _The Patrician_, appeared in serial form in the _Atlantic Monthly_. Note 1.--When the title of a book begins with an article (_a_, _an_, or _the_), the article is italicized. But _the_ before the title of a periodical is usually not italicized. Note 2.--It is correct, but not the best practice, to indicate the titles of books by quotation marks. The best method is to use italics for the title of a book, and quotation marks for chapters or subdivisions of the same book. Example: See _Encyclopedia Britannica_, Vol. II, p. 427, "Modern Architecture". =b. Words from a foreign language, unless they have been anglicized by frequent use, are italicized.= Right: A great noise announced the coming of the _enfant terrible_. Right: A play always begins _in medias res_. =c. The names of ships are usually italicized.= Right: The _Saxonia_ will sail at four o'clock. =d. Words taken out of their context and made the subject of discussion are italicized or placed in quotation marks.= Right: _So_ is a word faded and colorless from constant use. Right: The _t_ in the word _often_ is not pronounced. =e. A word or passage requiring great emphasis is italicized.= This device should not be used to excess. The proper way to secure emphasis is to have good ideas, and to use emphatic sentence structure in expressing them. Exercise: 1. In Vanity Fair Thackeray heads one chapter How to Live Well on Nothing a Year. 2. Auf wiedersehen was his parting word. He had informed me, sub rosa of course, that he was going to Bremen. 3. The battle between the Monitor and the Merrimac revolutionized naval warfare. How far back it seems to the days when Decatur set fire to the old Philadelphia! 4. Her They say's are as plenteous as rabbits in Australia. 5. A writer in the Century Magazine says the public may know better than an author what the title of his book should be. Dickens, for example, called one of his works The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club. =Abbreviations= =83a. In ordinary writing avoid abbreviations. The following, however, are always correct: Mr., Messrs., Dr., or St. (Saint), before proper names; B. C. or A. D., when necessary to avoid confusion, after a date; and No. or $ when followed by numerals.= In ordinary writing spell out All titles, except those listed above. Names of months, states, countries. Christian names, unless initials are used instead. Names of weights and measures, except in statistics. Street, Avenue, Road, Railroad, Park, Fort, Mountain, Company, Brothers, Manufacturing, etc. In ordinary writing, instead of _&_ write _and_; for _viz._ write _namely_; for _i. e._, write _that is_; for _e. g._ write _for example_; for _a. m._ and _p. m._ write _in the morning_, _this afternoon_, _tomorrow evening_, _Saturday night_. Do not use _etc._ (_et cetera_) when it can be avoided. =b. In business correspondence, technical writing, tabulations, footnotes, and bibliographies, or wherever brevity is essential, other abbreviations may be used.= Even here, short words should not be abbreviated: Alaska, Hawaii, Idaho, Iowa, Maine, Ohio, Samoa, Utah, March, April, May, June, July. Exercise: 1. Mr. Gregg & Dr. Appleton were rivals. 2. Harris lacked but one of having a grade of one hundred; _i. e._, he had the two O's already. 3. His inheritance tax was three thousand $. In Apr. he moved from Portland, Me., to Sandusky, O. 4. Prof. Kellogg came down Beech St. at a quarter before eight every a. m. 5. A No. of old friends visited them on special occasions; _e. g._, on their wedding anniversaries. =Numbers= =84a. It is customary to use figures for dates, for the street numbers in addresses, for reference to the pages of a book, and for statistics.= Right: June 16, 1920. 804 Chalmers Street. See Chapter 4, especially page 79. Note.--It is desirable not to write _st_, _nd_, or _th_ after the day of the month if the year is designated also. Right: March 3, 1919 (not March 3rd, 1919). =b. Figures are used for numbers which cannot be expressed in a few words. The dollar sign and figures are used with complicated sums of money.= Right: The farm comprised 3260 acres. The population of Kansas City, Missouri, was 248,381 in 1910. He earned $437 while attending school. The cost of the improvement was $1,940.25. =c. In other instances than those specified in _a_ and _b_ numbers as a rule should be written out.= (This rule applies to numbers and to sums of money which can be expressed in a few words, to sums of money less than one dollar, and to ages and time of day.) Right: The box weighs two hundred pounds. Xerxes had an army of three million men. I enclose seventy-five cents. He owed twelve hundred dollars. Grandfather Toland is eighty-seven years old. The train is due at a quarter past three. Exercise: 1. For 70 pounds of excess baggage I had to pay $1.00. 2. At 2 o'clock Rice gave him the 2nd capsule. 3. The letter was sent from twenty-one Warner St. November the eleventh, nineteen hundred and eighteen. 4. Knox earned $5 a day he said; but they paid him only $0.75. 5. At 40 he owned a 2,000 acre farm and had an income of $10,000 a year. =Syllabication= =85a. When a word is broken at the end of a line, use a hyphen there. Do not place a hyphen at the beginning of the second line.= =b. Words are divided only between syllables:= _depart-ment_, _dis-charge_, _ab-surd_, _univer-sity_, _pro-fessor_ (not _depa-rtment_, _disc-harge_, _abs-urd_, _unive-rsity_, _prof-essor_). =c. Monosyllabic words are never divided:= _which_, _through_, _dipped_, _speak_ (not _wh-ich_, _thr-ough_, _dip-ped_, _spe-ak_). =d. A consonant at the junction of two syllables usually goes with the second:= _recipro-cate_, _ordi-nance_, _inti-mate_ (not _reciproc-ate_, _ordin-ance_, _intim-ate_). Sometimes two consonants are equivalent to a single letter: _falli-ble_, _photo-graph_ (not _fallib-le_, _photog-raph_). =e. Two or more consonants at the junction of syllables are themselves divided:= _en-ter-prise_, _com-mis-sary_, _in-car-nate_ (not _ent-erpr-ise_, _comm-iss-ary_, _inc-arn-ate_). =f. A prefix or a suffix is usually set off from the rest of the word regardless of the rule for consonants between syllables:= _ex-empt_, _dis-appoint_, _sing-ing_, _pro-gress-ive_. But when a final consonant is doubled before a suffix the additional consonant goes with the suffix: _trip-ping_, _permit-ted_, _omis-sion_. =g. The best usage avoids separating one or two letters (unless in prefixes like _un_ or suffixes like _ly_) from the rest of the word:= _achieve-ment_, _enor-mous_, _remem-bered_, _dyspep-sia_ (not _a-chievement_, _e-normous_, remember-ed, dyspepsi-a). =h. The first part of a divided word should not be ludicrous or misleading:= _dogma-tize_, _croco-dile_, _de-cadence_, _metri-cal_, _goril-la_ (not _dog-matize_, _croc-odile_, _deca-dence_, _met-rical_, _go-rilla_). Exercise: Place a hyphen between each pair of syllables in each word of more than one syllable: _thoughtful_, _burrowing_, _thorough_, _chimney_, _brought_, _helped_, _harshnesses_, _which_, _murmur_, _superstition_, _ground_, _symmetry_, _ripped_, _compartment_, _disallow_, _obey_, _opinion_, _opportune_, _aggressive_, _intellectually_, _complicated_, _encyclopedia_, _wrought_, _electricity_, _abstraction_, _syllabication_, _punctuation_, _frustrate_, _except_, _substituting_, _distressful_. =Outlines= Three kinds of outlines are illustrated in this article: (a) the Topic Outline, (b) the Sentence Outline, and (c) the Paragraph Outline. =86a. A topic outline consists of headings (nouns or phrases containing nouns) which indicate the important ideas in a composition, and their relation to each other. Conform to the following model:= =The Lumber Problem= Theme: The decline of our lumber supply requires that we shall take steps toward reforesting, conservation, and the use of substitutes for wood. I The Depletion of our forests A Former abundance B Present scarcity (especially walnut, white pine, oak) II The Causes of the depletion A Great demand 1 For building 2 For industrial expansion (ties, posts, etc.) 3 For fuel, and other minor uses B Wasteful methods of forestry III The Remedy A Reforestation 1 Planting by individuals 2 Planting by the states 3 Extension of the present National Forest Reserves B The prevention of waste 1 In fires, by insects, etc. 2 In cutting and sawing 3 In by-products (sawing, odd lengths, etc.) C The use of substitutes for wood (concrete, steel, brick, stone, etc.) =b. A sentence outline is expressed in complete sentences. Conform to the following model:= =The Lumber Problem= I The depletion of our forests is evident when one compares A the former abundance, with B the present scarcity (of walnut, white pine, and oak, especially). II The causes of the depletion are: A the great demand 1 for building, 2 for industrial expansion (ties, posts, etc.), 3 for fuel and other minor uses; and B wasteful methods of forestry. III The remedies for the depletion are: A reforestation 1 by individuals, 2 by the states, 3 by extension of the present National Forest Reserves; B the prevention of waste 1 in fires, by insects, etc., 2 in cutting and sawing, 3 in by-products (sawdust, odd lengths, etc.); and C the use of substitutes, for wood (concrete, steel, brick, stone, etc.) =c. A paragraph outline is a series of sentences summarizing the thought of successive paragraphs in a composition. Conform to the following model:= =The Disagreeable Optimist= 1. The present age may be called an era of efficiency, prosperity, and optimism, since efficiency has produced prosperity, and this in turn has produced "optimism"--a word recurrent in common literature and conversation. 2. The optimist is often not natural or sincere, because his thoughts are centered on keeping up an appearance of being happy. 3. He is intrusive, for he thrusts comfort upon those who wish to mourn, and repeats irritating epigrams and poems about cheer. 4. He is undiscriminating, in that he prescribes the same remedy, "good cheer," for everybody and for every condition. 5. He is sometimes harmful, because he tells us that the world is going well, when conditions need changing, and need changing badly. =d. Mechanical details.= Indent headings that are coördinate (that is, of equal value) an equal distance from the margin. One inch to the right is a good distance for successive subordinate headings. Use Roman numerals, capital letters, Arabic numerals, and small letters to indicate the comparative rank of ideas. When a heading runs over one line, use hanging indention; that is, do not allow the second line to run back to the left-hand margin, but indent it. Make the numerals and letters (_1_, _A_, etc.) stand out prominently. The title of a theme should not be given a numeral or letter. Faulty indention: Sources of energy which may be utilized when the coal supply is exhausted are I Rivers and streams, especially in mountain districts II The tides III The heat of the sun Correct hanging indention: Sources of energy which may be utilized when the coal supply is exhausted are I Rivers and streams, especially in mountain districts II The tides III The heat of the sun =e. Ideas parallel in thought should be expressed in parallel form.= Nouns and phrases including nouns are ordinarily used. Faulty parallelism: Advantages of a garden: 1 Profitable 2 It affords good exercise 3 Gives pleasure Right: Advantages of a garden: 1 Profit 2 Exercise 3 Pleasure =f. Avoid faulty coördination (giving two ideas equal rank, when one should be subordinated to the other) and _vice versa_, avoid faulty subordination.= Faulty coördination: How Seeds Scatter I By Wind II Some Seeds provided with parachutes III Others light, and easily blown about IV By Water V By Animals Right: =How Seeds Scatter= I By Wind A Some seeds provided with parachutes B Others light, and easily blown about II By Water III By Animals =g. Avoid detailed subordination. Especially avoid a single subheading when it can be joined to the preceding line, or omitted.= Too detailed: A The McClellan Orchard 1 Situation a On a northern slope 2 Nature of soil a Sandy 3 Kind of fruit a Apple b Cherry Right: A The McClellan Orchard 1. Situation: a northern slope 2. Nature of soil: sandy 3. Kind of fruit: apple and cherry Exercise: 1. Give a title to an outline which shall include the following topics. Group the topics under two main headings, and give the headings names. Uses of the grape The Vine The Fruit Itself How Marketed How Cultivated 2. Place in order the sentences of the following outline on "Why Keep a Diary?" Subordinate some of the headings to others. A diary affords great satisfaction in future years. We sometimes record in a diary information which proves useful. A few lines a day will suffice. A diary is not hard to keep. We may find time for writing in our diary if we do not waste time at the table or on newspapers. We may write in our diary just before we go to bed. A diary will bring back the past. We all have some moments to kill. A diary gives us pleasure even in the present. 3. Place in order the headings of the following outline on "Ulysses S. Grant." Subordinate some of the headings to others. Obscurity in 1861 Prominence in 1865 Patience President General Perseverance and Resolution Character The Turning Point in His Career =Letters= The parts of a letter are the heading, the inside address, the greeting, the body, the close, and the signature. For these parts good use prescribes definite forms, which we may sometimes ignore in personal letters, but must rigidly observe in formal or business letters. =87a. The heading of a letter should give the full address of the writer and the date of writing. Do not abbreviate short words, or omit Street or Avenue.= Objectionable: #15 Hickory, Omaha. Right: 15 Hickory Street, Omaha, Nebraska. Objectionable: 4/12/19; 10-28-'16; May 2nd, 1910. Right: April 12, 1919; October 28, 1916; May 2, 1910. The following headings are correct: 106 East Race Street, Red Oak, Iowa, August 4, 1916. 423 Michigan Avenue Chicago, Illinois May 20, 1918 Prescott, Arizona, June 1, 1920. Note.--In personal letters the heading may be transferred to the end, below the signature, at the left-hand side. But it must not be so divided that the street address will appear in one place and the town and state in another. The "closed" form of punctuation (the use of punctuation at the ends of the lines) is best until the student learns what is correct. Afterward, the adoption of the "open" form becomes purely a matter of individual taste and not a matter of carelessness or ignorance. =b. An inside address and a greeting are required in business letters.= Personal letters contain the greeting, but may omit the inside address, or may supply it at the end of the letter. The Jeffrey Chemical Works, 510 Marion Street, Norfolk, Virginia. Gentlemen: Mr. Joseph N. Kellogg 1411 Lake Street Cleveland, Ohio Dear Mr. Kellogg: Secretary of Rice Institute, Houston, Texas. My dear Sir: Greetings used in business letters are: My dear Sir: My dear Madam: My dear Mr. Fisher: Dear Sir: Sir: Sirs: Gentlemen: Ladies: Greetings used in personal letters are: My dear Miss Brown: Dear Professor Ward: Dear Jones, Dear Mrs. Vincent, Dear Robert, Dear Olive, "My dear Miss Brown" is more ceremonious than "Dear Miss Brown". As a rule, the more familiar the letter, the shorter the greeting. A colon follows the greeting if the letter is formal or long; a comma, if the letter is familiar or in the nature of a note. Both inside address and greeting begin at the left-hand margin. The body of the letter begins on the line below the greeting, and is indented as much as an ordinary paragraph (about an inch). =c. The body of a letter should be written in correct style.= =1.= Do not omit pronouns, or write a "telegraphic style". Wrong: Just received yours of the 21st, and in reply would say your order has been filled and shipped. Right: I have your letter of March twenty-first. Your order was promptly filled and shipped. =2.= The idea that it is immodest to use _I_ is a superstition. Undue repetition of _I_ is of course awkward; but entire avoidance of it is silly. =3.= Use simple language. Say "your letter"; not "your kind favor", or "yours duly received", or "yours of the 21st is at hand". =4.= Avoid "begging" expressions which you obviously do not mean, especially the hackneyed "beg to advise". Wrong: Received yours of the 3rd instant, and beg to advise we are out of stock. Right: We received your order of March 3. We find that we have no more dining-room chairs B 2-4-6 in stock. Wrong: I beg to enclose a booklet. Right: I enclose a booklet. Wrong: Permit us to say that prices have been advanced. Right: The prices on our goods have been advanced. =5.= Avoid the formula "please find enclosed". The reader will find what is enclosed; if you use "please", let it refer to what the reader shall do with what is enclosed. Wrong: Enclosed please find 10 cents, for which send me Bulletin 58. Right: I enclose ten cents, for which please send me Bulletin 58. =6.= Avoid unnecessary commercial slang: _On the job_, _A-1 service_, _O.K._, _your ad_, _popular-priced line_, _this party_, _as per schedule_. =7.= Get to the important idea quickly. In applying for a position, do not beat around the bush, or say you "wish to apply" or "would apply". Begin, "I make application for ...", "kindly consider my application for ...", or "I apply ..." =8.= Group your ideas logically. Do not scatter information. A letter applying for a position might consist of three paragraphs: Personal qualifications (age, health, education, etc.); Experience (nature of positions, dates, etc.); References (names, business or profession, exact street address). Finish one group of ideas before passing to the next. =9.= Do not monotonously close all letters with a sentence beginning with a participle: _Hoping to hear from you ..._, _Asking your coöperation ..._, _Awaiting your further favors ..._, _Trusting this will be satisfactory ..._, _Wishing you ..._, _Thanking you ..._. The independent form of the verb is more emphatic (see 42); _I hope to hear from you ..._, _We await further orders ..._, _We ask coöperation ..._. =d. The close= should be consistent in tone with the greeting. It is written on a separate line, beginning near the middle of the page, and is followed by a comma. Only the first word is capitalized. Preceding expressions like "I am", "I remain", "As ever", (if they are used at all) belong in the body of the letter. Right: I thank you for your courtesy, and remain Yours sincerely, Robert Blair Right: I shall be grateful for any further information you can give me. Yours truly, Florence Mitchell In business letters the following forms are used: Yours truly, Very truly yours, Yours respectfully, In personal letters the following are used: Yours truly, Yours sincerely, Sincerely yours, Cordially yours, =e. The outside address should follow one of the forms given below:= +---------------------------------------------------+ | R. E. Stearns | | 512 Chapel Hill St. | | Durham, N. C. | | | | | | Mr. Donald Kemp | | 3314 Salem Street | | Baltimore | | Maryland | +---------------------------------------------------+ +---------------------------------------------------+ | Bentley Davis | | 906 Park Street | | Ogden, Utah | | | | | | Rogers, Mead, and Company | | 2401 Eighth Avenue | | Los Angeles | | California | +---------------------------------------------------+ Note.--An abbreviation in an address is followed by a period. Punctuation is also correct, but not necessary, after every line (a period after the last line, and a comma after the others). A married woman is ordinarily addressed thus: Mrs. George H. Turner. But a title belonging to the husband should not be transferred to the wife. Wrong: Mrs. Dr. Jenkins, Mrs. Professor Ward. Right: Mrs. Jenkins, Mrs. Ward. Reverend Mr. Beecher is a correct address for a minister; not "Rev. Beecher". If a title of respect is placed before a name (Professor, Dr., Honorable), it is undesirable to place another title after the name (Secretary, M.D., Ph.D., Principal, Esq.). =f. Miscellaneous directions.= Writing should be centered on the page, not crowded against the top, or against one side. Letter paper so folded that each sheet is a little book of four pages is best for personal correspondence. Both sides of such paper may be written on. The pages may be written on in any order which will be convenient to the reader. An order like that of the pages in a printed book (1, 2, 3, 4) is best. Business letters are usually written on one side only of flat sheets 8-1/2 by 11 inches in size. The sheet is folded once horizontally in the middle, and twice in the other direction, for insertion in the envelope. =g. A business letter should have, in general, the following form:= 1516 South Garrison Avenue. Carthage, Missouri, May 14, 1918. J. E. Pratt, General Superintendent, The Southwest Missouri Railroad Company, 1012 North Madison Street, Webb City, Missouri. Dear Sir: I apply for a position as mechanic's assistant in the electrical department of your shops. I am nineteen years old, and in good physical condition. On June 6 I shall graduate from Carthage High School, and after that date I can begin work immediately. I have had no practical experience in electrical work. But I have for two years made a special study of physics, in and out of school. I worked last summer in the local garage of Mr. R. S. Bryant. In addition, I have become familiar with tools in my workshop at home, so that I both know and like machinery. For statements as to my character and ability, I refer you to R. S. Bryant, Manager Bryant's Garage; Mr. Frank Darrow (lawyer), 602 Ninth Street; W. C. Barnes, Superintendent of Schools; and C. W. Oldham, Principal of the High School--all of this city. Respectfully yours, Howard Rolfe =h. Formal notes and replies are written in the third person (avoiding _I_, _my_, _me_, _you_, _your_) and permit no abbreviations except _Mr._, _Mrs._, _Dr._ = Mrs. Clarence King requests the company of Mr. Charles Eliot at dinner on Friday, April the twenty-fourth, at six o'clock. 102 Pearl Street, April the seventeenth. In accepting an invitation, the writer should repeat the day and hour mentioned, in order to avoid a misunderstanding; in declining an invitation, only the day need be mentioned. The verb used in the reply should be in the present tense; not "will be pleased to accept", or "regrets that he will be unable to accept"; but "is pleased to accept", or "regrets that circumstances prevent his accepting". Mr. Charles Eliot gladly accepts the invitation of Mrs. King to dinner on Friday, April the twenty-fourth, at six o'clock. 514 Poplar Avenue, April the eighteenth. =Paragraphs= =88a. The first lines of paragraphs are uniformly indented, in manuscript, about an inch; in print, somewhat less. After a sentence, the remainder of a line should not be left blank, except at the end of a paragraph.= =b. The length of a paragraph is ordinarily from fifty to three hundred words, depending on the importance or complexity of the thought.= In exposition, the paragraphs should be long enough to develop every idea thoroughly. Scrappy expository paragraphs arouse the suspicion that the writer is incoherent, or that he has not given sufficient thought to the subject. Short paragraphs are permissible, and even desirable, in the following cases: 1. In a formal introduction to the main body of a discourse, or in the formal conclusion. (In some instances the paragraph may consist of a single sentence.) 2. In the body of a composition, when a brief logical transition between two longer paragraphs is necessary. 3. In short compositions on complex subjects, where space forbids the development of each thought on a proper scale. (But, as a rule, the student should limit his subject to a few simple ideas, each of which can be developed fully.) 4. In newspapers, where brevity and emphasis are required. (But the student should not take the journalistic style as a model.) 5. In description or narration meant to be vivid, vigorous, or rapid. 6. In dialogue. =c. In representing dialogue, each speech, no matter how short, is placed in a separate paragraph.= Right: "Listen!" he said. "There was a noise outside. Didn't you hear it?" "No," I whispered. It was dark in the room, except for a faint light at the window, and I felt my way cautiously to his side. "What is it? Burglars?" "I believe it is." "I can't hear anything." "Listen! There it is again." "Pshaw!" I had to laugh aloud. "Thompson's cow has got into the garden again." Note that a slight amount of descriptive matter may be included in a paragraph with the direct discourse, the only requirement being that a change of speaker shall be indicated by a new paragraph. When special emphasis is desired, a quotation may be detached from a preceding introductory statement. Right: The speaker turned gravely about, and facing the front row, he said slowly and solemnly: "Small boys should be seen and not heard." In exceptional cases a long, rapid-fire dialogue may, for purposes of compression, be placed in one paragraph. Dashes should then be used before successive quotations to indicate a change of speaker. Omissions from a dialogue (as when only one side of a telephone conversation is reported), long pauses, and the unfinished part of interrupted statements, may be represented by a short row of dots. Exercise: Arrange in paragraphs, and insert quotation marks: 1. Help! I cried, rolling over in the narrow crevasse, and wondering dazedly how far I had fallen through the snow. A muffled voice came from above: We'll have a rope down to you in a minute. Tie that bottle of brandy on the end of it, I suggested, and it'll come faster. [The student will here insert a sentence of his own to complete the dialogue.] 2. Good morning, James, said the deacon, suspiciously. How are you? and where are you going? I'm all right, answered the boy, and I'm goin' down to the creek. As he spoke, he tried to hide something bulky underneath his coat. You oughtn't to go fishing on Sunday. [Add another sentence to finish the dialogue.] =89.= MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE The following sentences illustrate errors in the use of capitals, italics, numbers, abbreviations, etc. Make necessary changes. 1. I met him at kansas city at a dinner of the commercial club. 2. The senate and the house of representatives are the two branches of congress. 3. In today's chicago herald the union pacific railroad advertises reduced rates to yellowstone park and the northwest. 4. There are 30 men in each section in chemistry, but only 25 in each section in french. 5. Early in pres. wilson's administration troops crossed the rio grande river. Pres. Carranza protested. 6. In nineteen ten the population of new york city (including suburbs) was 4,766,883. 7. Send the moving van to thirty walnut street at eight o'clock. 8. I like Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice better than George Eliot's Adam Bede. 9. May I call for you about 7:30 p. m., Miss Reynolds? 10. The note draws 6 per cent interest, and is payable Jan. 1st, 1921. 11. He will remain in town until Apr. 20th, and will then go away for the Summer. He is going abroad to study the spanish and italian languages. 12. Grays elegy in a country churchyard is perhaps the best known poem in english literature. 13. Enclosed please find $4, for which send me the New Republic for one year. 14. In reply to yours of 3-7-18 wish to advise that we are out of stock. 15. I enclose $0.10 for a copy of bulletin #314 of the dept. of Agriculture. Thanking you, I remain ... yours Respectively.... PUNCTUATION Punctuation is not used for its own sake. It is used in writing as gestures, pauses, and changes of voice are used in speaking--to add force or to reveal the precise relationship of thoughts. The tendency at present is against the lavish use of punctuation. This does not mean, however, that one may do as he pleases. In minor details of punctuation there is room for individual preference, but in essential principles all trustworthy writers agree. =The Period= =90a. Place a period after a complete declarative or imperative sentence.= =b. Do not separate part of a sentence from the rest of the sentence by means of a period. (See 1.)= Wrong: He denied the accusation. As every one expected him to do. Right: He denied the accusation, as every one expected him to do. Wrong: Anderson wrote good editorials. The best that appeared in any paper in the city. Right: Anderson wrote good editorials, the best that appeared in any paper in the city. [Or] Anderson wrote good editorials--the best that appeared in any paper in the city. Exception.--Condensed or elliptical phrases established by long and frequent use may be written as separate sentences. They should be followed by appropriate punctuation--usually by a period. Examples: Yes. Of course. Really? By all means! Note.--The student should distinguish clearly between a subordinate clause and a main clause. A subordinate clause is introduced by a subordinate conjunction (_when_, _while_, _if_, _as_, _since_, _although_, _that_, _lest_, _because_, _in order that_, etc.), or by a relative pronoun (_who_, _which_, _that_, etc.). Since a subordinate clause does not express a complete thought, it cannot stand alone, but must be joined to a main clause to form a sentence. =c. Place a period after an abbreviation.= Bros. Mr. e. g. Ph.D. LL.D. etc. If an abbreviation falls at the end of a sentence, one period may serve two functions. Exercise: 1. The hen clucks to her chickens. When she scratches up a worm. 2. Before my brother could forewarn me. I had touched my tongue against the cold iron. On which it stuck. 3. The commission had the services of two men of international reputation. Charles Newman, Esq. and Gifford Bailey, Ph D. 4. Since Hugh had fished only in creeks. He was surprised that the lines were let down a hundred feet or more. The right distance for codfish. 5. Between 1775 and 1825 Virginia furnished the nation its leaders. Such as the author of the Declaration of Independence. The orator of the Revolution. The leader of the Revolutionary army. The chief maker of the Constitution. Four of our first five Presidents. And our greatest Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. =The Comma= There are five principal uses of the comma: to separate clauses (a-d) to set off a parenthetical element (e) to mark a series (f-g) to introduce a quotation (h) to compel a pause for the sake of clearness (i) =91a. A comma is used between clauses joined by _but_, _for_, _and_, or any other coördinating conjunction.= Right: The hour arrived, but Forbes did not appear. [The comma emphasizes the contrast.] Right: She was glad she had looked, for a man was approaching the house. [The comma prevents the combination _looked for a man_.] Right: He gave the money to Burke, and Reynolds received nothing. [The comma prevents confusion.] Exception.--If the clauses are short and closely linked in thought, the comma may be omitted (She came and she was gone in a moment. McCoy talked and the rest of us listened.) If the clauses are long and complicated, a semicolon may be used (See 92b). Note.--No comma should follow the conjunction. Wrong: He was enthusiastic but, inexperienced. Wrong: They went before the committee but, not one of them would answer a question. =b. Do _not_ use a comma between independent clauses which are _not_ joined by a conjunction. Use a period or a semicolon.= (This error, the "comma splice," betrays ignorance of what constitutes a unified sentence. See 18.) Wrong: The circus had just come to town, every one wanted to see it. Right: The circus had just come to town. Every one wanted to see it. Wrong: The story deals with the life of a youth, Don Juan, his mother desired to make an angel of him. Right: The story deals with the life of a youth, Don Juan. His mother desired to make an angel of him. Wrong: My courses required very hard study, did yours? Right: My courses required very hard study. Did yours? [Or] My courses required very hard study; did yours? Wrong: He will assist you without the slightest hesitation, indeed he will do so with alacrity. Right: He will assist you without the slightest hesitation. Indeed he will do so with alacrity. [Or] He will assist you without the slightest hesitation; indeed he will do so with alacrity. Exception.--Short coördinate clauses which are not joined by conjunctions, but which are parallel in structure and leave a unified impression, may be joined by commas. Right: He sowed, he reaped, he repented. =c. An adverbial clause which precedes a main clause is usually set off by a comma.= When long: Right: While I have much confidence in his sincerity, I cannot approve his decision. [The comma marks the meeting point of clauses too long to be easily read together. Brief clauses do not require the comma. Right: Where thou goest I will go.] When ending in words that link themselves with words in the main clause: Right: If Jacob finds time to plow, the garden can be planted tomorrow. [The comma prevents _plow the garden_ from being read as verb and object.] When not closely connected with the main clause in meaning: Right: Although they were few, they were resolute. [Here the comma reveals the distinctness of the two stages of thought. In the sentence _If it freezes the skating will be good_ the distinctness of the two thoughts is less emphatic, and the comma may be omitted.] Note.--The comma is usually omitted when the adverbial clause follows the main clause. Right: The score stood twelve to twelve when the first half ended. [The adverbial clause is linked closely with the element it modifies, the predicate; punctuation is unnecessary. If the _when_ clause were placed before the element it does not modify, the subject, a comma should be inserted.] =d. Restrictive clauses should not be set off by commas; non-restrictive clauses should be set off by commas.= (A restrictive clause is one inseparably connected with the noun or pronoun it modifies; to omit it would change the thought of the main clause. A non-restrictive clause is less vitally connected with the noun or pronoun; to omit it would not affect the thought of the main clause.) Right: Men who are industrious will succeed. [The relative clause restricts the meaning; it is inseparably connected with the noun it modifies, and to omit it would change the thought of the main clause.] Right: Thomas Carlyle, who wrote forty volumes, was of peasant origin. [The relative clause is non-restrictive; it is not inseparably connected with the noun it modifies, and to omit it would not change the thought of the main clause. Thus: Thomas Carlyle was of peasant origin.] Right: Where is the house that Jack built? [Restrictive.] Right: I went to Jack's house, which is across the street. [Non-restrictive.] Wrong: Students, who are lazy, do not deserve to pass. [The sentence as it stands says that all students are lazy, and that none of them deserve to pass. Without the commas, the sentence would mean that such students as are lazy do not deserve to pass.] Right: Students who are lazy do not deserve to pass. =The rule stated above for clauses applies also to phrases.= Right. She, hearing the voice, turned quickly. [_Hearing the voice_ is non-restrictive. It does not identify _she_, and the thought of the main clause is complete without it.] Right: Books pertaining to aeronautics are in demand. [_Pertaining to aeronautics_ is restrictive. It explains what books are referred to, and without it the meaning of the main thought is changed.] Right: Our country, made up as it is of democratic people, lacks the centralized power of a monarchy. [Non-restrictive.] Right: A country made up of democratic people must be lacking in centralized power. [Restrictive. _Made up of democratic people_ explains _country_ and is essential to the thought of the sentence.] =e. Slightly parenthetical elements are set off by commas:= Direct address or explanation: Write soon, Henry, and tell all the news. They intend, as you know, to build a great dam across the river. His father, they say, was frugal and industrious. I, on my part, however, am unalterably opposed to the expenditure. He was, according to such reports as have reached me, altogether in the right. Mild interjections: Well, we shall see. Come now, let's talk it over. But alas, the cupboard was bare. The custom is, oh, very old. Absolute phrases: This being admitted, I shall proceed to my other evidence. Geographical names which explain other names and dates which explain other dates: The convention met at Madison, Wisconsin, on March 24, 1916. Words in apposition: We arrived at Austin, the capital of Texas. It was Archie, my best friend in boyhood. Exception.--The comma is omitted (1) When the appositive is part of a proper name. Right: William the Silent, Alexander the Great. (2) When there is unusually close connection between the appositive and the noun it modifies. Right: My one confidant was my brother Robert. (3) When the appositive is a word or phrase to which attention is called by italics or some other device which sets it apart. Right: The word _sequent_ is derived from Latin. Right: The expression "That's fine" is one which I use indiscriminately. Note.--When the parenthetical element occurs in the middle of a sentence, "set off by commas" means _punctuate before and after_. Wrong: I was, madam at home yesterday. Right: I was, madam, at home yesterday. Wrong: I am to say the least, provoked. Right: I am, to say the least, provoked. =f. Consecutive adjectives that modify the same noun are separated from each other by commas. If, however, the last adjective is closely linked in meaning with the noun, no comma is used before it.= Right: A short, slight, pitiable figure. Right: A shrewd professional man. [_Shrewd_ modifies, not _man_ alone, but _professional man_.] Right: A bedraggled old rooster. [_Old rooster_ has almost the force of a compound word. _Bedraggled_ modifies the general idea _old rooster_.] Note.--The commas in a series of adjectives are used to separate the adjectives from each other. No comma should intervene between the final adjective and the noun. Wrong: He was only a frail, unarmed, frightened, youngster. Right: He was only a frail, unarmed, frightened youngster. =g. Words or phrases in series are separated by commas.= When the series takes the form _a, b, and c_, a comma precedes the _and_. Confusing: The railroads in question are the New York Central, Pennsylvania and Chesapeake and Ohio. [The reader might surmise that the words _Pennsylvania and Chesapeake and Ohio_ represent a single line or even three different lines.] Right: The railroads in question are the New York Central, Pennsylvania, and Chesapeake and Ohio. Confusing: For breakfast we had oatmeal, bacon, eggs and honey. [Omission of the comma after _eggs_ suggests a mixture.] Right: For breakfast we had oatmeal, bacon, eggs, and honey. =h. A comma should follow an expression like _he said_ which introduces a short quotation.= (For longer or more formal quotations use a colon.) Right: He shouted, "Come on! I dare you!" Right: Our captain replied, "We're ready." But for indirect quotations, a caution is necessary. Do not place a comma between a verb and a _that_ or _how_ clause which the verb introduces. Wrong: He explained, how the accident occurred. Right: He explained how the accident occurred. Wrong: The chauffeur told us, that the gasoline tank was empty. Right: The chauffeur told us that the gasoline tank was empty. =i. A comma is used to separate parts of a sentence which might erroneously be read together.= Confusing: Long before she had received a letter. Better: Long before, she had received a letter. Confusing: We turned the corner and the horse stopped throwing us off. Better: We turned the corner and the horse stopped, throwing us off. Confusing: Through the alumni gathered there went a thrill of dismay. Better: Through the alumni gathered there, went a thrill of dismay. Wrong: For a dime you can buy two pieces of pie or cake and ice cream. Right: For a dime you can buy two pieces of pie, or cake and ice cream. Right: The man whom everybody had for years regarded as a crank and a weakling, is now praised for his sagacity and his strength. Right: In a situation so critical as to require the utmost coolness of mind, he lost his wits completely. [Here the confusion might not be serious if the comma were omitted, but separation of the long introduction from the main clause is desirable.] =j. Do not use superfluous commas:= =1.= To mark a trivial pause: Needless use of comma: In the road, stood a wagon. Needless use of commas: The taking of notes, is a guarantee, against inattention, in class. Slight pauses in a sentence are taken care of by the good sense of the reader. Do not sprinkle commas when the sentence is moving along freely with no complication in the thought. Right: In the road stood a wagon. Right: The taking of notes is a guarantee against inattention in class. =2.= To separate an adjective from its noun: Wrong: A tall, solemn, antique, clock stood in the hallway. [The first two commas separate the adjectives from each other. There is no reason why _antique_ should be separated from the noun.] Right: A tall, solemn, antique clock stood in the hallway. =3.= Before the first word or phrase in a series unless the comma would be employed if the word or phrase stood alone: Wrong: He made a study of, gymnastics, medicine, and surgery. Right: He made a study of gymnastics, medicine, and surgery. Wrong: He had learned, to be prompt, to think clearly, and to write correctly. Right: He had learned to be prompt, to think clearly, and to write correctly. Exercise: 1. Before the workmen finished eating the tunnel caved in. Three Italian laborers were crushed, the others with the foreman escaped. 2. Sneed the new chairman proposed that the convention should meet at Cheyenne Wyoming. The suggestion however was according to reports not adopted. 3. He had a pen and an ink bottle was in the cupboard. By washing poor widows can earn but scant living. 4. Saunders asked, how I liked the Overland car as compared with the Chalmers, the Hudson and the Buick. I started to reply but at that moment we were interrupted. 5. People, who steal watermelons, say the stolen melons are sweetest. Farragut who was born in Tennessee was the North's ablest naval commander. The developer is a chemical, which reduces the silver salt. =The Semicolon= The semicolon represents a division in thought somewhat greater than that represented by a comma, and somewhat smaller than that represented by a period. It may represent grammatical separation and logical connection at the same time; that is, it may indicate that two statements are separate units in grammar, and are yet to be taken together to form a larger unit of logic or thought. =92a. The semicolon is used between coördinate clauses which are not joined by a conjunction.= (For a possible exception see 91b.). Wrong: He was alarmed in fact he was terrified. Right: He was alarmed; in fact he was terrified. Right: He drew up at the curb; he leaped from the car. Note.--Very often the writer may choose freely between the semicolon and the period; in such instances the use of the semicolon implies greater logical unity between the clauses than the use of the period would show. Unless this logical unity is distinct, the period is to be preferred. =b. The semicolon is sometimes used between coördinate clauses which are joined by a conjunction if the clauses are long, or if the clauses have commas within themselves, or if obscurity would result were the semicolon not used.= (Otherwise, see 91a.) Right: Very slowly the glow in the heavens deepened and extended itself along the eastern horizon; but at last the bright-red rim of the sun showed above the crest of the hill. Right: He arrived, so they tell me, after nightfall; and immediately going to a hotel, called for a room. Confusing: She enjoyed the dinners, and the dancing, and the music, and the whole gay round of fashionable life was a delight to her. Better. She enjoyed the dinners, and the dancing, and the music; and the whole gay round of fashionable life was a delight to her. =c. The semicolon is used between coördinate clauses which are joined by a formal conjunctive adverb (_hence_, _thus_, _then_, _therefore_, _accordingly_, _consequently_, _besides_, _still_, _nevertheless_, or the like).= Wrong: We have failed in this therefore let us try something else. Right: We have failed in this; therefore let us try something else. Wrong: He was tattered and muddy, besides he ate like a cormorant. Right: He was tattered and muddy; besides he ate like a cormorant. Note 1.--If a simple conjunction like _and_ is used in the sentences above, a comma will suffice. But a comma is not sufficient before a conjunctive adverb like _therefore_. Conjunctive adverbs may be clearly distinguished from simple conjunctions (See 91a). They cannot always be easily distinguished from subordinating conjunctions (see 90b, Note), but the distinction, when it can be made with certainty, is an aid to clear thinking. Note 2.--Good usage sometimes permits a comma to be used before a conjunctive adverb in short sentences where the break in the thought is not formal or emphatic. For instance, when the conjunctive adverb _so_ is used as a formal or emphatic connective, a semicolon is desirable (I won't go; so that's settled). But in the sentence, "I was excited, so I missed the target", a comma is sufficient. For the use of _so_ is here informal, and probably expresses degree as well as result. (Compare "I was so excited that I missed the target"). =d. The semicolon is not used before quotations, or after the "Dear Sir" in letters. Use a comma or a colon.= (See 91h, 93a, and 87b.) Wrong: Mother said; "Let me get my needle." Right: Mother said, "Let me get my needle." Exercise: 1. The eggs tasted musty, they were cold storage eggs. 2. You should have seen that old, formally kept house, you should have sat in that stuffy and immaculate parlor. 3. I objected to the plan however since he insisted upon it I yielded. 4. I suppose I must go if I don't he will be anxious. 5. Although the note is due on March 19, you have three days of grace, consequently you may pay it on March 22. =The Colon= =93a. The colon is used to introduce formally a word, a list, a statement or question, a series of statements or questions, or a long quotation.= Right: Only one man stood between Burr and the presidency: Jefferson. Right: My favorite novels are the following: _Ivanhoe_, _Henry Esmond_, and _The Mill on the Floss_. Right: The difficulty is this: Where is the money to come from? Right: The measure must be considered from several standpoints: Is it timely? Is it expedient? Is it just? Is it superior to the other measures proposed? Right: I shall do three things next year: study hard, take care of my health, and enter into various student activities. Right: Webster concluded with the following peroration: "When my eyes shall be turned for the last time to behold the sun in heaven," etc., etc. =b. The colon may be used before concrete illustrations of a general statement.= Right: The colors were various: blue, purple, emerald, and orange. Right: The day was propitious: the sun shone, the birds sang, the flowers sent forth their fragrance. Exercise: 1. The city must have these improvements paved streets more schools better sanitation and a park. 2. A guild comprised men of a single class tailors, fishmongers, or goldsmiths. 3. Everything was favorable, it was a wheat-raising district, there were no rival mills, the means of transportation were excellent. 4. The personal adornments of the eighteenth century "blood" were elaborate, wigs, cocked hat, colored breeches, red-heeled shoes, cane, and muff. 5. The chief of the engineers reported "The route, taken as a whole, is practicable enough, but near Clifton, where the yards must be placed, it leads through a rocky defile." =The Dash= =94a. The dash may be used instead of the marks of parenthesis, especially where informality is desired.= Right: She fell asleep--would you believe it?--in the middle of the lecture. Right: That fellow actually--of course this is between you and me--stole money from his father. =b. Insert a dash when a sentence is broken off abruptly.= Right: The next morning--let's see, what happened the next morning? =c. The dash may be used near the end of a sentence, before a summarizing statement or an afterthought.= Right: When you have carried in the wood and the water, and milked the cows, and fed all the stock and the poultry, and mended the harness--when you have done these things, you may consider the rest of the evening your own. Right: Barnes played a mischievous trick one day--in fact, Barnes was always into mischief. =d. The use of the dash to end sentences is childish.= Childish: At dawn I went on deck--far off to the left was a cloud, I thought, on the edge of the water--it grew more distinct as we angled toward it--it was land--before noon we had sailed into harbor. Right: At dawn I went on deck. Far off to the left was a cloud, I thought, on the edge of the water. It grew more distinct as we angled toward it. It was land. Before noon we had sailed into harbor. =e. A dash should be made about three times as long as a hyphen; otherwise it may be mistaken as the sign of a compound word.= Exercise: 1. The boy left the package on the where did that boy leave the package? 2. She was haughty independent as a queen in fact and she told him no. 3. The clatter of the other typewriters, the relentless movement of the hands of the clock, the calls from the press room for more copy, these made Sears write like mad. 4. He made her acquaintance what do you think of this by scribbling his name and address on some eggs he sold to a grocer. 5. He obtained a position in a big department store--his good taste was quickly recognized--within a month he was dressing the windows. =Parenthesis Marks and Brackets= =95a.= Parenthesis marks may be used to enclose matter foreign to the main thought of the sentence. (But see also 94a and 91e.) Right: His testimony is conclusive (unless, to be sure, we find that he has perjured himself). =b. A comma or a semicolon used at the end of a parenthesis should as a rule follow the mark of parenthesis rather than precede it.= Right: If there is snow on the ground (and I am sure there will be), we shall have plenty of sleighing. =c. When confirmatory symbols or figures are enclosed within parenthesis marks, they should follow rather than precede the words they confirm.= Wrong: They earn (3) dollars a day. Right: They earn three (3) dollars a day. [Or] They earn three dollars ($3) a day. =d. Do not use parenthesis marks to cancel a word or passage.= Draw a horizontal line through whatever is to be omitted. =e. Brackets are used to insert explanatory matter in a quotation which one gives from another writer.= Explanatory matter inserted by the original writer is enclosed within parenthesis marks. Right: "Bunyan's masterpiece (_The Pilgrim's Progress_)," declared the lecturer, "is out of harmony with the spirit of the age that produced it [the age of the Restoration]." (Here the explanatory words _the age of the Restoration_ are inserted by the person who is quoting the lecturer.) Exercise: 1. The supremacy of the horse-drawn vehicle is unless a miracle happens now gone forever. 2. My count shows (41) forty-one bales of cotton in the mill yard. 3. [Insert _the Marne_ as your explanation]: "It was this battle," said the lecturer, "that made the name of Joffre immortal." 4. [Insert _Florida_ as the explanation of the person you are quoting]: "In that state oranges are plentiful." 5. It was the opinion of Bailey and events proved him right that the government must assume control of the railroads. =Quotation Marks= =96a. Quotation marks should be used to enclose a direct, but not an indirect, quotation.= Right: "I am thirsty," he said. Wrong: He said "that he was thirsty." Right: He said that he was thirsty. =b. A quotation of several paragraphs should have quotation marks at the beginning of each paragraph and at the end of the last paragraph.= =c. In narrative each separate speech, however short, should be enclosed within quotation marks=; but a single speech of several sentences should have only one set of quotation marks. Wrong: "Will you come? she pleaded. Certainly." Right: "Will you come," she pleaded. "Certainly." Wrong: He replied, "It was not for my own sake that I did this." "There were others whom I had to consider." "I can mention no names." Right: He replied, "It was not for my own sake that I did this. There were others whom I had to consider. I can mention no names." =d. Quotation marks may be used with technical terms, with slang introduced into formal writing, or with nicknames=; but not with merely elevated diction, with good English that resembles slang, with nicknames that have practically become proper names, or with fictitious names from literature. Permissible: The rime is called a "feminine rime". He is really "a corker". Their name for my friend was "Sissy". Better without the quotation marks: He was awed by "the grandeur of the mountains". "A humbug". "Fetch". "Stonewall" Jackson. He was a true "Rip Van Winkle". =e. Either quotation marks or italics may be used with words to which special attention is called.= (See the examples under 91e, Exception, 3.) Quotation marks are used with the titles of articles, of chapters in books, of individual short poems, and the like. Italics are used with the titles of books or of periodicals, with the names of ships, and with foreign words which are still felt to be emphatically foreign. =f. A quotation within a quotation should be enclosed in single quotation marks; a quotation within that, in double marks.= Right: "It required courage," the speaker said, "for a man to affirm in those days: 'I endorse every word of Patrick Henry's sentiment, "Give me liberty, or give me death!"'" =g. When a word is followed by both a quotation mark and a question mark or an exclamation point, the question mark or the exclamation point should come first if it applies to the quotation; last, if it applies to the main sentence.= Wrong: He shouted but one command, "Give them the bayonet"! Right: He shouted but one command, "Give them the bayonet!" Wrong: Did Savonarola say, "I recant?" Right: Did Savonarola say, "I recant"? Note.--Regarding the position of a comma, semicolon, or period at the end of a quotation, usage differs. Printers ordinarily place commas and periods inside the quotation marks, and semicolons outside, from considerations of spacing. But logic, not spacing, should determine the order, and all three marks should be treated alike. They should be placed within the quotation marks if they were a part of the original quotation; otherwise outside. In quoting manuscript, the quotation marks should enclose exactly what is in the original. In quoting oral discourse, a certain liberty is necessarily allowed. Correct: He said calmly, "It is I." Also correct, but not commonly used: He said calmly, "It is I". Correct, and in common use, but slightly illogical: He began, "Our Father which art in heaven." [The period should follow the quotation mark, since there is no period in the original quotation.] Correct, and in common use, but slightly illogical: Can you tell me the difference between "apt," "likely," and "liable"; between "noted" and "notorious"? Also correct: Can you tell me the difference between "apt", "likely", and "liable"; between "noted" and "notorious"? =h. When a quotation is interrupted by such an expression as _he said,_= =1. An extra set of quotation marks is employed, and the interpolated words are normally set off by commas.= Wrong: "I rise said he to second the motion." Right: "I rise," said he, "to second the motion." =2. A question mark or exclamation point should precede the interpolated expression if it would be used were the expression omitted.= Right: "'May I go?'" complained father, "is all that boy can ask." Right: "Merciful heavens!" he cried, "we are lost." =3. The expression should be followed by a semicolon if the semicolon would follow the preceding words in case the expression were omitted.= Right: "I admit it", he said; "it is true." =4. Neither the expression nor the words following it should begin with a capital.= Wrong: "We must be quiet", Said the old man, "If we expect to catch sight of a squirrel." Right: "We must be quiet", said the old man, "if we expect to catch sight of a squirrel." =i. An omission from a quotation is indicated by dots.= Right: "When a word is followed by both a quotation mark and ... an exclamation point, ... the exclamation point should come ... last, if it applies to the main sentence." [Abridged citation of g above.] =j. Do not use superfluous quotation marks:= 1. Around the title at the head of a theme (unless it is a quoted title); 2. As a label for humor or irony. Superfluous: The "abstemious" Mr. Crew ate an enormous dinner. Better: The abstemious Mr. Crew ate an enormous dinner. Exercise: 1. Carew says, "that the profit comes from selling knickknacks." 2. What's the matter with that horse? asked Williams. He's as frisky as if he had been shut up a week. 3. "Who's your favorite character in the play?, persisted Laura. Is it "Brutus"? No, answered Howard; I admire his wife "Portia". 4. "It's amazing, said Mrs. Phelps, how children love playthings. Helen Locke said yesterday, Hughie always tells me when I am putting him to bed, I want my Teddy bear". 5. "You see, said Daugherty, the two offices across the corridor from each ether." "One is the county clerk's." "The other is the county collector's." =The Apostrophe= =97a. In contracted words place the apostrophe where letters are omitted, and do not place it elsewhere.= Wrong: does'nt, theyr'e, oclock. Right: doesn't, they're, o'clock. =b. To form the possessive of a noun, singular or plural, that does not end in _s_, add '_s_.= Right: A hunter's gun, children's games, the cannon's mouth. =c. To form the possessive of a noun, singular or plural, that ends in _s_, place an apostrophe after (not before) the _s_ if there is no new syllable in pronunciation. If there is a new syllable in pronunciation, add _'s_.= Wrong: Moses's mandates, Keat's poems, Dicken's novels, those hunter's guns. Right: Moses' mandates, Keats's poems (or Keats' poems), Dickens' (or Dickens's) novels, those hunters' guns. =d. Do not use an apostrophe with the possessive adjectives _its_, _his_, _hers_, _ours_, _yours_, and _theirs_. But _one's_, _other's_, _either's_ take the apostrophe.= =e. Add _'s_ to form the plural of letters of the alphabet, of words spoken of as words, and sometimes numbers.= But do not form the regular plural of a word by adding _'s_ (See 77). Right: His _B's_, _8's_ (or _8s_), and _it's_ look much alike. Wrong: The Jones's, the Smith's, and the Brown's. Right: The Joneses, the Smiths, and the Browns. Exercise: 1. We don't know theyr'e dishonest. 2. The soldier's heads showed above the trenches. 3. Five 8es, three 7es, and two 12es make 85. 4. Pierce told the Keslers that Jones hogs were fatter than their's. 5. Its three oclock by his watch; five minutes past three by her's. =The Question Mark and the Exclamation Point= =98a. Place a question mark after a direct question, but not after an indirect question.= Wrong: What of it. What does it matter. Right: What of it? What does it matter? Wrong: He asked whether I belonged to the glee club? Right: He asked whether I belonged to the glee club. Note.--When the main sentence which introduces an indirect question is itself interrogatory, a question mark follows. Right: Did she inquire whether you had met her aunt? =b. A question mark is often used within a sentence, but should not be followed by a comma, semicolon, or period.= Wrong: "What shall I do?," he asked. Right: "What shall I do?" he asked. Wrong: But where are the stocks?, the bonds?, the evidences of prosperity? Right: But where are the stocks? the bonds? the evidences of prosperity? =c. A question mark within parentheses may be used to express uncertainty as to the correctness of an assertion.= Right: Shakespeare was born April 23 (?), 1564. Right: In 1340 (?) was born Geoffrey Chaucer. =d. The use of a question mark as a label for humor or irony is childish.= Superfluous: Immediately the social lion (?) rose to his feet. Better: Immediately the social lion rose to his feet. =e. The exclamation point is used after words, expressions, or sentences to show strong emotion.= Right: Hark! I hear horses. Give us a light there, ho! Note.--The lavish use of the exclamation point is not in good taste. Unless the emotion to be conveyed is strong, a comma will suffice. See 91e. Exercise: 1. What is my temperature, doctor. 2. "Shall we go by the old mill?", asked Newcomb? 3. Did Wu Ting Fang say, "The Chinese Republic will survive." 4. He inquired whether Lorado Taft is the greatest living American sculptor. 5. Farewell. Othello's occupation's gone. =99.= EXERCISE IN PUNCTUATION =A.= Punctuate the following sentences: 1. Why its ten oclock 2. It was a rainy foggy morning 3. Arthurs cousin said Lets go 4. I begged her to stay but she refused 5. His parents you know were wealthy 6. Near by the children were playing house 7. Ever since John has driven carefully 8. I smell something burning Etta 9. Well Harry are you ready for a tramp 10. I well remember a trip which I once took 11. When the day has ended the twilight comes 12. She was a poor lonely defenseless old woman 13. Trout bass and pickerel are often caught there 14. Lees army was defeated at Gettysburg Pennsylvania on July 3 1863 15. Students who are poor appreciate the value of an education 16. Clem Rogers who is poor as Jobs turkey has bought a phonograph 17. He had no resentment against the man who had injured him 18. He spoke to his father who sat on the veranda 19. The rifle which he used on this trip was the best he had 20. His long beard sticking out at an angle from his chin and his tall silk hat looked ridiculous =B.= Punctuate the following sentences: 1. I found the work difficult did you find it so 2. If they had agreed to buy things would have been different but they didn't 3. I could satisfy myself if need be with dreams and imaginary delights she must have realities 4. Well Im not disappointed its just what I expected 5. Hard roads are not only an advantage they are almost indispensable 6. The man who hesitates is lost the woman who hesitates is won 7. The nihilists accept no principle or creed they reject government and religion and all institutions which cramp the individuals desires 8. No longer are women considered weaklings although not so strong as man physically they are now assumed to have will and courage of their own 9. The Pilgrims wished to thank God so they prepared a feast 10. Our country roads are full of chuck holes consequently one must drive with caution 11. The first player advances ten paces the second eight the third six and so on 12. I told her it was her own fault she was too reticent and held herself aloof 13. He had complained of weariness therefore we left him in camp 14. The Panama Canal consists of four sections the Atlantic Level the Lake the Cut and the Pacific Level 15. There are three reasons why I do not like Ford cars first they rattle second they bump and third they never wear out 16. Protoplasm has been found to contain four elements carbon hydrogen oxygen and nitrogen but by no artificial combination can these be made into the living substance 17. Phlox mignonette sweet peas cannas all these yield flowers until late in the fall. 18. He asked for hot water the mollycoddle as if this were a hotel 19. Is this seat occupied sir asked Brown who stood in the aisle 20. There are two types of democracy 1 a pure democracy and 2 a representative democracy =C.= Punctuate the following sentences: 1. And Harvey waiting all this time mind you sprang for the door 2. I want to go to Memphis Tennessee to the old house if it is still standing where I was born 3. My bill amounted to exactly counting the car fare nine dollars and ninety five cents 4. I do not believe it he cried then turning to the others in the group he asked nervously do you 5. Which is better to borrow money for ones school expenses or to work ones way 6. He swore swore like a pirate and lashed the horses 7. Dickens novel Martin Chuzzlewit is satirical 8. But what of the Dakotas of Minnesota of Wisconsin are they to give us no political support 9. The grain is then run into a bin called the weighing bin from this it is let down on to the scales 10. Lincoln showed very plainly what the phrase All men are created equal means and what its application was to the anti-slavery movement. 11. His name was lets see what was the fellows name. 12. He looks sharply for little points passed over by the average person are important to him 13. How uncomfortable I feel in a room whose windows are not covered by curtains I cannot describe 14. Some time ago he moved away I was sorry because he was a fine young man 15. I went to the lawyers office to hear the reading of my uncles will 16. Well well I havent seen you for years But youre the same stub nosed freckle faced good natured Tom 17. I did not stop long to consider the football togs were nearest at hand so in they went cleated shoes trousers sweater pads headgear and the rest 18. Today I shall outline explain and argue the subject which has already been announced to you namely The Distribution of Taxes in Illinois 19. His piping voice his long crooked nose his white hair falling over the shoulders of his faded blue coat his shuffling shambling gait as he hobbled up to Carletons Grocery with his basket all this I shall remember as long as I live 20. We hold these truths to be self evident that all men are created equal that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights that among these rights are life liberty and the pursuit of happiness 100. GENERAL EXERCISE Improve the following sentences, making as many changes as are necessary to express the thought clearly and accurately. =A.= 1. It don't sound right. 2. Us fellows hadn't ought to complain. 3. The decision effects my brother and I alike. 4. Following his breakfast he went up to the office. 5. One finds that beginning on a pipe organ is much more complicated than the piano. 6. She married before she was eighteen, she had never taken much interest in school work 7. New Year's Eve, a young lady who I was calling upon, and myself decided to fool the old folks. 8. Williams drove across town at full speed, this was against the ordinances. 9. Mr. Black, who had been laying on the sofa, rose and set down by myself. 10. The agricultural course is a study which every person should have a great deal of knowledge along that line. 11. Swinging around the curve, the open switch was seen in time, and directly the train stopped we rushed off of the cars. 12. I can say a little in regard to my expectations in connection with the next four years of my life, however. Expectations of work, pleasure, and perhaps a little sorrow. 13. An interesting experience of mine was a collection of insects made when I studied biology. 14. A man can talk to an animal, and he learns to obey him by repeating certain commands. 15. The life of a princess as well as a hermit are made happy by a little child, as illustrated in the stories of Pharaoh's daughter and Silas Marner. =B.= 1. Every one in the office were busy invoicing. 2. Their unconscious pranks and laughter is very amusing. 3. The tiger is a beautiful animal, it is also very ferocious. 4. Either he or she are good companions for you. 5. Again, take a student who has been forced to make his own way, the question may be harder to decide. 6. As for the proposition which is before you, if it was me, I would not even consider it. 7. The fly is the insect that causes more fatal deaths in a year than any other insect. 8. The success of a sponge cake depends upon two things. The beating of the eggs and the mixing of the flour in lightly. 9. James, a youth of such energy, and who is attractive in many ways, failed in his exams. 10. Fish are only found in the deep holes, and they are hard to get at. 11. Besides cigarettes, there are other forms of using tobacco, such as cigars, and in pipes, and chewing tobacco, making the total consumption very great. 12. I am endeavoring to secure for this position a man not only with ability as a manager, but one who is capable of understanding and sympathizing with rural community conditions. 13. Any one having any question to ask or who has trouble with their camera, may write to this department. 14. When I hear oatmeal it nauseates me. I can see a mental picture of the breakfast table where I sat nearly all last summer. 15. In ones second year in high school the books to be read are Burns poems, Miltons paradise Lost; Bunyans Pilgrims Progress, and several of Shakespeares plays. =C.= 1. He promised to on no consideration delay. 2. I heard a voice at the door which was familiar. 3. The most important part of a book is often to read the preface. 4. Observing carefully, a number of errors are seen to exist. 5. Unless one is very wealthy they cannot afford to own a car. 6. These kind of fellows usually make good athletes. 7. It was the custom of we campers to ride into town and back on freight cars, when in need of supplies. 8. As I was sitting near a radiator so I moved as I decided it was too warm there. 9. To thine own self be true is the advice Polonius gave to his son. 10. In order that Otto should not regain his political power back again, Sarphina put him in jail. 11. For every action there is an opposite and equal reaction is the idea which Emerson's essay on compensation begins. 12. To consult a Bible encyclopedia and read it concerning Easter, one learns quite a little about that religious holiday. 13. Never try to shoot a rabbit or any animal when they are not moving, for among hunters it is very poor sportsmanship to kill any animal before they have had a chance to get away. 14. We find that many of Whittier's poems were concerned with slavery, which he considered a very great moral wrong, and determined to do all in his power to eradicate this evil. 15. Rhetoric is required in order that a person may learn how to express their thoughts so as to be readily understood, and the ability to do this greatly increases the value of your knowledge. =D.= 1. Socialism is different than anarchy. 2. He ate the lunch instead of his sister. 3. The Volga is the longest of any river in Europe. 4. I come over to see if you will leave Tilly go on a picnic with us tomorrow. 5. The value of the birds are studied and the good results taught to the older children. 6. Despotism is where a ruler is not responsible to those under his authority. 7. When a boy or girl enters a high school they think they are very important. 8. I was anxious to begin eating, so no time was wasted by me. 9. They run out of ammunition, which caused them to loose the battle. 10. The mind is not only developed, but also the body. 11. He built a reservoir varying from 75 to 150 ft. in diameter and from 8 to 15 ft. high. 12. The most principal reason for going to college is so as to prepare myself for teaching. 13. While the room was not very large, yet it had a good-sized closet in which to put a trunk would be easy and lighted by a small window. 14. A college education is supposed to be general and thorough by training a man not only into something definite, but give him a wider scope from which to choose from. 15. Motion pictures give actual battle scenes showing just how the different countries carry on warfare, in taking care of the wounded, making ammunition, and how they discharge the artillery, and advance or retreat. =E.= 1. He acted like the rest did. 2. He don't see anything attractive about her. 3. Neither Admiral Beatty nor Admiral Sims are afraid to take chances. 4. The Girl's Campfire Organization was organized when the Boy Scouts organization was proved such a success. 5. Coal is found likely 15 ft. from the waters edge, extending horizontally under the cliff. 6. It is no sure sign that just because a student has took a course in literature, that he really enjoys the best reading. 7. One of the most noticeable characteristics about Lowell's letters were that they are brief, to the point, and emphatic. 8. On the license there will be found the laws regarding hunting and on the back of it tells when the different seasons are open. 9. The St. Louis Republic is a partisan democratic newspaper and thus it can be guessed as to what their editorials are like concerning political questions. 10. If the public in general is well posted on the subject and finds that the charity workers are in earnest, they are much more apt to donate. 11. Some were laughing, some acted serious, others like myself were merely looking on. 12. Entering the campus, the Library is seen, which is a building nicer than all the others. 13. The Ideal Starter starts the engine perfectly without leaving the driver's seat. 14. The fly feeds on decayed vegetable matter, and also the decayed animal. 15. It is true that some people keep a fire extinguisher. It is of minor importance when considering organized fire protection. It is organized fire protection with which we are chiefly concerned, so let us dismiss the former and proceed to the latter subject. =F.= 1. In olden days the curfew rung everywheres at 9 o'clock. 2. If a person was to become a charity worker, it would necessitate him giving time and effort. 3. I think most any person can appreciate a good joke when it is not on them. 4. Your clothing for the hunt should be warm and of goods that will not tear easy. 5. Life can be classified in four general stages. Infancy, Youth, Maturity, and Old Age. 6. At the sound of the summons I had to arise from my downy cot and hurry to the morning repast. 7. He was surprised at the way people lived in the city. Especially the dirt and misery of the slums. 8. The house is battered and dingy, being built twenty years ago by Mr. Robinson, and needs paint badly. 9. We hadn't scarcely more than begun the work when one of the engines got broke and we had to stop until it could be fixed. 10. Neither self-denial nor self-sacrifice are to be admired, or even pardoned, at the cost of happiness, Stevenson says. 11. The thing that took my eye most of all were the walls. Pennants, pictures, and souvenirs were hanging everywhere. 12. Grandmother had put the spectacles in the Bible which she had lost. 13. In the summer time the weather is warm but some people are complaining of the hot weather and who wish the weather would turn cooler but is it not this kind of weather that makes the plants grow, which in turn furnish us food? 14. Until athletics are demanded from the weaker students, the training will go to the one who does not need it, and the ones who do need it are sitting up on the bleachers exercising their lungs. 15. The people of olden times used pumps, but did not know why they worked, they thought it worked because "nature abhors a vacuum." =G.= 1. Each one of these three books are interesting. 2. You may put this hat in any desired shape you like. 3. We motored over to Bloomington which was much more pleasant than the train. 4. Every one of his statements are so clear that they cannot be misconstrued what they mean. 5. Analysis is when things are resolved into elements or parts. 6. She dropped the doll on the pavement, of which she was very fond. 7. He was offered money to keep still, but would not, thus showing his good character. 8. The first training center for training police dogs was in Hildesheim, Prussia, and was in the year 1896. 9. The draining of land not only increases the yield, and it greatly lengthens the season that the land may be worked. 10. He next stated the number of the founders of the Constitution, which were 39 in no. 11. The life of Doctor Kingsley is a good example of a man who has succeeded. 12. The fortunes of our country are now standing at the cannon's mouth, and one vote may stem the tide of disaster. 13. There was little scenery on an Elizabethan stage. While the parts intended for women were performed by men. 14. The cave which Tom Sawyer was lost in really existed. It was the cave just outside Hannibal, Missouri, it was near the Mississippi. Here was the place where Mark Twain was a boy. 15. Yes, and the buildings werent what they are now, do you remember how we used to go to the old log meeting house, that was up on stilts, and the pigs crawled under the floor and raised such a disturbance that the preacher had to stop and have the pigs chased out before he could continue the sermon? INDEX _The numbers refer to articles._ Abbreviations, 83, 90c Absolute expressions Defined, 58 Punctuation of, 91e _Accept_ and _except_, 67 _Ad_, 68 Addresses, 87b, 87e Adjectives Classes of, 58 Comparison of, 58 Distinguished from adverbs, 56 In a series, 91f, 91j2 Adverbs, Classes of, 58 Comparison of, 58 Distinguished from adjectives, 56 _Affect_ and _effect_, 67 _Aggravate_, 68 Agreement Of verbs, 52 Of pronouns, 51, 50i _Ain't_, 68 _All right_, 68 _Almost_, Position of, 27 _Allusion and illusion_, 67 _Already_ and _all ready_, 67 _And_ before a subordinate phrase or clause, 16, 17 _And_ used to excess, 14 _And which_ construction, 17 Antecedent Defined, 58 Faulty reference to, 20-23 _Anybody_, Number of, 51a Apostrophe In contractions, 97 With possessive, 97, 50f Application for a position, 87g Articles, Omission of, 3 _As_, Incorrect use of, 50a, 68 Aspect of the verb, 58 Auxiliary Defined, 58 Use of, 55e _Awful_, Abuse of, 68 Balanced sentence, 45 Balanced structure, 30, 45 Barbarisms, 66 _Because_ clauses, 5 _Because of_ phrases, 5 Note _Be_, Nominative with, 50c _Both ... and_, 31 Brackets, 95e Brevity for emphasis, 41, 60 Business letters, 87c _Bust_ or _busted_, 68 _But_ used to excess, 38 Note _Can_ and _may_, 67 _Cannot help but_, 34 Capitals, 81 Case Defined, 58 Use of, 50 Cause, Inaccurate statement of, 5 _Caused by_, 5 Note, 23, 68 Change in number or person, 33 Change in subject or voice, 32 Change in tense, 33, 55 Choppy sentences, 13 _Claim_, 68 Clauses Cause, 5 Coördinated loosely, 14, 12 Defined, 58 House-that-Jack-built, 38 Misplaced, 24 Misused as sentences, 1, 90b Restrictive and non-r., 91d Subordinate. Not to be used as complete sentences, 1 Subordination faulty, 15 To be reduced to phrases, 60 _When_ or _where_ clauses, 6 Clearness, 20-39 Climax, 44 Coherence, 24-29 Colon, 93 Collective nouns, Number of, 51c Colloquialisms, 65 Comma, 91, 92c Notes 1 and 2, 95b After quotation, 96 Note "Comma splice" or "comma fault," 18 Not used after question mark, 98b Comparison of adjectives and adverbs, 58 Comparisons, Inaccurate, 4 Compound sentence structure in excess, 12, 14 Compound words, 78 Concreteness, 63 Conjugation, 58 Conjunctions Defined, 58 List of, 36 Omitted, 37 Repeated carelessly, 38 Conjunctive adverbs Defined, 58 Punctuation with, 92c Connectives, 8, 36, 37, 38 Consonants Between syllables, 71, 85 Final (in spelling), 75 Construction Incomplete, 2 Mixed, 34 Split, 28 Contractions Apostrophe with, 97 When proper, 65b Coördination, Excessive, 12, 14 Correlatives, 31 _Could of_, 68 Dangling gerund, 23 Dangling participle, 23 Dash, 94 Dates, Writing of, 84, 91e Declension, 58 Definition, 6 Note Dialogue Paragraphing, 88c Punctuation before, 91h, 93a Punctuation in, 96 Diction, Faulty (list), 68 _Different than_, 68 Divided reference, 20 _Don't_, 51d Double capacity, Words in, 57 Double negative, 34 Note _Drownded_, 68 _Due to_, Proper use of, 5 Note, 23 Note, 68 _Each_, Number of, 51a _ei_ or _ie_, 74 _Either_, Number of, 51a _Either ... or_, 31 Ellipsis Defined, 58 Misuse of, 3, 23 Note _Emigrate_ and _immigrate_, 67 Emphasis By brevity, 41 By position, 40 By repetition, 47 By separation, 41 By subordination, 42, 14 By variety, 48 _Enthuse_, 68 _Etc._, Use of, 68 Euphemism, 61 _Ever_, Position of, 27 _Every_, _every one_, _everybody_, Number of, 51a Exclamation point, 98e Exact connective, 36 Exact word, 62 Figures, Use of, 84 Figures of speech, Mixed, 35 Final consonant (in spelling), 75 Final _e_ before a suffix, 76 _Fine_, Abuse of, 68 Fine writing, 61 Flowery language, 61 Formal invitations, 87h _Former_, 68 _Gent_, 68 Geographical names, 91e Gerund Dangling, 23 Defined, 58 With possessive, 50g Good use, 65, 66 _Gotten_, 68 Grammar, 50-59 Grammatical terms, 58 _Guess_, 68 Hackneyed expressions, 61 _Had ought_, 68 Handwriting, 80c _Hanged_ and _hung_, 67 _Healthy_ and _healthful_, 67 Historical present, 33 Note _However_, Position of, 27 _Human_, _humans_, 68 _Hygienic_ and _sanitary_, 67 Hyphen Between syllables, 85 In compound words, 78 Idioms, 65 Illogical thought, 4, 5, 6, 7 Imagery mixed, 35 Impersonal construction, Needless use of, 60 Improprieties, 66 Incomplete construction, 2 Indefinite _it_, _you_, _they_, 22 Note Indention of paragraphs, 88 Inflection, 58 Infinitive Case with, 50e Defined, 58 Sign of, to be repeated, 37 Split, 28 Tense of, 55 _Instants_ and _instance_, 67 Interjections Defined, 58 Punctuation of, 91c, 98e Invitations, Formal, 87h _Is when_ clauses, 6 _Is where_ clauses, 6 Italics, 82, 96e Its (possessive adjective), without apostrophe, 50f, 97d _Kind of_, 68 _Later_ and _latter_, 67 _Lead_ and _led_, 67 _Learn_ and _teach_, 67 _Leave_ and _let_, 67 Length of paragraph, 88b Length of sentences, 12, 13, 48b _Less_ and _fewer_, 67 Letters, 87 _Liable_ and _likely_, 67 _Lie_ and _lay_, 59D, 67 _Like_ (for _as_), 67, 68 List Of connectives, 36 Of principal parts, 54 Of grammatical terms, 58 Of words confused in meaning, 67 Of words incorrectly used, 68 Of words logically akin, 72 Of words confused in spelling, 73 For spelling, 79 _Loan_, 68 _Locate_, 68 Logic, 4, 5, 6, 7 Logical Agreement, 4, 5, 6 Logical Sequence, 25 _Lose_ and loose, 67 _Lots of_, 68 _Majority_ and _plurality_, 67 Manuscript, 80 _Might of_, 68 Misplaced word, 27 Mixed constructions, 34 Mixed imagery, 35 Modal aspects, 58 Mode Definition of, 58 Use of subjunctive, 55d Modifiers Grouping of, 24, 25 Needless separation of, 24, 27 Squinting, 26 Wrongly used as sentences, 1, 90b Money, 84c _Most_ (for _almost_), 66, 68 _Myself_, Needlessly used for _I_ or _me_, 68 Negative, Double, 34 Note _Neither_, Number of, 51a _Neither ... nor_, 31 _Nice_, Inaccurate use of, 62, 68 Nicknames, Quotations with, 96d _Not only ... but also_, 31 Nouns, Classes of, 58 Number Shift in, 33 _These kind_, etc., 51b _Each_, _Every_, etc., 51a Collective nouns, 51c Of verbs, 52 Numbers, Use of, 84 Formation of plural, 77d, 97e _O_ and _Oh_, 68 Objective case, 50d, 50e _Off of_, 68 Omission Of words, 3 From quotations, 96i _Only_, Position of, 27 Outlines, 86 Overlapping thought, 8 Note _Owing to_, Proper use of, 5 Note Paragraphs, 88 Parallel structure, 30, 31, 45 Parenthesis and parenthetical elements, 91e, 94a, 95 Participle Dangling, 23 Definition of, 58 Parts of speech, 58 _Party_, Abuse of, 68 Passive voice, not emphatic, 46 Past tense, Wrong forms of, 54 Past perfect tense, 55 Period, 90, 91b, 92a Note After quotation, 96g Note Not used after question mark, 98b "Period blunder," 1, 90b Periodic sentence, 43 Person, Change in, 33 Phonetic spelling, 71 Note Phrases Defined, 58 Not to be used as sentences, 1 Note Absolute, 91e Plurals, Spelling of, 77 Poetry to be separated from prose, 41, 80b Point of view, Shift in, 32 Ponderous language, 60 Possessive With gerund, 50g Apostrophe with, 50f, 97 Inanimate objects in, 50h _Practical and practicable_, 67 Predicate adjective, 58 Predicate noun, 58 Prefixes, 72 Prepositions Defined, 58 Omitted, 3, 37 Repeated carelessly, 38 Principal parts, 54 _Principal_ and _principle_, 67 Pronouns Agreement with antecedent, 50i Case of, 50 Kinds of, 58 Reference of, 20, 21, 22 Wrong use of _myself_, _yourself_, for _I_, _me_, _you_, 68 Pronunciation as a guide to spelling, 71 _Proof_ and _evidence_, 67 _Proposition_, Synonyms for, 62 _Proven_, 68 _Pseudo-_ and _quasi-_, 67 _Quiet_ and _quite_, 67 Question mark, 98 Quotation marks _vs._ italics, 82a Note 2, 96e Quotations Punctuation before, 91h, 92d, 93a Punctuation of, 96 Reason, Statement of, to be completed by a _that_ clause, 5 Redundance, 60 Reference Ambiguous, 20 Broad, 22 Divided, 20 Impersonal, 22 Note Remote, 20 To a clause, 22 To a title, 21 Note To an unemphatic word, 21 Weak, 21 Reflexive wrongly used for the simple pronoun, 68 Repetition Of connectives, good, 37; bad, 38 Of structure, good 47b; bad 48b Of words, good, 47a; bad, 48a _Respectfully_ and _respectively_, 67 Restrictive and non-restrictive clauses, 91d _Right smart_, 68 _Rise_ and _raise_, 59D, 67 _Said_, Synonyms for, 62 _Same_, Abuse of, 68 Scrappy sentences, 13 Semicolon, 91b, 92, 95b After quotation, 96g Note Not used after question mark, 98b Sequence of tense, 55 Sequence of thought, 25 Series, Punctuation of, 91f, 91g, 91j 3 _Shall_ and _will_, 53 Shift in number, person, or tense, 33 Shift in subject or voice, 32 _Should_ and _would_, 53 _Sit_ and _set_, 59D, 67 Slang, 66 Quotations with, 96d _So_, 36 Note, 68 _Some_, Abuse of, 68 _Somewheres_, 68 Sound, 64 Spacing, 80b Specific words, 63 Spelling, 70-79 Split construction, 28 Split infinitive, 28 Squinting, 26 _Stationary_ and _stationery_, 67 _Statue_, _stature_, and _statute_, 67 Stringy sentences, 12, 14 Subject in nominative case, 50a Subjunctive mode Defined, 58 Use of, 55d Subordinating conjunctions Defined, 58 Enumerated, 36 Subordination Necessary, 12, 13, 14 Faulty, 15, 16, 17, 42 _And which_, 17 Substantive defined, 58 _Such_, 68 Suffixes, 75, 76 Superlative degree in comparisons, 4, 58 _Sure_ and _surely_, 68 _Suspicion_, 68 Syllabication, 85 Syntax defined, 58 Tautology, 60 Note Technical terms, Quotations with, 96d Tense In dependent clauses, 55a In general statements, 55c Past Perfect, 55b Sequence of, 55 Shift in, 33 _Than_ or _as_, Case of pronouns after, 50a _That there_, 68 _Them_ (misused as adjective), 68 _These kind_, 51b _Those_, Omission of relative clause after, 2, 68 Thought undeveloped, 7 Title Capitals in, 81 Reference to, 21 Note Spacing, etc., 80a, 96j Quoted (books, periodicals, etc.), 82a, 96e Transitions, 8, 36 _Transpire_, 68 Triteness, 61 Undeveloped thought, 7 Unity, 10-19 Upside-down subordination, 15 Usage, Good, 65, 66 Verbals, 58 Verb, Forms of the, 58 _Ways_, 68 Weak reference, 21 _Where at_, 68 _While_, Abuse of, 36 _Win out_, 68 _Who_, _whoever_, 50b _Woods_, 68 _Would of_, 68 Wordiness, 60 Words Confused in meaning, 67 Confused in spelling, 73 Double capacity of, 57 Misused, 68 Omission of, 3 _Yourself_ wrongly used for _you_, 68 Transcriber's Notes: Article 7, Missing period added (Many passages are powerful, especially the grave-digging [Is grave-digging a passage?].) Article 13, Changed period to colon (Exercise:) Article 14, Changed period to colon (Exercise:) Article 24, Added missing article "a" (In the morning I found on my bed a heap of snow...) Article 25, Changed "them" to "then" (Do not begin one idea, abandon it for a second, and then return to the first.) Article 31, Added missing comma (not only ... but also ..., both ... and ...) Article 38, Changed "men to "man" (He was undoubtedly a brave man...) Article 38, Changed "trangressions" to "transgressions" (However, if it is used only for serious transgressions...) Article 39, Added missing parenthesis ((Consult 36 for a list of connectives.)) Article 54, Changed period to colon (Exercise:) Article 58, Changed "I was being taken" to "I must be taken" in the conjugation table for the verb "to take" as Present Indicative Obligative in Passive voice Article 65, Changed "idoms" to "idioms" (Study the following list of correct idioms) Article 65, Added missing commas (ain't it fierce?, can you beat it?, going some) Article 68, Added missing quotation mark ("We oughtn't (not hadn't ought) to make this error.") Article 68, Changed "Verb" to "Very" (Very. Accompanied by much when used with the past participle.) Article 71, Removed italic style for the word "compare" (compare occasion) Article 86, Corrected numbering in a list changing "2." to "3." (3. Place in order the headings of the following outline) Article 88, Added missing parenthesis ((In some instances the paragraph may consist of a single sentence.)) Article 88, Changed comma to period (We'll have a rope down to you in a minute.) Article 91, Added missing parenthesis ((She came and she was gone in a moment. McCoy talked and the rest of us listened.)) Article 91, Changed period to colon (Right: For breakfast we had oatmeal, bacon, eggs, and honey.) Article 92, Changed period to colon (Better: She enjoyed the dinners, and the dancing, and the music) Article 94, Changed "d." to "b.", and "b." to "d." (b. Insert a dash when a sentence is broken off abruptly.; d. The use of the dash to end sentences is childish.) Article 95, Changed "dedeclared" to "declared" ("Bunyan's masterpiece (The Pilgrim's Progress)," declared the lecturer) INDEX, Changed period to comma (Impersonal construction, Needless use of) 
40550	----	Transcriber's note: Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). Text enclosed by plus signs is in bold face (+bold+). Text enclosed by tilde characters is underlined (~underlined~). Text enclosed by equal signs is double underlined (=double underlined=). The Key to Pronunciation, p. 37 (Spelling Lesson 3), contains characters with diacritical marks not available in Latin-1 character encoding. Therefore, they have been transcribed as follows: [=x] character 'x' with macron (bar) above the letter [.x] character 'x' with dot above the letter [~x] character 'x' with tilde (curved bar) above the letter PLAIN ENGLISH by MARIAN WHARTON _For the Education of the Workers by the Workers_ Published by The People's College Fort Scott, Kansas 1917 ¶ He who aspires to master the art of expression must first of all consecrate himself completely to some great cause and the greatest cause of all is the cause of humanity. He must learn to feel deeply and think clearly, to express himself eloquently. He must be absolutely true to the best there is in him, if he has to stand alone. ¶ Such natural powers as he may have should be cultivated by the study of history, science and literature. He must not only keep close to the people but remember that he is one of them, and not above the meanest. He must feel the wrongs of others so keenly that he forgets his own, and resolve to combat these wrongs with all the power at his command. ¶ The most thrilling, inspiring oratory, the most powerful and impressive eloquence is the voice of the disinherited, the oppressed, the suffering and submerged; it is the voice of poverty and misery, of rags and crusts, of wretchedness and despair; the voice of humanity crying to the infinite; the voice that resounds throughout the earth and reaches Heaven; the voice that awakens the conscience of a race and proclaims the truths that fill the world with life and liberty and love. --EUGENE V. DEBS. FOREWORD Every generation has added a little to the store of truth of which the human race has possessed itself throughout the long sweep of the centuries. Every truth expressed and preserved by those who lived in the past, is a contribution which enriches the lives of those who live in the present. We, as members of the human race, are not separate atoms independent of the universe, but we are atoms of it. We are the product of all time, and partake of the truth of all preceding generations, in which the power to express ideas and preserve them has existed. One reason why the race has not profited more largely by the discoveries of previous generations, is the fact that we feel so profoundly the discovery of a truth of any nature, that we are prone to dogmatize it by a rule or set of rules. This usually results in shutting away from us the real principle of which the rule is but an evidence. A mechanic may learn every detail of every rule for the construction of a steam engine, but if he lacks the understanding of the principles which give rise to the rules, they will avail nothing and his work must fail. If, however, he understands the principles involved, his work will stand the test, though he has no knowledge of rules as such. In teaching the English language, the rules have been stressed, while the principles have been submerged, so that the teaching of rules has not resulted in the improvement of the student. The People's College, realizing this, has, through the author of this work, revolutionized the teaching of the fundamental principles that underlie the use of language. The stress is laid upon principles instead of rules, so that the student, whether he remember a rule or not, will never forget the application of these principles to the use of the written and spoken word. The assertion is ventured that no more practical and effective method can be devised for the rapid and thorough teaching of these principles. Moreover, the importance of this new departure in method cannot be over-estimated, when we consider that only through the use of language can information be disseminated concerning other branches of learning. This science, then, lies at the very base of all real education, and a mastery of it puts the student in possession of the only weapon by means of which he may master all other sciences. The author has, with peculiar aptitude, grasped the fundamental character of the foregoing facts and has adapted the study of language to the real principles involved. All the dry rules that are the witnesses of principles in the ordinary text are done away, while the principles evidenced by those rules come forth to the light in practical application, with a beauty of expression and a real utility that render the mastery of the subject an entertaining excursion into the realms of learning, rather than a dry imprisonment of the faculties in an effort to memorize misunderstood rules without apparent reason or real use. It is the principle behind the rule that has power in it. When this is understood, the method pursued by the author in this course will be universally applied to all branches of learning, and will end forever the imprisonment of children for the useless worship of rules. The author's grasp of this fact and the exemplification of it, contained in this work are even more far-reaching than the foregoing would indicate. It really means the application of a new viewpoint to life itself. It means the questioning of the utility of authority; the questioning of the utility of institutions; the application, we might say, of such a test as this: Does any rule, does any authority, does any principle, conserve the interests of humanity? If not, away with it. This means rationalism, the use of common sense. It means that at last the race is beginning to consciously direct its own destiny. It is with a profound sense of the necessity of education as a part of the evolutionary process now in the conscious grasp of the race, and with a conviction of the fundamental importance of the new viewpoint so ably presented by the author that we dedicate this work "To the Education of the Workers by the Workers." THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. TABLE OF CONTENTS PLAIN ENGLISH I. Language Study 9 II. Nouns and Verbs 18 III. Parts of Speech 27 IV. Nouns 38 V. Verbs 50 VI. Inflection of Verbs 58 VII. Time Forms of Verbs 69 VIII. Time Forms, Cont'd. 78 IX. Participles and Infinitives 88 X. Helping Verbs 97 XI. Verbs--Common Errors 106 XII. Pronouns 115 XIII. Pronouns, Cont'd. 127 XIV. Adjectives 138 XV. Adjectives, Cont'd. 148 XVI. Adverbs 160 XVII. Adverbs, Cont'd. 169 XVIII. Prepositions 179 XIX. Prepositions, Cont'd. 189 XX. Conjunctions 200 XXI. Conjunctions, Cont'd. 212 XXII. Adjective Clauses 222 XXIII. Independent Constructions 232 XXIV. Sentence Building 243 XXV. Sentence Analysis 255 XXVI. Sentence Building 267 XXVII. Sentence Building 278 XXVIII. The Use of Capitals 288 XXIX. Punctuation 299 XXX. Punctuation, Cont'd. 310 SPELLING I. Definition 17 II. Vowels and Consonants 26 III. Diacritical Marks 36 IV. Digraphs 49 V. Diphthongs 57 VI. Syllabification 68 VII. Syllabification, Cont'd. 77 VIII. Accent 87 IX. Compound Words 96 X. Prefixes and Suffixes 105 XI. Derivatives 114 XII. Derivatives, Cont'd. 126 XIII. Silent E 137 XIV. Words Ending in Y 146 XV. Words with ei or ie 159 XVI. Homonyms 168 XVII. Derivative Nouns 178 XVIII. Verbs with Prepositions 187 XIX. Derivative Prepositions 199 XX. Derivative Adverbs 211 XXI. Derivative Adjectives 221 XXII. Words in able and ible 231 XXIII. Simplified Spelling 241 XXIV. Verbs with Suffixes 254 XXV. Cognate Sounds 265 XXVI. Words beginning with dis 277 XXVII. The prefixes in, un and mis 287 XXVIII. Synonyms 297 XXIX. Antonyms 308 XXX. Common Errors 320 PLAIN ENGLISH Lesson I Open Letter Dear Comrade: You are beginning a course of study in the use of Plain English. We do not know what your previous study may have been, but the object of this course is to give the basic principles and practice of the use of the English Language for the benefit of those who have not had the opportunity of a high school education and possibly have not finished in the grade school. For this reason we have avoided, as much as possible, the statement of rules and formulas to be learned by rote and have made the few rules which it is necessary to know, grow naturally out of the need for them in the development of expression in language. We have taken for granted several things in the preparation of this course. First, we assume that you have never studied grammar, or if you have, that you will be glad to review it in simplified form. This course does not follow the lines laid down by technical grammarians. It has been worked out on the basis of plain, common sense. Our purpose is not to make of you a grammarian, versed in the knowledge of rules and reasons, but to give you the power to express yourself more readily, fluently and correctly--in other words to speak and write _good_ English. Second, we assume that you are interested and willing to work and eager to increase your store of knowledge. Your progress in this branch of knowledge will depend, to a large extent, upon your own efforts. We have endeavored to avoid unnecessary and uninteresting rules and make the course as simple, clear and plain as possible; but that does not mean you will not have to work in order to master this study. We trust it will be pleasant and interesting work, bringing you joy as it brings you a growing sense of power. Probably no two people will use the same plan of work. Your work, to be a pleasure, must express your own individuality. However, we want to make a few suggestions which we know from experience you will find helpful. +1st.+ +Be Systematic.+ Find some time each day which you can regularly spend in study. Do not be discouraged if it is only fifteen minutes each day. The student who will spend fifteen minutes every day regularly in intensive study can easily complete this course within the prescribed time. +2d.+ +Concentrate.+ By this we mean that when you study, you should do it to the exclusion of everything else. Keep your mind upon the subject. You may find this difficult at first. Your mind will wander; but you will soon acquire the student habit if you persevere. +3d.+ +Have Faith in Yourself.+ Do not be easily discouraged. You have the power to master this subject and _you will_. You will find it of immeasurable value to you to be able to speak and write fluently and correctly. Those whom you admire for their ready use of good English were not born with the "gift of gab." They learned how to speak by studying the rules of grammar, the meaning of words, just as you are studying them. What they have done, _you will do_. +4th.+ +Go Slowly and Surely.+ Do not skim through these lessons. Be sure you understand thoroughly as you go along. Read carefully and _think_ for yourself. If there is anything you do not understand at any time, write us and ask about it. These lessons have been carefully prepared and are for your benefit. Make them yours and call upon us freely for help. This is your College and its only ideal is service. +5th.+ +Get a Note-Book.+ Make your note-book your work-shop. Write in it an outline of each lesson. Fill it with notes, examples, anything which is of interest on the subject. Note down your own frequent mistakes in the use of English. Watch the conversation of your friends; listen to good speakers. Write down the mistakes you notice. Whenever you hear a word which seems particularly good, or when you see one in your reading, write it in your note-book and make it part of your vocabulary. You will find your interest continually growing and also your ability to express the thoughts you yearn to express. If we can bring to you an increasing joy in life because of a growing power of expression; if we can enlarge your ability to serve the world; if we can, through the study of this wonderful language of ours, open wider the door of opportunity for you,--our comrade,--The People's College will have served its purpose and realized its ideal. Yours for Education, THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. GOOD ENGLISH--WHAT IS IT? +1.+ People seem to differ in their idea as to what constitutes "Good English." Have you never seen a man suddenly called upon to make a formal speech or introduced into the company of distinguished men and women? Quite often, he will drop his simple every-day mode of speech and speak in stilted, unnatural language, using all the "big" words he can possibly remember. He no doubt fondly imagines he is making an impression and using "good" English. The purpose of language is to make one's self understood, and, of course, this can be done in very simple and crude English. The man who breaks every rule of grammar, intersperses his remarks with every variety of slang phrase, may make himself understood, but he is not using _good_ English. +2.+ +Good English is that which is good for its purpose and conforms to the standards of usage.+ We have one purpose when we write a business letter and quite another when we are writing or speaking of the great issues of life. There is a place for the simple, direct, plain, unadorned language of every-day business life--the life of the work-a-day world--and there is a place also for the beauty and charm of the language of poetry. If we are talking with the man who works beside us of the work of the day, we will naturally use plain, simple, forceful words. But, if we are speaking to our comrades, striving to arouse them out of their lethargy, to stir them to action as men and women, we will just as naturally use the fine and noble words which touch the depths of human emotion--the heights of human endeavor. +3.+ There are certain rules for the use of English which have grown up through the years, to which we must conform. These are not arbitrary. They have not been made by any man or any set of men. In fact, they are constantly changing, as the common usage of the people forces the changes. For these rules are only the expression of the common usage, and as usage changes, the rules change. But these changes come slowly, so we can set down in a book the rules which express the established usage of today. The ability to use good English does not mean the ability to use long, high-sounding words. To be a master of good English means to be able to use the word that meets your need and use it correctly. Do not strive for _effect_, strive for _effective expression_. USE YOUR DICTIONARY +4.+ Do you know that the average individual cripples through life with a vocabulary of a few hundred words when he might easily have at his command as many thousands? We are misers with our words. Here hid away in this book we call the dictionary is a wealth of words, a rich mine of expression, and yet in our every-day conversation we halt and stammer, using meaningless words and phrases largely made up of current slang. Never let a word pass by that you do not understand thoroughly. Look it up at once in your dictionary and master it then and there. Dollars may be difficult to earn and more difficult to keep, but here is a wealth easily gained and the more you use it the more you possess it. You will find your dictionary an exceedingly interesting book when you get acquainted with it. Use it constantly; make it your familiar companion. OUR LANGUAGE +5.+ Did you ever stop to think what the world would be if we had no way of communicating, one with another? Think of Helen Keller, shut up in her prison-house of silence. Her only mode of communication with her fellows is through the sense of touch. Every form of life that has consciousness has some way of expressing its feelings. Every animal, by the movements of its body or the tones of its voice, expresses its emotions of pain, pleasure, rage, hate, joy, hunger and the many passions that sway its life. The child knows without being taught how to express its wants. We understand its cry of hunger, its scream of pain, its laugh of delight. This is the natural language, the language of feeling. It is the universal language that needs no rules and no interpreter. Life on every plane knows and understands it. WHEN WE BEGIN TO THINK +6.+ Our feelings and desires are not the only things we wish to communicate. The natural language satisfies a child for a time, but as the child grows he begins to _think_, then he feels the need of a more effective means of expressing himself. You can express your feelings to a certain extent by the natural language. You can make one know that you are glad by the expression of the face, the attitude of the body or the tone of the voice. But could you make anyone understand _why_ you are glad, by these signs and gestures? +7.+ To express thoughts and ideas, man had to devise another sort of language. So the language of _words_ grew up out of the need to communicate ideas to other people. As man's ability to think grew, so his language grew. At first, this language was only a spoken language. The ideas of one generation were handed down to the next by the spoken word. Gradually a crude form of writing was invented from which our written language has developed. This has made it possible to put the wisdom of the ages into books for the benefit of the world. +8.+ +Hence, language is the means of expressing thought and feeling.+ It has grown out of our need for expression. +A word is a symbol of an idea.+ It is a sound or combination of sounds which we use to represent an idea. The use of words makes it possible for us to readily convey our thoughts to other people. Through the medium of words we are able to communicate to others our thoughts, not only of the external world about us, but also of the mental world in which we live. We can tell of our loves, our hates, our dreams and our ideals. Animals find the natural language of looks and tones and gestures sufficient because they live almost wholly upon the physical plane. But man lives in a mental world as well as in a physical one, and must have a spoken and written language by which to express his thoughts. Exercise 1 Select from the following sentences those which it is possible to express by a look or tone or gesture, and those which can not be expressed without words: 1. I am glad. 2. I am glad because men are struggling for freedom. 3. I am hungry. 4. I am hungry for the chance for an education. 5. Come. 6. Come, let us reason together. 7. I am afraid. 8. I am afraid that we must wait long for peace. 9. Go. 10. Go, search the world over for the truth. 11. I am disgusted. 12. I am disgusted with those who will not think for themselves. 13. I am tired. 14. I am tired of these petty squabbles among comrades. OUR EXPRESSION +9.+ Our knowledge of language opens up a new world to us. We can communicate with those about us; we can open the storehouse of the knowledge of the past as recorded in books, or as two of our writers have expressed it: Have you ever rightly considered what the mere ability to read means--that it is the key which admits to the world of thought and fancy and imagination--to the company of saint and sage, of the wisest and wittiest at their wisest and wittiest moments--that it enables us to see with the keenest eyes, hear with the finest ears and listen to the sweetest voices of all time?--_Lowell_. Strip man of his books and his papers, and he becomes a mere slave, ignorant of his own resources, ignorant of his rights and opportunities. The difference between the free citizen of today and the savage of yesterday is almost entirely a thing of books. The man who dislikes books can never be entirely happy, and he who loves a good book can never be wholly miserable.--_Hillis_. Have you never felt that struggle within and the sense of defeat when you have tried to make some one feel as you feel, understand as you understand, see some great truth as you see it, and could not find the words with which to express your ideas? +10.+ The mastery of words gives; first, _the ability to understand the spoken or written thoughts of others_; second, _the ability to adequately express our own thoughts_; and third, _the ability to think clearly and to grow in our intellectual life_. A connected chain of reasoning is impossible without the knowledge of the words that express the development of the ideas and the varying shades of meaning. To gain this mastery, you must know the words of our language and their use. Words are the symbols of ideas and perform certain functions in expressing our thoughts. This, simply stated, is all that the study of English Grammar comprises--_the study of English words and their use in the expression of thought and feeling_. THE THOUGHT AND THE WORD +11.+ We have found that the invention of words grew out of the ability to _think_ and the need for expression. But we first _thought_! So, in order to express yourself clearly you must first _think_ clearly. Any thought can be simply and clearly expressed. When you read something difficult of understanding, where the thought is buried under an avalanche of words, you can be assured the writer was not thinking clearly. He did not have the perfect mastery of his thought. On the other hand, one may have a valuable thought in mind and not be able to express it because he does not have the words at his command. In the one case, we have words and no idea; in the other, the idea and no words. This study is intended to enable you to master words, the tools of expression. In whatever work you are engaged, it was first necessary to learn to use the tools with which you work. So, you must master the use of English words, the tools of your expression. You can in that way learn to express your thoughts clearly and exactly. You will not need to resort to slang, or to the tiresome repetition of a few words. The best of everything is none too good for you. It is your right, your heritage, and the best in the English language will bring you into the company and comradeship of the men and women who have striven and toiled for humanity, who will talk to you of dreams and deeds worth while, who will place in your hands the key to a new world. A COMPLETE THOUGHT +12.+ When we want to express a thought we use more than one word. Words are the symbols of ideas, but a thought is the expression of the relation between ideas. For example, I say _man_, and you get an idea or an image in your mind of a man, but I have not said anything about any man. But if I say, _Man works_, then I have expressed a thought. I have related the idea of a man and the idea of work and have expressed a complete thought. So we express our thoughts by _groups of words_. The very smallest group of words which will express a complete thought must, therefore, contain two words. If I say _men_, _fire_, _flowers_, and stop, you wonder what I mean, for I have not expressed a thought. Or, I might say, _work_, _burns_, _bloom_, and you would still be in the dark as to my meaning; but, when I say, _Men work_, _Fire burns_, _Flowers bloom_, you understand, for I have told you my complete thought. I have put two words together in a way to make sense; I have formed a sentence. +13.+ If we say, _Go_ or _Wait_, in the form of a command or entreaty, the single word seems to make complete sense and to form a sentence in itself. But this is only because _you_, who are to do the going or the waiting, is clearly implied. The words _go_ or _wait_, by themselves, do not make sense or form a sentence unless they are uttered in the commanding or beseeching tone of voice which makes you understand that _You go_ or _You wait_ is the intended meaning. With the exception of words used in this way as a command or entreaty, it is always necessary to use at least two words to express a complete thought. But will any two words make a sentence--express a complete thought? +14.+ Which of these combinations of words are sentences and which are not? Busy men. Men travel. Snow flies. Blue sky. Red flag. Rustling trees. Workers strike. Bees sting. Grass grows. Cold winds. Green fields. Happy children. _Busy men_ does not express a complete thought. We are wondering _busy men do what?_ But, _men travel_ is a complete thought. It makes sense and forms a sentence, and tells us what men _do_. In the words, _busy men_, we have spoken the name of something but have made no assertion concerning it. In the two words, _men travel_, we have spoken the name _men_ and we have told what they _do_. If we were walking down the street together we might say: The street is crowded to-day. Does the open road attract you? See the jostling crowds. Or if we were discussing the class struggle, we might say: Two classes have always existed. To which class do you belong? Join your class in the struggle. In every one of these six groups of words we have a complete thought expressed. Each of these groups of words we call a sentence. +15.+ +A sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought.+ Exercise 2 Write in each blank space the word necessary to express a complete thought. Men...... ......fade. Leaves...... ......bloom. Water...... ......run. Fire...... ......write. Women...... ......grow. Children...... ......speak. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE +16.+ We have found that every sentence must have at least two words, one word to name that about which something is said and another word which does the saying or makes the assertion. In the sentence, _Men work_, we have these two parts; _men_ which is the part about which something is said, and _work_ which tells what men do. +The part about which something is said is called the subject.+ In this sentence, _Men work_, _men_, therefore, is the subject, for it names that about which something is said. +17.+ +The part that asserts or says something about the subject is called the predicate.+ Therefore in this sentence, _Men work_, _work_ is the predicate. In the following sentences draw a single line under the subject and a double line under the predicate, thus, _~Birds~ =fly=_. Ships sail. Soldiers fight. Flowers fade. Horses neigh. Flags wave. Snow comes. War rages. Winds blow. Fish swim. +18.+ We may add other words to the subject or the predicate and so enlarge their meaning, as for instance we may say: The stately ships sail proudly away. The war in Europe rages furiously. The soldiers in the army fight like men gone mad. Yet in every one of these sentences you will find the subject and the predicate,--_Ships sail_, _War rages_, _Soldiers fight_. Every sentence must have a subject and a predicate, and it is a very important part of the study of sentences to be able to distinguish quickly and readily the subject and the predicate. Find that about which something is said, and that will always be the subject. Find that which is said about the subject, and that will be the predicate. +Every sentence must contain a subject and a predicate.+ +The subject of a sentence names that about which something is said.+ +The predicate tells that which is said about the subject.+ Exercise 3 In the following sentences add other words to the subject and to the predicate to enlarge their meaning, then draw a single line under the subject and a double line under the predicate: Ships sail. Tides flow. Stars shine. Rain falls. Children play. Nature sleeps. Waves break. War rages. Birds sing. Exercise 4 In the following sentences the subject and the predicate have other words added to enlarge their meaning. Find the subject and predicate and draw a single line under the subject and a double line under the predicate, as in the sentence, _The ~workers~ of the world =build= palaces for other people._ 1. Our success lies in solidarity. 2. New occasions teach new duties. 3. Two classes exist in the world. 4. Labor creates all wealth. 5. The workers fight all battles. 6. Our time calls for earnest deeds. 7. Knowledge unlocks the door of life. 8. Ignorance bars the path to progress. 9. Few people think for themselves. 10. Hope stirs us to action. SPELLING LESSON 1 +Spelling is the process of naming or writing in proper order the letters of a word.+ There is nothing that marks us so quickly as lacking in the qualities that go to make up a good education as our inability to spell the words most commonly used. Spelling in English is rather difficult. If each letter represented but one sound, spelling would be an easy matter. Every word would be spelled just as it sounds. This is the goal of those who advocate phonetic spelling. Phonetic spelling simply means spelling according to sound. But our alphabet does not have a letter for every sound. There are some forty-two different sounds used in English words and we have only twenty-six letters in the alphabet. Therefore some letters must do duty for several sounds. Then we have words which contain letters which are not sounded at all when the word is pronounced, so, all in all, spelling is a matter of memorizing. The best way to become an accurate speller is to read much, to observe closely the forms of words and to write frequently. Always spell any word of which you are uncertain aloud several times and write it out several times. In this way you have aided the memory both through the eye and through the ear. If you are not sure of the spelling of a word do not use it until you have looked it up in the dictionary and made sure. The words in this lesson are taken out of Lesson 1, Plain English Course. There are thirty in all, five for each day of the week. (1) Look up the meaning in the dictionary. (2) Learn the correct spelling. (3) Learn the correct pronunciation. (4) Use the word in a sentence of your own construction. (5) Use it during the day in your conversation; strive to make it a part of your working vocabulary. +Monday+ Mode English Grammar Expression Complete +Tuesday+ Language Emotion Group Mastery Dictionary +Wednesday+ Thought Symbol Ability Idea Knowledge +Thursday+ Subject Predicate Vocabulary Practice History +Friday+ Memory Sentence Write Right Purpose +Saturday+ Propose Growth Learn Teach Pronounce PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 2 Dear Comrade: Review Lesson 1 before taking up this lesson. Do not try to learn by rote the contents of these lessons. Our endeavor is to make you see the reason for every rule and definition before they are given. We want you to see unfolding before you the development of language and through this evolution you can catch a glimpse of the developing life of man. Language like customs, religion, government, has grown with the economic advancement of man. As man has evolved on the economic plane, the material plane, as he has improved his means of providing for himself food and clothes and shelter, he has developed a language suited to his needs. So we can trace the growth of the race as we study the development of language from the sign language of the primitive savage to the language of the philosopher of today by which he makes known to us the story of the stars, and the innermost secrets of our hearts and minds. Civilization began with the invention of the phonetic alphabet and the use of writing. So the study of language becomes not a dull and stupid conning of useless rules and formulas, but an absorbing study of a living, growing, changing thing that mirrors forth the very life of man. Think while you study. As you look for the definition of words in your dictionary and realize how many shades of meaning we can express in words, remember that this power is a heritage that comes to us from a long past of incessant struggle. We of to-day are also writing history in words. By our efforts we are adding new words to the language and giving old words a richer meaning. _Brotherhood_, _justice_, for example! The world is coming to understand these glorious words more fully and giving them a new interpretation. You will see a new beauty and glory in words after you have finished this course and you will have a mastery of this wonderful language of ours. Watch carefully the use of words in your reading. Especially this week distinguish the nouns and verbs. Use your dictionary constantly and add a few words to your vocabulary every day. Whenever there is a word used in these lessons which you do not thoroughly understand, look it up at once in your dictionary and master it then and there. Make a list in your note book of the words you look up and at the end of the week go over them again and see if you have them clearly in mind. Watch also the pronunciation of the words. Do not try to do everything all at once, nor should you be discouraged if your progress seems slow. We approach the goal one step at a time and each step takes us nearer and nearer. Just keep steadily at it, Comrade. Yours for Education, THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. KINDS OF SENTENCES +19.+ We have found that we use sentences to express our thoughts. But we also find that we use these sentences in different ways for different purposes. Can you notice any difference in the following sentences? Two classes have always existed. To which class do you belong? Join your class in the struggle. When I say, _Two classes have always existed_, I am making a simple assertion, stating what I know or believe to be true. When I say, _To which class do you belong?_ I am asking a question. When I say, _Join your class in the struggle_, I am giving a command or making a request. +20.+ +These three kinds of sentences are called assertive, interrogative and imperative.+ +An assertive sentence states a fact or an opinion.+ +An interrogative sentence asks a question.+ +An imperative sentence gives a command, makes a request or expresses a wish.+ +21.+ Any of these three kinds of sentences may be exclamatory; that is, it may express surprise, excitement, impatience, or some other emotion. For example: Hurrah! Freedom is coming! This is an assertion expressed as an exclamation. Oh! Why should war continue? Here we have a question in the form of an exclamation. Come! Keep your courage up. In this, we have a command, an imperative sentence, expressed in the form of an exclamation. +An exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, excitement or some other emotion.+ In these three forms of sentences, the assertive, the interrogative and the imperative, together with the exclamatory, we are able to express every thought and feeling which demands expression, either for practical or artistic purposes. The sentence is the basis of spoken and written language and as we trace its development we trace the history of the evolution of man and the growth of his power of expression, as he has developed his powers of mind. +22.+ +Every sentence must begin with a capital letter.+ +Every assertive and imperative sentence should end with a period.+ +Every interrogative sentence should end with a question mark.+ The word in an exclamatory sentence which expresses strong emotion is followed by an exclamation point. The sentence itself if in interrogative form should be followed by a question mark; if in the assertive or the imperative form it may be followed either by an exclamation point or a period. Exercise 1 Mark the assertive sentences among the following with an _a_ in the blank space. Mark the interrogative sentences with a _q_ for question; the imperative sentences with a _c_ for command; and the exclamatory with an _e_ for exclamation. 1. ...... Books are the true levelers. 2. ...... Put not your trust in princes. 3. ...... To err is human; to forgive divine. 4. ...... What are the rights of a child? 5. ...... Seize common occasions and make them great. 6. ...... Not until all are free, is any free. 7. ...... Freemen! Shall not we demand our own? 8. ...... Is a world of happiness but a Utopian dream? 9. ...... He who will not work, shall not eat. 10. ...... Strike at the polls for freedom! 11. ...... Do the majority want social justice? 12. ...... A friend is the hope of the heart. 13. ...... How beautiful is the vision of peace! 14. ...... Acquire the thinking habit. 15. ...... Is it glorious to die for our country? 16. ...... Lo! Women are waking and claiming their own! 17. ...... Claim your right to the best. 18. ...... What is the highest good? 19. ...... Workers of the world, unite! 20. ...... To remain ignorant is to remain a slave. WORDS--THEIR USES +23.+ We have learned from our study that we use sentences to express our thoughts. These sentences are made up of words; therefore we call words _parts of speech_. Words are only fractions or parts of speech, and it is by combining them into sentences that we are able to express our thoughts. There are many thousands of words in the English language. It would be impossible for us to study each word separately. But these words, like people, are divided into classes, so we can study each class of words. These thousands of words are divided into classes much as people are, or rather as people ought to be; for words are divided into classes according to the work which they do. In the Industrial Commonwealth there will be no upper or lower class, but men will be divided into groups according to the work which they do. There will be various industrial groups, groups of agricultural workers, groups of clerical workers, etc. So words are divided into classes according to the work which they do in helping us to express our ideas. +24.+ +Words are divided into kinds or classes according to their use in sentences.+ +There are eight of these classes of words, called parts of speech.+ THE NAMES OF THINGS +25.+ What a word _does_ determines what part of speech it is. When primitive man, long ago, first began to use words, in all probability the first words which he invented were those used to name familiar objects about him. He invented a word for _man_, _boy_, _tree_, _animal_, etc. Gradually, all the things he met in his daily life received a name. About one half of the words in our language are of this class, the _names_ of things. Every word which is used as a name of something is called a _noun_. This word _noun_ is derived from the Latin word which means _name_, so it is quite the same thing as saying _name_. Notice the following sentences: Boys run. Fish swim. Horses neigh. Soldiers march. Flags wave. Flowers fade. Girls study. Winds blow. Men work. All of the words used like _boys_, _girls_, _fish_, _horses_, _soldiers_, _flag_, _winds_, _flowers_ and _men_, are the names of objects, therefore all of these words are _nouns_. The subject of a sentence is always a noun or a word used as a noun. However, we may use in a sentence many nouns besides the noun which is used as the subject, the noun about which the statement is made. We will study the use of these nouns later in our lessons. _The famous palace of the kings of the Moors, at Granada, in Spain, was called the Alhambra._ We have six nouns in this sentence, _palace_, _kings_, _Moors_, _Granada_, _Spain_ and _Alhambra_, but the noun _palace_ is the noun which is the subject--the noun which is the name of that about which something is said. _Palace_ is the subject; and _was called_ is the predicate in this sentence. +26.+ +A noun is a word used as the name of something.+ Now we want to learn to distinguish every word that is used as a name. Pick out the nouns as you read your books and papers until you are able to tell every word which is used as a noun, the name of something. In the following paragraph, the nouns are printed in italics. Carefully study these nouns: The _fire_ in the _grate_, the _lamp_ by the _bedside_, the _water_ in the _tumbler_, the _fly_ on the _ceiling_ above, the _flower_ in the _vase_ on the _table_, all _things_ have their _history_ and can reveal to us _nature's_ invisible _forces_. Exercise 2 Underscore every noun in the following quotation: The whole history of the earth has been one of gradual development, of progress, of slow and painful climbing through the ages. Not only have the hills and the mountains, the rivers and the stars, the trees and the cattle, the beasts and the birds, been developing; but man himself--his mind and his body--has been developing. Men are marvelous little creatures; they have weighed the sun in their balances, measured the stars and analyzed the light and beauty of the rainbow; they have sounded the depths of the ocean; they have learned how the sun and the mountains were born and the rivers were laid in their mighty beds; they have learned how the seas became salt, what the stars are made of. They have learned so much, and yet when it comes to matters of time and space, and law and motion, they still know so little. The only man who is conscious of his ignorance is he who has learned a great deal.--_McMillan_. WORDS THAT ASSERT +27.+ After the primitive man had invented names for the things about him, probably his next step was to invent words of action. He very naturally wanted to tell what all of these various things _did_. So the words that tell what things do, the words of action, the words that assert, came into the language. A child follows much the same development. As you can readily observe, it first names the objects about it, then learns the words that tell what these objects do. So the words that tell what things _do_, become the second class of words. These words we call _verbs_. The word _verb_, like the word _noun_, is taken into our language from the Latin. In Latin, the word _verbum_ means _the word_; and the verb is practically _the_ word in a sentence, for we cannot have a sentence without a verb. You may string a number of words together, but if you do not have an asserting word, you will not have a sentence. Notice the following sentences: Men work. Flowers fade. Snow flies. Winds blow. In these sentences, the words _work_, _fade_, _flies_ and _blow_, are the words used to assert or say something of the subject, hence they are the verbs in these sentences. +28.+ Sometimes it takes more than one word to express the action or make the assertion. Notice the following sentences: The men are working. The boy has been studying. In the first sentence it takes two words, _are working_, to make the assertion; in the second, three are required, _has been studying_. These groups of words are called _verb phrases_. +29.+ +A verb is a word that asserts.+ +A verb phrase is a group of words used as a single verb.+ The verb is perhaps the most difficult part of speech to master. It is not hard to find the verb in short sentences, but in longer sentences it is sometimes difficult. For example: The sun shines. The man walks. The boys strike. We very easily see that _shine_, _walk_ and _strike_ are the verbs in these sentences. But let us add other words, as for example: The sun shines brightly. The man walks for his health. The boys strike the dog. Now we are very apt to confuse the verb with the words which state _how_ and _why_ the action is performed, or the _object_ towards which the action is directed. But in these sentences, _shine_ and _walks_ and _strike_ are still the verbs, just as in the first sentences. The verb asserts the action; the other words merely give additional information about _how_ or _why_ or _upon what_ the action is performed. +30.+ Another thing which makes it difficult for us to distinguish verbs in English is that the same word may be used both as a noun and as a verb; but always remember that words are separated into classes according to the work which they do. When a word is used as a _name_ it is a _noun_; when it is used as an _asserting_ word it is a _verb_. Note the following sentences: The _play_ made the child tired. The children _play_ in the yard. In the first sentence _play_ is a noun, the subject of the verb _made_. In the second sentence _play_ is the verb, telling what the children _do_. Always classify words according to the work which they perform in the sentence. This will help you very much in finding your verb. +31.+ Then we have some verbs which do not assert action but express rather a connection or relation between the subject and some other word or words. For example: The dog belongs to the man. The girl is happy. In these sentences _belongs_ and _is_ are the verbs. _Belongs_ asserts or shows the relation between _the dog_ and _the man_. _Is_ shows the relation between _the girl_ and _happy_. If we simply say _girl_ and _happy_, we do not show any connection between them or make any statement relating the two, but when we say, _The girl is happy_, we are asserting something, and the word _is_ makes the assertion. Or when we say, _The girl was happy_, or _The girl will be_ or _may be happy_, in each of these cases, it is the verb or verb phrase _was_ or _will be_ or _may be_, that asserts or shows the relation between the subject _girl_ and the descriptive word _happy_. You will observe that the verbs _will be_ and _may be_ are composed of more than one word and are _verb phrases_. We will study the verb in succeeding lessons, but let us remember from this lesson that the word or group of words that makes the assertion in the sentence is the verb. Remember too that every sentence must contain a verb. Get this basic principle firmly fixed in mind that what a word _does_ decides what it _is_--to what part of speech it belongs, and that every class of words fulfills its own function in sentence building. +32.+ Remember:-- +Every sentence must have a subject and a predicate.+ +Every sentence must express a complete thought.+ +Every sentence must contain a verb.+ +A noun is the name of something.+ +A verb is a word that asserts.+ +What a word does determines what it is.+ Study carefully the following quotation. The verbs are printed in _italics_. Slowly, painfully, _proceeds_ the struggle of man against the power of Mammon. The past _is written_ in tears and blood. The future _is_ dim and unknown, but the final outcome of this world-wide struggle _is_ not in doubt. Freedom _will conquer_ slavery, truth _will prevail_ over error, justice _will triumph_ over injustice, the light _will vanquish_ the darkness; and humanity _will rise_ in the glory of universal brotherhood.--_Warren_. Exercise 3 Underscore all verbs and verb phrases in the following quotation: +The Dream of Labor+: Ours is not the cause of one class, of one sex, of one tribe, of one city, of one state, of one continent. It is the wish for a better world where Man shall be Man; where the beast shall become subdued; where everything shall lead to complete development; where the good of each shall be bound up in the good of all; where all shall feel the sorrows of each and shall run to his rescue. A glimpse of this ideal takes us into the Land of Promise, where peace and plenty shall reign supreme; where brothers shall no longer battle among themselves, but for one another; where the atmosphere shall be laden with love, the love that saves; where the hate that kills shall be unknown; where heart and brain shall work together and shall make life better and more complete; where the fullness of life shall be for all and where men and women shall be as happy at their work as little children at their play. The mere glimpse into that land makes life worth living, makes work worth doing, makes dreams worth dreaming, gives us hope and faith--the faith we need in the labor for our cause, the faith which shall help us win.--_Oscar Leonard_. Exercise 4 We have found that there are a number of words in English which may be used either as nouns or verbs, depending upon the function they serve in the sentence. In the following sentences underscore the nouns with a single line, the verbs with two lines: 1. They _man_ the boats. 2. The _man_ has a boat. 3. The women _pass_ this way. 4. They held the _pass_ for hours. 5. Little children _work_ in the mines. 6. The _work_ of the world is done by machinery today. 7. The armies will _cross_ the bridge. 8. He built a _cross_ of rude stones. 9. The leopard cannot _change_ its spots. 10. We will force a _change_ in the law. Exercise 5 In the following poem, mark every noun and every verb and verb phrase. You will find the verb phrases in several places divided by the word _not_, as in _I do not obey_. _Do obey_ is the verb phrase. We will learn to what part of speech _not_ belongs a little later. I DO NOT OBEY, I THINK. "Captain, what do you think," I asked, "Of the part your soldiers play?" The Captain answered, "I do not think-- I do not think, I obey." "Do you think your conscience was meant to die, And your brains to rot away?" The Captain answered, "I do not think-- I do not think, I obey." "Do you think you should shoot a patriot down, And help a tyrant slay?" The Captain answered, "I do not think-- I do not think, I obey." "Then if this is your soldier's code," I cried, "You're a mean, unmanly crew; And with all your feathers and gilt and braid, I am more of a man than you; "For whatever my lot on earth may be And whether I swim or sink, I can say with pride, 'I do not obey-- I do not obey, I think.'" --_Ernest Crosby_. SPELLING LESSON 2 The twenty-six letters in the English alphabet are divided into vowels and consonants. A vowel is a letter which represents a sound of the human voice but slightly interrupted by the vocal organs. The vowels are _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_ and _u_. All of the remaining letters of the alphabet are consonants. A consonant is a letter which represents a sound of the human voice greatly obstructed by the vocal organs. Consonant is from the Latin _con_, meaning _with_, and _sono_--_I sound_. So it means literally _I sound with_. The consonants are produced by union of the breath with the vocal organs. The consonant sounds are so called because they are always "sounded with" a vowel; they are used only in combination with vowels in forming words or syllables. In English a consonant alone never forms a word or a syllable. Sound the different consonants _b_, _c_, _d_, _f_, _g_, _h_, _j_, _k_, _l_, _m_, _n_, _p_, _q_, _r_, _s_, _t_, _v_, _x_ and _z_, by themselves and you will see how the sound of the breath is obstructed or changed by the use of the vocal organs--the lips, the tongue, the teeth, etc.--in making these various sounds. _W_ and _y_ are sometimes vowels and sometimes consonants. _W_ and _y_ are vowels when they are used with another vowel representing a vowel sound as in _awe_, _new_, _joy_, _eye_, etc. _Y_ is sometimes used as a vowel by itself as in _by_, _cry_, etc. _W_ and _y_ are consonants when they are used at the beginning of a syllable or before a vowel in the same syllable as in _wine_, _twine_, _yield_ and _year_. Look up the meaning of the words in this week's lesson. Master the spelling and use them in sentences of your own construction. +Monday+ Reason Evolution Justice Thorough Beauty +Tuesday+ Assertive Review Surprise Basis Separate +Wednesday+ Interrogative Period Capital Capitol Function +Thursday+ Example Contain Imperative Question Speech +Friday+ Method Various Familiar Industry Alphabet +Saturday+ Travel Sense Cents Sail Sale PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 3 Dear Comrade: In this lesson we are taking up a short study of the different parts of speech. In later lessons we will study each part of speech more thoroughly but this lesson covers the ground quickly and briefly. It is sufficient, however, to form a basis for our understanding of the evolution of language. You will see, as you study this lesson, how each part of speech has been added to meet a growing need. There are many, many thousand words in the English language, but they can all be grouped under these eight parts of speech, for they all answer in some way to one of these great needs. The object in studying grammar, as in studying any other science, is not to fill one's mind with a great many unrelated facts--facts which may or may not prove useful to one hereafter. The object of all study is to develop one's power of observation and one's ability to think. Added to this must be the practical ability to make use of this knowledge. Here the study of grammar has an advantage over the study of every other science. It deals with words, something which we use every day. You do not need any laboratory or expensive apparatus in order to study grammar. All that you need lies ready to your hand. And in addition to this the knowledge which you gain is something which is of practical use to every man and woman no matter what their work, no matter what their place or position in life may be. Remember that dogmatism has no place in the study of grammar. "Grammarians are the guardians, not the authors, of language." We do not say, "You should say this or that, or you violate a rule of grammar," but we say "The common usage among those who use good English is thus and so." If we do not believe that the common usage is the best usage, then we follow the democratic method of seeking to change the common usage into that which we consider the more sensible way. Thus, those who advocate simplified spelling have not sought to pass a law whereby every one should be compelled to spell words exactly as they sound, but they have striven to influence our writers and people in general to use this more sensible way of spelling words. So _think_ while you study. Do not try to learn rules and formulas. See _why_ the rules and formulas exist. Once having seen this you do not need to learn them--you know them already. The study of any language is an intellectual discipline of the highest order. So apply yourself diligently to this most interesting study and you will see that the result of this application will affect your daily life in every particular. Yours for Education, THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. WORDS ADDED TO NOUNS +33.+ When man began to invent words to express his ideas of the world in which he lived, we have found that probably the first need was that of names for the things about him. So we have nouns. The second need was of words to tell what these things _do_, and so we have verbs. But primitive man soon felt the need of other classes of words. The objects about us are not all alike. For example, we have a word for man, but when we say _man_ that is not sufficient to describe the many different kinds of men. There are tall men, short men, white men, black men, strong men, weak men, busy men, lazy men. There are all sorts of men in the world, and we need words by which we can describe these different types and also indicate which man we mean. +34.+ So we have a class of words which are called adjectives. _Adjective_ is a word derived from the Latin. It comes from the Latin word _ad_, meaning _to_, and the Latin word _jecto_, which means _to throw_; hence an adjective is a word _thrown to_ or _added to_ a noun. If you will stop to think for a moment, you will see that it is by their qualities that we know the things about us. Some men are strong, some are weak, some are tall, some are short. These qualities belong to different men. And we separate or group them into classes as they resemble each other or differ from one another in these qualities. Things are alike which have the same qualities; things are unlike whose qualities are different. Apples and oranges are alike in the fact that both are round, both are edible. They are unlike in the fact that one is red and one is yellow; one may be sour and the other sweet. So we separate them in our minds because of their different qualities; and we have a class of words, _adjectives_, which describe these various qualities. +35.+ We use adjectives for other purposes also. For example, when we say _trees_, we are not speaking of any particular trees, but of trees in general. But we may add certain adjectives which point out particular trees, as for example: _these_ trees, or _those_ trees, or _eight_ trees or _nine_ trees. These adjectives limit the trees of which we are speaking to the particular trees pointed out. They do not express any particular qualities of the trees like the adjectives _tall_ or _beautiful_ express, but they limit the use of the word _trees_ in its application. So we have our definition of the adjective. +36.+ +An adjective is a word added to a noun to qualify or limit its meaning.+ Exercise 1 Underscore all of the adjectives in the following quotation. Notice also the nouns and verbs in this quotation. Yet fearsome and terrible are all the footsteps of men upon the earth, for they either descend or climb. They descend from little mounds and high peaks and lofty altitudes, through wide roads and narrow paths, down noble marble stairs and creaky stairs of wood--and some go down to the cellar, and some to the grave, and some down to the pits of shame and infamy, and still some to the glory of an unfathomable abyss where there is nothing but the staring, white, stony eye-balls of Destiny. They descend and they climb, the fearful footsteps of men, and some limp, some drag, some speed, some trot, some run--they are quiet, slow, noisy, brisk, quick, feverish, mad, and most awful in their cadence to the ears of the one who stands still. But of all the footsteps of men that either descend or climb, no footsteps are so fearsome and terrible as those that go straight on the dead level of a prison floor, from a yellow stone wall to a red iron gate.--From _The Walker_. _Giovannitti_. WORDS ADDED TO VERBS +37.+ From our study, you see how our classes of words grew out of man's need of them in expressing his thoughts. And notice also how the many thousands of words in our language can all be grouped under these few classes. We _name_ the things about us; we invent words to tell what these things _do_; we have another class of words which _describe_ the things which we have named; and now we come to a fourth class of words for which we also find great need. When we come to tell what things _do_, we find that we need words which will tell us _how_ or _where_ or _when_ these things are done. Notice the following sentences: The men work busily. The men work late. The men work now. The men work here. The men work hard. The men work well. The men work inside. The men work more. We would have a complete sentence and express a complete thought if we said simply, _The men work_, but each of these words which we have added, like _busily_, _hard_, _late_, etc., adds something to the meaning of the verb. These words add something to the action which is asserted by the verb, for they show _how_ and _when_ and _where_ and _how much_ the men work. +38.+ We call this class of words _adverbs_, because they are added to verbs to make the meaning more definite, very much as adjectives are added to nouns. Adverb means literally _to the verb_. An adverb will always answer one of these questions: _how?_ _when?_ _how long?_ _how often?_ _how much?_ _how far?_ or _how late?_ If you want to find the adverbs in your sentences just ask one of these questions, and the word that answers it will be the adverb. +39.+ An adverb may be used also with an adjective. Notice the following sentences: The book is _very_ long. _Too_ many people never think. Notice here that the adverbs _very_ and _too_ modify the adjectives _long_ and _many_. +40.+ Adverbs may also be used with other adverbs. Notice the following sentences: He speaks _very_ distinctly. He walks _too_ slowly. Here the adverbs _very_ and _too_ are used with the adverbs _distinctly_ and _slowly_, and add to their meaning. We will study more fully in later lessons concerning both the adjective and the adverb, but we can see by this brief study why adverbs were added as a class of words, a part of speech, for they are absolutely necessary in order to describe the action expressed by verbs, and also to add to the meaning of adjectives and other adverbs. Hence we have our definition of an adverb. +41.+ +An adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.+ Exercise 2 Underscore all adverbs in the following sentences: 1. He will not come today. 2. Here and now is the day of opportunity. 3. Very slowly, but even then entirely too rapidly, the fire crept forward. 4. The room was very quiet and still. 5. He was too weary to go farther. 6. One must learn to feel deeply and think clearly in order to express himself eloquently. 7. Ferrer stood there, so calmly and so bravely facing the firing squad. 8. He was condemned to death because he stood uncompromisingly and courageously for the education of the masses. 9. Ferrer understood thoroughly that the schools of today cleverly and effectively adapt their teaching to maintain the present system of society. 10. He said "The school imprisons the children physically, intellectually and morally." WORDS USED IN PLACE OF NOUNS +42.+ Now we come to study another class of words which are also very necessary in order to express our ideas. Suppose you had just arrived in a strange town and you wanted to find the way to a friend's house. You inquire of a stranger, "Can you tell me who lives in the house on the corner?" Notice the words _you_ and _me_ and _who_. You could not call the stranger by name for you do not know his name, and hence you say _you_. And if you used your own name instead of _me_, he would not recognize it, and you would both be puzzled to find a substitute for that little word _who_. If you knew the stranger and he knew your name, you might say, "Can Mr. Smith tell Mr. Jones what person lives in the house on the corner." But this would sound very stilted and unnatural and awkward. So we have these little words like _you_ and _me_ and _who_, which we use _in place of nouns_. These words are called pronouns. This word is taken from the Latin also. In the Latin the word _pro_ means _in place of_. So the word pronoun means literally in place of a noun. +43.+ +A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun.+ These pronouns are very useful little words. They save us a great deal of tiresome repetition. Notice the awkwardness of the following: The workers will succeed in gaining the workers' freedom if the workers learn solidarity. And yet this would be the way we would have to express this idea if we did not have pronouns. Instead we say: The workers will succeed in gaining their freedom if they learn solidarity. +44.+ We will study the pronoun in detail in later lessons, but we can readily recognize these words which are used in place of nouns. The most common pronouns are: I you he she it we they me him her us them my your his her its our their that which who whose whom what Exercise 3 Underscore the pronouns in the following story: A man in South Africa picked up a small piece of stone. It was dirty and Rough. "Make me beautiful," said the stone. "I shall have to hurt you," said the man. "Well, if it hurts me, I will bear it," said the stone. So the man took it to a clever craftsman, who put it into a tight vise, and cut it with his sharp instrument. "Oh!" cried the stone. And he ground it till the dust fell all about it. "Oh!" cried the stone. And he polished it very hard. "Oh!" cried the stone. And then he set it in a crown and sent it to the Queen. On a sunny day she wore her crown, and the stone--it was a diamond--sparkled in long rays of crimson and green and yellow and silvery white. And all the people greeted their queen. She showed them her crown and they praised the beautiful stone. The training was hard, but the improvement was glorious. PREPOSITIONS +45.+ Notice the following sentences: I want the book _on_ the box. I want the book _under_ the box. I want the book _in_ the box. I want the book _beside_ the box. I want the book _behind_ the box. I want the book _beyond_ the box. Do you notice any word in these sentences which does not belong to any of the classes of words which we have studied? _I_ is a pronoun, _want_ is a verb, _the_ is an adjective, _book_ is a noun, _the_ is an adjective, _box_ is a noun; but the words, _on_, _under_, _in_, _beside_, _behind_ and _beyond_ are not nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs or pronouns. Yet would it be possible to express the meaning in these sentences without these words? Read the sentences without them, and you will see that no one could tell the relation which you wish to express between the _book_ and the _box_. And you will notice too that each word expresses a different relation, for it means one thing to say _on the box_ and another thing to say _in the box_, and so through the list. +46.+ The words which are used to show this relation are called _prepositions_. The groups of words introduced by the preposition, like _on the box_ and _in the box_, and so on, are called prepositional phrases. The noun which follows a preposition as _box_ follows the prepositions _in_, _on_, _beside_, _beyond_, etc., is called the _object_ of the preposition. _Preposition_ is a word which comes into our language from the Latin. It is formed from the Latin _pre_, which means _before_, and the Latin verb which means _to place_, so preposition means literally _to place before_. It is given this name because it is placed before the noun or pronoun which is its object. Therefore our definition of a preposition is as follows: +47.+ +A preposition is a word that shows the relation of its object to some other word.+ +48.+ Either a noun or a pronoun may be the object of a preposition. Notice the following sentences: Bring the book to me. Lay the book on the table. He will speak to you. I will speak to the man. In these sentences the noun _table_ is the object of the preposition _on_; the pronoun _me_ is the object of the preposition _to_; and in the last two sentences the pronoun _you_ and the noun _man_ are the objects of the preposition _to_. +49.+ There are not many prepositions in the language and they are easily learned and easily distinguished. Here is a list of the most common and the most important prepositions. Use each one in a sentence. at across around about among above against along behind beside between below beyond by before beneath down for from in into off on over to toward under up upon with within without Exercise 4 Underscore the prepositions in the following sentences: He went to the door and looked out upon the field. Over the river and through the woods, to Grandfather's house we go. He saw them in the distance as they were coming toward him. They went along the road, across the bridge, and hid among the trees at the foot of the hill. They came from Minneapolis down the river by boat. The war between the classes is a struggle against exploitation. The army was intrenched behind the barricades before dawn. His claim was within the law but without justice. CONJUNCTIONS +50.+ We have found that the preposition is a very important connective word. It connects two words and shows what one of them has to do with the other, but the preposition is not the only connective word which we use in English. We have another part of speech which performs an important function as a connective word. Notice the following sentence: Men and women struggle for their rights. Can you find a word in this sentence which is a connective word besides the preposition _for_? Did you notice that little word _and_? The noun _men_ and the noun _women_ are both subjects of the verb _struggle_, and they are joined by this little connective word _and_. If we did not have this word we would have to use two sentences to express our thought, thus: Men struggle for their rights. Women struggle for their rights. But with the use of this connective word _and_ we can combine these two sentences and express it all in one sentence: Men _and_ women struggle for their rights. This word is used in a different manner from the preposition. The preposition connects two words and makes one modify the other. When we say, _Get the book on the table_, the phrase _on the table_ designates the book just as much as if we had said, _Get the green book_. So the use of the preposition enables us to show the relation between two words and to make one word describe or modify the other. +51.+ This little word _and_ in the sentence, _Men and women struggle for their rights_, is a connective word also, but it connects two words that are used in the same way, so it is a different sort of connective word from the preposition. Words used in this way are called _conjunctions_. Conjunction is a word which is taken from the Latin, being made up of the Latin word _con_, which means _together_, and the Latin verb _juncto_, which means _to join_. So conjunction means literally _to join together_. +52.+ +A conjunction is a word that connects sentences or parts of sentences.+ Notice the following sentence: The class struggle is waged on the political field and on the industrial field. Here we have the conjunction _and_ connecting the two phrases _on the_ _political field_ and _on the industrial field_. Without the use of this connective word, we would have to use two sentences to express these two thoughts: The class struggle is waged on the political field. The class struggle is waged on the industrial field. +53.+ So a conjunction may be used to connect phrases as well as words. Now notice the following sentences: He will speak. I will listen. He will speak, _and_ I will listen. He will speak, _but_ I will listen. He will speak, _if_ I will listen. He will speak, _therefore_ I will listen. He will speak, _because_ I will listen. He will speak, _until_ I will listen. +54.+ These _sentences_ are joined by different conjunctions, and the conjunction used alters the meaning of the sentence. The conjunction is a very useful part of speech. Without it we would have many disconnected sentences requiring tiresome repetition of the same words. Like prepositions, there are not many conjunctions in English and they are readily recognized. +55.+ We will study about these conjunctions at length in later lessons. If you consult the following list of those most commonly used, you can easily pick out the conjunctions in your reading: and as as if after although as soon as because besides before but either for hence in order that lest neither nor or since still so then though that than therefore till until unless while whether yet The seven classes of words which we have studied make up all of our sentences. The hundreds of words which we use in forming our sentences and expressing our thoughts belong to these seven classes. They are either nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, prepositions or conjunctions. Exercise 5 Underscore the conjunctions in the following sentences. Notice whether they connect words or phrases or sentences. 1. We cannot win unless we are organized. 2. Books and music are true friends. 3. Men, women and children work under conditions neither proper nor just. 4. We must educate and organize. 5. The workers on the farms and in the factories must be united. 6. Winter has come and the birds are going South. 7. We have been ignorant, therefore we have been exploited. 8. We must learn before we can teach. 9. We do not understand the situation, because we do not know the facts. 10. Do you know whether these statements are true or false? IT CAN BE DONE Somebody said that it couldn't be done, But he, with a chuckle, replied That "maybe it couldn't," but he would be one Who wouldn't say so till he tried. So he buckled right in, with a trace of a grin On his face. If he worried he hid it. He started to sing as he tackled the thing That couldn't be done--and he did it. Somebody scoffed, "Oh, you'll never do that; At least no one ever has done it." But he took off his coat and he took off his hat, And the first thing we knew he'd begun it; With the lift of his chin, and a bit of a grin, Without any doubting or quiddit, He started to sing as he tackled the thing That couldn't be done--and he did it. There are thousands to tell you it can not be done; There are thousands to prophesy failure; There are thousands to point out to you, one by one, The dangers that wait to assail you. But buckle right in, with a lift of your chin, Then take off your coat and go to it; Just start in to sing as you tackle the thing That "can not be done,"--and you'll do it. INTERJECTIONS +56.+ There is another class of words which we use _with_ sentences, but which are really not _parts_ of the sentences. They are emotional expressions which seem to belong more to the natural language than to the invented language. For example: Oh! You hurt me! Aha! Now I have you. _Oh_, used in this way, is very apt to sound like a groan, and _aha_ like a shout of triumph. These words do not really belong in the construction of the sentence. The sentence would be complete without them, but they are thrown in to express the emotion which accompanies the thought. We call expressions such as these _interjections_. Interjection is from the Latin and means literally _thrown into the midst of_. It comes from the Latin word _inter_, which means _between_, and the Latin verb _jecto_, _to throw_, so it literally means _to throw between_. Some of these words imitate sounds, as for example: Bang! There goes another shot. Ding-dong! There goes the first bell. We do not use interjections very frequently in writing on scientific subjects that express deep thought, but you will find them often used in poetry, fiction, oratory or any emotional writing. Therefore we have our definition of an interjection: +57.+ +An interjection is an exclamatory word or phrase used to express feeling or to imitate some sound.+ +58.+ Following is a list of commonly used interjections. Use them in sentences of your own. oh hello bravo ahoy aha hurrah bow wow ssh alas hist whirr pshaw fie whoa ding-dong rub-a-dub Exercise 6 Mark the interjections in the following sentences. Notice those which express emotion and those which imitate sound. 1. Oh! Is it possible. 2. Hurrah! We have good news at last. 3. Whirr! Whirr! goes the giant machine. 4. Come! Keep up your courage. 5. What! I cannot believe it. 6. Courage! We shall yet win. 7. Bravo! Let those words ring down the centuries. 8. Ding-dong! the bells ring out the hour! SPELLING LESSON 3 Since there are forty-two elementary sounds used in the formation of our words and only twenty-six letters to represent these sounds, some of these letters must necessarily represent more than one sound. Of the forty-two elementary sounds, eighteen are vowel sounds, but we have only five vowels with which to represent these sounds, so each vowel has several different sounds. Therefore we must have a key to pronunciation to indicate the various sounds which are represented by these letters used in forming the words. When you look up words in your dictionary you will find the vowels marked by certain signs to indicate the pronunciation. These signs are called diacritical marks. The following table gives the diacritical marks for the vowels. Study this table and learn to pronounce the words you look up. When you have determined the correct pronunciation of the word, repeat it over to yourself aloud a number of times until you have accustomed your ear to the correct pronunciation. Different dictionaries use different keys to pronunciation. This table is taken from the dictionary which we are using in connection with this course--Winston's New Universal Self-Pronouncing Dictionary. Key to Pronunciation [=a] as in _late_, _fade_. ä as in _mar_, _father_. [.a] as in _mask_, _dance_. a as in _cat_, _had_. aw as in _awl_, _fall_. [=e] as in _he_, _feet_. [~e] as in _her_, _verge_. e as in _let_, _men_. [=i] as in _line_, _time_. i as in _tin_, _little_. [=o] as in _vote_, _home_. ô as in _orb_, _form_. o as in _lot_, _odd_. oi as in _oil_, _join_. [=oo] as in _moon_, _school_. oo as in _cook_, _foot_. ou as in _out_, _house_. [=u] as in _mute_, _unit_. u as in _nut_, _drum_. The spelling lesson for this week is composed of words containing the different vowel sounds. Look up in your dictionary and mark all the _a's_ in Monday's lesson, all the _e's_ in Tuesday's lesson, all the _i's_ in Wednesday's lesson, all the _o's_ in Thursday's lesson, and all the _u's_ in Friday's lesson. In Saturday's lesson note the use of _w_ and _y_ as vowels. +Monday+ Pause Adjective Lazy Quality Advance +Tuesday+ Resemble Descend Adverb Interjection Complete +Wednesday+ Limit Define Distinct Imprison Civilize +Thursday+ Form Footsteps Proof Report Common +Friday+ Union Under Unusual Summer Commune +Saturday+ Comply Employ Vowel News Lawful PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 4 Dear Comrade: We are studying in this lesson a most interesting part of our language, the words that are the names of things. If we could trace these names of things and the order and time of their coming into the language of men we would have a progressive history of mankind. Way back yonder in the dim dawn of history, men lived upon fruit and nuts. They had no knowledge of the use of fire and could not use foods that required cooking. They communicated with one another by signs. Then they discovered fire and invented the bow and arrow. They could now use fish and flesh for food and they commenced to use articulate speech. This stage has been called the Middle Stage of Savagery. With the invention of the bow and arrow, began the third stage of savagery which merged into the first stage of barbarism with the invention of pottery. There are three stages of barbarism before we come to the beginning of the era of civilization which begins with the use of the phonetic alphabet and the production of literary records. All tribes that have never attained the art of pottery are classed as savages and those who possess this art but have never attained a phonetic alphabet and the use of writing are classed as barbarians. Civilization began with the spoken and written language and it has been well said that all that separates us from savagery is a wall of books. It is upon the accumulated wisdom of the past that we build. Without this we would be helpless. So these various names of things have come to us with developing evolving life. As the men of the past gained a knowledge of the use of fire, as they learned to bake the clay and make various utensils; to heat and forge the iron into weapons; to conquer nature in all her phases, to feed the race, to clothe the race, to shelter the race more adequately, our language has grown in volume, strength and beauty. The study of words and their uses is of great importance to you. Master the few rules necessary and watch your words daily. We are living in an age full of wondrous things and yet many of us have almost as limited a vocabulary as the men of those bygone days, who had never dreamed of the marvels that are commonplace to us. As you use your dictionary watch closely the meaning of the words and choose the words that most aptly express your ideas. Listen to good English spoken as often as you can. _Read_ good English. Mark the difference between good and bad English and gradually you will find yourself using good English naturally and continually. Yours for Education, THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. CLASSES OF NOUNS +59.+ We have learned that the words in a sentence are classified according to the work which each word does. The words which assert are called verbs; the words which are the names of things are called nouns. But now we shall see that these words are again divided into classes according to the _special_ work which they perform. Just as we may gather the people of the world into one great class, the working class, then classify them according to the industry in which they work, thus some are farmers, some teachers, some factory workers; then each class may be subdivided according to the special work which they perform, as truck farmers, high school teachers, machinists, etc. So we find that nouns are divided into classes according to their meaning in the sentence. In the sentence, _Lincoln was a man of the people_, we have two nouns referring to the same person, _Lincoln_ and _man_, but they are different kinds of names. The word _man_ is a name that may apply to any one of a million persons but the name _Lincoln_ applies to one person only. Some nouns, then, represent a thing as being of a certain kind or class, without showing which particular one is meant. Other nouns are names given to designate a particular individual. These are called _common_ and _proper_ nouns. +60.+ +A proper noun is a special name meant for only one person, place or thing.+ All other nouns are common nouns. +A common noun is a name which belongs to all things of a class of objects.+ +Every proper noun should begin with a capital letter.+ Indicate the proper nouns in the following list by drawing a line under the letters that ought to be capitals: king month city france dog virginia war wilson november doctor colonel napoleon chicago governor independence day freedom ocean atlantic ocean thanksgiving thanksgiving day uncle william thursday week general sherman karl marx union labor united mine workers newspaper the daily call Write the special or _proper_ names of several individuals in each of the following classes:--as city,--Chicago, New York, etc. River, king, author, country, state, inventor, martyr, month, book, college. COLLECTIVE NOUNS +61.+ Some nouns are the names of groups or collections of things and are called collective nouns. Many soldiers taken together form collectively an _army_--a number of sheep form a _drove_. Many of these group or collective nouns will readily occur to your mind. +A collective noun is one that in the singular form, denotes a number of separate persons or things.+ Exercise 1 Opposite each of the following collective nouns, write the name of the individuals represented by the collection; as an army of _soldiers_; a swarm of _bees_; a flock of _birds_. A gang of...... A committee of...... A herd of...... A drove of...... A hive of...... A corps of...... A suite of...... A group of...... A class of...... A multitude of...... Fill the following blanks with appropriate collective nouns. A......of horses. A......of sailors. A......of wolves. A......of savages. A......of singers. A......of girls. A......of ships. A......of quail. A......of birds. A......of workers. ABSTRACT NOUNS +62.+ When primitive man began to name the objects about him, doubtless he first named the things which he could see, hear, taste, smell and touch,--the objects which he could perceive by the five senses. Then gradually he came to understand that these objects had certain qualities which he could consider apart from the object itself. He hunted among the stones to find those which were suitable for making his arrow-heads. For this purpose he needed the hardest stone which he could find, so _hardness_ became something which he could think of as something apart from the object itself. He saw the men about him and found a name for them. Then he knew that some men were stronger than others, so _strength_ was a quality which he could consider apart from the man himself. These men performed certain actions; they ran, they climbed,--so _running_ and _climbing_ became actions which he could think of as something apart from any individual. He noted too that men lived in certain conditions; for example, some men were free, some were slaves, so he came to think of _slavery_ and _freedom_ as conditions which could be thought of as something apart from the individual. So we draw away, or separate certain ideas; the _quality_ from the thing which has it and the _action_ from the thing which does it and the _condition_ from the thing which is in it. These nouns which are used to describe these qualities, actions or conditions are called _abstract_ nouns. Abstract is a word derived from the Latin _abs_, _away from_, and _tractus_, _drawn_, so it literally means _drawn away from_. The nouns which are names of things which we can see, hear, taste, smell and touch or perceive by any of the five senses are called _concrete_ nouns. +63.+ +A concrete noun is the name of an object which may be perceived by one or more of the five senses.+ +An abstract noun is the name of a quality, a condition or an action.+ +64.+ You remember we found in the study of adjectives that we have a class of adjectives which are used to describe the qualities of objects, as for example--_good_, _noble_, _honest_, _true_, _wise_, etc. Since abstract nouns are the names of qualities, many of our abstract nouns are formed from adjectives. Study carefully the following list of adjectives and nouns. Note that the word is an _adjective_ when it is used with a noun to _describe_ certain qualities. It is a _noun_ when it is used by itself to _name_ that quality. +Adjectives+ +Abstract Nouns+ 1. honest honesty 2. pure purity 3. true truth 4. strong strength 5. wise wisdom 6. good goodness 7. bold boldness 8. just justice 9. silent silence 10. wide width 11. patient patience 12. stupid stupidity +65.+ You will notice that another use of abstract nouns is to name actions. The verb is the part of speech which expresses action, therefore many abstract nouns are formed from verbs. Notice the following list: +Verbs+ +Abstract Nouns+ 1. learn learning 2. invent invention 3. choose choice 4. defend defense 5. try trial 6. judge judgment 7. read reading 8. please pleasure 9. elect election 10. move motion +66.+ An abstract noun is also the name of a condition. These nouns are derived from the concrete noun which is the name of the person or thing which is _in_ the condition. +Concrete Nouns+ +Abstract Nouns+ 1. slave slavery 2. friend friendship 3. thief theft 4. man manhood 5. child childhood 6. leader leadership 7. hero heroism 8. martyr martyrdom Exercise 2 Form abstract nouns from the following adjectives, verbs and nouns. long simple rapid lovely loyal fresh prove sing run behave believe reflect write child agent infant rascal clerk president coward NUMBER FORM +67.+ So we find that we classify our nouns according to the special work which they do. Now sometimes we find it necessary to change the form of the noun to make it express our thought. Thus we say, _book_, _man_, _boy_, _knife_, when we wish to express the idea of only one of each object mentioned. But when we wish to express the idea of more than one of them, we say, _books_, _men_, _boys_, _knives_. We say, _The boy calls_; _the boys call_. The form of the noun _boy_ is changed by adding an _s_ to it. The meaning has also changed. _Boy_ denotes one lad; _boys_ denotes two or more lads. Any change in form and meaning of words is called _inflection_. The change to denote more than one object is called _number_. The word _boy_, denoting _one_ is in the _singular number_; the word _boys_, denoting _more than one_ is in the _plural number_. +68.+ +Inflection is a change in the form of a word to denote a different application or use.+ +Number is the form of a noun which shows whether it denotes one or more than one.+ +The singular number denotes one thing.+ +The plural number denotes more than one thing.+ There are a few rules governing the formation of plurals which we must know, and these rules are of great assistance in correct spelling. +69.+ Most nouns form their plural by adding _s_--thus: boat boats day days book books boy boys Long ago in early English all plurals were formed by adding _es_, and you will read in the first translation of the Bible, for instance, such words as _bird-es_, _cloud-es_. Later the _e_ was dropped and _s_ added to the singular without an increase of syllables. But when the singular ends in an _s_ sound, the original syllable _es_ is retained, for two hissing sounds will not unite. +70.+ So nouns ending in _s_, _x_, _z_, _sh_ or soft _ch_, form the plural by adding _es_ to the singular. These words end with a sound so much like that of _s_ that we cannot pronounce the plural easily without making another syllable. Thus: class classes tax taxes topaz topazes wish wishes ditch ditches +71.+ In words ending with the _s_ sound but with a final _e_, only _s_ is added to form the plural, but in pronouncing the word we then have two syllables, thus: house houses place places size sizes cage cages niche niches +72.+ Letters, figures, signs, etc., are made plural by adding an apostrophe and the letter _s_ ('s), thus: Cross your t's and dot your i's. Do you know the table of 4's? While most of our nouns form their plural in this regular way by adding _s_ or _es_, there are some nouns that form their plural by some other change in the form of the word. +73.+ Notice the following list of words and their plurals: fly flies city cities key keys day days story stories enemy enemies tray trays boy boys These nouns all end in _y_, yet they form the plural differently. Some simply add _s_ and the rest change the _y_ to _i_ and add _es_. Can you discover the reason? Wherever the _y_ is preceded by a vowel, as _e_ in _key_, _a_ in _tray_, _o_ in _boy_, the plural is formed by adding _s_. But when the _y_ is preceded by a consonant, as _l_ in _fly_, _r_ in _story_, _t_ in _city_, and _m_ in _enemy_, the _y_ is changed to _i_ and _es_ added in forming the plural. +If the singular ends in _y_ after a consonant, change _y_ to _i_ and add _es_ in the plural.+ +74.+ There are thirteen nouns ending in _f_ and three in _fe_ which form the plural in _ves_. They are: beef beeves calf calves elf elves half halves leaf leaves loaf loaves self selves sheaf sheaves shelf shelves staff staves thief thieves wharf wharves wolf wolves knife knives life lives wife wives All other nouns in _f_ or _fe_ are regular; adding only _s_, to form the plural. +75.+ About forty nouns ending in _o_ after a consonant form the plural in _es_. The most common ones are: buffalo cargo potato tomato negro veto cargo echo calico embargo hero mulatto mosquito motto tornado volcano torpedo flamingo Most nouns ending in _o_ form the plural regularly, adding only _s_, as _pianos_, _banjos_, _cameos_, etc. +76.+ A few words form their plurals by a change in the word and without adding _s_ or _es_. The most common of these words are: man men goose geese ox oxen woman women foot feet mouse mice brother brethren tooth teeth child children louse lice +77.+ Proper nouns, when made plural, generally follow the same rule as common nouns. Thus we write: All the Smiths, the Joneses, both the Miss Johnsons, one of the Dr. Davidsons, and the Mrs. Wilsons, were present. But to prevent the confusion and misunderstanding which might arise in changing the form of a proper noun, we do not change its form in writing the plurals; for example: There were eight Henrys, kings of England. The two Marys reigned in the kingdom. It would be confusing to say _eight Henries_, the _two Maries_. The title is made plural when several are referred to, thus: Mr. Hayes The Messrs. Hayes Miss Smith The Misses Smith +78.+ The title is made plural when used with several names, thus: Messrs. Brown and White. Generals Lee and Grant. Drs. Long and Larson. +79.+ In the case of nouns formed of two or more words, when the compound word is so familiar that the parts are not thought of separately the _s_ is added to the whole compound word, as _four-in-hands_; _forget-me-nots_; _court-yards_; _spoonfuls_; _green-houses_; etc. But when one of the parts is more important than the others, the _s_ is added to the more important part, thus: mothers-in-law commanders-in-chief hangers-on men-of-war by-standers attorneys-at-law passers-by step-sons +80.+ We have many words in our language taken from other languages. They do not form the plural in these languages as we do, and some of these words retain their foreign plurals. Some of the most commonly used of these nouns are the following: +Singular+ +Plural+ alumnus alumni analysis analyses axis axes datum data erratum errata ellipsis ellipses appendix appendices bacterium bacteria basis bases crisis crises parenthesis parentheses radius radii terminus termini hypothesis hypotheses larva larvae madame mesdames memorandum memoranda phenomenon phenomena stratum strata thesis theses +81.+ The following nouns are treated as singular: _news_, _pains_ (meaning care), _acoustics_, _mathematics_, _economics_, _ethics_, _molasses_, _physics_, _politics_, and other nouns ending in _ics_ except _athletics_. With these always use the s-form of the verb. For example: The news _is_ distorted. Not, The news _are_ distorted. Economics _is_ an important study. Not, Economics _are_, etc. +82.+ The following nouns are always plural: alms annals amends antipodes bellows billiards clothes dregs eaves fireworks hysterics measles mumps matins nippers nuptials oats premises proceeds pincers riches rickets suds scissors thanks tidings tongs trousers vitals victuals vespers With all these nouns always use the form of the verb which is used with the plural subject. Thus: Alms are given. Riches are easily lost. +83.+ The following nouns have the same form for both plural and singular, _corps_, _cannon_, _deer_, _grouse_, _heathen_, _hose_, _means_, _odds_, _series_, _sheep_, _species_, _swine_, _vermin_, _wages_. You can tell whether the singular or plural is meant by the meaning of the sentence. For example: _The cannon is loaded._ Here we are speaking of _one_ cannon. _The cannon used in the war are of tremendous size._ Here we know are meant all the big guns used in the war. When you say, _The sheep is lost_, we know you mean _one_ sheep, but when you say, _The sheep are in the pasture_, we know you mean the entire drove. +84.+ When preceded by a numeral, the following nouns have the same form for both singular and plural. Without the numerals, the plural is formed by the adding of _s_; _brace_, _couple_, _dozen_, _hundred_, _pair_, _score_, _thousand_, _yoke_. For example: Thousands enlisted. Three thousand enlisted. Dozens came at my call. Two dozen came when I called. GENDER +85.+ All of the changes we have studied so far have been for the purpose of indicating number; but among the nouns that name living beings, many change to show to which sex the object named belongs. These nouns change in form to distinguish between the masculine and the feminine. This is called _gender_. +Gender is the distinction in words that denotes sex.+ +The nouns that denote females are called feminine nouns.+ +The nouns that denote males are called masculine nouns.+ +86.+ The feminine form is generally made by the addition of _ess_ to the masculine form. Thus: prince princess master mistress host hostess count countess tiger tigress lion lioness actor actress god goddess +87.+ Names of things without sex are, of course, of neither gender, and are called _neuter nouns_. Neuter means literally _neither_. Such nouns as _mountain_, _iron_, _river_, _chair_, are neuter. Sometimes the feminine is an entirely different word from the masculine. Thus: king queen lord lady man woman youth maiden sir madam stag hind +88.+ Many nouns that denote living beings apply alike to male and female, and are said to be of _common gender_. As woman enters more and more into the business world and pursues the same occupations as man, the change in form to denote the feminine is used less frequently, and what we have called the masculine form is used for both sexes, thus: _Poet_, _waiter_, _doctor_, _editor_--these nouns are used for both men and women. POSSESSIVE FORM +89.+ There is just one more change made in the form of a noun, and that is when we wish to show who or what owns or possesses a thing. Thus we write: John's book. The boy's hat. And since this form of the noun denotes possession, it is called the _possessive form_. Some grammarians call this the possessive case. The possessive form of nouns is made by adding an apostrophe and _s_, ('s); thus, _day's_, _lady's_, _girl's_, _clerk's_. To plural nouns ending in _s_ add only an apostrophe; thus, _days'_, _ladies'_, _girls'_, _clerks'_. When plural nouns do not end in _s_, their possessive forms are made by adding the apostrophe and _s_, the same as singular nouns, thus: They make _men's_ and _women's_ shoes. +90.+ In words which end with a sound that resembles that of _s_, the apostrophe with _s_ forms an additional syllable. Thus: James's (pronounced James-ez.) Mr. Lynch's (pronounced Lynch-ez.) The only exception to the rule occurs when the addition of another _s_ would make too many hissing sounds, then we add the apostrophe alone. Thus: For goodness' sake. In Jesus' name. +91.+ In forming the possessive of compound nouns, the possessive sign is always placed at the end, thus: My son-in-law's sister. The man-of-war's cannon. +92.+ When we wish to show that a thing belongs to two or more persons who are joint owners of it, we add the possessive sign to the last word only, thus: Carson, Price and Scott's store. Mason and Hamlin's pianos. If it is a separate ownership that we wish to denote, we place the possessive sign after each name, thus: Bring me John's and Mary's books. Lee's and Grant's armies met in battle. Remember that the noun has just _three_ changes in form, one for the plural number, one to denote gender and one for the possessive form. Watch carefully your own language and that of your friends and note if these changes are correctly made. Exercise 3 Write the plural form of each of the following: ax beef chief hero knife T hoof man-of-war axis basis cherry leaf son-in-law Mr. Smith thief Doctor Wood alley buffalo chimney staff Frenchman Miss Brown ox spoonful alto calf cargo two 3 tooth foot turkey Exercise 4 Underscore the nouns in the following: How many abstract nouns? How many concrete? How many singular? How many plural? FIVE AND FIFTY _Charlotte Perkins Gilman_ If fifty men did all the work And gave the price to five; And let those five make all the rules-- You'd say the fifty men were fools, Unfit to be alive. And if you heard complaining cries From fifty brawny men, Blaming the five for graft and greed, Injustice, cruelty indeed-- What would you call them then? Not by their own superior force Do five on fifty live, But by election and assent-- And privilege of government-- Powers that the fifty give. If fifty men are really fools-- And five have all the brains-- The five must rule as now we find; But if the fifty have the mind-- Why don't they take the reins? Exercise 5 Select all the nouns in the following. Write their singular, plural and possessive forms. Decide whether they are abstract or concrete, common or proper or collective, masculine, feminine or neuter. Brother! Whoever you are, wherever you are on all the earth, I greet you. I extend to you my right hand. I make you a pledge. Here is my pledge to you:-- I refuse to kill your father. I refuse to slay your mother's son. I refuse to plunge a bayonet into the breast of your sister's brother. I refuse to slaughter your sweetheart's lover. I refuse to murder your wife's husband. I refuse to butcher your little child's father. I refuse to wet the earth with blood and blind kind eyes with tears. I refuse to assassinate you and then hide my stained fists in the folds of _any_ flag. Will you thus pledge me and pledge all the members of our working class?--_Kirkpatrick._ SPELLING LESSON 4 Some of our consonants also have more than one sound. We have also certain combinations of consonants which represent one sound. This combination of two letters to represent one sound is called a digraph, as _gh_, in _cough_, _ch_ in _church_. A digraph may either be a combination of two consonants or of two vowels or of a vowel and a consonant. The following table contains the consonants which have more than one sound: c--k as in _cat_ c--s as in _vice_ g--j as in _ginger_ g--_hard_ as in _go_ s--sh as in _sure_ s--zh as in _usual_ s--_soft_ as in _also_ s--z as in _does_ x--_soft_ as in _extra_ x--gz as in _exist_ The following table gives the digraphs most commonly used: ng--as in _ring_, _tongue_ ch--as in _church_ and _much_ ch--k as in _chasm_ ch--sh as in _chagrin_ th--as in _then_, _those_ th--as in _thin_ and _worth_ ce--sh as in _ocean_ ci--sh as in _special_ dg--j as in _edge_ gh--f as in _rough_ ph--f as in _sylph_ qu--kw as in _quart_ qu--k as in _conquer_ sh--as in _shall_ si--sh as in _tension_ si--zh as in _vision_ ti--sh as in _motion_ The use of these digraphs gives us a number of additional sounds. Notice the use of the consonants which have more than one sound and also the digraphs in the spelling lesson for the week. Mark the consonants and digraphs. +Monday+ Commence Certain General Gradual Sugar +Tuesday+ Soldier Season Pleasure Exact Exercise +Wednesday+ Singular Chemistry Chapter Machine Changing +Thursday+ Theory Thither Ocean Racial Budget +Friday+ Philosophy Enough Quorum Bouquet Phonetic +Saturday+ Permission Asia Attention Marshall Martial PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 5 Dear Comrade: We want to say just a word about the lesson assignment. This has been arranged on a schedule of days merely to assist you in systematizing your time and making the most of the leisure at your disposal. It is not intended that you should slavishly follow it. We thoroughly believe in individuality and all that contributes toward its development. But we are also confident that many foolish things are done in the name of liberty. Whenever we set ourselves to the performance of any task we necessarily limit our activities in some other direction. Power comes by concentration of force. Whenever we combine with others for the accomplishment of any purpose, it becomes necessary to have some plan of action and we give and take for the end which we have in view. The musician because he follows the law of harmony in music has not given up his liberty. He has only found a new freedom which enables him to make glorious music where only discord reigned before. System in our work does not mean loss of liberty or of individuality but only finding a channel through which individuality can flow into the great ocean of real freedom. So use this suggestive lesson assignment to meet your own need and find expression for your real individuality in full freedom. This is the first of several lessons concerning verbs. The verb is perhaps the most difficult part of speech to thoroughly master, so do not be discouraged if there are some parts of this lesson you do not understand. Succeeding lessons will clear up these difficult points. Keep your eyes open as you read every day, and be careful of your spelling and pronunciation. Some of us mis-spell the common words which we see and use every day. In a student's letter we recently noted that, with our letter before him in which the word was printed in large type and correctly spelled, he spelled College, _Colledge_. Do not be satisfied with half-way things or less than that which is worthy of you. Demand the best for yourself. Read aloud this little verse from the Good Grey Poet, Walt Whitman: "O, the joy of a manly self-hood; To be servile to none, to defer to none, not to any tyrant known or unknown, To walk with erect carriage, a step springy and elastic, To look with calm gaze or with a flashing eye, To speak with a full and sonorous voice out of a broad chest, To confront with your personality all the other personalities of the earth." Yours for Education, THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. THE WORD THAT ASSERTS +93.+ You remember when we studied sentences we found that we could not have a sentence without a verb or a word that asserts. The life of a sentence is the verb, for without the verb we cannot assert, question or command. It was on account of this importance that the Romans called the verb, _verbum_, which meant the word. Verbs, like nouns, are divided into classes. +94.+ In some of our sentences the verb alone is enough to make a complete assertion, but in other sentences we use verbs that need to be followed by one or more words to complete the assertion. Notice the following sentences: The boy ran. The boy found the ball. The earth revolves. The earth is round. Do you notice any difference in the verbs used in these sentences? Notice that the verbs _ran_ and _revolves_ make the complete assertion about their subjects. Notice the verbs _found_ and _is_. These are not complete without the addition of the words _ball_ and _round_. If we say _The boy found_, _The earth is_, you at once ask, _The boy found WHAT?_ _The earth is WHAT?_ The sense is incomplete without the addition of these words _ball_ and _round_. A part of the thought is unexpressed; but when we say _The boy found the ball_, _The earth is round_, the sense is complete. So we have two classes of verbs, _COMPLETE AND INCOMPLETE VERBS_. +95.+ +An incomplete verb is one that requires the addition of one or more words to complete its meaning.+ +The word or words added to an incomplete verb to complete its meaning are called the complement.+ +A complete verb is one that requires no complement to complete its meaning.+ +96.+ You can readily tell when a verb is complete and when it is incomplete by asking the question _What?_ If you put the question _what_ after the verb, and it makes a sensible question the verb is _incomplete_. For example: Farmers raise--_what?_ The employer discharged--_what?_ We were--_what?_ The earth is--_what?_ If the question _what?_ does not make sense after the verb, then the verb is _complete_. For example: The sun shines. Water flows. Men work. The question _what_ after these verbs would not make sense, as: The sun shines--_what?_ Men work--_what?_ Water flows--_what?_ So these verbs are _complete_ verbs. +97.+ The same verb, however, may be complete or incomplete, according to the way in which it is used. For example: The corn grows. The farmer grows corn. In the sentence, _Corn grows_, _grows_ is a complete verb. You could not say _The corn grows--what?_ for it does not grow anything. It merely grows, and the verb _grows_ in this sense is a complete verb. But in the sentence, _The farmer grows corn_, you are using the verb _grows_ in a slightly different sense. It is an _incomplete verb_, for you do not mean, _The farmer grows_, but you mean that _the farmer grows CORN_. Exercise 1 In the following sentences, underscore the complete verbs with one line, the incomplete with two lines. Ask the question _what?_ after each verb to determine whether it is complete or incomplete. He returned today. He returned the book. The rose smells sweet. He smelled the rose. The trees shake in the wind. The wind shakes the trees. The ship plows through the waves. The farmer plows the field. The birds sing sweetly. They sang the Marseillaise. He worries over the matter. The matters worry him. The table feels rough. He feels the rough surface. It tastes bitter. He tasted the bitter dregs. Exercise 2 Use the following verbs in sentences as both complete and incomplete verbs, as for example, _The snow melts._ _The sun melts the snow._ melts write stopped answer rings fall see strike INCOMPLETE VERBS +98.+ Do you notice any difference in the two verbs in the following sentences: The boy found the ball. The earth is round. In the sentence, _The boy found the ball_, the word _ball_ tells _what_ the boy _found_. The verb _found_ expresses action; it tells what the boy _does_. _Boy_ is the subject of the action--the one who performs the action. The word _ball_ is the _object_ of the action. It shows the receiver of the action. In the sentence, _The earth is round_, _is_ does not express action. The earth is not doing anything, it simply _is_. The verb _is_ expresses a state or condition and is incomplete, for you do not know what state or condition is expressed until we add the other word or words which describe the state or condition. Notice the following sentences: The earth is round. The earth is our home. The earth is a sphere. The earth is large. The words _round_, _sphere_, _home_ and _large_, describe the earth which is the subject of the verb _is_. +99.+ So we have two classes of incomplete verbs, the verbs that express action and the verbs that express state or condition. The verbs which express action are called _transitive_ verbs. Transitive is a word derived from the Latin, and means literally _passing over_. +100.+ So a transitive verb describes an action which _passes over_ from the subject to the object. As for example in the sentence, _The player struck the ball_, _struck_ is a transitive verb--a verb of action--describing the action of the subject, _player_, which passes over to the object, _ball_. Therefore we have our definition of a transitive verb: +A transitive verb is one that has a complement showing who or what receives the action expressed by the verb.+ +The complement or word that denotes the receiver of the action expressed by a transitive verb is called the object.+ When you look up the meaning of verbs in your dictionary, you will find some verbs marked _v.i._, and some verbs marked _v.t._ _V.t._ is the abbreviation for _verb transitive_. Whenever you find a verb marked _v.t._, you know that it is a transitive verb, a verb of action, one which requires an object to complete its meaning. _V.i._ is the abbreviation for _verb intransitive_. Some grammarians use the term _intransitive_ to include both _complete_ and _copulative_ verbs. We have used the terms complete and incomplete because they are much simpler and clearer in describing the two general classes of verbs, but you will remember that when you find verbs marked _v.i._ in the dictionary that these include _complete_ and _copulative_ verbs. +101.+ Now notice these sentences: The earth is round. The earth is a sphere. In these sentences the verb _is_ does not express action, but _connects_ or _couples_ the complements _round_ and _sphere_ with the subject _earth_. Verbs used in this way are called _copulative_ verbs, from the word _copula_, which means to _complete_ or to _connect_. The words _round_ and _sphere_ are not the objects of the verb, for they do not describe the receiver of any action. They are the words which describe the state or condition expressed in the verb _is_, and are called the attribute complement of the verb. You note that this complement may be either an adjective or a noun. In the sentence, _The earth is round_, the adjective, _round_, is used as the complement; in the sentence, _The earth is a sphere_, the noun, _sphere_, is used as the complement. So we have our definition of copulative verbs. +102.+ +Verbs that express state or condition are called copulative verbs.+ +The word or words that complete the meaning of an incomplete verb expressing state or condition, are called the complement, or attribute complement.+ There are only a few of these copulative verbs. All forms of the verb, _be_; like _am_, _is_, _are_, _was_ and _were_, and the verb phrases like _must be_, _can be_, _will be_, _shall be_, _have been_, _had been_, etc.; and the verbs _seem_, _appear_, _become_, _look_, _feel_, _taste_, _sound_ and _smell_, are the principal copulative verbs. Exercise 3 Study carefully the following sentences. Note whether the complement of the copulative verb is an adjective or a noun. Draw one line under each _adjective_ used as a complement and two lines under each _noun_ used as a complement. The day is beautiful. I am weary and tired. The men were soldiers. The tasks seem endless. All men must be free. The workers have been slaves. The burden becomes heavier every day. The children feel happy and care-free. Evolution is the development of life. Grammar is the study of words and their use. Knowledge is freedom. The music sounds sweet on the midnight air. He looks well today. The dregs taste bitter. The incense smells sweet. Exercise 4 Complete the following sentences by adding an object or a complement. 1. Perseverance in your study will bring....... 2. The great need of the working class is....... 3. We shall never acknowledge....... 4. By the sweat of no other's brow shalt thou eat....... 5. The Revolutionary fathers founded....... 6. The workers demand....... 7. Labor's only road to freedom is....... 8. Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness are....... 9. If you struggle, you will gain....... 10. An incomplete verb requires....... 11. The complement of a transitive verb is called....... 12. The complement of a copulative verb may be either......or....... +103. There are two classes of verbs, complete and incomplete.+ +A complete verb is one that requires no complement.+ +An incomplete verb is one that requires a complement to complete its meaning.+ +Incomplete verbs are of two kinds: 1. Those that express action; 2. Those that express state or condition.+ +Incomplete verbs that express action are called transitive verbs.+ +Incomplete verbs that express state or condition are called copulative verbs.+ +The complement or the word that denotes the receiver of the action expressed in a transitive verb is called the object.+ +The word or words that complete the meaning of a copulative verb are called the complement, or attribute complement.+ +The same verb may be complete or incomplete, according to the way in which it is used.+ Exercise 5 In the following sentences draw a single line under the complete verbs and a double line under the incomplete verbs. Then determine whether the incomplete verbs are transitive or copulative verbs, and draw a line through the object or the complement. 1. Some plants are poisonous. 2. A rolling stone gathers no moss. 3. Perseverance brings success. 4. Delays are dangerous. 5. A man's actions show his character. 6. He looks well and feels stronger. 7. The snows come and the flowers fade. 8. Labor creates all wealth. 9. Labor must be free. 10. The boy writes well. 11. The man wrote a letter. 12. The skies are clear. 13. The hail destroyed the wheat. 14. No man is ever too old to learn. 15. Competition makes enemies. 16. Co-operation makes friends. 17. Competition breeds hatred. 18. Co-operation breeds good will. 19. Competition ensures war. 20. Co-operation ensures peace. Exercise 6 In the following quotation all of the verbs are printed in _italics_. Determine whether they are complete or incomplete verbs. If incomplete, determine whether they are transitive or copulative verbs. Draw a line under the object of every transitive verb and two lines under the complement of every copulative verb. Remember that sometimes we have several words combined into a verb phrase and used as a single verb. Watch for the verb phrases in the following, as for example: _must be_, in the sentence, _Labor must be free_. The history of man _is_ simply the history of slavery. Slavery _includes_ all other crimes. It _degrades_ labor and _corrupts_ leisure. With the idea that labor _is_ the basis of progress _goes_ the truth that labor _must be_ free. The laborer _must be_ a free man. There _is_ something wrong in a government where honesty _wears_ a rag and rascality _dons_ a robe; where the loving _eat_ a crust while the infamous _sit_ at banquets. _Talk_ about equal opportunity! Capitalism _ties_ a balloon to the shoulders of the rich child; it _ties_ a ball and chain to the feet of the poor child; and _tells_ them that they _have_ an equal opportunity! Once the master _hunted_ for the slaves, now the slave _hunts_ for a master. Exercise 7 Mark the verbs in the following poem. Often in poetry words are omitted which in strict grammatical construction should be expressed. As for example in the fourth line of this poem _which are_, is omitted before the word _bought_. In prose this would read, _The pews which are bought by the profits_, etc. So the word _bought_ is a part of the verb phrase, _are bought_. In the last line of the third stanza there is another omission before the word _planning_. The meaning is, _while they are planning slaughter_. _Planning_ is a part of the verb phrase _are planning_. And in the last line _is_ is omitted before the word _beloved_. _Is beloved_ is the verb phrase. Determine whether the verbs in this poem are complete, transitive or copulative, and mark the objects and the complements of the transitive and the copulative verbs. WHO IS A CHRISTIAN? _Ella Wheeler Wilcox_ "Who is a Christian in this Christian land Of many churches and of lofty spires? Not he who sits in soft, upholstered pews Bought by the profits of unholy greed, And looks devotion while he thinks of gain. Not he who sends petitions from the lips That lie to-morrow in the street and mart. Not he who fattens on another's toil, And flings his unearned riches to the poor Or aids the heathen with a lessened wage, And builds cathedrals with an increased rent. Christ, with Thy great, sweet, simple creed of love, How must Thou weary of earth's "Christian" clans, Who preach salvation through Thy saving blood While planning slaughter of their fellow men. Who is a Christian? It is one whose life Is built on love, on kindness and on faith; Who holds his brother as his other self; Who toils for justice, equity and peace, And hides no aim or purpose in his heart That will not chord with universal good. Though he be a pagan, heretic or Jew That man is Christian and beloved of Christ." SPELLING LESSON 5 We often have two vowels used in the same syllable as a single sound, as _ou_ in _round_, _oi_ in _oil_, etc. +A diphthong is a union of two vowels to represent a single sound different from that of either alone.+ Sometimes we have two vowels used together in a combination which is really not a diphthong for they do not unite in a different sound. Only one of the vowels is used and the other is silent as _ai_ in _rain_, _oa_ in _soap_, etc. The most common diphthongs are: ou as in _sound_. ow as in _owl_. oi as in _oil_. oy as in _boy_. In the spelling lesson for this week mark the words in which the combination of vowels forms a diphthong. In some of the words the combination of vowels does not form a diphthong for only one of the vowels is sounded. Draw a line through the silent letter. +Monday+ Straight Aisle Search Breadth Defeat +Tuesday+ Exploit Ceiling Height People Feudal +Wednesday+ Brought Shoulder Group Compound Trouble +Thursday+ Royal Coarse Course Broad Flower +Friday+ Laughter Haunted Plaid Invoice Chair +Saturday+ Guide Build Grieve Sieve Renown PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 6 Dear Comrade: We have this week another lesson in verbs. Do not be discouraged if you do not understand it all at once. Little by little, it will grow clearer and you will master this important word. The verb may seem involved to you, but a little application will soon make it clear. It is the most important word in the language to master. It almost seems as though the verb were a living, thinking thing. It changes outward form to accommodate itself to its subject in the number form and person form change. If it is entertaining a subject in the singular it adopts one dress; if it is entertaining a plural subject, more than one, the verb wears a different dress. So also if the subject is the first person, the person speaking, or the second person, the person spoken to, or the third person, the person spoken of, the verb accommodates itself to the subject. The verb is the most agreeable thing for it changes its form to agree with its subject! So watch your verb and see that it agrees. Refer constantly to your list of irregular verbs given in this lesson for we so often make mistakes in the use of these verb forms. Then, too, the verb kindly changes its form to accommodate itself to the time of the action--action in the present, in the past, in the future--action completed before the present time--before some time past--or before some future time--and action progressing and not yet completed in the present, in the past or in the future. Then it can also change to show whether its subject is acting or being acted upon. Isn't the verb a wonderfully accommodating member of the co-operative commonwealth of words? And can you not see hidden under all this, a marvelous development in the intellectual needs of men from the day of the savage's signs and grunts to the day when we can express such shades of meaning? This tool of expression, language, has had a wonderful evolution side by side with the evolution of the other tools by which man expresses his creative genius; from the forked stick with which man scratched the soil to the great machine-driven plow of today; from the simple threshing flail to the monster threshing machine of modern times. There is nothing so wonderful as man's ability to express himself. Add a little to your knowledge every day and the sum total will soon surprise you. Yours for Education, THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. INFLECTION--CHANGES IN FORM +104.+ You remember that nouns have certain changes in form to indicate changes in use. Verbs also have several changes in form to correspond with changes in their use or meaning. Notice the following sentences: I think. I thought. I work. I worked. What is the difference in the meaning of _I think_ and _I thought_? of _I work_ and _I worked_? When we say, _I think_, or _I work_, we mean that the action is now, to-day, in the present; but when we say, _I thought_, or _I worked_, we mean that _now_ is not the time of the action, but that the action was performed sometime in the past. So we have a change in the verb form to denote _time_. The simple form of the verb, like _think_ or _work_, is used to denote _present time_. When we wish to express _past time_ we do it by changing the form of the verb. Now note the following: } call I, We, You, They, } send } fall The men } bring } hide } calls He, She, It, } sends } falls The man } brings } hides Now let us write this in another way. +Present Time+ _Singular_ _Plural_ 1st person--I call. We call. 2nd person--You call. You call. He } 3rd person She } calls. They, or } call. It } The men } The man } +105.+ You notice in this table we use the expressions _first person_, _second person_, and _third person_. _I_ and _we_ indicate the person or persons speaking and are called the first person. _You_ indicates the person or persons spoken to and is called the second person. _He_, _she_, _it_, _they_, and the person or persons or things spoken of, are called the third person. We use the word _you_ when speaking to one or more than one now-a-days. It used to be that when speaking to a single person, people said _thou_, and in speaking to two or more they said _you_. But we today have dropped the old form _thou_, and use _you_ for both singular and plural. +106.+ Now note, in the above table, that there is only one form change in the verb, and this is in the _third person singular_. We say _I call_, _You call_, _We call_, _They_, or _The men call_, but we say _He_, or _the man calls_, in speaking of one person or thing. So we change the form of the verb with any subject which denotes the third person and the singular number. This form is made by adding _s_ to the simple form of the verb, therefore we may call it the _s-form_ because it always ends in _s_. Remember that this _s-form_ is used to express present time with a third person, singular subject. _BE CAREFUL NOT TO USE THIS FORM WITH ANY PLURAL SUBJECT._ There is no other change in the verb form in expressing the present time in any verb, except in the verb _be_. +107.+ This little verb _be_ is one of the most troublesome verbs in our language, and since it is used in forming verb phrases, it will be well to commit the following table to memory. Watch closely your use of this bothersome little word. Note that it has a change in form for the _first person singular_, as well as for the third person singular. All other verbs have just the one change, the _s-form_ for the third person singular. The verb _be_ has a form also to use with the first person singular, the pronoun _I_. +Present Time+ +Past Time+ _Singular_ _Singular_ 1. I am. 1. I was. 2. You are. 2. You were. 3. He is. 3. He was. _Plural_ _Plural_ 1. We are. 1. We were. 2. You are. 2. You were. 3. They are. 3. They were. +108.+ +The present time form is the form which expresses present time. It is expressed by the simple form of the verb with the exception of the third person singular, which is expressed by the _s-form_.+ PAST TIME +109.+ To express _past time_ we change the form of the verb. Notice the following: I } called We } called She } sent You } sent He } fell They } fell It } brought The men } brought The man } hid } hid Notice that these various forms of the verb which express past time are all made by changes from the simple form, which expresses present time. You will also notice that these five verbs used in the above table all form their past time form in different ways. For example, _call_ adds _ed_; _send_ changes the final letter from _d_ to _t_; _fall_ changes the vowel in the middle of the word from _a_ to _e_; _bring_ changes both the vowel and the final letter from _bring_ to _brought_; _hide_ drops the final letter _e_. +110.+ +Verbs whose past time forms are made by adding _d_ or _ed_ to the simple form are called regular verbs.+ +Verbs whose past time forms are made in some other way than by adding _d_ or _ed_ are called irregular verbs.+ +111.+ There are about two hundred of these irregular verbs which form their past time in the following ways: 1. By change in the vowel letter, as _fall_, _fell_; _write_, _wrote_; _see_, _saw_; _sing_, _sang_; _come_, _came_. 2. By dropping the final vowel; as _hide_, _hid_; _slide_, _slid_; _bite_, _bit_. 3. By dropping a vowel from the middle of the word; as _bleed_, _bled_; _feed_, _fed_; _lead_, _led_. 4. By changing the final letter or letters; as _send_, _sent_; _lose_, _lost_; _spend_, _spent_. 5. By changing the vowel and final letters; as _bring_, _brought_; _seek_, _sought_; _catch_, _caught_. 6. By changing the vowel sound and adding _t_ or _d_; as _sleep_, _slept_; _feel_, _felt_; _flee_, _fled_. There are some irregular forms which we must learn and be exceedingly careful in their use. Study the list in this lesson. Exercise 1 Write the _present_ and _past_ time forms of the following verbs as the verb _think_ is written in the table given below. think ride have give write ask make try speak run see do +Present Time+ +Past Time+ _Singular_ _Singular_ 1. I think 1. I thought 2. You think 2. You thought 3. He thinks 3. He thought _Plural_ _Plural_ 1. We think 1. We thought 2. You think 2. You thought 3. They think 3. They thought +112.+ Be very careful not to use the _s-form_ except for the third person singular. Be especially careful in the use of different forms of the verb _be_. It is in the use of this verb that we so frequently make mistakes. Watch your own language and the conversation of your friends and note these mistakes and correct them in your own mind. These common blunders in the use of English mark us as careless or uneducated by everyone who hears us speak. We have fallen into bad habits oftentimes and make these mistakes when we know better, and only constant watchfulness for a time can overcome the habit. After a time we learn to speak correctly without effort, and then these mistakes made by others offend the ear like a false note in music. Exercise 2 Cross out the wrong form in the following: They _was_--_were_ not here. The clouds _has_--_have_ gathered. People _is_--_are_ indifferent. The train _was_--_were_ on time. The men _was_--_were_ armed. Our school building _is_--_are_ inadequate. The workers _earn_--_earns_ their wages. The voters _elect_--_elects_ the President. They _do_--_does_ as they please. We _was_--_were_ there on time. DOING DOUBLE WORK +113.+ We have found now three forms of the verb, the _simple form_, the _s-form_, and the _past time form_, and, in addition, the _I-form_, or the first person form of the verb _be_. There are no other real verb forms, but there are two other changes made in the form of the verb when it ceases to be used as the predicate, the asserting word of the sentence, and becomes, in part, another part of speech. Notice in the following sentences: Making shoes is his work. He enjoys making shoes. In each of these sentences the word _making_, from the verb _make_, is used as a noun. In the first, _Making shoes is his work_, _making_ is used as the subject of the sentence. In the second, _He enjoys making shoes_, _making_ is used as the object of the verb _enjoys_. But _making_ is not like the ordinary noun, for it has an object _making_--_what?_--_making shoes_. _Shoes_ is the object of the action expressed in _making_. A noun never takes an object; so while the word _making_ is used as a noun, it is also partly a verb. It is a form of the verb used as a noun, but keeping in part its verb nature, partaking of the nature of two parts of speech at the same time. Hence these forms of the verb are called _participles_. Participle means _partaker_. The participle may also be used as an adjective. Notice the following: The _crying_ child came toward us. The _rescuing_ party arrived. In these sentences _crying_ and _rescuing_ are formed from the verbs _cry_ and _rescue_, and are used as adjectives to describe the noun _child_ and the noun _party_. So a participle is a mixed part of speech. It is partially a verb, but is not a true verb. A true verb is always used as the predicate, the asserting word in the sentence and _always_ has a subject. The participle _never_ has a subject; it may have an object, but not a subject. +114.+ There are two forms of the participle. The active form or the present form as it is sometimes called, ends in _ing_, as, _waiting_, _walking_, _saying_. It expresses action, existence, or possession as going on at the time mentioned in the sentence. +115.+ The other form of the participle is the passive form or the past form of the participle. This ends in _ed_ in the regular verbs, and has various forms in the irregular verbs. It is formed in regular verbs by adding _d_ or _ed_ to the simple form, hence has the same form as the past time form, as for example, present time form, _call_--past time form, _called_--past participle, _called_. You will find the past participle forms of irregular verbs in the list of irregular verbs given in this lesson, as for example--present time form, _go_--past time form, _went_--past participle, _gone_. +116.+ You will find as we study the verb phrases in later lessons that these participles are used in forming verb phrases. As for example: He is coming. They are trying. He has gone. +A participle is a word derived from a verb, partaking of the nature of a verb and also of an adjective or a noun.+ LET US SUM UP +117.+ +Verbs have five form changes.+ Simple S-Form Past Time Present Part. Past Part. call calls called calling called go goes went going gone Exercise 3 Write in columns like the above the five forms of the following verbs: do try give hope live rob have think sing get wave lose come make Exercise 4 Study carefully the following quotation. You will find in it all five of the form changes of the verb--_the present time form_, _the s-form_, _the past time form_, _the present participle_ and _the past participle_. In the verb phrases _had been filled_, _has survived_, _has gone_, _has proved_ and _be dismayed_, you will find the past participle used in forming the verb phrase. We will study these verb phrases in later lessons. In the verb phrases, _was stumbling_, _was groping_, _is conquering_, _are carrying_, the present participle is used in forming the verb phrases. _Could reconcile_ is also a verb phrase. We will study these verb phrases also in later lessons. The present participles, _struggling_, _persevering_ and _regaining_ are used as adjectives. Study them carefully and find the words which they describe. The present participles _imagining_, _learning_ and _suffering_ are used as nouns. Note their use. The past participles _rebuffed_, _self-reproached_, _discouraged_ and _promised_ are used as adjectives. Find the words which they modify. There are several _present time forms_, several _past time forms_, and several _s-forms_. Find them and study carefully their usage. OUT OF THE DARK _By Helen Keller_ _America's famous blind girl, who has come to see more than most people with normal eyes._ Step by step my investigation of blindness _led_ me into the industrial world. And what a world it _is_. I _faced_ unflinchingly a world of facts--a world of misery and degradation, of blindness, crookedness, and sin, a world _struggling_ against the elements, against the unknown, against itself. How _could_ I _reconcile_ this world of fact with the bright world of my _imagining_? My darkness _had been filled_ with the light of intelligence, and, _behold_, the outer day-lit world _was stumbling_, _was groping_ in social blindness. At first, I _was_ most unhappy, but deeper study _restored_ my confidence. By _learning_ the _suffering_ and burdens of men, I _became_ aware as never before of the life-power which _has survived_ the forces of darkness--the power which, though never completely victorious, _is_ continuously _conquering_. The very fact that we _are_ still carrying on the contest against the hosts of annihilation _proves_ that on the whole the battle _has gone_ for humanity. The world's great heart _has proved_ equal to the prodigious undertaking which God _set_ it. _Rebuffed_, but always _persevering_; _self-reproached_, but ever _regaining_ faith; undaunted, tenacious, the heart of man _labors_ towards immeasurably distant goals. _Discouraged_ not by difficulties without, or the anguish of ages within, the heart _listens_ to a secret voice that _whispers_: "_Be_ not _dismayed_; in the future _lies_ the _Promised_ Land." List of Irregular Verbs Here is a list of the principal irregular verbs--the present and past time forms and the past participle are called the principal parts of a verb. (Those marked with an _r_ have also the regular form.) +Present T.+ +Past T.+ +Past Part.+ abide abode abode arise arose arisen awake awoke, _r_ awaked be or am was been bear bore borne beat beat beaten begin began begun bend bent, _r_ bent, _r_ bereave bereft, _r_ bereft, _r_ beseech besought besought bet bet bet bid bid or bade bid (den) bind bound bound bite bit bit (ten) bleed bled bled blow blew blown break broke broken breed bred bred bring brought brought build built, _r_ built, _r_ burn burnt, _r_ burnt, _r_ burst burst burst buy bought bought cast cast cast catch caught caught chide chid chid (den) choose chose chosen cling clung clung clothe clad, _r_ clad, _r_ come came come cost cost cost creep crept crept cut cut cut deal dealt, _r_ dealt, _r_ dig dug, _r_ dug, _r_ do did done draw drew drawn dream dreamt, _r_ dreamt, _r_ drink drank drunk drive drove driven dwell dwelt, _r_ dwelt, _r_ eat ate eaten fall fell fallen feed fed fed feel felt felt fight fought fought find found found flee fled fled fling flung flung fly flew flown forget forgot forgotten forgive forgave forgiven forsake forsook forsaken get got got (ten) give gave given go went gone grind ground ground grow grew grown hang hung, _r_ hung, _r_ have had had hear heard heard hew hewed hewn, _r_ hide hid hidden hit hit hit hold held held hurt hurt hurt keep kept kept kneel knelt, _r_ knelt, _r_ knit knit, _r_ knit, _r_ know knew known lay laid laid lead led led leave left left lend lent lent let let let lie lay lain light lit, _r_ lit, _r_ lose lost lost make made made mean meant meant meet met met mistake mistook mistaken mow mowed mown, _r_ pay paid paid plead pled, _r_ pled, _r_ put put put quit quit, _r_ quit, _r_ read read read rend rent rent rid rid rid ride rode ridden ring rang rung rise rose risen run ran run saw sawed sawn, _r_ say said said see saw seen seek sought sought sell sold sold send sent sent set set set shake shook shaken shape shaped shapen, _r_ shave shaved shaven, _r_ shear sheared shorn, _r_ shed shed shed shine shone, _r_ shone, _r_ shoe shod shod shoot shot shot show showed shown, _r_ shrink shrank shrunk (en) shut shut shut sing sang sung sink sank sunk sit sat sat slay slew slain sleep slept slept slide slid slid (en) sling slung slung slink slunk slunk slit slit slit smite smote smitten sow sowed sown, _r_ speak spoke spoken speed sped sped spend spent spent spill spilt, _r_ spilt, _r_ spin spun spun spit spit spit split split split spoil spoilt, _r_ spoilt, _r_ spread spread spread spring sprang sprung stand stood stood stave stove, _r_ stove, _r_ steal stole stolen stick stuck stuck sting stung stung stink stunk stunk strike struck struck strike struck stricken stride strode stridden string strung strung strive strove striven strew strewed strewn, _r_ swear sworn sworn sweat sweat, _r_ sweat, _r_ sweep swept swept swell swelled swollen, _r_ swim swam swum swing swung swung take took taken teach taught taught tear tore torn tell told told think thought thought throw threw thrown thrust thrust thrust tread trod trod (den) wake woke, _r_ woke, _r_ wear wore worn weave wove woven wed wed, _r_ wed, _r_ weep wept wept wet wet, _r_ wet, _r_ whet whet, _r_ whet, _r_ win won won wind wound wound work wrought, _r_ wrought, _r_ wring wrung wrung write wrote written SPELLING LESSON 6 Every vowel or every vowel combination pronounced as one vowel sound indicates a syllable (excepting final _e_ in such words as _fate_, _late_, _rode_, etc.) Take the word _combination_, for example. In this word we have four syllables, thus: _Com-bi-na-tion_. +A syllable is that part of a word which can be uttered distinctly by a single effort of the voice.+ Remember that each syllable must contain a vowel or a vowel combination like _oi_ or _ou_, which is pronounced as one vowel. Sometimes the vowel alone makes the syllable as in _a-lone_, _e-qual_, etc. The final _e_ in words like _late_, and _fate_ is not sounded. It is silent, we say. All words ending in silent _e_ have the long vowel sound, with a very few exceptions. Words without the final _e_ have the short vowel sound as for example: _fate_, _fat_; _mate_, _mat_; _hide_, _hid_; _rode_, _rod_. In dividing words into syllables the consonant is written with the preceding vowel when that vowel is short. If the vowel is long the consonant is written with the next syllable, as for example, de-fine and def-i-ni-tion. In de-fine the _e_ is long therefore _f_, the consonant following, is written with the next syllable, _fine_. In def-i-ni-tion the _e_ has the short sound, therefore the _f_ is written with the _e_ in the syllable, _def_. When there are two consonants following the vowel, divide between the consonants, as for example, _in-ven-tion_, _foun-da-tion_, etc. Never divide a digraph, that is, two consonants which are sounded together as one sound, as for example, _moth-er_, _catch-er_, _te-leg-ra-pher_, etc. In writing words containing double consonants like _dd_, _ll_, _ss_, divide the word into syllables between the double consonants, as for example, _per-mit-ted_, _ad-mis-sion_, _sad-dest_, etc. +Monday+ Important Accommodate Person Correspond Action +Tuesday+ Difference Notice Indicate Remember Irregular +Wednesday+ Mistake Conversation Correctly President Ordinary +Thursday+ Participle Passive Various Phrase Quotation +Friday+ Imagine Confidence Humanity Faith Future +Saturday+ Whisper Thought Ability Knowledge Genius PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 7 Dear Comrade: I wonder if you have ever thought as to how our language grew. We get the words in our language from many sources. The English language today is a development of the early Anglo-Saxon. England was called originally Angle-land which was gradually shortened into England. So we have in our language what are called pure English or Anglo-Saxon words. These words form the bulk of our every day vocabulary, being simple, strong, forceful words. Then we have in our English many foreign words which we have adopted from other languages. There are many Latin and Greek words; these we use in our more elegant speech or writing. There is an interesting bit written by Sir Walter Scott in his novel of early England, "Ivanhoe," which illustrates the manner in which words have come into our language and also the difference in speech which marks the working class and the exploiting class. As those who do the work of the world rid themselves of the parasites who have appropriated the produce of their labor, through the ages, they will demand that which belongs to them--the best--the best in language as in everything else. "'... I advise thee to call off Fangs and leave the herd to their destiny, which, whether they meet with bands of traveling soldiers, or of outlaws, or of wandering pilgrims, can be little else than to be converted into Normans before morning, to thy no small ease and comfort.' "'The swine turned into Normans to my comfort!' quoth Gurth. 'Expound that to me, Wamba, for my brain is too dull and my mind too vexed to read riddles.' "'Why, how call you these grunting brutes running about on their four legs?' demanded Wamba. "'Swine, fool, swine,' said the herd; 'every fool knows that.' "'And swine is good Saxon,' said the jester; 'but how call you the sow when she is flayed, and drawn, and quartered, and hung by the heels like a traitor?' "'Pork,' answered the swineherd. "'I am glad every fool knows that too,' said Wamba; 'and pork, I think, is good Norman-French, and so when the brute lives and is in charge of a Saxon slave, she goes by her Saxon name; but becomes a Norman and is called pork when she is carried to the castle-hall to feast among the nobles. What dost thou think of that, friend Gurth, ha?' ..." So you see even in words the distinction is made between those who produce and those who possess. But the day is at hand when those who work shall also enjoy. We have fought for religious and political freedom. Today we are waging the battle for industrial freedom. It is _your_ struggle. Study--prepare yourself to do battle for your rights. Yours for Freedom, THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. FUTURE TIME +118.+ We have learned how to express present time and past time, by changes in the form of the verb. But we very often desire to make a statement in which we do not express either present or past time, thus we may say: We shall enjoy our rights some day. He will join us in the struggle. We do not mean to say that we do enjoy our rights now, in the present, or that we did in the past, but that we _shall_ enjoy our rights some time in the future. In the second sentence, _will join_ expresses the same idea of future time. To indicate future time, we do not make a change in the verb form, but we use _shall_ and _will_ with the simple form of the verb. +119.+ +We denote future time by use of a verb phrase made by placing _shall_ or _will_ before the simple form of the verb.+ +120.+ The rule of some grammarians is to use _shall_ always in the first person, the person speaking, to denote future time, and _will_ with the second person, the person spoken to, and with the third person, the person spoken of, to denote future time. But common usage does not always follow the rules of the grammarians, and, in the course of time, affects and changes these rules. So our common usage of today uses _will_ in the first person to express future time, as well as _shall_. This rule of grammarians marks a nicety of speech and conveys a distinction of meaning which it really seems worth while to retain. The idea of the grammarians is that when we use _will_ with the first person and _shall_ with the second or third person, we express a _promise_ or _determination_. Thus if I say, _I shall go_, I simply mean that my going will be in the future. But if I say, _I will go_, I either mean that I am promising to go or that I am expressing my determination to go. So also if we use _shall_ in the second and third persons. If we say, _You will go_ or _He will go_, we are simply stating that the going will be in the future, but if we say, _You shall go_, or _He shall go_, we mean that we promise or are determined that you or he shall go. To be technically correct this distinction should be observed. _Shall_ in the first person, and _will_ in the second and third express simple futurity. _Will_ in the first person and _shall_ in the second and third express promise or determination. But in every day conversation this distinction is not observed, and many of our best writers do not follow this rule. Exercise 1 Mark the future time forms in the following sentences: 1. I shall speak of liberty. 2. I will never give up. 3. I shall write to him. 4. He shall not starve. 5. We shall expect you. 6. They shall suffer for this. 7. I shall go to New York. 8. He will call for me. 9. The hungry shall be fed. 10. You will soon see the reason. 11. You shall never want for a friend. 12. They shall some day see the truth. 13. We will not fight against our class. 14. We will stand together. PERFECT TIME +121.+ Past, present and future, being the three divisions of time, one would naturally expect that when we had found how to express these three forms, we would be through, but if you stop to think, you will find that there are other verb phrases of which we have need. When we wish to speak of action as completed at the present time, we do not say: I study my lessons every day, _but_, I have studied my lessons every day. _Not_, You work for him every day, _but_, You have worked for him every day. _Not_, He sees her frequently, _but_, He has seen her frequently. Can you not readily see the difference in the meaning expressed in _I work every day_, and _I have worked every day_? In the first sentence you express a general truth, _I work every day_, a truth which has been true in the past, is true in the present, and the implication is that it will continue to be true in the future. But when you say, _I have worked every day_, you are saying nothing as to the future, but you are describing an action which is completed at the present time. This is called the _present complete_ or _present perfect_ time. +122.+ Perfect means complete, and present perfect describes an action perfected or completed at the present time. So it is possible for us to express a necessary shade of meaning by the present perfect time form. +123.+ +The present perfect time form describes an action completed at the present time, and is formed by using the present time form of _have_ and the _past_ participle of the verb.+ +Present Perfect Time+ _Singular_ _Plural_ 1st. I have seen. We have seen. 2d. You have seen. You have seen. 3d. He has seen. They have seen. +124.+ Review in the last lesson how to form the past participle. Remember that it is one of the principal parts of the verb. In regular verbs the past participle is the same form as the past time form. In irregular verbs the past participle is quite often different from the past time form, as for example: _go_, _went_, _gone_; _do_, _did_, _done_, etc. Watch closely your irregular verbs and see that you always use the past _participle_ with _have_ or _had_; never use the past _time_ form with _have_ or _had_. PAST PERFECT +125.+ When you desire to express an action complete at some definite past time, you do not say: We finished when they came, _but_, We had finished when they came. _Not_, They went when we arrived, _but_, They had gone when we arrived. _Not_, I worked six months when he began, _but_, I had worked six months when he began. Can you see a difference in the meaning expressed in these sentences: _I worked six months when he began_; and _I had worked six months when he began_? This last sentence describes an action completed or perfected before some definite past time. +126.+ +Past perfect time denotes an action perfected or completed at some definite past time. It is formed by using _had_ and the past participle of the verb.+ Remember always, with irregular verbs, to use the _past participle_. Never use the _past time form_ with _had_. +Past Perfect Time+ _Singular_ _Plural_ 1st. I had seen. We had seen. 2d. You had seen. You had seen. 3d. He had seen. They had seen. Exercise 2 Correct the following sentences in which the past time form is used instead of the past participle. Look up the word in the list of irregular verbs and use the past participle instead of the past time form. 1. I have saw it often. 2. He had shook his fist. 3. She has sang for us. 4. The boat has sank here. 5. He has spoke the truth. 6. They had stole the books. 7. He has swore to the truth. 8. He had took the wrong road. 9. She has tore her dress. 10. He had threw the ball away. 11. The girl had wore the dress. 12. He had wrote the letters. 13. He had drank too much. 14. He had rode the horse. 15. The sun has rose. 16. He has bore his part. 17. They have began already. 18. The wind has blew all night. 19. It had broke when it fell. 20. He has chose the right. 21. You have did your duty. 22. He has ate his breakfast. 23. A heavy rain has fell. 24. They had gave it to me. 25. He has became rich. 26. It has grew rapidly. 27. He has knew it always. 28. He has mistook her for another. FUTURE PERFECT TIME +127.+ We find also that we need a verb phrase to express time _before_ some other future time, to describe an action that will be finished, perfected, or completed, before some other future action. Thus, I shall have gone before you arrive. You will have earned your money before you get it. I shall have worked thirty days when pay-day comes. Can you not see a difference in saying, _I shall work thirty days when pay-day comes_, and _I shall have worked thirty days when pay-day comes_? The first sentence expresses simple future time, or what you will do when pay-day comes; the second describes an action which will be completed or perfected _before_ pay-day comes. So there is quite a difference in the meaning of the future and the future perfect time. +128.+ +The future perfect time form expresses or describes an action that will be perfected or completed before some other future time. It is formed by using _shall have_ or _will have_ with the past participle.+ Be careful to use the past participle. Never use the past time form with _shall have_ or _will have_. +Future Perfect Time+ _Singular_ _Plural_ 1st. I shall have seen. We shall have seen. 2d. You will have seen. You will have seen. 3d. He will have seen. They will have seen. LET US SUM UP +129.+ We have three time forms, _present_, _past_, _future_. +Present+ +Past+ +Future+ I see I saw I shall see. Each of these three time forms has a _perfect_ form; that is, a time form which expresses an action as completed or perfected at the present time, or before some definite past or future time. +Present+ +Past+ +Future+ +Perfect Time+ +Perfect Time+ +Perfect Time+ I have seen I had seen I shall have seen +130.+ It is wonderful how a knowledge of words and their uses enables us to express so many shades of meaning. It is like our development in observing colors. You know the savage always admires vivid reds and greens and blues. He does not yet see the beautiful shades and gradations of color. We enjoy the delicate pinks and blues and all the varying shades between the primal seven colors of the spectrum. And as we develop our artistic ability we see and enjoy all the beauties of color. In music too, we observe the same development. The barbarian enjoys loud, crashing, discordant sounds which he calls music, but which to the educated ear are only harsh noises. The trained musician catches the delicate overtones and undertones and finds deepest ecstasy in sounds which the uneducated ear does not even catch. So as we study words and their uses, we find ourselves able to express shades of meaning, to paint our word pictures, not in gaudy, glaring chromo-tints, but in the wondrous blending of color that reveals the true artist. Now get these modes of expressing time firmly fixed in your mind. +131.+ +Let us get all we have learned about verbs into a summary and have it clearly in mind.+ VERBS--SUMMARY +Two Classes+ _Complete_--Taking _no_ complement. _Incomplete_--{ Verbs of action requiring object. { Copulative verbs requiring complement. +Inflection--Changes of Form+ _Simple Form_ _S-Form_ _Past Time_ _Present Part._ _Past Part._ see sees saw seeing seen TIME FORMS Present _Singular_ _Plural_ 1. I see. We see. 2. You see. You see. 3. He sees. They see. Past _Singular_ _Plural_ 1. I saw. We saw. 2. You saw. You saw. 3. He saw. They saw. Future _Singular_ _Plural_ 1. I shall see. We shall see. 2. You will see. You will see. 3. He will see. They will see. Present Perfect _Singular_ _Plural_ 1. I have seen. We have seen. 2. You have seen. You have seen. 3. He has seen. They have seen. Past Perfect _Singular_ _Plural_ 1. I had seen. We had seen. 2. You had seen. You had seen. 3. He had seen. They had seen. Future Perfect _Singular_ _Plural_ 1. I shall have seen. We shall have seen. 2. You will have seen. You will have seen. 3. He will have seen. They will have seen. Exercise 3 Read carefully the following quotation. All of the verbs and verb phrases are written in _italics_. Study these carefully and decide whether they indicate present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect or future perfect time. The verb phrases--_is seizing_, _is put_, _is praised_, _is defended_, _can see_, _must have_, _are owned_, and _are conducted_, do not belong to any of these six forms. They are verb phrases used in ways which we shall study later. All of the other verbs or verb phrases belong to one of the six time forms which we have studied. Classify them. The Working Class Must Strike the Blow You _remember_ Victor Hugo's story of the devil-fish; how the monster _put_ forth one tentacle after another and _coiled_ it around his victim; how the hero _recalled_ that there _was_ but one vulnerable spot in his brute enemy; how at the strategic moment he _struck_ a blow at that spot, and the terrible demon of the deep _shuddered_, _released_ his grasp and _fell_ dead. Capitalism _is_ a monster which _is seizing_ the body politic. One tentacle _is put_ forth to grasp the major part of the earnings of the working class; another _has seized_ the working-woman; another _reaches_ forth to the child; another _has fastened_ upon government and _has made_ that the instrument of the powerful classes; still another _has turned_ the pen of the journalist into a weapon by which the injustice of Capitalism _is praised_ and _is defended_; and still another _has seized_ the pulpit, _has silenced_ those who _profess_ to speak for God and man, or _has turned_ their phrases into open apology and defense for the crimes of Capitalism! But there _is_ one vulnerable spot in Capitalism. If the working class of the world _can see_ that spot and _will strike_, they _shall be_ free. The fundamental wrong, the basic injustice of the Capitalist System, _is_ that the resources of land and machinery, to which all the people _must have_ access, in order to live and labor, _are owned_ by the few and _are conducted_ by the few for their private profit. This _is_ the social tragedy, the monstrous wrong of our time.--_J. Stitt Wilson_. Exercise 4 Select two verbs out of the following poem and write their six time forms, in the same manner as the time forms of the verb _see_ are given in section 131. A MAGIC WORD There's a little word below, with letters three, Which, if you only grasp its potency, Will send you higher Toward the goal where you aspire, Which, without its precious aid, you'll never see-- _NOW!_ Success attends the man who views it right. Its back and forward meanings differ quite; For this is how it reads To the man of ready deeds, Who spells it backwards from achievement's height-- _WON!_ TENSE The grammatical term for the time form of the verb is _TENSE_, which is derived from a Latin word meaning _time_. The present time-form of the verb is called the _present tense_; the past time-form, the _past tense_; the future time-form, the _future tense_; the present perfect time-form, the _present perfect tense_, etc. Exercise 5 Write each of the following four sentences in the six time-forms, or tenses,--present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect and future perfect, as follows: _Present_--Labor _creates_ all wealth. _Past_--Labor _created_ all wealth. _Future_--Labor _will create_ all wealth. _Present Perfect_--Labor _has created_ all wealth. _Past Perfect_--Labor _had created_ all wealth. _Future Perfect_--Labor _will have created_ all wealth. 1. Hope stirs us to action. 2. Human progress is our business. 3. The majority demand justice. 4. The workers fight all the battles. SPELLING LESSON 7 The division of words into syllables is quite important as an aid to pronunciation. It is also a very important matter to understand in our written speech for it is often necessary to divide a word at the end of a line. If the word is not properly divided, it is much more difficult to read and understand. The hyphen is used to divide words into syllables when carrying a portion to the next line. When you must divide a word at the end of a line divide it only between syllables. Never divide a word of one syllable, no matter how long it may be. If you cannot get all of it on the line, write it all on the next line. Do not divide a short word of two syllables if you can avoid it and never divide such a word when it leaves only one letter on the line or only one letter to be carried over to the next line, as for example: _luck-y_, _a-loud_, etc. When two or more vowels are used together to make one sound they should never be separated by the hyphen, as for example, joy-ous, anx-ious, trail, dis-course, de-feat, boor-ish. When two or more vowels placed together are not used to form one sound then these vowels may be divided, as for example, _tri-al_, _co-or-di-nate_, _he-ro-ic_. Look up the words in this week's lesson in the dictionary carefully and divide into syllables. Notice specially the division of words into syllables where the word contains a diphthong and where it contains two vowels written together which are not diphthongs. Notice also the words which have a single vowel as the first or last syllable. +Monday+ Museum Creatures Peaceable Accruing Already +Tuesday+ Persuade Trivial Plague Alert Inquiry +Wednesday+ Piteous Patriot Poetry Evil Business +Thursday+ Obey Breathe Society Ether Sociable +Friday+ Idealism Pledge Ache Acre Pronunciation +Saturday+ Idle Idol Mutual Wealthy Neighbors PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 8 Dear Comrade: You have often read the words _organic_ and _inorganic_ but did you ever stop to think of the meaning of these words? We say a body is organic--a rock is inorganic; one grows from within, the other is built from without. A tree is organic; it grows. A house is inorganic; it is built. The house was never a baby house, growing from a tiny house to a large one. But the tree was once a baby tree, a sapling, and grew branch by branch to its present height. So we have two classes of things--those which grow and those which are made. Language belongs to the class of things which grows. It is organic. We have even used the same terms in speaking about language that we use in talking of a tree. We use the words ROOT, STEM and BRANCH to describe its growth. Language, too, has its different terms of life like a tree, its youth, its maturity, its old age, its death. So we have dead languages like Latin and Greek--languages which are no longer living,--no longer serving mankind. But these dead languages have left living children, languages that have descended from them. The Italian language for example is the child, the descendant of the classical Latin. We have many words in our English language from these dead languages. About five-sevenths of the words in our English are from these classical languages. The remaining two-sevenths are from the Anglo-Saxon. We use the Anglo-Saxon words more frequently, however, in our every day speech. And it is interesting to note that our best poetry--that which stirs our blood and touches our hearts--is written in the strong forceful Anglo-Saxon words. These words we are studying have been through some interesting experiences as they have passed from race to race down to us and the history of life is mirrored in their changes. How much more interesting they seem when we know something of their sources, just as we are more interested in a man when we know something of his boyhood and youth and the experiences through which he has passed. You may think that the study of verbs is rather difficult and involved, but it is more simple in English than in any other language. There are fewer changes in the verb form in order to express time and person. Do not rely on the memorizing of the rules. Rules never made one a fluent speaker. Write sentences in which the correct form is used. Read aloud from the best authors until the sound of the words is familiar and they come readily to the tongue. We have used for the exercises in these lessons excerpts from the best authors. Study these exercises carefully and note the use of the different verbs especially, this week. Verbs, like all else, are yours to command. Command them. Yours for Education, THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. PROGRESSIVE VERB PHRASES +132.+ We have learned how to form the three principal time forms, _present_, _past_ and _future_ and the perfect or completed form of each of the three, _present perfect_, _past perfect_ and _future perfect_. And still we have such a wonderful language that we can express other shades of meaning in _time_. +133.+ There is still another phase of action which we must have a verb phrase to express. Suppose you want to describe something you are now doing and are continuing to do, something not yet completed. To say, _I do it now_, is not satisfactory. Instead we say, _I am doing it now_. You have by the verb phrase, _am doing_, described a progressive action, an action _going on_ in the present. You may also want to describe what you were doing yesterday, an action that continued or _progressed_ in the past. You would not say, _I built the house yesterday_ but, _I was building the house yesterday_. Again you may want to describe an action which will be _progressing_ or going on in the future. You do not say, _I shall build the house next week_ but, _I shall be building the house next week_. So we have progressive verb phrases. +134.+ +The present progressive describes an action as continuing or progressing in the present.+ +It is formed by using the present time form of the verb _be_ and the present participle.+ You remember that the present participle is formed by adding _ing_ to the simple form of the verb. Present Progressive _Singular_ _Plural_ 1st. I am seeing. We are seeing. 2d. You are seeing. You are seeing. 3d. He is seeing. They are seeing. +135.+ +The past progressive time form describes an action which was continuing or progressing in the past. It is formed by using the past time form of the verb _be_ and the present participle.+ Past Progressive _Singular_ _Plural_ 1st. I was seeing. We were seeing. 2d. You were seeing. You were seeing. 3d. He was seeing. They were seeing. +136.+ +The future progressive describes an action which will be progressing or going on in the future. It is formed by using the future time form of the verb _be_ and the present participle.+ Future Progressive _Singular_ _Plural_ 1st. I shall be seeing. We shall be seeing. 2d. You will be seeing. You will be seeing. 3d. He will be seeing. They will be seeing. +137.+ The perfect time forms also have a progressive form. There is a difference of meaning in the _present perfect_ and its progressive form. You say for instance, _I have tried all my life to be free_. You mean you have tried until the present time and the inference is that now you have ceased to try. But, if you say, _I have been trying all my life to be free_, we understand that you have tried and are _still_ trying. +138.+ +So we have the present perfect progressive which describes an action which progressed in the past and continued up to the present time. It is formed by using the present perfect form of the verb _be_ and the present participle.+ Present Perfect Progressive _Singular_ _Plural_ 1st. I have been seeing. We have been seeing. 2d. You have been seeing. You have been seeing. 3d. He has been seeing. They have been seeing. +139.+ +The past perfect progressive describes an action which was continuing or progressing at some past time. It is formed by using the past perfect time form of the verb _be_ and the present participle.+ Past Perfect Progressive _Singular_ _Plural_ 1st. I had been seeing. We had been seeing. 2d. You had been seeing. You had been seeing. 3d. He had been seeing. They had been seeing. +140.+ +The future perfect progressive describes an action which will be progressing at some future time. It is formed by using the future perfect time form of the verb _be_ and the present participle.+ Future Perfect Progressive _Singular_ _Plural_ 1st. I shall have been seeing. We shall have been seeing. 2d. You will have been seeing. You will have been seeing. 3d. He will have been seeing. They will have been seeing. Exercise 1 In the following sentences mark all the progressive forms, and note whether they are present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect or future perfect. 1. The old order is passing. 2. Men will be struggling for freedom so long as slavery exists. 3. The class struggle has been growing more intense as wealth has accumulated. 4. The workers are realizing their power. 5. He had been talking for an hour when we arrived. 6. Next Monday I shall have been working for one year. 7. The workers will be paying interest on war debts for generations to come unless they repudiate. 8. While Marx was writing his books, he lived in abject poverty. 9. The Industrial Relations Commission has been investigating industrial conditions. 10. Ferrer was martyred because the Modern Schools were educating the people. 11. The nations of Europe had been preparing for war for many years. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE +141.+ Notice carefully the following sentences; select the subjects in these sentences which show _who_ or _what_ performed the action; select the subjects that show _who_ or _what_ receives the action. Do you notice any difference in the meaning of these sentences? Do you notice any difference in their form? The engine struck the man. The man was struck by the engine. The system enslaves men. Men are enslaved by the system. Leaders often betray the people. The people are often betrayed by leaders. Let us look carefully at the first two sentences. You remember when we studied transitive verbs we found that every transitive verb had an _object_ which was the receiver of the action expressed in the verb. Now you notice in this first sentence, _The engine struck the man_, we have the transitive verb _struck_. _Engine_ is the subject of the verb and _man_ is the object of the verb, the receiver of the action expressed by the verb _struck_. Now in the sentence, _The man was struck by the engine_, we have the same thought expressed but in a different manner. The word _man_, which was the object of the verb _struck_ in the first sentence, has now become the subject of the sentence, and we have changed our verb form from _struck_ to _was struck_. In the first sentence of the subject, _engine_ was the _actor_. In the second sentence, _The man was struck by the engine_, the subject of the sentence, _man_, is the _receiver_ of the action expressed in the verb. +142.+ So we have thus changed the verb form from _struck_ to _was struck_ to indicate that the subject of the verb is the receiver of the action. _Struck_ is called the active form of the verb because the subject of the verb is the actor. _Was struck_ is called the passive form of the verb because the subject receives the action. Passive means _receiving_. In the passive form the subject is the receiver of the action expressed in the verb. +143.+ You remember that complete verbs have no object or complement, therefore it would follow that they cannot be put in the passive form for there is no object to become the receiver of the action. Take the complete verb, _sleep_, for example. We do not _sleep_ anything, hence _sleep_ has no passive form for there is no object which can be used as the subject, the receiver of the action. +Only transitive verbs can be put into the passive form.+ Remember that a transitive verb in the passive form is one that represents its subject as receiving the action. The present, past, future and all the perfect time forms of transitive verbs can be changed from active to passive. The progressive time forms can be changed into the passive, but it makes an awkward construction and should be avoided as much as possible. Occasionally, however, we find it worth our while to use these forms, as for example: The book is being written by the man. This is the passive form of the present progressive, _The man is writing a book_. The book was being written by the man. This is the passive form of the past progressive, _The man was writing the book_. +144.+ The future progressive passive is awkward, and the present and past progressive forms are the only forms we find used in the passive. The best writers use them sparingly for we can usually say the same thing by using the active form of the verb and have a sentence which sounds much better. Exercise 2 All the verbs in the following sentences are _transitive_ verbs in the _active_ form. Rewrite each sentence, putting the verb into the _passive_ form and making the _object_ of the _active_ verb the _subject_ of the _passive_ verb; as, for example, the first sentence should be rewritten as follows: _War on Russia was declared by Germany on August 1, 1914._ 1. Germany declared war on Russia, August 1, 1914. 2. Who will sign the Emancipation Proclamation of the Proletariat? 3. Marx and Engels wrote the Communist Manifesto. 4. Spain murdered Francisco Ferrer, October 13, 1909. 5. We celebrate the first of May as International Labor Day. 6. The people of Paris stormed the Bastille, July 14, 1789. 7. Wat Tyler was leading the English workers in rebellion against the King when the Mayor of London stabbed him in 1381. 8. The Inquisition burned Bruno at the stake for heresy in 1600. 9. The Paris Commune followed the German siege of Paris in 1871. SUMMARY +145.+ Now let us take the verb _see_ and name all the time forms which we can describe with the changes in the verb forms which we have learned to make and also with the verb phrases which we can construct with the help of the verbs, _be_, _have_, _shall_ and _will_. First, we want to express the present, what is happening now, and we want to put it in both the active and passive forms, so we say: +PRESENT TIME+ +Active+ +Passive+ _Singular_ _Singular_ I see. I am seen. You see. You are seen. He sees. He is seen. _Plural_ _Plural_ We see. We are seen. You see. You are seen. They see. They are seen. Note that the only change in the verb form in the present ACTIVE is the _s-form_ for the third person singular. In the present passive the only change is the special form of the verb _be_ for the first and third persons, singular. When we want to tell what occurred yesterday or some time in the past, stated in the active and passive form, we say: +PAST TIME+ +Active+ +Passive+ _Singular_ _Singular_ I saw. I was seen. You saw. You were seen. He saw. He was seen. _Plural_ _Plural_ We saw. We were seen. You saw. You were seen. They saw. They were seen. We have one other division of time which we must express--the future. Primitive man doubtless lived principally in the present, but with the development of memory and the means of recording events by a written language, he was able to make the deeds and achievements of the past a vital part of his life. But not until the faculty of thinking developed was the mind able to project itself into the future and make tomorrow the hope of today. Future time expresses hope, desire, growth. +FUTURE TIME+ +Active+ +Passive+ _Singular_ _Singular_ I shall see. I shall be seen. You will see. You will be seen. He will see. He will be seen. _Plural_ _Plural_ We shall see. We shall be seen. You will see. You will be seen. They will see. They will be seen. Then you remember we had to devise a way of describing an action perfected or completed at the present or at some time in the past or at some time in the future--so we have present perfect, past perfect and future perfect. +PRESENT PERFECT+ +Active+ +Passive+ _Singular_ _Singular_ I have seen. I have been seen. You have seen. You have been seen. He has seen. He has been seen. _Plural_ _Plural_ We have seen. We have been seen. You have seen. You have been seen. They have seen. They have been seen. +PAST PERFECT+ +Active+ +Passive+ _Singular_ _Singular_ I had seen. I had been seen. You had seen. You had been seen. He had seen. He had been seen. _Plural_ _Plural_ We had seen. We had been seen. You had seen. You had been seen. They had seen. They had been seen. +FUTURE PERFECT+ +Active+ +Passive+ _Singular_ _Singular_ I shall have seen. I shall have been seen. You will have seen. You will have been seen. He will have seen. He will have been seen. _Plural_ _Plural_ We shall have seen. We shall have been seen. You will have seen. You will have been seen. They will have seen. They will have been seen. +146.+ But these are not all the phases of time which we can express. We have progressive, continuous action. So each of these six time forms has a progressive form. +PRESENT PROGRESSIVE+ +Active+ +Passive+ _Singular_ _Singular_ I am seeing. I am being seen. You are seeing. You are being seen. He is seeing. He is being seen. _Plural_ _Plural_ We are seeing. We are being seen. You are seeing. You are being seen. They are seeing. They are being seen. +PAST PROGRESSIVE+ +Active+ +Passive+ _Singular_ _Singular_ I was seeing. I was being seen. You were seeing. You were being seen. He was seeing. He was being seen. _Plural_ _Plural_ We were seeing. We were being seen. You were seeing. You were being seen. They were seeing. They were being seen. Only the Present and Past Progressive forms have a passive form. The rest of the Progressive forms are expressed in the active forms only. +FUTURE PROGRESSIVE+ _Singular_ _Plural_ I shall be seeing. We shall be seeing. You will be seeing. You will be seeing. He will be seeing. They will be seeing. +PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE+ _Singular_ _Plural_ I have been seeing. We have been seeing. You have been seeing. You have been seeing. He has been seeing. They have been seeing. +PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE+ _Singular_ _Plural_ I had been seeing. We had been seeing. You had been seeing. You had been seeing. He had been seeing. They had been seeing. +FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE+ _Singular_ _Plural_ I shall have been seeing. We shall have been seeing. You will have been seeing. You will have been seeing. He will have been seeing. They will have been seeing. Exercise 3 Write the four following sentences in their active and passive forms, as the sentence, _War sweeps the earth_, is written. 1. Education gives power. 2. Knowledge frees men. 3. Labor unions help the workers. 4. The people seek justice. +Present+ _Active_ War sweeps the earth. _Passive_ The earth is swept by war. +Past+ _Active_ War swept the earth. _Passive_ The earth was swept by war. +Future+ _Active_ War shall sweep the earth. _Passive_ The earth shall be swept by war. +Pres. Per.+ _Active_ War has swept the earth. _Passive_ The earth has been swept by war. +Past Per.+ _Active_ War had swept the earth. _Passive_ The earth had been swept by war. +Fut. Per.+ _Active_ War shall have swept the earth. _Passive_ The earth shall have been swept by war. Exercise 4 Underscore all the verbs and verb phrases in the following quotation. Write all the time forms of the transitive verb, _lose_, as the time forms of the verb _see_ are written in the foregoing table. When we study the animal world and try to explain to ourselves that struggle for existence which is maintained by each living being against adverse circumstances and against its enemies, we realize that the more the principles of solidarity and equality are developed in an animal society, and have become habitual to it, the more chance it has of surviving and coming triumphantly out of the struggle against hardships and foes. The more thoroughly each member of the society feels his solidarity with each other member of the society, the more completely are developed in all of them those two qualities which are the main factors of all progress; courage, on the one hand, and, on the other, free individual initiative. And, on the contrary, the more any animal society, or little group of animals, loses this feeling of solidarity--which may chance as the result of exceptional scarcity or else of exceptional plenty--the more the two other factors of progress, courage and individual initiative, diminish; in the end they disappear, and the society falls into decay and sinks before its foes. Without mutual confidence no struggle is possible; there is no courage, no initiative, no solidarity--and no victory!--_Kropotkin_. SPELLING LESSON 8 In pronouncing words of more than one syllable we always lay a little greater stress upon one syllable of the word; that is, that syllable receives the emphasis of the voice so as to make it more prominent than the other syllables. This is called accent, and the syllable which receives the special stress is called the accented syllable. +Accent is the stress of the voice upon one syllable of the word.+ You will notice when you look up the pronunciation of words in your dictionary that a little mark called the accent mark is placed after the accented syllable, as for example: di-vide'. Many words differ in meaning according to which syllable receives the accent. Our spelling lesson for this week contains a number of these words. These words, when accented on the first syllable, are nouns; when accented on the second syllable, they are verbs. +Monday+ Con' tract Con tract' Pro' test Pro test' Rec' ord Re cord' Im' port Im port' De' tail De tail' +Tuesday+ Con' vert Con vert' Con' flict Con flict' Prog' ress Pro gress' Im' press Im press' Ref' use Re fuse' +Wednesday+ Con' test Con test' Con' duct Con duct' Proj' ect Pro ject' Des' ert De sert' Ex' tract Ex tract' +Thursday+ Con' trast Con trast' Con' sort Con sort' Reb' el Re bel' Con' script Con script' Pres' ent Pre sent' +Friday+ Com' pound Com pound' Re' tail Re tail' Com' press Com press' Im' print Im print' Com' bine Com bine' +Saturday+ Con' fine Con fine' Sus' pect Sus pect' Com' mune Com mune' Ex' port Ex port' In' crease In crease' PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 9 Dear Comrade: You have been studying several weeks now in this Plain English Course and we trust you are enjoying the unfolding of the powers of expression. We have been necessarily studying rules to some extent but you have seen how these grew out of the need for expression. We have been breaking the sentence up into its different parts. First we had the names of things and now we are studying the words used to tell what these things _do_ and _are_--namely verbs. And as our life has grown complex and our powers of thinking diversified covering the whole range of time, past, present and future, we have had to invent many forms of the verb to express it all. Now do not try to commit these facts concerning the verb to memory. You are not studying English in order to know rules. You are studying English that you may be able to say and write the things you _think_. So first of all, _think_, _think_! That is your inalienable right! Do not accept anything just by blind belief. Think it out for yourself. Study until you see the '_why_' of it all. "Independent thinking has given us the present, and we will forever continue to make tomorrow better than today. The right to think is inalienable, or a man is a machine. Thought is life or a human soul is a thing." And do not lack the courage of your own thoughts. _You_ do not need to cringe or apologize to any man. "Our life is not an apology but a life." Dare to think and dare to express and live your thought. Did you ever read Emerson's definition of genius? "To believe your own thought, to believe that what is true for you in your private heart is true for all men,--that is genius." Then he says, "We dismiss without notice our own thoughts, because they are ours. Tomorrow a stranger will say with masterly good sense, precisely what we have thought and felt all along and we shall be forced to take with shame our own opinion from another." Have you not experienced this? How often we hear some one express a truth and we say to ourselves, "That is just what I have long believed but I have never dared say so." We have been so taught all our lives to depend on some outside power and discredit the power within ourselves, that we pay no attention to the thoughts that are ours for who are we that we should dare to think and perchance disagree with those who have assumed authority over us! But that is precisely what we should dare to do--to think and to do our own thinking always. Who dares place anything before a man! So _think_ as you study these lessons and use these rules and formulas simply as means to an end, as tools to aid you in expressing these thoughts. Yours for Education, THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. PARTICIPLES +147.+ We have found that the verb has five forms, made by internal changes in the verb itself,--the present time form, the s-form, the past time form, the present participle and the past participle. We have also found that we can express various time forms by verb phrases formed by using the helping verbs, _shall_, _will_, _have_ and _be_ with one of the verb forms. All of these forms are used as the asserting word in the sentence. So long as the verb or verb phrase forms the predicate--the word or words that assert something of the subject--it still remains a verb. But we have found that the participle forms of the verb may be used as other parts of speech while still retaining some of the qualities of the verb. +148.+ You remember a sentence which we used when we studied participles, _Making shoes is his work_. Here we have the present participle _making_, with its object _shoes_, used as the subject of the verb _is_. Now a noun never takes an object, so _making_ in this sentence is partly a verb, partly a noun, and is called a participle, which means _partaker_. We have studied and used two forms of participles, the present and the past participle. The present participle always ends in _ing_ and expresses action or existence in the present, or at the time mentioned in the sentence. For example, _being_, _bringing_, _working_, _seeing_, _loving_, _hating_, etc. The past participle we found to be one of the principal parts of the verb. It expresses action or existence which is past or completed, at the time mentioned in the sentence. It is formed by adding _d_ or _ed_ to the regular verbs and by a change in the form in irregular verbs. For example, regular verbs: _learned_ from _learn_, _defeated_ from _defeat_, _watched_ from _watch_. Irregular verbs: _taught_ from _teach_, _seen_ from _see_, _won_ from _win_. +We have found that these participles may be used either as nouns or as adjectives.+ As for example: The _crying_ of the child annoyed the people. The _crying_ child ran to its mother. The _coming_ of the new day will bring peace. We await the _coming_ day of peace. PARTICIPLE PHRASES +149.+ The present and the past participles are each single words; but we may also have participle phrases; that is, two or more words used as a participle, as for example: His _having joined_ the strikers caused him to lose his job. The man, _having been discharged_, left the mill. In these sentences we have the participle phrases, _having joined_ and _having been discharged_. _Having joined_ is a participle phrase used as a noun, the subject of the verb _caused_. _Having been discharged_ is a participle phrase used as an adjective to modify the noun _man_. Notice that _having joined_ is an active participle describing the action performed by the man who is referred to by the pronoun _his_. _Having been discharged_ is a passive participle expressing an action of which the subject of the sentence, _man_, is the receiver. These are both perfect participles, expressing actions which are complete at the present time. +150.+ We have also progressive participles expressing action which is continuing or progressing. These progressive participles are also used in both the active and the passive forms. The progressive active participle is formed by using _having been_ with the present participle, as _having been working_. The progressive passive participle is formed by using _being_ with the past participle, as for example, _being watched_, _being driven_, _being gone_, etc. So we have six participles, three active and three passive. Note the following table: +Active+ _Present._ Sending. _Perfect._ Having sent. _Progressive._ Having been sending. +Passive+ _Past._ Sent. _Perfect._ Having been sent. _Progressive._ Being sent. +These participle phrases may be used either as nouns or as adjectives.+ Exercise 1 In the following sentences mark the participles and the participle phrases. Underscore those used as _nouns_ with a single line; those used as _adjectives_ with two lines. 1. He denies having been hired by the employer. 2. Our friends, having arrived, joined us at dinner. 3. The rain, falling incessantly, kept us from going. 4. Having often seen him passing, I judged he lived near. 5. The man, being discouraged and ill, was unable to do his work well. 6. Happiness shared is happiness doubled. 7. Having finished his work, he rests at last. 8. The army, beaten but not vanquished, waited for the morrow. 9. The men, having been unemployed for months, were desperate. 10. Being prepared will not save us from war. 11. "Rest is not quitting this busy career; Rest is the fitting of self to its sphere. It's loving and serving the highest and best; It's onward, not swerving; and that is true rest." Exercise 2 Write the six participle forms of the verbs _see_ and _teach_, and use in sentences of your own construction. INFINITIVES +151.+ We have found that the various forms of the participles may be used as other parts of speech. They partake of the nature of a verb and either of a noun or an adjective. Notice the following sentences: Traveling is pleasant. Eating is necessary. Can you think of any other way in which you could express the same thought? Do you not sometimes say, To travel is pleasant. To eat is necessary. We have expressed practically the same thought in these two sentences, which is expressed in the sentences above, where we used the participle. _To travel_ and _to eat_ are used as nouns, subjects of the verb _is_ just as _traveling_ and _eating_ are used as nouns, the subjects of the verb _is_. Here we have another form of the verb used as a noun. When we use the verb in this way, we are not speaking of the _traveling_ or _eating_ as belonging to or being done by any particular person, nor do we indicate whether one person or more than one is concerned in the action. It might be anyone doing the traveling or eating, and it might be one person or a thousand. We are making a general statement of everybody in the world, so we call this form the _infinitive_. +152.+ Infinite means _unlimited_, without limit as to persons or number. Almost every verb in the language may be used in this way, and since _to_ is generally used before the infinitive, _to_ is often called the sign of the infinitive. For example: _To be_, or not _to be_, that is the question. _To have_ and _to hold_ is the problem. He likes _to travel_. You note in all of these infinitives _to_ is used with the simple form of the verb. +153.+ _To_ is generally omitted after verbs like _help_, _hear_, _bid_, _feel_, _let_, _make_, _see_ and _have_, or words of similar meaning. For example: Help me (to) find it. He bade me (to) stay. Feel it (to) shake. Make him (to) come. Hear me (to) sing. Let us (to) go. See him (to) run. Have him (to) copy this. +154.+ _To_ is also omitted after _need_ and _dare_ when _not_ is used. They need to work. They need not work. They dared to come. They dared not come. +155.+ _To_ is sometimes omitted after prepositions: He will do anything for his class, except (to) fight for it. He would do nothing but (to) go away. +156.+ We have a number of different forms of the infinitive, both active and passive. Note the following table: +Active+ _Present._ To love. _Perfect._ To have loved. _Present Prog._ To be loving. _Perfect Prog._ To have been loving. +Passive+ _Present._ To be loved. _Perfect._ To have been loved. +157.+ Notice that only the _present_ and _perfect_ infinitives have the _passive_ form. The progressive infinitives cannot be used in the passive. Remember also that only _incomplete_ verbs, those which require an object to receive the action, can have a passive form. The verb _loved_, which we have used in the above table, has a passive form because it is an incomplete verb, for there must be that which is the object of our love. +158.+ The complete verbs,--verbs which require no object,--cannot have a passive form for there is no object to become the receiver of the action. Take for example the verb _dwell_. This is a complete verb which can have no passive form. You cannot dwell anything, therefore you cannot say _to be dwelt_ or _to have been dwelt_. +So complete verbs have only the four active forms+, as follows: +Active+ _Present._ To dwell. _Perfect._ To have dwelt. _Present Prog._ To be dwelling. _Perfect Prog._ To have been dwelling. +159.+ Infinitives, like participles, may be used either as nouns or adjectives. When used as nouns, they are used in the various ways in which nouns are used. The infinitive may be the _subject_ of a sentence, thus: _To hesitate_ now will be fatal. _To be defeated_ is no crime. +160.+ The infinitive may be the _object_ or _complement_ of the verb. For example: He wanted _to see_ you. His desire is _to learn_. +161.+ The infinitive may be used as the object of a _preposition_; as, He is about _to go_. They will do anything for the cause except _to live_ for it. +162.+ The infinitive may be used as an adjective to modify a noun. For example: He showed me the way _to go_. We must have food _to eat_ and clothes _to wear_. The question _to be decided_ is before us. Claim your right _to live_. +163.+ The infinitive may also be used as an adverb to modify the meaning of a verb, adjective or adverb, thus: He was forced _to go_. They are slow _to learn_. The fruit was not ripe enough _to eat_. Note that the infinitives in these sentences may all be changed into adverb phrases. As for example in the first sentence, He was forced _to go_, the infinitive _to go_, which modifies the verb _forced_, may be changed to the adverb phrase, _into going_, thus, _He was forced into going_. In the second sentence, _They are slow to learn_, the infinitive _to learn_ may be changed into the adverb phrase _in learning_, thus, _They are slow in learning_. In the last sentence, _The fruit is not ripe enough to eat_, the infinitive _to eat_, which modifies the adverb _enough_, may be changed into the adverb phrase, _for eating_, as for example, _The fruit was not ripe enough for eating_. +164.+ The infinitive is quite a useful form of the verb, and we will find that we use it very frequently in expressing our ideas. While it is not the asserting word in the sentence, it retains the nature of a verb and may have both an object and an adverb modifier. As for example, in the sentence: I wish _to learn_ my lesson quickly. _To learn_ is the infinitive, used as a noun, the object of the verb _wish_. The infinitive also has an object, to learn--_what?_ _My lesson_ is the object of the infinitive _to learn_. We also have an adverb modifier in the adverb _quickly_, which tells _how_ I wish to learn my lesson. So the infinitive retains its verb nature, in that it may have an object and it may be modified by an adverb. Exercise 3 Notice carefully the use of the infinitives in the following sentences. Underscore all infinitives. 1. To remain ignorant is to remain a slave. 2. Teach us to think and give us courage to act. 3. Children love to be praised, but hate to be censured. 4. To obey is the creed taught the working class by the masters. 5. To be exploited has always been the fate of the workers. 6. Ferrer wrote on his prison wall, "To love a woman passionately, to have an ideal which I can serve, to have the desire to fight until I win--what more can I wish or ask?" 7. The people wish the man to be punished for the crime. 8. Primitive man found plenty of wood to burn. 9. We have learned to use coal and oil. 10. The lecture to have been given this evening has been postponed. 11. They are eager to hear the news. 12. He has failed to come. 13. We felt the house shake on its foundation. 14. Have him find the book for me. 15. To be defeated is no crime; never to have dared is the real crime. 16. The rich will do anything for the poor except to get off their backs. 17. To have slept while others fought is your shame. 18. Claim your right to do, to dream and to dare. Exercise 4 Write sentences containing the six infinitive forms of the verb _obey_. DON'TS FOR INFINITIVES +165.+ +Don't split your infinitives.+ Keep the _to_ and the infinitive together as much as possible. Don't say, _They intended to never come back_. Say rather, _They intended never to come back_. Sometimes, however, the meaning can be more aptly expressed by placing the adverb modifier between the _to_ and the infinitive, as for example: To almost succeed is not enough. It will be found to far exceed our expectations. In these sentences the adverbs _almost_ and _far_ express our meaning more closely if they are placed between the _to_ and the infinitive. Ordinarily, however, do not split your infinitives, but place the adverb modifier either before or after the infinitive. +166.+ +Don't use _to_ by itself without the rest of the infinitive.+ Don't say, _Do as I tell you to_. Say instead, _Do as I tell you to do_; or, _Do as I tell you_. Don't say, _He deceived us once and he is likely to again_. Say rather, _He deceived us once and he is likely to deceive us again_, or _to do so again_. +167.+ +Don't use _and_ for _to_. Don't say, _Try and go if you can_. Say instead, _Try to go if you can_. Correct the following sentences: We ought to bravely fight for our rights. I will do all my employer tells me to. We shall try and get our lessons. I ought to at least help my comrades but I am afraid to. Exercise 5 Study carefully the infinitives in the following quotation. Notice which are active and which are passive infinitives. The twenty thousand men prematurely slain on a field of battle, mean, to the women of their race, twenty thousand human creatures _to be borne_ within them for months, _to be given_ birth to in anguish, _to be fed_ from their breasts and _to be reared_ with toil, if the members of the tribe and the strength of the nation are _to be maintained_. In nations continually at war, incessant and unbroken child-bearing is by war imposed on all women if the state is _to survive_; and whenever war occurs, if numbers are _to be maintained_, there must be an increased child-bearing and rearing. This throws upon woman, as woman, a war tax, compared with which all that the male expends in military preparations is comparatively light. It is especially in the domain of war that we, the bearers of men's bodies, who supply its most valuable munition, who, not amid the clamor and ardor of battle, but singly, and alone, with a three-in-the-morning courage, shed our blood and face death that the battle-field might have its food, a food more precious to us than our heart's blood; it is we, especially, who, in the domain of war, have our word _to say_, a word no man can say for us. It is our intention _to enter_ into the domain of war and _to labor_ there till in the course of generations we have extinguished it.--_Olive Schreiner_. Exercise 6 Mark the participles and infinitives. Gold! Gold! Gold! Gold! Bright and yellow, hard and cold, Molten, graven, hammer'd and roll'd; Heavy to get, and light to hold; Hoarded, barter'd, bought, and sold, Stolen, borrow'd, squander'd, doled: Spurn'd by the young, but hugg'd by the old To the very verge of the churchyard mould; Price of many a crime untold: Gold! Gold! Gold! Gold! Good or bad a thousand-fold! How widely its agencies vary-- To save--to ruin--to curse--to bless-- As even its minted coins express, Now stamp'd with the image of Good Queen Bess, And now of a bloody Mary.--_Thos. Hood_. SPELLING LESSON 9 In our English lessons, we have been studying the division of words into parts of speech. We have been studying them as we use them in expressing our thoughts but we may study them in other ways also. We may study them as words alone. Studied in this way we find that we have simple, compound and derivative words. For example, _man_, _man-slaughter_, _manly_. _Man_ is a simple word. _Man-slaughter_ is a compound word formed of two simple words. _Manly_ is a derivative word derived from _man_. When a compound word is first formed, it is usually written with a hyphen; but after the word has been used awhile the hyphen is often dropped and the two parts are written together as a simple word. +A simple word is a single word which cannot be divided into other words without changing its meaning.+ +A compound word is composed of two or more simple words into which it may be divided, each retaining its own meaning.+ +A derivative word is one which is derived from a simple word by the addition of another syllable.+ In next week's lesson we will take up the study of these derivatives. Divide the compound words in this week's lesson into the simple words of which they are composed. +Monday+ Birthday Coal-tar Craftsman Foreman Gunpowder +Tuesday+ Handkerchief Headquarters Lawsuit Lockout Bookkeeper +Wednesday+ Motorman Newspaper Pasteboard Postage-stamp Postmaster +Thursday+ Salesman Second-hand Shirtwaist Sidewalk Staircase +Friday+ Trademark Time-table Typewriter Tableware Sewing-machine +Saturday+ Undergarment Underhand Water-mark Woodwork Workshop PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 10 Dear Comrade: We have been studying this course in Plain English for some weeks now and I trust that you have been enjoying as well as benefiting by the study of our wonderful and expressive language. Did you ever stop to think what a wonderful step it was in evolution when man first began to use the spoken word? And yet it was a still more wonderful step in advance when he began to use the written word for our highest evolution, and development would have been impossible without the help of written speech. An illiterate man may be a good workman and prosperous so far as the material things of life and his immediate contact with his fellow men are concerned, but we have only to think for a moment of what this world would be if we had no written language, to understand what a mighty power it has been in evolution. Suppose we had no way by which we could communicate with our friends at a distance. Suppose there were no written words by which we could set down the countless dealings between man and man. What a hopeless tangle this social life of ours would soon become! Suppose also that we had no knowledge of the past, no knowledge of the discoveries and inventions of past generations except that which could be handed down to us through oral speech. All our knowledge of history, of the deeds and development of the past, all the observations by which science has uncovered to us the mysteries of nature would be largely lost to us. It was the invention of writing alone which made possible man's growth from barbarism to civilization, and it is more true than we oftentimes realize, that it is "only a wall of books that separates the civilized man of to-day from the savage of yesterday." And yet I wonder if we have ever stopped to think how this art of writing developed. Knowledge of the alphabet and of the letters by which we form our words and hence are able to express our ideas, has become such a common-place thing to us that we have forgotten what a wonder it is and how it has slowly grown and developed through the centuries. Yet there are races to-day that have no written language such as we know and to whom our written language seems truly a miracle. The story is told of an Indian who was sent from one colony to another with four loaves of bread accompanied by a letter stating their number. The Indian ate one of the loaves and of course, was found out. The next time when he was sent upon a similar errand he repeated the theft but he took the precaution to hide the letter under a stone while he was eating the bread so that it might not see him! But it is only the things that we do not understand which we invest with mystery and as we study the story of the alphabet in this series of letters we find that it has been a natural development accomplished by the growing powers of man. In succeeding letters we will trace this most interesting story of the alphabet. Yours for Education, THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. HELPING VERBS +168.+ We have found that whenever a verb is used by itself in making an assertion it denotes either present or past time. When we use a verb phrase, it expresses some other time than the past or present. These verb phrases are formed by using _shall_, _will_, _have_, _had_, and the various forms of the verb _be_ with some form of the principal verb. These verbs which help to form verb phrases are called _helping_, or _auxiliary verbs_. Auxiliary means helping. We have used _have_ and _had_ with the past participle to form the present perfect and past perfect time forms. We have used _shall_ and _will_ with different forms of the verb to denote future time, and we have used different forms of the verb _be_ in making the various other time forms. So _shall_, _will_, _have_, _had_ and the various forms of the verb _be_ are _helping verbs_, which we use to help us in making verb phrases. +169.+ But these are not all of the helping verbs. There are other helping verbs which we use in forming verb phrases to express different ideas. These are such verbs as _should_ and _would_, _may_ and _might_, _can_ and _could_, _must_ and _ought_, _do_ and _did_. Exercise 1 Fill the blank spaces in the following sentences with the appropriate forms of the helping verbs, _shall_, _will_, _have_, _had_ and _be_. 1. When......the workers organize? 2. Education......help us win. 3. The world......had enough of war. 4. We......deceived by the masters. 5. The workers......organized into craft unions. 6. They......never ceased the struggle. 7. The state......founded on exploitation. 8. Mutual aid......been an important factor in evolution. 9. The truth......taught to the people. 10. The victory......gained by the proletariat. 11. The nations of Europe......preparing for war for years. 12. The International......recognized war for defense. 13. We......not made the class distinctions, but we......recognize them as long as they exist. 14. The evolution of animals and the evolution of plants......proceeded according to the same general laws. 15. We......never win while the majority remains ignorant. 16. The strikers......betrayed by their leaders. SHOULD AND WOULD +170.+ _Should_ and _would_ are the past-time forms of _shall_ and _will_. We use them to express action or existence dependent upon some condition, thus: I should go if I were well enough. He should join us if you asked him. In these sentences _should_ and _would_ express action which is possible now or will be in the future, provided some other action takes place. The same distinction which we found made in the use _shall_ and _will_ has been made with _should_ and _would_; that is, that _should_ used with the first person, expresses action dependent upon condition; but _would_, used with the first person, implies exercise of the will. This rule is not closely followed, though it expresses a nice distinction in the use of _should_ and _would_. In ordinary usage we use either _should_ or _would_ with the first person without any distinction of meaning, as for example: I should struggle on even if it meant death. I would stand for my principles though I stood entirely alone. We do not use _should_ however, with the second and third persons to express an action or existence dependent upon some condition. _Should_ used with the second and third person implies obligation. _Would_ is used with the second or third person to express an action dependent upon some condition, as for example: He would not go, even if you insisted. They would come if you invited them. You would believe him if you could hear him. You would be surprised if I should tell you the reason. +171.+ _Should_ and _would_ in all of the sentences which we have quoted are used to express action or existence dependent upon some condition which is expressed in that part of the sentence introduced by such conjunctions as _if_ and _though_. The parts of the sentence introduced by these conjunctions express the condition upon which the other action is dependent. When we use _should_ in sentences without this condition, it means practically the same as _ought_, and implies an obligation. We use _should_ with the first and second and third persons when we use it with this meaning, as for example: I should have gone yesterday. You should be with us in this fight. They should never fear defeat. +172.+ _Ought_ could be used in all these sentences and express practically the same meaning. _Should_ used in this way implies obligation. Exercise 2 Study carefully the following sentences. Write in the blank space preceding each sentence the number of the paragraph in the lesson which governs the use of the helping verb in that sentence. 1. ...... The workers should organize if they desire to control production. 2. ...... The proletariat would destroy this system if they understood their power. 3. ...... Every worker would join his fellows if he could but realize the class struggle. 4. ...... We would all enjoy plenty if we produced for use instead of for profit. 5. ...... The ruling class would not give up their privileges even though they knew that their cupidity endangers society. 6. ...... The injury of one should be the injury of all. 7. ...... The workers' International should stand for the international solidarity of the workers. 8. ...... You should never fear the ridicule of little minds. 9. ...... You would never fear ridicule if you were conscious of your own power. 10. ...... No man should fear to think for himself. 11. ...... No man would fear to think for himself if the world were truly free. 12. ...... Compromise now would mean defeat. MAY AND MIGHT +173.+ _May_ used as a helping verb means present permission in regard to an action or possession, as: You may come with us. He may have the money. +174.+ It may also mean a possible action or possession. _You may come with us_, for example, might mean that some time in the future it is possible that you will come with us. _He may have the money_, might mean either _He is given permission to have the money_, or _It is possible that he has it_. _May_, used with many verb forms, means _it is possible_. For example: _He may be hungry_, _He may have starved_. _He may have been starving_; that is, it is possible that _he is hungry_; that _he has starved_; that _he was starving_. +175.+ _Might_ is the past form of _may_ and expresses past permission to do or to be and also possibility in the past. For example: _The officer said he might go_. That is, he gave him permission to go. _You might have helped your comrades_; that is, _you had the power to have helped_. _Might_ is also used to express permission or the power to do in the present and future, on condition. For example: He might find work if he were trained. The workers might destroy this insane system if they would. Exercise 3 Study carefully the following sentences. Write in the blank space preceding each sentence the number of the paragraph in the lesson which governs the use of the helping verbs _may_ or _might_ in that sentence. 1. ...... The solidarity of the workers might have averted this war. 2. ...... "Of all sad words of tongue or pen, The saddest are these--'it might have been.'" 3. ...... You might join us. 4. ...... The people struggle that they may live. 5. ...... Try; you might succeed. 6. ...... The day may come when this day's deeds shall be remembered. 7. ...... Victory might be ours if we dared to face the issue. 8. ...... "Men may come and men may go; But I go on forever." 9. ...... It seemed possible that we might win. 10. ...... May we ever be loyal and true! 11. ...... It appeared for a time that we might be involved in war. 12. ...... Let come what may, we will not yield. CAN AND COULD +176.+ _Can_ is the present-time form and _could_ the past-time form, and both imply ability or power to do or to be. _You can go_ means _You are able to go_,--_You have the power to go_. _You may go_ means _You have permission to go_. _Can_ is often used when we should use _may_, when we mean to give permission. Habit plays a great part in our life and knowledge of the right way does not always suffice. It is only continued effort that will establish correct habits of speech. Good English would be easy of accomplishment if "to do were as easy as to know what it were good to do." We are too often like the mother in the story. "Can I have a piece of pie?" asked the child. "May I?" the mother corrected. Then the child asked, "May I have a piece of pie?" and the mother answered, "Yes, you can." Knowledge said, _may_; habit said _can_, and the ready tongue obeyed the force of habit. Say the correct word over and over aloud until it sounds right to your ear and flows readily to your tongue. +177.+ _Could_ is sometimes used in the present sense to denote power to do, conditioned upon willingness, as: He could if he would. Exercise 4 Study carefully the following sentences. Write in the blank space preceding each sentence the number of the paragraph in the lesson which governs the use of the helping verbs _can_ or _could_ in that sentence. 1. ...... I can say love when others say hate; I can say every man when others say one man; What can I do? I can give myself to life, When other men refuse themselves to life. 2. ...... No one can be free till all are free. 3. ...... They could win their freedom if they would prepare themselves to be free. 4. ...... What can I do, being alone? 5. ...... If all men could catch the vision of freedom, wars would cease. 6. ...... Could you find a better way to spend your time than in study? 7. ...... Men would rise in revolt if they could know the facts. MUST AND OUGHT +178.+ _Must_ and _ought_ imply obligation. _Must_ conveys the idea of being obliged to do an action from necessity or compulsion, as, You must have known it. He must go. _Ought_ was originally the past time form of _owe_, hence means _to be indebted to_, _to owe_. It conveys the idea of a moral obligation, as, You ought to help the cause. You ought to understand. +179+. _Ought_ is always used with the infinitive, and the same form is used to express both the present and the past time. The difference in time is expressed by a change in the infinitive instead of a change in the form of the helping verb. With _may_ and _might_ and _can_ and _could_, present and past time are expressed by a change in the form of the helping verb. With the helping verb _ought_, the difference in time is expressed in the infinitive. For example: He ought to pay us our wages. This means, _He owes it to us to pay us our wages now_. He ought to have paid us our wages. This means, _He owed it to us to pay us our wages some time in the past_. +180.+ The present infinitive is used with the helping verb _ought_ to express present time and the perfect infinitive is used with _ought_ to express past time. Exercise 5 Study carefully the following sentences. Write in the blank space preceding each sentence the number of the paragraph in the lesson which governs the use of the helping verb _must_ or _ought_ in that sentence. 1. ...... Service must be the key note of the future. 2. ...... Competition must give place to co-operation. 3. ...... Ought we to fear, who know the truth? 4. ...... Government ought to be the administration of things. 5. ...... No man ought to have the power of life and death over any other human being. 6. ...... It may cost much but humanity must be set free at any cost. 7. ...... What ought to be the attitude of the workers toward war? 8. ...... "For man must work and woman must weep, For there is little to do and many to keep." 9. ...... The day must come when we can live the dream. DO AND DID +181.+ _Do_ and _did_ are used as helping verbs to give emphasis--to form emphatic verb phrases. _Do_ is the present time form and _did_ the past time form, as for example: I do wish you would come. I did hope he would win. +182.+ When we use the negative _not_ we use the helping verbs _do_ and _did_ to form our verb phrases. For example, we do not say: I obey not. I walked not. He comes not. They arrived not. But in expressing the present and past time forms with the negative _not_, we say instead: I do not obey. I did not walk. He does not come. They did not arrive. +183.+ We also use _do_ and _did_ with the present and past time forms of the verb in writing interrogative sentences. For example, we do not say: Comes he with them? Studied you yesterday? Found they the book? Think you it is true? But we say instead: Does he come with them? Did you study yesterday? Did they find the book? Do you think it is true? Exercise 6 Write in the blank space before each sentence the number of the paragraph which governs the use of the helping verb _do_ or _did_ in that sentence. 1. ...... Slaves do not think; they obey. 2. ...... Men do not obey; they think. 3. ...... Do you know that two per cent of the people own sixty per cent of the wealth? 4. ...... The children of the masses do not have the opportunity to attend school. 5. ...... Did not every nation claim a war for defense? 6. ...... "We did not dare to breathe a prayer, Or give our anguish scope." 7. ...... We do desire the freedom of the people. 8. ...... We did hope that war might be averted. +Let us sum up the auxiliary or helping verbs.+ +184.+ Helping verbs are used to express: +The different time forms+--_shall_, _will_, _have_, _had_, _be_. +Power to do or to be+--_can_, _could_, _might_. +Permission+--_may_ and _might_. +Possibility+--_may_ and _might_. +Obligation+--_must_, _ought_ and _should_. +Necessity+--_must_. +Condition+--_would_. Mark the helping verbs in the following exercise: Exercise 7 The earth shall rise on new foundations. We have been naught, we shall be all. No more tradition's chains shall bind us. Oh! Liberty! Can man resign thee? Can dungeon's bolts and bars confine thee? Capital could never have existed if labor had not first existed. What can I do? I can talk out when others are silent. I can say man when others say money. Do you hear the children weeping, O my brothers? Political freedom can exist only where there is industrial freedom. Political democracy can exist only where there is industrial democracy. Who would be free, themselves must strike the blow. If there is anything that cannot bear free thought, let it crack. No doctrine, however established, should be protected from discussion. Society can overlook murder, adultery or swindling; it never forgives the preaching of a new gospel. The tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the blood of patriots and tyrants. Every man is a consumer and ought to be a producer. No picture of life can have any variety which does not admit the odious facts. I know not what course others may take, but as for me, give me liberty or give me death. Exercise 8 Note the use of the helping verbs in the following quotation. Could you use _might_ or _must_ or _ought_ anywhere and strengthen the emphasis? "I have looked at this claim by the light of history and my own confidence, and it seems to me, so looked at, to be a most just claim, and that resistance to it means nothing short of a denial of the whole of civilization. This then is the claim: It is right and necessary that all men should have work to do which shall be worth doing and be of itself pleasant to do; and which should be done under such conditions as would make it neither over-wearisome nor over-anxious. Turn that claim about as I may, think of it as long as I can, I cannot find that it is an exorbitant claim; yet if society would or could admit it, the face of the earth would be changed; discontent and strife and dishonesty would be ended. To feel that we were doing work useful to others and pleasant to ourselves, and that such work and its due reward could not fail us! What serious harm could happen to us then? And the price to be paid for so making the world happy, must be revolution."--_William Morris_. SPELLING LESSON 10 Simple words are sometimes spoken of as root words. _Root_ means that from which something grows. We know our language is a living, growing thing and these root words are the roots where the growth begins. One way in which this growth is accomplished and new words added to our language is by placing syllables before or after the root word--the simple word--as, for example: _unmanly_. In this we have a syllable placed before and a syllable placed after the root word _man_. The syllable placed before the root word is called the prefix from the Latin _pre_ meaning _before_ and the Latin word to place. Therefore, prefix means literally _to place before_. +A prefix consists of one or more syllables placed before a word to qualify its meaning.+ The syllable placed after the root word, or simple word, is called the suffix, from the Latin _sub_ meaning after and the Latin word to place. _Subfix_ the word should be literally, but for the sake of the sound--the euphony, the good sound--we say _suffix_. +A suffix consists of one or more syllables placed after a word to qualify its meaning.+ +The words made by adding prefixes and suffixes are called derivative words.+ You remember we used a suffix in forming participles. The present participle is formed by adding the suffix _ing_ to the simple form of the verb. The past participle is formed by adding the suffix _ed_ to the simple form of the verb. The words in the spelling lesson for this week are derivative words formed by adding a prefix or suffix, or both, to the simple word. Draw a line through the prefix and the suffix and leave the simple or root word. +Monday+ Wonderful Prosperous Disloyalty Uncovered Government +Tuesday+ Memorize Unreality Co-operation Dependent Truly +Wednesday+ Beautify Countless Uncomfortable Dishonesty Producer +Thursday+ Existence Untruthfulness Discontentment Victory Removable +Friday+ Impurity Unwillingness Indebted Overwearisome Enjoyable +Saturday+ Obligation Hopeless Endanger Precaution Denial PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 11 Dear Comrade: As we begin the study of the story of the alphabet and the evolution of written speech, we discover that primitive man imagined the art of writing to have had divine origin, to have been handed down from the powers above. It is natural for us to personify and envelop in mystery the things that we do not understand. So these primitive people have attributed the discovery of the art of writing to the gods and have looked upon the parchment containing the written word which they cannot understand, as possessing magical power; but as we come to learn the origin and causes of things, they are divested of their mystery and become no longer gods and enslavers of men. We understand the laws that govern their action and they become our servants. Take lightning for example. Primitive people personified the lightning or called it the thunder bolts of Jove or attributed it to an act of divine providence. We have learned the laws that govern the action of electricity and so this mighty giant is no longer a god to whom we bow in submission, and who slays us at his whim. He has become our most faithful servant who travels along the wires at our behest and obeys our every bidding. So in the early stages, the art of writing belonged only to the favored few and was made the means of enslavement of the common people instead of the means of liberation. Knowledge has always been power and the ruling classes of the world, desiring power over the people, have striven to keep knowledge within their own circle; so the art of writing was known only to the few. The few books in circulation were laboriously written by hand and circulated, largely among the clergy, who used it as priests have ever used their power--from medicine man to Pope,--for the enslavement of the people and the protection of the privileges of a few. This is aptly illustrated in the law which was known as "the benefit of clergy" which was not entirely repealed until the year 1827. Under this statute, exemption from trial for criminal offenses was given to the clergy and also to any man who could read. If a person were sentenced to death for some criminal offense, the bishop of that community might claim him as a clerk and if, when given a Latin book, he could read a verse or two, the court would declare "he reads like a clerk" and the offender was only burned in the hand and then set free. The invention of the printing press in the fifteenth century which made possible the diffusion of knowledge among the people, was the beginning of the emancipation of the workers of the world. But while we realize, perhaps, what this art of writing means to us and by the knowledge of its growth and development no longer ascribe it to divine origin or consider it a blessing designed by a supreme being for a favored few, still most of us know very little of the interesting evolution which made possible the alphabet which is the basis of our written and spoken language of to-day. When we realize how through all these long centuries man has been struggling, striving, evolving, developing, reaching out toward fuller, freer and richer life, it gives us courage in our struggle and makes us see ourselves, not as individuals alone, but as links in a mighty chain clasping hands with that primitive man of the past, from whom we have inherited the power we now possess, and reaching forth also to clasp the hands of those who shall come and handing on to them the things for which we have struggled and added to the inheritance of the past. Next week we will have the story of man's first beginning in the art of writing. Yours for Education, THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. THE VERB "BE" +185.+ The verb is perhaps the most difficult part of speech to master because it has more form changes than any other part of speech. In this lesson we are going to emphasize the most important things to remember in the study of the verb and also call attention to the most common mistakes. +186.+ First, master that little verb be in all its forms. The only way to do this is to commit to memory these forms. Say them over and over until any other form does not sound right. +Present+ +Past+ +Future+ _Singular_ _Singular_ _Singular_ 1. I am. I was. I shall be. 2. You are. You were. You will be. 3. He is. He was. He will be. _Plural_ _Plural_ _Plural_ 1. We are. We were. We shall be. 2. You are. You were. You will be. 3. They are. They were. They will be. _Pres. Perf._ _Past Perf._ _Fut. Perf._ Have been. Had been. Shall have been. +187.+ Do not use _aint_ for _is not_ or _am not_. Do not say, _He aint here_, or _I aint going_. Say, _He isn't here_; _I am not going_. A FREQUENT MISTAKE +188.+ Perhaps one of the most frequent mistakes is the confusion in the use of the past time form and the past participle. Remember that the past time form is never used except in expressing past time; never use it in forming a verb phrase. Take the verb _do_, for example--say, _He did the work_, never, _He done the work_; but we should say, _He has done the work_, never, _He has did the work_. _Say_ and _seen_ are confused in the same manner. Watch this carefully. Exercise 1 Underline the correct word in the following: 1. Who did--done it? 2. He sung--sang well. 3. He sunk--sank before we could reach him. 4. She written--wrote him a letter. 5. He taken--took the book. 6. They swum--swam the river. 7. I saw--seen him do it. 8. They drank--drunk too much. 9. He soon began--begun to fail. 10. The lad ran--run home. 11. They come--came yesterday. WITH HELPING VERBS +189.+ Never use the past time form with the helping verbs _has_, _had_, _was_ and _were_. Always use the past participle. Watch this carefully. For example, never say, _He has went_. _Went_ is the past time form. Say, _He has gone_. Exercise 2 Underscore the correct word in the following sentences: 1. He had tore--torn the book. 2. Have you ever sang--sung this tune? 3. They have showed--shown us how to win. 4. She has went--gone away. 5. The trees were shook--shaken by the wind. 6. He was chose--chosen for leader. 7. He has rose--risen from the ranks. 8. It was wrote--written by him. 9. He has took--taken the prize. 10. He was gave--given the money. 11. I have forgot--forgotten the rule. 12. The river was froze--frozen over. 13. The machine was broke--broken. 14. It was wore--worn out. 15. The meal was ate--eaten in silence. PAST TIME FORMS +190.+ Watch your speech to see if you use an incorrect verb form for the past time form. Study the table of irregular verbs and refer to it frequently. We often make the mistake of forming the past time form by adding _ed_ when properly it is formed irregularly. For example: we often say _drawed_ for _drew_, _throwed_ for _threw_, etc. Exercise 3 Draw a line under the correct form in the following: 1. He grew--growed rapidly. 2. He knew--knowed better. 3. He catched--caught the ball. 4. He drew--drawed the water. 5. They threw--throwed him over. 6. I drinked--drank the water. 7. I climbed--clumb the tree. 8. I seed--saw him do it. 9. She teached--taught school. VERBS OF SIMILAR FORM +191.+ Do not use one verb for another of similar form but different meaning. The following are the most common of these: +Lay+ (incomplete verb, requires an object) meaning to place or to put; as, _to lay the book down_. Principal parts: _Present_, lay; _Past_, laid; _Past participle_, laid. +Lie+ (complete verb, takes no object) meaning to recline, to rest; as, _to lie in bed_. Principal parts: _Present_, lie; _Past_, lay; _Past participle_, lain. +Set+ (incomplete verb, requires an object) meaning to place or to put; as, _to set the table_. Principal parts: _Present_, set; _Past_, set; _Past participle_, set. +Sit+ (complete verb, takes no object) meaning to rest, as, _to sit in a chair_. Principal parts: _Present_, sit; _Past_, sat; _Past participle_, sat. +Raise+ (incomplete verb, requires an object) meaning to cause to rise, to lift up. Principal parts: _Present_, raise; _Past_, raised; _Past participle_, raised. +Rise+ (complete verb, takes no object) meaning to get up, to ascend. Principal parts: _Present_, rise; _Past_, rose; _Past participle_, risen. +192.+ +NOTE--These three verbs need an object to complete their meaning:+ _Present_ _Past_ _Past Participle_ set set set lay laid laid raise raised raised +193.+ +NOTE--These three verbs need no object:+ _Present_ _Past_ _Past Participle_ sit sat sat lie lay lain rise rose risen Exercise 4 Fill in the following blanks with the correct form of the verbs _sit_, _set_, _lay_, _lie_, _raise_ and _rise_: 1. I......it on the table and there it....... 2. They......the battle ship, Maine. 3. Where did you......it? 4. A mile of pipe has been....... 5. The miners......a large strike fund. 6. She......down to sleep. 7. The body......in state three days. 8. The farmers of the U. S.......an enormous wheat crop. 9. The city......on the right bank. 10. We have......the corner stone. 11. When wages are......, prices are......too. 12. He......in bed all morning. 13. ......down Fido. 14. The sun......at six this morning. 15. She has been......there all day. 16. The ship......to during the storm. 17. They have been......new tracks. 18. The hen is......on the eggs. 19. Somebody said, "Early to bed and early to......, Makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise." 20. He......motionless for an hour. 21. He......out the trees in rows. 22. He will......in his position. 23. The court will......in May. 24. Where did he......? 25. She......the table while he......there. 26. He......the clock for six o'clock. 27. The water has......two feet since the rain. 28. He......the book down and......on it. 29. The hen has been......a week. 30. ......it on the table. 31. He......in the shade and watched her......the plants. COMMON ERRORS +194.+ Remember that in the present time form the third person singular takes the s-form, but the s-form is never used _except_ with the _third person singular_. We often make the mistake of using the _s-form_ with a _plural_ subject. Notice carefully the following sentences, and correct the errors. All of the sentences are wrong. 1. The days is getting shorter. 2. The men has struck. 3. The trains was late. 4. These papers is written for you. 5. You was disappointed, wasn't you? 6. There is several coming. 7. The nights was dark and cloudy. 8. The clouds has gathered. 9. They was anxious to come. +195.+ +When two subjects are connected by _and_, the s-form of the verb must not be used+, unless both subjects refer to one person; as: The president and the secretary (two persons) were late. The president and secretary (one person) was elected. +196.+ +But when the two subjects are connected by _or_ or _nor_ then use the s-form of the verb+; as: Neither Germany nor Russia admits a war of offense. Either the House or the Senate rejects the bill. +197.+ +Never use the infinitive sign _to_ by itself+; as: I have not written and do not expect _to_. He has not gone nor does he intend _to_. +198.+ +Never use don't for doesn't.+ The use of _don't_ for _doesn't_ is a very common mistake. _Don't_ is a contraction of _do not_ and _doesn't_ of _does not_. When you are in doubt as to which to use, think or speak the two words in full and see if the verb agrees with the subject. _Do not_ is used with a plural subject, and _does not_ with a singular subject. For example: _He don't believe me_. This sentence in full would be, _He do not believe me_, which is incorrect. _He does not_ (_doesn't_) _believe me_ is correct. Or, _They doesn't believe me_. This sentence in full would read, _They does not believe me_, which is incorrect. _They do not_ (_don't_) _believe me_ is correct. +199.+ +Do not use _has got_, or _have got_ for _must_.+ For example, do not say, _We have got to go_. Say, _We must go_. Not, _He has got to do what I say_; but, _He must do as I say_. +200.+ +Do not say _had ought_.+ For example: _You had ought to know better_. Omit the _had_; it is unnecessary and incorrect. Say, _You ought to know better_. +201.+ +Do not say _says I_ or _thinks I_.+ Says I, "Will you go?" Says he, "That's what will happen." Thinks I to myself, "I'll show you." These are incorrect. Say instead: I said, "Will you go?" He said, "That's what will happen." I thought, "I'll show you." Exercise 5 Mark all the verbs in the following quotations and note carefully their use. 1. Speak properly and in as few words as you can but always plainly; for the end of speech is not ostentation but to be understood.--_Penn_. 2. "Freedom's battle, once begun, Bequeathed from bleeding sire to son, Though baffled oft, is ever won." Note the use of _may_ and _can_ in this quotation: 3. Knowledge cannot be stolen from us. It cannot be bought or sold. We may be poor, and the sheriff may come and sell our furniture, or drive away our cow, or take our pet lamb and leave us homeless and penniless; but he cannot lay the law's hand upon the jewelry of our minds.--_E. Burritt_. Note the use of _shall_ and _will_ and _would_ and _should_ in the following. Richard Grant White says: "I do not know in English literature another passage in which the distinction between _shall_ and _will_ and _would_ and _should_ is at once so elegantly, so variously, so precisely, and so compactly illustrated." 4. "How long I shall love him I can no more tell, Than, had I a fever, when I should be well. My passion shall kill me before I will show it, And yet I would give all the world he did know it; But oh how I sigh, when I think, should he woo me, I cannot refuse what I know would undo me." 5. I want it said of me by those who know me best that I always plucked a thistle and planted a flower where I thought a flower would grow.--_Abraham Lincoln_. Exercise 6 Note the nouns as well as the verbs in the following quotation. Note also the use of infinitives and participles. Mark every verb and use it in a sentence of your own. +Faith and Truth+ You say "Believe;" I say "Trust." Between those two words is a great gulf fixed. The idea that there can be a moral obligation to believe external facts is unworthy of a freeman, but to trust is as much the true nature of man as it is that of a babe to draw in its mother's milk. You say "Creed;" I say "Faith." A creed at best is but a sorry caricature of a faith. Faith is the proper atmosphere of man, trust is his native buoyancy, and his only obligation is to follow the highest law of his being. You have one supreme duty above all creeds and conventions--namely, to think honestly, and say what you think. Have you doubts about your creed? say so; only thus has the true faith ever advanced. It is not God, but the devil, who whispers: "Think at your peril!" Do you see flaws in the ancient structure of respectability and law and order? Say so; only thus has the condition of man ever improved. Have courage to be the heretic and traitor that you are by nature, and do not worry about the consequences. Be a creator, as you were born to be, and spurn beyond all infamies the wretched role of a repeater and apologist. The world lives and grows by heresy and treason. It dies by conformity to error and loyalty to wrong. _Ernest Crosby_. Exercise 7 In the following paragraph, the predicates are printed in italics, and the participles and infinitives in italic capitals. Study carefully. If it _were taught_ to every child, and in every school and college, that it _is_ morally wrong for anyone _TO LIVE_ upon the _COMBINED_ labor of his fellowmen without _CONTRIBUTING_ an approximately equal amount of useful labor, whether physical or mental, in return, all kinds of _GAMBLING_, as well as many other kinds of useless occupations, _would be seen_ _TO BE_ of the same nature as direct dishonesty or fraud, and, therefore _would_ soon _come_ _TO BE CONSIDERED_ disgraceful as well as immoral. _Alfred Russel Wallace_. Exercise 8 Underscore all the verbs in the following and note the participles, the infinitives and the various time forms; also the helping verbs: What, speaking in quite unofficial language, is the net purport of war? To my knowledge, for example, there dwell and toil, in the British village of Dumrudge, usually some five hundred souls. From these, by certain 'natural enemies' of the French, there are selected, say thirty able-bodied men; Dumrudge, at her own expense, has suckled and nursed them; she has, not without difficulty and sorrow, fed them up to manhood and trained them in the crafts, so that one can weave, another build and another hammer. Nevertheless, amidst much weeping and swearing, they are selected; all dressed in red and shipped away, at the public charges, some two thousand miles, or, say only to the south of Spain, and fed there till wanted. And now to that same spot in the south of Spain are thirty similar French artisans, in like manner, wending their ways; till at length the thirty stand facing the thirty, each with his gun in his hand. Straightway, the word 'Fire' is given, and they blow the souls out of one another; and in the place of the sixty brisk, useful craftsmen, the world has sixty dead carcasses, which it must bury and anew shed tears for. Had these men any quarrel? Busy as the devil is, not the smallest! They lived far enough apart; were the entirest strangers; nay, in so wide a universe, there was even, unconsciously, by commerce, some mutual helpfulness between them. How then? Simpleton! Their governors had fallen out; and instead of shooting one another, had these poor blockheads shoot.--_Carlyle_. SPELLING LESSON 11 There are but few rules which can be learned to aid in the spelling of English words. The spelling of words must be largely mastered by concentration and effort of the memory. It will help you to memorize the correct spelling if you will write each word a number of times. This gives you a visual image of the word. Then spell it aloud a number of times. This will give you an auditory image. Words which you find difficult to master, write in a list by themselves and review frequently. There are a few rules, however, which are helpful to know. There is one rule of spelling we want to learn this week concerning words formed by adding a suffix. +A word of one syllable which ends in a single consonant before which stands a single vowel, doubles the final consonant when a suffix beginning with a vowel is added.+ For example: _mat_, _matted_, _matting_; _sun_, _sunned_, _sunning_. _Mat_ ends in _t_, a single consonant which is preceded by the single vowel _a_,--so you double the _t_ when you add the suffix _ed_ or _ing_, which begin with a vowel. Notice these: _Blend_, _blended_, _blending_; _Help_, _helped_, _helping_. These words do not end in a single consonant, so you do not double the consonant. Notice also: _Lean_, _leaned_, _leaning_; _Rain_, _rained_, _raining_. These words end in a single consonant, but before the consonant is a double vowel, _ea_ in _lean_ and _ai_ in _rain_. So we do not double the final consonant. This same rule holds true of any suffix, beginning with a vowel, as _er_ and _est_, for example: _sad_, _sadder_, _saddest_. _Slim_, _slimmer_, _slimmest_. Learn to spell the following words. Add the suffixes _ed_ and _ing_ to the words for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday. Add _er_ and _est_ to the words for Thursday, Friday and Saturday. +Monday+ Chat Cheat Grin Groan Suit +Tuesday+ Sap Soap Bet Beat Rot +Wednesday+ Talk Teach Gain Stir Plan +Thursday+ Thin Dear Flat Cheap Straight +Friday+ Clean Brief Fair Shrill Wet +Saturday+ Strong Great Mad Fleet Fat PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 12 Dear Comrade: In this lesson we are beginning the study of still another part of speech. You will notice that in words, at least, we give credit and place in society only because of _work performed_. In the society of men, people are given place and position too often because of outward dress and form or because of some special privilege. They are not given their place in society because of the work which they do or because they perform any useful function. In fact, in our topsy-turvy world, those who perform no work at all, but are simply parasites upon society, have claimed for themselves the best of everything and the highest positions. Surely some time we shall see a society as successfully organized as our society of words, when men will be received, not because of that which they possess, but because of that which they do and are. Man has really laid the foundation for an ideal commonwealth in his organization of words into a spoken and written language. When we think back across the centuries and think of the primitive man as he dwelt in trees to protect himself from the wild animals, we wonder what sort of speech he used then. Possibly it was only a little more articulate than the speech of some animals. But man had within him the instinct to question, and this has been the root of all his progress. We can imagine these primitive men witnessing the wonder of fire, as the terrible unknown god of the lightning set fire to the forest in which they lived; but after the fear had subsided, some adventurous, inquiring forefather of ours ventured near the ashes, and began to investigate concerning this fearful and wonderful thing. So gradually they discovered the use of fire, and with it a wonderful new future opened before the primitive man. With these great discoveries, he needed a better form of communication with his comrades, so articulate speech developed. But when we go back into the beginning of written speech, it is difficult for us to trace it to its beginning. The first evidence we find was of man as a sign maker. On the walls of caves in France and Belgium and here in America, we have found rude sketches which the scientists tell us date back to the Ice Age and the Old Stone Age. Here the primitive man has drawn for us crude pictures describing different phases of his life, the animals about him, the hunt and the chase, and in these pictures we find the very beginning of our alphabet of to-day. How much more wonderful it makes our spoken and written language to know that man has developed it himself. It has not been handed down by some god or powers above; but the spirit of rebellion against the things that be; the great desire to know more and to find out the reason _why_ of all the things around us,--these have been the forces that have led the race from the animal-like beings that lived in trees to the race of today that understands in a large measure the laws that govern life. It is only as we, through this spirit of rebellion, this same divine discontent with the things that are, seek to do our own thinking that we can add our share to the heritage of the race. Let us have the same courage that must have inspired the heart of that primitive man who dared to venture and inquire concerning the fearful things of nature round about him. Let us think for ourselves. Ask always the question "why" and demand the reason for all things. Thus we shall free ourselves and help to free the race. Yours for Education, THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. IN PLACE OF A NOUN +202.+ You remember in our study of the parts of speech we found that we have one part of speech that can be used in place of a noun. This is a very helpful part of speech for it saves us a great deal of tiresome repetition. Notice the following sentences: John Smith is a machinist. John Smith works at the machine. The machine is John Smith's master. This is awkward and the repetition is tiresome. So we say instead: John Smith is a machinist. He works at the machine. It is his master. You readily understand who and what we mean by _he_ and _it_ and _his_, and we will all agree that the latter is a much better way of making the statements. These words like _he_ and _his_ and _it_, which we use in place of the noun, we call _pronouns_. _Pro_ means literally in the Latin, _for_ or _in place of_; so when we say pronoun we are practically saying, in place of a noun. +A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun.+ +203.+ The word for which a pronoun stands or the noun in whose place it is used is called its antecedent. _Ante_ means _before_ and _cedent_ comes from the Latin word meaning _go_, hence antecedent means literally, _going before_. Notice this sentence: _The manager spoke to the men before he left and told them to stop at the office_. _Manager_ is the antecedent of the pronoun _he_, and _men_ is the antecedent of the pronoun _them_. +The word for which a pronoun stands is called its antecedent.+ KINDS OF PRONOUNS +204.+ The Latin language has had a great deal of influence upon English. Many of our words are taken from the Latin. You remember that all of the names of our parts of speech are derived from Latin words. We also feel the influence of the Latin language in the way in which we number our personal pronouns. The Romans naturally thought that one would think of one's self first, and so the pronouns referring to one's self, or the person speaking, are called the _first_ person pronouns. They are, _I_, _my_, _mine_, _me_ and _we_, _our_, _ours_, and _us_. Then they naturally thought that one would think second of the person spoken to, so the pronouns referring to the person spoken to are called the _second_ person pronouns. Formerly _thou_ was used in speaking to one person. In German and many other languages this form is still used, but in English we do not today use the singular form _thou_ with its variations, _thy_, _thine_, and _thee_, except in poetry or poetic prose. In every-day speech we use _you_ and its forms, _your_ and _yours_, for both the singular and the plural. Then the Romans considered last the person or thing of whom they were speaking; so pronouns referring to the person or thing spoken of are called the _third_ person pronouns. These are _he_, _she_, and _it_, with their other forms, _his_, _him_, _her_, _hers_, _its_, in the singular, and _they_, _their_, _theirs_ and _them_ in the plural. +A personal pronoun is one that denotes the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of.+ COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS +205.+ All of these forms of pronouns which we have named are simple forms; but we have several personal pronouns which have a compound form; that is, a form made by the addition of _self_ or _selves_ to the simple forms. These are called compound personal pronouns. They are, in the singular, _myself_, _thyself_, _yourself_, _himself_, _herself_, _itself_, and in the plural, _ourselves_, _yourselves_ and _themselves_. The compound personal pronouns have two uses, reflexive and emphatic. Reflexive +206.+ A compound personal pronoun has a reflexive use when the actor becomes the object of its own action or in other words when the subject and the object refer to the same thing; as in this sentence, _He has hurt himself_, _himself_ is the object of the incomplete verb _has hurt_, but it refers to the subject _he_. Reflexive is from the Latin _re_ meaning _back_ and from the Latin verb meaning _throw_, so reflexive means literally _thrown_ back. These pronouns throw their meaning back to the subject. Emphatic +207.+ A compound personal pronoun has also an emphatic use when it directs especial attention to the noun or pronoun to which it refers. For example in the sentence, _He did the work himself_, or, _He, himself, did the work_, _himself_ gives emphasis or intensifies the meaning of the pronoun _he_. Remember a compound personal pronoun is correctly used only in these two ways, reflexive and emphatic. For example, the following sentences are incorrect: This is for yourself and your comrade. Ourselves will find out the reason. The correct form would be: This is for you and your comrade. We, ourselves, will find out the reason. +208.+ You can readily distinguish between the reflexive and the emphatic use. In the reflexive, the compound personal pronoun is always the _object_ of a verb or preposition, and the subject of the sentence is its antecedent. The subject and the object always refer to the same thing. In the emphatic use, the compound personal pronoun is neither the subject nor the object, but is thrown into the sentence simply to render it emphatic, and to call special attention to its antecedent. Exercise 1 Supply the compound personal pronoun in the following blanks and tell whether the use is reflexive or emphatic. 1. He discovered the truth....... 2. The workers have robbed......by their ignorance. 3. You must educate....... 4. You must do the work....... 5. He must defend....... 6. Capitalism overreaches....... 7. The people will rule....... 8. We will settle the question....... Write six sentences in which the compound personal pronouns are correctly used. SINGULAR AND PLURAL +209.+ Personal pronouns, like nouns, have number form. Nouns simply add _s_ to the singular form to denote the plural, but in personal pronouns we have different words which we use to express one or more than one person or thing. In the first, second, and third person forms, personal pronouns also have different forms for the object form, the possessive and the subject form. The following table gives the singular and plural of the subject form,--that is the form which is used as the subject of the sentence. +Subject Form+ _Singular_ _Plural_ _First person._ I We _Second person._ You You _Third person._ He, she, it. They +Compound Personal Pronouns+ _Singular_ _Plural_ _First._ Myself Ourselves _Second._ Yourself Yourselves _Third._ Himself, herself, itself. Themselves +210.+ Remember that the first person refers to the person speaking, the second to the person spoken to, and the third person to the person or things spoken of. When we speak of things, we never use the first or second person, unless we are speaking of them in a personified form. So in the third person singular, we have the pronoun _it_ which refers to one thing. In the plural, we have no special pronoun referring to things, but the pronoun _they_ is used to refer both to persons and things. Exercise 2 Which of the following pronouns refer to the person speaking, which to the person spoken to, and which to the person or thing spoken of? Which are singular, which plural? I will defend my principles. Give them to me for they are mine. Do you believe him to be your friend? We saw their mistake at once. They acknowledged it was their fault. Success will be your portion if you persevere. He struggles for his rights; she does not understand her rights. It forces us to struggle for our education. Woman craves her freedom. Workers of the world, unite; you have a world to gain and nothing to lose but your chains. Form sentences of your own containing all these pronouns. POSSESSIVE FORM +211.+ You will note in these sentences above that we have used the pronoun _my_ and _your_ and _his_ and _her_ as _my principles_, _your friend_, _his rights_, _her freedom_. This is the possessive form of these personal pronouns, the form that denotes ownership or possession. You remember that nouns had a possessive form, a form to denote possession or ownership, as, _The man's book._ _The boy's school._ _The worker's college._ So pronouns also have a possessive form which we use to show that an object belongs to such and such a person or thing. If I want to tell you that I own or possess a home, I say, _I own my home_. Each personal pronoun has its possessive form, thus: +Singular+ _Subject Form_ _Possessive_ _First person._ I My, mine _Second person._ You Your, yours _Third person._ He, she, it His, her, hers, its +Plural+ _Subject Form_ _Possessive_ _First person._ We Our, ours _Second person._ You Your, yours _Third person._ They Their, theirs POSSESSIVE FORM +212.+ You will notice that the possessive forms, _my_, _our_, _her_, _your_, _its_, _his_ and _their_, are always used with the name of the object possessed. As for example; _my work_, _our library_, _her delight_, _your task_, _its purpose_, _his home_, _their mistake_. +213.+ The possessive forms, _mine_, _thine_, _hers_, _ours_, _yours_ and _theirs_, are always used by themselves and are used either as subject, object or complement. As for example: That letter is mine. The work is hers. Thine is the glory. Is that yours? Theirs not to reason why; theirs but to do and die. The possessive form _his_ may be used either in connection with the name of the object possessed or by itself. For example: This is _his_ home. This home is _his_. OBJECT FORM +214.+ Pronouns have one form which nouns do not have. We use the same form for the noun no matter whether it is the subject or the object. For example: The man saw me. I saw the man. In the first sentence _man_ is the subject of the verb _saw_, and in the second sentence _man_ is the object of the verb _saw_. The same word is used; but you will notice that in the first sentence _me_ is the object of the verb _saw_, and in the second _I_ is the subject; yet both refer to the same person, the first person, the person speaking. So we have a different form of the pronoun for the object, for example: _I saw him._ _He saw me._ _She watched us._ _We watched her._ _You found them._ _Him_, _me_, _us_, _her_, and _them_ in these sentences are used as the objects of the verbs, _see_, _watch_ and _found_, and are called the object forms of the pronouns. _You_ and _it_ have the same form for both the subject and object; as, _You did it._ _It frightens you._ _Her_ is used as both the possessive form and the object form, as, _Her work tires her._ +215.+ The following table gives the subject and the object forms of the personal pronouns, and these should never be confused in their usage. We must not use the object form as the subject of the verb, nor the subject form as the object of the verb. +Singular+ _Subject_ _Object_ _First._ I Me _Second._ You You _Third._ He, she, it Him, her, it +Plural+ _Subject_ _Object_ _First._ We Us _Second._ You You _Third._ They Them GENDER +216.+ You notice in all of these tables that there are three forms given for the third person singular, _he_, _she_, and _it_. These are the only forms in which pronouns express gender. In all other forms the gender can be determined only by the gender of the antecedent. +He, representing a male, is masculine.+ +She, representing a female, is the feminine.+ +It represents a sexless thing, and hence is said to be of the neuter gender.+ THE LITTLE VERB _BE_ +217.+ You remember when we studied verbs, we had the incomplete verb that took an object; the complete verb that needed no object, since it was complete in itself; and one other kind of a verb. Do you remember this third kind of verb? This third kind is the copulative verb, and the copulative verb which we use most frequently is the one in the use of which we make the most mistakes. It is that troublesome, bothersome, little verb _be_, which is so difficult to master. You remember it is an incomplete verb, but instead of taking an object, it takes a complement or completing word. So when you see a pronoun with any form of this verb _be_, you must use the _subject_ form and not the _object_ form. This copulative verb _be_ is simply a connecting word, not a verb that asserts action or takes an object. +218.+ Here is where we make so many mistakes. We say, _It was me_, _It was them_, _It was him_, _It wasn't her_; instead of, _It was I_, _It was they_, _It was he_, _It wasn't she_. We have used the incorrect form in this particular so often that the correct form has a strange sound to our ears. The only way to remedy this is to repeat over and over aloud the correct form until it has a familiar sound. Don't think this is putting words, as you should do in everything. We of the working class have built the world in its beauty. Why should we live in shacks, dress in shoddy, talk in slang? There is no reason except that we endure it. When the united working class demands its own, it will receive it. Demand yours and arouse the stupid from their sleep as rapidly as you can. Repeat the following sentences aloud ten times every day this week and see if the correct form does not come to your lips more readily. We can learn the rule, but only continued practice and watchfulness can break us of our old habits. It is I who seek my own. It shall be they who are defeated. It was I who was ignorant. It is they who cause all wars. It is he who must be aroused. It is we who strive for freedom. It shall be I who shall win. It was she who was enslaved. It shall be we who shall demand equality. It shall be they who shall conquer. Agreement +219.+ Pronouns are very agreeable members of the co-operative commonwealth of words. They strive to agree with their antecedents. Sometimes we do not allow the pronoun to agree, and then our sentence is incorrect. +A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number, gender and person.+ For example, if you are referring to one man, you must use a masculine pronoun, singular, third person form, as _I saw the man but he did not see me_. _Man_ is the antecedent. It is singular, masculine, third person and so we use the pronoun _he_. _The girl came, but she could not stay._ In this sentence _girl_ is the antecedent; it is singular, feminine, third person, and so we use the pronoun _she_. _The boys did not come when the teacher called them._ In this sentence _boys_ is the antecedent; it is plural, masculine, third person, and so we use the pronoun _them_. +220.+ +Sometimes there are two words used as the antecedent, joined by _and_.+ We use a singular pronoun in referring to them if they denote the same person or thing; as: The secretary and treasurer (one person) resigned _his_ position. My comrade and friend (one person) gave me _his_ help. +221.+ +But two nouns joined by _and_, that mean different persons or things, must be represented by a plural pronoun, thus+: Marx and Engels (two persons) wrote _their_ call to liberty, the Communist-Manifesto. Men and women will struggle for _their_ freedom. Childhood and youth should have _their_ rightful joys. +222.+ +Use the singular pronoun when the nouns are kept separate by the use of _each_, _every_, _many a_, or _no_.+ Each man and boy must do _his_ part. (Not _their_ part.) Every soldier and every officer must do _his_ duty. Many a city and many a village gave _its_ best to the army. No comrade and no Socialist will give _his_ consent to war. +223.+ +If you have two singular nouns as antecedents, joined by _or_, or _nor_, use the singular pronoun+, thus: Either Germany or France must abandon _its_ position. Neither Wilson nor Bryan kept _his_ promise to the people. +224.+ +When you use a collective noun and are speaking of the collection as a whole, use a singular pronoun+, as: The committee will make _its_ report. The audience was hearty in _its_ appreciation. The jury has returned _its_ verdict. +225.+ +But if you are referring to the individuals of the collection separately, use a plural pronoun+; as: The committee adjourned for _their_ dinner. The audience kept _their_ seats until the close. The jury argued until _their_ nerves were on edge. PERSONIFICATION +226.+ We sometimes speak of things as if they were persons, and so use either masculine or feminine pronouns in referring to them. Such objects are said to be personified. Thus, we say: The sun his ceaseless course doth run. The moon sheds her silvery ray. Nature dons her robes of green. Here we speak of the sun as though it were a man or possessing the qualities of a man and use the pronoun _his_. Then we speak of the moon and nature as though they were women and use the pronoun in the feminine form. REMEMBER +227.+ +A pronoun must agree with its antecedent.+ +Use the subject form of the pronoun if the pronoun is the subject of the sentence.+ +Use the object form when the pronoun is the object of a verb or a preposition.+ +Use the compound personal pronouns only in their reflexive or emphatic use.+ +With all forms of the verb _be_, use the subject form of the pronouns.+ SUMMARY SUBJECT POSSESSIVE OBJECT First person (_Singular_ I my (mine) me (_Plural_ we our (ours) us Second person (_Singular_ (_Plural_ you your (yours) you Third person (_Sing. Masc._ he his him (_Sing. Fem._ she her (hers) her (_Sing. Neut._ it its it (_Plural_ they their (theirs) them Exercise 3 Read carefully the following beautiful dream of Olive Schreiner's. Mark all of the personal pronouns and note carefully their use and by referring to the table above decide just what form each pronoun is. Watch carefully too for the antecedents of the pronouns and note the agreement of the pronoun with its antecedent. "I THOUGHT I STOOD" I. I thought I stood in Heaven before God's throne, and God asked me what I had come for. I said I had come to arraign my brother, Man. God said, "What has he done?" I said, "He has taken my sister, Woman, and has stricken her and wounded her and thrust her out into the streets; she lies there prostrate. His hands are red with blood. I am here to arraign him; that the kingdom be taken from him, because he is not worthy, and given unto me. My hands are pure." I showed them. God said, "Thy hands are pure. Lift up thy robe." I raised it; my feet were red, blood-red, as if I had trodden in wine. God said, "How is this?" I said, "Dear Lord, the streets on earth are full of mire. If I should walk straight on in them my outer robe might be bespotted, you see how white it is! Therefore I pick my way." God said, "_On what?_" I was silent, and let my robe fall. I wrapped my mantle about my head. I went out softly. I was afraid that the angels would see me. II. Once more I stood at the gate of Heaven, I and another. We held fast by one another; We were very tired. We looked up at the great gates; angels opened them, and we went in. The mud was on our garments. We walked across the marble floor, and up to the great throne. Then the angels divided us. Her, they set upon the top step, but me, upon the bottom; for, they said, "Last time this woman came here she left red foot-marks on the floor; we had to wash them out with our tears. Let her not go up." Then she with whom I came, looked back and stretched out her hands to me; and I went and stood beside her. And the angels, they, the shining ones who never sinned and never suffered, walked by us, to and fro, up and down; I think we should have felt a little lonely there if it had not been for one another, the angels were so bright. God asked me what I had come for; and I drew my sister forward a little that He might see her. God said, "How is it you are here together today?" I said, "She was upon the ground in the street, and they passed over her; I lay down by her, and she put her arms around my neck, and so I lifted her, and we two rose together." God said, "Whom are you now come to accuse before Me?" I said, "We are come to accuse no man." And God bent and said, "My children--what is it that you seek?" And she beside me drew my hand that I should speak for both. I said, "We have come to ask that Thou shouldst speak to Man, our brother, and give us a message for him that he might understand, and that he might----" God said, "Go, take the message down to him!" I said, "But what _is_ the message?" God said, "Upon your hearts it is written; take it down to him." And we turned to go; the angels went with us to the door. They looked at us. And one said, "Ah! but their dresses are beautiful!" And the other said, "I thought it was mire when they came in, but see, it is all golden!" But another said, "Hush, it is the light from their faces!" And we went down to him. --_Olive Schreiner_. The Cry of the People Tremble before your chattels, Lords of the scheme of things! Fighters of all earth's battles, Ours is the might of kings! Guided by seers and sages, The world's heart-beat for a drum, Snapping the chains of ages, Out of the night we come! Lend us no ear that pities! Offer no almoner's hand! Alms for the builders of cities! When will you understand? Down with your pride of birth And your golden gods of trade! A man is worth to his mother, Earth, All that a man has made! We are the workers and makers! We are no longer dumb! Tremble, O Shirkers and Takers! Sweeping the earth--we come! Ranked in the world-wide dawn, Marching into the day! The night is gone and the sword is drawn And the scabbard is thrown away! --_Neihardt_. SPELLING LESSON 12 Last week we learned the rule governing the spelling of derivatives of _one_ syllable ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel when we add a suffix beginning with a vowel. The same rule applies to words of two or more syllables, accented on the last syllable. For example: _Compel_, compelled, compelling. _Prefer_, preferred, preferring. +Words accented on the last syllable, when they end in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant when you add a suffix beginning with a vowel.+ When these words take a suffix that begins with a _consonant_, they do _not_ double the final consonant; as, _preferment_. Words accented on any syllable but the last, do _not_ double the final consonant; as, _offer_, _offered_, _offering_. Words that have two vowels before a single final consonant do not double the final consonant; as, _reveal_, _revealed_, _revealing_. Words that end in a double consonant or any two consonants, keep the two consonants, no matter what suffix they take; as, _indent_, _indented_; _skill_, _skilled_, _skillful_. The only exception to this rule is when the addition of the suffix throws the accent back to a preceding syllable. When this is the case, the final consonant is not doubled. For example: _refer_, _referred_, _ref'erence_; _confer_, _conferring_, _con'ference_. Look up the following words in the dictionary, watch for the accent, mark and add the suffixes, _ed_, _ing_, _ence_ or _ance_, if possible. +Monday+ Repel Alter Prefer Debar Answer +Tuesday+ Inter Offer Demur Wonder Succeed +Wednesday+ Detain Combat Compel Occur Cancel +Thursday+ Permit Travel Repeal Control Profit +Friday+ Forbid Neglect Expel Render Infer +Saturday+ Benefit Retain Submit Reveal Limit PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 13 Dear Comrade: Did you ever tie a knot in your handkerchief to help you remember to get something you felt almost sure you would forget? Well, tying a knot in a cord was one of the first ways devised by our ancestors of long ago to aid them to remember. They also used this plan to send word to those at a distance or to keep track of things for succeeding generations. A relic of this old device of our forefathers is also found in the rosary on which the Roman Catholic counts his beads as an aid to memory. There are some primitive tribes to-day who still use knotted strings as an aid to memory. These consist of a main cord, and fastened at given distances are finer cords of different colors. Each cord is knotted in different ways to mean different things and each color, too, has its own meaning. A red string stands for soldiers, a yellow for gold, and a green for corn, and so on, while a single knot may mean ten, two single knots twenty, a double knot 100, two double knots 200. In this way, they keep a record of things, transmit orders and use them for various purposes. Only a generation ago the tax gatherers in the Island of Hawaii kept account of the assessable property on lines of cordage knotted in this manner, and these cords in some cases were three thousand feet long. The method of keeping track of things by means of a notched stick is easily within the memory of many people living today. For in England in the early part of the last century, accounts of debts to the government were kept by means of tally sticks, which were merely notched sticks. Such methods as these were the only ways primitive man had of keeping track of things before he had discovered the art of written speech. And even after written speech was known and used, these old methods persisted. Gradually, step by step, man has come along the path of progress. Adventurous spirits, not satisfied with the old way of doing things, sought new ways. The conservatives of their day thought them dangerous people, no doubt, and feared that they would destroy the very foundations of society. And this they oft-times did, but only that there might rise a more perfect form of society. It is the seeking, questioning mind that demands the reason for all things, that seeks ever better ways of doing things. They have always throughout the ages refused to bow to the authority of the past but have dared to live their own lives. To them we owe the progress of the world and we are the inheritors of their spirit. Let us prove our kinship by daring to live our own lives and think our own thoughts. Yours for Freedom, THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS +228+. You recall that in our first lesson we studied concerning the four different kinds of sentences which we use in expressing our thoughts, the _assertive_, the _interrogative_, the _imperative_ and the _exclamatory_. The interrogative sentence is the form which we use in asking a question, _interrogative_ being derived from the Latin _inter_, meaning _between_, and _rogare_, _to ask_, meaning literally _to ask between_. The interrogative sentence differs from the assertive sentence in the arrangement of the words; for in order to ask questions, we usually place the predicate, or part of it at least, before the subject, thus: _Can_ you _use_ good English? _Did_ you _spell_ the word correctly? _Has_ he _studied_ grammar? In these sentences, you note that the helping verbs, _can_, _did_ and _has_, are placed first instead of the subject. It is by this arrangement that we put the sentence in the interrogative form. +229.+ Frequently, however, in asking questions we wish to ask concerning a person or thing whose name we do not know. So we need a word to refer to the unknown object. See how these uses of words grow out of our need! We have three interrogative pronouns, _who_ and _which_ and _what_, that we use to meet this need. Notice the use of these three pronouns in the following sentences: _Who_ wrote the Communist Manifesto? _Which_ of the two men is the better known? _What_ are the closing words of this famous document? In these sentences, _who_ and _which_ and _what_ are the interrogative pronouns, used to ask questions concerning the unknown persons or objects. +230.+ +Who refers only to human beings or to personified objects.+ +Which refers either to human beings, animals or things.+ +What refers only to things.+ _Which_ and _what_ have the same form for both the subject and the object. _Who_ has a different form for all three forms, the subject form, the possessive form, and the object form. It uses the same form, however, both in singular and plural. _Subject form_ _Possessive form_ _Object form_ Who Whose Whom +231.+ We often make mistakes in the use of the different forms of the pronoun _who_. We often use the subject form for the object form, using _who_ where we should have used _whom_. For example: Who did you see? The correct form is: Whom did you see? The pronoun _whom_ is the object of the verb _see_, hence the object form should be used. However, the use of the subject form _who_ instead of _whom_ is coming into such general use today that some grammarians accept it as a permissible usage. The will of the people influences language, as it does all other human institutions, and gradually creates new rules. Write three sentences, using _who_, _which_ and _what_ as interrogative pronouns. +An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun used to ask a question.+ RELATIVE PRONOUNS +232.+ There is one other class of pronouns which plays a great part in our speech and is a wonderful help to us. For example, suppose I want to tell you several things about this book. I say: _I am reading this book. It interests me greatly._ Now it would be a great advantage to me if I could put these two sentences together, and we have for this use a pronoun which makes it possible for us to combine these sentences, and so I say: The book which I am reading interests me greatly. Thus I am able to unite two short sentences into a long sentence, which conveys my meaning better than the two short sentences and gives a smoother bit of reading. We have four pronouns which we use in this way, _who_, _which_, _that_ and _what_ and they are called relative pronouns because they refer or relate to some noun in the sentence and they also serve to connect two statements. +233.+ +A relative pronoun is a pronoun that relates to an antecedent and at the same time connects two statements.+ A relative pronoun always relates to its antecedent and at the same time connects the statement that it introduces with the one that contains the antecedent to which it relates, as in the sentence above, _The book which I am reading, interests me greatly._ _Which_ is the relative pronoun; first, because it relates to the antecedent, _book_; and second, because it connects the statement, _I am reading_, with the rest of the sentence. Notice these sentences also: The man who thinks will not enlist in the army. We will destroy the system that enslaves us. _Who_ and _that_ are the relative pronouns in these two sentences and their antecedents are _man_ and _system_, and they connect the statements, _who thinks_ and _that enslaves us_, with the rest of the sentence. +234.+ +Who is used to relate to persons.+ +Which is used to relate only to animals and things.+ +That may relate to either persons, animals or things.+ +What relates to things.+ Note that _which_, as an interrogative, may refer to persons as well as to animals and things; but as a relative, _which_ never refers to persons. +235+. Note that we use the same pronouns _who_, _which_ and _what_ as both relative and interrogative pronouns. You will not be confused in this matter if you will remember that they are called interrogative pronouns only when they are used to ask questions. When they are used as interrogative pronouns they never have an antecedent. _Who_ and _which_ and _what_ are always relative pronouns when used in an assertive sentence and referring to an antecedent. _That_ and _what_ have the same form for both the subject and object forms. They have no possessive form. _Who_ has a different form for the subject form and the possessive form and the object form. _Which_ has the same form for subject and object forms, and a different form for the possessive form. Note the following: _Subject form_ _Possessive form_ _Object form_ who whose whom which whose which I know the man _who_ called him. I know the man _whose_ voice I hear. I know the man _whom_ they called. In these three sentences we have the pronoun _who_ used in its three forms, subject, possessive and object form. We should be very careful not to confuse the subject and the object forms of the pronoun _who_. This is the book _which_ tells the truth. This is the book _whose_ author is in prison. This is the book _which_ I wanted. In these three sentences we have the pronoun _which_ used in its three forms, _subject_ form, _possessive_ form and _object_ form. In the first sentence the pronoun is the subject of the verb _tells_; in the second sentence, it is used in the possessive form with the noun _author_; in the third sentence, it is used as the object of the verb _wanted_. +236.+ _What_ differs from the other relative pronouns in that its antecedent is never expressed, for it is implied in the word itself. _What_ is always equivalent to _that which_, or _the thing which_. For example, the sentence, _Do not tell what I have told you_, is equivalent to saying, _Do not tell that which I have told you_, or _the thing which I have told you_. +237+. Never use _what_ in a sentence as a _relative_ pronoun unless you can replace it and make good sense by using _that which_, or _the thing which_ in place of _what_. For example, do not say, _I know that what he would say_. This is incorrect. You should say, _I know that which he would say_, or _I know what he would say_, using _what_ in place of _that which_. Here is a sentence that occurred in an English examination recently, which illustrates most aptly this point. _A subject is that what something is said about._ Here _what_ is used incorrectly. _A subject is that about which something is said_, would have been the correct form. Watch for this in your speech for it is a most common error and to the educated ear is harsh and marks the speaker as uneducated. All of these mistakes which we make so commonly will require a considerable amount of effort to overcome, but the result is worth the effort, for even those about us who will not take the pains or give the required time and effort to acquiring an education for themselves, will give greater heed to the speech of those who do speak correctly, and will readily acknowledge the leadership of those who have given the time and effort to self-development. +238.+ The antecedent of _who_ is sometimes omitted and understood; for example, _Who follows the cause must endure hardship_, _He_, is understood and omitted. _He who follows the cause must endure hardship._ +239.+ The relative pronoun itself is often omitted. For example: These are the men (whom) you must help. The words (that) you use and the deeds (that) you do, are your judges. +240.+ The relative pronouns have compound forms also, such as _whoever_, _whosoever_, _whichever_, _whichsoever_, _whatever_ and _whatsoever_, which are used in the same manner as the simple forms. COMMON ERRORS +241.+ Here are a number of common errors which only constant practice and watchfulness can overcome. Study these over and watch your conversation closely. Force yourself to speak correctly for a time, and soon correct speech will become a habit. +1.+ +Do not use both a noun and a pronoun as the subject of a sentence+; as, _John, he waited for me._ _Mary, she refused to go._ Leave out the pronouns _he_ and _she_ in these sentences. They are unnecessary and incorrect. +2.+ +Never use+ _hern_, _ourn_, _hisn_ or _yourn_ for _hers_, _ours_, _his_ and _yours_; as, _The book is hisn._ _Ourn stopped on the first._ _Did you get yourn?_ Say: _This book is his._ _Ours stopped on the first._ _Did you get yours?_ +3.+ +Never say+ _hisself_ for _himself_. There is no such word as _hisself_. Do not say, _He hurt hisself_. Say, _He hurt himself_. +4.+ +Do not say+ _them_ for _those_; as, _Did you bring them songs?_ _Them things are not right._ Say, _Did you bring those songs?_ _Those things are not right._ +5.+ +Do not use an apostrophe in writing the possessive forms of pronouns+, as _her's_, _our's_, _it's_. Leave out the apostrophe and write _hers_, _ours_, _its_. +6.+ +Do not use _who_ to relate to animals or things+; as, _The dog who bit me was killed_. Say, _The dog that bit me was killed_. +7.+ +Do not use _myself_ as the subject+. It can be used only as an emphatic or reflexive pronoun. It is correct to say, _I found the book myself_, and _I hurt myself_. But do not say, _They asked my friend and myself_, or _Myself and my wife will go_. Say, _They asked my friend and me_. _My wife and I will go._ +8.+ +Avoid the use of pronouns when the reference to the antecedent is not clear.+ Better repeat the nouns or re-write the sentence. For example: He said to his friend that if he did not feel better soon he thought he had better go home. Now you can interpret this in at least four different ways. No one but the speaker can ever know to whom the pronouns _he_ refer, whether to the speaker or to his friend. Or in the sentence, A tried to see B in the crowd, but could not because he was so short. Who was short, _A_ or _B_? _John's father died before he was born._ Did John's father die before John was born or did John's father die before John's father, himself, was born? Be careful in the use of pronouns in this way. +9.+ +Remember that _I_, _we_, _he_, _she_, _they_ and _who_ are always used as subject forms and also as the complement of all forms of the verb _be_.+ +10.+ +Remember that _me_, _him_, _her_, _them_, _us_ and _whom_ are always object forms+. Never say, _They charged he and I too much_. Say, _They charged him and me too much_. In an attempt to speak correctly and follow the niceties of English, this mistake is so often made. Always use the object form as the object of a verb or preposition. +11.+ +When a participle is used as a _noun_, and a pronoun is used with it, the pronoun should always be in the _possessive_ form+. We make this mistake so frequently. For example, we say: _Us going there was a mistake_. We should have used the possessive form, _Our going there was a mistake_. _I have never known of him being absent from work._ We should say: _I have never known of his being absent from work_. _Did he tell you about me joining with them?_ This should be, _Did he tell you about my joining with them?_ _You talking to him set him to thinking._ This should be, _Your talking to him set him to thinking_. Watch this and wherever you have used a participle as a _noun_, use the pronoun in the _possessive_ form, as you would with any other noun. +12.+ +Watch carefully that the number of the pronoun always agrees with the number of its antecedent.+ If you are speaking of one person or thing use a singular pronoun. If you are speaking of more than one person or thing in your antecedent, use the plural pronoun. For example: _Each man must do his own work._ _The soldiers fully understood their danger._ +13.+ +When a singular noun, in the common gender (this means that it may name either a male or female being), is the antecedent of the pronoun, it is customary for us to use the masculine pronoun.+ For example: Every student should send in _his_ examination paper promptly. Every member of the class may select _his_ own subject. Do not use the pronoun _their_ when the antecedent is a singular noun. SUMMARY Pronoun--In Place of a Noun CLASSES _Personal_ {Simple-- {1st Person, _speaking_. {Compound-- {2nd Person, _spoken to_. {3rd Person, _spoken of_. _Interrogative_ {To ask questions. {_Who_, _which_ and _what_. _Relative_ {To refer to another word and connect two statements. {_Who_, _which_, _that_ and _what_. Exercise 1 Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of _I_, _me_, or _myself_, in the blank spaces: 1. My partner and......joined the union. 2. They asked Henry and......to go. 3. May my friend and......call? 4. I will attend to that....... 5. Let my comrade and......go with you. 6. Are you sure it was......? 7. I blame......for joining with them. 8. They accused......of bothering them. 9. I am nearly beside......with grief. 10. The manager dismissed the men......among the rest. Exercise 2 Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of _we_, _us_ or _ourselves_ in the blank spaces: 1. They are better off than....... 2. The French as well as......claim a war of defense. 3. Can you blame......who have always stood by you? 4. We will do that for....... 5. Between......comrades there should be no differences. 6. They gave......men work. 7. Do not trouble;......will attend to this....... 8. They sent a special notice to our friends and....... Exercise 3 Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of _thou_, _thee_, _thy_ or _thyself_ in the blank spaces: 1. To......be true, and it follows as the night the day...... canst not then be false to any man. 2. Paul,......art beside......; much learning hath made ......mad. 3. ......shalt love......neighbor as....... 4. Trust....... Every heart vibrates to that iron string. Exercise 4 Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of _he_, _him_, or _himself_ in the blank spaces: 1. ......and John are to blame. 2. I think it was....... 3. My friend and......called on you. 4. He blamed......for the accident. 5. You are no better than....... 6. I shall call for you and....... 7. You and......must come on time. 8. He found the place....... 9. There should be no quarrel between you and......who loves you. 10. If you were......would you go? Exercise 5 Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of _she_, _her_, or _herself_ in the blank spaces: 1. They asked Mary and......to go. 2. Mary and......went. 3. May......and I go with you? 4. Let......and Harry go. 5. Is that Mary? Yes, it is....... 6. There are many points of difference between......and me. 7. You are more beautiful than....... 8. She brought it to me....... 9. If......and I join you, will you go? 10. They must not quarrel over......and me. Exercise 6 Complete the following sentences using the correct form of _they_, _them_, or _themselves_ in the blank spaces: 1. They gave......up. 2. ......and I will finish the work. 3. I found......where......hath thrown......down to rest. 4. I am sure it was......for I saw......plainly. 5. The workers enslave......by their lack of solidarity. 6. ......must learn the lesson....... Exercise 7 Cross out the wrong word in the following sentences: 1. Everybody do--does as he pleases--they please. 2. No one should waste his--their opportunities. 3. The jury rendered its--their verdict. 4. If anyone wishes war, let him--them do the fighting. 5. The audience displayed its--their approval by its--their applause. 6. The audience remained quietly in its--their seats. 7. The jury adjourned for its--their dinner. 8. Nobody willingly gives up his--their rights. 9. Each one may express his--their opinion. 10. Every man received his--their wages. Exercise 8 Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of the pronouns _who_, _whose_, or _whom_: 1. ......do you think I am? 2. I am the man......you taught yesterday. 3. With......are you going? 4. The contract was let to a man......we are sure cannot fulfill it. 5. The contractor......wishes to bid will come tomorrow. 6. On......are you depending? 7. The friends......counsel I took, stood by me. 8. He is a man......I am sure will succeed. 9. We tried to talk to those......we thought would understand us. 10. For......did you work? Exercise 9 Insert _who_, _whose_, _whom_, _which_, _that_ or _what_ in the blanks in the following sentences: 1. Man is the only animal......uses a written speech. 2. Can you save......you earn? 3. Ricardo's law was that the workers always receive a wage......permits them to produce and reproduce. 4. Have you read the book "War, What For"......Kirkpatrick wrote. 5. Newspapers......distort the news......they print to serve the ruling class are dangerous foes to the workers. 6. The massacre at Ludlow was an event......aroused the working class. 7. They......live by the labor of others are drones in society and should be given the fate......they deserve. 8. The big machine gun......will destroy slavery is the printing press. 9. The man......leadership we should follow is he......preaches social equality. 10. We know......we need and we will demand......is our right. Exercise 10 In the following quotations note the use of the pronouns and mark whether they are _personal_, _relative_ or _interrogative_, whether they are used in the _subject_ form, _possessive_ form or _object_ form: 1. "Camerado, I give you my hand, I give you my love more precious than money, I give you myself before preaching or law; Will you give me yourself, will you come travel with me, Shall we stick by each other as long as we live?" 2. "I think I could turn and live with animals they are so placid and self-contained, I stand and look at them long and long, they do not sweat and whine about their condition, They do not lie awake in the dark and weep for their sins, They do not make me sick discussing their duty to God; Not one is dis-satisfied, not one is demented with the mania of owning things. Not one kneels to another nor to his kind, that lived thousands of years ago, Not one is respectable or unhappy over the whole earth." --_Whitman_. Exercise 11 Note the omission of the antecedent in the first sentence, also the use of the relative _what_ in the last sentence of the first paragraph: "Whoso would be a man, must be nonconformist. He who would gather immortal palms must not be hindered by the name of goodness, but must explore if it be goodness. Nothing is at last sacred but the integrity of our own mind. Absolve you to yourself, and you shall have the suffrage of the world. I remember an answer which, when quite young, I was prompted to make to a valued adviser who was wont to importune me with the dear old doctrines of the church. On my saying, "What have I to do with the sacredness of traditions, if I live wholly from within?" my friend suggested--"But these impulses may be from below, not from above." I replied, "They do not seem to me to be such; but if I am the devil's child, I will live then from the devil." No law can be sacred to me but that of my nature. Good and bad are but names very readily transferable to that or this; the only right is what is after my constitution; the only wrong what is against it. A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds, adored by little statesmen and philosophers and divines. With consistency a great soul has simply nothing to do. He may as well concern himself with his shadow on the wall. Out upon your guarded lips! Sew them up with pack threads, do. Else, if you would be a man, speak what you think today in words as hard as cannon balls, and tomorrow speak what tomorrow thinks in hard words again, though you contradict everything you said today. Ah, then, exclaim the aged ladies, you shall be sure to be misunderstood. Misunderstood! It is a right fool's word. Is it so bad then to be misunderstood? Pythagoras was misunderstood, and Socrates, and Jesus, and Luther, and Copernicus, and Galileo, and Newton, and every pure and wise spirit that ever took flesh. To be great is to be misunderstood."--_Emerson_. SPELLING LESSON 13 There are a few more rules governing the spelling of derivative words. Words ending in silent _e_ keep the _e_ before the suffix beginning with a consonant. Notice the following words: excite excitement like likeness force forceful shame shameless lone lonesome live lively Words ending in silent _e_ drop the _e_ before the suffix beginning with a vowel, as: excite excitable live living grieve grievous force forcible Some words ending in silent _e_ retain the _e_ before the suffix beginning with a vowel, to prevent a change in the pronunciation or to preserve the identity of the word. Notice the following words: peace peaceable courage courageous singe singeing change changeable shoe shoeing notice noticeable These are words ending in the soft sound of _c_ and _g_, where the _e_ is retained to preserve the correct pronunciation of the _c_ and _g_, and with some few words like _toe_, _dye_, etc., where the dropping of the _e_ would lose the identity of the word. The _e_ is dropped in a few words before the suffix beginning with a consonant, as in _wholly_, _nursling_, _judgment_, _wisdom_, _lodgment_. Add the suffixes _ment_ and _ing_ to the words in Monday's lesson; the suffix _able_ to the words for Tuesday and Wednesday; the suffixes _some_ and _ous_ to the words for Thursday; the suffixes _ly_ or _ness_ to the words for Friday and Saturday. +Monday+ Excite Advise Chastise Disfranchise Enslave +Tuesday+ Manage Receive Blame Exchange Imagine +Wednesday+ Admire Service Desire Peace Pronounce +Thursday+ Whole Meddle Courage Advantage Outrage +Friday+ Accurate Positive False Definite Distinct +Saturday+ Agreeable Careful Awful Sure Secure PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 14 Dear Comrade: You remember our definition of a word; a word is the sign of an idea. In our lessons we have been studying the different kinds of words which we use in the expression of our complete thoughts. Probably the first step in the development of language was to name the objects about us. Then the next logical step would be to invent words which would tell what these objects did. So we have our nouns, which are the names of things; our verbs, which tell what these things do; and in these we have the foundation for spoken and written speech. We soon found, however, that the constant repetition of a name was tiresome and annoying, so we invented words which we could use in place of these nouns; and we have pronouns. All of the things about us possess certain qualities and our next great need was for words to describe these qualities; so we have adjectives. Each adjective is a sign of an idea. It adds its part to the expression of our complete thought. So we find that each part of speech comes logically in its place to fill a certain need. Without any one of them, we would be crippled in our power of expression. Each different word is the sign of an idea and the combination of these ideas as represented by the various signs gives us the complete expression of our thought. So primitive man in the development of written speech had signs to express the various things about him. Naturally his first sign was a picture, as nearly as he could draw it, of the object itself. If he wanted to tell you about a tree he drew a picture of the tree; the picture of a man represented a man, and so on. You will notice among children that this is the first development in their endeavor to express their thoughts in writing. They draw pictures. The average small child cannot understand why you read those strange marks on the page. They want you to read the pictures. To their mind that is the only way to communicate ideas. These early forefathers of ours grew to be very adept at this picture writing. We have examples of this among the Indians of our own country. There is a picture on the face of a big rock on the shores of Lake Superior which records an expedition across the lake led by a noted Indian chief. Canoes are shown in the picture with the crew denoted by a series of upright strokes and there is a picture of the chief on horseback. You or I would have great difficulty in reading this picture writing, but an Indian could read it right off just as we would read a written page. Aids to memory such as knotted strings and tally sticks were the first step toward written speech. This picture writing was the second step toward the development of written speech. We owe a great deal to the work which these primitive ancestors of ours accomplished. It took them years and years to develop through these different stages and our rapid development of the last few centuries has only been made possible because of this slow and patient building of the foundation. An understanding of this helps us to appreciate the place we occupy in this great struggle of the ages. The power of written speech opens up to us such tremendous possibilities. Let us make the most of them, that we too may hand on worth while things to those who follow us. Yours for Education, THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES +242.+ Adjectives, like nouns and pronouns, are divided into classes. Adjectives are divided into two main classes, _qualifying_ and _limiting_. +243.+ An adjective which qualifies a noun is one which names some quality which is possessed by the word which it modifies. When we say, _Trees grow_, we are making a general statement; that is, we are saying something that is true of any kind of trees. We have not described any particular tree. But when we say, _The tall trees grow_, _The old trees grow_, _The young trees grow_, the words _tall_, _old_ and _young_ describe certain qualities of the trees, which separate them into classes. So these adjectives are _qualifying adjectives_. An adjective qualifies a noun when it attributes some quality to the noun, as, _The brave man_, _The sweet apple_, _The pretty girl_, _The large house_, etc. +244.+ But if we say, _this tree_, _that tree_, _some trees_, _many trees_, _three trees_, or _four trees_, we are not giving any quality of the tree, but are pointing out a particular tree or trees and limiting the word to the ones pointed out. So such adjectives as _the_, _this_, _that_, _some_, _many_, _three_ and _four_ are limiting adjectives. An adjective limits a noun when it restricts or limits its meaning as to quantity or number. +245.+ So adjectives are divided into two classes, _qualifying_ adjectives and _limiting_ adjectives. +Words that limit or qualify other words are called _modifiers_ because they modify or affect the meaning of the words to which they are added.+ So adjectives are modifiers of the nouns and pronouns to which they are added because they modify or qualify or limit the meaning of the noun or pronoun. The limiting adjectives answer the questions _which_ and _how many_. The qualifying adjectives answer the questions _which_ and _what kind_. +246.+ +A qualifying adjective is an adjective which describes the noun it modifies by attributing to it some quality.+ +A limiting adjective is an adjective which merely shows which one or how many, without describing the noun it modifies.+ HOW TO DISCOVER AN ADJECTIVE +247.+ Sometimes the noun may have several adjectives qualifying or modifying it; as, The beautiful, old elm tree shades the lawn. _The_, _beautiful_, _old_ and _elm_, all modify _tree_, telling something of the qualities or pointing out which tree we are speaking of. You can discover an adjective in a sentence by asking the questions, _which_, _what kind_, or _how many_; and the words that answer these questions will be the adjectives in the sentence. For example in this sentence: Those three immense factories employ thousands of men. _Factories_ is the noun, subject of the sentence. _Which_ factory is indicated by the adjective _those_. _How many_ factories is indicated by the adjective _three_. _What kind_ of factories is indicated by the adjective _immense_. So we have three adjectives answering the three questions, _which_, _what kind_ and _how many_. Exercise 1 In the following sentences the adjectives are printed in _italics_. Study them carefully and determine which are qualifying and which are limiting adjectives. Note that the possessive nouns and possessive pronouns are _not_ adjectives. _Its_ in the phrases _its cruel fangs_ and _its savage claws_, is a possessive pronoun, third person singular. In the last sentence _beggar's_, _miser's_, and _Ingersoll's_, are nouns in the possessive form. _This terrible_ war in Europe is slaughtering _the_ working-class. _Gaunt_ famine follows war. A _docile_, _meek_, _humble_, working-class makes war _possible_. _The shrieking_ shell snarls like a _living_ thing; like _some wild_ beast in _ferocious_ glee it thrusts its _cruel_ fangs in earth and rock and rends _living_ flesh with its _savage_ claws. Its _fetid_ breath of _poison_ powder scorches in _the autumn_ winds. _Shattered_ bones, _torn_ flesh and _flowing_ blood were mingled on _the_ battlefield with _broken_ swords and _split_ rifles. _The best modern_ rifles will force _a_ bullet through _five human_ bodies at _a_ range of _twelve hundred_ feet. _The pitiful_ dead, _slain_ in war, sleep under _the solemn_ pines, _the sad_ hemlock, _the tearful_ willow and _the embracing_ vines. A world without _the_ beggar's _outstretched_ palm, _the_ miser's _heartless_ _stony_ stare, _the piteous_ wail of want, _the livid_ lips of lies, _the cruel_ eyes of scorn, was Ingersoll's vision of _the_ future. QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES +248.+ Qualifying adjectives are also called _descriptive_ adjectives because they describe the noun. They answer the questions _which_ and _what kind_. You remember we found in the beginning of our study of English, that words were grouped into classes according to the work which they do in the sentence, not according to the form of the word itself. For instance, we have already found that some words, without changing their form, may be used either as a noun or as a verb. Take the word _oil_, for instance. I may say, _I oil the engine_. Here I have used the word _oil_ as a verb telling what I do. But I may say, _The oil is gone_. Here I have used the word _oil_ as a noun, subject of the sentence. The part of speech to which a word belongs in the English language, always depends upon the work which it does in the sentence. +1.+ So we have nouns which are used as descriptive adjectives, for example the word _oil_, which we have found we can use either as a noun or a verb, may also be used as an adjective. For example; I may say, _the oil tank_. Here I have used the word _oil_ as a descriptive adjective modifying the word _tank_. So also we may say, _the oak tree_, _the stone curb_, _the earth wall_. In these expressions _oak_, _stone_ and _earth_ are nouns used as descriptive adjectives. +2.+ We have descriptive adjectives derived from proper nouns, as French, English, American. These are called proper adjectives; and since all proper nouns must begin with a capital letter, these proper adjectives, also, should always begin with a capital letter. +3.+ We have also descriptive adjectives derived from verbs as _active_, _talkative_, _movable_, _desirable_, derived by the addition of suffixes to the verbs _act_, _talk_, _move_ and _desire_. LIMITING ADJECTIVES +249.+ Limiting adjectives are also divided into classes, the _numerals_, the _demonstratives_ and the _articles_. Numeral Adjectives +250.+ Numeral adjectives are those which limit nouns as to number or order. They are such adjectives as _one_, _two_, _three_, _four_, etc., and _first_, _second_ and _third_, etc., as for example: _Three_ men applied for work. The train ran at the rate of _forty_ miles an hour. There have always been _two_ classes in the world. The _first_ martyr to anti-militarism was Jaures. The _eighteenth_ day of March is the anniversary of the Paris Commune. In these sentences the adjectives _three_, _forty_, _two_, _first_ and _eighteenth_ are all numeral adjectives. They limit the nouns which they modify as to number or order. +Adjectives that limit nouns as to number or order are called numeral adjectives. Numeral adjectives answer the question how many or in what order.+ Demonstratives +251.+ We have also a class of adjectives which are used to point out some particular person or thing. These are called _demonstrative_ adjectives. Demonstrate means literally _to point out_. So these adjectives point out from a number of things, one particular thing to our attention. These demonstrative adjectives are _this_, _that_, _those_, _these_, _yonder_, _former_, _latter_ and _same_. _These_ and _those_ are the plural forms of _this_ and _that_. _This_ and _these_ are used to point out things near at hand. _That_ and _those_ are used to point out things more distant, as _This is my book_. _These are my papers_, meaning _this book_ or _these papers_, close to me. By, _That is my pencil_ and _Those are my letters_, I mean _that pencil_, and _those letters_, which are farther away from me. _Former_ and _latter_ are used to show which of two things already mentioned is referred to, and to point out things in point of time, not of place. For example, we may say: We no longer observe the _former_ customs, but rather prefer the _latter_. He did not like his _former_ job but this _latter_ job pleases him. You understand from this that we have been discussing and describing two kinds of work, and that the first in point of time was unpleasant and the second pleasant. The demonstrative adjective _same_ refers to something of which we have just spoken, as for example, _He has gone to work, I must do the same thing_. These demonstrative adjectives answer the question which, so when you wish to discover a demonstrative in a sentence, ask the question _which_, and the answer will be the demonstrative adjective. Exercise 2 1. _This_ study is very interesting. 2. _These_ comrades will stand by us. 3. _That_ solution will never deceive the people. 4. _Those_ books have opened our eyes. 5. _Yonder_ battle appals the world. 6. _Former_ investigations have had no results. 7. _This latter_ decision has reversed the _former_. 8. The class struggle has persisted through the centuries; we are engaged in the _same_ struggle. Make sentences of your own containing these demonstrative adjectives. ARTICLES +252.+ We have three adjectives which are used so commonly that we have put them in a class by themselves. These three little words are _a_, _an_ and _the_, and we call them articles. The word _article_ literally means a little joint or limb, and these three little words are so closely connected with the nouns with which they are used that they seem to be a part or joint or limb of the noun itself, and so we have called them articles. _A_ and _an_ are called the _indefinite_ articles because they point out an object in a very indefinite manner. _The_ is called the _definite_ article for it points out in a more definite way. We use _a_ before words beginning with a consonant sound, as _a man_, _a tree_, _a book_; and we use _an_ before words beginning with a vowel sound, as _an apple_, _an editor_, _an orange_, _an heir_. In _heir_ the _h_ is silent, and we say _an_ because the word begins with a vowel sound. _A_ is used before words beginning with _u_ because long _u_ is equivalent in sound to a consonant, for the blending of the sounds of which long _u_ is composed produces the initial sound of _y_, which is a consonant sound. For example, we say, _a university_, _a useful work_, etc., and not _an university_. Before words beginning with short _u_, use _an_, as, _an upstart_, etc. In deciding whether to use _a_ or _an_, watch the initial _sound_ of the word, not the initial _letter_. If it is a vowel sound use _an_, if a consonant sound, use _a_. Exercise 3 Underscore the correct article in the following sentences: 1. Bring me an--a apple. 2. He is a--an able orator. 3. A--an heir was born to the German King. 4. He built a--an house for his family. 5. He is an--a honest man. 6. He is a--an undertaker. 7. I had to take a--an upper berth. 8. He joined a--an union. 9. It is a--an unique book. 10. He is a--an unruly member of society. 11. He told a--an untruth. 12. He wears a--an uniform. 13. It is a--an honor to be chosen. +253.+ When a singular noun is modified by several adjectives, only one of the articles _an_ or _a_ must be used if the noun denotes but _one_ object; but if the noun denotes more than one object the article must be repeated before each noun. For example, I say, _A red, white and blue flag_. You know I mean but one flag, containing the three colors, red, white and blue. But if I say, _A red, a white and a blue flag_, you know I mean three flags, one red, one white, and one blue. Note the use of the article in the following sentences: He wears a black and white suit. He wears a black and a white suit. He sold a red and white cow. He sold a red and a white cow. He bought a gas and coal stove. He bought a gas and a coal stove. The first sentences in each of the above series refers to only one object. The second sentences all refer to two objects. +254.+ There are some rules concerning the article _the_ that it is well to know because we do not always say what we wish to say, if we do not observe these rules or customs of speech. For example, I say, _The editor and publisher of this book is unknown_. I have used the article _the_ but once, and I mean that the editor and publisher is one person. But I may say, _The editor and the publisher of this book are well known_. In this sentence I have used the article _the_ twice, _the_ editor and _the_ publisher, and I mean that the editor and the publisher are two different persons. So when two or more nouns following each other denote the same person or thing, the article is not repeated, but when the nouns denote different persons or things, the article must be repeated before each noun. Be sure to use the proper form of the verb. Note the following sentences and underscore the proper verb to complete the meaning: The secretary and treasurer were--was here. The secretary and the treasurer were--was elected. The singer and artist were--was with me. The singer and the artist were--was on the program. Sometimes we have two things so closely associated in use that they may be considered as forming a single idea, so that we may use the article before the first one only. For example: The pen and ink is gone. He bought a horse and buggy. The bread and butter is on the plate. INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES +255.+ You remember we found in the study of pronouns that we have interrogative pronouns which we use in asking questions when we do not know the name of the object concerning which we are asking. We also have adjectives which we use in asking questions when we do not know the number or quality of the object concerning which we are asking. For example: _Which_ book did you enjoy most? _What_ work are you doing now? _What_ machine did you order? _Which_ and _what_ are the interrogative adjectives in these sentences. +Interrogative adjectives are adjectives used in asking questions.+ INDEFINITES +256.+ We have one more class of adjectives called indefinites. +An indefinite adjective is one that does not denote any particular person or thing.+ All such adjectives as _each_, _every_, _either_, _neither_, _some_, _any_, _many_, _much_, _few_, _all_, _both_, _no_, _none_, _several_ and _certain_ are indefinite adjectives. We use them when we are not speaking of any particular person or thing, but are speaking in a broad, general sense and in an indefinite manner. +257.+ The interrogative adjectives are sometimes used in this indefinite way. They are sometimes used to modify nouns when a direct question is not asked, and they are then used, not as interrogative adjectives, but as indefinite adjectives. For example: He did not know which party to join. I have not learned what time he will go. In these sentences _which_ and _what_ are not used to ask questions, but are used to describe an unknown object. Exercise 4 All the words in italics are adjectives. Decide to which class each adjective belongs. Note in this exercise the compound words used as adjectives, as: _earth-born_, _self-made_, _new-lit_, _blood-rusted_. Look up the meaning of these adjectives and see if you can use other adjectives in their places and keep the same meaning. Note the use of _fellest_. Slavery, _the earth-born_ Cyclops, _fellest_ of _the giant_ brood, Sons of _brutish_ Force and Darkness, who have drenched _the_ earth with blood, _Famished_ in his _self-made_ desert, _blinded_ by our _purer_ day, Gropes in yet _unblasted_ regions for his _miserable_ prey;-- Shall we guide his _gory_ fingers where our _helpless_ children play? They have rights who dare maintain them; we are traitors to our sires, _Smothering_ in their _holy_ ashes Freedom's _new-lit_ altar-fires; Shall we make their creed our jailer? Shall we, in our haste to slay, From the tombs of _the old_ prophets steal _the funeral_ lamps away To light up _the_ martyr-fagots round _the_ prophets of to-day? _New_ occasions teach _new_ duties; Time makes _ancient_ good, _uncouth_; They must upward still, and onward, who would keep _abreast_ of Truth; Lo, before us gleam her camp-fires! We ourselves must Pilgrims be, Launch our Mayflower, and steer boldly through _the desperate winter_ sea, Nor attempt _the_ Future's portal with _the_ Past's _blood-rusted_ key. --_Lowell_. Exercise 5 The following is from Oscar Wilde's story of _The Young King_. Oscar Wilde was a master of English, and if you have the opportunity, read all of this beautiful story and watch his use of adjectives. Mark the adjectives in this excerpt and use them in sentences of your own. And as the young King slept he dreamed a dream, and this was his dream. He thought that he was standing in a long, low attic, amidst the whirr and clatter of many looms. The meager daylight peered in through the grated windows and showed him the gaunt figures of the weavers, bending over their cases. Pale, sickly-looking children were crouched on the huge crossbeams. As the shuttles dashed through the warp they lifted up the heavy battens, and when the shuttles stopped they let the battens fall and pressed the threads together. Their faces were pinched with famine, and their thin hands shook and trembled. Some haggard women were seated at a table, sewing. A horrible odor filled the place. The air was foul and heavy, and the walls dripped and streamed with damp. The young King went over to one of the weavers and stood by him and watched him. And the weaver looked at him angrily and said, "Why art thou watching me? Art thou a spy set on us by our master?" "Who is thy master?" asked the young King. "Our master!" cried the weaver, bitterly. "He is a man like myself. Indeed, there is but this difference between us--that he wears fine clothes while I go in rags, and that while I am weak from hunger he suffers not a little from overfeeding." "The land is free," said the young King, "and thou art no man's slave." "In war," answered the weaver, "the strong make slaves of the weak, and in peace the rich make slaves of the poor. We must work to live, and they give us such mean wages that we die. We toil for them all day long, and they heap up gold in their coffers, and our children fade away before their time, and the faces of those we love become hard and evil. We tread out the grapes, another drinks the wine. We sow the corn, and our own board is empty. We have chains, though no eye beholds them; and are slaves, though men call us free." "Is it so with all?" he asked. "It is so with all," answered the weaver, "with the young as well as with the old, with the women as well as with the men, with the little children as well as with those who are stricken in years. The merchants grind us down, and we must needs do their bidding. The priest rides by and tells his beads, and no man has care of us. Through our sunless lanes creeps Poverty with her hungry eyes, and Sin with his sodden face follows close behind her. Misery wakes us in the morning, and Shame sits with us at night. But what are these things to thee? Thou art not one of us. Thy face is too happy." And he turned away scowling, and threw the shuttle across the loom, and the young King saw that it was threaded with a thread of gold. And a great terror seized upon him, and he said to the weaver, "What robe is this that thou art weaving?" "It is the robe for the coronation of the young King," he answered; "What is that to thee?" And the young King gave a loud cry and woke and lo! he was in his own chamber, and through the window he saw the great honey-colored moon hanging in the dusky air. SPELLING LESSON 14 You remember in the formation of plurals, we learned that words ending in _y_ change _y_ to _i_ when _es_ is added; as, _lady, ladies_; _baby, babies_; _dry, dries_, etc. There are several rules concerning words ending in _y_, knowledge of which will aid us greatly in spelling. +1.+ +Words ending in _ie_ change the _ie_ to _y_ before _ing_ to prevent a confusing number of vowels.+ For example, _die, dying_; _lie, lying_; _tie, tying_. +2.+ +Words of more than one syllable ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant, change _y_ into _i_ before all suffixes except those beginning with _i_.+ For example: happy, happily, happiness; witty, wittier, wittiest; satisfy, satisfied, satisfying; envy, enviable, envying. This exception is made for suffixes beginning with _i_, the most common of which is _ing_, to avoid having a confusing number of _i's_. +3.+ +Most words ending in _y_ preceded by a vowel retain the _y_ before a suffix.+ For example: destroy, destroyer, destroying; buy, buyer, buying; essay, essayed, essayist. The following words are exception to this rule: laid, paid, said, daily, staid. Make as many words as you can out of the words given in this week's spelling lesson by adding one or more of the following suffixes: _er_, _est_, _ed_, _es_, _ing_, _ly_, _ness_, _ful_, _ment_, _al_. +Monday+ Beauty Portray Deny Rare Multiply +Tuesday+ Mercy Bury Obey Lovely Envy +Wednesday+ Tie Defy Study Decry Crazy +Thursday+ Merry Silly Lusty Imply Day +Friday+ Dismay Duty Employ Satisfy Pretty +Saturday+ Pay Joy Journey Qualify Sorry PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 15 Dear Comrade: In this week's lesson we are finishing the study of adjectives, which adds another part of speech to those which we have studied. We can see in the study of each additional part of speech how each part has its place in the expression of our ideas. We could not express ourselves fully if we lacked any of these parts of speech. Each one is not an arbitrary addition to our language but has come to us out of the need for it. We see that there are no arbitrary rules but in language, as in all things else, growing needs have developed more efficient tools. With these have grown up certain rules of action so we can have a common usage and system in our use of these tools. It has taken years of effort to accomplish this. The changes have been slow and gradual, and this language which we are studying is the finished product. This slow development in the use of language, even in our own lives, makes us realize how many thousands of years it must have taken our primitive ancestors to reach a point where they could use the phonetic alphabet. We have found that at first they used simple aids to memory, as knotted strings and tally sticks. Then they began to draw pictures of things about them and so were able to communicate with one another by means of these pictures. When a man was going away from his cave and wanted to leave word for those who might come, telling them where he had gone and how soon he would return, he drew a picture of a man over the entrance with the arm extended in the direction in which he had gone. Then he drew another picture of a man in a sleeping position and also one of a man with both hands extended in the gesture which indicated many. These two pictures showed that he would be away over many nights. In some such rude manner as this, they were able to communicate with one another. But man soon began to _think_, and he needed to express ideas concerning things of which he could not draw pictures. He could draw a picture of the sun, but how could he indicate light? How could he indicate the different professions in which men engaged, such as the farmer and priest, etc.? He was forced to invent symbols or signs to express these ideas, so his writing was no longer a picture of some object, but he added to it symbols of abstract ideas. A circle which stood for the sun written with the crescent which stood for the moon, indicated light. The bee became a symbol of industry. An ostrich feather was a symbol of justice, because these feathers were supposed to be of equal length. A picture of a woman stood simply for a woman, but a picture of two women stood for strife, and three women stood for intrigue. These old ancestors of ours became wise quite early concerning some things. The symbol for a priest in the early Egyptian picture writing was a jackal. Perhaps not because he "devoured widows' houses," but because the jackal was a very watchful animal. The symbol for mother was a vulture because that bird was believed to nourish its young with its own blood. It naturally required a good memory and a clear grasp of association to be able to read this sort of writing. It required many centuries for this slow development of written speech. The development of language has been a marvelous growth and a wonderful heritage has come to us. Let us never be satisfied until we have a mastery of our language and find a way to express the ideas that surge within us. A mastery of these lessons will help us. Yours for Education, THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS +258.+ From our study of the adjective, we know that it is a word used with a noun to qualify or limit its meaning. But a great many times we find these adjectives used without the noun which they modify. As, for example, I may say, _This is mine_, and the adjective _this_ is used alone without the noun which it modifies, and you are able to tell only by what I have been saying or by some action of mine to what I am referring when I say _this_. When adjectives are used in this manner, they are used like pronouns--in place of a noun. So sometimes we find an adjective used with a noun, and sometimes used as a pronoun, in place of a noun; and since we name our parts of speech by the work which they do in the sentence, an adjective used in this way is not an adjective, but a pronoun or word used in place of a noun. So these words are pronouns when they stand alone to represent things--when they are used in place of a noun. They are adjectives when they are used _with_ a noun to limit or qualify the noun. For example, I may say, _This tree is an elm, but that tree is an oak_. _This_ and _that_ in this sentence are adjectives used to modify the noun _tree_. But I may say, _This is an oak and that is an elm_, and in this sentence _this_ and _that_ are used without a noun, they are used as pronouns. +259.+ Our being able to name every part of speech is not nearly so important as our being able to understand the functions of the different parts of speech and being able to use them correctly. But still it is well for us to be able to take a sentence and point out its different parts and tell what each part is and the function which it serves in the sentence. So sometimes in doing this we may find it difficult to tell whether certain words are adjectives or pronouns. We can distinguish between adjectives and pronouns by this rule: When you cannot supply the noun which the adjective modifies, from the _same_ sentence, then the word which takes the place of the noun is a pronoun, but if you can supply the omitted noun from the same sentence, then the word is used as an adjective. Thus, we do not say that the noun is understood unless it has already been used in the same sentence and is omitted to avoid repetition. We make each sentence a law unto itself and classify each word in the sentence according to what it does in its own sentence. So if a noun does not occur in the same sentence with the word about which we are in doubt as to whether it is a pronoun or adjective, it is a pronoun or word used in place of a noun. For example, in the sentence, _This book is good but that is better_; _book_ is understood after the word _that_ and left out to avoid tiresome repetition of the word _book_. Therefore _that_ is an adjective in this sentence. But if I say, _This is good, but that is better_; there is no noun understood, for there is no noun in the sentence which we can supply with _this_ and _that_. Therefore in this sentence _this_ and _that_ are pronouns, used in place of the noun. And since _this_ and _that_, when used as adjectives, are called demonstrative adjectives; therefore when _this_ and _that_, _these_ and _those_, and similar words, are used as pronouns they are called demonstrative pronouns. +260.+ Be careful not to confuse the possessive pronouns with adjectives. Possessive pronouns modify the nouns with which they are used, but they are not adjectives, they are possessive pronouns. _My_, _his_, _her_, _its_, _our_, _your_ and _their_ are all possessive pronouns, not adjectives. Also be careful not to confuse nouns in the possessive form with adjectives. ADJECTIVES AS NOUNS +261.+ Sometimes you will find words, which we are accustomed to look upon as adjectives, used alone in the sentence without a noun which they modify. For example, we say, _The strong enslave the weak_. Here we have used the adjectives _strong_ and _weak_ without any accompanying noun. In sentences like this, these adjectives, being used as nouns, are classed as nouns. Remember, in your analysis of a sentence, that you name every word according to the work which it does in that sentence, so while these adjectives are doing the work of nouns, we will consider them as nouns. These words are not used in the same manner in which demonstrative adjectives are used as pronouns. There is no noun omitted which might be inserted, but these adjectives are used rather to name a class. As, for example; when we say, _The strong_, _The weak_, we mean all those who are strong and all those who are weak, considered as a class. You will find adjectives used in this way quite often in your reading, and you will find that you use this construction very often in your ordinary speech. As, for example: The rich look down upon the poor. The wise instruct the ignorant. Many examples will occur to you. Remember these adjectives are nouns when they do the work of nouns. ADJECTIVES WITH PRONOUNS +262.+ Since pronouns are used in place of nouns, they may have modifiers, also, just as nouns do. So you will often find adjectives used to modify pronouns. As, for example; _He, tired, weak and ill, was unable to hold his position_. Here, _tired_, _weak_ and _ill_ are adjectives modifying the pronoun _he_. +263.+ We often find a participle used as an adjective with a pronoun. As, for example: She, having finished her work, went home. They, having completed the organization, left the city. He, having been defeated, became discouraged. In these sentences, the participles, _having finished_, _having completed_, and _having been defeated_, are used as adjectives to modify the pronouns _she_, _they_ and _he_. COMPARISON +264.+ We have found that adjectives are a very important part of our speech for without them we could not describe the various objects about us and make known to others our ideas concerning their various qualities. But with the addition of these helpful words we can describe very fully the qualities of the things with which we come into contact. We soon find, however, that there are varying degrees of these qualities. Some objects possess them in slight degree, some more fully and some in the highest degree. So we must have some way of expressing these varying degrees in the use of our adjectives. This brings us to the study of comparison of adjectives. Suppose I say: That orange is sweet, the one yonder is sweeter, but this one is sweetest. I have used the adjective _sweet_ expressing a quality possessed by oranges in three different forms, _sweet_, _sweeter_ and _sweetest_. This is the change in the form of adjectives to show different degrees of quality. This change is called comparison, because we use it when we compare one thing with another in respect to some quality which they possess, but possess in different degrees. The form of the adjective which expresses a simple quality, as _sweet_, is called the positive degree. That which expresses a quality in a greater degree, as _sweeter_, is called the comparative degree. That which expresses a quality in the greatest degree, as _sweetest_, is called the superlative degree. +265.+ +Comparison is the change of form of an adjective to denote different degrees of quality.+ +There are three degrees of comparison, positive, comparative and superlative.+ +The positive degree of an adjective denotes simple quality.+ +The comparative degree denotes a higher degree of a quality.+ +The superlative degree denotes the highest degree of a quality.+ +266.+ Most adjectives of one syllable and many adjectives of two syllables regularly add _er_ to the positive to form the comparative degree, and _est_ to the positive to form the superlative degree, as: _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ sweet sweeter sweetest cold colder coldest soft softer softest brave braver bravest clear clearer clearest +267.+ Adjectives ending in _y_ change _y_ to _i_ and add _er_ and _est_ to form the comparative and superlative degree, as: _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ busy busier busiest lazy lazier laziest sly slier sliest witty wittier wittiest +268.+ Many adjectives cannot be compared by this change in the word itself, since the addition of _er_ and _est_ would make awkward or ill-sounding words. Hence we must employ another method to form the comparison of this sort of words. To say, _beautiful_, _beautifuller_, _beautifullest_, is awkward and does not sound well. So we say _beautiful_, _more beautiful_, _most beautiful_. Many adjectives form the comparative and superlative degree by using _more_ and _most_ with the simple form of the adjective, as: _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ beautiful more beautiful most beautiful thankful more thankful most thankful sensitive more sensitive most sensitive wonderful more wonderful most wonderful +269.+ Adjectives of two syllables, to which _er_ and _est_ are added to form the comparison, are chiefly those ending in _y_ or _le_, such as: _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ happy happier happiest noble nobler noblest steady steadier steadiest feeble feebler feeblest able abler ablest witty wittier wittiest +270.+ Some adjectives, few in number, but which we use very often, are irregular in their comparison. The most important of these are as follows: (It would be well to memorize these.) _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ good better best well " " bad worse worst ill " " much more most many " " little less least late later latest latter last far farther farthest (up) adv. upper uppermost (in) adv. inner innermost DESCENDING COMPARISON +271.+ The change in form of adjectives in the positive, comparative and superlative shows that one object has more of a quality than others with which it is compared. But we also wish at times to express the fact that one object has less of the quality than is possessed by others with which it is compared; so we have what we may call the descending comparison, by means of phrases formed by using _less_ and _least_ instead of _more_ and _most_. Using _less_ with the positive degree means a degree less than the positive, while using _least_ expresses the lowest degree. For example: Descending Comparison _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ beautiful less beautiful least beautiful intelligent less intelligent least intelligent sensitive less sensitive least sensitive thankful less thankful least thankful PARTICIPLES AS ADJECTIVES +272.+ You remember, when we studied the participle, that we found it was called a participle because it partook of the nature of two or more parts of speech. For example; in the sentence, _The singing of the birds greeted us_; _singing_ is a participle derived from the verb _sing_, and is used as a noun, the subject of the verb _greeted_. But participles are used not only as nouns; they may also be used as adjectives. For example; we may say, _The singing birds greeted us_. Here the participle _singing_ describes the birds, telling what kind of birds greeted us, and is used as an adjective modifying the noun _birds_. You will recall that we found there were two forms of the participle, the present participle and the past participle. The present participle is formed by adding _ing_ to the root form of the verb; and the past participle in regular verbs is formed by adding _d_ or _ed_ to the root form, and in irregular verbs by a change in the verb form itself. These two simple forms of participles are often used as adjectives. +273.+ The present participle is almost always active; that is, it refers to the actor. As, for example; _Vessels, carrying soldiers, are constantly arriving_. Here the present participle _carrying_ describes the noun _vessels_, and yet retains its function as a verb and has an object, _soldiers_. So it partakes of two parts of speech, the verb and the adjective. +274.+ The past participle, when used alone, is almost always passive, for it refers not to the actor, but to what is acted upon, thus: The army, beaten but not conquered, prepared for a siege. In this sentence _beaten_ is the past participle of the irregular verb _beat_, and _conquered_ is the past participle of the regular verb _conquer_, and both modify the noun _army_, but refer to it, not as the actor, but as the receiver of the action. Hence, the past participle is also the _passive_ participle. Note in the following sentences the use of the present and past participle as adjectives: A _refreshing_ breeze came from the hills. They escaped from the _burning_ building. _Toiling_, _rejoicing_, _sorrowing_, onward through life he goes. The man, _defeated_ in his purpose, gave up in despair. The child, _driven_ in its youth to work, is robbed of the joy of childhood. The army, _forced_ to retreat, destroyed all in its path. The children, _neglected_ by society, grow up without their rightful opportunities. Exercise 1 The adjectives and participles used as adjectives in the following sentences are printed in _italics_. Determine which adjectives are capable of comparison, and whether they are compared by adding _er_ or _est_, or by the use of _more_ and _most_. In _a_ community _regulated_ by laws of demand and supply, but _protected_ from _open_ violence, _the_ persons who become _rich_ are, generally _speaking_, _industrious_, _resolute_, _proud_, _covetous_, _prompt_, _methodical_, _sensible_, _unimaginative_, _insensitive_ and _ignorant_. _The_ persons who remain _poor_ are _the_ entirely _foolish_, _the_ entirely _wise_, _the idle_, _the reckless_, _the humble_, _the thoughtful_, _the dull_, _the imaginative_, _the sensitive_, _the well-informed_, _the improvident_, _the_ irregularly and impulsively _wicked_, _the clumsy_ knave, _the open_ thief, and _the_ entirely _merciful_, _just_ and _godly_ persons.--_Ruskin_. PARTICIPLE PHRASES +275.+ If you will refer now to Lesson 9 you will find that we studied in that lesson concerning participle phrases; that is, several words used as a participle. We found that these participle phrases may also be used as nouns; as, for example: His having joined the union caused him to lose his position. _Having joined_ is here a participle phrase used as a noun, subject of the verb _caused_. Participle phrases may also be used as adjectives. You remember that we had four participle phrases, as follows: +Present perfect+, _active_, having called. +Present perfect+, _passive_, having been called. +Progressive+, _active_, having been calling. +Progressive+, _passive_, being called. These participle phrases are used as adjectives to describe and modify nouns, thus: The soldier, _having joined_ his comrades, fought in the trenches. The nurse, _having been watching_ for days, was nearly exhausted. The passive phrases also are used as adjectives, thus: The woman, _having been hired_ by the manager, went to work. The man, _being attacked_, fought bravely. Here the participle phrases _having been hired_ and _being attacked_ are used as adjectives to modify the nouns _woman_ and _man_. Use the participles and participle phrases of the verbs _see_ and _obey_ in sentences of your own. USES OF ADJECTIVES +276.+ In our use of adjectives, we find it convenient to use them in several different ways. The most common use is closely connected with the noun as a modifying word, seeming in a sense almost a part of the noun; as in the sentence, _These brave men have bequeathed to us splendid victories_. In this sentence _these_ and _brave_ are easily discovered to be adjectives, being used in such close connection with the noun. But sometimes we find the adjectives a little farther away from the noun which it describes, and then it becomes a little more difficult to find. You will recall, in our study of the copulative verb _be_, that we found it was simply a connecting word, connecting that which followed the verb with its subject. So we often find an adjective used in the predicate with a copulative verb showing what is asserted of the subject. When an adjective is used in this way, it modifies the subject just as much as if it were directly connected by being placed immediately before the noun. For example: The lesson was long and difficult. _Long_ and _difficult_ are used in the predicate after the copulative verb _was_, but are used to modify the subject _lesson_ just as much as though we said instead, _It was a long and difficult lesson_. So watch carefully for adjectives used with the copulative verb _be_ in all its forms, _am_, _is_, _are_, _was_, _were_; and the phrases, _has been_, _will be_, _must be_, etc. +277.+ You may find adjectives also used following the noun. As, for example: _The man, cool and resolute, awaited the attack_. _Cool_ and _resolute_ are adjectives modifying the noun _man_, but they follow the noun, instead of being placed before it. COMMON ERRORS +278.+ There are a number of common errors which we make in comparison, which we should be careful to avoid. 1. A number of adjectives cannot be compared for they in themselves express the highest degree of quality, so they have no shades of meaning and will not admit of comparison. For example: _full_, _empty_, _level_, _round_, _square_. If a thing is full or empty or level or round or square, it cannot be more full, or more empty, or more level, or more round, or more square. So do not compare adjectives that already express the highest degree of a quality. Also such words as _supreme_, _eternal_, and _infallible_, cannot be compared for they also express the highest degree of quality. 2. Do not use _more_ with the comparative form made by using _er_, or _most_ with the superlative form, made by using _est_. For example: do not say, _They cannot be more happier than they are_. Say, _They cannot be happier_; or _They cannot be more happy_. Use either form but never both. Do not say, _That is the most wisest plan_. Say either, _That is the wisest plan_; or _That is the most wise plan_, but never use both forms. Never use _most_ with a superlative form. 3. Do not use the superlative form in comparing _two_ objects. The superlative form is used only when more than two are compared. For example; do not say, _He is the smallest of the two_. Say, _He is the smaller of the two_. _Which is the largest end?_ is incorrect. _Which is the larger end?_ is correct. _Which is the oldest, John or Henry?_ is also incorrect. This should be, _Which is the older, John or Henry?_ Use the _comparative_ form always when comparing _two_ objects. 4. In stating a comparison, avoid comparing a thing with itself. For example; _New York is larger than any city in the United States_. In this sentence, when you say _any_ city in the United States, you are including New York; so you are really comparing New York with itself, and you are saying that New York is larger than itself. You should have said, _New York is larger than any other city in the United States_; or, _New York is the largest city in the United States_. When you compare an object with all others of its kind be sure that the word _other_ follows the comparative word _than_. 5. When an adjective denoting _one_ or _more than one_ modifies a noun, the adjective and the noun must agree in number. For example; _The house is 30 foot square_. _Thirty_ denotes more than one, so a plural noun should be used, and this sentence should be, _The house is 30 feet square_. _We are traveling at the rate of 40 mile an hour._ This should be, _We are traveling at the rate of 40 miles an hour_. 6. Only two adjectives, _this_ and _that_ change their form when modifying a plural noun. _These_ and _those_ are the plural forms of _this_ and _that_. So remember always to use _this_ and _that_ with singular nouns and _these_ and _those_ with plural nouns. For example; do not say, _These kind of people will never join us_. You should say, _This kind of people will never join us_. Or, _Those sort of flowers grows easily_. You should say, _That sort of flowers grows easily_. 7. Place your adjectives where there can be no doubt as to what you intend them to modify. Put the adjective _with_ the noun which it modifies. For example; do not say, _a fresh bunch of flowers_, _a new pair of shoes_, _a salt barrel of pork_, _an old box of clothes_, _a cold cup of water_, _a new load of hay_. Put the adjective with the noun which it modifies, and say, _a bunch of fresh flowers_, _a pair of new shoes_, _a barrel of salt pork_, _a box of old clothes_, _a cup of cold water_, _a load of new hay_. 8. Adjectives are usually placed before the nouns they qualify, but sometimes, especially in poetry or in the use of participles, they follow the nouns. They should not, however, be placed too far away from the noun which they modify or be unnecessarily separated from the noun. Where there are two or more adjectives used to qualify the same noun, place nearest the noun the adjective most closely connected with the object described and place farthest from the noun the adjective least closely connected with the noun. If they are all of the same rank, place them where they will sound best, usually according to their length, naming the shortest adjective first. Correct the following sentences by arranging the adjectives in the proper order: The summer sky was a blue, soft, beautiful sky. He bought a brown, fine, big horse. A gold, beautiful, expensive watch was given her. The new, beautiful apartment building is on the corner. He advertised for a young, intelligent, wide awake man. 9. Never use _them_ as an adjective. _Them_ is a pronoun. One of the worst mistakes which we can make is to use such phrases as _them things_, _them men_, _them books_. Say, _those things_, _those men_, _those books_. 10. Do not use _less_ for the comparative form of _few_. The comparative form of _few_ is _fewer_. _Less_ refers only to quantity, _fewer_ to number. For example: He raised _less_ grain this year than last, because he has _fewer_ horses now than he had then. He uses _fewer_ words because he has _less_ to say. There are but _few_ people here today; there were still _fewer_ (not less) yesterday. Exercise 2 Correct the adjectives in this exercise: 1. Hand me the little knife. 2. He claims to be more infallible than anyone else. 3. Mary is the oldest of the two. 4. He was the bestest boy in school. 5. The barn is forty foot long. 6. Yonder is a happy crowd of children. 7. Which is the largest end? 8. I found the bestest book. 9. This is the most principal rule. 10. Give me a cold cup of water. 11. These kind of books will not do. 12. Give me them books. 13. Who is the tallest, you or John? Exercise 3 Mark all the adjectives in this poem. Note especially the participles used as adjectives. THE COLLECTION I passed the plate in church. There was a little silver, but the crisp bank-notes heaped themselves up high before me; And ever as the pile grew, the plate became warmer and warmer, until it fairly burned my fingers, and a smell of scorching flesh rose from it, and I perceived that some of the notes were beginning to smolder and curl, half-browned, at the edges. And then I saw through the smoke into the very substance of the money, and I beheld what it really was: I saw the stolen earnings of the poor, the wide margin of wages pared down to starvation; I saw the underpaid factory girl eking out her living on the street, and the over-worked child, and the suicide of the discharged miner; I saw the poisonous gases from great manufactories, spreading disease and death; I saw despair and drudgery filling the dram-shop; I saw rents screwed out of brother men for permission to live on God's land; I saw men shut out from the bosom of the earth and begging for the poor privilege to work, in vain, and becoming tramps and paupers and drunkards and lunatics, and crowding into almshouses, insane asylums and prisons; I saw ignorance and vice and crime growing rank in stifling, filthy slums; I saw shoddy cloth and adulterated food and lying goods of all kinds, cheapening men and women, and vulgarizing the world; I saw hideousness extending itself from coal-mine and foundry over forest and river and field; I saw money grabbed from fellow grabbers and swindled from fellow swindlers, and underneath the workman forever spinning it out of his vitals; I saw the laboring world, thin and pale and bent and care-worn and driven, pouring out this tribute from its toil and sweat into the laps of the richly dressed men and women in the pews, who only glanced at them to shrink from them with disgust; I saw all this, and the plate burned my fingers so that I had to hold it first in one hand and then in the other; and I was glad when the parson in his white robes took the smoking pile from me on the chancel steps and, turning about, lifted it up and laid it on the altar. It was an old-time altar, indeed, for it bore a burnt offering of flesh and blood--a sweet savor unto the Moloch whom these people worship with their daily round of human sacrifices. The shambles are in the temple as of yore, and the tables of the money-changers waiting to be overturned. --_Ernest Crosby_. SPELLING LESSON 15 There is a class of words having the sound of long _e_, represented by the diphthong _ie_, and another class having the same sound represented by _ei_. It is a matter of perplexity at times to determine whether one of these words should be spelled with _ie_ or _ei_. Here is a little rhyme which you will find a valuable aid to the memory in spelling these words: When the letter _c_ you spy, Put the _e_ before the _i_. For example, in such words as _deceit_, _receive_ and _ceiling_, the spelling is _ei_. On the other hand, when the diphthong is not preceded by the letter _c_, the spelling is _ie_, as in _grief_, _field_, _siege_, etc. There are a few exceptions to this rule, such as _either_, _neither_, _leisure_, _seize_ and _weird_. Most words, however, conform to the rule--when preceded by _c_, _ei_ should be used; when preceded by any other letter, _ie_. Observe that this rule applies only when there is a diphthong having the sound of long _e_. When the two letters do not have the sound of long _e_, as in _ancient_, the rule does not apply. +Monday+ Deceive Belief Conceive Brief Ceiling +Tuesday+ Field Receive Piece Chief Leisure +Wednesday+ Receipt Wield Weird Thief Perceive +Thursday+ Deceit Yield Grief Seize Conceit +Friday+ Relieve Neither Liege Shield Niece +Saturday+ Relief Achievement Reprieve Lien Siege PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 16 Dear Comrade: We have been tracing the development of written speech in order that we might have a clearer understanding of our own language. We have found how our earliest ancestors communicated with each other by signs and an articulate speech that was probably a little better than that of some animals of today. They gradually developed this articulate speech and then began to have need for some form of written speech. That which distinguishes man from the animals primarily is his power to remember and to associate one idea with another. From this comes his ability to reason concerning the connection of these ideas. Without this power of associative memory we would not be able to reason. If you could not recall the things that happened yesterday and had not the power of imagination concerning the things that may happen tomorrow, your reasoning concerning today would not be above that of the animals. So man soon found it necessary to have some way of recalling accurately, in a manner that he could depend upon, the things that happened yesterday and the day before and still farther back in time. So that his first step was the invention of simple aids to memory such as the knotted strings and tally sticks. Then he began to draw pictures of the objects about him which he could perceive by the five senses, the things which he could see and hear and touch and taste and smell. But man, the Thinker, began to develop and he began to have ideas about things which he could not see and hear and touch and taste and smell. He began to think of abstract ideas such as light and darkness, love and hate, and if he was to have written speech he must have symbols which would express these ideas. So we have found that he used pictures of the things he perceived with his five senses to symbolize some of his abstract ideas, as for example; a picture of the sun and moon to represent light; the bee to symbolize industry; the ostrich feather to represent justice. But as his ideas began to develop you can readily see that in the course of time there were not enough symbols to go around and this sort of written speech became very confusing and very difficult to read. Necessity is truly the mother of invention, and so this need of man forced him to invent something entirely new--something which had been undreamed of before. He began now to use pictures which were different in sense but the names of which had the same sound. You can find an example of this same thing on the Children's Puzzle Page in the rebus which is given for the children to solve. As for example: A picture of an eye, a saw, a boy, a swallow, a goose and a berry, and this would stand for the sentence, I saw a boy swallow a gooseberry. Perhaps you have used the same idea in some guessing game where a mill, a walk and a key stands for Milwaukee. And so we have a new form of picture writing. Notice in this that an entirely new idea has entered in, for the picture may not stand for the whole word but may stand for one syllable of the word as in the example given above. The mill stands for one syllable, walk for another and key for another. This was a great step for it meant the division of the word into various sounds represented by the syllables. What a new insight it gives us into life when we realize that not only our bodies but the environment in which we live, the machines with which we work and even the language which we use has been a product of man's own effort. Man has developed these things for himself through a constant and steady evolution. It makes us feel that we are part of one stupendous whole; we belong to the class which has done the work of the world and accomplished these mighty things. The same blood flows in us; the same power belongs to us. Truly, with this idea, we can stand erect and look the whole world in the face and demand the opportunity to live our own lives to the full. Yours for Freedom, THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. WORDS ADDED TO VERBS +279.+ We have just finished the study of adjectives and we have found that adjectives are words added to nouns to qualify or to limit their meaning. Without this class of words it would be impossible for us to express all of our ideas, for we would be at a loss to describe the objects about us. Adjectives enable us to name the qualities or tell the number of the objects with which we come in contact. The verb, we have found, expresses the action of these objects; in other words, the verb tells what things do. So with adjectives and verbs we can describe the objects named by the nouns and tell what they do. For example, I may say, _Men work_. Here I have used simply a noun and a verb; then I may add various adjectives to this and say, _Strong, industrious, ambitious men work_. By the use of these adjectives, I have told you about the kind of men who work; but I have said nothing about the action expressed in the verb _work_. I may want to tell you _how_ they work and _when_ they work; _where_ they work and _how much_; in other words, describe fully the action expressed in the verb _work_, so I say: The men work busily. The men work late. The men work well. The men work inside. The men work hard. The men work here. The men work now. The men work more. Words like _busily_, _hard_, _late_, _here_, _well_, _now_, _inside_, and _more_, show _how_, _when_, _where_ and _how much_ the men work. We could leave off these words and still have a sentence, since the other words make sense without them, but these words describe the action expressed in the verb. Words used in this way are called adverbs because they are added to verbs to make our meaning more definite, very much as adjectives are added to nouns. +280.+ The word adverb means, literally, _to the verb_, and one would suppose from this name that the adverb was strictly a verb modifier, but an adverb is used to modify other words as well. An adverb may be used to modify an adjective; for example, we might say: _The man was very busy_. _This lesson is too long._ Here _very_ and _too_ are added to the adjectives _busy_ and _long_ to qualify their meaning. +281.+ You remember in the comparison of adjectives, we used the words _more_ and _most_ to make the comparative and superlative degrees. Here _more_ and _most_ are adverbs used with the adjectives to qualify their meaning. Adverbs used in this way will always answer the question, _how much_, _how long_, etc. In the sentence, _The man is very busy_, _very_ is used to answer the question _how_ busy. And in the sentence, _The lesson is too long_, the adverb _too_ answers the question _how_ long. An adverb is also added to another adverb sometimes to answer the question _how_. For example; we say, _The man works very hard_. Here the adverb _hard_ tells _how_ the man works and _very_ modifies the adverb _hard_, and answers the question _how hard_. So we have our definition of an adverb: +282.+ +An adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective or another adverb.+ Remember that adjectives are used only with nouns or pronouns, but the adverb may be used with a verb or an adjective or another adverb. You remember that we had in our first lesson, as the definition of a word, that, _a word is a sign of an idea_. The idea is a part of a complete thought. See how all of these various words represent ideas, and each does its part to help us express our thoughts. HOW TO TELL ADVERBS +283.+ We need not have much difficulty in always being able to tell which words in a sentence are adverbs, for they will always answer one of the following questions: _How?_ _When?_ _Where?_ _Why?_ _How long?_ _How often?_ _How much?_ _How far?_ or _How little?_ etc. Just ask one of these questions and the word that answers it is the adverb in your sentence. Take the following sentence: He _always_ came _down too rapidly_. The word _always_ answers the question _when_. So _always_ is an adverb, describing the time of the action expressed in the verb _came_--He _always_ came. _Down_ answers the question _where_. So _down_ is the adverb describing the _place_ of the action. _Rapidly_ answers the question _how_, and is the adverb describing the _manner_ of the action. _Too_ also answers the question _how_, and modifies the adverb _rapidly_. Exercise 1 Underscore the adverbs in the following sentences and tell which word they modify: 1. He writes correctly. 2. She answered quickly. 3. A very wonderful future awaits us. 4. You should not speak so hastily. 5. You can speak freely here. 6. He could never wait patiently. 7. We very often make mistakes. 8. She very seldom goes there. 9. He usually walks very rapidly. 10. I have read the lesson quite carefully. 11. We would willingly and cheerfully give our all for the cause. 12. He frequently comes here but I do not expect him today. 13. If we work diligently and faithfully we will soon learn to speak correctly and fluently. 14. I am almost sure I can go there tomorrow. 15. It was more beautifully painted than the other. 16. We eagerly await the news from the front. 17. He always gladly obeyed his father. 18. She spoke quite simply and met with a very enthusiastic reception. 19. The difficulty can be easily and readily adjusted. Exercise 2 Use the following adverbs in sentences to modify verbs: slowly here now gently loudly never soon carefully nobly down seldom easily Use the following adverbs in sentences to modify adjectives: quite very more too most less nearly so Use the following adverbs in sentences to modify adverbs: too very quite less more most least so CLASSES OF ADVERBS +284.+ There are a good many adverbs in our language, yet they may be divided, according to their meaning, into six principal classes: +1. Adverbs of time.+ These answer the question _when_, and are such adverbs as _now_, _then_, _soon_, _never_, _always_, etc. +2. Adverbs of place.+ These answer the question _where_, and are such adverbs as _here_, _there_, _yonder_, _down_, _above_, _below_, etc. +3. Adverbs of manner.+ These answer the question _how_, and are such adverbs as _well_, _ill_, _thus_, _so_, _slowly_, _hastily_, etc. +4. Adverbs of degree.+ These answer the questions _how much_, _how little_, _how far_, etc., and are such adverbs as _much_, _very_, _almost_, _scarcely_, _hardly_, _more_, _quite_, _little_, etc. +5. Adverbs of cause.+ These answer the question _why_, and are such adverbs as _therefore_, _accordingly_, _hence_, etc. +6. Adverbs of number.+ These are such adverbs as _first_, _second_, _third_, etc. Exercise 3 In the following sentences there are adverbs of each class used. Find the adverbs of the different classes. 1. We shall always be found in the forefront of the struggle. 2. It is much more effective to train the young. 3. He came first and remained through the entire program. 4. It is pleasant to know that we have done well. 5. Our comrades are fighting yonder in the trenches. 6. Therefore we shall never acknowledge defeat. 7. Come down and discuss the matter with us. 8. We would soon be able to agree if we understood the facts. 9. Study your lessons slowly and carefully. 10. He was scarcely able to tell his story. 11. Accordingly I am sending you full particulars of the plan. 12. He came third in the ranks. INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS +285.+ The adverbs _how_, _when_, _where_, _why_, _whither_, _whence_, etc., are used in asking questions, and when they are used in this way they are called interrogative adverbs. For example: _How_ did it happen? _Where_ are you going? _Whence_ came he? _When_ did he come? _Why_ did you do it? _Whither_ are you going? These adverbs, _how_, _when_, _where_, _why_, _whence_ and _whither_, are used in these sentences to modify the verbs and ask the questions concerning the _time_ or _place_ or _manner_ of action expressed in the verb. _How_ may also be used as an interrogative adverb modifying an adjective or another adverb. For example: How late did he stay? How large is the house? In the first sentence, the adverb _how_ modifies the adverb _late_, and introduces the question. In the second sentence _how_ modifies the adjective _large_ and introduces the question. Exercise 4 Write sentences containing the interrogative adverbs _how_, _when_, _where_ and _why_, to modify verbs and ask simple questions. Write sentences using the interrogative adverb _how_ to modify an adjective and an adverb and to introduce a question. ADVERBS OF MODE +286.+ There are some adverbs which scarcely fall into any of the above classes and cannot be said to answer any of these questions. They are such adverbs as _indeed_, _certainly_, _fairly_, _truly_, _surely_, _perhaps_ and _possibly_. These adverbs really modify the entire sentence, in a way, and are used to show how the statement is made,--whether in a positive or negative way or in a doubtful way. For example: _Surely_ you will not leave me. _Truly_ I cannot understand the matter as you do. _Perhaps_ he knows no better. _Indeed_, I cannot go with you. Here, these adverbs, _truly_, _surely_, _perhaps_ and _indeed_, show the manner in which the entire statement is made; so they have been put in a class by themselves and called +adverbs of mode+. _Mode_ means literally _manner_, but these are not adverbs that express manner of action, like _slowly_ or _wisely_ or _well_ or _ill_. They express rather the manner in which the entire statement is made, and so really modify the whole sentence. PHRASE ADVERBS +287.+ We have certain little phrases which we have used so often that they have come to be used and regarded as single adverbs. They are such phrases as _of course_, _of late_, _for good_, _of old_, _at all_, _at length_, _by and by_, _over and over_, _again and again_, _through and through_, _hand in hand_, _ere long_, _in vain_, _to and fro_, _up and down_, _as usual_, _by far_, _at last_, _at least_, _in general_, _in short_, etc. These words which we find used so often in these phrases we may count as single adverbs. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS +288.+ Sometimes the same word may be used either as an adjective or as an adverb, and you may have some difficulty in telling whether it is an adjective or an adverb. Some of these words are: _better_, _little_, _late_, _far_, _hard_, _further_, _first_, _last_, _long_, _short_, _much_, _more_ and _high_. For example: The _late_ news verifies our statement. The man came _late_ to his work. In the first sentence, the word _late_ is used as an adjective modifying the noun _news_. In the second sentence, the word _late_ is used as an adverb to modify the verb _came_. +289.+ You can always distinguish between adjectives and adverbs by this rule: Adjectives modify _only nouns_ and _pronouns_, and the one essential characteristic of the adverb, as a limiting word, is that it is _always_ joined to some other part of speech than a noun. An adverb may modify a verb, adjective or other adverb, but never a noun or pronoun. You recall the rule which we have made the very foundation of our study: namely, that every word is classified in the sentence according to the _work_ which it does in that sentence. So a word is an adjective when it limits or modifies or qualifies a noun or pronoun; a word is an adverb when it qualifies any part of speech other than a noun or pronoun, either a verb or an adjective or an adverb, or even an entire sentence, as is the case with adverbs of mode. +290.+ Many adverbs are regularly made from nouns and adjectives by prefixes and suffixes. Adverbs are made from adjectives chiefly by adding the suffix _ly_, or by changing _ble_ to _bly_. For example: _honestly_, _rarely_, _dearly_, _ably_, _nobly_, _feebly_. But all words that end in _ly_ are not adverbs. Some adjectives end in _ly_ also, as, _kingly_, _courtly_, etc. The only way we can determine to which class a word belongs is by its use in the sentence. Exercise 5 In the following sentences, tell whether the words printed in italics are used as adjectives or as adverbs: also note the words ending in _ly_. Some are adverbs and some adjectives. 1. The boy was very _little_. 2. It was a _little_ early to arrive. 3. It was a _hard_ lesson. 4. She works _hard_ every day. 5. I read the _first_ book. 6. I read the book _first_ then gave it to him. 7. He went to a _high_ mountain. 8. The eagle flew _high_ in the air. 9. We saw clearly the lovely picture. 10. He is a wonderfully jolly man. 11. His courtly manner failed when he saw his homely bride. 12. He speaks slowly and clearly. 13. They are very cleanly in their habits. NOUNS AS ADVERBS +291.+ Words that are ordinarily used as nouns, are sometimes used as adverbs. These are the nouns that denote time, distance, measure of value or direction. They are added to verbs and adjectives to denote the definite time at which a thing took place, or to denote the extent of time or distance and the measure of value, of weight, number or age. They are sometimes used to indicate direction. For example: They were gone a _year_. He talked an _hour_. They will return next _week_. They went _south_ for the winter. They traveled 100 _miles_. The wheat is a _foot_ high. The man weighed 200 _pounds_. In these sentences, the nouns, _year_, _miles_, _hour_, _foot_, _week_, _pounds_ and _south_ are used as adverbs. Remember every word is classified according to the work which it does in the sentence. Exercise 6 Mark the adverbs in the following poem and determine what words they modify: THE BRIDGE OF SIGHS One more Unfortunate Weary of breath, Rashly importunate, Gone to her death! Take her up tenderly, Lift her with care; Fashion'd so slenderly, Young, and so fair! Look at her garments Clinging like cerements; Whilst the wave constantly Drips from her clothing; Take her up instantly, Loving, not loathing. Touch her not scornfully; Think of her mournfully, Gently and humanly; Not of the stains of her-- All that remains of her Now is pure womanly. Make no deep scrutiny Into her mutiny Rash and undutiful; Past all dishonor, Death has left on her Only the beautiful. * * * * * * * Alas! for the rarity Of Christian charity Under the sun! O! it was pitiful! Near a whole city full, Home, she had none. * * * * * * * The bleak wind of March Made her tremble and shiver; But not the dark arch, Or the black flowing river: Mad from life's history Glad to death's mystery Swift to be hurled-- Anywhere, anywhere Out of the world! In she plunged boldly, No matter how coldly The rough river ran; Over the brink of it,-- Picture it, think of it, Dissolute Man! Lave in it, drink of it, Then, if you can! Take her up tenderly, Lift her with care; Fashion'd so slenderly, Young and so fair! Ere her limbs frigidly Stiffen too rigidly, Decently, kindly, Smooth and compose them; And her eyes, close them, Staring so blindly! Dreadfully staring Thro' muddy impurity, As when with the daring Last look of despairing Fix'd on futurity. Perishing gloomily, Spurr'd by contumely, Cold inhumanity, Burning insanity, Into her rest. Cross her hands humbly As if praying dumbly, Over her breast! Owning her weakness, Her evil behavior, And leaving, with meekness, Her sins to her Saviour! --_Thomas Hood_. SPELLING LESSON 16 The English language is truly a melting pot, into which have been thrown words from almost every language under the sun. This makes our spelling very confusing many times. Because of this also, we have in our language, words which have the same sound but different meaning, having come into the language from different sources. These words are called _homonyms_. +Homonyms are words having the same sound but different meaning.+ For example: Plane, plain; write, right. Synonyms are words which have the same meaning. For example: Allow, permit; lazy, idle. Our spelling lesson for this week contains a list of most of the commonly used homonyms. Look up the meaning in the dictionary and use them correctly in sentences. You will note that in some instances there are three different words which have the same sound, but different meanings. Notice especially _principal_ and _principle_. Perhaps there are no two words which we use frequently which are so confused in their spelling. _Principle_ is a noun. _Principal_ is an adjective. You can remember the correct spelling by remembering that _adjective_ begins with _a_. _Principal_, the adjective, is spelled with an _a_, _pal_. Notice also the distinction between _two_, _to_ and _too_. Look these up carefully, for mistakes are very often made in the use of these three words. Also notice the words _no_ and _know_ and _here_ and _hear_. +Monday+ Buy--by Fair--fare Meat--meet Our--hour Pain--pane +Tuesday+ Deer--dear Hear--here New--knew No--know Peace--piece +Wednesday+ Two--to--too Pair--pare--pear Birth--berth Ore--oar Ought--aught +Thursday+ Seen--scene Miner--minor Aloud--allowed Stare--stair Would--wood +Friday+ Bear--bare Ascent--assent Sight--site--cite Rain--reign--rein Rote--wrote +Saturday+ Great--grate Foul--fowl Least--leased Principle--principal Sale--sail PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 17 Dear Comrade: We are finishing in this lesson the study of a very important part of speech. Adverbs are a necessary part of our vocabulary, and most of us need a greater supply than we at present possess. We usually have a few adverbs and adjectives in our vocabulary which are continually overworked. Add a few new ones to your vocabulary this week. Do not slight the exercises in these lessons. The study of the lesson is only the beginning of the theoretical knowledge. You do not really know a thing until you put it into practice. You may take a correspondence course on how to run an automobile but you can not really know how to run a machine until you have had the practical experience. There is only one way to become expert in the use of words and that is to use them. Every day try to talk to some one who thinks and reads. While talking watch their language and your own. When a word is used that you do not fully understand, look it up at your very first opportunity and if you like the word use it a number of times until it has become your word. We have been following in these letters, which are our weekly talks together, the development of the alphabet. It is really a wonderful story. It brings to us most vividly the struggle of the men of the past. Last week we found how they began to use symbols to express syllables, parts of a word. We found that this was a great step in advance. Do you not see that this was not an eye picture but an ear picture? The symbol did not stand for the picture of the object it named but each symbol stood for the sound which composed part of the word. After a while it dawned upon some one that all the words which man used were expressed by just a few sounds. We do not know just when this happened but we do know that it was a wonderful step in advance. Cumbersome pictures and symbols could be done away with now. The same idea could be expressed by a few signs which represented the few sounds which were used over and over again in all words. Let us not fail to realize what a great step in advance this was. These symbols represented sounds. The appeal was through the _ear gate_ of man, not through the _eye gate_. Thus came about the birth of the alphabet, one of the greatest and most momentous triumphs of the human mind. Because of this discovery, we can now form thousands of combinations expressing all our ideas with only twenty-three or twenty-four symbols,--letters that represent sounds. Since we have at our command all of this rich fund of words, let us not be content to possess only a few for ourselves. Add a word daily to your vocabulary and you will soon be surprised at the ease and fluency of your spoken and written speech; and with this fluency in speech will come added power in every part of your life. Yours for Education, THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS +292.+ You will recall that we found that adjectives change in form to show different degrees of quality. A few adverbs are compared the same as adjectives. Some form the comparative and superlative degree in the regular way, just as adjectives, by adding _er_ and _est_; for example: _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ soon sooner soonest late later latest often oftener oftenest early earlier earliest fast faster fastest +293.+ Most adverbs form their comparative and superlative by the use of _more_ and _most_ or _less_ and _least_, just as adjectives do; for example: _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ clearly more clearly most clearly nobly more nobly most nobly ably more ably most ably truly more truly most truly Or, in the descending comparison: clearly less clearly least clearly nobly less nobly least nobly ably less ably least ably truly less truly least truly +294.+ The following adverbs are compared irregularly. It would be well to memorize this list: _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ ill worse worst well better best badly worse worst far further (farther) furthest (farthest) little less least much more most Some adverbs are incapable of comparison, as _here_, _there_, _now_, _today_, _hence_, _therefore_, etc. Exercise 1 In the following sentences mark which adverbs are used in the positive, which in the comparative and which in the superlative degree: 1. He came too late to get his letter. 2. I can understand clearly since you have explained the matter to me. 3. He speaks most truly concerning a matter of which he is well informed. 4. If he comes quickly he will arrive in time. 5. I will be able to speak more effectively when I have studied the subject. 6. Those who argue most ably are those who are in complete possession of the facts. 7. He needs to take a course such as this very badly. 8. I am too weary to go farther today. 9. This is the least expensive of them all. 10. If he arrives later in the day I will not be able to see him. 11. I can understand him more clearly than I can his friend. 12. You must work more rapidly under the Taylor system of efficiency. 13. Those who are least trained lose their positions first. 14. Those who are best fitted for the positions do not always receive them. POSITION OF ADVERBS +295.+ When we use an adverb with an adjective or other adverb, we usually place the adverb before the adjective or adverb which it modifies. For example: She is _very_ studious. Results come _rather_ slowly. It is _quite_ evident. He speaks _too_ rapidly. When we use an adverb with the simple form of the verb, (that is, either the present or past time form or any time form in which we do not need to use a phrase), if the verb is a complete verb, we place the adverb after the verb. For example: The boat arrived _safely_. The man came _quickly_. The boy ran _fast_. The teacher spoke _hastily_. But when the verb is an incomplete verb used in the simple form, the adverb usually precedes it in order not to come between the verb and its object. As, for example: He _willingly_ gave his consent to the proposition. She _gladly_ wrote the letter which we requested. A soldier _always_ obeys the command of a superior officer. When the object of the incomplete verb is short, then the adverb is sometimes placed after the object. As, for example: I study my lessons _carefully_. He wrote a letter _hastily_. The object is more closely connected with the verb and so is placed nearer the verb. However, when the object is modified by a phrase the adverb is sometimes placed immediately after the verb, as: I studied _carefully_ the lessons given for this month. He wrote _hastily_ a short letter to his son. When we use an adverb with a verb phrase, we usually place the adverb after the first word in the verb phrase. For example: The boy has _always_ worked. The workers will _then_ understand. He will _surely_ have arrived by that time. When the verb is in the passive form the adverb immediately precedes the principal verb, as for example: The work can be _quickly_ finished. The obstacles can be _readily_ overcome. The lesson must be _carefully_ prepared. The workers must be _thoroughly_ organized. When an adverb of time and an adverb of manner or place are used to modify the same verb, the adverb of time is placed first and the adverb of manner or place second, as for example: I _often_ stop _there_. He _usually_ walks _very rapidly_. They _soon_ learn to work _rapidly_. If the sentence contains adverbs of time, of place, and of manner; the adverb of time should come first; of place, second; and of manner, third; as: He _usually_ comes _here quickly_. Exercise 2 Improve the location of the adverbs in the following sentences and observe how the change of place of the adverb may alter the meaning of the sentence: 1. I _only_ saw the President once. 2. Such prices are _only_ paid in times of great scarcity. 3. No man has _ever_ so much wealth that he does not want more. 4. It seems that the workers can be _never_ aroused. 5. I want to _briefly_ state the reason for my action. 6. I shall be glad to help you _always_. 7. I _only_ mention a few of the facts. 8. He _nearly_ walked to town. 9. We are told that the Japanese _chiefly_ live upon rice. 10. They expected them to sign a treaty _daily_. 11. Having _nearly_ lost all his money he feared _again_ to venture. ADVERBS AND INFINITIVES +296.+ You remember when we studied the infinitive in Lesson 9, we found that it was not good usage to split the infinitive; that is, to put the modifying word between _to_ and the verb. For example: _We ought to bravely stand for our rights_. The correct form of this is: _We ought to stand bravely for our rights_. But we have found, also, that common usage breaks down the old rules and makes new rules and laws for itself, and so we frequently find the adverb placed between the infinitive and its sign. Sometimes it seems difficult to express our meaning accurately in any other way; for example, when we say: _To almost succeed is not enough_, we do not make the statement as forceful or as nearly expressive of our real idea, if we try to put the adverb _almost_ in any other position. This is also true in such phrases as _to far exceed_, _to more than counterbalance_, _to fully appreciate_, and various other examples which you will readily find in your reading. The purpose of written and spoken language is to express our ideas adequately and accurately. So we place our words in sentences to fulfill this purpose and not according to any stereotyped rule of grammarians. Ordinarily, though, it would be best not to place the adverb between the infinitive verb and its sign _to_. Do not split the infinitive unless by so doing you express your idea more accurately. COMMON ERRORS +297.+ The position in the sentence of such adverbs as, _only_, _also_ and _merely_, depends upon the meaning to be conveyed. The place where these adverbs occur in the sentences, may completely alter the meaning of the sentence. For example: _Only the address can be written on this side._ We mean that nothing but the address can be written on this side. _The address can only be written on this side._ We mean that the address cannot be printed, but must be written. _The address can be written only on this side._ We mean that it cannot be written on any other side, but on this side only. So you see that the place in which the adverb appears in the sentence depends upon the meaning to be conveyed and the adverb should be placed in the sentence so as to convey the meaning intended. +Never use an adjective for an adverb.+ One common error is using an adjective for an adverb. Remember that adjectives modify nouns only. Whenever you use a word to modify a verb, adjective or another adverb, use an adverb. For example, _He speaks slow and plain_. This is incorrect. The sentence should be, _He speaks slowly and plainly_. Watch this carefully. It is a very common error. +Another very common error is that of using an adverb instead of an adjective with the copulative verb.+ Never use an adverb in place of an adjective to complete a copulative verb. When a verb asserts an action on the part of the subject, the qualifying word that follows the verb is an adverb. For example, you would say: The sea was calm. Here we use an _adjective_ in the predicate, for we are describing the appearance of the sea, no action is expressed. But if we say: _He spoke calmly_, we use the adverb _calmly_, for the verb _spoke_ expresses an action on the part of the subject, and the adverb _calmly_ describes that action, it tells how he spoke. So we say: _The water looks clear_, but, _We see clearly_. _She appears truthful._ _They answered truthfully._ _She looked sweet._ _She smiled sweetly._ With all forms of the verb _be_, as _am_, _is_, _are_, _was_, _were_, _have been_, _has been_, _will be_, etc., use an adjective in the predicate; as, _He is glad_. _I am happy._ _They were eager._ _They will be sad._ Use an adjective in the predicate with verbs like _look_, _smell_, _taste_, _feel_, _appear_ and _seem_. For example: _He looks bad._ _It smells good._ _The candy tastes sweet_. _The man feels fine today._ _She appears anxious._ _He seems weary._ +Never use two negative words in the same sentence.+ The second negative destroys the first and we really make an affirmative statement. The two negatives neutralize each other and spoil the meaning of the sentence. For example, never say: I don't want no education. He didn't have no money. Don't say nothing to nobody. She never goes nowhere. He won't say nothing to you. He does not know nothing about it. He never stops for nothing. The stingy man gives nothing to nobody. In all of these sentences we have used more than one negative; _not_ and _no_, or _not_ and _nothing_, or _never_ and _no_, or _never_ and _nothing_. Never use these double negatives. The correct forms of these sentences are: I don't want any education. He didn't have any money. Don't say anything to any one. She never goes anywhere. He won't say anything to you. He knows nothing about it. He never stops for anything. The stingy man gives nothing to any one. +Where to place the negative adverb, not.+ In English we do not use the negative adverb _not_ with the common verb form, but when we use _not_ in a sentence, we use the auxiliary _do_. For example, we do not say: I like it not. They think not so. He loves me not. We strive not to succeed. Only in poetry do we use such expressions as these. In ordinary English, we say: I do not like it. They do not think so. He does not love me. We do not strive to succeed. +We often use _here_ and _there_ incorrectly after the words _this_ and _that_.+ For example, we say: This here lesson is shorter than that there one was. This should be: _This lesson is shorter than that one_. Bring me that there book. This here man will not listen. These sentences should read: Bring me that book. This man will not listen. Never use _here_ and _there_ in this manner. +Another common mistake is using _most_ for _almost_.+ For example, we say: We are most there. I see her most every day. These sentences should read: We are almost there. I see her almost every day. _Most_ is the superlative degree of _much_, and should be used only in that meaning. +We often use the adjective _real_ in place of _very_ or _quite_, to modify an adverb or an adjective.+ For example, we say: I was real glad to know it. She looked real nice. You must come real soon. Say instead: I am very glad to know it. She looked very nice. You must come quite soon. _Really_ is the adverb form of the adjective _real_. You might have said: I am really glad to know it. But never use _real_ when you mean _very_ or _quite_ or _really_. +We use the adjective _some_ many times when we should use the adverb _somewhat_.+ For example, we say: I am some anxious to hear from him. I was some tired after my trip. What we intended to say was: I am somewhat anxious to hear from him. I was somewhat tired after my trip. +Do not use _what for_ when you mean _why_.+ Do not say: What did you do that for? Or worse still, What for did you do that? Say: Why did you do that? +Do not use _worse_ in place of _more_.+ Do not say: I want to go worse than I ever did. Say: I want to go _more_ than I ever did. +Observe the distinction between the words _further_ and _farther_.+ Farther always refers to distance, or extent. For example: He could go no farther that day. We will go farther into the matter some other time. Further means more. For example: He would say nothing further in regard to the subject. +Never use _good_ as an adverb+. _Good_ is always an adjective. _Well_ is the adverb form. _Good_ and _well_ are compared in the same way, _good_, _better_, _best_, and _well_, _better_, _best_. So _better_ and _best_ can be used either as adjectives or adverbs; but _good_ is always an adjective. Do not say, _He talks good_. Say, _He talks well_. Note that _ill_ is both an adjective and an adverb and that _illy_ is always incorrect. Exercise 3 Correct the adverbs in the following sentences. All but two of these sentences are wrong. 1. Come quick, I need you. 2. The boy feels badly. 3. Give me that there pencil. 4. I am some hungry. 5. The people learn slow. 6. He never stopped for nothing. 7. What did you say that for? 8. This here machine won't run. 9. I make a mistake most every time. 10. Watch careful every word. 11. The man works good. 12. The tone sounds harsh. 13. I don't want no dinner. 14. I hope it comes real soon. 15. I want to learn worse than ever. 16. She looked lovely. 17. She smiled sweet. 18. He sees good for one so old. 19. She answered correct. 20. He won't say nothing about it. 21. I will be real glad to see you. 22. That tastes sweetly. 23. The man acted too hasty. 24. We had most reached home. 25. They ride too rapid. DO NOT USE TOO MANY ADVERBS +298.+ Like adjectives it is better to use adverbs sparingly. This is especially true of the adverbs used to intensify our meaning. Do not use the adverbs, _very_, _awfully_, etc., with every other word. It makes our speech sound like that of a gushing school girl, to whom everything is _very, awfully sweet_. More than that, it does not leave us any words to use when we really want to be intense in speech. Save these words until the right occasion comes to use them. Exercise 4 Adverbs should always be placed where there can be no doubt as to what they are intended to modify. A mistake in placing the adverb in the sentence often alters the meaning of the sentence. Choose the right word in each of the following sentences: 1. He looked glad--gladly when I told him the news. 2. Slaves have always been treated harsh--harshly. 3. I prefer my eggs boiled soft--softly. 4. The lecturer was tolerable--tolerably well informed. 5. Speak slower--more slowly so I can understand you. 6. The evening bells sound sweet--sweetly. 7. The house appears comfortable--comfortably and pleasant--pleasantly. 8. If you will come quick--quickly you can hear the music. 9. I was exceeding--exceedingly glad to hear from you. 10. The bashful young man appeared very awkward--awkwardly. 11. The young lady looked beautiful--beautifully and she sang beautiful--beautifully. 12. I looked quick--quickly in the direction of the sound. 13. The sun is shining bright--brightly today and the grass looks green--greenly. SPELLING LESSON 17 In our study of adjectives we have found that we use them to express some quality possessed by a noun or pronoun which they modify. You will recall when we studied nouns, we had one class of nouns, called abstract nouns, which were the names of qualities. So we find that from these adjectives expressing quality we form nouns which we use as the name of that quality. For example from the adjective _happy_, we form the noun _happiness_, which is the name of the quality described by the adjective _happy_, by the addition of the suffix _ness_. We use this suffix _ness_ quite often in forming these derivative nouns from adjectives but there are other suffixes also which we use; as for example, the suffix _ty_ as in _security_, formed from the adjective _secure_, changing the _e_ to _i_ and adding the suffix _ty_. When the word ends in _t_ we sometimes add only _y_ as in _honesty_, derived from the adjective _honest_. You remember that an abstract noun may express not only quality but also action, considered apart from the actor; so abstract nouns may be made from verbs. For example: _Running_, from the verb _run_; _settlement_, from the verb _settle_. In our lesson for this week the list for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday contains adjectives of quality from which abstract nouns expressing quality can be made, by the addition of the proper suffix, either _ness_, _y_, _ty_ or _tion_. The list for Thursday, Friday and Saturday consists of verbs from which abstract nouns can be made by the addition of the suffixes _ment_ and _ing_. Make from each adjective and verb in this week's lesson an abstract noun by the addition of the proper suffix. Be able to distinguish between the use of the qualifying adjective and the noun expressing quality. +Monday+ Stately Forgetful Real Concise Noble +Tuesday+ Slender Empty Equal Righteous Deliberate +Wednesday+ Submissive Dreadful Eager Sincere Resolute +Thursday+ Enlist Defile Adorn Nourish Commence +Friday+ Content Adjust Induce Indict Adjourn +Saturday+ Discourage Refine Acquire Enrich Infringe PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 18 Dear Comrade: Last week we finished the study of adverbs and we found that they were a very important part of our vocabulary, and that most of us needed a greater supply than we at present possess. This is true of both adverbs and adjectives. While we do not use as many adverbs as adjectives in our ordinary speech, nevertheless, adverbs are a very important factor in expression. A great many adjectives can be readily turned into adverbs. They are adjectives when they are used to describe a noun, but by the addition of a suffix, they become adverbs used to describe the action expressed by the verb. So in adding to our stock of adjectives we also add adverbs to our vocabulary as well. Watch your speech this week and make a list of the adverbs which you use most commonly, then go to your dictionary and see if you cannot find synonyms for these adverbs. Try using these synonyms for awhile and give the adverbs which you have been using for so long, a well earned rest. Remember that our vocabulary, and the power to use it, is like our muscles, it can only grow and develop by exercise. The best exercise which you can possibly find for this purpose is conversation. We spend much more time in talking than in reading or in writing. Conversation is an inexpensive pleasure and it does not even require leisure always, for we can talk as we work; yet our conversation can become a great source of inspiration and of influence as well as a pleasant pastime. But do not spend your time in vapid and unprofitable conversation. Surely there is some one in the list of your acquaintances who would like to talk of things worth while. Hunt up this some one and spend some portion of your day in profitable conversation. Remember also that a limited vocabulary means also a limited mental development. Did you ever stop to think that when we think clearly we think in words? Our thinking capacity is limited, unless we have the words to follow our ideas out to their logical conclusions. This matter of vocabulary is a matter, too, that is exceedingly practical. It means success or failure to us in the work which we would like to do in the world. A command of words means added power and efficiency; it means the power to control, or at least affect, our environment; it means the power over men and things; it means the difference between being people of ability and influence and being obscure, inefficient members of society. So feel when you are spending your time in increasing your vocabulary that you are not only adding to your enjoyment of life but that you are doing yourself the best practical turn; you are increasing your efficiency in putting yourself in a position where you can make your influence felt upon the people and circumstances about you. This effort upon your part will bear practical fruit in your every day life. Yours for Education, THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. A GROUP OF WORDS +299.+ We have studied about the independent parts of speech, that is, the nouns and pronouns and verbs. These are independent because with them we can form sentences without the help of other words. And these are the only three parts of speech which are so independent--with which we can form complete sentences. Then we have studied also the words that modify,--that is, the words that are used with nouns and pronouns and verbs to describe and explain more fully the ideas which they express. So we have studied adjectives, which modify nouns and pronouns; and adverbs, which modify verbs or adjectives or other adverbs. +300.+ The adjectives and adverbs which we have studied thus far are single words; but we find that we may use little groups of words in about the same way, to express the same idea which we have expressed in the single adjective or adverb. For example, we may say: Strong men, _or_, men of strength. City men, _or_, men from the city. Jobless men, _or_, men without jobs. Moneyed men, _or_, men with money. These groups of words like, _of strength_, _from the city_, _without jobs_, and _with money_, express the same ideas that are expressed in the single adjectives, _strong_, _city_, _jobless_ and _moneyed_. You recall that we defined any group of words used as a single word as a _phrase_; so these groups of words are phrases which are used as adjectives. The phrase, _of strength_, modifies the noun _men_, just as the adjective _strong_ modifies the noun _men_. So we may call these phrases which modify nouns, or which may be used to modify pronouns also, _adjective phrases_, for they are groups of words used as adjectives. Exercise 1 Change the adjectives which are printed in italics in the following sentences into phrases: 1. _Strong_ men know no fear. 2. She bought a _Turkish_ rug. 3. He followed the _river_ bed. 4. _Fashionable_ women are parasites. 5. He left on his _homeward_ journey. 6. _Sensible_ men readily understand their economic slavery. 7. _Intelligent_ people will not always submit to robbery. 8. _Senseless_ arguments cannot convince us of the truth. USED AS ADVERBS +301.+ These phrases may be used in the place of single adverbs also. You remember an adverb is a word that modifies a verb or an adjective or another adverb. Let us see if we can not use a phrase or a group of words in the place of a single adverb. For example: The man works rapidly, or, The man works with rapidity. The man works now, or, The man works at this time. The man works here, or, The man works at this place. In these sentences _rapidly_, _now_ and _here_ are single adverbs modifying the verb _work_. The phrases, _with rapidity_, _at this time_, and _at this place_, express practically the same ideas, conveyed by the single adverbs, _rapidly_, _now_ and _here_. These phrases modify the verb in exactly the same manner as the single adverbs. Therefore we call these groups of words used as single adverbs, _adverb phrases_. We also use adverbs to modify adjectives. Let us see if we can use adverb phrases in the same way: Rockefeller is _excessively_ rich; or, Rockefeller is rich _to excess_. He is _bodily_ perfect, but _mentally_ weak; or, He is perfect _in body_ but weak _in mind_. In the sentences above, the adverb _excessively_ modifies the adjective _rich_; the same meaning is expressed in the adverb phrase, _to excess_. In the sentence, _He is bodily perfect, but mentally weak_, the adverb _bodily_ modifies the adjective _perfect_ and the adverb _mentally_ modifies the adjective _weak_. In the last sentence, the same meaning is expressed by the adverb phrases, _in body_ and _in mind_. These phrases modify the adjectives _perfect_ and _weak_, just as do the single adverbs _bodily_ and _mentally_. +302.+ We can use a phrase in the place of almost any adverb or adjective. It very often happens, however, that there is no adjective or adverb which we can use to exactly express our meaning and we are forced to use a phrase. For example: He bought the large house _by the river_. The man _on the train_ is going _to the city_. He came _from the country_. It is impossible to find single words that express the meaning of these phrases, _by the river_, _on the train_, _to the city_, and _from the country_. You could not say the _river house_; that is not what you mean. You mean the large house _by the river_, yet the phrase _by the river_ modifies and describes the house quite as much as the adjective _large_. It is an adjective phrase used to modify the noun _house_, yet it would be impossible to express its meaning in a single word. Exercise 2 Which phrases in the following sentences are used as adjectives and which phrases are used as adverbs? Change these phrases to adjectives or adverbs, if you can think of any that express the same meaning. 1. Men lived _in caves_ long ago. 2. Man's discovery _of fire_ was the beginning _of industry_. 3. _After this discovery_, men lived _in groups_. 4. The work _of the world_ is done _by machinery_. 5. The workers _of Europe_ were betrayed. 6. They are fighting _for their country_. 7. The struggle _for markets_ is the cause _of war_. 8. The history _of the world_ records the struggle _of the workers_. 9. The idea _of democracy_ is equal opportunity _for all_. 10. The invention _of the printing press_ placed knowledge _within the reach_ _of the masses_. 11. If you will study _with diligence_ you can learn _with ease_. 12. This knowledge will be _of great value_ _to you_. 13. Diplomacy means that the plans _of nations_ are made _in secret_. 14. The men _in the factory_ are all paid _by the month_. 15. They are afraid to take a trip _through Europe_ _at this time_. Exercise 3 Use a phrase instead of the adjective or adverb in the following sentences: 1. The men in the trenches are fighting _bravely_. 2. An _uneducated_ man is _easily_ exploited. 3. Our _educational_ system is inadequate. 4. The _skilled_ workers must be organized. 5. _Careless_ men endanger the lives of others. 6. The plans have been _carefully_ laid. 7. _Ambitious_ men often trample on the rights of others. 8. Shall our education be controlled by _wealthy_ men? 9. We want to live _courageously_. 10. We want to face the future _fearlessly_. 11. We want to possess _peacefully_ the fruits of our labor. 12. By constant practice we can learn to speak _effectively_. 13. This book will be a _valuable_ addition to your library. 14. The number of _unemployed_ men _constantly_ increases. 15. The men mastered each step _thoroughly_ as they proceeded. 16. In order to express one's self _eloquently_ it is necessary to think _clearly_. 17. We must consecrate ourselves _completely_ to the cause of humanity. 18. A _kind_ act is its own reward. 19. _Experienced_ workers can _more easily_ secure positions. 20. He spoke _thoughtlessly_ but the people listened _eagerly_. 21. The soldier was rewarded for his _heroic_ deed. 22. He is an _honorable_ man and I am not surprised at this _brave_ act. 23. A _prudent_ man should be chosen to fill that _important_ office. PREPOSITIONS +303.+ Have you noticed that all of these phrases, which we have been studying and using as adjectives and adverbs, begin with a little word like _of_, _with_, _from_, _in_, _at_ or _by_, which connects the phrase with the word it modifies? We could scarcely express our meaning without these little words. They are connecting words and fill an important function. These words usually come first in the phrase. For this reason, they are called _prepositions_, which means _to place before_. Let us see what a useful place these little words fill in our language. Suppose we were watching the play of some boys outside our windows and were reporting their hiding place. We might say: The boys are hiding _in_ the bushes. The boys are hiding _among_ the bushes. The boys are hiding _under_ the bushes. The boys are hiding _behind_ the bushes. The boys are hiding _beyond_ the bushes. These sentences are all alike except the prepositions _in_, _among_, _under_, _behind_ and _beyond_. If you read the sentences and leave out these prepositions entirely, you will see that nobody could possibly tell what connection the _bushes_ had with the rest of the sentence. The prepositions are necessary to express the relation of the word _bushes_ to the rest of the sentence. But this is not all. You can readily see that the use of a different preposition changes the meaning of the sentence. It means quite a different thing to say, _The boys are hiding in the bushes_, and to say, _The boys are hiding beyond the bushes_. So the preposition has a great deal to do with the true expression of our ideas. The noun _bushes_ is used as the object of the preposition, and the preposition shows the relation of its object to the word which it modifies. You remember that nouns have the same form whether they are used as subject or as object, but if you are using a pronoun after a preposition, always use the object form of the pronoun. For example: I bought the book from _him_. I took the message to _them_. I found the place for _her_. In these sentences the pronouns, _him_, _them_, and _her_ are used as objects of the prepositions _from_, _to_ and _for_. So we have used the object forms of these pronouns. +304+. The noun or pronoun that follows the preposition, and is used with it to make a phrase, is the object of the preposition. The preposition is used to show the relation that exists between its object and the word the object modifies. In the sentence above, _The boys are hiding in the bushes_, the preposition _in_ shows the relationship between the verb phrase, _are hiding_ and the object of the preposition, _bushes_. The noun or pronoun which is the object of a preposition may also have its modifiers. In the sentences used about the noun _bush_, which is the object of the prepositions used, is modified by the adjective _the_. Other modifiers might also be added, as for example: The boys are hiding in the tall, thick bushes. The entire phrase, _in the tall, thick bushes_, is made up of the preposition _in_, its object _bushes_ and the modifiers of bushes, _the_, _tall_ and _thick_. +305+. The preposition, with its object and the modifiers of the object, forms a phrase which we call a _prepositional phrase_. These prepositional phrases may be used either as adjectives or as adverbs, so we have our definitions: +A preposition is a word that shows the relation of its object to some other word.+ +A phrase is a group of words used as a single word.+ +A prepositional phrase is a phrase composed of a preposition and its object and modifiers.+ +An adjective phrase is a prepositional phrase used as an adjective.+ +An adverb phrase is a prepositional phrase used as an adverb.+ +306.+ Here is a list of the most common and most important prepositions. Use each one in a sentence: above about across after against along around among at before behind below beneath beside between beyond by down for from in into of off on over to toward through up upon under with within without ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS +307.+ Many of the words that are used as prepositions are used also as adverbs. It may be a little confusing to tell whether the word is an adverb or a preposition, but if you will remember this simple rule you will have no trouble: +A preposition is always followed by either a noun or a pronoun as its object, while an adverb never has an object.+ So when you find a word, that can be used either as a preposition or an adverb, used alone in a sentence without an object, it is an adverb; but if it is followed by an object, then it is a preposition. This brings again to our minds the fundamental rule which we have laid down, that every word is classified according to the work which it does in a sentence. The work of a preposition is to show the relation between its object and the word which that object modifies. So whenever a word is used in this way it is a preposition. For example: _He went about his business_. Here, _about_ is a preposition and _business_ is its object. But in the sentence, _He is able to be about_, _about_ is used as an adverb. It has no object. _He sailed before the mast._ Here, _before_ is a preposition introducing the phrase _before the mast_, which modifies the verb _sailed_. But in the sentence, _I told you that before_, _before_ is an adverb modifying the verb _told_. By applying this rule you can always readily determine whether the word in question is an adverb or a preposition. Exercise 4 Tell whether the words printed in italics in the following sentences, are prepositions or adverbs and the reason why: 1. He came _across_ the street. 2. He is _without_ work. 3. Come _in_. 4. He lives _near_. 5. He brought it _for_ me. 6. I cannot get _across_. 7. We will go _outside_. 8. This is _between_ you and me. 9. He can go _without_. 10. Stay _in_ the house. 11. Do not come _near_ me. 12. They all went _aboard_ at six o'clock. 13. He enlisted _in_ the navy and sailed _before_ the mast. 14. I do not know what lies _beyond_. 15. I will soon be _through_. 16. The aeroplane flew _above_ the city for hours. PHRASE PREPOSITIONS +308.+ Sometimes we have a preposition made up of several words which we have used so commonly together that they are used as a single word and we call the entire phrase a preposition. As, for example: _According to_--_on account of_--_by means of_, etc. 1. He answered _according to_ the rule. 2. I could not go _on account of_ illness. 3. He won the election _by means of_ fraud. 4. The strike was won _by help of_ all the comrades. 5. You can learn to spell only _by dint of_ memory. 6. We speak incorrectly _by force of_ habit. 7. He went to New York _by way of_ Chicago. 8. Ferrer died _for the sake of_ his ideals. 9. _In consideration of_ this payment, we will send you the set of books. 10. Germany issued her ultimatum _in defiance of_ the world. 11. _In view of_ all the facts, we are convinced of his innocence. 12. He will gladly suffer _in place of_ his comrade. 13. _In conformity with_ the information contained in your letter, I will join you on the 10th. Exercise 5 Mark the prepositions in the following quotation. In the first three paragraphs the prepositional phrases are printed in italics. Determine whether they are used as adjective phrases or as adverb phrases. Underscore the prepositional phrases in the remainder of the quotation and determine which word is used as the object of the preposition. THE SUNLIGHT LAY ACROSS MY BED _In the dark_ one night I lay _upon my bed_. And _in the dark_ I dreamed a dream. I dreamed God took my soul _to Hell_. And we came where hell opened _into a plain_, and a great house stood there. Marble pillars upheld the roof, and white marble steps led up _to it_. The wind _of heaven_ blew _through it_. Only _at the back_ hung a thick curtain. Fair men and women there feasted _at long tables_. They danced, and I saw the robes _of women_ flutter _in the air_ and heard the laugh _of strong men_. They feasted _with wine_; they drew it _from large jars_ which stood somewhat _in the background_, and I saw the wine sparkle as they drew it. And I said _to God_, "I should like to go up and drink." And God said, "Wait." And I saw men coming _into the banquet house_; they came in _from the back_ and lifted the corner _of the curtain_ _at the sides_ and crept in quickly; and they let the curtain fall _behind them_; they bore great jars they could hardly carry. And the men and women crowded _round them_, and the newcomers opened their jars and gave them _of the wine_ to drink; and I saw that the women drank even more greedily than the men. And when others had well drunken they set the jars _among the old ones_ _beside the wall_, and took their places _at the table_. And I saw that some _of the jars_ were very old and mildewed and dusty, but others had still drops _of new must_ _on them_ and shone _from the furnace_. And I said to God, "What is that?" For amid the sounds of the singing, and over the dancing of feet, and over the laughing across the winecups, I heard a cry. And God said, "Stand away off." And He took me where I saw both sides of the curtain. Behind the house was a wine-press where the wine was made. I saw the grapes crushed, and I heard them cry. I said, "Do not they on the other side hear it?" God said, "The curtain is thick; they are feasting." And I said, "But the men who came in last. They saw?" God said, "They let the curtain fall behind them--and they forgot!" I said, "How came they by their jars of wine?" God said, "In the treading of the press these are they who came to the top; they have climbed out over the edge and filled their jars from below; and have gone into the house." And I said, "And if they had fallen as they climbed--?" God said, "They had been wine." I stood away off watching in the sunshine, and I shivered. And after a while I looked, and I saw the curtain that hung behind the house moving. I said to God, "Is it a wind?" God said, "A wind." And it seemed to me that against the curtain I saw pressed the forms of men and women. And after a while, the feasters saw it move, and they whispered one to another. Then some rose and gathered the most worn-out cups, and into them they put what was left at the bottom of other vessels. Mothers whispered to their children, "Do not drink all, save a little drop when you have drunk." And when they had collected all the dregs they slipped the cups out under the bottom of the curtain without lifting it. After a while the curtain left off moving. I said to God, "How is it so quiet?" He said, "They have gone away to drink it." I said, "They drink it--their own!" God said, "It comes from this side of the curtain, and they are very thirsty." And still the feast went on. Men and women sat at the tables quaffing great bowls. Some rose, and threw their arms about each other and danced and sang. They pledged each other in the wine, and kissed each other's blood-red lips. Men drank till they could drink no longer, and laid their heads upon the table, sleeping heavily. Women who could dance no more leaned back on the benches with their heads against their lovers' shoulders. Little children, sick with wine, lay down upon the edge of their mothers' robes. I said, "I cannot see more, I am afraid of Hell. When I see men dancing I hear the time beaten in with sobs; and their wine is living! Oh, I cannot bear Hell!" God said, "Where will you go?" I said, "To the earth from which I came; it was better there." And God laughed at me; and I wondered why He laughed. --_Olive Schreiner_. SPELLING LESSON 18 There are a number of words that are ordinarily followed by a preposition with its phrase. We make a great many mistakes in the use of the proper preposition with these words. Our spelling lesson this week covers a number of these words with examples illustrating the appropriate preposition to be used with each word. Learn to spell these words, look up their meaning in the dictionary and use each word with its proper preposition in sentences of your own construction. +MONDAY+ +Abhorrence+, of; We have an abhorrence _of_ war. +Abhorrent+, to; War is abhorrent _to_ us. +Acquaint+, with; I will acquaint you _with_ the facts in the case. You will then be acquainted _with_ the facts. +Acquit+, of; The man was acquitted _of_ the charge. +Adequate+, to; Our resources are not adequate _to_ the demand. +TUESDAY+ +Angry+, with, at; We are angry _with_ persons and angry _at_ things. +Astonished+, at or by; (Never with) I am astonished _at_ you, or _by_ you, not _with_ you. +Confer+; We confer _with_ people, _upon_ or _about_ matters. +Contrary+; A thing is contrary _to_ our ideas, (not _from_ or _than_). +Controversy+; with, between, or about, (not over). I had a controversy _with_ you. There is a controversy _between_ the two _about_ the result. +WEDNESDAY+ +Convicted+, of (not for). He was convicted _of_ the crime. +Copy+; We copy _after_ people, _from_ things, and _out_ of books. +Deprive+, of, (not from). We are deprived _of_ an education. +Desire+, of and for; We may speak of the desire _of_ a man, meaning man's desire; but we should always say "He has a desire _for_ position, _for_ wealth," etc. +Die+, of, for and from; A person dies _of_, not _from_, a disease. He dies _from_ the effects of an injury. One person may die _with_ another, but never _with_ a disease, for the disease does not die. +THURSDAY+ +Differ+, from, among, about, concerning, with; Persons or things differ _from_ each other; that is, they are dissimilar in appearance. Two persons may differ _with_ each other; that is, contend or disagree. Several persons differ _among_ themselves _about_ or _concerning_ some matter. +Dissent+, from (not to). There was a general dissent _from_ that idea. +Guilty+, of (not for). He is guilty _of_ the crime. +Incentive+, to (not for). It is a great incentive _to_ action. +Receive+, from, (not of). Received _from_ John Smith, thirty dollars, etc. +FRIDAY+ +Infer+, from, (not by). I infer this _from_ your remarks, not _by_ your remarks. +Introduce+; A man is introduced _to_ a woman, a speaker _to_ an audience; _into_ society or _into_ new surroundings. We introduce a bill _in_ Congress or a resolution _in_ a committee. +Involved+, in (not with). We are involved _in_ difficulties. +Listen+; We listen +for+ the expected news; we listen +to+ our friends, not _at_. +Married+; One person is married +to+ another, not +with+ another. +SATURDAY+ +Matter+, with, (not of). What is the matter _with_ this? +Opposition+, to (not against). There is opposition _to_ the motion. +Part+, to part _from_, means to leave. I will part _from_ my friends. To part _with_ means to give up. A fool soon parts _with_ his money. +Remedy+, for; We have a remedy _for_ the disease. +Preventive+, against; We have a preventive _against_ disease. * * * * * It is easy to sit in the sunshine And talk to the man in the shade; It is easy to float in a well-trimmed boat, And point out the places to wade. But once we pass into the shadows We murmur and fret and frown; At our length from the bank, we shout for a plank, Or throw up our hands and go down. It is easy to sit in a carriage And counsel the man on foot; But get down and walk and you'll change your talk, _As_ you feel the peg in your boot. It is easy to tell the toiler _How_ best he can carry his pack; But not one can rate a burden's weight _Until_ it has been on his back. The up-curled mouth of pleasure Can preach of sorrow's worth; But give it a sip, and a wryer lip, Was never made on earth. --_Ella Wheeler Wilcox_. PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 19 Dear Comrade: In this lesson we are completing our study of the preposition. The preposition is one of the last parts of speech which we take up for study and it is also one of the last parts of speech to be added to our vocabulary. The child does not use the preposition when it first begins to talk. It uses the names of things; words of action; words that describe objects and actions. It does not begin to use prepositions until it begins to relate ideas. The relation of ideas means that we are thinking; combining ideas into thoughts. Then we begin to need prepositions, which are words of relation, connecting words, expressing the relationship between ideas. The measure of the fullness and richness of our lives is the measure of our understanding of the world about us, of the relationship existing between the different phases of that world and of our relationship to it all. So words do not mean much to us until we can relate them to our own lives and our own experiences. When you look up a word in the dictionary, do not study the word alone; study also the thing for which it stands. A person with a good memory might acquire a vocabulary by sheer feat of memory; but what good would it do unless each word could be related to practical experience? It is only in this way that words become _alive_ to us. We must have an idea, a concept and knowledge of the thing for which the word stands. So let us use our dictionary in this way. Do not be satisfied when you have looked up a word simply to know how to spell and pronounce the word and understand somewhat of its meaning. Do not be satisfied until it has become a live word to you. Have a clear image and understanding of just what each word stands for. Use the words in sentences of your own. Use them in your conversation. Make them a part of your every-day life. Do not pass over any of the words in the lesson without understanding their meaning. Study the poem _Abou Ben Adhem_ in this week's lesson. After you have read it over a number of times, close the book and rewrite the poem in prose in your own language. Then compare your version with the poem. Note where you have used different expressions and decide which is the better, the words used in the poem or your own words. Rewrite it several times until you have a well-written version of this poem. Exercises such as this will increase your vocabulary and quickly develop the power of expression. No power can come in any department of life without effort having been expended in its acquisition. Our great writers have been careful students. Robert Louis Stevenson says that he has often spent a half a day searching for the particular word which he needed to express precisely the idea in mind. Stevenson is a master of the English and this power came to him by this sort of studious and earnest work. Yours for Education, THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. AN IMPORTANT WORD +309.+ Things are not always to be judged by their size. Sometimes the most important things are very small and unimportant in appearance. A great machine is before you. You see its giant wheels, its huge levers. These may seem to be the most important parts of the machine, but here and there throughout this great machine are little screws and bolts. These bind the giant parts together. Without these connecting links, the great wheels and levers and revolving belts could not work together. Let a little bolt slip out of its place in the mechanism, and the great wheels stop, the throbbing machinery comes to a standstill. No work is possible until this little bolt has been replaced. So in our sentence building, the _preposition_ is the bolt that joins words together. The importance of the preposition in a language increases just in proportion as the nation learns to think more exactly and express itself more accurately. We found in our last lesson that by changing a preposition we can change the entire meaning of the sentence. A man's life may depend upon the use of a certain preposition. You may swear his life away by bearing testimony to the fact whether you saw him _within_ the house, or _without_ the house; or _before_ dark, or _after_ dark. +310.+ The preposition is an important word in the sentence. We can use it to serve our purpose in various ways. We have found, for instance, that we can use it: _First_, to change an adjective into an adjective phrase. As, for example: The _fearless_ man demands his rights. The man _without fear_ demands his rights. _Second_, to change an adverb into an adverb phrase. As, for example: We want to possess _peacefully_ the fruits of our labor. We want to possess _in peace_ the fruits of our labor. _Third_, to express a meaning which we can express in no other way; as, for example, _They are fighting for their country_. There is no single word which we can use to express the meaning which we express in the phrase, _for their country_. +311.+ So the preposition has given us a new means of expression, _the prepositional phrase_. We can, by its help, use a phrase in place of an adjective to modify a noun or a pronoun, and in place of an adverb to modify a verb or an adjective. And we can also use the prepositional phrase to express relationship which we cannot express by a single adjective or adverb. If I want to tell you that I see a bird in yonder tree, such an expression would be impossible without that little preposition _in_. By the use of various prepositions, I can express to you the relationship between the bird and the tree. I can tell you whether it is _under_ the tree, or _in_ the tree, or _over_ the tree, or flying _around_ the tree, or _near_ the tree. By the use of the various prepositions, I can express accurately the relationship that exists between the _bird_ and the _tree_. Exercise 1 Look up the list of prepositions in Section 306, on page 184. Use the following pairs of words in sentences and use as many different prepositions as you can to express the different relationships which may be expressed between these words. For example, take the two words, _man_ and _house_. You may say: The man went _around_ the house. The man went _about_ the house. The man went _over_ the house. The man went _under_ the house. The man went _without_ the house. The man went _into_ the house. The man went _by_ the house. The man went _beyond_ the house. The man went _to_ the house. enemy city soldiers cannon man machine woman factory children school government people A GOVERNING WORD +312.+ The preposition shows the relation between two words. In this way it enables us to use a noun or a pronoun as a modifying word. For example, in the sentence given above, _I see the bird in the tree_, the preposition _in_ shows the relationship between _bird_ and _tree_, and makes of _tree_ a modifying word. It expresses a different meaning than if we used the word _tree_ as an adjective. For we do not mean that we see a tree bird, but a bird in a tree. So with the help of the preposition _in_, we have used _tree_ as a modifying word. But the preposition _in_ also governs the form of the word that follows it. Since nouns have the same form whether they are used as subject or object, this does not mean any change in the form of the nouns. But pronouns have different forms for the subject and object, so when we use a pronoun with a preposition, we must use the object form. There are seven object forms of the personal pronouns, and after a preposition, always use one of these object forms. He gave it to _me_. Give it to _him_. Give it to _her_. Add this to _it_. Bring it to _us_. I will give it to _you_. He gave it to _them_. +313.+ Be careful to always use the object form of the pronoun following a preposition. Observe this also in the use of the relative and interrogative pronoun "who." The object form is "whom." For example: To whom will you go? This is the man to whom I wrote. For whom are you looking? Where is the woman for whom you would make such a sacrifice? Where to Put the Preposition +314.+ The preposition generally precedes its object. This is the reason it was given its name, _preposition_, meaning _to place before_. Sometimes, however, the preposition is separated from its object. This is often true when it is used with an interrogative or relative pronoun. With these pronouns, the preposition is often thrown to the end of the sentence. For example: This is the book about which I was speaking; _or_, This is the book which I was speaking about. To whom shall I give this letter; _or_, Who shall I give this letter to? The sentence, _To whom shall I give this letter_, is grammatically correct; but in ordinary usage we use the form, _Who shall I give this letter to?_ While the rule calls for the object form of the relative pronoun after a preposition--so that the use of _to whom_ is grammatically correct--in common usage we use the subject form of the pronoun when it is used so far away from the preposition which governs it. So we find this use common. For example, instead of saying, _For whom is this letter?_ we say, _Who is this letter for?_ +315.+ In poetry also, we often find the object coming before the preposition. For example: "The interlacing boughs between Shadows dark and sunlight sheen, Alternate, come and go." _Boughs_ is here the object of the preposition _between_, but in this poetic expression the object is placed before the preposition. Note also in the following: "The unseen mermaid's pearly song, Comes bubbling up the weeds _among_." "Forever panting and forever young, All breathing human passion far _beyond_." +316.+ After an interrogative adjective, the preposition is also often thrown to the end of the sentence. As, for example: What men are the people talking _about_? Which person did you write _to_? With these few exceptions, however, the preposition usually precedes its object, as: We were astonished _at_ the news. He arose _from_ his sleep. POSSESSIVE PHRASES +317.+ Review Lesson 4, in which we studied the possessive use of nouns. You will recall that we make the possessive form of the nouns by the use of the apostrophe and _s_. But instead of using the possessive forms of the name of inanimate things; that is, things without life, we generally denote possession by the use of a phrase. Thus we would say, _The arm of the chair_, instead of, _The chair's arm_; or, _The roof of the house_, instead of, _The house's roof_. +318.+ We also use a possessive phrase when the use of a possessive form would give an awkward construction. As, for example: _Jesus' sayings_. So many hissing sounds are not pleasant to the ear and so, we say instead, _The sayings of Jesus_. +319.+ We use a phrase also where both nouns are in the plural form. In many words, there is no difference in the sound between a single noun in the possessive form and a plural noun in the possessive form. We can readily tell the meaning when it is written, because the place of the apostrophe indicates the meaning, but when it is spoken the sound is exactly the same. As, for example: The lady's hats. The ladies' hats. Written out in this way, you know that in the first instance I am speaking of the hats belonging to one lady, but in the second instance of the hats belonging to two or more ladies. But when it is spoken, you can not tell whether I mean one lady or a number of ladies. So we use a phrase and say, _The hats of the lady_; or, _The hats of the ladies_. Then the meaning is entirely clear. +320.+ Sometimes we want to use two possessives together, and in this case it is better to change one of them into a phrase; for example, _This is my comrade's father's book_. This is an awkward construction. Say instead, _This is the book belonging to my comrade's father_. +321.+ Do not overlook the fact, however, that the phrase beginning with _of_ does not always mean possession. Consider the following examples and see if there is not a difference in meaning: The history of Wilson is interesting. Wilson's history is interesting. In the first instance, I mean the history of Wilson's life is interesting; in the second instance I mean the history belongs to or written by Wilson is interesting. So there is quite a difference in the meaning. The phrase _of Wilson_ used in the first example does not indicate possession. Note the difference in meaning between the following sentences: The picture of Millet is good. Millet's picture is good. The statue of Rodin stands in the park. Rodin's statue stands in the park. Would you say: The invention of gunpowder, or gunpowder's invention? The destruction of Louvain, or Louvain's destruction? The siege of Antwerp, or Antwerp's siege? The boat's keel, or the keel of the boat? COMMON ERRORS +322.+ Prepositions are usually very small and seemingly unimportant words, yet we make a great many mistakes in their use. It is these little mistakes that are most difficult to avoid. Notice carefully in your own speech this week, and in the conversation which you overhear, the use of the prepositions. Notice especially the following cautions: +1. Do not use prepositions needlessly.+ We often throw a preposition in at the close of a sentence which we have already used in the sentence, and which we should not use again. The little preposition _at_ is most frequently used in this way. See how many times this week you hear people use such phrases as: At which store do you trade at? At what corner did you stop at? The last _at_ is entirely unnecessary. It has already been used once and that is enough. We also use _at_ and _to_ at the close of sentences beginning with an interrogative adverb, where they are not necessary. For example, we say: Where did you go to? Where did you stop at? Where am I at? The correct form of these sentences is: Where did you go? Where did you stop? Where am I? Do not use _at_ and _to_ in this way, they are entirely superfluous and give a most disagreeable sound to the sentence. Do not close a sentence with a preposition in this way. +2. Do not omit the preposition where it properly belongs.+ For example, we often say: The idea is no use to me. We should say, _The idea is of no use to me_. I was home yesterday. We should say, _I was at home_ yesterday. +3. Do not use the preposition _of_ with a verb that requires an object.+ The noun cannot be the object of both the verb and the preposition. As, for example: He does not remember _of_ seeing you. Do you approve _of_ his action? _Remember_ and _approve_ are both incomplete verbs requiring an object, and the nouns _seeing_ and _action_ are the objects of the incomplete verbs _remember_ and _approve_. The preposition _of_ is entirely superfluous. The sentences should read: He does not remember seeing you. Do you approve his action? Other verbs with which we commonly use the preposition _of_ in this way are the verbs _accept_ and _recollect_. As, for example: Will you accept _of_ this kindness? Will you try to recollect _of_ it? These sentences should read: Will you accept this kindness? Will you try to recollect it? The Correct Preposition +323.+ We make a great many mistakes also in the choice of prepositions. For example, the preposition _between_ refers to two objects and should never be used when you are speaking of more than two, thus: We settled the quarrel _between_ the two men. This is correct, but it is incorrect to say: We settled the quarrel _between_ the members of the Union. We cannot settle a quarrel between a _dozen_ people. When there are more than two, use the word _among_. We can perhaps attempt to settle a quarrel _among_ a dozen people. _Between_ refers to two objects, _among_ refers to more than two. For example: Divide the work _between_ the two men. Divide the work _among_ twenty men. +324.+ Do not confuse the use of _in_ and _into_. When entrance is denoted use _into_. As, for example: He came into the room. He got into the auto. Often the use of _in_ will give an entirely different meaning to the sentence. For example: He ran _in_ the water. He ran _into_ the water. The man acted as our guide _in_ the city. The man acted as our guide _into_ the city. The horse ran _in_ the pasture. The horse ran _into_ the pasture. +325.+ Do not use _below_ and _under_ to mean _less_ or _fewer_ in regard to an amount or number. _Below_ and _under_ have reference to place only. It is correct to say: He went _under_ the bridge. He came out _below_ the falls. But it is incorrect to say: The price is _below_ cost. There were _under_ fifty present. Say instead: The price is _less_ than cost. There were _fewer_ than fifty present. +326.+ Do not misuse _over_ and _above_. These prepositions have reference only to _place_. They are incorrectly used to mean _more than_ or _greater than_. It is correct to say: The boat anchored above the landing. He flew over the city. It is incorrect to say: He bought above a hundred acres. He lives over a mile from here. These sentences should be: He bought more than a hundred acres. He lives more than a mile from here. THE PREPOSITION WITH VERBS +327.+ In our first lesson on prepositions, we had a list of verbs and the correct preposition to use with these verbs. There are a few words which we use very commonly in which the meaning is slightly different according to the preposition which we use in connection with the verb. Foreigners especially who are learning the English language have great difficulty with the prepositions. Here are a few of these common words: +Adapt.+ With _adapt_ we can use either the preposition _to_ or _for_. For example; we adapt ourselves _to_ circumstances, that is, we accommodate or conform ourselves; but a thing can be adapted _for_ a certain purpose. +Agree.+ We can use the prepositions _with_ and _to_ with the verb _agree_, but with different meanings. For example, we say, We agree _with_ you about a certain matter; and, We agree _to_ the proposal which you make. +Ask.+ We ask a favor _of_ a person. We ask a friend _for_ a favor. We ask _about_ some one or thing that we wish to hear about. +Charge.+ There are several prepositions we can use with the verb _charge_. Your grocer charges you _for_ the things that you buy. If you run an account you are charged _with_ a certain amount. These things are charged _to_ you; but in war the enemy charges _upon_ you. +Compare.+ One thing is compared _with_ another in quality, but it is compared _to_ another when we are using the comparison for an illustration. +Complain.+ We make complaint _to_ the manager _of_ the things we do not like. +Comply.+ We comply _with_ the request of another, but he does a thing _in_ compliance _with_ that request. Do not use the preposition _to_ with compliance. +Correspond.+ With correspond, we use either the preposition _with_ or _to_. For example, I may correspond _with_ you, meaning that I communicate with you by letter, but one thing corresponds _to_ another, meaning that it is like the other. +Disgust.+ We are disgusted _with_ our friends sometimes _at_ the things which they do. We are disgusted _with_ people and _at_ things. +Reconcile.+ With reconcile, we use either the preposition _with_ or _to_. For example, I may become reconciled _with_ you; that is, I am restored to friendship or favor after an estrangement. But we reconcile one thing _to_ another; that is, we harmonize one thing with another. +Taste.+ We have a taste _for_ music, art or literature, but we enjoy the taste _of_ good things to eat. When taste refers to one of the five senses, use the preposition _of_, but when you use it to mean intellectual relish or enjoyment, use the preposition _for_. Exercise 2 Mark all of the prepositional phrases in the following poem: THE ANGEL OF DISCONTENT When the world was formed and the morning stars Upon their paths were sent, The loftiest-browed of the angels was made The Angel of Discontent. And he dwelt with man in the caves of the hills, Where the crested serpents sting, And the tiger tears and the she-wolf howls, And he told of better things. And he led them forth to the towered town, And forth to the fields of corn, And told of the ampler work ahead, For which his race was born. And he whispers to men of those hills he sees In the blush of the misty west; And they look to the heights of his lifted eye-- And they hate the name of rest. In the light of that eye does the slave behold A hope that is high and brave; And the madness of war comes into his blood-- For he knows himself a slave. The serfs of wrong by the light of that eye March with victorious songs; For the strength of the right comes into their hearts When they behold their wrongs. 'Tis by the light of that lifted eye That error's mists are rent; A guide to the table-lands of Truth Is the Angel of Discontent. And still he looks with his lifted eye, And his glance is far away, On a light that shines on the glimmering hills Of a diviner day. --_Sam Walter Foss_. Exercise 3 Mark all of the prepositions in the following poem. Write out the entire phrases and mark the word which is the object of the preposition. For example, in the phrase in the second line; _from a rich dream_, _dream_ is the object of the preposition _from_; and _a_ and _rich_ modify the noun _dream_. Abou Ben Adhem (may his tribe increase) Awoke one night from a rich dream of peace, And saw, within the moonlight of his room, Making it rich, and like a lily in bloom, An angel, writing in a book of gold. Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold, And to the Presence in the room he said, "What writest thou?" The Vision raised its head, And, with a look made of all sweet accord, Answered, "The names of those who love the Lord." "And is mine one?" said Abou. "Nay, not so," Replied the Angel. Abou spoke, more low, But cheerily still; and said, "I pray thee, then, Write me as one that loves his fellow-men." The angel wrote and vanished. The next night It came again, with a great wakening light, And showed the names whom love of God had blessed, And lo! Ben Adhem's name led all the rest. --_Leigh Hunt_. SPELLING LESSON 19 There are a few prepositions which might really be called derivative prepositions. 1. A few prepositions are formed from verbs. These are really participle prepositions, for they are the present participles of the verbs but have come to be used like prepositions. These are such as _concerning_, _excepting_, _regarding_, _respecting_, _during_, _according_, etc. Nearly all of these participle prepositions can be expressed by a preposition phrase, as for example, we can either say; I wrote _regarding_ these facts, or I wrote you _in regard to_ these facts. I mentioned them all _excepting_ the last, or, I mentioned them all _with the exception of_ the last. I have gone _according_ to the directions, or, I have gone _in accord with_ the directions. 2. Derivative prepositions are also formed by prefixing _a_ to other parts of speech, as _along_, _around_, _abroad_, etc. Strictly speaking these might be called compound prepositions for the prefix _a_ is really from the preposition _on_. 3. We have also compound prepositions formed: By uniting two prepositions, as _into_, _within_, _throughout_, etc. By uniting a preposition and some other part of speech, usually a noun or an adjective, as _beside_, _below_ and _beyond_. We also have a number of compound verbs which are made by prefixing a preposition to a verb. Some of these compound words have quite a different meaning from the meaning conveyed by the two words used separately; as for example, the compound verb _withstand_, derived from the preposition _with_ and the verb _stand_, has almost the opposite meaning from _stand with_. Our spelling lesson this week includes a number of these compound verbs formed by the use of the verb and a preposition. Look up the meaning in the dictionary. Use them in sentences in the compound form; then the two words separately as a verb and a preposition and note the difference in the meaning. +Monday+ Upset Withdraw Outrun Overlook Understand +Tuesday+ Oversee Undergo Outnumber Withhold Overcome +Wednesday+ Overflow Undertake Overreach Overthrow Outshine +Thursday+ Overhear Withstand Overgrow Overhaul Overrun +Friday+ Concerning Regarding Respecting According Excepting +Saturday+ Against Throughout Around Between Beneath PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 20 Dear Comrade: We are taking up in this lesson the study of the last important part of speech. We have spent some little time on the study of these parts of speech, but it has been time well spent. We cannot use good English and construct sentences that express our thoughts without an adequate knowledge of the words we use in sentence building. As soon as we finish the study of the parts of speech, we will spend several weeks in sentence building. This will give us a review of these lessons in which we have studied separate words. The English language is one of the most interesting of all to study. It is the most truly international of all languages, for the English language contains words from almost every language in the world. Did you ever stop to think that we could have internationalism in language as well as in other things? We can be as narrowly patriotic concerning words as concerning anything else. Nations have been prone to consider all those who do not speak their language as barbarians. Germany, perhaps, possesses as strong a nationalistic spirit as any country, and in Germany this spirit has found expression in a society formed for the purpose of keeping all foreign words out of the German language. They have published handbooks of native words for almost every department of modern life. They insist that the people use these words, instead of foreign importations. The German State takes great pride in the German language and considers it the most perfect of any spoken today. The rulers of Germany believe that it is a part of their duty to the world to see that all other nations speak the German language. In conquered Poland, only German is permitted to be taught in the schools or to be spoken as the language of commerce. The patriots in language seem to believe that there is some connection between purity of language and purity of race. In English, however, we have the beginnings of an international speech. Our civilization is derived from various sources. Here in America we are truly the melting-pot of the nations, and this is mirrored forth in our language which is, in a way, a melting-pot also, in which have been thrown words from every tongue. Those for whom nationalism is an important thing will probably cling to the idea of a pure unmixed language, but to those of us to whom Internationalism is not an empty word, but a living ideal, an international language becomes also part of the ideal. There is a wealth of wonderful literature open to us once we have gained a command of the English language. Pay especial attention to the quotations given in each lesson. These are quotations from the very best literature. If there are any of them that arouse your interest and you would like to read more from the same author, write us and we shall be glad to furnish you full information concerning further reading. Yours for Education, THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. CONJUNCTIONS +328.+ You remember that in Lesson 3, where we studied the parts of speech, we found that we had another connective word besides the preposition,--the conjunction. A preposition connects two words and shows what one of them has to do with the other. The conjunction plays a different part as a connective, for it connects not only words but also phrases and clauses. Note the following sentences: Shall we be men _or_ machines? We must struggle for ourselves _and_ for our children. We pray for peace _but_ furnish ammunition for war. The use of the conjunction saves a great deal of tiresome repetition, for, by its use, where two subjects have the same predicate or two predicates have the same subject, we can combine it all into one sentence. You will readily realize how important this part of speech is to us. If we did not have conjunctions our speech would be cumbersome and we would have to use a great many short sentences and a great deal of repetition. If we wanted to make the same statement concerning a number of things, without conjunctions, we would have each time to repeat the entire statement. Try to write a description of a scene and avoid the use of conjunctions and you will see what an important part these connective words play in our power of expression. Without the use of the conjunction, you would necessarily use a great many short expressions and repeat the same words again and again, and your description would be a jerky, tiresome, unsatisfactory piece of writing. Exercise 1 Rewrite the following sentences, writing in separate sentences the clauses that are united by the conjunctions: 1. The birds are singing _and_ spring is here. 2. We talk of peace, _but_ war still rages. 3. The unemployed cannot find work _and_ they are dying of hunger. 4. We believed in war for defense _and_ every nation is now fighting for defense. 5. We believe in education _and_ we are struggling for universal education. 6. The old order is fast passing _and_ the new order is rapidly appearing. 7. Profit is the keynote of the present, _but_ service shall be the keynote of the future. 8. All children should be in school, _but_ thousands must earn their bread. Note that these sentences are made up of two or more simple sentences combined; and each of these simple sentences is called a clause, and each clause must contain a subject and a predicate. Exercise 2 Rewrite the following simple sentences, using conjunctions to avoid a repetition of the same subject and predicate. Rewrite these into a paragraph, making as well written a paragraph as you possibly can: One hundred years ago the workers fought for universal education. As a result we have our public schools of today. Our public schools have been our chief bulwark against oppression. Our public schools are our chief bulwark against oppression. Our public schools are our greatest safeguard for the protection of such liberty as we enjoy. Our public school system embodies a socialistic ideal. Our public school system is the most democratic of our institutions. There has been a subtle subversion of the ideal. The public school system has been made to serve the master class. We have spent millions to make the ideal a reality. Have we realized the ideal? Is there universal education? Is there education for every child beneath the flag? The grounds of our public schools have cost millions. The buildings have cost millions. The courses of study are many. They are varied. They are elaborate. But the workers of the world do not enjoy this feast. The children of the workers do not enjoy this feast. CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS +329.+ Conjunctions are divided into classes, as are other parts of speech, according to the work which they do. Notice the following sentences and notice how the use of a different conjunction changes the meaning of the sentence. We are united _and_ we shall win. _When_ we are united, we shall win. In the first sentence the conjunction _and_ connects the two clauses, _we are united_ and _we shall win_. They are both independent clauses, neither is dependent upon the other, and both are of equal importance. But by the use of the conjunction _when_, instead of the conjunction _and_, we have changed the meaning of the sentence. There is quite a difference in saying, _We are united and we shall win_, and _When we are united we shall win_. By connecting these two statements with the conjunction _when_, we have made of the clause, _we are united_, a dependent clause, it modifies the verb phrase _shall win_. It tells _when_ we shall win, just as much as if we had used an _adverb_ to modify the verb phrase, and had said, _We shall win tomorrow_, instead of, _We shall win when we are united_. So in these two sentences we have two different kinds of conjunctions, the conjunction _and_, which connects clauses of equal rank or order, and the conjunction _when_, which connects a dependent clause to the principal clause. +330.+ So the conjunctions like _and_ are called co-ordinate conjunctions. _Co-ordinate_ means literally of equal rank or order. Conjunctions like _when_ are called sub-ordinate conjunctions. _Sub-ordinate_ means of inferior rank or order. So we have our definitions: +331.+ +A conjunction is a word that connects words or phrases or clauses.+ +A co-ordinate conjunction is one that joins words, phrases or clauses having the same rank.+ +A subordinate conjunction is one that connects a dependent clause to the principal clause.+ CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS +332.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases or clauses of equal rank.+ The most commonly used co-ordinate conjunctions are; _and_, _but_, _or_, _nor_. +333.+ But there are a number of words which we often use as adverbs, which may also be used as co-ordinate conjunctions. These words are not always conjunctions, for they are sometimes used as adverbs. When they are used as conjunctions they retain something of their adverbial meaning; but still they are conjunctions, for they are used to show the connection between two clauses of equal rank. Thus: I am not in favor of the motion, _nevertheless_ I shall vote for it. The deputies voted for the war appropriation, _notwithstanding_ they had carried on an extensive anti-war propaganda. I did not believe in the change, _however_ I did not oppose it. +334.+ The co-ordinate conjunctions which we use with this adverbial meaning also, are; _therefore_, _hence_, _still_, _besides_, _consequently_, _yet_, _likewise_, _moreover_, _else_, _than_, _also_, _accordingly_, _nevertheless_, _notwithstanding_, _otherwise_, _however_, _so_ and _furthermore_. These conjunctions always refer to what has been said before and serve to introduce and connect new statements. +335.+ We often use these conjunctions, and also, _and_, _but_, _or_, and _nor_, at the beginning of a separate sentence or paragraph to connect it in meaning with that which has gone before. You will often see the use of these conjunctions as the first word of a new paragraph, thus relating this paragraph to that which has preceded it. +336.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions connect words of equal rank.+ NOUNS Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more _nouns_ used as the subject of a verb. As: _Death_ and _disaster_ follow in the wake of war. In this sentence, _death_ is just as much the subject of the verb _follow_ as is the word _disaster_, but no more so. You can omit either of these words and the other will make a subject for the sentence. They are both of equal importance, both of the same rank in the sentence, and neither depends upon the other. These two words taken together form the subject of the sentence. This is called the _compound subject_, for it consists of two simple subjects. Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more nouns used as the _object_ of a verb. He studies history and science. In this sentence the words _history_ and _science_ are both used as objects of the verb _studies_. Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more nouns used as the object of a _preposition_. He called for the letters and the papers. In this sentence _letters_ and _papers_ are both objects of the preposition _for_, connected by the co-ordinate conjunction _and_. Exercise 3 Note in the following sentences the nouns which are connected by conjunctions and decide whether they are used as the subject of the sentences or the object of verbs or of prepositions. Draw a line under compound subjects. 1. John and Henry are going home. 2. Music and painting are fine arts. 3. The grounds and buildings of our public schools have cost millions. 4. The time calls for brave men and women. 5. We struggle for truth and freedom. 6. Will you study English or arithmetic? 7. Education and organization are necessary for success. 8. We must learn the truth about production and distribution. 9. We demand justice and liberty. 10. The great struggle is between the working class and the ruling class. PRONOUNS +337.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions may also connect pronouns.+ These are used in the same way as nouns,--either as subject or object. Nouns have the same form whether used as subject or object. Pronouns, however, have different forms when used as the object. Here is where we often make mistakes in the use of pronouns. When the pronouns are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions they are of the same rank and are used in the same construction;--if they are used as subjects both must be used in the subject form;--if they are used as objects, both must be used in the object form. For example, it is incorrect to say, _He told the story to her and I_. Here _her_ is properly used in the object form, for it is the object of the preposition _to_; the pronoun _I_ connected with _her_ by the use of the conjunction _and_ is also the object of the preposition _to_, and the object form should be used. You would not say, _He told the story to I_. The sentence should read, _He told the story to her and me_. Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the _subject_ of a sentence, as for example: _She_ and _I_ arrived today. Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the _object_ of the verb, as for example: Did you call _her_ or _me_? Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the object of the _preposition_, as: He gave that to _you_ and _me_. Exercise 4 Study closely the following sentences and correct those in which the wrong form of the pronoun is used. 1. He and I are old friends. 2. Did you ask him or me? 3. They promised him and I that they would come. 4. Find the place for she and me. 5. Me and him will get it for you and she. 6. She and I will go with you. 7. You and I must decide matters for ourselves. 8. You will find him and her to be loyal comrades. VERBS +338.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect verbs.+ Verbs connected in this way have the same subject; and with the use of the conjunction to connect the verbs, we save repeating the subject. He _reads_ and _studies_ constantly. In this sentence _reads_ and _studies_ are words of the same kind and of the same rank; either could be omitted and the other would make a predicate for the sentence. They are of equal importance in the sentence and are connected by the conjunction _and_. They have a single subject, the pronoun _he_. This is called a compound predicate. In the sentence, _He reads constantly_, we have a simple predicate, the single verb _reads_; but in the sentence, _He reads and studies constantly_, we have a compound predicate, compound of the two verbs _reads_ and _studies_. A sentence may have both a compound subject and a compound predicate. As, for example: John and James read and study constantly. In this sentence _John_ and _James_ is the compound subject of both the verbs, _read_ and _study_. So we have a compound subject and a compound predicate. Exercise 5 Notice the verbs in the following sentences connected by co-ordinate conjunctions. Draw lines under each compound predicate. 1. The days come _and_ go in a ceaseless round. 2. The brave man dreams _and_ dares to live the dream. 3. The coward dreams _but_ dares not live the dream. 4. We produce splendidly _but_ distribute miserably. 5. The bought press twists _and_ distorts the facts. 6. Only a traitor aids _or_ supports the enemy. 7. We agitate _and_ educate for the cause of liberty. ADJECTIVES +339.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are used to connect adjectives.+ In this way we use a number of adjectives to modify the same word without tiresome repetition. When several adjectives are used to modify the same word, the conjunction is used only between the last two adjectives. As, for example: A _simple_, _clear_ and _concise_ course has been prepared. Exercise 6 In the following sentences, underscore the adjectives which are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions. 1. The plains of France are covered with the dead and dying soldiers. 2. Education should be both universal and free. 3. They are faithful and loyal comrades. 4. This was only our just and legal right. 5. Old and hoary was the man who sat on the stool by the fireless and godless altar. 6. The service of humanity is a sweet and noble task. 7. We must be brave and true. 8. He lived a noble and courageous life. 9. All was old and cold and mournful. 10. Most powerful and eloquent is the voice of the disinherited. ADVERBS +340.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect adverbs.+ This gives us the power to describe the action expressed in verbs without the tiresome repetition of the verb. For example: He spoke _fluently_ and _eloquently_. Exercise 7 In the following sentences underscore the adverbs which are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions: 1. Man selfishly and greedily prevents his fellow men from the enjoyment of nature's bounties. 2. She is wonderfully and gloriously brave. 3. He speaks eloquently and impressively, but very slowly. 4. Nature has provided lavishly and bountifully for her children. 5. Advice spoken truly and wisely is always in season. 6. We must resist injustice bravely and courageously. 7. He feels keenly and deeply the wrongs of his class. 8. He writes easily and rapidly. 9. The words, calmly and coolly spoken, were instantly opposed. 10. He reached that conclusion naturally and inevitably. 11. He was gently but unwaveringly firm. 12. The revolution comes slowly but surely. PHRASES +341.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are used, not only to connect words, but also to connect phrases.+ Verb Phrases +342.+ Verb phrases may be connected by conjunctions. For example: The People's College _is owned_ and _controlled_ by the working class. We _have made_ and _are making_ a fierce struggle for a free press. In this last sentence the two verb phrases, _have made_ and _are making_ are connected by the co-ordinate conjunction _and_. Often in using verb phrases, we use phrases in which the same helping verb occurs in both phrases. When this is the case the helping verb is quite often omitted in the second phrase and only the participle is connected by the conjunction. As, for example: The People's College is owned and controlled by the working class. In this sentence the helping verb _is_ belongs in both the phrases but is omitted in the second phrase in order to make a smoother sounding sentence. In the second phrase, only the past participle _controlled_ is used. It is understood that we mean, The People's College _is owned_ and _is controlled_ by the working class. Exercise 8 Note the use of the conjunction in the following sentences to connect the verb phrases. Supply the helping verb where it is omitted. 1. Our system of education is rooted and grounded in outgrown dogmas. 2. We have written but have received no answer. 3. Will you come or stay? 4. Man must struggle or remain in slavery. 5. The workers are organizing and demanding their rights. 6. We must arouse and educate our comrades. 7. We have sought but have not found. Prepositional Phrases +343.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are used to connect prepositional phrases.+ These phrases may be used as adjective phrases. For example: The books _in the book case_ and _on the table_ belong to me. These phrases may be used as adverb phrases. For example: He works _with speed_ and _with ease_. Exercise 9 Note in the following sentences, the prepositional phrases which are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions. Mark which are used as adjective and which as adverb phrases. 1. Education is the road out of ignorance and into the light. 2. The army charged over the plain and up the hill. 3. The first men lived in groups and in clans. 4. Democracy means government of the people and by the people. 5. Shall we take the path toward progress or toward barbarism. 6. They are not fighting for their country but for their king. 7. Human rights are not protected by the law nor by the courts. 8. The problem of the working class and of society is the problem of equitable distribution. 9. They are deceived by their leaders and by their press. 10. You can pay either by the week or by the month. 11. Our government is not the rule of the majority but of the minority. Infinitives and Participles +344.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect infinitives and participles.+ Exercise 10 In the following sentences mark the infinitives and participles connected by co-ordinate conjunctions. 1. Those words will inspire us to dream and to dare. 2. We shall learn to produce and to distribute. 3. To be or not to be, that is the question. 4. Puffing and panting, the great engine pulled up to the station. 5. A cringing and trembling coward fears to demand his own. 6. The warped and twisted facts in the daily press deceive the masses. 7. Singing and dancing should be enjoyed by all children. 8. The exploiting and robbing of the people is made a virtue in ruling class ethics. CLAUSES +345.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect clauses of equal rank.+ For example: _The floods came and the winds blew._ Each of these clauses is a complete sentence in itself, but they are combined into one compound sentence by the use of the co-ordinate conjunction, _and_. Clauses united in this way may have a compound subject and a compound predicate, but two complete clauses must be united by a co-ordinate conjunction in order to form a compound sentence. For example: The rain and snow fell, _and_ the wind blew a mighty gale. Here the first clause in the compound sentence, _the rain and snow fell_, contains a compound subject, _rain and snow_. The boys are running and shouting, _and_ the girls are gathering flowers. Here the first clause has a compound predicate, _are running_ and _shouting_. The second _and_ connects the two clauses forming the compound sentence. CORRELATIVES +346.+ Certain co-ordinate conjunctions are used in pairs, such as _both, and_; _either, or_; _neither, nor_; _whether, or_. These pairs are called correlatives. The first word in the pair, as, _both_, _either_, _neither_, or _whether_, is used as an assistant conjunction helping the other to do the connecting. These are used in such sentences as: I have _both_ seen _and_ heard him. They will join us _either_ in April _or_ in May. Labor has received _neither_ liberty _nor_ justice. _Whether_ to go forward _or_ to retreat was the problem. Note that _nor_ is always the proper correlative to use with _neither_ and also with the negatives _not_ and _never_ when they apply to what follows as well as to what precedes. For example: There are thousands in this country who can _neither_ read _nor_ write. _Neither_ you _nor_ I can foretell the future. He will _not_ write _nor_ should you. Capital punishment is _nothing_ more _nor_ less than legalized murder. We shall _never_ lower our colors _nor_ retreat. _Or_ is always used with the correlative _either_. For example: We will _either_ come _or_ write you. _Either_ he was mistaken _or_ he deliberately lied. Exercise 11 Note the use of the co-ordinate conjunctions _and_, _but_, _or_ and _nor_, in the following quotation. Mark especially the use of _and_ as an introductory conjunction, introducing a new sentence, but connecting it with that which has gone before. In my judgment slavery is the child of ignorance. Liberty is born of intelligence. Only a few years ago there was a great awakening in the human mind. Men began to inquire, "By what right does a crowned robber make me work for him?" The man who asked this question was called a traitor. They said then, and they say now, that it is dangerous for the mind of man to be free. I deny it. Out on the intellectual sea there is room for every sail. In the intellectual air, there is space enough for every wing. And the man who does not do his own thinking is a slave, and does not do his duty to his fellow men. For one, I expect to do my own thinking. And I will take my oath this minute that I will express what thoughts I have, honestly and sincerely. I am the slave of no man and of no organization. I stand under the blue sky and the stars, under the infinite flag of nature, the peer of every human being. All I claim, all I plead is simple liberty of thought. That is all. I do not pretend to tell what is true nor all the truth. I do not claim that I have floated level with the heights of thought, nor that I have descended to the depths of things; I simply claim that what ideas I have, I have a right to express, and any man that denies it to me is an intellectual thief and robber. Every creed that we have today has upon it the mark of the whip or the chain or the fagot. I do not want it. Free labor will give us wealth, and has given us wealth, and why? Because a free brain goes into partnership with a free hand. That is why. And when a man works for his wife and children, the problem of liberty is, how to do the most work in the shortest space of time; but the problem of slavery is, how to do the least work in the longest space of time. Slavery is poverty; liberty is wealth. It is the same in thought. Free thought will give us truth; and the man who is not in favor of free thought occupies the same relation to those he can govern that the slaveholder occupied to his slaves, exactly. Free thought will give us wealth. There has not been a generation of free thought yet. It will be time to write a creed when there have been a few generations of free-brained men and splendid women in this world. I don't know what the future may bring forth; I don't know what inventions are in the brain of the future; I don't know what garments may be woven, with the years to come; but I do know, coming from the infinite sea of the future, there will never touch this "bank and shoal of time" a greater blessing nor a grander glory, than liberty for man, woman and child. Oh, liberty! Float not forever in the far horizon! Remain not forever in the dream of the enthusiast and the poet and the philanthropist. But come and take up thine abode with the children of men forever.--_Ingersoll_. SPELLING LESSON 20 We found that we often formed adjectives by adding suffixes to other words. We also form many adverbs by the addition of suffixes to other words. Derivative adverbs are formed in the following ways: 1. By adding suffixes to adjectives, chiefly the suffix _ly_, as for example; _chiefly_, _truly_, _really_, _lately_, etc. 2. By changing _ble_ to _bly_, as in _ably_, _nobly_, etc. 3. By adding the suffix _ward_, as in _forward_, _upward_, _skyward_, _downward_, _homeward_, etc. 4. We have some adverbs formed by adding the prefix _a_ to adjectives and nouns, as _ahead_, _afoot_, _afresh_, also by adding the prefix _be_, as in _besides_, _beyond_. We often misspell a number of adverbs by adding _s_ where it does not rightfully belong; as, _anywheres_, _everywheres_, _backwards_, _forwards_, _towards_, _upwards_, _downwards_, _afterwards_, _homewards_, etc. All of these words should be written without the _s_. We also have a number of compound adverbs which are made by the union of two other parts of speech, such as _sometime_, _henceforth_, _forever_, _overheard_, _outside_, etc. In the lesson for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday, adjectives are given having opposite meanings. Make the proper adverbs from these adjectives by the addition of the suffix _ly_. Thursday's and Friday's lessons are made up of both adjectives and adverbs that end in _ly_. Look up in your dictionary and be sure you know which are adjectives and which are adverbs. Saturday's lesson is made up of compound adverbs. +Monday+ Haughty--Humble Wise--Ignorant Careful--Careless Firm--Wavering +Tuesday+ Honest--Deceitful Fearful--Fearless Punctual--Tardy Identical--Different +Wednesday+ Thoughtful--Thoughtless Rich--Poor Attentive--Inattentive Industrious--Lazy +Thursday+ Quickly Lovely Clearly Cleanly +Friday+ Homely Truly Courtly Nearly +Saturday+ Otherwise Herewith Sometime Always PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 21 Dear Comrade: In this lesson we are completing the study of conjunctions. We have studied the conjunction last among the parts of speech and in the order of the development of language, the conjunction naturally comes last. The need of connective words does not come in any language until the language is quite well developed. You will notice that the connective words, such as prepositions and conjunctions are the last words the child begins to use. The child first begins to use the names of the things with which it comes in contact, then it learns the words that express what these things do. But it is not until the child begins to reason that it begins to use connective words. These become necessary when we have reached a stage of development where we can consider the relationship existing between things. The use of conjunctions, however, can be greatly overdone. The long and involved sentences are more difficult to understand. If you will note the authors which you enjoy the most, it will probably be those who use short and crisp sentences. We have some authors who by the use of conjunctions can string one sentence out over several pages. You wonder how they manage to exist so long without stopping for breath. It is very easy for us to fall into this error when we are thinking rapidly and our thoughts all seem to be closely connected. But no mind can grasp many ideas at one time. Break your sentences up and express your ideas concisely and clearly. Use conjunctions rather sparingly, especially these subordinate conjunctions. Do not have too many subordinate clauses in one sentence. Notice in your reading for this week those who use the short, crisp sentences and those who use the longer and more involved sentences. Notice which are understood more readily and which are more enjoyable to read. Take some of the paragraphs from those who write long and involved sentences and break them up into short sentences and see if these shorter sentences do not make the meaning simpler and clearer. This will be excellent practice also in gaining the power of expression. Especially in the class struggle do we need those who can write clearly and simply of the great problems of the day. As the work of the world is conducted today, the workers have too little time for reading. They are apt, after a hard day's work, to be too tired to follow an author through long, winding, involved passages. In the spoken word, this is also true. You will find your hearers much more in sympathy with you if you will use short sentences. Break your thought up so they can readily grasp your meaning and follow you to your conclusion. Conjunctions are very important to save us from tiresome repetitions and short, jerky sentences, but we must avoid using them too frequently. Yours for Education, THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS +347.+ We have found that co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases and also clauses that are entirely independent; that is, they do not depend in the slightest degree upon any other word, phrase or clause. Subordinate conjunctions connect inferior clauses to the main clauses of the sentence. These inferior clauses are dependent clauses. Subordinate conjunctions never connect words or phrases; but only dependent clauses, to the rest of the sentence. Note the following sentences: He came _quickly_. He came _on time_. He came _when he was called_. In the first sentence the word _quickly_ is an adverb modifying the verb _came_ and answers the question _when_. It tells _when_ he came. In the second sentence, the phrase _on time_ is an adverb phrase modifying the verb _came_, and answers the question _when_. It tells _when_ he came. In the third sentence, the clause _when he was called_, also answers the question _when_, and tells _when_ he came. Therefore, it is a clause used as an adverb. It is different from the phrase _on time_, for the phrase _on time_ does not contain a subject and a predicate. +348.+ The difference between the phrase and the clause is that the phrase does not contain either a subject or a predicate, while the clause _always_ contains both a subject and a predicate. So in the clause, _when he was called_, _he_ is the subject and _was called_ is the predicate, and _when_ is the subordinate conjunction, which connects this adverb clause to the verb _came_, which it modifies. The clause _he came_, and the clause _when he was called_, are not of equal rank and importance, because the clause, _when he was called_, simply modifies the verb contained in the clause _he came_, by describing the _time_ of the action expressed in the verb _came_. So the clause, _when he was called_, is a subordinate or dependent clause, and the conjunctions which connect this class of clauses to the main clause are called subordinate conjunctions. +349.+ +A subordinate conjunction is one that connects a dependent clause to the principal clause.+ CLASSES OF SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS +350.+ Most subordinate conjunctions are used to make adverb clauses. These clauses will answer some one of the questions answered by adverbs. They will tell _how_, _when_, _where_ or _why_ the action expressed in the verb in the principal clause occurred. There are six classes of these subordinate conjunctions which are used to introduce adverb clauses. They introduce: +351.+ +Adverb clause of time.+ These clauses will answer the question _when_ and are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, _before_, _since_, _as_, _while_, _until_, _when_, _after_ and _as soon as_. Notice in the following sentences the difference made in the meaning of the sentences by the use of the different conjunctions: We waited _until_ you came. We waited _after_ you came. We waited _as_ you came. We waited _before_ you came. We waited _since_ you came. We left _while_ you were gone. We left _when_ you were gone. We left _as soon as_ you were gone. +352.+ +Adverb clause of place.+ These answer the question _where_, and are introduced by the conjunctions, _where_, _whence_, _whither_. I will go _where_ you go. The wind blows _whither_ it listeth. He went _whence_ he came. +353.+ +Adverb clauses expressing cause or reason.+ These will answer the question _why_. They are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, _because_, _for_, _since_, _as_, _whereas_, _inasmuch as_, etc. Note the difference in the meaning of the following sentences expressed by the use of different conjunctions: I will come _because_ you expect me. I will come _since_ you expect me. I will come _as_ you expect me. I will come _for_ you expect me. I will come _inasmuch as_ you expect me. +354.+ +Adverb clauses of manner.+ These clauses will answer the question _how_, and are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, _as_, _as if_, _as though_, etc. Study _as though_ you were in earnest. Come _as if_ you had been called. Do _as_ I say, not _as_ I do. In these clauses of _manner_, introduced by _as if_, and _as though_, _were_ is used in the present form with either singular or plural subjects. For example: He writes as if he _were_ informed of the facts. They talk as though they _were_ confident of success. You act as though I _were_ your slave. +355.+ +Adverb clauses of comparison.+ These clauses are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions _than_ and _as_. The verbs are often omitted in these dependent clauses introduced by _than_ and _as_. For example: _He is taller than I_. The complete sentence would be: _He is taller than I am_. _He is not so tall as I._ Here the sentence would be: _He is not so tall as I am_. When the pronoun occurs in these dependent clauses, be sure to use the proper form of the pronoun. It may be the subject or the object of the verb which is not expressed. For example; it is incorrect to say: _I am not so tall as him_. The correct form is: _I am not so tall as he_. The complete sentence would be: _I am not so tall as he is_, and the pronoun should be in the subject form, for it is the subject of the verb _is_, which is understood and omitted. The use of the _subject_ or of the _object_ form may make a difference in the meaning of your sentence. For example, you say: _I admire them as much as he_. You mean that you admire them as much as he admires them. But if you say, _I admire them as much as him_, you mean that you admire them as much as you admire him. Quite a different meaning! Be careful in the use of your pronouns in this way, for you can express quite a different meaning. For example, if you say, _I care more for you than he_, you mean, I care more for you than he cares for you. But if you say, _I care more for you than him_, you mean, I care more for you than I care for him. A mistake like this might mean a great deal to you some time, if the one to whom you had been speaking had been studying a course in Plain English! +356.+ +Adverb clauses of condition.+ These clauses are introduced by such conjunctions as, _if_, _provided_, _supposing_, _unless_, _except_, _otherwise_, _though_, _notwithstanding_, _albeit_, and _whether_. For example: I will come _if_ you need me. I will come _provided_ you need me. I will go _notwithstanding_ you need me. I will not go _unless_ I am called. He will not go _except_ he is called. He will not go _though_ he is called. He came, _otherwise_ I would go. He will go _whether_ you go or stay. When subordinate clauses beginning with _if_, _though_ or _unless_ are joined to clauses containing _might_, _could_, _would_ or _should_, the verb _were_ is sometimes used with a singular subject, in such sentences as: If this _were_ true, I should know it. Unless I _were_ positive, I would not say so. Though our leader _were_ lost, yet we would not despair. If he _were_ here, he would explain it himself. If I _were_ with you, I might make you understand. Sometimes in sentences like these, _if_ is omitted in the clause, and the verb placed first. For example: _Were_ he here, he would deny these slanders. _Were_ he truly class-conscious, he would oppose this war. _Were_ this fact known, the people would never submit. These clauses express something which is uncertain, or which is to be decided in the future; a supposition contrary to a fact or a wish. Occasionally you will find the verb _be_ used instead of _is_, in clauses of this kind introduced by _if_, _though_, _unless_, _except_, _lest_, etc. For example: If it _be_ true, I will hear it. Though he _be_ guilty, we will not desert him. In subordinate clauses connected by _if_, _unless_, etc., with a principal clause which expresses future time, the present form of the verb is used in the subordinate clause. For example: If they are willing, we will join them. Unless he comes, I shall not leave. If it rains, we will not go. +357.+ +Adverb clauses expressing purpose.+ These are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, _that_, _in order that_ and _lest_. For example: Take good care _that_ you understand this lesson. I will go today _in order that_ I may meet him. Watch these carefully _lest_ they be stolen. Read the labor press _that_ you may know the truth. Notice that _that_, when used in this way, as a pure conjunction, means _in order that_. For example, the sentence above might read: Read the labor press _in order that_ you may know the truth. +358.+ +Adverb clauses expressing result.+ These are introduced by the subordinate conjunction _that_, as for example: They were so late _that_ I could not go. SUMMARY +359.+ We have then adverb clauses introduced by subordinate conjunctions expressing: 1. +Time.+ Answer the question _when_. 2. +Place.+ Answer the question _where_. 3. +Cause or reason.+ Answer the question _why_. 4. +Manner.+ Answer the question _how_. 5. +Comparison.+ Used to compare. 6. +Condition.+ Answer the question _on what condition_. 7. +Purpose.+ Answer the question _for what purpose_. 8. +Result.+ Answer the question _to what result_. Exercise 1 In the following sentences, mark the conjunctions and tell to what class they belong; ask the question _when_, _where_, _why_, _how_, _on what condition_, _for what purpose_, _to what result_. Underscore the subordinate clauses. The subjects of the subordinate clauses are printed in italics. 1. Speech was developed that _we_ might be able to communicate with one another. 2. The International failed in the crisis because _it_ had no definite war program. 3. We will fail if _we_ have no definite program. 4. If _labor_ were united, we could destroy wage slavery. 5. When the _people_ understand, they will no longer submit. 6. Labor cannot win until _it_ learns solidarity. 7. After the terrible _war_ is over, the workers in all countries may come closer together. 8. We are convinced of the folly of nationalism since the _war_ has been declared. 9. If _we_ knew the facts we could not be misled. 10. Inform yourself before _you_ seek to teach others. 11. We must unite in order that _we_ may possess power. 12. It is more than the _heart_ can bear. 13. May you have courage to dare ere _you_ have ceased to dream. 14. If _we_ remain ignorant, we shall remain enslaved. 15. We sometimes fear to trust our own thought because _it_ is our own. 16. Though _we_ should lose the strike we will not despair. 17. The battle waged so fiercely that _thousands_ were slain. PHRASE CONJUNCTIONS +360.+ There are certain phrases which have come to be used together as conjunctions so commonly that we may consider them as conjunctions. They are: _As if_, _as though_, _but also_, _but likewise_, _so that_, _except that_, _inasmuch as_, _notwithstanding that_, _in order that_, _as well as_, _as far as_, _so far as_, _as little as_, _provided that_, _seeing that_, etc. Exercise 2 Write sentences using these phrase conjunctions to introduce clauses. NOUN CLAUSES +361.+ We have found that there are two kinds of clauses, principal clauses and subordinate clauses. +A principal clause is one that does not depend on any word.+ +A subordinate clause is one that depends upon some word or words in the principal clause.+ We have found, also, that these principal clauses are always connected by co-ordinate conjunctions, for they are of equal rank and importance; neither is dependent upon the other. Subordinate clauses are always connected with the principal clause by a subordinate conjunction. The subordinate clauses which we have been studying have all been adverb clauses which are used to describe the action expressed in the verb contained in the principal clauses. The subordinate clause in a sentence may also be used as a noun. When the subordinate clause is used as a noun it is called a noun clause. +362.+ +A noun clause is a clause used as a noun.+ A noun clause may be used in any way in which a noun is used, except as a possessive. It may be used as a subject, an object, a predicate complement, or in apposition with a noun. These noun clauses may be introduced by either relative pronouns, interrogative pronouns or by conjunctions. For example: I know _who_ he is. He asked, "_what_ do you want?" I know _where_ it is. In the first sentence, _who he is_, is a noun clause used as the object of the verb _know_. It tells _what_ I know, and is the object of the verb _know_,--just as if I had said; _I know the facts_. In this sentence the noun, _facts_, is the object of the verb _know_. In the second sentence, _He asked, "what do you want?_" the noun clause _what do you want_ is the object of the verb _asked_, and is introduced by the interrogative pronoun _what_. We will study in a subsequent lesson the use of noun clauses introduced by relative pronouns. In this lesson we are studying the conjunctions. In the last sentence, _I know where it is_, the noun clause _where it is_, is the object of the verb _know_, and is introduced by the conjunction _where_. +363.+ Noun clauses are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions, _where_, _when_, _whence_, _whither_, _whether_, _how_, _why_, and also by the subordinate conjunction _that_. For example: I know _where_ I can find it. I inquired _when_ he would arrive. We do not know _whence_ it cometh nor whither it goeth. Ask _whether_ the train has gone. I don't know _how_ I can find you. I cannot understand _why_ he does so. I believe _that_ he is honest. In all of these examples the noun clauses are used as the objects of the verb. Noun clauses may also be used as objects of prepositions. As, for example: You do not listen to _what is said_. He talked to me about _what had happened_. He told me to come to _where he was_. +364.+ Noun clauses may also be used as the subject of a sentence. As for example: _That he is innocent_ is admitted by all. _That he was guilty_ has been proven. _Why he should do this_ is very strange. _How we are to live_ is the great problem. In all of these sentences, the noun clause is used as the subject of the verb. You will note that most frequently the noun clause used as subject of the verb is introduced by the subordinate conjunction _that_. But quite often we write these sentences in a somewhat different way. For example: It is admitted by all _that he is innocent_. It has been proven _that he was guilty_. You will notice in these sentences we have expressed practically the same thought as in the sentences where the noun clause was used as the subject of the verb. But now we have this little pronoun _it_ used as the subject, instead of the clause, which is the real subject of the sentence. _It_ is simply used as the introductory word in the sentence. The noun clause is in reality the subject of the sentence. +365.+ Noun clauses may also be used as the predicate complement with a copulative verb. For example: The general opinion is _that he is innocent_. The problem is _how we may accomplish this quickly_. The question was _why any one should believe such statements_. In all of these sentences the noun clause is used as the complement of the incomplete verbs _is_ and _was_, to complete the meaning, just as we use a noun as the predicate complement of a copulative verb in such sentences as, _Socialism is a science._ _War is murder._ +366.+ A noun clause may also be used in apposition to a noun to explain its meaning. Apposition means to place alongside of. Note in the following sentences: The fact, _that such a law had been passed_, alters the situation. His motion, _that the matter should be laid on the table_, was adopted. In the first sentence, the clause, _that such a law had been passed_, is placed beside the noun _fact_ and explains _what_ that fact is. The clause, _that the matter should be laid on the table_, is in apposition to and explains the noun _motion_. These noun clauses are used in apposition. Exercise 3 Complete the following sentences by inserting the appropriate conjunctions and pronouns in the blank spaces: 1. Can you tell......Germany has a million fighting men? 2. Would you be pleased......the United States should intervene in Mexico? 3. The Mexican revolution will continue......the people possess the land. 4. No one may vote in the convention......he has credentials. 5. ......Debs was in Woodstock jail, he became in Socialist. 6. ......the treaty was signed, hostilities ceased. 7. We shall win......we have the courage. 8. ......we have lost this battle we shall not cease to struggle. 9. All are enslaved......one is enslaved. 10. Humanity will be free......labor is free. 11. Let us do our duty......we understand it. 12. Man will never reach his best......he walks side by side with woman. 13. We must struggle......we would be free. 14. ......we shout for peace, we support war. 15. All our sympathies should be with the man......toils,......we know......labor is the foundation of all. 16. ......all have the right to think and to express their thoughts every brain will give to all the best......it has. 17. ......man develops he places greater value upon his own rights. 18. ......man values his own rights he begins to value the rights of others. 19. ......all men give to all others the rights......they claim for themselves this world will be civilized. Exercise 4 Note all the co-ordinate and subordinate conjunctions in the following verses from "The Ballad of Reading Gaol." Underscore the subordinate clauses. Are they adverb or noun clauses? Do the co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases or clauses? I know not _whether_ Laws be right, Or _whether_ Laws be wrong; All that we know who lie in gaol Is _that_ the wall is strong; _And that_ each day is like a year, A year whose days are long. _But_ this I know, _that_ every Law That men have made for Man, _Since_ first Man took his brother's life, _And_ the sad world began, But straws the wheat _and_ saves the chaff With a most evil fan. This too I know--_and_ wise it were _If_ each could know the same-- _That_ every prison that men build Is built with bricks of shame, _And_ bound with bars _lest_ Christ should see _How_ men their brothers maim. With bars they blur the gracious moon, _And_ blind the goodly sun: _And_ they do well to hide their Hell, _For_ in it things are done That son of God _nor_ son of Man Ever should look upon! In Reading gaol by Reading town There is a pit of shame, _And_ in it lies a wretched man Eaten by teeth of flame, In a burning winding sheet he lies, _And_ his grave has got no name. _And_ there, _till_ Christ call forth the dead, In silence let him lie: No need to waste the foolish tear, _Or_ heave the windy sigh: The man had killed the thing he loved, _And so_ he had to die. _And_ all men kill the thing they love, By all let this be heard, Some do it with a bitter look, Some with a flattering word, The coward does it with a kiss, The brave man with a sword. --_Oscar Wilde_. SPELLING LESSON 21 In Lesson No. 17 we studied concerning abstract nouns derived from qualifying adjectives. We found that we formed these nouns expressing quality from adjectives that describe quality by the addition of suffixes. Adjectives may likewise be formed from nouns and also from verbs by the addition of suffixes. There are a number of suffixes which may be used to form adjectives in this way; as, _al_, _ous_, _ic_, _ful_, _less_, _able_, _ible_, _ary_ and _ory_. Notice the following words: nation, _national_; peril, _perilous_; reason, _reasonable_; sense, _sensible_; custom, _customary_; advise, _advisory_; hero, _heroic_; care, _careful_, _careless_. To some words, more than one suffix may be added and an adjective of different meaning formed; for example, use, _useless_, _useful_; care, _careless_, _careful_. Make as many adjectives as you can from the nouns and verbs given in the spelling lesson for this week by the addition of one or more of the following suffixes: _Al_, _less_, _ous_, _ic_, _ful_, _able_, _ible_, _ary_, _ory_, and _ly_. +Monday+ Accident Danger Origin Commend Element +Tuesday+ Critic Libel Attain Revolution Contradict +Wednesday+ Cynic Injury Respect Station Migrate +Thursday+ Event Parent Order Virtue Marvel +Friday+ Second Fashion Consider Murder Incident +Saturday+ Constitution Industry Vibrate Tribute Compliment PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 22 Dear Comrade: We have practically finished the study of the different parts of speech. We are now in possession of a knowledge of the tools which we need to use in expressing ourselves. We are ready to make practical application of this knowledge in writing and speaking. We will find that with our increasing ability to express ourselves there comes also the power to think clearly. The analysis of language has meant a growing power to _think_ on the part of the people. We sometimes imagine that simplicity of language was a part of primitive life, but this is not true. Simplicity of language is the product of high civilization. Primitive life was marked, not by simplicity of language, but by the scarcity of language. They made one word stand for an entire sentence, and if they wished to express a little different meaning, an entirely different word had to be used, as for example, in the primitive language: _I said to her_, would be one word, and _I said to him_, would be another, entirely different, word. But as the power of thought began to develop, we began to analyze our meaning and we found that this thought was identical except the _him_ and the _her_. So as we analyzed our thought our expression of it became more simple. In most languages, the different meaning of the verb, for example, is expressed by an arbitrary change in the verb form. This is called the inflection of the verb. In English we would use several words to express the same thing. For example, the Latin word _Fuissem_ requires four English words to express the same meaning; _I should have been_, we say in English. So instead of having to learn a great number of different changes in the verb form, we, by the use of auxiliary verbs, _have_, _shall_, _do_, _be_, etc., are able to express all these shades of thought much more simply and clearly. Most other languages also have changes for gender. Every noun has a gender of its own and sometimes this form gives the wrong gender to living beings and attributes sex to sexless objects and the only way to know the gender of the noun is simply by memory. Then the adjectives, possessive pronouns and the articles _a_ and _the_ have gender also and have to be changed to suit the gender of the noun; this involves a great effort of memory. So while the English may seem somewhat involved to you, it is, after all, much simpler than other languages. It has been freed from many superfluous endings and unnecessary complications. Take a little time each day to read something out of the best literature. The quotations given in each of these lessons are from our very best writers. A study of these will be a wonderful help and inspiration to you and bring you in touch with some of the great thinkers of the revolution. They are our comrades and are putting into words the thoughts and hopes and dreams of our lives. Yours for the Revolution, THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES +367.+ In our study of subordinate clauses, we have studied subordinate clauses used as adverbs and as nouns. We have found that adverb clauses can be used in the same way as adverbs, to describe the time, place, manner, cause, condition or purpose of the action expressed in the verb. We have found, also, that a noun clause may be used in any way in which a noun can be used, as the subject of the sentence, the object of a verb or preposition or as the predicate complement. But these are not the only uses to which the subordinate clause may be put. Note the following sentences: _Wealthy_ men desire to control the education of the people. Men _of wealth_ desire to control the education of the people. Men _who are wealthy_ desire to control the education of the people. Do you see any difference in the words which are used to modify the noun _men_? In the first sentence, _wealthy_ is an adjective, modifying the noun _men_. In the second sentence, _of wealth_ is a prepositional phrase, used as an adjective modifying the noun _men_. In the last sentence, _who are wealthy_ is a clause used in exactly the same way that the adjective _wealthy_ and the adjective phrase _of wealth_ are used, to modify the noun _men_. We have expressed practically the same meaning in these three ways: by a word; by a phrase; by a clause. +368.+ +A word used to describe and modify a noun is an adjective.+ +A phrase used to describe and modify a noun is an adjective phrase.+ +A clause used to describe and modify a noun is an adjective clause.+ Note the difference between a phrase and a clause. +369.+ A prepositional phrase, used as an adjective, consists of the preposition and the noun which is its object, together with its modifiers. A phrase never has either a subject or a predicate. _Who are wealthy_, is a clause because it does contain a subject and a predicate. The pronoun _who_ is the subject in the clause, and the predicate is the copulative verb _are_ with the predicate complement, the adjective _wealthy_. Exercise 1 In the following sentences change the adjective into a phrase and also into a clause, if possible. For example: A _fearless_ man always defends his rights. A man _without fear_ always defends his rights. A man _who is fearless_ always defends his rights. 1. The _unemployed_ men are becoming desperate. 2. The _uneducated_ masses are demanding equal opportunity. 3. The discovery of gold was an _important_ discovery. 4. _Unorganized_ labor is helpless. 5. The revolution needs _intelligent_ rebels. 6. A few _wealthy_ men are striving to control education. 7. This will be a _progressive_ movement. 8. _Labor-saving_ inventions throw men out of employment. 9. _Scientific_ men prophesy a great advance for the mass. THE INTRODUCING WORD +370.+ You will notice that these adjective clauses are introduced by the relative pronouns _who_, _which_ and _that_. These relative pronouns fulfil something of the office of a conjunction, because they are serving as connecting elements; they join these subordinate clauses to the words which they modify. But you will note, also, that these relative pronouns not only serve as connecting elements, but they also play a part in the subordinate clause, as either the subject or object. For example: The man who has no education is handicapped in the struggle. Are these the books that you ordered? In the first sentence, _who has an education_ is an adjective clause modifying the noun _man_, introduced by the relative pronoun _who_, which is also the subject of the verb _has_. In the second sentence, _that you ordered_ is an adjective clause, modifying the noun _books_, introduced by the relative pronoun _that_, which is also the object of the verb _ordered_. +371.+ There is no need to be confused in this matter of clauses. If the clause is used as a noun, either as the subject or the object or in any other way in which a noun can be used, it is a noun clause. If it is used as an adverb and will answer any of the questions _why_, _when_, _where_, or _how_, etc., it is an adverb clause. If it is used as an adjective,--if it modifies a noun or pronoun,--it is an adjective clause. You will note that the only way in which a noun is used that does not have its corresponding clause is as a possessive. We do not have possessive clauses. The clause used as an adjective always modifies a noun or pronoun. +372.+ +An adjective clause is a clause used as an adjective and hence always modifies a noun or pronoun.+ An adjective clause may be introduced by the relative pronouns, _who_, _which_ or _that_. The use of this clause is a great help to us in the expression of our ideas, for it enables us to combine several sentences containing related thoughts into one sentence so we have it all presented to the mind at once. Exercise 2 In the following sentences, note which are the noun clauses and which are the adjective clauses and which are the adverb clauses. The verb in the subordinate clause is in italics. 1. Life is what we _make_ it. 2. We acquire the strength that we _overcome_. 3. While he _slept_ the enemy came. 4. All that he _does_ is to distribute what others _produce_. 5. When faith _is lost_, when honor _dies_, the man is dead. 6. Thrice is he armed who _hath_ his quarrel just; he is naked though he _be locked_ up in steel whose conscience with injustice is _corrupted_. 7. When strength and justice _are_ true yoke fellows, where can we find a mightier pair than they? 8. You will gain a good reputation if you _endeavor_ to be what you _desire_ to appear. 9. Live as though life _were_ earnest and life will be so. 10. He that _loveth_ makes his own the grandeur that he _loves_. 11. Who _does_ the best his circumstance _allows_ does well; angels could do no more. 12. He is not worthy of the honeycomb that _shuns_ the hive because the bees _have_ stings. 13. We always may be what we _might have been_. 14. Rich gifts wax poor when givers _prove_ unkind. 15. Let me make the songs of the people and I care not who _makes_ the laws. 16. Attention is the stuff that memory _is made_ of. 17. A great writer has said that grace _is_ beauty in action; I say that justice _is_ truth in action. 18. If we do not _plant_ knowledge when young it will give us no shade when we _are_ old. 19. You can no more exercise your reason if you _live_ in constant dread of laughter than you _can enjoy_ your life if you _live_ in constant dread and terror of death. WHICH RELATIVE PRONOUN TO USE +373.+ We are sometimes confused as to which relative pronoun to use in introducing an adjective clause. We hesitate as to whether we should use _that_ or _who_ or _which_. Remember that _who_ always refers to _persons_, _which_ refers to _animals_ or _things_, and _that_ may refer to either _persons_, _animals_ or _things_. So when referring to a _person_, we may use either _who_ or _that_, and when referring to _animals_ or _things_, we may use either _which_ or _that_. As, for example, we may say, either, _The man who was here yesterday came back today_, or _The man that was here yesterday came back today_. Either is correct, for _who_ and _that_ both refer to persons. +374.+ We may make a little distinction in the use of _who_ and _that_ when referring to _persons_, however. A clause introduced by _that_ is usually a restrictive clause. It limits or restricts the meaning of the noun which it modifies. When you say, _The man that was here yesterday_, you mean _that_ man and no other, limiting your meaning to that particular man. On the other hand, when you say, _The man who was here yesterday_, there is no restriction or limitation expressed in the use of the clause, but it is merely a descriptive clause, adding a new fact to our knowledge concerning that particular man. The same is true when we are speaking of _things_ using either _that_ or _which_. The clause introduced by _which_ is presumably a descriptive clause. We do, however, often use _who_ or _which_ when the sense of the clause is restrictive, but we should never use _that_ to introduce an adjective clause, unless the sense is restrictive. When in your sentences you can use, instead of the relative pronoun _who_ or _which_, the conjunction _and_, you can know that the use of the pronoun _who_ or _which_ is correct. As, for example: I have read the book, _which_ I found very interesting. You could say instead: I have read the book _and_ I found it very interesting. This would express the same meaning. But if you say: _I have read the book that I found very interesting_, you mean that you limit your idea to this particular book. +375.+ We do not always observe these niceties in our spoken and written speech, but it is interesting to know the shades of thought and meaning which you can express by the proper use of the language. The man who runs an engine and learns to know and love his machine almost as though it were a human being, can easily recognize the slightest change in the action of his machine. His ear catches the least difference in the sound of the running of the machine, a difference which we, who do not know and love the machine, would never notice. So it is in language. Once we have sensed its beauty and its wondrous power of expression, we notice all these slight differences and shades of meaning which may be expressed by the use of words. In just the same manner the musician catches the undertones and overtones of the music, which we, who possess an uneducated ear, cannot know; and the artist also has a wondrous range of color, while we, who are not sensitive to color, know only a few of the primal colors. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES WITH CONJUNCTIONS +376.+ The adjective clauses which we have been studying so far have been introduced by relative pronouns. Adjective clauses may also be introduced by conjunctions, such as, _where_, _when_, _whence_, or _why_. As, for example: Antwerp is the place where a terrible battle was fought. No man knows the hour when opportunity will be his. Each group has a different reason why this world-war was precipitated. Note in these sentences the clauses, _where a terrible battle was fought_, _when opportunity will be his_, _why this world-war was precipitated_, are all adjective clauses modifying the nouns _place_, _hour_ and _reason_, and are introduced by the conjunctions _where_, _when_, and _why_. These are adjective clauses because they modify, by either limiting or describing, the nouns with which they are used. You will note that we could omit the nouns in the first two of these sentences and these clauses would become noun clauses, for they would be used in the place of a noun. As, for example: Antwerp is where a terrible battle was fought. No man knows when opportunity will be his. +377.+ We determine whether a clause is an adjective or an adverb or a noun clause just as we determine whether a word is an adjective, adverb or noun, by the work which it does in a sentence. Noun clauses are used in the place of a noun; adverb clauses modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs; adjective clauses modify nouns and pronouns. THE LITTLE WORD "AS" +378.+ Adjective clauses may also be introduced by _as_. _As_ is a very convenient word and may be used in several different ways; sometimes as an adverb, sometimes as a conjunction; and it may also be used as a relative pronoun after _such_, _same_ and _many_. For example: Such books _as_ you should read are listed here. No such person _as_ he ever came here. We are facing the same crisis _as_ our comrades faced. This is the same _as_ you gave before. He has made as many mistakes _as_ you have. In these sentences _as_ is really used as a relative pronoun, connecting these adjective clauses to the words which they modify. _As_ may also be used as an adverb. _I am as tall as you are._ Here the first _as_ modifies _tall_ and is used as an adverb; the second _as_ is a conjunction connecting the subordinate clause _you are_, with the principal clause. Note that in making comparisons, _as_ is always used when the comparison is equal, _so_ when it is unequal, thus: I am _as_ tall as you are. She is not _so_ tall as you are. We have found that _as_ is also used as a conjunction to introduce an adverb clause. For example: She is as beautiful _as_ she is good. The clause, _as she is good_, is an adverb clause, modifying the adjective _beautiful_. In the sentence, _Do as I say_, _as I say_ is an adverb clause of manner, modifying the verb _do_. CONNECTIVE WORDS +379.+ Let us not be confused in this matter of connectives. There are just four classes of connective words: 1. +Copulative verbs.+ 2. +Relative pronouns.+ 3. +Prepositions.+ 4. +Conjunctions.+ +380.+ The copulative verb is not a pure connective, for it serves another purpose in the sentence. For example, in the sentence, _The book is interesting_, the copulative verb _is_ connects the adjective _interesting_ with the noun _book_, which it modifies; but it also is the asserting word in the sentence. So it fulfils a double function. It is an asserting word and also a connective word. +381.+ The relative pronoun also is not a pure connective, for it serves two purposes in the sentence. It not only connects the clause which it introduces, with the word which it modifies, but it also serves as either the subject or object in the clause. For example: _The man who was here has gone_. The clause, _who was here_, is introduced by the relative pronoun _who_, which connects that clause with the noun _man_, which the clause modifies. _Who_ also serves as the subject of the verb _was_. In the sentence, _The men whom we seek have gone_, the clause, _whom we seek_, is introduced by the relative pronoun _whom_, which connects the clause with the word _men_, which it modifies. _Whom_ also serves as the object of the verb in the clause, the verb _seek_. +382.+ A preposition is not a pure connective, since it serves a double function. It shows the relation of its object to the rest of the sentence and also governs the form of its object. As, for example, in the sentence: _The man before me is not the culprit_, the preposition _before_ connects its object _me_ with the noun _man_, which the prepositional phrase modifies, showing the relation between them; and it governs the form of its object, for the pronoun following a preposition must be used in the _object_ form. +383.+ Even co-ordinate conjunctions can scarcely be considered pure connectives unless it be the co-ordinate conjunction _and_. Co-ordinate conjunctions such as _but_, _yet_, _still_, _however_, etc., not only connect words, phrases and clauses of equal rank, but in addition to connecting the words and expressions they also indicate that they are opposite in thought. +384.+ Co-ordinate conjunctions like _therefore_, _hence_, _then_, etc., connect words, phrases and clauses of equal rank, and also introduce a _reason_ or _cause_. Co-ordinate conjunctions like _or_, _either_, _nor_, _neither_, _whether_, etc., connect words, phrases and clauses of equal rank, and also express the choice of an alternative. Thus these co-ordinate conjunctions can scarcely be considered as pure connectives. +385.+ Subordinate conjunctions are most frequently used to introduce adverb clauses and have an adverbial meaning. They express, as do adverbs, _place_, _time_, _manner_, _cause_, _reason_, _purpose_, _condition_ or _result_. Some authorities indicate this double function by calling such words as these conjunctive adverbs, because, even when they are used as conjunctions, they retain some of their adverbial force. But according to our rule that every word in the sentence is classified according to the function which it performs in that sentence, all words that perform the function of a conjunction are called conjunctions, although we understand that these conjunctions which introduce dependent clauses do still retain some of their adverbial meaning. Exercise 3 In the following sentences the connectives are in italics. Determine whether they are copulative verbs, relative pronouns, prepositions, co-ordinate conjunctions or subordinate conjunctions. 1. They _are_ slaves _who_ dare not be _in_ the right _with_ two _or_ three. 2. _In_ the twentieth century war _will be_ dead, dogmas _will be_ dead, _but_ man will live. 3. The abuse _of_ free speech dies _in_ a day, _but_ its denial slays the life _of_ the people _and_ entombs the race. 4. Liberty _for_ the few _is_ not liberty. 5. Liberty _for_ me _and_ slavery _for_ you means slavery _for_ both. 6. The greatest thing _in_ the world _is for_ a man to know _that_ he _is_ his own. 7. Nothing can work me damage _except_ myself. 8. He _that_ loveth maketh his own the grandeur _which_ he loves. 9. My life _is_ not an apology, _but_ a life. 10. I cannot consent to pay _for_ a privilege _where_ I have intrinsic right. 11. It _is_ difficult to free fools _from_ the chains _which_ they revere. 12. Desire nothing _for_ yourself _which_ you do not desire _for others_. 13. All our liberties _are_ due _to_ men _who_, _when_ their conscience compelled them, have broken the laws _of_ the land. 14. "It takes great strength to live _where_ you belong, _When_ other people think _that_ you _are_ wrong." 15. _If_ the truth shall make you free, ye _shall be_ free indeed. 16. He _is_ true _to_ God _who is_ true _to_ man. Exercise 4 In the following sentences underscore all the connectives--copulative verbs, prepositions, relative pronouns, co-ordinate and subordinate conjunctions. "There was a bird's egg once, picked up by chance upon the ground, and those who found it bore it home and placed it under a barn-yard fowl. And in time the chick bred out, and those who had found it chained it by the leg to a log lest it should stray and be lost. And by and by they gathered round it, and speculated as to what the bird might be. One said, "It is surely a waterfowl, a duck, or it may be a goose; if we took it to the water it would swim and gabble." But another said, "It has no webs to its feet; it is a barn-yard fowl; if you should let it loose it will scratch and cackle with the others on the dungheap." But a third speculated, "Look now at its curved beak; no doubt it is a parrot, and can crack nuts." But a fourth said, "No, but look at its wings; perhaps it is a bird of great flight." But several cried, "Nonsense! No one has ever seen it fly! Why should it fly? Can you suppose that a thing can do a thing which no one has ever seen it do?" And the bird, with its leg chained close to the log, preened its wings. So they say about it, speculating and discussing it: and one said this, and another that. And all the while, as they talked, the bird sat motionless, "Suppose we let the creature loose to see what it will do?"--and the bird shivered. But the others cried, "It is too valuable; it might get lost. If it were to try to fly it might fall down and break its neck." And the bird, with its foot chained to the log, sat looking upward into the clear sky; the sky, in which it had never been--for the bird--the bird, knew what it would do--because it was an eaglet!" --_Olive Schreiner_. Exercise 5 These stirring lines are taken from Arturo Giovannitti's "Arrows in the Gale" and are a part of the poem "The Sermon on the Common." Note the use of the conjunctions. Mark all of the clauses. Ye are the power of the earth, the foundations of society, the thinkers and the doers of all things good and all things fair and useful, the makers and dispensers of all the bounties and the joys and the happiness of the world, and if ye fold your mighty arms, all the life of the world stands still and death hovers on the darkened abodes of man. Ye are the light of the world. There was darkness in all the ages when the torch of your will did not blaze forth, and the past and the future are full of the radiance that cometh from your eyes. Ye are eternal, even as your father, labor, is eternal, and no power of time and dissolution can prevail against you. Ages have come and gone, kingdoms and powers and dynasties have risen and fallen, old glories and ancient wisdoms have been turned into dust, heroes and sages have been forgotten and many a mighty and fearsome god has been hurled into the lightless chasms of oblivion. But ye, Plebs, Populace, People, Rabble, Mob, Proletariat, live and abide forever. Therefore I say unto you, banish fear from your hearts, dispel the mists of ignorance from your minds, arm your yearning with your strength, your vision with your will, and open your eyes and behold. Do not moan, do not submit, do not kneel, do not pray, do not wait. Think, dare, do, rebel, fight--ARISE! It is not true that ye are condemned to serve and to suffer in shame forever. It is not true that injustice, iniquity, hunger, misery, abjection, depravity, hatred, theft, murder and fratricide are eternal. There is no destiny that the will of man cannot break. There are no chains of iron that other iron cannot destroy. There is nothing that the power of your arms, lighted by the power of your mind, cannot transform and reconstruct and remake. Arise, then, ye men of the plow and the hammer, the helm and the lever, and send forth to the four winds of the earth your new proclamation of freedom which shall be the last and shall abide forevermore. Through you, through your united, almighty strength, order shall become equity, law shall become liberty, duty shall become love and religion shall become truth. Through you, the man-beast shall die and the man be born. Through you, the dark and bloody chronicles of the brute shall cease and the story of man shall begin. Through you, by the power of your brain and hand, All the predictions of the prophets, All the wisdom of the sages, All the dreams of the poets, All the hopes of the heroes, All the visions of the martyrs, All the prayers of the saints, All the crushed, tortured, strangled, maimed and murdered ideals of the ages, and all the glorious destinies of mankind shall become a triumphant and everlasting reality in the name of labor and bread and love, the great threefold truth forever. And lo and behold, my brothers, this shall be called the revolution. SPELLING LESSON 22 In our study of the spelling of English words we have found that there are not many rules that apply. In fact, the only way to learn to spell correctly is by sheer dint of memory. In last week's lesson we found that a number of adjectives can be formed from nouns or verbs by the addition of _able_ or _ible_, but we find it difficult to determine whether to add _able_ or _ible_. The sound is practically the same and we are confused as to whether we should use _a_ or _i_. There is no rule which applies in this case and there is nothing to do but to master the spelling of these words by memory. These are words which we use a great deal and which are very helpful members of our working vocabulary. Our list of words in this week's lesson contain some of the most common words which we use ending in _ible_ or _able_. The words for Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday all end in _able_; the words for Thursday, Friday, and Saturday will end in _ible_. Notice them carefully and get fixed firmly in mind the correct spelling. Notice also that most of these adjectives can be changed into adverbs by changing _ble_ to _bly_. So when you have added these adjectives to your vocabulary, you have also added the adverbs as well. +Monday+ Probable Capable Usable Considerable Respectable +Tuesday+ Durable Salable Advisable Available Equitable +Wednesday+ Tolerable Profitable Remarkable Valuable Comfortable +Thursday+ Possible Horrible Plausible Intelligible Terrible +Friday+ Credible Visible Infallible Responsible Sensible +Saturday+ Forcible Permissible Feasible Corruptible Eligible PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 23 Dear Comrade: In this lesson we are taking up the study of interjections. Interjections are the language of emotion. This was probably the earliest form of speech. You notice that children use these exclamations often, and the sounds which are imitations of the noises about them. This language belongs also to the savage, whose peculiar and expressive grunts contain whole areas of condensed thought. As we progress from feeling to thinking, the use of the interjection diminishes. You will not find interjections used in a book on mathematics or physical science or history. To attempt to read one of these books may make you use interjections and express your emotion in violent language, but you will not find interjections in these books. These books of science are books that express thought and not feeling. But if you turn to fiction and to oratory you will find the interjection used freely, for these are the books which treat of the human emotions and feelings. Especially in poetry will you find the interjection used, for poetry is the language of feeling and the interjection is an important part of the poet's stock in trade. In conversation, these exclamatory words are very useful. They fill the gaps in our conversation and they help to put the listener and the speaker in touch with one another. They are usually accompanied by a gesture, which adds force to the word. The tone of the voice in which they are expressed also means a great deal. You can say, Oh! in half a dozen different ways; you may express surprise, wonder, joy, sorrow, pain, or disgust. A great many different and widely separated feelings can be expressed simply by the tone in which you use the exclamatory words. Some one has said that these words grease the wheels of talk. They serve to help the timid, to give time to the unready and to keep up a pleasant semblance of familiarity. When we use them in the stress of emotion to express deep feeling, their use is perfectly justified. But one author has called these words "the miserable refuge of the speechless." We use them many times because we have no words with which to express ourselves. This use is unjustified. Be careful that you do not use them in this way. It has been said that the degree of a man's civilization can be pretty fairly judged by the expletives which he uses. Do not sprinkle your conversation with interjections and even stronger words because you are at a loss for other words. There is a rich mine of words at your disposal. Do not be satisfied with bits of glass that have no value, when the rich diamonds of real expression can be yours for just a little digging. Save your emotional language for the time when you really need it to express deep emotion. Yours for Education, THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. INTERJECTIONS +386.+ We have been studying the parts of speech,--the elements of which sentences are composed. But we have another class of words which we call parts of speech because they are spoken and written as words, but which are really not parts of speech in the same sense as the words which we have been discussing. These are words which we call interjections. Interjection means, literally, thrown between, from _jecto_, to throw, and _inter_, between. So interjections do not enter into the construction of sentences but are only thrown in between. Every word that is really a part of the sentence is either a noun, a pronoun, a verb, an adjective, an adverb, a preposition or a conjunction. There are words, however, that we use with sentences which do not enter into the construction. For example, you say: Oh! I am wounded. Aha! I have conquered. Alas! He came too late. +387.+ Words which we use in these sentences, like, _oh_, _aha_, _alas_, are used to express the emotion which you feel in making the statement. Your _Oh!_ in a sentence like: _Oh! I am wounded_, would probably sound very much like a groan. But your _Aha!_ in the, _Aha! I have conquered_, will sound like a shout of victory, and your _Alas!_ in the sentence, _Alas! He came too late_, will express grief or regret over the fact that he came too late. These words do not assert anything and very much of the meaning which we give them must come from the tone in which they are uttered. Every one, upon hearing them, knows at once whether they express grief or delight. +388.+ +An interjection is an exclamatory word or phrase used to express feeling or to imitate some sound.+ +389.+ Interjections may be divided into four classes: 1. +Words which we use instead of an assertion to express feeling of various kinds+, as: (a) Surprise or wonder; as, _Oh_, _Aha_, _What_. (b) Pleasure, joy, or exaltation; as, _Hurrah_, _Ha, Ha_. (c) Pain, sadness or sorrow; as, _Alas_, _Alack_. (d) Contempt or disgust; as _Fie_, _Fudge_, _Ugh_, _Pshaw_. 2. +Words used instead of a question+; as, _Eh?_ _Hey?_ 3. +Words used instead of a command+; as: (a) To call attention; as, _Hello_, _Ahoy_, _Whoa_. (b) To express silence; as, _Shh_, _Hush_, _Hist_. (c) To direct or drive out, etc., as, _Whoa_, _Gee_, _Haw_, _Scat_. 4. +Words used to imitate sounds made by animals, machines, etc.+, as, _Bow-wow_, _Ding-dong_, _Bang_, _Rub-a-dub_. When we wish to imitate noises or sounds made by animals, machines, etc., in writing, we spell out the words as nearly as we can, just as we write _ding-dong_ to represent the sound of the bell or _tick-tock_ to indicate the ticking of a clock. Note that a number of our verbs and nouns have been formed from imitating the sound which these nouns or verbs describe or express, as for instance, _crash_, _roar_, _buzz_, _hush_, _groan_, _bang_, _puff_, etc. Exercise 1 Mark the interjections in the following sentences. Which express surprise? Which joy? Which sorrow? Which disgust? 1. Alas! We shall never meet again. 2. Bravo! You have done well. 3. Pshaw! Is that the best you can do? 4. Ship ahoy! All hands on deck. 5. Hello! When did you come? 6. Hurrah! We have won the victory. 7. Alas, alack! Those days will never come again. 8. Hist! You must be as still as mice. Exercise 2 Write sentences using an interjection to express: 1. Joy. 2. Surprise. 3. Pain. 4. Sorrow. 5. Disgust. 6. To ask a question. 7. To call attention. 8. To silence. 9. To direct. 10. To imitate the sound made by an animal. 11. By a machine. EXCLAMATORY WORDS +390.+ Interjections express only emotion or feeling. They do not express ideas. However, we have a number of words which are used somewhat as interjections are used, which we may class as exclamatory words, but they express more than interjections, for they express ideas as well as emotions; but, like interjections, they are used independently and have no part in the construction of the sentence. +391.+ Many ordinary words and phrases are used in this way as exclamations. When they are so used they have no place in the construction of the sentence; that is, they do not depend upon the sentence in which they are used, in any way. A noun used in this way is not used as the subject or the object, but simply as an exclamation. For example; the noun _nonsense_ may be used as an interjection, as in the sentence; _Nonsense! I do not believe a word of it_. In this sentence, _nonsense_ is a noun used as an interjection and plays no part in the sentence, either as subject or object, but is an independent construction. There are a number of words used in this way: 1. Nouns and pronouns, as _fire_, _mercy_, _shame_, _nonsense_, _the idea_, _what_. 2. Verbs like, _help_, _look_, _see_, _listen_, _hark_, _behold_, _begone_. 3. Adjectives like, _good_, _well_, _brave_, _welcome_, _strange_. 4. Adverbs like, _out_, _indeed_, _how_, _why_, _back_, _forward_. 5. Prepositions like, _on_, _up_, _down_. 6. Phrases like, _Oh dear_, _dear me_, _good bye_. Words and phrases such as these, used as exclamations, are not true interjections, for they express a little more than feeling. They express an idea which, in our haste, we do not completely express. The other words necessary to the expression of the idea are omitted because of the stress of emotion. For example: Silence! I will hear no more. In this sentence it is understood that we mean, _Let us have silence, I will hear no more_. But in the stress of our emotion, we have omitted the words, _Let us have_. If we say, _Good! that will do splendidly_, you know that we mean, _That is good_, we have simply omitted _That is_, which is necessary to complete the sentence. Sometimes when we are greatly excited we abandon our sentence construction altogether and use only the most important words. For example: A sail! a sail! This is not a sentence, for it does not contain a verb, yet we know that what was meant was, _I see a sail, I see a sail_. Exercise 3 Write sentences using the words given in the foregoing list as exclamatory words, and add as many more to the list as you can think of. YES AND NO +392.+ The words _yes_ and _no_, which we use in reply to questions were originally adverbs, but we no longer use them as adverbs. We no longer combine them with other words as modifying or limiting words, but use them independently. They are in themselves complete answers. Thus, if you ask me the question, _Will you come?_ I may say _Yes_, meaning, _I will come_; or, _No_, meaning, _I will not come_. The responsives _yes_ and _no_ thus stand for whole sentences, so they are really independent words. We may use them in connection with other sentences. For example; I may say, _Yes, I will come_, or _No, I will not come_. Used in this way, they still retain an independent construction in the sentence. We call them responsives because they are used in response to questions. OTHER INDEPENDENT EXPRESSIONS +393.+ Other words may be used in an independent construction in sentences, without depending upon the sentence in which they are used or without having the sentences depend upon them, such as: 1. +A word used in address.+ For example: Mr. President, I move that a committee be now appointed. Fellow Workers, I rise to address you. In these sentences, _Mr. President_ and _Fellow Workers_ are nouns used independently; that is, they are neither the subject of the sentence nor used as object or predicate complement. They are independent of all other words in the sentence. The most common use of words used independently in direct address occurs with imperative sentences. For example: _Comrades_, rouse yourselves. _Men_, strike for freedom. 2. +Exclamatory expressions.+ These are nouns used in the manner in which we have already discussed, as in the sentence: _Nonsense!_ I do not believe a word of it. Alas! poor _Yorick_! I knew him well. 3. +Words and phrases used parenthetically+, as for example: _By the way_, I met a friend of yours today. We cannot, _however_, join you at once. He called, _it seems_, while we were gone. In these sentences such words as, _however_, and such phrases as, _by the way_, and, _it seems_, are used independently,--in parenthesis, as it were; that is, they are just thrown into the sentences in such a way that they do not modify or depend upon any other word in the sentence. When we analyze our sentences, these independent words are not considered as elements of the sentences in which they are used. It is sufficient to say that they are independent words. 4. +Conjunctions used as introductory words.+ We have noted the use of conjunctions like the co-ordinates _and_, _but_, etc., and the subordinates _because_, _in order that_, _so_, _for_, _wherefore_, _how_, _whether_, etc., which are used to introduce sentences and connect them in thought with sentences and paragraphs which have gone before. INTRODUCTORY WORDS +394.+ +We have a number of words which we use to introduce our sentences.+ They are such words as, _so_, _well_ and _why_. These are ordinarily adverbs, but when they are used merely to introduce a sentence they retain little of their adverbial force. For example: _So_, that is your only excuse. _Well_, I cannot understand why you should accept it. _Why_, that is no reason at all. In these sentences, _so_, _well_ and _why_ do not modify any of the words in the sentences, but are used merely to introduce the sentences. They serve in a measure to connect them with something which has gone before. +395.+ +The adverb _there_ is also used as an introductory word.+ When it is used in this manner, it loses its adverbial force. _There_, as ordinarily used, is an adverb of place, but it is often used to introduce a sentence. For example: _There is some mistake about it_. In this sentence _there_ is not used as an adverb, but it is used simply as an introductory word. It is used to introduce a sentence in which the verb comes before the real subject. _Mistake_ is the real subject of the verb is, and _there_ is used simply as the introductory word. +396.+ +The indefinite pronoun _it_ is also used as an introductory word+, to introduce a sentence in much the same manner as _there_. The real subject of the verb occurs later in the sentence. For example: It is best to know the truth. This could be written, _To know the truth is best_, and the entire meaning of the sentence would be conveyed. +397.+ +Adverbs of mode.+ You remember in our study of adverbs, we had certain adverbs which were called adverbs of mode. These are used to modify the entire sentence. They express the feeling in which the entire sentence is uttered. Adverbs of mode may be regarded also as independent words. They are such words as, _indeed_, _surely_, _certainly_, _perhaps_, etc. For example: _Indeed_, I cannot tell you now. _Surely_, I will comply with your request. _Perhaps_ it may be true. I _certainly_ hope to do so before long. Exercise 4 Note in the following sentences the words which are pure interjections, and those which are other parts of speech used as exclamatory words. Mark those which are used in direct address, those which are used parenthetically, and those which are used as mere introductory words. 1. Oh, it seems impossible to believe it. 2. Surely, you will accept my word. 3. Nonsense, there is not the least truth in the story. 4. It will be impossible for us to join. 5. Therefore we urge you to join in this campaign. 6. There is only one solution to the problem. 7. It is difficult to discover the true facts. 8. Well, I have done my best to persuade you. 9. Mr. Chairman, I rise to a point of order. 10. Comrades, come and stand for your rights. 11. Yes, I have studied that philosophy. 12. Enough! we have been enslaved too long. 13. Hark! we hear the tramp of the army of labor. 14. Alas! that any should refuse to join in this battle. 15. You have not, it seems, understood the issue. 16. Indeed, solidarity is our only hope. 17. Br-r-r-r-r-r-r, thus whirl the machines that grind our children's lives. 18. Hush! Over the crash of the cannon sounds the wail of Europe's women and children. EXPLANATORY WORDS +398.+ We sometimes use words which do not belong in the construction of a sentence to explain other words in the sentence. For example: We, _the undersigned_, subscribe as follows: Helen Keller, _the most wonderful woman of this age_, champions the cause of the working class. In the first sentence, the words, _the undersigned_, are added to the pronoun _we_ to explain who _we_ means. In the second sentence, the words, _the most wonderful woman of this age_, are added to explain who Helen Keller is. Words added to other words in this way are called explanatory words. They are placed in apposition to the noun which they explain. Apposition means _by the side of_, or _in position near_. You remember that in clauses we found that a clause may be placed in apposition with a noun to explain the meaning of that noun. For example: There is an old saying, _in union there is strength_. These words in apposition may themselves be modified or limited by other words or phrases or clauses. For example: Helen Keller, the most wonderful woman of this age, champions the cause of the working class. In this sentence, _woman_ is the noun placed in apposition to the particular name, Helen Keller, and the noun _woman_ is modified by the adjectives _the_, and _wonderful_, and by the phrase _of this age_. Sometimes a second explanatory word is placed in apposition to the first one. This is quite often the case in legal documents or resolutions, where the language is quite formal. For example: We, the undersigned, _members of Local No. 38_, do hereby move, etc. I, John Smith, _Notary Public_, in and for the county of Clay, etc. These words, _undersigned_ and _members_, are both placed in apposition to the pronoun _We_, explaining to whom that pronoun refers. Exercise 5 In the following sentences note the explanatory words and their modifiers: 1. Wendell Phillips, the great abolitionist, was a man of genius. 2. Buckle, the historian, writes from the view point of the materialistic conception of history. 3. Giovannitti, the poet, wrote "Arrows in the Gale." 4. Helen Keller, champion of the working class, wrote the introduction to this book. 5. We, the workers of the world, will some day claim our own. 6. He was found guilty of treason, a crime punishable by death. 7. Ferrer, the martyr of the twentieth century, was put to death by the Spanish government. 8. Jaures, the great French socialist, was the first martyr to peace. 9. But ye, Plebs, Populace, People, Rabble, Mob, Proletariat, live and abide forever. 10. Ye are eternal, even as your father, labor, is eternal. 11. This document, the Constitution of the United States, hinders the progress of the people. 12. The memory of Guttenberg, the inventor of the printing press, should be reverenced by every class-conscious worker. 13. Wallace, the scientist and author, was co-discoverer with Darwin of the theory of evolution. 14. Karl Marx, the thinker, applied this theory to social forces. 15. Do you understand the three basic principles of Socialism--the class struggle, economic determinism and surplus value? Exercise 6 Read the following list of words and note the ideas which they suggest to you, then make sentences containing these words, _modified by a word or group of words in apposition_, which explain more fully these words. Law, martyr, society, education, inventor, commander, freedom, Eugene V. Debs, Karl Marx, Kaiser Wilhelm, The Balkan, Lawrence, Colorado, Calumet. ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION +399.+ We have found that every word in a sentence bears some relation to every other word, except these words which we have been studying, which we use independently. These explanatory words which we have just been studying are not used independently, but do in a sense modify the noun with which they are placed in apposition. Sometimes we place a noun or a pronoun and its modifiers alongside the whole sentence and it does not really modify any part of the sentence, but modifies the whole sentence in a way, for it expresses an attendant thought or an accompanying circumstance. For example: The workers being unorganized, the strike was easily defeated. The strikers having won, work was resumed on their terms. _The workers being unorganised_ and _the strikers having won_ are not clauses for they do not contain a verb. _Being unorganized_ and _having won_ are participles. Neither do they modify any word in the sentence. They are not placed in apposition with any other word. While they do express a thought in connection with the sentence, in construction they seem to be cut loose from the rest of the sentence; that is, they are not closely connected with the sentence, hence they are called absolute constructions. _Ab_ means from, and _solute_, loose; so this means, literally, loose from the rest of the sentence. We speak of these as absolute constructions, instead of independent, because the thought expressed is connected with the main thought of the sentence and is really a part of it. Notice that the noun used in the absolute construction is not the _subject_ of the sentence. Take the sentence, _The workers being unorganized, the strike was_ _easily defeated_, the noun _strike_ is the subject of the sentence, and the noun _workers_ is used in the absolute construction with the participle, _being unorganized_. These absolute constructions can ordinarily be rewritten into adverb clauses. For example, this sentence might read: _The strike was easily defeated because the workers were unorganized_. Do not make the mistake of rewriting your sentences and using the noun in the absolute construction as the subject of the sentence. For example: The workers, being unorganized, were easily defeated. This is not the meaning of this sentence. The meaning of the sentence is that the _strike_ was easily defeated _because_ the workers were unorganized. But the adverb clause, _because the workers were unorganized_, instead of being written as an adverb clause, has been written in the absolute construction, _the workers being unorganized_. While it is nearly always possible to change these absolute constructions into adverb clauses the sentences are sometimes weakened by the change. These absolute constructions often enable us to make a statement in a stronger manner than we could make it with a clause or in any other way. Exercise 7 In the following sentences, note the groups of words which are used in absolute construction. Rewrite these sentences and if possible change these words used in absolute construction into equivalent adverb phrases or clauses. Note how some of the sentences are weakened when you make this change. 1. _Nationalism having been taught to generation after generation_, the workers obeyed the call of the master class to slaughter their fellow workers. 2. _The hour having arrived_, Ferrer was blindfolded and led forth to die. 3. _The mass being without education_, capitalism gains an easy victory. 4. _The class struggle being a fact_, why should we hesitate to join our class? 5. _These facts being true_, such a conclusion is inevitable. 6. _Darwin having stated the theory of evolution_, Marx applied its principles to social science. 7. _Chattel slavery having been destroyed_, wage-slavery became the corner stone of capitalism. 8. _The price having been paid_, we claim our own. 9. _The battle ended_, the army left the trenches. Exercise 8 Mark the interjections in the following quotations. Note the independent constructions. Mark the words used as explanatory words in apposition. In the mind's eye, I see a wonderful building, something like the Coliseum of ancient Rome. The galleries are black with people; tier upon tier rise like waves the multitude of spectators who have come to see a great contest. A great contest, indeed! A contest in which all the world and all the centuries are interested. It is the contest--the fight to death--between Truth and Error. The door opens, and a slight, small, shy and insignificant looking thing steps into the arena. It is Truth. The vast audience bursts into hilarious and derisive laughter. What! Is this Truth? This shuddering thing in tattered clothes, and almost naked? And the house shakes again with mocking and hisses. The door opens again, and Error enters--clad in cloth of gold, imposing in appearance, tall of stature, glittering with gems, sleek and huge and ponderous, causing the building to tremble with the thud of its steps. The audience is for a moment dazzled into silence, then it breaks into applause, long and deafening. "Welcome!" "Welcome!" is the greeting from the multitude. "Welcome!" shout ten thousand throats. The two contestants face each other. Error, in full armor--backed by the sympathies of the audience, greeted by the clamorous cheering of the spectators; and Truth, scorned, scoffed at, and hated. "The issue is a foregone conclusion," murmurs the vast audience. "Error will trample Truth under its feet." The battle begins. The two clinch, separate, and clinch again. Truth holds its own. The spectators are alarmed. Anxiety appears in their faces. Their voices grow faint. Is it possible? Look! See! There! Error recedes! It fears the gaze of Truth! It shuns its beauteous eyes! Hear it shriek and scream as it feels Truth's squeeze upon its wrists. Error is trying to break away from Truth's grip. It is making for the door. It is gone! The spectators are mute. Every tongue is smitten with the palsy. The people bite their lips until they bleed. They cannot explain what they have seen. "Oh! who would have believed it?" "Is it possible?"--they exclaim. But they cannot doubt what their eyes have seen--that puny and insignificant looking thing called Truth has put ancient and entrenched Error, backed by the throne, the altar, the army, the press, the people and the gods--to rout. The pursuit of truth! Is it not worth living for? To seek the truth, to love the truth, to live the truth? Can any religion offer more?--_Mangasarian_. SPELLING LESSON 23 Many words contain letters for which there are no corresponding sounds in the spoken words. Thus, in the spoken word _though_ there are only two sounds, the _th_ and the _o_; _u_ and _g_ and _h_ are silent. There are a great many words in the English language which contain these silent letters. There has been a movement inaugurated for the purpose of simplifying the spelling of these words, omitting these silent letters. Some writers have adopted this method of simplified spelling, and so in some magazines and books which you read you will find these silent letters dropped; for example, you will find _though_ spelled _tho_, _through_ spelled _thru_. This method of simplified spelling has not been universally adopted and we have not followed it in these lessons because we feared that it would be confusing. Probably in most of your reading you will find the old method of spelling followed and all of these silent letters included. No doubt, as time goes on, we shall adopt this simplified method of spelling and drop all of these silent and useless letters. In our spelling lesson for this week we have a number of words containing silent letters. +MONDAY+ In a number of words you will find _ea_ pronounced as short _e_. The board of simplified spelling has suggested that we drop the _a_, which is a silent letter, from these words. If we adopted their suggestion, words like _head_ would be spelled _hed_. Note the spelling of the following words in which _ea_ is pronounced as short _e_ and the _a_ is silent. Spread, stead, threat, meant, pleasant, stealth. +TUESDAY+ We have a number of words ending in _ough_ in which the _gh_ is silent. 1. In some of these words the _ou_ is pronounced like _ow_. We have already changed the spelling of a few of these words, for example, we no longer use _plough_, but write it _plow_. 2. In other words ending with _ough_ the _ugh_ is silent and the words end with a long _o_ sound, as in _though_. Many writers have dropped the silent letters ugh and spell this simply _tho_. 3. A few other words ending with _ough_ end with a _u_ sound and those who adopt the simplified spelling have dropped the _ough_ and used simply _u_, as in _through_; many writers spell it simply _thru_. Observe the spelling of the following words and mark the silent letters: Bough, through, thorough, furlough, borough, though. +WEDNESDAY+ We have a number of words ending in _mn_ in which the _n_ is silent. Note the spelling of the following words: Autumn, solemn, column, kiln, hymn, condemn. +THURSDAY+ We have a number of words containing a silent _b_. Notice the spelling of the following words: Doubt, debt, dumb, limb, thumb, lamb. +FRIDAY+ A number of words end with silent _ue_ after _g_. Some writers omit the ue and probably after a while we will drop this silent _ue_, but you will find it used now in most of your reading. These are such words as: Catalogue, demagogue, decalogue, tongue, league, harangue. +SATURDAY+ We have a number of words ending with _gh_ in which the _gh_ has the sound of _f_, as in the following words: Trough, rough, enough, laugh, tough, cough. PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 24 Dear Comrade: We have finished our study of the different parts of speech and are going to enter upon the work of sentence building. In the next few lessons we will gather up all that we have been studying in these lessons so far. This is a good time to give this work a thorough review. Perhaps there have been a number of things in the lessons which you have not thoroughly understood, or perhaps there have been some rules for which you have not seen the reason. Now as we begin to construct our sentences, all of this will fit into its place. We shall find the reason for many of the things which may not have seemed thoroughly clear to us. There _is_ a science in language as in everything else, and language, after all, is governed by the will of the people. This has seemed so self-evident to those who make a special study of the language and its development that they have given this power a special name. They speak of the "Genius of the Language" as though there was some spirit guiding and directing the developing power of language. There is a spirit guiding and directing the developing power of language. That spirit is the creative genius of the people. It is the same spirit that would guide and direct all phases of life into full and free expression, if it were permitted to act. There being no private profit connected with the control of the language, the creative genius of the people has had fuller sway. The educator sitting in his study cannot make arbitrary rules to change or conserve the use of words. The people themselves are the final arbiter in language. It is the current usage among the masses which puts the final stamp upon any word. Think what this same creative genius might do if it were set free in social life, in industrial life. It would work out those principles which were best fitted to the advance of the people themselves. But those who would profit by the enslavement of the people have put stumbling blocks,--laws, conventions, morals, customs,--in the way of the people. Their creative genius does not have full sway or free sweep, but let us rejoice that in language, at least, we are free. And let us, as we realize the power of the people manifest in this phase of life, determine that the same power shall be set free to work out its will in all life. Some day the revolution will come. The people will be free to rule themselves, to express their will, not in the realms of words alone, but in their social and economic life; and as we become free within, dare to think for ourselves and to demand our own, we each become a torch of the revolution, a center of rebellion--one of those who make straight the path for the future. Yours for the Revolution, THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. SENTENCE BUILDING +400.+ Every expression of a complete thought is a sentence. A sentence is the unit in language. Words are the material out of which we build our sentences, so we have been studying the various parts of speech that are used in sentence building. Now we are ready to use these parts of speech in the building of sentences. We have found that there are eight parts of speech, though the interjection, which is termed the eighth part of speech, is not in reality a part of the sentence; but is a complete, independent construction. So in your sentences all of the many hundreds of words which we use can be grouped into seven divisions; _nouns_, _pronouns_, _adjectives_, _verbs_, _adverbs_, _prepositions_ and _conjunctions_. +401.+ You remember in our first lesson we found that there were just three kinds of sentences. The _assertive_, the _interrogative_ and the _imperative_; or in other words, sentences which state a _fact_, ask a _question_ or give a _command_. We also found that these three kinds of sentences could all be expressed in _exclamatory_ form. THREE KINDS OF SENTENCES +Assertive.+ Makes a statement. +Interrogative.+ Asks a question. +Imperative.+ Gives a command. +Assertive sentence;+ _I remember the day._ +Interrogative sentence;+ _Do you not remember the day?_ +Imperative sentence;+ _Remember the day._ In Exclamatory Form +Assertive;+ _Nonsense! I remember the day._ +Interrogative;+ _What! Do you not remember the day?_ +Imperative;+ _Oh come! Remember the day._ ANALYSIS--SIMPLE SENTENCES +402.+ Now that we have finished the study of the various parts of speech, we are ready for sentence building and for sentence analysis. Sentence analysis is the breaking up of the sentence into its different parts in order to find out how and why it is thus put together. To analyze anything is to break it up or separate it into its different parts. We speak of analyzing a sentence when we pick out the subject and the predicate and their modifiers, because we thus unloosen them or separate them from one another. These parts of the sentence are called the elements of the sentence. The elements of a sentence consist of the words, phrases and clauses used in forming the sentence. +403.+ Let us begin from the simplest beginning and build up our sentences, using the various parts of speech as we have studied them. Let us take the simplest form of sentence which we can consider. For example: Men work. There are only three parts of speech which can be used to make a simple sentence in this manner, and these are, either the noun and the verb, or the pronoun and the verb. We might say instead of _Men work_, _They work_, and have a complete sentence. In the sentence _Men work_, _men_ is the subject and _work_ is the predicate. The subject and the predicate are the two principal elements in a sentence. No sentence can be formed without these two parts and these two parts can express a thought without the help of other elements. Now we may begin to enlarge the subject by adding modifiers. You remember we have found that a noun may be modified by an adjective. So we add the adjective _busy_, and we have: Busy men work. Our simple subject is still the noun _men_, but the complete subject is the noun with its modifier, _busy men_. We may add other adjectives and say: The busy, industrious men with families work. Here we have our simple subject _men_ modified by the adjectives, _the_, _busy_ and _industrious_, and also by the adjective phrase, _with families_. So the complete subject of the sentence now is, _the busy, industrious men with families_. Our predicate is still the single verb _work_. Let us now enlarge the predicate. We have found that adverbs are used to modify verbs, and so we may say: The busy, industrious men with families work hard. The busy, industrious men with families work hard in the factory. Our simple predicate, _work_ is now enlarged. It is modified by the adverb, _hard_ and the adverb phrase, _in the factory_. So our complete predicate is now, _work hard in the factory_. +404.+ These sentences with the simple subject and the simple predicate and their modifying words and phrases form simple sentences. +A simple sentence is one which expresses a single statement, question or command.+ +405.+ A simple sentence, therefore, will contain but one subject and one predicate. The subject may be a compound subject and the predicate may be a compound predicate, but still the sentence expresses a single thought. For example: _The boys sing_. This is a simple statement with a simple subject and a simple predicate. Then we may say: _The boys sing and play_. We still have a single statement, but a compound predicate, _sing and play_. Now we may make a compound subject, and say, _The boys and girls sing and play_, but we have still a single statement, for both predicates are asserted of both subjects. So, _The boys and girls sing and play_, is a simple sentence. If we say, _The boys sing and the girls play_, we have a compound sentence, composed of two simple sentences, _The boys sing_, _The girls play_. If we say, _The boys sing while the girls play_, we have a complex sentence formed of the simple sentence, _The boys sing_, and the dependent clause, _while the girls play_. +406.+ Now let us sum up our definitions: +Every sentence must contain two parts, a subject and a predicate.+ +The subject of a sentence is that part about which something is said.+ +The predicate is that part which asserts something of the subject.+ +The simple subject of a sentence is a noun, or the word used in place of a noun, without modifiers.+ +The simple predicate is the verb or verb phrase without its modifiers.+ +The complete subject of a sentence is the simple subject with all of its modifiers.+ +The complete predicate of a sentence is the simple predicate with all of its modifiers.+ +A simple sentence is one which expresses a single statement, question or command.+ +A complex sentence is one containing an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.+ +A compound sentence is one containing two or more independent clauses.+ +A clause is a part of a sentence containing a subject and a predicate.+ Exercise 1 In the following sentences the simple subject and the simple predicate are printed in _italics_. Find all of the modifiers of the subject and all of the modifiers of the predicate, and draw a single line under the complete subject and two lines under the complete predicate. 1. Beautiful _pictures hang_ on the wall. 2. Those elm _trees grow_ rapidly every year. 3. A terrible _storm broke_ unexpectedly at sea. 4. The clear, crystal _water runs_ swiftly to the sea. 5. The beautiful _flowers fade_ quickly in the heat. 6. The happy, boisterous _children play_ at school every day. 7. The sturdy _oak_ in the forest _stands_ bravely through every storm. 8. Their arching _tops_ almost _speak_ to us. 9. A _cry_ of joy _rings_ through the land. 10. The _leaves_ of the trees _flutter_ in the wind. 11. Great _clouds_ of smoke _float_ in the air. Exercise 2 Note carefully the following simple sentences. Each of these groups of two words will suggest ideas and pictures to you. Lengthen each sentence by adding modifiers to the simple subject and to the simple predicate so as to make a fuller and more definite statement. For example: _Ships sail_. This is a simple subject and simple predicate. We add adjectives and an adjective phrase and adverbs and an adverb phrase as modifiers and we have, as follows: The stately _ships_ in the bay _sail_ proudly away to foreign shores. Snow melts. Winds blow. House stands. Boys run. Soldiers fight. Tides flow. Children play. Ships sail. Guns boom. Women endure. ANOTHER ELEMENT +407.+ You will note that all of these verbs which we have used in these sentences have been complete verbs as _hang_, _grow_, _runs_, _fade_, etc. A complete verb, you will remember, is a verb that does not need an object or a complement. It is complete within itself. It may be modified by an adverb or an adverb phrase, but when you leave off these modifiers you still have complete sense. In any of the sentences above you may cross out the adverb or the adverb phrase which modifies the verb and you will still have complete sentences. For example: Great clouds of smoke float in the air. Here, the adverb phrase, _in the air_, may be omitted and still we have complete sense, thus: Great clouds of smoke float. +408.+ The incomplete verbs, however, require either an object or complement to complete their meaning. Incomplete verbs are of two kinds; those that express _action_ and those that express _state_ or _condition_. An incomplete verb that expresses action requires an object which is the receiver of the action expressed in the verb, so we have another element which enters into the simple sentence, when we use an incomplete verb. For example: The busy man makes shoes. In order to complete the sentence, we must use an object with the incomplete verb _makes_. To say, _The busy man makes_, is not enough. We must have an object which is the receiver of the action expressed in the verb, _makes_. Verbs of action often have two objects. One object names the _thing_ that _receives_ the action and the other names the _thing_ indirectly _affected_ by the action. For example: The tailor made him a coat. +409.+ _Coat_ is the _direct_ object of the verb _made_. But we have another object in the pronoun _him_. We do not mean that the tailor made _him_, but that the tailor made him a _coat_. _Coat_ is the direct object and _him_ is the indirect object. The indirect object is always placed before the direct object. The indirect object may be used as the object of the preposition _to_ or _for_. As for example, this sentence might be rewritten to read, _The tailor made a coat for him_. In this sentence, _him_ is not the indirect object of the verb, but is the object of the preposition _for_. +410.+ The direct object of the verb always answers the question _what?_ As for example, the tailor made _what?_--_a coat_. The indirect object of the verb names the person or thing _to_ or _for_ which the act is done,--_the tailor made a coat for whom?_--for _him_. The direct and indirect object become a part of the complete predicate of the sentence. There may be other modifiers also, as adverbs or adverb phrases, and all of these taken together form the complete predicate in the sentences where you have used an incomplete verb. As for example: The tailor gladly made him a coat for the occasion. The complete predicate is, _gladly made him a coat for the occasion_, formed of the verb _made_, the direct object, _coat_, the indirect object _him_, the adverb modifier, _gladly_, and the phrase modifier, _for the occasion_. Exercise 3 In the following sentences, underscore the direct object with one line and the indirect object with two lines. The verb is in italics. 1. He _gave_ her a book. 2. He _wrote_ me a long letter. 3. Her father _bought_ her a watch. 4. The nurse _gave_ the patient his medicine. 5. The mother _gave_ her daughter a present. 6. _Give_ me time to think. 7. The clerk _sold_ her a dress. 8. The teacher _read_ the children a story. 9. The company _furnishes_ the men food and shelter. 10. The man _showed_ us his wounds. Exercise 4 In the following sentences underscore the complete subject and the complete predicate. Notice especially the direct and the indirect objects of the incomplete verbs. The simple subjects and the direct objects are in italics. 1. A great many _miles_ separate _us_ from our friends. 2. The merry _shouts_ of the children fill the _air_ with music. 3. A gentle _breeze_ brings us the _perfume_ of the flowers. 4. A careless _druggist_ gave the unfortunate man the wrong _medicine_. 5. His admiring _friends_ gave him a beautiful _ring_. 6. _Soldiers_ obey _orders_ from their superiors. 7. This terrible _war_ claims _thousands_ of victims. 8. The _power_ of hunger drives the _unemployed_ to rebellion. 9. The _workers_ of the world produce _enough_ for all. 10. The retiring _secretary_ showed us a _letter_ from the president. 11. The old sea _captain_ told them an interesting _story_ of life at sea. 12. _Labor_ produces all _wealth_. COPULATIVE VERBS +411.+ We have another class of incomplete verbs which require a complement to complete their meaning. These are the copulative verbs. The number of copulative verbs is small. They are: all forms of the verb _be_; also, _like_, _appear_, _look_, _feel_, _sound_, _smell_, _become_, _seem_, etc. These verbs require a noun or an adjective or a phrase as a complement, to complete their meaning. They are really connective words serving to connect the noun or adjective or phrase used in the predicate with the noun which they modify. The noun or adjective or phrase used to complete the meaning of the copulative verb is called a predicate complement. For example: The man is a hero. Here we have a noun, _hero_, used as a predicate complement after the copulative verb, _is_, to describe the noun _man_. The man is class-conscious. In this sentence, we have an adjective, _class-conscious_, in the predicate to modify the subject, _man_. It is connected with the subject by the copulative verb _is_. The man is in earnest. Here we have a phrase, _in earnest_, used in the predicate to modify the noun _man_, and connected with the subject by the copulative verb _is_. +412.+ So in the predicate with the copulative verbs--incomplete verbs which express state or condition--we may use a noun or an adjective or a phrase. A noun used as the predicate complement may have modifiers. It may be modified by one or more adjectives or adjective phrases. These adjectives in turn may be modified by adverbs. The complete predicate, then, is the copulative verb with its predicate complement and all its modifiers. For example: Grant was the most famous general of the Civil war. In this sentence, _Grant_ is the complete subject, _was the most famous general of the Civil war_ is the complete predicate. _Was_ is the copulative verb; _general_ is the noun used as the predicate complement; _the_ and _famous_ are adjectives modifying _general_; _most_ is an adverb modifying the adjective _famous_, and, _of the Civil war_ is an adjective phrase modifying _general_, so our complete predicate is, _was the most famous general of the Civil war_. When an adjective is used in the predicate complement it, too, may have modifiers and more than one adjective may be used. For example: The man is very brave and loyal to his class. Here we have two adjectives used in the predicate complement, _brave_ and _loyal_. _Brave_ is modified by the adverb _very_, and _loyal_ is modified by the adverb phrase, _to his class_. The complete predicate is, _is very brave and loyal to his class_. When we use a phrase as a predicate complement, it, too, may have modifiers and more than one phrase may be used. For example: The man is in the fight and deeply in earnest. In this sentence, two phrases are used in the predicate complement, _in the fight_ and _in earnest_. The second phrase, _in earnest_ is modified by the adverb _deeply_. The complete predicate is, _is in the fight and deeply in earnest_. Exercise 5 Fill the blanks in the following sentences with a noun and its modifiers used as predicate complement. Name all of the parts of speech which you have used in the predicate complement as we have done in the sentences analyzed above: The men are _loyal members of the Union_. Slavery is....... Liberty will be....... War is....... The machine is....... The children were....... Fill the blanks in the following sentences with one or more adjectives and their modifiers used in the predicate complement. The work is _hard and destructive to the children_. The history will be....... Labor has been....... Peace will be....... Poverty is....... Fill the blanks in the following sentences with a phrase used in the predicate complement. His service was _for his class_. Socialism is....... The workers are....... The message shall be....... The government is....... The opportunity is....... VERB PHRASES +413.+ Note that in most of the sentences which we have used, we have used the simple form of the verb, the form that is used to express _past_ and _present_ time. In expressing other time forms we use verb phrases. Note the summary given in section 145, which gives the different time forms of the verb. +414.+ Sometimes in using the verb phrase you will find that other words may separate the words forming the phrase. When you analyze your sentence this will not confuse you. You will easily be able to pick out the verb phrase. For example: I shall very soon find out the trouble. Here the adverbs, _very_ and _soon_, separate _find_ from its auxiliary _shall_. The verb phrase is, _shall find_. The negative _not_ very often separates the words forming a verb phrase. For example: I will not go. In this sentence, _will go_ is the verb phrase. When we use the auxiliary verb _do_ to express emphasis, and also the negative _not_, _not_ comes between the auxiliary verb _do_, and the principal verb. For example: I do not obey, I think. In this sentence, _do obey_ is the verb phrase. In interrogative sentences, the verb phrase is inverted and a part of the verb phrase is placed first and the subject after. For example: Will you go with us? _You_ is the subject of this interrogative sentence and _will go_ is the verb phrase; but in order to ask the question, the order is inverted and part of the verb phrase placed first. In using interrogative adverbs in asking a question, the same inverted order is used. For example: When will this work be commenced? In this sentence, _work_ is the subject of the sentence and _will be commenced_ is the verb phrase. If you should write this in assertive form, it would be: This work will be commenced when? By paying close attention we can easily distinguish the verb phrases even when they are used in the inverted form or when they are separated by other parts of speech. LET US SUM UP +415.+ The elements of a sentence are the words, phrases or clauses of which it is composed. +A simple sentence is one which contains a single statement, question or command.+ +A simple sentence contains only words and phrases.+ It does not contain dependent clauses. The elements of a simple sentence are: {The simple subject--the noun, or the The complete subject { word used in place of the noun--and { all its modifiers. The complete predicate {The simple predicate--the verb, and { all its modifiers. Exercise 6 In the following sentences, the simple subjects and the simple predicates of the principal clauses are printed in italics. Locate all the modifiers of the subjects and predicates, and determine the part of speech of each word in the sentence. Sentences Nos. 1, 5, 6, 14, 15, 16, 18, 30, 31, 32 and 37 are simple sentences. Sentences Nos. 2, 4, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 22, 26, 28, 33, 34 and 36 are complex. Sentences Nos. 3, 10, 12, 21, 23, 24, 25, 29 and 35 are compound. No. 8 is incomplete, having neither subject nor predicate. No. 9 is incomplete, there being no predicate in the principal clause. No. 20 is a simple sentence, with a complex sentence in parenthesis. No. 27 consists of two dependent clauses. In the complex sentences, draw a line under the dependent clauses. "Br--r--r--r--r--r--r--r--r--." 1. What _are_ the _machines saying_, a hundred of them in one long room? 2. _They must be talking_ to themselves, for I see no one else for them to talk to. 3. But yes, there _is_ a boy's red _head_ bending over one of them, and beyond _I see_ a pale face fringed with brown curly locks. 4. There _are_ only five _boys_ in all, on the floor, half-hidden by the clattering machines, for one bright lad can manage twenty-five of them. 5. Each _machine makes_ one cheap, stout sock in five minutes, without seam, complete from toe to ankle, cutting the thread at the end and beginning another of its own accord. 6. The _boys have_ nothing to do but to clean and burnish and oil the steel rods and replace the spools of yarn. 7. But how rapidly and nervously _they do_ it--the slower hands straining to accomplish as much as the fastest! 8. Working at high tension for ten hours a day in the close, greasy air and endless whirr---- 9. _Boys_ who ought to be out playing ball in the fields or taking a swim in the river this fine summer afternoon. 10. And in these good times, the _machines go_ all night, and other _shifts_ of boys _are kept_ from their beds to watch them. 11. The young _girls_ in the mending and finishing rooms downstairs _are_ not so strong as the boys. 12. _They have_ an unaccountable way of fainting and collapsing in the noise and smell, and then _they are_ of no use for the rest of the day. 13. The kind _stockholders have had_ to provide a room for collapsed girls and to employ a doctor, who finds it expedient not to understand this strange new disease. 14. Perhaps their _children will be_ more stalwart in the next generation. 15. Yet this _factory is_ one of the triumphs of our civilization. 16. With only twenty boys at a time at the machines in all the rooms, _it produces_ five thousand dozen pairs of socks in twenty-four hours for the toilers of the land. 17. _It would take_ an army of fifty thousand hand-knitters to do what these small boys perform. "Br--r--r--r--r--r--r--r--r--." 18. What _are_ the _machines saying_? 19. _They are saying_, "We are hungry." 20. "_We have eaten_ up the men and women. (There is no longer a market for men and women, they come too high)-- 21. _We have eaten_ up the men and women, and now _we are devouring_ the boys and girls. 22. How good _they taste_ as we suck the blood from their rounded cheeks and forms, and cast them aside sallow and thin and careworn, and then call for more. 23. Br--r--r--r--r--r--r--r! how good _they taste_; but _they give_ us so few boys and girls to eat nowadays, although there are so many outside begging to come in--. 24. Only one _boy_ to twenty of us, and _we are_ nearly _famished_! 25. _We eat_ those they give us and _those_ outside _will starve_, and soon _we shall be left_ almost alone in the world with the stockholders. 26. Br--r--r--r--r--r--r--r! What shall we do then for our food?" the _machines chatter_ on. 27. "When we are piling up millions of socks a day for the toilers and then there are no toilers left to buy them and wear them. 28. Then perhaps we shall have to turn upon the kind stockholders and feast on them (how fat and tender and toothsome they will be!) until at last we alone remain, clattering and chattering in a desolate land," _growled the machines_. 29. While the _boys went_ on anxiously, hurriedly rubbing and polishing, and the _girls_ downstairs _went_ on collapsing. 30. "Br--r--r--r--r--r--r--r!" _growled_ the _machines_. 31. The _devil has_ somehow _got_ into the machines. 32. _They came_ like the good gnomes and fairies of old, to be our willing slaves and make our lives easy. 33. Now that, by their help, one man can do the work of a score, why _have we_ not plenty for all, with only enough work to keep us happy? 34. _Who could have foreseen_ all the ills of our factory workers and of those who are displaced and cast aside by factory work? 35. The good wood and iron _elves came_ to bless us all, but _some_ of us _have succeeded_ in bewitching them to our own ends and turning them against the rest of mankind. 36. _We must break_ the sinister charm and _win_ over the docile, tireless machines until they refuse to shut out a single human being from their benefits. 37. _We must cast_ the devil out of the machines. --_Ernest Crosby_. SPELLING LESSON 24 Among the common suffixes in English are the suffixes _or_ and _er_. These suffixes mean _one who_ or _that which_. For example, _builder_, one who builds; _actor_, one who acts; _heater_, that which heats. But we are confused many times to know whether to add the suffix _or_ or _er_ to form these derivative words. There is no exact rule which can be given, but the following rule usually applies with but few exceptions: To the shorter and commoner words in the language add the suffix _er_. For example, _writer_, _boxer_, _singer_, etc. To the longer and less common words, usually those derived from the Latin or the Greek, add the suffix _or_. For example, _legislator_, _conqueror_, etc. There are a number of words in the English like _honor_, in which the last syllable used to be spelled _our_ instead of _or_. You will probably run across such words as these in your reading. This mode of spelling these words, however, is being rapidly dropped and the ending _or_ is being used instead of _our_. There are also a number of words in our language like _center_, which used to be spelled with _re_ instead of _er_. The _re_ ending is not used any more, although you may run across it occasionally in your reading. The proper ending for all such words as these is _er_. There are a few words, however, like _timbre_ (a musical term) and _acre_, which are still properly spelled with the _re_ ending. The spelling lessons for Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday, contain words from which derivatives can be formed by adding _er_ or _or_. Look these words up in the dictionary and be sure that you have added the proper suffix. The list for Friday consists of words which you may find in your reading spelled with the _our_ ending. The list for Saturday contains words which you may find spelled with the _re_ ending instead of the _er_. +Monday+ Create Produce Profess Debate Govern +Tuesday+ Edit Consume Consign Legislate Design +Wednesday+ Solicit Pay Success Observe Invent +Thursday+ Vote Debt Organize Sail Strike +Friday+ Labor Neighbor Rumor Valor Candor +Saturday+ Theater Scepter Fiber Somber Meager PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 25 Dear Comrade: In logic, we have two ways of reasoning, from the general to the particular and from the particular to the general. In other words, we may take a certain number of facts and reason to a conclusion; or we may go the other way about and start with our conclusion and reason back to the facts which produce the conclusion. Scientists use the former method. They gather together all the facts which they possibly can and from these facts they reach their conclusions. This was what Karl Marx did for the social problems of his day. He analyzed these problems. He gathered together all of the facts which he could obtain concerning conditions of his day and from these facts he reached certain conclusions. He foretold the rise of capitalism and outlined present day conditions so perfectly that had he lived long ago among superstitious people, they would probably have called him a prophet. This mastery of analysis, of marshaling our facts and from them reaching conclusions, is a wonderful power to possess, and this is exactly what we are doing in our English work. We are analyzing our sentences, finding the elements of which they are composed, and then building the sentence; and since neither the thought nor the sentence can be really studied except in connection with each other, this analysis of sentences gives us an understanding of the thought. The effort to analyze a difficult sentence leads to a fuller appreciation of the meaning of the sentence. This, in turn, cultivates accuracy in our own thought and in its expression. So do not slight the analysis of the sentence or this work in sentence building. You will find it will help you to a quicker understanding of that which you are reading and it will also give you a logical habit of mind. You will be able to think more accurately and express yourself more clearly. After a little practice in analysis you will find that in your reading you will be able to grasp the author's meaning quickly. You will see at a glance, without thinking about it consciously, the subject and the predicate and the modifiers in the sentence. Then you will not confuse the meaning. You will not have to go back and reread the passage to find out just what the author was talking about; and when you come to write and speak yourself, you will have formed the habit of logical expression. In this way you will be able to put your thought in such a manner that your listener can make no mistake as to just what you mean. Now, no habit comes without practice. You cannot do a thing unconsciously until you have done it consciously a great many times. So practice this analysis of sentences over and over. It really is an interesting game in itself, and the results which it will bring to you are tremendously worth while. Nothing is too much trouble which will give us the power to think for ourselves and to put that thought into words. Yours for Freedom, THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. THE SUBJECT OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE +416.+ We have found that the two parts of a simple sentence are the complete subject and the complete predicate. The noun is most often used as the subject of a sentence. It may have a number of modifiers, but when we strip away these modifiers we can usually find a noun which is the subject of the sentence. Occasionally the subject is a pronoun or a participle or adjective used as a noun but most frequently the subject is a noun. As for example: A wild piercing _cry_ rang out. Hopeless, helpless _children_ work in the cotton mills. The golden _age_ of peace will come. Little child _lives_ are coined into money. Defenseless, helpless _children_ suffer most under capitalism. Every neglected _child_ smites my conscience in the name of humanity. The thrilling, far-sounding _battle-cry_ shall resound. Note that in all of these sentences the word in italics is a noun, which is the simple subject of the sentence. All of the other words which comprise the complete subject are the modifiers of this noun, or modifiers of its modifiers. But in our study of words, we have found that there are a number of other words which can be used in place of a noun and these may all be used as the subject of a sentence. +417.+ +A pronoun may be used as the subject of a sentence+, for the pronoun is a word used in place of the noun; and a pronoun used as the subject of a sentence may have modifiers just as a noun. It may be modified by adjectives or adjective phrases, as for example: _We_ are confident of success. _He_, worried and out of employment, committed suicide. _She_, heartsick and weary, waited for an answer. _She_, with her happy, watchful ways, blessed the household. _They_, victorious and triumphant, entered the city. How can _I_, without money or friends, succeed? "Out of the night that covers me, Black as the pit from pole to pole, _I_ thank whatever Gods there be For my unconquerable soul." In all of these sentences the pronoun is the simple subject of the sentence, and the pronoun with all of its modifiers is the complete subject of the sentence. +418.+ +The participle may be used as a noun, the subject of the sentence.+ For example: _Traveling_ is pleasant. Here the present participle _traveling_ is used as a noun, subject of the sentence. Participle phrases may also be used as nouns, as for example: _Being prepared_ will not save us from war. His _having signed_ the note was the cause of the trouble. In these sentences, _being prepared_ and _having signed_ are participle phrases used as nouns, the subjects of the verbs _will save_ and _was_. Note the use of the participle used as the subject in the following sentences: _Painting_ is an art. _Making_ shoes is his work. _Being discovered_ seems to be the real crime. His _having joined_ his comrades was a brave act. Your _remaining_ here will be dangerous. Note that when the participle is used as a noun, the possessive form of the pronoun is always used with it, as in the sentence above: _Your_ remaining here will be dangerous. Notice that in some of these sentences the participle has an object; as, making _shoes_, his having joined his _comrades_. The participle still retains some of its verb nature in that it may take an object. The entire phrases, _His having joined his comrades_, and, _Making shoes_, are the subjects of the sentences. +419.+ +The infinitive may also be used as a noun, the subject of the sentence.+ Note in the following sentences the use of the infinitive as the subject of the sentence: _To err_ is human; _to forgive_ is divine. _To be_ or not _to be_ is the question. _To toil_ all day is wearisome. _To aim_ is one thing; _to hit_ the mark is another. _To remain_ ignorant is to remain a slave. +420.+ +An adjective can also be used as the subject.+ You remember in our study of adjectives we found that an adjective may be used as a noun, as for example: The _strong_ enslave the weak. Here the adjective _strong_ is used as a noun, subject of the sentence. Note in the following sentences, the use of the adjectives as subjects: The _wise_ instruct the ignorant. The _dead_ were left upon the battlefields. The _rich_ look down upon the poor. The _mighty_ of the earth have forced this war upon us. The _poor_ are enslaved by their ignorance. The _wounded_ were carried to the hospitals. PLACE OF THE SUBJECT IN A SENTENCE The subject usually comes first in the sentence. If it has any modifiers, they alone precede the subject, as for example: A wonderful, inspiring _lecture_ was given. The weary _army_ slept in the trenches. But occasionally we find the subject after the verb. +421.+ +By simple inversion.+ We will often find this use in poetry or in poetic prose, as for example: Never have _I_ heard one word to the contrary. In this sentence _I_ is the subject of the sentence, _have heard_ is the verb, and _never_ is an adverb modifying the verb phrase, _have heard_. But in order to place emphasis upon the word _never_, which is the emphatic word in the sentence, _never_ is placed first, and the verb phrase inverted so that the subject _I_ comes in between the two words which form the verb phrase. The sentence expressed in its usual order would be: I have never heard one word to the contrary. You will note that this statement does not carry the same emphasis upon the word _never_ as the inverted statement. +422.+ +In interrogative sentences, the subject comes after the helping verb or after the interrogative used to introduce the sentence.+ As for example: Have _you_ heard the news? When will _we_ hear from you? How have the _people_ been managing? What will the _children_ do then? Will the _students_ come later? Can the _work_ be accomplished quickly? Must our _youth_ end so quickly? +423.+ +The real subject comes after the verb when we use the introductory word it.+ As for example: It will not be safe _to go_. _To go_ is really the subject of the sentence. _To go will not be safe._ _It_ is sometimes the real subject of a sentence, as in the sentence; _It is a wonderful story_. Here _it_ is the subject of the sentence and _a wonderful story_ is the predicate complement. But in the sentence: It is wonderful to hear him tell the story. _To hear him tell the story_ is the real subject of the sentence. The first sentence, _It is a wonderful story_, could not be rewritten, but the second sentence could be rewritten, as follows: To hear him tell the story is wonderful. +424.+ +The introductory word there reverses the order of the sentence+, just as the introductory word _it_. The real subject is used later in the sentence. As for example: There were a great many people present. This could be rewritten, omitting the introductory word _there_. We could say: A great many people were present. The noun _people_ is the subject of the sentence. Exercise 1 In the following sentences, underscore the complete subject with one line, and the simple subject with two lines, and decide whether the simple subject is a noun, pronoun, participle, infinitive or an adjective used as a noun: 1. A great man is universal and elemental. 2. To love justice was his creed. 3. A more inspiring and noble declaration of faith was never born of human heart. 4. The reading of good books should begin in childhood. 5. Dreaming of great things will not bring us to the goal. 6. The weary seek for rest. 7. To believe in yourself is the first essential. 8. He, speaking and writing constantly for the cause, has given his life to the movement. 9. To remain ignorant is to remain a slave. 10. A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds. 11. A great soul has simply nothing to do with consistency. 12. To be great is to be misunderstood. 13. Traveling is a fool's paradise. 14. It is not enough to be sincere. 15. We, seeking the truth, have found our own. 16. There are thousands of comrades with us. THE COMPLETE PREDICATE +425.+ Look first in the predicate for your verb. It will always be the principal part of your predicate. It may be a verb or a verb phrase, but the first thing in analyzing the complete predicate of the sentence is to find the verb. The verb or verb phrase without any of its modifiers constitutes the simple predicate. If the verb is a complete verb, its only modifiers will be adverbs or adverb phrases. For example: A splendid statue of Lincoln stands yonder in the park. In this sentence, _stands yonder in the park_ is the complete predicate. _Stands_ is a complete verb. It requires no object, but it is modified by the adverb _yonder_ and by the adverb phrase _in the park_. INCOMPLETE VERBS +426.+ If the verb in the predicate is an incomplete verb of action, then the object of the verb is also part of the predicate. The complete predicate containing an incomplete verb of action may contain five parts; a verb, a direct object, an indirect object, an adverb and an adverb phrase. As for example: The tailor gladly made him a coat at that time. In this sentence, the complete predicate is _gladly made him a coat at that time_. _Made_ is the verb. It is an incomplete verb of action, and _coat_ is its direct object. _Him_ is the indirect object. _Made_ is also modified by the adverb _gladly_, and the adverb phrase, _at that time_. All of these are not always used, of course, in every predicate; but these are the elements which may occur in the predicate with an incomplete verb. THE OBJECT OF THE VERB +427.+ Words used as objects of a verb are practically the same as those which may be used for its subject. +We may have a noun used as the object of the verb.+ For example: Hail destroyed the _crops_. The banks rob the _farmers_. We must educate the _children_. Labor produces all _wealth_. In these sentences, _crops_, _farmers_, _children_ and _wealth_ are nouns used as the object of the verb. +A pronoun may also be used as the object of a verb.+ For example: Will you not teach _me_? Send _them_ to her. They have invited _us_. The comrades will remember _him_. In the above sentences, _me_, _them_, _us_ and _him_ are the objects of the verbs, _will teach_, _send_, _have invited_ and _will remember_. Remember that in pronouns we have a different form for the object form, as, _me_, _her_, _him_, _us_ and _them_. +428.+ +An infinitive may also be used as the object of a verb+, thus: I like _to study_. He asked _to go_. I want _to learn_ all that I can. In this last sentence, the infinitive, _to learn_, is the direct object of the verb _want_. The object of the infinitive, _to learn_, is _all that I can_. All of this taken together with the verb _want_, forms the complete predicate, _want to learn all that I can_. +429.+ +The participle may also be used as the object of a verb+, thus: We heard the _thundering_ of the cannon. We enjoyed the _dancing_. Do you hear the _singing_ of the birds? In these sentences, the participles _thundering_, _dancing_, and _singing_ are the objects of the verbs _heard_, _enjoyed_ and _do hear_. +430.+ +An adjective used as a noun may also be used as the object of a verb+, thus: I saw the _rich_ and the _poor_ struggling together. The struggle for existence crushes the _weak_. Seek the _good_ and the _true_. In these sentences the adjectives _rich_, _poor_, _weak_, _good_ and _true_, are used as nouns and are the objects of the verbs _saw_, _crushes_ and _seek_. VERBS OF STATE OR CONDITION We have found that with the incomplete verbs of state or condition, or copulative verbs, the predicate complement may be either a noun, as, _The man is a hero_; or an adjective, as, _The man is class-conscious_; or a phrase, as, _The man is in earnest_. The predicate complement may also be: +431.+ +A pronoun+; as, Who is she? That was he. This is I. In these sentences the subjects of the verbs are _she_, _that_ and _this_, and the pronouns _who_, _he_ and _I_ are used as predicate complements. +432.+ +Infinitives may also be used as the predicate complement+, thus: To remain ignorant is _to remain_ a slave. _To remain ignorant_, is the subject of the copulative verb _is_, and the infinitive, _to remain_, with its complement, _a slave_, is the predicate complement. +433.+ +A participle used as a noun may also be used as the predicate complement+, thus: Society is the mingling of many elements. _Mingling_, in this sentence is a participle of the verb _mingle_, but is used as a noun, the predicate complement of the verb _is_. _Society_ is the subject of the verb. Where the present participle is used to form a verb phrase, the participle is part of the verb phrase, thus: We are mingling in society. Here, _are mingling_, is the present progressive verb phrase, and the participle _mingling_ is not used as a noun or adjective, but is part of the verb phrase _are mingling_. If you will observe the different parts of speech carefully, you will not be easily confused as to whether the participle is a noun or a part of the verb phrase. Exercise 2 In the following sentences the incomplete verbs, including infinitives and participles, are in italics. Mark the words, phrases or clauses which are used as objects or complements, to complete the meaning of these verbs. There _is_ no such thing in America as an independent press, unless it _is_ in the country towns. You _have_ and I _know_ it. There _is_ not one of you who _dares to write_ his honest opinions. If you did, you _know_ beforehand that it would never appear in print. I _am paid_ $150.00 a week for _keeping_ my honest opinions out of the paper with which I am connected. Others of you _are paid_ similar salaries for similar things. Any one of you who _would be_ so foolish as _to write_ his honest opinions _would be_ out on the streets looking for another job. The business of the New York journalist _is to destroy_ the truth, to lie outright, to pervert, to villify, to fawn at the feet of Mammon, and _to sell_ his race and his country for his daily bread. You _know_ this and I _know_ it. So what folly _is_ this _to be toasting_ an "Independent Press." We _are_ the tools and vassals of rich men behind the scenes. We _are_ the jumping-jacks; they _pull_ the strings and we dance. Our talents, our possibilities and our lives _are_ all the property of other men. We _are_ intellectual prostitutes.--_John Swinton_. MODIFIERS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE +434.+ Remember that a simple sentence is one that contains a single statement, question or command. It is a clause, for it contains a subject and a predicate; but it contains only the one subject and the one predicate. A sentence containing two principal clauses, or a principal clause and a subordinate clause, would contain two complete statements, questions or commands, therefore it would not be a simple sentence, but compound or complex. Remember, however, that the simple sentences may contain two or more subjects with the same predicate, or two or more predicates with the same subject, or both a compound subject and a compound predicate. +435.+ The modifiers in a simple sentence are always words or phrases. The modifiers of the subject are either adjectives or adjective phrases. The modifiers of the predicate are either adverbs or adverb phrases. If an adjective or an adverb clause is used as a modifier, then the sentence is no longer a simple sentence, but becomes a _complex_ sentence, for it now contains a dependent clause. ORDER OF ELEMENTS +436.+ The usual order of the principal elements in the sentence is the subject, the predicate and the object or complement, thus: _Subject_ _Predicate_ _Men_ _work_ _Subject_ _Predicate_ _Object_ _Men_ _build_ _houses_ _Subject_ _Predicate_ _Complement_ _Books_ _are_ _helpful_ This is called the natural or logical order. Logical means according to sense or reason. Adjectives usually stand before the nouns they modify, thus: _Good_ books are helpful. Adverbs may be placed either before or after the verbs they modify, thus: The men _then_ came _quickly_ to the rescue. The adverb _then_ precedes the verb _came_, which it modifies; and the adverb _quickly_ is placed after the verb. Adverbs which modify adjectives or other adverbs are placed before the words which they modify, thus: The _more_ industrious students learn _quite_ rapidly. In this sentence, the adverb _more_ is placed before the adjective _industrious_, which it modifies; and the adverb _quite_ is placed before the adverb _rapidly_, which it modifies. Adjective and adverb phrases usually follow the words which they modify, thus: The men _in the car_ came quickly _to the rescue_. The manager _of the mine_ remained _with the men_. In this last sentence, the adjective phrase, _of the mine_, is placed after the noun _manager_, which it modifies, and the adverb phrase, _with the men_, is placed after the verb _remained_, which it modifies. +437.+ These sentences illustrate the logical order in which the elements of the sentence usually come. But this logical order is not strictly adhered to. Many times, in order to place the emphasis upon certain words, we reverse this order and place the emphasized words first, as: _Without your help_, we cannot win. The logical order of this sentence is: We cannot win without your help. But we want to place the emphasis upon _your help_, so we change the order of the words and place the phrase, _without your help_, first. +438.+ This inversion of the order helps us to express our thought with more emphasis. Our language is so flexible that we can express the same thought in different ways by simply changing the order of the elements in the sentence. Notice in the following sentences, the inversion of the usual order, and see what difference this makes in the expression of the thought. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. A more terrible scene you cannot imagine. With the shrieking of shot and shell the battle raged. Louder and louder thundered the tempest. Silently and sadly the men returned to their homes. To transpose these inverted sentences--that is to place the elements in their logical order, gives us an insight into the thought expressed in the sentence. It is worth a great deal to us to be able in our reading to see the live elements in the sentence at a glance, and in this way we can grasp at once the thought of the sentence. So you will find that this analyzing of the sentences is very helpful to us in our reading. +439.+ When we have learned to analyze a sentence quickly we will not be lost in the maze of words. A paragraph is often like a string of pearls. The author has a single thread of thought running through the different sentences which compose the paragraph and if we have trained ourselves well in sentence analysis, we will never lose this thread. It will be like a life line to which we cling while the breakers of thought and emotion roar about us. Exercise 3 In the following poem, study carefully the inverted order of the sentences. Rewrite them, placing the elements in their logical order. As for example: To the poor man you've been true from of old. The elements of the sentence are inverted in this quotation. Rewritten in their logical order this would read: You've been true to the poor man from of old. You will note that this inversion is quite common in poetry. HUNGER AND COLD Sisters, two, all praise to you, With your faces pinched and blue; To the poor man you've been true, From of old; You can speak the keenest word, You are sure of being heard, From the point you're never stirred, Hunger and Cold! Let sleek statesmen temporize; Palsied are their shifts and lies When they meet your bloodshot eyes, Grim and bold; Policy you set at naught, In their traps you'll not be caught, You're too honest to be bought, Hunger and Cold! Let them guard both hall and bower; Through the window you will glower, Patient till your reckoning hour Shall be tolled; Cheeks are pale, but hands are red, Guiltless blood may chance be shed, But ye must and will be fed, Hunger and Cold! God has plans man must not spoil, Some were made to starve and toil, Some to share the wine and oil, We are told; Devil's theories are these, Stifling hope and love and peace, Framed your hideous lusts to please, Hunger and Cold! Scatter ashes on thy head, Tears of burning sorrow shed, Earth! and be by Pity led To love's fold; Ere they block the very door With lean corpses of the poor, And will hush for naught but gore, Hunger and Cold! --_Lowell_. SPELLING LESSON 25 You remember in our lesson in the study of consonants we found there were a number of consonants in English which had more than one sound; for example, _c_, _s_, _g_, _x_, etc. A number of other consonants have sounds which are similar; that is, they are made with the organs of articulation in the same position, only one is a soft, and the other a hard sound; for example, _p_ and _b_, _t_ and _d_, _f_ and _v_, etc. These sounds are called cognate sounds. Cognate means literally _of the same nature_, and so these sounds are of the same nature, only in one the obstruction of the vocal organs is more complete than in the other. Our language contains a number of words in which there is a difference in the pronunciation of the final consonant when the word is used as a noun and as a verb. The final consonants in these words are the cognate sounds, _f_, _v_; _t_, _d_; _th_ soft or _th_ hard, _s_ soft, or _s_ hard. When the consonant sound is a soft sound, the word is a noun; and when the consonant sound is a hard sound the word is a verb. For example; _use_ and _use_; _breath_ and _breathe_; _life_ and _live_, etc. The spelling lessons for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday contain words ending in cognate sounds, in which the words ending with a soft sound are nouns and the words ending in the hard sounds are verbs. Add others to this list as they occur to you. We have a number of words in the English beginning with _ex_. In some of these words, the _ex_ has the sound of _eks_, and in some of the words the _ex_ has the sound of _egs_. It is not easy at times to know which sound to use. In regard to the use of _ex_, follow this rule: When a word beginning with _ex_ is followed by an accented syllable beginning with a vowel, the _ex_ is pronounced _egs_; in all other words _ex_ is pronounced _eks_; for example, in _executor_, the _ex_ is followed by an accented syllable beginning with a vowel, therefore, _ex_ is pronounced _egs_. In _execute_, the _ex_ is followed by an unaccented syllable beginning with a vowel, and therefore _ex_ is pronounced _eks_. In _explain_, _ex_ is followed by a syllable beginning with a consonant, and it is therefore pronounced _eks_. Note that in words like _exhibit_, _exhort_, etc., the _ex_ is followed by a vowel sound, the _h_ being silent, and it is therefore, pronounced _egs_, for it is followed by an accented syllable beginning with a vowel sound. The spelling list for Thursday, Friday and Saturday contains words beginning with _ex_. Watch carefully the pronunciation. +Monday+ Excuse Excuse Abuse Abuse Grease Grease Sacrifice Sacrifice Device Devise +Tuesday+ Intent Intend Advice Advise Relief Relieve Cloth Clothe Reproof Reprove +Wednesday+ Ascent Ascend Strife Strive Mouth Mouth Grief Grieve Bath Bathe +Thursday+ Exile Except Exhibit Expert Exempt +Friday+ Example Excellent Exhaust Exit Expropriate +Saturday+ Exercise Exist Experiment Exaggerate Explanation PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 26 Dear Comrade: There are really two things which will come to us out of the study of grammar. One of these, which we discussed in our letter last week, is the power of logical thinking. The second is the ability to express our thoughts correctly; that is, according to accepted usage. So you can consider your spoken and written speech from two viewpoints. First, you can look to see if you have used the words correctly. We have noted these common errors especially in our study of the various parts of speech. There are certain errors we often make, as for example, using a plural noun with a singular verb, or using the past time form of the verb for the past participle. We have noted a great many of these errors in our speech. We might make ourselves understood and express ourselves fairly accurately and still make these mistakes, but it is wise for us to try to eliminate them from our speech for several reasons. To those who understand the use of correct English, these mistakes mark us as ignorant and uneducated. No matter how important and absolutely accurate the thought we are expressing, if we make these grammatical errors, they very naturally discount our thought also. They feel that if we cannot speak correctly, in all probability we cannot think accurately, either. Then, too, these words in our speech distract the attention of our hearers from the things which we are saying. It is like the mannerism of an actor. If he has any peculiar manner of walking or of talking and persists in carrying that into whatever character he is interpreting, we always see the actor himself, instead of the character which he is portraying. His mannerisms get in the way and interfere with our grasp of the idea. So in music. You may be absorbed in a wonderful selection which some one is playing and if suddenly he strikes a wrong note, the discord distracts your attention and perhaps you never get back into the spirit of the music again. So we must watch these common errors in our speech, but we must not let our study of English be simply that alone. The greatest benefit which we are deriving from this study is the analytic method of thought and the logical habit of mind, which the effort to express ourselves clearly and accurately and in well-chosen words will give us. Put as much time as you can possibly spare into this analysis of sentences. Take your favorite writer and analyze his sentences and find out what is his particular charm for you. If there is any sentence which gives you a little trouble and you cannot analyze it properly, copy it in your next examination paper and state where the difficulty lies. Rewrite the passages which please you most and then compare your version with the author's and see if you really grasped his meaning. In this way you will add quickly to your enjoyment of the writing of others and to your power of expressing yourself. Yours for Freedom, THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE +440.+ We have been analyzing the simple sentence, which contains only words and phrases. We have found that there may enter into the simple sentence, the following elements: 1. The simple subject. 2. The simple predicate. 3. The modifiers of the subject. 4. The object of the verb. 5. The predicate complement. 6. The modifiers of the predicate. This is not the order in which the elements will appear in the sentence, but this is the order of their importance. We first look for the simple subject and the simple predicate; then we can determine which words are the modifiers of the subject; then we find the object or predicate complement of the verb and the modifiers of the verb; and thus we have all of the elements which go into the construction of the simple sentence. We may also have two nouns used as the subject or two verbs used in the predicate, connected by a co-ordinate conjunction, thus: Marx and Engels lived and worked together. Here we have two proper nouns used as the subject, _Marx_ and _Engels_. We have also two verbs used as the predicate, _lived_ and _worked_. We call this a compound subject and compound predicate. So in one simple sentence, that is a sentence which makes a single assertion, we may have every part of speech. For example: The most intelligent men and women think for themselves. In this sentence, we have a _noun_, _verb_, _pronoun_, _adjective_, _adverb_, _conjunction_ and _preposition_--every part of speech except the _interjection_, which is an independent element and does not enter into the construction of the sentence. Exercise 1 Write simple sentences of your own containing: 1. A compound subject. 2. A compound predicate. 3. A noun as subject modified by one or more adjectives. 4. A noun as subject modified by a phrase. 5. An incomplete verb with a direct and an indirect object. 6. An incomplete verb with a predicate complement. 7. A predicate modified by one or more adverbs. 8. A predicate modified by an adverb phrase. COMPLEX SENTENCES +441.+ The simple sentence is the unit of speech. It is a combination of words which makes a single statement, question or command. But many times a constant repetition of these short sentences would become tiresome, and our written and spoken speech would not flow as smoothly and rapidly as we desire. So we have evolved a way in which we may combine these sentences into longer statements. Let us take the two _simple_ sentences: We are united. We shall succeed. We may combine these into a single sentence by using the co-ordinate conjunction _and_. Then our sentence reads: We are united and we shall succeed. This is a _compound_ sentence, formed by uniting two simple sentences. Both of the clauses are independent and are of equal rank. Neither depends upon the other. They are united by the co-ordinate conjunction _and_. We can combine these sentences in a different way. For example, we may say: If we are united, we shall succeed. Now we have a subordinate clause, _if we are united_, which is used to modify the verb of the main clause, _succeed_. We have used the subordinate conjunction _if_, and so we have a _complex_ sentence formed by uniting the principal clause and a dependent clause. +442.+ The next step in sentence building, after the simple sentence, is the complex sentence. A complex sentence is a combination of two or more simple sentences, which are so united that one sentence remains the main sentence--the backbone, as it were--and the other sentence becomes subordinate or dependent upon it. +443.+ +A complex sentence is one containing a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses.+ +A principal clause is one which makes a complete statement without the help of any other clause or clauses.+ +A subordinate or dependent clause is one which makes a statement dependent upon or modifying some word or words in the principal clause.+ KINDS OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES +444.+ Dependent clauses are of three kinds. They may be used either as _nouns_, _adjectives_ or _adverbs_, and so are called _noun clauses_, _adjective clauses_ or _adverb clauses_. NOUN CLAUSES +445.+ +Noun clauses are those which are used in place of a noun.+ They may be used in any way in which a noun may be used, except as a possessive. 1. +The noun clause may be used as the subject of the sentence.+ For example: _That he is innocent_ is admitted by all. The clause, _that he is innocent_ is used as a _noun_, the subject of the sentence. 2. +The noun clause may be used as the object of a verb+, thus: I admit _that I cannot understand your argument_. The clause, _that I cannot understand your argument_, is in this sentence the object of the verb _admit_. 3. +The noun clause may be used as the predicate complement+, thus: The fact is _that this policy will never win_. The clause, _that this policy will never win_, is here used in the predicate with the copulative verb _is_. 4. +The noun clause may also be used in apposition, explaining the noun with which it is used+, thus: The motion, _that the question should be reconsidered_, was carried. _That the question should be reconsidered_, is here a noun clause, used in apposition with the noun _motion_, and explains the meaning of the noun. 5. +The noun clause may also be used as the object of a preposition+, thus: I now refer to _what he claims_. The noun clause, _what he claims_, is here the object of the preposition, _to_. Exercise 2 In the following sentences the noun clauses are printed in italics. Determine whether they are used as the subject, or object of the verb, as predicate complement, in apposition, or as the object of a preposition. 1. The fact is _that I was not listening_. 2. _Whatever King Midas looked upon_ turned to gold. 3. He acknowledged _what we had suspected_. 4. We will never know _what the real situation was_. 5. The fact _that the wage is insufficient_ can be easily proved. 6. He replied to _what had been asked_. 7. The claim was _that he had made a speech inciting to riot_. 8. The law _that labor unions are in restraint of trade_ was upheld. 9. _That we cannot win by compromise_ is readily apparent. 10. Labor demands _that it shall have its full product_. 11. _Whoever controls education_ controls the future. 12. He came to _where the militia was in camp_. Exercise 3 Write sentences containing noun clauses used: 1. As the subject of a verb. 2. As the object of a verb. 3. As a predicate complement. 4. In apposition. 5. As the object of a preposition. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES +446.+ A dependent clause in a complex sentence may also be an adjective clause. +An adjective clause is a clause used as an adjective+, and, hence, always modifies a noun or some word used as a noun, such as a pronoun or a participle. In Lesson 22, we studied adjective clauses and found that they could be introduced by the relative pronouns, _who_, _which_, _that_ and _as_, and also by conjunctions such as, _when_, _where_, _whither_, _whence_, etc. An adjective clause may modify any noun or any word used as a noun in the sentence. 1. +An adjective clause may modify the subject+, thus: Men _who have become class-conscious_ do not make good soldiers. In this sentence the clause, _who have become class-conscious_, modifies the noun _men_, and is introduced by the relative pronoun _who_. 2. +An adjective clause may modify the noun which is the object of the verb+, as: The men supported the party _which fought for their rights_. Here the clause, _which fought for their rights_, is an adjective clause introduced by the pronoun _which_, and it modifies the noun _party_, which is the object of the verb _supported_. 3. +An adjective clause may also be used to modify the noun which is used in the predicate complement+, as: That was the book _which I enjoyed_. In this sentence the clause, _which I enjoyed_, is an adjective clause modifying the noun _book_, which is used as the predicate complement with the copulative verb _was_. 4. +An adjective clause may also be used to modify the noun which is used as the object of a preposition+, as: He arrived on the train _which was late_. Here the adjective clause, _which was late_, modifies the noun _train_, which is the object of the preposition _on_. Sometimes it is a little difficult to discover these adjective clauses, for frequently the connecting word is omitted, as for example: I could not find the man _I wanted_. In this sentence, the pronoun _whom_ is omitted; the complete sentence would read: I could not find the man _whom I wanted_. _Whom I wanted_ is an adjective clause modifying the noun _man_. Exercise 4 In the following sentences the relative pronouns and the conjunctions introducing adjective clauses are omitted. Rewrite the sentences using the proper relative pronouns and conjunctions. The adjective clauses are in italics. 1. The people _you are seeking_ are not here. 2. I have read the book _you brought_. 3. The articles _you mentioned_ are not listed. 4. I will go to the place _you say_. 5. This is a book _you should read_. 6. Those are ideals _the people will readily grasp_. 7. We make Gods of the things _we fear_. 8. I listened to every word _he said_. 9. I should love the cause _you love_. 10. The things _the people demand_ are just and right. Exercise 5 In the following sentences the adjective clauses are all printed in italics. Determine whether they modify the subject or the object, the predicate complement or the object of the preposition. 1. In that moment _when he saw the light_ he joined our cause. 2. Other men are lenses _through which we read our own minds_. 3. This is perhaps the reason _why we are unable to agree_. 4. He _that loveth_ maketh his own the grandeur _that he loves_. 5. The other terror _that scares us from self-trust_ is our consistency. 6. There is a popular fable of a sot _who was picked up dead drunk in the street, carried to the Duke's house, washed and dressed and laid in the Duke's bed, and, on his waking, treated with all ceremony like a duke and assured that he had been insane_. 7. He _who would gather immortal palms_ must not be hindered by the name of goodness, but must explore if it be goodness. 8. Superstition, _who is the mother of fear and faith_, still rules many people. 9. We are looking for the time _when the useful shall be the honorable_. 10. He _who enslaves another_ cannot be free. 11. He _who attacks the right_ assaults himself. 12. The force _that is in every atom and every star, in everything that grows and thinks, that hopes and suffers_, is the only possible God. 13. He _who adds to the sum of human misery_ is a blasphemer. 14. The grandest ambition _that can enter the soul_ is the desire to know the truth. ADVERB CLAUSES +447.+ The third kind of clause which we may use in a complex sentence is the adverb clause. +An adverb clause is a clause which takes the place of an adverb.+ It may modify a _verb_, an _adjective_, or an _adverb_. We studied adverb clauses in lesson 21 and we found eight classes of adverb clauses, expressing _time_, _place_, _cause_ or _reason_, _manner_, _comparison_, _condition_, _purpose_ and _result_. For example: 1. +Adverb clause of time:+ No man is truly free _until all are free_. 2. +Adverb clause of place:+ We must live _where we can find work_. 3. +Adverb clause expressing cause or reason:+ We lost the strike _because the men were not class-conscious_. 4. +Adverb clause of manner:+ We must work _as if the result depended entirely upon us_. 5. +Adverb clause of comparison:+ The working class must become more class-conscious _than it is today_. 6. +Adverb clause of condition:+ We will continue to be exploited _if we do not demand our rights_. 7. +Adverb clause expressing purpose:+ We must read the labor press _in order that we may know the truth concerning conditions_. 8. +Adverb clause expressing result:+ The battle raged so furiously _that thousands were slain_. ANALYZING COMPLEX SENTENCES +448.+ To analyze a complex sentence; that is, to break it up into its different parts--treat the sentence first as a whole, then find the simple subject and the simple predicate. If a noun clause is the subject, treat it first as a noun. Treat adjective clauses as adjectives modifying certain words and the adverb clauses as adverbs modifying certain words. In other words, analyze the sentence first as a simple sentence with dependent clauses considered as modifying words; then analyze each dependent clause as though it were a simple sentence. Make an outline like the following and use it in your analysis of the sentence. Let us take this sentence and analyze it: Conscious solidarity in the ranks would give the working class of the world, now, in our day, the freedom which they seek. +Simple subject+, _solidarity_. +Simple predicate+, _would give_. Modifiers of the subject: Adjective, _conscious_. Adjective phrase, _in the ranks_. Adjective clause, (_none_). +Complete subject+, _Conscious solidarity in the ranks_. Modifiers of the predicate: Adverb, _now_. Adverb phrase, _in our day_. Adverb clause, (_none_). +Direct object+, _freedom_. Modifiers of direct object: Adjective, _the_. Adjective phrase, (_none_). Adjective clause, _which they seek_, +Indirect object+, _class_. Modifiers of indirect object: Adjectives, _the_, _working_. Adjective phrase, _of the world_. Adjective clause, (_none_). +Complete predicate+, _would give the working class of the world, now, in our day, the freedom which they seek_. Analyze the dependent clause, _which they seek_, just as a principal clause is analyzed. _They_ is the simple subject, _seek_ is the simple predicate, _which_ is the direct object. The complete predicate is _seek which_. +449.+ Notice that the first two sentences given in the exercise below are imperative sentences,--the subject, the pronoun _you_, being omitted so that the entire sentence is the complete predicate. As for example: _Take the place which belongs to you_. The omitted subject is the pronoun _you_. _Take the place which belongs to you_ is the complete predicate, made up of the simple predicate _take_; its object, the noun _place_; the adjective _the_, and the adjective clause, _which belongs to you_, both of which modify the noun _place_. Exercise 6 Using the outline given above, analyze the following complex sentences. 1. Take the place which belongs to you. 2. Let us believe that brave deeds will never die. 3. The orator knows that the greatest ideas should be expressed in the simplest words. 4. Gratitude is the fairest flower that sheds its perfume in the human heart. 5. Children should be taught that it is their duty to think for themselves. 6. We will be slaves as long as we are ignorant. 7. We must teach our fellow men that honor comes from within. 8. Cause and effect cannot be severed for the effect already blooms in the cause. 9. Men measure their esteem of each other by what each has. 10. Our esteem should be measured by what each is. 11. What I must do is all that concerns me. 12. The great man is he who, in the midst of the crowd, keeps the independence of solitude. 13. The only right is what is after my constitution. 14. Whoso would be a man must be a non-conformist. 15. They who build on ideas build for eternity. Exercise 7 We have studied all the parts of speech, and now our work is to combine these parts for the expression of thought. It will be good practice and very helpful to us to mark these different parts of speech in our reading. This helps us to grow familiar with their use. It also helps us to add words to our vocabulary and to learn how to use them correctly. In the following quotation, mark underneath each word, the name of every part of speech. Use _n._ for noun, _v._ for verb, _pro._ for pronoun, _adv._ for adverb, _adj._ for adjective, _p._ for preposition and _c._ for conjunction. Write _v. p._ under the verb phrases. For example: +The workers of the world do not have, _adj._ _n._ _p._ _adj._ _n._ _v.p._ _adv._ _v.p._ under this system, very many opportunities _p._ _adj._ _n._ _adv._ _adj._ _n._ for rest and pleasure for themselves.+ _p._ _n._ _c._ _n._ _p._ _pro._ Mark in this manner every part of speech in the following quotation: The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guildmaster and journeyman,--in a word, oppressor and oppressed,--stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary re-constitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes. In the earlier epochs of history, we find almost everywhere a complicated arrangement of society into various orders, a manifold gradation of social rank. In ancient Rome we have patricians, knights, plebeians, slaves; in the middle ages, feudal lords, vassals, guild-masters, journeymen, apprentices, serfs; in almost all of these classes, again, subordinate gradations. The modern bourgeois society, that has sprouted from the ruins of feudal society, has not done away with class antagonisms. It has but established new classes, new conditions of oppression, new forms of struggle in place of the old ones. --_Communist Manifesto_. Exercise 8 In the following quotation, mark all of the clauses and determine whether they are dependent or independent clauses. If they are dependent clauses, determine whether they are noun, adjective or adverb clauses. Mark all the sentences and tell whether they are simple or complex. I see in the near future a crisis approaching that unnerves me, and causes me to tremble for the safety of my country. As a result of war, corporations have been enthroned, and an era of corruption in high places will follow. The money power of the country will endeavor to prolong its reign by working upon the prejudices of the people, until all the wealth is aggregated in a few hands, and the republic is destroyed. I feel at this moment more anxiety for the safety of our country than ever before, even in the midst of war. God grant that my forebodings may be groundless. Monarchy itself is sometimes hinted at as a refuge from the power of the people. In my present position I could scarcely be justified were I to omit to raise a warning voice against the approach of a returning despotism.... It is assumed that labor is available only in connection with capital; that nobody labors unless somebody else, owning capital, somehow, by the use of it, induces him to labor. Labor is prior to and independent of capital. Capital is only the fruit of labor, and could not have existed if labor had not first existed. Labor is the superior of capital, and deserves much the higher consideration. I bid the laboring people beware of surrendering the power which they possess, and which, if surrendered, will surely be used to shut the door of advancement for such as they, and fix new disabilities and burdens upon them until all of liberty shall be lost. * * * * * In the early days of our race the Almighty said to the first of mankind, "In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread," and since then, if we except the light and air of Heaven, no good thing has been or can be enjoyed by us without first having cost labor. And inasmuch as most good things have been produced by labor, it follows that all such things belong of right to those whose labor has produced them. But it has so happened, in all ages of the world, that some have labored and others have without labor enjoyed a large portion of the fruits. This is wrong, and should not continue. To secure to each laborer the whole product of his labor, as nearly as possible, is a worthy object of any government. * * * * * It seems strange that any man should dare to ask a just God's assistance in wringing bread from the sweat of other men's faces. * * * * * This country, with its institutions, belongs to the people who inhabit it. --_Lincoln_. Exercise 9 In the following poem find all of the assertive, interrogative and imperative sentences. Mark all of the simple sentences and all of the complex sentences. Mark all of the dependent clauses and determine whether each is used as a noun, adjective or adverb clause. The verbs and the verb phrases are in italics. _Shall_ you _complain_ who _feed_ the world, Who _clothe_ the world, Who _house_ the world? _Shall_ you _complain_ who _are_ the world, Of what the world _may do_? As from this hour you _are_ the power, The world _must follow_ you. The world's life _hangs_ on your right hand, Your strong right hand, Your skilled right hand; You _hold_ the whole world in your hand; _See_ to it what you _do_! For dark or light or wrong or right, The world _is made_ by you. Then _rise_ as you never _rose_ before, Nor _hoped_ before, Nor _dared_ before; And _show_ as never _was shown_ before The power that _lies_ in you. _Stand_ all as one; _see_ justice done; _Believe_ and _dare_ and _do_. --_Charlotte Perkins Gilman_. SPELLING LESSON 26 In our last lesson we had examples of words in which the _s_ had the soft sound, and also of words in which the _s_ had the sound of _z_. In some English words, it is difficult to determine which sound to use. There are a number of words in English beginning with _dis_. In a few of the words, the _s_ has the sound of _z_, and in other words it has the sound of _s_. There are only a few words which are pronounced with the _diz_ sound. _Discern_, _dismal_ and _dissolve_ are always pronounced with the _diz_ sound. _Disease_ and _disaster_ are pronounced both ways. Some dictionaries give the _diz_ sound and some give the _dis_ sound. The spelling lesson for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday contains a number of words beginning with _dis_. Be sure of the pronunciation. Run through the words in the dictionary beginning with the _dis_ sound and mark those in which the _dis_ has the sound of _diz_. We have also a number of words in the English language which end in _ise_ or _ize_, and we are often confused to know which ending to use. There is a rule, which has very few exceptions, which covers the use of _ise_ and _ize_. Words should be spelled with the _ize_ ending when the _ize_ can be cut off, and the word that is left can be used alone. For example; _author_, _authorize_. In this word you can cut off the _ize_ and the word _author_ can be used alone. But in the word _exercise_, if you cut off the _ise_, the remaining portion cannot be used alone. _Recognize_ and _criticise_ are exceptions to this rule. When used as a suffix added to a noun or adjective to form a verb, _ize_ is the proper ending; as _theory_, _theorize_, _civil_, _civilize_, etc. Final _e_ or _y_ is dropped before _ize_, as in the words _memorize_, _sterilize_, etc. The spelling lesson for Thursday, Friday and Saturday contains a number of common words ending with _ize_ or _ise_. Study carefully this list and add as many words to it as you can. +Monday+ Disappear Distress Discern Disburse Discipline +Tuesday+ Discount Discredit Distribute Dismal Disseminate +Wednesday+ Disguise Distance Dissolve Discontent Disposition +Thursday+ Franchise Civilize Surprise Organize Compromise +Friday+ Monopolize Revise Legalize Enterprise Capitalize +Saturday+ Memorize Advertise Theorize Comprise Systematize PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 27 Dear Comrade: Ingersoll said: "Words are the garments of thought and the robes of ideas." This is a beautiful and poetic way of expressing the relationship between words and thoughts. Words are really the body which we give to our thoughts. Until they are clothed in words, our thoughts are only ghosts of ideas. Other people cannot see or come into contact with them, and they can have but little influence upon the world. Without thought, no language is possible. It is equally true that without language, no growth of thought is possible. It is futile to try to determine which is first, language or thought. The two are entirely necessary to each other and make possible social and individual development. Every time that you add a word to your vocabulary, you have added to your mental equipment. You have also added greatly to your power of enjoyment. Through these words you will come into a new relationship to your fellow men. Each new word enlarges the circle of your acquaintance. A knowledge of language brings us into a circle of wonderful friends. When we have learned to read we need never more be lonely. Some one has written in a book somewhere just the thing we are hungry for at this moment. In the pages of a book we can meet and talk with the great souls who have written in these pages their life's experience. No matter what mood you are in, you can find a book to suit that mood. No matter what your need, there is a book which meets that need. Form the habit of reading and you will find it a wonderful source of pleasure and of profit. Nor do we need to be barred because of our lack of educational advantages in our youth. Buckle, the author of the greatest history that has ever been written, left school at the age of fourteen, and it is said that at that age, except a smattering of mathematics, he knew only how to read; but when he died at the age of forty, this man, who did not know his letters when he was eight years old, could read and write seven languages and was familiar with ten or twelve more. He had written a wonderful book and had become a teacher of teachers. Engraven upon his marble altar tomb is the following couplet: "The written word remains long after the writer. The writer is resting under the earth, but his words endure." Good books are so cheap nowadays that they are within the reach of every one of us. Let us not be content to live in the narrow world of work and worry. Let us forget the struggle occasionally in the reading of books, and let us prepare ourselves, by reading and studying, for the battle for the emancipation of the workers of the world. Yours for Education, THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. KINDS OF SENTENCES +450.+ +A simple sentence is a sentence which makes a single assertion, question or command.+ The simple sentence contains only words and phrases. +451.+ +A complex sentence is one which contains a principal statement and one or more modifying statements.+ The statements made in addition to the principal statement are made in dependent clauses. The complex sentence has only one main clause and one or more dependent clauses. +452.+ +A compound sentence is one which contains two or more independent clauses.+ These compound sentences may contain any number of dependent clauses but they must always have at least two independent or principal clauses. These principal clauses are always connected by co-ordinate conjunctions, for the principal clauses in a compound sentence are always of equal rank or order. Exercise 1 Review the lesson on co-ordinate conjunctions and notice which conjunctions are used to unite principal clauses into single sentences. Use these co-ordinate conjunctions to unite the following pairs of simple sentences into compound sentences. For example: The sun rises _and_ the day dawns. The men work _but_ the boys play. The sun rises. The day dawns. He studies diligently. He learns rapidly. He came early. He could not stay. The weather is cold. The plants are not growing. The men work. The boys play. The day is cold. The wind is blowing. Take the above sentences and use subordinate instead of co-ordinate conjunctions, and make complex sentences instead of compound out of each pair of simple sentences. For example: _When_ the sun rises, the day dawns. The men work _while_ the boys play. KINDS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES +453.+ +Compound sentences may be made up of two simple sentences.+ Rewrite the following compound sentences, making of each sentence two simple sentences: The birds are singing and spring is here. He believes in war but his brother is against it. We must arouse ourselves or we shall be involved. He will not study nor will he allow any one else to study. +454.+ +A compound sentence may be made up of a simple sentence and a complex sentence, joined by a co-ordinate conjunction.+ For example: John goes to school, but Mary stays at home in order that she may help her mother. This compound sentence is made up of the simple sentence, _John goes to school_, and the complex sentence, _Mary stays at home in order that she may help her mother_. +455.+ +Both parts of the compound sentence may be complex; that is, both principal clauses in a compound sentence may contain dependent clauses.+ For example: John goes to school where his brother goes, but Mary stays at home in order that she may help her mother. This compound sentence is made up of two complex sentences. The sentence, _John goes to school where his brother goes_, is complex because it contains the dependent clause, _where his brother goes_; the sentence, _Mary stays at home in order that she may help her mother_, is complex because it contains the dependent clause, _in order that she may help her mother_. Exercise 2 Read carefully the following sentences, determine which are simple sentences, which are complex and which are compound. 1. When the state is corrupt, then the laws are most multiplied. 2. To teach the alphabet is to inaugurate revolution. 3. Freedom degenerates unless it has to struggle in its own defense. 4. The destroyers have always been honored. 5. Liberty of thought is a mockery if liberty of speech is denied. 6. Where slavery is, there liberty cannot be; and where liberty is, there slavery cannot be. 7. All our greatness was born of liberty and we cannot strangle the mother without destroying her children. 8. In the twentieth century, war will be dead, but man will live. 9. The abuse of free speech dies in a day, but the denial entombs the hope of the race. SENTENCE ANALYSIS +456.+ There is no more important part of the study of English than the analysis of sentences. The very best result that can come to one from the study of grammar is the logical habit of mind. The effort to analyze a difficult passage gives us a fuller appreciation of its meaning. This cultivates in us accuracy, both of thought and of expression. So, spend as much time as you can on the analysis of sentences. The subject and the predicate are the very body of the sentence, upon which all the rest of the sentence is hung. The other parts of the sentence are but the drapery and the garments which clothe the body of the sentence. Hence, the most important thing in sentence analysis is to be able to discover the _subject_ and _predicate_. In the expression of a thought, there are always two important essentials, that about which something is said,--which constitutes the subject,--and that which is said about the subject, which constitutes the predicate. There may be a number of modifying words, phrases or subordinate clauses, but there is always a main clause which contains a simple subject and a simple predicate. Find these first, and you can then fit the modifying words and phrases and clauses into their proper places. +457.+ Let us take for study and analysis the following paragraph from Jack London: Man's efficiency for food-getting and shelter-getting has not diminished since the day of the cave-man. It has increased a thousand-fold. Wonderful artifices and marvelous inventions have been made. Why then do millions of modern men live more miserably than the cave-man lived? Let us take the first sentence out of this paragraph and analyze it. _Man's efficiency for food-getting and shelter-getting has not diminished since the day of the cave-man._ What is the main word in this sentence--the word about which the entire statement is made? Clearly it is the word _efficiency_. _Efficiency_ is the noun which is the subject of the sentence. Then you might ask _what sort of_ efficiency and _whose_ efficiency? What sort of efficiency is explained by the adjective phrase, _for food-getting and shelter-getting_. Whose efficiency is explained by the possessive noun, _man's_. Therefore, the complete subject is, _Man's efficiency for food-getting and shelter-getting_. Now we are ready to consider the predicate. What has efficiency done? It _has not diminished_. _Has diminished_ is the verb phrase, which is the simple predicate of this sentence. It is modified by the adverb _not_, so we have _Man's efficiency has not diminished_. Then we might ask, _when_ has it not diminished? And this is answered by the phrase, _since the day of the cave-man_. So we have our complete predicate, _Has not diminished since the day of the cave-man_. In this way we can analyze or break up into its different parts, every sentence. First find the subject, then ask what that subject does, and the answer will be the predicate or verb. Do not confuse the verb with the words which state _how_ or _why_ the action is performed, and do not confuse the verb with the _object_ of the action. The verb simply asserts the action. The other words will add the additional information as to how or why or when or upon whom the action was performed. Let us finish the analysis of the sentences in the paragraph quoted from Jack London. In the second sentence, _It has increased a thousand-fold_, the personal pronoun _it_, which refers to the noun _efficiency_, is the subject of the sentence; and when you ask what _it_ has _done_, you find that the question is answered by the verb, _has increased_. Therefore, _has increased_ is the verb in the sentence. The noun, _thousand-fold_ is used as an adverb telling how much it has increased. It is an adverb-noun, which you will find explained in Section 291. In the next sentence, _Wonderful artifices and marvelous inventions have been made_, we find two _nouns_ about which a statement is made. _Artifices_ have been made and _inventions_ have been made; so _artifices_ and _inventions_ are both the _subjects_ of the sentence. Therefore, we have a compound subject with a single verb, _have been made_. _Artifices_ is modified by the adjective _wonderful_, and _inventions_ is modified by the adjective _marvelous_, so we have _wonderful artifices and marvelous inventions_, as the complete subject, and _have been made_, as the complete predicate. In the last sentence, _Why then do millions of modern men live more miserably than the cave-man lived?_, we find a sentence which is a trifle more difficult of analysis. It is written in the interrogative form. If you find it difficult to determine the subject and the verb or verb phrase in an interrogative sentence, rewrite the sentence in the assertive form, and you will find it easier to analyze. When we rewrite this sentence we have, _Millions of modern men do live more miserably than the cave-man lived_. Now it is evident that the noun _millions_ is the subject of the sentence. We see quickly that _men_ cannot be the subject because it is the object of the preposition _of_, in the phrase, _of modern men_. So we decide that the noun _millions_ is the simple subject. When we ask the question what millions _do_, our question is answered by the verb phrase, _do live_. So _do live_ is the simple predicate, and the skeleton of our sentence, the simple subject and the simple predicate, is _millions do live_. The subject _millions_ is modified by the adjective phrase _of modern men_. Then we ask, _how_ do men live? And we find our question answered by _they live miserably_. But we are told _how_ miserably they live by the adverb _more_ and the adverb clause, _than the cave-man lived_, both modifying the adverb _miserably_. So we have our complete predicate, _do live more miserably than the cave-man lived_. This interrogative sentence is introduced by the interrogative adverb _why_. Do not drop this subject until you are able to determine readily the _subject_ and _predicate_ in every sentence and properly place all modifying words. There is nothing that will so increase your power of understanding what you read, and your ability to write clearly, as this facility in analyzing sentences. Exercise 3 The following is Elbert Hubbard's description of the child-laborers of the Southern cotton-mills. Read it carefully. Notice that the sentences are all short sentences, and the cumulative effect of these short sentences is a picture of the condition of these child-workers which one can never forget. The subjects and predicates are in italics. When you have finished your study of this question, rewrite it from memory and then compare your version with the original version. _I thought_ that _I would lift_ one of the little toilers. _I wanted_ to ascertain his weight. Straightway through his thirty-five pounds of skin and bone there _ran_ a _tremor_ of fear. _He struggled_ forward to tie a broken thread. _I attracted_ his attention by a touch. _I offered_ him a silver dime. _He looked_ at me dumbly from a face _that might have belonged_ to a man of sixty. _It was_ so furrowed, tightly drawn and full of pain. _He did_ not _reach_ for the money. _He did_ not _know_ what _it was_. There _were dozens_ of such children in this particular mill. A _physician who was_ with me _said_ that _they would_ probably all _be_ dead in two years. Their _places would be_ easily _filled_, however, for there _were_ plenty _more_. _Pneumonia carries_ off most of them. Their _systems are_ ripe for disease and when _it comes_ there _is_ no _rebound_. _Medicine_ simply _does_ not _act_. _Nature is whipped, beaten, discouraged._ _The child sinks_ into a stupor and _dies_. Exercise 4 In the following sentences, mark the simple sentences, the complex sentences and the compound sentences, and analyze these sentences according to the rules given for analyzing simple sentences, complex sentences and compound sentences: 1. Force is no remedy. 2. Law grinds the poor, and the rich men rule the law. 3. Force and fraud are in war the two cardinal virtues. 4. Freedom is a new religion, a religion of our time. 5. Desire nothing for yourself which you do not desire for others. 6. An ambassador is a man who goes abroad to lie for the good of his country. 7. A journalist is a man who stays at home to pursue the same vocation. 8. Without free speech no search for truth is possible. 9. Liberty for the few is not liberty. 10. Liberty for me and slavery for you mean slavery for both. 11. No revolution ever rises above the intellectual level of those who make it. 12. Men submit everywhere to oppression when they have only to lift their heads to throw off the yoke. 13. Many politicians of our time are in the habit of saying that no people ought to be free till they are fit to use freedom. The maxim is worthy of the fool in the old story who resolved not to go into the water till he had learned to swim. If men are to wait for liberty till they become wise and good in slavery they may indeed wait forever. SUMMARY +458.+ The following is a summary of that which we have learned in sentence building: { { Assertive { Use { Interrogative Sentences are { { Imperative classified { { Exclamatory according to { { { Simple { Form { Complex { { Compound Elements { +Words+, the eight parts of speech. of { +Phrases+, adjective, adverb and verb phrases. The Sentence. { +Clauses+, adjective, adverb and noun clauses. +459.+ ESSENTIALS OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE +Subject+ +Predicate+ Subject Complete Verb Subject Copulative Verb Predicate Complement Subject Transitive Verb Direct Object Subject Transitive Verb Direct Object Indirect Object +460.+ THE SUBJECT { _Noun_--The _man_ came. { _Pronoun_--_He_ came. +The simple subject+ { _Adjective_--The _poor_ came. may be { _Infinitive_--_To find_ work is difficult. { _Participle_--_Walking_ is good exercise. { _Clause_--_What I learn_ cannot be lost. +Complete subject+--Simple subject and modifiers. Modifiers of the Subject { Word--_Wealthy_ men rule. +Adjective+ { Phrase--Men _of wealth_ rule. { Clause--Men _who are wealthy_ rule. +Possessive+--The _man's_ energy was great. { Word--The poet, _Lowell_, was the author. +Appositive+ { Clause--The fact, _that you came_, pleases me. { The soldiers, _wounded and dying_, were +Participle+ { left on the field +Infinitive+--A plan _to end the war_ was discussed. +461.+ THE PREDICATE +The simple+ { _Verb_--The man _came_. +predicate+ { _Verb phrase_--The man _has been coming_ daily. { +Predicate Complement+--The man was a _hero_. A COMPLETE { +Direct Object+--The man brought the _book_. PREDICATE { +The Indirect Object+--The man brought _me_ the book. _equals a verb { or verb phrase { {_Word_--The man works _rapidly_. and_ { +Adverb+ { _Phrase_--The man works _in the factory_. { +Modifiers+ { _Clause_--The man works _whenever he { can_. { _Words_--The man works hard. SIMPLE SENTENCES { _Phrases_--The man _on your right_ works _in the CONTAIN ONLY { factory._ { _Words_, The man works steadily +Complex sentences+ { _Phrases_ in the factory _whenever +contain+ { and there is work_. { _Dependent clauses._ +Compound sentences contain+ two or more principal clauses, as: _The sun rises_ and _the day dawns_. +462.+ Take the simple subjects and simple predicates in Exercise 5, and build up sentences; first, by adding a word, then a phrase and then a clause to modify the subject; then add a word and a phrase and a clause to modify the predicate. So long as you have only words and phrases you have simple sentences. When you add a dependent clause you have a complex sentence. When you unite two independent clauses in one sentence, then you have a compound sentence, and the connecting word will always be a co-ordinate conjunction. These will be readily distinguished for there are only a few co-ordinate conjunctions. Go back to the lesson on co-ordinate conjunctions and find out what these are, and whenever you find two clauses connected by these co-ordinate conjunctions you know that you have a compound sentence. Remember that each clause must contain a subject and predicate of its own. When you have two words connected by these co-ordinate conjunctions you do not have a clause. Each clause must contain a subject and a predicate of its own. +463.+ Here is an example of a sentence built up from a simple subject and a simple predicate: SIMPLE SUBJECT ENLARGED +Simple Subject and Predicate+--_Soldiers obey._ _Adjectives_ added--_The enlisted_ soldiers obey. _Phrase_ added--The enlisted soldiers _in the trenches_ obey. _Clause_ added--The enlisted soldiers in the trenches, _who are doomed to die_, obey. SIMPLE PREDICATE ENLARGED +Simple Subject and Predicate+--_Soldiers obey._ _Object_ added--Soldiers obey _orders_. _Adverb_ added--Soldiers obey orders _quickly_. _Phrase_ added--Soldiers obey orders quickly and _without question_. _Clause_ added--Soldiers obey orders quickly and without question _because they are taught to do so_. Combining our enlarged subject and predicate we have the sentence: The enlisted soldiers in the trenches, who are doomed to die, obey orders quickly and without question because they are taught to do so. This is a complex sentence because it contains dependent clauses. We might add another independent clause and make of this a compound sentence. For example: The enlisted soldiers in the trenches, who are doomed to die, obey orders quickly and without question because they are taught to do so, and _this is patriotism_. Exercise 5 Enlarge the following simple subjects and simple predicates: Men write. Boys play. People study. The law rules. Exercise 6 In the following poem underscore all of the dependent clauses. Determine whether they are noun, adjective or adverb clauses. Do you find any simple or compound sentences in this poem? MEN! whose boast it is that ye Come of fathers brave and free, If there breathe on earth a slave, Are you truly free and brave? If ye do not feel the chain, When it works a brother's pain, Are ye not base slaves indeed, Slaves unworthy to be freed? Women! who shall one day bear Sons to breathe New England air, If ye hear without a blush, Deeds to make the roused blood rush Like red lava through your veins, For your sisters now in chains,-- Answer! are you fit to be Mothers of the brave and free? Is true Freedom but to break Fetters for our own dear sake, And, with leathern hearts, forget That we owe mankind a debt? No! true freedom is to share All the chains our brothers wear, And, with heart and hand, to be Earnest to make others free! They are slaves who fear to speak For the fallen and the weak; They are slaves who will not choose Hatred, scoffing, and abuse, Rather than in silence shrink From the truth they needs must think; They are slaves who dare not be In the right with two or three. --_Lowell_. SPELLING LESSON 27 We have studied concerning the formation of derivatives by the addition of suffixes. Derivatives are also formed by the addition of prefixes. You remember that a prefix is a syllable which is placed before a simple word to form the derivative. Among the most common of these prefixes are _in_, _un_ and _mis_. The prefix _in_ used with an adjective or adverb means _not_; for example, _insane_ means _not_ sane; _incorrect_ means _not_ correct, etc. The prefix _in_ used with a noun means _lack of_; for example, _inexperience_ means _lack of_ experience; _inability_ means _lack of_ ability, etc. In words beginning with _m_ or _p_, _in_, meaning _not_ or _lack of_, is changed to _im_. This is done for the sake of euphony. The _n_ does not unite readily with the sound of _m_ or _p_. So we do not say _inmodest_ and _inpartial_, but _immodest_ and _impartial_. The prefix _un_, used with participles, means _not_; for example, _unprepared_ means _not_ prepared; _unguarded_ means _not_ guarded, etc. The prefix _un_ used with verbs, means to take off or to reverse; for example, _uncover_ means to take off the cover; _untwist_ means to reverse the process of the twisting. The prefix _un_ used with adjectives means _not_; for example, _uncertain_ means _not_ certain; _uncommon_ means _not_ common. The prefix _mis_ used with nouns or verbs, means _wrong_. For example, _mistreatment_ means _wrong_ treatment; _to misspell_ means to spell _wrong_. Add the prefix _in_ to the nouns given in Monday's list; add the prefix _in_ to the adjectives given in Tuesday's list; add the prefix _im_ to the adjectives and nouns in Wednesday's lesson; add the prefix _un_ to the participles and adjectives in Thursday's lesson; add the prefix _un_ to the verbs in Friday's lesson, and add the prefix _mis_ to the nouns and verbs in Saturday's lesson. +Monday+ Tolerance Frequency Competence Efficiency Coherence +Tuesday+ Convenient Expedient Famous Adequate Solvent +Wednesday+ Pertinent Morality Patience Moderate Pious +Thursday+ Balanced Biased Gracious Stable Solicited +Friday+ Burden Veil Fasten Screw Furl +Saturday+ Construe Apprehension Inform Guide Judge PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 28 Dear Comrade: We are beginning with this lesson the study of the use of capitals and of punctuation. The use of capitals as well as punctuation has nothing to do with our spoken words, but both are very important in our written language. There is nothing that will mark us as uneducated more quickly than bad spelling, faulty punctuation and the incorrect use of capitals. The rules for the use of capitals may seem somewhat arbitrary. After an understanding of them, however, you will discover that they are not arbitrary, but are based upon a single principle. The word which is of the most importance, or which should receive the most emphasis is the word which is capitalized, as for example, the principal words in a title, the first words in a sentence, proper names, etc. Study these rules carefully, note the use of the capitals in your reading and watch your written language carefully for a time. Soon the proper use of capitals will seem easy and most natural. In the meantime do not fail to keep up your study of words. Add at least one word to your vocabulary every day. Did you ever consider how we think in pictures? Nearly every word that we use calls up a certain image or picture in our minds. The content of words has grown and developed as our ability to think has developed. Take, for example, words like head or hand. Head originally referred to a portion of the body of a living thing; then it was used to refer to some part of an inanimate object which might resemble or call up a picture of an animal's head, for example, the head of a pin. Again, it was used to refer to some part of an inanimate thing which was associated with the head of a human being, as the head of the bed. Then, by the power of association, since the head was considered the most conspicuous and important part of the body, that which was most conspicuous and important was called the head, as the head of the army, the head of the nation. Then, since the head was the seat of the brain and of the mental faculties, the head was often used instead of the brain or mental faculties. We speak of a clear head or a cool head. Thus we have a number of idiomatic expressions. We may speak of the head of the river; or the subject matter was divided under four heads; or again, the matter came to a head; he is head and ears in debt; we cannot make head against the opposition, etc. This transfer of our ideas from the physical to the mental and spiritual marks vividly the growth of the language and the development of thought. Trace the words like hands, arm, foot, eye, tongue, in their use, first as physical then as mental or spiritual. This will be the most interesting pastime and will enlarge the content of the words which you use. Yours for Education, THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. CAPITAL LETTERS +464.+ In our written speech we often display our lack of education by our use of capital letters and punctuation. We may understand the use of words and be able to speak fairly well, but if we do not understand the proper use of capitals and of punctuation marks, our written language readily betrays our ignorance. +465.+ There are a number of rules for the use of capitals which we must observe. Some of the writers in our magazines defy these rules of capitalization, in an effort to seem different from other people, perhaps. These rules for the use of capital letters, like all other rules, are not arbitrary rules laid down by any body of men, but are simply a statement of accepted usage among people. We should not feel that we should say this or that or we are violating a rule of grammar. We should feel rather that the majority of the people who speak and write good English do thus, and so, for this reason, I shall do it also. This is simply obeying the standard of majority rule. If there is any good and sufficient reason why we feel this should not be a rule, we may be justified in breaking it and making a new rule. Many people feel that our spelling should be simplified and so they insist upon spelling certain words in a more simple way. They feel that they have good and sufficient reason for insisting upon this change and gradually if these reasons appeal to the majority as being good and sufficient reasons, then this simplified mode of spelling will become the accepted usage. But there seems no good reason why any writer should scatter capital letters with a lavish hand throughout his writing. One feels as though a writer in so doing is expressing his desire to be different, in a very superficial manner. Let us be unique and individual in our thought. If this forces us to a different mode of living or of expression from the rest of the world, then we are justified in being different from the rest. We have thought and reason behind our action. This is far different from the attitude of one who poses as a radical and whose only protest is in the superficial external things. So let us learn and observe these rules for the use of capital letters. RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS +466.+ +Use a capital for the first word of every sentence.+ When you begin a new sentence always begin that sentence with a capital letter. Each sentence is a statement of a complete thought and is independent of every other sentence. The use of the capital letter indicates this independence and calls attention to the fact that you are beginning a new thought. +467.+ +Begin every line of poetry with a capital letter.+ Sometimes in poetry, the line is too long to be printed on a single line and must be carried over into another line; in this case, the first word of the second line does _not_ begin with a capital letter. +468.+ +Use a capital for every proper noun.+ This includes names of persons, countries, states, towns, cities, streets and geographical names, as the names of seas, lakes, mountains, rivers, etc. +469.+ +The words North, South, East and West are capitalized when they are used to refer to geographical divisions.+ When these words simply refer to the points of the compass, they should not begin with a capital. +470.+ +The pronoun _I_ and the interjection _O_ should always be capitals.+ Never write the pronoun _I_ with a small _i_. +471.+ +Every proper adjective should begin with a capital letter.+ Proper adjectives are adjectives derived from proper nouns. For example: the _Marxian_ philosophy, the _Darwinian_ theory, _Indian_ money, _Japanese_ labor, etc. +472.+ +Always begin the names of the months and the days of the week with capital letters.+ For example: _January_, _February_, _August_, _Monday_, _Tuesday_, _Friday_, etc. +473.+ +Use a capital letter for every name or title of the Deity.+ For example: _God_, _Jehovah_, _Christ_, _Jesus_, etc. It is also customary to capitalize all personal pronouns referring to God or Christ. +474.+ +Begin with a capital letter names of all religious sects and political parties, also all adjectives derived from them.+ As for example: _Christian Church_, _Methodism_, _Republican Party_, _Mohammedan_, _Socialist_, etc. +475.+ +Begin the names of all things spoken of as persons with a capital.+ In poetry or poetic prose we often speak of _war_, _fame_, _death_, _hope_, _fancy_, _liberty_, etc., as persons. Whenever these words are used in this way they should begin with a capital letter. +476.+ +Use capital letters to begin important words in the title of a book or the subject of a composition.+ In titles the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs should begin with a capital, while the prepositions and conjunctions should begin with small letters. The articles, _the_, _a_ and _an_ are not capitalized unless they are the initial word in the title. +477.+ +Use a capital to begin every direct quotation.+ The first word of an indirect quotation should begin with a small letter. A direct quotation is one which uses the exact words of the speaker. For example: _He said_, "_I will come_." This is a direct quotation, but _He said that he would come_, is an indirect quotation. +478.+ +Use a capital to begin an important statement or to ask a question.+ For example: _Resolved; That the United States should democratize war. The question is, Shall the people determine the question of war?_ +479.+ +Use capitals for the chief items of any enumeration of particulars.+ For example; The bill is as follows: For Composition $20.00 For Press Work 10.00 Paper 25.00 +480.+ +Begin the words indicating titles of offices and honor with a capital.+ For example, _President Wilson_, _Doctor Smith_, _Professor Locke_. When you use a title of this kind as a general term, that is, not indicating any particular person, do not use a capital. As for example: _The society has had several presidents._ But if you use the title to take the place of the person's name, for example: _The President read the message to Congress_, always use a capital. +481.+ +Use capitals for the titles at the beginning of a letter or in written composition and in direct address.+ For example: _My dear Father_, _My dear Mother_, _My dear Comrade_, _Dear Aunt Emma_, _Dear Friend_, _Dear Fellow Workers_, etc. Also in conversation. Are you coming with me, Mother? What did the Doctor say, Comrade Smith? When these words are not used in direct address, however, they should not be capitalized. For example, at the close of a letter you would write: Your sincere friend. Your loving brother. Or in conversation: I asked my mother to go with me. My brother wrote me concerning the matter. +482.+ +Begin the names of important buildings and localities with a capital.+ For example: Public Library, High School, The East Side, The Union Square, Central Market, etc. These words used in a general sense, however, should not begin with a capital letter. For example: Our public libraries, our high schools, jails, prisons, post offices, etc. +483.+ +The words state and territory, when they refer to particular divisions of the country, should be capitalized.+ For example: The State of New York, The Territory of Alaska, The French Government, etc. _State_ and _government_ are also capitalized when they are used in place of proper names. For example: The State is based on exploitation. The Government has issued an edict of war. We do not use a capital in such expressions as: Church and state, state affairs; they occupy a large territory, etc. +484.+ +In directing letters or other matter for the mail, capitalize all words except prepositions, conjunctions or articles.+ These should be capitalized only when they begin a line. Exercise 1 Draw a line under each word in the following that should be begun with a capital: john joffre, lake michigan, day, thursday, friday, spring, august, december, germany, country, france, man, jones, smith, doctor, doctor george, professor moore, girl, mary, susan, methodist, mohammedan, church, party, republican party, socialist, company, national electric light company, river, mississippi river, the red river, essex county, state of illinois, iowa, railway, new york, new york central railway, the french revolution, novel, the sea wolf, poem, arrows in the gale, american. Exercise 2 Notice carefully the following quotations and sentences and capitalize every word that should begin with a capital letter. 1. iron, the twin brother of fire, the first born out of the matrix of the earth, a witness everlasting to the glory of thy labor, am i, o man. 2. therefore i say unto you, banish fear from your hearts. 3. but ye, plebs, populists, people, rebels, mob, proletariat, live and abide forever. 4. and they came here from all parts of the earth, the syrians and the armenians, the thracians and the tartars, the jews, the greeks and the romans, the gauls and the angles and the huns and the hibernians, even from the deserts of the sands to the deserts of ice they came to listen unto his words. 5. marx and engels wrote the communist manifesto. 6. its closing words are; working men of all countries unite. 7. italy was the last of the great powers of europe to become involved in the war. 8. john randolph submitted an amendment to the constitution providing that the judges of the supreme court of the united states shall be removed by the president on the joint address of both houses of congress. 9. eugene v. debs spent six months in woodstock jail for exercising his right of free speech. 10. col. the abbreviation for colorado, is easily confused with cal. the abbreviation for california. 11. the people's college is a college maintained by the working class. 12. william jennings bryan won his first nomination for president of the united states by a very dramatic speech delivered in the national democratic convention. 13. marion craig wentworth, a socialist playwright, has written a play called "war brides." 14. the play closes with these words; a message to the emperor: i refuse to bear my child until you promise there shall be no more war. 15. olive schreiner's "woman and labor" is full of fascinating thought. Exercise 3 Notice carefully the use of capitals in the following quotations, and determine the reason for the use of every capital: As the nobles of England wrung their independence from King John, and as the tradesmen of France broke through the ring of privilege enclosing the Three Estates; so today the millions who serve society in arduous labor on the highways, and aloft on the scaffoldings, and by the sides of the whirring machines, are demanding that they, too, and their children, shall enjoy all of the blessings that justify and make beautiful this life.--_Frank Walsh_. "The toad beneath the harrow knows Exactly where the tooth-point goes. The butterfly beside the road Doth preach contentment to that toad." "When I came here, it was said that the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company voted every man and woman in their employ without any regard to their being naturalized or not; and even their mules, it used to be remarked, were registered if they were fortunate enough to possess names." _From a letter written by Mr. L. M. Bowers, Chairman of The Board of Directors of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company, to the Secretary of Mr. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., under date of May 13, 1913._ Master, I've done Thy bidding, wrought in Thy many lands. Not by my sins wilt Thou judge me, but by the work of my hands. Master, I've done Thy bidding, and the light is low in the west, And the long, long shift is over ... Master, I've earned it--Rest. --_Robert Service_. It's O! to be a slave Along with the barbarous Turk, Where woman has never a soul to save, If this is Christian work! --_Thos. Hood_. While there is a lower class, I am in it. While there is a criminal element, I am of it. While there is a soul in jail, I am not free. --_Eugene V. Debs_. When Adam delved and Eve span, Who was then the gentleman? The vilest deeds, like poison weeds, Bloom well in prison-air; It is only what is good in man That wastes and withers there: Pale Anguish keeps the heavy gate, And the Warder is Despair. --_Oscar Wilde_. ABBREVIATIONS AND CONTRACTIONS +485.+ There are a number of words which we abbreviate or contract, in our every-day use. A contraction is a shortened form of the word used to save time or space and is made by omitting a letter or letters. The apostrophe is used to indicate the omission in a contracted word. As, for example: B'ld'g, B'l'v'd, M'f'g. When the word is contracted in this way and the apostrophe is used, these contractions are not followed by the period but are used just as the completely written word would be used. There is no accepted list of these contractions. We devise them according to our need at the moment. An abbreviation, however, is an authorized contraction of the word. It is the shortening of a term which is habitually used to save time and space. The apostrophe is not used and the abbreviation should be followed by a period. As for example: Bldg. Blvd. Mfg. These abbreviations and contractions are very helpful to us in saving time and space but should not be used too frequently. Too many contractions or abbreviations make writing ridiculous. Take time to write out the majority of words. Only use abbreviations or contractions for certain accepted words. Avoid an excessive use of abbreviations. COMMONLY USED ABBREVIATIONS +486.+ We quite often abbreviate the names of the months, especially those which have long names. Short names like _March_, _April_, _May_, _June_ and _July_, should never be abbreviated. For the other months we use in correspondence the abbreviations, _Jan._, _Feb._, _Aug._, _Sept._, _Oct._, _Nov._, _Dec._ Days of the week are also sometimes abbreviated as follows: _Sun._, _Mon._, _Tues._, _Wed._, _Thur._, _Fri._, _Sat._ Do not use these abbreviations too often. Spell out the names of the months and of the days of the week except in lists of dates or something that calls for abbreviations to save time or space. _Mr._, _Mrs._, _Messrs._, _Jr._, _Sr._, are never spelled out, but are always written in the abbreviated form. You will often find _Doctor_ and _Professor_ abbreviated to _Dr._, _Prof._ This is permissible but it is always good form to write them out in full. +487.+ We have abbreviated forms for a number of names; as for example: _Geo._, _Chas._, _Thos._, _Wm._, etc. But it is always much better to write these names out in full: _George_, _Charles_, _Thomas_, _William_, etc. Remember that nicknames are not abbreviations and do not require a period after them. _Jim_, _Charley_, _Tom_, and _Bill_ are not abbreviations but nicknames. In correspondence or in any circumstance that demands the saving of time or space, we abbreviate the names of states and territories, as follows: Alabama, Ala. Arizona, Ariz. Arkansas, Ark. California, Cal. Colorado, Colo. Connecticut, Conn. Delaware, Del. District of Columbia, D. C. Florida, Fla. Georgia, Ga. Idaho, Ida. Illinois, Ill. Indiana, Ind. Iowa, Ia. Kansas, Kan. Kentucky, Ky. Louisiana, La. Maine, Me. Maryland, Md. Massachusetts, Mass. Michigan, Mich. Minnesota, Minn. Mississippi, Miss. Missouri, Mo. Montana, Mont. Nebraska, Neb. Nevada, Nev. New Hampshire, N. H. New Jersey, N. J. New Mexico, N. M. New York, N. Y. North Carolina, N. C. North Dakota, N. D. Ohio, O. Oklahoma, Okla. Oregon, Ore. Pennsylvania, Pa. or Penna. Rhode Island, R. I. South Carolina, S. C. South Dakota, S. D. Tennessee, Tenn. Texas, Tex. Vermont, Vt. Virginia, Va. Washington, Wash. West Virginia, W. Va. Wisconsin, Wis. Wyoming, Wyo. +488.+ Use _a. m._ and _p. m._ after dates in lists of dates or schedules of trains or for any similar purpose, but in the text of a letter or manuscript it is better to write them out in full. As for example, do not say: I will arrive tomorrow a. m., or, You may call about eight p. m. Say rather: I will arrive tomorrow morning. You may call at eight o'clock this evening. The letters _a. m._ are the abbreviation for ante meridiem, Latin for before noon; and _p. m._ for post meridiem, meaning afternoon. +489.+ Two consecutive years may be written 1914-15, but use 1915 rather than '15. In the heading of letters it is better to write the date out in full, as, _May 28, 1915_, instead of 5-28-15. In the back of your dictionary you will find a complete list of accepted abbreviations used in writing and printing. The list that follows contains abbreviations most commonly used, especially in business correspondence: @ for at acct. for account agt. for agent amt. for amount ans. for answer asst. for assistant atty. for attorney av. for average bal. for balance bbl. for barrel bdl. for bundle bro. for brother bros. for brothers blk. for black bls. for bales bu. or bush. for bushels Co. for company chgd. for charged C. O. D. for "cash on delivery" cr. creditor cts. cents cwt. for hundred weight cu. for cubic do. for the same dr. for debtor doz. for dozen ea. for "each" et al. for "and others" e. g. for example etc. for "and so forth" ft. for foot or feet frt. freight f. o. b. "free on board" gal. gallon guar. for guaranty hdkfs. for handkerchiefs h. p. horse power in. for inches ins. for insurance inst. for this month i. e. for "that is" Jr. for junior lb. for pound memo. for memorandum Mon. for Monday mo. for month mos. for months mdse. for merchandise mfg. for manufacturing Mss. for manuscript no. for number N. B. for take notice O. K. for "all correct" oz. for ounce % for per cent pp. pages pr. for pair pt. for pint pk. for peck prox. for next month qt. for quart recd. for received sec. for second Sec. for secretary Sr. for senior Supt. for superintendent ult. for last month via by way of viz. namely vol. for volume wt. for weight yd. for yard yds. for yards yr. for year Exercise 4 Write the proper abbreviations for the following words: Building Charles Boulevard Tuesday Arkansas Mississippi Foot Virginia Georgia Senior By way of Per cent Charged Avenue October Delaware Professor Thursday Colorado Kansas Handkerchiefs January Secretary Superintendent Received That is Free on board Monday Oklahoma July Thomas California Company Account Friday Merchandise Number All correct Cash on delivery And so forth Colonel Maine August William Missouri Brothers Amount Wyoming SPELLING LESSON 28 There is no way to learn to spell except by constant application. Watch in your reading the spelling of all words. Whenever you wish to add a certain word to your vocabulary, master immediately the spelling as well as the meaning of that word. Keep your dictionary handy; use it constantly in the study of your lessons. Do not guess at the spelling of the word. You are not likely to forget quickly the spelling of any word which you have taken the trouble to look up. Read your examinations over carefully before sending them in, watching closely for any error in spelling and in punctuation. When your papers are graded and returned you, make a list of all the words which are misspelled and master then and there the spelling of these words. Do not be guilty of the same error twice. Remember that correct spelling is a mark of intelligence and scholarship and that nothing will so detract from the influence of your written work as incorrect spelling. While there is always a certain word which more aptly expresses our meaning than any other, we can usually find two or more words which express practically the same meaning. +Words which have nearly the same meaning are called synonyms.+ It is always an interesting exercise and will add greatly to your vocabulary to select a certain paragraph and go through it replacing certain words with other words which have practically the same meaning. It is this mastery of synonyms which gives the great writers and orators their power. They do not use the same word over and over again until our ears have grown weary of it. With their wonderful mastery of language they are never at a loss for words in which to re-clothe their meaning. For the first three days of this week's work in spelling we have words and their synonyms. For the words given in the lessons for the last three days, look up in your dictionary a suitable synonym. +Monday+ Abundant Plenty Precarious Uncertain Behavior Conduct +Tuesday+ Abuse Invective Hateful Odious Praise Applause +Wednesday+ Sufficient Enough Refuge Asylum Achieve Attain +Thursday+ Insolent Revenge Curb Repudiate Censure Regret +Friday+ Prosperity Subterfuge Event Observe Portion Destroy +Saturday+ Talkative Indolent Profit Volunteer Cordial Enormous There are a number of nouns very similar in form, yet different in meaning, which we very often use incorrectly. Cross out in these sentences the incorrect word. Look them up in the dictionary and be sure of the exact meaning: Roger's _essay_--_assay_ won him praise. The _assay_--_essay_ indicated the quantity of gold in the metal. The _completion_--_completeness_ of the course entitled me to a Diploma. The _completion_--_completeness_ of the arrangements fills us with hope of success. _Confidants_--_confidence_ often betray us. The business world is built upon _confidants_--_confidence_. The _conscience_--_consciousness_ of a religious person is very sensitive. The class struggle develops class _conscience_--_consciousness_. The strikers listened to unwise _counsel_--_council_. The _council_--_counsel_ refused the franchise. You knew he was a _cultured_--_cultivated_ man, the moment you met him. It is a highly _cultured_--_cultivated_ plant. I asked her for the _recipe_--_receipt_ for making cake. He gave her a _receipt_--_recipe_ for the money. _Emigration_---_immigration_ has reduced the population of Servia. _Emigration_--_immigration_ is flooding the United States with cheap labor. Edison's _discovery_--_invention_ of the storage battery was a momentous event. The _discovery_--_invention_ of gold in Alaska attracted the attention of the world. The state placed a _limitation_--_limit_ upon the sale of liquor within certain _limits_--_limitations_. PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 29 Dear Comrade: The spirit of self-help is the root of all genuine growth in any man or woman. It is the things which we do for ourselves in any line of work that count the most for us. The things which come to us without any effort on our part do not stay with us very long nor do us much good while we have them. Sometimes we feel discouraged because we have not had the opportunity to attend school as much as we would like. There is no gainsaying but that this is a tremendous handicap and yet, after all, it is not an insurmountable obstacle. It is much better to have the appetite without the food than to have the food without the appetite. There is always a chance of securing the food if we want it bad enough and will struggle hard enough. So in the matter of an education. Many a man who has never seen the inside of a college is better educated than those who have been through college. These men have really wanted knowledge, have sought it early and late, and have found knowledge; and because they were in the work-a-day world, in constant contact with their fellow-men, they were able to relate the knowledge which they gained out of books to the world in which they lived and this is true education. This is, also, what many college-bred people lack. A student is half made as soon as he seeks knowledge for its own sake. If you are striving to learn, not to make grades or to pass examinations or to secure a degree, but simply for the sake of knowing things, then indeed you are on the way to become really educated. Stimulate within yourself a desire for knowledge, observe the things about you, add to your store of information daily; read a good book each day, even if you have time to read only a page or two, and you will be surprised at the result in your life. Take, for example, our spelling. Why should we continually misspell the words which we use every day and which we see every day on a printed page. If we are wide-awake and have our eyes open, we can soon learn to spell correctly all these common words, at least. Make a list this week of fifty things with which you come in contact in your daily work, then look these words up in your dictionary and see how many of them you have misspelled. There is no reason why we should not be learning constantly and the more we observe, the more acute becomes our power of observation. Let us determine more than ever to feel that we are part of the great world movement, that we belong in the ranks of those who have caught the vision of what the world might be, and that we belong to that glorious army of those who are fighting for the dream; so we may take courage; so we may find joy in the struggle, bitter as it may be, and so we may do our part in the fight. Yours for Education, THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. PUNCTUATION +490.+ Marks of punctuation are very important in our written language. They take the place of the gesture and pause and inflection and intonation of the voice, by which we make our meaning clear in vocal speech. So the marks of punctuation do not become mere mechanical devices. They are marks full of meaning and necessary to express our thought. Punctuation is a word derived from the Latin word _punctum_ which means _a point_. We have other words from the same derivation, as puncture, etc. +Punctuation is the art of pointing off our written language so as to make its meaning clear.+ Some very amusing errors have occurred because of the misplacing or the omission of punctuation marks. It is said, that a toast was one time given at a public dinner; "Woman! without her, man would be a savage." The next day it appeared in print; "Woman, without her man, would be a savage." You can readily see that the punctuation in this instance made a very great difference in the meaning of the sentence. +491.+ In conversation, the tone of the voice which we use, has a great effect upon our meaning, for example I might say, _The International failed_, in such a tone of voice, that it would express despair and chagrin, and indicate that the International was a thing of the past; or I might say, _The International failed_, with such an inflection, that you would understand that even the suggestion was to be treated with contempt, that the International was still powerful and its triumph inevitable. And in writing, the only way we have of expressing these shades of meaning is by means of punctuation marks. So these marks of punctuation are not thrown upon a page haphazardly, or put there simply for decoration; they have a meaning and a very great meaning. Those who use short, crisp sentences have less need for punctuation marks than those who use longer and more involved sentences. When we have learned to express ourselves directly and simply, we will naturally use fewer marks of punctuation. +492.+ You will find that, in writing in connection with business, there is much less need of punctuation than in literary and philosophical writings. Business writing is usually direct and simple in style. Its purpose is to state facts. The literary and philosophical writing, however, expresses more involved ideas and emotions, and in these, the punctuation is exceedingly important. +493.+ One of the great purposes served by punctuation is to indicate a pause or break in the thought. A very good rule to go by in punctuating is to repeat the sentence aloud, and whenever you pause for breath or because of a break in the thought, it is a pretty safe indication that in that place, you should have a punctuation mark. +494.+ The following are the chief marks of punctuation: 1. The Comma , 2. The Semi-colon ; 3. The Colon : 4. The Period . 5. The Interrogation Point ? 6. The Exclamation Point ! 7. The Dash -- 8. The Parenthesis () 9. The Bracket [] 10. The Quotation Marks "" 11. The Apostrophe ' 12. The Hyphen - THE COMMA +495.+ The comma is the mark used to indicate a slight break in the thought. There are a number of rules given for the use of commas. These rules, like the rules for the use of capitals, you cannot commit to memory; but, after repeated practice in your own writing and paying attention to your reading, you will gradually develop an instinctive sense of the use of the comma. Select some book which you are reading and go through it, noticing especially the use of the commas. See if you can determine the reason which prompted the author to place his commas where he did. Notice, also, what effect the placing or the omission of the comma would have upon the meaning of the sentence. +496.+ +The Comma indicates the slightest degree of separation between the parts of a sentence.+ +RULE 1.+ +497.+ +Words, phrases and clauses, forming a series and used in the same construction, should be separated from each other by commas when the conjunctions are omitted.+ WORDS WHICH FORM A SERIES +498.+ The words which form a series, separated by a comma may be either nouns, adjectives, adverbs or verbs. The comma is only used where the conjunction is omitted. Note carefully the following sentences: Love, laughter and happiness are the right of every child. He visited every city, town and village. The working class has been meek, humble, docile and gullible. All the crushed, tortured, strangled, maimed and murdered ideals of the ages shall become an everlasting reality. He struggled patiently, faithfully and fearlessly for the cause. If labor thinks, dares, rebels, fights, it will be victorious. PHRASES WHICH FORM SERIES +499.+ Phrases which are used in the same construction and form a series are separated by commas where the conjunction is omitted. For example: Day after day, year after year, century after century, the class struggle has proceeded. The struggle in the mines, in the fields, in the factories and in the shops, will go on until labor receives the product of its toil. CLAUSES USED IN A SERIES +500.+ Sometimes clauses are used without the co-ordinate conjunction and a comma is used to indicate the omission. For example: Do not moan, do not submit, do not kneel, do not pray, do not wait. Speak as you mean, do as you profess, perform what you promise. +RULE 2.+ +501.+ +Explanatory and introductory expressions, words in direct address, parenthetical words and phrases, are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.+ Note carefully the following examples: Jaures, the great French Socialist, was the first martyr to peace. War having been declared, the troops were mobilized. No, I cannot believe you. Mr. Chairman, I desire to speak to the convention. We can, of course, give you the information you desire. +RULE 3.+ +502.+ +Words, phrases or clauses written in the sentence out of their natural order should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.+ These words, phrases and clauses are often written at the beginning of the sentences or at the end of the sentences, or in some place out of their natural order, for the sake of emphasis, instead of with the words they modify. Notice in the following sentences how these words, phrases and clauses are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. Rewrite these sentences, placing these words, phrases and clauses in their natural order and omit the commas. Longingly and anxiously, he waited. With this exception, the figures are correct. The music, sweet and dreamy, floated upon the air. The waves came rolling in, white with foam. To deceive the men, he resorted to shameful tricks. Before anyone else could speak, he was on his feet. +RULE 4.+ +503.+ +Co-ordinate clauses, when closely related in meaning are separated by commas. The comma should precede the co-ordinate conjunction.+ For example: I have not intended to detain you, but the matter required explanation. +RULE 5.+ +504.+ +The omission of the verb in a sentence or a clause should be indicated by a comma.+ Sometimes in writing for effect or to give emphasis we omit the verb in the sentence; at other times we omit the verb when the same verb occurs in a series of brief sentences, and its continued use would mean a tiresome repetition. For example: Reading maketh a full man; conference, a ready man; writing, an exact man. Here the verb is omitted in the last two clauses and the omission is indicated by the use of the comma. +RULE 6.+ +505.+ +Short, direct quotations should be preceded by a comma.+ For example: Their slogan is, "An injury to one is the concern of all." Ferrer's last words were, "Long live the modern school." +RULE 7.+ +506.+ +Separate the figures in large numbers into groups of three figures each by the use of commas.+ For example: The population of the United States has now reached 100,000,000. According to the census of 1900, there are 29,073,233 people engaged in gainful occupations in the United States. Exercise 1 Supply commas in the following sentences in the proper places: 1. Food clothes and shelter are the fundamental needs of life. 2. We believe in education free from theocracy aristocracy or plutocracy. 3. Man is the master of nature of law of life. 4. We shall struggle rebel arise and claim all being for our own. 5. Sickness and suffering sorrow and despair crime and war are the fruits of poverty. 6. You should seek after knowledge steadily faithfully and perseveringly. 7. The most inspiring powerful and impressive oratory is the voice of the disinherited. 8. Through your united almighty strength order shall become equity law shall become liberty duty shall become love and religion shall become truth. 9. First let us consider the main question. 10. Mr. President I rise to a point of order. 11. We the workers of the world must unite. 12. The class struggle being a fact why should we hesitate to join our class? 13. You have not it seems understood the issue. 14. Of all our needs education is the greatest. 15. Regularly and monotonously the machine whirs to and fro. 16. Before any one can take special training he must have a good knowledge of English. 17. We plead for education universal and free. 18. The first ingredient in conversation is truth the next good sense the third good humor and the fourth wit. 19. The slogan of the People's College is The education of the workers by the workers. 20. According to the last census the enrollment of the schools of the United States is 18521002. 21. There are 4611000 in the first grade and 155000 in the last year of high school. THE SEMI-COLON +507.+ The semi-colon indicates a break more complete than that of the comma. The period indicates a complete break in the thought. So the comma indicates a slight break, the semi-colon a greater break in the thought, and the period, the completion of the thought. RULES FOR THE USE OF THE SEMI-COLON +508.+ The semi-colon is often used instead of the comma where a longer pause is desired or we wish to indicate a greater break in the thought. For example: "The wind is chill; But let it whistle as it will, We'll keep our Christmas merry still." +509.+ As a rule we separate by semi-colons those parts of the sentences that are already punctuated by commas. For example: After considerable delay, he came back to look for his friends; but, though he looked diligently, he could not find them. +510.+ The semi-colon is used to separate closely connected simple sentences when the conjunction is omitted. The continual repetition of the conjunction would become very tiresome and detract from the forcefulness of our sentences. So instead of continually repeating the conjunction we separate these simple sentences by semi-colons. For example: Through the industrial revolution, the face of the earth is making over even as to its physical forms; political boundaries are wiped out and moved about as if they were indeed only lines on a paper map; population is hurriedly gathered into cities from the ends of the earth; habits of living are altered with startling abruptness; the search for the truths of nature is infinitely stimulated; and the application of these truths to life is made not only practicable, but commercially necessary. +511.+ The semi-colon should be used after each item in a series of specific statements. For example: We quote you the following prices: Grade No. 1, $1.00; Grade No. 2, $2.90; poorer grades not in demand. RULES FOR THE USE OF THE COLON +512.+ The colon is not used as much as it formerly was. The comma and the semi-colon and the period are now used in most of the places where older writers used the colon. One authority in English says that, "in strict logic the colon is to the sentence in which it is used what the mark of equality is in mathematics." +513.+ The colon is used before a formal list of items. For example: Economics has three important divisions: production, distribution, consumption. +514.+ The colon is used after a salutation at the beginning of a letter. For example: _Dear Sir:_ _Gentlemen:_ _Comrades:_ In such cases the dash is also frequently used with the colon. For example: _My dear Sir:--_ _Gentlemen:--_ _Comrades:--_ +515.+ The colon is more often used instead of the semi-colon after such expressions as, _thus:_ _as follows:_ _the following:_ _for example:_ etc. The colon is also used to separate a series of sentences which are explanatory of the main clause. For example: The People's College has two great aims: the first is to bring education within the reach of every worker; the second is to teach from the viewpoint of the working class. We were advised to proceed thus: first, to be systematic in our work; second, to concentrate; third, to go slowly and surely; and last of all, to think for ourselves. RULES FOR THE USE OF THE PERIOD +516.+ +The period is a mark of punctuation that denotes the completion of a sentence.+ +517.+ The period is used at the close of all assertive and imperative sentences. For example: There is talk of peace but preparation for war. Claim your own at any hazard. +518.+ The period is used after all initials and all abbreviations, as for example: E. V. Debs; T. P. O'Connor; Mr., Dr., Co., Mass., N. Y., C. O. D., F. O. B., U. S. A., etc. +519.+ The period is used to separate whole numbers and decimal numbers. For example: 3.1416 9.342. A period is used for the decimal point between dollars and cents; as: $4.50, $2.25, $16.54, $35926.72. It is also used to separate the various denominations of sterling money, as: £14. 15s. 6d. +520.+ The period is used after letters used as numerals or after figures used to number paragraphs, notes, remarks, questions or any list of particulars. For example: The letters which are used to denote sub-heads in the enumeration of rules as _a. b. c._, etc., also the numerals and letters marking sections or sub-sections in chapters, as _Chapter 8._ _Paragraph 1._ _Rule 1._ _Page 4._ _Volume 2._ _Paragraph 3._ _P. 16._ +521.+ The period is also used after headings and titles, after dates and signatures to letters and other documents; also at the close of the address at the beginning of a letter, and of the name at the close of the letter; also after the last item in the direction of an envelope or package. Exercise 2 In the following quotations place the commas, semi-colons, colons and periods in their proper places, and be able to give a reason for what you do: The man who stabs his brother to death is a criminal and is hanged the general who under a flag slays a regiment is a hero and is decorated with a cross The most thrilling oratory the most powerful and impressive eloquence is the voice of the disinherited the oppressed the suffering and the submerged it is the voice of poverty and misery of wretchedness and despair it is the voice of humanity crying to the infinite it is the voice that resounds throughout the earth and reaches heaven it is the voice that wakens the conscience of the race and proclaims the truths that fill the world with life liberty and love The number of lives lost in the great wars of the world have been as follows Napoleonic wars 1900000 our Civil War 656000 Franco-German War 290000 Boer War 90898 Russo-Japanese 555900 and in the present world-war untold millions Walt Whitman who represents individualism at its best writes "I sing the song of myself" To this the Socialist replies "Inasmuch as my redemption is bound up in that of my class I sing the song of my class" We believe with John Ruskin "whether there be one God or three no God or ten thousand children should be fed and their bodies should be kept clean" My dear Mr Smith Your letter of the 15th has been received Through the dreams of all the ages rings the voice of labor beginning as a murmur growing in volume and grandeur as it rolls round the world And this is the burden of its message By the sweat of no other's brow shalt thou eat bread The sun of the new world is rising it is rising out of the solidarity of the working class Its rays of light are bursting through the dark horizon which ignorance and deceit have so long riveted upon us It is lighting up the faces of a new order of men and women supermen and women men and women not discouraged by defeat god-like men and women who have found the secret springs of life and are already drinking deep and glorious draughts men and women who are standing erect and whose joined hands encircle the world men and women who see the world's wretchedness and the world's poverty and are ready to throw away their lives with a song on their lips that such things shall not be Exercise 3 Note the punctuation in the following poem and determine for yourself, in accordance with the rules we have studied, why the commas, semi-colons, colons and periods are used as they are: JOHN BROWN States are not great Except as man may make them; Men are not great except they do and dare. But States, like men, Have destinies that take them-- That bear them on, not knowing why or where. The _why_ repels The philosophic searcher-- The _why_ and _where_ all questionings defy, Until we find, Far back in youthful nurture, Prophetic facts that constitute the _why_. All merit comes From braving the unequal; All glory comes from daring to begin. Fame loves the State That, reckless of the sequel, Fights long and well, whether it lose or win. * * * * * And there is one Whose faith, whose fight, whose failing, Fame shall placard upon the walls of time. He dared begin-- Despite the unavailing, He dared begin, when failure was a crime. When over Africa Some future cycle Shall sweep the lake-gemmed uplands with its surge; When, as with trumpet Of Archangel Michael, Culture shall bid a colored race emerge; * * * * * From boulevards O'erlooking both Nyanzas, The statured bronze shall glitter in the sun, With rugged lettering: "JOHN BROWN OF KANSAS: HE DARED BEGIN; HE LOST, BUT, LOSING, WON." --_Eugene Ware_. SPELLING LESSON 29 Last week we studied words which had the same, or nearly the same, meaning. There is always a slight distinction in the meaning of words, but some of them are so nearly the same that it makes very little difference which word we use. Some writers, however, are very careful and spend a great deal of time in the selection of just the right word to express their meaning. Robert Louis Stevenson once said a good writer would wait half a day in order to secure the best word to convey a certain idea. A very amusing story is told of Thomas Carlyle, who was very careful to use words expressing just the shade of meaning which he desired to express. He had a habit of writing in a note book these words as they occurred to him, so he would have them for ready reference and use. One day he had searched all day for a certain word which eluded him. Suddenly in the middle of the night he wakened with the word flashing in his mind. He wanted to write it down immediately lest he should forget it in the morning, but it was cold and he dreaded getting up in the cold to secure his note book so he nudged Jeanie, his wife, and said: "Jeanie, Jeanie, get up! I have thought of a good word, and I want you to write it down." Now it was equally cold for Jeanie, so Jeanie nudged Thomas and said: "Thomas, Thomas, get up yourself. I have thought of a bad one!" Nevertheless, it is a good idea when these good words occur to you to write them down. Possibly to save trouble, you had better write them for yourself! But in addition to words which have the same meaning, or almost the same meaning, there are also words which express just the opposite meaning, and it is well for us to be master of these words also. +These words which express opposite meaning are called antonyms.+ Words and their antonyms are given in this week's spelling lesson in the words for the first three days' study. For the last three days, words only are given. Look these words up in your dictionary and determine upon the most suitable antonyms. +Monday+ Legal Illegal Artificial Natural Assert Deny +Tuesday+ Civilized Barbarous Courage Cowardice Active Passive +Wednesday+ Initial Final Temporary Permanent History Legend +Thursday+ Addition Cleverness Assured Genuine Acquit Increase +Friday+ Affection Composure Enlarge Anxious Prompt Discord +Saturday+ Succeed Describe Winning Wasteful Superficial Grieve Write the proper word in the following blanks: PATIENTS or PATIENCE The Doctor has many....... We have no......with stupidity. NEGLIGENCE or NEGLECT The accident was due to the......of the employer. He has been guilty of......of his family for he was injured by the criminal......of the Railroad Company. OBSERVANCE or OBSERVATION The troops were concealed from....... Trade Unions never fail in the......of Labor Day. A man's own......will guide him in the......of all good customs. RELATIVES or RELATIONS Taft and Roosevelt did not always have pleasant......with each other. He has gone to visit his....... We do not always have pleasant......with our....... SECTS or SEX There are many religious....... Woman is refused the ballot because of her....... STATUE or STATUTE The law was placed upon the......books. The world will sometime erect a......to the man of the people. Do not fear to be thought a "high-brow" if you use these words in your every day speech. The very people who may laugh are in their hearts admiring you, and are, in all probability, envious. The man who has accused another of being a "high-brow" has by that very act, admitted his own inferiority. Demand the best for yourself in words, as in everything else. PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 30 Dear Comrade: With this lesson we are finishing this course in Plain English. We have covered a great deal of ground and have studied the essentials of grammar. We have tried, as far as possible, to avoid the stupid conning of rules or learning by rote. We have attempted at least to make the reason and necessity for every rule apparent before the rule was stated. We have also tried to weave into the lessons something of the romance of language, for language is a romance; in its growth is written the epic of the race. Our words portray the struggle of man from savage to sage. So, feeble as our efforts in this regard may have been, we trust that you have enjoyed and profited by this course and have caught a new vision of life. Most of us are forced so inexorably into the bitter struggle for existence that we have little time or opportunity to catch much of the beauty of life. That is the curse of a society that dooms its citizens to weary, toil-burdened lives, robbed of the joy and beauty of living. Yet, if we know how to read we can always have access to books and through them we can escape the sordidness and ugliness of the life in which we are compelled to live and spend at least a little time each day in the company of great souls who speak to us from the printed page. The quotations in these lessons have been taken from these great writers. Will you not pursue the acquaintanceship and become real friends with these men and women? Above all things they will bring you into the atmosphere of liberty and of freedom. For throughout all the pain of the struggle of the past and of the present, there has been the fight of man for freedom. We have gained the mastery over nature. Wild animals, which were a constant menace to savage man, have been destroyed. We have been freed from fear and superstition by the discovery of the laws of nature. With the invention of the machine, man has increased his ability to provide the essentials of life,--food, clothing and shelter--a thousandfold. The past has seen revolution after revolution in the struggle for mastery. We now stand on the threshold of another great revolution when man shall master the machines which he has invented and shall cease serving them and make them serve him. His increased facilities for food-getting and shelter-getting shall be made to serve all mankind. We have a part to play in that great revolution. Whatever you may have gained from the study of this course; what increased facility of understanding or of expression may have come to you; may it be not only for the service of yourself but also for the service of the revolution that shall bring the worker into his own. Yours for Education, THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE. THE ETERNAL WHY +522.+ There is no more important mark of punctuation than the Interrogation Point. Asking questions is the foundation and beginning of all wisdom. Progress is based upon the eternal _Why_. If men had always been satisfied with the knowledge of their age and had not continually asked questions which they set themselves to answer, we would still be living in caves or dwelling in trees. The natural child, that is, the child whose will has not been broken, is an animated Interrogation Point. He is full of questions. He wants to know _why_ this and _why_ that. This is a most natural trait and one that should not be destroyed. It may sadly interfere sometimes with the things that we wish to do, to stop and answer the child's questions as to why cats have tails or who made the world and what did he stand on while he was doing it; but it is decidedly important that some one should answer these questions which the child asks, in a manner to satisfy its present craving for knowledge. The fact that this trait has been quenched in so many children by the impatient grown-ups explains their stupidity in later years. Encourage every child to ask questions. Encourage it also to be persistent until it finds somewhere the answer to its questions. Cultivate also this trait yourself. Do not accept a thing simply because some one says it is so. Insist upon knowing for yourself. This is the secret of progress, that we should think for ourselves, investigate for ourselves and not fear to face the facts of life or to express our own ideas. The wise man does not accept a thing because it is old nor does he reject it because it is new. He inquires, demands, reasons and satisfies himself as to the merit of the question. So the Interrogation Point in the written language of man has a tremendous meaning. It stands for the open and inquiring mind; for the courage that dares question all things and seek the truth. THE INTERROGATION POINT +523.+ An Interrogation Point should be placed after every direct question. A direct question is one that can be answered. An indirect question is one that cannot be answered. If I say, _Why do you not study?_, I am asking a direct question to which you can give an answer; but if I say, _I wonder why you do not study_, I have asked an indirect question which does not require a direct answer. Why do you not go? (_Direct_) He asked why you did not go. (_Indirect_) +524.+ When an interrogative clause is repeated in the body of another sentence, use the interrogation point after the clause, and begin the clause with a capital letter. For example: The question, _Shall we be involved in war?_, should be settled by the people. THE EXCLAMATION POINT +525.+ The exclamation point should be placed after words, phrases or sentences that express strong emotion. For example: Oh! When shall peace reign again? Alas! I am undone! To the firing line! the battle rages! +526.+ Ordinarily the exclamation point is placed immediately after the interjection or word used as an interjection, but frequently when the strong emotion continues throughout the expression, the exclamation point is placed at the close of the sentence instead of after the interjection, even though the interjection comes first in the sentence. For example: On, Comrades, on! Charge, Chester, charge! THE DASH +527.+ The dash is a much abused punctuation mark. A great many writers who are not familiar with the rules of punctuation use a dash whenever they feel the need of some sort of a punctuation mark. Their rule seems to be, "whenever you pause make a dash." Punctuation marks indicate pauses but a dash should not be used upon every occasion. The dash should not be used as a substitute for the comma, semi-colon, colon, etc. In reality, the dash should be used only when these marks cannot be correctly used. +528.+ The chief use of the dash is to indicate a sudden break in the thought or a sudden change in the construction of the sentence. For example: In the next place--but I cannot discuss the matter further under the circumstances. +529.+ The dash is frequently used to set a parenthetical expression off from the rest of the sentence when it has not as close connection with the sentence as would be indicated by commas. As for example: The contention may be true--although I do not believe it--that this sort of training is necessary. +530.+ The dash is also used in place of commas to denote a longer or more expressive pause. For example: The man sank--then rose--then sank again. +531.+ The dash is often used after an enumeration of several items as a summing up. For example: Production, distribution, consumption--all are a part of economics. +532.+ A dash is often used when a word or phrase is repeated for emphasis. For example: Is there universal education--education for every child beneath the flag? It is not for the masses of the children--not for the children of the masses. +533.+ If the parenthetical statements within dashes require punctuation marks, this mark should be placed before the second dash. For example: War for defense--and was there ever a war that was not for defense?--was permitted by the International. This sight--what a wonderful sight it was!--greeted our eyes with the dawn. +534.+ The dash is also used to indicate the omission of a word, especially such words as _as_, _namely_, _viz._, etc. For example: Society is divided into two classes--the exploited and the exploiting classes. +535.+ After a quotation, use the dash before the name of the author. For example: Life only avails, not the having lived.--_Emerson_. +536.+ The dash is used to mark the omission of letters or figures. For example: It happened in the city of M--. It was in the year 18--. PARENTHESIS +537.+ In our study of the comma and the dash we have found that parenthetical statements are set off from the rest of the sentence sometimes by a comma and sometimes by a dash. When the connection with the rest of the sentence is close, and yet the words are thrown in in a parenthetical way, commas are used to separate the parenthetical statement from the rest of the sentence. +538.+ When the connection is not quite so close, the dash is used instead of the comma to indicate the fact that this statement is thrown in by way of explanation or additional statement. But when we use explanatory words or parenthetical statements that have little or no connection with the rest of the sentence, these phrases or clauses are separated from the rest of the sentences by the parenthesis. +539.+ +GENERAL RULE:--Marks of parenthesis are used to set off expressions that have no vital connection with the rest of the sentence.+ For example: Ignorance (and why should we hesitate to acknowledge it?) keeps us enslaved. Education (and this is a point that needs continual emphasis) is the foundation of all progress. THE PUNCTUATION OF THE PARENTHESIS +540.+ If the parenthetical statement asks a question or voices an exclamation, it should be followed by the interrogation point or the exclamation point, within the parenthesis. For example: We are all of us (who can deny it?) partial to our own failings. The lecturer (and what a marvelous orator he is!) held the audience spellbound for hours. OTHER USES OF THE PARENTHESIS +541.+ An Interrogation Point is oftentimes placed within a parenthesis in the body of a sentence to express doubt or uncertainty as to the accuracy of our statement. For example: In 1858 (?) this great movement was started. John (?) Smith was the next witness. +542.+ The parenthesis is used to include numerals or letters in the enumeration of particulars. For example: Economics deals with (1) production, (2) distribution, (3) consumption. There are three sub-heads; (a) grammar, (b) rhetoric, (c) composition. +543.+ Marks of parenthesis are used to inclose an amount or number written in figures when it is also written in words, as: We will need forty (40) machines in addition to those we now have. Enclosed find Forty Dollars ($40.00) to apply on account. THE BRACKET +544.+ The bracket [] indicates that the word or words included in the bracket are not in the original discourse. +545.+ The bracket is generally used by editors in supplying missing words, dates and the like, and for corrections, additions and explanations. For example: This rule usually applies though there are some exceptions. [See Note 3, Rule 1, Page 67]. +546.+ All interpretations, notes, corrections and explanations, which introduce words or phrases not used by the author himself, should be enclosed in brackets. +547.+ Brackets are also used for a parenthesis within a parenthesis. If we wish to introduce a parenthetical statement within a parenthetical statement this should be enclosed in a bracket. For example: He admits that this fact (the same fact which the previous witness [Mr. James E. Smith] had denied) was only partially true. QUOTATION MARKS +548.+ Quotation marks are used to show that the words enclosed by them are the exact words of the writer or speaker. +549.+ A direct quotation is always enclosed in quotation marks. For example: He remarked, "I believe it to be true." But an indirect quotation is not enclosed in quotation marks. For example: He remarked that he believed it was true. +550.+ When the name of an author is given at the close of a quotation it is not necessary to use the quotation marks. For example: All courage comes from braving the unequal.--_Eugene F. Ware_. When the name of the author precedes the quotation, the marks are used, as in the following: It was Eugene F. Ware who said, "Men are not great except they do and dare." +551.+ When we are referring to titles of books, magazines or newspapers, or words and phrases used in illustration, we enclose them in quotation marks, unless they are written in italics. For example: "Whitman's Leaves of Grass" or _Whitman's Leaves of Grass_. "The New York Call" or _The New York Call_. The word "book" is a noun, or, The word _book_ is a noun. THE QUOTATION WITHIN A QUOTATION +552.+ When a quotation is contained within another, the included quotation should be enclosed by single quotation marks and the entire quotation enclosed by the usual marks. For example: He began by saying, "The last words of Ferrer, 'Long live the modern school' might serve as the text for this lecture." The speaker replied, "It was Karl Marx who said, 'Government always belongs to those who control the wealth of the country.'" You will note in this sentence that the quotation within the quotation occurs at the end of the sentence so there are three apostrophes used after it, the single apostrophe to indicate the included quotation and the double apostrophe which follows the entire quotation. PUNCTUATION WITH QUOTATION MARKS +553.+ Marks of punctuation are (except the interrogation point and the exclamation point which are explained later) placed inside the quotation marks. For example: A wise man said, "Know thyself." Notice that the period is placed after the word _thyself_ and is followed by the quotation marks. "We can easily rout the enemy," declared the speaker. Notice that the comma is placed after _enemy_, and before the quotation marks. +554.+ The Interrogation Point and the Exclamation Point are placed within the quotation marks if they refer _only_ to the words quoted, but if they belong to the entire sentence they should be placed outside the quotation marks. For example: He said, "Will you come now?" Did he say, "Will you come now"? He said, "What a beautiful night!" How wonderfully inspiring is Walt Whitman's poem, "The Song of the Open Road"! +555.+ Sometimes parenthetical or explanatory words are inserted within a quotation. These words should be set off by commas, and both parts of the quotation enclosed in quotation marks. For example: "I am aware," he said, "that you do not agree with me." "But why," the speaker was asked, "should you make such a statement?" "I do not believe," he replied, "that you have understood me." THE APOSTROPHE +556.+ The apostrophe is used to indicate the omission of letters or syllables, as: _He doesn't_, instead of _does not_; _We're_, instead of _we are_; _I'm_, instead of _I am_; _ it's_, instead of _it is_; _ne'er_, instead of _never_; _they'll_, instead of _they will_, etc. +557.+ The apostrophe is also used to denote possession. In the single form of the nouns it precedes the _s_. In the plural form of nouns ending in _s_ it follows the _s_. For example: Boy's, man's, girl's, king's, friend's, etc. Boys', men's, girls', kings', friends', etc. Note that the apostrophe is not used with the possessive pronouns _ours_, _yours_, _its_, _theirs_, _hers_. +558.+ The apostrophe is used to indicate the plural of letters, figures or signs. For example: Dot your _i's_ and cross your _t's_. He seems unable to learn the table of 8's and 9's. Do not make your _n's_ and _u's_ so much alike. +559.+ The apostrophe is used to mark the omission of the century in dates, as: '87 instead of 1887, '15 instead of 1915. THE HYPHEN +560.+ The hyphen is used between the parts of a compound word or at the end of a line to indicate that a word is divided. We have so many compound words in our language which we have used so often that we have almost forgotten that they were compound words so it is not always easy to decide whether the hyphen belongs in a word or not. As, for example; we find such words as _schoolhouse_, _bookkeeper_, _railway_ and many others which are, in reality, compound words and in the beginning were written with the hyphen. We have used them so frequently and their use as compound words has become so commonplace, that we no longer use the hyphen in writing them. Yet frequently you will find them written with the hyphen by some careful writer. +561.+ As a general rule the parts of all words which are made by uniting two or more words into one should be joined by hyphens, as: Men-of-war, knee-deep, half-hearted, full-grown, mother-in-law, etc. +562.+ The numerals expressing a compound number should be united by a hyphen, as; _forty-two_, _twenty-seven_, _thirty-nine_, etc. +563.+ When the word _self_ is used with an adverb, a noun or an adjective, it is always connected by the hyphen, as; _self-confidence_, _self-confident_, _self-confidently_, _self-command_, _self-assertive_, _self-asserting_, etc. +564.+ When the word _fold_ is added to a number of more than one syllable, the hyphen is always used, as; _thirty-fold_, _forty-fold_, _fifty-fold_, etc. If the numeral has but one syllable, do not use the hyphen, as; _twofold_, _threefold_, _fourfold_, etc. +565.+ When fractions are written in words instead of figures always use the hyphen, as; _one-half_, _one-fourth_, _three-sevenths_, _nine-twelfths_, etc. +566.+ The words _half_ and _quarter_, when used with any word, should be connected by a hyphen, as; _half-dollar_, _quarter-pound_, _half-skilled_, _half-barbaric_, _half-civilized_, _half-dead_, _half-spent_, etc. +567.+ Sometimes we coin a phrase for temporary use in which the words are connected by the hyphen. For example: It was a never-to-be-forgotten day. He wore a sort of I-told-you-so air. They were fresh-from-the-pen copies. ADDITIONAL MARKS OF PUNCTUATION There are a few other marks of punctuation which we do not often use in writing but which we find on the printed page. It is well for us to know the meaning of these marks. +568.+ The caret (^) is used to mark the omission of a letter or word or a number of words. The omitted part is generally written above, and the caret shows where it should be inserted. For example: s I cannot give you this permis ion. ^ received I have just a letter from him. ^ Please write your matriculation number on all examination and all letters papers sent in to the College. ^ The above examples illustrate the use of the caret with the omission of a letter, a word or phrase. +569.+ If a letter or manuscript is not too long, it should always be rewritten and the omissions properly inserted. Occasionally, however, we are in a hurry and our time is too limited to rewrite an entire letter because of the omission of a single letter or word so we can insert it by the use of the caret. If, however, there are many mistakes, the letter or paper should be rewritten, for the too frequent use of the caret indicates carelessness in writing and does not produce a favorable impression upon the recipient of your letter or manuscript. MARKS OF ELLIPSIS +570.+ Sometimes a long dash (--------) or succession of asterisks (* * * * * *) or of points (. . . . . .) is used to indicate the omission of a portion of a sentence or a discourse. In printed matter usually the asterisks are used to indicate an omission. In typewritten matter usually a succession of points is used to indicate an omission. In writing, these are difficult to make and the omission of the portion of material is usually indicated by a succession of short dashes (-- -- -- --). MARKS OF REFERENCE +571.+ On the printed page you will often find the asterisk (*), or the dagger, ([Symbol: dagger]), the section (§), or parallel lines (||), used to call your attention to some note or remark written at the close of the paragraph or on the margin, at the bottom of the page or the end of the chapter. It is advisable to hunt these up as soon as you come to the mark which indicates their presence, for they usually contain some matter which explains or adds to the meaning of the sentence which you have just finished reading. Exercise 1 In the following exercise, note the various marks of punctuation and determine why each one is used: THE MARSEILLAISE Ye sons of toil, awake to glory! Hark, hark, what myriads bid you rise; Your children, wives and grandsires hoary-- Behold their tears and hear their cries! Shall hateful tyrants, mischief breeding, With hireling hosts, a ruffian band,-- Affright and desolate the land, While peace and liberty lie bleeding? CHORUS To arms! to arms! ye brave! Th' avenging sword unsheathe! March on, march on, all hearts resolved On Victory or Death. With luxury and pride surrounded, The vile, insatiate despots dare, Their thirst for gold and power unbounded, To mete and vend the light and air; Like beasts of burden would they load us, Like gods would bid their slaves adore, But Man is Man, and who is more? Then shall they longer lash and goad us? (CHORUS) O Liberty! can man resign thee, Once having felt thy generous flame? Can dungeons' bolts and bars confine thee, Or whip thy noble spirit tame? Too long the world has wept bewailing, That Falsehood's dagger tyrants wield; But Freedom is our sword and shield, And all their arts are unavailing! (CHORUS) --_Rouget de Lisle_. THUS SPAKE ZARATHUSTRA I teach ye the Over-man. The man is something who shall be overcome. What have ye done to overcome him? All being before this made something beyond itself: and you will be the ebb of this great flood, and rather go back to the beast than overcome the man? What is the ape to the man? A mockery or a painful shame. And even so shall man be to the Over-man: a mockery or a painful shame. Man is a cord, tied between Beast and Over-man--a cord above an abyss. A perilous arriving, a perilous traveling, a perilous looking backward, a perilous trembling and standing still. What is great in man is that he is a bridge, and no goal; what can be loved in man is that he is a going-over and a going-under. I love them that know how to live, be it even as those going under, for such are those going across. I love them that are great in scorn, because these are they that are great in reverence, and arrows of longing toward the other shore!--_Nietzsche_. SPELLING LESSON 30 There are a great many words in English which are frequently mispronounced; the accent is placed upon the wrong syllable; for example, _thea'ter_ instead of _the'ater_; the wrong sound is given to the vowel, for example, _hearth_ is pronounced _hurth_. Sometimes, too, an extra letter is added in the pronunciation; for example, _once_ is often pronounced as though it were spelled _wunst_. The following is a list of common words that are frequently mispronounced, and there are many others which you may add to this list as they occur to you. Look up the correct pronunciation in the dictionary and pronounce them many times aloud. In the second column in this list is given the incorrect pronunciation, which we often hear. Acoustics a-cow-stics Aeroplane air-e-o-plane Apron a-pron Athlete ath-a-lete Autopsy au-top'-sy Awkward awk-ard Column col-yum Coupon coo-pon Deficit de-fic'it Diphtheria dip-ther-y Economic ee'co-nom-ic Errand ur-rant Faucet fos-set Figure fig-ger Film fill-um Finance fi'nance Guardian guar-deen' Height heighth Hostile hos-tile' Hundred hund'erd Idea i-dee' Inaugurate in-aug-er-ate Inquiry in'qui-ry Inventory in-ven'-to-ry Length lenth Magazine mag'-a'zinn Mischievous mis-chie'-vi-ous Municipal mu-ni-cip'-al Opponent op'-ponent Overalls over-hauls Rheumatism rheumatiz Stomach stum-ick Twice twict Vaudeville vaw'de-ville There are a number of words in English which sound very much alike and which we are apt to confuse. For example, I heard a man recently say in a speech that the party to which he belonged had taken slow poison and now needed an anecdote. It is presumed that he meant that it needed an antidote. Some one else remarked that a certain individual had not been expelled but simply expended. He undoubtedly meant that the individual had been suspended. This confusion in the use of words detracts from the influence which our statements would otherwise have. There are a number of words which are so nearly alike that it is very easy to be confused in the use of them. In our spelling lesson for this week we have a number of the most common of these easily confounded words. Add to the list as many others as you can. +Monday+ Lightening, _to make light_ Lightning, _an electric flash_ Prophesy, _to foretell_ Prophecy, _a prediction_ Accept, _to take_ Except, _to leave out_ +Tuesday+ Advice, _counsel_ Advise, _to give counsel_ Attendants, _servants_ Attendance, _those present_ Stationary, _fixed_ Stationery, _pens_, _paper_, _etc._ +Wednesday+ Formerly, _in the past_ Formally, _in a formal way_ Addition, _process of adding_ Edition, _publication_ Celery, _a vegetable_ Salary, _wages_ +Thursday+ Series, _a succession_ Serious, _solemn_ Precedent, _an example_ President, _chief or head_ Partition, _a division_ Petition, _a request_ +Friday+ Ingenious, _skillful_ Ingenuous, _honest_ Jester, _one who jests_ Gesture, _action_ Lose, _to suffer loss_ Loose, _to untie_ +Saturday+ Presence, _nearness_ Presents, _gifts_ Veracity, _truthfulness_ Voracity, _greediness_ Disease, _illness_ Decease, _death_ THE END AND THE BEGINNING As we look back over the study of these thirty lessons we find that we have covered quite a little ground. We have covered the entire field of English grammar including punctuation. But our study of English must not conclude with the study of this course. This is simply the foundation which we have laid for future work. You know when students graduate from high school or college the graduation is called the Commencement. That is a peculiarly fitting term, for the gaining of knowledge ought truly to be the commencement of life for us. Some one has said that the pursuit of knowledge might be compared to a man's marriage to a charming, wealthy woman. He pursued and married her because of her wealth but after marriage found her so charming that he grew to love her for herself. So we ofttimes pursue wisdom for practical reasons because we expect it to serve us in the matter of making a living; because we expect it to make us more efficient workers; to increase our efficiency to such an extent that we may command a higher salary, enter a better profession and be more certain of a job. All this is well; but we often find that after we have pursued wisdom for these reasons, practical as they are, we have fallen in love with her for her own sake. We begin to take pleasure in her society; we begin to want to know things for the sake of knowing them, for the pleasure that it brings us, quite divorced from any idea of monetary gain. So while we have urged upon you the study of English because of the great practical benefit that it will be to you, we trust that you have also grown to love the study for its own sake. Make this but the beginning of your work in the study of English. INDEX (by Section No.) Abbreviations, 486-489 Absolute Construction, 399 Adjectives Defined, 36 Classification of, 242-245 Qualifying, 246 Limiting, 246 Descriptive, 248 Numeral, 249-250 Demonstrative, 251 How to discover, 247 Interrogative, 255 Indefinite, 256-257 Used as pronouns, 258-259 Used as nouns, 261 Comparison of, 264-271 Participles used as, 272-274 Participle phrases used as, 275 Adverbs Defined, 41, 282 Use of, 279-281 How to tell, 283 Classes of, 284 Interrogative, 285 Of mode, 286, 397 Phrase Adverbs, 287 To Distinguish from Adj, 288-289 Derivation of, 290 Nouns used as, 291 Comparison of, 292-294 Position of, 295 With Infinitive, 296 Common errors in use of, 297-298 Articles A and An, use of, 252-253 The, use of, 254 Capital Letters Need of, 464 Uses of, 22, 60, 465 Rules for, 466-484 Clauses Defined, 406 Noun, 361-366, 371, 445 Adjective, 367-372, 446 With Conjunctions, 376 Introduced by as, 378 Adverb, 447 Dependent, kinds of, 444-447 Conjunctions Defined, 52, 331 Uses of, 328 Classes of, 329-330 Co-ordinate, 332-334 Uses of, 336-345 Correlatives, 346 Subordinate, defined, 349 Use of, 347 Classes of, 350-359 Phrase Conjunctions, 360 Connective Words Classes of, 379 Uses of, 380-385 Contractions, 485 Dictionary, Use of, 4 Exclamatory Words, 390-391 Explanatory Words, 398 Good English, defined, 2 Grammar, English, defined, 10 Independent Expressions, 393 Infinitives Use of, 151-167 To, omitted, 153-155 Forms of, 156 Passive, 156-157 Interjections Defined, 57, 388 Classes of, 389 Introductory Words, 394-396 Language Defined, 8 Natural, 5 Spoken, 6 Written, 7 Nouns Defined, 26 Classification of, 59 Proper, defined, 60 Common, defined, 60 Collective, defined, 61 Abstract, 62-66 Concrete, 63 Number, defined, 68 Number, Singular, 68 Number, Plural, 68 Formation of Plural, 69-84 Formation of Possessive, 89-90, 92 Compound, 91 Gender, defined, 85 Formation of Feminine, 86 Neuter, 87 Common, 88 Object Direct, 100, 408-410, 427-430 Indirect, 408-410 Participle Defined, 116 Active form, 114 Present form, 114, 148 Passive form, 115, 148 Past form, 115 Past irregular forms, 124 Used as nouns, 148 Used as adjective, 272-274 Phrase, 149-150 Phrase used as adjective, 275 Parts of Speech, 24 Phrases Verb, 29, 413 Adverbs, 287 Prepositional, 300-305, 317-321 Prepositions, 308 Conjunctions, 360 Predicate Defined, 17 Complete, 406, 425 Simple, 406 Simple Enlarged, 463 Complement, 411-412 Modifiers of, 461 Prepositions Defined, 47, 305 Use of, 309-312 Object of, 304, 313 List of, 306 How to Distinguish from Adverbs, 307 Phrase prepositions, 308 Place of, 314-316 Common errors in use of, 322 With verbs, 327 Choice of, 323-326 Prepositional Phrases, 300-305 Use of, 317-321 Pronouns Defined, 43, 202 Antecedent of, 203 Personal, 204 Compound personal, 205-208 Number forms of, 209 Object forms of, 214-215 Possessive forms of, 211-213 Gender forms of, 216 With verb "be", 217-218 Agreement of, 219-225 Personification, 226 Interrogative, 228-231 Relative, 232-236 What, 234, 236-240 Who, 234, 235, 240 Which, 234-236, 240 That, 234-236 Omitted, 239 Punctuation Need of, 490-493 Marks of, 494 The Comma, 495-496 Rules for use of, 497-506 The Semi-colon, 407-511 The Colon, 512-515 The Period, 22, 516-521 The Interrogation Point, 22, 523-524 The Exclamation Point, 22, 525-526 The Dash, 527-536 The Parenthesis, 537-543 The Bracket, 544-547 The Quotation Marks, 548-555 The Apostrophe, 556-559 The Hyphen, 560-567 The Caret, 568 Marks of Ellipsis, 570 Marks of Reference, 571 Responsives, 392 Sentence Defined, 15 Essentials of, 18 Use of, 19 Assertive, 20 Interrogative, 20 Imperative, 20 Exclamatory, 21 Elements, order of, 436-438 Analysis of, 456-457 Simple, defined, 404-406 Modifiers of, 434-435 Essentials of, 459 Analysis of, 402-405 Complex, 406, 443, 451 Analysis of, 448 Compound, defined, 406, 452 Kinds of, 453-455 Building of, 400 Classification of, 401 Summary of, 458 Subject of, 416-420 Subject Defined, 16 Complete, 406 Simple, 406 Simple, enlarged, 462 Place of, 421-424 Thought, Complete, 12-14 Verb Defined, 29 Complete, 95, 103, 131, 158 Incomplete, 95, 103, 131, 426 Classified, 99, 103 Complement of, 95, 102 Transitive, defined, 100, 103 Object of, 100, 141 Copulative, 102-103, 431-433 Time forms Present, 104, 108, 111 Past, 104, 109, 111 Future, 118-120 Pres. Perf., 121-123, 145 Past Perf., 126 Future Perf., 128 Regular, 110 Irregular, 110 Progressive Form, 133 Present, 134, 146 Past, 135, 146 Future, 136, 146 Pres. Perf., 138, 146 Past Perf., 139, 146 Fut. Perf., 140, 146 Active, 142 Passive, 141-146 Helping, 168-184 Be, 186 Lay, lie, set, sit, raise, rise, 191-193 S-form, 106, 194-196 Phrase, 29, 413-414 Words Defined, 8 Mastery of, 10 Use of, 23 * * * * * Transcriber's note: 1. Punctuation errors such as incorrect or missing end-of-sentence punctuation, period for comma in mid-sentence, and missing end quotation marks have been corrected without comment. Inconsistency in the author's spelling of certain words, such as today/to-day have been retained. 2. The list of foreign words broken across pp. 44-45 (section 80.) and the list of abbreviations broken across pp. 295-296 (section 489.) were rearranged to preserve alphabetical order. 3. The numbering in Exercise 4 on p. 110 (section 193.) was corrected. 4. Added ditto marks (") to the table on p. 153 (section 270). 5. Commas were added to the separate the abbreviations on p. 305 (section 518). 6. The following typographical errors were corrected: Page 10 "your vocabularly" changed to "your vocabulary" 23 "verb-phrase" changed to "verb phrase" 38 "as limited a vocabularly" changed to "as limited a vocabulary" 41 "the name of person" changed to "the name of the person" 44 "Mr. Hays" changed to "Mr. Hayes" 82 "the Bastile" changed to "the Bastille" 143 "publiher" changed to "publisher" 157 "than he had them" changed to "than he had then" 180 "the noun _man_" changed to "the noun _men_" (two instances) 182 "a little work" changed to "a little word" 187 "_of_ the desire of" changed to "of the desire _of_" 191 "expresed" changed to "expressed" 207 "He feels keenly and deeply and wrongs of his class." changed to "He feels keenly and deeply the wrongs of his class." 222 "our expression of it become more simple." changed to "our expression of it became more simple." 238 "in apposition to the pronoun I" changed to "in apposition to the pronoun We". 252 "_I_ see a pale face" changed to "_I see_ a pale face" 265 "With your faces pinches and blue" changed to "with your faces pinched and blue" 271 "the _party which fought for their rights_" changed to "the party _which fought for their rights_" 277 "Find _e_ or _y_" changed to "Final _e_ or _y_" 287 "The prefix _in_ used with adjectives" changed to "The prefix _un_ used with adjectives" 312 "The dash if often used" changed to "The dash is often used" 
27977	----	AUSTRAL ENGLISH A DICTIONARY OF AUSTRALASIAN WORDS, PHRASES AND USAGES with those Aboriginal-Australian and Maori words which have become incorporated in the language and the commoner scientific words that have had their origin in Australasia by Edward E. Morris M.A., Oxon. Professor of English, French and German Languages and Literatures in the University of Melbourne. 1898 INTRODUCTION CONTENTS I. ORIGIN OF THE WORK First undertaken to help O.E.D. The Standard Dictionary II. TITLE AND SCOPE OF THE BOOK Not a Slang Dictionary III. SOURCES OF NEW WORDS:-- 1. Altered English 2. Words quite new to the language:-- (a) Aboriginal Australian (b) Maori IV. THE LAW OF HOBSON-JOBSON Is Austral English a corruption? V. CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS VI. QUOTATIONS. THEIR PURPOSE VII. BOOKS USED AS AUTHORITIES VIII.SCIENTIFIC WORDS IX. ASSISTANCE RECEIVED X. ABBREVIATIONS:-- 1. Of Scientific Names 2. General I. ORIGIN OF THE WORK. About a generation ago Mr. Matthew Arnold twitted our nation with the fact that "the journeyman work of literature" was much better done in France--the books of reference, the biographical dictionaries, and the translations from the classics. He did not especially mention dictionaries of the language, because he was speaking in praise of academies, and, as far as France is concerned, the great achievement in that line is Littre and not the Academy's Dictionary. But the reproach has now been rolled away--<i>nous avons change tout cela</i>--and in every branch to which Arnold alluded our journeyman work is quite equal to anything in France. It is generally allowed that a vast improvement has taken place in translations, whether prose or verse. From quarter to quarter the <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i> continues its stately progress. But the noblest monument of English scholarship is <i>The New English Dictionary on Historical Principles</i>, founded mainly on the materials collected by the Philological Society, edited by Dr. James Murray, and published at the cost of the University of Oxford. The name <i>New</i> will, however, be unsuitable long before the Dictionary is out of date. Its right name is the <i>Oxford English Dictionary</i> (`O.E.D.'). That great dictionary is built up out of quotations specially gathered for it from English books of all kinds and all periods; and Dr. Murray several years ago invited assistance from this end of the world for words and uses of words peculiar to Australasia, or to parts of it. In answer to his call I began to collect; but instances of words must be noted as one comes across them, and of course they do not occur in alphabetical order. The work took time, and when my parcel of quotations had grown into a considerable heap, it occurred to me that the collection, if a little further trouble were expended upon it, might first enjoy an independent existence. Various friends kindly contributed more quotations: and this Book is the result. In January 1892, having the honour to be President of the Section of "Literature and the Fine Arts" at the Hobart Meeting of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, I alluded to Dr. Murray's request: A body like this Section, composed of men from different parts of scattered colonies, might render valuable help in organising the work of collecting authorities for our various peculiar words and usages. Twenty or thirty men and women, each undertaking to read certain books with the new dictionary in mind, and to note in a prescribed fashion what is peculiar, could accomplish all that is needed. Something has been done in Melbourne, but the Colonies have different words and uses of words, and this work is of a kind which might well extend beyond the bounds of a single city. At first it may seem as if our words were few, as if in the hundred years of Australian life few special usages have arisen; but a man with a philological turn of mind, who notes what he hears, will soon find the list grow. Some philologers speak, not perhaps very satisfactorily, of being "at the fountains of language": we can all of us testify to the birth of some words within our own memory, but the origin of these, if not noted, will in time be lost. There are many other words which the strictest cannot condemn as slang, though even slang, being the speech of the people, is not undeserving of some scientific study; words, for instance, which have come into the language from the Aborigines, and names of animals, shrubs, and flowers. It might even be possible, with sufficient co-operation, to produce an Australian dictionary on the same lines as the <i>New English Dictionary</i> by way of supplement to it. Organisation might make the labour light, whilst for many it would from its very nature prove a pleasant task. These suggestions were not carried out. Individuals sent quotations to Oxford, but no organisation was established to make the collection systematic or complete, and at the next meeting of the Association the Section had ceased to exist, or at least had doffed its literary character. At a somewhat later date, Messrs. Funk and Wagnall of New York invited me to join an "Advisory Committee on disputed spelling and pronunciation." That firm was then preparing its <i>Standard Dictionary</i>, and one part of the scheme was to obtain opinions as to usage from various parts of the English-speaking world, especially from those whose function it is to teach the English Language. Subsequently, at my own suggestion, the firm appointed me to take charge of the Australian terms in their Dictionary, and I forwarded a certain number of words and phrases in use in Australia. But the accident of the letter A, for Australian, coming early in the alphabet gives my name a higher place than it deserves on the published list of those co-operating in the production of this <i>Standard Dictionary</i>; for with my present knowledge I see that my contribution was lamentably incomplete. Moreover, I joined the Editorial Corps too late to be of real use. Only the final proofs were sent to me, and although my corrections were reported to New York without delay, they arrived too late for any alterations to be effected before the sheets went to press. This took the heart out of my work for that Dictionary. For its modernness, for many of its lexicographical features, and for its splendid illustrations, I entertain a cordial admiration for the book, and I greatly regret the unworthiness of my share in it. It is quite evident that others had contributed Australasian words, and I must confess I hardly like to be held responsible for some of their statements. For instance-- "<i>Aabec</i>. An Australian medicinal bark said to promote perspiration." I have never heard of it, and my ignorance is shared by the greatest Australian botanist, the Baron von Mueller. "<i>Beauregarde</i>. The Zebra grass-parrakeet of Australia. From F. beau, regarde. See BEAU n. and REGARD." As a matter of fact, the name is altered out of recognition, but really comes from the aboriginal <i>budgery</i>, good, and <i>gar</i>, parrot. "<i>Imou-pine</i>. A large New Zealand tree. . . . called <i>red pine</i> by the colonists and <i>rimu</i> by the natives." I can find no trace of the spelling "Imou." In a circular to New Zealand newspapers I asked whether it was a known variant. The <i>New Zealand Herald</i> made answer--"He may be sure that the good American dictionary has made a misprint. It was scarcely worth the Professor's while to take notice of mere examples of pakeha ignorance of Maori." "Swagman. [Slang, Austral.] 1. A dealer in cheap trinkets, etc. 2. A swagger." In twenty-two years of residence in Australia, I have never heard the former sense. "<i>Taihoa</i>. [Anglo-Tasmanian.] No hurry; wait." The word is Maori, and Maori is the language of New Zealand, not of Tasmania. These examples, I know, are not fair specimens of the accuracy of the Standard Dictionary, but they serve as indications of the necessity for a special book on Australasian English. II. TITLE AND SCOPE OF THE BOOK. In the present day, when words are more and more abbreviated, a "short title" may be counted necessary to the welfare of a book. For this reason "Austral English" has been selected. In its right place in the dictionary the word <i>Austral</i> will be found with illustrations to show that its primary meaning, "southern," is being more and more limited, so that the word may now be used as equivalent to <i>Australasian</i>. "Austral" or "Australasian English" means all the new words and the new uses of old words that have been added to the English language by reason of the fact that those who speak English have taken up their abode in Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand. Hasty inference might lead to the remark that such addition is only slang, but the remark is far from being accurate; probably not one-tenth of the new vocabulary could fairly be so classified. A great deal of slang is used in Australasia, but very much less is generated here than is usually believed. In 1895 a literary policeman in Melbourne brought out a small <i>Australian Slang Dictionary</i>. In spite of the name, however, the compiler confesses that "very few of the terms it contains have been invented by Australians." My estimate is that not one word in fifty in his little book has an Australian origin, or even a specially Australian use. The phrase "Australasian English" includes something much wider than slang. Those who, speaking the tongue of Shakspeare, of Milton, and of Dr. Johnson, came to various parts of Australasia, found a Flora and a Fauna waiting to be named in English. New birds, beasts and fishes, new trees, bushes and flowers, had to receive names for general use. It is probably not too much to say that there never was an instance in history when so many new names were needed, and that there never will be such an occasion again, for never did settlers come, nor can they ever again come, upon Flora and Fauna so completely different from anything seen by them before. When the offshoots of our race first began to settle in America, they found much that was new, but they were still in the same North Temperate zone. Though there is now a considerable divergence between the American and the English vocabulary, especially in technical terms, it is not largely due to great differences in natural history. An oak in America is still a <i>Quercus</i>, not as in Australia a <i>Casuarina</i>. But with the whole tropical region intervening it was to be expected that in the South Temperate Zone many things would be different, and such expectation was amply fulfilled. In early descriptions of Australia it is a sort of commonplace to dwell on this complete variety, to harp on the trees that shed bark not leaves, and the cherries with the stones outside. Since the days when "Adam gave names to all cattle and to the fowl of the air and to every beast of the field" never were so many new names called for. Unfortunately, names were not given by the best educated in the community, but often by those least qualified to invent satisfactory names: not by a linguist, a botanist, an ornithologist, an ichthyologist, but by the ordinary settler. Even in countries of old civilisation names are frequently conferred or new words invented, at times with good and at times with unsatisfactory results, by the average man, whom it is the modern fashion to call "the man in the street." Much of Australasian nomenclature is due to "the man in the bush" --more precise address not recorded. Givers of new names may be benefactors to their language or violators of its purity and simplicity, but in either case they are nearly always, like the burial-place of Moses, unknown. III. SOURCES OF NEW WORDS. Of Australasian additions to the English language there are two main sources, which correspond to the twofold division of them into new words and new uses of old words. 1. Altered English. The commoner origin of Australasian English words is the turning and twisting of an already existing English name. The settler saw a fruit somewhat like a cherry. Though he knew well that it was not a cherry, he christened it the "native cherry." It may here be remarked that the prefix native is not a satisfactory distinguishing adjective. Native bear, native cherry, may teach the young Australian that the bear and the cherry so named are not as the bear of the Arctic Regions or the cherry of Europe. But in the British Museum the label does not help much. The settler heard a bird laugh in what he thought an extremely ridiculous manner, its opening notes suggesting a donkey's bray--he called it the "laughing jackass." His descendants have dropped the adjective, and it has come to pass that the word "jackass" denotes to an Australian something quite different from its meaning to other speakers of our English tongue. The settler must have had an imagination. Whip-bird, or Coach-whip, from the sound of the note, Lyre-bird from the appearance of the outspread tail, are admirable names. Another class of name brought the Australian word nearer to its English use. "Robin" for instance is applied to birds of various species not known in Europe. Bird-names, fish-names, plant-names, are sometimes transferred to new species, sometimes to a new genus, sometimes to an entirely different Natural Order, bearing a resemblance to the original, either real or fancied, as for instance "Magpie." It is hardly necessary to dwell longer on this point, for almost every page of the Dictionary bears witness to it. 2. Words new to the Language. (a) Aboriginal Australian. Many of the new Australasian words are taken from the languages of the aborigines, often with considerable alteration due to misunderstanding. Such words are either Australian or Maori. Whilst in New Zealand careful attention has been paid by competent scholars to the musical Maori language, it can hardly be claimed that the Australian family of languages has ever been scientifically studied, though there is a heap of printed material--small grammars and lists of words--<i>rudis indigestaque moles</i>. There is no doubt that the vocabularies used in different parts of Australia and Tasmania varied greatly, and equally little doubt that the languages, in structure and perhaps originally in vocabulary, were more or less connected. About the year 1883, Professor Sayce, of Oxford, wrote a letter, which was published in <i>The Argus</i>, pointing out the obligation that lay upon the Australian colonies to make a scientific study of a vanishing speech. The duty would be stronger were it not for the distressing lack of pence that now is vexing public men. Probably a sum of L300 a year would suffice for an educated inquirer, but his full time for several years would be needed. Such an one should be trained at the University as a linguist and an observer, paying especial attention to logic and to Comparative Philology. Whilst the colonies neglect their opportunities, and Sibylla year by year withdraws her offer, perhaps "the inevitable German" will intervene, and in a well-arranged book bring order out of the chaos of vocabularies and small pamphlets on the subject, all that we have to trust to now. The need of scientific accuracy is strong. For the purposes of this Dictionary I have been investigating the origin of words, more or less naturalised as English, that come from aboriginal Australian, in number between seventy and a hundred. I have received a great deal of kind assistance, many people taking much trouble to inform me. But there is a manifest lack of knowledge. Many supplied me with the meanings of the words as used in English, but though my appeal was scattered far and wide over Australia (chiefly through the kindness of the newspapers), few could really give the origin of the words. Two amongst the best informed went so far as to say that Australian words have no derivation. That doctrine is hard to accept. A word of three syllables does not spring complete from the brain of an aboriginal as Athene rose fully armed from the head of Zeus. It is beyond all doubt that the vocabularies of the Aborigines differed widely in different parts. Frequently, the English have carried a word known in one district to a district where it was not known, the aboriginals regarding the word as pure English. In several books statements will be found that such and such a word is not Aboriginal, when it really has an aboriginal source but in a different part of the Continent. Mr. Threlkeld, in his <i>Australian Grammar</i>, which is especially concerned with the language of the Hunter River, gives a list of "barbarisms," words that he considers do not belong to the aboriginal tongue. He says with perfect truth-"Barbarisms have crept into use, introduced by sailors, stockmen, and others, in the use of which both blacks and whites labour under the mistaken idea, that each one is conversing in the other's language." And yet with him a "barbarism" has to be qualified as meaning "not belonging to the Hunter District." But Mr. Threlkeld is not the only writer who will not acknowledge as aboriginal sundry words with an undoubted Australian pedigree. (b) Maori. The Maori language, the Italian of the South, has received very different treatment from that meted out by fate and indifference to the aboriginal tongues of Australia. It has been studied by competent scholars, and its grammar has been comprehensively arranged and stated. A Maori Dictionary, compiled more than fifty years ago by a missionary, afterwards a bishop, has been issued in a fourth edition by his son, who is now a bishop. Yet, of Maori also, the same thing is said with respect to etymology. A Maori scholar told me that, when he began the study many years ago, he was warned by a very distinguished scholar not to seek for derivations, as the search was full of pitfalls. It was not maintained that words sprang up without an origin, but that the true origin of most of the words was now lost. In spite of this double warning, it may be maintained that some of the origins both of Maori and of Australian words have been found and are in this book recorded. The pronunciation of Maori words differs so widely from that of Australian aboriginal names that it seems advisable to insert a note on the subject. Australian aboriginal words have been written down on no system, and very much at hap-hazard. English people have attempted to express the native sounds phonetically according to English pronunciation. No definite rule has been observed, different persons giving totally different values to represent the consonant and vowel sounds. In a language with a spelling so unphonetic as the English, in which the vowels especially have such uncertain and variable values, the results of this want of system have necessarily been very unsatisfactory and often grotesque. Maori words, on the other hand, have been written down on a simple and consistent system, adopted by the missionaries for the purpose of the translation of the Bible. This system consists in giving the Italian sound to the vowels, every letter--vowel and consonant--having a fixed and invariable value. Maori words are often very melodious. In pronunciation the best rule is to pronounce each syllable with a nearly equal accent. Care has been taken to remember that this is an Australasian <i>English</i> and not a Maori Dictionary; therefore to exclude words that have not passed into the speech of the settlers. But in New Zealand Maori is much more widely used in the matter of vocabulary than the speech of the aborigines is in Australia, or at any rate in the more settled parts of Australia; and the Maori is in a purer form. Though some words and names have been ridiculously corrupted, the language of those who dwell in the bush in New Zealand can hardly be called <i>Pigeon English</i>, and that is the right name for the "lingo" used in Queensland and Western Australia, which, only partly represented in this book, is indeed a falling away from the language of Bacon and Shakspeare. IV. LAW OF HOBSON-JOBSON. In many places in the Dictionary, I find I have used the expression "the law of Hobson-Jobson." The name is an adaptation from the expression used by Col. Yule and Mr. Burnell as a name for their interesting Dictionary of Anglo-Indian words. The law is well recognised, though it has lacked the name, such as I now venture to give it. When a word comes from a foreign language, those who use it, not understanding it properly, give a twist to the word or to some part of it from the hospitable desire to make the word at home in its new quarters, no regard, however, being paid to the sense. The most familiar instance in English is <i>crayfish</i> from the French <i>ecrevisse</i>, though it is well known that a crayfish is not a fish at all. Amongst the Mohammedans in India there is a festival at which the names of "Hassan" and "Hosein" are frequently called out by devotees. Tommy Atkins, to whom the names were naught, converted them into "Hobson, Jobson." That the practice of so altering words is not limited to the English is shown by two perhaps not very familiar instances in French, where "Aunt Sally" has become <i>ane sale</i>, "a dirty donkey," and "bowsprit" has become <i>beau pre</i>, though quite unconnected with "a beautiful meadow." The name "Pigeon English" is itself a good example. It has no connection with pigeon, the bird, but is an Oriental's attempt to pronounce the word "business." It hardly, however, seems necessary to alter the spelling to "pidjin." It may be thought by some precisians that all Australasian English is a corruption of the language. So too is Anglo-Indian, and, <i>pace</i> Mr. Brander Matthews, there are such things as Americanisms, which were not part of the Elizabethan heritage, though it is perfectly true that many of the American phrases most railed at are pure old English, preserved in the States, though obsolete in Modern England; for the Americans, as Lowell says, "could not take with them any better language than that of Shakspeare." When we hear railing at slang phrases, at Americanisms, some of which are admirably expressive, at various flowers of colonial speech, and at words woven into the texture of our speech by those who live far away from London and from Oxford, and who on the outskirts of the British Empire are brought into contact with new natural objects that need new names, we may think for our comfort on the undoubted fact that the noble and dignified language of the poets, authors and preachers, grouped around Lewis XIV., sprang from debased Latin. For it was not the classical Latin that is the origin of French, but the language of the soldiers and the camp-followers who talked slang and picked words up from every quarter. English has certainly a richer vocabulary, a finer variety of words to express delicate distinctions of meaning, than any language that is or that ever was spoken: and this is because it has always been hospitable in the reception of new words. It is too late a day to close the doors against new words. This <i>Austral English Dictionary</i> merely catalogues and records those which at certain doors have already come in. V. CLASSIFICATION OF THE WORDS. The Dictionary thus includes the following classes of Words, Phrases and Usages; viz.-- (1) Old English names of Natural Objects--Birds, Fishes, Animals, Trees, Plants, etc.--applied (in the first instance by the early settlers) either to new Australian species of such objects, or to new objects bearing a real or fancied resemblance to them--as <i>Robin, Magpie, Herring, Cod, Cat, Bear, Oak, Beech, Pine, Cedar, Cherry, Spinach, Hops, Pea, Rose</i>. (2) English names of objects applied in Australia to others quite different-as <i>Wattle</i>, a hurdle, applied as the name of the tree <i>Wattle</i>, from whose twigs the hurdle was most readily made; <i>Jackass</i>, an animal, used as the name for the bird <i>Jackass</i>; <i>Cockatoo</i>, a birdname, applied to a small farmer. (3) Aboriginal Australian and Maori words which have been incorporated unchanged in the language, and which still denote the original object--as <i>Kangaroo, Wombat, Boomerang, Whare, Pa, Kauri</i>. (4) Aboriginal Australian and Maori words which have been similarly adopted, and which have also had their original meaning extended and applied to other things--as <i>Bunyip, Corrobbery, Warrigal</i>. (5) Anglicised corruptions of such words--as <i>Copper-Maori, Go-ashore, Cock-a-bully, Paddy-melon, Pudding-ball, Tooky-took</i>. (6) Fanciful, picturesque, or humorous names given to new Australasian Natural Objects--as <i>Forty-spot, Lyre-bird, Parson-bird, and Coach-whip</i> (birds); <i>Wait-a-while</i> (a tangled thicket); <i>Thousand-jacket, Jimmy Low, Jimmy Donnelly, and Roger Gough</i> (trees); <i>Axe-breaker, Cheese-wood, and Raspberry Jam</i> (timbers); <i>Trumpeter, Schnapper and Sergeant Baker</i> (fishes); <i>Umbrella-grass</i> and <i>Spaniard</i> (native plants), and so on. (7) Words and phrases of quite new coinage, or arising from quite new objects or orders of things--as <i>Larrikin, Swagman, Billy, Free-selector, Boundary-rider, Black-tracker, Back-blocks, Clear-skin, Dummyism, Bushed.</i> (8) Scientific names arising exclusively from Australasian necessities, chiefly to denote or describe new Natural Orders, Genera, or Species confined or chiefly appertaining to Australia--as <i>Monotreme, Petrogale, Clianthus, Ephthianura, Dinornis, Eucalypt, Boronia, Ornithorhynchus, Banksia</i>. (9) Slang (of which the element is comparatively small)-- as <i>Deepsinker, Duck-shoving, Hoot, Slushy, Boss-cockie, On-the-Wallaby</i>. VI. QUOTATIONS. With certain exceptions, this Dictionary is built up, as a Dictionary should be, on quotations, and these are very copious. It may even be thought that their number is too large. It is certainly larger, and in some places the quotations themselves are much longer, than could ever be expected in a general Dictionary of the English Language. This copiousness is, however, the advantage of a special Dictionary. The intention of the quotations is to furnish evidence that a word is used as an English word; and many times the quotation itself furnishes a satisfactory explanation of the meaning. I hope, however, I shall not be held responsible for all the statements in the quotations, even where attention is not drawn to their incorrectness. Sundry Australasian uses of words are given in other dictionaries, as, for instance, in the parts already issued of the <i>Oxford English Dictionary</i> and in <i>The Century</i>, but the space that can be allotted to them in such works is of necessity too small for full explanation. Efforts have been made to select such quotations as should in themselves be interesting, picturesque, and illustrative. In a few cases they may even be humorous. Moreover, the endeavour has been constant to obtain quotations from all parts of the Australasian Colonies--from books that describe different parts of Australasia, and from newspapers published far and wide. I am conscious that in the latter division Melbourne papers predominate, but this has been due to the accident that living in Melbourne I see more of the Melbourne papers, whilst my friends have sent me more quotations from books and fewer from newspapers. The quotations, however, are not all explanatory. Many times a quotation is given merely to mark the use of a word at a particular epoch. Quotations are all carefully dated and arranged in their historical order, and thus the exact chronological development of a word has been indicated. The practice of the `O.E.D.' has been followed in this respect and in the matter of quotations generally, though as a rule the titles of books quoted have been more fully expressed here than in that Dictionary. Early quotations have been sought with care, and a very respectable antiquity, about a century, has been thus found for some Australasian words. As far as possible, the spelling, the stops, the capitals, and the italics of the original have been preserved. The result is often a rich variety of spelling the same word in consecutive extracts. The last decade has been a very active time in Australian science. A great deal of system has been brought into its study, and much rearrangement of classification has followed as the result. Both among birds and plants new species have been distinguished and named: and there has been not a little change in nomenclature. This Dictionary, it must be remembered, is chiefly concerned with vernacular names, but for proper identification, wherever possible, the scientific name is added. In some cases, where there has been a recent change in the latter, both the new and the older names are recorded. VII. AUTHORITIES. The less-known birds, fishes, plants, and trees are in many cases not illustrated by quotations, but have moved to their places in the Dictionary from lists of repute. Many books have been written on the Natural History of Australia and New Zealand, and these have been placed under contribution. Under the head of Botany no book has been of greater service than Maiden's <i>Useful Native Plants</i>. Unfortunately many scientific men scorn vernacular names, but Mr. Maiden has taken the utmost pains with them, and has thereby largely increased the utility of his volume. For Tasmania there is Mr. Spicer's <i>Handbook of Tasmanian Plants</i>; for New Zealand, Kirk's <i>Forest Flora</i> and Hooker's <i>Botany</i>. For Australian animals Lydekker's <i>Marsupials and Monotremes</i> is excellent; especially his section on the Phalanger or Australian <i>Opossum</i>, an animal which has been curiously neglected by all Dictionaries of repute. On New Zealand mammals it is not necessary to quote any book; for when the English came, it is said, New Zealand contained no mammal larger than a rat. Captain Cook turned two pigs loose; but it is stated on authority, that these pigs left no descendants. One was ridden to death by Maori boys, and the other was killed for sacrilege: he rooted in a tapu burial-place. Nevertheless, the settlers still call any wild-pig, especially if lean and bony, a "Captain Cook." For the scientific nomenclature of Australian Botany the <i>Census of Australian Plants</i> by the Baron von Mueller (1889) is indispensable. It has been strictly followed. For fishes reliance has been placed upon Tenison Woods' <i>Fishes and Fisheries of New South Wales</i> (1882), on W. Macleay's <i>Descriptive Catalogue of Australian Fishes</i> (Proceedings of the Linnaean Society of New South Wales, vols. v. and vi.), and on Dr. Guenther's <i>Study of Fishes</i>. For the scientific nomenclature of Animal Life, the standard of reference has been the <i>Tabular List of all the Australian Birds</i> by E. P. Ramsay of the Australian Museum, Sydney (1888); <i>Catalogue of Australian Mammals</i> by J. O. Ogilby of the Australian Museum, Sydney (1892); <i>Catalogue of Marsupials and Monotremes</i>, British Museum (1888); <i>Prodromus to the Natural History of Victoria</i> by Sir F. McCoy. Constant reference has also been made to Proceedings of the Linnaean Society of New South Wales, Proceedings and Transactions of the Royal Societies of Victoria and Tasmania, and to the journal of the Field Naturalist Club of Victoria. The birds both in Australia and New Zealand have been handsomely treated by the scientific illustrators. Gould's <i>Birds of Australia</i> and Buller's <i>Birds of New Zealand</i> are indeed monumental works. Neither Gould nor Sir Walter Buller scorns vernacular names. But since the days of the former the number of named species of Australian birds has largely increased, and in January 1895, at the Brisbane Meeting of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, a Committee was appointed to draw up a list of vernacular bird-names. By the kindness of a member of this Committee (Mr. A. J. Campbell of Melbourne) I was allowed the use of a list of such vernacular names drawn up by him and Col. Legge for submission to the Committee. VIII. SCIENTIFIC WORDS. The example of <i>The Century</i> has been followed in the inclusion of sundry scientific names, especially those of genera or Natural Orders of purely Australasian objects. Although it is quite true that these can hardly be described as Australasian <i>English</i>, it is believed that the course adopted will be for the general convenience of those who consult this Dictionary. Some of these "Neo-Latin" and "Neo-Greek" words are extraordinary in themselves and obscure in their origin, though not through antiquity. In his <i>Student's Pastime</i>, at p. 293, Dr. Skeat says "Nowhere can more ignorant etymologies be found than in works on Botany and `scientific' subjects. Too often, all the science is reserved for the subject, so that there is none to spare for explaining the names." A generous latitude has also been taken in including some words undoubtedly English, but not exclusively Australasian, such as <i>Anabranch</i>, and <i>Antipodes</i>, and some mining and other terms that are also used in the United States. Convenience of readers is the excuse. <i>Anabranch</i> is more frequently used of Australian rivers than of any others, but perhaps a little pride in tracking the origin of the word has had something to do with its inclusion. Some words have been inserted for purposes of explanation, e.g. <i>Snook</i>, in Australasia called <i>Barracouta</i>, which latter is itself an old name applied in Australasia to a different fish; and <i>Cavally</i>, which is needed to explain <i>Trevally</i>. IX. ASSISTANCE RECEIVED. There remains the pleasant duty of acknowledging help. Many persons have given me help, whose names can hardly be listed here. A friend, an acquaintance, or sometimes even a stranger, has often sent a single quotation of value, or an explanation of a single word. The Editors of many newspapers have helped not a little by the insertion of a letter or a circular. To all these helpers, and I reckon their number at nearly 200, I tender my hearty thanks. Various officers of the Melbourne Public Library, and my friend Mr. Edward H. Bromby, the Librarian of this University, have rendered me much assistance. I have often been fortunate enough to obtain information from the greatest living authority on a particular subject: from the Baron von Mueller, from Sir Frederick M'Coy, or from Mr. A. W. Howitt. [Alas! since I penned this sentence, the kind and helpful Baron has been taken from us, and is no longer the greatest living authority on Australian Botany.] My friend and colleague, Professor Baldwin Spencer, a most earnest worker in the field of Australian science, gave many hours of valuable time to set these pages right in the details of scientific explanations. Mr. J. G. Luehmann of Melbourne has kindly answered various questions about Botany, and Mr. A. J. North, of Sydney, in regard to certain birds. Mr. T. S. Hall, of the Biological Department of this University, and Mr. J. J. Fletcher, of Sydney, the Secretary of the Linnaean Society of New South Wales, have rendered me much help. The Rev. John Mathew, of Coburg, near Melbourne, has thrown much light on aboriginal words. The Rev. E. H. Sugden, Master of Queen's College in this University, has furnished a large number of useful quotations. His name is similarly mentioned, <i>honoris causa</i>, in Dr. Murray's Preface to Part I. of the `O. E. D.' Mr. R. T. Elliott of Worcester College, Oxford, has given similar help. The Master himself,--the Master of all who engage in Dictionary work,--Dr. Murray, of Oxford, has kindly forwarded to me a few pithy and valuable comments on my proof-streets. He also made me a strong appeal never to pass on information from any source without acknowledgment. This, the only honest course, I have striven scrupulously to follow; but it is not always easy to trace the sources whence information has been derived. When gaps in the sequence of quotations were especially apparent on the proofs, Mr. W. Ellis Bird, of Richmond, Victoria, found me many illustrative passages. For New Zealand words a goodly supply of quotations was contributed by Miss Mary Colborne-Veel of Christchurch, author of a volume of poetry called <i>The Fairest of the Angels</i>, by her sister, Miss Gertrude Colborne-Veel, and by Mr. W. H. S. Roberts of Oamaru, author of a little book called <i>Southland in</i> 1856. In the matter of explanation of the origin and meaning of New Zealand terms, Dr. Hocken of Dunedin, Mr. F. R. Chapman of the same city, and Mr. Edward Tregear of Wellington, author of the <i>Maori Polynesian Dictionary</i>, and Secretary of the Polynesian Society, have rendered valuable and material assistance. Dr. Holden of Bellerive, near Hobart, was perhaps my most valued correspondent. After I had failed in one or two quarters to enlist Tasmanian sympathy, he came to the rescue, and gave me much help on Tasmanian words, especially on the Flora and the birds; also on Queensland Flora and on the whole subject of Fishes. Dr. Holden also enlisted later the help of Mr. J. B. Walker, of Hobart, who contributed much to enrich my proofs. But the friend who has given me most help of all has been Mr. J. Lake of St. John's College, Cambridge. When the Dictionary was being prepared for press, he worked with me for some months, very loyally putting my materials into shape. Birds, Animals, and Botany he sub-edited for me, and much of the value of this part of the Book, which is almost an Encyclopaedia rather than a Dictionary, is due to his ready knowledge, his varied attainments, and his willingness to undertake research. To all who have thus rendered me assistance I tender hearty thanks. It is not their fault if, as is sure to be the case, defects and mistakes are found in this Dictionarv. But should the Book be received with public favour, these shall be corrected in a later edition. EDWARD E. MORRIS. The University, Melbourne, February 23, 1897 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS OF NAMES Ait. . . . Aiton. Andr. . . . Andrews. B. and L. . Barere and L. Bail. . . . Baillon. Bechst. . . Bechstein. Benth. . . Bentham. Bl. . . . Bleeker. Bodd. . . . Boddaert Bp. ) ) . Bonaparte. Bonap. ) R. Br. . . Robert Brown Brong. . . Brongniart. Cab. . . . Cabanis. Carr. . . . Carriere. Castln. . . Castelnau. Cav. . . . Cavanilles. Corr. . . . Correa. Cunn. ) ) . A. Cunningham A. Cunn. ) Cuv. . . . Cuvier. De C. . . . De Candolle. Dec. . . . Decaisne. Desf. . . . Desfontaines. Desm. . . . Desmarest. Desv. . . . Desvaux. De Tarrag. . De Tarragon Diet. . . . Dietrich. Donov. . . Donovan. Drap. . . . Drapiez. Dryand. . . Dryander. Endl. . . . Endlicher. Fab. . . . Fabricius. Forsk. . . Forskael. Forst. . . Forster. F. v. M. . . Ferdinand von Mueller G. Forst. . G. Forster. Gaertn. . . Gaertner. Gaim. . . . Gaimard. Garn. . . . Garnot. Gaud. . . Gaudichaud. Geoff. . . Geoffroy. Germ. . . Germar. Gmel. . . Gmelin. Guich. . . Guichenot. Gunth. . . Guenther. Harv. . . Harvey. Hasselq. . . Hasselquin. Haw. . . . Haworth. Hens. . . Henslow. Herb. . . Herbert. Homb. . . Hombron. Hook. . . J. Hooker. Hook. f. . . Hooker fils. Horsf. . . Horsfield. Ill. . . . Illiger. Jacq. . . . Jacquinot. Jard. . . . Jardine. L. and S. . Liddell and Scott. Lab. ) ) . Labillardiere. Labill. ) Lacep. . . Lacepede. Lath. . . . Latham. Lehm. . . Lehmann. Less. . . Lesson. L'herit. . . L'Heritier. Licht. . . Lichtenstein. Lindl. . . Lindley. Linn. . . . Linnaeus. Macl. . . . Macleay. McC. . . . McCoy. Meissn. . . Meissner. Menz. . . Menzies. Milne-Ed. . Milne-Edwards. Miq. . . . Miquel. Parlat. . . Parlatore. Pers. . . . Persoon. Plan. ) ) . Planchol. Planch. ) Poir. . . Poiret. Q. . . . Quoy. Rafll. . . Raffles. Rein. . . . Reinwardt. Reiss. . . Reisseck. Rich. ) ) . Richardson. Richards.) Roxb. . . Roxburgh Sal. . . . Salvadori. Salisb. . . Salisbury. Schau. . . Schauer. Schl. ) ) . Schlechten Schlecht.) Selb. . . . Selby. Ser. . . . Seringe. Serv. . . . Serville. Sieb. . . . Sieber. Sm. . . . Smith. Sol. . . . Solander. Sow. . . . Sowerby. Sparrm. . . Sparrman. Steph. . . Stephan. Sundev. . . Sundevall. Sw. ) ) . Swainson. Swains. ) Temm. . . Temminck. Thunb. . . Thunberg. Tul. . . . Tulasne. V. and H. . Vigors and Horsfield. Val. . . . Valenciennes. Vent. . . . Ventenat. Vieill. . . Vieillot. Vig. . . . Vigors. Wagl. . . . Wagler. Water. . . Waterhouse. Wedd. . . . Weddell. Willd. . . Willdenow. Zimm. . . . Zimmermann. OTHER ABBREVIATIONS q.v. <i>quod vide</i>, which see. i.q. <i>idem quod</i>, the same as. ibid. <i>ibidem</i>, in the same book. i.e. <i>id est</i>, that is. sc. <i>scilicet</i>, that is to say. s.v. <i>sub voce</i>, under the word. cf. <i>confer</i>, compare. n. noun, adj. adjective. v. verb. prep. preposition. interj. interjection. <i>sic</i>, "thus," draws attention to some peculiarity of diction or to what is believed to be a mistake. N.O. Natural Order. sp. a species, spp. various species. A square bracket [ ] shows an addition to a quotation by way of comment. O.E.D. "Oxford English Dictionary," often formerly quoted as "N.E.D." or "New English Dictionary." AUSTRALASIAN DICTIONARY A <hw>Absentee</hw>, <i>n</i>. euphemistic term for a convict. The word has disappeared with the need for it. 1837. Jas. Mudie, `Felonry of New South Wales,' p. vii.: "The ludicrous and affected philanthropy of the present Governor of the Colony, in advertising runaway convicts under the soft and gentle name of <i>absentees</i>, is really unaccountable, unless we suppose it possible that his Excellency as a native of Ireland, and as having a well-grounded Hibernian antipathy to his absentee countrymen, uses the term as one expressive both of the criminality of the absentee and of his own abhorrence of the crime." <hw>Acacia</hw>, <i>n</i>. and <i>adj</i>. a genus of shrubs or trees, <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>. The Australian species often form thickets or scrubs, and are much used for hedges. The species are very numerous, and are called provincially by various names, e.g. "Wattle," "Mulga," "Giddea," and "Sally," an Anglicized form of the aboriginal name <i>Sallee</i> (q.v.). The tree peculiar to Tasmania, <i>Acacia riceana</i>, Hensl., (i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>, is there called the <i>Drooping Acacia</i>. 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 202: "We possess above a hundred and thirty species of the acacia." 1839. Dr. J. Shotsky, quoted in `Sydney Morning Herald,' Aug. 5, p. 5, col. 2: "Yet, Australian sky and nature awaits and merits real artists to portray it. Its gigantic gum and acacia trees, 40 ft. in girth, some of them covered with a most smooth bark, externally as white as chalk. .. ." 1844. L. Leichhardt, Letter in `Cooksland,' by J. D. Lang, p. 91: "Rosewood Acacia, the wood of which has a very agreeable violet scent like the Myal Acacia (<i>A. pendula</i>) in Liverpool Plains." 1846. C. P. Hodgson, `Reminiscences of Australia,' p. 149: "The Acacias are innumerable, all yielding a famous bark for tanning, and a clean and excellent gum." 1869. Mrs. Meredith, `A Tasmanian Memory,' p. 8: "Acacias fringed with gold." 1877. F. v. Mueller, `Botanic Teachings,' p. 24: "The name Acacia, derived from the Greek, and indicative of a thorny plant, was already bestowed by the ancient naturalist and physician Dioscorides on a Gum-Arabic yielding North-African Acacia not dissimilar to some Australian species. This generic name is so familiarly known, that the appellation `Wattle' might well be dispensed with. Indeed the name Acacia is in full use in works on travels and in many popular writings for the numerous Australian species . . . Few of any genera of plants contain more species than Acacia, and in Australia it is the richest of all; about 300 species, as occurring in our continent, have been clearly defined." <hw>Acrobates</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name of the Australian genus of <i>Pigmy Flying-Phalangers</i>, or, as they are locally called, <i>Opossum-Mice</i>. See <i>Opossum-Mouse, Flying-Mouse, Flying-Phalanger</i>, and <i>Phalanger</i>. The genus was founded by Desmarest in 1817. (Grk. <i>'akrobataes</i>, walking on tiptoe.) <hw>AEpyprymnus</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name of the genus of the <i>Rufous Kangaroo-Rat</i>. It is the tallest and largest of the Kangaroo-Rats (q.v.). (Grk. <i>'aipus</i>, high, and <i>prumnon</i>, the hinder part.) <hw>Ailuroedus</hw>, <i>n</i>. scientific name for the genus of Australian birds called <i>Cat-birds</i> (q.v.). From Grk. <i>'ailouros</i>, a cat, and <i>'eidos</i>, species. <hw>Ake</hw>, <i>n</i>. originally Akeake, Maori name for either of two small trees, (1) <i>Dodonaea viscosa</i>, Linn., in New Zealand; (2) <i>Olearia traversii</i>, F. v. M., in the Chatham Islands. Ake is originally a Maori <i>adv</i>. meaning "onwards, in time." Archdeacon Williams, in his `Dictionary of New Zealand Language,' says <i>Ake</i>, <i>Ake</i>, <i>Ake</i>, means " for ever and ever." (Edition 182.) 1820. `Grammar and Vocabulary of Language of New Zealand' (Church Missionary Society), p.133: "Akeake, <i>paulo post futurum</i>" 1835. W. Yale, `Some Account of New Zealand,' p. 47: "Aki, called the <i>Lignum vitae</i> of New Zealand." 1851. Mrs. Wilson, `New Zealand,' p. 43: "The ake and towai . . . are almost equal, in point of colour, to rosewood." 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook to New Zealand,' p. 131: "Ake, a small tree, 6 to 12 feet high. Wood very hard, variegated, black and white; used for Maori clubs; abundant in dry woods and forests." <hw>Alarm-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bird-name no longer used in Australia. There is an African Alarm-bird. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. vi. pl. 9: "<i>Lobivanellus lobatus</i> (Lath.), Wattled Pewit, Alarm Bird of the Colonists." <hw>Alectryon</hw>, <i>n</i>. a New Zealand tree and flower, <i>Alectryon excelsum</i>, De C., Maori name <i>Titoki</i> (q.v.); called also the <i>New Zealand Oak</i>, from the resemblance of its leaves to those of an oak. Named by botanists from Grk. <i>'alektruown</i>, a cock. 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' I. 7, p. 16: "The early season could not yet Have ripened the alectryon's beads of jet, Each on its scarlet strawberry set." <hw>Alexandra Palm</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Queensland tree, <i>Ptychosperma alexandrae</i>, F. v. M. A beautifully marked wood much used for making walking sticks. It grows 70 or 80 feet high. <hw>Alluvial</hw>, <i>n</i>. the common term in Australia and New Zealand for gold-bearing alluvial soil. The word is also used adjectivally as in England. 1889. Rolf Boldrewood, `Robbery under Arms,' p. 403: "The whole of the alluvial will be taken up, and the Terrible Hollow will re-echo with the sound of pick and shovel." <hw>Ambrite</hw> (generally called <B>ambrit</B>), <i>n</i>. Mineral [from amber + ite, mineral formative, `O.E.D.'], a fossil resin found in masses amidst lignite coals in various parts of New Zealand. Some identify it with the resin of <i>Dammara australis</i>, generally called <i>Kauri gum</i> (q.v.). 1867. F. von Hochstetter, `New Zealand,' p. 79: "Although originating probably from a coniferous tree related to the Kauri pine, it nevertheless has been erroneously taken for Kauri gum."--[Footnote]: "It is sufficiently characterised to deserve a special name ; but it comes so near to real <i>amber</i> that it deserves the name of <i>Ambrite</i>." [This is the earliest use of the word.] <hw>Anabranch</hw>, <i>n</i>. a branch of a river which leaves it and enters it again. The word is not Australian, though it is generally so reckoned. It is not given in the `Century,' nor in the `Imperial,' nor in `Webster,' nor in the `Standard.' The `O.E.D.' treats <i>Ana</i> as an independent word, rightly explaining it as <i>anastomosing</i>, but its quotation from the `Athenaeum' (1871), on which it relies,is a misprint. For the origin and coinage of the word, see quotation 1834. See the aboriginal name <i>Billabong</i>. 1834. Col.Jackson, `Journal of Royal Geographical Society,' p. 79: "Such branches of a river as after separation re-unite, I would term <i>anastomosing-branches</i>; or, if a word might be coined, <i>ana-branches</i>, and the islands they form, <i>branch-islands</i>. Thus, if we would say, `the river in this part of its course divides into several <i>ana-branches</i>,' we should immediately understand the subsequent re-union of the branches to the main trunk." Col. Jackson was for a while Secretary and Editor of the Society's Journal. In Feb. 1847 he resigned that position, and in the journal of that year there is the following amusing ignorance of his proposed word-- 1847. `Condensed Account of Sturt's Exploration in the Interior of Australia--Journal of the Royal Geographical Society,' p. 87: "Captain Sturt proposed sending in advance to ascertain the state of the Ana branch of the Darling, discovered by Mr. Eyre on a recent expedition to the North." No fewer than six times on two pages is the word <i>anabranch</i> printed as two separate words, and as if <i>Ana</i> were a proper name. In the Index volume it appears "Ana, a branch of the Darling." 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 35: "The river itself divided into anabranches which . . . made the whole valley a maze of channels." 1865. W. Howitt, `Discovery in Australia,' vol. i. p. 298: "What the Major calls, after the learned nomenclature of Colonel Jackson, in the `Journal of the Geographical Society,' anabranches, but which the natives call billibongs, channels coming out of a stream and returning into it again." 1871. `The Athenaeum,' May 27, p. 660 (' O.E.D.'): "The Loddon district is called the County of Gunbower, which means, it is said, an ana branch [sic]." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Squatter's Dream,' p. 48: "A plain bordering an ana-branch sufficient for water." <hw>Anchorwing</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bird-name, <i>Falco melanogenys</i>, Gould. The Black-cheeked Falcon, so called because of the resemblance of the wings outspread in flight to the flukes of an anchor. <hw>Anguillaria</hw>, <i>n</i>. one of the vernacular names used for the common Australian wild flower, <i>Anguillaraa australis</i>, R. Br., <i>Wurmbsea dioica</i>, F. v. M., N.O. <i>Liliaceae</i>. The name <i>Anguillarea</i> is from the administrator of the Botanic Gardens of Padua, three centuries ago. There are three Australian forms, distinguished by Robert Brown as species. The flower is very common in the meadows in early spring, and is therefore called the <i>Native Snow Drop</i>. In Tasmania it is called <i>Nancy</i>. 1835. Ross, `Hobart Town Almanack,' 67: "Spotted Anguillaria. Nancy. The little lively white flower with blue spots in the centre, about 2 inches high, that everywhere enlivens our grassy hills in spring, resembling the Star of Bethlehem." 1878. W. R. Guilfoyle, `Australian Botany,' p. 83: "Native Snowdrop. <i>Anguillaria Australis</i>. The earliest of all our indigenous spring-flowering plants. . . . In early spring our fields are white with the flowers of this pretty little bulbous-rooted plant." <hw>Ant-eater</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) i.q. <i>Ant-eating-Porcupine</i>. See <i>Echidna</i>. (2) The <i>Banded Ant-eater</i> (q.v.). <hw>Ant-eater, Banded</hw>. See <i>Banded Ant-eater</i>. <hw>Antechinornys</hw>, <i>n</i>. scientific name for the genus with the one species of <i>Long legged Pouched-Mouse</i> (q.v.). (Grk. <i>'anti</i>, opposed to, <i>'echivos</i>, hedgehog, and <i>mus</i>, mouse, sc. a mouse different to the hedgehog.) It is a jumping animal exclusively insectivorous. <hw>Antipodes</hw>, <i>n</i>. properly a Greek word, the plural of <i>'antipous</i>, lit. "having feet opposed." The ancients, however, had no knowledge of the southern hemisphere. Under the word <i>perioikos</i>, Liddell and Scott explain that <i>'antipodes</i> meant "those who were in opposite parallels and meridians." The word <i>Antipodes</i> was adopted into the Latin language, and occurs in two of the Fathers, Lactantius and Augustine. By the mediaeval church to believe in the antipodes was regarded as heresy. `O.E.D.' quotes two examples of the early use of the word in English. 1398. `Trevisa Barth. De P. R.,' xv. lii. (1495), p. 506: "Yonde in Ethiopia ben the Antipodes, men that have theyr fete ayenst our fete." 1556. `Recorde Cast. Knowl.,' 93: "People . . . called of the Greeks and Latines also <i>'antipodes</i>, <i>Antipodes</i>, as you might say Counterfooted, or Counterpasers." Shakspeare uses the word in five places, but, though he knew that this "pendent world" was spherical, his Antipodes were not Australasian. In three places he means only the fact that it is day in the Eastern hemisphere when it is night in England. `Midsummer Night's Dream,' III. ii. 55: "I'll believe as soon This whole earth may be bored, and that the moon May thro' the centre creep and so displease His brother's noontide with the Antipodes." `Merchant of Venice,' V. 127: "We should hold day with the Antipodes If you would walk in absence of the sun." `Richard II.,' III. ii. 49: "Who all this while hath revell'd in the night, Whilst we were wandering with the Antipodes." In `Henry VI.,' part 3, I. iv. 135, the word more clearly designates the East: "Thou art as opposite to every good As the Antipodes are unto us, Or as the South to the Septentrion." [<i>sc</i>. the North.] But more precise geographical indications are given in `Much Ado,' II. i. 273, where Benedick is so anxious to avoid Beatrice that he says-- "I will go on the slightest errand now to the Antipodes that you can devise to send me on. I will fetch you a tooth-picker now from the farthest inch of Asia; bring you the length of Prester John's foot; fetch you a hair of the great Kam's beard; do you any embassage to the Pygmies rather than hold three words conference with this harpy." Now the Pygmies lived on the Upper Nile, near Khartoum, Prester John in India, and the great Kam (Khan) in Tartary. The word <i>Antipodes</i> in modern use is applied rather to places than to people. Geographically, the word means a place exactly opposite on the surface of the globe, as Antipodes Island (Eastward of New Zealand), which is very near the opposite end of the diameter of the globe passing through London. But the word is often used in a wider sense, and the whole of Australasia is regarded as the Antipodes of Great Britain. The question is often asked whether there is any singular to the word Antipodes, and `O.E.D.' shows that <i>antipode</i> is still used in the sense of the exact opposite of a person. <i>Antipod</i> is also used, especially playfully. The adjectives used are <i>Antipodal</i> and <i>Antipodean</i>. 1640. Richard Brome [Title]: "The Antipodes; comedy in verse." [Acted in 1638, first printed 4t0. 1640.] <hw>Ant-orchis</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian and Tasmanian orchid, <i>Chiloglottis gunnii</i>, Lind. <hw>Apple</hw> and <hw>Apple-tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. and <i>adj</i>. The names are applied to various indigenous trees, in some cases from a supposed resemblance to the English fruit, in others to the foliage of the English tree. The varieties are-- Black or Brush Apple-- <i>Achras australis</i>, R. Br. Emu A.-- <i>Owenia acidula</i>, F. v. M.; called also <i>Native Nectarine</i> and <i>Native Quince</i>. <i>Petalostigma quadriloculare</i>, F. v. M.; called also <i>Crab-tree</i>, <i>Native Quince</i>, <i>Quinine-tree</i> (q.v.) Kangaroo A.-- See <i>Kangaroo Apple</i>. Mooley A. (West N.S.W. name)-- <i>Owenia acidula</i>, F. v. M. Mulga A.-- The Galls of <i>Acacia aneura</i>, F. v. M. Oak A.-- Cones of <i>Casuarina stricta</i>, Ait. Rose A.-- <i>Owenia cerasifera</i>, F. v. M. 1820. John Oxley, `Journal of Two Expeditions into the Interior of New South Wales,' p. 187: "The blue gum trees in the neighbourhood were extremely fine, whilst that species of Eucalyptus, which is vulgarly called the apple-tree . . . again made its appearance. . . ." 1827. Vigors and Horsfield, `Transactions of Linnaean Society,' vol. xv. p. 260: "It builds its nest of sticks lined with grass in <i>Iron-bark</i> and <i>Apple-trees</i> (a species of <i>Angophora</i>)." 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 200: "The apple-trees resemble the English apple only in leaf." 1830. R. Dawson, `Present State of Australia,' p. 195: "In looking down upon the rich flats below, adjoining the stream, I was perpetually reminded of a thriving and rich apple-orchard. The resemblance of what are called apple-trees in Australia to those of the same name at home is so striking at a distance in these situations, that the comparison could not be avoided, although the former bear no fruit, and do not even belong to the same species." 1846. C. P. Hodgson, `Reminiscences of Australia,' p. 52: "I have heard of men employed in felling whole apple-trees (<i>Angophera lanceolata</i>) for the sheep." 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' vol. ii. c. iv. p. 132; "Red Apple, Quonui, affects salt grounds." 1847. J. D. Lang, `Phillipsland,' p. 256: "The plains, or rather downs, around it (Yass) are thinly but most picturesquely covered with `apple-trees,' as they are called by the colonists, merely from their resemblance to the European apple-tree in their size and outline, for they do not resemble it in producing an edible fruit." 1850. J. B. Clutterbuck, `Port Phillip in 1849,' p. 32: "The musk-plant, hyacinth, grass-tree, and kangaroo apple-tree are indigenous." 1852. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes' (edition 1855), p. 219: "Pomona would indignantly disown the apple-tree, for there is not the semblance of a pippin on its tufted branches." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 113: "Sandy apple-tree flats, and iron-bark ridges, lined the creek here on either side." 1896. H. Lawson, `When the World was Wide,' p. 158: "The desolate flats where gaunt apple-trees rot." <HW>Apple-berry</HW>, <i>n</i>. the fruit of an Australian shrub, <i>Billardiera scandens</i>, Smith, N.O. <i>Pittosporeae</i>, called by children "dumplings." 1793. J. E. Smith, `Specimen of Botany of New Holland,' pp. 1, 3: "<i>Billardiera scandens</i>. Climbing Apple Berry. . . . The name Billardiera is given it in honour of James Julian la Billardiere, M.D., F.M.L.S., now engaged as botanist on board the French ships sent in search of M. de la Peyrouse." <hw>Apple-gum</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Gum</i>. <hw>Apple-scented gum</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Gum</i>. <hw>Apteryx</hw>, <i>n</i>. [Grk. <i>'a</i> privative and <i>pterux</i>, a wing.] A New Zealand bird about the size of a domestic fowl, with merely rudimentary wings.See <i>Kiwi</i>. 1813. G. Shaw, `Naturalist's Miscellany.' c. xxiv. p. 1058 (`O.E.D.'): "The Southern Apteryx." 1848. W. Westgarth, `Australia Felix,' p. 137: "The present Apterix or wingless bird of that country (New Zealand)." 1851. `Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Van Diemen's Land,' vol. i. p. 300 [Letter from Rev. W. Colenso, Waitangi, Hawke's Bay, New Zealand, Sept. 4, 1850: "You enquire after an <i>Apteryx</i>. How delighted should I be to succeed in getting you one. Three years ago Owen expressed a similar wish, and I have repeatedly tried, but failed. Yet here they still are in the mountain forests, though, doubtless, fast hastening towards extinction. I saw one in its wild state two years ago in the dense woods of the interior; I saw it clearly. . . . Two living specimens were lately taken by the Acheron, steamer, to Sydney, where they died; these were obtained at the Bay of Islands, where also I once got three at one time. Since then I have not been able to obtain another, although I have offered a great price for one. The fact is, the younger natives do not know how to take them, and the elder ones having but few wants, and those fully supplied, do not care to do so. Further, they can only be captured by night, and the dog must be well trained to be of service." 1874. F. P. Cobbe, in `Littell's Age,' Nov. 7, p. 355 (`Standard'): "We have clipped the wings of Fancy as close as if she were an Apteryx.' <hw>Arbutus, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Wax-Cluster</i>. <hw>Ardoo</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Nardoo</i>. <hw>Artichoke</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to the plant <i>Astelia Alpina</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Liliaceae</i>. <hw>Ash</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name, with various epithets, is applied to the following different Australasian trees-- Black Ash-- <i>Nephelium semiglaucum</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Sapindaceae</i>; called also <i>Wild Quince</i>. Black Mountain A.-- <i>Eucalyptus leucoxylon</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. Blue A.-- <i>Elaeodendron australe</i>, Vent., <i>N.O. Celastrinae</i>. Blueberry A.-- <i>Elaeocarpus holopetalus</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Tiliaceae</i>. Brush Apple-- <i>Acronychia baueri</i>, Schott. (of Illawarra, N.S.W.). Crow's A.-- <i>Flindersia australis</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Meliaceae</i>. Elderberry A. (of Victoria)-- <i>Panax sambucifolius</i>, Sieb., <i>N.O. Araliaceae</i>. Illawarra A.-- <i>Elaeocarpus kirtonia</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Tiliaceae</i>. Moreton Bay A.-- <i>Eucalyptus tessellaris</i>, Hook., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. Mountain A. (see <i>Mountain Ash</i>). New Zealand A. (see <i>Titoki</i>). Pigeonberry A.-- <i>Elaeocarpus obovatus</i>, G. Don., <i>N.O. Tiliaceae</i>. Red A.-- <i>Alphitonia excelsa</i>, Reiss, <i>N.O. Rhamnaceae</i>. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 75: "The Moreton Bay Ash (a species of <i>Eucalyptus</i>). ..was here also very plentiful." <hw>Assigned</hw>, <i>past part</i>. of <i>verb</i> to assign, to allot. Used as <i>adj</i>. of a convict allotted to a settler as a servant. Colloquially often reduced to "signed." 1827. `Captain Robinson's Report,' Dec. 23: "It was a subject of complaint among the settlers, that their assigned servants could not be known from soldiers, owing to their dress; which very much assisted the crime of `bush-ranging.'" 1837. J. D. Lang, `New South Wales,' vol. ii. p. 31 "The assigned servant of a respectable Scotch family residing near Sydney." 1845. R. Howitt, `Australia,' p. 75: "Of the first five persons we saw to Van Diemen's Land, four were convicts, and perhaps the fifth. These were the assigned servants of the pilot." 1848. W. Westgarth, `Australia Felix,' p. 324: "Under the old practice, the convicts, as soon as they arrived from Britain, were assigned among the various applicants. The servant thus assigned was bound to perform diligently, from sunrise till sunset, all usual and reasonable labour." <hw>Assignee</hw>, <i>n</i>. a convict assigned as a servant. The word is also used in its ordinary English sense. 1843. `Penny Cyclopaedia,' vol. xxv. p. 139, col. 2: "It is comparatively difficult to obtain another assignee,--easy to obtain a hired servant." 1848. W. Westgarth, `Australia Felix,' p. 324: "Any instance of gross treatment disqualified him for the future as an assignee of convict labour." <hw>Assignment</hw>, <i>n</i>. service as above. 1836. C. Darwin, `Journal of Researches' (1890), c. xix. p. 324: "I believe the years of assignment are passed away with discontent and unhappiness." 1852. John West, `History of Tasmania,' vol. ii. p. 126: "That form of service, known as assignment, was established by Governor King in 1804." 1861. T. McCombie, `Australian Sketches,' p. 117: "The assignment system was then in operation, and such as obtained free grants of land were allowed a certain proportion of convicts to bring it into cultivation." <hw>Asthma</hw> Herb, Queensland, <i>n. Euphorbia pilulifera</i>, Linn. As the name implies, a remedy for asthma. The herb is collected when in flower and carefully dried. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 183: "This plant, having obtained some reputation in Australasia in certain pulmonary complaints, has acquired the appellation to the Colonies of `Queensland Asthma Herb'. Nevertheless, it is by no means endemic in Australasia, for it is a common tropical weed." <hw>Aua</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a New Zealand fish, <i>Agonostoma forsteri</i>, Bleek. Another Maori name is <i>Makawhiti</i>; also called <i>Sea-Mullet</i> and sometimes <i>Herring</i>; (q.v.). It is abundant also in Tasmanian estuaries, and is one of the fishes which when dried is called <i>Picton Herring</i> (q.v.). See also <i>Maray</i> and <i>Mullet</i>. <i>Agonostoma</i> is a genus of the family <i>Mugilidae</i> or <i>Grey-Mullets</i>. <hw>Aurora australis</hw>, <i>n.</i> the Southern equivalent for <i>Aurora borealis</i>. 1790. J. White, `Voyage to New South Wales,' p. 214: "Sept. 5, 1788. About half after six in the evening, we saw an <i>Aurora Australis</i>, a phenomenon uncommon in the southern hemisphere." <hw>Austral</hw>, <i>adj</i>. "Belonging to the South, Southern. Lat. <i>Australis</i>, from <i>auster</i>, south-wind." (`O.E.D.') The word is rarely used in Australasia in its primary sense, but now as equivalent to Australian or Australasian. 1823. Wentworth's Cambridge poem on `Australasia': "And grant that yet an Austral Milton's song, Pactolus-like, flow deep and rich along, An Austral Shakespeare rise, whose living page To Nature true may charm in every age; And that an Austral Pindar daring soar, Where not the Theban Eagle reach'd before." 1825. Barron Field, `First Fruits of Australian Poetry,' Motto in Geographical Memoir of New South Wales, p. 485: "I first adventure. Follow me who list; And be the second Austral harmonist." <i>Adapted from Bishop Hall</i>. 1845. R. Howitt, `Australia,' p. 184: "For this, midst Austral wilds I waken Our British harp, feel whence I come, Queen of the sea, too long forsaken, Queen of the soul, my spirit's home."--Alien Song. 1855. W. Howitt, `Two Years in Victoria,' vol. i. p. 43: "Every servant in this Austral Utopia thinks himself a gentleman." 1868. C. Harpur, `Poems' (ed. 1883), p. 215: "How oft, in Austral woods, the parting day Has gone through western golden gates away." 1879. J. B. O'Hara, `Songs of the South,' p. 127: "What though no weird and legendary lore Invests our young, our golden Austral shore With that romance the poet loves too well, When Inspiration breathes her magic spell." 1894. Ernest Favenc [Title]: "Tales of the Austral Tropics." 1896. [Title]: "The Austral Wheel--A Monthly Cycling Magazine, No. 1, Jan." 1896. `The Melburnian,' Aug. 28, p. 53 "Our Austral Spring." [Title of an article describing Spring in Australia.] <hw>Australasia</hw>, <i>n</i>. (and its adjectives), name "given originally by De Brosses to one of his three divisions of the alleged <i>Terra australis</i>." (`O.E.D.') Now used as a larger term than Australian, to include the continent of Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, Fiji and islands. For peculiar use of the name for the Continent in 1793, see <i>Australia</i>. 1756. Charles de Brosses, `Histoire des Navigations aux Terres Australes,' tom. i. p. 80: "On peut de meme diviser le monde austral inconnu en trois portions. .. .L'une dans l'ocean des Indes au sud de l'Asie que j'appellerai par cette raison australasie." 1766. Callander, `Terra Australis,' i. p. 49 (Translation of de Brosses)(`O.E.D.): "The first [division] in the Indian Ocean, south of Asia, which for this reason we shall call Australasia." 1802. G. Shaw, `Zoology,' iii. p. 506 (`O.E.D.'): "Other Australasian snakes." 1823. Subject for English poem at Cambridge University: `Australasia.' [The prize (Chancellor's Medal) was won by Winthrop Mackworth Praed. William Charles Wentworth stood second.] The concluding lines of his poem are: "And Australasia float, with flag unfurl'd, A new Britannia in another world." 1846. C. P. Hodgson, `Reminiscences of Australia,' p. 77: "How far had these ideas been acted upon by the Colonists of Austral Asia?" [sic.] 1852. J. West, `History of Tasmania,' vol. 1. p. 109: "`The Austral-Asiatic Review,' by Murray, also made its appearance [in Hobart] in February, 1828." 1855. Tennyson, `The Brook,' p. 194: " Katie walks By the long wash of Australasian seas Far off, and holds her head to other stars, And breathes in converse seasons." [Altered in Edition of 1894 to "breathes in April-autumns."] 1857. Daniel Bunce [Title]: "Australasiatic reminiscences." 1864. `The Australasian,' Oct. 1, First Number [Title]: "The Australasian." 1880. Alfred R. Wallace [Title]: "Australasia." [In Stanford's `Compendium of Geography and Travel.'] 1881. David Blair [Title]: "Cyclopaedia of Australasia." 1890. E. W. Hornung, `Bride from the Bush,' p. 29: "It was neither Cockney nor Yankee, but a nasal blend of both: it was a lingo that declined to let the vowels run alone, but trotted them out in ill-matched couples, with discordant and awful consequences; in a word, it was Australasiatic of the worst description." 1890. `Victorian Consolidated Statutes,' Administration and p.obate Act, Section 39: "`Australasian Colonies,' shall mean all colonies for the time being on the main land of Australia. ..and shall also include the colonies of New Zealand, Tasmania and Fiji and any other British Colonies or possessions in Australasia now existing or hereafter to be created which the Governor in Council may from time to time declare to be Australasian Colonies within the meaning of this Act." 1895. Edward Jenks [Title]: "History of the Australasian Colonies." 1896. J. S. Laurie [Title]: "The Story of Australasia." <hw>Australia</hw>, <i>n</i>., and <hw>Australian</hw>, <i>adj</i>. As early as the 16th century there was a belief in a <i>Terra australis</i> (to which was often added the epithet <i>incognita</i>), literally "southern land," which was believed to be land lying round and stretching outwards from the South Pole. In `Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia,' Sydney, Jan. 1892, is printed a paper read at the Geographical Congress at Berne, by E. Delmar Morgan, on the `Early Discovery of Australia.' This paper is illustrated by maps taken from `Nordenskiold's Atlas.' In a map by Orontius Finoeus, a French cosmographer of Provence, dated 1531, the <i>Terra australis</i> is shown as "Terra Australis recenter inventa, sed nondum plene cognita." In Ortelius' Map, 1570, it appears as "Terra Australis nondum cognita." In Gerard Mercator's Map, 1587, as "Terra Australis" simply. In 1606 the Spaniard Fernandez de Quiros gave the name of <i>Terra Australis del Espiritu Santo</i> to land which he thought formed part of the Great Southland. It is in fact one of the New Hebrides. The word "<i>Australian</i> " is older than "<i>Australia</i>" (see quotations, 1693 and 1766). The name <i>Australia</i> was adapted from the Latin name <i>Terra Australis</i>. The earliest suggestion of the word is credited to Flinders, who certainly thought that he was inventing the name. (See quotation, 1814.) Twenty-one years earlier, however, the word is found (see quotation, 1793); and the passage containing it is the first known use of the word in print. Shaw may thus be regarded as its inventor. According to its title-page, the book quoted is by two authors, the <i>Zoology</i>, by Shaw and the <i>Botany</i> by Smith. The <i>Botany</i>, however, was not published. Of the two names--<i>Australia</i> and <i>Australasia</i>--suggested in the opening of the quotation, to take the place of New Holland, Shaw evidently favoured <i>Australia</i>, while Smith, in the `Transactions of the Linnaean Society,' vol. iv. p. 213 (1798), uses <i>Australasia</i> for the continent several times. Neither name, however, passed then into general use. In 1814, Robert Brown the Botanist speaks of "<i>Terra Australis</i>," not of "<i>Australia</i>." "Australia" was reinvented by Flinders. <i>Quotations for " Terra Australis"</i>-- 1621. R. Burton, `Anatomy of Melancholy' (edition 1854), p. 56: "For the site, if you will needs urge me to it, I am not fully resolved, it may be in <i>Terra Australis incognita</i>, there is room enough (for of my knowledge, neither that hungry Spaniard nor Mercurius Britannicus have yet discovered half of it)." Ibid. p. 314: "<i>Terra Australis incognita</i>. ..and yet in likelihood it may be so, for without all question, it being extended from the tropic of Capricorn to the circle Antarctic, and lying as it doth in the temperate zone, cannot choose but yield in time some flourishing kingdoms to succeeding ages, as America did unto the Spaniards." Ibid. p. 619: "But these are hard-hearted, unnatural, monsters of men, shallow politicians, they do not consider that a great part of the world is not yet inhabited as it ought, how many colonies into America, <i>Terra Australis incognita</i>, Africa may be sent?" <i>Early quotations for "Australian</i>" 1693. `Nouveau Voyage de la Terre Australe, contenant les Coutumes et les Moeurs des Australiens, etc.' Par Jaques Sadeur [Gabriel de Foigny]. [This is a work of fiction, but interesting as being the first book in which the word <i>Australiens</i> is used. The next quotation is from the English translation.] 1693. `New Discovery, Terra Incognita Australis,' p. 163 (`O.E.D.'): "It is easy to judge of the incomparability of the Australians with the people of Europe." 1766. Callander, `Terra Australis' (Translation of De Brosses), c. ii. p. 280: "One of the Australians, or natives of the Southern World, whom Gonneville had brought into France." <i>Quotations for "Australia</i>" 1793. G. Shaw and I. E. Smith, `Zoology and Botany of New Holland,' p. 2: "The vast Island or rather Continent of Australia, Australasia, or New Holland, which has so lately attracted the particular attention of European navigators and naturalists, seems to abound in scenes of peculiar wildness and sterility; while the wretched natives of many of those dreary districts seem less elevated above the inferior animals than in any other part of the known world; Caffraria itself not excepted; as well as less indued with the power of promoting a comfortable existence by an approach towards useful arts and industry. It is in these savage regions however that Nature seems to have poured forth many of her most highly ornamented products with unusual liberality." 1814. M. Flinders, `Voyage to Terra Australis,' Introduction, p. iii. and footnote: "I have . . . ventured upon the readoption of the <i>original Terra Australis</i>, and of this term I shall hereafter make use, when speaking of New Holland [<i>sc</i>. the West] and New South Wales, in a collective sense; and when using it in the most extensive signification, the adjacent isles, including that of Van Diemen, must be understood to be comprehended." [Footnote]: "Had I permitted myself any innovation upon the original term, it would have been to convert it into Australia; as being more agreeable to the ear, and an assimilation to the names of the other great portions of the earth." 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 9: "New South Wales (or Australia, as we colonials say)." 1839. C. Darwin, `Naturalist's Voyage' (ed. 1890), p. 328: "Farewell, Australia! You are a rising child, and doubtless some day will reign a great princess in the South; but you are too great and ambitious for affection, yet not great enough for respect. I leave your shores without sorrow or regret." 1852. A Liverpool Merchant [Title]: "A Guide to Australia and the Gold Regions." 1873. A. Trollope, `Australia and New Zealand,' c. viii. (new ed.) p. 152: "The colonies are determined to be separate. Australia is a term that finds no response in the patriotic feeling of any Australian. . . . But this will come to an end sooner or later. The name of Australia will be dearer, if not greater, to Australian ears than the name of Great Britain." [Mr. Trollope's prophecy has come true, and the name of Australia is now dearer to an Australian than the name of his own separate colony. The word "Colonial" as indicating Australian nationality is going out of fashion. The word "Australian" is much preferred.] 1878. F. P. Labilliere, `Early History of the Colony of Victoria,' vol. i. p. 184: "In a despatch to Lord Bathurst, of April 4th, 1817, Governor Macquarie acknowledges the receipt of Captain Flinders's charts of `Australia.' This is the first time that the name of Australia appears to have been officially employed. The Governor underlines the word. . . . In a private letter to Mr. Secretary Goulbourn, M.P., of December 21st, 1817, [he]says . . . `the Continent of Australia, which, I hope, will be the name given to this country in future, instead of the very erroneous and misapplied name hitherto given it of New Holland, which, properly speaking, only applies to a part of this immense Continent.'" 1883. G. W. Rusden, `History of Australia,' vol. i. p. 64: "It is pleasant to reflect that the name Australia was selected by the gallant Flinders; though, with his customary modesty, he suggested rather than adopted it." 1895. H. M. Goode, `The Argus,' Oct. 15, p. 7, col. 4: "Condemning the absurd practice of using the word `Colonial' in connection with our wines, instead of the broader and more federal one, `Australian.' In England our artists, cricketer, scullers, and globe-trotters are all spoken of and acknowledged as Australians, and our produce, with the exception of wine, is classed as follows:--Australian gold and copper, Australian beef and mutton, Australian butter, Australian fruits, &c." Ibid. p. 14: "Merops or Bee-Eater. A tribe [of birds] which appears to be peculiarly prevalent in the extensive regions of Australia." <hw>Australian</hw> flag, <i>n</i>. Hot climate and country work have brought in a fashion among bushmen of wearing a belt or leather strap round the top of trousers instead of braces. This often causes a fold in the shirt protruding all round from under the waistcoat, which is playfully known as "the Australian flag." Slang. <hw>Australioid</hw> and <hw>Australoid</hw>, <i>adj</i>. like Australian, sc. aboriginal--a term used by ethnologists. See quotations. 1869. J. Lubbock, `Prehistoric Times,' vol. xii. p. 378: "The Australoid type contains all the inhabitants of Australia and the native races of the Deccan." 1878. E. B. Tylor, `Encyclopaedia Britannica,' vol. ii. p. 112: "He [Professor Huxley] distinguishes four principal types of mankind, the Australioid, Negroid, Mongoloid, and Xanthochroic, adding a fifth variety, the Melanochroic. The special points of the Australioid are a chocolate-brown skin, dark brown or black eyes, black hair (usually wavy), narrow (dolichocephalic) skull, brow-ridges strongly developed, projecting jaw, coarse lips and broad nose. This type is best represented by the natives of Australia, and next to them by the indigenous tribes of Southern India, the so-called coolies." <hw>Austral Thrush</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Port-Jackson Thrush</i>. <hw>Avocet</hw>, <i>n</i>. a well-known European bird-name. The Australian species is the Red-necked A., <i>Recurvirostra nova-hollandiae</i>, Vieill. <hw>Aweto</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a vegetable-caterpillar of New Zealand. See quotation. 1889. E. Wakefield, `New Zealand after Fifty Years,' p. 81: ". . . the <i>aweto</i>, or vegetable-caterpillar, called by the naturalists <i>Hipialis virescens</i>. It is a perfect caterpillar in every respect, and a remarkably fine one too, growing to a length in the largest specimens of three and a half inches and the thickness of a finger, but more commonly to about a half or two-thirds of that size. . . . When full-grown, it undergoes a miraculous change. For some inexplicable reason, the spore of a vegetable fungus <i>Sphaeria Robertsii</i>, fixes itself on its neck, or between the head and the first ring of the caterpillar, takes root and grows vigorously . . . exactly like a diminutive bulrush from 6 to 10 inches high without leaves, and consisting solely of a single stem with a dark-brown felt-like head, so familiar in the bulrushes . . . always at the foot of the <i>rata</i>." 1896. A. Bence Jones, in `Pearson's Magazine,' Sept., p. 290: "The dye in question was a solution of burnt or powdered resin, or wood, or the aweto, the latter a caterpillar, which, burrowing in the vegetable soil, gets a spore of a fungus between the folds of its neck, and unable to free itself, the insect's body nourishes the fungus, which vegetates and occasions the death of the caterpillar by exactly filling the interior of the body with its roots, always preserving its perfect form. When properly charred this material yielded a fine dark dye, much prized for purposes of moko." [See <i>Moko</i>.] <hw>Axe-breaker</hw>, <i>n</i>. name of a tree, <i>Notelaea longifolia</i>, Vent., <i>N.O. Jasmineae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 579: "Axe-breaker. Wood hard, close-grained and firm. Its vernacular name emphasizes its hardness." B <hw>Baal</hw>, or <hw>Bail</hw>, <i>interj</i>. and <i>adv</i>. "An aboriginal expression of disapproval." (Gilbert Parker, Glossary to `Round the Compass in Australia,' 1888.) It was the negative in the Sydney dialect. 1893. J. F. Hogan, `Robert Lowe,' p. 271, quoting from `The Atlas' (circa 1845): "Traces, however, of the Egyptian language are discoverable among the present inhabitants, with whom, for instance, the word `Bale' or `Baal' is in continual use . . . ." [Evidently a joke.] <hw>Babbler</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bird-name. In Europe, "name given, on account of their harsh chattering note, to the long-legged thrushes." (`O.E.D.') The group "contains a great number of birds not satisfactorily located elsewhere, and has been called the ornithological waste-basket." (`Century.') The species are-- The Babbler-- <i>Pomatostomus temporalis</i>, V. and H. Chestnut-crowned B.-- <i>P. ruficeps</i>, Hart. Red-breasted B.-- <i>P. rubeculus</i>, Gould. White-browed B.-- <i>P. superciliosus</i>, V. and H. <hw>Back-blocks</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) The far interior of Australia, and away from settled country. Land in Australia is divided on the survey maps into blocks, a word confined, in England and the United States, to town lands. (2) The parts of a station distant from the <i>frontage</i> (q.v.). 1872. Anon. `Glimpses of Life in Victoria,' p. 31: ". . . we were doomed to see the whole of our river-frontage purchased. . . . The back blocks which were left to us were insufficient for the support of our flocks, and deficient in permanent water-supply. . . ." 1880. J. Mathew, Song--`The Bushman': "Far, far on the plains of the arid back-blocks A warm-hearted bushman is tending his flocks. There's little to cheer in that vast grassy sea: But oh! he finds pleasure in thinking of me. How weary, how dreary the stillness must be! But oh! the lone bushman is dreaming of me." 1890. E. W. Horning, `A Bride from the Bush,' p. 298: "`Down in Vic' you can carry as many sheep to the acre as acres to the sheep up here in the `backblocks.'" 1893. M. Gaunt, `English Illustrated, `Feb., p. 294: "The back-blocks are very effectual levellers." 1893. Haddon Chambers, `Thumbnail Sketches of Australian Life,' p. 33 "In the back-blocks of New South Wales he had known both hunger and thirst, and had suffered from sunstroke." 1893. `The Australasian,' Aug. 12, p. 302, col. 1: "Although Kara is in the back-blocks of New South Wales, the clothes and boots my brother wears come from Bond Street." <hw>Back-block</hw>, <i>adj</i>. from the interior. 1891. Rolf Boldrewood, `Sydneyside Saxon,' vol. xii. p. 215: "`What a nice mare that is of yours!' said one of the back-block youngsters." <hw>Back-blocker</hw>, <i>n</i>. a resident in the back-blocks. 1870. `The Argus,' March 22, p. 7, col. 2 "I am a bushman, a back blocker, to whom it happens about once in two years to visit Melbourne." 1892. E. W. Hornung, `Under Two Skies,' p. 21: "As for Jim, he made himself very busy indeed, sitting on his heels over the fire in an attitude peculiar to back-blockers." <hw>Back-slanging</hw>, <i>verbal n</i>. In the back-blocks (q.v.) of Australia, where hotels are naturally scarce and inferior, the traveller asks for hospitality at the <i>stations</i> (q.v.) on his route, where he is always made welcome. There is no idea of anything underhand on the part of the traveller, yet the custom is called <i>back-slanging</i>. <hw>Badger</hw>, <i>n</i>. This English name has been incorrectly applied in Australia, sometimes to the Bandicoot, sometimes to the Rock-Wallaby, and sometimes to the Wombat. In Tasmania, it is the usual bush-name for the last. 1829. `The Picture of Australia,' p. 173: "The <i>Parameles</i>, to which the colonists sometimes give the name of badger. . . ." 1831. Ross, `Hobart Town Almanack,' p. 265: "That delicious animal, the wombat (commonly known at that place [Macquarie Harbour] by the name of <i>badger</i>, hence the little island of that name in the map was so called, from the circumstance of numbers of that animal being at first found upon it)." 1850. James Bennett Clutterbuck, M.D., `Port Phillip in 1849,' p. 37: "The rock Wallaby, or Badger, also belongs to the family of the Kangaroo; its length from the nose to the end of the tail is three feet; the colour of the fur being grey-brown." 1875. Rev. J. G. Wood, `Natural History,' vol. i. p. 481: "The Wombat or Australian Badger as it is popularly called by the colonists. . . ." 1891. W. Tilley, `Wild West of Tasmania,' p. 8: "With the exception of wombats or `badgers,' and an occasional kangaroo . . . the intruder had to rely on the stores he carried with him." ibid. p. 44: "Badgers also abound, or did until thinned out by hungry prospectors." <hw>Badger-box</hw>, <i>n</i>. slang name for a roughly- constructed dwelling. 1875. `Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania,' September, p. 99 [`Port Davey in 1875,' by the Hon. James Reid Scott, M.L.C.]: "The dwellings occupied by the piners when up the river are of the style known as `Badger-boxes,' in distinction from huts, which have perpendicular walls, while the Badger-box is like an inverted V in section. They are covered with bark, with a thatch of grass along the ridge, and are on an average about 14 x 10 feet at the ground, and 9 or 10 feet high." <hw>Bail</hw>, <i>n</i>. "A framework for securing the head of a cow while she is milked." (`O.E.D.') This word, marked in `O.E.D.' and other Dictionaries as Australian, is provincial English. In the `English Dialect Dictionary,' edited by Joseph Wright, Part I., the word is given as used in "Ireland, Northamptonshire, Norfolk, Suffolk, Hampshire and New Zealand." It is also used in Essex. 1872. C. H. Eden, `My Wife and I in Queensland,' p. 83: "In every milking yard is an apparatus for confining a cow's head called a `bail.' This consists of an upright standiron, five feet in height, let into a framework, and about six inches from it another fixed at the heel, the upper part working freely in a slit, in which are holes for a peg, so that when the peg is out and the movable standiron is thrown back, there is abundance of room for a cow's head and horns, but when closed, at which time the two standirons are parallel to each other and six inches apart, though her neck can work freely up and down, it is impossible for her to withdraw her head . . ." 1874. W. M. B., `Narrative of Edward Crewe,' p. 225: "The former bovine female was a brute to manage, whom it would have been impossible to milk without a `bail.' To what man or country the honour of this invention belongs, who can tell? It is in very general use in the Australian colonies; and my advice to any one troubled with a naughty cow, who kicks like fury during the process of milking, is to have a bail constructed in their cow-house." <hw>Bail up</hw>, <i>v</i>. (1) To secure the head of a cow in a bail for milking. (2) By transference, to stop travellers in the bush, used of bushrangers. The quotation, 1888, shows the method of transference. It then means generally, to stop. Like the similar verb, <i>to stick up</i> (q.v.), it is often used humorously of a demand for subscriptions, etc. 1844. Mrs. Chas. Meredith, `Notes and Sketches of New South Wales,' p. 132: "The bushrangers . . . walk quickly in, and `bail up,' i.e. bind with cords, or otherwise secure, the male portion." 1847. Alex. Marjoribanks, `Travels in New South Wales,' p. 72: ". . . there were eight or ten bullock-teams baled up by three mounted bushrangers. Being baled up is the colonial phrase for those who are attacked, who are afterwards all put together, and guarded by one of the party of the bushrangers when the others are plundering." 1855 W. Howitt, `Two Years in Victoria,' vol. ii. p. 309: "So long as that is wrong, the whole community will be wrong,-- in colonial phrase, `bailed up' at the mercy of its own tenants." 1862. G. T. Lloyd, `Thirty-three Years in Tasmania and Victoria,' p. 192: "`Come, sir, immediately,' rejoined Murphy, rudely and insultingly pushing the master; `bail up in that corner, and prepare to meet the death you have so long deserved.'" 1879. W. J. Barry, `Up and Down,' p. 112: "She bailed me up and asked me if I was going to keep my promise and marry her." 1880. W. Senior, `Travel and Trout,' p. 36: "His troutship, having neglected to secure a line of retreat, was, in colonial parlance, `bailed up.'" 1880. G. Walch, `Victoria in 1880,' p.133: "The Kelly gang . . . bailed up some forty residents in the local public house." 1882. A. J. Boyd, `Old Colonials,' p. 76: "Did I ever get stuck-up? Never by white men, though I have been bailed up by the niggers." 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia,' p. 105: "A little further on the boar `bailed up' on the top of a ridge." 1888. Rolf Boldrewood, `Robbery under Arms,' p. 368: "One of the young cows was a bit strange with me, so I had to shake a stick at her and sing out `Bail up' pretty rough before she'd put her head in. Aileen smiled something like her old self for a minute, and said, `That comes natural to you now, Dick, doesn't it ?' I stared for a bit and then burst out laughing.It was a rum go, wasn't it? The same talk for cows and Christians. That's how things get stuck into the talk in a new country. Some old hand like father, as had been assigned to a dairy settler, and spent all his mornings in the cow-yard, had taken to the bush and tried his hand at sticking up people. When they came near enough of course he'd pop out from behind a tree, with his old musket or pair of pistols, and when he wanted `em to stop, `Bail up, d-- yer,' would come a deal quicker and more natural-like to his tongue than `Stand.' So `bail up' it was from that day to this, and there'll have to be a deal of change in the ways of the colonies, and them as come from `em before anything else takes its place between the man that's got the arms and the man that's got the money." <hw>Bailing-up Pen</hw>, <i>n</i>. place for fastening up cattle. 1889. R. M. Praed, `Romance of Station,' vol. i. c. ii. [`Eng. Dial. Dict.']: "Alec was proud of the stockyard and pointed out . . . the superior construction of the `crush,' or branding lane, and the bailing-up pen." <hw>Bald-Coot</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bird-name, <i>Porphyrio melanotus</i>, Temm.; Blue, <i>P. bellus</i>, Gould. The European bald-coot is <i>Fulica atra</i>. <hw>Ballahoo</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name applied to the <i>Garfish</i> (q.v.) by Sydney fishermen. The word is West Indian, and is applied there to a fast-sailing schooner; also spelled <i>Bullahoo</i> and <i>Ballahou</i>. <hw>Balloon-Vine</hw> <i>n</i>. Australian name for the common tropical weed, <i>Cardiospermum halicacabum</i>, Linn., <i>N.O. Sapindaceae</i>: called also <i>Heart-seed, Heart-pea</i>, and <i>Winter-cherry</i>. It is a climbing plant, and has a heart-shaped scar on the seed. <hw>Balsam of Copaiba Tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is applied to the Australian tree, <i>Geijera salicifolia</i>, Schott, <i>N.O. Rutaceae</i>, because the bark has the odour of the drug of that name. <hw>Bamboo-grass</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian cane-like grass, <i>Glyceria ramigera</i>, F. v. M. ; also called <i>Cane Grass</i>. Largely used for thatching purposes. Stock eat the young shoots freely. <hw>Banana</hw>, <i>n</i>. There are three species native to Queensland, of which the fruit is said to be worthless-- <i>Musa Banksii</i>, F. v. M. <i>M. Hillii</i>, F. v. M. <i>M. Fitzalani</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Scitamineae</i>. The <i>Bananas</i> which are cultivated and form a staple export of Queensland are acclimatized varieties. <hw>Banana-land</hw>, <i>n</i>. slang name for Queensland, where bananas grow in abundance. <hw>Banana-lander</hw>, <i>n</i>. slang for a Queenslander (see above). <hw>Banded Ant-eater</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to a small terrestrial and ant-eating marsupial, <i>Myrmecobius fasciatus</i>, Waterh, found in West and South Australia. It is the only species of the genus, and is regarded as the most closely allied of all living marsupials to the extinct marsupials of the Mesozoic Age in Europe. It receives its name banded from the presence along the back of a well-marked series of dark transverse bands. 1871. G. Krefft, `Mammals of Australia': "The <i>Myrmecobius</i> is common on the West Coast and in the interior of New South Wales and South Australia: the Murrumbidgee River may be taken as its most eastern boundary." 1893. A. R. Wallace, `Australasia,' p. 340: "Thus we have here [W. Australia] alone the curious little banded ant-eater (<i>Myrmecobius fasciatus</i>), which presents the nearest approach in its dentition to the most ancient known mammals whose remains are found in the oolite and Trias of the Mesozoic epoch." <hw>Banded-Kangaroo</hw>, i.q. <i>Banded-Wallaby</i>. See <i>Lagostrophus</i> and <i>Wallaby</i>. <hw>Banded-Wallaby</hw>, <i>n</i>. sometimes called <i>Banded-Kangaroo</i>. See <i>Lagostrophus</i> and <i>Wallaby</i>. <hw>Bandicoot</hw>, <i>n</i>. an insect-eating marsupial animal; family, <i>Peramelidae</i>; genus, <i>Perameles</i>. "The animals of this genus, commonly called <i>Bandicoots</i> in Australia, are all small, and live entirely on the ground, making nests composed of dried leaves, grass and sticks, in hollow places. They are rather mixed feeders; but insects, worms, roots and bulbs, constitute their ordinary diet." (`Encyclopaedia Britannica,' 9th edit., vol. xv. p. 381.) The name comes from India, being a corruption of Telugu <i>pandi-kokku</i>, literally "pig-dog," used of a large rat called by naturalists <i>Mus malabaricus</i>, Shaw, <i>Mus giganteus</i>, Hardwicke; <i>Mus bandis coota</i>, Bechstein. The name has spread all over India. The Indian animal is very different from the Australian, and no record is preserved to show how the Anglo-Indian word came to be used in Australia. The Bandicoots are divided into three genera--the <i>True Bandicoots</i> (genus <i>Perameles</i>, q.v.), the <i>Rabbit Bandicoots</i> (genus <i>Peragale</i>, q.v.), and the <i>Pig-footed Bandicoots</i> (q.v.) (genus <i>Choeropus</i>, q.v.). The species are-- Broadbent's Bandicoot-- <i>Perameles broadbenti</i>, Ramsay. Cockerell's B.-- <i>P. cockerelli</i>, Ramsay. Common Rabbit B.-- <i>Peragale lagotis</i>, Reid. Desert B.-- <i>P. eremiana</i>, Spencer. Doria's B.-- <i>Perameles dorerana</i>, Quoy & Gaim. Golden B.-- <i>P. aurata</i>, Ramsay. Gunn's B.-- <i>P. gunni</i>, Gray. Less Rabbit B.-- <i>Peragale minor</i>, Spencer. Long-nosed B.-- <i>Perameles nasuta</i>, Geoffr. Long-tailed B.-- <i>P. longicauda</i>, Peters & Doria. North-Australian B.-- <i>P. macrura</i>, Gould. Port Moresby B.-- <i>P. moresbyensis</i>, Ramsay. Raffray's B.-- <i>P. rafrayana</i>, Milne-Edw. Short-nosed B.-- <i>P. obesula</i>, Shaw. Striped B.-- <i>P. bougainvillii</i>, Quoy & Gaim. White-tailed Rabbit B.-- <i>P. lesicura</i>. Thomas. Pig-footed B.-- <i>Choeropus castanotis</i>, Gray. 1802. D. Collins, `Account of New South Wales', vol. ii. p. 188 (Bass's Diary at the Derwent, January 1799): "The bones of small animals, such as opossums, squirrels, kangooroo rats, and bandicoots, were numerous round their deserted fire-places." 1820. W. C. Wentworth, `Description o New South Wales,' p. 3: "The animals are, the kangaroo, native dog (which is a smaller species of the wolf), the wombat, bandicoot, kangaroo-rat, opossum, flying squirrel, flying fox, etc. etc." 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 316 "The bandicoot is about four times he size of a rat, without a tail, and burrows in the ground or in hollow trees." 1832. Bischoff, `Van Diemen's Land,' vol. ii. p. 28: "The bandicoot is as large as a rabbit. There are two kinds, the rat and the rabbit bandicoot." 1845. R. Howitt, `Australia,' p. 233: "The common people are not destitute of what Wordsworth calls `the poetry of common speech,' many of their similes being very forcibly and naturally drawn from objects familiarly in sight and quite Australian. `Poor as a bandicoot,' `miserable as a shag on a rock.'" Ibid. p. 330: "There is also a rat-like animal with a swinish face, covered with ruddy coarse hair, that burrows in the ground--the bandicoot. It is said to be very fine eating." 1845. J. O. Balfour, `Sketch of New South Wales,' p. 26: "The bandicoot is the size of a large rat, of a dark brown colour; it feeds upon roots, and its flesh is good eating. This animal burrows in the ground, and it is from this habit, I suppose, that when hungry, cold, or unhappy, the Australian black says that he is as miserable as the bandicoot." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals, p. 92: "The bandicoots are good eating even for Europeans, and in my opinion are the only Australian mammals fit to eat. They resemble pigs, and the flesh tastes somewhat like pork." <hw>Bangalay</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Sydney workmen's name for the timber of <i>Eucalyptus botrioides</i>, Smith. (See <i>Gum</i>.) The name is aboriginal, and by workmen is always pronounced <i>Bang Alley</i>. <hw>Bangalow</hw>, <i>n</i>. an ornamental feathery-leaved palm, <i>Ptychosperma elegans</i>, Blume, <i>N.O. Palmeae</i>. 1851. J. Henderson, `Excursions in New South Wales,' vol. ii. p.229 "The Bangalo, which is a palm. . . The germ, or roll of young leaves in the centre, and near the top, is eaten by the natives, and occasionally by white men, either raw or boiled. It is of a white colour, sweet and pleasant to the taste." 1884. W. R. Guilfoyle, `Australian Botany,' p. 23: "The aborigines of New South Wales and Queensland, and occasionally the settlers, eat the young leaves of the cabbage and bangalo palms." 1886. H. C. Kendall, `Poems,' p. 193: You see he was bred in a bangalow wood, And bangalow pith was the principal food His mother served out in her shanty." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 592: "Bangalow. . . . The small stems sometimes go under the name of `Moreton Bay Canes.' It is a very ornamental, feathery-leaved palm." <hw>Bang-tail muster</hw>. See quotation. 1887. W. S. S. Tyrwhitt, `The New Churn in the Queensland Bush,' p. 61: "Every third or fourth year on a cattle station, they have what is called a `bang tail muster'; that is to say, all the cattle are brought into the yards, and have the long hairs at the end of the tail cut off square, with knives or sheep-shears. . . The object of it is. . .to find out the actual number of cattle on the run, to compare with the number entered on the station books." <hw>Banker</hw>, <i>n</i>. a river full up to the top of the banks. Compare Shakspeare: "Like a proud river, peering o'er his bounds." (`King John,' III. i. 23.) 1888. Cassell's `Picturesque Australasia,' vol, iii. p. 175 "The Murrumbidgee was running a `banker'--water right up to the banks." 1890. Lyth, `Golden South,' c. vii. p. 52: "The driver stated that he had heard the river was `a banker.'" 1896. H. Lawson, `When the World was Wide,' p. 45: "The creeks were bankers, and the flood Was forty miles round Bourke." Ibid. p. 100: "Till the river runs a banker, All stained with yellow mud." <hw>Banksia</hw>, <i>n</i>. "A genus of Australian shrubs with umbellate flowers,--now cultivated as ornamental shrubs in Europe." (`O.E.D.') Called after Mr. Banks, naturalist of the <i>Endeavour</i>, afterwards Sir Joseph Banks. The so-called <i>Australian Honeysuckle</i> (q.v.). See also <i>Bottle-brush</i>. 1790. J. White, `Voyage to New South Wales,' p. 221: "The different species of banksia. The finest new genus hitherto found in New Holland has been destined by Linnaeus, with great propriety, to transmit to posterity the name of Sir Joseph Banks, who first discovered it in his celebrated voyage round the world." 1798. D. Collins, `Account of English Colony in New South Wales,' p. 557: "A few berries, the yam and fern root, the flowers of the different banksia, and at times some honey, make up the whole vegetable catalogue." 1829. Vigors and Horsfield, `Transactions of the Linnaean Society,' vol. xv. p. 312: "Scrubs where the different species of banksia are found, the flowers of which I (Mr. Caley) have reason to think afford it sustenance during winter." 1833. C. Sturt, `South Australia,' vol. ii. c. ii. p. 30: "Some sandhills . . . crowned by banksias." 1845. J. Q. Balfour, `Sketch of New South Wales,' p. 39: "Many different species of banksia grow in great plenty in the neighbourhood of Sydney, and from the density of their foliage are very ornamental." 1846. L. Leichhardt, quoted by J. D. Lang, `Cooksland,' p. 331: "The table-land is covered by forests of stringy-bark, of melaleuca-gum, and banksia." 1851. `Quarterly Review,' Dec., p. 40: "In this they will find an extremely rich collection of bottle-brush-flowered, zigzag-leaved, grey-tinted, odd-looking things, to most eyes rather strange than beautiful, notwithstanding that one of them is named <i>Banksia speciosa</i>. They are the `Botany Bays' of old-fashioned gardeners, but are more in the shrub and tree line than that of flowering pots. <i>Banksia Solandei</i> will remind them to turn to their `Cook's Voyages' when they get home, to read how poor Dr. Solander got up a mountain and was heartily glad to get down again." 1877. F. v. Mueller, `Botanic Teachings,' p. 46: "The banksias are of historic interest, inasmuch as the genus was dedicated already by the younger Linne in 1781 to Sir Joseph Banks, from whom the Swedish naturalist received branchlets of those species, which in Captain Cook's first voyage more than 100 years ago (1770) were gathered by Banks at Botany-Bay and a few other places of the east coast of Australia." 1887. J. Bonwick, `Romance of the Wool Trade,' p. 228: "A banksia plain, with its collection of bottle-brush-like-flowers, may have its charms for a botanist, but its well-known sandy ground forbids the hope of good grasses." <hw>Baobab</hw>, <i>n. a</i> tree, native of Africa, <i>Adansonia digitata</i>. The name is Ethiopian. It has been introduced into many tropical countries. The Australian species of the genus is <i>A. gregorii</i>, F. v. M., called also <i>Cream of Tartar</i> or <i>Sour Gourd-tree</i>, <i>Gouty-stem</i> (q.v.), and <i>Bottle-tree</i> (q.v.). <hw>Barber</hw>, or <hw>Tasmanian Barber</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name for the fish <i>Anthias rasor</i>, Richards., family <i>Percidae</i>; also called <i>Red-Perch</i>. See <i>Perch</i>. It occurs in Tasmania, New Zealand, and Port Jackson. It is called <i>Barber</i> from the shape of the <i>praeoperculum</i>, one of the bones of the head. See quotation. 1841. John Richardson, `Description of Australian Fish,' p. 73: "<i>Serranus Rasor</i>.-- Tasmanian Barber. . . . The serrature of the preoperculum is the most obvious and general character by which the very numerous Serrani are connected with each other . . . The Van Diemen's Land fish, which is described below, is one of the `Barbers,' a fact which the specific appellation <i>rasor</i> is intended to indicate; the more classical word having been previously appropriated to another species. . . Mr. Lempriere states that it is known locally as the `red perch or shad.'" [Richardson also says that Cuvier founded a subdivision of the <i>Serrani</i> on the characters of the scales of the jaws, under the name of `les Barbiers,' which had been previously grouped by Block under the title <i>Anthias</i>.] <hw>Barcoo-grass</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian grass, <i>Anthistiria membranacea</i>, Lindl. One of the best pasture grasses in Queensland, but growing in other colonies also. <hw>Barcoo Rot</hw>, <i>n.</i> a disease affecting inhabitants of various parts of the interior of Australia, but chiefly bushmen. It consists of persistent ulceration of the skin, chiefly on the back of the hands, and often originating in abrasions. It is attributed to monotony of diet and to the cloudless climate, with its alternations of extreme cold at night and burning heat by day. It is said to be maintained and aggravated by the irritation of small flies. 1870. E. B. Kennedy, `Four Years in Queensland,' p. 46: "Land scurvy is better known in Queensland by local names, which do not sound very pleasant, such as `Barcoo rot,' `Kennedy rot,' according to the district it appears in. There is nothing dangerous about it; it is simply the festering of any cut or scratch on one's legs, arms or hands. . . They take months to heal. . . Want of vegetables is assigned as the cause." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 58: "In Western Queensland people are also subject to bad sores on the hand, called Barcoo-rot." <hw>Barcoo Vomit</hw>, <i>n</i>. a sickness occurring in inhabitants of various parts of the high land of the interior of Australia. It is characterized by painless attacks of vomiting, occurring immediately after food is taken, followed by hunger, and recurring as soon as hunger is satisfied. The name <i>Barcoo</i> is derived from the district traversed by the river Barcoo, or Cooper, in which this complaint and the <i>Barcoo Rot</i> are common. See Dr. E. C. Stirling's `Notes from Central Australia,' in `Intercolonial Quarterly Journal of Medicine and Surgery,' vol. i. p. 218. <hw>Bargan</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name of the Come-back <i>Boomerang</i> (q.v.). (Spelt also <i>barragan</i>.) 1892. J. Fraser, `Aborigines of New South Wales,' p. 70: "The `come-back' variety (of boomerang) is not a fighting weapon. A dialect name for it is bargan, which word may be explained in our language to mean `bent like a sickle or crescent moon.'" <hw>Barking Owl</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bird not identified, and not in Gould (who accompanied Leichhardt). 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition, p. 47: "The glucking-bird and the barking-owl were heard throughout the moonlight night." <hw>Barrack</hw>, <i>v</i>. to jeer at opponents, to interrupt noisily, to make a disturbance; with the preposition "for," to support as a partisan, generally with clamour. An Australian football term dating from about 1880. The verb has been ruled unparliamentary by the Speaker in the Victorian Legislative Assembly. It is, however, in very common colloquial use. It is from the aboriginal word <i>borak</i> (q.v.), and the sense of jeering is earlier than that of supporting, but jeering at one side is akin to cheering for the other. Another suggested derivation is from the Irish pronunciation of "Bark," as (according to the usually accepted view) "Larrikin" from "larking." But the former explanation is the more probable. There is no connection with soldiers' "barracks;" nor is it likely that there is any, as has been ingeniously suggested, with the French word <i>baragouin</i>, gibberish. 1890. `Melbourne Punch,' Aug. 14, p. 106, col. 3: "To use a football phrase, they all to a man `barrack' for the British Lion." 1893. `The Age,' June 17, p. 15, col. 4: "[The boy] goes much to football matches, where he barracks, and in a general way makes himself intolerable." 1893. `The Argus,' July 5, p. 9, col. 4, Legislative Assembly: "<i>Mr. Isaacs</i>:. . . He hoped this `barracking' would not be continued." [Members had been interrupting him.] 1893. `The Herald' (Melbourne), Sept. 9, p. 1, col. 6: "He noticed with pleasure the decrease of disagreeable barracking by spectators at matches during last season. Good-humoured badinage had prevailed, but the spectators had been very well conducted." <hw>Barracker</hw>, <i>n</i>. one who barracks (q.v.). 1893. `The Age,' June 27, p. 6, col. 6: "His worship remarked that the `barracking' that was carried on at football matches was a mean and contemptible system, and was getting worse and worse every day. Actually people were afraid to go to them on account of the conduct of the crowd of `barrackers.' It took all the interest out of the game to see young men acting like a gang of larrikins." 1894. `"The Argus,' Nov. 29, p. 4, col. 9: "The `most unkindest cut of all' was that the Premier, who was Mr. Rogers's principal barracker during the elections, turned his back upon the prophet and did not deign to discuss his plan." <hw>Barracks</hw>, <i>n</i>. a building on a station with rooms for bachelors. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `A Colonial Reformer,' p. 100 "A roomy, roughly-finished building known as the `barracks.' . . . . Three of the numerous bedrooms were tenanted by young men, . . . neophytes, who were gradually assimilating the love of Bush-land." <hw>Barracouta</hw>, or <hw>Barracoota</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name, under its original spelling of <i>Barracuda</i>, was coined in the Spanish West Indies, and first applied there to a large voracious fish, <i>Sphyraena pecuda</i>, family <i>Sphyraenidae</i>. In Australia and New Zealand it is applied to a smaller edible fish, <i>Thyrsites atun</i>, Cuv. and Val., family <i>Trichiuridae</i>, called <i>Snook</i> (q.v.) at the Cape of Good Hope. It is found from the Cape of Good Hope to New Zealand. 1845. `Voyage to Port Philip,' p. 40: "We hook the barracuda fish." 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fishes of New South Wales,' p. 69: "<i>Sphyrenidae</i>. The first family is the barracudas, or sea-pike." [Footnote]: "This name is no doubt the same as Barracouta and is of Spanish origin. The application of it to <i>Thyrsites atun</i> in the Southern seas was founded on some fancied resemblance to the West Indian fish, which originally bore the name, though of course they are entirely different." (2) The word is used as a nickname for an inhabitant of Hobart; compare <i>Cornstalk</i>. <hw>Barramunda</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fish, i.q. <i>Burramundi</i> (q.v.). <hw>Basket-Fence</hw>, <i>n.</i> Local name for a stake-hedge. See quotation. 1872. G. S. Baden-Powell, `New Homes for the Old Country,' p. 208: "For sheep, too, is made the `basket fence.' Stakes are driven in, and their pliant `stuff' interwoven, as in a stake hedge in England." <hw>Bastard Dory</hw> and <hw>John Dory</hw> (q.v.), spelt also <HW>Dorey</HW>, <i>n</i>. an Australian fish, <i>Cyttus australis</i>, family <i>Cyttidae</i>; the Australian representative of <i>Zeus faber</i>, the European "John Dory," and its close relative, is called <i>Bastard Dorey</i> in New Zealand, and also <i>Boar-fish</i> (q.v.). 1880. Guenther, `Study of Fishes,' p. 387: "<i>Histiopterus</i>. . . .The species figured attains to a length of twenty inches, and is esteemed as food. It is known at Melbourne by the names of `Boar-fish' or `Bastard Dorey' (fig.), <i>Histiopterus recurvirostris</i>." <hw>Bastard Trumpeter</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fish. See <i>Morwong, Paper-fish</i>, and <i>Trumpeter</i>. In Sydney it is <i>Latris ciliaris</i>, Forst., which is called <i>Moki</i> in New Zealand; in Victoria and Tasmania, <i>L. forsteri</i>, Casteln. 1883. `Royal Commission on the Fisheries of Tasmania,' p. 35: "The bastard trumpeter (<i>Latris Forsteri</i>). . . .Scarcely inferior to the real trumpeter, and superior to it in abundance all the year round, comes the bastard trumpeter. . . This fish has hitherto been confounded with <i>Latris ciliaris</i> (Forst.); but, although the latter species has been reported as existing in Tasmanian waters, it is most probably a mistake: for the two varieties (the red and the white), found in such abundance here, have the general characters as shown above. . . They must be referred to the <i>Latris Forsteri</i> of Count Castelnau, which appears to be the bastard trumpeter of Victorian waters." <hw>Bat-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name in England is given to a fish of the family <i>Maltheidae</i>. It is also applied to the Flying Gurnard of the Atlantic and to the Californian Sting-ray. In Australia, and chiefly in New South Wales, it is applied to <i>Psettus argenteus</i>, Linn., family <i>Carangidae</i>, or Horse Mackerels. Guenther says that the "Sea Bats," which belong to the closely allied genus <i>Platax</i>, are called so from the extraordinary length of some portion of their dorsal and anal fins and of their ventrals. <hw>Bathurst Bur</hw>, <i>n</i>. Explained in quotation. 1855. W. Howitt, `Two Years in Victoria,' vol. i. p. 261: "The Bathurst bur (<i>Xanthium spinosuzn</i>), a plant with long triple spines like the barbary, and burs which are ruinous to the wool of the sheep--otherwise, itself very like a chenopodium, or good-fat-hen." <hw>Bats-wing-coral</hw>, <i>n</i>. the Australian wood <i>Erythrina vespertilio</i>, Bentham, <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 426: "Batswing Coral. . . .The wood is soft, and used by the aborigines for making their `heilamans,' or shields. It is exceedingly light and spongy, and of the greatest difficulty to work up to get anything like a surface for polishing." <hw>Bauera</hw>, <i>n</i>. a shrub, <i>Bauera rubioides</i>, Andr., <i>N.O. Saxifrageae</i>, the <i>Scrub Vine</i>, or <i>Native Rose</i>; commonly called in Tasmania "Bauera,"and celebrated for forming impenetrable thickets in conjunction with "cutting grass," <i>Cladium psittacorum</i>, Labill. 1835. Ross, `Hobart Town Almanack,' p. 70: "Bauera rubiaefolia. Madder leaved Bauera. A pretty little plant with pink flowers. This genus is named after the celebrated German draughtsman, whose splendid works are yet unrivalled in the art, especially of the Australian plants which he depicted in his voyage round New Holland with Capt. Flinders in the Investigator." 1888. R. M. Johnston, `Geology of Tasmania,' Intro. p. vi.: "The Bauera scrub . . . is a tiny, beautiful shrub . . . Although the branches are thin and wiry, they are too tough and too much entangled in mass to cut, and the only mode of progress often is to throw one's self high upon the soft branching mass and roll over to the other side. The progress in this way is slow, monotonous, and exhausting." 1891. `The Australasian,' April 4, p. 670, col. 2: "Cutting-grass swamps and the bauera, where a dog can't hardly go, Stringy-bark country, and blackwood beds, and lots of it broken by snow." 1891. W. Tilley, `Wild West of Tasmania,' p. 7: "Interposing the even more troublesome Bauera shrub; whose gnarled branches have earned for it the local and expressive name of `tangle-foot' or `leg ropes.' [It] has been named by Spicer the `Native Rose.'" <hw>Beal</hw>, <hw>Bool</hw>, or <hw>Bull</hw>, <i>n</i>. a sweet aboriginal drink. 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. i.: "A good jorum of <i>bull</i> (washings of a sugar bag)" [given to aborigines who have been working]. 1839. T. L. Mitchell, `Three Expeditions,' vol. ii. p. 288: "The flowers are gathered, and by steeping them a night in water the natives made a sweet beverage called `bool.'" 1878. R. Brough Smyth, `Aborigines of Victoria,' vol. i. p. 210: "In the flowers of a dwarf species of banksia (<i>B. ornata</i>) there is a good deal of honey, and this was got out of the flowers by immersing them in water. The water thus sweetened was greedily swallowed by the natives. The drink was named <i>beal</i> by the natives of the west of Victoria, and was much esteemed." <hw>Beal</hw> (2), <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Belar</i> (q.v.). <hw>Bean, Queensland</hw>, or <hw>Leichhardt</hw>, or <hw>Match-box</hw>, <i>n. Entada scandens</i>, Benth., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>. Though this bean has two Australian names, it is really widely distributed throughout the tropics. A tall climbing plant; the seeds are used for match-boxes. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 425: "The seeds are about two inches across, by half-an-inch thick, and have a hard woody and beautifully polished shell, of a dark brown or purplish colour. These seeds are converted into snuff-boxes, scent-bottles, spoons, etc., and in the Indian bazaars they are used as weights. (`Treasury of Botany.') In the colonies we usually see the beans of this plant mounted with silver, as match-boxes. The wood itself is soft, fibrous, and spongy." <hw>Bean-Tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. called also <i>Moreton Bay Chestnut, Castanospermum australe</i>, Cunn. and Fraser, <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>; a tall tree with red flowers and large seed-pods. The timber of young specimens has beautiful dark clouding. <hw>Bear, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. the colonists' name for an animal called by the aborigines Koala, Koolah, Kool-la, and Carbora (<i>Phascolarctus cinereus</i>). It is a tree-climbing marsupial, about two feet in length, like a small bear in its heavy build. Its food is the young leaves of the Eucalyptus, and it is said that the Native Bear cannot be taken to England because it would die on board ship, owing to there being no fresh gum leaves. The writers are incorrect who call the animal a sloth. 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 317 "Our coola (sloth or native bear) is about the size of an ordinary poodle dog, with shaggy, dirty-coloured fur, no tail, and claws and feet like a bear, of which it forms a tolerable miniature. It climbs trees readily and feeds upon their leaves." 1846. G. H. Haydon, `Five Years in Australia Felix,' p. 57: "The bear (phascolomys) of the colonists is in reality a species of sloth, and partakes of all the characteristics of that animal; it is of the marsupial order, and is found chiefly in the neighbourhood of thickly timbered high land; its flesh is used by the aborigines for food, but is tough and unpalatable; its usual weight is from eight to twelve pounds." [Note: <i>Phascolomys</i> is the name of the Wombat, not the Bear.] 1854. G. H. Hayden, `The Australian Emigrant,' p. 126: "The luckless <i>carbora</i> fell crashing through the branches." [Footnote] "The native name of an animal of the sloth species, but incorrectly called by the colonists a bear." 1855. W. Blandowski, `Transactions of Philosophical Society of Victoria,' vol. i. p. 68: "The koala or karbor (<i>Phascolarctus cinereus</i>) frequents very high trees, and sits in places where it is most sheltered by the branches. . . . Its fur is of the same colour as the bark . . . like the cat has the power of contracting and expanding the pupil of the eye . . . . Its skin is remarkably thick . . . dense woolly fur . . . . The natives aver that the koala never drinks water." 1865. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `History of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia,' vol. i. p. 448: "They were soon entirely out of provisions, but found a sort of substitute by living on the native bear (<i>Phascolarctus cinereus</i>), which was plentiful even in the forests." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 214: "Look, high up in the branches of that tall tree is a native bear! It sits motionless. It has something the appearance of a solemn old man. How funny his great ears and Roman nose look! He sits on the branch as if it was a chair, holding with hand-like claws the surrounding twigs." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 9: "We learned that a koala or native bear (<i>Phascolarctus cinereus</i>) was sitting on a tree near the but of a shepherd . . . not a dangerous animal. It is called `native bear,' but is in no wise related to the bear family. It is an innocent and peaceful marsupial, which is active only at night, and sluggishly climbs the trees, eating leaves and sleeping during the whole day. As soon as the young has left the pouch, the mother carries it with her on her back. The Australian bear is found in considerable numbers throughout the eastern part of the continent, even within the tropical circle." <hw>Bearded Lizard</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Jew Lizard</i>. <hw>Beardie</hw>, or <hw>Beardy</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fish. In Scotland the name is applied to the Bearded Loach, <i>Nemachilus barbatus</i>, of Europe; in New South Wales the name is given to the fish <i>Lotella marginata</i>, Macl., of the family <i>Gadidae</i>, or Cod-fishes, which is also called <i>Ling</i> (q.v.). <hw>Beaver-rat</hw>, <i>n</i>. an aquatic rodent, something like the English water-rat, genus <i>Hydromys</i>. 1864. `Proceedings of the Royal Society of Van Diemen's Land' [paper by Morton Allport], p. 62: "Common to both fresh and brackish water is the yellow bellied beaver-rat or musk-rat (<i>Hydromys chrysogaster</i>)." <hw>Beech</hw>, <i>n</i>. There is only one true Beech in Australia, <i>Fagus cunninghamii</i>, Hook, <i>N.O. Cupuliferae</i>; but the name is applied to many other kinds of Australian trees, viz.-- (1) Simply to <i>Cryptocarya glaucescens</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Laurineae</i>, called also Black Sassafras, White Laurel, She Beech, and Black Beech. <i>Flindersia australis</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Meliaceae</i>, called also Flindosa Ash, Crow's Ash, and Rasp-pod, and invariably Myrtle to Tasmania. Gmelina leichhardtii, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Verbenaceae</i>. <i>Monotoca elliptica</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Epacrideae</i>. <i>Phyllanthus ferdinandi</i>, Muell. and Arg., <i>N.O. Euphorbiaceae</i>, called also Pencil Cedar in Southern New South Wales. <i>Schizomeria ovata</i>, D. Don, <i>N.O. Saxifrageae</i>, called also Corkwood, Light-wood, Coachwood, and White Cherry. <i>Trochocarpa laurina</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Epacrideae, called</i> also Brush Cherry, and Brush Myrtle. (2) With various epithets the name is also used as follows-- Evergreen Beech-- <i>Fagus cunninghamii</i>, Hook, <i>N.O. Cupuliferae</i>, called also Myrtle and Negro-head Beech. Flindosy B.-- <i>Flindersia schottiana</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Meliaceae</i>, called also Ash and Stave-wood. Indian B.-- <i>Pongamia glabra</i>, Vent., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>, B. Fl. Mountain B.-- <i>Lomatia longifolia</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Proteaceae</i>. Native B.-- <i>Callicoma serratifolia</i>, Andr., <i>N.O. Saxifragiae</i>, "one of the trees called by the early colonists `Black Wattle,' from the fancied resemblance of the flowers to those of some of the wattles." (Maiden, p. 389.) Negro-head B., i.q. Evergreen B. (q.v. supra). Queensland B.-- <i>Gmelina leichhardtii</i> , F. v. M., <i>N.O. Verbenaceae</i>, a tall valuable timber-tree. Red B.-- <i>Tarrietia trifoliata</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Sterculiaceae</i>. She B.-- <i>Cryptocazya obovata</i>, R. Br., <i>H.0. Laurineae</i>, B. Fl., called also Bastard Sycamore. White B.-- <i>Elaeocarpus kirtoni</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Tiliaceae</i>, called also Mountain Ash. (3) In New Zealand, there are six species of true beeches, which according to Kirk are as follows-- Blair's B.-- <i>Fagus blairii</i>, T. Kirk. Entire-leaved B.-- <i>F. solandri</i>, Hook. f. Mountain B.-- <i>F. cliffortioides</i>, Hook. f. Pointed-leaved B.-- <i>F. apiculata</i>, Colenso. Silver B.-- <i>F. Menziesii</i>, Hook. f. Tooth-leaved B.-- <i>F. fusca</i>, Hook. f. All these, however, are commonly called <i>Birches</i>. See also the words <i>Ash, Myrtle, Sassafras</i>. <hw>Bee-eater</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bird-name. The European Bee-eater is <i>Merops apiaster</i>; the Australian species is <i>Merops ornatus</i>, Lath. The bird was called "<i>M. phrygius</i>, the Embroidered Merops," by Shaw. 1793. G. Shaw, `Zoology [and Botany] of New Holland,' p. 14: "Specific character.--Black Merops varied with yellow. The bird figured in its natural size on the present plate is a species of Merops or Bee-eater; a tribe which appears to be peculiarly prevalent in the extensive regions of Australia, since more birds of this genus have been discovered than of any other, except the very numerous one of Psittacus." [The birds, however, have been since this date further differentiated, and are now all classed in other genera, except the present species.] 1790. J. White, `Voyage to New South Wales,' p. 144: "The wattled bee-eater, of which a plate is annexed, fell in our way during the course of the day. . . . Under the eye, on each side, is a kind of wattle of an orange colour. . . This bird seems to be peculiar to New Holland." Ibid. p. 190: "We this day shot a knob-fronted bee-eater (see plate annexed). This is about the size of a black-bird." [Description follows.] <hw>Beef-wood</hw>, <i>n</i>. the timber of various Australian trees, especially of the genus <i>Casuarina</i>, and some of the Banksias; often used as a synonym of <i>She-oak</i> (q.v.). The name is taken from the redness of the wood. 1826. J. Atkinson, `Agriculture and Grazing in New South Wales,' p. 31: "The wood is well known in England by the names of Botany Bay wood, or beef wood.The grain is very peculiar, but the wood is thought very little of in the colony; it makes good shingles, splits, in the colonial phrase, from heart to bark . . ." 1833. C. Sturt, `Southern Australia,' vol. i. c. i. p. 22: "They seemed to be covered with cypresses and beef-wood." 1846. C. Holtzapffel, `Turning,' vol. i. p. 74: "Beef wood. Red-coloured woods are sometimes thus named, but it is generally applied to the Botany-Bay oak." 1852. G. C. Munday, `Our Antipodes' (edition 1855), p. 219: "A shingle of the beef-wood looks precisely like a raw beef-steak." 1856. Capt. H. Butler Stoney, `A Residence in Tasmania,' p. 265: "We now turn our attention to some trees of a very different nature, <i>Casuarina stricta</i> and <i>quadrivalvis</i>, commonly called He and She oak, and sometimes known by the name of beef-wood, from the wood, which is very hard and takes a high polish, exhibiting peculiar maculae spots and veins scattered throughout a finely striated tint . . ." 1868. Paxton's `Botanical Dictionary,' p. 116: "Casuarinaceae,or Beefwoods. Curious branching, leafless trees or shrubs, with timber of a high order, which is both hard and heavy, and of the colour of raw beef, whence the vulgar name." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants.' (See `Index of vernacular names.') <hw>Belar</hw>, <i>n</i>. (various spellings, <i>Belah, billa, beela, beal</i>), an aboriginal name for the tree <i>Casuarina glauca</i>. The colonists call the tree Bull-oak, probably from this native name. 1862. H. C. Kendall, `Poems,' p. 18: "A voice in the beela grows wild in its wail." 1868. J. A. B., `Meta,' p. 19: "With heartfelt glee we hail the camp, And blazing fire of beal." [Footnote]: "Aboriginal name of the gum-tree wood." 1874. W. H. L. Ranken, `Dominion of Australia,' c. vi. p. 110: "These scrubs . . . sometimes crown the watersheds as `belar.'" <hw>Bell-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to several birds, from their note, like the tinkling of a bell. In Australia, a Honey-eater, <i>Myzantha melanophrys</i>, Gould ('Birds of Australia,' vol. iv. pl. 80), the `Australian Bell-bird' (the same bird as <i>Myzantha flavirostris</i>, V. and H.), chiefly found in New South Wales; also <i>Oreoica gutturalis</i>, Gould (vol. ii. pl. 81), the `Bell-bird' of Western Australia; and <i>Oreoica cristata</i>, Lewin. In New Zealand, <i>Anthornis melanura</i>, Sparrm., chief Maori names, <i>Korimako</i> (q.v.) in North, and <i>Makomako</i> in South. Buller gives ten Maori names. The settlers call it <i>Moko</i> (q.v.). There is also a Bell-bird in Brazil. 1774. J. Hawkesworth, `Voyages,' vol. ii. p. 390 [Journal of Jan. 17, 1770): "In the morning we were awakened by the singing of the birds; the number was incredible, and they seemed to strain their throats in emulation of each other. This wild melody was infinitely superior to any that we had ever heard of the same kind; it seemed to be like small bells most exquisitely tuned, and perhaps the distance, and the water between, might be no small advantage to the sound. Upon enquiry we were informed that the birds here always began to sing about two hours after midnight, and continuing their music till sunrise were, like our nightingales, silent the rest of the day." [This celebrated descriptive passage by Dr. Hawkesworth is based upon the following original from `Banks's Journal,' which now, after an interval of 122 years, has just been published in London, edited by Sir J. D. Hooker.] 1770. J. Banks, `Journal,' Jan. 17 (edition 1896): "I was awakened by the singing of the birds ashore, from whence we are distant not a quarter of a mile. Their numbers were certainly very great. They seemed to strain their throats with emulation, and made, perhaps, the most melodious wild music I have ever heard, almost imitating small bells, but with the most tunable silver sound imaginable, to which, maybe, the distance was no small addition. On inquiring of our people, I was told that they had observed them ever since we had been here, and that they began to sing about one or two in the morning, and continue till sunrise, after which they are silent all day, like our nightingales." 1802. G. Barrington, `History of New South Wales,' c. viii. p. 84: "The cry of the bell-bird seems to be unknown here." 1827. Vigors and Horsfield, `Transactions of Linnaean Society,' vol. xv. p. 319: "Mr. Caley thus observes on this bird: `Dell-bird or Bell-bird. So called by the colonists. It is an inhabitant of bushes, where its disagreeable noise (disagreeable at least to me) [but not to the poets] may be continually heard; but nowhere more so than on going up the harbour to Paramatta, when a little above the Flats.'" 1835. T. B. Wilson, `Voyage Round the World,' p. 259: "During the night, the bell bird supplied, to us, the place of the wakeful nightingale . . . a pleasing surprise, as we had hitherto supposed that the birds in New Holland were not formed for song." 1839. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' p. 23: "Every bough seemed to throng with feathered musicians: the melodious chimes of the bell-bird were specially distinct." 1845. R. Howitt, `Australia,' p. 102: "Look at the bell-bird's nest, admire the two spotted salmon coloured eggs." Ibid. ('Verses written whilst we lived in tents'), p. 171: "Through the Eucalyptus shade, Pleased could watch the bell-bird's flutter, Blending with soft voice of waters The delicious tones they utter." 1846. Lady Martin, `Bush journey, 1846, Our Maoris,' p. 93: "We did hear the birds next morning as Captain Cook had described --first the bell-bird gave its clear, full note, and then came such a jargoning as made one's heart glad." 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. ii. pl. 81: "<i>Oreoica gutturalis</i>, Gould. Crested Oreoica. <i>Bell-bird</i>, Colonists of Swan River [Western Australia]. . . I find the following remarks in my note-book-- `Note, a very peculiar piping whistle, sounding like <i>weet-weet-weet-weet-oo</i>, the last syllable fully drawn out and very melodious. . . . In Western Australia, where the real Bell-bird is never found, this species has had that appellation given to it,--a term which must appear ill-applied to those who have heard the note of the true Bell-bird of the brushes of New South Wales, whose tinkling sound so nearly resembles that of a distant sheep-bell as occasionally to deceive the ears of a practised shepherd." 1866. Lady Barker, `Station Life in New Zealand,' p. 93: "Every now and then we stood, by common consent, silent and almost breathless, to listen to the bell-bird, a dingy little fellow, nearly as large as a thrush with the plumage of a chaffinch, but with such a note! How can I make you hear its wild, sweet, plaintive tone, as a little girl of the party said `just as if it had a bell in its throat;' but indeed it would require a whole peal of silver bells to ring such an exquisite chime." 1868. F. Napier Broome, `Canterbury Rhymes,' second edition, p. 108: "Where the bell-bird sets solitudes ringing, Many times I have heard and thrown down My lyre in despair of all singing." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 21: "Listen to the bell-bird. Ping, ping, sounds through the vast hushed temple of nature." 1883. G. W. Rusden, `History of Australia,' vol. i. p. 81: "The bell-bird, with metallic but mellow pipe, warns the wanderer that he is near water in some sequestered nook." 1886. H. C. Kendall, `Poems,' p. 8: "And softer than slumber and sweeter than singing, The notes of the bell-bird are running and ringing." 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 85: "<i>Anthornis melanura</i>. Chatham Island Bell-bird (<i>A. Melanocephala</i>), the Bell-bird--so-called from the fanciful resemblance of one of its notes to the distant tolling of a bell." 1889. Prof. Parker, `Catalogue of New Zealand Exhibition,' p. 119: "Bell-bird, Korimako,or Makomako (<i>Anthornis melanura</i>), is still common in many parts of the South Island--e.g. in the neighbourhood of Dunedin; but has almost disappeared from the North Island. Its song is remarkably fine." 1893. W. P. Reeves, `The Passing of the Forest,' `Review of Reviews,' Feb. 1893, p. 45: "Gone are the forest birds, arboreal things, Eaters of honey, honey-sweet in song; The tui, and the bell-bird--he who sings That brief rich music one would fain prolong.' 1896. G. A. Keartland, `Horne Expedition in Central Australia,' Part II., Zoology, <i>Aves</i>, p. 74: "In the north they [Oreoica] are frequently called `Bell-birds,' but bear no resemblance to <i>Manorhina melanophrys</i> in plumage, shape, or note. The Oreoica is such an accomplished ventriloquist that it is difficult to find." <hw>Bell-bottomed</hw>, <i>adj</i>. a particular fashion of trouser affected by the <i>larrikin</i> (q.v.). 1891. `The Argus,' Dec. 5, p. 13, col. 2: "Can it be that the pernicious influence of the House is gradually tingeing the high priests of the bell-bottomed ballottee with conservatism!" <hw>Bell-Frog, Golden</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Golden Bell-Frog</i>. <hw>Bell-topper</hw>, <i>n</i>. The ordinary Australian name for the tall silk-hat. 1860. W. Kelly, `Life in Victoria,' p. 268 [Footnote]: "Bell-topper was the derisive name given by diggers to old style hat, supposed to indicate the dandy swell." <hw>Benjamin</hw>, <i>n</i>. a husband, in Australian pigeon-English. 1870. Chas. H. Allen, `A Visit to Queensland and her Goldfields,' p. 182: "There are certain native terms that are used by the whites also as a kind of colonial slang, such as `yabber,' to talk; `budgeree,' good; `bale,' no; `yan,' to go; `cabon,' much; and so on. "With the black people a husband is now called a `benjamin,' probably because they have no word to their own language to express this relationship." <hw>Benjamin-Tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. also called <i>Weeping Fig</i> in Queensland, Ficus benjaminea, Linn., <i>N.O. Urticaceae</i>. <hw>Bent-grass</hw>. <i>n</i>. See <i>Grass</i>. 1835. Ross, `Hobart Town Almanack,' p. 65: <i>"Agrostis virginica</i>. Virginian Agrostis, or Bent-grass. . . . Many species of this genus go under the general name of Bent-grass. Their roots spread along among light and sandy soil in which they generally grow with joints like the Squitch or Couch grass of England." <hw>Berigora</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for a bird of genus <i>Falco</i>, from <i>beri</i>, claw, and <i>gora</i>, long. See <i>Hawk</i> 1827. Vigors and Horsfield, `Transactions of Linnaean Society,' vol. xv. p. 185: "The native name of this bird which we have adopted as its specific name, is <i>Berigora</i>. It is called by the settlers <i>Orange-speckled Hawk</i>." 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' I. i. pl. 11: "<i>Hieracidea berigora</i>. Brown Hawk. Berigora, Aborigines of New South Wales. Orange-speckled Hawk of the Colonists." <hw>Berley</hw>, <i>n</i>. term used by Australian fishermen for ground bait. It is probably of aboriginal origin. 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish and Fisheries of New South Wales,' p. 75: "With hook and line along the rocks of our sea-coast these fishes are caught, but the bait should be crabs. It is usual to wrench legs and shell off the back, and cast them out for Berley." 1896. `Badminton Magazine,' August, p. 201: "I would signal to the sharks by opening and washing out a few of the largest fish at the boat's head, sometimes adding bait chopped small to serve for what Australian fishermen call Berley." <hw>Betcherrygah</hw>, <i>n</i>. bird-name, <i>Melopsittacus undulatus</i>, Shaw. See Budgerigar. <hw>Bettongia</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name of the genus of Prehensile-tailed <i>Kangaroo-Rats</i>, whose aboriginal name is <i>Bettong</i>. They are the only ground-dwelling marsupials with prehensile tails, which they use for carrying bunches of grasses and sticks. See <i>Kangaroo-Rat</i>. <hw>Biddy-biddy</hw>, or <hw>Biddybid</hw>, <i>n</i>. a corruption of Maori name <i>piripiri</i>. It is a kind of bur. 1880. T. H. Potts, `Out in the Open, `New Zealand Country Journal,' vol. xii. p. 95: "Piri-piri (<i>acaena sanguisorbe</i>) by settlers has been converted or corrupted into biddy-biddy; a verb has been formed on it, which is in very constant use for a good part of the year at least. To biddy, is to rid one of burrs, as `I'll just biddy my clothes before I come in.' Small birds are occasionally found in a wretched state of discomfort in which they appear a moving mass of burrs. Parroquets, pipets, and the little white-eyes, have been found victims suffering from these tenacious burrs of the piri-piri, just moving little brown balls unable to fly till picked up and released from their bonds." 1896. `Otago Witness,' Jan. 23, vol. ii. p. 36: "Yes, biddybids detract very materially from the value of the wool, and the plant should not be allowed to seed where sheep are depastured. They are not quite so bad as the Bathurst burr, but they are certainly in the same category." <hw>Biddy</hw>, <i>v</i>. See <i>Biddy-biddy, n</i>. <hw>Bidgee Widgee</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to a Tasmanian <i>Bur</i> (q.v.). <hw>Bidyan Ruffe</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fresh-water fish of New South Wales, <i>Therapon richardsonii</i>, Castln., family <i>Percidae</i>. Mr. J. Douglas Ogilby, Assistant Zoologist at the Australian Museum, Sydney, says in a letter "The Bidyan Ruffe of Sir Thomas Mitchell is our <i>Therapon ellipticus</i>, Richards (<i>T. richardsonii</i>, Castln.). Found in all the rivers of the Murray system, and called <i>Kooberry</i> by the natives." It is also called the <i>Silver Perch</i> and sometimes <i>Bream</i>. 1838. T. L. Mitchell, `Three Expeditions,' vol. i. p. 95 [Note]: "Bidyan is the aboriginal name." Ibid. vol. i. p. 135: "Abundance of that which the men commonly called bream (<i>Cernua bidyana</i>), a very coarse but firm fish, which makes a groaning noise when taken out of the water." <hw>Big-head</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fish. The name is used locally for various fishes; in Australia it is <i>Eleotris nudiceps</i>, Castln., family <i>Gobiidae</i>, a river fish. Of the genus <i>Eleotris</i>, Guenther says that as regards form they repeat almost all the modifications observed among the Gobies, from which they differ only in having the ventral fins non-coalescent. See <i>Bull-head</i> (2). <hw>Billabong</hw>, <i>n</i>. an effluent from a river, returning to it, or often ending in the sand, in some cases running only in flood time. In the Wiradhuri dialect of the centre of New South Wales, East coast, <i>billa</i> means a river and <i>bung</i> dead. See <i>Bung. Billa</i> is also a river in some Queensland dialects, and thus forms part of the name of the river Belyando. In the Moreton Bay dialect it occurs in the form <i>pill</i> , and in the sense of `tidal creek.' In the `Western Australian Almanack' for 1842, quoted in J. Fraser's `Australian Language,' 1892, Appendix, p. 50, <i>Bilo</i> is given for <i>River</i>. <i> Billabong</i> is often regarded as a synonym for <i>Anabranch</i> (q.v.); but there is a distinction. From the original idea, the <i>Anabranch</i> implies rejoining the river; whilst the <i>Billabong</i> implies continued separation from it; though what are called <i>Billabongs</i> often do rejoin. 1862. W. Landsborough, `Exploration of Australia,' p. 30: "A dried-up tributary of the Gregory, which I named the Macadam." [Footnote]: "In the south, such a creek as the Macadam is termed a <i>billy-bonn</i> [sic], from the circumstance of the water carrier returning from it with his pitcher (<i>billy</i>) empty (<i>bong</i>, literally dead)." 1865. W. Howitt, `Discovery in Australia, vol. i. p. 298: "What the Major calls, after the learned nomenclature of Colonel Jackson, in the `Journal of the Geographical Society,' anabranches, but which the natives call billibongs, channels coming out of a stream and returning into it again." 1880. P. J. Holdsworth, `Station Hunting on the Warrego:' "In yon great range may huddle billabongs." 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 25: "What a number of swallows skim about the `billabongs' along the rivers in this semi-tropical region." 1893. `The Argus,' April 8, p. 4, col. 1: "Let's make a start at once, d'ye hear; I want to get over to the billabong by sunrise." <hw>Billet</hw>, <i>n</i>. an appointment, a position; a very common expression in Australia, but not confined to Australia; adapted from the meaning, "an official order requiring the person to whom it is addressed to provide board and lodging for the soldier bearing it." (`O.E.D.') 1890. E. W. Hornung, `A Bride from the Bush,' p. 267: "If ever she went back to Australia, she'd remember my young man, and get him a good billet." <hw>Billy</hw>, <i>n</i>. a tin pot used as a bushman's kettle. The word comes from the proper name, used as abbreviation for William. Compare the common uses of `Jack,' `Long Tom,' `Spinning Jenny.' It came into use about 1850. It is not used in the following. 1830. R. Dawson, `Present State of Australia,' p. 48: "He then strikes a light and makes a fire to boil his kettle and fry his bacon." About 1850, the billy superseded the <i>quart-pot</i> (q.v.), chiefly because of its top-handle and its lid. Another suggested derivation is that billy is shortened from <i>billycan</i>, which is said to be bully-can (sc. Fr. <i>bouili</i>). In the early days "<i>boeuf bouilli</i>" was a common label on tins of preserved meat in ship's stores. These tins, called "bully-tins," were used by diggers and others as the modern billy is (see quotation 1835). A third explanation gives as the origin the aboriginal word <i>billa</i> (river or water). 1835. T. B. Wilson, `Voyage Round the World,' p. 238: "An empty preserved meat-canister serving the double purpose of tea-kettle and tea-pot." [The word <i>billy</i> is not used, but its origin is described.] 1857. W. Howitt, `Tallangetta,' vol. i. p. 202: "A tin pan bearing the familiar name of a billy." 1871 J. J. Simpson, `Recitations,' p. 5: "He can't get a billy full for many a mile round." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 41: "A billy (that is a round tin pitcher with a lid) in his hand." 1889. Cassell's `Picturesque Australasia,' vol. iv. p. 69: "A tin can, which the connoisseurs call for some reason or other a `billy.'" 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Squatter's Dream,' p. 24: "A very black camp-kettle, or billy, of hot tea." 1892. `The Australasian,' April 9, p. 707, col. 4: "How we praised the simple supper (we prepared it each in turn), And the tea! Ye gods! 'twas nectar. Yonder billy was our urn." <hw>Billy-can</hw>, <i>n.</i> a variation of the above, more used by townsmen than bushmen. 1892. `The Australasian,' April 9, p. 707, col. 4: "But I said, `Dear friend and brother, yonder billy-can is mine; You may confiscate the washing that is hanging on the line, You may depredate the larder, take your choice of pot and pan; But, I pray thee, kind sundowner, spare, oh spare, my billy-can.'" <hw>Bingy</hw> [<i>g</i> soft], <i>n</i>. stomach or belly. Aboriginal. The form at Botany Bay was <i>bindi</i>; at Jervis Bay, <i>binji</i>. 1851. Rev. David Mackenzie, `Ten Years in Australia,' p. 140: "They lay rolling themselves on the ground, heavily groaning in pain, and with their hands rubbing their bellies, exclaiming, `Cabonn buggel along bingee' (that is, I am very sick in the stomach)." <hw>Birch</hw>, <i>n</i>. In New Zealand, the trees called birches are really <i>beeches</i> (q.v.), but the term birch is used very vaguely; see quotation 1889. In Tasmania, the name is applied to <i>Dodonaea ericifolia</i>, Don., <i>N.O. Sapindaceae</i>. 1853. J. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand,' p. 125: "White-birch of Nelson and Otago (from colour of bark), Black-heart Birch of Wellington, <i>Fagus solandri</i>, Hook, a lofty, beautiful ever-green tree, 100 feet high. Black-birch (Tawhai) of Auckland and Otago (from colour of bark), Red-birch of Wellington and Nelson (from colour of timber), <i>Fagus fusca, N.O. Cupuliferae</i>, a noble tree 60 to 90 feet high." 1889. T. Kirk, `Forest Flora of New Zealand,' p. 91: "Like all small-leaved forest trees it [<i>Fagus solandri</i>, Hook. f.] is termed `birch' by the bushman. . . . It is not too much to say that the blundering use of common names in connection with the New Zealand beeches, when the timber has been employed in bridges and constructive works, has caused waste and loss to the value of many thousands of pounds." <hw>Bird-catching Plant</hw>, <i>n</i>. a New Zealand shrub or tree, <i>Pisonia brunoniana</i>, Endl., <i>N.O. Nyctagineae</i>; Maori name, <i>Parapara</i>. 1883. R. H. Govett, `Transactions of the New Zealand Institute,' vol. xvi. Art. xxviii. p. 364:: "A Bird-killing Tree. . . . In a shrub growing in my father's garden at New Plymouth, two Silver-eyes (<i>Zosterops</i>) and an English Sparrow had been found with their wings so glued by the sticky seed-vessels that they were unable to move, and could only fly away after having been carefully washed." 1889. T. Kirk, `Forest Flora of New Zealand,' p. 293: "It is sometimes termed the `birdcatching plant' by settlers and bushmen . . . It will always be a plant of special interest, as small birds are often found captured by its viscid fruits, to which their feathers become attached as effectively as if they were glued." <hw>Bird's-nest fungus</hw>, <i>n</i>. a small fungus of the genus <i>Cyathus</i>, four species of which occur in Queensland. <hw>Bitter-Bark</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian tree, <i>Petalostigma quadrilo</i> culare, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Euphorbiacea</i>. Called also <i>Crab-tree, Native Quince, Emu apple</i>, and <i>Quinine-tree</i>. The bark contains a powerful bitter essence, which is used medicinally. The name is also applied to <i>Tabernaemontana orientalis</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Apocyneae</i>, and to <i>Alstonia constricta</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Aporynacece</i>, which is also called Feverbark. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 204: "Bitter Bark. This small tree has an intensely bitter bark, and a decoction of it is sometimes sold as `bitters." <hw>Bitter-Leaf</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian name for the <i>Native Hop</i>. See <i>Hops</i> and <i>Hopbush</i>. <hw>Bittern</hw>, <i>n</i>. bird-name well known in England. The Australian species are-- The Bittern-- <i>Botaurus paeciloptilus</i>, Wagl. Black B.-- <i>Butoroides flavicollis</i>, Lath. Green B.-- <i>B. javanica</i>, Horsfield. Little B.-- <i>Ardetta pusilla</i>, Vieill. <hw>Blackberry, Native</hw>, or <hw>Bramble</hw>, <i>n</i>. called also <i>Raspberry</i>. Three species of the genus <i>Rubus</i> occur in Queensland--<i>Rubus moluccanus</i>, Linn., <i>R. parvifolius</i>, Linn., <i>R. rosifolius</i>, Smith, <i>N.O. Rosaceae</i> See also <i>Lawyer</i>. <hw>Blackbird</hw>, <i>n</i>. "A cant name for a captive negro, or Polynesian, on board a slave or pirate ship." (`O.E.D.') But no instance is given of its use for a negro. 1871. `Narrative of the Voyage of the Brig Carl' [pamphlet] "They were going to take a cruise round the islands `black-bird' catching." 1872. `The Argus,' Dec. 21, Supplement, p. 2, col. 1 [Chief Justice's charge in the case of the `Carl Outrage']: "They were not going pearl-fishing but blackbird-hunting. It is said you should have evidence as to what blackbird-hunting meant. I think it is a grievous mistake to pretend to ignorance of things passing before our eyes everyday. We may know the meaning of slang words, though we do not use them. Is there not a wide distinction between blackbird-hunting and a legitimate labour-trade, if such a thing is to be carried on? What did he allude to? To get labourers honestly if they could, but, if not, any way?" 1881. `Chequered Career,' p.188 (`O.E.D.') "The white men on board know that if once the `blackbirds' burst the hatches . . . they would soon master the ship." <hw>Black-birding</hw>, <i>n</i>. kidnapping natives of South Sea islands for service in Queensland plantations. 1871. `Narrative of the Voyage of the Brig Carl' [pamphlet]: "All the three methods, however, of obtaining labour in the South Seas--that which was just and useful, that which was of suspicious character, and that which was nothing, more or less, than robbery and murder--were in use the same time, and all three went by the same general slang term of `blackbirding,' or `blackbird catching.'" 1872. Rev. H. S. Fagan, `The Dark Blue' (Magazine), June, p. 437: "Well, you see how it is that C is not safe, even though he is a missionary bishop, after A has made the name of missionary an offence by his ingenious mode of `black-birding.'" 1892. Gilbert Parker, `Round the Compass in Australia,' p. 78: "In the early days of sugar-planting there may have been black-birding, but it was confined to a very few, and it is done away with altogether now." <hw>Black-birding</hw>, <i>adj</i>. 1883. `The Academy,' Sept. 8, p. 158 (`O.E.D.') "[He] slays Bishop Patteson by way of reprisal for the atrocities of some black-birding crew." <hw>Blackboy</hw>, <i>n</i>. a grass-tree. Name applied to all species of the genus <i>Xanthorroea</i>, but especially to <i>X. preissii</i>, Endl., <i>N.O. Liliaceae</i>. Compare <i>Maori-head</i>. 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discovery in Australia,' ii. 4, 132: "Black Boy . . . gum on the spear, resin on the trunk." Ibid. ii. 12, 280 [Note] "These trees, called blackboys by the colonists, from the resemblance they bear in the distance to natives." 1873. A. Trollope, `Australia and New Zealand,' vol. ii. p. 92: "Gas admirably fitted for domestic purposes had been extracted from the shrub called the `blackboy.' I regret to state that the gas . . . is not . . . at present known in the colony." 1886. R. Henty, `Australiana,' p. 15: "The common grass-tree or `blackboy,' so called from its long dark stem and dark seed head (when dry)." 1896. `The Australasian,' Feb. 15, p. 313 (with an Illustration): "The Blackboy trees are a species of grass-tree or <i>Xanthorrhoea</i>, exuding a gummy substance used by the blacks for fastening glass and quartz-barbs to their spears. Many years ago, when coal was scarce in Western Australia, an enterprising firm . . . erected a gas-making plant, and successfully lit their premises with gas made from the Blackboy." 1896. Modern: A story is told of a young lady saying to a naval officer:-- "I was this morning watching your ship coming into harbour, and so intently that I rode over a young blackboy." The officer was shocked at her callousness in expressing no contrition. <hw>Black-Bream</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian fish, <i>Chrysophrys australis</i>, Gunth., family <i>Sparidae</i>, or Sea-Breams; called in Tasmania <i>Silver-Bream</i>, the fish there called <i>Black-Bream</i> being another of the <i>Sparidae</i>, <i>Girella tricuspidata</i>, Cuv. and Val. See <i>Tarwhine</i> and <i>Black-fish</i>. 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish of New South Wales,' p. 42: "<i>Chrysophrys</i> comprises the tarwhine and black-bream of the Sydney fishermen. . . . We have two species in Australia. . . . The black-bream, <i>C. australis</i>, Gunth., and the tarwhine, <i>C. sarba</i>, Forsk. . . . The Australian bream is as common on the south as on the east coast. It affords excellent sport to anglers in Victoria." <hw>Blackbutt</hw>, <i>n</i>. <i>Eucalyptus pilularis</i>, Smith, Victoria; <i>E. regnans</i>, F. v. M., New South Wales; a timber tree, a gum. Another name is <i>Flintwood</i>. The lower part of the trunk is black. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 49: "The range . . . having with the exception of the Blackbutt all the trees . . . of Moreton Bay." 1863. M. K. Beveridge, `Gatherings among Gum-trees,' p. 86: "'Tis there the `blackbut' rears its head." 1894. `Melbourne Museum Catalogue, Economic Woods,' p. 30: "A tree of considerable size. . . The bark smooth and falling off in flakes upward, and on the branches." 1897. `The Age,' Feb. 22, p. 5, col. 3: "Mr. Richards stated that the New South Wales black butt and tallow wood were the most durable and noiseless woods for street-paving, as well as the best from a sanitary point of view." <hw>Black-Cod</hw>, <i>n</i>. a New Zealand fish, <i>Notothenia angustata</i>. <hw>Blackfellow</hw>, <i>n</i>. an aboriginal Australian. 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discovery in Australia,' i. 4, 74: "The native Miago . . . appeared delighted that these `black fellows,' as he calls them, have no throwing sticks." 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 9: "The well-known tracks of blackfellows are everywhere visible." 1871. Dingo, `Australian Rhymes,' p. 14: "Wurragaroo loved Wangaraday In a blackfellow's own peculiar way." <hw>Black-Fern</hw>, <i>n</i>. The Tasmanian species so called is <i>Athyrium australe</i>, Presl., <i>N.O. Polypodeae</i>. <hw>Black-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is given, especially in Sydney, to the sea-fishes <i>Girella simplex</i>, Richards (see <i>Ludrick</i>), and <i>Girella tricuspidata</i>, Cuv. and Val.; also to a fresh-water fish all over Australia, <i>Gadopsis marmoratus</i>, Richards. <i>G. marmoratus</i> is very common in New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, and parts of Tasmania. There are local varieties. It is much esteemed as a food fish, but is, like all mud fishes, rich and oily. <i>Girella</i> belongs to the family <i>Sparida</i>, or Sea-Breams, and <i>Gadopsis</i> to the <i>Gadopsidae</i>, a family allied to that containing the Cod fishes. The name was also formerly applied to a whale. 1853. C. St. Julian and E. K. Silvester, `Productions, Industry, and Resources of New South Wales,' p. 115: "There is a species of whale called by those engaged in the south sea fishing the <i>Black-fish</i> or <i>Black-whale</i>, but known to the naturalist as the Southern Rorqual, which the whalemen usually avoid." 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 100 "Nothing is better eating than a properly cooked black-fish. The English trout are annihilating them, however." <hw>Black-Line</hw>. See <i>Black-War</i>. <hw>Black-Perch</hw>, <i>n.</i> a river fish of New South Wales. <i>Therapon niger</i>, Castln., family <i>Percidae</i>. A different fish from those to which the name is applied elsewhere. See <i>Perch</i>. <hw>Black-and-white Ringed Snake</hw>. See under <i>Snake</i>. <hw>Black Rock-Cod</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian fish, chiefly of New South Wales, <i>Serranus daemeli</i>, Gunth.; a different fish from the <i>Rock-Cod</i> of the northern hemisphere. The Serrani belong to the family <i>Percidae</i>, and are commonly called "Sea-perches." 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish of New South Wales,' p. 33: "The genus <i>Serranus</i> comprises most of the fishes known as `rock cod.'. . . One only is sufficiently useful as an article of food to merit notice, and that is the `black rock cod' (<i>Serranus damelii</i>, Guenther), without exception the very best of all our fishes." <hw>Black-Snake.</hw> See under <i>Snake</i>. <hw>Black-Swan.</hw> See <i>Swan</i>. <hw>Black Thursday</hw>, the day of a Victorian conflagration, which occurred on Feb. 6, 1851. The thermometer was 112 degrees in the shade. Ashes from the fire at Macedon, 46 miles away, fell in Melbourne. The scene forms the subject of the celebrated picture entitled "Black Thursday," by William Strutt, R.B.A. 1859. Rev. J. D. Mereweather, `Diary of a Working Clergyman in Australia,' p. 81: "Feb. 21 . . . Dreadful details are reaching us of the great bush fires which took place at Port Phillip on the 6th of this month . . . . Already it would seem that the appellation of `Black Thursday' has been given to the 6th February, 1851, for it was on that day that the fires raged with the greatest fury." 1889. Rev. J. H. Zillman, `Australian Life,' p. 39: "The old colonists still repeat the most terrible stories of Black Thursday, when the whole country seemed to be on fire. The flames leaped from tree to tree, across creeks, hills, and gullies, and swept everything away. Teams of bullocks in the yoke, mobs of cattle and horses, and even whole families of human beings, in their bush-huts, were completely destroyed, and the charred bones alone found after the wind and fire had subsided." <hw>Black-Tracker</hw>, <i>n</i>. an aboriginal employed in tracking criminals. 1867. `Australia as it is,' pp. 88-9: "The native police, or `black trackers,' as they are sometimes called, are a body of aborigines trained to act as policemen, serving under a white commandant--a very clever expedient for coping with the difficulty . . . of hunting down and discovering murderous blacks, and others guilty of spearing cattle and breaking into huts . . ." 1870. `The Argus,' March 26, p. 5, col. 4: "The troopers, with the assistance of two black trackers, pursued the bushrangers . . ." 1870. Ibid. April 13, p. 6, col. 7: . . . two members of the police force and a black tracker . . . called at Lima station . . ." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. xvii. p. 165: "Get the black-trackers on the trail." 1893. `The Argus,' April 8, p. 4, col. 3 . "Only three weeks before he had waddied his gin to death for answering questions put to her by a blacktracker, and now he advanced to Charlie . . . and said,. . . `What for you come alonga black fella camp?'" 1896. `The Argus,' March 30, p. 6, col. 9: "About one hundred and fifty horsemen have been out to-day in addition to the local police. The black-trackers arrived by the train last night, and commenced work this morning." <hw>Black-Trevally</hw>. See <i>Trevally</i>. <hw>Black-War</hw>, or <hw>Black-Line</hw>, a military operation planned in 1830 by Governor Arthur for the capture of the Tasmanian aborigines. A levy <i>en masse</i> of the colonists was ordered. About 5000 men formed the "black line," which advanced across the island from north to south-east, with the object of driving the tribes into Tasman's Peninsula. The operation proved a complete failure, two blacks only being captured at a cost to the Government of L 30,000. 1835. H. Melville, `History of Van Diemen's Land,' p. 103: "The parties forming the `black line,' composed, as they were, of a curious melange of masters and servants, took their respective stations at the appointed time. As the several parties advanced, the individuals along the line came closer and closer together --the plan was to keep on advancing slowly towards a certain peninsula, and thus frighten the Aborigines before them, and hem them in." 1852. J. West, `History of Tasmania,' vol, ii. p. 54: "Thus closed the Black War. This campaign of a month supplied many adventures and many an amusing tale, and, notwithstanding the gravity of his Excellency, much fun and folly . . . . Five thousand men had taken the field. Nearly L 30,000 had been expended, and probably not much less in time and outlay by the settlers, and two persons only were captured." <hw>Black Wednesday</hw>, <i>n</i>. a political phrase for a day in Victoria (Jan. 9, 1878), when the Government without notice dismissed many Civil Servants, including heads of departments, County Court judges and police magistrates, on the ground that the Legislative Council had not voted the money for their salaries. 1878. `Melbourne Punch,' May 16, vol. xlvi. p. 195 [Title of Cartoon]: "In Memoriam. Black Wednesday, 9th January 1878." 1896. `The Argus,' [Sydney telegram] Aug. 18, p. 6, col. 4: "The times in the public service at present reminded him of Black Wednesday in Victoria, which he went through. That caused about a dozen suicides among public servants. Here it had not done so yet, but there was not a head of a department who did not now shake in his shoes." <hw>Blackwood</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian timber, <i>Acacia melanoxylon</i>, R. Br.; often called <i>Lightwood</i>; it is dark in colour but light in weight. 1828. `Report of Van Diemen's Land Company,' Bischoff, `Van Diemen's Land, 1832,' p. 118 "Without a tree except a few stumps of blackwood." 1884. Rolf Boldrewood, `Melbourne Memories,' p. 21: "Grassy slopes thickly timbered with handsome Blackwood trees." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 359: "Called `Blackwood' on account of the very dark colour of the mature wood." 1894. `Melbourne Museum Catalogue, Economic Woods,' p. 4: "Blackwood, Lightwood--rather frequent on many rich river-flats . . . .It is very close-grained and heavy, and is useful for all purposes where strength and flexibility are required." <hw>Bladder Saltbush</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Queensland shrub, <i>Atriplex vesicarium</i>, Heward, <i>N.O. Salsolaceae</i>. The Latin and vernacular names both refer to "the bladdery appendage to fruiting perianth." (Bailey.) See <i>Saltbush</i>. <hw>Blandfordia</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name of the <i>Gordon-Lily</i> (see under <i>Lily</i>). The plant was named after George, Marquis of Blandford, son of the second Duke of Marlborough. The Tasmanian aboriginals called the plant <i>Remine</i>, which name has been given to a small port where it grows in profusion on the west coast. <hw>Bleeding-Heart</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Kennedya</i> (q.v.). 1896. `The Melburnian,' Aug. 28, p. 53: "The trailing scarlet kennedyas, aptly called the `bleeding- heart' or `coral-pea,' brighten the greyness of the sandy peaty wastes." <hw>Blight</hw>. See <i>Sandy-blight</i>. <hw>Blight-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bird-name in New Zealand for the <i>Zosterops</i> (q.v.). Called also <i>Silver-eye</i> (q.v.), <i>Wax-eye</i>, and <i>White-eye</i> (q.v.). It is called Blight-bird because it eats the blight on trees. 1882. T. H. Potts, `Out in the Open,' p. 130: "The white-eye or blight-bird, with cheerful note, in crowded flocks, sweeps over the face of the country, and in its progress clears away multitudes of small insect pests." 1885. A. Hamilton, `Native Birds of Petane, Hawke's Bay,' `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. xviii. p. 125: "<i>Zosterops lateralis</i>, white-eye, blight-bird. One of our best friends, and abundant in all parts of the district." 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' (2nd ed.) vol. i. p. 82: "By the settlers it has been variously designated as Ring-eye, Wax-eye, White-eye, or Silver-eye, in allusion to the beautiful circlet of satiny-white feathers which surrounds the eyes; and quite as commonly the `Blightbird' or `Winter-migrant.' . . . It feeds on that disgusting little aphis known as American blight, which so rapidly covers with a fatal cloak of white the stems and branches of our best apple-trees; it clears our early cabbages of a pestilent little insect, that left unchecked would utterly destroy the crop; it visits our gardens and devours another swarming parasite that covers our roses." <hw>Blind Shark</hw>, or <hw>Sand Shark</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Shovel-nose</i> (q.v.). 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods `Fish and Fisheries of New South Wales, p. 97: "<i>Rhinobatus granulatus</i> or shovel-nose, which is properly speaking a Ray, is called here the blind or sand shark, though, as Mr. Hill remarks, it is not blind. He says `that it attains the length of from 6 to 7 feet, and is also harmless, armed only with teeth resembling small white beads secured closely upon a cord; it however can see tolerably well, and searches on sandy patches for crustaceae and small shell fish.'" 1886. J. Douglas-Ogilby, `Catalogue of the Fishes of New South Wales,' p. 5: "Rhinobatus Granulatus . . . I have not seen a New South Wales example of this fish, which appears to have been confounded with the following by writers on the Australian fauna. <i>Rhinobatus Bongainvillei</i>, Muell and Heule, <i>Habitat</i> Port Jackson. <i>Shovel-nosed Ray of</i> Sydney fishermen." <hw>Blind-your-Eyes</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Milky Mangrove</i>. See <i>Mangrove</i>. , doing the</hw>, <i>v</i>. lounging in the fashionable promenade. In Melbourne, it is Collins Street, between Elizabeth and Swanston Streets. In Sydney, "The Block" is that portion of the city bounded by King, George, Hunter, and Pitt Streets. It is now really two blocks, but was all in one till the Government purchased the land for the present Post Office, and then opened a new street from George to Pitt Street. Since then the Government, having purchased more land, has made the street much wider, and it is now called Martin's Place. 1869. Marcus Clarke, `Peripatetic Philosopher,' (in an Essay on `Doing the Block') (reprint), p. 13: "If our Victorian youth showed their appreciation for domestic virtues, Victorian womanhood would `do the Block' less frequently." 1872. `Glimpses of Life in Victoria by a Resident,' p. 349: "A certain portion of Collins street, lined by the best drapers' and jewellers' shops, with here and there a bank or private office intervening, is known as `the Block,' and is the daily resort of the belles and beaux. . . ." 1875. R. and F. Hill, `What We Saw in Australia,' p. 267: "To `do the block' corresponds in Melbourne to driving in Hyde Park." 1876. Wm. Brackley Wildey, `Australasia and the Oceanic Region,' p. 234: "The streets are thronged with handsome women, veritable denizens of the soil, fashionably and really tastefully attired, `doing the block,' patrolling Collins-street, or gracefully reclining in carriages. . . ." 1890. Tasma, `In her Earliest Youth,' p. 126: "You just do as I tell you, and we'll go straight off to town and `do the block.'" 1894. `The Herald' (Melbourne), Oct. 6, p. 6, col. 1: "But the people doing the block this morning look very nice." <hw>Block, on the</hw>.(1) On the promenade above referred to. 1896. `The Argus,' July 17, p. 4. col. 7: " We may slacken pace a little now and again, just as the busy man, who generally walks quickly, has to go slowly in the crowd on the Block." (2) Term in mining, fully explained in `The Miner's Right,' chapters vii. and viii. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `The Miner's Right,' p. 86: "I declare the Liberator Lead to be `on the block.'" `Extract from Mining Regulation 22' (Ibid. p. 77): "The ground shall be open for taking up claims in the block form." <hw>Blood-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to the <i>Sanguineous Honey-eater</i>. See <i>Honey-eater</i>. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. iv. pl. 63: <i>"Myzomela sanguinolenta</i>, Sanguineous Honey-eater. Blood-bird of the Colonists of New South Wales." <hw>Blood-sucker</hw>, <i>n</i>. popular name for certain species of Lizards belonging to the genus <i>Amphibolurus (Grammatophora</i>). Especially applied to <i>A. muricata</i>, Shaw. 1852. Mrs. Meredith, `My Home in Tasmania,' vol. ii. p. 37: "Another description of lizard is here vulgarly called the `bloodsucker.' " 1890. F. McCoy, `Prodromus of the Natural History of Victoria,' Dec. 12, pl. cxi.: "Why the popular name of `Bloodsucker' should be so universally given to this harmless creature by the Colonists (except on the locus a non lucendo principle) I cannot conceive." 1890. A. H. S. Lucas, `Handbook of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science,' Melbourne, p. 70: "Two species of `blood sucker' so absurdly designated." <hw>Blood-wood</hw>, or <hw>Blood-tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name applied, with various epithets, to many of the <i>Gum-trees</i> (q.v.), especially to--(1) <i>Eucalyptus corymbosa</i>, Smith, sometimes called Rough-barked bloodwood; (2) <i>E. eximia</i>, Schauer, Mountain or Yellow bloodwood; (3) <i>Baloghia lucida</i>, Endl., <i>N.O. Euphorbiaceae</i>, called Brush Bloodwood. The sap is blood-red, running copiously when cut across with a knife. 1827. Vigors and Horsfield, `Transactions of Linnaean Society,' vol. xv. p. 271: "The natives tell me it breeds in the winter in Mun'ning-trees or Blood-trees of the colonists (a species of <i>Eucalyptus</i>)." 1847. L.Leichhardt,' Overland Expedition,' p. 292: "The bergue was covered with fine bloodwood trees, stringy-bark, and box." 1892. A. J. North, `Proceedings of Linnaean Society,' New South Wales, vol. vii. series 2, p. 396: "I traced her to a termite nest in a bloodwood tree (<i>Eucalyptus corymbosa</i>)." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' 448: "It [<i>E. eximia</i>] is called `bloodwood,' partly because kino exudes in the concentric circles of the wood . . . partly because its fruits are in shape very similar to those of <i>E. corymbosa</i>." <hw>Blow</hw>, <i>n</i>. stroke of the shears in sheep-shearing. 1890. `The Argus,' September 20, p. 13, col. 7: "The shearers must make their clip clean and thorough. If it be done so incompetently that a `second blow' is needed, the fleece is hacked." <hw>Blow,/2/</hw> <i>n</i>. braggadocio, boasting. 1890. Lyth, `Golden South,' viii. p. 71: "Is there not very much that the Australian may well be proud of, and may we not commend him for a spice of blow?" 1891. Rolf Boldrewood, `Sydney-Side Saxon,' p. 77: "He can walk as fast as some horses can trot, cut out any beast that ever stood on a camp, and canter round a cheese-plate. This was a bit of blow." 1893. `The Australasian,' Aug. 12, p. 102, col. 1: "Now Digby Holland will think it was mere Australian blow." <hw>Blow</hw>, <i>v</i>. to boast; abbreviated from the phrase "to blow your own trumpet." The word is not Australian though often so regarded. It is common in Scotland and in the United States. 1873. A. Trollope, `Australia and New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 387: "The blast of the trumpet as heard in Victoria is louder than all the blasts--and the Melbourne blast beats all the other blowing of that proud colony. My first, my constant, my parting advice to my Australian cousins is contained in two words, `don't blow.'" <hw>Blower</hw>, <i>n</i>. a boaster. (See <i>Blow, v</i>.) 1890. Rolf Boldrewood,' A Colonial Reformer,' p. 411: "A regular Sydney man thinks all Victorians are blowers and speculators." <hw>Blowing</hw>, <i>verbal n</i>. boasting. 1873. A. Trollope, `Australia and New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 387: "A fine art much cultivated in the colonies, for which the colonial phrase of `blowing' has been created." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. ii. p. 9: "Blowing (that is, talking loudly and boastingly on any and every subject)." 1885. R. M. Praed, `Australian Life,' p. 45: "He was famous for `blowing' in Australian parlance . . . of his exploits." <hw>Bluebell</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is given in Tasmania to the flower <i>Wahlenbergia gracilis</i>, De C., <i>N.O. Campanulaceae</i>. <hw>Blueberry</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Native Currant</i> (q.v.). The name is also given to <i>Dianella longifolia</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Liliaceae</i>. <hw>Blueberry Ash</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Victorian tree, <i>Elaeocarpus holopetalus</i>, F. v. M. 1894. `Melbourne Museum Catalogue, Economic Woods,' p. 15: "Blueberry Ash or Prickly Fig. A noble tree, attaining a height of 120 feet. Wood pale, fine-grained; exquisite for cabinet work." <hw>Blue-bush</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian forage plant, a kind of Salt-bush, <i>Kochia pyrainidata</i>, Benth, <i>N.O. Chenopodiaceae</i>. 1876. W. Harcus. `South Australia,' p. 124: "[The country] would do splendidly for sheep, being thickly grassed with short fine grass, salt and blue bush, and geranium and other herbs." <hw>Blue-Cod</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to a New Zealand fish, <i>Percis colias</i>, family <i>Trachinidae</i>. Called also in New Zealand <i>Rock-Cod</i> (q.v.). The fish is of a different family from the <i>Cod</i> of the northern hemisphere. <hw>Blue-creeper</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to the creeper, <i>Comesperma volubile</i>, Lab., <i>N.O. Campanulaceae</i>. <hw>Blue-eye</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bird name. <i>The Blue faced Honey-eater</i> (q.v.). 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. iv. pl. 68: "<i>Entomyza cyanotis</i>, Swains. Blue-faced <i>Entomyza</i>. Blue-eye of the colonists." <hw>Blue-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given in Sydney to <i>Girella cyanea</i>, of the family <i>Sparidae</i>, or Sea-Breams. It is different from the <i>Blue-fish</i> of the American coasts, which is of the family <i>Carangidae</i>. <hw>Blue-Groper</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fish of New South Wales and Tasmania, <i>Cossyphus gouldii</i>, one of the <i>Labridae</i> or Wrasses, often called <i>Parrot-Fish</i> in Australia. Called also <i>Blue-head</i> in Tasmania. Distinct from the fish called the <i>Groper</i> (q.v). <hw>Blue-gum</hw>, <i>n</i>. See under <i>Gum</i>. It is an increasing practice to make a single word of this compound, and to pronounce it with accent on the first syllable, as `wiseman,' `goodman.' <hw>Blue-head</hw>, <i>n</i>. Tasmanian name for the fish called the <i>Blue-Groper</i> (q.v.) <hw>Blue Lobelia</hw>, <i>n</i>. The indigenous species in Tasmania which receives this name is <i>Lobelia gibbosa</i>, Lab., <i>N.O. Campanulaceae</i>. <hw>Blue-pointer</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name given in New South Wales to a species of Shark, <i>Lamna glauca</i>, Mull. and Heule, family <i>Lamnidae</i>, which is not confined to Australasia. 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish of New South Wales,' p. 95: "On the appearance of a `blue pointer' among boats fishing for schnapper outside, the general cry is raised, `Look out for the blue pointer.' . . . These are high swimming fishes, and may be readily seen when about pushing their pursuits; the beautiful azure tint of their back and sides, and independent manner they have of swimming rapidly and high among the boats in search of prey, are means of easy recognition, and they often drive the fishermen away." <hw>Bluestone</hw>, <i>n</i>. a kind of dark stone of which many houses and public buildings are built. 1850. `The Australasian' (Quarterly), Oct. [Footnote], p. 138: "The ancient Roman ways were paved with polygonal blocks of a stone not unlike the trap or bluestone around Melbourne." 1855. R. Brough Smyth, `Transactions of Philosophical Society, Victoria,' vol. i. p. 25: "The basalt or `bluestone,' which is well adapted to structural purposes, and generally obtains where durability is desired." 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook to New Zealand,' p. 62: "Basalts, locally called `bluestones,' occur of a quality useful for road-metal, house-blocks, and ordinary rubble masonry." 1890. `Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania,' p. xx. [Letter from Mr. S. H. Wintle]: "The newer basalts, which in Victoria have filled up so extensively Miocene and Pliocene valleys, and river channels, are chiefly vesicular Zeolitic <i>dolerites</i> and <i>anaemesites</i>, the former being well represented by the light-coloured Malmsbury `bluestone' so extensively employed in buildings in Melbourne." <hw>Blue-tongued Lizard</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to <i>Tiliqua nigroluteus</i>, Gray, a common Australian and Tasmanian lizard belonging to the family <i>Scincidae</i>. The name is derived from its blue-coloured tongue, and on account of its sluggish habits it is also often called the Sleepy lizard. 1887. F. McCoy, `Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria,' Dec. 14, pl. 131: "Not uncommon about Melbourne, where it is generally called the `Blue-tongued Lizard,' or `Sleepy Lizard.'" <hw>Blue-wing</hw>, <i>n</i>. a sportsman's name (as in England) for the bird called the <i>Shoveller</i> (q.v.). <hw>Bluey</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) A blue blanket commonly used by swagmen in Australia. He wraps his bundle in it, and the whole is called a <i>Swag</i> (q.v.). <i>To hump bluey</i> means to go on the tramp, carrying a swag on the back. (2) In the wet wildernesses of Western Tasmania a rough shirt or blouse is made of this material, and is worn over the coat like an English smock-frock. Sailors and fishermen in England call it a "Baltic shirt." 1890. `The Argus,' Aug. 16, p. 13, col. 2: "We shall have to hump bluey again." 1891. R. Wallace, `Rural Economy and Agriculture of Australia and New Zealand,' p. 73: "`Humping bluey' is for a workman to walk in search of work." 1891. W. Tilley, `The Wild West of Tasmania,' p. 29: "Leehan presents an animated scene . . . . Heavily laden drays, pack-horses and mules, form constant processions journeying from Dundas or Trial; miners with their swags, surveyors in their `blueys' . . . all aid effectively in the panorama." <hw>Board</hw>, <i>n</i>. term used by shearers. See quotation. 1893. `The Herald' (Melbourne), Dec. 23, p. 6, col. 1: "`The board' is the technical name for the floor on which the sheep are shorn." <i>With a full board</i>, with a full complement of shearers. 1894. `The Herald,' Oct. 6, p. 1. Col. 2: "The secretary of the Pastoralists' Association . . . reports that the following stations have started shearing with full boards." <hw>Boar-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name applied in England to various dissimilar fishes which have projecting snouts. (`Century.') In New Zealand it is given to <i>Cyttus australis</i>, family <i>Cyttidae</i>, which is related to the <i>John Dory</i> (q.v.). This name is sometimes applied to it, and it is also called <i>Bastard Dory</i> (q.v.). In Melbourne the <i>Boar-fish</i> is <i>Histiopterus recurvirostris</i>, family <i>Percidae</i>, and <i>Pentaceropsis recurvirostris</i>, family <i>Pentacerotidae</i>. Mrs. Meredith, in `Tasmanian Friends and Foes,' 1880 (pl. vi.), figures <i>Histiopterus recurvirostris</i> with the vernacular name of <i>Pig-faced Lady</i>. It is a choice edible fish. <hw>Boil down</hw>, <i>v</i>. to reduce a statement to its simplest form; a constant term amongst pressmen. Over the reporters' table in the old `Daily Telegraph' office (Melbourne) there was a big placard with the words-"Boil it down." The phrase is in use in England. `O.E.D.' quotes `Saturday Review,' 1880. The metaphor is from the numerous boiling-down establishments for rendering fat sheep into tallow. See quotation, 1878. 1878. F. P. Labilliere, `Early History of the Colony of Victoria,' vol. ii. p. 330: "The first step which turned the tide of ill-fortune was the introduction of the system of boiling down sheep. When stock became almost worthless, it occurred to many people that, when a fleece of wool was worth from half-a-crown to three shillings in England, and a sheep's tallow three or four more, the value of the animal in Australia ought to exceed eighteenpence or two shillings. Accordingly thousands of sheep were annually boiled down after shearing . . . until . . . the gold discovery; and then `boiling down,' which had saved the country, had to be given up. . . . The Messrs. Learmonth at Buninyong . . . found it answered their purpose to have a place of their own, instead of sending their fat stock, as was generally done, to a public `boiling down' establishment." 1895. `The Argus,' Aug. 17, p. 8, col. 2: "Boiled down, the matter comes to this." <hw>Bonduc Nuts</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name in Australia for the fruit of the widely distributed plant <i>Caesalpina bonducella</i>, Flem., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>. Called <i>Molucca Beans</i> in Scotland and <i>Nicker Nuts</i> elsewhere. <hw>Bonito</hw>, <i>n</i>. Sir Frederick McCoy says that the <i>Tunny</i>, the same fish as the European species <i>Thynnus thynnus</i>, family <i>Scombridae</i>, or Mackerels, is called <i>Bonito</i>, erroneously, by the colonists and fishermen. The true <i>Bonito</i> is <i>Thynnus pelamys</i>, Linn., though the name is also applied to various other fishes in Europe, the United States, and the West Indies. <hw>Bony-Bream</hw>, i.q. <i>Sardine</i> (q.v.). <hw>Boobook</hw>, <i>n</i>. an owl. <i>Ninox boobook</i> (see <i>Owl</i>); <i>Athene boobook</i> (Gould's `Birds of Australia,' vol.i. pl. 32)." From cry or note of bird. In the Mukthang language of Central Gippsland, BawBaw, the mountain in Gippsland, is this word as heard by the English ear." (A. W. Howitt.) In South Australia the word is used for a <i>mopoke</i>. 1827. Vigors and Horsfield, `Transactions of Linnaean Society,' vol. xv. p. 188: "The native name of this bird, as Mr. Caley informs us, is Buck'buck. It may be heard nearly every night during winter, uttering a cry, corresponding with that word. . . .The lower order of the settlers in New South Wales are led away by the idea that everything is the reverse in that country to what it is in England : and the cuckoo, as they call this bird, singing by night, is one of the instances which they point out." 1894. `The Argus,' June 23, p. 11, col. 4: "In most cases--it may not be in all--the familiar call, which is supposed to sound like `More-pork,' is not the mopoke (or podargus) at all, but the hooting of a little rusty red feather-legged owl, known as the Boobook. Its double note is the opposite of the curlew, since the first syllable is dwelt upon and the second sharp. An Englishman hearing it for the first time, and not being told that the bird was a `more-pork,' would call it a night cuckoo." <hw>Booby</hw>, <i>n</i>. English bird-name. Used in Australia for the <i>Brown-Gannet</i>. See <i>Gannet</i>. <hw>Boobyalla</hw>, or <hw>Boobialla</hw>, <i>n</i>. the aboriginal name for the tree <i>Acacia longifolia</i>, Willd., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>, also called <i>Native Willow</i>. A river in Tasmania bears the name of Boobyalla, the tree being plentiful on the coast. 1835. Ross, `Hobart Town Almanack,' p63: <i>"Acacia sophora</i>. Sophora podded Acacia or Booby-aloe. This species forms a large shrub on the sand-hills of the coast." 1843. J. Backhouse, `Narrative of a Visit to the Australian Colonies,' p. 59: "The sandbanks at the mouth of Macquarie Harbour are covered with Boobialla, a species of <i>Acacia</i>, the roots of which run far in the sand." 1855. J. Milligan, `Vocabulary of Dialects of the Aboriginal Tribes of Tasmania,' `Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania,' vol. iii. p. 238: "Wattle tree--seaside. (<i>Acacia Maritinia</i>) Boobyallah." 1861. Mrs. Meredith, `Over the Straits,' vol. ii. p. 62: "Boobyalla bushes lay within the dash of the ceaseless spray." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 359: "Boobyalla . . . an excellent tree for binding coast-sands." 1894. `Melbourne Museum Catalogue, Economic Woods,' p. 4: "On the coast it is known by the native name, Boobyalla." <hw>Boomah</hw>, or <hw>Boomer</hw>, <i>n</i>. name of a very large kangaroo, <i>Macropus giganteus</i>, Shaw. The spelling "boomah" seems due to a supposed native origin. See quotation, 1872, the explanation in which is probably erroneous. It is really from the verb to boom, to rush with violence. 1830. Ross, `Hobart Town Almanack,' p. 110: "Snapped the boomah's haunches, and he turned round to offer battle." 1833. Lieut. Breton, `Excursions in New South Wales, Western Australia, and Van Diemen's Land,' p. 251: "Boomah. Implies a large kangaroo." Ibid. p. 254: "The flying gin (gin is the native word for woman or female) is a boomah, and will leave behind every description of dog." 1852. Mrs. Meredith, `My Home in Tasmania,' vol. i. p. 244: "The Great or Forest Kangaroo (Macropus giganteus), the `Forester' of the Colonists. . . .The oldest and heaviest male of the herd was called a `Boomer,' probably a native term." 1853. J. West, `History of Tasmania,' vol. i. p. 325: "The forester (<i>Macropus major</i>, Shaw), the male being known by the name of `boomer,' and the young female by that of `flying doe,' is the largest and only truly gregarious species." 1854. G. H. Haydon, `The Australian Emigrant,' p. 124: "It was of an old man kangaroo,a regular boomer." 1855. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes,' p. 169: "An officer from Van Diemen's Land told me that he had once killed in that colony a kangaroo of such magnitude, that, being a long way from home, he was unable, although on horseback, to carry away any portion except the tail, which alone weighed thirty pounds. This species is called the boomah, and stands about seven feet high." 1857. W. Howitt, `Tallangetta,' vol. i. p. 47: "Sometimes starting a grand boomah, or great red kangaroo." 1862. F. J. Jobson, `Australia,' c. v. p. 124: "Some of the male kangaroos, called `boomers,' were described as being four or five feet high." 1864. J. Rogers, `New Rush,' p. 55: "The Boomer starts, and ponders What kind of beasts we be." 1867. W. Richardson, `Tasmanian Poems,' p. 26: "The dogs gather round a `boomer' they've got." 1872. Mrs. E. Millett, `An Australian Parsonage,' p. 195: "A tall old <i>Booma</i>, as the natives call the male kangaroo, can bring his head on a level with the face of a man on horseback. . . . A kangaroo's feet are, in fact, his weapons of defence with which, when he is brought to bay, he tears his antagonists the dogs most dreadfully, and instances are not wanting of even men having been killed by a large old male. No doubt this peculiar method of disposing of his enemies has earned him the name of <i>Booma</i>, which in the native language signifies to strike." 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 16: "As he plunged into the yellow waters, the dogs were once more by his side, and again the `boomer' wheeled, and backed against one of the big trees that stud these hollows." Applied generally to something very large. 1885. `Australasian Printers' Keepsake,' p. 76: "When the shades of evening come, I choose a boomer of a gum." <hw>Boomerang</hw>, <i>n</i>. a weapon of the Australian aborigines, described in the quotations. The origin of the word is by no means certain. One explanation is that of Mr. Fraser in quotation, 1892. There may perhaps be an etymological connection with the name <i>woomera</i> (q.v.), which is a different weapon, being a throwing stick, that is, an instrument with which to throw spears, whilst the <i>boomerang</i> is itself thrown; but the idea of throwing is common to both. In many parts the word is pronounced by the blacks bummerang. Others connect it with the aboriginal word for "wind," which at Hunter River was <i>burramaronga</i>, also <i>boomori</i>. In New South Wales and South Queensland there is a close correspondence between the terms for wind and boomerang. 1827. Captain P. P. King, `Survey of Intertropical and West Coasts of Australia,' vol. i. p. 355: "Boomerang is the Port Jackson term for this weapon, and may be retained for want of a more descriptive name." 1830. R. Dawson, `Present State of Australia,' p. 108: "We gambolled all the way up, throwing small pieces of bark at each other, after the manner of the native youths, who practise this with a view of strengthening their arms, and fitting them for hurling a curious weapon of war called a `bomering,' which is shaped thus:" \ \ / / Ibid. p. 280: "Around their loins was the opossum belt, in one side of which they had placed their waddies, with which they meant to break the heads of their opponents, and on the other was the bomering, or stick, with which they threw their spears." [This is a confusion between <i>boomerang</i> and <i>woomera</i> (q.v.). Perhaps Mr. Dawson wrote the second word, and this is a misprint.] 1839. Major T. L. `Mitchell, `Three Expeditions into the Interior of Eastern Australia,' vol. ii. p. 348: "The bommereng, or their usual missile, can be thrown by a skilful hand, so as to rise upon the air, and thus to deviate from the usual path of projectiles, its crooked course being, nevertheless, equally under control." 1845. R. Howitt, `Australia,' p. 186: "The admirable dexterity with which they fling the bomerangs. To our thinking the thrower was only sending the instrument along the ground, when suddenly, after spinning along it a little way, it sprung up into the air, performing a circle, its crescent shape spinning into a ring, constantly spinning round and round, until it came and fell at his feet." 1845. O. Wendell Holmes, `Modest Request' (in Poems): "Like the strange missile which the Australian throws, Your verbal boomerang slaps you on the nose." 1849. J. P. Townsend, `Rambles in New South Wales,' p. 39: "This instrument, called a bommereng, is made of wood, and is much like the blade of a scimitar. I believe it has been introduced into England as a plaything for children." 1850. J. B. Clutterbuck, `Port Phillip in 1849,' p. 57: "The boomerang is an extraordinary missile, formed in the shape of a crescent, and when propelled at an object, apparently <i>point blank</i>, it turns in any direction intended by the thrower, so that it can actually be directed in this manner against a person standing by his side. The consummate art visible in its unnatural-looking progression greatly depends upon the manner in which it is made to rebound from the ground when thrown." 1865. W. Howitt, `Discovery in Australia,' vol. ii. p. 107; "He [Sir Thomas Mitchell] applied to the screw propeller the revolving principle of the boomerang of the Australian natives." 1867. G. G. McCrae, `Balladeadro,' p. 25: "While circling thro' the air there sang The swift careering boomerang." 1888. A. Seth, `Encyclopaedia Britannica,' vol. xxiv. p. 530, col. 2: "He [Archbishop Whately] was an adept in various savage sports, more especially in throwing the boomerang." 1889. P. Beveridge, `Aborigines of Victoria and Riverina,' p. 49: "Boomerang: a thin piece of wood, having the shape of a parabola, about eighteen inches or two feet long from point to point, the curve being on the thin side. Of the broad sides of the missile one is slightly convex, the other is flat. The thin sides are worked down finely to blunt edges. The peculiar curve of the missile gives it the property of returning to the feet of the thrower. It is a dangerous instrument in a melee. Of course the wood from which it is made is highly seasoned by fire. It is therefore nearly as hard as flint." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 49: [A full description of the use of the boomerang is given, with illustrations.] "The boomerang is a curved, somewhat flat, and slender weapon, made from a hard and heavy wood, Brigalow (<i>Acacia excelsa</i>), or Myall (<i>Acacia pendula</i>), but the best one I found was made of a lighter kind of wood. The curving of the boomerang, which often approaches a right angle, must be natural, and in the wood itself. One side is perfectly flat, and the other slightly rounded. The ends are pointed." 1890. G. W. Rusden, `Proceedings, Royal Colonial Institute,' vol. xxii. p. 62: "You hardly ever see an allusion in the English Press to the boomerang which does not refer to it as a weapon of war which returns to the thrower, whereas the returning boomerang is not a weapon of war, and the boomerang which is a weapon of war does not return to the thrower. There are many kinds of boomerang--some for deadly strife, some for throwing at game, and the returning boomerang, which is framed only for amusement. If a native had no other missile at hand, he would dispatch it at a flight of ducks. Its circular course, however, makes it unfit for such a purpose, and there is a special boomerang made for throwing at birds. The latter keeps a straight course, and a native could throw it more than two hundred yards." 1892. J. Fraser, `The Aborigines of New South Wales,' p. 69: "The name bumarang has always hitherto been written boomerang; but, considered etymologically, that is wrong, for the root of it is buma--strike, fight, kill; and -ara, -arai, -arang, are all of them common formative terminations." 1893. `The Argus,' July 1, p. 8, col. 7: "`I tell you, sir,' said Mr. Healy at an Irish political meeting, `that there are at the present moment crystallizing in this city precedents which will some day come home to roost like a boomerang.'" <hw>Boongary</hw>, <i>n</i>. the tree-kangaroo of North Queensland, a marsupial tree-climber, about the size of a large wallaby, <i>Dendrolagus lumholtzii</i>, Collett. A native name. <i>Bangaray</i> = Red Kangaroo, in Governor Hunter's vocabulary of the Port Jackson dialect (1793). 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 226: "The tree-kangaroo is without comparison a better-proportioned animal than the common kangaroo. The fore-feet, which are nearly as perfectly developed as the hind-feet, have large crooked claws, while the hind-feet are somewhat like those of a kangaroo, though not so powerful. The sole of the foot is somewhat broader and more elastic on account of a thick layer of fat under the skin. In soft ground its footprints are very similar to those of a child. The ears are small and erect, and the tail is as long as the body of the animal. The skin is tough, and the fur is very strong and beautiful. . . . Upon the whole the boongary is the most beautiful mammal I have seen in Australia. It is a marsupial, and goes out only in the night. During the day it sleeps in the trees, and feeds on the leaves." <hw>Bora</hw>, <i>n</i>. a rite amongst the aborigines of eastern Australia; the ceremony of admitting a young black to the rights of manhood. Aboriginal word. The word <i>bur</i>, given by Ridley, means not only girdle but `circle.' In the man-making ceremonies a large circle is made on the ground, where the ceremonies take place. 1875. W. Ridley, `Kamilaroi,' p. 24: "Girdle--bor or bur. Hence Bora, the ceremony of initiation into manhood, where the candidate is invested with the belt of manhood." 1885. R. M. Praed, `Australian Life,' p. 24: "The great mystery of the Blacks is the Bora--a ceremony at which the young men found worthy receive the rank of warriors." 1892. J. Fraser, `Aborigines of New South Wales,' p. 6: "These ceremonies are . . . called the Bora." <hw>Borage, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. a plant, <i>Pollichia zeylanica</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Boragineae</i>. The so-called <i>Native Borage</i> is not endemic to Australia. In India it is used as a cure for snake bites. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 124: "The native borage (<i>Trichodesina zeylanica</i>, R. Br.)." <hw>Borak</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal word of New South Wales, meaning banter, chaff, fun at another's expense. (See quotation, 1845.) Prior to 1870 the word was much in use on the stations in New South Wales. About 1870 Victorian farmers' sons took shearing work there, and brought back the word with them. It was subsequently altered to <i>barrack</i> (q.v.). 1845. C. Griffith, `Present State and Prospects of the Port Phillip District of New South Wales,' p. 162: "The following is a specimen of such eloquence:--`You pilmillally jumbuck, plenty sulky me, plenty boom, borack gammon,' which, being interpreted, means--`If you steal my sheep I shall be very angry, and will shoot you and no mistake.'" 1856. W. W. Dobie, `Recollections of a Visit to Port Phillip, Australia, in 1852-55' p. 93: ". . . he gravely assured me that it was `merrijig' (very good), and that `blackfellow doctor was far better than whitefellow doctor.' In proof of which he would say, `Borak you ever see black fellow with waddie (wooden) leg. Bungalallee white fellow doctor cut him leg, borak black fellow stupid like it that." 1885. `Australasian Printers' Keepsake,' p. 75: "On telling him my adventures, how Bob in my misery had `poked borack' at me. . . ." 1888. Alfred J.Chandler,' Curley' in `Australian Poets,' 1788-1888, ed. Sladen, p. 100: "Here broke in Super Scotty, `Stop Your borak, give the bloomin' man a show.'" 1893. `The Argus,' Aug. 26, p. 13, col. 1: "It does not do for a man whose mission it is to wear stuff and a horse-hair wig to `poke borak' at that venerable and eminently respectable institution--the law, and still worse is it for a practising barrister to actually set to work, even in the most kindly spirit, to criticise the judges, before whom at any moment he may be called upon to plead." <hw>Borboby</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Corrobbery</i> (q.v.), but the word is rare. 1890. Carl Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals' [Title of illustration], p. 122: "A warrior in great excitement just before Borboby commences." <hw>Boree</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for the tree <i>Acacia pendula</i>, A. Cunn., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>; a variety of <i>Myall</i>, probably from Queensland aboriginal word <i>Booreah</i>, fire. It would be preferred by black or white man as firewood over any other timber except <i>giddea</i> (q.v.). 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 363: "Weeping, or true myall. It is sometimes called bastard gidgee in Western New South Wales. Called boree by aboriginals, and often boree, or silver-leaf boree, by the colonists of Western New South Wales. Nilyah is another New South Wales name." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Squatter's Dream,' iii. p. 30: "Myall and boree belts of timbers." 1893. `The Times,' [Reprint] `Letters from Queensland,' p. 6o: "The timber, of course, when seen close at hand is strange. Boree and gidyah, coolibah and whitewood, brigelow, mulgah, and myall are the unfamiliar names by which you learn to recognise the commonest varieties." <hw>Borer</hw>, <i>n</i>. name applied to an Australian insect. See quotation. 1876. W. Harcus, `South Australia,' p. 110: "There is another destructive insect called the `borer,' not met with near the sea-coast, but very active and mischievous inland, its attacks being chiefly levelled against timber. This creature is about the size of a large fly." <hw>Boronia</hw>, <i>n</i>. scientific and vernacular name of a genus of Australian plants, certain species of which are noted for their peculiar fragrance. The genus is especially characteristic of West Australia, to which out of fifty-nine species thirty-three are confined, while only five are known in Tasmania. Boronia belongs to the <i>N.O. Rutaceae</i>. 1835. Ross, `Hobart Town Almanack,' p. 72: <i>"Boronia variabilis</i>. A beautiful little heath-like plant growing about the Cascade and other hills round about Hobart Town. . . . This genus is named after Borone, an Italian servant of the late Dr. Sibthorp, who perished at Athens. . . .Another species found in Van Diemen's Land is the Lemon plant of the mountains." 1896. `The Melburnian,' vol. xxii., No. 3, August 28, p. 53: "Winter does not last for ever, and now at each street corner the scent of boronia and the odour of wattle-blossom greet us from baskets of the flower-girl." <hw>Boss-cockie</hw>, <i>n</i>. a slang name in the bush for a farmer, larger than a Cockatoo (see <i>Cockatoo, n</i>. 2), who employs other labour as well as working himself. <hw>Botany Bay</hw>, <i>n</i>. lying to the south of the entrance to Port Jackson, New South Wales, the destination of the first two shiploads of convicts from England. As a matter of fact, the settlement at Botany Bay never existed. The "First Fleet," consisting of eleven sail under Governor Phillip, arrived at Botany Bay on January 18, 1788. The Governor finding the place unsuitable for a settlement did not land his people, but on January 25 removed the fleet to Port Jackson. On the next day (January 26) he landed his people at Sydney Cove, and founded the city of Sydney. The name, however, citing to popular imagination, and was used sometimes as the name of Australia. Seventy years after Governor Phillip, English schoolboys used "go to Botany Bay" as an equivalent to "go to Bath." Captain Cook and his naturalists, Banks and Solander, landed at Botany Bay, and the name was given (not at first, when the Bay was marked Stingray, but a little later) from the large number of plants collected there. 1770. `Captain Cook's Original Journal,' ed. by Wharton, 1893, p. 247: "6 May. . . .The great quantity of plants Mr. Banks and Dr. Solander found in this place occasioned my giving it the Name of Botany Bay." 1789. [Title]: "The Voyage of Governor Phillip to Botany Bay," published in London. 1789. Captain Watkin Tench [Title]: "A Narrative of the Expedition to Botany Bay," published in London. 1793 G. Barrington [Title]: "Voyage to Botany Bay," [published in London.] This was the popular book on the new settlement, the others being high priced. As Lowndes says, "A work of no authority, but frequently printed." Barrington, the pickpocket, whose name it bears, had nothing to do with it. It was pirated from Phillip, Collins, etc. It went through various editions and enlargements to 1810 or later. After 1795 the name was altered to `Voyage to New South Wales.' 1798. D. Collins, `Account of the English Colony in New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 502: "The word `Botany Bay' became a term of reproach that was indiscriminately cast on every one who resided in New South Wales." 1840. Thos. Hood, `Tale of a Trumpet: "The very next day She heard from her husband at Botany Bay." 1851. Rev. David Mackenzie, `Ten Years in Australia,' p. 50: ". . . a pair of artificially black eyes being the Botany Bay coat of arms." 1852. J. West, `History of Tasmania,' Vol. ii. p. 91: "Some gentlemen, on a visit to a London theatre, to draw the attention of their friends in an opposite box, called out <i>cooey</i>; a voice in the gallery answered `Botany Bay!'" 1894. `Pall Mall Budget,' May 17, p. 20, col. 1: "The owner of the ship was an ex-convict in Sydney--then called Botany Bay--who had waxed wealthy on the profits of rum, and the `shangai-ing' of drugged sailors." <hw>Botany-Bay Greens</hw>, <i>n</i>. a vegetable common to all the colonies, <i>Atriplex cinereum</i>, Poir, <i>N.O. Salsolaceae</i>. 1810. G. Barrington, `History of New South Wales,' p. 263: "Botany Bay greens are abundant; they much resemble sage in appearance; and are esteemed a very good dish by the Europeans." 1834. Ross, `Van Diemen's Land Annual,' p. 134: "I do not think it necessary to enter upon any description of the Barilla shrubs (<i>Atriplex halimus, Rhagodur billardiera</i>; and <i>Salicornia arbuscula</i>), which, with some others, under the promiscuous name of Botany Bay greens, were boiled and eaten along with some species of seaweed, by the earliest settlers, when in a state of starvation." 1835. Ibid. p. 69: "Atriplex Halimus. Barrilla. Botany Bay Greens. This is the plant so common on the shores of Cape Barren and other islands of the Straits, from which the alkaline salt is obtained and brought up in boats to the soap manufactory at Hobart Town. It has been set down as the same plant that grows on the coast of Spain and other parts of Europe." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 9: "Once used as a pot-herb in New South Wales. Leichhardt used a species of <i>Atriplex</i> as a vegetable, and spoke very highly of it." <hw>Botany-Bay Oak</hw>, or <hw>Botany-Bay Wood</hw>, <i>n</i>. a trade name in England for the timber of <i>Casuarina</i>. See <i>Beef-wood</i>. <hw>Bottle-brush</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to various species of <i>Callistemon</i> and <i>Melaleuca</i>, <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>; the <i>Purple Bottle-brush</i> is <i>Melaleuca squamea</i>, Lab. The name is also more rarely given to species of <i>Banksia</i>, or <i>Honeysuckle</i> (q.v.). The name <i>bottle-brush</i> is from the resemblance of the large handsome blossoms to the brush used to clean out wine-bottles. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 359: "Red Bottle-brush. The flowers of some species of <i>Callistemon</i> are like bottle-brushes in shape." <hw>Bottle-Gourd</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian plant, <i>Lagenaria vulgaris</i>, Ser., <i>N.O. Cucurbitaceae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 192: "Bottle Gourd. This plant, so plentiful along the tropical coast of Queensland, is said to be a dangerous poison. It is said that some sailors were killed by drinking beer that had been standing for some time in a bottle formed of one of these fruits. (F. M. Bailey.)" <hw>Bottle-Swallow</hw>, <i>n</i>. a popular name for the bird <i>Lagenoplastis ariel</i>, otherwise called the <i>Fairy Martin</i>. See <i>Martin</i>. The name refers to the bird's peculiar retort shaped nest. <i>Lagenoplashs</i> is from the Greek <i>lagaenos</i>, a flagon, and <i>plautaes</i>, a modeller. The nests are often constructed in clusters under rocks or the eaves of buildings. The bird is widely distributed in Australia, and has occurred in Tasmania. <hw>Bottle-tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian tree, various species of <i>Sterculia</i>, i.q. <i>Kurrajong</i> (q.v.). So named from its appearance. See quotations. 1846. C. P. Hodgson, `Reminiscences of Australia,' p. 264: "The sterculia, or bottle-tree, is a very singular curiosity. It generally varies in shape between a soda-water and port-wine bottle, narrow at the basis, gradually widening at the middle, and tapering towards the neck." 1848. L. Leichhardt, Letter in `Cooksland, by J. D. Lang, p. 91: "The most interesting tree of this Rosewood Brush is the true bottle-tree, a strange-looking unseemly tree, which swells slightly four to five feet high, and then tapers rapidly into a small diameter; the foliage is thin, the crown scanty and irregular, the leaves lanceolate, of a greyish green; the height of the whole tree is about forty-five feet." 1865. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `History of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia,' vol. i. p. 127: "It was on this range (Lat. 26 degrees, 42') that Mitchell saw the bottle-tree for the first time. It grew like an enormous pear-shaped turnip, with only a small portion of the root in the ground." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 60: "A `Kurrajong.' The `Bottle-tree' of N.E. Australia, and also called `Gouty-stem,' on account of the extraordinary shape of the trunk. It is the `Binkey' of the aboriginals. "The stem abounds in a mucilaginous substance resembling pure tragacanth, which is wholesome and nutritious, and is said to be used as an article of food by the aborigines in cases of extreme need. A similar clear jelly is obtainable by pouring boiling water on chips of the wood." <hw>Bottom</hw>, <i>n</i>. in gold-mining, the old river-bed upon which the wash-dirt rests, and upon which the richest alluvial gold is found; sometimes called the gutter. 1887. H. H. Hayter, `Christmas Adventure,' p. 5: "We reached the bottom, but did not find gold." <hw>Bottom</hw>, <i>v</i>. to get to the bedrock, or clay, below which it was useless to sink (gold-mining). 1858. T. McCombie, `History of Victoria,' c. xv. p. 219: "In their anxiety to bottom their claims, they not seldom threw away the richest stuff." <hw>Boundary-rider</hw>, <i>n</i>. a man who rides round the fences of a station to see that they are in order. 1890. E. W. Hornung, `A Bride from the Bush,' p. 279: "A boundary-rider is not a `boss' in the Bush, but he is an important personage in his way. He sees that the sheep in his paddock draw to the water, that there is water for them to draw to, and that the fences and gates are in order. He is paid fairly, and has a fine, free, solitary life." 1892. `Scribner's Magazine,' Feb., p. 147: "The manager's lieutenants are the `boundary-riders,' whose duty it is to patrol the estate and keep him informed upon every portion of it." <hw>Bower-bird</hw> <i>n</i>. Australian bird. See quotation, 1891. See <i>Ptilonorhynchinae</i>. The following are the varieties--- Fawn-breasted Bower-bird-- <i>Chlamydoderea cerviniventris</i>, Gould. Golden B.-- <i>Prionodura newtoniana</i>, De Vis. Great B.-- <i>Chlambydodera nuchalis</i>, Gould (`Birds of Australia,' vol.iv. pl. 9). Queensland B.-- <i>C. orientalis</i>, Gould. Satin B.-- <i>Ptilonorhynchus violaceus</i>, Vieillot. Spotted B.-- <i>Chlamydodera maculata</i>, Gould (ibid. pl. 8). Yellow-spotted B.-- <i>C. gutttata</i>, Gould. And the <i>Regent-bird</i> (q.v.). 1845. R. Howitt, `Australia,' p. 140: "The same person had the last season found, to his surprise, the playhouse, or bower, of the Australian satin bower-bird." 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 28: "Any shred of glass or metal which arrests the eye or reflects the rays of the sun is a gem in the bower-bird's collection, which seems in a sense to parody the art decorations of a modern home." 1891. `Guide to Zoological Gardens, Melbourne': "In one is a representation of the playing place of the spotted bowerbird. These bowers are quite independent of the birds' nests, which are built on neighbouring trees. They first construct a covered passage or bower about three feet long, and near it they place every white or bright object they can find, such as the bleached bones of animals, pieces of white or coloured stone, feathers, shells, etc., etc.; the feathers they place on end. When these curious playing places were first discovered, they were thought to be made by the native women for the amusement of their children. More than a bushel of small pieces of bleached bones or shells are often found at one of these curious sporting places. Sometimes a dozen or more birds will assemble, and they delight in chasing each other through the bower and playing about it." <hw>Box</hw>, <hw>Box-tree</hw>, <hw>Box-gum</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is applied to many <i>Eucalypts</i>, and to a few trees of the genus <i>Tristania</i>, as given below, all of the <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>, chiefly from the qualities of their timber, which more or less resembles "Boxwood." Most of these trees also bear other vernacular names, and the same tree is further often described vernacularly as different kinds of <i>Box. China-, Heath</i>-, and <i>Native-Box</i> (q.v. below) are of other Natural Orders and receive their names of <i>Box</i> from other reasons. The following table is compiled from Maiden:-- Bastard Box-- <i>Eucalyptus goniocalyx</i>, F. v. M.; <i>E. largiflorens</i>, F. v. M. (called also <i>Cooburn</i>); <i>E. longifolia</i>, Link.; <i>E. microtheca</i>, F. v. M.; <i>E. polyanthema</i>, F. v. M.; <i>E. populifolia</i>, Hook. (called also Bembil or Bimbil Box and Red Box); <i>Tristania conferta</i>, R. Br.; <i>T. laurana</i>, R. Br., all of the <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. Black Box-- <i>Eucalyptus obliqua</i>, L'Herit.; <i>E. largiflorens</i>, F. v. M.; <i>E. microtheca</i>, F. v. M. Brisbane Box--- <i>Tristania conferta</i>, R. Br. Broad-leaved Box-- <i>Eucalyptus acmenoides</i>, Schau. Brown Box-- <i>Eucalyptus polyanthema</i>, Schau. Brush Box-- <i>Tristania conferta</i>, R. Br. China Box-- <i>Murraya exotica</i>, Linn., <i>N.O. Rutaceae</i> (not a tree, but a perfume plant, which is found also in India and China). Dwarf, or Flooded Box-- <i>Eucalyptus microtheca</i>, F. v. M. (Also called Swamp Gum, from its habit of growing on land inundated during flood time. An aboriginal name for the same tree is <i>goborro</i>.) Grey Box-- <i>Eucalyptus goniocalyx</i>, F. v. M.; <i>E. hemiphloia</i>, F. v. M.; <i>E. largiflorens</i>, F. v. M.; <i>E. polyanthema</i>, Schau.; <i>E. saligna</i>, Smith. Gum-topped Box-- <i>Eucalyptus hemiphloia</i>, F. v. M. Heath Box-- <i>Alyxia buxifolia</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Apocyneae</i> (called also <i>Tonga-beanwood</i>, owing to its scent) Iron-bark Box-- <i>Eucalyptus obliqua</i>, L'Herit. Narrow-leaved Box-- <i>Eucalyptus microtheca</i>, F. v. M. Native Box-- <i>Bursaria spinosa</i>, Cav., <i>N.O. Pittosporeae</i>. (Called also <i>Box-thorn</i> and <i>Native-Olive</i>. It is not a timber-tree but a forage- plant. See quotation, 1889.) Poplar Box-- <i>Eucalyptus populifolia</i>, Hook. Red Box-- <i>Eucalyptus populifolia</i>, Hook.; <i>E. polyanthema</i>, Schau.; <i>Tristania conferta</i>, R. Br. Thozet's Box-- <i>Eucalyptus raveretiana</i>, F. v. M. White Box-- <i>Eucalyptus hemiphloia</i>, F. v. M.; <i>E. odorata</i>, Behr.; <i>E. populifolia</i>, Hook.; <i>Tristania conferta</i>, R. Br. Yellow Box-- <i>Eucalyptus hemiphloia</i>, F. v. M. <i>E. largiflorens</i>, F. v. M. <i>E. melliodora</i>, A. Cunn. 1820. John Oxley, `Two Expeditions,' p. 126: "The country continued open forest land for about three miles, the cypress and the bastard-box being the prevailing timber; of the former many were useful trees." 1838. T. L. Mitchell, `Three Expeditions, vol. ii. p. 55: "The small kind of tree . . . which Mr. Oxley, I believe, terms the dwarf-box, grows only on plains subject to inundation . . . . It may be observed, however, that all permanent waters are invariably surrounded by the `yarra.' These peculiarities are only ascertained after examining many a hopeless hollow, where grew the `goborro' only; and after I had found my sable guides eagerly scanning the `yarra' from afar, when in search of water, and condemning any view of the `goborro' as hopeless during that dry season." [See <i>Yarra</i>, a tree.] 1865. W. Howitt, `Discovery in Australia,' vol. ii. p. 6: "Belts of open forest land, principally composed of the box-tree of the colonists, a species of eucalyptus (in no respect resembling the box of Europe)." 1877. F. v. Mueller, `Botanic Teachings,' p. 15: "The Honey-Eucalypt (<i>Eucalyptus melliodora</i>). This tree passes by the very unapt vernacular name Yellow Box-tree, though no portion of it is yellow, not even its wood, and though the latter resembles the real boxwood in no way whatever. Its systematic specific name alludes to the odour of its flowers, like that of honey, and as the blossoms exude much nectar, like most eucalypts, sought by bees, it is proposed to call it the small-leaved Honey-Eucalypt, but the Latin name might as easily be conveyed to memory, with the advantage of its being a universal one, understood and used by all nations." 1881. A.C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 46: "Poor country, covered with ti-tree, box, and iron-bark saplings, with here and there heavy timber growing on sour-looking ridges." 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 7: "The clumps of box-gums clinging together for sympathy." 1888. J. Howlett Ross, `Laureate of the Centaurs,' p. 41: "Box shrubs which were not yet clothed with their creamy-white plumes (so like the English meadowsweet)." 1889. P. Beveridge, `Aborigines of Victoria and Riverina,' p. 59: "These spears are principally made from a tall-growing box (one of the eucalypts) which often attains to an altitude of over 100 feet; it is indigenous to the north-western portion of the colony, and to Riverina; it has a fine wavy grain, consequently easily worked when in a green state. When well seasoned, however, it is nearly as hard as ebony." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 121: "Native box is greedily eaten by sheep, but its thorny character preserves it from extinction upon sheep-runs: usually a small scrub, in congenial localities it developes into a small tree." <hw>Box</hw>, <i>n</i>. See succeeding <i>verb</i>. 1872. C. H. Eden, `My Wife and I in Queensland,' p. 67: "Great care must of course be taken that no two flocks come into collision, for a `box,' as it is technically called, causes an infinity of trouble, which is the reason that the stations are so far apart." <hw>Box</hw>, <i>v</i>. to mix together sheep that ought to be kept separate apparently from "to box" in the sense of to shut up in narrow limits (`O.E.D.' v. i. 5); then to shut up together and so confuse the classification; then the sense of shutting up is lost and that of confusion remains. 1881. A.C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 253: "All the mobs of different aged lambs which had been hitherto kept apart were boxed up together." 1889. Rolf Boldrewood, `Robbery under Arms,' p. 356: "After they'd got out twenty or thirty they'd get boxed, like a new hand counting sheep, and have to begin all over again." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `A Colonial Reformer,' p. 84: "At nightfall, the fifteen flocks of sheep were all brought in, and `boxed,' or mixed together, to Ernest's astonishment." 1890. Tasma, `In her Earliest Youth,' p. 166: "He must keep tally when the sheep are being counted or draughted, I'm not sure which, and swear--no, he needn't swear--when they get boxed." 1896. A. B. Paterson, `Man from Snowy River,' p. 54: "But the travelling sheep and the Wilga sheep were boxed on the Old Man Plain. 'Twas a full week's work ere they drafted out and hunted them off again." <hw>Boxer</hw>, <i>n</i>. This word means in Australia the stiff, low-crowned, felt hat, called a <i>billy-cock</i> or <i>bowler</i>. The silk-hat is called a <i>bell-topper</i> (q.v.). 1897. `The Argus,' Jan. 9, p. 14, col. 2: "And will you wear a boxer that is in a battered state ? I wonder, will you--now that you're a knight?" <hw>Box-wood</hw>, <i>n</i>. a New Zealand wood, <i>Olea lanceolata</i>, Hook., <i>N.O. Jasminea</i> (Maori name, <i>Maire</i>). Used by the `Wellington Independent' (April 19, 1845) for woodcuts, and recommended as superior to box-wood for the purpose. See also <i>Box, n</i>. <hw>Boyla</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal word for a sorcerer. 1865. W. Howitt, `Discovery in Australia,' vol. i. p. 384: "The absolute power of boylas or evil sorcerers . . . he chanted gloomily:-- Oh, wherefore would they eat the muscles? Now boylas storm and thunder make. Oh, wherefore would they eat the muscles ?" <hw>Bramble, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Blackberry</i>. <hw>Bread, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. a kind of fungus. "The sclerotium of <i>Polyporus mylitta</i>, C. et M. Until quite recently the sclerotium was known, but not the fructification. It was thought probable that its fruit would be ascomycetous, and on the authority of Berkeley it was made the type of a genus as <i>Mylitta Australis</i>. It is found throughout Eastern Australia and Tasmania. The aborigines ate it, but to the European palate it is tough and tasteless, and probably as indigestible as leather." (L. Rodway.) 1843. James Backhouse, `Narrative of a Visit to the Australian Colonies,' p. 40: "Natural Order. Fungi. . . . <i>Mylitta Australis</i>. Native Bread. This species of tuber is often found in the Colony, attaining to the size of a child's head: its taste somewhat resembles boiled rice. Like the heart of the Tree-fern, and the root of the Native Potato, cookery produces little change." 1848. `Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Van Diemen's Land,' vol. i. p. 157: "11th October, 1848 . . . Specimens of the <i>fungus</i> known as `native bread,' <i>Mylitta Australis</i>, lay upon the table. A member observed that this substance, grated and made into a pudding with milk alone, had been found by him very palatable. Prepared in the same way, and combined with double its weight of rice or sago, it has produced a very superior dish. It has also been eaten with approval in soup, after the manner of <i>truffle</i>, to which it is nearly allied." 1857. Dr. Milligan, in Bishop Nixon's `Cruise of the Beacon,' p. 27: "But that which afforded the largest amount of solid and substantial nutritious matter was the <i>native bread</i>, a fungus growing in the ground, after the manner of the truffle, and generally so near the roots of trees as to be reputed parasitical." 1896. `Hobart Mercury,' Oct. 30, p. 2, last col.: "A large specimen of `native bread,' weighing 12 lb., has been unearthed on Crab Tree farm in the Huon district, by Mr. A. Cooper. It has been brought to town, and is being examined with interest by many at the British Hotel. It is one of the fungi tribe that forms hard masses of stored food for future use." <hw>Breadfruit-tree</hw>, name given by the explorer Leichhardt to the Queensland tree, <i>Gardenia edulis</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Rubiaceae</i>. <hw>Breakaway</hw>, <i>n</i>.(1) A bullock that leaves the herd. 1893. `The Argus,' April 29, p. 4, col. 4: "The smartest stock horse that ever brought his rider up within whip distance of a breakaway or dodged the horns of a sulky beast, took the chance." (2) The panic rush of sheep, cattle, or other animals at the sight or smell of water. 1891: "The Breakaway," title of picture by Tom Roberts at Victorian Artists' Exhibition. <hw>Bream</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is applied in Australia to various species of <i>Chrysophrys</i>, family <i>Sparidae</i>, and to other fishes of different families. The <i>Black-Bream</i> (q.v.) is <i>C. australis</i>, Gunth. The <i>Bony-Bream</i> is also called the <i>Sardine</i> (q.v.). The <i>Silver-Bream</i> (q.v.) or <i>White-Bream</i> is <i>Gerres ovatus</i>, Gunth., family <i>Percidae</i>. The <i>Red-Bream</i> is a Schnapper (q.v.) one year old. The popular pronunciation is <i>Brim</i>, and the fishes are all different from the various fishes called <i>Bream</i> in the northern hemisphere. See also <i>Tarwhine</i> and <i>Blue-fish</i>. <hw>Brickfielder</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) Originally a Sydney name for a cold wind, blowing from the south and accompanied by blinding clouds of dust; identical with the later name for the wind, the <i>Southerly Buster</i> (q.v.). The brickfields lay to the south of Sydney, and when after a hot wind from the west or north-west, the wind went round to the south, it was accompanied by great clouds of dust, brought up from the brickfields. These brickfields have long been a thing of the past, surviving only in "Brickfield Hill," the hilly part of George Street, between the Cathedral and the Railway Station. The name, as denoting a cold wind, is now almost obsolete, and its meaning has been very curiously changed and extended to other colonies to denote a very hot wind. See below (Nos. 2 and 3), and the notes to the quotations. 1833. Lieut. Breton, R.N., `Excursions in New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land,' p. 293: "It sometimes happens that a change takes place from a hot wind to a `brickfielder,' on which occasions the thermometer has been known to fall, within half an hour, <i>upwards of fifty degrees</i>! That is to say, from above 100 degrees to 50 degrees! A brickfielder is a southerly wind, and it takes its local name from the circumstances of its blowing over, and bringing into town the flames [sic] of a large brick-field: it is nearly as detestable as a hot wind." [Lieut. Breton must have had a strong imagination. The brickfields, at that date, were a mile away from the town, and the bringing in of their <i>flames</i> was an impossibility. Perhaps, however, the word is a misprint for <i>fumes</i>; yet even then this earliest quotation indicates part of the source of the subsequent confusion of meaning. The main characteristic of the true brickfielder was neither <i>flames</i> nor <i>fumes</i>,--and certainly not heat,--but choking dust.] 1839. W. H. Leigh, `Reconnoitering Voyages, Travels, and Adventures in the new Colony of South Australia,' etc., p. 184: "Whirlwinds of sand come rushing upon the traveller, half blinding and choking him,--a miniature sirocco, and decidedly cousin-german to the delightful sandy puffs so frequent at Cape Town. The inhabitants call these miseries `Brickfielders,' but why they do so I am unable to divine; probably because they are in their utmost vigour on a certain hill here, where bricks are made." [This writer makes no allusion to the temperature of the wind, whether hot or cold, but lays stress on its especial characteristic, the dust. His comparison with the sirocco chiefly suggests the clouds of sand brought by that wind from the Libyan Desert, with its accompanying thick haze and darkness (`half blinding and choking'), rather than its relaxing warmth.] 1844. John Rae, `Sydney Illustrated,' p. 26: "The `brickfielder' is merely a colonial name for a violent gust of wind, which, succeeding a season of great heat, rushes in to supply the vacuum and equalises the temperature of the atmosphere; and when its baneful progress is marked, sweeping over the city in thick clouds of brick-coloured dust (from the brickfields), it is time for the citizens to close the doors and windows of their dwellings, and for the sailor to take more than half his canvas in, and prepare for a storm." [Here the characteristic is again <i>dust</i> from the brickfields, as the origin of the name, with cold as an accompaniment.] 1844. Mrs.Meredith, `Notes and Sketches of New South Wales,' p. 44: "These dust winds are locally named `brickfielders,' from the direction in which they come" [i.e. from neighbouring sandhills, called the brickfields]. [Here <i>dust</i> is the only characteristic observed, with the direction of the wind as the origin of its name.] 1845. J. O. Balfour, `Sketch of New South Wales,' p. 4: "The greatest peculiarity in the climate is what is called by colonists a brickfielder. This wind has all the characteristics of a sirocco in miniature . . . . Returning home, he discovers that the house is full of sand; that the brickfielder has even insinuated itself between the leaves of his books; at dinner he will probably find that his favourite fish has been spoiled by the brickfielder. Nor is this all; for on retiring to rest he will find that the brickfielder has intruded even within the precincts of his musquito curtains." [Here again its <i>dust</i> is noted as the distinguishing feature of the wind, just as sand is the distinguishing feature of the `sirocco' in the Libyan Desert, and precipitated sand,--`blood rain' or `red snow,'--a chief character of the sirocco after it reaches Italy.] 1847. Alex. Marjoribanks, `Travels in New South Wales,' p. 61: "The hot winds which resemble the siroccos in Sicily are, however, a drawback . . . but they are almost invariably succeeded by what is there called a `brickfielder,' which is a strong southerly wind, which soon cools the air, and greatly reduces the temperature." [Here the cold temperature of the brickfielder is described, but not its <i>dust</i>, and the writer compares the hot wind which precedes the brickfielder with the sirocco. He in fact thinks only of the heat of the sirocco, but the two preceding writers are thinking of its sand, its thick haze, its quality of <i>blackness</i> and its suffocating character,--all which applied accurately to the true <i>brickfielder</i>.] 1853. Rev. H. Berkeley Jones, `Adventures in Australia in 1852 and 1853,' p. 228: "After the languor, the lassitude, and enervation which some persons experience during these hot blasts, comes the `Brickfielder,' or southerly burster." [Cold temperature noticed, but not <i>dust</i>.] 1853. `Fraser's Magazine,' 48, p. 515: "When the wind blows strongly from the southward, it is what the Sydney people call a `brickfielder'; that is, it carries with it dense clouds of red dust or sand, like brick dust, swept from the light soil which adjoins the town on that side, and so thick that the houses and streets are actually hidden; it is a darkness that may be felt." [Here it is the <i>dust</i>, not the temperature, which determines the name.] (2) The very opposite to the original meaning,--a severe hot wind. In this inverted sense the word is now used, but not frequently, in Melbourne and in Adelaide, and sometimes even in Sydney, as the following quotations show. It will be noted that one of them (1886) observes the original prime characteristic of the wind, its <i>dust</i>. 1861. T. McCombie,' Australian Sketches,' p. 79: "She passed a gang of convicts, toiling in a broiling `brickfielder.'" 1862. F. J. Jobson, `Australia with Notes by the Way,' p. 155: "The `brickfielders' are usually followed, before the day closes, with `south-busters' [sic.]." 1886. F. Cowan, `Australia, a Charcoal Sketch': "The Buster and Brickfielder: austral red-dust blizzard; and red-hot Simoom." This curious inversion of meaning (the change from cold to hot) may be traced to several causes. It may arise-- (a) From the name itself. People in Melbourne and Adelaide, catching at the word <i>brickfielder</i> as a name for a <i>dusty</i> wind, and knowing nothing of the origin of the name, would readily adapt it to their own severe hot north winds, which raise clouds of dust all day, and are described accurately as being `like a blast from a furnace,' or `the breath of a brick-kiln.' Even a younger generation in Sydney, having received the word by colloquial tradition, losing its origin, and knowing nothing of the old brickfields, might apply the word to a hot blast in the same way. (b) From the peculiar phenomenon.--A certain cyclonic change of temperature is a special feature of the Australian coastal districts. A raging hot wind from the interior desert (north wind in Melbourne and Adelaide, west wind in Sydney) will blow for two or three days, raising clouds of dust; it will be suddenly succeeded by a `<i>Southerly Buster'</i> from the ocean, the cloud of dust being greatest at the moment of change, and the thermometer falling sometimes forty or fifty degrees in a few minutes. The Sydney word <i>brickfielder</i> was assigned originally to the latter part--the <i>dusty</i> cold change. Later generations, losing the finer distinction, applied the word to the whole dusty phenomenon,and ultimately specialized it to denote not so much the extreme dustiness of its later period as the more disagreeable extreme heat of its earlier phase. (c) From the apparent, though not real, confusion of terms, by those who have described it as a `sirocco.'--The word <i>sirocco</i> (spelt earlier <i>schirocco</i>, and in Spanish and other languages with the <i>sh</i> sound, not the <i>s</i>) is the Italian equivalent of the Arabic root <i>sharaga</i>, `it rose.' The name of the wind, <i>sirocco</i>, alludes in its original Arabic form to its rising, with its cloud of sand, in the desert high-lands of North Africa. True, it is defined by Skeat as `a hot wind,' but that is only a part of its definition. Its marked characteristic is that it is <i>sand-laden</i>, densely hazy and black, and therefore `choking,' like the <i>brickfielder</i>. The not unnatural assumption that writers by comparing a <i>brickfielder</i> with a <i>sirocco</i>, thereby imply that a <i>brickfielder</i> is a hot wind, is thus disposed of by this characteristic, and by the notes on the passages quoted. They were dwelling only on its choking <i>dust</i>, and its suffocating qualities,--`a miniature sirocco.' See the following quotations on this character of the sirocco:-- 1841. `Penny Magazine,' Dec. 18, p. 494: "The Islands of Italy, especially Sicily and Corfu, are frequently visited by a wind of a remarkable character, to which the name of sirocco, scirocco, or schirocco, has been applied. The thermometer rises to a great height, but the air is generally thick and heavy . . . . People confine themselves within doors; the windows and doors are shut close, to prevent as much as possible the external air from entering; . . . but a few hours of the <i>tramontane</i>, or north wind which generally succeeds it, soon braces them up again. [Compare this whole phenomenon with (b) above.] There are some peculiar circumstances attending the wind. . . . Dr. Benza, an Italian physician, states:--`When the sirocco has been impetuous and violent, and followed by a shower of rain, the rain has carried with it to the ground an almost impalpable red micaceous sand, which I have collected in large quantities more than once in Sicily. . . . When we direct our attention to the island of Corfu, situated some distance eastward of Sicily, we find the sirocco assuming a somewhat different character. . . . The more eastern sirocco might be called a refreshing breeze [sic]. . . . The genuine or black sirocco (as it is called) blows from a point between south-east and south-south-east.'" 1889. W. Ferrell, `Treatise on Winds,' p. 336: "The dust raised from the Sahara and carried northward by the sirocco often falls over the countries north of the Mediterranean as `blood rain,' or as `red snow,' the moisture and the sand falling together. . . .The temperature never rises above 95 degrees." 1889. `The Century Dictionary,' s.v. Sirocco: "(2) A hot, dry, dust-laden wind blowing from the highlands of Africa to the coasts of Malta, Sicily and Naples. . . . During its prevalence the sky is covered with a dense haze." (3) The illustrative quotations on <i>brickfielder</i>, up to this point, have been in chronological consecutive order. The final three quotations below show that while the original true definition and meaning, (1), are still not quite lost, yet authoritative writers find it necessary to combat the modern popular inversion, (2). 1863. Frank Fowler, `The Athenaeum,' Feb. 21, p. 264, col. 1: "The `brickfielder' is not the hot wind at all; it is but another name for the cold wind, or southerly buster, which follows the hot breeze, and which, blowing over an extensive sweep of sandhills called the Brickfields, semi-circling Sydney, carries a thick cloud of dust (or `brickfielder') across the city." [The writer is accusing Dr. Jobson (see quotation 1862, above) of plagiarism from his book `Southern Lights and Shadows.'] 1890. Lyth, `Golden South,' vol. ii. p. 11: "A dust which covered and penetrated everything and everywhere. This is generally known as a `brickfielder.'" 1896. `Three Essays on Australian Weather,' `On Southerly Buster,' by H. A. Hunt, p. 17: "In the early days of Australian settlement, when the shores of Port Jackson were occupied by a sparse population, and the region beyond was unknown wilderness and desolation, a great part of the Haymarket was occupied by the brickfields from which Brickfield Hill takes its name. When a `Southerly Burster' struck the infant city, its approach was always heralded by a cloud of reddish dust from this locality, and in consequence the phenomenon gained the local name of `brickfielder.' The brickfields have long since vanished, and with them the name to which they gave rise, but the wind continues to raise clouds of dust as of old under its modern name of `Southerly Burster." <hw>Bricklow</hw>, <i>n</i>. obsolete form of <i>Brigalow</i> (q.v.). <hw>Brigalow</hw>, <i>n</i>. and <i>adj</i>. Spellings various. Native name, <i>Buriargalah</i>. In the Namoi dialect in New South Wales, <i>Bri</i> or <i>Buri</i> is the name for <i>Acacia pendula</i>, Cunn.; <i>Buriagal</i>, relating to the <i>buri; Buriagalah</i> == place of the <i>buri</i> tree. Any one of several species of <i>Acacia</i>, especially <i>A. harpophylla</i>, F. v. M., <i>H.O. Leguminosae</i>. J. H. Maiden (`Useful Native Plants,' p. 356, 1889) gives its uses thus: "Wood brown, hard, heavy, and elastic; used by the natives for spears, boomerangs, and clubs. The wood splits freely, and is used for fancy turnery. Saplings used as stakes in vineyards have lasted twenty years or more. It is used for building purposes, and has a strong odour of violets.' 1846. L. Leichhardt, quoted by J. D. Lang, `Cooksland,' p. 312: "Almost impassable bricklow scrub, so called from the bricklow (a species of acacia)." 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 4: "The Bricklow Acacia, which seems to be identical with the Rosewood Acacia of Moreton Bay; the latter, however, is a fine tree, 50 to 60 feet high, whereas the former is either a small tree or a shrub. I could not satisfactorily ascertain the origin of the word Bricklow, but as it is well understood and generally adopted by all the squatters between the Severn River and the Boyne, I shall make use of the name. Its long, slightly falcate leaves, being of a silvery green colour, give a peculiar character to the forest, where the tree abounds."--[Footnote]: "<i>Brigaloe</i> Gould." 1862. H. C. Kendall, `Poems,' p. 79: "Good-bye to the Barwan and brigalow scrubs." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 190: "Now they pass through a small patch of Brigalow scrub. Some one has split a piece from a trunk of a small tree. What a scent the dark-grained wood has!" 1889. Cassell's `Picturesque Australasia;' vol. iv. p. 69: "There exudes from the Brigalow a white gum, in outward appearance like gum-arabic, and even clearer, but as a `sticker' valueless, and as a `chew-gum' disappointing." 1892. Gilbert Parker, `Round the Compass in Australia,' p. 23: "The glare of a hard and pitiless sky overhead, the infinite vista of saltbush, brigalow, stay-a-while, and mulga, the creeks only stretches of stone, and no shelter from the shadeless gums." <hw>Brill</hw>, <i>n</i>. a small and very bony rhomboidal fish of New Zealand, <i>Pseudorhombus scaphus</i>, family <i>Pleuronectidae</i>. The true <i>Brill</i> of Europe is <i>Rhombus levis</i>. <hw>Brisbane Daisy</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Daisy, Brisbane</i>. <hw>Bristle-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name given to certain Australian Reed-warblers. They are--<i>Sphenura brachyptera</i>, Latham; Long-tailed B.--<i>S. longirostris</i>, Gould; Rufous-headed B.--<i>S. broadbentii</i>, McCoy. See <i>Sphenura</i>. 1827. Vigors and Horsfield, `Transactions of Linnaean Society,' vol. xv. p. 232: "He (Mr. Caley) calls it in his notes `Bristle Bird.'" <hw>Broad-leaf</hw>, <i>n</i>. a settlers' name for <i>Griselinia littoralis</i>, Raoul; Maori name, <i>Paukatea</i>. 1879. W. N. Blair, `Building Materials of Otago,' p. 155: "There are few trees in the [Otago] bush so conspicuous or so well known as the broad-leaf. . . . It grows to a height of fifty or sixty feet, and a diameter of from three to six; the bark is coarse and fibrous, and the leaves a beautiful deep green of great brilliancy." 1879. J. B. Armstrong, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. xii. Art. 49, p. 328: "The broadleaf (<i>Griselinia littoralis</i>) is abundant in the district [of Banks' Peninsula], and produces a hard red wood of a durable nature." 1882. T. H. Potts, `Out in the Open,' p. 103: "The rough trunks and limbs of the broadleaf." <hw>Broker</hw>, <i>n</i>. Australian slang for a man completely ruined, stonebroke. 1891. `The Australasian,' Nov. 21, p. 1014: "We're nearly `dead brokers,' as they say out here. Let's harness up Eclipse and go over to old Yamnibar." <hw>Bronze-wing</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bird with a lustrous shoulder, <i>Phaps chalcoptera</i>, Lath. Called also <i>Bronze-wing Pigeon</i>. 1790. J. White, `Voyage to New South Wales,' p. 145: "One of the gold-winged pigeons, of which a plate is annexed. [Under plate, Golden-winged Pigeon.] This bird is a curious and singular species remarkable for having most of the feathers of the wing marked with a brilliant spot of golden yellow, changing, in various reflections of light, to green and copper-bronze, and when the wing is closed, forming two bars of the same across it." 1832. J. Bischoff, `Van Diemen's Land,' vol. ii. p. 31: "The pigeons are by far the most beautiful birds in the island; they are called bronze-winged pigeons." 1857. W. Howitt, `Tallangetta,' vol. ii. p. 57: "Mr. Fitzpatrick followed his kangaroo hounds, and shot his emus, his wild turkeys, and his bronze-wings." 1865. `Once a Week.' `The Bulla-Bulla Bunyip.' "Hours ago the bronze-wing pigeons had taken their evening draught from the coffee-coloured water-hole beyond the butcher's paddock, and then flown back into the bush to roost on `honeysuckle' and in heather." 1872. C. H. Eden, `My Wife and I in Queensland,' p. 122: "Another most beautiful pigeon is the `bronze-wing,' which is nearly the size of the English wood-pigeon, and has a magnificent purply-bronze speculum on the wings." 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 33: "Both the bronze-wing and Wonga-Wonga pigeon are hunted so keenly that in a few years they will have become extinct in Victoria." 1893. `The Argus,' March 25, p. 4, col. 6: "Those who care for museum studies must have been interested in tracing the Australian quail and pigeon families to a point where they blend their separate identities in the partridge bronze-wing of the Central Australian plains. The eggs mark the converging lines just as clearly as the birds, for the partridge-pigeon lays an egg much more like that of a quail than a pigeon, and lays, quail fashion, on the ground." <hw>Brook-Lime</hw>, <i>n</i>. English name for an aquatic plant, applied in Australia to the plant <i>Gratiola pedunculata</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Scrophularinae</i>. Also called <i>Heartsease</i>. <hw>Broom</hw>, <i>n</i>. name applied to the plant <i>Calycothrix tetragona</i>, Lab., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. <hw>Broom, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian timber, <i>Viminaria denudala</i>, Smith, <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 612: "Native broom. Wood soft and spongy." <hw>Broom, Purple</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian name for <i>Comesperma retusum</i>, Lab., <i>N.O. Polygaleae</i>. <hw>Brown Snake</hw>, <i>n</i>. See under <i>Snake</i>. <hw>Brown-tail</hw>, <i>n</i>. bird-name for the <i>Tasmanian Tit</i>. See <i>Tit</i>. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. iii, pl. 54: "<i>Acanthiza Diemenensis</i>, Gould. Brown-tail, colonists of Van Diemen's Land." <hw>Brown Tree-Lizard</hw>, <i>n</i>. of New Zealand, <i>Naultinus pacificus</i>. <hw>Browny</hw> or <hw>Brownie</hw>, <i>n</i>. a kind of currant loaf. 1890. E. D. Cleland, `The White kangaroo,' p. 57: "Cake made of flour, fat and sugar, commonly known as `Browny.'" 1890. `The Argus,' Sept. 20, p. 13, col. 57: "Four o'clock. `Smoke O!' again with more bread and brownie (a bread sweetened with sugar and currants)." 1892. Gilbert Parker, `Round the Compass,' p. 36: "Roast mutton and brownie are given us to eat." <hw>Brumby, Broombie</hw> (spelling various), <i>n</i>. a wild horse. The origin of this word is very doubtful. Some claim for it an aboriginal, and some an English source. In its present shape it figures in one aboriginal vocabulary, given in Curr's `Australian Race' (1887), vol. iii. p. 259. At p. 284, <i>booramby</i> is given as meaning "wild" on the river Warrego in Queensland. The use of the word seems to have spread from the Warrego and the Balowne about 1864. Before that date, and in other parts of the bush ere the word came to them, wild horses were called <i>clear-skins</i> or <i>scrubbers</i>, whilst <i>Yarraman</i> (q.v.) is the aboriginal word for a quiet or broken horse. A different origin was, however, given by an old resident of New South Wales, to a lady of the name of Brumby, viz. "that in the early days of that colony, a Lieutenant Brumby, who was on the staff of one of the Governors, imported some very good horses, and that some of their descendants being allowed to run wild became the ancestors the wild horses of New South Wales and Queensland." Confirmation of this story is to be desired. 1880. `The Australasian,' Dec. 4, p. 712, col. 3: "Passing through a belt of mulga, we saw, on reaching its edge, a mob of horses grazing on the plains beyond. These our guide pronounced to be `brumbies,' the bush name here [Queensland] for wild horses." 1888. Cassell's `Picturesque Australasia,' vol. ii. p. 176: "The wild horses of this continent known all over it by the Australian name of `brumbies.'" Ibid. p. 178: "The untamed and `unyardable' scrub brumby." 1888. R. Kipling, `Plain Tales from the Hills,' p. 160: "Juggling about the country, with an Australian larrikin; a `brumby' with as much breed as the boy. . . . People who lost money on him called him a `brumby.'" 1888. Rolf Boldrewood, `Robbery under Arms.' p. 67: "The three-cornered weed he rode that had been a `brumbee.'" 1895. `Chambers' Journal,' Nov. 2, Heading `Australian Brumbie Horses': "The brumbie horse of Australia, tho' not a distinct equine variety, possesses attributes and qualities peculiar to itself, and, like the wild cattle and wild buffaloes of Australia, is the descendant of runaways of imported stock." 1896. `Sydney Morning Herald,' (Letter from `J. F. G.,' dated Aug. 24): "Amongst the blacks on the Lower Balonne, Nebine, Warrego, and Bulloo rivers the word used for horse is `baroombie,' the `a' being cut so short that the word sounds as `broombie,' and as far as my experience goes refers more to unbroken horses in distinction to quiet or broken ones (`yarraman')." 1896. H. Lawson, `When the World was Wide,' p. 156: "Yet at times we long to gallop where the reckless bushman rides In the wake of startled brumbies that are flying for their hides." <hw>Brush</hw>, <i>n</i>. at first undergrowth, small trees, as in England; afterwards applied to larger timber growth and forest trees. Its earlier sense survives in the compound words; see below. 1820. Oxley, `New South Wales' (`O.E.D.'): "The timber standing at wide intervals, without any brush or undergrowth." 1833. C. Sturt, `Southern Australia,' (2nd ed.) vol. i. p. 62: "We journeyed . . . at one time over good plains, at another through brushes." 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. i. Introd. p. 77: "Jungle, or what in New South Wales would be called brush." Ibid. vol. v. Pl. 59: "Those vast primeval forests of New South Wales to which the colonists have applied the name of brushes." 1853. Chas. St. Julian and Edward K. Silvester, `The Productions, Industry, and Resources of New South Wales,' p. 20: "What the colonists term `brush' lands are those covered with tall trees growing so near each other and being so closely matted together by underwood, parasites, and creepers, as to be wholly impassable." 1883. G. W. Rusden, `History of Australia,' vol. i. p. 67, note: "Brush was allotted to the growth of large timber on alluvial lands, with other trees intermixed, and tangled vines. The soil was rich, and `brushland' was well understood as a descriptive term. It may die away, but its meaning deserves to be pointed out." <hw>Brush-Apple</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Apple</i>. <hw>Brush-Bloodwood</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Bloodwood</i>. <hw>Brush-Cherry</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian tree, <i>Trochocarpa laurina</i>, R. Br., and <i>Eugenia myrtifolia</i>, Simms. Called also <i>Brush-Myrtle</i>. <hw>Brush-Deal</hw>, <i>n</i>. a slender Queensland tree, <i>Cupania anacardioides</i>, A. Richard. See <i>Brush</i>, above. <hw>Brusher</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Bushman's name, in certain parts, for a small wallaby which hops about in the bush or scrub with considerable speed. "To give brusher," is a phrase derived from this, and used in many parts, especially of the interior of Australia, and implies that a man has left without paying his debts. In reply to the question "Has so-and-so left the township? "the answer, "Oh yes, he gave them brusher," would be well understood in the above sense. <hw>Brush-Kangaroo</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Wallaby</i> (q.v.). 1802. G. Barrington, `History of New South Wales,' c. viii. p. 273: "A place . . . thickly inhabited by the small brush-kangaroo." 1830. `Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society,' i. 29: "These dogs . . . are particularly useful in catching the bandicoots, the small brush kangaroo, and the opossum." 1832. J. Bischoff, `Van Diemen's Land,' c. ii. p. 28: "The brush-kangaroo . . . frequents the scrubs and rocky hills." 1884. Rolf Boldrewood, `Melbourne Memories,' c. iii. p. 24: "Violet was so fast that she could catch the brush-kangaroo (the wallaby) within sight." <hw>Brush-Myrtle</hw>, i.q. <i>Brush-Cherry</i> (q.v.) <hw>Brush-Turkey</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Turkey</i>. <hw>Brush-Turpentine</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the tree <i>Syncarpia leptopetala</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>, called also <i>Myrtle</i> (q.v.). <hw>Bubrush</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Wonga</i> and <i>Raupo</i>. <hw>Buck</hw>, <i>v</i>. Used "intransitively of a horse, to leap vertically from the ground, drawing the feet together like a deer, and arching the back. Also transitively to buck off." (`O.E.D.') Some say that this word is not Australian, but all the early quotations of <i>buck</i> and cognate words are connected with Australia. The word is now used freely in the United States; see quotation, 1882. 1870. E. B. Kennedy, `Four Years in Queensland,' p. 193: "Having gained his seat by a nimble spring, I have seen a man (a Sydney native) so much at his ease, that while the horse has been `bucking a hurricane,' to use a colonial expression, the rider has been cutting up his tobacco and filling his pipe, while several feet in the air, nothing to front of him excepting a small lock of the animal's mane (the head being between its legs), and very little behind him, the stern being down; the horse either giving a turn to the air, or going forward every buck." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 131: "`Well,' said one, `that fellow went to market like a bird.' `Yes,' echoed another, `Bucked a blessed hurricane.' `Buck a town down,' cried a third. `Never seed a horse strip himself quicker,' cried a fourth." 1882. Baillie-Grohman, `Camps in the Rockies,' ch. iv. p. 102 ('Standard'): "There are two ways, I understand, of sitting a bucking horse . . . one is `to follow the buck,' the other `to receive the buck.'" 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia,' p. 55: "The performance is quite peculiar to Australian horses, and no one who has not seen them at it would believe the rapid contortions of which they are capable. In bucking, a horse tucks his head right between his fore-legs, sometimes striking his jaw with his hind feet. The back meantime is arched like a boiled prawn's; and in this position the animal makes a series of tremendous bounds, sometimes forwards, sometimes sideways and backwards, keeping it up for several minutes at intervals of a few seconds." <hw>Buck</hw>, <i>n</i>. See preceding verb. 1868. Lady Barker, `Station Life in New Zealand,' p. 224: "I never saw such bucks and jumps into the air as she [the mare] performed." 1886. H. C. Kendall, `Poems,' p. 206: "For, mark me, he can sit a buck For hours and hours together; And never horse has had the luck To pitch him from the leather." <hw>Bucker</hw>, <hw>Buck-jumper</hw>, <i>n</i>. a horse given to bucking or buck-jumping. 1853. H. Berkeley Jones, `Adventures in Australia in 1852 and 1853,' [Footnote] p. 143: "A `bucker' is a vicious horse, to be found only in Australia." 1884. `Harper's Magazine,' July, No. 301, p. 1 (`O.E.D.'): "If we should . . . select a `bucker,' the probabilities are that we will come to grief." 1893. Haddon Chambers, `Thumbnail Sketches of Australian Life,' p. 64: "No buck jumper could shake him off." 1893. Ibid. p. 187: "`Were you ever on a buck-jumper?' I was asked by a friend, shortly after my return from Australia." <hw>Buck-jumping</hw>, <hw>Bucking</hw>, <i>verbal nouns</i>. 1855. W. Howitt, `Two Years in Victoria,' vol. i. p. 43: "At length it shook off all its holders, and made one of those extraordinary vaults that they call <i>buck-jumping</i>." 1859. H. Kingsley, `Geoffrey Hamlyn,' vol. ii. p. 212: "That same bucking is just what puzzles me utterly." 1859. Rev. J. D. Mereweather, `Diary of a Working Clergyman in Australia and Tasmania, kept during the years 1850-1853,' p. 177: "I believe that an inveterate buckjumper can be cured by slinging up one of the four legs, and lunging him about severely in heavy ground on the three legs. The action they must needs make use of on such an occasion somewhat resembles the action of bucking; and after some severe trials of that sort, they take a dislike to the whole style of thing. An Irishman on the Murrumbidgee is very clever at this schooling. It is called here `turning a horse inside out.'" 1885. Forman (Dakota), item 26, May 6, 3 (`O.E.D.'): "The majority of the horses there [in Australia] are vicious and given to the trick of buck jumping." [It may be worth while to add that this is not strictly accurate.] 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `A Colonial Reformer,' p. 94: "`I should say that buck jumping was produced in this country by bad breaking,' said Mr. Neuchamp oracularly. `Don't you believe it, sir. Bucking is like other vices--runs in the blood.'" <hw>Buck-shot</hw>, <i>n</i>. a settlers' term for a geological formation. See quotation. 1851. `The Australasian Quarterly,' p. 459: "The plain under our feet was everywhere furrowed by <i>Dead men's graves</i>, and generally covered with the granulated lava, aptly named by the settlers <i>buck-shot</i>, and found throughout the country on these trappean `formations. <i>Buck-shot</i> is always imbedded in a sandy alluvium, sometimes several feet thick." <hw>Buddawong</hw>, <i>n</i>. a variation of <i>Burrawang</i> (q.v.). 1877. Australie, `The Buddawong's Crown,' `Australian Poets,' 1788-1888, ed. Sladen, p. 39: "A Buddawong seed-nut fell to earth, In a cool and mossy glade, And in spring it shot up its barbed green swords, Secure 'neath the myrtle's shade. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . And the poor, poor palm has died indeed. But little the strangers care, `There are zamias in plenty more,' they say, But the crown is a beauty rare." <hw>Budgeree</hw>, <i>adj</i>. aboriginal word for good, which is common colloquially in the bush. See <i>Budgerigar</i>. 1793. J.Hunter, `Port Jackson,' p. 195: "They very frequently, at the conclusion of the dance, would apply to us . . . for marks of our approbation . . . which we never failed to give by often repeating the word <i>boojery</i>, good; or <i>boojery caribberie</i>, a good dance." <hw>Budgerigar</hw>, or <hw>Betcherrygah</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for the bird called by Gould the <i>Warbling Grass-parrakeet</i>; called also <i>Shell-parrot</i> and <i>Zebra- Grass-parrakeet</i>. In the Port Jackson dialect <i>budgeri</i>, or <i>boodgeri</i>, means good, excellent. In `Collins' Vocabulary' (1798), boodjer-re = good. In New South Wales <i>gar</i> is common as first syllable of the name for the white cockatoo, as <i>garaweh</i>. See <i>Galah</i>. In the north of New South Wales <i>kaar</i>= white cockatoo. The spelling is very various, but the first of the two above given is the more correct etymologically. In the United States it is spelt <i>beauregarde</i>, derived by `Standard' from French <i>beau</i> and <i>regarde</i>, a manifest instance of the law of <i>Hobson -Jobson</i>. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 297: "The betshiregah (<i>Melopsittacus Undulatus</i>, Gould) were very numerous." 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. v. Pl. 44: "<i>Melopsittacus Undulatus</i>. Warbling Grass-Parrakeet. Canary Parrot--colonists. <i>Betcherrygah</i>--natives of Liverpool Plains." 1857. Letter, Nov.17, in `Life of Fenton J. A. Hort' (1896), vol. i. p. 388: "There is also a small green creature like a miniature cockatoo, called a Budgeragar, which was brought from Australia. He is quaint and now and then noisy, but not on the whole a demonstrative being." 1857. W. Howitt, `Tallangetta,' vol. i. p. 48: "Young paroquets, the green leeks, and the lovely speckled budgregores." 1865. Lady Barker, `Station Life in New Zealand,' p. 7: "I saw several pairs of those pretty grass or zebra parroquets, which are called here by the very inharmonious name of `budgereghars.'" 2890. Lyth, `Golden South,' c. xiv. p. 127: "The tiny budgeriegar, sometimes called the shell parrot." <hw>Bugle</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to the Australian plant <i>Ajuga australis</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Labiatae</i>. <hw>Bugler</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name given in Tasmania to the fish <i>Centriscus scolopax</i>, family <i>Centriscidae</i>; called in Europe the <i>Trumpet-fish</i>, <i>Bellows-fish</i>, the latter name being also used for it in Tasmania. The structure of the mouth and snout suggests a musical instrument, or, combined with the outline of the body, a pair of bellows. The fish occurs also in Europe. <hw>Bugong</hw>, or <hw>Bogong</hw>, or <hw>Bougong</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian moth, <i>Danais limniace</i>, or<i> Agrotis spina</i>, eaten by the aborigines. 1834. Rev. W. B. Clarke, `Researches in the Southern Gold Fields of New South Wales' (second edition), p. 228: "These moths have obtained their name from their occurrence on the `Bogongs' or granite mountains. They were described by my friend Dr. Bennett in his interesting work on `New South Wales,' 1832-4, as abundant on the Bogong Mountain, Tumut River. I found them equally abundant, and in full vigour, in December, coming in clouds from the granite peaks of the Muniong Range. The blacks throw them on the fire and eat them." 1859. H. Kingsley, `Geoffrey Hamlyn,' p. 355: "The westward range is called the Bougongs. The blacks during summer are in the habit of coming thus far to collect and feed on the great grey moths (bougongs) which are found on the rocks." 1871. `The Athenaeum,' May 27, p. 660: "The Gibbs Land and Murray districts have been divided into the following counties: . . . Bogong (native name of grubs and moths)." 1878. R. Brough Smyth, `The Aborigines of Victoria,' vol. i. p. 207 "The moths--the Bugong moths(<i>Agrolis suffusa</i>) are greedily devoured by the natives; and in former times, when they were in season, they assembled in great numbers to eat there, and they grew fat on this food." [Also a long footnote.] 1890. Richard Helms, `Records of the Australian Museum,' vol. i. No. 1: "My aim was to obtain some `Boogongs,' the native name for the moths which so abundantly occur on this range, and no doubt have given it its name." 1896. `Sydney Mail,' April 4, Answers to Correspondents: "It cannot be stated positively, but it is thought that the name of the moth `bogong' is taken from that of the mountain. The meaning of the word is not known, but probably it is an aboriginal word." <hw>Bull-a-bull</hw>, or <hw>Bullybul</hw>, <i>n</i>. a child's corruption of the Maori word <i>Poroporo</i> (q.v.), a flowering shrub of New Zealand. It is allied to the <i>Kangaroo-Apple</i> (q.v.). 1845. `New Plymouth's National Song,' in Hursthouse's `New Zealand,' p. 217: "And as for fruit, the place is full Of that delicious bull-a-bull." <hw>Bullahoo</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Ballahoo</i>. <hw>Bull-ant</hw>, <i>n</i>. contracted and common form of the words <i>Bull-dog Ant</i> (q.v.). <hw>Bull-dog Ant</hw>, <i>n</i>. (frequently shortened to <i>Bull-dog</i> or <i>Bull-ant</i>), an ant of large size with a fierce bite. The name is applied to various species of the genus <i>Myrmecia</i>, which is common throughout Australia and Tasmania. 1878. Mrs. H. Jones, `Long Years in Australia,' p. 93: "Busy colonies of ants (which everywhere infest the country). . . One kind is very warlike--the `bull-dog': sentinels stand on the watch, outside the nest, and in case of attack disappear for a moment and return with a whole army of the red-headed monsters, and should they nip you, will give you a remembrance of their sting never to be forgotten." 1888. Alleged `Prize Poem,' Jubilee Exhibition: "The aborigine is now nearly extinct, But the bull-dog-ant and the kangaroo rat Are a little too thick--I think." 1896. A. B. Paterson, `Man from Snowy River,' p. 142: "Where the wily free-selector walks in armour-plated pants, And defies the stings of scorpion and the bites of bull-dog ants." <hw>Bull-dog Shark</hw>, i.q. <i>Bull-head</i> (1) (q.v.). <hw>Bull-head</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is applied to many fishes of different families in various parts of the world, none of which are the same as the following two. (1) A shark of Tasmania and South Australia of small size and harmless, with teeth formed for crushing shells, <i>Heterodontus phillipi</i> , Lacep., family <i>Cestraciontidae</i>; also called the <i>Bull-dog Shark</i>, and in Sydney, where it is common, the <i>Port-Jackson Shark</i> : the aboriginal name was <i>Tabbigan</i>. (2) A freshwater fish of New Zealand, <i>Eleotris gobioides</i>, Cuv.and Val., family <i>Gobiidae</i>. See <i>Bighead</i>. <hw>Bulln-Bulln</hw>, <i>n</i>. an aboriginal name for the Lyre-bird (q.v.). This native name is imitative. The most southerly county in Victoria is called <i>Buln-Buln</i>; it is the haunt of the Lyre-bird. 1857. D. Bunce, `Travels with Leichhardt in Australia,' p. 70: "We afterwards learned that this was the work of the Bullen Bullen, or Lyre-bird, in its search for large worms, its favourite food." 1871. `The Athenaeum,' May 27, p. 660: "The Gipps Land and Murray districts have been divided into the following counties: . . . Buln Buln (name of Lyre-bird)." <hw>Bull-Oak</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Oak</i>. <hw>Bullocky</hw>, <i>n</i>. and <i>adj</i>. a bullockdriver." In the bush all the heavy hauling is done with bullock-drays. It is quite a common sight up the country to see teams of a dozen and upwards." (B. and L.) 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. xii. p. 121: "By George, Jack, you're a regular bullocky boy." <hw>Bull-puncher</hw>, or <hw>Bullock-puncher</hw>, <i>n</i>. slang for a bullockdriver. According to Barrere and Leland's `Slang Dictionary,' the word has a somewhat different meaning in America, where it means a drover. See <i>Punch</i>. 1872. C. N. Eden, `My Wife and I in Queensland,' p. 49: "The `bull-puncher,' as bullock-drivers are familiarly called." 1873. J. Mathew, song `Hawking,' in `Queenslander,' Oct. 4: "The stockmen and the bushmen and the shepherds leave the station, And the hardy bullock-punchers throw aside their occupation." 1889. Cassell's `Picturesque Australasia,' vol. iv. p. 143: "These teams would comprise from five to six pairs of bullocks each, and were driven by a man euphoniously termed a `bull-puncher.' Armed with a six-foot thong, fastened to a supple stick seven feet long. . . ." <hw>Bull-rout</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fish of New South Wales, <i>Centropogon robustus</i>, Guenth., family <i>Scorpaenidae</i>. 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish of New South Wales,' p. 48: "It emits a loud and harsh grunting noise when it is caught. . . . The fisherman knows what he has got by the noise before he brings his fish to the surface. . . . When out of the water the noise of the bull-rout is loudest, and it spreads its gills and fins a little, so as to appear very formidable. . . . The blacks held it in great dread, and the name of bull-rout may possibly be a corruption of some native word." <hw>Bull's-eye</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fish of New South Wales, <i>Priacanthus macracanthus</i>, Cuv.and Val. <i>Priacanthus</i>, says Guenther, is a percoid fish with short snout, lower jaw and chin prominent, and small rough scales all over them and the body generally. The eye large, and the colour red, pink, or silvery. 1884. E. P. Ramsay, `Fisheries Exhibition Literature,' vol. v. p. 311: "Another good table-fish is the `bull's-eye,' a beautiful salmon-red fish with small scales. . . . At times it enters the harbours in considerable numbers; but the supply is irregular." <hw>Bulls-wool</hw>, <i>n</i>. colloquial name for the inner portion of the covering of the <i>Stringybark-tree</i> (q.v.). This is a dry finely fibrous substance, easily disintegrated by rubbing between the hands. It forms a valuable tinder for kindling a fire in the bush, and is largely employed for that purpose. It is not unlike the matted hair of a bull, and is reddish in colour, hence perhaps this nickname, which is common in the Tasmanian bush. <hw>Bully</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian fish, <i>Blennius tasmanianus</i>, Richards., family <i>Blennidae</i>. <hw>Bulrush</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Wonga</i> and <i>Raupo</i>. <hw>Bung, to go</hw>, <i>v</i>. to fail, to become bankrupt. This phrase of English school-boy slang, meaning to go off with an explosion, to go to smash (also according to Barrere and Leland still in use among American thieves), is in very frequent use in Australia. In Melbourne in the times that followed the collapse of the land-boom it was a common expression to say that Mr. So-and-so had "gone bung," sc. filed his schedule or made a composition with creditors; or that an institution had "gone bung," sc. closed its doors, collapsed. In parts of Australia, in New South Wales and Queensland, the word "bung" is an aboriginal word meaning "dead," and even though the slang word be of English origin, its frequency of use in Australia may be due to the existence of the aboriginal word, which forms the last syllable in <i>Billabong</i> (q.v.), and in the aboriginal word <i>milbung</i> blind, literally, eye-dead. (a) The aboriginal word. 1847. J. D. Lang, `Cooksland,' p. 430: "A place called Umpie Bung, or the dead houses." [It is now a suburb of Brisbane, Humpy-bong.] 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. ii. p. 175 [in Blacks' pigeon English]: "Missis bail bong, ony cawbawn prighten. (Missis not dead, only dreadfully frightened.)" 1882. A. J. Boyd, `Old Colonials,' p. 73: "But just before you hands 'im [the horse] over and gets the money, he goes bong on you" (i.e. he dies). 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia,' p: 142: "Their [the blacks'] ordinary creed is very simple. `Directly me bung (die) me jump up white feller,' and this seems to be the height of their ambition." 1895. `The Age,' Dec. 21, p. 13, col. 6: "`Then soon go bong, mummy,' said Ning, solemnly. `Die,' corrected Clare. You mustn't talk blacks' language.' `Suppose you go bong,' pursued Ning reflectively, `then you go to Heaven.'" (b) The slang word. 1885. `Australian Printers' Keepsake,' p. 40: "He was importuned to desist, as his musical talent had `gone bung,' probably from over-indulgence in confectionery." 1893. `The Argus,' April 15 (by Oriel), p. 13, col. 2: "Still change is humanity's lot. It is but the space of a day Till cold is the damask cheek, and silent the eloquent tongue, All flesh is grass, says the preacher, like grass it is withered away, And we gaze on a bank in the evening, and lo, in the morn 'tis bung." 1893. Professor Gosman, `The Argus,' April 24, p. 7, col. 4: "Banks might fail, but the treasures of thought could never go `bung.'" 1893. `The Herald' (Melbourne), April 25, p. 2, col. 4: "Perhaps Sydney may supply us with a useful example. One member of the mischief-making brotherhood wrote the words `gone bung' under a notice on the Government Savings Bank, and he was brought before the Police Court charged with damaging the bank's property to the extent of 3d. The offender offered the Bench his views on the bank, but the magistrates bluntly told him his conduct was disgraceful, and fined him L 3 with costs, or two months' imprisonment." <hw>Bunga</hw> or <hw>Bungy</hw>, <i>n</i>. a New Zealand settlers' corruption of the Maori word <i>punga</i> (q.v.). <hw>Bunt</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Queensland fungus growing on wheat, fetid when crushed. <i>Tilletia caries</i>, Tul., <i>N.O. Fungi</i>. <hw>Bunya-Bunya</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal word. [<i>Bunyi</i> at heads of Burnett, Mary, and Brisbane rivers, Queensland; <i>baanya</i>, on the Darling Downs.] An Australian tree, <i>Araucaria bidwillii</i>, Hooker, with fruit somewhat like <i>Bertholletia excelsa</i>, <i>N.O. Coniferae</i>. Widgi-Widgi station on the Mary was the head-quarters for the fruit of this tree, and some thousands of blacks used to assemble there in the season to feast on it; it was at this assembly that they used to indulge in cannibalism ; every third year the trees were said to bear a very abundant crop. The Bunya-Bunya mountains in Queensland derive their name from this tree. 1843. L. Leichhardt, Letter in `Cooksland, by J. D. Lang, p. 82: "The bunya-bunya tree is noble and gigantic, and its umbrella-like head overtowers all the trees of the bush." 1844. Ibid. p. 89: "The kernel of the Bunya fruit has a very fine aroma, and it is certainly delicious eating." 1844. `Port Phillip Patriot,' July 25: "The Bunya-Bunya or <i>Araucaria</i> on the seeds of which numerous tribes of blacks are accustomed to feed." 1879. W. R. Guilfoyle, `First Book of Australian Botany,' p. 58: "A splendid timber tree of South Queensland, where it forms dense forests, one of the finest of the Araucaria tribe, attaining an approximate height of 200 feet. The Bunya-Bunya withstands drought better than most of the genus, and flourishes luxuriantly in and around Melbourne." 1887. J. Mathew, in Curr's `Australian Race,' vol. iii. p. 161: [A full account.] "In laying up a store of bunyas, the blacks exhibited an unusual foresight. When the fruit was in season, they filled netted bags with the seeds, and buried them." 1889. Hill, quoted by J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 7: "The cones shed their seeds, which are two to two and a half inches long by three-quarters of an inch broad; they are sweet before being perfectly ripe, and after that resemble roasted chestnuts in taste. They are plentiful once in three years, and when the ripening season arrives, which is generally in the month of January, the aborigina&ls assemble in large numbers from a great distance around, and feast upon them. Each tribe has its own particular set of trees, and of these each family has a certain number allotted, which are handed down from generation to generation with great exactness. The bunya is remarkable as being the only hereditary property which any of the aborigines are known to possess, and it is therefore protected by law. The food seems to have a fattening effect on the aborigines, and they eat large quantities of it after roasting it at the fire." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 377: "The `Bunya-bunya' of the aboriginals--a name invariably adopted by the colonists." 1892. J. Fraser, `Aborigines of New South Wales,' p. 50: "The Bunya-bunya tree, in the proper season, bears a fir cone of great size--six to nine inches long-and this, when roasted, yields a vegetable pulp, pleasant to eat and nutritious." 1893. `Sydney Morning Herald,' Aug. 19, p. 7, col. 1: "There is a beautiful bunya-bunya in a garden just beyond, its foliage fresh varnished by the rain, and toning from a rich darkness to the very spring tint of tender green." <hw>Bunyip</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) the aboriginal name of a fabulous animal. See quotations. For the traditions of the natives on this subject see Brough Smyth, `Aborigines of Victoria,' vol. i. p. 435. 1848. W. Westgarth, `Australia Felix,' p. 391: "Certain large fossil bones, found in various parts of Australia Felix, have been referred by the natives, when consulted on the subject by the colonists, to a huge animal of extraordinary appearance, called in some districts the Bunyup, in others the Kianpraty, which they assert to be still alive. It is described as of amphibious character, inhabiting deep rivers, and permanent water-holes, having a round head, an elongated neck, with a body and tail resembling an ox. These reports have not been unattended to, and the bunyup is said to have been actually seen by many parties, colonists as well as aborigines. . . .[A skull which the natives said was that of a `piccinini Kianpraty' was found by Professor Owen to be that of a young calf. The Professor] considers it all but impossible that such a large animal as the bunyup of the natives can be now living in the country. [Mr. Westgarth suspects] it is only a tradition of the alligator or crocodile of the north." 1849. W. S. Macleay, `Tasmanian journal,' vol. iii. p. 275: "On the skull now exhibited at the Colonial Museum of Sydney as that of the Bunyip." 1855. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes,' p. 214: "Did my reader ever hear of the Bunyip (fearful name to the aboriginal native!) a sort of `half-horse, half-alligator,' haunting the wide rushy swamps and lagoons of the interior?" 1859. H. Kingsley, `Geoffrey Hamlyn,' p. 258: "The river is too deep, child, and the Bunyip lives in the water under the stones." 1865. `Once a Week,' Dec. 31, p. 45, The Bulla Bulla Bunyip': "Beyond a doubt, in `Lushy Luke's' belief, a Bunyip had taken temporary lodgings outside the town. This <i>bete noire</i> of the Australian bush Luke asserted he had often seen in bygone times. He described it as being bigger than an elephant, in shape like a `poley' bullock, with eyes like live coals, and with tusks like a walrus's. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * "What the Bunyip is, I cannot pretend to say, but I think it is highly probable that the stories told by both old bushmen and blackfellows, of some bush beast bigger and fiercer than any commonly known in Australia, are founded on fact. Fear and the love of the marvellous may have introduced a considerable element of exaggeration into these stories, but I cannot help suspecting that the myths have an historical basis." 1872. C. Gould, `Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania,' 1872, p. 33: "The belief in the Bunyip was just as prevalent among the natives in parts hundreds of miles distant from any stream in which alligators occur. . . . Some other animal must be sought for." . . . [Gould then quotes from `The Mercury' of April 26, 1872, an extract from the `Wagga Advertiser']: "There really is a Bunyip or Waa-wee, actually existing not far from us . . . in the Midgeon Lagoon, sixteen miles north of Naraudera . . . I saw a creature coming through the water with tremendous rapidity . . . . The animal was about half as long again as an ordinary retriever dog, the hair all over its body was jet black and shining, its coat was very long." [Gould cites other instances, and concludes that the Bunyip is probably a seal.] 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 202: "In the south-eastern part of Australia the evil spirit of the natives is called <i>Bunjup</i>, a monster which is believed to dwell in the lakes. It has of late been supposed that this is a mammal of considerable size that has not yet been discovered . . . is described as a monster with countless eyes and ears. . . . He has sharp claws, and can run so fast that it is difficult to escape him. He is cruel, and spares no one either young or old." 1894. `The Argus,' June 23, p. 11, col. 4: "The hollow boom so often heard on the margin of reedy swamps --more hollow and louder by night than day--is the mythical bunyip, the actual bittern." (2) In a secondary sense, a synonym for an impostor. 1852. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes' (edition 1855), p. 214: "One advantage arose from the aforesaid long-deferred discovery --a new and strong word was adopted into the Australian vocabulary: Bunyip became, and remains a Sydney synonoyme for <i>impostor, pretender, humbug</i>, and the like. The black fellows, however, unaware of the extinction, by superior authority, of their favourite <i>loup-garou</i>, still continue to cherish the fabulous bunyip in their shuddering imagination." 1853. W. C. Wentworth--Speech in August quoted by Sir Henry Parkes in `Fifty Years of Australian History' (1892), vol. i. p. 41: "They had been twitted with attempting to create a mushroom, a Brummagem, a bunyip aristocracy; but I need scarcely observe that where argument fails ridicule is generally resorted to for aid." <hw>Burnet, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is given in Australia to the plant <i>Acaena ovina</i>, Cunn., <i>N.O. Rosaceae</i>. <hw>Burnett Salmon</hw>, <i>n</i>. one of the names given to the fish <i>Ceratodus forsteri</i>, Krefft. See <i>Burramundi</i>. <hw>Burnt-stuff</hw>, <i>n</i>. a geological term used by miners. See quotation. 1853. Mrs. Chas. Clancy, `Lady's Visit to Gold Diggings,' p. 112: "The top, or surface soil, for which a spade or shovel is used, was of clay. This was succeeded by a strata almost as hard as iron--technically called `burnt-stuff'--which robbed the pick of its points nearly as soon as the blacksmith had steeled them at a charge of 2s. 6d. a point." <hw>Bur</hw>, <i>n</i>. In Tasmania the name is applied to <i>Acaena rosaceae</i>, Vahl., <i>N.O. Rosaceae</i>. <hw>Burramundi</hw>, or <hw>Barramunda</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fresh-water fish, <i>Osteoglossum leichhardtii</i>, Guenth., family <i>Osteoglossidae</i>, found in the Dawson and Fitzroy Rivers, Queensland. The name is also incorrectly applied by the colonists to the large tidal perch of the Fitzroy River, Queensland, <i>Lates calcarifer</i>, Guenth., a widely distributed fish in the East Indies, and to <i>Ceratodus forsteri</i>, Krefft, family <i>Sirenidae</i>, of the Mary and Burnett Rivers, Queensland. Burramundi is the aboriginal name for <i>O. leichhardtii</i>. The spelling <i>barramunda</i> is due to the influence of <i>barracouta</i> (q.v.). See <i>Perch</i>. 1873. A. Trollope, `Australia and New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 189: "There is a fish too at Rockhampton called the burra mundi,-- I hope I spell the name rightly,--which is very commendable." 1880. Guenther, `Study of Fishes,' p. 357: "<i>Ceratodus</i>. . . . Two species, <i>C. forsteri</i> and <i>C. miolepis</i>, are known from fresh-waters of Queensland. . . . Locally the settlers call it `flathead,' `Burnett or Dawson salmon,' and the aborigines `barramunda,' a name which they apply also to other largescaled fresh-water fishes, as the <i>Osteoglossum leichhardtii</i>. . . . The discovery of <i>Ceratodus</i> does not date farther back than the year 1870." 1882. W. Macleay, `Descriptive Catalogue of Australian fishes' ('Proceedings of the Linnaean Society of New South Wales,' vol. vi. p. 256): "<i>Osteoglossum leichhardtii</i>, Gunth. Barramundi of the aborigines of the Dawson River." 1892. Baldwin Spencer, `Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria,' vol. iv. [Note on the habits of <i>Ceratodus forsterii</i>] "It has two common names, one of which is the `Burnett Salmon' and the other the `Barramunda" . . . the latter name . . . is properly applied to a very different form, a true teleostean fish (<i>Osteoglossum leichhardtii</i>) which is found . . . further north . . . in the Dawson and Fitzroy . . . Mr. Saville Kent states that the Ceratodus is much prized as food. This is a mistake, for, as a matter of fact, it is only eaten by Chinese and those who can afford to get nothing better." <hw>Burrawang</hw>, or <hw>Burwan</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian nut-tree, <i>Macrozamia spiralis</i>, Miq. 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 221: "The burwan is a nut much relished by our natives, who prepare it by roasting and immersion in a running stream, to free it from its poisonous qualities." 1851. J. Henderson, `Excursions in New South Wales,' vol. ii. p. 238 "The Burrowan, which grows in a sandy soil, and produces an inedible fruit, resembling the pine-apple in appearance." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 41: "Burrawang nut, so called because they used to be, and are to some extent now, very common about Burrawang, N.S.W. The nuts are relished by the aboriginals. An arrowroot of very good quality is obtained from them." <hw>Bush</hw>, <i>n</i>. Not originally an Australian application. "Recent, and probably a direct adoption of the Dutch <i>Bosch</i>, in colonies originally Dutch" (`O.E.D.'), [quoting (1780) Forster, in `Phil. Trans.' lxxi. 2, "The common Bush-cat of the Cape;" and (1818) Scott, `Tapestr. Chamber,' "When I was in the Bush, as the Virginians call it"]. "Woodland, country more or less covered with natural wood applied to the uncleared or untitled districts in the British Colonies which are still in a state of nature, or largely so, even though not wooded; and by extension to the country as opposed to the towns." (`O.E.D.') 1830. R. Dawson, `Present State of Australia,' p. 48: "I have spent a good deal of my time in the woods, or bush, as it is called here.' 1836. Ross, `Hobart Town Almanack,' p. 85: "With the exception of two or three little farms, comprising about 20 or 30 acres of cultivation, all was `bush' as it is colonially called. The undergrowth was mostly clear, being covered only with grass or herbs, with here and there some low shrubs." 1837. J. D. Lang, `New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 253: "His house was well enough for the bush, as the country is generally termed in the colony." 1855. From a letter quoted in Wathen's `The Golden Colony,' p. 117: "`The Bush,' when the word is used in the towns, means all the uninclosed and uncultivated country . . . when in the country, `the Bush' means more especially the forest. The word itself has been borrowed from the Cape, and is of Dutch origin." 1857. `The Argus,' Dec. 14, p. 5, col. 7: "`Give us something to do in or about Melbourne, not away in the bush,' says the deputation of the unemployed." 1861. T. McCombie,' Australian Sketches,' p. 123: "At first the eternal silence of the bush is oppressive, but a short sojourn is sufficient to accustom a neophyte to the new scene, and he speedily becomes enamoured of it." 1865. J. F. Mortlock, `Experiences of a Convict,' p. 83: "The `bush,' a generic term synonymous with `forest' or `jungle,' applied to all land in its primaeval condition, whether occupied by herds or not." 1872. A. McFarland, `Illawarra and Manaro,' p. 113: "All the advantages of civilized life have been surrendered for the bush, its blanket and gunyah." 1873. A. Trollope, `Australia and New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 250: "The technical meaning of the word `bush.' The bush is the gum-tree forest, with which so great a part of Australia is covered, that folk who follow a country life are invariably said to live in the bush. Squatters who look after their own runs always live in the bush, even though their sheep are pastured on plains. Instead of a town mouse and a country mouse in Australia, there would be a town mouse and a bush mouse; but mice living in the small country towns would still be bush mice." Ibid. c. xx. p. 299: "Nearly every place beyond the influence of the big towns is called `bush,' even though there should not be a tree to be seen around." 1883. G. W. Rusden, `History of Australia,' vol. i. p. 67, n.: "Bush was a general term for the interior. It might be thick bush, open bush, bush forest, or scrubby bushterms which explain themselves." 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia,' p. 40: "The first thing that strikes me is the lifeless solitude of the bush. . . . There is a deep fascination about the freedom of the bush." 1890. E. W. Hornung [Title]: "A Bride from the Bush." 1896. `Otago Daily Times,' Jan. 27, p. 2, col. 5: "Almost the whole of New South Wales is covered with bush. It is not the bush as known in New Zealand. It is rather a park-like expanse, where the trees stand widely apart, and where there is grass on the soil between them." <hw>Bush</hw>, <i>adj</i>. or <i>in composition</i>, not always easy to distinguish, the hyphen depending on the fancy of the writer. 1836. Ross, `Hobart Town Almanack,' p. 75: "The round trundling of our cart wheels, it is well known, does not always improve the labours of Macadam, much less a bush road." 1848. Letter by Mrs. Perry, given in Canon Goodman's `Church in Victoria, during Episcopate of Bishop Perry,'p. 75: "A hard bush sofa, without back or ends." 1849. J. Sidney, `Emigrants' Journal, and Travellers' Magazine,' p. 40 (Letter from Caroline Chisholm): "What I would particularly recommend to new settlers is `<i>Bush Partnership'</i>--Let two friends or neighbours agree to work together, until three acres are cropped, dividing the work, the expense, and the produce--this partnership will grow apace; I have made numerous bush agreements of this kind . . . I never knew any quarrel or bad feeling result from these partnerships, on the contrary, I believe them calculated to promote much neighbourly good will; but in the association of a large number of strangers, for an indefinite period, I have no confidence." 1857. W. Westgarth, `Victoria,' c. xi. p. 250: "The gloomy antithesis of good bushranging and bad bush-roads." [Bush-road, however, does not usually mean a made-road through the bush, but a road which has not been formed, and is in a state of nature except for the wear of vehicles upon it, and perhaps the clearing of trees and scrub.] 1864. `The Reader,' April 2, p. 40, col. 1 (`O.E.D.'): "The roads from the nascent metropolis still partook mainly of the random character of `bush tracks.'" 1865. W. Hewitt, `Discovery in Australia,' vol. ii. p. 211: "Dr. Wills offered to go himself in the absence of any more youthful and, through bush seasoning, qualified person." 1880. `Blackwood's Magazine,' Feb., p. 169 [Title]: "Bush-Life in Queensland." 1881. R. M. Praed, `Policy and Passion,' c. i. p. 59: "The driver paused before a bush inn." [In Australia the word "inn" is now rare. The word "hotel" has supplanted it.] 1889. Cassell's `Picturesque Australasia,' vol. iv.p. 3: "Not as bush roads go. The Australian habit is here followed of using `bush' for country, though no word could be more ludicrously inapplicable, for there is hardly anything on the way that can really be called a bush." 1894. `Sydney Morning Herald' (exact date lost): "Canada, Cape Colony, and Australia have preserved the old significance of Bush--Chaucer has it so--as a territory on which there are trees; it is a simple but, after all, a kindly development that when a territory is so unlucky as to have no trees, sometimes, indeed, to be bald of any growth whatever, it should still be spoken of as if it had them." 1896. Rolf Boldrewood, in preface to `The Man from Snowy River': "It is not easy to write ballads descriptive of the bushland of Australia, as on light consideration would appear." 1896. H. Lawson, `While the Billy boils,' p. 104: "About Byrock we met the bush liar in all his glory. He was dressed like--like a bush larrikin. His name was Jim." <hw>Bush-faller</hw>, <i>n</i>. one who cuts down timber in the bush. 1882. `Pall Mall Gazette,' June 29, p. 2, col. 1: "A broken-down, deserted shanty, inhabited once, perhaps, by rail-splitters or bush-fallers." [`O.E.D.,' from which this quotation is taken, puts (?) before the meaning; but "To fall" is not uncommon in Australia for "to fell."] <hw>Bush-fire</hw>, <i>n</i>. forests and grass on fire in hot summers. 1868. C. Dilke, `Greater Britain,' vol. ii. part iii. c. iii. p. 32: "The smoke from these bush-fires extends for hundreds of miles to sea." 1884. Rolf Boldrewood, `Melbourne Memories,' c. xxii. p. 156: "A reserve in case of bush-fires and bad seasons." <hw>Bush-lawyer</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) A Bramble. See <i>Lawyer</i>. (2) Name often used for a layman who fancies he knows all about the law without consulting a solicitor. He talks a great deal, and `lays down the law.' 1896. H. G. Turner, `Lecture on J. P. Fawkner': "For some years he cultivated and developed his capacity for rhetorical argument by practising in the minor courts of law in Tasmania as a paid advocate, a position which in those days, and under the exceptional circumstances of the Colony, was not restricted to members of the legal profession, and the term Bush Lawyer probably takes its origin from the practice of this period." <hw>Bush-magpie</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian bird, more commonly called a <i>Magpie</i> (q.v.). 1888. Cassell's `Picturesque Australasia,' vol. ii. p. 235: ". . . the omnipresent bush-magpie. Here he may warble all the day long on the liquid, mellifluous notes of his Doric flute, fit pipe indeed for academic groves . . . sweetest and brightest, most cheery and sociable of all Australian birds." <hw>Bushman</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) Settler in the bush. Used to distinguish country residents from townsfolk. 1852. `Blackwood's Magazine,' p. 522 (`O.E.D.'): "Where the wild bushman eats his loathly fare." 1880. J. Mathew, song, `The Bushman:' "How weary, how dreary the stillness must be! But oh! the lone bushman is dreaming of me." 1886. Frank Cowan: `Australia; a Charcoal Sketch': "The bushman . . . <i>Gunyah</i>, his bark hovel; <i>Damper</i>, his unleavened bread baked in the ashes; <i>Billy</i>, his tea-kettle, universal pot and pan and bucket; <i>Sugar-bag</i>, his source of saccharine, a bee-tree; <i>Pheasant</i>, his facetious metaphoric euphism for Liar, quasi Lyre-bird; <i>Fit for Woogooroo</i>, for Daft or Idiotic; <i>Brumby</i>, his peculiar term for wild horse; <i>Scrubber</i>, wild ox; <i>Nuggeting</i>, calf-stealing; <i>Jumbuck</i>, sheep, in general; an <i>Old-man</i>, grizzled wallaroo or kangaroo; <i>Station, Run</i>, a sheep- or cattle-ranch; and <i>Kabonboodgery</i>--an echo of the sound diablery for ever in his ears, from dawn to dusk of Laughing Jackass and from dusk to dawn of Dingo--his half-bird -and-beast-like vocal substitute for Very Good. . . ." 1896. H.Lawson, `While the Billy boils,' p. 71: "He was a typical bushman, . . . and of the old bush school; one of those slight active little fellows, whom we used to see in cabbage-tree hats, Crimean shirts, strapped trousers, and elastic-side boots." (2) One who has knowledge of the bush, and is skilled in its ways. A "good bushman" is especially used of a man who can find his way where there are no tracks. 1868. J. Bonwick, `John Batman, Founder of Victoria,' pp. 78, 79: "It is hardly likely that so splendid a bushman as Mr. Batman would venture upon such an expedition had he not been well. In fact a better bushman at this time could not be met with." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. ii. p. 3: "The worst bushman had to undertake the charge of the camp, cook the provisions, and look after the horses, during the absence of the rest on flying excursions." 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia,' p. 40: "Very slight landmarks will serve to guide a good bushman, for no two places are really exactly alike." 1891. Rolf Boldrewood, `Sydney-side Saxon,' p. 78: "One of the best bushmen in that part of the country: the men said he could find his way over it blindfold, or on the darkest night that ever was." (3) Special sense. See quotation. 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 80: "Some were what is termed, <i>par excellence</i>, bushmen--that is, men who split rails, get posts, shingles, take contracts for building houses, stockyards, etc.--men, in fact, who work among timber continually, sometimes felling and splitting, sometimes sawing." <hw>Bushmanship</hw>, <i>n</i>. knowledge of the ways of the bush. 1882. A. J. Boyd, `Old Colonials,' p. 261: "A good laugh at the bushmanship displayed." <hw>Bushranger</hw>, <i>n</i>. one who ranges or traverses the bush, far and wide; an Australian highwayman; in the early days usually an escaped convict. Shakspeare uses the verb `to range' in this connection. "Then thieves and robbers range abroad unseen In murders and in outrage, boldly here." (`Richard II.,' III. ii. 39.) "Ranger" is used in modern English for one who protects and not for one who robs; as `the Ranger' of a Park. 1806. May 4, `Sydney Gazette' or `New South Wales Advertiser, given in `History of New South Wales,' p. 265: "Yesterday afternoon, William Page, the bushranger repeatedly advertised, was apprehended by three constables." 1820. W. C. Wentworth, `Description of New South Wales,' p. 166: [The settlements in Van Diemen's Land have] "been infested for many years past by a banditti of runaway convicts, who have endangered the person and property of every one. . . . These wretches, who are known in the colony by the name of bushrangers. . ." 1820. Lieut. Chas. Jeffreys, `Van Dieman's [sic] Land,' p. 15: "The supposition . . . rests solely on the authority of the Bush Rangers, a species of wandering brigands, who will be elsewhere described." 1838. T. L. `Mitchell, `Three Expeditions,' vol. i. p. 9: "Bushrangers, a sub-genus in the order banditti, which happily can now only exist there in places inaccessible to the mounted police." 1845. R. Howitt, `Australia,' p. 81: "This country [Van Diemen's Land] is as much infested as New South Wales with robbers, runaway convicts, or, as they are termed, Bush-rangers." 1861. T. McCombie, `Australian Sketches,' p. 77: "The whole region was infested by marauding bands of bush-rangers, terrible after nightfall." 1887. J. F. Hogan, `The Irish in Australia, p. 252: "Whilst he was engaged in this duty in Victoria, a band of outlaws--'bushrangers' as they are colonially termed-- who had long defied capture, and had carried on a career of murder and robbery, descended from their haunts in the mountain ranges." <hw>Bush-ranging</hw>, <i>n</i>. the practice of the Bushranger (q.v.). 1827. `Captain Robinson's Report,' Dec. 23 "It was a subject of complaint among the settlers, that their assigned servants could not be known from soldiers, owing to their dress; which very much assisted the crime of `bush-ranging.'" <hw>Bush-scrubber</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bushman's word for a boor, bumpkin, or slatternly person. See <i>Scrubber</i>. 1896. Modern. Up-country manservant on seeing his new mistress: "My word! a real lady! she's no bush-scrubber!" <hw>Bush-telegraph</hw>, <i>n</i>. Confederates of bushrangers who supply them with secret information of the movements of the police. 1878. `The Australian,' vol. i. p. 507: "The police are baffled by the false reports of the confederates and the number and activity of the bush telegraphs." 1893. Kenneth Mackay, `Out Back,' p. 74: "A hint dropped in this town set the bush telegraphs riding in all directions." <hw>Bushwoman</hw>, <i>n</i>. See quotation. 1892. `The Australasian,' April 9, p. 707, col. 1: "But who has championed the cause of the woman of the bush-- or, would it be more correct to say bushwoman, as well as bushman?--and allowed her also a claim to participate in the founding of a nation?" <hw>Bush-wren</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Wren</i>. 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 108: [A full description.] <hw>Bushed</hw>, <i>adj., quasi past participle</i>, lost in the bush; then, lost or at a loss. 1661. T. McCombie, `Australian Sketches,' p. 115: "I left my seat to reach a shelter, which was so many miles off, that I narrowly escaped being `bushed.'" 1865. W. Howitt, `Discovery in Australia,' vol. i. p. 283: "The poor youth, new to the wilds, had, in the expressive phrase of the colonials, got bushed, that is, utterly bewildered, and thus lost all idea of the direction that he ought to pursue." 1885. R. M. Praed, `Australian Life,' p. 29: "I get quite bushed in these streets." 1896. `The Argus,' Jan. 1, p. 4, col. 9: "The Ministry did not assume its duty of leading the House, and Mr. Higgins graphically described the position of affairs by stating that the House was `bushed;' while Mr. Shiels compared the situation to a rudderless ship drifting hither and thither." <hw>Bustard</hw>, <i>n</i>. "There are about twenty species, mostly of Africa, several of India, one of Australia, and three properly European." (`Century.') The Australian variety is <i>Eupodotis australis</i>, Gray, called also <i>Wild Turkey</i>, <i>Native Turkey</i>, and <i>Plain Turkey</i>. See <i>Turkey</i>. <hw>Buster, Southerly</hw>, <i>n</i>. The word is a corruption of `burster,' that which bursts. A sudden and violent squall from the south. The name, used first in Sydney, has been adopted also in other Australian cities. See <i>Brickfielder</i>. 1863. F. Fowler, in `Athenaeum,' Feb. 21, p. 264, col. 1: "The cold wind or southerly buster which . . . carries a thick cloud of dust . . . across the city." 1878. `The Australian,' vol. i. p. 587: "<i>Southerly Busters</i> by `Ironbark.'" 1886. F. Cowan, `Australia, a Charcoal Sketch': "The Buster and Brickfielder: austral red-dust blizzard; and red-hot Simoom." 1889. Rev. J. H. Zillmann, `Australian Life,' p. 40: "Generally these winds end in what is commonly called a `southerly buster.' This is preceded by a lull in the hot wind; then suddenly (as it has been put) it is as though a bladder of cool air were exploded, and the strong cool southerly air drives up with tremendous force. However pleasant the change of temperature may be it is no mere pastime to be caught in a `southerly buster,' but the drifting rain which always follows soon sets matters right, allays the dust, and then follows the calm fresh bracing wind which is the more delightful by contrast with the misery through which one has passed for three long dreary days and nights." 1893. `The Australasian,' Aug. 12, p. 302, col. 1: "You should see him with Commodore Jack out in the teeth of the `hard glad weather,' when a southerly buster sweeps up the harbour." 1896. H. A.Hunt, in `Three Essays on Australian Weather' (Sydney), p. 16: An Essay on Southerly Bursters, . . . with Four Photographs and Five Diagrams." [Title of an essay which was awarded the prize of L 25 offered by the Hon. Ralph Abercrombie.] <hw>Butcher</hw>, <i>n</i>. South Australian slang for a long drink of beer, so-called (it is said) because the men of a certain butchery in Adelaide used this refreshment regularly; cf. "porter" in England, after the drink of the old London porters. <hw>Butcher-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is in use elsewhere, but in Australia it is applied to the genus <i>Cracticus</i>. The varieties are-- The Butcher-bird-- <i>Cracticus torquatus</i>, Lath.; formerly <i>C. destructor</i>, Gould. Black B.-- <i>C. quoyi</i>, Less. Black-throated B.-- <i>C. nigrigularis</i>, Gould. Grey B. (Derwent Jackass)-- <i>C. cinereus</i>, Gould (see <i>Jackass</i>). Pied B.-- <i>C. picatus</i>, Gould. Rufous B.-- <i>C. rufescens</i>, De Vis. Silver-backed B.-- <i>C. argenteus</i>, Gould. Spalding's B.-- <i>C. spaldingi</i>, Masters. White-winged B.-- <i>C. leucopterus</i>, Cav. The bird is sometimes called a <i>Crow-shrike</i>. 1827. Vigors and Horsfield, `Transactions of Linnaean Society,' vol. xv. p. 213: "Mr. Caley observes--Butcher-bird. This bird used frequently to come into some green wattle-trees near my house, and in wet weather was very noisy; from which circumstance it obtained the name of `Rain-bird.'" 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. ii. Pl. 52: "<i>Cracticus Destructor</i>. Butcher Bird, name given by colonists of Swan River, a permanent resident in New South Wales and South Australia. I scarcely know of any Australian bird so generally dispersed." 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia,' p. 50: "Close to the station one or two butcher-birds were piping their morning song, a strange little melody with not many notes, which no one who has heard it will ever forget." <hw>Buttercup</hw>, <i>n</i>. The familiar English flower is represented in Australia and Tasmania by various species of <i>Ranunculus</i>, such as <i>R. lappaceus</i>, Sm., <i>N.O. Ranunculaceae</i>. <hw>Butter-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name given in Australia to <i>Oligorus mitchellii</i>, Castln. (see <i>Murray Perch</i>); in Victoria, to <i>Chilodactylus nigricans</i>, Richards. (see <i>Morwong</i>); in New Zealand, to <i>Coridodax pullus</i>, Forst., called also <i>Kelp-fish</i>. The name is in allusion to their slippery coating of mucus. See <i>Kelp-fish</i>. 1850. J. B. Clutterbuck, `Port Phillip,' vol. iii. p. 44: "In the bay are large quantities of . . . butter-fish." 1880. Guenther, `Study of Fishes,' p. 533: "The `butter-fish,' or `kelp-fish' of the colonists of New Zealand (<i>C. pullus</i>), is prized as food, and attains to a weight of four or five pounds." <hw>Butterfly-conch</hw>, <i>n</i>. Tasmanian name for a marine univalve mollusc, <i>Voluta papillosa</i>, Swainson. <hw>Butterfly-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. a New Zealand sea-fish, <i>Gasterochisma melampus</i>, Richards., one of the <i>Nomeidae</i>. The ventral fins are exceedingly broad and long, and can be completely concealed in a fold of the abdomen. The New Zealand fish is so named from these fins; the European Butterfly-fish, <i>Blennius ocellaris</i>, derives its name from the spots on its dorsal fin, like the eyes in a peacock's tail or butterfly's wing. <hw>Butterfly-Lobster</hw>, <i>n</i>. a marine crustacean, so called from the leaf-like expansion of the antennae. It is "the highly specialized macrourous decapod <i>Ibacus Peronii</i>." (W. A. Haswell.) 1880. Mrs. Meredith, `Tasmanian Friends and Foes,' p. 248: "Those curious crustaceans that I have heard called `butterfly lobsters'. . . the shell of the head and body (properly known as the carapace) expands into something like wing-forms, entirely hiding the legs beneath them." <hw>Butterfly-Plant</hw>, <i>n</i>. a small flowering plant, <i>Utricularia dichotoma</i>, Lab., <i>N.O. Leutibularina</i>. <hw>Button-grass</hw>, <i>n</i>. <i>Schaenus sphaerocephalus</i>, Poiret, <i>N.O. Cyperaceae</i>. The grass is found covering barren boggy land in Tasmania, but is not peculiar to Tasmania. So called from the round shaped flower (capitate inflorescence), on a thin stalk four or five feet long, like a button on the end of a foil. <hw>Buzzard</hw>, <i>n</i>. an English bird-name applied in Australia to <i>Gypoictinia melanosternon</i>, Gould, the Black-breasted Buzzard. C <hw>Cabbage Garden</hw>, a name applied to the colony of Victoria by Sir John Robertson, the Premier of New South Wales, in contempt for its size. 1889. Rev. J. H. Zillmann, `Australian Life,' p. 30: "`The cabbage garden,' old cynical Sir John Robertson, of New South Wales, once called Victoria, but a garden notwithstanding. Better at any rate `the cabbage garden' than the mere sheep run or cattle paddock." <hw>Cabbage-Palm</hw>, <i>n.</i> same as <i>Cabbage-tree</i> (1) (q.v.). <hw>Cabbage-tree</hw>, <i>n</i> (1)Name given to various palm trees of which the heart of the young leaves is eaten like the head of a cabbage. In Australia the name is applied to the fan palm, <i>Livistona inermis</i>, R. Br., and more commonly to <i>Livistona australis</i>, Martius. In New Zealand the name is given to various species of Cordyline, especially to <i>Cordyline indivisa</i>. See also <i>Flame-tree</i> (2). 1769. `Capt. Cook's Journal,' ed. Wharton (1893), p. 144: "We likewise found one Cabage Tree which we cut down for the sake of the cabage." 1802. G.Barrington, `History of New South Wales,' p. 60: "Even the ships crews helped, except those who brought the cabbage trees." 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discovery in Australia,' vol. ii. c. iv. p. 132: "Cabbage-tree . . . grew in abundance." 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 72: "Several of my companions suffered by eating too much of the cabbage-palm." 1865. W. Howitt, `Discovery in Australia,' vol. i. p. 414: "Clumps of what the people of King George's Sound call cabbage-trees." 1867. F. Hochstetter, `New Zealand,' p. 240: "There stands an isolated `cabbage-tree' (Ti of the natives; <i>Cordyline Australis</i>) nearly thirty feet high, with ramified branches and a crown of luxuriant growth." (2) A large, low-crowned, broad-brimmed hat, made out of the leaves of the Cabbage-tree (<i>Livistona</i>). 1802. G. Barrington, `History of New South Wales,' 335: "This hat, made of white filaments of the cabbage-tree, seemed to excite the attention of the whole party." 1852. G. F. P., `Gold Pen and Pencil Sketches,' xv.: "With scowl indignant flashing from his eye, As though to wither each unshaven wretch, Jack jogs along, nor condescends reply, As to the price his cabbage-tree might fetch." 1864. `Once a Week,' Dec. 31, p. 45, The Bulla Bulla Bunyip': "Lushy Luke endeavoured to sober himself by dipping his head in the hollowed tree-trunk which serves for the water-trough of an up-country Australian inn. He forgot, however, to take off his `cabbage-tree' before he ducked, and angry at having made a fool of himself, he gave fierce orders, in a thick voice, for his men to fall in, shoulder arms, and mark time." 1865. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `History of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia,' vol. i. pp. 160, 161: "The cabbage-palm was also a new species, called by Mr. Brown the <i>Livistonia inermis</i>. It was abundant; but the cabbage (the heart of the young budding leaves) too small to be useful as an article of food, at least to a ship's company. But the leaves were found useful. These dried and drawn into strips were plaited into hats for the men, and to this day the cabbage-tree hat is very highly esteemed by the Australians, as a protection from the sun, and allowing free ventilation." [Note]: "A good cabbage-tree hat, though it very much resembles a common straw hat, will fetch as much as L3." 1878. `The Australian,' vol. i. p. 527: ". . . trousers, peg-top shaped, and wore a new cabbage-tree hat." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 33: "A brand-new cabbage-tree hat protected his head." <hw>Cabbage-tree Mob</hw>, and <hw>Cabbagites</hw>, obsolete Australian slang for modern <i>Larrikins</i> (q.v)., because wearing cabbage-tree hats. 1852. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes `(edition 1855), p. 17: "There are to be found round the doors of the Sydney Theatre a sort of `loafers' known as the <i>Cabbage-tree mob</i>,--a class who, in the spirit of the ancient tyrant, one might excusably wish had but one nose in order to make it a bloody one. . . . Unaware of the propensities of the cabbagites he was by them furiously assailed." <hw>Cad</hw>, <i>n</i>. name in Queensland for the <i>Cicada</i> (q.v.). 1896. `The Australasian,' Jan. 11, p. 76, col. 1: "From the trees sounds the shrill chirp of large green cicada (native cads as the bushmen call them)." <hw>Caddie</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bush name for the slouch-hat or wide-awake. In the Australian bush the brim is generally turned down at the back and sometimes all round. <hw>Cadet</hw>, <i>n</i>. term used in New Zealand, answering to the Australian <i>Colonial Experience</i>, or <i>jackaroo</i> (q.v.). 1866. Lady Barker, `Station Life in New Zealand,' p. 68: "A cadet, as they are called--he is a clergyman's son learning sheepfarming under our auspices." 1871. C. L. Money, `Knocking About in New Zealand,' p. 6: "The military designation of cadet was applied to any young fellow who was attached to a sheep or cattle station in the same capacity as myself. He was `neither flesh nor fowl nor good red herring,' neither master nor man. He was sent to work with the men, but not paid." <hw>Caloprymnus</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name of the genus called the <i>Plain Kangaroo-Rat</i>. (Grk. <i>kalos</i>, beautiful, and <i>prumnon</i>, hinder part.) It has bright flanks. See <i>Kangaroo-Rat</i>. <hw>Camp</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) A place to live in, generally temporary; a rest. 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia,' pp. 46, 47: " I was shown my camp, which was a slab but about a hundred yards away from the big house. . . . I was rather tired, and not sorry for the prospect of a camp." (2) A place for mustering cattle. 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia,' p. 64: "All about the run, at intervals of fire or six miles, are cattle-camps, and the cattle that belong to the surrounding districts are mustered on their respective camps." 1896. A. B. Paterson, `Man from Snowy River,' p. 26: "There was never his like in the open bush, And never his match on the cattle-camps." (3) In Australia, frequently used for a camping-out expedition. Often in composition with "out," a <i>camp-out</i>. 1869. `Colonial Monthly,' vol. iv.p. 289: "A young fellow with even a moderate degree of sensibility must be excited by the novelty of his first `camp-out' in the Australian bush." 1880. R. H. Inglis, `Australian Cousins,' p. 233: "We're going to have a regular camp; we intend going to Port Hocking to have some shooting, fishing, and general diversion." (4) A name for Sydney and for Hobart, now long obsolete, originating when British military forces were stationed there. 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. ii. p. 70: "It is the old resident--he who still calls Sydney, with its population of twelve thousand inhabitants, <i>the camp</i>,--that can appreciate these things: he who still recollects the few earth-huts and solitary tents scattered through the forest brush surrounding Sydney Cove (known properly then indeed by the name of `The Camp')." 1852. Mrs. Meredith, `My Home in Tasmania,' vol. i. p. 193: "Living during the winter in Hobarton, usually called `the camp,' in those days." <hw>Camp</hw>, <i>v</i>. (1) Generally in composition with "out," to sleep in the open air, usually without any covering. Camping out is exceedingly common in Australia owing to the warmth of the climate and the rarity of rain. 1867. Lady Barker, `Station Life in New Zealand,' p. 125: "I like to hear of benighted or belated travellers when they have had to `camp out,' as it is technically called." 1875. R. and F. Hill, `What we saw in Australia,' p. 208: "So the Bishop determined to `camp-out' at once where a good fire could be made." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. ii. p. 43: "There is room here for fifty, rolled up on the floor; and should that fail them, there is no end of other places; or the bush, as a fall back, where, indeed, some of them prefer camping as it is." 1891. `The Australasian,' Nov. 14, p. 963, col. 1: `A Lady in the Kermadecs': "For three months I `camped out' there alone, shepherding a flock of Angoras." (2) By extension, to sleep in any unusual place, or at an unusual time. 1893. `Review of Reviews' (Australasian ed. ), March, p. 51: "The campaign came to an abrupt and somewhat inglorious close, Sir George Dibbs having to `camp' in a railway carriage, and Sir Henry Parkes being flood-bound at Quirindi." 1896. Modern: "Visitor,--`Where's your Mother?' `Oh, she's camping.'" [The lady was enjoying an afternoon nap indoors.] (3) To stop for a rest in the middle of the day. 1891. Mrs. Cross (Ada Cambridge), `The Three Miss Kings,' p. 180: "We'll have lunch first before we investigate the caves--if it's agreeable to you. I will take the horses out, and we'll find a nice place to camp before they come." (4) To floor or prove superior to. <i>Slang</i>. 1886. C. H. Kendall, `Poems,' p. 207: "At punching oxen you may guess There's nothing out can camp him. He has, in fact, the slouch and dress, Which bullock-driver stamp him." <hw>Camphor-wood</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian timber; the wood of <i>Callitris (Frenea) robusta</i>, Cunn., <i>N.O. Coniferae</i>. Called also <i>Light, Black, White, Dark</i>, and <i>Common Pine</i>, as the wood varies much in its colouring. See <i>Pine</i>. <hw>Canajong</hw>, <i>n</i>. Tasmanian aboriginal name for the plants called <i>Pig-faces</i> (q.v.). 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 44: "Pig-faces. It was the <i>canajong</i> of the Tasmanian aboriginal. The fleshy fruit is eaten raw by the aborigines: the leaves are eaten baked." <hw>Canary</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) A bird-name used in New Zealand for <i>Clitonyx ochrocephala</i>, called also the <i>Yellow-head</i>. Dwellers in the back-blocks of Australia apply the name to the <i>Orange-fronted Ephthianura (E. aurifrons</i>, Gould), and sometimes to the <i>White-throated Gerygone (Gerygone albigularis</i>). 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 56: "<i>Clitonyx Ochrocephala</i>. Yellow-head. `Canary' of the colonists." (2) Slang for a convict. See quotations. As early as 1673, `canary-bird' was thieves' English for a gaol-bird. 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. ii. p. 117: "Convicts of but recent migration are facetiously known by the name of <i>canaries</i>, by reason of the yellow plumage in which they are fledged at the period of landing." 1870. T. H. Braim, `New Homes,' c. ii. p. 72: "The prisoners were dressed in yellow-hence called `canary birds.'" 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. vi. p. 49: "Can't you get your canaries off the track here for about a quarter of an hour, and let my mob of cattle pass ?" <hw>Candle-nut</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is given in Queensland to the fruit of <i>Aleurites moluccana</i>, Willd., <i>N.O. Euphorbiaceae</i>. The nuts are two or more inches diameter. The name is often given to the tree itself, which grows wild in Queensland and is cultivated in gardens there under the name of <i>A. triloba</i>, Forst. It is not endemic in Australia, but the vernacular name of <i>Candle-nut</i> is confined to Australia and the Polynesian Islands. 1883. F. M. Bailey, `Synopsis of Queensland Flora,' p. 472: "Candle-nut. The kernels when dried and stuck on a reed are used by the Polynesian Islanders as a substitute for candles, and as an article of food in New Georgia. These nuts resemble walnuts somewhat in size and taste. When pressed they yield a large proportion of pure palatable oil, used as a drying-oil for paint, and known as country walnut-oil and artists' oil." <hw>Cane-grass</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Bamboo-grass</i> (q.v.). <hw>Cape-Barren Goose</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Goose</i>. 1852. Mrs. Meredith, `My Home in Tasmania,' vol. i. p. 114, [Footnote]: "The `Cape Barren Goose' frequents the island from which it takes its name, and others in the Straits. It is about the same size as a common goose, the plumage a handsome mottled brown and gray, somewhat owl-like in character." [Cape Barren Island is in Bass Strait, between Flinders Island and Tasmania. Banks Strait flows between Cape Barren Island and Tasmania. The easternmost point on the island is called Cape Barren.] <hw>Cape-Barren Tea</hw>, <i>n</i>. a shrub or tree, <i>Correa alba</i>, Andr., <i>N.O. Rutaceae</i>. 1834. Ross, `Van Diemen's Land Annual,' p. 134: "<i>Leptospermum lanigerum</i>, hoary tea-tree; <i>Acacia decurrens</i>, black wattle; <i>Correa alba</i>, Cape Barren tea. The leaves of these have been used as substitutes for tea in the colony." <hw>Cape Lilac</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Lilac</i>. <hw>Cape Weed</hw>, <i>n</i>. In Europe, <i>Roccella tinctoria</i>, a lichen from the Cape de Verde Islands, from which a dye is produced. In New Zealand, name given to the European cats-ear, <i>Hypaechoris radicata</i>. In Australia it is as in quotation below. See `Globe Encyclopaedia,' 1877 (s.v.). 1878. W. R. Guilfoyle, `First Book of Australian Botany,' p. 60: "Cape Weed. <i>Cryptostemma Calendulaceum</i>. (Natural Order, <i>Compositae</i>.) This weed, which has proved such a pest in many parts of Victoria, was introduced from the Cape of Good Hope, as a fodder plant. It is an annual, flowering in the spring, and giving a bright golden hue to the fields. It proves destructive to other herbs and grasses, and though it affords a nutritious food for stock in the spring, it dies off in the middle of summer, after ripening its seeds, leaving the fields quite bare." <hw>Caper-tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. The Australian tree of this name is <i>Capparis nobilis</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Capparideae</i>. The <i>Karum</i> of the Queensland aboriginals. The fruit is one to two inches in diameter. Called also <i>Grey Plum</i> or <i>Native Pomegranate</i>. The name is also given to <i>Capparis Mitchelli</i>, Lindl. The European caper is <i>Capparis spinosa</i>, Linn. 1894. `Melbourne Museum Catalogue, Economic Woods,' p. 10: "Native Caper Tree or Wild Pomegranate. Natural Order, <i>Capparideae.</i> Found in the Mallee Scrub. A small tree. The wood is whitish, hard, close-grained, and suitable for engraving, carving, and similar purposes. Strongly resembles lancewood." <hw>Captain Cook</hw>, or <hw>Cooker</hw>, <i>n</i>. New Zealand colonists' slang. First applied to the wild pigs of New Zealand, supposed to be descended from those first introduced by Captain Cook; afterwards used as term of reproach for any pig which, like the wild variety, obstinately refused to fatten. See <i>Introduction</i>. 1879. W. Quin, `New Zealand Country Journal,' vol. iii. p. 55: "Many a rare old tusker finds a home in the mountain gorges. The immense tusks at Brooksdale attest the size of the wild boars or Captain Cooks, as the patriarchs are generally named." 1894. E. Wakefield, `New Zealand after Fifty Years,' p. 85: "The leanness and roughness of the wild pig gives it quite a different appearance from the domesticated variety; and hence a gaunt, ill-shaped, or sorry-looking pig is everywhere called in derision a `Captain Cook.'" <hw>Carbora</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for (1) the <i>Native Bear</i>. See <i>Bear</i>. (2) A kind of water worm that eats into timber between high and low water on a tidal river. <hw>Cardamom</hw>, <i>n</i>. For the Australian tree of this name, see quotation. 1890. C. Lumholtz,' Among Cannibals,' p. 96: "The Australian cardamom tree." [Footnote]: "This is a fictitious name, as are the names of many Australian plants and animals. The tree belongs to the nutmeg family, and its real name is <i>Myristica insipida</i>. The name owes its existence to the similarity of the fruit to the real cardamom. But the fruit of the <i>Myristica has</i> not so strong and pleasant an odour as the real cardamom, and hence the tree is called <i>insipida</i>." <hw>Carp</hw>, <i>n</i>. The English fish is of the family <i>Cyprinidae</i>. The name is given to different fishes in Ireland and elsewhere. In Sydney it is <i>Chilodactylus fuscus</i>, Castln., and <i>Chilodactylus macropterus</i>, Richards.; called also <i>Morwong</i> (q.v.). The <i>Murray Carp</i> is <i>Murrayia cyprinoides</i>, Castln., a percoid fish. <i>Chilodactylis</i> belongs to the family <i>Cirrhitidae</i>, in no way allied to <i>Cyprinidae</i>, which contains the European carps. <i>Cirrhitidae</i>, says Guenther, may be readily recognized by their thickened undivided lower pectoral rays, which in some are evidently auxiliary organs of locomotion, in others, probably, organs of touch. <hw>Carpet-Shark</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Wobbegong</i> (q.v.) <hw>Carpet-Snake</hw>, <i>n</i>. a large Australian snake with a variegated skin, <i>Python variegata</i>, Gray. In Whitworth's `Anglo-Indian Dictionary,' 1885 (s.v.), we are told that the name is loosely applied (sc. in India) to any kind of snake found in a dwelling-house other than a cobra or a dhaman. In Tasmania, a venomous snake, <i>Hoplocephalus curtus</i>, Schlegel. See under <i>Snake</i>. <hw>Carrier</hw>, <i>n</i>. a local name for a water-bag. 1893. A. F. Calvert, `English Illustrated,' Feb., p. 321: "For the water-holders or `carriers' (made to fit the bodies of the horses carrying them, or to `ride easily' on pack-saddles)." <hw>Carrot, Native</hw>, (1) <i>Daucus brachiatus</i>, Sieb., <i>N.O. Umbelliferae</i>. Not endemic in Australia. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 64: "The native carrot . . . was here withered and in seed." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 124: "Native carrot. Stock are very fond of this plant when young. Sheep thrive wonderfully on it where it is plentiful. It is a small annual herbaceous plant, growing plentifully on sandhills and rich soil; the seeds, locally termed `carrot burrs,' are very injurious to wool, the hooked spines with which the seeds are armed attaching themselves to the fleece, rendering portions of it quite stiff and rigid. The common carrot belongs, of course, to this genus, and the fact that it is descended from an apparently worthless, weedy plant, indicates that the present species is capable of much improvement by cultivation." (2) In Tasmania <i>Geranium dissectum</i>, Linn., is also called "native carrot." <hw>Cascarilla, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian timber, <i>Croton verreauxii</i>, Baill., <i>N.O. Euphorbiaceae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 408: "Native cascarilla. A small tree; wood of a yellowish colour, close-grained and firm." <hw>Cassowary</hw>, <i>n</i>. The word is Malay, the genus being found in "the Islands in the Indian Archipelago." (`O.E.D.') The Australian variety is <i>Casuarius australis</i>, Waller. The name is often erroneously applied (as in the first two quotations), to the Emu (q.v.), which is not a Cassowary. 1789. Governor Phillip, `Voyage,' c. xxii. p. 271: "New Holland Cassowary. [Description given.] This bird is not uncommon to New Holland, as several of them have been seen about Botany Bay, and other parts. . . . Although this bird cannot fly, it runs so swiftly that a greyhound can scarcely overtake it. The flesh is said to be in taste not unlike beef." 1802. G. Barrington, `History of New South Wales,' c. xi. p. 438: "The cassowary of New South Wales is larger in all respects than the well-known bird called the cassowary." 1869. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia' (Supplement): "<i>Casuarius Australis</i>, Wall., Australian Cassowary, sometimes called Black Emu." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 73: "One day an egg of a cassowary was brought to me; this bird, although it is nearly akin to the ostrich and emu, does not, like the latter, frequent the open plains, but the thick brushwood. The Australian cassowary is found in Northern Queensland from Herbert river northwards, in all the large vine-scrubs on the banks of the rivers, and on the high mountains of the coasts." Ibid. p. 97. "The proud cassowary, the stateliest bird of Australia . . . this beautiful and comparatively rare creature.'" 1891. `Guide to Zoological Gardens, Melbourne': "The Australian cassowary. . . . They are somewhat shorter and stouter in build than the emu." <hw>Casuarina</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name of a large group of trees common to India, and other parts lying between India and Australasia, but more numerous in Australia than elsewhere, and often forming a characteristic feature of the vegetation. They are the so-called <i>She-oaks</i> (q.v.). The word is not, however, Australian, and is much older than the discovery of Australia. Its etymology is contained in the quotation, 1877. 1806. `Naval Chronicles,' c. xv. p. 460: "Clubs made of the wood of the Casuarina." 1814. R. Brown, `Botany of Terra Australis,' in M. Flinders' `Voyage to Terra Australis,' vol. ii. p. 571: "Casuarinae. The genus <i>Casuarina</i> is certainly not referable to any order of plants at present established . . . it may be considered a separate order. . . . The maximum of Casuarina appears to exist in Terra Australis, where it forms one of the characteristic features of the vegetation." 1855. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes,' p. 160: "The dark selvage of casuarinas fringing its bank." 1861. T. McCombie, `Australian Sketches,' p. 10: "The vegetation assumed a new character, the eucalyptus and casuarina alternating with the wild cherry and honeysuckle." 1877. F. v. Mueller, `Botanic Teachings,' p. 34: "The scientific name of these well-known plants is as appropriate as their vernacular appellation is odd and unsuited. The former alludes to the cassowary (Casuarius), the plumage of which is comparatively as much reduced among birds, as the foliage of the casuarinas is stringy among trees. Hence more than two centuries ago Rumph already bestowed the name Casuarina on a Java species, led by the Dutch colonists, who call it there the Casuaris-Boom. The Australian vernacular name seems to have arisen from some fancied resemblance of the wood of some casuarinas to that of oaks, notwithstanding the extreme difference of the foliage and fruit; unless, as Dr. Hooker supposes, the popular name of these trees and shrubs arose from the Canadian `Sheack.'" 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 397: "From a fancied resemblance of the wood of casuarinas to that of oak, these trees are called `oaks,' and the same and different species have various appellations in various parts." 1890. C. Lumholtz; `Among Cannibals,' p. 33: "Along its banks (the Comet's) my attention was drawn to a number of casuarinas--those leafless, dark trees, which always make a sad impression on the traveller; even a casual observer will notice the dull, depressing sigh which comes from a grove of these trees when there is the least breeze.'" <hw>Cat-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. In America the name is given to <i>Mimus carolinensis</i>, a mocking thrush, which like the Australian bird has a cry resembling the mewing of a cat. The Australian species are-- The Cat-bird-- <i>Ailuraedus viridis</i>, Lath. Spotted C.-- <i>Ailuraedus maculosus</i>, Ramsay. <i>Pomatostomus rubeculus</i>, Gould. Tooth-billed C.-- <i>Scenopaeus dentirostris</i>, Ramsay. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. iv. pl. 11: "Its loud, harsh and extraordinary note is heard; a note which differs so much from that of all other birds, that having been once heard it can never be mistaken. In comparing it to the nightly concert of the domestic cat, I conceive that I am conveying to my readers a more perfect idea of the note of this species than could be given by pages of description. This concert, like that of the animal whose name it bears, is performed either by a pair or several individuals, and nothing more is required than for the hearer to shut his eyes from the neighbouring foliage to fancy himself surrounded by London grimalkins of house-top celebrity." 1888. D.Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 36: "One of the most peculiar of birds' eggs found about the Murray is that of the locally-termed `cat-bird,' the shell of which is veined thickly with dark thin threads as though covered with a spider's web." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals.' p. 96: "The cat-bird (<i>AEluraedus maculosus</i>), which makes its appearance towards evening, and has a voice strikingly like the mewing of a cat." 1893. `The Argus,' March 25: "Another quaint caller of the bush is the cat-bird, and its eggs are of exactly the colour of old ivory." 1896. G. A. Keartland, `Horne Expedition in Central Australia,' pt. ii. Zoology, p. 92: "Their habit of mewing like a cat has gained for them the local cognomen of cat-birds." <hw>Cat-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is applied in the Old World to various fishes of the family <i>Siluridae</i>, and also to the Wolf-fish of Europe and North America. It arises from the resemblance of the teeth in some cases or the projecting "whiskers" in others, to those of a cat. In Victoria and New South Wales it is a fresh-water fish, <i>Copidoglanis tandanus</i>, Mitchell, brought abundantly to Melbourne by railway. It inhabits the rivers of the Murray system, but not of the centre of the continent. Called also <i>Eel-fish</i> and <i>Tandan</i> (q.v.). In Sydney the same name is applied also to <i>Cnidoglanis megastoma</i>, Rich., and in New Zealand <i>Kathetostoma monopterygium</i>. <i>Cnidoglanis</i> and <i>Cnidoglanis</i> are Siluroids, and <i>Kathetostoma</i> is a"stargazer," i.e. a fish having eyes on the upper surface of the head, belonging to the family <i>Trachinidsae</i>. 1851. J. Henderson, `Excursions in New South Wales,' vol. ii. p. 207: "The Cat-fish, which I have frequently caught in the McLeay, is a large and very ugly animal. Its head is provided with several large tentacatae, and it has altogether a disagreeable appearance. I have eat its flesh, but did not like it." 1880. Mrs. Meredith, `Tasmanian Friends and Foes,' p. 213 [Footnote]: "Mr. Frank Buckland . . . writing of a species of rock-fish, says--`I found that it had a beautiful contrivance in the conformation of its mouth. It has the power of prolongating both its jaws to nearly the extent of half-an-inch from their natural position. This is done by a most beautiful bit of mechanism, somewhat on the principle of what are called `lazy tongs.' The cat-fish possesses a like feature, but on a much larger scale, the front part of the mouth being capable of being protruded between two and three inches when seizing prey.'" <hw>Cat, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. a small carnivorous marsupial, of the genus <i>Dasyurus</i>. The so-called native cat is not a cat at all, but a marsupial which resembles a very large rat or weasel, with rather a bushy tail. It is fawn-coloured or mouse-coloured, or black and covered with little white spots; a very pretty little animal. It only appears at night, when it climbs fences and trees and forms sport for moonlight shooting. Its skin is made into fancy rugs and cloaks or mantles. The animal is more correctly called a <i>Dasyure</i> (q.v.). The species are-- Black-tailed Native Cat <i>Dasyurus geoffroyi</i>, Gould. Common N.C. (called also <i>Tiger Cat</i>, q.v.)-- <i>D. viverrimus</i>, Shaw. North Australian N.C.-- <i>D. hallucatus</i>, Gould. Papuan N.C.-- <i>D. albopienetatus</i>, Schl. Slender N.C.-- <i>D. gracilis</i>, Ramsay. Spotted-tailed N.C. (called also Tiger Cat)-- <i>D. maculatus</i>, Kerr. 1880. Mrs. Meredith, `Tasmanian Friends and Foes,' p. 67: "The native cat is similar [to the Tiger Cat; q.v.] but smaller, and its for is an ashy-grey with white spots. We have seen two or three skins quite black, spotted with white, but these are very rare." 1885. H. H.Hayter, `Carboona,' p. 35: "A blanket made of the fur-covered skins of the native cat." 1894. `The Argus,' June 23, p. 11, col. 4: "The voices of most of our night animals are guttural and unpleasing. The 'possum has a throaty half-stifled squeak, the native cat a deep chest-note ending with a hiss and easily imitated." [See <i>Skirr</i>.] <hw>Catholic Frog</hw>, <i>n</i>. name applied to a frog living in the inland parts of New South Wales, <i>Notaden bennettii</i>, Guenth., which tides over times of drought in burrows, and feeds on ants. Called also "Holy Cross Toad." The names are given in consequence of a large cross-shaped blackish marking on the back. 1801. J. J. Fletcher, `Proceedings of the Linnaean Society, New South Wales,' vol. vi. (2nd series), p. 265: "<i>Notaden bennettii</i>, the Catholic frog, or as I have heard it called the Holy Cross Toad, I first noticed in January 1885, after a heavy fall of rain lasting ten days, off and on, and succeeding a severe drought." <hw>Cat's Eyes</hw>, <i>n</i>. Not the true <i>Cat's-eye</i>, but the name given in Australia to the opercula of <i>Turbo smaragdus</i>, Martyn, a marine mollusc. The operculum is the horny or shelly lid which closes the aperture of most spiral shell fish. <hw>Cat's-head Fern</hw>, <i>n. Aspidium aculeatum</i>, Sw.: 1880. Mrs. Meredith, `Tasmanian Friends and Foes,' p. 220: "The cat's-head fern; though why that name was given to it I have not the remotest idea. . . . It is full of beauty--the pinnules so exquisitely formed and indented, and gemmed beneath with absolute constellations of <i>Spori Polystichum vestitum</i>." <hw>Catspaw</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian plant, <i>Trichinium spathulatum</i>, Poir., <i>N.O. Amarantaceae</i>. <hw>Cat's Tail</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Wonga</i>. <hw>Cattle-bush</hw>, <i>n</i>. a tree, <i>Atalaya hemiglauca</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Sapindacea</i>. It is found in South Australia, New South Wales, and Queensland, and is sometimes called <i>Whitewood</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 117: "Cattle-bush . . . The leaves of this tree are eaten by stock, the tree being frequently felled for their use during seasons of drought." <hw>Cattle-duffer</hw>, <i>n</i>. a man who steals cattle (usually by altering their brands). See also <i>Duffer</i>. 1886. `Melbourne Punch,' July 15, Cartoon Verses: "Cattle-duffers on a jury may be honest men enough, But they're bound to visit lightly sins in those who cattle duff." <hw>Cattle-racket</hw>, <i>n</i>. Explained in quotation. 1852. `Settlers and Convicts; or Recollections of Sixteen Years' Labour in the Australian Backwoods,' p. 294: "A Cattle-racket. The term at the head of this chapter was originally applied in New South Wales to the agitation of society which took place when some wholesale system of plunder in cattle was brought to light. It is now commonly applied to any circumstance of this sort, whether greater or less, and whether springing from a felonious intent or accidental." <hw>Caustic-Creeper</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to <i>Euphorbia drummondii</i>, Boiss., <i>N.O. Euphorbiaceae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 127: "Called `caustic-creeper' in Queensland. Called `milk-plant' and `pox-plant' about Bourke. This weed is unquestionably poisonous to sheep, and has recently (Oct. 1887) been reported as having been fatal to a flock near Bourke, New South Wales. . . . When eaten by sheep in the early morning, before the heat of the sun has dried it up, it is almost certain to be fatal. Its effect on sheep is curious. The head swells to an enormous extent, becoming so heavy that the animal cannot support it, and therefore drags it along the ground; the ears suppurate. (Bailey and Gordon.)" <hw>Caustic-Plant</hw>, or <hw>Caustic-Vine</hw>, <i>n</i>. <i>Sarcostemma australis</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Asclepiadea</i>. Cattle and sheep are poisoned by eating it. <hw>Cavally</hw>, <i>n</i>. the original form of the Australian fish-name <i>Trevally</i> (q.v.). The form <i>Cavally</i> is used to Europe, but is almost extinct in Australia; the form <i>Trevally</i> is confined to Australia. <hw>Cedar</hw>,</hw> n</i>. The true Cedar is a Conifer (<i>N.O. Coniferae</i>) of the genus <i>Cedrus</i>, but the name is given locally to many other trees resembling it in appearance, or in the colour or scent of their wood. The New Zealand <i>Cedar</i> is the nearest approach to the true <i>Cedar</i>, and none of the so-called Australian <i>Cedars</i> are of the order <i>Coniferae</i>. The following are the trees to which the name is applied in Australia:-- Bastard Pencil Cedar-- <i>Dysoxylon rfum</i>, Benth., <i>N.O. Meliaceae</i>. Brown C.-- <i>Ehretia acuminata</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Asperifoliae</i>. Ordinary or Red C.-- <i>Cedrela australis</i>, F. v. M. <i>Cedrela toona</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Meliaceae</i>. [<i>C. toona</i> is the "Toon" tree of India: its timber is known in the English market as Moulmein Cedar; but the Baron von Mueller doubts the identity of the Australian Cedar with the "Toon" tree; hence his name <i>australis</i>.] Pencil C.-- <i>Dysoxylon Fraserianum</i>, Benth., <i>N.O. Meliaceae</i>. Scrub White C.-- <i>Pentaceras australis</i>, Hook. and Don., <i>N.O. Rutacea</i>. White C.-- <i>Melia composita</i>, Willd., <i>N.O. Meliaceae</i>. Yellow C.-- <i>Rhus rhodanthema</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Anacardiacae</i>. In Tasmania, three species of the genus <i>Arthrotaxis</i> are called Cedars or Pencil Cedars; namely, <i>A. cupressoides</i>, Don., known as the King William Pine; <i>A. laxifolza</i>, Hook., the Mountain Pine; and <i>A. selaginoides</i>, Don., the Red Pine. All these are peculiar to the island. In New Zealand, the name of Cedar is applied to <i>Libocedrus bidwillii</i>, Hook., <i>N.O. Coniferae</i>; Maori name, <i>Pahautea</i>. 1838. T. L. Mitchell, `Three Expeditions, vol. i. p. 328: "The cedar of the colony (<i>Cedrela toona</i>, R. Br.), which is to be found only in some rocky gullies of the coast range." 1883. F. M. Bailey, `Synopsis of Queensland Flora,' p. 63: "Besides being valuable as a timber-producing tree, this red cedar has many medicinal properties. The bark is spoken of as a powerful astringent, and, though not bitter, said to be a good substitute for Peruvian bark in the cure of remitting and intermitting fevers." 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand,' p. 123: "Pahautea, Cedar. A handsome conical tree sixty to eighty feet high, two to three feet in diameter. In Otago it produces a dark-red, freeworking timber, rather brittle . . . frequently mistaken for totara." <hw>Celery, Australian</hw>, or <hw>Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. <i>Apium australe</i>, Thon. Not endemic in Australia. In Tasmania, <i>A. prostratum</i>, Lab., <i>N.O. Umbelliferae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 7: "Australian Celery. This plant may be utilised as a culinary vegetable. (Mueller.) It is not endemic in Australia." <hw>Celery-topped Pine</hw>. <i>n</i>. See <i>Pine</i>. The tree is so called from the appearance of the upper part of the branchlets, which resemble in shape the leaf of the garden celery. 1889. T. Kirk, `Forest Flora of New Zealand,' p. 9: "The tanekaha is one of the remarkable `celery-topped pines,' and was discovered by Banks and Solander during Cook's first voyage." <hw>Centaury, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. a plant, <i>Erythraea australis</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Gentianeae</i>. In New South Wales this Australian Centaury has been found useful in dysentery by Dr. Woolls. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 175: "Native centaury . . . is useful as a tonic medicine, especially in diarrhoea and dysentery. The whole plant is used and is pleasantly bitter. It is common enough in grass-land, and appears to be increasing in popularity as a domestic remedy." <hw>Centralia</hw>, <i>n</i>. a proposed name for the colony <i>South Australia</i> ,(q.v.). 1896. J. S. Laurie, `Story of Australasia,' p. 299: "For telegraphic, postal, and general purposes one word is desirable for a name--e.g. why not Centralia; for West Australia, Westralia; for New South Wales, Eastralia?" <hw>Cereopsis</hw>, <i>n</i>. scientific name of the genus of the bird peculiar to Australia, called the <i>Cake Barren Goose</i>. See <i>Goose</i>. The word is from Grk. <i>kaeros</i>, wax, and <i>'opsis</i>, face, and was given from the peculiarities of the bird's beak. The genus is confined to Australia, and <i>Cereopsis novae-hollandiae</i> is the only species known. The bird was noticed by the early voyagers to Australia, and was extraordinarily tame when first discovered. <hw>Channel-Bill</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to a bird resembling a large cuckoo, <i>Scythrops novae-hollandiae</i>, Lath. See <i>Scythrops</i>. <hw>Cheesewood</hw>, <i>n</i>. a tree, so-called in Victoria (it is also called <i>Whitewood</i> and <i>Waddywood</i> in Tasmania), <i>Pittosporum bicolor</i>, Hook., <i>N.O. Pittosporeae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 588: "Cheesewood is yellowish-white, very hard, and of uniform texture and colour. It was once used for clubs by the aboriginals of Tasmania. It turns well, and should be tested for wood engraving. (`Jurors' Reports, London International Exhibition of 1862.') It is much esteemed for axe-handles, billiard-cues, etc." <hw>Cherry, Herbert River</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Queensland tree, <i>Antidesma dallachyanum</i>, Baill., <i>N.O. Euphorbiaceae</i>. The fruit is equal to a large cherry in size, and has a sharp acid flavour. <hw>Cherry, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian tree, <i>Exocarpus cupressiformis</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Santalaceae</i>. 1801. `History of New South Wales' (1818), p. 242: "Of native fruits, a cherry, insipid in comparison of the European sorts, was found true to the singularity which characterizes every New South Wales production, the stone being on the outside of the fruit." 1830. R. Dawson, `Present State of Australia,' p. 411: "The shrub which is called the native cherry-tree appears like a species of cyprus, producing its fruit with the stone united to it on the outside, the fruit and the stone being each about the size of a small pea. The fruit, when ripe, is similar in colour to the Mayduke cherry, but of a sweet and somewhat better quality, and slightly astringent to the palate, possessing, upon the whole, an agreeable flavour." 1852. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes' (edition 1851, p. 219: "The cherry-tree resembles a cypress but is of a tenderer green, bearing a worthless little berry, having its stone or seed outside, whence its scientific name of <i>exocarpus</i>." 1855. W. Howitt, `Two Years in Victoria,' vol. i. p. 33: "We also ate the Australian cherry, which has its stone, not on the outside, enclosing the fruit, as the usual phrase would indicate, but on the <i>end</i> with the fruit behind it. The stone is only about the size of a sweet-pea, and the fruit only about twice that size, altogether not unlike a yew-berry, but of a very pale red. It grows on a tree just like an arbor vitae, and is well tasted, though not at all like a cherry in flavour." 1877. F. v. Mueller, `Botanic Teachings,' p. 40: "The principal of these kinds of trees received its generic name first from the French naturalist La Billardiere, during D'Entrecasteaux's Expedition. It was our common <i>Exocarpus cupressiformis</i>, which he described, and which has been mentioned so often in popular works as a cherry-tree, bearing its stone outside of the pulp. That this crude notion of the structure of the fruit is erroneous, must be apparent on thoughtful contemplation, for it is evident at the first glance, that the red edible part of our ordinary exocarpus constitutes merely an enlarged and succulent fruit-stalklet (pedicel), and that the hard dry and greenish portion, strangely compared to a cherry-stone, forms the real fruit, containing the seed." 1889. J. H. `Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 30: "The fruit is edible. The nut is seated on the enlarged succulent pedicel. This is the poor little fruit of which so much has been written in English descriptions of the peculiarities of the Australian flora. It has been likened to a cherry with the stone outside (hence the vernacular name) by some imaginative person." 1893. `Sydney Morning Herald,' Aug. 19, p. 7, col. 1: "Grass-trees and the brown brake-fern, whips of native cherry, and all the threads and tangle of the earth's green russet vestment hide the feet of trees which lean and lounge between us and the water, their leaf heads tinselled by the light." <hw>Cherry-picker</hw>, <i>n</i>. bird-name. See quotation. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. iv. p. 70: "<i>Melithreptus Validirostris</i>, Gould. Strong-billed Honey-eater [q.v.]. Cherry-picker, colonists of Van Diemen's Land." <hw>Chestnut Pine</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Pine</i>. <hw>Chewgah-bag</hw>, <i>n</i>. Queensland aboriginal pigeon-English for <i>Sugar-bag</i> (q.v.). <hw>Chinkie</hw>, <i>n</i>. slang for a Chinaman. "John," short for John Chinaman, is commoner. 1882. A. J. Boyd, `Old Colonials,' p. 233: "The pleasant traits of character in our colonialised `Chinkie,' as he is vulgarly termed (with the single variation `Chow')." <hw>Chock-and-log</hw>, <i>n</i>. and <i>adj</i>. a particular kind of fence much used on Australian stations. The <i>Chock</i> is a thick short piece of wood laid flat, at right-angles to the line of the fence, with notches in it to receive the <i>Logs</i>, which are laid lengthwise from <i>Chock</i> to <i>Chock</i>, and the fence is raised in four or five layers of this <i>chock-and-log</i> to form, as it were, a wooden wall. Both chocks and logs are rough-hewn or split, not sawn. 1872. G. S. Baden-Powell,'New Homes for the Old Country,' p. 207: "Another fence, known as `chock and log,' is composed of long logs, resting on piles of chocks, or short blocks of wood." 1890. `The Argus.' Sept. 20, p. 13, col. 5: "And to finish the Riverine picture, there comes a herd of kangaroos disturbed from their feeding-ground, leaping through the air, bounding over the wire and `chock-and-log' fences like so many india-rubber automatons." <hw>Choeropus</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name for the genus of Australian marsupial animals with only one known species, called the <i>Pigfooted-Bandicoot</i> (q.v.), and see <i>Bandicoot</i>. (Grk. <i>choiros</i>, a pig, and <i>pous</i>, foot.) The animal is about the size of a rabbit, and is confined to the inland parts of Australia. <hw>Christmas</hw>, <i>n</i>. and <i>adj</i>. As Christmas falls in Australasia at Midsummer, it has different characteristics from those in England, and the word has therefore a different connotation. 1852. Mrs. Meredith, `My Home in Tasmania,' p. 184: "Sheep-shearing in November, hot midsummer weather at Christmas, the bed of a river the driest walk, and corn harvest in February, were things strangely at variance with my Old-World notions." 1896. H. Lawson, `When the World was Wide,' p. 164: "One Christmas time when months of drought Had parched the western creeks, The bush-fires started in the north And travelled south for weeks." <hw>Christmas-bush</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian tree, <i>Ceratopetalum gummiferum</i>, Smith, <i>N.O. Saxifrageae</i>. Called also <i>Christmas-tree</i> (q.v.), and <i>Officer-bush</i>. 1888. Mrs. McCann, `Poetical Works,' p. 226: "Gorgeous tints adorn the Christmas bush with a crimson blush." <hw>Christmas-tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. In Australia, it is the same as <i>Christmas-bush</i> (q.v.). In New Zealand, it is <i>Metrosideros tomentosa</i>, Banks, <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>; Maori name, <i>Pohutukawa</i> (q.v.). 1867. F. Hochstetter, `New Zealand,' p. 240: "Some few scattered Pohutukaua trees (<i>Metrosideros tomentosa</i>), the last remains of the beautiful vegetation . . . About Christmas these trees are full of charming purple blossoms; the settler decorates his church and dwelling with its lovely branches, and calls the tree `Christmas-tree'! " 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 186: "The Christmas-tree is in a sense the counterpart of the holly of the home countries. As the scarlet berry gives its ruddy colour to Christmas decorations in `the old country,' so here the creamy blossoms of the Christmas-tree are the only shrub flowers that survive the blaze of midsummer." 1889. E. H. and S. Featon, `New Zealand Flora,' p. 163: "The Pohutukawa blossoms in December, when its profusion of elegant crimson-tasselled flowers imparts a beauty to the rugged coast-line and sheltered bays which may fairly be called enchanting. To the settlers it is known as the `Christmas-tree,' and sprays of its foliage and flowers are used to decorate churches and dwellings during the festive Christmastide. To the Maoris this tree must possess a weird significance, since it is related in their traditions that at the extreme end of New Zealand there grows a Pohutukawa from which a root descends to the beach below. The spirits of the dead are supposed to descend by this to an opening, which is said to be the entrance to `Te Reinga.'" <hw>Chucky-chucky</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal Australian name for a berry; in Australia and New Zealand, the fruit of species of <i>Gaultheria</i>. See <i>Wax Cluster</i>. 1885. R. M. Praed, `Australian Life,' p. 146: "To gather chucky-chuckies--as the blacks name that most delicious of native berries." 1891. T. H. Potts, `Out in the Open,' `New Zealand Country Journal,' vol. xv. p. 198: "When out of breath, hot and thirsty, how one longed for a handful of chuckie-chucks. In their season how good we used to think these fruits of the <i>gaultheria</i>, or rather its thickened calyx. A few handfuls were excellent in quenching one's thirst, and so plentifully did the plant abound that quantities could soon be gathered. In these rude and simple days, when housekeepers in the hills tried to convert carrots and beet-root into apricot and damson preserves, these notable women sometimes encouraged children to collect sufficient chuckie-chucks to make preserve. The result was a jam of a sweet mawkish flavour that gave some idea of a whiff caught in passing a hair-dresser's shop." <hw>Chum</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>New Chum</i>. <hw>Chy-ack</hw>, <i>v</i>. simply a variation of the English slang verb, <i>to cheek</i>. 1874. Garnet Walch, `Adamanta,' Act ii. sc. ii. p. 27: "I've learnt to chi-ike peelers." [Here the Australian pronunciation is also caught. Barere and Leland give "chi-iked (tailors), chaffed unmercifully," but without explanation.] 1878. `The Australian,' vol. i. p. 742 : "The circle of frivolous youths who were yelping at and chy-acking him." 1894. E. W. Hornung, `Boss of Taroomba,' p. 5: "It's our way up here, you know, to chi-ak each other and our visitors too." <hw>Cicada</hw>, <i>n</i>. an insect. See <i>Locust</i>. 1895. G. Metcalfe, `Australian Zoology,' p. 62: "The Cicada is often erroneously called a locust. . . . It is remarkable for the loud song, or chirruping whirr, of the males in the heat of summer; numbers of them on the hottest days produce an almost deafening sound." <hw>Cider-Tree</hw>, or </hw>Cider-Gum, <i>n</i>. name given in Tasmania to <i>Eucalyptus gunnii</i>, Hook., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. See <i>Gum</i>. 1830. Ross, `Hobart Town Almanack,' p. 119: "Specimens of that species of eucalyptus called the cider-tree, from its exuding a quantity of saccharine liquid resembling molasses. . . . When allowed to remain some time and to ferment, it settles into a coarse sort of wine or cider, rather intoxicating if drank to any excess." <hw>City</hw>, <i>n</i>. In Great Britain and Ireland the word City denotes "a considerable town that has been, (a) an episcopal seat, (b) a royal burgh, or (c) created to the dignity, like Birmingham, Dundee, and Belfast, by a royal patent. In the United States and Canada, a municipality of the first class, governed by a mayor and aldermen, and created by charter." (`Standard.') In Victoria, by section ix. of the Local Government Act, 1890, 54 Victoria, No. 1112, the Governor-in-Council may make orders, #12: "To declare any borough, including the city of Melbourne and the town of Geelong, having in the year preceding such declaration a gross revenue of not less than twenty thousand pounds, a city." <hw>Claim</hw>, <i>n</i>. in mining, a piece of land appropriated for mining purposes: then the mine itself. The word is also used in the United States. See also <i>Reward-claim</i> and <i>Prospecting-claim</i>. 1858. T. McCombie, `History of Victoria,' c. xiv. p. 213: "A family named Cavanagh . . . entered a half-worked claim." 1863. H. Fawcett, `Political Economy,' pt. iii. c. vi. p. 359 (`O.E.D.'): "The claim upon which he purchases permission to dig." 1887. H. H. Hayter, `Christmas Adventure,' p. 3: "I decided . . . a claim to take up." <hw>Clay-pan</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given, especially in the dry interior of Australia, to a slight depression of the ground varying in size from a few yards to a mile in length, where the deposit of fine silt prevents the water from sinking into the ground as rapidly as it does elsewhere. 1875. John Forrest, `Explorations in Australia,' p. 260: "We travelled down the road for about thirty-three miles over stony plains; many clay-pans with water but no feed." 1896. Baldwin Spencer, `Horne Expedition in Central Australia,' Narrative, vol. i. p. 17: "One of the most striking features of the central area and especially amongst the loamy plains and sandhills, is the number of clay-pans. These are shallow depressions, with no outlet, varying in length from a few yards to half a mile, where the surface is covered with a thin clayey material, which seems to prevent the water from sinking as rapidly as it does in other parts." <hw>Clean-skins</hw>, or <hw>Clear-skins</hw>, <i>n</i>. unbranded cattle or horses. 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 206: "These clean-skins, as they are often called, to distinguish them from the branded cattle." 1884. Rolf Boldrewood, `Melbourne Memories,' c. xv. p. 109: "Strangers and pilgrims, calves and clear-skins, are separated at the same time." 1889. Rev. J. H. Zillmann, `Australian Life,' p. 82: "`Clear-skins,' as unbranded cattle were commonly called, were taken charge of at once." 1893. `The Argus,' April 29, p.4, col. 4: "As they fed slowly homeward bellowing for their calves, and lowing for their mates, the wondering clean-skins would come up in a compact body, tearing, ripping, kicking, and moaning, working round and round them in awkward, loblolly canter." <hw>Clearing lease</hw>, <i>n</i>. Explained in quotation. 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' vol. i. c. x. p. 321: "[They] held a small piece of land on what is called a clearing lease--that is to say, they were allowed to retain possession of it for so many years for the labour of clearing the land." <hw>Clematis</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific and vernacular name of a genus of plants belonging to the <i>N.O. Ranunculaceae</i>. The common species in Australia is <i>C. aristata</i>, R. Br. 1834. Ross, `Van Diemen's Land Annual,' p. 124: "The beautiful species of <i>clematis</i> called <i>aristata</i>, which may be seen in the months of November and December, spreading forth its milk-white blossoms over the shrubs . . . in other places rising up to the top of the highest gum-trees." <hw>Clianthus</hw>, <i>n</i>. scientific name for an Australasian genus of plants, <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>, containing only two species--in Australia, <i>Sturt's Desert Pea</i> (q.v.), <i>C. dampieri</i>; and in New Zealand, the <i>Kaka-bill</i> (q.v.), <i>C. puniceus</i>. Both species are also called <i>Glory-Pea</i>, from Grk. <i>kleos</i>, glory, and <i>anthos</i>, a flower. 1892. `Otago Witness,' Nov.24, `Native Trees': "Hooker says the genus <i>Clianthus</i> consists of the Australian and New Zealand species only, the latter is therefore clearly indigenous. `One of the most beautiful plants known' (Hooker). Sir Joseph Banks and Dr. Solandel found it during Cook's first voyage." <hw>Climbing-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Hopping-fish</i> (q.v.). <hw>Climbing-Pepper</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Pepper</i>. <hw>Clitonyx</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name of a genus of New Zealand birds, including the <i>Yellow-head</i> (q.v.) and the <i>White-head</i> (q.v.); from Greek <i>klinein</i>, root <i>klit</i>, to lean, slant, and <i>'onux</i>, claw. The genus was so named by Reichenbach in 1851, to distinguish the New Zealand birds from the Australian birds of the genus <i>Orthonyx</i> (q.v.), which formerly included them both. <hw>Clock-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Laughing Jachass</i>. See <i>Jackass</i>. <hw>Clock, Settlers'</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Clock-bird</i>, (q.v.) <hw>Cloudy-Bay Cod</hw>, <i>n</i>. a New Zealand name for the <i>Ling</i> (q.v.). See also <i>Cod</i>. <hw>Clover-Fern</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the plant called <i>Nardoo</i> (q.v.). <hw>Clover, Menindie</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian fodder plant, <i>Trigonella suavissima</i>, Lind., <i>N.O. Leguminoseae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 143: `From its abundance in the neighbourhood of Menindie, it is often called Menindie-clover.' It is the `Australian shamrock' of Mitchell. This perennial, fragrant, clover-like plant is a good pasture herb." <hw>Clover-Tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian tree, called also <i>Native Laburnun</i>. See under <i>Laburnum</i>. <hw>Coach</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bullock used as a decoy to catch wild cattle. This seems to be from the use of coach as the University term for a private tutor. 1874. W. H. L. Ranken, `Dominion of Australia,' c. vi. p. 110: "To get them [sc. wild cattle] a party of stockmen take a small herd of quiet cattle, `coaches.'" <hw>Coach</hw>, <i>v</i>. to decoy wild cattle or horses with tame ones. 1874. W. H. L. Ranken, `Dominion of Australia,' c. vi. p. 121: "Here he [the wild horse] may be got by `coaching' like wild cattle." <hw>Coach-whip Bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. <i>Psophodes crepitans</i>, V. and H. (see Gould's `Birds of Australia,' vol. iii. pl. 15); Black-throated C.B., <i>P. nigrogularis</i>, Gould. Called also <i>Whipbird</i> and <i>Coachman</i>. 1827. Vigors and Horsfield, `Transactions of Linnaean Society,' vol. xv. p. 330: "This bird is more often heard than seen. It inhabits bushes. The loud cracking whip-like noise it makes (from whence the colonists give it the name of coachwhip), may be heard from a great distance." 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. ii. p. 158: "If you should hear a coachwhip crack behind, you may instinctively start aside to let <i>the mail</i> pass; but quickly find it is only our native coachman with his spread-out fantail and perked-up crest, whistling and cracking out his whip-like notes as he hops sprucely from branch to branch." 1844. Mrs. Meredith, `Notes and Sketches of New South Wales,' p. 137: "Another equally singular voice among our feathered friends was that of the `coachman,' than which no title could be more appropriate, his chief note being a long clear whistle, with a smart crack of the whip to finish with." 1845. R. Howitt, `Australia,' p. 177: "The bell-bird, by the river heard; The whip-bird, which surprised I hear, In me have powerful memories stirred Of other scenes and strains more dear; Of sweeter songs than these afford, The thrush and blackbird warbling clear." --Old Impressions. 1846. G. H. Haydon, `Five Years in Australia Felix,' p. 71: "The coach-whip is a small bird about the size of a sparrow, found near rivers. It derives its name from its note, a slow, clear whistle, concluded by a sharp jerking noise like the crack of a whip." 1855. W. Howitt, `Two Years in Victoria,' vol. ii. p. 76: "The whip-bird, whose sharp wiry notes, even, are far more agreeable than the barking of dogs and the swearing of diggers." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 24: "That is the coach-whip bird. There again. Whew-ew-ew-ew-whit. How sharply the last note sounds." 1887. R. M. Praed, `Longleat of Kooralbyn,' c. vi. p. 54: "The sharp st--wt of the whip-bird . . . echoed through the gorge." 1888. James Thomas, `May o' the South,' `Australian Poets 1788-1888' (ed. Sladen), p. 552: "Merrily the wagtail now Chatters on the ti-tree bough, While the crested coachman bird `Midst the underwood is heard." <hw>Coast</hw>, <i>v</i>. to loaf about from station to station. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Squatter's Dream,' xxv. 295: "I ain't like you, Towney, able to coast about without a job of work from shearin' to shearin'." <hw>Coaster</hw>, <i>n</i>. a loafer, a <i>Sundowner</i> (q.v.). 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Squatter's Dream,' viii. 75: "A voluble, good-for-nothing, loafing impostor, a regular `coaster.'" <hw>Cobb</hw>, <i>n</i>. sometimes used as equivalent to a coach. "I am going by Cobb." The word is still used, though no Mr. Cobb has been connected with Australian coaches for many years. See quotation. 1861. T. McCombie, `Australian Sketches,' p. 184: "Mr. Cobb was an American, and has returned long ago to his native country. He started a line of conveyances from Melbourne to Castlemaine some time after the gold discoveries. Mr. Cobb had spirit to buy good horses, to get first-class American coaches, to employ good Yankee whips, and in a couple of years or so he had been so extensively patronised that he sold out, and retired with a moderate fortune." [But the Coaching Company retained . . . the style of Cobb & Co.] 1879 (about). `Queensland Bush Song': "Hurrah for the Roma Railway! Hurrah for Cobb and Co.! Hurrah, hurrah for a good fat horse To carry me Westward Ho!" <hw>Cobbler</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) The last sheep, an Australian shearing term. (2) Another name for the fish called the <i>Fortescue</i> (q.v.) 1893. `The Herald' (Melbourne), Dec. 23, p. 6, col. 1: "Every one might not know what a `cobbler' is. It is the last sheep in a catching pen, and consequently a bad one to shear, as the easy ones are picked first. The cobbler must be taken out before `Sheep-ho' will fill up again. In the harvest field English rustics used to say, when picking up the last sheaf, `This is what the cobbler threw at his wife.' `What?' `The last,' with that lusty laugh, which, though it might betray `a vacant mind,' comes from a very healthy organism." <hw>Cobblers-Awl</hw>, <i>n</i>. bird-name. The word is a provincial English name for the <i>Avocet</i>. In Tasmania, the name is applied to a <i>Spine-Bill</i> (q.v.) from the shape of its beak. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. iv. pl. 61: "<i>Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris</i>, Lath., Slender-billed Spine-bill. <i>Cobbler's Awl</i>, Colonists of Van Diemen's Land. <i>Spine-bill</i>, Colonists of New South Wales." <hw>Cobbler's Pegs</hw>, name given to a tall erect annual weed, <i>Erigeron linifolius</i>, Willd., <i>N.O. Compositae</i> and to <i>Bidens pilosus</i>, Linn., <i>N.O. Compositae</i>. <hw>Cobbra</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal word for head, skull. [<i>Kabura</i> or <i>Kobbera</i>, with such variations as Kobra, Kobbera, Kappara, Kopul, from Malay Kapala, head: one of the words on the East Coast manifestly of Malay origin.--J. Mathew. Much used in pigeon converse with blacks. `Goodway cobra tree' = `Tree very tall.'] Collins, `Port Jackson Vocabulary,' 1798 (p. 611), gives `Kabura, ca-ber-ra.' Mount Cobberas in East Gippsland has its name from huge head-like masses of rock which rise from the summit. 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 31: "The black fellow who lives in the bush bestows but small attention on his cobra, as the head is usually called in the pigeon-English which they employ." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. xiii. p. 134: "I should be cock-sure that having an empty cobbra, as the blacks say, was on the main track that led to the grog-camp." <hw>Cock-a-bully</hw>, <i>n</i>. a popular name for the New Zealand fish <i>Galaxias fasciatus</i>, Gray, a corruption of its Maori name <i>Kokopu</i> (q.v.). 1896. `The Australasian,' Aug. 28, p. 407, col. 3: "During my stay in New Zealand my little girl caught a fish rather larger than an English minnow. Her young companions called it a `cock-a bully.' It was pretty obvious to scent a corruption of a Maori word, for, mark you, cock-a-bully has no meaning. It looks as if it were English and full of meaning. Reflect an instant and it has none. The Maori name for the fish is `kokopu'" <hw>Cockatiel</hw>, <hw>-eel</hw>, <i>n</i>. an arbitrary diminutive of the word Cockatoo, and used as another name for the Cockatoo-Parrakeet, <i>Calopsitta novae-hollandiae</i>, and generally for any Parrakeet of the genus <i>Calopsitta</i>. (`O.E.D.') <hw>Cockatoo</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) Bird-name. The word is Malay, <i>Kakatua</i>. (`O.E.D.') The varieties are-- Banksian Cockatoo-- <i>Calyptorhynchus banksii</i>, Lath. Bare-eyed C.-- <i>Cacatua gymnopis</i>, Sclater. Black C.-- <i>Calyptorhynchus funereus</i>, Shaw. Blood-stained C.-- <i>Cacatua sanguinea</i>, Gould. Dampier's C.-- <i>Licmetis pastinator</i>, Gould. Gang-gang C.-- <i>Callocephalon galeatum</i>, Lath. [See <i>Gang-gang</i>.] Glossy C.-- <i>Calyptorhynchus viridis</i>, Vieill. Long-billed C.-- <i>Licmetis nasicus</i>, Temm. [See <i>Corella</i>.] Palm C.-- <i>Microglossus aterrimus</i>, Gmel. Pink C.-- <i>Cacatua leadbeateri</i>, V. & H. (Leadbeater, q.v.). Red-tailed C.-- <i>Calyptorhynchus stellatus</i>, Wagl. Rose-breasted C.-- <i>Cacatua roseicapilla</i>, Vieill. [See <i>Galah</i>. Gould calls it <i>Cocatua eos</i>. White C.-- <i>Cacatua galerita</i>, Lath. White-tailed C.-- <i>Calyptorhynchus baudinii</i>, Vig. See also <i>Parrakeet</i>. 1839. T. L. Mitchell, `Three Expeditions, vol. ii. p. 62: "We saw to-day for the first time on the Kalare, the redtop cockatoo (Plyctolophus Leadbeateri)." 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' c. viii. p. 272: "The rose-breasted cockatoo (<i>Cocatua eos</i>, Gould) visited the patches of fresh burnt grass." Ibid. p. 275: "The black cockatoo (<i>Calyptorhynchus Banksii</i>) has been much more frequently observed of late." 1857. Daniel Bunce, `Australasiatic Reminiscences,' p. 175: "Dr. Leichhardt caught sight of a number of cockatoos; and, by tracking the course of their flight, we, in a short time, reached a creek well supplied with water." 1862. G. Barrington, `History of New South Wales,' c. ix. p. 331: "White cockatoos and parroquets were now seen." 1890. `Victorian Statutes, Game Act, Third Schedule': "Black Cockatoos. Gang-gang Cockatoos. [Close season.] From the 1st day of August to the 10th day of December next following in each year." 1893. `The Argus,' March 25, p.4, col. 6: "The egg of the blood-stained cockatoo has not yet been scientifically described, and the specimen in this collection has an interest chiefly in that it was taken [by Mr. A. J. Campbell] from a tree at Innamincka waterholes, not far from the spot where Burke the explorer died." (2) A small farmer, called earlier in Tasmania a <i>Cockatooer</i> (q.v.). The name was originally given in contempt (see quotations), but it is now used by farmers themselves. Cocky is a common abbreviation. Some people distinguish between a <i>cockatoo</i> and a <i>ground-parrot</i>, the latter being the farmer on a very small scale. Trollope's etymology (see quotation, 1873) will not hold, for it is not true that the cockatoo scratches the ground. After the gold fever, <i>circa</i> 1860, the selectors swarmed over the country and ate up the substance of the squatters; hence they were called <i>Cockatoos</i>. The word is also used adjectivally. 1863. M. K. Beveridge, `Gatherings among the Gum-trees,' p. 154: "Oi'm going to be married To what is termed a Cockatoo-- Which manes a farmer." 1867. Lady Barker, `Station Life in New Zealand,' p. 110: "These small farmers are called cockatoos in Australia by the squatters or sheep-farmers, who dislike them for buying up the best bits on their runs; and say that, like a cockatoo, the small freeholder alights on good ground, extracts all he can from it, and then flies away, to `fresh fields and pastures new.' . . . However, whether the name is just or not, it is a recognised one here; and I have heard a man say in answer to a question about his usual `occupation, `I'm a cockatoo.'" 1873. A. Trollope, `Australia and New Zealand,' vol. ii. p. 135: "The word cockatoo in the farinaceous colony has become so common as almost to cease to carry with it the intended sarcasm. . . . It signifies that the man does not really till his land, but only scratches it as the bird does." 1882. A. J. Boyd, `Old Colonials,' p. 32: "It may possibly have been a term of reproach applied to the industrious farmer, who settled or perched on the resumed portions of a squatter's run, so much to the latter's rage and disgust that he contemptuously likened the farmer to the white-coated, yellow-crested screamer that settles or perches on the trees at the edge of his namesake's clearing." 1889. `Cornhill Magazine,' Jan., p. 33: "`With a cockatoo' [Title]. Cockatoo is the name given to the small, bush farmer in New Zealand." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. xliii. p. 377: "The governor is a bigoted agriculturist; he has contracted the cockatoo complaint, I'm afraid." 1893, `The Argus,' June 17, p. 13, col. 4: "Hire yourself out to a dairyman, take a contract with a rail-splitter, sign articles with a cockatoo selector; but don't touch land without knowing something about it." <hw>Cockatoo</hw>, <i>v. intr</i>. (1) To be a farmer. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Squatter's Dream,' c. xx. p. 245: "Fancy three hundred acres in Oxfordshire, with a score or two of bullocks,and twice as many black-faced Down sheep. Regular cockatooing." (2) A special sense--to sit on a fence as the bird sits. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `A Colonial Reformer,' c. xviii. p. 224: "The correct thing, on first arriving at a drafting-yard, is to `cockatoo,' or sit on the rails high above the tossing horn-billows." <hw>Cockatooer</hw>, <i>n</i>. a variant of <i>Cockatoo</i> (q.v.), quite fallen into disuse, if quotation be not a nonce use. 1852. Mrs. Meredith, `My Home in Tasmania,' vol. ii. p. 137: "A few wretched-looking huts and hovels, the dwellings of `cockatooers,' who are not, as it might seem, a species of bird, but human beings; who rent portions of this forest . . . on exorbitant terms . . . and vainly endeavour to exist on what they can earn besides, their frequent compulsory abstinence from meat, when they cannot afford to buy it, even in their land of cheap and abundant food, giving them some affinity to the grain-eating white cockatoos." <hw>Cockatoo Fence</hw>, <i>n</i>. fence erected by small farmers. 1884. Rolf Boldrewood, `Melbourne Memories,' c. xxii. p. 155: "There would be roads and cockatoo fences . . . in short, all the hostile emblems of agricultural settlement." 1890. Lyth, `Golden South,' c. xiv. p. 120: "The fields were divided by open rails or cockatoo fences, i.e. branches and logs of trees laid on the ground one across the other with posts and slip-rails in lieu of gates." <hw>Cockatoo Bush</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Native Currant</i> (q.v). <hw>Cockatoo Orchis</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian name for the Orchid, <i>Caleya major</i>, R. Br. <hw>Cock-eyed Bob</hw>, a local slang term in Western Australia for a thunderstorm. 1894. `The Age,' Jan. 20, p. 13, col. 4: "They [the natives of the northwest of Western Australia] are extremely frightened of them [sc. storms called <i>Willy Willy</i>, q.v.], and in some places even on the approach of an ordinary thunderstorm or `Cock-eyed Bob,' they clear off to the highest ground about." <hw>Cockle</hw>, <i>n</i>. In England the name is given to a species of the familiar marine bivalve mollusc, <i>Cardium</i>. The commonest Australian species is <i>Cardium tenuicostatum</i>, Lamarck, present in all extra-tropical Australia. The name is also commonly applied to members of the genus <i>Chione</i>. <hw>Cock-Schnapper</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fish; the smallest kind of <i>Schnapper</i> (q.v.). See also <i>Count-fish</i>. 1882. Rev. I. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish of New South Wales,' p. 41: "The usual method of estimating quantity for sale by the fisherman is, by the schnapper or count-fish, the school-fish, and squire, among which from its metallic appearance is the copper head or copper colour, and the red bream. Juveniles rank the smallest of the fry, not over an inch or two in length, as the cock-schnapper. The fact, however, is now generally admitted that all these are one and the same genus, merely in different stages of growth." <hw>Cod</hw>, <i>n</i>. This common English name of the <i>Gadus morrhua</i> is applied to many fishes in Australia of various families, Gadoid and otherwise. In Melbourne it is given to <i>Lotella callarias</i>, Guenth., and in New South Wales to several fishes of the genus <i>Serranus</i>. <i>Lotella</i> is a genus of the family <i>Gadidae</i>, to which the European Cod belongs; <i>Serranus</i> is a Sea perch (q.v.). See <i>Rock Cod, Black Rock Cod, Red Rock Cod, Black Cod, Elite Cod, Red Cod, Murray Cod, Cloudy Bay Cod, Ling, Groper, Hapuku, and Haddock</i>. <hw>Coffee-Bush</hw>, <i>n</i>. a settlers' name for the New Zealand tree the <i>Karamu</i> (q.v.). Sometimes called also </hw>Coffee-plant. <hw>Coffer-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Trunk-fish</i> (q.v.). <hw>Coffee Plant</hw>, or <hw>Coffee Berry</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given in Tasmania to the Tasmanian <i>Native Holly</i> (q.v.). <hw>Colonial Experience</hw>, <i>n</i>. and used as <i>adj</i>. same as <i>cadet</i> (q.v.) in New Zealand; a young man learning squatting business, gaining his colonial experience. Called also <i>jackaroo</i> (q.v.). 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `A Colonial Reformer,' p. 95: "You're the first `colonial experience' young fellow that it ever occurred to within my knowledge." <hw>Colonial Goose</hw>, <i>n</i>. a boned leg of mutton stuffed with sage and onions. In the early days the sheep was almost the sole animal food. Mutton was then cooked and served in various ways to imitate other dishes. <hw>Colour</hw>, <i>n</i>. sc. of gold. It is sometimes used with `good,' to mean plenty of gold: more usually, the `colour' means just a little gold, enough to show in the dish. 1860. Kelly, `Life in Victoria,' vol. i. p. 222: ". . . they had not, to use a current phrase, `raised the colour.'" 1890. Rolf Boldrewood. `Miner's Right,' c. xiv. p. 149: "This is the fifth claim he has been in since he came here, and the first in which he has seen the colour." 1891. W. Lilley, `Wild West of Tasmania,' p. 14: "After spending a little time there, and not finding more than a few colours of gold, he started for Mount Heemskirk." <hw>Convictism</hw>, <i>n</i>. the system of transportation of convicts to Australia and Van Diemen's Land, now many years abolished. 1852. J. West, `History of Tasmania,' vol. i. p. 309: "May it remain nailed to the mast until these colonies are emancipated from convictism." 1864. `Realm,' Feb. 24, p.4 (`O.E.D.'): "No one who has not lived in Australia can appreciate the profound hatred of convictism that obtains there." 1880. G. Sutherland, `Tales of Goldfields,' p. 16: "They preferred to let things remain as they were, convictism included." <hw>Coobah</hw>, <i>n</i>. an aboriginal name for the tree <i>Acacia salicina</i>, Lindl., <i>N.O.Leguminosae</i>. See <i>Acacia</i>. The spellings vary, and sometimes begin with a K. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Squatter's Dream,' v. 46: "A deep reach of the river, shaded by couba trees and river-oaks." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. xxviii. p. 400: "The willowy coubah weeps over the dying streamlet." <hw>Coo-ee</hw>, or <hw>Cooey</hw>, <i>n</i>. and <i>interj</i>. spelt in various ways. See quotations. A call borrowed from the aborigines and used in the bush by one wishing to find or to be found by another. In the vocabulary of native words in `Hunter's Journal,' published in 1790, we find "Cow-ee = to come." 1827. P. Cunningham, `New South Wales,' vol. ii. p. 23: "In calling to each other at a distance, the natives make use of the word <i>Coo-ee</i>, as we do the word <i>Hollo</i>, prolonging the sound of the <i>coo</i>, and closing that of the <i>ee</i> with a shrill jerk. . . . [It has] become of general use throughout the colony; and a newcomer, in desiring an individual to call another back, soon learns to say `<i>Coo-ee'</i> to him, instead of Hollo to him." 1830. R. Dawson, `Present State of Australia,' p. 162: "He immediately called `coo-oo-oo' to the natives at the fire." 1836. Ross, `Hobart Town Almanack,' p. 84: "There yet might be heard the significant `<i>cooy'</i> or `quhy,' the true import of which was then unknown to our ears." 1839. T. L. Mitchell, `Three Expeditions,' p. 46: "Although Mr. Brown made the woods echo with his `cooys.'" [See also p. 87, note.] 1845. Clement Hodgkinson, `Australia from Port Macquarie to Moreton Bay,' p. 28: "We suddenly heard the loud shrill <i>couis</i> of the natives." 1846. C. P. Hodgson, `Reminiscences of Australia,' p. 231: "Their cooieys are not always what we understand by the word, viz., a call in which the first note is low and the second high, uttered after sound of the word cooiey. This is a note which congregates all together and is used only as a simple `Here.'" 1852. J. West, `History of Tasmania,' vol. ii. p. 91: "Like the natives of New South Wales, they called to each other from a great distance by the <i>cooey</i>; a word meaning `come to me.' The Sydney blacks modulated this cry with successive inflexions; the Tasmanian uttered it with less art. It is a sound of great compass. The English in the bush adopt it: the first syllable is prolonged; the second is raised to a higher key, and is sharp and abrupt." 1862. W. Landsborough, `Exploration of Australia,' [Footnote] p. 24: "<i>Coo-oo-oo-y</i> is a shrill treble cry much used in the bush by persons wishful to find each other. On a still night it will travel a couple of miles, and it is thus highly serviceable to lost or benighted travellers." 1869. J. F. Townend, `Reminiscences of Australia,' p. 155: "The jingling of bells round the necks of oxen, the cooey of the black fellow . . . constituted the music of these desolate districts." 1873. J. B. Stephens, `Black Gin,' p. 82: "Hi! . . . cooey! you fella . . . open 'im lid." 1880. Fison and Howitt, `Kamilaroi and Kurnai,' p. 183: "A particular `cooee' . . . was made known to the young men when they were initiated." 1880. G. Sutherland, `Tales of the Goldfields,' p. 40: "From the woods they heard a prolonged cooee, which evidently proceeded from some one lost in the bush." 1885. R. M. Praed, `Australian Life,' p. 276: "Two long farewell coo-ees, which died away in the silence of the bush." 1890. E. W. Hornung, `A Bride from the Bush,' p. 184: "The bride encircled her lips with her two gloved palms, and uttered a cry that few of the hundreds who heard it ever forgot--`coo-ee!' That was the startling cry as nearly as it can be written. But no letters can convey the sustained shrillness of the long, penetrating note represented by the first syllable, nor the weird, die-away wail of the second. It is the well-known bushcall,the `jodel' of the black fellow." <hw>Cooee, within</hw>, <i>adv</i>. within easy distance. 1887. G. L. Apperson, in `All the Year Round,' July 30, p. 67, col. 1 (`O.E.D.'): "A common mode of expression is to be `within cooey' of a place. . . . Now to be `within cooey' of Sydney is to be at the distance of an easy journey therefrom." 1893. `The Herald' (Melbourne), June 26, p. 2, col. 6: "Witness said that there was a post-office clock `within coo-ee,' or within less than half-a-mile of the station." 1896. H. Lawson, `When the World was Wide,' p. 80: "Just to camp within a cooey of the Shanty for the night." <hw>Cooee</hw>, <i>v.intr</i>. to utter the call. 1830. R. Dawson, `Present State of Australia,' p. 81: "Our sable guides `cooed' and `cooed' again, in their usual tone of calling to each other at a distance." 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition, p. 115: "Brown cooyed to him, and by a sign requested him to wait for us." 1847. J. D. Lang, `Phillipsland,' p. 85 [Footnote]: "Cooey is the aboriginal mode of calling out to any person at a distance, whether visible or not, in the forest. The sound is made by dwelling on the first syllable, and pronouncing the second with a short, sharp, rising inflexion. It is much easier made, and is heard to a much greater distance than the English <i>holla</i>! and is consequently in universal use among the colonists. . . . There is a story current in the colony of a party of native-born colonists being in London, one of whom, a young lady, if I recollect aright, was accidentally separated from the rest, in the endless stream of pedestrians and vehicles of all descriptions, at the intersection of Fleet Street with the broad avenue leading to Blackfriars Bridge. When they were all in great consternation and perplexity at the circumstance, it occurred to one of the party to <i>cooey</i>, and the well-known sound, with its ten thousand Australian associations, being at once recognised and responded to, a reunion of the party took place immediately, doubtless to the great wonderment of the surrounding Londoners, who would probably suppose they were all fit for Bedlam." 1848. W. Westgarth, `Australia Felix,' p. 90: "They [the aborigines] warily entered scrubs, and called out (cooyed) repeatedly in approaching water-holes, even when yet at a great distance." 1852. J. West, `History of Tasmania,' vol. ii. p. 91: "A female, born on this division of the globe, once stood at the foot of London Bridge, and cooyed for her husband, of whom she had lost sight, and stopped the passengers by the novelty of the sound; which however is not unknown in certain neighbourhoods of the metropolis. Some gentlemen, on a visit to a London theatre, to draw the attention of their friends in an opposite box, called out cooey; a voice in the gallery answered `Botany Bay!'" 1880 (circa). `Melbourne Punch,' [In the days of long trains]: "George, there's somebody treading on my dress; cooee to the bottom of the stairs." <hw>Coo-in-new</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for "a useful verbenaceous timber-tree of Australia, <i>Gmelina leichhardtii</i>, F. v. M. The wood has a fine silvery grain, and is much prized for flooring and for the decks of vessels, as it is reputed never to shrink after a moderate seasoning." (`Century.') Usually called <i>Mahogany-tree</i> (q.v.). <hw>Coolaman</hw> or <hw>Kooliman</hw>, <i>n</i>. an aboriginal word, Kamilaroi Dialect of New South Wales. [W. Ridley, `Kamilaroi,' p. 25, derives it from <i>Kulu</i>, seed, but it is just as likely from <i>Kolle</i>, water.--J. Mathew.] A hollowed knot of a tree, used as a seed vessel, or for holding water. The word is applied to the excrescence on the tree as well as to the vessel; a bush hand has been heard to speak of a hump-backed man as `cooliman-backed.' 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 269: "Three koolimans (vessels of stringy bark) were full of honey water, from one of which I took a hearty draught." 1863. M. K. Beveridge, `Gatherings among the Gum-trees,' p. 37: "And the beautiful Lubrina Fetched a Cooliman of water." [In Glossary.] Cooliman, a hollow knot of a tree for holding water. 186. W. Howitt, `Discovery in Australia, vol. ii. p. 24: "Koolimans, water vessels. . . The koolimans were made of the inner layer of the bark of the stringy-bark tree." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. ii. p. 185: "Coolaman, native vessel for holding water." 1885. Mrs. Praed, `Australian Life,' p. 76: "Cooliman, a vessel for carrying water, made out of the bark which covers an excrescence peculiar to a kind of gum-tree." <hw>Cooper's-flag</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name in New Zealand for <i>Raupo</i> (q.v.). <hw>Coopers-wood</hw>, <i>n</i>. the timber of an Australian tree, <i>Alphitonia excelsa</i>, Reiss, <i>N.O. Rhamneae</i>. The wood becomes dark with age, and is used for coopers' staves and various purposes. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 373: "Variously called Mountain-ash, Red-ash, Leather-jacket, and Coopers-wood." <hw>Coordaitcha</hw>. See <i>Kurdaitcha</i>. <hw>Coot</hw>, <i>n</i>. common English birdname; the Australian species is <i>Fulica australis</i>, Gould. See also <i>Bald-Coot</i>. <hw>Copper-head</hw>, <i>n</i>. See under <i>Snake</i>. <hw>Copper Maori</hw>. This spelling has been influenced by the English word <i>Copper</i>, but it is really a corruption of a Maori word. There is a difference of opinion amongst Maori scholars what this word is. Some say <i>Kapura</i>, a common fire used for cooking, in contradistinction to a `chief's fire,' at which he sat, and which would not be allowed to be defiled with food. Others say <i>Kopa</i>. The Maori word <i>Kopa</i> was (1) <i>adj</i>. meaning <i>bent</i>, (2) <i>n</i>. <i>angle</i> or <i>corner</i>, and (3) the native oven, or more strictly the hole scooped out for the oven. 1888. T. Pine, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' `A local tradition of Raukawa,' vol. xxi. p. 417: "So they set to work and dug holes on the flat, each hole about 2 ft. across and about 1 1/2 ft. deep, and shaped something like a Kopa Maori." 1889. H. D. M. Haszard, ibid. `Notes on some Relics of Cannibalism,' vol. xxii. p. 104: "In two distinct places, about four chains apart, there were a number of <i>Kapura Maori</i>, or native ovens, scattered about within a radius of about forty feet." <hw>Coprosma</hw>, <i>n</i>. scientific and vernacular name fora large genus of trees and shrubs of the order <i>Rubiaceae</i>. From the Greek <i>kopros</i>, dung, on account of the bad smell of some of the species. See quotation. The Maori name is <i>Karamu</i> (q.v.). Various species receive special vernacular names, which appear in their places in the Dictionary. 1889. T. Kirk, `Forest Flora of New Zealand,' p. 110: "<i>Corosma</i> comprises about forty species, of which at least thirty are found in New Zealand, all of which are restricted to the colony except <i>C. pumila</i>, which extends to Australia. Five species are found in Australia, one of which is <i>C. pumila</i> mentioned above. A few species occur in the Pacific, Chili, Juan Fernandez, the Sandwich Islands, &c." <hw>Coral</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Batswing-Coral</i>. <hw>Coral-Fern</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given in Victoria to <i>Gleichenia circinata</i>, Swartz, called in Bailey's list <i>Parasol-Fern</i>. See <i>Fern</i>. <hw>Coral-Flower</hw>, <i>n</i>. a plant, <i>Epacris</i> (q.v.), <i>Epacris microphylla</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Epacrideae</i>. <hw>Coral-Pea</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Kennedya</i> (q.v.). 1896. `The Melburnian,' Aug. 28, p. 53: "The trailing scarlet kennedyas, aptly called the `bleeding-heart' or `coral pea,' brighten the greyness of the sandy, peaty wastes." <hw>Coranderrk</hw>, <i>n</i>. the aboriginal name for the Victorian <i>Dogwood</i> (q.v.). An "aboriginal station," or asylum and settlement for the remaining members of the aboriginal race of Victoria, is called after this name because the wood grew plentifully there. <hw>Cordage-tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given in Tasmania to a <i>Kurrajong</i> (q.v.). The name <i>Sida pulchella</i> has been superseded by <i>Plagianthus sidoides</i>, Hook. 1835. Ross, `Hobart Town Almanack,' p. 108: "Sida pulchella. Handsome Sida. Currijong or cordage tree of Hobart Town. . . . The bark used to be taken for tying up post and rail fences, the rafters of huts, in the earlier periods of the colony, before nails could be so easily procured." <hw>Corella</hw>, <i>n</i>. any parrot of the genus <i>Nymphicus</i>; the word is dim. of late Lat. <i>cora = korh</i>, a girl, doll, etc. The Australian Corella is <i>N. novae-hollandiae</i>, and the name is also given to <i>Licmetus nasicus</i>, Temm, the <i>Long-billed Cockatoo</i> (q.v.). It is often used indiscriminately by bird-fanciers for any pretty little parrot, parrakeet, or cockatoo. <hw>Cork-tree</hw>, <i>n.</i> See <i>Bat's-wing Coral</i>. <hw>Corkwood</hw>, <i>n</i>. a New Zealand tree, <i>Entelea arborescens</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Tiliaceae</i>. Maori name, <i>Whau</i>. 1889. T. Kirk, `Forest Flora of New Zealand,' p. 45: "The whau . . . is termed corkwood by the settlers on account of its light specific gravity." <hw>Cormorant</hw>, <i>n</i>. common English bird-name. In Australia the name is applied to the following birds:-- Black Cormorant-- <i>Graculus novae-hollandiae</i>, Steph. Little C.-- <i>G. melanoleucus</i>, Vieill. Little-black C.-- <i>G. stictocephalus</i>, Bp. . Pied C.-- <i>G. varius</i>, Gm. White-breasted Cormorant-- <i>G. leucogaster</i>, Gould. White-throated C.-- <i>G. brevirostris</i>, Gould. <hw>Cornstalk</hw>, <i>n</i>. a young man or a girl born and bred in New South Wales, especially if tall and big. 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. ii. p. 116: "The colonial-born, bearing also the name of cornstalks (Indian corn), from the way in which they shoot up." 1834. Geo. Benett, `Wanderings in New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 341: "The Australian ladies may compete for personal beauty and elegance with any European, although satirized as `Cornstalks,' from the slenderness of their forms." 1849. J. P. Townsend, `Rambles in New South Wales,' p. 68: "Our host was surrounded by a little army of `cornstalks.'. . . The designation `cornstalk' is given because the young people run up like the stems of the Indian corn." 1869. W. R. Honey, `Madeline Clifton,' Act III. sc. v. p. 30: "Look you, there stands young cornstalk." 1878. `The Australian,' vol. i. p. 526: "If these are the heroes that my cornstalk friends worship so ardently, they must indeed be hard up for heroes." 1893. Haddon Chambers, `Thumbnail Sketches of Australian Life,' p. 217: "While in the capital I fell in with several jolly cornstalks, with whom I spent a pleasant time in boating, fishing, and sometimes camping out down the harbour." <hw>Correa</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name of a genus of Australian plants of the <i>N.O. Rutaceae</i>, so named after Correa de Serra, a Portuguese nobleman who wrote on rutaceous plants at the beginning of the century. They bear scarlet or green and sometimes yellowish flowers, and are often called Native Fuchsias (q.v.), especially <i>C. speciosa</i>, Andrews, which bears crimson flowers. 1827. R. Sweet, `Flora Australasica,' p. 2: "The genus was first named by Sir J. E. Smith in compliment to the late M. Correa de Serra, a celebrated Portuguese botanist." 1859. H. Kingsley, `Geoffrey Hamlyn,' p. 384: "The scarlet correa lurked among the broken quartz." 1877. F. v. Mueller, `Botanic Teachings,' p. 70: "With all wish to maintain vernacular names, which are not actually misleading, I cannot call a correa by the common colonial name `native fuchsia,' as not the slightest structural resemblance and but little habitual similarity exists between these plants; they indeed belong to widely different orders." Ibid.: "All Correas are geographically restricted to the south-eastern portion of the Australian continent and Tasmania, the genus containing but few species." 1880. Mrs. Meredith, `Tasmanian Friends and Foes,' p. 23: "I see some pretty red correa and lilac." [Footnote]: "<i>Correa speciosa</i>, native fuchsia of Colonies." <hw>Corrobbery</hw>, <i>n</i>. This spelling is nearest to the accepted pronunciation, the accent falling on the second syllable. Various spellings, however, occur, viz.--<i>Corobbery, Corrobery, Corroberry, Corroborree, Corrobbory, Corroborry, Corrobboree, Coroboree, Corroboree, Korroboree, Corroborri, Corrobaree</i>, and <i>Caribberie</i>. To these Mr. Fraser adds <i>Karabari</i> (see quotation, 1892), but his spelling has never been accepted in English. The word comes from the Botany Bay dialect. [The aboriginal verb (see Ridley's `Kamilaroi and other Australian Languages,' p. 107) is korobra, to dance; in the same locality boroya or beria means to sing; probably koro is from a common Australian word for emu.--J. Mathew.] (1) An aboriginal name for a dance, sacred, festive, or warlike. 1793. Governor Hunter, `Port Jackson, p. 195: "They very frequently, at the conclusion of the dance, would apply to us . . . for marks of our approbation . . . which we never failed to give by often repeating the word <i>boojery</i>, good; or <i>boojery caribberie</i>, a good dance." 1830. R. Dawson, `Present State of Australia,' p. 280: "Dancing with their corrobery motion." Ibid. p. 311: "With several corrobery or harlequin steps." 1833. C. Sturt, `Southern Australia,' vol. ii. c. iii. p. 55: "They hold their corrobbores (midnight ceremonies)." 1836. C. Darwin, `Journal of the Voyage of the Beagle' (ed. 1882), c. xix. p. 450: "A large tribe of natives, called the white cockatoo men, happened to pay a visit to the settlement while we were there. These men as well as those of the tribe belonging to King George's Sound, being tempted by the offer of some tubs of rice and sugar were persuaded to hold a `corrobery' or great dancing party." [Description follows.] 1838. T. L. Mitchell, `Three Expeditions,' vol. ii. p. 4: "There can be little doubt that the corrobboree is the medium through which the delights of poetry and the drama are enjoyed in a limited degree, even by these primitive savages of New Holland." 1844. Mrs. Meredith. `Notes and Sketches of New South Wales,' p. 91: "Great preparations were made, as for a grand corrobory, or festival, the men divesting themselves of even the portions of clothing commonly worn, and painting their naked black bodies in a hideous manner with pipe-clay. After dark, they lit their fires, which are small, but kept blazing with constant additions of dry bark and leaves, and the sable gentry assembled by degrees as they completed their evening toilette, full dress being painted nudity. A few began dancing in different parties, preparatory to the grand display, and the women, squatting on the ground, commenced their strange monotonous chant, each beating accurate time with two boomerangs. Then began the grand corrobory, and all the men joined in the dance, leaping, jumping, bounding about in the most violent manner, but always in strict unison with each other, and keeping time with the chorus, accompanying their wild gesticulations with frightful yells, and noises. The whole `tableau' is fearfully grand! The dark wild forest scenery around--the bright fire-light gleaming upon the savage and uncouth figures of the men, their natural dark hue being made absolutely horrible by the paintings bestowed on them, consisting of lines and other marks done in white and red pipe-clay, which gives them an indescribably ghastly and fiendish aspect--their strange attitudes, and violent contortions and movements, and the unearthly sound of their yells, mingled with the wild and monotonous wail-like chant of the women, make altogether a very near approach to the horribly sublime in the estimation of most Europeans who have witnessed an assembly of the kind." 1846. G. H. Haydon, `Five Years in Australia Felix,' p. 103: "They have no instrument of music, the corobery's song being accompanied by the beating of two sticks together, and by the women thumping their opossum rugs.'" 1847. J. D. Lang, `Cooksland,' p. 447 [Footnote]: "These words, which were quite as unintelligible to the natives as the corresponding words in the vernacular language of the white men would have been, were learned by the natives, and are now commonly used by them in conversing with Europeans, as English words. Thus <i>corrobbory</i>, the Sydney word for a general assembly of natives, is now commonly used in that sense at Moreton Bay; but the original word there is <i>yanerwille</i>. <i>Cabon</i>, great; <i>narang</i>, little; <i>boodgeree</i>, good; <i>myall</i>, wild native, etc. etc., are all words of this description, supposed by the natives [of Queensland] to be English words, and by the Europeans to be aboriginal words of the language of that district." [The phrase "general assembly" would rise naturally in the mind of Dr. Lang as a Presbyterian minister; but there is no evidence of anything parliamentary about a corrobbery.] 1848. W. Westgarth, `Australia Felix,' p. 78: "The exact object or meaning of their famous corrobboree or native dance, beyond mere exercise and patience, has not as yet been properly ascertained; but it seems to be mutually understood and very extensively practised throughout Australia, and is generally a sign of mutual fellowship and good feeling on the part of the various tribes." 1849. J. P. Townsend, `Rambles in New South Wales,' p. 100: "When our blacks visited Sydney, and saw the military paraded, and heard the bands, they said that was `white fellows' corrobbory.'" 185. E. Stone Parker, `Aborigines of Australia,' p. 21: "It is a very great mistake to suppose . . . that there is any kind of religious ceremony connected with the ordinary corrobory. . . . I may also remark that the term corrobory is not a native word." [It is quite certain that it is native, though not known to Mr. E. Stone Parker.] 1862. G. T. Lloyd, `Thirty-three Years in Tasmania and Victoria,' p. 49: [In Tasmania] "the assembling of the tribes was always celebrated by a grand <i>corroboree</i>, a species of bestial <i>bal masque</i>. On such occasions they presented a most grotesque and demon-like appearance, their heads, faces, and bodies, liberally greased were besmeared alternately with clay and red ochre; large tufts of bushy twigs were entwined around their ankles, wrists, and waists; and these completed their toilet." 1879. J. D. Woods, `Native Tribes of South Australia,' Introduction, pp. xxxii. and xxxiii.: "The principal dance is common all over the continent, and `corrobboree' is the name by which it is commonly known. It is not quite clear what a corrobboree is intended to signify. Some think it a war-dance--others that it is a representation of their hunting expeditions--others again, that it is a religious, or pagan, observance; but on this even the blacks themselves give no information." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 41: "The good fortune to witness a <i>korroboree</i>, that is a festive dance by the natives in the neighbourhood." 1892. J. Fraser, `The Aborigines of New South Wales,' p. 21: "`Karabari' is an aboriginal name for those dances which our natives often have in the forests at night. Hitherto the name has been written corrobboree, but etymologically it should be karabari, for it comes from the same root as `karaji,' a wizard or medicine-man, and `bari' is a common formative in the native languages. The karabari has been usually regarded as a form of amusement . . . these dances partake of a semi-religious character." [Mr. Fraser's etymology is regarded as far-fetched.] (2) The song that accompanied the dance. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 323: "I feared he might imagine we were afraid of his incantations, for he sang most lamentable corroborris." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 68: ". . . listen to the new corroborree. Great numbers arrive; the corroborree is danced night after night with the utmost enthusiasm. . . .These corroborrees travel for many hundreds of miles from the place where they originated. . . .These composers [of song and dance] pretend that the Spirit of Evil originally manufactured their corroborree." 1889. Rev. J. H. Zillman, `Australian Life,' p. 132: "The story was a grand joke among the blacks for many a day. It became, no doubt, the theme for a `corroberee,' and Tommy was always after a hero amongst his countrymen." (3) By transference, any large social gathering or public meeting. 1892. `Saturday Review,' Feb.' 13, p. 168, col. 2: "A corrobory of gigantic dimensions is being prepared for [General Booth's] reception [in Australia]." (`O.E.D.') 1895. Modern: "There's a big corrobbery on to-night at Government House, and you can't get a cab for love or money." (4) By natural transference, a noise, disturbance, fuss or trouble. 1874. Garnet Walch, `Adamanta,' Act II. sc. ii. p. 27: "How can I calm this infantile corroboree?" 1885. H. O. Forbes, `Naturalist's Wanderings,' p. 295: "Kingfishers . . . in large chattering corrobories in the tops of high trees." 1888. Rolf Boldrewood, `Robbery under Arms,' p. 242: "The boy raises the most awful corroboree of screams and howls, enough for a whole gang of bushrangers, if they went in for that sort of thing." 1897. `The Herald,' Feb. 15, p. i, col. 1: "Latest about the Cretan corroboree in our cable messages this evening. The situation at the capital is decidedly disagreeable. A little while ago the Moslems threw the Christians out and took charge. Now the last report is that there is a large force of Christians attacking the city and quite ready, we doubt not, to cut every Moslem throat that comes in the way." <hw>Corrobbery</hw>, <i>v</i>. (1) To hold a corrobbery. 1830. R. Dawson, `Present State of Australia,' p. 61: "They began to corrobery or dance. (p. 206): They `corroberried,' sang, laughed, and screamed." 1885. R. M. Pried, `Australian Life,' p. 22: "For some time the district where the nut [bunya] abounds is a scene of feasting and corroboreeing." (2) By transference to animals, birds, insects, etc. 1846. C. P. Hodgson, `Reminiscences of Australia,' p. 257: "The mosquitoes from the swamps corroboreed with unmitigated ardour." 1871. C. Darwin, `Descent of Man' (2nd ed. 1885), p. 406: "The <i>Menura Alberti</i> [see <i>Lyrebird</i>] scratches for itself shallow holes, or, as they are called by the natives, corroborying places, where it is believed both sexes assemble." (3) To boil; to dance as boiling water does. 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 43: "`Look out there! `he continued; `quart-pot corroborree,' springing up and removing with one hand from the fire one of the quart-pots, which was boiling madly, while with the other he dropped in about as much tea as he could hold between his fingers and thumb." Ibid. p. 49: "They had almost finished their meal before the new quart corroborreed, as the stockman phrased it." <hw>Corypha-palm</hw>, <i>n</i>. an obsolete name for <i>Livistona inermis</i>, now called <i>Cabbage-tree</i> (q.v.). 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 49: "The bottle-tree and the corypha-palm were frequent." <hw>Cottage</hw>, <i>n</i>. a house in which all the rooms are on the ground-floor. An auctioneer's advertisement often runs--"large weatherboard cottage, twelve rooms, etc.," or "double-fronted brick cottage." The cheapness of land caused nearly all suburban houses in Australia to be built without upper storeys and detached. <hw>Cotton-bush</hw>, <i>n</i>. name applied to two trees called <i>Salt-bush</i> (q.v.). (1) <i>Bassia bicornis</i>, Lindl. (2) <i>Kochia aphylla</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Salsolaceae</i>. S. Dixon (<i>apud</i> Maiden, p. 132) thus describes it-- "All kinds of stock are often largely dependent on it during protracted droughts, and when neither grass nor hay are obtainable I have known the whole bush chopped up and mixed with a little corn, when it proved an excellent fodder for horses." 1876. W. Harcus, `South Australia,' p. 126: "This is a fine open, hilly district, watered, well grassed, and with plenty of herbage and cotton-bush." <hw>Cotton-shrub</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name given in Tasmania to the shrub <i>Pimelea nivea</i>, Lab., <i>N.O</i>. Thymeleae. <hw>Cotton-tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian tree, <i>Hibiscus teliaceus</i>, Linn., <i>N.O. Malvaceae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 624: "The fibre of the bark [cotton-tree] is used for nets and fishing-lines by the aborigines." <hw>Cotton-wood</hw>, <i>n</i>. the timber of an Australian tree, <i>Bedfordia salicina</i>, De C., <i>N.O. Compositae</i>. Called <i>Dog-wood</i> (q.v.) in Tasmania. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p.386: "The `dog-wood' of Tasmania, and the `cotton-wood' of Southern New South Wales, on account of the abundant down on the leaves. A hard, pale-brown, well-mottled wood, said by some to be good for furniture. It emits a foetid smell when cut." <hw>Coucal</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bird-name, "mentioned probably for the first time in Le Vaillant's `Oiseaux d'Afrique,' beginning about 1796; perhaps native African. An African or Indian spear-headed cuckoo: a name first definitely applied by Cuvier in 1817 to the birds of the genus <i>Centropus</i>." (`Century.') The Australian species is <i>Centropus phasianellus</i>, Gould, or <i>Centropus phasianus</i>, Lath. It is called also <i>Swamp-pheasant</i> (q.v.), and <i>Pheasant-cuckoo</i>. <hw>Count-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. a large <i>Schnapper</i> (q.v.). See <i>Cock-Schnapper</i>. 1874. `Sydney Mail,' `Fishes and Fishing in New South Wales': "The ordinary schnapper or count fish implies that all of a certain size are to count as twelve to the dozen, the shoal or school-fish eighteen or twenty-four to the dozen, and the squire, thirty or thirty-six to the dozen--the latter just according to their size, the redbream at per bushel." <hw>Count-muster</hw>, <i>n</i>. a gathering, especially of sheep or cattle in order to count them. 1891. Rolf Boldrewood, `A Sydney-side Saxon,' p. 1: "The old man's having a regular count-muster of his sons and daughters, and their children and off side relatives-that is, by marriage." <hw>Cowdie</hw>, <i>n</i>. an early variant of <i>Kauri</i> (q.v.), with other spellings. 1889. T. Kirk, `Forest Flora of New Zealand,' p. 143: "The native name `Kauri' is the only common name in general use. When the timber was first introduced into Britain it was termed `cowrie' or `kowdie-pine'; but the name speedily fell into disuse, although it still appears as the common name in some horticultural works." <hw>Cowshorns</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian orchid, <i>Pterostylis nutans</i>, R. Br. <hw>Cow-tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. a native tree of New Zealand. Maori name, <i>Karaka</i> (q.v.). 1860. G. Bennett, `Gatherings of a Naturalist,' p. 346: "The karaka-tree of New Zealand (<i>Corynocarpus laevigata</i>), also called kopi by the natives, and cow-tree by Europeans (from that animal being partial to its leaves), grows luxuriantly in Sydney." <hw>Crab</hw>, <i>n</i>. Of the various Australian species of this marine crustacean, <i>Scylla serrata</i> alone is large enough to be much used as food, and it is seldom caught. In Tasmania and Victoria, <i>Pseudocarcinus gigas</i>, called the King-Crab, which reaches a weight of 20 lbs., is occasionally brought to market. There is only one fresh-water crab known in Australia--<i>Telphusa transversa</i>. 1896. Spencer and Hall, `Horne Expedition in Central Australia,' Zoology, p. 228: "In the case of <i>Telphusa transversa</i>, the fresh-water crab, the banks of certain water holes are riddled with its burrows." <hw>Crab-hole</hw>, <i>n</i>. a hole leading into a pit-like burrow, made originally by a burrowing crayfish, and often afterwards increased in size by the draining into it of water. The burrows are made by crayfish belonging to the genera <i>Engaeus</i> and <i>Astacopsis</i>, which are popularly known as land-crabs. 1848. Letter by Mrs. Perry, given in Canon Goodman's `Church in Victoria, during Episcopate of Bishop Perry,' p. 72: "Full of crab holes, which are exceedingly dangerous for the horses. There are holes varying in depth from one to three feet, and the smallest of them wide enough to admit the foot of a horse: nothing more likely than that a horse should break its leg in one. . . . These holes are formed by a small land-crab and then gradually enlarged by the water draining into them." 1859. H. Kingsley, `Geoffrey Hamlyn,' p. 368: "This brute put his foot in a crabhole, and came down, rolling on my leg.'' 1875. Wood and Lapham, `Waiting for the Mail,' p. 49: "Across the creek we went . . . now tripping over tussocks, now falling into crab holes." <hw>Crab-tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Bitter-bark</i> (q.v.). <hw>Cradle</hw>, <i>n</i>. common in Australia, but of Californian origin. "A trough on rockers in which auriferous earth or sand is shaken in water, in order to separate and collect the gold." (`O.E.D.') 1849. `Illustrated London News,' Nov. 17, p. 325, col. 1 (`O.E.D.'): [This applies to California, and is before the Australian diggings began]: "Two men can keep each other steadily at work, the one digging and carrying the earth in a bucket, and the other washing and rocking the cradle." 1851. Letter by Mrs. Perry, quoted in Canon Goodman's `Church in Victoria during Episcopate of Bishop Perry,' p. 171: "The streets are full of cradles and drays packed for the journey." 1858. T. McCombie, `History of Victoria,' c. xv. p. 215: "Cradles and tin dishes to supply the digging parties." 1865. F. H. Nixon, `Peter Perfume,' p. 56: "They had cradles by dozens and picks by the score." 1884. T. Bracken, `Lays of Maori,' p. 154: "The music of the puddling mill, the cradle, and the tub." <hw>Cradle</hw>, <i>v. tr</i>. to wash auriferous gravel in a miner's cradle. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. 21, p. 197: "The laborious process of washing and `cradling' the ore." <hw>Crake</hw>, <i>n</i>. common English bird-name. The Australian varieties are-- Little Crake-- <i>Porzana palustris</i>, Gould. Spotless C.-- <i>P. tabuensis</i>, Gmel. Spotted C.-- <i>P. fluminea</i>, Gould. White-browed C.-- <i>P. cinereus,</i> Vieill. See also <i>Swamp-crake</i>. <hw>Cranberry, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. called also <hw>Ground-berry</hw>; name given to three Australian shrubs. (1) <i>Styphelia</i> (formerly <i>Lissanthe) humifusa</i>, Persoon, <i>N.O. Epacrideae</i>. 1834. J. Ross, `Van Diemen's Land Annual,' p. 133: "<i>Astroloma humifusum</i>. The native cranberry has a fruit of a green, reddish, or whitish colour, about the size of a black currant, consisting of a viscid apple-flavoured pulp inclosing a large seed; this fruit grows singly on the trailing stems of a small shrub resembling juniper, bearing beautiful scarlet blossoms in autumn." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 8: "Commonly called `ground-berry.' In Tasmania the fruits are often called native cranberries. The fruits of these dwarf shrubs are much appreciated by school-boys and aboriginals. They have a viscid, sweetish pulp, with a relatively large stone. The pulp is described by some as being apple-flavoured, though I have always failed to make out any distinct flavour." (2) <i>Styphelia sapida</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Epacrideae</i>. 1866. `Treasury of Botany,' p. 688 (`O.E.D.'): <i>"Lissanthe sapida</i>, a native of South-eastern Australia, is called the Australian Cranberry, on account of its resemblance both in size and colour to our European cranberry, <i>Vaccinium Oxyconos</i>." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 39: "Native cranberry. The fruit is edible. It is something like the cranberry of Europe both in size and colour, but its flesh is thin, and has been likened to that of the Siberian crab. [Found in] New South Wales." (3) <i>Pernettya tasmanica</i>, Hook., <i>N.O. Ericeae</i> (peculiar to Tasmania). <hw>Crane</hw>, <i>n</i>. common English bird-name. In Australia used for (1) the Native-Companion (q.v.), <i>Grus australianus</i>, Gould; (2) various Herons, especially in New Zealand, where the varieties are--Blue Crane (<i>Matuku</i>), <i>Ardea sacra</i>, Gmel.; White Crane (<i>Kotuku</i>), <i>Ardea egretta</i>, Gmel. See <i>Kotuku</i> and <i>Nankeen Crane</i>. The Cranes and the Herons are often popularly confused. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. vi. pl. 53: "<i>Ardea Novae-Hollandiae</i>, Lath., White-fronted Heron, Blue Crane of the colonists. <i>Herodias Jugularis</i>, Blue Reef Heron, Blue Crane, colonists of Port Essington." 1848. Ibid. pl. 58: "<i>Herodias Immaculata</i>, Gould [later melanopus], Spotless Egret, White Crane of the colonists." 1890. `Victorian Consolidated Statutes, Game Act,' 3rd Schedule: "[Close Season.] All Birds known as Cranes such as Herons, Egrets, &c. From First day of August to Twentieth day of December following in each year." <hw>Craw-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. a variant of <i>Crayfish</i> (q.v.). <hw>Crawler</hw>, <i>n</i>. that which crawls; used specially in Australia of cattle. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `A Colonial Reformer,' p. 217: "Well-bred station crawlers, as the stockmen term them from their peaceable and orderly habits." <hw>Cray-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. The Australasian <i>Cray-fish</i> belong to the family <i>Parastacidae</i>, the members of which are confined to the southern hemisphere, whilst those of the family <i>Potamobiidae</i> are found in the northern hemisphere. The two families are distinguished from one another by, amongst other points of structure, the absence of appendages on the first abdominal segment in the <i>Parastacidae</i>. The Australasian cray-fishes are classified in the following genera--<i>Astacopsis</i>, found in the fresh waters of Tasmania and the whole of Australia; <i>Engaeus</i>, a land-burrowing form, found only in Tasmania and Victoria; <i>Paranephrops</i>, found in the fresh waters of New Zealand; and <i>Palinurus</i>, found on the coasts of Australia and New Zealand. The species are as follows :-- (1) <i>The Yabber or Yabbie Crayfish</i>. Name given to the commonest fresh-water Australian Cray-fish, <i>Astacopsis bicarinatus</i>, Gray. This is found in waterholes, but not usually in running streams, over the greater part of the continent, and often makes burrows in the ground away from water, and may also do great damage by burrowing holes through the banks of dams and reservoirs and water-courses, as at Mildura. It was first described as the <i>Port Essington Crayfish</i>. 1845. Gray, in E. J. Eyre's `Expeditions into Central Australia,' vol. i. p. 410: "The Port Essington Cray fish. <i>Astacus bicarinatus</i>." 1885. F. McCoy, `Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria,' Dec. 2, pl. 29: "They are commonly known about Melbourne by the native name of Yabber or Yabbie." (2) <i>The Murray Lobster or the Spiny Cray-fish</i>. Name given to the largest Australian fresh-water Cray-fish, <i>Astacopsis serratus</i>, Shaw, which reaches a length of over twelve inches, and is found in the rivers of the Murray system, and in the southern rivers of Victoria such as the Yarra, the latter being distinguished as a variety of the former and called locally the <i>Yarra Spiny Cray-fish</i>. 1890. F. McCoy, `Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria,' Dec. 8, pl. 160: " Our plate 160 illustrates a remarkable variety of the typical <i>A. serratus</i> of the Murray, common in the Yarra and its numerous affluents flowing southwards." (3) <i>The Tasmanian Cray</i>-fish. Name given to the large fresh-water Cray-fish found in Tasmania, <i>Astacopsis franklinii</i>; Gray. (4) <i>The Land-crab</i>. Name applied to the burrowing Cray-fish of Tasmania and Victoria, <i>Engaeus fossor</i>, Erich., and other species. This is the smallest of the Australian Cray-fish, and inhabits burrows on land, which it excavates for itself and in which a small store of water is retained. When the burrow, as frequently happens, falls in there is formed a <i>Crab-hole</i> (q.v.). 1892. G. M. Thomson, `Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania,' p. 2: "Only four of the previously described forms are fresh-water species, namely: <i>Astacopsis franklinii</i> and <i>A. tasmanicus</i>, <i>Engaeus fossor</i> and <i>E. cunicularius</i>, all fresh-water cray fishes." (5) <i>New Zealand Fresh-water Cray-fish</i>. Name applied to <i>Paranephrops zealandicus</i>, White, which is confined to the fresh water of New Zealand. 1889. T. J. Parker, `Studies in Biology' (Colonial Museum and Geological Survey Department, New Zealand), p. 5: "Paranephrops which is small and has to be specially collected in rivers, creeks or lakes." (6) <i>Sydney Cray-fish</i>. Name given to the large salt-water Cray-fish, rarely called Craw-fish, or Spiny Lobster, found along the Sydney coast, <i>Palinurus huegeli</i>, Heller. 1890. F. McCoy, `Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria,' Dec. 16, pl. 159: "This species, which is the common Sydney Craw-fish, is easily distinguished from the southern one, the <i>P. Lalandi</i>, which is the common Melbourne Craw-fish." (7) <i>Southern Rock-Lobster or Melbourne Crayfish</i>. Name given to the large salt-water Cray-fish, sometimes called Craw-fish, found along the southern coast and common in the Melbourne market, <i>Palinurus lalandi</i>, Lam. 1890. F. McCoy, `Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria,' Dec. 15, pl. 150: "I suggest the trivial name of Southern Rock Lobster for this species, which abounds in Victoria, Tasmania and New Zealand, as well as the Cape of Good Hope . . . does not appear to have been noticed as far north as Sydney." The name <i>Craw-fish</i> is merely an ancient variant of <i>Cray-fish</i>, though it is said by Gasc, in his French Dictionary, that the term was invented by the London fishmongers to distinguish the small <i>Spiny Lobster</i>, which has no claws, from the common <i>Lobster</i>, which has claws. The term <i>Lobster</i>, in Australia, is often applied to the <i>Sydney Cray-fish</i> (see 7, above). <hw>Creadion</hw>, <i>n</i>. scientific name given by Vieillot in 1816 to a genus of birds peculiar to New Zealand, from Greek <i>kreadion</i>, a morsel of flesh, dim. of <i>kreas</i>, flesh. Buller says, "from the angle of the mouth on each side there hangs a fleshy wattle, or caruncle, shaped like a cucumber seed and of a changeable bright yellow colour." ('Birds of New Zealand,' 1886, vol. i. p. 18.) The <i>Jack-bird</i> (q.v.) and <i>Saddle-back</i> (q.v.) are the two species. 1855. Rev. R. Taylor, `Te Ika a Maui,' p. 404: "Family <i>Sturnidae</i>--Tieki (<i>Creadion Carunculatus</i>). This is a beautiful black bird with a chestnut band across the back and wings; it has also a fleshy lappet on either side of the head. The <i>tieki</i> is considered a bird of omen: if one flies on the right side it is a good sign; if on the left, a bad one." <hw>Cream of Tartar tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Baobab</i> (q.v.). <hw>Creek</hw>, <i>n</i>. a small river, a brook, a branch of a river. "An application of the word entirely unknown in Great Britain." (`O.E.D.') The `Standard Dictionary' gives, as a use in the United States, "a tidal or valley stream, between a brook and a river in size." In Australia, the name brook is not used. Often pronounced crick, as in the United States. Dr. J. A.H. Murray kindly sends the following note:--"Creek goes back to the early days of exploration. Men sailing up the Mississippi or other navigable river saw the mouths of tributary streams, but could not tell with out investigation whether they were confluences or mere inlets, creeks. They called them creeks, but many of them turned out to be running streams, many miles long--tributary rivers or rivulets. The name <i>creek</i> stuck to them, however, and thus became synonymous with tributary stream, brook." 1793. Governor Hunter, `Voyage,' p. 516: "In the afternoon a creek obliged them to leave the banks of the river, and go round its head, as it was too deep to cross: having rounded the head of this creek. . ." 1802. G. Barrington, `History of New South Wales,' p. 228: "They met with some narrow rivers or creeks." 1809. Aug. 6, `History of New South Wales' (1818), p. 327: "Through Rickerby's grounds upon the riverside and those of the Rev. Mr. Marsden on the creek." 1826. Goldie, in Bischoff's `Van Diemen's Land' (1832), p. 162: "There is a very small creek which I understand is never dry." 1848. W. Westgarth, `Australia Felix,' p. 17: "The creeks and rivers of Australia have in general a transitory existence, now swollen by the casual shower, and again rapidly subsiding under the general dryness and heat of the climate." 1854. `Bendigo Advertiser,' quoted in `Melbourne Morning Herald,' May 29: "A Londoner reading of the crossing of a creek would naturally imagine the scene to be in the immediate neighbourhood of the coast, instead of being perhaps some hundreds of miles in the interior, and would dream of salt water, perriwinkles and sea-weed, when he should be thinking of slimy mud-holes, black snakes and gigantic gum-trees." 1861. Mrs. Meredith, `Over the Straits,' c. iv. p. 134: "The little rivulet, called, with that singular pertinacity for error which I have so often noticed here, `the creek.'" 1865. Lady Barker, `Station Life in, New Zealand,' p. 29: "The creek, just like a Scotch burn, hurrying and tumbling down the hillside to join the broader stream in the valley." 1870. P. Wentworth, `Amos Thorne,' i. p. 11: "A thirsty creek-bed marked a line of green." 1872. C. H. Eden, `My Wife and I in Queensland,' p. 39: "In the rivers, whether large watercourses, and dignified by the name of `river,' or small tributaries called by the less sounding appellation `creeks." 1887. Cassell's `Picturesque Australasia,' vol. i. p. 41: "Generally where the English language is spoken a creek means a small inlet of the sea, but in Australia a creek is literally what it is etymologically, a crack in the ground. In dry weather there is very little water; perhaps in the height of summer the stream altogether ceases to run, and the creek becomes a string of waterholes; but when the heavens are opened, and the rain falls, it reappears a river." <hw>Creeklet</hw>, <i>n</i>. diminutive of Creek. 1884. T. Bracken, `Lays of Maori,' p. 91: "One small creeklet day by day murmurs." <hw>Creeper</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name (sc. <i>Tree-creeper</i>) is given to several New Zealand birds of the genus <i>Certhiparus</i>, <i>N.O. Passeres</i>. The Maori names are <i>Pipipi, Toitoi</i>, and <i>Mohona</i>. 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 51: "<i>Certhiparus Novae Zelandiae</i>, Finsch. New Zealand Creeper." [A full description.] <hw>Cronk</hw>, <i>adj</i>. Derived from the German <i>krank</i>--sick or ill. (1) A racing term used of a horse which is out of order and not "fit" for the contest; hence transferred to a horse whose owner is shamming its illness and making it "run crooked" for the purpose of cheating its backers. (2) Used more generally as slang, but not recognized in Barere and Leland's `Slang Dictionary.' 1893. `The Herald' (Melbourne), July 4, p. 2, col. 7: "He said he would dispose of the cloth at a moderate figure because it was `cronk.' The word `cronk,' Mr. Finlayson explained, meant `not honestly come by.'" <hw>Crow</hw>, <i>n</i>. common English bird-name. The Australian species is--White-eyed, <i>Corvus coronoides</i> V. and H. In New Zealand (Maori name, <i>Kokako</i>) the name is used for the Blue-wattled Crow, <i>Glaucopis wilsoni</i> and for the (N. island) Orange-wattled, <i>G. cinerea</i>, Gmel. (S. island). <hw>Crow-shrike</hw>, <i>n</i>. Australian amalgamation of two common English bird-names. The <i>Crow-shrikes</i> are of three genera, <i>Strepera, Gymnorrhima</i>, and <i>Cracticus</i>. The varieties of the genus Strepera are-- Black Crow-shrike-- <i>Strepera fuliginosa</i>, Gould. Black-winged C.-- <i>S. melanoptera</i>, Gould. Grey C.-- <i>S. cuneicaudata</i>, Vieill. Hill C.-- <i>S. arguta</i>, Gould. Leaden C.-- <i>S. plumbea</i>, Gould. Pied C.-- <i>S. graculina</i>, White. Birds of the genus <i>Gymnorrhina</i> are called <i>Magpies</i> (q.v.). Those of the genus <i>Cracticus</i> are called <i>Butcher-birds</i> (q.v.). <hw>Crush</hw>, <i>n</i>. a part of a stockyard. See quotations. 1872. C. H. Eden, `My Wife and I in Queensland,' p. 69: "A crush, which is an elongated funnel, becoming so narrow at the end that a beast is wedged in and unable to move." 1891. Rolf Boldrewood, `A Sydney-side Saxon,' p. 87: "There were some small yards, and a `crush,' as they call it, for branding cattle." <hw>Cuckoo</hw>, <i>n</i>. common English bird-name. The Australian birds to which it is applied are-- Black-eared Cuckoo-- <i>Mesocalius osculans</i>, Gould. Bronze C.-- <i>Chalcoccyx plagosus</i>, Lath. Brush C.-- <i>Cacomantis insperatus</i>. [Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. iv. pl.87.] Chestnut-breasted C.-- <i>C. castanei-ventris</i>, Gould. Fantailed C.-- <i>C. flabelliformis</i>, Lath. Little-bronze C.-- <i>Chalcoccyx malayanus</i>, Raffles. Narrow-billed bronze C.-- <i>C. basalis</i>, Hors. Oriental C.-- <i>Cuculus intermedius</i>, Vahl. Pallid C.-- <i>Cacomantis pallidus</i> and <i>C. canorus</i>, Linn. Square-tailed C.-- <i>C. variolosus</i>, Hors. Whistling-bronze C.-- <i>Chalcoccyx lucidus</i>, Gmel. In New Zealand, the name is applied to <i>Eudynamis taitensis</i> (sc. of Tahiti) Sparm., the Long-tailed Cuckoo; and to <i>Chrysococcyx lucidus</i>, Gmel., the Shining Cuckoo. The name <i>Cuckoo</i> has sometimes been applied to the <i>Mopoke</i> (q.v.) and to the <i>Boobook</i> (q.v.). See also <i>Pheasant-cuckoo</i>. 1855. G. W. Rusden, `Moyarra,' Notes, p. 30: "The Australian cuckoo is a nightjar, and is heard only by night." 1868. W. Carleton, `Australian Nights,' p. 19: "The Austral cuckoo spoke His melancholy note, `Mopoke.'" 1889. Prof. Parker, `Catalogue of New Zealand Exhibition,' p. 118: "There are two species of the Longtailed Cuckoo (<i>Eudynamis taitensis</i>), and the beautiful Bronze or Shining Cuckoo (<i>Chrysococcyx lucidus</i>). They are both migratory birds. The Long-tailed Cuckoo spends its winter in some of the Pacific islands, the Shining Cuckoo in Australia." <hw>Cuckoo-shrike</hw>, <i>n</i>. This combination of two common English bird-names is assigned in Australia to the following-- Barred Cuckoo-shrike <i>Graucalus lineatus</i>, Swains. Black-faced C.-- <i>G. melanops</i>, Lath. Ground C.-- <i>Pteropodocys phasianella</i>, Gould. Little C.-- <i>Graucalus mentalis</i>, Vig. and Hors. Small-billed C.-- <i>G. parvirostris</i>, Gould. White-bellied C.-- <i>G. hyperleucus</i>, Gould. <hw>Cucumber-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Grayling</i> (q.v.). <hw>Cucumber-Mullet</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Grayling</i> (q.v.). <hw>Cultivation paddock</hw>, <i>n</i>. a field that has been tilled and not kept for grass. 1853. Chas. St. Julian and Ed. K. Silvester, `The Productions, Industry, and Resources of New South Wales,' p. 170: "Few stations of any magnitude are without their `cultivation paddocks,' where grain and vegetables are raised . . ." 1860. A Lady, `My Experiences in Australia,' p. 173: "Besides this large horse paddock, there was a space cleared of trees, some twenty to thirty acres in extent, on the banks of the creek, known as the `Cultivation Paddock,' where in former days my husband had grown a sufficient supply of wheat for home consumption." 1893. `The Argus,' June 17, p. 13, col. 4: "How any man could have been such an idiot as to attempt to make a cultivation paddock on a bed of clay passed all my knowledge.' <hw>Curlew</hw>, <i>n</i>. common English bird-name. The Australian species is <i>Numenius cyanopus</i>, Vieill. The name, however, is more generally applied to <i>AEdicnemus grallarius</i>, Lath. 1862. H. C. Kendall, `Poems,' p. 43: "They rend the air like cries of despair, The screams of the wild curlew." 1872. C. H. Eden, `My Wife and I in Queensland,' p. 18: "Truly the most depressing cry I ever heard is that of the curlew, which you take no notice of in course of time; but which to us, wet, weary, hungry, and strange, sounded most eerie." 1890. `Victorian Statutes, Game Act, Third Schedule': "Southern Stone Plover or Curlew." 1894. `The Argus,' June 23, p. 11, col. 4: "The calling of the stone plover. It might as well be a curlew at once, for it will always be a curlew to country people. Its first call, with the pause between, sounds like `Curlew'--that is, if you really want it to sound so, though the blacks get much nearer the real note with `Koo-loo,' the first syllable sharp, the second long drawn out." 1896. Dr. Holden, of Hobart, `Private letter,' Jan.: "There is a curlew in Australia, closely resembling the English bird, and it calls as that did over the Locksley Hall sand-dunes; but Australians are given to calling <i>AEdicnemus grallarius</i> Latham (our Stone Plover), the `curlew,' which is a misnomer. This also drearily wails, and after dark." <hw>Currajong</hw> or <hw>Currijong</hw>, i.q. <i>Kurrajong</i> (q.v.). <hw>Currant, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is given to various shrubs and trees of the genus <i>Coprosma</i>, especially <i>Coprosma billardieri</i>, Hook., <i>N.O. Rubiare</i>(e; also to <i>Leucopogon richei</i>, Lab., <i>N.O. Epacrideae</i>, various species of <i>Leptomeria</i>, <i>N.O. Santalaceae</i>, and <i>Myoporum serratum</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Myoporineae</i>. The names used for <i>M. serratum</i>, chiefly in South Australia, are <i>Blueberry Tree</i>, <i>Native Juniper</i>, <i>Native Myrtle</i>, <i>Palberry</i>, and <i>Cockatoo Bush</i>. See also <i>Native Plum</i>. 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 220: "Our native currants are strongly acidulous, like the cranberry, and make an excellent preserve when mixed with the raspberry." 1834. Ross, `Van Diemen's Land Annual,' p. 133: "<i>Leucopogon lanceolatum</i>. A large bush with numerous harsh leaves, growing along the sea shore, with some other smaller inland shrubs of the same tribe, produces very small white berries of a sweetish and rather herby flavour. These are promiscuously called white or native currants in the colony." ["The insignificant and barely edible berries of this shrub are said to have saved the life of the French botanist Riche, who was lost in the bush on the South Australian coast for three days, at the close of the last century." (Maiden.) The plant is now called <i>L. Richei</i>.] 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 19: "Native Currant. . . . This plant bears a small round drupe, about the size of a small pea. Mr. Backhouse states that (over half a century ago) when British fruits were scarce, it was made into puddings by some of the settlers of Tasmania, but the size and number of the seeds were objectionable." <hw>Currant, Plain</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Plain Currant</i>. <hw>Currency</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) Name given especially to early paper-money in the Colonies, issued by private traders and of various values, and in general to the various coins of foreign countries, which were current and in circulation. Barrington, in his `History of New South Wales `(1802), gives a table of such specie. 1824. Edward Curr, `Account of the Colony of Van Diemen's Land,' p.5: "Much of this paper-money is of the most trifling description. To this is often added `payable in dollars at 5s. each.' Some . . . make them payable in Colonial currency." [p. 69, note]: "25s. currency is about equal to a sovereign." 1826. Act of Geo. IV., No. 3 (Van Diemen's Land): "All Bills of Exchange, Promissory Notes . . . as also all Contracts and Agreements whatsoever which shall be drawn and circulated or issued, or made and entered into, and shall be therein expressed . . . to be payable in Currency, Current Money, Spanish Dollars . . . shall be . . . Null and Void." 1862. Geo. Thos. Lloyd, `Thirty-three years in Tasmania and Victoria,' p. 9: "Every man in business . . . issued promissory notes, varying in value from the sum of fourpence to twenty shillings, payable on demand. These notes received the appellation of paper currency. . . . The pound sterling represented twenty-five shillings of the paper-money." (2) Obsolete name for those colonially-born. 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. ii. (Table of Contents): "Letter XXI.--<i>Currency</i> or <i>Colonial-born</i> population." Ibid. p. 33: "Our colonial-born brethren are best known here by the name of <i>Currency</i>, in contradistinction to <i>Sterling</i>, or those born in the mother-country. The name was originally given by a facetious paymaster of the 73rd Regiment quartered here--the pound currency being at that time inferior to the pound sterling." 1833. H. W. Parker, `Rise, Progress, and Present State of Van Diemen's Land,' p. 18: "The Currency lads, as the country born colonists in the facetious nomenclature of the colony are called, in contradistinction to those born in the mother country." 1840. Martin's `Colonial Magazine,' vol. iii. p. 35: "Currency lady." 1849. J. P. Townsend, `Rambles in New South Wales,' p. 68: "Whites born in the colony, who are also called `the currency'; and thus the `Currency Lass' is a favourite name for colonial vessels." [And, it may be added, also of Hotels.] 1852. Mrs. Meredith, `My Home in Tasmania,' vol. i. p. 6: "A singular disinclination to finish any work completely, is a striking characteristic of colonial craftsmen, at least of the `currency' or native-born portion. Many of them who are clever, ingenious and industrious, will begin a new work, be it ship, house, or other erection, and labour at it most assiduously until it be about two-thirds completed, and then their energy seems spent, or they grow weary of the old occupation, and some new affair is set about as busily as the former one." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `A Colonial Reformer,' p. 35: "English girls have such lovely complexions and cut out us poor currency lasses altogether." Ibid. p. 342: "You're a regular Currency lass . . . always thinking about horses." <hw>Cushion-flower</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Hakea laurina</i>, R. Br. See <i>Hakea</i>. <hw>Cut out</hw>, <i>v</i>. (1) To separate cattle from the rest of the herd in the open. 1873. Marcus Clarke, `Holiday Peak, &c.,' p. 70: "The other two . . . could cut out a refractory bullock with the best stockman on the plains." 1884. Rolf Boldrewood, `Melbourne Memories,' c. x. p. 72: "We . . . camped for the purpose of separating our cattle, either by drafting through the yard, or by `cutting out' on horse-back." 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia,' p. 70: "Drafting on the camp, or `cutting out' as it is generally called, is a very pretty performance to watch, if it is well done." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Squatter's Dream,' c. ii. p. 13: "Tell him to get `Mustang,' he's the best cutting-out horse." 1893. `The Argus,' April 29, p. 4. col. 4: "A Queenslander would have thought it was as simple as going on to a cutting-out camp up North and running out the fats." (2) To finish shearing. 1890. `The Argus,' Sept. 20, p. 13, col. 6: "When the stations `cut out,' as the term for finishing is, and the shearers and rouseabout men leave." <hw>Cutting-grass</hw>, <i>n</i>. <i>Cladium psittacorum</i>, Labill., <i>N.O. Cyperaceae</i>. It grows very long narrow blades whose thin rigid edge will readily cut flesh if incautiously handled; it is often called <i>Sword-grass</i>. 1858. T. McCombie `History of Victoria,' vol. i. p. 8: "Long grass, known as cutting-grass between four and five feet high, the blade an inch and a half broad, the edges exquisitely sharp." 1891. W. Tilley, `Wild West of Tasmania,' p. 42: "Travelling would be almost impossible but for the button rush and cutting grass, which grow in big tussocks out of the surrounding bog." 1894. `The Age,' Oct. 19, p. 5, col. 8: "`Cutting grass' is the technical term for a hard, tough grass about eight or ten inches high, three-edged like a bayonet, which stock cannot eat because in their efforts to bite it off it cuts their mouths." D <hw>Dabchick</hw>, <i>n</i>. common English bird-name. The New Zealand species is <i>Podiceps rufipectus</i>. There is no species in Australia. <hw>Dacelo</hw>, <i>n</i>. Name given by "W. E. Leach, 1816. An anagram or transposition of Lat. <i>Alcedo</i>, a Kingfisher." (`Century.') Scientific name for the <i>Jackass</i> (q.v.). <hw>Dactylopsila</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name of the Australian genus of the Striped Phalanger, called locally the <i>Striped Opossum</i>; see <i>Opossum</i>. It has a long bare toe. (Grk. <i>daktulos</i>, a finger, and <i>psilos</i>, bare.) <hw>Daisy, Brisbane</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Queensland and New South Wales plant, <i>Brachycome microcarpa</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Compositae</i>. <hw>Daisy, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian flower, <i>Brachycome decipiens</i>, Hook., <i>N.O. Compositae</i>. <hw>Daisy Tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. two Tasmanian trees, <i>Astur stellulatus</i>, Lab., and <i>A. glandulosus</i>, Lab., <i>N.O. Compositae</i>. The latter is called the <i>Swamp-Daisy-Tree</i>. <hw>Dam</hw>, <i>n</i>. In England, the word means a barrier to stop water in Australia, it also means the water so stopped, as `O.E.D.' shows it does in Yorkshire. 1873. Marcus Clarke, `Holiday Peak, &c.,' p. 76: "The dams were brimming at Quartz-borough, St. Roy reservoir was running over." 1892. `Scribner's Magazine,' Feb., p. 141: "Dams as he calls his reservoirs scooped out in the hard soil." 1893. `The Leader,' Jan. 14: "A boundary rider has been drowned in a dam." 1893. `The Times,' [Reprint] `Letters from Queensland,' p. 68: "At present few stations are subdivided into paddocks smaller than 20,000 acres apiece. If in each of these there is but one waterhole or dam that can be relied upon to hold out in drought, sheep and cattle will destroy as much grass in tramping from the far corners of the grazing to the drinking spot as they will eat. Four paddocks of 5,000 acres each, well supplied with water, ought to carry almost double the number of sheep." 1896. `The Argus,' March 30, p. 6, col. 9: "[The murderer] has not since been heard of. Dams and waterholes have been dragged . . . but without result." <hw>Dammara</hw>, <i>n</i>. an old scientific name of the genus, including the <i>Kauri Pine</i> (q.v.). It is from the Hindustani, <i>damar</i>, `resin.' The name was applied to the <i>Kauri Pine</i> by Lambert in 1832, but it was afterwards found that Salisbury, in 1805, had previously constituted the genus <i>Agathis</i> for the reception of the <i>Kauri Pine</i> and the Dammar Pine of Amboyna. This priority of claim necessitated the modern restoration of <i>Agathis</i> as the name of the genus. <hw>Damper</hw>, <i>n</i>. a large scone of flour and water baked in hot ashes; the bread of the bush, which is always unleavened. [The addition of water to the flour suggests a more likely origin than that given by Dr. Lang. See quotation, 1847.] 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. ii. p. 190 "The farm-men usually make their flour into flat cakes, which they call <i>damper</i>, and cook these in the ashes . . ." 1833. C. Sturt, `Southern Australia,' vol. ii. c. viii. p. 203: "I watched the distorted countenances of my humble companions while drinking their tea and eating their damper." 1845. J. O. Balfour, `Sketches of New South Wales,' p. 103: "Damper (a coarse dark bread)." 1846. G. H. Haydon, `Five Years in Australia Felix,' p. 122: "I must here enlighten my readers as to what `damper' is. It is the bread of the bush, made with flour and water kneaded together and formed into dough, which is baked in the ashes, and after a few months keeping is a good substitute for bread." [The last clause contains a most extraordinary statement-- perhaps a joke. Damper is not kept for months, but is generally made fresh for each meal. See quotation, 1890, Lumholtz.] 1847. J. D. Lang, `Cooksland,' p. 122: "A cake baked in the ashes, which in Australia is usually styled a damper." [Footnote]: "This appellation is said to have originated somehow with Dampier, the celebrated navigator." 1867. F. Hochstetter, `New Zealand,' p. 284: "`Damper' is a dough made from wheat-flour and water without yeast, which is simply pressed flat, and baked in the ashes; according to civilized notions, rather hard of digestion, but quite agreeable to hungry woodmen's stomachs." 1872. C. H. Eden, `My Wife and I in Queensland,' p. 20: "At first we had rather a horror of eating damper, imagining it to be somewhat like an uncooked crumpet. Experience, however, showed it to be really very good. Its construction is simple, and is as follows. Plain flour and water is mixed on a sheet of bark, and then kneaded into a disc some two or three inches thick to about one or two feet in diameter, great care to avoid cracks being taken in the kneading. This is placed in a hole scraped to its size in the hot ashes, covered over, and there left till small cracks caused by the steam appear on the surface of its covering. This is a sign that it is nearly done, and in a few minutes the skilful chef will sound it over with his "Wedges of damper (or bread baked in hot ashes) were cut from time to time from great circular flat loaves of that palatable and wholesome but somewhat compressed-looking bread." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 32: "Damper is the name of a kind of bread made of wheat flour and water. The dough is shaped into a flat round cake, which is baked in red-hot ashes. This bread looks very inviting, and tastes very good as long as it is fresh, but it soon becomes hard and dry." <hw>Damson, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. called also Native Plum, an Australian shrub, <i>Nageia spinulosa</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Coniferae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 53: "Native Damson or Native Plum. This shrub possesses edible fruit, something like a plum, hence its vernacular names. The Rev. Dr. Woolis tells me that, mixed with jam of the Native Currant (<i>Leptomeria acida</i>), it makes a very good pudding." <hw>Dandelion, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. a flowering plant, <i>Podolepis acuminata</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Compositae</i>. <hw>Daphne, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian timber, <i>Myoporum viscorum</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Myoporineae</i>; called also <i>Dogwood</i> and <i>Waterbush</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 575: "Native Daphne. . . . Timber soft and moderately light, yet tough. It is used for building purposes. It dresses well, and is straight in the grain." <HW>Darling Pea</HW>, <i>n</i>. an Australian plant, <i>Swainsonia galegifolia</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>; i.q. <i>Indigo Plant</i> (q.v.). See also <i>Poison-bush</i>. The Darling Downs and River were named after General (later Sir Ralph) Darling, who was Governor of New South Wales from Dec. 19, 1825 to Oct. 21, 1831. The "pea" is named from one of these. <hw>Darling Shower</hw>, <i>n</i>. a local name in the interior of Australia, and especially on the River Darling, for a dust storm, caused by cyclonic winds. <hw>Dart</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) Plan, scheme, idea [slang]. It is an extension of the meaning--"sudden motion." 1887. J. Farrell, `How: he died,' p. 20: "Whose `dart' for the Looard Was to appear the justest steward That ever hiked a plate round." 1890. `The Argus,' Aug. 9, p. 4, col. 2: "When I told them of my `dart,' some were contemptuous, others incredulous." 1892. Rolf Boldrewood, `Nevermore,' p. 22: "Your only dart is to buy a staunch horse with a tip-cart." (2) Particular fancy or personal taste. 1895. Modern: "`Fresh strawberries eh!--that's my dart,' says the bushman when he sees the fruit lunch in Collins-street." <hw>Darter</hw>, <i>n</i>. common English name for birds of the genus <i>Plotus</i>. So called from the way it "darts" upon its prey. The Australian species is <i>Plotus novae- hollandiae</i>, Gould. <hw>Dasyure</hw>, and <hw>Dasyurus</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name of the genus of Australian animals called <i>Native Cats</i>. See under <i>Cat</i>. The first form is the Anglicized spelling and is scientifically used in preference to the misleading vernacular name. From the Greek <i>dasus</i>, thick with hair, hairy, shaggy, and <i>'oura</i>, tail. They range over Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea, and the adjacent islands. Unlike the <i>Thylacine</i> and <i>Tasmanian Devil</i> (q.v.), which are purely terrestrial, the <i>Dasyurus</i> are arboreal in their habits, while they are both carnivorous and insectivorous. The Thylacine, Tasmanian Devil, Pouched Mice, and Banded Ant-eater have sometimes been incorrectly classed as <i>Dasyures</i>, but the name is now strictly allotted to the genus <i>Dasyurus</i>, or <i>Native Cat</i>. <hw>Date, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Queensland fruit, <i>Capparis canescens</i>, Banks, <i>N.O. Capparideae</i>. The fruit is shaped like a pear, and about half an inch in its largest diameter. It is eaten raw by the aborigines. <hw>Deadbeat</hw>, <i>n</i>. In Australia, it means a man "down on his luck," "stone-broke," beaten by fortune. In America, the word means an impostor, a sponge. Between the two uses the connection is clear, but the Australian usage is logically the earlier. <hw>Dead-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. In Australia, a recent slang term, meaning "a certainty." The metaphor is from pigeon-shooting, where the bird being let loose in front of a good shot is as good as dead. <hw>Dead-finish</hw>, <i>n</i>. a rough scrubtree. (1)<i>Albizzia basaltica</i>, Benth., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>. (2) <i>Acacia farnesiana</i>, Willd., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>. See quotation, 1889. 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia', p. 272: "On the eastern face of the coast range are pine, red cedar, and beech, and on the western slopes, rose-wood, myall, dead-finish, plum-tree, iron-wood and sandal-wood, all woods with a fine grain suitable for cabinet-making and fancy work." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 355: "Sometimes called by the absurd name of `Dead Finish.' This name given to some species of Acacia and Albizzia, is on account of the trees or shrubs shooting thickly from the bottom, and forming an impenetrable barrier to the traveller, who is thus brought to a `dead finish' (stop)" 1893. `The Times,' [Reprint] `Letters from Queensland,' p. 60: "The hawthorn is admirably represented by a brush commonly called `dead finish.'" [p. 61]: "Little knolls are crowned with `dead finish' that sheep are always glad to nibble." <hw>Dead-wood Fence</hw>, <i>n</i>. The Australian fence, so called, is very different from the fence of the same name in England. It is high and big, built of fallen timber, logs and branches. Though still used in Australia for fencing runs, it is now usually superseded by wire fences. 1852. Mrs. Meredith, `My Home in Tasmania,' vol. i. p. 157: "A `dead-wood fence,' that is, a mass of timber four or five feet thick, and five or six high, the lower part being formed of the enormous trunks of trees, cut into logs six or eight feet long, laid side by side, and the upper portion consisting of the smaller branches skilfully laid over, or stuck down and twisted." 1872. G. Baden-Powell, `New Homes for the Old Country,' p. 207: "A very common fence is built by felling trees round the space to be enclosed, and then with their stems as a foundation, working up with the branches, a fence of a desirable height." <hw>Deal, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian timber, <i>Nageia elata</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Coniferae</i>. For other vernacular names see quotation. 1869. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 589: "Pine, white pine, called she-pine in Queensland; native deal, pencil cedar. This tree has an elongated trunk, rarely cylindrical; wood free from knots, soft, close, easily worked, good for joiners' and cabinet-work; some trees afford planks of great beauty. (Macarthur.) Fine specimens of this timber have a peculiar mottled appearance not easily described, and often of surpassing beauty." [See also <i>Pine</i>.] <hw>December</hw>, <i>n</i>. a summer month in Australia. See <i>Christmas</i>. 1885. J. Hood, `Land of the Fern,' p. 34: "Warm December sweeps with burning breath Across the bosom of the shrinking earth." <hw>Deepsinker</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) The largest sized tumbler; (2) the long drink served in it. The idea is taken from deep-sinking in a mining shaft. 1897. `The Argus,' Jan. 15, p. 6, Col 5: "As athletes the cocoons can run rings round the beans; they can jump out of a tumbler--whether medium, small, or deepsinker is not recorded." <hw>Deep Yellow-Wood</hw>, <i>n</i>. <i>Rhus rhodanthema</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Anacardiaceae</i>. A tree with spreading head; timber valuable. See <i>Yellow-Wood</i>. <hw>Deferred Payment</hw>, <i>n</i>. a legal phrase. "Land on deferred payment"; "Deferred payment settler"; "Pastoral deferred payment." These expressions in New Zealand have reference to the mode of statutory alienation of Crown lands, known in other colonies as conditional sale, etc., i.e. sale on time payment, with conditions binding the settler to erect improvements, ending in his acquiring the fee-simple. The system is obsolete, but many titles are still incomplete. <hw>Dell-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Bell-bird</i> (q.v.). <hw>Dendrolagus</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name of the genus of Australian marsupials called <i>Tree-Kangaroos</i> (q.v.). (Grk. <i>dendron</i>, a tree, and <i>lagows</i>, a hare.) Unlike the other kangaroos, their fore limbs are nearly as long as the hinder pair, and thus adapted for arboreal life. There are five species, three belong to New Guinea and two to Queensland; they are the Queensland Tree-Kangaroo, <i>Dendrolagus lumholtzi</i>; Bennett's T.-k., <i>D. bennettianus</i>; Black T.-k., <i>D. ursinus</i> : Brown T.-k., <i>D. inustus</i>; Doria's T.-k., <i>D. dorianus</i>. See <i>Kangaroo</i>. <hw>Derry</hw>, <i>n</i>. slang. The phrase "to have a down on" (see <i>Down</i>) is often varied to "have a derry on." The connection is probably the comic-song refrain, "Hey derry down derry." 1896. `The Argus,' March 19, p. 5, col. 9: "Mr. Croker: Certainly. We will tender it as evidence. (To the witness.) Have you any particular `derry' upon this Wendouree?--No; not at all. There are worse vessels knocking about than the Wendouree." <hw>Dervener</hw>, <i>n</i>. See quotation, and <i>Derwenter</i>. 1896. `The Argus,' Jan. 2, p. 3, col. 4, Letters to the Editor: "`Dervener.'--An expression used in continental Australia for a man from the Derwent in Tasmania. Common up till 1850 at least.--David Blair." Ibid. Jan. 3, p. 6, col. 6: "With respect to `dervener,' the word was in use while the blue shirt race existed [sc. convicts], and these people did not become extinct until after 1860.--Cymro-Victoria." <hw>Derwenter</hw>, <i>n</i>. a released convict from Hobart Town, Tasmania, which is on the River Derwent. 1884. Rolf Boldrewood, `Melbourne Memories,' c. xx. p. 140: "An odd pair of sawyers, generally `Derwenters,' as the Tasmanian expirees were called." <hw>Desert Lemon</hw>, <i>n</i>. called also <i>Native Kumquat</i>, <i>Atalantia glauca</i>, Hook., <i>N.O. Rutacea</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 8: "The native kumquat or desert lemon. The fruit is globular, and about half an inch in diameter. It produces an agreeable beverage from its acid juice." <hw>Desert-Oak</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian tree, <i>Casuarina decaisneana</i>, F. v. M. See <i>Casuarina</i> and <i>Oak</i>. 1896. Baldwin Spencer, `Horne Expedition in Central Australia,' Narrative, p. 49: "We had now amongst these sandhills come into the region of the `Desert Oak' (<i>Casuarina Decaisneana</i>). Some of the trees reach a height of forty or fifty feet, and growing either singly or in clumps form a striking feature amongst the thin sparse scrub. . . . The younger ones resemble nothing so much as large funeral plumes. Their outlines seen under a blazing sun are indistinct, and they give to the whole scene a curious effect of being `out of focus.'" <hw>Devil, Tasmanian</hw>, <i>n</i>. an animal, <i>Sarcophilus ursinus</i>, Harris. Formerly, but erroneously, referred to the genus <i>Dasyurus</i> (q.v.), which includes the <i>Native Cat</i> (see under <i>Cat</i>): described in the quotations. 1832. J. Bischoff, `Van Diemen's Land,' vol. ii. p. 29: "The devil, or as naturalists term it, <i>Dasyurus ursinus</i>, is very properly named." 1853. J. West, `History of Tasmania,' vol. i. p. 323: "The devil (<i>Dasyurus ursinus</i>, Geoff.), about the size of a bull terrier, is an exceedingly fierce and disgusting-looking animal, of a black colour, usually having one white band across the chest, and another across the back, near the tail. It is a perfect glutton, and most indiscriminate in its feeding." 1862. F. J. Jobson, `Australia,' c. vii. p. 186: "<i>Dasyurus ursinus</i>--a carnivorous marsupial. Colonists in Tasmania, where only it exists . . . called it the `devil,' from the havoc it made among their sheep and poultry." 1891. `Guide to Zoological Gardens, Melbourne': "In the next division is a pair of Tasmanian devils (<i>Dasyurus ursinus</i>); these unprepossessing-looking brutes are hated by every one in Tasmania, their habitat, owing to their destructiveness amongst poultry, and even sheep. They are black in colour, having only a white band across the chest, and possess great strength in proportion to their size." <hw>Devil's Guts</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is given in Australia to the <i>Dodder-Laurel</i> (see <i>Laurel</i>), <i>Cassytha filiformis</i>, Linn., <i>N.O. Lauraceae</i>. In Tasmania the name is applied to <i>Lyonsia straminea</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Apocyneae</i>. 1862. W. Archer, `Products of Tasmania,' p. 41: "Lyonsia (<i>Lyonsia straminea</i>, Br.). Fibres of the bark fine and strong. The lyonsia is met with, rather sparingly, in dense thickets, with its stems hanging like ropes among the trees." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `useful Native Plants,' p. 14: "This and other species of Cassythia are called `dodder-laurel.' The emphatic name of `devil's guts' is largely used. It frequently connects bushes and trees by cords, and becomes a nuisance to the traveller." [This plant is used by the Brahmins of Southern India for seasoning their buttermilk. (`Treasury of Botany.')] Ibid. p. 162: "It is also used medicinally." <hw>Devil-on-the-Coals</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Bushman's name for a small and quickly-baked damper. 1862. Rev. A. Polehampton, `Kangaroo Land,' p. 77: "Instead of damper we occasionally made what is colonially known as `devils on the coals.' . . . They are convenient when there is not time to make damper, as only a minute or so is required to bake them. They are made about the size of a captain's biscuit, and as thin as possible, thrown on the embers and turned quickly with the hand." <hw>Diamond Bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bird-name. In the time of Gould this name was only applied to <i>Pardalotus punctatus</i>, Temm. Since that time it has been extended to all the species of the genus <i>Pardalotus</i> (q.v.). The broken colour of the plumage suggested a sparkling jewel. 1827. Vigors and Horsfield, `Transactions of Linnaean Society,' vol. xv. p. 238: "We are informed by Mr. Caley that this species is called diamond bird by the settlers, from the spots on its body. By them it is reckoned as valuable on account of its skin." <hw>Diamond Snake</hw>, <i>n</i>. In Queensland and New South Wales, <i>Pythonon spilotes</i>, Lacep.; in Tasmania, <i>Hoplocephalus superhus</i>, Gray, venomous. See under <i>Snake</i>. <hw>Digger</hw>, <i>n</i>. a gold-miner. The earliest mines were alluvial. Of course the word is used elsewhere, but in Australia it has this special meaning. 1852. Title: "Murray's Guide to the Gold Diggings.--The Australian Gold Diggings; where they are, and how to get at them; with letters from Settlers and Diggers telling how to work them. London: Stewart & Murray) 1852." 1853. Valiant, `Letter to Council,' given in McCombie's `History of Victoria' (1853), c. xvi. p. 248: "It caused the diggers, as a body, to pause in their headlong career." 1855. W. Howitt, `Land, Labour, and Gold,' vol. ii. p. 148, Letter xxx: "Buckland River, January 29th, 1854. The diggers here are a very quiet and civil race, at the same time that they are a most active and laborious one. . . . The principal part of the diggers here are from the Ovens." 1864. J. Rogers, `New Rush,' pt. ii. p. 31: "Drink success to the digger's trade, And break up to the squatter's." 1896. H. Lawson, `While the Billy boils,' p. 148: "His Father's Mate had always been a general favourite with the diggers and fossickers, from the days when he used to slip out first thing in the morning and take a run across the frosty flat in his shirt." <hw>Digger's Delight</hw>, <i>n</i>. a flower, <i>Veronica perfoliata</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Scrophularaneae</i>, described in quotations. 1878. W. R. Guilfoyle, `First Book of Australian Botany,' p. 64: "Digger's Delight, <i>Veronica perfoliata</i>, <i>N.O. Scrophularineae</i>. A pretty, blue-flowering shrub, with smooth stem-clasping leaves; found in the mountainous districts of Victoria and New South Wales, and deriving its common name from a supposition that its presence indicated auriferous country. It is plentiful in the elevated cold regions of Australia." 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 147: "Such native flowers as the wild violet, the shepherd's purse, or the blue-flowered `digger's delight.' This latter has come, perhaps, with the seeds from some miner's holding amongst the iron-barks in the gold country, and was once supposed to grow only on auriferous soils. When no one would think of digging for gold in this field, the presence of the flower is, perhaps, as reliable an indication of a golconda underneath as the reports and information on the strength of which many mining companies are floated." <hw>Diggerdom</hw>, <i>n</i>. collective noun, the diggers. 1855. W. Howitt, `Two Years in Victoria,' vol. i. p. 43: "Diggerdom is gloriously in the ascendant here." <hw>Diggeress</hw>, <i>n</i>. a digger's wife. 1855. W. Howitt, `Two Years in Victoria,' vol. i. p. 43: "The digger marching off, followed by his diggeress, a tall, slim young woman, who strode on like a trooper. . . . Open carriages driving about, crowded with diggers and their diggeresses." 1864. J. Rogers, `New Rush,' pt. ii. p. 36: "I'm tir'd of being a diggeress, And yearn a farmer's home to grace." <hw>Diggings</hw>, <i>n</i>. a place where gold-mining is carried on. The word is generally regarded as singular. Though common in Australia, it is very old, even in the sense of a place where digging for gold is carried on. 1769. De Foe's `Tour of Great Britain,' i. 39 (`O.E.D.'): "King Henry VIII. was induced to dig for Gold. He was disappointed, but the Diggings are visible at this Day." 1852. J. Morgan, `Life and Adventures of William Buckley' (published at Hobart), p. 183 [quoting from the `Victoria Commercial Review,' published at Melbourne, by Messrs. Westgarth, Ross, & Co., under date September 1, 1851]: "The existence of a `goldfield' was not ascertained until May last. . . . Numbers of persons are daily `prospecting' throughout this Colony and New South Wales in search of gold. . . .In Victoria, as well as in New South Wales, regular `diggings' are now established." 1852. Murray, `The Australian Gold Diggings: where they are and how to get at them,' p. 1; "It cannot but be acceptable to the crowds of intending colonists and gold seekers, to present them with a picture of the `Progress of the Diggins,' [sic] drawn by the diggers." 1858. T. McCombie, `History of Victoria,' c. xv. p. 234: "Immigrants who had not means to start to the diggings." 1870. J. O. Tucker, `The Mute,' p. 48: "Ye glorious diggings `neath a southern clime! I saw thy dawn." [`Ye,' `thy.' Is this singular or plural?] 1887. H. H. Hayter, `Christmas Adventure,' p. i: "Fryer's creek, a diggings more than 90 miles from Melbourne." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. vii. p. 71: "It was a goldfield and a diggings in far-away Australia." <hw>Dilli</hw>, later <hw>Dilly-bag</hw>, <i>n</i>. an aboriginal word, coming from Queensland, for a bag made either of grasses or of fur twisted into cord. <i>Dhilla</i> is the term for hair in Kabi dialect, Mary River, Queensland. <i>Dirrang</i> and <i>jirra</i> are corresponding words in the east of New South Wales. The aboriginal word <i>dilli</i> has been tautologically increased to <i>dilly-bag</i>, and the word is used by bushmen for a little bag for odds-and-ends, even though made of calico or holland. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 90: "In their `dillis' (small baskets) were several roots or tubers." Ibid. p. 195: "A basket (dilli) which I examined was made of a species of grass." 1885. R. M. Praed, `Australian Life,' p. 34: "I learned too at the camp to plait dilly-bags." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. xvii. p. 210: "Mayboy came forward dangling a small dilly-bag." 1896. A.J. North, `Report of Australian Museum,' p. 26: "Dilly-bag (partly wool and partly grass)." <hw>Dingle-bird</hw>, <i>n.</i> a poetical name for the Australian <i>Bell-bird</i> (q.v.). 1870. F. S. Wilson, `Australian Songs,' p. 30: "The bell-like chimings of the distant dingle-bird." 1883. C. Harpur, `Poems,' p. 78: "I . . . list the tinkling of the dinglebird." <hw>Dingo</hw>, <i>n</i>. the native dog of Australia, <i>Canis dingo</i>. "The aborigines, before they obtained dogs from Europeans, kept the dingo for hunting, as is still done by coast tribes in Queensland. Name probably not used further south than Shoalhaven, where the wild dog is called Mirigang." (A. W. Howitt.) 1790. J. White, `Voyage to New South Wales,' p. 280: [A dingo or dog of New South Wales. Plate. Description by J. Hunter.] "It is capable of barking, although not so readily as the European dogs; is very ill-natured and vicious, and snarls, howls, and moans, like dogs in common. Whether this is the only dog in New South Wales, and whether they have it in a wild state, is not mentioned; but I should be inclined to believe they had no other; in which case it will constitute the wolf of that country; and that which is domesticated is only the wild dog tamed, without having yet produced a variety, as in some parts of America." 1798. D. Collins, `Account of English Colony in New South Wales,' p. 614 [Vocab.]: "Jungo---Beasts, common name. Tein-go---Din-go. Wor-re-gal---Dog." 1820. W. C. Wentworth, `Description of New South Wales,' p. 62: "The native dog also, which is a species of the wolf, was proved to be fully equal in this respect [sport] to the fox; but as the pack was not sufficiently numerous to kill these animals at once, they always suffered so severely from their bite that at last the members of the hunt were shy in allowing the dogs to follow them." 1834. L. E. Threlkeld, `Australian Grammar,' p. 55: "Tigko---a bitch." 1852. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes `(1855), p. 153: "I have heard that the dingo, warragal or native dog, does not hunt in packs like the wolf and jackal." 1860. William Story, `Victorian Government Prize Essays,' p. 101: "The English hart is so greatly superior, as an animal of chase, to that cunning poultry thief the fox, that I trust Mister Reynard will never be allowed to become an Australian immigrant, and that when the last of the dingoes shall have shared the fate of the last English wolf, Australian Nimrods will resuscitate, at the antipodes of England, the sterling old national sport of hart hunting, conjointly with that of African boks, gazelles, and antelopes, and leave the fox to their English cousins, who cannot have Australian choice." 1872. C. H. Eden, `My Wife and I in Queensland,' p. 103: "In the neighbourhood of Brisbane and other large towns where they have packs, they run the dingoes as you do foxes at home." 1880. Garnet Walch, `Victoria in 1880,' p. 113: "The arms of the Wimmera should be rabbit and dingo, `rampant,' supporting a sun, `or, inflamed.'" 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 71: "Dingoes, the Australian name for the wild dogs so destructive to sheep. They were . . . neither more nor less than wolves, but more cowardly and not so ferocious, seldom going in large packs. They hunted kangaroos when in numbers, or driven to it by hunger; but usually preferred smaller and more easily obtained prey, as rats, bandicoots, and 'possums." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 38: "On the large stations a man is kept whose sole work it is to lay out poison for the dingo. The black variety with white breast generally appears in Western Queensland along with the red." 1891. `Guide to Zoological Gardens, Melbourne': "The dingo of northern Australia can be distinguished from his brother of the south by his somewhat smaller size and courageous bearing. He always carries his tail curled over his back, and is ever ready to attack any one or anything; whilst the southern dingo carries his tail low, slinks along like a fox, and is easily frightened. The pure dingo, which is now exceedingly rare in a wild state, partly through the agency of poison, but still more from the admixture of foreign breeds, is unable to bark, and can only express its feelings in long-drawn weird howls." 1894. `The Argus,' June 23, p. l1, col. 4: "Why is the first call of a dingo always apparently miles away, and the answer to it--another quavering note slightly more shrill--so close at hand? Is it delusion or distance?" <hw>Dinornis</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name given by Professor Owen to the genus of huge struthious birds of the post-Pliocene period, in New Zealand, which survive in the traditions of the Maoris under the name of <i>Moa</i> (q.v.). From the Greek <i>deinos</i>, terrible, and <i>'ornis</i>, bird. 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. i. Intro. p. xviii: "The specimens [fossil-bones] transmitted . . . were confided to the learned Professor [Owen] for determination; and these materials, scanty as they were, enabled him to define the generic characters of <i>Dinornis</i>, as afforded by the bones of the hind extremity." Ibid. p. xxiv: "Professor Owen had well-nigh exhausted the vocabulary of terms expressive of largeness by naming his successive discoveries <i>ingens, giganteus, crassus, robustus</i>, and <i>elephantopus</i>, when he had to employ the superlative <i>Dinornis maximus</i> to distinguish a species far exceeding in stature even the stately <i>Dinornis giganteus</i>. In this colossal bird . . . some of the cervical vertebrae almost equal in size the neck-bones of a horse! The skeleton in the British Museum . . . measures 11 feet in height, and . . . some of these feathered giants attained to a still greater stature." <hw>Dipper</hw>, <i>n</i>. a vessel with a handle at the top of the side like a big tin mug. That with which one dips. The word is not Australian, but is of long standing in the United States, where it is used as a name for the constellation of the <i>Great Bear</i>. 1893. `Australasian Schoolmaster,' Feb.: "These answers have not the true colonial ring of the following, which purports to be the remark of the woman of Samaria: `Sir, the well is very deep, and you haven't got a dipper.'" <hw>Dips</hw>, <i>n</i>. Explained in quotation. 1859. G. Bunce, `Travels with Leichhardt,' p. 161: ". . . Dr. Leichhardt gave the party a quantity of dough boys, or as we called them, dips. . ." [p. 171]: "In this dilemma, Dr. Leichhardt ordered the cook to mix up a lot of flour, and treated us all to a feed of dips. These were made as follows:--a quantity of flour was mixed up with water, and stirred with a spoon to a certain consistency, and dropped into a pot of boiling water, a spoonful at a time. Five minutes boiling was sufficient, when they were eaten with the water in which they were boiled." <hw>Dirt</hw>, <i>n</i>. In Australia, any alluvial deposit in which gold is found; properly <i>Wash-dirt</i>. The word is used in the United States. See quotation, 187. 1853. Mrs. Chas. Clancy, `Lady's Visit to the Gold Diggings,' p. 109: "And after doing this several times, the `dirt,' of course, gradually diminishing, I was overjoyed to see a few bright specks." 1857. Borthwick, `California,' [Bartlett, quoted in `O.E.D.'] p. 120: "In California, `dirt' is the universal word to signify the substance dug; earth, clay, gravel, or loose slate. The miners talk of rich dirt and poor dirt, and of stripping off so many feet of `top dirt' before getting to `pay-dirt,' the latter meaning dirt with so much gold in it that it will pay to dig it up and wash it." 1870. J. O. Tucker, `The Mute,'p. 40: "Others to these the precious dirt convey, Linger a moment till the panning's through." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. xiv. p. 142: "We were clean worked out . . . before many of our neighbours at Greenstone Gully, were half done with their dirt." Ibid. c. xviii. p. 177: "We must trust in the Oxley `dirt' and a kind Providence." <hw>Dish</hw>, <i>n</i>. and <i>adj</i>. a small and rough vessel in which gold is washed. The word is used in the United States. 1890. `Goldfields of Victoria,' p. 17: "I have obtained good dish prospects after crudely crushing up the quartz." <hw>Dishwasher</hw>, <i>n</i>. an old English bird-name for the Water-Wagtail; applied in Australia to <i>Seisura inquieta</i>, Lath., the <i>Restless Fly-catcher</i> (q.v.). <i>Seisura</i> is from Grk. <i>seiein</i> (to shake), and <i>'oura</i> (a tail), being thus equal in meaning to Wagtail. Also called <i>Dishlick, Grinder</i>, and <i>Razor-grinder</i> (q.v.). 1827. Vigors and Horsfield, `Transactions of the Linnaean Society,' vol. xv. p. 250: "This bird is called by the colonists Dishwasher. It is very curious in its actions. In alighting on the stump of a tree it makes several semi-circular motions, spreading out its tail, and making a loud noise somewhat like that caused by a razor-grinder when at work." <hw>Distoechurus</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name of the genus of the New Guinea Pentailed-Phalanger, or so-called <i>Opossum-mouse</i> (q.v.). It has a tail with the long hairs arranged in two opposite rows, like the vanes of a feather.(Grk. <i>distoichos</i>, with two rows, and <i>'oura</i>, a tail.) <hw>Diver</hw>, <i>n</i>. common bird-name used in Australia for a species of Grebe. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. vii. pl. 80: "<i>Podiceps australis</i>, Gould; Australian Tippet Grebe; Diver of the Colonists." <hw>Doctor</hw>, <i>n</i>. word used in the South Australian bush for "the cook." 1896. `The Australasian,' June 13, p. 1133, col. 1: "`The doctor's in the kitchen, and the boss is in the shed; The overseer's out mustering on the plain; Sling your bluey down, old boy, for the clouds are overhead, You are welcome to a shelter from the rain.'" <hw>Dodder Laurel</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Devil's Guts</i> (q.v.). <hw>Dog-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name belongs to various fishes of distinct families, chiefly sharks. In Australia, it is used for the fish <i>Scyllium lima</i>, family <i>Scylliidae</i>. In New South Wales it is <i>Scyllium maculatum</i>, Bl. The <i>Sprite Dog-fish</i> of New Zealand is <i>Acanthias maculatus</i>, family <i>Spinacidae</i>. The <i>Spotted Dog-fish</i> of New South Wales is <i>Scyllium anale</i>. The <i>Dusky Dogfish</i> of New South Wales is <i>Chiloscyllium modestum</i>, Gunth., and there are others in Tasmania and Australia. <hw>Dogleg</hw>, <i>adj</i>. applied to a primitive kind of fence made of rough timber. Crossed spars, which are the doglegs, placed at intervals, keep in place a low rail resting on short posts, and are themselves fixed by heavy saplings resting in the forks above. 1875. R. and F. Hill, `What we saw in Australia,' p. 61: ". . . we made acquaintance with the `dog's leg' fence. This is formed of bare branches of the gum-tree laid obliquely, several side by side, and the ends overlapping, so that they have somewhat the appearance that might be presented by the stretched-out legs of a crowd of dogs running at full speed. An upright stick at intervals, with a fork at the top, on which some of the cross-branches rest, adds strength to the structure." 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 13: "While the primaeval `dog-leg' fence of the Victorian bush, or the latter-day `chock and log' are no impediments in the path of our foresters." [sc. kangaroos; see <i>Forester</i>.] 1888. Rolf Boldrewood, `Robbery under Arms,' p. 71: "As we rode up we could see a gunyah made out of boughs, and a longish wing of dog leg fence, made light but well put together." <hw>Dog's Tongue</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to the plant <i>Cynoglossum suaveolens</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Asperifoliae</i>. <hw>Dogwood</hw>, <i>n</i>. various trees and their wood; none of them the same as those called <i>dogwood</i> in the Northern Hemisphere, but their woods are used for similar purposes, e.g. butchers' skewers, fine pegs, and small pointed wooden instruments. In Australia generally, <i>Jacksonia scoparia</i>, R. Br., also <i>Myoporum platycarpum</i>, R. Br. In Tasmania, <i>Bedfordia salicina</i>, De C., <i>N.O. Compositae</i>, which is also called <i>Honeywood</i>, and in New South Wales, <i>Cottonwood</i> (q.v.), and the two trees <i>Pomaderris elliptica</i>, Lab., and <i>P. apetala</i>, Lab., <i>N.O. Rhamnaceae</i>, which are called respectively <i>Yellow</i> and <i>Bastard Dogwood</i>. See also <i>Coranderrk</i>. In parts of Tasmania, <i>Pomaderris apetala</i>, Lab., <i>N.O. Rhamn/ac?/eae</i>, is also called <i>Dogwood</i>, or <i>Bastard Dogwood</i>. 1836. Ross, `Hobart Town Almanack,' p. 16: "There is a secluded hollow of this kind near Kangaroo Bottom, near Hobart Town, where the common dogwood of the colony (pomaderris apetala) has sprung up so thick and tall, that Mr. Babington and myself having got into it unawares one day, had the greatest difficulty imaginable to get out after three or four hours' labour. Not one of the plants was more than six inches apart from the others, while they rose from 6 to 12 yards in height, with leaves at the top which almost wholly excluded the light of the sun." 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 11: "Iron-bark ridges here and there, with spotted gum, with dogwood (<i>Jacksonia</i>) on a sandy soil." (p. 20): "A second creek, with running water, which from the number of dogwood shrubs (<i>Jacksonia</i>), in the full glory of their golden blossoms, I called `Dogwood Creek.'" 1894. `Melbourne Museum Catalogue--Economic Woods,' p. 46: "Native dogwood, a hard, pale-brown, well-mottled wood; good for turnery." <hw>Dogwood Poison-bush</hw>, <i>n</i>. a New South Wales name; the same as <i>Ellangowan Poison-bush</i> (q.v.). <hw>Dollar</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Holy Dollar</i>. <hw>Dollar-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to the <i>Roller</i> (q.v.). See quotations. 1827. Vigors and Horsfield, `Transactions of Linnaean Society,' vol. xv. p. 202: "The settlers call it dollar-bird, from the silver-like spot on the wing." 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia;' vol. ii. pl. 17: "<i>Eurystomus Australis</i>, Swains., Australian Roller. Dollar Bird of the Colonists. During flight the white spot in the centre of each wing, then widely expanded, shows very distinctly, and hence the name of Dollar Bird.'" 1851. I. Henderson, `Excursions in New South Wales,' vol. ii. p. 183: "The Dollar-bird derives its name from a round white spot the size of a dollar, on its wing. It is very handsome, and flies in rather a peculiar manner. It is the only bird which I have observed to perform regular migrations; and it is strange that in such a climate any one should do so. But it appears that the dollar-bird does not relish even an Australian winter. It is the harbinger of spring and genial weather." <hw>Dollar-fish</hw> <i>n</i>. a name often given formerly to the <i>John Dory</i> (q.v.), from the mark on its side. See quotation, 1880. The name <i>Dollar-fish</i> is given on the American coasts to a different fish. 1880. Guenther, `Study of Fishes,' p. 451: "The fishermen of Roman Catholic countries hold this fish in special respect, as they recognize in a black round spot on its side the mark left by the thumb of St. Peter, when he took the piece of money from its mouth." 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish of New South Wales,' p. 62: "The dory has been long known, and when the currency of the colony was in Mexican coin it was called a `dollar-fish.'" <hw>Dorca-Kangaroo</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Dorcopsis</i> and <i>Kangaroo</i>. <hw>Dorcopsis</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name of a genus of little Kangaroos with pretty gazelle-like faces. (Grk. <i>dorkas</i>, a gazelle, and <i>'opsis</i>, appearance.) They are called <i>Dorca-Kangaroos</i>, and are confined to New Guinea, and form in some respects a connecting link between <i>Macropus</i> and the <i>Tree-Kangaroo</i> (q.v.). There are three species--the Brown Dorca Kangaroo, <i>Dorcopsis muelleri</i>; Grey D., <i>D. luctuosa</i>, Macleay's D., <i>D. macleayi</i>. See <i>Kangaroo</i> (e). <hw>Dottrel</hw>, <i>n</i>. formerly <i>Dotterel</i>, common English bird-name, applied in Australia to <i>Charadrius australis</i>, Gould. Black-fronted Dottrel-- <i>Charadrius nigrifrons</i>, Temm. Double-banded D.-- <i>C. bicincta</i>, Jord. and Selb. Hooded D.-- <i>C. monacha</i>, Geoff. Large Sand D.-- <i>C. (AEgialitis)</i> geoffroyi, Wag. Mongolian Sand D.-- <i>C. (AEgialitis) mongolica</i>, Pallas. Oriental D.-- <i>C. veredus</i>, Gould. Red-capped Dottrel-- <i>Charadrius ruficapilla</i>, Temm.; called also <i>Sand-lark</i>. Red-necked D.-- <i>C. (AEgialitis) mastersi</i>, Ramsay. Ringed D.-- <i>C. hiaticula</i>, Linn. [See also Red-knee.] <hw>Dove</hw>, <i>n</i>. a well-known English bird-name, applied in Australia to the-- Barred-shouldered Dove-- <i>Geopelia humeralis</i>, Temm. Ground D.-- <i>G. tranquilla</i>, Gould. Little D.-- <i>G. cuneata</i>, Lath. [See also Ground-dove.] <hw>Dove-Petrel</hw>, <i>n</i>. a well-known English bird-name. The species in the-Southern Seas are-- <i>Prion turtur</i>, Smith. Banks D.-P.-- <i>P. banksii</i>, Smith. Broad-billed D.-P.-- <i>P. vittata</i>, Forst. Fairy D.-P.-- <i>P. ariel</i>, Gould. <hw>Dover</hw>, <i>n</i>. a clasp knife, by a maker of that name, once much used in the colonies. 1878. `The Australian,' vol. i. p. 418: "In plates and knives scant is the shepherd's store, `Dover' and pan are all, he wants no more." 1893. April 15, `A Traveller's Note': "`So much a week and the use of my Dover' men used to say in making a contract of labour." 1894. `Bush Song' [Extract]: "Tie up the dog beside the log, And come and flash your Dover." <hw>Down</hw>, <i>n</i>. a prejudice against, hostility to; a peculiarly Australian noun made out of the adverb. 1856. W. W. Dobie, `Recollections of a Visit to Port Philip,' p. 84: ". . . the bushranger had been in search of another squatter, on whom `he said he had a down'. . ." 1884. J. W. Bull, `Early Life in South Australia,' p. 179: "It was explained that Foley had a private `down' on them, as having stolen from him a favourite kangaroo dog." 1889. Cassell's `Picturesque Australasia, vol. iv. p. 180: "They [diggers] had a `dead down' on all made dishes." 1893. Professor Gosman, `The Argus,' April 24, p. 7, col. 4: "That old prejudice in the minds of many men to the effect that those who represented the churches or religious people had a regular down upon freedom of thought." 1893. `The Age,' June 24, p. 5, col. 1: "Mr. M. said it was notorious in the department that one of the commissioners had had `a down' on him." 1893. R. L. Stevenson, `Island Nights' Entertainments,' p. 46: "`They have a down on you,' says Case. `Taboo a man because they have a down on him'' I cried. `I never heard the like.'" <hw>Down</hw>, <i>adv</i>. "To come, or be down," is the phrase used in Australian Universities for to be "plucked," or "ploughed," or "spun," i.e., to fail in an examination. It has been in use for a few years, certainly not earlier than 1886. The metaphor is either taken from a fall from a horse, or perhaps from the prize-ring. The use has no connection with being "sent down," or "going down," at Oxford or Cambridge. <hw>Draft</hw>, <i>v</i>. to separate and sort cattle. An adaptation of the meaning "to select and draw off for particular service," especially used of soldiers. 1884. Rolf Boldrewood, `Melbourne Memories,' c. vi. p. 46: "I should like to be drafting there again." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `The Squatter's Dream,' p. 2: "There were those cattle to be drafted that had been brought from the Lost Waterhole." <hw>Draft</hw>, <i>n</i>. a body of cattle separated from the rest of the herd. 1884. Rolf Boldrewood, `Melbourne Memories,' c. ii. p. 22: "A draft of out-lying cattle rose and galloped off." <hw>Drafter</hw>, <i>n</i>. a man engaged in drafting cattle. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. xviii. p. 227: "They behave better, though all the while keeping the drafters incessantly popping at the fence by truculent charges." <hw>Drafting-gate</hw>, <i>n</i>. gate used in separating cattle and sheep into different classes or herds. 1890. `The Argus,' Aug. 16, p. 4, col. 7: "But the tent-flap seemed to go up and down quick as a drafting-gate." <hw>Drafting-stick</hw>, <i>n</i>. a stick used in drafting cattle. 1884. Rolf Boldrewood, `Melbourne Memories,' c. x. p. 72: "We . . . armed ourselves with drafting-sticks and resolutely faced it." <hw>Drafting-yard</hw>, <i>n</i>. a yard for drafting cattle. 1890. `The Argus,' Aug. 16, p. 13, col. 1: "There were drafting-yards and a tank a hundred yards off, but no garden." <hw>Dray</hw>, <i>n</i>. an ordinary cart for goods. See quotation, 1872. 1833. C. Sturt, `Southern Australia,' vol. i. Intro. p. xlix: "They send their produce to the market . . . receiving supplies for home consumption on the return of their drays or carts from thence." 1872. C. H. Eden, "My Wife and I in Queensland,' p. 31: "A horse dray, as known in Australia, is by no means the enormous thing its name would signify, but simply an ordinary cart on two wheels without springs." [There are also spring-drays.] 1886. H. C. Kendall, `Poems,' p. 41: "One told by camp fires when the station drays Were housed and hidden, forty years ago." <hw>Dromicia</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name of the Australian <i>Dormouse Phalangers</i>, or little <i>Opossum</i>- or <i>Flying-Mice</i>, as they are locally called. See <i>Opossum</i>, <i>Opossum-mouse</i>, and <i>Phalanger</i>. They are not really the "Flying"-Mice or Flying-phalanger, as they have only an incipient parachute, but they are nearly related to the <i>Pigmy Petaurists</i> (q.v.) or small <i>Flying-Phalangers</i>. (Grk. <i>dromikos</i>, good at running, or swift.) <hw>Drongo</hw>, <i>n</i>. This bird-name was "given by Le Vaillant in the form <i>drongeur</i> to a South African bird afterwards known as the Musical Drongo, <i>Dicrurus musicus</i>, then extended to numerous . . . fly-catching, crow-like birds." (`Century.') The name is applied in Australia to <i>Chibia bracteata</i>, Gould, which is called the <i>Spangled Drongo</i>. 1895. W. 0. Legge, `Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science' (Brisbane), p. 448: "There being but one member of the interesting Asiatic genus <i>Drongo</i> in Australia, it was thought best to characterize it simply as the <i>Drongo</i> without any qualifying term." <hw>Drop</hw>, <i>n</i>. (Slang.) To "have the drop on" is to forestall, gain advantage over, especially by covering with a revolver. It is curious that while an American magazine calls this phrase Australian (see quotation), the `Dictionary of Slang'--one editor of which is the distinguished American, Godfrey C. Leland--says it is American. It is in common use in Australia. 1894. `Atlantic Monthly,' Aug., p. 179. "His terrible wife, if we may borrow a phrase from Australia, `had the drop on him' in every particular." <hw>Drooping Acacia</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Acacia</i>. <hw>Drove</hw>, <i>v</i>. to drive travelling cattle or sheep. 1890. A. J. Vogan, `Black Police,' p. 334: "I don't know how you'd be able to get on without the `boys' to muster, track, and drove." 1896. A. B. Paterson, `Man from Snowy River' [Poem `In the Droving Days'], p. 95: "For though lie scarcely a trot can raise, He can take me back to the droving days." <hw>Drum</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bundle; more usually called a <i>swag</i> (q.v.). 1866. Wm. Starner, `Recollections of a Life of Adventure,' vol. i. p. 304 ". . . and `humping his drum' start off for the diggings to seek more gold." 1872. C. H. Eden, `My Wife and I in Queensland,' p. 17: "They all chaffed us about our swags, or donkeys, or drums, as a bundle of things wrapped in a blanket is indifferently called." 1886. Frank Cowan, `Australia, Charcoal Sketch,' p. 31: "The Swagman: bed and board upon his back--or, having humped his drum and set out on the wallaby . . ." <hw>Drummer</hw>, <i>n</i>. a New South Wales name for the fish <i>Girella elevata</i>, Macl., of the same family as the <i>Black-fish</i> (q.v.). <hw>Dry-blowing</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Western Australian term in gold-mining. 1894. `The Argus,' March 28, p. 5, col. 5: "When water is not available, as unfortunately is the case at Coolgardie, `dry blowing' is resorted to. This is done by placing the pounded stuff in one dish, and pouring it slowly at a certain height into the other. If there is any wind blowing it will carry away the powdered stuff; if there is no wind the breath will have to be used. It is not a pleasant way of saving gold, but it is a case of Hobson's choice. The unhealthiness of the method is apparent." <hw>Duboisine</hw>, <i>n</i>. an alkaloid derived from the plant <i>Duboisia myoposides</i>, <i>N.O. Sofanaceae</i>, a native of Queensland and New South Wales. It is used in medicine as an application to the eye for the purpose of causing the pupil to dilate, in the same way as atropine, an alkaloid obtained from the belladonna plant in Europe, has long been employed. Duboisine was discovered and introduced into therapeutics by a Brisbane physician. <hw>Duck</hw>, <i>n</i>. the well-known English name of the birds of the <i>Anatinae, Fuligulinae</i>, and other series, of which there are about 125 species comprised in about 40 genera. The Australian genera and species are--- Blue-billed Duck-- <i>Erismatura australis</i>, Gould. Freckled D.-- <i>Stictonetta naevosa</i>, Gould. Mountain D. (the Shel-drake, q.v.). Musk D. (q.v.)-- <i>Biziura lobata</i>, Shaw. Pink-eared D., or Widgeon (q.v.)-- <i>Malacorhynchus membranaceus</i>, Lath. Plumed Whistling D.-- <i>Dendrocygna eytoni</i>, Gould. Whistling D.-- <i>D. vagans</i>, Eyton. [Each species of the <i>Dendrocygna</i> called also by sportsmen Tree-duck.] White-eyed D., or Hard-head (q.v.)-- <i>Nyroca australis</i>, Gould. Wild D.-- <i>Anas superciliosa</i>, Gmel. Wood D. (the Maned Goose; see <i>Goose</i>). The following is a table of the ducks as compiled by Gould nearly fifty years ago. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. vii: Plate <i>Anas superciliosa</i>, Gmel. Australian Wild Duck . . . 9 <i>Anas naevosa</i>, Gould, Freckled Duck . . . 10 <i>Anas punctata</i>, Cuv. Chestnut-breasted Duck . . . 11 <i>Spatula Rhyncotis</i>, Australian Shoveller . . . 12 <i>Malacorhynchus membranaceus</i>, . . . 13 Membranaceous Duck <i>Dendrocygna arcuata</i>, Whistling Duck (q.v.) . . . 14 <i>Leptolarsis Eytoni</i>, Gould, Eyton's Duck . . . 15 <i>Nyroca Australis</i>, Gould, White-eyed Duck . . . 16 <i>Erismatura Australis</i>, Blue-billed Duck . . . 17 <i>Biziura lobata</i>, Musk Duck . . . 18 The following is Professor Parker's statement of the New Zealand <i>Ducks</i>. 1889. Prof. Parker, `Catalogue of New Zealand Exhibition,' p. 117: "There are eleven species of Native Ducks belonging to nine genera, all found elsewhere, except two--the little Flightless Duck of the Auckland Islands (genus <i>Nesonetta</i>) and the Blue Mountain Duck (<i>Hymenolaemus</i>). Among the most interesting of the non-endemic forms, are the Paradise Duck or Sheldrake (<i>Casarca variegata</i>), the Brown Duck (<i>Anas chlorotis</i>), the Shoveller or Spoonbill Duck (<i>Rhynchaspis variegata</i>), and the Scaup or Black Teal (<i>Fuligula Novae-Zealandiae</i>)." <hw>Duckbill</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Platypus</i>. Sometimes also called <i>Duckmole</i>. <hw>Duckmole</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Platypus</i>. 1825. Barron Field, `First Fruits of Australian Poetry,' in `Geographical Memoirs of New South Wales,' p. 496: "When sooty swans are once more rare, And duck-moles the museum's care." [Appendix : "Water or duck-mole."] 1875. Schmidt, `Descent and Darwinism,' p. 237: "The Ornithorhyncus or duck-mole of Tasmania." <hw>Duck-shoving</hw>, and <hw>Duckshover</hw>, <i>n</i>. a cabman's phrase. In Melbourne, before the days of trams, the wagonette-cabs used to run by a time-table from fixed stations at so much (generally 3<i>d</i>.) a passenger. A cabman who did not wait his turn on the station rank, but touted for passengers up and down the street in the neighbourhood of the rank, was termed a <i>Duck-shover</i>. 1870. D. Blair, `Notes and Queries,' Aug. 6, p. 111: "Duck-shoving is the term used by our Melbourne cabmen to express the unprofessional trick of breaking the rank, in order to push past the cabman on the stand for the purpose of picking up a stray passenger or so." 1896. `Otago Daily Times,' Jan. 25, p. 3, col. 6: "The case was one of a series of cases of what was technically known as `duck shoving,' a process of getting passengers which operated unfairly against the cabmen who stayed on the licensed stand and obeyed the by-law." <hw>Dudu</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for a pigeon, fat-breasted, and very good eating. 1852. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes' (3rd ed. 1855), c. vii. p. 170: "In the grassland, a sort of ground pigeon, called the dudu, a very handsome little bird, got up and went off like a partridge, strong and swift, re-alighting on the ground, and returning to cover." <hw>Duff</hw>, <i>v</i>. to steal cattle by altering the brands. 1869. E. Carton Booth, `Another England,' p. 138: "He said there was a `duffing paddock' somewhere on the Broken River, into which nobody but the owner had ever found an entrance, and out of which no cattle had ever found their way--at any rate, not to come into their owner's possession. . . . The man who owned the `duffing paddock' was said to have a knack of altering cattle brands . . ." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Squatter's Dream,' c. xiv. p. 162: "I knew Redcap when he'd think more of duffing a red heifer than all the money in the country." 1891. Rolf Boldrewood, `A Sydneyside Saxon,' p. 95: "As to the calves I'm a few short myself, as I think that half-caste chap of yours must have `duffed.'" <hw>Duffer</hw>, <i>n.</i> a cattle stealer, i.q. <i>Cattle-duffer</i> (q.v.). 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. xxv. p. 352: "What's a little money . . . if your children grow up duffers and planters?" <hw>Duffer</hw>2, <i>n</i>. a claim on a mine which turns out unproductive, called also <i>shicer</i> (q.v.). [This is only a special application of the slang English, <i>duffer</i>, an incapable person, or a failure. Old English <i>Daffe</i>, a fool] 1861. T. McCombie, `Australian Sketches,' p. 193: "It was a terrible duffer anyhow, every ounce of gold got from it cost L 20 I'll swear." 1864. J Rogers, `New Rush,' p. 55: "Tho' <i>duffers</i> are so common And golden gutters rare, The mining sons of woman Can much ill fortune bear." 1873. A.Trollope, `Australia and New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 291: "A shaft sunk without any produce from it is a duffer. . . . But of these excavations the majority were duffers. It is the duffering part of the business which makes it all so sad.So much work is done from which there is positively no return." 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia,' p. 266: "The place is then declared to be a `duffer,' and abandoned, except by a few fanatics, who stick there for months and years." 1891. `The Australasian,' Nov. 21, p. 1014: "Another duffer! Rank as ever was bottomed! Seventy-five feet hard delving and not a colour!" <hw>Duffer out</hw>, <i>v</i>. A mine is said to duffer out, when it has ceased to be productive. 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia,' p. 279: "He then reported to the shareholders that the lode had `duffered out,' and that it was useless to continue working." 1889. Cassell's `Picturesque Australasia,' vol. iv. p. 73: "Cloncurry has, to use the mining parlance, duffered out." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. vi. p. 58: "`So you're duffered out again, Harry,' she said." <hw>Dugong Oil</hw>, <i>n</i>. an oil obtained in Australia, from <i>Halicore dugong</i>, Gmel., by boiling the superficial fat. A substitute for cod-liver oil. The dugongs are a genus of marine mammals in the order <i>Sirenia</i>. <i>H. dugong</i> inhabits the waters of North and North-east Australia, the southern shores of Asia, and the east coast of Africa. The word is Malay. <hw>Dug-out</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name imported into New Zealand from America, but the common name for an ordinary Maori canoe. <hw>Duke Willy</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Whistling Dick</i>. <hw>Dummy</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) In Australia, when land was thrown open for <i>selection</i> (q.v.), the squatters who had previously the use of the land suffered. Each squatter exercised his own right of selection. Many a one also induced others to select nominally for themselves, really for the squatter. Such selector was called a dummy. The law then required the selector to swear that he was selecting the land for his own use and benefit. Some of the dummies did not hesitate to commit perjury. Dictionaries give "dummy, <i>adj</i>. fictitious or sham." The Australian noun is an extension of this idea. Webster gives "(<i>drama</i>) one who plays a merely nominal part in any action, sham character." This brings us near to the original <i>dumby</i>, from <i>dumb</i>, which is radically akin to German <i>dumm</i>, stupid. 1866. D. Rogerson, `Poetical Works, p. 23: "The good selectors got most of the land, The dummies being afraid to stand." 1866. H. Simcox, `Rustic Rambles, p. 21: "See the dummies and the mediums, Bagmen, swagmen, hastening down." 1872. A. McFarland, `Illawarra and Manaro,' p. 125: "Since free selection was introduced, a good many of the squatters (they say, in self-defence) have, in turn, availed themselves of it, to secure `the eyes' or water-holes of the country, so far as they could by means of `dummies,' and other blinds." 1879. R. Niven, `Fraser's Magazine,' April, p. 516: "This was the, in the colony, well-known `dummy' system. Its nature may be explained in a moment. It was simply a swindling transaction between the squatter on the one hand and some wretched fellow on the other, often a labourer in the employment of the squatter, in which the former for a consideration induced the latter to personate the character of a free selector, to acquire from the State, for the purpose of transferring to himself, the land he most coveted out of that thrown open for selection adjoining his own property." 1892. `Scribner's Magazine,' Feb. p. 140: "By this device the squatter himself, all the members of the family, his servants, shepherds, boundary-riders, station-hands and rabbiters, each registered a section, the dummies duly handing their `selection' over to the original holder for a slight consideration." (2) Colloquial name for the grip-car of the Melbourne trams. Originally the grip-car was not intended to carry passengers: hence the name. 1893. `The Herald' (Melbourne), p. 5, col. 5: "Linked to the car proper is what is termed a dummy." 1897. `The Argus,' Jan. 2, p. 7, col. 5: "But on the tramcar, matters were much worse. The front seat of the dummy was occupied by a young Tasmanian lady and her cousin, and, while one portion of the cart struck her a terrible blow on the body, the shaft pinned her by the neck against the front stanchion of the dummy." <hw>Dummy</hw>, <i>v</i>. to obtain land in the way above described. 1873. A.Trollope, `Australia and New Zealand,' c. vi. p. 101: "Each partner in the run has purchased his ten thousand, and there have been many Mrs. Harrises. The Mrs. Harris system is generally called dummying--putting up a non-existent free-selector--and is illegal. But I believe no one will deny that it has been carried to a great extent." 1896. `The Champion' (Melbourne), Jan. 11: "The verb `to dummy' and the noun `dummyism' are purely Australian, quotations to illustrate the use of which can be obtained from `Hansard,' the daily papers, and such works as Epps' monograph on the `Land Tenure Systems of Australasia.'" <hw>Dummyism</hw>, <i>n</i>. obtaining land by misrepresentation. See <i>Dummy, n</i>. 1875. `The Spectator' (Melbourne), June 19, p. 8, col. 2: "`Larrikinism' was used as a synonym for `blackguardism,' and `dummyism' for perjury." 1876. `The Argus,' Jan. 26, p. 6, col. 6: "Mr. Bent thought that a stop should be put to all selection and dummyism till a land law was introduced." 1887. J. F. Hogan, `The Irish in Australia, p. 98: "This baneful and illegal system of land-grabbing is known throughout the colonies by the expressive name of `dummyism,' the persons professing to be genuine selectors, desirous of establishing themselves on the soil, being actually the agents or the `dummies of the adjoining squatters." <hw>Dump</hw>, <i>n</i>. a small coin formerly used in Australia and Tasmania. Its history is given in the quotations. In England the word formerly meant a heavy leaden counter; hence the expression, "I don't care a dump." See <i>Holy Dollar</i>. 1822. `Hobart Town Gazette,' December 14: "Government Public Notice.--The Quarter Dollars, or `Dumps,' struck from the centre of the Spanish Dollar, and issued by His Excellency Governor Macquarie, in the year 1813, at One Shilling and Threepence each, will be exchanged for Treasury Bills at Par, or Sterling money." 1823. `Sydney Gazette,' Jan. ['Century']: "The small colonial coin denominated dumps have all been called in. If the dollar passes current for five shillings the dump lays claim to fifteen pence value still in silver money." 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 44 "He only solicits the loan of a `dump,' on pretence of treating his sick gin to a cup of tea." Ibid. p. 225: "The genuine name of an Australian coin, in value 1<i>s</i>. 3<i>d</i>." 1852. J. West, `History of Tasmania,' vol. ii. p. 141: "Tattered promissory notes, of small amount and doubtful parentage, fluttered about the colony; dumps, struck out from dollars, were imitated by a coin prepared without requiring much mechanical ingenuity." 1870. T. H. Braim, `New Homes,' c. iii. p. 131: "The Spanish dollar was much used. A circular piece was struck out of the centre about the size of a shilling, and it was called a `dump.'" 1879. W. J. Barry, `Up and Down,' p. 5: "The coin current in those days (1829) consisted of ring- dollars and dumps, the dump being the centre of the dollar punched out to represent a smaller currency." 1893. `The Daily News' (London), May 11, p. 4: "The metallic currency was then [1819-25] chiefly Spanish dollars, at that time and before and afterwards the most widely disseminated coin in the world, and they had the current value of 5<i>s</i>. But there were too few of them, and therefore the centre of them was cut out and circulated under the name of `dumps' at 1<i>s</i>. 3<i>d</i>. each, the remainder of the coin--called by way of a pun, `holy dollars'--still retaining its currency value of 5<i>s</i>." <hw>Dump</hw>, <i>v</i>. to press closely; applied to wool. Bales are often marked "not to be dumped." 1872. C. H. Eden, `My Wife and I in Queensland,' p. 98: "The great object of packing so close is to save carriage through the country, for however well you may do it, it is always re-pressed, or `dumped,' as it is called, by hydraulic pressure on its arrival in port, the force being so great as to crush two bales into one." 1875. R. and F. Hill, `What we saw in Australia,' p. 207: "From the sorting-tables the fleeces are carried to the packing-shed; there, by the help of machinery, they are pressed into sacks, and the sacks are then themselves heavily pressed and bound with iron bands, till they become hard cubes. This process is called `dumping.'" <hw>Dumplings</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Apple-berry</i> (q.v.). <hw>Dundathee</hw>, or <hw>Dundathu Pine</hw>, <i>n</i>. the Queensland species (<i>Agathis robusta</i>, Sal.) of the <i>Kauri Pine</i> (q.v.); and see <i>Pine</i>. <hw>Dungaree-Settler</hw>, <i>n</i>. Now obsolete. See quotation. 1852. Anon, `Settlers and Convicts; or, Recollections of Sixteen Years' Labour in the Australian Backwoods,' p. 11: "The poor Australian settler (or, according to colonist phraseology, the Dungaree-settler; so called from their frequently clothing themselves, their wives, and children in that blue Indian manufacture of cotton known as <i>Dungaree</i>) sells his wheat crop." <hw>Dunite</hw>, <i>n</i>. an ore in New Zealand, so called from Dun mountain, near Nelson. 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand,' p. 56: "Chrome ore. This ore, which is a mixture of chromic iron and alumina, is chiefly associated with magnesian rock, resembling olivine in composition, named Dunite by Dr. Hochstetter." <hw>Dust</hw>, <i>n</i>. slang for flour. 1893. Dec. 12, `A Traveller's Note': "A bush cook said to me to-day, we gave each sundowner a pannikin of dust." <hw>Dwarf-box</hw>, <i>n</i>. <i>Eucalyptus microtheca</i>, F. v. M. See <i>Box</i>. This tree has also many other names. See Maiden's `Useful Native Plants,' p. 495. 1833. C. Sturt, `Southern Australia,' vol. i. c. i. p. 22: "Dwarf-box and the acacia pendula prevailed along the plains." E <hw>Eagle</hw>, <i>n.</i> There are nine species of the true Eagle, all confined to the genus <i>Haliaetus</i>, such as the <i>Baldheaded Eagle (H. leucocephalus)</i>, the national emblem of the United States. (`Century.') In Australia the name is assigned to-- Little Eagle-- <i>Aquila morphnoides</i>, Gould. Wedge-tailed E. (Eagle-hawk)-- <i>A. audax</i>, Lath. Whistling E.-- <i>Haliaetus sphenurus</i>, Vieill. White-bellied Sea E.-- <i>H. leucogaster</i>, Gmel. White-headed Sea E.-- <i>Haliaster girrenera</i>, Vieill. <hw>Eaglehawk</hw>, <i>n.</i> an Australian name for the bird <i>Uroaetus</i>, or <i>Aquila audax</i>, Lath. The name was applied to the bird by the early colonists of New South Wales, and has persisted. In `O.E.D.' it is shown that the name was used in Griffith's translation (1829) of Cuvier's `Regne Animal' as a translation of the French <i>aigle-autour</i>, Cuvier's name for a South American bird of prey of the genus <i>Morphnus</i>, called <i>Spizaetus</i> by Vieillot; but it is added that the word never came into English use. See <i>Eagle</i>. There is a town in Victoria called Eaglehawk. The Bendigo cabmen make the name a monosyllable, "Glawk." 1834. L. E. Threlkeld, `Australian Grammar, p. 56: "The large eaglehawk, which devours young kangaroos, lambs, etc." 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. i. pl. 1: "<i>Aquila Fucosa</i>, Cuv., [now <i>A. audax</i>, Lath.] Wedge-tailed eagle. Eaglehawk, Colonists of New South Wales." 1863. B. A. Heywood, `Vacation Tour at the Antipodes,' p. 106: "We knew it was dying, as two large eaglehawks were hovering about over it." 1880. Fison and Howitt, `Kamilaroi and Kurnai,' p. 251: "The hair of a person is tied on the end of the throwing-stick, together with the feathers of the eagle hawk." 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia', p. 106: "Since the destruction of native dogs and eagle-hawks by the squatters, who stocked the country with sheep, the kangaroos have not a single natural enemy left." 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 35: "On the New South Wales side of the river the eagle-hawk is sometimes so great a pest amongst the lambs that the settlers periodically burn him out by climbing close enough to the nest to put a fire-stick in contact with it." <hw>Eagle-hawking</hw>, <i>n.</i> bush slang: plucking wool off dead sheep. <hw>Eagle-Ray</hw>, <i>n.</i> name belonging to any large <i>Ray</i> of the family <i>Myliobatidae</i>; the New Zealand species is <i>Myliobatis nieuhofii</i>. <hw>Eastralia</hw>, <i>n.</i> recent colloquial name, fashioned on the model of <i>Westralia</i> (q.v.), used in West Australia for the Eastern Colonies. In Adelaide, its application seems confined to New South Wales. <hw>Ebony</hw>, <i>n.</i> a timber. The name is applied in Australia to two species of <i>Bauhinia</i>, <i>B. carronii</i>, F. v. M., and <i>B. hookeri</i>, F. v. M., N.O. Leguminosae. Both are called Queensland or Mountain Ebony. <hw>Echidna</hw>, <i>n.</i> a fossorial Monotreme, in general appearance resembling a Porcupine, and often called <i>Spiny Ant-eater</i> or <i>Porcupine</i>, or <i>Porcupine Ant-eater</i>. The body is covered with thick fur from which stiff spines protrude; the muzzle is in the form of a long toothless beak; and the tongue is very long and extensile, and used largely for licking up ants; the feet are short, with strong claws adapted for burrowing. Like the Marsupials, the Echidna is provided with a pouch, but the animal is oviparous, usually laying two eggs at a time, which are carried about in the pouch until the young ones are hatched, when they are fed by a secretion from mammary glands, which do not, however, as in other mammals, open on to a nipple. The five-toed Echidnas (genus <i>Echidna</i>) are found in New Guinea, Australia, and Tasmania, while the three-toed Echidnas (genus <i>Proechidna</i>) are confined to New Guinea. The species are--Common E., <i>Echidna aculeata</i>, Shaw; Bruijn's E., <i>Proechidna bruijni</i>, Peters and Doria; Black-spined E., <i>Proechidna nigro-aculeata</i>, Rothschild. The name is from Grk. <i>'echidna</i>, an adder or viper, from the shape of the long tongue. 1832. J. Bischoff, `Van Diemen's Land,' c. ii. p. 29: "The native porcupine or echidna is not very common." 1843. J.Backhouse, `Narrative of a Visit to the Australian Colonies,' p. 89: "The Porcupine of this land, Echidna hystrix, is a squat species of ant-eater, with short quills among its hair: it conceals itself in the day time among dead timber in the hilly forests." 1851. `Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Van Diemen's Land,' vol. i. p. 178: "Mr. Milligan mentioned that one of the Aborigines of Tasmania reports having often discovered the nest of the <i>Echidna Setosa</i>, porcupine or ant eater, of the colony; that on several occasions <i>one egg</i> had been found in it, and never more: this <i>egg</i> has always been found to contain a <i>foetus</i> or chick, and is said to be round, considerably less than a tennis ball, and without a shell. The mother is said to sit continuously (for a period not ascertained) in the manner of the common fowl over the eggs; she does not leave the young for a considerable time after having hatched it; at length, detaching it from the small teat, she moves out hurriedly and at long intervals in quest of food, the young one becoming, at each successive return, attached to the nipple. . . The Platypus (<i>Ornithorhyncus paradoxus</i>) is said to lay two eggs, having the same external membranous covering, but of an oblong shape." 1860. G. Bennett,' Gatherings of a Naturalist in Australasia,' p. 147: "The Porcupine Ant-eater of Australia (<i>Echidna hystrix</i>) (the native Porcupine or Hedgehog of the colonists), and the Ornithorhynchus, to which it is allied in internal organization, form the only two genera of the order <i>Monotremata</i>." 1888. Cassell's' Picturesque Australasia,' vol. ii. p. 230: "Among the gigantic boulders near the top he may capture the burrowing ant-eating porcupine, though if perchance he place it for a moment in the stoniest ground, it will tax all his strength to drag it from the instantaneous burrow in which it will defiantly embed itself." 1892. A.Sutherland, `Elementary Geography of British Colonies,' p. 273: "The echidna is an animal about a foot or 18 inches long, covered with spines like a hedgehog. It lives chiefly upon ants. With its bill, which is like a duck's but narrower, it burrows into an ant's-hill, and then with its long, whip-like, sticky tongue, draws the ants into its mouth by hundreds." 1894. R. Lydekker, `Marsupialia and Monotremata,' p. 247: "In order to enable them to procure with facility their food of ants and their larvae, echidnas are provided with very large glands, discharging into the mouth the viscid secretion which causes the ants to adhere to the long worm-like tongue when thrust into a mass of these insects, after being exposed by the digging powers of the claws of the echidna's limbs. . . . When attacked they roll themselves into a ball similar to the hedgehog." <hw>Echu</hw>, <i>n.</i> the name of an Australian bird which has not been identified. The word does not occur in the ornithological lists. 1862. H. C. Kendall, `Poems--Evening Hymn,' p. 53: "The echu's songs are dying with the flute-bird's mellow tone." 1896. `The Australasian,' Jan. 11, p. 73, col. 1: "`Yeldina' (Rochester) writes--While I was on the Murray, a few days before Christmas last, some miles below <i>Echuca</i>, my attention was attracted to the melancholy note, as of a bird which had lost its mate, calling ee-k-o-o, e-e-koo, which was repeated several times, after which a pause, then ee-koo, ee-ko, coolie, coolie, ee-koo. This happened in the scrub at sunset, and came, I think, from a bird smaller than the Australian minah, and of a greenish yellowish hue, larger, but similar to the members of the feathered tribe known to young city `knights of the catapult' as greenies. It was while returning to camp from fishing that I noticed this bird, which appeared of solitary habits." "`Crossbolt' (Kew) writes--The echu is probably identical with a handsome little bird whose peculiar cry `e-e-choo' is familiar to many bush ramblers. It is the size of a small wood-swallow; black head, back, wings, and tail more or less blue-black; white throat; neck and breast light to rich brown. The female is much plainer, and would scarcely be recognized as the mate of the former. The melodious `e-e-choo' is usually answered from a distance, whether by the female or a rival I cannot say, and is followed by a prolonged warbling." <hw>Eel</hw>, <i>n.</i> The kinds present in Australia are-- Common Eel-- <i>Anguilla australis</i>, Richards. Conger E.-- <i>Conger labiatus</i>, Castin., and <i>Gonorhynchus grayi</i>, Richards. Green E. (New South Wales)-- <i>Muroena afra</i>, Bl. Silver E.-- <i>Muroenesox cinereus</i>, Forsk.; also called the Sea-eel (New South Wales). <i>Conger wilsoni</i>, Castln. (Melbourne). The New Zealand Eels are-- Black Eel-- <i>Anguilla australis</i>, Richards. Conger E.-- <i>Conger vulgaris</i>, Cuv. Sand E.-- <i>Gonorynchus grayi</i>, Richards. Serpent E.-- <i>Ophichthys serpens</i>, Linn. Silver E.-- <i>Congromuroena habenata</i>, Richards. Tuna E.-- <i>Anguilla aucklandii</i>, Richards. The Sand Eel does not belong to the Eel family, and is only called an Eel from its habits. <hw>Eel-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. <i>Plotosus tandanus</i>, Mitchell. Called also <i>Catfish</i> (q.v.), and <i>Tandan</i> (q.v.). 1838. T. L. Mitchell, `Three Expeditions,' vol. i. pl. 5, p.. 44 and 95 [Note]: "<i>Plotosus tandanus</i>, tandan or eel-fish. Tandan is the aboriginal name." <hw>Egret</hw>, <i>n.</i> an English bird-name. The following species are present in Australia, some being European and others exclusively Australian-- Lesser Egret-- <i>Herodias melanopus</i>, Wagl. Little E.-- <i>H. garzetta</i>, Linn. Pied E.-- <i>H. picata</i>, Gould. Plumed Egret-- <i>H. intermedia</i>, v. Hasselq. White E.-- <i>H. alba</i>, Linn. <hw>Elder</hw>, <i>n.</i> See next word. <hw>Elderberry, Native</hw>, <i>n.</i> The two Australian species of the Elder are <i>Sambucus gaudichaudiana</i>, De C., and <i>S. xanthocarpa</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Caprifoliaceae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 56: "Native elderberry. The fruit of these two native elders is fleshy and sweetish, and is used by the aborigines for food." <hw>Elephant-fish</hw>, <i>n.</i> a fish of New Zealand, South Australian, and Tasmanian waters, <i>Callorhynchus antarcticus</i>, Lacep., family <i>Chimaeridae</i>. "It has a cartilaginous prominence of the snout, ending in a cutaneous flap" (Gunth.), suggesting a comparison with an elephant's trunk. Called also <i>King of the Herrings</i> (q.v.). 1802. G. Barrington, `Voyage to New South Wales,' p. 388: "The sea affords a much greater plenty, and at least as great a variety as the land; of these the elephant fish were very palatable food." <hw>Ellangowan Poison-bush</hw>, <i>n.</i> a Queensland name for <i>Myoporum deserti</i>, Cunn., <i>N.O. Myoporinae</i>,; called "Dogwood Poison-bush" in New South Wales. Ellangowan is on the Darling Downs in Queensland. Poisonous to sheep, but only when in fruit. <hw>Emancipatist</hw>, and <hw>Emancipist</hw>, <i>n</i>. (the latter, the commoner), an ex-convict who has served out his sentence. The words are never used now except historically. 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. ii. p. 118: "Emigrants who have come out free from England, and emancipists, who have arrived here as convicts, and have either been pardoned or completed their term of servitude." 1830. R. Dawson, `Present State of Australia,' p. 302: "Men who had formerly been convicts, but who, after their period of servitude had expired, were called `emancipists.'" 1837. Jas. Mudie, `Felonry of New South Wales,' p. vii: "The author begs leave to record his protest against the abuse of language to the misapplication of the terms <i>emancipists</i> and <i>absentees</i> to two portions of the colonial felonry. An emancipist could not be understood to mean the emancipated but the emancipator. Mr. Wilberforce may be honoured with the title of emancipist; but it is as absurd to give the same appellation to the emancipated felons of New South Wales as it would be to bestow it upon the emancipated negroes of the West Indies." 1845. J. O. Balfour, `Sketch of New South Wales,' p. 69: "The same emancipist will, however, besides private charity, be among the first and greatest contributors to a new church." 1852. `Fraser's Magazine,' vol. xlvi. p. 135: "The convict obtained his ticket-of-leave . . . became an emancipist . . . and found transportation no punishment." <hw>Emu</hw>, <i>n.</i> an Australian bird, <i>Dromaius novae-hollandiae</i>, Lath. There is a second species, Spotted Emu, <i>Dromaius irroratus</i>, Bartlett. An earlier, but now unusual, spelling is <i>Emeu</i>. <i>Emeus</i> is the scientific name of a New Zealand genus of extinct struthious birds. The word <i>Emu</i> is not Australian, but from the Portuguese <i>Ema</i>, the name first of the Crane, afterwards of the Ostrich. Formerly the word <i>Emu</i> was used in English for the Cassowary, and even for the American Ostrich. Since 1885 an <i>Emu</i> has been the design on the twopenny postage stamp of New South Wales. 1613. `Purchas Pilgrimmage,' pt. I. Vol v. c. xii. p. 430 (`O.E.D.'): "The bird called Emia or Eme is admirable." 1774. Oliver Goldsmith, `Natural History,' vol. iii. p. 69, Book III. c. v. [Heading] "The Emu." 1788. `History of New South Wales' (1818), p. 53: "A bird of the ostrich genus, but of a species very different from any other in the known world, was killed and brought in. Its length was between seven and eight feet; its flesh was good and thought to resemble beef. It has obtained the name of the New South Wales Emu." 1789. Captain W. Tench, `Expedition to Botany Bay,' p. 123: "The bird which principally claims attention is a species of ostrich, approaching nearer to the emu of South America than any other we know of." 1793 Governor Hunter, `Voyage,' p. 69: "Some were of opinion that it was the emew, which I think is particularly described by Dr. Goldsmith from Linneus: others imagined it to be the cassowary, but it far exceeds that bird in size . . . two distinct feathers grew out from every quill." 1802. D. Collins, `Account of English Colony in New South Wales,' vol. ii. p. 307: "These birds have been pronounced by Sir Joseph Banks, of whose judgment none can entertain a doubt, to come nearer to what is known of the American ostrich than to either the emu of India or the ostrich of Africa." 1804. `Rev. R. Knopwood's Diary' (J. J. Shillinglaw-- `Historical Records of Port Phillip,' 1879), p. 115: [At the Derwent] 26 March, 1804--"They caught six young emews [sic], about the size of a turkey, and shot the old mother." 1832. J. Bischof, `Van Diemen's Land,' p. 165: "We saw an emu track down the side of a hill." 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discovery in Australia,' vol. i. c. ix. p.276 "The face of the emu bears a most remarkable likeness to that of the aborigines of New South Wales." 1846. C. P. Hodgson, `Reminiscences of Australia,' p. 160: "They will pick up anything, thimbles, reels of cotton, nails, bullets indiscriminately: and thus the proverb of `having the digestion of an emu' has its origin." 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. vi. pl. I: "<i>Dromaius Novae Hollandiae</i>. The Emu. New Holland Cassowary.--'Governor Phillips' Voyage, 1789.'" 1850. J. B. Clutterbuck, `Port Phillip in 1849,' p. 42: "The emu strides with such rapidity over the plains as to render its capture very difficult even by the swiftest greyhound." 1872. C. H. Eden, "My Wife and I in Queensland,' p. 52: "A couple of grave-looking emus. These wobble away at an ungainly but rapid pace directly they sight us, most probably vainly pursued by the dray dogs which join us farther on, weary and unsuccessful--indeed the swiftest dog finds an emu as much as he can manage." 1878. A. Newton, in `Encyclopedia Britannica' (9th edit.), vol. viii. p. 173: "Next to the ostrich the largest of existing birds, the common emeu. . .'' 1881. A.C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 210: ". . . points out two emus to John. . . . They resemble ostriches, but are not so large, and the tail droops more. . . . John can distinguish every point about them, from their black cast-iron looking legs, to the bare neck and small head, with its bright eye and strong flat beak." 1890. `Victorian Statutes--Game Act, Third Schedule': "Emu. [Close Season.] From the 14th day of June to the 20th day of December following in each year." 1893. `The Argus,' March 25,p. 4, col. 5: "The chief in size is the egg of the cassowary, exactly like that of the emu except that the colour is pale moss green instead of the dark green of the emu." <hw>Emu-Apple</hw>, <i>n.</i> See <i>Apple</i>. <hw>Emu-Bush</hw>, <i>n.</i> an Australian shrub, <i>Eremophila longifolia</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Myoporineae</i>. 1875. T. Laslett, `Timber and Timber Trees,' p. 206: "Emu-tree. A small Tasmanian tree; found on low marshy ground used for turners' work." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 317: "Emu-bush. Owing to emus feeding on the seeds of this and other species. <i>Heterodendron oleaefolium</i>, Desf." Ibid. p. 132: "The seeds, which are dry, are eaten by emus." <hw>Emu-Wren</hw>, <i>n.</i> a bird-name. See <i>Malurus</i>. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. iii. pl. 31: "<i>Stipituras Malachurus</i>, Less. Emu Wren. The decomposed or loose structure of these [tail] feathers, much resembling those of the emu, has suggested the colonial name of Emu-Wren for this species, an appellation singularly appropriate, inasmuch as it at once indicates the kind of plumage with which the bird is clothed, and the Wren-like nature of its habits." 1860. G. Bennett, `Gatherings of a Naturalist,' p. 213: "The delicate little emeu wren." 1865. Lady Barker (letter from `Melbourne), `Station Life in New Zealand,' p. 8: "Then there is the emu-wren, all sad-coloured, but quaint, with the tail-feathers sticking up on end, and exactly like those of an emu, on the very smallest scale, even to the peculiarity of two feathers growing out of the same little quill." <hw>Eopsaltria</hw>, <i>n.</i> scientific name for the genus of Australian birds called <i>Shrike-Robins</i> (q.v.). (Grk. <i>'aeows</i>, dawn, and <i>psaltria</i>, a female harper.) <hw>Epacris</hw>, <i>n.</i> scientific name of the typical genus of the order <i>Epacrideae</i>, a heath-like flower of which there are twenty- five species, mostly Australian. From Greek <i>'epi</i>, upon, and <i>'akron</i>, top (the flowers grow in spikes at the top of the plant). In Australia they are frequently confused with and called <i>Ericas</i>. <hw>Ephthianura</hw>, <i>n.</i> scientific name of a genus of very small Australian birds, anglicized as Ephthianure. For species see quotation, 1848. A fourth species has been discovered since Gould's day, <i>E. crocea</i>, Castln. and Ramsay, which inhabits Northern Australia. The name was first given by Gould, in the `Proceedings of the Zoological Society of 1837,' p. 148, as a <i>genus novum</i>. The origin of the word is not certain, but as the tail is unusually small, it is suggested that the name is from the Greek 'oura, tail, and Homeric imperfect 3rd person sing. <i>'ephthien</i>, wasted away, from <i>phthiow</i> (= <i>phthinow</i>). [The word occurs <i>Iliad</i> xviii. 446.] //phthio is ONLY in Homer!! Iliad AND Odyssey GJC// 1848. J. Gould,' Birds of Australia,' vol. iii. pl. 64: "<i>Ephthianura Albifrons</i>, White-fronted Ephthianura," pl. 65. "<i>Aurifrons</i>, Gould, Orange-fronted E.," pl. 66. "<i>Tricolor</i>, Gould, Tricoloured E.'" 1890. `Victorian Statutes--Game Act, Third Schedule': "Close season.--Ephthianuras. The whole year." <hw>Escapee</hw>, <i>n.</i> one who has escaped. Especially used of French convicts who escape from New Caledonia. The word is formed on the model of <i>absentee, refugee</i>, etc., and is manifestly influenced by Fr. <i>e/chappe/</i>. <i>Escaper</i> is the historical English form. (See Bible, 2 Kings ix. 15, margin.) //He means, of course, the so-called Authorised Version" which reads, ftn. 5: "let no escaper go, etc." Even though the Revised Version was published in 1885. GJC// 1880. `Melbourne Argus,' July 22, p. 2, col. 3 (`O.E.D.'): "The ten New Caledonia escapees . . . are to be handed over to the French consul." <hw>Eucalyn</hw>, <i>n.</i> a sugar obtained, together with laevulose, by fermentation of <i>melitose</i> (q.v.) with yeast, or by boiling it with dilute acids. <hw>Eucalypt</hw>, <i>n.</i> shortened English form of <i>Eucalyptus</i> used especially in the plural, <i>Eucalypts. Eucalypti</i> sounds pedantic. 1880. T. W. Nutt, `Palace of Industry,' p. 11: "Stems of the soaring eucalypts that rise Four hundred friendly feet to glad the skies." 1887. J. F. Hogan, `The Irish in Australia,' p. 126: "There is no unmixed good, it is said, on this mundane sphere, and the evil that has accompanied the extensive settlement of Gipps Land during recent years is to be found in the widespread destruction of the forests, resulting in a disturbance of the atmospheric conditions and the banishment of an ever-active agent in the preservation of health, for these eucalypts, or gum-trees, as they are generally called, possess the peculiar property of arresting fever-germs and poisonous exhalations. They have been transplanted for this especial purpose to some of the malaria-infested districts of Europe and America, and with pronounced success. Australia, to which they are indigenous, has mercilessly hewn them down in the past, but is now repenting of its folly in that respect, and is replanting them at every seasonable opportunity." 1892. A. Sutherland, `Elementary Geography of British Colonies,' p. 270: "Throughout the whole of Australia the prevailing trees are eucalypts, known generally as gum-trees on account of the gum which they secrete, and which may be seen standing like big translucent beads on their trunks and branches." <hw>Eucalyptene</hw>, <i>n.</i> the name given by Cloez to a hydrocarbon obtained by subjecting <i>Eucalyptol</i> (q.v.) to dehydration by phosphorus pentoxide. The same name has also been given by other chemists to a hydrocarbon believed to occur in eucalyptus oil. <hw>Eucalyptian</hw>, <i>adj</i>. playfully formed; not in common use. 1870. A. L. Gordon, `Bush Ballads,' p. 8: "Gnarl'd, knotted trunks Eucalyptian Seemed carved, like weird columns Egyptian, With curious device--quaint inscription And hieroglyph strange." <hw>Eucalyptic</hw>, <i>adj</i>. full of gumtrees. 1873. J. Brunton Stephens, `Black Gin, etc.,' p.6: "This eucalyptic cloisterdom is anything but gay." <hw>Eucalyptol</hw>, <i>n.</i> a volatile oil of camphor-like smell, extracted from the oil of <i>Eucalyptus globulus</i>, Labill., <i>E. amygdalina</i>, Labill., etc. Chemically identical with cineol, got from other sources. <hw>Eucalyptus</hw>, <i>n.</i> the gum tree. There are 120 species, as set forth in Baron von Mueller's `Eucalyptographia, a Descriptive Atlas of the Eucalypts of Australia.' The name was first given in scientific Latin by the French botanist L'Heritier, in his <i>Sertum Anglicum</i>, published in 1788. From the Greek <i>'eu</i>, well, and <i>kaluptein</i>, to cover. See quotation, 1848. <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. The French now say <i>Eucalyptus</i>; earlier they called it <i>l'acajou de la nouvelle Hollande</i>. The Germans call it <i>Schoenmutze</i>. See <i>Gum</i>. 1823. Sidney Smith, `Essays,' p. 440: "A London thief, clothed in Kangaroo's skins, lodged under the bark of the dwarf eucalyptus, and keeping sheep, fourteen thousand miles from Piccadilly, with a crook bent into the shape of a picklock, is not an uninteresting picture." 1833. C. Sturt, `Southern Australia,' vol. i. c. ii. p. 80: "A large basin in which there are stunted pines and eucalyptus scrub." 1848. W. Westgarth, `Australia Felix,' p. 132: "The scientific term Eucalyptus has been derived from the Greek, in allusion to a lid or covering over the blossom, which falls off when the flower expands, exposing a four-celled capsule or seed-vessel." 1851. G. W. Rusden, `Moyarra,' canto i. p. 8: "The eucalyptus on the hill Was silent challenge to his skill." 1879. `Temple Bar,' Oct., p. 23 ('0. E. D.'): "The sombre eucalypti . . . interspersed here and there by their dead companions." 1886. J. A. Froude, `Oceana,' p. 118: "At intervals the bush remained untouched, but the universal eucalyptus, which I had expected to find grey and monotonous, was a Proteus it shape and colour, now branching like an oak or a cork tree, now feathered like a birch, or glowing like an arbutus with an endless variety of hue--green, orange, and brown." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right, c. v. p. 46: "A lofty eucalyptus . . . lay with its bared roots sheer athwart a tiny watercourse." <hw>Euro</hw>, <i>n.</i> one of the aboriginal names for a <i>Kangaroo</i> (q.v.); spelt also <i>Yuro</i>. 1885. Mrs. Praed, `Head Station,' p. 192: "Above and below . . . were beetling cliffs, with ledges and crannies that afforded foothold only to yuros and rock-wallabies." <hw>Exclusionist</hw>, <i>n.</i> and <i>adj</i>. See quotation. 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. ii. pp. 118-19: ". . . one subdivision of the emigrant class alluded to, is termed the <i>exclusionist</i> party, from their strict exclusion of the emancipists from their society." <hw>Exileism</hw>, <i>n.</i> a word of same period as <i>Exiles</i> (q.v.). 1893. A. P. Martin, `Life of Lord Sherbrooke,' vol. i. p. 381: "A gentleman who was at this time engaged in pastoral pursuits in New South Wales, and was therefore a supporter of exileism.'" <hw>Exiles</hw>, <i>n.</i> euphemistic name for convicts. It did not last long. 1847, A. P. Martin, `Life of Lord Sherbrooke' (1893), vol. i. p. 378: "The cargoes of criminals were no longer to be known as `convicts,' but (such is the virtue in a name!) as `exiles.' It was, as Earl Grey explained in his despatch of Sept 3, 1847, `a scheme of reformatory discipline.'" 1852. G. B. Earp, `Gold Colonies of Australia,' p. 100: "The convict system ceased in New South Wales in 1839; but `exiles' as they were termed, i.e. men who had passed their probation at home, were forwarded till 1843." <hw>Expiree</hw>, <i>n.</i> a convict whose term of sentence had expired. 1852. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes' (ed. 1885), p. 107: "A hireling convict - emancipist, expiree, or ticket of leave." <hw>Expiree</hw>, <i>adj</i>. See preceding. 1847. J. D. Lang, `Cooksland,' p. 271: "Very many of their servants, being old hands or expiree convicts from New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land, are thoroughly unprincipled men." 1883. E. M. Curr, `Recollections of Squatting in Victoria' (1841-1351), p. 40: "Hiring men in Melbourne in 1841 was not by any means an agreeable job, as wages were high, and labourers (almost all old gaol-birds and expiree convicts) exceedingly independent and rowdy." F <hw>Fairy Gardens</hw>, <i>n.</i> a miner's term, explained in quotation. 1852. F. Lancelott, `Australia, as it is', vol. ii. p. 221: "On the south-eastern portion of this county is the world-famed Burra Burra copper mine. . . . Some of the cuttings are through solid blocks of ore, which brilliantly glitter as you pass with a lighted candle, while others are formed in veins of malachite, and from their rich variegated green appearance are not inaptly called by the miners `Fairy gardens.'" <hw>Fake-mucker</hw>, <i>n.</i> a Tasmanian name for the <i>Dusky Robin</i> (<i>Petroica vittata</i>). See <i>Robin</i>. <hw>Falcon</hw>, <i>n.</i> English bird-name. The Australian species are-- Black Falcon-- <i>Falco subniger</i>, Gray. Black-cheeked F.-- <i>F. melanogenys</i>, Gould. Grey F.-- <i>F. hypoleucus</i>, Gould. Little F.-- <i>F. lunulatus</i>, Lath. See also Nankeen-Hawk. <hw>Fantail</hw>, <i>n.</i> bird-name applied in England to a pigeon; in Australia and New Zealand, to the little birds of the genus <i>Rhipidura</i> (q.v.). It is a fly-catcher. The Australian species are-- <i>Rhipidura albiscapa</i>, Gould. Black-and-White Fantail (called also the <i>Wagtail</i>, q.v.)-- <i>R. tricolor</i>, Vieill. Dusky F.-- <i>R. diemenensis</i>, Sharpe. Northern F.-- <i>R. setosa</i>, Quoy and Gaim. Pheasant F.-- <i>Rhipidura phasiana</i>, De Vis. Rufous F.-- <i>R. rufifrons</i>, Lath. Western F.-- <i>R. preissi</i>, Cab. White-tailed F.-- <i>R. albicauda</i>, North. Wood F.-- <i>R. dryas</i>, Gould. The New Zealand species are-- Black F.-- <i>Rhipidura fuliginosa</i>, Sparrm. (Tiwaiwaka). Pied F.-- <i>R. flabellifera</i>, Gmel. (Piwakawaka). In Tasmania, the <i>R. diemenensis</i> is called the Cranky Fantail, because of its antics. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Journal,' vol. ii. p. 80: "We also observed the . . . fantailed fly-catcher (<i>Rhipidura</i>)." 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 69: "The Red Fantail, ever flitting about with broadly expanded tail, and performing all manner of fantastic evolutions, in its diligent pursuit of gnats and flies, is one of the most pleasing and attractive objects in the New Zealand forest. It is very tame and familiar." <hw>Farinaceous City</hw>, or <hw>Village</hw>, <i>n.</i> a playful name for Adelaide. The allusion is to wheat being the leading export of South Australia. 1873. A. Trollope, `Australia and New Zealand,' vol. ii. p. 184: "[Adelaide] has also been nicknamed the Farinaceous City. A little gentle ridicule is no doubt intended to be conveyed by the word." <hw>Fat-cake</hw>, <i>n.</i> ridiculous name sometimes applied to <i>Eucalyptus leucoxylon</i>, F. v. M., according to Maiden (`Useful Native Plants,' p. 471). <hw>Fat-hen</hw>, <i>n.</i> a kind of wild spinach. In England the name is applied to various plants of thick foliage. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 40: "The fat-hen (Atriplex) . . ." 1872. C. H. Eden, `My Wife and I in Queensland,' p. 120: "Another wild vegetable brew in the sandy beds of the rivers and creeks, called `fat-hen.' It was exactly like spinach, and not only most agreeable but also an excellent anti-scorbutic, a useful property, for scurvy is not an unknown thing in the bush by any means." 1881. A.C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 156: "Boiled salt junk, with <i>fat-hen</i> (a kind of indigenous spinach)." 1889. J. M. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 16: "<i>Chenopodium murale</i>, Linn., Australian spinach. Bentham considers this may have been introduced." <hw>Felonry</hw>, <i>n.</i> See quotation. 1837. Jas. Mudie, `Felonry of New South Wales,' p. 6: "The author has ventured to coin the word <i>felonry</i>, as the appellative of an order or class of persons in New South Wales--an order which happily exists in no other country in the world. A legitimate member of the tribe of appellatives . . . as peasantry, tenantry, yeomanry, gentry." 1858. T. McCombie, `History of Victoria,' c. xv. p. 24: "The inundation of the Australian colonies with British Felonry." 1888. Sir C. Gavan Duffy, `Contemporary Review,' vol. liii. p.14 [`Century']: "To shut out the felonry of Great Britain and Ireland." <hw>Ferns</hw>. The following list of Australian ferns is taken from `The Fern World of Australia,' by F. M. Bailey of Brisbane (1881), omitting from his list all ferns of which the vernacular and scientific names coincide with the names of ferns elsewhere. Bat's-wing Fern-- <i>Pteris incisa</i>, Thunb. Black Tree F. of New Zealand-- <i>Cyathea medullaris</i>, Sw. Blanket F.-- <i>Grammitis rutaefolia</i>, R. Br. Braid F.-- <i>Platyzoma microphyllum</i>, R. Br. Caraway F.-- <i>Athyrium umbrosum</i>, J. Sm. Curly F.-- <i>Cheilanthes tenuifolia</i>, Sw. Deer's-tongue F.-- <i>Acrostichum conforme</i>, Sw. Ear F.-- <i>Pteris falcata</i>, R. Br. Elk's-horn F.-- <i>Platycerium alcicorne</i>, Desv. Fan F.-- <i>Gleichenia flabellata</i>, R. Br. Golden Swamp F.-- <i>Acrostichum aureum</i>, Linn. Grass-leaved F. (q.v.)-- <i>Vittaria elongata</i>, Sw. *Hare's-foot F.-- <i>F. Davallia pyxidata</i>, Cav. Jersey F.-- <i>Grammitis leptophylla</i>, Sw. *Lady F.-- <i>Aspidium aculeatum</i>, Sw. *Maiden-hair F.-- <i>Adiantum</i>, spp. Meadow-rue Water F.-- <i>Ceratoptoris thalictroides</i>, Brong. Parasol F.-- <i>Gleichenia circinata</i>, Sw. Pickled-cabbage F.-- <i>Lomaria capensis</i>, Willd. Potato F. (q.v.)-- <i>Marattia fraxinea</i>, Sm. Prickly F. (q.v.)-- <i>Alsophila australis</i>, R. Br. Prickly-tree Fern-- <i>Alsophila leichhardtiana</i>, F. v. M. Ribbon F.-- <i>Ophioglossum pendulum</i>, Linn. Shiny F.-- <i>Polypodium aspidoides</i>, Bail. Snake's-tongue F.-- <i>Lygodium</i>, spp. The following are not in Baileys List: Parsley F.-- <i>Cheilanthes tenuifolia</i>, Sw. (Name Parsley applied to a different Fern elsewhere.) Sword F.-- <i>Grammitis australis</i>, R. Br. Umbrella F., Tasmanian name for Fan F. (q.v.). Other ferns not in this list appear elsewhere. See also <i>Ferntree</i>. ____ * Elsewhere the name is applied to a different species. ---- <hw>Fern-bird</hw>, <i>n.</i> a New Zealand bird of the genus <i>Sphenoecus</i>. Also called <i>Grass-bird</i>, and <i>New Zealand Pipit</i>. There are three species-- The Fern-bird-- <i>Sphenoecus punctatus</i>, Gray. Chatham Island F.-b.-- <i>S. rufescens</i>, Buller. Fulvous F.-b.-- <i>S. fulvus</i>, Gray. 1885. `Transactions of the New Zealand Institute,' vol. xviii. p. 125: "The peculiar chirp of the <i>fern bird</i> is yet to be heard among the tall fern." 1885. A. Hamilton, `Native Birds of Petane, Hawke's Bay': "Fern-bird. The peculiar chirp of this lively little bird is yet to be heard among the tall fern, though it is not so plentiful as in days gone by." 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 59: "Fern Bird . . . This recluse little species is one of our commonest birds, but is oftener heard than seen. It frequents the dense fern of the open country and the beds of Raupo." <hw>Fern-tree</hw>, <i>n.</i> Name applied to various species of ferns which grow to a large size, the stem in the fully grown plant reaching often a height of many feet before the leaves are given off. Such Tree-ferns clothe the sides of deep and shady gullies amongst the hills, and give rise to what are known as Fern-tree gullies, which form a very characteristic feature of the moister coastal Ranges of many parts of Australia. The principal <i>Fern-trees</i> or <i>Tree-ferns</i>, as they are indiscriminately called, of Australia and Tasmania are-- <i>Dicksonia antarctica</i>, Lab.; <i>Alsophila australis</i>, R. Br.; <i>Todea africana</i>, Willd.; <i>Cyathea cunninghami</i>, J. Hook.; <i>Alsophila excelsa</i>, R. Br.; the last named, however, not occurring in Tasmania or Victoria. 1836. Ross, `Hobart Town Almanack,' p. 164: "We entered a beautiful fern-tree grove, that also concealed the heavens from view, spreading like a plantation or cocoa-nut tree orchard, but with far more elegance and effect." 1839. C. Darwin, `Voyage of Beagle' (ed. 1890), p. 177: "Tree-ferns thrive luxuriantly in Van Diemen's Land (lat. 45 degrees), and I measured one trunk no less than six feet in circumference. An arborescent fern was found by Forster in New Zealand in 46 degrees, where orchideous plants are parasitical on the trees. In the Auckland Islands, ferns, according to Dr. Dieffenbach, have trunks so thick and high that they may be almost called tree-ferns." 1857. F. R. Nixon (Bishop of Tasmania), `Cruise of the Beacon,' p. 26: "With these they [i.e. the Tasmanian Aborigines] mingled the core or pith of the fern trees, <i>Cibotium Bollardieri</i> and <i>Alsophila Australis</i> (of which the former is rather astringent and dry for a European palate, and the latter, though more tolerable, is yet scarcely equal to a Swedish turnip.)" 1870. S. H. Wintle, `Fragments of Fern Fronds,' p. 39: "Where the feet of the mountains are bathed by cool fountains, The green, drooping fern trees are seen." 1878. William Sharp, `Australian Ballads,' `Canterbury Poets' (Scott, 1888), pp. 180-81: "The feathery fern-trees make a screen, Where through the sun-glare cannot pass-- Fern, gum, and lofty sassafras." "Under a feathery fern-tree bough A huge iguana lies alow." 1884. R. L. A. Davies, `Poems and Literary Remains,' p. 83: "There were mossy fern-trees near me, With their graceful feathered fronds, Which they slowly waved above me, Like hoar magicians' wands." 1893. A.R. Wallace, `Australasia,' vol. i. p. 53: "Here are graceful palms rising to 70 or even 100 feet; the Indian fig with its tortuous branches clothed with a drapery of curious parasites; while graceful tree ferns, 30 feet high, flourish in the damp atmosphere of the sheltered dells." <hw>Fern-tree Gully</hw>. See <i>Fern-tree</i> and <i>Gully</i>. <hw>Fever-bark</hw>, <i>n.</i> another name for <i>Bitter-bark</i> (q.v.). <hw>Fibrous Grass</hw>, <i>n.</i> a Tasmanian grass (see <i>Grass</i>), <i>Stipa semiibarbata</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Gramineae</i>. 1862. W. Archer, `Products of Tasmania,' p. 41: "Fibrous grass (<i>Stipa semibarbata</i>, Br.). After the seed has ripened the upper part of the stem breaks up into fibre, which curls loosely and hangs down waving in the wind." <hw>Fiddle-back</hw>, <i>n.</i> name given in Australia to the beetle, <i>Schizorrhina australasiae</i>. <hw>Fiddler</hw>, <i>n.</i> a New South Wales and Victorian name for a species of Ray, <i>Trygonorhina fasciata</i>, Mull. and Heule, family <i>Rhinobatidae</i>. <hw>Fig-bird</hw>, <i>n.</i> a bird-name. <i>Sphecotheres maxillaris</i>, Lath.; Yellow bellied, <i>S. flaviventris</i>, Gould. <i>S. maxillaris</i> is also called <i>Mulberry-bird</i> (q.v.). <hw>Fig-eater</hw>, <i>n.</i> a bird, i.q. <i>Grape-eater</i> (q.v.). <hw>Fig-tree</hw>, <i>n.</i> The name is applied in Australia to the following species:-- Blue Fig-- <i>Elaeocarpus grandis</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Tiliaceae</i>. Clustered F.-- <i>Ficus glomerata</i>, Willd., <i>N.O. Urticaceae</i>. Moreton Bay F.-- <i>P. macrophylla</i>, Desf., <i>N.O. Urticaciae</i> //sic. check//. Prickly F.-- <i>Elaeocarpus holopetalus</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Tiliaceae</i>. Purple F., or White F., or Rough-leaved F., or Flooded F. [Clarence River]-- <i>Ficus scabra</i>, G. Forst., <i>N.O. Urticaciae</i>. Ribbed F.-- <i>F. pleurocarpa</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Urticaciae</i>. Rusty F., or Narrow-leaved F. [or Port Jackson]-- <i>F. rubiginosa</i>, Desf., <i>N.O. Urticaciae</i>; called also Native Banyan. 1862. H. C. Kendall, `Poems,' p.119: "And I forget how lone we sit beneath this old fig-tree." 1870. F. S. Wilson, `Australian Songs,' p. 115: "The fig-tree casts a pleasant shade On the straggling ferns below." 1882. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 537: "Moreton Bay fig. This noble-looking tree has a wood which is sometimes used, though it is very difficult to season." [It is a handsome evergreen with dark leaves, larger than those of a horse-chestnut, much used as an ornament in street and gardens, especially in Sydney and Adelaide. The fig is not edible.] 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right, c. 44, p. 380: "The . . . venerable church with its alleys of araucaria and Moreton Bay fig-trees." <hw>File-fish</hw>, <i>n.</i> name given in New Zealand to the fish <i>Monacanthus rudis</i>, Richards, family <i>Sclerodermi</i>; in New South Wales to species of the genus <i>Balistes</i>. The first of the spines of the dorsal fin is roughened in front like a file. <i>Balistes maculatus</i> is the "Spotted File-fish" of Sydney. It is closely allied to the genus <i>Monacanthus</i>, called <i>Leather-jacket</i> (q.v.), which is much more numerously represented in Australasia. <hw>Finch</hw>, <i>n.</i> a bird-name, first applied in Australia, in 1848, by Gould, to the genus <i>Poephila</i> (Grass-lover), and since extended to other genera of birds. The species are-- Banded Finch-- <i>Stictoptera bichenovii</i>, Vig. and Hors. Black-ringed F.-- <i>S. annulosa</i>, Gould. Black-rumped F.-- <i>Poephila atropygialis</i>, Diggles. Black-throated F.-- <i>P. cincta</i>, Gould. Chestnut-breasted F.-- <i>Munia castaneothorax</i>, Gould. Chestnut-eared F.-- <i>Taeniopygia castanotis</i>, Gould. Crimson F.-- <i>Neochmia phaeton</i>, Homb. and Jacq. Fire-tailed F.-- <i>Zonaeginthus bellus</i>, Lath. Gouldian F.-- <i>Poephila gouldiae</i>, Gould. Long-tailed F.-- <i>P. acuticauda</i>, Gould. Masked F.-- <i>P. personata</i>, Gould. Painted F.-- <i>Emblema picta</i>, Gould. Plum-head F.-- <i>Aidemosyne modesta</i>, Gould. Red-browed F.-- <i>AEgintha temporalis</i>, Lath. Red-eared F.-- <i>Zonaeginthus oculatus</i>, Quoy and Gaim. Red-tailed F.-- <i>Bathilda ruficauda</i>, Gould. Scarlet-headed F.-- <i>Poephila mirabilis</i>, Homb. and Jacq. Spotted-sided F.-- <i>Staganopleura guttata</i>, Shaw. White-Breasted F.-- <i>Munia pectoralis</i>, Gould. White-eared F.-- <i>Poephila leucotis</i>, Gould. Yellow-rumped F.-- <i>Munia flaviprymna</i>, Gould. <hw>Fire-stick</hw>, <i>n.</i> name given to the lighted stick which the Australian natives frequently carry about, when moving from camp to camp, so as to be able to light a fire always without the necessity of producing it by friction. The fire-stick may be carried in a smouldering condition for long distances, and when traversing open grass country, such as the porcupine-grass covered districts of the interior, the stick is used for setting fire to the grass, partly to destroy this and partly to drive out the game which is hiding amongst it. The <i>fire-stick </i> (see quotations) is also used as emblematic of the camp-fire in certain ceremonies. 1847. J. D. Lang,' Cooksland,'p. 126, n.: "When their fire-stick has been extinguished, as is sometimes the case, for their jins or vestal virgins, who have charge of the fire, are not always sufficiently vigilant." 1896. F. J. Gillen, `Horne Expedition in Central Australia,' Anthropology, pt. iv. p. 170: "Carrying fire-sticks, they place rings, woven of fur and vegetable down, round the boy's neck and arms and sometimes over and under the shoulders; the fire-sticks are then handed to him, the lubras saying: Take care of the fire; keep to your own camp.'" <hw>Firetail</hw>, <i>n.</i> name applied in Victoria to the bird <i>AEgintha temporalis</i>, Lath.; and in Tasmania to <i>Zonaeginthus (Estrelda) bellus</i>, Lath. In New South Wales, <i>AE. temporalis</i> is known as the Red-head. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. iii. pl. 78: "<i>Estrelda Bella</i>, Fire-tailed finch. Fire-tail, Colonists of Van Diemen's Land." <hw>Fire-tree</hw>, <i>n.</i> a tree of New Zealand; another name for <i>Pohutukawa</i> (q.v.). For <i>Queensland Fire-tree</i>, see <i>Tulip-tree</i>. <hw>Fireweed</hw>, <i>n.</i> a name given to several weeds, such as <i>Senecio lautus</i>, Sol., <i>N.O. Compositae</i>; so called because they spring up in great luxuriance where the forest has been burned off. <hw>Fish-hawk</hw>, <i>n.</i> English name applied to <i>Pandion leucocephalus</i>, Gould; called also the Osprey. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. i. pl. 6: "<i>Pandion Leucocephalus</i>, Gould, White-headed osprey. Little fish hawk, Colonists of New South Wales. Fish-hawk, Colonists of Swan River.'' <hw>Fist</hw>, <i>v</i>. to use the hands. The word is not unknown in English in the sense of to grip. (Shakspeare, `Cor.' IV. v. 124) 1846. C. P. Hodgson, `Reminiscences of Australia,' p. 366: "`Fist it,' a colonial expression, which may convey to the uninitiated the idea that knives, forks, plates, etc., are unknown in the bush; such was formerly the case, but the march of improvement has banished this peculiar simplicity." <hw>Five-corners</hw>, <i>n.</i> name given to the fruit of an Australian tree and to the tree itself, <i>Syphelia triflora</i>, Andr., N.O. Epacrideae. There are many species of <i>Styphelia</i> (q.v.), the fruit of several being edible. 1889. J. H. Maiden,' Useful Native Plants,' p. 61: "Five-corners. These fruits have a sweetish pulp with a large stone. They form part of the food of the aboriginals, and are much appreciated by school boys. When from a robust plant they are of the size of a large pea, and not at all bad eating." 1896. H. Lawson, `When the World was Wide,' p. 158: "Still I see in my fancy the dark-green and blue Of the box-covered hills where the five-corners grew." <hw>Flame-tree</hw>, <i>n.</i> The name is given in India and elsewhere to several trees with bright scarlet, or crimson, flowers. In Australia, two different trees are called <i>Flame-trees</i>-- (1) A tree of Eastern Australia, with profuse bright coral-like flowers, <i>Brachychiton acerifolium</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Sterculiaceae</i>. (2) A tree of Western Australia, with brilliant orange-coloured flowers, <i>Nuytsia floribunda</i>, <i>N.O. Loranthaceae</i>; which is also called <i>Tree Mistletoe</i>, and, locally, a <i>Cabbage-tree</i>. 1885. R. M. Praed, `Australian Life,' p. 96: "There are flame-trees showing in spring vivid patches of crimson." <hw>Flannel Flower</hw>, <i>n.</i> an Australian flower, <i>Actinotus helianthi</i>, Labill., <i>N.O. Compositae</i>. It ranges from Gippsland to Southern Queensland, but is particularly abundant in New South Wales. Sometimes called the <i>Australian Edelweiss</i>. For the reason of the name see quotation. 1895. J. H. Maiden, `Flowering Plants of New South Wales,' p. 9: "We only know one truly local name for this plant, and that is the `Flannel Flower'--a rather unpoetical designation, but a really descriptive one, and one universally accepted. It is, of course, in allusion to the involucre, which looks as if it were snipped out of white flannel. It is also known to a few by the name of Australian Edelweiss." <hw>Flathead</hw>, <i>n.</i> name given to several Australian marine fishes, <i>Platycephalus fuscus</i>, Cuv. and Val., and other species of <i>Platycephalus</i>, family <i>Cottidae</i>. The Red Flathead is <i>P. bassensis</i>, Cuv.and Val., and the Rock F. is <i>P. laevigatus</i>, Cuv.and Val. See also <i>Tupong</i> and <i>Maori-chief</i>. 1793. Governor Hunter, `Voyage,' p. 410 (Aboriginal Vocabulary): "Paddewah, a fish called a flathead." 1832. J. Bischoff, `Van Diemen's Land,' c. ii. p. 32: "The market of Hobart Town is supplied with small rock cod, flatheads, and a fish called the perch." <hw>Flat Pea</hw>, <i>n.</i> a genus of Australian flowering plants, <i>Platylobium</i>, <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>. 1793. `Transactions of Linnaean Society,' vol. ii. p. 350: "Its name I have deduced from <i>platus</i>, broad, and <i>lobos</i>, a pod." "P. formosum. Orange flat-pea . . . A figure of this . . . will soon be given in the work I have undertaken on the botany of New Holland." [The figure referred to will be found at p. 17 of the `Specimen of the Botany of New Holland.'] <hw>Flax, Native</hw>, <i>n.</i> The European flax is <i>Linum usitatissimum</i>, <i>N.O. Liniae</i>. There is a species in Australia, <i>Linum marginale</i>, Cunn., <i>N.O. Linaceae</i>, called <i>Native Flax</i>. In New Zealand, the <i>Phormium</i> is called <i>Native Flax</i>. See next word. 1889. J. M. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 626: "`Native flax.' Although a smaller plant than the true flax, this plant yields fibre of excellent quality. It is used by the blacks for making fishing-nets and cordage." <hw>Flax, New Zealand</hw>, <i>n</i>. <i>Phormium tenax</i>, <i>N.O. Liliaceae</i>. A plant yielding a strong fibre. Called also, in New Zealand, <i>Native Flax</i>, and <i>Flax Lily</i>. 1807. J. Savage, `Some account of New Zealand,' p. 56: "Small baskets made of the green native flax." 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. i, p. 63: "The plant is called <i>Phormium tenax</i> by naturalists. The general native name for the plant, we are told, is `korari,' but each sort, and there are ten or twelve, has its distinctive name. Any portion of the leaf, when gathered, becomes here `kie kie,' or literally, `tying stuff.' The operation of scraping is called `kayo,' the fibre when prepared, `muka.'" [Mr. Tregear says that Wakefield's statements are mistaken.] 1851. Mrs. Wilson, `New Zealand,' p. 23: "His robe of glossy flax which loosely flows." 1861. C. C. Bowen, `Poems,' p. 57: "And flax and fern and tutu grew In wild luxuriance round." 1870. T. H. Braiui, `New Homes,' c. viii. p. 375: "The native flax (<i>Phormium tenax</i>) is found in all parts of New Zealand; it grows to the height of about nine feet." 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' v.3, p. 93: "In flowing vest of silky flax, undyed." 1893. `Murray's Handbook to New Zealand,' p. 29: "The so-called native flax (<i>phormium tenax</i>)." <hw>Flax-blade</hw>, <i>n.</i> the leaf of the <i>New Zealand Flax</i> (q.v.). 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' i. 5, p. 11: "With flax-blades binding to a tree The Maid who strove her limbs to free." <hw>Flax-bush</hw>, <i>n.</i> the bush of the <i>New Zealand Flax</i>. 1854. W. Golder, `Pigeons' Parliament,' Intro. p. v: "I had . . . to pass a night . . . under the shade of a flax-bush." 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' x. 4, p. 171: "And the louder flax-bushes With their crowding and crossing Black stems, darkly studded With blossoms red-blooded." <hw>Flax-flower</hw>, <i>n.</i> the flower of the <i>New Zealand Flax</i> (q.v.). 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' xiv. 3, p. 221: "little isles Where still the clinging flax-flower smiles." <hw>Flax-leaf</hw>, <i>n.</i> the blade of the <i>New Zealand Flax</i> (q.v.). 1884. T. Bracken, `Lays of Maori' p. 69: "Zephyrs stirred the flax-leaves into tune. <hw>Flax-lily</hw>, <i>n.</i> (1) An Australian fibre plant, <i>Dianella laevis</i>, var. <i>aspera</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Liliaceae</i>. (2) <i>Phormium tenax</i>. See <i>Flax, New Zealand</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 621: "Flax-lily. The fibre is strong, and of a silky texture. The aboriginals formerly used it for making baskets, etc. All the colonies except Western Australia." <hw>Flindosa</hw>, and <hw>Flindosy</hw>, <i>n.</i> two trees called <i>Beech</i> (q.v.). <hw>Flintwood</hw>, <i>n.</i> another name for <i>Blackbutt</i> (q.v.), <i>Eucalyptus pillularis</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 502: "From the great hardness of the wood it is often known as flintwood." <hw>Flounder</hw>, <i>n.</i> The Flounders in Australia are-- In Sydney, <i>Pseudorhombus russelli</i>, Gray; in Melbourne, <i>Rhombosolea victoriae</i>, Castln.; in New Zealand and Tasmania, <i>R. monopus</i>, Gunth. Maori name, Patiki; family <i>Pleuronectidae</i>. They are all excellent eating. 1876. P. Thomson, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. ix. art. lxvii., p. 487: "Patiki (flounder). Flounders are in the market all the year." <hw>Flower-pecker</hw>, <i>n.</i> bird-name used elsewhere, but in Australia assigned to <i>Dicaeum hirundinaceum</i>, Lath. <hw>Flowering Rush</hw>, <i>n.</i> name given to the rush or reed, <i>Xyris operculata</i>, Lab., <i>N.O. Xyrideae</i>. <hw>Flute-bird</hw>, <i>n.</i> another name for the bird <i>Gymnorrhina tibicen</i>, Lath. Called also <i>Magpie</i> (q.v.). 1862. H. C. Kendall, `Poems,' p. 53: "The flute-bird's mellow tone." <hw>Fly-catcher</hw>, <i>n.</i> bird-name used elsewhere. The Australian species are-- Black-faced Flycatcher-- <i>Monarcha melanopsis</i>, Vieill. Blue F.-- <i>Myiagra concinna</i>, Gould. Broad-billed F.-- <i>M. latirostris</i>, Gould. Brown F. [called also Jacky Winter (q.v.)] <i>Micraeca fascinans</i>, Lath. Leaden F.-- <i>Myiagra rubecula</i>, Lath. Lemon-breasted F.-- <i>Micraeca flavigaster</i>, Gould. Lesser Brown F.-- <i>M. assimilis</i>, Gould. Little F.-- <i>Seisura nana</i>, Gould. Pale F.-- <i>Micraeca pallida</i>. Pearly F.-- <i>Monarcha canescens</i>, Salvad. Pied Fly-catcher-- <i>Arses kaupi</i>, Gould. Restless F.-- <i>Seisura inquieta</i>, Lath. [called also <i>Razor- grinder</i>, q.v., and <i>Dishwasher</i>, q.v.] Satin F.-- <i>Myiagra nitida</i>, Gould [called <i>Satin-robin</i>, q.v., in Tasmania] Shining F.-- <i>Piezorhynchus nitidus</i>, Gould. Spectacled F.-- <i>P. gouldi</i>, Gray. White-bellied F.-- <i>P. albiventris</i>, Gould. White-eared F.-- <i>P. leucotis</i>, Gould. Yellow-breasted F.-- <i>Machaerhynchus flaviventer</i>, Gould. 1790. J. White, `Voyage to New South Wales,' p. 161: "We this day caught a yellow-eared fly-catcher (see annexed plate). This bird is a native of New Holland." [Description follows.] Fly-eater, <i>n.</i> the new vernacular name for the Australian birds of the genus <i>Gerygone</i> (q.v.), and see <i>Warbler</i>. The species are-- Black-throated Fly-eater-- <i>Gerygone personata</i>, Gould. Brown F.-- <i>G. fusca</i>, Gould. Buff-breasted F.-- <i>G. laevigaster</i>, Gould. Green-backed F.-- <i>G. chloronota</i>, Gould. Large-billed F.-- <i>G. magnirostris</i>, Gould. Southern F.-- <i>G. culicivora</i>, Gould. White-throated F.-- <i>G. albogularis</i>, Gould. Yellow-breasted F.-- <i>G. flavida</i>, Ramsay. 1895. W. O. Legge, `Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science `(Brisbane), p. 447: "[The habits and habitats of the genus as] applied to <i>Gerygone</i> suggested the term Fly-<i>eater</i>, as distinguished from Fly-<i>catcher</i>, for this aberrant and peculiarly Australasian form of small Fly-catchers, which not only capture their food somewhat after the manner of Fly-catchers, but also seek for it arboreally." <hw>Flyer</hw>, <i>n.</i> a swift kangaroo. 1866. T. McCombie, `Australian Sketches,' second series, p. 172: "I may here state that the settlers designate the old kangaroos as `old men' and `old women,' the full-grown animals are named `flyers,' and are swifter than the British hare." <hw>Flying-Fox</hw>, <i>n.</i> a gigantic Australian bat, <i>Pteropus poliocephalus</i>, Temm. It has a fetid odour and does great damage to fruits, and is especially abundant in New South Wales, though often met with in Victoria. Described, not named, in first extract. 1793. Governor Hunter, `Voyage,' p. 507: "The head of this bat strongly resembles that of a fox, and the wings of many of them extend three feet ten inches. . . . [Description of one domesticated.] . . . They are very fat, and are reckoned by the natives excellent food. . . . It was supposed more than twenty thousand of them were seen within the space of one mile." 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 315: "One flying fox is an immense bat, of such a horrific appearance, that no wonder one of Cook's honest tars should take it for the devil when encountering it in the woods." 1830. R. Dawson, `Present State of Australia,' p. 310: ". . . a flying fox, which one of them held in his hand. It was, in fact, a large kind of bat, with the nose resembling in colour and shape that of a fox, and in scent it was exactly similar to it. The wing was that of a common English bat, and as long as that of a crow, to which it was about equal in the length and circumference of its body." 1849. J. P. Townsend, `Rambles in New South Wales,' p. 97: "Some of the aborigines feed on a large bat popularly called `the flying fox.' . . We found the filthy creatures, hanging by the heels in thousands, from the higher branches of the trees." 1863. B. A. Heywood, `Vacation Tour at the Antipodes,' p. 102: "The shrill twitter of the flying fox, or vampire bat, in the bush around us." 1871. Gerard Krefft, `Mammals of Australia': "The food on which the `Foxes' principally live when garden fruit is not in season, consists of honey-bearing blossoms and the small native figs abounding in the coast-range scrubs. . . . These bats are found on the east coast only, but during very dry seasons they occur as far west as the neighbourhood of Melbourne." 1881. A.C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. ii. p. 20: "A little further on they came to a camp of flying foxes. The huge trees on both sides of the river are actually black with them. The great bats hang by their hooked wings to every available branch and twig, squealing and quarrelling. The smell is dreadful. The camp extends for a length of three miles. There must be millions upon millions of them." <hw>Flying-Mouse</hw>, <i>n.</i> See <i>Opossum-mouse</i> and <i>Flying-Phalanger</i>. <hw>Flying-Phalanger</hw>, <i>n.</i> included in the class of <i>Phalanger</i> (q.v.). The "flying" Phalangers "have developed large parachute-like expansions of skin from the sides of the body, by means of which they are able to take long flying leaps from bough to bough, and thus from tree to tree. While the great majority of the members of the family are purely vegetable feeders, . . . a few feed entirely or partly on insects, while others have taken to a diet of flesh." (R. Lydekker.) They include the so-called <i>Flying-Squirrel</i>, <i>Flying-Mouse</i>, etc. There are three genera-- Acrobates (q.v.), called the <i>Flying-Mouse</i>, and <i>Opossum-Mouse</i> (q.v.). <i>Petauroides</i> commonly called the <i>Taguan</i>, or <i>Taguan Flying-Squirrel</i>. <i>Petaurus</i> (q.v.), commonly called the <i>Flying Squirrel</i>. The species are-- Lesser F.-Ph.-- <i>Petaurus breviceps</i>. Papuan Pigmy F.-Ph.-- <i>Acrobates pulchellus</i> (confined to Northern Dutch New Guinea). Pigmy F.-Ph.-- <i>A. pygmaeuss</i>. Squirrel F.-Ph.-- <i>Petaurus sciureus</i>. Taguan F.-Ph.-- <i>Petauroides volans</i>. Yellow-bellied F.-Ph.-- <i>P. australis</i>. <hw>Flying-Squirrel</hw>, <i>n.</i> popular name for a Flying-Phalanger, <i>Petaurus sciureus</i>, Shaw, a marsupial with a parachute-like fold of skin along the sides by which he skims and floats through the air. The name is applied to entirely different animals in Europe and America. 1789. Governor Phillip, `Voyage to Botany Bay,' c. xv. p. 151: "Norfolk Island flying squirrel." [With picture.] 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. i.: "The flying squirrels are of a beautiful slate colour, with a fur so fine that, although a small animal, the hatters here give a quarter dollar for every skin." 1849. J. P. Townsend, `Rambles in New South Wales,' p. 37: "The squeal and chirp of the flying squirrel." 1850. R. C. Gunn, `Proceedings of the Royal Society of Van Diemen's Land,' vol. i. p. 253: "In the year 1845 I drew the attention of the Tasmanian Society to the interesting fact that the <i>Petaurus sciureus</i>, or Flying Squirrel, of Port Phillip, was becoming naturalized in Van Diemen's Land. . . . No species of <i>Petaurus</i> is indigenous to Tasmania. . . . It does not appear from all that I can learn, that any living specimens of the <i>Petaurus schireus</i> were imported into Van Diemen's Land prior to 1834; but immediately after the settlement of Port Phillip, in that year, considerable numbers of the flying squirrel were, from their beauty, brought over as pets by the early visitors." 1851. J. B. Clutterbuck, `Port Phillip in 1849,' p. 78: "The flying squirrel, another of the opossum species of the marsupial order, is a beautiful little creature, and disposed over the whole of the interior of New South Wales: its fur is of a finer texture than that of the opossum." 1855. W. Blandowski, `Transactions of Philosophical Society of Victoria,' vol. i. p. 70: "The common flying squirrel (<i>Petaurus sciureus</i>) is very plentiful in the large gum trees near the banks of a creek or river, and appears to entertain a peculiar aversion to the high lands." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 90: "Flying squirrel." [Footnote]: "The marsupial flying phalanger is so called by the Australians." <hw>Fly-Orchis</hw>, <i>n.</i> name applied in Tasmania to the orchid, <i>Prasophyllum patens</i>, R. Br. <hw>Forest</hw>, <i>n.</i> See quotation. 1839. T. L. Mitchell, `Three Expeditions into the Interior of Eastern Australia,' vol i. p. 71 [Footnote]: "A `forest' means in New South Wales an open wood with grass. The common `bush' or `scrubb' consists of trees and saplings, where little grass is to be found." [It is questionable whether this fine distinction still exists.] <hw>Forester</hw>, <i>n.</i> the largest Kangaroo, <i>Macropus giganteus</i>, Zimm. 1832. J. Bischoff, `Van Diemen's Land,' vol. ii. p. 27: "There are three or four varieties of kangaroos; those most common are denominated the forester and brush kangaroo." 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 423: "I called this river the `Red Kangaroo River,' for in approaching it we first saw the red forester of Port Essington." 1862. H. C. Kendall, `Poems,' p. 67: "And the forester snuffing the air Will bound from his covert so dark." 1880. Mrs. Meredith, `Tasmanian Friends and Foes,' p. 15: "We have never had one of the largest kind--the Forester Kangaroo (<i>Macropus gigantes</i>)--tame, for they have been so hunted and destroyed that there are very few left in Tasmania, and those are in private preserves, or very remote out-of-the-way places, and rarely seen. . . . The aborigines called the old father of a flock a Boomer. These were often very large: about five feet high in their usual position, but when standing quite up, they were fully six feet . . . and weighing 150 or 200 pounds." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. xix. p. 181: "The dogs . . . made for them as if they had been a brace of stray foresters from the adjacent ranges." <hw>Forest-Oak</hw>, <i>n.</i> See <i>Oak</i>. Forget-me-not, <i>n.</i> The species of this familiar flower is <i>Myosotis australis</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Asperifoliae</i>. <hw>Fortescue</hw>, or <hw>40-skewer</hw>, <i>n.</i> a fish of New South Wales, <i>Pentaroge marmorata</i>, Cuv. and Val., family <i>Scorpaenidae</i>; called also the <i>Scorpion</i>, and the <i>Cobbler</i>. All its names allude to the thorny spines of its fins. The name <i>Fortescue</i> is an adaptation of <i>Forty-skewer</i> by the law of Hobson-Jobson. 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish of New South Wales,' p. 49: "Of this fish Mr. Hill says: The scorpion or Fortescue, as these fish are popularly termed by fishermen, have been known for a long time, and bear that name no doubt in memory of the pain they have hitherto inflicted; and for its number and array of prickles it enjoys in this country the <i>alias</i> `Forty-skewer' or `Fortescure.' " 1896. F. G. Aflalo, `Natural History of Australia,' p. 228: "<i>Fortescue</i> is a terrible pest, lurking among the <i>debris</i> in the nets and all but invisible, its spines standing erect in readiness for the unwary finger. And so intense is the pain inflicted by a stab, that I have seen a strong man roll on the ground crying out like a madman." <hw>Forty-legs</hw>, <i>n.</i> name given to a millipede, <i>Cermatia smithii</i>. <hw>Forty-spot</hw>, <i>n.</i> name for a bird, a <i>Pardalote</i> (q.v.). Pardalote itself means spotted "like the pard." See also <i>Diamond-bird</i>. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. ii. pl. 37: "<i>Pardalotus quadragintus</i>, Gould, Forty-spotted pardalote. Forty-spot, Colonists of Van Diemen's Land." 1896. `The Australasian,' Aug. 28, p. 407, col. 5: "`Lyre bird' is obvious; so, too, is `forty-spot'; only one wonders why the number 40 was pitched upon. Was it a guess? Or did the namer first shoot the bird and count?" <hw>Fossick</hw>, <i>v. intrans</i>. to dig, but with special meanings. Derived, like <i>fosse</i>, a ditch, and <i>fossil</i>, through French from Lat. <i>fossus</i>, perfect part. of <i>fodere</i>, to dig. <i>Fossicking</i> as pres. part., or as verbal noun, is commoner than the other parts of the verb. (1) To pick out gold. 1852. W. H. Hall, `Practical Experiences at the Diggings in Victoria,' p. 16: "Or fossicking (picking out the nuggets from the interstices of the slate formation) with knives and trowels." (2) To dig for gold on abandoned claims or in waste-heaps. 1865. F. H. Nixon, `Peter Perfume,' p. 59: "They'll find it not quite so `welly good' As their fossicking freak at the Buckland." 1873. A.Trollope, `Australia and New Zealand,' c. xix. p. 286: "Here we found about a dozen Chinamen `fossicking' after gold amidst the dirt of the river, which had already been washed by the first gold-seekers." 1880. G. Sutherland, `Tales of Goldfields,' p. 22: "He commenced working along with several companions at surface digging and fossicking." 1894. `The Argus,' March 14, p. 4, col. 6: "The easiest and simplest of all methods is `fossicking.' An old diggings is the place for this work, because there you will learn the kind of country, formation, and spots to look for gold when you want to break new ground. `Fossicking' means going over old workings, turning up boulders, and taking the clay from beneath them, exploring fissures in the rock, and scraping out the stuff with your table knife, using your pick to help matters. Pulling up of trees, and clearing all soil from the roots, scraping the bottoms of deserted holes, and generally keeping your eye about for little bits of ground left between workings by earlier miners who were in too great a hurry looking after the big fish to attend much to small fry." (3) To search for gold generally, even by stealing. 1861. T. McCombie, `Australian Sketches,' p. 60: "A number of idle and disorderly fellows had introduced a practice which was termed `fossicking.' . . . In the dead hours of midnight they issued forth, provided with wax tapers, and, entering upon the ground, stole the auriferous earth." (4) To search about for anything, to rummage. 1870. S. Lemaitre, `Songs of Goldfields,' p. 14: "He ran from the flat with an awful shout Without waiting to fossick the coffin lid out." 1890. `The Argus,' Aug. 2, p. 4, col. 3: "Half the time was spent in fossicking for sticks." 1891. `The Argus,' Dec. 19, p. 4, col. 2: "I was . . . a boy fossicking for birds' nests in the gullies." 1893. `The Australasian,' Jan. 14: "The dog was fossicking about." <hw>Fossicker</hw>, <i>n.</i> one who fossicks, sc. works among the tailings of old gold-mines for what may be left. 1853. C. Rudston Read, `What I heard, saw, and did at the Australian Gold Fields,' p. 150: "The man was what they called a <i>night fossicker</i>, who slept, or did nothing during the day, and then went round at night to where he knew the claims to be rich, and stole the stuff by candle-light." 1861. T. McCombie, `Australian Sketches,' p. 87: "I can at once recognize the experienced `fossickers,' who know well how to go to work with every chance in their favour." 1864. J. Rogers, `New Rush,' pt. ii. p. 32: "Steady old <i>fossickers</i> often get more Than the first who open'd the ground." 1869. R. Brough Smyth, `Goldfields of Victoria,' p. 612: "A fossicker is to the miner as is the gleaner to the reaper; he picks the crevices and pockets of the rocks." 1891. `The Australasian,' Nov. 21, p. 1015: "We had heard that, on this same field, years after its total abandonment, a two hundred ounce nugget had been found by a solitary fossicker in a pillar left in an old claim." 1891. `The Argus,' Dec. 19, p. 4, col. 2: "The fossickers sluiced and cradled with wonderful cradles of their own building." <hw>Four-o'clock</hw>, <i>n.</i> another name for the <i>Friar-bird</i> (q.v.). <hw>Free-select</hw>, <i>v</i>. to take up land under the Land Laws. See <i>Free-selector</i>. This composite verb, derived from the noun, is very unusual. The word generally used is <i>to select</i>. 1884. Rolf Boldrewood, `Melbourne Memories,' c. xix. p. 134: "Everything which he could have needed had he proceeded to free-select an uninhabited island." <hw>Free-selection</hw>, <i>n.</i> (1) The process of selecting or choosing land under the Land Laws, or the right to choose. Abbreviated often into <i>Selection</i>. See <i>Free-selector</i>. 1865. `Ararat Advertiser' [exact date lost]: "He was told that the areas open for selection were not on the Geelong side, and one of the obliging officials placed a plan before him, showing the lands on which he was free to choose a future home. The selector looked vacantly at the map, but at length became attracted by a bright green allotment, which at once won his capricious fancy, indicating as it did such luxurious herbage; but, much to his disgust, he found that `the green lot' had already been selected. At length he fixed on a yellow section, and declared his intention of resting satisfied with the choice. The description and area of land chosen were called out, and he was requested t0 move further over and pay his money. `Pay?' queried the fuddled but startled <i>bona fide</i>, `I got no money (hic), old `un, thought it was free selection, you know.'" 1870. T. H. Braim, `New Homes,' ii. 87: "A man can now go and make his free selection before survey of any quantity of land not less than 40 nor more than 320 acres, at twenty shillings an acre." 1878. `The Australian,' vol. i. p. 743: "You may go to nine stations out of ten now without hearing any talk but `bullock and free-selection.'" 1880. G. Sutherland, `Tales of Goldfields,' p. 82: "His intention . . . was to take up a small piece of land under the system of `free-selection.'" 1884. Rolf Boldrewood, `Melbourne Memories,' c. xx. p. 162: "This was years before the free-selection discovery." (2) Used for the land itself, but generally in the abbreviated form, <i>Selection</i>. 1887. R. M. Praed, `Longleat of Kooralbyn,' vol. vi, p. 56: "I've only seen three females on my selection since I took it up four years last November." <hw>Free-selector</hw>, <i>n.</i> (abbreviated often to <i>Selector</i>), one who takes up a block of Crown land under the Land Laws and by annual payments acquires the freehold. [320 acres to Victoria, 640 in New South Wales.] 1864. J. Rogers, `New Rush,' pt. i. p. 21: "Free selectors we shall be When our journey's end we see." 1866. `Sydney Morning Herald,' Aug. 9: "The very law which the free selector puts in force against the squatter, the squatter puts in force against him; he selected upon the squatter's run, and the squatter selects upon his grazing right." 1873. Ibid. p. 33: "Men who select small portions of the Crown lands by means of land orders or by gradual purchase, and who become freeholders and then permanently wedded to the colony." 1873. A. Trollope, `Australia and New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 33: "The condition of the free-selector--that of ownership of a piece of land to be tilled by the owner--is the one which the best class of immigrants desire." 1875. `Melbourne Spectator,' June 12, p. 70, col. 2: "A public meeting of non-resident selectors has been held at Rushworth." 1884. Marcus Clarke, `Memorial Volume,' p. 85: "A burly free selector pitched his tent in my Home-Station paddock and turned my dam into a wash." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. xii. p. 116: "No, no; I've kept free-selectors out all these years, and as long as I live here I'll do so still." <hw>Freezer</hw>, <i>n.</i> a sheep bred and raised in order that its mutton may be frozen and exported. 1893. J. Hotson, Lecture in `Age,' Nov.30, p. 7, col. 2: "In the breeding of what are in New Zealand known as `freezers' there lies a ready means of largely increasing the returns from our land." <hw>Fresh-water Herring</hw>, <i>n.</i> In Sydney, the fish is <i>Clupea richmondia</i>, Macl. Elsewhere in Australia, and in Tasmania, it is another name for the <i>Grayling</i> (q.v.). <hw>Fresh-water Perch</hw>, <i>n.</i> name given in Tasmania to the fish <i>Microperca tasmaniae</i>. <hw>Friar-bird</hw>, <i>n.</i> an Australian bird, of the genus called <i>Philemon</i>, but originally named <i>Tropidorhynchus</i> (q.v.). It is a honey-eater, and is also called <i>Poor Soldier</i> and other names; see quotation, 1848. The species are-- Friar-Bird-- <i>Philemon corniculatus</i>, Lath. [Called also <i>Leather-head</i>, q.v.] Helmeted F.-- <i>P. buceroides</i>, Swains. Little F.-- <i>P. sordidus</i>, Gould. Silvery-crowned F.-- <i>P. argenticeps</i>, Gould. Yellow-throated F.- <i>P. citreogularis</i>, Gould. Western F.-- <i>P. occidentalis</i>, Ramsay. 1798. D. Collins, `Account of English Colony in New South Wales,' p. 615 (Vocab.): "Wirgan,--bird named by us the friar." 1827. Vigors and Horsfield, `Transactions of Linnaean Society,' vol. xv. p. 324: "<i>Friar</i>,--a very common bird about Paramatta, called by the natives `<i>coldong</i>:' It repeats the words `poor soldier' and `four o'clock' very distinctly." 1845. `Voyage to Port Phillip,' p. 53: "The cheerful sedge-wren and the bald-head friar, The merry forest-pie with joyous song." 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. iv. pl. 58: "<i>Tropidorhynchus Corniculatus</i>, Vig. and Hors. "From the fancied resemblance of its notes to those words, it has obtained from the Colonists the various names of `Poor Soldier,' `Pimlico,' `Four o'clock,' etc. Its bare head and neck have also suggested the names of `Friar Bird,' `Monk,' `Leather Head,' etc." 1855. W. Blandowski, `Transactions of the Philosophical Society of Victoria,' vol. i. p. 64: "The <i>Tropidorhynchus corniculatus</i> is well known to the colonists by the names `poor soldier,' `leather-headed jackass,' `friar-bird,' etc. This curious bird, in common with several other varieties of honey-eaters, is remarkable on account of its extreme liveliness and the singular resemblance of its notes to the human voice." <hw>Frilled-Lizard</hw>, <i>n.</i> See quotation. 1875, G. Bennett, `Proceedings of Royal Society of Tasmania,' p. 56: "Notes on the <i>Chlamydosaurus</i> or frilled-lizard of Queensland (C. Kingii.) " <hw>Frogsmouth</hw>, <i>n.</i> an Australian bird; genus <i>Podargus</i>, commonly called <i>Mopoke</i> (q.v.). The mouth and expression of the face resemble the appearance of a frog. The species are-- Freckled Frogsmouth-- <i>Podargus phaloenoides</i>, Gould. Marbled F.-- <i>P. marmoratus</i>, Gould. Plumed F.-- <i>P. papuensis</i>, Quoy and Gaim. Tawney F.-- <i>P. strigoides</i>, Lath. 1895. W. O. Legge, `Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science' (Brisbane), p. 447: "The term `Frogsmouth' is used in order to get rid of that very objectionable name <i>Podargus</i>, and as being allied to the other genera <i>Batrachostomus</i> and <i>Otothrix</i> of the family <i>Steatorninae</i> in India. It is a name well suited to the singular structure of the mouth, and presumably better than the mythical title of `Goatsucker.' `Night-hawk,' sometimes applied to the <i>Caprimulginae</i>, does not accord with the mode of flight of the genus <i>Podargus</i>." <hw>Frontage</hw>, <i>n.</i> land along a river or creek, of great importance to a station. A use common in Australia, not peculiar to it. 1844. `Port Phillip Patriot,' July i8, p. 3, col. 7: ". . . has four miles frontage to the Yarra Yarra." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Squatter's Dream,' c. iii. p. 29: "Jack was piloted by Mr. Hawkesbury through the `frontage' and a considerable portion of the `back' regions of Gondaree." <hw>Frost-fish</hw>, <i>n.</i> name given in Australia and New Zealand to the European <i>Scabbard-fish</i>, <i>Lepidopus caudatus</i>, White. The name is said to be derived from the circumstance that the fish is found alive on New Zealand sea-beaches on frosty nights. It is called the <i>Scabbard-fish</i> in Europe, because it is like the shining white metal sheath of a long sword. <i>Lepidopus</i> belongs to the family <i>Trichiuridae</i>, it reaches a length of five or six feet, but is so thin that it hardly weighs as many pounds. It is considered a delicacy in New Zealand. 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. ii. p. 51: "The frost-fish . . . the most delicately flavoured of all New Zealand fishes, is an inhabitant of deep water, and on frosty nights, owing probably to its air-bladders becoming choked, it is cast up by the surf on the ocean-beach." <hw>Fruit-Pigeon</hw>, <i>n.</i> The name is given to numerous pigeons of the genera <i>Ptilinopus</i> and <i>Carpophaga</i>. In Australia it is assigned to the following birds:-- Allied Fruit-Pigeon-- <i>Ptilinopus assimilis</i>, Gould. Purple-breasted F.-P.-- <i>P. magnifica</i>, Temm. Purple-crowned F.-P.-- <i>P. superbus</i>, Temm. Red-crowned F.-P.-- <i>P. swainsonii</i>, Gould. Rose-crowned F.-P.-- <i>P. ewingii</i> Gould. White-headed F.-P.-- <i>Columba leucomela</i>, Temm. And in New Zealand to <i>Carpophaga novae-zealandiae</i>, Gmel. (Maori name, <i>Kereru Kuku</i>, or <i>Kukupa</i>.) <hw>Fryingpan-Brand</hw>, <i>n.</i> a large brand used by cattle-stealers to cover the owner's brand. See <i>Duffer</i> and <i>Cattle-Duffer</i>. 1857. Frederic De Brebant Cooper, `Wild Adventures in Australia,' p. 104: ". . . This person was an `old hand,' and got into some trouble on the other side (i.e. the Bathurst side) by using a `frying-pan brand.' He was stock-keeping in that quarter, and was rather given to `gulley-raking.' One fine day it appears he ran in three bullocks belonging to a neighbouring squatter, and clapt his brand on the top of the other so as to efface it." <hw>Fuchsia, Native</hw>, <i>n.</i> The name is applied to several native plants. (1) In Australia and Tasmania, to various species of <i>Correa</i> (q.v.), especially to <i>Correa speciosa</i>, And., <i>N.O. Rutaceae</i>. (2) In Queensland, to <i>Eremophila maculata</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O</i>. <i>Myoporineae</i>. (3) In New Zealand, to <i>Fuchsia excorticata</i>, Linn., <i>N.O. Onagrariae</i>. (Maori name, <i>Kotukutuktu</i>, q.v.). See also <i>Tooky-took</i> and <i>Konini</i>. 1860. Geo. Bennett, `Gatherings of a Naturalist in Australasia,' pp. 371-2: "The Correa virens, with its pretty pendulous blossoms (from which it has been named the `Native Fuchsia'), and the Scarlet Grevillea (G. coccinea) are gay amidst the bush flowers." 1880. Mrs.Meredith, `Tasmanian Friends and Foes,' p. 23: "I see some pretty red correa and lilac." [Footnote]: "Correa speciosa--native fuchsia of Colonies." 1883. F. M. Bailey, `Synopsis of Queensland Flora,' p. 374: "<i>E. maculata</i>. A . . . shrub called native fuchsia, and by some considered poisonous, by others a good fodder bush." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 126: "<i>E. maculata</i>. . . . Called `Native Fuchsia' in parts of Queensland." 1892. `Otago Witness,' Nov. 24, `Native Trees': "A species of native fuchsia that is coming greatly into favour is called [Fuchsia] Procumbens. It is a lovely pot plant, with large pink fruit and upright flowers." <hw>Full up of</hw>, <i>adj</i>. (slang), sick and tired of. "Full on," and "full of," are other forms. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. xxiii. p. 213: "She was `full up' of the Oxley, which was a rowdy, disagreeable goldfield as ever she was on." <hw>Furze, Native</hw>, <i>n.</i> a shrub, <i>Hakea ulcina</i>, R. Br. See <i>Hakea</i>. <hw>Futtah</hw>, <i>n.</i> a settlers' corruption of the Maori word <i>Whata</i> (q.v.). 1895. W.S. Roberts, `Southland in 1856,'p. 28: "These stores were called by the Europeans <i>futters</i>,--but the Maori name was Whata." 1896. `Southland Daily News,' Feb. 3: "`Futtah is familiar as `household words.' There were always rats in New Zealand--that is, since any traditions of its <i>fauna</i> existed. The original ones were good to eat. They were black and smooth in the hair as the mole of the Old Country, and were esteemed delicacies. They were always mischievous, but the Norway rat that came with the white man was worse. He began by killing and eating his aboriginal congener, and then made it more difficult than ever to keep anything eatable out of reach of his teeth. Human ingenuity, however, is superior to that of most of the lower animals, and so the `futtah' came to be--a storehouse on four posts, each of them so bevelled as to render it impossible for the cleverest rat to climb them. The same expedient is to-day in use on Stewart Island and the West Coast --in fact, wherever properly constructed buildings are not available for the storage of things eatable or destructible by the rodents in question." G <hw>Galah</hw>, <i>n.</i> a bird.(The accent is now placed on the second syllable.) Aboriginal name for the <i>Cacatua roseicapilla</i>, Vieill., the <i>Rose-breasted Cockatoo</i>. See <i>Cockatoo</i>. With the first syllable compare last syllable of <i>Budgerigar</i> (q.v.) 1890. `The Argus,' Sept. 20, p. 13, col. 5: "They can afford to screech and be merry, as also the grey, pink-crested galahs, which tint with the colours of the evening sky a spot of grass in the distance." 1890. Lyth, `Golden South,' c. xiv. p. 127: "The galahs, with their delicate grey and rose-pink plumage, are the prettiest parrots." 1891. Francis Adams, `John Webb's End,' p. 191: "A shrieking flock of galahs, on their final flight before they settled to roost, passed over and around him, and lifting up his head, he saw how all their grey feathers were flushed with the sunset light, their coloured breasts deepening into darkest ruby, they seemed like loosed spirits." <hw>Gallows</hw>, <i>n.</i> Explained in quotation. Common at all stations, where of course the butchering is done on the premises. 1866. Lady Barker, `Station Life in New Zealand,' p. 64: "The gallows, a high wooden frame from which the carcases of the butchered sheep dangle." <hw>Gang-gang</hw>, or <hw>Gan-gan</hw>, <i>n.</i> the aboriginal word for the bird <i>Callocephalon galeatum</i>, Lath., so called from its note; a kind of cockatoo, grey with a red head, called also <i>Gang-gang Cockatoo</i>. See <i>Cockatoo</i>. 1833. C. Sturt, `Southern Australia,' vol. i. Intro. p. xxxviii: "Upon the branches the satin-bird, the gangan, and various kinds of pigeons were feeding." 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. v. pl. 14: "<i>Callocephalon Galeatum</i>, Gang-gang Cockatoo, Colonists of New South Wales." <hw>Gannet</hw>, <i>n.</i> the English name for the <i>Solan Goose</i> and its tribe. The Australian species are-- The Gannet-- <i>Sula serrator</i>, Banks. Brown G. (called also <i>Booby</i>)-- <i>S. leucogastra</i>, Bodd. Masked G.-- <i>S. cyanops</i>, Sunder. Red-legged G.-- <i>S. piscator</i>, Linn. The species in New Zealand is <i>Dysporus serrator</i>, Grey; Maori name, <i>Takapu</i>. <hw>Garfish</hw>, <i>n.</i> In England the name is applied to any fish of the family <i>Belonidae</i>. The name was originally used for the common European <i>Belone vulgaris</i>. In Melbourne the Garfish is a true one, <i>Belone ferox</i>, Gunth., called in Sydney "Long Tom." In Sydney, Tasmania, and New Zealand it is <i>Hemirhamphus intermedius</i>, Cantor.; and in New South Wales, generally, it is the river-fish <i>H. regularis</i>, Gunth., family <i>Sombresocidae</i>. Some say that the name was originally "Guard-fish," and it is still sometimes so spelt. But the word is derived from x<i>Gar</i>, in Anglo-Saxon, which meant spear, dart, javelin, and the allusion is to the long spear-like projection of the fish's jaws. Called by the Sydney fishermen <i>Ballahoo</i>, and in Auckland the <i>Piper</i> (q.v.). 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 288: "Charley brought me . . . the head bones of a large guard-fish." 1849. Anon., `New South Wales: its Past, Present, and Future Condition,' p. 99: "The best kinds of fish are guard, mullet, and schnapper." 1850. Clutterbuck, `Port Phillip,' c. iii. p. 44: "In the bay are large quantities of guard-fish." 1875. `Spectator' (Melbourne), June I9, p. 81, col.1: "Common fish, such as trout, ruffies, mullet, garfish." 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish of New South Wales,' p. 83: "Of the garfishes we have four species known to be found on our coasts. One, <i>Hemirhamphus regularis</i>, is the favourite breakfast fish of the citizens of Sydney. <i>H. melanochir</i>, or `river garfish,' is a still better fish, but has become very scarce. <i>H. argentcus</i>, the common Brisbane species . . . and <i>H. commersoni</i>." <hw>Gastrolobium</hw>, <i>n.</i> scientific name of a genus of Australian shrubs, <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>, commonly known as <i>Poison Bushes</i> (q.v.). The species are-- <i>Gastrolobium bilobum</i>, R. Br. <i>G. callistachys</i>, Meissn. <i>G. calycium</i>, Benth. <i>G. obovatum</i>, Benth. <i>G. oxylobioides</i>, Benth. <i>G. spinosum</i>, Benth. <i>G. trilobum</i>, Benth. All of which are confined to Western Australia. The species <i>Gastrolobium grandiflorum</i>, F. v. M. (also called <i>Wall-flower</i>), is the only species found out of Western Australia, and extends across Central Australia to Queensland. All the species have pretty yellow and purple flowers. The name is from the Greek <i>gastaer, gastros</i>, the belly, and <i>lobion</i>, dim. of <i>lobos</i>, "the capsule or pod of leguminous plants." (`L. & S.') <hw>Geebung</hw>, or <hw>Geebong</hw>, <i>n.</i> aboriginal name for the fruit of various species of the tree <i>Persoonia</i>, and also for the tree itself, <i>N.O. Proteaceae</i>. 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 221: "The jibbong is another tasteless fruit, as well as the five corners, much relished by children." 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition, p. 478: "We gathered and ate a great quantity of gibong (the ripe fruit of Persoonia falcata)." 1852. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes,' c. vi,. p. 176, 3rd edition 1855: "The geebung, a native plum, very woolly and tasteless." 1885. R. M. Praed, `Australian Life,' p. 113: "We gathered the wild raspberries, and mingling them with geebongs and scrub berries, set forth a dessert." 1885. Rolf Boldrewood, `Robbery under Arms,' p. 255: "You won't turn a five-corner into a quince, or a geebung into an orange." 1889. J. M. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 584: "A `geebung' (the name given to the fruits of <i>Persoonias</i>, and hence to the trees themselves)." <hw>Gerygone</hw>, <i>n.</i> scientific and vernacular name of a genus of small warblers of Australia and New Zealand; the new name for them is <i>Fly-eater</i> (q.v.). In New Zealand they are called <i>Bush-warblers</i>, <i>Grey-warblers</i>, etc., and they also go there by their Maori name of <i>Riro-riro</i>. For the species, see <i>Fly-eater</i> and <i>Warbler</i>. The name is from the Greek <i>gerugonae</i>, "born of sound," a word used by Theocritus. 1895. W. O. Legge, `Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science' (Brisbane), p. 447: "[The habits and habitats of the genus] <i>Gerygone</i> suggested the term Fly-<i>eater</i>, as distinguished from Fly-<i>catcher</i>, for this aberrant and peculiarly Australasian form of small Fly-catchers, which not only capture their food somewhat after the manner of Fly-catchers, but also seek for it arboreally." <hw>Ghilgai</hw>, <i>n.</i> an aboriginal word used by white men in the neighbourhood of Bourke, New South Wales, to denote a saucer-shaped depression in the ground which forms a natural reservoir for rainwater. <i>Ghilgais</i> vary from 20 to 100 yards in diameter, and are from five to ten feet deep. They differ from <i>Claypans</i> (q.v.), in being more regular in outline and deeper towards the centre, whereas <i>Claypans</i> are generally flat-bottomed. Their formation is probably due to subsidence. <hw>Giant-Lily</hw>, <i>n.</i> See under <i>Lily</i>. <hw>Giant-Nettle</hw>, i.q. <i>Nettle-tree</i> (q.v.). <hw>Gibber</hw>, <i>n.</i> an aboriginal word for a stone. Used both of loose stones and of rocks. The <i>G</i> is hard. 1834. L. E. Threlkeld, `Australian Grammar,' p. x. [In a list of `barbarisms']: "Gibber, a stone." [<i>Pace</i> Mr. Threlkeld, the word is aboriginal, though not of the dialect of the Hunter District, of which he is speaking.] 1852. `Settlers and Convicts; or Recollections of Sixteen Years' Labour in the Australian Backwoods,' p. 159: "Of a rainy night like this he did not object to stow himself by the fireside of any house he might be near, or under the `gibbers' (overhanging rocks) of the river. . . ." 1890. A .J. Vogan, `Black Police,' p. 338: "He struck right on top of them gibbers (stones)." 1894. Baldwin Spencer, in `The Argus,' Sept. 1, p. 4, col. 2: "At first and for more than a hundred miles [from Oodnadatta northwards], our track led across what is called the gibber country, where the plains are covered with a thin layer of stones--the gibbers--of various sizes, derived from the breaking down of a hard rock which forms the top of endless low, table-topped hills belonging to the desert sandstone formation." <hw>Gibber-gunyah</hw>, <i>n.</i> an aboriginal cave-dwelling. See <i>Gibber</i> and <i>Gunyah</i>, also <i>Rock-shelter</i>. 1852. `Settlers and Convicts; or, Recollections of Sixteen Years' Labour in the Australian Backwoods,' p. 211: "I coincided in his opinion that it would be best for us to camp for the night in one of the ghibber-gunyahs. These are the hollows under overhanging rocks." 1863. Rev. R. W. Vanderkiste, `Lost, but not for Ever,' p. 210: "Our home is the gibber-gunyah, Where hill joins hill on high, Where the turrama and berrambo Like sleeping serpents lie." 1891. R. Etheridge, jun., `Records of the Australian Museum,' vol. i. no. viii. p. 171: "Notes on Rock Shelters or Gibba-gunyahs at Deewhy Lagoon." <hw>Giddea</hw>, <hw>Gidya</hw>, or <hw>Gidgee</hw>, <i>adj</i>. aboriginal word of New South Wales and Queensland for-- (1) a species of <i>Acacia, A. homalophylla</i>, Cunn. The original meaning is probably <i>small</i>, cf. <i>gidju</i>, Warrego, Queensland, and <i>kutyo</i>, Adelaide, both meaning small. (2) A long spear made, from this wood. 1878. `Catalogue of Objects of Ethno-typical Art in National Gallery, Melbourne,' p. 46: "<i>Gid-jee</i>. Hardwood spear, with fragments of quartz set in gum on two sides and grass-tree stem. Total length, 7 feet 8 inches." 1885. R. M. Praed, `Australian Life,' p. 51: "Gidya scrubs." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 357: "<i>A. homalophylla</i>. A `Spearwood.' Called `Myall' in Victoria. . . . Aboriginal names are . . . Gidya, Gidia, or Gidgee (with other spellings in New South Wales and Queensland). This is the commonest colonial name . . . much sought after for turner's work on account of its solidity and fragrance. . . . The smell of the tree when in flower is abominable, and just before rain almost unbearable." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. xvii. p. 211: "I sat . . . watching the shadows of the gydya trees lengthen, ah! so slowly." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 37: "Kind of scrub, called by the colonists gydya-scrub, which manifests itself even at a distance by a very characteristic, but not agreeable odour, being especially pungent after rain." 1896. Baldwin Spencer, `Home Expedition in Central Australia,' Narrative, p. 22: "We camped beside a water-pool on the Adminga Creek, which is bordered for the main part by a belt of the stinking acacia, or giddea (<i>A. homalophylla</i>). When the branches are freshly cut it well deserves the former name, as they have a most objectionable smell." <hw>Gill-bird</hw>, <i>n.</i> an occasional name for the <i>Wattle-bird</i> (q.v.). 1896. `Menu' for October 15: "Gill-bird on Toast." <hw>Gin</hw>, <i>n.</i> a native word for an aboriginal woman, and used, though rarely, even for a female kangaroo. See quotation 1833. The form <i>gun</i> (see quotation 1865) looks as if it had been altered to meet <i>gunae</i>, and of course generate is not derived from <i>gunae</i>, though it may be a distant relative. In `Collins's Vocabulary' occurs "din, a woman." If such a phonetic spelling as <i>djin</i> had been adopted, as it well might have been, to express the native sound, where would the <i>gunae</i> theory have been? 1798. D. Collins, `Account of English Colony in New South Wales,' Vocabulary, p. 612: "Din--a woman." 1830. R. Dawson, `Present State of Australia,' p. 152: "A proposition was made by one of my natives to go and steal a gin (wife)." Ibid. p. 153: "She agrees to become his gin." 1833. Lieut. Breton, R.N., `Excursions in New South Wales,' p. 254: "The flying gin (gin is the native word for woman or female) is a boomall, and will leave behind every description of dog." 1834. L. E. Threlkeld, `Australian Grammar,' p. x: "As a barbarism [sc. not used on the Hunter], jin--a wife." 1845. J. O. Balfour, `Sketch of New South Wales,' p. 8: "A gin (the aboriginal for a married woman)." 1846. C. P. Hodgson, `Reminiscences of Australia,' p. 367: "Gin, the term applied to the native female blacks; not from any attachment to the spirit of that name, but from some (to me) unknown derivation." 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discovery in Australia,' vol. I. c. iv. p. 74: "Though very anxious to . . . carry off one of their `gins,' or wives . . . he yet evidently holds these north men in great dread." 1847. J. D. Lang, `Cooksland,'p. 126, n.: "When their fire-stick has been extinguished, as is sometimes the case, for their jins or vestal virgins, who have charge of the fire, are not always sufficiently vigilant." 1852. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes' (edition 1855), p. 98: "Gins--native women--from <i>gune</i>, mulier, evidently!" 1864. J. Rogers, `New Rush,' pt. 2, p. 46: "The females would be comely looking gins, Were not their limbs so much like rolling-pins." 1865. S. Bennett, `Australian Discovery,' p. 250: "Gin or gun, a woman. Greek <i>gunae</i> and derivative words in English, such as generate, generation, and the like." 1872. C. H. Eden, `MY Wife and I in Queensland,' p. 118: "The gins are captives of their bow and spear, and are brought home before the captor on his saddle. This seems the orthodox way of wooing the coy forest maidens. . . . All blacks are cruel to their gins." 1880. J. Brunton Stephens, `Poems' [Title]: "To a black gin." 1885. R. M. Praed, `Australian Life,' p. 23: "Certain stout young gins or lubras, set apart for the purpose, were sacrificed." <hw>Ginger, Native</hw>, <i>n.</i> an Australian tree, <i>Alpinia caerulea</i>, Benth., <i>N.O. Scitamineae</i>. The globular fruit is eaten by the natives. 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 296: "Fresh green leaves, especially of the so-called native ginger (<i>Alpinia caerulea</i>)." <hw>Give Best</hw>, <i>v</i>. Australian slang, meaning to acknowledge superiority, or to give up trying at anything. 1883. Keighley, `Who are You?' p. 87: "But then--the fact had better be confessed, I went to work and gave the schooling best." 1887. J. Farrell, `How he Died,' p. 80: "Charley gave life best and died of grief." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. xviii. p. 174: "It's not like an Englishman to jack up and give these fellows best." <hw>Globe-fish</hw>, <i>n.</i> name given to the fish <i>Tetrodon hamiltoni</i>, Richards., family <i>Gymnodontes</i>. The <i>Spiny Globe-fish</i> is <i>Diodon</i>. These are also called <i>Toad-fish</i> (q.v.), and <i>Porcupine-fish</i> (q.v.). The name is applied to other fish elsewhere. <hw>Glory Flower</hw>, or <hw>Glory Pea</hw>, i.q. <i>Clianthus</i> (q.v.). <hw>Glory Pea</hw>, i.q. <i>Clianthus</i> (q.v.). <hw>Glucking-bird</hw>, <i>n.</i> a bird so named by Leichhardt, but not identified. Probably the <i>Boobook</i> (q.v.), and see its quotation 1827; see also under <i>Mopoke</i> quotation, <i>Owl</i>, 1846. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 23: "The musical note of an unknown bird, sounding like `gluck gluck' frequently repeated, and ending in a shake . . . are heard from the neighbourhood of the scrub." Ibid. p. 29: "The glucking bird--by which name, in consequence of its note, the bird may be distinguished--was heard through the night." Ibid. p. 47: "The glucking-bird and the barking owl were heard throughout the moonlight nights." Ibid. pp. 398, 399: "During the night, we heard the well-known note of what we called the `Glucking bird,' when we first met with it in the Cypress-pine country at the early part of our expedition. Its re-appearance with the Cypress-pine corroborated my supposition, that the bird lived on the seeds of that tree." <hw>Glue-pot</hw>, <i>n.</i> part of a road so bad that the coach or buggy sticks in it. 1892. `Daily News,' London (exact date lost): "The Bishop of Manchester [Dr. Moorhouse, formerly Bishop of Melbourne], whose authority on missionary subjects will not be disputed, assures us that no one can possibly understand the difficulties and the troubles attendant upon the work of a Colonial bishop or clergyman until he has driven across almost pathless wastes or through almost inaccessible forests, has struggled through what they used to call `glue-pots,' until he has been shaken to pieces by `corduroy roads,' and has been in the midst of forests with the branches of trees falling around on all sides, knowing full well that if one fell upon him he would be killed." <hw>Goai</hw>, <i>n.</i> common name in southern island of New Zealand for <i>Kowhai</i> (q.v.), of which it is a corruption. It is especially used of the timber of this tree, which is valuable for fencing. The change from <i>K</i> to <i>G</i> also took place in the name Otago, formerly spelt Otakou. 1860. John Blair, `New Zealand for Me,': "The land of the <i>goai</i> tree, mapu, and pine, The stately <i>totara</i>, and blooming wild vine." 1863. S. Butler, `First Year in Canterbury Settlement,' p. 104: "I remember nothing but a rather curiously shaped gowai-tree." <hw>Goanna</hw>, <hw>Guana</hw>, and <hw>Guano</hw>, <i>n.</i> popular corruptions for <i>Iguana</i>, the large Lace-lizard (q.v.), <i>Varanus varius</i>, Shaw. In New Zealand, the word <i>Guano</i> is applied to the lizard-like reptile <i>Sphenodon punctatum</i>. See <i>Tuatara</i>. In Tasmania, the name is given to <i>Taliqua schincoides</i>, White, and throughout Australia any lizard of a large size is popularly called a <i>Guana</i>, or in the bush, more commonly, a <i>Goanna</i>. See also <i>Lace-lizard</i>. 1802. G. Barrington, `History of New South Wales,' c. viii. p. 285: "Among other reptiles were found . . . some brown guanoes." 1830. R. Dawson, `Present state of Australia,' p. 118: "At length an animal called a guana (a very large species of lizard) jumped out of the grass, and with amazing rapidity ran, as they always do when disturbed, up a high tree." 1864. J. Ropers, `New Rush,' p. 6: "The shy guana climbs a tree in fear." 1891. Rolf Boldrewood, `A Sydney-side Saxon,' p. 99: "A goanna startled him, and he set to and kicked the front of the buggy in." 1896. H. Lawson, `When the World was Wide,' p. 139: "And the sinister `gohanna,' and the lizard, and the snake." <hw>Go-ashore</hw>, <i>n.</i> an iron pot or cauldron, with three iron feet, and two ears, from which it was suspended by a wire handle over the fire. It is a corruption of the Maori word <i>Kohua</i> (q.v.), by the law of Hobson-Jobson. 1849. W. Tyrone Power, `Sketches in New Zealand with Pen and Pencil,' p. 160: "Engaged in the superintendence of a Maori oven, or a huge gipsy-looking cauldron, called a `go-ashore.'" 1877. An Old Colonist, `Colonial Experiences,' p. 124: "A large go-ashore, or three-legged pot, of the size and shape of the cauldron usually introduced in the witch scene in Macbeth." 1879. C. L. Innes, `Canterbury Sketches,' p. 23: "There was another pot, called by the euphonious name of a `Go-ashore,' which used to hang by a chain over the fire. This was used for boiling." <hw>Goborro</hw>, <i>n.</i> aboriginal name for <i>Eucalyptus microtheca</i>, F. v. M. See <i>Dwarf-box</i>, under <i>Box</i>. <hw>Goburra</hw>, and <hw>Gogobera</hw>, <i>n.</i> variants of <i>Kookaburra</i> (q.v.). <hw>Goditcha</hw>. See <i>Kurdaitcha</i>. <hw>Godwit</hw>, <i>n.</i> the English name for birds of the genus <i>Limosa</i>. The Australian species are-- Black-tailed G.,-- <i>Limosa melanuroides</i>, Gould; Barred-rumped G.,-- <i>L. uropygialis</i>, Gould. <hw>Gogobera</hw>, and <hw>Goburra</hw>, <i>n.</i> variants of <i>Kookaburra</i> (q.v.). <hw>Gold</hw>-. The following words and phrases compounded with "gold" are Australian in use, though probably some are used elsewhere. <hw>Gold-bearing</hw>, <i>verbal adj</i>. auriferous. 1890. `Goldfields of Victoria,' p. 13: "A new line of gold-bearing quartz." <hw>Gold-digging</hw>, <i>verbal n.</i> mining or digging for gold. 1880. G. Sutherland, `Tales of Gold. fields,' p. 36: "There were over forty miners thus playing at gold-digging in Hiscock's Gully." <hw>Gold-digger</hw>, <i>n.</i> 1852. J. Bonwick [Title]: "Notes of a Gold-digger." <hw>Gold-fever</hw>, <i>n.</i> the desire to obtain gold by digging. The word is more especially applied to the period between 1851 and 1857, the early Australian discovery of gold. The term had been previously applied in a similar way to the Californian excitement in 1848-49. Called also <i>Yellow fever</i>. 1888. A. J. Barbour, `Clara,' c. ix. p. 13: "The gold fever coursed through every vein." <hw>Gold-field</hw>, <i>n.</i> district where mining for gold is carried on. 1858. T. McCombie, `History of Victoria, c. xv. p. 215: "All were anxious to get away for the gold fields." 1880. G. Sutherland, [Title] `Tales of Goldfields,' p. 19: "Edward Hargreaves, the discoverer of the Australian goldfields . . . received L15,000 as his reward." <hw>Gold-founded</hw>, <i>part. adj</i>. founded as the result of the discovery of gold. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. ix. p. 91: "I rode up the narrow street, serpentine in construction, as in all gold-founded townships." <hw>Gold-hunter</hw>, <i>n.</i> searcher after gold. 1852. G. S. Rutter [Title]: "Hints to Gold-hunters." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. v. p. 48: "I was not as one of the reckless gold-hunters with which the camp was thronged." <hw>Gold-mining</hw>, <i>verbal n.</i> 1852. J. A.Phillips [Title]: "Gold-mining; a Scientific Guide for Australian Emigrants." 1880. G. Sutherland, `Tales of Goldfields,' p. 23: "He had already had quite enough of gold-mining." <hw>Gold-seeking</hw>, <i>adj</i>. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. xv. p. 150: "The great gold-seeking multitude had swelled . . . to the population of a province." <hw>Golden Bell-Frog</hw>, <i>n.</i> name applied to a large gold and green frog, <i>Hyla aurea</i>, Less., which, unlike the great majority of the family <i>Hylidae</i> to which it belongs, is terrestrial and not arboreal in its habits, being found in and about water-holes in many parts of Australia. 1881. F. McCoy, `Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria,' Dec. 6, pl. 53: "So completely alike was the sound of the Bell-frogs in an adjoining pond at night to the noise of the men by day." <hw>Golden-chain</hw>, <i>n.</i> another name for the <i>Laburnum</i> (q.v.). <hw>Golden-eye</hw>, <i>n.</i> the bird <i>Certhia lunulatu</i>, Shaw; now called <i>Melithreptus lunulatus</i>, Shaw, and classed as <i>White-naped Honey-eater</i> (q.v.). 1827. Vigors and Horsfield, `Transactions of Linnaean Society,' vol. xv. p. 315: "`This bird,' Mr. Caley says, `is called Golden-eye by the settlers. I shot it at Iron Cove, seven miles from Sydney, on the Paramatta road.'" <hw>Golden-Perch</hw>, <i>n.</i> a fresh-water fish of Australia, <i>Ctenolates ambiguus</i>, Richards., family <i>Percidae</i>, and <i>C. christyi</i>, Castln.; also called the <i>Yellow-belly</i>. <i>C. ambiguus</i> is common in the rivers and lagoons of the Murray system. <hw>Golden-Rosemary</hw>, <i>n.</i> See <i>Rosemary</i>. <hw>Golden-Wattle</hw>, <i>n.</i> See <i>Wattle</i>. 1896. `The Argus,' July 20, p. 5, col. 8: "Many persons who had been lured into gathering armfuls of early wattle had cause to regret their devotion to the Australian national bloom, for the golden wattle blossoms produced unpleasant associations in the minds of the wearers of the green, and there were blows and curses in plenty. In political botany the wattle and blackthorn cannot grow side by side." 1896. `The Melburnian,' Aug. 28, p. 53: "The last two weeks have been alive with signs and tokens, saying `Spring is coming, Spring is here.' And though this may not be the `merry month of May,' yet it is the time of glorious Golden Wattle,--wattle waving by the river's bank, nodding aloft its soft plumes of yellow and its gleaming golden oriflamme, or bending low to kiss its own image in the brown waters which it loves." <hw>Goodenia</hw>, <i>n.</i> the scientific and popular name of a genus of Australian plants, closely resembling the <i>Gentians</i>; there are many species. The name was given by Sir James Smith, president of the Linnaean Society, in 1793. See quotation. 1793. `Transactions of the Linn.can Society,' vol. ii. p. 346: "I [Smith] have given to this . . . genus the name of Goodenia, in honour of . . . Rev. Dr. <i>Goodenough</i>, treasurer of this Society, of whose botanical merits . . . example of Tournefort, who formed Gundelia from Gundelscheimer." [Dr. Goodenough became Bishop of Carlisle; he was the grandfather of Commodore Goodenough.] 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 188: "A species of <i>Goodenia</i> is supposed to be used by the native gins to cause their children to sleep on long journeys, but it is not clear which is used." <hw>Goodletite</hw>, <i>n.</i> scientific name for a matrix in which rubies are found. So named by Professor Black of Dunedin, in honour of his assistant, William Goodlet, who was the first to discover the rubies in the matrix, on the west coast. 1894. `Grey River Argus,' September: "Several sapphires of good size and colour have been found, also rubies in the matrix--Goodletite." <hw>Goondie</hw>, <i>n.</i> a native hut. <i>Gundai</i> = a shelter in the Wiradhuri dialect. It is the same word as <i>Gunyah</i> (q.v.). 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. xvii. p. 204: "There were a dozen `goondies' to be visited, and the inmates started to their work." <hw>Goose</hw>, <i>n.</i> English bird-name. The Australian species are-- Cape Barren Goose-- <i>Cereopsis novae-hollandiae</i>, Lath. [Gould (`Birds of Australia,' vol. vii. pl. 1) calls it the Cereopsis Goose, or Cape Barren Goose of the Colonists.] Maned G. (or Wood-duck, q.v.)-- <i>Branta jubata</i>, Lath. Pied G.-- <i>Anseranus melanoleuca</i>, Lath. Called also Magpie-Goose and Swan-Goose. 1843. J. Backhouse, `Narrative of a Visit to the Australian Colonies,' p. 75: "Five pelicans and some Cape Barren Geese were upon the beach of Preservation Island [Bass Strait]." <hw>Goose-teal</hw>, <i>n.</i> the English name for a very small goose of the genus <i>Nettapus</i>. The Australian species are-- Green,-- <i> Nettapus pulchellus</i>, Gould; White-quilled,-- <i>N. albipennis</i>, Gould. <hw>Gooseberry-tree</hw>, Little, <i>n.</i> name given to the Australian tree <i>Buchanania mangoides</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Anacardiaceae</i>. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition, p. 479: "My companions had, for several days past, gathered the unripe fruits of <i>Coniogeton arborescens</i>, R. Br., which, when boiled, imparted an agreeable acidity to the water. . . . When ripe, they became sweet and pulpy, like gooseberries. . . . This resemblance induced us to call the tree `the little gooseberry-tree.' " <hw>Gordon Lily</hw>, <i>n.</i> See under <i>Lily</i>. <hw>Gouty-stem</hw>, <i>n.</i> the Australian <i>Baobab-tree</i> (q.v.), <i>Adansonia gregori</i>, F. v. M. According to Maiden (p. 60), <i>Sterculia rupestris</i>, Benth., is also called Gouty-stem, on account of the extraordinary shape of the trunk. Other names of this tree are the <i>Sour-gourd</i>, and the <i>Cream-of-tartar</i> tree. 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discovery in Australia,' vol. II. c. iii. p. 115: "The gouty-stem tree . . . bears a very fragrant white flower, not unlike the jasmine." [Illustration given at p. 116.] 1865. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `History of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia,' vol. i. p. 2S9 [Note]: "This tree is distinguished by the extraordinary swollen appearance of the stem, which looks as though the tree were diseased or the result of a freak of nature. The youngest as well as the oldest trees have the same deformed appearance, and inside the bark is a soft juicy pulp instead of wood, which is said to be serviceable as an article of food. The stem of the largest tree at Careening Bay was twenty-nine feet in girth; it is named the <i>Adansonia digitata</i>. A species is found in Africa. In Australia it occurs only on the north coast." <hw>Government</hw>, <i>n.</i> a not unusual contraction of "Government service," used by contractors and working men. <hw>Government men</hw>, <i>n.</i> an obsolete euphemistic name for convicts, especially for assigned servants (q.v.). 1846. G. H. Haydon, `Five Years in Australia Felix,' p. 122: "Three government men or convicts." 1852. J. West, `History of Tasmania,' vol. ii. p. 127: "Government men, as assigned servants were called." <hw>Government stroke</hw>, <i>n.</i> a lazy style of doing work, explained in quotations. The phrase is not dead. 1856. W. W. Dobie, `Recollections of a Visit to Port Phillip,' p. 47: "Government labourers, at ten shillings a-day, were breaking stones with what is called `the Government stroke,' which is a slow-going, anti-sweating kind of motion. . . ." 1873. A. Trollope, `Australia and New Zealand,' c. ix. [near end] p. 163: "In colonial parlance the government stroke is that light and easy mode of labour--perhaps that semblance of labour--which no other master will endure, though government is forced to put up with it." 1893. `Otago Witness,' December 2r, p. 9, col. 1: "The government stroke is good enough for this kind of job." 1897. `The Argus,' Feb. 22, p. 4, col. 9: "Like the poor the unemployed are always with us, but they have a penchant for public works in Melbourne, with a good daily pay and the `Government stroke' combined." <hw>Grab-all</hw>, <i>n.</i> a kind of net used for marine fishing near the shore. It is moored to a piece of floating wood, and by the Tasmanian Government regulations must have a mesh of 2 1/4 inches. 1883. Edward O. Cotton, `Evidence before Royal Commission on the Fisheries of Tasmania,' p. 82: "Put a graball down where you will in `bell-rope' kelp, more silver trumpeter will get in than any other fish." 1883. Ibid. p. xvii: "Between sunrise and sunset, nets, known as `graballs,' may be used." <hw>Grammatophore</hw>, <i>n.</i> scientific name for "an Australian agamoid lizard, genus <i>Grammatophora</i>." (`Standard.') <hw>Grape, Gippsland</hw>, <i>n.</i> called also <i>Native Grape</i>. An Australian fruit tree, <i>Vitis hypoglauca</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Viniferae</i>; called Gippsland Grape in Victoria. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 66: "Native grape; Gippsland grape. This evergreen climber yields black edible fruits of the size of cherries. This grape would perhaps be greatly improved by culture. (Mueller.)" <hw>Grape, Macquarie Harbour</hw>, or <hw>Macquarie Harbour Vine</hw> (q.v.), <i>n</i>. name given to the climbing shrub <i>Muehlenbeckia adpressra</i>, Meissn. <i>N.O. Polygonaceae</i>. Called <i>Native Ivy</i> in Australia. See under <i>Ivy</i>. <hw>Grape-eater</hw>, <i>n.</i> a bird, called formerly <i>Fig-eater</i>, now known as the <i>Green-backed White-eye</i> (q.v.), <i>Zosterops gouldi</i>, Bp. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. iv. pl. 82: "<i>Zosterops chloronotus</i>, Gould, Green-backed Z.; Grape and Fig-eater, Colonists of Swan River." <hw>Grass</hw>, <i>n.</i> In Australia, as elsewhere, the name <i>Grass</i> is sometimes given to plants which are not of the natural order <i>Gramineae</i>, yet everywhere it is chiefly to this natural order that the name is applied. A fair proportion of the true <i>Grasses</i> common to many other countries in the world, or confined, on the one hand to temperate zones, or on the other to tropical or sub-tropical regions, are also indigenous to Australia, or Tasmania, or New Zealand, or sometimes to all three countries. In most cases such grasses retain their Old World names, as, for instance, <i>Barnyard</i>- or <i>Cock-spur Grass</i> (<i>Panicum crus-galli</i>, Linn.); in others they receive new Australian names, as <i>Ditch Millet</i> (<i>Paspalum scrobitulatum</i>, F. v. M.), the `Koda Millet' of India; and still again certain grasses named in Latin by scientific botanists have been distinguished by a vernacular English name for the first time in Australia, as <i>Kangaroo Grass</i> (<i>Anhistiria ciliata</i>, Linn.), which was "long known before Australia became colonized, in South Asia and all Africa" (von Muller), but not by the name of the <i>Kangaroo</i>. Beyond these considerations, the settlers of Australia, whose wealth depends chiefly on its pastoral occupation, have introduced many of the best Old-World pasture grasses (chiefly of the genera <i>Poa</i> and <i>Festuca</i>), and many thousands of acres are said to be "laid down with English grass." Some of these are now so wide-spread in their acclimatization, that the botanists are at variance as to whether they are indigenous to Australia or not; the <i>Couch Grass</i>, for instance (<i>Cynodon dactylon</i>, Pers.), or <i>Indian Doub Grass</i>, is generally considered to be an introduced grass, yet Maiden regards it as indigenous. There remain, "from the vast assemblage of our grasses, even some hundred indigenous to Australia" (von Muller), and a like number indigenous to New Zealand, the greater proportion of which are endemic. Many of these, accurately named in Latin and described by the botanists, have not yet found their vernacular equivalents; for the bushman and the settler do not draw fine botanical distinctions. Maiden has classified and fully described 158 species as "Forage Plants," of which over ninety have never been christened in English. Mr. John Buchanan, the botanist and draughtsman to the Geographical Survey of New Zealand, has prepared for his Government a `Manual of the Indigenous Grasses of New Zealand,' which enumerates eighty species, many of them unnamed in English, and many of them common also to Australia and Tasmania. These two descriptive works, with the assistance of Guilfoyle's Botany and Travellers' notes, have been made the basis of the following list of all the common Australian names applied to the true <i>Grasses</i> of the <i>N.O. Gramineae</i>. Some of them of very special Australian character appear also elsewhere in the Dictionary in their alphabetical places, while a few other plants, which are grasses by name and not by nature, stand in such alphabetical place alone, and not in this list. For facility of comparison and reference the range and habitat of each species is indicated in brackets after its name; the more minute limitation of such ranges is not within the scope of this work. The species of <i>Grass</i> present in Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand are-- 1. Alpine Rice Grass-- <i>Ehrharta colensoi</i>, Cook. (N.Z.) 2. Alpine Whorl G.-- <i>Catabrosa antarctica</i>, Hook. f. (N.Z.) 3. Bamboo G.-- <i>Glyceria ramigera</i>, F. v. M. (A.) Called also <i>Cane Grass</i>. <i>Stipa verticillata</i>, Nees.(A.) 4. Barcoo G. (of Queensland)-- <i>Anthistiria membranacea</i>, Lindl. (A.) Called also <i>Landsborough Grass</i>. 5. Barnyard G.-- <i>Panicum crus-galli</i>, Linn. (A., not endemic.) Called also <i>Cockspur Grass</i>. 6. Bayonet G.-- <i>Aciphylla colensoi</i>.(N.Z.) Called also <i>Spear-Grass</i> (see 112), and <i>Spaniard</i> (q.v.). 7. Bent G.--Alpine-- <i>Agrostis muellerii</i>, Benth. (A., N.Z., not endemic.) <i>Deyeuxia setifolia</i>, Hook. f. (N.Z.) 8. Bent G.--Australian-- <i>Deyeuxia scabra</i>, Benth. (A., T., N.Z.) 9. Bent G.--Billardiere's-- <i>D. billardierii</i>, R. Br. (A., T., N.Z.) 10. Bent G.--Brown-- <i>Agrostis carina</i>, Linn. (N.Z.) 11. Bent G.--Campbell Island-- <i>A. antarctica</i>, Hook. f. (N.Z.) 12. Bent G.--Dwarf Mountain-- <i>A. subululata</i>, Hook. f. (N.Z.) 13. Bent G.--Oat-like-- <i>Deyeuxia avenoides</i>, Hook. f. (N.Z.) 14. Bent G.--Pilose-- <i>D. pilosa</i>, Rich. (N.Z.) 15. Bent G.--Slender-- <i>Agrostis scabra</i>, Willd. (A., T., N.Z.) 16. Bent G.--Spiked-- <i>Deyeuxia quadriseta</i>, R. Br. (A., T., N.Z.) Called also <i>Reed Grass</i>. 17. Bent G.--Toothea-- <i>D. forsteri</i>, Kunth. (A., T., N.Z.) 18. Bent G.--Young's-- <i>D. youngii</i>, Hook. f. (N.Z.) 19. Blady G.-- <i>Ipperata arundinacea</i>, Cyr. (A.) 20. Blue G.-- <i>Andropogon annulatus</i>, Forst. (A.) <i>A. pertusus</i>, Willd. (A.) <i>A. sericeus</i>, R. Br. (A.) 21. Brome G.--Seaside.-- <i>8romus arenarius</i>, Labill. (A., N.Z.) Called also <i>Wild Oats</i>. 22. Canary G.-- <i>Phalaris canariensis</i>. (A.) 23. Cane G.-- (i.q. <i>Bamboo Grass</i>. See 3.) 24. Chilian G.-- (i.q. <i>Rat--tailed Grass</i>. See 97.) 25. Cockspur G.-- (i.q. <i>Barnyard Grass</i>. See 5.) 26. Couch G.-- <i>Cynodon dactylon</i>, Pers. (A., not endemic.) Called also <i>Indian Doub Grass</i>. 27. Couch G.--Native-- <i>Distichlys maritima</i>, Raffinesque. (A.) 28. Couch G.--Water-- <i>(i.q</i>. Seaside Millet. See 50.) 29. Feather G.-- <i>(Several species</i> of Stipa. See 101.) 30. Fescue G.--Hard-- <i>Festuca duriuscula</i>, Linn. (Australasia, not endemic.) 31. Fescue G.--Poa-like-- <i>F. scoparia</i>, Hook. f. (N.Z.) 32. Fescue G.--Sandhill-- <i>F. littoralis</i>, R. Br., var. <i>triticoides</i>, Benth. (A., T., N.Z.) 33. Fescue G.--Sheeps'-- <i>F. ovina</i>, Linn. (A., T.) 34. Finger G.--Cocksfoot-- <i>Panicum sanguinale</i>, Linn. (A., not endemic.) Called also <i>Hairy Finger Grass</i>, and <i>Reddish Panic Grass</i>. 35. Finger G.--Egyptian-- <i>Eleusine aegyptica</i>, Pers. (A., not endemic.) 36. Finger G.--Hairy-- <i>(i.q</i> .Cocksfoot Finger Grass. See 33.) 37. Foxtail G.-- <i>(i.q</i>. Knee jointed Foxtazl Grass. See 42.) 38. Hair G.--Crested-- <i>Koeleria cristata</i>, Pers. (A., T., N.Z.) 39. Hair G.--Turfy-- <i>Deschampia caespitosa</i>, Beavo. (N.Z., not endemic.) 40. Holy G.-- <i>Hierochloe alpina</i>, Roem. & Schult. (Australasia, not endemic.) 41. Indian Doub G.-- (i.q. <i>Couch Grass</i>. See 26.) 42. Kangaroo G. (A., T., not endemic)-- <i>Andropogon refractus</i>, R. Br. <i>Anthistiria avenacea</i>, F. v. M. (Called also <i>Oat Grass</i>.) <i>A. ciliata</i>, Linn. (Common K.G.) <i>A. frondosa</i>, R. Br. (Broad-leaved K.G.) 43. Knee-jointed Fox-tail G.-- <i>Alopecurus geniculatus</i>, Linn. (Australasia, not endemic.) 44. Landsborough G.-- (i.q. Barcoo Grass. See 4.) 45. Love G.--Australian-- <i>Eragrostis brownii</i>, Nees. (A.) 46. Manna G.-- <i>Glyceria fluitans</i>, R. Br. (A.,T.) 47. Millet--Australian-- <i>Panicum decompositum</i>, R. Br. (A., not endemic.) Called also <i>Umbrella Grass</i>. 48. Millet--Ditch-- <i>Paspalum scrobitulatum</i>, F. v. M. (A., N.Z., not endemic.) The <i>Koda Millet</i> of India. 49. Millet--Equal-glumed-- <i>Isachne australis</i>, R. Br. (A., N.Z., not endemic.) 50. Millet-Seaside-- <i>Paspalum distichum</i>, Burmann. (A., N.Z., not endemic.) Called also <i>Silt Grass</i>, and <i>Water Couch Grass</i>. 51. Mitchell G.-- <i>Astrebla elymoides</i>, F. v. M. (A., <i>True Mitchell Grass</i>.) <i>A. pectinata</i>, F. v. M. (A.) <i>A. tritzcoides</i>, F. v. M. (A.) 52. Mouse G.-- (i.q.) <i>Longhaired Plume Grass</i>. See 72.) 53. Mulga G.-- <i>Danthonia racemosa</i>, R. Br. (A.) <i>Neurachnea Mitchelliana</i>, Nees. (A.) 54. New Zealand Wind G.-- <i>Apera arundinacea</i>, Palisot. (N.Z., not endemic.) 55. Oat G.-- <i>Anthistiria avenacea</i>, F. v. M. (Called also <i>Kangaroo Grass</i>. See 41.) 56. Oat G.--Alpine-- <i>Danthonia semi</i>-annularis, R. Br., var. <i>alpina</i>. (N.Z.) 57. Oat G.--Buchanan's-- <i>D. buchanii</i>; Hook. f. (N.Z.) 58. Oat G.--Few-flowered-- <i>D. pauciflora</i>, R. Br. (A., T., N.Z.) 59. Oat G.--Hard-- <i>D. pilosa</i>, R. Br., var. stricta. (N.Z.) 60. Oat G.--Naked-- <i>D. nuda</i>, Hook. f. (N.Z.) 61. Oat G.--New Zealand-- <i>D. semi</i>-annularis, R. Br. (A., T., N.Z.) 62. Oat G.--Purple-awned-- <i>D. pilosa</i>, R. Br. (A., T., N.Z.) 63. Oat G.--Racemed-- <i>D. pilosa</i>, R. Br., var. racemosa. (N.Z.) 64. Oat G.--Shining-- <i>Trisetum antarcticum</i>, Hook. f. (N.Z.) 65. Oat G.--Sheep-- <i>Danthonia semi</i>-annularis, R. Br., var. gracilis.(N.Z.) 66. Oat G.--Spiked-- <i>Trisetum subspicatum</i>, Beauv. (Australasia, not endemic.) 67. Oat G.--Thompson's Naked-- <i>Danthonia thomsonii</i> (new species). 68. Oat G.--Wiry-leaved-- <i>D. raoulii</i>, Steud, var. Australis, Buchanan. (N.Z.) 69. Oat G.--Young's-- <i> Trisetum youngii</I>, Hook. f. (N.Z.) <i>70. Panic</i> G.--Reddish-- (i.q. <i>Cocksfoot Finger-Grass</i>. See 34.) 71. Panic G.--Slender-- <i>Oplismenus salarius</i>, var. Roem. and Schult. (A., N.Z., not endemic.) 72. Paper G.--Native-- <i>Poa caespitosa</i>, Forst. (A., T., N.Z.) Called also <i>Wiry Grass</i>, <i>Weeping Polly</i>, and <i>Tussock Poa Grass</i>; and, in New Zealand, <i>Snow Grass</i>. 73. Plume G.--Long-haired-- <i>Dichelachne crinita</i>, Hook. f. (A., T., N.Z.) 74. Plume G.--Short-haired-- <i>D. sciurea</i>, Hook. f. (A., T., N.Z.) 75. Poa G.--Auckland Island-- <i>Poa foliosa</i>, Hook. f., var. <i>a</i>. (N.Z.) 76. Poa G.--Brown-flowered-- <i>P. lindsayi</i>, Hook. f. (N.Z.) 77. Poa G.--Brown Mountain <i>P. mackayi</i> (new species). (N.Z.) 78. Poa G.--Colenso's-- <i>P. colensoi</i>, Hook. f.(N.Z.) 79. 79. Poa G.--Common Field-- <i>P. anceps</i>, Forst., var. <i>b</i>, foliosa, Hook. f. (N.Z.) 80. Pea G.--Dense-flowered <i>P. anceps</i>, Forst., var. <i>d, densiflora</i>, Hook. f. (N.Z.) 81. Poa G.--Dwarf-- <i>P. pigmaea</i> (new species). (N.Z.) 82. Pea G.--Hard short-stemmed-- <i>P. anceps</i>, Forst., var. <i>c, brevicalmis</i>, Hook. f. (N.Z.) 83. Poa G.--Kirk's-- <i>P. kirkii</i> (new species). (N.Z.) 84. Poa G.--Large-flowered-- <i>P. foliosa</i>, Hook. f., var. <i>B</i>. (N.Z.) 85. Poa G.--Little-- <i>P. exigua</i>, Hook. f. (N.Z.) 86. Poa G.--Minute-- <i>P, foliosa</i>, Hook. f., var. <i>C</i>. (N.Z.) 87. Poa G.--Minute Creeping-- <i>P. pusilla</i>, Berggren. (N.Z.) 88. Pea G.--Nodding Plumed-- <i>P. anceps</i>, Forst., var. <i>A, elata</i>, Hook. f. (N.Z.) 89. Poa G.--One-flowered-- <i>P. unifora</i> (new species). (N.Z.) 90. Poa G.--Short-glumed-- <i>P. breviglumus</i>, Hook. f.(N.Z.) 91. Poa G.--Slender-- <i>P. anceps</i>, Forst., var. <i>E, debilis</i>, Kirk, Ms. (N.Z.) 92. Poa G.--Small Tussock-- <i>P. intemedia</i> (new species). (N.Z.) 93. Poa G.--Tussock-- <i>P. caespitosa</i>, Forst. (A., T., N.Z. See 71.) 94. Poa G.--Weak-stemmed-- <i>Eragrostis imbebecilla</i>, Benth. (A., N.Z.) 95. Poa G.--White-flowered-- <i>Poa sclerophylla</i>, Berggren. (N.Z.) 96. Porcupine G. (q.v.)-- <i>Triodia (various</i> species). 97. Rat-tailed G.-- <i>Sporobulus indicus</i>, R. Br. (A., N.Z., not endemic.) Called also <i>Chilian Grass</i>. <i>Ischaeum laxum</i>, R. Br. (A.) 98. Reed G.-- <i>Pragmites communis</i>, Trin. (N.Z. See 16.) 99. Rice G.-- <i>Leersia hexandria</i>, Swartz. (A.) 100. Rice G.--Bush-- <i>Microtaena avenacea</i>, Hook. f. (N.Z.) 101. Rice G.--Knot-jointed-- <i>M. polynoda</i>, Hook. f. (N.Z.) 102. Rice G.--Meadow-- <i>M. stipoides</i>, R. Br. (A.,T., N.Z.) Called also <i>Weeping Grass</i>. 103. Roly-Poly G.-- <i>Panicum macractinum</i>, Benth. (A.) 104. Rough-bearded G.-- <i>Echinopogon ovatus</i>, Palisot. (A., T., N.Z.) 105. Sacred G.-- <i>Hierochloe redolens</i>, R. Br. (Australasia, not endemic.) Called also <i>Scented Grass</i>, and <i>Sweet-scented</i> Grass. 106. Scented G.-- <i>Chrysopogon parviforus</i>, Benth. (A.) See also 105. 107. Seaside Brome G.-- <i>(i.q</i>. Brome Grass. See 21.) 108. Silt G.-- <i>(i.q</i>. Seaside Millet. See 50.) 109. Seaside Glumeless G.-- <i>Gymnostychum gracile</i>, Hook. f. (N.Z.) 110. Snow G. (q.v.)-- <i>(i.q</i>. Paper Grass. See 72.) (N.Z.) 111. Spear G. (q.v.)-- <i>Aciphylla colensoi</i>. (N.Z.) Called also <i>Spaniard</i> (q.v.). <i>Heteropogon contortus</i>, Roem. and Shult. (N.Z.), and all species of <i>Stipa</i> (A., T.). 112. Spider G.-- <i>Panicum divaricatissimum</i>, R. Br. (A.) 113. Spinifex G. (q.v.)-- <i>Spinifex hirsutus</i>, Labill. (A., T., N.Z., not endemic.) Called also <i>Spiny Rolling Grass</i>. 114. Star G.--Blue-- <i>Chloris ventricosa</i>, R. Br. (A.) 115. Star G.--Dog's Tooth-- <i>C. divaricata</i>, R. Br. (A.) 116. Star G.--Lesser-- <i>C. acicularis</i>, Lindl. (A.) 117. Sugar G.-- <i>Pollinia fulva</i>, Benth.(A.) 118. Summer G.-- (i.q. <i>Hairy-Finger Grass</i>. See 36.) 119. Sweet G.-- <i>Glyceria stricta</i>, Hook. f. (A., T., N.Z.) 120. Sweet-scented G.-- (i.q. <i>Sacred Grass</i>. See 105.) 121. Traveller's G. (<i>N.O. Aroideae</i>).-- (i.q. <i>Settlers' Twine</i>, q.v.) 122. Tussock G.-- (See 93 and 72.) 123. Tussock G.-- Broad-leaved Oat-- <i>Danthonia flavescens</i>, Hook. f. (N.Z.) 124. Tussock G.--Erect Plumed-- <i>Arundo fulvida</i>, Buchanan. (N.Z.) Maori name, <i>Tot-toi</i> (q.v.). 125. Tussock G.--Narrow-leaved Oat-- <i>Danthonia raoulii</i>, Steud. (N.Z.) 126. Tussock G.--Plumed-- <i>Arundo conspicua</i>, A. Cunn. (N.Z.) Maori name, <i>Toi-toi</i> (q.v.). 127. Tussock G.--Small-flowered Oat-- <i>Danthonia cunninghamii</i>, Hook. f. (N.Z.) 128. Petrie's Stipa G.-- <i>Stipa petriei</i> (new species). See 101. /?111?/ (N.Z.) 129. Umbrella G.-- (i.q. <i>Australian Millet</i>. See 47.) 130. Wallaby G.-- <i>Danthonia penicileata</i>, F. v. M. (A., N.Z.) 131. Weeping G.-- (i.q. <i>Meadow Rice</i> Grass. See 102.) 132. Weeping Polly G.-- (i.q. <i>Paper Grass</i>. See 72.) 133. Wheat G.--Blue-- <i>Agropyrum scabrum</i>, Beauv. (A., T., N.Z.) 134. Wheat G.--Short-awned-- <i>Triticum multiflorum</i>, Banks and Sol. (N.Z.) 135. White-topped G.-- <i>Danthonia longifolia</i>, R. Br. (A.) 136. Windmill G.-- <i>Chloris truncata</i>, R. Br. (A.) 137. Wire G.-- <i>Ehrharta juncea</i>, Sprengel; a rush-like grass of hilly country. (A., T., N.Z.) <i>Cynodon dactylum</i>, Pers.; so called from its knotted, creeping, wiry roots, so difficult to eradicate in gardens and other cultivated land. (Not endemic.) See 26. 138. Wiry G.--. (i.q. <i>Paper Grass</i>. See 72.) 139. Wiry Dichelachne G.-- <i>Stipa teretefolia</i>, Steud. (A., T., N.Z.) 140. Woolly-headed G.-- <i>Andropogon bombycinus</i>, R. Br. (A.) 141. Vandyke G.-- <i>Panicum flavidum</i>, Retz. (A.) <hw>Grass-bird</hw>, <i>n.</i> In New Zealand, <i>Sphenoeacus //sic. otherwhere Sphenaeacus GJC// punctatus</i>, Gray, the same as <i>Fern-bird</i> (q.v.); in Australia, <i>Megalurus (Sphenaeacus) gramineus</i>, Gould. <hw>Grass-leaved Fern</hw>, <i>n. Vittaria elongata</i>, Swartz, <i>N.O. Filices</i>. 1883. F. M. Bailey, `Synopsis of Queensland Flora,' p. 693: "Grass-leaved fern. . . . Frond varying in length from a few inches to several feet, and with a breadth of from one to five lines. . . . This curious grass-like fern may be frequently seen fringing the stems of the trees in the scrubs of tropical Queensland, in which situation the fronds are usually very long." <hw>Grass-Parrakeet</hw>, <i>n.</i> a bird of the genus <i>Euphema</i>. The Australian species are-- Blue-winged Parrakeet <i>Euphema aurantia</i>, Gould. Bourke's P.-- <i>E. bourkii</i>, Gould. Grass-P.-- <i>E. elegans</i>, Gould. Orange-bellied P.-- <i>E. chrysogastra</i>, Lath. Orange-throated P.-- <i>E. splendida</i>, Gould. Red-shouldered P.-- <i>E. pulchella</i>, Shaw. Warbling Grass-P.-- Gould's name for <i>Budgerigar</i> (q.v.). See also <i>Rock-Parrakeet (Euphema petrophila</i>, Gould), which is sometimes classed as a <i>Grass-Parrakeet</i>. <hw>Grass-tree</hw>, <i>n.</i> (2) The name applied to trees of the genus <i>Xanthorrhoea, N.O. Liliaceae</i>, of which thirteen species are known in Australia. See also <i>Richea</i>. (2) In New Zealand <i>Pseudopanax crassifolium</i>, Seemann, <i>N.O. Araleaceae</i>. When young, this is the same as <i>Umbrella-tree</i>, so called from its appearance like the ribs of an umbrella. When older, it grows more straight and is called <i>Lancewood</i> (q.v.). (3) In Tasmania, besides two species of <i>Xanthorrhoea</i> the <i>Grass-tree</i> of the mainland, the <i>Richea dracophylla</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Epacrideae</i>, found on Mount Wellington, near Hobart, is also known by that name, whilst the <i>Richea pandanifolia</i>, Hook., found in the South-west forests, is called the <i>Giant Grass-tree</i>. Both these are peculiar to the island. (4) An obsolete name for <i>Cordyline australis</i>, Hook., <i>N.O. Liliaceae</i>, now more usually called <i>Cabbage- tree</i> (q.v.). 1802. D. Collins, `Account of New South Wales,' vol. ii. p. 153: "A grass tree grows here, similar in every respect to that about Port Jackson." 1830. R. Dawson, `Present State of Australia,' p. 347: "Yielding frequently a very weak and sour kind of grass, interspersed with a species of bulrush called grass-trees, which are universal signs of poverty.": 1833. C. Sturt, `Southern Australia,' Vol II. c. iii. p. 54: "The grass-tree is not found westward of the mountains." 1839. T. L. Mitchell, `Three Expeditions,' vol. ii. p. 303: "We approached a range of barren hills of clay slate, on which grew the grass-tree (<i>Xanthorhoea</i>) and stunted eucalypti." 1862. H. C. Kendall, `Poems,' p. 74: "The shimmering sunlight fell and kissed The grass-tree's golden sheaves." 1867. F. Hochstetter, `New Zealand,' p. 132: "Here and there, in moist places, arises isolated the `grass-tree' or `cabbage-tree' (Ti of the natives; <i>Cordyline Australis</i>)." 1874. Garnet Walch, `Head over Heels,' p. 80: "The grass-trees in front, blame my eyes, Seemed like plumes on the top of a hearse." 1877. F. v. Mueller, `Botanic Teachings,' p. 119: "How strikingly different the external features of plants may be, though floral structure may draw them into congruity, is well demonstrated by our so-called grass-trees, which pertain truly to the liliaceous order. These scientifically defined as Xanthorhoeas from the exudation of yellowish sap, which indurates into resinous masses, have all the essential notes of the order, so far as structure of flowers and fruits is concerned, but their palm-like habit, together with cylindric spikes on long and simple stalks, is quite peculiar, and impresses on landscapes, when these plants in masses are occuring, a singular feature." 1879. A. R. Wallace, `Australasia' (ed. 1893), p. 52: "The grass trees (<i>Xanthorrhoea</i>) are a peculiar feature to the Australian landscape. From a rugged stem, varying from two to ten or twelve feet in height, springs a tuft of drooping wiry foliage, from the centre of which rises a spike not unlike a huge bulrush. When it flowers in winter, this spike becomes covered with white stars, and a heath covered with grass trees then has an appearance at once singular and beautiful." 1882. A. Tolmer, `Reminiscences,' vol, ii. p. 102: "The root of the grass-tree is pleasant enough to eat, and tastes something like the meat of the almond-tree; but being unaccustomed to the kind of fare, and probably owing to the empty state of our stomachs, we suffered severely from diarrhoea." 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia,' p. 43: "Grass-trees are most comical-looking objects. They have a black bare stem, from one to eight feet high, surmounted by a tuft of half rushes and half grass, out of which, again, grows a long thing exactly like a huge bullrush. A lot of them always grow together, and a little way off they are not unlike the illustrations of Red-Indian chiefs in Fenimore Cooper's novels." 1889. T. Kirk, `Forest Flora of New Zealand,' p. 59: "It [<i>Pseudopanax crassifolium</i>, the <i>Horoeka</i>] is commonly called lance-wood by the settlers in the North Island, and grass-tree by those in the South. This species was discovered during Cook's first voyage, and it need cause no surprise to learn that the remarkable difference between the young and mature states led so able a botanist as Dr. Solander to consider them distinct plants." 1896. Baldwin Spencer. `Horne Expedition in Central Australia,' Narrative, p. 98: "As soon as the came upon the Plains we found ourselves in a belt of grass trees belonging to a species not hitherto described (<i>X. Thorntoni</i>). . . . The larger specimens have a stem some five or six feet high, with a crown of long wiry leaves and a flowering stalk, the top of which is fully twelve feet above the ground." [Compare <i>Blackboy</i> and <i>Maori-head</i>. <hw>Grayling</hw>, <i>n.</i> The Australian fish of that name is <i>Prototroctes maroena</i>, Gunth. It is called also the <i>Fresh-water Herring</i>, <i>Yarra Herring</i> (in Melbourne), <i>Cucumber-Fish</i>, and <i>Cucumber-Mullet</i>. The last two names are given to it from its smell. It closely resembles the English Grayling. 1880. W. Senior, `Travel and Trout,' p. 93: "These must be the long-looked-for cucumber mullet, or fresh- water herring. . . . `The cucumber mullet,' I explain, `I have long suspected to be a grayling.'" 1882. Rev._I. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish of New South Wales,' p. 109: "Though not a fish of New South Wales, it may be as well to mention here the Australian grayling, which in character, habits, and the manner of its capture is almost identical with the English fish of that name. In shape there is some difference between the two fish. . . . A newly caught fish smells exactly like a dish of fresh-sliced cucumber. It is widely distributed in Victoria, and very abundant in all the fresh-water streams of Tasmania. . . . In Melbourne it goes by the name of the Yarra herring. There is another species in New Zealand." 1889. Cassell's `Picturesque Australasia,' vol. iv. p. 206: "The river abounds in delicious grayling or cucumber fish, rather absurdly designated the `herring' in this [Deloraine] and some other parts of the colony [Tasmania]." <hw>Grebe</hw>, <i>n.</i> common English bird-name, of the genus <i>Podiceps</i>. The species known in Australia are-- Black-throated Grebe-- <i>Podiceps novae-hollandiae</i>, Gould. Hoary-headed G.-- <i>P. nestor</i>, Gould. Tippet G.-- <i>P. cristataes</i>, Linn. But Buller sees no reason for separating <i>P. cristatus</i> from the well-known <i>P. cristatus</i> of Europe. Some of the <i>Grebes</i> are sometimes called <i>Dabchicks</i> (q.v.). 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. ii. p. 285: "The Crested Grebe is generally-speaking a rare bird in both islands." <hw>Greenhide</hw>, <i>n.</i> See quotation. <i>Greenhide</i> is an English tannery term for the hide with the hair on before scouring. 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 27: "Drivers, who walked beside their teams carrying over their shoulders a long-handled whip with thong of raw salted hide, called in the colony `greenhide.'" <hw>Greenie</hw>, <i>n.</i> a school-boys' name for <i>Ptilotis penicillata</i>, Gould, the White-plumed Honey-eater. 1896. `The Australasian,' Jan. 11, p. 73, col. 1: "A bird smaller than the Australian minah, and of a greenish yellowish hue, larger, but similar to the members of the feathered tribe known to young city `knights of the catapult' as greenies." 1897. A. J. Campbell (in `The Australasian,'Jan. 23), p. 180, col. 5: "Every schoolboy about Melbourne knows what the `greenie' is--the white-plumed honey-eater (P. penicillata). The upper-surface is yellowish-grey, and the under-surface brownish in tone. The white-plumed honey-eater is common in Victoria, where it appears to be one of the few native birds that is not driven back by civilisation. In fact, its numbers have increased in the parks and gardens in the vicinity of Melbourne." <hw>Green-leek</hw>, <i>n.</i> an Australian Parrakeet. See quotation. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. v. pl. 15: "<i>Polytelis Barrabandi</i>, Wagl., Barraband's Parrakeet; Green-leek of the colonists of New South Wales." 1855. R. Howitt, `Two Years in Victoria,' vol. i. p. 123: "We observed m the hollow trees several nests of the little green paroquet,--here, from its colour, called the leek." <hw>Green Lizard</hw>, <i>n.</i> sometimes called the <i>Spotted Green Lizard</i>, a New Zealand reptile, <i>Naultinus elegans</i>, Gray. <hw>Green Oyster</hw>, <i>n.</i> name given in Queensland to the sea-weed <i>Ulva lactuca</i>, Linn., <i>N.O. Algae</i>. From being frequently found attached to oysters, this is sometimes called "Green Oyster." (Bailey.) See <i>Oyster</i>. <hw>Greenstone</hw>, <i>n.</i> popular name of <i>Nephrite</i> (q.v.). Maori name, <i>Pounamu</i> (q.v.). 1859. A.S. Thomson, `Story of New Zealand,' p. 140: "The greenstone composing these implements of war is called nephrite by mineralogists, and is found in the Middle Island of New Zealand, in the Hartz, Corsica, China and Egypt. The most valuable kind is clear as glass with a slight green tinge." 1889. Dr. Hocken, `Catalogue of New Zealand Exhibition,' p. 181: "This valued stone--pounamu of the natives--nephrite, is found on the west coast of the South Island. Indeed, on Captain Cook's chart this island is called `T'Avai Poenammoo'--Te wai pounamu, the water of the greenstone." 1892. F. R. Chapman, `The Working of Greenstone by the Maoris' (New Zealand Institute), p. 4: "In the title of this paper the word `greenstone' occurs, and this word is used throughout the text. I am quite conscious that the term is not geologically or mineralogically correct; but the stone of which I am writing is known by that name throughout New Zealand, and, though here as elsewhere the scientific man employs that word to describe a totally different class of rock, I should run the risk of being misunderstood were I to use any other word for what is under that name an article of commerce and manufacture in New Zealand. It is called `pounamu' or `poenamu' by the Maoris, and `jade,' `jadeite,' or `nephrite' by various writers, while old books refer to the `green talc' of the Maoris." <hw>Green-tops</hw>, <i>n.</i> Tasmanian name for the Orchid, <i>Pterostylis pedunculata</i>, R. Br. <hw>Green-tree Ant</hw>, <i>n.</i> common Queensland Ant. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 294: "It was at the lower part of the Lynd that we first saw the green-tree ant; which seemed to live in small societies in rude nests between the green leaves of shady trees." <hw>Green Tree-snake</hw>, <i>n.</i> See under <i>Snake</i>. <hw>Grevillea</hw>, <i>n.</i> a large genus of trees of Australia and Tasmania, <i>N.O. Proteaceae</i>, named in honour of the Right Hon. Charles Francis Greville, Vice-President of the Royal Society of London. The name was given by Robert Brown in 1809. The `Century' Dictionary gives Professor Greville as the origin of the name but "Professor Robert K. Greville of Edinburgh was born on the 14th Dec., 1794, he was therefore only just fourteen years old when the genus <i>Grevillea</i> was established." (`Private letter from Baron F. von Mueller.') 1851. `Quarterly Review,' Dec., p. 40: "Whether <i>Dryandra, Grevillea, Hakea</i>, or the other <i>Proteaceae</i>, all may take part in the same glee-- "It was a shrub of orders grey Stretched forth to show his leaves." 1888. Cassell's `Picturesque Australasia, vol. iii. p. 138: "Graceful grevilleas, which in the spring are gorgeous with orange-coloured blossoms." <hw>Grey-jumper</hw>, <i>n.</i> name given to an Australian genus of sparrow-like birds, of which the only species is <i>Struthidea cinerea</i>, Gould; also called <i>Brachystoma</i> and <i>Brachyporus</i>. <hw>Grey Nurse</hw>, <i>n.</i> a New South Wales name for a species of Shark, <i>Odontaspis americanus</i>, Mitchell, family <i>Lamnidae</i>, which is not confined to Australasia. <hw>Gridironing</hw>, <i>v</i. a term used in the province of Canterbury, New Zealand. A man purchased land in the shape of a gridiron, knowing that nobody would take the intermediate strips, which later he could purchase at his leisure. In other provinces free-selection (q.v.) was only allowed after survey. <hw>Grinder</hw>, <i>n.</i> See <i>Razor-grinder</i> and <i>Dishwasher</i>. <hw>Groper</hw>, <i>n.</i> a fish. In Queensland, <i>Oligorus terrae-reginae</i>, Ramsay; in New Zealand, <i>O. gigas</i>, "called by the Maoris and colonists `<i>Hapuku</i>,'" (Guenther)--a large marine species. <i>Oligorus</i> is a genus of the family <i>Percidae</i>, and the <i>Murray-Cod</i> (q.v.) and <i>Murray Perch</i> (q.v.) belong to it. There is a fish called the Grouper or <i>Groper</i> of warm seas quite distinct from this one. See <i>Cod, Perch, Blue-Groper</i> and <i>Hapuku</i>. <hw>Ground-berry</hw>, i.q. <i>Cranberry</i> (q.v.).: <hw>Ground-bird</hw>, <i>n.</i> name given in Australia to any bird of the genus <i>Cinclosoma</i>. The species are-- Chestnut-backed Ground-bird-- <i>Cinclosoma castaneonotum</i>, Gould. Chestnut-breasted G.-b.-- <i>C. castaneothorax</i>, Gould. Cinnamon G.-b.-- <i>C. cinnamomeum</i>, Gould. Northern, or Black-vented G.-b.-- <i>C. marginatum</i>, Sharpe. Spotted G.-b.-- <i>C. punctatum</i>, Lath., called by Gould <i>Ground-Dove</i> (q.v.). <hw>Ground-Dove</hw>, <i>n.</i> (1) Tasmanian name for the <i>Spotted Ground-bird</i> (q.v.). 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. iv. pl. 4: "<i>Cinclosoma punctatum</i>, Vig. and Horsf., Spotted Ground-thrush. In Hobart Town it is frequently exposed for sale in the markets with bronze-wing pigeons and wattle-birds, where it is known by the name of ground-dove . . . very delicate eating." (2) The name is given by Gould to three species of <i>Geopelia</i>. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. v. pls. 72, 73, 74: "<i>Geopelia humeralis</i>, Barred-shouldered Ground-dove" (pl. 72); "<i>G. tranquilla</i>" (pl. 73); "<i>G. cuneata</i>, Graceful Ground-dove" (pl. 74). <hw>Ground-Lark</hw>, <i>n.</i> (1) In New Zealand, a bird also called by the Maori names, <i>Pihoihoi</i> and <i>Hioi</i>. 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 63: "<i>Anthus Novae Zelandiae</i>, Gray, New Zealand Pipit; Ground-Lark of the Colonists." (2) In Australia, the Australian Pipit (<i>Anthus australis</i>) is also called a <i>Ground-lark</i>. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. iii. pl. 73: "<i>Anthus Australis</i>, Vig. and Horsf., Australian Pipit. The Pipits, like many other of the Australian birds, are exceedingly perplexing." <hw>Ground-Parrakeet</hw>, <i>n.</i> See <i>Parrakeet</i> and <i>Pezoporus</i>. <hw>Ground-Parrot</hw>, <i>n.</i> (1) The bird <i>Psittacus pulchellus</i>, Shaw. For the Ground Parrot of New Zealand, see <i>Kakapo</i>. 1793. G. Shaw, `Zoology [and Botany] of New Holland,' p. 10: "Long-tailed green Parrot, spotted with black and yellow,. . . the Ground Parrot." 1827. Vigors and Horsfield, `Transactions of Linnaean Society,' vol. xv. p. 278: "The settlers call it ground-parrot. It feeds upon the ground." Ibid. p. 286: "What is called the ground-parrot at Sydney inhabits the scrub in that neighbourhood." 1859. H. Kingsley, `Geoffrey Hamlyn,' p. 298: "The ground-parrot, green, with mottlings of gold and black, rose like a partridge from the heather, and flew low." (2) Slang name for a small farmer. See <i>Cockatoo</i>, <i>n.</i> (2). <hw>Ground-Thrush</hw>, <i>n.</i> name of birds found all over the world. The Australian species are-- <i>Geocincla lunulata</i>, Lath. Broadbent Ground-Thrush-- <i>G. cuneata</i>. Large-billed G.-- <i>G. macrorhyncha</i>, Gould. Russet-tailed G.-- <i>G. heinii</i>, Cab. <hw>Grub</hw>, <i>v</i>. to clear (ground) of the roots. To grub has long been English for to dig up by the roots. It is Australian to apply the word not to the tree but to the land. 1852. Mrs. Meredith, `My Home in Tasmania,' vol. i. p. 185: "Employed with others in `grubbing' a piece of new land which was heavily timbered." 1868. Mrs. Meredith, `Tasmanian Memory of 1834,' p. 10: "A bit of land all grubbed and clear'd too." <hw>Guana</hw>, or <hw>Guano</hw>, <i>n.</i> i.q. <i>Goanna</i> (q.v.). <hw>Guard-fish</hw>, <i>n.</i> Erroneous spelling of <i>Garfish</i> (q.v.). <hw>Gudgeon</hw>, <i>n.</i> The name is given in New South Wales to the fish <i>Eleotris coxii</i>, Krefft, of the family of the Gobies. <hw>Guitar Plant</hw>, a Tasmanian shrub, <i>Lomatia tinctoria</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Proteaceae</i>. <hw>Gull</hw>, <i>n.</i> common English name for a sea-bird. The Australian species are-- Long-billed Gull-- <i>Larus longirostris</i>, Masters. Pacific G.-- <i>L. pacificus</i>, Lath. Silver G.-- <i>L. novae-hollandiae</i>, Steph. Torres-straits G.-- <i>L. gouldi</i>, Bp. <hw>Gully</hw>, <i>n.</i> a narrow valley. The word is very common in Australia, and is frequently used as a place name. It is not, however, Australian. Dr.Skeat (`Etymological Dictionary') says, "a channel worn by water." Curiously enough, his first quotation is from `Capt. Cook's Third Voyage,' b. iv. c. 4. Skeat adds, "formerly written <i>gullet</i>: `It meeteth afterward with another gullet,' i.e. small stream. Holinshed, `Description of Britain,' c. 11: F. goulet, `a gullet . . . a narrow brook or deep gutter of water.' (Cotgrave.) Thus the word is the same as gullet." F. <i>goulet</i> is from Latin <i>gula. Gulch</i> is the word used in the Pacific States, especially in California. 1773. `Hawkesworth's Voyages,' vol. iii. p. 532--Captain Cook's First Voyage, May 30, 1770: "The deep gullies, which were worn by torrents from the hills." 1802. D. Collins, `Account of New South Wales,' vol. ii. p. 214: "A man, in crossing a gully between Sydney and Parramatta, was, in attempting to ford it, carried away by the violence of the torrent, and drowned." 1862. H. C. Kendall, `Poems,' p. 17: "The gums in the gully stand gloomy and stark." 1867. A.L. Gordon, `Sea-spray, etc.,' p. 134: "The gullies are deep and the uplands are steep." 1875. Wood and Lapham, `Waiting for the Mail,' p. 16: "The terrible blasts that rushed down the narrow gully, as if through a funnel." <hw>Gully-raker</hw>, <i>n.</i> a long whip. 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 40: "The driver appealing occasionally to some bullock or other by name, following up his admonition by a sweeping cut of his `gully-raker,' and a report like a musket-shot." <hw>Gum</hw>, or <hw>Gum-tree</hw>, <i>n.</i> the popular name for any tree of the various species of <i>Eucalyptus</i>. The word <i>Gum</i> is also used in its ordinary English sense of exuded sap of certain trees and shrubs, as e.g. <i>Wattle-gum</i> (q.v.) in Australia, and <i>Kauri-gum</i> (q.v.) in New Zealand. In America, the gum-tree usually means "the <i>Liquidambar styraciflua</i>, favourite haunt of the opossum and the racoon, whence the proverbial <i>possum up a gum-tree</i>." (`Current Americanisms,' s.v. <i>Gum</i>) The names of the various Australian Gum-trees are as follows-- Apple Gum, or Apple-scented Gum-- <i>Eucalyptus stuartiana</i>, F. v. M. Bastard G.-- <i>Eucalyptus gunnii</i>, Hook. Bastard Blue G.-- <i>E. leucoxylon</i>, F. v. M. (South Australia). Bastard White G.-- <i>E. gunnii</i>, Hook. (South Australia); <i>E. radiata</i> (Tasmania). Black G.-- <i>E. stellulata</i>, Sieb. Black-butted G.-- <i>E. pillularis</i>, Smith (Victoria); <i>E. regnans</i>, F. v. M. (New South Wales). See <i>Blackbutt</i>. Blue G. [see also Blue-Gum] <i>E. botryoides</i>, Smith (New South Wales); <i>E. diversicolor</i>, F. v. M. [Karri]; <i>E. globulus</i>, Labill.; <i>E. goniocalyx</i>, F. v. M.; <i>E. leucoxylon</i>, F. v. M. (South Australia) [Ironbark]; <i>E. saligna</i>, Smith; <i>E. tereticornis</i>, Smith; <i>E. viminalis</i>, Labill. (West New South Wales). Botany Bay G,-- <i>E. resinifera</i>, Smith. Brittle G.-- <i>E. haemastonza</i>, Smith; <i>E. micrantha</i>, Smith. Brown G.-- <i>E. robusta</i>, Smith. Cabbage G.-- <i>E. sieberiana</i>, F. v. M. (Braidwood, New South Wales). Cider G.-- <i>E. gunnii</i>, Hook. (Tasmania). Citron-scented G.-- <i>E. maculata</i>, Hook. Creek G.-- <i>E. rostrata</i>, Schlecht (West New South Wales). Curly White G.-- <i>E. radiata</i> (Tasmania). Dark Red G.-- <i>E. rostrata</i>, Schlecht. Desert G.-- <i>E. eudesmoides</i>, F. v. M. (Central Australia); <i>E. gracilis</i>, F. v. M. Drooping G.-- <i>E. pauciflora</i>, Sieb. (Drooping Gum in Tasmania is <i>E. risdoni</i>, Hook., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>; the tree is peculiar to Tasmania); <i>E. viminalis</i>, Labill. (New South Wales). Flood, or Flooded G.-- <i>E. gunnii</i>, Hook. (Bombala, New South Wales); <i>E. microtheca</i>, F. v. M. (Carpentaria and Central Australia); <i>E. rostrata</i>, Schlecht; <i>E. saligna</i>, Smith; <i>E. tereticornis</i>, Smith (New South Wales). Fluted G.- <i>E. salubris</i>, F. v. M. Forest G.-- <i>E. rostrata</i>, Schlecht (South Australia). Giant G.-- <i>E. amygdalina</i>, Labill. Gimlet G.-- <i>E. salubris</i>, F. v. M. Green G.-- <i>E. stellulata</i>, Sieb. (East Gippsland). Grey G.-- <i>E. crebra</i>, F. v. M.; <i>E. goniocalyx</i>, F. v. M. (New South Wales, east of Dividing range); <i>E. punctata</i>, De C. (South Coast of New South Wales); <i>E. raveretiana</i>, F.v.M; <i>E. resinifera</i>, Smith; <i>E. saligna</i>, Smith (New South Wales); <i>E. tereticornis</i>, Smith (New South Wales); <i>E. viminalis</i>, Labill (Sydney); Honey-scented G.-- <i>E. melliodora</i>, Cunn. Iron G.-- <i>E. raveretiana</i>, F. v. M. Lemon-scented, or Lemon G.-- <i>E. citriodora</i>, Hook. f. Lead G.-- <i>E. stellulata</i>, Cunn. Mallee G.-- <i>E. dumosa</i> (generally called simply Mallee, q.v.). Mountain G.-- <i>E. tereticornis</i>, Smith (South New South Wales). Mountain White G.-- <i>E. pauciflora</i>, Sieb. (Blue Mountains). Nankeen G.-- <i>E. populifolia</i>, Hook. (Northern Australia). Olive Green G.-- <i>E. stellulata</i>, Cunn. (Leichhardt's name). Pale Red G.-- <i>E. rostrata</i>, Schlecht. Peppermint G.-- <i>E. viminalis</i>, Labill. Poplar-leaved G.-- <i>E. polyanthema</i>, Schau. Red G.-- <i>E. amygdalina</i>, Labill. (Victoria); <i>E. calophylla</i>, R. Br.; <i>E. gunnii</i>, Hook. (Bombala); <i>E. melliodora</i>, Cunn. (Victoria); <i>E. odorata</i>, Behr (South Australia); <i>E. punctata</i>, De C.; <i>E. resinifera</i>, Smith; <i>E. rostrata</i>, Schlecht; <i>E. stuartiana</i>, F. v. M. (Tasmania); <i>E. tereticornis</i>, Smith (New South Wales). Ribbon G.-- <i>E. amygdalina</i>, Labill. Ribbony G. <i>E. viminalis</i>, Labill. Risdon G.-- <i>E. amygdalina</i>, Labill. River G.-- <i>E. rostrata</i>, Schlecht (New South Wales, Queensland, and Central Australia). River White G.-- <i>E. radiata</i>. Rough-barked, or Rough G.-- <i>E. botryoides</i>, Smith (Illawarra). Rusty G.-- <i>E. eximia</i>, Schau. Scribbly G.-- <i>E. haemastoma</i>, Smith. Scribbly Blue G.-- <i>E. leucoxylon</i>, F. v. M. (South Australia). Scrub G.-- <i>E. cosmophylla</i>, F. v. M. Slaty G.-- <i>E. saligna</i>, Smith (New South Wales); <i>E. tereticornis</i>, Smith (New South Wales and Queensland); <i>E. largiflorens</i>, F. v. M. Spotted G.-- <i>E. capitellata</i>, Smith (New England); <i>E. goniocalyx</i>, F. v. M.; <i>E. haemastonza</i>, Smith; <i>E. maculata</i>, Hook. Sugar G.-- <i>E. corynocalyx</i>, F. v. M.; <i>E. gunnii</i>, Hook. Swamp G.-- <i>E. gunnii</i>, Hook.; <i>E. microtheca</i>, F. v. M.; <i>E. pauciflora</i>, Sieb.; <i>E. viminalis</i>, Labill. (Tasmania). Weeping G.-- <i>E. pauciflora</i>, Sieb. (Tasmania); <i>E. viminalis</i>, Labill. (New South Wales). White G.-- <i>E. amygdalina</i>, Labill.; <i>E. gomphocephala</i>, De C. (Western Australia); <i>E. goniocalyx</i>, F. v. M. ; E. haemastoma, Smith; <i>E. hemiphloia</i>, F. v. M. (Sydney); <i>E. leucoxylon</i>, F. v. M. (South Australia); <i>E. pauciflora</i>, Sieb.; <i>E. populifolia</i>, Hook. (Queensland); <i>E. radiata</i> (New South Wales); <i>E. redunca</i>, Schau. (Western Australia); <i>E. robusta</i>, Schlecht. (South Australia); <i>E. saligna</i>, Smith (New South Wales); <i>E. stellulata</i>, Cunn.; <i>E. stuartiana</i>, F. v. M. (Victoria); <i>E. viminalis</i>, Labill. White Swamp G.-- <i>E. gunnii</i>, Hook. (South Australia). Yellow G.-- <i>E. punctata</i>, De C. York G.-- <i>E. foecunda</i>, Schau. (Western Australia). This list has been compiled by collating many authorities. But the following note on <i>Eucalyptus amygdalina</i> (from Maiden's `Useful Native Plants,' p. 429) will illustrate the difficulty of assigning the vernacular names with absolute accuracy to the multitudinous species of <i>Eucalyptus</i>-- "<i>Eucalyptus amygdalina</i>, Labill., Syn. <i>E. fissilis</i>, F. v. M.; <i>E. radiata</i>, Sieb.; <i>E. elata</i>, Dehn.; <i>E. tenuiramis</i>, Miq.; <i>E. nitida</i>, Hook, f.; <i>E. longifolia</i>, Lindl. ; <i>E. Lindleyana</i>, DC.; and perhaps <i>E. Risdoni</i>, Hook, f.; <i>E. dives</i>, Schauer.--This Eucalypt has even more vernacular names than botanical synonyms. It is one of the `Peppermint Trees' (and variously `Narrow-leaved Peppermint,' `Brown Peppermint,' `White Peppermint,' and sometimes `Dandenong Peppermint'), and `Mountain Ashes' of the Dandenong Ranges of Victoria, and also of Tasmania and Southern New South Wales. It is also called `Giant Gum' and `White Gum.' In Victoria it is one of the `Red Gums.' It is one of the New South Wales `Stringybarks,' and a `Manna Gum.' Because it is allied to, or associated with, `Stringybark,' it is also known by the name of `Messmate.' . . . A variety of this gum (<i>E. radiata</i>) is called in New South Wales `White Gum' or `River White Gum.' . . . A variety of <i>E. amygdalina</i> growing in the south coast district of New South Wales, goes by the name of `Ribbon Gum,' in allusion to the very thin, easily detachable, smooth bark. This is also E. radiata probably. A further New South Wales variety goes by the name of `Cut-tail' in the Braidwood district. The author has been unable to ascertain the meaning of this absurd designation. These varieties are, several of them, quite different in leaves, bark, and timber, and there is no species better than the present one to illustrate the danger in attempting to fit botanical names on Eucalypts when only the vernacular names are known." Various other trees not of the genus Eucalyptus are also sometimes popularly called <i>Gums</i>, such as, for instance-- Broad-leaved Water Gum-- <i>Tristania suavolens</i>, Smith. Orange G.-- <i>Angophora lanceolata</i>, Cave. Water G.-- <i>Callistemon lanceolatus</i>, DeC. <i>Tristania laurina</i>, R. Br. <i>T. neriifolia</i>, R. Br. And others. In addition to this, poets and descriptive writers sometimes apply epithets, chiefly denoting colour or other outward appearance, which are not names of distinct species, such as <i>Cinnamon, Morrell, Salmon, Cable, Silver</i>, etc. [See quotation under <i>Silver Gum</i>.] 1642. Abel Tasman, `Journal of the Voyage to the Unknown Southland' (Translation by J. B. Walker in `Abel J. Tasman: His Life, etc.' 1896) [Under date Dec. 2, 1642, after describing the trees at Fredrik Hendrik's Bay (now Blackman's Bay, Forestier's Peninsula, Tasmania) 2 to 21/2 fathoms thick, 60 to 65 feet to the first branch, and with steps 5 feet apart cut in them, Tasman says that they found] "a little gum, fine in appearance, which drops out of the trees, and has a resemblance to gum lac (gomma lacca)." 1770. `Captain Cook's Journal' (ed. Wharton, 1893), p. 245: "May 1st.--We found two sorts of gum, one sort of which is like gum dragon, and is the same, I suppose, Tasman took for gum lac; it is extracted from the largest tree in the woods. "May 6th.--The biggest trees are as large or larger than our oaks in England, and grow a good deal like them, and yield a reddish gum; the wood itself is heavy, hard, and black like <i>Lignum vitae</i>." 1788. Governor Phillip (Despatch, May 15) in `Historical Records of New South Wales', vol. i. pt. ii. p. 128: "What seeds could be collected are sent to Sir Joseph Banks, as likewise the red gum taken from the large gum-tree by tapping, and the yellow gum which is found on the dwarf palm-tree." 1789. Captain Watkin Tench, `Narrative of the Expedition to Botany Bay,' p. 119: "The species of trees are few, and . . . the wood universally of so bad a grain, as almost to preclude the possibility of using it. . . . These trees yield a profusion of thick red gum (not unlike the <i>Sanguis draconis</i>)." 1790. J. White, `Voyage to New South Wales,' p. 231: "The red gum-tree, <i>Eucalyptus resinifera</i>. This is a very large and lofty tree, much exceeding the English oak in size." 1793. Governor Hunter, `Voyage,' p. 69: "I have likewise seen trees bearing three different kinds of leaves, and frequently have found others, bearing the leaf of the gum-tree, with the gum exuding from it, and covered with bark of a very different kind." 1820. W. C. Wentworth, `Description of New South Wales,' p. 66: "Full-sized gums and iron barks, alongside of which the loftiest trees in this country would appear as pigmies, with the beefwood tree, or, as it is generally termed, the forest oak, which is of much humbler growth, are the usual timber." 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 200: "The gum-trees are so designated as a body from producing a gummy resinous matter, while the peculiarities of the bark usually fix the particular names of the species--thus the blue, spotted, black-butted, and woolly gums are so nominated from the corresponding appearance of their respective barks; the red and white gums, from their wood; and the flooded gums from growing in flooded land." 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' vol. II. c. iii. p. 108: "The silvery stems of the never-failing gum-trees." 1857. H. Parkes, `Murmurs of Stream,' p. 56: "Where now the hermit gum-tree stands on the plain's heart." 1864. J. S. Moore, `Spring Life Lyrics,' p. 114: "Amid grand old gums, dark cedars and pines." 1873. A.Trollope, `Australia and New Zealand,' c. xiii. p. 209: "The eternal gum-tree has become to me an Australian crest, giving evidence of Australian ugliness. The gum-tree is ubiquitous, and is not the loveliest, though neither is it by any means the ugliest, of trees." 1877. F. v. Muller, `Botanic Teachings,' p. 7: "The vernacular name of gum-trees for the eucalypts is as unaptly given as that of most others of our native plants, on which popular appellations have been bestowed. Indeed our wattles might far more appropriately be called gum-trees than the eucalypts, because the former exude a real gum (in the chemical meaning of the word); whereas the main exudation from the stems and branches of all eucalypts hardens to a kino-like substance, contains a large proportion of a particular tannin (kino-tannic acid), and is to a great extent or entirely soluble in alcohol, thus very different from genuine gum." 1884. R. L. A. Davies, `Poems and Literary Remains,' p. 176: "Golden, 'mid a sunlit forest, Stood the grand Titanic forms Of the conquerors of storms; Stood the gums, as if inspired, Every branch and leaflet fired With the glory of the sun, In golden robes attired, A grand priesthood of the sun." 1889. P. Beveridge, `Aborigines of Victoria and Riverina,' p. 61: "Nearly all the eucalyptus species exude gum, which the natives utilise in the fabrication of their various weapons as Europeans do glue. The myall and mimosa also exude gum; these the natives prefer before all other kinds when obtainable, they being less brittle and more adhesive than any of the others." i891. `Guide to Zoological Gardens, Melbourne': "This is an exact representation of the camps which were scattered over the country not more than fifty years ago, and inhabited by the original lords of the soil. The beautiful she-oak and red-gum forest that used to clothe the slopes of Royal Park was a very favourite camping-ground of theirs, as the gum-tree was their most regular source of food supply. The hollows of this tree contained the sleek and sleepy opossum, waiting to be dragged forth to the light of day and despatched by a blow on the head. It was to the honey-laden blossoms of this tree that the noisy cockatoos and parrots used to flock. Let the kangaroo be wary and waterfowl shy, but whilst he had his beloved gum-tree, little cared the light-hearted black." 1892. `The Times,' [Reprint] `Letters from Queensland,' p. 2: "The immense extent of gum-trees stretches indefinitely, blotting out the conception of anything but its own lightly-timbered pasture. It has not even the gloom and impressiveness which we associate in England with the name of forest land, for the trees are thinly scattered, their long leaves hang vertically from the branches, and sunlight filters through with sufficient force to promote the growth of the tussocked grass beneath. The whole would be indescribably commonplace, but that the vastness becomes at last by its own force impressive." The following quotations illustrate special uses of the word in composition. <i>Apple Gum</i>-- 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 283: "On the small flats the apple-gum grew." Ibid. c. viii. p. 264: "Another Eucalyptus with a scaly butt . . . but with smooth upper trunk and cordate ovate leaves, which was also new to me; we called it the Apple-gum." <i>Blue Gum</i>-- 1802. D.Collins, `Account of New South Wales,' vol. ii. p. 235: "The blue gum, she-oak, and cherry-tree of Port Jackson were common here." 1832. J. Bischoff, `Van Diemen's Land,' p. 22: "The Blue Gum is found in greater abundance; it is a loose-grained heavy wood." 1851. James Mitchell, `Proceedings of the Royal Society of Van Diemen's Land,' p. 125: "The name blue gum appears to have been derived from the bluish gray colour of the whole plant in the earliest stages of its growth, which is occasioned by a covering of dust or bloom similar to that upon the sloe or damson." 1884. R. L. A. Davies, `Poems and Literary Remains,' p. 199: "I love to see the blue gums stand Majestically tall; The giants of our southern woods, The loftiest of all." <i>Black-butted Gum</i>-- 1833. C. Sturt, `Southern Australia,' vol. II. c. viii. p. 236: "One species . . . resembling strongly the black-butted gum." <i>Cable Gum</i>-- 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' vol. II. c. iv. p. 132: "Cable-gum . . . like several stems twisted together, abundant in interior." <i>Cider Gum</i> (or <i>Cider Tree</i>)-- 1830. Ross, `Hobart Town Almanack,' p. 119: "That species of eucalyptus called the <i>cider tree</i>, from its exuding a quantity of saccharine liquid resembling molasses. Streaks of it were to be seen dripping down the bark in various parts, which we tasted, and found very palatable. The natives have a method at the proper season of grinding holes in the tree, from which the sweet juice flows plentifully, and is collected in a hole at the root. We saw some of these covered up with a flat stone, doubtless to prevent the wild animals from coming to drink it. When allowed to remain some time, and to ferment, it settles into a coarse sort of wine or cider, rather intoxicating." <i>Cinnamon Gum</i>-- 1893. `Sydney Morning Herald,' Aug. 19, p. 7, col. 1: "A forest only fit for urban gnomes these twisted trunks. Here are no straight and lofty trees, but sprawling cinnamon gums, their skin an unpleasing livid red, pock-marked; saplings in white and chilly grey, bleeding gum in ruddy stains, and fire-black boles and stumps to throw the greenery into bright relief." <i>Drooping Gum</i>-- 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' vol. II. c. xii. p. 387: "The trees, which grew only in the valleys, were small kinds of banksia, wattles and drooping gums." <i>Flooded Gum</i>-- 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 7: "Large flooded gum-trees (but no casuarinas) at the low banks of the lagoons." <i>Lemon-scented Gum</i>-- 1860. G. Bennett, `Gatherings of a Naturalist,' p. 265: "Among the <i>Eucalypti</i> or gum-trees growing in New South Wales, a species named the lemon-scented gum-tree, <i>Eucalyptus citriodora</i>, is peculiar to the Wide Bay district, in the northern part of the colony." <i>Mountain Gum</i>-- 1833. C. Sturt, `Southern Australia,' vol. I. c. iii, p. 118: "The cypresses became mixed with casuarina, box and mountain-gum." <i>Red Gum</i> [see also <i>Red-gum</i>]-- 1802. G. Barrington, `History of New South Wales,' c. xi. p. 461: "The red gum-tree. This is a very large and lofty tree, much exceeding the English oak in size." 1846. G. H. Haydon, `Five Years in Australia Felix,' p. 33: "Red gum, a wood which has of late years been exported to England in great quantities; it has all the properties of mahogany." 1868. W. Carleton, `Australian Nights,' p. 14: "While she, the younger, went to fill Her red-gum pitcher at the rill." 1870. J. O. Tucker, `The Mute,' etc., p. 85: "Then the dark savage `neath the red gum's shade Told o'er his deeds." 1890. `The Argus,' June 14, p. 4, col. I "Those of the leaden hue are red gums." <i>Rough Gum</i>-- 1833. C. Sturt, `Southern Australia,' vol. I. c. iii. p. 118: "The rough-gum abounded near the creek." <i>Rusty Gum</i>-- 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 48: "The range was openly timbered with white gum, spotted gum, Iron-bark, rusty gum and the cypress pine." <i>Salmon Gum</i>-- 1893. `The Australasian,' Aug. 3, p. 252, col. 4: "The chief descriptions are salmon, morrel and white gums, and gimlet-wood. The bark of the salmon gum approaches in colour to a rich golden brown, but the satin-like sheen on it has the effect of making it several shades lighter, and in the full glare of the sun it is sufficiently near a rich salmon tint to justify its name." <i>Silver Gum</i>-- 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 113: "When so many of our Australian trees were named `gums,' a distinguishing prefix for each variety was clearly necessary, and so the words red, blue, yellow, white and scarlet, as marking some particular trait in the tree, have come into everyday use. Had the pioneer bush botanist seen at least one of those trees at a certain stage in its growth, the term `silver gum' would have found expression." <i>Spotted Gum</i>-- 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 11: "Ironbark ridges here and there with spotted gum . . . diversified the sameness." <i>Swamp Gum</i>-- 1853. `Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Van Diemen's Land,' vol. ii, p. 132 [James Mitchell, <i>On the Strength of Timber</i>, etc., read Nov.12, 1851]: "The Swamp Gum grows to the largest size of any of this family in Van Diemen's Land. Its growth is nearly twice as rapid as that of the Blue Gum: the annular layers are sometimes very large; but the bark, and the whole tree indeed, is so like the Blue Gum, as not to be easily distinguished from it in outward appearance. It grows best in moist places, which may probably have given rise to its name. Some extraordinary dimensions have been recorded of trees of this species. I lately measured an apparently sound one, and found it 21 feet in circumference at 8 feet from the ground and 87 feet to the first branches. Another was 18 1/2 feet in circumference at 10 feet from the ground, and 213 feet to the highest branch or extreme top. A third reached the height of 251 feet to the highest branch: but I am told that these are pigmies compared to the giants of even the Blue Gum species found in the southern districts." 1880. Garnet Watch, `Victoria in 1880,' p. 100: "Groups of native trees, including the black wattle, silver box, messmate, stringy bark, and the picturesque but less useful swamp gum." <i>Water Gum</i>-- 1847. L. Leichhhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 387: "Long hollows surrounded with drooping tea-trees and the white watergums." <i>Weeping Gum</i>-- 1852. Mrs. Meredith, `My Home in Tasmania,' vol. i. p. 169: "A kind of <i>Eucalyptus</i>, with long drooping leaves, called the `Weeping Gum,' is the most elegant of the family." <i>White Gum</i>-- 1827. Vigors and Horsfield, `Transactions of Linnaean Society,' vol. xv. p, 278: "The natives tell me that it [the ground-parrot] chiefly breeds in a stump of a small White Gum-tree." 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 48: "The range was openly timbered with white gum." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 471: "<i>E. leucoxylon</i>, F. v. M. The `blue or white gum' of South Australia and Victoria is a gum-tree with smooth bark and light-coloured wood (hence the specific name). The flowers and fruit of <i>E. leucoxylon</i> are very similar to those of <i>E. sideroxylon</i>, and in this way two trees have been placed under one name which are really quite distinct. Baron Mueller points out that there are two well-marked varieties of <i>E. leucoxylon</i> in Victoria. That known as `white-gum' has the greater portion of the stem pale and smooth through the outer layers of the bark falling off. The variety known chiefly as the `Victorian Ironbark,' retains the whole bark on the stem, thus becoming deeply fissured and furrowed, and very hard and dark coloured." <i>Yellow Gum</i>-- 1848. T. L. Mitchell, `Tropical Australia,' p. 107: "We this day passed a small group of trees of the yellow gum, a species of eucalyptus growing only on the poor sandy soil near Botany Bay, and other parts of the sea-coast near Sydney." <i>York Gum</i>-- 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' vol. II. c. iv. p. 132: "York gum . . . abundant in York on good soil." <hw>Gum-</hw> (<i>In Composition</i>). See <i>Gum</i>. 1862. H. C. Kendall, `Poems,' p. 134: "I said to myself in the gum-shadowed glen." 1868. W. L. Carleton, `Australian Nights,' p. 1: "To see the gum-log flaming bright Its welcome beacon through the night." 1890. `The Argus,' August 2, p. 4, col. 3: "Make a bit of a shelter also. You can always do it with easily-got gum-boughs." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. xvii. p. 201: "The edge of the long, black, gum-shrouded lagoon." <hw>Gummy</hw>, <i>n.</i> name given to a shark of Victorian and Tasmanian waters, <i>Mustelus antarcticus</i>, Gunth., and called <i>Hound</i> (q.v.) in New South Wales, Victoria, and New Zealand. The word <i>Gummy</i> is said to come from the small numerous teeth, arranged like a pavement, so different from the sharp erect teeth of most other sharks. The word <i>Hound</i> is the Old World name for all the species of the genus <i>Mustelus</i>. This fish, says Hutton, is much eaten by the Maoris. <hw>Gum-sucker</hw>, <i>n.</i> slang for Victorian-born, not now much used; but it is not always limited to Victorians. 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 201: "The acacias are the common wattles of this country; from their trunks and branches clear transparent beads of the purest Arabian gum are seen suspended in the dry spring weather, which our young currency bantlings eagerly search after and regale themselves with." [The practice of `gum-sucking' is here noticed, though the word does not occur.] 1855. W. Howitt, `Two Years in Victoria,' vol. i. p. 24: "If he had not been too 'cute to be bitten twice by the over-'cute `gumsuckers,' as the native Victorians are called." 1890. `Quiz `(Adelaide), Dec. 26: "Quiz will take good care that the innocent Australians are not fooled without a warning. Really L. and his accomplices must look upon gumsuckers as being pretty soft." <hw>Gunyah</hw>, <i>n.</i> aboriginal name for a black-fellow's hut, roughly constructed of boughs and bark; applied also to other forms of shelter. The spelling varies greatly: in Col. Mundy's book (1855) there are no fewer than four forms. See <i>Humpy</i> and <i>Gibber</i>. What Leichhardt saw (see quotation 1847) was very remarkable. 1798. D. Collins, `Account of English Colony in New South Wales,' in an aboriginal vocabulary of Port Jackson, p. 610: "Go-nie--a hut." 1830. R.Dawson, `Present State of Australia,' p. 70: "One of their gunyers (bark huts)." Ibid. p. 171: "A native encampment, consisting of eight or ten `gunyers.' This is the native term for small huts, which are supported by three forked sticks (about three feet long) brought together at the top in a triangular form: the two sides towards the wind are covered by long sheets of bark, the third is always left open to the wind." 1833. C. Sturt, `Southern Australia,' vol. I. c. ii. p. 78: "We observed a fresh-made gunneah (or native hut)." 1839. T. L. Mitchell, `Three Expeditions into the Interior of Eastern Australia,' c. ii. p. 35: "Three huts, or gunyahs, consisted of a few green boughs, which had just been put up for shelter from the rain then falling." 1845. J. O. Balfour, `Sketch of New South Wales,' p. 10: "Their only habitation . . . is formed by two sheets of bark stripped from the nearest tree, at the first appearance of a storm, and joined together at an angle of 45 degrees. This, which they call a gunnya, is cut up for firewood when the storm has passed." 1846. C. P. Hodgson, `Reminiscences of Australia,' p. 238: "Behind appears a large piece of wood hooded like a `gunnya' or `umpee.'" 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 290: "We saw a very interesting camping place of the natives, containing several two-storied gunyas." 1852. `Settlers and Convicts; or, Recollections of Sixteen Years' Labour in the Australian Backwoods,' p. 211: "I coincided in his opinion that it would be best for us to camp for the night in one of the ghibber-gunyahs. These are the hollows under overhanging rocks." 1852. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes,' ed. 1855, p. 164: "A sloping sheet of bark turned from the wind--in bush lingo, a break-weather--or in guneeahs of boughs thatched with grass." [p. 200]: "Guneah." [p. 558]: "Gunneah." [p. 606]: "Gunyah." 1860. G.Bennett, `Gatherings of a Naturalist,' p. 114 [Footnote]: "The name given by the natives to the burrow or habitation of any animals is `guniar,' and the same word is applied to our houses." 1880. P. J. Holdsworth, `Station, Hunting': "hunger clung Beneath the bough-piled gunyah." 1885. R. M. Praed, `Australian Life,' p. 19: "The sleepy blacks came out of their gunyahs." [p. 52]: "A gunya of branches." 1890. Lyth, `Golden South,' c. ii. p. 16: "Where this beautiful building now stands, there were only the gunyahs or homes of the poor savages." 1890. A. J. Vogan, `Black Police,' p. 98: "One of the gunyahs on the hill. . . . The hut, which is exactly like all the others in the group,--and for the matter of that all within two or three hundred miles,--is built of sticks, which have been stuck into the ground at the radius of a common centre, and then bent over so as to form an egg-shaped cage, which is substantially thatched on top and sides with herbage and mud." <hw>Gunyang</hw>, <i>n.</i> the aboriginal word for the <i>Kangaroo Apple</i> (q.v.), though the name is more strictly applied not to <i>Solanum aviculare</i>, but to <i>S. vescum</i>. 1877. F. von Muller, `Botanic Teachings,' p. 106: "The similarity of both [<i>S. vescum</i> and <i>S. aviculare</i>] to each other forbids to recommend the fruit of the Gunyang as edible." 1878. W. R. Guilfoyle, `Australian Botany,' p. 73: "Kangaroo Apple, <i>Solanum aviculare</i>. . . . The Gunyang (<i>Solanum vescum</i>) is another variety found in Victoria." 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 222: "A couple of tiny streams trickle across the plains to the sea, a dwarfed ti-tree, clinging low about the ground, like the gunyang or kangaroo apple, borders the banks." <hw>Gurnard</hw>, <i>n.</i> i.q. <i>Gurnet</i> (q.v.). <hw>Gurnet</hw>, <i>n.</i> The species of <i>Trigla</i> found in British waters, called <i>Gurnards</i> are of the family of <i>Cottidae</i>. The word <i>Gurnet</i> is an obsolete or provincial form of Gurnard, revived in Australia, and applied to the fish <i>Centropogon scorpoenoides</i>, Guich., family <i>Scorpoenidae</i>. The original word <i>Gurnard</i> is retained in New Zealand, and applied to the new species <i>Trigla kumu</i> (<i>kumu</i> being the Maori name), family <i>Cottidae</i>. The <i>Flying Gurnet</i> is <i>Trigla polyommata</i>, Richards., found on all the Australian coasts from New South Wales to Western Australia, family <i>Cottidae</i>. It is a distinct species, not included in the British species. They have large pectoral fins, but are not known to possess the power of supporting themselves in the air like the "flying fish" which belong to other genera. Sir Fredk. McCoy says that <i>Sebastes Percoides</i>, Richards., is called Gurnet, or Garnet-perch, by the fishermen and dealers, as well as the more common <i>Neosebastes scorpoenoides</i>, Guich., and <i>Scorpoena panda</i>, Richards. <hw>Gutter</hw>, <i>n.</i> in Australian goldmining, "the lower and auriferous part of the channel of an old river of the Tertiary period " (`Century'). "The lowest portion of a lead. A gutter is filled with auriferous drift or <i>washdirt</i>, which rests on the palaeozoic bed-rock." (Brough Smyth, `Glossary of Mining Terms.') 1864. J. Rogers, `New Rush,' p. 55: "Duffers are so common And golden gutters rare." 1871. J. J. Simpson, `Recitations,' p. 23: "Privations and hardships you all have to suffer Ere you can expect to get on to the gutter." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. viii. p. 81: "If we happened to drop right down on the `gutter' or main course of the lead, we were all right." 1890. `Goldfields of Victoria,' p.23: "The Company . . . are putting in a drive to strike the old Shakspeare gutter." 1891. `The Australasian,' Nov. 21, p. 1015: "Evidently both claims had been driving for a `gutter.' One of them had got to the end of its tether before reaching it." <hw>Gutter-flags</hw>, <i>n.</i> Flags fixed on the surface to denote where the course of a gutter or lead underground has been discovered." (Brough Smyth, `Glossary of Mining Terms.') <hw>Gweeon</hw>, <i>n.</i> a stone tomahawk of the aborigines. <i>Gweh-un</i>, in Mukthang language, Gippsland. Apparently a remnant of a term occurring along the east side of Australia; <i>Burgoin</i>, New South Wales; <i>bulgoon</i> and <i>balgon</i>, Burdekin River, Queensland; related to <i>balgoungo</i>, to chop. <hw>Gymnobelideus</hw>, <i>n.</i> the scientific name of the genus confined to Australia of <i>Squirrel Phalangers</i>, or <i>Squirrel Opossums</i>, as they have been called. See <i>Opossum</i>. The name was given by Sir Frederick McCoy in 1867. Only two specimens have been found, and they are in the Melbourne Museum of Natural History. There is only one species, <i>G. leadbeateri</i>, M'Coy. In general form they resemble the so-called <i>Australian Flying Squirrel</i> (q.v.), save for the absence of the parachute. They have large naked ears. (Grk. <i>gymnos</i>, naked, and Latin, <i>belideus</i>, the Flying-Phalanger or Squirrel.) <hw>Gymnorrhina</hw>, <i>n.</i> the scientific name of the Australian genus of <i>Piping Crow-Shrikes</i>, called locally by the vernacular name of <i>Magpies</i> (q.v.). They have the nostrils and beak unfeathered. (Grk. <i>gymnos</i>, naked, and <i>rhis</i>, nose.) For the species see under <i>Magpie</i>. H <hw>Haddock</hw>, <i>n.</i> The New Zealand <i>Haddock</i> is <i>Gadus australis</i>, Hutton, <i>Pseudophycis barbatus</i>, Gunth., and <i>Merlucius gayi</i>, Guich., or <i>australis</i>, Hutton, all belonging to the family <i>Gadidae</i> or Cod-fishes. The European species of <i>Merlucius</i> is known as the "Hake." <hw>Haeremai</hw>, <i>interj</i>. Maori term of welcome, lit. come hither; <i>haere</i> is the verb. It has been colloquially adopted. 1769. J. Hawkesworth, `Voyages,' vol. iii. p. 229 (ed. 1785): "When they came near enough to be heard, they waved their hands, and called out `Horomai.' These ceremonies we were told were certain signs of their friendly disposition." 1832. `Henry Williams' Journal,' in H. Carleton's `Life of Henry Williams,' p. 112: "After breakfast we went to them all; they were very glad to see us, and gave us the usual welcome, `Haeremai! Haeremai!'" 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' p. 249: "As I ascended the steep hill with my train, scarcely any greeting was addressed to me, no shouts of haeremai, so universal a welcome to the stranger, were to be heard." 1863. F. E. Maning (<i>The Pakeha-Maori</i> ), `Old New Zealand,' p. 14: "The boat nears the shore, and now arises from a hundred voices the call of welcome, `Haere mai! haere mai! hoe mai!' Mats, hands, and certain ragged petticoats all waving in the air in sign of welcome. Then a pause. Then, as the boat came nearer, another burst of haere mai! But unaccustomed as I was then to the Maori salute, I disliked the sound. There was a wailing, melancholy cadence that did not strike me as being the appropriate note of welcome." 1867. F. Hochstetter, `New Zealand,' (English edition) p. 438: "Rev. Mr. Chapman received me at his garden gate with a hearty welcome, the natives shouted their friendly `haeremai,' and ere long we were all in comfortable shelter beneath the missionary's roof." 1883. F. S. Renwick, `Betrayed,' p. 34: "Haire mai ho! 'tis the welcome song Rings far on the summer air." <hw>Hair-trigger</hw>, <i>n.</i> a Tasmanian name for any plant of genus <i>Stylidium</i>. Called also <i>Trigger-plant</i>, and <i>Jack in a Box</i> (q.v.). 1852. Mrs. Meredith, `My Home in Tasmania,' vol. ii. p. 71: "The <i>Stylidium</i>, or as we named it, the `Hair-trigger,' is common all over the colony." <hw>Haka</hw>, <i>n.</i> Maori word for a dance. 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' p. 198: "A haka was now performed by about one hundred and fifty men and women. They seated themselves in ranks in one of the courtyards of the pa, stripped to the waist. An old chieftainess, who moved along the ranks with regular steps, brandishing an ornamental spear in time to her movements, now recited the first verse of a song in a monotonous, dirge-like measure. This was joined in by the others, who also kept time by quivering their hands and arms, nodding their heads and bending their bodies in accordance with each emphasis and pause." 1852. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes,' c. xvi. p. 409 (3rd ed. 1855): "I witnessed a national spectacle which was new to me--a sort of incantation performed by women alone--the haka, I think it is called." 1872. A.Domett, `Ranolf,' XV. c. vi. p. 242: "The <i>haka</i>-dances, where she shone supreme." 1873. `Appendix to Journal of House of Representatives,' G. I, B., p. 8: "Thursday was passed by them [the natives] in feasting and hakas." 1883. F. S. Renwick, `Betrayed,' p. 34: "A rushing throng in the furious haka share." 1896. `Otago Witness,' Jan. 23, p. 50, col. 5: "He also received a visit from three or four hostile natives, who, with blood-curdling yells, duly performed the indispensable haka." <hw>Hakea</hw>, <i>n.</i> the scientific name given, in honour of Baron Hake of Hanover, to "a large Australian genus of plants belonging to the follicular section of the <i>Proteaceae</i>, tribe <i>Grevilleae</i>, and distinguished from Grevillea by its axillary inflorescence and samaroid seeds. The species, nearly 100 in number [Maiden's index to `Useful Native Plants' gives sixteen], are all evergreen shrubs, or small trees, with alternate coriaceous, variously lobed, often spiny leaves. They are ornamental in cultivation, and several have acquired special names--<i>H. ulicina</i>, Native Furze; <i>H. laurina</i>, Cushion-flower; <i>H. acicularis</i> (<i>Lissosperma</i>), Native Pear; <i>H. flexilis</i>, Twine-bush." (`Century.') 1877. F. v. Muller, `Botanic Teachings,' p. 50: "<i>Proteaceae</i> are more extensively still represented in Victoria by the well known genera Grevillea and Hakea, the former dedicated to the Right Hon. C. F. Greville, of Paddington, the latter genus named in honour of Baron Hake, of Hanover, both having been alike patrons of horticulture at the end of the last century." 1897. `The Australasian,' Jan. 30, p. 226, col. 3: "Recently, according to `Nature,' Mr. G. M. Thomson, an eminent authority on New Zealand botany, has shown that one of the genera, namely Hakea, though absent at present from the islands [of New Zealand], formerly existed there. Plant remains were found at St. Bathans, in a bed of clay, which have been identified by him as Hakea. The question of the identification of fossil plants is always a difficult one, but as Mr. Thomson announces that he has obtained fruit capsules and leaves there can be but little doubt as to the correctness of his determinations. Hitherto the genus has been regarded as Australian only, and about 100 species are known, of which no less than 65 are West Australian. It would seem then that the Hakeas had obtained a footing in Eastern Australia before the connection with New Zealand had disappeared, and that probably the genus is a far older one than had been anticipated. Why, after finding its way to New Zealand, it should have died out there is a question to which no answer can as yet be supplied." <hw>Hand-fish</hw>, <i>n.</i> a Tasmanian fish, <i>Brachionichthys hirsutus</i>, Lacep., family <i>Pediculati</i>. The name is used in the northern hemisphere for a different fish, which is also called there the <i>Frog-fish</i> and <i>Toad-fish</i>. The name arises from a fancied resemblance of the profile of the fish to a human hand. It is also called <i>Frog-fish</i> and <i>Tortoise-shell fish</i>. Mrs. Meredith calls it <i>Tortoise-shell Fish</i> from its colour, when figuring it in `Tasmanian Friends and Foes' under its former scientific name of <i>Cheironectes Politus</i>. The surface of its skin is hirsute with minute spines, and the lobe at the end of the detached filament of the dorsal fin--called the fintacle--hangs loose. The scientific names of the genus are derived from Grk. <i>brachiown</i>, "the arm," and <i>cheir</i>, "the hand." The armlike pectoral fins are used for holding on to stones or seaweed. 1850. `Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Van Diemen's Land,' Jan. 9, vol. i. p. 268: "A little spotted fish belonging to the genus <i>Chironectes</i> . . . Mr. Champ writes thus respecting the frog fish:-- `It was found in the sea at Port Arthur by a person who was with me, and when caught had all the appearance of having four legs, from the position and shape of the fins; the two longest of which, from the sort of elbow in them, and the division into (rays) what resemble fingers, seem to form a connecting link between fins and legs or arms.'" 1880. Mrs.'Meredith, `Tasmanian Friends and Foes,' p. 249: "It has fins like feet; one small pair where pectoral fins usually are, and a larger pair, with absolute elbows to them, and apparently shoulder-blades too, only those do not belong to the fore pair of feet! A very antipodean arrangement truly! The markings on the body and on the delicate pellucid fins are like tortoise-shell." <hw>Hand, Old</hw>, <i>n.</i> one who has been a convict. 1861. T. McCombie, `Australian Sketches,' p. 141: "The men who have been convicts are termed `old hands'; they are mostly rude, rough men, with no moral principle or religious feeling, and who have little sympathy for humanity." 1865. J. O. Tucker, `Australian Story,' c. i. p. 85: "Reformed convicts, or, in the language of their proverbial cant, `old hands.'" 1865. F. H. Nixon, `Peter Perfume,' p. 102: "`Boshman' in the old-hand vernacular signifies a fiddler." ["Bosh in gypsy means music and also violin." -Barrere and Leland.] 1885. J. Rae, `Chirps by an Australian Sparrow,' p. 99: "The old hands were quite tidy too With hats of cabbage-tree." <hw>Hang up</hw>, v. to tie up a horse. 1860. W. Kelly, `Life in Victoria,' p. 49 [Footnote]: "In Melbourne there are posts sunk in the ground almost opposite every door. . . . Fastening your horse to one of these posts is called `hanging him up.'" 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia,' p. 32: "We got off, hung our horses up to a tree." 1890. E. W. Hornung, `Bride from the Bush,' p. 296: "The mail-boy is waiting impatiently in the verandah, with his horse `hung up' to one of the posts." <hw>Hapalote</hw>, <i>n.</i> Anglicized form of Hapalotis (Grk. <i>hapalos</i>, soft, and <i>'ous, 'owtis</i>) ear), a peculiar Australian genus of rodents of the mouse family. They are called <i>Jumping Mice</i>, and have soft ears, and enlarged hind limbs like the jerboa, but are not marsupial like the kangaroo. There are many species. <hw>Hapu</hw>, <i>n.</i> Maori word for sub-tribe; sometimes even, family. 1857. C. Hursthouse, `New Zealand, the Britain of the South,' vol. i. p. 162: "The 70,000 semi-civilised natives now in New Zealand are divided into some dozen chief tribes, and into numerous sub-tribes and `harpu.'" 1873. `Appendix to Journals of House of Representatives,' vol. iii. G. 7, p. 87: "Were not all your hapu present when the money was paid? My hapu, through whom the land Nvas claimed, were present: we filled the room." 1882. T. H. Potts, `Out in the Open,' p. 171: "An important structure that engaged the united labours of the hapu." 1887. J. White, `Ancient History of the Maori,' vol. i. p. 290: "Each of which is subdivided again into <i>Hapu</i>, or smaller communities." 1891. Rev. J. Stacks, `Report of Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science,' vol. iii. sect. G. p. 378: "On arriving in New Zealand, or Ao-tea-roa, the crews of the colonizing fleet dispersed themselves over the length and breadth of these islands, and formed independent tribes or nations, each of which was divided into hapus and the hapus into families." <hw>Hapuku</hw>, <i>n.</i> Maori name for a fish, <i>Oligorus gigas</i>, Gunth., called later <i>Polyprion prognathus</i> (see quotation, 1895), pronounced <i>hapuka</i>, frequently corrupted into <i>habuka</i>, the <i>Groper</i> (q.v.). It is variously called a <i>Cod</i>, a <i>Perch</i> and a <i>Sea-Perch</i>. See quotations. 1845 (about). `New Plymouth's National Song,' Hursthouse's `New Zealand,' p 217: "Lowing herds on every side, Hapuka in every tide." 1855. Rev. R. Taylor, `Te Ika a Maui, p. 411: "Hapuku, or whapuku, commonly called the cod, but a much richer fish in flavour: externally it more resembles the salmon, and is known in New Holland as the dew or Jew-fish. It attains a large size and is considered the best fish of New Zealand." 1862. Anon., `From the Black Rocks on Friday,' `All the Year Round,' May 17, 1862, No. 160: "A kind of codfish called by the natives whapuku or hahpuka." 1878. P. Thomson, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. XI. art. lii. p. 383: "The hapuka, or groper, was in pretty regular supply." 1880. Guenther, `Study of Fishes,' p. 392: "The second (Oligorus gigas) is found in the sea, on the coast of New Zealand, and called by the Maoris and colonists `Hapuku' . . . Dr. Hector, who has had opportunities of examining it in a fresh state, has pointed out anatomical differences from the Murray Cod." 1880. W. Colenso, `Transactions of the New Zealand Institute,' vol. XIII. art. ii. p. 46: "A feast of good things prepared--eels, and hapuku (codfish), and taro." 1884. W. D. Hay, in the `Field,' May 10, p. 637, col. 1: "The pakirikiri(<i>Percis colias</i>) is the fish to which settlers in the north of New Zealand generally give the name of whapuka." 1895. `Oxford English Dictionary' (s.v.Cod): "In New Zealand, a serranoid fish <i>Polyprion prognathus</i>, called by the Maories hapuku." <hw>Hardhead</hw>, n, the English sportsman's name for the ruddy duck <i>(Erismatura rubida</i>). Applied by sportsmen in Australia to the White-eyed Duck, <i>Nyroca australis</i>, Gould. See <i>Duck</i>. <hw>Hardwood</hw>, <i>n.</i> The name is applied to many Australian timbers something like teak, but especially to <i>Backhousia bancroftii</i>, F. v. M. and Bailey, N.O. Myrtaceae. In Tasmania, it means any gum-timber (<i>Eucalyptus</i>). It is in constant and universal use for building and fencing in Australia. 1888. Candish, `Whispering Voices,' p. 108: "Sitting on a block of hardwood . . . is the gray-haired forest feller." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. iii. p. 24: "It was a hammer-like piece of hardwood above a plate of tin." 1891. Rolf Boldrewood, `Sydney-side Saxon,' p. 93: "A hardwood slab-door weighs a goodish deal, as any one may find out that has to hump it a hundred yards." Hardyhead, <i>n.</i> name given in Sydney to the fish <i>Atherina pinguis</i>, Lacep., family <i>Atherinidae</i>. <hw>Hare-Kangaroo</hw>, <i>n.</i> a small Kangaroo, resembling the British hare. Called also <i>Hare-Wallaby</i>. The scientific name is <i>Lagorchestes</i> (q.v.). 1871. G. Krefft, `Mammals of Australia': "The Hare-kangaroos, so called from their resemblance to that well known rodent, are the fleetest of the whole tribe, and though they do not exceed a common hare in bulk, they can make clear jumps of eight and ten feet high." <hw>Hare-Wallaby</hw>, <i>n.</i> See <i>Hare-Kangaroo, Wallaby</i>, and <i>Lagorchestes</i>. <hw>Harlequin-Pigeon</hw>, <i>n.</i> formerly referred to the genus <i>Peristera</i>, but now to the genus <i>Phaps</i>. It is commonly called in the interior the "flock" pigeon. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 296: "Large flocks of <i>Peristera histrionica</i> (the harlequin- pigeon) were lying on the patches of burnt grass on the plains." <hw>Harmonic Thrush</hw>, <i>n.</i> See <i>Port Jackson Thrush</i>. <hw>Harpagornis</hw>, <i>n.</i> a scientific name for a partly fossilised, huge raptorial bird of New Zealand. From Greek HARPA? <i>harpax</i> robbing, and <i>'ornis</i>, a bird. 1878. A. Newton, `Encyclopaedia Britannica,' vol. iii. p. 731: "There is a harpagornis, a bird of prey of stature sufficient to have made the largest dinornis its quarry." <hw>Harrier</hw>, <i>n.</i> English bird-name (that which harries), assigned in New Zealand to <i>Circus gouldii</i>, Bonap. (also called <i>Swamp-hawk</i>), and in Australia to <i>C. assimilis</i>, Jard. and Selb., or <i>C. approximans</i>, Bonap., called <i>Spotted Harrier</i>. 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 206: "<i>Circus Gouldi</i>, Bonap., New Zealand harrier, or Gould's harrier." <hw>Hat, Black</hw>, <i>n.</i> slang for a new immigrant. 1887. R. M. Praed, `Longleat of Kooralbyn,' c. xxviii. p. 277: "Lord! if I were Mr. Dyson Maddox, I'd never let it be said that a black hat had cut me out sweetheartin'." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. iii. p. 21: "A `black hat' in Australian parlance means a new arrival." <hw>Hat, Old</hw>. See <i>Old-hat</i>. <hw>Hatter</hw>. (1) A solitary miner--miner who works without a mate partner: sc. one who has everything under his own hat. 1869. Brough Smyth, `Goldfields of Victoria,' p. 613 (`Glossary of Mining Terms'): "One who works alone. He differs from the fossicker who rifles old workings, or spends his time in trying abandoned washdirt. The hatter leads an independent life, and nearly always holds a claim under the bye-laws." 1884. R. L. A.Davies, `Poems and Literary Remains,' p. 267: "Oh, a regular rum old stick; . . . he mostly works a `hatter.' He has worked with mates at times, and leaves them when the claim is done, and comes up a `hatter' again. He's a regular old miser." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `The Miner's Right,' p. 37: "Instead of having to take to fossicking like so many `hatters' --solitary miners." (2) By extension to other professions. 1893. `The Herald' (Melbourne), Aug. 28, p. i. col. 7: "He had been a burglar of the kind known among the criminal classes as `a hatter.' That is to say, he burgled `on his own hook,' never in a gang. He had never, he told me, burgled with a companion." <hw>Hatteria</hw>, <i>n.</i> scientific name for a genus of reptiles containing a Lizard peculiar to New Zealand, the only living representative of the order <i>Rhynchocephalinae</i>. See <i>Tuatara</i>. <hw>Hatting</hw>, <i>quasi pres. partic</i>., solitary mining. See <i>Hatter</i>. 1891. `The Age,' Nov. 25, p. 6, col. 7: "Two old miners have been hatting for gold amongst the old alluvial gullies." <hw>Hat-tree</hw>, <i>n.</i> name given to a species of <i>Sterculia</i>, the Bottle-trees (q.v.). <hw>Hau-hau</hw>, <i>n.</i> a Maori superstition. This superstition arose in Taranaki in 1864, through the crazy fancies of the chief Te Ua, who communed with angels and interpreted the Bible. The meaning of the word is obscure, but it probably referred to the wind which wafted the angels to the worshippers whilst dancing round an erect pole. Pai Marire was another name for the superstition, and signifies "good and peaceful." (See Gudgeon's `War in New Zealand,' p. 23 sq.; also Colenso's pamphlet on `Kereopa,' p. 4.) <hw>Hawk</hw>, <i>n.</i> This common English bird-name is applied in Australia to many species-- Brown-Hawk-- <i>Hieracadiea orientalis</i>, Sehl. Crested-H.-- <i>Baza subcristata</i>, Gould. Eagle-H.-- <i>Another name</i> for Wedge-tailed Eagle. (See <i>Eagle</i> and <i>Eagle-hawk</i>.) Fish-H.-- Another name for <i>Osprey</i>. (See <i>Fish-hawk</i>.) Gos-H.-- <i>Astur approximans</i>, V. and H. Grey Gos-H.-- <i>A. cinereus</i>, Vieill. Lesser Gos-H.-- <i>A. cruentus</i>, Gould. Lesser White Gos-H.-- <i>A. leucosomus</i>, Sharpe. Red Gos-H.-- <i>A. radiatus</i>, Lath. Sparrow-H.-- <i>Accipiter cirrhocephalus</i>, Vieill. Striped Brown-H.-- <i>Hieracidea berigora</i>, V. and H. [See <i>Berigora</i>.] Swamp-H. [See <i>Harrier</i>.] White Gos-H.-- <i>Astur novae-hollandiae</i>, Gm. See also <i>Nankeen-Hawk</i>, and <i>Night-Hawk</i>. In New Zealand, the varieties appear in the quotation, 1889. 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 206: [A complete description.] 1889. Prof. Parker, `Catalogue of New Zealand Exhibition,' p. 117: "Of the three species recognized, two, the quail-hawk (<i>Harpa Novae Zealandiae</i>) and the bush-hawk (<i>H. ferox</i>) [or sparrow-hawk], belong to a genus peculiar to New Zealand." [The third is the New Zealand harrier, <i>Circus Gouldi</i>, also found in Australia.] <hw>Hazel</hw>, <i>n.</i> name applied in Victoria to the tree <i>Pomaderris apetala</i>, Labill., <i>N.O. Rhamnaceae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden. `Useful Native Plants,' p. 590: "Called `hazel' in `Victoria. A tall shrub, or small tree. The wood is excellent, of a beautiful satiny texture, and adapted for carvers' and turners' work. [Grows in] all the colonies except Western Australia and Queensland." <hw>Head</hw>, <i>n.</i> the rammer for crushing quartz in gold-mining. 1890. `Goldfields of Victoria,' p.7: "Forty additional heads will be shortly added to the crushing power, bringing the battery up to sixty heads." <hw>Head-Station</hw>, <i>n.</i> the principal buildings, including the owner's or manager's house, the hut, store, etc., of a sheep or cattle run. 1885. Mrs. Campbell Praed [Title]: "The Head Station." <hw>Heart-Pea</hw>, <i>n.</i> i.q. <i>Balloon-Vine</i> (q.v.). <hw>Heartsease</hw>, <i>n.</i> i.q. <i>Brooklime</i>, (q.v.). <hw>Heartseed</hw>, <i>n.</i> i.q. <i>Balloon-Vine</i> (q.v.) <hw>Heartwood</hw>. <i>n.</i> See <i>Ironwood</i>. <hw>Heath</hw>, <i>n.</i> In Tasmania, where the Epacris is of very beautiful colour, this name is popularly used for <i>Epacris impressa</i>, Labill., <i>N.O. Epacrideae</i>. See <i>Epacris</i>. <hw>Hedgehog-Fruit</hw>, <i>n.</i> Popular name applied to the fruit of <i>Echinocarpus australis</i>, Benth., <i>N.O. Tiliaceae</i>. The tree is also called <i>Maiden's Blush</i> (q.v.). <hw>Hedge-Laurel</hw>, <i>n.</i> a name given to the tree <i>Mapau</i> (q.v.), an evergreen shrub of New Zealand, of the genus <i>Pittosporum</i> (q.v.). It has dark glossy foliage and handsome flowers, and is planted and cultivated in the form of tall garden hedges. See also <i>Laurel</i>. <hw>Hei-tiki</hw>, <i>n.</i> Maori name for a neck ornament made of greenstone (q.v.). 1835. W. Yate, `Account of New Zealand,' p. 151: "The latter idea [that they are representatives of gods] was conceived from the hei-tiki being taken off the neck, laid down . . . and then wept and sung over." 1889. Dr. Hocken, `Catalogue of New Zealand Exhibition,' p. 81: "Hei means ornament for the neck. Tiki was the creator of man, and these are the representations of him. By a sort of license, they are occasionally taken to represent some renowned ancestor of the possessor; but wooden Tikis, some of immense size, usually represented the ancestors, and were supposed to be visited by their spirits. These might be erected in various parts of a pa, or to mark boundaries, etc. The Maories cling to them as sacred heirlooms of past generations, and with some superstitious reverence." <hw>Helmet-Orchis</hw>, <i>n.</i> This English name is applied in Australia to the orchid <i>Pterostylis cucullata</i>, R. Br. 1852. Mrs. Meredith, `My Home in Tasmania,' vol. ii. p. 168: "I also found three varieties of a singular green orchis, of a helmet shape, growing singly, on rather tall slender footstalks." <hw>Hemp, Queensland</hw>, <i>n.</i> name given to the common tropical weed <i>Sida rhombifolia</i>, Linn., <i>N.O. Malvaceae</i>. Called also <i>Paddy Lucerne</i>, and in other colonies <i>Native Lucerne</i>, and <i>Jelly Leaf</i>. It is not endemic in Australia. <hw>Hemp-bush, <i>n.</i></hw> the plant <i>Plagianthus pulchellus</i>, A. Gray, N.O. Halvaceae, native of Australia and New Zealand. Though not true hemp (<i>cannabis</i>), it yields a fibre commercially resembling it. <hw>He-Oak</hw>, <i>n.</i> See <i>Oak</i> and <i>She-Oak</i>. Heron, <i>n.</i> common English bird-name. The species present in Australia are-- Ashy Reef H.-- <i>Demiegretta asha</i>, Sykes. Great-billed H.-- <i>Ardea sumatrana</i>, Rafll. Grey H.-- <i>A. cinerea</i>, Linn. Night H.-- <i>Nycticorax caledonicus</i>, Lath. Reef H.-- <i>Demiegretta sacra</i>, Gmel. White-fronted H.-- <i>Ardea novae-hollandiae</i>, Lath. White-necked H.-- A. pacifica, Lath. The Cranes and the Herons are often popularly confused. 1884. Rolf Boldrewood, `Melbourne Memories,' p. 11: "There did I shoot . . . a blue crane--the Australian heron." <hw>Herring</hw>, <i>n.</i> Various species of <i>Clupeidae</i>, to which the European Herring belongs, are known by this name in Australasia, and the word is also applied to an entirely different fish, <i>Prototroctes maraena</i>, Gunth., the <i>Yarra Herring</i>, <i>Freshwater Herring</i>, <i>Grayling</i> (q.v.), or <i>Cucumber-Mullet</i>, found in the rivers of Victoria or Tasmania. The <i>Clupeidae</i> are <i>Clupea sagax</i> (called also <i>Maray</i>, q.v., and <i>Pilchard</i>), <i>C. sundaica</i>, <i>C. hypselosoma</i> Bleek., <i>C. novae-hollandiae</i>, Cuv, and Val., <i>C. vittata</i>, Castln, (called the <i>Smelt</i>, q.v.), and others. In Western Australia <i>Chatoessus erebi</i>, Richards., is called the <i>Perth Herring</i>. See also <i>Picton Herring</i>, <i>Aua</i>, and <i>Sardine</i>. <hw>Herring-cale</hw>, <i>n.</i> name given in New South Wales to the fish Olistherops brunneus, Macl., family Labridae, or Wrasses. <hw>Hickory</hw>, <i>n.</i> The name <i>Hickory</i> is originally American, and is derived from the North-American Indian; its earliest form was <i>Pohickery</i>. The tree belongs to the genus <i>Carya</i>. The wood is excellent for gig-shafts, carriage-poles, fishing-rods, etc. The name is applied in Australia to various trees whose wood is suitable for similar purposes. In Tasmania, the name <i>Hickory</i> is given to <i>Eriostemon squameus</i>, Labill., <i>N.O. Rutacea</i>. <i>Native Hickory</i>, or Hickory-Acacia, is <i>Acacia leprosa</i>, Sieb., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>, and in the southern part of New South Wales, <i>Acacia melanoxylon</i>. (Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 358.) 1884. Rolf Boldrewood, `Melbourne Memories,' c. v. p. 35: "The beautiful umbrageous blackwood, or native hickory, one of the handsomest trees in Australia." <hw>Hickory-Eucalypt</hw>, <i>n.</i> one of the names for the tree <i>Eucalyptus punctata</i>, DeC., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. Called also <i>Leather-jacket</i> (q.v.). <hw>Hickory-Wattle</hw>, <i>n.</i> a Queensland name for <i>Acacia aulacocarpa</i>, Cunn., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>; called <i>Hickory</i> about Brisbane. <hw>Hielaman</hw>, <i>n.</i> a word of Sydney and neighbourhood. The initial <i>h</i>, now frequently used by the natives, is not found in the earliest forms. The termination <i>man</i> is also English. Elimang (Hunter), e-lee-mong (Collins), hilaman (Ridley). A narrow shield of an aboriginal, made of bark or wood. Notice Mr. Grant's remarkable plural (1881 quotation). 1798. D. Collins, `Account of English Colony in New South Wales,' p. 612: "E-lee-mong-shield made of bark." 1834. L. E. Threlkeld, `Australian Grammar,' p. 5: "As an initial, <i>h</i> occurs in only a few words, such as hilaman, a `shield.'" Ibid. p. 10: "As a barbarism, `hillimung-a shield.'" [A barbarism means with Mr. Threlkeld little more than "not belonging to the Hunter district."] 1839. T. L. Mitchell, `Three Expeditions into the Interior of Eastern Australia,' vol. ii. p. 349: "There is much originality in the shield or hieleman of these people. It is merely a piece of wood, of little thickness, and two feet, eight inches long, tapering to each end, cut to an edge outwards, and having a handle or hole in the middle, behind the thickest part." 1852. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes' (edition 1355), p. 102: "The hieleman or shield is a piece of wood, about two and a half feet long, tapering to the ends, with a bevelled face not more than four inches wide at the broadest part, behind which the left hand passing through a hole is perfectly guarded." 1865. S. Bennett, `Australian Discovery,' p. 251: "Hieleman, a shield. Saxon, heilan; English, helm or helmet (a little shield for the head)." [This is a remarkable contribution to philological lore. In no dictionary is the Saxon "heilan" to be found, and a misprint may charitably be suspected. There is no doubt that the <i>h</i> is an English Cockney addition to the aboriginal word. It would need an ingenious fancy to connect "e-leemong" with "helm."] 1873. J. B. Stephens, `Black Gin, etc.,' p. 26: "No faint far hearing of the waddies banging Of club and heelaman together clanging, War shouts and universal boomeranging." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 66: "Nullah-nullahs, paddy-melon sticks, boomerangs, tomahawks, and <i>heelimen</i> or shields lay about in every direction." <hw>Hielaman-tree</hw>, <i>n.</i> another name for the <i>Bats-wing Coral</i> (q.v.), <i>Erythrina vespertilio</i>, Benth., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 426: "`Heilaman [sic] tree.' The wood is soft, and used by the aborigines for making their `heilamans' or shields." <hw>Hinau</hw>, <i>n.</i> Maori name for the New Zealand tree, <i>Elaeocarpus dentatus</i>, Vahl., <i>N.O. Tiliaceae</i>. 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. ii. p. 317: "Another export was much talked of. This was the bark of the hinau, a large forest tree which abounds all over the country near Cook's Strait. The natives extract from this bark the black dye for their mats." 1873. `Catalogue of Vienna Exhibition': "Hinau--a white wood used for turner's work." Ibid.: "The natives produce the black dye for their flax-work, for which purpose the bark is first bruised and boiled for a short time. When cold the flax is put into the mixture . . . it is then steeped thoroughly for two days in red swamp mud, rich in peroxide of iron." 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand,' p. 130: "Hinau, a small tree about fifty feet high and eighteen inches thick in stem, with brown bark which yields a permanent blue-black dye, used for tanning . . . used by Maoris for colouring mats and baskets. Wood a yellowish brown colour and close-grained; very durable for fencing and piles." <hw>Hoki</hw>, <i>n.</i> a New Zealand fish, <i>Coryphaenoides novae-zelandiae</i>. <i>Coryphaenoides</i> belongs to the family <i>Macruridae</i>, which are deep-sea Gadoids. See <i>Tasmanian Whip-tail</i>. <hw>Holly, Native</hw>, <i>n.</i> name given in Australia to the tree <i>Lomatia ilicifolia</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Proteaceae</i>, and in Tasmania to <i>Coprosma hirtella</i>, Labill., <i>N.O. Rubiaceae</i>; called also <i>Coffee Plant</i>. <hw>Holly, Smooth</hw>, <i>n.</i> name given to the tree <i>Hedycarya angustifolia</i>, A. Cunn., <i>N.O. Monimiaceae</i>; called also <i>Native Mulberry</i>. <hw>Hollyhock-tree</hw>, <i>n.</i> name given to <i>Hibiscus splendens</i>, Fraser, <i>N.O. Malvaceae</i>. <hw>Holy City</hw>, <i>n.</i> a nickname for Adelaide. See <i>Farinaceous City</i>. 1875. R. and F. Hill, `What we Saw in Australia,' p. 264: ". . . including so many churches that we are at a loss to understand why Adelaide should, in virtue of her supposed superabundance, be nicknamed by her neighbours the Holy City." <hw>Holy-cross Toad</hw>, <i>n.</i> See <i>Catholic Frog</i>. <hw>Holy-Dollar</hw>, <i>n.</i> punning name for a dollar out of which a <i>Dump</i> (q.v.) had been punched. 1822. `Hobart Town Gazette,' Aug. 10 [Proclamation by Sir Thomas Brisbane, Governor-in-Chief of New South Wales and its dependencies, then including Van Diemen's Land] "Whereas in the Year of our Lord 1813, it was deemed expedient to send a Quantity of Spanish Dollars to the Colony. . . . And whereas His Excellency, the then Governor, thought proper to direct, that every such Dollar, with a small circular Piece of Silver, struck out of its Centre, should be current within this Territory, and every part thereof, for the Sum of Five Shillings." [These were called <i>holy (holey) dollars</i>, or ring dollars, though the name does not occur in the above quotation.] 1857. D. Bunce, `Australasiatic Reminiscences,' p. 59: "We were more particularly struck with the character and various kinds of currency [in Tasmania in 1833]. Our first change for a pound consisted of two dumps, two holy dollars, one Spanish dollar, one French coin, one half-crown, one shilling, and one sixpence." <hw>Honey-Ant</hw>, n. name given to various species of Ants, in which the body of certain individuals becomes enormously distended by sweet food with which they are fed by the worker ants, for whom this store of honey serves as a food supply. When the side of the distended abdomen is tapped, the ant passes the `honey' out of its mouth, and it is then eaten. Three species are known in Australia, <i>Camponotus inflatus</i>, Lubbock; <i>C. cowlei</i>, Froggatt; and <i>C. midas</i>, Froggatt. The aboriginal name of the first is `Yarumpa.' 1896. W. W. Froggatt, `Horne Expedition in Central Australia,' pt. ii. p. 386: "Our Australian honey ants belong to the genus Camponotus, members of which are found to all parts of the world, and are known as `sugar-ants,' from their fondness for all kinds of sweets." <hw>Honey-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. See next word. <hw>Honey-eater</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian bird, with a tongue specially adapted for being formed into a tube for the absorption of honey from flowers. The name is applied to the following species-- Banded Honey-eater-- <i>Myzomela pectoralis</i>, Gould. Black H.-- <i>M. nigra</i>, Gould. Black-chinned H.-- <i>Melithreptus gularis</i>, Gould. Black-headed H.-- <i>M. melanocephalus</i>, Gould. Blue-faced H.-- <i>Entomyza cyanotis</i>, Swain. [See Blue-eye.] Bridled H.-- <i>Ptilotis frenata</i>, Ramsay. Broadbent H.-- <i>Stigmatops alboauricularis</i>, Ramsay. Brown H.-- <i>S. ocularis</i>, Gould. Brown-backed H.-- <i>Glyciphila modesta</i>, Gray. Brown-headed H.-- <i>Melithreptus brevirostrus</i>. Cockerill H.- <i>Ptilotis cockerelli</i>, Gould. Crescent H.-- <i>Meliornis australasiana</i>, Shaw. Dusky H.-- <i>Myzomela obscura</i>, Gould. Fasciated H.-- <i>Ptilotis fasciogularis</i>, Gould. Fuscous H.-- <i>P. fusca</i>, Gould. Gay H.-- <i>Melithreptus vinitinatus</i>, Gould. Golden-backed H.-- <i>M. latior</i>, Gould. Helmeted H.-- <i>Ptilotis cassidix</i>, Jard. Least H.-- <i>Stigmatops subocularis</i>, Long-billed H.-- <i>Meliornis longirostris</i>, Gould. Moustached H.-- <i>M. mystacalis</i>, Gould. New Holland H.-- <i>M. novae</i>-hollandiae, Lath. Painted H.-- <i>Entomophila picta</i>, Gould. Pied H.-- <i>Certhionyx leucomelas</i>, Cuv. Red-headed Honey-eater-- <i>Myzomela erythrocephala</i>, Gould. Red-throated H.-- <i>Entomophila rufigularis</i>, Rufous-breasted H.-- <i>E. albigularis</i>, Gould. Sanguineous H.-- <i>Myzomela sanguineolenta</i>, Lath. [See Blood-bird.] Singing H.-- <i>Ptilotis vittata</i>, Cuv. Spiny-cheeked H.-- <i>Acanthochaea rufigularis</i>, Gould. Streak-naped H.-- <i>Ptilotis filigera</i>, Gould. Striped H.-- <i>Plectorhyncha lanceolata</i>, Gould. Strong-billed H.-- <i>Melithreptus validirostris</i>, Gould. [See also Cherry picker.] Tawny-crowned H.-- <i>Glyciphila fulvifrons</i>, Lewin. Varied H.-- <i>Ptilotis versicolor</i>, Gould. Warty-faced H.-- <i>Meliphaga phrygia</i>, Lath. (Called also the Mock Regent-bird, q.v.) Wattle-cheeked H.-- <i>Ptilotis cratitia</i>, Gould. White-breasted H.-- <i>Glyciphila fasciata</i>, Gould. White-cheeked H.-- <i>Meliornis sericea</i>, Gould. White-eared H.-- <i>Ptilotis leucotis</i>, Lath. White-fronted H.-- <i>Glyciphila albifrons</i>, Gould. White-gaped H.-- <i>Stomiopora unicolor</i>, Gould. White-naped H.-- <i>Melithreptus lunulatus</i>, Shaw. [See also Golden-Eye.] White-plumed H.-- <i>Ptilotis penicillata</i>, Gould. White-quilled H.-- <i>Entomyza albipennis</i>, Gould. White-throated H.-- <i>Melithreptus albogularis</i>, Gould. Yellow H.-- <i>Ptilotis flavescens</i>, Gould. Yellow-eared H.-- <i>P. lewini</i>, Swains. Yellow-faced H.-- <i>P. chrysops</i>, Lath. Yellow-fronted H.-- <i>P. plumula</i>, Gould. Yellow-plumed H.-- <i>P. ornata</i>, Gould. Yellow-spotted H.-- <i>P. gracilis</i>, Gould. Yellow-streaked H.-- <i>P. macleayana</i>, Ramsay. Yellow-throated H.-- <i>P. flavicollis</i>, Vieill. Yellow-tinted H.-- <i>P. flava</i>, Gould. Yellow-tufted H.-- <i>P. auricomis</i>, Lath. Gould enumerated the species, nearly fifty years ago, in his `<i>Birds of</i> Australia' (vol. iv.) as follows:-- Plate <i>Meliphaga Novae-Hollandiae</i>, Vig. and Horsf, New Holland Honey-eater ... ... ... ... 23 <i>M. longirostris</i>, Gould, Long-billed H. ... 24 <i>M. sericea</i>, Gould, White-cheeked H. ... ... 25 <i>M. mystacalis</i>, Gould, Moustached H. ... ... 26 <i>M. Australasiana</i>, Vig. and Horsf, Tasmanian H. 27 <i>Glyciphila fulvifrons</i>, Swains., Fulvous-fronted H. ... ... 28 <i>G. albifrons</i>, Gould, White-fronted H. ... 29 <i>G. fasciata</i>, Gould, Fasciated H. ... ... 30 <i>G. ocularis</i>, Gould, Brown H. ... ... 31 <i>Ptilotis chrysotis</i>, Yellow-eared H.... ... 32 <i>P. sonorus</i>, Gould, Singing H. ... ... 33 <i>P. versicolor</i>, Gould, Varied H. ... ... 34 <i>P. flavigula</i>, Gould, Yellow-throated H. ... 35 <i>P. leucotis</i>, White-eared H. ... ... 36 <i>P. auricomis</i>, Yellow-tufted H. ... ... 37 <i>P. cratilius</i>, Gould, Wattle-cheeked H. ... 38 <i>P. ornatus</i>, Gould, Graceful Ptilotis ... 39 <i>P. plumulus</i>, Gould, Plumed P. ... ... 40 <i>P. flavescens</i>, Gould, Yellow-tinted H. ... 41 <i>P. flava</i>, Gould, Yellow H. ... ... 42 <i>P. penicillatus</i>, Gould, White-plumed H. ... 43 <i>P. fuscus</i>, Gould, Fuscous H. ... ... 44 <i>P. chrysops</i>, Yellow-faced H. ... ... 45 <i>P. unicolor</i>, Gould, Uniform H. ... ... 46 <i>Plectorhyncha lanceolata</i>, Gould, Lanceolate H. 47 <i>Zanthomyza Phrygia</i>, Swains., Warty-faced H. .. 48 <i>Melicophila picata</i>, Gould, Pied H. ... ... 49 <i>Entomophila pitta</i>, Gould, Painted H. ... 50 <i>E. albogularis</i>, Gould, White-throated H. ... 51 <i>E. rufogularis</i>, Gould, Red-throated H. ... 52 <i>Acanthogenys rufogularis</i>, Gould, Spiny-cheeked H. ... 53 <i>Anthochaera inauris</i></i>, Wattled H. ... ... 54 <i>A. Carunculata</i>, Wattled H. ... ... 55 [Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 106.] <i>Myzomela sanguinolenta</i>, Sanguineous H. ... 63 <i>M. erythrocephala</i>, Gould, Red-headed H. ... 64 <i>M. pectoralis</i>, Gould, Banded H. ... ... 65 <i>M. nigra</i>, Gould, Black H. ... ... 66 <i>M. obscura</i>, Gould, Obscure H. ... ... 67 <i>Entomyza cyanotis</i>, Swains., Blue-faced Entomyza 68 <i>E. albipennis</i>, Gould, White-pinioned H. ... 69 <i>Melithreptus validirostris</i>, Gould, Strong-billed H. ... ... 70 <i>M. gularis</i>, Gould, Black-throated H. ... 71 <i>M. lunulatus</i>, Lunulated H. ... ... 72 <i>M. brevirostris</i>, Gould, <i>M. chloropsis</i>, Gould, Swan River H. ... 73 <i>M. albogularis</i>, Gould, White-throated H. (as well as pl. 51) ... ... 74 <i>M. melanocephalus</i>, Gould, Black-headed H. ... 75 <i>Myzantha garrula</i>, Vig. and Horsf, Garrulous H. 76 <i>M. obscura</i>, Gould, Sombre H. ... ... 77 <i>M. lutea</i>, Gould, Luteous H. ... ... 78 In the Supplement of 1869 Gould adds-- Plate <i>Ptilotis cassidix</i>, Jard., Helmeted H. ... 39 <i>P. fasciogularis</i>, Gould, Fasciated H. ... 40 <i>P. notata</i>, Gould, Yellow-spotted H. ... 41 <i>P. filigera</i>, Gould, Streaked H. ... 42 <i>P. Cockerelli</i>, Gould, Cockerell's H. ... 43 <i>Tropidorhynchus buceroides</i>, Helmeted H. ... 44 [Note.--The Brush Wattle-birds, Friar-birds, Spine-bills, and the Yellow-throated Minah, are known as Honey-eaters, and the whole series are sometimes called Honey-birds.] 1897. A. J. Campbell (in `The Australasian,' Jan. 23), p. 180, col. i: "The honey-eaters or meliphagous birds are a peculiar and striking feature in Australian ornithology. As Gould points out, they are to the fauna what the eucalypts, banksias, and melaleucas are to the flora of Australia. They are closely adapted to feeding on these trees. That great author asks:-- `What can be more plain than that the brushlike tongue is especially formed for gathering the honey from the flower-cups of the eucalypti, or that their diminutive stomachs are especially formed for this kind of food, and the peculiar insects which constitute a portion of it?'" <hw>Honey-Eucalypt</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Box-tree, Yellow</i>. <hw>Honey-flower</hw>, <i>n</i>. <i>Lambertia formosa</i>, Smith, <i>N.O. Proteaceae</i>. 1802. G. Barrington, `History of New South Wales,' c. iv. p. 101: "They . . . returned . . . dreadfully exhausted, having existed chiefly by sucking the wild honey-flower and shrubs." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 37: "`Honey-flower' or `honeysuckle,' a plant as well known to small boys about Sydney as to birds and insects. It obtains its vernacular name on account of the large quantity of a clear honey-like liquid the flowers contain. After sucking some quantity the liquid generally produces nausea and headache." <hw>Honey-plant</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given in Tasmania to <i>Richea scoparia</i> Hook., <i>N.O. Epacris</i>. <hw>Honeysuckle</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to the <i>Banksias</i> (q.v.); also called <i>Bottle-brush</i> (q.v.). The species are-- Coast Honeysuckle-- <i>Banksia integrifolia</i>, Linn. Common H.-- <i>B. marginata</i>, Cav. Heath H.-- <i>B. serrata</i>, Linn. New Zealand H.-- <i>Knightia excelsa</i>, R.Br. Silvery H.-- <i>Grevillea striata</i>, R.Br. Tasmanian H.-- <i>Banksia margirata</i>, Cav. /sic. Probably marginata/ 1834. Ross, `Van Diemen's Land Annual,' p. 125: "Some scattered honeysuckles, as they, are called, but which, being specimens of a ligneous evergreen shrub (<i>Banksia Australis</i>), my English reader will please not to assimilate in his mind's eye in any respect with the woodbine." 1846. G. H. Haydon, `Five Years in Australia Felix,' p. 84: "The honeysuckle (<i>Banksia integrifolia</i>) will greatly disappoint those who, from its name, expect to see anything similar to the sweet-scented climbers of English hedges and gardens--this being a tree attaining to thirty or forty feet in height, with spiral yellow flowers. The blossoms at the proper seasons yield a great quantity of honey, which on a dewy morning may be observed dropping from the flowers." 1848. Letter by Mrs. Perry, given in Goodman's `Church in Victoria during Episcopate of Bishop Perry,' p. 83: "In the course of our journey today we passed through a thin wood of honeysuckle trees, for, I should think, about three miles. They take their name from the quantity of honey contained in the yellow cone-shaped flower, which is much prized and sucked by the natives--the aborigines, I mean." 1852. Mrs. Meredith, 'My Home in Tasmania,' vol. i. p. 164: "The honeysuckle-tree (<i>Banksia latifolia</i>) is so unreasonably named . . . so very unlike any sort or species of the sweet old flower whose name it so unfittingly bears. . . . The blossoms form cones, which when in full bloom, are much the size and shape of a large English teazel, and are of a greenish yellow. . . . The honeysuckle trees grow to about thirty feet in height." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 10: "<i>Banksia</i>, spp., <i>N.O. Proteaceae</i>. The name `honeysuckle' was applied to this genus by the early settlers, from the fact that the flowers, when in full bloom, contain, in a greater or lesser quantity, a sweet, honey-like liquid, which is secreted in considerable quantities, especially after a dewy night, and is eagerly sucked out by the aborigines." 1892. A. Sutherland, `Elementary Geography of British Colonies,' p. 271: "It [banksia] is called the `honeysuckle' by the people of Australia, though it has no resemblance to an English honeysuckle. Many of the banksias grow into stately trees." <hw>Honeywood</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given in Tasmania to the tree <i>Bedfordia salicina</i>, DeC., <i>N.O. Compositae</i>; also there called <i>Dogwood</i> (q.v.). <hw>Hoop-Pine</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the tree <i>Araucaria cunninghami</i> or <i>Moreton-Bay Pine</i>. See <i>Pine</i>. <hw>Hoot</hw>, <i>n</i>. slang term for compensation, payment, money; characteristic corruption of Maori <i>Utu</i> (q.v.) 1896. `Truth' (Sydney), Jan. 12: "There are several specimens of bush slang transplanted from the Maori language. `Hoot' is a very frequent synonym for money or wage. I have heard a shearer at the Pastoralist Union office in Sydney when he sought to ascertain the scale of remuneration, enquire of the gilt-edged clerk behind the barrier, `What's the hoot, mate?' The Maori equivalent for money is <i>utu</i>, pronounced by the Ngapuhi and other northern tribes with the last syllable clipped, and the word is very largely used by the kauri-gum diggers and station hands in the North Island. The original meaning of <i>utu</i> in Maori is `revenge.' When the missionaries first settled in New Zealand, they found that the savage inhabitants had no conception of any recompense except the grim recompense of blood. Under Christianizing influences the natives were induced to forego the blood-revenge for injuries, on receiving a solatium in goods or land, and so <i>utu</i> came to have the double meaning of revenge and recompense, and eventually became recognized as the Maori word for money." <hw>Hop-bush</hw>, <i>n</i>. "the name for all species of <i>Dodonaea</i>" (Maiden, p. 417), <i>N.O. Sapindaceae</i>. 1883. F. M. Bailey, `Queensland Flora,' Synopsis, p. 82: "The capsules of many <i>Dodonaeas</i> are used for hops, and thus the shrubs are known as hop-bushes in Queensland." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 621: "`Hop-bush,' called `switch-sorrel' in Jamaica, and according to Dr. Bennett, `apiri' in Tahiti. Found in all the colonies." <hw>Hopping-fish</hw>, or <hw>Climbing-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fish of the north of New South Wales and of Queensland, P<i>eriophthalmus australis</i>, Castln., family <i>Gobiidae</i>. Called also <i>Skipper</i>. 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish of New South Wales,' p. 27: "On the confines of the northern boundaries of New South Wales may be seen a very remarkable Goby called the `Hopping-fish.' The pectoral fins are developed into regular legs, with which the fish hops or leaps along the mud flats . . . The eyes are on the top of the head, and very prominent, and moreover they can be thrust very far out of their sockets, and moved independently of one another, thus the fish can see long distances around, and overtake the small crabs in spite of the long stalks to their optics. It is a tropical form, yet it is said to be found on the mud-flats of the Richmond River." <hw>Hops, Native</hw>, or <hw>Wild</hw>, <i>n</i>. In Australia, the fruit of the <i>Hop-bush</i> (see above), <i>Dodonaea</i> spp. In Tasmania, <i>Daviesia latifolia</i>, R.Br., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>, and called also there <i>Bitter-Leaf</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 23: "`Native hops,' on account of the capsules bearing some resemblance to hops, both in appearance and taste. In the early days of settlement the fruits of these trees were extensively used, yeast and beer of excellent quality being prepared from them. They are still so used to a small extent. <i>D. attenuata</i>, A. Cunn., for instance, was largely used in the Western District. In times of drought cattle and sheep eat them." 1896. A. B. Paterson, `Man from Snowy River,' p. 7: "The wild-hop scrub grew thickly, and the hidden ground was full Of wombat-holes, and any slip was death." <hw>Horizontal</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian shrub, <i>Anodopetalum biglandulosum</i>, Cunn., <i>N.O. Saxifrageae</i>. Horizontal Scrub, peculiar to the island, occurs in the western forests; it derives its name from the direction of the growth of its lower stems, and constitutes a tedious obstacle to the progress of the traveller. 1888. R. M. Johnston, `Geology of Tasmania' [Introd. p. vii: "The Horizontal is a tall shrub or tree. . . . Its peculiar habit--to which it owes its name and fame--is for the main stem to assume a horizontal and drooping position after attaining a considerable height, from which ascend secondary branches which in turn assume the same horizontal habit. From these spring tertiary branchlets, all of which interlock, and form . . . an almost impenetrable mass of vegetation." 1891. `The Australasian,' April 4: "That stuff as they calls horizontal, a mess of branches and root." <hw>Hornerah</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for a throwing-stick; a dialectic variation of Woomera (q.v.). a nonce-use. 1830. R. Dawson, `Present State of Australia,' p. 20: "I observed, too, that they used a stick, shaped thus __, \ called the hornerah (which assists them in throwing the spear)." <hw>Horn-Ray</hw>, <i>n</i>. a New Zealand and Australian <i>Ray</i>, the fish <i>Rhinobatus banksii</i>, Mull and Heule. In this genus of Rays the cranial cartilage is produced into a long rostral process (Guenther): hence the name. <hw>Horopito</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the New Zealand shrub, <i>Drimys axillaris</i>, Forst., <i>N.O. Magnoliaceae</i>; called also <i>Pepper-tree</i> (q.v.). 1847. G. F. Angas, `Savage Life and Scenes in Australia and New Zealand,' vol. ii. p. 17: A delicious fragrance, like that of hyacinth and jessamine mingled, filled the warm still air with its perfume. It arose from the petals of a straggling shrub, with bright green shining leaves resembling those of the nutmeg-tree; and a profusion of rich and delicate blossoms, looking like waxwork, and hanging in clusters of trumpet-shaped bells: I observed every shade of colour amongst them, from pinkish white to the deepest crimson, and the edges of the petals were irregularly jagged all round. The natives call this plant horopito." Ibid. p. 75: "The fuchsia and the <i>horopito</i> were also abundant." 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand, p. 129: "Horopito, pepper-tree, winter's bark. A small slender evergreen tree, very handsome. Whole plant aromatic and stimulant; used by the Maoris for various diseases. Wood very ornamental in cabinet-work." 1889. T. Kirk, `Forest Flora of New Zealand,' p. 1: "The Horopito, or pepper-tree of the settlers, is an ornamental shrub or small tree occurring in woods, on the margin of which it is sometimes found in great abundance." <hw>Horse-Mackerel</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is applied in Sydney to the fish <i>Auxis ramsayi</i>, Castln., family <i>Scombridae</i>. In New Zealand it is <i>Caranx</i> (or <i>Trachurus) trachurus</i>, Cuv. and Val., which is the same fish as the Horse-Mackerel of England. This is called <i>Yellow-tail</i> on the Australian coasts. See <i>Trevally</i>. <hw>Horseradish-tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to <i>Codonocarpus cotinifolius</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Phytolaceae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 164: "`Quinine-tree,' `medicine-tree' of the interior. Called also `horse-radish tree' owing to the taste of the leaves. The bark contains a peculiar bitter, and no doubt possesses medicinal properties. The taste is, however, quite distinct from quinine." <hw>Horseshoe-Fern</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given in New Zealand to the fern <i>Marattia fraxinia</i>, Sm., called in Australia the <i>Potato-Fern</i>. See under <i>Fern</i>. <hw>Hot Wind</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian meteorological phenomenon. See quotations, especially 1879, A. R. Wallace. The phrase is of course used elsewhere, but its Australian use is peculiar. The hot wind blows from the North. Mr. H. C. Russell, the Government Astronomer of New South Wales, writes--"The hot wind of Australia is a circulation of wind about the anticyclone in the rear of which, as it moves to the east, there is a strong force of wind from north to north- west, which blowing over the heated plains of the interior gathers up its excessive temperature and carries it to the southern colonies. They seldom last more than two or three days in Sydney, and the great heat by which they are remembered never lasts more than a few hours of one day, and is always a sign of the end, which is an inrush of southerly wind, the circulation forming the front of the new incoming anticyclone." 1833. C. Sturt, `Southern Australia,' Vol. II. c. iii. p. 66: "This was the only occasion upon which we felt the hot winds in the interior." 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' Vol. II. c. vi. p. 243: "These squalls generally succeed the hot winds that prevail at this season in South Australia, coming from the interior." Footnote--"During the hot winds we observed the thermometer, in the direct rays of the sun, to be 135 degrees." 1846. Ibid. c. xii. p. 403: "A hot wind set in; . . . at one time the thermometer at the public offices [Adelaide] was 158 degrees." 1849. C. Sturt, `Expedition into Central Australia,' vol. ii. p. 90: "I sought shelter behind a large gum tree, but the blasts of heat were so terrific that I wondered the very grass did not take fire. . . . Everything, both animate and inanimate, gave way before it: the horses stood with their backs to the wind, and their noses to the ground, without the muscular strength to raise their heads; the birds were mute, and the leaves of the trees, under which we were sitting, fell like a snow shower around us. At noon I took a thermometer, graduated to 127 degrees, out of my box, and observed that the mercury was up to 125 degrees. Thinking that it had been unduly influenced, I put it in the fork of a tree close to me, sheltered alike from the wind and the sun. In this position I went to examine it about an hour afterwards, when I found that the mercury had risen to the top of the instrument, and that its further expansion had burst the bulb. . . . We had reached our destination, however, before the worst of the hot wind set in." 1850. J. B. Clutterbuck, `Port Phillip in 1849,' p. 25: "The immediate cause of the hot winds has given rise to much speculation. . . . The favourite theory is that they are generated in the sandy plains of the interior, which becoming powerfully heated, pour their glowing breath upon the fertile regions of the south." 1871. Dingo, `Australian Rhymes,' p. 7: "A hot wind swift envelopes me In dust from foot to head." 1879. A. R. Wallace, `Australasia,' (1893) vol. i. p. 39: "They are evidently produced by the sinking down to the surface of that north-westerly current of heated air which . . . is always passing overhead. The exact causes which bring it down cannot be determined, though it evidently depends on the comparative pressure of the atmosphere on the coast and in the interior. Where from any causes the north-west wind becomes more extensive and more powerful, or the sea breezes diminish, the former will displace the latter and produce a hot wind till an equilibrium is restored. It is the same wind passing constantly overhead which prevents the condensation of vapour, and is the cause of the almost uninterrupted sunny skies of the Australian summer." 1879. Rev. J. H. Zillmann, `Australian Life,' p. 40: "Scientific men, however, tell us that those hot winds are just what make Australia so healthy a climate--that they act as scavengers, and without them the death-rate of the colonies would be alarmingly great." <hw>Hot-windy</hw>,<i> adj</i>. See above. 1871. Dingo, `Australian Rhymes,' p. 18: "A spell that still makes me forget The dust and the hot-windy weather." <hw>Houhere</hw>, or <hw>Hohere</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a New Zealand tree, <i>Hoheria populnea</i>, A. Cunn., <i>N.O. Malvaceae</i>; called also <i>Lacebark</i> (q.v.) and xeRibbonwood (q.v.). 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand,' p. 130: "Houhere, ribbonwood of Dunedin. [The name is now more general.] An ornamental shrub-tree ten to thirty feet high. Bark fibrous and used for cordage, and affords a demulcent drink. Wood splits freely for shingles, but is not durable. . . . Bark used for making a tapa cloth by the Maoris in olden times." 1889. T. Kirk, `Forest Flora of New Zealand,' p. 87: "In one or other of its varied forms the `houhere' is found in nearly every district in N.Z. It is everywhere admired for its handsome foliage, and the beauty of its pure white flowers, which are produced in vast profusion during the early winter months. . . . The bark is capable of division into a number of layers. . . . By settlers all forms are termed `ribbonwood,' or less frequently `lace-bark'--names which are applied to other plants; they are also termed `thousand-jacket.'" 1895. `Longman's Geography Reader for New Zealand,' p. 231: "The houhere is a small tree with beautiful white flowers, and the bark splits up into thin layers which look like delicate lace; hence the plant is called lace-bark or ribbon-wood by the colonists." <hw>Houi</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for New Zealand tree, Ribbonwood (q.v.), <i>N.O. Malvaceae</i>, kindred to <i>Hoheria, Plagianthus Betulinus</i>, sometimes called <i>Howi</i>. In Maori, the verb <i>houwere</i> means to tie, to bind: the outer bark was used for tying. <hw>Hound</hw>, <i>n</i>. (sometimes <hw>Smooth Hound</hw>), the Old World name for all the sharks of the genus <i>Mustelus</i> ("the Hell-hound of the Deep"); applied specially in New South Wales and New Zealand to the species <i>Mustelus antarcticus</i>, Guenth., also called <i>Gummy</i> (q.v.). <hw>Hovea</hw>, <i>n</i>. scientific name for a genus of shrubs. "After Anthony Pantaleon Hove, a Polish botanist. A small genus of highly ornamental leguminous shrubs, from Australia, having blue or purple flowers in axillary clusters, or very short racemes, alternate simple leaves, and short turgid pods." (`Century.') <hw>Huia</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a New Zealand bird, like a starling, <i>Heteralocha acutirostris</i>, Gould, of limited occurrence, chiefly found in North Island; having beak straight and short in the male, long and curved in female. The tail feathers are highly prized for ornament by the Maoris. 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 91: "The huia is a black bird about as large as a thrush, with long thin legs and a slender semi-circular beak, which he uses in seeking in holes of trees for the insects on which he feeds. In the tail are four long black feathers tipt with white. These feathers are much valued by the natives as ornaments for the hair on great occasions. . . . The natives attracted the birds by imitating the peculiar whistle, from which it takes the name of huia." 1883. F. S. Renwick, `Betrayed,' p. 36: "One snow-tipped hui feather graced his hair." 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 7: [A full description.] <hw>Hump, to</hw>, <i>v</i>. to shoulder, carry on the back; especially, to <i>hump the swag</i>, or <i>bluey</i>, or <i>drum</i>. See <i>Swag, Bluey, Drum</i>. 1855. W. Howitt, `Two Years in Victoria,' vol. i. p. 226: "He `humped his swag,' in digger's phrase, that is, shouldered his pack and disappeared in the woods." 1857. `Geelong Advertiser,' quoted in `Argus,' Oct. 23, p. 5, col. 3: "The despised old chum bought his swag, `humped it,' grumbled of course." 1891. Rolf Boldrewood, `Sydney-side Saxon,' p. 93: "A hardwood slab-door weighs a goodish deal, as any one may find out that has to hump it a hundred yards." 1893. Haddon Chambers, `Thumbnail Sketches of Australian Life,' p. 224: "I `humped my swag'--i.e. tied my worldly possessions, consisting of a blanket, a pannikin, and an odd pair of boots, upon my back-and `footed it' for the capital." 1896. H. Lawson, `When the World was Wide,' p. 134: "But Bill preferred to hump his drum A-paddin' of the hoof." <hw>Hump</hw>, <i>n</i>. a long walk with a swag on one's back. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. 3, p. 46: "We get a fair share of exercise without a twenty-mile hump on Sundays." <hw>Humpy</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) a native hut. The aboriginal word is Oompi; the initial h is a Cockney addition, and the word has been given an English look, the appearance of the huts suggesting the English word <i>hump</i>. [The forms <i>himbing</i> and <i>yamba</i> occur along the East coast of Australia. Probably it is kindred with <i>koombar</i>, bark, in Kabi dialect, Mary River, Queensland.] The old convict settlement in Moreton Bay, now broken up, was called Humpy Bong (see <i>Bung</i>), sc. <i>Oompi Bong</i>, a dead or deserted settlement. The aboriginal names for hut may be thus tabulated Gunyah ) . . . New South Wales. Goondie ) Humpy (Oompi) . . . Queensland. Mia-mia . . . Victoria and Western Australia. Wurley (Oorla) . . . South Australia. Whare . . . New Zealand. 1846. C. P. Hodgson, `Reminiscences of Australia,' p. 228: "A `gunyia' or `umpee.'" 1873. J. Brunton Stephens, `Black Gin,' p. 16: "Lo, by the `humpy' door, a smockless Venus." (2) Applied to a settler's house, very small and primitive. 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 133: "To dwell in the familiar old bark `humpy,' so full of happy memories. The roof was covered with sheets of bark held down by large wooden riders pegged in the form of a square to one another." 1885. R. M. Praed, `Australian Life,' p. 57: "A lonely hut . . . and a kitchen--a smaller humpey--at the back." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Squatter's Dream,' p. 247: "He's to bed in the humpy." 1893. Gilbert Parker, `Pierre and his People,' p. 135: "Shon McGann was lying on a pile of buffalo robes in a mountain hut,--an Australian would call it a humpey." <hw>Hungry Quartz</hw>, <i>n</i>. a miner's term for unpromising <i>Quartz</i> (q.v.) <hw>Huon-Pine</hw>, <i>n</i>. a large Tasmanian evergreen tree, <i>Dacrydium franklinii</i>, Hook, <i>N.O. Coniferae</i>. The timber is prized in cabinet-work, being repellent to insects, durable, and fairly easy to work; certain pieces are beautifully marked, and resemble bird's-eye maple. The Huon is a river in the south of Tasmania, called after a French officer. See Pine. 1800. J. J. Labillardiere, `Voyage a la Recherche de la Perouse,' tom. i., Introd. p. xi: "Ces deux flutes recurent des noms analogues au but de l'entreprise. Celle que montoit le general, Dentrecasteaux, fut nommee la Recherche, et l'autre, commandee par le major de vaisseau, Huon Kermadec, recut le nom de l'Esperance. . . . Bruny Dentrecasteaux [fut le] commandant de l'expedition, [et] Labillardiere [fut le] naturaliste." [Of these gentlemen of France and their voyage the names Bruni Island, D'Entrecasteaux Channel, Recherche Bay, Port Esperance, Kermandie [sic] River, Huon Island, Huon River, perpetuate the memory in Southern Tasmania, and the Kermadec Islands in the Southern Ocean.] 1820. C. Jeffreys, R.N., `Geographical and Descriptive Delineations of the Island of Van Diemen's Land,' p. 28: "On the banks of these newly discovered rivers, and the harbour, grows the Huon Pine (so called from the river of that name, where it was first found)." 1829. `The Tasmanian Almanack,' p. 87: "1816. Huon pine and coal discovered at Port Davey and Macquarie Harbour." 1832. J. Bischoff, `Van Diemen's Land,' Vol. ii. p. 23: "Huon-pine is by far the most beautiful wood found in the island." 1852. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes,' (edition 1855) p. 515: "Knots of the beautiful Huon pine, finer than bird's-eye maple for ornamental furniture." 1865. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `History of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia,' vol. i. p. 71: "The river was named the Huon, and has since become celebrated for the production which yields the pretty cabinet-wood known as Huon pine." 1890. Lyth, `Golden South,' c. xii. p. 102: "The huon-pine is of immense height and girth." <hw>Hut</hw>, <i>n</i>. the cottage of a shepherd or a miner. The word is English but is especially common in Australia, and does not there connote squalor or meanness. The "Men's Hut" on a station is the building occupied by the male employees. 1844. `Port Phillip Patriot,' July 11, pt. 1, c. 3: "At the head station are a three-roomed hut, large kitchen, wool-shed, etc." 1862. G. T. Lloyd, `Thirty-three Years in Tasmania,' p. 21: "If a slab or log hut was required to be erected . . . a cart-load of wool was pitchforked from the wasting heap, wherewith to caulk the crevices of the rough-hewn timber walls." 1884. Rolf Boldrewood, `Melbourne Memories,' c. vi. p. 42: "`The hut,' a substantial and commodious structure, arose in all its grandeur." 1890. Id. `Miner's Right,' c. vi. p. 62: "Entering such a hut, as it is uniformly, but in no sense of contempt, termed--a hut being simply lower in the scale than a cottage--you will find there nothing to shock the eye or displease the taste." 1891. W. Tilley, `Wild West of Tasmania,' p. 29: "Bark and weatherboard huts alternating with imposing hotels and stores." <hw>Hut-keep</hw>, <i>v</i>. to act as hut-keeper. 1865. S. Sidney, `Three Colonies of Australia,' p. 380 "At this, as well as at every other station I have called at, a woman `hutkeeps,' while the husband is minding the sheep." 1890. `Melbourne Argus,' June 14th, p. 4, col. 2: "`Did you go hut-keeping then?' `Wrong again. Did I go hut-keeping? Did you ever know a hut-keeper cook for sixty shearers?'" <hw>Hut-keeper</hw>, <i>n</i>. Explained in quotations. 1802. D. Collins, `Account of New South Wales,' vol. ii. p. 285: "Old men, unfit for anything but to be hut-keepers who were to remain at home to prevent robbery, while the other inhabitants of the hut were at labour." 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' vol. II. c. iii. p. 458 "My object was to obtain these heads, which the . . . hut-keeper instantly gave." 1853. G. Butler Earp, `What we Did in Australia,' p. 17: "The lowest industrial occupation in Australia, viz. a hut-keeper in the bush . . . a station from which many of the wealthiest flockmasters in Australia have risen." 1883. E. M. Curr, `Recollections of Squatting in Victoria' (1841-1851), p. 21: "A bush hut-keeper, who baked our damper, fried our chops." <hw>Hyacinth, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian flower, <i>Thelymitra longifolia</i>, R. and G. Forst., <i>N.O. Orchideae</i>. <hw>Hyaena</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Thylacine</i>, and <i>Tasmanian Tiger</i>. <hw>Hypsiprymnodon</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name of the genus of the Australian animal called <i>Musk Kangaroo</i>. (Grk. hupsiprumnos, with a high stern.) A very small, rat-like, arboreal kangaroo, about ten inches long. The strong musky odour from which it takes its vernacular name is perceptible in both sexes. 1874. R. Lydekker, `Marsupialia,' p. 73: "The third and last subfamily (Hypsiprymnodontidae) of the Macropodidae is represented solely by the remarkable creature known, from its strong scent, as the Musk-kangaroo." I <hw>Ibis</hw>, <i>n</i>. There are twenty-four species of this bird distributed over all the warmer parts of the globe. Those present in Australasia are-- Glossy (Black, or Bay) Ibis-- <i>Ibis falcinellus</i>, Linn. Straw-necked I.-- <i>Geronticus spinnicollis</i>, Jameson. White I.-- <i>Threskiornis strictipennis</i>, Gould. Of these the last two are confined to Australia, the first is cosmopolitan. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 155: "All they had for supper and breakfast were a straw-coloured ibis, a duck and a crow." Ibid. p. 300: "Crows were feasting on the remains of a black Ibis." 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. vi.: "<i>Geronticus spinicollis</i>, straw-necked ibis (pl. 45). This beautiful ibis has never yet been discovered out of Australia, over the whole of which immense country it is probably distributed." "<i>Threskiornis strictipennis</i>, white ibis" (pl. 46). "<i>Ibis falcinellus</i>, Linn., glossy ibis" (pl. 47). 1892. `The Australasian,' April 9, p. 707, col. 4: "When the hoarse-voiced jackass mocked us, and the white-winged ibis flew Past lagoons and through the rushes, far away into the blue." <hw>Ice-Plant</hw>, <i>n</i>. Tasmanian name for <i>Tetragonia implexicoma</i>, Hook., <i>N.O. Ficoideae</i>, B. Fl. Various species of <i>Tetragonia</i> are cultivated as <i>Spinach</i> (q.v.). 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 63: "Called `ice-plant' in Tasmania. Baron Mueller suggests that this plant be cultivated for spinach. [Found in] all the colonies except Queensland." <hw>Identity, Old</hw>, <i>n</i>. phrase denoting a person well known in a place. a term invented in Dunedin, New Zealand, in 1862, in a popular topical song, by Mr. R. Thatcher, an improvisator. In the song the "Old Identity," the former resident of Dunedin, was distinguished from the "New Iniquity," as the people were termed who came from Australia. 1879. W. J. Barry, `Up and Down,' p. 197: "The old identities were beginning to be alive to the situation." 1894. `Sydney Morning Herald,' Oct.: "It is permissible to wonder about the origin of the phrase `an old identity.' Surely no man, however old, can be an identity? An entity he is, or a nonentity; an individual, a centenarian, or an oldest inhabitant; but identity is a condition of sameness, of being identical with something. One can establish one's identity with that of some one who is being sought or sued, but once established it escapes us." <hw>Inaka</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fish. See <i>Inanga</i>. <hw>Inanga</hw> or <hw>Inaka</hw>, <i>n</i>. (the <i>ng</i> as in the word <i>singer</i>, not as in <i>finger</i>), a New Zealand fish, <i>Galaxias attenuatus</i>, or <i>Retropinna richardsoni</i>. It is often called the <i>Whitebait</i> and <i>Minnow</i>, and in Tasmania the larger variety is called <i>Jolly-tail</i>. The change from <i>Inanga</i> to <i>Inaka</i> is a dialectal Maori variation, answering exactly to the change from North Island Kainga to South Island Kaik (q.v.). 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. ii. p. 100: "This fish is called hinanga [sic.], and resembles Blackwall white-bait in size and flavour. Its colour is a pinkish white, spotted with black." 1896. `The Australasian,' Aug. 28, p. 407, col. 3: "About the same size as this fish [the cockabully] is the `inaka' much used for bait. Indeed, it is called the New Zealand whitebait. A friend from Victoria having used this bait, I asked him to spell the name of the fish, and he wanted to make it like the patriarch who `walked with God' --Enoch-a. The more correct shape of the Maori word is inanga; but in the South Island `k' often takes the place of that distinctive Maori letter `ng,' as `kainga' becomes kaik; ngaio, kaio." <hw>Inchman</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian name for the <i>Bull-dog Ant</i> (q.v.), from its length, which is sometimes nearly an inch. <hw>Indians</hw>, pl. <i>n</i>. early and now obsolete name for the Aboriginals in Australia and even for the Maoris. 1769. J. Banks, `Journal,' Oct. 21 (Sir J. D. Hooker edition), p. 191: "We applied to our friends the Indians for a passage in one of their canoes." [These were Maoris.] 1770. Ibid. April 28: "During this time, a few of the Indians who had not followed the boat remained on the rock opposite the ship, threatening and menacing with their pikes and swords." [These were Australian Aboriginals.] 1825. Barron Field, `Geographical Memoirs of New South Wales,' p. 437: "Some of the Indians have also seriously applied to be allowed convict labourers, as the settlers are, although they have not patience to remain in the huts which our Government has built for them, till the maize and cabbage that have been planted to their hands are fit to gather." 1830. `The Friend of Australia,' p. 244: "It is the observation of some writers, that the system pursued in Australia for educating the children of the Indians is not attended with success. The black children will never do any good there, until some other plan is commenced . . ." <hw>Indigo, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. all the species of <i>Swainsonia</i>, <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>, are called "Native Indigos." See <i>Indigo-plant</i>. In Tasmania, the Native Indigo is <i>Indigofera australis</i>, Willd., <i>N.O</i>. <i>Leguminosae</i>. The plants are also called <i>Indigo-plant</i> and <i>Darling-pea</i> (q.v.). <i>Swainsonia</i> belongs to the same N.O. as <i>Indigofera tinctoria</i>, which furnishes the Indigo of commerce. 1826. J. Atkinson, `Agriculture and Grazing in New South Wales,' p. 24: "Indigo brushes are not very common; the timber in these is generally white or blackbutted gum; the ground beneath is covered with the native indigo, a very beautiful plant, with a light purple flower." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 140: "The `darling-pea' or `indigo-plant' is a dreaded plant from the great amount of loss it has inflicted on stockowners. Its effect on sheep is well known; they separate from the flock, wander about listlessly, and are known to the shepherds as ` pea-eaters,' or `indigo-eaters.' When once a sheep takes to eating this plant it seldom or never fattens, and may be said to be lost to its owner. The late Mr. Charles Thorn, of Queensland, placed a lamb which had become an `indigo-eater' in a small paddock, where it refused to eat grass. It, however, ate the indigo plant greedily, and followed Mr. Thorn all over the paddock for some indigo he held in his hand." <hw>Indented Servants</hw>, <i>n</i>. same as <i>Assigned</i> (q.v.) Servants. 1810. `History of New South Wales' (1818), p. 352: "Public Notice. Secretary's Office, Sydney, July 21, 1810. A ship being daily expected to arrive here from England with female convicts, whom it is His Excellency the Governor's intention to distribute among the settlers, as indented servants. . . ." <hw>Ink-plant</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the "toot," a New Zealand shrub, <i>Coriaria thymifolia</i>, <i>N.O. Coriarieae</i>. Called Ink-plant on account of its juice, which soon turns to black. There is also an European Ink-plant, <i>Coriaria myrtifolia</i>, so that this is only a different species. <hw>Ironbark</hw>, <i>n</i>. Early settlers gave this name to several large Eucalypts, from the hardness of their bark, especially to <i>E. leucoxylon</i>, F. v. M., and <i>E. resinifera</i>, Smith. In Queensland it is applied to <i>E. siderophloia</i>, Benth. See also Leguminous Ironbark, and Lemon-scented Ironbark. 1802. G. Barrington, `History of New South Wales,' c. viii. p. 263: "A species of gum-tree, the bark of which on the trunk is that of the ironbark of Port Jackson." 1830. R. Dawson, `Present State of Australia,' p. 183: "It was made out of a piece of bark from a tree called ironbark (nearly as hard when dry as an English elm-board)." 1865. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `History of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia,' vol. ii. p. 45: "But this gradually changed to an ironbark (<i>Eucalyptus resinifera</i>) and cypress-pine forest." 187. T. Laslett, `Timber and Timber Trees', p. 199: "The Ironbark-tree (<i>Eucalyptus resinifera</i>) is . . . widely spread over a large part of Australia. . . . A lofty forest tree of moderate circumference. . . . It is believed to have been named as above by some of the earliest Australian settlers on account of the extreme hardness of its bark; but it might with equal reason have been called ironwood. The wood is of a deep red colour, very hard, heavy, strong, extremely rigid, and rather difficult to work . . . used extensively in shipbuilding and engineering works in Australia; and in this country (England) it is employed in the mercantile navy for beams, keelsons, and . . . below the line of flotation." 1883. G. W. Rusden, `History of Australia,' vol. i. p. 77: "The ironbark (<i>Eucalyptus sideroxylon</i>) became from its durability a synonym for toughness." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. xxvii. p. 248: "The corrugated stems of the great ironbark trees stood black and columnar." 1893. `The Age,' May 11, p. 7, col. 3, (advt.): "Monday, 15th May.--Supply in one or more contracts of not less than 20 beams of 400 ironbark or box beams for cattle pits, delivered at any station. Particulars at the office of the Engineer for Existing Lines." With qualifications. <i>Silver-leaved</i>-- 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 65: "The silver-leaved ironbark (<i>Eucalyptus pulverulentus</i>) was here coming into blossom." <i>Narrow-leaved</i>-- 1847. Ibid. p. 154: "The narrow-leaved ironbark [grew] on a lighter sandy soil." <hw>Iron hand</hw>, a term of Victorian politics. It was a new Standing Order introducing what has since been called the Closure, and was first moved in the Victorian Legislative Assembly on Jan. 27, 1876. 1876. `Victorian Hansard,' Jan. 20, vol. xxiii. p. 2002: "They [the Government] have dealt with the Opposition with a velvet glove; but the iron hand is beneath, and they shall feel it." 1884. G. W. Rusden, `History of Australia,' vol. iii. p. 406: "The <i>cloture</i>, or the `iron hand,' as McCulloch's resolution was called, was adopted in Victoria, for one session." <hw>Ironheart</hw>, <i>n</i>. a New Zealand tree, <i>Metrosideros tomentosa</i>, <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>; native name, <i>Pohutukawa</i>. 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' p. 311: "It was the `downy ironheart' That from the cliffs o'erhanging grew, And o'er the alcove, every part, Such beauteous leaves and blossoms threw." "<i>Note</i>.--This most lovely tree is common about the northern coasts and cliffs of the North Island and the banks of Lake Tarawera." <hw>Ironwood</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is used of many hard-wooded trees in various parts of the world. The Australian varieties are-- Ironwood (Queensland)-- <i>Acacia excelsa</i>, Benth., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>; <i>Melaleuca genistifolia</i>, Smith, <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. Ironwood (North Queensland)-- <i>Myrtus gonoclada</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. Ironwood (North New South Wales)-- <i>Olea paniculata</i>, R.Br., <i>N.O. Jasmineae</i>. Ironwood (Tasmania)-- <i>Notelaea ligustrina</i>, Vent., <i>N.O. Jasmineae</i>. Scrub Ironwood-- <i>Myrtus hillii</i>, Benth., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. For <i>Ironwood</i> of New Zealand, see <i>Puriri</i>. 1802. G. Barrington, `History of New South Wales,' c. xii. p. 479: "A club of iron-wood, which the cannibals had left in the boat." 1823. W. B. Cramp, `Narrative of a Voyage to India,' p. 17: ". . . they have a short club made of iron wood, called a waday, and a scimeter made of the same wood." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 579: "`Ironwood' and `Heartwood' of Tasmania; `Spurious Olive,' `White Plum' of Gippsland. An exceedingly hard, close-grained wood, used for mallets, sheaves of blocks, turnery, etc. The heartwood yields a very peculiar figure ; it is a very fair substitute for lignum-vitae." <hw>Irriakura</hw>, <i>n</i>. an aboriginal name for the tubers of <i>Cyperus rotundus</i>, Linn., <i>N.O. Cyperaceae</i>, adopted by white men in Central Australia. 1896. E. C. Stirling, `Home Expedition in Central Australia,' Anthropology, p. 60: "<i>Cyperus rotundus</i>. In almost every camp we saw large quantities of the tunicated tubes of this plant, which are generally called `Erriakura' or `Irriakura' by the Arunta natives. . . Even raw they are pleasant to the taste, having an agreeable nutty flavour, which is much improved by the slight roasting." <hw>Ivory-wood</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian timber, <i>Siphonodon australe</i>, Benth., <i>N.O. Celastrinae</i>. <hw>Ivy</hw>, <i>n</i>. a child's name for the ivy-leaf geraniums, especially the double pink-flowered one called Madame Kruse. In Australia the warm climate makes these all evergreens, and they are trained over fences and walls, sometimes to the height of twenty or thirty feet, supplanting the English ivy in this use, and covered with masses of flowers. <hw>Ivy, Native</hw>, an Australian plant, <i>Muehlenbeckia adpressa</i>, Meissn., <i>N.O. Polygonaceae</i>; called also <i>Macquarie Harbour Vine</i>, or <i>Grape</i>. The name is widely applied also to the acclimatised Cape Ivy, or German Ivy (<i>Senecio scandens</i>). 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 46: "`Native Ivy,' Macquarie Harbour Vine or Grape of Tasmania. The currant-like fruits are sub-acid, and were, and perhaps still are, used for tarts, puddings, and preserves; the leaves taste like sorrel." <hw>Ivy, Wild</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian creeper, <i>Platylobium triangulare</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>. <hw>Ivy-tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. New Zealand tree, genus <i>Panax</i>, <i>N.O. Araliacae</i>; Maori name, <i>Horoeka</i>. It is also called <i>Lancewood</i> (q.v.). 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook of New' Zealand,' p. 127: "Horoeka, ivy-tree. an ornamental, slender, and sparingly-branched tree. Wood close-grained and tough." J <hw>Jabiru</hw>, <i>n</i>. The word comes from Brazil, and was first given there to the large stork <i>Mycteria (Xenorhynchus) Americana</i>. The Australian species is <i>M. australis</i>, Lath. It has the back and neck dark grey, changing on the neck to scarlet. There is a black-necked stork in Australia (<i>Xenorhynchus asiaticus</i>), which is also called the <i>Jabiru</i>. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 194: "We saw a Tabiroo [sic] (<i>Mycteria</i>)." 1860. G. Bennett, `Gatherings of a Naturalist,' p. 195: "In October, 1858, I succeeded in purchasing a fine living specimen of the New Holland Jabiru, or Gigantic Crane of the colonists (<i>Mycteria Australis</i>)" 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 323: "The splendid Australian jabiru (<i>Mycteria Australis</i>), and I had the good fortune to shoot on the wing a specimen of this beautiful variety of the stork family." <hw>Jacana</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Brazilian word for a bird of the genus <i>Parra</i> (q.v.). The Australian species is the Comb-crested Jacana, <i>Parra gallinacea</i>, Temm. It is also called the <i>Lotus-bird</i> (q.v.). <hw>Jack in a Box</hw>, i.q. <i>Hair-trigger</i> (q.v.). 1854. `The Home Companion,' p. 554: "When previously mentioning the elegant <i>Stylidium graminifolium</i> (grass-leaved Jack-in-a-box), which may be easily known by its numerous grassy-like radical leaves, and pretty pink flowers, on a long naked stem, we omitted to mention a peculiarity in it, which is said to afford much amusement to the aborigines, who are, generally speaking, fond of, and have a name for, many of the plants common in their own territories. The stigma lies at the apex of a long column, surrounded and concealed by the anthers. This column is exceedingly irritable, and hangs down on one side of the flower, until it is touched, when it suddenly springs up and shifts to the opposite side of the blossom or calyx." 1859. D. Bunce, `Australasiatic Reminiscences,' p. 26: "<i>Stylidium</i> (native Jack in a box). This genus is remarkable for the singular elasticity of the column stylis, which support the anthers, and which being irritable, will spring up if pricked with a pin, or other little substance, below the joint, before the pollen, a small powder, is shed, throwing itself suddenly over, like a reflex arm, to the opposite side of the flower. Hence the colonial designation of Jack in a box." <hw>Jack the Painter</hw>, <i>n</i>. very strong bush-tea, so called from the mark it leaves round the drinker's mouth. 1855. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes,' p. 163: "Another notorious ration tea of the bush is called Jack the Painter--a very green tea indeed, its viridity evidently produced by a discreet use of the copper drying-pans in its manufacture." 1878. `The Australian,' vol. i. p. 418: "The billy wins, and `Jack the Painter' tea Steams on the hob, from aught like fragrance free." 1880. Garnet Walch, `Victoria in 1880,' p. 113 "Special huts had to be provided for them [the sundowners], where they enjoyed eleemosynary rations of mutton, damper, and `Jack the Painter.'" <hw>Jackaroo</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name for a Colonial Experience (q.v.), a young man fresh from England, learning squatting; called in New Zealand a Cadet (q.v.). Compare the American "tenderfoot." A verse definition runs: "To do all sorts and kinds of jobs, Help all the men Jacks, Bills or Bobs, As well as he is able. To be neither boss, overseer, nor man, But a little of all as well as he can, And eat at the master's table." The word is generally supposed to be a corruption (in imitation of the word Kangaroo) of the words "Johnny Raw." Mr. Meston, in the `Sydney Bulletin,' April 18, 1896, says it comes from the old Brisbane blacks, who called the pied crow shrike (<i>Strepera graculina</i>) "tchaceroo," a gabbling and garrulous bird. They called the German missionaries of 1838 "jackeroo," a gabbler, because they were always talking. Afterwards they applied it to all white men. 1880. W. Senior, `Travel and Trout,' p. 19: "Jackaroos--the name given to young gentlemen newly arrived from home to gather colonial experiences." 1881. A. C. Grant `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 53: "The young jackaroo woke early next morning." [Footnote]: "The name by which young men who go to the Australian colonies to pick up colonial experience are designated." 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia,' p. 85: "Of course before starting on their own account to work a station they go into the bush to gain colonial experience, during which process they are known in the colony as `jackaroos.'" 1891. Rolf Boldrewood, `A Sydneyside Saxon,' p. 74: "We went most of the way by rail and coach, and then a jackaroo met us with a fine pair of horses in a waggonette. I expected to see a first cousin to a kangaroo, when the coachdriver told us, instead of a young gentleman learning squatting." 1894. `Sydney Morning Herald' (date lost): "`Jack-a-roo' is of the same class of slang; but the unlucky fellow--often gentle and soft-handed--who does the oddwork of a sheep or cattle station, if he finds time and heart for letters to any who love him, probably writes his rue with a difference." <hw>Jackaroo</hw>, <i>v</i>. to lead the life of a Jackaroo. 1890. Tasma, `In her Earliest Youth,' p. 152: "I've seen such a lot of those new chums, one way and another. They knock down all their money at the first go-off, and then there's nothing for them to do but to go and jackaroo up in Queensland." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Squatter's Dream,' c. xix. p. 239: "A year or two more Jackerooing would only mean the consumption of so many more figs of negro-head, in my case." <hw>Jackass-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. another Sydney name for the <i>Morwong</i> (q.v.). <hw>Jackass, Laughing</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) The popular name of an Australian bird, <i>Dacelo gigas</i>, Bodd, the Great Brown Kingfisher of Australia; see <i>Dacelo</i>. To an Australian who has heard the ludicrous note of the bird and seen its comical, half-stupid appearance, the origin of the name seems obvious. It utters a prolonged rollicking laugh, often preceded by an introductory stave resembling the opening passage of a donkey's bray. But the name has been erroneously derived from the French <i>jacasse</i>, as to which Littre gives "<i>terme populaire. Femme, fille qui parle beaucoup</i>." He adds, that the word <i>jacasse</i> appears to come from <i>jacquot</i>, a name popularly given to parrots and magpies, our "Poll." The verb <i>jacasser</i> means to chatter, said of a magpie. The quotation from Collins (1798) seems to dispose of this suggested French origin, by proving the early use of the name <i>Laughing Jackass</i>. As a matter of fact, the French name had already in 1776 been assigned to the bird, viz. <i>Grand Martin-pecheur de la Nouvelle Guinee</i>. [See Pierre Sonnerat, <i>`Voyage a la Nouvelle Guinee</i>' (Paris, 1776), p. 171.] The only possibility of French origin would be from the sailors of La Perouse. But La Perouse arrived in Botany Bay on January 26, 1788, and found Captain Phillip's ships leaving for Sydney Cove. The intercourse between them was very slight. The French formed a most unfavourable idea of the country, and sailed away on March 10. If from their short intercourse, the English had accepted the word <i>Jackass</i>, would not mention of the fact have been made by Governor Phillip, or Surgeon White, who mention the bird but by a different name (see quotations 1789, 1790), or by Captain Watkin Tench, or Judge Advocate Collins, who both mention the incident of the French ships? The epithet "laughing" is now often omitted; the bird is generally called only a <i>Jackass</i>, and this is becoming contracted into the simple abbreviation of Jack. A common popular name for it is the <i>Settlers'-Clock</i>. (See quotations--1827, Cunningham; 1846, Haydon; and 1847, Leichhardt.) The aboriginal name of the bird is <i>Kookaburra</i> (q.v.), and by this name it is generally called in Sydney; another spelling is <i>Gogobera</i>. There is another bird called a <i>Laughing Jackass</i> in New Zealand which is not a Kingfisher, but an <i>Owl, Sceloglaux albifacies</i>, Kaup. (Maori name, <i>Whekau</i>). The New Zealand bird is rare, the Australian bird very common. The so-called <i>Derwent Jackass</i> of Tasmania is a <i>Shrike (Cracticus cinereus</i>, Gould), and is more properly called the <i>Grey Butcher-bird</i>. See <i>Butcher-bird</i>. 1789. Governor Phillip, `Voyage,' p. 287: Description given with picture, but under name "Great Brown Kingsfisher" [sic]. Ibid. p. 156: Similar bird, with description and picture, under name "Sacred King's Fisher." 1790. J. White, `Voyage to New South Wales,' p. 137: "We not long after discovered the Great Brown King's Fisher, of which a plate is annexed. This bird has been described by Mr. Latham in his `General Synopsis of Birds,' vol. ii. p. 603. Ibid. p. 193: "We this day shot the Sacred King's-Fisher (see plate annexed)." 1798. Collins, `Account of English Colony in New South Wales,' p. 615, (Vocabulary): "Gi-gan-ne-gine. Bird named by us the Laughing Jackass. Go-con-de--inland name for it." 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 232: "The loud and discordant noise of the laughing jackass (or settler's-clock, as he is called), as he takes up his roost on the withered bough of one of our tallest trees, acquaints us that the sun has just dipped behind the hills." 1827. Vigors and Horsfield, `Transactions of Linnaean Society,' vol. xv. p. 204: "The settlers call this bird the Laughing Jackass. I have also heard it called the Hawkesbury-Clock (clocks being at the period of my residence scarce articles in the colony, there not being one perhaps in the whole Hawkesbury settlement), for it is among the first of the feathered tribes which announce the approach of day." 1846. G. H. Haydon, `Five Years in Australia Felix,' p. 71: "The laughing jackass, or settler's-clock is an uncouth looking creature of an ashen brown colour . . . This bird is the first to indicate by its note the approach of day, and thus it has received its other name, the settler's clock." 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 234: "I usually rise when I hear the merry laugh of the laughing- jackass (<i>Dacelo gigantea</i>), which, from its regularity, has not been unaptly named the settlers'-clock." 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. ii. pl. 18: "<i>Dacelo Gigantea</i>, Leach, Great Brown King Fisher; Laughing Jackass of the Colonists." 1855. W. Howitt, `Two Years in Victoria,' vol. i. p. 58: "You are startled by a loud, sudden cackling, like flocks of geese, followed by an obstreperous hoo! hoo! ha! ha! of the laughing jackass (<i>Dacelo gigantea</i>) a species of jay." [Howitt's comparison with the jay is evidently due to the azure iridescent markings on the upper part of the wings, in colour like the blue feathers on the jay.] 1862. F. J. Jobson, `Australia,' c. vi. p. 145: "The odd medley of cackling, bray, and chuckle notes from the `Laughing Jackass.'" 1872. C. H. Eden, `My Wife and I in Queensland,' p. 18: "At daylight came a hideous chorus of fiendish laughter, as if the infernal regions had been broken loose--this was the song of another feathered innocent, the laughing jackass--not half a bad sort of fellow when you come to know him, for he kills snakes, and is an infallible sign of the vicinity of fresh-water." 1880. T. W. Nutt, `Palace of Industry,' p. 15: "Where clock-bird laughed and sweet wildflowers throve." [Footnote] "The familiar laughing jackass." 1880. Garnet Walch, `Victoria in 1880,' p. 13: "Dense forests, where the prolonged cacchinations of that cynic of the woods, as A. P. Martin calls the laughing jackass, seemed to mock us for our pains." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 37: "The harsh-voiced, big-headed, laughing jackass." 1881. D. Blair, `Cyclopaedia of Australasia,' p. 202: "The name it vulgarly bears is a corruption of the French word Jacasser, `to chatter,' and the correct form is the `Laughing Jacasse.'" [No. See above.] 1885. `Australasian Printers' Keepsake,' p. 76: "Magpies chatter, and the jackass Laughs Good-morrow like a Bacchus." 1889. Rev. J. H. Zillmann, `Australian Life,' [telling an old story] p. 155: "The Archbishop inquired the name of a curious bird which had attracted his attention. `Your grace, we call that the laughing jackass in this country, but I don't know the botanical [sic] name of the bird." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals, p. 27: "Few of the birds of Australia have pleased me as much as this curious laughing jackass, though it is both clumsy and unattractive in colour. Far from deserving its name jackass, it is on the contrary very wise and also very courageous. It boldly attacks venomous snakes and large lizards, and is consequently the friend of the colonist." 1890. Tasma, `In her Earliest Youth,' p. 265: "`There's a jackass--a real laughing jackass on that dead branch. They have such a queer note; like this,, you know--' and upon her companion's startled ears there rang forth, all of a sudden, the most curious, inimitable, guttural, diabolical tremolo it had ever befallen them to hear." 1890. `Victorian Statutes-Game Act, Third Schedule': "[Close season.] Great Kingfisher or Laughing Jackass. The whole year. all Kingfishers other than the Laughing Jackass. From the 1st day of August to the 20th day of December next following in each year." (2) The next quotations refer to the New Zealand bird. 1882. T. H. Potts, `Out in the Open,' p. 122: "<i>Athene Albifacies</i>, wekau of the Maoris, is known by some up-country settlers as the big owl or <i>laughing jackass</i>." "The cry of the laughing jackass . . . Why it should share with one of our petrels and the great <i>Dacelo</i> of Australia the trivial name of laughing jackass, we know not; if its cry resembles laughter at all, it is the uncontrollable outburst, the convulsive shout of insanity; we have never been able to trace the faintest approach to mirthful sound in the unearthly yells of this once mysterious night-bird." 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 198: "<i>Sceloglaux albifacies</i>, Kaup., Laughing Owl; Laughing Jackass of the Colonists." [The following quotation refers to the <i>Derwent Jackass</i>.] 1880. Mrs. Meredith, `Tasmanian Friends and Foes,' p. 110: "You have heard of . . . the laughing jackass. We, too, have a `jackass,' a smaller bird, and not in any way remarkable, except for its merry gabbling sort of song, which when several pipe up together, always gives one the idea of a party of very talkative people all chattering against time, and all at once." <hw>Jack-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bird of the South Island of New Zealand, <i>Creadion cinereus</i>, Buller. See also <i>Saddle-back</i> and <i>Creadion</i>. 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 23: "It has become the habit to speak of this bird as the Brown Saddle-back; but this is a misnomer, inasmuch as the absence of the `saddle' is its distinguishing feature. I have accordingly adopted the name of Jack-bird, by which it is known among the settlers in the South Island. Why it should be so called I cannot say, unless this is an adaptation of the native name <i>Tieke</i>, the same word being the equivalent, in the Maori vernacular, of our Jack." <hw>Jack Shay</hw>, or Jackshea, <i>n</i>. a tin quart-pot. 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 209: "Hobbles and Jack Shays hang from the saddle dees." [Footnote]: "A tin quart-pot, used for boiling water for tea, and contrived so as to hold within it a tin pint-pot." 1890. `The Argus,' June14, p. 4, col. 1: "Some of his clothes, with his saddle, serve for a pillow; his ration bags are beside his head, and his jackshea (quart-pot) stands by the fire." <hw>Jacky Winter</hw>, <i>n</i>. the vernacular name in New South Wales of the Brown Flycatcher, <i>Microeca fascinans</i>, a common little bird about Sydney. The name has been ascribed to the fact that it is a resident species, very common, and that it sings all through the winter, when nearly every other species is silent. See Flycatcher. <hw>Jade</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Greenstone</i>. <hw>Jarrah</hw>, <i>n</i>. anglicised form of <i>Jerryhl</i>, the native name of a certain species of Eucalyptus, which grows in the south of Western Australia, east and south-east of Perth. In Sir George Grey's Glossary (1840), Djar-rail; Mr. G. F. Moore's (1884), Djarryl. (<i>Eucalyptus marginata</i>, Donn.) The name <i>Bastard-Jarrah</i> is given to <i>E. botryoides</i>, Smith, which bears many other names. It is the <i>Blue-Gum</i> of New South Wales coast-districts, the <i>Bastard-Mahogany</i> of Gippsland and New South Wales, and also <i>Swamp Mahogany</i> in Victoria and New South Wales, and occasionally <i>Woolly-Butt</i>. 1873. A. Trollope, `Australia and New Zealand,' vol. ii. p. 102: "It may be that after all the hopes of the West-Australian Micawbers will be realised in jarrah-wood." 1875. T. Laslett, `Timber and Timber Trees,' p. 189: "The Jarrah or Mahogany-tree is also found in Western Australia. The wood is red in colour, hard, heavy, close in texture, slightly wavy in the grain, and with occasionally enough figure to give it value for ornamental purposes; it works up quite smoothly and takes a good polish." 188. G. W. Rusden, `History of Australia, vol. i. p. 77: "The jarrah of Western Australia (<i>Eucalyptus marginata</i>) has a peculiar reputation for its power to defy decay when submerged and exposed to the attacks of the dreaded teredo, and has been largely exported to India." 1888. R. Kipling, `Plain Tales from the Hills,' p. 163 ". . . the awful butchery . . . of the Maribyrnong Plate. The walls were colonial ramparts--logs of <i>jarrah</i> spiked into masonry--with wings as strong as Church buttresses." [Jarrah is not a Victorian, but a West-Australian timber, and imported logs are not used by the V.R.C., but white or red gum. For making "jumps," no logs are "spiked into masonry," and the Maribyrnong Plate is not a "jump-race."] 1892. Gilbert Parker, `Round the Compass in Australia,' p. 415: "Mr. W. H. Knight, twenty years ago, gave evidence as to the value of the jarrah. . . . It is found that piles driven down in the Swan River were, after being exposed to the action of wind, water, and weather for forty years, as sound and firm as when put into the water. . . . It completely resists the attacks of the white ants, where stringy-bark, blue-gum, white-gum, and black-wood are eaten through, or rendered useless, in from six to twelve years." 1896. `The Times' (weekly edition), Dec. 4, p. 822, col. 1: "The jarrah, <i>Eucalyptus marginata</i>, stands pre-eminent as the leading timber tree of the Western Australian forests. For constructive work necessitating contact with soil and water jarrahwood has no native equal. A jarrah forest is dull, sombre, and uninteresting to the eye. In first-class forests the trees attain a height of from 90 ft. to 120 ft., with good stems 3 ft. to 5 ft. in diameter. The tree is practically confined to the south-western division of the colony, where the heaviest rains of the season fall. As a rule, jarrah is found either intermixed with the karri tree or in close proximity to it." <hw>Jasmine, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian plant, <i>Ricinocarpus pinifolius</i>, Desf., <i>N.O. Euphorbiaceae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 286: "Native Jasmine. This plant yields abundance of seeds, like small castor oil seeds. They yield an oil." <hw>Jelly-leaf</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Queensland Hemp</i> (q.v.). <hw>Jelly-plant</hw>, a sea-weed, <i>Eucheuma speciosum</i>, J. Agardh, <i>N.O. Algae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 28: "Jelly-plant of Western Australia. This is a remarkable sea-weed of a very gelatinous character [used by] the people of Western Australia for making jelly, blanc-mange, etc. Size and cement can also be made from it. It is cast ashore from deep water." <hw>Jemmy Donnelly</hw>, <i>n</i>. a ridiculous name given to three trees, <i>Euroschinus falcatus</i>, Hook, <i>N.O. Anacardiaceae</i>; <i>Myrsine variabilis</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Myrsinaceae</i>; and <i>Eucalyptus resinifera</i>, Sm., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. They are large timber trees, highly valued in Queensland. <hw>Jerrawicke</hw>, <i>n</i>. obsolete name for Colonial beer. 1857. J. Askew, `A Voyage to Australia and New Zealand,' p. 272: "There were always a number of natives roaming about. There might be about 150 in all, of the Newcastle tribe. They were more wretched and filthy, and if possible, uglier than those of Adelaide. . . . All the earnings of the tribe were spent in tobacco and jerrawicke (colonist-made ale)." 1857. Ibid. p. 273: "A more hideous looking spectacle can hardly be imagined than that presented by these savages around the blazing fire, carousing among jerrawicke and the offal of slaughtered animals.'" <hw>Jew-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name applied in New South Wales to two or more different species, <i>Sciaena antarctica</i>, Castln., and <i>Glaucosoma hebraicum</i>, Richards. <i>Sciaena antarctica</i>, Castln., is the King-fish of the Melbourne market. <i>Sciaena</i> is called Dew-fish in Brisbane. It belongs to the family <i>Sciaenidae</i>. The Australian species is distinct from <i>S. aquila</i>, the European "Maigre" or "Meagre," but closely resembles it. <i>Glaucosoma</i> belongs to the <i>Percidae</i>. The Silver Jew-fish of New South Wales is thought to be the same as the <i>Teraglin</i> (q.v.), <i>Otolithus atelodus</i>, Guenth., also of the family <i>Sciaeidae</i>. Tenison Woods (in `Fish and Fisheries of New South Wales,' 1882, p. 34) says the Jew-fish of New South Wales is sometimes <i>Glaucosoma scapulare</i>, Ramsay; and <i>Glaucosoma hebraicum</i>, Richards., is the Jew-fish of Western Australia (a marine fish). Fishes on the American coasts, different from these, are there called <i>Jew-fishes</i>. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 40: "The water-holes abounded with jew-fish and eels." <hw>Jew-Lizard</hw>, <i>n</i>. a large Australian lizard, <i>Amiphibolurus barbatus</i>, Cuv.; called also <i>Bearded Lizard</i>. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 89: "A small <i>Chlamydophorus</i> (Jew-lizard of the Hunter) was also seen." [The Hunter is a river of New South Wales.] 1890. F. McCoy, `Prodromus of the Natural History of Victoria,' Decade xiii. pl. 121: "This is commonly called the Jew Lizard by colonists, and is easily distinguished by the beard-like growth of long slender spires round the throat . . . when irritated, it inflates the body to a considerably increased size, and hisses like a snake exciting alarm; but rarely biting." 1893. `The Argus,' July 22, p. 4, col. 5: "The great Jew-lizards that lay and laughed horribly to themselves in the pungent dust on the untrodden floors." <hw>Jil-crow-a-berry</hw>, <i>n</i>. the Anglicised pronunciation and spelling of the aboriginal name for the indigenous <i>Rat-tail Grass</i>, <i>Sporobolus indicus</i>, R. Br. <hw>Jimmy</hw>, <i>n</i>. obsolete name for an immigrant, a word which was jocularly changed into Jimmy Grant. The word `immigrant' is as familiar in Australia as `emigrant' in England. 1859. H. Kingsley, `Geoffrey Hamlyn,' p. 211: "`What are these men that we are going to see?' `Why one,' said Lee, is a young Jimmy--I beg your pardon, sir, an emigrant, the other two are old prisoners.'" 1867. `Cassell's Magazine,' p. 440: "`I never wanted to leave England,' I have heard an old Vandemonian observe boastfully. `I wasn't like one of these `Jemmy Grants' (cant term for `emigrants'); I could always earn a good living; it was the Government as took and sent me out." [The writers probably used the word <i>immigrant</i>, which, not being familiar to the English compositor, was misprinted <i>emigrant</i>. The "old Vandemonian" must certainly have said <i>immigrant</i>.] <hw>Jimmy Low</hw>, <i>n</i>. one of the many names of a Timber-tree, <i>Eucalyptus resinifera</i>, Smith, <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 208: "The `Red,' or `Forest Mahogany,' of the neighbourhood of Sydney. These are bad names, as the wood bears no real resemblance to the true mahogany. Because the product of this tree first brought Australian kino into medical notice, it is often in old books called `Botany Bay Gum-tree.' Other names for it are Red gum, Grey gum, Hickory, and it perpetuates the memory of an individual by being called `Jimmy Low.'" <hw>Jingle</hw>, <i>n</i>. a two-wheeled vehicle, like an Irish car, once common in Melbourne, still used in Brisbane and some other towns: so called from the rattle made by it when in motion. The word is not Australian, as is generally supposed; the `Century' gives "a covered two-wheeled car used in the south of Ireland." 1862. Clara Aspinall, `Three Years in Melbourne,' p. 122: "An omnibus may be chartered at much less cost (gentlemen who have lived in India <i>will</i> persist in calling this vehicle a <i>jingle</i>, which perhaps sounds better); it is a kind of dos-a-dos conveyance, holding three in front and three behind: it has a waterproof top to it supported by four iron rods, and oilskin curtains to draw all round as a protection from the rain and dust." 1863. B. A. Heywood, `Vacation Tour at the Antipodes,' p. 44: "During my stay in Melbourne I took a jingle, or car, and drove to St. Kilda." 1865. Lady Barker, writing from Melbourne, `Station Life in New Zealand,' p. 12: "A vehicle which was quite new to me--a sort of light car with a canopy and curtains, holding four, two on each seat, dos-a-dos, and called a jingle--of American parentage, I fancy. One drive in this carriage was quite enough, however." 1869. Marcus Clarke, `Peripatetic Philosopher,' p. 14: "Some folks prefer to travel Over stones and rocks and gravel; And smile at dust and jolting fit to dislocate each bone. To see 'em driving in a jingle, It would make your senses tingle, For you couldn't put a sixpence 'twixt the wheel and the kerb-stone." 1887. Cassell's 'Picturesque Australasia,' vol. i. p. 64: "In former days the Melbourne cab was a kind of Irish car, popularly known as a jingle. . . . The jingle has been ousted by the one-horse waggonette." 1887. R. M. Praed, `Longleat of Kooralbyn,' c. iv. p. 30: "The Premier hailed a passing jingle." [This was in Brisbane.] <hw>Jinkers</hw>, <i>n</i>. a contrivance much used in the bush for moving heavy logs and trunks of trees. It consists of two pairs of wheels, with their axle-trees joined by a long beam, under which the trunks are suspended by chains. Its structure is varied in town for moving wooden houses. Called in England a "whim." 1894. `The Argus,' July 7, p. 8, col. 4: "A rather novel spectacle was to be seen to-day on the Ballan road in the shape of a five-roomed cottage on jinkers. . . . Mr. Scottney, carrier of Fitzroy, on whose jinkers the removal is being made . . ." Jirrand, <i>adj</i>. an aboriginal word in the dialect of Botany Bay, signifying "afraid." Ridley, in his vocabulary, spells it jerron, and there are other spellings. 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. ii. p. 59: "The native word <i>jirrand</i> (afraid) has become in some measure an adopted child, and may probably puzzle our future Johnsons with its <i>unde derivatur</i>." 1889. Rolf Boldrewood, `Robbery under Arms,' p. 316: "When I saw the mob there was I didn't see so much to be jerran about, as it was fifty to one in favour of any one that was wanted." <hw>Jo-Jo</hw>, <i>n</i>. name used by Melbourne larrikins for a man with a good deal of hair on his face. So called from a hairy-faced Russian "<i>dog man</i>" exhibited in Melbourne about 1880, who was advertised by that name. <hw>Job's</hw> Tears. The seeds of <i>Coix lachryma</i>, which are used for necklace-making by the native tribes on the Cape York peninsula, are there called <i>Job's tears</i>. <hw>Joe, Joe-Joe, Joey</hw>, interjection, then a <i>verb</i>, now obsolete. Explained in quotations. 1855. W. Howitt, `Two Years in Victoria,' vol. i. p. 400: "The well-known cry of `Joe! Joe!'--a cry which means one of the myrmidons of Charley Joe, as they familiarly style Mr. [Charles Joseph] La Trobe,--a cry which on all the diggings resounds on all sides on the appearance of any of the hated officials." 1861. T. McCombie, `Australian Sketches,' p. 135: "The cry of `Joey' would rise everywhere against them." [Footnote]: "To `Joey' or `Joe' a person on the diggings, or anywhere else in Australia, is to grossly insult and ridicule him." 1863. B. A. Heywood, `Vacation Tour at the Antipodes,' p. 165: "In the early days of the Australian diggings `Joe' was the warning word shouted out when the police or gold commissioners were seen approaching, but is now the chaff for new chums." 1865. F. H. Nixon, `Peter Perfume,' p. 58: "And Joe joed them out, Tom toed them out." 1891. `The Argus,' Dec. 5, p. 13, col. 4: "`The diggers,' he says, `were up in arms against the Government officials, and whenever a policeman or any other Government servant was seen they raised the cry of "Joe-Joe."' The term was familiar to every man in the fifties. In the earliest days of the diggings proclamations were issued on diverse subjects, but mostly in the direction of curtailing the privileges of the miners. These were signed, `C. Joseph La Trobe,' and became known by the irreverent--not to say flippant --description of `Joes.' By an easy transition, the corruption of the second name of the Governor was applied to his officers, between whom and the spirited diggers no love was lost, and accordingly the appearance of a policeman on a lead was signalled to every tent and hole by the cry of `Joe-Joe.'" <hw>Joey</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) A young kangaroo. 1839. W. H. Leigh, `Reconnoitring Voyages in South Australia' pp. 93-4: "Here [in Kangaroo Island] is also the wallaba . . . The young of the animal is called by the islanders a joe." 1861. T. McCombie, I`Australian Sketches,' p. 172: "The young kangaroos are termed joeys. The female carries the latter in her pouch, but when hard pressed by dogs, and likely to be sacrificed, she throws them down, which usually distracts the attention of the pack and affords the mother sufficient time to escape." 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 10: "Sometimes when the flying doe throws her `joey' from her pouch the dogs turn upon the little one." 1896. F. G. Aflalo, `Natural History of Australia,' p. 29: "At length the actual fact of the Kangaroo's birth, which is much as that of other mammals, was carefully observed at the London Zoo, and the budding fiction joined the myths that were. It was there proved that the little `joey' is brought into the world in the usual way, and forthwith conveyed to the comfortable receptacle and affixed to the teat by the dam, which held the lifeless-looking little thing tenderly in her cloven lips." (2) Also slang used for a baby or little child, or even a young animal, such as a little guinea-pig. Compare "kid." (3) A hewer of wood and drawer of water. 1845. J. A. Moore, `Tasmanian Rhymings,' p. 15: "He was a `joey,' which, in truth, Means nothing more than that youth Who claims a kangaroo descent Is by that nomenclature meant." 1888. Rolf Boldrewood, `Robbery under Arms,' p. 198: "I'm not going to be wood-and-water Joey, I can tell ye." <hw>John Dory</hw>, or <hw>Dorey</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fish. This name is applied in New South Wales and Tasmania to <i>Cyttus (Zeus) australis</i>, Richards., family <i>Cyttidae</i>, which is nearly the same as <i>Zeus faber</i>, the "John Dory" of Europe. Others call <i>C. australis</i> the <i>Bastard Dorey</i> (q.v.), and it is also called the <i>Boar-fish</i> (q.v.) and <i>Dollar-fish</i> (q.v.). 1880. Guenther, `Study of Fishes,' p. 451: "`John Dorys' are found in the Mediterranean, on the eastern temperate shores of the Atlantic, on the coasts of Japan and Australia. Six species are known, all of which are highly esteemed for the table. The English name given to one of the European species (<i>Zeus Faber</i>) seems to be partly a corruption of the Gascon `Jau,' which signifies cock, `Dory' being derived from the French <i>Doree</i>, so that the entire name means Gilt-cock. Indeed, in some other localities of southern Europe it bears the name of <i>Gallo</i>. The same species occurs also on the coasts of South Australia and New Zealand." <hw>Johnny</hw>-cake. <i>n</i>. The name is of American origin, originally given by the negroes to a cake made of Indian corn (maize). In Australia it is a cake baked on the ashes or cooked in a frying-pan. (See quotations.) The name is used in the United States for a slightly different cake, viz. made with Indian meal and toasted before a fire. 1861. Mrs. Meredith, `Over the Straits,' p. 154: "The dough-cakes fried in fat, called `Johnny-cakes.'" 1872. C. H. Eden, `My Wife and I in Queensland,' p. 20: "Johnny-cakes, though they are smaller and very thin, and made in a similar way [sc. to dampers: see <i>Damper</i>]; when eaten hot they are excellent, but if allowed to get cold they become leathery." 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance of Australia,' p. 3: "Johnny-cakes are made with nothing but flour, but there is a great art in mixing them. If it is done properly they are about the lightest and nicest sort of bread that can be made; but the efforts of an amateur generally result in a wet heavy pulp that sticks round one's teeth like bird-lime." 1890. `The Argus,' Aug. 16, p. 13, col. 1: "Here I, a new chum, could, with flour and water and a pinch of baking-powder, make a sweet and wholesome johnny cake." 1892. Mrs. Russell, `Too Easily Jealous,' p. 273 : "Bread was not, and existed only in the shape of johnny-cakes --flat scones of flour and water, baked in the hot ashes." 1894. `The Argus,' March 10, p. 4, col. 6: "It is also useful to make your damper or `Johnny-cake,' which serves you in place of yeast bread. A Johnny-cake is made thus:--Put a couple of handfuls of flour into your dish, with a good pinch of salt and baking soda. Add water till it works to a stiff paste. Divide it into three parts and flatten out into cakes about half an inch thick. Dust a little flour into your frying-pan and put the cake in. Cook it slowly over the fire, taking care it does not burn, and tossing it over again and again. When nearly done stand it against a stick in front of the fire, and let it finish baking while you cook the other two. These, with a piece of wallaby and a billy of tea, are a sweet meal enough after a hard day's work." <hw>Jolly-tail</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian name for the larger variety of the fish <i>Galaxias attenuatus</i>, Jenyns, and other species of <i>Galaxias</i> called <i>Inanga</i> (q.v.) in New Zealand. <i>Galaxias weedoni</i> is called the <i>Mersey Jolly-tail</i>, and <i>Galaxias atkinsoni</i>, the <i>Pieman Jolly-tail</i>. Pieman and Mersey are two Tasmanian rivers. See <i>Mountain-Trout</i>. <hw>July</hw>, <i>n</i>. a winter month in Australia. See <i>Christmas</i>. 1888. Mrs. M'Cann, `Poetical Works,' p. 235: "Scarce has July with frigid visage flown." <hw>Jumbuck</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal pigeon-English for sheep. Often used in the bush. The origin of this word was long unknown. It is thus explained by Mr. Meston, in the `Sydney Bulletin,' April 18, 1896: "The word `jumbuck' for sheep appears originally as <i>jimba, jombock, dombock</i>, and <i>dumbog</i>. In each case it meant the white mist preceding a shower, to which a flock of sheep bore a strong resemblance. It seemed the only thing the aboriginal mind could compare it to." 1845. C. Griffith, `Present State and Prospects of the Port Phillip District of New South Wales,' p. 162: "The following is a specimen of such eloquence: `You pilmillally jumbuck plenty sulky me, plenty boom, borack gammon,' which being interpreted means, `If you shoot my sheep I shall be very angry, and will shoot you and no mistake.'" 1855. W. Ridley, `Transactions of Philological Society,' p. 77: "When they adopt English words ending in mutes, the blacks drop the mute or add a vowel: thus, <i>jimbugg</i>, a slang name for sheep, they sound <i>jimbu</i>." [It was not English slang but an aboriginal word.] 1893. `The Argus,' April 8, p. 4, col. 1: "Mister Charlie, jumbuck go along of grass, blood all there, big dog catch him there, big jumbuck, m'me word, neck torn." 1896. `The Australasian,' June 6, p. 1085, col. 1: "Jumbuck (a sheep) has been in use from the earliest days, but its origin is not known." <hw>Jump</hw>, to, <i>v</i>. to take possession of a claim (mining) on land, on the ground that a former possessor has abandoned it, or has not fulfilled the conditions of the grant. The word is also used in the United States, but it is very common in Australia. Instead of "you have taken my seat," you have <i>jumped</i> it. So even with a pew. a man in England, to whom was said, "you have jumped my pew," would look astonished, as did that other who was informed, "Excuse me, sir, but you are occupewing my py." 1861. T. McCombie, `Australian Sketches,' p. 31: ". . . on condition that he occupies it within twenty-four hours: should this rule not be observed, the right of the original holder is lost, and it may be occupied (or `jumped' as it is termed) by any other person as a deserted claim." 1861. `Victorian Hansard,' vol. vii. p. 942 (May 21): "<i>Mr. Wood</i>: Some of the evils spoken of seemed indeed only to exist in the imagination of the hon. and learned gentleman, as, for instance, that of `jumping,' for which a remedy was already given by the 77th section of the present Act. "<i>Mr. Ireland</i>: Yes; after the claim is `jumped.'" 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `The Miner's Right,' p. 37: "If such work were not commenced within three days, any other miners might summarily take possession of or jump the claim." ibid. p. 52: "Let us have the melancholy satisfaction of seeing Gus's pegs, and noting whether they are all <i>en regle</i>. If not, we'll `jump' him." Ibid. p. 76: "In default of such advertisement, for the general benefit, they were liable, according to custom and practice, to have their claim `jumped,' or taken forcible possession of by any party of miners who could prove that they were concealing the golden reality." 1875. `Melbourne Spectator,' August 21, p. 189, col. 3: "Jumping selections . . . is said to be very common now in the Winmera district." <hw>Jumpable</hw>, <i>adj</i>. open to another to take. See <i>Jump</i>. 1884. Rolf Boldrewood, Melbourne Memories,' c. xvi. p. 114: "The heifer station was what would be called in mining parlance `an abandoned claim' and possibly `jumpable.'" Jumper, <i>n</i>. one who <i>jumps</i> a claim. See <i>Jump</i>. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. xii. p. 127: "Come along, my noble jumper, you've served your injunction." <hw>Jumping-mouse</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Hapalote</i>. <hw>June</hw>, <i>n</i>. a winter month in Australia. See <i>Christmas</i>. 1886. H. C. Kendall, `Poems,' p. 132: "Twenty white-haired Junes have left us Grey with frost and bleak with gale." <hw>Jungle-hen</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to a mound-building bird, <i>Megapodius tumulus</i>, Gould. See also <i>Megapode</i>. The Indian Jungle-fowl is a different bird. 1890. Carl Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 97: "But what especially gives life and character to these woods are the jungle-hens (mound-builders) . . . The bird is of a brownish hue, with yellow legs and immensely large feet; hence its name <i>Megapodius</i>." <hw>Juniper, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Native Currant</i> (q.v.). K <hw>Kahawai</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the fish <i>Arripis salar</i>, Richards.; called in Australia and New Zealand <i>Salmon</i> (q.v.). <hw>Kahikatea</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a New Zealand tree, <i>Podocarpus dacrydioides</i>, A. Rich., <i>N.O. Coniferae</i>. Also called <i>White-Pine</i>. See <i>Pine</i>. The settlers' pronunciation is often <i>Kackatea</i>. There is a Maori word Kahika, meaning ancient. 1855. Rev. R. Taylor. `Te Ika a Maui,' p. 439: "White-pine, <i>Podocarpus dacrydioides</i>--Kahikatea, kahika, korol. This tree is generally called the white-pine, from the colour of its wood. The kahikatea may be considered as nearly the loftiest tree in the New Zealand forest; it often attains a height of little less than two hundred feet, and in that respect rivals the noble kauri, but the general appearance is not very pleasing." 1875. T. Laslett, `Timber and Trees,' p. 304: "The kahikatea or kakaterra-tree (<i>Dacrydium excelsum</i> or <i>taxifolium</i>). This majestic and noble-looking tree belongs to the natural order of <i>Taxaceae</i>, more commonly known by the name of Joint Firs. Height 150 to 180 feet, rising sixty feet and upward without a branch." 1876: W. Blair, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. ix. art. 10, p. 160: "This timber is known in all the provinces, except Otago, by the native name of `kahikatea'. I think we should adopt it also, not only on account of being more euphonious, but for the reason that so many timbers in other parts of the world are called white-pine." 1873. `Appendix to Journal of House of Representatives,' vol. iii. G. 7, p. 11: "On the purchased land stands, or lately stood, a small kahikatea bush. . . . The wood appears to have been of no great money value, but the natives living in Tareha's pa depended upon it for their supply of fire-wood." 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand, p. 124: [It is Sir James Hector who assigns the tree to <i>Coniferae</i>, not <i>Taxaceae</i>.] 1888. Cassell's' Picturesque Australasia,' vol. iii. p. 210: "The White Pine or kahikatea is a very beautiful tree, and droops its dark feathery foliage in a way which recalls the graceful branches of the English elm-tree." <hw>Kahikatoa</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for /a/ New Zealand shrub, but no longer used by the settlers. 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand, p. 126: "Kahikatoa, <i>tea-tree</i> of Cook. <i>Leptospermum scoparium</i>, Forst., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>." <hw>Kahikomako</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name [shortened into <i>kaikomako</i>] for a New Zealand timber, <i>Pennantia corymbosa</i>, <i>N.O. Olacineae</i>; called also <i>Ribbonwood</i> (q.v.). 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand, p. 130: "Kahikomako, a small, very graceful tree, with white sweet-smelling flowers; height twenty to thirty feet. Wood used by the Maoris for kindling fires by friction." <hw>Kai</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori word for <i>food</i>; used also in the South Sea islands. <i>Kai-kai</i> is an English adaptation for feasting. 1807. J. Savage, `Some Account of New Zealand,' Vocab. p. 75: "Kiki . . . food." [The <i>i</i> has the English not the Italian sound.] 1820. `Grammar and Vocabulary of Language of New Zealand' (Church Missionary Society), p. 157: "Kai, <i>s</i>. victuals, support, etc.; <i>a</i>. eatable." 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 29: "He explained to us that every one would cry very much, and then there would be very much kai-kai or feasting." 1855. Rev. R. Taylor, `Te Ika a Maui,' p. 95: "Kai, the general word for food, is not used at Rotorua, because it was the name of a great chief, and the word tami has been substituted for it." 1895. Louis Becke and J. D. Fitzgerald, `The Maori in Politics,' `Review of Reviews,' June 20, p. 621: "We saw some thirty men and women coming towards us, singing in chorus and keeping step to the music. In their hands they carried small baskets woven of raupo reeds, containing kai, or food. This was the `kai' dance." <hw>Kainga</hw>, and <hw>Kaika</hw>, <i>n</i>. now generally <i>kaik</i>, and pronounced <i>kike</i>, a Maori settlement, village. <i>Kainga</i> is used in the North, and is the original form; <i>Kaika</i> is the South Island use. It is the village for dwelling; the <i>pa</i> is for fighting in. 1820. `Grammar and Vocabulary of Language of New Zealand' (Church Missionary Society), p. 157: "Kainga. A place of residence, a home," etc. 1873. Lt.-Colonel St. John, `Pakeha Rambles through Maori Lands,' p. 164 [Heading of Chapter x.]: "How we live in our kainga." 1896. `Otago Witness,' Jan. 23, p. 50, col. 5: "A cosy-looking kainga located on the bank of a picturesque bend of the river." Ibid. p. 52, col. 1: "We steamed on slowly towards Tawhitinui, a small kainga or kaik, as it is called in the South island." 1884. `Maoriland,' p. 84: "The drive may be continued from Portobello to the Maori kaik." <hw>Kaio</hw>, <i>n</i>. popular corruption in the South Island of New Zealand of <i>Ngaio</i> (q.v.). <hw>Kaitaka</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori word for the best kind of native mat. 1835. W. Yate, `Account of New Zealand,' p. 157: "Requiring from three to four months' close sitting to complete one of their kaitakas--the finest sort of mat which they make. This garment has a very silky appearance." 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 244: "Pukaro ended by flinging over my shoulders a very handsome kaitaka mat, which he had been wearing while he spoke." 1881. J. L. Campbell, `Poenamo,' p. 205: "Highly prized and beautiful kaitaka mats." <hw>Kaiwhiria</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for New Zealand tree, <i>Hedycarya dentata</i>, Forst., <i>N.O. Monimiaceae</i>. Porokaiwhiri is the fuller name of the tree. 1883. /J./ Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand,' p. 129 "Kaiwhiria, a small evergreen tree, twenty to thirty feet high; the wood is finely marked and suitable for veneering." <hw>Kaka</hw>, <i>n</i>. the Maori name for a parrot. The word is imitative of a parrot's cry. It is now always used to denote the <i>Brown Parrot</i> of New Zealand, <i>Nestor meridionalis</i>, Gmel. 1835. W. Yate, `Account of New Zealand,' p. 54: "Kaka--a bird of the parrot kind; much larger than any other New Zealand parrot." 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 259: "The kaka, a large russet parrot, of excellent flavour, and very abundant in many places." 1851. Mrs. Wilson, `New Zealand,' p. 40: "The bright red feathers from under the wing of the kaka or large parrot." 1854. W. Golder, `Pigeons' Parliament,' [Notes] p. 79: "The kaka is a kind of parrot of a reddish grey colour, and is easily tamed when taken young." 1866. Lady Barker, `Station Life in New Zealand,' p. 93: "The hoarse croak of the ka-ka, as it alighted almost at our feet, and prepared, quite careless of our vicinity, to tear up the loose soil at the root of a tall tree, in search of grubs." 1869. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' (Supplement): "<i>Nestor hypopolius</i>, ka-ka parrot." 1884. T. Bracken, `Lays of Maori,' p. 38: "I heard mocking kakas wail and cry above thy corse." 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 150: "<i>Nestor meridionalis</i>, kaka parrot." Ibid. p. 158: "Sprightly in its actions, eminently social, and more noisy than any other inhabitant of the woods, the kaka holds a prominent place among our native birds." <hw> Kaka-bill</hw>, <i>n</i>. a New Zealand plant, the <i>Clianthus</i> (q.v.), so called from the supposed resemblance of the flower to the bill of the <i>Kaka</i> (q.v.). Called also <i>Parrot-bill</i>, <i>Glory-Pea</i>, and <i>Kowhai</i> (q.v.). 1842. W. R. Wade, `Journey in New Zealand,' [Hobart Town]. p. 196: "Kowai ngutukaka [parrot-bill kowai]; the most elegant flowering shrub of the country." 1892. `Otago Witness,' Nov. 24, `Native Trees': "A plantation of a shrub which is in great demand in England and on the Continent, and is greatly neglected here--the <i>Clianthus puniceus</i>, or scarlet glory pea of New Zealand, locally known as kaka beak." <hw>Kakapo</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the Night-parrot, <i>Stringops habroptilus</i>, Gray. Called also <i>Owl-parrot</i>. See <i>Kaka</i>. The syllable <i>po</i> is Maori for <i>night</i>. Compare <i>Katipo</i> (q.v.). 1869. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia' (Supplement): "<i>Strigops habroptilus</i>, G. R. Gray, Kakapo, native name." 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 149: "<i>Stringops</i>, owl-parrot--ground-parrot of the colonists." 1889. Prof. Parker, `Catalogue of New Zealand Exhibition,' p. 117: "Although possessing large wings, it is flightless, its breast-muscles being so small as to be practically useless. Its habits are nocturnal, and it has a ring of feathers arranged round the eye, giving it a curious resemblance to an owl, whence the name owl-parrot is often applied to it." 1893. A. R. Wallace, `Australasia,' vol. i. p. 445: "Another remarkable bird is the owl parrot (<i>Stringops habroptilus</i>) of a greenish colour, and with a circle of feathers round the eye as in the owl. It is nocturnal in its habits, lives in holes in the ground under tree-roots or rocks." 1896. `Otago Witness,' June 11, p. 53: "The Kakapo is one of our most unique birds." <hw>Kakariki</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a green Parrakeet. There are two species, <i>Platycercus novae zelandiae</i>, Sparrm., and <i>P. auriceps</i>, Kuhl. See <i>Parrakeet</i>. The word <i>kakariki</i> means literally little parrot, <i>kaka</i> (q.v.) and <i>iki</i> (little), the <i>r</i> is intrusive. It is applied also to a green lizard. In Maori it becomes later an adjective, meaning `green.' 1855. Rev. R. Taylor, `Te Ika a Maui,' p. 404: "The Kakariki . . . (<i>platycercus novae zeal</i>.) is a pretty light green parrot with a band of red or yellow over the upper beak and under the throat. This elegant little bird is about the size of a small thrush." 1894. `Transactions of the New Zealand Institute,' vol. xxvii. p. 95 [Note]: "The name <i>Kakarika</i> (indicative of colour) is applied alike to the green lizard and to the green Parrakeet of our woods." <hw>Kamin</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal word, explained in quotation. It is probably local. 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 89: "If he [the Australian black] has to climb a high tree, he first goes into the scrub to fetch a piece of the Australian calamus (<i>Calamus australis</i>), which he partly bites, partly breaks off; he first bites on one side and breaks it down, then on the other side and breaks it upwards--one, two, three, and this tough whip is severed. At one end of it he makes a knot, the other he leaves it as it is. This implement, which is usually from sixteen to eighteen feet long, is called a kamin." <hw>Kanae</hw>, <i>n</i>. (trisyll.) Maori name for a fish of New Zealand, the Silver-Mullet, <i>Mugil perusii</i> or <i>argenteus</i>. 1820. `Grammar and Vocabulary of Language of New Zealand' (C.M.S.), p. 158: "Kanae, s. The mullet fish." 1888. Order in Council, New Zealand, Jan. 10, `Regulations under the Fisheries Conservation Act': "The months of December, January, and February in each year are here prescribed a close season for the fish of the species of the mugil known as mullet or kanae." <hw>Kanaka</hw>, <i>n</i>. and <i>adj</i>. a labourer from the South Sea Islands, working in Queensland sugar-plantations. The word is Hawaiian (Sandwich Islands). The kindred words are given in the following extract from Fornander's Polynesian Race' (1885), vol. iii. p. 154: "<i>Kanaka</i>, <i>s</i>. Hawaiian, man, human, mankind, a common man in distinction from chiefs. Samoan, New Zealand [sc. Maori], Tongan, <i>tangata</i>, man. Tahitian, <i>taata</i>, man." In the original word the accent is on the first syllable, which accent Mr. Rudyard Kipling preserves (see quotation, 1893), though he has changed the word in his reprint of the poem in `The Seven Seas'; but the usual pronunciation in Australia is to accent the second syllable. 1794. J. J. Jarves, `History of Hawaiian Islands,' printed at Honolulu (1872), p. 82: "[On 21st Feb. 1794.] A salute was then fired, and the natives shouted, `Kanaka no Beritane'--we are men of Britain." 1852. A. Miller, `Narrative of United States Exploring Expedition,' c. ii. p. 142: "On Monday (Nov. 16, 1840) our gentlemen formed themselves into two parties, and started on horseback for their journey. One party consisted of Messrs. Reade, Rich, and Wall, with eight kanakas and two guides." 1873. A. Trollope, `Australia and New Zealand,' c. viii. p. 133: "Queensland at present is supplying itself with labour from the South Sea Islands, and the men employed are called Polynesians, or canakers, or islanders." 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia, p. 162: "The word `kanaka' is really a Maori word, signifying a man, but in Australia it has come to be applied exclusively to the inhabitants of the South Sea Islands." 1885. R. M. Praed, `Head Station,' p. 9: "The kanaka reverences women and adores children. He is loyal in heart, affectionate of disposition, and domestic in his habits." 1888. H. S. Cooper, `The Islands of the Pacific,' p. 5: "The kanakas, who at present populate Hawaii, are, as a rule, well made and intelligent. That there is a cross of the Malay and Indian blood in them few can doubt." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 64: "Natives of the South Sea Islands, who in Australia are called kanakas--a capable and intelligent race, especially to this kind of work [on plantations], for they are strong, and endure the tropical heat far better than the whites." 1892. Gilbert Parker, `Round the Compass in Australia,' p. 298: "Thus, it is maintained by the planters, the kanaka, necessary as he is to the conditions of North Queensland, opens up avenues of skilled labour for the European, and makes population and commerce possible where otherwise there would be complete stagnation." 2892. `The Times,' Dec. 28: "The principal open-air labour of the sugar plantations is furnished by kanakas, who are the native inhabitants of certain groups of South Sea Islands not at present under the protection of any European flag." 1893. R. L. Stevenson, `Island Night's Entertainments,' p. 41: "What we want is a man-of-war--a German, if we could--they know how to manage kanakas." 1893. Rudyard Kipling, `Banjo Song': "We've shouted on seven-ounce nuggets, We've starved on a kanaka's pay." 1893. C. H. Pearson, `National Life and Character,' p.32: "In Australasia . . . the Maori, the Kanaka, and the Papuan are dying out. We cannot close our eyes to the fact that certain weak races--even when, like the kanaka, they possess some very high qualities--seem to wither away at mere contact with the European. . . . The kanakas (among whom we may include the Maories)." <hw>Kangaroo</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) an aboriginal word. See <i>Marsupial</i>. (a) The Origin of the Name. The name was first obtained in 1770, while H.M.S. <i>Endeavour</i> lay beached at the Endeavour River, where Cooktown, Queensland, now is. The name first appears in print in 1773, in the book brought out by the relatives of Mr. Parkinson, who was draughtsman to Banks the naturalist, and who had died on the voyage. The object of this book was to anticipate the official account of Cook's Voyage by Hawkesworth, which appeared later in the same year. It is now known that Hawkesworth's book was like a rope twisted of four strands, viz. Cook's journal, the diaries of the two naturalists, Banks and Solander, and <i>quartum quid</i>, the Johnsonian pomposity of Dr. Hawkesworth. Cook's journal was published in 1893, edited by Captain Wharton, hydrographer to the Admiralty; Banks's journal, in 1896, edited by Sir J. D. Hooker. Solander's journal has never been printed. When Englishmen next came to Australia in 1788, it was found that the word <i>Kangaroo</i> was not known to the natives round Port Jackson, distant 1500 miles to the South of Cooktown. In fact, it was thought by them to be an English word. (See quotation, Tench, 1789.) It is a question whether the word has belonged to any aboriginal vocabulary since. "Capt. Philip P. King, the explorer, who visited that locality [sc. Endeavour River] forty-nine years after Cook, relates in his `Narrative of the Survey of the Intertropical and Western Coasts of Australia,' that he found the word kangaroo unknown to the tribe he met there, though in other particulars the vocabulary he compiled agrees very well with Captain Cook's." (Curr's `Australian Race,' vol. i. p. 27.) In the fourth volume of Curr's book a conspectus is given of the words used in different parts of Australia for various objects. In the list of names for this animal there are a few that are not far from <i>Kangaroo</i>, but some inquirers suspect the accuracy of the list, or fancy that the natives obtained the words sounding like <i>Kangaroo</i> from English. It may be assumed that the word is not now in use as an aboriginal word. Has it, then, disappeared? or was it an original mistake on the part of Banks or Cook ? The theory of a mistake has obtained widely. It has figured in print, and finds a place in at least one dictionary. Several correspondents have written that the word <i>Kangaroo</i> meant "I don't understand," and that Banks mistook this for a name. This is quite possible, but at least some proof is needed, as for instance the actual words in the aboriginal language that could be twisted into this meaning. To find these words, and to hear their true sound, would test how near the explanation hits the mark. Banks was a very careful observer, and he specially notes the precautions he took to avoid any mistake in accepting native words. Moreover, according to Surgeon Anderson, the aborigines of Van Diemen's Land described the animal by the name of <i>Kangaroo</i>. (See quotation, 1787.) On the other hand, it must be remembered that it is an ascertained fact that the aborigines taboo a word on the death of any one bearing that word as a proper name. (See quotation under <i>Nobbler</i>, 1880.) If, therefore, after Cook's visit, some man called <i>Kangaroo</i> died, the whole tribe would expunge <i>Kangaroo</i> from its vocabulary. There is, however, some evidence that the word was much later in use in Western Australia. (See quotation, 1835.) It is now asserted that the word is in use again at the very part of Queensland where the <i>Endeavour</i> was beached. Lumholtz, in his `Amongst Cannibals' (p. 311), gives it in his aboriginal vocabulary. Mr. De Vis, of the Brisbane Museum, in his paper before the Geographical Society at Brisbane (1894), says that "in point of fact the word `kangaroo' is the normal equivalent for kangaroo at the Endeavour River; and not only so, it is almost the type-form of a group of variations in use over a large part of Australia." It is curiously hard to procure satisfactory evidence as to the fact. Mr. De Vis says that his first statement was "made on the authority of a private correspondent; "but another correspondent writes from Cooktown, that the blacks there have taken <i>Kangaroo</i> from English. Inquiries inserted in each of the Cooktown newspapers have produced no result. Mr. De Vis' second argument as to the type-form seems much stronger. A spoken language, unwritten, unprinted, must inevitably change, and change rapidly. A word current in 1770 would change rather than disappear, and the root consonants would remain. The letters <i>ng</i> together, followed by <i>r</i>, occur in the proportion of one in thirteen, of the names for the animal tabulated by Curr. It is a difficult matter on which to speak decidedly, but probably no great mistake was made, and the word received was a genuine name of the animal. See further the quotations, 1896. (b) The Plural of the Word. There seems to be considerable doubt as to the plural of the word, whether it should take <i>s</i> like most English words, or remain unchanged like <i>sheep, deer</i>. In two consecutive pages of one book the two plurals are used. The general use is the plural in <i>s</i>. See 1793 Hunter, 1845 Balfour, and 1880 Senior; sportsmen frequently use the form <i>Kangaroo</i>. [Since 1888 a kangaroo has been the design on the one-shilling postage stamp of New South Wales.] 1815. `History of New South Wales,' (1818) PP. 460-461: "Throughout the general course of the journey, kangaroos, emus, ducks, etc. were seen in numbers." "Mr. Evans saw the kangaroo in immense flocks." 1830. R. Dawson, `Present State of Australia,' p. 49: "The kangaroos are too subtle and shy for us to get near." 1846. G. H. Haydon, `Five Years in Australia Felix,' p. 125: "In the afternoon we saw some kangaroos and wallaby, but did not succeed in killing any." 1884. Rolf Boldrewood, `Melbourne Memories,' c. iii. p. 23: "Though kangaroo were plentiful, they were not overwhelming to number." (c) Kangaroo in French. 1777. Buffon, `Supplement a l'Histoire Naturelle,' tom. iv. `Table des Matieres': "Kanguros, espece de grosse Gerboise qui se trouve dans les terres australes de la Nouvelle Hollande." 1800. J. J. Labillardiere, `Voyage a la recherche de La Perouse,' tom. i. p. 134: [Under date April 24, 1792.] "Un de nos chasseurs trouva un jeune kangourou sur les bords de la mer." 1880. H. de Charency, `Recherches sur les Dialectes Tasmaniens,' p. 21: "Kangourou. Ce mot semble d'origine non Australienne, comme on l'a soutenu, mais bien Tasmanienne." 1882. Littre, `Dictionnaire de la Langue Francaise' (s.v.): "Kanguroo ou kangarou. On ecrit aussi kangarou et kangourou." 1882. A. Daudet, `Jack,' p. 131: Il regardait les kangaroos dresses sur leurs pattes, si longues qu'elles ont l'agilite et l'elan d'une paire d'ailes." 1890. Oscar Comettant [Title]: "Au Pays des Kangourous." (d) Kangaroo in German--<i>Kaenguruh</i>: 1892. R. V. Lendenfeld, `Australische Reise,' p. 46: "Die Kaenguruh hoben in dem Augenblick, als sie das Geheul hoerten, die Koepfe hoch and witterten, blickten and loosten in alle Richtungen." Notice that both in French and German the <i>u</i> sound of the middle syllable is preserved and not changed as in English to <i>a</i>. (e) The species. The name <i>Kangaroo</i> is applied to the following larger species of the genus <i>Macropus</i>, the remaining species being called <i>Wallabies</i>-- Antilopine Kangaroo-- <i>Macropus antilopinus</i>, Gould. Great Grey K., or Forester-- <i>M. giganteus</i>, Zimm. Great Red K.-- <i>M. rufus</i>, Desm. Isabelline K.-- <i>M. isabellinus</i>, Gould. Owen's K.-- <i>M. magnus</i>, Owen. Wallaroo, or Euro-- <i>M. robustus</i>, Gould. The name <i>Kangaroo</i> is also applied to certain other species of Marsupials belonging to the genus <i>Macropus</i>, but with a qualifying adjective, such as <i>Dorca</i>-, <i>Tree</i>-, <i>Rat</i>-, <i>Musk</i>-, etc.; and it is applied to species of the genera <i>Dorcopsis</i>, <i>Dendrolagus, Bettongia</i>, and <i>Hypsiprymnodon</i>. The <i>Brush-Kangaroo</i> (q.v.) is another name for the <i>Wallaby</i> (q.v.), and the <i>Rat-Kangaroo</i> is the stricter scientific appellation of <i>Kangaroo-Rat</i> (q.v.). The <i>Banded-Kangaroo</i> is a <i>Banded-Wallaby</i> (see <i>Lagostrophus</i>). See also <i>Dorca-Kangaroo</i>, <i>Tree-Kangaroo</i>, <i>Musk-Kangaroo</i>, <i>Dorcopsis, Dendrolagus</i>, <i>Bettongia, Hypsiprymnodon</i>, <i>Rock-Wallaby</i>, <i>Paddy-melon</i>, <i>Forester</i>, <i>Old Man</i>,, <i>Joey</i>, and <i>Boomah</i>. (f) The Use of the Word. 1770. `Capt. Cook's Journal' (edition Wharton, 1893), p. 244: May 1st. An animal which must feed upon grass, and which, we judge, could not be less than a deer." [p. 280]: "June 23rd. One of the men saw an animal something less than a greyhound; it was of a mouse colour, very slender made, and swift of foot." [p. 294]: August 4th. "The animals which I have before mentioned, called by the Natives Kangooroo or Kanguru." [At Endeavour River, Queensland.] 1770. Joseph Banks, `Journal' (edition Hooker, 1896), p. 287: "<i>July</i> 14.--Our second Lieutenant had the good fortune to kill the animal that had so long been the subject of our speculations. To compare it to any European animal would be impossible, as it has not the least resemblance to any one that I have seen. Its forelegs are extremely short, and of no use to 1t in walking; its hind again as disproportionally long; with these it hops seven or eight feet at a time, in the same manner as the jerboa, to which animal indeed it bears much resemblance, except in size, this being in weight 38 lbs., and the jerboa no larger than a common rat." Ibid. p. 301: "<i>August</i> 26.--Quadrupeds we saw but few, and were able to catch but few of those we did see. The largest was called by the natives <i>kangooroo</i>; it is different from any European, and, indeed, any animal I have heard or read of, except the jerboa of Egypt, which is not larger than a rat, while this is as large as a middling lamb. The largest we shot weighed 84 lbs. It may, however, be easily known from all other animals by the singular property of running, or rather hopping, upon only its hinder legs, carrying its fore-feet close to its breast. In this manner it hops so fast that in the rocky bad ground where it is commonly found, it easily beat my greyhound, who though he was fairly started at several, killed only one, and that quite a young one." 1773. Sydney Parkinson, `Journal of a Voyage,' p. 149: "Kangooroo, the leaping quadruped." [A description given at p. 145.] 1773. J. Hawkesworth, `Voyages,' vol. iii. p. 577: "July 14, 1770. Mr. Gore, who went out this day with his gun, had the good fortune to kill one of the animals which had been so much the subject of our speculation. An idea of it will best be conceived by the cut, plate xx., without which the most accurate verbal description would answer very little purpose, as it has not similitude enough to any animal already known to admit of illustration by reference. In form it is most like the gerbua, which it also resembles in its motion, as has been observed already, for it greatly differs in size, the gerbua not being larger than a common rat, and this animal, when full grown, being as big as a sheep: this individual was a young one, much under its full growth, weighing only thirty-eight pounds. The head, neck, and shoulders are very small in proportion to the other parts of the body; the tail is nearly as long as the body, thick near the rump, and tapering towards the end: the fore-legs of this individual were only eight inches long, and the hind-legs two-and-twenty: its progress is by successive leaps or hops, of a great length, in an erect posture; the fore-legs are kept bent close to the breast, and seemed to be of use only for digging: the skin is covered with a short fur, of a dark mouse or grey colour, excepting the head and ears, which bear a slight resemblance to those of a hare. In form it is most like the gerbua. This animal is called by the natives `kangaroo.'" [This account, it will be seen, is based on the notes of Banks.] 1774. Oliver Goldsmith, `Animated Nature,' Book VII. c. xvi., The Gerbua,' [in four-vol. ed., vol. iii. p. 30]: "But of all animals of this kind, that which was first discovered and described by Mr. Banks is the most extraordinary. He calls it the kanguroo; and though from its general outline and the most striking peculiarities of its figure it greatly resembles the gerbua, yet it entirely differs, if we consider its size, or those minute distinctions which direct the makers of systems in assorting the general ranks of nature. The largest of the gerbua kind which are to be found in the ancient continent do not exceed the size of a rabbit. The kanguroo of New Holland, where it is only to be found, is often known to weigh above sixty pounds, and must consequently be as large as a sheep. Although the skin of that which was stuffed and brought home by Mr. Banks was not much above the size of a hare, yet it was greatly superior to any of the gerbua kind that have been hitherto known, and very different in many particulars. The snout of the gerbua, as has been said, is short and round, that of the discovered animal long and slender; the teeth also entirely differ, for as the gerbua has but two cutting teeth in each jaw, making four in all, this animal, besides its cutting teeth, has four canial teeth also; but what makes a more striking peculiarity, is the formation of its lower jaw, which, as the ingenious discoverer supposes, is divided into two parts which open and shut like a pair of scissors, and cut grass, probably this animal's principal food. The head, neck, and shoulders are very small in proportion to the other parts of the body; the tail is nearly as long as the body; thick near the rump and tapering towards the head and ears, which bear a slight resemblance to those of the hare. We are not told, however, from the formation of its stomach to what class of quadrupeds it belongs: from its eating grass, which it has been seen to do, one would be apt to rank it among the ruminating animals; but from the canial teeth which it is found to have, we may on the other hand suppose it to bear some relation to the carnivorous. Upon the whole, however, it can be classed with none more properly than with the animals of the gerbua kind, as its hind-legs are so much longer than the fore; it moves also precisely in the same manner, taking great bounds of ten or twelve feet at a time, and thus sometimes escaping the fleetest greyhound, with which Mr. Banks pursued it. One of them that was killed proved to be good food; but a second, which weighed eighty-four pounds, and was not yet come to its full growth, was found to be much inferior." 1787, Surgeon Anderson, quoted by W. Eden, in `History of New Holland' (second edition), p. 71: "However, we must have a far more intimate acquaintance with the languages spoken here [Van Diemen's Land] and in the more northern parts of New Holland, before we can pronounce that they are totally different; nay, we have good grounds for the opposite opinion; for we found that the animal called kangaroo at Endeavour River was known under the same name here." 1781. T. Pennant, `History of Quadrupeds,' vol. i. p. 306: No. 184. [A Scientific Description of the Kangaroo.] 1789. Governor Phillip, `Voyage': [p. 106]: "The kangaroo." [p. 168]: "Skeleton of the head of the kangaroo." [At each of these places there is a description and a picture. Under each picture the name is spelt "Kangooroo." At p. 289 there is a further note on the kanguroo. In the text at p. 149 the spelling " Kangooroo " is adopted.] Ibid. p. 104: "The kanguroo, though it resembles the jerboa in the peculiarity of using only the hinder legs in progression, does not belong to that genus." Ibid, p. 168: "Since stating the dimensions of the kanguroo, in page 106, Lord Sydney has received from Governor Phillip a male of a much larger size. . . . Lieutenant Shortland describes them as feeding in herds of about thirty or forty, and assures us that one is always observed to be apparently upon the watch at a distance from the rest." 1789. Watkin Tench, `Account of the Settlement of Port Jackson,' p. 171: "Kangaroo was a name unknown to them [the aborigines of Port Jackson] for any animal, until we introduced it. When I showed Colbee [an aboriginal] the cows brought out in the Gorgon he asked me if they were kangaroos." 1793. Governor Hunter, `Voyage,' p. 66: "The animal described in the voyage of the <i>Endeavour</i>, called the kangaroo (but by the natives patagorang), we found in great numbers." Ibid. p. 568: "I had a kanguroo on board, which I had directions to carry to Lord Grenville, as a present for his Majesty.--Nov. 26, 1791." [There is no statement whether the animal reached England.] Ibid. p. 402: "In rowing up this branch, we saw a flock of about thirty kangaroos or paderong, but they were only visible during their leaps, as the very long grass hid them from our view." 1809. G. Shaw, `Zoological Lectures,' vol. i. p. 94: "The genus <i>Macropus</i> or kangaroo . . . one of the most elegant as well as curious animals discovered in modern times." [Under the picture and in list of contents: Kanguroo.] 1814. M. Flinders, `Voyage to Terra Australis,' Introd. p. lxiii: "An animal found upon one of the islands is described [by Dampier, `Voyage to New Holland,' vol. iii. p. 123] as `a sort of raccoon, different from that of the West Indies, chiefly as to the legs; for these have very short fore legs; but go jumping upon them' [not upon the short fore, but the long hind legs, it is to be presumed] `as the others do; and like them are very good meat.' This appears to have been the small kangaroo, since found upon the islands which form the road; and if so, this description is probably the first ever made of that singular animal" [though without the name]. 1820. W. C. Wentworth, `Description of New South Wales,' p. 57: "Coursing the kangaroo and emu forms the principal amusement of the sporting part of the colonists. (p. 68): The colonists generally pursue this animal [kangaroo] at full speed on horseback, and frequently manage, notwithstanding its extraordinary swiftness, to be up at the death." 1833. Charles Lamb, `Essays of Elia' [edition 1895], p. 151, `Distant Correspondents': "The kangaroos--your Aborigines--do they keep their primitive simplicity un-Europe-tainted, with those little short fore puds, looking like a lesson framed by nature to the pick-pocket! Marry, for diving into fobs they are rather lamely provided <i>a priori</i>; but if the hue and cry were once up, they would show as fair a pair of hind-shifters as the expertest loco motor in the colony." 1833. C. Sturt, `Southern Australia,' vol. I. c. iii. p. 106: "Those that were noticed were made of the red kangaroo-skin." 1834. L. E. Threlkeld, `Australian Grammar of the Language spoken by the Aborigines, at Hunter's River,' p. 87: "Kong-go-rong, The Emu, from the noise it makes, and likely the origin of the barbarism, kangaroo, used by the English, as the name of an animal, called Mo-a-ne." 1835. T. B. Wilson, `Narrative of a Voyage round the World, etc.' p. 212: "They [natives of the Darling Range, W.A.] distinctly pronounced `kangaroo' without having heard any of us utter that sound: they also called it <i>waroo</i>, but whether they distinguished `kangaroo' (so called by us, and also by them) from the smaller kind, named `<i>wallabi</i>,' and by them `<i>waroo</i>,' we could not form any just conclusion." 1845. J. O. Balfour, `Sketch of New South Wales,' p. 23: "Kangaroos are of six different species, viz. the forester, the flyer, the wallaby, the wallaroo, the kangaroo-rat, and the kangaroo-mouse." [This is of course merely a popular classification.] 1845. J. A. Moore, `Tasmanian Rhymings,' p. 15: "A kangaroo, like all his race, Of agile form and placid face." 1861. W. M. Thackeray, `Roundabout Papers', p.83: "The fox has brought his brush, and the cock has brought his comb, and the elephant has brought his trunk and the kangaroo has brought his bag, and the condor his old white wig and black satin hood." 1880. W. Senior, `Travel and Trout,' p. 8: "To return to the marsupials. I have been assured that the kangaroos come first and eat off the grass; that the wallabies, following, grub up the roots." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 114: "Sometimes a kangaroo would come down with measured thud, thud, and drink, and then return without noticing the human beings." 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 118: "According to the traditions of the bush--not always reliable--the name of kangaroo was given under a misconception. An aborigine being asked by one of the early discoverers the name of the animal, replied, `Kangaroo' (`I don't know'), and in this confession of ignorance or misapprehension the name originated. It seems absurd to suppose that any black hunter was really ignorant of the name of an animal which once represented the national wealth of Australians as the merino does to-day." [The tradition is not quite so ridiculous, if the answer meant--"I don't know what you mean,--I don't understand you." See above.] 1891. `Guide Zoological Gardens, Melbourne': "In this enclosure is a wooden model of a kangaroo of ancient times. This is copied from a restoration by Professor McCoy, who was enabled to represent it from fossil remains which have been unearthed at various places in Australia." 1896. E. Meston, `Sydney Bulletin,' April 18: "The origin of the word `kangaroo' was published by me six years ago. Captain Cook got it from the Endeavor River blacks, who pronounce it to-day exactly as it is spelled in the great navigator's journal, but they use it now only for the big toe. Either the blacks in Cook's time called the kangaroo `big toe' for a nick-name, as the American Indians speak of the `big horn,' or the man who asked the name of the animal was holding it by the hind foot, and got the name of the long toe, the black believing that was the part to which the question referred." 1896. Rev. J. Mathew, Private Letter, Aug. 31: "Most names of animals in the Australian dialects refer to their appearance, and the usual synthesis is noun + adjective; the word may be worn down at either end, and the meaning lost to the native mind. "A number of the distinct names for <i>kangaroo</i> show a relation to words meaning respectively <i>nose, leg, big</i>, <i>long</i>, either with noun and adjective to combination or one or other omitted. "The word <i>kangaroo</i> is probably analysable into <i>ka</i> or <i>kang</i>, <i>nose</i> (or <i>head</i>), and <i>goora</i>, <i>long</i>, both words or local equivalents being widely current." (2) Wild young cattle (a special use)-- 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 290: "A stockyard under six feet high will be leaped by some of these kangaroos (as we term them) with the most perfect ease, and it requires to be as stout as it is high to resist their rushes against it." (3) Used playfully, and as a nickname for persons and things Australian. An Australian boy at an English school is frequently called "Kangaroo." It is a Stock Exchange nickname for shares in Western Australian gold-mining companies. 1896. `Nineteenth Century' (Nov.), p. 711: "To the 80,000,000 Westralian mining shares now in existence the Stock Exchange has long since conceded a special `market'; and it has even conferred upon these stocks a nickname--the surest indication of importance and popularity. And that `Kangaroos,' as they were fondly called, could boast of importance and popularity nobody would dare to gainsay." (4) A kind of chair, apparently from the shape. 1834. Miss Edgeworth, `Helen,' c. xvi. (`Century'): "It was neither a lounger nor a dormeuse, nor a Cooper, nor a Nelson, nor a Kangaroo: a chair without a name would never do; in all things fashionable a name is more than half. Such a happy name as Kangaroo Lady Cecilia despaired of finding." <hw>Kangarooade</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Kangaroo hunt; nonce word. See quotation. 1863. M. K. Beveridge, `Gatherings among the Gum Trees,' p. 86: "The Kangarooade--in three Spirts." [Title of a poem.] <hw>Kangaroo-Apple</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian and Tasmanian fruit, <i>Solanum aviculare</i>, Forst., <i>N.O. Solanaceae</i>. The name is also applied to <i>S. vescum</i>, called the <i>Gunyang</i> (q.v.). In New Zealand, the fruit is called <i>Poroporo</i> (q.v.). 1834. Ross, `Van Diemen's Land Annual, p. 133: `<i>Solanum laciniatum</i>, the kangaroo-apple, resembling the apple of a potato; when so ripe as to split, it has a mealy sub-acid taste." 1846. G. H. Haydon, `Five Years in Australia Felix,' p. 85: "The kangaroo-apple (<i>Solanum laciniatum</i>) is a fine shrub found in many parts of the country, bearing a pretty blue flower and a fruit rather unpleasant to the taste, although frequently eaten by the natives, and also by Europeans." 1848. W. Westgarth, `Australia Felix,' p. 132: "The kangaroo-apple comes from a bush or small tree bearing blue blossoms, which are succeeded by apples like those of the potato. They have a sweetish flavour, and when ripe may be boiled and eaten, but are not greatly prized." 1857. F. R. Nixon (Bishop), `Cruise of Beacon,' p. 28: "Of berries and fruits of which they partook, the principal were those of <i>Solanum laciniatum</i>, or kangaroo-apple, when dead ripe." 1877. F. v. Mueller, `Botanic Teachings,' p. 105: "<i>Solanum aviculare</i>, on which our colonists have very inappropriately bestowed the name <i>Kangaroo-apple</i>, while in literal scientific translation it ought to be called Bird's Nightshade, because Captain Cook's companions observed in New Zealand that birds were feeding on the berries of this bush." <hw>Kangaroo-Dog</hw>, <i>n</i>. a large dog, lurcher, deerhound, or greyhound, used for hunting the <i>Kangaroo</i>. 1806. `History of New South Wales' (1818), p. 265: "Shortly before the <i>Estramina</i> left the River Derwent, two men unfortunately perished by a whale-boat upsetting, in which they were transporting four valuable kangaroo-dogs to the opposite side, none of which ever reached the shore." 1830. R. Dawson, `Present State of Australia,' p. 141: "The kind of dog used for coursing the kangaroo is generally a cross between the greyhound and the mastiff or sheep-dog; but in a climate like New South Wales they have, to use the common phrase, too much lumber about them. The true bred greyhound is the most useful dog: he has more wind; he ascends the hills with more ease; and will run double the number of courses in a day. He has more bottom in running, and if he has less ferocity when he comes up with an `old man,' so much the better, as he exposes himself the less, and lives to afford sport another day." 1832. J. Bischoff, `Van Diemen's Land,' c. ii. p. 31: "They . . . are sometimes caught by the kangaroo-dogs." 1845. R. Howitt, `Australia,' p. 126: "A fine kangaroo-dog was pointed out to us, so fond of kangarooing that it goes out alone, kills the game, and then fetches its master to the dead animals." 1847. J. D. Lang, `Cooksland,' p. 422: "With the gun over his shoulder, and the kangaroo-dog in a leash by his side." 1850. J. B. Clutterbuck, `Port Phillip in 1849,' c. iii. p. 35: "On every station, also, a large kind of greyhound, a cross of the Scotch greyhound and English bulldog, called the kangaroo-dog, which runs by sight, is kept for the purpose of their destruction." 1888. Cassell's `Picturesque Australasia,' vol. ii. p. 91: "Kangaroo-dogs are a special breed, a kind of strong greyhound." 1893. `The Argus,' April 8, p. 4, col. 1: "That big, powerful, black kangaroo-dog Marmarah was well worth looking at, with his broad, deep chest, intelligent, determined eyes, sinews of a gymnast, and ribs like Damascus steel. On his black skin he bore marks of many honourable fights; the near side showed a long, whitish line where the big emu he had run down, tackled single-handed, and finally killed, had laid him open. His chest and legs showed numerous grey scars, each with a history of its own of which he might well be proud." <hw>Kangaroo-Fly</hw>, <i>n</i>. a small Australian fly, <i>Cabarus</i>. See quotations. 1833. C. Sturt, `Southern Australia,' vol. I. c. ii. p. 71: "Our camp was infested by the kangaroo-fly, which settled upon us in thousands." 1865. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `History of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia,' vol. i. p. 313 [Note]: "Rather smaller than the house-fly, it acts with such celerity that it has no sooner settled on the face or hands than it inflicts instantaneously a painful wound, which often bleeds subsequently. It is called by the colonists the kangaroo-fly; and though not very common, the author can testify that it is one of the most annoying pests of Australia." <hw>Kangaroo-Grass</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name given to several species of grasses of the genera <i>Anthistiria</i> and <i>Andropogon</i>, chiefly from their height, but also because, when they are young and green in spring, the <i>Kangaroo</i> feeds on them. <i>Andropogon</i> is more like a rush or sedge, and is sometimes so high as to completely conceal horses. See <i>Grass</i>. 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 209: "Of native grasses we possess the oat-grass, rye-grass, fiorin, kangaroo-grass, and timothy,--blady grass growing in wet, flooded, alluvial spots, and wire-grass upon cold, wet, washed clays." 1838. `Report of Van Diemen's Land Company,' in J. Bischoff's `Van Diemen's Land' (1832), c. v. p. 119: "The grasses were principally timothy, foxtail, and single kangaroo." 1845. T. L. Mitchell, `Tropical Australia, p. 88: "A new species of <i>Anthistiria</i> occurred here, perfectly distinct from the kangaroo grass of the colony." 1848. W. Westgarth, `Australia Felix,' p. 131: "The most conspicuous of the native <i>Gramineae</i> that so widely cover the surface of Australia Felix." 1862. G. T. Lloyd, `Thirty-three Years in Tasmania and Victoria,' p. 36: "Where are the genial morning dews of former days that used to glisten upon and bespangle the vernal-leaved kangaroo grass?" 1862. G. T. Lloyd, `Thirty-three Years in Tasmania,' p. 393: "Between the Lake River and Launceston . . . I was most agreeably surprised in beholding the novel sight of a spacious enclosure of waving kangaroo grass, high and thick-standing as a good crop of oats, and evidently preserved for seed." 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 8: "Not even a withered wisp of kangaroo-grass." (p. 193): "The long brown kangaroo-grass." 1891. `The Argus,' Dec. 19, p. 4, col. 2: "Had they but pulled a tuft of the kangaroo-grass beneath their feet, they would have found gold at its roots." <hw>Kangaroo-hop</hw>, <i>n</i>. a peculiar affected gait. See quotation. 1875. `Spectator' (Melbourne), May 22, p. 27, col. 2: "The young lady that affects waterfalls, the Grecian-bend, or the kangaroo hop." <hw>Kangaroo-Hound</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Kangaroo-Dog</i> (q.v.). 1865. Lady Barker, `Station Life in New Zealand,' p. 28: "A large dog, a kangaroo-hound (not unlike a lurcher in appearance)." <hw>Kangarooing</hw>, vb. <i>n</i>. hunting the kangaroo. 1852. Mrs. Meredith, `My Home in Tasmania,' p. 257: "In chasing kangaroos, or, as it is technically termed, `kangarooing,' large powerful dogs are used . . ." 1870. E. B. Kennedy, `Four Years in Queensland,' p. 194: "You may be out Kangarooing; the dogs take after one [a kangaroo], and it promises to be a good course." 1888. Rolf Boldrewood, `Robbery under Arms,' p. 15: "We were sick of kangarooing, like the dogs themselves, that as they grew old would run a little way and then pull up if a mob came jump, jump, past them." <hw>Kangaroo-Mouse</hw>, <i>n</i>. more strictly called the <i>Pouched-Mouse</i> (q.v.). 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 256: "It is a long chain from the big forester, down through the different varieties of wallaby to the kangaroo-rat, and finally, to the tiny interesting little creature known on the plains as the `kangaroo-mouse'; but all have the same characteristics." <hw>Kangaroo-net</hw>, <i>n</i>. net made by the natives to catch the kangaroo. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 45: "I found . . . four fine kangaroo-nets, made of the bark of sterculia." <hw>Kangaroo-Rat</hw>, or <hw>Rat-Kangaroo</hw>, <i>n</i>. the name applied to species of Marsupials belonging to the following genera, viz.-- (1) <i>Potorous</i>, (2) <i>Caloprymnus</i>, (3) <i>Bettongia</i>, (4) <i>AEpyprymnus</i>. (1) The first genus (<i>Potorous</i>, q.v.) includes animals about the size of a large rat; according to Gould, although they stand much on their hind-legs they run in a totally different way to the kangaroo, using fore and hind-legs in a kind of gallop and never attempting to kick with the hind-feet. The aboriginal name was <i>Potoroo</i>. The species are three--the Broad-faced Kangaroo-Rat, <i>Potorous platyops</i>, Gould; Gilbert's, <i>P. gilberti</i>, Gould; Common, <i>P. tridactylus</i>, Kerr. They are confined to Australia and Tasmania, and one Tasmanian variety of the last species is bigger than the mainland form. There is also a dwarf Tasmanian variety of the same species. (2) A second genus (<i>Caloprymnus</i>, q.v.) includes the <i>Plain Kangaroo-Rat</i>; it has only one species, <i>C. campestris</i>, Gould, confined to South Australia. The epithet plain refers to its inhabiting plains. (3) A third genus (<i>Bettongia</i>, q.v.) includes the Prehensile-tailed Rat-Kangaroos and has four species, distributed in Australia and Tasmania-- Brush-tailed Kangaroo-Rat-- <i>Bettongia penicillata</i>, Gray. Gaimard's K.-R.-- <i>B. gaimardi</i>, Desm. Lesueur's K.-R.-- <i>B. lesueuri</i>, Quoy and Gaim. Tasmanian K.-R.-- <i>B. cuniculus</i>, Ogilby. (4) A fourth genus (<i>AEpyprymnus</i>, q.v.) includes the Rufous Kangaroo-Rat. It has one species, <i>AE. rufescens</i>, Grey. It is the largest of the Kangaroo-Rats and is distinguished by its ruddy colour, black-backed ears, and hairy nose. [Mr. Lydekker proposes to call the animal the <i>Rat- Kangaroo</i> (see quotation, 1894), but the name <i>Kangaroo- Rat</i> is now so well-established that it does not seem possible to supersede it by the, perhaps, more correct name of <i>Rat-Kangaroo</i>. The introduction of the word <i>Kangaroo</i> prevents any possibility of confusion between this animal and the true rodent, and it would seem to be a matter of indifference as to which word precedes or follows the other.] 1788. Governor Phillip (Despatch, May 15), in `Historical Records of New South Wales,' vol. I. pt. ii. p. 135: "Many trees were seen with holes that had been enlarged by the natives to get at the animal, either the squirrel, kangaroo rat, or opossum, for the going in of which perhaps they wait under their temporary huts, and as the enlarging these holes could only be done with the shell they used to separate the oysters from the rocks, must require great patience." 1793 Governor Hunter, `Voyage,' p. 61: "As most of the large trees are hollow by being rotten in the heart, the opossum, kangaroo-rat, squirrel, and various other animals which inhabit the woods, when they are pursued, commonly run into the hollow of a tree." 1802. G. Barrington, `History of New South Wales,' c. xi. p. 430: "The poto roo, or kangaroo-rat. . . . This curious animal which is indeed a miniature of the Kangaroo." 1832. J. Bischoff, `Van Diemen's Land,' c. ii. p. 28: "The kangaroo-rat is a small inoffensive animal and perfectly distinct from the ordinary species of rat." 1836. C. Darwin, `Naturalist's Voyage,' c. xix. p. 321: "The greyhounds pursued a kangaroo-rat into a hollow tree, out of which we dragged it; it is an animal as large as a rabbit, but with the figure of a kangaroo." 1850. J. B. Clutterbuck, `Port Phillip in 1849,' p. 37: "The kangaroo-rat is twice the size of a large English water-rat, and of the same colour, measuring nearly two feet in length." 1852. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes' (edition 1853), p. 157: "Two or three of the smallest kind, called the kangaroo-rat-- about the size of a hare, and affording pretty good coursing." 1860. Fison and Howitt, `Kamilaroi and Kurnai,' p. 195: "One of the skin aprons . . . made from the skin of a kangaroo-rat." 1879. C. W. Schurmann, `Native Tribes of Australia--Port Lincoln Tribe,' p. 214: "The natives use this weapon [the <i>Waddy</i>] principally for throwing at kangaroo-rats or other small animals." 1890. A. H. S. Lucas, `Handbook of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science,' Melbourne, p. 63: "The Victorian Kangaroo rat is <i>Bettongia cuniculus</i>." 1894. R.Lydekker, `Marsupialia,' p. 63: "The rat-kangaroos, often incorrectly spoken of as kangaroo-rats." <hw>Kangaroo-skin</hw>, <i>n</i>. either the leather for the tanned hide, or the complete fur for rugs and wraps. 1806. `History of New South Wales' (1818), p. 258: "The fitness of the kangaroo-skin for upper leathers will no doubt obtain preference over most of the imported leather, as it is in general lighter and equally durable." 1872. C. H. Eden, `My Wife and I in Queensland,' p. 106: "I used always to strip and preserve the pelt, for it makes good and pretty door-mats, and is most useful for pouches, leggings, light-whips, or any purpose where you require something strong and yet neater than green hide. I have seen saddles covered with it, and kangaroo-skin boots are very lasting and good." <hw>Kangaroo-tail Soup</hw>, <i>n</i>. soup made from the kangaroo-tail. 1820. W. C. Wentworth, `Description of New South Wales,' p. 58: "The tail of the forest kangaroo in particular makes a soup which, both in richness and flavour, is far superior to any ox-tail soup ever tasted." 1865. Lady Barker, writing from Melbourne, `Station Life in New Zealand,' p. 14: "The soups comprised kangaroo-tail--a clear soup not unlike ox-tail, but with a flavour of game." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. xxxv. p. 312: "Kangaroo-tail and ox-tail soup disputed pre-eminence." <hw>Kangaroo-Thorn</hw>, <i>n</i>. an indigenous hedge-plant, <i>Acacia armata</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>; called also <i>Kangaroo Acacia</i>. <hw>Kapai</hw>, <i>adj</i>. Maori word for <i>good</i>, used by the English in the North Island of New Zealand; e.g. "That is a kapai pipe." "I have a kapai gun." 1896. `New Zealand Herald,' Feb. 14 (Leading Article): "The Maori word which passed most familiarly into the speech of Europeans was `kapai,' `this is good.'" <hw>Kapu</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori word for a stone adze. The Maori word means the hollow of the hand. The adze is so called from its curved shape. (Williams, `Maori Dict.') 1889. `Catalogue of New Zealand Exhibition,' p. 140: "Kapu,, or adze." <hw>Karaka</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a tree, <i>Corynocarpus laevigata</i>, Forst. <i>N.O. anacardiaceae</i>; also called <i>Cow-tree</i> (q.v.), forty feet high, with orange- coloured berries, two to three inches long. 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 226: "Two or three canoes were hauled up under some karaka trees, which formed a pleasant grove in a sort of recess from the beach." Ibid. vol. i. p. 233: "The karaka-tree much resembles the laurel in its growth and foliage. It bears bright orange-coloured berries about the size and shape of damsons, growing in bunches. The fruit is sickly and dry; but the kernel forms an important article of native food." 1859. A. S. Thomson, `Story of New Zealand,' p. 157: "The karaka fruit is about the size of an acorn. The pulp is eaten raw; the kernel is cooked in the oven for ten days, and then steeped for several weeks in a running stream before it is fit for use. Karaka berries for winter use are dried in the sun. The kernel is poisonous uncooked." 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' p. 108: "The thick karakas' varnished green." 1881. J. L. Campbell, `Poenamo,' p. 102: "The karaka with its brilliantly polished green leaves and golden yellow fruit." 1883. F. S. Renwick, `Betrayed,' p. 35: "Bring the heavy karaka leaf, Gather flowers of richest hue." 1892. `Otago Witness,' Nov. 10. (Native Trees): "<i>Corynocarpus laevigata</i> (generally known by the name of karaka). The fruit is poisonous, and many deaths of children occur through eating it. Mr. Anderson, a surgeon who accompanied Captain Cook, mentions this tree and its fruit, and says the sailors ate it, but does not say anything about it being poisonous. The poison is in the hard inner part, and it may be that they only ate the outer pulp." <hw>Karamu</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for several species of the New Zealand trees of the genus <i>Coprosma</i>, <i>N.O. Rubiaceae</i>. Some of the species are called <i>Tree-karamu</i>, and others <i>Bush-karamu</i>; to the latter (<i>C. lucida</i>, Kirk) the name <i>Coffee-plant</i>, or <i>Coffee-bush</i>, is also applied. 1874. J. White, `Te Rou, or the Maori at Home,' p. 221: "Then they tied a few Karamu branches in front of them and went towards the settlement." 1876. J. C. Crawford, `Transactions of the New Zealand Institute,' vol. IX. art. lxxx. p. 545: "I have seen it stated that coffee of fine flavour has been produced from the karamu, <i>coprosma lucida</i>." 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand, p. 132: "Karamu. an ornamental shrub-tree; wood close-grained and yellow; might be used for turnery." 1887. T. F. Cheeseman, `Transactions of the New Zealand Institute,' vol. XX. art. xxii. p. 143: "The first plant of interest noted was a new species of <i>coprosma</i>, with the habit of the common karamu." 1889. T. Kirk, `Forest Flora of New Zealand,' p. 275: "`Karamu' is applied by the Maoris to several species of <i>Coprosma</i>, amongst which, I believe, this [<i>C. arborea</i>] is included, but it is commonly termed `tree-karamu' by bushmen and settlers in the North." 1891. T. H. Potts, `Out in the Open,' `New Zealand Country Journal,' vol. xv. p. 105: "Of these fruits that of the karamu, (Coprosma lucida), seemed to be amongst the first to be selected." <hw>Kareau</hw> or <hw>Kareao</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for <i>Supplejack</i> (q.v.). <hw>Karmai</hw>, <i>n</i>. used by settlers in South Island of New Zealand for <i>Towhai</i> (q.v.), a New Zealand tree, <i>Weinmannia racemosa</i>, Forst. <i>N.O. Saxifrageae</i>. Kamahi is the Maori, and <i>Karmai</i>, or <i>Kamai</i>, the corruption. 1876. W. N. Blair, `Transactions of the New Zealand Institute,' vol. ix. p. 148: "As will be seen by the tables of names, kamai is called black birch in the Catlin River District and Southland, which name is given on account of a supposed resemblance to the `birches,' or more correctly `beeches,' a number of which occur in that locality. I cannot understand how such an idea could have originated, for except in the case of the bark of one there is not the slightest resemblance between the birches and kamai. Whatever be the reason, the misapplication of names is complete, for the birches are still commonly called kamai in Southland." <hw>Karoro</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a Black-backed Gull, <i>Larus dominicanus</i>. 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. ii. p. 47: [Description.] <hw>Karri</hw> or <hw>Kari</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name (Western Australia) for <i>Eucalyptus diversicolor</i>. F. v. M. 1870. W. H. Knight, `Western Australia: Its History, Progress, Condition, etc.,' p. 38: "The Karri (<i>eucalyptus colossea</i>) is another wood very similar in many respects to the tuart, and grows to an enormous size." 1875. T. Laslett, `Timber and Timber Trees,' p. 196: "The kari-tree is found in Western Australia, and is said to be very abundant . . . of straight growth and can be obtained of extraordinary size and length. . . . The wood is red in colour, hard, heavy, strong, tough, and slightly wavy or curled in the grain." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 444: "Commonly known as `karri,' but in its native habitat as blue-gum. . . . The durability of this timber for lengthened periods under ground yet remains to be proved." 1896. `The Inquirer and Commercial News,' [Perth] July 3, p. 4, col. 5: "Mr. J. Ednie Brown, conservator of forests . . . expresses astonishment at the vastness of the karri forests there. They will be in a position to export one thousand loads of karri timber for street-blocking purposes every week." 1896. `The Times' (Weekly Edition), Dec. 4, p. 822, col. 1: "Karri, <i>Eucalyptus diversicolor</i>, is the giant tree of Western Australia. an average tree has a height of about 200ft., and a diameter of 4 ft. at 3 ft. or 4 ft. above the ground. The tree is a rapid grower, and becomes marketable in 30 or 40 years, against 50 years for jarrah. Karri timber is being largely exported for London street-paving, as its surface is not easily rendered slippery." <hw>Katipo</hw>, <i>n</i>. a small venomous spider of New Zealand and Australia. The name is Maori. The scientific name is <i>Latrodectus scelio</i>, Thorel.In New Zealand, it is generally found on the beach under old driftwood; but in Australia it is found widely scattered over the Continent, and always frequents dark sheltered spots. The derivation may be from <i>Kakati</i>, verb, to sting, and <i>po</i>, night. Compare <i>Kakapo</i>. It is a dark-coloured spider, with a bright red or yellowish stripe. 1867. F. Hochstetter, `New Zealand,' p. 440: "A small black spider with a red stripe on its back, which they [the natives of New Zealand] call katipo or katepo." 1870. Sir W. Buller, before Wellington Philosophical Society, quoted in `The Katipo,' Jan. 1, 1892, p. 2: "I have satisfied myself that in common with many other venomous creatures it (the katipo) only asserts its dreaded power as a means of defence, or when greatly irritated, for I have observed that on being touched with the finger it instantly folds its legs, rolls over on its back, and simulates death, remaining perfectly motionless till further molested, when it attempts to escape, only using its fangs as the <i>dernier ressort</i>." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals, p. 39: "Another spider (<i>Lathrodectus scelio</i>), which is very common here and everywhere in Queensland, is very dangerous even to men. It is a small black animal, of the size of our house-spider, with a brilliant scarlet mark on its back." 1891. C. Frost, `Victorian Naturalist,' p. 140: "I also determined, should opportunity occur, to make some further experiments with the black and red spider <i>Latrodectus scelio</i> . . . I found suspended in the web of one of this species a small lizard . . . which doubtless had been killed by its bite." 1892. Jan. 1, `The Katipo,' a Journal of Events in connection with the New Zealand Post Office and Telegraph Services. On p. 2 of the first number the Editor says: "If hard words could break bones, the present lot of the proprietors of `The Katipo' would be a sorry one. From certain quarters invectives of the most virulent type have been hurled upon them in connection with the title now bestowed upon the publication--the main objections expressed cover contentions that the journal's prototype is a `repulsive,' `vindictive,' and `death-dealing reptile,' `inimical to man,' etc. ; and so on, <i>ad infinitum</i>." [The pictorial heading of each number is a katipo's web, suggestive of the reticulation of telegraph wires, concerning which page 3 of the first number says: "The Katipo spider and web extends its threads as a groundwork for unity of the services."] 1895. H. R. Hogq, `Horne Expedition in Central Australia, Zoology, p. 322: "This spider, popularly known as the red streaked spider, is found all over Victoria and New South Wales, and is recorded from Rockhampton and Bowen on the Queensland Coast, and from the North Island of New Zealand, where it is known by the Maoris as the Katipo." <hw>Kauri</hw>, or <hw>Cowry</hw>, or <hw>Kauri-Pine</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the tree <i>Agathis australis</i>, Sal. (formerly <i>Dammara A</i>.), <i>N.O. Coniferae</i>. Variously spelt, and earlier often called <i>Cowdie</i>. In `Lee's New Zealand Vocabulary,' 1820, the spelling <i>Kaudi</i> appears. Although this tree is usually called by the generic name of <i>Dammara</i> (see quotation, 1832), it is properly referred to the genus <i>Agathis</i>, an earlier name already given to it by Salisbury. There is a Queensland Kauri (<i>Dammara robusta</i>, F. v. M.). See <i>Pine</i>. 1823. R. A. Cruise, `Ten Months in New Zealand,' p. 145: "The banks of the river were found to abound with cowry; and . . . the carpenter was of opinion that there could be no great difficulty in loading the ship. The timber purveyor of the Coromandel having given cowry a decided preference to kaikaterre, . . . it was determined to abandon all further operations." 1835. W. Yate, `True Account of New Zealand,' p. 37: "As a shrub, and during its youthful days, the kauri is not very graceful . . . but when it comes to years of maturity, it stands unrivalled for majesty and beauty." 1852. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes' (edition 1855), p. 285: "The kauri (<i>Dammera</i> [sic] <i>Australis</i>) is coniferous, resinous, and has an elongated box-like leaf." 1860. G. Bennett, `Gatherings of a Naturalist,' p. 349: "When Captain Cook visited New Zealand (nearly a century after the discovery of the <i>Dammara</i> of Amboyna), he saw, upon the east coast of the Northern Island, a tree, called by the natives Kowrie; it was found to be a second species of <i>Dammara</i>, and was named <i>D. australis</i>." 1867. F. Hochstetter, `New Zealand,' p. 140: "The Kauri-pine is justly styled the Queen of the New Zealand forest . . . the celebrated and beautiful Kauri." 1874. W. M. B., `Narrative of Edward Crewe,' p. 169: "The kauri is the only cone-bearing pine in New Zealand. The wood is of a yellow colour, wonderfully free from knots, and harder than the red-pine of the Baltic. Beautifully mottled logs are sometimes met with, and are frequently made up into furniture." 1875. T. Laslett, `Timber and Timber Trees,' p. 295: "The Kaurie or Cowdie-Pine (<i>Dammara Australis</i>) is a native of and is found only in New Zealand. . . . A tall and very handsome tree with a slightly tapering stem. . . . For masts, yards, etc., is unrivalled in excellence, as it not only possesses the requisite dimensions, lightness, elasticity, and strength, but is much more durable than any other Pine." [The whole of chap. 37 is devoted to this tree.] 1883. F. S. Renwick, `Betrayed,' p. 47: "As some tall kauri soars in lonely pride, So proudly Hira stood." 1886. J. A. Froude, `Oceans,' p. 318: "Only the majestic Kauri tolerated no approaches to his dignity. Under his branches all was bare and brown." 1889. T. Kirk, `Forest Flora of New Zealand,' p. 143: "The Native name `Kauri' is the only common name in general use. When the timber was first introduced into Britain it was termed `cowrie' or `kowdie-pine'; but the name speedily fell into disuse, although it still appears as the common name in some horticultural works." 1890. Brett, `Early History of New Zealand,' p. 115: "`The Hunter' and `Fancy' loaded spars for Bengal at the Thames in 1798." . . . "These two Indian vessels in the Thames were probably the earliest European ships that loaded with New Zealand Timber, and probably mark the commencement of the export Kauri trade." <hw>Kauri-gum</hw>, <i>n</i>. the resin which exudes from the <i>Kauri</i> (q.v.), used in making varnish. 1867. F. Hochstetter, `New Zealand,' p. 140: "In the year 1859 the amount of timber exportation from the Province of Auckland was L 34,376; that of kauri-gum exported L 20,776." 1874. G. Walch, `Head over Heels,' p. 15: "He paid his passage with kauri-gum." 1893. `Murray's Handbook to New Zealand,' p. 62: "The industry which will most interest the tourist is the Kauri-gum. . . . The resin or gum which they [the Kauri-trees] contained fell into the ground as the trees died, and (not being soluble in water) has remained there ever since. Men go about with spears which they drive into the ground, and if they find small pieces of gum sticking to the end of the spear, they commence digging, and are often rewarded by coming on large lumps of gum." <hw>Kava</hw>, <i>n</i>. The word is Tongan for-- (1) An ornamental shrub, <i>Piper methysticum</i>, Miq.; also <i>Macropiper latifolium</i>, Miq. See <i>Kawa-kawa</i>. (2) A narcotic and stimulant beverage, prepared from the root of this plant, which used to be chewed by the natives of Fiji, who ejected the saliva into a <i>Kava</i> bowl, added water and awaited fermentation. The final stage of the manufacture was accompanied by a religious ceremonial of chanting. The manufacture is now conducted in a cleaner way. Kava produces an intoxication, specially affecting the legs. 1858. Rev. T. Williams, `Fiji and the Fijians,' vol. i. p. 141: "Like the inhabitants of the groups eastward, the Fijians drink an infusion of the <i>Piper methysticum</i>, generally called <i>Ava</i> or <i>Kava</i>--its name in the Tongan and other languages. Some old men assert that the true Fijian mode of preparing the root is by grating, as is still the practice in two or three places; but in this degenerate age the Tongan custom of chewing is almost universal, the operation nearly always being performed by young men. More form attends the use of this narcotic on Somosomo than elsewhere. Early in the morning the king's herald stands in front of the royal abode, and shouts at the top of his voice, `<i>Yagona</i>!' Hereupon all within hearing respond in a sort of scream, `<i>Mama</i>!'--`Chew it!' At this signal the chiefs, priests, and leading men gather round the well-known bowl, and talk over public affairs, or state the work assigned for the day, while their favourite draught is being prepared. When the young men have finished the chewing, each deposits his portion in the form of a round dry ball in the bowl, the inside of which thus becomes studded over with a large number of these separate little masses. The man who has to make the grog takes the bowl by the edge and tilts it towards the king, or, in his absence, to the chief appointed to preside. A herald calls the king's attention to the slanting bowl, saying, `Sir, with respects, the <i>yagona</i> is collected.' If the king thinks it enough, he replies, in a low tone, `<i>Loba</i>'--`Wring it--an order which the herald communicates to the man at the bowl in a louder voice. The water is then called for and gradually poured in, a little at first, and then more, until the bowl is full or the master of the ceremonies says, `Stop!' the operator in the meantime gathering up and compressing the chewed root." 1888. H. S. Cooper, `The Islands of the Pacific,' p. 102: "Kava is the name given to a liquor produced by chewing the root of a shrub called angona, and the ceremonious part of the preparation consists in chewing the root." <hw>Kawa-kawa</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for an ornamental shrub of New Zealand, <i>Macropiper excelsum</i>. In Maori, Kawa = "unpleasant to the taste, bitter, sour." (Williams.) The missionaries used to make small beer out of the <i>Kawa-kawa</i>. 1850. Major Greenwood, `Journey from Taupo to Auckland,' p. 30: "The good missionary . . . thrust upon us . . . some bottles of a most refreshing light beverage made from the leaves of the kawa-kawa tree, which in taste much resembled ginger-beer." 1877. Anon., `Colonial Experiences, or Incidents of Thirty-four Years in New Zealand,' p. 104: "Our tea was made from the dried leaves of a native shrub, of a very spicy flavour, and known as the kawakawa, too pungent if used fresh and green." 1896. `Otago Witness,' June 4, p. 49: "The tints of <i>kawa</i>, of birch and broadleaf, of <i>rimu</i> and <i>matai</i> are blended together into one dark indivisible green." <hw>Kawau</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a Shag, <i>Phalacrocorax novae-hollandiae</i>, Steph. 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. ii. p. 145: [Description given.] <hw>Kea</hw>, <i>n</i>. a parrot of New Zealand, <i>Nester notabilis</i>, Gould. For its habits see quotations. 1862. J. Von Haast, `Exploration of Head Waters of Waitaki, 1862,'-in `Geology of Westland' (published 1879), p. 36: "What gave still greater interest to the spot was the presence of a number of large green alpine parrots (<i>Nestor notabilis</i>), the kea of the natives, which visited continually the small grove of beech-trees near our camp." 1880. `Zoologist' for February, p. 57: "On the 4th of November last the distinguished surgeon, Mr. John Wood, F.R.S., exhibited before the Pathological Society of London the colon of a sheep, in which the operation known as Colotomy had been performed by a Parrot . . . the species known as the `Kea' by the Maoris, the `Mountain Parrot' of the colonists, <i>Nestor notabilis</i> of Gould. Only five species . . . are known, one of which (<i>Nestor productus</i>) has lately become extinct; they only occur in New Zealand and Norfolk Island. They were formerly classed among the <i>Trichoglossinae</i> or brush-tongued parrots . . . more nearly allied to true <i>Psittaci</i> . . . Its ordinary food consists of berries and insects; but since its Alpine haunts have been reached by the tide of civilization, it has acquired a taste for raw flesh, to obtain which it even attacks living animals." 1882. T. H. Potts, `Out in the Open,' p. 176: "We have the hoary-headed nestors, amongst which are found the noisy honey-loving kaka, the hardy kea, that famous sheep- killer and flesh-eater, the dread of many an Alpine sheep farmer." 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 166: "<i>Nestor notabilis</i>, Gould, Kea-parrot, Mountain-parrot of the Colonists." 1888. `Antipodean Notes,' p. 74: "The Kea picks the fat which surrounds the kidneys. . . . Various theories have been started to explain how this parrot has become carnivorous." [Two pages are devoted to the question.] 1889. Cassell's `Picturesque Australasia,' vol. iv. p. 19: "The kea-parrot. . . . The kea is pretty to look at, having rich red and green plumage, but it is a cruel bird. It is said that it will fasten on the back of a living sheep and peck its way down to the kidney-fat, for which this parrot has a special fancy. No tourist need feel compunction about shooting a kea." 1893. A. R. Wallace, `Australasia,' vol. i. p. 445: "Another very interesting group of birds are the large dull colonial parrots of the genus Nestor, called kea or kaka by the natives from their peculiar cries. Their natural food is berries . . . but of late years the kea (<i>Nestor notabilis</i>), a mountain species found only in the South Island, has developed a curious liking for meat, and now attacks living sheep, settling on their backs and tearing away the skin and flesh to get at the kidney fat." 1895. `Otago Witness,' Dec. 26, p. 3, col. 1: "There is in the Alpine regions of the South Island a plant popularly called the `vegetable sheep,' botanically named <i>Raoulia</i>. From the distance of even a few yards it looks like a sheep. It grows in great masses, and consists of a woolly vegetation. A large specimen of this singular plant was exhibited in the Colonial and Indian Exhibition. It is said that the kea was in the habit of tearing it up to get at the grubs which harbour within the mass, and that mistaking dead sheep for vegetable sheep it learned the taste of mutton. A more enterprising generation preferred its mutton rather fresher." <hw>Kelp-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. In New Zealand, also called <i>Butter-fish</i> (q.v.), <i>Coridodax pullus</i>, Forst. In Tasmania, <i>Odax baleatus</i>, Cuv. and Val.; called also <i>Ground Mullet</i> by the fishermen. In Victoria, <i>Chironemus marmoratus</i>, Gunth. <i>Coridodax</i> and <i>Odax</i> belong to the family <i>Labridae</i> or Wrasses, which comprises the <i>Rock-Whitings</i>; <i>Chironemus</i> to the family <i>Cirrhitidae</i>. The name is also given in New Zealand to another fish, the <i>Spotty</i> (q.v.). These fishes are all different from the Californian food- fishes of the same name. 1841. J. Richardson, `Description of Australian Fishes,' p. 148: "This fish is known at Port Arthur by the appellation of `Kelp-fish,' I suppose from its frequenting the thickets of the larger fuci." <hw>Kennedya</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name of a genus of perennial leguminous herbs of the bean family-named, in 1804, after Mr. Kennedy, a gardener at Hammersmith, near London. There are seventeen species, all natives of Australia and Tasmania, many of them cultivated for the sake of their showy flowers and berries. Others lie near the ground like a vetch; <i>K. prostrata</i> is called the <i>Coral Pea</i> (q.v.), or <i>Bleeding Heart</i>, or <i>Native Scarlet Runner</i>, or <i>Running Postman</i>. Another species is called <i>Australian Sarsaparilla</i>. See <i>Sarsaparilla</i>. 1885. R. M. Praed, `The Head Station,' p. 294: "Taking off his felt hat, he twisted round it a withe of crimson Kennedia, then put it on again." <hw>Kestrel</hw>, <i>n</i>. the common English name for a falcon. According to Gould the Australian species is identical with <i>Cerchneis tinnunculus</i>, a European species, but Vigors and Horsfield differentiate it as <i>Tinnunculus cenchroides</i>. 1893. `The Argus,' March 25, p. 4, col. 5: "The kestrel's nest we always found in the fluted gums that overhung the creek, the red eggs resting on the red mould of the decaying trunk being almost invisible." Kia ora, <i>interj</i>. Maori phrase used by English in the North Island of New Zealand, and meaning "Health to you!" A private letter (1896) says--"You will hear any day at a Melbourne bar the first man say <i>Keora ta-u</i>, while the other says <i>Keora tatu</i>, so replacing "Here's to you!" These expressions are corruptions of the Maori, <i>Kia ora taua</i>, "Health to us too!" and <i>Kia ora tatou</i>, "Health to all of us!" <hw>Kie-kie</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a climbing plant, <i>Freycinetia banksii</i>, <i>N.O. Pandanaceae</i>; frequently pronounced <i>ghi-ghi</i> in the North Island of New Zealand, and <i>gay-gie</i> in the South Island. 1854. W. Golder, `Pigeons' Parliament,' p. 77: "The trees were . . . covered with a kind of parasite plant, called a keekee, having a thick cabbage-like stock." 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf' (Notes), p. 505: "Kie-kie (parasite). . . . A lofty climber; the bracts and young spikes make a very sweet preserve." 1882. T. H. Potts, `Out in the Open,' p. 20: "The unused food . . . of our little camp, together with the empty kie-kie baskets." [sc. baskets made of <i>kie-kie</i> leaves.] <hw>Kiley</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal word in Western Australia for a flat weapon, curved for throwing, made plane on one side and slightly convex on the other. A kind of boomerang. 1839. Nathaniel Ogle, `The Colony of Western Australia,' p. 57: "In every part of this great continent they have the koilee, or boomerang . . ." 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' vol. 1. c. iv. p. 72: "One of them had a kiley or bomerang." 1872. Mrs. E. Millett, `An Australian Parsonage; or, The Settler and the Savage in Western Australia,' p. 222: "The flat curved wooden weapon, called a <i>kylie</i>, which the natives have invented for the purpose of killing several birds out of a flock at one throw, looks not unlike a bird itself as it whizzes (or <i>walks</i> as natives say) through the air in its circular and ascending flight. . ." 1885 Lady Barker, `Letters to Guy,' p. 177: "More wonderful and interesting, however, is it to see them throw the kylie (what is called the boomerang in other parts of Australia), a curiously curved and flat stick, about a foot long and two or three inches wide. . . . There are heavier `ground kylies,' which skim along the ground, describing marvellous turns and twists, and they would certainly break the leg of any bird or beast they hit; but their gyrations are nothing compared to those of a good air-kylie in skilful hands." <hw>Kinaki</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Maori word for food eaten with another kind to give it a relish. Compare Grk. <i>'opson</i>. 1820. `Grammar and Vocabulary of Language of New Zealand' (Church Missionary Society), p. 164: "Kinaki. Victuals, added for variety's sake." 1873. `Appendix to Journal of House of Representatives,' vol. iii. G. 1, p. 5: "If it be a Maori who is taken by me, he will also be made into a kinaki for my cabbage." 1878. R. C. Barstow, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. XI. art. iv. p. 71: "Fifty years ago it would have been a poor hapu that could not afford a slave or two as a kinaki, or relish, on such an occasion." <hw>King-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. In New Zealand a sea-fish, <i>Seriola lalandii</i> (Maori, Haku), sometimes called the <i>Yellow-tail</i>; in Victoria, <i>Sciaena antarctica</i>, Castln. Called <i>Jew-fish</i> (q.v.) in New South Wales. Tenison Woods says the King-fish of Port Jackson must not be confounded with the King-fish of Victoria or the King-fish of Tasmania (<i>Thyrsites micropus</i>, McCoy). The Port Jackson King-fish belongs to a genus called "Yellow-tails" in Europe. This is <i>Seriola lalandii</i>, Cuv. and Val. <i>Seriola</i> belongs to the family <i>Carangidae</i>, or <i>Horse- Mackerels</i>. <i>Thyrsites</i> belongs to the family <i>Trichiuridae</i>. The "Barracouta" of Australasia is another species of <i>Thyrsites</i>, and the "Frost-fish" belongs to the same family. The <i>Kingfish</i> of America is a different fish; the name is also applied to other fishes in Europe. 1876. P. Thomson, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. XI. art. lii. p. 381: "The king-fish, <i>Seriola Lalandii</i>, put in no appearance this year." 1883. `Royal Commission on Fisheries of Tasmania,' p. 11: "<i>Thyrsites Lalandii</i>, the king-fish of Tasmania: migratory. Appear in immense numbers at certain seasons (December to June) in pursuit of the horse-mackerel. Caught with a swivelled barbless hook at night. Voracious in the extreme--individuals frequently attacking each other, and also the allied species, the barracouta." <hw>Kingfisher</hw>, <i>n</i>. common English bird-name. Gould mentions thirteen species in Australia. The Australian species are-- Blue Kingfisher-- <i>Halcyon azurea</i>, Lath. Fawn-breasted K.-- <i>Dacelo cervina</i>, Gould. Forest K.-- <i>Halcyon macleayi</i>, Jard. and Selb. Laughing jackass (q.v.)-- <i>Dacelo gigas</i>, Bodd. Leach's K.-- <i>D. leachii</i>, Vig. and Hors. Little K.-- <i>Halcyon pusilla</i>, Temm. Mangrove K.-- <i>H. sordidus</i>, Gould. Purple K.-- <i>H. pulchra</i>, Gould. Red-backed K.-- <i>H. pyrropygius</i>, Gould. Sacred K.-- <i>H. sanctus</i>, Vig. and Hors. White-tailed K.-- <i>Tanysiptera sylvia</i>, Gould. Yellow-billed K.-- <i>Syma flavirostris</i>, Gould. There is a Kingfisher in New Zealand (<i>Halcyon vagans</i>, Less.) considered identical by many with <i>H. sanctus</i> of Australia, but concluded by Butler to be a distinct species. 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 121: [A full description.] <hw>King of the Herrings</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Elephant-fish</i> (q.v.). 1890. A. H. S. Lucas, `Handbook of the Australasian Association' (Melbourne), p. 72: "The King of the Herrings, <i>Callorhynchus antarcticus</i>, is fairly common with us." <hw>King-Parrot</hw>. See <i>Parrot</i>. 1865. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `History of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia,' vol. i. p. 317: This creek [King Parrot Creek] was named after a beautiful parrot which was then seen for the first time. It is a bird of magnificent plumage, with crimson feathers on the body, and blue wings, both of gorgeous hue, and no other colour except a little black. The name, King Parrot, is variously applied to several birds in different arts of Australia; the one described is common." <hw>King William Pine</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian tree. See <i>Cedar</i>. <hw>Kino</hw>, <i>n</i>. a drug; the dried juice, of astringent character, obtained from incisions in the bark of various trees. In Australia it is got from certain Eucalypts, e.g. <i>E. resinifera</i>, Smith, and <i>E. corymbosa</i>, Smith. "It is used in England under the name of <i>Red-gum</i> in astringent lozenges for sore throat." (`Century.') See <i>Red Gum</i>. The drug is Australian, but the word, according to Littre, is "<i>Mot des Indes orientales</i>." <hw>Kipper</hw>, <i>n</i>. a youth who has been initiated, i.e. been through the <i>Bora</i> (q.v.). It is a Queensland word. In Kabi, Queensland, the form is <i>kivar</i>: on the Brisbane River, it is <i>kippa</i>, whereas in the Kamilaroi of New South Wales the word is <i>kubura</i>. 1853. H. Berkeley Jones, `Adventures in Australia in 1852 and 1853,' p. 126: "Around us sat `Kippers,' i.e. `hobbledehoy blacks.'" 1885. R. M. Praed, `Australian Life,' p. 24: "The young men receive the rank of warriors, and are henceforth called kippers." Kit, <i>n</i>. a flexible Maori basket; not the English <i>kit</i> used by soldiers, but the Maori word kete, a basket. 1855. Rev. R. Taylor, `Te Ika a Maui,' p. 199: "<i>Kete</i> (Maori), pa-kete (Anglo-Maori), basket, kit (Eng.)." 1856. E. B. Fitton, `New Zealand,' p. 68: "The natives generally bring their produce to market in neatly made baskets, plaited from flax and known by the name of `Maori kits.'" 1857. C. Hursthouse, `New Zealand, the Britain of the South,' vol. i. p. 180: "The kit is a large plaited green-flax basket." 1877. An Old Colonist, `Colonial Experiences,' p. 31: "Potatoes were procurable from the Maoris in flax kits, at from one to five shillings the kit." 1884. Lady Martin, `Our Maoris,' p. 44: "They might have said, as an old Maori woman long afterwards said to me, `Mother, my heart is like an old kete (i.e. a coarsely-woven basket). The words go in, but they fall through.'" <hw>Kite</hw>, <i>n</i>. common English bird-name. The species in Australia are-- Allied Kite-- <i>Milvus affanis</i>, Gould. Black-shouldered K.-- <i>Elanus axillaris</i>, Lath. Letter-winged K.-- <i>E. scriptus</i>, Gould. Square-tailed K.-- <i>Lophoictinia isura</i>, Gould. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 321: "We had to guard it by turns, whip in hand, from a host of square-tailed kites (<i>Milvus isiurus</i>)." 1895. G. A. Keartland, `Horne Expedition in Central Australia,' Zoology, p. 55: "At any stockyard or station passed Kites were seen . . . at Henbury one female bird was bold enough to come right into camp and pick up the flesh thrown to it from birds I was skinning." <hw>Kiwi</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a wingless struthious bird of New Zealand, the <i>Apteryx</i> (q.v.), so called from the note of the bird. The species are-- Large Grey Kiwi (Roa roa, generally shortened to <i>Roa</i>, q.v.)-- <i>Apteryx haastii</i>, Potts. Little Grey K.-- <i>A. oweni</i>, Gould. North Island K.-- <i>A. bulleri</i>, Sharpe. South Island K. (Tokoeka)-- <i>A. australis</i>, Shaw and Nodder. See Buller, `Birds of New Zealand' (1888), vol. ii. p. 308. 1835. W. Yate, `Account of New Zealand,' p. 58: "Kiwi--the most remarkable and curious bird in New Zealand." 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. vi. pl. 2: "<i>Apteryx Australis</i>, Shaw, Kiwi kiwi." [Australis here equals Southern, not Australian.] 1867. F. Hochstetter, `New Zealand,' p. 181: "The Kiwi, however, is only the last and rather insignificant representative of the family of wingless birds that inhabited New Zealand in bygone ages." 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' p. 232: "'Twas nothing but that wing-less, tail-less bird, The <i>kiwi</i>." 1882. T. H. Potts, `Out in the Open,' p. 35: "The fact that one collector alone had killed and disposed of above 2000 specimens of the harmless kiwi." 1889. Professor Parker, `Catalogue of New Zealand Exhibition,' p. 116: "The Kiwi, although flightless, has a small but well-formed wing, provided with wing quills." <hw>Knockabout</hw>, <i>adj</i>. a species of labourer employed on a station; applied to a man of all work on a station. Like <i>Rouseabout</i> (q.v.). 1876. W. Harcus, `Southern Australia,' p. 275: "Knockabout hands, 17s. to 20S. per week." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 80: "They were composed chiefly of what is called in the bush `knockabout men'--that is, men who are willing to undertake any work, sometimes shepherding, sometimes making yards or driving." 1884. Rolf Boldrewood, `Melbourne Memories,' xvi. p. 118: "I watched his development through various stages of colonial experience--into dairyman, knockabout man, bullock-driver, and finally stock-rider." <hw>Knock-down</hw>, <i>v</i>. generally of a cheque. To spend riotously, usually in drink. 1869. Marcus Clarke, `Peripatetic Philosopher' (reprint), p. 80: "Last night! went knocking round with Swizzleford and Rattlebrain. C'sino, and V'ri'tes. Such a lark! Stole two Red Boots and a Brass Hat. Knocked down thirteen notes, and went to bed as tight as a fly!" 1871. J. J. Simpson, `Recitations,' p. 9: "Hundreds of diggers daily then were walking Melbourne town, With their pockets fill'd with gold, which they very soon knock'd down." 1882. A. J. Boyd, `Old Colonials,' p. 6: "Cashed by the nearest publican, who of course never handed over a cent. A man was compelled to stay there and knock his cheque down `like a man'" 1885. H. Finch-Hatton,' Advance Australia,' p. 222: "A system known as `knocking down one's cheque' prevails all over the unsettled parts of Australia. That is to say, a man with a cheque, or a sum of money in his possession, hands it over to the publican, and calls for drinks for himself and his friends, until the publican tells him he has drunk out his cheque." 1887. R. M. Praed, `Longleat of Kooralbyn,' c. xviii. p. 182: "The illiterate shearer who knocks down his cheque in a spree." <hw>Koala</hw>, <hw>Coola</hw>, or <hw>Kool-la</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for <i>Native Bear</i> (q.v.); genus, <i>Phascolarctus</i> (q.v.). A variant of an aboriginal word meaning a big animal. In parts of South Australia koola means a kangaroo. 1813. `History of New South Wales' (1818), p. 432: "The koolah or sloth is likewise an animal of the opossum species, with a false belly. This creature is from a foot and a half to two feet in length, and takes refuge in a tree, where he discovers his haunt by devouring all the leaves before he quits it." 1849. J. Gould, `Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London,' November: "The light-coloured mark on the rump, somewhat resembling that on the same part of the Koala . . . the fur is remarkable for its extreme density and for its resemblance to that of the Koala." <hw>Kohekohe</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a New Zealand tree, sometimes called Cedar, <i>Dysoxylum spectabile</i>, Hook (<i>N.O. Meliaceae</i>). 1883. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand,' p. 127: "Kohekohe. A large forest tree, forty to fifty feet high. Its leaves are bitter, and used to make a stomachic infusion: wood tough, but splits freely." <hw>Kohua</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori word, for (1) a Maori oven; (2) a boiler. There is a Maori <i>verb Kohu</i>, to cook or steam in a native oven (from a noun <i>Kohu</i>, steam, mist), and an <i>adj</i>. <i>Kohu</i>, concave. The word is used by the English in New Zealand, and is said to be the origin of <i>Goashore</i> (q.v.). <hw>Kokako</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the <i>Blue-wattled Crow</i>. See under <i>Crow</i> and <i>Wattle-bird</i>. 1882. T. H. Potts, `Out in the Open,' p. 194: "The Orange-wattled Crow, or wattled bird, kokako of the Maoris, Glaucopis cinerea, Gml., still seems to be an almost unknown bird as to its nesting habits. . . . The kokako loving a moist temperature will probably soon forsake its ancient places of resort." <hw>Kokopu</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a New Zealand fish; any species of <i>Galaxias</i>, especially <i>G. fasciatus</i>; corrupted into <i>Cock-a-bully</i> (q.v.). See <i>Mountain Trout</i>. 1820. `Grammar and Vocabulary of Language of New Zealand' (Church Missionary Society), p. 106: "Kokopu. Name of a certain fish." 1886. R. A. Sherrin, `Fishes of New Zealand,' p. 138: "`Kokopu,' Dr.Hector says, `is the general Maori name for several very common fishes in the New Zealand streams and lakes, belonging to the family of <i>Galaxidae</i>.'" <hw>Kokowai</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for Red Ochre, an oxide of iron deposited in certain rivers, used by the Maoris for painting. It was usually mixed with shark oil, but for very fine work with oil from the berries of the <i>titoki</i> (q.v.). 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 124: "His head, with the hair neatly arranged and copiously ornamented with feathers, reclined against a carved post, which was painted with kokowai, or red ochre." 1878. R. C. Barstow, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. XI. art. iv. p. 75: "Kokowai is a kind of pigment, burnt, dried, and mixed with shark-liver oil." <hw>Konini</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for (1) the fruit of the New Zealand fuchsia, <i>Fuchsia excorticata</i>, Linn. (2) A settlers' name for the tree itself. See <i>Kotukutuku</i>. 1882. T. H. Potts, `Out in the Open,' p. 114: "The berries of the konini . . . ripening early furnish some part of its (bell-bird's) food supply." (p. 146): "Rather late in August, when the brown-skinned konini begins to deck its bare sprays with pendulous flowers." 1889. T. Kirk, `Forest Flora of New Zealand,' p. 53: "Mr. Colenso informs me that it [<i>Fuchsia excorticata</i>] is the Kohutuhutu and the Kotukutuku of the Maoris, the fruit being known as Konini, especially in the South Island and the southern part of the North Island. The settlers sometimes term it Kotukutuku or Konini, but more generally fuchsia." <hw>Kooberry</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for the <i>Bidyan Ruffe</i> (q.v.). <hw>Kookaburra</hw>, <i>n</i>. (also <hw>Gogobera</hw> and <hw>Goburra</hw>), the aboriginal name for the bird called the <i>Laughing Jackass</i> (q.v.). The first spelling is that under which the aboriginal name now survives in English, and is the name by which the bird is generally called in Sydney. 1862. H. C. Kendall, `Poems,' p. 123: "And wild goburras laughed aloud Their merry morning songs." 1870. F. S. Wilson, `Australian Songs,' p. 167: "The rude rough rhymes of the wild goburra's song." 1886. E. M. Curr, `Australian Race,' p. 29: "The notes of this bird are chiefly composed of the sounds <i>ka</i> and <i>koo</i>, and from them it takes its name in most of the languages . . . It is noticeable in some localities that <i>burra</i> is the common equivalent of <i>people</i> or <i>tribe</i>, and that the Pegulloburra . . . the Owanburra, and many other tribes, called the laughing- jackass--kakooburra, kakaburra, kakoburra, and so on; literally the <i>Kakoo people</i>." [Mr. Curr's etymology is not generally accepted.] 1890. `The Argus,' Oct. 25, p. 4, col 5: "You might hear the last hoot of the kookaburra then." 1893. `Sydney Morning Herald,' Aug. 26, p. 5, col. 4: "But what board will intervene to protect the disappearing marsupials, and native flora, the lyre-bird, the kookaburra, and other types which are rapidly disappearing despite the laws which have been framed in some instances for their protection?" 1894. E. P. Ramsay, `Catalogue of Australian Birds in the Australian Museum at Sydney,' p. 2, s.v. <i>Dacelo</i>: "Gogobera, aborigines of New South Wales." <hw>Koradji</hw>, or <hw>Coradgee</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for a wise man, sorcerer, or doctor. In the south-east of New South Wales, it means one of the tribal wizards, usually called "blackfellow- doctors." 1845. J. O. Balfour, `Sketch of New South Wales,' p. 14: "The coradgees, who are their wise men, have, they suppose, the power of healing and foretelling. Each tribe possesses one of these learned pundits, and if their wisdom were in proportion to their age, they would indeed be Solons." 1865. S. Bennett, `Australian Discovery,' p. 250: "Kiradjee, a doctor; Grk. <i>cheirourgos</i>. Persian, khoajih. English, surgeon. Old English (obsolete), chirurgeon." [Curious and impossible etymology.] 1865. W. Howitt, `Discovery in Australia, vol. i. p. 287: "One who seemed a coradge, or priest, went through a strange ceremony of singing, and touching his eyebrows, nose, and breast, crossing himself, and pointing to the sky like an old Druid." 1885. R. M. Praed, `Australian Life,' p. 23: "The korradgees, or medicine men, are the chief repositories (of the secrets of their religion)." 1892. J. Fraser, `Aborigines of New South Wales,' p. 63: "For some diseases, the kar'aji, or native doctor when he is called in, makes passes with his hand over the sick man, much in the same way as a mesmerist will do . . . Our Australian karaji is highly esteemed, but not paid." <hw>Korari</hw>, <i>n</i>. often pronounced <i>Koladdy</i> and <i>Koladdy</i>, and spelt variously; the Maori word for the flowering stem of <i>Phormium tenax</i>, J. and G. Forst. (q.v.), generally used for making a <i>mokihi</i> (q.v.). There is a Maori noun, <i>kora</i>, a small fragment; and a verb <i>korari</i>, to pluck a twig, or tear it off. 1879. `Old Identity' [Title]: "The Old Identities of the Province of Otago." [p. 53]: "A <i>kolladie</i> (the flower stalk of the flax, about seven feet long) carried by each, as a balancing pole or staff." 1893. Daniel Frobisher, `Sketches of Gossipton,' p. 75: "But now the faithful brute is gone; Through bush and fern and flax <i>koladdy</i>, Where oft he bunny pounced upon, No more will follow me, poor Paddy." <hw>Korero</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori for a conference, a conversation. The verb means "to tell, to say, to address, to speak, to talk." (`Williams' Maori Dictionary,' 4th. ed.) 1820. `Grammar and Vocabulary of Language of New Zealand' (Church Missionary Society), p. 168: "Korero, <i>s</i>. a speaking; <i>v. n</i>. speaking." 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' c. i. p. 78: "There were about sixty men assembled, and they proceeded to hold a `korero,' or talk on the all-important subject." Ibid. p. 81: "With the exception of an occasional exclamation of `korero, korero,' `speak, speak,' which was used like our `hear, hear,' in either an encouraging or an ironical sense, or an earnest but low expression of approval or dissent, no interruption of the orators ever took place." 1863. T. Moser, `Mahoe Leaves,' p. 30: "As he had to pass several pahs on the road, at all of which there would be `koreros.'" (p. 31): "Had been joined by a score or more of their acquaintances, and what between `koreros' and `ko-mitis,' had not made any further progress on their journey." 1896. `Otago Witness,' Jan. 23, p. 42, col. 3: "All this after a very excited `korero' on the empty dray, with the surging and exciting crowd around." <hw>Korimako</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the <i>Bell-Bird</i> (q.v.). 1855. Rev. R. Taylor, `Te Ika a Maui,' p. 402: "The korimako, or kokorimako (<i>Anthornis melanura</i>). This bird is the sweetest songster of New Zealand, but is not distinguished by its plumage, which is a yellowish olive with a dark bluish shade on each side of the head." Ibid. p. 75: "In the first oven [at the Maori child's naming feast] a korimako was cooked; this is the sweetest singing bird of New Zealand; it was eaten that the child might have a sweet voice and be an admired orator." 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' p. 202: "The <i>korimako</i>, sweetest bird Of all that are in forest heard." 1888. W. W. Smith, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. XXI. art. xxi. p. 213: "<i>Anthornis melanura</i>, korimako or bell-bird. In fine weather the bush along the south shores of Lake Brunner re-echoes with the rich notes of the tui and korimako, although both species have disappeared from former haunts east of the Alps." <hw>Koromiko</hw>, <i>n</i>. a white flowering arborescent Veronica of New Zealand, <i>Veronica salicifolia</i>, Forst., <i>N.O. Scrophularineae</i>. 1855. Rev. R. Taylor, `Te Ika a Maui,' P. 454: "Koromiko, a very ornamental plant, but disappearing before the horse. It bears a tapering-shaped flower of a purplish white." 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' p. 2: "Just a ditch, With flowering koromiko rich." 1884. T. Bracken, `Lays of Maori,' p. 21: "The early breeze That played among the koromiko's leaves." 1889. Vincent Pyke, `Wild Will Enderby,' p. 16: "Fostered by the cool waters of a mountain rivulet, the koromiko grows by the side of the poisonous tutu bushes." Korora, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a <i>Blue Penguin</i>, <i>Spheniscus minor</i>, Gmel. See <i>Penguin</i>. <hw>Korrumburra</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for the common blow-fly, which in Australia is a yellow-bottle, not a blue-bottle. 1896. `The Melburnian,' Aug. 28, p. 54: "Odd `Korrumburras' dodge quickly about with cheerful hum. Where they go, these busy buzzy flies, when the cold calls them away for their winter vac. is a mystery. Can they hibernate? for they show themselves again at the first glint of the spring sun." <hw>Kotuku</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the <i>White Crane</i> of the Colonists, which is really a <i>White Heron</i> (<i>Ardea egretta</i>). See <i>Crane</i>. 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. ii. p. 124: [A full description.] <hw>Kotukutuku</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the New Zealand tree, <i>Fuchsia excorticata</i>, Linn., <i>N.O. Onagrariea</i>; written also <i>Kohutuhutu</i>. This name is not much used, but is corrupted into <i>Tookytook</i> (q.v.). See <i>Konini</i> and <i>Fuchsia</i>. 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand,' p. 127: "Kotukutuku. The fruit is called <i>konini</i>. A small and ornamental tree, ten to thirty feet high . . . a durable timber. . . . The wood might be used as dye-stuff . . . Its fruit is pleasant and forms principal food of the wood-pigeon." <hw>Kowhai</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name given to-- (1) Locust-tree, <i>Yellow Kowhai</i> (<i>Sophora tetraptera</i>, Aiton, <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>). (2) Parrot-bill, <i>Scarlet Kowhai</i> (<i>Clianthus puniceus</i>, <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>), or <i>Kaka-bill</i> (q.v.). Variously spelt <i>Kowai</i> and <i>Kohai</i>, and corrupted into <i>Goai</i> (q.v.) by the settlers. 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 58: "The kohai too, a species of mimosa covered with bright yellow blossoms, abounds in such situations where the stunted growth is an almost unvarying sign of constant inundation." [Mr. Wakefield was mistaken. The Kohai is not a mimosa.] 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' p. 261: "`Tis the <i>Kowhai</i>, that spendthrift so golden But its kinsman to Nature beholden, For raiment its beauty to fold in, Deep-dyed as of trogon or lory, How with parrot-bill fringes 'tis burning, One blood-red mound of glory!" 1873. `New Zealand Parliamentary Debates,' No. 16, p. 863: "Kowai timber, thoroughly seasoned, used for fencing posts, would stand for twelve or fourteen years; while posts cut out of the same bush and used green would not last half the time." 1882. T. H. Potts, 'Out in the Open,' p. 146: "The head of the straight-stemmed kowhai is already crowned with racemes of golden blossoms." 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand, p. 131: "Kowhai--a small or middling-sized tree. . . . Wood red, valuable for fencing, being highly durable . . . used for piles in bridges, wharves, etc." 1884. T. Bracken, `Lays of Maori,' p. 21: "The dazzling points of morning's lances Waked the red kowhai's drops from sleep." <hw>Kuku</hw>, or <hw>Kukupa</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the New Zealand <i>Fruit-pigeon</i> (q.v.), <i>Carpophaga novae-zelandiae</i>, Gmel. Called also <i>Kereru</i>. The name is the bird's note. 1820. `Grammar and Vocabulary of Language of New Zealand' (Church Missionary Society), p. 170: "Kuku, s. the cry of a pigeon." 1855. Rev. R. Taylor, `Te Ika a Maui,' p. 406: "Family <i>Columbidae</i>--kereru, kukupa (kuku, <i>Carpophaga Novae Zealandiae</i>), the wood-pigeon. This is a very fine large bird, the size of a duck; the upper part of the breast green and gold, the lower a pure white, legs and bill red. It is a heavy flying bird, and very stupid, which makes it an easy prey to its enemies. The natives preserve large quantities in calabashes, taking out the bones; these are called kuku." Ibid. p. 183: "The pigeon bears two names--the kuku and kukupa, which are common to the isles." 1881. J. L. Campbell, `Poenamo,' p. 115: "The kukupa . . . was just the bird created expressly for the true cockney sportsman--the one after his heart . . . for if not brought down by the first shot, why he only shakes his feathers and calmly waits to be shot at again!" 1883. F. S. Renwick, `Betrayed,' p. 45: "The kuku, plaintive, wakes to mourn her mate." <hw>Kumara</hw>, or <hw>Kumera</hw>, <i>n</i>. (pronounced Koomera), a Maori word for an edible root, the yam or sweet potato, <i>Ipomaea batatas</i>, <i>N.O. Convolvulaceae</i>. There are numerous varieties. It should be added that it is doubtful whether it grows wild in New Zealand. 1773. Sydney Parkinson, `Journal of a Voyage to the South Seas' (see extract in `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' `Manibus Parkinsonibus Sacrum,' W. Colenso, vol. x. art. ix. p. 124): "Several canoes came alongside of the ship, of whom we got some fish, kumeras or sweet potatoes, and several other things." 1828. `Henry William Diarys' (in Life by Carleton), p. 69: "Kumara had been planted over the whole plain." 1830. Ibid. p. 79: "We passed over the hill, and found the assailants feasting on the kumara, or sweet potato, which they just pulled up from the garden at which they had landed." 1851. Mrs. Wilson, `New Zealand,' p. 49: "He saw some fine peaches and kumaras or sweet potatoes." 1852. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes,' c. xi. p. 273 (3rd edition, 1855) "The kumara or sweet potato is a most useful root." 1863. F. E. Maning (Pakeha Maori), `Old New Zealand,' p. 51: "Behind the pigs was placed by the active exertion of two or three hundred people, a heap of potatoes and kumera, in quantity about ten tons, so there was no lack of the raw material for a feast." 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' p. 430: "Now the autumn's fruits Karaka,--taro,--kumera,--berries, roots Had all been harvested with merry lays And rites of solemn gladness." 1884. T. Bracken, `Lays of Maori,' p. 18: "Some more dainty toothsome dish Than the kumera and fish." <hw>Kumquat, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian tree, <i>Atalantia glauca</i>, Hook., <i>N.O. Rutaceae</i>, i.q. <i>Desert Lemon</i> (q.v.). <hw>Kurdaitcha</hw>, <hw>Coordaitcha</hw>, or <hw>Goditcha</hw>, <i>n</i>. a native term applied by white men to a particular kind of shoe worn by the aborigines of certain parts of Central Australia, and made of emu feathers matted together. The two ends are of the same shape, so that the direction in which the wearer has travelled cannot be detected. The wearer is supposed to be intent upon murder, and the blacks really apply the name to the wearer himself. The name seems to have been transferred by white men to the shoes, the native name for which is <i>interlin</i>~a, or <i>urtathurta</i>. 1886. E. M. Curr, `Australian Race,' vol. i. p. 148: "It was discovered in 1882 . . . that the Blacks . . . wear a sort of shoe when they attack their enemies by stealth at night. Some of the tribes call these shoes <i>Kooditcha</i>, their name for an invisible spirit. I have seen a pair of them. The soles were made of the feathers of the emu, stuck together with a little human blood, which the maker is said to take from his arm. They were about an inch and a half thick, soft, and of even breadth. The uppers were nets made of human hair. The object of these shoes is to prevent those who wear them from being tracked and pursued after a night attack." 1896. P. M. Byrne, `Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria,' p. 66: "The wearing of the Urtathurta and going Kurdaitcha luma appears to have been the medium for a form of vendetta." <hw>Kurrajong</hw>, <i>n</i>. or <hw>Currajong</hw> (spelt variously), the aboriginal name for various Australian and Tasmanian fibrous plants; see quotations, 1825 and 1884. They are the-- Black Kurrajong-- <i>Sterculia diversifolia</i>, G. Don., and <i>Sterculia quadrifida</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Sterculiaceae</i>. Brown K.-- <i>Commersonia echinata</i>, R. and G. Forst.; also, <i>Brachychiton gregorii</i>; both belonging to <i>N.O. Sterculiaceae</i>. Green K.-- <i>Hibiscus heterophyllus</i>, Vent., <i>N.O. Malvaceae</i>. Tasmanian K.-- <i>Plagianthus sidoides</i>, Hook., <i>N.O. Malvaceae</i>. Others are <i>Trema aspera</i>, Blume, <i>N.O. Urticeae</i>; and <i>Sterculia rupestris</i>, Benth., <i>N.O. Urticeae</i>. Some of the varieties are also called <i>Bottle-trees</i>, and, in Tasmania, <i>Cordage-trees</i> (q.v.). 1823. `Uniacke's Narrative of Oxley's Expedition,' quoted by J. D. Lang, `Cooksland,' p. 408: "The nets used for fishing [by the natives] are made by the men from the bark of the kurrajong (<i>Hibiscus heterophyllus</i>), a shrub which is very common to the swamps." 1825. Barron Field, Glossary, in `Geographical Memoirs of New South Wales,' p. 502: "Currijong or Natives' cordage tree (Hibiscus heterophyllus)." 1832. J. Bischoff, `Van Diemen's Land,' vol. ii. p. 25: "The curragong is sometimes found; its inner bark may be manufactured into ropes." 1846. C. P. Hodgson, `Reminiscences of Australia,' p. 149: "The currajong (<i>Sterculia</i>)is used for cordage, and makes strong, close, but not very durable ropes." 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' vol. iii. p. 91: "Dillis neatly worked of koorajong bark." 1849. J. P. Townsend, `Rambles in New South Wales,' p. 214: "In such a valley in which stands a spreading corrijong (<i>Sterculia diversifolia</i>), which has a strong resemblance to the English oak, I constantly found a flock of sheep." 1862. W. Archer, `Products of Tasmania,' p. 41: "Currajong (<i>Plagianthus sidoides</i>, Hook). The fibres of the bark are very strong. It is a large shrub, found chiefly on the southern side of the Island, in various and shady places, and grows rapidly." 1878. Rev. W. W. Spicer, `Handbook of the Plants of Tasmania,' p. 104: "<i>Plagianthus sidoides</i>, Hooker. Currijong, <i>N.O. Malvaceae</i>. Peculiar to Tasmania." 1883. G. W. Rusden, `History of Australia,' vol. i. p. 77: "The currejong of the forest, and the casuarina which lines the rivers, stand with brighter green in cheering contrast to the dulness of surrounding leaves." 1881,. W. R. Guilfoyle, `Australian Botany' (second edition), p. 162: "The aborigines apply the name Kurrajong, or Currijong, to some [Pimeleas]; but it would appear that this native name is indiscriminately given to any plant possessing a tough bark." 1888. Cassell's `Picturesque Australasia,' vol. iii. p. 138: "Quaint currajongs . . . very like in form to the stiff wooden trees we have all played with in childish days." L <hw>Laburnum, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. the Tasmanian <i>Clover-tree, Goodenia lotifolia</i>, Sal., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>. <hw>Laburnum, Sea-coast</hw>, <i>n</i>. also called <i>Golden Chain</i>, <i>Sophora tomentosa</i>, Linn., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>; a tall, hoary shrub. <hw>Lace-bark</hw>, <hw>Lacey-bark</hw>, or <hw>Lacewood</hw>, <i>n</i>. names for Ribbonwood (q.v.). The inner bark of the tree is like fine lace. 1876. W. N. Blair, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. IX. art. x. p. 175: "Ribbonwood, <i>Plagianthus betulinus</i>, botanical name, Hooker; Whauwhi, Maori name, according to Hector; lace-bark tree, settlers' name, according to Buchanan." 1882. T. H. Potts, `Out in the Open': "The soft, bright-foliaged ribbonwood (lace-bark, <i>Plagianthus</i>) contrasts with the dusky hue of the dark-leaved fagus." <hw>Lace-Lizard</hw>, <i>n</i>. <i>Hydrosaurus (Varanus) varius</i>. See <i>Goanna</i>. 1881. F. McCoy, `Prodomus of the Natural History of Victoria,' Dec. 4: "Although the present Lace Lizard is generally arboreal, climbing the forest trees with ease, and running well on the ground, it can swim nearly as well as a Crocodile." <hw>Lagorchestes</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name for a genus of Australian marsupial mammals, called the <i>Hare- Wallabies</i> or <i>Hare-Kangaroos</i> (q.v.). (Grk. <i>lagows</i>, a hare, and <i>'orchestaes</i>, a dancer.) They live on plains, and make a "form" in the herbage like the hare, which they resemble. <hw>Lagostrophus</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name of the genus containing the animal called the <i>Banded-Wallaby</i>. (Grk. <i>lagows</i>, a hare, and <i>strophos</i>, a band or zone.) Its colour is a greyish-brown, with black and white bands, its distinguishing characteristic. It is sometimes called the <i>Banded-Kangaroo</i>, and is found at Dirk Hartog's Island, and on one or two islands in Shark's Bay, and in West Australia. For its interesting habits see R. Lyddeker's `Marsupialia.' <hw>Lake-Trout</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian fish, <i>Galaxias auratus</i>, family <i>Galaxidae</i>. See <i>Mountain- Trout</i>. <hw>Lamb down</hw>, <i>v. tr</i>. (1) To knock down a cheque or a sum of money in a spree. There is an old English verb, of Scandinavian origin, and properly spelt <i>lamm</i>, which means to thrash, beat. 1873. J. B. Stephens, `Black Gin,' p. 51: "It is the Bushman come to town-- Come to spend his cheque in town, Come to do his lambing down." 1890. `The Argus,' June 7, p. 4, col. 2: "The lambing down of cheques." 1890. Ibid. Aug. 9, p. 4, col. 5: "The old woman thought that we were on gold, and would lamb down at the finish in her shanty." (2) To make a man get rid of his money to you; to clean him out." 1873. Marcus Clarke, `Holiday Peak, etc.,' p. 21: "The result was always the same--a shilling a nobbler. True, that Trowbridge's did not `lamb down' so well as the Three Posts, but then the Three Posts put fig tobacco in its brandy casks, and Trowbridge's did not do that." 1880. Garnet Walch, `Victoria in 1880,' p.30: "The operation--combining equal parts of hocussing, overcharging, and direct robbery--and facetiously christened by bush landlords `lambing down.'" 1890. `The Argus,' Aug. 16, p. 4, col. 7: "One used to serve drinks in the bar, the other kept the billiard-table. Between them they lambed down more shearers and drovers than all the rest on the river." <hw>Lamprey</hw>, <i>n</i>. The Australian Lampreys are species of the genera <i>Mordacia</i> and <i>Geotria</i>, of the same family as the "Lampreys" of the Northern Hemisphere. <hw>Lancelet</hw>, <i>n</i>. The fishes of this name present in Australasia are-- In Queensland, <i>Epigonichthys cultellus</i>, Peters, family <i>Amplingae</i>; in Victoria and New South Wales, species of <i>Heteropleuron</i>. <hw>Lancewood</hw>, <i>n</i>. There are many lancewoods in various parts of the world. The name, in Australia, is given to <i>Backhousia myrtifolia</i>, Hook. and Harv., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>; and in New Zealand, to <i>Panax crassifolium</i>, Dec. and Plan., <i>N.O. Araliaceae</i>, known as <i>Ivy- tree</i>, and by the Maori name of <i>Horoeka</i> (q.v.). <hw>Landsborough Grass</hw>, <i>n</i>. a valuable Queensland fodder grass of a reddish colour, <i>Anthistiria membranacea</i>, Lindl., <i>N.O. Gramineae</i>. See <i>Grass</i>. <hw>Lantern, Ballarat</hw>, <i>n</i>. a local term. See quotation. 1875. Wood and Lapham, `Waiting for the Mail,' p. 21: "I may explain that a `Ballarat Lantern' is formed by knocking off the bottom of a bottle, and putting a candle in the neck." <hw>Lark</hw>, <i>n</i>. common English bird name. The Australian species are-- Brown Song Lark-- <i>Cincloramphus cruralis</i>, Vig. and Hors. Bush L.-- <i>Mirafra horsfieldii</i>, Gould. Field L.-- <i>Calamanthus campestris</i>, Gould. Ground L.-- <i>Anthus australis</i>, Vig. and Hors. (Australian Pipit), <i>A. novae-zelandae</i>, Gray (New Zealand Pipit). Lesser Bush L.-- <i>Mirafra secunda</i>, Sharpe. Little Field L.-- <i>Cathonicola sagittata</i>, Lath. Magpie L.-- <i>Grallina picata</i>, Lath.; see <i>Magpie-Lark</i>. Rufous Song L.-- <i>Cincloramphus rufescens</i>, Vig. and Hors. Striated Field L.-- <i>Calamanthus fuliginosus</i>, Vig. and Hors. See <i>Ground-Lark</i>, <i>Sand-Lark</i>, <i>Pipit</i>, and <i>Magpie-Lark</i>. <hw>Larrikin</hw>, <i>n</i>. The word has various shades of meaning between a playful youngster and a blackguardly rough. Little streetboys are often in a kindly way called <i>little larrikins</i>. (See quotations, 1870 and 1885.) Archibald Forbes described the larrikin as "a cross between the Street Arab and the Hoodlum, with a dash of the Rough thrown in to improve the mixture." (`Century.) The most exalted position yet reached in literature by this word is in Sir Richard Burton's `Translation of the Arabian Nights' (1886-7), vol. i. p. 4, <i>Story of the Larrikin and the Cook</i>; vol. iv. p. 281, <i>Tale of First Larrikin</i>. The previous translator, Jonathan Scott, had rendered the Arabic word, <i>Sharper</i>. There are three views as to the origin of the word, viz.-- (1) That it is a phonetic spelling of the broad Irish pronunciation, with a trilled <i>r</i> of the word <i>larking</i>. The story goes that a certain Sergeant Dalton, about the year 1869, charged a youthful prisoner at the Melbourne Police Court with being "<i>a-larrr-akin</i>' about the streets." The Police Magistrate, Mr. Sturt, did not quite catch the word--"A what, Sergeant?"--"A larrikin', your Worchup." The police court reporter used the word the next day in the paper, and it stuck. (See quotation, `Argus,' 1896.) This story is believed by 99 persons out of 100; unfortunately it lacks confirmation; for the record of the incident cannot be discovered, after long search in files by many people. Mr. Skeat's warning must be remembered--"As a rule, derivations which require a story to be told turn out to be false." (2) That the word is thieves' English, promoted like <i>swag</i>, <i>plant</i>, <i>lift</i>, etc., into ordinary Australian English. Warders testify that for a number of years before the word appeared in print, it was used among criminals in gaol as two separate words, viz.--<i>leary</i> ('cute, fly, knowing), and <i>kinchen</i> (youngster),--`<i>leary kinchen </i>,'--shortened commonly into `<i>leary kin</i>' and `<i>leary kid</i>.' Australian warders and constables are Irish, almost to a man. Their pronunciation of `<i>leary kin</i>' would be very nearly `<i>lairy kin</i>,' which becomes the single word <i>larrikin</i>. (See quotation, 1871.) It is possible that Sergeant Dalton used this expression and was misunderstood by the reporter. (3) The word has been derived from the French <i>larron</i> (a thief), which is from the Latin <i>latronem</i> (a robber). This became in English <i>larry</i>, to which the English diminutive, <i>kin</i>, was added; although this etymology is always derided in Melbourne. 1870. `The Daily Telegraph' (Melbourne), Feb. 7, p. 2, col. 3: "We shall perhaps begin to think of it in earnest, when we have insisted upon having wholesome and properly baked bread, or a better supply of fish, and when we have put down the `roughs' and `larrikins.'" 1870. `The Age,' Feb. 8, p. 3, col. 1: "In sentencing a gang of `larrikins' who had been the terror of Little Bourke-street and its neighbourhood for several hours on Saturday night, Mr. Call remarked. . ." 1870. `The Herald,' April 4, p.3, col. 2: ". . . three larikins who had behaved in a very disorderly manner in Little Latrobe-street, having broken the door of a house and threatened to knock out the eye of one of the inmates." 1870. Marcus Clarke, `Goody Two Shoes,' p. 26: "He's a lively little larrikin lad, and his name is Little Boy Blue." 1871. `The Argus,' Sept. 19, p.5, col. 4: "In San Francisco, the vagabond juveniles who steal, smash windows, and make themselves generally obnoxious to the respectable inhabitants, instead of being termed `larrikins,' as in Victoria, are denominated `hoodleums.' The name is more musical than the one in vogue here, and probably equally as descriptive, as its origin appears to be just as obscure as that of the word `larrikin.' This word, before it got into print, was confined to the Irish policemen, who generally pronounced it `lerrikan,' and it has been suggested that the term is of Hibernian origin, and should be spelt lerrichaun.'" 1871. Sir George Stephen, Q.C., `Larrikinism,' a Lecture reported in `Prahran Telegraph,' Sept. 23, p. 3, col. 1: What is Larrikinism? It is a modern word of which I can only guess the derivation, . . . nor can I find any among the erudite professors of slang who adorn our modern literature who can assist me. Some give our police the credit of coining it from the `larking' of our school boys, but I am inclined to think that the word is of Greek origin--<i>Laros</i>, a cormorant--though immediately derived from the French `<i>larron</i>' which signifies a thief or rogue. If I am right, then larrikin is the natural diminutive form in English phraseology for a small or juvenile thief. . . . This however is, I must acknowledge, too severe a construction of the term, even if the derivation is correct; for I was myself, I frankly confess it, an unquestionable larrikin between 60 and 70 years ago. . . . Larrikinism is not thieving, though a road that often leads to it. . . . Is it a love of mischief for mischief's sake? This is the theory of the papers, and is certainly a nearer approach to the true solution." 1871. `Figaro,' in `Prahran Telegraph,' Sept. 30, p. 7, col. 3: "A local contemporary has . . . done his `level best' to help me out of my `difficulty' with respect to the word Larrikin. He suggests that <i>lerrichan</i> should read <i>leprichaun </i>, a mischievous sprite, according to Irish tradition. . . . We think we may with more safety and less difficulty trace the word to the stereotype [sic] reply of the police to the magisterial question--`What was he doing when you apprehended him?' `Oh! larriking (larking) about, yer Wurtchip.'" 1872. J. S. Elkington, `Tenth Report of Education, Victoria,' dated Feb. 14: "My inquiries into the origin and habits of that troublesome parasite the larrikin (if I may adopt Constable Dalton's term) do not make me sanguine that compulsory primary instruction can do much for him, unless indirectly." 1875. `Spectator' (Melbourne), May 15, p. 21, col. 3: "On Sunday night an unfortunate Chinaman was so severely injured by the Richmond larrikins that his life was endangered." 1875. David Blair, in `Notes and Queries,' July 24, p. 66: "Bedouins, Street Arabs, Juvenile Roughs in London; <i>Gamins </i> in Paris; Bowery Boys in New York; Hoodlums to San Francisco; Larrikins in Melbourne. This last phrase is an Irish constable's broad pronunciation of `larking' applied to the nightly street performances of these young scamps, here as elsewhere, a real social pestilence." 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia,' p. 338: "There is not a spare piece of ground fit for a pitch anywhere round Melbourne that is not covered with `larrikins' from six years old upwards." 1889. Rev. J. H. Zillmann, `Australian Life,' p. 159: "It has become the name for that class of roving vicious young men who prowl about public-houses and make night hideous in some of the low parts of our cities. There is now the bush `larrikin' as well as the town `larrikin,' and it would be difficult sometimes to say which is the worse. Bush `larrikins' have gone on to be bushrangers." 1890. `The Argus,' May 26, p. 6, col. 7: "He was set upon by a gang of larrikins, who tried to rescue the prisoner." 1891. `Harper s Magazine,' July, p. 215, col. 2: "The Melbourne `larrikin' has differentiated himself from the London `rough,' and in due season a term had to be developed to denote the differentiation." 1893. `Sydney Morning Herald,' Aug. 12, p. 13, col. 2: "Robert Louis Stevenson, in a recent novel, `The Wrecker,' makes the unaccountable mistake of confounding the unemployed Domain loafer with the larrikin. This only shows that Mr. Stevenson during his brief visits to Sydney acquired but a superficial knowledge of the underlying currents of our social life." 1896. J. St. V. Welch, in `Australasian Insurance and Banking Record,' May 19, p. 376: "Whence comes the larrikin? that pest of these so-called over-educated colonies; the young loafer of from sixteen to eight-and-twenty. Who does not know him, with his weedy, contracted figure; his dissipated pimply face; his greasy forelock brushed flat and low over his forehead; his too small jacket; his tight-cut trousers; his high-heeled boots; his arms--with out-turned elbows--swinging across his stomach as he hurries along to join his `push,' as he calls the pack in which he hunts the solitary citizen---a pack more to be dreaded on a dark night than any pack of wolves--and his name in Sydney is legion, and in many cases he is a full-fledged voter." 1896. W. H. Whelan, in `The Argus,' Jan. 7, p. 6, col. 3: "Being clerk of the City Court, I know that the word originated in the very Irish and amusing way in which the then well-known Sergeant Dalton pronounced the word larking in respect to the conduct of `Tommy the Nut,' a rowdy of the period, and others of both sexes in Stephen (now Exhibition) street. "Your representative at the Court, the witty and clever `Billy' O'Hea, who, alas! died too early, took advantage of the appropriate sound of the word to apply it to rowdyism in general, and, next time Dalton repeated the phrase, changed the word from verb to noun, where it still remains, anything to the contrary notwithstanding. I speak of what I do know, for O'Hea drew my attention to the matter at the time, and, if I mistake not, a reference to your files would show that it was first in the `Argus' the word appeared in print." ("We can fully confirm Mr. Whelan's account of the origin of the word `larrikin.'"--Ed. `Argus.') [But see quotation from `Argus,' 1871.] <hw>Larrikin</hw>, <i>adj</i>. 1878. `The Australian,' vol. i. p. 522: "Marks the young criminals as heroes in the eyes not only of the ostensible larrikin element . . ." <hw>Larrikinalian</hw>, <i>adj</i>. (Not common.) 1893. `Evening Standard,' July 5, p. 4, col. 4 (Leading Article): "In the larrikinalian din which prevailed from start to finish . . ." <hw>Larrikiness</hw>, <i>n</i>. a female larrikin. 1871. `Collingwood Advertiser and Observer,' June 22, p. 3, col. 5: "Evidence was tendered as to the manner of life led by these larikinesses . . . The juvenile larrikin element being strongly represented in court, all the boys were ordered out." 1871. Sir George Stephen, Q.C., `Larrikinism,' a Lecture reported in `Prahran Telegraph,' Sept. 23, p. 3, col. 1: "I know many a larrikiness to whose voice I could listen by the hour with all my heart, without the least fear of her stealing it, even if it were worth the trouble." 1892. Gilbert Parker, `Round the Compass in Australia,' p. 224: "I have not found the larrikin [in Brisbane]. . . . The slouch-hat, the rakish jib, the drawn features are not to be seen; nor does the young larrikiness--that hideous outgrowth of Sydney and Melbourne civilization--exist as a class." <hw>Larrikinism</hw>, <i>n</i>. the conduct of <i>larrikins</i> (q.v.). 1870. `The Australian' (Richmond, Victoria), Sept. 10, p. 3, col. 3: "A slight attempt at `larrikinism' was manifested. . . . " 1871. J. J. Simpson, `Recitations and Rhymes,' p. 17: "Melbourne larrikinism is still very bad, By the papers each day we are told." 1875. `Spectator' (Melbourne), June 19, p. 80, col. 2: "He took as his theme the `Dialect of Victoria,' which was coarse and vulgar to a degree. `Larrikinism' was used as a synonym for `blackguardism.'" 1876. A. P. Martin, `Sweet Girl-Graduate,' p. 20: "There is no doubt that its rising generation afforded material for letters in the newspapers, under the headings `Larrikinism,' or, `What shall we do with our boys?'" 1893. `The Argus,' Feb. 23: "Outbreaks of larrikinism are not always harmless ebullitions of animal spirits. Sometimes they have very serious results." <hw>Laughing Jackass</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Jackass</i>. <hw>Launce</hw>, <i>n</i>. The Australian species of this fish is <i>Congrogradus subducens</i>, Richards., found in North- West Australia. The <i>Launces</i> or <i>Sand-eels</i> of the Northern Hemisphere belong to a different group. <hw>Laurel</hw>, <i>n</i>. The English tree name is applied in Australia to various trees, viz.-- Alexandrian Laurel-- <i>Calophyllum inophyllum</i>, Linn:, <i>N.O. Guttiferae</i>; not endemic in Australia. Diamond-leaf L.-- <i>Pittosporum rhombifolium</i>, A. Cunn., <i>N.O. Pittosporeae</i>. Dodder L.-- <i>Cassytha filiformis</i>, Linn., <i>N.O. Lauraceae</i>; called also Devil's Guts, not endemic in Australia. Hedge L. (q.v.)-- <i>Pittosporum eugenioides</i>, Cunn. Moreton Bay L.-- <i>Cryptocarya australis</i>, Benth., <i>N.O. Lauraceae</i>; called also Grey Sassafras. Native L.-- <i>Pittosporum undulatum</i>, Andr., <i>N.O. Pittosporeae</i>; called also <i>Mock Orange</i> (q.v.). <i>Panax elegans</i>, C. Moore and F. v. M., <i>N.O. Araliaceae</i>; which is also called Light or White Sycamore. White L.-- <i>Cryptocarya glaucescens</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Lauraceae</i>; for other names see <i>Beech</i>. In Tasmania, the name Native Laurel is applied to <i>Anopterus glandulosus</i>, Lab., <i>N.O. Saxifrageae</i>. Peculiar to Tasmania. The New Zealand Laurel is <i>Laurelia novae-zelandiae</i>; called also <i>Sassafras</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 292: "Native Laurel, [also called] `Mock Orange.' This tree is well worth cultivating on a commercial scale for the sake of the sweet perfume of its flowers." <hw>Lavender, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian tree, <i>Styphelia australis</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Epacrideae</i>. <hw>Lawyer</hw>, <i>n</i>. One of the English provincial uses of this word is for a thorny stem of a briar or bramble. In New Zealand, the name is used in this sense for the <i>Rubus australis</i>, <i>N.O. Rosaceae</i>, or Wild Raspberry-Vine (Maori, <i>Tataramoa</i>). The words <i>Bush-Lawyer</i>, <i>Lawyer-Vine</i>, and <i>Lawyer-Palm</i>, are used with the same signification, and are also applied in some colonies to the <i>Calamus australis</i>, Mart. (called also <i>Lawyer- Cane</i>), and to <i>Flagellaria indua</i>, Linn,, similar trailing plants. 1865. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `History of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia,' vol. ii. p. 157: "<i>Calamus Australis</i>, a plant which Kennedy now saw for the first time. . . It is a strong climbing palm. From the roots as many as ninety shoots will spring, and they lengthen out as they climb for hundreds of feet, never thicker than a man's finger. The long leaves are covered with sharp spines; but what makes the plant the terror of the explorers, is the tendrils, which grow out alternately with the leaves. Many of these are twenty feet long, and they are covered with strong spines, curved slightly downwards." 1867. F. Hochstetter, `New Zealand,' p. 135: "<i>Rubus Australis</i>, the thorny strings of which scratch the hands and face, and which the colonists, therefore, very wittily call the `bush-lawyer.'" 1882. T. H. Potts, `Out in the Open,' p. 71: "Torn by the recurved prickles of the bush-lawyer." 1889. Vincent Pyke, `Wild Will Enderby,' p. 16: "Trailing `bush-lawyers,' intermingled with coarse bracken, cling lovingly to the rude stones." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 103: "In the mountain scrubs there grows a very luxuriant kind of palm (<i>Calamus Australis</i>), whose stem of a finger's thickness, like the East Indian Rotang-palm, creeps through the woods for hundreds of feet, twining round trees in its path, and at times forming so dense a wattle that it is impossible to get through it. The stem and leaves are studded with the sharpest thorns, which continually cling to you and draw blood, hence its not very polite name of lawyer-palm." 1891. A. J. North, `Records of Australian Museum,' vol. i. p. 118: "Who, in the brushes of the Tweed River, found a nest placed on a mass of `lawyer-vines' (<i>Calamus Australis</i>)." 1892. Gilbert Parker, `Round the Compass in Australia,' p. 256: "`Look out,' said my companion, `don't touch that lawyer-vine; it will tear you properly, and then not let you go.' Too late; my fingers touched it, and the vine had the best of it. The thorns upon the vine are like barbed spears, and they would, in the language of the Yankee, tear the hide off a crocodile." 1892. `The Times,' [Reprint] `Letters from Queensland,' p. 7: "But no obstacle is worse for the clearer to encounter than the lawyer-vines where they are not burnt off. These are a form of palm which grows in feathery tufts along a pliant stalk, and fastens itself as a creeper upon other trees. From beneath its tufts of leaves it throws down trailing suckers of the thickness of stout cord, armed with sets of sharp red barbs. These suckers sometimes throw themselves from tree to tree across a road which has not been lately used, and render it as impassable to horses as so many strains of barbed wire. When they merely escape from the undergrowth of wild ginger and tree-fern and stinging-bush, which fringes the scrub, and coil themselves in loose loops upon the ground, they are dangerous enough as traps for either man or horse. In the jungle, where they weave themselves in and out of the upright growths, they form a web which at times defies every engine of destruction but fire." <hw>Lawyer-Cane</hw>, <hw>Lawyer-Palm</hw>, and <hw>Lawyer-Vine</hw>. See <i>Lawyer</i>. <hw>Lead</hw>, <i>n</i>. (pronounced <i>leed</i>), a mining term. In the Western United States and elsewhere, the term lead in mining is used as equivalent for lode. In Australia, the word <i>lead</i> is only used in reference to alluvial mining, and signifies the old river-bed in which gold is found. 1875. `Spectator' (Melbourne), June 19, p. 75, col. 2: "There was every facility for abstracting the gold in the rich lead of a neighbour." 1880. Fison and Howitt, `Kamilaroi and Kurnai,' p. 272 [Note]: "The expression `deep lead' refers to those ancient river-courses which are now only disclosed by deep-mining operations." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. v. p. 55: "Taking the general matter of `leads' or dead rivers, it chiefly obtained that if gold were found on one portion of them, it extended to all the claims within a considerable distance." <hw>Lead, to strike the</hw>. See above. Used figuratively for to succeed. 1874. Garnet Walch, `Head over Heels,' p. 74: "We could shy up our caps for a feller, As soon as he struck the lead." <hw>Leadbeater</hw>, <i>n</i>. applied to a <i>Cockatoo</i>, <i>Cacatua leadbeateri</i>, Vig., called <i>Leadbeaters Cockatoo</i> by Major Mitchell (q.v.). 1890. Lyth, `Golden South,' c. xiv. p. 127: "The birds are very beautiful--the Blue Mountain and Lowrie parrots . . . leadbeater, and snow-white cockatoos." <hw>Leaf-insect</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Phasmid</i>. <hw>Lease</hw>, <i>n</i>. a piece of land leased for mining purposes. In England, the word is used for the document or legal right concerning the land. In Australia, it is used for the land itself. Compare <i>Right-of-way</i>. 1890. `Goldfields of Victoria,' p. 15: "A nice block of stone was crushed from Johnson's lease." <hw>Lease in perpetuity</hw>, a statutory expression in the most recent land legislation of New Zealand, indicating a specific mode of alienating Crown lands,. It is a lease for 999 years at a permanent rental equal to 4% on the capital value, which is not subject to revision. <hw>Leather-head</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Friar-bird</i> (q.v.), <i>Philemon corniculatus</i>, Lath. See <i>Tropidorhynchus</i>. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 461: "The Leatherhead with its constantly changing call and whistling." 1855. W. Howitt, `Two Years in Victoria,' vol. i. p. 58: "The leather-heads utter their settled phrase `Off we go! off we go!' in the woods, or they come to suck honey from the <i>Melianthus major</i>, which stands up like a huge artichoke plant, tipped with dark red plumes of flowers." 1860. G. Bennett, `Gatherings of a Naturalist,' p. 233: "Among the Honey-suckers is that singular-looking bird, the Leatherhead, or Bald-headed Friar (<i>Tropidorhynchus corniculatus</i>); it is commonly seen upon the topmost branches of lofty trees, calling `Poor Soldier,' `Pimlico,' `Four o'clock,' and uttering screaming sounds. It feeds upon insects, wild fruits, and any sweets it can procure from the flowers of the Banksia and Gum-trees." <hw>Leather-Jacket</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) A name applied popularly and somewhat confusedly to various trees, on account of the toughness of their bark-- (a) <i>Eucalyptus punctata</i>, De C., Hickory Eucalypt (q.v.); (b) <i>Alphitonia excelsa</i>, Reiss., or Cooperswood; (c) <i>Ceratopetalum</i>, or Coachwood; (d) <i>Cryptocarya meissnerii</i>, F. v. M.; (e) <i>Weinmannia benthami</i>, F. v. M. (2) A fish of the family <i>Sclerodermi</i>, <i>Monacanthus ayraudi</i>, Quoy. and Gaim., and numerous other species of <i>Monocanthus</i>. Leather-Jackets are wide-spread in Australian seas. The name is given elsewhere to other fishes. See <i>File-fish</i> and <i>Pig-fish</i>. 1770. `Capt. Cook's Journal,' edition Wharton, 1893, p. 246: "They had caught a great number of small fish, which the sailors call leather jackets, on account of their having a very thick skin; they are known in the West Indies." 1773. `Hawkesworth's Voyages,' vol. iii. p. 503--'Cook's First Voyage,' May 4, 1770 (at Botany Bay): "Small fish, which are well known in the West Indies, and which our sailors call Leather jackets, because their skin is remarkably thick." 1789. W. Tench, `Expedition to Botany Bay, p. 129: "To this may be added bass, mullets, skaits, soles, leather-jackets, and many other species." (3) A kind of pancake. 1846. G. H. Haydon, `Five Years in Australia Felix,' p. 151: "A plentiful supply of `leatherjackets' (dough fried in a pan)." 1853. Mossman and Banister, `Australia Visited and Revisited,' p. 126: "Our party, upon this occasion, indulged themselves, in addition to the usual bush fare, with what are called `Leather jackets,' an Australian bush term for a thin cake made of dough, and put into a pan to bake with some fat. . . The Americans indulge in this kind of bread, giving them the name of `Puff ballooners,' the only difference being that they place the cake upon the bare coals . . ." 1855. R. Howitt, `Two Years in Victoria,' vol. i. p. 117: "The leather-jacket is a cake of mere flour and water, raised with tartaric acid and carbonate of soda instead of yeast, and baked in the frying-pan; and is equal to any muffin you can buy in the London shops." <hw>Leather-wood</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Pinkwood</i> (q.v.). <hw>Leawill</hw>, or <hw>Leeangle</hw> (with other spellings), <i>n</i>. aboriginal names for a native weapon, a wooden club bent at the striking end. The name is Victorian, especially of the West; probably derived from <i>lea</i> or <i>leang</i>, or <i>leanyook</i>, a tooth. The aboriginal forms are <i>langeel</i>, or <i>leanguel</i>, and <i>lea-wil</i>, or <i>le-ow-el</i>. The curve evidently helped the English termination, angle. 1845. Charles Griffith, `Present State and Prospects of the Port Phillip District of New South Wales,' p. 155: "The liangle is, I think, described by Sir Thomas Mitchell. It is of the shape of a pickaxe, with only one pick. Its name is derived from another native word, leang, signifying a tooth. It is a very formidable weapon, and used only in war." 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' vol. II. c. xiii. p. 479: "A weapon used by the natives called a Liangle, resembling a miner's pick." 1863. M. K. Beveridge,' Gatherings among the Gum-trees,' p. 56: "Let us hand to hand attack him With our Leeawells of Buloite." Ibid. (In Glossary) p. 83: "<i>Leeawell</i>, a kind of war club." 1867. G. Gordon McCrae, `Mimba,' p. 9: "The long liangle's nascent form Fore-spoke the distant battle-storm." 1886. R. Henty, `Australiana,' p. 21: "His war-club or leeangle." 1889. P. Beveridge, `Aborigines of Victoria and Riverina, p. 67: "Of those [waddies] possessing--we might almost say---a national character, the shapes of which seem to have come down generation after generation, from the remotest period, the Leawill is the most deadly-looking weapon. It is usually three feet long, and two and a half inches thick, having a pointed head, very similar both in shape and size to a miner's driving pick; in most cases the oak (Casuarina) is used in the manufacture of this weapon; it is used in close quarters only, and is a most deadly instrument in the hands of a ruthless foe, or in a general melee such as a midnight onslaught." <hw>Leeangle</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Leawill</i> (q.v.). <hw>Leek</hw>, <i>n</i>. a small parrot. See <i>Greenleek</i>. <hw>Leek, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. a poisonous Australian plant, <i>Bulbine bulbosa</i>, Haw., <i>N.O. Liliaceae</i>. Called also <i>Native Onion</i>. Its racemes of bright yellow flowers make the paddocks gay in spring. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 121: "`Native Onion,' `Native Leek.' Mr. W. <i>n</i>. Hutchinson, Sheep Inspector, Warrego, Queensland, reports of this plant: `Its effects on cattle are . . . continually lying down, rolling, terribly scoured, mucous discharge from the nose.'" <hw>Leg</hw>, <i>n</i>. mining term. a peculiar form of quartz-reef, forming a nearly vertical prolongation of the saddle. 1890. `The Argus,' June x6th, p. 6, col. 1: "It may also be observed that in payable saddle formations a slide intersects the reef above the saddle coming from the west, and turning east with a wall of the east leg, where the leg of reef is observed to go down deeper, and to carry a greater amount of gold than in ordinary cases." <hw>Legitimacy</hw>, <i>n</i>. See quotation. [Old and now unused slang.] 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 16: "Legitimacy--a colonial term for designating the cause of the emigration of a certain portion of our population; i.e. having legal reasons for making the voyage." [So also at p. 116, "Legitimates"] <hw>Leguminous Ironbark</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name given by Leichhardt to the Queensland tree <i>Erythrophaeum laboucherii</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>. See Ironbark. <hw>Leichhardt</hw>, or <hw>Leichhardt-Tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian timber-tree, <i>Morinda citrifolia</i>, Linn., <i>N.O. Rubiaceae</i>; called also Canary-wood and Indian Mulberry. In Queensland, the name is applied to <i>Sarcocephalus cordatus</i>, Miq., <i>N.O. Rubiaceae</i>, a large timber-tree of North Queensland, much used in building. 1874. M. K. Beveridge, `Lost Life,' p. 40: "Groaning beneath the friendly shade That by a Leichhardt-tree was made." 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia, p. 258: "The Leichhardt is a very symmetrical tree, that grows to a height of about sixty feet, and has leaves rather like a big laurel." <hw>Leichhardt-Bean</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Bean</i>. <hw>Leichhardt's Clustered-Fig</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Clustered Fig</i>. See <i>Fig</i>. <hw>Lemon, Desert</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Desert Lemon</i>. <hw>Lemon-scented Gum</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Gum</i>. <hw>Lemon-scented Ironbark</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name given to the Queensland tree <i>Eucalyptus staigeriana</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. See <i>Ironbark</i>. The foliage of this tree yields a large quantity of oil, equal in fragrance to that of lemons. <hw>Lemon-Sole</hw>, <i>n</i>. In England, the name is applied to an inferior species of <i>Sole</i>. In New South Wales, it is given to <i>Plagusia unicolor</i>, Mad., of the family <i>Pleuronectidae</i> or <i>Flat-fishes</i>. In New Zealand, it is another name for the New Zealand <i>Turbot</i> (q.v.). <hw>Lemon, Wild</hw>, <i>n</i>. a timber tree, <i>Canthium latifolium</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Rubiaceae</i>; called also <i>Wild Orange</i>. <hw>Lemon-Wood</hw>, <i>n</i>. one of the names given by settlers to the New Zealand tree called by Maoris <i>Tarata</i> (q.v.), or <i>Mapau</i> (q.v.). It is <i>Pittosporum eugenoides</i>, A. Cunn., <i>N.O. Pittosporeae</i>. <hw>Leopard-Tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian tree, <i>Flindersia maculosa</i> (or <i>Strezleckiana</i>), F. v. M., <i>N.O. Meliaceae</i>; called also <i>Spotted-Tree </i>(q.v.), and sometimes, in Queensland, <i>Prickly Pine</i>. <hw>Lerp</hw>, <i>n</i>. an aboriginal word belonging to the Mallee District of Victoria (see <i>Mallee</i>). Sometimes spelt <i>leurp</i>, or <i>laap</i>. The aboriginal word means `sweet.' It is a kind of manna secreted by an insect, Psylla eucalypti, and found on the leaves of the Mallee, <i>Eucalyptus dumosa</i>. Attention was first drawn to it by Mr. Thomas Dobson (see quotations). A chemical substance called <i>Lerpamyllum</i> is derived from it; see Watts' `Dictionary of Chemistry,' Second Supplement, 1875, s.v. 1848. W. Westgarth, `Australia Felix,' p. 73: "The natives of the Wimmera prepare a luscious drink from the laap, a sweet exudation from the leaf of the mallee (<i>Eucalyptus dumosa</i>)." 1850. T. Dobson, `Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Van Diemen's Land,' vol. i. p. 235: "The white saccharine substance called `lerp,' by the Aborigines in the north-western parts of Australia Felix, and which has attracted the attention of chemists, under the impression that it is a new species of manna, originates with an insect of the tribe of <i>Psyllidae</i>, and order <i>Hemiptera</i>." 1850. Ibid. p. 292:: "Insects which, in the larva state, have the faculty of elaborating from the juices of the gum-leaves on which they live a glutinous and saccharine fluid, whereof they construct for themselves little conical domiciles." 1878. R. Brough Smyth, `The Aborigines of Victoria,' vol. i. p. 211: "Another variety of manna is the secretion of the pupa of an insect of the <i>Psylla</i> family and obtains the name of <i>lerp</i> among the aborigines. At certain seasons of the year it is very abundant on the leaves of <i>E. dumosa</i>, or mallee scrub . . ." <hw>Lift</hw>, <i>v. tr</i>. to drive to market from the run. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Squatter's Dream,' c. iv. p. 45: "I haven't lifted a finer mob this season." 1890. `The Argus,' June 14, p. 4, col. 2: "We lifted 7000 sheep." <hw>Light-horseman</hw>, <i>n</i>. obsolete name for a fish; probably the fish now called a <i>Sweep</i> (q.v.). 1789. W. Tench, `Expedition to Botany Bay,' p. 129: "The French once caught [in Botany Bay] near two thousand fish in one day, of a species of grouper, to which, from the form of a bone in the head resembling a helmet, we have given the name of light horseman." 1793. J. Hunter, `Voyage,' p. 410 [Aboriginal Vocabulary]: "Woolamie, a fish called a light-horseman." [But see <i>Wollomai</i>.] 1802. G. Barrington, `History of New South Wales,' c. iv. p. 78: "A boat belonging to the Sirius caught near fifty large fish, which were called light-horsemen from a bone that grew out of the head like a helmet." <hw>Lightwood</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name given to various trees. See <i>Blackwood</i>. It is chiefly applied to <i>Acacia melanoxylon</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>. See quotations, 1843 and 1889. 1843. I. Backhouse. `Narrative of a Visit to the Australian Colonies,' p. 48: "Lightwood--<i>Acacia Melanoxylon</i> . . . It derives its name from swimming in water, while the other woods of V. D. Land, except the pines, generally sink. In some parts of the Colony it is called Blackwood, on account of its dark colour." 1852. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes' (edition 1855), p. 515: "Some immense logs of `light wood,' <i>a non lucendo</i>, darker than mahogany." 1864. J. Rogers, `New Rush,' p. 17: "Arms so brown and bare, to look at them Recalls to mind the lightwood's rugged stem." 1866. H. Simcox, `Rustic Rambles,' p. 54: "The numerous lightwood trees with sombre shade Tend to enhance the richness of the glade." 1884. Rolf Boldrewood, `Melbourne Memories,' c. xv. p. 111: "The ex-owner of Lyne wished himself back among the old lightwood trees." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 359: "Called `Blackwood' on account of the very dark colour of the mature wood. It is sometimes called `Lightwood' (chiefly in South Tasmania, while the other name is given in North Tasmania and other places), but this is an inappropriate name. It is in allusion to its weight as compared with Eucalyptus timbers. It is the `Black Sally' of Western New South Wales, the `Hickory' of the southern portion of that colony, and is sometimes called `Silver Wattle.' This is considered by some people to be the most valuable of all Australian timbers. It is hard and close-grained; much valued for furniture, picture-frames, cabinet-work, fencing, bridges, etc., railway, and other carriages, boat-building, for tool-handles, gun-stocks, naves of wheels, crutches, parts of organs, pianofortes (sound-boards and actions), etc." <hw>Light Yellow-wood</hw>, i.q. <i>Long-Jack</i> (q.v.). <hw>Lignum</hw> (1), or <hw>Lignum-Vitae</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is applied to several trees, as <i>Myrtus acmenioides</i>, F. v. M., called also <i>White Myrtle</i>; <i>Acacia falcata</i>, Willd., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>, called also <i>Hickory</i> and <i>Sally</i>; but chiefly to <i>Eucalyptus polyanthema</i>, Schau., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 505: "[<i>E. polyanthema</i>.] The `Red Box' of South-eastern Australia. Called also `Brown Box,' `Grey Box,' and `Bastard Box.' `Poplar-leaved Gum' is another name, but it is most commonly known as `Lignum Vitae' because of its tough and hard wood. Great durability is attributed to this wood, though the stems often become hollow in age, and thus timber of large dimensions is not readily afforded. It is much sought after for cogs, naves and felloes; it is also much in demand for slabs in mines, while for fuel it is unsurpassed. (Mueller.) Its great hardness is against its general use." (2) A bushman's contraction for any species of the wiry plants called polygonum. 1880. Mrs. Meredith, `Tasmanian Friends and Foes,' [writing of the Lachlan district, New South Wales] p. 180: "The poor emus had got down into the creek amongst the lignum bushes for a little shade . . . I do not know what a botanist would call them; they are something like cane, but with large leaves, which all animals are fond of, and they grow about eight feet high in the creeks and gullies." 1896. H. Lawson, `When the World was Wide,' p. 135: "By mulga scrub and lignum plain." <hw>Lilac</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given in Australia to the tree <i>Melia composita</i>, Willd., <i>N.O. Meliaceae</i>, called <i>Cape Lilac</i>. It is not endemic in Australia, and is called "Persian Lilac "in India. In Tasmania the name of <i>Native Lilac</i> is given to <i>Prostanthera rotundifolia</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Labiatae</i>, and by Mrs. Meredith to <i>Tetratheca juncea</i>, Smith, of the Linnean Order, <i>Octandria</i>. 1793. J. E. Smith, `Specimen of Botany of New Holland,' p. 5: "<i>Tetratheca juncea</i>, Rushy Tetratheca [with plate]." 1852. Mrs. Meredith, `My Home in Tasmania,' vol. ii. p. 69: "A little purple flower, which is equally common, so vividly recalls to my mind, both by its scent and colour, an Old-World favorite, that I always know it as the native Lilac (<i>Tetratheca juncea</i>)." <hw>Lily, Darling</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bulbous plant, <i>Crinum flaccidum</i>, Herb., <i>N.O. Amaryllideae</i>; called also the <i>Murray Lily</i>. (See <i>Lily, Murray</i>.) 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 20: "The `Darling Lily.' This exceedingly handsome white-flowered plant, which grows back from the Darling, has bulbs which yield a fair arrowroot. On one occasion, near the town of Wilcannia, a man earned a handsome sum by making this substance when flour was all but unattainable." <hw>Lily, Flax</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Flax-Lily</i>, and <i>Flax, New Zealand</i>. <hw>Lily, Giant</hw>-, or <hw>Spear</hw>-, <i>n</i>. a fibre plant, <i>Doryanthes excelsa</i>, Corr., <i>N.O. Amaryllideae</i>. 1860. G. Bennett, `Gatherings of a Naturalist,' p. 339: "The Doryanthes excelsa, a gigantic Lily of Australia, is a magnificent plant, with a lofty flowering spike. The bunches or clusters of crimson flowers are situated in the summit of the flowering spike . . . The diameter of a cluster of blossoms is about 14 inches . . . The flower-buds are of a brilliant crimson, and the anthers of the stamens are, in the recently expanded flower, of a dark-green colour." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 621: "`Spear Lily.' `Giant Lily.' The leaves are a mass of fibre, of great strength, which admits of preparation either by boiling or maceration, no perceptible difference as to quality or colour being apparent after heckling. Suitable for brush making, matting, etc." <hw>Lily, Gordon</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian plant and its flower, <i>Blandfordia marginata</i>, Herb., <i>N.O. Liliaceae</i>, and other species of <i>Blandfordia</i> (q.v.). 1835. Ross, `Hobart Town Almanack,' p. 72: "Blandfordia nobilis. This splendid plant is common on the west coast and on the shores of the Mersey. It bears a head of pendulous scarlet blossoms tipped with yellow, one inch long, rising out of a stalk of from 1 1/2 to 3 feet long, from between two opposite series of strapshaped leaves. It is named after George [Gordon] Marquis of Blandford, son of the second Duke of Marlborough." <hw>Lily, Murray</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Darling Lily</i>. See above. 1877. F. v. Mueller, `Botanic Teachings,' p. 119: "This showy genus <i>Crinum</i> furnishes also Victoria with a beautiful species, the Murray Lily (<i>Crinum flaccidum</i>), not however to be found away from the Murray-River southward." <hw>Lilly-Pilly</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to a large timber tree, <i>Eugenia smithii</i>, Poir., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. The bark is rich in tanning. Sometimes called <i>Native Banana</i>. 1860. G. Bennett, `Gatherings of a Naturalist,' p. 327: "The Lillypilly-trees, as they are named by the colonists, consist of several species of <i>Acmena</i>, and are all of elegant growth and dense and handsome foliage." 1879. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Proceedings of the Linnaean Society of New South Wales,' p. 134: "<i>Eugenia Smithii</i>, or Lilli pilli, and <i>Melodorum Leichhardtii</i> are also fair eating. The latter goes by the name of the native banana though it is very different from a banana, and in reality allied to the custard apple." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 29: "`Lilly Pilly.' The fruits are eaten by aboriginals, small boys, and birds. They are formed in profusion, are acidulous and wholesome. They are white with a purplish tint, and up to one inch in diameter." <hw>Lily, Rock</hw>, <i>n</i>. an orchid, <i>Dendrobium speciosum</i>, Smith, <i>N.O. Orchideae</i>. although not a Lily, it is always so called, especially in Sydney, where it is common. 1879. H. <i>n</i>. Moseley, `Notes by Naturalist on Challenger,' p. 270: "A luxuriant vegetation, with huge masses of Stagshorn Fern (<i>Platycerium</i>) and `rock-lilies' (orchids), and a variety of timbers, whilst there are Tree-ferns and small palms in the lateral shady gullies." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 22: "`Rock Lily.' The large pseudobulbs have been eaten by the aboriginals; they contain little nutritive matter." <hw>Lily, Water</hw>, <i>n</i>. There are several indigenous native varieties of the <i>N.O. Nymphaeceae</i>--<i>Cabombia peltata</i>, Pursh; <i>Nymphaea gigantea</i>, Hook. (<i>Blue Water-lily</i>). <hw>Lily, Yellow</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian name for <i>Bulbine bulbosa</i>, Haw., <i>N.O. Liliaceae</i>. See <i>Leek, Native</i>. <hw>Lime, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian tree, <i>Citrus australasica</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Rutaceae</i>; called also <i>Finger Lime</i> and <i>Orange</i>. But the appellation of <i>Native Lime</i> is more generally given to <i>Citrus australis</i>, Planch., <i>N.O. Rutaceae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 16: "`Native Lime. Orange.' The fruit, which is an inch and a half in diameter, and almost globular, yields an agreeable beverage from its acid juice." <hw>Ling</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fish. The name is given in England to various fishes, from their length. In New Zealand and Tasmania, it is applied to <i>Genypterus blacodes</i>, Forst.; also called <i>Cloudy Bay Cod</i>. <i>Lotella marginata</i>, Macl., is called <i>Ling</i>, in New South Wales, and <i>Beardie</i>. <i>Genypterus</i> belongs to the <i>Ophidiidae</i> and <i>Lotella</i> to the next family, the <i>Gadidae</i>. <hw>Lobster</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is often carelessly used in Australia for the <i>Crayfish</i> (q.v.). <hw>Lobster's</hw>-Claw, <i>n</i>. another name for <i>Sturt's Desert Pea</i> (q.v.). <hw>Locust</hw>, <i>n</i>. name popularly but quite erroneously applied to insects belonging to two distinct orders. (1) Insects belonging to the order <i>Hemiptera</i>. The great black Cicada, <i>Cicada moerens</i>, Germ., and the great green Cicada, <i>Cyclochila australasiae</i>, Donov. (2) Insects belonging to the order <i>Orthoptera</i>, such as the great green gum-tree grasshopper, <i>Locusta vigentissima</i>, Serv., or the Australian yellow-winged locust, <i>Oedipoda musica</i>, Fab. 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' vol. I. c. ix. p. 285: "The trees swarmed with large locusts (the <i>Cicada</i>), quite deafening us with their shrill buzzing noise." 1862. F. J. Jobson, `Australia,' c. iv. p. 104: "We heard everywhere on the gumtrees the cricket-like insects--usually called locusts by the colonists--hissing their reed-like monotonous noise." 1869. J. Townend, `Reminiscences of Australia,' p. 155: "The perpetual song of unnumbered locusts." 1885. H. H. Hayter, `Carboona,' p. 5: "The deaf'ning hum of the locusts." 1885. F. McCoy, `Prodromus of the Natural History of Victoria,' Dec. 5, pl. 50: "Our <i>Cicada moerens</i> . . . produces an almost deafening sound from the numbers of the individuals in the hottest days and the loudness of their noise." "This species (<i>Cyclochila Australasiae</i>) is much less abundant than the <i>C. moerens</i>, and seems more confined to moist places, such as river banks and deep ravines and gullies." 1889. F. McCoy, `Prodromus of the Natural History of Victoria,' Dec. 11, pl. 110: "The great size of the muscular thighs of the posterior pair of feet enables the Locusts to jump much higher, further, and more readily than Grasshoppers, giving an example of muscular power almost unparalleled in the animal kingdom." 1896. F. A. Skuse, `Records of Australian Museum,' vol. ii. No. 7, p. 107: "What are commonly styled `locusts' in this country are really <i>Cicadae</i>, belonging to a totally distinct and widely separated order of insects. And moreover the same kind of <i>Cicada</i> is known by different names in different localities, such as `Miller,' `Mealyback,' etc. The true locusts belong to the grasshoppers, while the <i>Homopterous Cicadidae</i> have been known as <i>Cicadas</i> from times of remote antiquity." <hw>Locust-tree</hw>, of New Zealand. See <i>Kowhai</i>. <hw>Logan-Apple</hw>, <i>n</i>. a small Queensland tree, with an acid fruit, <i>Acronychia acidia</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Rutaceae</i>. <hw>Log-hut</hw>, <i>n</i>. Log-cabin is American. Log-hut is Australian. 1802. G. Barrington, `History of New South Wales,' p. 178: "Not more than ten settlers had been able to erect dwellings better than log-huts." [This was in Sydney, 1796.] 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' vol. I. c. ix. p. 287: "Captain Fyans was living in a log-hut on the banks of the Marabool river." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. vi. p. 61: "Log-huts, with the walls built American fashion, of horizontal tree-trunks." <hw>Log-Runner</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian bird, called also a Spinetail. The species are-- Black-headed-- <i>Orthonyx spaldingi</i>, Ramsay; Spinetailed-- <i>O. spinicauda</i>, Temm., called also <i>Pheasant's Mother</i>. See <i>Orthonyx</i>. <hw>Logs</hw>, <i>n. pl.</i> the Lock-up. Originally, in the early days, a log-hut, and often keeping the name when it was made a more secure place. Sometimes, when there was no lock-up, the prisoners were chained to heavy logs of trees. 1802. G.Barrington, `History of New South Wales,' p. 184: "The governor resolved on building a large log prison both at Sydney and Paramatta, and `as the affair cried haste,' a quantity of logs were ordered to be sent in by the various settlers, officers and others." [p. 196]: "The inhabitants of Sydney were assessed to supply thatch for the new gaol, and the building was enclosed with a strong high fence. It was 80 feet long, the sides and ends were of strong logs, a double row of which formed each partition. The prison was divided into 22 cells. The floor and the roof were logs, over which was a coat eight inches deep of clay." 1851. Letter from Mrs. Perry, given in Canon Goodman's `Church of Victoria during Episcopate of Bishop Perry,' p. 164: "One [sentry] at the lock-up, a regular American log-hut." [sic. But in America it would have been called a log-cabin.] 1888. Rolf Boldrewood, `Robbery under Arms,' p. 193: "Let's put him in the Logs . . . The lock-up, like most bush ones, was built of heavy logs, just roughly squared, with the ceiling the same sort." 1888. Rolf Boldrewood, `A Sydneyside Saxon,' p. 111: "`He'll land himself in the logs about that same calf racket if he doesn't lookout, some day.' `Logs!' I says. `There don't seem to be many about this part. The trees are all too small.'" <hw>Log up</hw>, <i>v</i>. to make a log-support for the windlass. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. v. p. 54: "We . . . had logged up and made a start with another shaft." <hw>Lolly</hw>, <i>n., pl</i>. <hw>Lollies</hw>. The English word lollipop is always shortened in Australia, and is the common word to the exclusion of others, e.g. <i>sweets</i>. Manufacturers of sweetmeats are termed Lolly-makers. 1871. J. J. Simpson, `Recitations,' p. 24: "Lollies that the children like." 1874. Garnet Walch, `Head over Heels,' p. 18: "Common children fancy lollies, Eat them 'gainst their parents' wills." 1882. A. J. Boyd, `Old Colonials,' p. 16: "I thankfully expended the one in bile-producing cakes and lollies." 1893. `Evening Standard' (Melbourne), Oct. 18, p. 6, col. 2: "Mr. Patterson (musing over last Saturday's experiences): You're going to raise the price of lollies. I'm a great buyer of them myself. (Laughter.) If you pay the full duty it will, doubtless, be patriotic for me to buy more when I go amongst the juveniles." <hw>Long-fin</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to the fish <i>Caprodon schlegelii</i>, Gunth., and in New South Wales to <i>Anthias longimanus</i>, Gunth. 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish of New South Wales,' p. 33: "The long-fin, <i>Anthias Iongimanus</i>, Gunth., is a good fish that finds its way to the market occasionally . . . may be known by its uniform red colour, and the great length of the pectoral fins." <hw>Long-Jack</hw>, name given to the tree <i>Flindersia oxleyana</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Meliaceae</i>; called also Light Yellow-Wood. <hw>Long-sleever</hw>, <i>n</i>. name for a big drink and also for the glass in which it is contained. Perhaps in allusion to its tall, tapering, long shape. 1888. Cassell's `Picturesque Australasia,' vol. iii. p. 83: "Their drivers had completed their regulation half-score of `long-sleevers' of `she-oak.'" <hw>Long-Tom</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given in Sydney to <i>Belone ferox</i>, Gunth., a species of <i>Garfish</i> which has both jaws prolonged to form a slender beak. See <i>Garfish</i>. <hw>Long-Yam</hw>. See <i>Yam</i>. <hw>Look</hw>, <i>v. tr.</i> to examine. 1874. W. H. L. Ranken, `Dominion of Australia,' c. vi. p. 105: "Plains are scoured and every piece of timber looked." [sc. looked-over.] <hw>Lope</hw>, <i>n</i>. a slow and steady gallop. From Dutch verb <i>loopen</i>, to leap, to run. The word is American rather than Australian. 1855. W. Howitt, `Two Years in Victoria,' vol. i. p. 35: "Every body gallops here, or at least goes at a canter--which they call the Australian lope." <hw>Loquat</hw>, a Chinese word meaning "Rush-orange," <i>Photinia japonica</i>. Being highly ornamental and bearing a pleasant stony juicy fruit of the colour and size of a small orange, it has been introduced into nearly all Australian gardens. The name <i>Native Loquat</i> has been given to an indigenous shrub, <i>Rhodomyrtus macrocarpa</i>, Benth., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. <hw>Lorikeet</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bird-name, little <i>Lory</i> (q.v.). The species in Australia are-- Blue-bellied Lorikeet-- <i>Trichoglossus novae-hollandiae</i>, Gmel. Blue-faced L.-- <i>Cyclopsitta macleayana</i>, Ramsay. Little L.-- <i>Trichoglossus pusillus</i>, Shaw. Musk L.-- <i>T. concinnus</i>, Shaw. Purple-crowned L.-- <i>T. porphyrocephalus</i>, Dietr. Red-collared L.-- <i>T. rubritorqus</i>, Vig. and Hors. Red-faced L.-- <i>Cyclopsitta coxenii</i>, Gould. Scaly-breasted L.-- <i>Trichoglossus chlorolepidotus</i>, Kuhl. Swift L.-- <i>Lathamus discolor</i>, Shaw. Varied L.-- <i>Trichoglossus versicolor</i>, Vig. The following table gives Gould's classification in 1848:-- 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. v. Plate <i>Lathamus discolor</i>, Swift Lorikeet ... ... 47 <i>Trichoglossus Novae-Hollandiae</i>, Jard. and Selb., Swainson's L. ... ... ... ... ... ... 48 <i>T. rubritorquis</i>, Vig. and Horsf., Red-collared L. 49 <i>T. chlorolepidotus</i>, Scaly-breasted L. ... 50 <i>T. versicolor</i>, Vig., Varied L. ... ... 51 <i>T. concinnus</i>, Musky L. ... ... ... ... 52 <i>T. porphyrocephalus</i>, Dict., Porphyry-crowned L. 53 <i>T. pusillus</i>, Little L. ... ... ... ... 54 1890. `The Argus,' June 7, p. 13, col. 4: "On the hill-sides the converse of the lorikeets as they drain the honeycups and swing and chatter in low undertones the whole day long." <hw>Lory</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bird-name. The word is Malay. (See `Encyclopaedia Britannica,' vol. xv.) It is often spelt <i>Lowrie</i> in Australia. The species in Australia are-- Crimson-winged Lory-- <i>Aprosmictus coccineopterus</i>, Gould. King L.-- <i>A. scapulatus</i>, Bechst. Red-winged Lory-- <i>A. erythropterus</i>, Gmel. 1848. Gould's `Birds of Australia,' vol. v.: "<i>Aprosmictus scapulatus</i>, king lory; <i>erythropturus</i>, red-winged lory." <hw>Lotus-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. <i>Parra gallinacea</i>, Temm.; called also the <i>Jacana</i> (q.v.), and the <i>Parra</i> (q.v.). 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 22: "The most striking bird on the lagoon is doubtless the beautiful <i>Parra gallinacea</i>, which in Australia is called the lotus-bird. It sits on the leaves that float on the water, particularly those of the water-lily." <hw>Lowan</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal birdname for <i>Leipoa ocellata</i>, Gould. The name is used for the bird in Victoria and in the south-east district of South Australia. In the Mallee district, it is called <i>Mallee-bird</i>, <i>Mallee fowl</i>, <i>Mallee-hen</i> (q.v.); in South Australia, <i>Native Pheasant</i> (q.v.); and in various parts of Australia, the <i>Scrub-Turkey</i>. The county called Lowan, after the bird, is in the Mallee country in the west of Victoria. See <i>Turkey</i>. 1888. Rolf Boldrewood, `Robbery under Arms,' p. 171: "The Lowan (Mallee-hen, they're mostly called). The Lowan eggs--beautiful pink thin-shelled ones they are, first-rate to eat, and one of 'em a man's breakfast." 1890. A. H. S. Lucas, `Handbook of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science,' Melbourne, p. 68: "To the dry, arid Mallee Scrub of the Western District is a radical change of scene. There the so-called Mallee hen, or Native name, Lowan (<i>Leipoa ocellata</i>), loves to dwell." 1896. `The Argus,' Aug. 4, p. 5, col. 2: "The postmaster at Nhill had drawn the attention of the Deputy Postmaster-General to the large number of letters which are received there addressed to `Lowan.' It should be understood that this is the name of a county containing several postal districts, and correspondents should be more specific in their addresses." <hw>Lowrie</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bird-name. An Australian variant of <i>Lory</i> (q.v.). 1850. J. B. Clutterbuck, `Port Phillip in 1849,' p. 40: "A great many species of the parrot are found; and of these the King Parrot is the most beautiful, and that called the Lowrie is perhaps the most docile." 1890. Lyth, `Golden South,' p. 127: "The birds are very beautiful--the Blue Mountain and Lowrie parrots . . .' <hw>Lubra</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for a black woman. The name comes from Tasmania, appearing first in the form <i>loubra</i>, in a vocabulary given in the `Voyage de Decouvertes de l'Astrolabe' (Paris, 1834), vol. vii. p. 9, and was obtained from a Tasmanian woman, belonging to Port Dalrymple on the Tamar River. It is probably a compound of the Tasmanian words <i>loa</i> or <i>lowa</i>, a woman, and <i>proi</i> (with variants), big. In Victoria, the use of the word began at the Hopkins River and the vicinity, having been introduced by settlers from Tasmania, but it was generally adopted south of the Murray. North of the Murray the native women were called <i>Gins</i> (q.v.). Both words are now used indiscriminately. 1855. W. Blandowski, `Transactions of Philosophical Society of Victoria,' vol. i. p. 73 : "The young man who wishes to marry has first to look out for a wife amongst the girls or <i>leubras</i> of some neighbouring tribe." 1864. H. Simcox, `Outward Bound," p. 87: "Many lubras so black with their load on their back." 1885. R. M. Praed, `Australian Life," p. 23: "Certain stout young gins or lubras, set apart for that purpose, were sacrificed." 1891. `The Argus,' Nov. 7, p. 13, col. 4: "A few old lubras sufficiently dirty and unprepossessing." 1892. Gilbert Parker, `Round the Compass in Australia,' p. 28: "Naked, and not ashamed, the old men grey-bearded and eyes bright, watched the cooking of the fish, and the younger, with the lubras, did the honours of reception." <hw>Lucerne, Native</hw>, or <hw>Paddy</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Queensland Hemp</i>. See <i>Hemp</i>. 1895. A. B. Paterson, `Man from Snowy River,' p. 95: "And now lies wandering fat and sleek, On the Lucerne flats by the Homestead Creek." <hw>Luderick</hw>, or <hw>Ludrick</hw>, <i>n</i>. an aboriginal Gippsland name for a local variety of the fish <i>Girella simplex</i>, Richards., the <i>Black-fish</i> (q.v.). <hw>Lugg</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fish not identified. "Lug, a kind of fish." (`Walker,' 1827) 1802. Flemming, `Journal of the Exploration of C. Grimes' (at Port Phillip), ed. by J. J. Shillinglaw, Melbourne, 1897, p. 27: "Many swans, ducks and luggs." <hw>Lyonsia</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian plant. See <i>Devil's guts</i>. <hw>Lyre-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian bird, originally called the <i>Bird of Paradise of New South Wales</i>; then called a <i>Native Pheasant</i>, or <i>Mountain Pheasant</i>, and still generally called a <i>Pheasant</i> by the Gippsland bushmen. The name Lyre-bird apparently began between 1828 and 1834. It is not used by Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales' (1828), vol. i. p. 303. See <i>Menura</i>. The species are-- The Lyre-bird-- <i>Menura superba</i>, Davies. Albert L.-b.-- <i>M. alberti</i>, Gould. Victoria L.-b.-- <i>M. victoriae</i>, Gould. Since 1888 the <i>Lyre-bird</i> has been the design on the eight-penny postage-stamp of New South Wales. 1802. G. Barrington, `History of New South Wales,' p. 435: "The Bird of Paradise of New South Wales [with picture]. This elegant bird, which by some is called the Bird of Paradise, and by others the Maenura Superba, has a straight bill, with the nostrils in the centre of the beak." 1802. D. Collins, `History of English Colony of New South Wales,' vol. ii. p. 335: "<i>Menura superba</i>." [But not the name lyre-bird]. 1834. Geo. Bennett, `Wanderings in New South Wales, etc.,' /vol./ i. p. 277: "The `Native or Wood-pheasant,' or `Lyre bird' of the colonists, the `Menura superba' of naturalists, and the `Beleck, beleck,' and `Balaugara' of the aboriginal tribes, is abundant about the mountain ranges, in all parts of the colony." 1846. G. H. Haydon, `Five Years in Australia Felix,' p. 132: "Numerous pheasants (<i>Menura superba</i>). These birds are the mocking-birds of Australia, imitating all the sounds that are heard in the bush in great perfection. They are about the size of a barn-door fowl, and are not remarkable for any beauty either in the shape or colour, being of a dirty brown, approaching to black in some parts; their greatest attraction consists in the graceful tail of the cock bird, which assumes something the appearance of a lyre, for which reason some naturalists have called them lyre-birds." 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. iii. pl. 14: "<i>Menura superba</i>, Davies, Lyre-bird; Pheasant of the Colonists. Were I requested to suggest an emblem for Australia amongst its birds, I should without the slightest hesitation select the <i>Menura</i> as the most appropriate, being strictly peculiar to Australia." 1864. J. S. Moore, `Spring-Life Lyrics;' p. 92: "Shy as the lyre-bird, hidden away, A glittering waif in the wild." 1867. G. G. McCrae, `Balladeadro,' p. 30: "There the proud lyre-bird spreads his tail, And mocks the notes of hill and dale Whether the wild dog's plaintive howl Or cry of piping water-fowl." 1872. A. McFarland, `Illawarra Manaro,' p. 54: "The Lyre-bird may yet be seen--more frequently heard--amongst the gullies and ravines. It has the power of imitating every other bird, and nearly every sound it hears in the bush-even that of a cross-cut saw." 1886. J. A. Fronde, `Oceana,' p. 146: "Here, too, for the first time, we saw a lyre-bird, which some one had just shot, the body being like a coot's, and about the same size, the tail long as the tail of a bird of paradise, beautifully marked in bright brown, with the two chief feathers curved into the shape of a Greek lyre, from which it takes its name." 1890. `Victorian Statutes'--Game Act, Third Schedule: [Close Season.] "Lyre Birds. The whole year." 1893. `The Age,' Aug. 7, p. vi, col. 9: "There are more reasons than one why the lyre-bird should be preserved. From a purely utilitarian point of view it is of value, for it is insectivorous and preys upon insects which are apt to prefer orchard fruit to their natural bush food. But the bird has as well a national and sentimental value. Next to the emu it is the most typical Australian bird. It is peculiar to Australia, for in no other country is it to be seen. Comparatively speaking it is a <i>rara avis</i> even in Australia itself, for it is only to be found in the most secluded parts of two colonies--Victoria and New South Wales. It is the native pheasant. The aborigines call it `Beleck-Beleck,' and whites call it the `lyre-bird' from the shape of its tail; the ornithologists have named it <i>Menura</i>. There are three species--the <i>Victoriae</i> of this colony, and the <i>Alberta</i> and <i>superba</i> of New South Wales. The general plumage is glossy brown, shaded with black and silver grey, and the ornate tail of the male bird is brown with black bars. They live in the densest recesses of the fern gullies of the Dividing Range with the yellow-breasted robin, the satin-bird, and the bell-bird as their neighbours. They are the most shy of birds, and are oftener heard than seen. Their notes, too, are heard more frequently than they are recognized, for they are consummate mimics and ventriloquists. They imitate to perfection the notes of all other birds, the united voicing of a flock of paraquetts [sic], the barking of dogs, the sawing of timber, and the clink of the woodman's axe. Thus it is that the <i>menura</i> has earned for itself the title of the Australian mocking-bird. Parrots and magpies are taught to speak; as a mimic the lyre-bird requires no teacher." 1893. `Sydney Morning Herald,' Aug. 9. p. 9, col. 1: "If the creature was lovely its beauty was marketable and fatal--and the lyre-bird was pursued to its last retreats and inveigled to death, so that its feathers might be peddled in our streets." M <hw>Mackerel</hw>, <i>n</i>. In Australia, <i>Scomber antarcticus</i>, Castln., said to be identical with <i>Scomber pneumatophorus</i>, De la Roche, the European mackerel; but rare. In New Zealand, <i>Scomber australasicus</i>, Cuv. and Val. <hw>Macquarie Harbour Grape</hw>, or <hw>Macquarie Harbour Vine</hw>, <i>n</i>. the Tasmanian name for <i>Muhlenbeckia adpressa</i>, Meissn. <i>N.O. Polygonaceae</i>; called <i>Native Ivy</i> in Australia. See <i>Ivy</i> and <i>Grape</i>. 1831. Ross, `Hobart Town Almanack,' p. 265: "That valuable plant called the <i>Macquarie harbour grape</i>. It was so named by Mr. Lempriere, late of the Commissariat at that station, who first brought it into notice as a desirable acquisition in our gardens." 1834. Ross, `Van Diemen's Land Annual,' p. 133: "<i>Polygonum adpressum</i>. The Macquarie harbour vine, either as an insignificant trailing plant, or as a magnificent climber, according to the soil and situation, is found on the coast of various parts of Van Diemen's Land, and also as far inland as within about four miles of New Norfolk. This plant has a small but sweet fruit, formed of the thickened divisions of the calyx of the flower, inclosing a triangular seed of unpleasant flavour." <hw>Macquarie Pine</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Pine</i>. <hw>Macropus</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name for the typical genus of <i>Macropodidae</i>, established by Shaw in 1800. From the Greek <i>makropous</i>, long-footed. It includes the <i>Kangaroo</i> (q.v.) and <i>Wallaby</i> (q.v.). <i>M. giganteus</i>, Zimm., is the Giant Kangaroo, or <i>Forester</i> (q.v.). <hw>Mado</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Sydney fish, <i>Therapon cuvieri</i>, Bleek; called also <i>Trumpeter-Perch</i>. <i>Atypus strigatus</i>, Gunth., is also called <i>Mado</i> by the Sydney fishermen, who confound it with the first species. The name is probably aboriginal. <hw>Magpie</hw>, <i>n</i>. a black-and-white Crow-Shrike, present all over Australia. He resembles the English Magpie in general appearance, but has not the long tail of that bird, though he shares with him his kleptomania. He is often called the <i>Bush-magpie</i> (q.v.) by townsfolk, to distinguish him from the tamed specimens kept in many gardens, or in cages, which are easily taught to talk. The species are-- Black-backed Magpie-- <i>Gymnorhina tibicen</i>, Lath.; called also <i>Flute-Bird</i> (q.v.). Long-billed M.-- <i>G. dorsalis</i>, Campbell. White, or Organ M.-- <i>G. organicum</i>, Gould; called also <i>Organ-bird</i> (q.v.). White-backed M.-- <i>G. leuconota</i>, Gould. In Tasmania, the name is also applied to the-- Black Magpie-- <i>Strepera fuliginosa</i>, Gould; and <i>S. arguta</i>, Gould. 1859. H. Kingsley, `Geoffr/e/y Hamlyn,' vol. ii. p. 314 [Footnote]: "Magpie, a large, pied crow.Of all the birds I have ever seen, the cleverest, the most grotesque, and the most musical. The splendid melody of his morning and evening song is as unequalled as it is indescribable." 1869. B. Hoare, `Figures of Fancy,' p. 97: "Gay magpies chant the livelong day." 1886. T. Heney, `Fortunate Days,' p. 47: "The magpie swells from knoll or silent brake His loud sweet tune." 1887. `Melbourne Punch,' March 31: "The magpie maketh mute His mellow fluent flute, Nor chaunteth now his leuconotic hymn." <hw>Magpie-Goose</hw>, <i>n</i>. a common name for the Australian Goose, <i>Anseranus melanoleuca</i>, Lath.; called also <i>Swan-goose</i>, and <i>Pied goose</i>. See <i>Goose</i>. <hw>Magpie-Lark</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian black-and-white bird (<i>Grallina picata</i>, Lath.), resembling the Magpie in appearance, but smaller; called also <i>Pee-wee</i>, and <i>Mudlark</i>, from its building its nest of mud. 1888. Cassell's `Picturesque Australasia,' vol. ii. p. 235: "The little magpie-lark. . . . His more elegant and graceful figure remains in modest silence by the hedgerow in the outskirts." <hw>Magpie-Perch</hw>, <i>n</i>. a West Australian, Victorian, and Tasmanian fish, <i>Chilodactylus gibbosus</i>, Richards.; not a true Perch, but of family <i>Cirrhitidae</i>. <hw>Magra</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for the sling or pouch in which the gins carry their children on their backs. 1845. R. Howitt, `Australia,' p. 185: "Other lesser brats were in magras, gipsy-like, at their mothers' backs." On p. 191, Mr. Howitt uses the form "mogra." <hw>Mahoe</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the New Zealand Whitewood-tree, <i>Melicytus ramiflorus</i>, Forst., <i>N.O. Violarieae</i>. 1855. Rev. R. Taylor, `Te Ika a Maui,' p. 447: "Mahoe (<i>Melicytus ramiflorus</i>) grows to the height of about fifty feet, and has a fine thin spiral leaf." 1863. Thomas Moser, `Mahoe Leaves': [Title of a volume of articles about the Maoris.] 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand,' p. 130: "Mahoe, hinahina. A small tree twenty to thirty feet high; trunk often angular and seven feet in girth. The word is soft and not in use. . . . Leaves greedily eaten by cattle." <hw>Mahogany</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name, with varying epithets, is applied to several Australian trees, chiefly <i>Eucalypts</i>, on account of the redness or hardness of their timber, and its applicability to purposes similar to that of the true Mahogany. The following enumeration is compiled from Maiden's `Useful Native Plants' Mahogany, <i>Tristania conferta</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>; called also White Box, Red Box, Brush Box, Bastard Box, Brisbane Box. This bark is occasionally used for tanning. Bastard Mahogany, or Gippsland Mahogany, or Swamp Mahogany, <i>Eucalyptus botryoides</i>, Smith, <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. The Blue Gum of New South Wales coast districts. Bastard Mahogany of Gippsland and New South Wales; called also Swamp Mahogany in Victoria and New South Wales. It also bears the names of Bastard Jarrah, and occasionally Woolly Butt. Sydney workmen often give it the name Bangalay, by which it was formerly known by the aboriginals of Port Jackson. It is one of four colonial timbers recommended by the Victorian Carriage Timber Board for use in the construction of railway carriages. Specimens from Gippsland (Gippsland Mahogany) are spoken of as "a timber of good colour, as strong as Blue Gum." Mahogany, or Bastard Mahogany, <i>Eucalyptus marginata</i>, Smith, <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. Universally known as <i>Jarrah</i>. In Western Australia it also bears the name of Mahogany, or Bastard Mahogany. Forest or Red Mahogany, Eucalyptus resinifera, Smith, N.O. Myrtaceae; called also Jimmy Low (q.v.). Forest Mahogany, <i>Eucalyptus microcorys</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. In Queensland it is known as Peppermint, the foliage being remarkably rich in volatile oil. But its almost universal name is <i>Tallow Wood</i> (q.v.). North of Port Jackson it bears the name of <i>Turpentine Tree</i> (q.v.), and Forest Mahogany. Tom Russell's Mahogany, <i>Lysicarpus ternifolius</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. Swamp Mahogany, or White Mahogany, <i>Eucalyptus robusta</i>, Smith, <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>, B. Fl. This tree is known as White, or Swamp Mahogany, from the fact that it generally grows in swampy ground. It is also called Brown Gum. This timber is much valued for shingles, wheelwrights'work, ship-building, and building purposes generally. As a timber for fuel, and where no great strength is required, it is excellent, especially when we consider its adaptability to stagnant, swampy, or marshy places. 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' vol. ii. c. iv. p. 132: "Mahogany, Jarrail, Eucalyptus, grows on white sandy land." Ibid. vol. ii. c. iv. p. 231: "Part of our road lay through a thick mahogany scrub." <hw>Mai</hw>, or <hw>Matai</hw>, <i>n</i>. a New Zealand tree, now called <i>Podocarpus spicata</i>. 1855. Rev. R. Taylor, `Te Ika a Maui,' p. 440: "Matai, mai (<i>Dacrydium mai</i>), a tree with a fine thick top, and leaf much resembling that of the yew. The wood is of a slightly reddish colour, close-grained, but brittle, and peculiarly fragrant when burnt. . . . Highly prized for fuel, and also much used for furniture, as it works up easily and comes next to the totara for durability." 1876. W. <i>n</i>. Blair, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. ix. art. x. p. 157: "I have in this paper adhered to the popular name of black-pine for this timber, but the native name matai is always used in the north." <hw>Maiden's</hw> Blush, <i>n</i>. name given to the Australian tree <i>Echinocarpus australis</i>, Benth., <i>N.O.</i> <i>Tiliaceae</i>; and sometimes applied to <i>Euroschinus falcatus</i>, Hook., <i>N.O. Anacardiaceae</i>. The timber is of a delicate rosy colour when cut. The fruit is called <i>Hedgehog-fruit</i> (q.v.). In Tasmania, the name is applied to <i>Convolvulus erubescens</i>, Sims., order <i>Convolvulaceae</i>. <hw>Maire</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Maori name applied to three kinds of trees; viz.-- (1) <i>Santalum cunninghamii</i>, Hook., a sandal-wood; 2) <i>Olea</i> of various species (formerly <i>Fusanus</i>); (3) <i>Eugenia maire</i>, A. Cunn., native box-wood, but now usually confined to <i>N.O. Santalaceae</i>. 1835. W. Yate, `Some Account of New Zealand,' p. 41: "Mairi--a tree of the <i>Podocarpus</i> species." 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand, pp. 132-33: "Maire--a small tree ten to fifteen feet high, six to eight inches in diameter; wood hard, close-grained, heavy, used by Maoris in the manufacture of war implements. Has been used as a substitute for box by wood-engravers. Black maire, <i>N.O. Jasmineae</i>;also Maire-rau-nui, <i>Olea Cunninghamii</i>. Hook., fil., Black M., forty to fifty feet high, three to four feet in diameter, timber close-grained, heavy, and very durable." <hw>Major Buller</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to one of the fruits of the Geebong tribe. See <i>Geebong</i>. 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish of New South Wales,' p. 82: "The Sergeant Baker in all probability got its local appellation to the early history of the colony (New South Wales), as it was called after a sergeant of that name in one of the first detachments of a regiment; so were also two fruits of the Geebong tribe (<i>Persoonia</i>); one was called Major Buller, and the other Major Groce, and this latter again further corrupted into Major Grocer." <hw>Major Groce</hw>, or <hw>Major Grocer</hw>, name given to one of the fruits of the Geebung tribe. See <i>Geebung</i>, /or <i>Geebong</i>/ and quotation under <i>Major Buller</i>. <hw>Major Mitchell</hw>, <i>n</i>. vernacular name of a species of Cockatoo, <i>Cacatua leadbeateri</i>, Vig. It was called after the explorer, Major (afterwards Sir Thomas) Mitchell, who was Surveyor- General of New South Wales. The cry of the bird was fancifully supposed to resemble his name. See <i>Leadbeater</i>. <hw>Make a light</hw>, expressive pigeon-English. An aboriginal's phrase for to look for, to find. "You been make a light yarraman this morning?" i.e. Have you found or seen the horses this morning? 1859. H. Kingsley, `Geoffrey Hamlyn,' vol. ii. p. 185 [Footnote]: "`Make a light,' in blackfellow's gibberish, means simply `See.'" <hw>Mako</hw>, <i>n</i>. originally <i>Makomako</i>. Maori name for a New Zealand tree, <i>Aristotelia racemosa</i>, Hook., <i>N.O. Tiliaceae</i>, often but incorrectly called Mokomoko. 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand, p. 130: "Mako, a small handsome tree, six to twenty feet high, quick-growing, with large racemes of reddish nodding flowers. Wood very light and white in colour." <hw>Mako/2/</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the <i>Tiger- Shark</i>. See <i>Shark</i>. The teeth of the Mako are used for ornaments by the Maoris. <hw>Mallee</hw>, <i>n.</i> and <i>adj</i>. an aboriginal word. Any one of several scrubby species of Eucalyptus in the desert parts of South Australia and Victoria, especially <i>Eucalyptus dumosa</i>, Cunn., and <i>E. oleosa</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O</i>. <i>Myrtaceae</i>. They are also called <i>Mallee Gums</i>. Accent on the first syllable. The word is much used as an adjective to denote the district in which the shrub grows, the "<i>Mallee District</i>," and this in late times is generally shortened into <i>The Mallee</i>. Compare "The Lakes" for the Lake-district of Cumberland. It then becomes used as an epithet of Railways, Boards, Farmers, or any matters connected with that district. 1848. W. Westgarth, `Australia Felix,' p. 73: "The natives of the Wimmera prepare a luscious drink from the laap, a sweet exudation from the leaf of the mallee (<i>Eucalyptus dumosa</i>" 1854. E. Stone Parker, `Aborigines of Australia,' p. 25: "The immense thickets of <i>Eucalyptus dumosa</i>, commonly designated the `Malle' scrub." 1857. W. Howitt,' Tallangetta,' vol. ii. p. 2: "This mallee scrub, as it is called, consists of a dense wood of a dwarf species of gum-tree, <i>Eucalyptus dumosa</i>. This tree, not more than a dozen feet in height, stretches its horizontal and rigid branches around it so as to form with its congeners a close, compact mass." 186. W. Howitt, `Discovery in Australia, vol. i. p. 214 (Oxley's Expedition in 1817): "The country, in dead flats, was overspread with what is now called mallee scrub, that is, the dwarf spreading eucalyptus, to which Mr. Cunningham gave the specific name of <i>dumosa</i>, a most pestilent scrub to travel through, the openings betwixt the trees being equally infested with the detestable malle-grass." 1883. `The Mallee Pastoral Leases Act, 1883,' 47 Vict. No. 766, p. 3: "The lands not alienated from the Crown and situated in the North-Western district of Victoria within the boundaries set forth in the First Schedule hereto, comprising in all some ten millions of acres wholly or partially covered with the mallee plant, and known as the Mallee Country, shall be divided into blocks as hereinafter provided." 1890. `The Argus,' June 13, p. 6, col. 2: "Mallee Selections at Horsham. A special Mallee Board, consisting of Mr. Hayes, head of the Mallee branch of the Lands Department, and Mr. Porter." 1893. `The Argus,' April 24, p. 7, col. 5: "In the Mallee country there is abundance of work, cutting down mallee, picking up dead wood, rabbit destruction, etc. 1893. A. R. Wallace, `Australasia,' vol. i. p. 46: "One of the most common terms used by explorers is `Mallee' scrub, so called from its being composed of dwarf species of Eucalyptus, called `Mallee' by the natives. The species that forms the `mallee' scrub of South Australia is the <i>Eucalyptus dumosa</i>, and it is probable that allied species receive the same name in other parts of the country." 1897. `The Argus,' March 2, p. 7, col. 1: "The late Baron von Mueller was firmly convinced that it would pay well in this colony, and especially in the mallee, to manufacture potash." <hw>Mallee-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian bird, <i>Leipoa ocellata</i>, Gould. Aboriginal name, the <i>Lowan</i> (q.v.); see <i>Turkey</i>. <hw>Mallee-fowl</hw>, <i>n</i>. Same as <i>Mallee-bird</i> (q.v.). <hw>Mallee-hen</hw>, <i>n</i>. Same as <i>Mallee-bird</i> (q.v.). 1890. `Victorian Statutes-Game Act, Third Schedule': [Close Season.] "Mallee-hen, from 1st day of August to the 20th day of December next following in each year." 1895. `The Australasian,' Oct.5, p. 652, col. 1: ". . . the economy of the lowan or mallee-hen. . . . It does not incubate its eggs after the manner of other birds, but deposits them in a large mound of sand . . . Shy and timid. Inhabits dry and scrubs. In shape and size resembles a greyish mottled domestic turkey, but is smaller, more compact and stouter in the legs." <hw>Mallee-scrub</hw>, <i>n</i>. the "scrub," or thicket, formed by the <i>Mallee</i> (q.v.). 1893. A. R. Wallace, `Australasia,' vol. i. p. 22: "The flat and, rarely, hilly plains . . . are covered chiefly with thickets and `scrub' of social plants, generally with hard and prickly leaves. This `scrub,' which is quite a feature of the Australian interior, is chiefly formed of a bushy Eucalyptus, which grows somewhat like our osiers to a height of 8 or 10 feet, and often so densely covers the ground as to be quite impenetrable. This is the `Mallee scrub' of the explorers; while the still more dreaded `Mulga scrub' consists of species of prickly acacia, which tear the clothes and wound the flesh of the traveller." <hw>Malurus</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name for a genus of Australian warblers. Name reduced from <i>Malacurus</i>, from the Grk. <i>malakos</i>, soft, and <i>'oura</i>, a tail. The type-species is <i>Malurus cyaneus</i> of Australia, the <i>Superb Warbler</i> or <i>Blue-Wren</i>. See <i>Superb Warbler</i>, <i>Wren</i>, and <i>Emu-Wren</i>. All the <i>Maluri</i>, of which there are fifteen or sixteen species, are popularly known as Superb Warblers, but are more correctly called Wrens. 1896. F. G. Aflalo, `Natural History of Australia,' p. 136: "The <i>Wrens</i> and <i>Warblers</i>--chiefly <i>Maluri</i>, with the allied <i>Amytis</i> and <i>Stipiturus</i>--are purely Australian. They are feeble on the wing but swift of foot." <hw>Mana</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Maori word for power, influence, right, authority, prestige. See chapter on <i>Mana</i>, in `Old New Zealand' (1863), by Judge Maning. 1843. E. Dieffenbach, `Travels in New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 371: "<i>Mana</i>--command, authority, power." 1855. Rev. R. Taylor, `Te Ika a Maui,' p. 279: "The natives feel that with the land their `mana,' or power, has gone likewise; few therefore can now be induced to part with land." 1863. F. E. Maning (Pakeha Maori), `Old New Zealand,' Intro. p. iii: "The Maoris of my tribe used to come and ask me which had the greatest `mana' (i.e. fortune, prestige, power, strength), the Protestant God or the Romanist one." 1873. `Appendix to Journal of House of Representatives,' G. i, B. p. 8: "The Government should be asked to recognize his mana over that territory." 1881. J. L.Campbell, `Poenamo,' p. 166: "We should be glad to shelter ourselves under the mana-- the protection--of good old Kanini." 1892. `Otago Witness,' Dec 22, p. 7, col. 1: "A man of great lineage whose personal mana was undisputed." 1896. `New Zealand Herald,' Feb. 14 [Leading Article]: "The word `mana,' power, or influence, may be said to be classical, as there were learned discussions about its precise meaning in the early dispatches and State papers. It may be said that misunderstanding about what <i>mana</i> meant caused the war at Taranaki." <hw>Mangaroo</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for a small flying phalanger with exquisitely fine fur. 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. ii. p. 217: "Descending from the branches of an ironbark tree beside him, a beautiful little mangaroo floated downwards on out-stretched wings to the foot of a sapling at a little distance away, and nimbly ascending it was followed by his mate." <hw>Mangi</hw>, or <hw>Mangeao</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a New Zealand tree, <i>Litsea calicaris</i>, Benth. and Hook. f. 1873. `Catalogue of Vienna Exhibition': "Mangi--remarkably tough and compact, used for ship-blocks and similar purposes." <hw>Mango</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the <i>Dog-fish</i> (q.v.), a species of shark. <hw>Mangrove</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is applied to trees belonging to different natural orders, common in all tropical regions and chiefly littoral. Species of these, <i>Rhizophorea mucronata</i>, Lamb, and <i>Avicennia officinalis</i>, Linn., are common in Australia; the latter is also found in New Zealand. <i>Bruguiera rheedii</i>, of the <i>N.O. Rhizophoreae</i>, is called in Australia <i>Red Mangrove</i>, and the same vernacular name is applied to <i>Heritiera littoralis</i>, Dryand., <i>N.O. Sterculiaceae</i>, the <i>Sundri</i> of India and the <i>Looking-glass Tree</i> of English gardeners. The name <i>Milky Mangrove</i> is given, in Australia, to <i>Excaecaria agallocha</i>, Linn., <i>N.O. Euphorbiaceae</i>, which further goes by the names of <i>River Poisonous Tree</i> and <i>Blind-your-Eyes</i>--names alluding to the poisonous juice of the stem. The name <i>River Mangrove</i> is applied to <i>AEgiceras majus</i>, Gaertn., <i>N.O. Myrsineae</i>, which is not endemic in Australia. In Tasmania, <i>Native Mangrove</i> is another name for the <i>Boobialla</i> (q.v.) <hw>Mangrove-Myrtle</hw>, <i>n</i>. name applied by Leichhardt to the Indian tree <i>Barringtonia acutangula</i>, Gaertn. (<i>Stravadium rubrum</i> De C.), <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 289: "As its foliage and the manner of the growth resemble the mangrove, we called it the mangrove-myrtle." <hw>Manna</hw>, <i>n</i>. the dried juice, of sweet taste, obtained from incisions in the bark of various trees. The Australian manna is obtained from certain Eucalypts, especially <i>E. viminalis</i>, Labill. It differs chemically from the better known product of the Manna-Ash (<i>Fraxinus ornus</i>). See <i>Lerp</i>. 1835. Ross, `Hobart Town Almanack,' p. 99: "Several of the species yield an exudation in the spring and summer months, which coagulates and drops from the leaves to the ground in small irregular shaped snow white particles, often as large as an almond [?]. They are sweet and very pleasant to the taste, and are greedily devoured by the birds, ants, and other animals, and used to be carefully picked up and eaten by the aborigines. This is a sort of Manna." 1878. R. Brough Smyth, `The Aborigines of Victoria,' vol. i. p. 211: "Two varieties of a substance called manna are among the natural products . . . one kind . . . being secreted by the leaves and slender twigs of the <i>E. viminalis</i> from punctures or injuries done to these parts of the tree. . . . It consists principally of a kind of grape sugar and about 5 %. of the substance called mannite. Another variety of manna is the secretion of the pupa of an insect of the <i>Psylla</i> family and obtains the name of <i>lerp</i> among the aborigines. At certain seasons of the year it is very abundant on the leaves of <i>E. dumosa</i>, or mallee scrub . . ." 1878. W. W. Spicer, `Handbook of Plants of Tasmania, p. viii: "The Hemipters, of which the aphids, or plant-lice, are a familiar example, are furnished with stiff beaks, with which they pierce the bark and leaves of various plants for the purpose of extracting the juices. It is to the punctures of this and some other insects of the same Order, that the sweet white manna is due, which occurs in large quantities during the summer months on many of the gum-trees." <hw>Manna-Grass</hw>. See <i>Grass</i>. <hw>Manna-Gum</hw>. See <i>Manna</i> and <i>Gum</i>. <hw>Manoao</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a New Zealand tree, Yellow-pine, <i>Dacrydium colensoi</i>, Hook., <i>N.O. Coniferae</i>. 1889. T. Kirk, `Forest Flora of New Zealand,' p. 192: "The wood of the manoao is of a light-brown colour." <hw>Manucode</hw>, <i>n</i>. The word is in English use for the bird-of- paradise. It is Malay (<i>manuk-dewata</i> = bird of the gods). The species in Australia is <i>Manucodia gouldii</i>, Grey. See also <i>Rifle-bird</i>. <hw>Manuka</hw>, <i>n</i>. the Maori name for <i>Tea-tree</i> (q.v.). Properly, the accent is on the first syllable with broad <i>a</i>. Vulgarly, the accent is placed on the second syllable. There are two species in New Zealand, <i>white</i> and <i>red</i>; the first, a low bush called Scrub-Manuka, <i>L. scoparium</i>, R. and G. Forst., the <i>Tea-tree</i> used by Captain Cook's sailors; the second, a tree <i>Leptospermum ericoides</i>, A. Richard. 1840. J. S. Polack, `Manners and Customs of the New Zealanders,' p. 258: "This wood, called by the southern tribes <i>manuka</i>, is remarkably hard and durable, and throughout the country is an especial favourite with the natives, who make their spears, paddles, fishing rods, etc., of this useful timber." 1842. W. R. Wade, `Journey in Northern Island of New Zealand,' p. 75: "The Manuka, or, as it is called in the northern part of the island, Kahikatoa (<i>leptospermum scoparium</i>), is a mysterious plant, known in Van Diemen's Land as the tea tree." 1843. E. Dieffenbach, `Travels in New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 28: "The manuka supplies the place of the tea-shrub." 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 270: "[The house] was protected from the weather by a wooden railing filled in with branches of the manuka. This is a shrub very abundant in some parts. The plant resembles the teaplant in leaves and flower, and is often used green by the whalers and traders for the same purpose." 1851. Mrs.Wilson, `New Zealand,' p. 46: "It is generally made of manuka a very hard, dark, close-grained and heavy wood." 1867. Lady Barker, `Station Life in New Zealand,' p. 121: "The manuka, a sort of scrub, has a pretty blossom like a diminutive Michaelmas daisy, white petals and a brown centre, with a very aromatic odour; and this little flower is succeeded by a berry with the same strong smell and taste of spice. The shepherds sometimes make an infusion of these when they are very hard up for tea; but it must be like drinking a decoction of cloves." 1871. C. L. Money, `Knocking about in New Zealand,' p. 70: "Chiefly covered with fern and tea-tree (manuka) scrub." 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' p. 149: "Then to a copse of manuka retreat, Where they could safely, secretly commune." [Domett has the following note--"`A large shrub or small tree; leaves used as tea in Tasmania and Australia, where the plant is equally abundant' (Hooker). In the poem it is called indiscriminately manuka, broom, broom-like myrtle, or leptosperm. The settlers often call it `tea-broom.'"] 1875. Wood and Lapham, `Waiting for the Mail,' p. 23: "A tremendous fire of broadleaf and manuka roared in the chimney." 1889. Cassell's `Picturesque Australasia,' vol. iv. p. 123: "Manuka is a shrub which is rampant throughout New Zealand. If it were less common it would be thought more beautiful. In summer it is covered with white blossom: and there are few more charming sights than a plain of flourishing manuka." <hw>Maomao</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a New Zealand sea-fish, <i>Ditrema violacea</i>. 1886. R. A. Sherrin, `Fishes of New Zealand,' p. 67: "The delicious little maomao may be caught at the Riverina Rocks in immense quantities." <hw>Maori</hw>, <i>n</i>. (pronounced so as to rhyme with <i>Dowry</i>). (1) The name used to designate themselves by the Polynesian race occupying New Zealand when it was discovered by the white man, and which still survives. They are not aboriginal as is commonly supposed, but migrated into New Zealand about 500 years ago from Hawaii, the tradition still surviving of the two great canoes (<i>Arawa</i> and <i>Tainui</i>) in which the pioneers arrived. They are commonly spoken of as the <i>Natives</i> of New Zealand. (2) The language of the Maori race. (3) <i>adj</i>. applied to anything pertaining to the Maoris or their language. See <i>Pakeha</i>. There is a discussion on the word in the `Journal of Polynesian Society,' vol. i. no. 3, vol. ii. no. 1, and vol. iii. no. i. Bishop Williams (4th ed.) says that the word means, "of the normal or usual kind." The Pakehas were not men to whom the natives were accustomed. So Maori was used as opposed to the Europeans, the white-skins. <i>Kuri Maori</i> was a name used for a dog after the arrival of other quadrupeds called also <i>kuri</i>. <i>Wai maori</i> was freshwater, ordinary as opposed to sea-water. Another explanation is that the word meant "indigenous," and that there are kindred words with that meaning in other Polynesian languages. First, "indigenous," or "of the native race," and then with a secondary meaning, "ours." (See Tregear's Maori Comparative Dictionary,' s.v.) The form of the plural varies. The form <i>Maoris</i> is considered the more correct, but the form <i>Maories</i> is frequently used by good writers. 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 194: "The Maori language is essentially a poor one, and possesses in particular but few words which express abstract ideas." 1859. A. S. Thomson, `Story of New Zealand,' vol. i. c. iii. p. 51: "No light is thrown on the origin of the New Zealanders from the name Maori which they call themselves. This word, rendered by linguists `native,' is used in contradistinction to pakeha, or stranger." 1864. Crosbie Ward, `Canterbury Rhymes,' `The Runaways' (2nd edition), p. 79: "One morn they fought, the fight was hot, Although the day was show'ry; And many a gallant soldier then Was bid <i>Memento Maori</i>." 1891. Jessie Mackay, `The Sitter on the Rail, and other Poems,' p. 61: "Like the night, the fated Maori Fights the coming day; Fights and falls as doth the kauri Hewn by axe away." (4) Name given in New South Wales to the fish, <i>Cosis lineolatus</i>, one of the <i>Labridae</i>, or Wrasses. <hw>Maori-Cabbage</hw>, <i>n</i>. the wild cabbage of New Zealand, <i>Brassica spp</i>., <i>N.O. Cruciferae</i>, said to be descended from the cabbages planted by Captain Cook. 1855. Rev. R. Taylor, `Te Ika a Maui,' p. 206.: "Every recollection of Cook is interesting. . . . But the chief record of his having been on the island is the cabbage and turnip which he sowed in various places: these have spread and become quite naturalized, growing everywhere in the greatest abundance, and affording an inexhaustible supply of excellent vegetables." 1863. S. Butler, `First Year in Canterbury Settlement,' p. 131: "The only plant good to eat is Maori cabbage, and that is swede turnip gone wild, from seed left by Captain Cook." 1880. W. Colenso, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. xiii. art. i. p. 31 [`On the Vegetable Food of the Ancient New Zealanders']: "The leaves of several smaller plants were also used as vegetables; but the use of these in modern times, or during the last forty or fifty years, was commonly superseded by that of the extremely useful and favourite plant--the Maori cabbage, <i>Brassica oleracea</i>, introduced by Cook (nani of the Maoris at the north, and rearea at the south), of which they carefully sowed the seeds." <hw>Maori-chief</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to a New Zealand Flathead-fish, <i>Notothenia maoriensis</i>, or <i>coriiceps</i>. The name arises from marks on the fish like tattooing. It is a very dark, almost black fish. 1877. P. Thomson, `Transactions of the New Zealand Institute,' vol. x. art. xliv. p. 330: "Some odd fishes now and then turn up in the market, such as the Maori-chief, cat-fish, etc." 1878. Ibid. vol. xi. art. lii. p. 381: "That very dark-skinned fish, the Maori-chief, <i>Notothenia Maoriensis</i> of Dr. Haast, is not uncommon, but is rarely seen more than one at a time." 1896. `The Australasian,' Aug. 28, p. 407, col. 5: "Resemblances are strange things. At first it would seem improbable that a fish could be like a man, but in Dunedin a fish was shown to me called Maori Chief, and with the exercise of a little imagination it was not difficult to perceive the likeness. Nay, some years ago, at a fishmonger's in Melbourne, a fish used to be labelled with the name of a prominent Victorian politician now no more. There is reason, however, to believe that art was called in to complete the likeness." <hw>Maori-head</hw>, <i>n</i>. a swamp tussock, so called from a fancied resemblance to the head of a Maori. (Compare <i>Black-boy</i>.) It is not a grass, but a sedge (<i>carex</i>). 1882. T. H. Potts, `Out in the Open,' p. 169: "A boggy creek that oozed sluggishly through rich black soil, amongst tall raupo, maori-heads, and huge flax-bushes." 1892. W. McHutcheson, `Camp Life in Fiordland,' p. 34: "Amid the ooze and slime rose a rank growth of `Maori heads.'" <hw>Maori-hen</hw>, <i>n</i>. Same as <i>Weka</i> (q.v.). <hw>Maoriland</hw>, <i>n</i>. a modern name for New Zealand. It is hardly earlier than 1884. If the word, or anything like it, such as <i>Maoria</i>, was used earlier, it meant "the Maori parts of New Zealand." It is now used for the whole. 1873. J. H. St. John [Title]: "Pakeha Rambles through Maori Lands." 1874. J. C. Johnstone [Title]: "Maoria: a sketch of the Manners and Customs of the Aboriginal Inhabitants of New Zealand." 1884. Kerry Nicholls [Title]: "The King Country, or Explorations in New Zealand. A Narrative of 600 Miles of Travel through Maoriland." 1884. [Title]: "Maoriland: an Illustrated Handbook to New Zealand." 1886. Annie R. Butler [Title] "Glimpses of Maori Land." 1890. T. Bracken [Title]: "Musings in Maori Land." 1896. `The Argus,' July 22, p. 4, col. 8: "Always something new from Maoriland! Our New Zealand friends are kindly obliging us with vivid illustrations of how far demagogues in office will actually go." <hw>Maorilander</hw>, <i>n</i>. modern name for a white man born in New Zealand. 1896. `Melbourne Punch,' April 9, p. 233, col. 2: "Norman is a pushing young Maorilander who apparently has the Britisher by the right ear." <hw>Maori, White</hw>, New Zealand miners' name for a stone. See quotation. 1883. `A Citizen,' `Illustrated Guide to Dunedin,' p. 169: "Tungstate of lime occurs plentifully in the Wakatipu district, where from its weight and colour it is called <i>White Maori</i> by the miners." <hw>Mapau</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Maori name for several New Zealand trees; called also <i>Mapou</i>, and frequently corrupted by settlers into <i>Maple</i>, by the law of Hobson-Jobson. The name is applied to the following-- The Mapau-- <i>Myrsine urvillei</i>, De C., <i>N.O. Myrsineae</i>; sometimes called <i>Red Mapau</i>. Black M.-- <i>Pittosporum tenuifolium</i>, Banks and Sol., <i>N.O. Pittosporeae</i>; Maori name, <i>Tawhiri</i>. White M.-- <i>Carpodetus serratus</i>, Forst., <i>N.O. Saxifrageae</i>; <i>Pittosporum eugenoides</i>, A. Cunn.; Maori name, <i>Tarata</i> (q.v.); called also the <i>Hedge-laurel</i> (q.v.), <i>Lemon-wood</i>, and <i>New Zealand Oak</i>. See <i>Oak</i>. The first of these trees (<i>Myrsine urvillei</i>) is, according to Colenso, the only tree to which the Maoris themselves give the name <i>Mapau</i>. The others are only so called by the settlers. 1868. `Transactions of the New Zealand Institute,' vol. i., `Essay on Botany of Otago,' p. 37: "White Mapau, or Piripiri-whata (<i>Carpodetus serratus</i>), an ornamental shrub-tree, with mottled-green leaves, and large cymose panicles of white flowers. . . . Red Mapau (Myrsine Urvillei), a small tree common at Dunedin. Wood dark red, very astringent, used as fence stuff." 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand, p. 132: "Tawiri, white-mapou, white-birch (of Auckland). A small tree, ten to thirty feet high; trunk unusually slender; branches spreading in a fan-shaped manner, which makes it of very ornamental appearance; flower white, profusely produced. The wood is soft and tough." 1889. T. Kirk, `Forest Flora of New Zealand,' p. 75: "By the settlers it is frequently called `black mapou' on account of the colour of the bark. . . . With still less excuse it is sometimes called `black maple,' an obvious corruption of the preceding." <hw>Maple</hw>, <i>n</i>. In New Zealand, a common settlers' corruption for any tree called <i>Mapau</i> (q.v.); in Australia, applied to <i>Villaresia moorei</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Olacineae</i>, called also the <i>Scrub Silky Oak</i>. See <i>Oak</i>. <hw>Maray</hw>, <i>n</i>. New South Wales name for the fish <i>Clupea sagax</i>, Jenyns, family <i>Clupeidae</i> or <i>Herrings</i>, almost identical with the English pilchard. The word <i>Maray</i> is thought to be an aboriginal name. Bloaters are made of this fish at Picton in New Zealand, according to the Report of the Royal Commission on Fisheries of New South Wales, 1880. But <i>Agonostoma forsteri</i>, a Sea-Mullet, is also when dried called the <i>Picton Herring</i> (q.v). See <i>Herring</i> and <i>Aua</i>. <hw>Marble-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to the <i>Tupong</i> (q.v.) in Geelong. <hw>Marble-wood</hw>, <i>n</i>. name applied to a whitish-coloured mottled timber, <i>Olea paniculata</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Jasmineae</i>; called also <i>Native Olive</i> and <i>Ironwood</i>. <hw>Mark, a good</hw>, Australian slang. 1845. R. Howitt, `Australia,' p. 233: "I wondered often what was the meaning of this, amongst many other peculiar colonial phrases, `Is the man a good mark?' I heard it casually from the lips of apparently respectable settlers, as they rode on the highway, `Such and such a one is a good mark,"--simply a person who pays his men their wages, without delays or drawbacks; a man to whom you may sell anything safely; for there are in the colony people who are regularly summoned before the magistrates by every servant they employ for wages. They seem to like to do everything publicly, legally, and so become notoriously not `good marks.'" [So also "bad mark," in the opposite sense.] <hw>Mariner</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given in Tasmania to a marine univalve mollusc, either <i>Elenchus badius</i>, or <i>E. bellulus</i>, Wood. The <i>Mariner</i> is called by the Tasmanian Fishery Commissioners the "Pearly Necklace Shell"; when deprived of its epidermis by acid or other means, it has a blue or green pearly lustre. The shells are made into necklaces, of which the aboriginal name is given as <i>Merrina</i>, and the name of the shell is a corruption of this word, by the law of Hobson-Jobson. Compare <i>Warrener</i>. 1878. `Catalogue of the Objects of Ethnotypical Art in the National Gallery' (Melbourne), p. 52: "Necklace, consisting of 565 shells (<i>Elenchus Bellulus</i>) strung on thin, well-made twine. The native name of a cluster of these shells was, according to one writer, <i>Merrina</i>." <hw>Marsh</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian name for a meadow. See quotation. 1852. Mrs. Meredith, `My Home in Tasmania,' vol. i. p. 163: "Perhaps my use of the common colonial term `marsh' may be misunderstood at home, as I remember that I myself associated it at first with the idea of a swamp; but a `marsh' here is what would in England be called a meadow, with this difference, that in our marshes, until partially drained, a growth of tea-trees (<i>Leptospermum</i>) and rushes in some measure encumbers them; but, after a short time, these die off, and are trampled down, and a thick sward of verdant grass covers the whole extent: such is our `marsh.'" <hw>Marsupial</hw>, <i>adj</i>. See the Noun. <hw>Marsupial</hw>, <i>n</i>. an animal in which the female has an abdominal pouch in which the young, born in a very immature state, are carried. (Lat. Marsupium = a pouch.) At the present day Marsupials are only found in America and the Australian region, the greater number being confined to the latter. See quotation 1894, Lydekker. 1848. W. Westgarth, `Australia Felix,' p. 129: "The marsupial type exhibits the economy of nature under novel and very interesting arrangements. . . . Australia is the great head-quarters of the marsupial tribe." 1860. G. Bennett, `Gatherings of a Naturalist,' p. 5: "I believe it was Charles Lamb who said, the peculiarity of the small fore-feet of the Kangaroo seemed to be for picking pockets; but he forgot to mention the singularity characterizing the animal kingdom of Australia, that they have pockets to be picked, being mostly marsupial. We have often amused ourselves by throwing sugar or bread into the pouch of the Kangaroo, and seen with what delight the animal has picked its own pocket, and devoured the contents, searching its bag, like a Highlander his sporran, for more." [See <i>Kangaroo</i>, quotation 1833.] 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia,' p. 106: "An Act known as the Marsupial Act was accordingly passed to encourage their destruction, a reward of so much a scalp being offered by the Government. . . . Some of the squatters have gone to a vast expense in fencing-in their runs with marsupial fencing, but it never pays." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 29: "One of the sheep-owners told me that in the course of eighteen months he had killed 64,000 of these animals (marsupials), especially wallabies (<i>Macropus dorsalis</i>) and kangaroo- rats (<i>Lagorchestes conspicillatus</i>), and also many thousands of the larger kangaroo (<i>Macropus giganteus</i>)." 1893. `Sydney Morning Herald,' Aug. 5, p. 9, col. 1: "In South Australia the Legislature has had to appoint a close season for kangaroos, else would extinction of the larger marsupials be at hand. We should have been forced to such action also, if the American market for kangaroo-hides had continued as brisk as formerly." 1894. R. Lydekker, `Marsupialia,' p. 1: "The great island-continent of Australia, together with the South-eastern Austro-Malayan islands, is especially characterized by being the home of the great majority of that group of lowly mammals commonly designated marsupials, or pouched-mammals. Indeed, with the exception of the still more remarkable monotremes [q.v.], or egg-laying mammals, nearly the whole of the mammalian fauna of Australia consists of these marsupials, the only other indigenous mammals being certain rodents and bats, together with the native dog, or dingo, which may or may not have been introduced by man." 1896. F. G. Aflalo, `Natural History of Australia,' p. 30: "The presence of a predominating marsupial order in Australia has, besides practically establishing the long isolation of that continent from the rest of the globe, also given rise to a number of ingenious theories professing to account for its survival to this last stronghold." <hw>Marsupial Mole</hw>, <i>n</i>. the only species of the genus <i>Notoryctes</i> (q.v.), <i>N. typhlops</i> [from the Greek <i>notos</i>, `south' (literally `south wind'), and rhunchos, a `snout']; first described by Dr. Stirling of Adelaide (in the `Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia,' 1891, p. 154). Aboriginal name, <i>Urquamata</i>. It burrows with such extraordinary rapidity in the desert-sands of Central Australia, to which it is confined, that, according to Mr. Lydekker, it may be said to swim in the sand as a porpoise does in the water. <hw>Marsupial Wolf</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Thylacine</i> and <i>Tasmanian Tiger</i>. <hw>Martin, <i</hw>>n</i>. a bird common in England. The species in Australia are-- Tree, <i>Petrochelidon nigricans</i>, Vieill.; Fairy, <i>Lagenoplastes ariel</i>, Gould; called also <i>Bottle-Swallow</i> (q.v.). 1896. F. G. Aflalo, `Natural History of Australia,' p. 128: ". . . the elegant little Fairy Martins (<i>Lagenoplastes ariel</i>), which construct a remarkable mud nest in shape not unlike a retort." <hw>Mary</hw>, <i>n</i>. used in Queensland of the aborigines, as equivalent to girl or woman. "A black Mary." Compare "<i>Benjamin</i>," used for husband. <hw>Matagory</hw>, <i>n</i>. a prickly shrub of New Zealand, <i>Discaria toumatou</i>, Raoul.; also called <i>Wild Irishman</i> (q.v.). The Maori name is <i>Tumatahuru</i>, of which <i>Matagory</i>, with various spellings, is a corruption, much used by rabbiters and swagmen. The termination <i>gory</i> evidently arises by the law of Hobson-Jobson from the fact that the spikes draw blood. 1859. J. T. Thomson, in `Otago Gazette,' Sept. 22, p. 264: "Much over-run with the scrub called `tomata-guru.'" Alex. Garvie, ibid. p. 280: "Much of it is encumbered with matakura scrub." 1892. W. McHutcheson, `Camp Life in Fiordland,' p. 8: "Trudging moodily along in Indian file through the <i>matagouri</i> scrub and tussock." 1896. `Otago Witness,' 7th May, p. 48: "The tea generally tastes of birch or Matagouri." <hw>Matai</hw>, often abridged to <i>Mai</i>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a New Zealand tree, <i>Podocarpus spicata</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Coniferae</i>. Black-pine of Otago. 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand,' p. 124: "Mr. Buchanan has described a log of matai that he found had been exposed for at least 200 years in a dense damp bush in North-East Valley, Dunedin, as proved by its being enfolded by the roots of three large trees of Griselinia littoralis." <hw>Match-box Bean</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the ripe hard seed of the <i>Queensland Bean</i>, <i>Entada scandens</i>, Benth., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>. A tall climbing plant. The seeds are used for match-boxes. See under <i>Bean</i>. <hw>Matipo</hw>, <i>n</i>. another Maori name for the New Zealand trees called <i>Mapau</i> (q.v.). 1866. Lady Barker, `Station Life in New Zealand' (ed. 1886), p. 94: "The varieties of matapo, a beautiful shrub, each leaf a study, with its delicate tracery of black veins on a yellow-green ground." 1879. J. B. Armstrong, `Transactions of the New Zealand Institute,' vol. xxi. art. xlix. p. 329: "The tipau, or matipo (pittosporum tenuifolium), makes the best ornamental hedge I know of." 1879. `Tourist,' `New Zealand Country Journal,' vol. iii. p. 93: "An undergrowth of beautiful shrubs, conspicuous amongst these were the Pittosporum or Matipo, which are, however, local in their distribution, unlike the veronicas, which abound everywhere." <hw>Meadow Rice-grass</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Grass</i>. <hw>Mealy-back</hw>, <i>n</i>. a local name for the <i>Locust</i> (q.v.). <hw>Medicine-tree</hw>, i.q. <i>Horse-radish Tree</i> (q.v.). <hw>Megapode</hw>, <i>n</i>. scientific name for a genus of Australian birds with large feet--the <i>Mound-birds</i> (q.v.). From Greek <i>megas</i>, large, and <i>pous, podos</i>, a foot. They are also called <i>Scrub fowls</i>. <hw>Melitose</hw>, <i>n</i>. the name given by Berthelot to the sugar obtained from the manna of <i>Eucalyptus mannifera</i>. Chemically identical with the raffinose extracted from molasses and the gossypose extracted from cotton-seeds. 1894. `The Australasian,' April 28, p. 732, col. 1: [Statement as to origin of melitose by the Baron von Mueller.] "Sir Frederick M'Coy has traced the production of mellitose also to a smaller cicade." <hw>Melon</hw>, <i>n</i>. Besides its botanical use, the word is applied in Australia to a small kangaroo, the <i>Paddy-melon</i> (q.v.). <hw>Melon-hole</hw>, <i>n</i>. a kind of honey-combing of the surface in the interior plains, dangerous to horsemen, ascribed to the work of the <i>Paddy-melon</i>. See preceding word, and compare the English <i>Rabbit-hole</i>. The name is often given to any similar series of holes, such as are sometimes produced by the growing of certain plants. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 9: "The soil of the Bricklow scrub is a stiff clay, washed out by the rains into shallow holes, well known by the squatters under the name of melon-holes." Ibid. p: 77: "A stiff, wiry, leafless, polyganaceous plant grows in the shallow depressions of the surface of the ground, which are significantly termed by the squatters `Melon-holes,' and abound in the open Box-tree flats." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' p. 220: "The plain is full of deep melon-holes, and the ground is rotten and undermined with rats." <hw>Menindie Clover</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Clover</i>. <hw>Menura</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name of the genus of the <i>Lyre-bird</i> (q.v.), so called from the crescent-shaped form of the spots on the tail; the tail itself is shaped like a lyre. (Grk. <i>maen</i>, moon, crescent, and <i>'oura</i>, tail.) The name was given by General Davies in 1800. 1800. T. Davies, `Description of Menura superba,' in `Transactions of the Linnaean Society' (1802), vol. vi. p. 208: "The general colour of the under sides of these two [tail] feathers is of a pearly hue, elegantly marked on the inner web with bright rufous-coloured crescent-shaped spots, which, from the extraordinary construction of the parts, appear wonderfully transparent." <hw>Mere</hw>, or <hw>Meri</hw>, <i>n</i>. (pronounced <i>merry</i>), a Maori war-club; a <i>casse-te^te</i>, or a war-axe, from a foot to eighteen inches in length, and made of any suitable hard material--stone, hard wood, whalebone. To many people out of New Zealand the word is only known as the name of a little trinket of <i>greenstone</i> (q.v.) made in imitation of the New Zealand weapon in miniature, mounted in gold or silver, and used as a brooch, locket, ear-ring, or other article of jewelry. 1830. J. D. Lang, `Poems' (edition 1873), p. 116: "Beneath his shaggy flaxen mat The dreadful marree hangs concealed." 1851. Mrs. Wilson, `New Zealand,' p. 48: "The old man has broken my head with his meri." 1859. A. S. Thomson, `Story of New Zealand,' p. 140: "Of these the greenstone meri was the most esteemed. It weighs six pounds, is thirteen inches long, and in shape resembles a soda-water bottle flattened. In its handle is a hole for a loop of flax, which is twisted round the wrist. Meris are carried occasionally in the girdle, like Malay knives. In conflicts the left hand grasped the enemy's hair, and one blow from the meri on the head produced death." 188]. J. Bonwick, `Romance of Wool Trade,' p. 229: "A land of musket and meri-armed warriors, unprovided with a meat supply, even of kangaroo." 1889. Jessie Mackay, `The Spirit of the Rangatira,' p. 16: "He brandished his greenstone mere high, And shouted a Maori battle-cry." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. iii. p. 33: "`No, no, my peg; I thrust it in with this meri,' yells Maori Jack, brandishing his war-club." <hw>Merinoes, Pure</hw>, <i>n</i>. a term often used, especially in New South Wales, for the `very first families,' as the pure merino is the most valuable sheep. 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 116: "Next we have the <i>legitimates</i> . . . such as have <i>legal</i> reasons for visiting this colony; and the <i>illegitimates</i>, or such as are free from that stigma. The <i>pure merinos</i> are a variety of the latter species, who pride themselves on being of the purest blood in the colony." <hw>Mersey Jolly-tail</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Jolly-tail</i>. <hw>Message-stick</hw>, <i>n</i>. The aboriginals sometimes carve little blocks of wood with various marks to convey messages. These are called by the whites, <i>message-sticks</i>. <hw>Messmate</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to one of the Gum-trees, <i>Eucalyptus amygdalina</i>, Labill., and often to other species of Eucalypts, especially <i>E. obliqua</i>, L'Herit. For origin of this curious name, see quotation, 1889. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 429: "It is also known by the name of `Messmate,' because it is allied to, or associated with, <i>Stringy-bark</i>. This is probably the tallest tree on the globe, individuals having been measured up to 400 ft., 410 ft., and in one case 420 ft., with the length of the stem up to the first branch 295 ft. The height of a tree at Mt. Baw Baw (Victoria) is quoted at 471 ft." 1890. `The Argus,' June 7, p. 13, col1. 4: "Away to the north-east a wooded range of mountains rolls along the skyline, ragged rents showing here and there where the dead messmates and white gums rise like gaunt skeletons from the dusky brown-green mass into which distance tones the bracken and the underwood." <hw>Mia-mia</hw>, <i>n</i>. an aboriginal hut. The word is aboriginal, and has been spelt variously. <i>Mia-mia</i> is the most approved spelling, <i>mi-mi</i> the most approved pronunciation. See <i>Humpy</i>. 1845. R. Howitt, `Australia,' p. 103: "There she stood in a perfect state of nudity, a little way from the road, by her miam, smiling, or rather grimacing." 1852. Letter from Mrs. Perry, given in Canon Goodman's Church in Victoria during Episcopate of Bishop Perry,' p. 167: "We came upon the largest (deserted) native encampment we had ever seen. One of the mia-mias (you know what that is by this time--the <i>a</i> is not sounded) was as large as an ordinary sized circular summer-house, and actually had rude seats all round, which is quite unusual. It had no roof, they never have, being mere break-weathers, not so high as a man's shoulder." 1855. W. Howitt, `Two Years in Victoria,' vol. i. p. 366: "They constructed a mimi, or bower of boughs on the other, leaving portholes amongst the boughs towards the road." 1858. T. McCombie, `History of Victoria,' c. vii. p. 96: "Their thoughts wandered to their hunting-grounds and mia-mias on the Murray." 1861. T. McCombie, `Australian Sketches,' p. 15: [Notice varied spelling in the same author.] "Many of the diggers resided under branches of trees made into small `miams' or `wigwams.'" 1871. C. L. Money, `Knocking About in New Zealand,' p. 42: "The next day I began building a little `mi-mi,' to serve as a resting-place for the night in going back at any time for supplies." 1883. E. M. Curr, `Recollections of Squatting in Victoria' (1841-1851), p. 148: "Of the mia-mias, some were standing; others had, wholly or in part, been thrown down by their late occupants." 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 32: "A few branches thrown up against the prevailing wind, in rude imitation of the native mia-mia." 1889. Rev. J. H. Zillmann, `Australian Life,' p. 111: "[The blacks] would compel [the missionaries] to carry their burdens while travelling, or build their mia-mias when halting to camp for the night; in fact, all sorts of menial offices had to be discharged by the missionaries for these noble black men while away on the wilds!" [Footnote]: "Small huts, made of bark and leafy boughs, built so as to protect them against the side from which the wind blew." <hw>Micky</hw>, <i>n</i>. young wild bull. "Said to have originated in Gippsland, Victoria. Probably from the association of bulls with Mickeys, or Irishmen." (Barere and Leland.) 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. xviii. p. 217: "The wary and still more dangerously sudden `Micky,' a two-year-old bull." <hw>Micky/2/</hw>, <i>n</i>. In New Zealand, a corruption of <i>Mingi</i> (q.v.). <hw>Midwinter</hw>, <i>n</i>. The seasons being reversed in Australia, Christmas occurs in the middle of summer. The English word <i>Midsummer</i> has thus dropped out of use, and "Christmas," or <i>Christmas-time</i>, is its Australian substitute, whilst <i>Midwinter</i> is the word used to denote the Australian winter-time of late June and early July. See <i>Christmas</i>. <hw>Mignonette, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian flower, <i>Stackhousia linariaefolia</i>, Cunn., <i>N.O</i>. <i>Stackhouseae</i>. <hw>Mihanere</hw>, <i>n</i>. a convert to Christianity; a Maori variant of the English word <i>Missionary</i>. 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. ii. pp. 11, 12: "The mihanere natives, as a body, were distinctly inferior in point of moral character to the natives, who remained with their ancient customs unchanged. . . . A very common answer from a converted native, accused of theft, was, `How can that be? I am a mihanere.' . . . They were all mihanere, or converts." <hw>Milk-bush</hw>, <i>n</i>. a tall Queensland shrub, <i>Wrightia saligna</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Apocyneae</i>; it is said to be most valuable as a fodder-bush. <hw>Milk-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name, in Australia, is given to a marine animal belonging to the class <i>Holothurioidea</i>. The Holothurians are called <i>Sea-cucumbers</i>, or <i>Sea-slugs</i>. The <i>Trepang</i>, or <i>be^che-de-mer</i>, eaten by the Chinese, belongs to them. Called also <i>Tit-fish</i> (q.v.). 1880. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Proceedings of the Linnaean Society of New South Wales,' vol. v. pt. ii. p. 128: "Another species [of Trepang] is the `milk fish' or `cotton fish,' so called from its power of emitting a white viscid fluid from its skin, which clings to an object like shreds of cotton." <hw>Milk-plant</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Caustic Creeper</i> (q.v.). <hw>Milk-tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. a New Zealand tree, <i>Epicarpurus microphyllus</i>, Raoul. 1873. `Catalogue of Vienna Exhibition': "Milk-tree . . . a tall slender tree exuding a milky sap: wood white and very brittle." <hw>Milk-wood</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Northern Territory name for <i>Melaleuca leucadendron</i>, Linn.; called also <i>Paperbark-tree</i> (q.v.). <hw>Miller</hw>, <i>n</i>. a local name for the <i>Cicada</i>. See <i>Locust</i> (quotation, 1896). <hw>Millet</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is given to several Australian grasses. The Koda Millet of India, <i>Paspalum scrobiculatum</i>, Linn., is called in Australia <i>Ditch Millet</i>; <i>Seaside Millet</i> is the name given to <i>Paspalum distichum</i>, Linn., both of the <i>N.O.</i> <i>Gramineae</i>. But the principal species is called <i>Australian Millet</i>, <i>Native Millet</i>, and <i>Umbrella Grass</i>; it is <i>Panicum decompositum</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Gramineae</i>; it is not endemic in Australia. 1896. `The Australasian,' March 14, p. 488, col. 5: "One of the very best of the grasses found in the hot regions of Central Australia is the Australian millet, <i>Panicum decompositum</i>. It is extremely hardy and stands the hot dry summers of the north very well; it is nutritious, and cattle and sheep are fond of it. It seeds freely, was used by the aborigines for making a sort of cake, and was the only grain stored by them. This grass thrives in poor soil, and starts into rapid growth with the first autumn rains." <hw>Mimosa</hw>, <i>n</i>. a scientific name applied to upwards of two hundred trees of various genera in the Old World. The genus <i>Mimosa</i>, under which the Australian trees called <i>Wattles</i> were originally classed, formerly included the Acacias. These now constitute a separate genus. <i>Acacia</i> is the scientific name for the <i>Wattle</i>; though even now an old colonist will call the <i>Wattles "Mimosa</i>." 1793. J. E. Smith, `Specimen of Botany of New Holland,' p. 52: "This shrub is now not uncommon in our greenhouses, having been raised in plenty from seeds brought from Port Jackson. It generally bears its fragrant flowers late in the autumn, and might then at first sight be sooner taken for a <i>Myrtus</i> than a <i>Mimosa</i>." 1802. Jas. Flemming, `Journal of Explorations of Charles Grimes,' in `Historical Records of Port Phillip' (ed. 1879, J. J. Shillinglaw), p. 25: "Timber; gum, Banksia, oak, and mimosa of sorts, but not large except the gum." 1830. R. Dawson, `Present State of Australia,' p. 202: "Gum-arabic, which exudes from the mimosa shrubs." 1844. `Port Phillip Patriot,' July 18, p. 4, col. 2: "`Cashmere' shawls do not grow on the mimosa trees." 1845. J. O. Balfour, `Sketch of New South Wales,' p. 38: "The mimosa is a very graceful tree; the foliage is of a light green colour. . . . The yellow flowers with which the mimosa is decked throw out a perfume sweeter than the laburnum; and the gum . . . is said not to be dissimilar to gum-arabic." 1845. R. Howitt, `Australia,' p. 175: "But, Yarra, thou art lovelier now, With clouds of bloom on every bough; A gladsome sight it is to see, In blossom thy mimosa tree. Like golden-moonlight doth it seem, The moonlight of a heavenly dream; A sunset lustre, chaste and cold, A pearly splendour blent with gold." "<i>To the River Yarra</i>." 1848. W. Westgarth, `Australia Felix,' p. 255: "The other exports of Australia Felix consist chiefly of tallow, cured beef and mutton, wheat, mimosa-bark, and gumwood." 1849. J. P. Townsend, `Rambles in New South Wales,' p. 34: "The mimosa--although it sadly chokes the country--when in flower, fills the air with fragrance. Its bark is much used for tanning purposes; and the gum that exudes from the stem is of some value as an export, and is used by the blacks as food." 1870. F. S. Wilson, `Australian Songs,' p. 29: "I have sat, and watched the landscape, latticed by the golden curls, Showering, like mimosa-blooms, in scented streams about my breast." <hw>Minah</hw>, <i>n</i>. (also <hw>Myna</hw>, <hw>Mina</hw>, and <hw>Minah-bird</hw>, and the characteristic Australian change of <hw>Miner</hw>). From Hindustani <i>maina</i>, a starling. The word is originally applied in India to various birds of the Starling kind, especially to <i>Graculus religiosa</i>, a talking starling or grackle. One of these Indian grackles, <i>Acridotheres tristis</i>, was acclimatised in Melbourne, and is now common to the house-tops of most Australian towns. He is not Australian, but is the bird generally referred to as the <i>Minah</i>, or <i>Minah- bird</i>. There are <i>Minahs</i> native to Australia, of which the species are-- Bell-Mina-- <i>Manorhina melanophrys</i>, Lath. Bush-M.-- <i>Myzantha garrula</i>, Lath. Dusky-M.-- <i>M. obscura</i>, Gould. Yellow-M.-- <i>M. lutea</i>, Gould. Yellow-throated M.-- <i>M. flavigula</i>, Gould. 1803. Lord Valentia, `Voyages,' vol. i. p. 227 [Stanford]: "During the whole of our stay two minahs were talking most incessantly." 1813. J. Forbes, `Oriental Memoirs,' vol. i. p. 47 [Yule]: "The mynah is a very entertaining bird, hopping about the house, and articulating several words in the manner of the starling." 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. iv. pl. 40: "While at other times, like the miners (genus, <i>Myzantha</i>), it soars from tree to tree with the most graceful and easy movement." Ibid. vol. iv. pl. 76: "<i>Myzantha garrula</i>, Vig. and Horsf, Garrulous Honey-eater; miner, Colonists of Van Diemen's Land, <i>M. flavigula</i>, Gould, Yellow-Throated miner." 1861. Mrs. Meredith, `Over the Straits,' vol. i. p. 33: "His common name . . . is said to be given from his resemblance to some Indian bird called mina or miner." 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 72: "The Indian minah is as much at home, and almost as presumptuous, as the sparrow." (p. 146): "Yellow-legged minahs, tamest of all Australian birds." 1890. Tasma, `In her Earliest Youth,' p. 265: "The plaintive chirp of the mina." <hw>Miner's</hw> Right, <i>n</i>. the licence to dig for gold. See quotation. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `The Miner's Right,' p. 1: "A miner's right, a wonderful document, printed and written on parchment, precisely as follows." [A reduced facsimile is given.] Ibid. p. 106: "You produce your Miner's Right . . . The important piece of parchment, about the size of a bank-cheque, was handed to the Court." <hw>Mingi</hw>, <i>n</i>. originally <i>mingi mingi</i>, Maori name for a New Zealand shrub or small tree, <i>Cyathodes acerosa</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Epacrideae</i>. In south New Zealand it is often called <i>Micky</i>. <hw>Minnow</hw>, <i>n</i>. name sometimes given to a very small fish of New Zealand, <i>Galaxias attenuatus</i>, Jenyns, family <i>Galaxidae</i>; called also <i>Whitebait</i> (q.v.). The Maori name is <i>Inanga</i> (q.v.). <hw>Mint, Australian</hw> or <hw>Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. a plant, <i>Mentha australis</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Labiatea</i>. This herb was largely used by the early colonists of South Australia for tea. Many of the plants of the genus <i>Mentha</i> in Australia yield oil of good flavour, among them the common Pennyroyal. <hw>Mint-tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. In Australia, the tree is <i>Prostanthera lasiantha</i>, Labill., <i>N.O. Labiateae</i>. <hw>Mirnyong</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for a shell-mound, generally supposed to be Victorian, but, by some, Tasmanian. 1888. R. M. Johnston, `Geology of Tasmania,' p. 337: "With the exception of their rude inconspicuous flints, and the accumulated remains of their feasts in the `mirnyongs,' or native shell-mounds, along our coasts, which only have significance to the careful observer, we have no other visible evidence of their former existence." 1893. R. Etheridge, jun., `Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia,' p. 21 [Title of Paper]: "The Mirrn-yong heaps at the North-West bank of the River Murray." <hw>Miro</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) Maori name for a <i>Robin</i> (q.v.), and adopted as the scientific name of a genus of New Zealand Robins. The word is shortened form of <i>Miro-miro</i>. 1855. Rev. R. Taylor, `Te Ika a Maui,' p. 403: "Miro-miro (<i>Miro albifrons</i>). A little black-and-white bird with a large head; it is very tame, and has a short melancholy song. The miro toi-toi (<i>muscicapa toi-toi</i>) is a bird not larger than the tom-tit. Its plumage is black and white, having a white breast and some of the near feathers of each wing tinged with white." 1879. W. Colenso, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. xii. art. vii. p. 119: "Proverb 28: <i>Ma to kanohi miro-miro</i>, [signifying] `To be found by the sharp-eyed little bird.' Lit. `For the miro-miro's eye.' Used as a stimulus to a person searching for anything lost. The miro-miro is the little petroica toi-toi, which runs up and down trees peering for minute insects in the bark." 1882. W. L. Buller, `Manual of the Birds of New Zealand,' p. 23: "The Petroeca Iongipes is confined to the North Island, where it is very common in all the wooded parts of the country; but it is represented in the South Island by a closely allied and equally common species, the <i>miro albifrons</i>." (2) Maori name for a New Zealand tree, <i>Podocarpus ferruginea</i>, Don., <i>N.O. Coniferae</i>; the Black-pine of Otago. 1875. T. Laslett, `Timber and Timber Trees,' p. 308: "The miro-tree (<i>Podocarpus ferruginea</i>) is found in slightly elevated situations in many of the forests in New Zealand. Height about sixty feet. The wood varies from light to dark-brown in colour, is close in grain, moderately hard and heavy, planes up well, and takes a good polish." 1889. T. Kirk, `Forest Flora of New Zealand,' p. 163: "The Miro is a valuable tree, common in all parts of the colony. . . . It is usually distinguished by its ordinary native name." <hw>Mistletoe</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is given to various species of trees of several genera-- (1) In Australia, generally, to various species of <i>Loranthus</i>, <i>N.O. Loranthaceae</i>. There are a great number, they are very common on the Eucalypts, and they have the same viscous qualities as the European <i>Mistletoes</i>. (2) In Western Australia, to <i>Nuytsia floribunda</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Loranthaceae</i>, a terrestrial species attaining the dimensions of a tree--the <i>Flame-tree</i> (q.v.) of Western Australia--and also curiously called there a <i>Cabbage- tree</i>. (3) In Tasmania, to <i>Cassytha pubescens</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Lauraceae</i>. 1877. F. v. Mueller, `Botanic Teachings, p. 43: "The English mistletoe is the well-known <i>Viscum album</i>, whereas all the Victorian kinds belong to the genus <i>Loranthus</i>, of which the Mediterranean <i>L. Europaeus</i> is the prototype. The generic name arose in allusion to the strap-like narrowness of the petals." [Greek <i>lowron</i>, from Lat. <i>lorum</i>, a thong, and <i>'anthos</i>, a flower.] <hw>Mitchell-Grass</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian grass, <i>Astrebla elymoides</i>, <i>A. triticoides</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Gramineae</i>. Two other species of <i>Astrebla</i> are also called "Mitchell-grasses." See <i>Grass</i>. 1883. F. M. Bailey, `Synopsis of Queensland Flora,' p. 660: "Used for food by the natives. The most valuable fodder-grass of the colony. True Mitchell-grass." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 78: "Mitchell-grass. The flowering spikes resemble ears of wheat. . . . It is by no means plentiful." <hw>Moa</hw>, <i>n</i>. The word is Maori, and is used by that race as the name of the gigantic struthious bird of New Zealand, scientifically called <i>Dinornis</i> (q.v.). It has passed into popular Australasian and English use for all species of that bird. A full history of the discovery of the Moa, of its nature and habits, and of the progress of the classification of the species by Professor Owen, from the sole evidence of the fossil remains of its bones, is given in the Introduction to W. L. Buller's `Birds of New Zealand,' Vol. i. (pp. xviii-xxxv). 1820. `Grammar and Vocabulary of New Zealand Language' (Church Missionary Society), p. 181: "Moe [sic], a bird so called." 1839. `Proceedings of Zoological Society,' Nov. 12: [Description by Owen of <i>Dinornis</i> without the name of Moa. It contained the words-- "So far as my skill in interpreting an osseous fragment may be credited, I am willing to risk the reputation for it, on the statement that there has existed, if there does not now exist, in New Zealand a Struthious bird, nearly, if not quite equal in size to the Ostrich."] 1844. Ibid. vol. iii. pt. iii. p. 237: [Description of <i>Dinornis</i> by Owen, in which he names the Moa, and quotes letter from Rev. W. (afterwards Bishop) Williams, dated Feb. 28, 1842, "to which they gave the name of Moa."] 1848. W. Westgarth, `Australia Felix,' p. 137: "The new genus Dinornis, which includes also the celebrated moa, or gigantic bird of New Zealand, and bears some resemblance to the present Apteryx, or wingless bird of that country . . . The New Zealanders assert that this extraordinary bird was in existence in the days of their ancestors, and was finally destroyed by their grandfathers." 1867. F. Hochstetter, `New Zealand' (English translation), p. 214: "First among them were the gigantic wingless Moas, <i>Dinornis</i> and <i>Palapteryx</i>, which seem to have been exterminated already about the middle of the seventeenth century." [Query, eighteenth century?] 1867. Ibid. p. 181: "By the term `Moa' the natives signify a family of birds, that we know merely from bones and skeletons, a family of real giant-birds compared with the little Apterygides." [Footnote]: "Moa or Toa, throughout Polynesia, is the word applied to domestic fowls, originating perhaps from the Malay word mua, a kind of peasants [sic]. The Maoris have no special term for the domestic fowl." 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' Introduction, p. lvi. [Footnote]: "I have remarked the following similarity between the names employed in the Fijian and Maori languages for the same or corresponding birds: Toa (any fowl-like kind of bird) = Moa (<i>Dinornis</i>)." <hw>Mob</hw>, <i>n</i>. a large number, the Australian noun of multitude, and not implying anything low or noisy. It was <i>not</i> used very early, as the first few of the following quotations show. 1811. G. Paterson, `History of New South Wales,' p. 530: "Besides herds of kangaroos, four large wolves were seen at Western Port." 1830. R. Dawson, `Present State of Australia': [p. 110]: "Herds of kangaroos." [p. 139]: "An immense herd of kangaroos." [p. 196]: "Flocks of kangaroos of every size." 1835. T. B. Wilson, `Voyage round the World,' p. 243: "We started several flocks of kangaroos." 1836. Dec. 26, Letter in `Three Years' Practical Experience of a Settler in New South Wales,' p.44: "A man buying a flock of sheep, or a herd of cattle . . . While I watched the mop I had collected." [This, thus spelt, seems the earliest instance.] 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 6: "Droves of kangaroos." Of <i>Men</i>-- [But with the Australian and not the ordinary English signification.] 1874. W. M. B., `Narrative of Edward Crewe,' p. 223: "A contractor in a large way having a mob of men in his employ." 1890. `The Argus,' Aug.16, p.13, Col. 2: "It doesn't seem possible to get a mob of steady men for work of that sort now." 1884. Rolf Boldrewood, `Melbourne Memories,' c. ix. p. 69: "He, tho' living fifty miles away, was one of the `Dunmore mob,' and aided generally in the symposia which were there enjoyed." Of <i>Blackfellows</i>-- 1822. J. West, `History of Tasmania' (1852), vol. ii. p. 12: "The settlers of 1822 remember a number of natives, who roamed about the district, and were known as the `tame mob'; they were absconders from different tribes." 1830. Newspaper (Tasmanian), March, (cited J. West, `History of Tasmania,' vol. ii. p. 42): "A mob of natives appeared at Captain Smith's hut, at his run." 1835. H. Melville, `History of Van Diemen's Land,' p. 75: "A mob of some score or so of natives, men, women, and children, had been discovered by their fires." 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia', p. 107: "A whole crowd of men on horseback get together, with a mob of blacks to assist them." 1892. Rolf Boldrewood, `Robbery under Arms,' p. 134: "At the side of the crowd was a small mob of blacks with their dogs, spears, possum rugs, and all complete." Of <i>Cattle</i>-- 1860. R. Donaldson, `Bush Lays,' p. 14: "Now to the stockyard crowds the mob; 'Twill soon be milking time." 1872. C. H. Eden, `My Wife and I in Queensland,' p. 70: "A number of cattle collected together is colonially termed a mob." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. ii. p. 105: "A mixed mob of cattle--cows, steers, and heifers-- had to be collected." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `A Colonial Reformer,' p. 120: "`Mobs' or small sub-divisions of the main herd." Of <i>Sheep</i>-- 1860. Lady Barker, `Station Life in New Zealand,' p. 169: "It was more horrible to see the drowning, or just drowned, huddled-up `mob' (as sheep en masse are technically called) which had made the dusky patch we noticed from the hill." 1875. `Spectator' (Melbourne), May 22, p. 34, col. 2: "A mob of sheep has been sold at Belfast at 1s. 10d. per head." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `A Colonial Reformer,' p. 83 "The army of sheep--about thirty thousand in fifteen flocks-- at length reached the valley before dark, and the overseer, pointing to a flock of two thousand, more or less, said, `There's your mob.'" Of <i>Horses</i>-- 1865. Lady Barker, `Station Life in New Zealand,' p. 27: "All the animals to make friends with, mobs of horses to look at." 1879. W. J. Barry, `Up and Down,' p. 197: "I purchased a mob of horses for the Dunstan market." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 111: "The stockman came suddenly on a mob of nearly thirty horses, feeding up a pleasant valley." Of <i>Kangaroos</i>-- 1846. G. H. Haydon, `Five Years in Australia Felix,' p. 59: "The `old men' are always the largest and strongest in the flock, or in colonial language `mob.'" 1864. `Once a Week,' Dec. 31, p. 45, `The Bulla Bulla Bunyip': "About a mile outside the town a four-rail fence skirted the rough track we followed. It enclosed a lucerne paddock. Over the grey rails, as we approached, came bounding a mob of kangaroos, headed by a gigantic perfectly white `old man,' which glimmered ghostly in the moonlight." Of <i>Ducks</i>-- 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia, p. 99: "They [the ducks] all came in twos and threes, and small mobs." Of <i>Clothes</i>-- 1844. `Port Phillip Patriot,' July 22, p. 2, col. 6: "They buttoned up in front; the only suit to the mob which did so." Of <i>Books</i>-- 1892. Gilbert Parker, `Round the Compass in Australia,' p. 72: "If it was in your mob of books, give this copy to somebody that would appreciate it." <i>More generally</i>-- 1852. Mrs. Meredith, `My Home in Tasmania,' vol. ii. p. 20: "A number of cattle together is here usually termed a `mob,' and truly their riotous and unruly demeanour renders the designation far from inapt; but I was very much amused at first, to hear people gravely talking of `a mob of sheep,' or `a mob of <i>lambs</i>,' and it was some time ere I became accustomed to the novel use of the word. Now, the common announcements that `the cuckoo hen has brought out a rare mob of chickens,' or that `there's a great mob of quail in the big paddock,' are to me fraught with no alarming anticipations." 1853. H. Berkeley Jones, `Adventures in Australia,' p. 114: "`There will be a great mob of things going down to-day,' said one to another, which meant that there would be a heavy cargo in number; we must remember that the Australians have a patois of their own." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. xiii. p. 135: "What a mob of houses, people, cabs, teams, men, women and children!" <hw>Mocking-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is given in Australia to the <i>Lyre-bird</i> (q.v.), and in New Zealand to the <i>Tui</i> (q.v.). <hw>Mock-Olive</hw>, <i>n</i>. a tree. Called also <i>Axe-breaker</i> (q.v.). <hw>Mock-Orange</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian tree, i.q. <i>Native Laurel</i>. See <i>Laurel</i>. <hw>Mogo</hw>, <i>n</i>. the stone hatchet of the aborigines of New South Wales. 1838. T. L. Mitchell, `Three Expeditions,' vol. i. p. 204: "I heard from the summit the mogo of a native at work on some tree close by." 1868. W. Carleton, `Australian Nights,' p. 20: "One mute memorial by his bier, His mogo, boomerang, and spear." <hw>Moguey</hw>, <i>n</i>. English corruption of <i>Mokihi</i> (q.v.). 1871. C. L. Money, `Knocking About in New Zealand,' p. 52: "Moguey, a Maori name for a raupo or flax-stick raft." <hw>Moki</hw>, <i>n</i>. the Maori name for the <i>Bastard Trumpeter</i> (q.v.) of New Zealand, <i>Latris ciliaris</i>, Forst., family <i>Cirrhitidae</i>. 1820. `Grammar and Vocabulary of Language of New Zealand' (Church Missionary Society), p. 182: "Moki, <i>s</i>. A fish so called." <hw>Mokihi</hw>, or <hw>Moki</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a raft; sometimes anglicised as <i>Moguey</i>. 1840. J. S. Polack, `Manners and Customs of New Zealanders,' vol. ii. p. 226: "In the absence of canoes, a quantity of dried bulrushes are fastened together, on which the native is enabled to cross a stream by sitting astride and paddling with his hands; these humble conveyances are called moki, and resemble those made use of by the Egyptians in crossing among the islands of the Nile. They are extremely buoyant, and resist saturation for a longer period." 1858. `Appendix to Journal of House of Representatives,' c. iii. p. 18: "We crossed the river on mokis. By means of large mokis, carrying upwards of a ton. . . . Moki navigation." 1889. Vincent Pyke, `Wild Will Enderby,' p. 82: "For the benefit of the unlearned in such matters, let me here explain that a `Mokihi' is constructed of Koradies, <i>Anglice</i>, the flowering stalks of the flax,--three faggots of which lashed firmly in a point at the small ends, and expanded by a piece of wood at the stern, constitute the sides and bottom of the frail craft, which, propelled by a paddle, furnishes sufficient means of transport for a single individual." <hw>Moko</hw>, <i>n</i>. the system of tattooing practised by the Maoris. See <i>Tattoo</i>. It is not a fact--as popularly supposed--that the "moko" was distinctive in different families; serving, as is sometimes said, the purpose of a coat-of-arms. The "moko" was in fact all made on the same pattern--that of all Maori carvings. Some were more elaborate than others. The sole difference was that some were in outline only, some were half filled in, and others were finished in elaborate detail. 1769. J. Banks, `Journal,' Nov. 22 (Sir J. D. Hooker's edition, 1896), p. 203: "They had a much larger quantity of <i>amoca</i> [sic] or black stains upon their bodies and faces. They had almost universally a broad spiral on each buttock, and many had their thighs almost entirely black, small lines only being left untouched, so that they looked like striped breeches. In this particular, I mean the use of <i>amoca</i>, almost every tribe seems to have a different custom." 1896. `The Times' (Weekly Edition), July 17, p. 498 col. 3: "In this handsome volume, `Moko or Maori Tattooing,' Major-General Robley treats of an interesting subject with a touch of the horrible about it which, to some readers, will make the book almost fascinating. Nowhere was the system of puncturing the flesh into patterns and devices carried out in such perfection or to such an extent as in New Zealand. Both men and women were operated upon among the Maoris." <hw>Moko-moko</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) Maori name for the Bell-bird (q.v.), <i>Anthornis melanura</i>, Sparrm. 1888. A. W. Bathgate, `Sladen's Australian Ballads,' p. 22: [Title]: "To the Moko-moko, or Bell-bird." [Footnote]: "Now rapidly dying out of our land," sc. New Zealand. (2) Maori name for the lizard, <i>Lygosoma ornatum</i>, Gray, or <i>Lygosoma moko</i>, Durn. and Bib. 1820. `Grammar and Vocabulary of Language of New Zealand' (Church Missionary Society), p. 182: "Moko-moko, a small lizard." <hw>Mole, Marsupial</hw>. See <i>Marsupial Mole</i>. <hw>Moloch</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian lizard, <i>Moloch horridus</i>, Gray; called also <i>Mountain Devil</i> (q.v.). There is no other species in the genus, and the adjective (Lat. <i>horridus</i>, bristling) seems to have suggested the noun, the name probably recalling Milton's line (`Paradise Lost,' i. 392) "First Moloch, horrid king, besmeared with blood." Moloch was the national god of the Ammonites (1 Kings xi. 7), and was the personification of fire as a destructive element. 1896. Baldwin Spencer, `Horne Expedition in Central Australia,' Narrative, p. 41: "Numerous lizards such as the strange <i>Moloch horridus</i>, the bright yellow, orange, red and black of which render it in life very different in appearance from the bleached specimens of museum cases." <hw>Mongan</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for the animal named in the quotation. 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 173: "Jimmy, however, had, to my great delight, found mongan (<i>Pseudochirus herbertensis</i>), a new and very pretty mammal, whose habitat is exclusively the highest tops of the scrubs in the Coast Mountains." <hw>Monk</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Friar Bird</i> (q.v.). <hw>Monkey-Bear</hw>, or <hw>Monkey</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Native Bear</i>. See <i>Bear</i>. 1853. C. St. Julian and E. K. Silvester, `The Productions, Industry, and Resources of New South Wales,' p. 30: "The <i>Kola</i>, so called by the aborigines, but more commonly known among the settlers as the native bear or monkey, is found in brush and forest lands . . ." 1891. Mrs. Cross (Ada Cambridge), `The Three Miss Kings,' p. 9: "A little monkey-bear came cautiously down from the only gum-tree that grew on the premises, grunting and whimpering." <hw>Monkey-shaft</hw>, <i>n</i>. "A shaft rising from a lower to a higher level (as a rule perpendicularly), and differing from a blind-shaft only in that the latter is sunk from a higher to a lower level." (Brough Smyth's `Glossary.') 1880. G. Sutherland, `Tales of Goldfields,' p. 69: "They began to think they might be already too deep for it, and a small `monkey'-shaft was therefore driven upwards from the end of the tunnel." <hw>Monkeys</hw>, <i>n</i>. bush slang for sheep. 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 88: "No one felt better pleased than he did to see the last lot of `monkeys,' as the shearers usually denominated sheep, leave the head-station." <hw>Monotreme</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name of an order of Australian mammals (<i>Monotremata</i>). "The Monotremes derive their name from the circumstance that there is, as in birds and reptiles, but a single aperture at the hinder extremity of the body from which are discharged the whole of the waste-products, together with the reproductive elements; the oviducts opening separately into the end of this passage, which is termed the cloaca. [Grk. <i>monos</i>, sole, and <i>traema</i>, a passage or hole.] Reproduction is effected by means of eggs, which are laid and hatched by the female parent; after [being hatched] the young are nourished by milk secreted by special glands situated within a temporary pouch, into which the head of the young animal is inserted and retained. . . . It was not until 1884 that it was conclusively proved that the Monotremes did actually lay eggs similar in structure to those of birds and reptiles." (R. Lydekker, `Marsupialia and Monotremata,' 1894, p. 227.) The Monotremes are strictly confined to Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea. They are the <i>Platypus</i> (q.v.), and the <i>Echidna</i> (q.v.), or <i>Ant-eating Porcupine</i>. <hw>Mooley-Apple</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Emu-Apple</i> (q.v.) <hw>Moor-hen</hw>, <i>n</i>. common English bird-name (<i>Gallinula</i>). The Australian species are-- the Black, <i>Gallinula tenebrosa</i>, Gould; Rufous-tailed, <i>G. ruficrissa</i>, Gould. 1860. G. Bennett, `Gatherings of a Naturalist,' p. 169: "The Rail-like bird, the Black-tailed Tribonyx, or Moor-Hen of the colonists, which, when strutting along the bank of a river, has a grotesque appearance, with the tail quite erect like that of a domestic fowl, and rarely resorts to flight." [The Tribonyx is called <i>Native Hen</i>, not <i>Moorhen</i>.] <hw>Moon</hw>, <i>v. tr</i>. a process in opossum-shooting, explained in quotations. 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 182: "`Mooning' opossums is a speciality with country boys. The juvenile hunter utilises the moon as a cavalry patrol would his field-glass for every suspected point." 1890. E. Davenport Cleland, `The White Kangaroo,' p. 66: "They had to go through the process known as `mooning.' Walking backwards from the tree, each one tried to get the various limbs and branches between him and the moon, and then follow them out to the uttermost bunch of leaves where the 'possum might be feeding." <hw>Mopoke</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for an Australian bird, from its note "Mopoke." There is emphasis on the first syllable, but much more on the second. Settlers very early attempted to give an English shape and sense to this name. The attempt took two forms, "<i>More pork</i>," and "<i>Mopehawk</i>"; both forms are more than fifty years old. The <i>r</i> sound, however, is not present in the note of the bird, although the form <i>More-pork</i> is perhaps even more popular than the true form <i>Mopoke</i>. The form <i>Mope-hawk</i> seems to have been adopted through dislike of the perhaps coarser idea attaching to "pork." The quaint spelling <i>Mawpawk</i> seems to have been adopted for a similar reason. The bird is heard far more often than seen, hence confusion has arisen as to what is the bird that utters the note. The earlier view was that the bird was <i>Podargus cuvieri</i>, Vig. and Hors., which still popularly retains the name; whereas it is really the owl, <i>Ninox boobook</i>, that calls "morepork" or "mopoke" so loudly at night. Curiously, Gould, having already assigned the name <i>Morepork</i> to <i>Podargus</i>, in describing the <i>Owlet Night-jar</i> varies the spelling and writes, "little <i>Mawepawk</i>, Colonists of Van Diemen's Land." The New Zealand Morepork is assuredly an owl. The <i>Podargus</i> has received the name of <i>Frogmouth</i> and the <i>Mopoke</i> has sometimes been called a <i>Cuckoo</i> (q.v.). See also <i>Boobook</i>, <i>Frogsmouth</i>. The earliest ascertained use of the word is-- 1827. Hellyer (in 1832), `Bischoff, Van Diemen's Land,' p. 177: "One of the men shot a `more pork.'" <i>The Bird's note</i>-- 1868. Carleton, `Australian Nights,' p. 19: "The Austral cuckoo spoke His melancholy note--`Mo-poke.'" 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs and Wattle Bloom,' p. 236: "Many a still night in the bush I have listened to the weird metallic call of this strange bird, the mopoke of the natives, without hearing it give expression to the pork-shop sentiments." <i>Podargus</i>-- 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. ii. pl. 4: "<i>Podargus Cuvieri</i>, Vig. and Horsf, More-pork of the Colonists." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 33: "We are lulled to sleep by the melancholy, sleep-inspiring, and not disagreeable voices of the night bird <i>Podargus</i>-- `More-pork! more-pork!'" 1890. `Victorian Statutes-Game Act, Third Schedule.': "<i>Podargus</i> or Mopoke. [Close Season.] The whole year." <i>Vague name of Cuckoo</i>-- 1854. G. H. Haydon, `The Australian Emigrant,' p. 110: "The note of the More-pork, not unlike that of a cuckoo with a cold." 1857. W. Howitt, `Tallangetta,' vol. i. p. 98: "The distant monotone of the more-pork--the nocturnal cuckoo of the Australian wilds." <i>Incorrect</i>-- 1858. W. H. Hall, `Practical Experiences at the Diggings in Victoria,' p. 22: "The low, melancholy, but pleasing cry of the Mope-hawk." 1877. William Sharp, `Earth's Voices': "On yonder gum a mopoke's throat Out-gurgles laughter grim, And far within the fern-tree scrub A lyre-bird sings his hymn." [This is confusion worse confounded. It would seem as if the poet confused the <i>Laughing Jackass</i> with the <i>Mopoke</i>, q.v.] 1878. Mrs. H. Jones, `Long Years in Australia,' p. 145: "How the mope-hawk is screeching." <i>Owl</i>-- 1846. G. H. Haydon, `Five Years in Australia Felix,' p. 71: "A bird of the owl species, called by the colonists morepork, and by the natives whuck-whuck, derives both its names from the peculiarity of its note. At some distance it reminds one of the song of the cuckoo; when nearer it sounds hoarse and discordant." 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. ii. pl. 1: "<i>AEgotheles Novae-Hollandiae</i>, Vig. and Horsf, Owlet Nightjar; Little Mawepawk, Colonists of Van Diemen's Land." 1852. Mrs. Meredith, `My Home in Tasmania,' vol. ii. p. 253: "The Mawpawk, More Pork, or Mope Hawk, is common in most parts of the colony, and utters its peculiar two-syllable cry at night very constantly. Its habits are those of the owl, and its rather hawkish appearance partakes also of the peculiarities of the goat-sucker tribe. . . . The sound does not really resemble the words `more pork,' any more than `cuckoo,' and it is more like the `tu-whoo' of the owl than either." 1859. D. Bunce, `Australasiatic Reminiscences,' p. 14: "Just as our sportsman, fresh from the legal precincts of Gray's Inn Square, was taking a probably deadly aim, the solitary and melancholy note of `More-pork! more-pork!' from the Cyclopean, or Australian owl, interfered most opportunely in warding off the shot." 1864. `Once a Week,' Dec. 31, p. 45. `The Bulla Bulla Bunyip': "The locusts were silent, but now and then might be heard the greedy cry of the `morepork,' chasing the huge night-moths through the dim dewy air." 1892. A. Sutherland, `Elementary Geography of British Colonies,' p. 274: "Owls are also numerous, the Mopoke's note being a familiar sound in the midnight darkness of the forest." <i>By transference to a man</i>.-- 1845. R. Howitt, `Australia,' p. 233: "`A more-pork kind of a fellow' is a man of cut-and-dry phrases, a person remarkable for nothing new in common conversation. This by some is thought very expressive, the more-pork being a kind of Australian owl, notorious for its wearying nightly iteration, `More pork, more pork'" 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. xiii. p. 125: "What a regular more-pork I was to be sure to go and run my neck agin' a roping-pole." <hw>Morepork</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) The Australian bird, or birds, described under <i>Mopoke</i> (q.v.). (2) The New Zealand Owl, formerly <i>Athene novae-zelandiae</i>, Gray; now <i>Spiloglaux novae-zelandiae</i>, Kaup. 1849. W. T. Power, `Sketches in New Zealand,' p. 74: "This bird gave rise to a rather amusing incident in the Hutt Valley during the time of the fighting. . . . A strong piquet was turned out regularly about an hour before daybreak. On one occasion the men had been standing silently under arms for some time, and shivering in the cold morning air, when they were startled by a solemn request for `more pork.' The officer in command of the piquet, who had only very recently arrived in the country, ordered no talking in the ranks, which was immediately replied to by another demand, distinctly enunciated, for `more pork.' So malaprop a remark produced a titter along the ranks, which roused the irate officer to the necessity of having his commands obeyed, and he accordingly threatened to put the next person under arrest who dared make any allusion to the unclean beast. As if in defiance of the threat, and in contempt of the constituted authorities, `more pork' was distinctly demanded in two places at once, and was succeeded by an irresistible giggle from one end of the line to the other. There was no putting up with such a breach of discipline as this, and the officer, in a fury of indignation, went along the line in search of the mutinous offender, when suddenly a small chorus of `more pork' was heard on all sides, and it was explained who the real culprits were." 1866. Lady Barker, `Station Life in New Zealand,' p. 100: "The last cry of a very pretty little owl, called from its distinctly uttered words the `more-pork.'" 1884. T. Bracken, `Lays of Maori,' p. 84: "Sleeping alone where the more-pork's call At night is heard." 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 192: "<i>Spiloglaux Novae-Zelandiae</i>, Kaup., More-pork of the colonists. Every New Zealand colonist is familiar with this little owl, under the name of `morepork.'" <hw>Moreton-Bay</hw>, <i>n</i>. the name formerly given to the district of New South Wales which is now the colony of Queensland. The Brisbane river (on which is situated Brisbane, the capital of Queensland) enters it. See below. <hw>Moreton-Bay Ash</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Ash</i>. <hw>Moreton-Bay Chestnut</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Bean-tree</i>. <hw>Moreton-Bay Fig</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Fig</i>. <hw>Moreton-Bay Laurel</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Laurel</i>. <hw>Moreton-Bay Pine</hw>, <i>n</i>. See Pine. <hw>Moriori</hw>, <i>n</i>. a people akin to, but not identical with, the Maoris. They occupied the Chatham Islands, and were conquered in 1832 by the Maoris. In 1873, M. Quatrefages published a monograph, `Moriori et Maori.' <hw>Morwong</hw>, <i>n</i>. the New South Wales name for the fish <i>Chilodactylus macropterus</i>, Richards.; also called the <i>Carp</i> (q.v.) and <i>Jackass-fish</i>, and in New Zealand by the Maori name of <i>Tarakihi</i>. The Melbourne fishermen, according to Count Castelnau, call this fish the <i>Bastard Trumpeter</i> (q.v.), but this name is also applied to <i>Latris forsteri</i>, Castln. See also <i>Trumpeter</i> and <i>Paper-fish</i>. The <i>Red Morwong</i> is <i>Chilodactylus fuscus</i>, Castln., also called <i>Carp</i> (q.v.). The <i>Banded Morwong</i> is <i>Chilodactylus vittatus</i>, Garrett. <hw>Moses, Prickly</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bushman's name for <i>Mimosa</i> (q.v.). 1887. `The Australian,' April: "I cannot recommend . . . [for fishing rods] . . . that awful thing which our philosopher called `prickly moses.'" <hw>Moulmein Cedar</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Cedar</i>. <hw>Mound-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. the jungle-hen of Australia. The birds scratch up heaps of soil and vegetable matter, in which they bury their eggs and leave them to be hatched by the heat of decomposition. Scientifically called <i>Megapodes</i> (q.v.). 1893. A. R. Wallace, `Australasia,' vol. i. p. 76: "Next to these, as a special Australian type. . . . come the bush-turkeys or mound-makers . . . all these birds have the curious reptilian character of never sitting on their eggs, which they bury under mounds of earth or decaying vegetable matter, allowing them to be hatched by the heat of the sun, or that produced by fermentation." <hw>Mountain</hw>- (as epithet): Mountain-Apple-tree-- <i>Angophora lanceolata</i>, Cav., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. M.-Ash-- A name applied to various Eucalypts, and to the tree <i>Alphitonia excelsa</i>, Reiss. M.-Beech-- The tree <i>Lomatia longifolia</i>, R. Br., <i>N.0. Proteaceae</i>. M.-Bloodwood-- The tree <i>Eucalyptus eximia</i>, Schau. M.-Cypress-pine-- The tree <i>Frenela parlatori</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.0. Coniferae</i>. M.-Ebony-- See <i>Ebony</i>. M.-Gentian-- The name is applied to the Tasmanian species, <i>Gentiana saxosa</i>, Forst., <i>N.O. Gentianeae</i>. M.-Gums-- See <i>Gum</i>. M.- Oak-- See <i>Oak</i>. M.-Parrot-- Another name for the <i>Kea</i> (q.v.). M.-Rocket-- The name is applied to the Tasmanian species <i>Bellendena montana</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Proteaceae</i>. M.-Tea-tree-- See <i>Tea-tree</i>. <hw>Mountain-Devil</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to the strange-looking Australian lizard, <i>Moloch horridus</i>, Gray. See <i>Moloch</i>. Also called <i>Spiny Lizard</i>. 1853. `Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Van Diemen's Land,' vol. ii. p. 515 [November 9]: "A spirit preparation of the Spiny Lizard (<i>Moloch horridus</i>) of Western Australia." <hw>Mountain Thrush</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian thrush, <i>Oreocincla lunulata</i>, Gould. See <i>Thrush</i>. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. iv. pl. 7: "<i>Oreocincla lunulatus</i>, Mountain Thrush, Colonists of Van Diemen's Land. In all localities suitable to its habits and mode of life, this species is tolerably abundant, both in Van Diemen's Land and in New South Wales; it has also been observed in South Australia, where however it is rare." <hw>Mountain-Trout</hw>, <i>n</i>. species of <i>Galaxias</i>, small cylindrical fishes inhabiting the colder rivers of Australasia, Southern Chili, Magellan Straits, and the Falkland Islands. On account of the distribution of these fish and of other forms of animals, it has been suggested that in a remote geological period the area of land above the level of the sea in the antarctic regions must have been sufficiently extended to admit of some kind of continuity across the whole width of the Pacific between the southern extremities of South America and Australia. <hw>Mud-fat</hw>, <i>adj</i>. fat as mud, very fat. 1891. Rolf Boldrewood, `A Sydney-side Saxon,' p. 142: "There's half this fine body of veal, mud-fat and tender as a chicken, worth a shilling a pound there." <hw>Mud-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fish of Westland, New Zealand, <i>Neochanna apoda</i>, Gunth. Guenther says <i>Neochanna</i> is a "degraded form of <i>Galaxias</i> [see <i>Mountain-Trout</i>], from which it differs by the absence of ventral fins. This fish has hitherto been found only in burrows, which it excavates 1n clay or consolidated mud, at a distance from water." <hw>Mud-lark</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the Magpie-lark, <i>Grallina picata</i> (q.v.). <hw>Mulberry-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to the Australian bird <i>Sphecotheres maxillaris</i>, Lath.; called also <i>Fig-bird</i> (q.v.). 1891. A. J. North, `Records of the Australian Museum,' vol. i. no. 6, p. 113: "Southern Sphecotheres. Mr. Grime informs me it is fairly common on the Tweed River, where it is locally known as the `Mulberry-bird,' from the decided preference it evinces for that species of fruit amongst many others attacked by this bird." Mulberry, Native, <i>n</i>. name given to three Australian trees, viz.-- <i>Hedycarya cunninghami</i>, Tull., <i>N.O. Monimiaceae</i>. Called also <i>Smooth Holly</i>. <i>Piturus propinquus</i>, Wedd., <i>N.O. Urticeae</i>. Called also <i>Queensland Grasscloth Plant</i>. <i>Litsaea ferruginea</i>, Mart., <i>N.O. Laurineae</i>. Called also <i>Pigeonberry-tree</i>. The common English garden fruit-tree is also acclimatised, and the Victorian Silk Culture Association, assisted by the Government, are planting many thousands of the <i>White Mulberry</i> for silk culture. <hw>Mulga</hw>, <i>n</i>. an aboriginal word. (1) Name given to various species of Acacia, but especially <i>A. aneura</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.0. Leguminosae</i>. See also <i>Red Mulga</i>. 1864. J. McDouall Stuart, `Explorations in Australia,' p. 154: "We arrived at the foot nearly naked, and got into open sandy rises and valleys, with mulga and plenty of grass, amongst which there is some spinifex growing." 1865. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `History of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia,' vol. ii. p. 126, Note: "Mulga is an Acacia. It grows in thick bushes, with thin twigs and small leaves. Probably it is the most extensively distributed tree in all Australia. It extends right across the continent." 1888. Baron F. von Mueller, `Select Extra-tropical Plants' [7th ed.], p. 1: "Acacia aneura, F. v. M. Arid desert interior of extra-tropic Australia. A tree never more than 25 feet high. The principal `Mulga' tree. . . . Cattle and sheep browse on the twigs of this and some allied species, even in the presence of plentiful grass, and are much sustained by such acacias in seasons of protracted drought." 1892. Gilbert Parker, `Round the Compass in Australia,' p. 43: "Not a drop of rain! And for many and many a day the jackaroo will still chop down the limbs of the mulga-tree, that of its tonic leaves the sheep may eat and live." 1894. `The Argus,' Sept. 1, p. 4, col. 2: "The dull green of the mulga-scrub at their base." 1896. H. Lawson, `When the World was Wide,' p. 85: "Flax and tussock and fern, Gum and mulga and sand, Reef and palm--but my fancies turn Ever away from land." (2) A weapon, made of mulgawood. (a) A shield. 1878. `Catalogue of Ethnotypical Art in the National Gallery' (Melbourne), p. 19: "<i>Mulga</i>. Victoria. Thirty-six inches in length. This specimen is 37 inches in length and 5 inches in breadth at the broadest part. The form of a section through the middle is nearly triangular. The aperture for the hand (cut in the solid wood) is less than 4 inches in length. Ornamentation :Herring-bone, the incised lines being filled in with white clay. Some figures of an irregular form are probably the distinguishing marks of the owner's tribe. This shield was obtained from Larne-Gherin in the Western District." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 349: "Mulga is the name of a long narrow shield of wood, made by the aboriginals out of acacia-wood." (b) In one place Sir Thomas Mitchell speaks of it as a club. 1839. T. L. Mitchell, `Three Expeditions,' vol. ii. p. 267: "The malga [sic] . . . with which these natives were provided, somewhat resembled a pick-axe with one half broken off." <hw>Mulga-Apple</hw>, <i>n</i>. a gall formed on the Mulga-tree, <i>Acacia aneura</i>, F. v. M. (q.v.). See also <i>Apple</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 3: "In Western New South Wales two kinds of galls are found on these trees. One kind is very astringent, and not used; but the other is less abundant, larger, succulent and edible. These latter galls are called `mulga-apples,' and are said to be very welcome to the thirsty traveller." 1889. E. Giles, `Australia Twice Traversed,' p. 71: "The mulga bears a small woody fruit called the mulga apple. It somewhat resembles the taste of apples and is sweet." <hw>Mulga-down</hw>, <i>n</i>. hills covered with <i>Mulga</i>. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. xvii. p. 201: "Fascinating territories of limitless mulga-downs." <hw>Mulga-grass</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian grass, <i>Danthonia penicillata</i>, F. v. M.; also <i>Neurachne mitchelliana</i>, Nees. See also <i>Grass</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 82: "Mulga Grass. . . . Peculiar to the back country. It derives its vernacular name from being only found where the mulga-tree (<i>Acacia aneura</i> and other species) grows; it is a very nutritious and much esteemed grass." <hw>Mulga-scrub</hw>, <i>n</i>. thickets of <i>Mulga-trees</i>. 1864. J. McDouall Stuart, `Explorations in Australia,' p. 190: "For the first three miles our course was through a very thick mulga scrub, with plenty of grass, and occasionally a little spinifex." 1875. John Forrest, `Explorations in Australia,' p. 220: "Travelled till after dark through and over spinifex plains, wooded with acacia and mulga scrub, and camped without water and only a little scrub for the horses, having travelled nearly forty miles." 1876. W. Harcus, `South Australia,' p. 127: "The road for the next thirty miles, to Charlotte Waters Telegraph Station, is characterized by mulga-scrub, open plains, sand-hills, and stony rises poorly grassed." 1893. A. R. Wallace, `Australasia,' vol. i. p. 47: "Still more dreaded by the explorer is the `Mulga' scrub, consisting chiefly of dwarf acacias. These grow in spreading irregular bushes armed with strong spines, and where matted with other shrubs form a mass of vegetation through which it is impossible to penetrate." <hw>Mulga-studded</hw>, <i>adj</i>. with Mulga growing here and there. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. xvii. p. 201: "The frown on the face of the mulga-studded lowlands deepened." <hw>Mullet</hw>, <i>n</i>. Various species of this fish are present in Australasia, all belonging to the family <i>Mugilidae</i>, or Grey-Mullets. They are the-- Flat-tail Mullet-- <i>Mugil peronii</i>, Cuv. and Val. Hard-gut M.-- <i>M. dobula</i>, Gunth. Sand-M., or Talleygalanu-- <i>Myxus elongatus</i>, Gunth. (called also <i>Poddy</i> in Victoria). Sea-M.-- <i>M. grandis</i>, Castln. In New Zealand, the Mullet is <i>Mugil perusii</i>, called the Silver-Mullet (Maori name, <i>Kanae</i>); and the Sea-Mullet, <i>Agonostoma forsteri</i> (Maori name, <i>Aua</i>, q.v.); abundant also in Tasmanian estuaries. The Sand-Mullet in Tasmania is <i>Mugil cephalotus</i>, Cuv. and Val. See also <i>Red-Mullet</i>. 1890. `Victorian Statutes--Fisheries Act, Second Schedule': [Close Season.] "Sand-mullet or poddies." <hw>Mullock</hw>, <i>n</i>. In English, the word is obsolete; it was used by Chaucer in the sense of refuse, dirt. In Australia, it is confined to" `rubbish, dirt, stuff taken out of a mine--the refuse after the vein-stuff is taken away' (Brough Smyth's `Glossary')." 1864. J. Rogers, `New Rush,' pt. ii. p. 26: "A man each windlass-handle working slow, Raises the mullock from his mate below." 1874. Garnet Walch, `Head over Heels, p. 77: "But still we worked on--same old tune For nothin' but mullock come up." <hw>Mullock over</hw>, <i>v</i>. Shearing slang. See quotation. 1893. `The Age,' Sept. 23, p. 14, col. 4: "I affirm as a practical shearer, that no man could shear 321 sheep in eight hours, although I will admit he might do what we shearers call `mullock over' that number; and what is more, no manager or overseer who knows his work would allow a shearer to do that number of sheep or lambs in one day." <hw>Munyeru</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to the small black seeds of <i>Claytonia balonnensis</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Portulaceae</i>, which are ground up and mixed with water so as to form a paste. It forms a staple article of diet amongst the Arunta and other tribes of Central Australia. 1896. E. C. Stirling, `Horne Expedition in Central Australia,' Anthropology, p. 56: "In these districts `Munyeru' takes the place of the spore cases of `Nardoo' (<i>Marsilea quadrifolia</i>), which is so much used in the Barcoo and other districts to the south and east, these being treated in a similar way." <hw>Murray-Carp</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Carp</i>. <hw>Murray-Cod</hw>, <i>n</i>. an important fresh-water food-fish, <i>Oligorus macquariensis</i>, Cuv. and Val., called <i>Kookoobal</i> by the aborigines of the Murrumbidgee, and <i>Pundy</i> by those of the Lower Murray. A closely allied species is called the <i>Murray-Perch</i>. Has been known to reach a weight of 120 lbs. 1839. T. L. Mitchell, `Three Expeditions into the Interior of Eastern Australia,' vol. i. p. 95: "We soon found that this river contained . . . the fish we first found in the Peel, commonly called by the colonists `the cod,' although most erroneously, since it has nothing whatever to do with malacopterygious fishes." 1880. Guenther, `Introduction to Study of Fishes,' p. 392 (`O.E.D.'): "The first (<i>Oligorus macquariensis</i>) is called by the colonists `Murray-cod,' being plentiful in the Murray River and other rivers of South Australia. It attains to a length of more than 3 feet and to a weight of nearly 100 lbs." <hw>Murray-Lily</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Lily</i>. <hw>Murray-Perch</hw>, <i>n</i>. a freshwater fish, <i>Oligorus mitchelli</i>, Castln., closely allied to <i>Oligorus macquariensis</i>, the Murray-Cod, belonging to the family <i>Percidae</i>. 1880. Garnet Walch, `Victoria in 1880,' p. 124: "Our noble old 1400-mile river, the Murray, well christened the Nile of Australia, . . . produces `snags,' and that finny monster, the Murray cod, together with his less bulky, equally flavourless congener, the Murray perch." <hw>Murr-nong</hw>, <i>n</i>. a plant. The name used by the natives in Southern Australia for <i>Microseris forsteri</i>, Hook., <i>N.O. Compositae</i>. 1878. R. Brough Smyth, `Aborigines of Victoria,' p. 209: "Murr-nong, or `Mirr-n'yong', a kind of yam (<i>Microseris Forsteri</i>) was usually very plentiful, and easily found in the spring and early summer, and was dug out of the earth by the women and children." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 45: "Murr-nong, or `Mirr n'yong' of the aboriginals of New South Wales and Victoria. The tubers were largely used as food by the aboriginals. They are sweet and milky, and in flavour resemble the cocoa-nut." <hw>Murrumbidgee Pine</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Pine</i>. <hw>Mushroom</hw>, <i>n</i>. The common English mushroom, <i>Agaricus campestris</i>, Linn., <i>N.O. Fungi</i>, abounds in Australia, and there are many other indigenous edible species. <hw>Musk-Duck</hw>, <i>n</i>. the Australian bird, <i>Biziura lobata</i>, Shaw. See <i>Duck</i>. 1880. Garnet Walch, `Victoria in 1880,' p. 30: "The ungainly musk-duck paddles clumsily away from the passing steamer, but hardly out of gunshot, for he seems to know that his fishy flesh is not esteemed by man." 1880. Mrs. Meredith, `Tasmanian Friends and Foes,' p. 159: "That's a musk duck: the plumage is very sombre and loose looking--not so thick as most other ducks; the tail, too, is singular, little more than a small fan of short quills. The head of the male has a kind of black leathery excrescence under the bill that gives it an odd expression, and the whole bird has a strange odour of musk, rendering it quite uneatable." <hw>Musk-Kangaroo</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Hypsiprymnodon</i> and <i>Kangaroo</i>. <hw>Musk-Parrakeet</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian parrakeet. See <i>Parrakeet</i>. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. v. pl. 5: "<i>Trichoglossus Concinnus</i>, Vig. and Horsf. (<i>Australis</i>, Wagl.), Musky-Parrakeet; Musk-Parrakeet, Colonists of New South Wales, from the peculiar odour of the bird." <hw>Musk-tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is applied to <i>Marlea vitiense</i>, Benth., <i>N.O. Cornaceae</i>, with edible nuts, which is not endemic in Australia, and to two native trees of the <i>N.O. Compositae</i>--<i>Aster argophyllus</i>, Labill., called also <i>Musk-wood</i>, from the scent of the timber; and <i>Aster viscosus</i>, Labill., called also the <i>Dwarf Musk-tree</i>. 1848. Letter by Mrs. Perry, given in Canon Goodman's `Church in Victoria during the Episcopate of Bishop Perry,' p. 71: "Also there is some pretty underwood, a good deal of the musk-tree--which is very different from our musk-plant, growing quite into a shrub and having a leaf like the laurel in shape." 1888. Mrs. M'Cann, `Poetical Works,' p. 143: "The musk-tree scents the evening air Far down the leafy vale." <hw>Musk-wood</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Musk-tree</i>. <hw>Mussel</hw>, <i>n</i>. Some Australasian species of this mollusc are-- <i>Mytilus latus</i>, Lamark., Victoria, Tasmania, and New Zealand; <i>M. tasmanicus</i>, Tenison Woods, Tasmania; <i>M. rostratus</i>, Dunker, Tasmania and Victoria; <i>M. hirsutus</i>, Lamark., Tasmania, South Australia, Victoria, New Zealand; <i>M. crassus</i>, Tenison-Woods, Tasmania. Fresh-water Mussels belong to the genus <i>Unio</i>. <hw>Mutton-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. The word is ordinarily applied to the Antarctic Petrel, <i>AEstrelata lessoni</i>. In Australasia it is applied to the Puffin or Short-tailed Petrel, <i>Puffinus brevicaudus</i>, Brandt. The collection of the eggs of this Petrel, the preparation of oil from it, the salting of its flesh for food, form the principal means of subsistence of the inhabitants, half-caste and other, of the islands in Bass Straits. 1839. W. Mann, `Six Years' Residence in the Australian Provinces,' p. 51: "They are commonly called <i>mutton</i> birds, from their flavour and fatness; they are migratory,and arrive in Bass's Straits about the commencement of spring, in such numbers that they darken the air." 1843. J. Backhouse, `Narrative of a Visit to the Australian Colonies' (1832), p. 73: "Mutton birds were in such vast flocks, that, at a distance, they seemed as thick as bees when swarming." Ibid. p. 91: "The Mutton-birds, or Sooty Petrels, are about the size of the Wood Pigeon of England; they are of a dark colour, and are called `Yola' by the natives." 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' vol. i. p. 264: "The principal occupation of these people during this month of the year is taking the Sooty Petrel, called by the Colonists the Mutton Bird, from a fancied resemblance to the taste of that meat." 1846. G. H. Haydon, `Five Years in Australia Felix,' p. 47: "The mutton-bird, or sooty petrel . . . is about the size of the wood-pigeon of England, and is of a dark colour. These birds are migratory, and are to be seen ranging over the surface of the great southern ocean far from land . . . Many millions of these birds are destroyed annually for the sake of their feathers and the oil of the young, which they are made to disgorge by pressing the craws." 1855. Rev. R. Taylor, `Te Ika a Maui,' p. 382: "The titi, or mutton-bird, is a seabird which goes inland at night just as the light wanes. The natives light a bright fire, behind which they sit, each armed with a long stick. The titis, attracted by the light, fly by in great numbers, and are knocked down as quickly as possible; thus in one night several hundreds are often killed, which they preserve in their own fat for future use." 1857. C. Hursthouse, `New Zealand the Britain of the South,' vol. i. p. 121: "The young titi (mutton-bird), a species of puffin, is caught by the natives in great quantities, potted in its own fat, and sent as a sort of `<i>pa^te de foie gras</i>' to inland friends." 1863. B. A. Heywood, `Vacation Tour at the Antipodes,' p. 232: "The natives in the South [of Stewart's Island] trade largely with their brethren in the North, in supplies of the mutton- bird, which they boil down, and pack in its own fat in the large air-bags of sea-weed." 1879. H. <i>n</i>. Moselep `Notes by Naturalist on Challenger, p. 207: "Besides the prion, there is the `mutton-bird' of the whalers (<i>AEstrelata lessoni</i>), a large Procellanid, as big as a pigeon, white and brown and grey in colour." 1880. Garnet Walch, `Victoria in 1880,' p. 49: "The crest of the Cape [Wollomai] is a favourite haunt of those elegant but prosaically-named sea-fowl, the `mutton-birds.'. . One of the sports of the neighbourhood is `mutton-birding.' 1888. A. Reischek, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. xxi. art. xlix. p. 378: "Passing through Foveaux Strait, clothed with romantic little islands, we disturbed numerous flocks of mutton-birds (<i>Puffinus tristis</i>), which were playing, feeding, or sleeping on the water." 1891. `The Australasian,' Nov. 14, p. 963, col. 1 (`A Lady in the Kermadecs'): "The mutton-birds and burrowers come to the island in millions in the breeding season, and the nesting-place of the burrowers is very like a rabbit-warren; while the mutton-bird is content with a few twigs to do duty for a nest." 1891. Rev. J. Stack, `Report of Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science,' vol. iii. p. 379: "Wild pigeons, koko, tui, wekas, and mutton-birds were cooked and preserved in their own fat." <hw>Mutton-bird Tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. a tree, <i>Senecio rotundifolius</i>, Hook.: so called because the mutton-birds, especially in Foveaux Straits, New Zealand, are fond of sitting under it. <hw>Mutton-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. a marine univalve mollusc, <i>Haliotis naevosa</i>, Martyn: so called from its flavour when cooked. The empty earshell of Haliotis<i></i>, especially in New Zealand, <i>Haliotis iris</i>, Martyn, is known as <i>Venus' Ear</i>; Maori name, <i>Paua</i> (q.v.). A species of the same genus is known and eaten at the Cape and in the Channel Islands. (French name <i>Ormer</i>, sc. <i>Oreille de mer</i>.) 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish and Fisheries of New South Wales,' p. 92: "Then mutton fish were speared. This is the ear-shell fish (<i>Haliotis naevosa</i>), which was eagerly bought by the Chinese merchants. Only the large muscular sucking disc on foot is used. Before being packed it is boiled and dried. About 9d. per lb. was given." Myall, <i>n</i>. and <i>adj</i>. aboriginal word with two different meanings; whether there is any connection between them is uncertain. (1) <i>n</i>. An acacia tree, <i>Acacia pendula</i>, A. Cunn., and its timber. Various species have special epithets: <i>Bastard, Dalby, True</i>, <i>Weeping</i>, etc. 1845. J. O. Balfour, `Sketch of New South Wales,' p. 38: "The myall-tree (<i>Acacia pendula</i>) is the most picturesque tree of New South Wales. The leaves have the appearance of being frosted, and the branches droop like the weeping willow. . . . Its perfume is as delightful, and nearly as strong, as sandal-wood." (p. 10): "They poison the fish by means of a sheet of bark stripped from the Myall-tree (<i>Acacia pendula</i>)." 1846. T. L. Mitchell, Report quoted by J. D. Lang, `Cooksland,' p. 495: "The myall-tree and salt-bush, <i>Acacia pendula</i> and <i>salsolae</i> [sic], so essential to a good run, are also there." 1864. J. S. Moore, `Spring Life Lyrics,' p. 170: "The guerdon's won! What may it be? A grave beneath a myall-tree." 1865. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `History of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia,' vol. i. p. 193 [Note]: "This acacia, which has much the habit of the weeping willow, is found very extensively on the wet, alluvial flats of the west rivers. It sometimes forms scrubs and thickets, which give a characteristic appearance to the interior of this part of Australia, so that, once seen, it can never be again mistaken for scenery of any other country in the world. The myall scrubs are nearly all of <i>Acacia pendula</i>." 1880. Fison and Howitt, `Kamilaroi and Kurnai,' p. 280: "The myall-wood weapons made at Liverpool Plains were exchanged with the coast natives for others." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 46: "<i>Lignum-vitae</i> and bastard-myall bushes were very common." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 115: "Weeping or true Myall. . . . Stock are very fond of the leaves of this tree [<i>Acacia pendula</i>], especially in seasons of drought, and for this reason, and because they eat down the seedlings, it has almost become exterminated in parts of the colonies." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Squatter's Dream,' p. 27: "A strip of the swaying, streaming myall, of a colour more resembling blue than black." 1890. `The Argus,' June 7, p. 4, col. 2: "The soft and silvery grace of the myalls." 1890. E. D. Cleland, `The White Kangaroo,' p. 50: "Miall, a wood having a scent similar to raspberry jam, and very hard and well-grained." 1891. Rolf Boldrewood, `Sydney-side Saxon,' p. 130: "Stock-whips with myall handles (the native wood that smells like violets)." (2) <i>adj</i>. and <i>n</i>. wild, wild natives, used especially in Queensland. The explanation given by Lumholtz (1890) is not generally accepted. The word <i>mail</i>, or <i>myall</i>, is the aboriginal term for "men," on the Bogan, Dumaresque, and Macintyre Rivers in New South Wales. It is the local equivalent of the more common form <i>murrai</i>. 1830. R. Dawson, `Present State of Australia,' p. 41: "On my arrival I learnt from the natives that one party was still at work a considerable distance up the country, at the source of one of the rivers, called by the natives `Myall,' meaning, in their language, Stranger, or a place which they seldom or never frequent." 1839. T. L. Mitchell, `Three Expeditions,' vol. i. p. 192: "This tribe gloried in the name of `Myall,' which the natives nearer to the colony apply in terror and abhorrence to the `wild blackfellows,' to whom they usually attribute the most savage propensities." 1844. `Port Phillip Patriot,' Aug. i, p. 4, col. 4: "Even the wildest of the Myall black fellows--as cannibals usually are--learned to appreciate him." 1847. J. D. Lang, `Cooksland,' p. 447: "Words quite as unintelligible to the natives as the corresponding words in the vernacular language of the white men would have been, were learned by the natives, and are now commonly used by them in conversing with Europeans, as English words. Thus <i>corrobbory</i>, the Sydney word for a general assembly of natives, is now commonly used in that sense at Moreton Bay; but the original word there is <i>yanerwille</i>. <i>Cabon</i>, great; <i>narang</i> little; <i>boodgeree</i>, good; <i>myall</i>, wild native, etc. etc., are all words of this description, supposed by the natives to be English words, and by the Europeans to be aboriginal words of the language of that district." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. ii. p. 171: "A more intimate acquaintance with the ways and customs of the whites had produced a certain amount of contempt for them among the myalls." 1882. A. J. Boyd, `Old Colonials,' p. 209: "I had many conversations with native police officers on the subject of the amelioration of the wild myalls." 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia,' p. 150: "Suddenly he became aware that half-a-dozen of these `myalls,' as they are called, were creeping towards him through the long grass. Armed with spears and boomerangs . . ." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 76: "These so-called civilized blacks look upon their savage brethren with more or less contempt, and call them myall." [Footnote]: "A tree (<i>Acacia pendula</i>) which grows extensively in the less civilized districts is called by the Europeans <i>myall</i>. This word was soon applied by the whites as a term for the wild blacks who frequented these large remote <i>myall</i> woods. Strange to say, the blacks soon adopted this term themselves, and used it as an epithet of abuse, and hence it soon came to mean a person of no culture." 1893. M. Gaunt, `English Illustrated,' March, p. 367: "He himself had no faith in the myall blacks; they were treacherous, they were cruel." (3) By transference, wild cattle. 1893. `The Argus,' April 29, p. 4, col. 4, `Getting in the Scrubbers': "To secure these myalls we took down sixty or seventy head of quiet cows, as dead homers as carrier pigeons, some of them milking cows, with their calves penned up in the stockyard." <hw>Myrmecobius</hw>, <i>n</i>. scientific name of the Australian genus with only one species, called the <i>Banded Ant-eater</i> (q.v.). (Grk. <i>murmaex</i>, an ant, and <i>bios</i> life.) <hw>Myrtle</hw>, <i>n</i>. The true <i>Myrtle, Myrtus communis</i>, is a native of Asia, but has long been naturalised in Europe, especially on the shores of the Mediterranean. The name is applied to many genera of the family, <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>, and has been transferred to many other trees not related to that order. In Australia the name, with various epithets, is applied to the following trees-- <i>Backhousia citriodora</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>, called the <i>Scrub Myrtle</i> and <i>Native Myrtle</i>. <i>Backhousia myrtifolia</i>, Hook. and Herv., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>, called <i>Scrub Myrtle</i>, or <i>Native Myrtle</i>, or <i>Grey Myrtle</i>, and also <i> Lancewood</i>. <i>Diospyrus pentamera</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Ebenaceae</i>, the <i>Black Myrtle</i> and <i>Grey Plum</i> of Northern New South Wales. <i>Eugenia myrtifolia</i>, Sims, <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>, known as <i>Native Myrtle</i>, <i>Red Myrtle</i> and <i>Brush Cherry</i>. <i>Eugenia ventenatii</i>, Benth., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>, the <i>Drooping Myrtle</i> or <i>Large-leaved Water-gum</i>. <i>Melaleuca decussata</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. <i>Melaleuca genistifolia</i>, Smith, <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>, which is called <i>Ridge Myrtle</i>, and in Queensland <i>Ironwood</i>. <i>Myoporum serratum</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Myoporineae</i>, which is called <i>Native Myrtle</i>; and also called <i>Blue-berry Tree</i>, <i>Native Currant</i>, <i>Native Juniper</i>, <i>Cockatoo-Bush</i>, and by the aborigines <i>Palberry</i>. <i>Myrtus acmenioides</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>, which is the <i>White Myrtle</i> of the Richmond and Clarence Rivers (New South Wales), and is also called <i>Lignum-vitae</i>. <i>Rhodamnia argentea</i>, Benth., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>, called <i>White Myrtle</i>, the <i>Muggle-muggle</i> of the aboriginals of Northern New South Wales. <i>Syncarpia leptopetala</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>, which is called <i>Myrtle</i> and also <i>Brush-Turpentine</i>. <i>Tristania neriifolia</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>, called <i>Water Myrtle</i>, and also <i>Water Gum</i>. <i>Trochocarpa laurina</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Epacrideae</i>, called <i>Brush-Myrtle</i>, <i>Beech</i> and <i>Brush Cherry</i>. In Tasmania, all the <i>Beeches</i> are called Myrtles, and there are extensive forests of the Beech <i>Fagus cunninghamii</i>, Hook., which is invariably called "Myrtle" by the colonists of Tasmania. 1875. T. Laslett, `Timber and Timber Trees,' p. 206: Table of Tasmanian Woods. Hgt. Dia. Where found. Use. ft. in. Scented Myrtle 15 6 Low, marshy Seldom used Red " 40 12 Swampy As pine White " 20 9 Low, marshy House-carpentry Yellow " 20 9 " " do. Brown " 20 30 " " do. and joiners' planes N <hw>Nailrod</hw>, <i>n</i>. a coarse dark tobacco smoked by bushmen. The name alludes to the shape of the plug, which looks like a thin flat stick of liquorice. It is properly applied to the imported brand of "Two Seas," but is indiscriminately used by up-country folk for any coarse stick of tobacco. 1896. H. Lawson, `While the Billy boils,' p. 118: "`You can give me half-a-pound of nailrod,' he said, in a quiet tone.'" <hw>Nail-tailed Wallaby</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Onychogale</i>. <hw>Namma hole</hw>, <i>n</i>. a native well. <i>Namma</i> is an aboriginal word for a woman's breast. 1893. `The Australasian,' August 5, p. 252, col. 4: "The route all the way from York to Coolgardie is amply watered, either `namma holes' native wells) or Government wells being plentiful on the road." 1896. `The Australasian,' March 28, p. 605, col. 1: "The blacks about here [far west of N.S.W.] use a word nearly resembling `namma' in naming waterholes, viz., `numma,' pronounced by them `ngumma,' which means a woman's breast. It is used in conjunction with other words in the native names of some waterholes in this district, e.g., `Tirrangumma' = Gum-tree breast; and ngumma-tunka' = breast-milk, the water in such case being always milky in appearance. In almost all native words beginning with <i>n</i> about here the first <i>n</i> has the <i>ng</i> sound as above." <hw>Nancy</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian name for the flower <i>Anguillaria</i> (q.v.). <hw>Nankeen Crane</hw>, or <hw>Nankeen Bird</hw>, or <hw>Nankeen Night Heron</hw>, <i>n</i>. the Australian bird <i>Nycticorax caledonicus</i>, Gmel. Both the Nankeen Bird and the Nankeen Hawk are so called from their colour. Nankeen is "a Chinese fabric, usually buff, from the natural colour of a cotton grown in the Nanking district" of China. (`Century.') 1838. James, `Six Months in South Australia, p. 202: "After shooting one or two beautiful nankeen birds." 1872. C. H. Eden, `My Wife and I in Queensland,' p. 121: "The nankeen crane (<i>Nycticorax caledonicus</i>), a very handsome bright nankeen-coloured bird with three long white feathers at the back of the neck, very good eating." <hw>Nankeen Gum</hw>. See <i>Gum</i>. <hw>Nankeen Hawk</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian bird, <i>Tinnunculus cenchroides</i>, Vig. and Hors., which is otherwise called <i>Kestrel</i> (q.v.). 1827. Vigors and Horsfield, `Transactions of the Linnaean Society,' vol. xv. p. 184: "`This bird,' as we are informed by Mr. Caley, `is called Nankeen Hawk by the settlers. It is a migratory species.'" <hw>Nannygai</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for an Australian fish, <i>Beryx affinis</i>, Gunth. 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish of New South Wales,' p. 52: "Amongst the early colonists it used also to be called `mother nan a di,' probably a corruption of the native name, mura ngin a gai." 1884. E. P. Ramsay, `Fisheries Exhibition Literature,' vol. v. p. 308: "Known among the fishermen of Port Jackson as the `nannagai,' or as it is sometimes spelt `nannygy.' It is a most delicious fish, always brings a high price, but is seldom found in sufficient numbers." <hw>Nardoo</hw>, or <hw>Nardu</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal word for the sporocarp of a plant, <i>Marsilea quadrifolia</i>, Linn., used as food by the aboriginals, and sometimes popularly called <i>Clover-fern</i>. The explorers Burke and Wills vainly sought the means of sustaining life by eating flour made from the spore-cases of nardoo. "Properly <i>Ngardu</i> in the Cooper's Creek language (Yantruwunta)." (A. W. Howitt.) Cooper's Creek was the district where Burke and Wills perished. In South Australia <i>Ardoo</i> is said to be the correct form. 1861. `Diary of H. J. Wills, the Explorer,' quoted in Brough Smyth's `Aborigines of Victoria,' p. 216: "I cannot understand this nardoo at all; it certainly will not agree with me in any form. We are now reduced to it alone, and we manage to get from four to five pounds a day between us. . . . It seems to give us no nutriment. . . . Starvation on nardoo is by no means very unpleasant, but for the weakness one feels and the utter inability to move oneself, for, as far as appetite is concerned, it gives me the greatest satisfaction." 1862. Andrew Jackson, `Burke and the Australian Exploring Expedition of 1860,' p. 186: "The [wheaten] flour, fifty pounds of which I gave them, they at once called `whitefellow nardoo,' and they explained that they understood that these things were given to them for having fed King." 1865. W. Howitt, `Discovery in Australia,' vol. ii. p. 247: "They now began to inquire of the blacks after the nardoo seed, imagining it the produce of a tree; and received from the natives some of their dried narcotic herbs, which they chew, called pitchery. They soon found the nardoo seed in abundance, on a flat, and congratulated themselves in the idea that on this they could subsist in the wilderness, if all other food failed, a hope in which they were doomed to a great disappointment." 1877. F. von Mueller, `Botanic Teachings,' p. 130: "Of <i>Marsiliaceae</i> we have well known examples in the nardoo (<i>Marsilea quadrifolia</i>, with many varieties), the foliage resembling that of a clover with four leaflets." 1878. R. Brough Smyth, `Aborigines of Victoria,' p. 209: "They seem to have been unacquainted generally with the use, as a food, of the clover-fern, Nardoo, though the natives of the North Western parts of Victoria must have had intercourse with the tribes who use it, and could have obtained it, sparingly, from the lagoons in their own neighbourhood." 1879. J. D. Wood, `Native Tribes of South Australia,' p. 288: "Ardoo, often described by writers as Nardoo. A very hard seed, a flat oval of about the size of a pea. It is crushed for food." 1879 (about). `Queensland Bush Song': "Hurrah for the Roma Railway! Hurrah for Cobb and Co.! Hurrah, hurrah for a good fat horse To carry me Westward Ho! To carry me Westward Ho! my boys; That's where the cattle pay, On the far Barcoo, where they eat nardoo, A thousand miles away." 1879. S. Gason, in `The Native Tribes of South Australia,' p. 288: "<i>Ardoo</i>. Often described in news papers and by writers as Nardoo. A very hard seed, a flat oval of about the size of a split pea; it is crushed or pounded, and the husk winnowed. In bad seasons this is the mainstay of the native sustenance, but it is the worst food possible, possessing very little nourishment, and being difficult to digest." 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Proceedings of the of the Linnaean Society of New South Wales,' p. 82 [Botanical Notes on Queensland]: "<i>Sesbania aculeata</i>. The seeds of this plant are eaten by the natives. It grows in all warm or marshy places in Queensland. By many it is thought that this was the Nardoo which Burke and Wills thought came from the spores of a <i>Marsilea</i>. It is hard to suppose that any nourishment would be obtained from the spore cases of the latter plant, or that the natives would use it. Besides this the spore-cases are so few in number." 1890. E. D. Cleland, `White Kangaroo,' p. 113: "The great thing with the blacks was nardoo. This is a plant which sends up slender stems several inches high; at the tip is a flower-like leaf, divided into four nearly equal parts. It bears a fruit, or seed, and this is the part used for food. It is pounded into meal between two stones, and is made up in the form of cakes, and baked in the ashes. It is said to be nourishing when eaten with animal food, but taken alone to afford no support." <hw>Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. This word, originally applied, as elsewhere, to the aboriginal inhabitants of Australia, is now used exclusively to designate white people born in Australia. The members of the "Australian Natives' Association" (A.N.A.), founded April 27, 1871, pride themselves on being Australian-born and not immigrants. Mr. Rudyard Kipling, in the `Times' of Nov. 1895, published a poem called " The Native-Born," sc. born in the British Empire, but outside Great Britain. As applied to Plants, Animals, Names, etc., the word <i>Native</i> bears its original sense, as in "Native Cabbage," "Native Bear," "Native name for," etc., though in the last case it is now considered more correct to say in Australia "Aboriginal name for," and in New Zealand "Maori name for." 1861. Mrs. Meredith, `Over the Straits,' c. v. p. 161: "Three Sydney natives (`currency' not aboriginal) were in the coach, bound for Melbourne." 1896. A. B. Paterson, `Man from Snowy River,' p. 43: "They were long and wiry natives from the rugged mountain side." <hw>Native</hw>, or <hw>Rock-Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name given to the fish called <i>Schnapper</i>, after it has ceased to "school." See <i>Schnapper</i>. <hw>Native Arbutus</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Wax-cluster</i>. <hw>Native Banana</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for <i>Lilly-pilly</i> (q.v.). <hw>Native Banyan</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for <i>Ficus rubiginosa</i>. See <i>Fig</i>. <hw>Native Bear</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Bear</i>. <hw>Native Beech</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Beech</i>. <hw>Native Blackberry</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Blackberry</i>. <hw>Native Borage</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Borage</i>. <hw>Native Box</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Box</i>. <hw>Native Bread</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Bread</i>. <hw>Native Broom</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Broom</i>. <hw>Native Burnet</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Burnet</i>. <hw>Native Cabbage</hw>, <i>n</i>. The <i>Nasturtium palustre</i>, De C., <i>N.O. Cruciferae</i>, is so called, but in spite of its name it is not endemic in Australia. In New Zealand, the name is sometimes applied to the <i>Maori Cabbage</i> (q.v.). <hw>Native Carrot</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Carrot</i>. <hw>Native Cascarilla</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Cascarilla</i>. <hw>Native Cat</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Cat</i>. <hw>Native Celery</hw>, or <hw>Australian Celery</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Celery</i>. <hw>Native Centaury</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Centaury</i>. <hw>Native Cherry</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Cherry</i>. <hw>Native-Companion</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian bird-name, <i>Grus australasianus</i>, Gould. See also <i>Crane</i>. 1845. R. Howitt, `Australia,' p. 125: "Here we saw the native-companion, a large bird of the crane genus . . . five feet high, colour of the body grey, the wings darker, blue or black." 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 38: "With native-companions (<i>Ardea antigone</i>) strutting round." 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. vi. pl. 48: "<i>Grus Australasianus</i>, Gould, Australian Crane; Native-Companion of the Colonists." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 146: "A handsome tame `native-companion,' which had been stalking about picking up insects, drew near. Opening his large slate-coloured wings, and dancing grotesquely, the interesting bird approached his young mistress, bowing gracefully from side to side as he hopped lightly along; then running up, he laid his heron-like head lovingly against her breast." 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 21: "The most extraordinary of Riverina birds is the native-companion." 1890. Tasma, `In her Earliest Youth,' p. 145: "A row of native-companions, of course, standing on one leg-- as is their wont--like recruits going to drill." [Query, did the writer mean going "through" drill.] 1891. `Guide to Zoological Gardens, Melbourne,' p. 23: "In this paddock are some specimens of the Native Companion, whose curious habit of assembling in groups on the plains and fantastically dancing, has attracted much attention. This peculiarity is not confined to them alone, however, as some of the other large cranes (notably the crowned cranes of Africa) display the same trait." <hw>Native Cranberry</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Cranberry</i>. <hw>Native Currant</hw>, <i>n</i>. See under <i>Currant</i>. <hw>Native Daisy</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Daisy</i>. <hw>Native Damson</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Damson</i>. <hw>Native Dandelion</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Dandelion</i>. <hw>Native Daphne</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Daphne</i>. <hw>Native Date</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Date</i>. <hw>Native Deal</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Deal</i>. <hw>Native Dog</hw>, <i>n</i>. Another name for the <i>Dingo</i> (q.v.). <hw>Native Elderberry</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Elderberry</i>. <hw>Native Flag</hw>, <i>n</i>. See under <i>Flax, Native</i>, and <i>New Zealand</i>. <hw>Native Fuchsia</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Fuchsia</i>. <hw>Native Furze</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Hakea</i>. <hw>Native Ginger</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Ginger</i>. <hw>Native Grape</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Grape, Gippsland</i>. <hw>Native-hen</hw>, <i>n</i>. name applied to various species of the genus <i>Tribonyx</i> (q.v.). The Australian species are-- <i>Tribonyx mortieri</i>, Du Bus., called by Gould the <i>Native Hen</i> of the Colonists; Black-tailed N.-h., <i>T. ventralis</i>, Gould; and in Tasmania, <i>Tribonyx gouldi</i>, Sclater. See <i>Tribonyx</i>. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. vi. pl. 71: "<i>Tribonyx Mortierii</i>, Du Bus., native-hen of the colonists." <hw>Native Hickory</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Hickory</i>. <hw>Native Holly</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Holly</i>. <hw>Native Hops</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Hops</i>. <hw>Native Hyacinth</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Hyacinth</i>. <hw>Native Indigo</hw>. <i>n</i>. See <i>Indigo</i>. <hw>Native Ivy</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Ivy</i>, and <i>Grape, Macquarie Harbour</i>. <hw>Native Jasmine</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Jasmine</i>. <hw>Native Juniper</hw>, <i>n</i>. Same as <i>Native Currant</i>. See under <i>Currant</i>. <hw>Native Kumquat</hw>, <i>n</i>. Same as <i>Desert Lemon</i> (q.v.). <hw>Native Laburnum</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Laburnum</i>. <hw>Native Laurel</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Laurel</i>. <hw>Native Lavender</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Lavender</i>. <hw>Native Leek</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Leek</i>. <hw>Native Lilac</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian plant. See <i>Lilac</i>. <hw>Native Lime</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Lime</i>. <hw>Native Lucerne</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Queensland Hemp</i>. See under <i>Hemp</i>. <hw>Native Mangrove</hw>, <i>n</i>. Tasmanian name for the <i>Boobialla</i> (q.v.). <hw>Native Mignonette</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Mignonette</i>. <hw>Native Millet</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Millet</i>. <hw>Native Mint</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Mint</i>. <hw>Native Mistletoe</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Mistletoe</i>. <hw>Native Mulberry</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Mulberry</i>. <hw>Native Myrtle</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Myrtle</i>. <hw>Native Nectarine</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Emu-Apple</i>. See under <i>Apple</i>. <hw>Native Oak</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Oak</i>. <hw>Native Olive</hw>, <i>n</i>. See under <i>Olive</i> and <i>Marblewood</i>. <hw>Native Onion</hw>, <i>n</i>. Same as <i>Native Leek</i>. See <i>Leek</i>. <hw>Native Orange</hw>, <i>n</i>. See under <i>Orange</i>. <hw>Native Passion-flower</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Passion-flower</i>. <hw>Native Peach</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Quandong</i> (q.v.). <hw>Native Pear</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Hakea</i> and <i>Pear</i>. <hw>Native Pennyroyal</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Pennyroyal</i>. <hw>Native Pepper</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Pepper</i>. <hw>Native Plantain</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Plantain</i>. <hw>Native Plum</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Plum, Wild</i>. <hw>Native Pomegranate</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Orange, Native</i>. <hw>Native Potato</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Potato</i>. <hw>Native Quince</hw>, <i>n</i>. Another name for <i>Emu-Apple</i>. See <i>Apple</i>. <hw>Native Raspberry</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Raspberry</i>. <hw>Native Rocket</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Rocket</i>. <hw>Native Sandalwood</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Sandalwood</i> and <i>Raspberry-Jam Tree</i>. <hw>Native Sarsaparilla</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Sarsaparilla</i>. <hw>Native Sassafras</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Sassafras</i>. <hw>Native Scarlet-runner</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Kennedya</i>. <hw>Native Shamrock</hw>. <i>n</i>. See <i>Shamrock</i>. <hw>Native Sloth</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Native Bear</i>. See <i>Bear</i>. <hw>Native Speedwell</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Speedwell</i>. <hw>Native Tamarind</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Tamarind-tree</i>. <hw>Native Tiger</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Tasmanian Tiger</i>. <hw>Native Tobacco</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Tobacco</i>. <hw>Native Tulip</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Waratah</i>. <hw>Native Turkey</hw>, <i>n</i>. Same as <i>Wild Turkey</i>. A vernacular name given to <i>Eupodotis australis</i>, Gray, which is not a turkey at all, but a true <i>Bustard</i>. See <i>Turkey</i>. <hw>Native Vetch</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Vetch</i>. <hw>Native Willow</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Boobialla</i> and <i>Poison-berry Tree</i>. <hw>Native Yam</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Yam</i>. <hw>Necho</hw>, and <hw>Neko</hw>. See <i>Nikau</i>. <hw>Nectarine, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for <i>Emu-Apple</i>. See <i>Apple</i>. <hw>Needle-bush</hw>, <i>n</i>. name applied to two Australian trees, <i>Hakea leucoptera</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Proteaceae</i>; called also <i>Pin-bush</i> and <i>Water-tree</i> (q.v.) and <i>Beefwood</i>; <i>Acacia rigens</i>, Cunn., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i> (called also <i>Nealie</i>). Both trees have fine sharp spines. <hw>Negro-head</hw> Beech, <i>n</i>. See <i>Beech</i>. <hw>Neinei</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for New Zealand shrub, <i>Dracophyllum longifolium</i>, R. Br., also <i>D. traversii</i>, <i>N.O. Epacrideae</i>. 1865. J. Von Haast, `A Journey to the West Coast, 1865' (see `Geology of Westland,' p. 78): "An undescribed superb tree like <i>Dracophyllum</i>, not unlike the <i>D. latifolium</i> of the North Island, began to appear here. The natives call it <i>nene</i>. (Named afterwards <i>D. traversii</i> by Dr. Hooker.) It has leaves a foot long running out into a slender point, of a reddish brown colour at the upper part, between which the elegant flower- panicle comes forth." 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand,' p. 128: "Neinei, an ornamental shrub-tree, with long grassy leaves. Wood white, marked with satin-like specks, and adapted for cabinet-work." 1888. J. Adams, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. xxi. art. ii. p. 40: "On the flat and rounded top the tallest plants are stunted neinei." <hw>Nephrite</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Greenstone</i>. <hw>Nestor</hw>, <i>n</i>. scientific name for a genus of New Zealand Parrots. See <i>Kaka</i> and <i>Kea</i>. 1863. S. Butler, `First Year in Canterbury Settlement,' p. 58: "There was a kind of dusky, brownish-green parrot too, which the scientific call a Nestor. What they mean by this name I know not. To the unscientific it is a rather dirty-looking bird, with some bright red feathers under its wings. It is very tame, sits still to be petted, and screams like a parrot." <hw>Nettle-tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. Two species of <i>Laportea</i>, <i>N.O. Urticaceae</i>, large scrub-trees, are called by this name--Giant Nettle, <i>L. gigas</i>, Wedd., and Small-leaved Nettle, <i>L. photiniphylla</i>, Wedd.; they have rigid stinging hairs. These are both species of such magnitude as to form timber-trees. A third, <i>L. moroides</i>, Wedd., is a small tree, with the stinging hairs extremely virulent. See also preceding words. /??/ 1849. J. P. Townsend, `Rambles in New South Wales,' p. 34: "In the scrubs is found a tree, commonly called the nettle- tree (<i>Urtica gigas</i>). It is often thirty feet in height, and has a large, broad, green leaf. It is appropriately named; and the pain caused by touching the leaf is, I think, worse than that occasioned by the sting of a wasp." <hw>Never, Never Country</hw>, or <hw>Never, Never Land</hw>. See quotations. Mr. Cooper's explanation (1857 quotation) is not generally accepted. 1857. F. de Brebant Cooper, `Wild Adventures in Australia,' p. 68: "With the aid of three stock-keepers, soon after my arrival at Illarrawarra, I had the cattle mustered, and the draft destined for the Nievah vahs ready for for the road." [Footnote]: "Nievah vahs, sometimes incorrectly pronounced never nevers, a Comderoi term signifying unoccupied land." 1884. A. W. Stirling, `The Never Never Land: a Ride in North Queensland,' p. 5: "The `Never Never Land,' as the colonists call all that portion of it [Queensland] which lies north or west of Cape Capricorn." 1887. Cassell's `Picturesque Australasia,' vol. i. p. 279: "In very sparsely populated country, such as the district of Queensland, known as the Never Never Country--presumably because a person, who has once been there, invariably asseverates that he will never, never, on any consideration, go back." 1890. J. S. O'Halloran, Secretary Royal Colonial Institute, <i>apud</i> Barrere and Leland: "The Never, Never Country means in Queensland the occupied pastoral country which is furthest removed from the more settled districts." 1890. A. J. Vogan, `The Black Police,' p. 85: "The weird `Never, Never Land,' so called by the earliest pioneers from the small chance they anticipated, on reaching it, of ever being able to return to southern civilization." <hw>Newberyite</hw>, <i>n</i>. [Named after J. Cosmo Newbery of Melbourne.] "A hydrous phosphate of magnesium occurring in orthorhombic crystals in the bat-guano of the Skipton Caves, Victoria." (`Century.') <hw>New Chum</hw>, <i>n</i>. a new arrival, especially from the old country: generally used with more or less contempt; what in the United States is called a `tenderfoot.' 1839. T. L. Mitchell, `Three Expeditions,' vol. i. p. 99: "He was also what they termed a `new chum,' or one newly arrived." 1846. C. P. Hodgson, `Reminiscences of Australia,' p. 366: "`New Chum,' in opposition to `Old Chum.' The former `cognomen' peculiarizing [sic] the newly-arrived Emigrant; the latter as a mark of respect attached to the more experienced Colonist." 1855. `How to Settle in Victoria,' p. 15: "They appear to suffer from an apprehension of being under- sold, or in some other way implicated by the inexperience of, as they call him, the `new chum.'" 1865. `Once a Week,' `The Bulla Bulla Bunyip': "I was, however, comparatively speaking, a `new chum,' and therefore my explanation of the mystery met with scant respect." 1874. W. M. B., `Narrative of Edward Crewe,' p. 17: "To be a new chum is not agreeable--it is something like being a new boy at school--you are bored with questions for some time after your arrival as to how you like the place, and what you are going to do; and people speak to you in a pitying and patronizing manner, smiling at your real or inferred simplicity in colonial life, and altogether `sitting upon' you with much frequency and persistence." 1885. R. M. Praed, `Head Station,' p. 32: "A new chum is no longer a new chum when he can plait a stock-whip." 1886. P. Clarke [Title]: "The New Chum in Australia." 1887. W. S. S. Tyrwhitt [Title]: "The New Chum in the Queensland Bush." 1890. Tasma, `In her Earliest Youth,' p. 152: "I've seen such a lot of those new chums, one way and another. They knock down all their money at the first go-off, and then there's nothing for them to do but to go and jackaroo up in Queensland." 1891. Rolf Boldrewood, `A Sydney-side Saxon,' p. 4: "The buggy horse made a bolt of it when a new-chum Englishman was driving her." 1892. Mrs. H. E. Russell, `Too Easily jealous,' p. 155: "One man coolly told me it was because I was a new chum, just as though it were necessary for a fellow to rusticate for untold ages in these barbarous solitudes, before he is allowed to give an opinion on any subject connected with the colonies." <hw>New Chumhood</hw>, <i>n</i>. the period and state of being a <i>New Chum</i>. 1883. W. Jardine Smith, in `Nineteenth Century,' November, p. 849: "The `bumptiousness' observable in the early days of `new chumhood.'" <hw>New Holland</hw>, <i>n</i>. the name, now extinct, first given to Australia by Dutch explorers. 1703. Capt. William Dampier,' Voyages,' vol. iii. [Title]: "A Voyage to New Holland, &c., in the Year 1699." 1814. M. Flinders, `Voyage to Terra Australis,' Intro. p. ii: "The vast regions to which this voyage was principally directed, comprehend, in the western part, the early discoveries of the Dutch, under the name of New Holland; and in the east, the coasts explored by British navigators, and named New South Wales." 1845. J. O. Balfour, `Sketch of New South Wales,' p. 2: "The Spaniards at the commencement of the seventeenth century were the discoverers of New Holland; and from them it received the name of Australia. It subsequently, however, obtained its present name of New Holland from the Dutch navigators, who visited it a few years afterwards." [The Spaniards did <i>not</i> call New Holland <i>Australia</i> (q.v.). The Spaniard Quiros gave the name of <i>Australia del Espiritu Santo</i> to one of the New Hebrides (still known as Espiritu Santo), thinking it to be part of the `Great South Land.' See Captain Cook's remarks on this subject in `Hawkesworth's Voyages,' vol. iii. p. 602.] 1850. J. Bonwick, `Geography for Australian Youth,' p. 6: "Australasia, or Australia, consists of the continent of New Holland, or Australia, the island of Tasmania, or Van Diemen's Land, and the islands of New Zealand." [In the map accompanying the above work `<i>Australia</i>' is printed across the whole continent, and in smaller type <i>`New Holland</i>' stretches along the Western half, and `<i>New South Wales</i>' along the whole of the Eastern.] <hw>New South Wales</hw>, <i>n</i>. the name of the oldest and most important colony in Australia. The name "New Wales" was first given by Captain Cook in 1770, from the supposed resemblance of the coast to that of the southern coast of Wales; but before his arrival in England he changed the name to "New South Wales." It then applied to all the east of the continent. Victoria and Queensland have been taken out of the parent colony. It is sometimes called by the slang name of <i>Eastralia</i>, as opposed to <i>Westralia</i> (q.v). <hw>New Zealand</hw>, <i>n</i>. This name was given to the colony by Abel Jansz Tasman, the Dutch navigator, who visited it in 1642. He first called it <i>Staaten-land</i>. It is now frequently called <i>Maoriland</i> (q.v.). <hw>New Zealand Spinach</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Spinach</i>. <hw>Ngaio, <i</hw>>n</i>. Maori name for a New Zealand tree, <i>Myoporum laetum</i>, Forst.; generally corrupted into <i>Kaio</i>, in South Island. 1873. `Catalogue of Vienna Exhibition': "Ngaio: wood light, white and tough, used for gun-stocks." 1876. J. C. Crawford, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. ix. art. xiv. p. 206: "A common New Zealand shrub, or tree, which may be made useful for shelter, viz. the Ngaio." 1880. W. Colenso, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. xiii. art. i. p. 33: "The fruits of several species of Rubus, and of the Ngaio (<i>Myoporum laetum</i>), were also eaten, especially by children." 1892. `Otago Witness,' Nov. 3, `Native Trees': "<i>Myoporum Laetum (Ngaio</i>). This is generally called kio by colonists. It is a very rapid-growing tree for the first five or six years after it has been planted. They are very hardy, and like the sea air. I saw these trees growing at St. Kilda, near Melbourne, thirty years ago." <hw>Nicker Nuts</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Bonduc Nuts</i> (q.v.). <hw>Nigger</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian black or aboriginal. [Of course an incorrect use. He is not a negro, any more than the Hindoo is.] 1874. M. C., `Explorers,' p. 25: "I quite thought the niggers had made an attack." 1891. `The Argus,' Nov. 7, p. 13, col. 5: "The natives of Queensland are nearly always spoken of as `niggers' by those who are brought most directly in contact with them." <hw>Nigger-head</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) Name given in New Zealand to hard blackstones found at the Blue Spur and other mining districts. They are prized for their effectiveness in aiding cement-washing. The name is applied in America to a round piece of basic igneous rock. (2) Name used in Queensland for blocks of coral above water. 1876. Capt. J. Moresby, R. N., `Discoveries and Surveys in New Guinea,' pp. 2-3: "The gigantic Barrier Reef is submerged in parts, generally to a shallow depth, and traceable only by the surf that breaks on it, out of which a crowd of `nigger heads,' black points of coral rock, peep up in places . . ." 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish of New South Wales,' p. 111: "Abundantly on the Queensland coast, especially on the coral reefs, where all the outstanding blocks of coral (nigger-heads) are covered with them." <hw>Nightjar</hw>, <i>n</i>. English bird-name, applied in Australia to the following species-- Large-tailed Nightjar-- <i>Caprimulgus macrurus</i>, Hors. Little N.-- <i>AEgotheles novae-hollandiae</i>, Gould. Spotted N.-- <i>Eurostopodus guttatus</i>, Vig. and Hors. White-throated N.-- <i>E. albogularis</i>, Vig. and Hors. <hw>Nikau</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a New Zealand palm-tree, <i>Areca sapida</i>, <i>N.O. Palmeae</i>. Spelt also <i>Necho</i> and <i>Neko</i>. 1843. `An Ordinance for imposing a tax on Raupo Houses, Session II. No. xvii. of the former legislative Council of New Zealand': [From A. Domett's collection of Ordinances, 1850.] "Section 2. . . . there shall be levied in respect of every building constructed wholly or in part of <i>raupo, nikau, toitoi</i>, <i>wiwi, kakaho</i>, straw or thatch of any description [ . . . L20]." 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' c. i. p. 270: [The house was] "covered with thick coating of the leaves of the nikau (a kind of palm) and tufts of grass." 1854. W. Golder, `Pigeons' Parliament,' [Note] p. 75: "The <i>necho</i> or <i>neko</i> is a large tree-like plant known elsewhere as the mountain cabbage." 1862. `All the Year Round,' `From the Black Rocks on Friday,' May 17, No. 160: "I found growing, as I expected, amongst the trees abundance of the wild palm or nikau. The heart of one or two of these I cut out with my knife. The heart of this palm is about the thickness of a man's wrist, is about a foot long, and tastes not unlike an English hazel-nut, when roasted on the ashes of a fire. It is very nutritious." 1882. T. H. Potts, `Out in the Open,' p. 86: "The pale green pinnate-leaved nikau." 1888. Cassell's `Picturesque Australasia,' vol. iii. p. 210: "With the exception of the kauri and the nekau-palm nearly every tree which belongs to the colony grows in the `seventy-mile bush' of Wellington." <hw>Nipper</hw>, <i>n</i>. local name in Sydney for <i>Alphaeus socialis</i>, Heller, a species of prawn. <hw>Nobbler</hw>, <i>n</i>. a glass of spirits; lit. that which nobbles or gets hold of you. Nobble is the frequentative form of <i>nab</i>. No doubt there is an allusion to the bad spirits frequently sold at bush public-houses, but if a teetotaler had invented the word he could not have invented one involving stronger condemnation. 1852. G. F. P., `Gold Pen and Pencil Sketches,' canto xiv.: "The summit gained, he pulls up at the Valley, To drain a farewell `nobbler' to his Sally." 1859. Frank Fowler, `Southern Lights and Shadows,' p. 52: "To pay for liquor for another is to `stand,' or to `shout,' or to `sacrifice.' The measure is called a `nobbler,' or a `break-down.'" 1873. A. Trollope, `Australia and New Zealand,' vol. ii. p. 201: "A nobbler is the proper colonial phrase for a drink at a public-house." 1876. J. Brenchley, `May Bloom,' p. 80: "And faster yet the torrents flow Of nobblers bolted rapidly." 1880. Fison and Howitt, `Kamilaroi and Kurnai,' p. 249: "When cruising about . . . with a crew of Kurnai . . . I heard two of my men discussing where we could camp, and one, on mentioning a place, said, speaking his own language, that there was `le-en (good) nobler.' I said, `there is no nobler there.' He then said in English, `Oh! I meant water.' On inquiry I learned that a man named Yan (water) had died shortly, before, and that not liking to use that word, they had to invent a new one." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 36: "Only to pull up again at the nearest public-house, to the veranda of which his horse's bridle was hung until he had imbibed a nobbler or two." <hw>Nobblerise</hw>, v. to drink frequent <i>nobblers</i> (q.v.). 1864. J. Rogers, `The New Rush,' p. 51: "And oft a duffer-dealing digger there Will nobblerize in jerks of small despair . ." 1882. A. J. Boyd, `Old Colonials,' p. 268: "The institution of `nobblerising' is carried out in far different places." <hw>Noddy</hw>, <i>n</i>. common English name for the sea-bird. The species observed in Australia are-- The Noddy-- <i>Anous stolidus</i>, Linn. Black-cheeked N.-- <i>A. melanogenys</i>, Gray. Grey N.-- <i>A. cinereus</i>, Gould. Lesser N.-- <i>A. tenuirostris</i>, Temm. White-capped N.-- <i>A. leucocapillus</i>, Gould. <hw>Nonda</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for a tree, <i>Parinarium Nonda</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Rosaceae</i>, of Queensland. It has an edible, mealy fruit, rather like a plum. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 315: "We called this tree the `Nonda,' from its resemblance to a tree so called by the natives in the Moreton Bay district." <hw>Noogoora Bur</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Queensland plant, <i>Xanthium strumarium</i>, Linn., <i>N.O. Compositae</i>. <hw>Noon-flower</hw>, <i>n</i>. a rare name for the <i>Mesembryanthemum</i>. See <i>Pig-face</i>. 1891. `The Argus,' Dec. 19, p. 4, col. 2: "The thick-leaved noon-flower that swings from chalk cliffs and creek banks in the auriferous country is a delectable salad." <hw>Norfolk Island Pine</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Pine</i>. <hw>Note</hw>, <i>n</i>. short for Bank-note, and always used for a one-pound note, the common currency. A note = L1. 1864. J. Rogers, `New Rush,' pt. ii. p. 28: "A note's so very trifling, it's no sooner chang'd than gone; For it is but twenty shillings." 1875. Wood and Lapham, `Waiting for Mail,' p. 39: "And even at half fifty notes a week You ought to have made a pile." 1884. Marcus Clarke, `Memorial Volume,' p. 92: "I lent poor Dick Snaffle a trotting pony I had, and he sold him for forty notes." <hw>Notornis</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bird of New Zealand allied to the <i>Porphyrio</i> (q.v.), first described from a fossil skull by Professor Owen (1848), and then thought to be extinct, like the Moa. Professor Owen called the bird <i>Notornis mantelli</i>, and, curiously enough, Mr. Walter Mantell, in whose honour the bird was named, two years afterwards captured a live specimen; a third specimen was captured in 1879. The word is from the Greek <i>notos</i>, south, and <i>'ornis</i>, bird. The Maori names were <i>Moho</i> and <i>Takahe</i> (q.v.). <hw>Notoryctes</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name of the genus to which belongs the <i>Marsupial Mole</i> (q.v.). <hw>Nugget</hw>, <i>n</i>. a lump of gold. The noun nugget is not Australian, though often so supposed. Skeat (`Etymological Dictionary,' s.v.) gives a quotation from North's `Plutarch' with the word in a slightly different shape, viz., <i>niggot</i>. "The word nugget was in use in Australia many years before the goldfields were heard of. A thick-set young beast was called `a good nugget.' A bit of a fig of tobacco was called `a nugget of tobacco.'" (G. W. Rusden.) 1852. Sir W. T. Denison, `Proceedings of the Royal Society of Van Diemen s Land,' vol. ii. p. 203: `In many instances it is brought to market in lumps, or `nuggets' as they are called, which contain, besides the gold alloyed with some metal, portions of quartz or other extraneous material, forming the matrix in which the gold was originally deposited, or with which it had become combined accidentally." 1869. Marcus Clarke, `Peripatetic Philosopher' (reprint), p. 51: "They lead a peaceful, happy, pastoral life--dig in a hole all day, and get drunk religiously at night. They are respected, admired, and esteemed. Suddenly they find a nugget, and lo! the whole tenor of their life changes." <hw>Nugget</hw>, v. Queensland slang. See quotation. 1887. R. M. Praed, `Longleat of Kooralbyn,' c. iii. p. 25: "To nugget: in Australian slang, to appropriate your neighbours' unbranded calves." Ibid. c. xviii. p. 182: "If he does steal a calf now and then, I know several squatters who are given to nuggeting." <hw>Nuggety</hw>, <i>adj</i>. applied to a horse or a man. Short, thick-set and strong. See G. W. Rusden's note under <i>Nugget</i>. 1896. Private Letter, March 2: "<i>Nuggety</i> is used in the same sense as <i>Bullocky</i> (q.v.), but with a slight difference of meaning, what we should say `compact.' <i>Bullocky</i> has rather a sense of over-strength inducing an awkwardness of movement. <i>Nuggety</i> does not include the last suggestion." <hw>Nulla-nulla</hw>, <i>n</i>. (spellings various) aboriginal name. A battle club of the aborigines in Australia. 1839. T. L. Mitchell, `Three Expeditions into the Interior of Eastern Australia,' vol. i. p. 71: "He then threw a club, or <i>nulla-nulla</i>, to the foot of the tree." 1853. C. Harpur, `Creek of the Four Graves': "Under the crushing stroke Of huge clubbed nulla-nullas." 1873. J. B. Stephens, `Black Gin,' p. 61: "Lay aside thy nullah-nullahs Is there war betwixt us two?" 1885. R. M. Praed, `Australian Life,' p. 9: "The blacks . . . battered in his skull with a nulla-nulla." 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 11: "They would find fit weapons for ghastly warriors in the long white shank-bones gleaming through the grass--appropriate gnulla-gnullas and boomerangs." 1889. P. Beveridge, `Aborigines of Victoria and Riverina,' p. 67: "The nulla-nulla is another bludgeon which bears a distinctive character . . . merely a round piece of wood, three feet long and two and a half inches thick, brought to a blunt point at the end. The mallee is the wood from which it is generally made." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 72: "I frequently saw another weapon, the `nolla-nolla' or club, the warlike weapon of the Australian native most commonly in use. It is a piece of hard and heavy wood sharpened to a point at both ends. One end is thick and tapers gradually to the other end, which is made rough in order to give the hand a more secure hold; in using he weapon the heavy end is thrown back before it is hurled." 1892. J. Fraser, `Aborigines of New South Wales,' p. 73: "One of the simplest of Australian clubs, the `nulla-nulla' resembles the root of a grass-tree in the shape of its head . . . in shape something like a child's wicker-rattle." <hw>Nut</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) Slang. Explained in quotation. 1882. A. J. Boyd, `Old Colonials,' p. 60: "The peculiar type of the Australian native (I do not mean the aboriginal blackfellow, but the Australian white), which has received the significant <i>sobriquet</i> of `The Nut,' may be met with to all parts of Australia, but more particularly . . . in far-off inland bush townships. . . . What is a Nut? . . . Imagine a long, lank, lantern jawed, whiskerless, colonial youth . . . generally nineteen years of age, with a smooth face, destitute of all semblance of a crop of `grass,' as he calls it in his vernacular." (2) Dare-devil, etc. "Tommy the Nut" was the <i>alias</i> of the prisoner who, according to the story, was first described as "a-larrikin," by Sergeant Dalton. See <i>Larrikin</i>. <hw>Nut, Bonduc</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Bonduc Nut</i>. <hw>Nut, Burrawang</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Burrawang</i>. <hw>Nut, Candle</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Candle-nut</i>. <hw>Nut, Nicker</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Bonduc Nut</i>. <hw>Nut, Queensland</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Queensland Nut</i>. <hw>Nut, Union</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Union Nut</i>. <hw>Nut-Grass</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian plant, <i>Cyperus rotundus</i>, Linn., <i>N.O. Cyperaceae</i>. The specific and the vernacular name both refer to the round tubers of the plant; it is also called <i>Erriakura</i> (q.v.). <hw>Nutmeg, Queensland</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Queensland Nutmeg</i>. <hw>Nut-Palm</hw>, <i>n</i>. a tree, <i>Cycas media</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Cycadeae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 21: "Nut-Palm. Employed by the aborigines as food. An excellent farina is obtained from it." O Oak, <i>n</i>. The Oak of the Northern Hemisphere (<i>Quercus</i>) is not found among the indigenous trees of Australia; but the name <i>Oak</i> is applied there to the trees of the genus <i>Casuarina</i> (q.v.), and usually in the curious form of <i>She-Oak</i> (q.v.). The species have various appellations in various parts, such as <i>Swamp-Oak</i>, <i>River-Oak</i>, <i>Bull-Oak</i>, <i>Desert-Oak</i>; and even the word <i>He-Oak</i> is applied sometimes to the more imposing species of <i>She-Oak</i>, though it is not recognised by Maiden, whilst the word <i>Native Oak</i> is indiscriminately applied to them all. The word <i>Oak</i> is further extended to a few trees, not <i>Casuarinae</i>, given below; and in New Zealand it is also applied to <i>Matipo</i> (q.v.) and <i>Titoki</i>, or <i>Alectryon</i> (q.v.). The following table of the various trees receiving the name of Oak is compiled from J. H. Maiden's `Useful Native Plants'-- Bull-Oak-- <i>Casuarina equisetifolia</i>, Forst.; <i>C. glauca</i>, Sieb. Forest-O.-- <i>Casuarina equisetifolia</i>, Forst.; <i>C. suberosa</i>; Otto and Diet.; <i>C. torulosa</i>, Ait. Mountain-O.-- Queensland name for <i>Casuarina torulosa</i>, Ait. River Black-O.-- <i>Casuarina suberosa</i>, Otto and Diet. River-O.-- <i>Callistemon salignus</i>, De C., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>; <i>Casuarina cunninghamii</i>, Miq.; <i>C. distyla</i>, Vent.; <i>C. stricta</i>, Ait.; <i>C. torulosa</i>, Ait. Scrub Silky-O.-- <i>Villaresia moorei</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Olacineae</i>. Called also <i>Maple</i>. She-Oak:-- Coast S.-O.-- <i>Casuarina stricta</i>, Desert S.-0.-- <i>C. glauca</i>, Sieb. Erect S.-O.-- <i>C. suberosa</i>, Otto and Diet. River S.-O.-- <i> C. glauca</i>, Sieb. Scrub S.-O.-- <i>C. cunninghamii</i>, Miq. Stunted S.-O.-- <i>C. distyla</i>, Vent. Shingle-O.-- <i>Casuarina stricta</i>, Ait.; <i>C. suberosa</i>, Otto and Diet. Silky-O.-- <i>Stenocarpus salignus</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Proteaceae</i>; called also <i>Silvery-Oak</i>. See also <i>Grevillea</i> and <i>Silky-Oak</i>. Swamp-O.-- <i>Casuarina equisetifolia</i>, Forst.; <i>C. glauca</i>, Sieb.; <i>C. suberosa</i>, Otto and Diet.; <i>C. stricta</i>, Ait.; called also <i>Saltwater Swamp-Oak</i>. White-O.-- <i>Lagunaria patersoni</i>, G. Don., <i>N.O. Malvaceae</i>. <i>Botany-Bay Oak</i>, or <i>Botany-Oak</i>, is the name given in the timber trade to the <i>Casuarina</i> . The `Melbourne Museum Catalogue of Economic Woods' (1894) classes the <i>She-Oak</i> in four divisions-- Desert She-Oak-- <i>Casuarina glauca</i>, Sieb. Drooping S.-O.-- <i>C. quadrivalvis</i>, Labill. Shrubby S.-O.-- <i>C. distyla</i>, Vent. Straight S.-O.-- <i>C. suberosa</i>, Otto. 1770. Captain Cook, `Journal,' Sunday, May 6 (edition Wharton, 1893, pp. 247, 248): "The great quantity of plants Mr. Banks and Dr. Solander found in this place occasioned my giving it the name of Botany Bay. . . . Although wood is here in great plenty, yet there is very little Variety; . . . Another sort that grows tall and Strait something like Pines--the wood of this is hard and Ponderous, and something of the Nature of America live Oak." 1770. R. Pickersgill, `Journal on the Endeavour' (in `Historical Records of New South Wales'), p. 215: "May 5, 1770.--We saw a wood which has a grain like Oak, and would be very durable if used for building; the leaves are like a pine leaf." 1802. Jas. Flemming, `Journal of Explorations of Charles Grimes,' in `Historical Records of Port Phillip' (edition 1879, J. J. Shillinglaw), p. 22: "The land is a light, black-sand pasture, thin of timber, consisting of gum, oak, Banksia, and thorn." [This combination of timbers occurs several times in the `Journal.' It is impossible to decide what Mr. Flemming meant by Oak.] 1839. T. L. Mitchell, `Three Expeditions,' vol. i. p. 38: "We found lofty blue-gum trees (<i>Eucalyptus</i>) growing on the flats near the Peel, whose immediate banks were overhung by the dense, umbrageous foliage of the casuarina, or `river-oak' of the colonists." 1845. J. O. Balfour, `Sketch of New South Wales,' p. 38: "The river-oak grows on the banks and rivers, and having thick foliage, forms a pleasant and useful shade for cattle during the heat of the day; it is very hard and will not split. The timber resembles in its grain the English oak, and is the only wood in the colony well adapted for making felloes of wheels, yokes for oxen, and staves for casks." 1846. C. Holtzapffel, `Turning,' p. 75: "Botany-Bay Oak, sometimes called Beef-wood, is from New South Wales. . . . In general colour it resembles a full red mahogany, with darker red veins." 1860. G. Bennett, `Gatherings of a Naturalist,' p. 323: "The <i>Casuarina</i> trees, with their leafless, thin, thread-like, articulated branches, have been compared to the arborescent horse-tails (<i>Equisetaceae</i>), but have a much greater resemblance to the Larch-firs; they have the colonial name of Oaks, which might be changed more appropriately to that of Australian firs. The dark, mournful appearance of this tree caused it to be planted in cemeteries. The flowers are unisexual; the fruit consists of hardened bracts with winged seeds. The wood of this tree is named Beef-wood by the colonists." 1862. H. C. Kendall, `Poems,' p. 56: "The wail in the native oak." 1878. W. R. Guilfoyle, `First Book of Australian Botany,' p. 54: "It may here be remarked that the term `oak' has been very inaptly--in fact ridiculously--applied by the early Australian settlers; notably in the case of the various species of <i>Casuarina</i>, which are commonly called `she-oaks." 1880. Fison and Howitt, `Kamilaroi and Kurnai,' p. 252: "They chose a tall He-oak, lopped it to a point." 1885. J. Hood, `Land of the Fern,' p. 53: "The sighing of the native oak, Which the light wind whispered through." 1892. A. Sutherland, `Elementary Geography of British Colonies,' p. 27: "A peculiar class of trees, called by the scientific name of <i>Casuarina</i>, is popularly known as oaks, `swamp-oaks,' `forest-oaks,' `she-oaks,' and so forth, although the trees are not the least like oaks. They are melancholy looking trees, with no proper leaves, but only green rods, like those of a pine-tree, except that they are much longer, and hang like the branches of a weeping-willow." <hw>Oak-Apple</hw>, <i>n</i>. the Cone of the <i>Casuarina</i> or <i>She-Oak</i> tree. 1862. G. T. Lloyd, `Thirty-three Years in Tasmania and Victoria,' p. 32: "The small apple of this tree (she-oak) is also dark green . . . both apple and leaf are as acid as the purest vinegar. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 15: "In cases of severe thirst, great relief may be obtained from chewing the foliage of this and other species [of <i>Casuarina</i>], which, being of an acid nature, produces a flow of saliva--a fact well-known to bushmen who have traversed waterless portions of the country. This acid is closely allied to citric acid, and may prove identical with it. Children chew the young cones, which they call `oak-apples.'" <hw>Oamaru Stone</hw>, <i>n</i>. Oamaru is a town on the east coast of the South Island of New Zealand. It produces a fine building stone. 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand', p. 64: "A white, granular limestone, called the Oamaru stone, is worked in extensive quarries in the Oamaru district. . . . A considerable quantity has been exported to Melbourne." <hw>Oat-Grass</hw>, <i>n</i>. <i>Anthistiria avenacea</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Gramineae</i>. A species of <i>Kangaroo- Grass</i> (q.v.). See also <i>Grass</i>. <hw>Oat-shell</hw>, <i>n</i>. the shell of various species of <i>Columbella</i>, a small marine mollusc used for necklaces. <hw>Oats, Wild</hw>, an indigenous grass, <i>Bromus arenarius</i>, Labill, <i>N.O. Gramineae</i>.Called also <i>Seaside Brome-Grass</i>. "It makes excellent hay." (Maiden, p. 79.) <hw>Officer Plant</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for <i>Christmas-Bush</i> (q.v.), so called "because of its bright red appearance." (Maiden, p. 404.) <hw>Old Chum</hw>, <i>n</i>. Not in common use: the opposite to a new chum. 1846. C. P. Hodgson, `Reminiscences of Australia,' p. 366: "`New chum,' in opposition to `old chum.' The former `cognomen' peculiarizing [sic] the newly-arrived emigrant; the latter as a mark of respect attached to the more experienced colonist." <hw>Old Hat</hw>, a Victorian political catch-word. 1895. `The Argus,' May 11, p. 8, col. 3: "Mr. Frank Stephen was the author of the well-known epithet `Old Hats,' which was applied to the rank and file of Sir James M'Culloch's supporters. The phrase had its origin through Mr. Stephen's declaration at an election meeting that the electors ought to vote even for an old hat if it were put forward in support of the M'Culloch policy." <hw>Old Lady</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to a moth, <i>Erebus Pluto</i>. <hw>Old Man</hw>, <i>n</i>. a full-grown male Kangaroo. The aboriginal corruption is <i>Wool-man</i>. 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. ii. p. 160: "To your great relief, however, the `old man' turns out to possess the appendage of a tail, and is in fact no other than one of our old acquaintances, the kangaroos." 1830. R. Dawson, `Present State of Australia,' p. 141: "If he (greyhound) has less ferocity when he comes up with an `old man,' so much the better. . . . The strongest and most courageous dog can seldom conquer a wool-man alone, and not one in fifty will face him fairly; the dog who has the temerity is certain to be disabled, if not killed." 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 33: "Mr. Gilbert started a large kangaroo known by the familiar name of `old man.'" 1861. T. McCombie, `Australian Sketches,' p. 172: "The settlers designate the old kangaroos as `old men' and `old women;' the full-grown animals are named `flyers,' and are swifter than the British hare." 1864. W. Westgarth, `Colony of Victoria,' p. 451: "The large kangaroo, the `old man,' as he is called, timorous of every unwonted sound that enters his large, erected ears, has been chased far from every busy seat of colonial industry." 1873. J. B. Stephens, `Black Gin,' p. 39: "Where the kangaroo gave hops, The old man fleetest of the fleet." 1893. `The Times,' [Reprint] `Letters from Queensland,' p. 66: "The animals, like the timber, too, are strange. Kangaroo and wallaby are as fond of grass as the sheep, and after a pelican's yawn there are few things funnier to witness than the career of an `old man' kangaroo, with his harem after him, when the approach of a buggy disturbs the family at their afternoon meal. Away they go, the little ones cantering briskly, he in a shaggy gallop, with his long tail stuck out for a balance, and a perpetual see-saw maintained between it and his short front paws, while the hind legs act as a mighty spring under the whole construction. The side and the back view remind you of a big St. Bernard dog, the front view of a rat. You begin an internal debate as to which he most resembles, and in the middle of it you find that he is sitting up on his haunches, which gives him a secure height of from five to six feet, and is gravely considering you with the air of the old man he is named from." Old-Man, <i>adj</i>. large, or bigger than usual. Compare the next two words. 1845. R. Howitt, `Australia,' p. 233: "I stared at a man one day for saying that a certain allotment of land was `an old-man allotment': he meant a large allotment, the old-man kangaroo being the largest kangaroo." 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 7: "Who that has ridden across the Old-Man Plain . . ." <hw>Old-Man Fern</hw>, a Bush-name in Tasmania for the <i>Tree-fern</i> (q.v.). <Mhw>Old-Man Salt-Bush</hw>, <i>Atriplex nummularium</i>, Lindl. See <i>Salt-Bush</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 118: "One of the tallest and most fattening and wholesome of Australian pastoral salt-bushes; also highly recommended for cultivation, as natural plants. By close occupation of the sheep and cattle runs, have largely disappeared, and as this useful bush is not found in many parts of Australia, sheep and cattle depastured on saltbush country are said to remain free of fluke, and get cured of Distoma-disease, and of other allied ailments (Mueller)." <hw>Old-Wife</hw>, <i>n</i>. a New South Wales fish, <i>Enoplosus armatus</i>, White, family <i>Percidae</i>. The local name <i>Old-Wife</i> in England is given to a quite different fish, one of the Sea-Breams. 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish of New South Wales,' p. 32: "The `old-wife' (<i>Enoplosus armatus</i>, White) is another fish which from its small size is not esteemed nearly so highly as it ought to be. It is a most exquisite fish." <hw>Olive, Mock</hw>, i.q. <i>Axe-breaker</i> (q.v.). <hw>Olive, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. one of the many names given to four trees-- <i>Bursaria spinosa</i>, Cav., <i>N.O. Pittosporeae</i>,; <i>Elaeocarpus cyaneus</i>, Ait., <i>N.O. Tiliaceae</i>; <i>Notelaea ovala</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Jasmineae</i>,; and, in Queensland, to <i>Olea paniculata</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Jasmineae</i>,, a tree of moderate size, with ovoid fruit resembling a small common Olive. <hw>Olive, Spurious</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the tree <i>Notelaea ligustrina</i>, Vent. See <i>Ironwood</i>. <hw>On</hw>, <i>prep</i>. Used for <i>In</i>, in many cases, especially of towns which sprang from Goldfields, and where the original phrase was, e.g. "on the Ballarat diggings, or goldfield." Thus, an inhabitant still speaks of living <i>On</i> Ballarat, <i>On</i> Bendigo; <i>On</i> South Melbourne (formerly Emerald Hill). 1869. J. F. Blanche, `The Prince's Visit,' p. 21: "When came Victoria's son on Ballarat." 1896. H. Lawson, `While the Billy boils, etc.' p. 3: "After tea they would sit on a log of the wood-heap, . . and yarn about Ballarat and Bendigo--of the days when we spoke of being `on' a place oftener than `at' it: <i>on</i> Ballarat, <i>on</i> Gulgong, <i>on</i> Lambing Flat, <i>on</i> Creswick." <hw>Onion, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Native Leek</i>. See <i>Leek</i>. <hw>Onychogale</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name of the genus containing the <i>Nail-tailed Wallabies</i> (q.v.). They derive their name from the presence of a peculiar horny appendage to their tails. (Grk. <i>'onux, 'onuchos</i>, a claw, and <i>galae</i>, a weasel.) For the species, see <i>Wallaby</i>. <hw>Opossum</hw>, <i>n</i>. The marsupial animal, frequent all over Australia, which is called an <i>Opossum</i>, is a <i>Phalanger</i> (q.v.). He is not the animal to which the name was originally applied, that being an American animal of the family <i>Didelphyidae</i>. See quotations below from `Encycl. Brit.' (1883). Skeat (`Etym. Dict.') says the word is West Indian, but he quotes Webster (presumably an older edition than that now in use), "Orig. opassom, in the language of the Indians of Virginia," and he refers to a translation of Buffon's Natural History' (Lond. 1792), Vol. i. p. 214. By 1792 the name was being applied in Australia. The name opossum is applied in Australia to all or any of the species belonging to the following genera, which together form the sub-family <i>Phalangerinae</i>, viz.--<i>Phalanger, Trichosurus</i>, <i>Pseudochirus, Petauroides</i>, <i>Dactylopsila, Petaurus</i>, <i>Gymnobelideus, Dromicia</i>, <i>Acrobates</i>. The commoner forms are as follows:-- Common Dormouse O.-- <i>Dromicia nana</i>, Desm. Common Opossum-- <i>Trichosurus vulpecula</i>, Kerr. Common Ring-tailed-O.-- <i>Pseudochirus peregrinus</i>, Bodd. Greater Flying-O.-- <i>Petauroides volans</i>, Kerr. Lesser Dormouse O.-- <i>Dromicia lepida</i>, Thomas. Lesser Flying-O.-- <i>Petaurus breviceps</i>, Water. Pigmy Flying-O.- <i>Acrobates pygmaeus</i>. Short-eared-O.-- <i>Trichosurus caninus</i>, W. Ogilby. Squirrel Flying-O., or Flying Squirrel-- <i>Petaurus sciureus</i>, Shaw. Striped O.-- <i>Dactylopsila trivirgata</i>, Gray. Tasmanian, or Sooty O.-- <i>Trichosurus vulpecula</i>, var. <i>fuliginosus</i>. Tasmanian Ring-tailed-O.-- <i>Pseudochirus cooki</i>, Desm. Yellow-bellied Flying-O.-- <i>Petaurus australis</i>, Shaw. Of the rare little animal called Leadbeater's Opossum, only one specimen has been found, and that in Victoria; it is <i>Gymnobelideus leadbeateri</i>, and is the only species of this genus. 1608. John Smith, `Travels, Adventures, and Observations in Europe, Asia, Africke, and America, beginning about 1593, and continued to 1629;' 2 vols., Richmond, U.S., reprinted 1819; vol. i. p. 124 [On the American animal; in the part about Virginia, 1608]: "An Opassom hath a head like a Swine,--a taile like a Rat, and is of the bigness of a Cat. Under the belly she hath a bagge, wherein she lodgeth, carrieth and suckleth her young." [This is the American opossum. There are only two known genera of living marsupials outside the Australian region.] 1770. `Capt. Cook's Journal' (edition Wharton, 1893), p. 294 [at Endeavour River, Aug. 4, 1770]: "Here are Wolves, Possums, an animal like a ratt, and snakes." 1770. J. Banks, `Journal,' July 26, (edition Hooker, 1896, p. 291): "While botanising to-day I had the good fortune to take an animal of the opossum (<i>Didelphis</i>) tribe; it was a female, and with it I took two young ones. It was not unlike that remarkable one which De Buffon has described by the name of <i>Phalanger</i> as an American animal. It was, however, not the same. M. de Buffon is certainly wrong in asserting that this tribe is peculiar to America, and in all probability, as Pallas has said in his <i>Zoologia</i>, the <i>Phalanger</i> itself is a native of the East Indies, as my animals and that agree in the extraordinary conformation of their feet, in which they differ from all others." 1789. Governor Phillip, `Voyage to Botany Bay,' p. 104: "The pouch of the female, in which the young are nursed, is thought to connect it rather with the opossum tribe." [p. 147]: "A small animal of the opossum kind." [p. 293]: "Black flying-opossum. [Description given.] The fur of it is so beautiful, and of so rare a texture, that should it hereafter be found in plenty, it might probably be thought a very valuable article of commerce." 1793. J. Hunter, `Voyage,' p. 68: "The opossum is also very numerous here, but it is not exactly like the American opossum: it partakes a good deal of the kangaroo in the strength of its tail and make of its fore-legs, which are very short in proportion to the hind ones; like that animal it has the pouch, or false belly, for the safety of its young in time of danger." 1798. D. Collins, `Account of New South Wales,' fol. i. p. 562: "At an early age the females wear round the waist a small line made of the twisted hair of the opossum, from the centre of which depend a few small uneven lines from two to five inches long. This they call bar-rin." 1809. G. Shaw, `Zoological Lectures,' vol. i. p. 93: "A still more elegant kind of New Holland opossum is the petaurine opossum . . . has the general appearance of a flying-squirrel, being furnished with a broad furry membrane from the fore to the hind feet, by the help of which it springs from tree to tree. . . . Known in its native regions by the name of hepoona roo." 1830. R. Dawson, `Present State of Australia,' p. 67: "Their food consists of fish when near the coasts, but when in the woods, of oppossums [sic], bandicoots, and almost any animal they can catch." 1845. R. Howitt, `Australia,' p. 143: "The sharp guttural noises of opossums." Ibid. p. 174 [`The Native Woman's Lament']: "The white man wanders in the dark, We hear his thunder smite the bough; The opossum's mark upon the bark We traced, but cannot find it, now." 1853. J. West, `History of Tasmania,' vol. i. p. 324: "The opossums usually abound where grass is to be found, lodging by day in the holes and hollows of trees. The most common species is the <i>Phalangista vulpina</i> (Shaw), under which are placed both the black and grey opossums. . . . The ringtail opossum (<i>Phalangista</i> or <i>Hepoona Cookii</i>, Desm.) is smaller, less common, and less sought after, for dogs will not eat the flesh of the ringtail even when roasted." 1855. W. Howitt, `Two Years in Victoria,' vol. i. p. 200: "Dogs, immediately on coming into the Australian forest, become perfectly frantic in the pursuit of opossums." 1883. `Encyclopaedia Britannica' (ed. 9) [On the Australian animal], vol. xv. p. 382: "A numerous group, varying in size from that of a mouse to a large cat, arboreal in their habits and abundantly distributed throughout the Australian region . . . have the tail more or less prehensile. . . . These are the typical phalangers or `opossums,' as they are commonly called in Australia. (Genus <i>Phalangista</i>.)" Ibid. p. 380 [On the American animal]: "The <i>Didelphidae</i>, or true opossums, differ from all other marsupials in their habitat, being peculiar to the American continent. They are mostly carnivorous or insectivorous in their diet, and arboreal in habits." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 11: "Among the colonists the younger generation are very zealous opossum hunters. They hunt them for sport, going out by moonlight and watching the animal as it goes among the trees to seek its food." 1891. `Guide to Zoological Gardens, Melbourne': "We see two fine pairs of the Tasmanian sooty opossum (<i>Phalangista fuliginosa</i>); this species is unapproached by any other in regard to size and the beauty of its fur, which is of a rich, fulvous brown colour. This opossum is becoming scarce in Tasmania on account of the value of its fur, which makes it much sought after. In the next compartment are a pair of short-eared opossums (<i>P. canina</i>), the mountain opossums of Southern Australia. The next is a pair of vulpine opossums; these are the common variety, and are found all over the greater part of Australia, the usual colour of this kind being grey." 1893. `Melbourne Stock and Station Journal,' May 10 (advertisement): "Kangaroo, wallaby, opossum, and rabbit skins. . . . Opossum skins, ordinary firsts to 7s. 6d; seconds to 3s.; thirds to 1s. 6d; silver greys up to 9s. per doz.; do. mountain, to 18s. per doz." <hw>Opossum-Mouse</hw>, <i>n</i>. the small Australian marsupial, <i>Acrobates pygmaeus</i>, Shaw; more correctly called the <i>Pigmy Flying-Phalanger</i>. See <i>Flying- Phalanger</i>. This is the animal generally so denoted, and it is also called the <i>Flying-Mouse</i>. But there is an intermediate genus, <i>Dromicia</i> (q.v.), with no parachute expansion on the flanks, not "flying," of which the name of <i>Dormouse-Phalanger</i> is the more proper appellation. The species are the-- Common Dormouse-Phalanger-- <i>Dromicia nana</i>, Desm. Lesser D.-Ph.-- <i>D. lepida</i>, Thomas. Long-tailed D.-Ph.-- <i>D. caudata</i>, M. Edw. Western D.-Ph.-- <i>D. concinna</i>, Gould. One genus, with only one species, the <i>Pentailed-Phalanger</i>, <i>Distaechurus pennatus</i>, Peters, is confined to New Guinea. 1832. J. Bischoff, `Van Diemen's Land,' p. 28: "The opossum-mouse is about the size of our largest barn-mouse." 1894. R. Lydekker, `Marsupialia,' p. 118: "Resembling a common mouse in size, and hence known to the colonists as the flying-mouse or opossum-mouse, this little animal is one of the most elegant of the Australian marsupials." <hw>Opossum-Tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. a timber-tree, <i>Quintinia sieberi</i>, De C., <i>N.O. Saxifrageae</i>. <hw>Orange</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Native Lime</i>, <i>Citrus australis</i>. See <i>Lime</i>. <hw>Orange, Mock</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Native Laurel</i>. See <i>Laurel</i>. <hw>Orange, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to two Australian trees. (1) <i>Capparis mitchelli</i>, Lindl., <i>N.O. Capparideae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 12: "`Small Native Pomegranate,' `Native Orange.' The fruit is from one to two inches in diameter, and the pulp, which has an agreeable perfume, is eaten by the natives." (2) <i>Citriobatus pauciflorus</i>, A. Cunn., <i>N.O. Pittosporeae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 16: "`Native Orange,' `Orange Thorn.' The fruit is an orange berry with a leathery skin, about one inch and a half in diameter. It is eaten by the aboriginals." <hw>Orange, Wild</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Wild Lemon</i>. See under <i>Lemon</i>. <hw>Orange-Gum</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Gum</i>. <hw>Orange-spotted Lizard</hw> (of New Zealand), <i>Naultinus elegans</i>, Gray. <hw>Orange-Thorn</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Orange, Native</i>(2). <hw>Orange-Tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. The <i>New Zealand Orange-Tree</i> is a name given to the <i>Tarata</i> (q.v.), from the aromatic odour of its leaves when crushed. <hw>Organ-Bird</hw>, or <hw>Organ-Magpie</hw>, <i>n</i>. other names for one of the <i>Magpies</i> (q.v.). 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. ii. pl. 48: "<i>Gymnorrhina organicum</i>, Gould, Tasmanian crow-shrike; Organ-Bird and White-Magpie of the Colonists. Resembling the sounds of a hand-organ out of tune." 1848. T. L. Mitchell, `Tropical Australia,' p. 176: "The burita, or <i>Gymnorrhina</i>, the organ-magpie, was here represented by a much smaller bird." <hw>Ornithorhynchus</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Platypus</i> (q.v.). <hw>Orthonyx</hw>, <i>n</i>. a scientific name of a remarkable Australian genus of passerine birds, the spine-tails. It long remained of uncertain position . . . and finally it was made the type of a family, <i>Orthonycidae</i>. In the type species, <i>O</i>. spinacauda . . . the shafts of the tail-feathers are prolonged beyond the legs. (`Century.') Thename is from the Greek <i>'orthos</i>, straight, and <i>'onux</i>, a claw. See <i>Log-Runner</i> and <i>Pheasant's Mother</i>. <hw>Osprey</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Fish-Hawk</i> (q.v.). <hw>Ounce</hw>, <i>n</i>. used as <i>adj</i>. Yielding an ounce of gold to a certain measure of dirt, as a dish-full, a cradle-full, a tub-full, etc. Also used to signify the number of ounces per ton that quartz will produce, as "ounce-stuff," "three-ounce stuff," etc. Out-run, <i>n</i>. a sheep-run at a distance from the <i>Head-station</i> (q.v.). 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. vi. p. 47 (1890): "They'd come off a very far out-run, where they'd been, as one might say, neglected." <hw>Out-station</hw>, <i>n</i>. a sheep or cattle station away from the <i>Head-station</i> (q.v.). 1844. `Port Phillip Patriot,' July 11, p. 1, col. 3: "There are four out-stations with huts, hurdles . . . and every convenience." 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' vol. i. c. 8, p. 231: "The usual fare at that time at the out-stations--fried pork and kangaroo." 1870. Paul Wentworth, `Amos Thorne,' c. iii. p. 26: "He . . . at last on an out-station in the Australian bush worked for his bread." <hw>Overland</hw>, <i>v</i>. to take stock across the country. 1874. W. H. L. Ranken, `Dominion of Australia,' c. xiii. p. 232: "Herds used to be taken from New South Wales to South Australia across what were once considered the deserts of Riverina. That used to be called `overlanding.'" 1890. Lyth, `Golden South,' c. ix. p. 74: "Several gentlemen were away from the two nearest stations, `overlanding,' i.e. taking sheep, cattle, and flour to Melbourne." <hw>Overlander</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) In the days before railways, and when much of the intervening country was not taken up, to travel between Sydney and Melbourne, or Melbourne and Adelaide, was difficult if not dangerous. Those who made either journey were called <i>Overlanders</i>. In this sense the word is now only used historically, but it retains the meaning in the general case of a man taking cattle a long distance, as from one colony to another. (2) A slang name for a <i>Sundowner</i> (q.v.). 1843. Rev. W. Pridden, `Australia: Its History and Present Condition,' p. 335: "Among the beings which, although not natives of the bush, appear to be peculiar to the wilds of Australia, the class of men called Overlanders must not be omitted. Their occupation is to convey stock from market to market, and from one colony to another." 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discovery in Australia,' vol. ii. c. vi. p. 237: "The Eastern extent of the country of South Australia was determined by the overlanders, as they call the gentlemen who bring stock from New South Wales." 1880. Garnet Walch, `Victoria in 1880,' p. 11: "Overlanders from Sydney and Melbourne to Adelaide were making great sums of money." 1884. Rolf Boldrewood, `Melbourne Memories,' c. ix. p. 69: "He gave us the advice of an experienced overlander." 1880. A. J. Vogan, `Black Police,' p. 262: "An `overlander,'--for, as you havn't any of the breed in New Zealand, I'll explain what that is,--is Queensland-English for a long-distance drover; and a rough, hard life it generally is. . . . Cattle have to be taken long distances to market sometimes from these `up-country' runs." 1890. `Melbourne Argus,' June 7, p. 4, col. 1: "Then came overlanders of another sort--practical men who went out to develop and not to explore." <hw>Owl</hw>, <i>n</i>. an English bird-name. The species in Australia are-- Boobook Owl-- <i>Ninox boobook</i>, Lath. Chestnut-faced O.-- <i>Strix castanops</i>, Gould. Grass O.-- <i>S. candida</i>, Tickell. Lesser Masked O.-- <i>S. delicatula</i>, Lath. Masked O.-- <i>S. novae-hollandiae</i>, Steph. Powerful O.-- <i>Ninox strenua</i>, Gould. Sooty O.-- <i>Strix tenebricosa</i>, Gould. Spotted O.-- <i>Ninox maculata</i>, Vig. and Hors. Winking O.-- <i>N. connivens</i>, Lath. In New Zealand, the species are--Laughing Jackass, or L. Owl, <i>Sceloglaux albifacies</i>, Kaup (Maori name, <i>Whekau</i>, q.v.), and the Morepork, formerly <i>Athene novae-zelandiae</i>, Gray, now <i>Spiloglaux novae-zelandiae</i>, Kaup. (See <i>Morepork</i>.) See also <i>Barking Owl</i>. <hw>Owl-Parrot</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bird of New Zealand. See <i>Kakapo</i>. <hw>Oyster</hw>, <i>n</i>. The Australian varieties are--Mud-Oyster, <i>Ostrea angasi</i>, Sow. (sometimes considered only a variety of <i>O. edulis</i>, Linn., the European species): New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia. <i>O. rutupina</i>, Jeffreys, "the native" of Colchester, England, is a variety and occurs in Tasmania. Drift-O., <i>O. subtrigona</i>, Sow., called so because its beds are thought to be shifted by storms and tides: New South Wales and Queensland. Rock-O., <i>O. glomerata</i>, Gould, probably the same species as the preceding, but under different conditions: all Eastern Australia. And other species more or less rare. See also <i>Stewart Islander</i>. Australian oysters, especially the Sydney Rock-Oyster, are very plentiful, and of excellent body and flavour, considered by many to be equal if not superior to the Colchester native. They cost 1s. a dozen; unopened in bags, they are 6d. a dozen--a contrast to English prices. <hw>Oyster-Bay Pine</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Pine</i>. 1857. `Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Van Diemen's Land,' vol. i. p. 155: "16 August, 1848 . . . A sample of the white resin of the Oyster Bay Pine (<i>Callitris Australis</i>, Brown) lay on the table. The Secretary stated that this tree has only been met with along a comparatively limited and narrow strip of land bordering the sea on the eastern coast of Tasmania, and upon Flinders and Cape Barren Islands in Bass's Straits; that about Swanport and the shores of Oyster Bay it forms a tree, always handsome and picturesque, and sometimes 120 feet in height, affording useful but not large timber, fit for all the ordinary purposes of the house carpenter and joiner in a country district." 1880. Mrs. Meredith, `Tasmanian Friends and Foes,' p. 222: "Those most picturesque trees, the Oyster Bay pines, which, vividly green in foliage, tapering to a height of eighty or one hundred feet, and by turns symmetrical or eccentric in form, harmonise and combine with rugged mountain scenery as no other of our trees here seem to do." <hw>Oyster-catcher</hw>, <i>n</i>. common English bird-name. The Australasian species are--Pied, <i>Haematopus longirostris</i>, Vieill.; Black, <i>H. unicolor</i>, Wagler; and two other species--<i>H. picatus</i>, Vigors, and <i>H. australasianus</i>, Gould, with no vernacular name. 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' vol. ii. c. vii. p. 174: "Our game-bag was thinly lined with small curlews, oyster-catchers, and sanderlings." 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' p. 274: "Slim oyster-catcher, avocet, And tripping beach-birds, seldom met Elsewhere." P <hw>Pa</hw>, or <hw>Pah</hw>, <i>n</i>. The former is now considered the more correct spelling. A Maori word to signify a native settlement, surrounded by a stockade; a fort; a fighting village. In Maori, the verb <i>pa</i> means, to touch, to block up. <i>Pa</i> = a collection of houses to which access is blocked by means of stockades and ditches. 1769. `Captain Cook's Journal' (edition Wharton, 1893), p. 147: "I rather think they are places of retreat or stronghold, where they defend themselves against the attack of an enemy, as some of them seemed not ill-design'd for that purpose." Ibid. p. 156: "Have since learnt that they have strongholds--or hippas, as they call them--which they retire to in time of danger." [Hawkesworth spelt it, Heppahs; <i>he</i> = Maori definite article.] 1794. `History of New South Wales' (1818), p. 175: "[On the coast of New Zealand] they passed many huts and a considerable <i>hippah</i>, or fortified place, on a high round hill, from the neighbourhood of which six large canoes were seen coming towards the ship." 1842. W. R. Wade, `Journey in New Zealand' (Hobart Town), p. 27: "A native pa, or enclosed village, is usually surrounded by a high stockade, or irregular wooden fence, the posts of which are often of great height and thickness, and sometimes headed by the frightful carving of an uncouth or indecent image." 1858. `Appendix to Journal of House of Representatives,' E-4, p. 4: "They seem, generally speaking, at present inveterate in their adherence to their dirty native habits, and to their residence in pas." 1859. A. S. Thomson, M.D., `Story of New Zealand,' p. 132: "The construction of the war pas . . . exhibits the inventive faculty of the New Zealanders better than any other of their works. . . . Their shape and size depended much on the nature of the ground and the strength of the tribe. They had double rows of fences on all unprotected sides; the inner fence, twenty to thirty feet high, was formed of poles stuck in the ground, slightly bound together with supple-jacks, withes, and torotoro creepers. The outer fence, from six to eight feet high, was constructed of lighter materials. Between the two there was a dry ditch. The only openings in the outer fence were small holes; in the inner fence there were sliding bars. Stuck in the fences were exaggerated wooden figures of men with gaping mouths and out-hanging tongues. At every corner were stages for sentinels, and in the centre scaffolds, twenty feet high, forty feet long, and six broad, from which men discharged darts at the enemy. Suspended by cords from an elevated stage hung a wooden gong twelve feet long, not unlike a canoe in shape, which, when struck with a wooden mallet, emitted a sound heard in still weather twenty miles off. Previously to a siege the women and children were sent away to places of safety." 1863. T. Moser, `Mahoe Leaves,' p. 14: "A pah is strictly a fortified village, but it has ceased to be applied to a fortified one only, and a collection of huts forming a native settlement is generally called a pah now-a-days." 1867. F. Hochstetter, `New Zealand,' p. 22: "They found the pah well fortified, and were not able to take it." 1879. Clement Bunbury, `Fraser's Magazine, June, p. 761: "The celebrated Gate Pah, where English soldiers in a panic ran away from the Maoris, and left their officers to be killed." 1889. Cassell's' Picturesque Australasia,' vol. iv. p. 46: "A sally was made from the pah, but it was easily repulsed. Within the pah the enemy were secure." <hw>Pachycephala</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name for the typical genus of <i>Pachycephalinae</i>, founded in 1826 by Vigors and Horsfield. It is an extensive group of thick-headed shrikes, containing about fifty species, ranging in the Indian and Australian region, but not in New Zealand. The type is <i>P. gutturalis</i>, Lath., of Australia. (`Century.') They are singing-birds, and are called <i>Thickheads</i> (q.v.), and often <i>Thrushes</i> (q.v.). The name is from the Greek <i>pachus</i>, thick, and <i>kephalae</i>, the head. <hw>Packer</hw>, <i>n</i>. used for a pack-horse. 1875. Wood and Lapham, `Waiting for Mail,' p. 59: "The boys took notice of a horse, some old packer he looked like." 1890. `The Argus,' June 7, p. 4, col. 1: "The Darling drover with his saddle-horses and packers." <hw>Paddock</hw>. (1) 1n England, a small field; in Australia, the general word for any field, or for any block of land enclosed by a fence. The `Home-paddock' is the paddock near the Homestation, and usually very large. 1832. J. Bischoff, `Van Diemen's Land,' c. vi. p. 148: "There is one paddock of 100 acres, fenced on four sides." 1844. `Port Phillip Patriot,' July 25, p. 3, col. 6: "A 300-acre grass paddock, enclosed by a two-rail fence." 1846. C. P. Hodgson, `Reminiscences of Australia,' p. 42: "The paddocks are so arranged that hills may afford shelter, and plains or light-timbered flats an escape from the enormous flies and other persecuting enemies." 1892. `Scribner's Magazine,' Feb., p. 141: "`Paddocks,' as the various fields are called (some of these `paddocks' contain 12,000 acres)." (2) An excavation made for procuring wash-dirt in shallow ground. A place built near the mouth of a shaft where quartz or wash-dirt is stored. (Brough Smyth, `Glossary of Mining Terms,' 1869.) 1895. `Otago Witness,' Nov. 21, p. 22, col. 5: "A paddock was opened at the top of the beach, but rock-bottom was found." <hw>Paddock</hw>, v. to divide into paddocks. 1873. A. Trollope, `Australia and New Zealand,' c. xx. p. 302: "When a run is paddocked shepherds are not required; but boundary riders are required." <hw>Paddy Lucerne</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Queensland Hemp</i>. See under <i>Hemp</i>. <hw>Paddymelon</hw>, <i>n</i>. the name of a small <i>Wallaby</i> (q.v.), <i>Macropus thetidis</i>, Less. It is certainly a corruption of an aboriginal name, and is spelt variously <i>pademelon, padmelon</i>, and <i>melon</i> simply. (See <i>Melon-holes</i>.) This word is perhaps the best instance in Australia of the law of Hobson-Jobson, by which a strange word is fitted into a language, assuming a likeness to existing words without any regard to the sense. The Sydney name for kangaroo was <i>patagorang</i>. See early quotations. This word seems to give the first half of the modern word. <i>Pata</i>, or <i>pada</i>, was the generic name: <i>mella</i> an adjective denoting the species. <i>Paddymalla</i> (1827) marks an intermediate stage, when one-half of the word had been anglicised. At Jervis Bay, New South Wales, the word <i>potalemon</i> was used for a kangaroo. 1793. J. Hunter, `Voyage,' p. 547: "The pattagorang and baggaray frequently supplied our colonists with fresh meals, and Governor Phillip had three young ones, which were likely to live: he has not the least doubt but these animals are formed in the false belly." 1798. D. Collins, `Account of English Colony in New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 548: "The pat-ta-go-rang or kangooroo was (bood-yer-re) good, and they ate it whenever they were fortunate enough to kill one." 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 310: "The wallabee and paddymalla grow to about sixty pounds each." 1830. R. Dawson, `Present State of Australia,' p. 212: "Had hunted down a paddymelon (a very small species of kangaroo, which is found in the long grass and thick brushes)." 1845. Clement Hodgkinson, `Australia, from Port Macquarie to Moreton Bay,' p. 45: "The brush-kangaroos or pademellas were thus gradually enclosed." 1846. G. H. Haydon, `Five Years in Australia Felix,' p. 47: "A small species of the kangaroo tribe, called by the sealers paddymelon, is found on Philip Island, while none have been seen on French Island." 1851. J. Henderson, `Excursions in New South Wales,' vol. ii. p. 129: "The small kind of kangaroo, however, called by the natives `Paddy Melon,' and which inhabits the dense brushes or jungles, forms a more frequent, and more easily obtained article of food." 1863. M. K. Beveridge, `Gatherings,' p. 41: "An apron made from skin of Paddie-Melon." 1863. B. A. Heywood, `Vacation Tour at the Antipodes,' p. 107: "In the scrub beyond, numbers of a small kind of kangaroo called `Paddy- Mellans,' resort." [Footnote] "I cannot guarantee the spelling." 1888. Cassell's' Picturesque Australasia,' vol. ii. p. 90: "The kangaroo and his relatives, the wallaby and the paddymelon." 1890. A. H. S. Lucas, `Handbook of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science,' p. 62: "<i>Onychogale fraenatus</i> and its ally <i>O. lunatus</i>. Mr. Le Souef reports that the former are fairly numerous in the Mallee country to the north-west of the Colony, and are there known as Pademelon." [This seems to be only a local use.] 1893. J. L. Purves, Q.C., in `The Argus,' Dec. 14, p. 9, col. 7: "On either side is a forest, the haunt of wombats and tree-bears, and a few paddymelons." <hw>Paddymelon-Stick</hw>, <i>n</i>. a stick used by the aborigines for knocking <i>paddymelons</i> (q.v.) on the head. 1851. J. Henderson, `Excursions in New South Wales,' vol. ii. p. 129: "These are hunted in the brushes and killed with paddy mellun sticks with which they are knocked down. These sticks are about 2 feet long and an inch or less in diameter." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 56: "Nulla-mullahs, paddy-melon sticks, boomerangs, tomahawks, and heelimen or shields lay about in every direction." <hw>Pah</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Pa</i> (q.v.). <hw>Pake</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a coarse mat used against rain. A sack thrown over the shoulders is called by the settlers a <i>Pake</i>. <hw>Pakeha</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori word for a white man. The word is three syllables, with even accent on all. A Pakeha Maori is an Englishman who lives as a Maori with the Maoris. Mr. Tregear, in his `Maori Comparative Dictionary,' s.v. <i>Pakepakeha</i>, says: "Mr. John White [author of `Ancient History of the Maoris'] considers that <i>pakeha</i>, a foreigner, an European, originally meant `fairy,' and states that on the white men first landing sugar was called `fairy-sand,' etc." Williams' `Maori Dictionary' (4th edit.) gives, "a foreigner: probably from <i>pakepakeha</i>, imaginary beings of evil influence, more commonly known as <i>patupaiarehe</i>, said to be like men with fair skins." Some express this idea by "fairy." Another explanation is that the word is a corruption of the coarse English word, said to have been described by Dr. Johnson (though not in his dictionary), as "a term of endearment amongst sailors." The first <i>a</i> in Pakeha had something of the <i>u</i> sound. The sailors' word would have been introduced to New Zealand by whalers in the early part of the nineteenth century. 1820. `Grammar and Vocabulary of Language of New Zealand' (Church Missionary Society), p. 187: "Pakeha, <i>s</i>. an European; a white man." 1832. A. Earle, `Narrative of Nine Months' Residence in New Zealand,' p. 146: "The white taboo'd day, when the packeahs (or white men) put on clean clothes and leave off work" [sc. Sunday]. 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' c. i. p. 73: "We do not want the missionaries from the Bay of Islands, they are pakeha maori, or whites who have become natives." 1854. W. Golder, `Pigeons' Parliament,' canto iii. p. 44: "Aiding some vile pakehas In deeds subversive of the laws." 1876. F. E. Maning [Title]: "Old New Zealand, by a Pakeha Maori." 1884. T. Bracken, `Lays of the Maori,' p. 15: "Long ere the pale pakeha came to the shrine." <hw>Palberry</hw>, <i>n</i>. a South Australian name for the <i>Native Currant</i>. See <i>Currant</i>. The word is a corruption of the aboriginal name <i>Palbri</i>, by the law of Hobson-Jobson. <hw>Palm, Alexandra</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Queensland timber-tree, <i>Ptychosperma alexandrae</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Palmeae</i>. <hw>Palm, Black</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Queensland timber-tree, <i>Ptychosperma normanbyi</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Palmeae</i>. <hw>Palm, Cabbage</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Cabbage-tree</i> (q.v.) <hw>Palm Nut</hw>, <i>n</i>. See under <i>Nut</i>. <hw>Palm, Walking-Stick</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Queensland plant, <i>Bacularia monostachya</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Palmeae</i>. So called because the stem is much used for making walking-sticks. <hw>Panel</hw>, <i>n</i>. the part between two posts in a post-and-rail fence. See also <i>Slip-panel</i>. 1876. A. L. Gordon, `Sea-spray,' p. 148: "In the jar of the panel rebounding, In the crash of the splintering wood, In the ears to the earth-shock resounding, In the eyes flashing fire and blood." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. xviii. p. 226: "A panel of fencing is not quite nine feet in length." <hw>Pan</hw>, or <hw>Pan-wash</hw>, <hw>Pan-out</hw>, <hw>Pan-off</hw>, <i>verbs</i>, to wash the dirt in the pan for gold. Some of the forms, certainly <i>pan-out</i>, are used in the United States. 1870. J. O. Tucker, `The Mute,' p. 40: "Others to these the precious dirt convey, Linger a moment till the panning's through." 1880. G. Sutherland, `Tales of Gold fields,' p. 4: "On the very day of their arrival they got a lesson in pan-washing." Ibid. p. 36: "All the diggers merely panned out the earth." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. vii. p. 79: "These returned gnomes having been brought to light, at once commenced to pan off according to the recognized rule and practice." <hw>Pannikin</hw>, <i>n</i>. a small tin cup for drinking. The word is not Australian. Webster refers to Marryat and Thackeray. The `Century' quotes Blackmore. This diminutive of <i>pan</i> is exceedingly common in Australia, though not confined to it. 1830. R. Dawson, `Present State of Australia,' p. 200: "He went to the spring and brought me a pannican full." (p. 101): "Several tin pannicans." 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 87: "We caught the rain in our pannikins as it dropt from our extended blankets." 1848. W. Westgarth, `Australia Felix,' p. 190: "There is a well-known story of two bullock-drivers, who, at a country public-house on their way to the town, called for a dozen of champagne, which they first emptied from the bottles into a bucket, and then deliberately drank off from their tin pannikins." 1871. C. L. Money, `Knocking About in New Zealand,' p. 6: "He was considered sufficiently rewarded in having the `honour' to drink his `pannikin' of tea at the boss's deal table." 1880. G. Sutherland, `Tales of Goldfields,' p. 44: "A small pannikin full of gold dust." <hw>Pannikin-boss</hw>, or <hw>Pannikin-overseer</hw>, <i>n</i>. The term is applied colloquially to a man on a station, whose position is above that of the ordinary station-hand, but who has no definite position of authority, or is only a `boss' or overseer in a small way. <hw>Papa</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori word for a bluish clay found along the east coast of the North Island. <hw>Paper-bark Tree</hw>, or <hw>Paper-barked Tea-tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. Called also <i>Milk-wood</i> (q.v.). Name given to the species <i>Melaleuca leucodendron</i>, Linn. Its bark is impervious to water. 1842. `Western Australia,' p. 81: "There is no doubt, from the partial trial which has been made of it, that the wood of the <i>Melaleuca</i>, or tea-tree, could be rendered very serviceable. It is sometimes known by the name of the paper-bark tree from the multitudinous layers (some hundreds) of which the bark is composed. These layers are very thin, and are loosely attached to each other, peeling off like the bark of the English birch. The whole mass of the bark is readily stripped from the tree. It is used by the natives as a covering for their huts." [Compare the New Zealand <i>Thousand-jacket</i>.] 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries of Australia,' vol. i. c. v. p. 106: "The face of the country was well but not too closely covered with specimens of the red and white gum, and paper-bark tree." 1847. E. W. Landor, `The Bushman; or, Life in a New Country,' p. 212: "Fish and other things are frequently baked in the bark of the papertree." 1857. J. Askew, `Voyage to Australia and New Zealand,' p. 433: "The dead bodies are burnt or buried, though some in North Australia place the corpse in the paper bark of the tea-tree, and deposit it in a hollow tree." <hw>Paper-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian name. See <i>Bastard Trumpeter</i> and <i>Morwong</i>. 1883. `Royal Commission on Fisheries of Tasmania,' p. xxxvi: "The young [of the bastard trumpeter] are always coloured, more or less, like the red, and are known by some as `paper-fish.' The mature form of the silver bastard is alone caught. This is conclusive as favouring the opinion that the silver is simply the mature form of the red." <hw>Paradise, Bird of</hw>, <i>n</i>. English bird-name, originally applied in Australia to the <i>Lyre-bird</i> (q.v.), now given to <i>Manucoda gouldii</i>, Gray. Called also the <i>Manucode</i> (q.v.). 1802. D. Collins, `Account of New South Wales,' vol. ii. p. 300: "By him [Wilson, a convict] the first bird of paradise ever seen in this country had been shot." [This was the <i>Lyre-bird</i>.] <hw>Paradise-Duck</hw>, <i>n</i>. bird-name applied to the New Zealand duck, <i>Casarca variegata</i>, Gmel. See <i>Duck</i> quotation, 1889, Parker. 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' c. 1. p. 57: "These (wild ducks of different sorts) are principally the black, the grey, the blue-winged, and the paradise-duck, or `pu tangi tangi,' as it is called by the natives. The last is nearly as large as a goose, and of beautiful plumage." <hw>Paradoxus</hw>, <i>n</i>. a shortened form of the former scientific name of the Platypus, <i>Paradoxus ornithorrhynchus</i>. Sometimes further abbreviated to <i>Paradox</i>. The word is from the Greek <i>paradoxos</i>, `Contrary to opinion, strange, incredible.' (`L. & S.') 1817. O'Hara, `The History of New South Wales,' p. 452: "In the reaches or pools of the Campbell River, the very curious animal called the paradox, or watermole, is seen in great numbers." <hw>Paramatta</hw>/sic/, <i>n</i>. "A fabric like merino, of worsted and cotton. So named from <i>Paramatta</i>, a town near Sydney, New South Wales." (Skeat, `Etymological Dictionary,' s.v.) According to some, the place named <i>Parramatta</i> means, in the local Aboriginal dialect, "eels abound," or "plenty of eels." Others rather put it that <i>para</i> = fish, and <i>matta</i>= water. There is a river in Queensland called the Paroo, which means "fish-river." NOTE.--The town Parramatta, though formerly often spelt with one <i>r</i>, is now always spelt with two. 1846. C. P. Hodgson, `Reminiscences of Australia,' p. 367: "A peculiar tweed, made in the colony, and chiefly at Paramatta, hence the name." 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand, p. 19: "Paramattas, fine cloths originally made from the Paramatta wool, with silk warps, though now woollen." <hw>Pardalote</hw>, <i>n</i>. anglicised form of the scientific bird-name <i>Pardalotus</i> (q.v.), generally called <i>Diamond birds</i> (q.v.); a genus of small short-tailed birds like the Flycatchers. The species are-- Black-headed Pardalote-- <i>Pardalotus melanocephalus</i>, Gould. Chestnut-rumped P.-- <i>P. uropygialis</i>, Gould. Forty-spotted P.-- <i>P. quadragintus</i>, Gould; called also <i>Forty-Spot</i> (q.v.). Orange-tipped P.-- <i>P. assimilis</i>, Ramsay. Red-browed P.-- <i>P. rubricatus</i>, Gould. Red-tipped P.-- <i>P. ornatus</i>, Temm. Spotted P.-- <i>P. punctatus</i>, Temm.; the bird originally called the <i>Diamond Bird</i> (q.v.). Yellow-rumped P.-- <i>P. xanthopygius</i>, McCoy. Yellow-tipped P.-- <i>P. affinis</i>, Gould.-- 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. ii. pl. 35: "No species of the genus to which this bird belongs is more widely and generally distributed than the spotted pardalote, <i>Pardalotus punctatus</i>." <hw>Pardalotus</hw>, <i>n</i>. scientific name for a genus of Australian birds, called <i>Diamond birds</i> (q.v.), and also <i>Pardalotes</i> (q.v.), from Grk. <i>pardalowtos</i>, spotted like the pard. <hw>Parera</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the genus <i>Duck</i> (q.v.). 1855. Rev. R. Taylor, `Te Ika a Maui,' p. 407: "Family, <i>Anatida</i>--Parera, turuki (<i>Anas superciliosa</i>), the duck; very similar to the wild duck of England." <hw>Parra</hw>, <i>n</i>. a popular use for the fuller scientific name <i>Parra gallinacea</i>. Called also the <i>Jacana</i> (q.v.), and the <i>Lotus-bird</i> (q.v.). 1893. `The Argus,' March 25, p. 4, col. 6: "The egg of the comb-crested parra shines amongst its neighbours so vividly that it at once catches the eye, and suggests a polished agate rather than an egg. The bird itself is something of a gem, too, when seen skipping with its long water-walking claws over the floating leaves of pink and blue water-lilies." <hw>Parrakeet</hw>, <i>n</i>. (various spellings). From French. Originally from Spanish <i>periquito</i>, dim. of sp. <i>perico</i>, a little parrot. Hence used generally in English to signify any small parrot. The Australian species are-- Alexandra Parrakeet-- <i>Spathopterus (Polytelis) alexandra</i>, Gould. Beautiful P.-- <i>Psephotus pulcherrimus</i>, Gould. Black-tailed P.-- <i>Polytelis melanura</i>, Vig. and Hors.; called also <i>Rock-pebbler</i>. Blue-cheeked P.-- <i>Platycercus amathusiae</i>, Bp. Cockatoo P.-- <i>Calopsittacus novae-hollandiae</i> Gmel. Crimson-bellied P.-- <i>Psephotus haematogaster</i>, Gould. Golden-shouldered P.-- <i>Psephotus chrysopterygius</i>, Gould. Green P.-- <i>Platycercus flaviventris</i>, Temm. Ground P.-- <i>Pezoporus formosus</i>, Lath. Mallee P.-- <i>Platycercus barnardi</i>, Vig. and Hors. Many-coloured P.-- <i>Psephotus multicolor</i>, Temm. Night P.-- <i>Pezoporus occidentalis</i>, Gould. Pale-headed P:-- <i>Platycercus pallidiceps</i>, Vig. Pheasant P.-- <i>P. adelaidensis</i>, Gould. Red-backed P.-- <i>Psephotus haematonotus</i>, Gould. Red-capped P.-- <i>P. spurius</i>, Kuhl. Rock P.-- <i>Euphema petrophila</i>, Gould. Smutty P.-- <i>Platycercus browni</i>, Temm. Yellow P.-- <i>P. flaveolus</i>, Gould. Yellow-banded P. <i>P. zonarius</i>, Shaw. Yellow-cheeked P. <i>P. icterotis</i>, Temm. Yellow-collared P.-- <i>P. semitorquatus</i>, Quoy and Gaim.; called also <i>Twenty-eight</i> (q.v.). Yellow-mantled P.-- <i>P. splendidus</i>, Gould. Yellow-vented P.-- <i>Psephotus xanthorrhous</i>, Gould. See also <i>Grass-Parrakeet</i>, <i>Musk-Parrakeet</i>, <i>Rosella</i>, and <i>Rosehill</i>. The New Zealand Green Parrakeet (called also <i>Kakariki</i>, q.v.) has the following species-- Antipodes Island P.- <i>Platycercus unicolor</i>, Vig. Orange-fronted P.-- <i>P. alpinus</i>, Buller. Red-fronted P.-- <i>P. novae-zelandiae</i>, Sparrm. Rowley's Parrakeet-- <i>Platycercus rowleyi</i>, Buller. Yellow-fronted P.-- <i>P. auriceps</i>, Kuhl. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Journal,' p. 80: "The cockatoo-parrakeet of the Gwyder River (<i>Nymphicus Novae-Hollandiae</i>, Gould)." 1867. A. G. Middleton, `Earnest,' p. 93: "The bright parroquet, and the crow, black jet, For covert, wing far to the shade." 1889. Prof. Parker, `Catalogue of New Zealand Exhibition,' p. 118: "There are three species of parrakeet, the red-fronted (<i>Platycercus Novae-Zelandiae</i>), the yellow-fronted <i>(P. auriceps</i>), and the orange-fronted <i>(P. alpinus</i>). The genus <i>Platycercus</i> is found in New Zealand, New Guinea, and Polynesia." <hw>Parrot-bill</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Kaka-bill</i>. <hw>Parrot-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given in Australia to <i>Pseudoscarus pseudolabrus</i>; called in the Australian tropics <i>Parrot-perch</i>. In Victoria and Tasmania, there are also several species of Labricthys. In New Zealand, it is <i>L. psittacula</i>, Rich. <hw>Parrot-Perch</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Parrot-fish</i>. <hw>Parrot's-food</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given in Tasmania to the plant <i>Goodenia ovata</i>, Sm., <i>N.O. Goodeniaceae</i>. <hw>Parsley, Wild</hw>, <i>n</i>. <i>Apium leptophyllum</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Umbelliferae</i>. Parsley grows wild in many parts of the world, especially on the shores of the Mediterranean, and this species is not endemic in Australia. <hw>Parsnip, Wild</hw>, <i>n</i>. a poisonous weed, <i>Trachymene australis</i>, Benth., <i>N.O. Umbelliferae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 142: "Recently (Dec. 1887) the sudden death of numbers of cattle in the vicinity of Dandenong, Victoria, was attributed to their having eaten a plant known as the wild parsnip. . . . Its action is so powerful that no remedial measures seem to be of any avail." <hw>Parson-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. the New Zealand bird <i>Prosthemadera novae-zelandiae</i>, Gmel.; Maori name, <i>Tui</i> (q.v.). See also <i>Poe</i>. 1855. Rev. R. Taylor, `Te Ika a Maui,' p. 401: "Cook named this beautiful and lively bird the parson and mocking-bird. It acquired the first name from its having two remarkable white feathers on the neck like a pair of clergyman's bands." [Mr. Taylor is not correct. Cook called it the Poe-bird (q.v.). The name `Parson-bird' is later.] 1857. C. Hursthouse, `New Zealand the Britain of the South,' vol. i. p. 118: "The most common, and certainly the most facetious, individual of the ornithology is the tui (parson-bird). Joyous Punchinello of the bush, he is perpetual fun in motion." 1858. C. W., `Song of the Squatters,' `Canterbury Rhymes' (2nd edit.), p. 47: "So the parson-bird, the tui, The white-banded songster tui, In the morning wakes the woodlands With his customary music. Then the other tuis round him Clear their throats and sing in concert, All the parson-birds together." 1866. Lady Barker, `Station Life in New Zealand,' p. 93: "The tui, or parson-bird, most respectable and clerical-looking in its glossy black suit, with a singularly trim and dapper air, and white wattles of very slender feathers--indeed they are as fine as hair--curled coquettishly at each side of his throat, exactly like bands." 1888. Dr. Thomson, apud Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 95: "Sitting on the branch of a tree, as a <i>pro tempore</i> pulpit, he shakes his head, bending to one side and then to another, as if he remarked to this one and to that one; and once and again, with pent-up vehemence, contracting his muscles and drawing himself together, his voice waxes loud, in a manner to awaken sleepers to their senses." 1890. W. Colenso, `Bush Notes,' `Transactions of the New Zealand Institute,' vol. xxxiii. art. lvii. p. 482: "It is very pleasing to hear the deep rich notes of the parson-bird--to see a pair of them together diligently occupied in extracting honey from the tree-flowers, the sun shining on their glossy sub-metallic dark plumage." <hw>Partridge-Pigeon</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian pigeon. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 8: "The partridge-pigeon (<i>Geophaps scripta</i>) abounded in the Acacia groves." <hw>Partridge-wood</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Cabbage-Palm</i> (q.v.). <hw>Passion-flower, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. Several species of the genus <i>Passiflora</i> are so called in Australia; some are indigenous, some naturalised. 1859. H. Kingsley, `Geoffrey Hamlyn,' p. 398: "The native passion-flower, scarlet and orange, was tangled up with the common purple sarsaparilla and the English honeysuckle and jessamine." <hw>Pastoralist</hw>, <i>n</i>. The squatters are dropping their old name for this new one. A Pastoralist is a sheep or cattle-farmer, the distinction between him and an Agriculturist being, that cultivation, if he undertakes it at all, is a minor consideration with him. 1891. March 15 [Title]: "The Pastoralists' Review," No. 1. 1892. `Scribner's Magazine,' Feb., p. 147: "A combination has been formed by the squatters under the name of the Pastoralists' Union." <hw>Patagorang</hw>, <i>n</i>. one of the aboriginal names for the <i>Kangaroo</i> (q.v.), and see <i>Paddy-melon</i>. <hw>Pataka</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori word for storehouse, supported on a post to keep off rats. See <i>Whata</i>. 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' c. i. p. 283: "We landed at the pataka, or stage." <hw>Patiki</hw>, <i>n</i>. the Maori name for the <i>Flounder</i> (q.v.). The accent is on the first syllable of the word. 1820. `Grammar and Vocabulary of the Language of New Zealand' (Church Missionary Society), p. 190: "Patiki, <i>s</i>. a fish so called." 1844. F. Tuckett, `Diary,' May 31: "A fine place for spearing soles or <i>patike</i> (the best of fish)." 1855. Rev. R. Taylor, `Te Ika a Maui,' p. 412: "Patiki, common name for the sole and flat-fish; the latter is found in rivers, but decreases in size as it retires from the sea." 1879. Captain Mair, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. xii. art. xlvi. p. 316: "Large patiki, flat-fish, are occasionally speared up the river." <hw>Patriot</hw>, <i>n</i>. Humorously applied to convicts. 1796. In `History of Australia,' by G. W. Rusden (1894), p. 49 [Footnote]: "In 1796 the Prologue (erroneously imputed to a convict Barrington, but believed to have been written by an officer) declared: `True patriots we, for be it understood We left our country for our country's good.'" <hw>Patter</hw>, <i>v</i>. to eat. Aboriginal word, and used in pigeon- English, given by Collins in his vocabulary of the Port Jackson dialect. Threlkeld says, <i>ta</i> is the root of the verb, meaning "to eat." 1833. C. Sturt, `Southern Australia,' vol. ii. c. vii. p. 223: "He himself did not patter (eat) any of it." <hw>Patu</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori generic term for all hand-striking weapons. The <i>mere</i> (q.v.) is one kind. 1882. T. H. Potts, `Out in the Open,' p. 82: "It (fern-root) was soaked, roasted, and repeatedly beaten with a small club (patu) on a large smooth stone till it was supple." <hw>Paua</hw>, <i>n</i>. the Maori name for the <i>Mutton- fish</i> (q.v.). Also used as the name for Maori fishhooks, made of the <i>paua</i> shell; the same word being adopted for fish, shell, and hook. 1820. `Grammar and Vocabulary of Language of New Zealand' (Church Missionary Society), p. 191: "Paua, <i>s</i>. a shell-fish so called." 1855. Rev. R. Taylor, `Te Ika a Maui,' p. 416: "Pawa (<i>Haliotis iris</i>), or mutton-fish. This beautiful shell is found of considerable size; it is used for the manufacture of fish-hooks." 1855. Ibid. p.397: "The natives always tie a feather or two to their paua, or fish-hooks." 1877. W. L. Buller, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. x. art. xix. p. 192: "Elaborately carved, and illuminated with <i>paua</i> shell." 1882. T. H. Potts, `Out in the Open,' p. 162: "Immense piles of paua shells (<i>Haliotis iris</i>), heaped up just above the shore, show how largely these substantial molluscs were consumed." <hw>Payable</hw>, <i>adj</i>. In Australia, able to be worked at a profit: that which is likely to pay; not only, as in England, due for payment. 1884. R. L. A. Davies, `Poems and Literary Remains,' p. 38: "We . . . expect to strike a payable lead on a hill near . . . A shaft is bottomed there, and driving is commenced to find the bottom of the dip." 1890. `Goldfields of Victoria,' p. 15: "Good payable stone has been struck." 1894. `The Argus,' March 28, p. 5, col. 5: "Good payable reefs have been found and abandoned through ignorance of the methods necessary to obtain proper results." <hw>Pea, Coral</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Coral Pea</i>. <hw>Pea, Darling</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Darling Pea</i>. <hw>Pea, Desert</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Sturt's Desert Pea</i>. <hw>Pea, Flat</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Flat Pea</i>. <hw>Pea, Glory</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Clianthus</i> (q.v.). <hw>Pea, Heart</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Balloon-Vine</i> (q.v.). <hw>Pea-plant</hw>, <i>n</i>. The term is applied sometimes to any one of various Australian plants of the <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>. <hw>Peach-berry</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian berry, <i>Lissanthe strigosa</i>, Smith, <i>N.O. Epacrideae</i>. <hw>Peach, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Quandong</i> (q.v.), and for <i>Emu-Apple</i> (q.v.). 1877. F. v. Mueller, `Botanic Teachings, p. 42: "The so-called native Peach-tree of our desert tracts is a true <i>Santalum, S. acuminatum</i>." <hw>Peacocking</hw>, vb. <i>n</i>. Australian slang. To <i>peacock</i> apiece of country means to pick out the <i>eyes</i> of the land by selecting or buying up the choice pieces and water-frontages, so that the adjoining territory is practically useless to any one else. 1894. W. Epps, `Land Systems of Australasia,' p. 28: "When the immediate advent of selectors to a run became probable, the lessees endeavoured to circumvent them by dummying all the positions which offered the best means of blocking the selectors from getting to water. This system, commonly known as `peacocking' . . ." <hw>Pear, Native</hw>, name given to a timber-tree, <i>Xylomelum pyriforme</i>, Sm., <i>N.O. Proteaceae</i> (called also <i>Wooden Pear</i>), and to <i>Hakea acicularis</i>. See <i>Hakea</i>. 1852. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes' (edition 1855), p. 219: "The pear-tree is, I believe, an eucalyptus, and bears a pear of solid wood, hard as heart of oak." [It is <i>not</i> a eucalypt.] <hw>Pear, Wooden</hw>, i.q. <i>Native Pear</i>. See above. <hw>Pearl-Perch</hw>, <i>n</i>. a rare marine fish of New South Wales, excellent for food, <i>Glaucosoma scapulare</i>, Ramsay, family <i>Percidae</i>. <hw>Pedgery</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Pituri</i> (q.v.). <hw>Pee-wee</hw>, <i>n</i>. a New South Wales name for the <i>Magpie-Lark</i> (q.v.). <hw>Peg-out</hw>, <i>v. tr</i>. to mark out a gold-claim under the Mining Act, or a <i>Free-Selection</i> (q.v.) under the Land Act, by placing pegs at the corners of the land selected. Used also metaphorically. 1858. W. H. Hall, `Practical Experiences at the Diggings in Victoria,' p. 23: "I selected an unoccupied spot between two holes . . . pegged out eight square feet, paid the licence fee." 1880. G. Sutherland, `Tales of Goldfields,' p. 58: "He was in high hopes that he might be one of the first to peg out ground on the goldfield." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `The Miner's Right,' c. iii. p. 32: "The pegging out, that is, the placing of four stout sticks, one at each corner, was easy enough." 1891. W. Tilley, `Wild West of Tasmania,' p. 8: "Making their way to Heemskirk, where they were the first to peg out land for ten." Ibid. Preface: "The writer . . . should be called on to defend his conduct in pegging out an additional section on the outskirts of the field of literature." <hw>Pelican</hw>, <i>n</i>. English bird-name. The pelicans occur in nearly all temperate or tropical regions. The Australian species is <i>Pelecanus conspicillatus</i>, Temm. 1885. R. M. Praed, `Head Station,' p. 256 [Title of chapter 39]: "Where the pelican builds her nest." <hw>Penguin</hw>, <i>n</i>. common English bird-name. The species in Australia are-- Crested Penguin-- <i>Catarractes chrysocome</i>, Lath. Fairy P.-- <i>Eudyptula undina</i>, Gould. Little P.-- <i>E. minor</i>, Forst. For the New Zealand species, see the quotation, and also <i>Korora</i>. 1889. Professor Parker, `Catalogue of New Zealand Exhibition,' p. 119: "The Penguins are characteristic Southern Hemisphere sea-birds, being represented in the Northern by the Puffins. They are flightless, but their wings are modified into powerful fins or flappers. Among the most interesting forms are the following-- the King Penguin, <i>Aptenodytes longirostris</i>; Rock Hopper P., <i>Pygoscelis taeniatus</i>; Yellow-Crowned P., <i>Eudyptes antipodum</i>; Crested P., <i>E. pachyrhynchus</i>; Little Blue P., <i>E. minor</i> and <i>undina</i>." <hw>Pennyroyal, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. <i>Mentha gracilis</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Labiatae</i>. Much more acrid than the European species of <i>Mentha</i>; but used widely as a herbal medicine. Very common in all the colonies. See also <i>Mint</i>. <hw>Pepper, Climbing</hw>, <i>n</i>. <i>Piper novae-hollandiae</i>, Miq., <i>N.O. Piperaceae</i>. Called also Native Pepper, and <i>Native Pepper-vine</i>. A tall plant climbing against trees in dense forests. <hw>Peppermint</hw>, or <hw>Peppermint-tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name given to various Eucalypts, from the aromatic nature of their leaves or extracted essence. See quotation below from White, 1790. There are many species, and various vernacular names, such as <i>Brown Peppermint</i>, <i>Dandenong P</i>., <i>Narrow-leaved P</i>., <i>White P</i>., etc. are given in various parts to the same species. See Maiden's note on <i>Eucalyptus amygdalina</i>, under <i>Gum</i>. Other vernacular names of different species are <i>Bastard-Peppermint</i>, <i>Peppermint-Box</i>, <i>Peppermint-Gum</i>. 1790. J. White, `Voyage to New South Wales' (Appendix by Dr. Smith or John Hunter), pp. 226-27: "The Peppermint Tree, <i>Eucalyptus piperita</i>. . . . The name of peppermint-tree has been given to this plant by Mr. White on account of the very great resemblance between the essential oil drawn from its leaves and that obtained from the Peppermint (<i>Mentha piperita</i>) which grows in England. This oil was found by Mr. White to be much more efficacious in removing all cholicky complaints than that of the English Peppermint, which he attributes to its being less pungent and more aromatic." 1832. J. Bischoff, `Van Diemen's Land,' c. ii. p. 23: "The peppermint, so called from the leaves imparting to the taste that flavour, grows everywhere throughout the island." 1874. Garnet Walch, I Head over Heels,' p. 75: "Well, mate, it's snug here by the logs That's peppermint--burns like a match." 1880. G. Sutherland, `Tales of Goldfields,' p. 30: "A woody gully filled with peppermint and stringy-bark trees." 1884. R. L. A. Davies, `Poems and Literary Remains,' p. 231: "The peppermints rose like pillars, with funereal branches hung, Where the dirge for the dead is chanted, And the mourning hymn is sung." 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 116: "Down among the roots of a peppermint bush." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' 439: "It [<i>Eucalyptus capitella</i>, Smith] is one of the numerous `peppermints' of New South Wales and Victoria, and is noteworthy as being the first eucalypt so called, at any rate in print." <hw>Pepper, Native</hw>, i.q. <i>Climbing Pepper</i> (see above), <i>Piper Novae-Hollandiae</i>, Miq. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 198: "`Native Pepper.' An excellent tonic to the mucous membrane. . . . One of the largest native creepers, the root being at times from six inches to a foot in diameter. The plant climbs like ivy to the tops of the tallest trees, and when full-grown weighs many tons, so that a good supply of the drug is readily obtainable." <hw>Pepper-tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is given to two trees, neither of which are the true pepper of commerce (<i>Piper</i>). They are-- (1) <i>Schinus molle</i>, which is a native of South America, of the Cashew family, and is largely cultivated for ornament and shade in California, and in the suburbs and public parks and gardens of all Australian towns where it has been naturalised. It is a very fast growing evergreen, with feathery leaves like a small palm or fern, drooping like a weeping willow. It flowers continuously, irrespective of season, and bears a cluster of red-berries or drupes, strongly pungent,-whence its name. (2) The other tree is indigenous in Australia and Tasmania; it is <i>Drimys aromatica</i>, F. v. M., formerly called <i>Tasmania aromatica</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Magnoliaceae</i>. In New Zealand the name is applied to <i>Drimys</i> /corr./ <i>axillaris</i>, Forst. (Maori, <i>Horopito</i>; q.v.). 1830. `Hobart Town Almanack,' p. 65: "A thick grove of the pepper-shrub, <i>Tasmania fragrans</i> of Smith. It grows in a close thicket to the height of from six to ten feet. When in blossom, in the spring months of November or December, the farina of the flower is so pungent, especially if shaken about by the feet of horses or cattle, that it is necessary to hold a handkerchief to the nose in order to avoid continual sneezing." 1839. T. L. Mitchell, `Three Expeditions into the Interior of Eastern Australia,' vol. ii. p. 280: "We also found the aromatic tree, <i>Tasmania aromatica</i>. . . . The leaves and bark of this tree have a hot, biting, cinnamon-like taste, on which account it is vulgarly called the pepper-tree." 1880. Mrs. Meredith, `Tasmanian Friends and Foes,' p. 231: "The handsome red-stemmed shrub known as native pepper. . . . Something like cayenne and allspice mixed, . . . the aromatic flavour is very pleasant. I have known people who, having first adopted its use for want of other condiments, continue it from preference." 1888. Cassell's `Picturesque Australasia,' vol. iii. p. 138: "Bright green pepper-trees with their coral berries." <hw>Peragale</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name of the genus of Australian marsupial animals called <i>Rabbit- Bandicoots</i>. See <i>Bandicoot</i>. (Grk. <i>paera</i>, a bag or wallet, and <i>galae</i>, a weasel.) <hw>Perameles</hw>, <i>n</i>. scientific name for the typical genus of the family of Australian marsupial animals called <i>Bandicoots</i> (q.v.), or <i>Bandicoot-Rats</i>. The word is from Latin <i>pera</i> (word borrowed from the Greek), a bag or wallet, and <i>meles</i> (a word used by Varro and Pliny), a badger. <hw>Perch</hw>, <i>n</i>. This English fish-name is applied with various epithets to many fishes in Australia, some of the true family <i>Percidae</i>, others of quite different families. These fishes have, moreover, other names attached to them in different localities. See <i>Black Perch</i>, <i>Fresh-water P</i>., <i>Golden P</i>., <i>Magpie P</i>., <i>Murray P</i>., <i>Pearl P</i>., <i>Red P</i>., <i>Red Gurnet P</i>., <i>Rock P</i>., <i>Sea P</i>., <i>Parrot Fish</i>, <i>Poddly</i>, <i>Burramundi</i>, <i>Mado</i>, and <i>Bidyan Ruffe</i>. 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish of New South Wales,' p. 31: "<i>Lates colonorum</i>, the perch of the colonists . . , really a fresh-water fish, but . . . often brought to the Sydney market from Broken Bay and other salt-water estuaries. . . . The perch of the Ganges and other East Indian rivers (<i>L. calcarifer</i>) enters freely into brackish water, and extends to the rivers of Queensland." [See <i>Burramundi</i>. <i>L. colonorum</i> is called the <i>Gippsland Perch</i>, in Victoria.] 1882. Ibid. p. 45: "The other genus (<i>Chilodactylus</i>) is also largely represented in Tasmania and Victoria, one species being commonly imported from Hobart Town in a smoked and dried state under the name of `perch.'" <hw>Perish, doing a</hw>, modern slang from Western Australia. See quotation. 1894. `The Argus,' March 28, p. 5, col. 4: "When a man (or party) has nearly died through want of water he is said to have `done a perish.'" <hw>Perpetual Lease</hw>, though a misnomer, is a statutory expression in New Zealand. Under the former Land Acts, the grantee of a perpetual lease took a term of thirty years, with a right of renewal at a revalued rent, subject to conditions as to improvement and cultivation, with a right to purchase the freehold after six years' occupation. <hw>Perriwinkle</hw>, <i>n</i>. See quotation. The most popular form in Melbourne is <i>Turbo undulatus</i>, Chemnitz. <i>T. constricta</i> is also called the <i>Native Whelk</i>. 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish and Fisheries of New South Wales,' p. 122: "<i>Trochocochlea constricta</i>, Lam., is used as a substitute for the British perriwinkle, but it is only consumed to a very small extent." <hw>Perth Herring</hw>, i.q. <i>Sardine</i> (q.v.), and see <i>Herring</i>. <hw>Petaurist</hw>, <i>n</i>. the general name for a <i>Flying-Phalanger</i> (q.v.), <i>Flying-Opossum</i> (q.v.), <i>Australian Flying-Squirrel</i> (q.v.). (Grk. <i>petauristaes</i>, a rope-dancer or tumbler). See <i>Petaurus</i>. <hw>Petauroides</hw>, <i>n</i>. a genus closely allied to <i>Petaurus</i> (q.v.), containing only one species, the <i>Taguan Flying-Phalanger</i>. <hw>Petaurus</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name given by Shaw in 1793 to the Australian genus of <i>Petaurists</i> (q.v.), or so-called <i>Flying-Squirrels</i> (q.v.), or <i>Flying-Phalangers</i> (q.v.), or <i>Flying-Opossums</i>. The name was invented by zoologists out of Petaurist. In Greek, <i>petauron</i> was the perch or platform from which a "rope-dancer" stepped on to his rope. `L. & S.' say probably from <i>pedauros</i>, Aeolic for <i>meteowros</i>, high in air. <hw>Pething-pole</hw>, <i>n</i>. a harpoon-like weapon used for pething (pithing) cattle; that is, killing them by piercing the spinal cord (pith, or provincial peth). 1886. P. Clarke, `New Chum in Australia,' p. 184 (`Century'): "So up jumps Tom on the bar overhead with a long pething-pole, like an abnormally long and heavy alpenstock, in his hand; he selects the beast to be killed, stands over it in breathless . . . silence, adjusts his point over the centre of the vertebra, and with one plunge sends the cruel point with unerring aim into the spinal cord." <hw>Petrogale</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name for a <i>Rock-Wallaby</i> (q.v.). The name was given by J. E. Gray, in the `Magazine of Natural History' (vol. i. p. 583), 1837. (Grk. <i>petra</i>, rock, and <i>galae</i>, a weasel.) <hw>Pezoporus</hw>, <i>n</i>. scientific name of a genus of Parrakeets peculiar to Australia, of which one species only is known, <i>P. formosus</i>, the Ground Parrakeet, or <i>Swamp Parrakeet</i>. From Grk. <i>pezoporos</i>, "going on foot." It differs from all the other <i>psittaci</i> in having a long hind toe like that of a lark, and is purely terrestrial in its habits. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. i. pl. 46: "<i>Pezoporus Formosus</i>, Ill., Ground-parrakeet; Swamp-parrakeet, Colonists of Van Diemen's Land; Ground-parrakeet, New South Wales and Western Australia." <hw>Phalanger</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name for the animal called an <i>Opossum</i> (q.v.) in Australia, and including also the <i>Flying-squirrel</i> (q.v.), and other Marsupials. See also <i>Flying-Phalanger</i>. The word is sometimes used instead of <i>Opossum</i>, where precise accuracy is desired, but its popular use in Australia is rare. The Phalangers are chiefly Australian, but range as far as the Celebes. The word is from the Greek <i>phalanx</i>, one meaning of which is the bone between the joints of the fingers or toes. (The toes are more or less highly webbed in the <i>Phalanger</i>.) 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `The Miner's Right,' p. 249: "The cry of the night-bird, the rustle of the phalangers and the smaller marsupials, as they glided through the wiry frozen grass or climbed the clear stems of the eucalypti." 1891. `Guide to Zoological Gardens, Melbourne': "A pair of the Short-headed Phalanger (<i>Belideus breviceps</i>) occupy the next division." 1894. R. Lydekker, `Marsupialia,' p. 75: "The second great family of the herbivorous Diprotodont Marsupials is typically represented by the creatures properly known as phalangers, which the colonists of Australia persist in misnaming opossums. It includes however several other forms, such as the Flying-Phalangers [q.v.] and the Koala [q.v.]." <hw>Phascolarctus</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name of the genus of the <i>Koala</i> (q.v.) or <i>Native Bear</i>, of which there is only one species, <i>P. cinereus</i>. It is, of course, marsupial.(Grk. <i>phaskowlos</i>, a leather apron, and <i>'arktos</i>, a bear.) See <i>Bear</i>. <hw>Phascologale</hw>, <i>n</i>. contracted often to <i>Phascogale</i>: the scientific name for the genus of little marsupials known as the <i>Kangaroo-Mouse</i> or <i>Pouched-Mouse</i> (q.v.). (Grk. <i>phaskowlos</i>, a leather apron, and <i>galae</i>, a weasel.) "The pretty little animals belonging to the genus thus designated, range over the whole of Australia and New Guinea, together with the adjacent islands and are completely arboreal and insectivorous in their habits. The [popular] name of <i>Pouched-Mouse</i> is far from being free from objection, yet, since the scientific names of neither this genus nor the genus <i>Sminthopsis</i> lend themselves readily for conversion into English, we are compelled to use the colonial designation as the vernacular names of both genera. . . . The largest of the thirteen known species does not exceed a Common Rat in size, while the majority are considerably smaller." (R. Lydekker, `Marsupialia,' p. 166.) 1853. J. West, `History of Tasmania,' vol. i. p. 324: "The phascogales are small insectivorous animals found on the mountains and in the dense forest-parts of the island, and little is known of their habits." <hw>Phascolome</hw>, and <hw>Phascolomys</hw>, <i>n</i>. The first is the anglicised form of the second, which is the scientific name of the genus called by the aboriginal name of <i>Wombat</i> (q.v.) (Grk. <i>phaskowlos</i> = leathern bag, and <i>mus</i> = mouse.) <hw>Phasmid</hw>, <i>n</i>. the name for the insects of the genus <i>Phasma</i> (Grk. <i>phasma</i> = an appearance), of the family <i>Phasmidae</i>, curious insects not confined to Australia, but very common there. The various species are known as <i>Leaf-insects</i>, <i>Walking leaves</i>, <i>Stick-caterpillars</i>, <i>Walking-sticks</i>, <i>Spectres</i>, etc., from the extraordinary illusion with which they counterfeit the appearance of the twigs, branches, or leaves of the vegetation on which they settle. Some have legs only, which they can hold crooked in the air to imitate twigs; others have wings like delicate leaves, or they are brilliant green and covered with thorns. They imitate not only the colour and form of the plant, but its action or motion when swayed slightly by the wind. 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' p. 209: "A span-long Phasmid then he knew, Stretching its fore-limbs like a branching twig." <hw>Pheasant</hw>, <i>n</i>. This common English bird-name is applied in Australia to two birds, viz.-- (1) The <i>Lyre-bird</i> (q.v.). (2) The <i>Lowan</i> (q.v.), and see <i>Turkey</i>. For Pheasant-fantail, see <i>Fantail</i>. 1877 (before). Australie, `From the Clyde to Braidwood,' quoted in `Australian Ballads and Rhymes' (edition Sladen, p. 10): ". . . Echoing notes Of lyre-tailed pheasants, in their own rich notes, Mocking the song of every forest-bird." 1885. Wanderer, `Beauteous Terrorist, etc., p. 60: "And have we no visions pleasant Of the playful lyre-tail'd pheasant?" <hw>Pheasant-Cuckoo</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Coucal</i> (q.v.), <i>Centropus phasianellus</i>, Gould. See also <i>Swamp-Pheasant</i>. 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' vol. i. c. vi. p. 125: "I shot over the island and enjoyed some very fair sport, especially with the pheasant-cuckoo." <hw>Pheasant's Mother</hw>, <i>n</i>. an old name of an Australian bird. See <i>Orthonyx</i>. 1860. G. Bennett, `Gatherings of a Naturalist,' p. 180: "That remarkable little bird, the `Pheasant's Mother' of the colonists, or Spine-tailed Orthonyx (<i>Orthonyx spinicauda</i>), about which also ornithologists have some difference of opinion respecting its situation in the natural system:' <hw>Philander</hw>, <i>n</i>. an old scientific name, now abandoned, for certain species of the Kangaroo family. The word was taken from the name of the explorer, <i>Philander de Bruyn</i>. See quotation. 1894. R. Lydekker, `Marsupialia,' p. 36: "Aru Island Wallaby. <i>Macropus brunnii</i>, Cuvier (1817). <i>Didelphys brunnii</i>, Schreber (1778). . . Distribution.-- Aru and Kei Islands. This species has an especial interest as being the first member of the Kangaroo-family known to Europeans, specimens having been seen in the year 1711 by [Philander de] Bruyn living in the gardens of the Dutch Governor of Batavia. They were originally described under the name of Philander or Filander." <hw>Phormium</hw>, <i>n</i>. scientific name of the genus to which <i>New Zealand Flax</i> (<i>P. tenax</i>) belongs. See <i>Flax</i>. (Grk. <i>phormion</i>, dim. of <i>phormos</i>, anything plaited of reeds or rushes.) <hw>Pialler</hw>, v. used as pigeon-English, especially in Queensland and New South Wales, in the sense of <i>yabber</i>, to speak. 1834. L. E. Threlkeld, `Australian Grammar,' p. 10: [As a barbarism] "<i>piyaller</i>, to speak." 1885. R. M. Praed, `Head Station,' p. 314: "Hester seized the shrinking black and led him forward, wildly crying that she would `pialla' the Great Spirit, so that no evil should befall him." <hw>Piccaninny</hw>, and <hw>Pickaninny</hw>, <i>n</i>. a little child. The word is certainly not Australian. It comes from the West Indies (Cuban <i>piquinini</i>, little, which is from the Spanish <i>pequeno</i>, small, and <i>nino</i>, child). The English who came to Australia, having heard the word applied to negro children elsewhere, applied it to the children of the aborigines. After a while English people thought the word was aboriginal Australian, while the aborigines thought it was correct English. It is pigeon-English. 1696. D'Urfey's `Don Quixote,' pt. iii. c. v. p. 41 (Stanford): "Dear pinkaninny [sic], If half a guiny To Love wilt win ye." 1830. R. Dawson, `Present State of Australia,' p. 12: "`I tumble down pickaninny here,' he said, meaning that he was born there." 1845. R. Howitt, `Australia,' p. 103: "Two women, one with a piccaninny at her back." 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 520: "Bilge introduced several old warriors . . . adding always the number of piccaninies that each of them had." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 305: "We can even trace words which the Europeans have imported from the natives of other countries--for example <i>picaninny</i>, a child. This word is said to have come originally from the negroes of Africa, through white immigrants. In America the children of negroes are called picaninny. When the white men came to Australia, they applied this name to the children of the natives of this continent." <hw>Piccaninny</hw>, used as <i>adj</i>. and figuratively, to mean little. 1848. W. Westgarth, `Australia Felix,' p. 104: "The hut would be attacked before `piccaninny sun.'" [Footnote]: "About daylight in the morning." 1884. J. W. Bull, `Early Life in South Australia,' p. 69: [An Englishman, speaking to blacks] "would produce from his pocket one of his pistols, and say, `Picaninny gun, plenty more.'" <hw>Pick-it-up</hw>, <i>n</i>. a boys' name for the <i>Diamond bird</i> (q.v.). 1896. G. A. Keartland, `Horne Expedition in Central Australia,' part ii. Zoology, Aves, p. 69: "<i>Pardalotus ornatus</i> and <i>Pardalotus affinis</i> give forth a treble note which has secured for them the name of `Pick-it-up' from our country boys." <hw>Picnic</hw>, <i>n</i>. Besides the ordinary meaning of this word, there is a slang Australian use denoting an awkward adventure, an unpleasant experience, a troublesome job. In America the slang use is "an easy or agreeable thing." (`Standard.') The Australasian use is an ironical inversion of this. 1896. Modern: "If a man's horse is awkward and gives him trouble, he will say, `I had a picnic with that horse,' and so of any misadventure or disagreeable experience in travelling. So also of a troublesome business or other affair; a nursemaid, for instance, will say, `I had a nice picnic with Miss Nora's hair.'" <hw>Picton Herring</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name for several fishes when dried (like "kipper"), especially for the <i>Sea-Mullet</i>, or <i>Makawhiti</i> or <i>Aua</i> (q.v.) (Maori names); and for the New South Wales fish called <i>Maray</i> (q.v.). <hw>Pieman Jolly-tail</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Jolly-tail</i>. <hw>Pig-Dog</hw>, <i>n</i>. a dog used in hunting wild pigs. 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' c. ii. p. 6: "The pig-dogs are of rather a mongrel breed, partaking largely of the bull-dog, but mixed with the cross of mastiff and greyhound, which forms the New South Wales kangaroo-dog" [q.v.] 1877. R. Gillies, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. x. art. xliii. p. 321: "A pig-dog of the bull-terrier breed." <hw>Pigeon</hw>, <i>n</i>. The Australian species are-- Bronze-wing Pigeon (q.v.)-- <i>Phaps chalcoptera</i>, Lath. Brush Bronze-wing P.-- <i>P. elegans</i>, Temm. Crested P.-- <i>Ocyphaps lophotes</i>, Temm. Flock or Harlequin Bronze-wing (called also <i>Squatter</i>, q.v.)-- <i>Phaps histrionica</i>, Gould. Little-Green P.-- <i>Chalcophaps chrysochlora</i>, Wagl. Naked-eye Partridge-P.-- <i>Geophaps smithii</i>, Jard. and Selb. Nutmeg P.-- <i>Carpophaga spilorrhoa</i>, G. R. Gray. Partridge-P.-- <i>Geophaps scripta</i>, Temm. Pheasant-tailed P.-- <i>Macropygia phasianella</i>, Temm. Plumed P.-- <i>Lophophaps plumifera</i>, Gould. Red-plumed Pigeon-- <i>Lophophaps ferruginea</i>, Gould. [He gives vernacular "Rust-coloured."] Rock P.-- <i>Petrophassa albipennis</i>, Gould. Top-knot P.-- <i>Lopholaimus antarcticus</i>, Shaw. White-bellied Plumed P.-- <i>Lophophaps leucogaster</i>, Gould. Wonga-wonga P. (q.v.)-- <i>Leucosarcia picata</i>, Lath. See also <i>Fruit-Pigeon</i>, <i>Harlequin Pigeon</i>, <i>Partridge-Pigeon</i>, <i>Torres Straits Pigeon</i>. For New Zealand Pigeon, see <i>Kuku</i>. <hw>Pigeon-berry Tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Native Mulberry</i>. See <i>Mulberry</i>. <hw>Pig-face</hw>, <hw>Pig-faces</hw>, and <hw>Pig's-face</i>, or <i>Pig's-faces</i>. Names given to an indigenous "iceplant," <i>Mesembryanthemum aequilaterale</i>, Haw., <i>N.O. Ficoideae</i>, deriving its generic name from the habit of expanding its flower about noon. 1834. Ross, `Van Diemen's Land Annual,' p. 133: "<i>Mesembryanthemum aequilaterale</i>, pig faces; called by the aborigines by the more elegant name of canagong. The pulp of the almost shapeless, but somewhat ob-conical, fleshy seed vessel of this plant, is sweetish and saline; it is about an inch and a half long, of a yellowish, reddish, or green colour." 1844. Mrs. Meredith, `Notes and Sketches of New South Wales,' p. 45: "Great green mat-like plants of the pretty <i>Mesembryanthemum aequilaterale</i>, or fig-marigold, adorned the hot sandy banks by the road-side. It bears a bright purple flower, and a five-sided fruit, called by the children `pig-faces.'" 1848. W. Westgarth, `Australia Felix,' p. 132: "The pig's face is an extremely common production of the Australian soil, growing like a thick and fleshy grass, with its three-sided leaf and star-shaped pink or purple flower, occupying usually a rocky or dry light soil." 1879. C. W. Schuermann, in `The Native Tribes of South Australia,' p. 217: "Though this country is almost entirely destitute of indigenous fruits of any value to an European, yet there are various kinds which form very valuable and extensive articles of food for the aborigines; the most abundant and important of these is the fruit of a species of cactus, very elegantly styled pig's-faces by the white people, but by the natives called karkalla. The size of the fruit is rather less than that of a walnut, and it has a thick skin of a pale reddish colour, by compressing which, the glutinous sweet substance inside slips into the mouth." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 44: "Pig-faces. It was the <i>canajong</i> of the Tasmanian aboriginal. The fleshy fruit is eaten raw by the aborigines: the leaves are eaten baked." <hw>Pig-faced Lady</hw>, <i>n</i>. an old name in Tasmania for the <i>Boar-fish</i> (q.v.). <hw>Pig-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to the fish <i>Agriopus leucopaecilus</i>, Richards., in Dunedin; called also the <i>Leather-jacket</i> (q.v.). In Sydney it is <i>Cossyphus unimaculatus</i>, Gunth., a Wrasse, closely related to the Blue-groper. In Victoria, <i>Heterodontus phillipi</i>, Lacep., the <i>Port Jackson Shark</i>. See <i>Shark</i>. <hw>Pig-footed Bandicoot</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to <i>Choeropus castanotis</i>, Gray, an animal about the size of a rabbit, belonging to the family <i>Peramelidae</i>, which includes all the bandicoots. It lives in the sandy, dry interior of the continent, making a small nest for itself on the surface of the ground out of grass and twigs. The popular name is derived from the fact that in the fore-feet the second and third toes are alone well developed, the first and fifth being absent, and the fourth very rudimentary, so that the foot has a striking resemblance to that of a pig. See also <i>Bandicoot</i>. 1838. T. L. Mitchell, `Expeditions into Eastern Australia,' p. 131: "The feet, and especially the fore feet, were singularly formed, the latter resembling those of a hog." 1893. A. R. Wallace, `Australasia,' p. 68: "Another peculiar form, the Choeropus, or pig-footed bandicoot." <hw>Pigmeater</hw>, <i>n</i>. a beast only fit for pigs to eat: one that will not fatten. 1884. Rolf Boldrewood, `Melbourne Memories,' c. xiv. p. 105: "Among them was a large proportion of bullocks, which declined with fiendish obstinacy to fatten. They were what are known by the stock-riders as `ragers' [q.v.] or `pig-meaters.'" 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `A Colonial Reformer,' p. 218: "`Pig-meaters!' exclaimed Ernest; `what kind of cattle do you call those? Do bullocks eat pigs in this country?' `No, but pigs eat them, and horses too, and a very good way of getting rid of rubbish.'" <hw>Piharau</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for <i>Geotria chilensis</i>, Gray, a New Zealand <i>Lamprey</i> (q.v.). 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. ii. p. 15: "We procured an abundant supply of piarau, a `lamprey,' which is taken in large numbers in this river, and some others in the neighbourhood, when the waters are swollen." <hw>Pihoihoi</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a New Zealand bird, the Ground-lark (q.v.). The word has five syllables. <hw>Pike</hw>, <i>n</i>. name applied in Australia and Tasmania to two species of marine fish--<i>Sphyraena obtusata</i>, Cuv. and Val.; <i>S. novae-hollandiae</i>; Gunth. See also <i>Sea-pike</i>. <hw>Pilchard</hw>, <i>n</i>. The fish which visits the Australian shores periodically, in shoals larger than the Cornish shoals, is <i>Clupea sagax</i>, Jenyns, the same as the Californian Pilchard, and closely related to the English Pilchard, which is <i>Clupea pilchardus</i>. <hw>Pilgrims, Canterbury</hw>, <i>n</i>. The first settlers in Canterbury, New Zealand, were so called in allusion to the pilgrims to the shrine of St. Thomas Becket. Chaucer's `Canterbury Tales' were told by such pilgrims. The name was given probably by Mr. William Lyon, who in 1851 wrote the `Dream.' See quotation, 1877. 1865. Lady Barker, `Station Life in New Zealand,' p. 20: "The `Pilgrims,' as the first comers are always called. I like the name; it is so pretty and suggestive." 1877. W. Pratt, `Colonial Experiences or Incidents of Thirty-four Years in New Zealand,' p. 234: "In the `Dream of a Shagroon,' which bore the date Ko Matinau, April 1851, and which first appeared in the `Wellington Spectator' of May 7, the term `Pilgrim' was first applied to the settlers; it was also predicted in it that the `Pilgrims' would be `smashed,' and the Shagroons left in undisputed possession of the country for their flocks and herds." <hw>Pilot-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. This name is given to a sea-bird of the Caribbean Islands. In Australia it is applied to <i>Pycnoptilus floccosus</i>, Gould. 1893. `The Argus,' March 25, p. 4, col. 6: "Here, close together, are eggs of the lyre-bird and the pilot-bird--the last very rare, and only found quite lately in the Dandenong Ranges, where the lyre-bird, too, has its home." <hw>Pimelea</hw>, <i>n</i>. scientific name for a large genus of shrubs or herbs, <i>N.O. Thymeleaceae</i>. There are over seventy species, all confined to Australia and New Zealand. They bear terminal or axillary clusters of white, rose, or yellow flowers, and being very beautiful plants, are frequently cultivated in conservatories. A gardener's name for some of the species is <i>Rice-flower</i>. Several of the species, especially <i>P. axiflora</i>, F. v. M., yield excellent fibre, and are among the plants called <i>Kurrajong</i> (q.v.); another name is <i>Toughbark</i>. For etymology, see quotation, 1793. 1793. J. E. Smith, `Specimen of Botany of New Holland,' p. 32: "Gaertner . . . adopted the name of <i>Pimelea</i> from the manuscripts of Dr. Solander. It is derived from <i>pimelae</i>, fat, but is rather a pleasantly sounding than a very apt denomination, unless there may be anything oily in the recent fruit." <hw>Pimlico</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Friar-bird</i> (q.v.). <hw>Pin-bush</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Needle-bush</i> (q.v.) <hw>Pinch-out</hw>, v. to thin out and disappear (of gold-bearing). This use is given in the `Standard,' but without quotations; it may be American. 18W. `Goldfields of Victoria,' p. 22: "Sometimes 100 to 200 tons of payable quartz would be raised from one of these so-called reefs, when they would pinch out, and it would be found that they were unconnected with other leaders or veins." <hw>Pine</hw>, <i>n</i>. The Pines are widely distributed in Australasia, and include some of the noblest species. The name, with various epithets, is given to a few other trees besides those of the Natural Order <i>Coniferae</i>,; the following is a list of the various <i>Pines</i> in Australasia. They belong to the Natural Order <i>Coniferae</i>,, unless otherwise indicated-- Black Pine-- <i>Frenela endlicheri</i>, Parlat. <i>Irenela robusta</i>,A. Cunn. (Of Otago)-- <i>Podocarpus ferruginea</i>,Don.; Maori name, <i>Miro</i> (q.v.).; <i>P. spicata</i>, R. Br.; Maori name, <i>Mai</i>, or <i>Matai</i> (q.v.). Celery-topped P. (q.v.)-- (In Australia)-- <i>Phyllocladus rhomboidalis</i>, Rich. (In New Zealand)-- <i>P. trichomanoides</i>, Don.; Maori name, <i>Tanekaha</i> (q.v.); <i>P. glauca</i>, and <i>P. alpinus</i>; Maori name, <i>Toatoa</i>, and often also called <i>Tanekaha</i>. Colonial P.-- <i>Araucaria cunninghamii</i>, Ait. Common P.-- <i>Frenela robusta</i>, A. Cunn. Cypress P.-- <i>Frenela endlicheri</i>, Parlat. <i>F. rhomboidea</i>, Endl. <i>F. robusta</i> (var. <i>microcarpa</i>), A. Cunn. <i>F. robusta</i> (var. <i>verrucosa</i>), A. Cunn. Dark P.-- (In Western New South Wales)-- <i>Frenela robusta</i>, A. Cunn. Dundathu P.-- <i>Dammara robusta</i>, F. v. M. Hoop P.-- <i>Araucaria cunninghamii</i>, Ait. Huon P. (q.v.)-- <i>Dacrydium franklinii</i>, Hook. Illawarra Mountain P.-- <i>Frenela rhomboidea</i>, Endl. Kauri P. (q.v.) <i>Agathis australis</i>, Salis. Lachlan P.-- <i>Frenela robusta</i>, A. Cunn. Light P.-- (Of Western New South Wales)-- <i>Frenela rhomboidea</i>, Endl. Macquarie P.-- <i>Dacrydium franklinii</i>, Hook. Mahogany Pine-- <i>Podocarpus totara</i>, A. Cunn.; Maori name, <i>Totara</i>, (q.v.). Moreton Bay P.-- <i>Araucaria cunninghamii</i>, Ait. Mountain Cypress P.-- <i>Frenela parlatorii</i>, F. v. M. Murray P.-- <i>Frenela endlicheri</i>, Parlat. Murrumbidgee P.-- <i>Frenela robusta</i>, A. Cunn. New Caledonian P.-- (Of New Caledonia and the New Hebrides)-- <i>Araucaria cookii</i>, Cook. Norfolk Island P.-- <i>Araucaria excelsa</i>, Hook. Oyster Bay P. (q.v.)-- (In Tasmania)-- <i>Frenela rhomboidea</i>, Endl. Port Macquarie P.-- <i>Frenela macleayana</i>, Parlat. Prickly P.-- (In Queensland)-- <i>Flindersia maculosa</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Meliaceae</i>; called also <i>Leopard Tree</i> (q.v.). Queensland Kauri P.-- <i>Dammara robusta</i>, F. v. M. Red P.-- (In Australia)-- <i>Frenela endlicheri</i>, Parlat. (In New Zealand)-- <i>Dacrydium cupressinum</i>, Soland; called also <i>Rimu</i> (q.v.). Rock P.-- (In Western New South Wales)-- <i>Frenela robusta</i> (var. <i>verrucosa</i>), A. Cunn. Screw P.-- <i>Pandanus odoratissimus</i>, Linn., <i>N.O. Pandaneae</i>; not endemic in Australia. Scrub P.-- <i>Frenela endlicheri</i>, Parlat. She P.-- <i>(In Queensland</i>)-- <i>Podocarpus elata</i>, R. Br. Silver P.-- <i>Dacrydium colensoi</i>, Hook.; i.q. <i>Yellow Pine</i>. Stringy Bark P.-- <i>Frenela parlatorei</i>, F. v. M. Toatoa P.-- <i>Phyllocladus alpinus</i>, Hook.; Maori name, <i>Toatoa</i> (q.v.). White P.-- (In Australia)-- <i>Frenela robusta</i>, A. Cunn. <i>F. robusta</i> (var. <i>microcarpa</i>), A. Cunn. <i>Podocarpus elata</i>, R. Br. (In New Zealand)-- <i>P. dacryoides</i>, A. Rich.; Maori name, <i>Kahikatea</i> (q.v.). Yellow P.-- <i>Dacrydium colensoi</i>, Hook.; Maori name, <i>Manoao</i> (q.v.). 1832. J. Bischoff, `Van Diemen's Land,' p. 180: "The Green Forest . . . comprises myrtle, sassafras, celery-top pine, with a little stringy-bark." 1838. T. L. Mitchell, `Three Expeditions,' vol- i. p. 51. "On the little hill beside the river hung pines (<i>Callitris pyramidalis</i>) in great abundance." <hw>Piner</hw>, <i>n</i>. In Tasmania, a man employed in cutting Huon Pine. 1891. W. Tilley, `Wild West of Tasmania,' p. 43: "The King River is only navigable for small craft . . . Piners' boats sometimes get in." <hw>Pinkwood</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name for a Tasmanian wood of a pale reddish mahogany colour, <i>Eucryphia billardieri</i>, Sparrm., <i>N.O. Saxifrageae</i>,, and peculiar to Tasmania; also called <i>Leatherwood</i>; and for the <i>Wallaby- bush</i>, <i>Beyera viscosa</i>, Miq., <i>N.O. Euphorbiaceae</i>, common to all the colonies of Australasia. <hw>Piopio</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a thrush of New Zealand, <i>Turnagra crassirostris</i>, Gmel. See <i>Thrush</i>. <hw>Pipe</hw>, <i>n</i>. an obsolete word, explained in quotations. 1836. Ross, `Hobart Town Almanack,' p. 105: "These were the days of `pipes.' Certain supposed home truths . . . were indited in clear and legible letters on a piece of paper which was then rolled up in the form of a pipe, and being held together by twisting at one end was found at the door of the person intended to be instructed on its first opening in the morning." 1852. J. West, `History of Tasmania,' vol. i. p. 107: "Malice or humour in the early days expressed itself in what were called <i>pipes</i>--a ditty either taught by repetition or circulated on scraps of paper: the offences of official men were thus hitched into rhyme. These pipes were a substitute for the newspaper, and the fear of satire checked the haughtiness of power." <hw>Pipe-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. common fishname. The species present in Australia and New Zealand is <i>Ichthyocampus filum</i>, Gunth., family <i>Syngnathidae</i>, or <i>Pipe-fishes</i>. <hw>Piper</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Auckland name for the <i>Garfish</i> (q.v.). The name is applied to other fishes in the Northern Hemisphere. 1872. Hutton and Hector, `Fishes of New Zealand,' p. 118: "Angling for garfish in Auckland Harbour, where it is known as the piper, is graphically described in `The Field,' London, Nov. 25, 1871. . . . the pipers are `just awfu' cannibals,' and you will be often informed on Auckland wharf that `pipers is deeth on piper.'" <hw>Pipi</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name of a shellfish, sometimes (erroneously) called the cockle, <i>Mezodesma novae-zelandiae</i>. 1820. `Grammar and Vocabulary of Language of New Zealand' (Church Missionary Society), p. 193: "Pipi, <i>s</i>. a cockle." 1881. J. L.Campbell, `Poenamo,' p. 107: "With most deliciously cooked kumeras, potatoes and peppies" [sic]. Ibid. p. 204: "The <i>dernier ressort</i>--fern-root, flavoured with fish and pippies." 1882. T. H. Potts, `Out in the Open,' p.25: "Each female is busily employed in scraping the potatoes thoroughly with pipi-shells." <hw>Piping-Crow</hw>, <i>n</i>. name applied sometimes to the <i>Magpie</i> (q.v.). 1845. `Voyage to Port Phillip,' etc., p. 53: "The warbling melops and the piping crow, The merry forest fill with joyous song." <hw>Pipit</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for <i>Ground-Lark</i> (q.v.). <hw>Pitau</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the <i>Tree-fern</i>. In Maori, the word means--(1) Soft, tender, young shoots. The verb <i>pihi</i> means "begin to grow"; <i>pi</i> means "young of birds," also "the flow of the tide." (2) Centre-fronds of a fern. (3) Name of a large fern. 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' c. i. p. 57: "The pitau, or tree-ferns, growing like a palm-tree, form a distinguishing ornament of the New Zealand forest." <hw>Pitchi</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to a wooden receptacle hollowed out of a solid block of some tree, such as the <i>Batswing Coral</i> (<i>Erythrina vespertio</i>), or <i>Mulga</i> (<i>Acacia aneura</i>), and carried by native women in various parts of Australia for the purpose of collecting food in, such as grass seed or bulbs, and sometimes for carrying infants. The shape and size varies much, and the more concave ones are used for carrying water in. The origin of the word is obscure; some think it aboriginal, others think it a corruption of the English word <i>pitcher</i>. 1896. E. C. Stirling, `Home Expedition in Central Australia, Anthropology, pt. iv. p. 99: "I do not know the origin of the name `Pitchi,' which is in general use by the whites of the parts traversed by the expedition, for the wooden vessels used for carrying food and water and, occasionally, infants." <hw>Pitta</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is <i>Telugu</i> for the Indian Ant-thrush; a few species are confined to Australia; they are-- Blue-breasted Pitta-- <i>Pitta macklotii</i>, Mull. and Schleg. Noisy P.-- <i>P. strepitans</i>, Temm. Rainbow P.-- <i>P. iris</i>, Gould. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. iv. pl. 1: "<i>Pitta strepitans</i>, Temm., Noisy Pitta. There are also Rainbow Pitta, Pitta iris, and Vigor's Pitta, <i>P. Macklotii</i>. 1869. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia' (Supplement): "<i>Pitta Macklotii</i>, Mull. and Schleg." <hw>Pittosporum</hw>, <i>n</i>. a genus of plants so called from the viscous pulp which envelops the seeds. (Grk. <i>pitta</i>, pitch, and <i>sporos</i>, seed.) There are about fifty species, which are found in Africa and Asia, but chiefly in Australasia. They are handsome evergreen shrubs, and some grow to a great height; the white flowers, being very fragrant, have been sometimes likened to orangeblossoms, and the rich evergreen leaves obtain for some of them the name of Laurels. They are widely cultivated in the suburbs of cities as ornamental hedges. See <i>Mock-Orange</i>, <i>Hedge-Laurel</i>, <i>Native Laurel</i>, etc. <hw>Pituri</hw>, or <hw>Pitchery</hw>, <i>n</i>. Native name for <i>Duboisia hopwoodii</i>, F. v. M., a shrub growing in the sand-hills of certain districts of Queensland, New South Wales, and Central Australia. The leaves are chewed as a narcotic by the natives of many parts, and form a valuable commodity of barter. In some parts of Central Australia the leaf is not chewed, but is only used for the purpose of making a decoction which has the power of stupefying emus, which under its influence are easily captured by the natives. Other spellings are <i>Pitchiri</i>, <i>Pedgery</i>, and <i>Bedgery</i>. Perhaps from <i>betcheri</i>, another form of <i>boodjerrie</i>, good, expressing the excellent qualities of the plant. Compare <i>Budgerigar</i>. 1863. `Proceedings of the Royal Society of Van Diemen's Land,' April, p. 1: "`Pitcherry,' a narcotic plant brought by King, the explorer, from the interior of Australia, where it is used by the natives to produce intoxication. . . . In appearance it resembled the stem and leaves of a small plant partly rubbed into a coarse powder. . . . On one occasion Mr. King swallowed a small pinch of the powder, and described its effects as being almost identical with those produced by a large quantity of spirits." 1883. F. M. Bailey,' Synopsis of Queensland Flora,' p. 350: "Pitury of the natives. The leaves are used by the natives of Central Australia to poison emus, and is chewed by the natives as the white man does the tobacco." 1883. G. W. Rusden, `History of Australia,' vol. i. p. 101: "In one part of Central Australia the leaves and twigs of a shrub called pidgery by the natives are dried and preserved in closely woven bags. . . . A small quantity has an exhilarating effect, and pidgery was highly prized." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 49: "The leaves contain a stimulant, which possesses qualities similar to those of tobacco and opium, and are chewed by several tribes in the interior of Australia. Pituri is highly valued as a stimulant, and is taken for barter far and wide." 1890. A. S. Vogan, `Black Police,' p. 94: "One of the virtues that the native drug Pitchurie is supposed to possess when used by the old men is the opening up of this past life, giving them the power and perquisites of seers." 1893. Mr. Purcell, `Lecture before Geographical Society, Sydney,' Jan.: "Mr. Purcell had travelled over nearly the whole of Queensland, and had only seen the plant growing in a very limited area west of the Mullyan River, 138th meridian of east long., and on the ranges between the 23rd and 24th parallel of south latitude. He had often questioned the Darling blacks about it, and they always replied by pointing towards the north west. The blacks never, if they could possibly help it, allowed white men to see the plant. He himself had not been allowed to see it until he had been initiated into some of the peculiar rites of the aborigines. Mr. Purcell showed what he called the pitchery letter, which consisted of a piece of wood covered with cabalistic marks. This letter was given to a pitchery ambassador, and was to signify that he was going to the pitchery country, and must bring back the amount of pitchery indicated on the stick. The talisman was a sure passport, and wherever he went no man molested the bearer. This pitchery was by no means plentiful. It grew in small clumps on the top of sandy ridges, and would not grow on the richer soil beneath. This convinced him that it never grew in any other country than Australia. The plant was cooked by being placed in an excavation in which a fire had been burning. It then became light and ready for transport. As to its use in the form of snuff, it was an excellent remedy for headaches, and chewed it stopped all craving for food. It had been used with success in violent cases of neuralgia, and in asthma also it had proved very successful. With regard to its sustaining properties, Mr. Purcell mentioned the case of a blackboy who had travelled 120 miles in two days, with no other sustenance than a chew of pitchery." <hw>Pivot City, The</hw>, a nickname for Geelong. 1860. W. Kelly, `Life in Victoria,' vol. i. p. 160 [Footnote]: "The Pivot City is a sobriquet invented by the citizens to symbolize it as the point on which the fortunes of the colony would culminate and revolve. They also invented several other original terms--a phraseology christened by the Melbourne press as the Geelongese dialect." <hw>Piwakawaka</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the <i>Pied Fantail</i> (<i>Rhipidura flabellifera</i>, Gray). 1835. W. Yate, `Account of New Zealand,' p. 57: "Piwakawaka, or tirakaraka. This restless little bird is continually on the wing, or hopping from twig to twig." 1855. Rev. R. Taylor, `Te Ika a Maui,' p. 403: "Piwakawaka, tirakaraka, the fantailed fly-catcher, a pretty, restless, lively bird; very sociable, and fond of displaying its beautiful little fan-tail. It has a head like the bullfinch, with one black-and-white streak under the neck coming to a point in the centre of the throat. Wings very sharp and pointed. It is very quick and expert in catching flies, and is a great favourite, as it usually follows the steps of man. It was sacred to Maui." 1885. A. Reischek, `Transactions of the New Zealand Institute,' vol. xviii. art. xviii. p. 102: "Rhipidura--fantail (Piwakawaka). Every one admires the two species of these fly-catchers, and their graceful evolutions in catching their prey." 1890. C. Colenso, `Transactions of the New Zealand Institute: Bush Notes,' vol. xxiii. art. lvii. p. 482: "During this extended visit of mine to the woods, I have noticed the piwakawaka, or fly-catcher (<i>Rhipidura flabellifera</i>). This interesting little flycatcher, with its monotonous short cry, always seems to prefer making the acquaintance of man in the forest solitudes." 1895. W. S.Roberts, `Southland in 1856,' p. 53: "The pied fantail, Piwakawaka (Rhipidura flabellifera) is the best flycatcher New Zealand possesses, but it will not live in confinement. It is always flitting about with broadly expanded tail in pursuit of flies. It frequently enters a house and soon clears a room of flies, but if shut in all night it frets itself to death before morning." <hw>Plain</hw>, <i>n</i>. In Australian use, the word not only implies flatness, but treelessness. 1824. Edward Curr, `Account of the Colony of Van Diemen's Land,' p. 55: "The district called Macquarie Plains, the greater part of which rises into hills of moderate height, with open and fertile valleys interspersed, while the plains bear a strong resemblance to what are called sheep downs in England." 1848. T. L. Mitchell, `Tropical Australia,' p. 136: "The country was grassy, and so open as almost to deserve the colonial name of `plain.'" 1873. A. Trollope, `Australia and New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 250: "Squatters who look after their own runs always live in the bush, even though their sheep are pastured on plains." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 73: "One day an egg of a cassowary was brought to me; this bird, although it is nearly akin to the ostrich and emu, does not, like the latter, frequent the open plains, but the thick brushwood. The Australian cassowary is found in Northern Queensland from Herbert river northwards, in all the large vine-scrubs on the banks of the rivers, and on the high mountains of the coasts." <hw>Plain Currant</hw>, <i>n</i>. a wild fruit, <i>Grewia polygama</i>, Roxb., <i>N.O. Tiliaceae</i>. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 295: "I found a great quantity of ripe Grewia seeds, and on eating many of them, it struck me that their slightly acidulous taste, if imparted to water, would make a very good drink; I therefore . . . boiled them for about an hour; the beverage . . . was the best we had tasted on our expedition." <hw>Plain Wanderer</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian bird, <i>Pedionomus torquatus</i>, Gould. <hw>Plant</hw>, <i>v. tr</i>. and <i>n</i>. common in Australia for <i>to hide</i>, and for the thing hidden away. As remarked in the quotations, the word is thieves' English. 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. ii. p. 59: "A number of the slang phrases current in St. Giles's <i>Greek</i> bid fair to become legitimatized in the dictionary of this colony: <i>plant, swag</i>, <i>pulling up</i>, and other epithets of the Tom and Jerry school, are established-- the dross passing here as genuine, even among all ranks." 1848. Letter by Mrs. Perry, given in `Canon Goodman's Church in Victoria during the Episcopate of Bishop Perry,' p. 78: ". . . Shady Creek, where he `planted' some tea and sugar for his brother on his return. Do you know what `planting' is? It is hiding the tea, or whatever it may be, in the hollow of a tree, or branch, or stone, where no one is likely to find it, but the one for whom it is meant." 1855. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes,' p. 22: "Some refreshments planted there for us by the Major--for that is the colonial phrase, borrowed from the slang of London burglars and thieves, for any article sent forward or left behind for consumption in spots only indicated to those concerned--after the manner of the ca^ches of the French Canadian trappers on the American prairies. To `spring' a plant is to discover and pillage it." 1872. C. H. Eden, `My Wife and I in Queensland,' p. 36: "The way he could hide, or, as it is called in the bush, `plant' himself, was something wonderful." 1889. Cassell's' Picturesque Australasia,' vol. iv. p. 178: "The gold had not been handed over to the Commissioner at all, but was planted somewhere in the tent." 1893. `The Age,' May 9, p. 5, col. 4: "A panic-smitten lady plants her money." [Title of short article giving an account of an old lady during the bank panic concealing her money in the ground and being unable to find it.] <hw>Plantain, Native</hw>, an Australian fodder plant, <i>Plantago varia</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Plantagineae</i>. <hw>Plant-Caterpillar</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given in Australasia to species of caterpillars which are attacked by spores of certain fungi; when chrysalating in the earth the fungus grows inside the body of the caterpillar, kills the latter, and then forces its way out between the head joints, and sends an upgrowth which projects beyond the surface of the ground and gives rise to fresh spores. Many examples are known, of which the more common are--<i>Cordyceps robertsii</i>, Hook., in New Zealand; <i>Cordyceps gunnii</i>, Berk, in Tasmania; <i>Cordyceps taylori</i>, Berk, in Australia. See <i>Aweto</i>. 1892. M. C. Cooke, `Vegetable Wasps and Plant Worms,' p. 139: "The New Zealanders' name for this plant-caterpillar is `Hotete,' `Aweto,' `Weri,' and `Anuhe.'. . The interior of the insect becomes completely filled by the inner plant, orthallus (mycelium): after which the growing head of the outer plant or fungus, passing to a state of maturity, usually forces its way out through the tissue of the joint between the head and the first segment of the thorax . . . it is stated that this caterpillar settles head upward to undergo its change, when the vegetable developes /sic/ itself." <hw>Planter</hw>, <i>n</i>. a cattle-thief, so called from hiding the stolen cattle. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. xxv. p. 352: "What's a little money . . . if your children grow up duffers [sc. cattle-duffers, q.v.] and planters?" <hw>Platycercus</hw>, <i>n</i>. scientific name of a genus of Parrakeets, represented by many species. The word is from the shape of the tail. (Grk. <i>platus</i>, broad, and <i>kerkos</i>, tail.) The genus is distributed from the Malay Archipelago to the Islands of the Pacific. The name was first given by Vigors and Horsfield in 1825. See <i>Parrakeet</i> and <i>Rosella</i>. <hw>Platypus</hw>, <i>n</i>. a remarkable <i>Monotreme</i> (q.v.), in shape like a Mole, with a bill like a Duck. Hence its other names of <i>Duck-bill</i> or <i>Duck-Mole</i>. It has received various names--<i>Platypus anatinus</i>, <i>Duck-billed Platypus</i>, <i>Ornithorhynchus</i>, <i>Ornithorhynchus paradoxus</i>, <i>Paradoxus</i>, <i>Water-mole</i>, etc. (Grk. <i>platus</i> = broad, <i>pous</i> = foot, <i>'ornithos</i> = of a bird, <i>runchos</i> = beak or bill.) The name <i>Platypus</i> is now the name by which it is always popularly known in Australia, but see quotation from Lydekker below (1894). From the British Museum Catalogue of Marsupials and Monotremes (1888), it will be found that the name <i>Platypus</i>, given by Shaw in 1799, had been preoccupied as applied to a beetle by Herbst in 1793. It was therefore replaced, in scientific nomenclature, by the name <i>Ornithorhynchus</i>, by Blumenbach in 1800. In view of the various names, vernacular and scientific, under which it is mentioned by different writers, all quotations referring to it are placed under this word, <i>Platypus</i>. The habits and description of the animal appear in those quotations. From 1882 to 1891 the <i>Platypus</i> figured on five of the postage stamps of Tasmania. 1802. G. Barrington, `History of New South Wales,' c. xi. p. 425: "This animal, which has obtained the name of <i>Ornithorhynchus paradoxus</i>, is still very little known." 1802. D. Collins, `Account of English Colony in New South Wales,' vol. ii. p. 35: [List of Engravings.] "<i>Ornithorhynchus paradoxus</i>." [At p. 63]: <i>"Ornithorhynchus</i> (an amphibious animal of the mole kind)." 1809. G. Shaw, `Zoological Lecturer,' vol. i. p. 78: "This genus, which at present consists but of a single species and its supposed varieties, is distinguished by the title of <i>Platypus</i> or <i>Ornithorhynchus</i>. . . Its English generic name of duckbill is that by which it is commonly known." 1815. `History of New South Wales' (1818), p. 447: "In the reaches or pools of the Campbell River, the very curious animal called the paradox, or watermole, is seen in great numbers." 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 325: "I cannot omit to mention likewise the <i>Ornithorynchus</i>, that remarkable animal which forms a link between the bird and beast, having a bill like a duck and paws webbed similar to that bird, but legs and body like those of a quadruped, covered with thick coarse hair, with a broad tail to steer by." 1836. C. Darwin, `Naturalist's Voyage,' c. xix. p. 321: "Had the good fortune to see several of the <i>Ornithorhynchus paradoxus</i>. . . . Certainly it is a most extraordinary animal; a stuffed specimen does not at all give a good idea of the appearance of the head and beak when fresh, the latter becoming hard and contracted." 1848. W. Westgarth, `Australia Felix,' p. 131: "The specimen which has excited the greatest astonishment is the <i>Ornithorynchus paradoxus</i>, which, fitted by a series of contrivances to live equally well in both elements, unites in itself the habits and appearance of a bird, a quadruped, and a reptile." 1850. J. B. Clutterbuck, `Port Phillip in 1849,' p. 42: "Platypus, water-mole or duckbill." 1860. G.Bennett, `Gatherings of a Naturalist,' p. 96: "The <i>Ornithorhynchus</i> is known to the colonists by the nme of the watermole, from some resemblance which it is supposed to bear to the common European mole (<i>Talpa Europoea</i>, Linn.)" 1860. G. Bennett, `Gatherings of a Naturalist,' p. 95: "When first a preserved skin was sent to England, it excited great distrust, being considered a fraud upon the naturalist. . . It was first described and figured by Shaw in the year 1799, in the `Naturalist's Miscellany,' vol. x., by the name of <i>Platypus anatinus</i>, or Duck-billed Platypus, and it was noticed in Collins's `New South Wales' 2nd ed. [should be vol. ii. <i>not</i> 2nd ed.], 4to. p. 62, 1802, where it is named <i>Ornithorhyncus paradoxus</i>, Blum. . . There is a rude figure given of this animal in Collins's work." 1884. Marcus Clarke, `Memorial Volume,' p. 177: "The Platypus Club is in Camomile Street, and the Platypi are very haughty persons." 1890. `Victorian Statutes--the Game Act' (Third Schedule): [Close Season.] "Platypus. The whole year." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 30: "In the Dee river . . . I observed several times the remarkable platypus (<i>Ornithorhynchus anatinus</i>) swimming rapidly about after the small water-insects and vegetable particles which constitute its food. It shows only a part of its back above water, and is so quick in its movements that it frequently dives under water before the shot can reach it." 1891. `Guide to Zoological Gardens, Melbourne': "In the next division the platypus and its burrows are shown. These curious oviparous animals commence their long burrows under water, and work upwards into dry ground. The nest is constructed in a little chamber made of dry leaves and grass, and is very warm and comfortable; there is a second entrance on dry ground. The young are found in the months of September and October, but occasionally either a little earlier or later; generally two or three at a time." 1892. A. Sutherland, `Elementary Geography of British Colonies,' p. 273: "The platypus is covered with fur like an otter, and has four webbed feet, like those of a duck, and a black duck-like bill. It makes a burrow in a river bank, but with an opening below the level of the water. It swims and dives in quiet shady river-bends, and disappears on hearing the least noise." 1894. R. Lydekker, `Marsupialia,' p. 233: "The duck-bill was originally described under the name of <i>Platypus anatinus</i>, which was Anglicised into duck-billed platypus, but since the generic name [<i>Platypus</i>] had been previously employed for another group of animals, it had, by the rules of zoological nomenclature, to give place to the later <i>Ornithorhynchus</i>, although Shaw's specific name of<i>anatina</i> still holds good. On these grounds it is likewise preferable to discard the Anglicised term Duck-billed Platypus in favour of the simpler Duck-bill or Duck-Mole." [Mr. Lydekker is a scientific Englishman, who has not lived in Australia, and although the names of <i>Duck-bill</i> and <i>Duck-mole</i> are perhaps preferable for more exact scientific use, yet by long usage the name Platypus has become the ordinary vernacular name, and is the one by which the animal will always be known in Australian popular language.] <hw>Plover</hw>, <i>n</i>. The bird called the Plover exists all over the world. The species present in Australia are-- Black-breasted Plover-- <i>Sarciophorus pectoralis</i>, Cuv. Golden P.-- <i>Charadrius fulvus</i>, Gmel. Grey P.-- <i>C. helveticus</i>, Linn. Long-billed Stone P.-- <i>Esacus magnirostris</i>, Geoff. Masked P.-- <i>Lobivanellus personatus</i>, Gould. Spur-winged P.-- <i>Lobivanellus lobatus</i>, Lath. Stone P.-- <i>OEdicnemus grallarius</i>, Lath. And in New Zealand--Red-breasted Plover, <i>Charadrius obscurus</i>, Gmel. (Maori name, <i>Tututuriwhata</i>); Crook-billed, <i>Anarhynchus frontalis</i>, Quoy and Gaim. The authorities vary in the vernacular names and in the scientific classification. See also <i>Sand-Plover</i> and <i>Wry-billed-Plover</i>. <hw>Plum</hw>, <i>n</i>. sometimes called <i>Acacia Plum</i>, a timber tree, <i>Eucryphia moorei</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Saxifrageae</i>; called also <i>Acacia</i> and "<i>White Sally</i>." <hw>Plum, Black</hw>, <i>n</i>. the fruit of the tree <i>Cargillia australis</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Ebenaceae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 14: "The fruits are of the size of a large plum and of a dark purple colour. They are eaten by the aboriginals." <hw>Plum, Burdekin</hw>, or <hw>Sweet Plum</hw>, <i>n</i>. a timber tree, <i>Spondias pleiogyna</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Anacardiaceae</i>. Wood like American walnut. <hw>Plum, Grey</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) A timber-tree. One of the names for <i>Cargillia pentamera</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Ebenaceae</i>. Wood used for tool-handles. (2) Provincial name for the <i>Caper-Tree</i> (q.v.). <hw>Plum, Native</hw>, or <hw>Wild Plum</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Brush-Apple</i>. See <i>Apple</i>. The <i>Native Plum</i>, peculiar to Tasmania, and called also <i>Port-Arthur Plum</i>, is <i>Cenarrhenes nitida</i>, Lab., <i>N.O. Proteaceae</i>. <hw>Plum, Queensland</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Sweet Plum</i> (q.v. infra). <hw>Plum, Sour</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for <i>Emu-Apple</i> (q.v.). <hw>Plum, Sweet</hw>, <i>n</i>. a wild fruit, <i>Owenia venosa</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Meliaceae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 49: "Queensland Plum, Sweet Plum. This plant bears a fine juicy red fruit with a large stone. . . . It is both palatable and refreshing." <hw>Plum, White</hw>, <i>n</i>. local name for <i>Acacia</i> (q.v.). <hw>Plum, Wild</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Native Plum</i> (q.v.). <hw>Plum-tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. the tree, <i>Buchanania mangoides</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Anacardiaceae</i>. <hw>Podargus</hw>, <i>n</i>. scientific name of a genus of Australian birds, called the <i>Frogsmouth</i> (q.v.) and <i>Mopoke</i>. From Grk. <i>podargos</i>, swift or white-footed. (Hector's horse in the `Iliad' was named Podargus.--`Il.' viii. 185.) 1890. `Victorian Statutes-Game Act' (Third Schedule): [Close Season.] "Podargus or Mopokes, the whole year." <hw>Poddly</hw>, <i>n</i>. a New Zealand and Australian fish, <i>Sebastes percoides</i>, Richards.; called in Victoria <i>Red-Gurnet Perch</i>. The name is applied in England to a different fish. 1872. Hutton and Hector, `Fishes of New Zealand,' p. 108: "The pohuia-karou is the proper sea-perch of these waters, that name having been applied by mistake to a small wrasse, which is generally called the spotty or poddly." <hw>Poddy</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Victorian name for the <i>Sand-Mullet</i>. See <i>Mullet</i>. <hw>Poe</hw>, <i>n</i>. same as <i>Tui</i> (q.v.) and <i>Parson-bird</i> (q.v.). The name, which was not the Maori name, did not endure. 17]7. Cook's' Voyage towards the South Pole and round the World' [2nd Voyage], vol. i. pp. 97, 98: "Amongst the small birds I must not omit to particularise the wattlebird, poy-bird. . . . The poy-bird is less than the wattle-bird; the feathers of a fine mazarine blue, except those of its neck, which are of a most beautiful silver-grey. . . . Under its throat hang two little tufts of curled snow-white feathers, called its poies, which being the Otaheitean word for ear-rings occasioned our giving that name to the bird, which is not more remarkable for the beauty of its plumage than for the sweetness of its note." [In the illustration given it is spelt <i>poe-bird</i>, and in the list of plates it is spelt <i>poi</i>.] 1865. W. Howitt, `Discovery in Australia,' vol. i. p. 111: "This bird they called the Wattlebird, and also the Poy-bird, from its having little tufts of curled hair under its throat, which they called poies, from the Otaheitan word for ear-rings. The sweetness of this bird's note they described as extraordinary, and that its flesh was delicious, but that it was a shame to kill it." <hw>Pohutukawa</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a magnificent New Zealand tree, <i>Metrosideros tomentosa</i>, A. Cunn., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>, called Christmas-tree and Fire-tree by the settlers. There is a Maori <i>verb, pohutu</i>, to splash. <i>Kawa (n</i>.) is a sprig of any kind used in religious ceremonies; the name would thus mean <i>Splashed sprig</i>. The wood of the tree is very durable, and a concoction of the inner bark is useful in dysentery. 1835. W. Yate, `Some Account of New Zealand,' p. 46: "Pohutukawa (<i>Callistemon ellipticus</i>). This is a tree of remarkably robust habits and diffuse irregular growth." 1855. G. Grey, `Polynesian Mythology,' p. 142: "On arrival of Arawa canoe, the red flowers of the pohutakawa were substituted for the red ornaments in the hair." 1862. `All the Year Round,' `From the Black Rocks on Friday,' May 17, 1862, No. 160: "In the clefts of the rocks were growing shrubs, with here and there the larger growth of a pohutukawa, a large crooked-limbed evergreen tree found in New Zealand, and bearing, about Christmas, a most beautiful crimson bloom. The boat-builders in New Zealand use the crooked limbs of this tree for the knees and elbows of their boats." 1873. `Catalogue of Vienna Exhibition': "Pohutukawa for knees, ribs, and bent-pieces, invaluable to ship-builder. It surpasses English oak. Confined to Province of Auckland." 1875. T. Laslett, `Timber and Timber Trees,' p. 310: "The pohutukawa-tree (<i>Metrosideros tomentosa</i>) requires an exposed situation . . . is crooked, misshapen. . . . The natives speak of it (the timber) as very durable." 1886. J. A. Fronde, `Oceana,' p. 308: "Low down on the shore the graceful native Pokutukawa [sic] was left undisturbed, the finest of the Rata tribe--at a distance like an ilex, only larger than any ilex I ever saw, the branches twisted into the most fantastic shapes, stretching out till their weight bears them to the ground or to the water. Pokutukawa, in Maori language, means `dipped in the sea-spray.' In spring and summer it bears a brilliant crimson flower." <hw>Pointers</hw>, <i>n</i>. two of the bullocks in a team. See quotation. 1872. C. H. Eden, `My Wife and I in Queensland,' p. 36: "Twelve bullocks is the usual number in a team, the two polers and the leaders being steady old stagers; the pair next to the pole are called the `pointers,' and are also required to be pretty steady, the remainder being called the `body bullocks,' and it is not necessary to be so particular about their being thoroughly broken in." <hw>Poison-berry Tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. <i>Pittosporum phillyroides</i>, De C., <i>N.O. Pittosporeae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 588: "Butter-Bush of Northern Australia; Willow-Tree of York Peninsula; Native Willow, Poison-berry Tree (South Australia). The berries are not poisonous--only bitter." <hw>Poison-Bush</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to a genus of poisonous Australian shrubs, <i>Gastrolobium</i> (q.v.). Out of the thirty-three described species of the genus <i>Gastrolobium</i>, only one is found out of Western Australia; <i>G. grandiflorum</i>, F. v. M., is the poison-bush of the Queensland interior and of Central Australia. The name is also given to <i>Swainsonia Greyana</i>, Lindl., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>. The <i>Darling-Pea</i> (q.v.), or <i>Indigo-Plant</i> (q.v.), has similar poisonous effects to the <i>Gastrolobium</i>. These species of Gastrolobium go under the various names of <i>Desert Poison-Bush</i>, <i>York-Road Poison-Bush</i>, <i>Wallflower</i>; and the names of <i>Ellangowan Poison-Bush</i> (Queensland), and <i>Dogswood Poison-Bush</i> (New South Wales), are given to <i>Myoporum deserti</i>, A. Cunn., <i>N.O. Myoporineae</i>, while another plant, <i>Trema aspera</i>, Blume., <i>N.O. Urticaceae</i>, is called <i>Peach-leaved Poison-Bush</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 129: "These plants are dangerous to stock, and are hence called `Poison Bushes.' Large numbers of cattle are lost annually in Western Australia through eating them. The finest and strongest animals are the first victims; a difficulty of breathing is perceptible for a few minutes, when they stagger, drop down, and all is over with them. . . . It appears to be that the poison enters the circulation, and altogether stops the action of the lungs and heart." Ibid. p. 141: "This plant [<i>S. greyana</i>] is reported to cause madness, if not death itself, to horses. The poison seems to act on the brain, for animals affected by it refuse to cross even a small twig lying in their path, probably imagining it to be a great log. Sometimes the poor creatures attempt to climb trees, or commit other eccentricities." <hw>Poison-Tree</hw>, or <hw>Poisonous Tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Milky Mangrove</i>. See <i>Mangrove</i>. The <i>Scrub Poison-Tree</i> is <i>Exsaecaria dallachyana</i>, Baill., <i>N.O. Euphorbiaceae</i>. <hw>Pomegranate, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Caper-tree</i>(q.v.). <hw>Pomegranate, Small Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Native Orange</i>. See <i>Orange</i>. <hw>Pongo</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for the <i>Flying-Squirrel</i> (q.v.). 1888. Rolf Boldrewood, `Robbery under Arms,' p. 149: "Then an old 'possum would sing out, or a black-furred flying-squirrel--pongos, the blacks call `em--would come sailing down from the top of an ironbark tree, with all his stern sails spread, as the sailors say, and into the branches of another, looking as big as an eagle-hawk." <hw>Poor-Soldier</hw>, or <hw>Soldier-Bird</hw> (q.v.), <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Friar-bird</i> (q.v.), and so named from its cry. <hw>Poplar</hw>, <i>n</i>. In Queensland, a timber-tree, <i>Carumbium populifolium</i>, Reinw., <i>N.O. Euphorbiaceae</i>. In Central Australia, the <i>Radish-tree</i> (q.v.). <hw>Poplar-Box</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Box</i>. <hw>Poplar-leaved Gum</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Gum</i>. <hw>Porangi</hw>, <i>adj</i>. Maori word for <i>sad, sorry</i>, or <i>sick</i>; <i>cranky</i>. 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 137: "The combatants . . . took especial pains to tell us that it was no fault of ours, but the porangi or `foolishness' of the Maori." Ibid. vol. ii. p. 238: "Watanui said E Abu was porangi, `a fool.'" 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' p. 435: "`Twas nothing--he was not to mind her--she Was foolish--was `<i>porangi</i>'--and would be Better directly--and her tears she dried." 1882. R. C. Barstow, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. xv. art. liii. p. 423: "A man who told such marvellous stories that he was deemed to be porangi or insane." <hw>Porcupine, Ant-eating</hw>, i.q. <i>Echidna</i> (q.v.). <hw>Porcupine-Bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bird inhabiting the <i>Porcupine-Grass</i> (q.v.) of Central Australia; the <i>Striated Grass Wren</i>, <i>Amytis striata</i>, Gould. See <i>Wren</i>. 1886. G. A. Keartland, `Horne Expedition in Central Australia,' Part ii. Zoology, <i>Aves</i>, p. 79: "<i>Amytis Striata</i>, Gould. Striated Wren. . . . They are found almost throughout Central Australia wherever the porcupine grass abounds, so much so, that they are generally known as the `Porcupine bird.'" <hw>Porcupine-Fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to several species of the genus <i>Diodon</i>, family <i>Gymnodontes</i>, poisonous fishes; also to <i>Dicotylichthys punctulatus</i>, Kaup., an allied fish 1n which the spines are not erectile as in <i>Diodon</i>, but are stiff and immovable. <i>Chilomycterus jaculiferus</i>, Cuv., another species, has also stiff spines, and <i>Atopomycterus nycthemerus</i>, Cuv., has erectile spines. See <i>Toad-fish</i> and <i>Globe-fish</i>. <hw>Porcupine-Grass</hw>, <i>n</i>. the name given to certain species of <i>Triodia</i>, of which the more important are <i>T. mitchelli</i>, Benth., <i>T. pungens</i>, R. Br., and <i>T. irritans</i>, R. Br. This grass forms rounded tussocks, growing especially on the sand-hills of the desert parts of Australia, which may reach the size of nine or ten feet in diameter. The leaves when dry form stiff, sharp-pointed structures, which radiate in all directions, like knitting-needles stuck in a huge pincushion. In the writings of the early Australian explorers it is usually, but erroneously, called <i>Spinifex</i> (q.v.). The aborigines collect the resinous material on the leaves of <i>T. pungens</i>, and use it for various purposes, such as that of attaching pieces of flint to the ends of their yam-sticks and spear-throwers. 1865. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `History of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia,' vol. i. p. 284: "It [<i>Triodia</i>] grows in tufts like large beehives, or piles of thrift grass, and the leaves project out rigidly in all directions, just like <i>Chevaux-de-frise</i>. Merely brushing by will cause the points to strike into the limbs, and a very short walk in such country soon covers the legs with blood. . . . Unfortunately two or three species of it extend throughout the whole continent, and form a part of the descriptions in the journal of every explorer." 1880 (before). P. J. Holdsworth, `Station-hunting on the Warrego,' quoted in `Australian Ballads and Rhymes' (ed. Sladen), p. 115: "Throughout that night, Cool dews came sallying on that rain-starved land, And drenched the thick rough tufts of bristly grass, Which, stemmed like quills (and thence termed porcupine), Thrust hardily their shoots amid the flints And sharp-edged stones." 1889. E. Giles, `Australia Twice Traversed,' vol. i. p. 76: "No porcupine, but real green grass made up a really pretty picture, to the explorer at least." 1889. Cassell's `Picturesque Australasia,' vol. iv. p. 148: "These were covered with spinifex, or porcupine-grass, the leaves of which are needle-pointed." 1896. R. Tate, `Horne Expedition in Central Australia,' Botany, p. 119: "In the Larapintine Region . . . a species of Triodia (`porcupine grass' or, incorrectly, `spinifex' of explorers and residents) dominates sand ground and the sterile slopes and tops of the sandstone table-lands." <hw>Porcupine-grass Ant</hw>, <i>n</i>. popular name given to <i>Hypoclinea flavipes</i>, Kirby, an ant making its nest round the root of the Porcupine grass (<i>Triodia pungens</i>), and often covering the leaves of the tussock with tunnels of sandgrains fastened together by resinous material derived from the surface of the leaves. 1896. Baldwin Spencer, `Home Expedition in Central Australia.' "Watching the Porcupine-grass ants, which are very small and black bodies with yellowish feet, I saw them constantly running in and out of these chambers, and on opening the latter found that they were always built over two or more Coccidae attached to the leaf of the grass." <hw>Porcupine-Parrot</hw>, <i>n</i>. See quotation. 1896. G. A. Keartland, `Report of the Horne Expedition in Central Australia,' Part ii. Zoology, <i>Aves</i>, p. 107: "Geopsittacus occidentalis. Western Ground Parrakeet. . . . As they frequent the dense porcupine grass, in which they hide during the day, a good dog is necessary to find them. They are locally known as the `Porcupine Parrot.'" <hw>Poroporo</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the flowering shrub <i>Solanum aviculare</i>, Forst.; called in Australia, <i>Kangaroo Apple</i>. Corrupted into <i>Bullybul</i> (q.v.). /See, rather, Bull-a-bull/ 1857. C. Hursthouse, `New Zealand, the Britain of the South, p. 136: "The poroporo, the nicest or least nasty of the wild fruits, is a sodden strawberry flavoured with apple-peel; but if rashly tasted an hour before it is ripe, the poroporo is an alum pill flavoured with strychnine." 1880. W. Colenso, `Transactions New Zealand Institute,' vol. xiii. art. i. p. 32: "The large berry of the poro-poro (<i>Solanum aviculare</i>) was also eaten; it is about the size of a small plum, and when ripe it is not unpleasant eating, before it is ripe it is very acrid. This fruit was commonly used by the early colonists in the neighbourhood of Wellington in making jam." <hw>Porphyrio</hw>, <i>n</i>. the Sultana-bird, or Sultana. The bird exists elsewhere. In Australia it is generally called the <i>Swamp-Hen</i> (q.v.). 1875. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' p. 213: "The crimson-billed porphyrio, that jerking struts Among the cool thick rushes." 1890. `Victorian Statutes-the Game Act' (Third Schedule): [Close Season.] ". . . Land-rail, all other members of the Rail family, Porphyrio, Coots, &c. From the First day of August to the Twentieth day of December following." <hw>Port-Arthur Plum</hw>. See <i>Plum, Native</i>. <hw>Port-Jackson Fig</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Fig</i>. <hw>Port-Jackson Shark</hw>, <i>Heterodontus phillipii</i>, Lacep., family <i>Cestraciontidae</i>; called also the <i>Shell-grinder</i>. 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish of New South Wales,' p. 10: "The <i>Cestracion</i> or Port Jackson shark (<i>Heterodontus</i>)." Ibid. p. 97: "It was supposed that Port Jackson alone had this shark . . . It has since been found in many of the coast bays of Australia." <hw>Port-Jackson Thrush</hw>, <i>n</i>. the best known bird among the Australian <i>Shrike-thrushes</i> (q.v.), <i>Colluricincla harmonica</i>, Lath.; called also the <i>Austral Thrush</i>, and <i>Harmonic Thrush</i> by Latham. It is also the <i>C. cinerea</i> of Vigors and Horsfield and the <i>Turdus harmonicus</i> of Latham, and it has received various other scientific and vernacular names; Colonel Legge has now assigned to it the name of <i>Grey Shrike-Thrush</i>. Gould called it the "Harmonious Colluricincla." 1790. J. White, `Voyage to New South Wales,' p. 157: "The Port-Jackson thrush, of which a plate is annexed, inhabits the neighbourhood of Port Jackson. The top of head blueish-grey; back is a fine chocolate brown; wings and tail lead-colour; under part dusky white. . . . The bill, dull yellow; legs brown." 1822. John Latham, `General History of Birds,' vol. v. p. 124: "Austral Thrush. [A full description.] Inhabits New South Wales." [Latham describes two other birds, the <i>Port Jackson Thrush</i> and the <i>Harmonic Thrush</i>, and he uses different scientific names for them. But Gould, regarding Latham's specimens as all of the same species, takes all Latham's scientific and vernacular names as synonyms for the same bird.] 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. ii. pl. 74: "The Colluricincla harmonica is one of the oldest known of the Australian birds, having been described in Latham's `Index Ornithologicus,' figured in White's `Voyage' and included in the works of all subsequent writers." <hw>Port-Macquarie Pine</hw>. See <i>Pine</i>. <hw>Post-and-Rail Tea</hw>, slang name for strong bush-tea: so called because large bits of the tea, or supposed tea, float about in the billy, which are compared by a strong imagination to the posts and rails of the wooden fence so frequent in Australia. 1851. `The Australasian' (a Quarterly), p. 298: "<i>Hyson-skin</i> and <i>post-and-rail</i> tea have been superseded by Mocha, claret, and cognac." 1855. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes,' p. 163: "A hot beverage in a tin pot, which richly deserved the colonial epithet of `post-and-rail' tea, for it might well have been a decoction of `split stuff,' or `ironbark shingles,' for any resemblance it bore to the Chinese plant." 1870. T. H. Braim, `New Homes,' c. i. p. 28: "The shepherd's wife kindly gave us the invariable mutton-chop and damper and some post-and-rail tea." 1883. Keighley, `Who are you?' p. 36: "Then took a drink of tea. . . . Such as the swagmen in our goodly land Have with some humour named the `post-and-rail.'" <hw>Potato-Fern</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fern (<i>Marattia fraxinea</i>, Smith) with a large part edible, sc. the basal scales of the frond. Called also the <i>Horseshoe-fern</i>. <hw>Potato, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. a sort of Yam, <i>Gastrodia sesamoides</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Orchideae</i>. 1834. Ross, `Van Diemen's Land Annual,' p. 131: "Produces bulb-tubers growing one out of another, of the size, and nearly the form, of kidney potatoes; the lowermost is attached by a bundle of thick fleshy fibres to the root of the tree from which it derives its nourishment. These roots are roasted and eaten by the aborigines; in taste they resemble beet-root, and are sometimes called in the colony native potatoes." 1857. F. R. Nixon, `Cruise of the Beacon,' p. 27: "And the tubers of several plants of this tribe were largely consumed by them, particularly those of <i>Gastrodi sessamoides</i> [sic], the native potato, so called by the colonists, though never tasted by them, and having not the most remote relation to the plant of that name, except in a little resemblance of the tubers, in shape and appearance, to the kidney potato." <hw>Potoroo</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for a <i>Kangaroo-Rat</i> (q.v.). See also <i>Potorous</i> and <i>Roo</i>. 1790. John White, `Journal of a Voyage to New South Wales,' p. 286: "The Poto Roo, or Kangaroo Rat." [Figure and description.] "It is of a brownish grey colour, something like the brown or grey rabbit, with a tinge of a greenish yellow. It has a pouch on the lower part of its belly." <hw>Potorous</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name of the genus of the <i>Kangaroo-Rats</i> (q.v.). The aboriginal name was <i>Potoroo</i>; see <i>Roo</i>. They are also called <i>Rat-Kangaroos</i>. <hw>Pouched-lion</hw>, or <hw>Marsupial Lion</hw>, <i>n</i>. a large extinct <i>Phalanger</i> (q.v.), <i>Thylacoleo carnifex</i>, Owen. The popular name was given under the idea, derived from the presence of an enormous cutting-tooth, that the animal was of fierce carnivorous habits. But it is more generally regarded as closely allied to the phalangers, who are almost entirely vegetarians. <hw>Pouched-Mouse</hw>, <i>n</i>. the vernacular name adopted for species of the genera <i>Phascologale</i> (q.v.), <i>Sminthopsis, Dasyuroides</i> and <i>Antechinomys</i>. They are often called <i>Kangaroo-mice</i> (q.v.). The species are-- Brush-tailed Pouched-Mouse-- <i>Phascologale penicillata</i>, Shaw. Chestnut-necked P.-M.-- <i>P. thorbechiana</i>, Schl. Crest-tailed P.-M.-- <i>P. cristicauda</i>, Krefft. Fat-tailed P.-M.-- <i>P. macdonnellensis</i>, Spencer. Freckled P.-M.--- <i>P. apicalis</i>, Gray. Lesser-tailed P.-M.-- <i>P. calura</i>, Gould. Little P.-M.-- <i>P. minima</i>, Geoff. Long-tailed P.-M.-- <i>P. longicaudata</i>, Schleg. Orange-bellied P.-M.-- <i>P. doria</i>, Thomas. Pigmy P.-M.-- <i>P. minutissima</i>, Gould. Red-tailed P.-M.-- <i>P. wallacii</i>, Grey. Swainson's P.-M.-- <i>P. swainsoni</i>, Water. Yellow-footed Pouched-Mouse-- <i>Phascologale flavipes</i>, Water. The <i>Narrow-footed Pouched-Mice</i> belong to the genus <i>Sminthopsis</i>, and differ from the <i>Phascologales</i> in being entirely terrestrial in their habits, whereas the latter are usually arboreal; the species are-- Common Narrow-footed Pouched-Mouse-- <i>Sminthopsis murina</i>, Water. Finke N.-f. P.-M.-- <i>S. larapinta</i>, Spencer. Sandhill N.-f. P.-M.-- <i>S. psammophilus</i>, Spencer. Stripe-faced N.-f. P.-M.-- <i>S. virginiae</i>, De Tarrag. Thick-tailed N.-f. P.-M.-- <i>S. crassicaudata</i>, Gould. White-footed N.-f. P.-M. <i>S. leucopus</i>, Grey. The third genus, <i>Dasyuroides</i>, has only one species-- Byrne's Pouched-Mouse, <i>D. byrnei</i>, Spencer. The fourth genus, <i>Antechinomys</i>, has only one known species--the <i>Long-legged Jumping Pouched-Mouse</i>, <i>A. laniger</i>, Gould. <hw>Pounamu</hw>, or <hw>Poenamu</hw>, <i>n</i>. the Maori name for <i>Nephrite, Jade</i>, or <i>Greenstone</i> (q.v.). In the second spelling the <i>e</i> is hardly sounded. 1773. Hawkesworth, `Cook's Voyages,' vol. ii. p. 400: "Two Whennuas or islands [afterwards called New Zealand] which might be circumnavigated in a few days, and which he called Tovy Poenammoo; the literal translation of this word is `the water of green talc,' and probably if we had understood him better we should have found that Tovy Poenammoo was the name of some particular place where they got the green talc or stone of which they make their ornaments and tools, and not a general name for the whole southern district." 1867. F. Hochstetter, `New Zealand,' p. 362: "A magnificent Mere punamu, a battle-axe, fifteen inches long, and cut out of the most beautiful, transparent nephrite, an heirloom of his illustrious ancestors, which he kept as a sacred relic." 1881. J. L. Campbell [Title of book describing early days of New Zealand]: "Poenamo." <hw>Pratincole</hw>, <i>n</i>. The bird called a <i>Pratincole</i> (inhabitant of meadows: Lat. <i>pratum</i> and <i>incola</i>) exists elsewhere, and more often under the familiar name of <i>Chat</i>. The Australian species are--<i>Glareola grallaria</i>, Temm.; Oriental, <i>G. orientalis</i>, Leach. <hw>Pre-empt</hw>, <i>n</i>. a slang abbreviation for pre-emptive right. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. xxiv. p. 322: "My friend has the run and the stock and the pre-empts all in his own hands." <hw>Pretty-Faces</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fancy name for a small kangaroo. Not very common. 1887. W. S. S.Tyrwhitt, `The New Chum in the Queensland Bush,' p. 145: "Kangaroos are of several different kinds. First, the large brown variety, known as kangaroo proper; next the smaller kind, known as pretty faces or whip tails, which are rather smaller and of a grey colour, with black and white on the face." <hw>Prickfoot</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian plant, <i>Eryngium vesiculosum</i>, Lab., <i>N.O. Umbelliferae</i>. <hw>Prickly Fern</hw>, <i>n</i>. <i>Alsophila australis</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Filices</i>. 1862. W. Archer, `Products of Tasmania,' p. 41: "Prickly fern-tree (<i>Alsophila Australis</i>, Br.). This very handsome ferntree occasionally attains a height of thirty feet. It is not, by any means, so common a fern-tree as <i>Dicksonia antarctica</i> (Lab.)." <hw>Prickly Mimosa</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Mimosa</i> and <i>Prickly Moses</i>, under <i>Moses</i>. 1835. Ross, `Hobart Town Almanack,' p. 6: <i>Acacia verticillata</i>. Whorl leaved Acacia, or Prickly Mimosa, so called from its sharp pointed leaves standing out in whorls round the stem like the spokes of a wheel." <hw>Prickly Pine</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Pine</i>. <hw>Prickly Wattle</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Wattle</i>. <hw>Primage</hw>, <i>n</i>. The word is of old commercial use, for a small sum of money formerly paid to the captain or master of the ship, as his personal perquisite, over and above the freight charges paid to the owners or agents, by persons sending goods in a ship. It was called by the French <i>pot-de-vin du maitre</i>,--a sort of <i>pourboire</i>, in fact. Now-a-days the captain has no concern with the freight arrangements, and the word in this sense has disappeared. It has re-appeared in Australia under a new form. In 1893 the Victorian Parliament imposed a duty of one per cent. on the <i>Prime</i>, as the Customs laws call the first entry of goods. This tax was called <i>Primage</i>, and raised such an outcry among commercial men that in 1895 it was repealed. <hw>Primrose, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is given in Tasmania to <i>Goodenia geniculata</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Goodeniaceae</i>. There are many species of <i>Goodenia</i> in Australia, and they contain a tonic bitter which has not been examined. <hw>Prion</hw>, <i>n</i>. a sea-bird. See <i>Dove-Petrel</i>. (Grk. <i>priown</i>, a saw.) The sides of its bill are like the teeth of a saw. 1885. W. O. Legge, `Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science' (Brisbane), p. 448: "The name Prion, as almost universally applied elsewhere to the Blue Petrels, has been kept [in Australia] as an English name." <HW>Prop</HW>, <i>v</i>. of a horse: to stop suddenly. 1870. E. B. Kennedy, `Four Years in Queensland,' p. 194: "Another man used to teach his horse (which was free from vice) to gallop full speed up to the verandah of a house, and when almost against it, the animal would stop in his stride (or prop), when the rider vaulted lightly over his head on to the verandah." 1880. W. Senior, `Travel and Trout,' p.52: "How on a sudden emergency the sensible animal will instantaneously check his impetuosity, `prop,' and swing round at a tangent." 1884. Rolf Boldrewood,' Melbourne Memories,' c. xxi. p. 152: "Traveller's dam had an ineradicable taste for propping." 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia,' p. 153: "His horse propped short, and sent him flying over its head." <hw>Prop</hw>, <i>n</i>. a sudden stop. 1884. Rolf Boldrewood, `Melbourne Memories,' c. xvi. p. 115: "The `touchy' mare gave so sudden a `prop,' accompanied by a desperate plunge, that he was thrown." <hw>Prospect</hw>, v. to search for gold. In the word, and in all its derivatives, the accent is thrown back on to the first syllable. This word, in such frequent use in Australia, is generally supposed to be of Australian origin, but it is in equal use in the mining districts of the United States of America. 1861. T. McCombie, `Australian Sketches,' p. 10: "The forest seemed alive with scouts `prospecting.'" 1864. J. Rogers, `New Rush,' pt. i. p. 18: "Behold him, along with his partner set out, To <i>prospect</i> the unexplor'd ranges about." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `The Miner's Right,' p. 46: "A promising place for prospecting. Yet nowhere did I see the shafts and heaps of rock or gravel which tell in a gold country of the hasty search for the precious metal." 1894. `The Argus,' March 10, p. 4, col. 6: "The uses of the tin dish require explanation. It is for prospecting. That is to say, to wash the soil in which you think there is gold." <hw>Prospect</hw>, <i>n</i>. the result of the first or test-dish full of wash-dirt. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `The Miner's Right,' c. v. p. 54: "The first prospect, the first pan of alluvial gold drift, was sent up to be tested." 1890. `Goldfields of Victoria,' p. 17: "I have obtained good dish prospects after crudely crushing up the quartz." <hw>Prospecting</hw>, <i>verbal n</i>. and <i>adj</i>. See <i>Prospect, v</i>. 1890. `Goldfields of Victoria,' p. 16: "Prospecting in my division is on the increase." Ibid. p. 13: "The Egerton Company are doing a large amount of prospecting work." <hw>Prospecting Claim</hw> = the first claim marked in a gold-lead. See <i>Reward Claim</i>. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `The Miner's Right,' c. v. p. 53: "This, however, would be but half the size of the premier or prospecting claim." <hw>Prospector</hw>, <i>n</i>. one who searches for gold on a new field. See <i>Prospect, v</i>. 1890. `Goldfields of Victoria,' p. 19: "The Government prospectors have also been very successful." 1891. W. Tilley, `Wild West of Tasmania,' p. 11: "He incidentally mentioned his gold find to another prospector . . . The last went out to the grounds and prospected, with the result that he discovered the first payable gold on the West Coast, for which he obtained a reward claim." <hw>Pseudochirus</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name of the genus of Ring-tailed Phalangers. (See <i>Opossum</i>.) They have prehensile tails, by which they hold in climbing, as with a hand. (Grk. <i>pseudo-</i>, false, and <i>cheir</i>, hand.) <hw>Psophodes</hw>, <i>n</i>. scientific name of a genus of birds peculiar to Australia, and represented there by two species. See <i>Coach-whip Bird</i>. The name comes from the bird's peculiar note. (Grk. <i>psophowdaes</i>, noisy.) <hw>Ptilonorhynchinae</hw>, <i>n</i>. pl. scientific name assigned to the Australian group of birds called the <i>Bower-birds</i> (q.v.). (Grk. <i>ptilon</i>, a feather, <i>rhunchos</i>, a beak.) <hw>Pudding-ball</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fish; corruption of the aboriginal name of it, <i>puddinba</i> (q.v.), by the law of Hobson-Jobson. 1847. J. D. Lang, `Cooksland,' p. 96: "The species of fish that are commonest in the Bay (Moreton) are mullet, bream, puddinba (a native word corrupted by the colonists into pudding-ball) . . . The puddinba is like a mullet in shape, but larger, and very fat; it is esteemed a great delicacy." 1896. `The Australasian,' Aug. 28, p. 407 col. 4: "`Pudding-ball' is the name of a fish. It has nothing to do with pudding, nothing with any of the various meanings of ball. The fish is not specially round. The aboriginal name was `pudden-ba.' <i>Voila tout</i>." <hw>Pukeko</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the bird <i>Porphyrio melanonotus</i>, the <i>Swamp-Hen</i> (q.v.). 1896. `Otago Witness,' June 11, p. 51: "Two <i>pukaki</i> [sic] flew across their path." <hw>Punga</hw>, <i>n</i>. the trunk of the tree-fern that is known as <i>Cyathea medullaris</i>, the "black fern " of the settlers. It has an edible pith. 1855. Rev. R. Taylor, `Te Ika a Maui,' p. 115: "Some of the trees were so alarmed that they held down their heads, and have never been able to hold them up since; amongst these were the ponga (a fern-tree) and the kareao (supple-jack), whose tender shoots are always bent." 1888. J. White, `Ancient History of Maori,' vol. iv. p. 191: "When Tara-ao left his pa and fled from the vengeance of Karewa, he and his people were hungry and cut down ponga, and cooked and ate them." 1888. J. Adams, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. xxi. art. ii. p. 36: "The size and beauty of the puriri, nikau, and ponga (<i>Cyathea medullaris</i>) are worthy of notice." 1892. E. S. Brookes, `Frontier Life,' p. 139: "The Survey Department graded a zigzag track up the side to the top, fixing in punga steps, so that horses could climb up." <hw>Punga-punga</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the pollen of the <i>raupo</i> (q.v.). 1880. W. Colenso, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. xiii. art. i. p. 28: "Another curious article of vegetable food was the punga-punga, the yellow pollen of the raupo flowers. To use it as food it is mixed with water into cakes and baked. It is sweetish and light, and reminds one strongly of London gingerbread." <hw>Puriri</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the New Zealand tree, <i>Vitex littoralis</i>, A. Cunn., <i>N.O. Verbenaceae</i>; called also <i>New Zealand Oak</i>, <i>New Zealand Teak</i>, and <i>Ironwood</i>. It is very hard. 1842. W. R. Wade, `Journey in New Zealand' (Hobart Town), p. 200: "Puriri, misnamed <i>Vitex littoralis</i>, as it is not found near the sea-coast." 1875. T. Laslett, `Timber and Timber Trees,' p. 311: "The Puriri Tree (<i>Vitex littoralis</i>). The stems . . . vary from straight to every imaginable form of curved growth. . . The fruit, which is like a cherry, is a favourite food of the woodpigeon." 1882. T. H. Potts, `Out in the Open,' p. 86: "A deep ravine, over which grey-stemmed purtris stretched out afar their gnarled trunks, laden with deep green foliage, speckled with the warm gleam of ruddy blossoms." 1881. J. L. Campbell, `Poenamo,' p. 102: "The darker, crimped and varnished leaf of the puriri, with its bright cherry-like berry." 1889. T. Kirk, `Forest Flora of New Zealand,' p. 209: "The Puriri . . . on account of the strength of its timber it is sometimes termed by the settlers `New Zealand Oak,' but it would be far more correct to name it `New Zealand Teak.'" <hw>Purple Berry</hw>, <i>n</i>. Tasmanian name for <i>Billardiera longiflora</i>, Lab., <i>N.O. Pittosporeae</i>. See <i>Pittosporum</i>. 1880. Mrs. Meredith, `Tasmanian Friends and Foes,' p. 11 [Note]: "<i>Billardiera longiflora</i>, the well-known beautiful climber, with pale greenish bell-flowers and purple fruit." [Also pl. i.] <hw>Purple Broom</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Broom</i>. <hw>Purple Coot</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Swamp-Hen</i> (q.v.). <hw>Purple Fig</hw>, <i>n</i>. See under <i>Fig-tree</i>. <hw>Push</hw>, <i>n</i>. a gang. The word is of late very common in Australia. It was once a prison term. Barrere and Leland quote from M. Davitt's `Leaves from a Prison Diary,' "the upper ten push." In Thieves' English it is--(1) a crowd; (2) an association for a particular robbery. In Australia, its use began with the <i>larrikins</i> (q.v.), and spread, until now it often means clique, set, party, and even jocularly so far as "the Government House Push." 1890. `The Argus,' July 26, p. 4, col. 3: "`Doolan's push' were a party of larrikins working . . . in a potato paddock near by." 1892. A topical song by E. J. Lonnen began: "I've chucked up my Push for my Donah." 1893. `The Australasian,' June 24, p. 1165, col. 4: "He [the young clergyman] is actually a member of every `push' in his neighbourhood, and the effect has been not to degrade the pastor, but to sweeten and elevate the `push.'" 1893. `Sydney Morning Herald,' June 26, p. 8, col. 7: "For a long time past the `push' at Miller's Point, which consists of young fellows for the most part under twenty-one years of age, have been a terrible source of annoyance, and, indeed, of actual danger. A few years ago the police by resolute dealings with the larrikin pest almost put it down in the neighbourhood, the part of it which was left being thoroughly cowed, and consequently afraid to make any disturbance. Within the past eighteen months or two years the old `push' has been strengthened by the addition of youths just entering on manhood, who, gradually increasing in numbers, have elbowed their predecessors out of the field. Day by day the new `push' has become more daring. From chaffing drunken men and insulting defenceless women, the company has taken to assault, to daylight robbery." 1893. `The Argus,' July 1, p. 10, col. 7: "The Premier, in consultation with the inspector-general of the police, has made arrangements to protect life and property against the misconduct of the lawless larrikin `pushes' now terrorising Sydney." 1894. `Sydney Morning Herald' (date lost): "The word larrikin is excellently descriptive of the irresponsible, mischievous, anti-social creature whose eccentric action is the outcome of too much mutton. This immoral will-o'-the-wisp, seized with a desire to jostle, or thump, or smash, combines for the occasion with others like himself, and the shouldering, shoving gang is well called a push." <hw>Pyrrholaemus</hw>, <i>n</i>. scientific name of the genus of the Australian birds called the <i>Red-throats</i>; from Grk. <i>purros</i>, "flame-coloured," "red," and <i>laimos</i>, "throat." Q <hw>Quail</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bird which exists under some form all over the world. The Australian species are-- Black-breasted Quail-- <i>Turnix melanogaster</i>, Gould. Brown Q.-- <i>Synoicus australis</i>, Lath. [Called also <i>Swamp-Quail</i>.] Chestnut-backed Q.-- <i>Turnix castanotus</i>, Gould. Chestnut-bellied Q.-- <i>Excalfatoria australis</i>, Gould. Little Q.-- <i>Turnix velox</i>, Gould. Painted Q.-- <i>T. varies</i>, Lath. [<i>Haemipodius melinatus</i>, Gould.] Red-backed Q.-- <i>T. maculosa</i>, Gould. Red-chested Q.-- <i>T. pyrrhothorax</i>, Gould. Stubble Q.-- <i>Coturnix pectoralis</i>, Gould. In New Zealand there is a single species, <i>Coturnix novae-zelandiae</i>, Quoy and Gaim. 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' vol. ii. c. vii. p. 259: "It is known to the colonists as the painted quail; and has been called by Mr. Gould . . . <i>Haemipodius melinatus</i>." 1859. H. Kingsley, `Geoffrey Hamlyn,' p. 298: "The painted quail, and the brush quail, the largest of Australian gamebirds, I believe, whirred away from beneath their horses' feet." 1862. H. C. Kendall, `Poems,' p. 67: "The swamp fowl and timorous quail . . . Will start from their nests." 1889. Prof. Parker, `Catalogue of New Zealand Exhibition,' p. 117: "This group also is represented by a single species, the New Zealand quail (<i>Coturnix Novae-Zelandiae</i>), belonging to a widely distributed genus. It was formerly very abundant in New Zealand; but within the last fifteen or twenty years has been completely exterminated, and is now only known to exist on the Three Kings Island, north of Cape Maria Van Diemen." <hw>Quail-Hawk</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to the bird <i>Falco</i>, or <i>Harpa novae-zelandiae</i>. See <i>Hawk</i>. 1882. T. H. Potts, `Out in the Open,' p. 37: "In New Zealand the courageous family of the <i>Raptores</i> is very feebly represented; the honourable post of head of the family in all fairness must be assigned to the falcon, which is commonly known by the name of the quail- or sparrow-hawk, not that it is identical with, or that it even bears much resemblance to, the bold robber of the woods of Great Britain--`the hardy sperhauke eke the quales foe,' as Chaucer has it." <hw>Quandong</hw>, <i>n</i>. (various spellings) aboriginal name for--(1) a tree, <i>Santalum acuminatum</i>, De C., <i>S. persicarium</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Santalaceae</i>. In the Southern Colonies it is often called the <i>Southern Quandong</i>, and the tree is called the <i>Native Peach-Tree</i> (q.v.). The name is given to another large scrub-tree, <i>Elaeocarpus grandis</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Tiliaceae</i>. The fruit, which is of a blue colour and is eaten by children, is also called the <i>Native Peach</i>. 1839. T. L. Mitchell, `Three Expeditions,' p. 135: "In all these scrubs on the Murray the <i>Fusanus acuminatus</i> is common, and produces the quandang nut (or kernel)." 1857. W. Howitt, `Tallangetta,' vol. i. p. 41: "Abundance of fig, and medlar and quince trees, cherries, loquots, quondongs, gooseberry, strawberry, and raspberry trees." 1867. G. G. McCrae, `Balladeadro,' p. 10: "Speed thee, Ganook, with these swift spears-- This firebrand weeping fiery tears, And take this quandang's double plum, 'Twill speak alliance tho' 'tis dumb." 1887. R. M. Praed, `Longleat of Kooralbyn,' c. xx. p. 199: "They came upon a quantong-tree, and pausing beneath it, began to pick up the fallen fruit. . . . There were so many berries, each containing a shapely nut, that Honoria might string a dozen necklaces." 1890. Lyth, `Golden South,' c. ix. p. 79: "I have forgotten to mention the quandong, a shrub bearing a fruit the size and colour of cherries." (2) The fruit of this tree, and also its kernel. 1885. J. Hood, `Land of the Fern,' p. 53: "She had gone to string on a necklet of seeds from the quongdong tree.' 1887. R. M. Praed, `Longleat of Kooralbyn,' c. xix. p. 196: "Miss Longleat was wild after quandongs." [Footnote]: "A berry growing in the scrub, the kernels of which are strung into necklaces." 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 9: "Another fruit of fraudulent type growing on the plains is the quandong. Something in shape and colour like a small crab-apple, it is fair enough to the eye, but in taste thoroughly insipid." <hw>Quart-pot</hw>, <i>n</i>. a tin vessel originally imported as a measure, and containing an exact imperial quart. It had no lid, but a side handle. Before 1850 the word <i>Quart-pot</i>, for a kettle, was as universal in the bush as "<i>Billy</i>" (q.v.) is now. The billy, having a lid and a wire handle by which to suspend it over the fire, superseded the quart-pot about 1851. In addition to the <i>Billy</i>, there is a <i>Quart-pot</i> still in use, especially in South Australia and the back-blocks. It has two sidehandles working in sockets, so as to fold down flat when travelling. The lid is an inverted <i>pannikin</i> fitted into it, and is used as a drinking-cup. 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 43: "`Look out there!' he continued; `quart-pot corroborree,' springing up and removing with one hand from the fire one of the quart-pots, which was boiling madly." <hw>Quart-pot Tea</hw>, <i>n</i>. Explained in quotations. Cf. <i>Billy-tea</i>. 1878. Mrs. H. Jones, `Long Years in Australia,' p. 87: "Ralph, taking a long draught of the quart-pot tea, pronounced that nothing was ever like it made in teapots, and Ethel thought it excellent, excepting that the tea-leaves were troublesome." 188. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia, p. 111: "`Quart-pot' tea, as tea made in the bush is always called, is really the proper way to make it. . . . The tea is really made with boiling water, which brings out its full flavour, and it is drunk before it has time to draw too much." <hw>Quartz</hw>, <i>n</i>. a mineral; the common form of native silica. It is abundantly diffused throughout the world, and forms the common sand of the sea-shore. It occurs as veins or lodes in metamorphic rocks, and it is this form of its presence in Australia, associated with gold, that has made the word of such daily occurrence. In fact, the word <i>Quartz</i>, in Australian mining parlance, is usually associated with the idea of <i>Gold-bearing Stone</i>, unless the contrary be stated. Although some of the following compound words may be used elsewhere, they are chiefly confined to Australia. 1871. C. L. Money, `Knocking About in New Zealand,' p. 21: "Quartz is the mother of gold, and wherever there is an abundance of it, gold may reasonably be expected to exist somewhere in the neighbourhood." 1890. `The Argus,' June 16, p. 6. col. 1: "Two runaway apprentices from a ship are said to have first crushed quartz." 1890. R. A. F. Murray, `Reports and Statistics of the Mining Department [of Victoria] for the Quarter ending 31st December': "The quartz here is very white and crystalline, with ferruginous, clayey joints, and--from a miner's point of view--of most unpromising or `hungry' appearance." <hw>Quartz-battery</hw>, <i>n</i>. a machine for crushing quartz, and so extracting gold. 1890. `The Argus,' July 26, p. 4, col. 4: "There was a row [noise] like a quartz-battery." <hw>Quartz-blade</hw>, <i>n</i>. blade of a miner's knife used for picking lumps of gold out of the stone. 1891. `The Argus,' Dec. 19, p. 4, col. 2: "They had slashed open his loins with a quartz-blade knife." <hw>Quartz-crushing</hw>, <i>adj</i>. See <i>Quartz</i>. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. xxxix. p. 341: "The dull reverberating clash of the quartz-crushing batteries." <hw>Quartz-field</hw>, <i>n</i>. a non-alluvial goldfield. 1890. `The Argus,' June 16, p. 6, col. 1: "Our principal quartz-field." <hw>Quartz-lodes</hw>, and <hw>Quartz-mining</hw>. See <i>Quartz</i>. 1880. G. Sutherland, `Tales of Goldfields,' p. 32: "He chose the piece which the New North Clunes now occupy for quartz-mining; but the quartz-lodes were very difficult to follow." <hw>Quartz-reefer</hw>, <i>n</i>. a miner engaged in <i>Quartz-reefing</i>, as distinguished from one digging in alluvial. See above. <hw>Quartz-reefing</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) The operation of mining. See <i>Reef</i>, verb. (2) A place where there is gold mixed with quartz. 1861. Mrs. Meredith, `Over the Straits,' c. iv. p. 133: "You'd best go to a quartz-reefin'. I've been surfacing this good while; but quartz-reefin's the payinest game, now." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. xxix. p. 263: "[He] had located himself in a quartz-reefing district." <hw>Queensland</hw>, <i>n</i>. a colony named after the Queen, on the occasion of its separation from New South Wales, in 1859. Dr. J. D. Lang wanted to call it "Cooksland," and published a book under that title in 1847. Before separation it was known as "the Moreton Bay District." <hw>Queensland Asthma-Herb</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Asthma-Herb</i>. <hw>Queensland Bean</hw>. <i>n</i>. See <i>Bean</i>. <hw>Queensland Beech</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Beech</i>. <hw>Queensland Ebony</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Ebony</i>. <hw>Queensland Hemp</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Hemp</i>. <hw>Queensland Kauri</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for <i>Dundathu Pine</i>. See <i>Kauri</i> and <i>Pine</i>. <hw>Queensland Nut</hw>, <i>n</i>. a wild fruit-tree, <i>Macadamia ternifolia</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Proteaceae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 40: "`Queensland Nut.' This tree bears an edible nut of excellent flavour, relished both by Aborigines and Europeans. As it forms a nutritious article of food to the former, timber-getters are not permitted to fell the trees. It is well worth extensive cultivation, for the nuts are always eagerly bought." <hw>Queensland Nutmeg</hw>, <i>n</i>. a timber-tree, <i>Myristica insipida</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Myristiceae</i>. Not so strongly aromatic as the true nutmeg. <hw>Queensland Plum</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Plum, Sweet</i>. <hw>Queensland Poplar</hw>, <i>n</i>. See under <i>Poplar</i>. <hw>Queensland Sorrel</hw>, <i>n</i>. a plant, <i>Hibiscus heterophyllus</i>, Vent., <i>N.O. Malvaceae</i>, chewed by the aborigines, as boys chew English Sorrel. <hw>Queenwood</hw>, <i>n</i>. a timber-tree, <i>Davidsonia pruriens</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>. <hw>Quince, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Bitter-bark</i>, <i>Emu-Apple</i>, and <i>Quinine-tree</i>, all which see. <hw>Quince, Wild</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Black Ash-tree</i>. See <i>Ash</i>. <hw>Quinine-Tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Horseradish Tree</i> (q.v.), and used also for the <i>Bitter-bark</i> or <i>Emu-Apple Tree</i> (q.v.). <hw>Quoll</hw>, <i>n</i>. the aboriginal name for the <i>Native Cat</i> (q.v.), but not now in use. 1770. J. Banks, `Journal,' Aug. 26 (edition Hooker, 1896), p. 301: "Another animal was called by the natives <i>je-quoll</i>; it is about the size of, and something like, a pole-cat, of a light brown, spotted with white on the back, and white under the belly. . . . I took only one individual." Ibid. p. 323: "They very often use the article ge, which seems to answer to our English <i>a</i>, as <i>ge gurka</i>--a rope." [In Glossary]: "Gurka--a rope." /?/ R <hw>Rabbiter</hw>, <i>n</i>. a man who lives by trapping rabbits, or who is employed to clear stations from them. 1892. E. W. Hornung, `Under Two Skies,' p. 114: "He would give him a billet. He would take him on as a rabbiter, and rig him out with a tent, camp fixings, traps, and perhaps even a dog or two." <hw>Rabbit-rat</hw>, <i>n</i>. name sometimes given to a<i>hapalote</i> (q.v.), in New South Wales. <hw>Radish-Tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian timber-tree, <i>Codonocarpus cotinifolius</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Phytolaceae</i>; called also <i>Poplar</i> in Central Australia. 1894. `Melbourne Museum Catalogue--Economic Woods,' No. 61: "Radish-Tree: occurs in the Mallee-scrub very sparingly; attaining a height of thirty feet. The poplar of the Central Australian explorers. Whole tree strong-scented." <hw>Rager</hw>, <i>n</i>. an old and fierce bullock or cow, that always begins to rage in the stock-yard. 1884. Rolf Boldrewood, `Melbourne Memories,' c. xiv. p. 105: "Amongst them was a large proportion of bullocks, which declined with fiendish obstinacy to fatten. They were what are known by the stockriders as `ragers,' or `pig-meaters'" [q.v.]. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. xvi. p. 196: "Well, say a hundred off for ragers.'" <hw>Rail</hw>, <i>n</i>. common English birdname. There are many varieties in New Zealand and Australia, especially in the former colony, and the authorities differ as to whether some should be classed as distinct species. Some are common to Australasia, others endemic in New Zealand or Australia; their distribution in this respect is marked below in parentheses. Several species receive more than one vernacular name, as the following list shows-- Banded Rail (N.Z. and A.)-- <i>Rallus philippensis</i>, Linn. Chestnut-bellied R. (A.)-- <i>Eulabeornis castaneiventris</i>, Gould. Dieffenbach's R. (see quotation below)-- <i>Rallus dieffenbachii</i>, Gray. Hutton's R. (N.Z.)-- <i>Cabalus modestus</i>, Hutton. Land R. (N.Z. and A.)-- <i>Rallus philippensis</i>, Linn. Marsh R. (Australasia)-- <i>Ortygometra tabuensis</i>, Finsch. and Hard. Pectoral R. (N.Z. and A.)-- <i>Rallus philippensis</i>, Linn. Red-necked R. (A.)-- <i>Rallina tricolor</i>, Gray. Slate-breasted R. (A.)-- <i>Hypotaenidia brachipus</i>, Swains. Swainson's R. (N.Z. and A.)-- <i>Rallina brachipus</i>, Swains. Swamp R. (Australasia)-- <i>Ortygometra tabuensis</i>, Finsch. and Hard. Tabuan R. (Australasia)-- <i>O. tabuensis</i>, Finsch. and Hard. Weka R. (N.Z. See <i>Weka</i>.)-- See also <i>Takahe</i> and <i>Notornis</i>. 1888. W.L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' p. 121: "Dieffenbach's Rail. . . . This beautiful Rail was brought from the Chatham Islands by Dr. Dieffenbach in 1842, and named by Mr. Gray in compliment to this enterprising naturalist. The adult specimen in the British Museum, from which my description was taken, is unique, and seems likely to remain so." 1893. Prof Parker, `Catalogue of New Zealand Exhibition,' p. 116: "Hutton's rail, the third of the endemic rails . . . is confined to the Chatham Islands." <hw>Rain-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is popularly given in many parts of the world to various birds. The <i>Rain-bird</i> of Queensland and the interior is the Great Cuckoo or Channel-bill (<i>Scythrops novae-hollandiae</i>, Lath., q.v.). 1860. G. Bennett, `Gatherings of a Naturalist,' p. 283: "We discovered a nest of full-fledged birds of the Australian Shrike or Butcher-bird, also called Rain-bird by the colonists (<i>Vanga destructor</i>). They were regarded by our companions as a prize, and were taken accordingly to be caged, and instructed in the art of whistling tunes, in which they are great adepts." <hw>Rainbow-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. a New Zealand fish, <i>Heteroscharus castelnaui</i>, Macl. <hw>Rama-rama</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a New Zealand shrub, <i>Myrtus bullata</i>, Banks and Sol. The name is used in the North Island. It is often corrupted into <i>Grama</i>. <hw>Rangatira</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori word for a chief, male or female; a master or mistress (Williams); therefore an aristocrat, a person of the gentle class, distinguished from a <i>tau-rikarika</i>, a nobody, a slave. 1820. `Grammar and Vocabulary of Language of New Zealand' (Church Missionary Society), p. 200: "Ranga tira, a gentleman or lady." 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' c. i. p. 173: "I took care to tell them that the rangatira, or `chief' missionaries, would come out with the settlers." Ibid. c. ii. p. 461: "Rangatira is Maori for `chief,' and Rangatira-tango is therefore truly rendered `chieftainship.'" 1893. `Otago Witness, `Dec. 21, p. 11: "Te Kooti is at Puketapu with many Rangatiras; he is a great warrior,--a fighting chief. They say he has beaten the pakehas" (q.v.). <hw>Ranges</hw>, <i>n</i>. the usual word in Australia for "mountains." Compare the use of "<i>tiers</i>" in Tasmania. <hw>Rangy</hw>, <i>adj</i>. mountainous. 1880. G. Sutherland, `Tales of Goldfields,' p. 89: "He tramps over the most rangy and inaccessible regions of the colonies." 1883. E. M. Curr, `Recollections of Squatting in Victoria' (1841-1851), p. 46: "The country being rangy, somewhat scrubby, and destitute of prominent features." <hw>Raspberry, Wild</hw>, or <hw>Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. <i>Rubus gunnianus</i>, Hook., <i>N.O. Rosaceae</i>; peculiar to Tasmania, and so called there. In Australia, the species is <i>Rubus rosafolius</i>, Smith. See also <i>Lawyer</i> and <i>Blackberry</i>. <hw>Raspberry-jam Tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to <i>Acacia acuminata</i>, Benth., especially of Western Australia. Though Maiden does not give the name, he says (Useful Native Plants,' p. 349), "the scent of the wood is comparable to that of raspberries." 1846. L. Leichhardt, quoted by J. D. Lang, `Cooksland,' p. 328: "Plains with groves or thickets of the raspberry-jam-tree." 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' vol. ii. c. iv. p. 132: "Raspberry-jam . . . acacia sweet-scented, grown on good ground." 1865. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `History of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia,' vol. ii. p. 68: "The other trees besides the palm were known to the men by colonial appellations, such as the bloodwood and the raspberry-jam. The origin of the latter name, let me inform my readers, has no connection whatever with any produce from the tree." 1896. `The Australasian,' Feb. 15, p. 313: "The raspberry-jam-tree is so called on account of the strong aroma of raspberries given out when a portion is broken." [On the same page is an illustration of these trees growing near Perth, Western Australia.] <hw>Rasp-pod</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to a large Australian tree, <i>Flindersia australis</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Meliaceae</i>. <hw>Rat</hw>, <i>n</i>. True Rodents are represented in Australia and Tasmania by six genera; viz., <i>Mus</i>, <i>Conilurus (= Hapalotis</i>), <i>Xeromys, Hydromys, Mastacomys</i>, <i>Uromys</i>, of which the five latter are confined to the Australian Region. The genus <i>Hydromys</i> contains the <i>Eastern Water Rat</i>, sometimes called the <i>Beaver Rat</i> (<i>Hydromys chrysogaster</i>, Geoffroy), and the <i>Western Water Rat</i> (<i>H. fulvolavatus</i>, Gould). <i>Conilurus</i> contains the <i>Jerboa Rats</i> (q.v.). <i>Xeromys</i> contains a single species, confined to Queensland, and called <i>Thomas' Rat</i> (<i>Xeromys myoides</i>, Thomas). <i>Mastacomys</i> contains one species, the <i>Broad-toothed Rat</i> (<i>M. fuscus</i>, Thomas), found alive only in Tasmania, and fossil in New South Wales. <i>Uromys</i> contains two species, the <i>Giant Rat</i> (<i>U. macropus</i>, Gray), and the <i>Buff-footed Rat</i> (<i>U. cervinipes</i>, Gould). <i>Mus</i> contains twenty-seven species, widely distributed over the Continent and Tasmania. 1851. `Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Van Diemen's Land,' vol. i. p. 301: "The Secretary read the following extracts from a letter of the Rev. W. Colenso to Ronald C. Gunn, Esq., of Launceston, dated Waitangi, Hawke's Bay, New Zealand, 4th September, 1850:-- `I have procured two specimens of the ancient, and all but quite extinct, New Zealand Rat, which until just now (and notwithstanding all my endeavours, backed, too, by large rewards) I never saw. It is without doubt a true <i>Mus</i>, smaller than our English black rat (<i>Mus Rattus</i>), and not unlike it. This little animal once inhabited the plains and <i>Fagus</i> forests of New Zealand in countless thousands, and was both the common food and great delicacy of the natives-- and already it is all but quite classed among the things which were." 1880. A. R. Wallace, `Island Life,' p. 445: "The Maoris say that before Europeans came to their country a forest rat abounded, and was largely used for food . . . Several specimens have been caught . . . which have been declared by the natives to be the true Kiore Maori--as they term it; but these have usually proved on examination to be either the European black rat or some of the native Australian rats . . . but within the last few years many skulls of a rat have been obtained from the old Maori cooking-places and from a cave associated with moa bones, and Captain Hutton, who has examined them, states that they belong to a true Mus, but differ from the <i>Mus rattus</i>." <hw>Rata</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for two New Zealand erect or sub-scandent flowering trees, often embracing trunks of forest trees and strangling them: the Northern Rata, <i>Metrosideros robusta</i>, A. Cunn., and the Southern Rata, <i>M. lucida</i>, Menz., both of the <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. The tree called by the Maoris <i>Aka</i>, which is another species of <i>Metrosederos (M. florida</i>), is also often confused with the Rata by bushmen and settlers. In Maori, the <i>adj</i>. <i>rata</i> means red-hot, and there may be a reference to the scarlet appearance of the flower in full bloom. The timber of the <i>Rata</i> is often known as <i>Ironwood</i>, or <i>Ironbark</i>. The trees rise to sixty feet in height; they generally begin by trailing downwards from the seed deposited on the bark of some other tree near its top. When the trailing branches reach the ground they take root there and sprout erect. For full account of the habit of the trees, see quotation 1867 (Hochstetter), 1879 (Moseley), and 1889 (Kirk). 1843. E. Dieffenbach, `Travels in New Zealand,' p. 224: "The venerable rata, often measuring forty feet in circumference and covered with scarlet flowers--while its stem is often girt with a creeper belonging to the same family (<i>metrosideros hypericifolia</i>?)." 1848. Rev. R. Taylor, `Leaf from the Natural History of New Zealand,' p. 21: "Rata, a tree; at first a climber; it throws out aerial roots; clasps the tree it clings to and finally kills it, becoming a large tree (metrosideros robusta). A hard but not durable wood." 1854. W. Golder, `Pigeons' Parliament,' canto 1, p. 14: "Unlike the neighbouring rata cast, And tossing high its heels in air." 1867. F. Hochstetter, `New Zealand,' p. 135: "The Rata (<i>Metrosideros robusta</i>), the trunk of which, frequently measuring forty feet in circumference, is always covered with all sorts of parasitical plants, and the crown of which bears bunches of scarlet blossoms." 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' p. 264: "Nay, not the Rata! howsoe'er it bloomed, Paling the crimson sunset; for you know, Its twining arms and shoots together grow Around the trunk it clasps, conjoining slow Till they become consolidate, and show An ever-thickening sheath that kills at last The helpless tree round which it clings so fast." 1875. T. Laslett, `Timber and Timber Trees,' p. 310: "The Rata-Tree (<i>Metrosideros robusta</i>). This magnificent tree. . . . height 80 to 100 feet . . . a clear stem to 30 and even 40 feet . . . very beautiful crimson polyandrous flowers . . . wood red, hard, heavy, close-grained, strong, and not difficult to work." 1879. H. <i>n</i>. Moseley, `Notes of a Naturalist on Challenger,' p. 278: One of the most remarkable trees . . . is the Rata. . . . This, though a Myrtaceous plant, has all the habits of the Indian figs, reproducing them in the closest manner. It starts from a seed dropped in the fork of a tree, and grows downward to reach the ground; then taking root there, and gaining strength, chokes the supporting tree and entirely destroys it, forming a large trunk by fusion of its many stems. Nevertheless, it occasionally grows directly from the soil, and then forms a trunk more regular in form." 1883. F. S. Renwick, `Betrayed,' p. 39: "That bark shall speed where crimson ratas gleam." 1888. Cassell's `Picturesque Australasia,' vol. iii. p. 210: "The foliage of many of the large trees is quite destroyed by the crimson flowering rata, the king of parasites, which having raised itself into the upper air by the aid of some unhappy pine, insinuates its fatal coils about its patron, until it has absorbed trunk and branch into itself, and so gathered sufficient strength to stand unaided like the chief of forest trees, flaunting in crimson splendour." 1889. T. Kirk, `Forest Flora of New Zealand,' p. 263: "It is invariably erect, never climbing, although bushmen and settlers frequently state that it climbs the loftiest trees, and sooner or later squeezes them to death in its iron clasp. In proof of this they assert that, when felling huge ratas, they often find a dead tree in the centre of the rata: this is a common occurrence, but it by no means follows that this species is a climber. This error is simply due to imperfect observation, which has led careless observers to confuse <i>Metrosideros florida</i> [the Akal which is a true climber, with M. robusta." 1892. `Otago Witness,' Nov. 10 [`Native Trees']: "Rata, or Ironwood. It would be supposed that almost every colonist who has seen the rata in bloom would desire to possess a plant." 1893. `The Argus,' Feb. 4 [Leading Article]: "The critic becomes to the original author what the New Zealand rata is to the kauri. That insidious vine winds itself round the supporting trunk and thrives on its strength and at its expense, till finally it buries it wholly from sight and flaunts itself aloft, a showy and apparently independent tree." <hw>Rat-tail Grass</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to-- (1) <i>Ischaemum laxum</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Gramineae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 92: "Rat-tail Grass. An upright, slender growing grass; found throughout the colony, rather coarse, but yielding a fair amount of feed, which is readily eaten by cattle." (2) <i>Sporobolus indicus</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Gramineae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 109: "Rat-tail Grass. A fine, open, pasture grass, found throughout the colonies. Its numerous penetrating roots enable it to resist severe drought. It yields a fair amount of fodder, much relished by stock, but is too coarse for sheep. The seeds form the principal food of many small birds. It has been suggested as a paper-making material." [See <i>Grass</i>.] <hw>Raupo</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a New Zealand bulrush, <i>Typha angustifolia</i>, Linn. The leaves are used for building native houses. The pollen, called <i>Punga-Punga</i> (q.v.), was collected and made into bread called <i>pua</i>. The root was also eaten. It is not endemic in New Zealand, but is known in many parts, and was called by the aborigines of Australia, <i>Wonga</i>, and in Europe "Asparagus of the Cossacks." Other names for it are <i>Bulrush</i>, <i>Cat's Tail</i>, <i>Reed Mace</i>, and <i>Cooper's Flag</i>. 1827. Augustus Earle, `Narrative of Nine Months' Residence in New Zealand,' `New Zealand Reader,' p. 67: "Another party was collecting rushes, which grow plentifully in the neighbourhood, and are called raupo." 1833. Henry Williams's Diary, `Carleton's Life,' p. 151: "The Europeans were near us in a raupo whare [rush-house]." 1835. W. Yate, `Account of New Zealand,' p. 205: "To engage the natives to build raupo, that is, rush-houses." 1842. W. R. Wade, `A Journey in the North Island of New Zealand,' `New Zealand Reader,' p. 122: "The raupo, the reed-mace of New Zealand, always grows in swampy ground. The leaves or blades when full grown are cut and laid out to dry, forming the common building material with which most native houses are constructed." 1843. `An Ordinance for imposing a tax on Raupo Houses, Session II. No. xvii. of the former Legislative Council of New Zealand': [From A. Domett's collection of Ordinances, 1850.] "Section 2. . . . there shall be levied in respect of every building constructed wholly or in part of <i>raupo, nikau</i>, <i>toitoi, wiwi, kakaho</i>, straw or thatch of any description [ . . . L20]." 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' c. i. p. 380: "These [the walls], nine feet high and six inches thick, were composed of neatly packed bunches of raupo, or bulrushes, lined inside with the glazed reeds of the tohe-tohe, and outside with the wiwi or fine grass." 1860. R. Donaldson, `Bush Lays,' p. 5: "Entangled in a foul morass, A raupo swamp, one name we know." 1864. F. E. Maning (Pakeha Maori), `The War in the North,' p. 16: "Before a war or any other important matter, the natives used to have recourse to divination by means of little miniature darts made of rushes or reeds, or often of the leaf of the cooper's flag (raupo)." 1867. F. Hochstetter, `New Zealand,' p. 308: "The favourite material of the Maoris for building purposes is Raupo (<i>Typha</i>), a kind of flag or bulrush, which grows in great abundance in swampy places." 1877. Anon., `Colonial Experiences, or Incidents of Thirty-Four Years in New Zealand,' p. 10: "It was thatched with raupo or native bulrush, and had sides and interior partitions of the same material." <hw>Raven</hw>, <i>n</i>. English bird-name. The Australian species is <i>Corvus coronoides</i>, Vig. and Hors. <hw>Razor-grinder</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bird-name, <i>Seisura inquieta</i>, Lath. Called also <i>Dishwasher</i> and <i>Restless Fly-catcher</i>. See <i>Fly-catcher</i>. 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol.ii. p. 159: "Neither must you be astonished on hearing the razor-grinder ply his vocation in the very depths of our solitudes; for here he is a flying instead of a walking animal." 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. ii. pl. 87: "<i>Seisura Inquieta</i>, Restless Flycatcher; the Grinder of the Colonists of Swan River and New South Wales." 1845. R. Howitt, `Australia,' p. 332: "The razor-grinder, fitly so called from making a grinding noise as it wavers in one position a foot or two from the ground." <hw>Ready up</hw>, <i>v</i>. See quotation. 1893. `The Age,' Nov. 25, p. 13, col. 2: "<i>Mr. Purees</i>: A statement has been made that is very serious. It has been said that a great deal has been `readied up' for the jury by the present commissioners. That is a charge which, if true, amounts to embracery. "<i>His Honor</i>: I do not know what `readying up' means. "<i>Mr. Purves</i>: It is a colonial expression, meaning that something is prepared with an object. If you `ready up' a racehorse, you are preparing to lose, or if you `ready up' a pack of cards, you prepare it for dealing certain suits." <hw>Red Bass</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fish of Moreton Bay (q.v.), <i>Mesoprion superbus</i>, Castln., family <i>Percidae</i>. <hw>Redberry</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to Australian plants of the genus <i>Rhagodia</i>, bearing spikes or panicles of red berries. Called also <i>Seaberry</i>. See also <i>Saloop-bush</i>. <hw>Red-bill</hw>, <i>n</i>. bird-name given to <i>Estrelda temporalis</i>, Lath. It is also applied to the <i>Oyster-catchers</i> (q.v.); and sometimes to the <i>Swamp-Hen</i> (q.v.). 1802. G. Barrington, `History of New South Wales,' p. 345: "Lieut. Flinders taking up his gun to fire at two red-bills . . . the natives, alarmed, ran to the woods." 1827. Vigors and Horsfield, `Transactions of the Linnaean Society,' vol. xv. p. 259: "`This bird,' says Mr. Caley, `which the settlers call Red-bill, is gregarious, and appears at times in very large flocks. I have killed above forty at a shot.'" 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. iii. pl. 82: "<i>Estrelda temporalis</i>. Red-eyebrowed Finch. Red-Bill of the Colonists." `<hw>Red Bream</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to the <i>Schnapper</i> when one year old. See <i>Schnapper</i>. <hw>Red Cedar</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Cedar</i>. 1865. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `History of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia,' vol. i. p. 434: "M'Leay river, New South Wales, Lat. 30 degrees 40'. This forest was found to contain large quantities of red cedar (Cedrela toona) and white cedar (Melia azederach), which, though very different from what is known as cedar at home, is a valuable wood, and in much request by the colonists." <hw>Red Currant</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Native Currant</i> of Tasmania, <i>Coprosma nitida</i>, Hook., <i>N.O. Rubiaceae</i>. See <i>Currant, Native</i>. <hw>Red Gum</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) A tree. See <i>Gum</i>. The two words are frequently made one with the accent on the first syllable; compare <i>Blue-gum</i>. (2) A medicinal drug. An exudation from the bark of <i>Eucalyptus rostrata</i>, Schlecht, and other trees; see quotation, 1793. Sir Ranald Martin introduced it into European medical practice. 177 J. White, `Voyage to New South Wales,' p. 178: "At the heart they [the trees] are full of veins, through which an amazing quantity of an astringent red gum issues. This gum I have found very serviceable in an obstinate dysentery." Ibid. p. 233: "A very powerfully astringent gum-resin, of a red colour, much resembling that known in the shops as Kino, and, for all medical purposes, fully as efficacious." 1793. J. E. Smith, `Specimen of Botany of New Holland,' p. 10: "This, Mr. White informs us, is one of the trees (for there are several, it seems, besides the <i>Eucalyptus resinifera</i>, mentioned in his Voyage, p. 231) which produce the red gum." [The tree is <i>Ceratopetalum gummiferum</i>, Smith, called by him <i>Three-leaved Red-gum Tree</i>. It is now called <i>Officer Plant</i> or <i>Christmas-bush</i> (q.v.).] 1865. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `History of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia,' vol. i. p. 42: "The usual red gum was observed oozing out from the bark, and this attracted their notice, as it did that of every explorer who had landed upon the continent. This gum is a species of kino, and possesses powerful astringent, and probably staining, qualities." <hw>Red Gurnet-Perch</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given in Victoria to the fish <i>Sebastes percoides</i>, Richards., family <i>Scorpaenidae</i>. It is also called <i>Poddly</i>; <i>Red Gurnard</i>, or <i>Gurnet</i>; and in New Zealand, <i>Pohuikaroa</i>. See <i>Perch</i> and <i>Gurnet</i>. 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish of New South Wales,' p. 48: "<i>Sebastes percoides</i>, a fish of a closely allied genus of the same family [as <i>Scorpaena cruenta</i>, the red rock-cod]. It is caught at times in Port Jackson, but has no local name. In Victoria it is called the Red Gurnet-perch." <hw>Redhead</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Firetail</i>. <hw>Red-knee</hw>, <i>n</i>. sometimes called the <i>Red-kneed Dottrel</i>, <i>Charadrius ruftveniris</i>, formerly <i>Erythrogonys cinctus</i>, Gould. A species of a genus of Australian plovers. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. vi. pl. 21: "<i>Erythrogonys Cinctus</i>, Gould; Banded Red-knee." <hw>Red Mulga</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to a species of Acacia, <i>A. cyperophylla</i>, F. v. M., owing to the red colour of the flakes of bark which peel off the stem. See <i>Mulga</i>. 1896. Baldwin Spencer, `Home Expedition in Central Australia,' Narrative, pt. i. p. 16: "We crossed a narrow belt of country characterized by the growth along the creek sides of red mulga. This is an Acacia (<i>A. cyperophylla</i>) reaching perhaps a height of twenty feet, the bark of which, alone amongst Acacias, is deciduous and peels off, forming little deep-red coloured flakes." <hw>Red Mullet</hw>, <i>n</i>. New South Wales, <i>Upeneoides vlamingii</i>, Cuv. and Val., and <i>Upeneus porosus</i>, Cuv. and Val., family <i>Mullidae</i>. See <i>Mullet</i>. 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish of New South Wales,' p. 38: "The name of this family is a source of much confusion. It is derived from the Latin word <i>mullus</i>, which in the form of `Mullet' we apply to the well-known fishes of quite a different family, the <i>Mugilidae</i>. Another fish to which the term `Red-Mullet' is applied is of the family <i>Cottidae</i> or Gurnards." <hw>Red Perch</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given in Tasmania to the fish <i>Anthias rasor</i>, Richards.; also called the Barber. In Australia, it is <i>Anthias longimanus</i>, Gunth. <hw>Red Rock-Cod</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given in New South Wales to the fish <i>Scorpaena cardinalis</i>, Richards., family <i>Scorpaenidae</i>, marine fishes resembling the Sea-perches. <i>S. cardinalis</i> is of a beautiful scarlet colour. <hw>Red-streaked Spider</hw>, or <hw>Black-and-red Spider</hw>, an Australasian spider (<i>Latrodectus scelio</i>, Thorel.), called in New Zealand the <i>Katipo</i> (q.v.). <hw>Red-throat</hw>, <i>n</i>. a small brown Australian singing-bird, with a red throat, <i>Pyrrholaemus brunneus</i>, Gould. <hw>Reed-mace</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Wonga</i> and <i>Raupo</i>. <hw>Reef</hw>, <i>n</i>. term in gold-mining; a vein of auriferous quartz. Called by the Californian miners a vein, or lode, or ledge. In Bendigo, the American usage remains, the words <i>reef, dyke</i>, and <i>vein</i> being used as synonymous, though reef is the most common. (See quotation, 1866.) In Ballarat, the word has two distinct meanings, viz. the <i>vein</i>, as above, and the <i>bed-rock</i> or <i>true-bottom</i>. (See quotations, 1869 and 1874.) Outside Australia, a <i>reef</i> means "a chain or range of rocks lying at or near the surface of the water." (`Webster.') 1858. T. McCombie, `History of New South Wales,' c. xiv. p. 213: "A party . . . discovered gold in the quartz-reefs of the Pyrenees [Victoria]." 1860. W. Kelly, `Life in Victoria,' vol. ii. p. 148: "If experience completely establishes the fact, at least, under existing systems, that the best-paying reefs are those that are largely intersected with fissures--more inclined to come out in pebbles than in blocks--or, if I might coin a designation, `rubble reefs,' as contradistinguished from `boulder reefs,' showing at the same time a certain degree of ignigenous discoloration . . . still, where there are evidences of excessive volcanic effect . . . the reef may be set down as poor . . ." 1866. A. R. Selwyn, `Exhibition Essays,' Notes on the Physical Geography, Geology, and Mineralogy of Victoria: "Quartz occurs throughout the lower palaeozoic rocks in veins, `dykes' or `reefs,' from the thickness of a thread to 130 feet." 1869. R. Brough Smyth, `Goldfields Glossary,' p. 619: "Reef. The term is applied to the tip-turned edges of the palaeozoic rocks. The reef is composed of slate, sandstone, or mudstone. The bed-rock anywhere is usually called the reef. A quartz-vein; a lode." 1874. Reginald A. F. Murray, `Progress Report, Geological Survey, Victoria,' vol. i. p. 65 [Report on the Mineral Resources of Ballarat]: "This formation is the `true bottom,' `bed rock' or `reef,' of the miners." 1894. `The Argus,' March 28, p. 5, col. 5: "In looking for reefs the experienced miner commences on the top of the range and the spurs, for the reason that storm-waters have carried the soil into the gullies and left the bed-rock exposed." <hw>Reef</hw>, <i>v</i>. to work at a reef. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. iii. p. 30: "The University graduate . . . was to be seen patiently sluicing, or reefing, as the case might be." [See also <i>Quartz-reefing</i>.] <hw>Regent-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) An Australian Bower-bird, <i>Sericulus melinus</i>, Lath., named out of compliment to the Prince Regent, afterwards George IV. (therefore named before 1820). 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 161: "Mr. Gilbert observed the female of the Regent-bird." (2) <i>Mock Regent-bird</i>, now <i>Meliphaga phrygia</i>, Lath. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. iv. pl. 48: "<i>Zanthomyza Phrygia</i>, Swains., Warty-faced Honey-eater [q.v.]; Mock Regent-Bird, Colonists of New South Wales." <hw>Remittance-man</hw>, <i>n</i>. one who derives the means of an inglorious and frequently dissolute existence from the periodical receipt of money sent out to him from Europe. 1892. R. L. Stevenson, `The Wrecker,' p. 336: "<i>Remittance men</i>, as we call them here, are not so rare in my experience; and in such cases I act upon a system." <hw>Rewa-rewa</hw>, <i>n</i>. pronounced <i>raywa</i>, Maori name for the New Zealand tree <i>Knightia excelsa</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Proteaceae</i>, the Honey-suckle of the New Zealand settlers. Maori verb, <i>rewa</i>, to float. The seed-vessel is just like a Maori canoe. 1857. C. Hursthouse, `New Zealand, the Britain of the South,' vol. i. p. 143: "Rewarewa (honeysuckle), a handsome flowering tree common on the outskirts of the forests. Wood light and free-working: the grain handsomely flowered like the Baltic oak." 1878. R. C. Barstow, `On the Maori Canoe,' `Transactions of the New Zealand Institute,' vol. xi. art. iv. p. 73: "Dry <i>rewarewa</i> wood was used for the charring." 1880. W. Colenso, `Traditions of the Maoris,' `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. xiii. p. 53: "The boy went into the forest, and brought back with him a seed-pod of the rewarewa tree (<i>Knightia excelsa</i>). . . . He made his way to his canoe, which was made like the pod of the rewarewa tree." 1983. J. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand,' p. 129: "Rewarewa, a lofty, slender tree, 100 feet high. Wood handsome, mottled red and brown, used for furniture and shingles, and for fencing, as it splits easily. It is a most valuable veneering wood." <hw>Reward-Claim</hw>, <i>n</i>. the Australian legal term for the large area granted as a "reward" to the miner who first discovers valuable gold in a new district, and reports it to the Warden of the Goldfields. The first great discovery of gold in Coolgardie was made by Bayley in 1893, and his reward-claim, sold to a syndicate, was known as "Bayley's Reward." See also <i>Prospecting Claim</i>, and <i>Claim</i>. 1891. W. Tilley, `Wild West of Tasmania,' p. 11: "Prospected with the result that he discovered the first payable gold on the West Coast, for which he obtained a reward claim." <hw>Rhipidura</hw>, <i>n</i>. scientific name for a genus of Australasian birds, called <i>Fantail</i> (q.v.). They are Fly-catchers. The word is from Grk. <i>rhipidos</i>, `of a fan,' and <i>'oura</i>, `a tail.' <hw>Ribbed Fig</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Fig</i>. <hw>Ribbonwood</hw>, <i>n</i>. All species of <i>Plagianthus</i> and <i>Hoheria</i> are to the colonists <i>Ribbonwood</i>, especially <i>Plagianthus betulinus</i>, A. Cunn., and <i>Hoheria populnea</i>, A. Cunn., the bark of which is used for cordage, and was once used for making a demulcent drink. Alpine Ribbon-wood, <i>Plagianthus lyalli</i>, Hook. Other popular names are <i>Houhere</i>, <i>Houi</i> (Maori), <i>Lace-bark</i> (q.v.), and <i>Thousand-Jacket</i> (q.v.). <hw>Ribgrass</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian name for the <i>Native Plantain</i>. See <i>Plantain</i>. <hw>Rice-flower</hw>, <i>n</i>. a gardeners' name for the cultivated species of <i>Pimalea</i> (q.v.). The <i>Rice-flowers</i> are beautiful evergreens about three feet high, and bear rose-coloured, white, and yellow blooms. <hw>Rice-shell</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is applied elsewhere to various shells; in Australia it denotes the shell of various species of <i>Truncatella</i>, a small marine mollusc, so called from a supposed resemblance to grains of rice, and used for necklaces. <hw>Richea</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian <i>Grasstree</i> (q.v.), <i>Richea pandanifolia</i>, Hook., <i>N.O. Liliaceae</i>. 1850. `Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Van Diemen's Land,' May 8, vol. i. p. 278: "A section . . . of the stem of the graceful palm-like Richea (<i>Richea pandanifolia</i>), found in the dense forests between Lake St. Clair and Macquarie Harbour, where it attains the height of 40 to 50 feet in sheltered positions,--the venation, markings, and rich yellow colouring of which were much admired." 1878. Rev. W. W. Spicer, `Handbook of the Plants of Tasmania,' p. 125: Richea pandanifolia, H. Giant Grass Tree. Peculiar to Tasmania. Dense forests in the interior and SW." <hw>Ridge-Myrtle</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Myrtle</i>. <hw>Rifle-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. sometimes called also <i>Rifleman</i> (q.v.); a bird of paradise. The male is of a general velvety black, something like the uniform of the Rifle Brigade. This peculiarity, no doubt, gave the bird its name, but, on the other hand, settlers and local naturalists sometimes ascribe the name to the resemblance they hear in the bird's cry to the noise of a rifle being fired and its bullet striking the target. The <i>Rifle-bird</i> is more famed for beauty of plumage than any other Australian bird. There are three species, and they are of the genus <i>Ptilorhis</i>, nearly related to the Birds of Paradise of New Guinea, where also is found the only other known species of <i>Ptilorhis</i>. The chief species is <i>Ptilorhis paradisea</i>, Lath., the other two species were named respectively, after the Queen and the late Prince Consort, <i>Victoriae</i> and <i>Alberti</i>, but some naturalists have given them other generic names. As to the name, see also quotation, 1886. See <i>Manucode</i>. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 194: "We saw . . . a rifle-bird." 1886. `Encyclopaedia Britannica,' vol. xx. p. 553: "Rifleman-Bird, or Rifle-Bird, names given . . . probably because in coloration it resembled the well-known uniform of the rifle-regiments of the British army, while in its long and projecting hypochondriac plumes and short tail a further likeness might be traced to the hanging pelisse and the jacket formerly worn by the members of those corps."-- [Footnote]: "Curiously enough its English name seems to be first mentioned in ornithological literature by Frenchmen--Lesson and Garnot--in 1828, who say (<i>Voy. `Coquille,' Zoologie</i>, p. 669) that it was applied `pour rappeler que ce fut un soldat de la garnison [of New South Wales] qui le tua le premier,' which seems to be an insufficient reason, though the statement as to the bird's first murderer may be true." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 171: "It was an Australian bird of paradise, the celebrated Rifle-bird (<i>Ptilorhis victoriae</i>), which, according to Gould, has the most brilliant plumage of all Australian birds." <hw>Rifleman</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bird of New Zealand, <i>Acanthidositta chloris</i>, Buller; Maori name, <i>Titipounamu</i>. See quotation. The name is sometimes applied also to the <i>Rifle-bird</i> (q.v.). 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 113: "<i>Acanthidositta chloris</i>, Buller. The rifleman is the smallest of our New Zealand birds. It is very generally distributed." [Footnote]: "This has hitherto been written <i>Acanthisitta</i>; but Professor Newton has drawn my attention to the fact of its being erroneous. I have therefore adopted the more classic form of <i>Acanthidositta</i>, the etymology of which is <i>'akanthid</i>,--crude form of <i>'akanthis</i> = Carduelis, and <i>sitta</i> = sitta." 1888. W. Smith, `Transactions of the New Zealand Institute,' vol. xxi. art. xxi. p. 214: "<i>Acanthisitta chloris</i> (Rifleman). The feeble note of this diminutive bird is oftener heard in the bush than the bird is seen." <hw>Right-of-Way</hw>, <i>n</i>. a lane. In England the word indicates a legal right to use a particular passage. In Australia it is used for the passage or lane itself. 1893. `The Argus,' Feb. 3: "The main body of the men was located in the right-of-way, which is overlooked by the side windows of the bureau." <hw>Rimu</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a New Zealand tree, <i>Dacrydium cupressinum</i>, <i>N.O. Coniferae</i>; also called <i>Red pine</i>. <i>Rimu</i> is generally used in North Island; <i>Red pine</i> more generally in the South. See <i>Pine</i>. 1835. W. Yate, `Account of New Zealand,' p. 40: "Rimu. This elegant tree comes to its greatest perfection in shaded woods, and in moist, rich soil." 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' p. 117: "He lay Couched in a rimu-tree one day." 1875. T. Laslett, `Timber and Timber Trees,' p. 306: "The Rimu Tree. Height, eighty to 100 feet, fully forty to fifty feet clear of branches . . . moderately hard . . . planes up smoothly, takes a good polish, would be useful to the cabinetmaker." 1879. Clement Bunbury, `Fraser's Magazine,' June, p. 761: "Some of the trees, especially the rimu, a species of yew, here called a pine, were of immense size and age." <hw>Ring</hw>, <i>v. tr</i>. (1) To cut the bark of a tree round the trunk so as to kill it. The word is common in the same sense in English forestry and horticulture, and only seems Australasian from its more frequent use, owing to the widespread practice of clearing the primeval forests and generally destroying trees. "Ringed" is the correct past participle, but "rung" is now commonly used. 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' vol. i. c. x. p. 315: "What they call ringing the trees; that is to say, they cut off a large circular band of bark, which, destroying the trees, renders them easier to be felled." 1862. H. C. Kendall, `Poems,' p. 56: The gum-trees, ringed and ragged, from the mazy margins rise." 1873. A. Trollope, `Australia and New Zealand,' c. xx. p. 312: "Trees to be `rung.' The ringing of trees consists of cutting the bark through all round, so that the tree cease to suck up the strength of the earth for its nutrition, and shall die." 1883. E. M. Curr, `Recollections of Squatting in Victoria' (1841-1851), p. 81: "Altogether, fences and tree-ringing have not improved the scene." 1889. Cassell's `Picturesque Australasia,' vol. iv. p. 58: "The trees are `rung,' that there may be more pasture for the sheep and cattle." (2) To make cattle move in a circle. [Though specifically used of cattle in Australia, the word has a similar use in England as in Tennyson's `Geraint and Enid' . . . "My followers ring him round: He sits unarmed."--Line 336.] 1874. W. H. Ranken, `Dominion of Australia,' c. vi. p. 111: "They are generally `ringed,' that is, their galop is directed into a circular course by the men surrounding them." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. ii. p. 126: "I'll tell you what, you'll have to ring them. Pass the word round for all hands to follow one another in a circle, at a little distance apart." (3) To move round in a circle. 1884. Rolf Boldrewood, `Melbourne Memories,' p. 20: "The cattle were uneasy and `ringed' all night." (4) To make the top score at a shearing-shed. See <i>Ringer</i>. 1896. A. B. Paterson, `Man from Snowy River,' p. 136: "The man that `rung' the Tubbo shed is not the ringer here." <hw>Ring-bark</hw>, <i>v. tr</i>. Same meaning as <i>Ring</i> (1). 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 204: "The selector in a timbered country, without troubling himself about cause and effect, is aware that if he destroys the tree the grass will grow, and therefore he `ring-barks' his timber." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 9: "Our way led us through a large but not dense wood of leafless gumtrees. My companion told me that the forest was dead as a result of `ring-barking.' To get the grass to grow better, the settler removes a band of bark near the root of the tree. In a country where cattle-raising is carried on to so great an extent, this may be very practical, but it certainly does not beautify the landscape. The trees die at once after this treatment, and it is a sad and repulsive sight to see these withered giants, as if in despair, stretching their white barkless branches towards the sky." 1893. `Thumbnail Sketches of Australian Life,' p. 232: "We were going through ring-barked country. You don't know what that is? Well, those giant gum-trees absorb all the moisture and keep the grass very poor, so the squatters kill them by ring-barking--that is, they have a ring described round the trunk of each tree by cutting off a couple of feet of bark. Presently the leaves fall off; then the rest of the bark follows, and eventually the tree becomes nothing but a strange lofty monument of dry timber." <hw>Ring-dollar</hw>, <i>n</i>. See quotation; and see <i>Dump</i> and <i>Holy Dollar</i>. 1870. T. H. Braim, `New Homes,' c. iii. p. 131: "The Spanish dollar was much used. A circular piece was struck out of the centre about the size of a shilling . . . and the rest of the dollar, called from the circular piece taken out a `ring-dollar,' was valued at four shillings." <hw>Ring-eye</hw>, <i>n</i>. one of the many names for the birds of the genus <i>Zosterops</i> (q.v.). <hw>Ringer</hw>, <i>n</i>. a sheep-shearing term. See quotations. Mr. Hornung's explanation of the origin (quotation, 1894) is probably right. See <i>Rings</i>. 1890. `The Argus,' Sept. 20, p. 13, col. 6: "A `ringer' being the man who by his superior skill and expertness `tops the score'--that is, shears the highest number of sheep per day." 1893. `The Herald' (Melbourne), Dec. 23, p. 6, col. 1: "Whence came the term `ringer,' as applied to the quickest shearer, I don't know. It might possibly have some association with a man who can get quoits on to the peg, and again, it might not, as was remarked just now by my mate, who is camped with me." 1894. E. W. Hornung, `Boss of Taroomba,' p. 101: "They call him the ringer of the shed. That means the fastest shearer--the man who runs rings round the rest, eh?" 1894. `Geelong Grammar School Quarterly,' April, p. 26: "Another favourite [school] phrase is a `regular ringer.' Great excellence is implied by this expression." 1896. A. B. Paterson, `Man from Snowy River,' p. 162: "The Shearers sat in the firelight, hearty and hale and strong, After the hard day's shearing, passing the joke along The `ringer' that shore a hundred, as they never were shorn before, And the novice who toiling bravely had tommyhawked half a score." <hw>Ring-neck</hw>, <i>n</i>. the equivalent of <i>Jackaroo</i> (q.v.). A term used in the back blocks in reference to the white collar not infrequently worn by a <i>Jackaroo</i> on his first appearance and when unaccustomed to the life of the bush. The term is derived from the supposed resemblance of the collar to the light- coloured band round the neck of the Ring-neck Parrakeet. <hw>Rings, to run round</hw>: to beat out and out. A picturesque bit of Australian slang. One runner runs straight to the goal, the other is so much better that he can run round and round his competitor, and yet reach the goal first. 1891. `The Argus,' Oct.10, p. 13, col. 3: "Considine could run rings round the lot of them." 1897. `The Argus,' Jan. 15, p. 6, col. 5: "As athletes the cocoons can run rings round the beans; they can jump out of a tumbler." <hw>Ring-tail</hw>, or <hw>Ring-tailed Opossum</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Pseudochirus</i> and <i>Opossum</i>. <hw>Rinka-sporum</hw>, <i>n</i>. a mis-spelt name for the Australian varieties of the tribe of <i>Rhyncosporeae</i>, <i>N.O. Cyperaceae</i>. This tribe includes twenty-one genera, of which <i>Rhynchospora</i> (the type), <i>Schaenus</i>, <i>Cladium</i>, and <i>Remirea</i> are widely distributed, and the others are chiefly small genera of the Southern Hemisphere, especially Australia. (`Century.') 1885. R. M. Praed, `Australian Life,' p. 93: "Rinka-sporum, a mass of white bloom." <hw>Riro-riro</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bird. Maori name for the Grey-Warbler of New Zealand, <i>Gerygone flaviventris</i>, Gray. See <i>Gerygone</i>. 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 44: [A full description.] 1889. Cassell's `Picturesque Australasia,' vol. iv. p. 163: "A little wren managed to squeeze itself through, and it flew off to Kurangai-tuku, and cried, `Kurangai-tuku, the man is riro, riro, riro!'--that is, gone, gone, gone. And to this day the bird is known as the riro-riro." <hw>River-Oak</hw>. See <i>Oak</i>. <hw>Roa</hw>, <i>n</i>. another Maori name for the largest or <i>Brown Kiwi</i> (q.v.). In Maori the word <i>roa</i> means long or big. <hw>Roaring Horsetails</hw>, <i>n</i>. a slang name for the <i>Aurora Australis</i>. <hw>Robin</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name, in consequence of their external resemblance to the familiar English bird, is applied, in Australia, to species of the various genera as follows:-- Ashy-fronted Fly-Robin-- <i>Heteromyias cinereifrons</i>, Ramsay. Buff-sided R.-- <i>Poecilodryas cerviniventris</i>, Gould. Dusky R.-- <i>Amaurodryas vittata</i>, Quoy and Gaim. Flame-breasted Robin-- <i>Petroica phoenicea</i>, Gould. Hooded R.-- <i>Melanodryas bicolor</i>, Vig. and Hors. Pied R.-- <i>M. picata</i>, Gould. Pink-breasted R.-- <i>Erythrodryas rhodinogaster</i>, Drap. Red-capped R.-- <i>Petroica goodenovii</i>, Vig. and Hors. Red-throated R.-- <i>P. ramsayi</i>, Sharp. Rose-breasted R.-- <i>Erythrodryas rosea</i>, Gould. Scarlet-breasted R.-- <i>Petroica leggii</i>, Sharp. Scrub R.-- <i>Drymodes brunneopygia</i>, Gould. White-browed R. <i>Poecilodryas superciliosa</i>, Gould. White-faced Scrub-R.-- <i>Drymodes superciliaris</i>, Gould. The New Zealand species are-- Chatham Island Robin-- <i>Miro traversi</i>, Buller. North Island R.-- <i>M. australis</i>, Sparrm. South Island R.-- <i>M. albifrons</i>, Gmel. Gould's enumeration of the species is given below. [See quotations, 1848, 1869.] See also <i>Shrike-Robin</i>, <i>Scrub-Robin</i>, and <i>Satin-Robin</i>. 1827. Vigors and Horsfield, `Transactions of the Linnaean Society,' vol. xv. p. 242: "`This bird,' Mr. Caley says, `is called yellow-robin by the colonists. It is an inhabitant of bushes'" 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. iii: Plate <i>Petroica superciliosa</i>, Gould, White-eyebrowed Robin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 <i>Drymodes brunneopygia</i>, Gould, Scrub Robin. . 10 <i>Eopsaltria leucogaster</i>, Gould, White-bellied Robin . . . . . . . 13 1864. R. L. A. Davies, `Poems and Literary Remains,' p. 263: "Very soon comes a robin. . . . In the bush no matter where you pitch, the robin always comes about, and when any other of his tribe comes about, he bristles up his feathers, and fights for his crumbs. . . . He is not at all pretty, like the Australian or European robin, but a little sober black and grey bird, with long legs, and a heavy paunch and big head; like a Quaker, grave, but cheerful and spry withal." [This is the Robin of New Zealand.] 1866. Lady Barker, `Station Life in New Zealand,' p. 93: "The New Zealand robin was announced, and I could see only a fat little ball of a bird, with a yellowish-white breast." 1869. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia' [Supplement]: <i>Drymodes superciliaris</i>, Gould, Eastern Scrub Robin. <i>Petroica cerviniventris</i>, Gould, Buff-sided Robin. <i>Eopsaltria capito</i>, Gould, Large-headed Robin. <i>E. leucura</i>, Gould, White-tailed Robin. 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' p. 239: "The large red-breasted robin, kinsman true Of England's delicate high-bred bird of home." 1880. Mrs.Meredith, `Tasmanian Friends and Foes,' p. 123: "The Robin is certainly more brilliantly beautiful than his English namesake. . . . Black, red and white are the colours of his dress, worn with perfect taste. The black is shining jet, the red, fire, and the white, snow. There is a little white spot on his tiny black-velvet cap, a white bar across his pretty white wings, and his breast is, a living flame of rosy, vivid scarlet." 1888. Cassell's `Picturesque Australasia,' vol. ii. p. 235: "Here, too, the `careful robin eyes the delver's toil,' and as he snatches the worm from the gardener's furrow, he turns to us a crimson-scarlet breast that gleams in the sun beside the golden buttercups like a living coal. The hues of his English cousin would pale beside him ineffectual." 1896. `The Melburnian,' Aug. 28, p. 54: "The flame-breasted robin no longer lingers showing us his brilliant breast while he sings out the cold grey afternoons in his tiny treble. He has gone with departing winter." <hw>Rock-Cod</hw>, <i>n</i>. called also <i>Red-Cod</i> in New Zealand, <i>Pseudophycis barbatus</i>, Gunth., family <i>Gadidae</i>. In New Zealand the <i>Blue-Cod</i>(q.v.) is also called <i>Rock-Cod</i>. Species of the allied genus <i>Lotella</i> are also called <i>Rock-Cod</i> in New South Wales. See <i>Beardy</i> and <i>Ling</i>. 1883. `Royal Commission on the Fisheries of Tasmania,' p. 40: "A variety known to fishermen as the deep-water, or Cape-cod. . . . It would appear that the latter is simply the mature form of the `rock-cod,' which enters the upper waters of estuaries in vast numbers during the month of May. . . The rock-cod rarely exceeds 2 1/2 lbs. weight." <hw>Rocket, Native</hw>, a Tasmanian name for <i>Epacris lanuginosa</i>, Lab., <i>N.O. Epacrideae</i>. See <i>Epacris</i>. <hw>Rock Lily</hw>, <i>n</i>. See under <i>Lily</i>. <hw>Rock-Ling</hw>, <i>n</i>. a marine fish. The Australian R. is <i>Genypterus australis</i>, Castln., family <i>Ophidiidae</i>. The European R. belongs to the genera <i>Onos</i> and <i>Rhinonemus</i>, formerly <i>Motella</i>. Of the genus <i>Genypterus</i>, Guenther says they have an excellent flesh, like cod, well adapted for curing. At the Cape they are known by the name of "Klipvisch," and in New Zealand as <i>Ling</i>, or <i>Cloudy-Bay Cod</i>. <hw>Rock-Native</hw>, or <hw>Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name given to the fish called a <i>Schnapper</i> when it has ceased to "school." See <i>Schnapper</i>. <hw>Rock-Parrakeet</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian <i>Grass-Parrakeet</i>(q.v.), <i>Euphema petrophila</i>, Gould. It gets its name from its habitat, the rocks and crags. <hw>Rock-Pebbler</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Black-tailed Parrakeet</i>. See <i>Parrakeet</i>. <hw>Rock-Perch</hw>, <i>n</i>. the name given in Melbourne to the fish <i>Glyphidodon victoriae</i>, Gunth., family <i>Pomacentridae</i>, or <i>Coral-fishes</i>. It is not a true Perch. <hw>Rock-shelter</hw>, <i>n</i>. a natural cave-dwelling of the aborigines. See <i>Gibber-Gunyah</i>. 1891. R. Etheridge, jun., in `Records of the Australian Museum,' vol. i. No. viii. p. 171 (`Notes on Rock Shelters or Gibba-gunyahs at Deewhy Lagoon'): ". . . The Shelters are of the usual type seen throughout the Port Jackson district, recesses in the escarpment, overhung by thick, more or less tabular masses of rock, in some cases dry and habitable, in others wet and apparently never used by the Aborigines." <hw>Rock-Wallaby</hw>, <i>n</i>. the popular name for any animal of the genus <i>Petrogale</i> (q.v.). There are six species-- Brush-tailed Rock-Wallaby-- <i>Petrogale penicillata</i>, Gray. Little R.-W.-- <i>P. concinna</i>, Gould. Plain-coloured R.-W.-- <i>P. inornata</i>, Gould. Rock-W., or West-Australian R.-W.-- <i>P. lateralis</i>, Gould. Short-eared R.-W.-- <i>P. brachyotis</i>, Gould. Yellow-footed R.-W.-- <i>P. xanthopus</i>, Gray. See <i>Wallaby</i>. 1884. Rolf Boldrewood, `Melbourne Memories,' c. viii. p. 58: "A light, active chap, spinning over the stones like a rock wallaby." 1888. Rolf Boldrewood, `Robbery under Arms,' p. 119: "They rode and rode, but Warrigal was gone like a rock wallaby." 1894. R. Lydekker, `Marsupialia,' p. 43: "The Rock-Wallabies are confined to the mainland of Australia, on which they are generally distributed, but are unknown in Tasmania. Although closely allied to the true Wallabies, their habits are markedly distinct, the Rock-Wallabies frequenting rugged, rocky districts, instead of the open plains." <hw>Roger Gough</hw>, <i>n</i>. an absurd name given to the tree <i>Baloghia lucida</i>, Endl., <i>N.O. Euphorbiaceae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 382: "Scrub, or brush bloodwood, called also `Roger Gough.'" 1896. `The Australasian,' Aug. 28, p. 407, col. 5: "Who were Messrs. James Donnelly, James Low, and Roger Gough that their names should have been bestowed on trees? Were they growers or buyers of timber? Was the first of the list any relative of the Minnesota lawyer who holds strange views about a great cryptogram in Shakespeare's plays? Was the last of the three any relative of the eminent soldier who won the battles of Sobraon and Ferozeshah? Or, as is more probable, were the names mere corruptions of aboriginal words now lost?" <hw>Roll up</hw>, <i>v. intr</i>. to gather, to assemble. 1887. J. Farrell, `How he died,' p. 26: "The miners all rolled up to see the fun." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. xx. p. 185: "At the Warraluen and other gold towns, time after time the ominous words `roll up' had sounded forth, generally followed by the gathering of a mighty crowd." <hw>Roll-up</hw>, <i>n</i>. a meeting. See preceding verb. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. xxxv. p. 308: "Making as much noise as if you'd hired the bell-man for a roll-up?" <hw>Roly-poly Grass</hw>, or <i>Roley-poley</i>, <i>n</i>. name given to <i>Panicum macractinium</i>, Benth., <i>N.O. Gramineae</i>; and also to <i>Salsola Kali</i>, Linn., <i>N.O. Salsolaceae</i>. See <i>Grass</i>. 1859. D. Bunce, `Travels with Dr. Leichhardt in Australia,' pp. 167-8: "Very common to these plains, was a large-growing <i>salsolaceous</i> plant, belonging to the <i>Chenopodeaceae</i>, of Jussieu. These weeds grow in the form of a large ball. . . . No sooner were a few of these balls (or, as we were in the habit of calling them, `rolly-poleys') taken up with the current of air, than the mules began to kick and buck. . . ." 1865. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `History of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia,' vol. ii. p. 468: "A salsolaceous plant growing in the form of a ball several feet high. In the dry season it withers, and is easily broken off and rolled about by the winds, whence it is called roley-poly by the settlers." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 100: "Roly-Poly Grass. This species produces immense dry and spreading panicles; it is perennial, and seeds in November and December. It is a somewhat straggling species, growing in detached tufts, on sand-hills and sandy soil, and much relished by stock." 1896. Baldwin Spencer, `Horne Expedition in Central Australia,' Narrative, p. 13: "On the loamy flats, and even gibber plains, the most noticeable plant is <i>Salsola kali</i>, popularly known as the Rolly-polly. It is, when mature, one of the characteristically prickly plants of the Lower Steppes, and forms great spherical masses perhaps a yard or more in diameter." <hw>Roman-Lamp Shell</hw>, name given in Tasmania to a brachiopod mollusc, <i>Waldheimia flavescens</i>, Lamarck. <hw>Roo</HW>, a termination, treated earlier as the name of an animal. It is the termination of <i>potoroo, wallaroo</i>, <i>kangaroo</i>. See especially the last. It may be added that it is very rare for aboriginal words to begin with the letter `r.' 1790. J. White, `Voyage to New South Wales' [Observations at the end, by Mr. John Hunter, the celebrated surgeon]: Plate p. 272--A kangaroo. Description of teeth. Plate p. 278--Wha Tapoua Roo, about the size of a Racoon [probably an opossum]. Plate p. 286--A Poto Roo or Kangaroo-Rat. Plate p. 288--Hepoona Roo. <hw>Rope</hw>, v. tr. to catch a horse or bullock with a noosed rope. It comes from the Western United States, where it has superseded the original Spanish word <i>lasso</i>, still used in California. 1884. Rolf Boldrewood, `Melbourne Memories,' c. xxi. p. 150: "You could `rope' . . . any Clifton colt or filly, back them in three days, and within a week ride a journey." <hw>Ropeable</hw>, <i>adj</i>. (1) Of cattle; so wild and intractable as to be capable of subjection only by being roped. See preceding word. (2) By transference: intractable, angry, out of temper. 1891. `The Argus,' Oct. 10, p. 13, col. 4: "The service has shown itself so `ropeable' heretofore that one experiences now a kind of chastened satisfaction in seeing it roped and dragged captive at Sir Frederick's saddle-bow." 1896. Modern. In school-boy slang: "You must not chaff him, he gets so ropeable." <hw>Roping-pole</hw>, <i>n</i>. a long pole used for casting a rope over an animal's head in the stockyard. 1880. Rolf Boldrewood, `Squatter's Dream,' c. iv. p. 44: "I happened to knock down the superintendent with a roping-pole." 1895. A. B. Paterson, `Man from Snowy River,' p. 125: "I'm travelling down the Castlereagh and I'm a station-hand, I'm handy with the ropin'-pole, I'm handy with the brand, And I can ride a rowdy colt, or swing the axe all day, But there's no demand for a station-hand along the Castlereagh." <hw>Rosary-shell</hw>, <i>n</i>. In Europe, the name is applied to any marine gastropod shell of the genus <i>Monodonta</i>. In Australia, it is applied to the shell of <i>Nerita atrata</i>, Lamarck, a marine mollusc of small size and black colour used for necklaces, bracelets, and in place of the "beads" of a rosary. <hw>Rose</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to the Australian shrub, <i>Boronia serrulata</i>, Sm., <i>N.O. Rutaceae</i>. It has bright green leaves and very fragrant rose-coloured flowers. <hw>Rose-Apple</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Sweet Plum</i>. See under <i>Plum</i>. <hw>Rose-bush</hw>, a timber-tree, <i>Eupomatia laurina</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Anonaceae</i>. <hw>Rose-hill</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is given by Gould as applied to two Parrakeets-- (1) <i>Platycercus eximius</i>, Vig. and Hors., called by the Colonists of New South Wales, and by Gould, the <i>Rose-hill Parrakeet</i>. (2) <i>Platycercus icterotis</i>, Wagl., called by the Colonists of Swan River, Western Australia, the <i>Rose-hill</i>, and by Gould the <i>Earl of Derby's Parrakeet</i>. The modern name for both these birds is <i>Rosella</i> (q.v.), though it is more specifically confined to the first. <i>`Rose-hill</i>' was the name of the Governor's residence at Parramatta, near Sydney, in the early days of the settlement of New South Wales, and the name <i>Rosella</i> is a settler's corruption of <i>Rose-hiller</i>, though the erroneous etymology from the Latin <i>rosella</i> (sc. `a little rose') is that generally given. The word <i>Rosella</i>, however, is not a scientific name, and does not appear as the name of any genus or species; it is vernacular only, and no settler or bushman is likely to have gone to the Latin to form it. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. v. pl. 27: "<i>Platycercus eximius</i>, Vig. & Hors. <i>Rose-hill Parrakeet</i>; Colonists of New South Wales." Ibid. vol. v. pl. 29: "<i>Platycercus icterotis</i>, Wagl. The Earl of Derby's Parrakeet; <i>Rose-hill</i> of the Colonists [of Swan River]." <hw>Rosella</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) A bird, <i>Platycercus eximius</i>, the <i>Rosehill</i> (q.v.). 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 80: "The common white cockatoo, and the Moreton Bay Rosella parrot, were very numerous." 1884. R. L. A. Davies, `Poems and Literary Remains,' p. 99: "Saw the bright rosellas fly, With breasts that glowed like sunsets In the fiery western sky." 1890. `The Argus,' June 7, p. 13, col. 5: "The solitudes where the lorikeets and rosellas chatter." 1896. `The Melburnian,' Aug. 28, p. 60: "As [the race] sweeps past the Stand every year in a close bright mass the colours, of the different clubs, are as dazzling and gay in the sun as a brilliant flight of galahs and rosellas." (2) In Northern Australia, it is a slang name for a European who works bared to the waist, which some, by a gradual process of discarding clothing, acquire the power of doing. The scorching of the skin by the sun produces a colour which probably suggested a comparison with the bright scarlet of the parrakeet so named. <hw>Rosemary</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to the shrub <i>Westringia dampieri</i>, R. Br., <i>N.0. Labiatae</i>. 1703. W. Dampier, `Voyage to New Holland,' vol. iii. p. 138: "There grow here 2 or 3 sorts of Shrubs, one just like Rosemary; and therefore I call'd this <i>Rosemary Island</i>. It grew in great plenty here, but had no smell." [This island is in or near Shark's Bay] <hw>Rosemary, Golden</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given in Tasmania to the plant <i>Oxylobium ellipticum</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>. <hw>Rosemary, Wild</hw>, a slender Australian timber-tree, <i>Cassinia laevis</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Compositae</i>. <hw>Rose, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Bauera</i> (q.v.). <hw>Rosewood</hw>, name given to the timber of three trees. (1) <i>Acacia glaucescens</i>, Willd., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>; called also <i>Brigalow, Mountain Brigalow</i>, and <i>Myall</i>. (2) <i>Dysoxylon fraserianum</i>, Benth., <i>N.O. Meliaceae</i>; called also <i>Pencil Cedar</i>. (3) <i>Eremophila mitchelli</i>, Benth. <i>N.O. Myoporinae</i>; called also <i>Sandalwood</i>. 1838. T. L. Mitchell, `Three Expeditions,' vol. i. p. 203: "One or two trees of a warmer green, of what they call `rosewood,' I believe gave a fine effect, relieving the sober greyish green of the pendent acacia." 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition' p. 4: "The Rosewood Acacia of Moreton Bay." <hw>Rough</hw>, or <hw>Roughy</hw>, or <hw>Ruffy</hw>, or <hw>Ruffie</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Victorian fish, <i>Arripis georgianus</i>, Cuv. and Val., family <i>Percidae</i>. <i>Arripis</i> is the genus of the Australian fish called Salmon, or Salmon-trout, <i>A. salar</i>, Gunth. See <i>Salmon</i>. 1875. `Spectator' (Melbourne), June 19, 1881: "Common fish, such as trout, ruffies mullet . . . and others." 1890. `Victorian Statutes--Fisheries, Second Schedule' [Close Season]: "Rough, or Roughy." <hw>Rough Fig</hw>, <i>n</i>. See under <i>Fig-tree</i>. <hw>Rough-leaved Fig</hw>, <i>n</i>. See under <i>Fig-tree</i>. <hw>Round</hw>, <i>v. trans</i>., contraction of the verb to <i>round-up</i>, to bring a scattered herd together; used in all grazing districts, and common in the Western United States. 1894. `The Argus,' June 23, p. 11, col. 4: "A friend of mine who has spent many a night rounding the mob on lonely Queensland cattle camps where hostile blacks were as thick as dingoes has a peculiar aversion to one plain covered with dead gums, because the curlews always made him feel miserable when crossing it at night." <hw>Round Yam</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Burdekin Vine</i>. See under <i>Vine</i>. <hw>Rouseabout</hw>, <i>n</i>. a station-hand put on to any work, a Jack of all work, an `odd man.' The form `roustabout' is sometimes used, but the latter is rather an American word (Western States), in the sense of a labourer on a river boat, a deck-hand who assists in loading and unloading. 1887. J. Farrell, `How he died,' p. 19: "It may be the rouseabout swiper who rode for the doctor that night, Is in Heaven with the hosts of the Blest, robed and sceptred, and splendid with light." 18W. `The Argus,' Sept. 20, p. 13, col. 6: "The `rouseabouts' are another class of men engaged in shearing time, whose work is to draft the sheep, fill the pens for the shearers, and do the branding. . . . The shearers hold themselves as the aristocrats of the shed; and never associate with the rouseabouts." 1892. Gilbert Parker, `Round the Compass in Australia,' p. 58: "While we sat there, a rouseabout came to the door. `Mountain Jim's back,' he said. There was no `sir' in the remark of this lowest of stationhands to his master." 1894. `Sydney Morning Herald' (date lost): "A rougher person--perhaps a happier--is the rouseabout, who makes himself useful in the shearing shed. He is clearly a man of action. He is sometimes with less elegance, and one would say less correctly, spoken of as a roustabout." 1896. H. Lawson, `When the World was Wide,' p. 98 [Title of poem, `Middleton's Rouseabout']: "Flourishing beard and sandy, Tall and robust and stout; This is the picture of Andy, Middleton's Rouseabout." <hw>Rowdy</hw>, <i>adj</i>. troublesome. Common slang, but unusual as applied to a bullock or a horse. 1872. C. H. Eden, `My Wife and I in Queensland,' p. 69: "Branding or securing a troublesome or, colonially, a `rowdy' bullock." 1896. A. B. Paterson, `Man from Snowy River, p. 125: "And I can ride a rowdy colt, or swing the axe all day." <hw>Rua</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori word (used in North Island) for a pit, cave or hole. A place for storing roots, such as potatoes, etc. Formerly some of these <i>rua</i> had carved entrances. <hw>Ruffy</hw> or <hw>Ruffie</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fish. See <i>Rough</i> or <i>Roughy</i>. <hw>Run</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) Tract of land over which sheep or cattle may graze. It is curious that what in England is called a sheep-walk, in Australia is a sheep-run. In the Western United States it is a sheep-ranch. Originally the squatter, or sheep-farmer, did not own the land. It was unfenced, and he simply had the right of grazing or "running" his sheep or cattle on it. Subsequently, in many cases, he purchased the freehold, and the word is now applied to a large station property, fenced or unfenced. (See quotation, 1883.) 1826. Goldie, in Bischoff's `Van Diemen's Land' (1832), p. 157: "It is generally speaking a good sheep-run." 1828. Report of Van Diemen's band Company, in Bischoff's `Van Diemen's Land' (1832), p. 117: "A narrow slip of good sheep-run down the west coast." 1844. `Port Phillip Patriot,' July 8, p. 4, col. 3: "The thousand runs stated as the number in Port Phillip under the new regulations will cost L12,800,000." 1846. C. P. Hodgson, `Reminiscences of Australia,' p. 367: "`Runs,' land claimed by the squatter as sheep-walks, open, as nature left them, without any improvement from the squatter." 1862. H. C. Kendall, `Poems,' p. 78: "The runs of the Narran wide-dotted with sheep, And loud with the lowing of cattle." 1864. W. Westgarth, `Colony of Victoria,' p. 273: "Here then is a squatting domain of the old unhedged stamp. The station or the `run,' as these squatting areas are called, borders upon the Darling, along which river it possesses a frontage of thirty-five lineal miles, with a back area of 800 square miles." 1868. J. Bonwick, `John Batman, Founder of Victoria,' p. 34: "The desire of some to turn Van Diemen's Land into a large squatter's run, by the passing of the Impounding Act, was the immediate cause, he told us, of his taking up the project of a poor man's country elsewhere." 1870. `/Delta/,' `Studies in Rhyme,' p. 26: "Of squatters' runs we've oft been told, The People's Lands impairing." 1883. G. W. Rusden, `History of Australia,' vol. i. p. 73 [Note]: "A run is the general term for the tract of country on which Australians keep their stock, or allow them to `run.'" (2) The bower of the <i>Bowerbird</i> (q.v.). 1840. `Proceedings of the Zoological Society,' p. 94: "They are used by the birds as a playing-house, or `run,' as it is termed, and are used by the males to attract the females." <hw>Run-about</hw>, <i>n</i>. and <i>adj</i>. <i>Run-abouts</i> are cattle left to graze at will, and the <i>runabout</i>-yard is the enclosure for homing them. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. xviii. p. 218: "`Open that gate, Piambook,' said Ernest gravely, pointing to the one which led into the `run-about' yard." <hw>Run-hunting</hw>, exploring for a new run. See <i>Run</i>. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Squatter's Dream,' c. xix. p. 238: "What do you say if I go run-hunting with you?" <hw>Running-Postman</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian plant, i.q. <i>Coral-Pea</i>. See <i>Kennedya</i>. <hw>Ruru</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the New Zealand bird, the <i>More-pork</i>, <i>Athene novae-zelandiae</i>, Gmel. (q.v.). 1883. F. S. Renwick, `Betrayed,' p. 45: "The ruru's voice re-echoes, desolate." <hw>Rush</hw>, v. (1) Of cattle: to charge a man. Contraction for to <i>rush-at</i>. 1861. T. McCombie, `Australian Sketches,' p. 122: "When not instigated by terror, wild cattle will seldom attack the traveller; even of those which run at him, or `rush,' as it is termed, few will really toss or gore, or even knock him down." (2) To attack sheep; i.e. to cause them to <i>rush about</i> or <i>away</i>. 1855. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes,' p. 153: "Sometimes at night this animal [the dingo] will leap into the fold amongst the timid animals [sheep] and so `rush' them--that is, cause them to break out and disperse through the bush." (3) To break through a barrier (of men or materials). Contraction for to <i>rush past</i> or <i>through</i>; e.g. to rush a cordon of policemen; to rush a fence (i.e. to break-down or climb-over it). (4) To take possession of, or seize upon, either by force or before the appointed time. Compare <i>Jump</i>. 1896. Modern: "Those who had no tickets broke through and rushed all the seats." "The dancers becoming very hungry did not stand on ceremony, but rushed the supper." (5) To flood with gold-seekers. 1887. H. H. Hayter, `Christmas Adventure,' p. 3: "The Bald Hill had just been rushed, and therefore I decided to take up a claim." <hw>Rush</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) The hurrying off of diggers to a new field. 1861. T. McCombie, `Australian Sketches,' p. 86: "We had a long conversation on the `rush,' as it was termed." 1864. J. Rogers, `New Rush,' pt. i., p. 19: "Arouse you, my comrades, for <i>rush</i> is the word, Advance to the strife with a pick for a sword." 1890. `The Argus,' June 13, p. 6, col. 2: "Fell Timber Creek, where a new rush had set in." (2) A place where gold is found, and to which consequently a crowd of diggers "rush." 1855. William Howitt, `Land, Labour and Gold; or Two Years in Victoria,' vol. i. p. 172: "It is a common practice for them to mark out one or more claims in each new rush, so as to make sure if it turn out well. But only one claim at a time is legal and tenable. This practice is called shepherding." 1875. `Spectator' (Melbourne), May 22, p. 34, col. 1: "The Palmer River rush is a perfect swindle." 1875. Wood and Lapham, `Waiting for Mail,' p. 34: "Off we set to the Dunstan rush, just broken out." 1880. G. Sutherland, `Tales of Goldfields,' p. 92: "Morinish, was a worked-out rush close to Rockhampton, where the first attempt at gold-digging had been made in Queensland." (3) A stampede of cattle. 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. ii. p. 102: "A confused whirl of dark forms swept before him, and the camp, so full of life a minute ago, is desolate. It was `a rush,' a stampede." <hw>Rush-broom</hw>, <i>n</i>. Australian name for the indigenous shrub <i>Viminaria denudata</i>, Sm., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>. The flowers are orange-yellow. In England, it is cultivated in greenhouses. <hw>Rusty Fig</hw>, <i>n</i>. See under <i>Fig-tree</i>. S <hw>Saddle, Colonial</hw>, <i>n</i>. 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia,' p. 53: "The colonial saddle is a shapeless, cumbersome fabric, made of rough leather, with a high pommel and cantle, and huge knee-pads, weighing on an average twenty pounds. The greatest care is necessary to prevent such a diabolical machine from giving a horse a sore back." [Mr. Finch-Hatton's epithet is exaggerated. The saddle is well adapted to its peculiar local purposes. The projecting knee-pads, especially, save the rider from fractured knee-caps when galloping among closely timbered scrub. The ordinary English saddle is similarly varied by exaggeration of different parts to suit special requirements, as e.g. in the military saddle, with its enormous pommel; the diminutive racing saddle, to meet handicappers' "bottom-weights," etc. The mediaeval saddle had its turret-like cantle for the armoured spearman.] <hw>Saddle-Back</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bird of the North Island of New Zealand, <i>Creadion carunculatus</i>, Cab. See also <i>Jack-bird</i> and <i>Creadion</i>. 1868. `Transactions of the New Zealand Institute,' Essay on Ornithology, by W. Buller, vol. i. p. 5: "The <i>Saddle-back</i> (Creadion carunculatus) of the North is represented in the South by C. cinereus, a closely allied species." 1882. T. H. Potts, `Out in the Open,' p. 64: "It is the sharp, quick call of the saddle-back." 1886. A. Reischek, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. xix. art. xxiii. p. 102: "The bird derives its popular name from a peculiarity in the distribution of its two strongly contrasting colours, uniform black, back and shoulders ferruginous, the shoulders of the wings forming a saddle. In structure it resembles the starling (<i>Sturnidae</i>); it has also the wedge bill." 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 18: "<i>Creadion Carunculatus</i>. This bird derives its popular name from a peculiarity in the distribution of its too strongly contrasted colours, black and ferruginous, the latter of which covers the back, forms a sharply-defined margin across the shoulders, and sweeps over the wings in a manner suggestive of saddle-flaps." <hw>Sagg</hw>, <i>n</i>. the name given in Tasmania to the plant <i>Xerotes longifolia</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Junceae</i>, and also to the White Iris, <i>Diplarhena morcaea</i>. <hw>Saliferous</hw>, <i>adj</i>. salt-bearing. See <i>Salt-bush</i>. The word is used in geology in ordinary English, but the botanical application is Australian. 1890. E. W. Hornung, `A Bride from the Bush,' p. 277: "You have only to cover the desert with pale-green saliferous bushes, no higher than a man's knee." <hw>Sallee</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for many varieties of the <i>Acacia</i> (q.v.). <hw>Sally</hw>, <hw>Sallow</hw>, <i>n</i>. corruptions of the aboriginal word <i>Sallee</i> (q.v.). There are many varieties, e.g. <i>Black-Sally</i>, <i>White-Sally</i>, etc. <hw>Salmon</hw>, <i>n</i>. The English Salmon is being acclimatised with difficulty in Tasmania and New Zealand; the <i>Trout</i> more successfully. But in all Australian, New Zealand, and Tasmanian waters there is a marine fish which is called Salmon; it is not the true Salmon of the Old World, but <i>Arripis salar</i>, Gunth., and called in New Zealand by the Maori name <i>Kahawai</i>. The fish is often called also <i>Salmon-Trout</i>. The young is called <i>Samson-fish</i> (q.v.). 1798. D. Collins, `Account of the English Colony of New South Wales,' p. 136: [Sept. 1790.] "Near four thousand of a fish, named by us, from its shape only, the Salmon, being taken at two hauls of the seine. Each fish weighed on an average about five pounds." 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 93: "The kawai has somewhat of the habits of the salmon, entering during spring and summer into the bays, rivers, and fresh-water creeks in large shoals." 1880. Guenther, `Study of Fishes,' p. 393: "<i>Arripis salar</i>, South Australia. Three species are known, from the coasts of Southern Australia and New Zealand. They are named by the colonists Salmon or Trout, from their elegant form and lively habits, and from the sport they afford to the angler." 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish of New South Wales,' p. 35: "<i>Arripis salar</i>, Gunth., is in the adult state the salmon of the Australian fishermen, and their salmon trout is the young. . . . The most common of all Victorian fishes . . . does not resemble the true salmon in any important respect . . . It is the <i>A. truttaceus</i> of Cuvier and Valenciennes." <hw>Salmon-Trout</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Salmon</i> (q.v.). <hw>Saloop-bush</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to an erect soft-stemmed bush, <i>Rhagodia hastata</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Salsolaceae</i>, one of the Australian Redberries, two to three feet high. See <i>Redberry</i> and <i>Salt-bush</i>. <hw>Salsolaceous</hw>, <i>adj</i>. belongs to the natural order <i>Salsolaceae</i>. The shrubs of the order are not peculiar to Australia, but are commoner there than elsewhere. 1837. Ross, `Hobart Town Almanack,' p. 906: "Passing tufts of samphire and <i>salsolaceous</i> plants." 1859. H. Kingsley, `Geoffrey Hamlyn,' c. xlii. (`Century'): "It is getting hopeless now . . . sand and nothing but sand. The salsolaceous plants, so long the only vegetation we have seen, are gone." <hw>Salt-bush</hw>, <i>n</i>. and <i>adj</i>. the wild alkaline herb or shrub, growing on the interior plains of Australia, on which horses and sheep feed, of the <i>N.O. Salsolaceae</i>. The genera are <i>Atriplex, Kochia</i>, and <i>Rhagodia</i>. Of the large growth, <i>A. nummularium</i>, Lindl., and of the dwarf species, <i>A. vesicarium</i>, Heward, and <i>A. halimoides</i>, Lindl., are the commonest. Some species bear the additional names of <i>Cabbage Salt-bush</i>, <i>Old-Man Salt-bush</i>, <i>Small Salt-bush</i>, <i>Blue-bush</i>, <i>Cotton-bush</i>, <i>Saloop-bush</i>, etc. Some varieties are very rich in salt. <i>Rhagodia parabolica</i>, R. Br., for instance, according to Mr. Stephenson, who accompanied Sir T. Mitchell in one of his expeditions, yields as much as two ounces of salt by boiling two pounds of leaves. 1870. T. H. Braim, `New Homes,' c. ii. p. 89: "This inland salt-bush country suits the settler's purpose well." 1889. Cassell's `Picturesque Australasia,' vol. iv. p. 144: "The ground is covered with the sage-coloured salt-bush all the year round, but in the winter it blooms with flowers." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Squatter's Dream,' c. xxi. p. 262: "How glorious it will be to see them pitching into that lovely salt-bush by the lake." 1892. E. W. Hornung, `Under Two Skies,' p. 11: "The surrounding miles of salt-bush plains and low monotonous scrub oppressed her when she wandered abroad. There was not one picturesque patch on the whole dreary run." 1896. A. B. Paterson, `Man from Snowy River,' p. 92: "Over the miles of the salt-bush plain-- The shining plain that is said to be The dried-up bed of an inland sea. . . . . . . . . . . . . For those that love it and understand, The salt-bush plain is a wonderland." <hw>Samson-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given in Sydney to <i>Seriola hippos</i>, Gunth., family <i>Carangidae</i>; and in Melbourne to the young of <i>Arripis salar</i>, Richards., family <i>Percidae</i>. See <i>Salmon</i>. 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish of New South Wales,' p. 60: "The samson-fish (Senola hippos, Gunth.) is occasionally caught. The great strength of these fishes is remarkable, and which probably is the cause that gave it the name of Samson-fish, as sailors or shipwrights give to the name of a strong post resting on the keelson of a ship, and supporting the upper beam, and bearing all the weight of the deck cargo near the hold, <i>Samson-post</i>." <hw>Sandalwood</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is given to many Australian trees from the strong scent of their timber. They are -- Of the <i>N.O. Santalaceae</i>-- <i>Exocarpos latifolia</i>, R. Br.; called <i>Scrub-Sandalwood</i>. <i>Fusanus spicatus</i>, R. Br.; called <i>Fragrant Sandalwood</i>. <i>Santalum lanceolatum</i>, R. Br. <i>S. obtusifodum</i>, R. Br. <i>Santalum persicarium</i>, F. v. M.; called <i>Native Sandalwood</i>. Of the <i>N.O. Myoporinae</i>-- <i>Eremophila mitchelli</i>, Benth.; called also <i>Rosewood</i> and <i>Bastard-Sandalwood</i>. <i>E. sturtii</i>, R. Br.; called curiously the <i>Scentless Sandalwood</i>. <i>Myoporum platycarpum</i>, R. Br.; called also <i>Dogwood</i> (q.v.). Of the <i>N.O. Apocyneae</i>-- <i>Alyxia buxifolia</i>, R. Br.; called <i>Native Sandalwood</i> in Tasmania. <hw>Sandfly-bush</hw>, <i>n</i>. Australian name for the indigenous tree <i>Zieria smithii</i>, Andr., <i>N.O. Rutaceae</i>. Called also <i>Turmeric</i>, and in Tasmania, <i>Stinkwood</i>. <hw>Sand-Lark</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given in Australia to the Red-capped Dottrel, <i>Charadrius ruficapilla</i>, Temm. 1867. W. Richardson, `Tasmanian Poems,' pref. p. xi: "The nimble sand-lark learns his pretty note." <hw>Sandpiper</hw>, <i>n</i>. About twenty species of this familiar sea-bird exist. It belongs especially to the Northern Hemisphere, but it performs such extensive migrations that in the northern winter it is dispersed all over the world. (`Century.') The species observed in Australia are-- Bartram's Sandpiper-- <i>Tringa bartrami</i>. Common S.-- <i>Actitis hypoleucos</i>, Linn. Great S.-- <i>Tringa crassirostris</i>, Temm. and Schleg. Grey-rumped S.-- <i>T. brevisses</i>. <hw>Sandplover</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bird of New Zealand. According to Professor Parker, only two genera of this common bird are to be found in New Zealand. There is no bird bearing the name in Australia. See <i>Plover</i> and <i>Wry-billed Plover</i>. 1889. Prof. Parker, `Catalogue of New Zealand Exhibition,' p. 116: "But two genera of the group [Wading Birds] are found only in New Zealand, the Sandplover and the curious Wry-billed Plover." <hw>Sand-stay</hw>, <i>n</i>. a characteristic name for the <i>Coast Tea-Tree</i>, <i>Leptospermum laevigatum</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. See <i>Tea-Tree</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 642: "Sandstay. Coast Tea-Tree. This shrub is the most effectual of all for arresting the progress of driftsand in a warm climate. It is most easily raised by simply scattering in autumn the seeds on the sand, and covering them loosely with boughs, or, better still, by spreading lopped-off branches of the shrub itself, bearing ripe seed, on the sand. (Mueller.)" <hw>Sandy</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian fish, <i>Uphritis urvillii</i>, Cuv. and Val, family <i>Trachinidae</i>; also called the <i>Fresh-water Flathead</i>. See <i>Flathead</i>. <hw>Sandy-blight</hw>, <i>n</i>. a kind of ophthalmia common in Australia, in which the eye feels as if full of sand. Called also shortly, <i>Blight</i>. Shakspeare has <i>sand-blind</i> (<i>M. of V</i>. II. ii. 31); Launcelot says-- "0 heavens, this is my true-begotten father! who, being more than sand-blind, high-gravel blind, knows me not." On this, the American commentator, Mr. Rolfe, notes-- "<i>Sand-blind</i>. Dim of sight; as if there were sand in the eye, or perhaps floating before it. It means something more than purblind." "As if there were sand in the eye,"--an admirable description of the Australian <i>Sandy-blight</i>. 1869. J. F. Blanche, `The Prince's Visit,' p. 20: "The Prince was suff'ring from the sandy blight." 1870. E. B. Kennedy, `Four Years in Queensland,' p. 46: "Sandy-blight occurs generally in sandy districts in the North Kennedy; it may be avoided by ordinary care, and washing the eyes after a hot ride through sandy country. It is a species of mild ophthalmia." 1891. Rolf Boldrewood, `A Sydney-side Saxon,' p. 78: "He had pretty near lost his eyesight with the sandy blight, which made him put his head forward when he spoke, as if he took you for some one else, or was looking for what he couldn't find." <hw>Sarcophile</hw>, and <hw>Sarcophilus</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name of the genus of carnivorous marsupial animals of which the <i>Tasmanian Devil</i> (q.v.) is the only known living species.(Grk. <i>sarkos</i>, flesh, and <i>philein</i>, to love.) <hw>Sardine</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given in Australia to a fresh-water fish, <i>Chatoessus erebi</i>, Richards., of the herring tribe, occurring in West and North-West Australia, and in Queensland rivers, and which is called in the Brisbane river the <i>Sardine</i>. It is the <i>Bony Bream</i> of the New South Wales rivers, and the <i>Perth Herring</i> of Western Australia. <hw>Sarsaparilla, Australian</hw> or <hw>Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) An ornamental climbing shrub, <i>Hardenbergia monophylla</i>, Benth., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>. Formerly called <i>Kennedya</i> (q.v.). (2) <i>Smilax glycyphylla</i>, Smith, <i>N.0. Liliaceae</i>. 1883. F. M. Bailey, `Synopsis of Queensland Flora,' p. 114: "Native Sarsaparilla. The roots of this beautiful purple- flowered twiner (<i>Hardenbergia monophylla</i>) are used by bushmen as a substitute for the true sarsaparilla, which is obtained from a widely different plant." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 189: "Commonly, but wrongly, called `Native Sarsaparilla.' The roots are sometimes used by bushmen as a substitute for the true sarsaparilla (<i>Smilax</i>), but its virtues are purely imaginary. It is a common thing in the streets of Sydney, to see persons with large bundles of the leaves on their shoulders, doubtless under the impression that they have the leaves of the true Sarsaparilla, <i>Smilax glycyphylla</i>." 1896. `The Argus,' Sept. 8, p. 7, col. 1: "He will see, too, the purple of the sarsaparilla on the hill-sides, and the golden bloom of the wattle on the flats, forming a beautiful contrast in tint. Old diggers consider the presence of sarsaparilla and the ironbark tree as indicative of the existence of golden wealth below. Whether these can be accepted as indicators in the vegetable kingdom of gold below is questionable, but it is nevertheless a fact that the sarsaparilla and the ironbark tree are common on most of Victoria's goldfields." <hw>Sassafras</hw>, <i>n</i>. corruption of <hw>Saxafas</hw>, which is from <hw>Saxifrage</hw>. By origin, the word means "stone-breaking," from its medicinal qualities. The true <i>Sassafras</i> (<i>S. officinale</i>) is the only species of the genus. It is a North-American tree, about forty feet high, but the name has been given to various trees in many parts of the world, from the similarity, either of their appearance or of the real or supposed medicinal properties of their bark. In Australia, the name is given to-- <i>Atherosperma moschatum</i>, Labill., <i>N.0. Monimiaceae</i>; called <i>Native Sassafras</i>, from the odour of its bark, due to an essential oil closely resembling true Sassafras in odour. (Maiden.) <i>Beilschmiedia obtusifolia</i>, Benth., <i>N.0. Lauraceae</i>; called <i>Queensland Sassafras</i>, a large and handsome tree. <i>Cryptocarya glaucescens</i>, R. Br., <i>N.0. Lauraceae</i>; the <i>Sassafras</i> of the early days of New South Wales, and now called <i>Black Sassafras</i>. <i>Daphnandra micrantha</i>, Benth., <i>N.0. Monimiaceae</i>, called also <i>Satinwood</i>, and <i>Light Yellow-wood</i>. <i>Doryphora sassafras</i>, Endl., <i>N.0. Monimiaceae</i>. Grey Sassafras is the <i>Moreton-Bay Laurel</i>. See <i>Laurel</i>. The New Zealand Sassafras is <i>Laurelia novae-zelandiae</i>. 1834. Ross, `Van Diemen's Land Annual,' p. 134: "The leaves of these have been used as substitutes for tea in the colony, as have also the leaves and bark of <i>Cryptocarya glaucescens</i>, the Australian sassafras." 1852. Mrs. Meredith, `My Home in Tasmania,' vol. ii. p. 166: "The beautiful Tasmanian sassafras-tree is also a dweller in some parts of our fern-tree valleys. . . . The flowers are white and fragrant, the leaves large and bright green, and the bark has a most aromatic scent, besides being, in a decoction, an excellent tonic medicine. . . . The sawyers and other bushmen familiar with the tree call it indiscriminately `saucifax,' `sarserfrax,' and `satisfaction.'" 1875. T. Laslett, `Timber and Timber Trees,' p. 206: "A Tasmanian timber. Height, 40 ft.; dia., 14 in. Found on low, marshy ground. Used for sashes and doorframes." 1894. `Melbourne Museum Catalogue--Economic Woods,' No. 36: "<i>Atherosperma moschatum</i>, Victorian sassafras-tree, <i>N.O. Monimiaceae</i>." <hw>Satin-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Satin Bower-bird</i>. See <i>Bower-bird</i>. 1827. Vigors and Horsfield, `Transactions of Linnaean Society,' vol. xv. p. 264: The natives call it Cowry, the colonists Satin-Bird." <hw>Satin-Robin</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian name for the <i>Satin Fly-catcher</i>, <i>Myiagra nitida</i>, Gould. <hw>Satin-Sparrow</hw>, <i>n</i>. Same as <i>Satin-Robin</i> (q.v.). <hw>Satinwood</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name applied to two Australian trees from the nature of their timber--<i>Xanthoxylum brachyacanthum</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Rutaceae</i>, called also <i>Thorny Yellow-wood</i>; <i>Daphnandra micrantha</i>, Benth., <i>N.O. Monimiaceae</i>, called also <i>Light Yellow-wood</i> and <i>Sassafras</i> (q.v.). <hw>Saw-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. a species of Ray, <i>Pristis zysron</i>, Bleek, the Australasian representative of the <i>Pristidae</i> family, or <i>Saw-fishes</i>, Rays of a shark-like form, with long, flat snouts, armed along each edge with strong teeth. 1851. `Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Van Diemen's Land,' vol. i. p. 223 [J. E. Bicheno, June 8, 1850, <i>in epist</i>.]: "Last week an old fisherman brought me a fine specimen of a Saw-fish, caught in the Derwent. It turned out to be the <i>Pristis cirrhatus</i>,--a rare and curious species, confined to the Australian seas, and first described by Dr. Latham in the year 1793." <hw>Sawyer</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) Name applied by bushmen in New Zealand to the insect <i>Weta</i> (q.v.). (2) A trunk embedded in the mud so as to move with the current--hence the name: a snag is fixed. (An American use of the word.) See also <i>Snag</i>. 1873. J. B. Stephens, `Black Gin,' p. 22: "By Fitzroy's rugged crags, Its `sawyers' and its snags, He roamed." <hw>Sceloglaux</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name of the genus containing the New Zealand bird called the <i>Laughing Owl</i> (see under <i>Jackass</i>). The name was given by Kaup in 1848; the bird had been previously classed as <i>Athene</i> by Gray in 1844. It is now nearly extinct. Kaup also gave the name of Spiloglaux to the <i>New Zealand Owl</i> at the same date. The words are from the Greek <i>glaux</i>, an owl, <i>spilos</i>, a spot, and <i>skelos</i>, a leg. <hw>Scent-wood</hw>, a Tasmanian evergreen shrub, <i>Alyxia buxifolia</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Apocyneae</i>, of the dogbane family. <hw>Schnapper</hw>, <i>n</i>. or <hw>Snapper</hw>, a fish abundant in all Australasian waters, <i>Pagrus unicolor</i>, Cuv. and Val. The latter spelling was the original form of the word (one that snaps). It was gradually changed by the fishermen, perhaps of Dutch origin, to <i>Schnapper</i>, the form now general. The name <i>Snapper</i> is older than the settlement of Australia, but it is not used for the same fish. `O.E.D.,' s.v. <i>Cavally</i>, quotes: 1657. R. Ligon, `Barbadoes,' p. 12: "Fish . . . of various kinds . . . Snappers, grey and red; Cavallos, Carpians, etc." The young are called <i>Cock-schnapper</i> (q.v.); at a year old they are called <i>Red-Bream</i>; at two years old, <i>Squire</i>; at three, <i>School-Schnapper</i>; when they cease to "school" and swim solitary they are called <i>Natives</i> and <i>Rock-Natives</i>. Being the standard by which the "catch" is measured, the full-grown <i>Schnappers</i> are also called <i>Count-fish</i> (q.v.). In New Zealand, the <i>Tamure</i> (q.v.) is also called <i>Schnapper</i>, and the name <i>Red-Schnapper</i> is given to <i>Anthias richardsoni</i>, Gunth., or <i>Scorpis hectori</i>, Hutton. See quotation, 1882. 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 68: "King-fish, mullet, mackarel, rockcod, whiting, snapper, bream, flatheads, and various other descriptions of fishes, are all found plentifully about." 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' vol. i. p. 261: "The kangaroos are numerous and large, and the finest snappers I have ever heard of are caught off this point, weighing sometimes as much as thirty pounds." [The point referred to is that now called Schnapper Point, at Mornington, in Victoria.] 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish of New South Wales,' p. 39: "The genus <i>Pagrus</i>, or as we term it in the vernacular, `schnapper,' a word of Dutch origin . . . The schnapper or snapper. The schnapper (<i>Pagrus unicolor</i>, Cuv. and Val.) is the most valuable of Australian fishes, not for its superior excellence . . . but for the abundant and regular supply . . . At a still greater age the schnapper seems to cease to school and becomes what is known as the `native' and `rock-native,' a solitary and sometimes enormously large fish." 1896 `The Australasian,' Aug. 28, p. 407, col. 5: "The fish, snapper, is so called because it snapped. The spelling with `ch' is a curious after-thought, suggestive of alcohol. The name cannot come from schnapps." <hw>School-Schnapper</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fish. A name given to the <i>Schnapper</i> when three years old. See <i>Schnapper</i>. <hw>Scorpion</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the New South Wales fish <i>Pentaroge marmorata</i>, Cuv. and Val.; called also the <i>Fortescue</i> (q.v.), and the <i>Cobbler</i>. <hw>Scotchman</hw>, <i>n</i>. a New Zealand name for a smaller kind of the grass called <i>Spaniard</i> (q.v.). 1895. W. S. Roberts, `Southland in 1856,' p. 39: "As we neared the hills speargrass of the smaller kind, known as Scotchmen,' abounded, and although not so strong and sharp-pointed as the `Spaniard,' would not have made a comfortable seat." 1896. `The Australasian,' Aug. 28, p. 407, col. 5: ". . . national appellations are not satisfactory. It seems uncivil to a whole nation--another injustice to Ireland--to call a bramble a wild Irishman, or a pointed grass, with the edges very sharp and the point like a bayonet, a Spaniard. One could not but be amused to find the name Scotchman applied to a smaller kind of Spaniard.' <hw>Scribbly-Gum</hw>, <i>n</i>. also called <i>White-Gum</i>, <i>Eucalyptus haemastoma</i>, Sm., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. See <i>Gum</i>. 1883. F. M. Bailey, `Synopsis of Queensland Flora,' p. 174: "Scribbly or White-Gum. As regards timber this is the most worthless of the Queensland species. A tree, often large, with a white, smooth, deciduous bark, always marked by an insect in a scribbly manner." <hw>Scrub</hw>, <i>n</i>. country overgrown with thick bushes. Henry Kingsley's explanation (1859), that the word means shrubbery, is singularly misleading, the English word conveying an idea of smallness and order compared with the size and confusion of the Australian use. Yet he is etymologically correct, for <i>Scrobb</i> is Old English (Anglo-Saxon) for shrub; but the use had disappeared in England. 1833. C. Sturt, `Southern Australia,' vol. i. c. i. p. 21: "We encamped about noon in some scrub." 1838. T. L. Mitchell,' Three Expeditions,' vol. i. p. 213: "A number of gins and children remained on the borders of the scrub, half a mile off." 1844. J A. Moore, `Tasmanian Rhymings' (1860), p. 13: "Here Nature's gifts, with those of man combined, Hath [sic] from a scrub a Paradise defined." 1848. W. Westgarth, "Australia Felix,' p. 24: "The colonial term scrub, of frequent and convenient use in the description of Australian scenery, is applicable to dense assemblages of harsh wild shrubbery, tea-tree, and other of the smaller and crowded timber of the country, and somewhat analogous to the term jungle." 1859. H. Kingsley, `Geoffrey Hamlyn,' vol. ii. p. 155 [Footnote]: "<i>Scrub</i>. I have used, and shall use, this word so often that some explanation is due to the English reader. I can give no better definition of it than by saying that it means `shrubbery.'" 1864. J. McDouall Stuart, `Exploration in Australia,' p. 153: "At four miles arrived on the top, through a very thick scrub of mulga." 1873. A. Trollope, `Australia and New Zealand,' c. v. p. 78: "Woods which are open and passable--passable at any rate for men on horseback--are called bush. When the undergrowth becomes, thick and matted, so as to be impregnable without an axe, it is scrub." [Impregnability is not a necessary point of the definition. There is "light" scrub, and "heavy" or "thick" scrub.] 1883. G. W. Rusden, `History of Australia,' vol. i. p. 67 [Note]: "Scrub was a colonial term for dense undergrowth, like that of the mallee-scrub." 1885. R. M. Praed, `Australian Life,' p. 7: "Where . . . a belt of scrub lies green, glossy, and impenetrable as Indian bungle." (p. 8): "The nearest scrub, in the thickets of which the Blacks could always find an impenetrable stronghold." 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia,' p. 36: "A most magnificent forest of trees, called in Australia a `scrub,' to distinguish it from open timbered country." 1890. J. McCarthy and R. M. Praed, `Ladies' Gallery,' p. 252: "Why, I've been alone in the scrub--in the desert, I mean; you will understand that better." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 374: "One more prominent feature in Australian vegetation are the large expanses of the so-called `scrub' of the colonists. This is a dense covering of low bushes varying in composition in different districts, and named according to the predominating element." 1893. A. R. Wallace, `Australasia,' vol. i. p. 46: "Just as Tartary is characterised by its steppes, America by its prairies, and Africa by its deserts, so Australia has one feature peculiar to itself, and that is its `scrubs.'. . . One of the most common terms used by explorers is `Mallee' scrub, so called from its being composed of dwarf species of Eucalyptus called the `Mallee' by the Natives. . . . Still more dreaded by the explorer is the `Mulga' scrub, consisting chiefly of dwarf acacias." 1894. E. Favenc, `Tales of the Austral Tropics,' p. 3: "Even more desolate than the usual dreary-looking scrub of the interior of Australia." [p. 6]: "The sea of scrub." 1896. A. B. Paterson, `Manfrom Snowy River,' p. 25: "Born and bred on the mountain-side, He could race through scrub like a kangaroo." <hw>Scrub</hw>, <i>adj</i>. and in composition. The word scrub occurs constantly in composition. See the following words. 1885. R. M. Praed, `Australian Life,' p. 113: "We gathered the wild raspberries, and mingling them with gee-bongs, and scrub-berries, set forth a dessert." <hw>Scrub-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to two Australian birds, of the genus <i>Atrichia</i>. (Grk. <i>'atrichos</i> = without hair.) They are the Noisy Scrub-bird, <i>Atrichia clamosa</i>, Gould, and the Rufous S.-b., <i>A. rufescens</i>, Ramsay. 1869. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' `Supplement,' pl. 26: "The Scrub-bird creeps mouse-like over the bark, or sits on a dripping stem and mocks all surrounding notes." <hw>Scrub-cattle</hw>, <i>n</i>. escaped cattle that run wild in the <i>scrub</i>, used as a collective plural of <i>Scrubber</i> (q.v.). 1860. A. L. Gordon, `The Sick Stockrider' [in `Bush-Ballads,' 1876], p. 8: "'Twas merry 'mid the blackwoods, when we spied the station roofs, To wheel the wild scrub-cattle at the yard, With a running fire of stock-whips and a fiery run of hoofs, Oh! the hardest day was never then too hard." <hw>Scrub-Crab</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Queensland fruit. The large dark purple fruit, two inches in diameter, of <i>Sideroxylon australe</i>, Benth. and Hook., <i>N.O. Saponaceae</i>; a tall tree. <hw>Scrub-dangler</hw>, <i>n</i>. a wild bullock. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. xvi. p. 193: "He is one of those infernal scrub-danglers from the Lachlan, come across to get a feed." <hw>Scrub-fowl</hw>, <i>n</i>. name applied to birds of the genus <i>Megapodius</i>. See <i>Megapode</i>. <hw>Scrub-Gum</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Gum</i>. <hw>Scrub-hen</hw>, i.q. <i>Scrub fowl</i>. <hw>Scrub-Ironwood</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Ironwood</i>. <hw>Scrub-Myrtle</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Myrtle</i>. <hw>Scrub-Oak</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Oak</i>. <hw>Scrub-Pine</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Pine</i>. <hw>Scrub-Poison-tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Poison-tree</i>. <hw>Scrub-rider</hw>, <i>n</i>. a man who rides through the <i>scrub</i> in search of <i>Scrub-cattle</i> (q.v.). 1881. A. C. Giant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 278: "A favourite plan among the bold scrub-riders." <hw>Scrub-Robin</hw>, <i>n</i>. the modern name for any bird of the genus <i>Drymodes</i>. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. iii. pl. 10: "<i>Drymodes Brunneopygia</i>, Gould, Scrub-Robin. I discovered this singular bird in the great Murray Scrub in South [sc. Southern] Australia, where it was tolerably abundant. I have never seen it from any other part of the country, and it is doubtless confined to such portions of Australia as are clothed with a similar character of vegetation." 1895. W. O. Legge, `Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science' (Brisbane), p. 447: "As regards portions of Gould's English nomenclatures, such as his general term `Robin' for the genera <i>Petroica, Paecilodryas</i>, <i>Eopsaltria</i>, it was found that by retaining the term `Robin' for the best known member of the group (<i>Petroica</i>), and applying a qualifying noun to the allied genera, such titles as Tree-robin, Scrub-robin, and Shrike-robin were easily evolved." <hw>Scrub-Sandalwood</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Sandalwood</i>. <hw>Scrub-Tit</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Tit</i>. <HW>Scrub-tree</HW>, <i>n</i>. any tree that grows in the scrub. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 219: "Almost all the Scrub-trees of the Condamine and Kent's Lagoon were still to be seen at the Burdekin." <hw>Scrub-Turkey</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian bird, <i>Leipoa ocellata</i>, Gould; aboriginal name, the <i>Lowan</i> (q.v.). See <i>Turkey</i>. <hw>Scrub-Vine</hw>, <i>n</i>. called also <i>Native Rose</i>. See <i>Bauera</i> (q.v.). <hw>Scrub-Wren</hw>, <i>n</i>. any little bird of the Australian genus <i>Sericornis</i>. The species are-- Brown Scrub-Wren-- <i>Sericornis humilis</i>, Gould. Buff breasted S.-W.-- <i>S. laevigaster</i>, Gould. Collared S.-W.-- <i>S. gutturalis</i>, Gould. Large-billed Scrub-Wren-- <i>Sericornis magnirostris</i>, Gould. Little S.-W.-- <i>S. minimus</i>, Gould. Spotted S.-W.-- <i>S. maculatus</i>, Gould. Spotted-throated S.-W.-- <i>S. osculans</i>, Gould. White-browed S.-W.-- <i>S. frontalis</i>, Vig. & Hors. Yellow-throated S.-W.-- <i>S. citreogularis</i>, Gould. <hw>Scrubber</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) a bullock that has taken to the scrub and so become wild. See <i>Scrub-cattle</i>. Also formerly used for a wild horse, now called a <i>Brumby</i> (q.v.). 1859. H. Kingsley, `Geoffrey Hamlyn,' c. xxix: "The captain was getting in the scrubbers, cattle which had been left to run wild through in the mountains." 1874. W. H. L. Ranken, `Dominion of Australia,' c. vi. p. 110: "There are few field-sports anywhere . . . equal to `hunting scrubbers.'" 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 93: "Out flew the ancient scrubber, instinctively making towards his own wild domain." 1887. W. S. S. Tyrwhitt, `The New Chum in the Queensland Bush,' p. 151: "There are also wild cattle, which are either cattle run wild or descendants of such. They are commonly called `scrubbers,' because they live in the larger scrubs." 1888. Rolf Boldrewood, `Robbery under Arms,' p. 405: "Here I am boxed up, like a scrubber in a pound, year after year." 1893. `The Argus,' April 29, p. 4, col. 4 (`Getting in the Scrubbers'): "The scrubbers, unseen of men, would stay in their fastnesses all day chewing the cud they had laid up the night before, and when the sun went down and the strident laugh of the giant kingfisher had given place to the insidious air-piercing note of the large-mouthed podargus, the scrub would give up its inhabitants." (2) A starved-looking or ill-bred animal. (3) The word is sometimes applied to mankind in the slang sense of an "outsider." It is used in University circles as equivalent to the Oxford "smug," a man who will not join in the life of the place. See also <i>Bush-scrubber</i>. 1868. `Colonial Monthly,' vol. ii. p. 141 [art. `Peggy's Christening]: "`I can answer for it, that they are scrubbers--to use a bush phrase--have never been brought within the pale of any church.' "`Never been christened?' asked the priest. "`Have no notion of it--scrubbers, sir--never been branded.'" <hw>Scrubby</hw>, <i>adj</i>. belonging to, or resembling scrub. 1802. Jas. Flemming, `Journal of the Exploration of C. Grimes' [at Port Phillip, Australia], ed. by J. J. Shillinglaw, 1879, Melbourne, p. 17: "The land appeared barren, a scrubby brush." [p. 221: "The trees low and scrubby." 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 19: "To-day I . . . passed a scrubby ironbark forest.". 1849. J. P. Townsend, `Rambles in New South Wales,' p. 216: "A scrubby country is a stockman's abhorrence, as there he cannot ride, at least at any pace." 1868. J. A. B., `Meta,' c. i. p. 9: "'Twere madness to attempt to chase, In such a wild and scrubby place, Australia's savage steer." <hw>Scrubdom</hw>, <i>n</i>. the land of scrub. 1889. C. A. Sherard, `Daughter of South,' p. 29: "My forefathers reigned in this scrubdom of old." <hw>Scythrops</hw>, <i>n</i>. scientific name for a genus of birds belonging to the <i>Cuculidae</i>, or Cuckoos (from Grk. <i>skuthrowpos</i> = angry-looking). The only species known is peculiar to Australia, where it is called the <i>Channel-Bill</i>, a name given by Latham (`General History of Birds,' vol. ii.). White (1790) calls it the <i>Anomalous Hornbill</i> (`Journal 1790,' pl. at p. 142). <hw>Sea-Berry</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Red-berry</i>. <hw>Sea-Dragon</hw>, <i>n</i>. any Australian fish of any one of the three species of the genus <i>Phyllopteryx</i>, family <i>Syngnathidae</i>. The name of the genus comes from the Greek <i>phullon</i> = a leaf, and <i>pterux</i> = a wing. This genus is said by Guenther to be exclusively Australian. "Protective resemblance attains its highest degree of development," he says, in this genus. "Not only their colour closely assimilates that of the particular kind of sea-weed which they frequent, but the appendages of their spines seem to be merely part of the fucus to which they are attached. They attain a length of twelve inches." (`Study of Fishes,' p. 683.) The name, in England, is given to other and different fishes. The species <i>P. foliatus</i> is called the <i>Superb Dragon</i> (q.v.), from the beauty of its colours. <hw>Sea-Perch</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name applied to different fishes--in Sydney, to the <i>Morwong</i> (q.v.) and <i>Bull's</i>-eye (q.v.); in New Zealand, to <i>Sebastes percoides</i>, called <i>Pohuiakawa</i> (q.v.); in Melbourne, to <i>Red-Gurnard</i> (q.v.). See <i>Red Gurnet-Perch</i>. <hw>Sea-Pig</hw>, <i>n</i>. a small whale, the <i>Dugong</i>. See under <i>Dugong-oil</i>. 1853. S. Sidney, `Three Colonies of Australia,' p. 267: "The aborigines eagerly pursue the dugong, a species of small whale, generally known to the colonists as the sea-pig." <hw>Sea-Pike</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fish of New South Wales, <i>Lanioperca mordax</i>, Gunth., of the family <i>Sphyraenidae</i>. The name belongs to the Sydney fish-market. <hw>Select</hw>, v. i.q. <i>Free-select</i> (q.v.). <hw>Selection</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Free-selection</i> (q.v.). <hw>Selector</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Free-selector</i> (q.v.). <hw>Sergeant Baker</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to a fish of New South Wales, <i>Aulopus purpurissatus</i>, Richards., family <i>Scopelidae</i>. 1882. Rev. J E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish of New South Wales,' p. 82: "The Sergeant Baker in all probability got its local appellation in the early history of the colony (New South Wales), as it was called after a sergeant of that name in one of the first detachments of a regiment; so were also two fruits of the Geebong tribe (<i>Persoonia</i>); one was called Major Buller, and the other Major Groce, and this latter again further corrupted into Major Grocer." <hw>Settler's</hw> Clock (also <hw>Hawkesbury Clock</hw>), <i>n</i>. another name for the bird called the <i>Laughing-Jackass</i>. See <i>Jackass</i>. 1896. F. G. Aflalo, `Natural History of Australia,' p. 114: "From its habit of starting its discordant paean somewhere near sunrise and, after keeping comparatively quiet all through the hotter hours, cackling a `requiem to the day's decline,' the bird has been called the <i>Settler's</i> clock. It may be remarked, however, that this by no means takes place with the methodical precision that romancers write of in their letters home." <hw>Settlers' Matches</hw>, <i>n</i>. name occasionally applied to the long pendulous strips of bark which hang from the Eucalypts and other trees, during decortication, and which, bec oming exceedingly dry, are readily ignited and used as kindling wood. 1896. H. Lawson, `When the World was Wide,' p. 84: "In the silence of the darkness and the playing of the breeze, That we heard the settlers' matches rustle softly in the trees." 1896. `The Australasian,' June 13, p. 1133, col. 1: "<i>Re</i> settlers' matches, torches, the blacks in the South-east of South Australia always used the bark of the she-oak to carry from one camp to another; it would last and keep alight for a long time and show a good light to travel by when they had no fire. A fire could always be lighted with two grass trees, a small fork, and a bit of dry grass. I have often started a fire with them myself." <hw>Settler's Twine</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fibre plant, <i>Gymnostachys anceps</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Aroideae</i>, called also <i>Travellers' Grass</i>. Much used by farmers as cord or string where strength is required. <hw>Shag</hw>, <i>n</i>. common English birdname for a <i>Cormorant</i> (q.v.). Gould, fifty years ago, enumerates the following as Australian species, in his `Birds of Australia' (vol. vii.)-- Plate <i>Phalacrocorax Carboides</i>, Gould, Australian Cormorant, Black Shag, Colonists of W.A. . . . . . 66 <i>P. Hypoleucus</i>, Pied C., Black and White Shag, Colonists of W. A. . . . . . . . . . 68 <i>P. Melanoleucus</i>, Vieill., Pied C., Little Shag, Colonists of W.A. . . . . . . . . . 70 <i>P. Punctatus</i>, Spotted C., Crested Shag (Cook), Spotted Shag (Lapham) . . . . . . . . . 71 <i>P. Leucogaster</i>, Gould, White-breasted C. . . 69 <i>P. Stictocephalus</i>, Bp., Little Black C. . . 67 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 185: "Shags started from dead trees lying half immersed." <hw>Shagroon</hw>, <i>n</i>. When the province of Canterbury, in New Zealand, was first settled, the men who came from England were called <i>Pilgrims</i>, all others <i>Shagroons</i>, probably a modification of the Irish word <i>Shaughraun</i>. 1877. W. Pratt, `Colonial Experiences of Incidents of Thirty-four Years in New Zealand,' p. 234: "In the `Dream of a Shagroon,' which bore the date Ko Matinau, April 1851, and which first appeared in the `Wellington Spectator' of May 7, the term `Pilgrim' was first applied to the settlers; it was also predicted in it that the `Pilgrims' would be `smashed' and the Shagroons left in undisputed possession of the country for their flocks and herds." <hw>Shake</hw>, <i>v. tr</i>. to steal. Very common Australian slang, especially amongst school-boys and bushmen. It was originally Thieves' English. 1855. W. Howitt, `Two Years in Victoria,' vol. ii. p. 9: "The tent of a surgeon was `shook,' as they style it--that is, robbed, during his absence in the daytime." 1878. `The Australian,' vol. i. p. 418: "Crimean shirts, blankets, and all they `shake,' Which I'm told's another name for `take.'" <hw>Shamrock, Australian</hw>, <i>n</i>. a perennial, fragrant, clover-like plant, <i>Trigonella suavissima</i>, Lindl., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>; excellent as forage. Called also <i>Menindie Clover</i> (aboriginal name, <i>Calomba</i>). See <i>Clover</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 143: "It is the `Australian shamrock' of Mitchell." <hw>Shamrock, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. a forage plant, <i>Lotus australis</i>, Andr., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>. Called <i>Native Shamrock</i> in Tasmania. <hw>Shanghai</hw>, <i>n</i>. a catapult. Some say because used against Chinamen. The reason seems inadequate. 1863. `The Leader,' Oct. 24, p. 17, col. 1: "Turn, turn thy shanghay dread aside, Nor touch that little bird." 1875. `Spectator' (Melbourne), May 15, p. 22, col. 1: "The lads had with them a couple of pistols, powder, shot, bullets, and a shanghai." 1875. Ibid. July 17, p. 123, col. 3: "The shanghai, which, as a secret instrument of mischief, is only less dangerous than the air-gun." 1884. `Police Offences Act, New Zealand,' sec. 4, subsec. 23: "Rolls any cask, beats any carpet, flies any kite, uses any bows and arrows, or catapult, or shanghai, or plays at any game to the annoyance of any person in any public place." 1893. `The Age,' Sept. 15, p. 6, col. 7: "The magistrate who presided on the Carlton bench yesterday, has a decided objection to the use of shanghais, and in dealing with three little boys, the eldest of whom was but eleven or twelve years of age, charged with the use of these weapons in the Prince's Park, denounced their conduct in very strong terms. He said that he looked upon this crime as one of the worst that a lad could be guilty of, and if he had his own way in the matter he would order each of them to be lashed." 1895. C. French, Letter to `Argus,' Nov. 29: "Wood swallows are somewhat sluggish and slow in their flight, and thus fall an easy prey to either the gun or the murderous and detestable `shanghai.'" <hw> Shanghai-shot</hw>, <i>n</i>. a short distance, a stone's-throw. 1874. Garnet Walch, `Head over Heels' [Introduction to Tottlepot Poems]: "His parents . . . residing little more than a Shanghai-shot from Romeo Lane, Melbourne." <hw>Shanty</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) a hastily erected wooden house; (2) a public-house, especially unlicensed: a sly-grog shop. The word is by origin Keltic (Irish). In the first sense, its use is Canadian or American; in the last, Australian. In Barrere and Leland it is said that circus and showmen always call a public-house a shanty. 1875. `Spectator' (Melbourne), June 26, p. 91, col. 1: "These buildings, little better than shanties, are found in . . . numbers." 1880. Garnet Walch, `Victoria in 1880,' p. 9: "We read of the veriest shanties letting for L2 per week." 1880. W. Senior, `Travel and Trout,' p. 15: "He becomes a land-owner, and puts up a slab-shanty." 1880. G. <i>n</i>. Oakley, in `Victoria in 1880,' p. 114: "The left-hand track, past shanties soaked in grog, Leads to the gaol." 1882. A. J. Boyd, `Old Colonials,' p. 103: "The faint glimmering light which indicates the proximity of the grog shanty is hailed with delight." 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia,' p. 221: "I have seen a sober man driven perfectly mad for the time being, by two glasses of so-called rum, supplied to him at one of these shanties." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. vi. p. 64: "Any attempt to limit the licensing produced . . . a crop of shanties, or sly-grog shops." 1890. `The Argus,' Aug. 9, p. 4, col. 2: "The old woman thought that we were on gold, and would lamb down at the finish in her shanty." <hw>Shanty-Keeper</hw>, <i>n</i>. keeper of a sly-grog shop. 1875. Wood and Lapham, `Waiting for Mail,' p. 45: "Mrs. Smith was a shanty-keeper's wife." 1887. J. Farrell, `How he died,' p. 72: "The shanty-keeper saw the entering strangers." <hw>Shantywards</hw>, adv. 1890. `The Argus,' Aug. 2, p. 13, col. 4: "Looking . . . over the fence shantywards." <hw>Shark</hw>, <i>n</i>. Some of the Australasian species are identical with those of Europe. Varieties and names which differ are-- Blue Shark (New South Wales)-- <i>Carcharias macloti</i>, Mull. and Heule. Hammer S. (N.S.W.)-- <i>Zygaena malleus</i>, Shaw. One-finned S. (N.S.W.)-- <i>Notidanus indicus</i>, Cuv. Port Jackson S. (q.v.)-- <i>Heterodontus phillipii</i>, Lacep.; called also the <i>Shell-grinder</i>. Saw-fish S.-- <i>Pristiophorus cirratus</i>, Lath. School S. (N.S.W.)-- <i>Galeus australis</i>, Macl.; called also <i>Tope</i> (q.v.). Shovel-nosed S. (N.S.W.)-- <i>Rhinobatus granulatus</i>, Cuv.; also called the <i>Blind-Shark</i>, or <i>Sand-Shark</i>. Tiger S. (N.S.W.)-- <i>Galeocerdo rayneri</i>, Macdon. and Barr. White S.-- <i>Carcharodon rondeletii</i>, Mull. and Heule; called also the <i>White-Pointer</i>. The Sharks of New Zealand are-- Black Shark-- <i>Carcharodon melanopterus</i> (Maori name <i>Keremai</i>). Brown S.-- <i>Scymnus lichia</i>. Great S.-- <i>Carcharias maso</i>. Hammer-head S.-- <i>Zygaena malleus</i> (Maori name, <i>Mangopare</i>). Port-eagle S.-- <i>Lamna cornutica</i> Spinous S.-- <i>Echinorhinus spinosus</i>. Tiger S.-- <i>Scymnus sp</i>. (Maori name, <i>Mako</i>). See also <i>Blue-Pointer</i>, <i>Whaler</i>, and <i>Wobbegong</i>. <hw>Shearer's Joy</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name given to colonial beer. 1892. Gilbert Parker, `Round the Compass in Australia,' p. 22: "It was the habit afterwards among the seven to say that the officers of the <i>Eliza Jane</i> had been indulging in shearer's joy." <hw>She-Beech</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Beech</i>. <hw>Shed</hw>, <i>n</i>. The word generally signifies the <i>Woolshed</i> (q.v.). A large, substantial, and often expensive building. 1896. H. Lawson, `When the World was Wide,' p. 143: "There's 20 hungry beggars wild for any job this year, An' 50 might be at the shed while I am lyin' here." 1896. `Melbourne Argus,' April 30, p. 2, col. 5: "There is a substantial and comfortable homestead, and ample shed accommodation." <hw>Sheep-pest</hw>, <i>n</i>. a common Australian weed, <i>Acama ovina</i>, Cunn., <i>N.O. Rosaceae</i>, found in all the colonies; so called because its fruit adheres by hooked spines to the wool of sheep. <hw>Sheep-run</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Run</i>. <hw>Sheep-sick</hw>, <i>n</i>. Used of pastures exhausted for carrying sheep. Compare English screw-sick, paint-sick, nail-sick, wheat-sick, etc. 1895. `Leader,' August 3, p. 6, col. 1: "It is the opinion of many practical men that certain country to which severe losses have occurred in recent years has been too long carrying sheep, and that the land has become what is termed `sheep sick,' and from this point of view it certainly appears that a course of better management is most desirable." <hw>Sheep-wash</hw> (used as verb), to wash sheep. The word is also used as a noun, in its ordinary English senses of (1) a lotion for washing sheep; (2) the washing of sheep preparatory to shearing: (3) the place where the sheep are washed, also called the `sheep-dip.' 1891. Rolf Boldrewood, `A Sydney-side Saxon,' p. 184: "He can't dig or sheep-wash or plough <i>there</i>." <hw>Sheldrake</hw>, or <hw>Shieldrake</hw>, <i>n</i>. the common English name of ducks of the genera <i>Tadorna</i> and <i>Casarca</i>. The Australian species are--<i>Casarca tadornoides</i> Jard., commonly called the <i>Mountain</i> Duck; and the White-headed S., <i>Tadorna radjah</i>, Garnot. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 217: "Charley shot the sheldrake of Port Essington (Tadorna Rajah)." <hw>Shell-grinder</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Port-Jackson Shark</i> (q.v.). <hw>She-Oak</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) A tree of the genus <i>Casuarina</i> (q.v.). The timber, which is very hard and makes good fuel, was thought to resemble oak. See <i>Oak</i>, and quotation from Captain Cook. The prefix <i>she</i> is used in Australia to indicate an inferiority of timber in respect of texture, colour, or other character; e.g. <i>She-beech</i>, <i>She-pine</i>. The reason for <i>He-oak</i> is given in quotation 1835. <i>Bull-oak</i>, <i>Marsh-oak</i>, <i>Swamp-oak</i>, were invented to represent variations of the Casuarina. Except in its timber, the She-oak is not in the least like an oak-tree (<i>Quercus</i>). The spelling in quotation 1792 makes for this simple explanation, which, like that of <i>Beef-eater</i> in English, and <i>Mopoke</i> in Austral-English, was too simple; and other spellings, e.g. <i>Shea-oak</i>, were introduced, to suggest a different etymology. <i>Shiak</i> (quotation, 1853) seems to claim an aboriginal origin (more directly claimed, quotation, 1895), but no such aboriginal word is found in the vocabularies. In quotations 1835, 1859, a different origin is assigned, and a private correspondent, whose father was one of the first to be born of English parents in New South Wales, says that English officers who had served in Canada had named the tree after one that they had known there. A higher authority, Sir Joseph D. Hooker (see quotation, 1860), says, "I believe adapted from the North-American <i>Sheack</i>." This origin, if true,is very interesting; but Sir Joseph Hooker, in a letter dated Jan. 26, 1897, writes that his authority was Mr. Gunn (see quotation, 1835). That writer, however, it will be seen, only puts "is said to be." To prove the American origin, we must find the American tree. It is not in the `Century,' nor in the large `Webster,' nor in `Funk and Wagnall's Standard,' nor in either of two dictionaries of Americanisms. Dr. Dawson, director of the Geological Survey of Canada, who is thoroughly acquainted with Indian folk-lore and languages, and Mr. Fowler, Professor of Botany in Queen's University, Kingston, say that there is no such Indian word. 2792. G. Thompson, in `Historical Records of New South Wales,' vol. ii. (1893) p. 799: "There are two kinds of oak, called the he and the she oak, but not to be compared with English oak, and a kind of pine and mahogany, so heavy that scarce either of them will swim." 1802. D. Collins, `Account of New South Wales,' vol. ii. p. 166 (Bass' diary at Port Dalrymple, Tasmania, Nov. 1798): "The She oaks were more inclined to spread than grow tall." 1834. Ross, `Van Diemen's Land Annual,' p. 134 "<i>Casuarina torulosa</i>, the she-oak. The young fruit and young shoots afford an agreeable acid by chewing, which allays thirst." 1835. Ross, `Hobart-town Almanack,' p. 75 [Article said by Sir Joseph Hooker (Jan. 26, 1897) to be by Mr. Ronald Gunn]: "Casuarina torulosa? She-oak. C. stricta? He-oak. C. tenuissima? Marsh-oak. The name of the first of these is said to be a corruption of Sheac, the name of an American tree, producing the beef wood, like our Sheoak. The second species has obtained the name of He-oak in contradistinction of She-oak, as if they constituted one dioecious plant, the one male and the other female, whereas they are perfectly distinct species." 1842. `Western Australia,' p. 80: "The Shea-oak (a corruption of sheak, the native name for this, or a similar tree, in Van Diemen's Land) is used chiefly for shingles." 1845. R. Howitt, `Australia,' p. 91: "Then to cut down the timber, gum, box, she-oak, and wattle-trees, was an Herculean task." 1847. J. D. Lang, "Phillipsland,' p. 95: "They are generally a variety of <i>Casuarinae</i>, commonly called she-oak by the colonists, and the sighing of the wind among the sail-needle-like leaves, that constitute their vegetation, produces a melancholy sound." 1852. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes' (edition 1855), p. 219: "Most of the trees of this colony owe their names to the sawyers who first tested their qualities; and who were guided by the colour and character of the wood, knowing and caring nothing about botanical relations. Thus the swamp-oak and she-oak have rather the exterior of the larch than any quercine aspect." 1853. S. Sidney, `Three Colonies of Australia,' p. 277: "A dull scene, sprinkled with funereal shiak or `she-oak trees.'" Ibid. p. 367: "Groves of shea-oaks, eucalyptus and mimosa." 1857. W. Howitt, `Tallangetta,' vol. i. p. 24: "Trees of a peculiar character--the Casuarinas or Shiacks-- part of which, with their more rigid and outstretched branches, resemble pine-trees, and others, with theirs drooping gracefully, resembling large trees of bloom." 1859. D. Bunce, `Australasiatic Reminiscences,' p. 33: "The trees forming the most interesting groups were the <i>Casuarina torulosa</i>, she-oak, and <i>C. stricta</i>, he-oak. . . . The name of the first is said to have been derived from `sheeac,' the name of an American tree producing the beef-wood like our she-oak. <i>C. stricta</i>, or he-oak, has been named in contradistinction to the sexes, as if they constituted one dioecious plant, whereas they are two perfectly distinct species." 1860. J. D. Hooker, `Botany of the Antarctic Voyage,' part iii. [Flora Tasmaniae], p. 348: "<i>Casuarina suberosa</i>. This is an erect species, growing 15 feet high. . . It is well known as the `He-oak,' in contradistinction to the <i>C. quadrivalvis</i>, or `She-oak,' a name, I believe, adapted from the North American `Sheack' though more nearly allied botanically to the Northern Oaks than any Tasmanian genus except <i>Fagus</i>, they have nothing to do with that genus in habit or appearance, nor with the Canadian `Sheack.'" 1864. J. McDouall Stuart, `Explorations in Australia,' p. 150: "Within the last mile or two we have passed a few patches of Shea-oak, growing large, having a very rough and thick bark, nearly black. They have a dismal appearance." 1868. J. Bonwick, `John Batman, Founder of Victoria,' p.103: "Even Batman's hill, the memorial of his ancient encampment, has been levelled; and the she-oaks upon that grassy mound no longer sigh in the breeze a dirge for the hero of exploration." 1869. `The Argus,' May 25, p. 5, col. 2: "The she-oak trees, of which there are large quantities in the sandy soil of the salt-bush country, proved very serviceable during the late drought. Some of the settlers caused thousands of she-oaks to be stripped of their boughs, and it was a sight to see some of the famishing cattle rushing after the men who were employed in thus supplying the poor animals with the means of sustaining life. The cattle ate the boughs and the bark with the greatest avidity, and the bushman's axe as it felled the she-oak was music to their ears." 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia,' p. 258: "She-oaks are scraggy-looking poles of trees, rather like fir-trees." 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 203: "The rough bark of the she-oak and its soft sappy wood . . ." 1890. `The Argus,' June 14, p. 4, col. 2: "I came to a little clump of sheoaks, moaning like living things." 1895. `Notes and Queries,' Aug. 3, p. 87: "The process followed by the Australian colonists when they converted a native word for the Casuarina trees into `she-oak.'" 1896. H. Lawson, `When the World was Wide,' p. 204: "The creek went down with a broken song, 'Neath the she-oaks high; The waters carried the song along, And the oaks a sigh." (2) Slang name for colonial beer. 1888. Cassell's `Picturesque Australasia,' vol. iii. p. 83: "Their drivers had completed their regulation half-score of `long-sleevers' of `she-oak.'" 1890. Rolf Boldrewood,' Miner's Right,' c. vi. p. 59: "Then have a glass of beer--it's only she-oak, but there's nothing wrong about it." <hw>She-Oak nets</hw>, nets placed on each side of a gangway from a ship to the pier, to prevent sailors who have been indulging in <i>she-oak</i> (beer) falling into the water. <hw>Shepherd</hw>, <i>v</i>. (1) to guard a mining claim and do a little work on it, so as to preserve legal rights. 1861. T. McCombie, `Australian Sketches,' p. 135: "Few of their claims however are actually `bottomed,' for the owners merely watch their more active contemporaries." (Footnote): "This is termed `shepherding' a claim." 1890. `Goldfields of Victoria,' p. 11: "All the ground . . . is held in blocks which are being merely shepherded." (2) By transference from (1). To follow or hang about a person in the hopes of getting something out of him. Compare similar use of <i>shadow</i>. 1896. Modern: "The robbers knowing he had so much coin about him, determined to shepherd him till an opportunity occurred of robbery with impunity." <hw>Shepherd</hw>, <i>n</i>. a miner who holds a claim but does not work it. 188-. `Argus' (date lost): "The term `jumper,' being one of reproach, brought quite a yell from the supporters of the motion. Dr. Quick retorted with a declaration that the Grand Junction Company were all `shepherds,' and that `shepherds' are the worse of the two classes. The `jumpers' sat in one gallery and certain representatives or deputy `shepherds' in the other. Names are deceitful. . . . The Maldon jumpers were headed by quite a venerable gentleman, whom no one could suspect of violent exercise nor of regrettable designs upon the properties of his neighbours. And the shepherds in the other gallery, instead of being light-hearted beings with pipes and crooks--<i>a la</i> Watteau and Pope--looked unutterable things at the individuals who had cast sheep's eyes on their holding." <hw>Shicer</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) An unproductive <i>claim</i> or mine: a <i>duffer</i>. From the German <i>scheissen</i>. 1861. T. McCombie, `Australian Sketches,' p. 135: "A claim without gold is termed a `shicer.'" 1861. Mrs. Meredith, `Over the Straits,' c. ix. p. 256: "It's a long sight better nor bottoming a shicer." 1863. `Victorian Hansard,' May 10, vol. ix. p. 571: "Mr. Howard asked whether the member for Collingwood knew the meaning of the word `shicer.' Mr. Don replied in the affirmative. He was not an exquisite, like the hon. member (laughter), and he had worked on the goldfields, and he had always understood a shicer to be a hole with no gold." 1870. S. Lemaitre, `Songs of Goldfields,' p. 15: "Remember when you first came up Like shicers, innocent of gold." 1894. `The Argus,' March 10, p. 4, col. 7: "There are plenty of creeks in this country that have only so far been scratched--a hole sunk here and there and abandoned. No luck, no perseverance; and so the place has been set down as a duffer, or, as the old diggers' more expressive term had it, a `shicer.'" (2) Slang. By transference from (1). A man who does not pay his debts of honour. 1896. Modern: "Don't take his bet, he's a regular shicer." <hw>Shingle-splitting</hw>, <i>vb. n</i>. obsolete Tasmanian slang. 1830. `Hobart Town Almanack,' p. 89: "When a man gets behindhand with his creditors in Hobart Town, and rusticates in the country in order to avoid the unseasonable calls of the Sheriff's little gentleman, that delights to stand at a corner where four streets meet, so as the better to watch the motions of his prey, he is said to be shingle-splitting." <hw>Shirallee</hw>, <i>n</i>. slang term for a swag or bundle of blankets. <hw>Shout</hw>, v. to stand treat. (1) Of drink. (2) By transference, of other things. The successful digger used to <i>call</i> passers-by to drink at his expense. The origin may also be from noisy bar-rooms, or crowded bar-parlours, where the man who was to pay for the liquor or refreshment called or <i>shouted</i> for the waiter or barman. When many men drink together the waiter of course looks for payment from the man who first calls or <i>shouts out</i> for him to give him the order. Or is "pay the shout" a variant of "pay the shot," or tavern reckoning? In its first sense the word has reached the United States, and is freely employed there. 1859. H. Kingsley, `Geoffrey Hamlyn,' p. 335: "And so I shouted for him and he shouted for me." 1861. T. McCombie, `Australian Sketches,' p. 80: "Gentlemen required a great deal of attendance, did not `shout' (the slang term for ordering grog) every quarter of an hour, and therefore spent comparatively nothing." 1867. A. L. Gordon, `Sea-Spray' (Credat Judaeus), p. 139: "You may shout some cheroots, if you like; no champagne For this child.' 1882. A. J. Boyd, `Old Colonials,' p. 268: "This `shouting,' as `treating' is termed in the colonies, is the curse of the Northern goldfields. If you buy a horse you must shout, the vendor must shout, and the bystanders who have been shouted to [more usual, for] must shout in their turn." 1885. D. Sladen, `In Cornwall, etc.,' p. 156 [Title, `The Sigh of the Shouter']: "Give me the wealth I have squandered in `shouting.'" 1887. J. F. Hogan, `The Irish in Australia, p. 149:. "Drinking is quite a common practice, and what is familiarly known as `shouting' was at one time almost universal, though of late years this peculiarly dangerous evil has been considerably diminished in extent. To `shout' in a public-house means to insist on everybody present, friends and strangers alike, drinking at the shouter's expense, and as no member of the party will allow himself to be outdone in this reckless sort of hospitality, each one `shouts' in succession, with the result that before long they are all overcome by intoxication." 1891. W. Tilley, `Wild West of Tasmania,' p. 30: "Some heavy drinking is indulged in through the `shouting' system, which is the rule." 1893. E. W. Hornung, `Tiny Luttrell,' vol. ii. c. xv. p. 98: "To insist on `shouting' Ruth a penny chair overlooking the ornamental water in St. James's Park." (p.99): "You shall not be late, because I'll shout a hansom too." <hw>Shout</hw>, <i>n</i>. a free drink. 1864. H. Simcox, `Outward Bound,' p. 81: "The arms are left and off they go, And many a shout they're treated to." 1874. Garnet Walch, Head over Heels,' p. 83: "I . . . gave the boys round a spread an' a shout." 1880. G. Sutherland, `Tales of Goldfields,' p. 78: "Two lucky diggers laid a wager which of them should treat the assembled company with the largest shout.'" <hw>Shoveller</hw>, <i>n</i>. the English name for the duck <i>Spatula clypeata</i>, Linn., a species also present in Australia. The other Australian species is <i>Spatula rhynchotis</i>, Lath., also called <i>Blue-wing</i>. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. vii. pl. 12: "<i>Spatula Rhynchotis</i>, Australian Shoveller." <hw>Shovel-nose</hw>, <i>n</i>. a New South Wales species of Ray-fish, <i>Rhinobatus bougainvillei</i>, Cuv.; called also the <i>Blind Shark</i>, and <i>Sand Shark</i>. In the Northern Hemisphere, the name is given to three different sharks and a sturgeon. <hw>Shrike</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bird-name, generally used in Australia in composition. See <i>Crow-Shrike</i>, <i>Cuckoo-Shrike</i>, <i>Shrike-Robin</i>, <i>Shrike-Thrush</i>, and <i>Shrike-Tit</i>. <hw>Shrike-Robin</hw>, <i>n</i>. a genus of Australasian Shrikes, <i>Eopsaltria</i> (q.v.). The species are-- Grey-breasted Shrike-Robin-- <i>Eopsaltria gularis</i>, Quoy and Gaim. Large-headed S.-R.-- <i>E. capito</i>, Gould. Little S.-R.-- <i>E. nana</i>, Mull. White-breasted S.-R.-- <i>E. georgiana</i>, Quoy and Gaim. Yellow-breasted S.-R.-- <i>E. australis</i>, Lath. 1895. W. O. Legge, `Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science' (Brisbane), p. 447: "As regards portions of Gould's English nomenclatures, such as his general term `Robin' for the genera <i>Petroica, Paecilodryas</i>, <i>Eopsaltria</i>, it was found that by retaining the term `Robin' for the best known member of the group (<i>Petroica</i>), and applying a qualifying noun to the allied genera, such titles as Tree-robin, Scrub-robin, and Shrike-robin were easily evolved." <hw>Shrike-Thrush</hw>, <i>n</i>. a genus of Australasian Shrikes, <i>Collyriocincla</i> (q.v.). The species are-- Bower's Shrike-Thrush-- <i>Collyriocincla boweri</i>, Ramsay. Brown S.-T.-- <i>C. brunnea</i>, Gould. Buff-bellied S.-T.-- <i>C. rufiventris</i>, Gould. Grey S.-T.-- <i>C. harmonica</i>, Lath.; called also <i>Port Jackson Thrush</i> (q.v.). Little Shrike-Thrush-- <i>Collyriocincla parvula</i>, Gould. Pale-bellied S.-T.-- <i>C. pallidirostris</i>, Sharpe. Rufous-breasted S.-T.-- <i>C. rufigaster</i>, Gould. Whistling S.-T.-- <i>C. rectirostris</i>, Jard. and Selb.; see <i>Duke Willy</i>. 1896. `The Melburnian,' Aug. 28, p. 54: "With gathering shadows the spotted thrush of England gives forth from the top-most pine branch his full and varied notes; notes which no Australian bird can challenge, not even the shrike-thrush on the hill side, piping hard to rival his song every bright spring morning." <hw>Shrike-Tit</hw>, <i>n</i>. a genus of Australian Shrikes, <i>Falcunculus</i> (q.v.). The species are--<i>Falcunculus frontatus</i>, Lath.; White-bellied S.-T., <i>F. leucogaster</i>, Gould. 1890. `Victorian Statutes--Game Act' (Third Schedule): "Shrike-tit. [Close season.] From the 1st day of August to the 10th day of December next following in each year." <hw>Shrimp</hw>, <i>n</i>. The only true shrimp (<i>Crangon</i>) which Australian waters are known to possess is found in the Gulf of St. Vincent, South Australia. (Tenison-Woods.) In Tasmania, the Prawn (<i>Penoeus spp</i>.) is called a <i>Shrimp</i>. 1883. `Royal Commission, Report on Fisheries of Tasmania,' p. 9: "The prawn (<i>Penoeus</i> sp.), locally known among fishermen as the shrimp, abounds all around our coasts." <hw>Sida-weed</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. Queensland Hemp. See <i>Hemp</i>. <hw>Signed Servant</hw>, <i>n</i>. obsolete contraction for <i>Assigned Servant</i> (q.v.). <hw>Silky-Oak</hw>, <i>n</i>. a tree, often tall, <i>Grevillea robusta</i>, Cunn., <i>N.O. Proteaceae</i>, producing a useful timber in demand for various purposes. See <i>Grevillea</i>, <i>Maple</i>, and <i>Oak</i>. <hw>Silver</hw>, or <hw>Silver-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian name for <i>Caranx georgianus</i>, Cuv. and Val., family <i>Carangidae</i>, the <i>White</i> or <i>Silver Trevally</i>. See <i>Trevally</i>. 1875. `Spectator' (Melbourne), June 19, 1881: "Common fish such as . . . garfish, strangers, silvers, and others." 1880. Mrs. Meredith, `Tasmanian Friends and Foes,' p. 252 [Footnote]: "To convey anything like a correct idea of this extremely beautiful fish, it should be `laid in' with a ground of burnished silver, and the delicate tints added. The skin is scaleless, and like satin, embossed all over in little raised freckles, and with symmetrical dark lines, resembling the veining of a leaf. In quality they are a good deal like mullet." <hw>Silver-Belly</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given (1) in New South Wales, to the fish <i>Silver-Bream</i> (q.v.); (2) in Tasmania, to various species of <i>Atherinidae</i>. <hw>Silver-Bream</hw>, or <hw>White-Bream</hw>, <i>n</i>. a New South Wales fish, <i>Gerres ovatus</i>, Gunth., family <i>Percidae</i>; also called <i>Silver-Belly</i> (q.v.). For another use, see <i>Trevally</i>. 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish of New South Wales,' p. 43: "Mr. Hill, in the series of essays already referred to, speaks of a silver-bream or white-bream. It is probable he refers to <i>Gerres ovatus</i>, a common fish of very compressed form, and very protractile mouth. They probably never enter fresh-water. . . . It is necessary to cook the silver-belly, as it is often called, perfectly fresh." <hw>Silver-Eye</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bird-name. Same as <i>Wax-eye</i>, <i>White-eye</i>, or <i>Blight-bird</i> (q.v.). 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 77: "<i>Zosterops caerulescens</i>, Lath. I have myself arrived at the conclusion that the Silver-eye, although identical with the Australian bird, is in reality an indigenous species." 1888. James Thomas, `To a Silver Eye:' `Australian Poets 1788-1888' (edition Sladen), p. 550: "Thou merry little silver-eye, In yonder trailing vine, I, passing by this morning, spied That ivy-built nest of thine." <hw>Silver Jew-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. a New South Wales name for the young of the fish called <i>Teraglin</i>, or of the true <i>Jew-fish</i> (q.v.); it is uncertain which. <hw>Silver-leaf Boree</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Boree</i> (q.v.). <hw>Silver-Perch</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fresh-water fish, i.q. <i>Bidyan Ruffe</i> (q.v.). <hw>Silver-tail</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bush term for a "swell": a man who goes to the manager's house, not to the men's hut. See <i>Hut</i>. 1890. A. J. Vogan, `The Black Police,' p. 116: "A select circle of long-limbed members of those upper circles who belong to the genus termed in Australian parlance `silver-tailed,' in distinction to the `copper-tailed' democratic classes." <hw>Silver-Trevally</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Trevally</i>. <hw>Sittella</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian genus of small creeping-birds, called also <i>Tree-Runners</i> (q.v.). <i>Sittella</i> is the Latin diminutive of <i>sitta</i>, which is from the Greek <i>sittae</i>, a woodpecker, whose habits the <i>Tree-runners</i> or <i>Sittellae</i> have. Gould's enumeration of the species is given in quotation. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. iv.: "<i>Sittella chrysoptera</i>, Orange-winged Sittella; <i>S. leucocephala</i>, Gould, White-headed S.; <i>S. leucoptera</i>,Gould, White-winged S.; <i>S. pileata</i>, Gould, Black-capped S.; <i>S. tenuirostris</i>, Gould, Slender-billed S. 1869. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia' (Supplement): "<i>Sittella Striata</i>, Gould, Striated Sittella." 1875. Gould and Sharpe, `Birds of New Guinea,' vol. iii. pl. 28: "<i>Sittella albata</i>, Pied Sittella." 1890 `Victorian Statutes-Game Act' (Third Schedule): "Sittellas. [Close season.] From the first day of August to the 10th day of December next following in each year." 1896. F. G. Aflalo, `Natural History of Australia,' p. 136: "Four species of <i>Sitilla</i> [sic] which, except that they do not lay their eggs in hollow trees, bear some resemblance to our nuthatch." <hw>Skate</hw>, <i>n</i>. The New Zealand fish called a <i>Skate</i> is <i>Raja nasuta</i>, a different species of the same genus as the European Skate. <hw>Skipjack</hw>, or <hw>Skipjack-Pike</hw>, <i>n</i>. This fish, <i>Temnodon saltator</i>, Cuv. and Val., is the same as the British and American fish of that name. It is called <i>Tailor</i> (q.v.) in Sydney. The name <i>Skipjack</i> used also to be given by the whalers to the Australian fish <i>Trevally</i> (q.v.). 1872. Hutton and Hector, `Fishes of New Zealand,' p. 111: "It is quoted by Richardson that this fish [trevally], which he says is the Skipjack of the sealers, used to be a staple article of food with the natives." <hw>Skipper</hw>, i.q. <i>Hopping fish</i> (q.v.). <hw>Skirr</hw>, <i>n</i>. imitative. 1884. Marcus Clarke, `Memorial Volume,' p. 127: "How many nights have I listened to the skirr of the wild cats." <hw>Skirting</hw>, <i>n</i>. generally used in the plural. In sheep-shearing, the inferior parts of the wool taken from the extremities. 1890. `The Argus,' Sept. 20, p. 13, col. 7: "At the `skirting-table' we will stand for a little while, and watch while the fleece just brought in is opened out by the `roller,' and the inferior portions removed." <hw>Skullbanker</hw>, or <hw>Scowbanker</hw>, <i>n</i>. a slang name in Australia for a loafer, a tramp. 1866. A. Michie, `Retrospects and Prospects of the Colony,' p. 9: "A skull-banker is a species of the genus loafer--half highwayman, half beggar. He is a haunter of stations, and lives on the squatters, amongst whom he makes a circuit, affecting to seek work and determining not to find it." <hw>Slab</hw>, <i>n</i>. In English, the word slab, as applied to timber, means "an outside piece taken from a log in sawing it into boards, planks, etc." (`Webster.') In Australia, the word is very common, and denotes a piece of timber, two or three inches thick a coarse plank, axe-hewn, not sawn. Used for the walls of rough houses. 1844. `Port Phillip Patriot,' July 25, p. 3 col. 5: A substantial slab building with verandah." 1845. `Voyage to Port Phillip,' p. 52: "His slab-built hut, with roof of bark." 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' vol. i. c. ix. p. 266: "The house in which this modern Robinson Crusoe dwelt was what is called a Slab Hut, formed of rough boards and thatched with grass." 1861. Mrs. Meredith, `Over the Straits,' c. iv. p. 130: "A bare, rough, barn-like edifice built of slabs." 1869. J. Townend, `Reminiscences of Australia,' p. 155: "We passed through Studley Park, with here and there a slab house or tent." 1874. G. Walch, `Head over Heels,' p. 81: "The moonlight . . . poured on the hut, slabs an' roof." 1885. R. M. Praed, `Australian Life,' p. 8: "The hut was built of logs and slabs." [p. 73]: "The usual bush-hut of slabs and bark." [p.144]:"The neighbours congregated in the rough hut of unplaned slabs." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `The Miner's Right,' c. vi. p. 61: "Slab huts of split heavy boards, Australian fashion, placed vertically." <hw>Slab</hw>, <i>v. tr</i>. mining term: to keep up the sides of a shaft with timber slabs. 1871. J. J. Simpson, `Recitations,' p. 24: "So dig away, drive away, slab and bail." <hw>Sleepy Lizard</hw>, i.q. <i>Blue-tongued Lizard</i> (q.v.). <hw>Slip-panel</hw>. Same as <i>Slip-rail</i> (q.v.). See also <i>Panel</i>. 1893. `The Australasian,' Aug.12, p. 302, col. 1: "Take him round by the water-hole and wait for me at the slip-panels." <hw>Slip-rail</hw>, <i>n</i>. part of a fence so fitted that it can be removed so as to serve as a gate. Used also for the gateway thus formed. Generally in the plural. Same as <i>Slip- panel</i>. 1870. A. L. Gordon, `Bush Ballads From the Wreck,' p. 24: "Down with the slip-rails; stand back." 1872. C. H. Eden, `My Wife and I in Queensland,' p. 43: "He [a horse] would let down the slip-rails when shut into the stockyard, even if they were pegged, drawing the pegs out with his teeth." 1885. R. M. Praed, `Australian Life,' p. 79: "Many men rode through the sliprails and turned out their horses." 1891. Canon Goodman, `Church in Victoria during Episcopate of Bishop Perry,' p. 98: "Some careless person had neglected to replace the slip-rails of the paddock into which his horses had been turned the previous evening." 1896. H. Lawson, `When the World was Wide,' p. 104: "Then loudly she screamed: it was only to drown The treacherous clatter of slip-rails let down." <hw>Sloth, Native</hw>, i.q. <i>Native Bear</i>. See <i>Bear</i>, and <i>Koala</i>. <hw>Slusher</hw>, or <hw>Slushy</hw>, <i>n</i>. cook's assistant at shearing-time on a station. 1890. `The Argus,' Sept.20, p.13, col. 6: "`Sundays are the most trying days of all,' say the <i>cuisiniers</i>, `for then they have nothing to do but to growl.' This man's assistant is called `the slusher.' 1896. A. B. Paterson, `Man from Snowy River,' p. 162: "The tarboy, the cook, and the slushy, the sweeper that swept the board, The picker-up, and the penner, with the rest of the shearing horde." 1896. `The Field,' Jan. 18, p. 83, col. 1: "He employs as many `slushies' as he thinks necessary, paying them generally L1 per week." <hw>Slush-lamp</hw>, <i>n</i>. a lamp made by filling an old tin with fat and putting a rag in for wick. The word, though not exclusively Australian, is more common in the Australian bush than elsewhere. Compare English <i>slush-horn</i>, horn for holding grease; <i>slush-pot</i>, pot for holding grease, etc. 1883. J. Keighley, `Who are You?' p. 45: "The slush-lamp shone with a smoky light." 1890. `The Argus,' Sept.20, p.13, col. 6: "Occasionally the men will give Christy Minstrel concerts, when they illuminate the wool-shed with slush-lamps, and invite all on the station." <hw>Smelt</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given, in Melbourne, to the fish <i>Clupea vittata</i>, Castln., family <i>Clupeidae</i>, or <i>Herrings</i> (q.v.); in New Zealand and Tasmania, to <i>Retropinna richardsonii</i>, Gill, family <i>Salmonidae</i>. Its young are called <i>Whitebait</i> (q.v.). The <i>Derwent Smelt</i> is a Tasmanian fish, H<i>aplochiton sealii</i>, family <i>Haplochitonidae</i>, fishes with an adipose fin which represent the salmonoids in the Southern Hemisphere; <i>Prototroctes</i> is the only other genus of the family known (see Grayling). <i>Haplochiton</i> is also found in the cold latitudes of South America. <hw>Sminthopsis</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name for the genus of <i>Narrow-footed Pouched Mice</i>, which, like the English field-mice, are entirely terrestrial in their habits. See <i>Pouched Mouse</i>. In Homer's' Iliad,' Bk. I. ver. 39, <i>Smintheus</i> is an epithet of Apollo. It is explained as "mouse-killer," from <i>sminthos</i>, a field-mouse, said to be a Cretan word. <hw>Smoke</hw>, v. (slang). See quotation. 1893. `Sydney Morning Herald,' June 26, p. 8, col. 8: "He said to the larrikins, `You have done for him now; you have killed him.' `What!' said one of them, `do not say we were here. Let us smoke.' `Smoke,' it may be explained, is the slang for the `push' to get away as fast as possible." <hw>Smooth Holly</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Holly</i>. <hw>Snailey</hw>, <i>n</i>. bullock with horn slightly curled. 1884. Rolf Boldrewood, `Melbourne Memories,' c. ix. p. 68: "Snaileys and poleys, old and young, coarse and fine, they were a mixed herd in every sense." 1891. Rolf Boldrewood, `A Sydney-side Saxon,' p. 133: "There's a snaily Wallanbah bullock I haven't seen this two years." <hw>Snake</hw>, <i>n</i>. The Australian land snakes belong principally to the four families, <i>Typhlopidae, Boidae</i>, <i>Colubridae</i>, and <i>Elapidae</i>. The proportion of venomous to non-venomous species increases from north to south, the five species known in Tasmania being all venomous. The smallest forms, such as the "blind" or "worm" snakes, are only a few inches in length, while the largest Python may reach a length of perhaps eighteen feet. Various popular names have been given to different species in different colonies, the same name being unfortunately not infrequently applied to quite distinct species. The more common forms are as follows:-- <i>Black Snake</i>. Name applied in Australia to <i>Pseudechis porphyriacus</i>, Shaw, which is more common in the warmer parts, and comparatively rare in the south of Victoria, and not found in Tasmania. In the latter the name is sometimes given to dark-coloured varieties of <i>Hoplocephalus curtus</i>, and in Victoria to those of <i>H. superbus</i>. The characteristic colour is black or black-brown above and reddish beneath, but it can be at once distinguished from specimens of H. superbus, which not infrequently have this colour, by the presence of a double series of plates at the hinder end, and a single series at the anterior end of the tail, whereas in the other species named there is only a single row along the whole length of the tail underneath. 1799. D. Collins, `Account of New South Wales' (edition 1802), vol. ii. p. 189 [Bass Diary at the Derwent, Tasmania]: "The most formidable among the reptiles was the black snake with venomous fangs." [This refers to some species of Hoplocephalus, and not to the Australian Black Snake, which does not occur in Tasmania.] <i>Black and white ringed Snake</i>. Name applied to <i>Vermicella annulata</i>, Gray, the characteristic colouration of which consists of a series of alternating dark and light rings. It is found especially in the dry, warmer parts of the interior. <i>Brown Snake</i>. Name given to three species of the genus <i>Diemenia</i>-- (1) the Common Brown Snake, <i>D. superciliosa</i>, Fischer; (2) the small-scaled Brown Snake, <i>D. microlepidota</i>, McCoy; and (3) the shield-fronted Brown Snake, <i>D. aspidorhyncha</i>, McCoy. All are venomous, and the commonest is the first, which is usually known as the Brown Snake. 1890. A. H. S. Lucas, `Handbook of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science,' Melbourne, p. 71: "The most abundant of these are the tiger snake, <i>Hoplocephalus curtus</i>, the most widespread, active, and dangerous of them all: the brown snake, <i>Diemenia superciliosa</i>, pretty generally distributed." <i>Carpet Snake</i>. Name applied in Australia to <i>Python variegata</i>, Gray, a non-venomous snake reaching a length of ten feet. The name has reference to the carpet-like pattern on the scales. The animal crushes its prey to death, and can hang from branches by means of its prehensile tail. In Tasmania, the name is unfortunately applied to a venomous snake, <i>Hoplocephalus curtus</i>, Schlegel. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' c. i. p. 16: "Brown brought a carpet snake and a brown snake with yellow belly." 1878. F. McCoy, `Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria,' Decade ii. pl. 13: "The pattern has some resemblance to some of the commoner sorts of Kidderminster carpets, as suggested by the popular name of Carpet Snake . . . the name . . . is, unfortunately, applied to the poisonous Tiger Snake in Tasmania, producing some confusion." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals, p. 294: "One of the snakes most common is the Australian python (<i>Morelia variegata</i>), the largest snake found in Australia, which here in Northern Queensland may even attain a length of more than twenty feet." <i>Copper-head Snake</i>. Name applied in Australia to <i>Hoplocephalus superbus</i>, Gunth., a venomous snake which is very common in Tasmania, where it is often called the <i>Diamond Snake</i> (q.v.). In Victoria, it is often confused with the Black Snake; unlike the latter, it is more common in the south than in the north. It derives its popular name from the colour of the head. 1885. F. McCoy, `Prodromus of the Natural History of Victoria,' Decade i. pl. 2: "In Tasmania the name Diamond snake is unfortunately given to this species, for that name properly belongs to a perfectly harmless snake of New South Wales, so that the numerous experiments made in Tasmania to test the value of some pretended antidotes, were supposed in London to have been made with the true Diamond snake, instead of, as was the case, with this very poisonous kind. . . . I have adopted the popular name `copperhead' for this snake from a well-known vendor of a supposed antidote for snake-bites." 1896. `The Melburnian,' Aug. 28, p. 54: "Those heather lands round Caulfield and Oakleigh where the copperhead snake basks, coiled on the warm silver sand." <i>Death-adder</i>; also called <i>Deaf-adder</i>. An Australian snake, <i>Acanthophis antarctica</i>. It is usually found in hot sandy districts, and is supposed to be the most venomous of the Australian snakes. Large specimens reach a length of upwards of three feet, the body having a diameter of about two inches: at the end of the tail is a short spine popularly known as the animal's "sting." 1878. F. McCoy, `Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria,' Decade ii. pl. 12: "The popular name seems to be indifferently Death Adder or Deaf Adder. The harmless horny spine at the end of the tail is its most dangerous weapon, in the popular belief." <i>Diamond-Snake</i>. Name applied in New South Wales and Queensland to <i>Python spilotes</i>, Lacep., a non-venomous snake reaching a large size. In Tasmania the same name is given to <i>Hoplocephalus superbus</i>, Gray, a venomous snake more properly called the <i>Copperhead Snake</i>. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 78: "Charley killed a diamond snake, larger than any he had ever seen before." 1850. J. B. Clutterbuck, `Port Phillip,' c. iii. p. 43: "The diamond snake is that most dreaded by the natives." 1869. G. Krefft, `The Snakes of Australia,' p. 29: "Diamond snakes are found in almost every kind of country that offers them sufficient shelter." 1895. G. Metcalfe, `Australian Zoology,' p. 27: "As a rule, diamond snakes have almost every scale of the body marked with a yellow spot in the centre. . . . The abdominal plates are yellow, and more or less blotched with black, and many species . . . have a number of diamond-shaped yellow spots upon the body, formed by a few of the lighter scales, and hence their name has probably arisen." <i>Green Tree-Snake</i>. Name given, owing to its colour, to the commonest Australian tree-snake, <i>Dendrophis punctulata</i>, Gray. It is a non-venomous form, feeding on frogs, young birds, and eggs, and rarely exceeds the length of six feet. 1869. G. Krefft, `The Snakes of Australia,' p. 24: "Young and half grown Tree Snakes are olive-green above and light brown below . . . when angry, the body of this serpent expands in a vertical direction, whilst all venomous snakes flatten their necks horizontally. The green Tree snake, in a state of excitement is strongly suggestive of one of the popular toys of childhood." <i>Little Whip-Snake</i>. Name applied to a small venomous species of snake, <i>Hoplocephalus flagellum</i>, McCoy. Common in parts of Victoria, but not exceeding a foot in length. 1859. H. Kingsley, `Geoffrey Hamlyn,' vol. ii. c. xxvii. p. 190: "He wished it had been a whip-snake instead of a magpie." 1887. R. M. Praed, `Longleat of Kooralbyn,' c. xx. p. 199: "A whip-snake . . . reared itself upon its lithe body, and made a dart at Barrington's arm." 1890. Lyth, `Golden South,' c. iii. p. 24: "I saw a large `whip-snake' lying on the path." <i>Tiger-Snake</i>. Name applied in Australia and Tasmania to <i>Hoplocephalus curtus</i>, Schlegel, but this species is often also known in the latter as the <i>Carpet Snake</i> (q.v.). The popular name is derived from the cross-banded colouring along the body, and also from its activity. It varies much in colour from a dark olive green to a light yellowish brown, the darker cross bands being sometimes almost indistinguishable. It may reach a length of four feet, and is viviparous, producing about thirty young ones in January or February. 1875. `The Spectator' (Melbourne), Aug. 21, p. 190, col. 1: "On Tuesday a tiger-snake was seen opposite the door of the Sandridge police court." 1885. F. McCoy, `Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria,' Decade i. pl. 3: "This species, which goes under the colonial name in Victoria of Tiger snake, from its tawny cross banded colouring and ferocity, is well known to frequently inflict bites rapidly fatal to men and dogs. . . . In Tasmania this is popularly called `Carpet snake,' a name which properly belongs to the harmless snake so called on the mainland." <i>Two-hooded Furina-Snake</i>. Name applied to a small, venomous snake, <i>Furina bicuculata</i>, McCoy. 1879. F. McCoy, `Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria,' Decade iii. pl. 32: "Furina bicuculata (McCoy). The Two-hooded Furina-snake. . . . This rare and beautiful little snake is a clear example of the genus Furina." <i>White-lipped-Snake</i>. Name given to a small venomous species of <i>whip-snake</i>, <i>Hoplocephalus coronoides</i>, Gunth., found in Tasmania and Victoria, and reaching a length of about eighteen inches. 1890. A. H. S. Lucas, `Handbook of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science,' Melbourne, p. 71: "Whip snakes, <i>H. flagellum</i> and <i>H. coronoides</i>." <i>Worm-Snake</i>. Name given to various species of the genus <i>Typhlops</i>, comprising small, non-venomous, smooth, round-bodied snakes, which burrow in warm sandy soil, and feed upon insects such as ants. The eyes are covered over by translucent plates, and the tail scarcely tapering at all, and sometimes having two black spots, gives the animal the appearance of having a head at each end. The commoner forms are the <i>Blackish Worm-Snake</i> (<i>Typhlops nigrescens</i>, Gray), and <i>Schlegel's Worm-Snake</i> (<i>T. polygrammicus</i>, Schlegel). 1881. F. McCoy, `Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria,' Decade vi. pl. 103: "The `Blackish Worm snake' is not uncommon in the northern warmer parts of the colony. . . . These worm snakes are perfectly harmless, although, like the Slow-Worms and their allies in other countries, they are popularly supposed to be very poisonous." <hw>Sneeze-weed</hw>, <i>Myriogyne minuta</i>, Less., <i>Cotula</i> or <i>Centipeda cunninghamii</i>, De C., and many other botanical synonyms. A valuable specific for <i>Sandy-Blight</i> (q.v.). 1877. F. v. Mueller, `Botanic Teachings,' p. 58: "The Sneeze-weed (<i>Cotula</i> or <i>Centipeda Cunninghamii</i>). A dwarf, erect, odorous herb . . . can be converted into snuff." 1886. Dr. Woolls, in `Sydney Morning Herald,' Dec. 25 (quoted by Maiden): "Dr. Jockel is, I believe, the first medical man in Australia who has proved the value of <i>Myriogyne</i> in a case of ophthalmia. This weed, growing as it does on the banks of rivers and creeks, and in moist places,, is common in all the Australian colonies and Tasmania, and it may be regarded as almost co-extensive with the disease it is designed to relieve." <hw>Snipe</hw>, <i>n</i>. The species of Snipe known in Australia are--<i>Scolopax australis</i>, Lath.; Painted S., <i>Rhynchaea australis</i>, Gould. This bird breeds in Japan and winters in Australia. The name is also used as in the quotation. 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 210: "Along the shore are flocks of a species of bird which some sportsmen and the game-sellers in the city are pleased to call snipe. They are probably tringa, a branch of the sea-plover family." <hw>Snook</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is applied in the Old World to various fishes, including the <i>Garfish</i> (q.v.). At the Cape of Good Hope, it is applied to <i>Thyrsites atun</i>, Cuv. and Val., and this name for the same fish has extended to New Zealand, where (as in all the other colonies) it is more generally called the <i>Barracouta</i> (q.v.). Under the word Cavally, `O.E.D.' quotes-- 1697. Dampier, `Voyage,' vol. i: "The chiefest fish are bonetas, snooks, cavallys." Snook is an old name, but it is doubtful whether it is used in the Old World for the same fish. Castelnau says it is the snook of the Cape of Good Hope. 1872. Hutton and Hector, `Fishes of New Zealand,' p. 14, under `Thyrsites Atun, Barracoota': "This is, I believe, the fish called snoek in Cape Colony." 1880. Guenther, `Study of Fishes,' p. 436: "<i>Th. atun</i> from the Cape of Good Hope, South Australia, New Zealand, and Chili, is preserved, pickled or smoked. In New Zealand it is called `barracuda' or `snoek,' and exported from the colony into Mauritius and Batavia as a regular article of commerce." <hw>Snowberry</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian name for the <i>Wax-cluster</i> (q.v.). <hw>Snow-Grass</hw>, <i>n</i>. <i>Poa caespitosa</i>, G. Forst., another name for <i>Wiry grass</i> (q.v.). See also <i>Grass</i>. 1875. Wood and Lapham, `Waiting for the Mail,' p. 31: "Tethering my good old horse to a tussock of snow-grass." <hw>Snow-line</hw>, <i>n</i>. In pastoralists' language of New Zealand, "above the snow-line" is land covered by snow in winter, but free in summer. <hw>Soak</hw>, or <hw>Soakage</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Western and Central Australian term. See quotation. 1895. `The Australasian,' Sept. 7, p. 461, col. 1: "`Inquirer.'--The term soak in Western Australia, as used on maps and plans, signifies a depression holding moisture after rain. It is also given to damp or swampy spots round the base of granite rocks. Wells sunk on soaks yield water for some time after rain. All soaks are of a temporary character." <hw>Soak-hole</hw>, <i>n</i>. an enclosed place in a stream in which sheep are washed. 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 82: "Parallel poles, resting on forks driven into the bed of the water-hole, were run out on the surface of the stream, forming square soak-holes, a long, narrow lane leading to the dry land." <hw>Soldier</hw>, or <hw>Soldier-Ant</hw>, <i>n</i>. "one of that section of a colony of some kinds of ants which does the fighting, takes slaves, etc." (`Century Dict.') In Australia, the large red ants are called <i>Soldier-Ants</i>. Compare <i>Bulldog-Ant</i>. 1854. G. H. Haydon, `The Australian Emigrant,' p. 59: "It was a red ant, upwards of an inch in length--`that's a soldier, and he prods hard too.'" 1865. W. Howitt, `Discovery in Australia,' vol. ii. p. 308: "The pain caused by a wound from this grass-seed is exactly like that from the bite of a soldier-ant." <hw>Soldier-bird</hw>, or <hw>Poor Soldier</hw>, or <hw>Old-Soldier bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Friar-bird</i> (q.v.). 1859. D. Bunce, `Australasiatic Reminiscences,' p. 62: "The notes peculiar to the <i>Ornithorhynchus paradoxus</i>, or <i>platypus</i>, wattle-bird, and leather-head, or old soldier bird, added in no small degree to the novelties. . . . The wattle-bird has been not inaptly termed the `what's o'clock,'--the leather-head the `stop where-you-are.'" [Mr. Bunce's observations are curiously confused. The `Soldier-bird' is also called `Four o'clock,' but it is difficult to say what `wattle bird' is called `what's o'clock'; the `notes' of the platypus must be indeed `peculiar.'] 1896. Mrs. Langloh Parker, `Australian Legendary Tales,' p. 108 [Title of Tale]: "Deegeenboyah the Soldier-bird." <hw>Sole</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is given to various Australian fishes. In Sydney, to <i>Synaptura nigra</i>, Macl.; in Melbourne, to <i>Rhombosolea bassensis</i>, Castln.; in New Zealand, to <i>Rhombosolea monopus</i>, Gunth., and <i>Peltorhamphus novae-zelandiae</i>, Gunth.; in Tasmania, to <i>Ammotretis rostratus</i>, Gunth., family <i>Pleuronectidae</i>. <i>Rhombosolea monopus</i> is called the <i>Flounder</i>, in Tasmania. See also <i>Lemon-Sole</i>. <hw>Solomon's</hw> Seal, <i>n</i>. Not the Old World plant, which is of the genus <i>Polygonatum</i>, but the Tasmanian name for <i>Drymophila cyanocarpa</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Liliacea</i>; also called Turquoise Berry. <hw>Sonny</hw>, <i>n</i>. a common nominative of address to any little boy. In Australia, the word is not infrequently pronounced as in the quotation. The form of the word came from America. 1896. A. B. Paterson, `Man from Snowy River,' p. 10: "But maybe you're only a Johnnie, And don't know a horse from a hoe? Weel, weel, don't get angry, my Sonny, But, really, a young `un should know." <hw>Sool</hw>, <i>v</i>. Used colloquially--(1) to excite a dog or set him on; (2) to worry, as of a dog. Common in the phrase "Sool him, boy!" Shakspeare uses "tarre him on" in the first sense. Shakspeare, `King John,' IV. i. 117: "And like a dog that is compelled to fight, Snatch at his master that doth tarre him on." 1896. Mrs. Langloh Parker, `Australian Legendary Tales,' p. 90: "She went quickly towards her camp, calling softly, `Birree gougou,' which meant `Sool 'em, sool 'em,' and was the signal for the dogs to come out." <hw>Sorrel, Queensland</hw>. See <i>Queensland Sorrel</i>. <hw>Sour-Gourd</hw>, <i>n</i>. Same as <i>Baobab</i> (q.v.). <hw>Sour-Plum</hw>, <i>n</i>. the <i>Emu-apple</i>. See <i>Apple</i>. <hw>South Australia</hw>, <i>n</i>. the name of a colony, established in 1836, with Adelaide as its capital. It is not a good name, for it is not the most southerly colony, and the "Northern Territory" forms a part of South Australia. Central Australia would be a better name, but not wholly satisfactory, for by Central Australia is now meant the central part of the colony of South Australia. The name <i>Centralia</i> has been proposed as a change. <hw>Southern Cross</hw>, <i>n</i>. The constellation of the Southern Cross is of course visible in places farther north than Australia, but it has come to be regarded as the astronomical emblem of Australasia; e.g. the phrase "beneath the Southern Cross " is common for "in Australia or New Zealand." 1863. S. Butler, `First Year in Canterbury Settlement,' p. 13: "The southern cross is a very great delusion. It isn't a cross. It is a kite, a kite upside down, an irregular kite upside down, with only three respectable stars and one very poor and very much out of place. Near it, however, is a truly mysterious and interesting object called the coal sack: it is a black patch in the sky distinctly darker than all the rest of the heavens. No star shines through it. The proper name for it is the black Magellan cloud." 1868. Mrs. Riddell, `Lay of Far South,' p. 4: "Yet do I not regret the loss, Thou hast thy gleaming Southern Cross." 1887. R. M. Praed, `Longleat of Kooralbyn,' c. iv. p. 35: "The Southern Cross rose gem-like above the horizon." <hw>Spade-press</hw>, <i>n</i>. a make-shift wool-press in which the fleeces are rammed down with a spade. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. xvii. p. 202: "The spade-press--that friendly adjunct of the pioneer squatter's humble wool-shed." <hw>Spaniard</hw>, <i>n</i>. a prickly bushy grass of New Zealand, <i>Aciphylla colensoi</i>. 1857. `Paul's Letters from Canterbury,' p. 108: "The country through which I have passed has been most <i>savage</i>, one mass of <i>Spaniards</i>." 1862. J. Von Haast, `Geology of Westland,' p. 25: "Groves of large specimens of <i>Discaria toumatoo</i>, the Wild Irishman of the settlers, formed with the gigantic <i>Aciphylla Colensoi</i>, the Spaniard or Bayonet-grass, an often impenetrable thicket." 1863. S. Butler, `First Year of Canterbury Settlement,' p. 67: "The Spaniard (spear-grass or bayonet-grass) `piked us intil the bane,' and I assure you we were hard set to make any headway at all." 1875. Lady Barker, `Station Amusements in New Zealand,' p. 35: "The least touch of this green bayonet draws blood, and a fall <i>into</i> a <i>Spaniard</i> is a thing to be remembered all one's life." 1882. T. H. Potts, `Out in the Open,' p. 287: "Carefully avoiding contact with the long-armed leaves of Spaniards (<i>Aciphylla</i>), which here attain the larger dimensions, carrying flower-spikes up to six feet long." 1890. `Transactions of the New Zealand Institute,' vol. xxiii. p. 197: "Here were rats which lived under the dead leaves of the prickly `<i>Spaniard</i>,' and possibly fed on the roots. The <i>Spaniard</i> leaves forked into stiff upright fingers about 1 in. wide, ending in an exceedingly stiff pricking point." 1896. `Otago Witness,' May 7, p. 48 "Prickly as the points of the Spaniard." <hw>Spear-grass</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to several grasses whose spear-like seeds spoil the wool of sheep, but which are yet excellent forage plants. They are--(1) all the species of <i>Stipa</i>; (2) <i>Heteropogon contortus</i>, Roem. and Schult., and others (see quotations); (3) and in New Zealand, one or two plants of the umbelliferous genus <i>Aciphylla</i>; also called <i>Spaniard</i> (q.v.). 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 44: "Very disagreeable, however, was the abundance of burr and of a spear-grass (<i>Aristida</i>)." 1865. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `History of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia,' vol. ii. p. 463 [Note]: "On the south coast there is a grass seed which has similar properties. The seeds are sharp and covered with fine barbs, and once they penetrate the skin they will work their way onwards. They catch in the wool of sheep, and in a short time reach the intestines. Very often I have been shown the omentum of a dead sheep where the grass seeds were projecting like a pavement of pegs. The settlers call it spear-grass, and it is, I believe, a species of <i>Anthistiria</i>." 1874. W. H. L. Ranken, `Dominion of Australia,' c. v. p. 86: "Sheep in paddocks cannot be so well kept clear of spear-grass." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 90: "<i>Heteropogon contortus</i>, Spear Grass. A splendid grass for a cattle-run, as it produces a great amount of feed, but is dreaded by the sheep-owner on account of its spear-like seeds." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 23: "A nocuous kind of grass, namely the dreaded spear-grass (<i>Andropogon contortus</i>), which grows on the coast, and which rendered sheep-raising impossible." <hw>Spear-Lily</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Lily</i>. <hw>Spearwood</hw>, the wood of three trees so called, because the aborigines made their spears from it--<i>Acacia doratoxylon</i>, A. Cunn., <i>A. homalophylla</i>, A. Cunn., both <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>; and <i>Eucalyptus doratoxylon</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. <hw>Speedwell, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. The English <i>Speedwell</i> is a <i>Veronica</i>. There is a Tasmanian species, <i>Veronica formosa</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Scrophulariaceae</i>. <hw>Spell</hw>, <i>n</i>. In England, a turn at work or duty; in Australasia, always a period of rest from duty. It is quite possible that etymologically <i>Spell</i> is connected with Ger. <i>spielen</i>, in which case the Australasian use is the more correct. See `Skeat's Etymological Dictionary.' 1865. J. O. Tucker, `Australian Story,' c. i. p. 84: "The only recompense was . . . to light his pipe and have a `spell.'" 1873. A. Trollope, `Australia and New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 84: "Having a spell--what we should call a short holiday." <hw>Spell</hw>, <i>v</i>. to rest. 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' vol. ii. p. 42: "In order to spell the oars, we landed at a point on the east side." 1880. G. <i>n</i>. Oakley, in `Victoria in 1880,' p. 114: "He `spelled' upon the ground; a hollow gum Bore up his ample back and bade him rest; And creaked no warning when he sat upon A war-ant's nest." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. xxiv. p. 328: "There's a hundred and fifty stock-horses there, spelling for next winter's work." 1896. Baldwin Spencer, `Horne Expedition in Central Australia,' Narrative, p. 48: "We camped beside a water-pool containing plenty of fish, and here we spelled for a day to allow some of us to go on and photograph Chamber's Pillar." <hw>Sphenura</hw>, <i>n</i>. scientific name for a genus of Australian birds called the <i>Bristle-Birds</i> (q.v.). From Grk. <i>sphaen</i>, "a wedge," and <i>'oura</i>, "a tail." The name was given by Sir Frederick McCoy. <hw>Spider</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Katipo</i>. <hw>Spider-Orchis</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given in Tasmania to the Orchid <i>Caladenia pulcherrima</i>, F. v. M. <hw>Spiloglaux</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Sceloglaux</i>. <hw>Spinach, Australian</hw>, <i>n</i>. name applied to species of <i>Chenopodium</i>, <i>N.O. Salsolaceae</i>; called also <i>Fat-hen</i>. The name is also applied to various wild pot herbs. <hw>Spinach, New Zealand</hw>, <i>n</i>. <i>Tetragonia expansa</i>, Murr., <i>N.O. Ficoideae</i>; called also <i>Iceplant</i>, in Tasmania. It is a trailing <i>Fig-marigold</i>, and was discovered in New Zealand by Captain Cook, though it is also found in Japan and South America. Its top leaves are eaten as spinach, and Cook introduced it to England, where it is also known as <i>Summer Spinach</i>. <hw>Spine-bill</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian "Honey-eater," but not now so classed. There are two species-- The Slender Spine-bill-- <i>Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris</i>, Gould; inhabiting Australia and Tasmania, and called <i>Cobbler's Awl</i> in the latter colony. White-eyebrowed S.-- <i>A. superciliosus</i>, Gould; of Western Australia. Though related to the genus <i>Myzomela</i>, the pattern of their colouration differs widely. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. iv. pl. 61: "<i>Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris</i>. Slender-billed Spine-bill. <i>Cobbler's</i> Awl, Colonists of Van Diemen's Land." Ibid. pl. 62: "<i>Acanthorhynchus superciliosus</i>, Gould. White-eyebrowed Spine-bill." <hw>Spinetail</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian bird, <i>Orthonyx spinicauda</i>; called also <i>Pheasant's Mother</i> (q.v.), <i>Log-runner</i> (q.v.). The name is used elsewhere for different birds. See <i>Orthonyx</i>. <hw>Spinifex</hw>, <i>n</i>. a grass known in India, China, and the Pacific, but especially common on Australasian shores. The word means, literally, <i>thorn-making</i>, but it is not classical Latin. "The aggregated flowers form large clusters, and their radiating heads, becoming detached at maturity, are carried by the wind along the sand, propelled by their elastic spines and dropping their seeds as they roll." (Mueller.) This peculiarity gains for the <i>Hairy Spinifex</i> (<i>Spinifex hirsutus</i>, Labill.) the additional name of <i>Spiny Rolling Grass</i>. See also quotation, 1877. This chief species (<i>S. hirsutus</i>) is present on the shores of nearly all Australasia, and has various synonyms--<i>S. sericeus</i>, Raoul.; <i>S. inermis</i>, Banks and Sol.; <i>Ixalum inerme</i>, Forst.; <i>S. fragilis</i>, R.B., etc. It is a "coarse, rambling, much-branched, rigid, spinous, silky or woolly, perennial grass, with habitats near the sea on sandhills, or saline soils more inland." (Buchanan.) The <i>Desert Spinifex</i> of the early explorers, and of many subsequent writers, is not a true <i>Spinifex</i>, but a <i>Fescue</i>; it is properly called <i>Porcupine Grass</i> (q.v.), and is a species of <i>Triodia</i>. The quotations, 1846, 1887, 1890, and 1893, involve this error. 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' vol. ii. c. vi. p. 209: "In the valley was a little sandy soil, nourishing the Spinifex." 1877. Baron von Mueller, `Botanic Teachings,' p. 125: "The Desert Spinifex of our colonists is a Fescue, but a true <i>Spinifex</i> occupies our sand-shores; . . . the heads are so buoyant as to float lightly on the water, and while their uppermost spiny rays act as sails, they are carried across narrow inlets, to continue the process of embarking." 1887. J. Bonwick, `Romance of Wool Trade,' p. 239: "Though grasses are sadly conspicuous by their absence, saline plants, so nutritious for stock, occur amidst the real deserts of Spinifex." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 43: "On the broad sandy heights . . . the so-called spinifex is found in great abundance. This grass (<i>Triodia irritans</i>) is the traveller's torment, and makes the plains, which it sometimes covers for hundreds of miles, almost impassable. Its blades, which have points as sharp as needles, often prick the horses' legs till they bleed." 1893. A. F. Calvert, `English Illustrated Magazine,' Feb., p. 325: "They evidently preferred that kind of watercress to the leaves of the horrid, prickly Spinifex, so omnipresent in the north-western district." 1896. R. Tate, `Horne Expedition in Central Australia,' Botany, p. 119: "A species of Triodia (`porcupine grass,' or incorrectly `spinifex' of explorers and residents) dominates sandy ground and the sterile slopes and tops of the sandstone table-lands." <hw>Spiny-Lizard</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Mountain Devil</i> (q.v.). <hw>Split-stuff</hw>, <i>n</i>. timber sawn into lengths and then split. 1852. Mrs. Meredith, `My Home in Tasmania,' vol. i. p. 159: "`Sawed stuff' and `split stuff,' by which is meant timber which is <i>sawn</i> into regular forms and thicknesses, as flooring boards, joints, battens, &c., and that which is <i>split</i> into `posts and rails,' slabs, or paling. Some of the species of <i>eucalyptus</i>, or gum-trees, are peculiarly adapted for splitting. The peppermint-tree (<i>Eucalyptus piperita</i>) and the `Stringy Bark' are remarkable for the perfectly straight grain which they often exhibit, and are split with surprising evenness and regularity into paling and boards for `weather-boarding' houses and other purposes, in lengths of six or eight feet by one foot wide, and half or one-third of an inch thick. . . . Any curve in a tree renders it unfit for splitting, but the crooked- grained wood is best for sawing. . . . All houses in the colony, with few exceptions, are roofed with split shingles." <hw>Splitter</hw>, <i>n</i>. a wood-cutter, cutting timber in the bush, and splitting it into posts and rails, palings or shingles. See quotation under <i>Split-stuff</i>. 1845. R. Howitt, `Australia,' p. 105: "There were two splitters located near us . . . they had a licence to split timber on the crown lands." 1870. A. L. Gordon, `Bush Ballads--Wolf and Hound,' p. 32: "At the splitter's tent I had seen the track Of horse hoofs, fresh on the sward." <hw>Spoonbill</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bird-name widely used. The Australian species are-- Royal Spoonbill-- <i>Platalea regia</i>. Yellow-billed S.-- <i>P. flavipes</i>. <i>P. regia</i> has a fine crest in the breeding season; hence the name. 1863. M. K. Beveridge, `Gatherings among Gum-trees,' p. 79: "The sun is sinking in the western sky, And ibises and spoonbills thither fly. <hw>Spotted-tree</hw>. Same as <i>Leopard-tree</i> (q.v.). 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 216: "Spotted or Leopard Tree. The gum from this tree forms good adhesive mucilage. It reminds one strongly of East-India gum-arabic of good quality. During the summer months large masses, of a clear amber-colour, exude from the stem and branches. It has a very pleasant taste, is eaten by the aboriginals, and forms a very common bushman's remedy in diarrhoea." <hw>Spotted-Orchis</hw>, <i>n</i>. Tasmanian name for the Orchid <i>Dipodium punctatum</i>, R. Br. <hw>Spotting</hw>, <i>n</i>. New Zealand equivalent for the Australian "picking the eyes out," and "peacocking." Under <i>Free-selection</i> (q.v.), the squatter spotted his run, purchasing choice spots. <hw>Spotty</hw>, <i>n</i>. a New Zealand fish, a Wrass, <i>Labrichthys bothryocosmus</i>, Richards.; also called <i>Poddly</i> (q.v.), and <i>Kelp-fish</i> (q.v.). 1878. P. Thomson, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. xi. art. lii. p. 384: "Wrasse, parrot-fish, and spotties are often in the market. There are two kinds of spotties, a big and a little. The wrasse and the parrot-fish are mostly caught outside amongst the kelp, and these, with the spotty, are indiscriminately called kelp-fish by the fishermen." <hw>Sprag</hw>, <i>n</i>. In gold-mining. See quotation. The word is used in England, applied to coal-mining. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. iii. p. 23: "A `sprag,' being a stout piece of hard wood, was inserted between the rope and the iron roller on which the rope ran." <hw>Squat</hw>, v. to be a squatter (q.v.) in any of the senses of that word. 1846. Feb. 11, `Speech by Rev. J. D. Lang,' quoted in `Phillipsland,' p. 410: In whatever direction one moves out of Melbourne, whether north, east, or west, all he sees or hears is merely a repetition of this colonial note--`I squat, thou squattest, he squats; we squat, ye or you squat, they squat.'. . . <i>Exeunt omnes</i>. `They are all gone out a-squatting.'" 1846. T. H. Braim, `History of New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 236: "The regulations . . . put an end to squatting within the boundaries of location, and reduced it to a system without the boundaries." 1852. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes' (edition 1855), p. 136: "The Speaker squats equally and alternately on the woolsack of the House and at his wool-stations on the Murrumbidgee. One may squat on a large or small scale, squat directly or indirectly, squat in person or by proxy." 1854. W. Golder, `Pigeons' Parliament,' p. 68: "Some spot, Found here and there, where cotters squat With self-permission." 1861. T. McCombie, `Australian Sketches,' p. 119: "Squatting, in its first phase, was confined to the region round about Sydney; it was not until the pass through the Blue Mountains was discovered that the flocks and herds of the colonists began to expand." <hw>Squattage</hw>, <i>n</i>. a squatter's station. The word can hardly be said to have prevailed. 1864. W. Westgarth, `Colony of Victoria,' p. 272: "The great Riverine district, which is one vast series of squattages . . . the toil and solitude of a day's journey between the homesteads of adjacent squattages." <hw>Squatter</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) One who squats; that is, settles on land without a title or licence. This is an English use. 1835. T. A. Murray (Evidence before Legislative Council of New South Wales on Police and Gaols): "There are several parties of squatters in my neighbourhood. I detected, not long since, three men at one of their stations in the act of slaughtering one of my own cattle. I have strong reason to suspect that these people are, in general, illicit sellers of spirits." 1835. W. H. Dutton (Evidence before same Committee): "These persons (squatters) are almost invariably the instigators and promoters of crime, receivers of stolen property, illegal vendors of spirits, and harbourers of runaways, bushrangers, and vagrants." 1843. Rev. W. Pridden, `Australia Its History and Present Condition,' pp. 332-3: "The <i>squatters</i>, as they are called, are men who occupy with their cattle, or their habitations, those spots on the confines of a colony or estate which have not yet become any person's private property. By the natural increase of their flocks and herds, many of these squatters have enriched themselves; and having been allowed to enjoy the advantages of as much pasture as they wanted in the bush, without paying any rent for it to the government, they have removed elsewhere when the spot was sold, and have not unfrequently gained enough to purchase that or some other property. Thus . . . the squatter has been converted into a respectable settler. But this is too bright a picture to form an average specimen. . . . Unfortunately, many of these squatters have been persons originally of depraved and lawless habits, and they have made their residence at the very outskirts of civilization a means of carrying on all manner of mischief. Or sometimes they choose spots of waste land near a high road . . . there the squatters knock up what is called a `hut.' In such places stolen goods are easily disposed of, spirits and tobacco are procured in return." Ibid. p. 334: "The rich proprietors have a great aversion to the class of squatters, and not unreasonably, yet they are thus, many of them, squatters themselves, only on a much larger scale. . ." 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' vol. i. c. ix. p. 260: "This capital of Australia Felix had for a long time been known to some squatters from Tasmania." 1846. T. H. Braim, `History of New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 235: "A set of men who were to be found upon the borders of every large estate, and who were known by the name of squatters. These were ticket-of-leave holders, or freedmen who erected a but on waste land near a great public road, or on the outskirts of an estate." 1897. Australian Steam Navigation Company, `Guide Book,' p. 29: "Nowaday squatters may be interested and possibly shocked on learning that in March, 1836, a petition was being largely signed for the prevention of `squatting, through which so much crime was daily occurring,' inasmuch as `squatting' was but another term for sly grog selling, receiving stolen property, and harbouring bushrangers and assigned servants. The term `squatter,' as applied to the class it now designates--without which where would Australia now be?--was not in vogue till 1842." (2) A pastoral tenant of the Crown, often renting from the Crown vast tracts of land for pasturage at an almost nominal sum. The term is still frequently, but incorrectly, used for a man rearing and running stock on freehold land. <i>Pastoralist</i> is now the more favoured term. 1840. F. P. Labillicre, `Early History of the Colony of Victoria' (edition 1878), vol. ii. p. 189: "In a memorandum of December 19th, 1840, `on the disposal of Lands in the Australian Provinces,' Sir George Gipps informs the Secretary of State on the subject, and states that,--'A very large proportion of the land which is to form the new district of Port Phillip is already in the licensed occupation of the Squatters of New South Wales, a class of persons whom it would be wrong to confound with those who bear the same name in America, and who are generally persons of mean repute and of small means, who have taken unauthorized possession of patches of land. Among the Squatters of New South Wales are the wealthiest of the land, occupying, with the permission of the Government, thousands and tens of thousands of acres. Young men of good families and connexions in England, officers of the army and navy, graduates of Oxford and Cambridge, are also in no small number amongst them.'" 1844. `Port Phillip Patriot,' July 8, p. 3, col. 3: "The petitioner has already consigned the whole country to the class squatter in perpetuity." 1845. R. Howitt, `Australia,' p. 165: "The squatters of Australia Felix will meet on horseback, upon Batman's Hill, on the 1st of June, for the purpose of forming a Mutual Protection Society. From the Murray to the sea-beach, from the Snowy Mountains to the Glenelg, let no squatter be absent." 1846. C. P. Hodgson, `Reminiscences of Australia,' p. 366: "`Squatters.' A word not to be found in `Johnson's Dictionary'; of Canadian extraction, literally to sit on the haunches: in Australia a term applied to the sheep farmers generally; from their being obliged frequently to adopt that position." 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition' (Introd.), p. 15: "We were received with the greatest kindness by my friends the `squatters,' a class principally composed of young men of good education, gentlemanly habits, and high principles." 1848. W. Westgarth, `Australia Felix,' p. 168: "The Port Phillip squatters, as occupants of the territory of New South Wales, were afterwards required to take out an annual depasturing licence in terms of a Colonial Act passed at Sydney." (p. 246): "The modern squatters, the aristocratic portion of the colonial community." 1851. `Australasian,' p. 298: "In 1840 the migratory flockmaster had become a settled squatter. A wretched slab but is now his home; for furniture he has a rough bush-made table, and two or three uncouth stools." 1861. T. McCombie, Australian Sketches,' p. 128: "The term squatter was applied in the first instance to signify, as in America, such as erected huts on unsold land. It thus came to be applied to all who did not live on their own land, to whom the original and more expressive name of settler continued to be applied. When the owners of stock became influential from their education and wealth, it was thought due to them to change this term for one more suitable to their circumstances, as they now included in their order nearly every man of mark or wealth in Australia. The Government suggested the term `tenants of the Crown,' the press hinted at `licensed graziers,' and both terms were in partial use, but such is the prejudice in favour of what is already established, that both were soon disused, and the original term finally adopted." 1862. G. T. Lloyd, `Thirty-three Years in Tasmania and Victoria,' p. 478: "The term `squatter' . . . is thus derived:--A flock-master settling in Australia could drive his stock to, and occupy, any tract of country, which, from its extent and pastoral capabilities, might meet his comprehensive views; always provided, that such lands had not been already appropriated. . . . Early flock-masters were always confirmed in their selection of lands, according to the quantity of stock they possessed. . . . The Victorian Squatter who can number but five or six thousand sheep is held to be a man of no account. . . . Those only, who can command the shearing of from ten to forty thousand fleeces annually, are estimated as worthy of any note." 1866. Lady Barker, `Station Life in New Zealand,' p. 47: "The squatters (as owners of sheepstations are called)." 1868. J. Bonwick, `John Batman, Founder of Victoria,' p. 94: "In the language of the times, Messrs. Evans, Lancey, and subsequently J. P. Fawkner, were squatters. That term is somewhat singular as applied to the latter, who asserts that he founded the colony to prevent its getting into the hands of the squatters. The term was then applied to all who placed themselves upon public lands without licence." 1873. A. Trollope, `Australia and New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 265: "It is not too much to say that all the early success of Australia was due to the squatters of New South Wales, who followed the steps of Captain McArthur." 1878. `The Australian,' vol. i. p. 532: "I have been a super, a small freeholder, and a middling-sized squatter, at different times." 1889. Rev. J. H. Zillmann, `Australian Life,' p. 165: "The Squatters are the large leaseholders and landed proprietors of the colony, whose cry has always been that the country was unfit for agricultural settlement, and only adapted for the pastoral pursuits in which they were engaged. . . . It is true the old squatter has been well-nigh exterminated." 1893. J. F. Hogan, `Robert Lowe,' p. 36: "The pastoral enterprise of the adventurous squatters. Originally unrecognized trespassers on Crown lands. . . ." (3) Applied as a nickname to a kind of <i>Bronze-wing Pigeon</i> (q.v.). 1872. C. H. Eden, `My Wife and I in Queensland,' p. 122: "On the plains you find different kinds of pigeons, the squatters being most common--plump, dust-coloured little fellows, crouching down to the ground quite motionless as you pass. I have frequently killed them with my stock-whip." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 114: "Gentle little squatter-pigeons cooed lovingly in answer to their mates on all sides." <hw>Squatterarchy</hw>, <i>n</i>. squatters collectively. 1887. R. M. Praed, `Longleat of Kooralbyn,' c. iii. p. 25: "The Squatterarchy of the Koorong rose up in a body and named its hero, martyr." <hw>Squatterdom</hw>, <i>n</i>. the state of being a squatter, or collective word for squatters; the squatter-party. 1866 (circiter). `Political parody': "The speaker then apologised, the Members cried, Hear, Hear; And e'en the ranks of squatterdom could scarce forbear to cheer." 1868. J. Bonwick, `John Batman, Founder of Victoria,' p. 94: "Writes to another at a distance upon the subject of squatterdom." <hw>Squatting</hw>, adj. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition' (Introd.), p. 13: "During my recent excursions through the squatting districts, I had accustomed myself to a comparatively wild life." 1847. J. D. Lang, `Cooksland,' p. 268: "The large extent of land occupied by each Squatting Station." 1890. `The Argus,' June 7, p. 4, col. 2: "A gathering of the squatting and bush life of Australia." <hw>Squattocracy</hw>, <i>n</i>. squatters collectively. 1846. C. P. Hodgson, `Reminiscences of Australia,' p. 118: "Throughout the Colony generally, English are the most numerous, then the Scotch, then the Irish, amongst the Squattocracy." 1872. C. H. Eden, `My Wife and I in Queensland,' p. 59: "The howl for the abolition of the squattocracy had not yet been fostered under the malign influence of shortsighted politicians." 1885. R. M. Praed, `Head Station,' p. 35 (`Century'): "The bloated squattocracy represents Australian conservatism." 1890. E. W. Hornung, `A Bride from the Bush,' p. 243: "The hearty, hospitable manner of the colonial `squatocracy.'" 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Squatter's Dream,' c. iv. p. 42: "He trusted to pass into the ranks of the Squatocracy." <hw>Squattocratic</hw>, <i>adj</i>. connected with previous word. 1854. `Melbourne Morning Herald,' Feb. 18, p. 4, col. 5: "Squattocratic Impudence." [A heading.] <hw>Squeaker</hw>, <i>n</i>. a vernacular name applied to various birds from their cries. See quotations. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. ii. pl. 45: "<i>Strepera Anaphonensis</i>, Grey Crow-shrike; Squeaker of the Colonists." 1855. W. Blandowski, `Transactions of Philosophical Society, Victoria,' vol. i. p. 63: "The Squeaker (<i>Strepera anaphonensis</i>) is a shy and solitary bird, living entirely on the flats, and is remarkable on account of its frequenting only the same locality. He is hence easily distinguished from the <i>Gymnorhina tibicen</i>, whose shrill and piping voice is so well known on all the high lands." 1896. A. J. North, `List of Insectivorous Birds of New South Wales,' part i. p. 1: "A local name is often more apt to mislead and confuse than to assist one in recognizing the particular species on which it is bestowed. This is chiefly due to the same local name being applied to two or more species.For instance, <i>Corcorax melanorhamphus</i>, <i>Xerophila leucopsis</i>, and <i>Myzantha garrula</i> are all locally known in different parts of the Colony by the name of `Squeaker.'" <hw>Squid</hw>, <i>n</i>. a marine animal. The Australian species is <i>Sepioteuthis australis</i>, Quoy and Gaim. 1883. `Report of the Royal Commission on the Fisheries of Tasmania,' p. xi: "None of the Squid family seems to be sought after, although certain kinds are somewhat abundant in our waters. It is stated by the New South Wales Fisheries Enquiry Commission, 1880, that `the cephalopods might be made a source of a considerable profit for exportation to Japan and China. In both these countries all animal substances of a gelatinous character are in great request, and none more than those of the cuttle-fish tribe; the squid (<i>Sepioteuthis australis</i>) is highly appreciated, and in consequence is highly prized. The cuttle-fish (<i>sepia</i>) is of rather inferior quality, and the star-fish of the fishermen (<i>octopus</i>) not used at all.'" 1892. R L. Stevenson, `The Wrecker,' p. 345: "You can't fill up all these retainers on tinned salmon for nothing; but whenever I could get it, I would give 'em squid. Squid's good for natives, but I don't care for it, do you?-- or shark either." <hw>Squire</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to the fish called <i>Schnapper</i> at two years old. See <i>Schnapper</i>. <hw>Squirrel</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Flying-Squirrel</i>. <hw>Stamper</hw>, or <hw>Stamphead</hw>, <i>n</i>. "A cast-iron weight, or head, fixed on to a shank or lifter, and used for stamping or reducing quartz to a fine sand." (Brough Smyth, `Glossary.') The word is used elsewhere as a term in machinery. In Australia, it signifies the appliance above described. The form <i>stamphead</i> is the earlier one. The shorter word <i>stamper</i> is now the more usual. 1869. J. F. Blanche, `Prince's Visit,' p. 25: "For steam and stampers now are all the rage." 1880. A. Sutherland, `Tales of Goldfields,' p. 76: "The battery was to have eight stampers." 1890. `Goldfields of Victoria,' p. 11: "This, with the old battery, brings the number of stampers up to sixty." Ibid. p. 15: "A battery of twenty-six stamp heads." <hw>Star of Bethlehem</hw>. The Old World plant is <i>Ornithogalum umbellatum</i>; the name is given in Australia to <i>Chamaescilla corymbosa</i>, and in Tasmania to <i>Burchardia umbellata</i>, R. Br., both of the <i>Liliaceae</i>. <hw>Star-fern</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given in Victoria to <i>Gleichenia flabellata</i>, R. Br.; called also <i>Fan-fern</i>. See <i>Fern</i>. <hw>Starling</hw>, <i>n</i>. English bird-name. The Australian species is the <i>Shining Starling</i>, <i>Calornis metallica</i>. The common English starling is also acclimatised. <hw>Start</hw>, <i>n</i>. The young Australian has a fine contempt for the English word <i>to begin</i>, which he never uses where he can find any substitute. He says <i>commence</i> or <i>start</i>, and he always uses <i>commence</i> followed by the infinitive instead of by the verbal noun, as "The dog commenced to bark." 1896. Modern talk in the train: "The horse started to stop, and the backers commenced to hoot." <hw>Station</hw>, <i>n</i>. originally the house with the necessary buildings and home-premises of a sheep-run, and still used in that sense: but now more generally signifying the run and all that goes with it. <i>Stations</i> are distinguished as <i>Sheep-stations</i> and <i>Cattle-stations</i>. 1833. C. Sturt, `Southern Australia,' vol. i. (Introd.): "They . . . will only be occupied as distant stock-stations." 1861. T. McCombie, `Australian Sketches,' p. 120: "Their [squatters'] huts or houses, gardens, paddocks, etc., form what is termed a station, while the range of country over which their flocks and herds roam is termed a run." 1868. J. Bonwick, `John Batman, Founder of Victoria,' p. 35: "The lecturer assured his audience that he came here to prevent this country being a squatting station." 1870. A. L. Gordon, `Bush Ballads,' p. 17: "The sturdy station-children pull the bush flowers on my grave." 1890. E. D. Cleland, `The White Kangaroo,' p. 4: "Station--the term applied in the colonies to the homesteads of the sheep-farmers or squatters." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood,'Miner's Right,' c. xviii. p. 171: "Men who in their youth had been peaceful stockmen and station-labourers." 1896. A. B. Paterson, `Man from Snowy River,' p. 125: "I'm travelen' down the Castlereagh and I'm a station-hand, I'm handy with the ropin' pole, I'm handy with the brand, And I can ride a rowdy colt, or swing the axe all day, But there's no demand for a stationhand along the Castlereagh." <hw>Station-jack</hw>, <i>n</i>. a form of bush cookery. 1853. `The Emigrant's Guide to Australia.' (Article on Bush-Cookery, from an unpublished MS. by Mrs. Chisholm], pp. 111-12: "The great art of bush-cookery consists in giving a variety out of salt beef and flour . . . let the Sunday share be soaked on the Saturday, and beat it well . . . take the . . . flour and work it into a paste; then put the beef into it, boil it, and you will have a very nice pudding, known in the bush as `<i>Station jack</i>.'" <hw>Stavewood</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Flindosy Beech</i>. See <i>Beech</i>. <hw>Stay-a-while</hw>, <i>n</i>. a tangled bush; sometimes called <i>Wait-a-while</i> (q.v.). <hw>Steamer</hw>, <i>n</i>. obsolete name for a colonial dish. See quotation. 1820. Lieut. C. Jeffreys, R.N., `Geographical and Descriptive Delineations of the Island of Van Dieman's Land,' p. 69: "Their meal consisted of the hindquarters of a kangaroo cut into mincemeat, stewed in its own gravy, with a few rashers of salt pork; this dish is commonly called a steamer." 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 309: "Our largest animals are the <i>Kangaroos</i> . . . making most delicious stews and steaks, the favourite dish being what is called a <i>steamer</i>, composed of steaks and chopped tail, (with a few slices of salt pork) stewed with a very small quantity of water for a couple of hours in a close vessel." <hw>Stewart Islander</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to the oyster, <i>Ostrea chiloensis</i>, Sowerby; so called because it is specially abundant on Stewart Island off the south coast of New Zealand. The Stewart Island forms are mud oysters, those of Sydney Cove growing on rock. See <i>Oyster</i>. <hw>Stick-Caterpillar</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Phasmid</i>. <hw>Stick-up</hw>, <i>v. tr</i>. (1) The regular word for the action of bushrangers stopping passers-by on the highway and robbing them. (2) In the case of a bank or a station, simply to rob. 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' vol. ii. c. xiii. p. 502: "It was only the previous night that he had been `stuck up' with a pistol at his head." 1855. W. Howitt, `Two Years in Victoria,' vol. ii. p. 187: "Unless the mail came well armed, a very few men could `stick it up,' without any trouble or danger." 1857. `Melbourne Punch,' Feb. 19, p. 26, col. 1: "I have been stuck up, trampled in the mud." 1869. J. Townend, `Reminiscences of Australia,' p. 140: "Five or six bushrangers took up a position about a mile from town, and (to use a colonial phrase) `stuck up' every person that passed." 1869. Mrs. W. M. Howell, `The Diggings and the Bush,' p. 93: "The escort has been `stuck up,' and the robbers have taken notes to the value of L700, and two thousand ounces of gold." 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia,' p. 253: "We had a revolver apiece in case of being `stuck up' on the road." 1888. Rolf Boldrewood, `Robbery under Arms,' p. 168: "We could make more money in one night by `sticking up' a coach or a bank than in any other way in a year . . . Any one who has been stuck up himself knows that there's not much chance of doing much in the resisting line." [The operation is then explained fully.] 1890. Lyth, `Golden South,' c.viii. p. 68: "Accounts of bushrangers `sticking up' stations, travellers, and banks were very frequent." 1893. `Sydney Morning Herald,' Aug. 26, p. 4. col. 6: "The game of sticking up hotels used to be in the old days a popular one, and from the necessary openness of the premises the practice was easy to carry out." (3) Humorously applied to a collector or a beggar. In `Twenty- five Years of St. Andrews' (vol. ii. p. 87), A. K. H. B. tells a story of a church dignitary, who was always collecting money for church building. When a ghost appeared at Glamis Castle, addressing the ghost, the clergyman began--that "he was most anxious to raise money for a church he was erecting; that he had a bad cold and could not well get out of bed; but that his collecting-book was on the dressing-table, and he would be `extremely obliged' for a subscription." An Australian would have said he "stuck up" the ghost for a subscription. 1890. E. W. Hornung, `A Bride from the Bush,' p. 297: "You never get stuck up for coppers in the streets of the towns." (4) Bring a kangaroo to bay. 1884. Rolf Boldrewood, `Melbourne Memories,' c. iii. p. 24: "We knew that she had `stuck up' or brought to bay a large forester." 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 15: "The fiercest fighter I ever saw `stuck up' against a red gum-tree." (5) Simply to stop. 1863. S. Butler, `First Year in Canterbury Settlement,' p. 68: "This [waterfall] `stuck us up,' as they say here concerning any difficulty." 1890. `The Argus,' June 7, p. 4, col. 2: "We are stuck up for an hour or more, and can get a good feed over there." (6) To pose, to puzzle. 1896. Modern: "I was stuck up for an answer." "That last riddle stuck him up." 1897. `The Australasian,' Jan. 2, p. 33, col. 1: "The professor seems to have stuck up any number of candidates with the demand that they should `construct one simple sentence out of all the following.'" <hw>Sticker-up</hw>, <i>n</i>. sc. a bushranger. 1879. W. J. Barry, `Up and Down,' p. 197: "They had only just been liberated from gaol, and were the stickers-up, or highwaymen mentioned." <hw>Sticker-up/2</hw>, <i>n</i>. a term of early bush cookery, the method, explained in first quotation, being borrowed from the aborigines. 1830. `Hobart Town Almanack,' p. 112: "Which he cooked in the mode called in colonial phrase a sticker up. A straight twig being cut as a spit, the slices were strung upon it, and laid across two forked sticks leaning towards the fire." 1852. Mrs. Meredith, `My Home in Tasmania,' vol. i. p. 55: "Here I was first initiated into the bush art of `sticker-up' cookery . . . the orthodox material here is of course kangaroo, a piece of which is divided nicely into cutlets two or three inches broad and a third of an inch thick. The next requisite is a straight clean stick, about four feet long, sharpened at both ends. On the narrow part of this, for the space of a foot or more, the cutlets are spitted at intervals, and on the end is placed a piece of delicately rosy fat bacon. The strong end of the stick-spit is now stuck fast and erect in the ground, close by the fire, to leeward; care being taken that it does not burn." ". . . to men that are hungry, stuck-up kangaroo and bacon are very good eating." . . . "our `sticker-up' consisted only of ham." 1862. G. T. Lloyd, `Thirty-three Years in Tasmania and Victoria,' p. 103: "Pounds of rosy steaks . . . skilfully rigged after the usual approved fashion (termed in Bush parlance a sticker-up'), before the brilliant wood fire, soon sent forth odours most grateful to the hungered way-worn Bushmen." <hw>Stilt</hw>, <i>n</i>. English bird-name. In New Zealand, the species are-- The Black Stilt-- <i>Himantopus novae-zelandiae</i>, Gould; Maori name, <i>Kaki</i>. Pied S., or Whiteheaded S.-- <i>H. leucocephalus</i>, Gould; Maori name, <i>Tutumata</i>. White-necked S.-- <i>H. albicollis</i>, Buller. <i>H. leucocephalus</i> (the <i>White-headed Stilt</i>) is also present in Australia, and the world-wide species, <i>H. pectoralis</i>, Du Bus. (the Banded Stilt), is found through all Australasia. <hw>Stingareeing</hw>, <i>n</i>. the sport of catching <i>Stingrays</i>, or <i>Stingarees</i>. 1872. Hutton and Hector, `Fishes of New Zealand,' p. 121: "It has been recently discovered by the writer of the animated article in the `Field' on Fishing in New Zealand [London, Nov. 25, 1871], that `stingareeing' can be made to afford sport of a most exciting kind." <hw>Stinging-tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Queensland name for the <i>Giant Nettle</i>, or <i>Nettle-tree</i> (q.v.) 1890. A. J. Vogan, `The Black Police,' p. 209: "The stinging-tree, . . . the most terrible of all vegetable growths. This horrible guardian of the Queensland jungle stands from five to fifteen feet in height, and has a general appearance somewhat similar to that of a small mulberry-tree. Their peculiarly soft and inviting aspect is caused by an almost invisible coating of microscopic cillia, and it is to these that the dangerous characteristics of the plant are due. The unhappy wanderer in these wilds, who allows any part of his body to come in contact with those beautiful, inviting tongues of green, soon finds them veritable tongues of fire, and it will be weeks, perhaps months, ere the scorching agony occasioned by their sting is entirely eradicated." <hw>Sting-moth</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian moth, <i>Doratifera vulnerans</i>. The larva has at each end of the body four tubercles bearing stinging hairs. (`Standard.') <hw>Stinkwood</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is given to various woods in different parts of the world, from their unpleasant smell. In Tasmania, it is applied to the timber of <i>Zieria smithii</i>, Andr., <i>N.O. Rutaceae</i>. 1832. J. Bischoff, `Van Diemen's Land,' p. 175: "The timber in this district I found to be principally myrtle, sassafras, and stinkwood." <hw>Stint</hw>, <i>n</i>. English bird-name. The Australian species are-- Curlew Stint-- <i>Tringa subarquata</i>, Gmel. Little S.-- <i>T. ruficollis</i>. Sharp-tailed S.-- <i>T. acuminata</i>, Horsf. <hw>Stitch-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bird of New Zealand. See quotation. 1885. Hugh Martin, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. xviii. art. xxii. p. 112: "<i>Pogonornis cincta</i> (Hihi, Matahiore, stitch-bird), North Island." [From a list of New Zealand birds that ought to be protected.] 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 101: "<i>Pogonornis cincta</i>, Gray. [A full description.]" 1889. Prof. Parker, `Catalogue of New Zealand Exhibition,' p. 119: "Stitch-bird (<i>Pogonornis cincta</i>), formerly abundant in the North Island, but now extinct on the main-land, and found only in some of the outlying islets. The rarest and one of the most beautiful of native Passerines." <hw>Stock</hw>, <i>n</i>. The word has many meanings. In the one from which the Australian compounds are made, it denotes horses, cattle, or sheep, the farmer's stock in trade. Of course, this use is not peculiar to Australia, but it is unusually common there. 1802. G. Barrington, `History of New South Wales,' c. ix. p. 320: "The cattle suffered much, and some of both the public and private stock perished." <hw>Stock-agent</hw>, <i>n</i>. more usually in the form Stock and Station-agent. The circumstances of Australian life make this a common profession. <hw>Stock-holder</hw>, <i>n</i>. a grazier; owner of large herds of cattle, or flocks of sheep. 1820. Lieut. Chas. Jeffreys, `Delineations of Van Dieman's Land' [sic], p. 25: "Near this is the residence of D. Rose, Esq., formerly an officer of the 73rd regiment, and now a large land and stockholder." 1824. E. Curr, `Account of Van Diemen's Land,' p. 83: "The most negligent stock-holders now carefully house their wool, and many take the trouble to wash their sheep." <hw>Stock-horse</hw>, <i>n</i>. horse accustomed to go after cattle used in mustering and cutting-out (q.v.). 1874. W. H. L. Ranken, `Dominion of Australia,' c. vi. p. 122: "The Australian stock-horse is a wonderful animal. . . . He has a wonderful constitution, splendid feet, great endurance, and very good temper." 1890. `The Argus,' June 14, p.4, col. 1: "A twenty-year-old stock-horse." <hw>Stock-hut</hw>, <i>n</i>. the hut of a stock-man. 1833. C. Sturt, `Southern Australia,' vol. ii. c. ii. p. 21: "We crossed the Underaliga creek a little below the stock-hut." <hw>Stock-keep</hw>, <i>v</i>. a quaint compound verb. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. x. p. 96 (1890): "`What can you do, young man?' `Well, most things . . . fence, split, milk, drive bullocks, stock-keep, plough." <hw>Stock-keeper</hw>, <i>n</i>. equivalent to a shepherd, or herdsman. 1821. Governor Macquarie, `Government Notice,' June 30, 1821, in E. Curr's `Van Diemen's Land' (1824), p. 154: "To yard the flocks at night . . . for the purpose of keeping the stock-keepers in check, and sufficient shepherds should be kept to ensure constant attention to the flock." 1828. Governor Arthur in J. Bischoff's `Van Diemen's Land,' 1832, p. 185: "Every kind of injury committed against the defenceless natives by the stock-keepers." <hw>Stock-man</hw>, <i>n</i>. used in Australia for a man employed to look after stock. 1821. Governor Macquarie, `Government Notice,' June 30, 1821, in E. Curr's `Van Diemen's Land' (edition 1824), p. 155: "It is the common practice with owners of flocks to allow their shepherds to acquire and keep sheep . . . it affords to the stock-men a cover frequently for disposing dishonestly of sheep belonging to their master." 1822. G. W. Evans, `Description of Van Diemen's Land,' p. 68: "At its junction there is a fine space, named by the stockmen Native Hut Valley." 1833. C. Sturt,' Southern Australia,'vol. i. c. i. p. 6: "He was good enough to send for the stockman (or chief herdsman)." 1846. J L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' vol. ii. c. xii. p. 402: "An exchange of looks I caught the overseer and stockman indulging in." 1854. W. Golder, `Pigeons' Parliament,' p. 96: "Here and there a stockman's cottage stands." 1882. A. J. Boyd, `Old Colonials,' p. 5: "Would you still exchange your comfortable home and warm fireside . . . for a wet blanket, a fireless camp, and all the other etceteras of the stockman's life?" 1886. H. C. Kendall, `Poems,' p. 17: "One stooped--a stockman from the nearer hills To loose his wallet strings." <hw>Stock-rider</hw>, <i>n</i>. a man employed to look after cattle, properly on an unfenced station. 1870. A. L. Gordon, `Bush Ballads' [Title]: "The Sick Stock-rider." 1892. Gilbert Parker, `Round the Compass in Australia,' p. 33: "`Thus far into the bowels of the land Have we marched on without impediment,' said a lithe-limbed stock-rider, bearded like a pard, as he lit his pipe--the bushman's only friend. And this was once a fellow of St. John's, Cambridge." <hw>Stock-riding</hw>, <i>n</i>. the occupation of a <i>Stock-rider</i> (q.v.). 1880. Fison and Howitt, `Kamilaroi and Kurnai,' p. 260 [Footnote]: "Like other Australian aborigines, the Kurnai have a natural aptitude for stock-riding." <hw>Stock-route</hw>, <i>n</i>. When land is first let in surveyed blocks to a <i>Squatter</i> (q.v.), and is, of course, unfenced, the lessee is required by law to leave passages through it from two to four chains wide, at certain intervals, as a right-of-way for travelling sheep and cattle. These are called Stock-routes. He may fence these routes if he chooses--which he very rarely does--but if he fences across the route he must provide gates or s<i>lip-rails</i> (q.v.), or other free passage. 1896. `The Argus,' May 21, p. 5, Col. 1: "To-day the Land Board dealt with the application for the re-appraisement of the Yantara pastoral holding. The manager said that owing to deterioration of the feed through the rabbits, from 9 to 10 acres were required to carry a sheep. . . . Thirteen trial wells had been put down on the holding, all of which had bottomed on a drift of salt water. Four stock routes passed through the area, one being the main stock route from South-western Queensland. . . . Wild dogs had been troublesome since the February rains. . . . There were Government bores on the run." 1896. A. B. Paterson, `Man from Snowy River,' p. 51: "Now Saltbush Bill was a drover tough, as ever the country knew, He had fought his way on the Great Stock Routes from the sea to the Big Barcoo." <hw>Stock-up</hw>, <i>v</i>. complete the number of animals on a station, so that it may carry its full complement. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Squatter's Dream,' c. vii. p. 68: "I shall decide to stock up as soon as the fences are finished." <hw>Stock-whip</hw>, <i>n</i>. whip for driving cattle. See quotations. 1857. W. Howitt, `Tallangetta,' vol. i. p. 100: "The stock-whip, with a handle about half a yard long and a thong of three yards long, of plaited bullock-hide, is a terrible instrument in the hands of a practised stockman. Its sound is the note of terror to the cattle; it is like the report of a blunderbuss, and the stockman at full gallop will hit any given spot on the beast that he is within reach of, and cut the piece away through the thickest hide that bull or bison ever wore." 1870. A. L. Gordon, `Bush Ballads,' p. 14: "With a running fire of stock-whips and a fiery run of hoofs." 1872. C. H. Eden, `My Wife and I in Queensland,' p. 76: "The stock-whip, which bears such a prominent part in all dealings with cattle, is from twelve to fourteen feet in length, with a short light handle of about fourteen inches long, to which it is attached by a leather keeper as on a hunting crop. . . . The whip is made of a carefully selected strip of green hide, great attention having been paid to curing it." <hw>Stocks-man</hw>, <i>n</i>. an unusual form for <i>Stock-man</i> (q.v.). 1862. F. J. Jobson, `Australia,' c. vi. p. 145: "We saw the stocksman seated upon his bony long-limbed steed." <hw>Stone-lifter</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Melbourne name for the fish <i>Kathetostoma laeve</i>, Bl., family T<i>rachinidae</i>, one of the genera of the "Stargazers" (<i>Uranoscopina</i>), which have eyes on the surface of the head. <hw>Stonewall</hw>, <i>v. intr</i>. (1) A Parliamentary term: to make use of the forms of the House so as to delay public business. (2) To obstruct business at any meeting, chiefly by long-winded speeches. (3) To play a slow game at cricket, blocking balls rather than making runs. 1876. `Victorian Hansard,' Jan., vol. xxii. p. 1387: "Mr. G. Paton Smith wished to ask the honourable member for Geelong West whether the six members sitting beside him (Mr. Berry) constituted the `stone wall' that had been spoken of? Did they constitute the stone wall which was to oppose all progress--to prevent the finances being dealt with and the business of the country carried on? It was like bully Bottom's stone wall. It certainly could not be a very high wall, nor a very long wall, if it only consisted of six." 1884. G. W. Rusden, `History of Australia,' vol. iii. p. 405: "Abusing the heroic words of Stonewall Jackson, the Opposition applied to themselves the epithet made famous by the gallant Confederate General." 1894. `The Argus,' Jan. 26, p. 3, col. 5: "The Tasmanians [sc. cricketers] do not as a rule stonewall." <hw>Stonewood</hw>, <i>n</i>. <i>Callistemon salignus</i>, De C., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>; called also the <i>River Tea-tree</i>. 1894. `Melbourne Museum Catalogue--Economic Woods,' No. 48: "Stonewood." <hw>Store</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bullock, cow, or sheep bought to be fattened for the market. 1874. W. H. L. Ranken, `Dominion of Australia,' c. xiii. p. 233: "They then, if `stores,' pass to the rich salt-bush country of Riverina." <hw>Store-cattle</hw>, <i>n</i>. lean cattle bought to be fattened for the market; often contracted to <i>stores</i> (q.v.). 1885. R. M. Praed, `Head-Station,' p. 74: "Oh, we're not fit for anything but store-cattle: we are all blady grass." <hw>Stranger</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given in Victoria and Tasmania to the <i>Rock-Whiting</i>, <i>Odax richardsoni</i>, Gunth., family <i>Labridae</i>. The <i>Stranger</i>, which is a marine fish, is caught occasionally in the fresher water of the upper estuary of the Derwent; hence its name. See <i>Whiting</i>. 1875. `Spectator' (Melbourne), June 19, 1881, p. 1: "Common fish such as . . . garfish, strangers, silvers, and others.' <hw>Stringy-bark</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) any one of various <i>Gums</i>, with a tough fibrous bark used for tying, for cordage, for roofs of huts, etc. 1845. J. O. Balfour, `Sketch of New South Wales,' p. 37: "The string bark [sic] tree is also useful, and its bark, which is of a fibrous texture, often more than an inch in thickness, parts easily from the wood, and may be obtained ten or twelve feet in length, and seven or eight in breadth." 1848. W. Westgarth, `Australia Felix,' p. 73: "The natives appear also to like the fruit of the pandanus, of which large quantities are found in their camps, soaking in water contained in vessels formed of stringy-bark." 1850. J. B. Clutterbuck, `Port Phillip in 1849,' p. 27: "In truth, the forests of Australia (consisting principally of woods of iron-bark, stringy-bark, and other species of the Eucalyptus) seen at a distance, just before sunset, are noble objects--perfect pictures." 1862. G. T. Lloyd, `Thirty-three Years in Tasmania and Victoria,' p. 29: "The stringy bark tree is so named from the ropy nature of its bark, which is frequently used for tying on the rods and thatch of sheds, huts, and barns in the country." 1862. W. Archer, `Products of Tasmania,' p. 39: "Gum-topped String-bark, sometimes called white gum (<i>Eucalyptus gigantea</i>, var.). A tree resembling the Blue Gum in foliage, with rough bark similar to Stringy Bark towards the stem." 1865. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `History of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia,' vol. i. p. 237: "Stringy-bark trees were also seen--so called, because the rough bark has a brown tenacious fibre, like that of the cocoanut, which can be split off in sheets to make the roofs of houses, or unravelled into a fibre that will tie like string." 1868. Carleton, `Australian Nights,' p. 2: "The mia-mia that the native dark Had formed from sheets of stringy bark." 1873. T. Laslett, `Timber and Timber Trees,' p. 204: "The Stringy-bark tree is of straight growth, and takes its name from the strip-like character of its bark. . . . The wood is of a brown colour, hard, heavy, strong and close in the grain. It works up well . . . in ship-building, for planking, beams, keels and keelsons, and in civil architecture for joists, flooring, etc. Upon the farms it is used for fences and agricultural implements: it is also employed for furniture and for all ordinary purposes." 1880. Fison and Howitt, `Kamilaroi and Kurnai,' p. 196: "Down to the waist they are all wound round with frayed stringy-bark in thick folds." 1894. `The Age,' Oct. 19, p. 5, col. 8: "Granite and stringy-bark are always associated with `hungry' country." (2) Bush slang for bad whisky. 1890. A. J. Vogan, `The Black Police,' p. 217: "<i>Stringy-bark</i>, a curious combination of fusil oil and turpentine, labelled `whisky.'" <hw>Stringy-bark</hw>, <i>adj</i>. equivalent to "bush." 1833. Oct. `New South Wales Magazine,' vol. 1. p. 173: ". . . the workmanship of which I beg you will not scrutinize, as I am but, to use a colonial expression, `a stringy-bark carpenter.'" 1853. C. Rudston Read, `What I Heard, Saw, and Did at the Australian Gold Fields,' p. 53: ". . . after swimming a small river about 100 yards wide he'd arrive at old Geordy's, a stringy bark settler . . ." <hw>Sturt's Desert Pea</hw>, <i>n</i>. a beautiful creeper, <i>Clianthus dampieri</i>, Cunn., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>, which will only grow in very dry, sandy soil. It is sometimes called <i>Lobster's Claw</i>, from its clusters of brilliant scarlet flowers with black-purple centres, like a lobster's claw. Called also <i>Glory Pea</i> (q.v.). See <i>Clianthus</i>. 1865. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `History of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia,' vol. i. p. 29: "Amongst which appears the beautiful Clianthus, known to the colonists as Sturt's desert pea." [Footnote]: "Woodward in `Dampier's Voyages,' vol. iii. cap. 4, pl. 2. The plant is there called <i>Colutea Novae-Hollandiae</i>. Its name now is <i>Clianthus Dampieri</i>. R. Brown proposed the name of <i>Eremocharis</i>, from the Greek <i>'eraemos</i>, desert." [Dampier's voyage was made in 1699, and the book published in 1703. Mr. Woodward contributed notes on the plants brought home by Dampier.] <hw>Stump-jump Plough</hw>, <i>n</i>. a farm implement, invented in Australia, for ploughing the wheat-lands, which are often left with the stumps of the cleared trees not eradicated. 1896. `Waybrook Implement Company' (Advt.): "It is only a very few years since it came into use, and no one ever thought it was going to turn a trackless scrub into a huge garden. But now from the South Australian border right through to the Murray, farms and comfortable homesteads have taken the place of dense scrub. This last harvest, over three hundred thousand bags of wheat were delivered at Warracknabeal, and this wonderful result must, in the main, be put down to the Stump-jump Plough. It has been one of the best inventions this colony has ever been blessed with." <hw>Stump-tailed Lizard</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian lizard, <i>Trachydosaurus rugosus</i>, Gray. <hw>Styphelia</hw>, <i>n</i>. scientific name of a genus of shrubby plants of New Zealand and Australia, of the <i>N.O. Epacrideae</i>. It contains the <i>Five-Corners</i> (q.v.). 1793. J. E. Smith, `Specimen of the Botany of New Holland,' p. 46: "We adopt Dr. Solander's original name <i>Styphelia</i>, derived from <i>stuphelos</i>, harsh, hard, or firm, expressive of the habit of the whole genus and indeed of the whole natural order." <hw>Sucker</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given in New Zealand to the fish <i>Diplocrepis puniceus</i>, Rich., family <i>Gobiesocidae</i>. This is a family of small, marine, littoral fishes provided with a ventral disc, or adhesive apparatus. Other genera of the family occur in Australasia. <hw>Sugar</hw>, <i>n</i>. slang for money. It may be doubted if it is specially Australian. 1887. J. Bonwick, `Romance of Wool Trade,' p. 273 (quoting `Victoria, the El Dorado'): "I hear him sing out `sold again, and got the sugar' (a colonial slang word for ready money); `half a sheep for a shilling.'" <hw>Sugar-Ant</hw>, <i>n</i>. a small ant, known in many parts of Australia by this name because of its fondness for sweet things. 1896. `The Melbournian,' Aug. 28, p. 53: "The sun reaches a sugar-ant and rouses him from his winter sleep. Out he scurries, glad to greet the warmth, and tracks hurriedly around. He feels the sun, but the cold damp ground tells him the time is not yet come when at evening he will sally forth in long columns over the soft warm dust in search of the morrow's meal; so, dazzled by the unaccustomed glare, he seeks his hiding-place once more." <hw>Sugar-bag</hw>, <i>n</i>. nest of honey, and the honey. 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 67: "The regular sharp chop-chop of the tomahawks could be heard here and there, where some of them had discovered a sugar-bag (nest of honey) or a 'possum on a tree." Ibid. vol. ii. p. 129: "The tiny bee which manufactures his adored chewgah-bag." [Footnote: "Sugar-bag--the native pigeon-English word for honey."] <hw>Sugar-Grass</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian grass, <i>Erianthus fulvus</i>, Kunth., <i>N.O. Gramineae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 106: "The `Sugar Grass' of colonists, so called on account of its sweetness; it is highly productive, and praised by stockowners. Cattle eat it close down, and therefore it is in danger of extermination, but it is readily raised from seed." <hw>Sugar-Gum</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian Gum, <i>Eucalyptus corynocalyx</i> of South Australia and North-Western Victoria. The foliage is sweet, and attractive to cattle. See <i>Gum</i>. <hw>Sultana-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name for the <i>Swamp-Hen</i> (q.v.), <i>Porphyrio melanonotus</i>, Temm. 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' p. 223: "Black sultana-birds, blue-breasted as deep ocean." <hw>Summer-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. the Old Colonists' name for the <i>Wood-swallows</i>. See <i>Swallow</i>. In Tasmania it is applied to a species of Shrike, <i>Graucalus melanops</i>, Lath. The name refers to the migratory habits of both birds. 1895. C. French, Government entomologist, letter to `Argus,' Nov. 29: "The wood-swallows, known to us old colonists as summer birds, are migratory, making their appearance about September and disappearing about the end of January." <hw>Summer Country</hw>, <i>n</i>. In New Zealand (South Island), country which can be used in summer only; mountain land in Otago and Canterbury, above a certain level. <hw>Sun-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. a common name of various birds. Applied in Australia to <i>Cinnyris frenata</i>, Mull. 1869. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia' (Supplement), pl. 45: "`This pretty Sun-bird,' says Mr. MacGillivray, `appears to be distributed along the whole of the northeast coast of Australia, the adjacent islands, and the whole of the islands in Torres Straits.'" <hw>Sundew</hw>, <i>n</i>. There are many species of this flower in Australia and Tasmania, most of them peculiar to Australasia; <i>Drosera</i> spp., <i>N.O. Droseraceae</i>. 1888. `Cassell's Picturesque Australasia,' vol. ii. p. 236: "Smooth, marshy meadows, gleaming with the ruby stars of millions of tiny little sundews." <hw>Sundowner</hw>, <i>n</i>. a tramp who takes care to arrive at a station at sundown, so that he shall be provided with `<i>tucker</i>' (q.v.) at the squatter's cost: one of those who go about the country seeking work and devoutly hoping they may not find it. 1880. G. <i>n</i>. Oakley, in `Victoria in 1880,' p. 114 [Title of poem of seventeen stanzas]: "<i>The Sundowner</i>." 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 32: "When the real `sundowner' haunts these banks for a season, he is content with a black pannikin, a clasp knife, and a platter whittled out of primaeval bark." 1890. `The Argus,' Sept. 20, p. 13, col. 5: "Sundowners are still the plague of squatocracy, their petition for `rashons' and a bed amounting to a demand." 1891. F. Adams, `John Webb's End,' p. 34: "`Swagsmen' too, genuine, or only `sundowners,'--men who loaf about till sunset, and then come in with the demand for the unrefusable `rations.'" 1892. `Scribner's Magazine,' Feb., p. 143: "They swell the noble army of swagmen or sundowners, who are chiefly the fearful human wrecks which the ebbing tide of mining industry has left stranded in Australia." [This writer does not differentiate between <i>Swagman</i> (q.v.) and <i>Sundowner</i>.] 1893. `Sydney Morning Herald,' Aug. 12, p. 8, col. 7: "Numbers of men who came to be known by the class name of `sundowners,' from their habit of straggling up at fall of evening with the stereotyped appeal for work; and work being at that hour impossible, they were sent to the travellers' hut for shelter and to the storekeeper or cook for the pannikin of flour, the bit of mutton, the sufficiency of tea for a brew, which made up a ration." 1896. `Windsor Magazine,' Dec., p. 132: "`Here,' he remarked, `is a capital picture of a Queensland sundowner.' The picture represented a solitary figure standing in pathetic isolation on a boundless plain. `A sundowner?' I queried. `Yes; the lowest class of nomad. For days they will tramp across the plains carrying, you see, their supply of water. They approach a station only at sunset, hence the name. At that hour they know they will not be turned away.' `Do they take a day's work?' `Not they! There is an old bush saying, that the sundowner's one request is for work, and his one prayer is that be may not find it.'" <hw>Super</hw>, <i>n</i>. short for superintendent, sc. of a station. 1870. A. L. Gordon, `Bush Ballads,' p. 23: "What's up with our super to-night? The man's mad." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. ix. p. 83: "That super's a growlin' ignorant beggar as runs a feller from daylight to dark for nothing at all." 1890. `The Argus,' June 10, p. 4, col. 1: "He . . . bragged of how he had bested the super who tried to `wing him' in the scrub." <hw>Superb-Dragon</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian marine fish, <i>Phyllopteryx foliatus</i>, Shaw. See <i>Sea-Dragon</i>. 1880. Mrs. Meredith, `Tasmanian Friends and Foes,' pl. 7: "`Superb-Dragon--Phyllopteryx Foliatus.' This is one of the `Pipe fishes,' order <i>Lophobranchii</i>. It has been compared to the ghost of a seahorse (<i>Hippocampus</i>) with its winding sheet all in ribbons around it; and the tattered cerements are like in shape and colour to the seaweed it frequents, so that it hides and feeds in safety. The long ends of ribs which seem to poke through the skin to excite our compassion are really `protective resemblances,' and serve to allure the prey more effectually within reach of these awful ghouls. Just as the leaf-insect is imitative of a leaf, and the staff insect of a twig, so here is a fish like a bunch of seaweed. (Tenison-Woods.)" [Compare <i>Phasmid</i>.] <hw>Superb-Warbler</hw>, <i>n</i>. any Australian bird of the genus <i>Malurus</i> (q.v.), especially <i>M. cyaneus</i>, the <i>Blue Wren</i>. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 80: "We also observed the Superb Warbler, <i>Malurus cyaneus</i>, of Sydney." 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. iii. pl. 18: "<i>Malurus Cyaneus</i>, Vieill., Blue Wren; Superb Warbler of the Colonists." 1896. F. G. Aflalo, `Natural History of Australia,' p. 136: "The best known are . . . and the <i>Blue Wren</i> or <i>Superb Warbler</i> (<i>Malurus cyaneus</i>), both of which I have repeatedly watched in the Sydney Botanic Gardens. . . . They dart about the pathways like mice, but rarely seem to fly. There are a dozen other Superb Warblers." <hw>Supple-jack</hw>, <i>n</i>. The word is English in the sense of a strong cane, and is the name of various climbing shrubs from which the canes are cut; especially in America. In Australia, the name is given to similar creeping plants, viz.--<i>Ventilago viminalis</i>, Hook., <i>N.O. Rhamnaceae</i>; <i>Clematis aristata</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Ranunculaceae</i>. In New Zealand, to <i>Ripogonum</i> (spp.). 1818. `History of New South Wales,' p. 47: "The underwood is in general so thick and so bound together by that kind of creeping shrub called supple-jack, interwoven in all directions, as to be absolutely impenetrable." 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 218: "After a tedious march . . . along a track constantly obstructed by webs of the kareau, or supple-jack, we came to the brow of a descent." 1857. C. Hursthouse, `New Zealand, the Britain of the South,' vol. i. p. 135: "Supple-jack snares, root-traps, and other parasitical impediments." 1867. F. Hochstetter, `New Zealand,' p. 135: "Two kinds of creepers extremely molesting and troublesome, the so-called `supple-jack' of the colonists (<i>Ripogonum parviflorum</i>), in the ropelike creeping vines of which the traveller finds himself every moment entangled." 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' p. 11: "The tangles black Of looped and shining supple jack." 1874. W. M. B., `Narrative of Edward Crewe,' p. 199: The supple-jack, that stopper to all speedy progression in the New Zealand forest." 1881. J.L. Campbell, `Poenamo,' p. 154: "Forty or fifty feet of supple-jack. This creeper is of the thickness of your finger, and runs along the ground, and goes up the trees and springs across from one tree to the other, spanning great gaps in some mysterious manner of its own--a tough, rascally creeper that won't break, that you can't twist in two, that you must cut, that trips you by the foot or the leg, and sometimes catches you by the neck . . . so useful withal in its proper places." 1882. T. H. Potts, `Out in the Open,' p. 71: "Threading with somewhat painful care intricacies formed by loops and snares of bewildering supple-jacks, that living study of Gordian entanglement, nature-woven, for patient exercise of hand and foot." 1892. A. Sutherland, `Elementary Geography of British Colonies,' p. 309: "Laced together by creepers called supple-jacks, which twine and twist for hundreds of yards, with stems as thick as a man's wrist, so as to make the forests impassable except with axes and immense labour." <hw>Surfacing</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) Wash-dirt lying on the surface of the ground. (2) <i>verbal n</i>. Gold-digging on the surface of the ground. 1861. T. McCombie, `Australian Sketches,' p. 133: "What is termed `surfacing' consists of simply washing the soil on the surface of the ground, which is occasionally auriferous." 1861. Mrs. Meredith, `Over the Straits,' c. iv. p. 133: "I've been surfacing this good while; but quartz-reefin's the payinest game, now." 1866. T. McCombie, `Australian Sketches' [Second Series], p. 133: "What is termed `surfacing' consists of simply washing the soil on the surface of the ground, which is occasionally auriferous." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Miner's Right,' c. xv. p. 153: "They have been mopping up some rich surfacing." 1894. `The Argus,' March 28, p. 5. col. 5: "`Surfacing' or `loaming.' Small canvas bags are carried by the prospector, and top soil from various likely-looking spots gathered and put into them, the spots being marked to correspond with the bags. The contents are then panned off separately, and if gold is found in any one of the bags the spot is again visited, and the place thoroughly overhauled, even to trenching for the reef." <hw>Swag</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) Used in the early days, and still by the criminal class, in the ordinary sense of Thieves' English, as booty, plunder. 1837. J. Mudie, `Felonry of New South Wales,' p. 181: "In short, having brought with her a supply of the `swag,' as the convicts call their ill-gotten cash, a wife seldom fails of having her husband assigned to her, in which case the transported felon finds himself his own master." 1879. R. H. Barham, `Ingoldsby Legends' (Misadventures at Margate): "A landsman said, `I <i>twig</i> the drop,--he's been upon the mill, And `cause he <i>gammons</i> so the <i>flats</i>, ve calls him Veepin' Bill.' He said `he'd done me very brown, and neatly <i>stowed</i> the <i>swag</i>,' -That's French, I fancy, for a hat,--or else a carpet-bag." (2) A special Australian use: a tramp's bundle, wrapt up in a blanket, called a <i>Bluey</i> (q.v.). Used also for a passenger's luggage. 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. ii. p. 59: "A number of the slang phrases current in St. Giles's <i>Greek</i> bid fair to become legitimatized in the dictionary of this colony: <i>plant, swag</i>, <i>pulling up</i>, and other epithets of the Tom and Jerry school, are established--the dross passing here as genuine, even among all ranks." 1853. S. Sidney, `Three Colonies of Australia,' p. 361: "His leathern overalls, his fancy stick, and his `swag' done up in mackintosh." 1855. W. Howitt, `Two Years in Victoria,' vol. i. p. 384: "There were others with huge swags suspended from a pole, with which they went on, like the Children of Israel carrying the gigantic bunches of the grapes of Canaan." 1865. J. O. Tucker, `Australian Story,' c. i. p. 86: "The cumbrous weight of blankets that comprised my swag." 1867. Lady Barker, `Station Life in New Zealand,' p. 127: "A pair of large double blankets to make the tent of,--that was one swag, and a very unwieldy one it was, strapped knapsack fashion, with straps of flax leaves." 1868. J. Bonwick, `John Batman, Founder of Victoria,' p. 51: "Three white men, the Sydney natives, and Batman, who carried his swag the same as the rest, all armed." 1871. C. L. Money, `Knocking About in New Zealand,' p. 9: "With my rug and blankets on my back (such a bundle being called a `swag')." 1873. A. Trollope, `Australia and New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 285: "Swag, which consists of his personal properties rolled up in a blanket." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 33: "His cumbrous attire and the huge swag which lay across the seat." 1888. A. Reischek, in Buller's `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. ii. p. 93: "With the hope that there would now be a few fine days, I at once packed up my swag with provisions, ammunition, blanket, &c." 1892. `The Australasian,' May 7, p. 903, col. 1: "Kenneth, in front, reminded me comically of Alice's White Knight, what with the billies dancing and jingling on his back, and the tomahawk in his belt, and his large swag in front." 1896. H. Lawson, `When the World was Wide,' p. 95: "I suppose he's tramping somewhere, Where the bushmen carry swags, Cadging round the wretched stations With his empty tucker-bags." <hw>Swag</hw>, <i>v</i>. to tramp the bush, carrying a swag. 1861. T. McCombie, `Australian Sketches,' p. 5: "There was the solitary pedestrian, with the whole of his supplies, consisting of a blanket and other necessary articles, strapped across his shoulders--this load is called the `swag,' and the mode of travelling `swagging it.'" <hw>Swag-like</hw>, <i>adv</i>. in the fashion of a swag. 1890. `The Argus,' Aug. 2, p. 4, col. 2: "He strapped the whole lot together, swag-like." <hw>Swagger</hw>, <i>n</i>. Same as <i>Swagman</i> (q.v.). Specially used in New Zealand. The word has also the modern English slang sense. 1875. Lady Barker, `Station Amusements in New Zealand,' p. 154: "Describing the real swagger, clad in flannel shirt, moleskin trowsers, and what were once thick boots." 1890. `The Century,' vol. xli. p. 624 (`Century'): "Under the name of swagger or sundowner the tramp, as he moves from station to station in remote districts, in supposed search for work, is a recognized element of society." 1893. `Otago Witness,' Dec. 21, p. 6, col. 3: "Once a footsore swagger came along, and having gone to the house to ask for `tucker,' soon returned. He took his swag from his shoulders and leant it against the Tree; then he busied himself gathering the small sticks and dried leaves lying about on every side." 1896. `The Argus,' March 23, p.5, col. 1: "The minister's house is the sure mark for every stone-broke swagger in search of clothes or victuals." 1896. `Southern Standard' (New Zealand), [page not given]: "An ardent young lady cyclist of Gore, who goes very long journeys on her machine, was asked by a lady friend if she was not afraid of swaggers on the road. `Afraid of them?' she said, `why, I take tea with them!'" 1896. `The Champion,' Jan. 4, p. 3, col. 3: "He [Professor Morris] says that `swagger' is a variant of `swagman.' This is equally amusing and wrong." [Nevertheless, he now says it once again.] <hw>Swaggie</hw>, <i>n</i>. a humorous variation on swagman. 1892. E. W. Horning, `Under Two Skies,' p. 109: "Here's a swaggie stopped to camp, with flour for a damper, and a handful of tea for the quart-pot, as safe as the bank." <hw>Swagman</hw>, <i>n</i>. a man travelling through the bush carrying a <i>Swag</i> (q.v.), and seeking employment. There are variants, <i>Swagger</i> (more general in New Zealand), <i>Swaggie</i>, and <i>Swagsman</i>. The <i>Sundowner</i>, <i>Traveller</i>, or New Zealand <i>Tussocker</i>, is not generally a seeker for work. 1890. `The Argus,' June 7, p. 4, col. 2: "The regular swagman carrying his ration bags, which will sometimes contain nearly twenty days' provender in flour and sugar and tea." 1891. Rolf Boldrewood, `A Sydney-side Saxon,' p. 156: "We pulled up a swagman. He was walking very slow; he was a bit lame too. His swag wasn't heavy, for he had only a rag of a blue blanket, a billy of water in his hand, and very little else." 1893. `The Herald' (Melbourne), Jan. 25: "Under the electric light in the quadrangle of the Exhibition they will give tableaux, representing the murder of a swagman by a native and the shooting of the criminal by a black tracker." 1897. `The Argus,' Jan. 11, p. 7, col. 2: "The Yarra has claimed many swagman in the end, but not all have died in full travelling costume . . . a typical back-blocks traveller. He was grey and grizzled, but well fed, and he wore a Cardigan jacket, brown moleskin trousers, blucher boots, and socks, all of which were mended with rough patches. His knife and tobacco, his odds and ends, and his purse, containing 14 1/2d., were still intact, while across his shoulder was a swag, and the fingers of his right hand had tightly closed round the handle of his old black billy-can, in which were some scraps of meat wrapped in a newspaper of the 5th inst. He had taken with him his old companions of the roads--his billy and his swag." <hw>Swagsman</hw>, <i>n</i>. a variant of <i>Swagman</i> (q.v.). 1879 J. Brunton Stephens, `Drought and Doctrine' (Works, p. 309): "Rememberin' the needful, I gets up an' quietly slips To the porch to see--a swagsman--with our bottle at his lips." 1880. G. Sutherland, `Tales of Goldfields,' p. 89: "One of these prospecting swagsmen was journeying towards Maryborough." 1882. A. J. Boyd, `Old Colonials,' p. 111: "Idleness being the mainspring of the journeys of the Swagsman (Anglice, `tramp')." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. xix. p. 235: "The able-bodied swagsmen hasten towards Rainbar." <hw>Swallow</hw>, <i>n</i>. common English bird-name. The species observed in Australia are-- The Swallow-- <i>Hirundo neoxena</i>, Gould. Black-and-white S.-- <i>Cheramaeca leucosternum</i>, Gould. Black-faced Wood S.-- <i>Artamus melanops</i>, Gould. Eastern S.-- <i>Hirundo javanica</i>, Sparrm. Grey-breasted Wood S.-- <i>Artamus cinereus</i>, Vieill. Little Wood S.-- <i>A. minor</i>, Vieill. Masked Wood S.-- <i>Artamus personatus</i>, Gould. White-bellied Wood S.-- <i>A. hypoleucus</i>. White-browed Wood S.-- <i>A. superciliosus</i>, Gould. White-rumped Wood S.-- <i>A. leucogaster</i>, Valenc. Wood S.-- <i>A. sordidus</i>, Lath. <i>Artamus</i> is often wrongly spelt <i>Artemus</i>. The <i>Wood-Swallows</i> are often called <i>Summer-birds</i> (q.v.). <hw>Swamp-Broom</hw>, <i>n</i>. a rush-broom, <i>Viminaria denudata</i>, Sm., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>. See <i>Swamp-Oak</i>. <hw>Swamp-Daisy-tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Daisy-tree</i>. <hw>Swamp-Gum</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Gum</i>. <hw>Swamp-Hawk</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the New Zealand <i>Harrier</i>. See <i>Harrier</i>. <hw>Swamp-Hen</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australasian bird, <i>Porphyrio melanonotus</i>, Temm. (often incorrectly shortened to <i>Melanotus</i>). Called sometimes the <i>Porphyrio</i> (q.v.); Maori name, <i>Pukeko</i>. Called also the <i>Swamp-Turkey</i>, the <i>Purple Coot</i>, and by New Zealand colonists, <i>Sultana-bird</i>, <i>Pukaki</i>, or <i>Bokaka</i>, the last two being corruptions of the Maori name. For a West-Australian variety of the <i>Porphyrio</i>, see quotation (1848). 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' c. i. p. 228: "The pukeko is of a dark-blue colour, and about as large as a pheasant. The legs, the bill, and a horny continuation of it over the front of the head, are of a bright crimson colour. Its long legs adapt it for its swampy life; its flight is slow and heavy, resembling that of a bittern." 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. vi. pl. 70: "<i>Porphyrio Bellus</i>, Gould, Azure breasted <i>Porphyrio</i>; Swamp-Hen, Colonists of Western Australia." 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. ii. p. 79: [A full description.] <hw>Swamp-Mahogany</hw>, <i>n</i>. a timber tree, <i>Eucalyptus botryoides</i>, Sm. See <i>Gum</i> and <i>Mahogany</i>. 1886. T. Heney, `Fortunate Days,' p. 50: "Swamp mahogany's floor-flowered arms." <hw>Swamp-Oak</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) A broomlike leguminous shrub or small tree, <i>Viminaria denudata</i>, Sm. (also called <i>Swamp-broom</i>). (2) A tree of the genus <i>Casuarina</i>, especially <i>C. paludosa</i>. See <i>Oak</i>. 1833. C. Sturt, I Southern Australia,'vol. i. c. i. p. 53: "Light brushes of swamp-oak, cypress, box and acacia pendula." 1847. J. D. Lang, `Phillipsland,' p. 257: "Its banks (Murrumbidgee) are fringed with the beautiful swamp-oak, a tree of the <i>Casuarina</i> family, with a form and character somewhat intermediate between that of the spruce and that of the Scotch fir, being less formal and Dutch-like than the former, and more graceful than the latter." 1865. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `History of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia,' vol. i. p. 324: "A stream, whose winding channel could be traced by the particularly dark verdure of the swamp-oak (<i>Casuarina paludosa</i>) on its banks." 1866. Miss Parkes, `Poems,' p. 40: "Your voice came to me, soft and distant seeming, As comes the murmur of the swamp-oak's tone." 1870. F. S. Wilson, `Australian Songs,' p. 100: "Softly the swamp-oak Muttered its sorrows to her and to me." 1883. C. Harpur, `Poems,' p. 47: "Befringed with upward tapering feathery swamp-oaks." <hw>Swamp-Pheasant</hw>, <i>n</i>. called also <i>Pheasant-cuckoo</i>. Another name for the <i>Coucal</i> (q.v.). 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 60: "A <i>Centropus phasianellus</i> (the swamp-pheasant of Moreton Bay) was shot." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 116: "Far down the creek, on one of the river-oaks which grow in its bed, a swamp-pheasant utters its rapid coocoo-coo-coo-coo- coo-cook." 1887. R. M. Praed, `Longleat of Kooralbyn,' c. xvi. p. 102: "The gurgling note of the swamp-pheasant." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 94: "The bird <i>Centropus</i>, which is common in all Queensland, is found here in great numbers. Although it really is a cuckoo, the colonists call it the `swamp-pheasant,' because it has a tail like a pheasant. It is a very remarkable bird with stiff feathers, and flies with difficulty on account of its small wings. The swamp-pheasant has not the family weakness of the cuckoo, for it does not lay its eggs in the nests of other birds. It has a peculiar clucking voice which reminds one of the sound produced when water is poured from a bottle." <hw>Swamp-Sparrow</hw>, <i>n</i>. a nickname in New Zealand for the <i>Fern-bird</i> (q.v.). 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 60: "These beds of rushes which form blind water-courses during the winter season, are dry in summer and are then a favourite resort for the Swamp-Sparrow as this bird is sometimes called." Ibid. vol. ii. p. 255: "The melancholy cry of the Fern-bird is so general and persistent that its nick-name of Swamp Sparrow is not undeserved." <hw>Swan, Black</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian bird--<i>Cycnus niger</i>, Juvenal; <i>Cygnus atratus</i>, Gould; <i>Chenopsis atrata</i>, Wagl., sometimes miscalled <i>Chenopis</i>. The river upon which Perth, Western Australia, is situated, is called the Swan River, and the colony was long known as the Swan River Settlement. It has expanded into Western Australia, the emblem of which colony is still the <i>Black Swan</i>. Since 1855 the <i>Black Swan</i> has been the device on the postage stamps of Western Australia. 82 A.D. (circiter). `Juvenal, Sat.' vi. 164: "Rara avis in terris nigroque simillima cycno." 1700 (circiter). J. Locke, in `Johnson's Dictionary' (9th edition, 1805), s.v. Swan: "The idea which an Englishman signifies by the name Swan, is a white colour, long neck, black beak, black legs, and whole feet, and all these of a certain size, with a power of swimming in the water, and making a certain kind of noise." 1789. Governor Phillip, `Voyage,' p. 98: "A black swan, which species, though proverbially rare in other parts of the world, is here by no means uncommon . . . a very noble bird, larger than the common swan, and equally beautiful in form . . . its wings were edged with white: the bill was tinged with red." 1790. J. White, `Voyage to New South Wales,' p. 137: "We found nine birds, that, whilst swimming, most perfectly resembled the <i>rara avis</i> of the ancients, a black swan." 1802. G. Barrington, `History of New South Wales,' p. 146: "Large ponds covered with ducks and black swans." 1847. J. D. Lang, `Phillipsland,' p. 115: "These extensive sheets of glassy water . . . were absolutely alive with black swans and other water fowl . . . There must have been at least five hundred swans in view at one time on one of the lakes. They were no `rara avis' there." 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. vii. pl. 6: "<i>Cygnus Atratus</i>, Black Swan. The first notice on record respecting the existence of the Black Swan occurs in a letter written by Mr. Witsen to Dr. M. Lister about the year 1698, in which he says, `Here is returned a ship, which by our East India Company was sent to the south land called <i>Hollandea Nova</i>'; and adds that Black Swans, Parrots and many Sea-Cows were found there." 1856. J. S. Mill, `Logic' [4th edition], vol. i. bk. iii. c. iii. p. 344: "Mankind were wrong, it seems, in concluding that all swans were white. . . . As there were black swans, though civilized people had existed for three thousand years on the earth without meeting with them." 1875. `Spectator' (Melbourne), May 29, p. 45, col. 3: "The presence of immense flocks of black swans is also regarded as an indication of approaching cold weather." 1882. T. H. Potts, `Out in the Open,' p. 22: "The musical whoop of the black swan is sometimes heard as the wedge-shaped flock passes over." 1895. G. Metcalfe, `Australian Zoology,' p. 64: "Strzelecki states that the black swan was discovered in 1697 by Vlaming. . . . In 1726 two were brought alive to Batavia, having been procured on the West Coast of Australia, near Dirk Hartog's Bay. Captain Cook observed it on several parts of the coast." <hw>Swan-River Daisy</hw>, <i>n</i>. a pretty annual plant, <i>Brachycome iberidifolia</i>, Benth., <i>N.O. Compositae</i>, of Western Australia. The heads are about an inch broad, and have bright blue rays, with paler centre. It is cultivated in flower gardens, and is well suited for massing. (`Century.') <hw>Sweep</hw>, <i>n</i>. a marine fish of the Australian coasts, called by this name in Sydney. It is <i>Scorpis aequipinnis</i>, Richards., family <i>Squamipinnes</i>. This family has the soft, and frequently also the spinous, part of their dorsal and anal fins so thickly covered with scales, that the boundary between fins and body is entirely obliterated. <i>S. aequippinnis</i> is possibly the <i>Light-horseman</i> (q.v.) of early Australian writers. <hw>Sweet Tea</hw>. See <i>Tea</i>. <hw>Swift</hw>, <i>n</i>. In Australia, the species of this common bird are--Spine-tailed Swift, <i>Chaetura caudacuta</i>, Lath.; White-rumped S., <i>Micropus pacificus</i>, Lath. <hw>Swing-gate</hw>, <i>n</i>. Used in its ordinary English sense, but specially applied to a patent gate for drafting sheep, invented by Mr. Lockhart Morton. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Squatter's Dream,' c. ix. p. 91: "Mr. Stangrove . . . has no more idea of a swing-gate than a shearing-machine." <hw>Sword-grass</hw>, <i>n</i>. In New Zealand, <i>Arundo conspicua</i>; in Australia, <i>Cladium psittacorum</i>, Labill. It is not the same as the English plant of that name, and is often called <i>Cutting Grass</i> (q.v.). 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' p. 172: "The great plumes far and wide of the sword-grass aspire." <hw>Sword-Sedge</hw>, a sedge on Australian coasts, <i>Lepidosperma gladiatum</i>, Labill., <i>N.O. Cyperaceae</i>, useful for binding sea-sand, and yielding a good material for paper. 1877. Baron von Mueller, `Botanic Teachings,' p. 124: "Lepidosperma is nearly endemically Australian. Lepidosperma gladiatum, the great Swords-edge [sic] of our coasts, furnishes an admirable material for writing paper." [It is curious that <i>Swords-edge</i> makes most ingenious sense, but it is evidently a misprint for Sword-sedge.] <hw>Sycamore Tree</hw>. See <i>Laurel</i>. In New South Wales, the name is given to <i>Brachyciton luridus</i>, C. Moore, <i>N.O. Sterculiaceae</i>. <hw>Sycoceric</hw>, <i>adj</i>. belonging to a waxy resin obtained from the <i>Port-Jackson Fig</i>; see under <i>Fig</i>. (From Grk. <i>sukon</i>, "fig," and <i>kaeros</i>, "wax.") <hw>Sycoceryl</hw>, <i>n</i>. a supposed element of the sycoceric compounds. See <i>Sycoceric</i>. T <hw>Taboo</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Tapu</i>. <hw>Tagrag-and-Bobtail</hw>, <i>n</i>. a species of sea-weed. See quotation. 1866. S. Hannaford, `Wild Flowers of Tasmania,' p. 80: "It is a wiry-stemmed plant, with small mop-like tufts, which hold water like a sponge. This is <i>Bellotia Eriophorum</i>, the specific name derived from its resemblance to the cotton-grass. Harvey mentions its colonial name as `<i>Tagrag and Bobtail</i>,' and if it will enable collectors the more easily to recognise it, let it be retained." <hw>Taiaha</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Maori word for a chief's walking-staff, a sign of office, sometimes used in fighting, like a quarterstaff. 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 139: "The men are placed at equal intervals along either side to paddle, and they keep excellent stroke to the song of two leaders, who stand up and recite short alternate sentences, giving the time with the taiaha, or long wooden spear. The taiaha is rather a long-handled club than a spear. It is generally made of manuka, a very hard, dark, close-grained and heavy wood. The taiaha is about six feet long, etc." 1851. Mrs. Wilson, `New Zealand,' p. 46: "The taiaha is rather a long-handled club than a spear." 1855. Rev. R. Taylor, `Te Ika a Maui,' p. 299: "A taiaha, or chiefs staff." 1881. J. L. Campbell, `Poenamo,' p. 80: "In his right hand he brandished a taiaha, a six-foot Maori broadsword of hard wood, with its pendulous plume of feathers hanging from the hilt." 1889. Major Wilson and Edward Tregear, `On the Korotangi,' `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. xxii. art. lxii. p. 505: "Many famous tribal heirlooms are hidden and lost to posterity. The Rev. Mr. Buller mentions a famous taiaha, of great mana, as having been buried and lost in this way, lest it should fall into the power of opposing tribes, and cause disaster to the original owner." <hw>Taihoa</hw>, Maori phrase, meaning "Wait a bit." Much used in some circles in New Zealand. The `Standard' gives it wrongly as "Anglo-Tasmanian," probably because Mr. Wade's book was published in Hobart. 1842. W. R. Wade, `Journey in New Zealand' (Hobart Town), p.66: "`Taihoa.' This word has been translated, By and by; but in truth, it has all the latitude of directly,--presently, --by and by,--a long time hence,--and nobody knows when . . . the deliberate reply is, `Taihoa'. . . this patience-trying word. . . ." 1881. J. L. Campbell, `Poenamo,' p. 87: "That irritatingly provoking word, `taihoa.'" [p. 88]: "The drawled-out t-a-i-h-o-a fell upon the ear." [p. 266] [Title of chapter]: "I learn what Taihoa means." [p.271]: "Great is the power of taihoa." [p. 276]: "The imperturbable taihoa, given to us with the ordinary placid good-humour." <hw>Tail</hw>, <i>v. tr</i>. to herd and tend sheep or cattle: lit. to follow close behind the tail. 1844. `Port Phillip Patriot,' Aug. 5, p. 3, col. 6: "I know many boys, from the age of nine to sixteen years, tailing cattle." 1855. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes,' p. 153: "The stockman, as he who tends cattle and horses is called, despises the shepherd as a grovelling, inferior creature, and considers `tailing sheep' as an employment too tardigrade for a man of action and spirit." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. xix. p. 239: "`The cattle,' no longer `tailed,' or followed daily, as a shepherd does sheep." <hw>Tailing</hw>, <i>adj</i>. consisting of <i>tailings</i> (q.v.). 1890. `Goldfields of Victoria,' p. 21: "From recent assays of the tailing-sand, scarcely one quarter of the pyrites has been extracted." <hw>Tailings</hw>, <i>n</i>. "The detritus carried off by water from a crushing machine, or any gold-washing apparatus." (Brough Smyth, `Glossary of Mining Terms.') Not limited to Australia. 1891. `The Argus,' June 16, p. 6, col. 2: "A hundred and fifty tons of tailings are treated at the Sandhurst pyrites works every month." <hw>Tailor</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given in New South Wales to the fish <i>Temnodon saltator</i>, Cuv. and Val. It is called <i>Skipjack</i> (q.v.) in Melbourne, a name by which it is also known in America and Britain. Those of large size are called "Sea-tailors." It belongs to the family <i>Carangidae</i>, or <i>Horse-Mackerels</i> (q.v.). <hw>Taipo</hw>, <i>n</i>. a New Zealand word for devil, often applied by settlers to a vicious horse or as a name for a dog. There is a dangerous river, the Taipo, on the west coast. There is considerable dispute as to whether the word is true Maori or not. The Rev. T. G. Hammond of Patea says-- "No such Maori word as taipo, meaning devil, exists. It would mean evening-tide--tai-po. Probably the early sailors introduced attached meaning of devil from the Maori saying, `Are you not afraid to travel at night?' referring to the danger of tidal rivers." On the other hand, Mr. Tregear says, in his `Maori Comparative Dictionary,' s.v.-- "Taepo, a goblin, a spectre. Cf. <i>tae</i>, to arrive; <i>po</i>, night." The Rev. W. Colenso says, in his pamphlet on `Nomenclature' (1883), p. 5: "Taepo means to visit or come by night,--a night visitant,--a spectral thing seen in dreams,--a fancied and feared thing, or hobgoblin, of the night or darkness; and this the settlers have construed to mean the Devil!--and of course their own orthodox one." <i>Taipo</i> or <i>taepo</i> is also a slang term for a surveyor's theodolite among the Maoris, because it is the "land-stealing devil." 1848. Rev. R. Taylor, `Leaf from the Natural History of New Zealand,' p. 43: "Taipo, female dreamer; a prophetess; an evil spirit." 1855. Rev. R. Taylor, `Te Ika a Maui,' p. 49: "There is the <i>Taringa-here</i>, a being with a face like a cat; and likewise another, called a <i>Taipo</i>, who comes in the night, sits on the tops of houses, and converses with the inmates, but if a woman presumes to open her mouth, it immediately disappears." 1878. B. Wells, `History of Taranaki,' p. 3: "The similarity in sound and meaning of the Egyptian word <i>typhon</i> with that of the Maori <i>taipo</i>, both being the name of the Spirit of Evil, is also not a little remarkable." [Ingenious, but worthless.] 1886. T. H. Potts, `Out in the Open,' `New Zealand Country journal,' vol. x. p. 262: "His wife became seriously affected, declaring that <i>Taipo</i> had entered into her. Reasoning was wholly useless. She declared that Taipo was in the smoke of the wood, which smoke she had inhaled; soon she became prostrated by illness and was expected to die." 1887. J. C. Crawford, `Travels in New Zealand and Australia,' p. 107: "After dinner Watkins requested the loan of a tomahawk to defend himself on going up to the Pa on the hill above. He said he knew that there was a <i>taipo</i> (devil) about; he felt it in his head." 1888. P. W. Barlow, `Kaipara,' p. 48: "They were making the noises I heard to drive away the `Taipo,' a sort of devil who devotes his attention exclusively to Maoris, over whom, however, he only possesses power at night." 1891. W. H. Roberts, `Southland in 1856,' p. 72: "They believed it was the principal rendez-vous of the fallen angel (Taipo) himself." 1896. Modern. Private Letter (May): "<i>Taipo</i>, for instance, of course one knows its meaning, though it has been adopted chiefly as a name as common as `Dash' or `Nero' for New Zealand dogs; all the same the writers upon Maori superstitions seem to have no knowledge of it. Polach, Dieffenbach, Nicholas, Yates, call their evil spirits <i>whiros</i> or <i>atuas</i>. Tepo, the place of darkness, is the nearest they have come to it. I think myself it is South Island Maori, often differing a little in spelling and use; and so very much the larger proportion of New Zealand literature is the literature of the North." <hw>Tait</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Western Australian animal, properly called the <i>Long-snouted Phalanger</i>, <i>Tarsipes rostratus</i>, the only species of its genus. See <i>Phalanger</i> and <i>Opossum</i>. It is about the size of a mouse, and lives almost entirely on honey, which it extracts from flowers. 1894. R. Lydekker, `Marsupialia,' p. 120: "The Long-snouted Phalanger, which derives its scientific name from a certain resemblance of its hind feet to those of a Malayan Lemur-like animal known as the Tarsier, is one of the most interesting of the phalangers. . . . Known to the natives by the names of <i>Tait</i> and <i>Nulbenger</i>, it is, writes Gould, `generally found in all situations suited to its existence, from Swan River to King George's Sound.'" <hw>Takahe</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for an extinct New Zealand Rail, <i>Notornis mantelli</i>, Owen. See <i>Notornis</i>. 1889. Prof. Parker, 'Catalogue of New Zealand Exhibition,' p. 116: "The Takahe is the rarest of existing native birds, if indeed it is not already extinct." <hw>Takapu</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the bird <i>Dysporus serrator</i>, Banks, a <i>Gannet</i> (q.v.). <hw>Take (a man) down</hw>, Australian sporting slang. (1) To induce a man to bet, knowing that he must lose. (2) To advise a man to bet, and then to "arrange" with an accomplice (a jockey, e.g.) for the bet to be lost. (3) To prove superior to a man in a game of skill. 1895. `The Argus,' Dec. 5, p. 5, col. 2: "It appeared that [the plaintiff] had a particular fancy for a [certain] horse, and in an evil hour induced [the defendant] to lay him a wager about this animal at the long odds of two shillings to threepence. When the horse had romped triumphantly home and [the plaintiff] went to collect his two shillings [the defendant] accused him of having `taken him down,' stigmatised him as a thief and a robber, and further remarked that [the plaintiff] had the telegram announcing the result of the race in his pocket when the wager was made, and in short refused to give [the plaintiff] anything but a black eye." <hw>Talegalla</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for the <i>Brush-Turkey</i>, and the scientific name for that bird, viz., <i>Talegalla lathami</i>, Gray. See <i>Turkey</i>. <hw>Tallow-wood</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for one of the <i>Stringy-barks</i> (q.v.), <i>Eucalyptus microcorys</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. The timber, which is hard, gives forth an oily substance: hence the name. The tree reaches a great height. Also called <i>Turpentine-tree</i> (q.v.). See also <i>Peppermint</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 493: "In Queensland it is known as `Peppermint,' the foliage being remarkably rich in volatile oil. But its almost universal name is Tallow-wood. North of Port Jackson it bears the name of `Turpentine Tree' and `Forest Mahogany.' The aboriginals of the Brisbane River, Queensland, call it `tee.'" Ibid. p. 494: "Tallow-wood.--Used . . . for flooring, e.g. in ball-rooms; for this purpose it is selected on account of its greasy nature. This greasiness is most marked when it is fresh cut. (General Report, Sydney International Exhibition, 1879.)" 1897. `The Argus,' Feb. 22, p. 5, col. 4 (Cable message from London): "Mr. Richards stated that the New South Wales black butt and tallow wood were the most durable and noiseless woods for street-paving." <hw>Tallygalone</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fish of New South Wales, <i>Myxus elongatus</i>, Gunth., a genus of the family <i>Mugilidae</i>, or <i>Grey-Mullet</i>. The word is also spelled <i>talleygalann</i>, and <i>tallagallan</i>. Also called <i>Sand-Mullet</i>. <hw>Tamarind-Tree</hw>, name given to <i>Diploglottis cunninghamii</i>, Hook., <i>N.O. Sapindaceae</i>; called also <i>Native Tamarind</i>. "A tall tree. The flesh of the fruit is amber and of delightful acid flavour." (Bailey.) <hw>Tambaroora</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Queensland game. More generally known as "A shilling in and the winner shouts." From a town in Queensland. 1882. A. J. Boyd, `Old Colonials,' p. 63: "The exciting game of tambaroora . . . Each man of a party throws a shilling, or whatever sum may be mutually agreed upon, into a hat. Dice are then produced, and each man takes three throws. The Nut who throws highest keeps the whole of the subscribed capital, and out of it pays for the drinks of the rest." <hw>Tamure</hw>, <i>n</i>. the Maori name for the New Zealand <i>Schnapper</i> fish (q.v.). 1820. `Grammar and Vocabulary of Language of New Zealand' (Church Missionary Society), p. 206: "Tamure <i>s</i>. Bream fish." 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 93: "There are many other sorts of fish, including the tamure, or snapper, the manga, or barracouta, the mango, or dog-fish, of which the natives catch large quantities, and the hapuka. This last fish is caught in pretty deep water, near reefs and rocks. It often attains a great size, attaining as much as 112 pounds. It bears a considerable resemblance to the cod in form, but is, however, of far finer flavour." 1855. Rev. R. Taylor, `Te Ika a Maui,' p. 413: "Tamure, kouarea (the snapper), is a large fish like the bream." 1879. W. Colenso, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. xii. art. vii. p. 118: "The tamure is the snapper (Pagrus unicolor), a common fish on all the coasts." <hw>Tandan</hw>, <i>n</i>. the aboriginal name for the <i>Catfish (q</i>.v.) or <i>Eel-fish</i> (q.v.), <i>Copidoglanis tandanus</i>, Mitchell (or <i>Plotosus tandanus</i>). Mitchell, who first discovered and described the Cat-fish, called it the <i>Tandan</i>, or <i>Eel-fish</i>. 1838. T. Mitchell, `Three Expeditions,' pp. 44, 45, pl. 5: "In this piece of water we caught some small fish, two of them being of a rather singular kind, resembling an eel in the head and shape of the tail." [p. 45]: "On my return to the camp in the evening, I made a drawing of the eel fish which we had caught early in the day (fig. 2, pl. 5)." <hw>Tanekaha</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name of a New Zealand tree; also called <i>Celery-topped Pine</i>, <i>Phyllocladus trichomanoides</i>, Don., <i>N.O. Coniferae</i>. 1875. T. Laslett, `Timber and Timber Trees,' p. 306: "The Tanakaha Tree (<i>Podocarpus asplenifolius</i>) is found scattered over a large portion of the northern island of New Zealand. . . Height, sixty to eighty feet. . . The wood is close and straight in the grain. . . It works up well, is tough and very strong; so much so that the New Zealanders say it is the `strong man' among their forest trees." 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand,' p. 125: "Tanakaha. A slender, handsome tree, sixty feet high; trunk rarely exceeds three feet in diameter; wood pale, close-grained, and excellent for planks and spars; resists decay in moist positions in a remarkable manner." <hw>Tangi</hw>, <i>n</i>. (pronounced <i>Tang-y</i>) Maori word for a lamentation, a cry, or dirge. 1820. `Grammar and Vocabulary of Language of New Zealand' (Church Missionary Society), p. 207: "Tangi, <i>s</i>. a cry or lamentation." 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 194: "They wrapped the mutilated corpse in his red blanket, and bore it, lashed to a tree, to the village, where the usual tangi took place." 1873. Lieut.-Colonel St. John, `Pakeha Rambles through Maori Lands,' p. 154: "Shortly afterwards a `tangi' was held over those of the party whose remains could be identified." 1881. J. L. Campbell, `Poenamo,' p.191: "Perhaps some old woman did a quiet tangi over his grave." 1883. F. S. Renwick, `Betrayed,' p. 41: "'Tis the tangi floats on the seaborne breeze, In its echoing notes of wild despair." <hw>Taniwha</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a mythical monster. 1820. `Grammar and Vocabulary of Language of New Zealand' (Church Missionary Society), p. 207: "Taniwa, <i>s</i>. a sea-monster so called." 1842. W. R. Wade, `Journey in New Zealand' (Hobart Town), p. 34: "Hearing us use the word <i>tapu</i>, as we looked towards it, one of our boatmen quickly repeated that the place was tapued for the tanewa (a water demon). `And I wonder,' was his irreverent addition, `what this same tanewa may be! An old pot leg, perhaps!'" 1896. `Otago Witness,' Jan. 23, p. 51, col. 2: "The river at one time is reported as having been infested with taniwhas--gigantic fish that used to swallow the natives--and a Maori pointed out a deep pool under some willows, and told me his grandfather had been seized by one of these monsters at that spot, dragged to the bottom and eaten. This taniwha, which was about forty feet in length and had a long mane, was in the habit of sometimes standing almost erect in the water, and frightening the women and children out of their wits. It had a tremendous-sized head, and its mouth somewhat resembled the beak of a very large bird. Its neck was about six feet in circumference and was covered with scales, as likewise its body down to its tail, which was formed by a series of fin-shaped projections, and somewhat resembled in form the tail of a grey duck. It had two short legs which were as big around as the body of a half-grown pig, and with one kick it could knock a hole through the stoutest canoe." <hw>Tannergrams</hw>, <i>n</i>. very recent New Zealand slang. On 1st of June, 1896, the New Zealand Government reduced the price of telegrams to sixpence (slang, a `tanner') for twelve words. 1896. `Oamaru Mail,' June 13: "Tannergrams is the somewhat apt designation which the new sixpenny telegrams have been christened in commercial vernacular." <hw>Tappa</hw>, <i>n</i>. South-sea Island word. A native cloth made from the bark of the Paper-mulberry, <i>Broussonetia papyrifera</i>, Benth. 1886. `Art journal: Exhibition Supplement,' p. 24: "The Tappa, or native cloth [of Fiji], made from the bark of a tree. . . Has been extensively used in the draping of the court." 1888. H. S. Cooper, `The Islands of the Pacific,' p. 9: "Tappa, a native cloth of spotless white, made from the bark of the mulberry-tree.' <hw>Tapu</hw>, <i>adj</i>. a Maori word, but common also to other Polynesian languages. The origin of the English word <i>taboo</i>. It properly means `prohibited.' There was a sacred <i>tapu</i>, and an unclean <i>tapu</i>. What was consecrated to the gods was forbidden to be touched or used by the people. 1820. `Grammar and Vocabulary of Language of New Zealand' (Church Missionary Society), p. 208: "Tapu, <i>a</i>. sacred, inviolable." 1835. W. Yate, `Some Account of New Zealand,' p. 84: "This system of consecration--for that is the most frequent meaning of the term `tapu'--has prevailed through all the islands of the South Seas, but nowhere to a greater extent than in New Zealand." 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 194: "They wrapped the mutilated corpse in his red blanket, and bore it, lashed to a tree, to the village, where the usual tangi took place after it had been deposited in the wahi tapu, or sacred ground.'" 1859. A. S. Thomson, M.D., `Story of New Zealand,' p. 100: "The primary meaning of the Maori word <i>tapu</i> is `sacred'; <i>tabut</i> is a Malay word, and is rendered `the Ark of the Covenant of God'; <i>taboot</i> is a Hindoo word signifying `a bier,' `a coffin,' or `the Ark of the Covenant'; <i>ta</i> is the Sanscrit word `to mark,' and <i>pu</i> `to purify.'" [There is no authority in this polyglot mixture.] 1879. Clement Bunbury, `Fraser's Magazine,' June, `A Visit to the New Zealand Geysers,' p. 767: "I had not much time to examine them closely, having a proper fear of the unknown penalties incurred by the violation of anything `tapu' or sacred." 1893. `Otago Witness,' Dec. 21, p. 10, col. 1: "He seeks treasures which to us are tapu." <hw>Tapu</hw>, <i>n</i>. the state of being consecrated or forbidden. 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 25: "We found no natives, the cove being under tapu, on account of its being the burial-place of a daughter of Te Pehi, the late chief of the Kapiti, or Entry Island, natives." 1847. A. Tennyson, `Princess,' canto iii. l. 261: ". . . Women up till this Cramp'd under worse than South-Sea-Isle taboo, Dwarfs of the gynaeceum." 1851. Mrs. Wilson, `New Zealand,' p. 24: "But chiefly thou, mysterious Tapu, From thy strange rites a hopeful sign we draw." 1852. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes' (edition 1855), p. 281: "The tapu, which either temporarily or permanently renders sacred an object animate or inanimate, is the nearest approach to the Hindoo religious exclusive-ism." 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' p. 89: "His sole `tapu' a far securer guard Than lock and key of craftiest notch and ward." Ibid. p. 100: "Avenge each minor breach of this taboo." <hw>Tapu</hw>, <i>v</i>. originally to mark as sacred, and later to place under a ban. English, <i>taboo</i>. 1852. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes' (edition 1855), p. 284: "The tapued resting-place of departed chieftains." 1875. `Spectator' (Melbourne), May 29, p. 40, col. 2: "I . . . found the telegraph office itself tabooed." 1893. R. L. Stevenson, `Island Nights' Entertainments,' p. 39: "By Monday night I got it clearly in my head I must be tabooed." <hw>Tara</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) Maori name for the birds <i>Sterna caspia</i>, Pallas, and <i>S. frontalis</i>, Gray, the Sea-Swallow, or <i>Tern</i> (q.v.). (2) A Tasmanian aboriginal name for the fern <i>Pteris aquilina</i>, L., <i>N.O. Polypodeae</i>. 1834. Ross, `Van Diemen's Land Annual,' p. 129: "The most extensively diffused eatable roots of Van Diemen's Land are those of the tara fern . . . greatly resembles <i>Pteris aquilina</i>, the common fern, brake, breckon, or brackin, of England . . . it is known among the aborigines by the name of tara . . . the root of the tara fern possesses much nutritive matter." <hw>Taraire</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a New Zealand tree; formerly <i>Nesodaphne tarairi</i>, Hook., now <i>Beilschmiedia tarairi</i>, Benth. and Hook., <i>N.O. Laurineae</i>. 1873. `Catalogue of Vienna Exhibition': "Tarairi. Used for most of the purposes for which sycamore is applied in Europe." 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand,' p. 129: "Tarairi. A lofty forest tree, sixty to eighty feet high, with stout branches. Wood white, splits freely, but not much valued." <hw>Tarakihi</hw>, <i>n</i>. the Maori name for the fish <i>Chilodactylus macropterus</i>, Richards.; called in Sydney the <i>Norwong</i> (q.v.). <hw>Tarata</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the New Zealand tree <i>Pittosporum eugenioides</i>, A. Cunn., <i>N.O. Pittosporeae</i>; called also <i>Mapau</i>, <i>Maple</i>, etc. See <i>Mapau</i>. 1876. W. <i>n</i>. Blair, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. ix., art. x. p. 143: "A small tree seldom exceeding thirty feet in height, and twelve inches in diameter. It has pale green shining leaves and purple flowers. The wood of a dirty white colour, is tough and fibrous." 1879. J. B. Armstrong, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. xii. art. xlix. p. 329: "The tarata or Lemon-wood, a most beautiful tree, also used for hedges." 1889. E. H. and S. Featon, `New Zealand Flora,' p. 35: "The Tarata. This elegant tree is found on the east coast of both islands. It attains a height of from twenty to thirty feet, and has a stem from twelve to eighteen inches in diameter. It is known to the settlers in some parts as `Lemon-wood.' When displaying its profuse masses of pale golden flowers, it is very pretty." <hw>Tare, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. name applied in Tasmania to the plant <i>Swainsonia lessertiaefolia</i>, De C., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>. <hw>Taro</hw>, <i>n</i>. a familiar food plant, <i>Colocasia</i> species, widely cultivated in tropical regions, especially in Polynesia. The word is Polynesian, and much used by the Maoris. 1846. J. Lindley, `Vegetable Kingdom,' p. 128 [Stanford]: "Whole fields of <i>Colocasia macrorhyza</i> are cultivated in the South Sea Islands under the name tara or kopeh roots." 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' p. 374: "Many a bed, That late in such luxurious neatness spread, Of melons, maize and taro--now a wreck." 1878. Lady Brassey, `Voyage in the Sunbeam,' p. 263: "A good-looking man was busy broiling beef-steaks, stewing chickens and boiling <i>taro</i>, and we had soon a plentiful repast set before us." <hw>Tarsipes</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific generic name of the <i>Tait</i> (q.v.). <hw>Tarwhine</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian fish, <i>Chrysophrys sarba</i>, Forsk. See <i>Black-Bream</i>. It is somewhat difficult to distinguish the fish from its close relation the Black-Bream, <i>Chrysophrys australis</i>, Gunth. Both are excellent food, and frequently abundant in brackish waters. <hw>Tar-wood</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given by the Otago bushmen to the tree <i>Darrydium colensoi</i>, Hook.; Maori name, <i>Manoao</i> (q.v.). (Kirk, `Forest Flora,' p. 189.) <hw>Tasmania</hw>, <i>n</i>. island and colony, formerly called Van Diemen's Land. The new name, from that of the Dutch navigator, Abel Jansen Tasman, was officially adopted in 1853, when the system of transportation ceased. The first quotations show it was in popular use much earlier. 1820. Lieut. Charles Jeffreys, `Delineation of the Island of Van Dieman's Land,' p. 1: "Van Dieman's Land, or Tasmania, is an island of considerable extent." 1823. `Godwin's Emigrant's Guide to Van Diemen's Land, more properly called Tasmania': [Title.] 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 8: "Over Van Diemen's Land (or Tasmania, as we love to call it here), New South Wales enjoys also many advantages." 1852. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes' (edition 1855), p. 491: "Tasmania is a more musical <i>alias</i> adopted by the island. It has been given in titular distinction to the first bishop, my excellent and accomplished friend Dr. Nixon, and will doubtless be its exclusive designation when it shall have become a free nation." 1892. A. and G. Sutherland, `History of Australia,' p. 41: "The wild country around the central lakes of Tasmania." <hw>Tasmanian</hw>, <i>adj</i>. belonging or native to Tasmania. 1825. A. Bent, `The Tasmanian Almanack for the Year of our Lord 1825' [Title.] <hw>Tasmanian</hw>, <i>n</i>. an inhabitant of Tasmania, a colonist. The word is also used of the aborigines, the race of whom is now extinct. <hw>Tasmanian Devil</hw>, <i>n</i>. the only species of the genus <i>Sarcophilus</i> (q.v.), <i>S. ursinus</i>. 1894. R. Lydekker, `Marsupialia,' p. 156: "Like many of its kindred, the Tasmanian Devil is a burrowing and nocturnal animal. In size it may be compared to a Badger, and owing to its short limbs, plantigrade feet, and short muzzle, its gait and general appearance are very Badger or Bear-like." <hw>Tasmanian Tiger</hw>, <i>n</i>. called also <i>Native Wolf</i>, <i>Marsupial Wolf</i>, <i>Zebra Wolf</i>, and <i>Hyaena</i>; genus, <i>Thylacinus</i> (q.v.). It is the largest carnivorous marsupial extant, and is so much like a wolf in appearance that it well deserves its vernacular name of <i>Wolf</i>, though now-a-days it is generally called <i>Tiger</i>. There is only one species, <i>Thylacinus cynocephalus</i>, and the settlers have nearly exterminated it, on account of its fierce predatory habits and the damage it inflicts on their flocks. The Tasmanian Government pays L1 for every one destroyed. The Van Diemen's Land Company in the North-West of the Island employs a man on one of its runs who is called the "tiger-catcher." 1813. `History of New South Wales' (1818), p. 430: "About Port Dalrymple an animal was discovered which bore some resemblance to the hyena both in shape and fierceness; with a wide mouth, strong limbs, sharp claws and a striped skin. Agreeably to the general nature of New South Wales quadrupeds, this animal has a false belly. It may be considered as the most formidable of any which New South Wales has been yet found to produce, and is very destructive; though there is no instance of its attacking the human species." 1832. Ross, `Hobart Town Almanack,' p. 85: "During our stay a native tiger or hyena bounded from its lair beneath the rocks." 1880. Mrs. Meredith, `Friends and Foes,' p. 65: "There is another charming fellow, which all the people here call the Tiger, but as a tiger is like a great cat, and this beast is much more like a dog, you will see how foolish this name is. I believe naturalists call it the dog-faced opossum, and that is not much better . . . the body is not a bit like that of an opossum." 1892. A. Sutherland, `Elementary Geography of British Colonies,' p. 273: "The `Tasmanian tiger' is of the size of a shepherd's dog, a gaunt yellow creature, with black stripes round the upper part of its body, and with an ugly snout. Found nowhere but in Tasmania, and never numerous even there, it is now slowly disappearing." <hw>Tasmanian Whiptail</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian fish, <i>Coryphaenoides tasmaniae</i>, family <i>Macruridae</i>, or deep-sea Gadoids, an altogether different fish from <i>Myliobatis aquila</i>, the <i>Eagle</i> or <i>Whiptail Ray</i>, which also occurs in Tasmania, but is found all over the world. <hw>Tasmanite</hw>, <i>n</i>. a mineral. "A resinous, reddish-brown, translucent, hydrocarbon derivative (C40H6202S), found in certain laminated shales of Tasmania, <i>Resiniferous shale</i>." (`Standard.') <hw>Tassel-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. a thread-fish of Queensland, of the genus <i>Polynemus</i>, family <i>Polynemidae</i>. Polynemoid fish have free filaments at the humeral arch below the pectoral fins, which Guenther says are organs of touch, and to be regarded as detached portions of the fin; in some the filaments or threads are twice as long as the fish. <hw>Tassy</hw>, <i>n</i>. a pet name for Tasmania. 1894. `The Argus,' Jan. 26, p. 3, col. 5: "To-day Tassy--as most Victorian cricketers and footballers familiarly term our neighbour over the straits--will send a team into the field." <hw>Tattoo</hw>, <i>v</i>. and <i>n</i>. to mark the human body with indelible pigments. The word is Polynesian; its first occurrence in English is in Cook's account of Tahiti. The Tahitian word is <i>Tatau</i>, which means tattoo marks on the human skin, from <i>Ta</i>, which means a mark or design. (Littre.) The Maori verb, <i>ta</i>, means to cut, to tattoo, to strike. See <i>Moko</i>. 1773. `Hawkesworth's Voyages' (Cook's First Voyage; at Tahiti, 1769), vol. ii. p. 191: "They have a custom of staining their bodies . . . which they call <i>Tattowing</i>. They prick the skin, so as just not to fetch blood, with a small instrument, something in the form of a hoe. . . . The edge is cut into sharp teeth or points . . . they dip the teeth into a mixture of a kind of lamp-black . . . The teeth, thus prepared, are placed upon the skin, and the handle to which they are fastened being struck by quick smart blows, they pierce it, and at the same time carry into the puncture the black composition, which leaves an indelible stain." 1777. Horace Walpole, `Letters,' vol. vi. p. 448: "Since we will give ourselves such torrid airs, I wonder we don't go stark and tattoo ourselves." 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. ii. p. 109: "A very famous artist in tatu came with the party, and was kept in constant and profitable employment. Everybody, from the renowned warrior to the girl of twelve years old, crowded to be ornamented by the skilful chisel. . . . The instruments used were not of bone, as they used formerly to be; but a graduated set of iron tools, fitted with handles like adzes, supplied their place. . . . The staining liquid is made of charcoal." 1847. A. Tennyson, `Princess,' canto ii. l. 105: ". . . Then the monster, then the man; Tattoo'd or woaded, winter-clad in skins, Raw from the prime, and crushing down his mate." 1859. A. S. Thomson, `Story of New Zealand,' vol. i. c. iv. p. 74: "First among the New Zealand list of disfigurations is tattooing, a Polynesian word signifying a repetition of taps, but which term is unknown in the language of the New Zealanders; <i>moko</i> being the general term for the tattooing on the face, and <i>whakairo</i> for that on the body." [But see Moko.] 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' p. 17: "Lips no stain of tattoo had turned azure." Ibid. p. 104: "A stick knobbed with a carved and tattoo'd wooden head." 1873. J. B. Stephens, `Black Gin,' p. 3: "Thy rugged skin is hideous with tattooing." <hw>Tawa</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a New Zealand tree, <i>Nesodaphne tawa</i>, Hook., <i>N.O. Laurineae</i>. The newer name is <i>Beilschmiedia tawa</i>, Benth. and Hook. f. Allied to <i>Taraire</i> (q.v.). A handsome forest tree with damson-like fruit. 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand,' p. 129: "Tawa. A lofty forest tree, sixty to seventy feet high, with slender branches. The wood is light and soft, and is much used for making butter-kegs." <hw>Tawara</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the flower of the <i>Kie-kie</i> (q.v.), <i>Freycinetia Banksii</i>. <hw>Tawhai</hw>, or <hw>Tawai</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for several species of New Zealand Beech-trees, <i>N.O. Cupuliferae</i>. The settlers call them <i>Birches</i> (q.v.). 1873. `Catalogue of Vienna Exhibition': "Tawhai. Large and durable timber, used for sleepers." 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand,' p. 125: "Tawhai, Red-birch (from colour of bark). A handsome tree, eighty to one hundred feet high. <i>Fagus Menziesii</i>, Hook. [also called large-leaved birch]. Tawhai, Tawhairaunui, Black-birch of Auckland and Otago (from colour of bark), <i>Fagus fusca</i>, Hook." <hw>Tawhiri</hw>, or <hw>Tawiri</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the <i>Black Mapau</i>. A name applied to the tree <i>Pittosporum tenuifolium</i>, <i>N.O. Pittosporeae</i>. It is profusely covered with a fragrant white blossom. See <i>Mapau</i>. 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' p. 108: "Its floor . . . with faint tawhiri leaves besprent " 1884. T. Bracken, `Lays of Maori,' p. 21: "The early breeze that . . . stole The rich Tawhiri's sweet perfume." <hw>Tea</hw>, n.-- <i>Billy-tea</i>, or <i>Bush-tea</i>. Tea made in a <i>billy</i> (q.v.). There is a belief that in order to bring out the full flavour it should be stirred with a gum-stick. <i>New Zealand tea</i>. Tea made of the leaves of <i>Manuka</i> (q.v.). <i>See Tea</i>-tree. <hw>Sweet-tea</hw>, or <hw>Botany-Bay tea</hw>, or <i>Australian tea</i>. (Called also Native Sarsaparilla. See <i>Sarsaparilla</i>.) A plant, <i>Smilax glycyphylla</i>, Smith., <i>N.O. Liliaceae</i>. 1788. D. Considen, letter to Sir Joseph Banks, Nov. 18, in `Historical Records of New South Wales,' vol. i. part ii. p. 220: "I have sent you some of the sweet tea of this country, which I recommend, and is generally used by the marines and convicts. As such it is a good anti-scorbutic, as well as a substitute for that which is more costly." 1790. J. White, `Voyage to New South Wales,' p. 195: "The sweet-tea, a creeping kind of vine . . . the taste is sweet, exactly like the liquorice-root of the shops. Of this the convicts and soldiers make an infusion which is tolerably pleasant, and serves as no bad succedaneum for tea." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 203: "`Sweet tea' . . . The decoction made from its leaves . . . is similar in properties, but more pleasant in taste, than that obtained from the roots of <i>S. officinalis</i>, or Jamaica sarsaparilla. The herb is a common article of trade among Sydney herbalists." <hw>Tea-broom</hw>, <i>n</i>. a New Zealand name for the <i>Tea-tree</i> (q.v.). 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' [Notes] p. 505: "Manuka. . . . The settlers often call it `tea-broom.'" <hw>Teak</hw>, <i>n</i>. The original Teak is an East Indian timber-tree, <i>Tectina grandis</i>, but the name has been transferred to other trees in different parts of the world, from a similarity in the hardness of their wood. In Australia, it is given to <i>Dissiliaria baloghioides</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Euphorbiaceae</i>; to <i>Endiandra glauca</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>; and to <i>Flindersia Bennettiana</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Meliaceae</i>. In New Zealand, it is <i>Vitex littoralis</i>; Maori name, <i>Puriri</i> (q.v.). <hw>Teal</hw>, <i>n</i>. the common English name given to the small ducks of the genus <i>Querquedula</i>. In Australia, the name is applied to <i>Anas castanea</i>, Eyton; and to the <i>Grey Teal</i>, <i>A. gibberifrons</i>, Mull. See also <i>Goose-teal</i>. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 291: "Brown returned with . . . four teals (<i>Querquedula castanea</i>)." [The old name.] <hw>Tea-tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. (Very frequently, but erroneously, spelt <i>Ti-tree</i>, and occasionally, more ridiculously still, <i>Ti-tri</i>, q.v.) A name given in Australia, New Zealand, and Tasmania to several species of trees and shrubs whose leaves were used by Captain Cook's sailors, by escaped convicts, and by the early settlers as a ready substitute for the leaves of the Chinese Tea-plant (<i>Thea chinensis</i>) for making tea. The trees of the genera <i>Leptospermum</i> and <i>Melaleuca</i> were the earliest used, in Australia and New Zealand, in this way. When in blossom, the branches of many species, with their little white flowers, and the general appearance of their leaves, bear a strong resemblance to those of the true Tea-plant. Their leaves, though exceedingly aromatic, have not, however, the same flavour. Nevertheless, it was probably this superficial likeness which first suggested the experiment of making an infusion from them. Some of the species of <i>Leptospermum</i> and <i>Melaleuca</i> are so closely allied, that their names are by some botanists interchanged and used as synonyms for the same plant. Although not all of the species of these two genera were used for making tea, yet, as a tree-name, the word <i>Tea-tree</i> is indifferently and loosely used to denote nearly all of them, especially in the form <i>Tea-tree scrub</i>, where they grow, as is their habit, in swamps, flat-land, and coastal districts. Other trees or plants to which the name of <i>Tea-tree</i> was occasionally given, are species of the genera <i>Kunzea</i> and <i>Callistemon</i>. The spelling <i>Ti-tree</i> is not only erroneous as to the origin of the name, but exceedingly misleading, as it confuses the Australian <i>Tea-tree</i> with another <i>Ti</i> (q.v.) in Polynesia (<i>Cordyline ti</i>). This latter genus is represented, in Australia and New Zealand, by the two species <i>Cordyline australis</i> and <i>C. indivisa</i>, the <i>Cabbage-trees</i> (q.v.), or <i>Cabbage palms</i> (q.v.), or <i>Ti-palms</i> (q.v.), or <i>Ti</i> (q.v.), which are a marked feature of the New Zealand landscape, and are of the lily family (<i>N.O. Liliaceae</i>), while the genera <i>Leptospermum</i> and <i>Melaleuca</i> are of the myrtle family (<i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>). As to the species of the Australian <i>Tea-tree</i>, that first used by Cook's sailors was either--<i>Leptospermum scoparium</i>, R. and G. Forst., or <i>L. lanigerum</i>, Smith. The species most used for infusions was-- <i>L. fravescens</i>, Smith (syn. <i>L. thea</i>, Willd., and <i>Melaleuca thea</i>, Willd.). The <i>Coast Tea-tree</i>, common on the Victorian shores, and so useful as a sand-binder, is-- <i>L. laevigatum</i>, F. v. M. The <i>Common Australian Tea-tree</i> (according to Maiden) is <i>Melaleuca leucodendron</i>, Linn.; called also <i>White Tea-tree</i>, <i>Broad-leaved T.-t.</i>, <i>Swamp T.-t</i>., and <i>Paper-bark T.-t</i>. The name, however, as noted above, is used for all species of <i>Melaleuca</i>, the <i>Swamp Tea-tree</i> being <i>M. ericifolia</i>, Smith, and the <i>Black</i>, or <i>Prickly-leaved Tea-tree</i>, <i>M. styphelioides</i>, Smith. Of the other genera to which the name is sometimes applied, <i>Kunzea pedunculata</i>, F. v. M., is called <i>Mountain Tea-tree</i>, and <i>Callistemon salignus</i>, De C., is called-- <i>Broad-leaved</i>, or <i>River Tea-tree</i>. In New Zealand, the Maori name <i>Manuka</i> (q.v.) is more generally used than <i>Tea-tree</i>, and the tree denoted by it is the original one used by Cook's sailors. Concerning other plants, used in the early days for making special kinds of infusions and drinking them as <i>tea</i>, see under <i>Tea</i>, and <i>Cape-Barren Tea</i>. 1777. Cook's `Voyage towards the South Pole and Round the World' [2nd Voyage], vol. i. p. 99: "The beer certainly contributed not a little. As I have already observed, we at first made it of a decoction of the spruce leaves; but finding that this alone made the beer too astringent, we afterwards mixed with it an equal quantity of the tea plant (a name it obtained in my former voyage from our using it as tea then, as we also did now), which partly destroyed the astringency of the other, and made the beer exceedingly palatable, and esteemed by every one on board." [On page 100, Cook gives a description of the tea-plant, and also figures it. He was then at Dusky Bay, New Zealand.] 1790. J. White, `Voyage to New South Wales,' p. 229: "Tea Tree of New South Wales, <i>Melaleuca</i> (?) <i>Trinervia</i>. This is a small shrub, very much branched. . . . It most nearly approaches the <i>Leptospermum virgatum</i> of Forster, referred by the younger Linnaeus, perhaps improperly, to <i>Melaleuca</i>." 1820. C. Jeffreys, R.N., `Geographical and Descriptive Delineations of the Island of Van Dieman's Land,' p. 133: "Of course they [the Bushrangers] are subject to numerous privations, particularly in the articles of tea, sugar, tobacco, and bread; for this latter article, however, they substitute the wild yam, and for tea they drink a decoction of the sassafras and other shrubs, particularly one which they call the tea-tree bush." 1820. W. C. Wentworth, `Description of New South Wales,' p. 175: "On Monday the bushrangers were at a house at Tea-tree Brush." 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 200: "The leaves of the tea-tree furnished the colonists with a substitute for the genuine plant in the early period of the colony, and from their containing a saccharine matter required no sugar." 1830. R. Dawson, `Present State of Australia,' p. 78: "This boy got some bark from a tree called the tea-tree, which makes excellent torches." 1832. J. Bischoff, `Van Diemen's Land,' c. ii. p. 25: "The tea-tree grows in wet situations . . . the leaves infused make a pleasant beverage, and with a little sugar form a most excellent substitute for tea." 1834. Ross, `Hobart Town Almanack,' p. 134: "<i>Leptospermum lanigerum</i>, Hoary tea-tree; <i>Acacia decurrens</i>, Black wattle; <i>Conaea alba</i>, Cape-Barren tea. The leaves of these have been used as substitutes for tea in the colony, as have also the leaves and bark of <i>Cryptocarya glaucescens</i>, the Australian Sa<i>s</i>afras" (sic) [q.v.]. 1845. J. O. Balfour, `Sketch of New South Wales,' p. 39: "The Australian myrtles, or tea-trees, are to be found in thick clusters, shading rocky springs. . . . Its leaves I have seen made into a beverage called tea. It, however, was loathsome, and had not the slightest resemblance to any known Chinese tea." 1845. R. Howitt, `Australia,' p. 85: "Often we had to take the boat down the river several miles, to cut reeds amongst the tea-tree marshes, to thatch our houses with." 1846. G. H. Haydon, `Five Years in Australia Felix;' p. 33: "A great quantity of the tea-tree (<i>Leptospermum</i>) scrubs, which formerly lined both banks of the Yarra." (p. 84): "It is allied to the myrtle family (<i>Melaleuca</i>) . . . A decoction of the leaves is a fair substitute for tea, yielding a beverage of a very aromatic flavour." 1855. W. Howitt, `Two Years in Victoria,' vol. i. p. 210: "Dense with tea-trees and wattles shrouding the courses of the stream." 1862. H. C. Kendall, `Poems,' p. 126: "Half-hidden in a tea-tree scrub, A flock of dusky sheep were spread." 1870. A. L. Gordon, `Bush Ballads,' p. 14: "Through the tea-tree scrub we dashed." 1871. C. L. Money, `Knocking About in New Zealand,' p. 70: "Chiefly covered with fern and tea-tree (manuka) scrub." 1871. T. Bracken, `Behind the Tomb,' p. 60: "Sobbing through the tea-tree bushes, Low and tender, loud and wild, Melancholy music gushes." 1875. T. Laslett, `Timber and Timber Trees,' p. 2o6: <i>Table of Tasmanian woods found in low marshy ground</i>. Hgt. Dia. Used. Swamp Tea-tree 12 ft. 6 in. Useless. Tea-tree 30 " 9 " } Turners' and } Agricultural Musk Tea-tree 12 " small } Implements. 1877. Baron von Mueller, `Botanic Teachings,' p. 18: "We have among them [the Myrtaceae] . . . the native tea-trees, inappropriately so called, as these bushes and trees never yield substitutes for tea, although a New Zealand species was used in Captain Cook's early expedition, to prepare a medicinal infusion against scurvy; these so-called tea-trees comprise within our colony [Victoria], species of Leptospermum, Kunzea, Melaleuca and Callistemon, the last-mentioned genus producing flowers with long stamens, on which the appellation of `Bottle-brushes' has been bestowed." 1880. W. Senior, `Travel and Trout,' p. 78: "Numerous flowering shrubs, such as the tea-tree, native lilac, and many another that varies the colour and softly scents the atmosphere." 1880. Mrs.Meredith, `Tasmanian Friends and Foes,' p. 221: "Thickets of tea-tree, white with lovely hawthorn-like flowers." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. ii. p. 19: "Along the water's edge, noble titrees, whose drooping branches swept the stream, formed a fringe, the dark green of their thick foliage being relieved." 1883. C. Harpur, `Poems,' p. 78: "Why roar the bull-frogs in the tea-tree marsh?" 1884. R. L. A. Davies, `Poems and Literary Remains,' p. 84: "Shading a brook the tea-trees grew, Spangled with blossoms of whitish hue, Which fell from the boughs to the ground below, As fall from heaven the flakes of snow." 1885. R. M. Praed, `Australian Life,' p. 112: "The bottle-brush flowers of the ti-trees." 1888. Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, `Select Extra-Tropical Plants,' p. 221: "The somewhat aromatic leaves of <i>Liscoparium</i> (Forster) were already in Captain Cook's Expedition used for an antiscorbutic Tea, hence the name tea-tree for this and some allied plants." 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 76: "The intrusive ti-tree. . . . The dark line of ti-tree in the foreground . . ." 1889. T. Kirk, `Forest Flora of New Zealand,' pp. 235, 236: "<i>Leptospermum scoparium</i>, Forster, the <i>Manuka</i>. . . . It is commonly termed `tea-tree' by the settlers, but must not be confounded with the `ti' or `toi' of the Maories, which is a handsome palm-lily, <i>Cordyline australis</i>, often termed `cabbage-tree' by the bushmen." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 38: "<i>Leptospermum scoparium</i>, Tea Tree. It is said that this is the shrub the leaves of which were utilized by the crews of Captain Cook's ships for the purpose of making `tea,' and that they were also used with spruce leaves in equal quantity for the purpose of correcting the astringency in brewing a beer from the latter. It is exceedingly common about Sydney, so large quantities would therefore be available to the sailors. Species of this genus are exceedingly abundant not far from the coast, and the leaves would be very readily available, but the taste of the infusion made from them is too aromatic for the European palate." [In Maiden's admirable book slips are very rare. But he is mistaken here in the matter of the abundance of the tree at Sydney having any reference to the question. Captain Cook had but one ship, the <i>Endeavour</i>; and it never entered Port Jackson. It is true that <i>L. scoparium</i> was the tree used by Cook, but he was then at Dusky Bay, New Zealand, and it was there that he used it. See quotations 1777 and 1877.] 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 24: "The well-known <i>Melaleuca Leucadendron</i>, called by the colonists tea-tree, from which is extracted what is known in medicine as cajeput oil." 1893. `The Australasian,' Jan 14: "The ti-tree on either side of the road was in bloom, its soft, fluffy, creamy bushes gathering in great luxuriance on the tops of the taller trees, almost hiding the green." 1893. `The Argus,' April 29, p. 4, col. 4: "There was many a shorthorned Hereford hidden in the innermost recesses of that tick and sand-fly infested ti-tree that knew not the cunning of a stockman's hand." 1894. `Melbourne Museum Catalogue--Economic Woods': "No. 133, Coast tea-tree, <i>Leptospermum laevigatum</i>, F. v. M. No. 142, Swamp tea-tree, <i>Melaleuca ericifolia</i>, Smith." <hw>Teetee</hw>. Same as <i>Ti-Ti</i> (q.v.). <hw>Telopea</hw>, <i>n</i>. scientific name of the genus containing the flower called the <i>Waratah</i> (q.v.), from the Greek <i>taelowpos</i>, `seen from afar,' in allusion (as the author of the name, Robert Brown, himself says) to the conspicuous crimson flowers. The name has been corrupted popularly into <i>Tulip</i>, and the flower is often called the <i>Native Tulip</i>. 1835. Ross, `Hobart Town Almanack,' p. 110: "The beautiful crimson flowering shrub, with dark green rhododendron-like leaves, which grows in the upper region of Mount Wellington. . . . The generic name is derived from <i>telopos</i>, seen at a distance. It has been corrupted into tulip tree, to which it bears not the least resemblance." <hw>Tena koe</hw>, a Maori salutation used in North Island of New Zealand. Lit. "That is you," and meaning "How do you do?" <i>Tena</i> and <i>Tera</i> both mean `<i>that</i>'; but <i>tena</i> implies the idea of nearness, `that near you,' <i>tera</i> the idea of distance, `that (or there) away yonder.' Hence, while Tena koe is a welcome, Tera koe would be an insult. <hw>Tench</hw>, <i>n</i>. slang term, used during the days of transportation, for the Hobart Town Penitentiary, or Prisoners' Barracks--a corruption of "<i>'tentiary</i>," which is for <i>Penitentiary</i>. It is now obsolete. 1859. Caroline Leakey, `The Broad Arrow,' vol. ii. p. 32: "Prisoners' barracks, sir--us calls it Tench." <hw>Teraglin</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fish of New South Wales, <i>Otolithus atelodus</i>, Gunth. The name <i>Teraglin</i> is stated to be aboriginal. Sometimes called <i>Jew-fish</i> (q.v.). <hw>Thickhead</hw>, <i>n</i>. the name applied to the Australian birds of the genus <i>Pachycephala</i> (q.v.). They are often called <i>Thrushes</i>. The species are-- The Banded Thickhead <i>Pachycephala pectoralis</i>, Vig. and Hors. Black T.-- <i>P. melanura</i>, Gould. Gilbert's T.-- <i>P. gilbertii</i>, Gould. Grey-tailed T.-- <i>P. glaucura</i>, Gould (confined to Tasmania). Lunated T.-- <i>P. falcata</i>, Gould. Olivaceous T.-- <i>P. olivacea</i>, Vig. and Hors. (confined to Tasmania). Pale-breasted T.-- <i>P. pallida</i>, Ramsay. Plain-coloured T.-- <i>P. simplex</i>, Gould. Red-throated T.-- <i>P. rufigularis</i>, Gould. Rufous-breasted T.-- <i>P. rufiventris</i>, Lath. Shrike-like T.-- <i>Pachycephala lanoides</i>, Gould. Torres-straits T.-- <i>P. fretorum</i>, De Vis. Western T.-- <i>P. occidentalis</i>, Ramsay. White-throated T.-- <i>P. gutturalis</i>, Lath.; called also the <i>Thunder-bird</i> (q.v.). 1890. `Victorian Statutes--Game Act' (Third Schedule): "Thick-heads. [Close season.] From the first day of August to the twentieth day of December next following in each year." <hw>Thornback</hw>, <i>n</i>. special name for one of the Stingrays, <i>Raia lemprieri</i>, Richards., or <i>Raja rostata</i>, Castln., family <i>Raijdae</i>. 1875. `Melbourne Spectator,' Aug. 28, p. 201, col. 3: "A thornback skate . . . weighing 109 lbs., has been caught . . . at North Arm, South Australia." <hw>Thousand-Jacket</hw>, <i>n</i>. a North Island name for <i>Ribbon-wood</i> (q.v.), a New Zealand tree. Layer after layer of the inner bark can be stripped off. 1888. Cassell's `Picturesque Australasia,' vol. iii. p. 210: "Koninny [sic], raupo, toi-toi, supplejack, thousand-jacket, and the like, are names of things known well enough to the inhabitants of Napier and Taranaki, but to the average stay-at-home Englishman they are nouns which only vexatiously illustrate the difference between names and things." 1889. T. Kirk, `Flora of New Zealand,' p. 87: "Hoheria populnea. The Houhere. Order--Malvaceae. . . In the north of Auckland the typical form is known as `houhere'; but Mr. Colenso informs me the varieties are termed `houi' and `whau-whi' in the south . . . By the settlers all the forms are termed `ribbon-wood,' or less frequently `lace-bark'-- names which are applied to other plants: they are also termed `thousand-jacket.'" 1896. `The Australasian,' Aug. 28, p. 407, col. 5: "`Thousand-jacket' is a picturesque name for a many-named New Zealand tree, the bark of which peels, and peels, and peels again, though in the number chosen there is certainly a note of exaggeration." <hw>Throwing-stick</hw>, <i>n</i>. native Australian weapon, by means of which the spear is thrown. See <i>Woomera</i>. 1802. G. Barrington, `History of New South Wales,' c. i. p. 12: "The principals who perform it come from, Cammer-ray, armed with shields, clubs, and throwing-sticks." Ibid. c. i. p. 26: "The throwing-stick is used in discharging the spear. The instrument is from two to three feet in length, with a shell on one end and a hook on the other." 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' vol. i. p. 72: "Natives . . . seemingly ignorant of the use of the throwing-stick." 1879. J. D. Woods, `Native Tribes of South Australia,' Introd. p. xviii: "The spear is propelled by a wommerah or throwing-stick, having at one end a kangaroo's tooth, fixed so as to fit into a notch at the end of the spear. This instrument gives an amount of leverage far beyond what would be excited by unaided muscular strength." 1880. Fison and Howitt, `Kamilaroi and Kurnai,' p. 251: "It is supposed that if the hair of a person is tied on the end of the throwing-stick. . . and roasted before the fire with some kangaroo fat, the person to whom it belonged will pine away and die." 1885. H. H. Hayter, `Carboona,' p. 24: "Warrk Warrk, having a dart on his throwing-stick ready adjusted, hurled it." <hw>Thrush</hw>, <i>n</i>. This common English bird-name is applied in Australia and New Zealand to four different genera of birds, viz.-- (1) <i>Collyriocincla</i>, the Shrike-Thrushes (q.v.); the name <i>Collyriocincla</i> is a compound of two Greek bird-names, <i>kolluriown</i> /corr. from kolluriowu in Morris/, `a bird, probably of the <i>thrush</i> kind, Arist. H. A. 9, 23, 2' (`L. & S.' /1869 p.864/), and <i>kigalos</i>, `a kind of <i>wag-tail</i> or <i>water-ousel</i>' (`L. & S.'). The next two genera are derived in a similar way from <i>gaer</i>, earth, and <i>'opos</i>, mountain. (2) <i>Geocincla</i>, the Ground-Thrushes (q.v.). (3) <i>Oreocincla</i>, the Mountain-Thrush (q.v.). (4) <i>Pachycephala</i> (q.v.); called Thrushes, but more often Thickheads (q.v.). (5) <i>Turnagra</i> (the New Zealand Thrushes), viz.-- <i>T. hectori</i>, Buller, North Island Thrush. <i>T. crassirostris</i>, Gmel., South Island Thrush. The name <i>Thrush</i> was also applied loosely, by the early writers and travellers, to birds of many other genera which have since been more accurately differentiated. The common English thrush has been acclimatised in Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand. <hw>Thunder-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. an early name for one of the <i>Thickheads</i> (q.v.), or <i>Pachycephalae</i> (q.v.). See also quotation, 1896. 1827. Vigors and Horsfield, `Transactions of Linnaean Society,' vol. xv. p. 239: "`This species,' Mr. Caley says, `is called <i>Thunder-bird</i> by the colonists. . . . The natives tell me, that when it begins to thunder this bird is very noisy.'" 1848. J. Gould,' Birds of Australia,' vol. ii. pl. 64: "<i>Pachycephala Gutturalis</i>, Thunder Bird, Colonists of New South Wales." 1896. A. J. North, `List of the Insectivorous Birds of New South Wales,' part i. p. 3: "Pachycephala gutturalis, <i>Latham</i>. `Yellow-breasted Thick-head.' . . . From its habit of starting to sing immediately after a clap of thunder, the report of a gun, or any other loud and sudden noise, it is known to many residents of New South Wales as the Thunder-bird.' "Pachycephala rufiventris, <i>Latham</i>. `Rufous-breasted Thickhead.' . . . Also known as the `Thunder-bird.'" <hw>Thunder-dirt</hw>, <i>n</i>. In New Zealand, a gelatinous covering of a fungus (<i>Ileodictyon cibarium</i>) formerly eaten by the Maoris. <hw>Thylacine</hw>, and <hw>Thylacinus</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name of the genus of the animal called variously the <i>Tasmanian Tiger</i> (q.v.), <i>Hyaena</i>, <i>Tasmanian Wolf</i>, <i>Zebra Wolf</i>, and <i>Marsupial Wolf</i>. The first spelling is the Anglicised form of the word. (Grk. <i>thulakos</i>, a pouch, and <i>kuown</i>, a dog.) 1894. R. Lydekker, `Marsupialia,' p. 153: "The Thylacine appears to be generally found among caverns and rocks and the deep and almost impenetrable glens in the neighbourhood of the highest mountains of Tasmania." <hw>Ti</hw>, <i>n</i>. the name of various species of trees of the genus <i>Cordyline</i>, <i>N.O. Liliaceae</i>. It exists in the Pacific Islands as <i>C. Ti</i>, and in New Zealand the species are <i>C. australis</i> and <i>C. indivisa</i>. It is called in New Zealand the <i>Cabbage-tree</i> (q.v.), and the heart used to be eaten by the settlers. The word is Polynesian. In Hawaiian, the form is <i>Ki</i>; in Maori, <i>Ti</i>. Compare <i>Kanaka</i> (q.v.) and <i>Tangata</i>. By confusion, <i>Tea</i>, in <i>Tea-tree</i> (q.v.), is frequently spelt <i>Ti</i>, and <i>Tea-tree</i> is sometimes spelt <i>Ti-tri</i> (q.v.). 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 58: "In these natural shrubberies, too, and especially in wet situations, a kind of cabbage-tree, called ti by the natives, flourishes to great abundance." 1855. Rev. R. Taylor,' Te Ika a Maui,' p. 435: "The ti (<i>Cordyline australis</i> or <i>Dracoena australis</i>) is found in great abundance. Though so common, it has a very foreign look . . . the leaf is that of a flag, the flower forms a large droop and is very fragrant." 1866. Lady Barker, `Station Life in New Zealand,' p. 52: "Ti-ti palms are dotted here and there, and give a foreign and tropical appearance to the whole." 1882. T. H. Potts, `Out in the Open,' p. 297: "An abundance of narrow strips of the tough, fibrous leaves of the ti-palm." 1890. W. Colenso, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. xviii. art. lvii. p. 486: "In these plains stand a number of cabbage-trees (<i>Cordyline Australis</i>), the ti-trees of the Maori. These often bear only a single head of long narrow harsh leaves at the top of their tall slender stems, but sometimes they are slightly branched, the branches also only bearing a similar tuft." 1892. `Otago Witness,' Dec. 22, p. 7, col. 2: "A small grove of ti-palms or cabbage-tree." <hw>Tiaki</hw> (spelt also <hw>Tieke</hw>), <i>n</i>. Maori name for the <i>Saddle-back</i> or <i>Jack-bird</i> (q.v.). 1835. W. Yate, `Account of New Zealand,' p. 56: "Tiaki or purourou. This elegant bird is about the size of the sky-lark." <hw>Tieke</hw>, <i>n</i>. Same as <i>Tiaki</i> (q.v.). <hw>Tiers</hw>, <i>pl. n</i>. used in Tasmania as the usual word for mountains, in the same way as the word <i>Ranges</i> (q.v.) in Australia. 1876. W. B. Wildey, `Australasia and Oceanic Region,' p. 320: "Two chains of mountains, the eastern and western tiers, run through it nearly north and south." 1891. `The Australasian,' April 4, p. 670, col. 2: "That stuff as they calls horizontal, a mess of branches and root, The three barren tiers; and the Craycroft, that 'ud settle a bandicoot." <hw>Tiersman</hw>, <i>n</i>. Tasmanian word for one who lives in the <i>Tiers</i> (q.v.). 1852. F. Lancelott, `Australia as it is,' vol. ii. p. 115: "Splatters, or, as they are commonly called tiersmen, reside in the forest of stringy bark . . ." <hw>Tiger-Cat</hw>, <i>n</i>. special name applied to the <i>Common</i> and <i>Spotted-tailed Native Cat</i>. See under <i>Cat</i>. 1832. J. Bischoff, `Van Diemen's Land,' c. ii. p. 52: "The skins of the . . . opossum, tiger-cat, and platypus . . . are exported." 1852. Ronald C. Gunn, `Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Van Diemen's Land,' vol. ii. p. 11: "<i>Dasyurus maculatus</i>, Shaw. . . . The <i>Spotted Martin</i>, Phillip's `Voy. to Botany Bay, p. 276. Martin Cat,' pl. 46. `Tiger Cat' of the Colonists of Tasmania, to which island it is confined. It is distinguished from <i>D. viverrinus</i>, the `Native Cat' of the Colonists, by its superior size and more robust form; also from the tail being spotted as well as the body." 1891. `Guide to the Zoological Gardens, Melbourne': "After the opossums comes a specimen of the tiger-cat (<i>Dasyurus maculatus</i>); this animal, which is so destructive to poultry, is well known throughout the country in Victoria." <hw>Tiger, Tasmanian</hw>. See <i>Thylacine</i> and <i>Tasmanian Tiger</i>. <hw>Tiger-Snake</hw>, <i>n</i>. See under <i>Snake</i>. <hw>Tihore</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a species of New Zealand flax. Name used specially in the North Island for the best variety of <i>Phormium</i> (q.v.). 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. ii. p. 286: "The species of <i>Phormium tenax</i> thus cultivated is the tihore, literally the `skinning' flax. This name describes the ease with which it submits to the scraping process." <hw>Tiki</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the Creator of man, and thence taken to represent an ancestor. The Maoris made large wooden images to represent their <i>Tiki</i>, and gave the name of <i>Tiki</i> to these images. Later they were made in miniature in greenstone (q.v.), and used as neck ornaments. See <i>Heitiki</i>. <hw>Tit</hw>, <i>n</i>. common English bird name. Applied in Australia to the following species-- Broad-tailed Tit-- <i>Acanthiza apicalis</i>, Gould. Brown T.-- <i>A. pusilla</i>, Lath. Buff T.-- <i>Geobasileus reguloides</i>, V. and H. Chestnut-rumped T.-- <i>Acanthiza uropygialis</i>, Gould. Little T.-- <i>A. nana</i>, Vig. and Hors. Plain T.-- <i>A. inornata</i>, Gould. Red-rumped T.-- <i>A. pyrrhopygia</i>, Gould. Scaly-breasted T.-- <i>A. squamata</i>, De Vis. Scrub T.-- <i>Sericornis magna</i>, Gould. Striated T.-- <i>Acanthiza lineata</i>, Gould. Tasmanian T.-- <i>A. diemenensis</i>, Gould; called also <i>Brown-tail</i>. Yellow-rumped T.-- <i>Geobasileus chrysorrhoea</i>, Quoy and Gaim. See also <i>Tree-tit</i>. <hw>Tit-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name given in North Australia to the Sea-slug, or Trepang; because the appearance of its tentacles suggests the teat of a cow. 1880. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Proceedings of the Linnaean Society of New South Wales,' vol. v. pt. ii. p. 128: "G. F. Jaeger, in 1833, . . . enumerates four [species of <i>Trepang</i>), viz. <i>Trepang edulis</i>, <i>T. ananas</i>, <i>T. impatiens</i> and <i>T. peruviana</i>. The first of these is certainly found on the reefs, and is called by the fishermen `redfish.' . . . Next to this is the `tit-fish' . . . studded with somewhat distant large tentacles, which project nearly an inch or so." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. ii. p. 22: "They were engaged in smoking a large haul of `tit' fish, which they had made on a neighbouring reef." <hw>Ti-ti</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the sea-bird <i>Pelecanoides urinatrix</i>, Gmel., the Diving-petrel. Spelt also <i>tee-tee</i>. 1891. `The Australasian,' Nov. 14, p. 963, col. 1 (`A Lady in the Kermadecs'): "The petrels--there are nine kinds, and we have names of our own for them, the black burrower, the mutton-bird, the white burrower, the short-billed ti-ti, the long-billed ti-ti, the little storm petrel, and three others that we had no names for--abound on the island." <hw>Tititpunamu</hw>, <i>n</i>. (spelt also <hw>Tititipunamu</hw>), <i>n</i>. Maori name for the bird <i>Acanthidositta chloris</i>, Sparm., the <i>Rifleman</i> (q.v.). It has many other Maori names. <hw>Titoki</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the New Zealand tree, <i>Alectryon excelsum</i>, De C., <i>N.O. Sapindaceae</i>. Also called New Zealand Oak and New Zealand Ash. See <i>Alectryon</i>. 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. ii. p. 317: "The berry of the titoki tree might be turned to account. The natives extract a very fine oil from it." 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' p. 253: The youth, with hands beneath his head, Against a great titoki's base." 1877. Anon., `Colonial Experiences or Incidents of Thirty-four Years in New Zealand,' p: 16: "For this purpose, titoki was deemed the most suitable timber, from its hardness and crooked growth resembling English oak." 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand, p. 131: "Titoki, a beautiful tree with large panicles of reddish flowers . . . Wood has similar properties to ash. Its toughness makes it valuable for wheels, coachbuilding, etc." 1889. T. Kirk, `Forest Flora of New Zealand,' p. 183: "It is sometimes termed `the New Zealand ash,' doubtless on account of its resembling that tree in the shape of its foliage and in the toughness of its wood, but it is most generally known as the `titoki.'" 1896. `Otago Witness,' June 23, p. 42, col. 2: "The saddling-paddock and the scales are surrounded by a fence made of stout titoki saplings, on which are perched the knowing." <hw>Ti-tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. erroneous spelling of <i>Tea-tree</i> (q.v.). See also <i>Manuka</i>. <hw>Titri</hw>, <i>n</i>. corruption for <i>Tea-tree</i> (q.v.), from the fancy that it is Maori, or aboriginal Australian. On the railway line, between Dunedin and Invercargill, there is a station called "<i>Titri</i>," evidently the surveyor's joke. 1895. `Otago Witness,' Dec. 19, p. 23, col. 3: "Our way lay across two or three cultivations into a grove of handsome titri. Traversing this we came to a broad, but shallow and stony creek, and then more titri, merging into light bush." <hw>Toad-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. In New Zealand, a scarce marine fish of the family <i>Psychrolutidae</i>, <i>Neophrynichthys latus</i>. In Australia, the name is applied to <i>Tetrodon hamiltoni</i>, Richards., and various other species of <i>Tetrodon</i>, family <i>Gymnodontes</i>, poisonous fishes. Toad-fishes are very closely allied to Porcupine-fishes. "Toads" have the upper jaw divided by a median suture, while the latter have undivided dental plates. See <i>Porcupine-fish</i> and <i>Globe-fish</i>, 1836. Ross, `Hobart Town Almanack,' p. 89: "The Poisonous or <i>Toad Fish</i> of Van Diemen's Land. (<i>Communicated by James Scott, Esq. R.N. Colonial Surgeon</i>). . . . The melancholy and dreadful effect produced by eating it was lately instanced in the neighbourhood of Hobart Town, on the lady of one of the most respectable merchants, and two children, who died in the course of three hours . . . The poison is of a powerful sedative nature, producing stupor, loss of speech, deglutition, vision and the power of the voluntary muscles, and ultimately an entire deprivation of nervous power and death." 1844. J. A. Moore, `Tasmanian Rhymings,' p. 24: "The toad-fish eaten, soon the body dies." <hw>Toatoa</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name of New Zealand tree, <i>Phyllocladus glauca</i>, Carr., <i>N.O. Coniferae</i>. The Mountain Toatoa is <i>P. alpinus</i>, Hook. 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 120: "The toa toa, a small tree which is much prized by the natives for walking-sticks, and only grows, they say, in the neighbourhood of Tonga Riro. The stick underneath the bark is of a bright red colour, which takes a fine polish." <hw>Tobacco, Colonial</hw>. See <i>Tobacco, Native</i>. <hw>Tobacco, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. In Australia generally, a true Tobacco, <i>Nicotiana suaveolens</i>, Lehm., <i>N.O. Solanaceae</i>; readily eaten as a forage plant by stock. In Queensland, the name is also applied to <i>Pituri</i> (q.v.). In Tasmania, the name is given to <i>Cassinia billardieri</i>, De C., <i>N.O. Compositae</i>. Various American tobaccos are also naturalised, and their growing and manufacture is an industry. Tobacco manufactured in the colonies, whether from imported American leaf or from leaf grown in the colonies, is called <i>Colonial Tobacco</i>. 1848. T. L. Mitchell, `Tropical Australia,' p. 64: "In the rich soil near the river-bed, we saw the yellowish flowers of the native tobacco, <i>Nicotiana suaveolens</i>." <hw>Toe-ragger</hw>, <i>n</i>. In the bush a term of abuse; though curiously in one or two parts of New South Wales the word "toey," which is derived from it, is a term of praise, a "swell." The word has been explained as of convict origin, that the rags were used to soothe the galling of fetters; but the explanation is not satisfactory, for the part galled by the irons would not be the toe, but the ankle. A writer in `Truth' has cleared up the word (see quotation). It is of Maori origin. Away from Maoriland "toe-rigger" had no meaning, and a false meaning and origin were given by the change of vowel. 1896. `Truth' (Sydney), Jan. 12: "The bushie's favorite term of opprobrium `a toe-ragger' is also probably from the Maori. Amongst whom the nastiest term of contempt was that of <i>tau rika rika</i>, or slave. The old whalers on the Maoriland coast in their anger called each other toe-riggers, and to-day the word in the form of toe-ragger has spread throughout the whole of the South Seas." <hw>Toe-toe</hw>, and <hw>Toi-toi</hw>, Maori name of several species of native grass of the genus <i>Arundo</i>, especially <i>Arundo conspicua</i>, A. Cunn. <i>Toe-toe</i> is the right spelling in Maori, given in Williams' `Maori Dictionary.' In English, however, the word is frequently spelt <i>toi-toi</i>. It is also called <i>Prince of Wales' feather</i>. 1843. `An Ordinance for imposing a tax on Raupo Houses, Session II. No. xvii. of the former Legislative Council of New Zealand': [From A. Domett's collection of Ordinances, 1850.] "Section 2. . . . there shall be levied in respect of every building constructed wholly or in part of <i>raupo, nikau, toitoi</i>, <i>wiwi kakaho</i>, straw or thatch of any description [ . . . L20]." 1849. C. Hursthouse, `Settlement of New Plymouth,' p. 13: "A species of tall grass called `toetoe.'" 1861. C. C. Bowen, `Poems,' p. 57: "High o'er them all the toi waved, To grace that savage ground." 1867. Lady Barker, `Station Life in New Zealand,' p. 110: "Thatching it with tohi, or swamp-grass." 1892. `The Katipo,' Jan. i. [sic] p. 3 [description of the Title-cut]: "The toi toi and <i>Phorinium tenax</i> in the corners are New Zealand emblems." 1895. `Otago Witness,' Dec. 19, p. 6, col. 3: "Where Christmas lilies wave and blow, Where the fan-tails tumbling glance, And plumed toi-toi heads the dance." <hw>Tohora</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a whale. 1855. Rev. R. Taylor, `Te Ika a Maui,' p. 136: "Fable of the Kauri (pine-tree) and Tohora (whale)." 1878. W. Colenso, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. xi. art. iv. pt. 2, p. 90: "Looking at it as it lay extended, it resembled a very large whale (nui tohora)." 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand,' p. 21: "In the open sea, and to the south, the most prized whale next to the sperm is the black whale, or tohora (<i>Eubalaena Australis</i>), which is like the right whale of the North Sea, but with baleen of less value." <hw>Tohunga</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori word for a wise man. "Perhaps from Maori verb <i>tohu</i>, to think." (Tregear's `Polynesian Dictionary.') <i>Tohu</i>, a sign or omen; hence <i>Tohunga</i>, a dealer in omens, an augur. 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf and Amohia,' p. 102: "But he whose grief was most sincere The news of that unwonted death to hear, Was Kangapo, the Tohunga--a Priest And fell Magician famous far and near." 1873. `Appendix to Journals of House of Representatives,' G. 1, B. p. 9: "I am a tohunga who can save the country if you will follow my advice." 1878. F. E. Maning, `Heke's War, told by an Old Chief,' `New Zealand Reader,' p. 153: "Amongst these soldiers there was not one tohunga--not a man at all experienced in omens--or they must have had some warning that danger and defeat were near." 1893. `Otago Witness,' Dec. 21, p. 10, col. 2: "She would consult a tohunga. The man she selected-- one of the oldest and most sacred of the Maori priests, prophet, medicine-man, lawyer and judge." <hw>Tolmer's Grass</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fibrous plant, <i>Lepidosperma gladiatum</i>, Labill., <i>N.O. Cyperaceae</i>, suitable for manufacture of paper. It is not a true grass, and is classed by Maiden (`Useful Native Plants,' p. 626) under fibres. 1882. A. Tolmer, `Reminiscences,' p. 298: "The plant that has since by courtesy borne my name (Tolmer's grass)." <hw>Tomahawk</hw>, <i>n</i>. a word of North-American Indian origin, applied in English to the similarly shaped short one-handed axe or hatchet. The word is not frequent in England, but in Australia the word <i>hatchet</i> has practically disappeared, and the word <i>Tomahawk</i> to describe it is in every-day use. It is also applied to the stone hatchet of the Aboriginals. A popular corruption of it is <i>Tommy-axe</i>. 1802. G. Barrington, `History of New South Wales,' c. xii. p. 466: "A plentiful assortment of . . . knives, shirts, toma-hawkes [sic], axes, jackets, scissars [sic], etc., etc., for the people in general." 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 259: "We . . . observed recent marks of the stone tomahawk of the natives." 1851. G. W. Rusden, `Moyarra,' canto i. 17, p. 25: "One hand he wreathed in Mytah's hair, Whirled then the tomahawk in air." 1870. E. B. Kennedy, `Fours /sic/ Years in Queensland,' p. 721: "They [the Aboriginals] cut out opossums from a tree or sugar bag (wild honey) by means of a tomahawk of green stone; the handle is formed of a vine, and fixed in its place with gum. It is astonishing what a quantity of work is got through in the day with these blunt tomahawks." 1873. J. B. Stephens, `Black Gin,' p. 60: "Lay aside thy spears (I doubt them); Lay aside thy tomahawk." 1880. Fison and Howitt, `Kamilaroi and Kurnai,' p. 206: "The aborigines have obtained iron tomahawks." 1880. G. Sutherland, `Tales of Goldfields,' p. 73: "Men had to cleave out a way for themselves with tomahawks." 1888. A. Reischek, in Buller's `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. ii. p. 94: "The snow had been blown together, and was frozen so hard that I had to take my tomahawk to chop it down so as to get softer snow to refresh myself with a wash." <hw>Tomahawk</hw>, <i>v</i>. tr. to cut sheep when shearing them. 1859. H. Kingsley, `Geoffrey Hamlyn,' p. 147: "Shearers were very scarce, and the poor sheep got fearfully `tomahawked' by the new hands." 1872. C. H. Eden, `My Wife and I in Queensland,' p. 96: "Some men never get the better of this habit, but `tomahawk' as badly after years of practice as when they first began." 1896. A. B. Paterson, `Man from Snowy River,' p. 162: "The Shearers sat in the firelight, hearty and hale and strong, After the hard day's shearing, passing the joke along The `ringer' that shore a hundred, as they never were shorn before, And the novice who toiling bravely had tommyhawked half a score." <hw>Tommy-axe</hw>, <i>n</i>. a popular corruption of the word <i>Tomahawk</i> (q.v.); it is an instance of the law of Hobson-Jobson. <hw>Tom Russell's Mahogany</hw>. See <i>Mahogany</i>. <hw>Tomtit</hw>, <i>n</i>. name applied in New Zealand to two New Zealand birds of the genus <i>Myiomoira</i>, the species being <i>M. toitoi</i>, Garnot, in North Island; <i>M. macrocephala</i>, Gmel., in South Island. 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 39: [A full description.] <hw>Tonquin Bean-Tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian variety of <i>Native Sandalwood</i>; also called <i>Tonga Beanwood</i>. 1862. W. Archer, `Products and Resources of Tasmania,' p. 41: "`Tonga Bean-wood (<i>Alyxia buxifolia</i>, Br.). The odour is similar to that of the <i>Tonga Bean</i> (<i>Dipteryx odorata</i>). A straggling seaside shrub, three to five inches in diameter." <hw>Tooart</hw>, or <hw>Tewart</hw>, <i>n</i>. a West Australian name for <i>Eucalyptus gomphocephala</i>, or <i>White Gum</i>. See <i>Gum</i>. 1870. T. H. Braim, `New Homes,' c. iv. p. 181: `Another valuable tree is the tooart, a kind of white gum." 1875. T. Laslett, `Timber and Timber Trees,' p. 187: "The Tewart Tree (<i>Eucalyptus</i>), a variety of the White Gum, found principally in the Swan River and King George's Sound District of Western Australia. . . . Of straight growth and noble dimensions. The wood is of a yellowish or straw colour, hard, heavy, tough, strong and rigid. . . . It is used in ship-building for beams, keelsons, stern-posts, engine-bearers, and for other works below the line of flotation." <hw>Tookytook</hw>, <i>n</i>. a corruption of <i>Kotukutuku</i> (q.v.), a Maori name equivalent to <i>Konini</i>, the fruit of the <i>Fuchsia-tree</i> (q.v.). <hw>Toot</hw>, <i>n</i>. the anglicised spelling of the Maori word <i>Tutu</i> (q.v.). <hw>Tooted</hw>, quasi <i>past participle</i> from <i>Toot</i>. The cattle are <i>tooted</i>, sc. poisoned by the <i>Toot</i>. 1863. G. Butler, `Canterbury Settlement,' p. 98: "As, then, my bullocks could not get tuted." 1891. T. H. Potts, `New Zealand Country Journal,' p. 201: "His hearty salutation in its faultiness proved to be about on a par with `rummy-rum,' `triddy' and `toot.' The last word reminds me of a man near by who was even judged to be somewhat vain of his Maori accent and pronunciation. With one word he was indeed very particular, he could not bring himself to use that manifest corruption `toot.' With him it was ever `tutu.' He had to make rather a boggle or dodge of it when he used the colonial made verb formed on his favourite Maori noun." <hw>Tooth-shell</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is applied, in Europe, to any species of <i>Dentalium</i> and allied genera having a tooth-shaped shell. In Australia, it is the shell of <i>Marinula pellucida</i>, Cooper, a small marine mollusc used for necklaces. <hw>Tope</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australasian Shark, <i>Galeus australis</i>, Macl. It differs somewhat from <i>Galeus canis</i>, the <i>Tope</i> of Britain. Called also the <i>School-Shark</i>, in Australia. <hw>Top-knot Pigeon</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian bird, <i>Lopholaimus antarcticus</i>, Shaw. 1891. Francis Adams, `John Webb's End,' p. 33: "Flying for a moment beside a lovely, melodious <i>top-knot pigeon</i>." <hw>Torea</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for all the New Zealand species of the <i>Oyster-catchers</i> (q.v.). <hw>Torpedo</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fish, well known elsewhere, and also called elsewhere, the <i>Numb-fish</i> and <i>Cramp fish</i>. For the Australian species, see quotation. 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish of New South Wales,' p. 100: "Our Torpedo or Electric Ray is <i>Hypnos subnigrum</i>, that of Tasmania is <i>Narcine Tasmaniensis</i>." <hw>Torres-Straits Pigeon</hw>, <i>n</i>. See quotation. 1893. Saville Kent, `Great Barrier Reef,' p. 123: "Making a bag of the famous Torres Straits pigeons (<i>Myristicivora spilorrhoa</i>), a large white variety, highly esteemed for the table, which, arriving from the north [that is New Guinea], is distributed from October until the end of March throughout the tree-bearing islets and mainland coast, as far south as Keppel Bay." <hw>Tortoise-shell Fish</hw>. See <i>Hand-fish</i>. <hw>Totara</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a lofty-spreading New Zealand tree, <i>Podocarpus totara</i>, A. Cunn., <i>N.O. Coniferae</i>,. In Maori, the accent falls on the first syllable; but in English use it is often placed on the second, and from Mr. Polack's spelling it must have been so as early as 1840. Called also <i>Mahogany-pine</i>. There are several other species, e.g. <i>P. vivalis</i>, Hook., the <i>Mountain Totara</i>; called also <i>Mahogany Pine</i>. See <i>Mahogany</i>, and <i>Pine</i>. 1832. G. Bennett, in Lambert's `Genus Pinus,' vol. ii. p. 190: "This is an unpublished species of <i>Podocarpus</i>, called Totara by the natives. . . . The value placed on this tree by the natives is sometimes the occasion of quarrels, terminating in bloodshed, if it is cut down by any except the party by whom it is claimed. . . It is not unusual for the trees to descend from father to son." 1840. J. S. Polack, `Manners and Customs of New Zealanders,' vol. i. p. 227: "The totarra or red-pine." 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 221: "The totara is one of the finest trees in the forest, and is the principal wood used by the natives, whether for canoes, houses, or fencing." 1854. W. Golder, `Pigeons' Parliament,' [Notes] p. 80: "The place received its name from a number of large totara trees." 1867. F. Hochstetter, `New Zealand,' p. 134: "Totara (<i>Podocarpus totara</i>) and Matai (<i>Podocarpus spicata</i>) are large and beautiful trees found in every forest." 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' p. 107: "One lone totara-tree that grew Beneath the hill-side." 1875. T. Laslett, `Timber and Timber Trees,' p. 308: "The Totara Tree (<i>Taxus</i> or <i>Podocarpus totara</i>). Height, eighty to ninety feet. The wood is red in colour, close, straight, fine and even in grain . . . a good substitute for mahogany." 1889. T. Kirk, `Forest Flora of New Zealand,' p. 227: "With the exception of the kauri, the totara affords the most valuable timber in New Zealand, but unlike the kauri it is found almost throughout the colony." <hw>Towai</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for New Zealand tree, <i>Weinmannia racemosa</i>, Forst., <i>N.O. Saxifrageae</i>, i.q. <i>Kamahai</i> in south of South Island, and <i>Tawhero</i> in North Island (Wellington). 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. ii. p. 95: "Its banks . . . are covered almost wholly with the towai. This tree has very small dark leaves.It is used for ship- building, and is called by Englishmen the `black birch.'" 1851. Mrs. Wilson, `New Zealand,' p. 43: "The ake . . . and towai (<i>Leiospermum racemosum</i>) are almost equal, in point of colour, to rosewood." 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand,' p. 132: "Towhai, Kamahi. A large tree; trunk two to four feet in diameter, and fifty feet high. Wood close-grained and heavy, but rather brittle. . . . The bark is largely used for tanning. The extract of bark is chemically allied to the gum kino of commerce, their value being about equal." <hw>Township</hw>, <i>n</i>. a village, a possible future town. In the United States, the word has a definite meaning--a district, subordinate to a county, the inhabitants having power to regulate their local affairs; in Australia, the word has no such definite meaning. It may be large or small, and sometimes consists of little more than the post-office, the public-house, and the general store or shop. 1802. D. Collins, `Account of New South Wales,' vol. ii. p. 7: "The timber of a hundred and twenty acres was cut down . . . a small township marked out, and a few huts built." 1861. Mrs. Meredith, `Over the Straits,' vol. ii. p. 40: "It used to seem to me a strange colonial anomaly to call a very small village a `township,' and a much larger one a `town.' But the former is the term applied to the lands reserved in various places for future towns." 1873. J. B. Stephens, `Black Gin,' p. 79: "There's a certain township and also a town,-- (For, to ears colonial, I need not state That the two do not always homologate)." 1888. Gilbert Parker, `Round the Compass in Australia,' p. 439: [Mr. Parker is a Canadian who lived four years in Australia] "A few words of comparison here. A pub of Australia is a tavern or hotel in Canada; a township is a village; a stock-rider is a cow-boy; a humpy is a shanty; a warrigal or brombie 1s a broncho or cayuse; a sundowner is a tramp; a squatter is a rancher; and so on through an abundant list." 1892. A. Sutherland, `Elementary Geography of British Colonies,' p. 276: "Villages, which are always called `townships,' spring up suddenly round a railway-station or beside some country inn." 1894. `Sydney Morning Herald' (date lost): "A township--the suffix denotes a state of being--seems to be a place which is not in the state of being a town. Does its pride resent the impost of village that it is glad to be called by a name which is no name, or is the word loosely appropriated from America, where it signifies a division of a county? It is never found in England." 1896. A. B. Paterson, `Man from Snowy River,' p. 38: "There stands the town of Dandaloo-- A township where life's total sum Is sleep, diversified with rum." <hw>Traveller</hw>, <i>n</i>. used specifically for a <i>Swagman</i>, a <i>Sundowner</i>. See quotation. 1868. Marcus Clarke, `Peripatetic Philosopher' (Reprint), p. 41: "At the station where I worked for some time (as `knock-about-man') three cooks were kept during the `wallaby' season--one for the house, one for the men, and one for the travellers. Moreover, `travellers' would not unfrequently spend the afternoon at one of the three hotels (which, with a church and a pound, constituted the adjoining township), and having `liquored up' extensively, swagger up to the station, and insist upon lodging and food--which they got. I have no desire to take away the character of these gentlemen travellers, but I may mention as a strange coincidence, that, was the requested hospitality refused by any chance, a bush-fire invariably occurred somewhere on the run within twelve hours." 1893. `Sydney Morning Herald,' Aug. 12, p. 8, col. 7: "Throughout the Western pastoral area the strain of feeding the `travellers,' which is the country euphemism for bush unemployed, has come to be felt as an unwarranted tax upon the industry, and as a mischievous stimulus to nomadism." 1896. `The Australasian,' Aug. 8, p. 249, col. 2: ". . . never refuses to feed travellers; they get a good tea and breakfast, and often 10 to 20 are fed in a day. These travellers lead an aimless life, wandering from station to station, hardly ever asking for and never hoping to get any work, and yet they expect the land-owners to support them. Most of them are old and feeble, and the sooner all stations stop giving them free rations the better it will be for the real working man. One station-owner kept a record, and he found that he fed over 2000 men in twelve months. This alone, at 6d. a meal, would come to L100, but this is not all, as they `bag' as much as they can if their next stage is not a good feeding station." <hw>Travellers' Grass</hw>, i.q. <i>Settler's Twine</i> (q.v.). <hw>Tree-creeper</hw>, <i>n</i>. popular name applied to members of an old Linnaean genus of birds. The Australian species are enumerated by Gould in quotation. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. iv.: Plate <i>Climacteris scandens</i>, Temm., Brown Tree-creeper . 93 <i>C. rufa</i>, Gould, Rufous T. . . . . . . . . 94 <i>C. erythrops</i>, Gould, Red-eyebrowed T. . . . . 95 <i>C. melanotus</i>, Gould, Black-backed T. . . . . 96 <i>C. melanura</i>, Gould, Black-tailed T. . . . . . 97 <i>C. picumnus</i>, Temm., Whitethroated T. . . . . 98 <hw>Tree-fern</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Fern-tree</i>. <hw>Tree-Kangaroo</hw>, called <i>Boongary</i> (q.v.) by the aboriginals. See <i>Dendrolagus</i> and <i>Kangaroo</i>. <hw>Tree-Runner</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Sittella</i> (q.v.). The species are-- Black-capped Tree-Runner-- <i>Sittella pileata</i>, Gould. Orange-winged T.-- <i>S. chrysoptera</i>, Lath. Pied T.-- <i>S. albata</i>, Ramsay. Slender-billed T.-- <i>S. tenuirostris</i>, Gould. Striated T.-- <i>S. striata</i>, Gould. White-headed T.-- <i>S. leucocephala</i>, Gould. White-winged T.-- <i>S. leucoptera</i>, Gould. But see Gould's earlier (1848), under <i>Sittella</i>. <hw>Tree-Tit</hw>, <i>n</i>. The word tit is terminally applied to many little English birds. In Australia, this new compound has been adopted for the two species, Short-billed Tree-tit, <i>Smicrornis brevirostris</i>, Gould, and Yellow-tinted Tit, <i>S. flavescens</i>, Gould. <hw>Tremandra</hw>, <i>n</i>. scientific name of a genus of Australian plants, the <i>Purple Heath-flower</i>. Name given by R. Brown in 1814, from the remarkably tremulous anthers. (Lat. <i>tremere</i>, to tremble, and Grk. <i>'anaer</i>, <i>'andros</i> a man, taken as equivalent to "anther.") <hw>Trevally</hw>, or <hw>Trevalli</hw>, or <hw>Trevalla</hw>, or <hw>Travale</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian fish. In various localities the name is applied to several fishes, which are most of them of the family <i>Carangidae</i>, or <i>Horse-Mackerels</i>. An Old-World name for the Horse-Mackerels is <i>Cavalli</i> (Ital. <i>cavallo</i>, a little horse). <i>Trevalli</i> is sometimes called <i>Cavalli</i>; this was probably its original name in Australia, and <i>Trevalli</i> a later corruption. The different kinds are-- Black Trevally-- <i>Teuthis nebulosa</i>, Quoy, family <i>Teuthididae</i> (a New South Wales fish). Mackerel T. (so called in Tasmania)-- <i>Neptonemus dobula</i>, Gunth., family <i>Carangidae</i>. Silver T.-- Another Tasmanian name for the White Trevally, <i>Caranx georgianus</i> (see below). Snotgall T.-- <i>Neptonemus travale</i>, Casteln. (in Victoria); <i>N. brama</i>, Gunth. in Tasmania); both of the family of <i>Carangidae</i>. White T.-- <i>Caranx georgianus</i>, Cuv. and Val., family <i>Carangidae</i>; (so called in New South Wales, New Zealand, and Tasmania; in Victoria it is called <i>Silver Bream</i>). <i>Teuthis javus</i>, Linn., family <i>Tuethididae</i>. The Maori name for the <i>Trevally</i> is <i>Awara</i>, and in Auckland it is sometimes called the <i>Yellow-Tail</i> (q.v.). See also quotation, 1886. Guenther says, the genus <i>Teuthis</i> is readily recognised by the peculiar structure of the ventral fins, which have an outer and an inner spine and three soft rays between. 1769. `Capt. Cook's Journal' (edition Wharton, 1893), p. 164: "Several canoes came off to the ship, and two or three of them sold us some fish--cavallys as they are called--which occasioned my giving the Islands the same name." 1886. R. A. Sherrin, `Fishes of New Zealand,' p. 99: "Dr. Hector says: `The trevalli is the arara of the Maoris, or the trevalli or cavalli of the fishermen . . . In Auckland it is sometimes called the yellow-tail, but this name appears to be also used for the king-fish. The fish known as trevalli in the Dunedin market is a different fish, allied to the warehou.'" 1890. `Victorian Statutes--Fisheries Act' (Second Schedule): "Travale." <hw>Triantelope</hw>, <i>n</i>. a European comic variation of the scientific name <i>Tarantula</i>. It is applied in Australia to a spider belonging to a quite different genus, <i>Voconia</i>, a perfectly harmless spider, though popularly supposed to be poisonous. It has powerful mandibles, but will attack nobody unless itself attacked. 1846. C. P. Hodgson, `Reminiscences of Australia,' p. 173: "The tarantulas, or `triantelopes,' as the men call them, are large, ugly spiders, very venomous." 1860. A Lady, `My Experiences in Australia,' p. 151: "There is no lack of spiders either, of all sorts and sizes, up to the large tarantula, or <i>tri-antelope</i>, as the common people persist in calling it." <hw>Tribonyx</hw>, <i>n</i>. There are several species of this bird in Australia and Tasmania, where they go by the name of <i>Native Hen</i>, and sometimes, erroneously, <i>Moor-hen</i> (q.v.). For the species, see <i>Native Hen</i>. No species of <i>Tribonyx</i> has been found wild in New Zealand, though other birds have been mistaken for the genus. 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. i. (Introd.), p. xiv: "I ought perhaps here to refer to a species mentioned in the former Introduction as a newly discovered addition to the New Zealand <i>Avifauna</i>, but now omitted from the list . . ." Ibid. p. liv: "<i>Tribonyx</i> has never actually occurred in a wild state [in New Zealand]." Ibid. p. 90: "<i>Tribonyx</i>, a bird incapable of flight, but admirably adapted for running." <hw>Trichosurus</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name of a genus of the <i>Phalangers</i> (q.v.), or Australian <i>Opossums</i> (q.v.). (Grk. <i>trichos</i>, of hair, and <i>'oura</i>, tail.) <hw>Trickett</hw>, <i>n</i>. slang name for a long drink of beer in New South Wales, after Trickett, the New South Wales champion sculler. <hw>Trigger-plant</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Hairtrigger</i> (q.v.) plant; called also <i>Jack-in-a-box</i>. <hw>Trigonia</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bivalve marine mollusc with a nacreous interior, much admired in Tasmania and used for pendants and necklaces, <i>Trigonia margaritacea</i>, Lamarck, of the order <i>Pectinaceae</i>. It is the largest <i>trigonia</i> occurring in Australasia, and the only one found in Tasmania. Numerous extinct species are characteristic of the Mesozoic rocks. The only living species existing are confined to Australia. <hw>Trooper</hw>, <i>n</i>. a mounted policeman. The use is transferred from the name for a private soldier in a cavalry regiment. The <i>Native troopers</i>, or <i>Black police</i>, in Queensland, are a force of aboriginal police, officered by white men. 1858. T. McCombie, `History of Victoria,' c. viii. p. 100: "A violent effort [was] made by the troopers on duty to disperse an assemblage which occupied the space of ground in front of the hustings." 1864. J. Rogers, `New Rush,' p. 51: "A trooper spies him snoring in the street." 1868. J. A. B., `Meta,' canto iii. ver. 20, p. 72: "The felon crew . . . hard pressed by troopers ten." <hw>Tropic-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. The English name is applied because the bird is usually seen in the tropics. The species observed in Australia are--Red-tailed, <i>Phaeton rubricaudus</i>, Bodd.; White-tailed, <i>P. candidus</i>, Briss. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,'vol. vii. pl. 73: "<i>Phaeton Phoenicurus</i>, Gmel., Red-tailed Tropic Bird; New Holland Tropic Bird, Latham, `General History, vol. x. p. 448." <hw>Tropidorhynchus</hw>, <i>n</i>. scientific name of a genus of birds peculiar to Australia and New Guinea. The typical species has a knob on the bill, and the head and neck destitute of feathers. From Grk. <i>tropis</i>, the keel of a ship, and <i>rhunchos</i>, "beak." They are called <i>Friar Birds</i> (q.v.), and the generic name of <i>Tropidorhynchus</i> has been replaced by <i>Philemon</i> (q.v.). <hw>Trout</hw>, <i>n</i>. The English Trout has been naturalised in Australia. In Tasmania, the name of <i>Trout</i>, or <i>Mountain-Trout</i>, is also given to species of the genus <i>Galaxias</i>. See <i>Salmon</i>. <hw>Trumpeter</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) A fish of Tasmanian, New Zealand, and Australian waters, but chiefly of Hobart-- <i>Latris hecateia</i>, Richards., family <i>Cirrhitidae</i>, much esteemed as a food-fish, and weighing sometimes 50 or 60 lbs. The name is probably from the noise made by the fish when taken out of the water. The name was formerly given to a different fish in Western Australia. See also <i>Bastard-Trumpeter</i>, <i>Morwong</i>, and <i>Paper-fish</i>. 1834. M. Doyle, `Letters and Journals of G. F. Moore, Swan River Settlement,' p. 191: "Many persons are trying to salt fish, which are very numerous in the river about and below Perth, as you must have seen by one of my letters, in which I mentioned our having taken 10,000 at one draught of the seine; these are of the kind called herrings, but do not look very like them; they make a noise when out of the water, and on that account are also called trumpeters." 1870. T. H. Braim, `New Homes,' vol. ii. p. 65: "The finest kinds are the guard-fish of the mainland and the trumpeter of the Derwent in Tasmania." 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish of New South Wales,' p. 45: "The first of these [Latris] is the genus of the well-known `Hobart Town trumpeter,' a fish deservedly of high reputation." (2) An obsolete name in Tasmania for the black <i>Crow-Shrike</i> (q.v.), <i>Strepera fuliginosa</i>, Gould. 1832. J. Bischoff, `Van Diemen's Land,' p. 177: "We also occasionally heard the trumpeter or black magpie." <hw>Trumpeter-Perch</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Mado</i> (q.v.). <hw>Trumpeter-Whiting</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Whiting</i>, quotation 1882. <hw>Tuan</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for the <i>Flying-Squirrel</i> (q.v.). See also <i>Pongo</i>. 1846. G. H. Haydon, `Five Years in Australia Felix,' p. 57: "The flying-squirrel, or tuan, is much sought after for its fine fur; of these there are two kinds, a large one of a dark colour, only found 1n the mountains; and a smaller description found in all parts of the colony, and better known by the native name, tuan." 1859. H. Kingsley, `Geoffrey Hamlyn,' p. 274: "The Touan, the little grey flying-squirrel, only begins to fly about at night, and slides down from his bough sudden and sharp." <hw>Tuatara</hw>, <i>n</i>. the Maori name of a New Zealand lizard, or reptile, <i>Hatteria punctata</i>, Gray; called also <i>Sphenodon puntatum</i>. 1820. `Grammar and Vocabulary of Language of New Zealand' (Church Missionary Society), p. 218: "Tua tira, a species of lizard." 1863. `Mahoe Leaves,' p. 47: "A small boy of a most precocious nature, who was termed `tua tara,' from a horrid sort of lizard that the natives abhor." 1890. `Catalogue of New Zealand Exhibition': "The Tuatara is the largest existing New Zealand reptile. It is closely allied to the Lizards; but on account of certain peculiarities of structure, some of which tend to connect it with the Crocodiles, is placed by Dr. Guenther in a separate order (<i>Rhynchocephalina</i>)." <hw>Tucker</hw>, <i>n</i>. Australian slang for food. <i>To tuck in</i> is provincial English for to eat, and <i>tuck</i> is a school-boy word for food, especially what is bought at a pastrycook's. <i>To make tucker</i> means to earn merely enough to pay for food. 1874. Garnet Walch, `Head over Heels,' p. 73: "For want of more nourishing tucker, I believe they'd have eaten him." 1875. Wood and Lapham, `Waiting for the Mail,' p. 33: "We heard of big nuggets, but only made tucker." 1890. `The Argus,' June 14, p. 14, col. 1: "When a travelling man sees a hut ahead, he knows there's water inside, and tucker and tea." 1891. Rolf Boldrewood, `A Sydney-side Saxon,' p. 83: "I took my meal in the hut, but we'd both the same kind of tucker." <hw>Tui</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the New Zealand bird, <i>Prosthemadera novae-zelandae</i>, Gray; called the <i>Parson-bird</i> (q.v.), and earlier the <i>Poe</i> (q.v.). Another name is the <i>Koko</i>, and the young bird is distinguished as <i>Pi-tui</i>, or <i>Pikari</i>. It is also called the <i>Mocking bird</i>. 1835. W. Yate, `Some Account of New Zealand,' p. 52: "Tui. This remarkable bird, from the versatility of its talents for imitation, has by some been called `the Mocking-Bird.'" 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 80: "The little birds were chiefly the tui, or mocking-bird. It resembles a blackbird in size and plumage, with two graceful bunches of white feathers under the neck. It abounds in the woods, and is remarkably noisy and active . . . it imitates almost every feathered inhabitant of the forest, and, when domesticated, every noise it hears." 1863. B. A. Heywood, `Vacation Tour at the Antipodes,' p. 170: "I saw several birds named the Tooi; they are black, about the size of a starling, and are sometimes called Parson-birds, as they have two white feathers like clergymen's bands in front of them." 1867. F. Hochstetter, `New Zealand,' p. 166: "One of the prettiest creatures is the tui, Parson-Bird of the colonists (<i>Prosthemadera Novae-Zelandae</i>), which roves about in the lofty, leafy crowns of the forest-trees." 1881. J. L. Campbell, `Poenamo,' p. 102: "The tui, with his grand, rich note, made the wood musical." 1884. T. Bracken, `Lays of Maori,' p. 21: "Woo the Bell-bird from his nest, to ring The Tui up to sing his morning hymns." Ibid. p. 101: "I hear the swell Of Nature's psalms through tree and bush, From tui, blackbird, finch and thrush." 1889. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. i. facing p. 94.: [A plate entitled] "Tui, or parson-bird." Ibid. pp. 94-100: [A full description.] 1893. D. Frobisher, `Sketches of Gossipton,' p. 61: As the forest soft echoes brought back their sweet chorus, The <i>tuis</i> seemed silent from envy and spleen." <hw>Tulip, Native</hw>, i.q. <i>Waratah</i> (q.v.); and see <i>Telopea</i>. <hw>Tulip-tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is given, in Australia, to <i>Stenocarpus cunninghamii</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Proteaceae</i>, on account of the brilliancy of its bright-red flowers; called also <i>Queensland Fire-tree</i>. <hw>Tulip-wood</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is given, in Australia, to <i>Aphnanthe philipinensis</i>, Planch., <i>N.O. Urticaceae</i>, and to the timber of <i>Harpullia pendula</i>, Planch., <i>N.O. Sapindaceae</i>. It is, further, a synonym for the <i>Emu-Apple</i>. 1845. J. O. Balfour, `Sketch of New South Wales,' p. 39: "The tulip-wood, with its variegated flowers and delightful perfume, grows in abundance." <hw>Tumata-kuru</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for plant better known as <i>Wild Irishman</i> (q.v.), <i>Discaria toumatou</i>, Raoul. "A thorny plant, very difficult to handle." (Vincent Pyke.) <i>Tumatagowry</i>, or <i>Matagory</i> (q.v.), is the Southern corruption of contractors, labourers, and others. 1889. Vincent Pyke, `Wild Will Enderby,' p. 16: "Upon the arid flats, patches of Tumatu-kuru, and of a purple-flowering broom, struggle to maintain a scraggy existence." 1889. T. Kirk, `Forest Flora of New Zealand,' p. 283: "The tumatakuru merits a place in this work rather on account of its value in the past than of its present usefulness. In the early days of settlement in the South Island this afforded the only available timber in many mountain-valleys, and was frequently converted by hand sawyers for building purposes; being of great durability, it was found very serviceable, notwithstanding its small dimensions: the formation of roads has deprived it of value by facilitating the conveyance of ordinary building timber." <hw>Tuna</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Eel</i>. <hw>Tupakihi</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Tutu</i> (q.v.). <hw>Tupara</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori corruption of "two-barrel." Compare the aboriginal word <i>Whilpra</i> (q.v.). 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. ii. p. 109: "He had previously despatched a messenger to me, begging me to bring some tupara, or `two-barrel.'" 1881. J. L.Campbell, `Poenamo,' p. 137: "They were labouring under the `tupera fever' [in 1840]. The percussion-gun had made its appearance, and the natives were not slow to see how much more effectual a weapon it was than the old flint `brown-bess.' And when they saw the tupera, double-barrelled gun, the rage at once set in to possess it." <hw>Tupong</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for a Southern Australian fish, <i>Aphritis bassii</i>, Castln., family <i>Trachinidae</i>. Mr. J. Bracebridge Wilson says it is called <i>Marble-fish</i> in the Geelong district. It is also known as the <i>Freshwater Flathead</i>. <hw>Tupuna</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori word, meaning ancestor, progenitor, male or female. Often used in the Land Courts in the question: "Who are your tupuna?" 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. ii. p. 113: "I asked his permission to ascend Tonga Riro . . . But he steadily refused, saying, `I would do anything else to show you my love and friendship, but you must not ascend my tepuna, or ancestor.'" 1855. Rev. R. Taylor, `Te Ika a Maui,' p. 202: "Tupuna, to stand, to spring; an ancestor; hence Tu-pu, to grow." 1863. F. Maning (Pakeha Maori), `Old New Zealand,' p. 196: "One evening a smart, handsome lad came to tell me his <i>tupuna</i> was dying . . . The tribe were ke poto or assembled to the last man about the dying chief." <hw>Turbot</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is given to a New Zealand fish, called also <i>Lemon-Sole</i> (q.v.) or <i>Yellow-belly</i> (q.v.), <i>Ammotretis guntheri</i>. 1876. `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. viii. p. 215: "Turbot--a fish not uncommon in the Dunedin market, where it goes by the name of `lemon-sole.'" <hw>Turkey</hw>, <i>n</i>. This common English bird-name is applied in Australia to three birds, viz.-- (1) To the bird <i>Eupodotis australis</i>, Gray, which is a true <i>Bustard</i>, but which is variously called the <i>Native Turkey</i>, <i>Plain Turkey</i> (from its frequenting the plains), and <i>Wild Turkey</i>. (2) To the bird <i>Talegalla lathami</i>, Gould, called the <i>Brush Turkey</i> (from its frequenting the brushes), <i>Wattled Turkey</i> and <i>Wattled Talegalla</i> (from its fleshy wattles), and sometimes, simply, <i>Talegalla</i>. By Latham it was mistaken for a Vulture, and classed by him as the <i>New Holland Vulture</i>. (`General History of Birds,' 1821, vol. i. p. 32.) (3) To the bird <i>Leipoa ocellata</i>, Gould, called the <i>Scrub-Turkey</i> (from its frequenting the Scrubs, the <i>Lowan</i> (its aboriginal name), the <i>Native Pheasant</i> (of South Australia); in the Mallee district it is called <i>Mallee-bird</i>, <i>Mallee-fowl</i>, <i>Mallee-hen</i>. In the following quotations the number of the bird referred to is placed in square brackets at the end. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 14: "We passed several nests of the Brush-Turkey (<i>Talegalla Lathami</i>, Gould)." [2.] 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 260: "Several native bustards (<i>Otis Novae Hollandiae</i>, Gould) were shot." [1.] 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. vi. pl. 4: "<i>Otis Australasianus</i>, Gould, Australian Bustard; Turkey, Colonists of New South Wales; Native Turkey, Swan River." [1.] 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. v. pl. 77: "<i>Talegalla Lathami</i>, Wattled Talegalla; Brush-Turkey of the Colonists." [2.] 1872. C. H. Eden, `My wife and I in Queensland,' p. 122: "The bird that repaid the sportsman best was the plain turkey or bustard (<i>Otis Australasianus</i>), a noble fellow, the male weighing from eighteen to twenty pounds. They differ from the European birds in being good flyers. . . . The length of the wings is very great, and they look like monsters in the air." [1.] 1872. Ibid. p. 124: "The scrub-turkey (<i>Talegalla Lathami</i>) is a most curious bird; its habitat is in the thickest scrubs. In appearance it much resembles the English hen turkey, though but little larger than a fowl." [2.] 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 214: "Look at this immense mound. It is a scrub-turkey's nest. Thirty or forty lay their eggs in it. One could hardly imagine they could gather such a huge pile of sticks and earth and leaves. They bury their eggs, and heap up the nest until the laying time ceases. The moist heap heats and incubates the eggs. The young turkeys spring out of the shell, covered with a thick warm coat, and scratch their way into daylight, strong and able to provide food for themselves." [3.] 1891. `Guide to Zoological Gardens, Melbourne': "The bustard (<i>Eupodotis Australis</i>) is known by the colonists as the native turkey. It is excellent eating and is much sought after on that account. The hen bird lays only one egg, depositing it on the bare ground. Formerly they were numerous in the neighbourhood of Melbourne, but they have now been driven further inland; they are still abundant on the western plains and on the open Saltbush country of the Lower Murray. They are difficult to approach on foot, but it is easy to get within gunshot of them on horseback or driving. The natives used formerly to capture them in an ingenious manner by means of a snare; they approached their intended victim against the wind under cover of a large bush grasped in the left hand, while in the right was held a long slender stick, to the end of which was fastened a large fluttering moth, and immediately below a running noose. While the bird, unconscious of danger, was eyeing and pecking at the moth, the noose was dexterously slipped over its head by the cunning black, and the astonished bird at once paid the penalty of its curiosity with its life." [1.] 1891. Ibid.: "In the first division are several specimens of the Brush-Turkey (<i>Talegalla Lathami</i>) of Australia. These birds have excited world-wide interest in scientific circles, by their ingenious mode of incubating. They construct a large mound of vegetable mould and sand; mixed in such proportions that a gentle heat will be maintained, which hatches the buried eggs. The young chicks can look after themselves shortly after bursting the egg-shell." [2.] 1892. A. Sutherland, `Elementary Geography of British Colonies,' p. 274: "The brush-turkeys, which are not really turkeys but birds of that size, build big mounds of decaying vegetable matter, lay their eggs on the top, cover them over with leaves, and leave the whole to rot, when the heat of the sun above and of the fermentation below, hatches the eggs, and the young creep out to forage for themselves without ever knowing their parents." [2.] 1893. Professor H. A. Strong, in `Liverpool Mercury,' Feb. 13: "The well-known `wild turkey' of Australian colonists is a bustard, and he has the good sense to give a wide berth to the two-legged immigrants indeed the most common method of endeavouring to secure an approach to him is to drive up to him in a buggy, and then to let fly. The approach is generally made by a series of concentric circles, of which the victim is the centre. His flesh is excellent, the meat being of a rich dark colour, with a flavour resembling that of no other game bird with which I am acquainted." [1.] 1893. `The Argus,' March 25, p. 3, col. 5: "The brush-turkey (<i>Talegalla</i>), another of the sand-builders, lays a white egg very much like that of a swan, while the third of that wonderful family, the scrub-hen or <i>Megapode</i>, has an egg very long in proportion to its width." [2.] <hw>Turmeric</hw>, i.q. <i>Stinkwood</i> (q.v.); also applied occasionally to <i>Hakea dactyloides</i>, Cav., <i>N.O. Proteaceae</i>. See Hakea. <hw>Turnip-wood</hw>, <i>n</i>. the timbers of the trees <i>Akania hillii</i>, J. Hook., <i>N.O. Sapindaceae</i>, and <i>Dysoxylon Muelleri</i>, Benth., N.O. Meliaceae, from their white and red colours respectively. <hw>Turpentine, Brush</hw>, name given to two trees-- <i>Metrosideros leptopetala</i>, F. v. M., also called <i>Myrtle</i>; and <i>Rhodamnia trinervia</i>, Blume, both <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. <hw>Turpentine-Tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is applied to many trees in Australia yielding a resin, but especially to the tree called <i>Tallow-Wood</i> (q.v.), <i>Eucalyptus microcorys</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>; to <i>Eucalyptus punctata</i>, De C., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>, called also <i>Leather- Jacket</i>, <i>Hickory</i>, <i>Red</i>-, and <i>Yellow-Gun</i>, and <i>Bastard-Box</i>; and to <i>E. stuartiana</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. In New Zealand, it is also applied to the <i>Tarata</i>. See <i>Mapau</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 523: "[<i>E. Stuartiana</i> is] frequently called Turpentine Tree, or Peppermint Tree. In Victoria it is known as Apple Tree, Apple-scented Gum, White Gum, and Mountain Ash. It is the Woolly Butt of the county of Camden (New South Wales). Occasionally it is known as Stringybark. It is called Box about Stanthorpe (Queensland), Tea Tree at Frazer's Island (Queensland), and Red Gum in Tasmania." <hw>Turquoise-Berry</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Solomon's Seal</i> (q.v.). <hw>Tussock-grass</hw>, <i>n</i>. Tussock is an English word for a tuft of grass. From this a plant of the lily family, <i>Lomandra longifolia</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Lilaceae</i>, is named <i>Tussock-grass</i>; it is "considered the best native substitute for esparto." (`Century.') 1884. Rolf Boldrewood, `Melbourne Memories,' c. v. p. 38: "The roof was neatly thatched with the tall, strong tussock-grass." <hw>Tussocker</hw>, <i>n</i>. a New Zealand name for a <i>Sundowner</i> (q.v.). 1889. Vincent Pyke, `Wild Will Enderby': "Now, a `sun-downer,' or `tussocker'--for the terms are synonymous--is a pastoral loafer; one who loiters about till dusk, and then makes for the nearest station or hut, to beg for shelter and food." <hw>Tutu</hw>, or <hw>Toot</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a shrub or small tree, <i>Coriaria ruscifolia</i>, Linn., or <i>C. sarmentosa</i>, Forst., of New Zealand, widely distributed. It bears greenish flowers, and shiny pulpy black berries. From these the Maoris make a wine resembling light claret, taking care to strain out and not to crush the seeds, which are poisonous, with an action similar to that of strychnine. It goes also by the name of <i>Wineberry-bush</i>, and the Maori name is Anglicised into <i>Toot</i>. In Maori, the final <i>u</i> is swallowed rather than pronounced. In English names derived from the Maori, a vowel after a mute letter is not sounded. It is called in the North Island <i>Tupakihi</i>. In Maori, the verb <i>tutu</i> means to be hit, wounded, or vehemently wild, and the name of the plant thus seems to be connected with the effects produced by its poison. To "eat your toot": used as a slang phrase; to become acclimatised, to settle down into colonial ways. 1857. R. Wilkin, in a Letter printed by C. Hursthouse, `New Zealand,' p. 372: "The plant called `tutu' or `toot' appears to be universal over New Zealand. If eaten by sheep or cattle with empty stomachs, it acts in a similar manner to green clover, and sometimes causes death; but if partaken of sparingly, and with grass, it is said to possess highly fattening qualities. None of the graziers, however, except one, with whom I conversed on the subject, seemed to consider toot worth notice; . . . it is rapidly disappearing in the older settled districts and will doubtless soon disappear here." 1857. C. Hursthouse, `New Zealand,' p. 395: "The wild shrub Tutu (<i>Coriaria ruscifolia</i>), greedily devoured by sheep and cattle, produces a sort of `hoven' effect, something like that of rich clover pastures when stock break in and over feed. . . . Bleeding and a dose of spirits is the common cure. . . Horses and pigs are not affected by it." 1861. C. C. Bowen, `Poems,' p. 57: "And flax and fern and tutu grew In wild luxuriance round." 1867. F. Hochstetter, `New Zealand,' p. 139: "The toot-plant, tutu or tupakihi of the Maoris (<i>Coriaria sarmentosa</i>, Forst. = <i>C. ruscifolia</i>, L.), is a small bush, one of the most common and widely distributed shrubs of the islands. [New Zealand.] It produces a sort of `hoven' or narcotic effect on sheep and cattle, when too greedily eaten. It bears a fruit, which is produced in clusters, not unlike a bunch of currants, with the seed external, of a purple colour. The poisonous portion of the plant to man are the seeds and seedstalks, while their dark purple pulp is utterly innoxious and edible. The natives express from the berries an agreeable violet juice (carefully avoiding the seed), called native wine." 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' p. 103: "The tutu-tree, Whose luscious purple clusters hang so free And tempting, though with hidden seeds replete That numb with deadly poison all who eat." 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand,' p. 131: "Tupakihi, tree tutu. A perennial shrub ten to eighteen feet high; trunk six to eight inches in diameter. The so-called berries (fleshy petals) vary very much in succulence. . . . The juice is purple, and affords a grateful beverage to the Maoris; and a wine, like elderberry wine, has been made from them. The seeds and leaves contain a poisonous alkaloid, and produce convulsions, delirium and death, and are sometimes fatal to cattle and sheep." 1884. Alfred Cox, `Recollections,' p. 258: "When footpaths about Christchurch were fringed with tutu bushes, little boys were foolish enough to pluck the beautiful berries and eat them. A little fellow whose name was `Richard' ate of the fruit, grew sick, but recovered. When the punster heard of it, he said, `Ah! well, if the little chap had died, there was an epitaph all ready for him, <i>Decus et tutamen</i>. Dick has ate toot, amen.'" 1889. G. P. Williams and W. P. Reeves, `Colonial Couplets,' p. 20: "You will gather from this that I'm not `broken in,' And the troublesome process has yet to begin Which old settlers are wont to call `eating your tutu;' (This they always pronounce as if rhyming with boot)." 1889. Vincent Pyke, `Wild Will Enderby, p. 16 [Footnote]: "The poisonous tutu bushes. A berry-bearing, glossy-leaved plant, deadly to man and to all animals, except goats." 1891. T. H. Potts, `New Zealand Country Journal,' vol. xv. p. 103: "The Cockney new chum soon learnt to `eat his toot,' and he quickly acquired a good position in the district." <hw>Twenty-eight</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the <i>Yellow-collared Parrakeet</i>. Named from its note. See <i>Parrakeet</i>. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. v. pl. 19: "<i>Platycercus Semitorquatus</i>, Quoy and Gaim., Yellow-collared Parrakeet; Twenty-eight Parrakeet, Colonists of Swan River. It often utters a note which, from its resemblance to those words, has procured for it the appellation of `twenty-eight' Parrakeet from the Colonists; the last word or note being sometimes repeated five or six times in succession." <hw>Twine Bush</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Hakea flexilis</i>. See <i>Hakea</i>. <hw>Twine, Settler's</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Settler's Twine</i>. <hw>Two-hooded Furina-Snake</hw>. See under <i>Snake</i>. U <hw>Umbrella-bush</hw>, <i>Acacia osswaldi</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 363: "Often called `Umbrella-Bush,' as it is a capital shade tree. A small bushy tree." 1894. `Melbourne Museum Catalogue--Economic Woods,' No. 17: "The plant is exquisitely adapted for tall hedges. It is often called the `umbrella tree,' as it gives a capital shade. The heart-wood is dark, hard, heavy and close-grained." <hw>Umbrella-grass</hw>, i.q. <i>Native Millet</i>, <i>Panicum decompositum</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Gramineae</i>. See <i>Millet</i>. It is called <i>Umbrella-grass</i>, from the shape of the branches at the top of the stem representing the ribs of an open umbrella. <hw>Umbrella-tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to <i>Brassaia actinophylla</i>, Endl., <i>N.O. Araliaceae</i>, from the large leaves being set, like umbrella-ribs, at the top of numerous stems. <hw>Umu</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori word, signifying a native oven. 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 75: "The tangi had terminated; the umu or `cooking holes' were smoking away for the feast." 1855. Rev. R. Taylor, `Te Ika, a Maui,' p. 389: "The native oven (umu hangi) is a circular hole of about two feet in diameter and from six to twelve inches deep." 1872. `Transactions of the New Zealand Institute,' vol. v. p. 96: ". . . being all in and around the <i>umus</i> (or native ovens) in which they had been cooked." 1882. S. Locke, `Traditions of Taupo,' `Transactions of the New Zealand Institute,' vol. xv. art. liv. p. 440: "They killed Kurimanga the priest and cooked him in an oven, from which circumstance the place is called Umu-Kuri." 1889. S. P. Smith, `Transactions of the New Zealand Institute,' vol. xxii. p. 98: "An oven of stones, exactly like a Maori umu or hangi." 1893. `Transactions of the New Zealand Institute,' vol. xxvi. p. 432: "The <i>oumu</i> or haangi, in which food was cooked, was only a hole scooped in the ground, of a size proportioned to that which was to be cooked." <hw>Union Nut</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fine cabinet timber, <i>Bosistoa sapindiformis</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Rutaceae</i>. <hw>"Unlock the lands."</hw> A political cry in Victoria, meaning open up for <i>Free-selection</i> (q.v.) the lands held by squatters on lease. 1887. J. F. Hogan, `The Irish in Australia,' p. 290: "The democratic party, that had for its watchword the expressive phrase, `Unlock the lands.'" <hw>Unpayable</hw>, <i>adj</i>. not likely to pay for working; not capable of yielding a profit over working expenses. (A very rare use.) 1896. `The Argus,' Dec. 26, p. 5, col. 3: "Unpayable Lines.--The Commissioner of Railways has had a return prepared showing the results of the working of 48 lines for the year ending 30th June, 1896. Of these, 33, covering 515 miles, do not pay working expenses, and are reckoned to be the worst lines in the colony." <hw>Utu</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Maori word for "Return, price paid, reward, ransom, satisfaction for injuries received, reply." (Williams.) Sometimes corrupted by Englishmen into <i>Hoot</i> (q.v.). 1840. J. S. Polack, `Manners and Customs of New Zealand,' vol. ii. p. 63: "Utu or payment is invariably expected for any injustice committed, and is exacted in some shape, the sufferer feeling debased in his own opinion until he obtains satisfaction. The <i>Utu</i>, similar to the <i>tapu</i>, enters into everything connected with this people." 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 29: "He asserted that we should pay for the tapu; but suggested as an amendment that the utu or `payment' should be handed to him." 1855. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes,' p. 252: "Utu, which may be freely translated `blood for blood,' is with him [the Maori] a sacred necessity. It is the <i>lex talionis</i> carried out to the letter. The exact interpretation of the formidable little word `Utu' is, I believe, `payment.'" 1857. C. Hursthouse, `New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 61: "The learned commissioner's court was instantly besieged by bands of natives vociferating for more `utu' (payment), and threatening the settlers with the tomahawk if more `utu' were not instantly accorded." 1872. A. Domett, `Ranolf,' p. 470: "Besides that, for such shining service done, A splendid claim, he reckoned, would arise For `<i>utu</i>'--compensation or reward." 1873. H. Carleton, `Life of Henry Williams,' p. 79: "Blood for blood, or at least blood money, is Maori law. Better the blood of the innocent than none at all, is a recognised maxim of the Maori law of utu." V <hw>Vandemonian</hw>, <i>n</i>. and <i>adj</i>. belonging to Van Diemen's land, the old name of Tasmania; generally used of the convicts of the early days; and the <i>demon</i> in the word is a popular application of the law of Hobson-Jobson. Now obsolete. 1852. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes,' (edition 1855), p. 533: "The Van Diemonians, as they unpleasingly call themselves, or permit themselves to be called, are justly proud of their horse-flesh." 1853. S. Sidney, `Three Colonies of Australia' (2nd edit.), p. 171: "One of the first acts of the Legislative Assemblies created by the Australian Reform Bill of 1850 was to pass . . . acts levelled against Van Diemonian expirees." 1855. W. Howitt, `Two Years in Victoria,' vol. i, p. 367: "Unquestionably some of the Van Diemenian convicts." 1867. `Cassell's Magazine,' p. 440: "`I never wanted to leave England,' I have heard an old Vandemonian observe boastfully. `I wasn't like one of these `Jemmy Grants' (cant term for `emigrants'); I could always earn a good living; it was the Government as took and sent me out." <hw>Vandemonianism</hw>, <i>n</i>. rowdy conduct like that of an escaped convict; the term is now obsolete. 1863. `Victorian Hansard,' April 22, vol. ix. p. 701: "Mr. Houston looked upon the conduct of hon. gentlemen opposite as ranging from the extreme of vandemonianism to the extreme of nambypambyism." <hw>Van Diemen's Land</hw>, the name given to the colony now called Tasmania, by Abel Jansz Tasman, the Dutch navigator, in 1642, after Anthony Van Diemen, Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies. The name was changed to <i>Tasmania</i> (q.v.) in 1853, on the granting of Responsible Government. <hw>Vedalia</hw>, <i>n</i>. a genus of greedily predatory ladybirds. The <i>V. cardinalis</i> of Australia was imported by the United States Government from Australia and New Zealand into California in 1888-89, in order to kill the <i>fluted scale</i> (<i>Icerya purchasi</i>), a fruit-pest. It destroyed the scale in nine months. <hw>Velvet-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given in Tasmania to the fish <i>Holoxenus cutaneus</i>, Gunth., family <i>Cirrhitidae</i>. The skin is covered with minute appendages, so soft to the touch as to suggest velvet; the colour is deep purplish red. <hw>Verandah</hw>, <i>n</i>. In Australia, the heat of the sun makes verandahs much commoner than in England. They are an architectural feature of all dwelling-houses in suburb or in bush, and of most City shops, where they render the broad side-walks an almost continuous arcade. "Under the Verandah " has acquired the meaning, "where city men most do congregate." 1873. A. Trollope, `Australia and New Zealand,' c. xxvii. p. 418: "In Melbourne there is the `verandah'; in Sandhurst there is a `verandah'; in Ballaarat there is a `verandah.' The verandah is a kind of open exchange--some place on the street pavement, apparently selected by chance, on which the dealers in mining shares do congregate." 1895. Modern. Private Letter of an Australian on Tour: "What I miss most in London is the <i>Verandahs</i>. With this everlasting rain there is no place to get out of a shower, as in Melbourne. But I suppose it pays the umbrella-makers." <hw>V-hut</hw>, a term used in the province of Canterbury, New Zealand. See quotations. 1857. R. B. Paul, `Letters from Canterbury,' p. 57: "The form is that of a <i>V hut</i>, the extremities of the rafters being left bare, so as to form buttresses to the walls" (of the church). 1863. S. Butler, `First Year in Canterbury,' p. 73: "I am now going to put up a V-hut on the country that I took up on the Rangitata. . . . It consists of a small roof set up on the ground; it is a hut all roof and no walls." 1879. C. L.Innes, `Canterbury Sketches,' p. 20: "In case my readers may not know what a `V' hut is like, I will describe one:--It is exactly as if you took the roof off a house and stood it on the ground, you can only stand upright in the middle." 1896. Jan. A Traveller's note: "Not long ago a Canterbury lady said--`I was born in a V-hut, and christened in a pie-dish.'" <hw>Victoria</hw>, <i>n</i>. the name of the smallest of all the Australian colonies. It was separated from New South Wales in 1851, when it was named after Queen Victoria. Sir Thomas Mitchell had before given it the name of "Australia Felix," and Dr. J. D. Lang wanted the name "Phillipsland." He published a book with that title in 1847. Previous to separation, the name used was "the Port Phillip District of New South Wales." <hw>Village Settlement</hw>, the system, first adopted in New Zealand, whence it spread to the other colonies, of settling families on the land in combination. The Government usually helps at first with a grant of money as well as granting the land. <hw>Vine</hw>, <i>n</i>. In Australia, the word is loosely applied to many trailing or creeping plants, which help to form scrubs and thickets. In the more marked cases specific adjectives are used with the word. See following words. 1849. J. P. Townsend, `Rambles in New South Wales,' p. 22: "With thick creepers, commonly called `vines.'" 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. ii. p. 21: "Impenetrable vine-scrubs line the river-banks at intervals." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 25: "Vitis in great abundance and of many varieties are found especially in the scrubs, hence the colonists call this sort of brush, vine-scrub." <hw>Vine, Balloon</hw>. See <i>Balloon Vine</i>. <hw>Vine, Burdekin</hw>. Called also <i>Round Yam</i>, <i>Vitis opaca</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Ampelideae</i>. <hw>Vine, Caustic</hw>, i.q. <i>Caustic-Plant</i> (q.v.). <hw>Vine, Lawyer</hw>. See <i>Lawyer</i>. <hw>Vine, Macquarie Harbour</hw>, or <hw>Macquarie Harbour Grape</hw> (q.v.). Same as <i>Native Ivy</i>. See <i>Ivy</i>. 1891. `Chambers' Encyclopaedia,' s.v. <i>Polygonaeae</i>: "<i>Muhlenbeckia adpressa</i> is the Macquarie Harbour Vine of Tasmania, an evergreen climbing or trailing shrub of most rapid growth, sometimes 60 feet in length. It produces racemes of fruit somewhat resembling grapes or currants, the nut being invested with the large and fleshy segments of the calyx. The fruit is sweetish and subacid, and is used for tarts." 1884. R. L. A. Davies, `Poems and Literary Remains,' p. 99: "How we saw the spreading myrtles, Saw the cypress and the pine, Saw the green festoons and bowers Of the dark Macquarie vine, Saw the blackwoods and the box-trees, And the spiral sassafrases, Saw the fairy fern-trees mantled With their mossy cloak of grasses." <hw>Vine, Native Pepper</hw>. See <i>Climbing Pepper</i>, under <i>Pepper</i>. <hw>Vine, Wonga Wonga</hw>. See <i>Wonga Wonga Vine</i>. W <hw>Waddy</hw>. (1) An aboriginal's war club. But the word is used for wood generally, even for firewood. In a kangaroo hunt, a man will call out, "Get off and kill it with a waddy," i.e. any stick casually picked up. In pigeon-English, "little fellow waddy" means a small piece of wood. In various dictionaries, e.g. Stanford, the word is entered as of aboriginal origin, but many now hold that it is the English word <i>wood</i> mispronounced by aboriginal lips. L. E. Threlkeld, in his `Australian Grammar,' at p. 10, enters it as a "barbarism "--"<i>waddy</i>, a cudgel." A `barbarism,' with Threlkeld, often means no more than `not in use on the Hunter River'; but in this case his remark may be more appropriate. On the other hand, the word is given as an aboriginal word in Hunter's `Vocabulary of the Sydney Dialect' (1793), and in Ridley's `Kamilaroi' (1875), as used at George's River. The Rev. J. Mathew writes: "The aboriginal words for <i>fire</i> and <i>wood</i> are very often, in fact nearly always, interchangeable, or interchanged, at different places. The old Tasmanian and therefore original Australian term for wood and fire, or one or the other according to dialect, is <i>wi</i> (wee) sometimes <i>win</i>. These two forms occur in many parts of Australia with numerous variants, <i>wi</i> being obviously the radical form. Hence there were such variants as <i>wiin, waanap</i>, <i>weenth</i> in Victoria, and at Sydney <i>gweyong</i>, and at Botany Bay <i>we</i>, all equivalent to fire. <i>Wi</i> sometimes took on what was evidently an affixed adjective or modifying particle, giving such forms as <i>wibra, wygum, wyber</i>, <i>wurnaway</i>. The modifying part sometimes began with the sound of <i>d</i> or <i>j</i> (into which of course <i>d</i> enters as an element). Thus modified, <i>wi</i> became <i>wadjano</i> on Murchison River, Western Australia; <i>wachernee</i> at Burke River, Gulf of Carp.; <i>wichun</i> on the Barcoo; <i>watta</i> on the Hunter River, New South Wales; <i>wudda</i> at Queanbeyan, New South Wales. These last two are obviously identical with the Sydney <i>waddy</i> = `wood.' The argument might be lengthened, but I think what I have advanced shows conclusively that <i>Waddy</i> is the Tasmanian word <i>wi</i> + a modifying word or particle." 1814. Flinders, `Voyage,' vol. ii. p. 189: "Some resembling the whaddie, or wooden sword of the natives of Port Jackson." 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. ii. p. 20: "It is amusing to see the consequential swagger of some of these dingy dandies, as they pass lordly up our streets, with a waddie twirling in their black paws." 1830. R. Dawson, `Present State of Australia,' p. 66: "Such a weapon as their waddy is: it is formed like a large kitchen poker, and nearly as heavy, only much shorter in the handle. The iron-bark wood, of which it is made, is very hard, and nearly as heavy as iron." 1844. Mrs. Meredith, `Notes and Sketches of New South Wales,' p. 106: "The word `waddie,' though commonly applied to the weapons of the New South Wales aborigines, does not with them mean any particular implement, but is the term used to express wood of any kind, or trees. `You maan waddie 'long of fire,' means `Go and fetch firewood.'" 1845. J. O. Balfour, `Sketch of New South Wales,' p. 17: "The Lachlan black, who, with his right hand full of spears, his whaddie and heleman in his left, was skipping in the air, shouting his war cry." 185o. J. B. Clutterbuck, `Port Phillip in 1849,' p. 54: "A waddy, a most formidable bludgeon." 1855. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes,' p. 101: "The waddy is a heavy, knobbed club about two feet long, and is used for active service, foreign or domestic. It brains the enemy in the battle, or strikes senseless the poor gin in cases of disobedience or neglect." 1864. `Once a Week,' Dec. 31, p. 45, `The Bulla Bulla Bunyip': "The landlord swore to the apparition of a huge blackfellow flourishing a phantasmal `waddy.'" 1879. C. W. Schuermann, `Native Tribes of Australia--Port Lincoln Tribe,' p. 214: "The wirris, by the whites incorrectly named waddies, are also made of gum saplings; they are eighteen inches in length, and barely one inch in diameter, the thin end notched in order to afford a firm hold for the hand, while towards the other end there is a slight gradual bend like that of a sword; they are, however, without knobs, and every way inferior to the wirris of the Adelaide tribes. The natives use this weapon principally for throwing at kangaroo-rats or other small animals." 1886. R. Henty, `Australiana,' p. 18: "The `waddy' is a powerful weapon in the hands of the native. With unerring aim he brings down many a bird, and so materially assists in replenishing the family larder." 1892. J. Fraser, `Aborigines of New South Wales,' p. 74: "A general name for all Australian clubs is `waddy,' and, although they are really clubs, they are often used as missiles in battle." (2) The word is sometimes used for a walking-stick. <hw>Waddy</hw>, <i>v. trans</i>. to strike with a waddy. 1855. Robert Lowe (Viscount Sherbrooke), `Songs of the Squatters,' canto ii. st. 7: "When the white thieves had left me, the black thieves appeared, My shepherds they waddied, my cattle they speared." 1869. `Victorian Hansard,' Nov. 18, vol. ix. p. 2310, col. 2: "They were tomahawking them, and waddying them, and breaking their backs." 1882. A. Tolmer, `Reminiscences,' p. 291: "In the scuffle the native attempted to waddy him." 1893. `The Argus,' April 8, p. 4, col. 3: "Only three weeks before he had waddied his gin to death for answering questions asked her by a blacktracker." 1896. A. B. Paterson, `Man from Snowy River,' p. 45: "For they waddied one another, till the plain was strewn with dead, While the score was kept so even that they neither got ahead." <hw>Waddy Wood</hw>, or <hw>White Wood</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given in Tasmania to the tree <i>Pittosporum bicolor</i>, Hook., <i>N.O. Pittosporeae</i>; from which the aboriginals there chiefly made their Waddies. 1851. `Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Van Diemen's Land,' vol. i. p. 156: "11th October, 1848. . . a sample of a very fine close-grained white timber, considered by him suitable for wood-engraving purposes, obtained in a defile of Mount Wellington. It seems to be the young wood of <i>Pittosporum bicolor</i>, formerly in high estimation amongst the Aborigines of Tasmania, on account of its combined qualities of density, hardness, and tenacity, as the most suitable material of which to make their warlike implement the waddie." <hw>Wagtail</hw>, or <hw>Wagtail Fly-catcher</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian bird, <i>Rhipidura tricolor</i>, the <i>Black-and-white Fantail</i>, with black-and-white plumage like a pied wagtail. See also quotation, 1896. The name is applied sometimes in Gippsland, and was first used in Western Australia as a name for the <i>Black-and-white Fantail</i>. See <i>Fantail</i>. 1885. R. M. Praed, `Head-Station,' p. 24: "He pointed to a Willy-wagtail which was hopping cheerfully from stone to stone." 1896. A. J. North, `List of the Insectivorous Birds of New South Wales,' pt i. p. 13: "Salltoprocta motacilloides, <i>Vig. and Horsf</i>. `Black and White Fantail.' `Water Wagtail.'. . . From this bird's habit of constantly swaying its lengthened tail feathers from side to side it is locally known in many districts as the `Willy Wagtail.'" <hw>Wahine</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori word for a woman. The <i>i</i> is long. 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 29: "Having enquired how many (wives) the Kings of England had, he laughed heartily at finding they were not so well provided, and repeatedly counted `four wahine' (women) on his fingers." 1852. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes' (edition 1855), p. 289: "A group of whyenees and piccaninnies." 1893. `Otago Witness,' Dec. 21, p. 11, col. 5: "It is not fit that a daughter of the great tribe should be the slave-wife of the pakeha and the slave of the white wahine." <hw>Waipiro</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for spirits,-- literally, stinking water, from <i>piro</i>, stinking, and <i>wai</i>, water. In New Zealand geography, the word <i>Wai</i> is very common as the first part of many names of harbours, lakes, etc. Compare North-American Indian <i>Fire-water</i>. 1845. W. Brown, `New Zealand and its Inhabitants,' p. 132: "Another native keeps a grog-shop, and sells his <i>waipero</i>, as he says, to <i>Hourangi</i> drunken pakehas." 1863. F. Maning (Pakeha Maori), `Old New Zealand,' p. 169: "He would go on shore, in spite of every warning, to get some water to mix with his <i>waipiro</i>, and was not his canoe found next day floating about with his paddle and two empty case bottles in it?" 1873. Lt.-col. St. John, `Pakeha Rambles through Maori Lands,' p. 167: "When we see a chance of getting at waipiro, we don't stick at trifles." 1887. The Warrigal, `Picturesque New Zealand,' `Canterbury Weekly Press,' March 11: "The priest was more than epigrammatic when he said that the Maoris' love for `waipiro' (strong waters) was stronger than their morals." <hw>Wairepo</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the fish called <i>Stingray</i>. <hw>Wait-a-while</hw>, <i>n</i>. also called <i>Stay-a-while</i>: a thicket tree. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 306: "<i>Acacia colletioides</i>, A. Cunn., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>, `Wait-a-while' (a delicate allusion to the predicament of a traveller desirous of penetrating a belt of it)." <hw>Waka</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori word for canoe. <i>Waka huia</i> is a box for keeping feathers, originally the feathers of the <i>huia</i> (q.v.). 1874. W. M. Baynes, `Narrative of Edward Crewe,' p. 81: "`Whaka' is the native name, or rather the native genetic term, for all canoes, of which there are many different kinds, as tete, pekatu, kopapa, and others answering in variety to our several descriptions of boats, as a `gig,' a `whaleboat,' a `skiff,' a `dingy,' etc." 1878. R. C. Barstow, `On the Maori Canoe,' `Transactions of the New Zealand Institute,' vol. xi. art. iv. p. 72: "Canoes may be divided into four classes; <i>Waka-taua</i> or <i>Waka-hitau</i> were canoes, fully carved; the <i>Waka-tetee</i>, which, generally smaller, had a plain figure-head and stern; <i>Waka-tiwai</i>, an ordinary canoe of one piece, and the <i>kopapa</i> or small canoe, usually used for fishing, travelling to cultivation, etc." <hw>Wakiki</hw>, <i>n</i>. shell money of the South Sea Islands. <hw>Waler</hw>, <i>n</i>. Anglo-Indian name for an Australian horse imported from New South Wales into India, especially for the cavalry. Afterwards used for any horse brought from Australia. 1863. B. A. Heywood, `Vacation Tour at the Antipodes,' p. 134: "Horses are exported largely from Australia to India even. I have heard men from Bengal talk of the `Walers,' meaning horses from New South Wales." 1866. G. 0. Trevelyan, `Dawk Bungalow,' p. 223 [Yule's `Hobson Jobson']: "Well, young Shaver, have you seen the horses? How is the Waler's off fore-leg?" 1873. `Madras Mail,' June 25 [Yule's `Hobson Jobson']: "For sale. A brown Waler gelding." 1888. R. Kipling, `Plain Tales from the Hills,' p. 224: "The soul of the Regiment lives in the Drum-Horse who carries the silver kettle-drums. He is nearly always a big piebald Waler." 1896. `The Melburnian,' Aug. 28, p. 62: "C. R. Gaunt is Senior Subaltern of the 4th (Royal Irish) Dragoon Guards, at present stationed at Rawul Pindi in India. He won the Regimental Cup Steeplechase this year on an Australian mare of his own. Australian horses are called `Walers' in India, from the circumstance of their being generally imported from New South Wales." <hw>Walking-Leaf</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Phasmid</i>. <hw>Walking-stick</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Phasmid</i>. <hw>Walking-stick Palm</hw>, <i>n</i>. See under <i>Palm</i>. <hw>Wallaby</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name used for the smaller kinds of Kangaroos of the genus <i>Macropus</i> (q.v.), formerly classed as <i>Halmaturus</i>. An aboriginal word. See Collins, 1798, below. (<i>Wolbai</i>, in the Kabi dialect of South Queensland, means a young creature.) Also spelt <i>Walloby, Wallabee</i>, and <i>Wallobi</i>. As in the case of <i>Kangaroo</i> (q.v.), the plural is a little uncertain, <i>Wallaby</i> or <i>Wallabies</i>. Some of them are sometimes called <i>Brush-Kangaroos</i> (q.v.). The following are the species-- Agile Wallaby-- <i>Macropus agilis</i>, Gould. Aru Island W.-- <i>M. brunnii</i>, Schraeber. Black-gloved W.-- <i>M. irma</i>, Jourd. Black-striped W.-- <i>M. dorsalis</i>, Gray. Black-tailed W.-- <i>M. ualabatus</i>, Less. and Garm. Branded W.-- <i>M. stigmaticus</i>, Gould. Cape York W.-- <i>M. coxeni</i>, Gray. Dama W.-- <i>M. eugenii</i>, Desm. Pademelon-- <i>M. thetidis</i>, Less. Parma W.-- <i>M. parma</i> , Waterh. Parry's W.-- <i>M. parryi</i>, Bennett. Red-legged W.-- <i>M. wilcoxi</i>, McCoy. Red-necked W., Grey's W.-- <i>M. ruficollis</i>, Desm. Rufous-bellied W.-- <i>M. billardieri</i>, Desm. Short-tailed W.-- <i>M. brachyurus</i>, Quoy and Gaim. Sombre W.-- <i>M. brownii</i>, Ramsay. In addition, there are six species of <i>Rock-Wallaby</i> (q.v.), genus <i>Petrogale</i> (q.v.). See also <i>Paddymelon</i>. Three species of <i>Nail-tailed Wallabies</i>, genus <i>Onychogale</i> (q.v.), are confined to Australia. They are the Nail-tailed Wallaby, <i>Onychogale unguifera</i>, Gould; Bridled W., <i>O. frenata</i>, Gould; Crescent W., <i>O. lunata</i>, Gould. Three species of <i>Hare-Wallabies</i> (genus <i>Lagorchestes</i>, q.v.), confined to Australia, are the Spectacled Hare-Wallaby, <i>Lagorchestes conspiculatus</i>, Gould; Common H. W., <i>L. leporoides</i>, Gould; Rufous H. W., <i>L. hirsutus</i>, Gould. One species, called the <i>Banded-Wallaby</i> (genus, <i>Lagostrophus</i>, q.v.), confined to Western Australia, is <i>L. fasciatus</i>, Peron and Less. For etymology, see <i>Wallaroo</i>. 1798. D. Collins, `Account of English Colony in New South Wales,' p. 614 [Vocabulary]: "Wal-li-bah--a black kangaroo." 1830. R. Dawson' `Present State of Australia,' p. 111: "In the long coarse grass with which these flats are always covered, a species of small kangaroo is usually found, which the natives call the `wallaby.' Their colour is darker than that of the forest kangaroo, approaching almost to that of a fox, and they seat themselves in the grass like a hare or a rabbit." 1832. J. Bischoff, `Van Diemen's Land,' c. ii. p. 28: "The wallabee is not very common." 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' vol. i. c. ix. p. 267: "The Wallaby are numerous on this part of the island." 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 49: "Rock wallabies were very numerous." Ibid. c. xii. p. 418: "They returned with only a red wallabi (<i>Halmaturus agilis</i>)." 1850. J. B. Clutterbuck, `Port Phillip in 1849,' p. 37: "The rock Wallaby, or Badger, also belongs to the family of the kangaroo; its length from the nose to the end of the tail is three feet; the colour of the fur being grey-brown." 1855. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes,' p. 12: "Sipping doubtfully, but soon swallowing with relish, a plate of wallabi-tail soup." 1865. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `History of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia,' vol. ii. p. 18: "Eyre succeeded in shooting a fine wallaby." [Note]: "A small kind of kangaroo, inhabiting the scrub." 1873. A. Trollope, `Australia and New Zealand,' c. vii. p. 117: "I have also been frowned upon by bright eyes because I could not eat stewed wallabi. Now the wallabi is a little kangaroo, and to my taste it is not nice to eat even when stewed to the utmost with wine and spices." 1880. Garnet Watch, `Victoria in 1880,' p. 7: "To hear . . . that wallabies are `the women of the native race' cannot but be disconcerting to the well-regulated colonial mind." [He adds a footnote]: "It is on record that a journalistically fostered impression once prevailed, to high English circles, to the effect that a certain colonial Governor exhibited immoral tendencies by living on an island in the midst of a number of favourite wallabies, whom he was known frequently to caress." 188x. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 213: "Now one hears the pat-pat-pat of a wallaby." 1885. J. B. Stephens, `To a Black Gin,' p. 5: "Of tons of 'baccy, and tons more to follow,-- Of wallaby as much as thou could'st swallow,-- Of hollow trees, with 'possums in the hollow." 1886. J. A. Froude, `Oceana,' p. 309: "My two companions . . . went off with the keeper [sic] to shoot wallaby. Sir George (Grey) has a paternal affection for all his creatures, and hates to have them killed. But the wallaby multiply so fast that the sheep cannot live for them, and several thousands have to be destroyed annually." 1888. Sir C. Gavan Duffy, in the `Contemporary Review,' vol. liii. p. 3: "`Morality!' exclaimed the colonist. `What does your lordship suppose a wallaby to be?' `Why, a half-caste, of course.' `A wallaby, my lord, is a dwarf kangaroo!'" <hw>Wallaby-Bush</hw>, <i>n</i>. a tall shrub or tree, <i>Beyeria viscosa</i>, Miq., <i>N.O. Euphorbiaceae</i>. Same as the <i>Pinkwood</i> of Tasmania. <hw>Wallaby-Grass</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian grass, <i>Danthonia penicillata</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Gramineae</i>. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 82: "`Wallaby Grass.' This perennial artificial grass is useful for mixed pasture." <hw>Wallaby-skin</hw>, the skin, with the hair on it, of the wallaby, prized as a warm and ornamental fur for rugs. 1890. `The Argus,' June13, p.6, col. 2: "A quantity of hair, a wallaby-skin rug. <hw>Wallaby track, On the</hw>, or <hw>On the Wallaby</hw>, or <hw>Out on the Wallaby</hw>, or simply <hw>Wallaby</hw>, as <i>adj</i>. [slang]. Tramping the country on foot, looking for work. Often in the bush the only perceptible tracks, and sometimes the only tracks by which the scrub can be penetrated, are the tracks worn down by the <i>Wallaby</i>, as a hare tramples its "form." These tracks may lead to water or they may be aimless and rambling. Thus the man "<i>on the wallaby</i>" may be looking for food or for work, or aimlessly wandering by day and getting food and shelter as a <i>Sundowner</i> (q.v.) at night. 1869. Marcus Clarke, `Peripatetic Philosopher' (Reprint), p. 41: "The Wimmera district is noted for the hordes of vagabond `loafers' that it supports, and has earned for itself the name of `The Feeding Track.' I remember an old bush ditty, which I have heard sung when <i>I</i> was on the `Wallaby.' . . . At the station where I worked for some time (as `knockabout man') three cooks were kept during the `wallaby' season--one for the house, one for the men, and one for the travellers." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `A Colonial Reformer,' p. 82: "`What is the meaning of `out on the wallaby'?' asked Ernest. `Well, it's bush slang, sir, for men just as you or I might be now, looking for work or something to eat; if we can't get work, living on the country, till things turn round a little.'" Ibid. p. 388: "Our friends who pursue the ever-lengthening but not arduous track of the wallaby in Australia." 1893. Gilbert Parker, `Pierre and his People,' p. 242: "The wallaby track? That's the name in Australia for trampin' west, through the plains of the Never Never Country, lookin' for the luck o' the world." 1894. Longmans' `Notes on Books' (May 31), p. 206: "`On the Wallaby: a Book of Travel and Adventure.' `On the Wallaby' is an Australianism for `on the march,' and it is usually applied to persons tramping the bush in search of employment." 1894. Jennings Carmichael, in `Australasian,' Dec. 22, p. 1127, col. 5: "A `wallaby' Christmas, Jack, old man!-- Well, a worse fate might befall us! The bush must do for our church to-day, And birds be the bells to call us. The breeze that comes from the shore beyond, Thro' the old gum-branches swinging, Will do for our solemn organ chords, And the sound of children singing." 1896. H. Lawson, `When the World was Wide,' p. 134: "Though joys of which the poet rhymes Was not for Bill an' me I think we had some good old times Out on the Wallaby." <hw>Wallaroo</hw>, <i>n</i>. native name for a large species of Kangaroo, the mountain kangaroo, <i>Macropus robustus</i>, Gould. The black variety of Queensland and New South Wales is called locally the <i>Wallaroo</i>, the name <i>Euro</i> being given in South and Central Australia to the more rufous- coloured variety of the same species. In the aboriginal language, the word <i>walla</i> meant `to jump,' and <i>walla-walla</i> `to jump quickly.' 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. i.: "The wallaroo, of a blackish colour, with coarse shaggy fur, inhabiting the hills." 1846. C. P. Hodgson, `Reminiscences of Australia,' p. 157: "Some very fierce and ready to attack man, such as the large mountain `wolloroo.'" 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 481: "Charley shot a Wallooroo just as it was leaping, frightened by our footsteps, out of its shady retreat to a pointed rock." [On p. 458, Leichhardt spells <i>Wallurus</i>, plural] 1862. H. C. Kendall, `Poems,' p. 50: "The Wallaroos grope through the tufts of the grass." 1868 (before). C. Harpur, `Creek of the Four Graves'(edition 1883), p. 49: "Up the steep, Between the climbing forest-growths they saw, Perched on the bare abutments of the hills, Where haply yet some lingering gleam fell through, The wallaroo look forth." [Footnote]: "A kind of large kangaroo, peculiar to the higher and more difficult mountains." 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 328: "A wallaroo, a peculiar kind of kangaroo (<i>Macropus robustus</i>), which was kept tame at a station, showed a marked fondness for animal food, particularly for boiled salt beef. A dove had been its companion, and these two animals were the best of friends for half-a-year, when the wallaroo one day killed its companion and partly ate it." 1895. `The Australasian,' June 22, 1181, col. 1 [Answers to Correspondents]: "Professor Baldwin Spencer kindly deals with the question as follows:--What is the distinction between a wallaroo and a wallaby?--A wallaroo is a special form of kangaroo (<i>Macropus robustus</i>) living in the inland parts of Queensland and New South Wales. Wallaby is the name given to several kinds of smaller kangaroos, such as the common scrub wallaby (<i>Macropus ualabatus</i>) of Victoria. The wallaroo is stouter and heavier in build, its fur thicker and coarser, and the structure of its skull is different from that of an ordinary wallaby." <hw>Wallflower, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian name for <i>Pultenaea subumbellata</i>, Hook., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>. In Australia, used as another name for one of the <i>Poison- Bushes</i> (q-v.). <hw>Wandoo</hw>, <i>n</i>. Western Australian aboriginal word for the <i>White Gum-tree</i> of Western Australia, <i>Eucalyptus redunca</i>, Schauer, <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. It has a trunk sometimes attaining seventeen feet in diameter, and yields a hard durable wood highly prized by wheelwrights. <hw>Waratah</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian flower. There are three species, belonging to the genus <i>Telopea</i>, <i>N.O. Proteaceae</i>. The New South Wales species, <i>T. speciosissima</i>, R. Br., forms a small shrub growing on hill-sides, as does also the Tasmanian species, <i>T. truncata</i>, R. Br.; the Victorian species, <i>T. oreades</i>, F. v. M., called the <i>Gippsland Waratah</i>, grows to a height of fifty feet. It has a bright crimson flower about three inches in diameter, very regular. Sometimes called the <i>Australian</i> or <i>Native Tulip</i>. As emblematic of Australia, it figures on certain of the New South Wales stamps and postcards. The generic name, <i>Telopea</i> (q.v.), has been corrupted into <i>Tulip</i> (q.v.). Its earliest scientific generic name was <i>Embothrium</i>, Smith. 1793. E. Smith, `Specimen of Botany of New Holland,' p. 19: "The most magnificent plant which the prolific soil of New Holland affords is, by common consent both of Europeans and Natives, the Waratah." 1801. Governor King, in `Historical Records of New South Wales' (1896), vol, iv. p. 514 (a Letter to Sir Joseph Banks): "I have also sent in the Albion a box of waratahs, and the earth is secured with the seed." 1802. D. Collins, `Account of New South Wales,' vol. ii. p. 66: "Bennillong assisted, placing the head of the corpse, near which he stuck a beautiful war-ra-taw." 1830. R. Dawson, `Present State of Australia,' p. 98: [Description, but not the name.] "A plant called the gigantic lily also flourishes on the tops of these mountains, in all its glory. Its stems, which are jointy, are sometimes as large as a man's wrist, and ten feet high, with a pink and scarlet flower at the top, which when in full blossom (as it then was) is nearly the size of a small spring cabbage." 1830. `Hobart Town Almanack,' p. 66: "Interspersed with that magnificent shrub called warratah or tulip-tree, and its beautiful scarlet flowers." 1857. D. Bunce, `Australasiatic Reminiscences,' p. 44: "The most common of them was, however, the Telopia [sic] Tasmaniensis, or waratah, or scarlet tulip tree, as it has been occasionally termed by stock-keepers." 1864. J. S. Moore, `Spring Life Lyrics,' p. 115: "The lily pale and waratah bright Shall encircle your shining hair." 1883. D. B. W. Sladen, `Poetry of Exiles': "And waratah, with flame-hued royal crown, Proclaim the beauties round Australia's own." 1885. Wanderer, `Beauteous Terrorist,' etc., p. 62: "And the waratahs in state, With their queenly heads elate, And their flamy blood-red crowns, And their stiff-frill'd emerald gowns." 1888. D. Macdonald, I Gum Boughs,' p. 188: "Outside the tropical Queensland forests, the scarlet flowering gum of Western Australia, and the Waratah, of Blue Mountains fame, are its [i.e. the wattle's] only rivals." 1893. `Sydney Morning Herald,' Aug. 5, p. 9, col. 1: "The memory of many residents runs back to the time when the waratah and the Christmas-bush, the native rose and fuchsia, grew where thickly-peopled suburbs now exist. . . . The waratah recedes yearly." 1893. `Sydney Morning Herald,' Sept. 2, p. 5, col. 6: "The wattles and waratahs are creditable instances of the value of our Australian flowers for art purposes, and the efforts of the artists to win recognition for their adaptability as subjects for the artist's brush are deserving of acknowledgment." <hw>Warbler</hw>, <i>n</i>. This English birdname is applied loosely to many birds of different genera in Australia and New Zealand. The majority of the Australian Warblers have now had other names assigned to them. (See <i>Fly-eater</i> and <i>Gerygone</i>.) The name has been retained in Australia for the following species-- Grass Warbler-- <i>Cisticola exilis</i>, Lath. Grey W.-- <i>Gerygone flaviventris</i>, Gray. Long-billed Reed W.-- <i>Calamoherpe longirostris</i>, Gould. Reed W.-- <i>Acrocephalus australis</i>, Gould. Rock W.-- <i>Origma rubricata</i>, Lath. In New Zealand, it is now only specifically applied to the-- Bush Warbler-- <i>Gerygone silvestris</i>, Potts. Chatham Island W.-- <i>G. albofrontata</i>, Gray. Grey W.-- <i>G. flaviventris</i>, Gray; Maori name, <i>Riro-riro</i>. 1889. Prof. Parker, `Catalogue of New Zealand Exhibition,'. 119: "Grey Warbler (<i>Gerygone flaviventris</i>) also belongs to an Australian genus. It is remarkable for its curious and beautifully formed nest, and as being the foster-parent to the Longtailed Cuckoo, which lays its eggs in the Warbler's nest." <hw>Warden</hw>, <i>n</i>. The term is applied specifically to the Government officer, with magisterial and executive powers, in charge of a goldfield. 1861. Mrs. Meredith, `Over the Straits,' c. iv. p. 141: "The chief official in a digging settlement, the padra [sic] of the district, is entitled the warden." <hw>Warehou</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the fish <i>Neptonemus brama</i>, Gunth., called <i>Snotgall-Trevally</i> in Tasmania, and called also <i>Sea-Bream</i>. See <i>Trevally</i>. <hw>Warrener</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name applied by Tasmanian children to the larger specimens of the shells called <i>Mariners</i> (q.v.). The name is an adaptation, by the law of Hobson-Jobson, from a Tasmanian aboriginal word, <i>Yawarrenah</i>, given by Milligan (`Vocabulary,' 1890), as used by tribes, from Oyster Bay to Pittwater, for the ear-shell (<i>Haliotis</i>). The name has thus passed from shell to shell, and in its English application has passed on also to the marine shell, <i>Turbo undulatus</i>. <hw>Warrigal</hw>, <i>n</i>. and <i>adj</i>. an aboriginal word, originally meaning a Dog. Afterwards extended as an adjective to mean <i>wild</i>; then used for a <i>wild horse</i>, <i>wild natives</i>, and in bush-slang for a worthless man. The following five quotations from vocabularies prove the early meaning of the word in the Port Jackson district, and its varying uses at later dates elsewhere. 1793. Governor Hunter, `Port Jackson,' p. 411: "Warregal--a large dog." 1798. D. Collins, `Account of English Colony in New South Wales,' p. 614 [Vocab.]: "Wor-re-gal--dog." 1859. D. Bunce, `Language of Aborigines of Victoria,' p. 17: "Ferocious, savage, wild--warragul." (adj.) Ibid. p. 46: "Wild savage--worragal." (noun.) 1879. Wyatt, `Manners of Adelaide Tribes,' p. 21: "Warroo=wild." The quotations which follow are classed under the different meanings borne by the word. (1) <i>A Wild Dog</i>. 1855. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes,' p. 153: "I have heard that the dingo, warragal or native dog, does not hunt in packs like the wolf and jackal." 1880. J. Holdsworth, `Station Hunting': "To scoop its grassless grave Past reach of kites and prowling warrigals." 1887. `Illustrated Australian News,' March 5: [A picture of two dingoes, and beneath them the following quotation from Kendall--]: "The warrigal's lair is pent in bare Black rocks, at the gorge's mouth." 1888. `Australian Ballads and Rhymes' (edition Sladen),, p. 297: "The following little poem, entitled `The Warrigal' (Wild Dog) will prove that he (H. Kendall) observed animal life as faithfully as still life and landscape: `The sad marsh-fowl and the lonely owl Are heard in the fog-wreath's grey, Where the Warrigal wakes, and listens and takes To the woods that shelter the prey.'" 1890. G. A. Sala, in `The Argus,' Sept. 20, p. 13, col. 1: "But at present warrigal means a wild dog." 1891. J. B. O`Hara, `Songs of the South,' p. 22: "There, night by night, I heard the call The inharmonious warrigal Made, when the darkness swiftly drew Its curtains o'er the starry blue." (2) <i>A Horse</i>. 1881. `The Australasian,' May 21, p. 647, col. 4 ["How we ran in `The Black Warragal'": Ernest G. Millard, Bimbowrie, South Australia]: "You must let me have Topsail today, Boss,. If we're going for that Warrigal mob." 1888. Gilbert Parker, `Round the Compass in Australia,' p. 44: "Six wild horses--warrigals or brombies, as they are called--have been driven down, corralled, and caught. They have fed on the leaves of the myall and stray bits of salt-bush. After a time they are got within the traces. They are all young, and they look not so bad." 1890. `The Argus, `June 14, p.4, col. 2: "Mike will fret himself to death in a stable, and maybe kill the groom. Mike's a warrigal he is." (3) Applied to <i>Aborigines</i>. [See Bunce quotation, 1859.] 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Squatter's Dream,' c. xii. p. 249: "He's a good shot, and these warrigal devils know it." 1896. Private Letter from Station near Palmerville, North Queensland: "Warrigal. In this Cook district, and I believe in many others, a blackfellow who has broken any of the most stringent tribal laws, which renders him liable to be killed on sight by certain other blacks, is <i>warri</i>, an outlaw." (4) As adjective meaning wild. 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Colonial Reformer,' c. viii. p. 68: "Here's a real good wholesome cabbage--warrigal cabbage the shepherds call it." <hw>Warrina</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Warrener</i>. <hw>Washdirt</hw>, <i>n</i>. any alluvial deposit from which gold is obtained by washing; or "the auriferous gravel, sand, clay, or cement, in which the greatest proportion of gold is found." (Brough Smyth's `Glossary,' 1869.) Often called <i>dirt</i> (q.v.). 1896. `Melbourne Argus,' April 30, p. 7, col. 6: "In colour the washdirt is of a browner and more iron-stained appearance than the white free wash met across the creek." <hw>Waterbush</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian tree, i.q. <i>Native Daphne</i>. See <i>Daphne</i>. <hw>Watergrass</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian name for <i>Manna grass</i>, <i>Poa fluitans</i>, Scop., <i>N.O. Gramineae</i>. <hw>Water-Gum</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Gum</i>. <hw>Water-hole</hw>, <i>n</i>. The word <i>pond</i> is seldom used in Australia. Any pond, natural or artificial, is called a <i>Water-hole</i>. The word also denotes a depression or cavity in the bed of an intermittent river, which remains full during the summer when the river itself is dry. 1833. C. Sturt, `Southern Australia,' vol. i. c. ii. p. 80: "There was no smoke to betray a water-hole." 1853. S. Sidney, `Three Colonies of Australia,' p. 245: "The deep pools, called colonially `water-holes.'" 1862. F. J. Jobson, `Australia,' c. vii. p. 181: "`Water-holes' appeared at intervals, but they seemed to have little water in them." 1864. J. McDouall Stuart, `Explorations in Australia,' p. 58: "About four miles from last night's camp the chain of large water-holes commences, and continues beyond tonight's camp." 1875. Wood and Lapham, `Waiting for the Mail,' p. 15: "The water-hole was frozen over, so she was obliged to go on farther, where the water ran." 1875. `Spectator' (Melbourne), June 26, p. 94, col. 1: "A bottomless water-hole, about 300 feet wide, exists at Maryvale homestead, Gipps Land." 1878. Mrs. H. Jones, `Broad Outlines of Long Years in Australia,' p. 97: "`That will be another water-hole.' `What an ugly word . . . why don't you call them pools or ponds?' `I can't tell you why they bear such a name, but we never call them anything else, and if you begin to talk of pools or ponds you'll get well laughed at.'" 1896. `The Argus,' March 30, p. 6, col. 9: [The murderer] has not since been heard of. Dams and waterholes have been dragged . . . but without result." <hw>Water-Lily</hw>. See <i>Lily</i>. <hw>Water-Mole</hw>, i.q. <i>Platypus</i> (q.v.). <hw>Water-Myrtle</hw>, an Australian tree, <i>Tristania neriifolia</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. <hw>Water-Tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. a tree from which water is obtained by tapping the roots, <i>Hakea leucoptera</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Proteaceae</i>; called also <i>Needle-bush</i>. The quotation describes the process, but does not name the tree. 1839. T. L. Mitchell, `Three Expeditions,' p. 199: "I expressed my thirst and want of water. Looking as if they understood me, they [the aboriginals] hastened to resume their work, and I discovered that they dug up the roots for the sake of drinking the sap . . . They first cut these roots into billets, and then stripped off the bark or rind, which they sometimes chew, after which, holding up the billet, and applying one end to the mouth, they let the juice drop into it." <hw>Wattle</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is given to very many of the various species of <i>Acacia</i> (q.v.), of which there are about 300 in Australia, besides those in Tasmania and New Zealand. There is no English tree of that name, but the English word, which is common, signifies "a twig, a flexible rod, usually a hurdle; . . . the original sense is something twined or woven together; hence it came to mean a hurdle, woven with twigs; Anglo-Saxon, <i>watel</i>, a hurdle." (Skeat.) In England the supple twigs of the osier-willow are used for making such hurdles. The early colonists found the long pliant boughs and shoots of the indigenous <i>Acacias</i> a ready substitute for the purpose, and they used them for constructing the partitions and outer-walls of the early houses, by forming a "wattling" and daubing it with plaster or clay. (See <i>Wattle-and-dab</i>.) The trees thus received the name of <i>Wattle-trees</i>, quickly contracted to Wattle. Owing to its beautiful, golden, sweet-scented clusters of flowers, the <i>Wattle</i> is the favourite tree of the Australian poets and painters. The bark is very rich in tannin. (See <i>Wattle-bark</i>.) The tree was formerly called <i>Mimosa</i> (q.v.). The following list of vernacular names of the various <i>Wattles</i> is compiled from Maiden's `Useful Native Plants'; it will be seen that the same vernacular name is sometimes applied to several different species-- Black Wattle-- <i>Acacia binervata</i>, De C., of Illawarra and South. <i>A. decurrens</i>, Willd., older colonists of New South Wales. <i>A. cunninghamii</i>, Hook. <i>A. nervifolia</i>, Cunn. Broad-leaved W.-- <i>A. pycnantha</i>, Benth. Broom W.-- <i>A. calamifolia</i>, Sweet. Feathery W.-- <i>A. decurrens</i>, Willd. Golden W. (q.v.)-- <i>A. pycnantha</i>, Benth.; in Victoria, South Australia, and Tasmania. It is also called <i>Green Wattle</i>, and also, for the sake of distinction between some other tan-bark wattles, the <i>Broad-leaved Wattle</i>. <i>A. longifolia</i>, Willd.; in New South Wales and Queensland. Green W.-- <i>A. decurrens</i>, Willd., older colonists New South Wales. <i>A. pycnantha</i>, Benth. <i>A. discolor</i>, Willd.; so called in Tasmania, and called also there <i>River Wattle</i>. Hickory W.-- <i>A. aulacocarpa</i>, Cunn. Prickly W.-- <i>A. sentis</i>, F. v. M. <i>A. juniperina</i>, Willd. Silver W.-- <i>A. dealbata</i>, Link. <i>Silver Wattle</i>, owing to the whiteness of the trunk, and the silvery or ashy hue of its young foliage. <i>A. decurrens</i>, Willd. <i>A. melanoxylon</i>, R. Br. (Blackwood). <i>A. podalyriafolia</i>, Cunn.; called <i>Silver Wattle</i>, as it has foliage of a more or less grey, mealy, or silvery appearance. Weeping W.-- <i>A. saligna</i>, Wendl. 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 201: "The acacias are the common wattles of this country, their bark affording excellent tan, as well as an extract to export to England; while from their trunks and branches clear transparent beads of the purest Arabian gum are seen suspended in the dry spring weather, which our young currency bantlings eagerly search after and regale themselves with." 1827. Vigors and Horsfield, `Transactions of Linnaean Society,' vol. xv. p. 328: "One of my specimens . . . I shot in a green wattle-tree close to Government House." 1832. J. Bischoff, `Van Diemen's Land,' c. ii. p. 23: "The black and silver Wattle (the <i>Mimosa</i>), are trees used in housework and furniture." 1834. Ross, `Van Diemen's Land Annual,' p. 134: "<i>Leptospermum lanigerum</i>, hoary tea-tree, <i>Acacia decurrens</i>, and black wattle; <i>Corraea alba</i>, Cape Barren tea. The leaves of these have been used as substitutes for tea in the colonies." 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' vol. ii. c. iv. p. 132: "Black wattle . . . indication of good soil . . . produce gum." 1850. J. B. Clutterbuck, `Port Phillip in 1849.' p. 32: "Few, indeed, of the native Australian flowers emit any perfume except the golden and silver wattle (the <i>Mimosae</i> tribe): these charm the senses, and fully realize the description we read of in the `Arabian Nights' Entertainments' of those exotics, the balmy perfume of which is exhaled far and near." 1860. G. Bennett, `Gatherings of a Naturalist,' p. 337: "These trees were termed `Wattles,' from being used, in the early days of the colony, for forming a network or wattling of the supple twigs for the reception of the plaster in the partitions of the houses." 1862. W. Archer, `Products of Tasmania,' p. 40: "Silver Wattle (<i>Acacia dealbata</i>, Lindl.), so called from the whiteness of the trunk and the silvery green of the foliage." 1862. G. T. Lloyd, `Twenty-three Years in Tasmania and Victoria,' p. 33: "The mimosa, or wattle, . . . ushers in the Spring with its countless acres of charming and luxuriant yellow and highly scented blossom . . . The tanning properties of its bark are nearly equal in value to those of the English oak." 1867. A. G. Middleton, `Earnest,' p. 132: "The maidens were with golden wattles crowned." 1877. F. V. Mueller, `Botanic Teachings,' p. 24: "The generic name [Acacia] is so familiarly known, that the appellation `Wattle' might well be dispensed with. Indeed the name Acacia is in full use in works on travels and in many popular writings for the numerous Australian species." 1883. F. M. Bailey, `Synopsis of Queensland Flora,' p. 837: "Called `Silver Wattle.' The bark, which is used for tanning, is said to give a light colour to leather; value, L3 10s. per ton." 1885. H. Finch-Hatton, `Advance Australia,' p. 43: "A dense clump of wattles, a sort of mimosa--tall, feathery, graceful trees, with leaves like a willow and sweet-scented yellow flowers." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 349: "The ordinary name for species of the genus <i>Acacia</i> in the colonies is `Wattle.' The name is an old English one, and signifies the interlacing of boughs together to form a kind of wicker-work. The aboriginals used them in the construction of their abodes, and the early colonists used to split the stems of slender species into laths for `wattling' the walls of their rude habitations." 1890. Tasma, `In her Earliest Youth,' p. 122: "It pleased him yearly to see the fluffy yellow balls bedeck his favourite trees. One would have said in the morning that a shower of golden shot had bespangled them in the night-time. Late in the autumn, too, an adventurous wattle would sometimes put forth some semi-gilded sprays--but sparsely, as if under protest." 1896. J. B. O`Hara, `Songs of the South' (Second Series), p. 22: "Yet the spring shed blossoms around the ruin, The pale pink hues of the wild briar rose, The wild rose wasted by winds that blew in The wattle bloom that the sun-god knows." <hw>Wattle-and-Dab</hw>, a rough mode of architecture, very common in Australia at an early date. The phrase and its meaning are Old English. It was originally <i>Wattle-and-daub</i>. The style, but not the word, is described in the quotation from Governor Phillip, 1789. 1789. Governor Phillip, `Voyage to Botany Bay,' p. 124: "The huts of the convicts were still more slight, being composed only of upright posts, wattled with slight twigs, and plaistered up with clay." 1836. Ross, `Hobart Town Almanack,' p. 66: "<i>Wattle and daub</i>. . . . You then bring home from the bush as many sods of the black or green wattle (<i>acacia decurrens</i> or <i>affinis</i>) as you think will suffice. These are platted or intertwined with the upright posts in the manner of hurdles, and afterwards daubed with mortar made of sand or loam, and clay mixed up with a due proportion of the strong wiry grass of the bush chopped into convenient lengths and well beaten up with it, as a substitute for hair." 1848. W. Westgarth, `Australia Felix,' p. 201: "The hut of the labourer was usually formed of plaited twigs or young branches plastered over with mud, and known by the summary definition of `wattle and dab.'" 1852. Mrs. Meredith, `My Home in Tasmania,' vol. i. p. 179: "Wattles, so named originally, I conceive, from several of the genus being much used for `wattling' fences or huts. A `wattle and dab' but is formed, in a somewhat Robinson Crusoe style, of stout stakes driven well into the ground, and thickly interlaced with the tough, lithe wattle-branches, so as to make a strong basket-work, which is then dabbed and plastered over on both sides with tenacious clay mortar, and finally thatched." 1879. W. J. Barry, `Up and Down,' p. 21: "It was built of what is known as `wattle and dab,' or poles and mud, and roofed with the bark of the gum-tree." 1883. E. M. Curr, `Recollections of Squatting,' p. 5: "Others were of weather boards, wattle and dab, or slabs." <hw>Wattle-bark</hw>, <i>n</i>. the bark of the wattle; much used in tanning, and forms a staple export. 1875. `Spectator' (Melbourne), Aug. 14, p. 178 col. 2: "A proprietor of land at Mount Gambier has refused L4000 for the wattle-bark on his estate." 1877. [? Exact date lost.] `Melbourne Punch': "What'll bark? Why, a dog'll." 1883. F. M. Bailey, `Synopsis of Queensland Flora,' p. 140: "The bark of this species is used in tanning light skins, but the bark is considered weak in tannin, and only worth thirty shillings per ton in Queensland. Called `Black-wattle bark.'" 1893. `Melbourne Stock and Station Journal,' May 10 [advt.]: "Bark.--There is a moderate inquiry for good descriptions, but faulty are almost unsaleable:--Bundled Black Wattle, superior, L5 to L6 per ton; do. do., average, L3 to L4 10s. per ton; chopped Black Wattle, L5 to L6 5s. per ton; ground, approved brands, up to L8 per ton; do., average, L5 to L6 per ton." 1896. `The Leader,' a weekly column: "Kennel Gossip. By Wattle Bark." <hw>Wattled Bee-eater</hw>. See <i>Bee-eater</i>. <hw>Wattle-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian bird, so called from the wattles or fleshy appendages hanging to his ear. In the <i>Yellow</i> species they are an inch long. The species are-- Brush Wattle-bird-- <i>Anelobia mellivora</i>, Lath. Little W.-- <i>A. lunulata</i>, Gould. Red W.-- <i>Acanthochaera carunculata</i>, Lath. Yellow W.-- <i>A. inauris</i>, Gould. The earlier scientific names occur in the quotation, 1848. In New Zealand, the <i>Kokako</i> (q.v.) is also called a <i>Wattle-bird</i>, and the name used to be applied to the <i>Tui</i> (q.v.). 1820. W. C. Wentworth, `Description of New South Wales,' p. 152: "The wattle-bird, which is about the size of a snipe, and considered a very great delicacy." 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. iv.: "<i>Anthochaera inauris</i>, Wattled Honey-eater; Wattled Bird of the Colonists of Van Diemen's Land" (pl. 54). "<i>A. Carunculata</i>, Wattled Bird of the Colonists; the <i>Merops Carunculatus</i> of older writers "(pl. 55). "<i>A. Mellivora</i>, Vig. and Horsf., Bush Wattle Bird" (pl. 56). "<i>A. Lunulata</i>, Gould, Little Wattle Bird, Colonists of Swan River" (pl. 57). 1857. W. Howitt, `Tallangetta,' vol. ii. p. 11: "Kangaroo-steaks frying on the fire, with a piece of cold beef, and a wattle-bird pie also ready on the board." 1859. D. Bunce, `Australasiatic Reminiscences,' p. 62: "The notes peculiar to the <i>Ornithorhynchus paradoxus</i>, or <i>platypus</i>, wattle-bird, and leather-head, or old soldier bird, added in no small degree to the novelties. . . . The wattle-bird has been not inaptly termed the `what's o'clock,'--the leather-head the `stop-where-you-are.'" 1864. E. F. Hughes, `Portland Bay,' p. 9: "Tedious whistle of the Wattle-bird." 186. W. Howitt, `Discovery in Australia, vol. i. p. 111: "This bird they called the Wattle-bird, and also the Poy-bird, from its having little tufts of curled hair under its throat, which they called poies, from the Otaheitan word for ear-rings. The sweetness of this bird's note they described as extraordinary, and that its flesh was delicious, but that it was a shame to kill it." 1885. J. Hood, `Land of Fern,' p. 36: "The wattle-bird, with joyous scream Bathes her soft plumage in the cooling stream." 1871. T. Bracken, `Behind the Tomb,' p. 79: "The wattle-bird sings in the leafy plantation." 1880. Mrs. Meredith, `Tasmanian Friends and Foes,' p. 119: "The pretty, graceful wattle-birds are . . . much esteemed for the table, cooked as snipe and woodcocks are in England . . . Our pretty, elegant wattle-bird wears a pair of long pendant drops, shaded from the deepest amber to white, lovelier than any goldsmith's work. Its greyish plumage, too, is very beautiful; the feathers on the breast are long, pointed, and tinted with golden yellow." 1890. Tasma, `In her Earliest Youth,' p. 265: "The droll double note of the wattle-bird." 1890. `Victorian Statutes-Game Act' (Third Schedule): "Close season. All Honey-eaters (except Wattle-birds and Leatherheads); from 1st day of August to loth day of December." <hw>Wattle-gold</hw>, <i>n</i>. poetic name for the blossom of the <i>Wattle</i>. 1870. A. L. Gordon, `Bush Ballads, Dedn., p. 9: "In the spring, when the wattle-gold trembles `Twixt shadow and shine." 1883. Keighley, `Who are You?' p. 54: "My wealth has gone, like the wattle-gold You bound one day on my childish brow." <hw>Wattle-gum</hw>, <i>n</i>. the gum exuding from the <i>Wattles</i>. 1862. W. Archer, `Products of Tasmania,' p. 41: "Wattle-Gum, the gum of the Silver Wattle (<i>Acacia dealbata</i>, Lindl.), is exceedingly viscous, and probably quite as useful as Gum-Arabic. The gum of the Black Wattle (<i>Acacia mollissima</i>, Willd.), which is often mixed with the other, is very often inferior to it, being far less viscous." <hw>Wax-cluster</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian shrub, <i>Gaultheria hispida</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Ericaceae</i>. A congener of the English winter-green, or American checkerberry, with white berries, in taste resembling gooseberries; called also <i>Chucky-chucky</i> (q.v.), and <i>Native Arbutus</i>. 1834. Ross, `Van Diemen's Land Annual,' p. 133: "<i>Gaultheria hispida</i>. The wax-cluster, abundant in the middle region of Mount Wellington, and in other elevated and moist situations in the colony. This fruit is formed by the thickened divisions of the calyx, enclosing the small seed vessel; when it is ripe it is of a snowy white. The flavour is difficult to describe, but it is not unpleasant. In tarts the taste is something like that of young gooseberries, with a slight degree of bitterness." 1880. Mrs. Meredith, `Tasmanian Friends and Foes,' p. 11 [Footnote]: "<i>Gaultheria hispida</i>.--The `Snowberry' or `Wax cluster' is also called native Arbutus, from the form of the white flowers which precede the fruit. The latter is of a peculiar brioche-like form, and as the deep clefts open, the crimson seed-cells peep through." <hw>Wax-Eye</hw>, i.q. one of the many names for the bird called <i>Silver-Eye</i>, <i>White-Eye</i>, <i>Blight-Bird</i>, etc. See <i>Zosterops</i>. <hw>Waybung</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for an Australian Chough, <i>Corcorax melanoramphus</i>, Vieill. <hw>Weaver-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. The English name <i>Weaver-bird</i>, in its present broad sense as applied to a wide variety of birds, is modern. It alludes to their dexterity in "weaving" their nests. It is applied in Australia to <i>Callornis metallica</i>, a kind of Starling. 1890. C. Lumholtz, `Among Cannibals,' p. 96: "The elegant, metallic-looking, `glossy starlings' (Callornis metallica) greedily swoop, with a horrible shriek, upon the fruit of the Australian cardamom tree. The ingenious nests of this bird were found in the scrubs near Herbert Vale--a great many in the same tree. Although this bird is a starling, the colonists call it `weaver-bird.'" <hw>Wedge-bill</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian bird. This English name for a species of humming-bird is applied in Australia to <i>Sphenostoma cristata</i>, Gould. 1890. `Victorian Statutes--Game Act' (Third Schedule): "Wedge-bill. [Close season.] From 1st day of August to 10th day of December next following in each year." <hw>Weeping-Gum</hw>. See <i>Gum</i>. <hw>Weeping-Myall</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian tree, <i>Acacia pendula</i>, Cunn., <i>N.O. Leguminosae</i>. See <i>Myall</i>. <hw>Weka</hw>, <i>n</i>. the Maori name for the <i>Wood-hen</i> (q.v.) of New Zealand, so called from its note. There are two species-- South-Island Weka, or Wood-hen-- <i>Ocydromus australis</i>, Strick. North-Island W., or W.-h.-- <i>Ocydromus brachypterus</i>, Buller. The specimens intergrade to such an extent that precise limitation of species is extremely difficult; but Sir W. L. Buller set them out as these two in 1878, regarding other specimens as varieties. The birds are sometimes called <i>Weka-Rails</i>, and the Maori name of <i>Weka-pango</i> is given to the <i>Black Wood-hen</i> (<i>0. fuscus</i>, Du Bus.). 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. ii. p. 95: "Two young weka, or wood-hens, about as large as sparrows . . . were esteemed a valuable addition to our scanty supper." 1864. R. L. A. Davies, `Poems and Literary Remains' (edition 1884), p. 263: "Wood-hens, or Waikas, are a great stand-by in the bush. Their cry can be imitated, and a man knowing their language and character can catch them easily. They call each other by name, pronounced `Weeka,' latter syllable being shrill and prolonged, an octave higher than the first note. . . . The wood-hen is about the size of a common barn-door fowl; its character is cunning, yet more fierce than cunning, and more inquisitive than either." 1865. Lady Barker, `Station Life in New Zealand,' p. 28: "Until the numbers of the wekas are considerably reduced. They are very like a hen pheasant without the long tail-feathers, and until you examine them you cannot tell they have no wings, though there is a sort of small pinion among the feathers, with a claw at the end of it. They run very swiftly, availing themselves cleverly of the least bit of cover." 1867. F. Hochstetter, `New Zealand,' p. 167: "Another famous bird of chase with the natives is the weka (<i>Ocydromus Australis</i>), or the wood-hen, belonging to the class of rails, which have already become quite scarce upon North Island. In the grassy plains and forests of the Southern Alps, however, they are still found in considerable numbers. It is a thievish bird, greedy after everything that glistens; it frequently carries off spoons, forks, and the like, but it also breaks into hen-coops, and picks and sucks the eggs." 1882. T. H. Potts, `Out in the Open,' p. 286: "Fortunately, the weka bears so obnoxious a character as an evil-doer that any qualm of conscience on the score of cruelty is at once stilled when one of these feathered professors of <i>diablerie</i> is laid to rest." 1888. W. L. Buller, `Birds of New Zealand,' vol. ii. p. 105: [A full description.] 1889. Vincent Pyke, `Wild Will Enderby,' p. 82: "We-ki! we-ki! we-ka! Three times the plaintive cry of the `wood-hen' was heard. It was a preconcerted signal." <hw>Weka, Rail</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Weka</i>. <hw>Well-in</hw>, <i>adj</i>. answering to `well off,' `well to do,' `wealthy'; and ordinarily used, in Australia, instead of these expressions. 1891. Rolf Boldrewood, `A Sydney-side Saxon,' p. 1: "He's a well-in squatter that took up runs or bought them cheap before free-selection, and land-boards, and rabbits, and all the other bothers that turn a chap's hair grey before his time." <hw>Western Australia</hw>, the part of the Continent first sighted in 1527 by a Portuguese, and the last to receive responsible government, in 1890. It had been made a Crown colony in 1829. <hw>Westralia</hw>, <i>n</i>. a common abbreviation for <i>Western Australia</i> (q.v.). The word was coined to meet the necessities of the submarine cable regulations, which confine messages to words containing not more than ten letters. 1896. `The Studio,' Oct., p. 151: "The latest example is the El Dorado of Western Australia, or as she is beginning to be more generally called `Westralia,' a name originally invented by the necessity of the electric cable, which limits words to ten letters, or else charges double rate." 1896. `Nineteenth Century,' Nov., p. 711 [Title of article]: "The Westralian Mining Boom." <hw>Weta</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a New Zealand insect-- a huge, ugly grasshopper, <i>Deinacrula megacephala</i>, called by bushmen the <i>Sawyer</i>. 1857. C. Hursthouse, `New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 123: "The weta, a suspicious-looking, scorpion-like creature, apparently replete with `high concocted venom,' but perfectly harmless." 1863. S. Butler, `First Year in Canterbury Settlement,' p. 141: "One of the ugliest-looking creatures that I have ever seen. It is called `Weta,' and is of tawny scorpion-like colour, with long antenna and great eyes, and nasty squashy-looking body, with (I think) six legs. It is a kind of animal which no one would wish to touch: if touched, it will bite sharply, some say venomously. It is very common but not often seen, and lives chiefly among dead wood and under stones." 1888. J. Adams, `On the Botany of Te Moehau,' `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. xxi. art. ii. p. 41: "Not a sound was heard in that lonely forest, except at long intervals the sharp noise produced by the <i>weta</i>." <hw>W. F.'s</hw>, old Tasmanian term for wild cattle. 1891. James Fenton, `Bush Life in Tasmania Fifty Years Ago,' p. 24: "Round up a mob of the wildest W.F.'s that ever had their ears slit." [Note]: "This was the brand on Mr. William Field's wild cattle." <hw>Whalebone-Tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Mint-Tree</i> (q.v.). <hw>Whaler</hw>, <i>n</i>. used specifically as slang for a <i>Sundowner</i> (q.v.); one who cruises about. 1893. `Sydney Morning Herald,' Aug. 12, p. 8. col. 8: "The nomad, the `whaler,' it is who will find the new order hostile to his vested interest of doing nothing." <hw>Whaler/2</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given in Sydney to the Shark, <i>Carcharias brachyurus</i>, Gunth., which is not confined to Australasia. <hw>Whare</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori word for a house; a dissyllable, variously spelt, rhyming with `quarry.' It is often quaintly joined with English words; e.g. a <i>sod-whare</i>, a cottage built with sods. In a Maori vocabulary, the following are given: <i>whare-kingi</i>, a castle; <i>whare-karakia</i>, a church; <i>whare-here</i>, the lock-up. 1820. `Grammar and Vocabulary of Language of New Zealand' (Church Missionary Society), p. 225: "Ware, <i>s</i>. a house, a covering." 1833. `Henry Williams' Journal: Carleton's Life,' p. 151: "The Europeans who were near us in a raupo <i>whare</i> (rush house)." 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 26: "We were much amused at seeing the ware-puni, or sleeping- houses, of the natives. These are exceedingly low, and covered with earth, on which weeds very often grow. They resemble in shape and size a hot-bed with the glass off." 1852. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes,' c. x. p. 265 (Third Edition, 1855): "Sitting in the sun at the mouth of his warree, smoking his pipe." 1854. W. Golder, `Pigeons' Parliament,' [Notes] p. 76: "I fell upon what I thought a good place on which to fix my warre, or bush-cottage." 1857. `Paul's Letters from Canterbury,' p. 89: "Then pitch your tent, or run up a couple of grass <i>warres</i> somewhat bigger than dog-kennels." 1871. C. L. Money, `Knocking About in New Zealand,' p. 33: "The old slab wharry." Ibid. p. 132: "The village was sacked and the wharries one after another set fire to and burnt.'" 1877. Anon., `Colonial Experiences or Incidents of Thirty-Four Years in New Zealand,' p. 87: "In the roughest colonial whare there is generally one or more places fitted up called bunks." 1882. R. C. Barstow, `Transactions of the New Zealand Institute,' vol. xv. art. liii. p. 428: "Raupo whares were put up." 1889. `Cornhill Magazine,' Jan., p. 35: "Ten minutes more brought us to my friend's `whare,'--the Maori name for house." 1886. `Otago Witness,' Jan. 23, p. 42: "The pas close at hand give up their population,--only the blind, the sick, and the imbecile being left to guard the grimy, smoke-dried whares." <hw>Whata</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori word for a storehouse on posts or other supports, like a <i>Pataka</i> (q.v.). <i>Futtah</i> (q.v.) is a corruption, probably of Irish origin. 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 167: "In one corner was a ware-puni, occupied by Barrett and his family, and in the middle a wata, or `storehouse,' stuck upon four poles about six feet high, and only approachable by a wooden log with steps cut in it." 1855. Rev. R. Taylor, `Te Ika a Maui,' p. 57: "A chief would not pass under a stage or wata (a food-store)." Ibid. p. 468: "Wata, stand or raised platform for food: <i>Fata</i>, Tahaiti." [Also an illustration, "an ornamental food-store," p. 377.] 1891. Rev. J. Stack, `Report of Australasian Association for Advancement of Science,' #G. vol. iii. p. 378: "The men gathered the food and stored it in Whatas or store- rooms, which were attached to every chief's compound, and built on tall posts protect the contents from damp and rats." <hw>Whau</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the New Zealand Cork-tree, <i>Entelea arborescens</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Tiliaceae</i>. <hw>Whee-Whee</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bird not identified. 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 232: "In the morning the dull monotonous double note of the whee-whee (so named from the sound of its calls), chiming in at regular intervals as the tick of a clock, warns us . . . it is but half an hour to dawn." <hw>Whekau</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for the bird <i>Sceloglaux albifacies</i>, Gray, a New Zealand owl, which is there called the <i>Laughing-Jackass</i>. See <i>Jackass</i>. 1869. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia' [Supplement]: "<i>Sceloglaux Albifacies</i>, Wekau. Another of the strange inhabitants of our antipodal country, New Zealand. An owl it unquestionably is, but how widely does it differ from every other member of its family." 1885. A. Reischek, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. xviii. art. xiii. p. 97: "<i>Athene albifacies</i>, Laughing owl (whekau). Owls are more useful than destructive, but this species I never saw in the north or out-lying islands, and in the south it is extremely rare, and preys mostly on rats." 1885. `Transactions of the New Zealand Institute,' vol. xviii. p. 101: "Already several species have disappeared from the mainland . . . or are extremely rare, such as . . . Laughing owl (Whekau)." <hw>Whelk</hw>, or <hw>Native Whelk</hw>, <i>n</i>. a marine mollusc, <i>Trochocochlea constricta</i>. See <i>Perriwinkle</i>. <hw>Whilpra</hw>, <i>n</i>. See quotation, and compare the Maori word <i>Tupara</i> (q.v.) 1880. Fison and Howitt, `Kamilaroi and Kumai,' p. 211: "The term whilpra being a corruption of wheelbarrow, which the Lake Torrens natives have acquired from the whites as the name for a cart or waggon." <hw>Whio</hw>, <i>n</i>. (originally <hw>Whio-Whio</hw>), also<hw>Wio</hw>, Maori name for the New Zealand Duck, <i>Hymenolaemus malacorhynchus</i>, Gmell., called the <i>Blue-Duck</i> or <i>Mountain Duck</i> of New Zealand. See <i>Duck</i>, Professor Parker's quotation, 1889. The bird has a whistling note. The Maori verb, <i>whio</i>, means to whistle. 1855. Rev. R. Taylor, `Te Ika a Maui,' p. 407: "Wio (<i>Hymenolaemus malacorhynchus</i>), the blue duck, is found abundantly in the mountain-streams of the south part of the North Island, and in the Middle Island. It takes its name from its cry." 1877. W. Buller, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. x. art. xix. p. 199: "Captain Mair informs me that the wio is plentiful in all the mountain-streams in the Uriwera country. When marching with the native contingent in pursuit of Te Kooti, as many as forty or fifty were sometimes caught in the course of the day, some being taken by hand, or knocked over with sticks or stones, so very tame and stupid were they." 1885. H. Martin, `Transactions of New Zealand Institute,' vol. xviii. art. xxii. p. 113: "<i>Hymenolaemus malacorhynchus</i>, Whio, Blue Duck. Both Islands." [From a list of New Zealand birds that ought to be protected.] <hw>Whip-bird</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Coach-whip</i>. <hw>Whip-snake</hw>, <i>n</i>. or <i>Little Whip-Snake</i>. See under <i>Snake</i>. <hw>Whip-stick</hw>, <i>n</i>. variety of dwarf <i>Eucalypt</i>; one of the Mallees; forming thick scrub. 1874. M. C., `Explorers,' p. 123: "He had lost his way, when he would fain have crost A patch of whip-stick scrub." <hw>Whip-tail</hw>, <i>n</i>. (1) A fancy name for a small Kangaroo. See <i>Pretty-Faces</i>, quotation. (2) A Tasmanian fish; see under <i>Tasmanian Whiptail</i>. <hw>Whistling Dick</hw>, <i>n</i>. Tasmanian name for a <i>Shrike-Thrush</i>. Called also <i>Duke- Willy</i>. 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,'vol. ii. pl. 77: "<i>Colluricincla Selbii</i>, Jard., Whistling Dick of the Colonists of Van Diemen's Land." <hw>Whistling Duck</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Duck</i>. The bird named below by Leichhardt appears to be a mistake; vide Gould's list at word <i>Duck</i>. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 287: "The <i>Leptotarsis</i>, Gould (whistling duck), which habitually crowd close together on the water." <hw>Whitebait</hw>, <i>n</i>. a fish; not, as in England, the fry of the herring and sprat, but in Victoria, <i>Engraulis antarcticus</i>, Castln.; and in New Zealand, the young fry of <i>Galaxias attenuatus</i>, Jenyns (<i>Inanga</i>, q.v.). The young of the <i>New Zealand Smelt</i> (q.v.), <i>Retropinna richardsonii</i>, Gill, are also called <i>Whitebait</i>, both in New Zealand and in Tasmania. 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish of New South Wales,' p. 85: "Anchovies or <i>Engraulis</i> have a compressed body with a very wide lateral mouth, and a projecting upper jaw. Scales large. We have two species--<i>E. antarcticus</i>, Casteln., and <i>E. nasutus</i>, Casteln. The first-named species is by many erroneously believed to be identical, or at most a variety of <i>E. encrassicholus</i> of Europe. Count Castelnau states that it is very common in the Melbourne market at all seasons, and goes by the name of `whitebait.'" 1883. `Royal Commission on Fisheries of Tasmania, p. iv: "<i>Retropinna Richardsonii</i>, whitebait or smelt. Captured in great abundance in the river Tamar, in the prawn nets, during the months of February and March, together with a species of <i>Atherina</i>, and <i>Galaxias attenuatus</i>, and are generally termed by fishermen whitebait. Dr. Guenther had formerly supposed that this species was confined to New Zealand; it appears, however, to be common to Australia and Tasmania." <hw>Whitebeard</hw>, <i>n</i>. name applied to the plant <i>Styphelia ericoides</i>, <i>N.O. Epacrideae</i>. <hw>White-Eye</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for the bird called variously <i>Silver-Eye</i>, <i>Wax-Eye</i>, <i>Blight-Bird</i>, etc., <i>Zosterops</i> (q.v.). 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. iv. pl. 81: "<i>Zosterops Dorsalis</i>, Vig. and Horsf, Grey-backed <i>Zosterops</i>; White-eye, Colonists of New South Wales." 1896. `The Australasian,' Nov. 14, p. 461: "The unique migration on the part of the white-eyes has not been satisfactorily accounted for. One authority invents the ingenious theory that the original white-eyes went to New Zealand after the memorable `Black Thursday' of Australia in 1851." <hw>White-face</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name applied to the Australian bird, <i>Xerophila leucopsis</i>, Gould. Another species is the <i>Chestnut-breasted White face</i>, <i>X. pectoralis</i>, Gould. <hw>White Gallinule</hw>, <i>n</i>. one of the birds of the family called <i>Rails</i>. The <i>White Gallinule</i> was recorded from New South Wales in 1890, and also from Lord Howe Island, off the coast, and from Norfolk Island. The modern opinion is that it never existed save in these two islands, and that it is now extinct. It was a bird of limited powers of flight, akin to the New Zealand bird, <i>Notornis mantilli</i> which is also approaching extinction. Only two skins of the White Gallinule are known to be in existence. 1789. Governor Phillip,' Voyage to Botany Bay,' p. 273 and fig.: "White Gallinule. This beautiful bird greatly resembles the purple Gallinule in shape and make, but is much superior in size, being as large as a dunghill fowl. . . . This species is pretty common on Lord Howe's Island, Norfolk Island, and other places, and is a very tame species." 1882. E. P. Ramsay, `Proceedings of the Linnaean Society of New South Wales,' p. 86: "The attention of some of our early Naturalists was drawn to this Island by finding there, the now extinct `White Gallinule,' then called (<i>Fulica alba</i>), but which proves to be a species of <i>Notornis</i>." <hw>White-head</hw>, <i>n</i>. a bird of New Zealand, <i>Clitonyx albicapilla</i>, Buller. Found in North Island, but becoming very rare. See <i>Clitonyx</i>. <hw>White-lipped Snake</hw>, <i>n</i>. See under <i>Snake</i>. <hw>White-Pointer</hw>, <i>n</i>. a New South Wales name for the <i>White-Shark</i>. See <i>Shark</i>. <hw>White-top</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for <i>Flintwood</i> (q.v.). <hw>White-Trevally</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian fish. See <i>Trevally</i>. 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish and Fisheries of New South Wales,' p. 59: "<i>Caranx georgianus</i>, the `white trevally.' . . There are several other species of Caranx in Port Jackson. In Victoria it is called silver bream. Count Castelnau says it is very beautiful when freshly taken from the water, the upper part being a light celestial blue or beautiful purple, the lower parts of a silvery white with bright iridescent tinges . . . There is another fish called by this name which has already been described amongst the <i>Teuthidae</i>, but this is the White Trevally as generally known by New South Wales fishermen." <hw>Whitewood</hw>, <i>n</i>. another name for <i>Cattle-Bush</i> (q.v.). A Tasmanian name for <i>Pittosporum bicolor</i>, Hook., <i>N.O. Pittosporeae</i>. Called <i>Cheesewood</i> in Victoria, and variously applied, as a synonym, to other trees; it is also called <i>Waddy-wood</i> (q.v.). <hw>Whiting</hw>, <i>n</i>. Four species of the fish of the genus <i>Sillago</i> are called <i>Whiting</i> in Australia (see quotation). The <i>New Zealand Whiting</i> is <i>Pseudophycis breviusculus</i>, Richards., and the <i>Rock-Whiting</i> of New South Wales is <i>Odax semifaciatus</i>, Cuv. and Val., and <i>O. richardsonii</i>, Gunth.; called also <i>Stranger</i> (q.v.). <i>Pseudophycis</i> is a Gadoid, <i>Sillago</i> belongs to the <i>Trachinidae</i>, and <i>Odax</i> to the family <i>Labridae</i> or Wrasses. 1882. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, `Fish of New South Wales,' p. 65: "The `whitings' are not like those of Europe. There are, in all, four Australian species--the common sand-whiting <i>(Sillago maculata</i>), abundant on the New South Wales coast; the trumpeter-whiting (<i>S. bassensis</i>), also abundant here, and the most common species in Brisbane; <i>S. punctata</i>, the whiting of Melbourne, and rare on this coast; and <i>S. ciliata</i>." <hw>Widgeon</hw>, <i>n</i>. the common English name for a Duck of the genus <i>Mareca</i>, extended generally by sportsmen to any wild duck. In Australia, it is used as another name for the <i>Pink-eyed</i> (or <i>Pink-eared</i>) <i>Duck</i>. It is also used, as in England, by sportsmen as a loose term for many species of Wild-Duck generally. <hw>Wild Dog</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Dingo</i> (q.v.). <hw>Wild Geranium</hw>, <i>n</i>. In Australia, the species is <i>Pelargonium australe</i>, Willd., <i>N.O. Geraniaceae</i>. <hw>Wild Irishman</hw>, a spiny New Zealand shrub, <i>Discaria toumatou</i>, Raoul, <i>N.O. Rhamneae</i>. The Maori name is <i>Tumata-Kuru</i> (q.v.). 1867. F. Hochstetter, `New Zealand,' p. 133: "Certain species of <i>Acyphilla</i> and <i>Discaria</i>, rendering many tracts, where they grow in larger quantities, wholly inaccessible. On account of their slender blades terminating in sharp spines the colonists have named them `spear-grass,' `wild Irishman,' and `wild Spaniard.'" [This is a little confused. There are two distinct plants in New Zealand-- (1) <i>Discaria toumatou</i>, a spiny shrub or tree; called <i>Tumatakuru Matagory</i>, and <i>Wild Irishman</i>. (2) <i>Aciphylla colensoi</i>, a grass, called <i>Sword-grass</i>, <i>Spear grass</i>, <i>Spaniard</i>, and <i>Scotchman</i>. 1875. Lady Barker, `Station Amusements in New Zealand,' p. 35: "Interspersed with the <i>Spaniards</i> are generally clumps of `<i>Wild Irishman</i>'--a straggling sturdy bramble, ready to receive and scratch you well if you attempt to avoid the <i>Spaniard</i>'s weapons." 1883. J. Hector, `Handbook of New Zealand, p. 131: "Tumata kuru, Wild Irishman. A bush or small tree with spreading branches; if properly trained would form a handsome hedge that would be stronger than whitethorn. The species were used by the Maoris for tattooing." 1892. Malcolm Ross, `Aorangi,' p. 37: "Almost impenetrable scrub, composed mainly of wild <i>Irishman</i> (Discaria toumatou) and Sword-grass (Aciphylla Colensoi)." 1896. `The Australasian,' Aug. 28, p. 407, col. 5: ". . . national appellations are not satisfactory. It seems uncivil to a whole nation--another injustice to Ireland--to call a bramble a wild Irishman, or a pointed grass, with the edges very sharp and the point like a bayonet, a Spaniard. One could not but be amused to find the name Scotchman applied to a smaller kind of Spaniard." <hw>Wild Parsnip</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Parsnip</i>. <hw>Wild Rosemary</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Rosemary</i>. <hw>Wild Turkey</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Turkey</i>. <hw>Wild Yam</hw>, <i>n</i>. a parasitic orchid, <i>Gastrodia sesamoides</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Orchideae</i>. <hw>Wilga</hw>, <i>n</i>. a tree. Called also <i>Dogwood</i> and <i>Willow</i>, <i>Geijera parviflora</i>, Lindl., <i>N.O. Rutaceae</i>. Adopted by the colonists from the aboriginal name. 1891. Rolf Boldrewood, `A Sydney-side Saxon,' p. 123: "We rode out through a wilga scrub." (p. 230): "She'd like to be buried there--under a spreading wilga tree." <hw>Willow Myrtle</hw>, <i>n</i>. a tree, <i>Agonis flexuosa</i>, De C., <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>, with willow-like leaves and pendent branches, native of West Australia, and cultivated for ornament as a greenhouse shrub. <hw>Willow, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Boobialla</i> (q.v.), and also another name for the <i>Poison-berry Tree</i> (q.v.). <hw>Willy-Wagtail</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Wagtail</i> (q.v.). <hw>Willy Willy</hw>, <i>n</i>. native name for a storm on North-west of Australia. 1894. `The Age,' Jan. 20, p. 13, col. 4 [Letter by `Bengalee']: "Seeing in your issue of this morning a telegraphic report of a `willy willy' in the north-west portion of West Australia, it may be of interest to hear a little about these terrific storms of wind and rain. The portion of the western coast most severely visited by these scourges is said to be between the North-wet Cape and Roebuck Bay; they sometimes reach as far south as Carnarvon and north as far as Derby. The approach of one of these storms is generally heralded by a day or too of hot, oppressive weather, and a peculiar haze. Those having barometers are warned of atmospheric disturbances; at other times they come up very suddenly. The immense watercourses to be seen in the north-west country, the bed of the Yule River, near Roebourne, for instance, and many other large creeks and rivers, prove the terrible force and volume of water that falls during the continuance of one of these storms. The bed of the Yule River is fully a mile wide, and the flood marks on some of the trees are sufficient proof of the immense floods that sometimes occur. Even in sheltered creeks and harbours the wind is so violent that luggers and other small craft are blown clean over the mangrove bushes and left high and dry, sometimes a considerable distance inland. The willy willy is the name given to these periodical storms by the natives in the north-west." 1895. C. M. Officer, Private Letter: "In the valley of the Murray between Swan Hill and Wentworth, in the summer time during calm weather, there are to be seen numerous whirlwinds, carrying up their columns of dust many yards into the air. These are called by the name willy willy." <hw>Windmill J.P.</hw>, expression formerly used in New South Wales for any J.P. who was ill-educated and supposed to sign his name with a cross x. <hw>Wine-berry</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Tutu</i>. In Australia, the name is given to <i>Polyosma cunninghamii</i>, Benn., <i>N.O. Saxifrageae</i>. <hw>Winery</hw>, <i>n</i>. an establishment for making wines. An American word which is being adopted in Australia. 1893. `The Argus,' Oct. 6, p. 7, col. 6 [Letter headed `Wineries']: "I would suggest that the idea of small local wineries, each running on its own lines, be abandoned, and one large company formed, having its headquarters in Melbourne with wineries in various centres. The grapes could be brought to these depots by the growers, just as the milk is now brought to the creameries." <hw>Winter Cherry</hw>, <i>n</i>. See <i>Balloon Vine</i>. <hw>Winter Country</hw>, in New Zealand (South Island), land so far unaffected by snow that stock is wintered on it. <hw>Wire-grass</hw>, and <hw>Wiry-grass</hw>. See <i>Grass</i>. 1883. E. M. Curr, `Recollections of Squatting in Victoria' (1841-1851), p. 81: "Sparsely-scattered tussocks of the primest descriptions; the wire-grass, however, largely predominating over the kangaroo-grass." <hw>Wirrah</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for a fish of New South Wales, <i>Plectropoma ocellatum</i>, Gunth. 1884. E. P. Ramsav. `Fisheries Exhibition Literature,' vol. v. p. 311: "Another of the <i>Percidae</i> . . . the wirrah of the fishermen, is more plentiful. It is when first caught a handsome fish, of a pale olive-brown or olive-green colour, with numerous bright blue dots on spots of a lighter tint." <hw>Witchetty</hw>, <i>n</i>. native name for the grub-like larva of one or more species of longicorn beetles. The natives dig it out of the roots of shrubs, decaying timber and earth, in which it lives, and eat it with relish. It is sometimes even roasted and eaten by white children. 1894. R. Lydekker, `Marsupialia,' p. 191: "Dr. Stirling writes . . . [The marsupial mole] was fed on the `witchetty' (a kind of grub) . . . two or three small grubs, or a single large one, being given daily." <hw>Wiwi</hw>, <i>n</i>. Maori name for a jointed rush. 1842. W. R. Wade, `A Journey in the Northern Island of New Zealand,' `New Zealand Reader,' p. 122: "The roof is usually completed with a thick coating of wiwi (a small rush), and then the sides receive a second coating of raupo, and sometimes of the wiwi over all." 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 380: "[The walls] were lined outside with the wiwi or fine grass." [See also <i>Raupo</i>, 1843 quotation.] <hw>Wiwi/2</hw>, <i>n</i>. slang name for a Frenchman, from "<i>Oui, Oui</i>!" 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 94: "If I had sold the land to the white missionaries, might they not have sold it again to the Wiwi (Frenchmen) or Americans." 1857. C. Hursthouse, `New Zealand, the Britain of the South,' vol. i. p. 14: "De Surville's painful mode of revenge, and the severe chastisement which the retaliatory murder of Marion brought on the natives, rendered the Wee-wees (Oui, oui), or people of the tribe of Marion, hateful to the New Zealanders for the next half-century." 1859. A. S. Thomson, `Story of New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 236: "Before the Wewis, as the French are now called, departed." 1873. H. Carleton, `Life of Henry Williams,' p. 92: "The arrival of a French man-of-war was a sensational event to the natives, who had always held the Oui-oui's in dislike." 1881. Anon., `Percy Pomo,' p. 207: "Has [sic] the Weewees puts it." <hw>Wiwi/3</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for a native weapon. 1845. Charles Griffith, `Present State and Prospects of the Port Phillip District of New South Wales,' p. 155: "The wiwi is an instrument not so well known. It is composed of a long straight withy, about two feet long, to which is attached a head, made of a piece of wood four inches long, in the shape of two cones joined together at the base . . . This they strike against the ground, at a little distance to one side of them, whence it rises at right angles to its first direction, and flies with the swiftness of an arrow for about one hundred yards, and at a height of about ten feet from the ground." <hw>Wobbegong</hw>, <i>n</i>. a New South Wales aboriginal name for a species of Shark, <i>Crassorhinus barbatus</i>, Linn., family <i>Scyllidae</i>; also known as the <i>Carpet-Shark</i>, from the beautifully mottled skin. The fish is not peculiar to Australia, but the name is. <hw>Wobbles</hw>, <i>n</i>. a disease in horses caused by eating palm-trees in Western Australia. 1896. `The Australasian,' Feb. 15, p. 319: "The palm-trees for years cost annoyance and loss to farmers and graziers. Their stock being troubled with a disease called `wobbles,' which attacked the limbs and ended in death. A commission of experts was appointed, who traced the disease to the palms, of which the cattle were very fond." <hw>Wolf</hw>, <i>n</i>. called also <i>Native Wolf</i>, <i>Marsupial Wolf</i> and <i>Zebra Wolf</i>, <i>Tasmanian Tiger</i> and <i>Hyaena</i>; genus, <i>Thylacinus</i> (q.v.). It is the largest carnivorous marsupial extant, and is so much like a wolf in appearance that it well deserves its vernacular name of <i>Wolf</i>, though now-a-days it is generally called <i>Tiger</i>. See <i>Tasmanian Tiger</i>. 1891. `Guide to Zoological Gardens, Melbourne': "The first occupants we notice in this cage are two marsupial wolves, <i>Thylacinus cynocephalus</i>, or Tasmanian tigers as they are commonly called. These animals are becoming scarce, as, owing to their destructiveness among sheep, they are relentlessly persecuted by run-holders." <hw>Wollomai</hw>, <i>n</i>. the aboriginal name of the fish called <i>Schnapper</i> (q.v.). In 1875 a horse named <i>Wollomai</i> won the Melbourne Cup. Since then numerous houses and estates have been named <i>Wollomai</i>. <hw>Wombat</hw>, <i>n</i>. a marsupial animal of the genus <i>Phascolomys</i> (q.v.). It is a corruption of the aboriginal name. There are various spellings; that nearest to the aboriginal is <i>womback</i>, but the form <i>wombat</i> is now generally adopted. The species are--the Common Wombat, <i>Phascolomys mitchelli</i>, Owen; Tasmanian W., <i>P. ursinus</i>, Shaw; Hairy-nosed W., <i>P. latifrons</i>, Owen. 1798. M. Flinders, `Voyage to Terra Australis (1814),' Intro. p. cxxviii, `Journal,' Feb. 16: "Point Womat, a rocky projection of Cape Barren Island, where a number of the new animals called womit were seen, and killed." Ibid. p. cxxxv: "This little bear-like quadruped is known in New South Wales, and called by the natives, <i>womat, wombat</i>, or <i>womback</i>, according to the different dialects, or perhaps to the different renderings of the wood rangers who brought the information . . . It burrows like the badger." 1799. D. Collins, `Account of New South Wales (1802),' vol. ii. p. 153 [`Bass's Journal,' Jan.]: "The <i>Wom-bat</i> (or, as it is called by the natives of Port Jackson, the <i>Womback</i>,) is a squat, thick, short-legged, and rather inactive quadruped, with great appearance of stumpy strength, and somewhat bigger than a large turnspit dog." 1802. D. Collins, `Account of English Colony in New South Wales,' vol. ii. p. 156: "In the opinion of Mr. Bass this Wombat seemed to be very oeconomically made." 18x3. `History of New South Wales' 0818), p. 431: "An animal named a wombat, about the size of a small turnspit-dog, has been found in abundance in Van Diemen's Land, and also, though less frequently, in other parts of New South Wales. Its flesh has in taste a resemblance to pork." 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 318: "The wombat, a large animal of the size of a mastiff, burrowing in the ground, feeding on grass and roots and attaining considerable fatness." 1832. J. Bischoff, `Van Diemen's Land,' p. 175: "The dogs had caught . . . two badgers or woombacks." 1846. G. H. Haydon, `Five Years in Australia Felix,' p. 58: "The Wombat is a large kind of badger, which burrows in the ground to a considerable depth, and is taken by the blacks for food; it makes a noise, when attacked in its hole, something similar to the grunting of a pig." 1848. W. Westgarth, `Australia Felix,' p. 129: "Mere rudimentary traces (of a pouch) in the pig-like wombat." 1853. J. West, `History of Tasmania,' vol. i. p. 325: "The Wombat, commonly called in the colony Badger (<i>Phascolomys wombat</i>, Peron.), is an animal weighing forty to eighty pounds, having a large body with short legs. Notwithstanding its burrowing habits, and the excessive thickness and toughness of its skin, it is usually so easily killed that it is becoming less and less common." 1855. W. Blandowski, `Transactions of Philosophical Society of Victoria,' vol. i. p. 67: "Wombat. This clumsy, but well-known animal (<i>Phascolomys wombat</i>), during the day conceals himself in his gloomy lair in the loneliest recesses of the mountains, and usually on the banks of a creek, and at night roams about in search of food, which it finds by grubbing about the roots of gigantic eucalypti." 1855. W. Howitt, `Two Years in Vic. toria,' vol. i. p. 211: "The wombat resembles a large badger in the shortness of its legs, but has a little of the pig and the bear in its shape, hair, and movements." 1862. W. M. Thackeray, `Roundabout Papers,' p. 82: "Our dear wambat came up and had himself scratched very affably. . . . "Then I saw the grey wolf, with mutton in his maw; Then I saw the wambat waddle in the straw." 1880. Fison and Howitt, `Kamilaroi and Kumai,' p. 265: "Wombat is cooked, then opened and skinned." 1888. D. Macdonald, `Gum Boughs,' p. 81: "The wombat is very powerful, and can turn a boulder almost as large as itself out of the way when it bars the road." 1889. Cassell's `Picturesque Australasia,' vol. iv. p. 183: "There are large numbers of wombats in the district, and these animals, burrowing after the fashion of rabbits, at times reach great depths, and throw up large mounds." 1894. `The Argus,' June 23, p. 11, col. 4: "The wombat's grunt is strictly in harmony with his piggish appearance." <hw>Wombat-hole</hw>, <i>n</i>. hole made by <i>Wombat</i> (q.v.). 1891. Mrs. Cross (Ada Cambridge), `The Three Miss Kings,' p. 181: "He took them but a little way from where they had camped, and disclosed in the hillside what looked like a good-sized wombat or rabbit-hole." <hw>Wommera</hw>. See <i>Woomera</i>. <hw>Wonga</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for the bulrush, <i>Typha angustifolia</i>, Linn. It is the same as the <i>Raupo</i> (q.v.) of New Zealand, and is also known as <i>Bulrush</i>, <i>Cat's Tail</i> and <i>Reed Mace</i>, and in Europe as the `Asparagus of the Cossacks.' For etymology, see next word. <hw>Wonga-wonga</hw>, <i>n</i>. an Australian pigeon, <i>Leucosarcia picata</i>, Lath.; it has very white flesh. The aboriginal word <i>wonga</i> is explained as coming from root signifying the idea of `quiver motion,' `sudden springing up' and the word is thus applied as a name for the <i>bulrush</i>, the <i>vine</i>, and the <i>pigeon</i>. Some, however, think that the name of the pigeon is from the bird's note. In Gippsland, it was called by the natives <i>Wauk-wauk-au</i>, sc. `that which makes <i>wauk-wauk</i>.' 1827. P. Cunningham, `Two Years in New South Wales,' vol. i. p. 321: "We have a large pigeon named the Wanga-wanga, of the size and appearance of the ringdove, which is exquisite eating also." 1846. J. L. Stokes, `Discoveries in Australia,' vol. i. c. x. p. 314: "At Captain King's table I tasted the Wonga-wonga pigeon." 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. v. pl. 63: "<i>Leucosarcia Picata</i>, Wonga-wonga, Aborigines of New South Wales; White-fleshed and Wonga-wonga Pigeon, Colonists of New South Wales." 1852. G. C. Mundy, `Our Antipodes' (edition 1855), c. i. p. 12: "A delicate wing of the Wonga-wonga pigeon." 1860. G. Bennett, `Gatherings of a Naturalist,' p. 174: "Nothing can surpass in delicacy the white flesh of the Wonga-wonga (<i>Leucosarcia picata</i>)." 1881. A. C. Grant, `Bush Life in Queensland,' vol. i. p. 213: "Hark! there goes a Wonga-wonga, high up in the topmost branches of the great cedar." 1891. `Guide to Zoological Gardens, Melbourne': "The Wonga-Wonga (<i>Leucosarcia Picata</i>) is also represented. This Pigeon, though less bright in plumage than the last-named, exceeds it in size; both are excellent eating." <hw>Wonga-wonga Vine</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name for the hardy, evergreen climber, <i>Tecoma australis</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Bignoniaceae</i>. There are several varieties, all distinguished by handsome flowers in terminal panicles. They are much cultivated in gardens and for ornamental bower-trees. <hw>Woodhen</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name given to several birds of New Zealand of the Rail family, and of the genus <i>Ocydromus</i>; some of them are called by the Maori name of <i>Weka</i> (q.v.). The species are-- Black Woodhen-- <i>Ocydromus fuscus</i>, Du Bus.; Maori name, <i>Weka-pango</i>. Brown W.-- <i>O. earli</i>, Gray. Buff W.-- <i>O. australis</i>, Gray; called also <i>Weka</i>. North-Island W.-- <i>O. brachypterus</i>, Buller; called also <i>Weka</i>. South-Island W.-- Same as <i>Buff W</i>.; see above. 1845. E. J. Wakefield, `Adventures in New Zealand,' vol. ii. p. 95: "Two young weka, or wood-hens, about as large as sparrows . . . were esteemed a valuable addition to our scanty supper." 1889. Vincent Pyke, `Wild Will Enderby,' p. 82: "We-ka! we-ka! we-ka! Three times the plaintive cry of the `wood hen `was heard. It was a preconcerted signal." <hw>Wood-duck</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name given by the colonists of New South Wales and "Swan River" to the <i>Maned Goose</i>, <i>Branta jubata</i>, Latham. 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 147: "The wood-duck (<i>Bernicla jubata</i>) abounded on the larger water-holes." 1848. J. Gould, `Birds of Australia,' vol. vii. pl. 3: "<i>Bernicla jubata</i>, Maned Goose; Wood-Duck, Colonists of New South Wales and Swan River." <hw>Wood Natives</hw>, or <hw>Wood Savages</hw>, obsolete names for the Australian aborigines. 1817. O'Hara, `History of New South Wales,' p. 161: ". . . robbed by a number of the inland or wood natives . . ." Ibid. p. 201: "The combats of the natives near Sydney were sometimes attended by parties of the inland or wood savages." <hw>Wooden Pear</hw>, <i>n</i>. a tree peculiar to New South Wales and Queensland, <i>Xylomelum pyriforme</i>, Smith, <i>N.O. Proteaceae</i>; called also <i>Native Pear</i>. 1860. G. Bennett, `Gatherings of a Naturalist,' p. 322: "The Wooden Pear-tree of the colonists (<i>Xylomelum pyriforme</i>) is peculiar to Australia; its general appearance is very ornamental, especially when the tree is young; the flowers grow in clusters in long spikes, but are not conspicuous. This tree attains the height of from fifteen to twenty feet, and a circumference of six to eight feet. It is branchy; the wood is of dark colour, and being prettily marked, would form an ornamental veneering for the cabinet-maker. When young, in the Australian bush, this tree bears a close resemblance to the young Warratah, or Tulip-tree (<i>Telopea speciosissima</i>)." 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 615: "Native Pear-Wooden Pear. This moderate-sized tree produces a dark-coloured, prettily-marked wood. It is occasionally used for making picture-frames, for ornamental cabinet-work, for veneers, and walking-sticks. When cut at right-angles to the medullary rays it has a beautiful, rich, sober marking." <hw>Woollybutt</hw>, a name given to one of the Gum trees, <i>Eucalyptus longifolia</i>, Link. See <i>Gum</i>. 1843. James Backhouse, `Narrative of a Visit to the Australian Colonies,' p. 445 (October 1836.): "One called here the Woolly Butted Gum seems identical with the black butted gum of Tasmania." 1894. `Melbourne Museum Catalogue Economic Woods,' p. 28: "The Woollybutt grown at Illawarra is in very high repute for wheelwright's work " <hw>Woolly-headed Grass</hw>, <i>n</i>. an indigenous Australian grass, <i>Andropogon bombycinus</i>, R. Br. 1889. J. H. Maiden, `Useful Native Plants,' p. 72: "Woolly-headed Grass, a valuable pasture-grass, highly spoken of by stock-owners, and said to be very fattening." <hw>Wool-man</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal mispronunciation of <i>old man</i> (q.v.). 1830. Robert Dawson, `The Present State of Australia,' p. 139: "The male kangaroos were called by my natives old men, `wool-man,' and the females, young ladies, `young liddy.'" <hw>Wool-shed</hw>, <i>n</i>. the principal building of a station, at which the shearing and wool-packing is done. Often called the <i>Shed</i>. 1850. J. B. Clutterbuck, `Port Phillip,' vol. ii. p. 23: "In some instances the flood has swept away the wool-sheds." 1851. `Australasian' [Quarterly], vol. i. p. 298: ". . . we next visit the `wool-shed,' and find the original slab-built shed has been swept away, to make room for an imposing erection of broad-paling . . ." 1873. A. Trollope, `Australia and New Zealand,' vol. i. p. 126: "The wool-shed is a large building open on every side, with a high-pitched roof,--all made of wood and very rough. The sheep are driven in either at one end or both, or at three sides, according to the size of the station and the number of sheep to be shorn. They are then assorted into pens, from which the shearers take them on to the board;--two, three or four shearers selecting their sheep from each pen. The floor, on which the shearers absolutely work, is called `the board.'" 1890. `The Argus,' Aug. 9, p. 4, col. 1: "You would find them down at Reed's wool-shed now." <hw>Woomera</hw>, <i>n</i>. an aboriginal name for a <i>throwing-stick</i> (q.v.); spelt in various ways (seven in the quotations), according as different writers have tried to express the sound of the aboriginal word. 1793. Governor Hunter, `Voyage,' p. 407 [in a Vocabulary]: "<i>Womar</i>--a throwing stick." 1798. D. Collins, `Account of English Colony in New South Wales,' p. 613: "Wo-mer-ra--throwing stick." 1814. L. E. Threlkeld, `Australian Grammar' [as spoken on Hunter's River, etc.], p. 10: "As a barbarism--wommerru, a weapon." 1830. R. Dawson, `Present State of Australia,' p. 240: "Pieces of hard iron-bark to represent their war weapon, the womerah . . . the whirling womerahs." 1839. T. L. Mitchell, `Three Expeditions into the Interior of Eastern Australia,' vol. ii. p. 342: "The spear is thrown by means of a <i>wammera</i>, which is a slight rod, about three feet long, having at one end a niche to receive the end of a spear." 1847. L. Leichhardt, `Overland Expedition,' p. 492: "But showed the greatest reluctance in parting with their throwing-sticks (wommalas)." 185o. J. B. Clutterbuck, `Port Phillip in 1849,' p. 58: "They employ also, as a warlike weapon, a smaller kind of spear or javelin, which is discharged by means of a notched stick called a Woomera; and with this simple artillery I have seen them strike objects at 150 yards' distance. They also employ this minor spear in capturing the Bustard." 1863. M. K. Beveridge, `Gatherings among the Gum-trees,' p. 13: "Then the Wamba Wamba warriors, Sprang unto their feet with Tchgrels Ready fitted to their Womrahs." Ibid. (In Glossary) pp. 84, 85: "<i>Tchgrel</i>, reed spear. <i>Womrah</i>, spear heaver." 1868. J. Bonwick, `John Batman, the Founder of Victoria,' p. 20: "Taking with him, therefore, on board the Port Phillip, presents of spears, wommeras, boomerangs, and stone tomahawks, he tried to get from the Williamstown waters." 1889. P. Beveridge, `Aborigines of Victoria and Riverina,' p. 48: "Spears all ready shipped, that is, having the hook of the Womerar (throwing-stick) placed in the small cavity made for that purpose in the end of the spear, with both raised in readiness for launching at the object." 1892. J. Fraser, `Aborigines of New South Wales,' p. 73: "The `womara' is an instrument of wood, from twenty-four to thirty inches long, and a little thicker than a spear. Unlike the spear, it is not thrown at the enemy in battle, but remains always in the black man's hand . . . he ornaments it profusely, back and front. . . . The point is turned up, exactly like the point of a lady's crochet needle. . . . The spears have a dimpled hole worked in their butt end, which hole receives the point of the hook end of the `throw-stick.'" <hw>Worm-Snake</hw>, <i>n</i>. See under <i>Snake</i>. <hw>Wrasse</hw>, <i>n</i>. This English name for many fishes is given, in New Zealand, to <i>Labrichthys bothryocosmus</i>, Richards. Called also <i>Poddly, Spotty</i>, and <i>Kelp-fish</i>. <hw>Wreck-fish</hw>, <i>n</i>. The Australian species is <i>Polyprion ceruleum</i>, family Percoidae. Guenther says that the European species has the habit of accompanying floating wood. Hence the name. <hw>Wren</hw>, <i>n</i>. This common English bird-name is assigned in Australia to birds of several genera, viz.-- Banded Wren-- <i>Malurus splendens</i>, Quoy and Gaim. Black-backed W.-- <i>M. melanotus</i>, Gould. Blue W.-- <i>M. cyaneus</i>, Lath. Blue-breasted W.-- <i>M. pulcherrimus</i>, Gould. Bower's W.-- <i>M. cruentatus</i>, Gould. Chestnut-rumped Ground W.-- <i>Hylacola pyrrhopygia</i>, Vig. and Hors. Emu-wren (q.v.)-- <i>Stipiturus malachurus</i>, Lath. Goyder's Grass W.-- <i>Amytis goyderi</i>, Gould. Grass W.-- <i>A. textilis</i>, Quoy and Gaim.; called by Gould the <i>Textile Wren</i>. Large-tailed Grass W.-- <i>A. macrura</i>, Gould. Longtailed W.-- <i>Malurus gouldii</i>, Sharpe. Lovely W.-- <i>M. amabilis</i>, Gould. Orange-backed W.-- <i>M. melanocephalus</i>, Vig. and Hors. Purple-crowned W.-- <i>M. coronatus</i>, Gould. Red-rumped Ground W.-- <i>Hylacola cauta</i>, Gould. Red-winged W.-- <i>Malurus elegans</i>, Gould. Silvery Blue W.-- <i>M. cyanochlamys</i>, Gould. Striated Grass W.-- <i>Amytis striatus</i>, Gould; called also the <i>Porcupine bird</i> (q.v.). Turquoise W.-- <i>Malurus callainus</i>, Gould. Variegated W.-- <i>M. lamberti</i>, Vig. and Hors. White-backed W.-- <i>M. leuconotus</i>, Gould. White-winged W.-- <i>M. leucopterus</i>, Quoy and Gaim. See also <i>Scrub-Wren</i>. In New Zealand, the name is applied to the Bush-Wren, <i>Xenicus longipes</i>, Gmel., and the Rock (or Mountain) Wren, <i>X. gilviventris</i>, von Pelz. <hw>Wry-billed Plover</hw>, <i>n</i>. a very rare bird of New Zealand, <i>Anarhynchus frontalis</i>, Quoy and Gaim. 1889. Prof. Parker, `Catalogue of New Zealand Exhibition,' p. 116: "The curious wry-billed plover . . . the only bird known in which the bill is turned not up or down, but to one side--the right." <hw>Wurley</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for an aboriginal's hut. For other words expressing the same thing, see list under <i>Humpy</i>. In the dialect of the South-East of South Australia <i>oorla</i> means a house, or a camp, or a bird's nest. 1862. H. C. Kendall, `Poems,' p. 110: "Seeking, hoping help to find; Sleeping in deserted wurleys." 1865. W. Howitt, `Discovery in Australia,' vol. ii. p. 233: "Immediately went across to the blacks' wurleys, where I found King sitting in a but which the natives had made for him." 1879. G. Taplin, `Native Tribes of South Australia,' p. 12, and Note: "In case of a man having two wives, the elder is always regarded as the mistress of the hut or wurley. The word <i>wurley</i> is from the language of the Adelaide tribe. The Narrinyeri word is <i>mante</i>. I have used `wurley' because it is more generally understood by the colonists." 1880. P. J. Holdsworth, `Station Hunting on the Warrego': "`My hand Must weather-fend the wurley'. This he did. He bound the thick boughs close with bushman's skill, Till not a gap was left where raging showers Or gusts might riot. Over all he stretched Strong bands of cane-grass, plaited cunningly." 1886. H. C. Kendall, `Poems,' p. 42 "He took His axe, and shaped with boughs and wattle-forks A wurley, fashioned like a bushman's roof." X <hw>Xanthorrhoea</hw>, <i>n</i>. scientific name for a genus of Australian plants, <i>N.O. Liliaceae</i>, having thick palm-like trunks. They exude a yellow resin. (Grk. <i>Xanthos</i>, yellow, and <i>rhoia</i>, a flow, sc. of the resin.) They are called <i>Black Boys</i> and <i>Grass-trees</i> (q.v.). Y <hw>Yabber</hw>, <i>n</i>. Used for the talk of the aborigines. Some think it is the English word <i>jabber</i>, with the first letter pronounced as in German; but it is pronounced by the aborigines <i>yabba</i>, without a final <i>r</i>. <i>Ya</i> is an aboriginal stem, meaning to speak. In the Kabi dialect, <i>yaman</i> is to speak: in the Wiradhuri, <i>yarra</i>. 1874. M. K. Beveridge, `Lost Life,' pt. iii. p. 37: "I marked Much yabber that I did not know." 1885. R. M. Praed, `Australian Life,' p. 28: "Longing to fire a volley of blacks' yabber across a London dinner-table." 1886. R. Henty, `Australiana,' p. 23: "The volleys of abuse and `yabber yabber' they would then utter would have raised the envy of the greatest `Mrs. Moriarty' in the Billingsgate fishmarket." 1888. Rolf Boldrewood, `Robbery under Arms,' p. 55: "Is it French or Queensland blacks' yabber? Blest if I understand a word of it." <hw>Yabber</hw>, <i>v. intr</i>. (See noun.) 1885. R. M. Praed, `Australian Life,' p. 19: "They yabbered unsuspiciously to each other." 1887. J. Farrell, `How he died,' p. 126: "He's yabbering some sort of stuff in his sleep." <hw>Yabby</hw>, <i>n</i>. properly <i>Yappee</i>, aboriginal name for a small crayfish found in water-holes in many parts of Australia, <i>Astacopsis bicarinatus</i>. The Rev. F. A. Hagenauer gives <i>Yappy</i>, in `Curr's Australian Race,' vol. iii. p. 554, as a Gippsland word. Such variants as the following occur--<i>Yappitch, kapich</i>, <i>yabbechi, yaabity</i>. The distinction between the thin and thick consonants is usually uncertain. 1894. `The Argus,' Oct. 6, p. 11, col. 2: "In the case of small crayfish, called `yabbies,' . . . these may be found all over Australia, both in large and small lagoons. These creatures, whilst nearing a drought, and as the supply of water is about to fail, burrow deeply in the beds of the lagoons, water-holes, or swamps, piling up the excavations on the surface over their holes, which I take, amongst other reasons, to be a provision against excessive heat." 1897. `The Australasian,' Jan. 30, p. 224, col. 4: "The bait used is `yabby,' a small crayfish found in the sand on the beach at low tide. The getting of the bait itself is very diverting. The yabbies are most prized by fish and fishermen, and the most difficult to obtain. The game is very shy, and the hunter, when he has found the burrow, has to dig rapidly to overtake it, for the yabby retires with marvellous rapidity, and often half a dozen lifts of wet sand have to be made before he is captured. There is no time to be lost. In quite twenty-five per cent. of the chases the yabbies get away through flooding and collapse of the hole." <hw>Yakka</hw>, v. frequently used in Queensland bush-towns. "You yacka wood? Mine, give 'im tixpence;"--a sentence often uttered by housewives. It is given by the Rev. W. Ridley, in his `Kamilaroi, and other Australian Languages,' p. 86, as the Turrubul (Brisbane) term for <i>work</i>, probably cognate with <i>yugari, make</i>, same dialect, and <i>yengga, make</i>, Kabi dialect, Queensland. It is used primarily for <i>doing work of any kind</i>, and only by English modification (due to "hack") for <i>cut</i>. The spelling <i>yacker</i> is to be avoided, as the final <i>r</i> is not heard in the native pronunciation. <hw>Yam</hw>, <i>n</i>. a West Australian tuber, <i>Dioscorea hastifolia</i>, Ness., <i>N.O. Dioscorideae</i>. "One of the hardiest of the Yams. The tubers are largely consumed by the local aborigines for food; it is the only plant on which they bestow any kind of cultivation." (Mueller, <i>apud</i> Maiden, p. 22.) <hw>Yam, Long</hw>, <i>n</i>. a tuber, <i>Discorea transversa</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Dioscorideae</i>. "The small tubers are eaten by the aborigines without any preparation." (Thozet, apud Maiden, p. 23.) <hw>Yam, Native</hw>, <i>n</i>. a tuber, <i>Ipomaea</i> spp., <i>N.O. Convolvulaceae</i>. The tubers are sometimes eaten by the aboriginals. <hw>Yam, Round</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Burdekin Vine</i>, under <i>Vine</i>. <hw>Yam-stick</hw>, <i>n</i>. See quotation 1882, Tolmer. 1863. M. K. Beveridge, `Gatherings,' p. 27. "One leg's thin as Lierah's yamstick." 1880. Fison and Howitt, `Kamilaroi and Kurnai,' p. 195: "Behind the pair stands the boy's mother holding her `yam-stick' erect, resting on the ground." 1882. A. Tolmer, `Reminiscences,' vol. ii. p. 101: "The natives dig these roots with the yam-stick, an indispensable implement with them made of hard wood, about three feet in length, thick at one end and edged; it is likewise used amongst the aboriginal tribes of South Australia, like the waddy, as a weapon of offence." 1890. Rolf Boldrewood, `Squatter's Dream,' c. iii. p. 31: "Why, ole Nanny fight you any day with a yam-stick." <hw>Yama</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for a tree; probably a variant of <i>Yarrah</i> (q.v.). 1838. T. L. Mitchell, `Three Expeditions,' vol. ii. p. 54: "The `Yama,' a species of the eucalyptus inhabiting the immediate banks, grew here, as on the Darling, to a gigantic size. . . . The `yama' is certainly a pleasing object, in various respects; its shining bark and lofty height inform the traveller at a distance of the presence of water; or at least the bed of a river or lake." <hw>Yan Yean</hw>, <i>n</i>. the reservoir from which Melbourne obtains its water supply: hence commonly used for water from the tap. 1871. Dogberry Dingo, `Australian Rhymes and jingles,' p. 8: "O horror! What is this I find? The Yan Yean is turned off." <hw>Yarra-Bend</hw>, <i>n</i>. equivalent to the English word <i>Bedlam</i>. The first lunatic asylum of the colony of Victoria stood near Melbourne on a bend of the river Yarra. <hw>Yarrah</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for a species of Eucalyptus, <i>E. rostrata</i>, Schlecht; often called the <i>River Gum</i>, from its habit of growing along the banks of watercourses, especially in the dry interior of the continent. According to Dr. Woolls (<i>apud</i> Maiden, p. 511), <i>Yarrah</i> is "a name applied by the aboriginals to almost any tree." The word is not to be confused with <i>Jarrah</i> (q.v.). As to etymology, see <i>Yarraman</i>. <hw>Yarra-Herring</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given in Melbourne to a fresh-water fish, <i>Prototroctes maraena</i>, Gunth.; called also <i>Grayling</i> (q.v.). <hw>Yarraman</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name for a horse. Various etymologies are suggested; see quotation, 1875. The river "Yarra Yarra" means ever flowing, sc. fast. [A possible derivation is from <i>Yaran</i>, a common word in New South Wales and South Queensland, and with slight variation one of the most common words in Australia, for beard and sometimes hair. The mane would suggest the name. --J. Mathew.] 1848. T. L. Mitchell, `Tropical Australia,' p. 270: "It was remarkable that on seeing the horses, they exclaimed `Yarraman,' the colonial natives' name for a horse, and that of these animals they were not at all afraid, whereas they seemed in much dread of the bullocks." 1875. W. Ridley, `Kamilaroi and other Australian Languages,' p. 21: "Horse-yaraman. All the Australians use this name, probably from the neighing of the horse, or as some think from `yira' or `yera,' teeth (<i>teeth</i>), and `man' (<i>with</i>)." Ibid. p. 104: "Language of George's River. Horse--yaraman (from `yara,' throw fast)." 1885. R. M. Praed, `Australian Life,' p. 4: "Yarraman being the native word for horse." <hw>Yarran</hw>, <i>n</i>. aboriginal name adopted by the colonists for several <i>Acacias</i> (q.v.)--<i>Acacia homalophylla</i>, A. Cunn., called also <i>Spearwood</i>; <i>A. linifolia</i>, Willd., called also <i>Sally</i>; <i>A. pendula</i>, A. Cunn., called also <i>Boree</i>, and <i>Weeping</i> or <i>True Myall</i> (see <i>Myall</i>). 1891. Rolf Boldrewood, `A Sydney-side Saxon,' p. 99: "That infernal horse . . . pretty near broke my leg and chucked me out over a yarran stump." <hw>Yate</hw>, or <hw>Yate-tree</hw>, <i>n</i>. a large West Australian tree, <i>Eucalyptus cornuta</i>, Labill., yielding a hard tough elastic wood considered equal to the best ash. <hw>Yellow-belly</hw>, <i>n</i>. In New South Wales, the name is given to a fresh-water fish, <i>Ctenolates auratus</i>; called also <i>Golden-Perch</i>. See <i>Perch</i>. In Dunedin especially, and New Zealand generally, it is a large flounder, also called <i>Lemon-Sole</i>, or <i>Turbot</i> (q.v.). <hw>Yellow Fever</hw>, sc. the gold-fever. 1861. T. McCombie, `Australian Sketches,' p. 47: "Evident symptoms of the return of the `yellow' fever, and a journey to the new goldfields seemed to be the only cure." <hw>Yellow-head</hw>, <i>n</i>. name given to a bird of New Zealand, <i>Clitonyx ochrocephala</i>, or <i>Native Canary</i> (q.v.), common in South Island. See <i>Clitonyx</i>. <hw>Yellow Jacket</hw>, <i>n</i>. a name given to various gum-trees, and especially to <i>Eucalyptus melliodora</i>, Cunn., <i>E. ochrophlora</i>, F. v. M., and <i>E. rostrata</i>, Schlecht, all of the <i>N.O. Myrtaceae</i>. They all have a smooth yellowish bark, and many other names are applied to the same trees. <hw>Yellow Lily</hw>, <i>n</i>. a Tasmanian name for the <i>Native Leek</i>. See <i>Leek</i>. <hw>Yellow-tail</hw>, <i>n</i>. The name is given in Victoria to the fish <i>Caranx trachurus</i>, Cuv. and Val.; the <i>Horse-Mackerel</i> (q.v.) of England. In New South Wales, it is <i>Trachurus declivis</i>, a slightly different species, also called <i>Scad</i>; but the two fish are perhaps the same. <i>Seriola grandis</i>, Castln., also of the <i>Carangidae</i> family, is likewise called <i>Yellow-tail</i> in Melbourne. In New Zealand, the word is used for the fish <i>Latris lineata</i>, of the family of <i>Sciaenidae</i>, and is also a name for the <i>King-fish</i>, <i>Seriola lalandii</i>, and for the <i>Trevally</i>. <hw>Yellow Thyme</hw>, <i>n</i>. a herb, <i>Hibbertia serpyllifolia</i>, R. Br., <i>N.O. Dilleneaceae</i>. <hw>Yellow-wood</hw>, a name applied to several Australian trees with the epithets of <i>Dark, Light, Deep</i>, etc., in allusion to the colour of their timber, which is allied to <i>Mahogany</i>. They are--<i>Acronychia laevis</i>, Forst., <i>N.O. Rutaceae</i>; <i>Rhus rhodanthema</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Anacardiaciae</i>; <i>Flindersia oxleyana</i>, F. v. M., <i>N.O. Meliaceae</i>. See also <i>Satin-wood</i>. <hw>Yuro</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Euro</i> (q.v.). Z <hw>Zebra</hw>-fish, <i>n</i>. name given to the fish <i>Neotephraeops zebra</i>, Richards. <hw>Zebra-Wolf</hw>, <i>n</i>. i.q. <i>Tasmanian Wolf</i>, or <i>Tasmanian Tiger</i> (q.v.). <hw>Zelanian</hw>, a scientific term, meaning `pertaining to New Zealand,' from <i>Zelania</i>, a Latinised form of <i>Zealand</i>. <hw>Zosterops</hw>, <i>n</i>. the scientific name of a genus of Australian birds, often called also popularly by that name, and by the names of <i>Wax-eye</i>, <i>White-eye</i>, <i>Silver-eye</i> (q.v.), <i>Ring-eye</i>, <i>Blight-bird</i> (q.v.), etc. From the Greek <i>zowstaer</i>, a girdle, `anything that goes round like a girdle' (`L. & S.'), and <i>'owps</i>, the eye; the birds of the genus have a white circle round their eyes. The bird was not generally known in New Zealand until after <i>Black Thursday</i> (q.v.), in 1851, when it flew to the Chatham Islands. Some observers, however, noted small numbers of one species in Milford Sound in 1832. New Zealand birds are rarely gregarious, but the <i>Zosterops</i> made a great migration, in large flocks, from the South Island to the North Island in 1856, and the Maori name for the bird is `The Stranger' (<i>Tau-hou</i>). Nevertheless, Buller thinks that the species <i>Z. caerulescens</i> is indigenous in New Zealand. (See under <i>Silver-eye</i>, quotation 1888.) The species are-- <i>Zosterops caerulescens</i>, Lath. Green-backed Z.-- <i>Z. gouldi</i>, Bp.; called also <i>Grape-eater</i>, and <i>Fig-eater</i> (q.v.). Gulliver's Z.-- <i>Z. gulliveri</i>, Castln. and Ramsay. Pale-bellied Z.-- <i>Z. albiventer</i>, Homb. and Jacq. Yellow Z.-- <i>Z. lutea</i>, Gould. Yellow-rumped Z.-- <i>Z. westernensis</i>, Quoy and Gaim. Yellow-throated Z.-- <i>Z. flavogularis</i>, Masters. 1897. A. J. Campbell (in `The Australasian,' Jan. 23), p. 180, col. 3: "I have a serious charge to prefer against this bird [the Tawny Honeyeater] as well as against some of its near relatives, particularly those that inhabit Western Australia, namely, the long-billed, the spine-billed, and the little white-eye or zosterops. During certain seasons they regale themselves too freely with the seductive nectar of the flaming bottle-brush (<i>Callistemon</i>). They become tipsy, and are easily caught by hand under the bushes.In the annals of ornithology I know of no other instance of birds getting intoxicated." Edward E. Morris Austral English: A Dictionary of Australasian Words Phrases and Usages 
18362	----	[Transcriber's Notes] Original "misspellings" such as "fulness" are unchanged. Unfamiliar (to me) words are defined on the right side of the page in square brackets. For example: abstemious diet [abstemious = Eating and drinking in moderation.] The blandness of contemporary (2006) speech would be relieved by the injection of some of these gems: "phraseological quagmire" "Windy speech which hits all around the mark like a drunken carpenter." [End Transcriber's Notes] BY GRENVILLE KLEISER HOW TO BUILD MENTAL POWER A book of thorough training for all the faculties of the mind. Octa cloth, $3.00, net; by mail, $3.16. HOW TO SPEAK IN PUBLIC A practical self-instructor for lawyers, clergymen, teachers, businessmen, and others. Cloth, 543 pages, $1.50. net; by mail, $1.615. HOW TO DEVELOP SELF-CONFIDENCE IN SPEECH AND MANNER A book of practical inspiration: trains men to rise above mediocrity and fearthought to their great possibilities. Commended to ambitious men. Cloth. 320 pages, $1.50. net; by mail, $1.65. HOW TO DEVELOP POWER AND PERSONALITY IN SPEAKING Practical suggestions in English, word-building, imagination, memory conversation, and extemporaneous speaking. Cloth, 422 pages, $1.50 net; by mail, $1.65. HOW TO READ AND DECLAIM A course of instruction in reading and declamation which will develop graceful carriage, correct standing, and accurate enunciation; and will furnish abundant exercise in the use of the best examples of prose and poetry. Cloth, $1.50, net; by mail, $1.65. GREAT SPEECHES AND HOW TO MAKE THEM In this work Mr. Kleiser points out methods by which young men may acquire and develop the essentials of forcible public speaking. Cloth $1.50, net; by mail, $1.65. HOW TO ARGUE AND WIN Ninety-nine men in a hundred know how to argue to one who can argue and win. This book tells how to acquire this power. 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THE WORLD'S GREAT SERMONS Masterpieces of Pulpit Oratory and biographical sketches of the speakers. Cloth, 10 volumes. Write for terms. GRENVILLE KLEISER'S PERSONAL LESSONS IN PUBLIC SPEAKING and the Development of Self-Confidence, Mental Power, and Personality. Twenty-five lessons, with special handbooks, side-talks, personal letters. etc. Write for terms. GRENVILLE KLEISER'S PERSONAL LESSONS IN PRACTICAL ENGLISH Twenty lessons, with Daily Drills, special books, personal letters, etc. Write for terms. FIFTEEN THOUSAND USEFUL PHRASES A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF PERTINENT EXPRESSIONS, STRIKING SIMILES, LITERARY. COMMERCIAL, CONVERSATIONAL, AND ORATORICAL TERMS, FOR THE EMBELLISHMENT OF SPEECH AND LITERATURE, AND THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE VOCABULARY OF THOSE PERSONS WHO READ, WRITE. AND SPEAK ENGLISH BY GRENVILLE KLEISER FORMERLY INSTRUCTOR IN PUBLIC SPEAKING AT YALE DIVINITY SCHOOL, YALE UNIVERSITY; AUTHOR OF "HOW TO SPEAK IN PUBLIC," "HOW TO DEVELOP POWER AND PERSONALITY IN SPEAKING," "HOW TO DEVELOP SELF-CONFIDENCE IN SPEECH AND MANNER," "HOW TO ARGUE AND WIN," "HOW TO READ AND DECLAIM," "COMPLETE GUIDE TO PUBLIC SPEAKING," ETC. WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY FRANK H. VIZETELLY, LITT.D., LL.D. FIFTH EDITION FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY NEW YORK AND LONDON 1919 COPYRIGHT, 1917, BY FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY (Printed in the United States of America) ----- Copyright under the Articles of the Copyright Convention of the Pan-American Republics and the United States, August 11, 1910 ------ Published. October, 1917 One cannot always live in the palaces and state apartments of language, but we can refuse to spend our days in searching for its vilest slums. --William Watson Words without thought are dead sounds; thoughts without words are nothing. To think is to speak low; to speak is to think aloud. --Max Muller The first merit which attracts in the pages of a good writer, or the talk of a brilliant conversationalist, is the apt choice and contrast of the words employed. It is indeed a strange art to take these blocks rudely conceived for the purpose of the market or the bar, and by tact of application touch them to the finest meanings and distinctions. --Robert Louis Stevenson It is with words as with sunbeams, the more they are condensed, the deeper they burn. --Southey No noble or right style was ever yet founded but out of a sincere heart. --Ruskin Words are things; and a small drop of ink, falling like dew upon a thought, produces that which makes thousands, perhaps millions, think. --Byron A good phrase may outweigh a poor library. --Thomas W. Higginson PLAN OF CLASSIFICATION SECTION I. USEFUL PHRASES II. SIGNIFICANT PHRASES III. FELICITOUS PHRASES IV. IMPRESSIVE PHRASES V. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES VI. BUSINESS PHRASES VII. LITERARY EXPRESSIONS VIII. STRIKING SIMILES IX. CONVERSATIONAL PHRASES X. PUBLIC SPEAKING PHRASES XI. MISCELLANEOUS PHRASES INTRODUCTION The most powerful and the most perfect expression of thought and feeling through the medium of oral language must be traced to the mastery of words. Nothing is better suited to lead speakers and readers of English into an easy control of this language than the command of the phrase that perfectly expresses the thought. Every speaker's aim is to be heard and understood. A clear, crisp articulation holds an audience as by the spell of some irresistible power. The choice word, the correct phrase, are instruments that may reach the heart, and awake the soul if they fall upon the ear in melodious cadence; but if the utterance be harsh and discordant they fail to interest, fall upon deaf ears, and are as barren as seed sown on fallow ground. In language, nothing conduces so emphatically to the harmony of sounds as perfect phrasing--that is, the emphasizing of the relation of clause to clause, and of sentence to sentence by the systematic grouping of words. The phrase consists usually of a few words which denote a single idea that forms a separate part of a sentence. In this respect it differs from the clause, which is a short sentence that forms a distinct part of a composition, paragraph, or discourse. Correct phrasing is regulated by rests, such rests as do not break the continuity of a thought or the progress of the sense. GRENVILLE KLEISER, who has devoted years of his diligent life to imparting the art of correct expression in speech and writing, has provided many aids for those who would know not merely what to say, but how to say it. He has taught also what the great HOLMES taught, that language is a temple in which the human soul is enshrined, and that it grows out of life--out of its joys and its sorrows, its burdens and its necessities. To him, as well as to the writer, the deep strong voice of man and the low sweet voice of woman are never heard at finer advantage than in the earnest but mellow tones of familiar speech. In the present volume Mr. Kleiser furnishes an additional and an exceptional aid for those who would have a mint of phrases at their command from which to draw when in need of the golden mean for expressing thought. Few indeed are the books fitted to-day for the purpose of imparting this knowledge, yet two centuries ago phrase-books were esteemed as supplements to the dictionaries, and have not by any manner of means lost their value. The guide to familiar quotations, the index to similes, the grammars, the readers, the machine-made letter-writer of mechanically perfect letters of congratulation or condolence--none are sententious enough to supply the need. By the compilation of this praxis, Mr. Kleiser has not only supplied it, but has furnished a means for the increase of one's vocabulary by practical methods. There are thousands of persons who may profit by the systematic study of such a book as this if they will familiarize themselves with the author's purpose by a careful reading of the preliminary pages of his book. To speak in public pleasingly and readily and to read well are accomplishments acquired only after many days, weeks even, of practise. Foreigners sometimes reproach us for the asperity and discordance of our speech, and in general, this reproach is just, for there are many persons who do scanty justice to the vowel-elements of our language. Although these elements constitute its music they are continually mistreated. We flirt with and pirouette around them constantly. If it were not so, English would be found full of beauty and harmony of sound. Familiar with the maxim, "Take care of the vowels and the consonants will take care of themselves,"--a maxim that when put into practise has frequently led to the breaking-down of vowel values--the writer feels that the common custom of allowing "the consonants to take care of themselves" is pernicious. It leads to suppression or to imperfect utterance, and thus produces indistinct articulation. The English language is so complex in character that it can scarcely be learned by rule, and can best be mastered by the study of such idioms and phrases as are provided in this book; but just as care must be taken to place every accent or stress on the proper syllable in the pronouncing of every word it contains, so must the stress or emphasis be placed on the proper word in every sentence spoken. To read or speak pleasingly one should resort to constant practise by doing so aloud in private, or preferably, in the presence of such persons as know good reading when they hear it and are masters of the melody of sounds. It was Dean Swift's belief that the common fluency of speech in many men and most women was due to scarcity of matter and scarcity of words. He claimed that a master of language possessed a mind full of ideas, and that before speaking, such a mind paused to select the choice word--the phrase best suited to the occasion. "Common speakers," he said, "have only one set of ideas, and one set of words to clothe them in," and these are always ready on the lips. Because he holds the Dean's view sound to-day, the writer will venture to warn the readers of this book against a habit that, growing far too common among us, should be checked, and this is the iteration and reiteration in conversation of "the battered, stale, and trite" phrases, the like of which were credited by the worthy Dean to the women of his time. Human thought elaborates itself with the progress of intelligence. Speech is the harvest of thought, and the relation which exists between words and the mouths that speak them must be carefully observed. Just as nothing is more beautiful than a word fitly spoken, so nothing is rarer than the use of a word in its exact meaning. There is a tendency to overwork both words and phrases that is not restricted to any particular class. The learned sin in this respect even as do the ignorant, and the practise spreads until it becomes an epidemic. The epidemic word with us yesterday was unquestionably "conscription"; several months ago it was "preparedness." Before then "efficiency" was heard on every side and succeeded in superseding "vocational teaching," only to be displaced in turn by "life extension" activities. "Safety-first" had a long run which was brought almost to abrupt end by "strict accountability," but these are mere reflections of our cosmopolitan life and activities. There are others that stand out as indicators of brain-weariness. These are most frequently met in the work of our novelists. English authors and journalists are abusing and overworking the word intrigue to-day. Sir Arthur Quillercouch on page 81 of his book "On the Art of Writing" uses it: "We are intrigued by the process of manufacture instead of being wearied by a description of the ready-made article." Mrs. Sidgwick in "Salt and Savour," page 232, wrote: "But what intrigued her was Little Mamma's remark at breakfast," From the Parliamentary news, one learns that "Mr. Harcourt intrigued the House of Commons by his sustained silence for two years" and that "London is interested in, and not a little intrigued, by the statement." This use of intrigue in the sense of "perplex, puzzle, trick, or deceive" dates from 1600. Then it fell into a state of somnolence, and after an existence of innocuous desuetude lasting till 1794 it was revived, only to hibernate again until 1894. It owes its new lease of life to a writer on The Westminster Gazette, a London journal famous for its competitions in aid of the restoring of the dead meanings of words. One is almost exasperated by the repeated use and abuse of the word "intimate" in a recently published work of fiction, by an author who aspires to the first rank in his profession. He writes of "the intimate dimness of the room;" "a fierce intimate whispering;" "a look that was intimate;" "the noise of the city was intimate," etc. Who has not heard, "The idea!" "What's the idea?" "Is that the idea?" "Yes, that's the idea," with increased inflection at each repetition. And who is without a friend who at some time or another has not sprung "meticulous" upon him? Another example is afforded by the endemic use of "of sorts" which struck London while the writer was in that city a few years ago. Whence it came no one knew, but it was heard on every side. "She was a woman of sorts;" "he is a Tory of sorts;" "he had a religion of sorts;" "he was a critic of sorts." While it originally meant "of different or various kinds," as hats of sorts; offices of sorts; cheeses of sorts, etc., it is now used disparagingly, and implies something of a kind that is not satisfactory, or of a character that is rather poor. This, as Shakespeare might have said, is "Sodden business! There's a stewed phrase indeed!" [Footnote: Troilus and Cressida, act iii, sc. 1.] The abuse of phrases and the misuse of words rife among us can be checked by diligent exercises in good English, such as this book provides. These exercises, in conjunction with others to be found in different volumes by the same author, will serve to correct careless diction and slovenly speech, and lead to the art of speaking and writing correctly; for, after all, accuracy in the use of words is more a matter of habit than of theory, and once it is acquired it becomes just as easy to speak or to write good English as bad English. It was Chesterfield's resolution not to speak a word in conversation which was not the fittest he could recall. All persons should avoid using words whose meanings they do not know, and with the correct application of which they are unfamiliar. The best spoken and the best written English is that which conforms to the language as used by men and women of culture--a high standard, it is true, but one not so high that it is unattainable by any earnest student of the English tongue. FRANK H. VIZETELLY. HOW TO USE THIS BOOK The study of words, phrases, and literary expressions is a highly interesting pursuit. There is a reciprocal influence between thought and language. What we think molds the words we use, and the words we use react upon our thoughts. Hence a study of words is a study of ideas, and a stimulant to deep and original thinking. We should not, however, study "sparkling words and sonorous phrases" with the object of introducing them consciously into our speech. To do so would inevitably lead to stiltedness and superficiality. Words and phrases should be studied as symbols of ideas, and as we become thoroughly familiar with them they will play an unconscious but effective part in our daily expression. We acquire our vocabulary largely from our reading and our personal associates. The words we use are an unmistakable indication of our thought habits, tastes, ideals, and interests in life. In like manner, the habitual language of a people is a barometer of their intellectual, civil, moral, and spiritual ideals. A great and noble people express themselves in great and noble words. Ruskin earnestly counsels us to form the habit of looking intensely at words. We should scrutinize them closely and endeavor to grasp their innermost meaning. There is an indefinable satisfaction in knowing how to choose and use words with accuracy and precision. As Fox once said, "I am never at a loss for a word, but Pitt always has the word." All the great writers and orators have been diligent students of words. Demosthenes and Cicero were indefatigable in their study of language. Shakespeare, "infinite in faculty," took infinite pains to embody his thought in words of crystal clearness. Coleridge once said of him that one might as well try to dislodge a brick from a building with one's forefinger as to omit a single word from one of his finest passages. Milton, master of majestic prose, under whose touch words became as living things; Flaubert, who believed there was one and one only best word with which to express a given thought; De Quincey, who exercised a weird-like power over words; Ruskin, whose rhythmic prose enchanted the ear; Keats, who brooded over phrases like a lover; Newman, of pure and melodious style; Stevenson, forever in quest of the scrupulously precise word; Tennyson, graceful and exquisite as the limpid stream; Emerson, of trenchant and epigrammatic style; Webster, whose virile words sometimes weighed a pound; and Lincoln, of simple, Saxon speech,--all these illustrious men were assiduous in their study of words. Many persons of good education unconsciously circumscribe themselves within a small vocabulary. They have a knowledge of hundreds of desirable words which they do not put into practical use in their speech or writing. Many, too, are conscious of a poverty of language, which engenders in them a sense of timidity and self-depreciation. The method used for building a large vocabulary has usually been confined to the study of single words. This has produced good results, but it is believed that eminently better results can be obtained from a careful study of words and expressions, as furnished in this book, where words can be examined in their context. It is intended and suggested that this study should be pursued in connection with, and as a supplement to, a good standard dictionary. Fifteen minutes a day devoted to this subject, in the manner outlined, will do more to improve and enlarge the vocabulary than an hour spent in desultory reading. There is no better way in which to develop the mental qualities of clearness, accuracy, and precision, and to improve and enlarge the intellectual powers generally, than by regular and painstaking study of judiciously selected phrases and literary expressions. PLAN OF STUDY First examine the book in a general way to grasp its character, scope, and purpose. Carefully note the following plan of classification of the various kinds of phrases, and choose for initial study a section which you think will be of the most immediate value to you. I. USEFUL PHRASES II. SIGNIFICANT PHRASES III. FELICITOUS PHRASES IV. IMPRESSIVE PHRASES V. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES VI. BUSINESS PHRASES VII. LITERARY EXPRESSIONS VIII. STRIKING SIMILES IX. CONVERSATIONAL PHRASES X. PUBLIC SPEAKING PHRASES XI. MISCELLANEOUS PHRASES There are many advantages in keeping before you a definite purpose in your study of this book. A well-defined plan will act as an incentive to regular and systematic effort, and incidentally develop your power of concentration. It is desirable that you set apart a certain convenient time each day for this study. Regularity tends to produce maximum results. As you progress with this work your interest will be quickened and you will realize the desirability of giving more and more time to this important subject. When you have chosen a section of the book which particularly appeals to you, begin your actual study by reading the phrases aloud. Read them slowly and understandingly. This tends to impress them more deeply upon your mind, and is in itself one of the best and most practical ways of acquiring a large and varied vocabulary. Moreover, the practise of fitting words to the mouth rapidly develops fluency and facility of speech. Few persons realize the great value of reading aloud. Many of the foremost English stylists devoted a certain period regularly to this practise. Cardinal Newman read aloud each day a chapter from Cicero as a means of developing his ear for sentence-rhythm. Rufus Choate, in order to increase his command of language, and to avoid sinking into mere empty fluency, read aloud daily, during a large part of his life, a page or more from some great English author. As a writer has said, "The practise of storing the mind with choice passages from the best prose writers and poets, and thus flavoring it with the essence of good literatures, is one which is commended both by the best teachers and by the example of some of the most celebrated orators, who have adopted it with signal success." This study should be pursued with pencil in hand, so that you may readily underscore phrases which make a special appeal to you. The free use of a pencil in marking significant parts of a book is good evidence of thoroughness. This, too, will facilitate your work of subsequent review. The habit of regularly copying, in your own handwriting, one or more pages of phrases will be of immense practical value. This exercise is a great aid in developing a facile English style. The daily use of the pen has been recommended in all times as a valuable means of developing oral and literary expression. A helpful exercise is to pronounce a phrase aloud and then fit it into a complete sentence of your own making. This practice gives added facility and resourcefulness in the use of words. As an enthusiastic student of good English, you should carefully note striking and significant phrases or literary expressions which you find in your general reading. These should be set down in a note-book reserved for this exclusive purpose. In this way you can prepare many lists of your own, and thus greatly augment the value of this study. The taste for beauty, truth, and harmony in language can be developed by careful study of well-selected phrases and literary expressions as furnished in this book. A good literary style is formed principally by daily study of great English writers, by careful examination of words in their context, and by a discriminating use of language at all times. GRENVILLE KLEISER. New York City, July, 1917 SECTION I USEFUL PHRASES A abandoned hope abated pride abbreviated visit abhorred thraldom [thraldom = enslaved or in bondage] abiding romance abject submission abjured ambition able strategist abnormal talents abominably perverse abounding happiness abridged statement abrogated law abrupt transition absolutely irrevocable absorbed reverie abstemious diet [abstemious = eating and drinking in moderation] abstract character abstruse reasoning absurdly dangerous abundant opportunity abusive epithet abysmally apologetic academic rigor accelerated progress accentuated playfulness accepted littleness accessible pleasures accessory circumstances accidental lapse accommodating temper accomplished ease accredited agent accumulated burden accurate appraisement accursed enemy accusing glance accustomed lucidity aching desire acknowledged authority acoustical effects acquired timidity acrid controversy acrimonious warfare actively zealous actualized ideals acutely conscious adamantine rigidity [adamantine = unyielding; inflexible] adaptive wit adduced facts [adduce = cite as an example] adequate execution adhesive quality administered rebuke admirable reserve admissible evidence admittedly inferior admonitory gesture adolescent youth adorable vanity adroit flatterer adulated stranger adventitious way [adventitious = not inherent; added extrinsically] adventurous mind adverse experience affably accommodating affected indifference affectionate approval affianced lady affirmative attitude affluent language affrighted slave aggravated faults aggregate body aggressive selfishness agile mind agitated imagination agonizing appeal agreeable frankness aimless confusion airy splendor alarming rapidity alert acceptance algebraic brevity alien splendor alleged reluctance allegorical vein allied subjects alliterative suggestion all-pervading influence alluring idleness alternating opinion altogether dissimilar altruistic ideal amatory effusions [amatory = expressive of sexual love] amazing artifice ambidextrous assistant ambiguous grimace ambitious project ambling pedestrian ambrosial essence [ambrosial = fragrant or delicious; worthy of the gods; divine.] amiable solicitude amicable arrangement amorous youth ample culture amusing artlessness analogous example analytical survey ancestral creed ancient garb angelic softness angry protestations anguished entreaty angular features animated eloquence annoying complications anomalous appearance anonymous benefactor answering response antagonistic views antecedent facts anticipated attention antiquated prudery anxious misgiving apathetic greeting aphoristic wit [aphoristic = Tersely phrased statement] apish agility apocalyptic vision apocryphal lodger [apocryphal = questionable authenticity] apologetic explanation apostrophic dignity appalling difficulties apparent significance appealing picture appointed function apposite illustration appreciable relief appreciative fervor apprehensive dread apprentice touch appropriate designation approving smile approximately correct aptly suggested arbitrarily imposed arch conspirator arched embrasure [embrasure = flared opening for a gun in a wall or parapet] archeological pursuits architectural grandeur ardent protest arduous quest arid formula aristocratic lineage aromatic fragrance arrant trifling arrested development arrogant imposition artful adaptation artificial suavity artistic elegance artless candor ascending supremacy ascetic devotion ascribed productiveness aspiring genius assembled arguments asserted activity assiduously cultivated assimilative power assumed humiliation assuredly enshrined astonishing facility astounding mistakes astute observer athletic prowess atmospheric vagueness atoning sacrifice atrocious expression atrophied view attending circumstances attentive deference attenuated sound attested loyalty attractive exordium [exordium = introduction of a speech or treatise] audacious mendicant [mendicant = depending on alms; beggar] audible intimations augmented force august tribunal auspicious moment austere charm authentic indications authoritative critic autobiographical pages autocratic power automatic termination autumnal skies auxiliary aids available data avaricious eyes avenging fate average excellence averted calamity avowed intention awakened curiosity awed devotion awful dejection awkward dilemma axiomatic truth azure sky B babbling gossip bacchanalian desires bachelor freedom bad omen baffled sagacity [sagacity = farsighted; wise] balanced capacity baldly described baleful glances balmy fragrance bandying talk baneful impression banished silence barbarous statecraft barefaced appeal barest commonplaces barren opportunities base intrigues baseless assumptions bashful modesty basic principles battered witticism beaming countenance bearish rudeness beatific vision beautiful modesty beckoning horizon becoming diffidence bedraggled wretch befitting honor beggarly flimsiness beguiling voice belated acknowledgment belittling fears bellicose humanity beneficent career benevolent regard benighted sense benignant pity [benignant = favorable; beneficial; kind] beseeching gesture besetting heresy besotted fanaticism bestial ferocity bewildering maze bewitching airs beyond peradventure [peradventure = perhaps] bibulous diversions [bibulous = consumes alcoholic drink] bigoted contempt binding obligation bitter recrimination bizarre apparel blackening west blameless indolence blanched desolation bland confidence blank misgivings blasphemous hypocrisy blatant discourse blazing audacity blazoned shield bleak loneliness blended impression blessed condolence blighted happiness blind partizan blissful consciousness blistering satire blithe disregard bloated equivalent bloodless creature bloodthirsty malice blundering discourtesy blunt rusticity [rusticity = rustic; awkward or tactless] blurred vision blustering assertion boastful positiveness bodily activity boisterous edification bold generalization bombastic prating [prating = idle talk] bookish precision boon companion boorish abuse bored demeanor borrowed grace bottomless abyss boundless admiration bountiful supply boyish appreciation braggart pretense bravely vanquished braying trumpet brazen importunity [importunity = insistent request] breathless eagerness brief tenure briefless barrister bright interlude brilliant embodiment brisk energy bristling temper brittle sarcasm broadening fame broken murmurs brooding peace brutal composure bubbling frivolities bucolic cudgeling [bucolic = about shepherds or flocks; pastoral] [cudgeling = beat with a short heavy stick] budding joy bulky figure buoyant pluck burdensome business burly strength burning zeal bursting laugh busily engrossed business acumen bygone period C cabalistic phrase [cabalistic = secret or hidden meaning] cadaverous appearance calamitous course calculating admiration callous indifference calm resignation calumnious suspicions [calumnious = harmful and often untrue; discredit] cantankerous enemy canting hypocrite [canting = monotonous platitudes; hypocritically pious] capacious mind capricious allurements captivating speech cardinal merit careless parrying caressing grasp carping critic castellated towers [castellated = with turrets and battlements like a castle] casual violation cataclysmic elements causelessly frightened caustic remark cautious skepticism cavernous gloom ceaseless vigilance celebrated instance celestial joy censorious critic centralized wealth ceremonious courtesy cerulean blue [cerulean = azure; sky-blue] challenge admiration chance reflections changing exigencies [exigencies = pressing or urgent situation] chaotic plans characteristic audacity charitable allowance charming radiance chary instincts [chary = cautious; wary] chastened hope chatty familiarity cheap resentment cheery response chequered career cherished objects childlike ingenuousness [ingenuous = frank; candid.] chilled cynicism chirpy familiarities chivalrous spirit choicest refinements choleric temperament [choleric = easily angered; bad-tempered] choral chant chronic frailties churlish temper [churlish = boorish; vulgar; rude] circling eddyings circuitous information circumscribed purpose civic consciousness civilizing influence clammy death clamorous vibration clangorous industry clarion tone class demarcations classical objurgation [objurgation = harsh rebuke] clattering accents clear insight climactic revelation clinching proof cloaked nature cloistered virtue close condensation cloudy magnificence clownishly insensible cloying sweetness [cloying = too filling, rich, or sweet] clumsy talk clustering trees coarse necessity coaxing eloquence coercive enactment cogent statement coherent thinking coined metaphor cold formalities collateral duties collective wisdom colloquial display colonial character colossal failure comatose state combative tone comforting reassurance comic infelicity commanding attitude commendable purpose commercial opulence commingled emotion commodiously arranged common substratum commonplace allusions compact fitness comparative scantiness compassionate love compelling force compendious abstract compensatory character competent authority competitive enterprise complacent platitudes complaining sea complaisant observation complete aloofness complex notions complicated maze complimentary glance component aspects composed zeal composite growth compound idea comprehensive design compressed view compromising rashness compulsory repetition compunctious visitings [compunctious = feeling guilt] concatenated pedantries [pedantries = attention to detail or rules] concealed advantage conceivable comparison concentrated vigor concerted action conciliating air concomitant events concrete realities concurrent testimony condemnable rashness condescending badinage [badinage = frivolous banter] conditional approval confessed ardor confidently anticipated confirmed misanthrope [misanthrope = one who dislikes people in general] conflicting influences confused mingling conjectural estimate conjugal felicity connected series connotative damage connubial love conquering intelligence conscientious objection conscious repugnance consecrated endeavor consequent retribution conservative distrust considerate hint consistent friendliness consoling consciousness conspicuous ascendency constant reiteration constitutional reserve constrained politeness constructive idealists consuming zeal consummate mastery contagious wit contaminating influence contemplative nature contemporary fame contemptuous disrespect contented indolence contingent reasons continuous endeavor contorted expression contracted view contradictory theories contrary tendencies contrasted types controversial disputant contumelious epithet [contumelious = Rudeness or contempt arising from arrogance] convenient footing conventional verbiage conversational decorum convincing forcefulness convivial habits convulsive agony cool confidence copious materials coquettish advances cordial approval corporate selfishness corporeal constituent correct forecast corresponding variation corroborated truth corrosive effect corrupting tendency cosmical changes cosmopolitan position costly advantages counterbalancing power countless barriers courageous eagerness courteous solicitude courtly bearing covert curiosity coveted honors cowardly concession cowering agitation coy reluctance crackling laughter crafty deception craggy eminence cramped energies crass stolidity craven determination creative faculty credibly informed creditable performance credulous superstition creeping progress criminal negligence cringing smile crisp dialogue critical judgment crouching culprit crowning indiscretion crucial instance crucifying irony crude affectation cruel handicap crumbling precipice crunching jangle crushing sorrow cryptic saying crystalline sky crystallized conclusions culinary myrmidons [myrmidon = one who carries out orders without question] culminating fascination culpable behavior cultivated ferocity cultured idleness cumbrous fragments [cumbrous = cumbersome; difficult to handle or use] cumulative tendency cunningly contrived curbed profligacy curious coincidence current gossip curry favor cursed inactivity cursory acquaintance curt formality curtained embrasure cutting directness cycloramic sweep cynical disregard D damaging admission damask cheek [damask = rich patterned fabric; wavy pattern on Damascus steel] dampened ardor dancing sunshine dangerous temerity dappled shadows daring candor dark superstition dashing gallantry dastardly injustice dauntless courage dawning instinct dazed brain dazzling triumph deadly virulence deaf tribunal deathless structure debasing tendency debatable point debilitating features decadent poets deceiving mists decided superiority decisive manner declamatory treatment [declamatory = pretentiously rhetorical; bombastic] declared brotherhood decorously adorned deepening dusk deep-seated curiosity deep-toned lamentations defective construction defenseless innocence defensive alliance deferential regard defiant coldness deficient vitality definite conception deformed visage deft evasion degrading tendencies delectable speculations delegated power deliberate abnegation [abnegation = self-denial] delicate discrimination delicious vagueness delightful variation delirious ecstasies delusive charm demagogic style democratic institutions demoniacal force demonstrable conclusion demoralizing luxury demure composure denunciatory terms departed glories deplorable decay deprecatory shrug depressing concomitants depthless forest derisive voice derogatory denial descriptive power desecrated ideals deserted desert deserved approbation [approbation = warm approval; praise] desirable distinction desolating dread despairing austerity desperate defiance despicable vices despondent exaggeration despotic rulers destructive radicalism desultory vacillation [desultory = disconnected; haphazard; random] detailed portraiture detected hypocrisies determinate swing detestable purpose dethroned princes detrimental result devastating effect devilish sophistries deviously subtle devitalized personality devoted attachment devouring ambition devout thanksgiving dewy coolness dexterous impudence diabolical passion dialectic power diametrically opposite dictatorial manner dictionary significance didactic exposition [didactic = intended to be morally instructive] different distortion difficult portraiture diffident civility [diffident = lacking self-confidence; shy; timid] diffuse verbosity dignified austerity digressional adventure dilettante mind [dilettante = dabbler in a field of knowledge] diligently propagated dim comprehension diminished efficacy diminutive stature diplomatic skill dire consummation direct obligation disappointing attitude disarmed criticism disastrous termination discarded reminiscences discerning critic disciplined mind disclosed insincerity discomfited opponent disconcerted conjecture disconnected fancies disconsolate opinions discordant sounds discredited statement discretional opinion discriminating homage discursive staggerings disdainful comment diseased hallucinations disembodied personality disengaged air disfiguring disguise disgraceful plight disgruntled pessimist disguised contempt disgusted protest disheartening facts dishonorable submission disillusioned youth disintegrating tendency disinterested motive disjoined reminiscences dismal seclusion dismantled appearance disordered imagination disparaging criticism dispassionate judgment dispelling fear displeasing softness disproportionate ideas disputative philosopher disquieting thrill disreputable aspect dissenting opinion dissimilar laws dissipated illusion dissolute audacity dissolving years dissonant jargon distant adherent distasteful notion distempered feeling distinct desideratum distorted vanity distracting babble distraught air distressing laxity disturbed equanimity diurnal rotation divergent calculations diversified attributes diverting interests divine potentialities dizzy precipice documentary evidence dogged determination doggerel expressions [doggerel = crude, humorous verse] dogmatic assurance doleful forebodings domestic endearment dominating influence domineering insolence dormant capacities doubly odious doubtful authenticity downright nonsense downtrodden drudge drab apology dramatic liveliness drastic action dread presence dreaming adventurer dreamless rest dreary disrelish droll incongruity droning world drowsy tranquillity dubious success ductile language dulcet tone dull aversion dumb surprise dumbfounded amazement durable impression dusky obscurity dutiful compliance dynamic energy dynastic insolence E eager animosity early servitude earnestly espoused earthly splendor easy garrulity [garrulity = excessive talkativeness] eccentric casuists [casuistry = excessively subtle reasoning intended to mislead] ecclesiastical rule echoless silence economic absurdity ecstatically happy edifying exhortation educational enterprise effective embellishment effectual stimulus effeminate grace effervescent multitude effete aristocracy efficacious power efficient education efflorescent style [efflorescent = bursting into flower] effulgent daybeams [effulgent = radiating light] egoistic sentiment egregious mistake [egregious = outrageously reprehensible] ejaculatory prayer elaborate composition elastic ductility electric effluvium [effluvium = invisible emanation; an aura] elegant mediocrity elemental emotions elephantine footsteps elevated enjoyment elfish grace eloquent refutation elusive charm emancipating labors embarrassing variety embellished truths embittered gaze emblazoned pinnacles embryo enterprise emerald scintillations eminent nonentity emotional warmth emotive power emphatic earnestness empirical corroboration empty phraseology emulative zeal enamored troubadour enchanted garden encircling embrace endearing appellation [appellation = name, title; act of naming] endless dissertation enduring charm energetic enthusiasm enervating humility [enervating = weaken or destroy the strength] enfeebled activity enforced silence engaging affability engendered feelings engrossing purpose engulfing waters enhanced reputation enigmatical silence enlightened solicitude enlivened monotony ennobling personality enormously outbalanced enraptured attention enriched experience entangled subject enthralling charm enthusiastic adherents enticing odors entire domain entrancing sadness enveloping presence envenomed attacks enviable superiority environing conditions ephemeral duration [ephemeral = markedly short-lived] epicurean taste epigrammatic sallies [epigrammatic = terse and witty] equable composure equally efficacious equitably governed equivocal compliment erotic poem errant thoughts erratic flight erroneous assumption erudite labors [erudite = having or showing profound knowledge] eruptive violence esoteric doctrine especial pleasure essential prerequisite estimable qualities eternal hostility ethereal azure ethical wisdom euphuistic affectations [euphuistic = affected elegance of language] evanescent glances [evanescent = vanishing like vapor] evangelic doctrine evasive answer eventful circumstance eventual failure everlasting mysteries everyday reality evident authority evil necromancy [necromancy = communicating with the dead to predict the future; black magic; sorcery] eviscerating shrieks exact antithesis exacting taskmaster exaggerated estimate exalted imagination exasperating coolness exceedingly acceptable excellent discernment exceptional magnitude excessive zeal excitable temperament exclusive pursuit excretory secretion excruciating accents excursive fancy execrable villainy [execrable = hateful; extremely inferior; very bad] executive efficiency exemplary conduct exhaustless energy exhilarating charm exoteric scorn [exoteric = easily comprehensible; popular; outside] exotic appearance expansive benevolence expectant throng expeditionary force expeditiously secreted experimental suggestion expiatory sacrifices explicit injunction explosive violence expressionless visage expressive lineaments [lineaments = distinctive shape, especially of the face] exquisite tact extemporaneous effusion extended magnitude extenuating circumstance external cheerfulness extraneous ideas extraordinary vivacity extravagant caprice extremely picturesque exuberant mirth exultant condition F facetious mood facile criticism factitious propensity faded magnificence faintly sinister faithfully perpetuated fallacious hopes false illusions faltering tongue familiar sacredness famished voracity fanatical admiration fanciful alliance fantastic display farcical expedient far-reaching influence fascinating illusiveness fashioned symmetrically fastidious taste fatal disclosure fatalistic belief fathomless powers fatiguing assertion fattening servitude fatuous pedantry [pedantry = attention to detail or rules] faultless taste favorable augury fawning flatteries fearful imprecations fearless integrity feasible mode feeble dribble feigned reluctance felicitous expression feminine capriciousness ferocious foe fertile fancy fervent invocation fervid enthusiasm festive illuminations fetid dampness fettered tyranny feverish bewilderment fickle fancy fictitious pretext fidgety impatience fierce resentment fiery indignation figurative eloquence filial tenderness final enthronement fine sensibilities finished artistry fireside delights fitful desire fitting opportunity fizzing flame flaccid faith flagging popularity flagitious attack [flagitious = extremely brutal or cruel crimes; vicious; infamous] flagrant boasting flamboyant brilliancy flaming zeal flashing wit flat denial flattering aspect flaunting insolence flawless constitution fleecy clouds fleeting intimation flickering conscience flighty obstinacy flimsy organization flippant ease floating blackness florid oratory [florid = ornate; flowery] flowery circumlocution flowing imagery fluctuating light fluent sophist fluffy indignation fluid ideas flushed embarrassment fluttering laugh focused attention foggy notion fond enthusiast foolish frenzy forbearing silence forbidding air forceful audacity foregone conclusion foremost opponent forensic orator forest stillness forgotten graveyard forlorn desolation formal acquiescence formidable barrier formless jottings formulated conclusions fortified selfishness fortuitous circumstance foul calumny [calumny = maliciously lying to injure a reputation] fragile form fragmentary facts fragrant reminiscence frail craft frank admiration frantic ardor fraternal pity freakish humor freeborn soul freezing disdain frenzied haste frequent digression fresh impetus freshening breeze fretful discontent friendly familiarity frightened sense frightful apparition frigid disdain frisky lightness frivolous expedient frolicsome extravagance frozen wonder fructifying thought [fructifying = make fruitful or productive] fruitful indignation fruitless repining fugitive thoughts full plenitude fulsome praise fumbling endeavor functional disparity fundamental principles funereal gloom furious invective [invective = abusive language] furrowed cheeks furtive glance fussy enthusiasms futile babble G gabbling reminiscences [gabbling = speak rapidly or incoherently; jabber] galling thought galvanic jumpings gaping chasm garbled information garish decorations garnered experience gathering gloom gaudy embellishments gaunt specter gay defiance general acclamation generative influence generic characteristics generous abundance genial tolerance genteel parlance gentle blandishments [blandishments = coax by flattery] gentlemanly personage genuine cynicism geological enigma geometrical progression germinal idea ghastly loneliness ghostly apparitions giant height giddy pleasure gifted intelligence gigantic sagacity [sagacity = discerning, sound in judgment; wisdom.] girlish sprightliness gladdening influence gladiatorial exercise gladsome glow glaring impropriety glassy smoothness gleaming escutcheon [escutcheon = shield-shaped emblem bearing a coat of arms] gleeful spirit glibly condoned gliding measures glimmering idea glistening dewdrop glittering epigram gloomy musing glorious freedom glossed faults glowering countenance glowing anticipations gnawing thoughts godlike independence golden opportunity good-humored gibes gorgeous splendor gossiping opinion governing impulse graceful demeanor gracious immunity graduated sequence grandiose nomenclature graphic portrayal grasping credulity gratuitous rudeness grave reticence greedy grasp gregarious humanity grievously mistaken grim swiftness grinding despotism grinning ghosts griping fascination grizzled warrior gross exaggeration grotesque perversion groundless fear groveling servility growing tension grudging thanks grumbling monotone guileless zeal gullible humanity gurgling brooks gushing enthusiasm gusty clamor guttural incoherence gymnastic agility H habitual deference hackneyed statement hairbreadth difference halcyon innocence [halcyon = tranquil; prosperous; golden] hallowed stillness halting praise hampered power handsomely recompensed haphazard ostentation happy intuition harassing anxiety hardened indifference harmless mirth harmonious grace harrowing details harsh jarrings hasty generalization hateful malignity haughty composure haunting despair hazardous enterprise hazy recollection headlong vehemence healthful vitality heartfelt amity heartless perfidy [perfidy = breach of faith; treachery] heartrending outcry hearty contempt heated discussion heathen hordes heavenly ecstasies heavy handicap hectic tittering hectoring rant heedless love heightened charm heinous enormity helpless innocence herculean monster hereditary arrogance heretical opinions hermetically sealed heroic fortitude hesitating courage heterogeneous mass hidden pitfalls hideous phantom high-flying theories highly meritorious hilarious outburst hillside mist hissing murmur historic edifice hoarded vengeance hoary antiquity hollow joys homebred virtues homeless wind homely pathos homespun play homicidal mania homogeneous whole honest admiration honeyed eloquence hooligan wind hopelessly befogged horrible swiftness horrid significance hortatory moonshine hospitable courtesy hostile partizan hot frenzy hovering presence howling chaos huddled faculties huge aspiration human derelict humanitarian impulse humbly propitiating [propitiating = appeasing] humdrum inconsistencies humid luster humiliating discomfiture humorless variety humorous urbanity hungry satisfaction hurrying years hurtful indulgence hushed laughter husky shrillness hybrid emotions hypnotic fascination hypochondriacal terrors hypocritical pretense hysterical agitation I iconoclastic attitude icy smile idealistic type identical mode idiomatic propriety idiotic obstinacy idle jesting idolatrous fervor idyllic nonsense ignoble domination ignominious retreat ill-concealed impatience illiberal superstition illimitable progression illiterate denizens illogical interruption illuminating insight illusive touch illustrative anecdote illustrious era imaginative warmth imbittered controversy immaterial connection immature dissent immeasurable scorn immediate abjuration [abjuration = renounce under oath] immemorial bulwark immense complacency imminent perplexities immitigable contempt immoderate grief immortal creation immovably silent immutable law impaired prestige impalpable nothingness impartial justice impassable serenity impassioned impulse impatient yearning impeccable felicity impecunious exile impelling movement impending fate impenetrable calmness imperative necessity imperceptible deviation imperfect equipment imperial authority imperious mind [imperious = arrogantly domineering or overbearing] imperishable renown impersonal compliment impertinent drollery imperturbable gravity impetuous zeal impious defiance impish humor implacable resentment implicit faith implied concealment implored pardon imponderable air important epoch importunate questions [importunate = insistent request] imposing mien [mien = manner revealing a state of mind; appearance or aspect] impossible contingency impotent desperation impoverished age impracticable obstinacy impregnable fortress impressionistic stroke imprisoning limitations improbable conjecture impromptu utterance improvising powers imprudent indebtedness impudent knowingness impulsive gratitude inaccessible dignity inadequate appreciation inadmissible expression inadvertent remark inalienable right inanimate existence inapposite blandness [inapposite = inappropriate or misapplied nature] inaptly designated inarticulate lispings inaugural discourse inborn refinement inbred taste incalculable mischief incarnate hate incendiary opinions incessant volume incidental duty incipient fancy incisive critic incoherent loquacity [loquacity = very talkative] incommunicable gift incomparable excellence incompletely apprehended inconceivable absurdity incongruous contrast inconsiderable trifle inconsistent conduct inconsolable cares incontestable inference incontrovertible proof incorrigible merriment incorruptible constancy increasing clamor incredible swiftness indecent saturnalia [saturnalia = unrestrained revelry; an orgy] indecorously amused indefatigable diligence [indefatigable = tireless] indefeasible title [indefeasible = cannot be annulled] indefinable reluctance indefinite yearning indelible obligation indelicate impetuosity indented outline independent research indescribably lugubriou [lugubriou = exaggerated gloom] indestructible atoms indeterminable value indifferent promise indigenous growth indignant denunciation indirect interrogation indiscriminate censure indispensable requisites indisputable chronicler indissoluble compact indistinct association individual valor indivisible aspects indolent neglect indomitable pride indubitable signs indulgent construction indwelling delight ineffable disdain ineffaceable incongruity [ineffaceable = indelible] ineffectual blandishment ineradicable coquetry inestimable honor inevitable corollary inexcusable laughter inexhaustible abundance inexorable authority [inexorable = incapable of being persuaded] inexplicable reluctance inexpressible benignity inextricable confusion infallible judgment infamous pretense infantile simplicity infectious hilarity infelicitous arrangement inferential method infernal machinations infinite deference infinitesimal gradations infirm purpose inflamed curiosity inflated optimism inflexible integrity influential voice informing feature infuriated demagogues ingenious trick inglorious victory ingrained love ingratiating exterior inharmonious prelude inherent dignity inherited anxieties inimitable felicity iniquitous fortune initiatory period injudicious yielding injured conceit inky blackness inmost recesses innate forbearance inner restlessness innocent amenities innocuous desuetude [desuetude = state of disuse or inactivity] innovating spirit inoffensive copiousness inopportune condition inordinate ambition inquisitional rack inquisitive observer insatiable vanity inscrutable austerity insecure truce insensate barbarism insensibly flattered inseparably associated insidious tendency insignificant blot insincere profession insinuatingly pursued insipid tameness insistent babel insolent placidity insoluble riddles inspiring achievement inspiriting spectacle instant readiness instantaneous cessations instinctive disapproval insufferably dull insufficient appeal insular strength insulting invectives [invective = abusive language] insuperable difficulty insurmountable obstacles intangible something integral element intellectual integrity intelligent adaptation intemperate scorn intense perplexity intensive cultivation intentional garbling interior spirit interlocking directorate intermediate link interminable question intermingled gloom intermittent threats internal dissension interpolated speech interpretative criticism interwoven thread intimately allied intolerably tedious intoxicating hum intractable temper intrenched privilege intrepid dexterity intricate interlacings intriguing braggart intrinsic fecundity [fecundity = productive or creative power] intrusive brightness intuitive perception invaluable composition invariable kindness inveighing incessantly [inveighing = angry disapproval] inventive jealousy inveterate antipathy invidious mention [invidious = rousing ill will or resentment] invigorating discipline invincible optimism inviolable confidence involuntary yearnings involuted sentences [involuted = intricate; complex] involved pomposity invulnerable solemnity inward disinclination irascible doggedness irate remonstrance iridescent sheen irksome task iron resolution ironic iciness irradiating spirit irrational awe irreclaimable dead irreconcilable parting irrecoverably lost irrefragable laws [irrefragable = indisputable] irrefutable argument irregular constellations irrelevant suggestion irremediable sorrow irreparable injury irrepressible excitement irreproachable exterior irresistible will irresponsible gossip irretrievable blunder irreverent audacity irreversible facts irrevocable verdict irritable impatience isolated splendor J jaded sensibility jagged outline jarring discord jaundiced opinion jaunty confidence jealous animosity jesting allusion jingling alliteration jocular mirth jocund host [jocund = sprightly; lighthearted] jostling confusion jovial fancy joyful alacrity joyous stagnation jubilant antagonist judicial impartiality judicious candor just rebuke juvenile attempt K kaleidoscopic pictures keen insight kindled enthusiasm kindly innocence kindred sympathies kingly generosity knavish conduct knightly achievement known disingenuousness [ingenuous = frank; candid.] L labored levity labyrinthian windings lacerated feelings lachrymose monotony lackadaisical manner laconic force lagging footsteps lamentable helplessness languid impertinence large receptivity lashing scorn latent conviction laudable zeal laughable absurdity lavish liberality lawless freedom lazy acquiescence leaden steps leaping ambition learned gravity leering smile legal perspicacity [perspicacity = perceptive, discerning] legendary associations legislative enactment legitimate inference leisurely composure lengthening shadows leonine powers lethargic temperament lettered coxcomb [coxcomb = conceited dandy; jester's cap] liberal contemplations lifeless imbecility lifelong adherence lightless eyes lightly disregard lightning glare limpid twilight lingering tenderness linguistic attainments liquid eloquence lisping utterance listening reverence listless apathy literal exactness literary research lithe contortions little idiosyncrasies lively susceptibility livid lightning living manifestation loathsome oppression local busybody loftiest aspirations logical precision lone magnificence longing fancy looming probabilities loquacious assurances [loquacious = very talkative] lordly abhorrence loud vociferation [vociferation = cry out loudly, especially in protest] lounging gait loutish rudeness lovingly quizzical lowering aspects lowest degradation loyal adhesion lucid treatment lucrative profession ludicrous incongruity lugubrious question [lugubrious = mournful, dismal, gloomy] lukewarm repentance lumbering gaiety luminous interpretation lurid picturesqueness lurking suspicion lustrous surface luxuriant richness lying equivocations M maddening monotony magic fascination magisterial emphasis magnanimous concessions magnetic fascination magnificent florescence magniloquent diction [magniloquent = extravagant in speech] maidenly timidity main ramifications majestic dignity maladjusted marriages malevolent ingenuity malicious aspersions malign influence malodorous gentility manageable proportions mangled arguments manifest reluctance manifold functions manly reticence mantling smile [mantling = cover with a mantle; concealing] manual dexterity manufactured melancholy marked individuality marketable commodity marshaled hosts martial footsteps marvelous lucidity masculine power masked expression massive strength master achievement matchless charm material misconception maternal solicitude mathematical precision matrimonial alliance matured reflection maudlin sentimentalism [maudlin = tearfully sentimental] mawkish insipidity maximum intensity meager evidence mean trickeries meaningless confusion measured cadence mechanical handicraft meditatively silent meek ambition melancholy musing mellifluous eloquence [mellifluous = flowing with sweetness or honey] mellow refinement melodious platitudes melodramatic resource melting mood memorable experience menacing attitude mendacious tongue [mendacious = false; untrue] mendicant pilgrim [mendicant = beggar] mental metamorphosis mercenary view merchantable literature merciful insensibility merciless censor mercurial temperament mere generalization meretricious allurements [meretricious = plausible but false] meridian splendor merited ridicule merry jest metallic immobility metaphysical obscurity meteoric splendors methodical regularity metrical exactness microscopic minuteness mighty animosity mild rejoinder militant struggles military autocracy millennial reign mimic gestures minatory shadow [minatory = menacing or threatening] mincing precision mingled decorousness miniature imitations minor impulses minute consideration miraculous profusion mirroring lake mirthful glance mischievous effusion miserable musings misleading notion misshapen oddities misspent strength mistaken assumption mistrustful superiority misty depression mitigating circumstances mobile countenance mock seriousness modest cheerfulness modified sentiment moldy doctrines mollifying conditions [mollifying = calming; soothing] momentary discomfiture momentous pause monarchial institutions monastic austerity monotonous sameness monstrous absurdity monumental structure moody silence moonlight witchery moral obliquity [obliquity = deviation or aberration] morbid imagination mordant wit moribund mediocrities mortal affront mortified coldness motley appearance mountainous inequalities mournful magnificence mouthing amplitude muddled opinion muddy inefficiency muffled detonations mullioned windows [mullioned = vertical member dividing a window] multifarious activity multiform truth multiple needs multitudinous details mundane importance mural decorations murderous parody murky recesses musical diapason [diapason = full, rich outpouring of harmonious sound] mute insensibility mutinous thoughts muttered warning mutual animosity myriad lights mysterious potency mystic meaning mythical kingdom N naive manner naked eye nameless fear narcotic effect narrowing axioms nasal drone nascent intercourse national shortcomings native incompetence natural sluggishness nauseous dose nautical venture neat refutation nebulous uncertainty necessary adjuncts necromantic power [necromancy = communicating with the dead to predict the future. Black magic; sorcery.] needless depression nefarious scheme negative approbation [approbation = warm approval; praise] negligible quantity neighboring mists nerveless hand nervous solicitude nettled opponent neutral eye new perplexities nice discrimination niggardly allowance nightmare fantasy nimble faculty noble condescension nocturnal scene nodding approval noiseless reverie noisy platitudes nomadic life nominal allegiance nonchalant manner non-committal way nondescript garb nonsense rhymes noonday splendor normal characteristics notable circumstance noteworthy friendship noticeably begrimed notoriously profligate novel signification nugatory cause [nugatory = little or no importance; trifling] numbed stillness numberless defeats numerical majority O obdurate courage [obdurate = hardened in wrongdoing] obedient compliance objectionably apologetic obligatory force obligingly expressed oblique tribute obscure intimation obsequious homage [obsequious = servile compliance; fawning] observant eye obsolete phraseology obstinate defiance obstreperous summons [obstreperous = noisily and stubbornly defiant] obtrusive neatness obvious boredom occasional flights occult sympathy ocean depth odd makeshifts odious tyranny odorous spring offensive hostility official asperity [asperity = harshness; ill temper or irritability] olfactory sense olive grayness ominous rumors omnipotent decree omniscient affirmation oncoming horde onerous cares onflaming volume opalescent sea opaque mass openly disseminated opinionated truculence [truculence = ferociously cruel behavior] opportunely contrived oppressive emptiness opprobrious epithet [opprobrious = contemptuous reproach; scornful] oracular utterance [oracular = solemnly prophetic; enigmatic; obscure] oratorical display ordinary delinquencies organic assimilation oriental spicery originally promulgated oscillatory movement ostensible occupation ostentatious display outlandish fashion outrageously vehement outspoken encouragement outstanding feature outstretching sympathies outward pomp outworn creed overbearing style overestimated importance overflowing sympathy overhanging darkness overmastering potency overpowering argument overshadowing dread overstrained enthusiasm overt act overvaulting clouds overweening sense [overweening = presumptuously arrogant; overbearing] overwhelming solicitude overworked drudge P pacific disposition painful obstinacy painstaking reticence palatable advice pallidly illumined palpable originality palpitating emotion paltry hypocrisies pampered darling panic fear panting eagerness parabolic obscureness paradoxical talker paralyzing sentimentalism paramount authority parasitical magnificence parental permission paroxysmal outburst particularly notable partizan prejudice passing panorama passionate insistence passive obedience patchwork manner patent example paternal tenderness pathetic helplessness patient endurance patriarchal visage patriotic enthusiasm peacefully propagated peculiar piquancy [piquancy = appealingly provocative; charming] pecuniary privation pedantic ineptitude [pedantic = attention to detail or rules] pedestrian vigor peerless raconteur [raconteur = skilled storyteller] peevish ingratitude pending determination penetrating warmth penitential cries penniless wanderer pensive reflections perceptible difference peremptory punishment [peremptory = ending all debate or action] perennial charm perfect embodiment perfunctory inquiries perilous expedient permanent significance pernicious doctrine perpetual oscillation perplexing problem persecuting zeal persistent adherence personal predilection [predilection = a preference] persuasive eloquence pert prig pertinacious solemnity [pertinacious = stubbornly persistent] pertinent question perusing earnestness pervading tendencies perverse quaintness pessimistic skepticism pestiferous career [pestiferous = evil or deadly; pernicious] pet aversion petrified smile petticoat diplomacy pettifogging business petty pedantries [pedantries = attention to detail or rules] phantom show philanthropic zeal philosophical acuteness phlegmatic temperament [phlegmatic = calm, sluggish; unemotional] phosphorescent shimmer photographic exactitude physical convulsion pictorial embellishments picturesque details piercing clearness pinchbeck dignity [pinchbeck = cheap imitation] pining melancholy pioneering spirit pious platitudes piquant allusions [piquant = attracting or delighting] pitiable frenzy pitiless precision pivotal point placid stupidity plainly expedient plainspoken rebuke plaintive cadence plastic mind plausible commonplaces playful wit pleasing reveries pleasurable excitement plenary argument plentiful harvest plighted word [plighted = promised by a solemn pledge] poignant clearness pointless tale poisonous counsels polished ease polite indifference political malcontent polluting taints pompous platitudes ponderous research pontifical manner popular resentment populous fertility portentous gulf positively deteriorating posthumous glory potential energy powerful stimulant practical helpfulness precarious path precautionary measure precipitous flight precise purpose precocious wisdom preconceived view predatory writers predestined spinster predominant habit pregnant hint preliminary assumption premature ripening premonitory symptoms preoccupied attention prepossessing appearance preposterous assertion prescient reflection [prescient = perceiving the significance of events before they occur] prescribed conditions presiding genius pressing necessity pretended surprise pretentious dignity preternatural sagacity [preternatural = extraordinary] [sagacity = farsighted; wise] pretty plaintiveness prevailing misconception priestly austerity primal energy prime factor [no integer factors; irreducible; 1,2,3,5,7,11...] primeval silence primordial conditions princely courtesy prismatic blush pristine dignity private contempt privileged caste prized possession problematic age prodigally lavished prodigious variety productive discipline profane denunciation professedly imitated professional garrulity [garrulity = excessive talkativeness] proffered service profitable adventure profligate expenditure profound conviction profuse generosity projected visit prolegomenous babbler [prolegomenous = preliminary discussion] prolific outpouring prolix narrative [prolix = wordy] prolonged happiness promiscuous multitude promising scions [scions = descendants] prompt courage propagandist literature propelling impulse proper punctilio [punctilio = fine point of etiquette] prophetic vision propitious moment [propitious = auspicious, favorable] proportionately vigilant proprietary sense prosaic excellence [prosaic = dull and lacking excitement] prospective success prosperity revival prostrate servility protoplasmic ancestors protracted agony proud destiny proverbial situation provincial prejudice provoked hostility prudential wisdom prurient desire prying criticism psychic processes public derision puerile fickleness [puerile = immature; childish] pugnacious defiance pulsating life punctilious care [punctilious = precise; scrupulous] pungent epigram puny dimensions purblind brutality [purblind = partly blind; slow to understanding] pure coincidence purgatorial fires puritanical primness purplish shadows purposed attempt purposeful drama pursuing fancies pusillanimous desertion [pusillanimous = cowardly] pyrotechnic outburst Q quailing culprit quaint peculiarities qualifying service quavering voice queer tolerance quenchless despair querulous disposition [querulous = habitually complaining] questionable data questioning gaze quibbling speech quick sensibility quiescent melancholy quiet cynicism quivering excitement quixotic impulse quizzical expression quondam foe [quondam = former] R racial prejudice racy humor radiant happiness radical distinction raging billows rambling looseness rampant wickedness rancorous animosities random preconceptions rank luxuriance ranting optimism rapacious speculation [rapacious = taking by force; plundering] rapid transitions rapturous adoration rare endowment rarefied humor rashly overrated rational discourse ravenous eagerness ravishing spectacle raw composition reactionary movement ready sympathy realistic portrayal reanimating ideas reasonably probable rebellious thought reciprocal influence reckless lavishness recognized authority recondite description [recondite = not easily understood; abstruse] reconstructive era recovered composure recumbent figure recurring doubt reddening dawn redoubled activity refining influence reflective habits refractory temper refreshing novelty regal countenance regretful melancholy regular recurrence relatively mild relaxed discipline relentless justice religious scruples reluctant tolerance remarkable sagacity [sagacity = wisdom] remedial measure remorseless logic remote epoch renowned achievement repeated falsification repelling vices repentant sense reprehensible action repressed ardor reproachful misgiving repulsive spectacle reputed disposition requisite expertness resentful flame resilient spirit resistless might resolute daring resonant gaiety resounding blare resourceful wickedness respectful condescension resplendent brightness responsive throb restless inquisitiveness restorative influence restricted meaning resultant limitation retaliating blows retarding influence retreating footsteps revengeful scowl reverent enthusiasm revolting cynicism revolutionary tradition rhapsodical eulogy rhetorical amplification rhythmical movements richly emblazoned righteous indignation rightful distinction rigid propriety rigorous reservation riotous clamor ripe reflection rising misgivings riveted attention robust sense rollicking mirth romantic solitudes rooted habits roseate tints rough brutality roundabout approach rousing chorus royal exultations rubicund tinge [rubicund = healthy rosiness] rude awakening rudimentary effort rueful conclusion ruffled feelings rugged austerity ruling motive rumbling hoarseness ruminating mood rural imagery rustic simplicity rustling forest ruthless commercialism S sacerdotal preeminence [sacerdotal = priestly] sacred tenderness sacrilegious violence sacrosanct fetish sadly disconcerted sagacious mind [sagacious = keen discernment, sound judgment] sage reflections saintly serenity salient feature salutary amusement sanctimonious hypocrite [sanctimonious = feigning piety] sane observer sanguinary measures [sanguinary = eager for bloodshed; bloodthirsty] sanguine expectations [sanguine = cheerfully confident; optimistic] sarcastic incredulity sardonic taciturnity [sardonic = cynically mocking] [taciturnity = habitually untalkative] satirical critic satisfying equipoise [equipoise = equilibrium] savage satirist scalding jests scandalous falsehood scant recognition scathing satire scattered distractions scholarly attainments scientific curiosity scintillating wit scoffing defiance scorching criticism scornful negligence scriptural exegesis [exegesis = Critical explanation or analysis] scrubby foreland scrupulous fidelity sculptured sphinx scurrilous blustering [scurrilous = foul-mouthed] searching eye secluded byways secret dismay sectarian sternness secure anchorage sedentary occupation seditious speaking [seditious = arousing to action or rebellion] seductive whisperings sedulously fostered [sedulously = persevering] seeming artlessness seething hate selective instinct self-conscious activity self-deprecating irony selfish vindictiveness selfsame strain senile sensualist senseless gibberish sensibly abated sensitively courteous sensuous music sententious wisdom [sententious = terse and energetic; pithy] sentimental twaddle sepulchral quiet sequestered nook seraphic promiscuousness serene triumph serious resentment serpentine curves servile obedience sesquipedalian words [sesquipedalian = long] settled dislike severe censure shabby imitation shadowy abstraction shady retirements shallow sophistry sham enthusiasm shambling gait shamed demeanor shameless injustice shapeless conformations shaping impulses sharp rebuke shattered reason sheepish look sheer boredom sheltering hypocrisy shifting panorama shimmering gaiety shining virtues shivering soul shocking rudeness shoreless sea shortening days shrewd suspicion shrewish look shrill dissonance shrunken wisp shuddering reluctance shuffling preliminaries shy obeisance sibilant oath [sibilant = producing a hissing sound] sickening jealousy sidelong glance significant symbol silent agony silken filaments silly escapades silvery sea similar amplitude simple rectitude simulated rapture simultaneous acclamation sincere hospitality singular sensitiveness sinister forebodings sinuous movements skeptical contempt skillfully maintained skulking look slackened tension slavish imitation sledge-hammer blows sleepless soul sleepy enchantment slender resource slight acceleration slovenly deportment slow stupefaction sluggish resolution slumbering stream smacking breeze small aptitude smiling repose smirking commonplace smoldering resentment smothered sob smug hypocrisy snappish impertinence sneering jibes snowy whiteness snug retreat soaring ambition sobbing wail sober melancholy social banalities sociological bearing soft allurement solemn emptiness solid knowledge solidifying substance solitary grandeur somber relations somewhat scandalized somnolent state sonorous simplicity [sonorous = full, deep, rich sound; impressive in style of speech] sophistical argument soporific emanations [soporific = inducing sleep] sordid selfishness sorely beset sorrowful resignation soulless mechanism sounding verbiage sourly ascetic sovereign panacea spacious tracklessness sparkling splendor specialized skill specific characteristics specious artifice [specious = having the ring plausibility but actually fallacious] spectral fears speculative rubbish speechless surprise speedy extinction spendthrift prodigality spirited vindication spiritual dazzlement splendid irony splenetic imagination [splenetic = ill humor or irritability] spontaneous challenge sporadic exception sportive gaiety spotless honor sprightly talk spurious enthusiasm squalid distress [squalid = Dirty and wretched; morally repulsive; sordid] squandered talent squeamish taste staggering surprise stainless womanhood stale sciolism [sciolism = superficial knowledge] stalwart defiance stammered apology starched sterility starlit eminence startling eccentricity starving proletariat stately stride statesmanlike person statistical knowledge statuesque immobility staunch manhood steadfast obedience stentorian voice [stentorian = extremely loud] stereotyped commonness sterile hatred sterling sense stern defiance stiff conceit stifled convulsions still solitudes stilted bombast stimulating impression stinging reproach stinted endowment stipulated reward stock pleasantries stoic callousness stolid obstinacy stony stare storied traditions stormy passion stout assertion straggling association straightforward logic straightway vanished strained interpretation straitened circumstance strange wistfulness strenuous insistence striking diversity stringent statement strong aversion stubborn reality studious reserve stultified mind stunning crash stupendous magnitude stupid bewilderment sturdy genuineness subaltern attitude [subaltern = secondary] subconscious conviction subduing influence sublime anticipations submissive behavior subordinate pursuit subsidiary advantage substantial agreement subterranean sunlessness subtle sophistry subversive accident successfully dispelled successive undulations succinct phrase sudden perturbation sullen submission summary vengeance sumptuously decorated superabundant energy superannuated coquette [superannuated = retired] [coquette = flirt] superb command supercilious discontent [supercilious = haughty disdain] superficial surliness superfluous precaution superhuman vigor superior skill superlative cleverness supernatural incident supine resignation suppliant posture suppressed excitement supreme exaltation surging multitude surly tone surpassing loveliness surprising intimacy surreptitious means [surreptitious = clandestine; stealthy] sustained vigor swaggering bully swampy flatness swarming population sweeping assertion sweet peaceableness swelling magnitude swift transition swinging cadence symmetrical brow sympathetic insight syncopated tune synthetic judgment systematic interaction T tacit assumption taciturn magnanimity [taciturn = habitually untalkative] tactical niceties tameless energy tangible realities tangled network tardy recognition tarnished reputation tart temper tasteful gratification tasteless insipidity tattered mendicant [mendicant = beggar] taunting accusation tawdry pretentiousness tearful sensibilities tearing gallop teasing persistency technical precision tedious formality teeming population temerarious assertion [temerarious = presumptuous; reckless] temperamental complacency tempered pathos tempestuous breeze temporary expedient tenacious memory tender solicitude tense attention tentative moment tepid conviction termagant wife [termagant = quarrelsome, scolding] terrible sublimity terrifying imprecations [imprecations = curses] terse realism testamentary document thankless task thawing laughter theological complexities thirsting ear thorny pathway thorough uprightness thoughtful silence thoughtless whim threadbare sentiment threatened wrath thrilling eloquence throbbing pride throneless monarch thronging images thundering rage thwarted impulse tideless depth tigerish stealth tightened ominously timid acquiescence tingling expectation tinkling cymbal tipsy jocularity [jocularity = given to joking] tip-toe curiosity tireless egotism tiresome braggadocio [braggadocio = pretentious bragging] titanic force toilsome pleasure tolerably comprehensive tolerant indifference tormenting thought torn asunder torpid faculties tortuous labyrinth tortured innocence totally engrossed touching pathos tousled head towering pride traceable consanguinity trackless forest traditional type tragic intensity trailing sweetness tranquil grandeur transcendent power transfiguring tints transient emotion translucent cup transmuting touch transparent complement treacherous intelligence treasured possessions trembling anxiety tremendous domination tremulous sense [tremulous = timid or fearful] trenchant phrase [trenchant = forceful, effective, vigorous] trifling superfluity trite remark triumphant boldness trivial conventionality tropical luxuriance troubled inertness trudging wayfarer trustworthy source tumultuous rapture tuneful expression turbulent times turgid appeal [turgid = excessively ornate or complex] twilight shadow twittered sleepily twofold bearing typical excellence tyrannical disposition U ubiquitous activity ugly revelation ulterior purpose ultimate sanction ultrafashionable world unabashed insolence unabated pleasure unaccountable protervity [protervity = peevishness; petulance] unaccustomed toil unadorned style unaffected pathos unaffrighted innocence unagitated abstraction unalloyed satisfaction unalterable determination unanimous acclamation unanswerable argument unapologetic air unappeasable resentment unapproached supremacy unassailable position unassuming dignity unattainable perfection unavailing consolation unavoidable propensities unballasted eloquence [unballasted = unsteady; wavering] unbeaten track unbecoming behavior unbending reserve unbiased judgment unblemished character unblinking observation unblushing iteration unbounded hospitality unbridgeable chasm unbridled fancy unbroken continuity uncanny fears unceasing variation unceremonious talk uncertain tenure unchallenged supremacy unchanging affection uncharitable ambition uncharted depths unchastised offense unclouded splendor uncomfortable doubt uncommonly attractive uncommunicable quality uncomplaining endurance uncomprehending smile uncompromising dogmatism unconcealed aversion unconditioned freedom uncongenial task unconquerable patience unconscious serenity uncontrollable delight unconventional demeanor uncounted generations uncouth gambols uncritical position unctuously belaud [unctuously = exaggerated, insincere] [belaud = praise greatly] undaunted defender undazzled eyes undefined anticipations undeniable charm underlying assumption undeviating consistency undignified peccadilloes [peccadilloes = small sin or fault] undiluted skepticism undiminished relish undimmed luster undisciplined genius undisguised amusement undismayed expression undisputed ascendency undistracted attention undisturbed silence undivided energies undoubted authenticity undue predilection [predilection = preference] undulating hills unduly troublesome undying friendship unearthly gladness uneasy craving unembarrassed scrutiny unembittered sweetness unending exactions unenlightened zealot unenvied insipidity unequaled skill unequivocally resented unerring fidelity unessential details unexampled sweetness unexhausted kindliness unexpected confidence unfailing courtesy unfaltering glance unfamiliar garb unfathomable indifference unfeigned assent unfettered liberty unflagging zest unflattering truth unflecked confidence unfledged novice [unfledged = young bird without feathers necessary to fly] unflinching zeal unfolding consciousness unforced acquiescence unforeseen vicissitudes [vicissitudes = sudden or unexpected changes] unforgivable tragedy unfounded conjecture unfulfilled longing ungainly figure ungarnished reality ungenerously resolved ungenial temperament ungovernable vehemence ungracious temper ungrudging tribute unguessed riches unhallowed threshold unhampered expression unhappy predecessor unheeded beauties unheroic measure unhesitating faith unhindered flight unholy triumph uniform blending unimaginable bitterness unimpassioned dignity unimpeachable sentiment unimpeded activity uninstructed critic uninterrupted process unique personality universal reprobation [reprobation = condemned to hell; severe disapproval] unjust depreciation unknown appellations [appellation = name, title, or designation] unlettered laborer unlikely contingency unlimited opulence unlucky dissembler unmanly timidity unmastered possibility. unmeaning farce unmeasured hostility unmellowed dawn unmelodious echoes unmerciful plundering unmingled consent unmistakably fabulous unmitigated gloom unmixed astonishment unmodified passion unmurmuring sea unnecessary platitudes unnumbered thousands unobtrusive deference unostentatious display unpalatable truth unparalleled atrocities unpardonable error unphilosophical dreamer unpleasant excrescence [excrescence = abnormal enlargement] unprecedented advance unprejudiced intelligence unpretentious character unprincipled violence unprofitable craft unpurchasable luxury unqualified submission unquenchable tenderness unquestionable genius unquestioning fate unreasonable pretense unreasoning distrust unredeemable forfeit unrefreshing sameness unrelaxing emphasis unrelenting spirit unremembered winter unremitting toil unrepining sadness unreproved admiration unrequited love unresentful disposition unreserved assent unresisted authority unresolved exceptions unresponsive gloom unresting speed unrestrained anger unrestricted ease unrivaled distinction unruffled concord unsatisfied yearning unscrupulous adventurer unseasonable apology unseemly mirth unselfish fidelity unsettled trait unshakable foundation unshrinking determination unslackened volubility [volubility = ready flow of speech; fluent] unsophisticated youth unsparing abuse unspeakable delight unspiritual tone unspoiled goodness unstinted praise unsullied virtue unsurpassed purity unswerving integrity untameable energy unthinkable hypothesis untiring energy untold calamity untoward circumstances [untoward = improper] untrammeled expression untrodden woodland untroubled repose untuneful phrase untutored mind unusual audacity unutterable sadness unvarnished feeling unwarranted limitation unwasting energies unwavering allegiance unwearied diligence unwelcome alliance unwieldy bulk unwilling homage unwittingly mingled unwonted kindness [unwonted = unusual] unworldly foolishness unworthy alliance unyielding nature uproarious laughter upstart pretensions useless fripperies [fripperies = pretentious, showy] utmost scorn V vacant stupidity vacillating obedience vacuous ease vagabondish spirit vagrant wandering vaguely discursive vain contemplation vainglorious show valid objection valuable acquisition valueless assertion vampire tongue vanished centuries vantage ground vapid generalities [vapid = lacking liveliness, interest; dull] variable temperament variegated career [variegated = varied] vast advantage veering purpose vehement panting veiled insolence velvety lawn venerable placidity venomous passion veracious journals [veracious = honest; truthful; accurate; precise] verbal audacities verbose manner verdant hope verifiable facts veritable triumph vernacular expression vernal charm [vernal = resembling spring; fresh; youthful] versatile grace vexatious circumstances vicarious virtue vigilant sensibility vigorous invective [invective = abusive language] vile desecrater villainous inconsistency vindictive sentiment violent agitation virgin grace virile leadership virtual surrender virtuous disdain virulent prejudice visible embarrassment visionary dreamer vital interpretation vitiated taste [vitiated = reduce the value; corrupt morally] vitriolic sneer vivacious excitement vivid portrayal vociferous appeal voiceless multitude volatile fragrance volcanic suddenness voluble prose [voluble = ready flow of speech; fluent] voluminous biography voluntary relinquishment voracious animosity votive wreath vulgar prosperity vulnerable foe W wabbling enterprise [wabbling = wobbling] waggishly sapient [sapient = wise] wailing winds wandering fancy waning popularity wanton butchery warbling lute warlike trappings warning prophecy warped purpose warranted interference wasteful prodigality wavering courage waxwork sex wayward fancy weakly imaginative wearisome wordiness wedded incompatibility weighty argument weird fascination welcoming host well-turned period weltering current whimsical touch whirling confusion whirring loom whispering breeze whistling winds whited sepulcher wholesome aspirations wholly commendable wicked ingratitude wide signification widespread acclaim wild extravagance willful waywardness willing allegiance willowy nothingness wily antagonist winding pilgrimage windowless soul winged fancies winking stars winning plaintiveness winsome girlhood wise dissertations wistful entreaty withering scorn witnessing approval witty expedient wizard influence woebegone countenance woeful weariness wolfish tendency womanlike loveliness wonderful affluence wonted activity [wonted = usual] wordy warfare worthy achievement wounded avarice wrathful pugnacity wretched effeminacy wriggling disputant writhing opponent Y yawning space yearning tenderness yielding disposition youthful ambition Z zealous devotion zigzag method zoologically considered SECTION II SIGNIFICANT PHRASES A abashed and ashamed abhorrence and repulsion abilities and attainments abject and hopeless ably and vigorously abrupt and perilous absolute and eternal absorbed and occupied abstinence and self-denial abstract and metaphysical absurd and impertinent abundant and sustained abuse and slander accentual and rhythmic accidental and temporary accomplished and popular accurate and illuminating achievement and character acquisition and possession active and aggressive actual and immediate acute and painful admirable and accomplished adorned and amplified adroitness and judgment adventurous and prodigal advice and assistance affable and courteous affectation and coquetry affectionate and warm-hearted affluent and exuberant affright and abhorrence agencies and influences ages and generations aggrandizement and plunder agreeable and ingenuous aggressive and sullen aghast and incredulous agility and briskness agitate and control agony and despair aids and auxiliaries aim and purpose airy and frivolous alarm and uneasiness alert and unsparing all and sundry allegiance and fidelity alone and undistracted alterations and additions amazement and admiration ambiguity and disagreement ambition and determination amiable and unpretending ample and admirable amusing and clever analytical and critical anarchy and chaos ancient and venerable anecdote and reminiscence anger and fury anguish and hopelessness animated and effective anomalies and absurdities antagonism and opposition antipathies and distastes antiquated and obsolete anxiety and trepidation apathy and torpor apologetic and uneasy appalling and devastating apparent and palpable appearance and surroundings apprehensive and anxious appropriate and eloquent approve and admire apt and novel archness and vivacity [archness = inappropriate playfulness] ardent and aspiring argument and inference arid and unprofitable arrangement and combination arrogant and overbearing artificial and elaborate artistic and literary artlessness and urbanity ashamed and speechless aspects and phases aspiring and triumphal assiduity and success assimilated and combined assuaged and pacified astonished and curious astound and perplex athletic and nimble atonement and forgiveness atrocious and abominable attacks and intrigues attention and respect attitudes and expressions attractiveness and ability audacity and skill august and splendid austere and icy available and capable avarice and cruelty avidity and earnestness [avidity = desire; craving] awake and active awe and reverence awkwardness and crudity B babel and confusion backbone and sinew baffled and disappointed balanced and forceful barbarity and wickedness bards and sages base and unworthy beam and blaze bearing and address beautiful and majestic bedraggled and disappointed befogged and stupefied beliefs and practises bellowing and shouting benevolence and candor benign and hopeful bent and disposition benumbed and powerless bewildered and stupefied bigots and blockheads billing and cooing birth and breeding bite and sting bits and scraps bitter and disdainful black and solitary bland and ingenious blasphemous and profane bleak and unrelenting blend and harmonize blessing and benediction blind and unreasoning blundering and plundering blurred and confused bluster and vulgarity boast and assertion bold and haughty bombast and egotism bone and sinew boundless and unlimited bourgeois and snobbish brag and chatter bravado and cowardice brave and chivalrous breathless and reverential brevity and condensation bribery and corruption brief and pithy bright and vivacious brilliancy and grace brisk and enlivening broad and deep brooding and solemn brutal and degrading bulks and masses bungling and trifling businesslike and practicable bustle and business C cajoled and bullied calamity and sorrow callous and impervious calmness and composure calumny and exaggeration [calumny = maliciously lying to injure a reputation] candor and kindness cant and hypocrisy [cant = hypocritically pious language] capable and efficient capacity and ability capricious and unreasonable career and occupation cares and anxieties carping and ungenerous casual and transient causes and circumstances cautious and reticent celebrated and praised celerity and violence [celerity = swiftness of action] ceremony and splendor certain and verifiable chafe and exasperate chagrin and despondency chance and opportunity change and variety chaos and confusion character and temperament characteristic and complete charges and insinuations charm and perfection chaste and refined cheap and convenient checked and thwarted cheerfulness and gaiety cherish and guard chief and paramount chilled and stiffened choleric and sanguine [choleric = easily angered; bad-tempered] [sanguine = cheerfully confident; optimistic] churlishness and violence [churlish = boorish or vulgar] citation and allusion civility and communicativeness civilized and cultured clamorous and wild claptrap and platitude clarity and straightforwardness classical and perspicuous [perspicuous = easy to understand] clatter and clang clear and decisive cleverness and acuteness clogged and dulled clumsy and smudgy coarse and grotesque coaxed and threatened coexistent and correlative cogent and conclusive cohesion and sequence cold and unemotional comely and vivacious comfort and security command and threaten common and familiar commotion and annoyance compact and complete comparison and discrimination compass and power competent and experienced complaints and imprecations [imprecation = a curse] complaisance and readiness complete and permanent complex and various composure and gracefulness comprehensive and accurate compression and pregnancy conceal and deny conceit and impertinence conceived and consummated concentrated and intensified conception and treatment concern and wonder concise and emphatic concrete and definite condemned and upbraided conditions and limitations confession and doubt confidence and loyalty confusion and dismay congratulations and welcomings connection and interdependence conquered and transformed conquest and acquisition consciously and purposely consistent and harmonious conspicuous and impressive conspired and contrived constant and intimate constructive and vital contemn and decry [contemn = despise] contempt and indignation contentment and serenity continuous and undeviating contorted and fantastic contradictions and inconsistencies contrast and comparison contrivance and disguise conventional and limited cool and indifferent copiousness and vivacity cordial and cheerful corruption and decay costly and gorgeous counselor and guide countless and indescribable courage and endurance courted and feted courteous and sympathetic coveted and deserved coy and furtive cramped and distorted creative and inventive credulity and ignorance creeds and dogmas crime and misdemeanor crippled and maimed crises and struggles crisp and sparkling critical and skeptical crowded and jostled crowned and sceptered crude and primitive cruel and rapacious crumbling and shapeless crushed and bewildered cultured and refined cumbrous and diffuse [cumbrous = cumbersome] cunning and cruelty curious and inexpressible curved and channeled customs and manners cynical and contemptuous D dangers and pitfalls daring and resolute dark and starless dart and quiver dashing and careless dates and details dazzled and confounded debased and demoralized debilitating and futile decencies and restraints deception and cruelty decided and definite declamation and delivery decline and decay deductions and inferences deep and subtle deface and injure defame and tarnish deference and concession defiant and antagonistic deficient and unskilled definite and memorable deft and offensive degraded and dishonored deliberate and effective delicate and lambent [lambent = effortlessly brilliant] delight and consolation delusion and trickery demands and expectations demeanor and conduct demoralizing and enfeebling denial and defense dense and luminous denunciations and censures deplorable and baneful depravity and frivolity depressing and discouraging depth and richness derision and skepticism described and classified desecration and decay designs and activities desires and motives desolation and wretchedness despatch and resolution desperation and defiance despise and satirize despoiled and destroyed despondency and melancholy despotism and coercion destitution and misery desultory and slipshod [desultory = haphazardly; random] detached and isolated determined and courageous detestable and intolerable development and culture devoted and unwavering dictatorial and insolent diction and pronunciation differences and disputes difficult and arduous diffidence and constraint diffuseness and warmth dignified and austere digressive and wanton dilatory and hesitating [dilatory = postpone or delay] diligent and sedulous [sedulous = persevering ] dim and distant din and traffic directed and controlled disagreeable and painful disappointed and abashed disapprobation and condemnation [approbation = warm approval; praise] disapproval and apprehension discipline and development discomfiture and degradation disconcerted and dismayed discontent and disquiet discords and differences discouraging and distressing discovery and invention discretion and moderation disdain and mockery disfigured and shapeless disgrace and ruin disgust and dismay dishonor and ruin disillusioned and ironical disintegration and decay disinterested and gracious disjointed and voluble [voluble = fluent] dislike and disdain dislocation and chaos dismay and apprehension dispirit and discourage disposition and power disquietude and uneasiness dissolute and hateful dissolve and disappear distant and diverse distended and distorted distinctive and appropriate distinguishing and differentiating distress and humiliation distrust and aversion disturbed and anxious diverging and contracting docile and obedient dogma and ritual dominant and permanent dormant and subdued doubt and trepidation dramatic and sensational drastic and revolutionary dread and terror dreams and ambitions dreariness and desolation dregs and sediments drill and discipline driveling and childish drollery and ridicule drooping and disconsolate dubious and dangerous dull and spiritless dumb and nerveless dupe and victim duplicity and equivocation dust and oblivion duties and difficulties dwarfed and obscured dwindle and disappear E eagerness and ecstasy earnestness and animation ease and lightness ebb and flow eclectic and assimilated edifying and enchanting education and skill effective and competent efficiency and success egotism and bigotry elaboration and display elation and delight elegance and gentility elementary and simple elevate and ennoble eligibility and suitableness elongated and narrow eloquent and expressive elusive and exquisite embarrassed and concerned embittered and despairing embodiment and actualization emerged and flowered eminent and remarkable emoluments and honors [emoluments = compensation] emotion and passion emphasize and magnify employment and profession encouragement and stimulus energy and activity enfeebled and exhausted enfold and enwrap engulfed and buried enjoyment and satisfaction enlightenment and progress enraptured and amazed enriched and ennobled enslave and dominate enterprising and intelligent entertaining and diverting enthusiasm and zeal enticing and alluring entire and complete environment and training envy and despair ephemeral and feeble [ephemeral = markedly short-lived] episodes and interludes epithet and description equality and solidarity equity and justice erratic and confused errors and infirmities essential and predominating estimable and agreeable eternal and sublime ethical and religious ever and anon evident and manifest exactitude and completeness exaggerate and distort exaltation and enthusiasm examination and comparison examples and models exasperations and paroxysms [paroxysms = outbursts of emotion or action] excellent and worthy exceptional and remarkable excessive and unreasonable excitable and irritable exclusive and limited excusable and justifiable execration and defiance [execration = curse] exertion and excitement exhaustion and fatigue exhibition and display exhilarating and beneficial exigency and requirement [exigency = urgent situation] expansive and digressive expediency and utility expensive and unprofitable experience and skill experiment and explorations expert and vigorous explanation and elucidation explore and examine expressions and exclamations expressive and effective exquisite and powerful extent and importance extraordinary and unexpected extravagant and grotesque extreme and morbid exuberant and infectious F fabulous and fabricated facile and brilliant facts and traditions faculties and powers faded and withered failures and misadventures faint and obscure fair and impartial faith and reverence fallacy and danger false and fugitive fame and fortune familiar and gracious famous and foremost fancies and sentiments fanciful and chimerical [chimerical = highly improbable] fantastic and meretricious [meretricious = plausible but false] fascination and awe fashion and frivolity fastidious and exacting fatigued and careworn faults and delusions favors and kindnesses fear and bewilderment feasible and practical feebleness and folly feeling and passion felicitous and exquisite ferocious and mercenary fertility and vigor fervor and simplicity feverishly and furiously fickle and uncertain fidelity and zeal fierce and menacing fiery and controversial final and irreversible finish and completeness firm and decisive first and foremost fitful and capricious fitting and appropriate fixity and finality flaming and mendacious [mendacious = lying; untruthful] flare and flicker flatness and insipidity flattery and toadyism flexible and spontaneous flickering and ambiguous flighty and impetuous flippant and contemptuous florid and healthy [florid = ornate; flowery] flotsam and jetsam flow and fullness flowery and figurative fluctuating and transitory fluency and flippancy fluttering and restless focus and concentrate fogs and complications foibles and follies foiled and defeated folly and indecorum fools and underlings force and effectiveness formal and cold formidable and profound formlessness and exaggeration fortitude and perseverance foul and ominous fragile and pale fragments and morsels fragrance and beauty frailties and absurdities frank and genial free and independent frequent and poignant freshness and fragrance fretful and timorous friend and benefactor frigid and pompous frivolous and empty froth and effervescence frustrated and confounded fuddled and contradictory full and sonorous fumbling and blundering fuming and bustling fun and satire function and aim fundamental and necessary furrowed and ragged furtive and illusive fury and madness fussing and fuming futile and untrustworthy G gaiety and grace gallant and proud galling and humiliating gaunt and ghastly gay and genial general and universal generosity and prodigality generous and humane genial and refreshing genius and reputation gentle and amiable genuine and infectious germ and root gesticulation and emphasis [gesticulation = deliberate, vigorous motion or gesture] ghastly and inconceivable gifts and graces gigantic and portentous glamour and fascination glare and pretension glib and loquacious [loquacious = very talkative] glitter and glamour gloomy and morose glorious and gorgeous glowing and exaggerated glum and grim goodness and rectitude goodwill and merriment gorgeousness and splendor gossiping and grumbling govern and overrule grace and dignity gracious and generous gradual and progressive graft and dishonesty grand and sublime grandeur and massiveness grandiose and oracular [oracular = solemnly prophetic; obscure] graphic and gorgeous gratification and enjoyment gratitude and generosity gratuitous and ungracious grave and stately graveyards and solitudes greatness and stability greed and covetousness grief and remorse grim and sullen grimaces and gesticulations grope and fumble grossness and brutality grotesque and monstrous grouped and combined growth and development guesses and fancies guidance and inspiration gush and hysteria gusto and effect H habits and humors habitual and intuitive hackneyed and tawdry haggard and pale handsome and amiable haphazard and dangerous happiness and pleasantness harass and pursue hard and unsparing hardships and indignities harmony and beauty harsh and austere hasty and unwarranted hateful and loathsome haughtiness and arrogance hauteur and disdain [hauteur = arrogance] hazard and peril hazy and indefinite headstrong and foolish healthy and vigorous hearth and shrine heartless and hypocritical heat and impatience heaviness and weariness hecklings and interruptions hectic and pitiful heretics and schismatics heritage and privilege heroism and wisdom hesitation and irresolution hideous and grotesque high and conscientious hilarity and mirth hints and suggestions history and tradition hither and thither hoarse and rumbling hobbies and eccentricities hollowness and unreality holy and prayerful homeliness and simplicity honestly and confessedly honors and emoluments [emoluments = compensation] hooted and mobbed hopes and prospects horror and ghastliness hospitality and magnificence hubbub and confusion huge and unwieldy humane and sympathetic humility and devoutness humors and singularities hurry and bustle hushed and still husks and phantoms hypocrisy and impudence I ideas and achievements idle and presumptuous ignoble and shabby ignominy and misfortune ignorance and superstition illiterate and unfit ill-tempered and unjust illuminative and suggestive illustrative and typical images and impressions imagination and memory imbitter and exasperate imitators and disciples immature and unpromising immediate and instantaneous immensity and intricacy imminent and terrible immovable and unchangeable impalpable and spiritual impassioned and energetic impatient and restless imperfection and fallibility imperil and destroy imperious and ruthless [imperious = arrogantly domineering] impertinent and personal impinging and inexorable implacable and destructive important and formidable imposed and enforced impossibilities and absurdities impressible and plastic improvement and progress imprudent and thoughtless impulse and indignation inaccessible and audacious inactive and supine inadequate and misleading inapplicable and alien inarticulate and confused inborn and native incensed and alarmed inchoate and tentative [inchoate = imperfectly formed] incoherent and inconclusive incompetence and ignorance incomplete and erroneous incongruity and absurdity inconvenient and troublesome incorrigible and irrepressible incredulous and mortified indefatigable and irresistible indefinite and vague independent and democratic indifference and brevity indigence and obscurity indignation and chagrin indirectly and unconsciously indispensable and irreplaceable indistinct and misty indolence and indifference indomitable and dogged indorsed and applauded indulge and cherish industrious and vigilant ineffective and bungling inert and uncertain inevitable and assured inexhaustible and indomitable inexperienced and timid infallible and disdainful inference and suggestion infinite and eternal inflexible and unchanging influence and authority informed and competent ingenious and eloquent ingratitude and cruelty inharmonious and irregular injustice and inhumanity innocence and fidelity innuendo and suggestion inopportune and futile insanely and blindly inscrutable and perplexing insecurity and precariousness insensibly and graciously insignificant and transitory insincere and worthless insipid and silly insistent and incongruous insolence and absurdity inspiring and animating instant and momentous instinctive and rational insulted and thwarted intangible and indefinable integral and indestructible integrity and honor intelligence and insight intense and overpowering intentness and interest interesting and engrossing intimate and familiar intolerant and bumptious [bumptious = loudly assertive; pushy] intractable and untameable intricate and endless intrusive and unmannerly intuitive and axiomatic invasion and aggression invective and innuendo [invective = abusive language] investigation and research invidious and painful [invidious = rousing ill will, animosity] inviolate and unscathed invisible and silent involuntary and automatic irksome and distasteful irrational and excessive irregular and intermittent irreligious and immoral irremediable and eternal irrepressible and insistent irreverence and ingratitude irritable and churlish [churlish = boorish or vulgar] isolated and detached J jabber and chatter jagged and multifarious jargon and absurdity jaundiced and jealous jeer and scoff jeopardy and instability jests and sarcasms jocular and vivacious jostle and stumble joy and felicity jubilant and boastful judgment and discretion judicious and acute juggled and manipulated jumble and confuse juncture and circumstance jurisdiction and authority justice and virtue juvenile and budding K keen and pertinacious [pertinacious = stubbornly persistent] kind and forbearing kindle and intensify kindred and analogous kingly and autocratic knavish and tyrannical knowledge and conviction known and recognized L labor and drudgery lame and impotent lamentable and depressing languid and indifferent large and opulent lassitude and languor [languor = dreamy, lazy mood] latent and lifeless latitude and scope laudable and deserving laughable and grotesque lavish and wasteful lawlessness and violence laxity and forbearance laziness and profligacy leafage and fruitage learning and austerity legends and traditions legitimate and logical leisure and tranquillity lengthy and diffuse lenient and sympathetic lethargy and sloth levity and gaiety liberal and ample liberty and freedom license and laxity likely and plausible limited and abbreviated listless and inert literal and exact literary and artistic lithe and sinewy lively and poignant loathsome and abject lofty and sonorous [sonorous = producing a full, rich sound; impressive speech] logical and consistent loquacity and exuberance [loquacity = very talkative.] loss and deterioration loud and passionate loving and reverential low and groveling loyal and devoted lucidity and vividness lucky and propitious [propitious = auspicious, favorable; kindly] lucrative and advantageous ludicrous and detestable lugubrious and unfortunate [lugubrious = dismal, gloomy] lukewarm and indifferent lull and silence luminous and keen lure and captivate lurid and fiery luscious and lasting luster and resplendence lusty and big-sounding luxury and pomp M madness and folly magical and secret magnificent and luxurious majestic and imposing malice and revenge malignity and spitefulness manifold and complex manly and powerful manner and conduct marvels and mysteries massive and compact masterly and convincing materialistic and sordid maternal and filial maudlin and grotesque [maudlin = tearfully sentimental] maxims and morals meager and bare mean and debasing meaning and significance means and materials mechanical and monotonous meddling and muddling meditative and sympathetic meek and manageable melody and softness memorable and glorious menace and superciliousness [superciliousness = haughty disdain] merciful and chivalrous merciless and unpitying merit and virtue mighty and majestic mild and virtuous mince and temporize minds and memories minuteness and fidelity mirth and joviality misdemeanors and improprieties misery and degradation misrepresented and reviled misty and indefinite mobile and expressive mockery and imposture moderate and cautious modes and methods modest and retiring molding and upbuilding momentary and languid [languid = lacking energy; weak] momentous and appalling monopoly and injustice monotony and indecorum monstrous and insupportable moody and brooding moral and religious morbid and irritable motionless and commanding motives and aims mud and mire muddled and incoherent murmurs and reproaches muscularity and morality mutable and fleeting mute and insensate mutilated and disfigured muttering and murmuring mutual and friendly mysterious and incomprehensible mystic and wonderful N nagging and squabbling nameless and obscure narrow and timorous natural and spontaneous nauseous and disgusting neatness and propriety necessarily and essentially needs and demands nefarious and malevolent negations and contradictions neglect and evade negotiate and bargain nerve and fiber neutral and colorless nicety and precision nimble and airy noble and powerful nodding and blinking noisy and scurrilous [scurrilous = vulgar, coarse, abusive language] nonsense and absurdity nooks and corners notable and conspicuous noted and distinguished noteworthy and intelligible notoriety and prominence nourish and foster novelty and freshness novice and ignoramus nucleus and beginning nugatory and ineffectual [nugatory = no importance; trifling] nullify and destroy number and variety numerous and important O oaths and revilings obdurate and impenitent [obdurate = hardened in wrongdoing ] [impenitent = without remorse for sins] obedient and dutious obeisance and submission objectionable and inexpedient obligation and dependence obliquity and hypocrisy oblivious and insensible obloquy and detraction [obloquy = abusive language] obnoxious and odious obscure and enigmatical obsequies and panegyrics [obsequies = funeral rite] [panegyrics = elaborate praise] obsequious and conciliating [obsequious = servile compliance; fawning] observations and reflections obstacles and disasters obstinate and stupid obstreperous and noisy [obstreperous = stubbornly defiant] obtrusive and vulgar obtuse and imbecile obvious and palpable occasional and contingent occult and hidden occupations and habits odd and dismal odious and oppressive offensive and aggressive official and authoritative oily and servile old and decrepit ominous and untrustworthy omnivorous and sordid oneness and unity onerous and perplexing open and inviting opinions and hypotheses opportunism and inconsistency opposite and discordant oppressed and sullen optimistic and reassuring opulence and magnitude oracular and occult [oracular = solemnly prophetic; obscure] order and uniformity organic and rational organization and system origin and discovery original and attractive ornate and variegated ostensible and explicit ostentatiousness and gaiety outlines and appearances outrageous and scandalous overburdened and confused overcome and vanquish overstep and contravene overt and unmistakable overwearied and outworn overworked and fagged [fagged = worked to exhaustion] P pains and penalties painstaking and cumbersome pale and anxious palpable and plain paltry and inglorious pampered and petted parade and display parched and dry partial and provisional particularly and individually parties and sects passion and prejudice passive and indifferent pastimes and diversions patent and pertinent pathos and terror patience and perseverance patriotism and reverence pattern and exemplar [exemplar = worthy of imitation] peaks and pinnacles pedagogue and pedant [pedant = exhibits learning or scholarship ostentatiously] pedantries and affectations pedigree and genealogy peevishness and spleen pellucid and crystal [pellucid = transparently clear] penetrating and insidious penned and planned peppery and impetuous perception and recognition peremptorily and irrevocably [peremptorily = not allowing contradiction] perilous and shifting permanent and unchangeable permeate and purify pernicious and malign perplexity and confusion persistent and reiterated personal and specific perspicuous and flowing [perspicuous = clearly expressed] perturbed and restless perverted and prejudicial pessimistic and disenchanted pestilence and famine petted and indulged pettiness and prudence petulance and acrimony pharisaical and bitter [pharisaical = hypocritically self-righteous and condemnatory] pictorial and dramatic picturesque and illustrative pilgrim and crusader pillage and demolish piquant and palatable [piquant = agreeable pungent taste] pith and brevity pitiful and destitute place and power plagued and persecuted plainness and severity plaintive and mournful plans and projects plastic and ductile plausibility and humbug pleasant and pungent pleasurable and wholesome pliant and submissive plot and verisimilitude plunder and sacrilege poetical and pastoral pointless and ineffective polite and elegant political and sociological pomp and pageantry ponderous and unwieldy poor and barren possession and dominion potent and prevailing power and luxury praise and commend precedence and usage precision and efficiency preference and prejudice pregnant and suggestive prejudice and predilection [predilection = preference] presence and address present and tangible prestige and authority presumptuous and futile pretentious and inept pretty and enchanting pride and indignation primary and essential priority and predominance probity and candor [probity = integrity; uprightness] prodigal and careless profile and outline profound and philosophical profuse and tearful prolix and tedious [prolix = prolonged; wordy] prominence and importance promise and performance promptitude and dispatch proneness and readiness pronounced and diversified proof and illustration propensity and desire proportion and consistency propriety and delicacy prostration and loss protection and safety protesting and repelling protracted and fruitless provincialism and vulgarity prudent and sagacious [sagacious = keenly discerning] puerile and sickly [puerile = immature; childish] puffy and dissipated puissant and vigorous [puissant = with power, might] punctilious and severe [punctilious = precise; scrupulous] purity and simplicity purpose and intention pusillanimous and petty [pusillanimous = cowardly] puzzled and affected Q quackery and incompetence quaintness and oddity qualities and gifts quarrel and wrangle queer and affected querulous and plaintive [querulous = complaining; peevish] quibble and fabricate quickness and agility quiet and unobtrusive quintessential and nuclear [quintessential = perfect example] quips and cranks quirks and graces quivering and fearful quizzical and whimsical R racked and oppressed racy and incisive rage and apprehension rank and learning rant and gush rapacity and villainy [rapacity = plundering] rapidity and precision rapt and silent rapture and enthusiasm rare and exquisite rashness and heedlessness ready and spontaneous real and positive realistic and effective reasonable and practical rebellion and disloyalty rebuffs and anxieties receptive and responsive recognized and honored recoil and reaction reconciliation and peace recondite and abstruse [recondite = concealed; hidden] [abstruse = difficult to understand] reconnoiter and explore recreation and amusement rectitude and delicacy redeeming and transforming refined and dignified refreshing and invigorating regard and esteem regret and remorse regular and symmetrical rejection and scorn reliable and trustworthy relief and redress [redress = set right; remedy] remarkable and interesting remorseful and sullen remote and distant rend and devastate repellent and ungracious repetition and reiteration repress and silence repugnance and aversion repulsive and loathsome resentment and indignation reserve and coyness resistless and implacable resolution and effort resonant and tuneful resourceful and unscrupulous respected and obeyed responsibilities and burdens restive and bored restless and impatient retaliation and revenge reticence and repose revered and cherished reverses and disasters revised and corrected revolution and sedition [sedition = insurrection; rebellion] rhapsodies and panegyrics [panegyrics = elaborate praise] richness and fertility ridicule and censure right and praiseworthy rigid and inexpressive ripeness and plenitude rivals and antagonists roar and ring robust and rugged rococo and affected [rococo = elaborate ornamentation] romantic and pathetic rough and barren roundabout and complicated roused and stimulated rude and fiery rugged and inaccessible rumors and impressions rushing and gurgling rust and disuse S sad and melancholy sagacity and virtue [sagacity = farsighted; wise] sane and simple sarcastic and cruel sayings and quibbles scant and incidental scattered and desultory [desultory = haphazard; random] scenes and associations scholastic and erudite [erudite = learned] scientific and exact scintillating and brilliant scoffing and unbelief scope and significance scorched and shriveled scorn and loathing scrupulous and anxious scrutiny and investigation searching and irresistible seared and scorched secondary and subsidiary secretive and furtive sedate and serious selfish and overbearing sensational and trivial senseless and unreasoning sensibilities and emotions sensitive and capricious sententious and tiresome [sententious = pompous moralizing; terse and energetic] sentiment and passion serene and quiet serious and studious severe and saturnine [saturnine = melancholy or sullen] shabbiness and vulgarity shadowy and confused shame and mortification shams and hypocrisies shaped and sculptured sharp and vigorous shelter and safeguard shifts and compromises shivering and chattering shocked and astonished short and precarious shreds and tatters shrewd and diligent shrill and piercing shrinking and nervous shy and subdued significant and sinister signs and tokens silence and obscurity similarities and resemblances simple and straightforward simpletons and nincompoops sincerity and frankness sinewy and active skill and coolness skulk and shirk sleek and languid [languid = lacking energy or vitality; weak] slight and precarious slipshod and untidy slothfulness and perversity slow and sluggish slumbering and unsuspected small and hampered smirched and tarnished smoothness and artifice sneering and sentimental soberly and truthfully softness and effeminacy solemn and dramatic solitary and idle solitude and depression sonorous and musical sons and scions [scions = descendant or heir] soporific and sodden [soporific = inducing sleep] sordid and stupid sorrow and lamentation soulless and mindless sovereign and independent spacious and lofty sparkling and spontaneous spasmodic and hysterical speedy and inevitable spicy and pungent spiritual and invisible spiteful and sordid splash and dash splendor and glory spontaneity and intensity sportive and playful sprightly and vigorous spur and impulse spurious and misleading squalid and dismal [squalid = wretched, dirty, repulsive] stare and gasp stately and ponderous statesmanship and character staunch and influential stay and solace steadfast and resolute steadily and patiently stealthy and hostile stern and unbending stiff and cumbersome stifling and venomous still and translucent stimulating and wholesome stings and stimulants stir and tumult stolid and soulless strain and struggle strange and incomprehensible stratagems and plots strenuous and energetic strictly and absolutely strife and contention striking and picturesque strong and youthful structure and organization struggles and misgivings studied and artificial stunned and insensible stupor and despair sturdy and manly style and temperament suave and winning sublime and aspiring submission and patience subordinate and dependent substance and basis subtle and elusive suddenness and vehemence suffering and desperation suffused and transfigured suggestions and stimulations sullen and fierce summarize and epitomize sumptuous and aromatic sunshine and smiles superb and showy supercilious and obstinate [supercilious = haughty disdain] superficial and obvious superfluous and impertinent suppressed and restrained surmises and suggestions surprise and wonder susceptibility and vulnerability suspense and excitement suspicion and innuendo [innuendo = indirect derogatory implication] sustained and measured sweet and wholesome swelled and bloated swift and stealthy swoop and range symbolism and imagery sympathetic and consoling T taciturn and laconic [taciturn = untalkative] [laconic = terse] tactful and conciliatory talkative and effusive tame and insipid tangible and sufficient tangled and shapeless tardy and belated tartness and contradiction taste and elegance tattle and babble taunt and reproach tawdry and penurious [tawdry = gaudy, cheap] [penurious = stingy] tears and lamentations tedious and trivial temperament and taste temperately and judiciously tempest and violence temporal and evanescent [evanescent = vanishing like vapor] tenacity and coherence tender and emotional tense and straining tentative and experimental terrible and satanical testiness and crabbedness thankfulness and acknowledgment theories and speculations thorough and effective threatening and formidable thriftless and unenterprising thrilling and vitalizing ties and associations time and opportunity timid and vacillating tiresome and laborious tolerant and kindly tone and treatment topics and instances tormented and tantalized tortuous and twisted tottering and hopeless touched and thrilled tractable and gracious traditions and practises training and temperament tranquillity and benevolence transfuse and irradiate transitory and temporary transparent and comprehensible treacherous and cowardly tremble and oscillate trenchant and straightforward [trenchant = effective, and vigorous] trials and tribulations tricks and stratagems trifling and doubtful trite and commonplace trivial and ridiculous troublous and menacing truisms and trivialities trust and confidence truth and righteousness turbid and noise some turgid and bombastic [turgid = excessively complex] [bombastic = pompous] turmoil and shouting twisted and perverted type and forerunner tyrant and oppressor U unaccountable and grotesque unaffected and undaunted unapproached and unapproachable unassuming and unpretending unchangeable and enduring unconsciously and innocently uncouth and barbarous unctuous and irresistible [trenchant = insincere earnestness] undeveloped and ignorant undignified and futile uneasiness and apprehension uneducated and inexperienced unfamiliar and distant unfettered and vigorous unforced and unchecked unfortunate and unparalleled unfounded and incredible ungracious and reluctant unhappiness and discomfort unique and original unity and completeness unjust and ungrateful unlimited and absolute unnatural and harmful unobserved and unsuspected unobtrusive and tactful unparalleled and inexhaustible unpleasant and bewildering unpopular and unimpressive unprecedented and objectionable unpremeditated and heartfelt unpromising and scanty unprotected and friendless unreal and unsubstantial unreasoning and uncompromising unrecognized and unrewarded unseemly and insufferable unseen and unsuspected unsmiling and critical unswerving and unfaltering unthinking and careless untutored and infantine unusual and unexpected unuttered and unutterable unwholesome and vile upright and credible uproar and confusion upstart and braggart urbanity and unction [unction = exaggerated earnestness] utter and disastrous V vacillation and uncertainty vague and indistinct vain and profitless validity and value vanities and vices vapory and chaotic varied and animated varnish and falsehood vassals and inferiors vast and superlative vehement and clamorous veiled and unreadable venality and corruption venerable and interesting veracity and fidelity verbally and literally versatility and sympathy vexation and anxiety vibrating and sonorous views and experiences vigilant and inflexible vigorous and graphic violent and ill-balanced virtuous and wise virulence and invective [invective = abusive language] visible and apparent visionary and obscure vistas and backgrounds vital and vigorous vitiate and poison [vitiate = reduce the value] vituperation and abuse [vituperation = abusive language] vivacious and agreeable vivid and varied void and nothingness volatile and fiery volubly and exuberantly [volubly = ready flow of speech] volume and impetus voluminous and varied voluntarily and habitually vulgar and artificial W wandering and erratic wanton and unnecessary war and revelry warp and woof [warp = lengthwise threads] [woof = crosswise threads] wasteful and circuitous waxing and waning weak and perfidious wealth and distinction wearisome and dull weighed and winnowed weighty and dominant weird and fantastic wheezing and puffing whims and inconsistencies wholesome and beautiful wholly and solely wicked and malicious widened and amplified wild and irregular wily and observant winking and blinking winning and unforced wise and beneficent wistful and dreamy wit and jocularity [jocularity = given to joking] withered and wan woe and lamentation wonder and delight work and utility worldly and ambitious worth and excellence wrath and menace wretched and suppliant Y yearning and eagerness yielding and obedience yoke and bondage young and fragile youthful and callow [callow = immature] Z zeal and vehemence zenith and climax zest and freshness zigzag and deviating SECTION III FELICITOUS PHRASES A ability, humor, and perspicacity [perspicacity = perceptive] abrupt, rough, and immoderate abstruse, metaphysical, and idealistic abundant, varied, and vigorous accessible, knowable, and demonstrable accomplished, inventive, and deft-fingered accuracy, ease, and grace acquire, classify, and arrange action, incident, and interest active, learned, and liberal acts, activities, and aims actual, stern, and pathetic acuteness, honesty, and, fearlessness addition, correction, and amplification adventurous, eager, and afraid affected, pedantic, and vain [pedantic = attention to detail or rules] affluent, genial, and frank aggressive, envious, and arrogant agreeable, engaging, and delightful air, woodland, and water alarmed, anxious, and uneasy alert, hopeful, and practical amazement, resentment, and indignation ambiguous, strange, and sinister amiable, genial, and charitable amusing, sympathetic, and interesting ancient, subtle, and treacherous annoyances, shifts, and inconveniences anxious, fearful, and anticipative appearance, conversation, and bearing approbation, wealth, and power [approbation = warm approval; praise] apt, explicit, and communicative ardent, undisciplined, and undirected arrogance, conceit, and disdain artificial, rhetorical, and mundane artistic, progressive, and popular aspirations, dreams, and devotions assured, stern, and judicial astonishment, apprehension, and horror attainments, possessions, and character attention, forbearance, and patience attract, interest, and persuade augmenting, furthering, and reenforcing austere, calm, and somber authority, leadership, and command avarice, pride, and revenge awakened, girded, and active awe, reverence, and adoration awkwardness, narrowness, and self-consciousness B barbarous, shapeless, and irregular beautiful, graceful, and accomplished beggar, thief, and impostor belittling, personal, and selfish birth, rank, and fortune bitter, baleful, and venomous bland, patient, and methodical blessing, bestowing, and welcoming blind, partial, and prejudiced blithe, innocent, and free bluster, swagger, and might body, soul, and mind boisterous, undignified, and vulgar bold, original, and ingenious bombastic, incongruous, and unsymmetrical bountiful, exuberant, and luxurious brain, energy, and enterprise brave, authoritative, and confident breadth, richness, and freshness breathless, confused, and exhilarated brief, isolated, and fragmentary brilliancy, energy, and zeal broad, spare, and athletic broken, apologetic, and confused brotherhood, humanity, and chivalry brusqueness, rudeness, and self-assertion brutish, repulsive, and terrible busy, active, and toiling C calculated, logical, and dispassionate calm, earnest, and genial candor, integrity, and straightforwardness capricious, perverse, and prejudiced careful, reasoned, and courteous cautious, prudent, and decisive caviling, petulance, and discontent [caviling = finding trivial objections] censured, slighted, and despised certain, swift, and final chance, doubt, and mutability character, life, and aims charitable, just, and true charm, grace, and glory cheerful, modest, and delicate childish, discordant, and superfluous chill, harden, and repel circumstances, properties, and characteristics civilized, mild, and humane clear, cloudless, and serene cleverness, independence, and originality coarseness, violence, and cunning coherent, interdependent, and logical cold, cynical, and relentless color, intensity, and vivacity comfort, virtue, and happiness comments, criticisms, and judgments common, dull, and threadbare compact, determinate, and engaging conceited, commonplace, and uninspiring conception, direction, and organization confident, inflexible, and uncontrollable conflict, confusion, and disintegration confused, broken, and fragmentary conscience, heart, and life conscientious, clear-headed, and accurate consistent, thoughtful, and steadfast consoling, pacifying, and benign constant, wise, and sympathetic constitution, temperament, and habits convince, convert, and reconstruct copious, redundant, and involved corroding, venomous, and malignant corrupt, self-seeking, and dishonest countenance, voice, and manner country, lake, and mountain courage, patience, and honesty courteous, patient, and indefatigable covetousness, selfishness, and ignorance credulous, weak, and superstitious crimes, follies, and misfortunes crisp, emphatic, and powerful crude, warped, and barren cruelty, violence, and injustice culture, growth, and progress cunning, cruelty, and treachery curious, fantastic, and charming D danger, difficulty, and hardship darkness, doubt, and difficulty dazzle, amaze, and overpower deadly, silent, and inaccessible deceitful, lazy, and dishonest decent, respectable, and sensible decisions, affirmations, and denials deep, flexible, and melodious defeated, discredited, and despised deferential, conciliatory, and courteous definite, tangible, and practicable deftness, delicacy, and veracity degraded, defeated, and emasculated dejected, discouraged, and disappointed deliberately, coolly, and methodically delicate, mobile, and complex delightful, witty, and sensible denounced, persecuted, and reviled dependent, subsidiary, and allied depth, tenderness, and sublimity desolated, impoverished, and embittered despair, finality, and hopelessness detailed, described, and explained devastating, horrible, and irremediable devout, gentle, and kindly difficult, painful, and slow digestion, circulation, and assimilation dignity, solemnity, and responsibility diligent, cautious, and painstaking dingy, cumbersome, and depressing directness, spontaneity, and simplicity disciplined, drilled, and trained discontent, revolt, and despair discordant, coarse, and unpleasing discourses, lectures, and harangues disheveled, wild, and distracted disinterested, patient, and exact dislikes, jealousies, and ambitions dismal, cold, and dead dismay, remorse, and anguish disordered, wild, and incoherent dispassionate, wise, and intelligent disposition, taste, and temperament dissension, discord, and rebellion distracted, hopeless, and bankrupt disturbed, shaken, and distressed diversified, animated, and rapid division, prejudice, and antagonism doctrine, life, and destiny dogmatic, scientific, and philosophic doubt, cynicism, and indifference draggled, dirty, and slouching dramatic, picturesque, and vigorous dream, speculate, and philosophize drunkenness, licentiousness, and profanity dry, inane, and droll dull, hideous, and arid dullards, hypocrites, and cowards dust, turmoil, and smoke duties, labors, and anxieties dwarfed, scant, and wretched E eagerness, heartiness, and vehemence earnestness, zeal, and intelligence ease, power, and self-confidence easy, natural, and unembarrassed effluent, radiating, and fructifying [fructifying = Make fruitful or productive] egotistic, disdainful, and proud elegant, convincing, and irresistible emotion, affection, and desire empty, noisy, and blundering end, aim, and purpose energies, capacities, and opportunities enlighten, uplift, and strengthen enmity, suspicion, and hatred enrich, discipline, and embellish enthusiasm, vehemence, and spirit envy, jealousy, and malice equable, animated, and alert erect, elastic, and graceful error, ignorance, and strife essence, existence, and identity esteem, confidence, and affection evil, disease, and death exact, logical, and convincing examine, compare, and decide excessive, inaccurate, and unliterary excitements, interests, and responsibilities experience, knowledge, and conduct exposure, ruin, and flight exterior, formal, and imposing F faded, dusty, and unread failures, experiences, and ambitions fair, proud, and handsome fairies, sprites, and angels faith, hope, and love false, wicked, and disloyal fantastic, absurd, and impossible fear, dread, and apprehension features, form, and height feeble, illogical, and vicious feelings, motives, and desires fertility, ingenuity, and resource fervently, patiently, and persistently fibs, myths, and fables fierce, dogmatic, and bigoted figure, face, and attitude fire, force, and passion flit, change, and vary flushed, trembling, and unstrung foibles, tricks, and fads foliage, color, and symmetry follies, fashions, and infatuations foolish, ignorant, and unscrupulous force, grace, and symmetry forcible, extraordinary, and sublime foremost, preeminent, and incomparable foresight, prudence, and economy form, color, and distance formless, silent, and awful forward, onward, and upward frank, kindly, and unfaltering free, equal, and just freedom, honor, and dignity fresh, vigorous, and telling fretfulness, irritability, and petulance friendly, amiable, and sincere frigid, austere, and splendid fruitful, luminous, and progressive full, animated, and varied fullness, force, and precision furious, sanguinary, and disorganizing [sanguinary = Accompanied by bloodshed] fustian, padding, and irrelevancy [fustian = pompous, bombastic, and ranting] G gaunt, desolate, and despoiled gay, easy, and cordial generous, large-hearted, and magnanimous genial, frank, and confiding genius, learning, and virtue gentle, firm, and loving genuineness, disinterestedness, and strength germinate, develop, and radiate gesture, accent, and attitude ghastly, hateful, and ugly gibes, sneers, and anger gifts, graces, and accomplishments gladness, exaltation, and triumph glean, gather, and digest gloomy, silent, and tranquil glow, grace, and pleasantness good, gentle, and affectionate gorgeous, still, and warm grace, simplicity, and sweetness gracious, mild, and good gradual, cautious, and well-reasoned gratitude, happiness, and affection grave, disastrous, and wanton gravity, sweetness, and patience gray, monotonous, and uninteresting great, grand, and mighty greed, lust, and cruelty grim, lean, and hungry gross, ignorant, and impudent growth, progress, and extension guide, philosopher, and friend H habits, tastes, and opinions hard, stern, and inexorable harmony, peace, and happiness harsh, intolerant, and austere health, character, and efficiency helpful, suggestive, and inspiring helpless, hopeless, and downtrodden high, lofty, and noble high-spirited, confident, and genial history, philosophy, and eloquence homage, ability, and culture honesty, probity, and justice [probity = integrity; uprightness] honors, riches, and power hopes, aspirations, and longings hot, swift, and impatient humanity, freedom, and justice humble, submissive, and serviceable humor, fancy, and susceptibility I idle, profuse, and profligate ignorance, fear, and selfishness illuminating, chastening, and transforming images, events, and incidents imagination, judgment, and reason immediate, sure, and easy immethodical, irregular, and inconsecutive impatient, inconsiderate, and self-willed impetuous, fierce, and irresistible impracticable, chimerical, and contemptible impulse, energy, and activity inclinations, habits, and interests incoherent, loud, and confusing incomparable, matchless, and immortal inconsiderate, irritable, and insolent indignation, surprise, and reproach indirect, obscure, and ambiguous indolent, dreamy, and frolicsome inert, torpid, and lethargic ingenuity, force, and originality innocence, intelligence, and youth inordinate, excessive, and extravagant insight, knowledge, and capacity insincere, partial, and arbitrary insipid, commonplace, and chattering insolence, injustice, and imposture intelligence, taste, and manners intense, weighty, and philosophical inventions, sciences, and discoveries irksome, painful, and depressing irresolute, procrastinating, and unenterprising irritable, sulky, and furious issues, hopes, and interests J jealousy, exclusiveness, and taciturnity [taciturnity = habitually untalkative] jovial, ready-witted, and broad-gaged joyous, delightful, and gay justice, mercy, and peace K keen, clear, and accurate knowing, feeling, and willing knowledge, skill, and foresight L labors, anxieties, and trials large, rhythmical, and pleasing laughter, ridicule, and sneers lead, attack, and conquer learning, profundity, and imagination legislation, education, and religion levity, indolence, and procrastination libelers, reviewers, and rivals liberating, vitalizing, and cheering liberty, justice, and humanity light, easy, and playful literature, history, and legend lively, careless, and joyous lofty, serene, and impregnable logical, clear, and consistent loitering, heart-sick, and reluctant lonely, sad, and enslaved long, wailing, and passionate lost, ruined, and deserted loud, deep, and distinct love, veneration, and gratitude lucid, lively, and effective luxurious, whimsical, and selfish M magnificent, sumptuous, and stately magnitude, duration, and scope majesty, beauty, and truth malevolence, vanity, and falsehood manly, refined, and unaffected mean, pitiful, and sordid meek, humane, and temperate melancholy, grave, and serious mercy, truth, and righteousness methodical, sensible, and conscientious might, majesty, and power mild, sweet, and peaceable mischief, cruelty, and futility moans, shrieks, and curses mobile, quick, and sensitive modest, sympathetic, and kind molding, controlling, and conforming monstrous, incredible, and inhuman moral, material, and social motionless, staring, and appalled motives, purposes, and intentions mountains, seas, and vineyards moved, swayed, and ruled murder, destruction, and agony mystery, vagueness, and jargon N narrow, precise, and formal natural, innocent, and laudable neatness, order, and comfort necessary, just, and logical neglect, rashness, and incompetence new, strange, and unusual niggardly, sordid, and parsimonious [grudging, wretched and frugal] noble, laudable, and good noise, clatter, and clamor null, void, and useless O obscure, difficult, and subtle observation, discrimination, and comparison obsolete, artificial, and inadequate obstinacy, stupidity, and wilfulness officious, fidgety, and talkative old, absurd, and meaningless one, individual, and integral openly, frankly, and legitimately opposition, bitterness, and defiance oppressive, grasping, and slanderous opulent, powerful, and prosperous organization, monopoly, and pressure origin, character, and aim original, terse, and vigorous overriding, arrogant, and quarrelsome P pain, toil, and privation pale, ugly, and sinister parable, precept, and practise partial, false, and disastrous passion, tenderness, and reverence patient, gentle, and kind peace, order, and civilization pellucid, animated, and varied [pellucid = transparently clear] permanent, true, and real perplexed, tedious, and obscure personal, sharp, and pointed perspicuity, vivacity, and grace [perspicuity = clearness and lucidity] pert, smirking, and conceited pervading, searching, and saturating petty, unsuccessful, and unamiable philosophy, morals, and discoveries picturesque, daring, and potent piety, charity, and humility pillage, arson, and bloodshed pious, patient, and trustful pity, sympathy, and compassion placable, reasonable, and willing [placable = easily calmed; tolerant] place, fame, and fortune placid, clear, and mellow plague, pestilence, and famine plan, purpose, and work pleasant, friendly, and amiable pleased, interested, and delighted pleasure, enjoyment, and satisfaction plenty, content, and tranquillity plodding, sedentary, and laborious poise, dignity, and reserve polished, elegant, and sumptuous politics, business, and religion pompous, affected, and unreal poor, miserable, and helpless pose, gesture, and expression powerful, dazzling, and daring practical, visible, and tangible precious, massive, and splendid precise, formal, and cynical prejudice, dulness, and spite prepossessions, opinions, and prejudices presiding, directing, and controlling pride, passion, and conceit princely, picturesque, and pathetic principles, conduct, and habits progress, order, and happiness prolonged, obstinate, and continued prompt, fiery, and resolute propriety, perspicacity, and accuracy [perspicacity = perceptive] prosaic, dull, and unattractive protective, propitiatory, and accommodating [propitiatory = conciliatory] protests, criticisms, and rebukes proud, reserved, and disagreeable prudence, mildness, and firmness puckered, winking, and doddering pure, honorable, and just purge, brace, and strengthen purpose, intention, and meaning puzzles, tangles, and questionings Q quarrels, misunderstandings, and enmities questions, disputes, and controversies quicken, sharpen, and intensify quiet, unaffected, and unostentatious R raise, refine, and elevate rapid, robust, and effective rapt, emotional, and mystic raptures, transports, and fancies rash, violent, and indefinite readiness, skill, and accuracy reading, reflection, and observation reaffirmed, amplified, and maintained real, earnest, and energetic regard, esteem, and affection relaxation, recreation, and pleasure religion, politics, and literature reminiscences, associations, and impressions remote, careless, and indifferent reparations, restitutions, and guarantees repress, curb, and correct reproach, shame, and remorse reproof, correction, and instruction resentment, hatred, and despair resolute, patient, and fervent resourceful, steadfast, and skilful respect, admiration, and homage rest, respite, and peace restless, discontented, and rebellious restraint, self-denial, and austerity reticent, restrained, and reserved reverie, contemplation, and loneliness rich, thoughtful, and glowing ridicule, sarcasm, and invective [invective = abusive language] rights, powers, and privileges rise, flourish, and decay robustness, elasticity, and firmness romance, adventure, and passion rough, barren, and unsightly rude, sulky, and overbearing rush, roar, and shriek S sacredness, dignity, and loveliness sad, gloomy, and suspicious safe, sensible, and sane sanguine, impulsive, and irrepressible [sanguine = cheerfully confident; optimistic] sarcasm, satire, and ridicule satiety, surfeit, and tedium savage, fierce, and intractable scheming, contriving, and dishonesty self-absorbed, conceited, and contemptuous self-conscious, artificial, and affected self-exacting, laborious, and inexhaustible selfishness, coarseness, and mendacity [mendacity = untruthfulness] sense, grace, and good-will sensibility, harmony, and energy sensitive, ardent, and conscientious serene, ineffable, and flawless [ineffable = indescribable] serious, calm, and searching settled, adjusted, and balanced shallow, false, and petty shapes, forms, and artifices sharpness, bitterness, and sarcasm shivering, moaning, and weeping shrewd, artful, and designing shy, wild, and provocative sick, ashamed, and disillusioned silent, cold, and motionless simple, full, and impressive sin, selfishness, and luxury sincere, placable, and generous [placable = easily calmed; tolerant] skill, sagacity, and firmness [sagacity = farsighted; wise] sleekness, stealth, and savagery slovenly, base, and untrue slow, reluctant, and unwelcome smirking, garrulous, and pretentious [garrulous = excessive and trivial talk] smooth, sentimental, and harmonious smug, fat, and complacent sneers, innuendoes, and insinuations social, esthetic, and intellectual solitary, sedentary, and lifeless sound, human, and healthy sour, malignant, and envious spacious, clean, and comfortable speechless, motionless, and amazed spirit, vigor, and variety spitefulness, dishonesty, and cruelty splendid, powerful, and enduring startling, alarming, and vehement statesmen, philosophers, and divines steadiness, self-control, and serenity stern, forbidding, and unfeeling stiff, decorous, and formal strained, worn, and haggard strange, dark, and mysterious strengthen, invigorate, and discipline strenuous, intelligent, and alive striking, bold, and magnificent stripped, swept, and bare strong, cool, and inflexible studied, discussed, and debated sturdy, energetic, and high-minded style, manner, and disposition subtle, delicate, and refined successful, energetic, and ingenious sudden, vehement, and unfamed suggestive, stimulating, and inspiring sullen, silent, and disconsolate suppliant, gentle, and submissive [suppliant = asking humbly] surprise, admiration, and wonder suspicious, restive, and untractable swiftness, mobility, and penetrativeness sympathy, service, and compassion T talent, scholarship, and refinement tameness, monotony, and reserve taste, feeling, and sentiment tedious, painful, and distressing temper, pride, and sensuality temperament, character, and circumstance temperate, sweet, and venerable tenderness, loyalty, and devotion terror, remorse, and shame terseness, simplicity, and quaintness theatrical, sensational, and demonstrative thought, utterance, and action threats, cries, and prayers thrilling, dramatic, and picturesque thwart, criticize, and embarrass time, thought, and consideration touched, strengthened, and transformed tradition, prejudice, and stupidity tragic, tremendous, and horrible transparent, theatric, and insincere treachery, envy, and selfishness tremulous, soft, and bright [tremulous = trembling, quivering, shaking] trial, discipline, and temptation tricks, shufflings, and frauds trivial, labored, and wearisome true, lasting, and beneficial tyranny, injustice, and extortion U ugly, scowling, and offensive unbending, contemptuous, and scornful unclean, shameful, and degrading undecided, wavering, and cautious unearthly, horrible, and obnoxious uneasy, overstrained, and melancholy unity, emphasis, and coherence unmodulated, cold, and expressionless unphilosophical, unsystematic, and discursive unscrupulous, heartless, and hypocritical unwholesome, bewildering, and unprofitable unworldly, peaceable, and philosophical upright, kind-hearted, and blameless urgent, tumultuous, and incomprehensible V vague, impalpable, and incongruous vanities, stupidities, and falsehoods venerable, patriotic, and virtuous verities, certainties, and realities vigilant, inveterate, and unresting [inveterate = long established] vigorous, subtle, and comprehensive violent, sinister, and rebellious virtue, genius, and charm visionary, fraudulent, and empirical vital, formidable, and dominant vivid, comprehensible, and striking vulgarity, ignorance, and misapprehension W waddling, perspiring, and breathless want, worry, and woe wasteful, indolent, and evasive watchful, suspicious, and timid wealth, position, and influence wearied, despondent, and bewildered weight, size, and solidity well-proportioned, logical, and sane whimsical, fantastic, and impracticable wholesome, beautiful, and righteous wicked, pernicious, and degrading wild, confused, and dizzy wilful, wanton, and deliberate will, energy, and self-control wisdom, patriotism, and justice wit, fancy, and imagination worthless, broken, and defeated wretchedness, deformity, and malice wrinkled, careworn, and pale SECTION IV IMPRESSIVE PHRASES A able, skilful, thorough, and genuine absolute, complete, unqualified, and final accurate, precise, exact, and truthful active, alert, vigorous, and industrious actual, positive, certain, and genuine adequate, uniform, proportionate, and equitable adventurous, fine, active, and gossipy adverse, antagonistic, unfriendly, and hostile advisable, advantageous, acceptable, and expedient affable, diffident, humble, and mild affectionate, tender, loving, and attached affluent, opulent, abundant, and ample allurements, pits, snares, and torments anger, indignation, resentment, and rage animate, impel, instigate, and embolden animosity, malice, enmity, and hatred annul, frustrate, reverse, and destroy anxiety, caution, watchfulness, and solicitude apparent, ostensible, plausible, and specious appropriate, use, arrogate, and usurp [arrogate = claim without right; appropriate] approval, enthusiasm, sympathy, and applause aptitude, capacity, efficiency, and power arbitrary, dictatorial, domineering, and imperious [imperious = arrogantly domineering or overbearing] architecture, sculpture, painting, and poetry ardent, impatient, keen, and vehement argue, discuss, dispute, and prove arrangement, place, time, and circumstance art, science, knowledge, and culture artful, wily, insincere, and disingenuous artificial, soulless, hectic, and unreal assemble, amass, accumulate, and acquire assiduity, tenderness, industry, and vigilance [assiduity = persistent application] assurance, persuasion, fidelity, and loyalty attention, effort, diligence, and assiduity [assiduity = persistent application] august, magnanimous, important, and distinguished authoritative, independent, arbitrary, and supreme avaricious, grasping, miserly, and parsimonious [parsimonious = excessively frugal] aversion, dislike, hatred, and repugnance B bad, vicious, unwholesome, and distressing babble, prate, chatter, and prattle barbarous, brutal, inhuman, and cruel base, cowardly, abject, and hideous battle, defeat, frustrate, and ruin bearing, deportment, manner, and behavior beg, entreat, implore, and supplicate beliefs, doctrines, ceremonies, and practices boorish, clownish, rude, and uncultivated boundless, immeasurable, unlimited, and infinite bravery, courage, fearlessness, and confidence breadth, knowledge, vision, and power brilliant, beautiful, elegant, and faithful broaden, enlarge, extend, and augment business, profession, occupation, and vocation C candid, sincere, familiar, and ingenuous captious, petulant, peevish, and splenetic [captious = point out trivial faults] cautious, discreet, considerate, and provident certain, confident, positive, and unquestionable chagrin, vexation, irritation, and mortification character, disposition, temperament, and reputation charm, fascinate, bewitch, and captivate cheap, inexpensive, inferior, and common cheer, animate, vivify, and exhilarate [vivify = bring life to] chiefly, particularly, principally, and especially childhood, youth, manhood, and age circumstance, condition, environment, and surroundings claim, grab, trick, and compel clean, fastidious, frugal, and refined clear, distinct, obvious, and intelligible clumsy, crawling, snobbish, and comfort-loving coarse, gross, offensive, and nauseous coax, flatter, wheedle, and persuade cogitate, contemplate, meditate, and ponder cold, frigid, unfeeling, and stoical commanding, authoritative, imperative, and peremptory [peremptory = ending all debate or action] compassion, goodwill, admiration, and enthusiasm confirm, establish, sustain, and strengthen conform, submit, obey, and satisfy confuse, distort, involve, and misinterpret consistent, congruous, firm, and harmonious cool, collected, calm, and self-possessed copious, commanding, sonorous, and emotional cowardly, timid, shrinking, and timorous crazy, absurd, nonsensical, and preposterous crude, rough, jagged, and pitiless D daring, cordial, discerning, and optimistic darkness, dimness, dulness, and blackness deadly, destructive, fatal, and implacable deceit, delusion, treachery, and sham deep, abstruse, learned, and profound deficient, inadequate, scanty, and incomplete define, explain, determine, and circumscribe degrade, defame, humble, and debase delicacy, daintiness, tact, and refinement delicious, sweet, palatable, and delightful democracy, equality, justice, and freedom deny, dismiss, exclude, and repudiate deprive, dispossess, divest, and despoil describe, delineate, depict, and characterize designed, contrived, planned, and executed desperate, extreme, wreckless, and irremediable despicable, abject, servile, and worthless destructive, detrimental, deleterious, and subversive desultory, discursive, loose, and unmethodical [desultory = disconnected: haphazard] detestable, abominable, horrible, and hideous developed, revealed, measured, and tested difference, disagreement, discord, and estrangement difficult, arduous, intricate, and perplexing diffuse, discursive, rambling, and wordy diligence, attention, industry, and assiduity [assiduity = persistent application] disagreement, discrepancy, difference, and divergence disconsolate, desolate, pessimistic, and impossible discrimination, acuteness, insight, and judgment disgust, distaste, loathing, and abhorrence dissatisfied, rebellious, unsettled, and satirical distinct, definite, clear, and obvious distinguished, glorious, illustrious, and eminent disturbed, shaken, distressed, and bewildered docile, tractable, compliant, and teachable dogmatic, bigoted, libelous, and unsympathizing doubt, indecision, suspense, and perplexity dread, disgust, repugnance, and dreariness dreary, dispirited, unhappy, and peevish dry, lifeless, tiresome, and uninteresting dubious, equivocal, fluctuating, and uncertain dull, heavy, painstaking, and conscientious E earth, air, stars, and sea efficient, forcible, adequate, and potent emaciated, scraggy, meager, and attenuated endless, ceaseless, immutable, and imperishable energy, eagerness, earnestness, and enthusiasm enhance, exalt, elevate, and intensify enormous, base, prodigious, and colossal enrage, incense, infuriate, and exasperate enthusiasm, devotion, intensity, and zeal envy, discontent, deception, and ignorance equitable, reasonable, just, and honest equivocal, uncertain, cloudy, and ambiguous eradicate, extirpate, exterminate, and annihilate [extirpate = pull up by the roots] erroneous, faulty, inaccurate, and inexact eternal, unchangeable, unerring, and intelligent evil, misfortune, corruption, and disaster exacting, suspicious, irritable, and wayward exalt, dignify, elevate, and extol examination, inquiry, scrutiny, and research exceed, outdo, surpass, and transcend exceptional, uncommon, abnormal, and extraordinary excitement, distraction, diversion, and stimulation exhaustive, thorough, radical, and complete expend, dissipate, waste, and squander F facile, showy, cheap, and superficial faithful, truthful, loyal, and trustworthy fame, distinction, dignity, and honor fanatic, enthusiast, visionary, and zealot fanciful, unreal, fantastic, and grotesque fancy, humor, vagary, and caprice [vagary = extravagant or erratic notion or action] fashion, practise, habit, and usage fastidious, proud, gracious, and poised fate, fortune, contingency, and opportunity fatuous, dreamy, moony, and impracticable fear, timidity, cowardice, and pusillanimity feeble, languid, timid, and irresolute ferocious, restive, savage, and uncultivated fervent, enthusiastic, anxious, and zealous fiction, fancy, falsehood, and fabrication fine, fragile, delicate, and dainty firmness, steadfastness, stability, and tenacity flash, flame, flare, and glare flat, insipid, tame, and monotonous fluctuating, hesitating, vacillating, and oscillating folly, foolishness, imbecility, and fatuity foolhardy, hasty, adventurous, and reckless fop, coxcomb, puppy, and jackanapes [jackanapes = conceited person] force, vigor, power, and energy formal, precise, stiff, and methodical fortunate, happy, prosperous, and successful fragile, frail, brittle, and delicate freedom, familiarity, liberty, and independence frightful, fearful, direful, and dreadful frivolous, trifling, petty, and childish fruitful, fertile, prolific, and productive fruitless, vain, trivial, and foolish frustrate, defeat, disappoint, and thwart fully, completely, abundantly, and perfectly furious, impetuous, boisterous, and vehement G gaiety, merriment, joy, and hilarity gallant, ardent, fearless, and self-sacrificing garnish, embellish, beautify, and decorate generous, candid, easy, and independent genius, intellect, aptitude, and capacity genteel, refined, polished, and well-bred gentle, persuasive, affective, and simple genuine, true, unaffected, and sincere ghastly, grim, shocking, and hideous gibe, mock, taunt, and jeer giddy, fickle, flighty, and thoughtless gleam, glimmer, glance, and glitter gloomy, dismal, dark, and dejected glorious, noble, exalted, and resplendent glut, gorge, cloy, and satiate [cloy = too filling, rich, or sweet] good, safe, venerable, and solid government, law, order, and organization grand, stately, dignified, and pompous grave, contemplative, reserved, and profound great, joyous, strong, and triumphant greed, avarice, covetousness, and cupidity gross, academic, vulgar, and indiscriminate H habit, custom, method, and fashion handsome, exquisite, brilliant, and accomplished harmless, innocent, innocuous, and inoffensive harmony, order, sublimity, and beauty harsh, discordant, disagreeable, and ungracious hasty, superficial, impatient, and desultory [desultory = disconnected: haphazard] healed, soothed, consoled, and assuaged healthy, hale, sound, and wholesome heavy, sluggish, dejected, and crushing high-minded, truthful, honest, and courageous holy, hallowed, sacred, and consecrated homely, hideous, horrid, and unsightly honor, obedience, virtue, and loyalty hopefulness, peace, sweetness, and strength hopes, dreams, programs, and ideals hospitable, generous, tolerant, and kindly hot, hasty, fervent, and fiery humane, gentle, kind, and generous humble, simple, submissive, and unostentatious I idea, imagination, conception, and ideal idleness, recreation, repose, and rest ignominious, infamous, despicable, and contemptible illumine, instruct, enlighten, and inform imaginative, sensitive, nervous, and highly-strung impatience, indolence, wastefulness, and inconclusiveness impel, stimulate, animate, and inspirit imperious, wayward, empirical, and impatient [imperious = arrogantly domineering or overbearing] improvident, incautious, prodigal, and thriftless impudent, insolent, irrelevant, and officious inadvertency, carelessness, negligence, and oversight indecision, doubt, fear, and lassitude indifference, caution, coldness, and weariness indolent, passive, sluggish, and slothful ineffectual, powerless, useless, and unavailing infamy, shame, dishonor, and disgrace infantile, childish, boyish, and dutiful informal, natural, unconventional, and careless insolent, impudent, impertinent, and flippant integrity, frankness, sincerity, and truthfulness intellectual, moral, emotional, and esthetic intense, earnest, violent, and extreme invent, discover, design, and contrive inveterate, confirmed, chronic, and obstinate invidious, envious, odious, and offensive invincible, unconquerable, insurmountable, and insuperable irksome, tiresome, tedious, and annoying irregular, uncertain, devious, and unsystematic irritable, choleric, petulant, and susceptible J jangle, wrangle, squabble, and quarrel jealousy, suspicion, envy, and watchfulness joyful, lively, happy, and hilarious judgment, discrimination, penetration, and sagacity [sagacity = farsighted; wise] just, impartial, equitable, and unbiased juvenile, childish, trifling, and puerile [puerile = immature; childish] K keen, intelligent, penetrating, and severe keep, protect, support, and sustain kind, sympathetic, ready, and appreciative kingly, noble, imperial, and august knowledge, learning, enlightenment, and understanding L lapses, makeshifts, delays, and irregularities lawful, legitimate, allowable, and just lazy, listless, drowsy, and indifferent lightly, freely, unscrupulously, and irresponsibly lively, vivacious, vigorous, and forcible loss, deprivation, forfeiture, and waste loud, noisy, showy, and clamorous loutish, prankish, selfish, and cunning love, depth, loyalty, and faithfulness lucidity, impressiveness, incisiveness, and pungency [pungency = to the point] M malice, anger, uncharitableness, and indignation malignity, brutality, malevolence, and inhumanity manners, morals, habits, and behavior marvelous, wonderful, extraordinary, and incredible massive, ponderous, solid, and substantial mastery, proficiency, dexterity, and superiority matchless, unrivaled, inimitable, and incomparable maxim, proverb, truism, and apothegm [apothegm = terse, witty, instructive saying] medley, mixture, jumble, and hodge-podge meekness, inwardness, patience, and self-denial merciless, remorseless, relentless, and ruthless mild, gentle, humble, and submissive mismanagement, indecision, obstinacy, and hardihood mixture, medley, variety, and diversification modesty, fineness, sensitiveness, and fastidiousness money, position, power, and consequence mood, temper, humor, and caprice motive, impulse, incentive, and intimation mysterious, dark, secret, and enigmatical N narrow, limited, selfish, and bigoted necessary, expedient, indispensable, and unavoidable necessity, emergency, exigency, and crisis [exigency = urgent situation] neglect, overlook, disregard, and contemn [contemn = despise] nice, finical, effeminate, and silly [finical = Finicky] niggardly, close, miserly, and parsimonious [parsimonious = Excessively frugal] noble, pure, exalted, and worthy nonsense, trash, twaddle, and rubbish novel, recent, rare, and unusual noxious, unwholesome, mischievous, and destructive O obdurate, unfeeling, callous, and obstinate obedient, respectful, dutiful, and submissive object, propose, protest, and decline obliging, kind, helpful, and courteous obscure, shadowy, intricate, and mysterious obsequious, cringing, fawning, and servile [obsequious = fawning.] observations, sentiments, ideas, and theories obstinacy, pertinacity, stubbornness, and inflexibility [pertinacity = persistent] offensive, disagreeable, distasteful, and obnoxious officious, impertinent, insolent, and meddlesome P particular, precise, formal, and punctilious [punctilious = scrupulous] passions, weaknesses, uglinesses, and deformities patient, loyal, hard-working, and true peace, quiet, tranquillity, and harmony peculiar, individual, specific, and appropriate perplex, embarrass, confuse, and mystify phrases, figures, metaphors, and quotations piteous, woebegone, dismal, and dolorous placid, meek, gentle, and moderate plain, transparent, simple, and obvious play, diversion, pastime, and amusement pleasant, jocular, witty, and facetious pliable, ductile, supple, and yielding poetry, sentiment, morality, and religion polished, deft, superficial, and conventional polite, polished, cultured, and refined positive, direct, explicit, and dogmatic powerful, efficient, vivid, and forcible precise, delicate, discriminating, and fastidious prejudicial, injurious, noxious, and pernicious preposterous, irrational, unreasonable, and nonsensical pretense, subterfuge, simulation, and disguise prevent, restrain, dissuade, and dishearten primary, foremost, leading, and principal probity, directness, simplicity, and sincerity [probity = integrity] profession, business, trade, and vocation profit, advantage, benefit, and emolument [emolument = compensation] profuse, excessive, copious, and extravagant progress, prosperity, peace, and happiness prolix, prosaic, prolonged, and wordy [prolix = excessive length] property, comforts, habits, and conveniences prudence, judgment, wisdom, and discretion pulsing, coursing, throbbing, and beating pure, kind, sweet-tempered, and unselfish purified, exalted, fortified, and illumined purpose, meaning, scope, and tendency Q quack, imposture, charlatan, and mountebank [mountebank = flamboyant charlatan] qualified, powerful, vigorous, and effective quality, property, attribute, and character quarrels, misunderstandings, enmities, and disapprovals queries, echoes, reactions, and after-thoughts quick, impetuous, sweeping, and expeditious quiet, peaceful, sane, and normal R racy, smart, spicy, and pungent rational, sane, sound, and sensible ravenous, greedy, voracious, and grasping recreation, sport, pastime, and amusement relation, work, duty, and pleasure reliable, accurate, truthful, and duty-loving reports, stories, rumors, and suspicions reproach, dishonor, disgrace, and ignominy restrained, calm, quiet, and placid reverential, disciplined, self-controlling, and devoted rigid, inelastic, stiff, and unbending rough, rude, gruff, and surly rude, curt, insolent, and unpleasant S sad, despondent, melancholy, and depressed sane, sober, sound, and rational scandalize, vilify, traduce, and offend [traduce = humiliate with false statements] scanty, pinched, slender, and insufficient science, art, religion, and philosophy scope, design, purpose, and judgment sensual, cruel, selfish, and unscrupulous sentence, judgment, verdict, and doom serene, composed, conservative, and orderly several, sundry, many, and various severe, stern, stiff, and stringent shameless, corrupt, depraved, and vicious shock, surprise, terror, and forlornness simple, hearty, joyous, and affectionate sin, injustice, grievance, and crime skill, courage, prowess, and attractiveness sleepy, soporific, sluggish, and dull [soporific = induces sleep] slim, slender, slight, and scraggy slow, dilatory, slack, and procrastinating [dilatory = postpone] solemn, profound, serious, and difficult solicit, urge, implore, and importune [importune = insistent requests] sorrow, disaster, unhappiness, and bereavement spontaneity, freedom, ease, and adequacy stately, stern, august, and implacable steady, reliable, dependable, and well-balanced stern, severe, abrupt, and unreasonable stories, pictures, shows and representations strength, agility, violence, and activity strong, inventive, daring, and resourceful sublime, consoling, inspiring, and beautiful substantial, solid, strong, and durable suffering, regret, bitterness, and fatigue superficial, shallow, flimsy, and untrustworthy superfluous, excessive, unnecessary, and redundant suspicious, cynical, crafty, and timid symmetry, proportion, harmony, and regularity T tact, courtesy, adroitness, and skill talents, opportunities, influence, and power talkative, selfish, superstitious, and inquisitive tastes, appetites, passions, and desires tease, tantalize, worry, and provoke tenacious, stubborn, pertinacious, and obstinate [pertinacious = perversely persistent] tendency, drift, scope, and disposition tests, trials, temptations, and toils theatrical, ceremonious, meretricious, and ostentatious [meretricious = plausible but insincere] theory, assumption, speculation, and conjecture think, reflect, weigh, and ponder tortuous, twisted, sinuous, and circuitous tractable, gentle, pliant, and submissive traditional, uncertain, legendary, and unverified traffic, trade, commerce, and intercourse tricky, insincere, wily, and shifty trite, ordinary, commonplace, and hackneyed trivial, petty, frivolous, and insignificant true, upright, real, and authentic tumultuous, riotous, disorderly, and turbulent U ugly, evil, hateful, and base uncertain, questionable, erroneous, and mistaken unctuous, shrill, brisk, and demonstrative [unctuous = exaggerated, insincere] unhappy, unfortunate, distressed, and disastrous uninteresting, lifeless, obscure, and commonplace unity, aggressiveness, efficiency, and force unkind, severe, oppressive, and callous unpractical, childish, slipshod, and silly unreasonable, foolish, excessive, and absurd unrivaled, unequaled, incomparable, and matchless upright, high-minded, brave, and liberal urgent, important, immediate, and imperative usage, custom, habit, and practise V vain, useless, unproductive, and unavailing vanities, envies, devices, and jealousies vast, scattered, various, and incalculable versatile, eloquent, sagacious, and talented [sagacious = wise] vigorous, upright, dignified, and imperative vile, mean, debased, and sordid violent, impetuous, intense, and ungovernable virtuous, upright, honest, and moral visionary, dreamy, pensive, and sensitive vulgar, heavy, narrow, and obtuse W want, lack, poverty, and paucity warm, soft, clear, and serene waste, devastate, pillage, and destroy watched, tendered, fostered, and pruned weak, inefficient, stupid, and futile wealth, position, influence, and reputation well-being, happiness, prosperity, and distress wild, restless, aimless, and erring wisdom, judgment, understanding, and far-sightedness wit, purity, energy, and simplicity wonderful, interesting, active, and delightful works, sorrows, visions, and experiences worry, annoyance, awkwardness, and difficulty SECTION V PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES Preposition "of" A abandon of spontaneity abatement of misery aberrations of judgment abhorrence of meanness absence of vainglory abyss of ignominy accent of conviction accretions of time accumulation of ages accuracy of aim acquisition of knowledge activity of attention acuteness of sensibility admixture of fear affectation of content affinity of events age of ignorance agility of brain agony of despair air of assumption ambitious of success amiability of disposition amplitude of space anachronisms of thought anchor of moderation angle of vision annulment of influence aping of manners apostle of culture ardor of life arrogance of opinion aspect of grandeur assumption of sternness atmosphere of obscurity attitude of mind attribute of weakness austerities of fanaticism authority of manner avalanche of scorn avenues of dissemination B babel of tongues ban of exclusion barren of enthusiasm barriers of reticence bars of sunlight basis of fact beam of moonlight beast of prey beauty of imagery beggared of faith bent of mind betrayal of trust bevy of maidens bewilderment of feeling birds of prey bit of portraiture bitterness of anguish blackness of spirit blandishments of society blast of adversity blaze of fury blend of dignity bliss of solitude bloom of earth blow of fate boldness of conception bond of alliance bone of contention bouts of civility breach of law breath of life breeze of anxiety brilliancy of wit brimful of fun broil of politics brood of emotions brow of expectation brunt of disgrace bulk of mankind bundle of conceptions buoyancy of youth burden of proof burst of confidence business of life C cadences of delirium calmness of manner calumny of passion [calumny = maliciously lying to injure a reputation] caprice of inclination careless of opinion catholicity of spirit [catholicity = universality] cause of solicitude celerity of movement [celerity = swiftness; speed] chain of evidence change of habitude chaos of confusion chill of indifference chimera of superstition [chimera = fanciful illusion] chorus of approbation [approbation = warm approval; praise] circle of hills clamor of envy clap of thunder clarity of thinking clash of arms cloak of ecclesiasticism code of morals cogency of argument combination of calamities command of wit community of interest compass of imagination complexity of life confidence of genius conflict of will conquest of difficulty consciousness of peril constellation of luminaries contagion of conflict continuity of life contradiction of terms contrariety of opinion convulsion of laughter copiousness of diction cord of sympathy countenance of authority courage of conviction course of existence courtliness of manner cover of hospitality crash of thunder creature of circumstance criteria of feeling crown of civilization crudity of thought cry of despair curl of contempt current of thought D darkness of calamity dash of eccentricity dawning of recognition day of reckoning daylight of faith decay of authority declaration of indifference deeds of prowess defects of temper degree of hostility delicacy of thought delirium of wonder depth of despair dereliction of duty derogation of character despoiled of riches destitute of power desultoriness of detail [desultoriness = haphazard; random] device of secrecy devoid of merit devoutness of faith dexterity of phrase diapason of motives [diapason = full, rich, harmonious sound] dictates of conscience difference of opinion difficult of attainment dignity of thought dilapidations of time diminution of brutality disabilities of age display of prowess distinctness of vision distortion of symmetry diversity of aspect divinity of tradition domain of imagination drama of action dream of vengeance drop of comfort ductility of expression dull of comprehension duplicities of might dust of defeat E earnestness of enthusiasm easy of access ebullitions of anger [ebullitions = sudden, violent outpouring; boiling] eccentricity of judgment ecstasy of despair effect of loveliness efficacy of change effusion of sentiment elasticity of mind element of compulsion elevation of sentiment eloquence of passion emotions of joy emulous of truth [emulous = prompted by a spirit of rivalry] encroachments of time encumbrance of mystery energy of youth enigma of life equanimity of mind era of fads error of judgment essence of eloquence excellence of vision excess of candor excitation of purpose excursiveness of thought exhibition of joy exhilaration of spirits expenditure of energy explosion of rage expression of sternness extension of experience extravagance of eulogy extremity of fortune exuberance of wit F fabric of fact facility of expression faculty of perception failure of coordination feast of reason feats of strength feebleness of purpose feeling of uneasiness felicities of expression fertility of invention fervor of devotion fickleness of fortune field of activity fierceness of jealousy fineness of vision fire of imagination firmament of literature firmness of purpose fit of laughter fitness of circumstance fixity of purpose flag of truce flash of humor flashlight of introspection fleetness of foot flexibility of spirit flicker of recognition flight of fancy flood of hatred flourish of manner flower of life fluctuation of fortune flush of youth flutter of expectation fog of sentimentalism force of conviction forest of faces form of captiousness [captiousness = point out trivial faults] fountain of learning fragment of conversation frame of mind frankness of manner freak of fancy freedom of enterprise frenzy of pursuit freshness of feeling frigidity of address frivolity of tone frown of meditation fulfilment of purpose fulness of time fury of resentment futility of pride G gaiety of spirit gales of laughter garb of thought garlands of roses gateway of fancy gem of truth genuineness of sentiment gesture of despair gift of repartee glamor of sensationalism glare of scrutiny gleam of light glib of speech glimmer of suspicion glory of salvation glow of enthusiasm gorgeousness of coloring grace of simplicity gradations of outrage grandeur of outline grasp of comprehension gravity of manner greatness of nature greed of office grimace of disappointment grimness of spirit grip of attention groundwork of melancholy growth of experience guide of aspiration gulf of incongruity gust of laughter H harbor of refuge harvest of regrets haven of rest haze of distance heat of enthusiasm height of absurdity hint of bitterness hopeful of success horizon of life horror of solitude hubbub of talk hue of divinity hum of pleasure hush of suspense I ideals of excellence idol of society illusion of youth immensity of extent immolation of genius impatient of restraint impetuosity of youth implacability of resentment impotent of ideas impress of individuality impulse of enthusiasm imputation of eccentricity incapable of veracity independence of mind index of character indolence of temperament indulgence of vanity inequality of treatment infinity of height infirmity of temper infusion of hatred inheritance of honor insensibility of danger insolence of office inspiration of genius instability of purpose instrument of expression integrity of mind intensity of faith interchange of ideas interval of leisure intoxication of vanity intrepidity of youth intuition of immortality invasion of thought irony of life J jangle of sounds jargon of philosophy jumble of facts justness of decision K keenness of intellect kernel of truth key of knowledge keynote of success king of finance kinship of humanity L lack of restraint languor of nature [languor = dreamy, lazy mood ] lapse of time laws of decorum laxity of mind legacy of thought liberty of conscience light of experience limit of endurance link of sequence loftiness of spirit look of dominance loophole of escape love of approbation [approbation = warm approval; praise] lust of conquest lustihood of youth luxuriance of expression M magnanimity of mind majesty of despair man of iron mantle of verdure [verdure = lush greenness of flourishing vegetation] martyrdom of ambition marvel of competency mask of flippancy mass of mediocrity master of phrasing maze of words measure of absurdity minister of vengeance minuteness of description miracle of miracles mists of criticism modesty of reserve moment of lassitude monster of ingratitude monstrosities of character mood of tranquillity muddle of motives multitude of details mummery of words [mummery = meaningless ceremonies and flattery] murmur of satisfaction mutations of time myriads of stars mysteries of taste N narrowness of range nebulae of romance nectar of enjoyment neglect of duty niceties of difference nightingale of affection nobility of purpose note of triumph O obduracy of mind [obduracy = intractable; hardened] object of contempt obligation of loyalty obliquity of vision [obliquity = mental deviation or aberration] obscurity of twilight ocean of eloquence omission of fact onrush of life onsets of temptation openness of mind opulence of detail orgy of lying ornaments of eloquence outbreak of hostilities outburst of tears outflow of sympathy outposts of morality overflow of vitality P page of desolation pageant of life pang of regret parade of erudition [erudition = extensive learning] passion of patriotism passivity of mind pattern of virtue peals of laughter pendulum of opinion pensiveness of feeling perils of fortune period of lassitude perturbation of mind perversity of chance pests of society petrifaction of egoism [petrifaction = fossilization; paralyzed with fear] phantom of delight phase of belief physiognomy of nature piece of pedantry [pedantry = attention to detail] pinions of eloquence [pinions = primary feather of a bird] pinnacle of favor pit of oblivion plainness of speech play of fancy plea of urgency plenitude of power point of view poise of mind policy of severity portent of danger power of imagination precipice of stupefaction precision of phrase prerogative of age presence of mind pressure of expediency presumption of doubt prey of fancy pride of life process of effacement profundity of thought profusion of argument progress of events promptings of reason propriety of action provocative of scorn puff of applause pulse of life purity of diction pursuit of knowledge puzzledom of life Q quagmire of distrust qualities of leadership qualm of conscience question of honor quickness of apprehension quivering of pain R radiance of morning range of experience rashness of intention ravages of time ray of hope reaches of achievement realities of life realm of peace rebound of fascination rectitude of soul redress of grievances redundance of words refinement of style reins of life relish of beauty remorse of guilt residue of truth resoluteness of conviction resource of expression restraint of speech revel of imagination revulsion of feeling richness of outline riddle of existence ridicule of ignorance riot of words ripeness of wisdom roars of exultation robe of humility robustness of mind root of individuality round of platitudes rush of agony rust of neglect ruts of conventionality S sadness of soul sanguine of success [sanguine = cheerfully confident; optimistic] sanity of judgment savoring of quackery scantiness of resources scarves of smoke school of adversity scrap of knowledge scruple of conscience searchlight of truth semblance of composure sensation of pity sense of urgency sentiment of disapprobation [approbation = warm approval; praise] sequence of events serenity of mind severity of style shackles of civilization shade of doubt shadow of truth shallowness of thought shock of apprehension shouts of approval shower of abuse shriek of wrath shuttle of life sigh of wind singleness of purpose slave of malice slough of ignorance slumber of death smile of raillery [raillery = good-natured teasing; banter] solace of adversity soul of generosity source of renown spark of perception species of despotism spell of emotion sphere of influence spice of caricature splendor of imagination spur of necessity start of uneasiness stateliness of movement sting of satire stolidity of sensation storehouse of facts storm of criticism stream of humanity stress of life string of episodes stroke of fate substratum of belief subtlety of intellect succession of events suggestion of fancy sum of happiness summit of misery sunshine of life supremacy of good surface of events surfeit of verbiage [surfeit = supply to excess] surge of pathos suspense of judgment suspicion of flattery sweep of landscape symbol of admiration system of aspersion T taint of megalomania tardiness of speech task of conciliation tempest of passion tenacity of execution tenderness of sentiment term of reproach threshold of consciousness thrift of time thrill of delight throb of compunction throng of sensations tide of humanitarianism timid of innovation tincture of depreciation tinge of mockery tissue of misrepresentations tolerant of folly tone of severity top of ambition torrent of fervor totality of effect touch of severity touchstone of genius trace of bitterness tradition of mankind train of disasters trait of cynicism trance of delight transport of enthusiasm trappings of wisdom trend of consciousness tribute of admiration trick of fancy tumult of applause turmoil of controversy turn of events twilight of elderliness twinge of envy U unity of purpose universality of experience V vagrancy of thought valley of misfortune vanguard of progress vehemence of manner vehicle of intercourse veil of futurity vein of snobbishness velocity of movement vestige of regard vicissitudes of life [vicissitudes = sudden or unexpected changes] vision of splendor vividness of memory voice of ambition void of authority volume of trade vow of allegiance W warmth of temperament waste of opportunity wave of depression wealth of meaning weariness of sorrow web of villainy weight of argument whiff of irritation whirl of delight whirligig of life whirlwind of words wilderness of perplexities wiles of innocence word of opprobrium [opprobrium = disgrace from shameful conduct] work of supererogation [supererogation = to do more than is required] world of fantasy worthy of mention y yoke of convention Z zest of enjoyment zone of delusion Preposition "by" A affected by externals allayed by sympathy animated by victory appraised by fashion assailed by conscience attained by effort avert by prayer B ballasted by brains beset by difficulties bound by opinion branded by defeat C characterized by discretion chastened by sorrow cheek by jowl circulated by malice clogged by insincerity colored by environment condemned by posterity confirmed by habit consoled by prayer convinced by argument convulsed by divisions D darkened by shadows dazzled by fame depraved by pain devoured by curiosity disgusted by servility driven by remorse E embarrassed by timidity encouraged by success enfeebled by age enforced by action enjoined by religion enriched by gifts established by convention evoked by shame F fascinated, by mystery favored by fortune fettered by systems fired by wrath forbid by authority fortified by faith G governed by precedent guided by instinct H haunted by visions hushed by denial I impelled by duty inculcated by practise induced by misrepresentation influenced by caution inspired by love L learned by rote M marked by acuteness measured by years N narrowed by custom O occasioned by irritation oppressed by destiny p parched by disuse persuaded by appeal portray by words prescribed by custom prevented by chance prompted by coquetry purged by sorrow R racked by suffering refuted by reason repelled by censure restrained by violence rising by industry S sanctioned by experience shaped by tradition soured by misfortune stung by derision supplanted by others supported by evidence T thwarted by fortune tempered by charity tormented by jealousy tortured by doubt U unadorned by artifice undaunted by failure undetermined by sorrow undone by treachery unfettered by fear urged by curiosity V vitalized by thought W won by aggression worn by time wrenched by emotions Preposition "in" A absorbed in meditation affable in manner [affable = gentle and gracious] atone in measure B barren in intellect basking in sunshine buried in solitude C call in question clothed in truth cloying in sweetness [cloying = too filling, rich, or sweet] confident in opinion confute in argument contemplative in aspect cumbrous in style [cumbrous = cumbersome; difficult to use] D deficient in insight delight in learning deterioration in quality difference in detail diligent in application diminish in respect dwarfed in numbers E end in smoke enumerate in detail experienced in duplicity F feeble in influence fertile in consequence flourish in luxuriance founded in truth G gaze in astonishment go in pursuit graceful in proportion grievously in error H hold in bondage I immersed in thought indulge in reverie inferior in character influential in society ingenuity in planning instance in point involved in obscurity K kept in abeyance L landmarks in memory languish in obscurity lie in wait limited in scope linger in expectation listen in amazement lost in awe lower in estimation luxuriant in fancy M monstrous in dulness mysterious in origin N noble in amplitude nursed in luxury O organized in thought P petulant in expression plead in vain pleasing in outline plunged in darkness positive in judgment practical in application pride in success protest in vain pursued in leisure Q quick in suggestion R ready in resource recoiling in terror remote in character revel in danger rich in variety rooted in prejudice S schooled in self-restraint scrupulous in conduct set in motion skilled in controversy sound in theory stammer in confusion stricken in years strides in civilization striking in character stunted in growth T tender in sentiment U unique in literature unity in diversity unprecedented in kind V versed in knowledge W wallow in idolatry wanting in dignity waver in purpose weak in conception Preposition "into" A abashed into silence B beguile into reading betray into speech blending into harmony bring into disrepute bullied into silence burn into memory burst into view C call into question carry into conflict chill into apathy coming into vogue cringe into favor crumbled into dust crystallized into action D dash into fragments deepen into confusion degenerate into monotony deluded into believing descent into death dissolve into nothingness dragged into pursuit drawn into controversy dribbling into words driven into servitude dulled into acquiescence E electrify into activity elevated into importance enquire into precedents enter into controversy expand into weakness F fade into insignificance fall into decay fashion into festoons flame into war flower into sympathy forced into action frozen into form fuse into unity G galvanize into life go into raptures goaded into action H hushed into silence I incursions into controversy insight into truth inveigled into dispute [inveigled = convince by coaxing, flattery] K kindle into action L lapse into pedantry [pedantries = attention to detail or rules] lash into silence launch into disapproval lead into captivity leap into currency lulled into indifference M melt into space merge into character p pass into oblivion plunge into despair pour into print Q quicken into life R relapse into savagery rendered into music resolve into nothingness retreat into silence ripened into love rush into print S shocked into attention sink into insignificance smitten into ice snubbed into quiescence stricken into silence summoned into being swollen into torrents T take into account thrown into disorder transform into beauty translated into fact U usher into society V vanish into mystery W wander into digression wheedled into acquiescence withdraw into solitude Preposition "to" A addicted to flattery adherence to principle affect to believe akin to truth alive to opportunity allied to virtue amenable to reason aspire to rule attempt to suppress aversion to publicity B blind to demonstration brought to repentance C claim to perpetuity come to nothing committed to righteousness common to humanity conducive to happiness conformable to fact consigned to oblivion constrained to speak contribution to knowledge D deaf to entreaty dedicated to friendship deference to custom devoted to ideals disposed to cavil [cavil = raise trivial objections] doomed to destruction driven to despair dwarf to unimportance E empowered to act endeared to all excite to pity exposed to derision F fly to platitudes foredoomed to failure G given to extravagance ground to atoms H harassed to death hostile to progress I impervious to suggestion impossible to reconcile impotent to save incentive to devotion incitement to anger inclined to vascillate indifference to truth intent to deceive intolerable to society inured to fatigue [inured = habituate to something undesirable] invocation to sleep L laugh to scorn left to conjecture lost to remembrance O obedience to conscience oblivious to criticism offensive to modesty open to reason opposed to innovation p pander to prejudice pertaining to fashion prone to melancholy propose to undertake provoke to laughter put to confusion R recourse to falsehood reduced to impotence related to eternity repeat to satiety repugnant to justice requisite to success resort to violence run to seed S seek to overawe serve to embitter spur to action stimulus to ambition stirred to remonstrance subject to scrutiny succumb to fascination superior to circumstances susceptible to argument T temptation to doubt tend to frustrate trust to chance U utilize to advantage V venture to say vital to success W wedded to antiquity Y yield to reason Preposition "with" A abounding with plenty accord with nature act with deliberation adorn with beauty afflict with ugliness aflame with life allied with economy anticipate with delight ascertain with exactness attended with danger B beam with self-approval behave with servility big with fate blinded with tears blush with shame branded with cowardice bubbling with laughter burn with indignation C cling with tenacity clothe with authority compatible with freedom comply with tradition conceal with difficulty consistent with facts covered with ignominy crush with sorrow D deny with emphasis depressed with fear dispense with formality distort with passion E echo with merriment endow with intelligence endued with faith [endued = provide with a quality; put on] endure with fortitude examine with curiosity F face with indifference flushed with pride fraught with peril furious with indignation G glowing with delight I imbued with courage incompatible with reason inconsistent with beauty inflamed with rage inspired with patriotism intoxicated with joy K kindle with enthusiasm L laugh with glee M meet with rebuke mingled with curiosity move with alacrity O oppressed with hardship overcome with shyness overflowing with love overhung with gloom P performed with regularity pervaded with grandeur proceed with alertness punish with severity Q quicken with pride quiver with anxiety R radiant with victory regard with loathing relate with zest repel with indignation S saddle with responsibility scream with terror scrutinize with care seething with sedition [sedition = conduct or language inciting rebellion] sick with dread sob with anguish squirm with delight suffuse with spirituality T tainted with fraud teeming with life tense with expectancy thrill with excitement throb with vitality tinged with romance touched with feeling treat with contempt tremble with fear U unmixed with emotion utter with sarcasm V vibrant with feeling view with awe W wield with power work with zeal SECTION VI BUSINESS PHRASES A A request for further particulars will not involve any obligation A telegram is enclosed for your use, as this matter is urgent Accept our thanks for your recent remittance Acknowledging the receipt of your recent inquiry After examination we can confidently say After very carefully considering Again thanking you for the inquiry Agreeable to our conversation An addressed envelope is enclosed for your convenience An early reply will greatly oblige Answering your recent inquiry Any information you may give us will be appreciated Any time that may suit your convenience As a matter of convenience and economy As a special favor we ask As directed in your letter, we are shipping to you As explained in our previous letter As it will give us an opportunity to demonstrate our ability As stated in our previous letter As we have received no response from you As you, doubtless, are aware As you probably have been told As your experience has probably shown you Assuring you of every courtesy Assuring you of our entire willingness to comply with your request Assuring you of prompt and careful cooperation At the present writing At the suggestion of one of our patrons At your earliest opportunity Awaiting the favor of your prompt attention Awaiting the pleasure of serving you Awaiting your early communication Awaiting your further commands Awaiting your pleasure B Believing you will answer this promptly C Complying with your request Conditions make it obligatory for us D Do not hesitate to let us know Do not overlook this opportunity Do you realize that you can E Enclosed please find a memorandum Enclosed we beg to hand you Enclosed you will find a circular which will fully explain F For some years past For your convenience we enclose a stamped envelope For your further information we take pleasure in sending to you Frankly, we believe it is extremely worth while for you From the standpoint of serviceability H Here is a complete answer to Here is your opportunity Hoping for a continuance of your interest Hoping for a definite reply Hoping that our relations may prove mutually satisfactory Hoping to be favored with your order How may we serve you further? However, because of the special circumstances attached I I am compelled to inform you I am confident that you will be thoroughly satisfied I am directed to say to you I am, gentlemen, yours faithfully I am giving the matter my personal attention I am, my dear sir, yours faithfully I am still holding this offer open to you I ask that you be good enough I beg to request that you give me some information I believe I understand perfectly just how you feel about I have been favorably impressed by your I have now much pleasure in confirming I have pleasure in acknowledging I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt I have the honor to remain I herewith submit my application I highly appreciate this mark of confidence I look forward to pleasant personal relations in the future I regret exceedingly to inform you I remain, my dear sir, yours faithfully I shall be pleased to forward descriptive circulars I shall esteem it a personal favor I should welcome an interview at your convenience I sincerely hope that you will give the subject your earnest consideration I take pleasure in replying to your inquiry concerning I trust I shall hear from you soon I want to express the hope that our pleasant business relations will continue I want to interest you I want to thank you for your reply I wish to confirm my letter If I can be of further service, please address me If it is not convenient for you If there is any valid reason why you are unable If we can be of service to you If we can help you in any way If we have not made everything perfectly clear, please let us know If you accommodate us, the favor will be greatly appreciated If you are interested, please let us hear from you If you are thinking about ordering If you desire, our representative will call If you have any cause for dissatisfaction If you give this matter your prompt attention In accordance with the terms of our offer In accordance with your request In answering your inquiry regarding In any event, a reply to this will be very much appreciated In closing we can only assure you In compliance with your favor In compliance with your request, we are pleased to send to you In conclusion, we can assure you In order to facilitate our future transactions In reference to your application In regard to your proposition In reply thereto, we wish to inform you In reply to your valued favor In response to your recent request In spite of our best efforts it is not probable In thanking you for the patronage with which you have favored us In view of all these facts, we feel justified in claiming Information has just reached me It gives us pleasure to recommend It has consistently been our aim to help our customers It is a matter of great regret to us It is a pleasure for me to answer your inquiry It is a well known fact It is interesting to note It is our very great pleasure to advise you It is the policy of our house It seems clear that our letter must have miscarried It was purely an oversight on our part It will be entirely satisfactory to us It will be our aim to interest you It will be readily appreciated It will be to your advantage It will doubtless be more convenient for you It will interest you to know It will receive the same careful attention J Just mail the enclosed card K Kindly endorse your reply on the enclosed sheet Kindly let us have your confirmation at your earliest convenience Kindly let us know your pleasure concerning Kindly read the enclosed list L Let me thank you for the opportunity to give this matter my personal attention Let us assure you of our desire to cooperate with you Let us assure you that we are very much pleased Let us know if there is any further attention Let us thank you again for opening an account with us Looking forward to the early receipt of some of your orders M May I ask you to do us a great favor by May we be favored with a reply Meantime soliciting your forbearance Meanwhile permit me to thank you for your kind attention O On referring to your account we notice Our letter must have gone astray Our relations with your house must have hitherto been very pleasant Our services are at your command Our stock has been temporarily exhausted Owing to our inability to collect out-standing debts P Permit me to add Permit us to express our sincere appreciation Please accept the thanks of the writer Please consider this letter an acknowledgment Please favor us with a personal communication Please feel assured that we shall use every endeavor Possibly the enclosure may suggest to you Promptly on receipt of your telegram Pursuant to your letter R Recently we had occasion Referring to your esteemed favor Regretting our inability to serve you in the present instance Reluctant as we are to believe Requesting your kind attention to this matter S Should you decide to act upon this latter suggestion So many requests of a similar nature come to us Soliciting a continuance of your patronage T Thank you for your expression of confidence Thanking you for your inquiry Thanking you for your past patronage Thanking you for your promptness. Thanking you in advance for an early reply Thanking you in anticipation The causes for the delay were beyond our control The margin of profit which we allow ourselves The proof is in this fact The proposition appeals to us as a good one Therefore we are able to make you this offer Therefore we trust you will write to us promptly These points should be most carefully considered This arrangement will help us over the present difficulty This is according to our discussion This matter has been considered very seriously This personal guarantee I look upon as a service to you This privileged communication is for the exclusive use This will amply repay you Trusting that we may have the pleasure of serving you Trusting to receive your best consideration U Under no circumstances can we entertain such an arrangement Under separate cover we are mailing to you Under these circumstances we are willing to extend the terms Unfortunately we are compelled at certain times Unless you can give us reasonable assurance Upon being advised that these terms are satisfactory Upon receiving your letter of W We acknowledge with pleasure the receipt of your order We admit that you are justified in your complaint We again solicit an opportunity We again thank you for your inquiry We always endeavor to please We appreciate the order you were kind enough to send to us We appreciate your patronage very much We are always glad to furnish information We are anxious to make satisfactory adjustment We are at a loss to understand why We are at your service at all times We are confident that you will have no further trouble We are extremely desirous of pleasing our patrons We are in a position to give you considerable help We are in receipt of your communication regarding We are indeed sorry to learn We are perfectly willing to make concessions We are pleased to receive your request for information We are pleased to send you descriptive circulars We are reluctant to adopt such severe measures We are satisfied regarding your statement We are sending to you by mail We are sorry to learn from your letter We are thoroughly convinced of the need We are totally at a loss to understand We are very anxious to have you try We are very glad to testify to the merit of We ask for a continuance of your confidence We ask that you kindly let us hear from you We assume that you are considering We assure you of our confidence in the reliability We assure you of our desire to be of service We await an early, and we trust, a favorable reply We await the courtesy of an early answer We beg a moment of your attention and serious consideration We believe that if you will carefully consider the matter We believe you will readily understand our position We can assure you that any order with which you favor us We desire information pertaining to your financial condition We desire to effect a settlement We desire to express our appreciation of your patronage We desire to impress upon you We expect to be in the market soon We feel assured that you will appreciate We feel sure that you will approve of our action in this matter We frankly apologize to you We hasten to acknowledge the receipt We have anticipated a heavy demand We have, as yet, no definite understanding We have come to the conclusion We have endeavored to serve the needs of your organization We have found it impossible We have much pleasure in answering your inquiry We have no desire to adopt harsh measures We have not had the pleasure of placing your name on our ledgers We have not, however, had the pleasure of hearing from you We have not yet had time to sift the matter thoroughly We have the honor to be, gentlemen We have the honor to inform you We have thought it best to forward We have your request for information regarding We hesitated for a while to pursue the matter We hope that an understanding can be reached We hope that we shall have many opportunities to demonstrate our ability We hope that you will find the enclosed booklet very interesting We hope to hear favorably from you We hope you will appreciate We hope you will excuse the unavoidable delay We invite your attention to We must insist upon a prompt settlement We must, therefore, insist on the terms of the agreement We note that the time is at hand We offer you the services of an expert We particularly want to interest you We realize that this matter has escaped your attention We realize that this is simply an oversight on your part We regret exceedingly that you have been inconvenienced We regret our inability to meet your wishes We regret that owing to the press of business We regret that this misunderstanding has occurred We regret that we are not in a position We regret that we are unable to grant your request We regret the necessity of calling your attention We regret to be compelled for this reason to withdraw the privilege We regret to learn that you are disappointed We remain, dear sir, yours faithfully We remain, gentlemen, with thanks We shall await your early commands with interest We shall await your reply with interest We shall be glad to fill your order We shall be glad to have you tell us frankly We shall be glad to render you any assistance in our power We shall be happy to meet your requirements We shall be indebted to you for your courtesy We shall be pleased to receive the remittance We shall be pleased to take the matter up further We shall do everything in our power We shall do our best to correct the mistake We shall feel compelled We shall heartily appreciate any information We shall use every endeavor We suggest that this is an opportune time We suggest that you consider We take pleasure in enclosing herewith We take pleasure in explaining the matter you asked about We take the liberty of deviating from your instructions We take the liberty of writing to you. We thank you for calling our attention We thank you for your courteous letter We thank you for your kind inquiry of recent date We thank you very gratefully for your polite and friendly letter We thank you very much for the frank statement of your affairs We thank you very sincerely for your assistance We think you will agree We trust our explanation will meet with your approval We trust that we may hear favorably from you We trust that you will give this matter your immediate attention We trust you may secure some of the exceptional values We trust you will find it correct We trust you will not consider us unduly strict We trust you will promptly comply with our previous suggestions We understand your position We urge that you write to us by early mail We venture to enclose herewith We very much wish you to examine We want every opportunity to demonstrate our willingness We want particularly to impress upon you this fact We want to please you in every respect We want to remind you again We want you to read the booklet carefully We will at once enter your order We will be compelled to take the necessary steps We will be glad to lay before you the fullest details We will be pleased to give it careful consideration We will gladly accommodate you We will gladly extend to you similar courtesies whenever we can do so We will make it a point to give your correspondence close attention We would appreciate a remittance We would consider it a great favor We would draw your attention to the fact We would request, as a special favor We write to suggest to you We write to urge upon you the necessity We wrote to you at length While we appreciate the peculiar circumstances While we feel that we are in no way responsible Why not allow us this opportunity to satisfy you Will you give us, in confidence, your opinion Will you give us the benefit of your experience Will you kindly advise us in order that we may adjust our records Will you please give us your immediate attention With our best respects and hoping to hear from you With reference to your favor of yesterday With regard to your inquiry With the fullest assurance that we are considering With the greatest esteem and respect Y You are certainly justified in complaining You are evidently aware that there is a growing demand You are quite right in your statement You cannot regret more than I the necessity You undoubtedly are aware You will find interest, we believe, in this advance announcement You will get the benefit of this liberal offer You will have particular interest in the new and attractive policy Your early attention to this matter will oblige Your further orders will be esteemed Your inquiry has just been received, and we are glad to send to you Your orders and commands will always have our prompt and best attention Your satisfaction will dictate our course Your trial order is respectfully solicited Your usual attention will oblige SECTION VII LITERARY EXPRESSIONS A A bitterness crept into her face A blazing blue sky poured down torrents of light A book to beguile the tedious hours A brave but turbulent aristocracy A broad, complacent, admiring imbecility breathed from his nose and lips A burlesque feint of evading a blow A callous and conscienceless brute A calm and premeditated prudence A calmness settled on his spirit A campaign of unbridled ferocity A carefully appraising eye A ceaselessly fleeting sky A certain implication of admiring confidence A charming air of vigor and vitality A childish belief in his own impeccability A cold, hard, frosty penuriousness was his prevalent characteristic [penuriousness = stingy; barren; poverty-stricken] A compassion perfectly angelic A constant stream of rhythmic memories A covertly triumphant voice A creature of the most delicate and rapid responses A crop of disappointments A cunning intellect patiently diverting every circumstance to its design A curious and inexplicable uneasiness A curious vexation fretted her A daily avalanche of vituperation [vituperation = harshly abusive language] A dandified, pretty-boy-looking sort of figure A dark and relentless fate A day monotonous and colorless A dazzling completeness of beauty A deep and brooding resentment A delicious throng of sensations A deliciously tantalizing sense A detached segment of life A dire monotony of bookish idiom A disheveled and distraught figure A face singularly acute and intelligent A faint accent of reproach A faint sense of compunction moved her A faint, transient, wistful smile lightened her brooding face A faint tremor of amusement was on his lips A faintly quizzical look came into his incisive stare A fawn-colored sea streaked here and there with tints of deepest orange A fever of enthusiasm A few tears came to soften her seared vision A fiery exclamation of wrath and disdain A figure full of decision and dignity A firm and balanced manhood A first faint trace of irritation A fitful boy full of dreams and hopes A flame of scarlet crept in a swift diagonal across his cheeks A fleeting and furtive air of triumph A flood of pride rose in him A foreboding of some destined change A fortuitous series of happy thoughts A frigid touch of the hand A fugitive intangible charm A gay exuberance of ambition A generation of men lavishly endowed with genius A gentle sarcasm ruffled her anger A ghastly whiteness overspread the cheek A glance of extraordinary meaning A glassy expression of inattention A glassy stare of deprecating horror A glittering infectious smile A gloom overcame him A golden haze of pensive light A golden summer of marvelous fertility A graceful readiness and vigor A grave man of pretending exterior A great pang gripped her heart A great process of searching and shifting A great sickness of heart smote him A great soul smitten and scourged, but still invested with the dignity of immortality A grim and shuddering fascination A gush of entrancing melody A gusty breeze blew her hair about unheeded A half-breathless murmur of amazement and incredulity A half-uneasy, half-laughing compunction A harassing anxiety of sorrow A harvest of barren regrets A haunting and horrible sense of insecurity A heavy oppression seemed to brood upon the air A helpless anger simmered in him A hint of death in the icy breath of the gale A hot and virulent skirmish A hot uprush of hatred and loathing A kind of ineffable splendor crowns the day A lapse from the well-ordered decencies of civilization A large, rich, copious human endowment A late star lingered, remotely burning A laugh of jovial significance A light of unwonted pleasure in her eyes [unwonted = unusual] A little jaded by gastronomical exertions A lukewarm and selfish love A man of imperious will [imperious = arrogantly domineering] A man of matchless modesty and refinement A manner bright with interest and interrogation A manner nervously anxious to please A melancholy monotone beat on one's heart A mere exhibition of fussy diffuseness A mere figment of a poet's fancy A mien and aspect singularly majestic [mien = bearing or manner] A mild and deprecating air A mind singularly practical and sagacious [sagacious = wise] A mouth of inflexible decision A murmur of complacency A mystery everlastingly impenetrable A nameless sadness which is always born of moonlight A new and overmastering impulse A new doubt assailed her A new marvel of the sky A new trouble was dawning on his thickening mental horizon A nimble-witted opponent A painful thought was flooding his mind A pang of jealousy not unmingled with scorn A patience worthy of admiration A perfect carnival of fun A perfect crime of clumsiness A piteous aspect of woe A portent full of possible danger A potion to be delicately supped at leisure A powerful agitation oppressed him A prevailing sentiment of uneasy discontent A prey to listless uneasiness A profound and absorbing interest A profound and eager hopefulness A profound and rather irritating egotist by nature A prop for my faint heart A propitious sky, marbled with pearly white [propitious = favorable; kindly; gracious] A protest wavered on her lip A puissant and brilliant family [puissant = powerful; mighty] A queer, uncomfortable perplexity began to invade her A quick flame leaped in his eyes A quick shiver ruffled the brooding stillness of the water A quiver of resistance ran through her A remarkable fusion of morality and art A random gleam of light A rare and dazzling order of beauty A rhythmical torrent of eloquent prophecy A river of shame swept over him A sad inquiry seemed to dwell in her gaze A satisfied sense of completeness A secret sweeter than the sea or sky can whisper A sensation of golden sweetness and delight A sense of desolation and disillusionment overwhelmed me A sense of infinite peace brooded over the place A sense of meditative content A sense of repression was upon her A sentiment of distrust in its worth had crept into her thoughts A sheaf of letters A shimmer of golden sun shaking through the trees A shiver of apprehension crisped her skin A shuffling compromise between defiance and prostration A sigh of large contentment A sight for the angels to weep over A skepticism which prompted rebellion A slight movement of incredulous dissent A smile full of subtle charm A smile of exquisite urbanity A soft insidious plea A soft intonation of profound sorrow A soft suspicion of ulterior motives A solemn glee possessed my mind A solemn gray expanse that lost itself far away in the gray of the sea A solemn utterance of destiny A somber and breathless calm hung over the deepening eve A somewhat melancholy indolence A somewhat sharp and incisive voice A sonorous voice bade me enter A soothing and quieting touch was gently laid upon her soul A sort of eager, almost appealing amiability A sort of stolid despairing acquiescence A sort of stunned incredulity A soundless breeze that was little more than a whisper A spacious sense of the amplitude of life's possibilities A staccato cough interrupted the flow of speech A state of sullen self-absorption A steady babble of talk and laughter A step was at her heels A stifling sensation of pain and suspense A stinging wind swept the woods A strange compound of contradictory elements A stream of easy talk A strong convulsion shook the vague indefinite form A strong susceptibility to the ridiculous A subtle emphasis of scorn A sudden and stinging delight A sudden gleam of insight A sudden uncontrollable outburst of feeling A super-abundance of boisterous animal spirits A supercilious scorn and pity [supercilious = haughty disdain] A super-refinement of taste A swaggering air of braggadocio [braggadocio = pretentious bragging] A sweet bewilderment of tremulous apprehension [tremulous = fearful] A sweet, quiet, sacred, stately seclusion A swift knowledge came to her A swift unformulated fear A swiftly unrolling panorama of dreams A tangle of ugly words A thousand evanescent memories of happy days [evanescent = vanishing like vapor] A thousand unutterable fears bore irresistible despotism over her thoughts A time of disillusion followed A tiny stream meandering amiably A tone of arduous admiration A torn and tumultuous sky A total impression ineffable and indescribable A tragic futility A treacherous throb of her voice A true similitude of what befalls many men and women A tumult of vehement feeling A tumultuous rush of sensations A twinge of embarrassment A vague and wistful melancholy A vast sweet silence crept through the trees A veritable spring-cleaning of the soul A very practised and somewhat fastidious critic A violent and mendacious tongue [mendacious = false; untrue] A vivid and arresting presentation A waking dream overshadowed her A weird world of morbid horrors A well-bred mixture of boldness and courtesy A wild vivacity was in her face and manner A wile of the devil's [wile = trick intended to deceive or ensnare] A wind strayed through the gardens A withering sensation of ineffable boredom A wordless farewell Absolutely vulgarized by too perpetual a parroting Absorbed in a stream of thoughts and reminiscences Absorbed in the scent and murmur of the night Accidents which perpetually deflect our vagrant attention Across the gulf of years Administering a little deft though veiled castigation Affected an ironic incredulity Affecting a tone of gayety After a first moment of reluctance After an eternity of resolutions, doubts, and indecisions Aghast at his own helplessness Agitated and enthralled by day-dreams Agitated with violent and contending emotions Alien paths and irrelevant junketings All embrowned and mossed with age All her gift of serene immobility brought into play All hope of discreet reticence was ripped to shreds All the lesser lights paled into insignificance All the magic of youth and joy of life was there All the place is peopled with sweet airs All the sky was mother-of-pearl and tender All the unknown of the night and of the universe was pressing upon him All the world was flooded with a soft golden light All was a vague jumble of chaotic impressions All was incomprehensible All was instinctive and spontaneous Aloof from the motley throng Ambition shivered into fragments Amid distress and humiliation Amid the direful calamities of the time An acute note of distress in her voice An agreeably grave vacuity An air half quizzical and half deferential An air of affected civility An air of being meticulously explicit An air of inimitable, scrutinizing, superb impertinence An air of stern, deep, and irredeemable gloom hung over and pervaded all An air of uncanny familiarity An air which was distinctly critical An almost pathetic appearance of ephemeral fragility [ephemeral = markedly short-lived] An almost riotous prodigality of energy An answering glow of gratitude An antagonist worth her steel An artful stroke of policy An assumption of hostile intent An assurance of good-nature that forestalled hostility An atmosphere of extraordinary languor [languor = dreamy, lazy mood ] An atmosphere thick with flattery and toadyism An attack of peculiar virulence and malevolence An audacious challenge of ridicule An avidity that bespoke at once the restlessness, [avidity = eagerness] and the genius of her mind An awe crept over me An eager and thirsty ear An easy prey to the powers of folly An effusive air of welcome An equal degree of well-bred worldly cynicism An erect, martial, majestic, and imposing personage An eternity of silence oppressed him An expression of mildly humorous surprise An expression of rare and inexplicable personal energy An exquisite perception of things beautiful and rare An iciness, a sinking, a sickening of the heart An ignoring eye An impenetrable screen of foliage An impersonal and slightly ironic interest An impervious beckoning motion An inarticulate echo of his longing An increased gentleness of aspect An incursion of the loud, the vulgar and meretricious [meretricious = plausible but false] An inexplicable and uselessly cruel caprice of fate An inexpressible fervor of serenity An ingratiating, awkward and, wistful grace An inspired ray was in his eyes An instant she stared unbelievingly An intense and insatiable hunger for light and truth An intense travail of mind An obscure thrill of alarm An odd little air of penitent self-depreciation An open wit and recklessness of bearing An oppressive sense of strange sweet odor An optimistic after-dinner mood An overburdening sense of the inexpressible An uncomfortable premonition of fear An unfailing sweetness and unerring perception An unpleasant and heavy sensation sat at his heart An unredeemed dreariness of thought An unsuspected moral obtuseness An utter depression of soul And day peers forth with her blank eyes And what is all this pother about? [pother = commotion; disturbance] Animated by noble pride Anticipation painted the world in rose Appalled in speechless disgust Appealing to the urgent temper of youth Apprehensive solicitude about the future Ardent words of admiration Armed all over with subtle antagonisms Artless and unquestioning devotion As if smitten by a sudden spasm As the long train sweeps away into the golden distance August and imperial names in the kingdom of thought Awaiting his summons to the eternal silence B Bandied about from mouth to mouth Barricade the road to truth Bartering the higher aspirations of life Beaming with pleasurable anticipation Before was the open malignant sea Beguiled the weary soul of man Beneath the cold glare of the desolate night Bent on the lofty ends of her destiny Beset by agreeable hallucinations Beset with smiling hills Beside himself in an ecstasy of pleasure Betokening an impulsive character Beyond the farthest edge of night Birds were fluting in the tulip-trees Biting sentences flew about Black inky night Blithe with the bliss of the morning Blown about by every wind of doctrine Bookish precision and professional peculiarity Borne from lip to lip Borne onward by slow-footed time Borne with a faculty of willing compromise Bowed with a certain frigid and deferential surprise Broke in a stupendous roar upon the shuddering air Browsing at will on all the uplands of knowledge and thought Buffeted by all the winds of passion Buried hopes rose from their sepulchers Buried in the quicksands of ignorance But none the less peremptorily [peremptorily = ending all debate or action] By a curious irony of fate By a happy turn of thinking By virtue of his impassioned curiosity C Carried the holiday in his eye Chafed at the restraints imposed on him Cheeks furrowed by strong purpose and feeling Childlike contour of the body Cleansed of prejudice and self-interest Cloaked in prim pretense Clothed with the witchery of fiction Clutch at the very heart of the usurping mediocrity Cold gaze of curiosity Collapse into a dreary and hysterical depression Comment of rare and delightful flavor Conjuring up scenes of incredible beauty and terror Conscious of unchallenged supremacy Constant indulgence of wily stratagem and ambitious craft Contemptuously indifferent to the tyranny of public opinion Covered with vegetation in wild luxuriance Crisp sparkle of the sea Crystallize about a common nucleus Cultivated with a commensurate zeal Current play of light gossip Curtains of opaque rain D Dallying in maudlin regret over the past [maudlin = tearfully sentimental] Dark with unutterable sorrows Darkness oozed out from between the trees Dawn had broken Day stood distinct in the sky Days of vague and fantastic melancholy Days that are brief and shadowed Deep shame and rankling remorse Deficient in affectionate or tender impulses Delicately emerging stars Delicious throng of sensations Despite her pretty insolence Dignity and sweet patience were in her look Dim opalescence of the moon Dimly foreshadowed on the horizon Dimmed by the cold touch of unjust suspicion Disfigured by passages of solemn and pompous monotony. Disguised itself as chill critical impartiality Dismal march of death Distinguished by hereditary rank or social position Distract and beguile the soul Distressing in their fatuous ugliness Diverted into alien channels Diverting her eyes, she pondered Dogs the footsteps Doled out in miserly measure Doubt tortured him Doubts beset her lonely and daring soul Down the steep of disenchantment Dreams and visions were surpassed Dreams that fade and die in the dim west Drear twilight of realities Drift along the stream of fancy Drowned in the deep reticence of the sea Drowsiness coiled insidiously about him Dull black eyes under their precipice of brows E Earth danced under a heat haze Easily moved to gaiety and pleasure Either way her fate was cruel Embrace with ardor the prospect of serene leisure Endearing sweetness and manner Endeavoring to smile away his chagrin Endlessly shifting moods Endowed with all those faculties that can make the world a garden of enchantment Endowed with life and emphasis Enduring with smiling composure the near presence of people who are distasteful Enjoyed with astonishing unscrupulousness Enticed irresistibly by the freedom of an open horizon Essay a flight of folly Evanescent shades of feeling [evanescent = vanishing like vapor] Events took an unexpected sinister turn Every curve of her features seemed to express a fine arrogant acrimony and harsh truculence Everywhere the fragrance of a bountiful earth Exasperated by what seemed a wilful pretense of ignorance Exhibits itself in fastidious crotchets Expectation darkened into anxiety Experience and instinct warred within her Exquisite graciousness of manner Exquisitely stung by the thought F Familiar and endearing intimacy Fatally and indissolubly united Fathomless depths of suffering Fear held him in a vice Feeding his scholarly curiosity Feeling humiliated by the avowal Felicitousness in the choice and exquisiteness in the collocation of words Fettered by poverty and toil Feverish tide of life Fine precision of intent Fitful tumults of noble passion Fleeting touches of something alien and intrusive Floating in the clouds of reverie Fluctuations of prosperity and adversity Flushed with a suffusion that crimsoned her whole countenance Forebodings possessed her Foreshadowing summer's end Forever echo in the heart Forever sings itself in memory Formless verbosity and a passionate rhetoric Fragments of most touching melody Free from rigid or traditional fetters Freedom and integrity of soul Freighted with strange, vague longings Frosty thraldom of winter [thraldom = servitude; bondage] Fugitive felicities of thought and sensation Full of dreams and refinements and intense abstractions Full of majestic tenderness G Gathering all her scattered impulses into a passionate act of courage Gaze dimly through a maze of traditions Generosity pushed to prudence Gleams of sunlight, bewildered like ourselves, struggled, surprised, through the mist and disappeared Glowing with haste and happiness Go straight, as if by magic, to the inner meaning Goaded on by his sense of strange importance Graceful length of limb and fall of shoulders Great shuddering seized on her Green hills pile themselves upon each other's shoulders Grim and sullen after the flush of the morning Guilty of girlish sentimentality H Half choked by a rising paroxysm of rage Half-suffocated by his triumph Hardened into convictions and resolves Haughtiness and arrogance were largely attributed to him Haunt the recesses of the memory Haunted with a chill and unearthly foreboding He accosted me with trepidation He adroitly shifted his ground He airily lampooned their most cherished prejudices He bowed submission He braced himself to the exquisite burden of life He condescended to intimate speech with her He conversed with a colorless fluency He could detect the hollow ring of fundamental nothingness He could do absolutely naught He drank of the spirit of the universe He drew near to a desperate resolve He evinced his displeasure by a contemptuous sneer or a grim scowl He felt an unaccountable loathing He felt the ironic rebound of her words He flung diffidence to the winds He flushed crimson He found the silence intolerably irksome He frowned perplexedly He gave her a baffled stare He gave himself to a sudden day-dream He gave his ear to this demon of false glory He grew wanton with success He had acted with chivalrous delicacy of honor He had the eye of an eagle in his trade He had the gift of deep, dark silences He held his breath in admiring silence He laughed away my protestations He lent no countenance to the insensate prattle He listened greedily and gazed intent He made a loathsome object He made the politest of monosyllabic replies He murmured a civil rejoinder He murmured a vague acceptance He mused a little while in grave thought He never wears an argument to tatters He only smiled with fatuous superiority He paused, stunned and comprehending He perceived the iron hand within the velvet glove He raised a silencing hand He ruled autocratically He sacrificed the vulgar prizes of life He sat on thorns He set his imagination adrift He shambled away with speed He sighed deeply, from a kind of mental depletion He smote her quickening sensibilities He submitted in brooding silence He suppressed every sign of surprise He surrendered himself to gloomy thought He threaded a labyrinth of obscure streets He threw a ton's weight of resolve upon his muscles He threw out phrases of ill-humor He threw round a measuring eye He treads the primrose path of dalliance He used an unguarded adjective He was a tall, dark, saturnine youth, sparing of speech [saturnine = melancholy; sullen] He was aware of emotion He was born to a lively and intelligent patriotism He was dimly mistrustful of it He was discreetly silent He was empty of thought He was entangled in a paradox He was giving his youth away by handfuls He was haunted and begirt by presences He was measured and urbane He was most profoundly skeptical He was nothing if not grandiloquent He was quaking on the precipice of a bad bilious attack He was utterly detached from life He went hot and cold He would fall into the blackest melancholies He writhed in the grip of a definite apprehension He writhed with impotent humiliation Her blank gaze chilled you Her bright eyes were triumphant Her eyes danced with malice Her eyes dilated with pain and fear Her eyes were full of wondering interest Her eyes were limpid and her beauty was softened by an air of indolence and languor [languor = dreamy, lazy mood] Her face stiffened anew into a gray obstinacy Her face was lit up by a glow of inspiration and resolve Her haughty step waxed timorous and vigilant Her head throbbed dangerously Her heart appeared to abdicate its duties Her heart fluttered with a vague terror Her heart pounded in her throat Her heart was full of speechless sorrow Her hurrying thoughts clamored for utterance Her imagination recoiled Her interest flagged Her life had dwarfed her ambitions Her limbs ran to marble Her lips hardened Her lips parted in a keen expectancy Her mind was a store-house of innocuous anecdote Her mind was beaten to the ground by the catastrophe Her mood was unaccountably chilled Her musings took a sudden and arbitrary twist Her scarlet lip curled cruelly Her smile was faintly depreciatory Her smile was linked with a sigh Her solicitude thrilled him Her stare dissolved Her step seemed to pity the grass it prest Her strength was scattered in fits of agitation Her stumbling ignorance which sought the road of wisdom Her thoughts outstripped her erring feet Her tone was gathering remonstrance Her tongue on the subject was sharpness itself Her tongue stumbled and was silent Her voice had the coaxing inflections of a child Her voice trailed off vaguely Her voice was full of temper, hard-held Her voice, with a tentative question in it, rested in air Her wariness seemed put to rout His accents breathed profound relief His agitation increased His brow grew knit and gloomy His brow was in his hand His conscience leapt to the light His constraint was excruciating His curiosity is quenched His dignity counseled him to be silent His ears sang with the vibrating intensity of his secret existence His eyes had a twinkle of reminiscent pleasantry His eyes literally blazed with savage fire His eyes shone with the pure fire of a great purpose His eyes stared unseeingly His face caught the full strength of the rising wind His face dismissed its shadow His face fell abruptly into stern lines His face lit with a fire of decision His face showed a pleased bewilderment His face torn with conflict His face was gravely authoritative His gaze faltered and fell His gaze searched her face His gaze seemed full of unconquerable hopefulness His hand supported his chin His hands were small and prehensible [prehensible = capable of being seized] His heart asserted itself again, thunderously beating His heart rebuked him His heart was full of enterprise His impatient scorn expired His last illusions crumbled His lips loosened in a furtively exultant smile His lips seemed to be permanently parted in a good-humored smile His mind echoed with words His mind leaped gladly to meet new issues and fresh tides of thought His mind was dazed and wandering in a mist of memories His mood yielded His mouth quivered with pleasure His passions vented themselves with sneers His pulses leaped anew His reputation had withered His sensibilities were offended His shrewd gaze fixed appraisingly upon her His soul full of fire and eagle-winged His soul was compressed into a single agony of prayer His soul was wrung with a sudden wild homesickness His speech faltered His swift and caustic satire His temper was dark and explosive His thoughts galloped His thoughts were in clamoring confusion His tone assumed a certain asperity [asperity = roughness; harshness] His torpid ideas awoke again His troubled spirit shifted its load His vagrant thoughts were in full career His voice insensibly grew inquisitorial His voice was thick with resentment and futile protest His whole face was lighted with a fierce enthusiasm His whole frame seemed collapsed and shrinking His whole tone was flippant and bumptious His words trailed off brokenly His youthful zeal was contagious Hope was far and dim How sweet and reasonable the pale shadows of those who smile from some dim corner of our memories Humiliating paltriness of revenge I I capitulated by inadvertence I cut my reflections adrift I felt a qualm of apprehension I suffered agonies of shyness I took the good day from the hands of God as a perfect gift I was in a somber mood I was overshadowed by a deep boding I was piqued [piqued = resentment; indignation] I yielded to the ingratiating mood of the day Ill-bred insolence was his only weapon Ill-dissimulated fits of ambition Imbued with a vernal freshness [vernal = resembling spring; fresh] Immense and careless prodigality Immense objects which dwarf us Immersed in secret schemes Immured in a trivial round of duty [immured = confine within] Impassioned and earnest language Impatient and authoritative tones Impervious to the lessons of experience Implying an immense melancholy Imprisoned within an enchanted circle In a deprecating tone of apology In a flash of revelation In a gale of teasing merriment In a misery of annoyance and mortification In a musing ecstasy of contemplation In a sky stained with purple, the moon slowly rose In a spirit of indulgent irony In a strain of exaggerated gallantry In a tone of after-dinner perfunctoriness [perfunctoriness = with little interest] In a tone of musing surprise In a tumult of self-approval and towering exultation In a vague and fragmentary way In a wise, superior, slightly scornful manner In accents of menace and wrath In its whole unwieldy compass In moments of swift and momentous decision In quest of something to amuse In requital for various acts of rudeness In the air was the tang of spring In the dusky path of a dream In the face of smarting disillusions In the flush and heyday of youth and gaiety and loveliness In the heyday of friendship In the mild and mellow maturity of age In the perpetual presence of everlasting verities In this breathless chase of pleasure In this chastened mood I left him Incapable of initiative or boldness Inconceivable perversion of reasoning Indolently handsome eyes Indulge in pleasing discursiveness Ineffable sensation of irritability Infantile insensibility to the solemnity of his bereavement Infantine simplicity and lavish waste Innumerable starlings clove the air [clove = split] Insensible to its subtle influence Inspired by the immortal flame of youth Intangible and indescribable essence Intense love of excitement and adventure Intimations of unpenetrated mysteries Into her eyes had come a hostile challenge Into the purple sea the orange hues of heaven sunk silently Into the very vestibule of death Involuntarily she sighed Involuntary awkwardness and reserve Involved in a labyrinth of perplexities It came to him with a stab of enlightenment It elicited a remarkably clear and coherent statement It is a flight beyond the reach of human magnanimity It is a thing infinitely subtle It is not every wind that can blow you from your anchorage It lends no dazzling tints to fancy It moved me to a strange exhilaration It parted to a liquid horizon and showed the gray rim of the sea It proved a bitter disillusion It seemed intolerably tragic It seemed to exhale a silent and calm authority It was a breathless night of suspense It was a desolating vision It was a night of little ease to his toiling mind It was a night of stupefying surprises It was all infinitely soft and refreshing to the eye It was an evening of great silences and spaces, wholly tranquil It was sheer, exuberant, instinctive, unreasoning, careless joy It was the ecstasy and festival of summer It was torture of the most exquisite kind J Jealousies and animosities which pricked their sluggish blood to tingling Joy rioted in his large dark eyes Judging without waiting to ponder over bulky tomes K Kind of unscrupulous contempt for gravity Kiss-provoking lips L Laden with the poignant scent of the garden honeysuckle Language of excessive flattery and adulation Lapped in soft music of adulation Lapse into pathos and absurdity Large, dark, luminous eyes that behold everything about them Latent vein of whimsical humor Lead to the strangest aberrations Leaping from lambent flame into eager and passionate fire [lambent = effortlessly brilliant] Leave to the imagination the endless vista of possibilities Life flowed in its accustomed stream Lights and shadows of reviving memory crossed her face Lionized by fashionable society Long intertangled lines of silver streamlets Lost in a delirious wonder Lost in irritable reflection Love hovered in her gaze Ludicrous attempts of clumsy playfulness and tawdry eloquence Luke-warm assurance of continued love Lulled by dreamy musings Luminous with great thoughts M Magnanimous indifference to meticulous niceties Making the ear greedy to remark offense Marching down to posterity with divine honors Marked out for some strange and preternatural doom Mawkishly effeminate sentiment Memories plucked from wood and field Memory was busy at his heart Merged in a sentiment of unutterable sadness and compassion Microscopic minuteness of eye Misgivings of grave kinds Mockery crept into her tone Molded by the austere hand of adversity Moments of utter idleness and insipidity Moods of malicious reaction and vindictive recoil Morn, in yellow and white, came broadening out of the mountains Mumble only jargon of dotage My body is too frail for its moods N Nature seemed to revel in unwonted contrasts [unwonted = unusual] New ambitions pressed upon his fancy New dreams began to take wing in his imagination Night after night the skies were wine-blue and bubbling with stars Night passes lightly in the open world, with its stars and dews and perfumes Nights of fathomless blackness No mark of trick or artifice Noble and sublime patience Nursed by brooding thought O Obsessed with the modishness of the hour Occasional flashes of tenderness and love Oddly disappointing and fickle One gracious fact emerges here One long torture of soul One of the golden twilights which transfigure the world Oppressed and disheartened by an all-pervading desolation Oppressed with a confused sense of cumbrous material [cumbrous = cumbersome] Outweighing years of sorrow and bitterness Over and over the paroxysms of grief and longing submerged her Overhung and overspread with ivy Overshadowed by a vague depression P Pale and vague desolation Pallor of reflected glories Palpitating with rage and wounded sensibility Panting after distinction Peace brooded over all Pelted with an interminable torrent of words Penetrate beneath the surface to the core Peopled the night with thoughts Perpetual gloom and seclusion of life Pertinent to the thread of the discussion Pervasive silence which wraps us in a mantle of content Piles of golden clouds just peering above the horizon Platitudinous and pompously sentimental Plaudits of the unlettered mob Pleasant and flower-strewn vistas of airy fancy Pledged with enthusiastic fervor Plumbing the depth of my own fears Poignant doubts and misgivings Power of intellectual metamorphosis Power to assuage the thirst of the soul Precipitated into mysterious depths of nothingness Preening its wings for a skyward flight Pressing cares absorbed him Pride working busily within her Proclaimed with joyous defiance Prodigal of discriminating epithets Prodigious boldness and energy of intellect Products of dreaming indolence Profound and chilling solitude of the spot Proof of his imperturbability and indifference Provocative of bitter hostility Pulling the strings of many enterprises Purge the soul of nonsense Q Quickened and enriched by new contacts with life and truth Quivering with restrained grief R Radiant with the beautiful glamor of youth Ransack the vocabulary Red tape of officialdom Redolent of the night lamp Reflecting the solemn and unfathomable stars Regarded with an exulting pride Rehabilitated and restored to dignity Remorselessly swept into oblivion Resounding generalities and conventional rhetoric Respect forbade downright contradiction Restless and sore and haughty feelings were busy within Retort leaped to his lips Rigid adherence to conventionalities Rudely disconcerting in her behavior Rudely reminded of life's serious issues S Sacrificed to a futile sort of treadmill Sadness prevailed among her moods Scorched with the lightning of momentary indignation Scorning such paltry devices Scotched but not slain Scrupulous morality of conduct Seem to swim in a sort of blurred mist before the eyes Seething with suppressed wrath Seize on greedily Sensuous enjoyment of the outward show of life Serenity beamed from his look Serenity of paralysis and death Seriousness lurked in the depths of her eyes Served to recruit his own jaded ideas Set anew in some fresh and appealing form Setting all the sane traditions at defiance Shadowy vistas of sylvan beauty She affected disdain She assented in precisely the right terms She bandies adjectives with the best She challenged his dissent She cherished no petty resentments She curled her fastidious lip She curled her lip with defiant scorn She did her best to mask her agitation She disarmed anger and softened asperity [asperity = harshness] She disclaimed fatigue She fell into a dreamy silence She fell into abstracted reverie She felt herself carried off her feet by the rush of incoherent impressions She flushed an agitated pink She forced a faint quivering smile She frowned incomprehension She had an air of restrained fury She had an undercurrent of acidity She hugged the thought of her own unknown and unapplauded integrity She lingered a few leisurely seconds She nodded mutely She nourished a dream of ambition She permitted herself a delicate little smile She poured out on him the full opulence of a proud recognition She questioned inimically [inimically = unfriendly; hostile] She recaptured herself with difficulty She regarded him stonily out of flint-blue eyes She sat eyeing him with frosty calm She seemed the embodiment of dauntless resolution She seemed wrapped in a veil of lassitude She shook hands grudgingly She softened her frown to a quivering smile She spoke with hurried eagerness She spoke with sweet severity She stilled and trampled on the inward protest She stood her ground with the most perfect dignity She strangled a fierce tide of feeling that welled up within her She swept away all opposing opinion with the swift rush of her enthusiasm She thrived on insincerity She twitted him merrily She was both weary and placated She was conscious of a tumultuous rush of sensations She was demure and dimly appealing She was exquisitely simple She was gripped with a sense of suffocation and panic She was in an anguish of sharp and penetrating remorse She was oppressed by a dead melancholy She was stricken to the soul She wore an air of wistful questioning Sheer superfluity of happiness Sickening contrasts and diabolic ironies of life Silence fell Singing lustily as if to exorcise the demon of gloom Skirmishes and retreats of conscience Slender experience of the facts of life Slope towards extinction Slow the movement was and tortuous Slowly disengaging its significance from the thicket of words So innocent in her exuberant happiness Soar into a rosy zone of contemplation Softened by the solicitude of untiring and anxious love Solitary and sorely smitten souls Some dim-remembered and dream-like images Some exquisite refinement in the architecture of the brain Some flash of witty irrelevance Something curiously suggestive and engaging Something eminently human beaconed from his eyes Something full of urgent haste Something indescribably reckless and desperate in such a picture Something that seizes tyrannously upon the soul Sore beset by the pressure of temptation Specious show of impeccability Spectacular display of wrath Spur and whip the tired mind into action Stale and facile platitudes Stamped with unutterable and solemn woe Startled into perilous activity Startling leaps over vast gulfs of time Stem the tide of opinion Stern emptying of the soul Stimulated to an ever deepening subtlety Stirred into a true access of enthusiasm Stony insensibility to the small pricks and frictions of daily life Strange capacities and suggestions both of vehemence and pride Strange laughings and glitterings of silver streamlets Stripped to its bare skeleton Strode forth imperiously [imperious = arrogantly overbearing] Struck by a sudden curiosity Struck dumb with strange surprise Stung by his thoughts, and impatient of rest Stung by the splendor of the prospect Subdued passages of unobtrusive majesty Sublime indifference to contemporary usage and taste Submission to an implied rebuke Subtle indications of great mental agitation Subtle suggestions of remoteness Such things as the eye of history sees Such was the petty chronicle Suddenly a thought shook him Suddenly overawed by a strange, delicious shyness Suddenly smitten with unreality Suddenly snuffed out in the middle of ambitious schemes Suffered to languish in obscurity Sugared remonstrances and cajoleries Suggestions of veiled and vibrant feeling Summer clouds floating feathery overhead Sunk in a phraseological quagmire Sunk into a gloomy reverie Sunny silence broods over the realm of little cottages Supreme arbiter of conduct Susceptibility to fleeting impressions Sweet smoke of burning twigs hovered in the autumn day Swift summer into the autumn flowed T Taking the larger sweeps in the march of mind Tears of outraged vanity blurred her vision Teased with impertinent questions Tenderness breathed from her Tense with the anguish of spiritual struggle Terror filled the more remote chambers of his brain with riot Tethered to earth That which flutters the brain for a moment The accelerated beat of his thoughts The affluent splendor of the summer day The afternoon was filled with sound and sunshine The afternoon was waning The air and sky belonged to midsummer The air darkened swiftly The air is touched with a lazy fragrance, as of hidden flowers The air was caressed with song The air was full of fugitive strains of old songs The air was raw and pointed The allurements of a coquette The ambition and rivalship of men The angry blood burned in his face The anguish of a spiritual conflict tore his heart The artificial smile of languor The awful and implacable approach of doom The babble of brooks grown audible The babbledom that dogs the heels of fame The bait proved incredibly successful The balm of solitary musing The beauty straightway vanished The beckonings of alien appeals The benign look of a father The blandishments of pleasure and pomp of power The blinding mist came down and hid the land The blue bowl of the sky, all glorious with the blaze of a million worlds The bound of the pulse of spring The buzz of idolizing admiration The caressing peace of bright soft sunshine The chaotic sound of the sea The chill of forlorn old age The chill of night crept in from the street The chivalric sentiment of honor The chivalrous homage of respect The clamorous agitation of rebellious passions The clouded, restless, jaded mood The constant iteration of the sea's wail The contagion of extravagant luxury The conversation became desultory [desultory = haphazardly; random] The crowning touch of pathos The current of his ideas flowed full and strong The dance whizzed on with cumulative fury The dawn is singing at the door The day sang itself into evening The day was at once redolent and vociferous [redolent = emitting fragrance; aromatic; suggestive; reminiscent] [vociferous = conspicuously and offensively loud] The day was blind with fog The day was gracious The days passed in a stately procession The days when you dared to dream The debilitating fears of alluring fate The deep and solemn purple of the summer night The deep flush ebbed out of his face The deep tranquillity of the shaded solitude The deepening twilight filled with shadowy visions The deepest wants and aspirations of his soul The delicatest reproof of imagined distrust The demerit of an unworthy alliance The desire of the moth for the star The dimness of the sealed eye and soul The dreamy solicitations of indescribable afterthoughts The dying day lies beautiful in the tender glow of the evening The early morning of the Indian summer day was tinged with blue mistiness The earth looked despoiled The east alone frowned with clouds The easy grace of an unpremeditated agreeable talker The easy-going indolence of a sedentary life The echo of its wrathful roar surged and boomed among the hills The empurpled hills standing up, solemn and sharp, out of the green-gold air The enchanting days of youth The eternal questioning of inscrutable fate The evening comes with slow steps The evening star silvery and solitary on the girdle of the early night The exaggerations of morbid hallucinations The excitement of rival issues The extraordinary wistful look of innocence and simplicity The eye of a scrutinizing observer The eyes burnt with an amazing fire The eyes filled with playfulness and vivacity The father's vigil of questioning sorrow The fine flower of culture The first recoil from her disillusionment The flawless triumph of art The flight of the autumnal days The flower of courtesy The fluttering of untried wings The foreground was incredibly shabby The fragrance of a dear and honored name The freshening breeze struck his brow with a cooling hand The freshness of some pulse of air from an invisible sea The fruit of vast and heroic labors The general effect was of extraordinary lavish profusion The give and take was delicious The gloom of the afternoon deepened The gloom of winter dwelt on everything The gloomy insolence of self-conceit The glow of the ambitious fire The golden gloom of the past and the bright-hued hope of the future The golden riot of the autumn leaves The golden sunlight of a great summer day The gray air rang and rippled with lark music The grimaces and caperings of buffoonery The grotesque nightmare of a haunting fear The hand of time sweeps them into oblivion The haunting melody of some familiar line of verse The haunting phrase leaped to my brain The headlong vigor of sheer improvisation The heights of magnanimity and love The high-bred pride of an oriental The hills were clad in rose and amethyst The hill-tops gleam in morning's spring The hinted sweetness of the challenge aroused him The hot humiliation of it overwhelmed her The hungry curiosity of the mind The idiosyncratic peculiarities of thought The idle chatter of the crowd The immediate tyranny of a present emotion The inaccessible solitude of the sky The incarnation of all loveliness The incoherent loquacity of a nervous patient [loquacity = very talkative] The indefinable air of good-breeding The indefinable yearning for days that were dead The indefinite atmosphere of an opulent nature The intercepted glances of wondering eyes The intrusive question faded The invidious stigma of selfishness [invidious = rousing ill will] The iron hand of oppression The irresistible and ceaseless onflow of time The irrevocable past and the uncertain future The landscape ran, laughing, downhill to the sea The leaden sky rests heavily on the earth The leaves of time drop stealthily The leaves syllabled her name in cautious whispers The lights winked The little incident seemed to throb with significance The lofty grace of a prince The loud and urgent pageantry of the day The low hills on the horizon wore a haze of living blue The machinations of a relentless mountebank [mountebank = flamboyant charlatan] The machinations of an unscrupulous enemy The magical lights of the horizon The majestic solemnity of the moment yielded to the persuasive warmth of day The marvelous beauty of her womanhood The maximum of attainable and communicable truth The melancholy day weeps in monotonous despair The melodies of birds and bees The memory of the night grew fantastic and remote The meticulous observation of facts The mind freezes at the thought The mind was filled with a formless dread The mocking echoes of long-departed youth The moment marked an epoch The moon is waning below the horizon The more's the pity The morning beckons The morning droned along peacefully The most servile acquiescence The multiplicity of odors competing for your attention The murmur of soft winds in the tree-tops The murmur of the surf boomed in melancholy mockery The murmuring of summer seas The music and mystery of the sea The music of her delicious voice The music of her presence was singing a swift melody in his blood The music of unforgotten years sounded again in his soul The mute melancholy landscape The mystery obsessed him The naked fact of death The nameless and inexpressible fascination of midnight music The narrow glen was full of the brooding power of one universal spirit The nascent spirit of chivalry The night was drowned in stars The old ruddy conviction deserted me The onrush and vividness of life The opulent sunset The orange pomp of the setting sun The oscillations of human genius The outpourings of a tenderness reawakened by remorse The pageantry of sea and sky The palest abstractions of thought The palpitating silence lengthened The panorama of life was unrolled before him The paraphernalia of power and prosperity The parting crimson glory of the ripening summer sun The past slowly drifted out of his thought The pendulous eyelids of old age The penetrating odors assailed his memory as something unforgettable The pent-up intolerance of years of repression The perfume of the mounting sea saturated the night with wild fragrance The piquancy of the pageant of life [piquancy = tart spiciness] The pith and sinew of mature manhood The plenitude of her piquant ways [piquant = engagingly stimulating] The presage of disaster was in the air The pressure of accumulated misgivings The preternatural pomposities of the pulpit The pristine freshness of spring The pull of soul on body The pulse of the rebounding sea The purging sunlight of clear poetry The purple vaulted night The question drummed in head and heart day and night The question irresistibly emerged The quick pulse of gain The radiant serenity of the sky The radiant stars brooded over the stainless fields, white with freshly fallen snow The restlessness of offended vanity The retreating splendor of autumn The rising storm of words The river ran darkly, mysteriously by The river sang with its lips to the pebbles The roar of the traffic rose to thunder The romantic ardor of a generous mind The room had caught a solemn and awful quietude The rosy-hued sky went widening off into the distance The rosy twilight of boyhood The royal arrogance of youth The sadness in him deepened inexplicably The scars of rancor and remorse The scent of roses stole in with every breath of air The sea heaved silvery, far into the night The sea slept under a haze of golden winter sun The sea-sweep enfolds you, satisfying eye and mind The sea-wind buffeted their faces The secret and subduing charm of the woods The see-saw of a wavering courage The sentimental tourist will be tempted to tarry The shadows of the night seemed to retreat The shadows rested quietly under the breezeless sky The shafts of ridicule The sheer weight of unbearable loneliness The shiver of the dusk passed fragrantly down the valley The silence grew stolid The silence was uncomfortable and ominous The silent day perfumed with the hidden flowers The silver silence of the night The sinking sun made mellow gold of all the air The sky grew brighter with the imminent day The sky grew ensaffroned with the indescribable hue that heralds day The sky put on the panoply of evening The sky was a relentless, changeless blue The sky was dull and brooding The sky was heavily sprinkled with stars The sky was turning to the pearly gray of dawn The smiling incarnation of loveliness The song of hurrying rivers The sound of the sea waxed The spacious leisure of the forest The spell of a deathless dream was upon them The star-strewn spaces of the night The stars looked down in their silent splendor The stars seemed attentive The steadfast mind kept its hope The steady thunder of the sea accented the silence The still voice of the poet The stillness of a forced composure The stillness of the star-hung night The strangest thought shimmered through her The stream forgot to smile The streams laughed to themselves The strident discord seemed to mock his mood The stunning crash of the ocean saluted her The subtle emanation of other influences seemed to arrest and chill him The sudden rush of the awakened mind The summit of human attainment The sun blazed torridly The sun goes down in flame on the far horizon The sun lay golden-soft over the huddled hills The sunlight spread at a gallop along the hillside The sunset was rushing to its height through every possible phase of violence and splendor The suspicion of secret malevolence The swelling tide of memory The swing of the pendulum through an arch of centuries The tempered daylight of an olive garden The tender grace of a day that is fled The tension of struggling tears which strove for an outlet The thought leaped The timely effusion of tearful sentiment The tone betrayed a curious irritation The torture of his love and terror crushed him The trees rustled and whispered to the streams The tumult in her heart subsided The tumult in her mind found sudden speech The tumult of pride and pleasure The tune of moving feet in the lamplit city The tyranny of nipping winds and early frosts The unmasked batteries of her glorious gray eyes The vacant fields looked blankly irresponsive The vast and shadowy stream of time The vast cathedral of the world The vast unexplored land of dreams The velvet of the cloudless sky grew darker, and the stars more luminous The veneer of a spurious civilization The very pulsation and throbbing of his intellect The very silence of the place appeared a source of peril The vision fled him The vivifying touch of humor The web of lies is rent in pieces The wheel of her thought turned in the same desolate groove The whispering rumble of the ocean The white seething surf fell exhausted along the shore The whole exquisite night was his The whole sea of foliage is shaken and broken up with little momentary shiverings and shadows The wide horizon forever flames with summer The wild whirl of nameless regret and passionate sorrow The wild winds flew round, sobbing in their dismay The wind charged furiously through it, panting towards the downs The wind piped drearily The wind was in high frolic with the rain The winnowed tastes of the ages The woods were silent with adoration The youth of the soul The zenith turned shell pink Their ephemeral but enchanting beauty had expired forever [ephemeral = markedly short-lived] Their eyes met glancingly Their troth had been plighted There was a kind of exhilaration in this subtle baiting There was a mild triumph in her tone There was a mournful and dim haze around the moon There was a strange massing and curving of the clouds There was a thrill in the air There was a time I might have trod the sunlit heights There was no glint of hope anywhere There was no menace in the night's silvern calmness There was something so kindly in its easy candor There was spendthrift grandeur These qualities were raised to the white heat of enthusiasm They became increasingly turbid and phantasmagorical [phantasmagorical = fantastic imagery] They escaped the baffled eye They sit heavy on the soul They were vastly dissimilar This exquisite conjunction and balance This little independent thread of inquiry ran through the texture of his mind and died away This shadowy and chilling sentiment unaccountably creeps over me Thought shook through her in poignant pictures Thoughts came thronging in panic haste Thrilled by fresh and indescribable odors Thrilled with a sense of strange adventure Through a cycle of many ages Through endless and labyrinthine sentences Thrilled to the depths of her being Time had passed unseen Tinsel glitter of empty titles Tired with a dull listless fatigue To all intents and purposes To speak with entire candor To stay his tottering constancy To the scourging he submitted with a good grace Tossed disdainfully off from young and ardent lips Touched every moment with shifting and enchanting beauty Touched with a bewildering and elusive beauty Transcendental contempt for money Transformed with an overmastering passion Trouble gathered on his brow Turning the world topsy-turvey Twilight creeps upon the darkening mind U Unapproachable grandeur and simplicity Unaware of her bitter taunt Under the vivifying touch of genius Unearthly in its malignant glee Unfathomed depths and impossibilities Unforced and unstudied depth of feeling Unspoiled by praise or blame Unspoken messages from some vaster world Unstable moral equilibrium of boyhood Until sleep overtakes us at a stride Untouched by the ruthless spirit of improvement Upon the mountain-tops of meditation Urbanely plastic and versatile Uttering grandiose puerilities [puerilities = childishness, silly] V Vain allurements of folly and fashion Variously ramified and delicately minute channels of expression Varnished over with a cold repellent cynicism Vast sweep of mellow distances Veiled by some equivocation Vibrant with the surge of human passions Vicissitudes of wind and weather [vicissitudes = sudden or unexpected changes] Vigor and richness of resource Visible and palpable pains and penalties Voices that charm the ear and echo with a subtle resonance in the soul Volcanic upheavings of imprisoned passions W Wantonly and detestably unkind Waylay Destiny and bid him stand and deliver Wayward and strangely playful responses Wearing the white flower of a blameless life What sorry and pitiful quibbling When a pleasant countryside tunes the spirit to a serene harmony of mood When music is allied to words When the frame and the mind alike seem unstrung and listless When the profane voices are hushed When the waves show their teeth in the flying breeze Whilst the morn kissed the sleep from her eyes Whistled life away in perfect contentment Wholly alien to his spirit With a vanquished and weary sigh Womanly fickleness and caprice Words and acts easily wrenched from their true significance Worn to shreds by anxiety Wrapped in a sudden intensity of reflection Wrapped in an inaccessible mood Wrapped in scudding rain Wrapt in his odorous and many-colored robe Wrapt in inward contemplation Wrought of an emotion infectious and splendidly dangerous Wrought out of intense and tragic experience Y Yielding to a wave of pity Your mind enthroned in the seventh circle of content SECTION VIII STRIKING SIMILES A A blind rage like a fire swept over him A book that rends and tears like a broken saw A breath of melancholy made itself felt like a chill and sudden gust from some unknown sea A cloud in the west like a pall creeps upward A cloud like a flag from the sky A cluster of stars hangs like fruit in the tree A confused mass of impressions, like an old rubbish-heap A cry as of a sea-bird in the wind A dead leaf might as reasonably demand to return to the tree A drowsy murmur floats into the air like thistledown A face as imperturbable as fate A face as pale as wax A face tempered like steel A fatigued, faded, lusterless air, as of a caged creature A few pens parched by long disuse A figure like a carving on a spire A fluttering as of blind bewildered moths A giant galleon overhead, looked like some misty monster of the deep A glacial pang of pain like the stab of a dagger of ice frozen from a poisoned well A glance that flitted like a bird A great moon like a red lamp in the sycamore A grim face like a carved mask A hand icily cold and clammy as death A heart from which noble sentiments sprang like sparks from an anvil A jeweler that glittered like his shop A lady that lean'd on his arm like a queen in a fable of old fairy days A life, a Presence, like the air A life as common and brown and bare as the box of earth in the window there A light wind outside the lattice swayed a branch of roses to and fro, shaking out their perfume as from a swung censer A lightning-phrase, as if shot from the quiver of infallible wisdom A list of our unread books torments some of us like a list of murders A little breeze ran through the corn like a swift serpent A little weed-clogged ship, gray as a ghost A long slit of daylight like a pointing finger A memory like a well-ordered cupboard A mighty wind, like a leviathan, plowed the brine A mind very like a bookcase A mystery, soft, soothing and gentle, like the whisper of a child murmuring its happiness in its sleep A name which sounds even now like the call of a trumpet A note of despairing appeal which fell like a cold hand upon one's living soul A purpose as the steady flame A question deep almost as the mystery of life A quibbling mouth that snapped at verbal errors like a lizard catching flies A radiant look came over her face, like a sudden burst of sunshine on a cloudy day A reputation that swelled like a sponge A ruby like a drop of blood A shadow of melancholy touched her lithe fancies, as a cloud dims the waving of golden grain A silver moon, like a new-stamped coin, rode triumphant in the sky A slow thought that crept like a cold worm through all his brain A smile flashed over her face, like sunshine over a flower A soft and purple mist like a vaporous amethyst A soft haze, like a fairy dream, is floating over wood and stream A soul as white as heaven A sound like the throb of a bell A stooping girl as pale as a pearl A sudden sense of fear ran through her nerves like the chill of an icy wind A sweet voice caroling like a gold-caged nightingale A thin shrill voice like the cry of an expiring mouse A thing of as frail enchantment as the gleam of stars upon snow A vague thought, as elusive as the smell of a primrose A vanishing loveliness as tender as the flush of the rose leaf and as ethereal as the light of a solitary star A voice as low as the sea A voice soft and sweet as a tune that one knows A white bird floats there, like a drifting leaf Against a sky as clear as sapphire Age, like winter weather Agile as a leopard Agitated like a storm-tossed ship Air like wine All around them like a forest swept the deep and empurpled masses of her tangled hair All like an icicle it seemed, so tapering and cold All my life broke up, like some great river's ice at touch of spring All silent as the sheeted dead All sounds were lost in the whistle of air humming by like the flight of a million arrows All that's beautiful drifts away like the waters All the world lay stretched before him like the open palm of his hand All unconscious as a flower Alone, like a storm-tossed wreck, on this night of the glad New Year An anxiety hung like a dark impenetrable cloud An ardent face out-looking like a star An ecstasy which suddenly overwhelms your mind like an unexpected and exquisite thought An envious wind crept by like an unwelcome thought An ideal as sublime and comprehensive as the horizon An immortal spirit dwelt in that frail body, like a bird in an outworn cage An impudent trick as hackneyed as conjuring rabbits out of a hat An indefinable resemblance to a goat An isle of Paradise, fair as a gem An old nodding negress whose sable head shined in the sun like a polished cocoanut An omnibus across the bridge crawls like a yellow butterfly An undefined sadness seemed to have fallen about her like a cloud An unknown world, wild as primeval chaos An unpleasing strain, like the vibration of a rope drawn out too fast And a pinnace like a flutter'd bird came flying from afar And a tear like silver, glistened in the corner of her eye And all our thoughts ran into tears like sunshine into rain And at first the road comes moving toward me, like a bride waving palms And Dusk, with breast as of a dove, brooded And eyes as bright as the day And fell as cold as a lump of clay And her cheek was like a rose And here were forests ancient as the hills And many a fountain, rivulet, and pond, as clear as elemental diamond, or serene morning air And melting like the stars in June And night, as welcome as a friend And silence like a poultice comes to heal the blows of sound And spangled o'er with twinkling points, like stars And the smile she softly uses fills the silence like a speech As a child in play scatters the heaps of sand that he has piled on the seashore As a cloud that gathers her robe like drifted snow As a flower after a drought drinks in the steady plunging rain As a leaf that beats on a mountain As a lion grieves at the loss of her whelps As a man plowing all day longs for supper and welcomes sunset As a sea disturbed by opposing winds As amusing as a litter of likely young pigs As arbitrary as a cyclone and as killing as a pestilence As austere as a Roman matron As beautiful as the purple flush of dawn As blind as a mole As brief as sunset clouds in heaven As bright as sunlight on a stream As busy as a bee As cattle driven by a gadfly As chimney sweepers come to dust As clear as a whistle As clear as the parts of a tree in the morning sun As close as oak and ivy stand As delicate and as fair as a lily As delightful to the mind as cool well-water to thirsty lip As diamond cuts diamond As direct and unvarying as the course of a homing bird As distinct as night and morning As dry as desert dust As dumb as a fish As easily as the sun shines As easy as a turn of the hand As elastic as a steel spring As extinct as the dodo As faint as the memory of a sound As familiar to him as his alphabet As fatal as the fang of the most venomous snake As fleeting and elusive as our dreams As foam from a ship's swiftness As fresh and invigorating as a sea-breeze As full of eager vigor as a mountain stream As full of spirit as a gray squirrel As gay and busy as a brook As gently as the flower gives forth its perfume As gently as withered leaves float from a tree As graceful as a bough As grave as a judge As great as the first day of creation As high as heaven As I dropped like a bolt from the blue As I dwelt like a sparrow among the spires As if a door were suddenly left ajar into some world unseen before As impossible as to count the stars in illimitable space As in the footsteps of a god As inaccessible to his feet as the clefts and gorges of the clouds As inexorable as the flight of time As innocent as a new laid egg As iridescent as a soap bubble As locusts gather to a stream before a fire As mellow and deep as a psalm As men strip for a race, so must an author strip for the race with time As merry as bees in clover As nimble as water As one who has climbed above the earth's eternal snowline and sees only white peaks and pinnacles As pale as any ghost As patient as the trees As quick as the movement of some wild animal As quiet as a nun breathless with adoration As radiant as the rose As readily and naturally as ducklings take to water As reticent as a well-bred stockbroker As ruthlessly as the hoof of a horse tramples on a rose As shallow streams run dimpling all the way As simple as the intercourse of a child with its mother As sleep falls upon the eyes of a child tired with a long summer day of eager pleasure and delight As some vast river of unfailing source As stars that shoot along the sky As still as a stone As stupid as a sheep As sudden as a dislocated joint slipping back into place As summer winds that creep from flower to flower As supple as a step-ladder As swaggering and sentimental as a penny novellete [novellete = short novel] As swift as thought As the accumulation of snowflakes makes the avalanche As the bubble is extinguished in the ocean As the dew upon the roses warms and melts the morning light As the fair cedar, fallen before the breeze, lies self-embalmed amidst the moldering trees As the light straw flies in dark'ning whirlwinds As the lightning cleaves the night As the loud blast that tears the skies As the slow shadows of the pointed grass mark the eternal periods As those move easiest who have learn'd to dance As though a rose should shut, and be a bud again As though Pharaoh should set the Israelites to make a pin instead of a pyramid As unapproachable as a star As weird as the elfin lights As well try to photograph the other side of the moon At extreme tension, like a drawn bow Away he rushed like a cyclone Awkward as a cart-horse B Babbling like a child Balmy in manner as a bland southern morning Be like the granite of thy rock-ribbed land Beauteous she looks as a water-lily Beautiful as the dawn, dominant as the sun Beauty maddens the soul like wine Beheld great Babel, wrathful, beautiful, burn like a blood-red cloud upon the plain Beneath a sky as fair as summer flowers Bent like a wand of willow Black as a foam-swept rock Black his hair as the wintry night Blithe as a bird [blithe = carefree and lighthearted] Bounded by the narrow fences of life Bowed like a mountain Breaking his oath and resolution like a twist of rotten silk Breathed like a sea at rest Bright as a diamond in the sun Bright as a fallen fragment of the sky Bright as the coming forth of the morning, in the cloud of an early shower Bright as the sunbeams Bright as the tear of an angel, glittered a lonely star Brilliant and gay as a Greek Brisk as a wasp in the sunshine Brittle and bent like a bow Bronze-green beetles tumbled over stones, and lay helpless on their backs with the air of an elderly clergyman knocked down by an omnibus Brown as the sweet smelling loam Brute terrors like the scurrying of rats in a deserted attic Buried in his library like a mouse in a cheese Burns like a living coal in the soul But across it, like a mob's menace, fell the thunder But thou art fled, like some frail exhalation Butterflies like gems C Calm as the night Calm like a flowing river Calm like a mountain brooding o'er the sea Calmly dropping care like a mantle from her shoulders Cast thy voice abroad like thunder Charm upon charm in her was packed, like rose-leaves in a costly vase Chaste as the icicle Cheeks as soft as July peaches Chill breath of winter Choked by the thorns and brambles of early adversity Cities scattered over the world like ant-hills Cities that rise and sink like bubbles Clear and definite like the glance of a child or the voice of a girl Clear as a forest pool Clear as crystal Clenched little hands like rumpled roses, dimpled and dear Cloud-like that island hung afar Clouds like the petals of a rose Cloudy mirror of opinion Cold and hard as steel Cold as the white rose waking at daybreak Cold, glittering monotony like frosting around a cake Collapsed like a concertina Colored like a fairy tale Companionless as the last cloud of an expiring storm whose thunder is its knell Consecration that like a golden thread runs through the warp and woof of one's life [warp = lengthwise threads] [woof = crosswise threads] Constant as gliding waters Contending like ants for little molehill realms Continuous as the stars that shine Cowslips, like chance-found gold Creeds like robes are laid aside Creeping like a snail, unwillingly to school Cruel as death Curious as a lynx Cuts into the matter as with a pen of fire D Dainty as flowers Dance like a wave of the sea Dark and deep as night Dark as pitch Dark trees bending together as though whispering secrets Dazzling white as snow in sunshine Deafening and implacable as some elemental force Dear as remembered kisses after death Dear as the light that visits these sad eyes Dearer than night to the thief Debasing fancies gather like foul birds Deep as the fathomless sea Deep dark well of sorrow Delicate as nymphs Delicate as the flush on a rose or the sculptured line on a Grecian urn Denominational lines like stone walls Dependency had dropped from her like a cast-off cloak Despondency clung to him like a garment that is wet Destructive as the lightning flash Die like flies Dip and surge lightly to and fro, like the red harbor-buoy Disappearing into distance like a hazy sea Dissatisfaction had settled on his mind like a shadow Dissolve like some unsubstantial vision faded Do make a music like to rustling satin Dogging them like their own shadow Dost thou not hear the murmuring nightingale like water bubbling from a silver jar? Drop like a feather, softly to the ground Drowned like rats Dull as champagne E Each like a corpse within its grave Each moment was an iridescent bubble fresh-blown from the lips of fancy Eager-hearted as a boy Eager with the headlong zest of a hunter for the game Ears that seemed as deaf as dead man's ears Easy as a poet's dream Emotions flashed across her face like the sweep of sun-rent clouds over a quiet landscape Eternal as the skies Evanescent as bubbles [evanescent = vanishing like vapor] Every flake that fell from heaven was like an angel's kiss Every lineament was clear as in the sculptor's thought [lineament = characteristic feature] Everyone on the watch, like a falcon on its nest Every phrase is like the flash of a scimitar Exploded like a penny squib Eyes as deeply dark as are the desert skies Eyes as luminous and bright and brown as waters of a woodland river Eyes half veiled by slumberous tears, like bluest water seen through mists of rain Eyes like a very dark topaz Eyes like deep wells of compassionate gloom Eyes like limpid pools in shadow Eyes like mountain water that o'erflowing on a rock F Faces pale with bliss, like evening stars Fade away like a cloud in the horizon Faint and distant as the light of a sun that has long set Faintly, like a falling dew Fair and fleet as a fawn Fair as a star when only one is shining in the sky Fallen like dead leaves on the highway Falling away like a speck in space Fanciful and extravagant as a caliph's dream Fawning like dumb neglected lap-dogs Felt her breath upon his cheek like a perfumed air Fields of young grain and verdured pastures like crushed velvet Fierce as a bear in defeat Fierce as the flames Fills life up like a cup with bubbling and sparkling liquor Fit closely together as the close-set stones of a building Fix'd like a beacon-tower above the waves of a tempest Flame like a flag unfurled Flap loose and slack like a drooping sail Flashed with the brilliancy of a well-cut jewel Fled like sweet dreams Fleet as an arrow Flitted like a sylph on wings Flowers as soft as thoughts of budding love Fluent as a rill, that wanders silver-footed down a hill Fluid as thought Fluttered like gilded butterflies in giddy mazes Fragile as a spider's web Free as the air, from zone to zone I flew Free as the winds that caress Fresh and unworn as the sea that breaks languidly beside them Fresh as a jewel found but yesterday Fresh as the first beam glittering on a sail Frightened like a child in the dark Full-throated as the sea Furious as eagles G Gazed like a star into the morning light Glaring like noontide Gleam like a diamond on a dancing girl Glistening like threads of gold Glitter like a swarm of fire-flies tangled in a silver braid Glittering like an aigrette of stars [aigrette = ornamental tuft of upright plumes] Gone astray as a sheep that is lost Gone like a glow on the cloud at the close of day Gone like tenants that quit without warning Gorgeous as the hues of heaven Grazing through a circulating library as contentedly as cattle in a fresh meadow Great scarlet poppies lay in drifts and heaps, like bodies fallen there in vain assault H Hair as harsh as tropical grass and gray as ashes Hangs like a blue thread loosen'd from the sky Hard, sharp, and glittering as a sword Harnessed men, like beasts of burden, drew it to the river-side Haunts you like the memory of some former happiness He began to laugh with that sibilant laugh which resembles the hiss of a serpent [sibilant = producing a hissing sound] He bent upon the lightning page like some rapt poet o'er his rhyme He bolted down the stairs like a hare He clatters like a windmill He danced like a man in a swarm of hornets He fell as falls some forest lion, fighting well He fell down on my threshold like a wounded stag He had acted exactly like an automaton He lay as straight as a mummy He lay like a warrior taking his rest He lived as modestly as a hermit He looked fagged and sallow, like the day [fagged = worked to exhaustion] He looked with the bland, expressionless stare of an overgrown baby He played with grave questions as a cat plays with a mouse He radiated vigor and abundance like a happy child He sat down quaking like a jelly He saw disaster like a ghostly figure following her He snatched furiously at breath like a tiger snatching at meat He spoke with a uniformity of emphasis that made his words stand out like the raised type for the blind He swayed in the sudden grip of anger He sweeps the field of battle like a monsoon He that wavereth is like a wave of the sea, driven with the wind and tossed He turned on me like a thunder-cloud He turned white as chalk He wandered restlessly through the house, like a prowling animal He was as splendidly serious as a reformer He was as steady as a clock He was as wax in those clever hands He was bold as the hawk He was so weak now, like a shrunk cedar white with the hoar-frost Hearts unfold like flowers before thee Heavy was my heart as stone Heeled like an avalanche to leeward Her arms like slumber o'er my shoulders crept Her banners like a thousand sunsets glow Her beauty broke on him like some rare flower Her beauty fervent as a fiery moon Her breath is like a cloud Her cheeks are like the blushing cloud Her cheeks were wan and her eyes like coals Her dusky cheek would burn like a poppy Her expression changed with the rapidity of a kaleidoscope Her eyes as bright as a blazing star Her eyes as stars of twilight fair Her eyes, glimmering star-like in her pale face Her eyes were as a dove that sickeneth Her face changed with each turn of their talk, like a wheat-field under a summer breeze Her face collapsed as if it were a pricked balloon Her face was as solemn as a mask Her face was dull as lead Her face was like a light Her face was passionless, like those by sculptor graved for niches in a temple Her hair dropped on her pallid cheeks, like sea-weed on a clam Her hair hung down like summer twilight Her hair shone like a nimbus Her hair was like a coronet Her hands are white as the virgin rose that she wore on her wedding day Her hands like moonlight brush the keys Her head dropped into her hands like a storm-broken flower Her heart has grown icy as a fountain in the fall Her holy love that like a vestal flame had burned Her impulse came and went like fireflies in the dusk Her lashes like fans upon her cheek Her laugh is like a rainbow-tinted spray Her lips are like two budded roses Her lips like a lovely song that ripples as it flows Her lips like twilight water Her little lips are tremulous as brook-water is [tremulous = timid or fearful] Her long black hair danced round her like a snake Her mouth as sweet as a ripe fig Her neck is like a stately tower Her pale robe clinging to the grass seemed like a snake Her pulses flutter'd like a dove Her skin was as the bark of birches Her sweetness halting like a tardy May Her two white hands like swans on a frozen lake Her voice cut like a knife Her voice like mournful bells crying on the wind Her voice was like the voice the stars had when they sang together Her voice was rich and vibrant, like the middle notes of a 'cello Her words sounding like wavelets on a summer shore Herding his thoughts as a collie dog herds sheep Here and there a solitary volume greeted him like a friend in a crowd of strange faces Here in statue-like repose, an old wrinkled mountain rose Hers was the loveliness of some tall white lily cut in marble, splendid but chill His bashfulness melted like a spring frost His brow bent like a cliff o'er his thoughts His cheeks were furrowed and writhen like rain-washed crags [writhen = twisted] His eyes blazed like deep forests His eyes glowed like blue coals His eyes were hollows of madness, his hair like moldy hay His face burnt like a brand His face was glad as dawn to me His face was often lit up by a smile like pale wintry sunshine His fingers were knotted like a cord His formal kiss fell chill as a flake of snow on the cheek His fortune melted away like snow in a thaw His glorious moments were strung like pearls upon a string His indifference fell from him like a garment His invectives and vituperations bite and flay like steel whips [invective = abusive language] [vituperation = abusive language] His mind murmurs like a harp among the trees His mind was like a lonely wild His mind was like a summer sky His nerves thrilled like throbbing violins His retort was like a knife-cut across the sinews His revenge descends perfect, sudden, like a curse from heaven His spirits sank like a stone His talk is like an incessant play of fireworks His voice is as the thin faint song when the wind wearily sighs in the grass His voice rose like a stream of rich distilled perfumes His voice was like the clap of thunder which interrupts the warbling birds among the leaves His whole soul wavered and shook like a wind-swept leaf His words gave a curious satisfaction, as when a coin, tested, rings true gold Hopeful as the break of day How like a saint she sleeps How like a winter hath my absence been How like the sky she bends over her child Howling in the wilderness like beasts Huge as a hippopotamus Humming-birds like lake of purple fire Hushed as the grave Hushed like a breathless lyre I I had grown pure as the dawn and the dew I have heard the Hiddon People like the hum of swarming bees I have seen the ravens flying, like banners of old wars I saw a face bloom like a flower I saw a river of men marching like a tide I saw his senses swim dizzy as clouds I wander'd lonely as a cloud I was as sensitive as a barometer I was no more than a straw on the torrent of his will I will face thy wrath though it bite as a sword Ideas which spread with the speed of light Idle hopes, like empty shadows Impassive as a statue Impatient as the wind Impregnable as Gibraltar Impressive as a warrant of arrest for high treason Incredible little white teeth, like snow shut in a rose Infrequent carriages sped like mechanical toys guided by manikins In honor spotless as unfallen snow In that head of his a flame burnt that was like an altar-fire In yonder cottage shines a light, far-gleaming like a gem Instantly she revived like flowers in water Intangible as a dream It came and faded like a wreath of mist at eve It cuts like knives, this air so chill It drops away like water from a smooth statue It pealed through her brain like a muffled bell It poured upon her like a trembling flood It racked his ears like an explosion of steam-whistles It ran as clear as a trout-brook It seems as motionless and still as the zenith in the skies It set his memories humming like a hive of bees It staggered the eye, like the sight of water running up hill It stung like a frozen lash It was as futile as to oppose an earthquake with argument It was as if a door had been opened into a furnace, so the eyes blazed It would collapse as if by enchantment Its temples and its palaces did seem like fabrics of enchantment piled to Heaven J Jealousy, fierce as the fires K Kindle like an angel's wings the western skies in flame Kindly mornings when autumn and winter seemed to go hand in hand like a happy aged couple Kingdoms melt away like snow L Laboring like a giant Languid streams that cross softly, slowly, with a sound like smothered weeping Laughter like a beautiful bubble from the rosebud of baby-hood Laughter like the sudden outburst of the glad bird in the tree-top Lazy merchantmen that crawled like flies over the blue enamel of the sea Leapt like a hunted stag Let his frolic fancy play, like a happy child Let in confusion like a whirling flood Let thy mouth murmur like the doves Life had been arrested, as the horologist, with interjected finger, arrests the beating of the clock [horologist = one who repairs watches] Life stretched before him alluring and various as the open road Life sweet as perfume and pure as prayer Light as a snowflake Lights gleamed there like stars in a still sky Like a ball of ice it glittered in a frozen sea of sky Like a blade sent home to its scabbard Like a blast from a horn Like a blast from the suddenly opened door of a furnace Like a blossom blown before a breeze, a white moon drifts before a shimmering sky Like a bright window in a distant view Like a caged lion shaking the bars of his prison Like a calm flock of silver-fleeced sheep Like a cloud of fire Like a cold wind his words went through their flesh Like a crowd of frightened porpoises a shoal of sharks pursue Like a damp-handed auctioneer Like a deaf and dumb man wondering what it was all about Like a dew-drop, ill-fitted to sustain unkindly shocks Like a dipping swallow the stout ship dashed through the storm Like a distant star glimmering steadily in the darkness Like a dream she vanished Like a festooned girdle encircling the waist of a bride Like a flower her red lips parted Like a game in which the important part is to keep from laughing Like a glow-worm golden Like a golden-shielded army Like a great express train, roaring, flashing, dashing head-long Like a great fragment of the dawn it lay Like a great ring of pure and endless light Like a great tune to which the planets roll Like a high and radiant ocean Like a high-born maiden Like a jewel every cottage casement showed Like a joyless eye that finds no object worth its constancy Like a knight worn out by conflict Like a knot of daisies lay the hamlets on the hill Like a lily in bloom Like a living meteor Like a locomotive-engine with unsound lungs Like a long arrow through the dark the train is darting Like a mirage, vague, dimly seen at first Like a miser who spoils his coat with scanting a little cloth [scanting = short] Like a mist the music drifted from the silvery strings Like a moral lighthouse in the midst of a dark and troubled sea Like a murmur of the wind came a gentle sound of stillness Like a noisy argument in a drawing-room Like a pageant of the Golden Year, in rich memorial pomp the hours go by Like a pale flower by some sad maiden cherished Like a poet hidden Like a river of molten amethyst Like a rocket discharging a shower of golden stars Like a rose embower'd in its own green leaves Like a sea of upturned faces Like a shadow never to be overtaken Like a shadow on a fair sunlit landscape Like a sheeted ghost Like a ship tossed to and fro on the waves of life's sea Like a slim bronze statue of Despair Like a snow-flake lost in the ocean Like a soul that wavers in the Valley of the Shadow Like a stalled horse that breaks loose and goes at a gallop through the plain Like a star, his love's pure face looked down Like a star that dwelt apart Like a star, unhasting, unresting Like a stone thrown at random Like a summer cloud, youth indeed has crept away Like a summer-dried fountain Like a swift eagle in the morning glare breasting the whirlwind with impetuous flight Like a thing at rest Like a thing read in a book or remembered out of the faraway past Like a tide of triumph through their veins, the red, rejoicing blood began to race Like a triumphing fire the news was borne Like a troop of boys let loose from school, the adventurers went by Like a vaporous amethyst Like a vision of the morning air Like a voice from the unknown regions Like a wandering star I fell through the deeps of desire Like a watch-worn and weary sentinel Like a wave of the sea driven with the wind and tossed Like a whirlwind they went past Like a withered leaf the moon is blown across the bay Like a world of sunshine Like a yellow silken scarf the thick fog hangs Like an alien ghost I stole away Like an eagle clutching his prey, his arm swooped down Like an eagle dallying with the wind Like an engine of dread war, he set his shoulder to the mountain-side Like an enraged tiger Like an enthusiast leading about with him an indifferent tourist Like an icy wave, a swift and tragic impression swept through him Like an unbidden guest Like an unbodied joy whose race is just begun Like an unseen star of birth Like an unwelcome thought Like apparitions seen and gone Like attempting to number the waves on the snore of a limitless sea Like bells that waste the moments with their loudness Like blasts of trumpets blown in wars Like bright Apollo Like bright lamps, the fabled apples glow Like building castles in the air Like bursting waves from the ocean Like cliffs which have been rent asunder Like clouds of gnats with perfect lineaments [lineaments = distinctive shape] Like cobwebs woven round the limbs of an infant giant Like crystals of snow Like dead lovers who died true Like Death, who rides upon a thought, and makes his way through temple, tower, and palace Like dew upon a sleeping flower Like dining with a ghost Like drawing nectar in a sieve Like earth's decaying leaves Like echoes from a hidden lyre Like echoes from an antenatal dream Like fixed eyes, whence the dear light of sense and thought has fled Like footsteps upon wool Like fragrance from dead flowers Like ghosts, from an enchanter fleeing Like ghosts the sentries come and go Like golden boats on a sunny sea Like great black birds, the demons haunt the woods Like green waves on the sea Like having to taste a hundred exquisite dishes in a single meal Like Heaven's free breath, which he who grasps can hold not Like helpless birds in the warm nest Like iridescent bubbles floating on a foul stream Like kindred drops mingled into one Like laying a burden on the back of a moth Like lead his feet were Like leaves in wintry weather Like leviathans afloat Like lighting a candle to the sun Like making a mountain out of a mole-hill Like mariners pulling the life-boat Like mice that steal in and out as if they feared the light Like mountain over mountain huddled Like mountain streams we meet and part Like music on the water Like notes which die when born, but still haunt the echoes of the hill Like oceans of liquid silver Like one pale star against the dusk, a single diamond on her brow gleamed with imprisoned fire Like one who halts with tired wings Like one who talks of what he loves in dream Like organ music came the deep reply Like pageantry of mist on an autumnal stream Like phantoms gathered by the sick imagination Like planets in the sky Like pouring oil on troubled waters Like roses that in deserts bloom and die Like rowing upstream against a strong downward current Like scents from a twilight garden Like separated souls Like serpents struggling in a vulture's grasp Like sheep from out the fold of the sky, stars leapt Like ships that have gone down at sea Like shy elves hiding from the traveler's eye Like skeletons, the sycamores uplift their wasted hands Like some grave night thought threading a dream Like some new-gathered snowy hyacinth, so white and cold and delicate it was Like some poor nigh-related guest, that may not rudely be dismist Like some suppressed and hideous thought which flits athwart our musings, but can find no rest within a pure and gentle mind Like some unshriven churchyard thing, the friar crawled Like something fashioned in a dream Like sounds of wind and flood Like splendor-winged moths about a taper Like stepping out on summer evenings from the glaring ball-room upon the cool and still piazza Like straws in a gust of wind Like summer's beam and summer's stream Like sunlight, in and out the leaves, the robins went Like sweet thoughts in a dream Like the awful shadow of some unseen power Like the bellowing of bulls Like the boar encircled by hunters and hounds Like the bubbles on a river sparkling, bursting, borne away Like the cold breath of the grave Like the creaking of doors held stealthily ajar Like the cry of an itinerant vendor in a quiet and picturesque town Like the dance of some gay sunbeam Like the dawn of the morn Like the detestable and spidery araucaria [araucaria = evergreen trees of South America and Australia] Like the dew on the mountain Like the dim scent in violets Like the drifting foam of a restless sea when the waves show their teeth in the flying breeze Like the embodiment of a perfect rose, complete in form and fragrance Like the faint cry of unassisted woe Like the faint exquisite music of a dream Like the fair flower dishevel'd in the wind Like the fair sun, when in his fresh array he cheers the morn, and all the earth revealeth Like the falling thud of the blade of a murderous ax Like the fierce fiend of a distempered dream Like the fitting of an old glove to a hand Like the foam on the river Like the great thunder sounding Like the jangling of all the strings of some musical instrument Like the jewels that gleam in baby eyes Like the kiss of maiden love the breeze is sweet and bland Like the long wandering love, the weary heart may faint for rest Like the moon in water seen by night Like the music in the patter of small feet Like the prodigal whom wealth softens into imbecility Like the quivering image of a landscape in a flowing stream Like the rainbow, thou didst fade Like the rustling of grain moved by the west-wind Like the sap that turns to nectar, in the velvet of the peach Like the sea whose waves are set in motion by the winds Like the sea-worm, that perforates the shell of the mussel, which straightway closes the wound with a pearl Like the setting of a tropical sun Like the shadow of a great hill that reaches far out over the plain Like the shadows of the stars in the upheaved sea Like the shudder of a doomed soul Like the silver gleam when the poplar trees rustle their pale leaves listlessly Like the soft light of an autumnal day Like the Spring-time, fresh and green Like the stern-lights of a ship at sea, illuminating only the path which has been passed over Like the sudden impulse of a madman Like the swell of Summer's ocean Like the tattered effigy in a cornfield Like the vase in which roses have once been distill'd Like the visits of angels, short and far between Like the whole sky when to the east the morning doth return Like thistles of the wilderness, fit neither for food nor fuel Like those great rivers, whose course everyone beholds, but their springs have been seen by but few Like thoughts whose very sweetness yielded proof that they were born for immortality Like to diamonds her white teeth shone between the parted lips Like torrents from a mountain source, we rushed into each other's arms Like troops of ghosts on the dry wind past Like two doves with silvery wings, let our souls fly Like two flaming stars were his eyes Like vaporous shapes half seen Like village curs that bark when their fellows do Like wasted hours of youth Like winds that bear sweet music, when they breathe through some dim latticed chamber Like wine-stain to a flask the old distrust still clings Like winged stars the fire-flies flash and glance Like young lovers whom youth and love make dear Lingering like an unloved guest Lithe as a panther Little white hands like pearls Lofty as a queen Loneliness struck him like a blow Looked back with faithful eyes like a great mastiff to his master's face Looking as sulky as the weather itself Looking like a snarling beast baulked of its prey [baulked = checked, thwarted] Loose clouds like earth's decaying leaves are shed Lost like the lightning in the sullen clod Love as clean as starlight Love brilliant as the morning Love had like the canker-worm consumed her early prime Love is a changing lord as the light on a turning sword Love like a child around the world doth run Love like a miser in the dark his joys would hide Love shakes like a windy reed your heart Love smiled like an unclouded sun Love that sings and has wings as a bird Lovely as starry water Lovely the land unknown and like a river flowing M March on my soul nor like the laggard stay Me on whose heart as a worm she trod Meaningless as the syllables of an unknown tongue Men moved hither and thither like insects in their crevices Mentality as hard as bronze Mentally round-shouldered and decrepit Merge imperceptibly into one another like the hues of the prism Meteors that dart like screaming birds Milk-white pavements, clear and richly pale, like alabaster More variegated than the skin of a serpent Motion like the spirit of that wind whose soft step deepens slumber Motionless as a plumb line Mountains like frozen wrinkles on a sea Moving in the same dull round, like blind horses in a mill Mute as an iceberg My age is as a lusty Winter My body broken as a turning wheel My breath to Heaven like vapor goes My head was like a great bronze bell with one thought for the clapper My heart is as some famine-murdered land My heart is like a full sponge and must weep a little My heart like a bird doth hover My heart will be as wind fainting in hot grass My life floweth away like a river My life was white as driven snow My love for thee is like the sovereign moon that rules the sea My love's like the steadfast sun My lungs began to crow like chanticleer [chanticleer = rooster] My mind swayed idly like a water-lily in a lake My muscles are as steel My skin is as sallow as gold My soul was as a lampless sea My spirit seemed to beat the void, like the bird from out the ark My thoughts came yapping and growling round me like a pack of curs My thoughts ran leaping through the green ways of my mind like fawns at play N Night falls like fire No longer shall slander's venomed spite crawl like a snake across his perfect name Now every nerve in my body seemed like a strained harp-string ready to snap at a touch Now like a wild nymph she veils her shadowy form Now like a wild rose in the fields of heaven slipt forth the slender figure of the Dawn Now memory and emotion surged in my soul like a tempest Now thou seemest like a bankrupt beau, stripped of his gaudy hues O Obscured with wrath as is the sun with cloud Odorous as all Arabia Often enough life tosses like a fretful stream among rocky boulders Oh, lift me as a wave, a leaf, a cloud Old as the evening star Old happy hours that have long folded their wings Once again, like madness, the black shapes of doubt swing through his brain One bleared star, faint glimmering like a bee One bright drop is like the gem that decks a monarch's crown One by one flitting like a mournful bird One deep roar as of a cloven world One winged cloud above like a spread dragon overhangs the west Oppressed by the indefiniteness which hung in her mind, like a thick summer haze Or shedding radiance like the smiles of God Our enemies were broken like a dam of river reeds Our hearts bowed down like violets after rain Our sail like a dew-lit blossom shone Overhead the intense blue of the noonday sky burst like a jewel in the sun P Pale and grave as a sculptured nun Pale as a drifting blossom Passed like a phantom into the shadows Passive and tractable as a child Peaceful as a village cricket-green on Sunday Peevish and impatient, like some ill-trained man who is sick Perished utterly, like a blown-out flame Philosophy evolved itself, like a vast spider's loom Pillowed upon its alabaster arms like to a child o'erwearied with sweet toil Polished as the bosom of a star Poured his heart out like the rending sea in passionate wave on wave Pouting like the snowy buds o' roses in July Presently she hovered like a fluttering leaf or flake of snow Pride and self-disgust served her like first-aid surgeons on the battlefield Proud as the proudest of church dignitaries Pure as a wild-flower Pure as the azure above them Pure as the naked heavens Pure as the snowy leaves that fold over the flower's heart Purple, crimson, and scarlet, like the curtains of God's tabernacle Put on gravity like a robe Q Quaking and quivering like a short-haired puppy after a ducking Questions and answers sounding like a continuous popping of corks Quiet as a nun's face Quietly as a cloud he stole Quietude which seemed to him beautiful as clear depths of water Quivering like an eager race-horse to start R Rage, rage ye tears, that never more should creep like hounds about God's footstool Ran like a young fawn Rattle in the ear like a flourish of trumpets Rays springing from the east like golden arrows Red as the print of a kiss might be Redolent with the homely scent of old-fashioned herbs and flowers Reflected each in the other like stars in a lake Refreshed like dusty grass after a shower Refreshing as descending rains to sunburnt climes Remote as the hidden star Restless as a blue-bottle fly on a warm summer's day Revealed his doings like those of bees in a glass hive Rich as the dawn Ride like the wind through the night Rivers that like silver threads ran through the green and gold of pasture lands Roared like mountain torrents Rolling it under the tongue as a sweet morsel Round my chair the children run like little things of dancing gold Ruddy as sunrise Ruddy his face as the morning light Ruffling out his cravat with a crackle of starch, like a turkey when it spreads its feathers Running to and fro like frightened sheep Rushing and hurrying about like a June-bug S Sanctuaries where the passions may, like wild falcons, cover their faces with their wings Sayings that stir the blood like the sound of a trumpet Scattered love as stars do light Sea-gulls flying like flakes of the sea Sentences level and straight like a hurled lance Shadowy faces, known in dreams, pass as petals upon a stream Shake like an aspen leaf Shaken off like a nightmare Shapeless as a sack of wool Shattered like so much glass She brightened like a child whose broken toy is glued together She could summon tears as one summons servants She danced like a flower in the wind She disclaimed the weariness that dragged upon her spirits like leaden weights She exuded a faint and intoxicating perfume of womanliness, like a crushed herb She felt like an unrepentant criminal She fled like a spirit from the room She flounders like a huge conger-eel in an ocean of dingy morality She gave him a surprised look, like a child catching an older person in a foolish statement She gave off antipathies as a liquid gives off vapor She has great eyes like the doe She heard him like one in a dream She let the soft waves of her deep hair fall like flowers from Paradise She looked like a tall golden candle She looked like the picture of a young rapt saint, lost in heavenly musing She moved like mirth incarnate She nestles like a dove She played with a hundred possibilities fitfully and discursively as a musician runs his fingers over a key-board She played with grave cabinets as a cat plays with a mouse She saw this planet like a star hung in the glistening depths of even She seemed as happy as a wave that dances on the sea She shall be sportive as the fawn She stood silent a moment, dropping before him like a broken branch She that passed had lips like pinks She walked like a galley-slave She walks in beauty like the night She was as brilliant, and as hard too, as electric light She was silent, standing before him like a little statuesque figure Shining like the dewy star of dawn Shivering pine-trees, like phantoms Showy as damask-rose and shy as musk Shrill as the loon's call Shrivel like paper thrust into a flame Shy as the squirrel Sights seen as a traveling swallow might see them on the wing Silence deep as death Silence now is brooding like a gentle spirit o'er the still and pulseless world Silence that seemed heavy and dark; like a passing cloud Sinks clamorous like mill-waters at wild play Sits like the maniac on his fancied throne Skies as clear as babies' eyes Sleek and thick and yellow as gold Slender and thin as a slender wire Slowly as a tortoise Slowly as the finger of a clock, her shadow came Slowly moved off and disappeared like shapes breathed on a mirror and melting away Slowly, unnoted, like the creeping rust that spreads insidious, had estrangement come Small as a grain of mustard seed Smooth as a pond Smooth as the pillar flashing in the sun Snug as a bug in a rug Soaring as swift as smoke from a volcano springs So elusive that the memory of it afterwards was wont to come and go like a flash of light So my spirit beat itself like a caged bird against its prison bars in vain Soft as a zephyr Soft as sleep the snow fell Soft as Spring Soft as the down of the turtle dove Soft as the landscape of a dream Soft as the south-wind Soft in their color as gray pearls Soft vibrations of verbal melody, like the sound of a golden bell rung far down under the humming waters Some gleams of feeling pure and warm as sunshine on a sky of storm Some like veiled ghosts hurrying past as though driven to their land of shadows by shuddering fear Some minds are like an open fire--how direct and instant our communication with them Something divine seemed to cling around her like some subtle vapor Something resistant and inert, like the obstinate rolling over of a heavy sleeper after he has been called to get up Something sharp and brilliant, like the glitter of a sword or a forked flash of lightning Sorrowful eyes like those of wearied kine spent from the plowing [kine = cows] Spread like wildfire Squirrel-in-the-cage kind of movement Stamping like a plowman to shuffle off the snow Stared about like calves in a pen Steadfast as the soul of truth Steals lingering like a river smooth Still as death Stood like a wave-beaten rock Straight as a ray of light Straight as an arrow Streamed like a meteor through the troubled air Streamed o'er his memory like a forest flame Streaming tears, like pearl drops from a flint Striking with the force of an engine of destruction Strong as a bison Style comes, if at all, like the bloom upon fruit, or the glow of health upon the cheek Subtle as jealousy Sudden a thought came like a full-blown rose, flushing his brow Sudden sprays of rain, like volleys of sharp arrows, rattled gustily against the windows Suddenly, like death, the truth flashed on them Sunbeams flashing on the face of things like sudden smilings of divine delight Sunday mornings which seem to put on, like a Sabbath garment, an atmosphere of divine quietude Supple and sweet as a rose in bloom Sway like blown moths against the rosewhite flame Sweet as a summer night without a breath Sweet as music she spoke Sweet as the rain at noon Sweet as the smile of a fairy Swift as a swallow heading south Swift as lightning Swift as the panther in triumph Swifter than the twinkling of an eye T Talking and thinking became to him like the open page of a monthly magazine Tall lance-like reeds wave sadly o'er his head That like a wounded snake drags its slow length along The anemone that weeps at day-break, like a silly girl before her lover The army blazed and glowed in the golden sunlight like a mosaic of a hundred thousand jewels The army like a witch's caldron seethed The beating of her heart was like a drum The beauty of her quiet life was like a rose in blowing The billows burst like cannon down the coast The birds swam the flood of air like tiny ships The boat cuts its swift way through little waves like molten gold and opal The boom of the surf grew ever less sonorous, like the thunder of a retreating storm The breast-plate of righteousness The breathless hours like phantoms stole away The breeze is as a pleasant tune The calm white brow as calm as earliest morn The camp fire reddens like angry skies The chambers of the house were haunted by an incessant echoing, like some dripping cavern The church swarmed like a hive The city is all in a turmoil; it boils like a pot of lentils The clouds that move like spirits o'er the welkin clear [welkin = sky] The clustered apples burnt like flame The colored bulbs swung noon-like from tree and shrub The crimson close of day The curl'd moon was like a little feather The curling wreaths like turbans seem The dark hours are swept away like crumbling ashes The dark mass of her hair shook round her like a sea The dawn is rising from the sea, like a white lady from her bed The dawn had whitened in the mist like a dead face The dawn with silver-sandaled feet crept like a frightened girl. The day stunned me like light upon some wizard way The day was sweeter than honey and the honey-comb The day have trampled me like armed men The dead past flew away over the fens like a flight of wild swans The deep like one black maelstrom round her whirls The deepening east like a scarlet poppy burnt The desolate rocky hills rolled like a solid wave along the horizon The dome of heaven is like one drop of dew The dreams of poets come like music heard at evening from the depth of some enchanted forest The eagerness faded from his eyes, leaving them cold as a winter sky after sunset The earth was like a frying-pan, or some such hissing matter The eternal sea, which like a childless mother, still must croon her ancient sorrows to the cold white moon The evening sky was as green as jade The excitement had spread through the whole house, like a piquant and agreeable odor The excitement of the thought buoyed his high-strung temperament like a tonic The feathery meadows like a lilac sea The firm body like a slope of snow The first whiff of reality dissipated them like smoke The floor, newly waxed, gleamed in the candle-light like beaten moonbeams The fragrant clouds of hair, they flowed round him like a snare The gathering glory of life shone like the dawn The gesture was all strength and will, like the stretching of a sea-bird's wings The girl's voice rang like a bird-call through his rustling fancies The glimmer of tall flowers standing like pensive moon-worshipers in an ecstasy of prayerless bloom The guides sniffed, like chamois, the air [chamois = extremely agile goat antelope] The heavens are like a scroll unfurled The hills across the valley were purple as thunder-clouds The hoofs of the horses rang like the dumb cadence of an old saga The hours crawled by like years The hum of the camp sounds like the sea The hurrying crowds of men gather like clouds The ideas succeeded each other like a dynasty of kings The impalpable presence of the new century rose like a vast empty house through which no human feet had walked The inexorable facts closed in on him like prison-warders hand-cuffing a convict The lake glimmered as still as a mirror The land of gold seemed to hold him like a spell The land was like a dream The level boughs, like bars of iron across the setting sun The light of London flaring like a dreary dawn The lights blazed up like day The lilies were drooping, white, and wan, like the head and skin of a dying man The mellowing hand of time The melody rose tenderly and lingeringly like a haunting perfume of pressed flowers The Milky Way lay like diamond-dust upon the robe of some great king The monk's face whitened like sea-foam The moon drowsed between the trees like a great yellow moth The moon on the tower slept soft as snow The moonbeams rest like a pale spotless shroud The moonlight lay like snow The moonlight, like a fairy mist, upon the mesa spreads The mortal coldness of the soul, like death itself comes down The mountain shadows mingling, lay like pools above the earth The mountains loomed up dimly, like phantoms through the mist The music almost died away, then it burst like a pent-up flood The name that cuts into my soul like a knife The nervous little train winding its way like a jointed reptile The new ferns were spread upon the earth like some lacy coverlet The night like a battle-broken host is driven before The night yawned like a foul wind The ocean swelled like an undulating mirror of the bowl of heaven The old books look somewhat pathetically from the shelves, like aged dogs wondering why no one takes them for a walk The old infamy will pop into daylight like a toad out of fissure in the rock The penalty falls like a thunderbolt from heaven The phrase was like a spear-thrust The pine trees waved as waves a woman's hair The place was like some enchanted town of palaces The plains to northward change their color like the shimmering necks of doves The poppy burned like a crimson ember The prime of man has waxed like cedars The public press would chatter and make odd ambiguous sounds like a shipload of monkeys in a storm The purple heather rolls like dumb thunder The rainbows flashed like fire The river shouted as ever its cry of joy over the vitality of life, like a spirited boy before the face of inscrutable nature The roofs with their gables like hoods The roses lie upon the grass like little shreds of crimson silk The satire of the word cut like a knife The scullion with face shining like his pans The sea reeled round like a wine-vat splashing The sea-song of the trampling waves is as muffled bells The sea spread out like a wrinkled marble floor The sea, that gleamed still, like a myriad-petaled rose The sea was as untroubled as the turquoise vault which it reflected The setting of the sun is like a word of peace The sharp hail rattles against the panes and melts on my cheeks like tears The ships, like sheeted phantoms coming and going The silence seemed to crush to earth like a great looking-glass and shiver into a million pieces The silvery morning like a tranquil vision fills the world The sky burned like a heated opal The sky gleamed with the hardness and brilliancy of blue enamel The sky was as a shield that caught the stain of blood and battle from the dying sun The sky was clear and blue, and the air as soft as milk The sky was like a peach The sky where stars like lilies white and fair shine through the mists The solid air around me there heaved like a roaring ocean The solid mountains gleamed like the unsteady sea The soul is like a well of water springing up into everlasting life The sound is like a noon-day gale The sound is like a silver-fountain that springeth in a golden basin The sound of a thousand tears, like softly pattering wings The sound of your running feet that like the sea-hoofs beat The spear-tongued lightning slipped like a snake The Spring breaks like a bird The stacks of corn in brown array, like tattered wigwams on the plain The stars come down and trembling glow like blossoms on the waves below The stars lay on the lapis-lazuli sky like white flower-petals on still deep water [lapis-lazuli = opaque to translucent blue, violet-blue, or greenish-blue gemstone] The stars pale and silent as a seer The strange cold sense of aloofness that had numbed her senses suddenly gave way like snow melting in the spring The sudden thought of your face is like a wound when it comes unsought The sun, like a great dragon, writhes in gold The sun on the sea-wave lies white as the moon The surf was like the advancing lines of an unknown enemy flinging itself upon the shore The terrible past lay afar, like a dream left behind in the night The tide was in the salt-weed, and like a knife it tore The time, gliding like a dream The torrent from the hills leaped down their rocky stairways like wild steeds The tree whose plumed boughs are soft as wings of birds The uproar and contention pierced him like arrows The veiled future bowed before me like a vision of promise The velvet grass that is like padding to earth's meager ribs The villa dips its foot in the lake, smiling at its reflection like a bather lingering on the brink The voice of Fate, crying like some old Bellman through the world The voice that rang in the night like a bugle call The warm kindling blood burned her cheeks like the breath of a hot wind The waves were rolling in, long and lazy, like sea-worn travelers The whole truth, naked, cold, and fatal as a patriot's blade The wind all round their ears hissed like a flight of white-winged geese The wind comes and it draws its length along like the genii from the earthen pot The wine flows like blood The woman seemed like a thing of stone The words kept ringing in my ears like the tolling of a bell The words of the wise fall like the tolling of sweet, grave bells upon the soul The world had vanished like a phantasmagoria The world is bitter as a tear The world is in a simmer, like a sea The world wavers within its circle like a dream The years stretched before her like some vast blank page out to receive the record of her toil The years vanished like a May snowdrift The yellow apples glowed like fire Their glances met like crossed swords Their joy like sunshine deep and broad falls on my heart Their minds rested upon the thought, as chasing butterflies might rest together on a flower Their music frightful as the serpent's hiss Their touch affrights me as a serpent's sting Then fall unheeded like the faded flower Then felt I like some watcher of the skies Then it swelled out to rich and glorious harmonies like a full orchestra playing under the sea Then the lover sighing like furnace Theories sprouted in his mind like mushrooms There is an air about you like the air that folds a star There, like a bird, it sits and sings There seemed to brood in the air a quiet benevolence of a Father watching His myriad children at play There she soars like a seraph There she stood straight as a lily on its stem There slowly rose to sight, a country like a dragon fast asleep There streamed into the air the sweet smell of crushed grass, as though many fields had been pressed between giant's fingers and so had been left These eyes like stars have led me These final words snapped like a whip-lash These thoughts pierced me like thorns They are as cruel as creeping tigers They are as white foam on the swept sands They are as white swans in the dusk, thy white hands They are painted sharp as death They broke into pieces and fell on the ground, like a silvery, shimmering shower of hail They dropped like panthers They fly like spray They had hands like claws They had slipped away like visions They have as many principles as a fish has bones They have faces like flowers They hurried down like plovers that have heard the call [plovers = wading birds] They look like rose-buds filled with snow They seem like swarming flies, the crowd of little men They seemed like floating flowers They shine as sweet as simple doves They stand like solitary mountain forms on some hard, perfectly transparent day They vanished like the shapes that float upon a summer's dream Thick as wind-blown leaves innumerable Thickly the flakes drive past, each like a childish ghost Thine eyes like two twin stars shining This life is like a bubble blown up in the air This love that dwells like moonlight in your face This thought is as death This tower rose in the sunset like a prayer Those ancestral themes past which so many generations have slept like sea-going winds over pastures Those death-like eyes, unconscious of the sun Those eyelids folded like a white rose-leaf Those eyes like bridal beacons shine Thou art to me but as a wave of the wild sea Thou as heaven art fair and young Thou hadst a voice whose sound was like the sea Thou must wither like a rose Thou shalt be as free as mountain winds Thou wouldst weep tears bitter as blood Though bright as silver the meridian beams shine Though thou be black as night Thoughts vague as the fitful breeze Three-cornered notes fly about like butterflies Through the forest, like a fairy dream through some dark mind, the ferns in branching beauty stream Through the moonlit trees, like ghosts of sounds haunting the moonlight, stole the faint tinkle of a guitar Through the riot of his senses, like a silver blaze, ran the legend Thy beauty like a beast it bites Thy brown benignant eyes have sudden gleams of gladness and surprise, like woodland brooks that cross a sunlit spot Thy carven columns must have grown by magic, like a dream in stone Thy favors are but like the wind that kisses everything it meets Thy heart is light as a leaf of a tree Thy name burns like a gray and flickering candle flame Thy name will be as honey on men's lips Till death like sleep might steal on me Till he melted like a cloud in the silent summer heaven Time drops in decay, like a candle burnt out Time like a pulse shakes fierce To drag life on, which like a heavy chain lengthens behind with many a link of pain To forsake as the trees drop their leaves in autumn Toys with smooth trifles like a child at play Transitory as clouds without substance Transparent like a shining sun Tree and shrub altered their values and became transmuted to silver sentinels Trees that spread their forked boughs like a stag's antlers Trembling like an aspen-leaf Truths which forever shine as fixed stars Turning easily and securely as on a perfect axle U Unbends like a loosened bow Unbreakable as iron Unconscious as an oak-tree of its growth Under the willow-tree glimmered her face like a foam-flake drifting over the sea Unheralded, like some tornado loosed out of the brooding hills, it came to pass Unknown, like a seed in fallow ground, was the germ of a plan Unmoving as a tombstone Untameable as flies Unutterable things pressing on my soul like a pent-up storm craving for outlet Upcast like foam of the effacing tide Uplifting the soul as on dovelike wings Uplifting their stony peaks around us like the walls and turrets of a gigantic fortress Urgent as the seas Uttering wild cries like a creature in pain V Vague as a dream Vague thoughts that stream shapelessly through her mind like long sad vapors through the twilight sky Vanish into thin air, like ghosts at the cockcrow Vanished like snow when comes a thaw Vanished like vapor before the sun Vibrations set quivering like harp strings struck by the hand of a master Vociferous praise following like a noisy wave W Walking somewhat unsteadily like a blind man feeling his way Waves glittered and danced on all sides like millions of diamonds We left her and retraced our steps like faithless hounds Weak and frail like the vapor of a vale Wearing their wounds like stars Weary wind, who wanderest like the world's rejected guest When a draft might puff them out like a guttering candle [guttering = To melt through the side of the hollow in a candle formed by a burning wick; to burn low and unsteadily; flicker] When arm in arm they both came swiftly running, like a pair of turtle-doves that could not live asunder day or night When cards, invitations, and three-corn'd notes fly about like white butterflies When she died, her breath whistled like the wind in a keyhole When the fever pierced me like a knife Where a lamp of deathless beauty shines like a beacon Where heroes die as leaves fall Where the intricate wheels of trade are grinding on, like a mill Where the source of the waters is fine as a thread Whilst the lagging hours of the day went by like windless clouds o'er a tender sky Whistled sharply in the air like a handful of vipers White as a ghost from darkness White as chalk White as dove or lily, or spirit of the light White as the driven snow White as the moon's white flame White as the sea-bird's wing White clouds like daisies White hands she moves like swimming swans White hands through her hair, like white doves going into the shadow of a wood White like flame White sails of sloops like specters Whose bodies are as strong as alabaster Whose hair was as gold raiment on a king Whose laugh moves like a bat through silent haunted woods Whose little eyes glow like the sparks of fire Whose music like a robe of living light reclothed each new-born age Windy speech which hits all around the mark like a drunken carpenter Winged like an arrow to its mark With a sting like a scorpion With all the complacency of a homeless cat With an angry broken roar, like billows on an unseen shore, their fury burst With hate darkling as the swift winter hail With music sweet as love With sounds like breakers With strength like steel With the whisper of leaves in one's ear With words like honey melting from the comb Wits as sharp as gimlets [gimlet = small hand tool for boring holes] Women with tongues like polar needles Words as fresh as spring verdure [verdure = lush greenness of flourishing vegetation] Words as soft as rain Words like the gossamer film of the summer Words sweet as honey from his lips distill'd Words were flashing like brilliant birds through the boughs overhead Wordsworth, thy music like a river rolls Worthless like the conjurer's gold Wrangle over details like a grasping pawnbroker Wrinkled and scored like a dried apple Writhing with an intensity that burnt like a steady flame Y Yielding like melted snow Yonder flimsy crescent, bent like an archer's bow above the snowy summit You are as gloomy to-night as an undertaker out of employment You are as hard as stone You gave me such chill embraces as the snow-covered heights receive from clouds Your blood is red like wine Your charms lay like metals in a mine Your eyes are like fantastic moons that shiver in some stagnant lake Your eyes as blue as violets Your eyes they were green and gray like an April day Your frail fancies are swallowed up, like chance flowers flung upon the river's current Your hair was golden as tints of sunrise Your heart is as dry as a reed Your locks are like the raven Your love shall fall about me like sweet rain Your step's like the rain to summer vexed farmer Your thoughts are buzzing like a swarm of bees Your tongue is like a scarlet snake Your voice had a quaver in it just like the linnet [linnet = small finch] Youth like a summer morn SECTION IX CONVERSATIONAL PHRASES A A most extraordinary idea! A thousand hopes for your success Accept my best wishes All that is conjecture Allow me to congratulate you An unfortunate comparison, don't you think? And even if it were so? And how am I to thank you? And in the end, what are you going to make of it? And yet the explanation does not wholly satisfy me Apparently I was wrong Are we wandering from the point? Are you a trifle--bored? Are you fully reconciled? Are you not complicating the question? Are you prepared to go to that length? Are you still obdurate? [obdurate = Hardened in wrongdoing; stubbornly impenitent] As it happens, your conjecture is right Assuredly I do At first blush it may seem fantastic B Banish such thoughts But are you not taking a slightly one-sided point of view? But consider for a moment But I look at the practical side But I wander from my point But now I'll confide something to you But perhaps I'm hardly fair when I say that But seriously speaking, what is the use of it? But surely that is inconsistent But that's a tremendous hazard But the thing is simply impossible But there's one thing you haven't said But, wait, you haven't heard the end But what do you yourself think about it? But who could foresee what was going to happen? But you are open to persuasion? But you do not know for certain But you must tell me more By a curious chance, I know it very well By no means desirable, I think C Can I persuade you? Can you imagine anything so horrible? Certain circumstances make it undesirable Certainly not, if it displeases you Certainly, with the greatest pleasure Come, where's your sense of humor? Consult me when you want me--at any time D Decidedly so Dine with me to-morrow night?--if you are free? Do I presume too much? Do I seem very ungenerous? Do not misunderstand me Do not the circumstances justify it? Don't be so dismal, please Don't delude yourself Don't let me encroach on your good nature Don't think I am unappreciative of your kindness Do you attach any particular meaning to that? Do you know, I envy you that Do you know what his chief interests are now? Do you mind my making a suggestion? Do you press me to tell? Do you really regard him as a serious antagonist? Do you think there is anything ominous in it? Does it please you so tremendously? Does it seem incredible? E Either way is perplexing Eminently proper, I think Everyone looks at it differently Excuse my bluntness F Fanciful, I should say For the simplest of reasons Forgive me if I seem disobliging Fortunate, to say the least Frankly, I don't see why it should Frugal to a degree Fulsome praise, I call it G Give me your sympathy and counsel Glorious to contemplate Good! that is at least something Gratifying, I am sure H Happily there are exceptions to every rule Has it really come to that? Have I incurred your displeasure? Have you any rooted objection to it? Have you anything definite in your mind? Have you reflected what the consequences might be to yourself? He does me too much honor He feels it acutely He has a queer conception of the proprieties He is a poor dissembler [dissemble = conceal behind a false appearance] He is anything but obtuse He is so ludicrously wrong He is the most guileless of men He was so extremely susceptible He writes uncommonly clever letters Heaven forbid that I should wound your sensibility His sense of humor is unquenchable How amiable you are to say so How can I tell you how much I have enjoyed it all? How can I thank you? How can you be so unjust? How delightful to meet you How does the idea appeal to you? How droll you are! How extraordinary! How intensely interesting! How perfectly delightful! How utterly abominable How very agreeable this is! How very interesting How very surprising How well you do it! However, I should like to hear your views Human nature interests me very much indeed I I admire your foresight I admit it most gratefully I agree--at least, I suppose I do I agree that something ought to be done I always welcome criticism so long as it is sincere I am absolutely bewildered I am afraid I am not familiar enough with the subject I am afraid I cannot suggest an alternative I am afraid I've allowed you to tire yourself I am afraid I must confess my ignorance I am afraid you will call me a sentimentalist I am always glad to do anything to please you I am anxious to discharge the very onerous debt I owe you I am appealing to your sense of humor I am at your service I am bound to secrecy I am compelled to, unluckily I am curious to learn what his motive was I am deeply flattered and grateful I am delighted to hear you say so I am dumb with admiration I am entirely at your disposal I am extremely glad you approve of it I am far from believing the maxim I am fortunate in being able to do you a service I am glad to be able to think that I am glad to have had this talk with you I am glad to say that I have entirely lost that faculty I am glad you can see it in that way I am glad you feel so deeply about it I am giving you well-deserved praise I am going to make a confession I am grateful for your good opinion I am honestly indignant I am, I confess, a little discouraged I am in a chastened mood I am inclined to agree with you I am incredulous I am indebted to you for the suggestion I am listening--I was about to propose I am lost in admiration I am luckily disengaged to-day I am more grieved than I can tell you I am naturally overjoyed I am not a person of prejudices I am not an alarmist I am not as unreasonable as you suppose I am not at all in the secret of his ambitions I am not capable of unraveling it I am not going into sordid details I am not going to let you evade the question I am not going to pay you any idle compliments I am not impervious to the obligations involved I am not in sympathy with it I am not in the least surprised I am not inquisitive I am not prepared to say I am not sure that I can manage it I am not vindictive I am overjoyed to hear you say so I am perfectly aware of what I am saying I am persuaded by your candor I am quite convinced of that I am quite discomfited I am quite interested to see what you will do I am quite ready to be convinced I am rather of the opinion that I was mistaken I am ready to make great allowances I am really afraid I don't know I am really gregarious I am sensible of the flattery I am seriously annoyed with myself about it I am so glad you think that I am so sorry--so very sorry I am sorry to disillusionize you I am sorry to interrupt this interesting discussion I am sorry to say it is impossible I am speaking plainly I am still a little of an idealist I am suppressing many of the details I am sure it sounds very strange to you I am sure you could pay me no higher compliment I am sure you will hear me out I am surprised, I confess I am sustained by the prospect of a good dinner I am vastly obliged to you I am vastly your debtor for the information I am very far from being a fanatic I am very glad of this opportunity I am very grateful--very much flattered I am wholly in agreement with you I am willing to accept all the consequences I am wonderfully well I am wondering if I may dare ask you a very personal question? I am your creditor unawares I anticipate your argument I appreciate your motives I assure you it is most painful to me I assure you my knowledge of it is limited I bear no malice about that I beg your indulgence I beg your pardon, but you take it too seriously I brazenly confess it I can easily understand your astonishment I can explain the apparent contradiction I can find no satisfaction in it I can hardly agree with you there I can never be sufficiently grateful I can only tell you the bare facts I can scarcely accept the offer I can scarcely boast that honor I can scarcely imagine anything more disagreeable I can sympathize with you I cannot altogether acquit myself of interested motives I cannot explain it even to myself I cannot find much real satisfaction in it I cannot forbear to press my advantage I cannot imagine what you mean I cannot precisely determine I can't pretend to make a jest of what I'm going to say I cannot say definitely at the moment I cannot say that in fact it is always so I cannot see how you draw that conclusion I cannot thank you enough for all your consideration I compliment you on your good sense I confess, I find it difficult I could ask for nothing better I could never forgive myself for that I dare say your intuition is quite right I decline to commit myself beforehand I detest exaggeration I didn't mean that--exactly I do not comprehend your meaning I don't deny that it is interesting I don't doubt it for a moment I do not doubt the sincerity of your arguments I do not exactly understand you I do not feel sure that I entirely share your views I don't feel that it is my business I do not find it an unpleasant subject I don't insist on your believing me I don't justify my presumption I don't know quite why you should say that I don't know that I can do that I don't know when I have heard anything so lamentable I don't know why you should be displeased I don't make myself clear, I see I don't pretend to explain I don't see anything particularly wonderful in it I don't underrate his kindness I don't want to disguise that from you I don't want to exaggerate I don't want to seem critical I doubt the truth of that saying I endorse it, every word I entirely approve of your plan I fancy it's just that I fear I cannot help you I fear that's too technical for me I feel a certain apprehension I feel an unwonted sense of gaiety [unwonted = unusual] I feel it my duty to be frank with you I feel myself scarcely competent to judge I feel very grateful to you for your kind offer I find it absorbing I find it rather monotonous I find this agreeable mental exhilaration I frankly confess that I generally trust my first impressions I give my word gladly I give you my most sacred word of honor I had better begin at the beginning I had no intention of being offensive I hadn't thought of it in that light I hardly think that could be so I have a hundred reasons for thinking so I have a peculiar affection for it I have an immense faith in him I have been constrained by circumstances I have been decidedly impressed I have been longing to see more of you I have been puzzling over a dilemma I have every reason to think so I have given you the best proof of it I have gone back to my first impressions I have known striking instances of the kind I have never heard it put so well I have no delusions on that score I have not succeeded in convincing myself of that I have not the influence you think I have not the least doubt of it I haven't the remotest idea I have often a difficulty in deciding I have often marveled at your courage I have quite changed my opinion about that I have something of great importance to say to you I have sometimes vaguely felt it I have the strongest possible prejudice against it I heartily congratulate you I hope it will not seem unreasonable to you I hope we may meet again I hope you will forgive an intruder I hope you will not think me irreverent I hope you will pardon my seeming carelessness I indulge the modest hope I know it is very presumptuous I know my request will appear singular I like it immensely I like your frankness I make no reflection whatever I mean it literally I might question all that I mistrust these wild impulses I most certainly agree with you I most humbly ask pardon I must add my congratulations on your taste I must apologize for intruding upon you I must ask you one more question, if I may I must confess I have never thought of that I must refrain from any comment I must respectfully decline to tell you I must take this opportunity to tell you I need not remind you that you have a grave responsibility I never heard anything so absurd I offer my humblest apologies I owe the idea wholly to you I partly agree with you I personally owe you a great debt of thankfulness I place myself entirely at your service I place the most implicit reliance on your good sense I prefer to reserve my judgment I purposely evaded the question I quite appreciate the very clever way you put it I quite see what the advantages are I really am curious to know how you guessed that I realize how painful it must be to you I recollect it clearly I rely on your good sense I remember the occasion perfectly I resent that kind of thing I respect you for that I respect your critical faculty I say it in all modesty I see disapproval in your face I see it from a different angle I see you are an enthusiast I see your point of view I seem to have heard that sentiment before I shall at once proceed to forget it I shall await your pleasure I shall be glad if you will join me I shall be interested to watch it develop I shall be most proud and pleased I shall certainly take you at your word I shall feel highly honored I shall make a point of thinking so I shall never forget your kindness I shall respect your confidence I should appreciate your confidence greatly I should be very ungrateful were I not satisfied with it I should feel unhappy if I did otherwise I should like your opinion of it I should not dream of asking you to do so I should think it very unlikely I simply cannot endure it I spoke only in jest I stand corrected I suppose I ought to feel flattered I surmised as much I sympathize deeply with you I take that for granted I think extremely well of it I think he has very noble ideals I think I can answer that for you I think I know what you are going to say I think it has its charm I think it is superb! I think it quite admirable I think its tone is remarkably temperate I think that is rather a brilliant idea I think what you say is reasonable I think you are quibbling I think you are rather severe in your opinions I think you have great appreciation of values I think you have summed it up perfectly I think your candor is charming I thoroughly agree with you I thought it most amusing I thought you were seriously indisposed I trust you will not consider it an impertinence I understand exactly how you feel about it I understand your delicacy of feeling I venture to propose another plan I very rarely allow myself that pleasure I want to have a frank understanding with you I was at a loss to understand the reason for it I was hoping that I could persuade you I was on the point of asking you I was speaking generally I watched you with admiration I will answer you frankly I will listen to no protestations I will take it only under compulsion I will tell you what puzzles me I will think of it, since you wish it I will, with great pleasure I wish I could explain my point more fully I wish I knew what you meant by that I wish to be perfectly fair I wish to put things as plainly as possible I wonder how much truth there is in it? I wonder if you have the smallest recollection of me? I would agree if I understood I wouldn't put it just that way If ever I can repay it, command me If I mistake not you were there once? If I speak strongly, it is because I feel strongly If I were disposed to offer counsel If I were sure you would not misunderstand my meaning If you don't mind my saying so If you insist upon it If you will pardon me the frankness In a manner that sometimes terrifies me In one respect you are quite right In that case let me rob you of a few minutes In what case, for example? Incredible as it sounds, I had for a moment forgotten Indeed, but it is quite possible Indeed! How? Indeed, you are wholly wrong Indifferently so, I am afraid Irony was ten thousand leagues from my intention Is it sane--is it reasonable? Isn't it amazing? Isn't it extraordinarily funny? Isn't it preposterous? Isn't that a trifle unreasonable? Isn't that rather a hasty conclusion? Is that a fair question? It always seemed to me impossible It amuses you, doesn't it? It blunts the sensibilities It could never conceivably be anything but popular It depends on how you look at it It depends upon circumstances It doesn't sound plausible to me It has a lovely situation as I remember it It has amused me hugely It has been a relief to talk to you It has been an immense privilege to see you It has never occurred to me It is a curious fact It is a great pleasure to meet you It is a huge undertaking It is a most unfortunate affair It is a perfectly plain proposition It is a rather melancholy thought It is a truth universally acknowledged It is all very inexcusable It is all very well for you to be philosophical It is altogether probable It is an admirable way of putting it It is an error of taste It is an extreme case, but the principle is sound It is an ingenious theory It is an uncommonly fine description It is extremely interesting, I can assure you It is for you to decide It is historically true It is I who should ask forgiveness It is incredible! It is indeed generous of you to suggest it It is inexplicable It is interesting, as a theory It is literally impossible It is merely a mood It is most unfortunate It is my deliberately formed opinion It is my opinion you are too conscientious It is nevertheless true It is not a matter of the slightest consequence It is not always fair to judge by appearances It is not so unreasonable as you think It is often very misleading It is one of the grave problems of the day It is only a fancy of mine It is perfectly defensible It is perfectly trite It is permissible to gratify such an impulse It is possible, but I rather doubt it It is quite an easy matter It is quite conceivable It is quite too absurd It is rather startling It is really impressive It is really most callous of you to laugh It is sheer madness It is sickening and so insufferably arrogant It is simply a coincidence It is the most incomprehensible thing in the world It is to you that I am indebted for all this It is true, I am grieved to say It is true none the less It is very amusing It is very far from being a fiction It is very good of you to do this for my pleasure It is very ingenious It is very splendid of you It is wanton capriciousness It is your privilege to think so It's a difficult and delicate matter to discuss It's a matter of immediate urgency It's absolute folly It's absurd--it's impossible It's all nonsense It's as logical as it can be under the circumstances It's been a strange experience for you It's deliciously honest It's going to be rather troublesome It's inconceivable that it should ever be necessary It's mere pride of opinion It's my chief form of recreation It's not a matter of vast importance It's past my comprehension It's quite wonderful how logical and simple you make it It's really very perplexing It's so charming of you to say that It's so kind of you to come It's such a bore having to talk about it It's the natural sequence It's too melancholy It's very wonderful It makes it all quite interesting It may sound strange to you It must be a trifle dull at times It must be fascinating It must be very gratifying to you It must have been rather embarrassing It seems an age since we've last seen you It seems entirely wonderful to me It seems incredible It seems like a distracting dream It seems preposterous It seems the height of absurdity It seems to me that you have a perfect right to do so It seems unspeakably funny to me It seems very ridiculous It shall be as you wish It should not be objectionable It sounds plausible It sounds profoundly interesting It sounds rather appalling It sounds very alluring It strikes me as rather pathetic It was an unpardonable liberty It was inevitable that you should say that It was most stupid of me to have forgotten it It was not unkindly meant It was peculiarly unfortunate It was really an extraordinary experience It was so incredible It was the most amazing thing I ever heard It was very good of you to come out and join us It will create a considerable sensation It will divert your thoughts from a mournful subject It will give me pleasure to do it It will not alter my determination It would be ill-advised It would interest me very much It would seem to be a wise decision It would take too long to formulate my thought J Join us, please, when you have time Just trust to the inspiration of the moment Justify it if you can L Let me persuade you Let me say how deeply indebted I feel for your kindness Let me speak frankly Let us grant that for the sake of the argument Let us take a concrete instance M Many thanks--how kind and good you are! May I ask to whom you allude? May I be privileged to hear it? May I speak freely? May I venture to ask what inference you would draw from that? Might I suggest an alternative? Most dangerous! My attitude would be one of disapproval My confidence in you is absolute My idea of it is quite the reverse My information is rather scanty My meaning is quite the contrary My point of view is different, but I shall not insist upon it My views are altered in many respects N No, I am speaking seriously No, I don't understand it Not at all Not to my knowledge Nothing could be more delightful Now is it very plain to you? Now you are flippant O Obviously the matter is settled Of course, but that again isn't the point Of course I am delighted Of course I don't want to press you against your will Of course you will do what you think best Oh, certainly, if you wish it Oh, do not form an erroneous impression Oh, I appreciate that in you! Oh, that's mere quibbling Oh, that's splendid of you! Oh, that was a manner of speaking Oh, yes, I quite admit that Oh, yes, you may take that for granted Oh, you are very bitter Oh, you may be as scornful as you like On the contrary, I agree with you thoroughly On the face of it, it sounds reasonable One assumption you make I should like to contest One has no choice to endure it One must be indulgent under the circumstances One thing I beg of you P Pardon me, but I don't think so Pardon me, I meant something different Perhaps I am indiscreet Perhaps not in the strictest sense Perhaps you do not feel at liberty to do so Perhaps you think me ungrateful Personally I confess to an objection Please continue to be frank Please do not think I am asking out of mere curiosity Please forgive my thoughtlessness Please make yourself at home Pray don't apologize Pray forgive me for intruding on you so unceremoniously Pray go on! Precisely, that is just what I meant Put in that way it certainly sounds very well Q Question me, if you wish Quibbling, I call it Quite so Quite the wisest thing you can do R Rather loquacious, I think [loquacious = very talkative] Reading between the lines Really? I should have thought otherwise Really--you must go? Reassure me, if you can Reflect upon the possible consequences Relatively speaking Reluctantly I admit it Reverting to another matter S Shall we have a compact? She has an extraordinary gift of conversation She is easily prejudiced She seems uncommonly appreciative She will be immensely surprised Show me that the two cases are analogous So far so good So I inferred So much the better for me So you observe the transformation? Something amuses you Sometimes the absurdity of it occurs to me Speaking with all due respect Still, you might make an exception Strangely it's true Such conduct seems to me unjustifiable Surely there can be no question about that Surely we can speak frankly Surely you sound too harsh a note Surely you would not countenance that T Tell me in what way you want me to help you Thank you for telling me that Thank you for your good intentions That, at least, you will agree to That depends on one's point of view That doesn't sound very logical That is a counsel of perfection That is a fair question, perhaps That is a question I have often proposed to myself That is a stroke of good fortune That is a superb piece of work That is a very practical explanation That is admirably clear That is certainly ideal That is eminently proper That is hardly consistent That is inconceivable That is just like you, if you will forgive me for saying so That is most fortunate That is most kind of you That is most unexpected and distressing That is not fair--to me That is not to be lightly spoken of That is precisely what I mean That is quite true, theoretically That is rather a difficult question to answer That is rather a strange request to make That is rather awkward That is really good of you That is the prevailing idea That is tragic That is true and I think you are right That is very amiable in you That is very curious That is very felicitous That is very gracious That is what I call intelligent criticism That is what I meant to tell you That is a humiliating thought That is a most interesting idea That is such a hideous idea That is the most incredible part of it That might involve you in life-long self-reproach That must be exceedingly tiresome That ought to make you a little lenient That reassures me That shows the infirmity of his judgment That theory isn't tenable That was exceedingly generous That was intended ironically That was very thoughtful of you That was very well reasoned That will blast your chances, I am afraid That will suit me excellently That would be somewhat serious That would be very discreditable The agreement seems to be ideal The idea is monstrous The inference is obvious The notion is rather new to me The pleasure is certainly not all on your side The reason is not so far to seek The same problem has perplexed me The sentiment is worthy of you The simplest thing in the world The situation is uncommonly delicate The story seems to me incredible The subject is extremely interesting The tone of it was certainly hostile The very obvious moral is this The whole thing is an idle fancy Then I have your permission? Then you're really not disinclined? Then you merely want to ask my advice? There are endless difficulties There are reasons which make such a course impossible There is a good deal of sense in that There is a grain of truth in that, I admit There is food for reflection in that There is my hand on it There is no resisting you There is nothing I should like so much There is one inevitable condition There is something almost terrifying about it There must be extenuating circumstances They amuse me immensely This is a most unexpected pleasure This is charmingly new to me This is indeed good fortune This is really appalling This is really not a laughing matter Those are my own private feelings Those things are not forgotten at once To me it's simply outrageous To speak frankly, I do not like it True, I forgot! U Undeniably true Unfortunately I must decline the proposal Unlikely to be so Unquestionably superior Unwholesome influence, I would say V Very good, I'll do so Very well, I will consent Vivacity is her greatest charm Virtually accomplished, I believe Vouch for its truth W We are all more or less susceptible We are drifting away from our point We are impervious to certain rules We are merely wasting energy in this duel We can safely take it for granted We couldn't have a better topic We had better agree to differ We have had some conclusions in common We must judge it leniently We must not expose ourselves to misinterpretation We owe you a debt of gratitude We shall be glad to see you, if you care to come We will devoutly hope not Well, as a matter of fact, I have forgotten Well done! I congratulate you Well, I'm not going to argue that Well, I call it scandalous Well, I confess they don't appeal to me Well, more's the pity Well, perhaps it is none of my affair Well, that is certainly ideal! Well, this is good fortune Well, yes--in a way Well, you are a dreamer! What a beautiful idea What a charming place you have here What a curious coincidence! What a pretty compliment! What a tempting prospect! What an extraordinary idea! What are your misgivings? What can you possibly mean? What conceivable reason is there for it? What do you imagine my course should be? What do you propose? What is the next step in your argument? What is there so strange about that? What, may I ask, is your immediate object? What unseemly levity on his part What very kind things you say to me What would you expect me to do? What you have just said is even truer than you realize What you propose is utterly impossible Who is your sagacious adviser? [sagacious = sound judgment, wise] Why ask such embarrassing questions? Why did you desert us so entirely? Why do you take it so seriously? Will you allow me to ask you a question? Will you be more explicit? Will you have the kindness to explain? Will you pardon my curiosity? Will you permit me a brief explanation? Would you apply that to everyone? Would you mind telling me your opinion? Y Yes and no Yes, but that is just what I fail to comprehend Yes, I dare say Yes, if you will be so good Yes, it was extraordinarily fine Yes, that is my earnest wish Yes, that's undeniable Yes? You were saying? You agree with me, I know You are a profound philosopher You are a severe critic You are delightfully frank You are greatly to be envied You are heartily welcome You are incomprehensible You are incorrigible You are kind and comforting You are most kind You are not consistent You are not serious, I hope You are not seriously displeased with me? You are quite delightful You are rather puzzling to-day You are right to remind me of that You are unduly distressing yourself You are very complimentary You are very gracious You're so tremendously kind about it You're succeeding admirably You're taking it all much too seriously You're talking nonsense! You're very good, I'm sure You ask me--but I shouldn't wonder if you knew better than I do You astonish me greatly You behaved with great forbearance You can hardly be serious You cannot regret it more than I do You could not pay me a higher compliment You did it excellently You did not clearly understand what I meant You don't seem very enthusiastic You excite my curiosity You flatter my judgment You have a genius for saying the right thing You have asked me a riddle You have asked the impossible You have been wrongly informed You have done me a great service You have had a pleasant time, I hope You have my deepest sympathy You have my unbounded confidence You have received a false impression You have such an interesting way of putting things You interest me deeply You judge yourself too severely You know I'm in an agony of curiosity You know I'm not given to sentimentality You know the familiar axiom You leave no alternative You look incredulous You may be sure of my confidence You may rely on me absolutely You might make an exception You must have misunderstood me You must not fail to command me You overwhelm me with your kindness You really insist upon it? You rebuke me very fairly You say that as though you were surprised You see how widely we differ You see, it's all very vague You see things rose-colored You seem to be in a happy mood You seem to take a very mild interest in what I propose You shock me more than I can say You speak in enigmas You speak with authority You surely understand my position You take a great deal for granted You take a pessimistic view of things You take me quite by surprise You will admit I have some provocation You will become morbid if you are not careful You will have ample opportunity You will, of course, remember the incident You will please not be flippant You will understand my anxiety Your argument is facile and superficial Your consideration is entirely misplaced Your judgments are very sound Your logic is as clever as possible Your opinion will be invaluable to me Your request is granted before it is made Your statement is somewhat startling SECTION X PUBLIC SPEAKING PHRASES A A fact of vast moment A few words will suffice to answer A further objection is A great many people have said A little indulgence may be due to those A majority of us believe A man in my situation has A more plausible objection is found A proof of this is A servile mind can never know A short time since A specific answer can be given A thought occurred to me Able men have reasoned out Above all things, let us not forget Absolutely true it is Abundant reason is there Accordingly by reason of this circumstance Add this instance to After a careful study of all the evidence After full deliberation After reminding the hearer After this it remains only to say Again, can we doubt Again, I ask the gentleman Again, in this view Again, it is quite clear that Again, it is urged Again, let us compare Again, very numerous are the cases Again, we have abundant instances Against all this concurring testimony All confess this to be true All I ask is All of us know All that I will say now All the facts which support this All the signs of the time indicate All these things you know All this being considered All this is historical fact All this is very well All this suggests All this we take for granted Allow me for a moment to turn to Allow me to tell a story Altho I say it to myself Amazing as it may seem Am I mistaken in this Among many examples Among the distinguished guests who honor Among the problems that confront us An answer to this is now ready An argument has often been put forward An example or two will illustrate An indescribably touching incident An opinion has now become established And again, it is said And again, it is to be presumed And coming nearer to our own day And did a man try to persuade me And do you really think And everybody here knows And for myself, as I said And further, all that I have said And hence the well-known doctrine And here again, when I speak And here allow me to call your attention And here I am led to observe And here I come to the closing evidence And here I have an opportunity And here I reproach And here I wish you to observe And here let me define my position And here let me give my explanation And here let us recall to mind And how is it possible to imagine And I am bound to say And I beg of you And I call on you And I might say this And I refuse assent And I rejoice to know And I say, it were better for you And I should in like manner repudiate And I speak with reverence And I submit to you And I trust that you will consider And I will make a practical suggestion And I will tell you why And I would, moreover submit And if a man could anywhere be found And if any of you should question And if I know anything of my countrymen And if I may presume to speak And if I take another instance And if this be true And if you come to a decision And if you think it your duty And in conclusion And in like manner And in order to see this And in thus speaking, I am not denying And is not this lamentable And is there not a presumption And it happens And it is certainly true And it is doubtful if And it is not difficult to see And it is not plain And it is one of the evidences And it is precisely in this And it is strikingly suggested to us And it is undeniable, I say And it is well that this should be so And last of all And lest anyone should marvel And let it be observed And lo! and behold And more than this And next I would ask And now allow me to call attention And now behold a mystery And now consider And now having discussed And now I beg that I may be permitted And now I go back to the statement And now I have completed my review And now I have said enough to explain And now I must touch upon one point And now if I may take for granted And now it would be very pleasant for me And now observe how And now, sir, what I had first to say And now supposing this point to be settled And now that I have mentioned And now the chief points of it And now the question is asked me And now, to close, let me give you And now, to what purpose do I mention And, of course, you are aware And of this I am perfectly certain And quite as difficult is it to create And right here lies the cause And, sir, a word And so, again, as regard And so I am reminded of a story And so I leave these words with you And so I may point out And so I might recount to you And so, in the other cases, I have named And so in the present case And so on And so through all phases And so, upon every hand And sometimes it will be difficult And that gave another distorted view And the reason is very obvious And the same holds good And then again And then hastily to conclude And then I may be reminded And then there is another thought And then when it is said And there are reasons why And there is also this view And therefore am I truly glad And therefore it is not unfrequently quoted And therefore it is not without regret And this brings me to the last thing And this is really the sense And this leads me to say a word And thus consistently And thus it is conceivable And thus it seems to me And thus we are led on then to further question And to all this must be added And to return to the topic And to this conclusion you must come And unquestionably And we are brought to the same conclusion And what do you suppose will be And when I have shown to you And when I recall that event And when we pass beyond the bounds of And where, let me ask And why should I insist And will you still insist And with these thoughts come others And yet I can not but reflect And yet I feel justified in believing And yet I think we all feel And yet let me say to you And yet one more quotation And yet this notion is, I conceive And yet though this be true And yet we ought, if we are wise And you may also remember this Another circumstance that adds to the difficulty Another consideration which I shall adduce [adduce = cite as an example] Another instance of signal success Another of these presumptions Another point is made as clear as crystal Another reason of a kindred nature Another reflection which occurs to me Another sign of our times Another signal advantage Another striking instance Answers doubtless may be given Are there not many of us Are we content to believe Are we forever to deprive ourselves Are we not startled into astonishment Are we satisfied to assume As a general rule I hold As a last illustration As a matter of fact As a proof of this As an illustration of this truth As briefly as I may As far as my limits allow As far as this is true As far as this objection relates As far as we know As for the rest As I have now replied to As I look around on this assembly As I rise to respond to the sentiment As I understand this matter As memory scans the past As society is now constituted As some one has well said As the foregoing instances have shown As to the particular instance before us As well might we compare As we shall see in a few moments Assuredly it is this At the outset of this inquiry At the risk of digression At the same time, I candidly state At the utmost we can say At this juncture At this solemn moment Away then with the notion B Be assured, then Be confident, therefore Be it so Be not deceived Be sure that in spite of Be these things as they may Be your interests what they may be Bear with me for a few moments Bearing on this point Before attempting to answer this question Before going further Before I close I will particularly remark Before I come to the special matter Before I proceed to compare Being fully of the opinion Being persuaded then Believing, as I do Beyond all question we Bidden by your invitation to a discussion Broadly speaking But, above all things, let us But after all, I think no one can say But again, when we carefully consider But am I wrong in saying But apart from the fact But besides these special facts But can this question But depend upon it But despite all this But do not let us depend But do you imagine But doubts here arise But even admitting these possibilities But everyone who deserves But first of all, remark, I beg you But, further, I shall now demonstrate But, gentlemen, I must be done But grave problems confront us But here I am discussing But here let me say But how can we pass over But how shall I describe my emotions But however that may be But I am bound to say But I am certain from my own experience But I am very sorry to say But I am willing enough to admit But I can at least say But I can not conceive But I can promise But I cherish the hope But I confess that I should be glad But I digress But I do not propose all these things But I do say this But I have been insisting simply But I have heard it argued But I have no fear of the future But I leave this train of thought But I may be permitted to speak But I may say in conclusion But I need hardly assert But I pass that over But I propose to speak to you But I repeat But I resist the temptation But I return to the question But I shall go still further But I simply ask But I submit the whole subject But I trust that you will all admit But I venture to assure you But I will allude But I will not further impress any idea But I would earnestly impress upon you But if I may even flatter myself But if I seek for illustrations But if you want more evidence But if you wish to know But in making this assertion But in my opinion there is no need But in the course of time But is it quite possible to hold But is this any reason why But it does not follow from this But it happens very fortunately But it has been suggested to me But it is a fact But it is impossible for one But it is necessary to explain But it is no use protesting But it is not fair to assert But it is not my intention But it is not necessary to suppose But it is not possible to believe But it is not really so But it is otherwise with But it is sometimes said But it may be doubted whether But it may happen that I forgot But it will be a misfortune But it will naturally be asked But it will perhaps be argued But it would be vain to attempt But let me ask you to glance But let me before closing refer But let none of you think But let us also keep ever in mind But let us look a little further But lo! all of a sudden But mark this But more than all things else But my allotted time is running away But my answer to this objection But, my friends, pause for a moment But never was a grosser wrong But not for one moment But notwithstanding all this But now look at the effect But now take notice of But on the other hand But on what ground are we But passing these by But perhaps I ought to speak distinctly But perhaps you are not yet weary But putting these questions aside But quite contrary to this, you will find But recollect, I pray you, how But, sir, it is manifest But some other things are to be noted But some will ask me But sooner or later But still, I repeat But suppose the fact But surely, you can not say But that I may not divert you from But that is not all But that must be always the impression But the fact is But the final value But the greatest proof of all But the most formidable problem But the necessity of the case But the question may arise But, then, let us ask ourselves But there is another duty imposed But there is much more than this But this I do not hesitate to say But this I fearlessly affirm But this I know But this is a circuitous argument But this is no place for controversy But this is not all But this is what I mean But this much I affirm as true But this warns me But this we may put aside But to go still further But to say the truth But we are met with the assertion But we are to recollect But we ask, perhaps But we may depend upon it But we think it is not wise But we want something more for explanation But what a blunder would be yours But what is the fact But what we must needs guard against But when it is declared But when we look a little deeper But while it may be admitted But who has not seen But why do I numerate these details But with these exceptions But yet nothing can be more splendid But you should know By no means By the way, I have not mentioned By this time it will be suspected C Can it be supposed Can the long records of humanity teach us Can there be a better illustration Can we pretend Can you lightly contemplate Can you yield yourselves Cautious and practical thinkers ask Certain it is Certainly I am not blind to the faults Certainly, one can conceive Clearly enough Coming back to the main subject Coming down to modern times Coming to present circumstances Common sense indicates Consequently, I am not discussing this matter Consider, I beg you, what Contemplating these marvelous changes D Delude not yourselves with the belief Depend upon it Did it ever occur to you Difficult then as the question may be Do I need to describe Do me the honor of believing Do not imagine Do not let us conceal from ourselves Do not suppose for a moment Do not talk to me of Do not think me guilty of Do we not know Do what you will Do you ask how that can be Do you believe this can be truthfully said Do you not know I am speaking of Do you remember a concrete instance Do you think, then Does any man say Does it ever occur to you Does it not seem something like idiocy to Does it not shock you to think Does not the event show Does not the nature of every man revolt Doubtless the end is sought E Every now and then you will find Every one has asked himself Every one therefore ought to look to Every reader of history can recall F Far from it Few indeed there are Few subjects are more fruitful Few things impress the imagination more Finally, it is my most fervent prayer First in my thoughts are First of all I ask For, be assured of this For behold For I must tell you For if any one thinks that there is For, in truth, if you please to recollect For instance, I can fancy For is it not true For it is not right to For let it be observed first For mark you For my own part, I believe For myself, certainly I think For observe what the real fact is For one I deny For, perhaps, after all For, perhaps, some one may say For so it generally happens For the sake of my argument For this is what I say For this reason, indeed, it is For we all know Fortunately for us Fortunately I am not obliged From one point of view we are From the circumstances already explained From the standpoint of From this statement you will perceive G Generally speaking God be praised Grant this true Granting all this H Had I time for all that might be said Had my limits allowed it Happily for us Hardly less marvelous Hardly will anyone venture to say Have I exaggerated Have you ever noticed Having taken a view of Having thus described what appears to me He is the best prophet who He seems at times to confuse He was an eminent instance of He who is insensible to Hence arises a grave mischief Hence, as I have said Hence it follows Here again the testimony corroborates Here arises the eternal question Here comes the practical matter Here for a moment I seem Here, however, it may be objected Here I am considering Here I end my illustrations Here I must pause for a moment Here I only insist upon Here I ought to stop Here is another strange thing Here is good hope for us Here is no question Here let me meet one other question Here, then, I am brought to the consideration Here then I take up the subject Here then is the key Here, then, it is natural at last Here then, we are brought to the question Here, then, we are involved Here undoubtedly it is Here we can not but pause to contemplate Here we come into direct antagonism with Here we come to the very crux of Here we have it on high authority History is replete with predictions Hitherto I have spoken only of Holding this view, I am concerned How can we help believing How do you account for How does it happen How human language staggers when How infinitely difficult it is How infinitely superior must it appear How is this to be explained How many a time How momentous, then How much better, I say, if How much more rational it would be How shall I attempt to enumerate How shall I describe to you However, I am viewing the matter However, I will not in any way admit However, it is to me a very refreshing thing I I abide by my statement I add a few suggestions I adduce these facts [adduce = cite as an example] I admire the main drift of I admit, of course, at once I admit the extreme complexity I again ask I allude to I always delight to think I always will assert the right to I am a great admirer I am a little at a loss to know I am about to supplement I am agitated by conflicting emotions I am alarmed, indeed, when I see I am also bound to say I am also satisfied I am apprehensive I am asked to-night to propose I am assured and fully believe I am at a loss for adequate terms I am bold to say I am but saying I am by no means certain I am certain that you will give me credit I am certainly in earnest sympathy I am confronted by the hope I am conscious of the fact I am convinced by what I have seen I am deeply imbued with the conviction I am deeply insensible of the compliment I am determined I am even bold enough to hazard I am exceeding my necessary limits I am exceedingly glad of this opportunity I am extremely obliged to you I am familiar with I am far from asserting I am filled with admiration I am firmly convinced I am free to admit I am fully convinced I am giving voice to what you all feel I am glad of this public opportunity I am glad to answer to the toast I am glad to express the belief I am glad to notice I am going to spare you and myself I am grateful to you for this honor I am greatly alarmed I am greatly indebted to you I am happy to be with you I am here by the favor of your invitation I am here the advocate of I am here to introduce I am in favor of I am in sympathy with I am inclined sometimes to believe I am inclined to suspect I am indebted for the honor I am, indeed, most solicitous I am informed I am led on by these reflections I am led to believe I am mainly concerned I am most deeply sensible of the welcome I am most grateful for the opportunity I am myself greatly indebted I am nevertheless too sensible I am not a stranger to I am not at liberty to discuss I am not at present concerned I am not about to defend I am not advocating I am not altogether clear I am not aware of a single instance I am not blind to the faults of I am not bold enough to I am not catching at sharp arguments I am not concerned to argue I am not defending myself I am not dreaming of denying I am not going into vexed questions I am not going to reproach I am not here to defend I am not insensible I am not of those who pretend I am not prepared to dispute the word I am not presumptuous to assert I am not proposing to set forth I am not ripe to pass sentence I am not so unreasonable as to tell you I am not surprised I am not taking into account I am not unaware I am not undertaking to deliver I am now going to attempt I am obliged to add I am obliged to go still further I am often reminded I am old enough to remember I am one of those who believe I am only too sensible of the fact I am perfectly willing to admit I am persuaded I am prepared to back that opinion by I am privileged to speak to I am quite conscious that I am rather disposed to think I am ready to do battle I am reassured by the presence here I am reluctantly but forcibly reminded I am resolved not to permit I am sensible, sir I am simply endeavoring to show I am so surrounded on every hand I am sometimes inclined to think I am somewhat relieved to know I am sorry to say I am suggesting the reason why I am sure, at any rate I am sure every impartial man will agree I am sure I feel no hostility I am sure that I echo the sentiment I am sure this generous audience will pardon me I am sure you all hope I am sure you feel the truth I am sure you will acquit me I am sure you will be kind enough I am sure you will do me the justice I am sure you will not be surprised I am surely not here to assert I am tempted further to offer to you I am thankful for the privilege I am thoroughly convinced I am to speak to you this evening I am to urge the interest of I am told occasionally I am told on authority I am too well aware of the difficulties I am totally at a loss to conceive I am trespassing too long on your time I am unable to understand I am unconscious of intentional error I am under a very great obligation I am under the deepest feeling of gratitude I am under the impression I am unwillingly bound to add I am uttering no paradox when I say I am very far from thinking. I am very glad to have the honor I am very happy to be here I am very much in the condition of I am very sure that if you ponder I am very sure you will believe I am well aware I am willing to know I anticipate with pleasing expectation I appeal in the first place I appeal to any man to say I appeal to the better judgment I appreciate the significance I argue this cause I ask again I ask no greater blessing I ask permission to speak to you I ask the attention I ask the audience I ask the audience to return with me I ask this of you I ask you calmly and dispassionately I ask you gentlemen, do you think I ask you if it is possible I ask you, if you please, to rise and give the toast I ask you in all candor I ask you now to follow me I ask you to consider I ask you to join me in drinking a toast I ask you to pledge with me I ask your attention I ask your indulgence I assert, sir, that it is I assure myself I assure you, of my own personal knowledge I attribute it to I avail myself of the opportunity I beg again to thank you for the honor I beg all to remember I beg and implore of you I beg emphatically to say I beg leave to make some observations I beg of you to remember I beg to tender my most fervent wishes I beg you not to mistake my meaning I beg you to accept my grateful expression I begin by observing I begin with expressing a sentiment I believe from my own personal experience I believe I can speak for all I believe I shall make it clear to you I believe I voice the sentiment I believe it to be the simple truth I believe most profoundly I believe that I am within the mark I believe that in this instance I bid you a most cordial and hearty welcome I bow with you in reverent commemoration I call on you to answer I call to mind how I can by no calculation justify I call hardly conceive I can make allowance for I can most truthfully assure you I call never sufficiently express my gratitude I can not allow myself to believe I can not avoid confessing I can not be content with I can not believe, I will not believe I can not better illustrate this argument I can not better sum up I can not boast of I can not bound my vision I can not but reflect I can not but see what mischief I can not charge myself with I can not close without giving expression I can not conceive a greater honor I can not feel any doubt myself I can not forbear from offering I can not give you a better illustration I can not help expressing a wish I can not help speaking urgently I can not here go into details I can not hesitate to say I can not hope adequately to respond I can not justly be responsible because I can not let this opportunity pass I can not persuade myself I can not prevail on myself I can not refrain from saying for myself I can not resist the train of thought I can not say how glad I am I can not say with confidence I can not stop to give in detail I can not sufficiently thank you I can not take back my word I can not take it for granted I can not thank you enough I can not well avoid saying I can only congratulate you I can only hope for indulgence I can readily understand I can scarcely concede anything more important I can scarcely find fitting words I can strongly recommend I can understand, moreover I can with propriety speak here I certainly have not so good an opinion I challenge any man I cheerfully own I cheerfully submit myself I claim a share also for I class them altogether under the head I close with the words I close with this sentiment I come at length to I come next to the question of I come to the other assumption I conceive this to be I confess I feel not the least alarmed I confess I have had my doubts I confess I have little sympathy I confess it affects me very deeply to I confess it is very difficult to I confess that I do not entirely approve I confess that it is a comfort to me I confess that my notions are widely different I confess to a little embarrassment I confess to you that I have no fear I confine myself to saying I congratulate you upon the auspicious character I consider I have said enough in proof I consider it amply explains I contend I content myself with pursuing I could do no less than I could easily mention I could enlarge upon it I could never understand I could wish that this belief I dare say you know I dare venture the remark I declare to you I deem it both necessary and just I deem it proper here to remind I deem myself honored I deny, once and for all I deny the inference I desire to be brief I desire to bear my testimony I desire to call attention I desire to know I desire to lay emphatic stress I dissent from the opinion I distrust all general theories of I do again and again urge upon you I do, indeed, recollect I do not absolutely assert I do not advocate I do not argue I do not ask you to I do not at this moment remember I do not believe it possible I do not belong to those who I do not choose to consume I do not complain of I do not consider it necessary I do not contend I do not countenance for a moment I do not deem it incumbent upon me I do not depreciate for a moment I do not desire to call in question I do not desire to put too much emphasis I do not despair of surmounting I do not disguise the fact I do not enter into the question I do not fail to admire I do not fear a contradiction I do not feel at liberty I do not forget the practical necessity I do not hesitate to say I do not imagine I do not in the least degree I do not indeed deny I do not indulge in the delusion I do not know how anyone can believe I do not know whether you are aware of it I do not know why I do not know with what correctness I do not mean anything so absurd I do not mean now to go further than I do not mean to impute I do not merely urge I do not mistrust I do not myself pretend to be I do not need to remind you I do not, of course, deny I do not pretend to argue I do not propose to take up your time I do not question for a moment I do not recount all I do not say anything about the future I do not say this with any affectation I do not see how it is possible I do not see much difference between I do not seek to palliate I do not speak exclusively I do not stop to discuss I do not, therefore, wonder I do not think it necessary to warn you I do not think it possible I do not think it unfair reasoning I do not think myself obliged to dwell I do not think that I need further discuss I do not think this at all an exaggeration I do not think we can go far wrong I do not think you will often hear I do not understand how it can apply I do not vouch for I do not want to discourage you I do not wish to be considered egotistic I do not wish to be misrepresented I do not wonder I doubt very much whether I dwell with pleasure on the considerations I earnestly maintain I embrace with peculiar satisfaction I end as I began I entertain great apprehension for I entertain no such chimerical hopes [chimerical = highly improbable] I entertain the hope and opinion I entirely dissent from the view I especially hail with approval I even add this I even venture to deny I fancy I hear you say I fear I may seem trifling I fear lest I may I fearlessly appeal I fearlessly challenge I feel a great necessity to I feel bound to add my expression I feel constrained to declare I feel entirely satisfied I feel I have a right to say I feel it a proud privilege I feel keenly myself impelled by every duty I feel only a great emotion of gratitude I feel respect and admiration I feel some explanation is due I feel sure I feel tempted to introduce here I feel that I have a special right to I feel that it is not true I feel the greatest satisfaction I feel the task is far beyond my power I fervently trust I find it difficult to utter in words I find it more easy I find my reference to this I find myself called upon to say something I find myself in the position of I find no better example than I find no fault with I find numberless cases I flatter myself I, for my part, would rather I, for one, greatly doubt I forbear to inquire I foresaw the consequence I fully recognize I gave notice just now I give you, in conclusion, this sentence I go further I grant all this I grant with my warmest admiration I gratefully accept I greatly deplore I had a kind of hope I had almost said I had in common with others I had occasion to criticize I happen to differ I hardly dare to dwell longer I hardly know anything more strange I hasten to concede I have a dark suspicion I have a great admiration for I have a pleasing and personal duty I have a profound pity for those I have a right to consider I have a strong belief I have a very high respect for I have abstained from I have acquired some useful experience I have all along implied I have all but finished I have already alluded to I have already shown the ground of my hope I have already stated, and now repeat I have always been under the impression I have always listened with the greatest satisfaction I have always maintained I have another objection I have another observation to add I have anticipated the objection I have assumed throughout I have attempted thus hastily I have barely touched some of the points I have been allowed the privilege I have been asked several times I have been extremely anxious I have been given to understand I have been glad to observe I have been heretofore treating I have been insisting then on this I have been interested in hearing I have been pointing out how I have been profoundly moved I have been requested to say a word I have been told by an eminent authority I have been too long accustomed to hear I have been touched by the large generosity I have been trying to show I have before me the statistics I have but one more word to add I have demonstrated to you I have depicted I have endeavored to emphasize I have enlarged on this subject I have felt it almost a duty to I have found great cause for wonder I have frequently been surprised at I have gazed with admiration I have generally observed I have gone so far as to suggest I have good reason for I have had steadily in mind I have had the honor I have had to take a long sweep I have heard it objected I have heard with relief and pleasure I have hitherto been adducing instances [adduce = cite as an example] I have hitherto been engaged in showing I have in a measure anticipated I have in my possession I have incidentally dwelt on I have introduced it to suggest I have labored to maintain I have laid much stress upon I have lately observed many strong indications I have listened with the utmost interest I have little hope that I can add anything I have lived to see I have long ago insisted I have long been of the conviction I have never heard it suggested I have never whispered a syllable I have no acquaintance with I have no doubt whatever I have no excuse for intruding I have no fear of myself I have no fears for the success I have no hesitation in asserting I have no intention to moralize I have no particular inclination I have no prejudice on the subject I have no pretention to be regarded I have no reason to think I have no scruple in saying I have no such gloomy forebodings I have no sympathy with the men I have no thought of venturing to say I have no wish at all to preach I have not accustomed myself I have not allowed myself I have not been able to deny I have not particularly referred to I have not said anything yet I have not the means of forming a judgment I have not the right to reproach I have not time to present I have nothing more to say I have noticed of late years I have now explained to you I have now made bold to touch upon I have now rather more than kept my word I have now said all that occurs to me I have often been impressed with I have often been struck with the resemblance I have often lingered in fancy I have one step farther to go I have only partially examined I have partly anticipated I have pleasant memories of I have pointed out I have pride and pleasure in quoting I have racked this brain of mine I have read with great regret I have said and I repeat I have said over and over again I have said what I solemnly believe I have scant patience I have seen for myself I have seen it stated in a recent journal I have seen some signs of encouragement I have shown I have some sort of fear I have sometimes asked myself I have sometimes fancied I have sometimes wondered whether I have still two comments to make I have taken pains to know I have the confident hope I have the greatest possible confidence I have the honor to propose I have then to investigate I have thought it incumbent on me I have thought it right on this day I have thought it well to suggest I have throughout highly appreciated I have thus been led by my feelings I have thus stated the reason I have to confess with a feeling of melancholy I have to force my imagination I have touched very cursorily I have tried to convey to you I have undertaken to speak I have very much less feeling of I have watched with some attention I have witnessed the extraordinary I have yet a more cogent reason I have yet to learn I hazard nothing in saying I hear it sometimes said I hear you say to yourselves I heartily feel the singular claims I hesitate to take an instance I hold it to be clearly expedient I hold myself obliged to I hold the maxim no less applicable I hold this to be a truth I hold to the principle I hope by this time we are all convinced I hope for our own sakes I hope I have expressed myself explicitly I hope I may be allowed to intimate I hope I shall not be told I hope it is no disparagement I hope most sincerely and truly I hope none who hear me I hope not to occupy more than a few minutes I hope that I shall not be so unfortunate I hope the day may be far distant I hope the time may come again I hope to be excused if I hope to be forgiven if I hope we may forget I hope you will not accuse me I imagine that no one will be disposed I insist upon it I intend to propose I know from experience how I know full well I know I am treading on thin ice I know it has been questioned I know it is said I know it will be said I know many reasons why I know not how else to express I know not in what direction to look I know not of my own knowledge I know not where else to find I know perfectly well I know that it is impossible for me to I know that this is the feeling I know that what I may say is true I know there are some who think I know there is a theory among us I know too well I know very well the difference between I know well it is not for me I know well the sentiments I know you are all impatient to hear I know you will do all in your power I know you will interpret what I say I labor under a degree of prejudice I lately heard it affirmed I lay it down as a principle I leave history to judge I leave it to you I leave the arduous task I leave to others to speak I long to speak a word or two I look hopefully to I look in vain I look with encouragement I look with inexpressible dread I look with mingled hope and terror I make my appeal to I make no extravagant claim I make this abrupt acknowledgment I marvel that I may add, speaking for my own part I may be allowed to make one remark I may be permitted to add I may confess to you I may safely appeal I may say to you calmly I may seem to have been diffuse I may take as an instance I may venture upon a review I mean by this I mean, moreover I mean something more than that I mention it to you to justify I mention these facts because I mention this, not by way of complaint I might bring you another such case I might deny that I might enter into such detail I might go further I might go on indefinitely I might go on to illustrate I might of course point first I might reasonably question the justice I might try to explain I might venture to claim I might well have desired I might well think I must ask an abrupt question I must be careful about what I say I must be contented with I must be excused if I say I must bow in reverence I must call your attention for a moment I must conclude abruptly I must confess that I became rather alarmed I must consider this as I must crave your indulgence I must express to you again I must fairly tell you I must find some fault with I must for want of time omit I must here admit I must lament I must leave any detailed development I must mention with praise I must not allow myself to indulge I must not for an instant be supposed I must not overlook I must now beg to ask I must pause a moment to I must proceed I must qualify the statement I must remind my hearers of I must reply to some observations I must return to the subject I must say that I am one of those I must speak plainly I must suppose, however I must take occasion to say I must thank you once more I must try to describe to you I myself have boundless faith I need not assure this brilliant company I need not dwell I need not enter into I need not follow out the application I need not, I am certain, assure you I need not say how much I thank you I need not show how inconsistent I need not specially recommend to you I need not wander far in search I need only to observe I need say nothing in praise I need scarcely observe I need to guard myself right here I neither affirm nor deny I next come to the implicit assumption I note with particular pleasure I notice it as affording an instance I noticed incidentally the fact I now address you on a question I now come, sir, to the second head I now have the pleasure of presenting to you I now pass to the question of I now proceed to inquire I now reiterate I object strongly to the use I observe, then, in the first place I only ask a favorable construction of I only marvel I only wish you to recognize I open the all-important question I ought to give an illustration I own I can not help feeling I particularly allude to I pass on from that I pass then to our second division I pause for a moment to say I pause to confess once more I pay tribute to I personally know that it is so I pray God I may never I predict that you will I prefer a practical view I presume I shall have to admit I presume that I shall not be disbelieved I proceed to another important phase I profess I propose briefly to glance at I propose, therefore to consider I protest I never had any doubt I purposely have avoided I question whether I quite endorse what has been said I rather look forward to a time I readily grant I really can not think it necessary to I really do not know I really thought that you would excuse me I recall another historical fact I recognize the high compliment conveyed I recollect hearing a sagacious remark [sagacious = sound judgment] I refer especially I refuse to believe I regard as an erroneous view I regard it as a tribute I regard it as a very great honor I regret that I am not able to remember I regret that it is not possible for me I regret the time limits me I regret this the less I rejoice in an occasion like this I rejoice that events have occurred I rejoice to think I remark here I remember a reference made I remember an intimation I remember full well I remember the enjoyment with which I remember to have heard I repeat, I am not speaking I repeat my statement in another form I respectfully counsel I respectfully submit I rest my opinion on I rise in behalf I rise to express my disapprobation [approbation = warm approval; praise] I rise to thank you I rise with some trepidation I return, in conclusion, to I return you my most grateful thanks I said a little way back I said it would be well I said that I thought I salute with profound reverence I sanction with all my heart I saw an ingenious argument the other day I say frankly I say in moderation I say it is extremely important I say it most confidently I say no more of these things I say not one syllable against I say, then, my first point is I say this is no disparagement of I say this the more gladly I say without fear of contradiction I see around me I see as clearly as any man possibly can I see little hope of I see no exception I see no possibility of I see no reason for doubting I seem to hear you say I seize upon this opportunity I seriously desire I set out with saying I shall add a few words I shall address myself to a single point I shall ask you to look very closely I shall be told I shall best attain my object I shall bestow a little attention upon I shall certainly admit I shall consider myself privileged I shall desist from I shall endeavor to be guided I shall give it in the words of I shall here briefly recite the I shall here use the word to denote I shall hope to interest you I shall invite you to follow me I shall just give the summary of I shall never believe I shall never cease to be grateful I shall not acknowledge I shall not attempt a detailed narrative I shall not end without appealing I shall not enlarge upon I shall not force into the discussion I shall not go so far as to say I shall not hesitate to say something I shall not tax your patience I shall not undertake to prophesy I shall not weary your patience I shall now give you some instances I shall now proceed to show I shall often have to advert to I shall pass by all this I shall presently show I shall proceed without further preface I shall recur to certain questions I shall say all this without entering into I shall show that I am not I shall speak first about I shall speak with becoming frankness I shall take a broader view of the subject I shall take it for granted here I shall therefore endeavor I shall touch upon one or two questions I shall waste no time in refuting I shall with your sanction I should be false to my own manhood I should be surprised if I should be the last man to deny I should fail in my duty if I should find it hard to discover I should have forfeited my own self-respect I should like at least to mention I should like to emphasize I should like to go a step farther I should like to refer to two events I should like to see that view answered I should like to-day to examine briefly I should much prefer I should not be satisfied with myself I should think it too absurd I shrink from the contemplation I shudder at the doctrine I simply lay my finger on a fact I simply pause here to ask I sincerely regret the absence I sincerely wish it were in my power I solemnly declare I sometimes hear a wish expressed I sorrowfully call to mind I speak forth my sentiment I speak from no little personal observation I speak of this to show I speak the fact when I tell you I speak the secret feeling of this company I speak what I know when I say I speak wholly without authority I speak with feeling upon this point I speak with some degree of encouragement I speak with the utmost sincerity I speak within the hearing of I stand in awed amazement before I stand in the midst of men I still view with respect I submit it to every candid mind I submit that in such a case I submit that it is high time I submit this proposition I summon you to do your share I suppose it is right to answer I suppose it to be entirely true I suppose most men will recollect I suppose that everyone who listens to me I suppose there is no one here I suppose we are all of one opinion I suspect that is why we so often I sympathize most heartily I take a broader and bolder position I take it for granted I take leave to say I take one picture as an illustration I take pleasure in saying I take the liberty of observing I take this instance at random I take two views of I tell him in reply I tell you, gentlemen I tender my thanks to you I thank you for having allowed me I thank you for the appreciative tone I thank you for the honor I thank you for your most generous greeting I thank you for your thoughtful courtesy I thank you from the bottom of my heart I thank you very gratefully I thank you very sincerely for the honor I think I am correct in saying I think I am not the first to utter I think I can claim a purpose I think I can sincerely declare I think I have a right to look upon I think I have rightly spoken I think I might safely say I think I need not say more I think it is not too much to say I think it is quite right I think it may be necessary to consider I think it might be said with safety I think it my duty to I think it observable I think it probable I think it will astonish you I think it will be granted I think no Wise man can be indifferent I think, on the contrary I think something may be said in favor of I think that all will agree I think that I can explain I think that I can venture to say I think that, in these last years I think that none of us will deny I think there is no better evidence I think there is no call on me to listen I think we are justified I think we can hardly hope I think we may all easily see I think we may ask in reply I think we may safely conclude I think we may say, therefore I think we may well be proud of I think we may well congratulate each other I think we must draw a distinction I think we need neither doubt nor fear I think we ought to recur a moment to I think we shall all recognize I think we should do well to call to mind I think we take too narrow a view I think when we look back upon I think you may well rejoice in I think you will all agree I think you will pardon my saying I think you will see I thus explicitly reply I tremble at the task I tremble to think I trust I may be indulged I trust it is not presumptuous I trust that as the years roll on I trust that I shall have the indulgence I trust that this will not be regarded as I turn, gentlemen, to the case I use the word advisedly I use the word in the sense I use very plain language I utter this word with the deepest affection I value very much the honor I venture to ask permission I venture to say I verily believe I very confidently submit I view that prospect with the greatest misgiving I want to bespeak your attention I want to know the character I want to make some simple applications I want to say just a few words I want to say one word more I want to say to you seriously I want to think with you I warn and exhort you I was astonished to learn I was constantly watchful to I was exceedingly interested I was honored with the acquaintance I was lost in admiration I was not slow to accept and believe I was not without some anxiety I was overwhelmed I was sincerely astonished I was very much interested I was very much thrilled I well recollect the time I well remember an occasion I will accept the general proposition I will add the memorable words I will ask the indulgence I will ask you to accompany me I will ask you to bear witness I will dwell a little longer I will endeavor in a brief way I will endeavor to illustrate I will endeavor to show you I will enlarge no further I will even express a hope at the outset I will even go further and say I will first call your attention to I will give one more illustration I will illustrate this point by I will merely mention I will neither affirm nor deny I will not allude I will not argue this I will not attempt to note I will not be content until I will not condescend to I will not enumerate at present I will not pause to maintain I will not positively say I will not pretend to inquire into I will not quarrel with I will not relinquish the confidence I will not repeat the arguments here I will not try to gauge I will now consider with you I will now leave this question I will now take an instance I will only speak to one point I will only sum up my evidence I will only take an occasion to express I will only venture to remind you I will point out to your attention I will say at once I will speak but a word or two more I will speak plainly I will state with perfect distinctness I will suppose the objection to be I will take one more instance I will take the precaution to add I will tell you what I think of I will try to make the thing intelligible I will venture a single remark I will venture to add I will venture to express the hope I will yield the whole question I willingly admit I wish also to declare positively I wish at the outset I wish emphatically to reaffirm I wish I had the time and the power I wish it first observed I wish rather to call your attention I wish, sir, that justice might be done I wish to ask if you honestly and candidly believe I wish to be allowed to enforce in detail I wish to begin my statement I wish to confine what I have to say I wish to do full justice to I wish to draw your attention I wish to express my profound gratification I wish to give these arguments their full weight I wish to know whether I wish to offer a few words relative to I wish to remind you in how large a degree I wish to say a word or two I wish to state all this as a matter of fact I wish you success and happiness I wish you to observe I would also gratefully acknowledge I would as soon believe I would desire to speak simply and directly I would enter a protest I would further point out to you I would have you understand I would infinitely rather I would like to say one word just here I would not be understood as belittling I would not dwell upon that matter if I would not push the suggestion so far I would now gladly lay before you I would rather a thousand times I would recommend to your consideration I would suggest first of all I would that my voice could reach the ear I would urge and entreat you I would urge upon you I would venture to point out I yielded to the earnest solicitations If any man be so persuaded If anyone could conceive If anyone is so dim of vision If any other answer be made If at first view this should seem If, however, you determine to If I am asked for the proof If I am wrong If I can carry you with me If I can succeed in describing If I could find words If I have done no more than view the facts If I have in any way deserved If I may be allowed a little criticism If I may be allowed modestly to suggest If I may be allowed to refer If I may reverently say so If I may say so without presumption If I may so speak If I may take for granted If I may venture to say anything If I mistake not the sentiment If I recollect aright If I understand the matter at all If I venture a few remarks If I were asked If I were to act upon my conviction If I were to recapitulate If I wished to prove my contention If, in consequence we find it necessary If in the glow of conscious pride If in the years of the future If it be difficult to appreciate If it be so If it be true If it is contended If it means anything, it means this If more were needed to illustrate. If my opinions are true If on the contrary, we all foresee If, on the other hand, I say If one seeks to measure If only we go deep enough If still you have further doubt If the bare facts were studied If the experience of the world is worth anything If, then, I am asked If, then, I should here rest my cause If there be any among us If there be one lesson more than another If this be so If this seems doubtful to anyone If, unhappily, the day should ever come If we accept at all the argument If we are not blind to If we are rightly informed If we are to reason on the fact If we cast our glance back If we embark upon a career If we had the whole case before us If we isolate ourselves If we may trust to experience If we pursue a different course If we pursue our inquiries through If we sincerely desire If we survey If we would not be beguiled If what has been said is true If you remain silent If you seek the real meaning of If you think for a moment If you want to look If you were asked to point out If you will allow me to prophesy If you will forgive me the expression If you wish for a more interesting example If you wish to get at the bottom of facts If you would see the most conclusive proof If your view is right In a significant paragraph In a wider sense In a word, gentlemen In a word, I conceive In actual life, I suspect In addition to these arguments In addressing myself to the question In addressing you I feel In agreement with this obvious conclusion In all ages of the world In all or any of these views In all times and places In an unguarded moment In answering the inquiry In any view of the case In closing my speech, I ask each of you In conclusion, let me say In conclusion, may I repeat In consequence it becomes a necessity In contemplating the causes In days to come In examining this part of the subject In fine, it is no extravagance to say In former ages and generations In further illustration In further proof of my assertion In illustration of what I have said In like manner are to be explained In like manner I would advise In listening to the kind words In looking about me In many instances In meeting this difficulty, I will not urge In most cases I hold In my estimation In my humble opinion In my view In offering to you these counsels In one other respect In one point I wish no one to mistake me In one sense this is undoubtedly true In order to appreciate the force of In order to complete the proof In order to do justice to the question In order to prove plainly and intelligibly In order to realize adequately In other words In our estimate of the past In point of fact In precisely the same way In pursuance of these views In pursuing the great objects In regard to In rising to return my sincere thanks In saying all of this, I do not forget In saying this, I am not disposed to deny In short, I say In solving this difficulty In something of a parallel way In spite of the fact In such cases, strictly speaking In support of this assertion In that matchless epitome In that mood of high hope In the anomalies of fortune In the course of these remarks In the existing circumstances In the first place, therefore, I consider In the first place we see In the first place, we should be all agreed In the fullest sense In the fullness of time In the last suggestion In the meantime I will commend to you In the next place, be assured In the presence of this vast assembly In the present situation In the progress of events In the remarks I have made In the same manner I rely In the second place it is quite clear In the suggestion I have made In the very brief space at our disposal In these extraordinary circumstances In these sentiments I agree In this brief survey In this connection, I may be permitted to refer In this connection I remind myself In this necessarily brief and imperfect review In this rapid and slight enumeration In this respect In this sense only In this there is no contradiction In very many instances In very truth In view of these reflections In what has now been said In what I have now further to say In widening our view Indeed, can anyone tell me Indeed, I am not convinced Indeed, I can not do better Indeed, I have heard it whispered Indeed, I may fairly say Indeed, it will generally be found Indeed we know Instances abound Is it logically consistent Is it not legitimate to recognize Is it not marvelous Is it not obvious Is it not quite possible Is it not, then, preposterous Is it not universally recognized Is it not wise to argue Is it possible, can it be believed Is it, then, any wonder Is not that the common sentiment Is there any evidence here Is there any language of reproach Is there any possibility of mistaking Is there any reason in the world It affords me gratification It also pleases me very much It amounts to this It appears from what has been said It appears to me, on the contrary It can rightly be said It certainly follows, then It comes to this It could not be otherwise It does not necessarily follow It exhibits a state of mind It follows as a matter of course It follows inevitably It gives us an exalted conception It grieves me to relate It hardly fits the character It has at all times been a just reproach It has been a very great pleasure for me It has been generally assumed It has been justly objected It has been my privilege It has been suggested fancifully It has been well said It has ever been my ambition It has struck me very forcibly It is a circumstance of happy augury [augury = sign of something coming; omen] It is a common error It is a curious trait It is a fact well known It is a falsehood to say It is a familiar charge against It is a good augury of success [augury = sign of something coming; omen] It is a great pleasure to me It is a living truth It is a matter of absorbing interest It is a matter of amusement It is a matter of fact It is a matter of just pride It is a melancholy story It is a memory I cherish It is a mischievous notion It is a mistake to suppose It is a most extraordinary thing It is a most pertinent question It is a noble thing It is a peculiar pleasure to me It is a perversion of terms It is a pleasing peculiarity It is a popular idea It is a rare privilege It is a recognized principle It is a remarkable and striking fact It is a strange fact It is a sure sign It is a theme too familiar It is a thing commonly said It is a touching reflection It is a true saying It is a very significant fact It is a vision which still inspires us It is a wholesome symptom It is, all things considered, a fact It is all very fine to think It is all very well to say It is almost proverbial It is also possible It is also probably true It is always pleasant to respond It is amazing how little It is an easy matter It is an egregious mistake [egregious = conspicuously and outrageously reprehensible] It is an established rule It is an incredible thing It is an interesting fact It is an unforgivable offense It is an unquestionable truth It is appropriate that we should celebrate It is asserted It is assumed as an axiom It is at once inconsistent It is but fair to say It is but too true It is by no means my design It is certainly especially pleasant It is certainly remarkable It is common in these days to lament It is commonly assumed It is comparatively easy It is curious sophistry It is curious to observe It is desirable for us It is difficult for me to respond fitly It is difficult to avoid saying It is difficult to describe It is difficult to overstate It is difficult to put a limit It is difficult to surmise It is doubtful whether It is easy enough to add It is easy to instance cases It is easy to understand It is eminently proper It is every man's duty to think It is evident that the answer to this It is evidently supposed by many people It is exceedingly gratifying to hear It is exceedingly unfortunate It is fair that you should hear It is fair to suppose It is far from me to desire It is fatal to suppose It is fitting It is for me to relate It is for others to illustrate It is for this reason It is for us to ask It is greatly assumed It is gratifying to have the honor It is hardly for me It is hardly necessary to pass judgment It is idle to think of It is immaterial whether It is impossible to avoid saying It is in every way appropriate It is in the highest degree worthy It is in this characteristic It is in vain It is in your power to give It is indeed a strange doctrine It is indeed not a little remarkable It is indeed true It is indeed very clear It is indispensable to have It is interesting and suggestive It is interesting to know It is just so far true It is likewise necessary It is made evident It is manifest It is manifestly absurd to say It is merely common sense to say It is more than probable It is my agreeable duty It is my belief It is my earnest wish It is my grateful duty to address you It is my hope It is my present purpose It is natural to ask the question It is necessary to refer It is necessary to take some notice It is needful to a complete understanding It is needless before this audience to repeat It is no doubt true It is no exaggeration to say It is no part of my business It is no significant thing It is no small indication It is no wonder It is not a practical question It is not altogether satisfactory It is not an unknown occurrence It is not by any means It is not difficult to comprehend It is not difficult to discern It is not easy for me to find words It is not enough to say It is not entirely clear to me It is not evident It is not for me on this occasion It is not given to many men It is not likely that any of you It is not logical to say It is not my intention to enter into It is not my purpose to discuss It is not necessarily true It is not necessary for me even to sketch It is not necessary for our purpose It is not often in these modern days It is not ours to pronounce It is not out of place to remind you It is not possible to recount It is not quite clear It is not to me so very surprising It is not too much to say It is not unknown to you It is not within the scope of this address It is now high time for me It is now perfectly plain It is observable enough It is obvious It is of course difficult It is of great importance to show It is of no moment It is of very little importance It is often remarked It is on these grounds It is one of the burning questions of the day It is one of the most natural visions It is one of the most significant things It is one of the queerest freaks of fate It is only a few short years since It is only just to say It is our duty to examine It is ours to bear witness It is owing to this truth It is peculiarly befitting at this time It is perfectly apparent It is pitiable to reflect It is pleasant to meet this brilliant company It is rather a pleasant coincidence It is rather an arduous task It is rather startling It is related It is ridiculous to say It is said, and I think said truly It is said to be impossible It is satisfactory to notice It is scarcely necessary to insist It is scarcely questioned It is self-evident It is sometimes hard to determine It is still an open question It is still more surprising It is substantially true It is surely necessary for me It is the clear duty of It is the doctrine of It is the fashion to extol It is the universal testimony It is therefore evident It is therefore necessary It is this which lies at the foundation It is to be expected It is to be remembered It is to me a very sincere satisfaction It is told traditionally It is too plain to be argued It is true It is unnecessary for me to remind you It is upon this line of reasoning It is very common to confuse It is very doubtful whether It is very interesting and pleasant It is well known It is with great pleasure It is with pity unspeakable It is within the memory of men now living It is worth while to notice It may appear absurd It may at first sight seem strange It may be added It may be conjectured It may be imagined It may be plausibly objected It may be rightly said It may be useful to trace It may be worth your while to keep in view It may indeed be unavoidable It may not be altogether certain It may not be uninteresting to any of you It may or may not be true It may, perhaps, seem wonderful It may seem a little strange It may still more probably be said It must be a cause of delight It must be borne in mind It must be the verdict of history It must create astonishment It must doubtless be admitted It must ever be recollected It must never be forgotten It must not be supposed It must seem to every thoughtful man It needs scarcely be said It now becomes my pride and privilege It only remains now to speak It ought to animate us It proves a great deal It remains only to speak briefly It remains that I inform you of It remains that I should say a few words It reminds me of an anecdote It reminds one of the compliment It requires no effort of imagination It scarcely seems to be in keeping It seems almost desperate to think of It seems almost incredible It seems now to be generally admitted It seems strange to be told It seems then that on the whole It seems to me a striking circumstance It seems to me idle to ask It seems to me singularly appropriate It seems to me the primary foundation It seems to me unphilosophical It should always be borne in mind It should be remembered It so happens It sometimes seems to me It still remains to be observed It strikes me with wonder It suggests at the outset It summons our imagination It surely is not too much to expect It therefore astonishes me It used to be a reproach It was a brilliant answer It was a fine and delicate rebuke It was a fit and beautiful circumstance It was a propitious circumstance [propitious = auspicious, favorable] It was certainly a gracious act It was in the full understanding It was my good fortune It was not to be expected It was said by one who ought to know It was, therefore, inevitable It was under these circumstances It will appeal to It will appear from what has been said It will be asked me how It will be easy to say too much It will be easy to trace the influence It will be evident to you It will be idle to imply It will be interesting to trace It will be just as reasonable to say It will be rather to our advantage It will be recollected It will be seen at a glance It will be well and wise It will carry out my meaning more fully It will, I suppose, be denied It will not be expected from me It will not be safe It will not do for a man to say It will not, I trust, be concluded It will not surely be objected It will not take many words to sum up It will thus be seen It would be a misfortune It would be a proud distinction It would be a very remarkable fact It would be absurd to pretend It would be an inexcusable omission It would be idle for me It would be imprudent in me It would be invidious for me [invidious = rousing ill will, animosity] It would be natural on such an occasion It would be no less impracticable It would be out of place here It would be preposterous to say It would be presumptuous in me It would be the height of absurdity It would be unfair to praise It would be unjust to deny It would be well for us to reflect It would indeed be unworthy It would seem perhaps most fitting J Just the reverse is true L Language is inadequate to voice my appreciation Lastly, I do not understand Lastly, it can not be denied Less than this could not be said Lest I should be accused of quibbling Let all of us labor in this work Let anyone imagine to himself Let anyone who doubts Let everyone consider Let it be clearly understood, I repeat it Let it be remembered Let it not be objected Let it not be supposed that I impute [impute = relate to a particular cause or source] Let me add another thing Let me add my final word Let me add one other hint Let me also say a word in regard Let me answer these questions Let me ask you to imagine Let me ask your leave to propose Let me be allowed to devote a few words Let me call attention to another fact Let me commend to you Let me direct your attention now to Let me entreat you to examine Let me give one more instance Let me give one parting word Let me give you an illustration Let me here make one remark Let me here say Let me hope that I have said enough Let me illustrate again Let me make myself distinctly understood Let me make use of an illustration Let me not be thought offensive Let me now conclude with Let me once more urge upon you Let me protest against the manner Let me quite temperately defend Let me rather make the supposition Let me say a practical word Let me simply declare Let me tell you an interesting reminiscence Let me thank you once more Let me urge you earnestly Let no man congratulate himself Let our conception be enlarged Let our object be Let that question be answered by Let the facts be granted Let these instances suffice Let this be the record made Let this inspire us with abhorrence of Let us approach the subject from another side Let us attempt a survey Let us be perfectly just Let us be quite practical Let us bear perpetually in mind Let us begin at the beginning Let us begin by examining Let us briefly review Let us brush aside once for all Let us cherish Let us confirm our opinion Let us consider for a moment Let us devote ourselves Let us discard all prejudice Let us do all we can Let us draw an illustration Let us endeavor to understand Let us enumerate Let us figure to ourselves Let us for the moment put aside Let us get a clear understanding Let us heed the voice Let us hope and believe Let us hope that future generations Let us imitate Let us inquire also Let us labor and pray Let us likewise remember Let us look briefly at a few particulars Let us look nearer home Let us not be fearful Let us not be misled Let us not be misunderstood Let us not flatter ourselves Let us not for a moment forget Let us not limit our view Let us now apply the views presented Let us now consider the characteristics Let us now see the results Let us now turn our consideration Let us observe this analogy Let us pass on to another fact Let us pause a moment Let us push the inquiry yet further Let us rather listen to Let us reflect how vain Let us remember this Let us remind ourselves Let us resolve Let us scrutinize the facts Let us suppose, for argument's sake Let us suppose the case to be Let us take, for instance Let us, then, be assured Let us, then, be worthy of Let us, therefore, say once for all Let us try to form a mental picture Let us turn to the contemplation of Let your imagination realize Like all citizens of high ideals Likely enough Little wonder therefore Long have I been convinced Look at it in another way Look at some of these questions Look at the situation M Mainly, I believe Making allowances for differences of opinion Many of us have had the good fortune Many of you, perhaps, recollect May I ask you to believe May I not speak here May I try to show that every effort May I venture to suggest May it not also be advanced May the day come quickly Meantime it is encouraging to think Meanwhile let us freely recognize Men are in the habit of saying Men are telling us nowadays Men everywhere testify More and more it is felt More than once have I had to express More than this need not be said Moreover, I have insisted Moreover, I would counsel you Moreover, when we pass judgment Much has been said and written about My appreciation has been quickened My belief, therefore, is My duty is to endeavor to show My experience tells me My first duty is to express to you My friends, do you really believe My friends, I propose My heart tells me My idea, therefore, is My last criticism upon My mind is not moved by My mind most perfectly acquiesces My next objection is My own private opinion is My present business is My regret is intensified by the thought N Nay, I boldly say Nay, it will be a relief to my mind Nay, there is a general feeling Need I say that I mean Neither should you deceive Never before have I so strongly felt Never can I cease to feel Never did there devolve Never for a moment believe Never have I felt so forcibly Never was a weaker defense attempted Never was there a greater mistake Never was there an instance Nevertheless we can admit Next, from what has been said it is plain Next, I consider Next, it will be denied No argument can overwhelm a fact No defense is to be found No distinct test can be named No doubt, in the first instance No doubt there are many questions No doubt to most of us No finer sentence has come down to us No greater service could be rendered No longer do we believe No man regrets more than I do No one can feel this more strongly No one can, I think, pretend No one can see the end No one here, I am sure No one, I suppose, would say No one, I think, can fail to observe No one, I think, will dispute the statement No one need to exaggerate No one will accuse me No true man ever believes None can have failed to observe Nor am I disparaging or discouraging Nor can I forget either Nor can it justly be said Nor can we afford to waste time Nor can we forget how long Nor can we now ask Nor do I believe Nor do I doubt Nor do I pretend Nor do I think there can be found Nor does it matter much Nor has there been wanting Nor indeed am I supposing Nor is it a fair objection Nor is it probable Nor is this all Nor let me forget to add here Nor must I be understood as saying Nor must it be forgotten Nor need we fear to speak Nor should any attempt be made Nor will history fail to record Nor will I enlarge on the matter Not at all Not only so Not that I quarrel with Nothing but the deepest sense Nothing can be further from the truth Nothing could be clearer Nothing could be more striking Nothing is more common in the world Nothing that you can do Notwithstanding all that has been said Notwithstanding all this, I hold Now, bear with me when I say Now comes the question Now, comparing these instances together Now, from these instances it is plain Now, having spoken of Now, I admit Now, I am far from denying Now, I am far from undervaluing Now, I am justified in calling this Now, I am obliged to say Now, I do not wish you to believe Now, I have a closing sentence or two Now, I pass on to consider Now, I shall not occupy your time Now, I understand the argument Now, I will undertake to say Now, I wish to call your attention Now, if you will clearly understand Now, is there any ground or basis for Now, it is an undoubted fact Now, it is evident Now, it is not at all strange Now, it is unquestioned Now, let me speak with the greatest care Now, let me stop a moment Now, let us consider Now, observe, my drift Now, sir, I am truly horrified Now, the answer we should give Now, the question here at issue Now, the world will say Now, there is a close alliance between Now, this is precisely the danger Now, this is to some extent Now, understand me definitely Now, we do not maintain Now, we will inquire Now, what I want you to realize Now, with regard to Now, you will allow me to state Now, you will understand from this O Observe again Occasionally you ought to read Of course I am aware Of course I am putting an impossible case Of course I can not be taken to mean Of course I do not maintain Of course I do not stop here Of course I would not allow Of course much may be said Of course these remarks hold good Of course we may, if we please Of course you will sympathize Of one thing, however, I am certain Of this briefly Of this statement I will only say Of this truth I shall convince you by On a review of the whole subject On occasions of this kind On such a day as this On the contrary, I am assuming On the occasion to which I refer On the other hand, it is clear On the whole, then, I observe On this auspicious occasion On this point I do not mean to dwell On this subject you need not suspect Once again, there are those Once more I emphasize Once more let me try to put into words One additional remark One almost wishes One can not decline to note One concluding remark has to be made One fact is clear and indisputable One further word One important topic remains One is fairly tempted to wish One lesson history may be said to repeat One might be challenged to produce One of the ancients said One of the most commonly known One of the most extraordinary incidents One of the things I recollect with most pride One of these signs is the fact One or two points are made clear One other circumstance One other remark suggests itself One remark I will make One thing more will complete this question One thing which always impressed me One very striking tendency One word in courtesy I must say One word more in a serious vein One would naturally suppose Only so much do I know Opinions are divided as to whether Or to come nearer home Or to take but one other example Ordinarily speaking, such deductions Others may hold other opinions Ought we not to think Our thoughts wander back Over and above all this P Pardon me if Perhaps another reason why Perhaps, however, in speaking to you Perhaps, however, some among you will be Perhaps I may be best able to illustrate Perhaps I ought to say Perhaps it may be doubted Perhaps, sir, I am mistaken in Permit me frankly to say Permit me to add another circumstance Permit me to bring home to you Personally, I am far too firm a believer Pray, sir, let me say R Read but your history aright Recollect, sir Reflections such as these Rely upon it Remember, I do not seek to Remembering some past occurrences Returning, then, to the consideration S Seriously, then, do I beg you Shall I tell you Shall we complain Should there be objection, I answer Since, then, it is provided Since, then, this is the case Sir, with all my heart, I respond So accustomed are we So at least it seems to me So far as I know So far as my observation and experience goes So far in general So I say to you So it comes to pass So long as we continue to love truth and duty So men are asking So much at first sight So much on this subject So that I may venture to say So that if you were persuaded So then ought we also So, to add one other example So, too, I may go on to speak So when I hear people say Some have insisted Some of you can recall the time Some of you may think this visionary Some of you will remember Some one will perhaps object Some prejudice is attached Some writer has said Sometimes I venture to think Sometimes it may happen Speaking in this place Startling as this may appear to you Stating only the truth, I affirm Still another encouraging fact Still further Still I can not part from my subject Still I have generally found Still I imagine you would consider it Still I know what answer I can make to Still it may with justice be said Still one thing more Still we ought to be grateful Strange as it may seem Strictly in confidence, I do not think Strictly speaking, there is no such thing Such a doctrine is essentially superficial Such are the rather tolerant ideas Such considerations as these Such, I believe, would be the consequences Such illustrations are not frequent Such, in brief, is the story Such is steadfastly my opinion Such is the deep prejudice now existing Such is the intellectual view we take Such is the lesson which I am taught Such is the progress Such is the truth Such, sir, I conceive to be Such, then, is the true idea Such, too, is the characteristic of Suffer me to point out Suffice it to say here Summing up what I have said Suppose we turn our eyes to Surely I do not misinterpret Surely it is a paradox Surely it is not too much for me to say T Take another instance Take one of the most recent cases Take the simple fact Take this example Taking a broader view Taking the facts by themselves That is a further point That is a natural boast That is a pure assumption That is all that it seems necessary to me That is all very good That is far from my thoughts That is final and conclusive That is the lesson of history That is the question of questions That you may conceive the force of The answer is easy to find The answer is ready The belief is born of the wish The broad principle which I would lay down The circumstances under which we meet The climax of my purpose in this address The common consent of civilized mankind The conclusion is irresistible The confusing assertion is sometimes made The day is at hand The decided objection is raised The doctrine I am combating The doctrine is admirable The effect too often is The evolution of events has brought The fact has made a deep impression on me The fact has often been insisted The fact to be particularly noted The facts are clear and unequivocal The facts may be strung together The first business of every man The first counsel I would offer The first great fact to remember is The first point to be ascertained The first practical thought is The first remarkable instance was The first thing I wish to note The first thing that we have to consider The future historian will, no doubt The generous feeling that has promoted you The great mass of the people The hour is at hand The illustration is analogous The important thing is The instance I shall choose The irresistible tendency of The kindness with which I have been received The last and distinguishing feature is The latest inclination I have seen The lesson which we should take most to heart The main cause of all this The more you examine this matter The most concise tribute paid The most reasonable anticipation The most remarkable step forward The most striking characteristic The most sublime instance that I know The next point is The next question to be considered is The next thing I consider indispensable The occasion that calls us together The one central difference between The only course that remains open The only plea to be offered The other day I observed The paramount consideration is The perils that beset us here The pleasing duty is assigned me The point I have urged upon you is The point I wish a little further to speak of The point to which I shall call your attention The popular notion is The practical inference from all this The presence of this brilliant assemblage The pressing question is The prevalent opinion, no doubt The proof of this statement is to be found The question is deeply involved The question, then, recurs The remedy I believe to be The result, I fancy, has been The result of the whole The rule will always hold good The sacred voice of inspiration The same is true in respect of The scene all comes back The sentiment to which I am to respond The sentiment which you have expressed The simple rule and test The simple truth is The soundness of this doctrine depends The strongest proof I have The subject of the evening's address The subject which has been assigned to me The task has been placed in my hands The testimony of history is The theory seems at first sight The thought with which I shall close The time has manifestly now arrived The time is not far distant The time is now come for me The times are full of signs and warnings The toast I am about to propose to you The vain wish has sometimes been indulged The view I have been enforcing The view is more misleading The warmth and kindness of your reception The welcome that has been extended to me The whole story of civilization Then again, in corroboration Then again, when men say Then take the other side of the argument Then the question arises Then there is another story Then, too, it must be remembered There are certain old truths There are few spectacles There are hopeful signs of There are, I believe, many who think There are, indeed, exceptions There are, indeed, persons who profess There are many educated and intelligent people There are people in every community There are several reasons why There are some slight modifications There are some who are fond of looking at There are some who have an idea There are those of us who can remember There are those who wish There are two conflicting theories There can be but one answer There can be no doubt There has been a great deal of discussion lately There has been no period of time There have been differences of opinion There is a characteristic saying There is a class of person There is a common saying There is a conviction There is a degree of evidence There is a genuine grief There is a great deal of rash talking There is a growing disposition There is a large class of thinkers There is a lesson of profound interest There is a more important question There is a most serious lesson There is a multitude of facts There is a question of vital importance There is a very common tendency There is a vital difference of opinion There is an analogy in this respect There is an ancient story to the effect There is an eternal controversy There is another class of men There is another factor There is another object equally important There is another point of view There is another remarkable analogy There is another sense in which There is, at any rate, to be said There is but one consideration There is certainly no reason There is hardly any limit There is, however, another opinion There is, however, one caution There is little truth in There is no field of human activity There is no good reason There is no justification for There is no mistaking the purpose There is no more insidious peril There is no more striking exemplification There is no occasion to exaggerate There is no page of history There is no sense in saying There is no worse perversion There is not a shadow of evidence There is nothing more repulsive There is nothing overstated in this description There is nothing to show There is one story which it is said There is only one sense in which There is some difference of opinion There is something strangely interesting There is yet another distinction There is yet one other remark There ought certainly to be There was but one alternative There was one remarkable incident There will always be a number of men There will be no difficulty There yet remains Therefore, there is no possibility of a doubt Therein lies your responsibility These alone would not be sufficient These are enough to refute the opinion These are general counsels These are generalizations These are my reasons for These are points for consideration These considerations have great weight with me These exceptions do not hold in the case of These ideas naturally present themselves These instances are far from common These instances are indications These last words lead me to say These objections only go to show These questions I shall examine These various partial views They mistake the intelligence They would persuade you to Think for a moment Think of the cool disregard This absurdity arises This appeal to the common sense This argument is especially cogent [cogent = powerfully persuasive] This, at least, is sure This being the case This being true This being undeniable, it is plain This being understood, I ask This brings me to a single remark This brings us to a subject This episode goes to prove This fact was soon made manifest This from the nature of the case This I conceive to be the business This I consider to be my own case This I have told you This is a general statement This is a very one-sided conception This is a very serious situation This is an astonishing announcement This is conceded by This is contrary to all argument This is doubtless the truth This is especially the case This is essentially an age of This is in the main just This is like saying This is not all This is not the main point of objection This is not the occasion or the place This is obvious This is on the whole reasonable This is only another illustration of This is owing in great measure to This is precisely what we ought to do This is said in no spirit of This is suggested to us This is the design and intention This is the great fact This is the main point on which the inquiry turns This is the meaning of This is the obvious answer This is the point I want to impress upon you This is the point of view This is the position of our minds This is the radical question This is the sentiment of mankind This is the starting-point This is the sum This is to be found in the fact This is what I am led to say This is what may be objected This is why I take the liberty This language is plain This leads me to the question This leads us to inquire This may be said without prejudice This might be illustrated at length This much is certain This sentiment was well-nigh universal This, surely, is the conclusion This, then, is the answer This, then, is the drift of my illustration This, then, is what I mean by saying This will be evident at once This you can not deny Those who have watched the tendencies Thus a great deal may be done Thus analogy suggests Thus far, I willingly admit Thus I am led on to another remark Thus if you look into Thus instances occur now and then Thus it comes to pass Thus my imagination tells me Thus much, however, I may say Thus much I may be allowed to say Thus much may be sufficient to recall Thus we see Time would not permit me To a man of the highest public spirit To avoid all possibility of being misunderstood To be more explicit To be sure, we sometimes hear To bring the matter nearer home To convince them of this To feel the true force of this argument To illustrate To make my story quite complete To me, however, it would appear To my way of conceiving such matters To prevent misapprehension To some it may sound like a paradox To sum up all that has been said To sum up in one word To take a very different instance To the conclusion thus drawn To the enormous majority of persons To these general considerations To this I answer To this it will be replied To what other cause can you ascribe To-day, as never before Treading close upon the heels Tried by this standard True it is True, there are difficulties Truly it is a subject for astonishment Two things are made very clear U Under all the circumstances Under these favoring conditions Under this head Undoubtedly we may find Unfortunately it is a truth Unless I could be sure Up to this moment I have stated V Very strange is this indeed W We all agree as to We all feel the force of the maxim We all in equal sincerity profess We almost shudder when we see We are accustomed to lay stress upon We are all familiar with We are approaching an era We are apt to forget We are assembled here to-day We are beginning to realize We are bound to give heed We are constantly being told We are fulfilling what I believe to be We are in the habit of saying We are met to-night We are not able to prove We are not disinterested We are quite unable to speculate We are told emphatically We are tolerably certain We believe with a sincere belief We can but pause to contemplate We can imagine the amazement of We can not but be struck with We can not escape the truth We can not have this too deeply fixed We can not too highly honor the temper of We can not wonder We can only applaud the sentiment We can only bow with awe We can presume We can remember with pride We can see to some extent We continually hear nowadays We deeply appreciate the circumstances of We do not quarrel with those We do not question the reality We do well to recall We easily persuade ourselves We feel keenly about such things We grope blindly along We have a firm assurance We have a right to claim We have an overpowering sense We have been accustomed to We have been told by more than one We have come together to-night We have great reason to be thankful We have heard lately We have here plain proof We have need to examine We have no means of knowing We have no other alternative We have not yet solved the problem We have sought on this occasion We have the evidence of this We have the good fortune to-night We have to admit We have witnessed on many occasions We hear it is said sometimes We hear no complaint We heartily wish and mean We hold fast to the principle We laugh to scorn the idea We may all of us agree We may be permitted to remember We may contemplate with satisfaction We may have a deep consciousness We may indeed consider We may not know precisely how We must also look We must constantly direct our purpose We must not be deceived We must not mistake We must realize conscientiously We must remember We need no proof to assure us We need not look far for reasons We need not trouble ourselves We of this generation We often hear persons say We ought in strict propriety We pride ourselves upon the fact We rightly pay all honor We see in a variety of ways We shall all doubtless concede We shall be blind not to perceive We shall do well to remember We shall have no difficulty in determining We should be convinced We should contemplate and compare We should dread nothing so much We should lend our influence We should not question for a moment We should not, therefore, question We stand astonished at We stumble and falter and fall We take it for granted We will not stop to inquire Weighty as these conditions are Well, gentlemen, it must be confessed Well may we explain Well, now, let us propose Well, that being the case, I say Were I to enter into a detailed description Were I to speculate What are the precise characteristics What are we to think of What are you going to do What can avail What can be more intelligible What can be more monstrous than What can I say better What commonly happens is this What could be more captivating What could be more true What do we gain by What do we understand to have been What I mean is this What I now say is What I object to is What I propose to do is What I shall actually attempt to show here What I suggest is What is more important What is more remarkable What is the pretext What is this but to say What more shall I say What remains but to wish you What strikes the mind so forcibly What, then, are we to believe What, then, can be the reason What, then, I may be asked What, then, is the use What, then, was the nature of What was the consequence of What we are concerned to know is What we have most to complain of What would you say Whatever a man thinks Whatever difference of opinion may exist Whatever opinion I may express Whatever the truth may be When I am told When I hear it said When I remember the history When I review these circumstances When I speak of this question When I thus profess myself When one remembers When we consider the vastness When we contemplate When we get so far as this When we look closely at When will men understand When you are assured When you did me the honor to invite me Whence it is, I say Whence was the proof to come While acknowledging the great value While I feel most keenly the honor While I have hinted to you Whilst I am on this matter Who can deny the effect Who can say in a word Who does not like to see Who has not felt the contrast Who that reads does not see Who will accuse me Why, again, should I take notice Why need you seek to disprove Will any gentleman say Will anyone answer Will it be whispered Will it not be well for us Will you allow me to present to you Will you bear with me Will you mistake this Will you permit me to thank you With all my heart I share With possibly a single exception With respect to what has been said With this ideal clearly before us With whatever opinions we come here Without going into any details Without my saying a word more Y Yet I am convinced Yet I am willing to admit Yet I am willing to conclude Yet I feel quite free to say Yet I, for one, do not hesitate to admit Yet I have never been thoroughly satisfied Yet I suppose it is worth while Yet I would have to think Yet if you were to ask the question Yet it is instructive and interesting Yet it is no less true Yet it is perfectly plain Yet let me consider what consequences must Yet may I not remind you You all know the history of You and I are always contrasting You are at a parting of the ways You are now invited to do honor You can never forget You can not assert You do not need to be told You have all read the story You have been gracious enough to assign to me You have been mindful You have been pleased to confer upon me You have but to observe You have done me great honor You have no right You have not forgotten You have often pondered over You have sometimes been astonished You know that it is impossible to You know the legend which has grown up You know very well You may also be assured You may be acquainted with You may be sure You may depend upon it You may remember You may well be proud You may well study the example You might apply to yourselves You must not forget You must understand I do not mean to claim You ought not to disregard what I say You remember how You will allow me to say with becoming brevity You will be pleased to hear You will bear me out when I say You will clearly understand You will expect me to say something about You will forgive me You will join with me, I trust You will observe You will pardon me, I am sure You will scarcely be surprised You would never dream of urging You yourselves are the evidence Your friendly and generous words Your good sense must tell you Your presence seems to say SECTION XI MISCELLANEOUS PHRASES A A bewildering labyrinth of facts A blank absence of interest or sympathy A bloodless diplomatist A breach of confidence A brilliant and paradoxical talker A burning sense of shame and horror A century of disillusionment A certain catholicity of taste [catholicity = universality] A cheap and coarse cynicism A civilizing agency of conspicuous value A cleanness and probity of life [probity = integrity; uprightness] A commendable restraint A condescending and patronizing spirit A confused and troublesome time A conscientious anxiety to do the right thing A conspicuous and crowning service A constant source of surprise and delight A contemptible species of mockery A convenient makeshift A copious torrent of pleasantry A course of arrogant obstinacy A crumb of consolation A crystallized embodiment of the age A cynical and selfish hedonist A dangerous varnish of refinement A dead theological dogma A decorous and well-intentioned person A deep and most impressive solemnity A deep and strange suggestiveness A deep authentic impression of disinterestedness A dereliction of duty A disaster of the first magnitude A distorted and pessimistic view of life A dogmatic and self-righteous spirit A duel of brains A dull collocation of words A fastidious sense of fitness A fatal moral hollowness A feeling of lofty remoteness A feminine excess of inconsequence A final and irrevocable settlement A firmness tempered by the most scrupulous courtesy A fitting interval for penitence A flippant rejoinder A flood of external impressions A flourish of rhetoric A fund of curious information A furtive groping after knowledge A gambler's desperate chance A ghastly mixture of defiance and conceit A glaring example of rapacity [rapacity = plundering] A graceful nonentity A great and many-sided personality A great capacity for generous indignation A great source of confusion A gross piece of stupidity A habit of riding a theory too hard A habit of rigorous definition A happy and compensating experience A haughty self-assertion of equality A hideous absurdity A hideous orgy of massacre and outrage A high pitch of eloquence A homelike and festive aspect A hopeless enigma A hotbed of disturbance A hushed rustle of applause testified to a widespread approbation [approbation = warm approval; praise] A keenly receptive and intensely sensitive temperament A kind of fantastic patchwork A kind of surly reluctance A laudable stimulus A law of retributive justice A less revolutionary innovation A life of studious contemplation A limpidity and lucidity of style [limpidity = transparent clearity; easily intelligible] A lingering tinge of admiration A lively sense of what is dishonorable A long accumulating store of discontent and unrest A long tangle of unavoidable detail A look threatening and peremptory [peremptory = ending all debate or action] A many-sided and far-reaching enthusiasm A marvelous sharpener of the faculties A melancholy preponderance of mischief A memory-haunting phrase A mercenary marriage A mere conjectural estimate A microscopic care in the search of words A misconception which is singularly prevalent A mixture of malignancy and madness A modicum of truth A monstrous travesty A mood of hard skepticism A more than ordinary share of baseness and depravity A most laudable zeal A most repulsive and incomprehensible idiom A most unseasonable piece of impertinence A multitude of groundless alarms A murderous tenacity about trifles A mysterious and an intractable pestilence A mysterious and inscrutable power A narrow and superficial survey A nature somewhat frivolous and irresolute A needlessly offensive manner A nimble interchange of uninteresting gossip A noble and puissant nation [puissant = with power, might] A novel and perplexing course A numerous company A painful and disconcerting deformity A partial disenchantment A passage of extraordinary daring A patchwork of compromises A permanent and habitual state of mind A pernicious and growing tendency A perversion of judgment A phantom of the brain A piece of grotesque stupidity A pleasant flow of appropriate language A pompous failure A potential menace to life A powerful and persuasive orator A prevalent characteristic of her nature A prey to the tongue of the public A pristine vigor of style A profusion of compliments A proposition inherently vicious A puerile illusion [puerile = immature; childish] A quenchless thirst for expression A rage akin to frenzy A rare precision of insight A rather desperate procedure A reckless fashion A recrudescence of superstition [recrudescence = recurrence of a pathological symptoms after a period of improvement] A relish for the sublime A reversion to the boldest paganism A rigid avoidance of extravagance and excess A ripple of applause A restraining and conservative force A robust and consistent application A sacred and indissoluble union A sane philosophy of life A secluded dreamer of dreams A secret and wistful charm A sense of deepening discouragement A sense of indescribable reverence A series of brief and irritating hopes A settled conviction of success A sharp difference of opinion A sharp pang of regretful surprise A shrewd eye to the main chance A signal deed of justice A skeptical suspension of judgment A slight and superficial tribute A slowly subsiding frenzy A snare and a delusion A somewhat complicated and abstruse calculation [abstruse = difficult to understand] A sordid and detestable motive A sort of incredulous stupefaction A source of unfailing delight and wonder A species of moral usurpation A spirit inimical to learning A spirit of complacent pessimism A startling and unfortunate digression A state of scarcely veiled insurrection A state of urgent necessity A stern decree of fate A stern foe of snobbishness A storm of public indignation A strange mixture of carelessness, generosity, and caprice A strangely perverse and poverty stricken imagination A strong assumption of superiority A subjugated and sullen population A sudden revulsion A supposed ground of affinity A synonym for retrogression A taunting accusation of falsehood A tedious and needless drudgery A temper which brooked no resistance A temporary expedient A tender tone of remonstrance A theme of endless meditation A thing of moods and moments A thoroughly sincere and unaffected effort A thousand mangled delusions A tissue of dull excuses A tone of exaggerated solicitude A touch of exquisite pathos A trace of obvious sarcasm A transcript of the common conscience A trifle prim and puritanic A truth begirt with fire A unique and overwhelming charm A vague aversion A variety of conflicting and profound emotions A variety of enfeebling amendments A vast multitude of facts A vastly extended vision of opportunity A vehement and direct attack A very elusive and delicate thought A very formidable problem A vigilant reserve A violent and base calumniator [calumniator = makes malicious or knowingly false statements] A voice of matchless compass and eloquence A warmth of seemingly generous indignations A wealth of resource that seemed inexhaustible A welcome release from besetting difficulties A whole catalog of disastrous blunders A whole whirlpool of various emotions Abounding bodily vigor Above and beyond and before all else Absurd and inconsequential career Abundant and congenial employment Accidental rather than intentional Accustomed to ascribe to chance Acquired sentiments of propriety Activities of the discursive intellect Actuated by an unduly anxious desire Acute sensibility coupled with quickness of intellect Adhere too tenaciously to forms and modes Admirable mastery of technique Admit the soft impeachment Admitted with a childlike cheerfulness Advance by leaps and bounds Advancing to dignity and honor Adventitious aids to memory [adventitious = Not inherent; added extrinsically] Affectation and superfluous ornament Aggravated to an unspeakable degree Agitated and perplexed by a dozen cross-currents of conflicting tendency Agreeable and humanizing intercourse Aided by strong mental endowments Airy swiftness of treatment Alien to the purpose All sorts of petty tyrannies All the resources of a burnished rhetoric Allied by taste and circumstances Allied with a marked imperiousness [imperious = arrogantly overbearing] Almost incredible obtuseness Altogether monstrous and unnatural Always observant and discriminating Amaze and confound the imagination Amiable and indulgent hostess Amid many and pressing avocations Amid the homeliest details of daily life Amid the rush and roar of life Ample scope for the exercise of his astonishing gifts An abandoned and exaggerated grief An accidental encounter An act of folly amounting to wickedness An afternoon of painfully constrained behavior An agreeable image of serene dignity An air of artificial constraint An air of round-eyed profundity An alarmed sense of strange responsibilities An almost excessive exactness An almost sepulchral regularity and seclusion An ample and imposing structure An apostle of unworldly ardor An appreciable menace An ardent and gifted youth An arid dictum An artful and malignant enemy An assumption entirely gratuitous An assumption which proved erroneous An atmosphere of sunny gaiety An attitude of passive impartiality An authoritative and conclusive inquiry An egregious assumption [egregious = outrageously reprehensible] An elaborate assumption of indifference An endless field for discussion An enervating and emasculating form of indulgence An ennobling and invigorating influence An entirely negligible quantity An essentially grotesque and commonplace thing An eternal and imperishable example An exalted and chimerical sense of honor [chimerical = highly improbable] An excess of unadulterated praise An excessive refinement of feeling An expression at once confident and appealing An extensive and populous country An habitual steadiness and coolness of reflection An honest and unquestioning pride An icy indifference An idle and unworthy action An ill-assorted vocabulary An immeasurable advantage An imminent and overmastering peril An imperturbable demeanor and steadiness of mind An implacable foe An inborn and irresistible impulse An incongruous spectacle An incredible mental agility An indefinable taint of priggishness [priggishness = exaggerated propriety] An indescribable frankness and simplicity of character An indolent surrender to mere sensuous experience An indomitable and unselfish soul An ineradicable love of fun and mystification An inevitable factor of human conduct An inexhaustible copiousness and readiness of speech An insatiable appetite for trifles An insatiable voracity An inscrutable mystery An intentional breach of politeness An interchange of civilities An intolerable deal of guesswork An involuntary gesture of remonstrance An irrelevant bit of magniloquence [magniloquence = extravagant in speech] An irrepressible and impassioned hopefulness An irritating and dangerous treatment An itching propensity for argument An object of indestructible interest An obnoxious member of society An ominous lull and silence An open and violent rupture An outburst of impassioned eloquence An unaccountable feeling of antipathy An unbecoming vehemence An undisciplined state of feeling An unerring sense of humor An unparalleled and almost miraculous growth An unparalleled atrocity An unpatriotic and ignoble act An unreasoning form of coercion An utterly vile and detestable spirit And now I address myself to my task And the like Announced in a tone of pious satisfaction Another thought importuned him [importuned = insistent or repeated requests] Anticipated with lively expectation Apparent rather than real Appeal to a tardy justice Appreciably above the level of mediocrity Arbitrary assumption of power Ardently and enthusiastically convinced Argued with immense force and feeling Arrayed with scrupulous neatness Arrogance and untutored haughtiness As an impartial bystander As belated as they are fallacious As by a secret of freemasonry As odious as it is absurd As ridiculous as it was unnecessary As we scan the vague unknown Assailed by poignant doubts Assume a menacing attitude Assumed almost heroic proportions At once epigrammatic and arresting [epigrammatic = terse and witty] At once misleading and infelicitous At the mercy of small prejudices Attained by rigorous self-restraint Attended by insuperable difficulties Averted by some happy stroke of fortune Await the sentence of impartial posterity Awaited with feverish anxiety B Bandied to and fro Based on a fundamental error Beguile the tedium of the journey Bemoaning and bewailing his sad fortune Beset with external dangers Betrayed into deplorable error Bewildering multiplication of details Beyond the dreams of avarice Blended with courage and devotion Blind leaders of the blind Blunt the finer sensibilities Blustering desire for publicity Bound up with impossibilities and absurdities Breathed an almost exaggerated humility Bred in the tepid reticence of propriety Brief ventures of kindliness Brilliant display of ingenious argument Bring odium upon the individual Brisk directness of speech Brutal recognition of failure Bursts of unpremeditated frankness But delusions and phantasmagoria But that is beside the mark But this is a digression By a curious perversity of fate By a happy turn of thinking By a whimsical diversion By common consent By means of crafty insinuations By no means inconsolable By temperament incompatible By the common judgment of the thinking world By the sheer centripetal force of sympathy By virtue of a common understanding By way of rejoinder C Calculated to create disgust Calm strength and constancy Capable of a severe scientific treatment Capacity for urbanity and moderation Carried into port by fair winds Caught unawares by a base impulse Ceaseless tramp of humanity Censured for his negligence Championing the cause of religious education Chastened and refined by experience Checked by the voice of authority Cherished the amiable illusion Cherishing a huge fallacy Childishly inaccurate and absurd Chivalrous loyalty and high forbearance Clever and captivating eloquence Coarse and glittering ostentation Coherent and continuous trend of thought Commended by perfect suavity Common ground of agreement Complicated and infinitely embittered Conceded from a sense of justice Conceived with imperfect knowledge Concentrated and implacable resolve Conditions of unspeakable humiliation Conducive to well-being and efficiency Confused rumblings presaging a different epoch Constrained by the sober exercise of judgment Consumed by a demon of activity Continuous and stubborn disregard Contrary to the clearest conviction of his judgment Couched in terms of feigned devotion Credulous and emotionally extravagant Creed of incredulity and derision Criticized with unsparing vigor Crude undigested masses of suggestion Cruel and baseless calumnies [calumnies = maliciously false statements; slander] Cynically repudiate all obligations D Daily usages and modes of thinking Dangerously near snobbery Darkly insinuating what may possibly happen Dazzled by their novelty and brilliance Debased by common use Deep essentials of moral grandeur Deeply engrossed in congenial work Deeply moved as well as keenly stung Deeply rooted in the heart of humanity Defiant of analysis and rule Degenerate into comparative feebleness Degenerated into deadness and formality Degrading and debasing curiosity Deliberate and cautious reflection Delicacy of perception and quick tact Delude many minds into acquiescence Dense to the point of stupidity Descanting on them cursorily [descanting = discussion or discourse] Devices generally held to be discreditable Devious and perilous ways Devoid of hysteria and extravagance Dexterous modes of concealment Dictated by an overweening partiality Differ in degree only and not in kind Difficult and abstruse questions [abstruse = incomprehensible ] Diffidence overwhelmed him Diffusing beneficent results Dignified by deliberation and privacy Dimly implying some sort of jest Discreditable and insincere support Disdaining the guidance of reason Disenchanting effect of time and experience Disfigured by glaring faults Disguised in sentimental frippery Dispel all anxious concern Displayed enormous power and splendor Distinguish themselves by their eccentricities Distracted by contending desires Diversity of mind and temperament Divested of all personal feelings Dogged and shameless beyond all precedent Dominated by no prevailing taste or fashion Doomed by inexorable fate Doomed to impermanence and transiency Draw back in distrust and misgiving Dreaded and detested rival Driven towards disaffection and violence Due to historical perspective Dull and trite commonplaces Dwindled to alarmingly small dimensions E Easy-going to the point of lethargy Elementary principles of right and wrong Embittered and fanatical agitation Encrusted with pedantry and prejudice [pedantry = attention to detail] Endless and intricate technicalities Endowed with undreamed-of powers Enforced by coercive measures Enormities of crime and anomalies of law Entangled in theological controversy Entirely futile and negligible Erroneous assumptions and sophistries Espoused with extraordinary ardor Essentially one-sided and incomplete Eternally fruitful and stimulating Evidently malicious and adroit Evinces a hardened conscience and an insensibility to shame Exact and resolute allegiance Examples of terrific and explosive energy Exasperating to the last degree Excruciating cruelty and injustice Exposed to damaging criticism Exposing his arrogance and folly to merited contempt Expressions of unrestrained grief Exquisite lucidity of statement Extraordinarily subtle and penetrating analysis Exuberant rush of words F Facile and fertile literary brains Faithfully and religiously eschewed [eschew = avoid; shun] Fallen into the convenient oblivion of the waste-basket Fanatical and dangerous excesses Far off and incredibly remote Fastidious correctness of form Fate had turned and twisted a thousand ways Fed by many currents from the long stream of human experience Feigning a virtuous indignation Fertility of argumentative resource Fictitious and adventitious aid Finely touched to the fine issues Fit to stand the gaze of millions Fits and starts of generosity Fixed convictions of mankind Flouted as unpractical Foolish and inflexible superstition Fostering and preserving order Free from all controversial pettifogging [pettifogging = quibbling over insignificant details] Freighted with the most precious cargoes Frequently recurring forms of awkwardness Fresh and unsuspected loveliness From the standpoint of expediency and effectiveness Full and tuneful diction Full of ardent affection and gratitude Full of presentiments of some evil Full of singular freshness, insight and power Full of speculation and a deep restrained excitement Fumble and stumble in helpless incapacity G Gain the applause of future ages Generous to a pathetic and touching degree Give vent to his indignation Giving an ear to a little neighborly gossip Glances and smiles of tacit contempt Gnawing at the vitals of society Grace and gentleness of manner Graceful succession of sentences Gratuitous and arbitrary meddling Greeted with unalloyed satisfaction Grooves of intellectual habit Growing sense of bewilderment and dismay Guilty and baffled antagonists H Habits of unintelligent routine Habitual self-possession and self-respect Happy and gracious willingness Hard-souled and joyously joyous Haunted by blank misgivings He affected neither pomp nor grandeur He became more blandly garrulous [garrulous = excessive and trivial talk] He declined the proffered hospitality He dropped into an eloquent silence He eludes analysis and baffles description He glanced at her indulgently He had the habit of self-engrossed silences He harbored his misgivings in silence He poured bitter and biting ridicule on his discomfited opponents He spoke with sledgehammer directness He suffers nothing to draw him aside He took his courage in both hands He turned on me a glance of stored intelligence He was disheveled and untidy He was inexhaustibly voluble Heavily freighted with erudition [erudition = extensive learning] Heights of serene contemplation Her voice had a wooden resonance and a ghost of a lisp Hidebound in official pedantry [pedantry = attention to detail] High and undiscouraged hope High-handed indifference to all restraint His chin had too vanishing an aspect His first zeal was flagging His general attitude suggested an idea that he had an oration for you His gestures and his gait were untidy His mood was one of pure exaltation His plea was irresistible His tone verged on the ironical His work was ludicrously perfunctory Hopelessly belated in its appearance I I adjured him [adjured = command or enjoin solemnly, as under oath] I am not without a lurking suspicion I bemoaned my unlucky fate I could almost allege it as a supreme example I have somewhat overshot the mark I lost myself in a reverie of gratitude I made bold to retort I must hazard the story I was extremely perplexed I will permit myself the liberty of saying I would fain believe [fain = happily; gladly] Illuminate with sinister effect Immediate and effectual steps Immense capacity for ceaseless progress Immunity from criticism and control Impartial and exacting judgment Impatience of despotic influence Impelled by strong conviction Imperiled in a restless age Imperious in its demands [imperious = arrogantly domineering] Impotent outbreaks of unreasoning rage Impromptu parades of noisy patriotism In a diversity of application In a fever of apprehension In a frenzy of fussy excitement In a frowning abstraction In a great and fruitful way In a high degree culpable In a kind of confused astonishment In a most commendable fashion In a most impressive vein In a position of undisputed supremacy In a rapture of imagined ecstasy In a secret and surreptitious way [surreptitious = done by clandestine or stealthy means] In a spirit of friendliness and conciliation In a state of mulish reluctance [mulish = stubborn and intractable] In a state of nervous exacerbation In a state of virtuous complacency In a tone of uneasy interrogation In a transport of ambitious vanity In a whirlwind of feeling and memory In accents embarrassed and hesitating In alliance with steady clearness of intellect In amazed ejaculation In an eminent and unique sense In an eminent degree In deference to a unanimous sentiment In extenuation of the past In high good humor In his customary sententious fashion [sententious = terse and energetic; pithy] In its most odious and intolerable shape In language terse yet familiar In moments of the most imminent peril In quite incredible confusion In seasons of difficulty and trial In spite of plausible arguments In terms of imperishable beauty In the dim procession of years In the highest conceivable degree In the local phrase In the nature of things In the ordinarily accepted sense In the realm of conjecture In the scheme of things In the tone of one who moralizes In the twinkling of an eye In the world of letters In tones of genuine admiration Incapable of flashy make-believe Incited by a lust for gain Incomparable lucidity and penetrativeness Inconceivable clumsiness of organization Indulge a train of gentle recollection Indulging a sickly and nauseating petulance Ineffably dreary and unpicturesque Infected with a feverish dissatisfaction Infuse a wholesome terror Inimical to true and determined principle [Inimical = harmful; adverse] Inimitable grace and felicity [inimitable = defying imitation; matchless] Injudicious and inelegant ostentation Innumerable and incessant creations Inordinate greed and love of wealth Insatiably greedy of recognition Insensibility to moral perspective and proportion Insolent and riotous excess Inspired by a vague malevolence Inspirited by approval and applause Instances might be multiplied indefinitely Instantly alive to the slightest breach of decorum Insufferable violence to the feelings Intense and stubborn dogmatism Intense sensitiveness to injustice Intercourse with polished society Intervals of respite and repose Inveigh against established customs [inveigh = angry disapproval; protest vehemently] Invested with a partial authority Inveterate forces of opposition Invincible jealousy and hate Involuntary thrill of gratified vanity Involved in profound uncertainty Involving ourselves in embarrassments Inward appraisal and self-renouncement Irregulated and desultory education [desultory = haphazard; random] Irrelevant to the main issue Irresistibly impelled by conscience Irritable bitterness and angry suspicion It assumes the shape of malignity It betrays a great want of prudence and discernment It defies description It dissipates every doubt and scruple It enslaves the imagination It extorted from him expressions of irritability It gives one a little grip at the throat It has been stigmatized as irrelevant It has more than passing interest It has seldom been surpassed It imposes no constraint It is a capital blunder It is a common error among ignorant people It is a consoling reflection It is a mark of great instability It is a staggering thought It is always something vicious It is an odd jealousy It is an intolerable idea It is impossible to resist acknowledging this It is little more than a platitude It is not consistent with elevated and dignified character It is not wholly insignificant It is notoriously easy to exaggerate It is the common consent of men It is unnecessary to multiply instances It makes life insupportable It must be a matter of conjecture It occasions suspicion and discontent It runs counter to all established customs It was a matter of notoriety It wears a ragged and dangerous front It would be a fruitless and unthankful task It would be superfluous to say It would not seem an improbable conclusion Its dominating and inspiring influence J Jealous and formidable foes Justifiable in certain exigencies [exigencies = urgent situations] K Keen power of calculation and unhesitating audacity Kindle the flames of genuine oratory Knotty and subtle disquisitions [disquisitions = formal discourse] L Labored and far-fetched elocution Laid down in a most unflinching and vigorous fashion Lamentable instances of extravagance Lash themselves into fury Lax theories and corresponding practises Lay hold of the affections Leaden mood of dulness Lend a critical ear Lest the requirements of courtesy be disregarded Links in the chain of reasoning Little less than scandalous Lofty and distinguished simplicity Long-sighted continuity of thought and plan Looking at the matter by and large Looming large and ugly in the public view Loose and otiose statement [otiose = lazy; indolent; of no use] Lost in indolent content Lovely beyond all words Lucidity and argumentative vigor Lulled into a sense of false satisfaction M Maddened by a jealous hate Maintained with ingenuity and vigor Manifestly harsh and barbarous Marvelous copiousness of illustration Marvelously suggestive and inspiring Men of profound erudition [erudition = extensive learning] Mere effects of negligence Microscopic analysis of character Mingled distrust and fear Ministering to mere pleasure and indulgence Minutely and rationally exposing their imperfections Morbid and subjective brooding More or less severe and prolonged Moved to unaccustomed tears My worst suspicions were confirmed Mysterious and invincible darkness N Naked vigor of resolution Naturally prone to believe Necessity thus imposed by prudence Nerveless and faithless folly No more than brief palliatives or mitigations Noble and sublime patience Noisy torrent of talk Not averse to a little gossip Not so much polished as varnished Noted for their quixotic love of adventure Nothing could be more captious or unfair [captious = disposition to find and point out trivial faults] Nothing remained but a graceful acquiescence Notoriously distracted by internecine jealousies O Objects of general censure Obscured beneath the rubbish of the age Obsessed with an overweening pride Obstacles that are difficult but not insuperable Obviously at variance with facts Occasioned by direct moral turpitude [turpitude = depravity; baseness] Oddly amenable to the proposed innovations Often employed promiscuously Ominous and swift days Omitting all compliments and commonplaces On a noble and commanding scale On sure ground of fact On the edge of great irritability On the horns of a dilemma One of life's ironical adjustments One of the foreseen and inevitable results One tissue of rashness, folly, ingratitude, and injustice Openly flouted and disavowed Oppressed by some vague dread Organs of party rage and popular frenzy Our opinions were diametrically opposed Our vaunted civilization Outward mark of obeisance and humiliation [obeisance = attitude of deference] Overcome by an access of misery Overshadowed by a fretful anxiety Overwhelmed with reproach and popular indignation P Painful and lamentable indifference Palpably and unmistakably commonplace Parading an exception to prove a rule Paralyzed by infirmity of purpose Paralyzing doubts and scruples Paramount obligation and righteousness Partial and fragmentary evidence Passionately addicted to pleasure Patently inimical to liberty Patience under continual provocation Peculiarly liable to misinterpretation Peddling and pitiful compromises Pelting one another with catchwords Perfectly illustrated and exemplified Perpetually excite our curiosity Pierced to the quick Pitiful shifts of policy Plainly dictated by a lofty purpose Pleading the exigencies of strategical interest [exigencies = urgent situations] Plunged into tumultuous preoccupation Pointed out with triumphant malice Polished beauty of diction Political storm and stress. Position of titular command Preached with a fierce unction [unction = exaggerated earnestness] Precipitate and arbitrary changes Predict the gloomiest consequences Pregnant with a lesson of the deepest import Presented with matchless vigor and courage Princely generosity of praise Prodigious and portentous events Protracted to a vexatious length Proud schemes for aggrandizement Provocative of bitter hostility Pruned of their excrescences and grotesque extremes [excrescences = abnormal growth, such as a wart] Purged of glaringly offensive features Pursued to a vicious extent Q Questioned and tested in the crucible of experience Quickened into a stabbing suspicion Quickness to conceive and courage to execute Quite destitute of resources Quixotically generous about money R Radiantly and transparently happy Railed at the world Rare candor and flexibility of mind Rare fidelity of purpose and achievement Rarely brought to pass Reeling headlong in luxury and sensuality Regarded with sincere abhorrence Regulated by the fixed rules of good-breeding Religious rights and ceremonies Reluctant to appear in so equivocal a character Render null and void Rent by internal contentions Repugnant alike to reason and conscience Resigned to growing infirmities Resist a common adversary Resting on some collateral circumstance Rhetorical and ambitious diction Rich and exuberant complexities Rigid and exact boundaries Rooted in immeasurable error and falsity Roused to tumultuous activity Rude and blind criticism S Sadly counterbalanced by numerous faults Said with epigrammatic point [epigrammatic = terse and witty] Salutary in the extreme Salutary tonic of a free current of public criticism Sanity and quietness of soul Scorned as an impracticable theory Scornful of petty calculations Screen themselves from punishment Scrupulous and chivalrous loyalty See with eagle glance through conventionalisms Seem to savor of paradox Seize the auspicious moment Self-centered anxiety and preoccupation Self-command born of varied intercourse Self-interest of the most compelling character Selfish and uselessly recondite [recondite = not easily understood] Selfishness pampered by abundance Senses of marvelous acuteness Sensible diminution of our comfort Sensitive and apprehensive temperament Sentimental wailings for the past Serve the innocent purposes of life Set down with meticulous care Shames us out of our nonsense Sharp outbursts of hatred and bitterness Sharp restrictions of duty and opportunity Sharply and definitely conceived She had lost her way in a labyrinth of conjecture She took refuge in a passionate exaggeration of her own insufficiency Sheer midsummer madness Silly displays of cheap animosity Simple and obvious to a plain understanding Sinister and fatal augury [augury = sign of something coming; omen] Skulking beneath a high-sounding benevolence Slack-minded skimming of newspapers Slavish doctrines of sectarianism Slow and resistless forces of conviction Smug respectability and self-content Snatch some advantage Socialized and exacting studies Some very undignified disclosures Something essentially inexpressible Something stifling and over-perfumed Spinning a network of falsehoods Spiritual and moral significance Staring in helpless bewilderment Stealthily escaping observation Stern determination to inflict summary justice Stigmatized as moral cowards Stimulated to profitable industry Stopped as if on the verge of profundities Strange frankness of cynical brutality Strange streak of melancholy Strangled by a snare of words Strenuous and conscientious endeavor Stretched out in dreary monotony Strict and unalloyed veracity Struck incessantly and remorselessly Stupendous and awe-inspiring spectacle Subject to the vicissitudes of fortune [vicissitudes = sudden or unexpected changes] Subjected to the grossest cruelties Subordination to the common weal Subservient to the ends of religion Sudden and inexplicable changes of mood Suddenly and imperatively summoned Suddenly swelled to unprecedented magnitude Sufficient to repel vulgar curiosity Suggestive sagacity and penetration [sagacity = farsighted; wise] Suit the means to the end Sullen and widespread discontent Superior in strength and prowess Supported by a splendid fearlessness Supremely and undeniably great Susceptible to every impulse and stimulus Sustained dignity and mellifluous precision [mellifluous = flowing with honey; smooth and sweet] Swamping every aspiration and ambition Swift and vehement outbursts of feeling T Take root in the heart Take vengeance upon arrogant self-assertion Taken in their totality Tamed and wonted to a settled existence Tempered by the emotional warmth of high moral ideals That way madness lies The abysmal depths of despair The accumulated bitterness of failure The agonies of conscious failure The air was full of the cry and clamor The animadversions of critics [animadversions = Strong criticism] The applause was unbounded The best proof of its timeliness and salutariness [salutariness = favorable] The bewildered and tumultuous world The blackest abyss of despair The blemishes of an extraordinary reputation The bluntness of a provincial The bogey of bad luck [bogey = evil or mischievous spirit; hobgoblin] The bounding pulse of youth The brunt of life The capacity for refined pursuits The charming omniscience of youth The cloak of cowardice The collective life of humanity The combined dictates of reason and experience The companion of a noble and elevated spirit The complaining gate swung open The complex phenomena of life The consequence of an agitated mind The consequence of ignorance and childish assumption The constant pressure of anxieties The creature and tool of a party The critical eyes of posterity The dead and dusty past The delimitation is sufficiently definite The dictates of plain reason The disjointed babble of the chronicler The dull derision of the world The dullest and most vacant minds The dumb forces of brute nature The dupe of some imposture The eager pretentiousness of youth The ebb and flow of events The everlasting deluge of books The evil was irremediable The exchange of harmless amenities The exertion of an inherent power The expression was keenly intellectual The facile conjectures of ignorant onlookers The facts took him by the throat The fitful swerving of passion The flabbiness of our culture The flaccid moods of prose The flame of discord raged with redoubled fury The flattest and most obvious truisms The flippant insolence of a decadent skepticism The foe of excess and immoderation The fog of prejudice and ill-feeling The frustration of their dearest hopes The garb of civilization The general infusion of wit The gift of prophecy The golden years of youth and maturity The gratification of ambition The grim reality of defeat The hall-mark of a healthy humanity The handmaid of tyranny The hint of tranquillity and self-poise The hints of an imaginable alliance The hobgoblin of little minds The holiest and most ennobling sensations of the soul The hollowest of hollow shams The homely virtue of practical utility The hubbub and turmoil of the great world The huge and thoughtful night The hurly-burly of events The idea was utterly hateful and repugnant The idle of all hobbledehoys [hobbledehoys = gawky adolescent boy] The ignoble exploitation of public interests The imminent fatality awaiting him The impulse of prejudice or caprice The incorrigibility of perverse human nature The incursions of a venomous rabble The indulgence of an overweening self-conceit The inevitable climax and culmination The inference is inescapable The infirmity and fallibility of human nature The inflexible serenity of the wheeling sun The ingenuities of legal verbiage The inmost recesses of the human heart The insipidity of indifference The insolence of power The irony of circumstances The jaded weariness of overstrained living The jargon of well-handled and voice-worn phrases The jostling and ugliness of life The lawyer's habit of circumspection and delay The long-delayed hour of retribution The lowest grade of precarious mendacity [mendacity = untruthfulness] The makeshifts of mediocrity The malarious air of after-dinner gossip The mazes of conflicting testimony The mean and frivolous affections of the idle The menacing shadow of want The mere fruit of his distempered imagination The mere reversal of the wheel of fortune The merest smattering of knowledge The meticulous preciosity of the lawyer and the logician [preciosity = extreme overrefinement] The most absurd elementary questions The most amazing impudence The most exacting and exciting business The most fallacious of all fallacies The most implacable logic The most preposterous pride The multitudinous tongue of the people The outcome of unerring observation The outraged conscience of mankind The overpowering force of circumstances and necessity The overweening exercise of power The panacea for the evils of society The panorama of history The pernicious doctrines of skeptics The perpetrator of clumsy witticisms The precarious tenure of fame The precursor of violence The pretty and delicate game of talk The primitive instinct of self-preservation The property of little minds The prophecies of visionaries and enthusiasts The proprieties of etiquette The purse-proud inflation of the moneyed man The question was disconcertingly frank The ravening wolves of brute instinct The remark was sternly uncompromising The result of caprice The rigor of the law The sanction and authority of a great name The severest shocks of adverse fate The sharp and vehement assertion of authority The sinister influence of unprincipled men The speaker drew an indignant breath The springs of human action The staple of conversation The stillness of finality The stings of self-reproach The straightforward path of inexorable logic The strong hand of executive authority The sum and fruit of experience The sum total of her impressions was negative The summit of excellence The supernatural prescience of prophecy The sweet indulgence of good-nature The sycophants of the rich [sycophant = servile self-seeker attempting to win favor by flattery] The taint of fretful ingratitude The talk flowed The target for ill-informed criticism The tears welled up and flowed abundantly The tediousness of inactivity The tendency to evade implicit obligations The ties of a common cause The tranquil aspects of society The tribute of affectionate applause The ultimate verdict of mankind The unbroken habit of a lifetime The unimpeachable correctness of his demeanor The unlicensed indulgence of curiosity The unsophisticated period of youth The utmost excitement and agitation The vanishing thoughtlessness of youth The vanity and conceit of insular self-satisfaction The very texture of man's soul and life The victim of an increasing irritability The victorious assertion of personality The virtue of taciturnity [taciturnity = habitually untalkative] The voice was sharp and peremptory [peremptory = ending all debate or action] The want of serious and sustained thinking The widest compass of human life The wonderful pageant of consciousness The words stabbed him Their authenticity may be greatly questioned Their indignation waxed fast and furious Themes of perennial interest There was a blank silence There was no sense of diminution They affected the tone of an impartial observer They rent the air with shouts and acclamations Thoughts which mock at human life Through ever-widening circles of devastation Through the distortions of prejudice Thwarted by seeming insuperable obstacles Time was dissolving the circle of his friends Times of unexampled difficulty Tinseled over with a gaudy embellishment of words To a practised eye To be sedulously avoided [sedulously = persevering] To prosecute a scheme of personal ambition To state the case is to prove it Too preposterous for belief Too puerile to notice Too sanguine a forecast [sanguine = cheerfully confident; optimistic] Torn asunder by eternal strife Totally detached from all factions Touched with a sort of reverential gratitude Transcend the bounds of human credulity Transitory in its nature Transparent and ridiculous self-importance Treasured up with a timid and niggardly thrift Treated the idea with lofty scorn Tremendous exploits and thrilling escapades True incentives to knowledge U Unamiable and envious attributes Unbounded devotion and indulgence Uncharted oceans of thought Unconquerable fidelity to duty Under all conceivable circumstances Under the sway of arbitrary opinions Undertaken under propitious circumstances [propitious = auspicious, favorable; kindly] Uneasy sense of impending change Unequaled simplicity and directness of purpose Unexceptional in point of breeding Unexpected obstacles and inextricable difficulties Unfailing and miraculous foresight Unfeigned astonishment and indignation Unfounded and incredible calumnies [calumnies = maliciously false statements] Unhampered by binding alliances Universal in their signification Unjust and unrighteous persecution Unreasoning and unquestioning attachment Unrivaled beauty and excellence Unrivaled gift of succinct and trenchant speech [trenchant = forceful, effective, vigorous; incisive; distinct] Unsparing industry and attention Unspeakably alluring and satisfying Unsurpassed in force and fitness Unswerving and unselfish fidelity Untiring enunciation of platitudes and fallacies Unutterably trivial and paltry Unwavering and unquestioning approbation [approbation = warm approval; praise] Unworthy and ungenerous treatment Upbraid ourselves with folly Urgent warning and admonition Utterly and essentially irreverent V Vast and vague aspirations Vastly complex and far-reaching problems Vehemently and indignantly repudiated Venerable and dignified conservatism Versatile and essentially original Versed in the arts of exciting tumult and sedition [sedition = insurrection; rebellion] Viewed in its general tenor and substance Vigorous and well compacted Violating all decency Violent and unforeseen vicissitudes [vicissitudes = sudden or unexpected changes] Vitiated by intolerance and shortsightedness [vitiated = reduce the value; corrupt morally; debase] Vivid even to oppressiveness Voracious and insatiable appetite Vulgar eagerness for place W Warnings too pregnant to be disregarded Warped by personal pretensions and self-consequence We may parenthetically note We must profoundly revere it Weigh the merits and demerits Welcomed at first with skeptical contempt Well-concerted and well-timed stratagems Whirled into rapid and ceaseless motion Wholesale friction and discontent Wholly devoid of public interest Widely divergent social traits Wield an unequaled and paramount authority Wiser counsels prevailed Withal decidedly handsome Written in indelible characters upon his heart Y Yield to urgent representations Z Zealous in the cause he affected to serve [Pencilled into the flyleaf: "A navy blue feeling where my heart used to be"] 
38699	----	Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they are listed at the end of the text. * * * * * In this version [=e] signifies "e macron"; [)e] "e breve"; [.e] "e with dot above"; and so forth. CHAMBERS'S TWENTIETH CENTURY DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE PRONOUNCING, EXPLANATORY, ETYMOLOGICAL, WITH COMPOUND PHRASES, TECHNICAL TERMS IN USE IN THE ARTS AND SCIENCES, COLLOQUIALISMS, FULL APPENDICES, AND COPIOUSLY ILLUSTRATED EDITED BY REV. THOMAS DAVIDSON ASSISTANT-EDITOR OF 'CHAMBERS'S ENCYCLOPÆDIA' EDITOR OF 'CHAMBERS'S ENGLISH DICTIONARY' LONDON: 47 Paternoster Row W. & R. CHAMBERS, LIMITED EDINBURGH: 339 High Street 1908 EXPLANATIONS TO THE STUDENT. THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE WORDS.--Every word is given in its _alphabetical_ order, except in cases where, to save space, derivatives are given after and under the words from which they are derived. Each uncompounded verb has its participles, when irregular, placed after it. Exceptional plurals are also given. When a word stands after another, with no meaning given, its meanings can be at once formed from those of the latter, by adding the signification of the affix: thus the meanings of _Darkness_ are obtained by prefixing the meaning of _ness_, _state of being_, to those of _Dark_. Many words from French and other tongues, current in English usage, but not yet fairly Anglicised, are inserted in the list of Foreign Phrases, &c., at the end, rather than in the body of the Dictionary. THE PRONUNCIATION.--The Pronunciation is given immediately after each word, by the word being spelled anew. In this new spelling, every consonant used has its ordinary unvarying sound, _no consonant being employed that has more than one sound_. The same sounds are always represented by the same letters, no matter how varied their actual spelling in the language. No consonant used has any mark attached to it, with the one exception of _th_, which is printed in common letters when sounded as in _thick_, but in italics when sounded as in _th_en. _Unmarked vowels_ have always their short sounds, as in _lad_, _led_, _lid_, _lot_, _but_, _book_. The _marked vowels_ are shown in the following line, which is printed at the top of each page:-- f[=a]te, fär; m[=e], h[.e]r; m[=i]ne; m[=o]te; m[=u]te; m[=oo]n; _th_en. The vowel _u_ when marked thus, _ü_, has the sound heard in Scotch _bluid_, _gude_, the French _du_, almost that of the German _ü_ in _Müller_. Where more than one pronunciation of a word is given, that which is placed first is more accepted. THE SPELLING.--When more than one form of a word is given, that which is placed first is the spelling in current English use. Unfortunately our modern spelling does not represent the English we actually speak, but rather the language of the 16th century, up to which period, generally speaking, English spelling was mainly phonetic, like the present German. The fundamental principle of all rational spelling is no doubt the representation of every sound by an invariable symbol, but in modern English the usage of pronunciation has drifted far from the conventional forms established by a traditional orthography, with the result that the present spelling of our written speech is to a large extent a mere exercise of memory, full of confusing anomalies and imperfections, and involving an enormous and unnecessary strain on the faculties of learners. Spelling reform is indeed an imperative necessity, but it must proceed with a wise moderation, for, in the words of Mr Sweet, 'nothing can be done without unanimity, and until the majority of the community are convinced of the superiority of some one system unanimity is impossible.' The true path of progress should follow such wisely moderate counsels as those of Dr J. A. H. Murray:--the dropping of the final or inflexional silent _e_; the restoration of the historical _-t_ after breath consonants; uniformity in the employment of double consonants, as in _traveler_, &c.; the discarding of _ue_ in words like _demagogue_ and _catalogue_; the uniform levelling of the agent _-our_ into _-or_; the making of _ea = [)e]_ short into _e_ and the long _ie_ into _ee_; the restoration of _some_, _come_, _tongue_, to their old English forms, _sum_, _cum_, _tung_; a more extended use of _z_ in the body of words, as _chozen_, _praize_, _raize_; and the correction of the worst individual monstrosities, as _foreign_, _scent_, _scythe_, _ache_, _debt_, _people_, _parliament_, _court_, _would_, _sceptic_, _phthisis_, _queue_, _schedule_, _twopence-halfpenny_, _yeoman_, _sieve_, _gauge_, _barque_, _buoy_, _yacht_, &c. Already in America a moderate degree of spelling reform may be said to be established in good usage, by the adoption of _-or_ for _-our_, as _color_, _labor_, &c.; of _-er_ for _-re_, as _center_, _meter_, &c.; _-ize_ for _-ise_, as _civilize_, &c.; the use of a uniform single consonant after an unaccented vowel, as _traveler_ for _traveller_; the adoption of _e_ for _oe_ or _æ_ in _hemorrhage_, _diarrhea_, &c. THE MEANINGS.--The current and most important meaning of a word is usually given first. But in cases like _Clerk_, _Livery_, _Marshal_, where the force of the word can be made much clearer by tracing its history, the original meaning is also given, and the successive variations of its usage defined. THE ETYMOLOGY.--The Etymology of each word is given after the meanings, within brackets. Where further information regarding a word is given elsewhere, it is so indicated by a reference. It must be noted under the etymology that whenever a word is printed thus, BAN, BASE, the student is referred to it; also that here the sign--is always to be read as meaning 'derived from.' Examples are generally given of words that are cognate or correspond to the English words; but it must be remembered that they are inserted merely for illustration. Such words are usually separated from the rest by a semicolon. For instance, when an English word is traced to its Anglo-Saxon form, and then a German word is given, no one should suppose that our English word is derived from the German. German and Anglo-Saxon are alike branches from a common Teutonic stem, and have seldom borrowed from each other. Under each word the force of the prefix is usually given, though not the affix. For fuller explanation in such cases the student is referred to the list of Prefixes and Suffixes in the Appendix. * * * * * LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THIS DICTIONARY. _aor._ aorist. _abbrev._ abbreviation. _abl._ ablative. _acc._ according. _accus._ accusative. _adj._ adjective. _adv._ adverb. _agri._ agriculture. _alg._ algebra. _anat._ anatomy. _app._ apparently. _arch._ archaic. _archit._ architecture. _arith._ arithmetic. _astrol._ astrology. _astron._ astronomy. _attrib._ attributive. _augm._ augmentative. _B._ Bible. _biol._ biology. _book-k._ book-keeping. _bot._ botany. _c._ (_circa_) about. _c._, _cent._ century. _carp._ carpentry. _cf._ compare. _chem._ chemistry. _cog._ cognate. _coll._, _colloq._ colloquially. _comp._ comparative. _conch._ conchology. _conj._ conjunction. _conn._ connected. _contr._ contracted. _cook._ cookery. _corr._ corruption. _crystal._ crystallography. _dat._ dative. _demons._ demonstrative. _der._ derivation. _dial._ dialect, dialectal. _Dict._ Dictionary. _dim._ diminutive. _dub._ doubtful. _eccles._ ecclesiastical history. _e.g._ for example. _elect._ electricity. _entom._ entomology. _esp._ especially. _ety._ etymology. _fem._ feminine. _fig._ figuratively. _fol._ followed; following. _fort._ fortification. _freq._ frequentative. _fut._ future. _gen._ genitive. _gener._ generally. _geog._ geography. _geol._ geology. _geom._ geometry. _ger._ gerundive. _gram._ grammar. _gun._ gunnery. _her._ heraldry. _hist._ history. _hort._ horticulture. _hum._ humorous. _i.e._ that is. _imit._ imitative. _imper._ imperative. _impers._ impersonal. _indic._ indicative. _infin._ infinitive. _inten._ intensive. _interj._ interjection. _interrog._ interrogative. _jew._ jewellery. _lit._ literally. _mach._ machinery. _masc._ masculine. _math._ mathematics. _mech._ mechanics. _med._ medicine. _metaph._ metaphysics. _mil._ military. _Milt._ Milton. _min._ mineralogy. _mod._ modern. _Mt._ Mount. _mus._ music. _myth._ mythology. _n._, _ns._ noun, nouns. _nat. hist._ natural history. _naut._ nautical. _neg._ negative. _neut._ neuter. _n.pl._ noun plural. _n.sing._ noun singular. _N.T._ New Testament. _obs._ obsolete. _opp._ opposed. _opt._ optics. _orig._ originally. _ornith._ ornithology. _O.S._ old style. _O.T._ Old Testament. _p._, _part._ participle. _p.adj._ participial adjective. _paint._ painting. _paleog._ paleography. _paleon._ paleontology. _palm._ palmistry. _pa.p._ past participle. _pass._ passive. _pa.t._ past tense. _path._ pathology. _perf._ perfect. _perh._ perhaps. _pers._ person. _pfx._ prefix. _phil._, _philos._ philosophy. _philol._ philology. _phon._ phonetics. _phot._ photography. _phrenol._ phrenology. _phys._ physics. _physiol._ physiology. _pl._ plural. _poet._ poetical. _pol. econ._ political economy. _poss._ possessive. _Pr.Bk._ Book of Common Prayer. _pr.p._ present participle. _prep._ preposition. _pres._ present. _print._ printing. _priv._ privative. _prob._ probably. _Prof._ Professor. _pron._ pronoun; pronounced; pronunciation. _prop._ properly. _pros._ prosody. _prov._ provincial. _q.v._ which see. _R.C._ Roman Catholic. _recip._ reciprocal. _redup._ reduplication. _refl._ reflexive. _rel._ related; relative. _rhet._ rhetoric. _sculp._ sculpture. _Shak._ Shakespeare. _sig._ signifying. _sing._ singular. _spec._ specifically. _Spens_. Spenser. _subj._ subjunctive. _suff._ suffix. _superl._ superlative. _surg._ surgery. _term._ termination. _teleg._ telegraphy. _Tenn._ Tennyson. _Test._ Testament. _theat._ theatre; theatricals. _theol._ theology. _trig._ trigonometry. _ult._ ultimately. _v.i._ verb intransitive. _voc._ vocative. _v.t._ verb transitive. _vul._ vulgar. _zool._ zoology. * * * * * Amer. American. Ar. Arabic. A.S. Anglo-Saxon. Austr. Australian. Bav. Bavarian. Beng. Bengali. Bohem. Bohemian. Braz. Brazilian. Bret. Breton. Carib. Caribbean. Celt. Celtic. Chal. Chaldean. Chin. Chinese. Corn. Cornish. Dan. Danish. Dut. Dutch. Egypt. Egyptian. Eng. English. Finn. Finnish. Flem. Flemish. Fr. French. Fris. Frisian. Gael. Gaelic. Ger. German. Goth. Gothic. Gr. Greek. Heb. Hebrew. Hind. Hindustani. Hung. Hungarian. Ice. Icelandic. Ind. Indian. Ion. Ionic. Ir. Irish. It. Italian. Jap. Japanese. Jav. Javanese. L. Latin. Lith. Lithuanian. L. L. Low or Late Latin. M. E. Middle English. Mex. Mexican. Norm. Norman. Norw. Norwegian. O. Fr. Old French. Pers. Persian. Peruv. Peruvian. Pol. Polish. Port. Portuguese. Prov. Provençal. Rom. Romance. Russ. Russian Sans. Sanskrit. Scand. Scandinavian. Scot. Scottish. Singh. Singhalese. Slav. Slavonic. Sp. Spanish. Sw. Swedish. Teut. Teutonic. Turk. Turkish. U.S. United States. W. Welsh. * * * * * CHAMBERS'S TWENTIETH CENTURY DICTIONARY. * * * * * N the fourteenth letter and eleventh consonant of our alphabet, a nasal-dental: (_chem._) the symbol for nitrogen: (_math._) an indefinite constant whole number, esp. the degree of a quantic or an equation: as a numeral, formerly, N=90, and ([=N])=90,000. NA, nä, a Scotch form of _no_. NAB, nab, _v.t._ to seize suddenly:--_pr.p._ nab'bing; _pa.p._ nabbed. [Sw. _nappa_; Dan. _nappe_, to catch.] NAB, nab, _n._ a hill-top: the projecting cavity fixed to the jamb of a door to receive the latch or bolt: (_obs._) a hat. [For _knab_=_knap_.] NABATÆAN, nab-a-t[=e]'an, _adj._ of or pertaining to a once powerful Arab people who formerly dwelt on the east and south-east of Palestine, identified by some with the _Nebaioth_ of Isa. lx. 7, the _Nabathites_ of 1 Maccab. v. 25.--Also NABATH[=E]'AN. NABK, nabk, _n._ one of the plants in the crown of thorns (_Zizyphus Spina-Christi_). [Prob. Ar.] NABOB, n[=a]'bob, _n._ a deputy or governor under the Mogul Empire: a European who has enriched himself in the East: any man of great wealth. [Corr. of Hind. _nawwâb_, a deputy, from Ar. _naww[=a]b_, pl. (used as sing.) of _n[=a]ib_, a deputy.] NACARAT, nak'a-rat, _n._ a light-red colour, scarlet: a fabric of this colour. [Fr.] NACKET, nak'et, _n._ (_Scot._) a small cake, luncheon. NACRE, n[=a]'kr, _n._ mother-of-pearl.--_adj._ iridescent.--_adj._ N[=A]'CREOUS, consisting of nacre: having a pearly lustre. [Fr.,--Ar. _nak[=i]r_, hollowed.] NADIR, n[=a]'dir, _n._ the point of the heavens diametrically opposite to the zenith: the lowest point of anything. [Fr.,--Ar. _naz[=i]r_, from _nazara_, to be like.] NÆVUS, n[=e]'vus, _n._ a birth-mark: a congenital growth strictly on a part of the skin, whether a _pigmentary nævus_ or mole, or a _vascular naevus_ or overgrowth of capillary blood-vessels--also _Mother-spot_ or _Birth-mark_--also NÆVE, NEVE:--_pl._ NÆ'V[=I].--_adjs._ NÆ'VOID, NÆ'VOUS, NÆ'VOSE. [L.] NAG, nag, _n._ a horse, but particularly a small one--(_Scot._) NAIG: (_Shak._) a jade. [M. E. _nagge_--Mid. Dut. _negge_, _negghe_ (mod. Dut. _negge_); cf. _Neigh._] NAG, nag, _v.t._ to worry or annoy continually: to tease or vex: to find fault with constantly:--_pr.p._ nag'ging; _pa.p._ nagged.--_n._ NAG'GER. [Cf. _Gnaw_.] NAGA, nä'ga, _n._ the name of deified serpents in Hindu mythology. NAGARI. See DEVA-NAGARI. NAIAD, n[=a]'yad, _n._ a water-nymph or a goddess, presiding over rivers and springs:--_pl._ NAI'ADES. [L. and Gr. _naias_, _naiados_, from _naein_, to flow.] NAIANT, n[=a]'yant, _adj._ floating: (_her._) swimming, as a fish placed horizontally across a shield. [L. _nans_, _nantis_, pr.p. of _nat[=a]re_, to swim.] NAÏF, nä-[=e]f', NAÏVE, nä-[=e]v', _adj._ with natural or unaffected simplicity, esp. in thought, manners, or speech: artless: ingenuous.--_adv._ NAÏVE'LY.--_n._ NAÏVETÉ (nä-[=e]v-t[=a]'), natural simplicity and unreservedness of thought, manner, or speech. [Fr. _naïf_, fem, _naïve_--L. _nativus_, native--_nasci_, _natus_, to be born.] NAIL, n[=a]l, _n._ one of the flattened, elastic, horny plates placed as protective coverings on the dorsal surface of the terminal phalanges of the fingers and toes: the claw of a bird or other animal: a thin pointed piece of metal for fastening wood: a measure of length (2¼ inches):--_v.t._ to fasten with nails: to make certain: to confirm, pin down, hold fast: to catch or secure through promptitude; to trip up or expose.--_ns._ NAIL'-BRUSH, a small brush for cleaning the nails; NAIL'ER, one whose trade is to make nails; NAIL'ERY, a place where nails are made.--_adj._ NAIL'-HEAD'ED, having a head like that of a nail: formed like nail-heads, said of ornamental marks on cloth and on certain kinds of mouldings (_dog-tooth_).--_n._ NAIL'-ROD, a strip cut from an iron plate to be made into nails: a trade name for a strong kind of manufactured tobacco.--NAIL TO THE COUNTER, to expose publicly as false, from the habit of nailing a counterfeit coin to a shop counter.--DRIVE A NAIL IN ONE'S COFFIN (see COFFIN); HIT THE NAIL ON THE HEAD, to touch the exact point; ON THE NAIL, on the spot: immediately: without delay. [A.S. _nægel_; Ger. _nagel_.] NAINSELL, n[=a]n'sel, _n._ own self--_Highland Scotch_. NAINSOOK, n[=a]n's[=oo]k, _n._ a kind of muslin like jaconet, both plain and striped. [Hind.] NAISSANT, n[=a]s'sant, _adj._ (_her._) rising or coming forth, as an animal newly born or about to be born. [Fr., pr.p. of _naître_--L. _nasci_, _natus_, to be born.] NAÏVE. See NAÏF. NAKED, n[=a]'ked, _adj._ without clothes: uncovered: open to view: unconcealed: evident: unarmed: defenceless: unprovided: without addition or ornament: simple: artless: (_bot._) without the usual covering.--_adv._ N[=A]'KEDLY.--_n._ N[=A]'KEDNESS.--NAKED EYE, the eye unassisted by glasses of any kind; NAKED LADY, the meadow-saffron.--STARK NAKED, entirely naked. [A.S. _nacod_; Ger. _nackt_.] NAKER, n[=a]'ker, _n._ a kettledrum. [O. Fr.,--Ar.] NAM, nam, _n._ an obsolete law term for distraint.--_n._ NAM[=A]'TION. [A.S. _niman_, pa.t. _nam_, to take.] NAMBY-PAMBY, nam'bi-pam'bi, _n._ silly talking or writing.--_adj._ sentimental, affectedly pretty.--_v.t._ to coddle. [H. Carey's nickname for _Ambrose_ Philips (1671-1749), from his childish odes to children.] NAME, n[=a]m, _n._ that by which a person or a thing is known or called: a designation: that which is said of a person: reputed character: reputation: fame: celebrity: remembrance: a race or family: appearance, not reality: authority: behalf: assumed character of another: (_gram._) a noun.--_v.t._ to give a name to: to designate: to speak of or to call by name: to mention for a post or office: to nominate: to mention formally by name a person in the House of Commons as guilty of disorderly conduct.--_adjs._ NAM'ABLE, NAME'ABLE; NAME'LESS, without a name: undistinguished: indescribable; NAME'WORTHY, distinguished.--_adv._ NAME'LESSLY.--_n._ NAME'LESSNESS.--_adv._ NAME'LY, by name: that is to say.--_ns._ NAME'-PLATE, a plate of metal having on it the name of a person, usually affixed to a door or a gate; NAM'ER; NAME'SAKE, one bearing the same name as another for his sake.--NAME THE DAY, to fix a day, esp. for a marriage.--CALL NAMES, to nickname; CHRISTIAN NAME (see CHRISTIAN); IN NAME OF, on behalf of: by the authority of; PROPER NAME, a name given to a particular person, place, or thing; TAKE A NAME IN VAIN, to use a name lightly or profanely. [A.S. _nama_; Ger. _name_; L. _nomen_.] NANCY, nan'si, _n._ an effeminate young man, often a 'Miss Nancy.'--NANCY PRETTY, a corruption of _none so pretty_, the _Saxifraga umbrosa_. NANDINE, nan'din, _n._ a small West African paradoxure, with spotted sides. NANDU, NANDOO, nan'd[=oo], _n._ the South American ostrich. NANISM, n[=a]'nizm, _n._ dwarfishness.--_n._ NANIS[=A]'TION, the artificial dwarfing of trees.--_adj._ N[=A]'NOID. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _nanos_, a dwarf.] NANKEEN, nan-k[=e]n', _n._ a buff-coloured cotton cloth first made at _Nankin_ in China: (_pl._) clothes, esp. breeches, made of nankeen.--Also NANKIN'. NANNY, nan'i, _n._ a female goat.--Also NANN'Y-GOAT. NAP, nap, _n._ a short sleep.--_v.i._ to take a short sleep: to feel drowsy and secure:--_pr.p._ nap'ping; _pa.p._ napped.--CATCH NAPPING, to come upon unprepared. [A.S. _hnappian_; cf. Ger. _nicken_, to nod.] NAP, nap, _n._ the woolly substance on the surface of cloth: the downy covering of plants.--_v.t._ to raise a nap on.--_ns._ NAP'-M[=E]'TER, a machine for testing the wearing strength of cloth; NAP'PINESS.--_adj._ NAP'PY. [M. E. _noppe_: the same as _knop_.] NAP, nap, _n._ a game of cards--_Napoleon_ (q.v.). NAP, nap, _v.t._ to seize, to take hold of, steal. NAPE, n[=a]p, _n._ the back upper part of the neck, perhaps so called from the knob or projecting point of the neck behind. [_Knap_, _knob_.] NAPERY, n[=a]'per-i, _n._ linen, esp. for the table: table-cloths, napkins, &c. [O. Fr.,--Low L. _naparia_--_napa, a cloth_--L. _mappa_, a napkin.] NAPHTHA, naf'tha, or nap'tha, _n._ a clear, inflammable liquid distilled from petroleum, wood, coal-tar, &c.: rock-oil.--_n._ NAPH'THALENE, a grayish-white, inflammable substance obtained by the distillation of coal-tar.--_adj._ NAPHTHAL'IC, pertaining to, or derived from, naphthalene.--_v.t._ NAPH'THALISE.--_ns._ NAPH'THOL, NAPHTHYL'AMINE. [L.,--Gr.,--Ar. _naft_.] NAPIERIAN, n[=a]-p[=e]'ri-an, _adj._ pertaining to John _Napier_ of Merchiston (1550-1617), the inventor of logarithms.--NAPIER'S BONES, or RODS, an invention of Napier's for performing mechanically the operations of multiplication and division, by means of sets of rods. NAPIFORM, n[=a]p'i-form, _adj._ shaped like a turnip: large and round above and slender below.--_adj._ NAPIF[=O]'LIOUS, with leaves like the turnip. [L. _napus_, a turnip.] NAPKIN, nap'kin, _n._ a cloth for wiping the hands: a handkerchief.--_n._ NAP'KIN-RING, a ring in which a table-napkin is rolled. [Dim. of Fr. _nappe_.] NAPLESS, nap'les, _adj._ without nap: threadbare. NAPLES-YELLOW, n[=a]'plz-yel'l[=o], _n._ a light-yellow pigment consisting of antimoniate of lead, originally made in Italy by a secret process. NAPOLEON, na-p[=o]'l[=e]-on, _n._ a French gold coin worth 20 francs, or about 15s. 10½d.: a French modification of the game of euchre, each player receiving five cards and playing for himself: a kind of rich iced cake.--_adj._ NAPOLEON'IC, relating to _Napoleon I_. or _III_., the Great or the Little.--_ns._ NAP[=O]'LEONISM; NAP[=O]'LEONIST.--GO NAP, to declare all five tricks--success rewarded by double payment all round. NAPPY, nap'i, _adj._ heady, strong: tipsy.--_n._ strong ale. [Prob. from _nap_, a sleep.] NAPPY, nap'i, _adj._ (_Scot._) brittle. [Cf. _Knap._] NAPRON, nap'ron, _n._ (_Spens._) an apron. NARCISSUS, nar-sis'us, _n._ a genus of plants of the Amaryllis family, comprising the daffodils. [L.,--Gr. _narkissos_--_nark[=e]_, torpor.] NARCOLEPSY, nar'k[=o]-lep-si, _n._ a nervous disorder marked by frequent short attacks of irresistible drowsiness. NARCOTIC, nar-kot'ik, _adj._ having power to produce torpor, sleep, or deadness.--_n._ a medicine producing sleep or stupor.--_n._ NARC[=O]'SIS, the stupefying effect of a narcotic.--_adv._ NARCOT'ICALLY.--_n._ NAR'COTINE, one of the organic bases or alkaloids occurring in opium.--_v.t._ NAR'COTISE.--_n._ NAR'COTISM, the influence of narcotics, or the effects produced by their use. [Fr.,--Gr. _nark[=e]_, torpor.] NARD, närd, _n._ an aromatic plant usually called _Spikenard_: an ointment prepared from it.--_adj._ NARD'INE. [Fr.,--L. _nardus_--Gr. _nardos_--Pers. _nard_--Sans. _nalada_, from Sans. _nal_, to smell.] NARDOO, när-d[=oo]', _n._ an Australian cryptogamic plant whose spore-cases are eaten by the natives. NARDUS, när'dus, _n._ a genus of grasses, having but one species, _Nardus stricta_, mat-grass. NARGHILE, när'gi-le, _n._ an Eastern tobacco-pipe, in which the smoke is passed through water.--Also NAR'GILE, NAR'GILEH, NAR'GILI. [Pers.] NARIS, n[=a]'ris, _n._ a nostril:--_pl._ N[=A]'RES.--_adjs._ NAR'IAL, NAR'INE.--_n._ NAR'ICORN, the horny nasal sheath of the beak of some birds.--_adj._ NAR'IFORM. [L.] NARRATE, na-r[=a]t', or nar'-, _v.t._ to tell, to give an account of.--_adj._ NARR'ABLE, capable of being told.--_n._ NARR[=A]'TION, act of telling: that which is told: an orderly account of what has happened.--_adj._ NARR'ATIVE, narrating: giving an account of any occurrence: inclined to narration: story-telling.--_n._ that which is narrated: a continued account of any occurrence: story.--_adv._ NARR'ATIVELY.--_n._ NARR[=A]'TOR, one who narrates: one who tells or states facts, &c.--_adj._ NARR'ATORY, like narrative: consisting of narrative. [Fr.,--L. _narr[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_gn[=a]rus_, knowing.] NARRE, när, _adj._ (_Spens._) an older form of _near_. NARROW, nar'[=o], _adj._ of little breadth: of small extent from side to side: limited: contracted in mind: bigoted: not liberal: selfish: within a small distance: almost too small: close: accurate: careful.--_n._ (oftener used in the _pl._) a narrow passage, channel, or strait.--_v.t._ to make narrow: to contract or confine.--_v.i._ to become narrow: to reduce the number of stitches in knitting.--_adj._ NARR'OW-GAUGE, denoting a railroad of less width than 4 ft. 8½ in.--_n._ NARR'OWING, the act of making less in breadth: the state of being contracted: the part of anything which is made narrower.--_adv._ NARR'OWLY.--_adj._ NARR'OW-MIND'ED, of a narrow or illiberal mind.--_ns._ NARR'OW-MIND'EDNESS; NARR'OWNESS.--_adjs._ NARR'OW-PRY'ING (_Shak._), scrutinising closely, inquisitive; NARR'OW-SOULED, illiberal.--NARROW CLOTH, cloth, esp. woollen, of less than 54 inches in width; NARROW WORK, in mining, the making of passages, air-shafts, &c. [A.S. _nearu_; not conn. with _near_, but prob. with _nerve_, _snare_.] NARTHEX, nar'theks, _n._ a former genus of umbelliferous plants, now included in _Ferula_: a portico or lobby in an early Christian or Oriental church or basilica. [L.,--Gr., _narth[=e]x_.] NARWHAL, när'hwal, NARWAL, när'wal, _n._ the sea-unicorn, a mammal of the whale family with one large projecting tusk. [Dan. _narhval_--Ice. _náhvalr_, 'corpse-whale,' from the creature's pallid colour (Ice. _nár_, corpse).] NARY, ner'i, a provincial corruption of _ne'er a_, _never a_. NAS, nas, an obsolete corruption of _ne has_; of _ne was_. NASAL, n[=a]'zal, _adj._ belonging to the nose: affected by, or sounded through, the nose.--_n._ a letter or sound uttered through the nose: the nose-piece in a helmet.--_n._ NASALIS[=A]'TION, the act of uttering with a nasal sound.--_v.i._ N[=A]'SALISE, to render nasal, as a sound: to insert a nasal letter into.--_n._ NASAL'ITY.--_adv._ N[=A]'SALLY, by or through the nose.--_adjs._ N[=A]'SICORN, having a horn on the nose, as a rhinoceros; N[=A]'SIFORM, nose-shaped.--_n._ N[=A]'SION, the median point of the naso-frontal suture.--_adjs._ NASOB[=A]'SAL, pertaining to the nose and base of the skull; NASOC'ULAR, pertaining to the nose and eye, nasorbital; NASOFRON'TAL, pertaining to the nasal bone and the frontal bone; NASOL[=A]'BIAL, pertaining to the nose and the upper lip; NASOLAC'RYMAL, pertaining to the nose and to tears, as the duct which carries tears from the eyes to the nose; NASOPAL'ATINE, pertaining to the nose and to the palate or palate-bones. [Fr.,--L. _nasus_, the nose.] NASARD, naz'ard, _n._ a mutation-stop in organ-building.--Also NAS'ARDE. NASCENT, nas'ent, _adj._ springing up: arising: beginning to exist or to grow.--_n._ NAS'CENCY, the beginning of production: birth or origin. [L. _nascens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _nasci_, _natus_, to be born.] NASEBERRY, n[=a]z'ber-i, _n._ an American tropical tree.--Also NEES'BERRY, NIS'BERRY. [Sp. _níspero_--L. _mespilus_, medlar.] NASTURTIUM, nas-tur'shi-um, _n._ the water-cress. [L., _nasus_, the nose, _torqu[=e]re_, _tortum_, to twist.] NASTY, nas'ti, _adj._ dirty: filthy: obscene: disagreeable to the taste or smell: difficult to deal with: ill-natured: nauseous.--_adv._ NAS'TILY.--_n._ NAS'TINESS. [Old form _nasky_, soft; cf. prov. Swed. _snaskig_, nasty, Low Ger. _nask_, nasty.] NASUTE, n[=a]-s[=u]t', _adj._ having a long snout: keen-scented. NATAL, n[=a]'tal, _adj._ pertaining to the nates or buttocks.--_n.pl._ N[=A]'TES, the buttocks.--_adj._ NAT'IFORM. [L. _natis_, the rump.] NATAL, n[=a]'tal, _adj._ pertaining to birth: native: presiding over birthdays.--_adj._ NATALI'TIAL, pertaining to a birthday.--_n._ NATAL'ITY, birth-rate. [Fr.,--L. _natalis_--_nasci_, _natus_, to be born.] NATANT, n[=a]'tant, _adj._ floating on the surface, as leaves of water-plants: (_her._) in a horizontal position, as if swimming.--_n._ NAT[=A]'TION, swimming.--_n.pl._ NATAT[=O]'RES, the swimming-birds.--_adj._ NATAT[=O]'RIAL, swimming: adapted to swim.--_n._ NATAT[=O]'RIUM, a swimming-school.--_adj._ N[=A]'TATORY, pertaining to swimming: having the habit of swimming. [L. _natans_, _-antis_, pr.p. of _nat[=a]re_, inten. of _n[=a]re_, to swim.] NATCH, nach, _n._ (_prov._) the rump. NATCH, nach, _n._ a provincial form of _notch_. NATHLESS, nath'les, _adj._ not the less: nevertheless.--Also NATHE'LESS. [A.S. _ná thý læs_, not the less.] NATHMORE, nath'm[=o]r, _adv._ (_Spens._) not or never the more.--Also NATH'MOE. [A.S. _ná thý mára_.] NATION, n[=a]'shun, _n._ a body of people born of the same stock: the people inhabiting the same country, or under the same government: a race: a great number: a division of students in a university for voting purposes at Aberdeen and Glasgow. [Fr.,--L. _nation-em_,--_nasci_, _natus_, to be born.] NATIONAL, nash'un-al, _adj._ pertaining to a nation: public: general: attached to one's own country.--_n._ NATIONALIS[=A]'TION, the act of nationalising, as of railways, private property, &c.: the state of being nationalised.--_v.t._ NAT'IONALISE, to make national: to make a nation of.--_ns._ NAT'IONALISM; NAT'IONALIST, one who strives after national unity or independence, esp. as in Ireland for more or less separation from Great Britain: an advocate of nationalism: NATIONAL'ITY, birth or membership in a particular country: separate existence as a nation: a nation, race of people: national character.--_adv._ NAT'IONALLY.--_n._ NAT'IONALNESS.--NATIONAL AIR, ANTHEM, the popular song by which a people's patriotic feelings are expressed; NATIONAL CHURCH, the church established by law in a country; NATIONAL CONVENTION, the sovereign assembly which sat from Sept. 21, 1792, to Oct. 26, 1795, after the abolition of monarchy in France; NATIONAL DEBT, money borrowed by the government of a country and not yet paid; NATIONAL FLAG, or ENSIGN, the principal flag of a country; NATIONAL GUARD, a force which took part in the French Revolution, first formed in 1789. NATIVE, n[=a]'tiv, _adj._ arising or appearing by birth: produced by nature: pertaining to the time or place of birth: belonging by birth, hereditary, natural, original: occurring uncombined with other substances, as metals.--_n._ one born in any place: an original inhabitant: (_pl._) oysters raised in artificial beds.--_adv._ N[=A]'TIVELY.--_ns._ N[=A]'TIVENESS; N[=A]'TIVISM, the belief that the mind possesses some ideas or forms of thought that are inborn, and not derived from sensation: the disposition to favour the natives of a country in preference to immigrants; N[=A]'TIVIST.--_adj._ NATIVIS'TIC.--_n._ NATIV'ITY, state or fact of being born: time, place, and manner of birth: the birth of Christ, hence the festival of His birth, Christmas--also a picture representing His birth: state or place of being produced: a horoscope.--NATIVE ROCK, stone not yet quarried. [Fr.,--L. _nativus_--_nasci_, _natus_, to be born.] NATRIX, n[=a]'triks, _n._ a genus of colubrine snakes. [L.,--_nat[=a]re_, to swim.] NATROLITE, nat'ro-l[=i]t, _n._ one of the most common of the group of minerals known as Zeolites. NATRON, n[=a]'trun, _n._ native carbonate of sodium, or mineral alkali, the nitre of the Bible.--_n._ NATROM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the quantity of soda in salts of potash and soda. [Fr.,--L. _nitrum_--Gr. _nitron_.] NATTER, nat'[.e]r, _v.t._ and _v.i._ (_prov._) to find fault.--_adjs._ NATT'ERED, NATT'ERY, peevish. NATTERJACK, nat'[.e]r-jak, _n._ a common European toad. [Cf. _Adder_.] NATTES, nats, _n.pl._ surface decoration or diaper resembling plaited or interlaced work. [Fr.] NATTY, nat'i, _adj._ trim, tidy, neat, spruce.--_adv._ NATT'ILY.--_n._ NATT'INESS. [Allied to _neat_.] NATURAL, nat'[=u]-ral, _adj._ pertaining to, produced by, or according to nature: inborn: not far-fetched: not acquired: tender: unaffected: in a state of nature, unregenerate: (_math._) having 1 as the base of the system, of a function or number: illegitimate: (_mus._) according to the usual diatonic scale.--_n._ an idiot: (_mus._) a character ([Natural]) which removes the effect of a preceding sharp or flat: a white key in keyboard musical instruments.--_adj._ NAT'URAL-BORN, native.--_n.pl._ NATUR[=A]'LIA, the sexual organs.--_n._ NATURALIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ NAT'URALISE, to make natural or easy: to adapt to a different climate or to different conditions of life: to grant the privileges of natural-born subjects to.--_ns._ NAT'URALISM, mere state of nature: a close following of nature, without idealisation, in painting, sculpture, fiction, &c.: the belief that natural religion is of itself sufficient; NAT'URALIST, one who studies nature, more particularly zoology and botany: a believer in naturalism.--_adj._ NATURALIST'IC, pertaining to, or in accordance with, nature: belonging to the doctrines of naturalism.--_adv._ NAT'URALLY.--_n._ NAT'URALNESS.--NATURAL HISTORY, originally the description of all that is in nature, now used of the sciences that deal with the earth and its productions--botany, zoology, and mineralogy, esp. zoology; NATURAL LAW, the sense of right and wrong which arises from the constitution of the mind of man, as distinguished from the results of revelation or legislation; NATURAL NUMBERS, the numbers 1, 2, 3, and upwards; NATURAL ORDER, in botany, an order or division belonging to the natural system of classification, based on a consideration of all the organs of the plant; NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, the science of nature, of the physical properties of bodies: physics; NATURAL SCALE, a scale of music written without sharps or flats; NATURAL SCIENCE, the science of _nature_, as distinguished from that of _mind_ (mental and moral science), and from _pure_ science (mathematics); NATURAL SELECTION, a supposed operation of the laws of nature, the result of which is the 'survival of the fittest,' as if brought about by intelligent design; NATURAL SYSTEM, a classification of plants and animals according to real differences in structure; NATURAL THEOLOGY, or NATURAL RELIGION, the body of theological truths discoverable by reason without revelation. NATURE, n[=a]'t[=u]r, _n._ the power which creates and which regulates the material world: the power of growth: the established order of things, the universe: the qualities of anything which make it what it is: constitution: species: conformity to nature, truth, or reality: inborn mind, character, instinct, or disposition: vital power, as of man or animal: course of life: nakedness: a primitive undomesticated condition.--_adj._ N[=A]'TURED, having a certain temper or disposition: used in compounds, as _good-natured_.--_ns._ N[=A]'TURE-D[=E]'ITY, a deity personifying some force of physical nature; N[=A]'TURE-MYTH, a myth symbolising natural phenomena; N[=A]'TURE-PRINT'ING, the process of printing in colours from plates that have been impressed with some object of nature, as a plant, leaf, &c.; N[=A]'TURE-WOR'SHIP, N[=A]'TURISM, worship of the powers of nature.--_n._ N[=A]'TURIST.--_adj._ NATURIST'IC.--DEBT OF NATURE, death; EASE, or RELIEVE, NATURE, to evacuate the bowels. [Fr.,--L. _natura_--_nasci_, _natus_, to be born.] NAUGHT, nawt, _n._ no-whit, nothing.--_adv._ in no degree.--_adj._ of no value or account: worthless: bad.--BE NAUGHT, an obsolete form of malediction; COME TO NAUGHT, to come to nothing, to fail; SET AT NAUGHT, to treat as of no account, to despise. [Another form of _nought_. A.S. _náht_, _náwiht_--_ná_, not, _wiht_, a whit.] NAUGHTY, nawt'i, _adj._ bad in conduct or speech: mischievous: perverse: disagreeable.--_adv._ NAUGHT'ILY.--_n._ NAUGHT'INESS. NAUMACHY, naw'ma-ki, _n._ a sea-fight: a show representing a sea-fight.--Also NAUMACH'IA. [Gr. _naus_, a ship, _mach[=e]_, a fight.] NAUPLIUS, naw'pli-us, _n._ a stage of development of low Crustaceans, as cirripeds, &c.:--_pl._ NAU'PLII.--_adjs._ NAU'PLIIFORM, NAU'PLIOID. [L., a kind of shell-fish--Gr. _Nauplios_, a son of Poseidon, _naus_, a ship, _plein_, to sail.] NAUROPOMETER, naw-r[=o]-pom'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring a ship's heeling or inclination at sea. [Gr. _naus_, a ship, _hrop[=e]_, inclination, _metron_, measure.] NAUSCOPY, naw'skop-i, _n._ the art of sighting ships at great distances. [Gr. _naus_, a ship, _skopein_, to see.] NAUSEA, naw'she-a, _n._ sea-sickness: any sickness of the stomach, with a tendency to vomit: loathing.--_adj._ NAU'SEANT, producing nausea.--_n._ a substance having this quality.--_v.i._ NAU'SE[=A]TE, to feel nausea or disgust.--_v.t._ to loathe: to strike with disgust.--_n._ NAUSE[=A]'TION.--_adjs._ NAU'SE[=A]TIVE, causing nausea or loathing; NAU'SEOUS, producing nausea: disgusting: loathsome.--_adv._ NAU'SEOUSLY.--_n._ NAU'SEOUSNESS. [L.,--Gr. _nausia_, sea-sickness--_naus_, a ship.] NAUTCH, nawch, _n._ a kind of ballet-dance performed by professional dancers known as NAUTCH'-GIRLS in India: any form of stage entertainment with dancing. [Hind. _n[=a]ch_, dance.] NAUTICAL, naw'tik-al, _adj._ of or pertaining to ships, to sailors, or to navigation: naval: marine.--_adv._ NAU'TICALLY.--NAUTICAL ALMANAC, an almanac giving information specially useful to sailors; NAUTICAL MILE, one-sixtieth of a degree measured at the Equator (=about 2025 yards). [L. _nauticus_--Gr. _nautikos_--_naus_; cog. with L. _navis_, a ship.] NAUTILUS, naw'ti-lus, _n._ a Cephalopod found in the southern seas, once believed to sail by means of the expanded tentacular arms: a kind of diving-bell sinking or rising by means of condensed air:--_pl._ NAU'TILUSES, or NAU'TILI.--_adjs._ NAU'TILIFORM, NAU'TILOID.--PAPER NAUTILUS, any species of _Argonauta_. [L.,--Gr. _nautilos_, a sailor.] NAVAL, n[=a]'val, _adj._ pertaining to ships: consisting of, or possessing, ships: marine: nautical: belonging to the navy.--NAVAL BRIGADE, a body of seamen so arranged as to be able to serve on land; NAVAL OFFICER, an officer on board a man-of-war: a custom-house officer of high rank in the United States; NAVAL TACTICS, the science and methods of managing and moving squadrons of ships. [Fr.,--L. _navalis_--_navis_, a ship.] NAVE, n[=a]v, _n._ the middle or main body of a church, distinct from the aisles or wings.--_n._ N[=A]'VARCH, a Greek admiral. [Fr. _nef_--L. _navis_, a ship.] NAVE, n[=a]v, _n._ the hub or piece of wood, &c., in the centre of a wheel, through which the axle passes.--_v.t._ to form as a nave. [A.S. _nafu_, nave; cf. Dut. _naaf_, Ger. _nabe_.] NAVEL, n[=a]v'l, _n._ the mark or depression in the centre of the lower part of the abdomen, at first a small projection.--_n._ N[=A]V'EL-STRING, the umbilical cord. [A.S. _nafela_, dim. of _nafu_, nave.] NAVEW, n[=a]'v[=u], _n._ the wild turnip. NAVICULAR, nav-ik'[=u]-lar, _adj._ pertaining to small ships or boats: (_bot._) boat-shaped: scaphoid.--_n._ a bone in man and animals, so called from its shape.--_n._ NAVIC'ULA, an incense-boat.--NAVICULAR DISEASE, an inflammation, often rheumatic, of the small bone--the navicular--in horses, below which passes the strong flexor tendon of the foot. [L. _navicularis_--_navicula_, dim. of _navis_, a ship.] NAVIGATE, nav'i-g[=a]t, _v.t._ to steer or manage a ship in sailing: to sail upon.--_v.i._ to go in a vessel or ship: to sail.--_ns._ NAVIGABIL'ITY, NAV'IGABLENESS.--_adj._ NAV'IGABLE, that may be passed by ships or vessels.--_adv._ NAV'IGABLY.--_ns._ NAVIG[=A]'TION, the act, science, or art of sailing ships: shipping generally: a canal or artificial waterway; NAV'IGATOR, one who navigates or sails: one who directs the course of a ship.--NAVIGATION LAWS, the laws passed from time to time to regulate the management and privileges of ships, and the conditions under which they may sail or carry on trade.--AERIAL NAVIGATION, the management of balloons in motion; INLAND NAVIGATION, the passing of boats, &c., along rivers and canals. [L. _navig[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_navis_, a ship, _ag[)e]re_, to drive.] NAVVY, nav'i, _n._ a labourer--originally a labourer on a navigation or canal: a machine for digging out earth, &c.--called also _French navvy_:--_pl._ NAVV'IES. [A contr. of _navigator_.] NAVY, n[=a]'vi, _n._ a fleet of ships: the whole of the ships-of-war of a nation: the officers and men belonging to the warships of a nation.--_ns._ N[=A]'VY-LIST, a list of the officers and ships of a navy, published from time to time; N[=A]'VY-YARD, a government dockyard. [O. Fr. _navie_--L. _navis_, a ship.] NAWAB, na-wab', _n._ a nabob. NAY, n[=a], _adv._ no: not only so, but: yet more: in point of fact.--_n._ a denial: a vote against.--_n._ NAY'WARD (_Shak._), tendency to denial: the negative side. [M. E. _nay_, _nai_--Ice. _nei_, Dan. _nei_; cog. with _no_.] NAYWORD, n[=a]'wurd, _n._ (_Shak._) a proverbial reproach, a byword, a watchword. NAZARENE, naz'ar-[=e]n, _n._ an inhabitant of Nazareth, in Galilee: a follower of Jesus of Nazareth, originally used of Christians in contempt: one belonging to the early Christian sect of the Nazarenes, which existed from the 1st to the 4th cent. A.D.--Also NAZAR[=E]'AN. [From _Nazareth_, the town.] NAZARITE, naz'ar-[=i]t, _n._ a Jew who vowed to abstain from strong drink, &c.--also NAZ'IRITE.--_n._ NAZ'ARITISM, the vow and practice of a Nazarite. [Heb. _n[=a]zar_, to consecrate.] NAZE, n[=a]z, _n._ a headland or cape. [Scand., as in Dan. _næs_; a doublet of _ness_.] NAZIR, na-z[=e]r', _n._ a native official in an Anglo-Indian court who serves summonses, &c. [Ar.] NE, ne, _adv._ not: never. [A.S. _ne_; cf. _Nay_.] NEAF, n[=e]f, _n._ the fist--(_Scot._) NEIVE. [M. E. _nefe_--Ice. _hnefi_, _nefi_; cf. Sw. _näfve_, the fist.] NEAL, n[=e]l, _v.t._ to temper by heat.--_v.i._ to be tempered by heat. [Cf. _Anneal_.] NEALOGY, n[=e]-al'o-ji, _n._ the description of the morphological correlations of the early adolescent stages of an animal.--_adj._ NEALOG'IC. [Gr. _neos_, young, logia--_legein_, to speak.] NEANDERTHALOID, n[=e]-an'd[.e]r-tal-oid, _adj._ like the low type of skull found in 1857 in a cave in the _Neanderthal_, a valley between Düsseldorf and Elberfeld. NEAP, n[=e]p, _adj._ low, applied to the lowest tides.--_n._ a neap-tide: the lowest point of the tide.--_adj._ NEAPED, left aground from one high tide to another. [A.S. _nép_, orig. _hnép_; Dan. _knap_, Ice. _neppr_, scanty.] NEAPOLITAN, n[=e]-a-pol'i-tan, _adj._ pertaining to the city of Naples or its inhabitants.--_n._ a native or inhabitant of Naples.--NEAPOLITAN ICE, a combination of two different ices. [L. _Neapolitanus_--Gr. _Neapolis_, Naples--_neos_, new, _polis_, city.] NEAR, n[=e]r, _adj._ nigh: not far away in place or time: close in kin or friendship: dear: following or imitating anything closely: close, narrow, so as barely to escape: short, as a road: greedy, stingy: on the left in riding or driving.--_adv._ at a little distance: almost: closely,--_prep._ close to.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to approach: to come nearer.--_adjs._ NEAR'-BY, adjacent; NEAR'-HAND (_Scot._), near--also _adv._ nearly.--_adv._ NEAR'LY, at no great distance: closely: intimately: pressingly: almost: stingily.--_n._ NEAR'NESS, the state of being near: closeness: intimacy: close alliance: stinginess.--_adj._ NEAR'-SIGHT'ED, seeing distinctly only when near, myopic, short-sighted.--_n._ NEAR'-SIGHT'EDNESS.--NEAR POINT, the nearest point the eye can focus. [A.S. _neár_, comp. of _neáh_, nigh; Ice. _nær_; Ger. _näher_.] NEARCTIC, n[=e]-ark'tik, _adj._ of or pertaining to the northern part of the New World--embracing temperate and arctic North America. NEAT, n[=e]t, _adj._ belonging to the bovine genus.--_n._ black-cattle: an ox or cow.--_ns._ NEAT'-HERD, one who herds, or has the care of, neat or cattle; NEAT'-HOUSE, a building for the shelter of neat-cattle.--NEAT'S-FOOT OIL, an oil obtained from the feet of oxen; NEAT'S LEATHER, leather made of the hides of neat-cattle. [A.S. _neát_, cattle, a beast--_neótan_, _niótan_, to use; cf. Scot. _nowt_, black-cattle.] NEAT, n[=e]t, _adj._ trim: tidy: clean: well-shaped: without mixture or adulteration: finished, adroit, clever, skilful.--_adj._ NEAT'-HAND'ED, dexterous.--_adv._ NEAT'LY.--_n._ NEAT'NESS. [Fr. _net_--L. _nitidus_, shining--_nìt[=e]re_, to shine.] NEB, neb, _n._ the beak of a bird: the nose: the sharp point of anything.--_adj._ NEBB'Y (_Scot._), saucy. [A.S. _nebb_, the face; cog. with Dut. _neb_, beak.] NEBBUK, neb'uk, _n._ a shrub, _Zizyphus Spina-Christi_, one of the thorns of Christ's crown. NEBEL, neb'el, _n._ a Hebrew stringed instrument. NEB-NEB, neb'-neb, _n._ the dried pods of a species of acacia found in Africa, which are much used in Egypt for tanning--called also _Bablah_. NEBRIS, neb'ris, _n._ a fawn-skin worn in imitation of Bacchus by his priests and votaries. NEBULA, neb'[=u]-la, _n._ a little cloud: a faint, misty appearance in the heavens produced either by a group of stars too distant to be seen singly, or by diffused gaseous matter:--_pl._ NEB'ULÆ.--_adjs._ NEB'ULAR, pertaining to nebulæ: like nebulæ; NEBULÉ (neb-[=u]-l[=a]'), curved in and out (_her._); NEB'ULOSE, NEB'ULOUS, misty, hazy, vague: relating to, or having the appearance of, a nebula.--_ns._ NEBULOS'ITY, NEB'ULOUSNESS.--NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS, the theory of Laplace and Sir W. Herschel that nebulæ form the earliest stage in the formation of stars and planets. [L.; Gr. _nephel[=e]_, cloud, mist.] NECESSARY, nes'es-sar-i, _adj._ that must be: that cannot be otherwise: unavoidable: indispensable: under compulsion: not free.--_n._ that which cannot be left out or done without (food, &c.)--used chiefly in _pl._: a privy.--_ns._ NECESS[=A]'RIAN, one who holds the doctrine of necessity; NECESS[=A]'RIANISM, the doctrine that the will is not free, but subject to causes without, which determine its action.--_adv._ NEC'ESSARILY.--_n._ NEC'ESSARINESS, the state or quality of being necessary.--NECESSARY TRUTHS, such as cannot but be true. [Fr.,--L. _necessarius_.] NECESSITY, ne-ses'i-ti, _n._ state or quality of being necessary: that which is necessary or unavoidable: compulsion: great need: poverty.--_ns._ NECESSIT[=A]'RIAN; NECESSIT[=A]'RIANISM, necessarianism.--_v.t._ NECESS'IT[=A]TE, to make necessary: to render unavoidable: to compel.--_n._ NECESSIT[=A]'TION.--_adjs._ NECESS'ITIED (_Shak._), in a state of want; NECESS'ITOUS, in necessity: very poor: destitute.--_adv._ NECESS'ITOUSLY.--_n._ NECESS'ITOUSNESS.--NATURAL NECESSITY, the condition of being necessary according to the laws of nature; LOGICAL or MATHEMATICAL, according to those of human intelligence; MORAL, according to those of moral law; WORKS OF NECESSITY, work so necessary as to be allowable on the Sabbath. [L. _necessitas_.] NECK, nek, _n._ the part of an animal's body between the head and trunk: anything that resembles the neck: a long narrow part or corner: (_fig._) life: the flesh of the neck and adjoining parts.--_v.t._ to break the neck or cut off the head.--_ns._ NECK'ATEE, a neckerchief; NECK'-BAND, the part of a shirt encircling the neck; NECK'-BEAR'ING, that part of a shaft which rotates in the bearing proper, a journal; NECK'BEEF, the coarse flesh of the neck of cattle; NECK'CLOTH, a piece of folded cloth worn round the neck by men as a band or cravat, the ends hanging down often of lace.--_adj._ NECKED, having a neck of a certain kind.--_ns._ NECK'ERCHIEF, a kerchief for the neck; NECK'LACE, a lace or string of beads or precious stones worn on the neck by women; NECK'LET, a simple form of necklace; NECK'-MOULD, a small moulding surrounding a column at the junction of the shaft and capital; NECK'-PIECE, the part of a suit of armour that protects the neck: an ornamental frill round the neck of a gown; NECK'TIE, a tie or cloth for the neck; NECK'VERSE, the verse (usually Ps. li. 1) in early times placed before a prisoner claiming _benefit-of-clergy_, in order to test his ability to read, which, if he could do, he was burned in the hand and set free (see BENEFIT).--_n._ STIFF'NECK (see STIFF).--NECK AND CROP, completely; NECK AND NECK, exactly equal: side by side; NECK OR NOTHING, risking everything.--HARDEN THE NECK, to grow more obstinate; TREAD ON THE NECK OF, to oppress or tyrannise over. [A.S. _hnecca_; Ger. _nacken_.] NECROLATRY, nek-rol'a-tri, _n._ worship of the dead.--_ns._ NECROBI[=O]'SIS, degeneration of living tissue; NECROG'RAPHER, one who writes an obituary notice.--_adjs._ NECROLOG'IC, -AL, pertaining to necrology.--_ns._ NECROL'OGIST, one who gives an account of deaths; NECROL'OGY, an account of those who have died, esp. of the members of some society: a register of deaths; NEC'ROMANCER, one who practises necromancy: a sorcerer; NEC'ROMANCY, the art of revealing future events by calling up and questioning the spirits of the dead: enchantment.--_adjs._ NECROMAN'TIC, -AL, pertaining to necromancy: performed by necromancy.--_adv._ NECROMAN'TICALLY.--_adj._ NECROPH'AGOUS, feeding on carrion.--_ns._ NECROPH'ILISM, a morbid love for the dead; NECROPH[=O]'BIA, a morbid horror of corpses.--_adj._ NECROPH'OROUS, carrying away and burying dead bodies, esp. of beetles of the genus _Necrophorus_.--_n._ NECROP'OLIS, a cemetery.--_adjs._ NECROSCOP'IC, -AL.--_n._ NEC'ROSCOPY, a post-mortem examination, autopsy--also NEC'ROPSY.--_adjs._ NECROSED', NECR[=O]'TIC.--_ns._ NECR[=O]'SIS, the mortification of bone: (_bot._) a disease of plants marked by small black spots; NECROT'OMIST; NECROT'OMY, dissection of dead bodies. [Gr. _nekros_, dead.] NECTAR, nek'tar, _n._ the name given by Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, &c. to the beverage of the gods, giving life and beauty: a delicious beverage: the honey of the glands of plants.--_adjs._ NECT[=A]'REAL, NECT[=A]'REAN, pertaining to, or resembling, nectar: delicious; NEC'TARED, imbued with nectar: mingled or abounding with nectar; NECT[=A]'REOUS, NEC'TAROUS, pertaining to, containing, or resembling nectar: delicious.--_adv._ NECT[=A]'REOUSLY, in a nectareous manner.--_n._ NECT[=A]'REOUSNESS, the quality of being nectareous.--_adjs._ NECT[=A]'RIAL; NECTARIF'EROUS, producing nectar or honey: having a nectary; NEC'TARINE, sweet as nectar.--_n._ a variety of peach with a smooth fruit.--_n._ NEC'TARY, the part of a flower which secretes the nectar or honey. [L.,--Gr. _nektar_; ety. dub.] NECTOCALYX, nek'to-k[=a]-liks, _n._ the swimming-bell of a medusa:--_pl._ NECTOC[=A]'LYCES. NEDDY, ned'i, _n._ a donkey. [From _Ned_=Edward.] NÉE, n[=a], _adj._ born: placed before a married woman's maiden-name, to show her own family, as Rebecca Crawley, _née_ Sharp. [Fr., fem. of _né_, pa.p. of _naître_, to be born--L. _nasci_, _natus_, to be born.] NEED, n[=e]d, _n._ want of something which one cannot do without: necessity: a state that requires relief: want of the means of living.--_v.t._ to have occasion for: to want.--_ns._ NEED'-BE, a necessity; NEED'ER; NEED'FIRE, fire produced by friction, to which a certain virtue is superstitiously attached: a beacon generally.--_adj._ NEED'FUL, full of need: having need: needy: necessary: requisite.--_adv._ NEED'FULLY.--_n._ NEED'FULNESS.--_adv._ NEED'ILY.--_n._ NEED'INESS.--_adj._ NEED'LESS (_Shak._), having no need: not needed: unnecessary.--_adv._ NEED'LESSLY.--_n._ NEED'LESSNESS.--_adv._ NEED'LY (_Shak._), necessarily.--_n._ NEED'MENT, something needed.--_adv._ NEEDS, of necessity: indispensably--often used with _must_, as 'needs must.'--_adj._ NEED'Y, very poor: requisite.--_n._ NEED'YHOOD.--THE NEEDFUL (_slang_), ready money. [A.S. _néd_, _niéd_, _nýd_; Dut. _nood_, Ger. _noth_.] NEEDLE, n[=e]d'l, _n._ a small, sharp-pointed steel instrument, with an eye for a thread--(_Shak._) NEELD, NEELE: any slender, pointed instrument like a needle, as the magnet or movable bar of a compass, or for knitting, etching, &c.: anything sharp and pointed, like a pinnacle of rock, &c.: an aciform crystal: a temporary support used by builders to sustain while repairing, being a strong beam resting on props: the long, narrow, needle-like leaf of a pine-tree.--_v.t._ to form into a shape like a needle, as crystals: to work with a needle.--_v.i._ to become of the shape of needles, as crystals.--_ns._ NEED'LE-BOOK, a number of pieces of cloth, leather, &c. arranged like a book, for holding needles; NEED'LE-CASE, a case for holding needles; NEED'LE-FISH, a pipe-fish: a garfish or belonid; NEED'LEFUL, as much thread as fills a needle; NEED'LE-GUN, a gun or rifle loaded at the breech, the cartridge of which is exploded by the impact of a needle or spike at its base.--_adjs._ NEED'LE-POINT'ED, pointed like a needle: without a barb, as a fish-hook; NEED'LE-SHAPED, shaped like a needle: applied to the long, slender, sharp-pointed leaves of pines, firs, and other trees.--_ns._ NEED'LE-TEL'EGRAPH, a telegraph the receiver of which gives its messages by the deflections of a magnetic needle; NEED'LEWOMAN, a woman who makes her living by her needle, a seamstress; NEED'LEWORK, work done with a needle: the business of a seamstress.--_adj._ NEED'LY, thorny. [A.S. _n['æ]dl_; Ger. _nadel_; cog. with Ger. _nähen_, to sew, L. _n[=e]re_, to spin.] NEEP, a Scotch form of _turnip_. NE'ER, n[=a]r, _adv._ contr. of _never_.--_adj._ and _n._ NE'ER'-DO-WELL, past all well-doing: one who is good for nothing. NEESE, n[=e]z, _v.i._ an old form of _sneeze_.--_n._ NEES'ING, sneezing. NEF, nef, _n._ a cadenas. NEFANDOUS, n[=e]-fan'dus, _adj._ bad to execration, abominable. [L.,--_ne_, not, _fandus_, _f[=a]ri_, to speak.] NEFARIOUS, n[=e]-f[=a]'ri-us, _adj._ impious: extremely wicked: villainous.--_adv._ NEF[=A]'RIOUSLY.--_n._ NEF[=A]'RIOUSNESS.--_adj._ N[=E]FAST', abominable. [L. _nefarius_, contrary to divine law--_ne_, not, _fas_, divine law, prob. from _f[=a]ri_, to speak.] NEGATION, ne-g[=a]'shun, _n._ act of saying no: denial: (_logic_) the absence of certain qualities in anything. [Fr.,--L. _negation-em-_--_neg[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to say no--_nec_, not, _aio_, I say yes.] NEGATIVE, neg'a-tiv, _adj._ that denies or refuses--opp. to _Affirmative_: implying absence: that stops, hinders, neutralises--opp. to _Positive_: in photography, exhibiting the reverse, as dark for light, light for dark: (_logic_) denying the connection between a subject and a predicate: (_algebra_) noting a quantity to be subtracted.--_n._ a word or statement by which something is denied: the right or act of saying 'no,' or of refusing assent: the side of a question or the decision which denies what is affirmed: in photography, an image on glass or other medium, in which the lights and shades are the opposite of those in nature, used for printing positive impressions from on paper, &c.: (_gram._) a word that denies.--_v.t._ to prove the contrary: to reject by vote.--_adv._ NEG'ATIVELY.--_ns._ NEG'ATIVENESS, NEG'ATIVISM, NEGATIV'ITY.--_adj._ NEG'ATORY, expressing denial.--NEGATIVE BATH, a silver solution in which photographic negatives are placed to be sensitised; NEGATIVE ELECTRICITY, electricity with a relatively low potential, electricity such as is developed by rubbing resinous bodies with flannel, opposite to that obtained by rubbing glass; NEGATIVE QUANTITY (_math._), a quantity with a _minus_ sign ( - ) before it, indicating that it is either to be subtracted, or reckoned in an opposite direction from some other with a _plus_ sign; NEGATIVE SIGN, the sign ( - or _minus_) of subtraction. [L. _negativus_--_neg[=a]re_, to deny.] NEG[=A]TUR, _v._ it is denied. [L., 3d pers. sing. pres. ind. pass. of _neg[=a]re_, to deny.] NEGLECT, neg-lekt', _v.t._ to treat carelessly, pass by without notice: to omit by carelessness.--_n._ disregard: slight: omission.--_adj._ NEGLECT'ABLE, that may be neglected.--_ns._ NEGLECT'EDNESS; NEGLECT'ER.--_adj._ NEGLECT'FUL, careless: accustomed to omit or neglect things: slighting.--_adv._ NEGLECT'FULLY.--_n._ NEGLECT'FULNESS.--_adj._ NEGLECT'IBLE.--_adv._ NEGLECT'INGLY, carelessly: heedlessly. [L. _neglig[)e]re_, _neglectum_--_nec_, not, _leg[)e]re_, to gather.] NEGLIGÉE, neg-li-zh[=a]', _n._ easy undress: a plain, loose gown: a necklace, usually of red coral.--_adj._ carelessly or unceremoniously dressed: careless. [Fr., fem. of _négligé_--_négliger_, to neglect.] NEGLIGENCE, neg'li-jens, _n._ fact or quality of being negligent: want of proper care: habitual neglect: a single act of carelessness or neglect, a slight: carelessness about dress, manner, &c.: omission of duty, esp. such care for the interests of others as the law may require--(_Shak._) NEGLEC'TION.--_adj._ NEG'LIGENT, neglecting: careless: inattentive: disregarding ceremony or fashion.--_adv._ NEG'LIGENTLY.--_adj._ NEG'LIGIBLE.--_adv._ NEG'LIGIBLY. [Fr.,--L. _negligentia_--_negligens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _neglig[)e]re_, to neglect.] NEGOTIABLE, ne-g[=o]'shi-a-bl, _adj._ that may be transacted: that can be transferred to another with the same rights as belonged to the original holder, as a bill of exchange.--_n._ NEGOTIABIL'ITY. NEGOTIATE, ne-g[=o]'shi-[=a]t, _v.i._ to carry on business: to bargain: to hold intercourse for the purpose of mutual arrangement.--_v.t._ to arrange for by agreement: to manage: to transfer to another with all the rights of the original holder: to pass, as a bill: to sell.--_ns._ NEGOTI[=A]'TION, act of negotiating: the treating with another on business; NEG[=O]'TIATOR; NEG[=O]'TIATRIX.--_adj._ NEGOTI[=A]'TORY, of or pertaining to negotiation. [L. _negoti[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_--_negotium_, business--_nec_, not, _otium_, leisure.] NEGRITO, ne-gr[=e]'to, _n._ the Spanish name for certain tribes of negro-like diminutive people in the interior of some of the Philippine Islands--also _Aëtas_ or _Itas_: in a wider sense, the Papuans and all the Melanesian peoples of Polynesia. NEGRO, n[=e]'gr[=o], _n._ one of the black-skinned woolly-haired race in the Soudan and central parts of Africa, also their descendants in America.--_adj._ of or pertaining to the race of black men:--_fem._ N[=E]'GRESS.--_ns._ N[=E]'GRO-CORN, the name given in the West Indies to the plant durra or Indian millet; N[=E]'GROHEAD, tobacco soaked in molasses and pressed into cakes, so called from its blackness.--_adj._ N[=E]'GROID.--_n._ N[=E]'GR[=O]ISM, any peculiarity of speech noticeable among negroes, esp. in the southern United States. [Sp. _negro_--L. _niger_, black.] NEGUS, n[=e]'gus, _n._ a beverage of either port or sherry with hot water, sweetened and spiced. [Said to be so called from Colonel _Negus_, its first maker, in the reign of Queen Anne.] NEGUS, n[=e]'gus, _n._ the title of the kings of Abyssinia. NEIF, n[=e]f, _n._ (_Shak._) the fist. NEIGH, n[=a], _v.i._ to utter the cry of a horse:--_pr.p._ neigh'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p_. neighed (n[=a]d).--_n._ the cry of a horse--(_Scot._) NICH'ER. [A.S. _hn['æ]gan_; Ice. _hneggja_.] NEIGHBOUR, nä'bur, _n._ a person who dwells, sits, or stands near another: one who is on friendly terms with another.--_adj._ (_B._) neighbouring.--_v.i._ to live near each other.--_v.t._ to be near to.--_n._ NEIGH'BOURHOOD, state of being neighbours, kindly feeling: adjoining district or the people living in it: a district generally, esp. with reference to its inhabitants.--_adj._ NEIGH'BOURING, being near: adjoining.--_n._ NEIGH'BOURLINESS.--_adjs._ NEIGH'BOURLY, like or becoming a neighbour: friendly: social--also _adv._; NEIGH'BOUR-STAINED (_Shak._), stained with neighbours' blood. [A.S. _neáhbúr_, _neáhgebúr_--A.S. _neáh_, near, _gebúr_ or _búr_, a farmer.] NEIST, n[=e]st, a dialectic form of _next_. NEITHER, n[=e]'_th_[.e]r, or n[=i]'_th_[.e]r, _adj._ and _pron._ not either.--_conj._ not either: and not: nor yet.--_adv._ not at all: in no case. [A.S. _ná_th_er, náw_th_er_, abbrev. of _náhwæther_--_ne_, not, _áhwæther_, _áwther_, either.] NEIVIE-NICK-NACK, n[=e]'vi-nik'-nak, _n._ a Scotch children's game of guessing in which hand a thing is held while the holder repeats a rhyme beginning with these words. NELUMBO, n[=e]-lum'b[=o], _n._ a genus of water-lilies including the _Egyptian Bean_ of Pythagoras, and the Hindu _Lotus_.--Also NELUM'BIUM. [Ceylon name.] NEMALITE, nem'a-l[=i]t, _n._ a fibrous hydrate of magnesia. [Gr. _n[=e]ma_, a thread, _lithos_, a stone.] NEMATHECIUM, nem-a-th[=e]'si-um, _n._ a wart-like elevation on the surface of the thallus of certain florideous algæ. [Gr. _n[=e]ma_, a thread, _th[=e]kion_, _th[=e]k[=e]_, case.] NEMATHELMINTHES, nem-a-thel-min'thez, _n.pl._ a name applied to the thread-worms or nematodes (as _Ascaris_, _Guinea-worm_, _Trichina_), to the somewhat distinct _Gordiidæ_ or _hair-eels_, and to the more remotely allied _Acanthocephala_ or _Echinorhynchus_.--Also NEMATHELMIN'THA.--_adjs._ NEMATHEL'MINTH, -IC. [Gr. _n[=e]ma_, a thread, _helmins_, _-minthos_, worm.] NEMATOCEROUS, nem-a-tos'e-rus, _adj._ having long thready antennæ, as a dipterous insect. [Gr. _n[=e]ma_, a thread, _keras_, a horn.] NEMATOCYST, nem'a-t[=o]-sist, _n._ a cnida, one of the offensive organs of Coelenterates, as jellyfish. [Gr. _n[=e]ma_, a thread, _kystis_, a bladder.] NEMATOID, nem'a-toid, _adj._ thread-like--also NEM'ATODE.--_n.pl._ NEMATOI'DEA, a class of Vermes, with mouth, alimentary canal, and separate sexes, usually parasitic. [Gr. _n[=e]ma_, thread, _eidos_, form.] NEMEAN, n[=e]'m[=e]-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Nemea_, a valley of Argolis in the Peloponnesus, famous for its public games held in the second and fourth of each Olympiad. NEMERTEA, n[=e]-mer't[=e]-a, _n.pl._ a class of Vermes, mostly marine, unsegmented, covered with cilia, often brightly coloured, with protrusile proboscis, and usually distinct sexes.--_adj._ NEMER'TEAN. [Gr. _N[=e]mert[=e]s_, a nereid's name.] NEMESIS, nem'e-sis, _n._ (_myth._) the goddess of vengeance: retributive justice.--_adj._ NEMES'IC. [Gr.,--_nemein_, to distribute.] NEMO, n[=e]'mo, _n._ nobody: a nobody. [L.] NEMOCEROUS, n[=e]-mos'e-rus, _adj._ having filamentous antennæ. NEMORAL, nem'o-ral, _adj._ pertaining to a wood or grove.--_n._ NEMOPH'ILIST.--_adjs._ NEMOPH'ILOUS, fond of woods, inhabiting woods; NEM'OROSE, growing in woodland; NEM'OROUS, woody. [L. _nemus_, _-[)o]ris_, a grove.] NEMPT, nemt (_Spens._), named, called. NENUPHAR, nen'[=u]-far, _n._ the great white water-lily. [Fr.,--Ar.] NEO-CATHOLIC, n[=e]-[=o]-kath'o-lik, _adj._ pertaining to the short-lived school of liberal Catholicism that followed Lamennais, Lacordaire, and Montalembert about 1830: pertaining to a small party within the Anglican Church, who think they have outgrown Keble and Pusey and the great Caroline divines, and are more noisy than intelligent in their avowal of preference for Roman doctrine, ritual, and discipline. NEO-CHRISTIAN, n[=e]-[=o]-kris'tyan, _adj._ and _n._ of or pertaining to so-called _Neo-Christianity_, which merely means old Rationalism. NEOCOMIAN, n[=e]-[=o]-k[=o]'mi-an, _adj._ and _n._ (_geol._) of or pertaining to the lower division of the Cretaceous system, including the Lower Greensand and the Wealden of English geologists. [Græcised from _Neuchâtel_, near which is its typical region; Gr. _neos_, new, _k[=o]m[=e]_, a village.] NEOCOSMIC, n[=e]-[=o]-koz'mik, _adj._ pertaining to the present condition of the universe, esp. its races of men. [Gr. _neos_, new, _kosmos_, the universe.] NEOCRACY, n[=e]-ok'ra-si, _n._ government by upstarts. NEOGAMIST, n[=e]-og'a-mist, _n._ a person recently married. NEOGRAMMARIAN, n[=e]-[=o]-gra-m[=a]'ri-an, _n._ one of the more recent school in the study of Indo-European grammar and philology, who attach vast importance to phonetic change, and the laws governing it.--_adj._ NEOGRAMMAT'ICAL. NEOHELLENISM, n[=e]-[=o]-hel'en-izm, _n._ the modern Hellenism inspired by the ancient: the devotion to ancient Greek ideals in literature and art, esp. in the Italian Renaissance. NEO-KANTIAN, n[=e]-[=o]-kan'ti-an, _adj._ pertaining to the philosophy of _Kant_ as taught by his successors. NEO-LATIN, n[=e]-[=o]-lat'in, _n._ Latin as written by modern writers: new Latin, as in the Romance languages sprung from the Latin. NEOLITE, n[=e]'[=o]-l[=i]t, _n._ a dark-green silicate of aluminium and magnesium. [Gr. _neos_, new, _lithos_, a stone.] NEOLITHIC, n[=e]-[=o]-lith'ik, _adj._ applied to the more recent implements of the stone age--opp. to _Palæolithic_. [Gr. _neos_, new, _lithos_, a stone.] NEOLOGY, n[=e]-ol'o-ji, _n._ the introduction of new words, or new senses of old words, into a language: (_theol._) new doctrines, esp. German rationalism.--_n._ NEOL[=O]'GIAN.--_adjs._ NEOLOG'IC, -AL, pertaining to neology: using new words.--_adv._ NEOLOG'ICALLY.--_v.i._ NEOL'OGISE, to introduce new words or doctrines.--_ns._ NEOL'OGISM, a new word, phrase, or doctrine: the use of old words in a new sense; NEOL'OGIST, one who introduces new words or senses: one who introduces new doctrines in theology.--_adjs._ NEOLOGIS'TIC, -AL. [Gr. _neos_, new, _logos_, word.] NEONOMIANISM, n[=e]-[=o]-n[=o]'mi-an-izm, _n._ the doctrine that the gospel is a new law, and that faith has abrogated the old moral obedience.--_n._ NEON[=O]'MIAN. [Gr. _neos_, new, _nomos_, law.] NEONOMOUS, n[=e]-on'o-mus, _adj._ having a greatly modified biological structure, specialised according to recent conditions of environment. [Gr. _neos_, new, _nomos_, law.] NEONTOLOGY, n[=e]-on-tol'o-ji, _n._ the science and description of extant, as apart from extinct, animals.--_n._ NEONTOL'OGIST. [Gr. _neos_, new, _on_, _ontos_, being, _logia_--_legein_, to speak.] NEO-PAGANISM, n[=e]-[=o]-p[=a]'gan-izm, _n._ a revival of paganism, or its spirit--a euphemism for mere animalism.--_v.t._ NEO-P[=A]'GAN[=I]SE, to imbue with this spirit. NEOPHOBIA, n[=e]-[=o]-f[=o]'bi-a, _n._ dread of novelty. [Gr. _neos_, new, _phobia_--_phebesthai_, to fear.] NEOPHRON, n[=e]'[=o]-fron, _n._ a genus of vultures, having horizontal nostrils. [Gr.,--_neos_, new, _phren_, mind.] NEOPHYTE, n[=e]'[=o]-f[=i]t, _n._ a new convert, one newly baptised or admitted to the priesthood, or to a monastery, a novice: a tyro or beginner.--_adj._ newly admitted or entered on office.--_n._ N[=E]'OPHYTISM. [L. _neophytus_--Gr. _neos_, new, _phytos_, grown--_phyein_, to produce.] NEOPLASM, n[=e]'[=o]-plazm, _n._ a morbid new growth or formation of tissue.--_adj._ NEOPLAS'TIC. NEOPLATONISM, n[=e]-[=o]-pl[=a]'to-nizm, _n._ a system of philosophy combining _Platonic_ and Oriental elements, originating with Ammonius Saccas at Alexandria in the 3d century, developed by Plotinus, Porphyry, Proclus, &c.--_adj._ NEOPLATON'IC.--_n._ NEOPL[=A]'TONIST. NEOTERIC, -AL, n[=e]-[=o]-ter'ik, -al, _adj._ of recent origin, modern.--_v.i._ NEOT'ERISE.--_n._ NEOT'ERISM, the introduction of new things, esp. new words. [Gr.,--_ne[=o]teros_, comp. of _neos_, new.] NEOTIC, n[=e]-ot'ik, _adj._ addressed to the understanding. NEOTROPICAL, n[=e]-[=o]-trop'i-kal, _adj._ applied to the part of the New World including tropical and South America and the adjacent islands. NEOZOIC, n[=e]-[=o]-z[=o]'ik, _adj._ denoting all rocks from the Trias down to the most recent formations, as opposed to _Palæozoic_. [Gr. _neos_, new, _zo[=e]_, life.] NEP, nep, _n._ (_prov._) a knot in a fibre of cotton. NEPENTHES, ne-pen'th[=e]z, _n._ (_med._) a drug that relieves pain--also NEPEN'THE: a genus of plants having a cup or pitcher attached to the leaf, often filled with a sweetish liquid, the pitcher-plant. [Gr.,--_n[=e]_, neg., _penthos_, grief.] NEPHALISM, nef'a-lizm, _n._ total abstinence from alcoholic drinks.--_n._ NEPH'ALIST, a bigoted teetotaler. [Gr. _n[=e]phalios_, sober; _n[=e]phein_, to be sober.] NEPHELINE, nef'e-lin, _n._ a rock-forming mineral, colourless, usually crystallising in hexagonal prisms, occurring in various volcanic rocks, as in certain basalts. [Gr. _nephel[=e]_, a cloud.] NEPHELOID, nef'e-loid, _adj._ cloudy, turbid.--_ns._ NEPHELOM'ETER, a supposititious instrument for measuring cloudiness; NEPH'ELOSCOPE, an apparatus for illustrating the formation of cloud; NEPH'ELOSPHERE, an atmosphere of cloud surrounding a planet, &c. [Gr. _nephel[=e]_, cloud.] NEPHEW, nev'[=u], or nef'[=u], _n._ the son of a brother or sister: (_orig._) a grandson (so in New Test.):--_fem._ NIECE. [O. Fr. _neveu_--L. _nepos_, _nepotis_, grandson, nephew; A.S. _nefa_, Ger. _neffe_, nephew.] NEPHRALGIA, ne-fral'ji-a, _n._ pain or disease of the kidneys--also NEPHRAL'GY.--_ns._ NEPH'RITE, a mineral usually called _Jade_, an old charm against kidney disease; NEPHRIT'IC, a medicine for the cure of diseases of the kidneys.--_adjs._ NEPHRIT'IC, -AL, pertaining to the kidneys: affected with a disease of the kidneys: relieving diseases of the kidneys.--_ns._ NEPHR[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the kidneys; NEPH'ROCELE, hernia of the kidney; NEPHROG'RAPHY, a description of the kidneys.--_adj._ NEPH'ROID, kidney-shaped.--_ns._ NEPHROL'OGY, scientific knowledge of the kidneys; NEPHROT'OMY, the operation of excising the kidneys. [Gr. _nephros_, a kidney, _algos_, pain.] NEPOTISM, nep'o-tizm, _n._ undue favouritism to one's relations, as in the bestowal of patronage.--_adjs._ NEPOT'IC, NEP[=O]'TIOUS.--_n._ NEP'OTIST, one who practises nepotism. [L. _nepos_, _nepotis_, a grandson.] NEPTUNE, nep't[=u]n, _n._ (_Rom. myth._) the god of the sea, identified with the Greek Poseidon, represented with a trident in his hand: (_astron._) the outermost planet of the solar system, discovered in 1846.--_adj._ NEPT[=U]'NIAN, pertaining to the sea: (_geol._) formed by water: applied to stratified rocks or to those due mainly to the agency of water, as opposed to _Plutonic_ or _Igneous_.--_n._ NEP'T[=U]NIST, one who holds the Neptunian theory in geology--also _adj._ [L. _Neptunus_.] NEREID, n[=e]'r[=e]-id, _n._ (_Gr. myth._) a sea-nymph, one of the daughters of the sea-god _Nereus_, who attended Neptune riding on sea-horses: (_zool._) a genus of marine worms like long myriapods.--_ns._ N[=E]'R[=E]IS, a nereid; N[=E]'R[=E]ITE, a fossil annelid related to the nereids. [L.,--Gr.] NERINE, n[=e]-r[=i]'n[=e], _n._ a genus of ornamental South African plants of the Amaryllis family, with scarlet or rose-coloured flowers.--The Guernsey Lily is the _Nerine Sarniensis_. NERITE, n[=e]'r[=i]t, _n._ a gasteropod of the genus _Nerita_ or the family _Neritidæ_.--_adj._ NERIT[=A]'CEAN. NERIUM, n[=e]'ri-um, _n._ a genus of Mediterranean shrubs, with fragrant and showy pink, white, or yellowish flowers, the oleander. NERO, n[=e]'ro, _n._ the last emperor of the family of the Cæsars, at Rome (54-68 A.D.): any cruel and wicked tyrant.--_adj._ NER[=O]'NIAN. NERO-ANTICO, n[=a]-r[=o]-an-t[=e]'ko, _n._ a deep-black marble found in Roman ruins. [It.] NERVE, n[.e]rv, _n._ bodily strength, firmness, courage: (_anat._) one of the fibres which convey sensation from all parts of the body to the brain: (_bot._) one of the fibres or ribs in the leaves of plants: a trade term for a non-porous quality of cork, slightly charred: (_pl._) hysterical nervousness.--_v.t._ to give strength or vigour to: to arm with force.--_adj._ NERV'AL.--_ns._ NERV[=A]'TION, the arrangement or distribution of nerves, esp. those of leaves; NERVE'-CELL, any cell forming part of the nervous system, esp. one of those by means of which nerve-fibres are connected with each other; NERVE'-CEN'TRE, a collection of nerve-cells from which nerves branch out.--_adj._ NERVED, furnished with nerves, or with nerves of a special character, as 'strong-nerved.'--_n._ NERVE'-F[=I]'BRE, one of the essential thread-like units of which a nerve is composed.--_adj._ NERVE'LESS, without strength.--_n._ NERVE'LESSNESS.--_adj._ NERV'INE, acting on the nerves: quieting nervous excitement.--_n._ a medicine that soothes nervous excitement.--_adjs._ NERV'OUS, having nerve: sinewy: strong, vigorous, showing strength and vigour: pertaining to the nerves: having the nerves easily excited or weak; NERV'OUS, NERVOSE', NERVED (_bot._) having parallel fibres or veins.--_adv._ NERV'OUSLY.--_n._ NERV'OUSNESS.--_adj._ NERV'[=U]LAR.--_ns._ NERV'[=U]LE, a small nerve, a small vein of an insect's wing--also _Nervulet_, _Veinlet_, _Venule_; NERV'URE, one of the nerves or veins of leaves: one of the horny tubes or divisions which expand the wings of insects: one of the ribs in a groined vault: a projecting moulding.--_adj._ NERV'Y, strong, vigorous.--NERVOUS SYSTEM (_anat._), the brain, spinal cord, and nerves collectively: the whole of the nerves and nerve-centres of the body considered as related to each other, and fitted to act together. [Fr.,--L. _nervus_; Gr. _neuron_, a sinew.] NESCIENCE, nesh'ens, _n._ want of knowledge.--_adj._ NESC'IENT. [L. _nescientia_--_nesc[=i]re_, to be ignorant--_ne_, not, _sc[=i]re_, to know.] NESH, nesh, _adj._ (_prov._) soft, crumbly: tender.--_v.t._ NESH'EN, to make tender. NESHAMAH, nesh'a-mä, _n._ the highest degree of the soul in the cabbalistic system. NESIOTE, n[=e]'si-[=o]t, _adj._ insular. [Gr. _n[=e]sos_, an island.] NESKI, nes'ki, _n._ the cursive hand generally used in Arabic.--Also NESH'KI. [Ar.] NESOGÆAN, n[=e]-s[=o]-j[=e]'an, _adj._ pertaining to Nesogæa--Polynesia or Oceania, New Zealand excepted, with regard to the distribution of its animals. [Gr. _n[=e]sos_, an island, _gaia_, the earth.] NESS, nes, _n._ a promontory or headland. [A.S. _næss_; a doublet of _naze_, prob. conn. with _nose_.] NEST, nest, _n._ the bed formed by a bird for hatching her young: the place in which the eggs of any animal are laid and hatched: a comfortable residence: a number of persons haunting one place for a bad purpose: the place itself: a number of baskets or boxes each fitting inside the next larger.--_v.t._ to form a nest for.--_v.i._ to build and occupy a nest.--_n._ NEST'-EGG, an egg left in the nest to keep the hen from forsaking it: something laid up as the beginning of an accumulation.--FEATHER ONE'S NEST, to provide for one's self, esp. from other people's property of which one has had charge. [A.S. _nest_; Ger. _nest_, L. _n[=i]dus_.] NESTLE, nes'l, _v.i._ to lie close or snug as in a nest: to settle comfortably.--_v.t._ to cherish, as a bird does her young.--_adj._ NEST'LING, being in the nest, newly hatched.--_n._ act of making a nest: a young bird in the nest--also NEST'LER. [A.S. _nestlian_--_nest_.] NESTOR, nes'tor, _n._ a Greek hero at Troy, remarkable for eloquence and wisdom gained through long life and varied experience: any one who possesses those qualities, a counsellor, adviser.--_adj._ NEST[=O]'RIAN. NESTORIAN, nes-t[=o]'ri-an, _adj._ pertaining to the Christological doctrine of _Nestorius_, patriarch of Constantinople from 428 to his condemnation and deposition at the general council of Ephesus in 431; he held the true divinity and humanity of Christ, but denied their union in a single self-conscious personality, that union being merely moral or sympathetic--thus the personality was broken up into a duality.--_n._ a follower of Nestorius.--_n._ NEST[=O]'RIANISM. NET, net, _n._ an open fabric of twine, &c., knotted into meshes for catching birds, fishes, &c.: anything like a net for keeping out insects, &c.: a meshed bag for holding a woman's hair: machine-made lace of various kinds: a snare: a difficulty.--_adj._ made of netting or resembling it, reticulate: caught in a net.--_v.t._ to form into network: to take with a net: to protect with a net, to veil.--_v.i._ to form network:--_pr.p._ net'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ net'ted.--_ns._ NET'-FISH, any fish, like the herring, caught in nets--opp. to _Trawl-fish_ and _Line-fish_; NET'-FISH'ERY, a place for net-fishing, the business of such fishing; NET'-FISH'ING, the method or the industry of fishing with nets.--_p.adj._ NET'TED, made into a net, reticulated: caught in a net.--_ns._ NET'TING, act or process of forming network: a piece of network: any network of ropes or wire, esp. for use on shipboard; NET'TING-NEED'LE, a kind of shuttle used in netting.--_adjs._ NET'TY, like a net; NET'-VEINED, in entomology, having a great number of veins or nervures like a network on the surface, as in the wings of many Orthoptera; NET'-WINGED, having net-veined wings.--_n._ NET'WORK, any work showing cross lines or open spaces like the meshes of a net. [A.S. _net_, _nett_; Dut. _net_, Ger. _netz_.] NET, NETT, net, _adj._ clear of all charges or deductions--opp. to _Gross_: lowest, subject to no further deductions.--_v.t._ to produce as clear profit:--_pr.p._ net'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ net'ted. [_Neat._] NETHELESSE, neth'les, _adv._=NATHLESS. NETHER, ne_th_'[.e]r, _adj._ beneath another, lower: infernal.--_n._ NETH'ERLANDER, an inhabitant of Holland.--_adj._ NETH'ERLANDISH, Dutch.--_n.pl._ NETH'ERLINGS, stockings.--_adjs._ NETH'ERMORE, lower; NETH'ERMOST, lowest.--_n.pl._ NETH'ERSTOCKS (_Shak._), short stockings or half-hose for the leg, as distinguished from trunk hose for the thigh.--_advs._ NETH'ERWARD, -S, downward. [A.S. _neothera_, a comp. adj. due to adv. _nither_, downward; Ger. _nieder_, low.] NETHINIM, neth'in-im, _n.pl._ (_B._) servants of the old Jewish temple, set apart to assist the Levites. [Heb.] NETSUKE, net'su-k[=a], _n._ a small toggle or button, carved or inlaid, on Japanese pipe-cases, pouches, &c. NETTLE, net'l, _n._ a common plant covered with hairs which sting sharply.--_v.t._ to fret, as a nettle does the skin: to irritate.--_ns._ NETT'LE-CLOTH, thick japanned cotton cloth used for leather; NETT'LE-FISH, a jelly-fish, sea-nettle; NETT'LERASH, a kind of fever characterised by a rash or eruption on the skin; NETT'LE-TREE, a genus of trees, with simple and generally serrated leaves, the fruit a fleshy, globose, one-celled drupe; NETT'LE-WORT, any plant of the nettle family. [A.S. _netele_; Ger. _nessel_.] NETTLING, net'ling, _n._ the joining of two ropes, end to end, without seam: the tying in pairs of yarns in a ropewalk to prevent tangling. [_Knittle._] NEUME, n[=u]m, _n._ a succession of notes to be sung to one syllable, a sequence: an old sign for a tone or a phrase. [O. Fr.,--Gr. _pneuma_, breath.] NEURAL, n[=u]'ral, _adj._ pertaining to the nerves--also NEUR'IC.--_ns._ NEURIC'ITY, nerve-force; NEURIL'ITY, the function of the nervous system--that of conducting stimuli.--NEURAL ARCH, the arch of a vertebra protecting the spinal cord. [Gr. _neuron_, a nerve.] NEURALGIA, n[=u]-ral'ji-a, _n._ pain of a purely nervous character, occurring in paroxysms, usually unaccompanied by inflammation, fever, or any appreciable change of structure in the affected part--(_obs._) NEURAL'GY.--_adjs._ NEURAL'GIC, NEURAL'GIFORM. [Gr. _neuron_, nerve, _algos_, pain.] NEURASTHENIA, n[=u]-ras-the-n[=i]'a, _n._ nervous debility.--_adj._ NEURASTHEN'IC--also _n._ one suffering from this. [Gr. _neuron_, a nerve, _astheneia_, weakness.] NEURATION, n[=u]-r[=a]'shun, _n._ Same as NERVATION. NEURILEMMA, n[=u]-ri-lem'a, _n._ the external sheath of a nerve-fibre. NEURITIS, n[=u]-r[=i]'tis, _n._ inflammation of a nerve. NEUROHYPNOLOGY, n[=u]-r[=o]-hip-nol'o-ji, _n._ the study of hypnotism: the means employed for inducing the hypnotic state.--_ns._ NEUROHYPNOL'OGIST; NEUROHYP'NOTISM, hypnotism. [Gr. _neuron_, nerve, _hypnos_, sleep, _logia_, discourse.] NEUROLOGY, n[=u]-rol'o-ji, _n._ the science of the nerves.--_adj._ NEUROLOG'ICAL.--_n._ NEUROL'OGIST, a writer on neurology. [Gr. _neuron_, nerve, _logia_, science.] NEURON, n[=u]'ron, _n._ the cerebro-spinal axis in its entirety: a nervure of an insect's wing. NEUROPATH, n[=u]'ro-path, _n._ one who takes nervous conditions solely or mostly into account in his pathology.--_adjs._ NEUROPATH'IC, -AL.--_adv._ NEUROPATH'ICALLY.--_ns._ NEUROPATHOL'OGY, the sum of knowledge of the diseases of the nervous system; NEUROP'ATHY, nervous disease generally. [Gr. _neuron_, nerve, _pathos_, suffering.] NEUROPTERA, n[=u]-rop't[.e]r-a, _n.pl._ an order of insects which have generally four wings marked with a network of many nerves:--_sing._ NEUROP'TERON; also NEUROP'TER, NEUROP'TERAN.--_adjs._ NEUROP'TERAL, NEUROP'TEROUS, nerve-winged. [Gr. _neuron_, nerve, _ptera_, pl. of _pteron_, a wing.] NEUROSE, n[=u]'r[=o]s, _adj._ nerved: having many nervures or veins, of an insect's wing, &c. NEUROTIC, n[=u]-rot'ik, _adj._ relating to, or seated in, the nerves.--_n._ a disease of the nerves: a medicine useful for diseases of the nerves.--_adj._ NEUR[=O]'SAL.--_n._ NEUR[=O]'SIS, a nervous disease, esp. without lesion of parts, as epilepsy, &c. NEUROTOMY, n[=u]-rot'om-i, _n._ the cutting or dissection of a nerve.--_adj._ NEUROTOM'ICAL. [Gr. _neuron_, a nerve, _tom[=e]_, cutting.] NEUROTONIC, n[=u]-ro-ton'ik, _n._ a medicine intended to strengthen the nervous system. NEUTER, n[=u]'t[.e]r, _adj._ neither: taking no part with either side: (_gram._) neither masculine nor feminine: neither active nor passive: (_bot._) without stamens or pistils: (_zool._) without sex.--_n._ one taking no part in a contest: (_bot._) a plant having neither stamens nor pistils: (_zool._) a sexless animal, esp. the working bee. [L., 'neither'--_ne_, not, _uter_, either.] NEUTRAL, n[=u]'tral, _adj._ being neuter, indifferent: taking no part on either side: unbiassed: neither very good nor very bad, of no decided character: having no decided colour, bluish or grayish: (_chem._) neither acid nor alkaline.--_n._ a person or nation that takes no part in a contest.--_n._ NEUTRALIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ NEU'TRALISE, to declare by convention any nation permanently neutral or neutral during certain hostilities: to make inert: to render of no effect.--_ns._ NEU'TRALISER; NEUTRAL'ITY, state of taking no part on either of two sides: those who are neutral.--_adv._ NEU'TRALLY.--NEUTRAL TINT, a dull grayish colour; NEUTRAL VOWEL, the vowel-sound heard in _but_, _firm_, _her_, &c., and commonly in unaccented syllables.--ARMED NEUTRALITY, the condition of a neutral power ready to repel aggression from either belligerent. [L. _neutralis_--_neuter_, neither.] NÉVÉ, n[=a]-v[=a]', _n._ the same as _firn_ or _glacier snow_. [Fr.,--L. _nix_, _nivis_, snow.] NEVEL, nev'el, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to beat with the fists. NEVER, nev'[.e]r, _adv._ not ever: at no time: in no degree: not.--_adv._ NEV'ERMORE, at no future time.--_conj._ NEVERTHELESS', notwithstanding: in spite of that (earlier _Natheless_).--_adv._ NEVERTHEMORE' (_Spens._), none the more. [A.S. _n['æ]fre_--_ne_, not, _['æ]fre_, ever.] NEW, n[=u], _adj._ lately made: having happened lately: recent, modern: not before seen or known: strange, different: recently commenced: changed for the better: not of an ancient family: as at first: unaccustomed: fresh from anything: uncultivated or only recently cultivated.--_adjs._ NEW'BORN (_Shak._), recently born; NEW'COME, recently arrived.--_n._ NEW'-COM'ER, one who has lately come.--_v.t._ NEW'-CREATE' (_Shak._), to create for the first time.--_adjs._ NEW'-FASH'IONED, made in a new way or fashion: lately come into fashion; NEW'-FLEDGED, having just got feathers; NEW'ISH, somewhat new: nearly new.--_adv._ NEW'LY.--_adj._ NEW'-MADE (_Shak._), recently made.--_v.t._ NEW'-MOD'EL, to model or form anew.--_n._ the Parliamentary army as remodelled by Cromwell after the second battle of Newbury, which gained a conclusive victory at Naseby (1645).--_n._ NEW'NESS.--_adj._ NEW'-SAD (_Shak._), recently made sad.--NEW BIRTH (see REGENERATION); NEW CHUM, a new arrival from the old country in Australia; NEW CHURCH, NEW JERUSALEM CHURCH, the Swedenborgian Church; NEW COVENANT (see COVENANT); NEW DEPARTURE (see DEPARTURE); NEW ENGLANDER, a native or resident in any of the New England states; NEW JERUSALEM, the heavenly city; NEW LEARNING (see RENAISSANCE); NEW LIGHT, a member of a relatively more advanced religious school--applied esp. to the party within the 18th-century Scottish Secession Church which adopted Voluntary views of the relations of Church and State, also sometimes to the Socinianising party in the Church of Scotland in the 18th century, &c.; NEW RED SANDSTONE (_geol._), the name formerly given to the great series of red sandstones which occur between the Carboniferous and Jurassic systems; NEW STYLE (see STYLE); NEW WOMAN, a name humorously applied to such modern women as rebel against the conventional restrictions of their sex, and ape men in their freedom, education, pursuits, amusements, clothing, manners, and sometimes morals; NEW WORLD, North and South America; NEW-YEAR'S DAY, the first day of the new year. [A.S. _níwe_, _neówe_; Ger. _neu_, Ir. _nuadh_, L. _novus_, Gr. _neos_.] NEWEL, n[=u]'el, _n._ (_archit._) the upright column about which the steps of a circular staircase wind. [O. Fr. _nual_ (Fr. _noyau_), stone of fruit--Low L. _nucalis_, like a nut--L. _nux_, _nucis_, a nut.] NEWEL, n[=u]'el, _n._ (_Spens._) a new thing: a novelty. NEWFANGLED, n[=u]-fang'gld, _adj._ fond of new things: newly devised, novel.--_adv._ NEWFANG'LEDLY.--_ns._ NEWFANG'LEDNESS, NEWFANG'LENESS. [Corr. from M. E. _newefangel_--_newe_ (A.S. _níwe_), new, _fangel_ (A.S. _fangen_--_fón_), ready to catch.] NEWFOUNDLAND, n[=u]-fownd'land, _n._ a large dog of great intelligence, a strong swimmer, black without any white markings, first brought from _Newfoundland_. NEWGATE, n[=u]'g[=a]t, _n._ a famous prison in London.--NEWGATE CALENDAR, a list of Newgate prisoners, with their crimes; NEWGATE FRILL, or FRINGE, a beard under the chin and jaw. NEWMARKET, n[=u]'mar-ket, _n._ a card-game for any number of persons, on a table on which duplicates of certain cards have been placed face up: a close-fitting coat, originally a riding-coat, a long close-fitting coat for women. NEWS, n[=u]z, _n.sing._ something heard of that is new: recent account: first information of something that has just happened or of something not formerly known: intelligence.--_v.t._ to report.--_ns._ NEWS'AGENT, one who deals in newspapers; NEWS'BOY, NEWS'MAN, a boy or man who delivers or sells newspapers; NEWS'-HOUSE, a printing-office for newspapers only; NEWS'LETTER, an occasional letter or printed sheet containing news, the predecessor of the regular newspaper; NEWS'MONGER, one who deals in news: one who spends much time in hearing and telling news; NEWS'PAPER, a paper published periodically for circulating news, &c.--the first English newspaper was published in 1622; NEWS'PAPERDOM; NEWS'PAPERISM.--_adj._ NEWS'PAPERY, superficial.--_ns._ NEWS'ROOM, a room where newspapers, magazines, &c. lie to be read; NEWS'VENDER, a seller of newspapers; NEWS'-WRIT'ER, a reporter or writer of news.--_adj._ NEWS'Y, gossipy. [Late M. E., an imit. of Fr. _nouvelles_.] NEWT, n[=u]t, _n._ a genus of amphibious animals like small lizards. [Formed with initial _n_, borrowed from the article _an_, from _ewt_--A.S. _efeta_.] NEWTONIAN, n[=u]-t[=o]'ni-an, _adj._ relating to, formed, or discovered by Sir Isaac _Newton_, the celebrated philosopher (1642-1727)--also NEWTON'IC.--NEWTONIAN TELESCOPE, a form of reflecting telescope. NEXT, nekst, _adj._ (_superl._ of NIGH) nearest in place, time, &c.--_adv._ nearest or immediately after.--_prep._ nearest to.--_n._ NEXT'NESS.--NEXT DOOR TO (see DOOR); NEXT TO NOTHING, almost nothing at all. [A.S. _néhst_, superl. of _néh_, _neáh_, near; Ger. _nächst_.] NEXUS, nek'sus, _n._ a tie, connecting principle, bond: (_Rom. law_) a person who had contracted a _nexum_ or obligation of such a kind that, if he failed to pay, his creditor could compel him to serve until the debt was paid. [L.--_nect[)e]re_, to bind.] NIB, nib, _n._ something small and pointed: a point, esp. of a pen: the bill of a bird: the handle of a scythe-snath.--_v.t._ to furnish with a nib: to point.--_adj._ NIBBED, having a nib. [NEB.] NIBBLE, nib'l, _v.t._ to bite by small bits: to eat by little at a time.--_v.i._ to bite gently: to find fault.--_n._ act of nibbling: a little bit.--_ns._ NIBB'LER; NIBB'LING.--_adv._ NIBB'LINGLY. [Freq. of _nip_.] NIBELUNGEN, n[=e]'bel-[=oo]ng-en, _n.pl._ a supernatural race in German mythology guarding a treasure wrested from them by Siegfried, the hero of the _Nibelungenlied_, an epic of _c._ 1190-1210. NIBLICK, nib'lik, _n._ a golf-club with cup-shaped head. NICE, n[=i]s, _adj._ foolishly simple: over-particular: hard to please: fastidious: marking or taking notice of very small differences: done with great care and exactness, accurate: easily injured: delicate: dainty: agreeable: delightful.--_adv._ NICE'LY.--_ns._ NICE'NESS, quality of being nice: exactness: scrupulousness: pleasantness; NIC'ETY, quality of being nice: delicate management: exactness of treatment: fineness of perception: fastidiousness: that which is delicate to the taste: a delicacy.--TO A NICETY, with great exactness. [O. Fr. _nice_, foolish, simple--L. _nescius_, ignorant--_ne_, not, _sc[=i]re_, to know.] NICENE, n[=i]'s[=e]n, _adj._ pertaining to the town of _Nice_ or _Nicæa_, in Bithynia, Asia Minor, where an ecumenical council was held in 325 for the purpose of defining the questions raised in the Arian controversy--it promulgated the _Nicene Creed_. A second council, the seventh general council, held here in 787, condemned the Iconoclasts. [Illustration] NICHE, nich, _n._ a recess in a wall for a statue, vase, &c.: a person's proper place or condition in life or public estimation, one's appointed or appropriate place.--_v.t._ to place in a niche.--_adj._ NICHED, placed in a niche. [Fr.,--It. _nicchia_, a niche, _nicchio_, a shell--L. _mytilus_, _mitulus_, a sea-mussel.] NICK, nik, _n._ a notch cut into something: a score for keeping an account: the precise moment of time: a lucky throw at hazard.--_v.t._ to cut in notches: to hit the precise time: to strike as if making a nick: to cheat: catch in the act: to cut short: (_Scot._) to cut with a single snip, as of shears: to make a cut with the pick in the face of coal to facilitate blasting or wedging.--_adj._ NICK'-EARED, crop-eared.--_n._ NICK'ER, one who, or that which, nicks: a woodpecker: a street-ruffian in the early part of the 18th century.--NICK A HORSE'S TAIL, to make a cut at the root of the tail, making the horse carry it higher. [Another spelling of _nock_, old form of _notch_.] NICK, nik, _n._ the devil, esp. OLD NICK. [Prob. a corr. of St _Nicholas_, or from A.S. _nicor_, a water-spirit; Ice. _nykr_, Ger. _nix_, _nixe_.] NICKEL, nik'el, _n._ a grayish-white metal related to cobalt, very malleable and ductile.--_v.t._ to plate with nickel.--_ns._ NICK'ELAGE, NICK'ELURE, the art of nickel-plating.--_adjs._ NICK'ELIC, NICK'ELOUS; NICKELIF'EROUS, containing nickel.--_ns._ NICK'ELINE, NIC'COLITE, native nickel arsenide.--_v.t._ NICK'ELISE, to plate with nickel.--_ns._ NICK'EL-PLAT'ING, the plating of metals with nickel; NICK'EL-SIL'VER, German silver (see GERMAN). [Sw. _koppar-nickel_ (Ger. _kupfernickel_), _koppar_, copper, _nickel_, a word corresponding to Ger. _nickel_, the devil (cf. _Cobalt_ and _Kobold_), or to Ice. _hnikill_, a lump.] NICKER, nik'[.e]r, _v.i._ to neigh: to snigger.--_n._ a neigh: a loud laugh--(_obs._) NICH'ER. NICKNACK, nik'nak, _n._ a trifle--dim. NICK'NACKET.--_n._ NICK'NACKERY. [Same as _Knick-knack_.] NICKNAME, nik'n[=a]m, _n._ a name given in contempt or sportive familiarity.--_v.t._ to give a nickname to. [M. E. _neke-name_, with intrusive initial _n_ from _eke-name_, surname; from _eke_ and _name_.] NICOTINE, nik'o-tin, _n._ a poisonous, volatile, alkaloid base, obtained from tobacco.--_adj._ NIC[=O]'TIAN, pertaining to tobacco, from Jean _Nicot_ (1530-1600), the benefactor who introduced it into France in 1560.--_n._ a smoker of tobacco.--_n.pl._ NICOTI[=A]'NA, the literature of tobacco.--_n._ NIC'OTINISM, a morbid state induced by excessive misuse of tobacco. NICTATE, nik't[=a]t, _v.i._ to wink--also NIC'TITATE.--_ns._ NIC'T[=A]TION, NICTIT[=A]'TION.--NICTITATING MEMBRANE, a thin movable membrane covering the eyes of birds. [L. _nict[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_.] NIDDER, nid'[.e]r, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to keep under: to pinch with cold or hunger: to molest. NIDDLE-NODDLE, nid'l-nod'l, _adj._ vacillating.--_v.i._ to wag the head. NIDERLING, nid'[.e]r-ling, _n._ a wicked fellow--also NID'ERING, NITH'ING.--_n._ NIDD'ERING, a noodle. NIDGE, nij, _v.t._ to dress the face of (a stone) with a sharp-pointed hammer. NIDGING, nij'ing, _adj._ trifling.--_n._ NIDG'ET, a fool. NIDIFICATION, nid-i-fi-k[=a]'shun, _n._ the act or art of building a nest, and the hatching and rearing of the young.--_adj._ NIDAMENT'AL, pertaining to nests or what protects eggs.--_n._ NIDAMENT'UM, an egg-case.--_vs.i._ NID'IFICATE, NID'IFY.--_adjs._ NID'ULANT, NID'ULATE, lying free in a cup-shaped body, or in pulp.--_n._ NIDUL[=A]'TION, nest-building. [L. _nidus_, a nest, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] NIDOR, n[=i]'dor, _n._ odour, esp. of cooked food.--_adjs._ N[=I]'DOROSE, N[=I]'DOROUS, N[=I]'DOSE. [L.] NIDUS, n[=i]'dus, _n._ a place, esp. in an animal body, in which a germ lodges and begins to develop. [L.] NIECE, n[=e]s, _n._ (_fem._ of NEPHEW) the daughter of a brother or sister: (_orig._) a granddaughter. [O. Fr.,--Low L. _nepta_--L. _neptis_, a granddaughter, niece.] NIELLO, ni-el'lo, _n._ a method of ornamenting silver or gold plates by engraving the surface, and filling up the lines with a black composition, to give clearness and effect to the incised design: a work produced by this method: an impression taken from the engraved surface before the incised lines have been filled up: the compound used in niello-work.--_v.t._ to decorate with niello.--_n._ NIELL'URE, the process, also the work done. [It. _niello_--Low L. _nigellum_, a black enamel--L. _nigellus_, dim. of _niger_, black.] NIERSTEINER, n[=e]r'st[=i]-ner, _n._ a variety of Rhine wine, named from _Nierstein_, near Mainz. NIFFER, nif'[.e]r, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to barter.--_n._ an exchange. NIFFLE, nif'l, _v.t._ (_prov._) to pilfer.--_n._ NIFF'NAFF, a trifle.--_adj._ NIFF'NAFFY, fastidious. NIFLHEIM, nifl'h[=i]m, _n._ (_Scand. myth._) a region of mist, ruled over by Hel. NIFTY, nif'ti, _adj._ (_slang_) stylish. NIGELLA, n[=i]-jel'a, _n._ a genus of ranunculaceous plants, with finely dissected leaves, and whitish, blue, or yellow flowers, often almost concealed by their leafy involucres--_Nigella damascena_, called Love-in-a-mist, Devil-in-a-bush, and Ragged Lady. NIGGARD, nig'ard, _n._ a person who is unwilling to spend or give away: a miser.--_adjs._ NIGG'ARD, NIGG'ARDLY, having the qualities of a niggard: miserly; NIGG'ARDISH, rather niggardly.--_n._ NIGG'ARDLINESS, meanness in giving or spending--(_Spens._) NIGG'ARDISE.--_adv._ NIGG'ARDLY. [Ice. _hnöggr_, stingy; Ger. _genau_, close.] NIGGER, nig'[.e]r, _n._ a black man, a negro: a native of the East Indies or one of the Australian aborigines: a black caterpillar: a Cornish holothurian.--_v.t._ to exhaust soil by cropping it year by year without manure.--_n._ NIGG'ERDOM, niggers collectively.--_adjs._ NIGG'ERISH, NIGG'ERY.--_ns._ NIGG'ER-KILL'ER, a scorpion; NIGG'ERLING, a little nigger. NIGGLE, nig'l, _v.i._ to trifle, busy one's self with petty matters: to cramp.--_v.t._ to fill with excessive detail: to befool.--_n._ small cramped handwriting.--_ns._ NIGG'LER, one who trifles; NIGG'LING, fussiness, finicking work.--_adj._ mean: fussy. [Freq. of _nig_, which may be a variant of _nick_.] NIGH, n[=i], _adj._ near: not distant in place or time: not far off in degree, kindred, &c.: close.--_adv._ nearly: almost.--_prep._ near to: not distant from.--_adv._ NIGH'LY, nearly: within a little.--_n._ NIGH'NESS, the state or quality of being nigh: nearness. [A.S. _néah_, _néh_; Dut. _na_, Ger. _nahe_.] NIGHT, n[=i]t, _n._ the end of the day: the time from sunset to sunrise: darkness: ignorance, affliction, or sorrow: death.--_ns._ NIGHT'-BELL, a bell for use at night--of a physician, &c.; NIGHT'-BIRD, a bird that flies only at night, esp. the owl: the nightingale, as singing at night; NIGHT'-BLIND'NESS, inability to see in a dim light, nyctalopia; NIGHT'-BRAWL'ER, one who raises disturbances in the night; NIGHT'CAP, a cap worn at night in bed (so NIGHT'DRESS, -SHIRT, &c.): a dram taken before going to bed: a cap drawn over the face before hanging; NIGHT'-CART, a cart used to remove the contents of privies before daylight; NIGHT'-CHAIR, a night-stool; NIGHT'-CHURR, or -JAR, the British species of goat-sucker, so called from the sound of its cry.--_n.pl._ NIGHT'-CLOTHES, garments worn in bed.--_ns._ NIGHT'-CROW, a bird that cries in the night; NIGHT'-DOG (_Shak._), a dog that hunts in the night.--_adj._ NIGHT'ED, benighted: (_Shak._) darkened, clouded.--_ns._ NIGHT'FALL, the fall or beginning of the night: the close of the day: evening; NIGHT'FARING, travelling by night; NIGHT'FIRE, a fire burning in the night: a will-o'-the-wisp; NIGHT'-FISH'ERY, a mode of fishing by night, or a place where this is done; NIGHT'-FLY, a moth that flies at night; NIGHT'-FOE, one who makes his attack by night; NIGHT'-FOSS'ICKER, one who robs a digging by night.--_adj._ NIGHT'-FOUN'DERED, lost in the night.--_ns._ NIGHT'-FOWL, a night-bird; NIGHT'-GLASS, a spy-glass with concentrating lenses for use at night; NIGHT'-GOWN, a long loose robe for sleeping in, for men or women; a loose gown for wearing in the house; NIGHT'-HAG, a witch supposed to be abroad at night; NIGHT'-HAWK, a species of migratory goat-sucker, common in America; NIGHT'-HER'ON, a heron of nocturnal habit; NIGHT'-HOUSE, a tavern allowed to be open during the night; NIGHT'-HUNT'ER, a degraded woman who prowls about the streets at night for her prey; NIGHT'-LAMP, or -LIGHT, a light left burning all night.--_adj._ NIGHT'LESS, having no night.--_n._ NIGHT'-LINE, a fishing-line set overnight.--_adj._ and _adv._ NIGHT'LONG, lasting all night.--_adj._ NIGHT'LY, done by night: done every night.--_adv._ by night: every night.--_ns._ NIGHT'-MAN, a night-watchman or scavenger; NIGHT'-OWL, an owl of exclusively nocturnal habits: one who sits up very late; NIGHT'-PAL'SY, a numbness of the lower limbs, incidental to women; NIGHT'PIECE, a picture or literary description of a night-scene: a painting to be seen best by artificial light; NIGHT'-POR'TER, a porter in attendance during the night at hotels, railway stations, &c.; NIGHT'-RAIL, a night-gown: a 17th-century form of head-dress; NIGHT'-RAV'EN (_Shak._), a bird that cries at night, supposed to be of ill-omen; NIGHT'-REST, the repose of the night; NIGHT'-RULE (_Shak._), a frolic at night.--_adv._ NIGHTS (_obs._), by night.--_ns._ NIGHT'-SCHOOL, a school held at night, esp. for those at work during the day; NIGHT'-SEA'SON, the time of night; NIGHT'SHADE, a name of several plants of the genus _Solanum_, having narcotic properties, often found in damp shady woods; NIGHT'-SHRIEK, a cry in the night; NIGHT'-SIDE, the dark, mysterious, or gloomy side of anything; NIGHT'-SING'ER, any bird like the nightingale, esp. the Irish sedge-warbler; NIGHT'-SOIL, the contents of privies, cesspools, &c., generally carried away at night; NIGHT'-SPELL, a charm against accidents by night; NIGHT'-STEED, one of the horses in the chariot of NIGHT; NIGHT'-STOOL, a close-stool for use in a bedroom; NIGHT'-T[=A]'PER, a night-light burning slowly.--_n.pl._ NIGHT'-TERR'ORS, the sudden starting from sleep of children in a state of fright.--_p.adj._ NIGHT'-TRIP'PING (_Shak._), tripping about in the night.--_ns._ NIGHT'-WAK'ING, watching in the night; NIGHT'-WALK, a walk in the night; NIGHT'-WALK'ER, one who walks in his sleep at night, a somnambulist: one who walks about at night for bad purposes, esp. a prostitute; NIGHT'-WALK'ING, walking in one's sleep, somnambulism: roving about at night with evil designs; NIGHT'-WAN'DERER, one who wanders by night.--_adjs._ NIGHT'-WAR'BLING, singing in the night; NIGHT'WARD, toward night.--_ns._ NIGHT'-WATCH, a watch or guard at night: time of watch in the night; NIGHT'-WATCH'MAN, one who acts as a watch during the night; NIGHT'-WORK, work done at night. [A.S. _niht_; Ger. _nacht_, L. _nox_.] NIGHTINGALE, n[=i]t'in-g[=a]l, _n._ a small sylviine bird, of the Passerine family, widely distributed in the Old World, celebrated for the rich love-song of the male heard chiefly at night. [A.S. _nihtegale_--_niht_, night, _galan_, to sing; Ger. _nachtigall_.] NIGHTINGALE, n[=i]t'in-g[=a]l, _n._ a kind of flannel scarf with sleeves, worn by invalids when sitting up in bed. [From the famous Crimean hospital nurse, Florence _Nightingale_, born 1820.] NIGHTMARE, n[=i]t'm[=a]r, _n._ a dreadful dream accompanied with pressure on the breast, and a feeling of powerlessness to move or speak--personified as an incubus or evil-spirit.--_adj._ NIGHT'MARISH. [A.S. _niht_, night, _mara_, a nightmare; cf. Old High Ger. _mara_, incubus, Ice. _mara_, nightmare.] NIGRESCENT, n[=i]-gres'ent, _adj._ growing black or dark: approaching to blackness.--_n._ NIGRESC'ENCE. [L., _nigresc[)e]re_, to grow black--_niger_, black.] NIGRITE, nig'r[=i]t, _n._ an insulating composition consisting of the impure residuum obtained in the distillation of paraffin. [L. _niger_, black.] NIGRITIAN, ni-grish'an, _adj._ pertaining to _Nigritia_, Upper Guinea, Senegambia, and the Soudan region generally, the home of the true negroes.--_n._ a native of this region, a negro. NIGRITUDE, nig'ri-t[=u]d, _n._ blackness. [L. _nigritudo_--_niger_, black.] NIGROSINE, nig'r[=o]-sin, _n._ a coal-tar colour prepared from the hydrochloride of violaniline. [L. _niger_, black.] NIHIL, n[=i]'hil, _n._ nothing.--_ns._ N[=I]'HILISM, belief in nothing, extreme scepticism: in Russia, a revolutionary socialistic movement aiming at the overturn of all the existing institutions of society in order to build it up anew on different principles; N[=I]'HILIST, one who professes Nihilism.--_adj._ NIHILIST'IC.--_ns._ NIHIL'ITY, nothingness; NIL, nothing. [L.] NIKE, n[=i]'k[=e], _n._ the goddess of victory. [Gr.] NILGAU. See NYL-GHAU. NILL, nil, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to refuse, to reject.--_v.i._ to be unwilling. [A.S. _nillan_--_ne_, not, _willan_, to will.] NILOMETER, n[=i]-lom'e-t[.e]r, _n._ a gauge for measuring the height of water in the river _Nile_: any river-gauge--also N[=I]'LOSCOPE.--_adj._ NILOT'IC. NIM, nim, _v.t._ to steal, pilfer. [A.S. _niman_, to take.] NIMBLE, nim'bl, _adj._ light and quick in motion: active: swift.--_adjs._ NIM'BLE-FING'ERED, skilful with the fingers, thievish; NIM'BLE-FOOT'ED, swift of foot.--_ns._ NIM'BLENESS, NIM'BLESS (_Spens._), quickness of motion either in body or mind.--_adj._ NIM'BLE-WIT'TED, quick-witted.--_adv._ NIM'BLY. [M. E. _nimel_--A.S. _niman_, to catch; cf. Ger. _nehmen_.] NIMBUS, nim'bus, _n._ the raincloud: (_paint._) the disc or halo, generally circular or semicircular, which encircles the head of the sacred person represented.--_adj._ NIMBIF'EROUS, bringing clouds. [L.] NIMIETY, ni-m[=i]'e-ti, _n._ (rare) state of being too much. [L. _nimietas_--_nimis_, too much.] NIMINY-PIMINY, nim'i-ni-pim'i-ni, _adj._ affectedly fine or delicate.--_n._ affected delicacy. [Imit.] NIMROD, nim'rod, _n._ the founder of Babel (see Gen. x. 8-10): any great hunter. NINCOMPOOP, nin'kom-poop, _n._ a simpleton. [Corr. of L. _non compos_ (_mentis_), not of sound mind.] NINE, n[=i]n, _adj._ and _n._ eight and one.--_n._ NINE'-EYES, a popular name for the young lampreys found in rivers.--_adj._ NINE'FOLD, nine times folded or repeated.--_ns._ NINE'HOLES, a game in which a ball is to be bowled into nine holes in the ground or a board; NINE'PINS, a game at bowls, a form of skittles, so called from nine pins being set up to be knocked down by a ball.--_adj._ NINE'-SCORE, nine times twenty.--_n._ the number of nine times twenty.--_adj._ and _n._ NINE'TEEN, nine and ten.--_adj._ NINE'TEENTH, the ninth after the tenth: being one of nineteen equal parts.--_n._ a nineteenth part.--_adj._ NINE'TIETH, the last of ninety: next after the eighty-ninth.--_n._ a ninetieth part.--_adj._ and _n._ NINE'TY, nine tens.--_adj._ NINTH, the last of nine: next after the eighth.--_n._ one of nine equal parts.--_adv._ NINTH'LY, in the ninth place.--NINE DAYS' WONDER (see WONDER); NINE MEN'S MORRIS (see MORRIS); NINE WORTHIES, Hector, Alexander the Great, Julius Cæsar, Joshua, David, Judas Maccabæus, Arthur, Charlemagne, Godfrey of Bouillon; THE NINE, the nine muses (see MUSE); TO THE NINES, to perfection, fully, elaborately. [A.S. _nigon_; Dut. _negen_, L. _novem_, Gr. _ennea_, Sans. _navan_.] NINNY, nin'i, _n._ a simpleton.--Also NINN'Y-HAMM'ER. [It. _ninno_, child; Sp. _niño_, infant.] NIOBE, n[=i]'o-b[=e], _n._ daughter of Tantalus, and wife of Amphion, king of Thebes. Proud of her many children, she gloried over Latona, who had but two, Artemis and Apollo. But these killed them all, on which the weeping mother was turned into stone by Zeus.--_adj._ NIOB[=E]'AN. NIOBIUM, n[=i]-[=o]'bi-um, _n._ a rare metal, steel-gray in colour, discovered in the mineral Tantalite--sometimes called _Columbium_. NIP, nip, _n._ a sip, esp. of spirits--also NIP'PER (_U.S._).--_v.i._ to take a dram.--_n._ NIP'PERKIN, a small measure of liquor. [Dut. _nippen_, to sip.] NIP, nip, _v.t._ to pinch: to press between two surfaces: to cut off the edge: to check the growth or vigour of: to destroy: to bite, sting, satirise:--_pr.p._ nip'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ nipped.--_n._ a pinch: a seizing or closing in upon: a cutting off the end: a blast: destruction by frost: (_min._) a more or less gradual thinning out of a stratum: (_naut._) a short turn in a rope, the part of a rope at the place bound by the seizing or caught by jambing.--_ns._ NIP'-CHEESE, a stingy fellow: (_naut._) the purser's steward; NIP'PER, he who, or that which, nips: one of various tools or implements like pincers: one of a pair of automatically locking handcuffs: a chela or great claw, as of a crab: the young bluefish: a boy who attends on navvies: (_obs._) a thief: one of the four fore-teeth of a horse: (_pl._) small pincers.--_v.t._ to seize (two ropes) together.--_adv._ NIP'PINGLY.--NIP IN THE BUD, to cut off in the earliest stage. [From root of _knife_; Dut. _knijpen_, Ger. _kneipen_, to pinch.] NIPPERTY-TIPPERTY, nip'[.e]r-ti-tip'[.e]r-ti, _adj._ (_Scot._) silly, frivolous. NIPPLE, nip'l, _n._ the pap by which milk is drawn from the breasts of females: a teat: a small projection with an orifice, as the nipple of a gun.--_v.t._ to furnish with a nipple.--_ns._ NIPP'LE-SHIELD, a defence for the nipple worn by nursing women; NIPP'LE-WORT, a small, yellow-flowered plant of remedial use. [A dim. of _neb_ or _nib_.] NIPPY, nip'i, _adj._ (_Scot._) sharp in taste: curt: parsimonious. NIPTER, nip't[.e]r, _n._ the ecclesiastical ceremony of washing the feet--the same as maundy. [Gr. _nipt[=e]r_, a basin--_niptein_, to wash.] NIRLES, NIRLS, nirlz, _n._ herpes. NIRVANA, nir-vä'na, _n._ the cessation of individual existence--the state to which a Buddhist aspires as the best attainable. [Sans., 'a blowing out.'] NIS, nis (_Spens._), is not. [A contr. of _ne is_.] NIS, nis, _n._ a hobgoblin. [Same as _Nix_.] NISAN, n[=i]'san, _n._ the name given after the Captivity to the Jewish month Abib. [Heb.] NISI, n[=i]'s[=i], _conj._ unless, placed after the words 'decree' or 'rule,' to indicate that the decree or rule will be made absolute unless, after a time, some condition referred to be fulfilled.--NISI PRIUS, the name usually given in England to the sittings of juries in civil cases--from the first two words of the old Latin writ summoning the juries to appear at Westminster _unless_, _before_ the day appointed, the judges shall have come to the county. NISUS, n[=i]'sus, _n._ effort, attempt.--NISUS FORMATIVUS (_biol._), formative effort. [L.] NIT, nit, _n._ the egg of a louse or other small insect.--_adj._ NIT'TY, full of nits. [A.S. _hnitu_; Ger. _niss_.] NITHING, n[=i]'_th_ing, _adj._ wicked, mean.--_n._ a wicked man. [A.S. _níthing_; Ger. _neiding_.] NITHSDALE, niths'd[=a]l, _n._ a hood which can be drawn over the face. [From the Jacobite Earl of _Nithsdale_ who escaped from the Tower in women's clothes brought in by his wife, in 1716.] NITID, nit'id, _adj._ shining: gay.--_n._ N[=I]'TENCY, brightness. [L. _nitidus_--_nit[=e]re_, to shine.] NITRE, n[=i]'t[.e]r, _n._ the nitrate of potash--also called _Saltpetre_.--_n._ N[=I]'TR[=A]TE, a salt of nitric acid.--_adjs._ N[=I]'TR[=A]TED, combined with nitric acid; N[=I]'TRIC, pertaining to, formed from, or containing or resembling nitre.--_n._ N[=I]'TRIC AC'ID, an acid got by distilling a mixture of sulphuric acid and nitrate of sodium--it acts powerfully on metals, and is known by the name of _Aqua-fortis_.--_adj._ NITRIF'EROUS, nitre-bearing.--_n._ NITRIFIC[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ N[=I]'TRIFY, to convert into nitre.--_v.i._ to become nitre:--_pr.p._ n[=i]'trifying; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ n[=i]'trified.--_ns._ N[=I]'TRITE, a salt of nitrous acid; N[=I]'TRO-BEN'ZOL, a yellow oily fluid, obtained by treating benzol with warm fuming nitric acid--used in perfumery and known as _Essence of mirbane_; N[=I]'TRO-GLYC'ERINE, a powerfully explosive compound produced by the action of nitric and sulphuric acids on glycerine--sometimes used in minute doses as a medicine.--_adjs._ NITROSE', N[=I]'TROUS, resembling, or containing, nitre.--_n._ N[=I]'TROUS OX'IDE, a combination of oxygen and nitrogen, called also _Laughing gas_, which causes, when breathed, insensibility to pain.--_adj._ N[=I]'TRY, of or producing nitre.--CUBIC NITRE, nitrate of soda, so called because it crystallises in cubes. [Fr.,--L. _nitrum_--Gr. _nitron_, natron, potash, soda--Ar. _nitrún_, _natrún_.] NITROGEN, n[=i]'tro-jen, _n._ a gas forming nearly four-fifths of common air, a necessary constituent of every organised body, so called from its being an essential constituent of nitre.--_adjs._ NITROGEN'IC, NITROG'ENOUS.--_v.t._ NITROG'ENISE, to impregnate with nitrogen.--_n._ NITROM'ETER, an apparatus for estimating nitrogen in some of its combinations. [Gr. _nitron_, and _gennaein_, to generate.] NITTER, nit'[.e]r, _n._ a bot-fly, the horse-bot. NITTINGS, nit'ingz, _n.pl._ small particles of coal or refuse of any ore. NIVAL, n[=i]'val, _adj._ snowy, growing among snow.--_adj._ NIV'EOUS, snowy, white.--_n._ NIVÔSE (n[=e]-v[=o]z'), the 4th month of the French revolutionary calendar, Dec. 21-Jan. 19. [L. _niveus_--_nix_, _nivis_, snow.] NIX, niks, _n._ (_Teut. myth._) a water-spirit, mostly malignant.--Also NIX'IE, NIX'Y. [Ger. _nix_; cf. _Nicker_.] NIX, niks, _n._ nothing: (_U.S._) in the postal service, anything unmailable because addressed to places which are not post-offices or to post-offices not existing in the States, &c., indicated in the address--usually in _pl._ [Ger. _nichts_, nothing.] NIX, niks, _interj._ a roughs' street-cry of warning at the policeman, &c. NIZAM, ni-zam', _n._ the title of the sovereign of Hyderabad in India, first used in 1713: _sing._ and _pl._ the Turkish regulars, or one of them. [Hind., contr. of _Nizam-ul-Mulk_=Regulator of the state.] NO, n[=o], _adv._ the word of refusal or denial: not at all: never: not so: not.--_n._ a denial: a vote against or in the negative:--_pl._ NOES (n[=o]z).--_adj._ not any: not one: none.--_advs._ N[=O]'WAY, in no way, manner, or degree--also N[=O]'WAYS; N[=O]'WISE, in no way, manner, or degree.--NO ACCOUNT, worthless; NO DOUBT, surely; NO GO (see GO); NO JOKE, not a trifling matter. [A.S. _ná_, compounded of _ne_, not, and _á_ ever; _nay_, the neg. of _aye_, is Scand.] NOACHIAN, n[=o]-[=a]'ki-an, _adj._ pertaining to the patriarch _Noah_, or to his time--also NOACH'IC.--NOAH'S ARK, a child's toy in imitation of the ark of Noah and its inhabitants. NOB, nob, _n._ the head: a knobstick.--ONE FOR HIS NOB, a blow on the head in boxing: a point at cribbage by holding the knave of trumps. [_Knob._] NOB, nob, _n._ a superior sort of person.--_adv._ NOB'BILY.--_adj._ NOB'BY, smart, fashionable: good, capital. [A contr. of _nobleman._] NOBBLE, nob'l, _v.t._ (_slang_) to get hold of dishonestly, to steal: to baffle or circumvent dexterously: to injure, destroy the chances of, as a racer.--_n._ NOBB'LER, a finishing-stroke: a thimble-rigger's confederate: a dram of spirits. NOBILITY, no-bil'i-ti, _n._ the quality of being noble: high rank: dignity: excellence: greatness of mind or character: antiquity of family: descent from noble ancestors: the persons holding the rank of nobles.--_adj._ NOBIL'IARY, pertaining to the nobility.--_v.t._ NOBIL'ITATE, to ennoble.--_n._ NOBILIT[=A]'TION. NOBLE, n[=o]'bl, _adj._ illustrious: high in rank or character: of high birth: magnificent: generous: excellent.--_n._ a person of exalted rank: a peer: an obsolete gold coin=6s. 8d. sterling.--_n._ N[=O]'BLEMAN, a man who is noble or of rank: a peer: one above a commoner.--_adj._ N[=O]'BLE-MIND'ED, having a noble mind.--_ns._ N[=O]BLE-MIND'EDNESS; N[=O]'BLENESS, the quality of being noble: excellence in quality: dignity: greatness by birth or character: ingenuousness: worth; NOBLESS', NOBLESSE' (_Spens._), nobility: greatness: the nobility collectively; N[=O]'BLEWOMAN, the fem. of NOBLEMAN.--_adv._ N[=O]'BLY.--NOBLE ART, boxing; NOBLE METALS (see METAL).--MOST NOBLE, the style of a duke. [Fr.,--L. _nobilis_, obs. _gnobilis_--_nosc[)e]re_ (_gnosc[)e]re_), to know.] NOBODY, n[=o]'bod-i, _n._ no body or person: no one: a person of no account, one not in fashionable society. NOCAKE, n[=o]'k[=a]k, _n._ meal made of parched corn, once much used by North American Indians on the march. [Amer. Ind. _nookik_, meal.] NOCENT, n[=o]'sent, _adj._ (_obs._) hurtful: guilty.--_n._ one who is hurtful or guilty.--_adv._ N[=O]'CENTLY. [L. _noc[=e]re_, to hurt.] NOCK, nok, _n._ the forward upper end of a sail that sets with a boom: a notch, esp. that on the butt-end of an arrow for the string. [Cf. _Notch._] NOCTAMBULATION, nok-tam-b[=u]-l[=a]'shun, _n._ walking in sleep.--_ns._ NOCTAM'BULISM, sleep-walking; NOCTAM'BULIST, one who walks in his sleep. [L. _nox_, _noctis_, night, _ambul[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to walk.] NOCTILIO, nok-til'i-[=o], _n._ a genus of American bats. NOCTILUCA, nok-ti-l[=u]'ka, _n._ a phosphorescent marine Infusorian, abundant around the British coasts, one of the chief causes of the phosphorescence of the waves.--_adjs._ NOCTIL[=U]'CENT, NOCTIL[=U]'CID, NOCTIL[=U]'COUS, shining in the dark. [L. _nox_, _noctis_, night, _luc[=e]re_, to shine.] NOCTIVAGANT, nok-tiv'a-gant, _adj._ wandering in the night.--_n._ NOCTIVAG[=A]'TION.--_adj._ NOCTIV'AGOUS. [L. _nox_, _noctis_, night, _vag[=a]ri_, to wander.] NOCTOGRAPH, nok'to-graf, _n._ a writing-frame for the blind: an instrument for recording the presence of a night-watchman on his beat.--_n._ NOCTURN'OGRAPH, an instrument for recording work done in factories, &c., during the night. [L. _nox_, Gr. _graphein_, to write.] NOCTUA, nok't[=u]-a, _n._ a generic name variously used--giving name to the NOCT[=U]'IDÆ, a large family of nocturnal lepidopterous insects, strong-bodied moths.--_n._ NOC'TUID.--_adjs._ NOCT[=U]'IDOUS; NOC'TUIFORM; NOC'TUOID. NOCTUARY, nok't[=u]-[=a]-ri, _n._ an account kept of the events or thoughts of night. NOCTULE, nok't[=u]l, _n._ a vespertilionine bat. [Fr.,--L. _nox_, _noctis_, night.] NOCTURN, nok'turn, _n._ in the early church, a service of psalms and prayers at midnight or at daybreak: a portion of the psalter used at nocturns. [Fr. _nocturne_--L. _nocturnus_--_nox_, _noctis_, night.] NOCTURNAL, nok-tur'nal, _adj._ pertaining to night: happening by night: nightly.--_n._ an instrument for observations in the night.--_adv._ NOCTUR'NALLY. NOCTURNE, nok'turn, _n._ a painting showing a scene by night: a piece of music of a dreamy character suitable to evening or night thoughts: a serenade: a reverie. [Fr.; cf. _Nocturn_.] NOCUOUS, nok'[=u]-us, _adj._ hurtful.--_adv._ NOC'UOUSLY. [L. _nocuus_--_noc[=e]re_, to hurt.] NOD, nod, _v.i._ to give a quick forward motion of the head: to bend the head in assent: to salute by a quick motion of the head: to let the head drop in weariness.--_v.t._ to incline: to signify by a nod:--_pr.p._ nod'ding; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ nod'ded.--_n._ a bending forward of the head quickly: a slight bow: a command.--_ns._ NOD'DER; NOD'DING.--_adj._ inclining the head quickly: indicating by a nod: acknowledged by a nod merely, as a nodding acquaintance: (_bot._) having the flower looking downwards.--LAND OF NOD, the state of sleep. [M. E. _nodden_, not in A.S.; but cf. Old High Ger. _hn[=o]ton_, to shake, prov. Ger. _notteln_, to wag.] NODDLE, nod'l, _n._ properly, the projecting part at the back of the head: the head.--_v.i._ to nod repeatedly. [A variant of _knot_; cf. Old Dut. _knodde_, a knob, Ger. _knoten_, a knot.] NODDY, nod'i, _n._ one whose head nods from weakness: a stupid fellow: a sea-fowl--easily taken: a four-wheeled carriage with a door at the back: an upright flat spring with a weight on the top, forming an inverted pendulum, indicating the vibration of any body to which it is attached. [_Nod._] NODE, n[=o]d, _n._ a knot: a knob: a knot or entanglement: (_astron._) one of the two points in which the orbit of a planet intersects the plane of the ecliptic: (_bot._) the joint of a stem: the plot of a piece in poetry: (_math._) a point at which a curve cuts itself, and through which more than one tangent to the curve can be drawn: a similar point on a surface, where there is more than one tangent-plane.--_adjs._ NOD'AL, pertaining to nodes; NOD[=A]T'ED, knotted.--_ns._ NOD[=A]'TION, the act of making knots: the state of being knotted; NODE'-COUP'LE, a pair of points on a surface at which one plane is tangent; NODE'-CUSP, a peculiar kind of curve formed by the union of a node, a cusp, an inflection, and a bitangent.--_adjs._ NOD'ICAL, pertaining to the nodes: from a node round to the same node again; NODIF'EROUS (_bot._), bearing nodes; N[=O]'DIFORM; NOD'OSE, full of knots: having knots or swelling joints: knotty.--_n._ NODOS'ITY.--_adjs._ NOD'ULAR, of or like a nodule; NOD'UL[=A]TED, having nodules.--_ns._ NOD'ULE, NOD'ULUS, a little knot: a small lump.--_adjs._ NOD'ULED, having nodules or little knots or lumps; NODULIF'EROUS; NOD'ULIFORM; NOD'ULOSE, NOD'ULOUS (_bot._), having nodules or small knots: knotty.--_ns._ NOD'ULUS:--_pl._ NOD'UL[=I]; N[=O]'DUS:--_pl._ N[=O]'D[=I]. [L. _nodus_ (for _gnodus_), allied to _Knot_.] NOËL, n[=o]'el, _n._ Christmas.--Same as NOWEL (q.v.). NOEMATIC, -AL, n[=o]-[=e]-mat'ik, -al, _adj._ intellectual--also NOET'IC, -AL.--_adv._ NOEMAT'ICALLY.--_n.pl._ NOEM'ICS, intellectual science. [Gr. _no[=e]ma_--_noein_, to perceive.] NOETIAN, n[=o]-[=e]'shi-an, _adj._ pertaining to NOË'TUS or NOË'TIANISM, a form of Patripassianism taught by _Noëtus_ of Smyrna about 200 A.D. NOG, nog, _n._ a mug, small pot: a kind of strong ale. NOG, nog, _n._ a tree nail driven through the heels of the shores, to secure them: one of the pins in the lever of a clutch-coupling: a piece of wood in an inner wall: a cog in mining. NOGGIN, nog'in, _n._ a small mug or wooden cup, or its contents, a dram suitable for one person. [Ir. _noigin_, Gael. _noigean_.] NOGGING, nog'ging, _n._ a partition of wooden posts with the spaces between filled up with bricks: brick-building filling up the spaces between the wooden posts of a partition. NOHOW, n[=o]'how, _adv._ not in any way, not at all: (_coll._) out of one's ordinary way, out of sorts. NOIANCE, noi'ans, _n._ (_Shak._). Same as ANNOYANCE. NOILS, noilz, _n.pl._ short pieces of wool separated from the longer fibres by combing. NOINT, noint, _v.t._ (_Shak._). Same as ANOINT. NOISE, noiz, _n._ sound of any kind: any over-loud or excessive sound, din: frequent or public talk: (_Shak._) report: a musical band.--_v.t._ to spread by rumour.--_v.i._ to sound loud.--_adjs._ NOISE'FUL, noisy; NOISE'LESS, without noise: silent.--_adv._ NOISE'LESSLY.--_n._ NOISE'LESSNESS.--MAKE A NOISE IN THE WORLD, to attract great notoriety. [Fr. _noise_, quarrel; prob. from L. _nausea_, disgust; but possibly from L. _noxa_, hurt--_noc[=e]re_, to hurt.] NOISETTE, nwo-zet', _n._ a variety of rose. [Fr.] NOISOME, noi'sum, _adj._ injurious to health: disgusting to sight or smell.--_adv._ NOI'SOMELY.--_n._ NOI'SOMENESS. [M. E. _noy_, annoyance. Cf. _Annoy_.] NOISY, noiz'i, _adj._ making a loud noise or sound: attended with noise: clamorous: turbulent.--_adv._ NOIS'ILY.--_n._ NOIS'INESS. NOKES, n[=o]ks, _n._ a simpleton. NOLENS VOLENS, n[=o]lens vol'ens, unwilling (or) willing: willy-nilly.--_n._ NOLI-ME-TANGERE (n[=o]'l[=i]-m[=e]-tan'je-r[=e]), the wild cucumber: lupus of the nose: a picture showing Jesus appearing to Mary Magdalene, as in John XX.--NOLLE PROSEQUI (nol'e pros'e-kw[=i]), a term used in English law to indicate that the plaintiff does not intend to go on with his action. [L. _nolle_, to be unwilling, _velle_, to be willing, _tang[)e]re_, to touch, _prosequi_, to prosecute.] NOLL, nol, _n._ the head. NOM, nong, _n._ name.--NOM DE PLUME, 'pen-name:' the signature assumed by an author instead of his own name--not a Fr. phrase, but one of Eng. manufacture from Fr. _nom_, a name, _de_, of, _plume_, a pen. NOMAD, NOMADE, nom'ad, _n._ one of a tribe that wanders about in quest of game, or of pasture for their flocks.--_adj._ NOMAD'IC, of or for the feeding of cattle: pastoral: pertaining to the life of nomads: wandering: unsettled: rude.--_adv._ NOMAD'ICALLY.--_v.i._ NOM'ADISE, to lead a nomadic or vagabond life.--_n._ NOM'ADISM, the state of being nomadic: habits of nomads. [Gr. _nomas_, _nomados_--_nomos_, pasture--_nemein_, to drive to pasture.] NOMANCY, n[=o]'man-si, _n._ divination from the letters in a name. NO-MAN'S-LAND, n[=o]'-manz-land, _n._ a region to which no one possesses a recognised claim. NOMARCH, nom'ärk, _n._ the ruler of a NOME, or division of a province, as in modern Greece.--_n._ NOM'ARCHY, the district governed by a nomarch. [Gr. _nomos_, district, _arch[=e]_, rule.] NOMBRIL, nom'bril, _n._ (_her._) the navel-point. NOME, n[=o]m, _n._ See NOMARCH. NOMEN, n[=o]'men, _n._ a name, esp. of the _gens_ or clan, as Caius _Julius_ Cæsar. [L.] NOMENCLATOR, n[=o]'men-kl[=a]-tor, _n._ one who gives names to things:--_fem._ N[=O]'MENCLATRESS.--_adjs._ NOMENCLAT[=O]'RIAL, N[=O]'MENCL[=A]TORY, N[=O]'MENCL[=A]T[=U]RAL.--_n._ N[=O]'MENCL[=A]TURE, a system of naming: a list of names: a calling by name: the peculiar terms of a science. [L.,--_nomen_, a name, _cal[=a]re_, to call.] NOMIAL, n[=o]'mi-al, _n._ (_alg._) a single name or term. NOMIC, nom'ik, _adj._ customary, applied to the common mode of spelling--opp. to _Glossic_ and _Phonetic_. [Gr. _nomos_, custom.] NOMINAL, nom'in-al, _adj._ pertaining to a name: existing only in name: having a name.--_ns._ NOM'INALISM, the doctrine that general terms have no corresponding reality either in or out of the mind, being mere words; NOM'INALIST, one of a sect of philosophers who held the doctrine of nominalism.--_adj._ NOMINALIST'IC, pertaining to nominalism.--_adv._ NOM'INALLY. [L. _nominalis_--_nomen_, _-[)i]nis_, a name.] NOMINATE, nom'in-[=a]t, _v.t._ to name: to mention by name: to appoint: to propose by name, as for an office or for an appointment.--_adv._ NOM'IN[=A]TELY, by name.--_ns._ NOM'IN[=A]TION, the act or power of nominating: state of being nominated; NOM'IN[=A]TION-GAME, in billiards, a game in which the player has to name beforehand what stroke he is leading.--_adjs._ NOMIN[=A]T[=I]'VAL; NOM'IN[=A]TIVE, naming: (_gram._) applied to the case of the subject.--_n._ the naming case, the case in which the subject is expressed.--_adv._ NOM'IN[=A]TIVELY.--_n._ NOM'IN[=A]TOR, one who nominates.--NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE, a grammatical construction in which we have a subject (noun or pronoun) combined with a participle, but not connected with a finite verb or governed by any other words, as 'All being well, I will come.' [L. _nomin[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to name--_nomen_.] NOMINEE, nom-in-[=e]', _n._ one who is nominated by another: one on whose life an annuity or lease depends: one to whom the holder of a copyhold estate surrenders his interest. NOMISTIC, n[=o]-mis'tik, _adj._ pertaining to laws founded on a sacred book. [Gr. _nomos_, a law.] NOMOCRACY, n[=o]-mok'ra-si, _n._ a government according to a code of laws. [Gr. _nomos_, law, _kratia_--_kratein_, to rule.] NOMOGENY, n[=o]-moj'e-ni, _n._ the origination of life according to natural law, not miracle--opp. to _Thaumatogeny_. [Gr. _nomos_, law, _geneia_--_gen[=e]s_, producing.] NOMOGRAPHY, n[=o]-mog'ra-fi, _n._ the art of drawing up laws in proper form.--_n._ NOMOG'RAPHER, one versed in this art. [Gr. _nomos_, law, _graphein_, to write.] NOMOLOGY, no-mol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the science of the laws of the mind.--_adj._ NOMOLOG'ICAL.--_n._ NOMOL'OGIST. [Gr. _nomos_, law, _logia_, discourse--_legein_, to speak.] NOMOS, nom'os, _n._ in modern Greece, a nome. NOMOTHETIC, nom-[=o]-thet'ik, _adj._ legislative: founded on a system of laws, or by a lawgiver. [Gr. _nomothet[=e]s_, a lawgiver, one of a body of heliasts or jurors in ancient Athens, charged with the decision as to any proposed change in legislation.] NON, non, _adv._ not, a Latin word used as a prefix, as in _ns._ NON-ABIL'ITY, want of ability; NON-ACCEPT'ANCE, want of acceptance: refusal to accept; NON-AC'CESS (_law_), absence of opportunity for marital commerce; NON-ACQUAINT'ANCE, want of acquaintance; NON-ACQUIESC'ENCE, refusal of acquiescence; NON-ADMISS'ION, refusal of admission: failure to be admitted; NON-ALIEN[=A]'TION, state of not being alienated: failure to alienate; NON-APPEAR'ANCE, failure or neglect to appear, esp. in a court of law; NON-ARR[=I]'VAL, failure to arrive; NON-ATTEND'ANCE, a failure to attend: absence; NON-ATTEN'TION, inattention; NON'-CLAIM, a failure to make claim within the time limited by law; NON-COM'BATANT, any one connected with an army who is there for some other purpose than that of fighting, as a surgeon, &c.: a civilian in time of war.--_adjs._ NON-COMMISS'IONED, not having a commission, as an officer in the army below the rank of commissioned officer--abbrev. NON-COM'.; NON-COMMIT'TAL, unwilling to commit one's self to any particular opinion or course of conduct, free from any declared preference or pledge.--_ns._ NON-COMM[=U]'NICANT, one who abstains from joining in holy communion, or who has not yet communicated; NON-COMM[=U]N'ION; NON-COMPL[=I]'ANCE, neglect or failure of compliance.--_adj._ NON-COMPLY'ING.--_n._ NON-CONCUR'RENCE, refusal to concur.--_adj._ NON-CONDUCT'ING, not conducting or transmitting: not allowing a fluid or a force to pass along, as glass does not conduct electricity.--_n._ NON-CONDUCT'OR, a substance which does not conduct or transmit certain properties or conditions, as heat or electricity.--_adj._ NONCONFORM'ING, not conforming, esp. to an established church.--_n._ and _adj._ NONCONFORM'IST, one who does not conform: esp. one who refused to conform or subscribe to the Act of Uniformity in 1662--abbrev. NON-CON'.--_n._ NONCONFORM'ITY, want of conformity, esp. to the established church.--_adj._ NON-CONT[=A]'GIOUS, not infectious.--_ns._ NON'-CONTENT, one not content: in House of Lords, one giving a negative vote; NON-DELIV'ERY, failure or neglect to deliver.--_adj._ NON-EFFECT'IVE, not efficient or serviceable: unfitted for service.--_n._ a member of a force who is not able, for some reason, to take part in active service.--_adj._ NON-EFFIC'IENT, not up to the mark required for service.--_n._ a soldier who has not yet undergone the full number of drills.--_n._ NON-[=E]'GO, in metaphysics, the not-I, the object as opposed to the subject, whatever is not the conscious self.--_adjs._ NON-EGOIS'TICAL; NON-ELAS'TIC, not elastic; NON-[=E]LECT', not elect.--_n._ one not predestined to salvation.--_n._ NON-[=E]LEC'TION, state of not being elected.--_adjs._ NON-ELEC'TRIC, -AL, not conducting the electric fluid; NON-EMPHAT'IC; NON-EMPIR'ICAL, not empirical, not presented in experience; NON-EPIS'COPAL.--_n._ NON-EPISCOP[=A]'LIAN.--_adj._ NON-ESSEN'TIAL, not essential: not absolutely required.--_n._ something that may be done without.--_n._ NON-EXIST'ENCE, negation of existence: a thing that has no existence.--_adj._ NON-EXIST'ENT.--_n._ NON-EXPORT[=A]'TION.--_adj._ NON-FOR'FEITING, of a life insurance policy not forfeited by reason of non-payment.--_ns._ NON-FULFIL'MENT; NON-IMPORT[=A]'TION.--_adj._ NON-IMPORT'ING.--_ns._ NON-INTERVEN'TION, a policy of systematic non-interference by one country with the affairs of other nations; NON-INTRU'SION, in Scottish Church history, the principle that a patron should not force an unacceptable clergyman on an unwilling congregation; NON-INTRU'SIONIST.--_adj._ NON-ISS'UABLE, not capable of being issued: not admitting of issue being taken on it.--_n._ NON-JOIN'DER (_law_), the omitting to join all the parties to the action or suit.--_adj._ NONJUR'ING, not swearing allegiance.--_n._ NONJUR'OR, one of the clergy in England and Scotland who would not swear allegiance to William and Mary in 1689, holding themselves still bound by the oath they had taken to the deposed king, James II.--_adjs._ NON-L[=U]'MINOUS; NON-MANUFACT'URING; NON-MARR'YING, not readily disposed to marry; NON-METAL'LIC, not consisting of metal: not like the metals; NON-MOR'AL, involving no moral considerations; NON-NAT'URAL, not natural: forced or strained.--_n._ in ancient medicine, anything not considered of the essence of man, but necessary to his well-being, as air, food, sleep, rest, &c.--_ns._ NON-OB[=E]'DIENCE; NON-OBSERV'ANCE, neglect or failure to observe; NON-PAY'MENT, neglect or failure to pay; NON-PERFORM'ANCE, neglect or failure to perform.--_adjs._ NON-PLACENT'AL; NON-PON'DEROUS.--_n._ NON-PRODUC'TION.--_adj._ NON-PROFESS'IONAL, not done by a professional man, amateur: not proper to be done by a professional man, as unbecoming conduct in a physician, &c.--_ns._ NON-PROFIC'IENT, one who has made no progress in the art or study in which he is engaged; NON-REGARD'ANCE, want of due regard; NON-RES'IDENCE, failure to reside, or the fact of not residing at a certain place, where one's official or social duties require one to reside.--_adj._ NON-RES'IDENT, not residing within the range of one's responsibilities.--_n._ one who does not do so, as a landlord, clergyman, &c.--_n._ NON-RESIST'ANCE, the principle of not offering opposition: passive or ready obedience.--_adjs._ NON-RESIST'ANT, NON-RESIST'ING; NON-SEX'UAL, sexless, asexual; NON-SOC[=I]'ETY, not belonging to a society, esp. of a workman not attached to a trades-union, or of a place in which such men are employed.--_n._ NON-SOL[=U]'TION.--_adjs._ NON-SOL'VENT; NON-SUBMIS'SIVE.--_n._ NON'SUIT, a legal term in England, which means that where a plaintiff in a jury trial finds he will lose his case, owing to some defect or accident, he is allowed to be nonsuited, instead of allowing a verdict and judgment to go for the defendant.--_v.t._ to record that a plaintiff drops his suit.--_n._ NON'-TERM, a vacation between two terms of a law-court.--_adj._ NON-UN'ION (see NON-SOCIETY).--_ns._ NON-[=U]'SAGER (see USAGE); NON-[=U]'SER (_law_), neglect of official duty: omission to take advantage of an easement, &c.--_adj._ NON-V[=I]'ABLE, not viable, of a foetus too young for independent life. NONAGE, non'[=a]j, _n._ legal infancy, minority: time of immaturity generally.--_adj._ NON'AGED. [L. _non_, not, and _age_.] NONAGENARIAN, non-a-je-n[=a]'ri-an, _n._ one who is ninety years old.--_adj._ relating to ninety.--_adj._ NONAGES'IMAL, belonging to the number ninety.--_n._ that point of the ecliptic 90 degrees from its intersection by the horizon. [L. _nonagenarius_, containing ninety--_nonaginta_, ninety.] NONAGON, non'a-gon, _n._ (_math._) a plane figure having nine sides and nine angles. [L. _novem_, nine, _nonus_, ninth, _g[=o]nia_, angle.] NONCE, nons, _n._ (only in phrase 'for the nonce') the present time, occasion.--NONCE-WORD, a word specially coined, like Carlyle's _gigmanity_. [The substantive has arisen by mistake from 'for the nones,' originally _for then ones_, meaning simply 'for the once.'] NONCHALANCE, non'shal-ans, _n._ unconcern: coolness: indifference.--_adj._ NONCHALANT (non'sha-lant).--_adv._ NON'CHALANTLY. [Fr., _non_, not, _chaloir_, to care for--L. _cal[=e]re_, to be warm.] NONDESCRIPT, non'de-skript, _adj._ novel: odd.--_n._ anything not yet described or classed: a person or thing not easily described or classed. [L. _non_, not, _descriptus_, _describ[)e]re_, to describe.] NONE, nun, _adj._ and _pron._ not one: not any: not the smallest part.--_adv._ in no respect: to no extent or degree.--_n._ NONE'-SO-PRETT'Y, or London Pride, _Saxifraga umbrosa_, a common English garden-plant.--_adj._ NONE'-SPAR'ING (_Shak._), all-destroying. [M. E. _noon_, _non_--A.S. _nán_--_ne_, not, _án_, one.] NONENTITY, non-en'ti-ti, _n._ want of entity or being: a thing not existing: a person of no importance. NONES, n[=o]nz, _n.pl._ in the Roman calendar, the ninth day before the Ides (both days included)--the 5th of Jan., Feb., April, June, Aug., Sept., Nov., Dec., and the 7th of the other months: the Divine office for the ninth hour, or three o'clock. [L. _nonæ_--_nonus_ for _novenus_, ninth--_novem_, nine.] NON EST, non est, _adj._ for absent, being a familiar shortening of the legal phrase _non est inventus_=he has not been found (_coll_). NONESUCH, nun'such, _n._ a thing like which there is none such: an extraordinary thing. NONET, n[=o]-net', _n._ (_mus._) a composition for nine voices or instruments. NON-FEASANCE, non-f[=e]'zans, _n._ omission of something which ought to be done, distinguished from _Misfeasance_, which means the wrongful use of power or authority. [Pfx. _non_, not, O. Fr. _faisance_, doing--_faire_--L. _fac[)e]re_, to do.] NONILLION, n[=o]-nil'yun, _n._ the number produced by raising a million to the ninth power. NONINO. See NONNY. NONNY, non'i, _n._ a meaningless refrain in Old English ballads, &c., usually 'hey, nonny'--often repeated _nonny-nonny_, _nonino_, as a cover for obscenity. NONPAREIL, non-pa-rel', _n._ a person or thing without equal or unique: a fine apple: a printing-type forming about twelve lines to the inch, between emerald (larger) and ruby (smaller).--_adj._ without an equal: matchless. [Fr.,--_non_, not, _pareil_, equal--Low L. _pariculus_, dim. of _par_, equal.] NONPLUS, non'plus, _n._ a state in which no more can be done or said: great difficulty.--_v.t._ to perplex completely, to puzzle:--_pr.p._ non'plussing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ non'plussed. [L. _non_, not, _plus_, more.] NON POSSUMUS, non pos'[=u]-mus, we are not able: we cannot, a plea of inability. [L., 1st pl. pres. ind. of _posse_, to be able.] NONSENSE, non'sens, _n._ that which has no sense: language without meaning: absurdity: trifles.--_adj._ NONSENS'ICAL, without sense: absurd.--_ns._ NONSENSICAL'ITY, NONSENS'ICALNESS.--_adv._ NONSENS'ICALLY.--NONSENSE NAME, an arbitrarily coined name, for mnemonic purposes, &c.; NONSENSE VERSES, verses perfect in form but without any connected sense, being merely exercises in metre, &c.: verses intentionally absurd, like that of the Jabberwock in _Through the Looking-glass_. NON SEQUITUR, non sek'wi-tur, it does not follow: a wrong conclusion: one that does not follow from the premises. [L. _non_, not, and 3d sing. pres. ind. of _sequi_, to follow.] NOODLE, n[=oo]d'l, _n._ a simpleton: a blockhead.--_n._ NOOD'LEDOM. [_Noddy._] NOODLE, n[=oo]d'l, _n._ dried dough of wheat-flour and eggs, used in soup or as a baked dish. NOOK, n[=oo]k, _n._ a corner: a narrow place formed by an angle: a recess: a secluded retreat.--_adjs._ NOOK'-SHOT'TEN, full of nooks and corners; NOOK'Y. [Gael. and Ir. _niuc_; Scot. _neuk_.] NOOLOGY, no-ol'o-ji, _n._ the science of the phenomena of the mind, or of the facts of intellect. [Gr. _noos_, the mind, _logia_, discourse.] NOON, n[=oo]n, _n._ the ninth hour of the day in Roman and ecclesiastical reckoning, three o'clock P.M.: afterwards (when the church service for the ninth hour, called _Nones_, was shifted to midday) midday: twelve o'clock: middle: height.--_adj._ belonging to midday: meridional.--_v.i._ to rest at noon.--_n._ NOON'DAY, midday: the time of greatest prosperity.--_adj._ pertaining to midday: meridional.--_ns._ NOON'ING, a rest about noon: a repast at noon; NOON'TIDE, the tide or time of noon: midday.--_adj._ pertaining to noon: meridional. [A.S. _nón-tíd_ (noontide)--L. _nona_ (_hora_), the ninth (hour).] NOOSE, n[=oo]s, or n[=oo]z, _n._ a running knot which ties the firmer the closer it is drawn: a snare or knot generally.--_v.t._ to tie or catch in a noose. [Prob. O. Fr. _nous_, pl. of _nou_ (Fr. _noeud_)--L. _nodus_, knot.] NOR, nor, _conj._ and not, a particle introducing the second part of a negative proposition--correlative to _neither_. [Contr. of _nother_=_neither_.] NORIA, n[=o]'ri-a, _n._ a water-raising apparatus in Spain, Syria, and elsewhere, by means of a large paddle-wheel having fixed to its rim a series of buckets, a flush-wheel. [Sp.,--Ar.] NORIMON, nor'i-mon, _n._ a kind of sedan-chair used in Japan. [Jap. _nori_, ride, _mono_, thing.] NORLAND, nor'land, _n._ the same as NORTHLAND. NORM, norm, _n._ a rule: a pattern: an authoritative standard: a type or typical unit.--_n._ NOR'MA, a rule, model: a square for measuring right angles.--_adj._ NOR'MAL, according to rule: regular: exact: perpendicular.--_n._ a perpendicular.--_ns._ NORMALIS[=A]'TION, NORMAL'ITY.--_v.t._ NOR'MALISE.--_adv._ NOR'MALLY.--_adj._ NOR'MATIVE, establishing a standard.--NORMAL SCHOOL, a training-college for teachers in the practice of their profession. [L. _norma_, a rule.] NORMAN, nor'man, _n._ a native or inhabitant of Normandy: one of that Scandinavian race which settled in northern France about the beginning of the 10th century, founded the Duchy of Normandy, and conquered England in 1066--the _Norman Conquest_.--_adj._ pertaining to the Normans or to Normandy.--_v.t._ NOR'MANISE, to give a Norman character to.--NORMAN ARCHITECTURE, a round-arched style, a variety of Romanesque, prevalent in England from the Norman Conquest (1066) till the end of the 12th century, of massive simplicity, the churches cruciform with semicircular apse and a great tower rising from the intersection of nave and transept, deeply recessed doorways, windows small, round-headed, high in wall; NORMAN FRENCH, a form of French spoken by the Normans, which came into England at the Norman Conquest, modified the spelling, accent, and pronunciation of Anglo-Saxon, and enriched it with a large infusion of new words relating to the arts of life, &c. [_Northmen._] NORMAN, nor'man, _n._ (_naut._) a bar inserted in a windlass, on which to fasten or veer a rope or cable. NORN, norn, _n._ (_Scand. myth._) one of the three fates--Urd, Verdande, and Skuld.--Also NORN'A. NORROY, nor'roi, _n._ (_her._) the third of the three English kings-at-arms, or provincial heralds, whose jurisdiction lies north of the Trent. [Fr. _nord_, north, _roy_, _roi_, king.] NORSE, nors, _adj._ pertaining to ancient Scandinavia.--_n._ the language of ancient Scandinavia--also OLD NORSE.--_n._ NORSE'MAN, a Scandinavian or Northman. [Ice. _Norskr_; Norw. _Norsk_.] NORTH, north, _n._ the point opposite the sun at noon: one of the four cardinal points of the horizon: the side of a church to the left of one facing the principal altar: that portion of the United States north of the former slave-holding states--i.e. north of Maryland, the Ohio, and Missouri.--_adv._ to or in the north.--_ns._ NORTH'-COCK, the snow bunting; NORTH'-EAST, the point between the north and east, equidistant from each.--_adj._ belonging to or from the north-east.--_n._ NORTH'-EAST'ER, a wind from the north-east.--_adjs._ NORTH'-EAST'ERLY, toward or coming from the north-east; NORTH'-EAST'ERN, belonging to the north-east: being in the north-east, or in that direction.--_adv._ NORTH'-EAST'WARD, toward the north-east.--_ns._ NORTH'ER (_th_), a wind or gale from the north, esp. applied to a cold wind that blows in winter over Texas and the Gulf of Mexico; NORTH'ERLINESS (_th_), state of being toward the north.--_adj._ NORTH'ERLY (_th_), being toward the north: coming from the north.--_adv._ toward or from the north.--_adj._ NORTH'ERN (_th_), pertaining to the north: being in the north or in the direction toward it: proceeding from the north.--_n._ an inhabitant of the north.--_n._ NORTH'ERNER (_th_), a native of, or resident in, the north, esp. of the northern United States.--_adjs._ NORTH'ERNMOST (_th_), NORTH'MOST, situate at the point farthest north.--_ns._ NORTH'ING, motion, distance, or tendency northward: distance of a heavenly body from the equator northward: difference of latitude made by a ship in sailing northward: deviation towards the north; NORTH'MAN, one of the ancient Scandinavians; NORTH'-POLE, the point in the heavens, or beneath it on the earth's surface, ninety degrees north of the equator; NORTH'-STAR, the north polar star; NORTHUM'BRIAN, a native of the modern _Northumberland_, or of the ancient kingdom of _Northumbria_, stretching from the Humber to the Forth: that variety of English spoken in Northumbria before the Conquest--also _adj._--_adjs._ NORTH'WARD, NORTH'WARDLY, being toward the north.--_adv._ toward the north--also NORTH'WARDS.--_n._ NORTH'-WEST, the point between the north and west, equidistant from each.--_adj._ pertaining to or from the north-west.--_adjs._ NORTH'-WEST'ERLY, toward or coming from the north-west; NORTH'-WEST'ERN, belonging to the north-west: pertaining to, or being in, the north-west or in that direction.--NORTH WATER, the space of open sea left by the winter pack of ice moving southward.--NORTH-EAST PASSAGE, a passage for ships along the north coasts of Europe and Asia to the Pacific, first made by Nordenskiöld in 1878-79; NORTHERN LIGHTS, the aurora borealis (q.v.); NORTH-WEST PASSAGE, a sea-way for ships from the Atlantic into the Pacific along the northern coast of America, first made by Sir Robert McClure, 1850-54. [A.S. _north_; cf. Ger. _nord_.] NORWEGIAN, nor-w[=e]'ji-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Norway_--(_Shak._) NORW[=E]'YAN.--_n._ a native of _Norway_: a kind of fishing-boat on the Great Lakes. NOSE, n[=o]z, _n._ the organ of smell: the power of smelling: sagacity: the projecting part of anything resembling a nose, as the spout of a kettle, &c.: a drip, a downward projection from a cornice: (_slang_) an informer.--_v.t._ to smell: to oppose rudely face to face: to sound through the nose.--_ns._ NOSE'BAG, a bag for a horse's nose, containing oats, &c.; NOSE'-BAND, the part of the bridle coming over the nose, attached to the cheek-straps.--_adjs._ NOSED, having a nose--used in composition, as bottle-_nosed_, long-_nosed_, &c.; NOSE'-LED, led by the nose, ruled and befooled completely; NOSE'LESS, without a nose.--_ns._ NOSE'-LEAF, a membranous appendage on the snouts of phyllostomine and rhinolophine bats, forming a highly sensitive tactile organ; NOSE'-OF-WAX, an over-pliable person or thing; NOSE'-PIECE, the outer end or point of a pipe, bellows, &c.: the extremity of the tube of a microscope to which the objective is attached: a nose-band: the nasal in armour; NOSE'-RING, an ornament worn in the septum of the nose or in either of its wings; NOS'ING, the projecting rounded edge of the step of a stair or of a moulding.--AQUILINE NOSE, a prominent nose, convex in profile; BOTTLE NOSE, a name given to certain species of cetaceans: an eruption on the nose such as is produced by intemperate drinking; PUG NOSE, a short turned-up nose; ROMAN NOSE, an aquiline nose.--HOLD, KEEP, or PUT ONE'S NOSE TO THE GRINDSTONE (see GRINDSTONE); LEAD BY THE NOSE, to cause to follow blindly; PUT ONE'S NOSE OUT OF JOINT, to bring down one's pride or sense of importance: to push out of favour; THRUST ONE'S NOSE INTO, to meddle officiously with anything; TURN UP ONE'S NOSE (_at_), to express contempt for a person or thing. [A.S. _nosu_; Ger. _nase_, L. _nasus_.] NOSEGAY, n[=o]z'g[=a], _n._ a bunch of fragrant flowers: a posy or bouquet. [From _nose_ and _gay_ (adj.).] NOSOCOMIAL, nos-[=o]-k[=o]'mi-al, _adj._ relating to a hospital. [Gr. _nosos_, sickness, _komein_, to take care of.] NOSOGRAPHY, n[=o]-sog'ra-fi, _n._ the description of diseases.--_adj._ NOSOGRAPH'IC. [Gr. _nosos_, disease, _graphein_, to write.] NOSOLOGY, nos-ol'o-ji, _n._ the science of diseases: the branch of medicine which treats of the classification of diseases.--_adj._ NOSOLOG'ICAL.--_n._ NOSOL'OGIST. [Gr. _nosos_, disease, _logia_, discourse.] NOSONOMY, n[=o]-son'o-mi, _n._ the classification of diseases. [Gr. _nosos_, a disease, _onoma_, a name.] NOSOPHOBIA, nos-o-f[=o]'bi-a, _n._ morbid dread of disease. [Gr. _nosos_, a disease, _phobia_, fear.] NOSTALGIA, nos-tal'ji-a, _n._ home-sickness, esp. when morbid.--_adj._ NOSTAL'GIC. [Gr. _nostos_, a return, algos, pain.] NOSTOC, nos'tok, _n._ a genus of Algæ, found in moist places.--Also _Witches' butter_, _Spittle of the stars_, _Star-jelly_, &c. [Ger. _nostoch_.] NOSTOLOGY, nos-tol'o-ji, _n._ the science of the phenomena of extreme old age or senility in which there is ever seen a return to the characteristics of the youthful stage.--_adj._ NOSTOLOG'IC. [Gr. _nostos_, return, _logia_--_legein_, to speak.] NOSTRADAMUS, nos-tra-d[=a]'mus, _n._ any quack doctor or charlatan--from the French astrologer (1503-66). NOSTRIL, nos'tril, _n._ one of the openings of the nose. [M. E. _nosethirl_--A.S. _nosthyrl_--_nosu_, nose, _thyrel_, opening. Cf. _Drill_, to pierce, and _Thrill_.] NOSTRUM, nos'trum, _n._ any secret, quack, or patent medicine: any favourite remedy or scheme. [L., 'our own,' from _nos_, we.] NOT, not, _adv._ a word expressing denial, negation, or refusal.--NOT IN IT (_coll._), having no part in some confidence or advantage. [Same as _Naught_, from A.S. _ná_, _wiht_, a whit.] NOTABLE, n[=o]'ta-bl, _adj._ worthy of being known or noted: remarkable: memorable: distinguished: notorious: capable, clever, industrious.--_n._ a person or thing worthy of note, esp. in _pl._ for persons of distinction and political importance in France in pre-Revolution times.--_n.pl._ NOTABIL'IA, things worthy of notice: noteworthy sayings.--_ns._ NOTABIL'ITY, the being notable: a notable person or thing; N[=O]'TABLENESS.--_adv._ N[=O]'TABLY. NOTÆUM, n[=o]-t[=e]'um, _n._ the upper surface of a bird's trunk--opp. to _Gastræum_: a dorsal buckler in some gasteropods. [Gr. _n[=o]tos_, the back.] NOTALGIA, n[=o]-tal'ji-a, _n._ pain in the back.--_adj._ NOTAL'GIC. [Gr. _n[=o]tos_, the back, _algos_, pain.] NOTANDA, n[=o]-tan'da, _n.pl._ something to be specially noted or observed:--_sing._ NOTAN'DUM. [L. pl. ger. of _not[=a]re_, to note.] NOTARY, n[=o]'ta-ri, _n._ an officer authorised to certify deeds, contracts, copies of documents, affidavits, &c.--generally called a NOTARY PUBLIC--anciently one who took notes or memoranda of others' acts.--_adj._ NOT[=A]'RIAL.--_adv._ NOT[=A]'RIALLY.--APOSTOLICAL NOTARY, the official who despatches the orders of the Pope; ECCLESIASTICAL NOTARY, in the early church, a secretary who recorded the proceedings of councils, &c. [L. _notarius_.] NOTATION, n[=o]-t[=a]'shun, _n._ the act or practice of recording by marks or symbols: a system of signs or symbols.--_adj._ N[=O]'TATE (_bot._), marked with coloured spots or lines.--CHEMICAL NOTATION (see CHEMISTRY). [L.,--_not[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to mark.] NOTCH, noch, _n._ a nick cut in anything: an indentation, incision, incisure: a narrow pass in a rock, or between two mountains.--_v.t._ to cut a hollow into.--_n._ NOTCH'-BOARD, the board which receives the ends of the steps of a staircase--also _Bridge-board_.--_adjs._ NOTCH'-EARED, having emarginate ears, as the notch-eared bat; NOTCHED, nicked.--_n._ NOTCH'ING, a method of joining framing-timbers, by halving, scarfing, or caulking. [From a Teut. root, as in Old Dut. _nock_. Cf. _Nick_, a notch.] NOTCHEL, NOCHEL, noch'el, _v.t._ (_prov._) to repudiate. NOTE, n[=o]t, _n._ that by which a person or thing is known: a mark or sign calling attention: a brief explanation: a short remark: a brief report, a catalogue, a bill: a memorandum: a short letter: a diplomatic paper: a small size of paper used for writing: (_mus._) a mark representing a sound, also the sound itself, air, tune, tone, also a digital or key of the keyboard: a paper acknowledging a debt and promising payment, as a bank-note, a note of hand: notice, heed, observation: reputation: fame.--_v.t._ to make a note of: to notice: to attend to: to record in writing: to furnish with notes.--_n._ NOTE'-BOOK, a book in which notes or memoranda are written: a bill-book.--_adj._ NOT'ED, marked: well known: celebrated: eminent: notorious.--_adv._ NOT'EDLY.--_n._ NOT'EDNESS.--_adj._ NOTE'LESS, not attracting notice.--_ns._ NOTE'-P[=A]'PER, folded writing-paper for letters (_commercial_, 5 × 8 in.; _octavo_, 4½ × 7; _billet_, 4 × 6; _queen_, 3½ × 5-3/8; _packet_, 5½ × 9; _Bath_, 7 × 8); NOT'ER, one who notes or observes: one who makes notes, an annotator; NOTE'-SHAV'ER (_U.S._), a money-lender.--_adj._ NOTE'WORTHY, worthy of note or of notice.--NOTE A BILL, to record on the back of it a refusal of acceptance, as a ground of protest. [Fr.,--L. _nota_, _nosc[)e]re_, _notum_, to know.] NOTE, n[=o]t (_Spens._), wot or knew not (a contr. of _ne wot_): could not (a contr. of _ne mote_). NOTHING, nuth'ing, _n._ no thing: non-existence: absence of being: a low condition: no value or use: not anything of importance, a trifle: utter insignificance, no difficulty or trouble: no magnitude: a cipher.--_adv._ in no degree: not at all.--_adj._ and _n._ NOTHING[=A]'RIAN, believing nothing.--_ns._ NOTHING[=A]'RIANISM; NOTH'ING-GIFT (_Shak._), a gift of no value; NOTH'INGISM, nihility; NOTH'INGNESS, state of being nothing or of no value: a thing of no value.--NOTHING BUT, no more than: only; NOTHING LESS THAN, equal to: as much as.--COME TO NOTHING, to have no result: to turn out a failure; MAKE NOTHING OF, to consider as of no difficulty or importance; NECK OR NOTHING (see NECK); NEXT TO NOTHING, almost nothing. [_No_ and _thing_.] NOTICE, n[=o]t'is, _n._ act of noting or observing: attention: observation: information: warning: a writing containing information: public intimation: civility or respectful treatment: remark.--_v.t._ to mark or see: to regard or attend to: to mention: to make observations upon: to treat with civility.--_adj._ NOT'ICEABLE, that can be noticed: worthy of notice: likely to be noticed.--_adv._ NOT'ICEABLY.--_n._ NOT'ICE-BOARD, a board on which a notice is fixed.--GIVE NOTICE, to warn beforehand: to inform. [Fr.,--L. _notitia_--_nosc[)e]re_, _notum_, to know.] NOTIFY, n[=o]'ti-f[=i], _v.t._ to make known: to declare: to give notice or information of:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ n[=o]'tified.--_adj._ N[=O]'TIFIABLE, that must be made known.--_n._ NOTIFIC[=A]'TION, the act of notifying: the notice given: the paper containing the notice. [Fr.,--L. _notific[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_notus_, known, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] NOTION, n[=o]'shun, _n._ the art of forming a conception in the mind of the various marks or qualities of an object: the result of this act, a conception: opinion: belief: judgment: a caprice or whim: any small article ingeniously devised or invented, usually in _pl._--_adj._ N[=O]'TIONAL, of the nature of a notion: ideal: fanciful.--_adv._ N[=O]'TIONALLY, in notion or mental apprehension: in idea, not in reality.--_n._ N[=O]'TIONIST, one who holds ungrounded opinions. [Fr.,--L. _notion-em_--_nosc[)e]re_, _notum_, to know.] NOTITIA, n[=o]-tish'i-a, _n._ a roll, list, register: a catalogue of public functionaries, with their districts: a list of episcopal sees. [L.; cf. _Notice_.] NOTOBRANCHIATE, n[=o]-t[=o]-brang'ki-[=a]t, _adj._ and _n._ having dorsal gills, belonging to NOTOBRANCHI[=A]'TA, an order of worms having such. [Gr. _n[=o]tos_, the back, _brangchia_, gills.] NOTOCHORD, n[=o]'t[=o]-kord, _n._ a simple cellular rod, the basis of the future spinal column, persisting throughout life in many lower vertebrates, as the amphioxus, &c.--_adj._ N[=O]'TOCHORDAL. [Gr. _n[=o]tos_, the back, _chord[=e]_, a string.] NOTODONTIFORM, n[=o]-t[=o]-don'ti-form, _adj._ resembling a tooth-back or moth of the family _Notodontidæ_. [Gr. _n[=o]tos_, back, _odous_, tooth, L. _forma_, form.] NOTONECTAL, n[=o]-t[=o]-nek'tal, _adj._ swimming on the back, as certain insects: related to the _Notonectidæ_, a family of aquatic bugs, the boat-flies or water-boatmen. [Gr. _n[=o]tos_, the back, _n[=e]kt[=e]s_, a swimmer.] NOTOPODAL, n[=o]-top'[=o]-dal, _adj._ pertaining to the NOTOP'ODA, a division of decapods, including the dromioid crabs, &c.--Also NOTOP'ODOUS. [Gr. _n[=o]tos_, the back, _pous_, _podos_, the foot.] NOTOPODIUM, n[=o]-t[=o]-p[=o]'di-um, _n._ the dorsal or upper part of the parapodium of an annelid, a dorsal oar.--_adj._ NOTOP[=O]'DIAL. [Gr. _n[=o]tos_, the back, _pous_, _podos_, the foot.] NOTORIOUS, no-t[=o]'ri-us, _adj._ publicly known (now used in a bad sense): infamous.--_n._ NOTOR[=I]'ETY, state of being notorious: publicity: public exposure.--_adv._ NOT[=O]'RIOUSLY.--_n._ NOT[=O]'RIOUSNESS. [Low L. _notorius_--_not[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to mark--_nosc[)e]re_.] NOTORNIS, n[=o]-tor'nis, _n._ a genus of gigantic ralline birds, with wings so much reduced as to be incapable of flight, which have within historical times become extinct in New Zealand, &c. [Gr. _n[=o]tos_, the south, _ornis_, a bird.] NOTOTHERIUM, n[=o]-t[=o]-th[=e]'ri-um, _n._ a genus of gigantic fossil kangaroo-like marsupials, found in Australia. [Gr. _n[=o]tos_, the south, _th[=e]rion_, a wild beast.] NOTOTREMA, n[=o]-t[=o]-tr[=e]'ma, _n._ the pouch-toads, a genus of _Hylidæ_.--_adj._ NOTOTREM'ATOUS. [Gr. _n[=o]tos_, the back, _tr[=e]ma_, a hole.] NOTOUR, no-t[=oo]r', _adj._ (_Scot._) well known, notorious. NOTT-HEADED, not'-hed'ed, _adj._ (_Shak._) having the hair cut bare.--NOTT'-PAT'ED. [A.S. _hnot_, shorn.] NOTUM, n[=o]'tum, _n._ the dorsal aspect of the thorax in insects. [Gr. _n[=o]tos_, the back.] NOTUS, n[=o]'tus, _n._ the south or south-west wind. [L.] NOTWITHSTANDING, not-with-stand'ing, _prep._ in spite of.--_conj._ in spite of the fact that, although.--_adv._ nevertheless, however, yet. [Orig. a participial phrase in nominative absolute=L. _non obstante_.] NOUGAT, n[=oo]-gä', _n._ a confection made of a sweet paste filled with chopped almonds or pistachio-nuts. [Fr. (cf. Sp. _nogado_, an almond-cake)--L. _nux_, _nucis_, a nut.] NOUGHT, nawt, _n._ not anything: nothing.--_adv._ in no degree.--SET AT NOUGHT, to despise. [Same as _Naught_.] NOUL, n[=o]l, _n._ (_Spens._) the top of the head. [A.S. _hnoll_, top or summit.] NOULD, n[=oo]ld (_Spens._), would not. [A contr. of _ne would_.] NOUMENON, n[=oo]'me-non, _n._ an unknown and unknowable substance or thing as it is in itself--opp. to _Phenomenon_, or the form through which it becomes known to the senses or the understanding:--_pl._ NOU'MENA.--_adj._ NOU'MENAL. [Gr. _noumenon_, pa.p. of _noein_, to perceive--_nous_, the mind.] NOUN, nown, _n._ (_gram._) the name of any person or thing.--_adj._ NOUN'AL. [O. Fr. _non_ (Fr. _nom_)--L. _nomen_, name.] NOURICE, nur'is, _n._ (_Spens._) a nurse. [_Nurse._] NOURISH, nur'ish, _v.t._ to suckle: to feed or bring up: to support: to help forward growth in any way: to encourage: to cherish: to educate.--_adjs._ NOUR'ISHABLE, able to be nourished.--_n._ NOUR'ISHER.--_adj._ NOUR'ISHING, giving nourishment.--_n._ NOUR'ISHMENT, the act of nourishing or the state of being nourished: that which nourishes: nutriment. [O. Fr. _norir_ (Fr. _nourrir_)--L. _nutr[=i]re_, to feed.] NOURSLE, nurs'l, _v.t._ to nurse: to bring up.--Also NOUS'LE. [_Nuzzle._] NOUS, nows, _n._ intellect: talent: common-sense. [Gr.] NOVACULITE, n[=o]-vak'[=u]-l[=i]t, _n._ a hone-stone. NOVALIA, n[=o]-v[=a]'li-a, _n.pl._ (_Scots law_) waste lands newly reclaimed. NOVATIAN, n[=o]-v[=a]'shi-an, _adj._ of or pertaining to _Novatianus_, who had himself ordained Bishop of Rome in opposition to Cornelius (251), and headed the party of severity against the lapsed in the controversy about their treatment that arose after the Decian persecution.--_ns._ NOV[=A]'TIANISM; NOV[=A]'TIANIST. NOVATION, n[=o]-v[=a]'shun, _n._ the substitution of a new obligation for the one existing: innovation. NOVEL, nov'el, _adj._ new: unusual: strange.--_n._ that which is new: a new or supplemental constitution or decree, issued by certain Roman emperors, as Justinian, after their authentic publications of law (also NOVELL'A): a fictitious prose narrative or tale presenting a picture of real life, esp. of the emotional crises in the life-history of the men and women portrayed.--_n._ NOVELETTE', a small novel.--_v.t._ NOV'ELISE, to change by introducing novelties: to put into the form of novels.--_v.i._ to make innovations.--_n._ NOV'ELIST, a novel-writer: an innovator.--_adj._ NOVELIST'IC.--_n._ NOV'ELTY, newness: unusual appearance: anything new, strange, or different from anything before:--_pl._ NOV'ELTIES. [O. Fr. _novel_ (Fr. _nouveau_)--L. _novellus_--_novus_.] NOVEMBER, n[=o]-vem'b[.e]r, _n._ the eleventh month of our year. [The _ninth_ month of the Roman year; L., from _novem_, nine.] NOVENA, n[=o]-v[=e]'na, _n._ a devotion lasting nine days, to obtain a particular request, through the intercession of the Virgin or some saint. [L. _novenus_, nine each, _novem_, nine.] NOVENARY, nov'en-a-ri, _adj._ pertaining to the number nine.--_adj._ NOVENE', going by nines. [L. _novenarius_--_novem_, nine.] NOVENNIAL, n[=o]-ven'yal, _adj._ done every ninth year. [L. _novennis_--_novem_, nine, _annus_, a year.] NOVERCAL, n[=o]-v[.e]r'kal, _adj_. pertaining to or befitting a stepmother. [L. _novercalis_--_noverca_, a stepmother.] NOVERINT, nov'e-rint, _n._ a writ--beginning with the words _noverint universi_--let all men know. [3d pers. pl. perf. subj. of _nosc[)e]re_, to know.] NOVICE, nov'is, _n._ one new in anything: a beginner: one newly received into the church: an inmate of a convent or nunnery who has not yet taken the vow.--_ns._ NOV'ICESHIP; NOVI'CIATE, NOVI'TIATE, the state of being a novice: the period of being a novice: a novice. [Fr.,--L. _novitius_--_novus_, new.] NOVUM, n[=o]'vum, _n._ (_Shak._) a certain game at dice, in which the chief throws were nine and five. NOVUS HOMO, nov'us hom'o, _n._ a new man: one who has risen from a low position to a high dignity. NOW, now, _adv._ at the present time: at this time or a little before.--_conj._ but: after this: things being so.--_n._ the present time.--_advs._ NOW'ADAYS, in days now present.--NOW--NOW, at one time--at another time. [A.S. _nú_; Ger. _nun_, L. _nunc_, Gr. _nun_.] NOWEL, NOËL, n[=o]'el, _n._ Christmas: a joyous shout or song at Christmas: a Christmas carol. [O. Fr. _nowel_, _noel_ (mod. Fr. _noël_; cf. Sp. _natal_, It. _natale_)--L. _natalis_, belonging to one's birthday.] NOWHERE, n[=o]'hw[=a]r, _adv._ in no where or place: at no time.--_adv._ N[=O]'WHITHER, not any whither: to no place: in no direction: nowhere. NOWL, nowl, _n._ (_Shak._). Same as NOUL. NOWT, nowt, _n._ (_Scot._) cattle.--Also NOUT. [_Neat._] NOWY, now'i, _adj._ (_her._) having a convex curvature near the middle.--Also NOWED. [O. Fr. _noue_--L. _nudatus_, knotted.] NOXIOUS, nok'shus, _adj._ hurtful: unwholesome: injurious: destructive: poisonous.--_adj._ NOX'AL, relating to wrongful injury.--_adv._ NOX'IOUSLY.--_n._ NOX'IOUSNESS. [L. _noxius_--_noxa_, hurt--_noc[=e]re_, to hurt.] NOY, noi, _v.t._ (_Spens._). Same as ANNOY. NOYADE, nwa-yad', _n._ an infamous mode of drowning by means of a boat with movable bottom, practised by Carrier at Nantes, 1793-94. [Fr.,--_noyer_, to drown.] NOYANCE, noi'ans, _n._ Same as ANNOYANCE. NOYAU, nwo-y[=o]', _n._ a liqueur flavoured with kernels of bitter almonds or of peach-stones. [Fr., the stone of a fruit--L. _nucalis_, like a nut--_nux_, _nucis_, a nut.] NOYOUS, noi'us, _adj._ (_Spens._) serving to annoy: troublesome: hurtful. [_Annoy._] NOYSOME, noi'sum, _adj._ (_Spens._) noisome (q.v.). NOZZLE, noz'l, _n._ a little nose: the snout: the extremity of anything: the open end of a pipe or tube, as of a bellows, &c. [Dim. of _nose_.] NUANCE, n[=u]-ans', _n._ a delicate degree or shade of difference perceived by any of the senses, or by the intellect. [Fr.,--L. _nubes_, a cloud.] NUB, nub, _v.t._ (_prov._) to push: beckon: hang. NUB, nub, _n._ a knob, knot: point, gist.--_adjs._ NUB'BLY, full of knots; NUB'BY, lumpy, dirty. NUBBLE, nub'l, _v.t._ to beat with the fist. NUBECULA, n[=u]-bek'[=u]-la, _n._ a light film on the eye: a cloudy appearance in urine:--_pl._ NUBEC'ULÆ. NUBIFEROUS, n[=u]-bif'e-rus, _adj._ bringing clouds.--_adjs._ N[=U]BIG'ENOUS, produced by clouds; N[=U]'BILOUS, cloudy, overcast--(_obs._) N[=U]'BILOSE. NUBILE, n[=u]'bil, _adj._ marriageable.--_n._ NUBIL'ITY. [L. _nubilis_--_nub[)e]re_, to veil one's self, hence to marry.] NUCELLUS, n[=u]-sel'us, _n._ the nucleus of the ovule. NUCHAL, n[=u]'kal, _adj._ pertaining to the N[=U]'CHA or nape. NUCIFORM, n[=u]s'i-form, _adj._ nut-shaped.--_adj._ NUCIF'EROUS, nut-bearing. [L. _nux_, _nucis_, nut, _forma_, form.] NUCIFRAGA, n[=u]-sif'ra-ga, _n._ a genus of corvine birds, between crows and jays, the nutcrackers. NUCLEUS, n[=u]'kl[=e]-us, _n._ the central mass round which matter gathers: (_astron._) the head of a comet:--_pl._ NUCLEI (n[=u]'kl[=e]-[=i]).--_adjs._ N[=U]'CL[=E]AL, N[=U]'CL[=E]AR, pertaining to a nucleus.--_v.t._ N[=U]'CL[=E][=A]TE, to gather into or around a nucleus.--_adjs._ N[=U]'CL[=E]ATE, -D, having a nucleus; N[=U]'CL[=E]IFORM.--_ns._ N[=U]'CL[=E]IN, a colourless amorphous proteid, a constituent of cell-nuclei; N[=U]'CLEOBRANCH, one of an order of molluscs which have the gills packed in the shell along with the heart:--_pl._ NUCLEOBRANCHI[)A]'TA; N[=U]'CL[=E][=O]LE, a little nucleus: a nucleus within a nucleus--also NUCL[=E]'OLUS:--_pl._ NUCL[=E]'OLI. [L.,--_nux_, _nucis_, a nut.] NUCULE, n[=u]k'[=u]l, _n._ a little nut: in _Characeæ_ the female sexual organ. [L. _nucula_, dim. of _nux_, _nucis_, a nut.] NUDE, n[=u]d, _adj._ naked: bare: without drapery, as a statue: void, as a contract.--_n._ N[=U]D[=A]'TION, act of making bare.--_adv._ N[=U]DE'LY.--_ns._ N[=U]DE'NESS, N[=U]'DITY, nakedness: want of covering: anything laid bare.--_adjs._ NUDIFL[=O]'ROUS, having the flowers destitute of hairs, glands, &c.; N[=U]DIF[=O]'LIOUS, having bare or smooth leaves; N[=U]DIROS'TRATE, having the rostrum naked.--_n.pl._ N[=U]'DITIES, naked parts: figures divested of drapery.--THE NUDE, the undraped human figure as a branch of art. [L. _nudus_, naked.] NUDGE, nuj, _n._ a gentle push.--_v.t._ to push gently. [Cf. _Knock_, _Knuckle_; Dan. _knuge_.] NUDIBRANCH, n[=u]'di-brangk, _n._ one of an order of gasteropods having no shell, and with the gills exposed on the surface of the body:--_pl._ NUDIBRANCHI[=A]'TA. [L. _nudus_, naked, _branchiæ_, gills.] NUGATORY, n[=u]'ga-tor-i, _adj._ trifling: vain: insignificant: of no power: ineffectual. [L. _nugatorius_,--_nugæ_, jokes, trifles.] NUGGET, nug'et, _n._ a lump or mass, as of a metal. [Prob. _ingot_, with the _n_ of the article.] NUISANCE, n[=u]'sans, _n._ that which annoys or hurts: that which troubles: that which is offensive.--_n._ N[=U]'ISANCER. [Fr.,--L. _noc[=e]re_, to hurt.] NULL, nul, _adj._ of no legal force: void: invalid: of no importance.--_n._ something of no value or meaning, a cipher: a bead-like raised work.--_v.t._ to annul, nullify.--_v.i._ to kink: to form nulls, or into nulls, as in a lathe.--NULLED WORK, woodwork turned by means of a lathe so as to form a series of connected knobs--for rounds of chairs, &c. [L. _nullus_, not any, from _ne_, not, _ullus_, any.] NULLAH, nul'a, _n._ a dry water-course. NULLA-NULLA, nul'a-nul'a, _n._ an Australian's hard-wood club. NULLIFIDIAN, nul-i-fid'i-an, _adj._ having no faith.--_n._ a person in such a condition. [L. _nullus_, none, _fides_, faith.] NULLIFY, nul'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to make null: to annul: to render void or of no force:--_pr.p._ null'ifying; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ null'ified.--_ns._ NULLIFIC[=A]'TION, a rendering void or of none effect, esp. (_U.S._) of a contract by one of the parties, or of a law by one legislature which has been passed by another; NULL'IFIER; NULL'ITY, the state of being null or void: nothingness: want of existence, force, or efficacy. NULLIPARA, nul-lip'a-ra, _n._ a woman who has never given birth to a child, esp. if not a virgin.--_adj._ NULLIP'AROUS. NULLIPENNATE, nul-i-pen'[=a]t, _adj._ having no flight-feathers, as a penguin. NULLIPORE, nul'i-p[=o]r, _n._ a small coral-like seaweed.--_adj._ NULL'IPOROUS. NUMB, num, _adj._ deprived of sensation or motion: powerless to feel or act: stupefied: motionless: (_Shak._) causing numbness.--_v.t._ to make numb: to deaden: to render motionless:--_pr.p._ numbing (num'ing); _pa.p._ numbed (numd).--_adj._ NUMB'-COLD (_Shak._), numbed with cold: causing numbness.--_n._ NUMB'NESS, state of being numb: condition of living body in which it has lost the power of feeling: torpor. [A.S. _numen_, pa.p. of _niman_, to take; so Ice. _numinn_, bereft.] NUMBER, num'b[.e]r, _n._ that by which things are counted or computed: a collection of things: more than one: a unit in counting: a numerical figure: the measure of multiplicity: sounds distributed into harmonies: metre, verse, esp. in _pl._: (_gram._) the difference in words to express singular or plural: (_pl._) the fourth book of the Old Testament.--_v.t._ to count: to reckon as one of a multitude: to mark with a number: to amount to.--_n._ NUM'BERER.--_adj._ NUM'BERLESS, without number: more than can be counted.--_ns._ NUMERABIL'ITY, N[=U]'MERABLENESS.--_adj._ N[=U]'MERABLE, that may be numbered or counted.--_adv._ N[=U]'MERABLY.--_adj._ N[=U]'MERAL, pertaining to, consisting of, or expressing number.--_n._ a figure or mark used to express a number, as 1, 2, 3, &c.: (_gram._) a word used to denote a number.--_adv._ N[=U]'MERALLY, according to number.--_adj._ N[=U]'MERARY, belonging to a certain number: contained within or counting as one of a body or a number--opp. to _Supernumerary_.--_v.t._ N[=U]'MER[=A]TE, to point off and read as figures: (_orig._) to enumerate, to number.--_ns._ N[=U]MER[=A]'TION, act of numbering: the art of reading numbers, and expressing their values; N[=U]'MER[=A]TOR, one who numbers: the upper number of a vulgar fraction, which expresses the number of fractional parts taken.--_adjs._ N[=U]MER'IC, -AL, belonging to, or consisting in, number: the same both in number and kind.--_adv._ N[=U]MER'ICALLY.--_n._ N[=U]MEROS'ITY, numerousness: harmonious flow.--_adj._ N[=U]'MEROUS, great in number: being many.--_adv._ N[=U]'MEROUSLY.--_n._ N[=U]'MEROUSNESS. [Fr. _nombre_--L. _numerus_, number.] NUMBLES, num'bls, _n.pl._ the entrails of a deer. See UMBLES. NUMEROTAGE, n[=u]-me-r[=o]-täzh', _n._ the numbering of yarns so as to denote their fineness. [Fr.] NUMISMATIC, n[=u]-mis-mat'ik, _adj._ pertaining to money, coins, or medals.--_n.sing._ N[=U]MISMAT'ICS, the science of coins and medals.--_ns._ N[=U]MIS'MATIST, one having a knowledge of coins and medals; N[=U]MISMATOG'RAPHY, description of coins; NUMISMATOL'OGIST, one versed in numismatology; N[=U]MISMATOL'OGY, the science of coins and medals in relation to history. [L. _numisma_--Gr. _nomisma_, current coin--_nomizein_, to use commonly--_nomos_, custom.] NUMMARY, num'a-ri, _adj._ relating to coins or money.--_adjs._ NUMM'IFORM, shaped like a coin; NUMM'[=U]LAR, NUMM'[=U]LARY, NUMM'[=U]L[=A]TED, NUMM'[=U]LINE, pertaining to coins: like a coin in shape; NUMM'[=U]LIFORM.--_n._ NUMM'[=U]LITE, a fossil shell resembling a coin.--_adj._ NUMMULIT'IC. [L. _nummus_, a coin.] NUMSKULL, num'skul, _n._ a stupid fellow: a blockhead.--_adj._ NUM'SKULLED. [From _numb_ and _skull_.] NUN, nun, _n._ a female who, under a vow, secludes herself in a religious house, to give her time to devotion: (_zool._) a kind of pigeon with the feathers on its head like the hood of a nun.--_ns._ NUN'-BUOY, a buoy somewhat in the form of a double cone; NUN'NERY, a house for nuns.--_adj._ NUN'NISH.--_ns._ NUN'NISHNESS; NUN'S'-VEIL'ING, a woollen cloth, soft and thin, used by women for veils and dresses. [A.S. _nunne_--Low L. _nunna_, _nonna_, a nun, an old maiden lady, the orig. sig. being 'mother;' cf. Gr. _nann[=e]_, aunt, Sans. _nan[=a]_, a child's word for 'mother.'] NUNC DIMITTIS, nungk di-mit'tis, _n._ 'now lettest thou depart:' the name given to the song of Simeon (Luke, ii. 29-32) in the R.C. Breviary and the Anglican evening service--from the opening words. NUNCHEON, nun'shun, _n._ a luncheon. [Prob. a corr. of _luncheon_, with some reference to _noon_.] NUNCIO, nun'shi-o, _n._ a messenger: one who brings tidings: an ambassador from the Pope to an emperor or a king.--_n._ NUN'CI[=A]T[=U]RE, the office of a nuncio. [It.,--L. _nuncius_, a messenger, one who brings news--prob. a contr. of _noventius_; cf. _novus_, new.] NUNCLE, nung'kl, _n._ (_Shak._) a contr. of _mine uncle_. NUNCUPATIVE, nung'k[=u]-p[=a]-tiv, _adj._ declaring publicly or solemnly: (_law_) verbal, not written, as a will--also NUN'C[=U]P[=A]TORY.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ NUN'CUPATE, to declare solemnly: to declare orally.--_n._ NUNC[=U]P[=A]'TION. [Fr.,--Low L. _nuncupativus_, nominal--L. _nuncup[=a]re_, to call by name--prob. from _nomen_, name, _cap[)e]re_, to take.] NUNDINAL, nun'di-nal, _adj._ pertaining to a fair or market.--Also NUN'DINARY. [L. _nundinæ_, the market-day, properly the ninth day--i.e. from the preceding market-day, both days inclusive--_novem_, nine, _dies_, a day.] NUPHAR, n[=u]'fär, _n._ a genus of yellow water-lilies, the _Nymphæa_. NUPTIAL, nup'shal, _adj._ pertaining to marriage: constituting marriage.--_n.pl._ NUP'TIALS, marriage: wedding ceremony. [Fr.,--L. _nuptialis_--_nuptiæ_, marriage--_nub[)e]re_, _nuptum_, to marry.] NUR, nur, _n._ a knot or knob in wood. See KNURR. NURL, nurl, _v.t._ to mill or indent on the edge.--_ns._ NURL'ING, the milling of a coin: the series of indentations on the edge of some screw-heads: zigzag ornamental engraving; NURL'ING-TOOL. NURSE, nurs, _n._ a woman who nourishes an infant: a mother while her infant is at the breast: one who has the care of infants or of the sick: (_hort._) a shrub or tree which protects a young plant.--_v.t._ to tend, as an infant or a sick person: to bring up: to cherish: to manage with care and economy: to play skilfully, as billiard-balls, in order to get them into the position one wants.--_adj._ NURSE'LIKE (_Shak._), like or becoming a nurse.--_ns._ NURSE'MAID, a girl who takes care of children; NURS'ER, one who nurses: one who promotes growth; NURS'ERY, place for nursing: an apartment for young children: a place where the growth of anything is promoted: (_hort._) a piece of ground where plants are reared; NURS'ERY-GOV'ERNESS; NURS'ERYMAID, a nurse-maid; NURS'ERYMAN, a man who owns or works a nursery: one who is employed in cultivating plants, &c., for sale; NURS'ING-FA'THER (_B._), a foster-father; NURS'LING, that which is nursed: an infant. [O. Fr. _norrice_ (Fr. _nourrice_)--L. _nutrix_--_nutr[=i]re_, to nourish.] NURTURE, nurt'[=u]r, _n._ act of nursing or nourishing: nourishment: education: instruction.--_v.t._ to nourish: to bring up: to educate.--_n._ NURT'URER. [O. Fr. _noriture_ (Fr. _nourriture_)--Low L. _nutritura_--L. _nutr[=i]re_, to nourish.] NUT, nut, _n._ the name popularly given to all those fruits which have the seed enclosed in a bony, woody, or leathery pericarp, not opening when ripe: (_bot._) a one-celled fruit, with a hardened pericarp, containing, when mature, only one seed: often the hazel-nut, sometimes the walnut: a small block of metal for screwing on the end of a bolt.--_v.i._ to gather nuts:--_pr.p._ nut'ting; _pa.p._ nut'ted.--_adj._ NUT'-BROWN, brown, like a ripe old nut.--_ns._ NUT'CRACKER, an instrument for cracking nuts: a genus of birds of the family _Corvidæ_; NUT'-GALL, an excrescence, chiefly of the oak; NUT'HATCH, a genus of birds of the family _Sittidæ_, agile creepers--also NUT'JOBBER, NUT'PECKER; NUT'-HOOK, a stick with a hook at the end for pulling down boughs that the nuts may be gathered: a bailiff, a thief who uses a hook; NUT'MEAL, meal made from the kernels of nuts; NUT'-OIL, an oil obtained from walnuts; NUT'-PINE, one of several pines with large edible seeds; NUT'SHELL, the hard substance that encloses the kernel of a nut: anything of little value; NUT'TER, one who gathers nuts; NUT'TINESS; NUT'TING, the gathering of nuts; NUT'-TREE, any tree bearing nuts, esp. the hazel.--_adj._ NUT'TY, abounding in nuts: having the flavour of nuts.--_n._ NUT'-WRENCH, an instrument for fixing on nuts or removing them from screws.--A NUT TO CRACK, a difficult problem to solve; BE NUTS ON (_slang_), to be very fond of; IN A NUTSHELL, in small compass. [A.S. _hnutu_; Ice. _hnot_, Dut. _noot_, Ger. _nuss_.] NUTANT, n[=u]'tant, _adj._ nodding: (_bot._) having the top of the stem of the flower-cluster bent downward.--_n._ N[=U]T[=A]'TION, a nodding: (_astron._) a periodical and constant change of the angle made by the earth's axis, with the ecliptic, caused by the attraction of the moon on the greater mass of matter round the equator: (_bot._) the turning of flowers towards the sun. [L. _nut[=a]re_, to nod.] NUTMEG, nut'meg, _n._ the aromatic kernel of an East Indian tree, much used as a seasoning in cookery.--_adj._ NUT'MEGGED; NUT'MEGGY. [M. E. _notemuge_, a hybrid word formed from _nut_, and O. Fr. _muge_, musk--L. _muscus_, musk.] NUTRIA, n[=u]'tri-a, _n._ the fur of the coypou, a South American beaver. [Sp.,--L. _lutra_, an otter.] NUTRIMENT, n[=u]'tri-ment, _n._ that which nourishes: that which helps forward growth or development: food.--_adj._ N[=U]'TRIENT, nourishing.--_n._ anything nourishing.--_adj._ N[=U]'TRIMENTAL, having the quality of nutriment or food: nutritious.--_n._ N[=U]TRI'TION, act of nourishing: process of promoting the growth of bodies: that which nourishes: nutriment.--_adjs._ N[=U]TRI'TIONAL; N[=U]TRI'TIOUS, nourishing: promoting growth.--_adv._ N[=U]TRI'TIOUSLY.--_n._ N[=U]TRI'TIOUSNESS.--_adjs._ N[=U]'TRITIVE, N[=U]'TRITORY, nourishing: concerned in nutrition.--_adv._ N[=U]'TRITIVELY.--_ns._ N[=U]'TRITIVENESS; N[=U]TRIT[=O]'RIUM, the nutritive apparatus. [L. _nutrimentum_--_nutr[=i]re_, to nourish.] NUX VOMICA, nuks vom'ik-a, _n._ the seed of an East Indian tree, from which the powerful poison known as strychnine is obtained. [L. _nux_, a nut, _vomicus_, from _vom[)e]re_, to vomit.] NUZZER, nuz'[.e]r, _n._ a present made to a superior. [Ind.] NUZZLE, nuz'l, _v.i._ to rub the nose against: to fondle closely, to cuddle: to nurse or rear.--_v.t._ to touch with the nose: to go with the nose toward the ground.--Also NOUS'LE. [A freq. verb from _nose_.] NYANZA, ni-an'za, _n._ a sheet of water, marsh, the river feeding a lake. [Afr.] NYAS. See EYAS. NYCTALA, nik'ta-la, _n._ a genus of owls of family _Strigidæ_. NYCTALOPIA, nik-ta-l[=o]'pi-a, _n._ the defective vision of persons who can see in a faint light but not in bright daylight: sometimes applied to the opposite defect, inability to see save in a strong daylight--also NYC'TALOPY.--_n._ NYC'TALOPS, one affected with nyctalopia. [Gr. _nyktal[=o]ps_, seeing by night only--_nyx_, _nyktos_, night, _[=o]ps_, vision.] NYCTITROPISM, nik'ti-tr[=o]-pizm, _n._ the so-called sleep of plants, the habit of taking at night certain positions unlike those during the day.--_adj._ NYCTITROP'IC. [Gr. _nyx_, night, _tropos_, a turn.] NYLGHAU, nil'gaw, _n._ a large species of antelope, in North Hindustan, the males of which are of a bluish colour. [Pers. _níl gáw_--_níl_, blue, _gáw_, ox, cow.] NYMPH, nimf, _n._ a young and beautiful maiden: (_myth._) one of the beautiful goddesses who inhabited mountains, rivers, trees, &c.--_adjs._ NYMPH'AL, relating to nymphs; NYMPH[=E]'AN, pertaining to nymphs: inhabited by nymphs; NYMPH'IC, -AL, pertaining to nymphs; NYMPH'ISH, NYMPH'LY, nymph-like; NYMPH'-LIKE.--_ns._ NYMPH'OLEPSY, a species of ecstasy or frenzy said to have seized those who had seen a nymph; NYMPH'OLEPT, a person in frenzy.--_adj._ NYMPHOLEPT'IC.--_ns._ NYMPHOM[=A]'NIA, morbid and uncontrollable sexual desire in women; NYMPHOM[=A]'NIAC, a woman affected with the foregoing.--_adjs._ NYMPHOM[=A]'NIAC, -AL. [Fr.,--L. _nympha_--Gr. _nymph[=e]_, a bride.] NYMPH, nimf, NYMPHA, nimf'a, _n._ the pupa or chrysalis of an insect.--_n.pl._ NYMPHÆ (nimf'[=e]), the labia minora.--_adj._ NYMPHIP'AROUS, producing pupæ.--_ns._ NYMPH[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the nymphæ; NYMPHOT'OMY, the excision of the nymphæ. NYMPHÆA, nim-f[=e]'a, _n._ a genus of water-plants, with beautiful fragrant flowers, including the water-lily, Egyptian lotus, &c. [L. _nympha_, a nymph.] NYS, nis (_Spens._), none is. [_Ne_, not, and _is_.] NYSTAGMUS, nis-tag'mus, _n._ a spasmodic, lateral, oscillatory movement of the eyes, found in miners, &c. [Gr., _nystazein_, to nap.] NYULA, ni-[=u]'la, _n._ an ichneumon. * * * * * O the fifteenth letter and fourth vowel of our alphabet, its sound intermediate between _a_ and _u_--with three values in English, the name-sound heard in _note_, the shorter sound heard in _not_, and the neutral vowel heard in _son_: as a numeral, 'nothing,' or 'zero' (formerly O=11, and ([=O])=11,000): (_chem._) the symbol of oxygen: anything round or nearly so (_pl._ O'S, OES, pron. [=o]z). O, OH, [=o], _interj._ an exclamation of wonder, pain, desire, fear, &c. The form _oh_ is the more usual in prose.--O HONE! OCH HONE! an Irish exclamation of lamentation. [A.S. _eá_.] O, usually written o', an abbrev. for _of_ and _on_. OAF, [=o]f, _n._ a foolish or deformed child left by the fairies in place of another: a dolt, an idiot.--_adj._ OAF'ISH, idiotic, doltish. [_Elf._] OAK, [=o]k, _n._ a tree of about 300 species, the most famous the British oak, valued for its timber in shipbuilding, &c.--_ns._ OAK'-APP'LE, a spongy substance on the leaves of the oak, caused by insects--also OAK'LEAF-GALL; OAK'-BARK, the bark of some species of oak used in tanning.--_adjs._ OAK'-CLEAV'ING (_Shak._), cleaving oaks; OAK'EN, consisting or made of oak.--_ns._ OAK'-GALL, a gall produced on the oak; OAK'-LEATH'ER, a fungus mycelium in the fissures of old oaks; OAK'LING, a young oak; OAK'-P[=A]'PER, paper for wall-hangings veined like oak.--_adj._ OAK'Y, like oak, firm.--OAK-APPLE DAY, the 29th of May, the anniversary of the Restoration in 1660, when country boys used to wear oak-apples in commemoration of Charles II. skulking in the branches of an oak (the ROYAL OAK) from Cromwell's troopers after Worcester.--SPORT ONE'S OAK, in English university slang, to signify that one does not wish visitors by closing the outer door of one's rooms; THE OAKS, one of the three great English races--for mares--the others being the Derby and St Leger. [A.S. _ác_; Ice. _eik_, Ger. _eiche_.] OAKER, [=o]k'[.e]r, _n._ (_Spens._) ochre. OAKUM, [=o]k'um, _n._ old ropes untwisted and teased into loose hemp for caulking the seams of ships. [A.S. _ácumba_, _['æ]cemba_--_cemban_, to comb.] OAR, [=o]r, _n._ a light pole with a flat feather or spoon-shaped end (the _blade_) for propelling a boat: an oar-like appendage for swimming, as the antennæ of an insect or crustacean, &c.: an oarsman.--_v.t._ to impel by rowing.--_v.i._ to row.--_n._ OAR'AGE, oars collectively.--_adj._ OARED, furnished with oars.--_ns._ OAR'LAP, a rabbit with its ears standing out at right-angles to the head; OAR'-LOCK, a rowlock; OARS'MAN, one who rows with an oar; OARS'MANSHIP, skill in rowing.--_adj._ OAR'Y, having the form or use of oars.--BOAT OARS, to bring the oars inboard; FEATHER OARS, to turn the blades parallel to the water when reaching back for another stroke; LIE ON THE OARS, to cease rowing without shipping the oars: to rest, take things easily: to cease from work; PUT IN ONE'S OAR, to give advice when not wanted; SHIP, or UNSHIP, OARS, to place the oars in the rowlocks, or to take them out. [A.S. _ár_.] OARIUM, [=o]-[=a]'ri-um, _n._ an ovary or ovarium. OASIS, [=o]-[=a]'sis, _n._ a fertile spot in a sandy desert: any place of rest or pleasure in the midst of toil and gloom:--_pl._ OASES ([=o]-[=a]'s[=e]z). [L.,--Gr. _oasis_, an Egyptian word; cf. Coptic _ouahe_.] OAST, [=o]st, _n._ a kiln to dry hops or malt.--_n._ OAST'-HOUSE. [A.S. _ást_.] OAT, [=o]t (oftener in _pl._ OATS, [=o]ts), _n._ a well-known grassy plant, the seeds of which are much used as food: its seeds: a musical pipe of oat-straw: a shepherd's pipe, pastoral song generally.--_n._ OAT'CAKE, a thin broad cake made of oatmeal.--_adj._ OAT'EN, consisting of an oat stem or straw: made of oatmeal.--_ns._ OAT'-GRASS, two species of oat, useful more as fodder than for the seed; OAT'MEAL, meal made of oats.--SOW ONE'S WILD OATS, to indulge in the usual youthful dissipations. [A.S. _áta_, pl. _átan_.] OATH, [=o]th, _n._ a solemn statement with an appeal to God as witness, and a calling for punishment from Him in case of falsehood or of failure, also the form of words in which such is made--_oath of abjuration_, _allegiance_, &c.: an irreverent use of God's name in conversation or in any way: any merely exclamatory imprecation, &c.:--_pl._ OATHS ([=o]_th_z).--_adj._ OATH'ABLE (_Shak._), capable of having an oath administered to.--_n._ OATH'-BREAK'ING (_Shak._), the violation of an oath, perjury.--UPON ONE'S OATH, sworn to speak the truth. [A.S. _áth_; Ger. _eid_, Ice. _eithr_.] OB., for _objection_, just as _sol._ for _solution_, on the margins of old books of controversial divinity.--_n._ OB'-AND-SOL'ER, a disputant, polemic. OBANG, [=o]-bang', _n._ an old Japanese oblong gold coin. OBBLIGATO, ob-li-gä'to, _adj._ that cannot be done without.--_n._ a musical accompaniment, itself of independent importance, esp. that of a single instrument to a vocal piece.--Also OBLIGA'TO. [It.] OBCONIC, -AL, ob-kon'ik, -al, _adj._ inversely conical. OBCORDATE, ob-kor'd[=a]t, _adj._ (_bot._) inversely heart-shaped, as a leaf. OBDURATE, ob'd[=u]-r[=a]t, _adj._ hardened in heart or in feelings: difficult to influence, esp. in a moral sense: stubborn: harsh.--_n._ OB'D[=U]RACY, state of being obdurate: invincible hardness of heart.--_adv._ OB'D[=U]RATELY.--_ns._ OB'D[=U]RATENESS, OBD[=U]R[=A]'TION.--_adj._ OBD[=U]RED', hardened. [L. _obdur[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ob_, against, _dur[=a]re_, to harden--_durus_, hard.] OBEAH. See OBI. OBEDIENCE, [=o]-b[=e]'di-ens, _n._ state of being obedient: willingness to obey commands: dutifulness: the collective body of persons subject to any particular authority: a written instruction from the superior of an order to those under him: any official position under an abbot's jurisdiction.--_adjs._ OB[=E]'DIENT, willing to obey; OB[=E]DIEN'TIAL, submissive: obligatory.--_adv._ OB[=E]'DIENTLY.--CANONICAL OBEDIENCE, the obedience, as regulated by the canons, of an ecclesiastic to another of higher rank; PASSIVE OBEDIENCE, unresisting and unquestioning obedience to authority, like that taught by some Anglican divines as due even to faithless and worthless kings like Charles II. and James II. OBEISANCE, [=o]-b[=a]'sans, or [=o]-b[=e]'sans, _n._ obedience: a bow or act of reverence: an expression of respect.--_adj._ OB[=E]'ISANT. [Fr.,--_obéir_--L. _obed[=i]re_, to obey.] OBELION, [=o]-b[=e]'li-on, _n._ a point in the sagittal suture of the skull, between the two parietal foramina. [Gr. _obelos_, a spit.] OBELISK, ob'e-lisk, _n._ a tall, four-sided, tapering pillar, usually of one stone, finished at the top like a flat pyramid: (_print._) a dagger ( + ).--_adj._ OB'ELISCAL.--_v.t._ OB'ELISE, to mark with an obelisk, to condemn as spurious, indelicate, &c.--_n._ OB'ELUS, a mark ( -- or ÷ ) used in ancient MSS. to mark suspected passages, esp. in the Septuagint to indicate passages not in the Hebrew:--_pl._ OB'ELI. [Through Fr. and L., from Gr. _obeliskos_, dim. of _obelos_, a spit.] OBERHAUS, [=o]'ber-hows, _n._ the upper house in those German legislative bodies that have two chambers. [Ger. _ober_, upper, _haus_, house.] OBERLAND, [=o]'ber-lant, _n._ highlands, as the Bernese Oberland in Switzerland. OBERON, [=o]'ber-on, king of the fairies, husband of Titania. OBESE, [=o]-b[=e]s', _adj._ fat: fleshy.--_ns._ OBESE'NESS, OBES'ITY, fatness: abnormal fatness. [L. _obesus_--_ob_, up, _ed[)e]re_, _esum_, to eat.] OBEX, [=o]'beks, _n._ a barrier: a thickening at the calamus scriptorius of the medulla oblongata. [L., _objic[)e]re_, to throw before.] OBEY, [=o]-b[=a]', _v.t._ to do as told by: to be ruled by: to yield to: to carry out or perform.--_v.i._ to submit to power, &c.: (_B._) to yield obedience (followed by _to_).--_n._ OBEY'ER.--_adv._ OBEY'INGLY, obediently. [Fr. _obéir_--L. _obed[=i]re_--_ob_, near, _aud[=i]re_, to hear.] OBFUSCATE, ob-fus'k[=a]t, _v.t._ to darken: to confuse.--_n._ OBFUSC[=A]'TION. [L. _obfusc[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ob_, inten., _fuscus_, dark.] OBI, [=o]'bi, _n._ a kind of sorcery practised by _obeah-men_ and _obeah-women_ among the negroes of the West Indies and United States, a survival of African magic: a fetish or charm--also O'BEA, O'BEAH, O'BY.--_n._ O'BIISM. [Prob. Afr.] OBI, [=o]'bi, _n._ a broad, gaily embroidered sash worn by Japanese women. [Jap.] OBIT, [=o]'bit, or ob'it, _n._ death: the fact or the date of death: funeral ceremonies: the anniversary of a person's death, or a service at such time.--_adj._ OBIT'UAL, pertaining to obits.--_adv._ OBIT'UARILY.--_n._ OBIT'UARIST, a writer of obituaries.--_adj._ OBIT'UARY, relating to the death of a person or persons.--_n._ a register of deaths (_orig._) in a monastery: an account of a deceased person, or a notice of his death. [Fr.,--L. _obitus_--_ob[=i]re_--_ob_, to, _[=i]re_, to go.] OBJECT, ob-jekt', _v.t._ to place before the view: to throw in the way of: to offer in opposition: to oppose.--_v.i._ to oppose: to give a reason against.--_n._ OBJECTIFIC[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ OBJECT'IFY, to make objective.--_n._ OBJEC'TION, act of objecting: anything said or done in opposition: argument against.--_adj._ OBJEC'TIONABLE, that may be objected to: requiring to be disapproved of.--_adv._ OBJEC'TIONABLY, in an objectionable manner or degree.--_adj._ OBJECT'IVE, relating to an object: being exterior to the mind: substantive, self-existent: setting forth what is external, actual, practical, apart from the sensations or emotions of the speaker: as opposed to _Subjective_, pertaining to that which is real or exists in nature, in contrast with what is ideal or exists merely in thought: (_gram._) belonging to the case of the object.--_n._ (_gram._) the case of the object: in microscopes, &c., the lens which brings the rays to a focus: the point to which the operations of an army are directed.--_adv._ OBJECT'IVELY.--_ns._ OBJECT'IVENESS; OBJECT'IVISM.--_adj._ OBJECTIVIST'IC.--_ns._ OBJECTIV'ITY, state of being objective; OBJECT'OR. [Fr.,--L. _object[=a]re_, a freq. of _objic[)e]re_, _-jectum_--_ob_, in the way of, _jac[)e]re_, to throw.] OBJECT, ob'jekt, _n._ anything perceived or set before the mind: that which is sought after, or that toward which an action is directed: end: motive: (_gram._) that toward which the action of a transitive verb is directed.--_ns._ OB'JECT-FIND'ER, a device in microscopes for locating an object in the field before examination by a higher power; OB'JECT-GLASS, the glass at the end of a telescope or microscope next the object; OB'JECTIST, one versed in the objective philosophy.--_adj._ OB'JECTLESS, having no object: purposeless.--_ns._ OB'JECT-LESS'ON, a lesson in which the object to be described, or a representation of it, is shown; OB'JECT-SOUL, a vital principle attributed by the primitive mind to inanimate objects. OBJURE, ob-j[=oo]r', _v.i._ to swear.--_n._ OBJUR[=A]'TION, act of binding by oath. OBJURGATION, ob-jur-g[=a]'shun, _n._ act of chiding: a blaming, reproof: reprehension.--_v.t._ OBJUR'GATE, to chide.--_adj._ OBJUR'GATORY, expressing blame or reproof. [Fr.,--L.,--_ob_, against, _jurg[=a]re_, to sue at law--_jus_, law, _ag[)e]re_, to drive.] OBLANCEOLATE, ob-lan'se-o-l[=a]t, _adj._ (_bot._) shaped like the head of a lance reversed, as a leaf. OBLATE, ob-l[=a]t', _n._ a secular person devoted to a monastery, but not under its vows, esp. one of the Oblate Fathers or Oblate Sisters: one dedicated to a religious order from childhood, or who takes the cowl in anticipation of death: a loaf of altar-bread before its consecration.--_n._ OBL[=A]'TION, act of offering: anything offered in worship or sacred service, esp. a eucharistic offering: an offering generally.--GREAT OBLATION, the solemn offering or presentation in memorial before God of the consecrated elements, as sacramentally the body and blood of Christ; LESSER OBLATION, the offertory. [L. _oblatus_, offered up.] OBLATE, ob-l[=a]t', _adj._ flattened at opposite sides or poles: shaped like an orange.--_ns._ OBLATE'NESS, flatness at the poles; OBLATE'-SPHER'OID, a spherical body flattened at the poles. [L. _oblatus_, pa.p. of _offerre_, to offer--_ob_, against, _ferre_, to bring.] OBLIGATO. See OBBLIGATO. OBLIGE, [=o]-bl[=i]j', _v.t._ to bind or constrain: to bind by some favour rendered, hence to do a favour to.--_adj._ OB'LIGABLE, that can be held to a promise or an undertaking: true to a promise or a contract.--_n._ OB'LIGANT, one who binds himself to another to pay or to perform something.--_v.t._ OB'LIG[=A]TE, to constrain: to bind by contract or duty:--_pr.p._ ob'lig[=a]ting; _pa.p._ ob'lig[=a]ted.--_n._ OBLIG[=A]'TION, act of obliging: the power which binds to a promise, a duty, &c.: any act which binds one to do something for another: that to which one is bound: state of being indebted for a favour: (_law_) a bond containing a penalty in case of failure.--_adv._ OB'LIGATORILY.--_n._ OB'LIGATORINESS.--_adj._ OB'LIG[=A]TORY, binding: imposing duty.--_ns._ OBLIGEE (ob-li-j[=e]'), the person to whom another is obliged; OBLIGE'MENT, a favour conferred.--_adj._ OBLIG'ING, disposed to confer favours: ready to do a good turn.--_adv._ OBLIG'INGLY.--_ns._ OBLIG'INGNESS; OB'LIGOR (_law_), the person who binds himself to another. [Fr.,--L. _oblig[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ob_, before, _lig[=a]re_, to bind.] OBLIQUE, ob-l[=e]k', _adj._ slanting: not perpendicular: not parallel: not straightforward: obscure: (_geom._) not a right-angle: (_gram._) denoting any case except the nominative.--_v.i._ to deviate from a direct line or from the perpendicular, to slant: to advance obliquely by facing half right or left and then advancing.--_ns._ OBLIQU[=A]'TION, OBLIQUE'NESS, OBLIQ'UITY, state of being oblique: a slanting direction: error or wrong: irregularity.--_adv._ OBLIQUE'LY.--_adj._ OBLIQ'UID (_Spens._), oblique.--OBLIQUE CONE or CYLINDER, one whose axis is oblique to the plane of its base; OBLIQUE NARRATION or SPEECH (L. _oratio obliqua_), indirect narration, the actual words of the speaker, but, as related by a third person, having the first person in pronoun and verb converted into the third, adverbs of present time into the corresponding adverbs of past time, &c.; OBLIQUE SAILING, the reduction of the position of a ship from the various courses made good, oblique to the meridian or parallel of latitude; OBLIQUITY OF THE ECLIPTIC, the angle between the plane of the earth's orbit and that of the earth's equator. [Fr.,--L. _obliquus_--_ob_, before, _liquis_, slanting.] OBLITERATE, ob-lit'[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.t._ to blot out, so as not to be readable: to wear out: to destroy: to reduce to a very low state.--_n._ OBLITER[=A]'TION, act of obliterating: a blotting or wearing out: extinction.--_adj._ OBLIT'ER[=A]TIVE. [L. _obliter[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ob_, over, _litera_, a letter.] OBLIVION, ob-liv'i-un, _n._ act of forgetting or state of being forgotten: remission of punishment.--_adj._ OBLIV'IOUS, forgetful: prone to forget: causing forgetfulness.--_adv._ OBLIV'IOUSLY.--_ns._ OBLIV'IOUSNESS; OBLIVISC'ENCE. [Fr.,--L. _oblivion-em_--_oblivisci_, to forget.] OBLONG, ob'long, _adj._ long in one way: longer than broad.--_n._ (_geom._) a rectangle longer than broad: any oblong figure.--_adj._ OB'LONGISH.--_adv._ OB'LONGLY.--_n._ OB'LONGNESS. [Fr.,--L. _ob_, over, _longus_, long.] OBLOQUY, ob'lo-kwi, _n._ reproachful language: censure: calumny: disgrace. [L. _obloquium_--_ob_, against, _loqui_, to speak.] OBMUTESCENCE, ob-m[=u]-tes'ens, _n._ loss of speech, dumbness. [L. _obmutesc[)e]re_, to become dumb.] OBNOXIOUS, ob-nok'shus, _adj._ liable to hurt or punishment: exposed to: guilty: blameworthy: offensive: subject: answerable.--_adv._ OBNOX'IOUSLY.--_n._ OBNOX'IOUSNESS. [L.,--_ob_, before, _noxa_, hurt.] OBNUBILATION, ob-n[=u]-bi-l[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of making dark or obscure.--_v.t._ OBN[=U]'BIL[=A]TE. [Low L. _obnubilare_, to cloud over--L. _ob_, over, _nubilus_, cloudy.] OBOE, [=o]'b[=o]-e, _n._ a treble reed musical instrument, usually with fifteen keys, with a rich tone, giving the pitch to the violin in the orchestra: a treble stop on the organ, its bass being the bassoon--also _Hautboy._--_n._ O'B[=O]IST, a player on the oboe.--OBOE D'AMORE, an obsolete alto oboe; OBOE DI CACCIA, an obsolete tenor oboe, or rather tenor bassoon. [Fr. _hautbois_.] OBOL, ob'ol, _n._ in ancient Greece, a small coin, worth rather more than three-halfpence: also a weight, the sixth part of a drachma--also OB'OLUS:--_pl._ OB'OLI ([=i]).--_adj_. OB'OLARY, consisting of obols: extremely poor. [Gr. _obelos_, a spit.] OBOVATE, ob-[=o]'v[=a]t, _adj_. _(bot.)_ egg-shaped, as a leaf, with the narrow end next the leaf-stalk.--_adv._ OB[=O]'V[=A]TELY.--_adj_. OB[=O]'VOID, solidly obovate. OBREPTION, ob-rep'shun, _n._ obtaining of gifts of escheat by falsehood--opp. to _Subreption_ (q.v.).--_adj._ OBREPTIT'IOUS. OBSCENE, ob-s[=e]n', _adj_. offensive to chastity: unchaste: indecent: disgusting: ill-omened.--_adv_. OBSCENE'LY.--_ns._ OBSCENE'NESS, OBSCEN'ITY, quality of being obscene: lewdness. [L. _obscenus_.] OBSCURE, ob-sk[=u]r', _adj_. dark: not distinct: not easily understood: not clear, legible, or perspicuous: unknown: humble: unknown to fame: living in darkness.--_v.t._ to darken: to make less plain: to render doubtful.--_ns._ OBSC[=U]'RANT, one who labours to prevent enlightenment or reform; OBSC[=U]'RANTISM, opposition to inquiry or reform; OBSC[=U]'RANTIST, an obscurant.--_adj_. pertaining to obscurantism.--_n._ OBSC[=U]R[=A]'TION, the act of obscuring or state of being obscured.--_adv_. OBSC[=U]RE'LY.--_ns._ OBSC[=U]RE'MENT; OBSC[=U]RE'NESS; OBSC[=U]'RER; OBSC[=U]'RITY, state or quality of being obscure: darkness: an obscure place or condition: unintelligibleness: humility. [Fr.,--L. _obscurus_.] OBSECRATE, ob'se-kr[=a]t, _v._ to beseech: to implore.--_n._ OBSECR[=A]'TION, supplication: one of the clauses in the Litany beginning with _by._--_adj_. OB'SECR[=A]TORY, supplicatory. [L. _obsecr[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to entreat; _ob_, before, _sacr[=a]re_--_sacer_, sacred.] OBSEQUIES, ob'se-kwiz, _n.pl._ funeral rites and solemnities:--_sing._ OB'SEQUY (_Milt._)--rarely used.--_adj_. OBS[=E]'QUIAL. [Fr. _obsèques_--L. _obsequiæ_--_ob_, before, upon, sequi, to comply.] OBSEQUIOUS, ob-s[=e]'kwi-us, _adj_. compliant to excess: meanly condescending.--_adv_. OBS[=E]'QUIOUSLY.--_n._ OBS[=E]'QUIOUSNESS. [Fr.,--L. _obsequiosus_, compliant, _obsequium_, compliance.] OBSERVE, ob-z[.e]rv', _v.t._ to keep in view: to notice: to subject to systematic observation: to regard attentively: to remark, refer to in words: to comply with: to heed and to carry out in practice: to keep with proper ceremony: to keep or guard.--_v.i._ to take notice: to attend: to remark.--_adj._ OBSERV'ABLE, that may be observed or noticed: worthy of observation: remarkable: requiring to be observed.--_n._ OBSERV'ABLENESS.--_adv_. OBSERV'ABLY.--_ns._ OBSERV'ANCE, act of observing or paying attention to: performance: attention: that which is to be observed: rule of practice, a custom to be observed: reverence: homage; OBSERV'ANCY, observance: obsequiousness.--_adj._ OBSERV'ANT, observing: having powers of observing and noting: taking notice: adhering to: carefully attentive.--_n._ (_Shak._) an obsequious attendant: one strict to comply with a custom, &c.; or OBSERV'ANTINE, one of those Franciscan monks of stricter rule who separated from the Conventuals in the 15th century.--_adv._ OBSERV'ANTLY.--_n._ OBSERV[=A]'TION, act of observing: habit of seeing and noting: attention: the act of recognising and noting phenomena as they occur in nature, as distinguished from _experiment:_ that which is observed: a remark: performance: the fact of being observed.--_adj_. OBSERV[=A]'TIONAL, consisting of, or containing, observations or remarks: derived from observation, as distinguished from _experiment_.--_adv._ OBSERV[=A]'TIONALLY.--_adj._ OBSER'VATIVE, attentive.--_ns._ OB'SERV[=A]TOR, one who observes: a remarker; OBSERV'ATORY, a place for making astronomical and physical observations, usually placed in some high and stable place; OBSERV'ER.--_adj._ OBSERV'ING, habitually taking notice: attentive.--_adv._ OBSERV'INGLY. [Fr.,--L. _observ[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ob_, before, _serv[=a]re_, to keep.] OBSESSION, ob-sesh'un, _n._ persistent attack, esp. of an evil spirit upon a person: the state of being so molested from without--opp. to _Possession_, or control by an evil spirit from within. [L. _obsession-em_--_obsid[=e]re_, to besiege.] OBSIDIAN, ob-sid'i-an, _n._ a natural glass--the vitreous condition of an acid lava. [From _Obsidius_, who, according to Pliny, discovered it in Ethiopia.] OBSIDIONAL, ob-sid'i-[=o]-nal, _adj._ pertaining to a siege.--Also OBSID'IONARY. OBSIGNATE, ob-sig'n[=a]t, _v.t._ to seal, confirm.--_n._ OBSIGN[=A]'TION. OBSOLESCENT, ob-so-les'ent, _adj._ going out of use.--_n._ OBSOLESC'ENCE.--_adj._ OB'SOLETE, gone out of use: antiquated: (_zool._) obscure: not clearly marked or developed: rudimental.--_adv._ OB'SOLETELY.--_ns._ OB'SOLETENESS; OBSOL[=E]'TION (_rare_); OB'SOLETISM. [L. _obsolescens_, _-entis_, _pr.p._ of _obsolesc[)e]re_, _obsoletum_--_ob_, before, _sol[=e]re_, to be wont.] OBSTACLE, ob'sta-kl, _n._ anything that stands in the way of or hinders progress: obstruction.--OBSTACLE RACE, a race in which obstacles have to be surmounted or circumvented. [Fr.,--L. _obstaculum_--_ob_, in the way of, _st[=a]re_, to stand.] OBSTETRIC, -AL, ob-stet'rik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to midwifery.--_ns._ OBSTETRIC'IAN, one skilled in obstetrics; OBSTET'RICS, the science of midwifery, or the delivery of women in childbed; OBSTET'RIX, a midwife. [L. _obstetricius_--_obstetrix_, _-icis_, a midwife--_ob_, before, _st[=a]re_, to stand.] OBSTINATE, ob'sti-n[=a]t, _adj._ blindly or excessively firm: unyielding: stubborn: not easily subdued or remedied.--_ns._ OB'STINACY, OB'STINATENESS, the condition of being obstinate: excess of firmness: stubbornness: fixedness that yields with difficulty, as a disease.--_adv._ OB'STINATELY. [L. _obstin[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ob_, in the way of, _st[=a]re_, to stand.] OBSTIPATION, ob-sti-p[=a]'shun, _n._ extreme costiveness. OBSTREPEROUS, ob-strep'[.e]r-us, _adj._ making a loud noise: clamorous: noisy.--_v.i._ OBSTREP'ER[=A]TE (_Sterne_).--_adv._ OBSTREP'EROUSLY.--_n._ OBSTREP'EROUSNESS. [L. _obstreperus_--_ob_, before, _strep[)e]re_, to make a noise.] OBSTRICTION, ob-strik'shun, _n._ obligation. [L. _obstring[)e]re_, _obstrictum_, to bind up.] OBSTROPULOUS, ob-strop'[=u]-lus, _adj._ a vulgar form of _obstreperous_. OBSTRUCT, ob-strukt', _v.t._ to block up, to hinder from passing, to retard.--_ns._ OBSTRUC'TER, OBSTRUC'TOR, one who obstructs; OBSTRUC'TION, act of obstructing: that which hinders progress or action: opposition, esp. in a legislative assembly; OBSTRUC'TIONIST.--_adj._ OBSTRUC'TIVE, tending to obstruct: hindering.--_n._ one who opposes progress.--_adv._ OBSTRUCT'IVELY.--_adj._ OB'STRUENT, obstructing: blocking up.--_n._ (_med._) anything that obstructs, esp. in the passages of the body. [L. _obstru[)e]re_, _obstructum_--_ob_, in the way of, _stru[)e]re_, _structum_, to pile up.] OBTAIN, ob-t[=a]n', _v.t._ to lay hold of: to hold: to procure by effort: to gain: to keep possession of.--_v.i._ to be established: to continue in use: to become customary or prevalent: to hold good: (_rare_) to succeed.--_adj._ OBTAIN'ABLE, that may be obtained, procured, or acquired.--_ns._ OBTAIN'ER; OBTAIN'MENT; OBTEN'TION, procurement.--OBTAIN TO (_Bacon_), to attain to. [Fr.,--L. _obtin[=e]re_--_ob_, upon, _ten[=e]re_, to hold.] OBTECTED, ob-tek'ted, _adj._ covered, protected by a chitonous case, as the pupæ of most flies. [L. _obteg[)e]re_, _obtectum_, to cover over.] OBTEMPER, ob-tem'per, _v.t._ to yield obedience to (with _to_, _unto_). [L. _obtemper[=a]re_.] OBTEND, ob-tend', _v.t._ (_obs._) to oppose: to allege. [L. _obtend[)e]re_, to stretch before.] OBTEST, ob-test', _v.t._ to call upon, as a witness: to beg for.--_v.i._ to protest.--_n._ OBTEST[=A]'TION, act of calling to witness: a supplication. [L. _obtest[=a]ri_, to call as a witness--_ob_, before, _testis_, a witness.] OBTRUDE, ob-tr[=oo]d', _v.t._ to thrust in upon when not wanted: to urge upon against the will of.--_v.i._ to thrust one's self or be thrust upon.--_ns._ OBTRUD'ER; OBTRUD'ING, OBTRU'SION, a thrusting in or upon against the will of.--_adj._ OBTRUS'IVE, disposed to thrust one's self among others.--_adv._ OBTRUS'IVELY.--_n._ OBTRUS'IVENESS. [L. _obtrud[)e]re_--_ob_, before, _trud[)e]re_, _trusum_, to thrust.] OBTRUNCATE, ob-trung'k[=a]t, _v.t._ to cut or lop off. [L. _obtrunc[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ob_, before, _trunc[=a]re_, cut off.] OBTUND, ob-tund', _v.t._ to dull or blunt, to deaden.--_adj._ OBTUND'ENT, dulling.--_n._ an oily mucilage for sores: an application to deaden the nerve of a tooth. [L. _obtund[)e]re_, to strike upon.] OBTURATE, ob't[=u]-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to close or stop up.--_ns._ OBTUR[=A]'TION, the act of stopping up, esp. in gunnery, of a hole to prevent the escape of gas; OB'T[=U]R[=A]TOR, that which stops or closes up, as a device of this kind in gunnery, &c.: in surgery, an artificial plate for closing an abnormal aperture or fissure, as with cleft palate, &c., or for distending an opening, as in lithotomy: any structure that shuts off a cavity or passage, esp. in anatomy, the membrane vessels, &c., closing the _obturator foramen_, or _thyroid foramen_, a large opening or fenestra in the anterior part of the hip-bone. [L. _obtur[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to stop up.] OBTURBINATE, ob-tur'bi-n[=a]t, _adj._ inversely top-shaped. OBTUSE, ob-t[=u]s', _adj._ blunt: not pointed: (_bot._) blunt or rounded at the point, as a leaf: stupid: not shrill: (_geom._) greater than a right angle.--_adjs._ OBTUSE'-ANG'LED, OBTUSE'-ANG'ULAR, having an angle greater than a right angle.--_adv._ OBTUSE'LY.--_ns._ OBTUSE'NESS, OBTUS'ITY. [Fr.,--L. _obtusus_--_obtund[)e]re_, to blunt--_ob_, against, _tund[)e]re_, to beat.] OBUMBRATE, ob-um'br[=a]t, _v.t._ to overshadow, to darken.--_adj._ lying under some projecting part, as the abdomen of certain spiders.--_adj._ OBUM'BRANT, overhanging. [L. _obumbr[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to overshadow.] OBVALLATE, ob-val'[=a]t, _adj._ walled up. [L. _obvall[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to wall round.] OBVELATION, ob-v[=e]-l[=a]'shun, _n._ concealment. OBVENTION, ob-ven'shun, _n._ (_obs._) any incidental occurrence, or advantage, esp. an offering. OBVERSE, ob-v[.e]rs', _adj._ turned towards one: bearing the head, as one face of a coin--opp. to _Reverse_: a second or complemental aspect of the same fact, a correlative proposition identically, implying another: (_bot._) having the base narrower than the top.--_n._ OB'VERSE, the side of a coin containing the head, or principal symbol.--_adv._ OBVERSE'LY.--_n._ OBVER'SION, the act of turning toward the front of anything: in logic, a species of immediate inference--viz. the predicating of the original subject, the contradictory of the original predicate, and changing the quality of the proposition--e.g. to infer from _all_ A is B that _no_ A is not B--also called _Permutation_ and _Equipollence_.--_v.t._ OBVERT', to turn towards the front. [L. _obversus_--_ob_, towards, _vert[)e]re_, to turn.] OBVIATE, ob'vi-[=a]t, _v.t._ to meet on the way, hence to remove, as difficulties. [L. _obvi[=a]re_, -[=a]tum--_ob_, in the way of, _vi[=a]re_, _vi[=a]tum_, to go--_via_, a way.] OBVIOUS, ob'vi-us, _adj._ meeting one in the way: easily discovered or understood: evident.--_adv._ OB'VIOUSLY.--_n._ OB'VIOUSNESS. [L. _obvius_.] OBVOLUTE, -D, ob'vo-l[=u]t, -ed, _adj._ rolled or turned in, as two leaves in a bud, one edge of each out and the other in, as in the poppy.--_adj._ OBVOL'VENT, curved downward or inward. [L. _obvolutus_--_ob_, before, _volv[)e]re_, _volutum_, to roll.] OCARINA, ok-a-r[=e]'na, _n._ a kind of musical instrument with a whistling sound, made of terra-cotta, with finger-holes and a mouthpiece. [It.] OCCAMISM, ok'am-mizm, _n._ the doctrine of the nominalist schoolman, William of _Occam_ or _Ockham_ (_c._ 1270-1349).--_n._ OCC'AMIST, a follower of Occam. OCCAMY, ok'a-mi, _n._ a silvery alloy. [_Alchemy._] OCCASION, o-k[=a]'zhun, _n._ a case of something happening: a special time or season: a chance of bringing about something desired: an event which, although not the cause, determines the time at which another happens: a reason or excuse: opportunity: requirement, business: a special ceremony.--_v.t._ to cause indirectly: to influence.--_adj._ OCC[=A]'SIONAL, falling in the way or happening: occurring only at times: resulting from accident: produced on some special event.--_ns._ OCC[=A]'SIONALISM, the philosophical system of the Cartesian school for explaining the action of mind upon matter, or the combined action of both by the direct intervention of God, who on the occasion of certain modifications in our minds, excites the corresponding movements of body, and on the occasion of certain changes in our body, awakens the corresponding feelings in the mind; OCC[=A]'SIONALIST; OCCASIONAL'ITY.--_adv._ OCC[=A]'SIONALLY.--_n._ OCC[=A]'SIONER.--ON OCCASION, in case of need: as opportunity offers, from time to time; TAKE OCCASION, to take advantage of an opportunity. [Fr.,--L. _occasion-em_--_occid[)e]re_--_ob_, in the way of, _cad[)e]re_, _casum_, to fall.] OCCIDENT, ok'si-dent, _n._ the western quarter of the sky where the sun goes down or sets: the west generally.--_adj._ OCCIDEN'TAL, noting the quarter where the sun goes down or sets: western: relatively less precious, as a gem.--_n._ a native of some occidental country--opp. to _Oriental_.--_v.t._ OCCIDEN'TALISE, to cause to conform to western ideas or customs.--_ns._ OCCIDEN'TALISM, habits, &c., of occidental peoples; OCCIDEN'TALIST, a student of occidental languages--opp. to _Orientalist_: an individual belonging to an oriental country who favours western ideas, customs, &c.--_adv._ OCCIDEN'TALLY. [Fr.,--L. _occidens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _occid[)e]re_, to fall down.] OCCIPUT, ok'si-put, _n._ the back part of the head or skull.--_adj._ OCCIP'ITAL, pertaining to the occiput or back part of the head.--_n._ the occipital bone.--_adv._ OCCIP'ITALLY.--_adjs._ OCCIP'ITO-AX'IAL, of or pertaining to the occipital bone and to the axis or second cervical vertebra; OCCIP'ITO-FRONT'AL, pertaining to the occiput and to the forehead; OCCIP'ITO-TEM'PORAL, pertaining to the occipital and temporal regions. [L.,--_ob_, over against, _caput_, head.] OCCLUDE, o-kl[=oo]d', _v.t._ to absorb, as a gas by a metal.--_adj._ OCCLU'DENT, serving to close.--_n._ OCCLU'SION, a closing of an opening, passage, or cavity: the act of occluding or absorbing.--_adj._ OCCLU'SIVE, serving to close.--_n._ OCCLU'SOR, that which closes, esp. an organ for closing an opening in a body. [L. _occlud[)e]re_,--_ob_, before, _claud[)e]re_, to shut.] OCCULT, ok-kult', _adj._ covered over: escaping observation: hidden: not discovered without test or experiment: secret, unknown, transcending the bounds of natural knowledge.--_n._ OCCULT[=A]'TION, a concealing, esp. of one of the heavenly bodies by another: state of being hid.--_adj._ OCCULT'ED (_Shak._), hidden, secret: (_astron._) concealed, as by a body coming between.--_ns._ OCCULT'ISM, the doctrine or study of things hidden or mysterious--theosophy, &c.; OCCULT'IST, one who believes in occult things.--_adv._ OCCULT'LY.--_n._ OCCULT'NESS.--OCCULT SCIENCES, alchemy, astrology, magic, &c. [Fr.,--L. _occul[)e]re_, _occultum_, to hide.] OCCUPY, ok'[=u]-p[=i], _v.t._ to take or hold possession of: to take up, as room, &c.: to fill, as an office: to employ: (_B._) to use: to trade with: (_Shak._) to possess, enjoy.--_v.i._ to hold possession: (_B._) to trade:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ occ'[=u]pied.--_ns._ OCC'UPANCY, the act of occupying, or of taking or holding possession: possession: the time during which one occupies; OCC'UPANT, one who takes or has possession.--_v.t._ OCC'UP[=A]TE (_Bacon_), to hold: to possess:--_pr.p._ occ'[=u]p[=a]ting; _pa.p._ occ'[=u]p[=a]ted.--_n._ OCCUP[=A]'TION, the act of occupying or taking possession: possession: state of being employed or occupied: that which occupies or takes up one's attention: employment.--_adj._ OCCUP[=A]'TIVE.--_n._ OCC'UPIER, one who takes or holds possession of: an occupant: (_B._) a trader. [Fr.,--L. _occup[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ob_, to, on, _cap[)e]re_, to take.] OCCUR, o-kur', _v.i._ to come or be presented to the mind: to happen: to appear: to be found here and there: to coincide in time:--_pr.p._ occur'ring; _pa.p._ occurred'.--_ns._ OCCUR'RENCE, anything that occurs: an event, esp. one unlooked for or unplanned: occasional presentation; OCCUR'RENT, one who comes to meet another: (_B._) an occurrence or chance.--_adj._ (_B._) coming in the way. [Fr.,--L. _occurr[)e]re_--_ob_, towards, _curr[)e]re_, to run.] OCEAN, [=o]'shan, _n._ the vast expanse of salt water that covers the greater part of the surface of the globe: one of its five great divisions (Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, Antarctic): any immense expanse or vast quantity.--_adj._ pertaining to the great sea.--_n._ O'CEAN-B[=A]'SIN, the depression of the earth's surface in which the waters of an ocean are contained.--_adjs._ OCEAN'IAN, pertaining to _Oceania_, which includes Polynesia, Micronesia, Melanesia, Australasia, and Malaysia; OCEAN'IC, pertaining to the ocean: found or formed in the ocean or high seas, pelagic: wide like the ocean.--_ns.pl._ OCEAN'IC-IS'LANDS, islands far from the mainland, situated in the midst of the ocean; OCEAN'IDES, marine molluscs or sea-shells.--_ns._ O'CEAN-LANE (see LANE); OCEANOG'RAPHER, one versed in oceanography.--_adj._ OCEANOGRAPH'IC.--_ns._ OCEANOG'RAPHY, the scientific description of the ocean; OCEANOL'OGY, the science of the ocean: a treatise on the ocean. [Fr.,--L. _oceanus_--Gr. _[=o]keanos_, perh. from _[=o]kys_, swift.] OCELLATE, -D, [=o]'sel-l[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ resembling an eye: marked with spots resembling eyes, as the feathers of a peacock.--_adjs._ OCEL'LAR, OC'ELLARY, ocellate, pertaining to ocelli; OCELLIF'EROUS, OCELLIG'EROUS, bearing spots like small eyes.--_n._ OCEL'LUS, a little eye, an eye-spot: one of the round spots of varied colour in the tail of a peacock, &c.:--_pl._ OCEL'L[=I]. [L. _ocellatus_--_ocellus_, dim. of _oculus_, an eye.] OCELOT, [=o]'se-lot, _n._ the name of several species of animals in tropical America allied to the leopard, but much smaller.--_adj._ O'CELOID. [Mex.] OCHER, OCHEROUS. See OCHRE. OCH HONE, oh h[=o]n, an exclamation of lamentation. [Ir.] OCHIDORE, ok'i-d[=o]r, _n._ a shore-crab. OCHLESIS, ok-l[=e]'sis, _n._ an unhealthy condition due to overcrowding.--_adj._ OCHLET'IC. [Gr. _ochlos_, a crowd.] OCHLOCRACY, ok-lok'ra-si, _n._ mob-rule: government by the populace.--_adjs._ OCHLOCRAT'IC, -AL.--_adv._ OCHLOCRAT'ICALLY. [Gr. _ochlokratia_--_ochlos_, the mob, _kratia_, rule.] OCHRE, [=o]'k[.e]r, _n._ a fine clay, mostly pale yellow, used for colouring walls, &c.: (_slang_) money, esp. gold.--_adjs._ O'CHEROUS, OCHR[=A]'CEOUS, O'CHREOUS, O'CHROID, O'CHRY, consisting of, containing, or resembling ochre. [Fr.,--L. _ochra_--Gr. _[=o]chra_--_[=o]chros_, pale yellow.] OCREA, [=o]'kre-a, _n._ (_bot._) a sheath formed of two stipules united round a stem:--_pl._ O'CHREÆ, O'CREÆ.--_adj._ O'CHRE[=A]TE. [L. _ochrea_, a legging.] OCTACHORD, ok'ta-kord, _n._ a musical instrument with eight strings: a diatonic series of eight tones. OCTAGON, ok'ta-gon, _n._ a plane figure of eight sides and eight angles.--_adj._ OCTAG'ONAL. [Gr. _okt[=o]_, eight, _g[=o]nia_, an angle.] OCTAHEDRON, ok-ta-h[=e]'dron, _n._ a solid bounded by eight faces.--_adj._ OCTAH[=E]'DRAL. [Gr. _okt[=o]_, eight, _hedra_, a base.] OCTANDROUS, ok-tan'drus, _adj._ (_bot._) having eight stamens.--_n.pl._ OCTAN'DRIA.--_adj._ OCTAN'DRIAN. [Gr. _okt[=o]_, eight, _an[=e]r_, _andros_, a man.] OCTANGULAR, ok-tang'g[=u]-lar, _adj._ having eight angles. OCTANT, ok'tant, _n._ the eighth part of a circle: an instrument for measuring angles: the aspect of two planets when 45°, or one-eighth of a circle, apart.--Also OC'TILE. [L. _octans_, _octantis_--_octo_, eight.] OCTAPLA, ok'ta-pla, _n._ something eightfold: a Bible in eight languages. [Gr. _oktaplous_, eightfold.] OCTAPODY, ok-tap'[=o]-di, _n._ (_pros._) a metre or verse of eight feet.--_adj._ OCTAPOD'IC.--_n._ OC'TASTICH, a strophe of eight verses or lines--also OCTAS'TICHON.--_adj._ OCTASTROPH'IC, consisting of eight strophes. OCTASTYLE. See OCTOSTYLE. OCTAVE, ok't[=a]v, _adj._ eight: consisting of eight.--_n._ an eighth: that which consists of eight: the eighth day after a church festival, counting the feast-day itself as the first: the period between a festival and its octave: (_mus._) an eighth, or an interval of twelve semitones: the eighth part of a pipe of wine. [Fr.,--L. _octavus_, eighth--_octo_, eight.] OCTAVO, ok-t[=a]'v[=o], _adj._ having eight leaves to the sheet.--_n._ a book printed on sheets folded into eight leaves, contracted 8vo--usually meaning a medium octavo, 6×9½ inches. Smaller octavos are--post 8vo, 5½×8½ in.; demy 8vo, 5¼×8 in.; crown 8vo, 5×7½ in.; cap 8vo, 4½×7 in. Larger octavos are--royal 8vo, 6½×10 in.; super-royal 8vo, 7×11 in.; imperial 8vo, 8¼×11 in.:--_pl._ OCT[=A]'VOS. OCTENNIAL, ok-ten'i-al, _adj._ happening every eighth year: lasting eight years.--_adv._ OCTENN'IALLY.--_n._ OCTOCEN'TENARY, the 800th anniversary of an event. [L. _octennis_--_octo_, eight, _annus_, a year.] OCTILLION, ok-til'yun, _n._ the number produced by raising a million to the eighth power, expressed by a unit with forty-eight ciphers: in France and the United States, one thousand raised to the ninth power, expressed by a unit with twenty-seven ciphers. [L. _octo_, eight, _million_.] OCTOBER, ok-t[=o]'b[.e]r, _n._ the eighth month of the Roman year, which began in March: the tenth month in our calendar. [L. _octo_, eight.] OCTOBRACHIATE, ok-t[=o]-br[=a]'ki-[=a]t, _adj._ having eight brachia, arms, or rays. OCTOCEROUS, ok-tos'e-rus, _adj._ having eight arms or rays. OCTODECIMO, ok-t[=o]-des'i-m[=o], _adj._ having eighteen leaves to the sheet, contracted 18mo.--_adj._ OCTODEC'IMAL (_crystal._), having eighteen faces. [L. _octodecim_, eighteen--_octo_, eight, _decem_, ten.] OCTODENTATE, ok-t[=o]-den't[=a]t, _adj._ having eight teeth. OCTOFID, ok't[=o]-fid, _adj._ (_bot._) cleft into eight segments. OCTOGENARIAN, ok-t[=o]-je-n[=a]'ri-an, _n._ and _adj._ one who is eighty years old, or between eighty and ninety.--_adj._ OCTOG'ENARY. OCTOGYNOUS, ok-toj'i-nus, _adj._ (_bot._) having eight pistils or styles. [Gr. _okt[=o]_, eight, _gyn[=e]_, wife.] OCTOHEDRON=OCTAHEDRON. OCTOLATERAL, ok-t[=o]-lat'e-ral, _adj._ having eight sides. OCTONARY, ok't[=o]-n[=a]-ri, _adj._ consisting of eight. OCTONOCULAR, ok-t[=o]-nok'[=u]-lar, _adj._ having eight eyes. OCTOPEDE, ok't[=o]-p[=e]d, _n._ an eight-footed animal. OCTOPETALOUS, ok-t[=o]-pet'a-lus, _adj._ having eight petals. OCTOPOD, ok't[=o]-pod, _adj._ eight-footed or eight-armed--also OCTOP'ODOUS.--_n._ an octopus. OCTOPUS, ok't[=o]-pus, _n._ a widely distributed genus of eight-armed cuttle-fishes, covered with suckers, a devil-fish. [Gr. _okt[=o]_, eight, _pous_, _podos_, foot.] OCTORADIATE, -D, ok-t[=o]-r[=a]'di-[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ having eight rays. OCTOROON, ok-t[=o]-r[=oo]n', _n._ the offspring of a quadroon and a white person: one who has one-eighth negro blood. [L. _octo_, eight.] OCTOSEPALOUS, ok-t[=o]-sep'a-lus, _adj._ having eight sepals. OCTOSPERMOUS, ok-t[=o]-sper'mus, _adj._ having eight seeds. OCTOSPOROUS, ok-t[=o]-sp[=o]'rus, _adj._ eight-spored. OCTOSTICHOUS, ok-tos'ti-kus, _adj._ (_bot._) eight-ranked. OCTOSTYLE, ok't[=o]-st[=i]l, _n._ an edifice or portico with eight pillars in front. OCTOSYLLABIC, ok-t[=o]-sil-lab'ik, _adj._ consisting of eight syllables.--_n._ OC'TOSYLLABLE, a word of eight syllables. OCTROI, ok-trwä', _n._ a grant of the exclusive right of trade: a toll or tax levied at the gates of a city on articles brought in: the place where such taxes are paid. [Fr.,--_octroyer_, to grant--L. _auctor[=a]re_, to authorise--_auctor_, author.] OCTUPLE, ok't[=u]-pl, _adj._ eightfold.--_n._ OC'T[=U]PLET (_mus._), a group of eight notes to be played in the time of six. OCTYL, ok'til, _n._ a hypothetical organic radical, known only in combination--also _Capryl_.--_n._ OC'TYL[=E]NE, a hydrocarbon obtained by heating octylic alcohol with sulphuric acid.--_adj._ OCTYL'IC. OCULAR, ok'[=u]-lar, _adj._ pertaining to the eye: formed in, or known by, the eye: received by actual sight.--_adv._ OC'ULARLY.--_adjs._ OC'UL[=A]TE, -D, having eyes, or spots like eyes; OCULAU'DITORY, representing an eye and an ear together; OCULIF'EROUS, OCULIG'EROUS, bearing an eye or eyes; OC'ULIFORM, ocular in form; OC'ULIM[=O]TOR, -Y, ocular and motory.--_n._ OC'ULIST, one skilled in diseases of the eye. [L. _ocularius_--_oculus_, the eye.] OD, [=o]d, or od, _n._ a peculiar force acting on the nervous system, assumed by Reichenbach to exist in light, heat, electricity, living bodies, and all material substances whatever, and to produce the phenomena of mesmerism.--_adj._ O'DIC.--_ns._ OD'-FORCE, od; O'DISM, belief in od. [Gr. _hodos_, a way.] OD, od, _n._ for God--sometimes ODD.--_interjs._ OD'S-BODIKINS, God's body; OD'S LIFE, God's life; OD'S-PITIKINS (_Shak._), a corr. of God's pity. ODAL, ODALLER, same as UDAL, UDALLER. ODALISQUE, ODALISK, [=o]'da-lisk, _n._ a female slave in a harem. [Fr.,--Turk. _oda_, a chamber.] ODD, od, _adj._ not paired with another: not even: left over after a round number has been taken: additional to a certain amount in round numbers: not exactly divisible by two: strange: unusual in kind or appearance: trifling: remote: (_Shak._) at variance.--_ns._ ODD'-COME-SHORTLY, an early day, any time; ODD'FELLOW, a member of a secret benevolent society called Oddfellows; ODD'ITY, the state of being odd or singular: strangeness: a singular person or thing.--_adj._ ODD'-LOOK'ING, having a singular appearance.--_adv._ ODD'LY.--_ns._ ODD'MENT, something remaining over: one of a broken set--often used in the plural; ODD'NESS.--_n.pl._ ODDS (odz), inequality: difference in favour of one against another: more than an even wager: the amount or proportion by which the bet of one exceeds that of another: advantage: dispute: scraps, miscellaneous pieces, as in the phrase ODDS AND ENDS (lit. 'points' and ends).--AT ODDS, at variance. [Scand., Ice. _oddi_, a triangle, odd number--Ice. _oddr_, point; cf. A.S. _ord_, point.] ODE, [=o]d, _n._ a song: a poem written to be set to music: the music written for such a poem.--_adj._ O'DIC.--_n._ O'DIST, a writer of odes. [Fr. _ode_--Gr. _[=o]d[=e]_, contr. from _aoid[=e]_--_aeidein_, to sing.] ODEUM, [=o]-d[=e]'um, _n._ in ancient Greece a theatre for musical contests, &c., sometimes applied to a modern music-hall.--Also OD[=E]'ON. [Gr.] ODIN, [=o]'din, _n._ the chief of the gods in Norse mythology. ODIOUS, [=o]'di-us, _adj._ hateful: offensive: repulsive: causing hatred.--_adv._ O'DIOUSLY.--_ns._ O'DIOUSNESS; O'DIUM, hatred: offensiveness: blame: quality of provoking hate.--ODIUM THEOLOGICUM, the proverbial hatred of controversial divines for each other's errors--and persons. [L.,--_odi_, to hate.] ODOMETER=HODOMETER (q.v.). ODONTOGLOSSUM, [=o]-don-t[=o]-glos'um, _n._ a genus of tropical American orchids with showy flowers. ODONTOID, o-don'toid, _adj._ tooth-shaped: tooth-like.--_ns._ ODONTAL'GIA, ODONTAL'GY, toothache.--_adj._ ODONTAL'GIC.--_n._ ODONT[=I]'ASIS, the cutting of the teeth.--_adj._ ODON'TIC, dental.--_n._ ODON'TOBLAST, a cell by which dentine is developed.--_adjs._ ODON'TOCETE, toothed, as a cetacean; ODONTOGEN'IC.--_ns._ ODONTOG'ENY, the origin and development of teeth; ODONTOG'RAPHY, description of teeth.--_adjs._ ODONTOLOG'IC, -AL.--_ns._ ODONTOL'OGIST, one skilled in odontology; ODONTOL'OGY, the science of the teeth; ODONTOLOX'IA, irregularity of teeth; ODONT[=O]'MA, a small tumour composed of dentine.--_adjs._ ODON'TOMOUS, pertaining to odontoma; ODONTOPH'ORAL, ODONTOPH'ORAN.--_n._ ODON'TOPHORE, the radula, tongue, or lingual ribbon of certain molluscs.--_adjs._ ODONTOPH'OROUS, bearing teeth; ODONTOSTOM'ATOUS, having jaws which bite like teeth.--_ns._ ODONTOTHERAP[=I]'A, the treatment or care of the teeth; ODON'TRYPY, the operation of perforating a tooth to draw off purulent matter from the cavity of the pulp. [Gr. _odous_, _odontos_, a tooth.] ODOUR, [=o]'dur, _n._ smell: perfume: estimation: reputation.--_adj._ ODORIF'EROUS, bearing odour or scent: diffusing fragrance: perfumed.--_adv._ ODORIF'EROUSLY.--_n._ ODORIF'EROUSNESS, the quality of being odoriferous.--_adj._ O'DOROUS, emitting an odour or scent: sweet-smelling: fragrant.--_adv._ O'DOROUSLY.--_n._ O'DOROUSNESS, the quality of exciting the sensation of smell.--_adjs._ O'DOURED, perfumed; O'DOURLESS, without odour.--ODOUR OF SANCTITY (see SANCTITY); IN BAD ODOUR, in bad repute. [Fr.,--L. _odor_.] ODYLE, [=o]'dil, _n._ Same as OD (1). ODYSSEY, od'is-si, _n._ a Greek epic poem, ascribed to Homer, describing the return of the Greeks from the Trojan war, and esp. of _Odysseus_ (Ulysses) to Ithaca after ten years' wanderings. OECOLOGY, [=e]-kol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the science of animal and vegetable economy.--_n._ OE'CIUM, the household common to the individuals of a compound organism.--_adj._ OECOLOG'ICAL. OECONOMY, OECUMENIC, -AL, &c. See ECONOMY, ECUMENIC. OEDEMA, [=e]-d[=e]'ma, _n._ (_med._) the swelling occasioned by the effusion or infiltration of serum into cellular or areolar structures, usually the subcutaneous cellular tissue. [Gr. _oid[=e]ma_, swelling.] OEDEMIA, [=e]-d[=e]'mi-a, _n._ a genus of _Anatidæ_, the scoters, surf-ducks, or sea-coots. [Gr. _oid[=e]ma_.] OEILLADE, [.e]l-yad', _n._ (_Shak._) a glance or wink given with the eye.--_ns._ OEIL-DE-BOEUF, a round or oval opening for admitting light: a small, narrow window, or bull's-eye:--_pl._ OEILS-DE-BOEUF; OEIL-DE-PERDRIX, a small, round figure in decorative art, a dot. [Fr. _oeillade_--_oeil_, eye.] OENANTHIC, [=e]-nan'thik, _adj._ having or imparting the characteristic odour of wine.--_ns._ OENOL'OGY, the science of wines; OE'NOMANCY, divination from the appearance of wine poured out in libations; OENOM[=A]'NIA, dipsomania; OENOM'ETER, a hydrometer for measuring the alcoholic strength of wines; OENOPH'ILIST, a lover of wine. [Gr. _oinos_ wine.] OENOMEL, [=e]'no-mel, _n._ wine mixed with honey: mead. [Gr. _oinos_, wine, and _meli_, honey.] OENOTHERA, [=e]-n[=o]-th[=e]'ra, _n._ a genus of leafy branching plants, with yellow or purplish flowers, called also _Evening_, or _Tree_, _primrose_. [Gr. _oinos_, wine, and perh. _th[=e]ran_, to hunt.] O'ER, [=o]r, contracted from _over_. O'ERCOME, owr'kum, _n._ (_Scot._) the burden of a song: overplus.--_n._ O'ER'LAY, a large cravat. OES, [=o]z, _n._ (_Bacon_) circlets of gold or silver. OESOPHAGUS, ESOPHAGUS, [=e]-sof'a-gus, _n._ the gullet, a membranous canal about nine inches in length, extending from the pharynx to the stomach, thus forming part of the alimentary canal.--_n._ OESOPHAGAL'GIA, pain, esp. neuralgia, in the oesophagus.--_adj._ OESOPHAGEAL (-faj'-).--_ns._ OESOPHAGEC'TOMY, excision of a portion of the oesophagus; OESOPHAGIS'MUS, oesophageal spasm; OESOPHAG[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the oesophagus; OESOPHAG'OCELE, hernia of the mucous membrane of the oesophagus through its walls; OESOPHAGODYN'IA, pain in the oesophagus; OESOPHAGOP'ATHY, disease of the oesophagus; OESOPHAGOPL[=E]'GIA, paralysis of the oesophagus; OESOPHAGORRH[=A]'GIA, hemorrhage from the oesophagus; OESOPH'AGOSCOPE, an instrument for inspecting the interior of the oesophagus; OESOPHAGOSPAS'MUS, spasm of the oesophagus; OESOPHAGOSTEN[=O]'SIS, a constriction of the oesophagus. [Gr.] OESTRUM, [=e]s'trum, _n._ violent desire.--_adj._ OES'TRUAL, in heat, rutting.--_v.i._ OES'TRU[=A]TE, to be in heat.--_ns._ OESTRU[=A]'TION; OES'TRUS, a gadfly. [L.] OF, ov, _prep._ from or out from: belonging to: out of: among: proceeding from, so in the Litany and Nicene Creed: owing to: with: over: concerning: during: (_B._ and _Pr. Bk._) sometimes=by, from, on, or over.--OF PURPOSE (_B._), intentionally. [A.S. _of_; Dut. _af_, Ger. _ab_, also L. _ab_, Gr. _apo_.] OFF, of, _adv._ from: away from: on the opposite side of a question.--_adj._ most distant: on the opposite or farther side: on the side of a cricket-field right of the wicket-keeper and left of the bowler: not devoted to usual business, as an OFF DAY.--_prep._ not on.--_interj._ away! depart!--_adj._ and _adv._ OFF'-AND-ON', occasional.--_adj._ OFF'-COL'OUR, of inferior value: indisposed.--_n._ OFF'-COME (_Scot._), an apology, pretext: any exhibition of temper, &c.--_adv._ OFF'-HAND, at once: without hesitating.--_adj._ without study: impromptu: free and easy.--_adj._ OFF'ISH, reserved in manner.--_ns._ OFF'-PRINT, a reprint of a single article from a magazine or other periodical--the French _tirage à part_, German _Abdruck_; OFF'-RECK'ONING, an allowance formerly made to certain British officers from the money appropriated for army clothing.--_v.t._ OFF'SADDLE, to unsaddle.--_ns._ OFF'SCOURING, matter scoured off: refuse: anything vile or despised; OFF'-SCUM, refuse or scum; OFF'SET (_in accounts_), a sum or value set off against another as an equivalent: a short lateral shoot or bulb: a terrace on a hillside: (_archit._) a horizontal ledge on the face of a wall: in surveying, a perpendicular from the main line to an outlying point.--_v.t._ (_in accounts_) to place against as an equivalent.--_n._ OFF'SHOOT, that which shoots off from the main stem, stream, &c.: anything growing out of another.--_adv._ OFF'SHORE, in a direction from the shore, as a wind: at a distance from the shore.--_adj._ from the shore.--_ns._ OFF'SIDE, the right-hand side in driving: the farther side; OFF'SPRING, that which springs from another: a child, or children: issue: production of any kind.--OFF ONE'S CHUMP, HEAD, demented; OFF ONE'S FEED, indisposed to eat.--BE OFF, to go away quickly; COME OFF, GO OFF, SHOW OFF, TAKE OFF, &c. (see COME, GO, SHOW, TAKE, &c.); ILL OFF, poor or unfortunate; TELL OFF, to count: to assign, as for a special duty; WELL OFF, rich, well provided. [Same as _Of_.] OFFAL, of'al, _n._ waste meat: the part of an animal which is unfit for use: refuse: anything worthless. [_Off_ and _fall_.] OFFEND, of-fend', _v.t._ to displease or make angry: to do harm to: to affront: (_B._) to cause to sin.--_v.i._ to sin: to cause anger: (_B._) to be made to sin.--_n._ OFFENCE', any cause of anger or displeasure: an injury: a crime: a sin: affront: assault.--_adjs._ OFFENCE'FUL (_Shak._) giving offence or displeasure: injurious; OFFENCE'LESS (_Milt._), unoffending: innocent.--_ns._ OFFEND'ER, one who offends or injures: a trespasser: a criminal:--_fem._ OFFEND'RESS; OFFENSE', &c., same as OFFENCE, &c.--_adj._ OFFENS'IVE, causing offence, displeasure, or injury: used in attack: making the first attack.--_n._ the act of the attacking party: the posture of one who attacks.--_adv._ OFFENS'IVELY.--_n._ OFFENS'IVENESS.--OFFENSIVE AND DEFENSIVE, requiring all parties to make war together, or to defend each other if attacked.--GIVE OFFENCE, to cause displeasure; TAKE OFFENCE, to feel displeasure, be offended. [Fr.,--L. _ob_, against, _fend[)e]re_, to strike.] OFFER, of'[.e]r, _v.t._ to bring to or before: to hold out for acceptance or rejection: to make a proposal to: to lay before: to present to the mind: to attempt: to propose to give, as a price or service: to present in worship.--_v.i._ to present itself: to be at hand: to declare a willingness.--_n._ act of offering: first advance: that which is offered: proposal made.--_adj._ OFF'ERABLE, that may be offered.--_ns._ OFF'ERER; OFF'ERING, act of making an offer: that which is offered: a gift: (_B._) that which is offered on an altar: a sacrifice: (_pl._) in Church of England, certain dues payable at Easter; OFF'ERTORY, act of offering, the thing offered: the verses or the anthem said or sung while the offerings of the congregation are being made and the celebrant is placing the unconsecrated elements on the altar: the money collected at a religious service: anciently a linen or silken cloth used in various ceremonies connected with the administration of the eucharist. [L. _offerre_--_ob_, towards, _ferre_, to bring.] OFFICE, of'is, _n._ settled duty or employment: a position imposing certain duties or giving a right to exercise an employment: business: act of worship: order or form of a religious service, either public or private: that which a thing is designed or fitted to do: a place where business is carried on: (_pl._) acts of good or ill: service: the apartments of a house in which the domestics discharge their duties.--_ns._ OFF'ICE-BEAR'ER, one who holds office: one who has an appointed duty to perform in connection with some company, society, &c.; OFF'ICER, one who holds an office: a person who performs some public duty: a person entrusted with responsibility in the army or navy.--_v.t._ to furnish with officers: to command, as officers.--_adj._ OFFIC'IAL, pertaining to an office: depending on the proper office or authority: done by authority.--_n._ one who holds an office: a subordinate public officer: the deputy of a bishop, &c.--_ns._ OFFIC'IALISM, official position: excessive devotion to official routine and detail; OFFICIAL'ITY, OFFIC'IALTY, the charge, office, or jurisdiction of an official: the official headquarters of an ecclesiastical or other deliberative and governing body.--_adv._ OFFIC'IALLY.--_n._ OFFIC'IANT, one who officiates at a religious service, one who administers a sacrament.--_v.i._ OFFIC'I[=A]TE, to perform the duties of an office: (with _for_) to perform official duties in place of another.--_n._ OFFIC'I[=A]TOR.--GIVE THE OFFICE (_slang_), to suggest, supply information; HOLY OFFICE, the Inquisition. [Fr.,--L. _officium_.] OFFICINAL, of-fis'i-nal, _adj._ belonging to, or used in, a shop: denoting an approved medicine kept prepared by apothecaries. [Fr.,--L. _officina_, a workshop--_opus_, work, _fac[)e]re_, to do.] OFFICIOUS, of-fish'us, _adj._ too forward in offering services: overkind: intermeddling.--_adv._ OFFIC'IOUSLY.--_n._ OFFIC'IOUSNESS. [Fr.,--L. _officiosus_--_officium_.] OFFING, of'ing, _n._ the part of the sea more than half-way between the shore and the horizon. OFT, oft, OFTEN, of'n, _adv._ frequently: many times.--_adj._ OFT'EN (_B._), frequent.--_n._ OFT'ENNESS, frequency.--_advs._ OFT'TIMES, OFT'ENTIMES, many times: frequently. [A.S. _oft_; Ger. _oft_, Goth. _ufta_.] OGEE, [=o]-j[=e]', _n._ a wave-like moulding formed of a convex curve continued or followed by a concave one. [Fr. _ogive_.] [Illustration] OGHAM, OGAM, og'am, _n._ an ancient Irish writing, in straight lines crossing each other; one of the characters, twenty in number, of which it is formed.--_adjs._ OGH'AMIC, OG'AMIC. OGIVE, [=o]'jiv, _n._ (_archit._) a pointed arch or window.--_adj._ OG[=I]'VAL. [Fr.,--Sp.,--Ar. _áwj_, summit.] OGLE, [=o]'gl, _v.t._ to look at fondly with side glances.--_v.i._ to cast amorous glances.--_ns._ O'GLE; O'GLER; O'GLING. [Dut. _oogen_--_ooge_, the eye.] OGRE, [=o]'g[.e]r, _n._ a man-eating monster or giant of fairy tales:--_fem._ O'GRESS.--_adj._ O'GREISH. [Fr. _ogre_--Sp. _ogro_--L. _orcus_, the lower world.] OGYGIAN, [=o]-jij'i-an, _adj._ pertaining to the mythical Attic king _Og[)y]ges_, prehistoric, primeval. OH, [=o], _interj._ denoting surprise, pain, sorrow, &c. OHM, [=o]m, _n._ the unit by which electrical resistance is measured, being nearly equal to that caused by a thousand feet of copper wire one-tenth of an inch in diameter.--OHM'S LAW (see LAW). [Georg Simon _Ohm_, a German electrician, 1787-1854.] OIDIUM, [=o]-id'i-um, _n._ a genus of parasitic fungi, including the vine-mildew, &c. [Gr. _[=o]on_, an egg.] OIL, oil, _n._ the juice from the fruit of the olive-tree: any greasy liquid.--_v.t._ to smear or anoint with oil.--_ns._ OIL'BAG, a bag or cyst in animals containing oil; OIL'CAKE, a cake made of flax seed from which the oil has been pressed out; OIL'CLOTH, a painted floorcloth; OIL'-COL'OUR, a colouring substance mixed with oil; OIL'ER, one who, or that which, oils: an oil-can: (_coll._) a coat of oilskin; OIL'ERY, the commodities of an oil-man; OIL'-GAS, illuminating gas or heating gas made by distilling oil in closed retorts; OIL'INESS; OIL'-MAN, one who deals in oils; OIL'-MILL, a grinding-mill for expressing oil from seeds, nuts, &c.; OIL'NUT, the butter-nut of North America; OIL'-PAINT'ING, a picture painted in oil-colours: the art of painting in oil-colours; OIL'-PALM, a palm whose fruit-pulp yields palm-oil; OIL'-PRESS, a machine for expressing oils from seeds or pulp; OIL'SKIN, cloth made waterproof by means of oil: a garment made of oilskin; OIL'-SPRING, a spring whose water contains oily matter: a fissure or area from which petroleum, &c. oozes; OIL'STONE, a fine-grained kind of stone used, when wetted with oil, for sharpening tools; OIL'-WELL, a boring made for petroleum.--_adj._ OIL'Y, consisting of, containing, or having the qualities of oil: greasy.--STRIKE OIL (see STRIKE). [O. Fr. _oile_ (Fr. _huile_)--L. _oleum_--Gr. _elaion_--_elaia_, the olive.] OINTMENT, oint'ment, _n._ anything used in anointing: (_med._) any greasy substance applied to diseased or wounded parts: (_B._) a perfume. [O. Fr.,--L. _unguentum_--_ung[)e]re_, to smear.] OKAPI, [=o]'ka-pi, _n._ a giraffe-like animal of the Semliki forests of Central Africa. OKE, [=o]k, _n._ a Turkish weight of 2¾ lb. avoirdupois. OLD, [=o]ld, _adj._ advanced in years: having been long in existence: worn out: out of date, old-fashioned: ancient, former, antique, early: (_coll._) great, high: having the age or duration of: long practised: sober, wise.--_n._ OLD-CLOTHES'MAN, one who buys cast-off garments.--_v.i._ OLD'EN, to grow old, to become affected by age.--_adj._ old, ancient.--_adj._ OLD-FASH'IONED, of a fashion like that used long ago: out of date: clinging to old things and old styles: with manners like those of a grown-up person (said of a child).--_n._ OLD-FASH'IONEDNESS.--_adjs._ OLD-F[=O]'GYISH, like an old fogy; OLD-GEN'TLEMANLY, characteristic of an old gentleman; OLD'ISH, somewhat old; OLD'-LIGHT, denoting those of the Seceders from the Church of Scotland who continued to hold unchanged the principle of the connection between church and state--the position maintained by the first Seceders in 1733.--_n._ one of this body.--_ns._ OLD-MAID'HOOD, OLD-MAID'ISM.--_adj._ OLD-MAID'ISH, like the conventional old maid, prim.--_ns._ OLD'NESS; OLD'STER (_coll._), a man getting old: a midshipman of four years' standing, a master's mate.--_adj._ OLD'-TIME, of or pertaining to times long gone by: of long standing: old-fashioned.--_n._ OLD'-TIM'ER, one who has lived in a place or kept a position for a long time.--_adjs._ OLD-WOM'ANISH, like an old woman; OLD'-WORLD, belonging to earlier times, antiquated, old-fashioned.--_n._ the Eastern Hemisphere.--OLD AGE, the later part of life; OLD BACHELOR, an unmarried man somewhat advanced in years; OLD ENGLISH (see ENGLISH): the form of black letter used by 16th-century English printers; OLD GOLD, a dull gold colour like tarnished gold, used in textile fabrics; OLD HARRY, NICK, ONE, &c., the devil; OLD HUNDRED, properly OLD HUNDREDTH, a famous tune set in England about the middle of the 16th century to Kethe's version of the 100th Psalm, marked 'Old Hundredth' in Tate and Brady's new version in 1696; OLD MAID, a woman who has not been married, and is past the usual age of marriage: a simple game played by matching cards from a pack from which a card (usually a queen) has been removed; OLD MAN, unregenerate human nature: (_coll._) one's father, guardian, or employer (usually with 'the'); OLD RED SANDSTONE (see SAND); OLD SALT, an experienced sailor; OLD SCHOOL, of, or resembling, earlier days, old-fashioned; OLD SONG, a mere trifle, a very small price; OLD SQUAW, a sea-duck of the northern hemisphere--also OLD WIFE; OLD STYLE (often written with a date O.S.), the mode of reckoning time before 1752, according to the Julian calendar or year of 365¼ days; OLD TESTAMENT (see TESTAMENT); OLD TOM, a strong kind of English gin; OLD WIFE, a prating old woman, or even a man: a chimney-cap for curing smoking.--OF OLD, long ago, in ancient times, or belonging to such. [A.S. _eald_; Dut. _oud_; Ger. _alt_.] OLEAGINOUS, [=o]-l[=e]-aj'in-us, _adj._ oily: (_bot._) fleshy and oily: unctuous, sanctimonious, fawning.--_n._ OLEAG'INOUSNESS. [L. _oleaginus_--_oleum_, oil.] OLEANDER, [=o]-l[=e]-an'd[.e]r, _n._ an evergreen shrub with lance-shaped leathery leaves and beautiful red or white flowers, the _Rose Bay_ or _Rose Laurel_. [Fr., a corr. of Low L. _lorandrum_. Cf. _Rhododendron_.] OLEASTER, [=o]-l[=e]-as't[.e]r, _n._ the wild olive. [L.,--_olea_, an olive-tree--Gr. _elaia_.] OLECRANON, [=o]-l[=e]-kr[=a]'non, _n._ a process forming the upper end of the ulna.--_adj._ OLECR[=A]'NAL. [Gr.] OLEIN, [=o]'l[=e]-in, _n._ a natural fat, found in the fatty oils of animals and vegetables.--_n._ O'LE[=A]TE, a salt of oleic acid.--_adj._ OLEF[=I]'ANT, producing oil.--_ns._ OLEF[=I]'ANT-GAS, ethylene; O'LEFINE, any one of a group of hydrocarbons homologous with ethylene.--_adjs._ O'LEIC; OLEIF'EROUS, producing oil, as seeds.--_ns._ OLEOMAR'GARINE, artificial butter at first made from pure beef-fat, now from oleo-oil, neutral lard, milk, cream, and pure butter, worked together, with a colouring matter; OLEOM'ETER, an instrument for determining the density of oils; O'LEON, a liquid obtained from the distillation of olein and lime; OLEORES'IN, a native compound of an essential oil and a resin: a preparation of a fixed or volatile oil holding resin in solution; OLEOSAC'CHARUM, a mixture of oil and sugar.--_adjs._ O'LE[=O]SE, O'LEOUS, oily. [L. _oleum_, oil.] OLENT, [=o]'lent, _adj._ smelling. [L. _ol[=e]re_, to smell.] OLEOGRAPH, [=o]'l[=e]-[=o]-graf, _n._ a print in oil-colours to imitate an oil-painting.--_n._ OLEOG'RAPHY, the art of preparing such. [L. _oleum_, oil, Gr. _graphein_, to write.] OLERACEOUS, ol-e-r[=a]'shus, _adj._ of the nature of a pot-herb, for kitchen use. [L.] OLFACTORY, ol-fak'tor-i, _adj._ pertaining to, or used in, smelling. [L. _olfact[=a]re_, to smell--_ol[=e]re_, to smell, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] OLIBANUM, [=o]-lib'a-num, _n._ a gum-resin flowing from incisions in several species of _Boswellia_ in Somaliland and southern Arabia--the _Lebonah_ of the Hebrews, _Libanos_ and _Liban[=o]tos_ of the Greeks. OLIGÆMIA, ol-i-j[=e]'mi-a, _n._ abnormal deficiency of blood. OLIGARCHY, ol'i-gärk-i, _n._ government by a small exclusive class: a state governed by such: a small body of men who have the supreme power of a state in their hands.--_n._ OL'IGARCH, a member of an oligarchy.--_adjs._ OLIGARCH'AL, OLIGARCH'IC, -AL, pertaining to an oligarchy. [Fr.,--Gr., _oligos_, few, _archein_, to rule.] OLIGIST, ol'i-jist, _n._ a crystallised variety of hematite. OLIGOCENE, ol'i-g[=o]-s[=e]n, _adj._ (_geol._) pertaining to a division of the Tertiary series, the rocks chiefly of fresh and brackish water origin, with intercalations of marine beds. [Gr. _oligos_, little, _kainos_, new.] OLIGOCHROME, ol'i-g[=o]-kr[=o]m, _adj._ and _n._ painted in few colours. [Gr. _oligos_, few, _chr[=o]ma_, colour.] OLIGOCLASE, ol'i-g[=o]-kl[=a]s, _n._ a soda-lime triclinic feldspar. OLIO, [=o]'li-[=o], _n._ a savoury dish of different sorts of meat and vegetables: a mixture: a medley, literary miscellany. [Sp. _olla_--L. _olla_, a pot.] OLIPHANT, ol'i-fant, _n._ an ancient ivory hunting-horn: an obsolete form of elephant. OLITORY, ol'i-t[=o]-ri, _adj._ and _n._ pertaining to kitchen-vegetables:--_pl._ OL'ITORIES. [L. _olitor_, gardener.] OLIVE, ol'iv, _n._ a tree cultivated round the Mediterranean for its oily fruit: its fruit: peace, of which the olive was the emblem: a colour like the unripe olive.--_adj._ of a brownish-green colour like the olive.--_adjs._ OLIV[=A]'CEOUS, olive-coloured: olive-green; OL'IVARY, like olives.--_ns._ OL'IVENITE, a mineral consisting chiefly of arsenic acid and protoxide of iron; OL'IVE-OIL, oil pressed from the fruit of the olive; OL'IVE-YARD, a piece of ground on which olives are grown; OL'IVINE, chrysolite.--OLIVE BRANCH, a symbol of peace: (_pl._) children (Ps. cxxviii. 4; _Pr. Bk._). [Fr.,--L. _oliva_--Gr. _elaia_.] OLIVER, ol'i-v[.e]r, _n._ a forge-hammer worked by foot. OLIVERIAN, ol-i-v[=e]'ri-an, _adj._ an adherent of the great Protector, _Oliver_ Cromwell (1599-1658). OLIVET, ol'i-vet, _n._ an imitation pearl manufactured for trade with savages. OLIVETAN, ol'i-vet-an, _n._ one of an order of Benedictine monks founded in 1313, the original house at Monte _Oliveto_, near Siena. OLLA, ol'la, _n._ a jar or urn.--_n._ OL'LA-PODRIDA (-po-dr[=e]'da), a Spanish mixed stew or hash of meat and vegetables: any incongruous mixture or miscellaneous collection. [Sp.,--L. _olla_, a pot.] OLLAM, ol'am, _n._ a doctor or master among the ancient Irish.--Also OLL'AMH. [Ir.] OLOGY, ol'[=o]-ji, _n._ a science whose name ends in -ology, hence any science generally. OLPE, ol'p[=e], _n._ a small Greek even-rimmed spoutless vase or jug. [Gr.] OLYMPIAD, [=o]-lim'pi-ad, _n._ in ancient Greece, a period of four years, being the interval from one celebration of the Olympic games to another, used in reckoning time (the date of the first Olympiad is 776 B.C.).--_adjs._ OLYM'PIAN, OLYM'PIC, pertaining to Olympia in Elis, where the Olympic games were celebrated, or to Mount Olympus in Thessaly, the seat of the gods.--_n._ a dweller in Olympus, one of the twelve greater gods of Greek mythology.--_ns.pl._ OLYM'PICS, OLYM'PIC GAMES, games celebrated every four years at Olympia, dedicated to Olympian Zeus; OLYM'PUS, the abode of the gods, supposed to have been Mount Olympus in Thessaly. [Gr. _olympias_, _-ados_, belonging to _Olympia_ in Elis.] OMADHAUN, om'a-dawn, _n._ a stupid, silly creature. [Ir.] OMASUM, [=o]-m[=a]'sum, _n._ a ruminant's third stomach, the psalterium or manyplies.--_adj._ OM[=A]'SAL. OMBRE, om'b[.e]r, _n._ a game of cards played with a pack of forty cards, usually by three persons. [Fr.,--Sp. _hombre_--L. _homo_, a man.] OMBROMETER, om-brom'e-t[.e]r, _n._ a rain-gauge. OMEGA, [=o]'meg-a, or [=o]-m[=e]'ga, _n._ the last letter of the Greek alphabet: (_B._) the end.--ALPHA AND OMEGA, the beginning and the end: the chief point or purpose (Rev. i. 8). [Gr. _[=o] mega_, the great or long _O_.] OMELET, OMELETTE, om'e-let, _n._ a pancake chiefly of eggs, beaten up with flour, &c., and fried in a pan. [O. Fr. _amelette_ (Fr. _omelette_), which through the form _alemette_ is traced to _alemelle_, the O. Fr. form of Fr. _alumelle_, a thin plate, a corr. of _lemelle_--L. _lamella_, _lamina_, a thin plate.] OMEN, [=o]'men, _n._ a sign of some future event, either good or evil: a foreboding.--_v.i._ and _v.t._ to prognosticate: to predict.--_adj._ O'MENED, containing omens, mostly with prefixes, as ill-_omened_. [L. for _osmen_, that which is uttered by the mouth--L. _os_; or for _ausmen_, that heard--_aud[=i]re_, to hear.] OMENTUM, [=o]-men'tum, _n._ a fold of peritoneum, proceeding from one of the abdominal viscera to another:--_pl._ OMEN'TA.--_adj._ OMEN'TAL.--GREAT OMENTUM, the epiploon. [L.] OMER, [=o]'m[.e]r, _n._ a Hebrew dry measure containing about half a gallon, 1/10 ephah. OMICRON, [=o]-m[=i]'kron, _n._ the short _o_ in the Greek alphabet. OMINOUS, om'in-us, _adj._ pertaining to, or containing, an omen: foreboding evil: inauspicious.--_adv._ OM'INOUSLY.--_n._ OM'INOUSNESS. OMIT, [=o]-mit', _v.t._ to leave out: to neglect: to fail: to make no use of:--_pr.p._ omit'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ omit'ted.--_adj._ OMISS'IBLE, that may be omitted.--_n._ OMISS'ION, act of omitting: the neglect or failure to do something required: that which is left out.--_adj._ OMISS'IVE, omitting or leaving out.--_n._ OMIT'TANCE, the act of omitting: the state of being omitted: forbearance. [L. _omitt[)e]re_, _omissum_--_ob_, away, _mitt[)e]re_, to send.] OMLAH, om'la, _n._ a staff of native clerks or officials in India. [Ar.] OMNI-, om'ni, from L. _omnis_, all, a combining form, as in _adjs._ OMNIF[=A]'RIOUS, of all varieties or kinds; OMNIF'EROUS, bearing or producing all kinds; OMNIF'IC, all-creating; OM'NIFORM, of, or capable of, every form.--_n._ OMNIFORM'ITY.--_v.t._ OM'NIFY (_rare_), to make universal.--_adj._ OMNIG'ENOUS, consisting of all kinds.--_n._ OMNIPAR'ITY, general equality.--_adjs._ OMNIP'AROUS, producing all things; OMNIP[=A]'TIENT, enduring all things.--_ns._ OMNIP'OTENCE, OMNIP'OTENCY, unlimited power--an attribute of God.--_adj._ OMNIP'OTENT, all-powerful, possessing unlimited power.--_adv._ OMNIP'OTENTLY.--_n._ OMNIPRES'ENCE, quality of being present everywhere at the same time--an attribute of God.--_adj._ OMNIPRES'ENT, present everywhere at the same time.--_n._ OMNISC'IENCE, knowledge of all things--an attribute of God.--_adj._ OMNISC'IENT, all-knowing: all-seeing: infinitely wise.--_adv._ OMNISC'IENTLY.--_adj._ OMNIV'OROUS, all-devouring: (_zool._) feeding on both animal and vegetable food.--THE OMNIPOTENT, God. OMNIBUS, om'ni-bus, _adj._ including all: covering many different cases or objects, as 'an _omnibus_ clause.'--_n._ a large four-wheeled vehicle for passengers, chiefly between two fixed points:--_pl._ OM'NIBUSES. [Lit. 'for all,' L. dative pl. of _omnis_, all.] OMNIUM, om'ni-um, _n._ a Stock Exchange term for the aggregate value of the different stocks in which a loan is funded.--_n._ OM'NIUM-GATH'ERUM (_coll._), a miscellaneous collection of things or persons. [L., 'of all;' gen. pl. of _omnis_, all.] OMOHYOID, [=o]-m[=o]-h[=i]'oid, _adj._ pertaining to the shoulder-blade, and to the lingual or hyoid bone--also OMOHYOI'DEAN.--_n._ OMOI'DEUM, the pterygoid bone. [Gr. _[=o]mos_, the shoulder.] OMOPHAGOUS, [=o]-mof'a-gus, _adj._ eating raw flesh--also OMOPHAG'IC.--_n._ OMOPH[=A]'GIA. [Gr. _[=o]mos_, raw, _phagein_, to eat.] OMOPHORION, [=o]-m[=o]-f[=o]'ri-on, _n._ an eastern ecclesiastical vestment like the western pallium, worn over the phenolion by bishops and patriarchs at the eucharist, &c. [Gr. _[=o]mos_, the shoulder, _pherein_, to carry.] OMOPLATE, [=o]'m[=o]-pl[=a]t, _n._ the shoulder-blade or scapula.--_n._ OMOPLATOS'COPY, scapulimancy. [Gr. _[=o]moplat[=e]_.] OMOSTERNUM, [=o]-m[=o]-ster'num, _n._ a median ossification of the coraco-scapular cartilages of a batrachian. [Gr. _[=o]mos_, the shoulder, _sternon_, the chest.] OMPHACITE, om'fa-s[=i]t, _n._ a grass-green granular variety of pyroxene, one of the constituents of eclogite.--_adj._ OM'PHACINE, pertaining to unripe fruit. OMPHALOS, om'fal-us, _n._ the navel: a raised central point: a boss.--_adj._ OMPHAL'IC.--_ns._ OM'PHALISM, tendency to place the capital of a country at its geographical centre, or to increase the powers of central at the expense of local government; OMPHAL[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the umbilicus; OM'PHALOCELE, umbilical hernia.--_adj._ OM'PHALOID.--_ns._ OM'PHALOMANCY, divination from the number of knots in the navel-string as to how many children the mother will bear; OMPHALOP'AGUS, a double monster united at the umbilicus; OMPHALOT'OMY, cutting of the umbilical cord at birth. [Gr., the navel.] ON, on, _prep._, in contact with the upper part of: to and toward the surface of: upon or acting by contact with: not off: at or near: at or during: in addition to: toward, for: at the peril of: in consequence: immediately after: (_B._) off.--_adv._ above, or next beyond: forward, in succession: in continuance: not off.--_interj._ go on! proceed!--_adj._ denoting the part of the field to the left of a right-handed batter, and to the right of the bowler--opp. to _Off._ [A.S. _on_; Dut. _aan_, Ice. _á_, Ger. _an_.] ON, on, _prep._ (_Scot._) without. ONAGER, on'[=a]-j[.e]r, _n._ the wild ass of Central Asia. [L.,--Gr. _onagros_--_onos_, an ass, _agros_, wild.] ONANISM, [=o]'nan-izm, _n._ self-pollution.--_n._ O'NANIST.--_adj._ ONANIST'IC. [See Gen. xxxviii. 9.] ONCE, ons, _n._ Same as OUNCE, the animal. ONCE, wuns, _adv._ a single time: at a former time: at any time or circumstances.--_n._ one time.--ONCE AND AGAIN, more than once: repeatedly; ONCE FOR ALL, once only and not again; ONCE IN A WAY, on one occasion only: very rarely.--AT ONCE, without delay: alike: at the same time; FOR ONCE, on one occasion only. [A.S. _ánes_, orig. gen. of _án_, one, used as adv.] ONCIDIUM, on-sid'i-um, _n._ a widely-spread American genus of orchids. [Gr. _ogkos_, a hook.] ONCOLOGY, ong-kol'o-ji, _n._ the science of tumours.--_n._ ONCOT'OMY, incision into, or excision of, a tumour. ONCOME, on'kum, _n._ (_prov._) a sudden fall of rain or snow: the beginning of attack by some insidious disease.--_n._ ON'COMING, approach. ONCOMETER, ong-com'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for recording variations in volume, as of the kidney, &c.--_n._ ON'COGRAPH, an apparatus for recording such. [Gr. _ogkos_, bulk, _metron_, measure.] ONCOST, on'kost, _n._ all charges for labour in getting mineral, other than the miners' wages: payment to the collier in addition to the rate per ton.--_n.pl._ ON'COSTMEN, men who work in or about a mine at other work than cutting coal. [_On_ and _cost_.] ONDINE, on'din, _n._ a water-spirit, an undine. ONDING, on'ding, _n._ a sudden fall of rain or snow. ONE, wun, _pron._ a person (indefinitely), as in 'one says:' any one: some one.--_n._ a single person or thing: a unit. [A special use of the numeral _one_; not conn. with Fr. _on_--L. _homo_, a man.] ONE, wun, _adj._ single in number, position, or kind: undivided: the same: a certain, some, implying a name unknown or denoting insignificance or contempt, as '_one_ Guy Fawkes, a Spaniard!'--_adjs._ ONE'-EYED, having but one eye: limited in vision; ONE'-HAND'ED, single-handed; ONE'-HORSE, drawn by a single horse: petty, mean, inferior; ONE'-IDEA'D, entirely possessed by one idea.--_ns._ ONE'NESS, singleness, unity; ONER (wun'[.e]r), one possessing some special skill, an adept (_slang_).--_pron._ ONESELF', one's self: himself or herself.--_adj._ ONE'-SID'ED, limited to one side: partial: (_bot._) turned to one side.--_adv._ ONE'-SID'EDLY.--_n._ ONE'-SID'EDNESS.--ONE ANOTHER, each other; ONE BY ONE, singly: in order; ONE DAY, on a certain day: at an indefinite time.--ALL ONE, just the same: of no consequence; AT ONE, of one mind. [A.S. _an_; Ice. _einn_, Ger. _ein_.] ONEIROMANCY, [=o]-n[=i]'r[=o]-man-si, _n._ the art of divining by dreams.--_ns._ ONEIROCRIT'IC, ONIROCRIT'IC, one who interprets dreams.--_adjs._ ONEIROCRIT'IC, -AL.--_ns._ ONEIRODYN'IA, nightmare; ONEIROL'OGY, the doctrine of dreams; ONEI'ROSCOPIST, an interpreter of dreams. [Gr. _oneiros_, a dream, _manteia_, divination.] ONELY, [=o]n'li, _adv._ (_Spens._) only. ONEROUS, on'[.e]r-us, _adj._ burdensome: oppressive.--_adj._ ON'ERARY, fitted or intended for carrying burdens: comprising burdens.--_adv._ ON'EROUSLY.--_n._ ON'EROUSNESS. [L. _onerosus_--_onus_.] ONEYER, wun'y[.e]r, _n._ (1 _Hen. IV._, II. i. 84) probably a person that converses with great ones--hardly, as Malone explains, an accountant of the exchequer, a banker. [No doubt formed from _one_, like law_yer_, saw_yer_, &c. Malone over-ingeniously refers to the mark _o.ni._, an abbreviation of the Latin form _oneretur, nisi habeat sufficientem exonerationem_ ('let him be charged unless he have a sufficient discharge'), or explains as a misprint for _moneyer_.] ONGOING, on'g[=o]-ing, _n._ a going on: course of conduct: event: (_pl._) proceedings, behaviour. ONICOLO, [=o]-nik'[=o]-l[=o], _n._ a variety of onyx for cameos, a bluish-white band on the dark ground. [It.] ONION, un'yun, _n._ the name given to a few species of genus _Allium_, esp. _Allium cepa_, an edible biennial bulbous root.--_adj._ ON'ION-EYED (_Shak._), having the eyes full of tears.--_n._ ON'ION-SKIN, a very thin variety of paper.--_adj._ ON'IONY. [Fr. _oignon_--L. _unio_, _-onis_--_unus_, one.] ONLOOKER, on'l[=oo]k-[.e]r, _n._ a looker on, observer.--_adj._ ON'LOOKING. ONLY, [=o]n'li, _adj._ single in number or kind: this above all others: alone.--_adv._ in one manner: for one purpose: singly: merely: barely: entirely.--_conj._ but: except that.--_n._ ON'LINESS. [A.S. _ánlíc_ (adj.)--_án_, one, _líc_, like.] ONOCENTAUR, on-o-sen'tawr, _n._ a kind of centaur, half-man, half-ass. ONOCLEA, on-[=o]-kl[=e]'a, _n._ a genus of aspidioid ferns, with contracted fertile fronds. [Gr. _onos_, a vessel, _kleiein_, to close.] ONOLOGY, [=o]-nol'[=o]-ji, _n._ foolish talk. ONOMANTIC, on-[=o]-man'tik, _adj._ pertaining to ON'OMANCY or (_obs._) ONOMAT'OMANCY, divination by names. [Gr. _onoma_, a name, _manteia_, divination.] ONOMASTIC, on-[=o]-mas'tik, _adj._ pertaining to a name, esp. pertaining to the signature to a paper written in another hand.--_n._ ONOMAS'TICON, a list of words: a vocabulary. [Gr., from _onoma_, a name.] ONOMATOLOGY, on-[=o]-ma-tol'o-ji, _n._ the science of, or a treatise on, the derivation of names.--_n._ ONOMATOL'OGIST, one versed in such. [Gr. _onoma_, _onomatos_, name, _logia_--_legein_, to discourse.] ONOMATOPOEIA, on-[=o]-mat-o-p[=e]'ya, _n._ the formation of a word so as to resemble the sound of the thing of which it is the name: such a word itself, also the use of such a word, as 'click,' 'cuckoo'--also ONOMATOPO[=E]'SIS, or ONOMATOPOI[=E]'SIS.--_adjs._ ONOMATOPOE'IC, ONOMATOPOET'IC. [Gr. _onoma_, _-atos_, a name, _poiein_, to make.] ONSET, on'set, _n._ violent attack: assault: storming. [_On_ and _set_.] ONSHORE, on'sh[=o]r, _adj._ toward the land. ONSLAUGHT, on'slawt, _n._ an attack or onset: assault. [A.S. _on_, on, _sleaht_, a stroke.] ONST, wunst, _adv._ a vulgar form of _once_. ONSTEAD, on'sted, _n._ (_Scot._) a farmstead, the farm buildings. [M. E. _wone_--A.S. _wunian_, to dwell, _stead_, place.] ONTOGENESIS, on-t[=o]-jen'e-sis, _n._ the history of the individual development of an organised being as distinguished from _phylogenesis_ and _biogenesis_--also ONTOG'ENY.--_adjs._ ONTOGENET'IC, -AL, ONTOGEN'IC.--_adv._ ONTOGENET'ICALLY. [Gr. _onta_, things being, neut. pl. of _[=o]n_, pr.p. of _einai_, to be, _genesis_, generation.] ONTOLOGY, on-tol'o-ji, _n._ the science that treats of the principles of pure being: that part of metaphysics which treats of the nature and essence of things.--_adjs._ ONTOLOG'IC, -AL.--_adv._ ONTOLOG'ICALLY.--_n._ ONTOL'OGIST, one versed in ontology. [Gr. _[=o]n_, _ontos_, being pr.p. of _einai_, to be, _logia_--_legein_, to discourse.] ONUS, [=o]'nus, _n._ burden: responsibility.--ONUS PROBAND[=I], the burden of proving. [L. _onus_, burden.] ONWARD, on'ward, _adj._ going on: advancing: advanced.--_adv._ (also ON'WARDS) toward a point on or in front: forward. ONYM, on'im, _n._ (_zool._) the technical name of a species or other group.--_adjs._ ON'YMAL, ONYMAT'IC.--_v.i._ ON'YMISE.--_n._ ON'YMY, the use of onyms. ONYX, on'iks, _n._ (_min._) an agate formed of layers of chalcedony of different colours, used for making cameos.--_ns._ ONYCH'IA, suppurative inflammation near the finger-nail; ONYCH[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the soft parts about the nail; ONYCH'IUM, a little claw; ON'YCHOMANCY, divination by means of the finger-nails; ONYCHON[=O]'SOS, disease of the nails.--_adj._ ONYCHOPATH'IC, affected with such.--_n._ ONYCH[=O]'SIS, disease of the nails. [L.,--Gr. _onyx_, _onychos_, a finger-nail.] OODLES, [=oo]'dlz, _n._ (_U.S._) abundance.--Also OOD'LINS. OOF, [=oo]f, _n._ (_slang_) money. OÖGENESIS, [=o]-[=o]-jen'e-sis, _n._ the genesis and development of the ovum--also OÖG'ENY.--_adj._ OÖGENET'IC. OÖIDAL, [=o]-oi'dal, _adj._ egg-shaped. OÖLITE, [=o]'o-l[=i]t, _n._ (_geol._) a kind of limestone, composed of grains like the eggs or roe of a fish.--_adjs._ OÖLIT'IC; OÖLITIF'EROUS. [Gr. _[=o]on_, an egg, _lithos_, stone.] OÖLOGY, [=o]-ol'o-ji, _n._ the science or study of birds' eggs.--_n._ O'ÖGRAPH, a mechanical device for drawing the outline of a bird's egg.--_adjs._ OÖLOG'IC, -AL.--_adv._ OÖLOG'ICALLY.--_ns._ OÖL'OGIST, one versed in oology; OÖM'ETER, an apparatus for measuring eggs.--_adj._ OÖMET'RIC.--_n._ OÖM'ETRY, the measurement of eggs. [Gr. _[=o]on_, an egg.] OOLONG, [=oo]'long, _n._ a variety of black tea, with the flavour of green.--Also OU'LONG. OORIE, OURIE, [=oo]'ri, _adj._ (_Scot._) feeling cold or chill, shivering. OOZE, [=oo]z, _n._ soft mud: gentle flow, as of water through sand or earth: a kind of mud in the bottom of the ocean: the liquor of a tan vat.--_v.i._ to flow gently: to percolate, as a liquid through pores or small openings.--_adj._ OOZ'Y, resembling ooze: slimy. [M. E. _wose_--A.S. _wase_, mud; akin to A.S. _wos_, juice, Ice. _vas_, moisture.] OPACITY, [=o]-pas'i-ti, _n._ opaqueness: obscurity. OPACOUS, [=o]-p[=a]'kus, _adj._ Same as OPAQUE. OPAH, [=o]'pa, _n._ a sea-fish of the Dory family--also called _Kingfish_. OPAL, [=o]'pal, _n._ a precious stone of a milky hue, remarkable for its changing colours.--_n._ OPALESC'ENCE.--_adjs._ OPALESC'ENT, reflecting a milky or pearly light from the interior; O'PALINE, relating to, or like, opal.--_v.t._ O'PALISE. [Fr. _opale_--L. _opalus_.] OPAQUE, [=o]-p[=a]k', _adj._ shady: dark: that cannot be seen through: not transparent.--_adv._ OPAQUE'LY.--_n._ OPAQUE'NESS, quality of being opaque: want of transparency. [Fr.,--L. _opacus_.] OPE, [=o]p, _v.t._ and _v.i._ (_poet._) short for _open_. OPEIDOCOPE, [=o]-p[=i]'d[=o]-sk[=o]p, _n._ an instrument for illustrating sound by means of light. OPEN, [=o]'pn, _adj._ not shut: allowing one to pass out or in: free from trees: not fenced: not drawn together: spread out: not frozen up: not frosty: free to be used, &c.: public: without reserve: frank: easily understood: generous: liberal: clear: unbalanced, as an account: attentive: free to be discussed.--_v.t._ to make open: to remove hinderances: to bring to view: to explain: to begin.--_v.i._ to become open: to unclose: to be unclosed: to begin to appear: to begin.--_n._ a clear space.--_n._ O'PENER.--_adjs._ O'PEN-EYED (_Shak._), watchful; O'PEN-HAND'ED, with an open hand: generous: liberal.--_n._ O'PEN-HAND'EDNESS.--_adj._ O'PEN-HEART'ED, with an open heart: frank: generous.--_ns._ O'PEN-HEART'EDNESS, liberality: generosity: frankness: candour; O'PENING, an open place: a breach: an aperture: beginning: first appearance: opportunity.--_adv._ O'PENLY.--_adj._ O'PEN-MIND'ED, free from prejudice: ready to receive and consider new ideas.--_n._ O'PEN-MIND'EDNESS.--_adj._ O'PEN-MOUTHED, gaping: greedy: clamorous.--_ns._ O'PENNESS; O'PEN-SES'AME, a form of words which makes barriers fly open--from the story of Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves in the _Arabian Nights' Entertainments_; O'PEN-STEEK (_Scot._), a kind of open-work stitching; O'PEN-WORK, any work showing openings through it for ornament.--_adj._ open-cast, of mining work in open air.--OPEN VERDICT (see VERDICT). [A.S. _open_--_up_, up; cf. Dut. _open_--_op_, Ice. _opinn_--_upp_, and Ger. _offen_--_auf_.] OPERA, op'[.e]r-a, _n._ a musical drama: a place where operas are performed.--_adj._ used in or for an opera, as an _opera_-glass, &c.--_ns._ OP'ERA-CLOAK, a cloak of elegant form and material for carrying into the auditorium of a theatre or opera-house as a protection against draughts; OP'ERA-DANC'ER, one who dances in ballets introduced into operas; OP'ERA-GLASS, a small glass or telescope for use at operas, theatres, &c.; OP'ERA-HAT, a hat which can be made flat by compression and expanded again to its full size; OP'ERA-HOUSE, a theatre where operas are represented; OP'ERA-SING'ER.--_adjs._ OPERAT'IC, -AL, pertaining to or resembling the opera. [It.,--L. _opera_. Cf. _Operate_.] OPERA-BOUFFE, op'[.e]r-a-b[=oo]f, _n._ a comic opera. [Fr.,--It. _opera-buffa_. Cf. _Buffoon_.] OPERATE, op'[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.i._ to work: to exert strength: to produce any effect: to exert moral power: (_med._) to take effect upon the human system: (_surg._) to perform some unusual act upon the body with the hand or an instrument.--_v.t._ to effect: to produce by agency.--_n._ OPERAM'ETER, an instrument for indicating the number of movements made by a part of a machine.--_adj._ OP'ERANT, operative.--_n._ an operator.--_n._ OPER[=A]'TION, art or process of operating, or of being at work: that which is done or carried out: agency: influence: method of working: action or movements: surgical performance.--_adj._ OP'ER[=A]TIVE, having the power of operating or acting: exerting force: producing effects: efficacious.--_n._ a workman in a manufactory: a labourer.--_adv._ OP'ER[=A]TIVELY.--_ns._ OP'ER[=A]TIVENESS; OP'ER[=A]TOR, one who, or that which, operates or produces an effect: (_math._) a letter, &c., signifying an operation to be performed. [L. _oper[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_--_opera_, work, closely conn. with _opus_, _operis_, work.] OPERCULUM, [=o]-p[.e]r'k[=u]-lum, _n._ (_bot._) a cover or lid: (_zool._) the plate over the entrance of a shell: the apparatus which protects the gills of fishes:--_pl._ OPER'CULA.--_adjs._ OPER'CULAR, belonging to the operculum; OPER'CULATE, -D, having an operculum; OPERCULIF'EROUS; OPER'CULIFORM; OPERCULIG'ENOUS; OPERCULIG'EROUS. [L.,--_oper[=i]re_, to cover.] OPERETTA, op-[.e]r-et'a, _n._ a short, light musical drama. [It., dim. of _opera_.] OPEROSE, op'[.e]r-[=o]z, _adj._ laborious: tedious.--_adv._ OP'EROSELY.--_ns._ OP'EROSENESS, OPEROS'ITY. OPHICLEIDE, of'i-kl[=i]d, _n._ a large bass trumpet, with a deep pitch. [Fr.; coined from Gr. _ophis_, a serpent, _kleis_, _kleidos_, a key.] OPHIDIAN, o-fid'i-an, _n._ one of the true serpents, in which the ribs are the only organs of locomotion.--_adjs._ OPHID'IAN, OPHID'IOUS, pertaining to serpents: having the nature of a serpent.--_ns._ OPHIDI[=A]'RIUM, a place where serpents are confined; OPHIOG'RAPHY, the description of serpents; OPHIOL'ATER, a serpent-worshipper.--_adj._ OPHIOL'ATROUS.--_n._ OPHIOL'ATRY, serpent-worship.--_adjs._ OPHIOLOG'IC, -AL.--_ns._ OPHIOL'OGIST, one versed in ophiology; OPHIOL'OGY, the study of serpents; OPH'IOMANCY, divination by serpents.--_adjs._ OPHIOMOR'PHIC, OPHIOMOR'PHOUS, having the form of a serpent; OPHIOPH'AGOUS, feeding on serpents.--_n._ OPH'ITE, one of a Gnostic sect who worshipped the serpent. [Gr. _ophidion_, dim. of _ophis_, _ophe[=o]s_, a serpent.] OPHIURA, of-i-[=u]'ra, _n._ a genus of sand-stars.--_ns._ and _adjs._ OPHI[=U]'RAN; OPHI[=U]'ROID. [Gr. _ophis_, serpent, _oura_, tail.] OPHTHALMIA, of-thal'mi-a, _n._ inflammation of the eye--also OPHTHAL'MY.--_adj._ OPHTHAL'MIC, pertaining to the eye.--_ns._ OPHTHAL'MIST, OPHTHALMOL'OGIST, one skilled in ophthalmology; OPHTHALM[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the eyeball; OPHTHALMODYN'IA, pain, esp. rheumatic pain, of the eye; OPHTHALMOG'RAPHY, a description of the eye.--_adjs._ OPHTHALMOLOG'IC, -AL.--_ns._ OPHTHALMOL'OGY, the science of the eye, its structure and functions; OPHTHALMOM'ETER, an instrument for eye-measurements; OPHTHALMOM'ETRY, the making of such; OPHTHALMOPL[=E]'GIA, paralysis of one or more of the muscles of the eye; OPHTHAL'MOSCOPE, an instrument for examining the interior of the eye.--_adjs._ OPHTHALMOSCOP'IC, -AL.--_adv._ OPHTHALMOSCOP'ICALLY.--_ns._ OPHTHAL'MOSCOPY, examination of the interior of the eye with the ophthalmoscope; OPHTHALMOT'OMY, dissection of the eye: an incision into the eye. [Gr.,--_ophthalmos_, eye.] OPIATE, [=o]'pi-[=a]t, _n._ a drug containing opium to induce sleep: that which dulls sensation, physical or mental.--_adj._ inducing sleep.--_adj._ O'PIATED. OPINE, o-p[=i]n', _v.i._ to suppose.--_adj._ OPIN'ABLE, capable of being thought.--_ns._ OP[=I]'NANT, one who forms an opinion; OPIN'ICUS (_her._), a half-lion, half-dragon. [Fr.,--L. _opin[=a]ri_, to think.] OPINION, [=o]-pin'yun, _n._ one's belief, judgment: favourable estimation: (_Shak._) opinionativeness.--_adjs._ OPIN'IONABLE, that may be matter of opinion; OPIN'ION[=A]TED, OPIN'IONED, firmly adhering to one's own opinions.--_adv._ OPIN'ION[=A]TELY (_obs._).--_adj._ OPIN'ION[=A]TIVE, unduly attached to one's own opinions: stubborn.--_adv._ OPIN'ION[=A]TIVELY.--_ns._ OPIN'ION[=A]TIVENESS; OPIN'IONIST. [L.] OPISOMETER, op-i-som'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring curved lines on a map. [Gr. _opis[=o]_, backward, _metron_, measure.] OPISTHOBRANCHIATE, [=o]-pis-th[=o]-brang'ki-[=a]t, _adj._ having the gills behind the heart--_n._ OPISTHOBRANCH'ISM. OPISTHOCOELIAN, [=o]-pis-th[=o]-s[=e]'li-an, _adj._ hollow or concave behind, as a vertebra.--Also OPISTHOCOE'LOUS. OPISTHOCOMOUS, op-is-thok'[=o]-mus, _adj._ having an occipital crest. OPISTHODOMOS, op-is-thod'[=o]-mos, _n._ a rear-chamber or treasury at the back of the cella in some temples. [Gr.] OPISTHODONT, [=o]-pis'th[=o]-dont, _adj._ having back teeth only. OPISTHOGASTRIC, [=o]-pis-th[=o]-gas'trik, _adj._ behind the stomach. OPISTHOGNATHOUS, op-is-thog'n[=a]-thus, _adj._ having retreating jaws or teeth. OPISTHOGRAPH, [=o]-pis'th[=o]-graf, _n._ a manuscript or a slab inscribed on the back as well as the front.--_adj._ OPISTHOGRAPH'IC, written on both sides.--_n._ OPISTHOG'RAPHY. OPIUM, [=o]'pi-um, _n._ the narcotic juice of the white poppy.--_n._ O'PIUM-EAT'ER, one who makes a habitual use of opium. [L.,--Gr. _opion_, dim. from _opos_, sap.] OPOBALSAM, op-[=o]-bal'sam, _n._ a resinous juice, balm of Gilead. OPODELDOC, op-[=o]-del'dok, _n._ a solution of soap in alcohol, with camphor and essential oils, soap-liniment. [Fr., perh. from Gr. _opos_, juice.] OPOPANAX, [=o]-pop'a-naks, _n._ a gum-resin used in perfumery and formerly in medicine. [Gr., opos, juice, _panax_, a plant, _panak[=e]s_, all-healing.] OPORICE, [=o]-por'i-s[=e], _n._ a medicine prepared from quinces, pomegranates, &c. OPOSSUM, o-pos'um, _n._ a small American marsupial mammal, nocturnal, mainly arboreal, with prehensile tail: an Australian marsupial. [West Indian.] OPPIDAN, op'i-dan, _n._ at Eton, a student who is not a foundationer or colleger. [L. _oppidanus_--_oppidum_, town.] OPPILATION, op-i-l[=a]'shun, _n._ stoppage.--_v.t._ OPP'ILATE, to crowd together.--_adj._ OPP'IL[=A]TIVE, obstructive. [L.] OPPONENT, [=o]-p[=o]'nent, _adj._ opposing in action, speech, &c.: placed in front.--_n._ one who opposes. OPPORTUNE, op-or-t[=u]n', _adj._ present at a proper time: timely: convenient.--_adv._ OPPORTUNE'LY.--_ns._ OPPORTUNE'NESS; OPPORTUN'ISM, practice of regulating principles by favourable opportunities without regard to consistency; OPPORTUN'IST, a politician who waits for events before declaring his opinions: a person without settled principles; OPPORTUN'ITY, an opportune or convenient time: a good occasion or chance. [Fr.,--L. _opportunus_--_ob_, before, _portus_, a harbour.] OPPOSE, o-p[=o]z', _v.t._ to place before or in the way of: to set against: to place as an obstacle: to resist: to check: to compete with.--_v.i._ to make objection.--_n._ OPPOSABIL'ITY.--_adjs._ OPPOS'ABLE, that may be opposed; OPPOSE'LESS (_Shak._), not to be opposed, irresistible.--_n._ OPPOS'ER, one who opposes.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ OPPOS'IT, to negative. [Fr.,--L. _ob_, Fr. _poser_, to place.] OPPOSITE, op'[=o]-zit, _adj._ placed over against: standing in front: situated on opposite sides: contrasted with: opposed to: of an entirely different nature.--_n._ that which is opposed or contrary: an opponent.--_adv._ OPP'OSITELY.--_n._ OPP'OSITENESS.--BE OPPOSITE WITH (_Shak._), to be perverse and contradictory in dealing with. [Fr.,--L. _oppositus_--_ob_, against, _pon[)e]re_, _positum_, to place.] OPPOSITION, op-[=o]-zish'un, _n._ state of being placed over against: position over against: repugnance: contrariety: contrast: act or action of opposing: resistance: that which opposes: obstacle: (_logic_) a difference of quantity or quality between two propositions having the same subject and predicate: the party that opposes the ministry or existing administration: (_astron._) the situation of heavenly bodies when 180 degrees apart.--_n._ OPPOSI'TIONIST, one who belongs to an opposing party, esp. that opposed to the government. [_Opposite._] OPPRESS, o-pres', _v.t._ to press against or upon: to use severely: to burden: to lie heavy upon: to constrain: to overpower: to treat unjustly: to load with heavy burdens.--_n._ OPPRESS'ION, act of oppressing or treating unjustly or harshly: severity: cruelty: state of being oppressed: misery: hardship: injustice: dullness of spirits: (_Shak._) pressure.--_adj._ OPPRESS'IVE, tending to oppress: overburdensome: treating with severity or injustice: heavy: overpowering: difficult to bear.--_adv._ OPPRESS'IVELY.--_ns._ OPPRESS'IVENESS; OPPRESS'OR, one who oppresses. [Fr.,--L. _opprim[)e]re_, _oppressum_--_ob_, against, _prem[)e]re_, to press.] OPPROBRIOUS, o-pr[=o]'bri-us, _adj._ expressive of opprobrium or disgrace: reproachful: infamous: despised.--_adv._ OPPR[=O]'BRIOUSLY.--_ns._ OPPR[=O]'BRIOUSNESS; OPPR[=O]'BRIUM, reproach expressing contempt or disdain: disgrace: infamy. [L.,--_ob_, against, _probrum_, reproach.] OPPUGN, o-p[=u]n', _v.t._ to fight against, esp. by argument: to oppose: to resist.--_n._ OPPUGN'ER. [Fr.,--L. _oppugn[=a]re_, to fight against--_ob_, against, _pugna_, a fight.] OPPUGNANCY, o-pug'nan-si, _n._ (_Shak._) opposition, resistance.--_adj._ OPPUG'NANT, opposing: hostile.--_n._ an opponent. [L. _oppugnans_, _-antis_, _pr.p._ of _oppugn[=a]re_.] OPSIMATHY, op-sim'a-thi, _n._ learning obtained late in life. [Gr.,--_opse_, late, _mathein_, to learn.] OPSIOMETER, op-si-om'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an optometer. OPSONIUM, op-s[=o]'ni-um, _n._ anything eaten with bread as a relish, esp. fish.--_ns._ OPSOM[=A]'NIA, any morbid love for some special kind of food; OPSOM[=A]'NIAC, one who manifests the foregoing. [Gr. _ops[=o]nion_--_opson_, strictly boiled meat, any relish.] OPTATIVE, op'ta-tiv, or op-t[=a]'tiv, _adj._ expressing desire or wish.--_n._ (_gram._) a mood of the verb expressing wish.--_adv._ OP'TATIVELY. [L. _optativus_--_opt[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to wish.] OPTIC, -AL, op'tik, -al, _adj._ relating to sight, or to optics.--_n._ OP'TIC (_Pope_), an organ of sight: an eye.--_adv._ OP'TICALLY.--_ns._ OPTIC'IAN, one skilled in optics: one who makes or sells optical instruments; OP'TICS (_sing._), the science of the nature and laws of vision and light; OPTIM'ETER, OPTOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the refractive powers of the eye; OPTOM'ETRY, the measurement of the visual powers.--OPTIC AXIS, the axis of the eye--that is, a line going through the middle of the pupil and the centre of the eye. [Fr. _optique_--Gr. _optikos_.] OPTIME, op'ti-m[=e], _n._ in the university of Cambridge, one of those in the second or third rank of honours (_senior_ and _junior optimes_ respectively), next to the wranglers.--_n.pl._ OPTIM[=A]'TES, the Roman aristocracy. [L. _optimus_, best.] OPTIMISM, op'ti-mizm, _n._ the doctrine that everything is ordered for the best: a disposition to take a hopeful view of things--opp. to _Pessimism_.--_v.i._ OP'TIMISE, to take the most hopeful view of anything.--_n._ OP'TIMIST, one who holds that everything is ordered for the best.--_adj._ OPTIMIST'IC.--_adv._ OPTIMIST'ICALLY.--_n._ OP'TIMUM (_bot._), that point of temperature at which metabolic--i.e. vegetative and fructificative processes are best carried on. [L. _optimus_, best.] OPTION, op'shun, _n._ act of choosing: power of choosing or wishing: wish.--_adj._ OP'TIONAL, left to one's option or choice.--_adv._ OP'TIONALLY.--_n._ OP'TIONS, a mode of speculating, chiefly in stocks and shares, which is intended to limit the speculator's risk. It consists in paying a sum down for the right to _put_ (make delivery) or _call_ (call for delivery) a given amount of stock at a fixed future date, the price also being fixed at the time the contract is entered into.--LOCAL OPTION (see LOCAL). [L. _optio_, _optionis_--_opt[=a]re_, to choose.] OPTOMETER, OPTOMETRY. See OPTIC. OPULENT, op'[=u]-lent, _adj._ wealthy.--_n._ OP'ULENCE, means: riches: wealth.--_adv._ OP'ULENTLY. [Fr.,--L. _op-ulentus_.] OPUNTIA, [=o]-pun'shi-a, _n._ a genus of cacti. OPUS, [=o]'pus, _n._ work, a work.--OPUS MAGNUM, the great work of one's life; OPUS OPERANTIS (_theol._), the effect of a sacrament ascribed chiefly, if not exclusively, to the spiritual disposition of the recipient, the grace flowing _ex opere operantis_--the Protestant view; OPUS OPERATUM, the due celebration of a sacrament necessarily involving the grace of the sacrament, which flows _ex opere operato_ from the sacramental act performed independent of the merit of him who administers it--the R.C. view. OPUSCULE, [=o]-pus'k[=u]l, _n._ a little work.--Also OPUS'CLE, OPUS'CULUM. [L. _opusculum_, dim. of _opus_, work.] OR, or, _adv._ ere, before. [_Ere._] OR, or, _conj._ marking an alternative, and sometimes opposition [short for _other_, modern Eng. _either_].--_prep._ (_B._) before. [In this sense a corr. of _ere_.] OR, or, _n._ (_her._) gold. [Fr.,--L. _aurum_, gold.] ORACH, ORACHE, or'ach, _n._ one of several European plants used as spinach. [Fr. _arroche_.] ORACLE, or'a-kl, _n._ the answer spoken or uttered by the gods: the place where responses were given, and the deities supposed to give them: a person famed for wisdom: a wise decision: (_B._) the sanctuary: (_pl._) the revelations made to the prophets: the word of God.--_adj._ ORAC'ULAR, delivering oracles: resembling oracles: grave: venerable: not to be disputed: ambiguous: obscure--also ORAC'ULOUS.--_ns._ ORACULAR'ITY, ORAC'ULARNESS.--_adv._ ORAC'ULARLY. [Fr.,--L. _ora-culum_, double dim. from _or[=a]re_, to speak--_os_, _oris_, the mouth.] ORAGIOUS, [=o]-r[=a]'jus, _adj._ stormy. [Fr.] ORAISON, or'i-zun, _n._ (_Shak._). Same as ORISON. ORAL, [=o]'ral, _adj._ uttered by the mouth: spoken, not written.--_adv._ O'RALLY. [L. _os_, _oris_, the mouth.] ORALE, or-[=a]'le, _n._ a white silk veil, with coloured stripes, sometimes worn by the Pope. ORANG, [=o]-rang', _n._ See ORANG-OUTANG. ORANGE, or'anj, _n._ a delightful gold-coloured fruit with a thick, rough skin, within which are usually from eight to ten juicy divisions: the tree on which it grows: a colour composed of red and yellow.--_adj._ pertaining to an orange: orange-coloured.--_ns._ ORANGE[=A]DE', a drink made with orange juice; OR'ANGE-BLOSS'OM, the white blossom of the orange-tree, worn by brides.--_adj._ OR'ANGE-COL'OURED, having the colour of an orange.--_ns._ OR'ANGE-LIL'Y, a garden-plant with large orange flowers; OR'ANGE-PEEL, the rind of an orange separated from the pulp; OR'ANGERY, a plantation of orange-trees: an orange-garden.--_adj._ OR'ANGE-TAW'NY (_Shak._), of a colour between orange and brown.--_n._ the colour itself.--_n._ OR'ANGE-WIFE (_Shak._), a woman who sells oranges. [Fr.,--It. _arancio_--Pers. _naranj_, the _n_ being dropped; it was thought to come from L. _aurum_, gold, hence Low L. _aurantium_.] ORANGEMAN, or'anj-man, _n._ a member of a society instituted in Ireland in 1795 to uphold Protestantism, or the cause of William of _Orange_--a secret society since its formal suppression in 1835 after a protracted parliamentary inquiry.--_adj._ OR'ANGE.--_n._ OR'ANGEISM. [From the principality of _Orange_ (L. _Arausio_), near Avignon, ruled by its own sovereigns from the 11th to the 16th century, passing by the last heiress in 1531 to the Count of Nassau, father of William the Silent.] ORANG-OUTANG, [=o]-rang'-[=oo]-tang', _n._ an anthropoid ape, found only in the forests of Sumatra and Borneo, reddish-brown, arboreal in habit.--Also ORANG' and ORANG'-UTAN'. [Malay, 'man of the woods.'] ORANT, [=o]'rant, _n._ a worshipping figure in ancient Greek and early Christian art. ORARIAN, [=o]-r[=a]'ri-an, _adj._ pertaining to the coast. [L. _ora_, the shore.] ORARION, [=o]-r[=a]'ri-on, _n._ a deacon's stole in the Eastern Church. ORARIUM, [=o]-r[=a]'ri-um, _n._ a linen neckcloth or handkerchief: a scarf attached to a bishop's staff. [L. _os_, _oris_, the mouth.] ORARIUM, [=o]-r[=a]'ri-um, _n._ a collection of private devotions. [L. _or[=a]re_, to pray.] ORATION, [=o]-r[=a]'shun, _n._ a public speech of a formal character: an eloquent speech.--_n._ ORATIUN'CLE, a brief speech. [Fr.,--L. _oratio_--_or[=a]re_, to pray.] ORATOR, or'a-tor, _n._ a public speaker: a man of eloquence: a spokesman or advocate:--_fem._ OR'ATRESS, OR'ATRIX.--_v.i._ OR'[=A]TE, to deliver an oration.--_adjs._ ORAT[=O]'RIAL; ORATOR'ICAL, pertaining to oratory: becoming an orator.--_adv._ ORATOR'ICALLY.--_n._ OR'ATORY, the art of speaking well, or so as to please and persuade, esp. publicly: the exercise of eloquence: an apartment or building for private worship: one of various congregations in the R.C. Church, esp. the Fathers of the Oratory, established by St Philip Neri (1515-95): a religious house of theirs. ORATORIO, or-a-t[=o]'ri-[=o], _n._ a sacred story set to music, which, as in the opera, requires soloists, chorus, and full orchestra for its performance, the theatrical adjuncts, however, of scenery, costumes, and acting bring dispensed with. [It., so called because first performed in the _Oratory_ of the Church of Santa Maria Maggiore, near Rome, under the care of St Philip Neri (1571-94).] ORB, orb, _adj._ (_obs._) bereft, esp. of children. [L. _orbus_.] ORB, orb, _n._ a circle: a sphere: a celestial body: a wheel: any rolling body: the eye: (_archit._) a blank window or panel: the globe forming part of regalia, the monde or mound: the space within which the astrological influence of a planet operates.--_v.t._ to surround: to form into an orb.--_adjs._ OR'BATE; ORBED, in the form of an orb; circular; ORBIC'ULAR, having the form of an orb or sphere: spherical: round.--_n._ ORBICUL[=A]'RIS, a muscle surrounding an opening.--_adv._ ORBIC'ULARLY.--_n._ ORBIC'ULARNESS.--_adjs._ ORBIC'ULATE, -D, made in the form of an orb.--_n._ ORBICUL[=A]'TION.--_adj._ OR'BY, orbed. [L. _orbis_, circle.] ORBILIUS, or-bil'i-us, _n._ a flogging schoolmaster--from Horace's master. ORBIT, or'bit, _n._ the path in which one of the heavenly bodies, as a planet, moves round another, as the sun: the hollow in the bone in which the eyeball rests--also OR'BITA: the skin round the eye.--_adjs._ OR'BITAL, OR'BITARY. [L. _orbita_--_orbis_, a ring.] ORC, ork, _n._ any whale, the grampus. [L. _orca_.] ORCADIAN, or-k[=a]'di-an, _adj._ of or pertaining to the Orkney Islands.--_n._ an inhabitant or a native of the Orkneys. [L. _Orcades_.] ORCHARD, or'chard, _n._ a garden of fruit-trees, esp. of apple-trees, also the enclosure containing such.--_ns._ OR'CHARD-HOUSE, a glass house for cultivating fruits without artificial heat; OR'CHARDING; OR'CHARDIST. [A.S. _orceard_--older form _ort-geard_.] ORCHELLA-WEED=_Archil_ (q. v.). ORCHEOCELE, or-ke-o-s[=e]l', _n._ a tumour or inflammation of the testicle.--_ns._ ORCHIAL'GIA, pain, esp. neuralgia, in a testicle; ORCHIDEC'TOMY, ORCHOT'OMY, the excision of a testicle; ORCHIODYN'IA, pain in a testicle; ORCH[=I]'TIS, inflammation of a testicle.--_adj._ ORCHIT'IC. [Gr. _orchis_, a testicle, _k[=e]l[=e]_, a tumour.] ORCHESTRA, or'kes-tra, _n._ in the Greek theatre, the place where the chorus danced: now the part of a theatre or concert-room in which the musicians are placed: the performers in an orchestra.--_ns._ ORCH[=E]'SIS, the art of dancing or rhythmical movement of the body; ORCHESOG'RAPHY, the theory of dancing.--_adjs._ OR'CHESTRAL, ORCHES'TRIC, of or pertaining to an orchestra: performed in an orchestra.--_v.t._ OR'CHESTR[=A]TE, to arrange for an orchestra.--_ns._ ORCHESTR[=A]'TION, the arrangement of music for an orchestra: instrumentation; ORCHES'TRION, a musical instrument of the barrel-organ kind, designed to imitate an orchestra. [L.,--Gr. _orch[=e]stra_--_orchesthai_, to dance.] ORCHID, or'kid, _n._ a plant with a rich, showy, often fragrant flower, frequently found growing, in warm countries, on rocks and stems of trees.--_adjs._ ORCHID[=A]'CEOUS, ORCHID'[=E]OUS, pertaining to the orchids.--_ns._ ORCHIDOL'OGY, the knowledge of orchids; OR'CHIS, a genus containing ten of the British species of orchids. [Gr. _orchis_, a testicle.] ORCHIL, or'kil, _n._ the colouring matter derived from archil (q.v.). ORCINE, or'sin, _n._ a colouring matter obtained from orchella-weed and other lichens. ORDAIN, or-d[=a]n', _v.t._ to put in order: to appoint: to dispose or regulate: to set apart for an office: to invest with ministerial functions.--_adj._ ORDAIN'ABLE.--_ns._ ORDAIN'ER; ORDAIN'MENT.--_adj._ OR'DINAL, showing order or succession.--_n._ a number noting order or place among others: a body of regulations, a book containing forms and rules for ordination.--_n._ OR'DINANCE, that which is ordained by authority: a law: a religious practice or right established by authority.--_adj._ OR'DINANT (_Shak._), ordaining, decreeing.--_n._ one who ordains, as a bishop--opp. to OR'DINAND, or one who is to be ordained.--_n._ ORDIN[=A]'TION, the act of ordaining: admission to the Christian ministry by the laying on of hands of a bishop or a presbytery: established order. [O. Fr. _ordener_ (Fr. _ordonner_)--L. _ordin[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ordo_.] ORDEAL, or'de-al, _n._ a dealing out or giving of just judgment: an ancient form of referring a disputed question to the judgment of God, by lot, fire, water, &c.: any severe trial or examination. [A.S. _or-dél_, _or-dál_; cf. Dut. _oor-deel_, Ger. _ur-theil_.] ORDER, or'd[.e]r, _n._ regular arrangement, method: degree, rank, or position: rule, regular system or government: command: a class, a society of persons of the same profession, &c.: a religious fraternity: a dignity conferred by a sovereign, &c., giving membership in a body, after the medieval orders of knighthood, also the distinctive insignia thereof: social rank generally: a number of genera having many important points in common: a commission to supply, purchase, or sell something: (_archit._) one of the different ways in which the column, with its various parts and its entablature, are moulded and related to each other: due action towards some end, esp. in old phrase 'to take order:' the sacerdotal or clerical function: (_pl._) the several degrees or grades of the Christian ministry.--_v.t._ to arrange: to conduct: to command.--_v.i._ to give command.--_ns._ OR'DER-BOOK, a book for entering the orders of customers, the special orders of a commanding officer, or, the motions to be put to the House of Commons; OR'DERER; OR'DERING, arrangement: management: the act or ceremony of ordaining, as priests or deacons.--_adj._ OR'DERLESS, without order: disorderly.--_n._ OR'DERLINESS.--_adj._ OR'DERLY, in good order: regular: well regulated: of good behaviour: quiet: being on duty.--_adv._ regularly: methodically.--_n._ a non-commissioned officer who carries official messages for his superior officer, formerly the first sergeant of a company.--_adj._ OR'DINATE, in order: regular.--_n._ the distance of a point in a curve from a straight line, measured along another straight line at right angles to it--the distance of the point from the other of the two lines is called the _abscissa_, and the two lines are the _axes of co-ordinates_.--_adv._ OR'DINATELY.--ORDER-IN-COUNCIL, a sovereign order given with advice of the Privy Council; ORDER-OF-BATTLE, the arrangement of troops or ships at the beginning of a battle; ORDER-OF-THE-DAY, in a legislative assembly, the business set down to be considered on any particular day: any duty assigned for a particular day.--CLOSE ORDER, the usual formation for soldiers in line or column, the ranks 16 inches apart, or for vessels two cables'-length (1440 ft.) apart--opp. to _Extended order_; FULL ORDERS, the priestly order; MINOR ORDERS, those of acolyte, exorcist, reader, and doorkeeper; OPEN ORDER, a formation in which ships are four cables'-length (2880 ft.) apart; SAILING ORDERS, written instructions given to the commander of a vessel before sailing; SEALED ORDERS, such instructions as the foregoing, not to be opened until a certain specified time; STANDING ORDERS or RULES, regulations for procedure adopted by a legislative assembly.--IN ORDER, and OUT OF ORDER, in accordance with regular and established usage of procedure, in subject or way of presenting it before a legislative assembly, &c., or the opposite; IN ORDER TO, for the end that; TAKE ORDER (_Shak._), to take measures. [Fr. _ordre_--L. _ordo_, _-inis_.] ORDINAIRE, or-din-[=a]r', _n._ wine for ordinary use--usually _vin ordinaire_: a soldier's mess: a person of common rank. ORDINARY, or'di-na-ri, _adj._ according to the common order: usual: of common rank: plain: of little merit: (_coll._) plain-looking.--_n._ a judge of ecclesiastical or other causes who acts in his own right: something settled or customary: actual office: a bishop or his deputy: a place where regular meals are provided at fixed charges: the common run or mass: (_her._) one of a class of armorial charges, called also _honourable ordinaries_, figures of simple outline and geometrical form, conventional in character--_chief_, _pale_, _fess_, _bend_, _bend-sinister_, _chevron_, _cross_, _saltire_, _pile_, _pall_, _bordure_, _orle_, _tressure_, _canton_, _flanches_.--_adv._ OR'DINARILY.--ORDINARY OF THE MASS, the established sequence or fixed order for saying mass.--IN ORDINARY, in regular and customary attendance. ORDNANCE, ord'nans, _n._ great guns: artillery: (_orig._) any arrangement, disposition, or equipment.--ORDNANCE SURVEY, a preparation of maps and plans of Great Britain and Ireland, or parts thereof, undertaken by government and carried out by men selected from the Royal Engineers--so called because in earlier days the survey was carried out under the direction of the Master-general of the Ordnance. [_Ordinance._] ORDONNANCE, or'do-nans, _n._ co-ordination, esp. the proper disposition of figures in a picture, parts of a building, &c. ORDURE, or'd[=u]r, _n._ dirt: dung: excrement: also _fig._ anything unclean.--_adj._ OR'DUROUS. [Fr.,--O. Fr. _ord_, foul--L. _horridus_, rough.] ORE, [=o]r, _n._ metal as it comes from the mine: metal mixed with earthy and other substances. [A.S. _ór_, another form of _ár_, brass; Ice. _eir_, L. _æs_, _ær-is_, bronze.] OREAD, [=o]'r[=e]-ad, _n._ (_myth._) a mountain nymph:--_pl._ O'READS, or OR[=E]'ADES. [Gr. _oreias_, _oreiados_--_oros_, a mountain.] OREOG'RAPHY=OROGRAPHY. ORGAN, or'gan, _n._ an instrument or means by which anything is done: a part of a body fitted for carrying on a natural or vital operation: a means of communication, or of conveying information or opinions from one to another of two parties, as an ambassador, a newspaper, &c.: a musical wind instrument consisting of a collection of pipes made to sound by means of compressed air from bellows, and played upon by means of keys: a system of pipes in such an organ, having an individual keyboard, a partial organ: a musical instrument having some mechanism resembling the pipe-organ, as the barrel-organ, &c.--_ns._ OR'GAN-BUILD'ER, one who constructs organs; OR'GAN-GRIND'ER, a fellow who plays a hand-organ by a crank; OR'GAN-HARM[=O]'NIUM, a large harmonium used instead of a pipe-organ.--_adjs._ ORGAN'IC, -AL, pertaining to an organ: organised: instrumental.--_adv._ ORGAN'ICALLY.--_n._ ORGAN'ICALNESS.--_v.t._ ORGAN'IFY, to add organic matter to.--_n._ ORGANISABIL'ITY.--_adj._ ORGANIS'ABLE, that may be organised.--_n._ ORGANIS[=A]'TION, the act of organising: the state of being organised.--_v.t._ OR'GAN[=I]SE, to supply with organs: to form several parts into an organised whole, to arrange.--_ns._ OR'GAN[=I]SER; OR'GANISM, organic structure, or a body exhibiting such: a living being, animal or vegetable.--_adj._ OR'GANISMAL.--_ns._ OR'GANIST, one who plays on an organ; OR'GAN-LOFT, the loft where an organ stands; ORGANOG'ENY, ORGANOGEN'ESIS, history of the development of living organs; ORGANOG'RAPHY, a description of the organs of plants or animals; ORGANOL'OGY, the study of structure and function; OR'GAN-PIPE, one of the sounding pipes of a pipe-organ (_flue-pipes_ and _reed-pipes_); OR'GAN-POINT, a note sustained through a series of chords, although only in harmony with the first and last; OR'GANRY, the music of the organ; OR'GAN-SCREEN, an ornamental stone or wood screen, on which a secondary organ is sometimes placed in cathedrals; ORGUINETTE', a mechanical musical instrument, with reeds and exhaust-bellows.--ORGANIC CHEMISTRY, the chemistry of substances of animal or vegetable origin, prior to 1828 supposed to be capable of formation only as products of vital processes: the chemistry of the compounds of carbon; ORGANIC DISEASE, a disease accompanied by changes in the structures involved; ORGANIC REMAINS, fossil remains of a plant or animal.--HYDRAULIC ORGAN, one whose bellows is operated by a hydraulic motor. [Fr. _organe_--L. _organum_--Gr. _organon_.] ORGANON, or'ga-non, _n._ an instrument: a system of rules and principles for scientific investigation: a system of thought: the logic of Aristotle--also OR'GANUM:--_pl._ OR'GANA. [Gr., from _ergon_, a work.] ORGANZINE, or'gan-zin, _n._ a silk thread of several twisted together, a fabric of the same. [Fr.] ORGASM, or'gasm, _n._ immoderate excitement or action.--_adj._ ORGAS'TIC. [Gr. _orgasmos_, swelling.] ORGEAT, or'zhat, _n._ a confectioner's syrup made from almonds, sugar, &c. [Fr. _orge_--L. _hordeum_, barley.] ORGULOUS, or'g[=u]-lus, _adj._ (_Shak._) haughty. ORGY, or'ji, _n._ any drunken or riotous rite or revelry, esp. by night--(_rare_) ORGE:--_pl._ OR'GIES, riotous secret rites observed in the worship of Bacchus.--_v.i._ ORGE, to indulge in riotous jollity.--_n._ OR'GIAST.--_adjs._ ORGIAS'TIC, OR'GIC. [Fr.,--L. _orgia_--Gr.] ORICHALC, or'i-kalk, _n._ (_Spens._) a gold-coloured alloy resembling brass.--_adj._ ORICHAL'CEOUS. [Fr., from Gr. _oreichalkos_, mountain copper--_oros_, a mountain, _chalkos_, copper.] ORIEL, [=o]'ri-el, _n._ a portico or recess in the form of a window built out from a wall, supported on brackets or corbels--distinguished from a bay window. [O. Fr. _oriol_, a porch--Low L. _oriolum_, a highly ornamented recess--L. _aureolus_, gilded--_aurum_, gold.] ORIENT, [=o]'ri-ent, _adj._ rising, as the sun: eastern: bright or pure in colour.--_n._ the part where the sun rises: the east, or the countries of the east: purity of lustre, as in a pearl.--_v.t._ to set so as to face the east: to build, as a church, with its length from east to west.--_adj._ ORIEN'TAL, eastern: pertaining to, in, or from the east.--_n._ a native of the east.--_v.t._ ORIEN'TALISE.--_ns._ ORIEN'TALISM, an eastern word, expression, or custom; ORIEN'TALIST, one versed in the eastern languages: an oriental; ORIENTAL'ITY.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ ORIEN'T[=A]TE.--_ns._ ORIENT[=A]'TION, the act of turning or state of being turned toward the east, the process of determining the east in taking bearings: the situation of a building relative to the points of the compass: the act of making clear one's position in some matter: the homing instinct, as in pigeons; O'RIENT[=A]TOR, an instrument for orientating. [L. _oriens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _or[=i]ri_, to rise.] ORIFICE, or'i-fis, _n._ something made like a mouth or opening. [Fr.,--L. _orificium_--_os_, _oris_, mouth, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] ORIFLAMME, or'i-flam, _n._ a little banner of red silk split into many points, borne on a gilt staff--the ancient royal standard of France. [Fr.,--Low L. _auriflamma_--L. _aurum_, gold, _flamma_, a flame.] ORIGAN, or'i-gan, _n._ wild marjoram.--Also ORIG'ANUM. [Fr.,--L. _origanum_.--Gr. _origanon_--_oros_, mountain, _ganos_, brightness.] ORIGENIST, or'ij-en-ist, _n._ a follower of _Origen_ (_c._ 186-254 A.D.), his allegorical method of scriptural interpretation, or his theology, esp. his heresies--the subordination though eternal generation of the Logos, pre-existence of all men, and universal restoration, even of the devil.--_n._ OR'IGENISM.--_adj._ ORIGENIST'IC. ORIGIN, or'i-jin, _n._ the rising or first existence of anything: that from which anything first proceeds: (_math._) the fixed starting-point: cause: derivation.--_adjs._ ORIG'INABLE; ORIG'INAL, pertaining to the origin or beginning: first in order or existence: in the author's own words or from the artist's own pencil: not copied: not translated: having the power to originate, as thought.--_n._ origin: first copy: the precise language used by a writer: an untranslated tongue: a person of marked individuality.--_ns._ ORIGINAL'ITY, ORIG'INALNESS, quality or state of being original or of originating ideas.--_adv._ ORIG'INALLY.--_v.t._ ORIG'IN[=A]TE, to give origin to: to bring into existence.--_v.i._ to have origin: to begin.--_n._ ORIGIN[=A]'TION, act of originating or of coming into existence: mode of production.--_adj._ ORIG'IN[=A]TIVE, having power to originate or bring into existence.--_n._ ORIG'IN[=A]TOR. [Fr. _origine_--L. _origo_, _originis_--_or[=i]ri_, to rise.] ORILLON, o-ril'lon, _n._ a semicircular projection at the shoulder of a bastion intended to cover the guns and defenders on the flank. [Fr.,--_oreille_, an ear--L. _auricula_, dim. of _auris_, ear.] ORIOLE, [=o]r'i-[=o]l, _n._ the golden thrush. [O. Fr. _oriol_--L. _aureolus_, dim. of _aureus_, golden--_aurum_, gold.] ORION, [=o]-r[=i]'on, _n._ (_astron._) one of the constellations containing seven very bright stars, three of which, in a straight line, form Orion's belt. [_Orion_, a hunter placed among the stars at his death.] ORISMOLOGY, or-is-mol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the science of defining technical terms.--_adjs._ ORISMOLOG'IC, -AL. [Gr. _horismos_--_horizein_, to bound.] ORISON, or'i-zun, _n._ a prayer. [O. Fr. _orison_ (Fr. _oraison_)--L. _oratio_, _-[=o]nis_--_or[=a]re_, to pray.] ORLE, orl, _n._ (_archit._) a fillet under the ovolo of a capital--also OR'LET: (_her._) a border within a shield at a short distance from the edge. [O. Fr., border, from Low L. _orlum_, dim. of L. _ora_, border.] ORLEANIST, or'l[=e]-an-ist, _n._ one of the family of the Duke of _Orleans_, brother of Louis XIV. of France: a supporter of the claims of this family to the throne of France.--_adj._ favourable to the claims of the Orleans family.--_ns._ OR'LEANISM; OR'LEANS, a wool and cotton cloth for women's dresses. ORLOP, or'lop, _n._ the deck below the berth-deck in a ship where the cables, &c., are stowed. [Dut. _overloop_, the upper deck--_overlopen_, to run over.] ORMER, or'm[.e]r, _n._ an ear-shell or sea-ear. ORMOLU, or'mo-l[=oo], _n._ an alloy of copper, zinc, and tin: gilt or bronzed metallic ware: gold-leaf prepared for gilding bronze, &c. [Fr. _or_--L. _aurum_, gold, _moulu_, pa.p. of _moudre_, to grind--L. _mol[=a]re_, to grind.] ORMUZD, or'muzd, _n._ the name of the chief god of the ancient Persians: the creator and lord of the whole universe: (later) the good principle, as opposed to _Ahriman_, the bad. [A corr. of Pers. _Ahura-Mazdâh_=the Living God or Lord (_ahu_='the living,' 'life,' or 'spirit,' root _ah_='to be'), the Great Creator (_maz_+_dâ_=Sans. _mahâ_+_dhâ_), or the Wise One.] ORNAMENT, or'na-ment, _n._ anything that adds grace or beauty: additional beauty: a mark of honour: (_pl._, _Pr. Bk._) all the articles used in the services of the church.--_v.t._ to adorn: to furnish with ornaments.--_adj._ ORNAMENT'AL, serving to adorn or beautify.--_adv._ ORNAMENT'ALLY.--_ns._ ORNAMENT[=A]'TION, act or art of ornamenting: (_archit._) ornamental work; OR'NAMENTER; OR'NAMENTIST.--_adj._ ORNATE', ornamented: decorated: highly finished, esp. applied to a style of writing.--_adv._ ORNATE'LY.--_n._ ORNATE'NESS. [Fr. _ornement_--L. _ornamentum_--_orn[=a]re_, to adorn.] ORNIS, or'nis, _n._ the birds collectively of a region, its avifauna.--_adj._ ORNITH'IC.--_ns._ ORNITHICH'NITE (_geol._), the footmark of a bird found impressed on sandstone, &c.; ORNITHODEL'PHIA, the lowest of the three sub-classes of mammals, same as _Monotremata_--from the ornithic character of the urogenital organs.--_adjs._ ORNITHODEL'PHIAN (also _n._), ORNITHODEL'PHIC, ORNITHODEL'PHOUS; OR'NITHOID, somewhat ornithic.--_ns._ ORNITH'OLITE (_geol._), the fossil remains of a bird: a stone occurring of various colours and forms bearing the figures of birds.--_adj._ ORNITHOLOG'ICAL, pertaining to ornithology.--_adv._ ORNITHOLOG'ICALLY.--_ns._ ORNITHOL'OGIST, one versed in ornithology, or who makes a special study of birds; ORNITHOL'OGY, the science and study of birds; OR'NITHOMANCY, divination by means of birds, by observing their flight, &c.--_adjs._ ORNITHOMAN'TIC; ORNITHOPH'ILOUS, bird-fertilised; OR'NITHOPOD, ORNITHOP'ODOUS, having feet like a bird.--_ns._ ORNITHORHYN'CHUS, an animal in Australia, with a body like an otter and a snout like the bill of a duck, also called _Duck-bill_; ORNITHOS'COPY, observation of birds or of their habits; ORNITHOT'OMY, the act of dissecting birds. [Gr. _ornis_, _ornithos_, a bird.] OROGRAPHY, or-og'ra-fi, _n._ the description of mountains--also OROL'OGY.--_n._ OROG'ENY, the origin and formation of mountains.--_adjs._ OROGRAPH'IC, -AL; OROLOG'ICAL, of or pertaining to orology.--_ns._ OROL'OGIST, one versed in orology; OROM'ETER, a mountain-barometer. [Gr. _oros_, a mountain.] OROIDE, [=o]'r[=o]-[=i]d, _n._ an alloy of copper, tin, and other metals used for watch-cases, cheap jewellery, &c.--Also O'R[=E]IDE. [Fr. _or_--L. _aurum_, gold, Gr. _eidos_, form.] OROTUND, [=o]'r[=o]-tund, _adj._ full, clear, and musical, as speech.--_n._ full, clear, and musical speech, as when directly from the larynx. [L. _os_, _oris_, the mouth, _rotundus_, round.] ORPHAN, or'fan, _n._ a child bereft of father or mother, or of both.--_adj._ bereft of parents.--_v.t._ to bereave of parents.--_ns._ OR'PHANAGE, the state of being an orphan: a house for orphans; OR'PHAN-ASY'LUM; OR'PHANHOOD, OR'PHANISM; ORPHANOT'ROPHY, the supporting of orphans. [Gr. _orphanos_, akin to L. _orbus_, bereaved.] ORPHARION, or-f[=a]'ri-on, _n._ a large lute with six to nine metal strings.--Also ORPHE[=O]'REON. ORPHEAN, or'f[=e]-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Orpheus_, a poet who could move inanimate objects by the music of his lyre.--_adj._ OR'PHIC, pertaining to Orpheus, or the mysteries connected with the cult of Bacchus.--_v.i._ OR'PHISE.--_n._ OR'PHISM. ORPHREY, or'fri, _n._ gold or other rich embroidery attached to vestments, esp. chasuble and cope. [Fr. _orfroi_--_or_--L. _aurum_, gold, Fr. _fraise_, fringe.] ORPIMENT, or'pi-ment, _n._ arsenic trisulphide, giving king's yellow and realgar (red).--_ns._ OR'PINE, OR'PIN, a deep-yellow colour: the _Sedum Telephium_, a popular vulnerary. [Fr.,--L. _auripigmentum_--_aurum_, gold, _pigmentum_, paint.] ORRA, or'a, _adj._ (_Scot._) odd: not matched: left over: doing odd pieces of work: worthless. ORRERY, or'[.e]r-i, _n._ an apparatus for illustrating, by balls mounted on rods and moved by clockwork around a centre, the size, positions, motions, &c. of the heavenly bodies. [From Charles Boyle, fourth Earl of _Orrery_ (1676-1731).] ORRIS, or'is, _n._ a species of iris in the south of Europe, the dried root of which has the smell of violets, used in perfumery.--Also ORR'ICE. ORRIS, or'is, _n._ a peculiar kind of gold or silver lace: upholsterers' galloon and gimp. [_Orphrey._] ORSEILLE, or-s[=a]l', _n._ a colouring matter (cf. _Archil_ and _Litmus_).--_adj._ ORSEL'LIC. [Fr.] ORT, ort, _n._ a fragment, esp. one left from a meal--usually _pl._ [Low Ger. _ort_, refuse of fodder.] ORTHOCEPHALY, or-th[=o]-sef'a-li, _n._ the character of a skull in which the ratio between the vertical and transverse diameters is from 70 to 75.--_adj._ ORTHOCEPHAL'IC. ORTHOCERAS, or-thos'e-ras, _n._ a genus of fossil cephalopods, having the shell straight or but slightly curved. ORTHOCHROMATIC, or-th[=o]-kr[=o]-mat'ik, _adj._ correct in rendering the relation of colours, without the usual photographic modifications. [Gr. _orthos_, right, _chr[=o]ma_, colour.] ORTHOCLASE, or'tho-kl[=a]z, _n._ common or potash feldspar.--_adj._ ORTHOCLAS'TIC. [Gr. _orthos_, straight, _klasis_, a fracture.] ORTHODOX, or'tho-doks, _adj._ sound in doctrine: believing the received or established opinions, esp. in religion: according to the received doctrine.--_adv._ OR'THODOXLY.--_ns._ OR'THODOXNESS; OR'THODOXY, soundness of opinion or doctrine: belief in the commonly accepted opinions, esp. in religion. [Through Fr. and Late L. from Gr. _orthodoxos_--_orthos_, right, _doxa_, opinion--_dokein_, to seem.] ORTHODROMIC, or-th[=o]-drom'ik, _adj._ pertaining to OR'THODROMY, the art of sailing on a great circle or in a straight course. ORTHOËPY, or'tho-e-pi, _n._ (_gram._) correct pronunciation of words.--_adjs._ ORTHOËP'IC, -AL.--_adv._ ORTHOËP'ICALLY.--_n._ OR'THOËPIST, one versed in orthoëpy. [Gr. _orthos_, right, _epos_, a word.] ORTHOGAMY, or-thog'a-mi, _n._ (_bot._) direct or immediate fertilisation. ORTHOGNATHOUS, or-thog'n[=a]-thus, _adj._ straight-jawed--also ORTHOGNATH'IC.--_n._ ORTHOG'NATHISM. [Gr. _orthos_, straight, _gnathos_, the jaw.] ORTHOGON, or'tho-gon, _n._ (_geom._) a figure with all its angles right angles.--_adj._ ORTHOG'ONAL, rectangular.--_adv._ ORTHOG'ONALLY. [Gr. _orthos_, right, _g[=o]nia_, angle.] ORTHOGRAPHER, or-thog'ra-f[.e]r, _n._ one who spells words correctly--also ORTHOG'RAPHIST.--_adjs._ ORTHOGRAPH'IC, -AL, pertaining or according to orthography: spelt correctly.--_adv._ ORTHOGRAPH'ICALLY.--_n._ ORTHOG'RAPHY (_gram._), the art or practice of spelling words correctly. [Gr. _orthographia_--_orthos_, right, _graphein_, to write.] ORTHOMETRY, or-thom'et-ri, _n._ the art of constructing verse correctly. ORTHOPÆDIA, or-th[=o]-p[=e]-d[=i]'a, _n._ the art or process of curing deformities of the body, esp. in childhood--also OR'THOPÆDY, OR'THOPEDY.--_adjs._ ORTHOPÆ'DIC, -AL, ORTHOPED'IC, -AL.--_ns._ ORTHOPÆ'DICS, ORTHOPED'ICS, orthopædic surgery; OR'THOPÆDIST, OR'THOPEDIST, one skilled in the foregoing. [Gr. _orthos_, straight, _pais_, _paidos_, a child.] ORTHOPHONY, or'th[=o]-f[=o]-ni, _n._ the art of correct speaking: the proper culture of the voice. [Gr. _orthos_, straight, _ph[=o]nein_, to speak--_ph[=o]n[=e]_, voice.] ORTHOPNOEA, or-thop-n[=e]'a, _n._ dyspnoea.--_n._ ORTHOP'NIC, one who can breathe in an upright posture only. [Gr. _orthos_, straight, _pnein_, to breathe.] ORTHOPRAXY, or'th[=o]-prak-si, _n._ correct practice or procedure. ORTHOPTERA, or-thop't[.e]r-a, _n._ an order of insects with wing-covers, that overlap at the top when shut, under which are the true wings, which fold lengthwise like a fan.--_ns._ ORTHOP'TER, ORTHOP'TERAN, an insect of the order orthoptera; ORTHOPTEROL'OGY.--_adj._ ORTHOP'TEROUS, pertaining to the orthoptera. [Gr. _orthos_, straight, _ptera_, pl. of _pteron_, wing.] ORTHOSCOPIC, or-th[=o]-skop'ik, _adj._ seeing correctly: appearing normal to the eye. [Gr. _orthos_, straight, _skopein_, to see.] ORTHOSTYLE, or'th[=o]-st[=i]l, _n._ (_archit._) an arrangement of columns or pillars in a straight line. [Gr. _orthos_, straight, _stylos_, a column.] ORTHOTONIC, or-th[=o]-ton'ik, _adj._ retaining an accent in certain positions, but not in others--also OR'THOTONE.--_n._ ORTHOTON[=E]'SIS, accentuation of a proclitic or enclitic--opp. to _Enclisis_. [Gr. _orthos_, straight, _tonos_, accent.] ORTHOTROPISM, or-thot'r[=o]-pizm, _n._ vertical growth in plants.--_adjs._ ORTHOT'ROPAL, ORTHOTROP'IC, ORTHOT'ROPOUS. [Gr. _orthos_, straight, _trepein_, to turn.] ORTHOTYPOUS, or'th[=o]-t[=i]-pus, _adj._ in mineralogy, having a perpendicular cleavage. ORTHROS, or'thros, _n._ one of the Greek canonical hours, corresponding to the Western lauds. [Gr. _orthros_, dawn.] ORTIVE, or'tiv, _adj._ rising: eastern. ORTOLAN, or't[=o]-lan, _n._ a kind of bunting, common in Europe, and considered a great table delicacy. [Fr.,--It. _ortolano_--L. _hortulanus_, belonging to gardens--_hortulus_, dim. of _hortus_, a garden.] ORVIETAN, or-vi-[=e]'tan, _n._ a supposed antidote or counter-poison.--_n._ ORVI[=E]'TO, an esteemed still white wine. ORYCTICS, [=o]-rik'tiks, _n._ the branch of geology relating to fossils.--_adjs._ ORYCTOGRAPH'IC, -AL.--_n._ ORYCTOZOÖL'OGY, palæontology. [Gr. _oryctos_, fossil.] ORYX, or'iks, _n._ a genus of antelopes. [Gr., a pick-axe.] ORYZA, [=o]-r[=i]'za, _n._ a small tropical genus of true grasses, including rice. OS, os, _n._ a bone. [L.] OSCAN, os'kan, _n._ and _adj._ one of an ancient Italic race in southern Italy: a language closely akin to Latin, being a ruder and more primitive form of the same central Italic tongue. OSCHEAL, os'k[=e]-al, _adj._ pertaining to the scrotum.--_ns._ OSCHE[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the scrotum; OS'CHEOCELE, a scrotal hernia; OS'CHEOPLASTY, plastic surgery of the scrotum. [Gr. _osch[=e]_, the scrotum.] OSCILLATE, os'sil-l[=a]t, _v.i._ to move backwards and forwards like a pendulum: to vary between certain limits.--_n._ OS'CILLANCY, a swinging condition.--_adj._ OS'CILL[=A]TING.--_n._ OSCILL[=A]'TION, act of oscillating: a swinging like a pendulum: variation within limits.--_adjs._ OS'CILL[=A]TIVE, having a tendency to vibrate; OS'CILL[=A]TORY, swinging: moving as a pendulum does. [L. _oscill[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to swing--_oscillum_, a swing.] OSCINES, os'si-n[=e]z, _n.pl._ a sub-order of birds of the order Passeres.--_adj._ OS'CINE--also _n._ [L. _oscen_, _oscinis_, a singing-bird.] OSCITANCY, os'si-tan-si, _n._ sleepiness, stupidity.--_adj._ OS'CITANT.--_adv._ OS'CITANTLY.--_v.i._ OS'CITATE, to yawn.--_n._ OSCIT[=A]'TION, act of yawning or gaping from sleepiness. [L. _oscit[=a]re_, to yawn.] OSCULANT, os'k[=u]-lant, _adj._ kissing: adhering closely: (_biol._) situated between two other genera, and partaking partly of the character of each.--_v.t._ OS'CUL[=A]TE, to kiss: to touch, as two curves: to form a connecting-link between two genera.--_adj._ of or pertaining to kissing.--_n._ OSCUL[=A]'TION.--_adj._ OS'CUL[=A]TORY, of or pertaining to kissing: (_geom._) having the same curvature at the point of contact.--_n._ a tablet with a picture of the Virgin or of Christ, which was kissed by the priest and then by the people.--_ns._ OS'CULE, a little mouth: a small bilabiate aperture; OS'C[=U]LUM, a mouth in sponges: one of the suckers on the head of a tapeworm. [L. _oscul[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_--_osculum_, a little mouth, a kiss, dim. of _os_, mouth.] OSIER, [=o]'zh[.e]r, _n._ the popular name for those species of willow whose twigs are used in making baskets, &c.--_adj._ made of or like osiers.--_adj._ O'SIERED, adorned with willows.--_n._ O'SIERY, a place where osiers are grown. [Fr.; perh. from Gr. _oisos_.] OSIRIS, [=o]-s[=i]'ris, _n._ the greatest of Egyptian gods, son of Seb and Nut, or Heaven and Earth, married to Isis, slain by Set but avenged by his son Horus, judge of the dead in the nether-world. OSITE, os'[=i]t, _n._ Sombrero guano. OSMANLI, os-man'li, _adj._ of or belonging to Turkey.--_n._ a member of the reigning family of Turkey: a subject of the emperor of Turkey. [_Osman_ or _Othman_, who founded the Turkish empire in Asia, and reigned 1288-1326.] OSMETERIUM, os-m[=e]-t[=e]'ri-um, _n._ an organ devoted to the production of an odour, esp. the forked process behind the head of certain butterfly-larvæ:--_pl._ OSMET[=E]'RIA. OSMIDROSIS, os-mi-dr[=o]'sis, _n._ the secretion of strongly smelling perspiration.--Also _Bromidrosis_. [Gr. _osm[=e]_, smell, _hidr[=o]sis_, sweat.] OSMIUM, [=o]s'mi-um, _n._ a gray-coloured metal found in platinum ore, the oxide of which has a disagreeable smell.--_adjs._ OS'MIC, OS'MIOUS. [Gr. _osm[=e]_, smell, orig. _od-m[=e]_--_ozein_, to smell.] OSMOSE, os'm[=o]s, _n._ the tendency of fluids to mix or become equally diffused when in contact, even through an intervening membrane or porous structure--also OSM[=O]'SIS.--_adj._ OSMOT'IC, pertaining to, or having, the property of osmose.--_adv._ OSMOT'ICALLY. [Gr. _[=o]smos_=_[=o]sis_, impulse--_[=o]thein_, to push.] OSMUNDA, os-mun'da, _n._ a genus of ferns, the chief species being OSMUNDA REGALIS, the royal fern--also called _Bog-onion_, _King-fern_, &c. OSNABURG, oz'na-burg, _n._ a coarse kind of linen, originally brought from _Osnaburg_ in Germany. OSPREY, os'pr[=a], _n._ the fish-hawk, a species of eagle very common on the coast of North America. [Corr. from _ossifrage_, which see.] OSSEOUS, os'[=e]-us, _adj._ bony: composed of, or resembling, bone: of the nature or structure of bone.--_ns._ OSS[=A]'RIUM, an ossuary; OSS'[=E]IN, the organic basis of bone; OSS'ELET, a hard substance growing on the inside of a horse's knee; OSS'ICLE, a small bone.--_adjs._ OSSIF'EROUS, producing bone: (_geol._) containing bones; OSSIF'IC.--_n._ OSSIFIC[=A]'TION, the process or state of being changed into a bony substance.--_v.t._ OSS'IFY, to make into bone or into a bone-like substance.--_v.i._ to become bone:--_pa.p._ oss'ified.--_adj._ OSSIV'OROUS, devouring or feeding on bones.--_ns._ OS'TEOBLAST, a cell concerned in the formation of bone; OS'TEOCLAST, an apparatus for fracturing bones; OSTEOCOL'LA, a deposited carbonate of lime encrusted on the roots and stems of plants; OSTEODEN'TINE, one of the varieties of dentine, resembling bone; OSTEOGEN'ESIS, the formation or growth of bone--also OSTEOG'ENY; OSTEOG'RAPHER; OSTEOG'RAPHY, description of bones.--_adj._ OS'TEOID, like bone: having the appearance of bone.--_ns._ OSTEOL'EPIS, a genus of fossil ganoid fishes peculiar to the Old Red Sandstone, so called from the bony appearance of their scales; OSTEOL'OGER, OSTEOL'OGIST, one versed in osteology.--_adjs._ OSTEOLOG'IC, -AL, pertaining to osteology.--_adv._ OSTEOLOG'ICALLY.--_ns._ OSTEOL'OGY, the science of the bones, that part of anatomy which treats of the bones; OSTEOMAL[=A]'CIA, a disease in which the earthy salts disappear from the bones, which become soft and misshapen; OS'TEOPHYTE, an abnormal bony outgrowth.--_adjs._ OSTEOPHYT'IC; OSTEOPLAST'IC.--_ns._ OS'TEOPLASTY, a plastic operation by which a loss of bone is remedied; OSTEOSARC[=O]'MA, a tumour composed of intermingled bony and sarcomatous tissue; OS'TEOTOME (_surg._), a saw-like instrument for cutting bones; OSTEOT'OMY, the division of, or incision into, a bone; OST[=I]'TIS, inflammation of bone. [L. _osseus_--_os_, _ossis_, bone; Gr. _osteon_, bone.] OSSIANIC, os-i-an'ik, _adj._ pertaining to _Ossian_ or the poems dubiously attributed to him. OSSIFRAGE, os'i-fr[=a]j, _n._ the sea or bald eagle, common in the United States: (_B._) the bearded vulture, the largest of European birds. [L. _ossifragus_, breaking bones--_os_, _frag_, root of _frang[)e]re_, _fractum_, to break.] OSSUARY, os'[=u]-ar-i, _n._ a place where the bones of the dead are deposited: a charnel-house. [L. _ossuarium_, a charnel-house--_os_, a bone.] OSTENSIBLE, os-tens'i-bl, _adj._ that may be shown: declared: put forth as real: apparent.--_n._ OSTENSIBIL'ITY.--_adv._ OSTENS'IBLY.--_adj._ OSTENS'IVE, showing: exhibiting.--_adv._ OSTENS'IVELY.--_ns._ OSTEN'SORY, a monstrance; OS'TENT (_Shak._), appearance, manner: token: portent, prodigy; OSTENT[=A]'TION, act of making a display: ambitious display: display to draw attention or admiration: boasting.--_adj._ OSTENT[=A]'TIOUS, given to show: fond of self-display: intended for display.--_adv._ OSTENT[=A]'TIOUSLY.--_n._ OSTENT[=A]'TIOUSNESS. [L. _ostend[)e]re_, _ostensum_, to show.] OSTIARY, os'ti-ar-i, _n._ the doorkeeper of a church. OSTIUM, os'ti-um, _n._ an opening: the mouth of a river.--_n._ OSTI[=O]'LE, a small orifice.--_adjs._ OS'TIOLAR; OS'TIOL[=A]TE, furnished with an ostiole. [L.] OSTLER, os'l[.e]r. Same as HOSTLER. OSTMEN, ost'men. _n.pl._ the Danish settlers in Ireland. OSTRACEA, os-tr[=a]'s[=e]'a, _n.pl._ the oyster family.--_adjs._ OSTR[=A]'CEAN, OSTR[=A]'CEOUS.--_ns._ OS'TRACITE, a fossil oyster; OS'TR[=E]A, the typical genus of the oyster family; OSTR[=E]ICUL'TURE, oyster-culture; OSTR[=E]ICUL'TURIST. OSTRACISE, os'tra-s[=i]z, _v.t._ in ancient Greece, to banish by the vote of the people written on an earthenware tablet: to banish from society.--_n._ OS'TRACISM, banishment by ostracising: expulsion from society. [Gr. _ostrakizein_--_ostrakon_, an earthenware tablet.] OSTRICH, os'trich, _n._ the largest of birds, found in Africa, remarkable for its speed in running, and prized for its feathers.--_n._ OS'TRICH-FARM, a place where ostriches are bred and reared for their feathers. [O. Fr. _ostruche_ (Fr. _autruche_)--L. _avis-_, _struthio_, ostrich--Gr. _strouthi[=o]n_, an ostrich, _strouthos_, a bird.] OSTROGOTH, os'tr[=o]-goth, _n._ an eastern Goth: one of the tribe of east Goths who established their power in Italy in 493, and were overthrown in 555.--_adj._ OS'TROGOTHIC. OTACOUSTIC, ot-a-kows'tik, _adj._ assisting hearing.--_n._ an instrument to assist hearing--also OTACOUS'TICON. [Gr. _akoustikos_--_akouein_, to hear--_ous_, _[=o]tos_, ear.] OTALGIA, [=o]-tal'ji-a, _n._ earache--also OTAL'GY.--_ns._ OTOG'RAPHY, descriptive anatomy of the ear; OTORRH[=E]'A, a purulent discharge from the ear; O'TOSCOPE, an instrument for viewing the interior of the ear. OTARY, [=o]'tar-i, _n._ a genus of seals with an external ear:--_pl._ O'TARIES.--_adj._ OT'ARINE. [Gr. _[=o]taros_, large-eared--_ous_, _[=o]tos_, ear.] OTHER, u_th_'[.e]r, _adj._ and _pron._ different, not the same: additional: second of two.--_adj._ OTH'ERGUESS=_Othergates_.--_n._ OTH'ERNESS.--_advs._ OTH'ERWHERE, elsewhere; OTH'ERWHILE, OTH'ERWHILES, at other times: sometimes; OTH'ERWISE, in another way or manner: by other causes: in other respects.--_conj._ else: under other conditions.--EVERY OTHER, each alternate; RATHER ... THAN OTHERWISE, rather than not; THE OTHER DAY, on some day not long past, quite recently. [A.S. _other_; cf. Ger. _ander_, L. _alter_.] OTHERGATES, u_th_'[.e]r-g[=a]tz, _adv._ (_obs._) in another way--also _adj._ [_Other_, and _gate_, way, manner.] OTIC, [=o]'tik, _adj._ of or pertaining to the ear.--_ns._ OT[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the internal ear; OT'OCYST, an auditory vesicle; OT'OLITH, a calcareous concretion within the membranous labyrinth of the ear; OTOL'OGIST, one skilled in otology; OTOL'OGY, knowledge of the ear. [Gr. _ous_, _[=o]tos_, ear.] OTIOSE, o'shi-[=o]s, _adj._ unoccupied: lazy: done in a careless way, perfunctory, futile.--_n._ OTIOS'ITY, ease, idleness. [L. _otiosus_--_otium_, rest.] OTOSCOPE. See under OTALGIA. OTTAVA, ot-tä'vä, _n._ an octave.--OTTAVA RIMA, an Italian form of versification consisting of eight lines, the first six rhyming alternately, the last two forming a couplet--used by Byron in _Don Juan_. [It.] OTTER, ot'[.e]r, _n._ a large kind of weasel living entirely on fish. [A.S. _otor_, _oter_; cf. Dut. and Ger. _otter_.] OTTO, ot'o, OTTAR, ot'ar (better ATT'AR), _n._ a fragrant oil obtained from certain flowers, esp. the rose. [Ar. _`itr_--_`atira_, to smell sweetly.] OTTOMAN, ot'o-man, _adj._ pertaining to the Turkish Empire, founded by _Othman_ or _Osman_ about 1299.--_n._ a Turk (_Shak._ OTT'OMITE): a cushioned seat for several persons sitting with their backs to one another: a low, stuffed seat without a back: a variety of corded silk. [Fr.] OUBIT, [=oo]'bit, _n._ a hairy caterpillar. [Prob. the A.S. _wibba_, a crawling thing.] OUBLIETTE, [=oo]-bli-et', _n._ a dungeon with no opening but at the top: a secret pit in the floor of a dungeon into which a victim could be precipitated. [Fr.,--_oublier_, to forget--L. _oblivisci_.] OUCH, owch, _n._ a jewel or ornament, esp. one in the form of a clasp: the socket of a precious stone. [O. Fr. _nouche_, _nosche_, from Teut., cf. Old High Ger. _nusca_, a clasp.] OUDENARDE, [=oo]'de-närd, _n._ a kind of decorative tapestry, representing foliage, &c., once made at _Oudenarde_ in Belgium. OUGHT, awt, _n._ (same as _Aught_) a vulgar corr. of _nought_.--_adv._ (_Scot._) OUGHT'LINGS, at all, in any degree. OUGHT, awt, _v.i._ to be under obligation: to be proper or necessary.--_n._ OUGHT'NESS, rightness. [A.S. _áhte_, pa.t. of _ágan_, to owe.] OUISTITI, wis'ti-ti, _n._ a wistit or marmoset. OUNCE, owns, _n._ the twelfth part of a pound troy=480 grains: 1/16 of a pound avoirdupois=437½ troy grains. [O. Fr. _unce_--L. _uncia_, the twelfth part.] OUNCE, owns, _n._ a carnivorous animal of the cat kind, found in Asia, allied to the leopard--(_obs._) ONCE. [Fr. _once_, prob. Pers. _yúz_, a panther.] OUNDY, own'di, _adj._ wavy: scalloped: (_her._) undé. OUPHE, [=oo]f, _n._ (_Shak._). Same as OAF. OUR, owr, _adj._ and _pron._ pertaining or belonging to us--prov. OURN.--_prons._ OURS, possessive of _We_; OURSELF', myself (as a king or queen would say):--_pl._ OURSELVES (-selvz'), we, not others: us. [A.S. _úre_, gen. pl. of _wé_, we.] OURANG-OUTANG. Same as ORANG-OUTANG. OUROLOGY, OUROSCOPY, &c. See UROLOGY under URINE. OUSEL. See OUZEL. OUST, owst, _v.t._ to eject or expel.--_n._ OUST'ER (_law_), ejection: dispossession. [O. Fr. _oster_ (Fr. _ôter_), to remove; acc. to Diez, from L. _haur[=i]re_, _haustum_, to draw (water).] OUT, owt, _adv._ without, not within: gone forth: abroad: to the full stretch or extent: in a state of discovery, development, &c.: in a state of exhaustion, extinction, &c.: away from the mark: completely: at or to an end: to others, as to hire _out_: freely: forcibly: at a loss: unsheltered: uncovered.--_prep._ forth from: outside of: exterior: outlying, remote.--_n._ one who is out, esp. of office--opp. to _In_: leave to go out, an outing.--_v.i._ to go or come out.--_interj._ away! begone!--_n._ OUT'-AND-OUT'ER, a thoroughgoer, a first-rate fellow.--_adjs._ OUT'-OF-DOOR, open-air; OUT-OF-THE-WAY', uncommon: singular: secluded.--OUT AND AWAY, by far; OUT AND OUT, thoroughly: completely--also as _adj._ thorough, complete; OUT-AT-ELBOWS, worn-out, threadbare; OUT OF CHARACTER, unbecoming: improper; OUT OF COURSE, out of order; OUT OF DATE, unfashionable: not now in use; OUT OF FAVOUR, disliked; OUT OF HAND, instantly; OUT OF JOINT, not in proper connection: disjointed; OUT OF ONE'S MIND, mad; OUT OF POCKET, having spent more than one has received; OUT OF PRINT, not to be had for sale, said of books, &c.; OUT OF SORTS, or TEMPER, unhappy: cross-tempered; OUT OF THE COMMON, unusual, pre-eminent; OUT OF THE QUESTION, that cannot be at all considered; OUT OF TIME, too soon or too late: not keeping time in music; OUT WITH, away with: (_Scot._) outside of: say, do, &c., at once. [A.S. _úte_, _út_; Goth. _ut_, Ger. _aus_, Sans. _ud_.] OUTASK, owt-ask', _v.t._ to ask or proclaim, as to be married, in church for the last time. OUTBALANCE, owt-bal'ans, _v.t._ to exceed in weight or effect: to outweigh. OUTBAR, owt-bär', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to bar out, esp. to shut out by fortifications. OUTBARGAIN, owt-bär'gin, _v.t._ to get the better of in a bargain. OUTBID, owt-bid', _v.t._ to offer a higher price than another. OUTBLUSH, owt-blush', _v.t._ to exceed in rosy colour. OUTBLUSTER, owt-blus't[.e]r, _v.t._ to exceed in blustering: to get the better of in this way. OUTBOUND, owt'bownd, _adj._ bound for a distant port. OUTBOUNDS, owt'bowndz, _n.pl._ (_Spens._) boundaries. OUTBRAG, owt-brag', _v.t._ to surpass in bragging or boasting: to surpass in beauty or splendour. OUTBRAVE, owt-br[=a]v', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to excel in bravery or boldness, to defy. OUTBREAK, owt'br[=a]k, _n._ a breaking out: eruption: a disturbance of the peace.--_v.i._ OUTBREAK', to burst forth.--_ns._ OUT'BREAKER, a wave which breaks on the shore or on rocks; OUT'BREAKING. OUTBREATHE, owt-br[=e]th', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to breathe out as breath or life: to exhaust or deprive of breath.--_v.i._ to be breathed out: (_Shak._) to expire. OUTBUD, owt-bud', _v.i._ (_Spens._) to sprout forth. OUTBUILDING, owt'bild-ing, _n._ a building separate from, but used in connection with, a dwelling-house or a main building: an outhouse. OUTBURN, owt-burn', _v.t._ to exceed in burning.--_v.i._ to burn away. OUTBURST, owt'burst, _n._ a bursting out: an explosion. OUTBY, owt'b[=i], _adv._ (_Scot._) out of doors: (_min._) towards the shaft--opp. to _Inby._--Also OUT'BYE. OUTCAST, owt'kast, _adj._ exiled from home or country: rejected.--_n._ a person banished: a vagabond: an exile: (_Scot._) a quarrel: the amount of increase in bulk of grain in malting. OUTCOME, owt'kum, _n._ the issue: consequence: result. OUTCRAFTY, owt-kraft'i, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to exceed in craft. OUTCROP, owt'krop, _n._ the appearance, at the surface, of a layer of rock or a vein of metal, caused by tilting or inclination of the strata: the part of a layer which appears at the surface of the ground.--_v.i._ to appear at the surface. OUTCRY, owt'kr[=i], _n._ a loud cry of distress: a confused noise: a public auction.--_v.t._ to cry louder than. OUTDARE, owt-d[=a]r', _v.t._ to surpass in daring: to defy. OUTDISTANCE, owt-dis'tans, _v.t._ to distance, leave far behind in any competition. OUTDO, owt-d[=oo]', _v.t._ to surpass: excel. OUTDOOR, owt'd[=o]r, _adj._ outside the door or the house: in the open air.--_adv._ OUT'DOORS, out of the house: abroad.--OUTDOOR RELIEF, help given to a pauper who does not live in the workhouse. OUTDWELL, owt-dwel', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to dwell or stay beyond.--_n._ OUT-DWELL'ER, one who owns land in a parish but lives outside it. OUT-EDGE, owt'-ej, _n._ the farthest bound. OUTER, owt'[.e]r, _adj._ more out or without: external--opp. to _Inner_.--_n._ the part of a target outside the rings, a shot striking here.--_adj._ OUT'ERMOST, most or farthest out: most distant.--OUTER BAR, the junior barristers who plead outside the bar in court, as distinguished from King's Counsel and others who plead within the bar. [Comp. of _out_.] OUTFACE, owt-f[=a]s', _v.t._ to stare down: to bear down by bravery or impudence: to confront boldly. OUTFALL, owt'-fawl, _n._ the place of discharge of a river, sewer, &c.: (_prov._) a quarrel. OUTFIELD, owt'f[=e]ld, _n._ (_Scot._) arable land continually cropped without being manured--opp. to _Infield_: any open field at a distance from the farm-steading: any undefined district or sphere: at cricket and baseball, the players collectively who occupy the outer part of the field.--_n._ OUT'FIELDER, one of such players. OUTFIT, owt'fit, _n._ the act of making ready everything required for a journey or a voyage: complete equipment: the articles or the expenses for fitting out: the means for an outfit.--_v.t._ to fit out, equip.--_ns._ OUT'FITTER, one who furnishes outfits; OUT'FITTING, an outfit: equipment for a voyage. OUTFLANK, owt-flangk', _v.t._ to extend the flank of one army beyond that of another: to get the better of. OUTFLASH, owt-flash', _v.t._ to outshine. OUTFLING, owt'fling, _n._ a sharp retort or gibe. OUTFLOW, owt-fl[=o]', _v.i._ to flow out.--_n._ issue. OUTFLUSH, owt'flush, _n._ any sudden glow of heat. OUTFLY, owt-fl[=i]', _v.t._ to surpass in flying: to fly faster than: to escape by swiftness of flight. OUTFOOT, owt-f[=oo]t', _v.i._ to outsail. OUTFROWN, owt-frown', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to frown down. OUTGARTH, owt'gärth, _n._ an outer yard or garden. OUTGAZE, owt-g[=a]z', _v.t._ to stare out of countenance: to gaze farther than. OUTGENERAL, owt-jen'[.e]r-al, _v.t._ to outdo in generalship: to prove a better general than. OUTGIVE, owt-giv', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to surpass in liberality. OUTGO, owt-g[=o]', _v.t._ to advance before in going: to surpass: to overreach.--_v.i._ to go out: to come to an end.--_ns._ OUT'GO, that which goes out: expenditure--opp. to _Income_; OUT'GOER; OUT'GOING, act or state of going out: extreme limit: expenditure.--_adj._ departing--opp. to _Incoming_, as a tenant. OUTGROW, owt-gr[=o]', _v.t._ to surpass in growth: to grow out of.--_n._ OUT'GROWTH, that which grows out of a thing: growth to excess. OUTGUARD, owt'gärd, _n._ a guard at a distance or at the farthest distance from the main body. OUTGUSH, owt-gush', _v.i._ to issue with force.--_n._ OUT'GUSH, a gushing out. OUTHAUL, owt'hawl, _n._ a rope for hauling out the clew of a sail.--Also OUT'HAULER. OUT-HEROD, owt-her'od, _v.t._ to surpass (_Herod_) in cruelty: to exceed, esp. in anything bad. OUTHIRE, owt-h[=i]r', _v.t._ to hire or let out. OUTHOUSE, owt'hows, _n._ a small building outside a dwelling-house. OUTING, owt'ing, _n._ the act of going out, or the distance gone out: an excursion or airing. OUTJEST, owt-jest', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to overpower by jesting: to excel in jesting. OUTJET, owt'jet, _n._ that which projects from anything.--_n._ OUTJUT'TING, a projection. OUTLAND, owt'land, _n._ land beyond the limits of cultivation.--_adj._ (_Tenn._) foreign.--_n._ OUT'LANDER, a foreigner, a person not naturalised.--_adj._ OUTLAND'ISH, belonging to an out or foreign land: foreign: not according to custom: strange: rustic: rude: vulgar.--_adv._ OUTLAND'ISHLY.--_n._ OUTLAND'ISHNESS. OUTLASH, owt'lash, _n._ any sudden outburst. OUTLAST, owt-last', _v.t._ to last longer than. OUTLAW, owt'law, _n._ one deprived of the protection of the law: a robber or bandit.--_v.t._ to place beyond the law: to deprive of the benefit of the law: to proscribe.--_n._ OUT'LAWRY, the act of putting a man out of the protection of the law: state of being an outlaw. [A.S. _útlaga_; cf. Ice. _útlági_--_út_, out, _lög_, law.] OUTLAY, owt'l[=a], _n._ that which is laid out: expenditure.--_v.t._ to lay out to view. OUTLEAP, owt'l[=e]p, _n._ a sally, flight. OUTLEARN, owt-l[.e]rn', _v.t._ to learn: to excel in learning: to get beyond the instruction of. OUTLET, owt'let, _n._ the place or means by which anything is let out: the passage outward, vent. OUTLIER, owt'l[=i]-[.e]r, _n._ (_geol._) a portion of a stratum: anything, as detached from the principal mass, and lying some distance from it.--_v.t._ OUTLIE', to beat in lying.--_v.i._ to live in the open air. OUTLINE, owt'l[=i]n, _n._ the outer line: the lines by which any figure is bounded: a sketch showing only the main lines: a draft: a set-line in fishing.--_v.t._ to draw the exterior line of: to delineate or sketch.--_adj._ OUTLIN'EAR, like an outline. OUTLIVE, owt-liv', _v.t._ to live longer than: to survive.--_n._ OUTLIV'ER. OUTLODGING, owt'loj-ing, _n._ a lodging outside a college bounds at Oxford and Cambridge. OUTLOOK, owt'l[=oo]k, _n._ vigilant watch: view obtained by looking out: prospect, or (_fig._) one's prospects: a watch-tower.--_v.t._ to face courageously. OUTLUSTRE, owt-lus't[.e]r, _v.t._ to excel in brightness. OUTLYING, owt'l[=i]-ing, _adj._ lying out or beyond: remote: on the exterior or frontier: detached. OUTMAN, owt-man', _v.t._ to outdo in manliness: to outnumber in men. OUTMANOEUVRE, owt-ma-n[=u]'v[.e]r, _v.t._ to surpass in manoeuvring. OUTMANTLE, owt-man'tl, _v.t._ to excel in dress or ornament. OUTMARCH, owt-märch', _v.t._ to march faster than: to leave behind by marching. OUTMATE, owt-m[=a]t', _v.t._ to outmatch. OUTMEASURE, owt-mezh'[=u]r, _v.t._ to exceed in extent. OUTMOST, owt'm[=o]st. Same as OUTERMOST. OUTMOVE, owt-m[=oo]v', _v.t._ to move faster than. OUTNAME, owt-n[=a]m', _v.t._ to surpass in name, reputation, or importance. OUTNESS, owt'nes, _n._ state of being out, externality to the perceiving mind, objectiveness. OUTNUMBER, owt-num'b[.e]r, _v.t._ to exceed in number. OUTPACE, owt-p[=a]s', _v.t._ to walk faster than. OUT-PARAMOUR, owt-par'a-m[=oo]r, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to exceed in number of mistresses. OUTPARISH, owt'par-ish, _n._ a rural parish, as distinguished from an urban one. OUTPART, owt'part, _n._ a part remote from the centre. OUTPASSION, owt-pash'un, _v.t._ (_Tenn._) to go beyond in passionateness. OUTPATIENT, owt'p[=a]-shent, _n._ a patient who receives aid from a hospital, but lives outside of it. OUTPEER, owt-p[=e]r', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to surpass or excel. OUT-PENSIONER, owt'-pen'shun-[.e]r, _n._ a non-resident pensioner. OUTPORT, owt'p[=o]rt, _n._ a port out of or remote from the chief port: a place of export. OUTPOST, owt'p[=o]st, _n._ a post or station beyond the main body of an army: the troops placed there. OUTPOUR, owt-p[=o]r', _v.t._ to pour out: to send out in a stream.--_ns._ OUTPOUR'; OUTPOUR'ER; OUT'POURING, a pouring out: an abundant supply. OUTPOWER, owt-pow'[.e]r, _v.t._ to surpass in power. OUTPRAY, owt-pr[=a]', _v.t._ to exceed in earnestness of prayer. OUTPRIZE, owt-pr[=i]z', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to exceed in the value set upon it. OUTPUT, owt'p[=oo]t, _n._ the quantity of metal made by a smelting furnace, or of coal taken from a pit, within a certain time, production generally. OUTQUARTERS, owt-kwär't[.e]rz, _n.pl._ quarters situated away from headquarters. OUTQUENCH, owt-kwensh', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to extinguish. OUTRAGE, owt'r[=a]j, _n._ violence beyond measure: excessive abuse: wanton mischief.--_v.t._ to treat with excessive abuse: to injure by violence, esp. to violate, to ravish.--_v.i._ to be guilty of outrage.--_adj._ OUTR[=A]'GEOUS, violent: furious: turbulent: atrocious: enormous, immoderate.--_adv._ OUTR[=A]'GEOUSLY.--_n._ OUTR[=A]'GEOUSNESS. [O. Fr. _oultrage_ (mod. _outrage_)--Low L. _ultragium_--L. _ultra_, beyond.] OUTRANCE, owt'rans, _n._ the utmost extremity: the bitter end.--À OUTRANCE, to the bitter end of a combat--usually in Eng. use, À L'OUTRANCE. [Fr.] OUTRÉ, [=oo]t-r[=a]', _adj._ beyond what is customary or proper: extravagant: overstrained. [Fr. pa.p. of _outrer_--_outre_--L. _ultra_, beyond.] OUTREACH, owt-r[=e]ch', _v.t._ to reach or extend beyond: to cheat or overreach. OUTREDDEN, owt-red'n, _v.t._ (_Tenn._) to grow redder than. OUTREIGN, owt-r[=a]n', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to reign longer than: to reign through the whole of (a period). OUTREMER, [=oo]tr-m[=a]r', _n._ the region beyond sea. [Fr.] OUTRIDE, owt-r[=i]d', _v.t._ to ride beyond: to ride faster than.--_n._ OUT'RIDER, one who rides abroad: a servant on horseback who attends a carriage. OUTRIGGER, owt'rig-[.e]r, _n._ a projecting spar for extending sails or any part of the rigging: a projecting contrivance ending in a float fixed to the side of a canoe against capsizing: an iron bracket fixed to the outside of a boat carrying a rowlock at its extremity to increase the leverage of the oar: a light racing-boat with projecting rowlocks. OUTRIGHT, owt'r[=i]t, _adv._ immediately: at once: completely.--_adj._ free from reserve: positive, undisguised. OUTRIVAL, owt-r[=i]'val, _v.t._ to surpass, excel. OUTROAD, owt'r[=o]d, _n._ (_obs._) a foray into an enemy's country, a hostile attack--opp. to _Inroad_. OUTROAR, owt-r[=o]r', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to exceed in roaring.--_n._ OUT'ROAR, an uproar. OUTROOT, owt-r[=oo]t', _v.t._ to root out. OUTROPER, owt-r[=o]'p[.e]r, _n._ formerly an officer in London who seized the goods of foreigners sold elsewhere than in the public market. OUTRUN, owt-run', _v.t._ to go beyond in running: to exceed: to get the better of or to escape by running.--_n._ OUT'RUNNER. OUTRUSH, owt-rush', _v.i._ to rush out:--_n._ a rushing out. OUTSAIL, owt-s[=a]l', _v.t._ to leave behind in sailing. OUTSCOLD, owt-sk[=o]ld', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to exceed in scolding. OUTSCORN, owt-skorn', _v.t._ to bear down or confront by contempt: to disregard or despise. OUTSCOURING, owt'skowr-ing, _n._ substance washed or scoured out. OUTSELL, owt-sel', _v.t._ to sell for a higher price than: to exceed in the number or amount of sales. OUT-SENTRY, owt'-sen-tri, _n._ a sentry who guards the entrance to a place at a distance.--_n._ OUT'SCOUT, an advance scout. OUTSET, owt'set, _n._ a setting out: beginning.--Also OUT'SETTING. OUTSETTLEMENT, owt'set'l-ment, _n._ a settlement away from the main one. OUTSHINE, owt-sh[=i]n', _v.i._ to shine out or forth.--_v.t._ to excel in shining: to be brighter than. OUTSHOT, owt'shot, _n._ (_Scot._) a projection in a building: (_pl._) in paper-making, rags of second quality. OUTSIDE, owt's[=i]d, _n._ the outer side: the farthest limit: the surface: the exterior: one who is without, as a passenger on a coach, &c.: the outer or soiled sheets of a package of paper.--_adj._ on the outside: exterior: superficial: external: extreme, beyond the limit.--_adv._ on the outside: not within.--_prep._ beyond.--_ns._ OUT'SIDE-CAR, an Irish jaunting-car; OUT'SIDER, one not admitted to a particular company, profession, &c., a stranger, a layman: a racehorse not included among the favourites in the betting: (_pl._) a pair of nippers for turning a key in a keyhole from the outside.--OUTSIDE COUNTRY, districts beyond the line of settlements in Australia; OUTSIDE OF, outside: (_coll._) besides.--GET OUTSIDE OF (_vulgar_), to comprehend: to eat or drink. OUTSIGHT, owt's[=i]t, _n._ power of seeing things, outlook.--OUTSIGHT PLENISHING (_Scot._), outdoor movables. OUTSIT, owt-sit', _v.t._ to sit beyond the time of. OUTSKIRT, owt'sk[.e]rt, _n._ the outer skirt: border: suburb--often used in _pl._ OUTSLEEP, owt-sl[=e]p' _v.t._ (_Shak._) to sleep longer than. OUTSLIDE, owt-sl[=i]d', _v.t._ to slide forward. OUTSOAR, owt-s[=o]r', _v.t._ to soar beyond. OUTSOLE, owt's[=o]l, _n._ the outer sole of a boot or shoe which rests on the ground. OUTSPAN, owt-span', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to unyoke or unharness draught-oxen, &c., from a vehicle, to encamp--opp. to _Inspan_. OUTSPEAK, owt-sp[=e]k', _v.t._ to say aloud: to speak more, louder, or longer than.--_v.i._ to speak boldly, to speak up.--_adj._ OUTSP[=O]'KEN, frank or bold of speech: uttered with boldness.--_n._ OUTSP[=O]'KENNESS. OUTSPECKLE, owt'spek'l, _n._ (_Scot._) a laughing-stock. OUTSPENT, owt-spent', _adj._ thoroughly tired out. OUTSPORT, owt-sport', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to outdo in sporting. OUTSPREAD, owt-spred', _v.t._ to spread out or over.--_adj._ OUTSPREAD'ING. OUTSPRING, owt'spring, _n._ the outcome, result, or issue. OUTSTAND, owt-stand', _v.t._ to resist or withstand: to stand beyond the proper time.--_v.i._ to stand out or project from a mass: to remain unpaid or unsettled in any way.--_adj._ OUTSTAND'ING, prominent: uncollected: remaining unpaid. OUTSTARE, owt'st[=a]r, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to stare down or abash with effrontery. OUTSTAY, owt-st[=a]', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to stay beyond. OUTSTEP, owt-step', _v.t._ to step beyond, overstep. OUTSTRETCH, owt-strech', _v.t._ to spread out, extend. OUTSTRIKE, owt-str[=i]k', _v.t._ to exceed in striking, so as to overpower. OUTSTRIP, owt-strip', _v.t._ to outrun: to leave behind: to escape beyond one's reach. OUTSUM, owt-sum', _v.t._ to outnumber. OUTSWEAR, owt-sw[=a]r', _v.t._ to exceed in swearing. OUTSWEETEN, owt-sw[=e]t'n, _v.t._ to excel in sweetness. OUTSWELL, owt-swel', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to overflow. OUTTALK, owt-tawk', _v.t._ to talk down. OUTTONGUE, owt-tung', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to bear down by talk or noise. OUTTOP, owt-top', _v.t._ to reach higher than: to excel. OUT-TRAVEL, owt-trav'el, _v.t._ to surpass in travelling, to go more swiftly than. OUTVALUE, owt-val'[=u], _v.t._ to exceed in value. OUTVENOM, owt-ven'um, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to exceed in poison. OUTVIE, owt-v[=i]', _v.t._ to go beyond in vying with: to exceed: to surpass. OUTVILLAIN, owt-vil'[=a]n, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to exceed in villainy. OUTVOICE, owt-vois', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to exceed in clamour or noise: to drown the voice of. OUTVOTE, owt-v[=o]t', _v.t._ to defeat by a greater number of votes. OUTWALK, owt-wawk', _v.t._ to walk farther, longer, or faster than. OUTWALL, owt'wawl, _n._ the outside wall of a building: (_Shak._) external appearance. OUTWARD, owt'ward, _adj._ toward the outside: external: exterior: not inherent, adventitious: (_theol._) worldly, carnal--opp. to _Inward_ or spiritual: (_B._) public.--_adv._ toward the exterior: away from port: to a foreign port: superficially--also OUT'WARDS.--_n._ OUT'WARD (_Shak._), external form: the outside.--_adj._ OUT'WARD-BOUND, bound outwards or to a foreign port.--_adv._ OUT'WARDLY, in an outward manner: externally: in appearance.--_n._ OUT'WARDNESS.--_adj._ OUT'WARD-SAINT'ED, appearing outwardly to be a saint. OUTWARD, owt-wawrd', _n._ a ward in a detached building connected with a hospital. OUTWATCH, owt-wawch', _v.t._ to watch longer than. OUTWEAR, owt-w[=a]r', _v.t._ to wear out: to spend tediously: to last longer than: to consume. OUTWEARY, owt-w[=e]'ri, _v.t._ to weary out completely. OUTWEED, owt-w[=e]d', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to root out. OUTWEIGH, owt-w[=a]', _v.t._ to exceed in weight or importance: to overtask. OUTWELL, owt-wel', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to pour or well out. OUTWENT, owt-went', _v.t._ went faster than, outstripped. OUTWIN, owt-win', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to get out of. OUTWIND, owt-w[=i]nd', _v.t._ to extricate by winding, to unloose. OUTWING, owt-wing', _v.t._ to outstrip in flying: to outflank. OUTWIT, owt-wit', _v.t._ to surpass in wit or ingenuity: to defeat by superior ingenuity:--_pr.p._ outwit'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ outwit'ted. OUTWITH, owt'with, _prep._ (_Scot._), without, outside of. OUTWORK, owt'wurk, _n._ a work outside the principal wall or line of fortification: work done in the fields, out of doors, as distinguished from indoor work.--_v.t._ OUTWORK' (_Shak._), to surpass in work or labour: to work out or bring to an end: to finish.--_n._ OUT'WORKER, one who works out of doors, or who takes away work to do at home. OUTWORTH, owt-wurth', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to exceed in value. OUTWREST, owt-rest', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to extort by violence. OUVRAGE, [=oo]v'razh, _n._ work.--_ns._ (_masc._) OUVRIER ([=oo]v'ri-[=a]), (_fem._) OUVRIÈRE ([=oo]v'ri-[=a]r), a working man or woman.--_adj._ working. [Fr.] OUZEL, [=oo]'zl, _n._ a kind of thrush--also OU'SEL. [A.S. _ósle_; cog. with Ger. _amsel_.] OVAL, [=o]'val, _adj._ having the shape of an egg.--_n._ anything oval, a plot of ground, &c.: an ellipse.--_adv._ O'VALLY. [Fr. _ovale_--L. _ovum_, an egg.] OVARY, [=o]'var-i, _n._ the part of the female animal in which the egg of the offspring is formed, the female genital gland: (_bot._) the part of the pistil which contains the seed.--_n.pl._ O'VA, eggs.--_adjs._ OV[=A]'RIAL, OV[=A]'RIAN, of or pertaining to the ovary.--_ns._ OV[=A]'RI[=O]LE; OVARIOT'OMIST; OVARIOT'OMY (_surg._), the removal of a diseased tumour from the ovary.--_adj._ OV[=A]'RIOUS, consisting of eggs.--_n._ OVAR[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the ovary. [Low L. _ovaria_.] OVATE, [=o]'v[=a]t, _n._ an Eisteddfodic graduate who is neither a bard nor a druid. [W. _ofydd_, a philosopher.] OVATE, -D, [=o]'v[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ egg-shaped. OVATION, [=o]-v[=a]'shun, _n._ an outburst of popular applause, an enthusiastic reception: in ancient Rome, a lesser triumph. [Fr.,--L.,--_ov[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to shout.] OVEN, uv'n, _n._ an arched cavity over a fire for baking, heating, or drying: any apparatus used as an oven.--_ns._ OV'EN-BIRD, a South American tree-creeper which builds an oven-shaped nest; OV'EN-TIT, the willow-warbler; OV'EN-WOOD, brushwood.--DUTCH OVEN, a baking-pot, heated by heaping coals round it. [A.S. _ofen_; Ger. _ofen_.] OVER, [=o]'v[.e]r, _prep._ higher than in place, rank, value, &c.: across: on the surface of: upon the whole surface of: through: concerning: on account of: longer than.--_adv._ on the top: above: across: from one side, person, &c. to another: above in measure: too much: in excess: left remaining: at an end: completely.--_adj._ upper or superior (often used as a prefix, as in _over_coat, _over_lord, &c.): beyond: past.--_n._ the number of balls delivered at cricket between successive changes of bowlers: an excess, overplus.--_v.t._ to go, leap, or vault over.--_v.i._ to go over.--OVER AGAIN, afresh, anew; OVER AGAINST, opposite; OVER AND ABOVE, in addition to: besides; OVER AND OVER, several times: repeatedly; OVER HEAD AND EARS, beyond one's depth: completely; OVER SEAS, to foreign lands.--All over, completely: at an end. [A.S. _ofer_; Ger. _über_, L. _super_, Gr. _huper_.] OVERACT, [=o]-v[.e]r-akt', _v.t._ to act overmuch, to overdo any part.--_v.i._ to act more than necessary. OVER-ALL, [=o]'v[.e]r-awl, _adv._ (_Spens._) everywhere, all over.--_n.pl._ O'VERALLS, loose trousers of canvas, &c., worn over the others to keep them sound or clean, waterproof leggings. OVER-ANXIOUS, [=o]-v[.e]r-angk'shus, _adj._ anxious beyond what is right or reasonable.--_n._ OVER-ANX[=I]'ETY.--_adv._ OVER-ANX'IOUSLY. OVERARCH, [=o]-v[.e]r-ärch', _v.t._ to arch over.--_v.i._ to hang over like an arch. OVERAWE, [=o]-v[.e]r-aw', _v.t._ to restrain by fear or by superior influence. OVERBALANCE, [=o]-v[.e]r-bal'ans, _v.t._ to exceed in weight, value, or importance: to cause to lose (one's) balance.--_n._ excess of weight or value. OVERBATTLE, [=o]-v[.e]r-bat'tl, _adj._ (_obs._) too fertile. OVERBEAR, [=o]-v[.e]r-b[=a]r', _v.t._ to bear down or overpower: to overwhelm.--_adj._ OVERBEAR'ING, inclined to domineer, esp. in manner or conduct: haughty and dogmatical: imperious.--_adv._ OVERBEAR'INGLY.--_n._ OVERBEAR'INGNESS. OVERBID, [=o]-v[.e]r-bid', _v.t._ to offer a price greater than.--_v.i._ offer more than the value of. OVERBLOW, [=o]-v[.e]r-bl[=o]', _v.i._ to blow over or to be past its violence: to blow with too much violence.--_v.t._ to blow away: to blow across.--_adj._ OVERBLOWN', blown over or past, at an end: burnt by an excessive blast, in the Bessemer steel process. OVERBLOW, [=o]-v[.e]r-bl[=o]', _v.t._ to cover with blossoms or flowers.--_adj._ OVERBLOWN', past the time of flower, withered. OVERBOARD, [=o]'v[.e]r-b[=o]rd, _adv._ over the board or side: from on board: out of a ship.--THROWN OVERBOARD, deserted, discarded, betrayed. OVERBODY, [=o]-v[.e]r-bod'i, _v.t._ to give too much body to. OVERBOIL, [=o]'v[.e]r-boil', _v.i._ and _v.t._ to boil excessively. OVERBOLD, [=o]-v[.e]r-b[=o]ld', _adj._ (_Shak._) excessively bold: impudent.--_adv._ OVERBOLD'LY. OVERBRIDGE, [=o]'v[.e]r-brij, _n._ a bridge over a road. OVERBRIM, [=o]-v[.e]r-brim', _v.t._ to fill to overflowing.--_v.i._ to be so full as to overflow.--_adj._ OVERBRIMMED', having too large a brim. OVERBROOD, [=o]-v[.e]r-br[=oo]d', _v.t._ to brood over. OVERBROW, [=o]-v[.e]r-brow', _v.t._ to overhang like a projecting brow. OVERBUILD, [=o]-v[.e]r-bild', _v.t._ to build over: to build more than is needed.--_v.i._ to build beyond one's means. OVERBULK, [=o]-v[.e]r-bulk', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to oppress by bulk. OVERBURDEN, [=o]-v[.e]r-bur'dn, _v.t._ to burden overmuch.--_n._ alluvial soil overlying a bed of ore. OVERBURN, [=o]-v[.e]r-burn', _v.t._ to burn too much.--_v.i._ to be too zealous. OVERBUSY, [=o]-v[.e]r-biz'i, _adj._ too busy, over-officious. OVERBUY, [=o]-v[.e]r-b[=i]', _v.t._ to buy at too dear a rate: to buy more than is needed. OVERBY, [=o]-v[.e]r-b[=i]', _adv._ a little way over--(_Scot._) OWERBY', O'ERBY'. OVERCANOPY, [=o]-v[.e]r-kan'o-pi, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to cover as with a canopy. OVERCAREFUL, [=o]-v[.e]r-k[=a]r'fool, _adj._ careful to excess. OVERCARRY, [=o]-v[.e]r-kar'i, _v.t._ to carry too far, to go beyond.--_v.i._ to go to excess. OVERCAST, [=o]-v[.e]r-kast', _v.t._ to cast over: to cloud: to cover with gloom: to sew over or stitch the edges (of a piece of cloth) slightly.--_v.i._ to grow dull or cloudy.--_n._ OVERCAST'ING, the action of the verb overcast: in bookbinding, a method of oversewing single leaves in hem-stitch style to give the pliability of folded double leaves. OVERCATCH, [=o]-v[.e]r-kach', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to overtake. OVERCHARGE, [=o]-v[.e]r-chärj', _v.t._ to load with too great a charge: to charge too great a price.--_n._ O'VERCHARGE, an excessive load or burden: too great a charge, as of gunpowder or of price. OVERCHECK, [=o]-v[.e]r-chek', _n._ a check-rein passing over a horse's head between the ears. OVERCLOUD, [=o]-v[.e]r-klowd', _v.t._ to cover over with clouds: to cause gloom or sorrow to. OVERCLOY, [=o]-v[.e]r-kloi', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to fill beyond satiety. OVERCOAT, [=o]'v[.e]r-k[=o]t, _n._ an outdoor coat worn over all the other dress, a top-coat.--_n._ O'VERCOATING, cloth from which such is made. OVERCOLD, [=o]'v[.e]r-k[=o]ld, _adj._ too cold. OVERCOLOUR, [=o]-v[.e]r-kul'ur, _v.t._ to colour to excess, to exaggerate. OVERCOME, [=o]-v[.e]r-kum', _v.t._ to get the better of: to conquer or subdue: (_obs._) to spread over, surcharge.--_v.i._ to be victorious. OVER-CONFIDENT, [=o]-v[.e]r-kon'fi-dent, _adj._ too confident.--_n._ OVER-CON'FIDENCE.--_adv._ OVER-CON'FIDENTLY. OVERCOUNT, [=o]-v[.e]r-kownt', _v.t._ to outnumber. OVERCOVER, [=o]-v[.e]r-kuv'[.e]r, _v.t._ to cover completely. OVERCREDULOUS, [=o]-v[.e]r-kred'[=u]-lus, _adj._ too easily persuaded to believe. OVERCROW, [=o]-v[.e]r-kr[=o]', _v.t._ to crow over, insult. OVERCROWD, [=o]-v[.e]r-krowd', _v.t._ to fill or crowd to excess. OVERDARING, [=o]-v[.e]r-d[=a]r'ing, _adj._ foolhardy. OVERDATE, [=o]'v[.e]r-d[=a]t, _v.t._ to post-date. OVER-DEVELOP, [=o]-v[.e]r-de-vel'op, _v.t._ in photography, to develop a plate too much, as by too long a process or by too strong a developer.--_n._ OVER-DEVEL'OPMENT. OVERDIGHT, [=o]-v[.e]r-d[=i]t', _adj._ (_Spens._) dight or covered over: overspread. OVERDO, [=o]-v[.e]r-d[=oo]', _v.t._ to do overmuch: to carry too far: to harass, to fatigue: to cook too much: to excel.--_n._ OVERDO'ER.--_adj._ OVERDONE', overacted: fatigued: cooked too much. OVERDOSE, [=o]-v[.e]r-d[=o]s', _v.t._ to dose overmuch.--_n._ an excessive dose. OVERDRAW, [=o]-v[.e]r-draw', _v.t._ to draw overmuch: to draw beyond one's credit: to exaggerate.--_n._ O'VERDRAFT, the act of overdrawing, the amount by which the cheque, &c., exceeds the sum against which it is drawn: a current of air passing over, not through, the ignited fuel in a furnace: an arrangement of flues by which the kiln is heated from the top toward the bottom--also O'VERDRAUGHT. OVERDRESS, [=o]-v[.e]r-dres', _v.t._ to dress too ostentatiously.--_n._ O'VERDRESS, any garment worn over another. OVERDRIVE, [=o]-v[.e]r-dr[=i]v', _v.t._ to drive too hard. OVERDROP, [=o]-v[.e]r-drop', _v.t._ to drop over: to overhang. OVERDUE, [=o]-v[.e]r-d[=u]', _adj._ due beyond the time: unpaid at the right time. OVERDYE, [=o]-v[.e]r-d[=i]', _v.t._ to dye too deeply. OVEREARNEST, [=o]'v[.e]r-[.e]r'nest, _adj._ too earnest. OVEREAT, [=o]-v[.e]r-[=e]t', _v.t._ to surfeit with eating (generally reflexive): (_Shak._) to eat over again. OVERENTREAT, [=o]-v[.e]r-en-tr[=e]t', _v.t._ to entreat to excess. OVERESTIMATE, [=o]-v[.e]r-es'tim-[=a]t, _v.t._ to estimate too highly.--_n._ an excessive estimate.--_n._ OVERESTIM[=A]'TION. OVEREXCITE, [=o]'v[.e]r-ek-s[=i]t', _v.t._ to excite unduly.--_n._ OVEREXCITE'MENT. OVER-EXERTION, [=o]'v[.e]r-eg-z[.e]r'shun, _n._ too great exertion. OVER-EXPOSURE, [=o]'v[.e]r-eks-p[=o]'zh[=u]r, _n._ excessive exposure: (_photography_) the exposure to light for too long a time of the sensitive plate.--_v.t._ OVER-EXPOSE'. OVER-EXQUISITE, [=o]'v[.e]r-eks'kwi-zit, _adj._ excessively exquisite: over exact or nice: too careful. OVEREYE, [=o]-v[=e]r-[=i]', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to overlook or superintend: (_Shak._) to observe or remark. OVERFALL, [=o]'v[.e]r-fawl, _n._ a rippling or race in the sea, where, by the peculiarities of bottom, the water is propelled with immense force, esp. when the wind and tide, or current, set strongly together. OVERFAR, [=o]-v[.e]r-fär', _adv._ (_Shak._) to too great an extent. OVERFAST, [=o]-v[.e]r-fast', _adj._ too fast: at too great speed. OVERFEED, [=o]-v[.e]r-f[=e]d', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to feed to excess. OVERFILL, [=o]-v[.e]r-fil', _v.t._ to fill to excess. OVERFINENESS, [=o]'v[.e]r-f[=i]n'nes, _n._ excessive fineness. OVERFIRED, [=o]-v[.e]r-f[=i]rd', _adj._ overheated in firing. OVERFISH, [=o]-v[.e]r-fish', _v.t._ to fish to excess: to diminish unduly the stock of fish. OVERFLOURISH, [=o]'v[.e]r-flur'ish, _v.t._ to make excessive flourish of: to decorate superficially. OVERFLOW, [=o]-v[.e]r-fl[=o]', _v.t._ to flow over: to flood: to overwhelm: to cover, as with numbers.--_v.i._ to run over: to abound.--_n._ O'VERFLOW, a flowing over: that which flows over: a pipe or channel for spare water, &c.: an inundation: superabundance: abundance: copiousness.--_adj._ flowing over: over full: abundant.--_adj._ OVERFLOW'ING, exuberant, very abundant.--_adv._ OVERFLOW'INGLY.--OVERFLOW MEETING, a supplementary meeting of those unable to find room in the main meeting. OVERFLY, [=o]'v[.e]r-fl[=i]', _v.t._ to soar beyond. OVERFOLD, [=o]'v[.e]r-f[=o]ld, _n._ (_geol._) a reflexed or inverted fold in strata. OVERFOND, [=o]-v[.e]r-fond', _adj._ fond to excess.--_adv._ OVERFOND'LY. OVERFORWARD, [=o]-v[.e]r-for'wärd, _adj._ too forward or officious.--_n._ OVERFOR'WARDNESS. OVERFREIGHT, [=o]-v[.e]r-fr[=a]t', _v.t._ to overload. OVERFULL, [=o]-v[.e]r-fool', _adj._ (_Shak._) too full.--_n._ OVERFULL'NESS. OVERGAZE, [=o]-v[.e]r-g[=a]z', _v.t._ to gaze or look over. OVERGET, [=o]-v[.e]r-get', _v.t._ (_obs._) to reach, overtake: to get over. OVERGIVE, [=o]-v[.e]r-giv', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to give over or surrender.--_v.i._ to give too lavishly. OVERGLANCE, [=o]-v[.e]r-glans', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to look hastily over. OVERGLAZE, [=o]-v[.e]r-gl[=a]z', _v.t._ to glaze over: decorate superficially.--_adj._ suitable for painting on glazed articles.--_n._ O'VERGLAZE, an additional glaze given to porcelain, &c. OVERGLOOM, [=o]-v[.e]r-gl[=oo]m', _v.t._ to cover with gloom. OVERGO, [=o]-v[.e]r-g[=o]', _v.t._ to exceed: excel: to go over: to cover.--_v.i._ to go over: to pass away. OVERGORGE, [=o]-v[.e]r-gorj', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to gorge to excess. OVERGRAIN, [=o]-v[.e]r-gr[=a]n', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to grain over a surface already grained.--_n._ OVERGRAIN'ER, a long-bristled brush used in graining wood. OVERGRASSED, [=o]-v[.e]r-grast', _adj._ (_Spens._) overstocked or overgrown with grass. OVERGREEDY, [=o]-v[.e]r-gr[=e]d'i, _adj._ excessively greedy. OVERGREEN, [=o]-v[.e]r-gr[=e]n', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to cover over so as to hide blemishes. OVERGROUND, [=o]'v[.e]r-grownd, _adj._ being above ground. OVERGROW, [=o]-v[.e]r-gr[=o]', _v.t._ to grow beyond: to rise above: to cover with growth.--_v.i._ to grow beyond the proper size.--_adj._ OVERGROWN', grown beyond the natural size.--_n._ O'VERGROWTH. OVERHAIL, [=o]-v[.e]r-h[=a]l', _v.t._ Same as OVERHAUL. OVERHAIR, [=o]'v[.e]r-h[=a]r, _n._ the long hair overlying the fur of many animals. OVERHAND, [=o]'v[.e]r-hand, _adj._ having the hand raised above the elbow or over the ball at cricket (also O'VERHANDED): above the shoulder at baseball: (_min._) done from below upward.--_adv._ with the hand over the object.--_v.t._ to sew over and over. OVERHANDLE, [=o]-v[.e]r-han'dl, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to handle or mention too often. OVERHANG, [=o]-v[.e]r-hang', _v.t._ to hang over: to project over: to impend: to overlade with ornamentation.--_v.i._ to hang over.--_n._ O'VERHANG, a projecting part, the degree of projection, of roofs, &c.--_adj._ OVERHUNG', covered over, adorned with hangings. OVERHAPPY, [=o]-v[.e]r-hap'i, _adj._ excessively or too happy. OVERHASTY, [=o]-v[.e]r-h[=a]s'ti, _adj._ too hasty or rash.--_adv._ OVERHAS'TILY.--_n._ OVERHAS'TINESS. OVERHAUL, [=o]-v[.e]r-hawl', _v.t._ to haul or draw over: to turn over for examination: to examine: to re-examine: (_naut._) to overtake in a chase.--_n._ O'VERHAUL, a hauling over: examination: repair.--OVERHAUL A SHIP, to overtake a ship: to search her for contraband goods. OVERHEAD, [=o]'v[.e]r-hed, _adv._ over the head: aloft: in the zenith: per head.--_adj._ situated above. OVERHEAR, [=o]-v[.e]r-h[=e]r', _v.t._ to hear what was not intended to be heard: to hear by accident: (_Shak._) to hear over again. OVERHEAT, [=o]-v[.e]r-h[=e]t', _v.t._ to heat to excess.--_n._ O'VERHEAT, extreme heat. OVERHEND, [=o]-v[.e]r-hend', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to overtake. OVERHOLD, [=o]-v[.e]r-h[=o]ld', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to overvalue. OVERHOURS, [=o]'v[.e]r-owrz, _n.pl._ time beyond the regular number of hours: overtime in labour. OVERHOUSE, [=o]'v[.e]r-hows, _adj._ stretched along the roofs, rather than on poles or underground. OVERINFORM, [=o]-v[.e]r-in-form', _v.t._ to animate too much. OVERISSUE, [=o]-v[.e]r-ish'[=u], _v.t._ to issue in excess, as bank-notes or bills of exchange.--_n._ O'VERISSUE, any excessive issue. OVERJOY, [=o]-v[.e]r-joi', _v.t._ to fill with great joy: to transport with delight or gladness.--_n._ O'VERJOY, joy to excess: transport. OVERJUMP, [=o]-v[.e]r-jump', _v.t._ to jump beyond: to pass by: neglect. OVERKIND, [=o]-v[.e]r-k[=i]nd', _adj._ excessively kind.--_n._ OVERKIND'NESS. OVERKING, [=o]'v[.e]r-king, _n._ a king holding sway over inferior kings or princes. OVERKNEE, [=o]'v[.e]r-n[=e], _adj._ reaching above the knee, as waders, &c. OVERLABOUR, [=o]-v[.e]r-l[=a]'bur, _v.t._ to labour excessively over: to be too nice with: to overwork. OVERLADE, [=o]-v[.e]r-l[=a]d', _v.t._ to load with too great a burden. OVERLAID, [=o]-v[.e]r-l[=a]d', _adj._ (_her._) lapping over. OVERLAND, [=o]'v[.e]r-land, _adj._ passing entirely or principally by land, as a route, esp. that from England to India by the Suez Canal, rather than by the Cape of Good Hope. OVERLAP, [=o]-v[.e]r-lap', _v.t._ to lap over: to lay so that the edge of one rests on that of another.--_n._ O'VERLAP (_geol._), a disposition of strata where the upper beds extend beyond the bottom beds of the same series. OVERLAUNCH, [=o]-v[.e]r-lawnsh', _v.t._ to unite timbers by long splices or scarfs. OVERLAY, [=o]-v[.e]r-l[=a]', _v.t._ to spread over or across: to cover completely: to smother by lying on (for _overlie_): to use overlays in printing: to cloud: to overwhelm or oppress: to span by means of a bridge.--_ns._ O'VERLAY, a piece of paper pasted on the impression-surface of a printing-press, so as to increase the impression in a place where it is too faint: (_Scot._) a cravat; OVERLAY'ING, a superficial covering: that which overlays: plating. OVERLEAF, [=o]'v[.e]r-l[=e]f, _adv._ on the other side of the leaf of a book. OVERLEAP, [=o]-v[.e]r-l[=e]p', _v.t._ to leap over: to pass over without notice.--OVERLEAP ONE'S SELF, to make too much effort in leaping: to leap too far. OVERLEATHER, [=o]'v[.e]r-leth-[.e]r, _n._ (_Shak._) the upper part of a shoe or boot. OVERLEAVEN, [=o]-v[.e]r-lev'n, _v.t._ to leaven too much: to mix too much with. OVERLIE, [=o]-v[.e]r-l[=i]', _v.t._ to lie above or upon: to smother by lying on. OVERLIVE, [=o]-v[.e]r-liv', _v.t._ (_B._) to live longer than: to survive.--_v.i._ to live too long: to live too fast, or so as prematurely to exhaust the fund of life. OVERLOAD, [=o]-v[.e]r-l[=o]d', _v.t._ to load or fill overmuch.--_n._ an excessive load. OVERLOCK, [=o]-v[.e]r-lok', _v.t._ to make the bolt of a lock go too far. OVERLONG, [=o]-v[.e]r-long', _adj._ too long. OVERLOOK, [=o]-v[.e]r-look', _v.t._ to look over: to see from a higher position: to view carefully: to neglect by carelessness or inadvertence: to pass by without punishment: to pardon: to slight: to bewitch by looking upon with the Evil Eye.--_n._ OVERLOOK'ER. OVERLORD, [=o]-v[.e]r-lawrd', _n._ a lord over other lords: a feudal superior.--_n._ OVERLORD'SHIP. OVERLUSTY, [=o]-v[.e]r-lust'i, _adj._ (_Shak._) too lusty. OVERLY, [=o]'v[.e]r-li, _adv._ (_coll._) excessively, too. OVERLYING, [=o]'v[.e]r-l[=i]'ing, _adj._ lying on the top. OVERMAN, [=o]'v[.e]r-man, _n._ in mining, the person in charge of the work below ground. OVERMAN, [=o]-v[.e]r-man', _v.t._ to keep more men than necessary on a ship, farm, &c. OVERMANTEL, [=o]'v[.e]r-man-tl, _n._ a frame containing shelves and other decorations, and often a mirror, set on a mantel-shelf. OVERMASTED, [=o]-v[.e]r-mast'ed, _adj._ furnished with a mast or masts too long or too heavy. OVERMASTER, [=o]-v[.e]r-mas't[.e]r, _v.t._ to subdue, to govern: to get and keep in one's power. OVERMATCH, [=o]-v[.e]r-mach', _v.t._ to be more than a match for: to conquer.--_n._ O'VERMATCH, one who is more than a match: one who cannot be overcome. OVERMEASURE, [=o]'v[.e]r-mezh-[=u]r, _n._ something given over the due measure.--_v.t._ to measure too largely. OVERMELLOW, [=o]-v[.e]r-mel'l[=o], _adj._ (_Tenn._) excessively or too mellow. OVERMOUNT, [=o]-v[.e]r-mownt', _v.t._ to surmount: to go higher than.--_n._ O'VERMOUNT, a piece of cardboard cut in proper shape, to prevent the glass of the frame from lying too closely upon an engraving or a picture. OVERMUCH, [=o]-v[.e]r-much', _adj._ and _adv._ too much. OVERMULTITUDE, [=o]-v[.e]r-mul'ti-t[=u]d, _v.t._ (_Milt._) to outnumber.--_v.t._ OVERMUL'TIPLY, to repeat too often.--_v.i._ to increase to excess. OVERNAME, [=o]-v[.e]r-n[=a]m', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to name over: to name in a series, to recount.--_n._ O'VERNAME, a surname, nickname. OVERNEAT, [=o]-v[.e]r-n[=e]t', _adj._ unnecessarily neat. OVERNET, [=o]-v[.e]r-net', _v.t._ to cover with a net. OVERNICE, [=o]-v[.e]r-n[=i]s', _adj._ fastidious.--_adv._ OVERNICE'LY. OVERNIGHT, [=o]'v[.e]r-n[=i]t, _n._ the forepart of the evening, esp. that of the day just past.--_adv._ during the night: on the evening of the day just past. OVEROFFICE, [=o]-v[.e]r-of'is, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to lord it over by virtue of an office. OVERPART, [=o]-v[.e]r-part' _v.t._ to assign too difficult a part to. OVERPASS, [=o]-v[.e]r-pas', _v.t._ to pass over: to pass by without notice.--_pa.p._ OVERPAST' (_B._), that has already passed. OVERPAY, [=o]-v[.e]r-p[=a]', _v.t._ to pay too much: to be more than an ample reward for.--_n._ OVERPAY'MENT. OVERPEER, [=o]-v[.e]r-p[=e]r', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to overlook: to look down on: to hover above. OVERPEOPLE, [=o]-v[.e]r-p[=e]'pl, _v.t._ to fill with too many inhabitants.--Also OVERPOP'ULATE. OVERPERCH, [=o]-v[.e]r-p[.e]rch', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to perch or fly over. OVERPERSUADE, [=o]-v[.e]r-p[.e]r-sw[=a]d', _v.t._ to persuade a person against his inclination. OVERPICTURE, [=o]-v[.e]r-pik't[=u]r, _v.t._ to exceed the picture of: to exaggerate. OVERPLATE, [=o]'v[.e]r-pl[=a]t, _n._ in armour, a large pauldron protecting the shoulder, or a cubitière protecting the elbow. OVERPLUS, [=o]'v[.e]r-plus, _n._ that which is more than enough: surplus. OVERPLY, [=o]-v[.e]r-pl[=i]', _v.t._ to ply to excess. OVERPOISE, [=o]'v[.e]r-poiz, _v.t._ to outweigh.--_n._ O'VERPOISE, a weight sufficient to weigh another down. OVERPOST, [=o]-v[.e]r-post', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to hasten over quickly. OVERPOWER, [=o]-v[.e]r-pow'[.e]r, _v.t._ to have or gain power over: to subdue, defeat: to overwhelm.--_adj._ OVERPOW'ERING, excessive in degree or amount: irresistible.--_adv._ OVERPOW'ERINGLY. OVERPRAISE, [=o]-v[.e]r-pr[=a]z', _v.t._ to praise too much.--_n._ OVERPRAIS'ING, excessive praise. OVERPRESS, [=o]-v[.e]r-pres', _v.t._ to overwhelm, to crush: to overcome by importunity.--_n._ OVERPRESS'URE, excessive pressure. OVERPRIZE, [=o]-v[.e]r-pr[=i]z', _v.t._ to value too highly: to surpass in value. OVERPRODUCTION, [=o]'v[.e]r-pro-duk-shun, _n._ the act of producing a supply of commodities in excess of the demand. OVERPROOF, [=o]'v[.e]r-proof, _adj._ containing more than a certain amount of alcohol, stronger than proof-spirit, the standard by which all mixtures of alcohol and water are judged--containing 57.27 per cent. by volume, and 49.50 per cent. by weight, of alcohol. OVERPROUD, [=o]-v[.e]r-prowd', _adj._ too proud. OVERPURCHASE, [=o]-v[.e]r-pur'ch[=a]s, _n._ a dear bargain.--_v.i._ (_obs._) to pay too dear a price. OVERRACK, [=o]-v[.e]r-rak', _v.t._ to torture beyond bearing. OVERRAKE, [=o]-v[.e]r-r[=a]k', _v.t._ to sweep over, as a vessel by a wave. OVERRANK, [=o]-v[.e]r-rangk', _adj._ too rank or luxurious. OVERRATE, [=o]-v[.e]r-r[=a]t', _v.t._ to rate or value too high.--_n._ O'VERRATE, an excessive estimate or rate. OVERREACH, [=o]-v[.e]r-r[=e]ch', _v.t._ to reach or extend beyond: to cheat or get the better of.--_v.i._ to strike the hindfoot against the forefoot, as a horse. OVERREAD, [=o]-v[.e]r-r[=e]d', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to read over, to peruse.--_adj._ OVERREAD ([=o]-v[.e]r-red'), having read too much. OVER-RECKON, [=o]-v[.e]r-rek'n, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to compute too highly. OVERRED, [=o]-v[.e]r-red', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to smear with a red colour. OVERREFINE, [=o]-v[.e]r-r[=e]-f[=i]n', _v.i._ to refine too much.--_n._ OVERREFINE'MENT, any over subtle or affected refinement. OVERRENT, [=o]-v[.e]r-rent', _v.i._ to exact too high a rent. OVERRIDE, [=o]-v[.e]r-r[=i]d', _v.t._ to ride too much: to pass on horseback: to trample down or set aside.--OVERRIDE ONE'S COMMISSION, to act with too high a hand: to stretch one's authority too far. OVERRIPEN, [=o]-v[.e]r-r[=i]p'n, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to make too ripe.--_adj._ OVERRIPE', too ripe, more than ripe. OVERROAST, [=o]-v[=e]r-r[=o]st', _v.t._ to roast too much. OVERRULE, [=o]-v[.e]r-r[=oo]l', _v.t._ to rule over: to influence or to set aside by greater power: (_law_) to reject or declare to be invalid.--_v.i._ to prevail.--_n._ OVERRUL'ER.--_adv._ OVERRUL'INGLY. OVERRUN, [=o]-v[.e]r-run', _v.t._ to run or spread over: to grow over: to spread over and take possession of: to crush down: (_B._) to run faster than: to pass in running: to extend composed types beyond their first limit.--_v.i._ to run over: to extend beyond the right length, as a line or page in printing.--_n._ OVERRUN'NER, one that overruns. OVERSCORE, [=o]-v[.e]r-sk[=o]r', _v.t._ to score or draw lines over anything: to erase by this means. OVERSCRUPULOUS, [=o]-v[.e]r-skroop'[=u]-lus, _adj._ scrupulous to excess.--_n._ OVERSCRUP'ULOUSNESS. OVERSCUTCHED, [=o]-v[.e]r-skucht', _adj._ (_Shak._) over switched or whipped, or more probably worn out in the service. OVERSEA, [=o]'v[.e]r-s[=e], _adj._ foreign, from beyond the sea.--_adv._ to a place beyond the sea, abroad.--Also O'VERSEAS. OVERSEAM, [=o]'v[.e]r-s[=e]m, _n._ a seam in which the thread is at each stitch passed over the edges sewn together.--_n._ O'VERSEAMING, the foregoing kind of sewing. OVERSEE, [=o]-v[.e]r-s[=e]', _v.t._ to see or look over, to superintend.--_n._ OVERS[=E]'ER, one who oversees: a superintendent: an officer who has the care of the poor, and other duties, such as making out lists of voters, of persons who have not paid rates, &c.: one who manages a plantation of slaves: (_obs._) a critic.--OVERSEERS OF THE POOR, officers in England who manage the poor-rate.--BE OVERSEEN (_obs._), to be deceived: to be fuddled. OVERSELL, [=o]-v[.e]r-sel', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to sell too dear: to sell more than exists, of stock, &c. OVERSET, [=o]-v[.e]r-set', _v.t._ to set or turn over: to upset: to overthrow.--_v.i._ to turn or be turned over. OVERSHADE, [=o]-v[.e]r-sh[=a]d', _v.t._ to throw a shade over. OVERSHADOW, [=o]-v[.e]r-shad'[=o], _v.t._ to throw a shadow over: to shelter or protect. OVERSHINE, [=o]-v[.e]r-sh[=i]n', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to shine upon, illumine: to outshine. OVERSHOE, [=o]'v[.e]r-sh[=oo], _n._ a shoe, esp. of waterproof, worn over another. OVERSHOOT, [=o]-v[.e]r-sh[=oo]t', _v.t._ to shoot over or beyond, as a mark: to pass swiftly over.--_v.i._ to shoot or fly beyond the mark.--_adj._ O'VERSHOT, having the water falling on it from above, as a water-wheel: surpassed: fuddled.--OVERSHOOT ONE'S SELF, to venture too far, to overreach one's self. OVERSIDE, [=o]-v[.e]r-s[=i]d', _adj._ acting over the side.--_adv._ over the side. OVERSIGHT, [=o]'v[.e]r-s[=i]t, _n._ a failing to notice: mistake: omission: (_orig._) superintendence. OVERSIZE, [=o]-v[.e]r-s[=i]z', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to cover with any gluey matter: to plaster over. OVERSKIP, [=o]-v[.e]r-skip', _v.t._ to skip, leap, or pass over: (_Shak._) to fail to see or find: to escape. OVERSLAUGH, [=o]-v[.e]r-slaw', _v.t._ (_U.S._) to pass over in favour of another: to supersede: to hinder: to oppress. [Dut. _overslaan_ (cf. Ger. _überschlagen_), to skip over.] OVERSLEEP, [=o]-v[.e]r-sl[=e]p', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to sleep beyond one's usual time. OVERSLIP, [=o]-v[.e]r-slip', _v.t._ to pass without notice. OVERSMAN, [=o]'v[.e]rz-man, _n._ an overseer: (_Scot._) an umpire appointed to decide between the differing judgment of two arbiters. OVERSOUL, [=o]'v[.e]r-s[=o]l, _n._ the divine principle forming the spiritual unity of all being. OVERSOW, [=o]-v[.e]r-s[=o]', _v.t._ to sow too much seed on: to sow over. OVERSPENT, [=o]-v[.e]r-spent', _adj._ excessively fatigued. OVERSPREAD, [=o]-v[.e]r-spred', _v.t._ to spread over: to scatter over.--_v.i._ to be spread over. OVERSTAIN, [=o]-v[.e]r-st[=a]n', _v.t._ to besmear the surface of. OVERSTAND, [=o]-v[.e]r-stand', _v.t._ to stand too strictly on the conditions of. OVERSTARE, [=o]-v[.e]r-st[=a]r', _v.t._ to outstare. OVERSTATE, [=o]-v[.e]r-st[=a]t', to state over and above: to exaggerate.--_n._ OVERSTATE'MENT. OVERSTAY, [=o]-v[.e]r-st[=a]', _v.t._ to stay too long. OVERSTEP, [=o]-v[.e]r-step', _v.t._ to step beyond: to exceed. OVERSTOCK, [=o]-v[.e]r-stok', _v.t._ to stock overmuch: to fill too full.--_n._ superabundance. OVERSTRAIN, [=o]v[.e]r-str[=a]n', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to strain or stretch too far.--_n._ too great strain.--_adj._ OVERSTRAINED', strained to excess: exaggerated. OVERSTREAM, [=o]-v[.e]r-str[=e]m', _v.t._ to stream or flow over. OVERSTRETCH, [=o]-v[.e]r-strech', _v.t._ to stretch to excess: to exaggerate. OVERSTREW, [=o]-v[.e]r-str[=oo]', _v.t._ to scatter over. OVERSTRUNG, [=o]-v[.e]r-strung', _adj._ too highly strung. OVERSUPPLY, [=o]'v[.e]r-sup-pl[=i], _n._ an excessive supply. OVERSWAY, [=o]-v[.e]r-sw[=a]', _v.t._ to overrule, to bear down. OVERSWELL, [=o]-v[.e]r-swel', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to swell or rise above: to overflow. OVERT, [=o]'v[.e]rt, _adj._ open to view: public: apparent.--_adv._ O'VERTLY.--OVERT ACT, something actually done in execution of a criminal intent.--MARKET OVERT, open or public market. [Fr. _ouvert_, pa.p. of _ouvrir_, to open; acc. to Diez, from O. Fr. _a-ovrir_, through Prov. _adubrir_, from L. _de-oper[=i]re_, to uncover--_de_=un-, and _oper[=i]re_, to cover; acc. to Littré, from L. _oper[=i]re_, to cover, confounded in meaning with _aper[=i]re_, to open.] OVERTAKE, [=o]-v[.e]r-t[=a]k', _v.t._ to come up with: to catch: to come upon: to take by surprise.--_p.adj._ OVERT[=A]'KEN, fuddled. OVERTASK, [=o]-v[.e]r-task', _v.t._ to task overmuch: to impose too heavy a task on. OVERTAX, [=o]-v[.e]r-taks', _v.t._ to tax overmuch. OVERTEDIOUS, [=o]-v[.e]r-t[=e]'di-us, _adj._ (_Shak._) too tedious. OVERTHROW, [=o]-v[.e]r-thr[=o]', _v.t._ to throw down: to upset: to bring to an end: to demolish: to defeat utterly.--_ns._ O'VERTHROW, act of overthrowing or state of being overthrown: ruin: defeat: a throwing of a ball beyond the player; O'VERTHROWER. OVERTHRUST, [=o]'v[.e]r-thrust, _adj._ (_geol._) belonging to earlier strata, pushed by faulting over later and higher strata. OVERTHWART, [=o]-v[.e]r-thwawrt', _v.t._ to lie athwart: to cross.--_adj._ opposite, transverse: contrary, perverse.--_prep_. across, on the other side of. OVERTILT, [=o]-v[.e]r-tilt', _v.t._ to upset. OVERTIME, [=o]'v[.e]r-t[=i]m, _n._ time employed in working beyond the regular hours. OVERTOIL, [=o]-v[.e]r-toil', _v.i._ to overwork one's self. OVERTONE, [=o]'v[.e]r-t[=o]n, _n._ a harmonic, because heard above its fundamental tone. OVERTOP, [=o]-v[.e]r-top', _v.t._ to rise over the top of: to make of less importance: to surpass: to obscure. OVERTOWER, [=o]-v[.e]r-tow'er, _v.t._ to tower above.--_v.i._ to soar too high. OVERTRADE, [=o]-v[.e]r-tr[=a]d', _v.i._ to trade overmuch or beyond capital: to buy in more than can be sold or paid for.--_n._ OVERTRAD'ING, the buying of a greater amount of goods than one can sell or pay for. OVERTRIP, [=o]-v[.e]r-trip', _v.t._ to trip nimbly over. OVERTURE, [=o]'v[.e]r-t[=u]r, _n._ a proposal, an offer for acceptance or rejection: (_mus._) a piece introductory to a greater piece or ballet: a discovery or disclosure: the method in Presbyterian usage of beginning legislation and maturing opinion by sending some proposition from the presbyteries to the General Assembly, and _vice versâ_, also the proposal so sent.--_v.t._ to lay a proposal before. [Fr.] OVERTURN, [=o]-v[.e]r-turn', _v.t._ to throw down or over: to subvert: to conquer: to ruin.--_ns._ O'VERTURN, state of being overturned; OVERTURN'ER. OVERVALUE, [=o]-v[.e]r-val'l[=u], _v.t._ to set too high a value on.--_n._ OVERVALU[=A]'TION, an overestimate. OVERVEIL, [=o]-v[.e]r-v[=a]l', _v.t._ to veil or cover. OVERVIEW, [=o]'v[.e]r-v[=u], _n._ (_Shak._) an inspection. OVERWASH, [=o]'v[.e]r-wawsh, _adj._ (_geol._) carried by glacier-streams over a frontal moraine, or formed of material so carried. OVERWATCH, [=o]-v[.e]r-wawch', _v.t._ to watch excessively: to overcome with long want of rest. OVERWEAR, [=o]-v[.e]r-w[=a]r', _v.t._ to wear out: to outwear, outlive.--_n._ O'VERWEAR, clothes for wearing out of doors. OVERWEATHER, [=o]-v[.e]r-weth'[.e]r, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to batter by violence of weather. OVERWEEN, [=o]-v[.e]r-w[=e]n', _v.i._ (_Shak._) to think too highly or favourably, esp. of one's self.--_adj._ OVERWEEN'ING, thinking too highly of: conceited, vain.--_n._ conceit: presumption.--_adv._ OVERWEEN'INGLY. OVERWEIGH, [=o]-v[.e]r-w[=a]', _v.t._ to be heavier than: to outweigh.--_n._ O'VERWEIGHT, weight beyond what is required or what is just.--_v.t._ OVERWEIGHT', to weigh down: to put too heavy a burden on. OVERWHELM, [=o]-v[.e]r-hwelm', _v.t._ to overspread and crush by something heavy or strong: to flow over and bear down: to overcome.--_p.adj._ OVERWHEL'MING, crushing with weight, &c.: irresistible.--_adv._ OVERWHEL'MINGLY. OVERWIND, [=o]-v[.e]r-w[=i]nd', _v.t._ to wind too far. OVERWISE, [=o]-v[.e]r-w[=i]z', _adj._ wise overmuch: affectedly wise.--_adv._ OVERWISE'LY. OVERWORK, [=o]-v[.e]r-wurk', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to work overmuch or beyond the strength: to tire.--_n._ O'VERWORK, excess of work: excessive labour. OVERWORN, [=o]-v[.e]r-wörn', _adj._ worn out: subdued by toil: spoiled by use: worn or rubbed till threadbare. OVERWREST, [=o]-v[.e]r-rest', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to wrest or twist from the proper position. OVERWRESTLE, [=o]-v[.e]r-res'l, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to overcome by wrestling. OVERWRITE, [=o]-v[.e]r-r[=i]t', _v.t._ to cover over with other writing. OVERWROUGHT, [=o]-v[.e]r-rawt', _pa.p._ of OVERWORK, worked too hard: too highly excited: worked all over: overdone. OVERYEAR, [=o]-v[.e]r-y[=e]r', _adj._ (_prov._) kept over from last year. OVIDIAN, [=o]-vid'i-an, _adj._ belonging to, or resembling the style of, the Latin poet _Ovid_ (43 B.C.-17 A.D.). OVIDUCT, [=o]'vi-dukt, _n._ a duct or passage for the egg in animals, from the ovary. OVIFEROUS, [=o]-vif'[.e]r-us, _adj._ egg-bearing.--_n._ O'VIFER, a small wire cage on a solid base, for carrying an egg safely. [L. _ovum_, an egg, _ferre_, to bear.] OVIFORM, [=o]'vi-form, _adj._ having the form of an oval or egg. [L. _ovum_, an egg.] OVIFORM, [=o]'vi-form, _adj._ like a sheep: ovine. [L. _ovis_, a sheep.] OVIGEROUS, ov-ij'[.e]r-us, _adj._ egg-bearing. [L. _ovum_, an egg, _ger[)e]re_, to bear.] OVINE, [=o]'v[=i]n, _adj._ pertaining to the _Ovinæ_, sheep-like.--_n._ OVIN[=A]'TION, inoculation of sheep with ovine virus against sheep-pox. OVIPAROUS, [=o]-vip'a-rus, _adj._ bringing forth or laying eggs instead of fully formed young.--_n.pl._ OVIP'ARA, animals that lay eggs.--_ns._ OVIPAR'ITY, OVIP'AROUSNESS. [L. _ovum_, egg, _par[)e]re_, to bring forth.] OVIPOSITOR, [=o]-vi-poz'i-tor, _n._ the organ at the extremity of the abdomen of many insects, by which the eggs are deposited.--_v.i._ OVIPOS'IT, to deposit eggs with an ovipositor.--_n._ OVIPOSIT'ION. [L. _ovum_, egg, _positor_--_pon[)e]re_, to place.] OVISAC, [=o]v'i-sak, _n._ the cavity in the ovary which immediately contains the ovum. [L. _ovum_, an egg, and _sac_.] OVOID, -AL, [=o]'void, -al, _adj._ oval: egg-shaped.--_n._ an egg-shaped body. [L. _ovum_, egg, Gr. _eidos_, form.] OVOLO, [=o]'v[=o]-l[=o], _n._ (_archit._) a moulding with the rounded part composed of a quarter of a circle, or of an arc of an ellipse with the curve greatest at the top. [It.,--L. _ovum_, an egg.] OVOVIVIPAROUS, [=o]-v[=o]-vi-vip'ar-us, _adj._ producing eggs which are hatched in the body of the parent. [L. _ovum_, an egg, _vivus_, living, _par[)e]re_, to bring forth.] OVULE, [=o]v'[=u]l, _n._ a little egg: the seed of a plant in its rudimentary state, growing from the placenta.--_adj._ OV'ULAR.--_ns._ OVUL[=A]'TION, the formation of ova, or the period when this takes place; OV'ULITE, a fossil egg. [Dim. of L. _ovum_, an egg.] OVUM, [=o]'vum, _n._ an egg: (_biol._) the egg-cell, in all organisms the starting-point of the embryo, development beginning as soon as it is supplemented by the male-cell or spermatozoon:--_pl._ O'VA. [L.] OWCHE, owch, _n._ Same as OUCH. OWE, [=o], _v.t._ to possess or to be the owner of: to have what belongs to another: to be bound to pay: to be obliged for.--_v.i._ to be in debt.--BE OWING, to be due or ascribed (to). [A.S. _ágan_, pres. indic. _áh_, pret. _áhte_, pa.p. _ágen_; Ice. _eiga_, Old High Ger. _eigan_, to possess.] OWELTY, [=o]'el-ti, _n._ equality. [O. Fr. _oelte_.] OWENITE, [=o]'en-[=i]t, _n._ a disciple of Robert _Owen_ (1771-1858), a social reformer, who proposed to establish society on a basis of socialistic co-operation. OWER, ow'[.e]r (_Scot._ for _over_).--_ns._ OW'ERCOME, OW'ERWORD, the refrain of a song. OWING, [=o]'ing, _adj._ due: that has to be paid (to): happening as a consequence of: imputable to. OWL, owl, _n._ a carnivorous bird that seeks its food by night, noted for its howling or hooting noise.--_v.i._ to smuggle contraband goods.--_ns._ OWL'ERY, an abode of owls: (_Carlyle_) an owl-like character; OWL'ET, a little or young owl.--_adj._ OWL'-EYED, having blinking eyes like an owl.--_n._ OWL'-GLASS, a malicious figure in a popular German tale, translated into English about the end of the 16th century--the German _Tyll Eulenspiegel_--also OWLE'GLASS, HOWLE'GLASS, OWL'SPIEGLE.--_adj._ OWL'ISH, like an owl: stupid: dull-looking.--_n._ OWL'ISHNESS. [A.S. _úle_; Ger. _eule_, L. _ulula_; imit.] OWN, [=o]n, _v.t._ to grant: to allow to be true: concede: acknowledge. [A.S. _unnan_, to grant; Ger. _gönnen_, to grant.] OWN, [=o]n, _v.t._ to possess: to be the rightful owner of. [A.S. _ágnian_, with addition of casual suffix--_ágen_, one's own; cf. _Own_ (adj.).] OWN, [=o]n, _adj._ possessed: belonging to one's self and to no other: peculiar.--_ns._ OWN'ER, one who owns or possesses; OWN'ERSHIP, state of being an owner: right of possession. [A.S. _ágen_, pa.p. of _ágan_, to possess. Cf. _Owe_.] OWRE, owr, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as AUROCHS. [A.S. _úr_.] OWSEN, ow'sen, _n.pl._ a dialectic form of _oxen_. OX, oks, _n._ a well-known animal that chews the cud, the female of which supplies the chief part of the milk used as human food: the male of the cow, esp. when castrated:--_pl._ OX'EN, used for both male and female.--_ns._ OX'-BOT, OX'-WAR'BLER, a bot-fly or its larva, found under the skin of cattle; OX'EYE, a common plant in meadows, with a flower like the eye of an ox.--_adj._ OX'-EYED, having large, full, ox-like eyes.--_ns._ OX'-GOAD (see GOAD); OX'-PECK'ER, OX'-BIRD, an African bird, which eats the parasites infesting the skins of cattle--also _Beefeater_; OX'-TAIL-SOUP, a kind of soup made of several ingredients, one of which is an oxtail cut in joints.--HAVE THE BLACK OX TREAD ON ONE'S FOOT, to experience sorrow or misfortune. [A.S. _oxa_, pl. _oxan_; Ice. _uxi_; Ger. _ochs_, Goth. _auhsa_, Sans. _ukshan_.] OXALATE, oks'a-l[=a]t, _n._ a salt formed by a combination of oxalic acid with a base.--_n._ OX'ALITE, a yellow mineral composed of oxalate of iron. OXALIS, oks'a-lis, _n._ wood-sorrel: (_bot._) a genus of plants having an acid taste.--_adj._ OXAL'IC, pertaining to or obtained from sorrel. [Gr.,--_oxys_, acid.] OXFORD CLAY, oks'ford kl[=a], _n._ (_geol._) the principal member of the Middle Oolite series.--OXFORD MOVEMENT (see TRACTARIANISM). OXGANG, oks'gang, _n._ as much land as can be tilled by the use of an ox (averaging about 15 acres)--called also OX'LAND or OX'GATE. OX-HEAD, oks'-hed, _n._ (_Shak._) blockhead, dolt. OXIDE, oks'[=i]d, _n._ a compound of oxygen and some other element or organic radical. Oxides are of three kinds--_acid-forming_, _basic_, and _neutral_.--_n._ OXIDABIL'ITY.--_adj._ OX'IDABLE, capable of being converted into an oxide.--_v.t._ OX'IDATE (same as OXIDISE).--_ns._ OXID[=A]'TION, OXIDISE'MENT, act or process of oxidising; OX'ID[=A]TOR, a contrivance for drawing a current of air to the flame of a lamp.--_adj._ OXIDIS'ABLE, capable of being oxidised.--_v.t._ OX'IDISE, to convert into an oxide.--_v.i._ to become an oxide.--_n._ OXIDIS'ER. OXLIP, oks'lip, _n._ a species of primrose, having its flowers in an umbel on a stalk like the cowslip. OXONIAN, oks-[=o]'ni-an, _adj._ of or pertaining to _Oxford_ or to its university.--_n._ an inhabitant or a native of Oxford: a student or graduate of Oxford. OXTER, oks't[.e]r, _n._ (_Scot._) the armpit.--_v.t._ to hug with the arms: to support by taking the arm. OXYGEN, oks'i-jen, _n._ a gas without taste, colour, or smell, forming part of the air, water, &c., and supporting life and combustion.--_n._ OXYCHL[=O]'RIDE, a chemical compound containing both chlorine and oxygen in combination with some other element.--_v.t._ OX'YGEN[=A]TE, to unite, or cause to unite, with oxygen.--_n._ OXYGEN[=A]'TION, act of oxygenating.--_v.t._ OX'YGENISE (same as OXYGENATE).--_adj._ OXYG'ENOUS, pertaining to, or obtained from, oxygen.--_adj._ OXYHY'DROGEN, pertaining to a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen, as in a form of blowpipe in which jets of either ignite as they issue from separate reservoirs. [Gr. _oxys_, sharp, _gen_, the root of _gennaein_, to generate.] OXYMEL, oks'i-mel, _n._ a mixture of vinegar and honey. [Gr. _oxys_, sour, _meli_, honey.] OXYMORON, ok-si-m[=o]'ron, _n._ a figure of speech, by means of which two ideas of opposite meaning are combined, so as to form an expressive phrase or epithet, as _cruel kindness_, _falsely true_, &c. [Gr.,--_oxys_, sharp, _m[=o]ros_, foolish.] OXYOPIA, ok-si-[=o]'pi-a, _n._ unusual keenness of sight. [Gr.,--_oxys_, sharp, _[=o]ps_, the eye.] OXYRHYNCHUS, ok-si-ring'kus, _n._ an Egyptian fish, formerly sacred to the goddess Hathor, and represented on coins and sculptures. [Gr.,--_oxys_, sharp, _rhyngchos_, a snout.] OXYTONE, oks'i-t[=o]n, _adj._ having an acute sound: having the acute accent on the last syllable.--_n._ a word so accented. [Gr. _oxys_, sharp, _tonos_, tone.] OYER, [=o]'y[.e]r, _n._ a hearing in a law-court, an assize.--OYER AND TERMINER, a royal commission conferring upon a judge or judges the power to hear and determine criminal causes pending in a particular county. [Norm. Fr. _oyer_ (Fr. _ouir_)--L. _aud[=i]re_, to hear.] OYEZ, OYES, [=o]'yes, _interj._ the call of a public crier, or officer of a law-court, for attention before making a proclamation. [Norm. Fr., 2d pers. pl. imper. of _oyer_.] OYSTER, ois't[.e]r, _n._ a well-known bivalve shellfish, used as food.--_ns._ OYS'TER-BANK, -BED, -FARM, -FIELD, -PARK, a place where oysters breed or are bred; OYS'TER-CATCH'ER, the sea pie--a sea wading bird of the family Hæmatopodidæ, having dark plumage and red bill and feet; OYS'TER-FISH'ERY, the business of catching oysters; OYS'TER-KNIFE, a knife for opening oysters.--_n.pl._ OYS'TER-PAT'TIES, small pies or pasties made from oysters.--_n._ OYS'TER-SHELL, the shell of an oyster.--_n.pl._ OYS'TER-TONGS, a tool used to dredge up oysters in deep water.--_ns._ OYS'TER-WENCH, -WIFE, -WOM'AN, a woman who vends oysters. [O. Fr. _oistre_ (Fr. _huître_)--L. _ostrea_--Gr. _ostreon_, an oyster--_osteon_, a bone.] OZOCERITE, [=o]-z[=o]-s[=e]'r[=i]t, _n._ a waxy-like substance, having a weak bituminous odour, found in Moldavia and elsewhere, and used for making candles.--Also OZOK[=E]'RITE. [Gr. _ozein_, to smell, _keros_, wax.] OZOENA, [=o]-z[=e]'na, _n._ a term applied to any one of various diseased conditions of the nose accompanied by fetid discharge. [Gr. _ozein_, to smell.] OZONE, [=o]'z[=o]n, _n._ name given to a supposed allotropic form of oxygen, when affected by electric discharges, marked by a peculiar smell.--_ns._ OZON[=A]'TION; OZONIS[=A]'TION; OZONOM'ETER.--_adj._ OZONOMET'RIC.--_ns._ OZONOM'ETRY; OZ[=O]'NOSCOPE.--_adjs._ OZONOSCOP'IC; O'ZONOUS. [Gr. _ozein_, to smell.] OZOSTOMIA, [=o]-zo-st[=o]'mi-a, _n._ foul breath due to morbid causes. [Gr. _ozein_, to smell, _stoma_, the mouth.] * * * * * P the sixteenth letter of our alphabet, its sound the sharp labial mute, interchanging with other labials, esp. with _b_, the flat labial mute: P=400; ([=P])=400,000: the chemical symbol for phosphorus: (_math._) the Greek [PI]=a continued product, while small [pi] denotes the ratio of the circumference to the diameter.--MIND ONE'S P'S AND Q'S (see MIND). PA, pä, _n._ papa, a child's name for father. PABOUCHE, pa-b[=oo]sh', _n._ a slipper.--Also _Baboosh_. PABULUM, pab'[=u]-lum, _n._ food of any kind, especially that of animals and plants: provender: fuel: nourishment for the mind.--_adjs._ PAB'ULAR, PAB'ULOUS, of or pertaining to food: fit for food: affording food. [L.,--_pasc[)e]re_, to feed.] PACA, pak'a, _n._ the spotted cavy of South America. [Sp. and Port., the spotted cavy--Braz. _pak_, _paq_.] PACABLE, p[=a]'ka-bl, _adj._ that may be calmed or quieted: willing to forgive.--_adj._ PAC[=A]'TED.--_n._ PAC[=A]'TION. [L. _pac[=a]re_, to make at peace--_pax_, peace.] PACE, p[=a]s, _n._ a stride: the space between the feet in walking, 30 inches, a step: gait: rate of walking (of a man or beast): rate of speed in movement or work, often applied to fast living: mode of stepping in horses in which the legs on the same side are lifted together: amble: (_obs._) a passage.--_v.t._ to measure by steps: to cause to progress: to train in walking or stepping.--_v.i._ to walk: to walk slowly: to amble.--_adj._ PACED, having a certain pace or gait.--_ns._ PACE'-MAK'ER, one who sets the pace, as in a race; PAC'ER, one who paces: a horse whose usual gait is a pace.--KEEP, or HOLD, PACE WITH, to go as fast as: to keep up with. [Fr. _pas_--L. _passus_, a step--_pand[)e]re_, _passum_, to stretch.] PACE, p[=a]'s[=e], _prep._ with or by the leave of (expressing disagreement courteously). [L., abl. of _pax_, peace.] PACHA, PACHALIC. See PASHA, PASHALIC. PACHY-, pak'i-, thick, in combination, as _adjs._ PACHYDAC'TYL, -OUS, having thick digits; PACH'YDERM, thick-skinned--_n._ one of an order of non-ruminant, hoofed mammals, thick-skinned, as the elephant:--_pl._ PACH'YDERMS, or PACHYDER'MATA.--_adj._ PACHYDER'MATOUS, thick-skinned: insensible to impressions.--_n._ PACHYDER'MIA, a form of elephantiasis in which the skin becomes thick and warty.--_adj._ PACHYDER'MOID.--_ns._ PACHY[=E]'MIA, a thickening of the blood--also PACHYÆ'MIA; PACHY'MA, a genus of fungi consisting of tuber-like growths, some of which are now referred to the genus _Polyporus_--also _Tuckahoe_, _Tuckahoe truffle_, or _Indian bread_; PACHYM[=E]'NIA, a thickening of the skin.--_adj._ PACHYM[=E]'NIC.--_n._ PACHYM'ETER, an instrument for measuring small thicknesses, as of paper.--_adjs._ PACH'YODONT, with thick teeth; PACH'YOTE, with thick ears, as a bat--also _n._; PACH'YPOD, having thick feet; PACHYP'TEROUS, having thick wings or fins.--_ns._ PACHYTH[=E]'RIUM, a South American fossil genus of gigantic edentate mammals; PACHYT'YLUS, a genus of locusts, embracing the dreaded Migratory Locust (_Pachytylus migratorius_). [Gr. _pachys_, thick.] PACIFY, pas'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to make peaceful: to appease: to bring back peace to: to calm; to soothe.--_adjs._ PAC'IFIABLE, that may be pacified; PACIF'IC, peacemaking: appeasing: peaceful: mild: tranquil.--_n._ the ocean between Asia and America, so called by its discoverer Magellan because he sailed peacefully over it after weathering Cape Horn.--_adj._ PACIF'ICAL, pacific (obs. except in phrase _Letters pacifical_, letters recommending the bearer as one in peace and fellowship with the church--also _Letters of peace_, _Pacificæ_).--_adv._ PACIF'ICALLY.--_v.t._ PACIF'IC[=A]TE, to give peace to.--_ns._ PACIFIC[=A]'TION, the act of making peace, esp. between parties at variance; PACIF'IC[=A]TOR, PAC'IFIER, a peacemaker.--_adj._ PACIF'IC[=A]TORY, tending to make peace. [Fr. _pacifier_--L. _pacific[=a]re_--_pax_, _pacis_, peace, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] PACK, pak, _n._ a bundle made to be carried on the back: a collection, stock, or store: a bundle of some particular kind or quantity, as of wool, 480 or 240 lb.: the quantity of fish packed: a complete set of cards: a number of animals herding together or kept together for hunting: a number of persons combined for bad purposes: any great number: a large extent of floating and broken ice: a wet sheet for folding round the body to allay inflammation, fever, &c.--_v.t._ to press together and fasten up: to place in order: to crowd: to assort, bring together, select, or manipulate persons, cards, &c. for some unjust object: to send away, as from one's presence or employment: to surround a joint, &c., with any substance to prevent leaking, &c.--_v.i._ to store things away anywhere for safe keeping, &c.: to settle into a firm mass: to admit of being put into compact shape: to depart in haste.--_ns._ PACK'AGE, the act of packing, also something packed: a bundle or bale: a charge made for packing; PACK'-AN'IMAL, a beast of burden used to carry goods on its back; PACK'-CINCH (-sinsh), a wide girth of canvas, &c., having a hook and ring attached for adjusting the load of a pack-animal; PACK'-CLOTH, a cloth in which goods are tied up: packsheet; PACK'ER, one who packs: one who cures and packs provisions: any device to fill the space between the tubing and the sides of an oil-well, &c.; PACK'ET, a small package: a ship or vessel employed in carrying packets of letters, passengers, &c.: a vessel plying regularly between one port and another (also PACK'ET-BOAT, PACK'ET-SHIP, &c.).--_v.t._ to bind in a packet or parcel: to send in a packet.--_ns._ PACK'ET-DAY, the day of the departure or arrival of a mail-ship; PACK'ET-NOTE (see NOTE-PAPER); PACK'-HORSE, a horse used to carry goods in panniers: a drudge; PACK'-ICE, a collection of large pieces of floating ice; PACK'ING, the act of putting into packs or of tying up for carriage: material for packing: anything used to fill an empty space, or to make a joint close, as the elastic ring round a moving rod or piston to make it a tight fit; PACK'ING-BOX, -CASE, a box in which goods are packed: a hollow place round the opening of a steam cylinder, filled with some soft substance which, being pressed hard against the piston-rod, makes it a tight fit; PACK'ING-NEED'LE, or _Sack-needle_, a strong needle for sewing up packages; PACK'ING-P[=A]'PER, a strong and thick kind of wrapping-paper; PACK'ING-PRESS, a press for squeezing goods into small compass for packing; PACK'ING-SHEET, or PACK'SHEET, coarse cloth for packing goods; PACK'-LOAD, the load an animal can carry on its back; PACK'MAN, a peddler or a man who carries a pack; PACK'-MULE, a mule used for carrying burdens; PACK'-SADD'LE, a saddle for packs or burdens; PACK'-THREAD, a coarse thread used to sew up packages; PACK'-TRAIN, a train of loaded pack-animals; PACK'WAY, a narrow path fit for pack-horses.--PACK A JURY, MEETING, &c., to fill up with persons of a particular kind for one's own purposes.--SEND ONE PACKING, to dismiss summarily. [Prob. Celt.; Gael. and Ir. _pac_, Bret. _pak_, a bundle; cf. Ger. _pack_, Dut. _pak_.] PACK, pak, _adj._ (_Scot._) intimate, confidential. PACKFONG, an incorrect form of _paktong_ (q.v.) PACO, p[=a]'ko, _n._ same as ALPACA:--_pl._ P[=A]'COS. PACT, pakt, _n._ that which is agreed on: an agreement: a contract--also PAC'TION.--_adj._ PAC'TIONAL.--PACTUM ILLICITUM, an unlawful agreement. [L. _pactum_--_pacisci_, _pactus_, to contract.] PAD, pad, _n._ a thief on the high-road (more commonly _Footpad_): (abbrev. from _pad-horse_) a horse for riding on the road: an easy-paced horse.--_v.i._ to walk on foot: to trudge along: to rob on foot:--_pr.p._ pad'ding; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ pad'ded.--_adj._ PAD'-CLINK'ING, keeping company with thieves.--_n._ PAD'DING-KEN, a low lodging-house inhabited by thieves.--STAND PAD, to beg by the roadside. [Dut. _pad_, a path.] PAD, pad, _n._ anything stuffed with a soft material, to prevent friction or pressure, or for filling out: a soft saddle, cushion, &c.: a number of sheets of paper or other soft material fastened together for writing upon: the fleshy, thick-skinned under-surface of the toes of many animals, as the fox: a fox's foot generally: the large floating leaf of an aquatic plant: (_pl._) thick watered ribbon for watch-guards.--_v.t._ to stuff with anything soft: to fix colours in cloth:--_pr.p._ pad'ding; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ pad'ded.--_ns._ PAD'-CLOTH, a cloth covering a horse's loins; PAD'DER, one who pads or cushions; PAD'DING, the soft stuffing of a saddle, &c.: matter of less value introduced into a book or article in order to make it of the length desired: the process of mordanting a fabric; PAD'-EL'EPHANT, a working elephant, distinguished from a war or hunting one; PAD'-SADD'LE, a treeless, padded saddle; PAD'-TREE, the wooden or metal frame to which harness-pads are attached. [A variant of _pod_, orig. sig. 'a bag.'] PADDLE, pad'l, _v.i._ to dabble in water with the hands or the feet: to touch or toy with the fingers: to beat the water as with the feet: to row: to move in the water as a duck does: (_slang_) to make off.--_v.t._ to move by means of an oar or paddle: to finger, toy with.--_n._ a short, broad, spoon-shaped oar, used for moving canoes: the blade of an oar: one of the boards at the circumference of a paddle-wheel.--_ns._ PADD'LE-BEAM, one of the large timbers at the side of a paddle-wheel; PADD'LE-BOARD, one of the floats on the circumference of a paddle-wheel; PADD'LE-BOX, a wooden box covering the upper part of the paddle-wheel of a steamer; PADD'LER, one who paddles; PADD'LE-SHAFT, the axle on which the paddle-wheels of a steamer turn; PADD'LE-WHEEL, the wheel of a steam-vessel, which by turning in the water causes it to move forward; PADD'LE-WOOD, the light, strong wood of a Guiana tree of the dogbane family. [For _pattle_, freq. of _pat_.] PADDLE, pad'l, _n._ (_B._) a little spade.--_n._ PADD'LE-STAFF, a spade for clearing a ploughshare. [Prob. from _spaddle_; cf. _Spade_.] PADDOCK, pad'uk, _n._ a toad or frog.--_n._ PADD'OCK-STOOL, a toadstool. [Dim. of M. E. _padde_, a toad--Ice. _padda_.] PADDOCK, pad'uk, _n._ a small park under pasture, immediately adjoining the stables of a domain: a small field in which horses are kept. [A.S. _pearroc_, a park--_sparran_ (Ger. _sperren_), to shut.] PADDY, pad'i, _n._ rice in the husk.--_ns._ PADD'Y-BIRD, the Java sparrow or rice-bird; PADD'Y-FIELD, a field where rice is grown. [East Ind.] PADDY, pad'i, _n._ a familiar name for an Irishman, from St _Patrick:_ a drill used in boring wells, with cutters that expand on pressure.--_n._ PADD'Y-WHACK, a nurse's word for a slap. PADELLA, pa-del'la, _n._ a shallow vessel filled with fat, in the centre of which a wick has been placed--used in illuminations. [It., a frying-pan.] PADEMELON, pad'[=e]-mel-on, _n._ a brush kangaroo or wallaby.--Also PAD'YMELON, PAD'DYMELON. PADISHAH, pä'di-sha, _n._ chief ruler: great king, a title of the Sultan of Turkey or of the Sovereign of Great Britain as ruler of India. [Pers. _p[=a]d_, master, _sh[=a]h_, king; cf. _Pasha_.] PADLOCK, pad'lok, _n._ a movable lock with a link turning on a hinge or pivot at one end, to enable it to pass through a staple or other opening, and to be pressed down to catch the bolt at the other end.--_v.t._ to fasten with a padlock. [Prob. prov. Eng. _pad_, a basket, and _lock_.] PADMA, pad'ma, _n._ the true lotus. PAD-NAG, pad'-nag, _n._ an ambling nag. PADRE, pä'dre, _n._ father, a title given to priests in some countries.--_n._ PADR[=O]'NE, a person who jobs out hand-organs, or who gets children to beg for him:--_pl._ PADR[=O]'NI. [It. and Sp.,--L. _pater_, a father.] PADUAN, pad'[=u]-an, _adj._ and _n._ belonging to _Padua:_ one of the clever imitations of old Roman bronze coins made at Padua in the 16th century: a Spanish dance, the pavan. PADUASOY, pad'[=u]-a-soi, _n._ a smooth silk originally manufactured at _Padua_, used in the 18th century, also a garment of the same. [Fr. _soie de Padoue_.] PÆAN, p[=e]'an, _n._ a song of triumph: any joyous song: a song in honour of Apollo, later also of Dionysus and Ares.--_n._ PÆ'ON, a foot of four syllables, one long, three short.--_adj._ PÆON'IC. [L.,--Gr. _Paian_ or _Pai[=o]n_, an epithet of Apollo.] PÆDAGOGY, PÆDAGOGICS, PÆDOBAPTISM, PÆDOBAPTIST. See PEDAGOGY, PEDAGOGICS, PEDOBAPTISM, PEDOBAPTIST. PÆNULA, p[=e]'n[=u]-la, _n._ a chasuble, esp. in its older form: a woollen outer garment covering the whole body, worn on journeys and in rainy weather. PÆONIN, p[=e]'[=o]-nin, _n._ a red colouring matter obtained from yellow coralline. PÆONY, p[=e]'o-ni, _n._ Same as PEONY. PAFF, paf, _n._ a meaningless word, used with _piff_ to indicate jargon. PAGAN, p[=a]'gan, _n._ a heathen: one who does not worship the true God.--_adj._ heathenish: pertaining to the worship of false gods.--_v.t._ P[=A]'GANISE, to render pagan or heathen: to convert to paganism.--_adj._ P[=A]'GANISH, heathenish.--_n._ P[=A]'GANISM, heathenism: the beliefs and practices of the heathen. [L. _paganus_, a rustic, heathen, because the country-people were later in becoming Christians than the people of the towns--_pagus_, a district--_pang[)e]re_, to fix.] PAGE, p[=a]j, _n._ a boy attending on a person of distinction: a young lad employed as attendant: a contrivance for holding up a woman's skirt in walking.--_n._ PAGE'HOOD, condition of a page. [Fr. _page_; acc. to Littré, prob. from Low L. _pagensis_, a peasant--L. _pagus_, a village; acc. to Diez, but hardly with probability, through the It. _paggio_, from Gr. _paidion_, dim. of _pais_, _paidos_, a boy.] PAGE, p[=a]j, _n._ one side of a written or printed leaf--4 pages in a folio sheet, 8 in a quarto, 16 in an octavo, 24 in a duodecimo, 36 in an octodecimo: a book, record, or source of knowledge: the type, illustrations, &c. arranged for printing one side of a leaf: (_pl._) writings.--_v.t._ to number the pages of.--_adj._ PAG'INAL.--_v.t._ PAG'IN[=A]TE, to mark with consecutive numbers, to page.--_ns._ PAGIN[=A]'TION, the act of paging a book: the figures and marks that indicate the number of pages; P[=A]'GING, the marking or numbering of the pages of a book. [Fr.,--L. _pagina_, a thing fastened--_pang[)e]re_, to fasten.] PAGEANT, paj'ant, or p[=a]'-, _n._ a showy exhibition: a spectacle: a fleeting show: (_orig._) a platform on four wheels for the purpose of representing plays, &c.--_adj._ showy: pompous.--_n._ PAGE'ANTRY, splendid display: pompous spectacle. [M. E. _pagent_ (with excrescent _-t_), from an older form _pagen_ or _pagin_--Low L. _pagina_, a stage--L. _pagina_, a slab--_pang[)e]re_, to fix; cf. _Page_ (2).] PAGODA, pa-g[=o]'da, _n._ an idol-house: an Indian idol: its temple: a gold coin formerly current in India, so called because the figure of a pagoda was stamped upon it--also PAGODE'.--_n._ PAG[=O]'DITE, the mineral which the Chinese carve into figures of pagodas, &c. [Port., a corr. of Pers. _but-kadah_, an idol-temple.] PAGODE, pa-g[=o]d', _n._ a funnel-shaped sleeve worn by both sexes in the first half of the 18th century. PAGUS, p[=a]'gus, _n._ a country district with scattered hamlets, also its fortified centre: among the early Teutons, a division of the territory larger than a village, like a wapentake or hundred. PAH, pä, _interj._ an exclamation expressing contempt or disgust. PAHLAVI. Same as PEHLEVI. PAID, p[=a]d, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of pay. PAIDEUTICS, p[=a]-d[=u]'tiks, _n.sing._ the science or theory of teaching.--_n._ PAIDOL'OGY, the scientific study of the child. [Gr. _paideutikos_--_paideuein_, to teach--_pais_, _paidos_, a child.] PAIGLE, PAGLE, p[=a]'gl, _n._ (_obs._) the cowslip or primrose. PAIK, p[=a]k, _n._ (_Scot._) a beating. PAIL, p[=a]l, _n._ an open vessel of wood, &c., for holding or carrying liquids.--_n._ PAIL'FUL, as much as fills a pail. [O. Fr. _paile_, _paele_--L. _patella_, a pan, dim. of _patera_--_pat[=e]re_, to be open.] PAILLASSE, pa-lyas', _n._ a small bed, originally made of chaff or straw: an under mattress of straw.--_n._ PAILLASSON (pa-lya-song'), a form of straw bonnet. [Fr.,--_paille_, straw--L. _palea_, chaff.] PAILLETTE, pa-lyet', _n._ a piece of metal or coloured foil used in enamel-painting: a sponge.--_n._ PAILLON (pa-lyong'), a bright metal backing for enamel, &c. [Fr.] PAIN, p[=a]n, _n._ suffering coming as the punishment of evil-doing: suffering either of body or mind: anguish: great care or trouble taken in doing anything: (_pl._) labour: care: trouble: the throes of childbirth.--_v.t._ to cause suffering to: to distress: to torment: to grieve.--_adjs._ PAINED, showing or expressing pain: (_B._) in pain, in labour; PAIN'FUL, full of pain: causing pain: requiring labour, pain, or care: (_arch._) hard-working, painstaking: distressing: difficult.--_adv._ PAIN'FULLY.--_n._ PAIN'FULNESS.--_adj._ PAIN'LESS, without pain.--_adv._ PAIN'LESSLY.--_ns._ PAIN'LESSNESS; PAINS'TAKER, one who takes pains or care: a laborious worker.--_adj._ PAINS'TAKING, taking pains or care: laborious: diligent.--_n._ careful labour: diligence.--UNDER PAIN OF, subject to the penalty of. [Fr. _peine_--L. _poena_, satisfaction--Gr. _poin[=e]_, penalty.] PAINIM, p[=a]'nim. See PAYNIM. PAINT, p[=a]nt, _v.t._ to cover over with colour: to represent in a coloured picture: to describe in words: to adorn.--_v.i._ to practise painting: to lay colours on the face, to blush: (__slang__) to tipple.--_n._ a colouring substance: anything fixed with caoutchouc to harden it.--_adj._ PAINT'ABLE, that may be painted.--_ns._ PAINT'-BOX, a box in which different paints are kept in compartments; PAINT'-BRIDGE, a platform used by theatrical scene-painters in painting scenery; PAINT'-BRUSH, a brush for putting on paint.--_adj._ PAINT'ED, covered with paint: ornamented with coloured figures: marked with bright colours.--_ns._ PAINT'ED-GRASS, ribbon-grass; PAINT'ED-L[=A]'DY, the thistle-butterfly, orange-red spotted with white and black; PAINT'ER, one whose employment is to paint: one skilled in painting; PAINT'ER'S-COL'IC, lead colic; PAINT'ER-STAIN'ER, one who paints coats of arms, &c.; PAINT'INESS; PAINT'ING, the act or employment of laying on colours: the act of representing objects by colours: a picture: vivid description in words; PAINT'[=U]RE (_Dryden_), the art of painting: a picture.--_adj._ PAINT'Y, overloaded with paint, with the colours too glaringly used: smeared with paint.--PAINT THE TOWN RED (_U.S._), to break out in a boisterous spree. [O. Fr., pa.p. of Fr. _peindre_, to paint--L. _ping[)e]re_, _pictum_, to paint.] PAINTER, p[=a]nt'[.e]r, _n._ a rope used to fasten a boat.--CUT THE PAINTER, to set adrift; LAZY PAINTER, a small painter for use in fine weather only. [A corr. of M. E. _panter_, a fowler's noose, through O. Fr. from L. _panther_, a hunting-net--Gr. _panth[=e]ros_, catching all--_pan_, neut. of _pas_, every, _th[=e]r_, wild beast.] PAIR, p[=a]r, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to impair. PAIR, p[=a]r, _n._ two things equal, or suited to each other, or used together: a set of two equal or like things forming one instrument, as a pair of scissors, tongs, &c., a set of like things generally: in building, a flight of stairs: a couple: a man and his wife: two members of a legislative body, holding opposite opinions, who agree with each other to abstain from voting for a certain time, so as to permit one or both to be absent.--_v.t._ to join in couples.--_v.i._ to be joined in couples: to fit as a counterpart.--_adj._ PAIRED, arranged in pairs: set by twos of a like kind: mated.--_ns._ PAIR'ING, an agreement between two members of a legislative body holding opposite opinions to refrain from voting, so that both may absent themselves; PAIR'ING-TIME, the time when birds go together in pairs; PAIR'-ROY'AL, three cards of the same denomination, esp. in cribbage.--_adv._ PAIR'-WISE, in pairs.--PAIR OF COLOURS, two flags carried by a regiment, one the national ensign, the other the flag of the regiment; PAIR OFF (see PAIRING above). [Fr. _paire_, a couple--_pair_, like--L. _par_, equal.] PAIS, p[=a], _n._ the people from whom a jury is drawn.--MATTER-IN-PAIS, matter of fact. [O. Fr.] PAISE, p[=a]z, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as POISE. PAITRICK, p[=a]'trik, _n._ (_Scot._) a partridge. PAJAMAS. See PYJAMAS. PAJOCK, pä'jok, _n._ (_Shak._). Same as PEACOCK. PAKTONG, pak'tong, _n._ the Chinese name for German silver.--Also PACK'FONG, PAK'FONG. [Chin.] PAL, pal, _n._ (_slang_) a partner, mate. [Gipsy.] PALABRA, pa-lä'bra, _n._ talk, palaver. [Sp., a word.] PALACE, pal'[=a]s, _n._ the house of a king or a queen: a very large and splendid house: a bishop's official residence.--_n._ PAL'ACE-CAR, a sumptuously furnished railway-car. [Fr. _palais_--L. _Palatium_, the Roman emperor's residence on the _Palatine_ Hill at Rome.] PALADIN, pal'a-din, _n._ one of the twelve peers of Charlemagne's household: a knight-errant, or paragon of knighthood. [Fr.,--It. _paladino_--L. _palatinus_, belonging to the palace. Cf. _Palatine_.] PALÆARCTIC, p[=a]-l[=e]-ark'tik, _adj._ pertaining to the northern part of the Old World.--PALÆARCTIC REGION, a great division embracing Europe, Africa north of the Atlas, and Asia north of the Himalaya. PALÆICHTHYOLOGY, p[=a]-l[=e]-ik-th[=i]-ol'o-ji, _n._ the branch of ichthyology which treats of fossil fishes. PALÆOBOTANY, p[=a]-l[=e]-[=o]-bot'a-ni, _n._ the science or study of fossil plants.--_adj._ PALÆOBOTAN'ICAL.--_n._ PALÆOBOT'ANIST. PALÆOCRYSTIC, p[=a]-l[=e]-[=o]-kris'tik, _adj._ consisting of ancient ice. PALÆOGRAPHY, PALEOGRAPHY, p[=a]-l[=e]-og'ra-fi, _n._ ancient modes of writing: study of ancient writings and modes of writing.--_n._ PALÆOG'RAPHER, one skilled in palæography.--_adjs._ PALÆOGRAPH'IC, -AL, of or pertaining to palæography.--_n._ PALÆOG'RAPHIST. [Gr. _palaios_, ancient, _graphein_, to write.] PALÆOLITHIC, p[=a]-l[=e]-[=o]-lith'ik, _adj._ of or pertaining to the time when early stone implements were used: the first half of the stone age.--_n._ PALÆOL'ITH, a rude stone implement or object of the earlier stone age. [Gr. _palaios_, ancient, _lithos_, a stone.] PALÆOLOGY, p[=a]-l[=e]-ol'[=o]-ji, _n._ a discourse or treatise on antiquities: archæology.--_n._ PALÆOL'OGIST, one versed in palæology: a student of antiquity. [Gr. _palaios_, ancient, _logia_, discourse.] PALÆONTOGRAPHY, p[=a]-l[=e]-on-tog'ra-fi, _n._ the description of fossil remains.--_adj._ PALÆONTOGRAPH'ICAL, pertaining to palæontography. [Gr. _palaios_, ancient, _onta_, existences, _graphein_, to write.] PALÆONTOLOGY, p[=a]-l[=e]-on-tol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the science of the ancient life of the earth: description of fossil remains: archæology.--_adj._ PALÆONTOLOG'ICAL, belonging to palæontology.--_n._ PALÆONTOL'OGIST, one versed in palæontology. [Gr. _palaios_, ancient, _onta_, existences, _logia_, discourse.] PALÆOPHYTOLOGY, p[=a]-l[=e]-[=o]-f[=i]-tol'[=o]-ji, _n._ palæobotany. PALÆOSAURUS, p[=a]-l[=e]-[=o]-saw'rus, _n._ a genus of fossil saurian reptiles belonging to the Permian period. [Gr. _palaios_, ancient, _sauros_, lizard.] PALÆOTHERIUM, p[=a]-l[=e]-[=o]-th[=e]'ri-um, _n._ a genus of fossil pachydermatous mammalia in the Eocene beds. [Gr. _palaios_, ancient, _th[=e]rion_, a wild beast.] PALÆOZOIC, p[=a]-l[=e]-[=o]-z[=o]'ik, _adj._ denoting the lowest division of the fossiliferous rocks, so called because they contain the earliest forms of life. [Gr. _palaios_, ancient, _zo[=e]_, life.] PALÆOZOOLOGY, p[=a]-l[=e]-[=o]-z[=o]-ol'[=o]-ji, _n._ geologic zoology.--_adjs._ PALÆOZOOLOG'IC, -AL. PALÆTIOLOGY, p[=a]-l[=e]-ti-ol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the science which explains past conditions by the law of causation.--_adj._ PALÆTIOLOG'ICAL.--_n._ PALÆTIOL'OGIST. PALAMA, pal'a-ma, _n._ the webbing of the toes of a bird:--_pl._ PAL'AMÆ.--_adj._ PAL'AM[=A]TE. [Gr. _palam[=e]_.] PALAMPORE, pal'am-p[=o]r, _n._ a flowered chintz bedcover common in the East.--Also PAL'EMPORE. [Prob. from the Ind. town of _Palamp[=u]r_.] PALANQUIN, PALANKEEN, pal-an-k[=e]n', _n._ a light covered carriage used in India, &c., for a single person, and borne on the shoulders of men. [Hind. _palang_, a bed--Sans. _palyanka_, a bed.] PALAPTERYX, pal-ap't[.e]r-iks, _n._ a genus of fossil birds found in New Zealand, resembling the Apteryx. [Gr. _palaios_, ancient, and _apteryx_.] PALAS, pal'as, _n._ a small bushy Punjab bean, yielding a kind of kino, Butea gum. PALATE, pal'[=a]t, _n._ the roof of the mouth, consisting of two portions, the hard palate in front and the soft palate behind: taste: relish: mental liking.--_v.t._ to taste.--_adj._ PAL'ATABLE, agreeable to the palate or taste: savoury.--_n._ PAL'ATABLENESS, the quality of being agreeable to the taste.--_adv._ PAL'ATABLY.--_adj._ PAL'ATAL, pertaining to the palate: uttered by aid of the palate--also PAL'ATINE.--_n._ a letter pronounced chiefly by aid of the palate, as _k_, _g_, _e_, _i_.--_v.t._ PAL'ATALISE, to make palatal.--_adj._ PALAT'IC.--CLEFT PALATE, a congenital defect of the palate, leaving a longitudinal fissure in the roof of the mouth. [O. Fr. _palat_--L. _palatum_.] PALATIAL, pa-l[=a]'shi-al, _adj._ of or pertaining to a palace: resembling a palace: royal: magnificent. PALATINE, pal'a-tin, _adj._ pertaining to a palace, originally applied to officers of the royal household: possessing royal privileges.--_n._ a noble invested with royal privileges: a subject of a palatinate.--_n._ PALAT'INATE, office or rank of a palatine: province of a palatine, esp. an electorate of the ancient German Empire.--COUNT PALATINE, a feudal lord with supreme judicial authority over a province; COUNTY PALATINE, the province of a count palatine. [Fr.,--L. _palatinus._ Cf. _Palace._] PALAVER, pa-lav'[.e]r, _n._ talk or conversation, esp. idle talk: talk intended to deceive: a public conference: in Africa, a talk with the natives.--_v.i._ to use conversation: to flatter: to talk idly.--_n._ PALAV'ERER. [Port. _palavra_--L. _parabola_, a parable.] PALAY, pa-l[=a]', _n._ a small S. Indian tree of the dogbane family, with hard white wood.--Also _Ivory-tree_. PALE, p[=a]l, _n._ a narrow piece of wood driven into the ground for use in enclosing grounds: anything that encloses or fences in: any enclosed field or space: limit: district: a broad stripe from top to bottom of a shield in heraldry.--_v.t._ to enclose with stakes: to encompass.--_n._ PALIFIC[=A]'TION, act of strengthening by stakes.--_adj._ PAL'IFORM.--ENGLISH PALE, the district in Ireland within which alone the English had power for centuries after the invasion in 1172. [Fr. _pal_--L. _palus_, a stake.] PALE, p[=a]l, _adj._ somewhat white in colour: not ruddy or fresh: wan: of a faint lustre, dim: light in colour.--_v.t._ to make pale.--_v.i._ to turn pale.--_ns._ PALE'-ALE, a light-coloured pleasant bitter ale; PALE'BUCK, an antelope, the oribi.--_adj._ PALE'-EYED (_Shak._), having the eyes dimmed.--_n._ PALE'-FACE, a white person.--_adj._ PALE'-HEART'ED (_Shak._), dispirited.--_adv._ PALE'LY.--_n._ PALE'NESS.--_adjs._ PALE'-VIS'AGED (_Shak._), having no colour in the face; P[=A]'LISH, somewhat pale. [Fr.,--L. _pallidus_, pale.] PALEA, p[=a]'l[=e]-a, _n._ (_bot._) a chaffy bract at the base of the florets in many _Compositæ_, also one of the inner scales of a grass-flower opposite the flowering glume: the throat-wattle, as in turkeys:--_pl._ P[=A]'LEÆ.--_adj._ PALE[=A]'CEOUS (_bot._), resembling, consisting of, or furnished with chaff: chaffy. [L. _palea_, chaff.] PALEOTYPE, p[=a]'l[=e]-[=o]-t[=i]p, _n._ a system of spelling invented by A. J. Ellis, according to which all spoken sounds can be represented by the letters in common use, some of them being used upside down as well as in the usual way, to express varieties of sound. PALES, p[=a]'l[=e]z, _n._ an ancient Roman divinity of flocks.--_n._ PALIL'IA, the festival of Pales, held on April 21, the traditional date of the founding of Rome. PALESTINIAN, pal-es-tin'i-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Palestine_.--PALESTINE SOUP (see ARTICHOKE). PALESTRA, p[=a]-les'tra, _n._ a wrestling school: the exercise of wrestling: any training school: academic oratory.--_adjs._ PALES'TRAL, PALES'TRIAN, PALES'TRIC, -AL, pertaining to wrestling: athletic. [L.,--Gr. _palaistra_--_pal[=e]_, wrestling.] PALETOT, pal'e-t[=o], _n._ a loose overcoat. [Fr.] PALETTE, pal'et, _n._ a little oval board on which a painter mixes his colours: the special arrangement of colours for any particular picture: a plate against which a person presses his breast to give force to a drill worked by the hand: a small plate covering a joint in armour.--_n._ PAL'ETTE-KNIFE, a thin round-pointed knife for mixing colours on the grinding slab. [Fr.,--It. _paletta_--_pala_, spade--L. _pala_, a spade.] PALFREY, pal'fri, _n._ a saddle-horse, esp. for a lady.--_adj._ PAL'FREYED, riding on, or supplied with, a palfrey. [Fr. _palefroi_--Low L. _paraveredus_, prob. from Gr. _para_, beside, Low L. _veredus_, a post-horse--L. _veh[)e]re_, to draw, _rheda_, a carriage.] PALI, pä'l[=e], _n._ the sacred language of the Buddhists of eastern India, closely allied to Sanskrit. PALILLOGY, p[=a]-lil'[=o]-ji, _n._ a repetition of a word or phrase. [Gr. _palillogia_--_palin_, again, _legein_, to say.] PALIMPSEST, pal'imp-sest, _n._ a manuscript which has been written upon twice, the first writing having been rubbed off to make room for the second: an engraved brass plate, with a new inscription on the reverse side. [Gr. _palimps[=e]ston_--_palin_, again, _ps[=e]stos_, rubbed.] PALINAL, pal'i-nal, _adj._ moving backward. [Gr. _palin_.] PALINDROME, pal'in-dr[=o]m, _n._ a word, verse, or sentence that reads the same either backward or forward, as Adam's first words to Eve: 'Madam, I'm Adam.'--_adjs._ PALINDROM'IC, -AL.--_n._ PAL'INDROMIST, an inventor of palindromes. [Gr. _palindromia_--_palin_, back, _dromos_, a running.] PALING, p[=a]l'ing, _n._ pales collectively: a fence. PALINGENESIS, pal-in-jen'e-sis, _n._ a new birth or a second creation: regeneration: the development of an individual germ in which it repeats that of its ancestors: the recurrence of historical events in the same order in an infinite series of cycles--also PAL'INGENY, PALING[=E]'SIA.--_adj._ PALINGET'IC.--_adv._ PALINGET'ICALLY. [Gr. _palin_, again, _genesis_, birth.] PALINODE, pal'i-n[=o]d, _n._ a poem retracting a former one: a recantation.--_adjs._ PALIN[=O]'DIAL, PALINOD'IC.--_n._ PAL'IN[=O]DIST, a writer of palinodes. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr.,--_palin_, back, _[=o]d[=e]_, song.] PALISADE, pal-i-s[=a]d' _n._ a fence of pointed pales or stakes firmly fixed in the ground.--_v.t._ to surround with a palisade.--Also PALIS[=A]'DO:--_pl._ PALIS[=A]'DOES. [Fr.,--L. _palus_, a stake.] PALISANDER, pal-i-san'd[.e]r, _n._ rosewood. [Fr.] PALISSÉE, pal-i-s[=a]', _adj._ (_her._) battlemented, the indentations pointing both up and down. [Fr.] PALKEE, pal'k[=e], _n._ a palanquin.--_n._ PAL'KEE-GHAR'RY, a wheeled vehicle like a palanquin. [Hind.] PALL, pawl, _n._ a cloak or mantle, an outer garment: a chalice-cover: (_her._) a Y-shaped bearing charged with crosses _patté fitché_, as in the arms of the see of Canterbury--sometimes reversed: a pallium (q.v.): a curtain or covering: the cloth over a coffin at a funeral: that which brings deep sorrow.--_n._ PALL'-BEAR'ER, one of the mourners at a funeral who used to hold up the corners of the pall. [A.S. _pæll_, purple cloth--L. _palla_, a mantle; cf. _Pallium_, a cloak.] PALL, pawl, _v.i._ to become vapid, insipid, or wearisome.--_v.t._ to make vapid: to dispirit or depress. [W. _pallu_, to fail, _pall_, failure.] PALLADIAN, pa-l[=a]'di-an, _adj._ in the style of architecture introduced by Andrea _Palladio_ (1518-80), modelled on Vitruvius, its faults a superfluity of pilasters and columns, broken entablatures, and inappropriate ornament.--_n._ PALL[=A]'DIANISM. PALLADIUM, pal-l[=a]'di-um, _n._ a statue of _Pallas_, on the preservation of which the safety of ancient Troy depended: any safeguard: a rare metal in colour and ductility resembling platinum.--_adj._ PALL[=A]'DIAN.--_v.t._ PALL[=A]'DIUMISE, to coat with palladium. [L.,--Gr. _palladion_--_Pallas_, _Pallados_, Pallas.] PALLAH, pal'a, _n._ a small African antelope. PALLAS, pal'as, _n._ the Greek goddess of wisdom and war--the Roman Minerva.--Also PALLAS ATHENE. PALLESCENCE, pal-les'ens, _n._ paleness. PALLET, pal'et, _n._ a palette: the tool used by potters for shaping their wares: an instrument for spreading gold-leaf: a tool used in lettering the backs of books: one of the points moved by the pendulum of a clock which check the motion of the escape or balance wheel: a disc in the endless chain of a chain-pump: a ballast-locker in a ship: a valve by which the admission of air from the bellows to an organ-pipe may be regulated from the keyboard: a board for carrying newly moulded bricks. [_Palette_.] PALLET, pal'et, _n._ a mattress, or couch, properly a mattress of straw. [Prov. Fr. _paillet_, dim. of Fr. _paille_, straw--L. _palea_, chaff.] PALLIAL, pal'i-al, _adj._ pertaining to a pallium.--_n._ PALL'IAMENT (_Shak._), a robe. PALLIASSE, pa-lyas', _n._ Same as PAILLASSE. PALLIATE, pal'i-[=a]t, _v.t._ to cover, excuse, extenuate: to soften by pleading something in favour of: to mitigate.--_n._ PALLI[=A]'TION, act of palliating: extenuation: mitigation.--_adj._ PALL'I[=A]TIVE, serving to extenuate: mitigating.--_n._ that which lessens pain, disease, &c.--_adj._ PALL'I[=A]TORY. [L. _palli[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to cloak--_pallium_, a cloak.] PALLID, pal'id, _adj._ pale, wan.--_ns._ PALLID'ITY, PALL'IDNESS.--_adv._ PALL'IDLY. [L. _pallidus_, pale.] PALLIUM, pal'i-um, _n._ a large, square mantle, worn by learned Romans in imitation of the Greeks: an annular white woollen band, embroidered with black crosses, worn by the Pope, and on some occasions by archbishops, to whom it is granted: (_ornith._) the mantle:--_pl._ PALL'IA.--_adj._ PALL'IAL. [L.] PALL-MALL, pel-mel', _n._ an old game, in which a ball was driven through an iron ring with a mallet: an alley where the game used to be played, hence the street in London.--_adv._ in pall-mall fashion. [O. Fr. _pale-maille_--Old It. _palamaglio_--_palla_--Old High Ger. _pallá_ (Ger. _ball_, Eng. _ball_), and _maglio_--L. _malleus_, a hammer.] PALLOMETRIC, pal-o-met'rik, _adj._ pertaining to the measurement of artificial vibrations in the earth's surface. [Gr. _pallein_, to shake, _metron_, a measure.] PALLONE, päl-l[=o]'n[=a], _n._ a game like tennis played with a ball, which is struck by the arm covered by a guard. [It.] PALLOR, pal'or, _n._ quality or state of being pallid or pale: paleness. [L.,--_pall[=e]re_, to be pale.] PALM, päm, _n._ the inner part of the hand: a measure of length equal to the breadth of the hand, or to its length from wrist to finger-tip: a measure of 3 and sometimes of 4 inches: that which covers the palm: the fluke of an anchor: the flattened portion of an antler.--_v.t._ to stroke with the palm or hand: to conceal in the palm of the hand: (esp. with _off_, and _on_, or _upon_) to impose by fraud.--_n._ PAL'MA, the palm: the enlarged proximal joint of the fore tarsus of a bee.--_adjs._ PAL'MAR, -Y, relating to the palm of the hand; PAL'M[=A]TE, -D, shaped like the palm of the hand: (_bot._) divided into sections, the midribs of which run to a common centre: entirely webbed, as the feet of a duck.--_adv._ PAL'M[=A]TELY.--_adjs._ PALMAT'IFID (_bot._), shaped like the hand, with the divisions extending half-way, or slightly more, down the leaf; PALMAT'IFORM, shaped like an open palm; PALMED, having palms. [Fr. _paume_--L. _palma_, the palm of the hand; Gr. _palam[=e]_.] PALM, päm, _n._ a tropical, branchless tree of many varieties, bearing at the summit large leaves like the palm of the hand: a leaf of this tree borne in token of rejoicing or of victory: (_fig._) triumph or victory.--_adjs._ PALM[=A]'CEOUS, belonging to the order of palm-trees; PALM[=A]'RIAN, PAL'MARY, worthy of the palm: pre-eminent.--_ns._ PALM'-BUTT'ER, palm-oil; PALM'ERY, a place for growing palms; PALM'HOUSE, a glass house for raising palms and other tropical plants.--_adjs._ PALMIF'EROUS, producing palm-trees; PALMIT'IC, pertaining to, or obtained from, palm-oil.--_ns._ PAL'MITINE, a white fat, usually occurring, when crystallised from ether, in the form of scaly crystals--abundant in palm-oil; PALM'-OIL, an oil or fat obtained from the pulp of the fruit of palms, esp. of the oil-palm, allied to the coco-nut palm: (_slang_) a bribe or tip; PALM'-S[=U]'GAR, jaggery; PALM'-SUN'DAY, the Sunday before Easter, in commemoration of the day on which our Saviour entered Jerusalem, when palm-branches were strewed in His way by the people; PALM'-WINE, the fermented sap of certain palms.--_adj._ PALM'Y, bearing palms: flourishing: victorious.--PALMA CHRISTI, the castor-oil plant. [A.S. from L., as above.] PALMER, päm'[.e]r, _n._ a pilgrim from the Holy Land, distinguished by his carrying a branch of palm: a cheat at cards or dice.--_ns._ PAL'MERIN, any medieval knightly hero, from the Palmerin romances, the original hero _Palmerin_ de Oliva; PALM'ER-WORM (_B._), a hairy worm which wanders like a palmer, devouring leaves, &c. PALMETTE, pal'met, _n._ an ornament, somewhat like a palm-leaf, cut or painted on mouldings, &c. [Fr.] PALMETTO, pal-met'[=o], _n._ a name for several fan-palms, esp. the cabbage-palm of Florida, &c.: a hat made of palmetto-leaves. [Sp.,--L. _palma_.] PALMIGRADE, pal'mi-gr[=a]d, _adj._ noting animals that walk on the sole of the foot and not merely on the toes: plantigrade. [L. _palma_, palm, _gradi_, to walk.] PALMIPED, pal'mi-p[=e]d, _adj._ web-footed.--_n._ a web-footed or swimming bird:--_pl._ PALMIP'EDES (-[=e]z). [L. _palma_, palm of the hand, _pes_, _pedis_, the foot.] PALMIST, pal'mist, or pä'mist, _n._ one who tells fortunes by the lines and marks of the palm--also PAL'MISTER (or pä'-).--_n._ PAL'MISTRY (or pä'-), the practice of telling fortunes by the lines, &c., of the palm. PALMYRA, pal-m[=i]'ra, _n._ an East Indian palm furnishing the greater part of the palm-wine of India (_Toddy_).--_adj._ and _n._ PALMYRENE', pertaining to the ancient Syrian city of _Palmyra_ or Tadmor. PALOLO, pa-l[=o]'l[=o], _n._ an edible annelid allied to the lugworm, found near Polynesian coral-reefs. PALP, palp, _n._ a jointed sensiferous organ attached in pairs to the labium or maxilla of insects, and thus distinguished from antennæ, which are on the top of the head--also PAL'PUS:--_pl._ PAL'PI.--_adjs._ PAL'PAL; PALPED; PAL'PIFORM; PALPIG'EROUS, bearing palpi; PALP'LESS.--_n._ PAL'P[=U]LUS, a little palp. [Low L. _palpus_--L. _palp[=a]re_, to stroke.] PALPABLE, pal'pa-bl, _adj._ that can be touched or felt: easily perceived or found out, as lies, &c.: looking as if it might be touched or felt: obvious, gross.--_ns._ PALPABIL'ITY, PAL'PABLENESS, quality of being palpable: obviousness.--_adv._ PAL'PABLY.--_v.t._ PAL'P[=A]TE, to examine by touch.--_n._ PALP[=A]'TION, the act of examining by means of touch. [Fr.,--L. _palpabilis_--_palp[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to touch softly.] PALPEBRAL, pal'pe-bral, _adj._ of or pertaining to the eyelids.--_adjs._ PAL'PEBR[=A]TE, having eyebrows; PAL'PEBROUS, having heavy eyebrows. [L. _palpebra_, the eyelid.] PALPIFER, pal'pi-f[.e]r, _n._ an outer lobe of the maxilla.--_adj._ PALPIF'EROUS. PALPITATE, pal'pi-t[=a]t, _v.i._ to move often and quickly: to beat rapidly: to throb: to pulsate.--_adj._ PAL'PITANT (_arch._), palpitating.--_n._ PALPIT[=A]'TION, act of palpitating: irregular action of the heart, caused by excitement, excessive exertion, or disease. [L. _palpit[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, freq. of _palp[=a]re_. Cf. _Palpable_.] PALSGRAVE, palz'gr[=a]v, _n._ one who has charge of a royal household: one of a special order of nobility, esp. one of the hereditary rulers of the Palatinate:--_fem._ PALS'GRAVINE. PALSTAFF, pal'staf, _n._ an old Celtic and Scandinavian weapon--a wedge of stone or metal fixed by a tongue in a staff. [Dan.,--Ice. _pálstafr_.] PALSY, pawl'zi, _n._ a loss of power or of feeling, more or less complete, in the muscles of the body: paralysis.--_v.t._ to affect with palsy: to deprive of action or energy: to paralyse:--_pa.p._ pal'sied. [Fr. _paralysie_--Gr. _paralysis_. Cf. _Paralysis_.] PALTER, pawl't[.e]r, _v.i._ to trifle in talk: to use trickery: to dodge: to shuffle: to equivocate.--_n._ PAL'TERER. [Prob. conn. with _paltry_.] PALTRY, pawl'tri, _adj._ mean: vile: worthless.--_adv._ PAL'TRILY.--_n._ PAL'TRINESS. [Teut.; Dan. _pialter_, rags, Low Ger. _paltrig_, ragged.] PALUDAL, pal'[=u]-dal, _adj._ pertaining to marshes: marshy--also PAL'[=U]DINE, PAL[=U]'DINOUS, PAL'[=U]DOSE, PALUS'TRAL, PALUS'TRINE.--_n._ PAL'UDISM, marsh poisoning. [L. _palus_, _paludis_, a marsh.] PALUDAMENTUM, p[=a]-l[=u]-da-men'tum, _n._ a military cloak worn by a Roman Imperator, or by members of his staff.--Also PAL[=U]'DAMENT. [L.] PALY, p[=a]'li, _adj._ pale: wanting colour: (_her._) divided by pales into equal parts. PAM, pam, _n._ the knave of clubs at loo. PAMPAS, pam'paz, _n.pl._ vast plains, without trees, in South America, south of the Amazon--north of that river they are called _llanos_.--_n._ PAM'PAS-GRASS, a tall, ornamental, reed-like grass with large thick silvery panicles.--_adj._ PAM'P[=E]AN. PAMPER, pam'p[.e]r, _v.t._ to feed with fine food: to gratify to the full: to glut.--_ns._ PAM'PEREDNESS; PAM'PERER. [A freq. from _pamp_, a nasalised form of _pap_; cf. Low Ger. _pampen_--_pampe_, pap.] PAMPERO, pam-p[=a]'ro, _n._ a violent south-west wind which sweeps over the pampas of South America. [Sp.,--_pampa_, a plain.] PAMPHLET, pam'flet, _n._ a small book consisting of one or more sheets stitched together, but not bound: a short essay on some interesting subject.--_n._ PAMPHLETEER', a writer of pamphlets.--_p.adj._ PAMPHLETEER'ING, writing pamphlets.--_n._ the practice of writing pamphlets. [Ety. dub.; acc. to Skeat, perh. through Fr. from _Pamphila_, a 1st cent. female writer of epitomes; others suggest Fr. _paume_, the palm of the hand, and _feuillet_, a leaf.] PAMPHRACT, pam'frakt, _adj._ (_rare_) protected completely, as by a coat of mail. [Gr. _pam_, _pan_, all, _phraktos_--_phrassein_, to fence in.] PAMPHYSICAL, pam-fiz'ik-al, _adj._ pertaining to nature regarded as embracing all things. PAMPINIFORM, pam-pin'i-form, _adj._ curling like the tendril of a vine. [L. _pampinus_, a tendril.] PAMPLEGIA, pam-pl[=e]'ji-a, _n._ general paralysis. [Gr. _pan_, all, _pl[=e]g[=e]_, a blow.] PAN, pan, _n._ a broad, shallow vessel for domestic use, or for use in the arts or manufactures: anything resembling a pan in shape, as the upper part of the skull: the part of a firelock which holds the priming.--_v.t._ to treat with the panning process, as earth, or to separate by shaking the auriferous earth with water in a pan: to obtain in any way, to secure: to cook and serve in a pan.--_v.i._ to yield gold: to appear, as gold, in a pan: to turn out well, according to expectation: to try to find gold with the pan process.--PAN OUT, to yield or afford, to result; PANNED OUT (_U.S._), exhausted, bankrupt.--FLASH IN THE PAN, to flash and go out suddenly, not igniting the charge--of the powder in the pan of a flint-lock firearm: to fail after a fitful effort, to give up without accomplishing anything; HARD-PAN (see HARD). [A.S. _panne_--prob. through the Celt., from Low L. _panna_--L. _patina_, a basin.] PAN, pan, _n._ the Greek god of pastures, flocks, and woods, worshipped in Arcadia, and fond of music--with goat's legs and feet, and sometimes horns and ears.--_n._ PAN'S'-PIPES (see PANDEAN). PANACEA, pan-a-s[=e]'a, _n._ a universal medicine: (_bot._) the plant Allheal (_Valeriana officinalis_). [Gr. _panakeia_--_pas_, _pan_, all, _akos_, cure.] PANACHE, pa-nash', _n._ a plume of feathers, used as a head-dress. [Fr.] PANADA, pa-nä'da, _n._ a dish made by boiling bread to a pulp in water, with sweetening and flavour: a batter for forcemeats. [Sp.] PANÆSTHESIA, pan-es-th[=e]'si-a, _n._ common sensation, as distinct from special sensations or sense-perceptions.--_n._ PANSÆS'THETISM. PANAGIA, pa-n[=a]'ji-a, _n._ an epithet of the Virgin in the Eastern Church: an ornament worn hanging on the breast by Russian bishops--also PAN[=A]'GHIA.--_n._ PANAGI[=A]'RION, a paten on which the loaf is placed, used in the 'elevation of the _Panagia_.' [Gr., 'all holy,' _pas_, all, _hagios_, holy.] PAN-AMERICAN, pan-a-mer'i-kan, _adj._ including all the divisions of America collectively. PAN-ANGLICAN, pan-ang'gli-kan, _adj._ representing or including all Christians everywhere who hold the doctrines and polity of the Anglican Church. PANARITIUM, pan-a-rish'i-um, _n._ suppurative inflammation in a finger--same as _whitlow_. PANARTHRITIS, pan-är-thr[=i]'tis, _n._ inflammation involving all the structures of a joint. PANARY, pan'a-ri, _adj._ of or pertaining to bread.--_n._ a storehouse for bread: a pantry. [L. _panis_, bread.] PANATHENÆA, pan-ath-[=e]-n[=e]'a, _n.pl._ the chief national festival of ancient Athens--the lesser held annually, the greater every fourth year.--_adjs._ PANATHENÆ'AN, PANATHEN[=A]'IC. [Gr.] PANAX, pa-naks', _n._ a genus of shrubs with radiately or pinnately compound leaves and small flowers in compound umbels, the ginseng. [Gr., 'all healing.'] PANCAKE, pan'k[=a]k, _n._ a thin cake of eggs, flour, sugar, and milk fried in a pan.--_n._ PAN'CAKE-ICE, thin ice forming in smooth water.--PANCAKE TUESDAY, Shrove Tuesday. PANCH, panch, _n._ a thick mat made of strands of rope, used in ships in places to prevent chafing.--Also PAUNCH. PANCHATANTRA, pan-chä-tänt'rä, _n._ the oldest extant collection of apologues and stories in Sanskrit literature, arranged in five books. PANCHEON, pan'chon, _n._ a coarse earthenware pan.--Also PANCH'IN. [_Pannikin._] PANCLASTITE, pan-klas't[=i]t, _n._ an explosive substance of slightly less strength than dynamite, formed of a preparation of nitrogen and carbon. [Gr. _pan_, all, _klastos_, broken, _klaein_, to break.] PANCRATIUM, pan-kr[=a]'ti-um, _n._ a contest of boxing and wrestling combined.--_adjs._ PANCR[=A]'TIAN, PANCRAT'IC.--_ns._ PANCR[=A]'TIAST, PAN'CRATIST. [Gr. _pan_, all, _kratos_, strength.] PANCREAS, pan'kr[=e]-as, _n._ a conglomerate gland, lying transversely across the posterior wall of the abdomen, secreting the pancreatic juice which pours with the bile into the digestive system.--_adj._ PANCREAT'IC, pertaining to the pancreas.--_ns._ PAN'CREATIN, the pancreatic juice; PANCREAT[=I]T'IS, inflammation of the pancreas. [Gr. _pas_, _pan_, all, _kreas_, flesh.] PAND, pand, _n._ (_Scot._) a narrow curtain over a bed. PANDA, pan'da, _n._ a remarkable animal in the bear section of Carnivores found in the south-east Himalayas.--Also _Chitwah_, or _Red bear-cat_. PANDANUS, pan-d[=a]'nus, _n._ the screw-pipe, the typical genus of the _Pandaneæ_. [Malay.] PANDATION, pan-d[=a]'shun, _n._ a yielding or warping. [L. _pand[=a]re_, to bend.] PANDEAN, pan-d[=e]'an, _adj._ of or relating to the god _Pan_.--_n._ PAND[=E]'AN-PIPES, or PAN'S'-PIPES, a musical instrument composed of reeds of various lengths, said to have been invented by _Pan_: a syrinx. PANDECT, pan'dekt, _n._ a treatise containing the whole of any science: (_pl._) the digest of Roman or civil law made by command of the Emperor Justinian in the 6th century. [L.,--Gr. _pandectes_--_pas_, _pan_, all, _dechesthai_, to receive.] PANDEMIC, pan-dem'ik, _adj._ incident to a whole people, epidemic.--_n._ a pandemic disease.--_n._ PANDEM'IA, a widespread disease. [Gr. _pand[=e]mios_--_pas_, _pan_, all, _d[=e]mos_, the people.] PANDEMONIUM, pan-d[=e]-m[=o]'ni-um, _n._ the great hall of evil spirits, described in _Paradise Lost_: any disorderly assembly, or loud tumultuous noise. [Gr. _pas_, _pan_, all, _daim[=o]n_, a demon.] PANDER, pan'd[.e]r, _n._ one who procures for another the means of gratifying his passions: a pimp.--_v.t._ to play the pander for.--_v.i._ to act as a pander: to minister to the passions.--_ns._ PAN'DERAGE, act, employment, or vices of a pander; PAN'DERESS, a procuress; PAN'DERISM, the employment or practices of a pander.--_adjs._ PAN'DERLY (_Shak._), acting as a pander; PAN'DEROUS. [_Pandarus_, the pimp in the story of Troilus and Cressida in the versions of Boccaccio (_Filostrato_), Chaucer, and Shakespeare.] PANDICULATION, pan-dik-[=u]-l[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of stretching one's self after sleep, &c.: restlessness before fever, hysteria, &c.: yawning.--_adj._ PANDIC'UL[=A]TED, stretched out. [L. _pandicul[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_, to stretch one's self out.] PANDION, pan-d[=i]'on, _n._ the genus of ospreys or fishing-hawks. [Gr., the father of Procne, who was changed into a swallow.] PANDIT. Same as PUNDIT. PANDORA, pan-d[=o]'ra, _n._ a beautiful woman to whom Jupiter, in order to punish the theft of heavenly fire by Prometheus, gave a box containing all the ills of human life, which, on the box being opened, spread over all the earth. [Gr., _pan_, all, _d[=o]ron_, a gift.] PANDORE, pan-d[=o]r', _n._ a musical instrument of the lute kind with three or four strings--also _Bandore_.--_n._ PAND[=U]'RA, a Neapolitan musical instrument with eight metal wires, played with a quill.--_adjs._ PAN'DURATE, -D, PAND[=U]'RIFORM, fiddle-shaped. [Gr. _pandoura_, a 3-stringed instrument, invented by _Pan_.] PANDORE, pan'd[=o]r, _n._ an esteemed variety of oysters found near Prestonpans on the Firth of Forth. PANDOUR, pan'd[=oo]r, _n._ a Hungarian foot-soldier in the Austrian service: a robber.--Also PAN'DOOR. [From _Pandur_, a village in Hungary.] PANDOWDY, pan-dew'di, _n._ a pudding baked with bread and apples. PANDY, pan'di, _n._ a stroke on the palm as a school punishment.--_v.t._ to slap. [L. _pande_, hold out, imper. of _pand[)e]re_, to hold out.] PANE, p[=a]n, _n._ a plate of glass: a square in a pattern: a flat division or side in any kind of work: a slash in a dress, showing an under garment, or for the insertion of a piece of cloth of different colour, &c.: a panel or piece of cloth of a different colour from the rest, esp. in variegated work.--_v.t._ to insert panes or panels in.--_adj._ PANED, composed of panes or small squares: variegated. [Fr. _pan_, a lappet, pane--L. _pannus_, a cloth, a rag, akin to Gr. _p[=e]nos_, the woof.] PANEGOISM, pan-[=e]'g[=o]-izm, _n._ Same as _Solipsism_ (q.v.). PANEGYRIC, pan-[=e]-jir'ik, _n._ an oration or eulogy in praise of some person or event: an encomium.--_adjs._ PAN[=E]GYR'IC, -AL.--_adv._ PAN[=E]GYR'ICALLY.--_n._ PAN[=E]GYR'ICON, in the Greek Church, a collection of sermons for festivals.--_v.t._ PAN'[=E]GYRISE, to write or pronounce a panegyric on: to praise highly.--_ns._ PAN'[=E]GYRIST; PAN'[=E]GYRY (_obs._). [L.,--Gr. _pan[=e]gyrikos_, fit for a national festival--_pas_, _pan_, all, _agyris_ (_agora_), an assembly.] PANEITY, p[=a]-n[=e]'i-ti, _n._ the state of being bread. [L. _panis_, bread.] PANEL, pan'el, _n._ a rectangular piece of any material: (_archit._) a flat surface with raised margins, or with a surrounding frame: a thin board on which a picture is painted: (_law_) a schedule containing the names of those summoned to serve as jurors: the jury: (_Scots law_) a prisoner at the bar: a frame for carrying a mortar: a rail in a post-and-rail fence.--_v.t._ to furnish with panels:--_pr.p._ pan'elling; _pa.p._ pan'elled.--Also PANN'EL.--_ns._ PAN'EL-GAME, the act of stealing articles by means of a sliding panel; PAN'ELLING, panel-work; PAN'EL-PIC'TURE, a picture painted on a panel; PAN'EL-PL[=A]N'ER, a machine for dressing panels and feathering their edges to fit them to the grooves in the stiles; PAN'EL-SAW, a saw for cutting very thin wood; PAN'EL-STRIP, a narrow piece of wood or metal for covering a joint between two panels; PAN'EL-WORK'ING, a method of working a coal-mine by dividing it into compartments. [O. Fr.,--Low L. _pannellus_--L. _pannus_, a rag.] PANEULOGISM, pan-[=u]'l[=o]-jizm, _n._ indiscriminate eulogy. PANFUL, pan'fool, _n._ the quantity that a pan will hold:--_pl._ PAN'FULS. PANG, pang, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to cram, stuff with food. PANG, pang, _n._ a violent but not long-continued pain: a sudden and bitter feeling of sorrow: a throe.--_v.t._ to cause a pang, to torture.--_adj._ PANG'LESS, free from pain. [A form of _prong_, prob. modified by confusion with Fr. _poing_, a fist--L. _pugnus_, the fist.] PANGENESIS, pan-jen'e-sis, _n._ the theory that every separate part of the whole organisation reproduces itself.--_adj._ PANGENET'IC. [Gr. _pas_, _pan_, all, _genesis_, production.] PANGOLIN, pang'g[=o]-lin, _n._ the scaly ant-eater, a name given to the various species of the genus _Manis_ belonging to the mammalian order Edentata. [Malay.] PANGRAMMATIST, pan-gram'a-tist, _n._ one who twists all the letters of the alphabet into sentences, as in the following example: 'John P. Brady, give me a black walnut box of quite a small size.' PAN-HANDLE, pan'-han'dl, _n._ the handle of a pan: a long narrow strip projecting like this. PANHARMONICON, pan-har-mon'i-kon, _n._ a mechanical musical instrument of the orchestrion class.--Also _Orpheus-harmonica_. PANHELLENIC, pan-hel-en'ik, _adj._ pertaining to all Greece.--_ns._ PANHELL[=E]'NION, or PANHELL[=E]'NIUM, a council representing all the sections of the Greeks; PANHELL'ENISM, a scheme for forming all Greeks into one political body; PANHELL'ENIST, one who favours Panhellenism. [Gr. _pas_, _pan_, all, _Hell[=e]nikos_, Greek--_Hellas_, Greece.] PANIC, pan'ik, _n._ extreme or sudden fright: great terror without any visible ground or foundation: a state of terror about investments produced by some startling collapse in credit, impelling men to rush and sell what they possess.--_adj._ of the nature of a panic: extreme or sudden: imaginary.--_adj._ PAN'ICKY (_coll._), inclined to panic or sudden terror, affected by financial panic.--_n._ PAN'IC-MONG'ER, one who creates panics.--_adjs._ PAN'IC-STRICK'EN, PAN'IC-STRUCK, struck with a panic or sudden fear. [Orig. an adj.; Gr. _panikon_ (_deima_), 'panic' (fear), from _panikos_, belonging to Pan, god of the woods.] PANICLE, pan'i-kl, _n._ (_bot._) a form of the arrangement of flowers on a stalk, in which the cluster is irregularly branched, as in oats.--_n._ PAN'IC, a grass of the genus _Panicum_.--_adjs._ PAN'ICLED (_bot._), furnished with panicles: arranged in or like panicles; PANIC'UL[=A]TE, -D, furnished with, arranged in, or like panicles.--_adv._ PANIC'UL[=A]TELY.--_n._ PAN'ICUM, a large genus of true grasses having the one or two-flowered spikelets in spikes, racemes, or panicles--including the common millet. [L. _panicula_, double dim. of _panus_, thread wound on a bobbin, akin to L. _pannus_ and Gr. _p[=e]nos_. See PANE.] PANIDROSIS, pan-i-dr[=o]'sis, _n._ a perspiration over the whole body. [Gr. _pas_, _pan_, all, _hidr[=o]s_, perspiration.] PANIFICATION, pan-i-fi-k[=a]'shun, _n._ a conversion into bread.--_adj._ PANIV'OROUS, eating bread. PANIONIC, pan-[=i]-on'ik, _adj._ pertaining to all the _Ionian_ peoples. PANISC, pan'isk, _n._ the god _Pan_, represented as a satyr. PANISLAMIC, pan-is-lam'ik, _adj._ relating to all _Islam_, or all the Mohammedan races.--_n._ PANIS'LAMISM, the idea of union amongst the Mohammedan races. PANJANDRUM, pan-jan'drum, _n._ an imaginary figure of great power and importance, a burlesque potentate.--Also PANJAN'DARUM. [A gibberish word.] PANLOGISM, pan'l[=o]-jizm, _n._ the theory that the universe is an outward manifestation of the Logos. PANMELODION, pan-m[=e]-l[=o]'di-on, _n._ a keyboard musical instrument whose tone is produced by wheels rubbing on metal bars. PANMIXIA, pan-mik'si-a, _n._ (_biol._) cessation of natural selection, as on a useless organ. PANNADE, pa-n[=a]d', _n._ the curvet of a horse. PANNAGE, pan'[=a]j, _n._ food picked up by swine in the woods, mast; also the right to this. PANNEL. Same as PANEL. PANNICULUS, pa-nik'[=u]-lus, _n._ a thin, sheet-like investment. [L., dim. of _pannus_, a cloth.] PANNIER, pan'y[.e]r, or pan'i-[.e]r, _n._ a bread-basket: one of two baskets thrown across a horse's back, for carrying light produce to market: (_archit._) a corbel: a contrivance for puffing out a woman's dress at the hips: a piece of basket-work for protecting archers, or, when filled with gravel or sand, for forming and protecting dikes, embankments, &c.--_adj._ PANN'IERED, loaded with panniers. [Fr. _panier_--L. _panarium_, a bread-basket--_panis_, bread.] PANNIKEL, pan'i-kl, _n._ the brain-pan: (_Spens._) the skull. [Dim. of _pan_.] PANNIKIN, pan'i-kin, _n._ a small pan or saucer. PANNOSE, pan'[=o]s, _adj._ (_bot._) like felt in texture. [L. _pannosus_--_pannus_, cloth.] PANNUS, pan'us, _n._ an opaque vascular membrane over the cornea: a tent for a wound: a birth-mark on the skin. [L., 'cloth.'] PANNUSCORIUM, pan-us-k[=o]'ri-um, _n._ a leather-cloth for boots. [L. _pannus_, cloth, _corium_, leather.] PANOCHA, pa-n[=o]'cha, _n._ a Mexican coarse sugar. PANOCHIA, pa-n[=o]'chi-a, _n._ bubo in the groin or armpit. [Gr. _cheia_, a hole.] PANOISTIC, pan-[=o]-is'tik, _adj._ producing ova only--opp. to _Meroistic_. [Gr. _[=o]on_, an egg.] PANOPHOBIA, pan-[=o]-f[=o]'bi-a, _n._ a morbid fear of everything. [Gr. _pas_, _pan_, all, _phobos_, fear.] PANOPHTHALMITIS, pan-of-thal-m[=i]'tis, _n._ suppurative inflammation of the whole eye. PANOPLY, pan'[=o]-pli, _n._ complete armour: a full suit of armour.--_adj._ PAN'OPLIED, dressed in panoply: completely armed.--_n._ PAN'OPLIST, one so armed. [Gr. _panoplia_--_pas_, _pan_, all, _hopla_ (pl.), arms.] PANOPTICON, pan-op'ti-kon, _n._ a prison so constructed that all the prisoners can be watched from one point: an exhibition room. [Gr. _pas_, _pan_, all, _horaein_, fut. _opsesthai_, to see.] PANORAMA, pan-[=o]-rä'ma, _n._ a wide or complete view: a picture giving views of objects in all directions: a picture representing a number of scenes unrolled and made to pass before the spectator.--_adj._ PANORA'MIC. [Gr. _pan_, all, _horama_, a view, from _horaein_, to see.] PANOTITIS, pan-[=o]-t[=i]'tis, _n._ inflammation in both the middle and internal ear. PANOTYPE, pan'[=o]-t[=i]p, _n._ a picture made by the collodion process. PANPHARMACON, pan-far'ma-kon, _n._ a universal remedy. PAN-PRESBYTERIAN, pan-pres-bi-t[=e]'ri-an, _adj._ of or pertaining to the whole body of Presbyterians.--PAN-PRESBYTERIAN COUNCIL, a council representing all the Presbyterian churches throughout the world. PANSCLEROSIS, pan-skle-r[=o]'sis, _n._ complete thickening and hardening of the interstitial tissue of a part. PANSER, pan's[.e]r, _n._ an ancient piece of armour for the abdomen. [O. Fr. _pansiere_--_panse_, the belly--L. _pantex_, the belly.] PAN-SLAVIC, pan'-slav'ik, _adj._ pertaining to all the Slavic races.--_ns._ PAN'-SLAV'ISM, a movement for the amalgamation of all the Slavonic races into one body, with one language, literature, and social polity; PAN'-SLAV'IST, one who favours Pan-Slavism.--_adjs._ PAN-SLAV[=O]'NIAN, PAN-SLAVON'IC. PANSOPHY, pan's[=o]-fi, _n._ a scheme of universal knowledge, esp. that of the educational reformer, John Amos Comenius (1592-1671): the pretence of universal wisdom.--_adjs._ PANSOPH'IC, -AL. [Gr. _pas_, _pan_, all, _sophia_, wisdom.] PANSPERMATISM, pan-sper'ma-tizm, _n._ the theory of the widespread diffusion of germs--also PANSPER'MY.--_n._ PANSPER'MATIST, a holder of this.--_adj._ PANSPER'MIC. [Gr. _pas_, _pan_, all, _sperma_, seed.] PANSTEREORAMA, pan-ster-[=e]-[=o]-rä'ma, _n._ a model showing every part in proportional relief, as of a building. [Gr. _pas_, _pan_, all, _stereos_, solid, _horama_, a view.] PANSY, pan'zi, _n._ a species of violet developed by cultivation into large blossoms of great variety of colour--also _Heart's-ease_, _Love-in-idleness_:--_pl._ PAN'SIES.--_adj._ PAN'SIED. [Fr. _pensée_--_penser_, to think--L. _pens[=a]re_, to weigh.] PANT, pant, _v.i._ to breathe hard and quickly: to show excitement by quickness of breathing: to gasp: to throb: to desire ardently: to heave, as the breast: to bulge and shrink successively, of iron hulls, &c.--_v.t._ to gasp out: to long for.--_ns._ PANT, PANT'ING, rapid breathing: palpitation: longing.--_adv._ PANT'INGLY, in a panting manner: with hard and rapid breathing. [Imit.; or nasalised from _pat_ (v.t.).] PANTAGAMY, pan-tag'a-mi, _n._ a system of communistic marriage, once practised in the Oneida community. [Gr. _panta_, all, _gamos_, marriage.] PANTAGOGUE, pan'ta-g[=o]g, _n._ a medicine once believed capable of purging away all morbid humours. [Gr. _panta_, _pas_, all, _ag[=o]gos_, drawing out--_agein_, to lead.] PANTAGRAPH, PANTAGRAPHIC, -AL. Same as PANTOGRAPH, &c. PANTAGRUELISM, pan-ta-gr[=oo]'el-izm, _n._ the theories and practice of _Pantagruel_ as described by Rabelais (1483-1553)--burlesque ironical buffoonery as a cover for serious satire: empirical medical theory and practice.--_adj._ PANTAGRUEL'IAN.--_ns._ PANTAGRUEL'ION, a magic herb allegorising fortitude, patience, industry; PANTAGRU'ELIST, a cynic who uses the medium of burlesque. PANTALEON, pan-tal'[=e]-on, _n._ a musical instrument invented about 1700 by _Pantaleon_ Hebenstreit, a very large dulcimer. PANTALETS, pan-ta-lets', _n.pl._ long frilled drawers, once worn by women and children: a removable kind of ruffle worn at the feet of women's drawers. PANTALOON, pan-ta-l[=oo]n', _n._ in pantomimes, a ridiculous character, a buffoon: (_orig._) a ridiculous character in Italian comedy, also a garment worn by him, consisting of breeches and stockings all in one piece: (_pl._) a kind of trousers.--_n._ PANTALOON'ERY, buffoonery. [Fr. _pantalon_--It. _pantalone_, from _Pantaleon_ (Gr. 'all-lion'), the patron saint of Venice.] PANTATROPHY, pan-tat'ro-fi, _n._ general atrophy of the whole body. PANTECHNICON, pan-tek'ni-kon, _n._ a place where every species of workmanship is sold, or where furniture, &c., is stored. [Gr. _pas_, _pan_, all, _techn[=e]_, art.] PANTER, pan't[.e]r, _n._ (_obs._). Same as PANTHER. PANTHEISM, pan'th[=e]-izm, _n._ the form of monism which identifies mind and matter, making them manifestations of one absolute being: the doctrine that there is no God apart from nature or the universe, everything being considered as part of God, or a manifestation of Him.--_n._ PAN'TH[=E]IST, a believer in pantheism.--_adjs._ PANTH[=E]IST'IC, -AL.--_ns._ PANTH[=E]OL'OGIST, one versed in pantheology; PANTH[=E]OL'OGY, a system of theology embracing all religions and the knowledge of all gods. PANTHEON, pan'th[=e]-on, _n._ a temple dedicated to all the gods, esp. the round one at Rome, built by Agrippa in 27 B.C.: all the gods of a nation considered as one body: a complete mythology. [L. _panth[=e]on_--Gr. _pantheion_ (_hieron_), (a temple) for all gods--_pas_, _pan_, all, _theos_, a god.] PANTHER, pan'th[.e]r, _n._ a fierce, spotted, carnivorous quadruped of Asia and Africa:--_fem._ PAN'THERESS. [Fr. _panthère_--L.,--Gr. _panth[=e]r_.] PANTILE, pan't[=i]l, _n._ a tile with a curved surface, convex or concave with reference to its width: a tile whose cross-section forms a double curve, forming a tegula and imbrex both in one.--_adj._ dissenting--chapels being often roofed with these.--_n._ PAN'TILING, a system of tiling with pantiles. PANTISOCRASY, pan-ti-sok'ra-si, _n._ a Utopian community in which all are of equal rank or social position. [Gr. _pas_, _pantos_, all, isos, equal, _kratein_, to rule.] PANTLER, pant'l[.e]r, _n._ (_Shak._) the officer in a great family who had charge of the bread and other provisions. [Fr. _panetier_--L. _panis_, bread.] PANTOCHRONOMETER, pan-t[=o]-kro-nom'e-t[.e]r, _n._ a combination of compass, sun-dial, and universal sun-dial. PANTOFFLE, pan'tof'l, _n._ a slipper. [Fr.] PANTOGRAPH, pan't[=o]-graf, _n._ an instrument for copying drawings, plans, &c. on the same, or a different, scale from the original.--_adjs._ PANTOGRAPH'IC, -AL, pertaining to, or done by, a pantograph.--_n._ PANTOG'RAPHY, general description: entire view: process of copying by means of the pantograph. [Gr. _pan_, all, _graphein_, to write.] PANTOLOGY, pan-tol'o-ji, _n._ universal knowledge: a view of all branches of knowledge: a book of universal information.--_adj._ PANTOLOG'IC.--_n._ PANTOL'OGIST. [Gr. _pas_, _pantos_, all, _logia_, description.] PANTOMETER, pan-tom'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring angles and perpendiculars.--_n._ PANTOM'ETRY. PANTOMIME, pan't[=o]-m[=i]m, _n._ one who expresses his meaning by action without speaking: a play or an entertainment in dumb show: an entertainment in a theatre, usually about Christmas-time, in which some well-known story is acted, amidst showy scenery, with music and dancing, concluding with buffoonery by conventional characters--the clown, pantaloon, harlequin, and columbine.--_adj._ representing only by action without words.--_adjs._ PANTOMIM'IC, -AL.--_adv._ PANTOMIM'ICALLY.--_n._ PAN'TOMIMIST, an actor in a pantomime. [Fr.,--L.--Gr. _pantomimos_, imitator of all--_pas_, _pantos_, all, _mimos_, an imitator.] PANTOMORPH, pan't[=o]-morf, _n._ that which exists in all shapes.--_adj._ PANTOMOR'PHIC. PANTON, pan'ton, _n._ a horse-shoe for curing a narrow and hoof-bound heel: an idle fellow. PANTOPHAGY, pan-tof'a-ji, _n._ morbid hunger for all kinds of food.--_n._ PANTOPH'AGIST.--_adj._ PANTOPH'AGOUS. [Gr. _panta_, all, _phagein_, to eat.] PANTOSCOPE, pan't[=o]-sk[=o]p, _n._ a panoramic camera: a very wide-angled photographic lens.--_adj._ PANTOSCOP'IC, giving a wide range of vision. PANTOSTOMATOUS, pan-t[=o]-stom'a-tus, _adj._ ingesting food at any point on the surface of the body. PANTRY, pan'tri, _n._ a room or closet for provisions and table furnishings, or where plate, knives, &c. are cleaned. [Fr. _paneterie_, a place where bread is distributed--Low L. _panitaria_--L. _panis_, bread.] PANTS, _n.pl._ (_coll._) trousers, abbrev. of _pantaloons_. PANURGIC, pan-ur'jik, _adj._ able to do all kinds of work. [Gr. _pan_, all, _ergon_, work.] PANZOISM, pan-z[=o]'izm, _n._ the sum of the elements that make up vital force. [Gr. _pas_, _pan_, all, _z[=o][=e]_, life.] PAP, pap, _n._ soft food for infants: pulp of fruit: nourishment: (_slang_) the emoluments or perquisites of public office.--_v.t._ to feed with pap.--_adjs._ PAPES'CENT, PAP'PY.--_ns._ PAP'MEAT, soft food for infants; PAP'SPOON, a spoon for infants. [Imit.] PAP, pap, _n._ a nipple or teat: a woman's breast: a round conical hill, as the _Paps_ of Jura. PAPA, pa-pä', or pä'pa, _n._ father: a bishop: a priest of the Greek Church. [Imit.] PAPACY, p[=a]'pa-si, _n._ the office of the Pope: the authority of the Pope: popery: the Popes, as a body.--_adj._ P[=A]'PAL, belonging to, or relating to, the Pope or to popery: popish.--_v.t._ P[=A]'PALISE, to make papal.--_v.i._ to conform to popery.--_ns._ P[=A]'PALISM; P[=A]'PALIST.--_adv._ P[=A]'PALLY.--_ns._ P[=A]PAPH[=O]'BIA, extreme fear of the Pope, or the progress of papacy; P[=A]'PARCHY, papal government. [Low L. _papatia_--_papa_, a father.] PAPAIN, pä'pa-in, _n._ a nitrogenous body, isolated from the juice of the papaw, one of the digestive ferments applied in some cases of dyspepsia, either internally or for the predigestion of food. PAPAVEROUS, pa-pav'[.e]r-us, _adj._ resembling or having the qualities of the poppy.--_adj._ PAPAVER[=A]'CEOUS, of or like the poppy. [L. _papaver_, the poppy.] PAPAW, pa-paw', _n._ the tree _Carica papaya_, or its fruit, native to South America, but common in the tropics, the trunk, leaves, and fruit yielding papain (q.v.), the leaves forming a powerful anthelmintic: the tree _Asimina triloba_, or its fruit, native to the United States. [The Malabar native name.] PAPER, p[=a]'p[.e]r, _n._ the material made from rags or vegetable fibres on which we commonly write and print: a piece of paper: a written or printed document or instrument, note, receipt, bill, bond, deed, &c.: a newspaper: an essay or literary contribution, generally brief: paper-money: paper-hangings for walls: a set of examination questions: free passes of admission to a theatre, &c., also the persons admitted by such.--_adj._ consisting or made of paper.--_v.t._ to cover with paper: to fold in paper: to treat in any way by means of paper, as to sand-paper, &c.: to paste the end-papers and fly-leaves at the beginning and end of a book before fitting it into its covers.--_ns._ P[=A]'PER-BAR'ON, or -LORD, one who holds a title that is merely official, like that of a Scotch Lord of Session, &c., or whose title is merely by courtesy or convention; P[=A]'PER-CASE, a box for holding writing materials, &c.; P[=A]'PER-CHASE, the game of hounds and hares, when the hares scatter bits of paper to guide the hounds; P[=A]'PER-CIGAR', a cigarette; P[=A]'PER-CLAMP, a frame for holding newspapers, sheets of music, &c., for easy reference; P[=A]'PER-CLIP, or _Letter-clip_, an appliance with opening and closing spring, for holding papers together; P[=A]'PER-CLOTH, a fabric prepared in many of the Pacific islands from the inner bark of the mulberry, &c.; P[=A]'PER-CRED'IT, credit given to a person because he shows by bills, promissory notes, &c. that money is owing to him; P[=A]'PER-CUT'TER, a machine for cutting paper in sheets, for trimming the edges of books, &c.; P[=A]'PER-DAY, one of certain days in each term for hearing causes down in the paper or roll of business; P[=A]'PER-ENAM'EL, an enamel for cards and fine note-paper.--_adj._ P[=A]'PER-FACED (_Shak._), having a face as white as paper.--_ns._ P[=A]'PER-FEED'ER, an apparatus for delivering sheets of paper to a printing-press, &c.; P[=A]'PER-FILE, an appliance for holding letters, &c., for safety and readiness of reference; P[=A]'PER-GAUGE, a rule for measuring the type-face of matter to be printed, and the width of the margin; P[=A]'PER-HANG'ER, one who hangs paper on the walls of rooms, &c.--_n.pl._ P[=A]'PER-HANG'INGS, paper, either plain or with coloured figures, for hanging on or covering walls.--_ns._ P[=A]'PERING, the operation of covering or hanging with paper: the paper itself; P[=A]'PER-KNIFE, -CUT'TER, -FOLD'ER, a thin, flat blade of ivory, &c., for cutting open the leaves of books and other folded papers; P[=A]'PER-MAK'ER, one who manufactures paper; P[=A]'PER-MAK'ING; P[=A]'PER-MAR'BLER, one engaged in marbling paper; P[=A]'PER-MILL, a mill where paper is made; P[=A]'PER-MON'EY, pieces of paper stamped or marked by government or by a bank, as representing a certain value of money, which pass from hand to hand instead of the coin itself; P[=A]'PER-MUS'LIN, a glazed muslin for dress linings, &c.; P[=A]'PER-NAU'TILUS, or -SAIL'OR, the nautilus; P[=A]'PER-OFF'ICE, an office in Whitehall where state-papers are kept; P[=A]'PER-PULP, the pulp from which paper is made; P[=A]'PER-PUNCH, an apparatus for piercing holes in paper; P[=A]'PER-REED (_B._), the papyrus; P[=A]'PER-RUL'ER, one who, or an instrument which, makes straight lines on paper; P[=A]'PER-STAIN'ER, one who prepares paper-hangings; P[=A]'PER-TEST'ER, a machine for testing the stretching strength of paper; P[=A]'PER-WASH'ING (_phot._), water in which prints have been washed; P[=A]'PER-WEIGHT, a small weight for laying on a bundle of loose papers to prevent them from being displaced.--_adj._ P[=A]'PERY, like paper.--BRISTOL PAPER or BOARD, a strong smooth paper for drawing on; BROWN-PAPER (see BROWN); CHINESE PAPER, rice-paper: a fine soft slightly brownish paper made from bamboo bark, giving fine impressions from engravings; CREAM-LAID PAPER, a smooth paper of creamy colour, much used for note-paper; DISTINCTIVE PAPER, a fine silk-threaded fibre paper used in the United States for bonds, &c.; FILTER-PAPER (see FILTER); HAND-MADE PAPER, that made wholly by hand, as still with some kinds of printing and drawing papers; HEIGHT-TO-PAPER, in typefounding, the length of a type from its face to its foot (11/12 inch); HOT-PRESSED PAPER, paper polished by pressure between heated plates; IMPERFECT PAPER, sheets of poorer quality, as the two outside quires of a ream; INDIA PAPER (see INDIAN); JAPANESE PAPER, a soft fine paper made from the bark of the paper-mulberry, giving good impressions of plate engravings; LITHOGRAPHIC PAPER, paper used for taking impressions from lithographic stones; LITMUS PAPER (see LITMUS); MARBLED PAPER (see MARBLE); PARCHMENT PAPER, a tough paper, prepared in imitation of parchment by dipping in diluted sulphuric acid and washing with weak ammonia; PLAIN PAPER, unruled paper: (_phot._) any unglossy paper; PLATE PAPER, the best class of book paper; PRINTING PAPER (see PRINT); RAG-PAPER, that made from the pulp of rags; RULED PAPER, writing-paper ruled with lines for convenience; SENSITISED PAPER (_phot._), paper chemically treated so that its colour is affected by the action of light; STATE-PAPER (see STATE); TEST-PAPER (see TEST); TISSUE-PAPER, a very thin soft paper for wrapping delicate articles, protecting engravings in books, &c.--also SILK-PAPER; TRACING-PAPER, transparent paper used for copying a design, &c., by laying it over the original, and copying the lines shown through it; TRANSFER-PAPER (see TRANSFER); VELLUM PAPER, a heavy ungrained smooth paper, sometimes used in fine printing; WHATMAN PAPER, a fine quality of English paper, with fine or coarse grain, used for etchings, engravings, &c.; WOVE PAPER, paper laid on flannel or felt, showing no marks of wires; WRAPPING-PAPER, coarse paper used for wrapping up parcels, &c. [A shortened form of _papyrus_.] PAPETERIE, pap-e-tr[=e]', _n._ a box containing paper, &c., for writing purposes: stationery. [Fr.] PAPHIAN, p[=a]'fi-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Paphos_ in Cyprus, sacred to Aphrodite: lascivious.--_n._ a native of Paphos, a votary of Aphrodite: a whore. PAPIER-MÂCHÉ, pap'y[=a]-mä'sh[=a], _n._ a material consisting either of paper-pulp or of sheets of paper pasted together, which by a peculiar treatment resembles varnished or lacquered wood in one class of articles made of it, and in another class (chiefly architectural ornaments) somewhat resembles plaster. [Fr. _papier_--L. _papyrus_; _mâché_ is pa.p. of Fr. _mâcher_, to chew--L. _mastic[=a]re_, to masticate.] PAPILIONACEOUS, pa-pil-yo-n[=a]'shus, _adj._ (_bot._) having a flower shaped somewhat like a butterfly, as the bean, pea, &c. [L. _papilio_, _-onis_, a butterfly.] PAPILLA, pa-pil'a, _n._ one of the minute elevations on the skin, esp. on the upper surface of the tongue and on the tips of the fingers, and in which the nerves terminate: (_bot._) a nipple-like protuberance:--_pl._ PAPILL'Æ.--_adjs._ PAP'ILLAR, PAP'ILLARY, like a papilla, provided with papillæ; PAP'ILL[=A]TE, formed into a papilla, studded with papillæ.--_v.i._ and _v.t._ to become a papilla, to cover with such.--_adjs._ PAPILLIF'EROUS, papillate: bearing one or more fleshy excrescences; PAPILL'IFORM, like a papilla in form.--_ns._ PAPILL[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the optic papilla; PAPILL[=O]'MA, a tumour formed by the hypertrophy of one papilla, or of several, including warts, corns, &c.--_adjs._ PAPILLOM'ATOUS; PAP'ILL[=O]SE, full of papillæ, warty--also PAP'ILLOUS; PAPILL'[=U]LATE, finely papillose.--_n._ PAP'ILL[=U]LE, a very small papilla, a verruca or a variole. [L., a small pustule, dim. of _papula_.] PAPILLOTE, pap'il-[=o]t, _n._ a curl-paper, from its fancied resemblance to a butterfly. [Fr., from _papillot_, old form of _papillon_, butterfly--L. _papilio_.] PAPIST, p[=a]'pist, _n._ an adherent of the Pope: a name slightingly given to a Roman Catholic--(_prov._) P[=A]'PISH, P[=A]'PISHER.--_n._ P[=A]'PISM, popery.--_adjs._ P[=A]PIST'IC, -AL, pertaining to popery, or to the Church of Rome, its doctrines, &c.--_adv._ P[=A]PIST'ICALLY.--_n._ P[=A]'PISTRY, popery. PAPOOSE, pap-[=oo]s', _n._ a N. Amer. Indian infant, usually wrapped up, fixed to a board, and thus carried by its mother or hung up for safety.--Also PAPPOOSE'. PAPPUS, pap'us, _n._ (_bot._) the fine hair or down which grows on the seeds of some plants: the first hair on the chin.--_adjs._ PAPPIF'EROUS, bearing a pappus; PAPP[=O]SE', PAPP'OUS, provided or covered with down. [L. _pappus_--Gr. _pappos_, down.] PAPUAN, pap'[=u]-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Papua_ or New Guinea.--_n._ an inhabitant of Papua: one of a race of black colour, dolichocephalic, with rough and frizzly hair, inhabiting many of the islands of the Pacific near Australia. [Malay.] PAPULOSE, pap'[=u]-l[=o]s, _adj._ full of pimples--also PAP'[=U]LOUS.--_n._ PAP'[=U]LA, a small inflammatory pustule, a pimple:--_pl._ PAP'[=U]LÆ.--_adj._ PAP'[=U]LAR.--_ns._ PAP[=U]L[=A]'TION, the development of papules; PAP'[=U]LE, a pimple.--_adj._ PAPULIF'EROUS, pimply. [L. _papula_, a pimple.] PAPYRUS, pa-p[=i]'rus, _n._ an Egyptian sedge, now scarcely found there, from the inner pith (_byblos_) of which the ancients made their paper: a manuscript on papyrus:--_pl._ PAPY'R[=I].--_adjs._ PAPYR[=A]'CEOUS, PAP'YRAL, PAPYR'[=E]AN, PAP'YRINE, pertaining to the papyrus or to papyri: like paper in appearance and consistency; PAPYRIT'IOUS, resembling paper, as the nests of certain wasps.--_n._ PAPYROGRAPH (p[=a]-p[=i]'r[=o]-graf), a hectograph or apparatus for producing copies of a written or printed document.--_v.t._ to produce by means of such.--_adj._ P[=A]PYROGRAPH'IC.--_n._ PAPYROG'RAPHY. [L.--Gr. _papyros_, prob. Egyptian.] PAR, pär, _n._ state of equality: equal value, the norm or standard: state or value of bills, shares, &c. when they sell at exactly the price marked on them--i.e. without _premium_ or _discount_: equality of condition.--_v.t._ to fix an equality between.--PAR OF EXCHANGE, the value of coin of one country expressed in that of another.--ABOVE PAR, at a premium, or at more than the nominal value; AT PAR, at exactly the nominal value; BELOW PAR, at a discount, or at less than the nominal value; NOMINAL PAR, the value with which a bill or share is marked, or by which it is known. [L. _par_, equal.] PAR, pär, _n._ Same as PARR. PARA, pa-rä', _n._ a coin of copper, silver, or mixed metal in use in Turkey and Egypt, the 40th part of a piastre, and worth about 1/18th of a penny in Turkey and 1/16th in Egypt. PARABAPTISM, par-a-bap'tizm, _n._ uncanonical baptism. PARABASIS, pa-rab'a-sis, _n._ the chief of the choral parts in ancient Greek comedy, usually an address from the poet to the public. [Gr., _para_, beside, _basis_--_bainein_, to walk.] PARABEMA, par-a-b[=e]'ma, _n._ in Byzantine ecclesiastical architecture, the chapel of the prothesis or the diaconicon, or sacristy, where divided by walls from the bema or sanctuary:--_pl._ PARAB[=E]'MATA.--_adj._ PARABEMAT'IC. PARABLAST, par'a-blast, _n._ the supplementary or nutritive yolk of a meroblastic egg or metovum--as distinguished from the _archiblast_, or formative yolk.--_adj._ PARABLAST'IC. [Gr. _para_, beside, _blastos_, a germ.] PARABLE, par'a-bl, _n._ a comparison: a fable or story of something which might have happened, told to illustrate some doctrine, or to make some duty clear: (_B._) an apologue, proverb (Ps. lxxviii. 2, Hab. ii. 6).--_v.t._ to represent by a parable.--_adjs._ PARABOL'IC, -AL, like a parable or a parabola: expressed by a parable: belonging to, or of the form of, a parabola.--_adv._ PARABOL'ICALLY. [Gr. _parabol[=e]_--_paraballein_, to compare--_para_, beside, _ballein_, to throw.] PARABLEPSIS, par-a-blep'sis, _n._ false vision.--Also PAR'ABLEPSY. [Gr. _para_, beside, _blepsis_--_bleptein_, to see.] PARABOLA, par-ab'o-la, _n._ (_geom._) a curve or conic section, formed by cutting a cone with a plane parallel to its slope (for illustration, see CONE).--_adjs._ PARABOL'IC; PARABOL'IFORM.--_n._ PARAB'OLOID, the solid which would be generated by the rotation of a parabola about its principal axis. [Gr. _parabol[=e]_; cf. _Parable_.] PARABOLANUS, par-a-b[=o]-l[=a]'nus, _n._ in the early Eastern Church, a lay assistant to the clergy for waiting on the sick. [Gr. _parabolos_, reckless.] PARABOLE, par-ab'o-le, _n._ (_rhet._) a parable, a comparison or similitude. [Gr.; cf. _Parable_.] PARACELSIAN, par-a-sel'si-an, _adj._ of or relating to the famous Swiss philosopher and physician, _Paracelsus_ (1490-1541), or resembling his theories or practice. The name was coined for himself by Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, and apparently implied a claim to be greater than Celsus. PARACENTESIS, par-a-sen-t[=e]'sis, _n._ (_surg._) the perforation of a cavity with a trocar, &c., tapping. [Gr., _para_, beside, _kentein_, to pierce.] PARACENTRAL, par-a-sen'tral, _adj._ situated next a centrum.--_adj._ PARACEN'TRIC, approaching to the centre or receding from it. PARACHORDAL, par-a-k[=o]r'dal, _adj._ (_biol._) lying alongside the cranial part of the notochord. [Gr. _para_, beside, _chord[=e]_, a chord.] PARACHROMATISM, par-a-kr[=o]'ma-tizm, _n._ colour-blindness. [Gr. _para_, beside, _chroma_, colour.] PARACHRONISM, par-ak'ron-izm, _n._ an error in dating an event by which it is made to appear later than it really was. [Gr., _para_, beside, _chronos_, time.] PARACHROSE, par'a-kr[=o]s, _adj._ (_min._) changing colour by exposure to weather. [Gr., _para_, beside, _chroa_, colour.] PARACHUTE, par'a-sh[=oo]t, _n._ an apparatus like an umbrella for descending safely from a balloon.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to descend by means of such.--_n._ PAR'ACHUTIST. [Fr., for _par' à chute_, from Fr. _parer_--L. _par[=a]re_, to prepare, _chute_, a fall--L. _cad[)e]re_.] PARACLETE, par'a-kl[=e]t, _n._ the Comforter, Advocate, or Intercessor of John, xiv. 16, 26, 1 John, ii. 1, &c.--the Holy Ghost or Spirit.--_ns._ PARACL[=E]T'ICE, PARACL[=E]T'ICON, an office-book in the Greek Church containing the troparia of the whole ferial office for the year. [Through L., from Gr. _parakl[=e]tos_--_parakalein_, _para_, beside, _kalein_, to call.] PARACME, pa-rak'm[=e], _n._ (_biol._) the decadence of an evolutionary series of organisms after reaching its highest point of development. [Gr. _para_, beside, _akm[=e]_, a point.] PARACOLPITIS, par-a-kol-p[=i]'tis, _n._ inflammation of the outer coat of the vagina. [Gr. _para_, beside, _kolpos_, the womb.] PARACOROLLA, par-a-k[=o]-rol'a, _n._ (_bot._) a crown or appendage of a corolla, usually as a nectary. [Gr. _para_, beside, L. _corolla_.] PARACROSTIC, par-a-kr[=o]s'tik, _n._ a poem with the first verse containing the initial letters of the others. PARACUSIS, par-a-k[=u]'sis, _n._ disordered hearing. [Gr. _para_, beside, _akousis_, hearing.] PARACYANOGEN, par-a-s[=i]-an'[=o]-jen, _n._ a substance obtained by heating mercury cyanide almost to redness. PARACYESIS, par-a-s[=i]-[=e]'sis, _n._ extra-uterine pregnancy. PARADACTYLUM, par-a-dak'ti-lum, _n._ the side of a bird's toe. [Gr. _para_, beside, _daktylos_, a finger.] PARADE, par-[=a]d', _n._ the orderly arrangement of troops for exercise or inspection: a review of troops: the place where such a display takes place: that which is displayed: great or splendid show of any kind: a public walk or promenade.--_v.t._ to show off: to marshal in military order.--_v.i._ to march up and down as if for show: to pass in military order: to march in procession. [Fr.--Sp. _parada_--_parar_, to halt--L. _par[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to prepare.] PARADIGM, par'a-dim, _n._ an example: model: (_gram._) an example of the inflection of a word.--_adjs._ PARADIGMAT'IC, -AL, consisting of, or resembling, paradigms.--_n._ PARADIGMAT'IC, one who narrates the lives of religious persons by way of examples.--_adv._ PARADIGMAT'ICALLY. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _paradeigma_--_para_, beside, _deiknynai_, to show.] PARADISE, par'a-d[=i]s, _n._ a park or pleasure-ground, esp. in ancient Persia: the garden of Eden: heaven: any place of great beauty or state of blissful delights: the happy abode of the righteous in heaven: (_slang_) the upper gallery in a theatre: (_archit._) a small private apartment, a court in front of a church.--_adjs._ PARADIS[=A]'IC, -AL, PARADIS'IAC, -AL, pertaining to, or resembling, paradise.--_n._ PAR'ADISE-FISH, a Chinese species of Macropid often kept in aquaria for its beauty of form and colouring.--_adjs._ PARADIS'IAL, PARADIS'IAN, pertaining to, suitable to, or resembling paradise; PARADIS'IC, -AL, pertaining to paradise.--BIRD OF PARADISE, an Eastern bird closely allied to the crow, with splendid plumage. [Fr. _paradis_--L. _paradisus_--Gr. _paradeisos_, a park, prob. Persian.] PARADOS, par'a-dos, _n._ earthworks behind a fortified place, protecting against a rear attack. PARADOX, par'a-doks, _n._ that which is contrary to received opinion, or that which is apparently absurd but really true.--_n._ PAR'ADOXER.--_adjs._ PARADOX'IC, -AL, of the nature of a paradox: inclined to paradoxes, said of persons.--_adv._ PARADOX'ICALLY.--_ns._ PARADOX'ICALNESS; PARADOX'IDES, a genus of trilobites; PAR'ADOXIST; PAR'ADOXY, the quality of being paradoxical.--HYDROSTATIC PARADOX (see HYDROSTATICS). [Through Fr. and L., from Gr. _paradoxon_--_para_, contrary to, _doxa_, an opinion.] PARADOXURE, par-a-dok's[=u]r, _n._ a civet-like carnivore of Southern Asia and Malaysia, the palm-cat of India.--_adj._ PARADOX[=U]'RINE, having a paradoxical or peculiarly curling tail. PARÆSTHESIA, par-es-th[=e]'si-a, _n._ abnormal sensation. [Gr. _para_, beyond, _aisth[=e]sis_, sensation.] PARAFFIN, par'af-fin, _n._ a white, transparent, crystalline substance, obtained from shale, coal-tar, &c., much used instead of wax, tallow, &c. in making candles--so named as having little affinity--for an alkali--also PAR'AFFINE.--_v.t._ to coat or impregnate with paraffin.--_ns._ PAR'AFFIN-OIL, any of the mineral burning oils associated with the manufacture of paraffin; PAR'AFFIN-SCALE, unrefined paraffin. [Fr.,--L. _parum_, little, _affinis_, allied.] PARAFFLE, pa-raf'l, _n._ (_Scot._) any pretentious display. PARAGASTRIC, par-a-gas'trik, _adj._ lying alongside the gastric cavity: pertaining to the paragaster or the cavity of the sac of a sponge. PARAGE, par'[=a]j, _n._ equality in law: a woman's portion at marriage. [_Par._] PARAGENESIS, par-a-jen'e-sis, _n._ hybridism.--_adjs._ PARAGENET'IC; PARAGEN'IC, originating with the germ or at the genesis of an individual. [Gr. _para_, beside, _genesis_, birth.] PARAGEUSIA, par-a-g[=u]'si-a, _n._ perverted sense of taste--also PARAGEU'SIS.--_adj._ PARAGEU'SIC. [Gr. _para_, beside, _geusis_, taste.] PARAGLENAL, par-a-gl[=e]'nal, _n._ the coracoid of a fish--also _adj._ [Gr. _para_, beside, _gl[=e]n[=e]_, a socket.] PARAGLOBULIN, par-a-glob'[=u]-lin, _n._ a globulin found in blood-serum, fibrino-plastin.--Also PARAGL[=O]'BIN. PARAGLOSSA, par-a-glos'a, _n._ one of the two appendages of the ligula in insects.--_adjs._ PARAGLOSS'AL; PARAGLOSS'ATE, provided with paraglossæ. [Gr. _para_, beside, _gl[=o]ssa_, the tongue.] PARAGNATHOUS, par-ag'n[=a]-thus, _adj._ having both mandibles of equal length.--_n._ PARAG'N[=A]THISM. [Gr. _para_, beside, _gnathos_, the jaw.] PARAGOGE, par-a-g[=o]'j[=e], _n._ the addition of a letter or a syllable to the end of a word, as _amidst_ for _amid_, _generical_ for _generic_--also called _epithesis_ and _ecstasis_, as opposed to _prosthesis_ and _apocope_.--_adjs._ PARAGOG'IC, -AL, forming a paragoge: relating to, or of the nature of, paragoge: added on: additional.--PARAGOGIC FUTURE, the cohortative tense in Hebrew grammar--a lengthened form of the imperfect or future tense, usually confined to the first person, giving the sense of 'let me' or 'let us.' [L.,--Gr. from _para_, beyond, _agein_, to lead.] PARAGON, par'a-gon, _n._ a pattern or model with which comparisons are made: (_Spens._) a companion or a rival: something supremely excellent: a size of printing-type intermediate between great-primer and double pica, equal to 20 points in the newer system.--_v.t._ to compare: to bring into comparison with: (_Shak._) to surpass. [O. Fr., from Sp. compound prep. _para con_, in comparison with--L. _pro_, for, _ad_, to, _con=cum_, with.] PARAGRAM, par'a-gram, _n._ a play upon words: a pun.--_n._ PARAGRAM'MATIST, a punster. [Gr. _para_, beside, _gramma_, something written, _graphein_, to write.] PARAGRAPH, par'a-graf, _n._ a distinct part of a discourse or writing marked by ¶, or by being begun on a new line, at more than the usual distance from the margin: a short passage, or a collection of sentences with unity of purpose.--_v.t._ to form into paragraphs.--_ns._ PAR'AGRAPHER, PAR'AGRAPHIST, one who writes in paragraphs, esp. for newspapers.--_adjs._ PARAGRAPH'IC, -AL.--_adv._ PARAGRAPH'ICALLY. [The mark ¶ is the reversed initial of this word, which is, through Fr. and Low L., from Gr. _paragraphos_--_para_, beside, _graphein_, to write.] PARAHELIOTROPISM, par-a-h[=e]-li-ot'r[=o]-pizm, _n._ the diurnal sleep of plants.--_adj._ PARAHELIOTROP'IC. [Gr. _para_, beside, _h[=e]lios_, the sun, _trepein_, to turn.] PARAKEET. See PAROQUET. PARALEIPSIS, par-a-l[=i]p'sis, _n._ (_rhet._) a figure by which one fixes attention on a subject by pretending to neglect it, as, 'I will not speak of his generosity, his gentleness of disposition, or his reverence for sacred things.' [Gr., from _paraleipein_, to leave on one side--_para_, beside, _leipein_, to leave.] PARALIPOMENA, par-a-li-pom'e-na, _n.pl._ things passed over, but given in a supplement, specially the name given in the Septuagint to the First and Second Books of Chronicles, a recapitulation of Second Samuel and the Books of Kings. [Late L.,--Gr. _paraleipomena_--_paraleipein_, to pass over.] PARALLAX, par'a-laks, _n._ an apparent change in the position of an object caused by change of position in the observer: (_astron._) the difference between the apparent and real place of a star or other celestial object.--_adjs._ PARALLAC'TIC, -AL. [Gr. _parallaxis_--_para_, beside, _allassein_, to change--_allos_, another.] PARALLEL, par'al-lel, _adj._ side by side: (_geom._) extended in the same direction and equi-distant in all parts: with the same direction or tendency: running in accordance with: resembling in all essential points: like or similar.--_n._ a line equi-distant from another at all points: a line drawn across a map or round a globe at right angles to the axis, marking latitude: likeness: a comparison: counterpart: (_pl._) trenches, dug parallel to the outline of a besieged fortress to protect the besiegers (_mil._).--_v.t._ to place so as to be parallel: to correspond, or to make to correspond, to:--_pr.p._ par'alleling or par'allelling; _pa.p._ par'alleled or par'allelled.--_n._ PAR'ALLELISM, state of being parallel: resemblance: comparison: likeness of form or meaning, as of two statements, clauses, or verses.--_adj._ PARALLELIS'TIC, of the nature of, or involving, parallelism.--_adv._ PAR'ALLELLY.--PARALLEL BARS, a pair of bars securely fixed, 4 to 6 feet above the ground, and about 1½ feet apart, used in gymnastics to strengthen the arms; PARALLEL FORCES, forces which act in parallel lines, having a single resultant, readily found by the method of moments; PARALLEL MOTION, a name given to any linkage by which circular motion may be changed into straight-line motion; PARALLEL RULERS, a mathematical instrument for drawing parallel lines. [Fr.,--L. _parallelus_--Gr. _parall[=e]los_--_para_, beside, _all[=e]l[=o]n_, of one another--_allos_, another.] PARALLELEPIPED, par-al-lel-e-p[=i]'ped, _n._ a regular solid, the opposite sides and ends of which form three pairs of equal parallelograms.--Also PARALLELEP[=I]'PEDON, improperly PARALLELOP[=I]'PED, PARALLELOP[=I]'PEDON. [L.,--Gr. _parall[=e]lepipedon_--_parall[=e]los_, _epipedon_, a plane surface--_epi_, on, _pedon_, the ground.] PARALLELOGRAM, par-al-lel'[=o]-gram, _n._ a plane four-sided figure, the opposite sides of which are parallel and equal.--_adjs._ PARALLELOGRAMMAT'IC, -AL, PARALLELOGRAM'MIC, -AL. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _parall[=e]los_, side by side, _gramma_, a line--_graphein_, to write.] PARALOGISM, par-al'[=o]-jizm, _n._ reasoning beside the point: a conclusion not following from the premises--also PARAL'OGY.--_v.i._ PARAL'OGISE, to reason falsely. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _paralogismos_--_para_, beside, _logismos_--_logos_, discourse.] PARALYSE, par'a-l[=i]z, _v.t._ to strike with paralysis or palsy: to make useless: to deaden the action of: to exhaust.--_n._ PARAL'YSIS, a loss of the power of motion, sensation, or function in any part of the body: palsy: loss of energy: state of being crippled.--_adj._ PARALYT'IC, of or pertaining to paralysis: afflicted with or inclined to paralysis.--_n._ one who is affected with paralysis.--GENERAL PARALYSIS, dementia paralytica. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _paralyein_, _paralysein_--_para_, beside, _lyein_, loosen.] PARAMAGNETIC, par-a-mag-net'ik, _adj._ See under DIAMAGNETIC. PARAMASTOID, par-a-mas'toid, _adj._ situated near the mastoid, paroccipital.--_n._ a paramastoid process. PARAMATTA, par-a-mat'a, _n._ a fabric like merino made of worsted and cotton. [From _Paramatta_ in New South Wales.] PARAMECIUM, par-a-m[=e]'si-um, _n._ an infusorian in pond water or vegetable infusions--also _Slipper Animalcule_:--_pl._ PARAM[=E]'CIA. [Gr. _param[=e]k[=e]s_, long-shaped, _para_, beside, _m[=e]kos_, length.] PARAMENIA, par-a-m[=e]'ni-a, _n.pl._ disordered menstruation. [Gr. _para_, beside, _m[=e]n_, a month.] PARAMERE, par'a-m[=e]r, _n._ (_biol._) a radiated part or organ: either half of a bi-laterally symmetrical animal--usually _Antimere_.--_adj._ PARAMER'IC. [Gr. _para_, beside, _meros_, a part.] PARAMETER, par-am'[=e]-t[.e]r, _n._ (_geom._) the constant quantity which enters into the equation of a curve: in conic sections, a third proportional to any diameter and its conjugate diameter. [Gr. _para_, beside, _metron_, measure.] PARAMNESIA, par-am-n[=e]'si-a, _n._ false memory. [Gr. _para_, beside, _mim-n[=e]skein_, to remind.] PARAMO, par'a-m[=o], _n._ a bare wind-swept elevated plain. [Sp.] PARAMORPH, par'a-morf, _n._ (_min._) a pseudomorph formed by a change in molecular structure without change of chemical composition.--_adjs._ PARAMORPH'IC, PARAMORPH'OUS.--_ns._ PARAMORPH'ISM, PARAMORPH[=O]'SIS. [Gr. _para_, beside, _morph[=e]_, form.] PARAMOUNT, par'a-mownt, _adj._ superior to all others: chief: of the highest order or importance--opp. to _Paravail_.--_n._ the chief: a superior.--_adv._ PAR'AMOUNTLY. [O. Fr. _par amont_, _par_--L. prep. _per_; cf. _Amount_.] PARAMOUR, par'a-m[=oo]r, _n._ a lover of either sex, now usually in the illicit sense. [Fr. _par amour_, by or with love--L. _per amorem_.] PARANEMA, par-a-n[=e]'ma, _n._ (_bot._) paraphysis.--_adj._ PARANEMAT'IC. [Gr. _para_, about, _n[=e]ma_, a thread.] PARANG, par'ang, _n._ a heavy Malay knife. [Malay.] PARANGON, pa-rang'gon, _n._ a jeweller's term for a gem of remarkable excellence. [Fr.] PARANOEA, par-a-n[=e]'a, _n._ chronic mental derangement--also PARANOI'A.--_ns._ PARANOE'AC, PARANOI'AC.--_adj._ PARANOE'IC. [Gr. _para_, beside, _noein_, to think.] PARANTHELION, par-an-th[=e]'li-on, _n._ a diffuse whitish image of the sun, having the same altitude, at an angular distance of about 120°--due to reflection from atmospheric ice-prisms. [Gr. _para_, beside, _anti_, against, _h[=e]lios_, the sun.] PARANUCLEUS, par-a-n[=u]'kl[=e]-us, _n._ (_biol._) an accessory nucleus in some protozoans.--_adjs._ PARAN[=U]'CLEAR, PARAN[=U]'CLEATE.--_n._ PARAN[=U]CL[=E]'OLUS, a mass of substance extruded from the nucleus, in pollen and spore mother-cells before division. PARANYMPH, par'a-nimf, _n._ a friend of the bridegroom who escorted the bride on the way to her marriage: a bride's-man: one who countenances and supports another. [Gr. _para_, beside, _nymph[=e]_, a bride.] PARAPEPTONE, par-a-pep't[=o]n, _n._ a proteid compound formed in gastric digestion, acid albumen. PARAPET, par'a-pet, _n._ a rampart breast-high, to protect soldiers on a wall from the fire of an enemy: a breast-high wall on a bridge, house-roof, a platform, &c., to prevent persons from falling over.--_adj._ PAR'APETED, having a parapet. [Fr.,--It. _parapetto_--It. _parare_, to adorn--L. _par[=a]re_, to prepare, It. _petto_--L. _pectus_, the breast.] PARAPH, par'af, _n._ a mark or flourish under one's signature.--_v.t._ to append a paraph to, to sign with initials. [_Paragraph._] PARAPHASIA, par-a-f[=a]'zi-a, _n._ a form of aphasia in which one word is substituted for another. PARAPHERNALIA, par-a-f[.e]r-n[=a]l'i-a, _n.pl._ ornaments of dress of any kind: trappings: that which a bride brings over and above her dowry: the clothes, jewels, &c. which a wife possesses beyond her dowry in her own right. [Late L. _parapherna_--Gr., from _para_, beyond, _phern[=e]_, a dowry--_pherein_, to bring.] PARAPHIMOSIS, par-a-f[=i]-m[=o]'sis, _n._ strangulation of the glans penis by constriction of the prepuce. PARAPHONIA, par-a-f[=o]'ni-a, _n._ in Byzantine music, a melodic progression by consonances (fourths and fifths): an abnormal condition of the voice: an alteration of the voice, as at puberty. [Gr. _para_, beside, _ph[=o]n[=e]_, the voice.] PARAPHRAGM, par'a-fram, _n._ a kind of lateral diaphragm in Crustacea.--_adj._ PARAPHRAG'MAL. [Gr. _para_, beside, _phrassein_, to fence.] PARAPHRASE, par'a-fr[=a]z, _n._ a saying of the same thing in other words, often more fully and more clearly: an explanation of a passage: a loose or free translation: (_Scot._) one of a certain number of Scripture passages turned into verse for use in the service of praise.--_v.t._ to say the same thing in other words: to render more fully: to interpret or translate freely.--_v.i._ to make a paraphrase.--_n._ PAR'APHRAST, one who paraphrases.--_adjs._ PARAPHRAST'IC, -AL, of the nature of a paraphrase: more clear and ample than the original passage: free, loose, diffuse.--_adv._ PARAPHRAST'ICALLY.--PARAPHRASTIC CONJUGATION, one composed of the verb _sum_ (am) with participial forms of the verbs conjugated (_amaturus sum_, &c.). [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _paraphrasis_--_para_, beside, _phrasis_, a speaking--_phrazein_, to speak.] PARAPHYLLUM, par-a-fil'um, _n._ (_bot._) a small foliaceous organ between the leaves of some mosses. [Gr. _para_, beside, _phyllon_, a leaf.] PARAPHYSIS, pa-raf'i-sis, _n._ an erect sterile filament accompanying the sexual organs of some cryptogamous plants:--_pl._ PARAPH'YS[=E]S. PARAPLEGIA, par-a-pl[=e]'ji-a, _n._ a form of spinal paralysis in which voluntary motion and sensation are interrupted below the level of the affected part of the spinal cord, while reflex movements may be preserved and certain forms even increased.--_adjs._ PARAPLEC'TIC, PARAPL[=E]'GIC. [Gr. _para_, beside, _pl[=e]ssein_, to strike.] PARAPLEURUM, par-a-pl[=oo]'rum, _n._ one of the pleura or sternal side-pieces in a beetle, &c.--Also PARAPLEU'RON. [Gr. _para_, beside, _pleuron_, side.] PARAPODIUM, par-a-p[=o]'di-um, _n._ one of the jointless lateral appendages of an annelid:--_pl._ PARAP[=O]'DIA. [Gr. _para_, beside, _pous_, _podos_, a foot.] PARAPOPHYSIS, par-a-pof'i-sis, _n._ the inferior or anterior process on the side of a vertebra--the superior or posterior one being a _diapophysis_.--_adj._ PARAPOPHYS'IAL. [Gr. _para_, beside, _apophysis_, an offshoot.] PARAPSIS, pa-rap'sis, _n._ (_entom._) one of the two lateral parts of the mesoscutum of the thorax.--_adj._ PARAP'SIDAL. [Gr. _para_, beside, _hapsis_, a loop.] PARAPSIS, pa-rap'sis, _n._ a disordered sense of touch.--Also PAR[=A]'PHIA. [Gr. _para_, beside, _hapsis_, a touching.] PARAPTERUM, pa-rap'te-rum, _n._ (_entom._) the third sclerite of each pleuron, or lateral segment of each thoracic somite--the first and second, the _episternum_, and the _epimeron_: in birds, the scapular and adjoining feathers of the wing.--_adj._ PARAP'TERAL. [Gr. _para_, beside, _pteron_, a wing.] PARAQUITO, par-a-k[=e]'to, _n._ Same as PAROQUET, PARRAKEET. PARARCTALIA, par-ark-t[=a]'li-a, _n._ the northern temperate realm of the waters of the globe.--_adj._ PARARCT[=A]'LIAN. PARARTHRIA, pa-rär'thri-ä, _n._ disordered articulation of speech. [Gr. _para_, beside, _arthron_, a joint.] PARASANG, par'a-sang, _n._ a Persian measure of length, containing 30 stadia, equal to about 3¾ miles. [Gr. _parasang[=e]s_--Pers. _farsang_.] PARASCENIUM, par-a-s[=e]'ni-um, _n._ in the Greek theatre, one of the wings on either side of the proscenium:--_pl._ PARASC[=E]'NIA. [Gr.] PARASCEVE, par'a-s[=e]v, _n._ the eve before the Jewish Sabbath when the preparations are made: sometimes applied to Good-Friday: (_obs._) preparation.--_adj._ PARASCENAS'TIC. [Gr. _paraskeu[=e]_, preparation--_para_, beside, _skeu[=e]_, equipment.] PARASCHEMATIC, par-a-sk[=e]-mat'ik, _adj._ imitative. [Gr. _para_, beside, _sch[=e]ma_, a scheme.] PARASELENE, par-a-se-l[=e]'n[=e], _n._ a mock moon, seen in connection with a lunar rainbow (cf. _Parahelion_):--_pl._ PARASEL[=E]'NÆ.--_adj._ PARASELEN'IC. [Gr. _para_, beside, _sel[=e]n[=e]_, the moon.] PARASITE, par'a-s[=i]t, _n._ one who frequents another's table: a hanger-on: a sycophant: (_bot._) a plant growing upon and nourished by the juices of another: (_zool._) an animal which lives on another--its host.--_adjs._ PARASIT'IC, -AL, like a parasite: fawning: acting as a sycophant: living on other plants or animals.--_adv._ PARASIT'ICALLY.--_ns._ PARASIT'ICALNESS; PARASIT'ICIDE, that which destroys parasites; PAR'ASITISM; PARASITOL'OGIST; PARASITOL'OGY. [Fr.,--L. _paras[=i]tus_--Gr. _parasitos_--_para_, beside, _sitos_, corn.] PARASOL, par'a-sol, _n._ a small umbrella used by women as a shade from the sun.--_v.t._ to shelter from the sun. [Fr.,--It. _parasole_--_parare_, to keep off--L. _par[=a]re_, to prepare, _sol_, _solis_, the sun.] PARASPHENOID, par-a-sf[=e]'noid, _n._ a bone which in some Vertebrata underlies the base of the skull from the basi-occipital to the presphenoidal region.--_adj._ lying under or alongside the sphenoid. PARASYNTHESIS, par-a-sin'the-sis, _n._ the principle of forming words by a combined process of derivation and composition with a particle.--_adj._ PARASYNTHET'IC.--_n._ PARASYN'THETON, a word so formed:--_pl._ PARASYN'THETA. PARATAXIS, par-a-tak'sis, _n._ (_gram._) the arrangement of clauses or propositions without connectives. [Gr.] PARATHESIS, pa-rath'e-sis, _n._ (_gram._) apposition: (_philol._) the setting side by side of things of equivalent grade in the monosyllabic or isolating languages: (_rhet._) a parenthetic notice of something to be afterwards explained: in the Eastern Church, a prayer of the bishop over converts or catechumens. [Gr.] PARATONIC, par-a-ton'ik, _adj._ retarding a plant's growth. [Gr. _para_, beside, _teinein_, to stretch.] PARAVAIL, par'a-v[=a]l, _adj._ inferior: lowest, said of a feudal tenant: of least account--opp. to _Paramount_. [O. Fr. _par aval_, below--L. _per_, through, _ad_, to, _vallem_, a valley.] PARAVANT, PARAVAUNT, par'a-vänt, _adv._ (_Spens._) in front, first, beforehand. [O. Fr. _paravant_--_par_, through, _avant_, before--L. _ab_, from, _ante_, before.] PARBAKE, pär'b[=a]k, _v.t._ to bake partially. [Formed on analogy of _parboil_.] PARBOIL, pär'boil, _v.t._ to boil slightly or in part--as if from _part_ and _boil_. PARBREAK, pär'br[=a]k, _v.t._ or _v.i._ (_Spens._) to throw out, to vomit.--_n._ (_Spens._) vomit. [Fr. _par_--L. _per_, through, and _break_.] [Illustration] PARBUCKLE, pär'buk'l, _n._ a purchase made by looping a rope in the middle to aid in rolling casks up or down an incline, or in furling a sail by rolling the yards: a sling made by passing both ends of a rope through its bight.--_v.t._ to hoist or lower by a parbuckle:--_pr.p._ par'buckling; _pa.p._ par'buckled. [Prob. L. _par_, equal, and _buckle_.] PARCÆ, pär's[=e], _n.pl._ the Fates. PARCEL, pär'sel, _n._ a little part: a portion: a quantity, as of single articles: a number forming a group or a lot: a package.--_v.t._ to divide into portions:--_pr.p._ par'celling; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ par'celled.--_n._ PAR'CEL-BAWD (_Shak._), one partly a bawd.--_adjs._ PAR'CEL-BEARD'ED (_Tenn._), partially bearded; PAR'CEL-GILT, partially gilded.--_n._ PAR'CEL-OFF'ICE, a place where parcels are received for despatch and delivery.--PARCELS POST, that department of the post-office which takes charge of the forwarding and delivery of small parcels. [Fr. _parcelle_ (It. _particella_)--L. _particula_, dim. of _pars_, _partis_, a part.] PARCENARY, par'se-n[=a]-ri, _n._ co-heirship.--_n._ PAR'CENER, a co-heir. PARCH, pärch, _v.t._ to burn slightly: to scorch.--_v.i._ to be scorched: to become very dry.--_adj._ PARCHED, scorched.--_adv._ PARCH'EDLY.--_n._ PARCH'EDNESS. [M. E. _parchen_, either a variety of _per(s)chen_=_peris(c)hen_, to kill, or from _perchen_, to pierce.] PARCHMENT, pärch'ment, _n._ the skin of a sheep or goat prepared for writing on.--PARCHMENT PAPER, or VEGETABLE PARCHMENT (see PAPER).--VIRGIN PARCHMENT, a fine kind of parchment made from the skins of new-born lambs or kids. [Fr. _parchemin_--L. _pergamena_ (_charta_, paper)--from Gr. _Pergamos_.] PARD, pärd, _n._ (_slang_) a partner, mate. PARD, pärd, _n._ the panther: the leopard: in poetry, any spotted animal.--_n._ PARD'ALE (_Spens._). [L. _pardus_--Gr. _pardos_, the panther, the leopard.] PARDIEU, pär'd[=u], PARDI, PARDY, pär'di, _adv._ (_Spens._) in truth: certainly. [Fr., by God--_par_--L. _per_, through, by, _Dieu_--L. _deus_, God.] PARDON, pär'don, _v.t._ to forgive, said either of an offender or of a crime: to pass by without punishment or blame: to set free from punishment: to let off without doing something.--_n._ forgiveness, either of an offender or of his offence: remission of a penalty or punishment: a warrant declaring a pardon: a papal indulgence.--_adj._ PAR'DONABLE, that may be pardoned: excusable.--_n._ PAR'DONABLENESS.--_adv._ PAR'DONABLY.--_n._ PAR'DONER, one who pardons: formerly, one licensed to sell papal indulgences.--_p.adj._ PAR'DONING, disposed to pardon: forgiving: exercising the right or power to pardon: conferring authority to grant pardon.--PARDON ME, excuse me--used in apology and to soften a contradiction. [Fr. _pardonner_--Low L. _perdon[=a]re_--L. _per_, through, away, _don[=a]re_, to give.] PARDY, pär'di, _adv._ A form of _pardieu_. PARE, p[=a]r, _v.t._ to cut or shave off: to trim, or to remove by cutting: to diminish by littles.--_n._ P[=A]R'ER, one who, or that which, pares. [Fr. _parer_--L. _par[=a]re_, to prepare.] PAREGORIC, par-[=e]-gor'ik, _adj._ soothing, lessening pain.--_n._ a medicine that soothes pain: tincture of opium. [L.,--Gr. _par[=e]gorikos_--_par[=e]gorein_, to exhort.] PAREIL, par-el', _n._ an equal. [Fr.,--L. _par_, equal.] PAREIRA, pa-r[=a]'ra, _n._ a tonic diuretic drug derived from various South and Central American plants. [Braz.] PARELLA, pa-rel'la, _n._ a crustaceous lichen yielding archil, cudbear, and litmus.--Also PARELLE'. [Fr. _parelle_.] PAREMBOLE, pa-rem'b[=o]-l[=e], _n._ (_rhet._) an inserted phrase modifying or explaining the thought of the sentence--closer to the context than a parenthesis. [Gr.] PARENCHYMA, pa-reng'ki-mä, _n._ the soft cellular tissue of glandular and other organs, as the pith in plants or the pulp in fruits.--_adjs._ PARENCH'YMAL, PARENCHYM'ATOUS, PARENCH'YMOUS. [Gr., _para_, beside, _engchein_, to pour in.] PARENESIS, pa-ren'e-sis, _n._ persuasion.--_adjs._ PARENET'IC, -AL, hortatory. [Gr. _parainesis_, exhortation, _para_, beside, _ainein_, to praise.] PARENT, p[=a]r'ent, _n._ one who begets or brings forth: a father or a mother: one who, or that which, produces: an author: a cause.--_n._ PAR'ENTAGE, descent from parents: birth: extraction: rank or character derived from one's parents or ancestors: relation of parents to their children.--_adj._ PARENT'AL, pertaining to, or becoming, parents: affectionate: tender.--_adv._ PARENT'ALLY.--_ns._ PAR'ENTHOOD, state of being a parent: duty or feelings of a parent; PARENT'ICIDE, one who kills a parent.--_adj._ PAR'ENTLESS, without a parent. [Fr., 'kinsman'--L. _parens_, for _pariens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _par[)e]re_, to bring forth.] PARENTHESIS, pa-ren'the-sis, _n._ a word, phrase, or sentence put in or inserted in another which is grammatically complete without it: (_pl._) the marks ( ) used to mark off a parenthesis:--_pl._ PAREN'THESES (-s[=e]z).--_v.i._ PARENTH'ESISE.--_adjs._ PARENTHET'IC, -AL, of the nature of a parenthesis: expressed in a parenthesis: using parentheses.--_adv._ PARENTHET'ICALLY. [Gr.,--_para_, beside, _en_, in, _thesis_, a placing--_tithenai_, to place.] PARERGON, pa-r[.e]r'gon, _n._ a by-work, any work subsidiary to another. [Gr.,--_para_, beside, _ergon_, work.] PARESIS, par'e-sis, _n._ a diminished activity of function--a partial form of paralysis.--_adj._ PARET'IC. [Gr., _parienai_, to relax.] PARFAY, pär-f[=a]', _interj._ by or in faith. [Fr.] PARFILAGE, pär'fi-l[=a]j, _n._ the unravelling of woven fabrics, to save gold or silver threads. [Fr.] PARFLECHE, pär-flesh', _n._ rawhide of buffalo-skin stripped of hair and dried on a stretcher: a wallet, tent, &c. of such material. [Canadian Fr.,--Ind.] PARGASITE, pär'ga-s[=i]t, _n._ a dark-green crystallised variety of amphibole or hornblende. PARGET, pär'jet, _n._ (_Spens._) the plaster of a wall: paint.--_v.t._ to plaster: to paint.--_ns._ PAR'GETER; PAR'GETING, PARGE'-WORK. [L. _paries_, _parietis_, a wall; or Low L. _spargit[=a]re_, to sprinkle--L. _sparg[)e]re_.] PARHELION, par-h[=e]'li-un, _n._ a bright light caused by refraction of light through ice crystals floating in the air, sometimes seen near the sun, and sometimes opposite to the sun, when it is called _anthelion_:--_pl._ PARH[=E]'LIA.--_adjs._ PARHEL'IC, PARHEL[=I]'ACAL. [Gr. _para_, beside, _h[=e]lios_, the sun.] PARIAH, p[=a]r'i-a, _n._ a member of a caste in southern India, lower than the four Brahminical castes: one who has lost his caste: an outcast. [Tamil.] PARIAN, p[=a]'ri-an, _adj._ pertaining to or found in the island of _Paros_, in the Ægean Sea.--_n._ an inhabitant of Paros: a fine porcelain for statuettes, resembling marble.--PARIAN MARBLE, a fine marble found in Paros, much used by the ancients for statues. PARIDIGITATE, par-i-dij'i-t[=a]t, _adj._ having an even number of digits. PARIETAL, pa-r[=i]'et-al, _adj._ pertaining to a wall or walls: (_anat._) forming the sides: (_bot._) growing from the inner lining of an organ, and not from the axis, as seeds in the ovary.--_n._ one of the bones of the skull. [L. _parietalis_--_paries_, _parietis_, a wall.] PARING, p[=a]r'ing, _n._ act of trimming or cutting off: that which is pared off: rind: the cutting off of the surface of grass land for tillage. PARIPINNATE, par-i-pin'[=a]t, _adj._ (_bot._) equally pinnate. PARISH, par'ish, _n._ a district under one pastor: an ecclesiastical district having officers of its own and supporting its own poor: the people of a parish.--_adj._ belonging or relating to a parish: employed or supported by the parish.--_n._ PARISH'IONER, one who belongs to or is connected with a parish: a member of a parish church.--PARISH CLERK, the clerk or recording officer of a parish: the one who leads the responses in the service of the Church of England; PARISH PRIEST, a priest who has charge of a parish; PARISH REGISTER, a book in which the births, marriages, and deaths of a parish are registered. [Fr. _paroisse_--L. _paroecia_--Gr. _paroikia_--_paroikos_, dwelling beside--_para_, beside, _oikos_, a dwelling.] PARISIAN, par-iz'i-an, _adj._ of or pertaining to _Paris_.--_n._ a native or resident of Paris:--_fem._ PARISIENNE'.--PARIS DOLL, a small figure dressed in the latest fashions, sent out by Paris modistes. PARISYLLABIC, par-i-si-lab'ik, _adj._ having the same number of syllables. PARITOR, par'i-tor, _n._ Same as APPARITOR. PARITY, par'i-ti, _n._ state of being equal in rank, position, quality, &c.: resemblance: analogy. [Fr. _parité_--L. _paritas_--_par_, equal.] PARK, pärk, _n._ an enclosed piece of land for a special purpose, as for wild beasts: a grass field: a tract of land surrounding a mansion: a piece of ground enclosed for recreation: (_mil._) a space in an encampment occupied by the artillery; hence, a collection of artillery, or stores in an encampment.--_v.t._ to enclose: to bring together in a body, as artillery.--_n._ PARK'ER, the keeper of a park. [A.S. _pearroc_, prob. modified by Fr. _parc_.] PARLANCE, pär'lans, _n._ speaking: conversation: peculiar manner of conversation.--_adj._ and _adv._ PARLAN'DO, declamatory in style: in recitative.--_v.i._ PARLE (_Shak._), to talk.--_n._ (_Shak._) talk, conversation.--_v.i._ PAR'LEY, to speak with another: to confer on some important point: to treat with an enemy.--_n._ talk: a conference with an enemy in war. [Fr. _parler_--L. _parabola_--Gr. _parabol[=e]_, a parable, word.] PARLIAMENT, pär'li-ment, _n._ a meeting for deliberation: the supreme legislature of Great Britain, also of some of her colonies: in France, down to the Revolution, one of certain superior and final courts of judicature, in which also the edicts of the king were registered before becoming law.--_adjs._ PARLIAMENT[=A]'RIAN, adhering to the Parliament in opposition to Charles I.; PARLIAMENT'ARY, pertaining to parliament: enacted or done by parliament: according to the rules and practices of legislative bodies.--PARLIAMENTARY AGENT, a person employed by private persons or societies for drafting bills or managing business to be brought before parliament; PARLIAMENTARY BOROUGH, a borough having the right of sending a member or members to parliament; PARLIAMENTARY TRAIN, a train which, by act of parliament, runs both ways along a line of railway, at least once each day, at the rate of one penny per mile.--ACT OF PARLIAMENT, a statute that has passed through both the House of Commons and the House of Lords, and received the formal royal assent. [Fr. _parlement_--_parler_, to speak.] PARLOUR, pär'lur, _n._ an ordinary family sitting-room: a room for receiving guests in.--_n._ PAR'LOUR-BOARD'ER, a pupil at a boarding-school who enjoys particular privileges. [Fr., _parloir_--_parler_, to speak.] PARLOUS, pär'lus, _adj._ perilous, venturesome, notable.--_adv._ PAR'LOUSLY. [_Perilous._] PARMACETY, par-mas-it'i, _n._ (_Shak._) a corr. of _spermaceti_. PARMESAN, par-me-zan', _adj._ pertaining to _Parma_.--_n._ Parmesan cheese. PARNASSUS, par-nas'us, _n._ a mountain in Greece, sacred to Apollo and the Muses.--_adj._ PARNASS'IAN.--GRASS OF PARNASSUS, a plant with beautiful white or yellowish flowers. PARNELLISM, pär'nel-izm, _n._ the plans and methods of agitation used by Charles Stewart _Parnell_ (1846-91) for the purpose of promoting 'Home Rule' for Ireland.--_n._ PAR'NELLITE, one of the followers of C. S. Parnell.--_adj._ of or pertaining to the nationalist movement led by Parnell. PAROCCIPITAL, par-ok-sip'i-tal, _adj._ situated near the occiput. PAROCHIAL, par-[=o]'ki-al, _adj._ of or relating to a parish: restricted or confined within narrow limits--of sentiments, tastes, &c.--_v.t._ PAR[=O]'CHIALISE, to form into parishes.--_n._ PAR[=O]'CHIALISM, a system of local government which makes the parish the unit--hence provincialism, narrowness of view.--_adv._ PAR[=O]'CHIALLY.--PAROCHIAL BOARD (in Scotland), the board in each parish which relieves the poor. [L. _parochialis_--_parochia_, a variant of _paroecia_.] PARODY, par'o-di, _n._ an imitation of a poem in which its words and ideas are so far changed as to produce a ridiculous effect.--_v.t._ to turn into parody, to make a parody of:--_pa.p._ par'odied.--_adjs._ PAROD'IC, -AL.--_n._ PAR'ODIST, one who writes a parody. [L.,--Gr. _par[=o]dia_--_para_, beside, _[=o]d[=e]_, an ode.] PAROLE, par-[=o]l', _n._ word of mouth: (_mil._) word of honour (esp. by a prisoner of war, to fulfil certain conditions): the daily password in a camp or garrison.--_adj._ given by word of mouth: oral--opp. to _Documentary_, as _parole_ evidence. [Fr.,--L. _parabola_, a parable, saying.] PARONOMASIA, par-[=o]-n[=o]-m[=a]'zhi-a, _n._ a rhetorical figure in which words similar in sound but different in meaning are set in opposition to each other: a play upon words--also PARONOM'ASY.--_adjs._ PARONOMAS'TIC, -AL.--_ns._ PAR'ONYME, PAR'ONYM, a paronymous word--opp. to _Homonym_.--_adj._ PARON'YMOUS, formed by a slight change of word or name: derived from the same root: having the same sound, but different in spelling and meaning.--_n._ PARON'YMY, quality of being paronymous. [Gr. _para_, beside, _onoma_, name.] PAROQUET, PARROQUET, par'o-ket, _n._ a small long-tailed tropical and subtropical parrot.--Also PARR'AKEET. [Fr. _perroquet_--_Pierrot_, dim. of _Pierre_, Peter.] PAROSMIA, pa-ros'mi-a, _n._ a perversion of the sense of smell. [Gr. _para_, beside, _osm[=e]_, smell.] PAROTID, par-ot'id, _n._ the largest of the three pairs of salivary glands, situated immediately in front of the ear--also PAR[=O]'TIS.--_adj._ PAROT'IC, auricular, situated about the outer ear.--_ns._ PAROTID[=I]'TIS, PAROT[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the parotic gland. [L.,--Gr. _par[=o]tis_, _-idos_--_para_, beside, _ous_, _[=o]tos_, ear.] PAROXYSM, par'oks-izm, _n._ a fit of acute pain occurring at intervals: a fit of passion: any sudden violent action.--_adjs._ PAROXYS'MAL, PAROXYS'MIC, pertaining to, or occurring in, paroxysms. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _paroxysmos_--_para_, beyond, _oxys_, sharp.] PAROXYTONE, par-ok'si-t[=o]n, _adj._ having the acute accent on the last syllable but one.--_n._ a word with an acute accent on the second last syllable.--_v.t._ to accent a word in this way. [Illustration] PARQUET, pär-ket', _n._ the part of the floor of a theatre, &c., behind the musicians' seats, but not under the gallery: the pit or the whole of the floor of a theatre: parquetry.--_n._ PAR'QUETRY, woodwork inlaid with figures, for floors. [Fr. _parquet_, an inlaid floor, dim. of _parc_, an enclosure.] PARR, pär, _n._ a young salmon. PARRAKEET, par'a-k[=e]t, _n._ Same as PAROQUET. PARRHESIA, pa-r[=e]'si-a, _n._ boldness of speech. [Gr.] PARRICIDE, par'ri-s[=i]d, _n._ the murder of one's own father or mother: the murder of a parent: the murder of any one to whom reverence is due.--_adj._ PARRICID'AL, pertaining to, or committing, parricide. [Fr.,--L. _parricida_ (for _patri-cida_)--_pater_, _patris_, father, _cæd[)e]re_, to slay.] PARROT, par'rut, _n._ one of a family of tropical and subtropical birds, with brilliant plumage and a hooked bill, remarkable for their faculty of imitating the human voice: a repeater of the words of others.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to repeat by rote.--_ns._ PAR'ROT-COAL, a kind of coal which crepitates in burning; PAR'ROTER; PAR'ROT-FISH, a name applied to various fishes, from their colours or the shape of their jaws; PAR'ROTRY, servile imitation. [Contr. of Fr. _perroquet_.] PARRY, par'i, _v.t._ to ward or keep off: to turn aside: to avoid:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ parr'ied.--_n._ a turning aside of a blow or a thrust: a defensive movement of any kind. [Fr. _parer_--L. _par[=a]re_, to prepare, in Low L. to keep off.] PARSE, pärs, _v.t._ (_gram._) to tell the parts of speech of a sentence and the relations of the various words to each other.--_n._ PARS'ING. [L. _pars (orationis)_, a part of speech.] PARSEE, PARSI, pär's[=e], _n._ one of the surviving remnant of Zoroastrianism which took refuge in India in the 7th century: a fire-worshipper.--_n._ PAR'SEEISM. [Pers. _P[=a]rs[=i]_--_P[=a]rs_, Persia.] PARSIMONY, pär'si-mun-i, _n._ sparingness in the spending of money: frugality: niggardliness.--_adj._ PARSIM[=O]'NIOUS, sparing in the use of money: frugal to excess: niggardly: covetous.--_adv._ PARSIM[=O]'NIOUSLY.--_n._ PARSIM[=O]'NIOUSNESS. [Fr.,--L. _parsimonia_, _parcimonia_--_parc[)e]re_, to spare.] PARSLEY, pärs'li, _n._ a bright-green herb, with finely divided, strongly scented leaves, used in cookery. [Fr. _persil_--L. _petroselinum_--Gr. _petroselinon_--_petros_, a rock, _selinon_, a kind of parsley.] PARSNIP, PARSNEP, pärs'nip, _n._ an edible plant with a carrot-like root. [O. Fr. _pastenaque_--L. _pastinaca_--_pastinum_, a dibble.] PARSON, pär'sn, _n._ the priest or incumbent of a parish: a clergyman: one who is licensed to preach.--_n._ PAR'SONAGE, the residence of the minister of a parish: (_orig._) the house, lands, tithes, &c. set apart for the support of the minister of a parish.--_adjs._ PARSON'IC, PAR'SONISH, pertaining to or like a parson. [O. Fr. _persone_--L. _pers[=o]na_, a person.] PART, pärt, _n._ something less than the whole: a portion: a quantity or number making up with others a larger quantity or number: a fraction: a member or essential part of a whole: a proportional quantity: one's share: interest: side or party: action: character taken by an actor in a play: (_math._) a quantity which taken a certain number of times will equal a larger quantity: an exact divisor: (_mus._) one of the melodies of a harmony: (_pl._) qualities: talents.--_v.t._ to divide: to make into parts: to put or keep asunder.--_v.i._ to be separated: to be torn asunder: to have a part or share.--_adj._ PART'ED (_Shak._), endowed with parts or abilities: (_bot._) deeply cleft, as a leaf.--_n._ PART'ER.--_adv._ PART'LY, in part: in some degree.--PART OF SPEECH (_gram._), one of the various classes of words.--FOR MY PART, as far as concerns me; FOR THE MOST PART, commonly; IN BAD, or ILL, PART, unfavourably; IN GOOD PART, favourably; TAKE PART IN, to share or to assist in; TAKE PART WITH, to take one's side. [Fr.,--L. _pars_, _partis_.] PARTAKE, pär-t[=a]k', _v.i._ to take or have a part, either absolutely, or with of or in before the thing shared, as food, &c.: to have something of the nature or properties, &c.: to be admitted: (_Shak._) to make common cause.--_v.t._ to have a part in: to share: (_Shak._) to communicate:--_pr.p._ part[=a]'king; _pa.t._ partook'; _pa.p._ part[=a]'ken.--_ns._ PART[=A]'KER, one who shares in along with others: a partner: an accomplice; PART[=A]'KING, a sharing: (_law_) a combination in an evil design. [_Part_ and _take_.] PARTAN, par'tan, _n._ (_Scot._) a small edible sea-crab. [Gael.] PARTERRE, par-ter', _n._ an arrangement of flower-plots with spaces of turf or gravel between for walks: the pit of a theatre, esp. beneath the galleries. [Fr.,--L. _per terram_, along the ground.] PARTHENOGENESIS, pär-the-n[=o]-jen'e-sis, _n._ reproduction without renewed impregnation by a male, as in aphids or plant-lice, &c.--also PARTHENOG'ENY.--_adjs._ PARTHENOGENET'IC, PARTHENOG'ENOUS. [Gr. _parthenos_, a virgin, _genesis_, production.] PARTHENON, pär'the-non, _n._ the temple of Ath[=e]n[=e] _Parth[)e]nos_, on the Acropolis at Athens. [Gr. _Parthen[=o]n_--_parthenos_, a virgin.] PARTHIAN, par'thi-an, _adj._ of or belonging to _Parthia_, in Persia.--A PARTHIAN SHOT, a shot or blow given while pretending to fly, a parting shot. PARTIAL, pär'shal, _adj._ relating to a part only: not total or entire: inclined to favour one person or party: having a preference: (_bot._) subordinate.--_v.t._ PAR'TIALISE (_Shak._), to render partial.--_ns._ PAR'TIALISM, the doctrine of the Partialists; PAR'TIALIST, one who holds that the atonement of Christ was made only for a part of mankind; PARTIAL'ITY, state or quality of being partial: liking for one thing more than for others.--_adv._ PAR'TIALLY.[Fr.,--Low L. _partialis_--L. _pars_, a part.] PARTIBLE, pär'ti-bl, _adj._ that may be parted: separable.--_n._ PARTIBIL'ITY. PARTIBUS, par'ti-bus, _n._ in Scots law, a note on the margin of a summons, giving name and designation of the pursuer.--IN PARTIBUS INFIDELIUM, a phrase applying formerly to bishops who were merely titular, without regular jurisdiction, their function to assist some other bishop or to act as delegates of the Pope where no hierarchy had as yet been established. PARTICIPATE, pär-tis'i-p[=a]t, _v.i._ to partake: to have a share.--_v.t._ to receive a part or share of.--_n._ PÄR'TICEPS CRIM'INIS, one who, although not present, helps in any way the commission of a crime, or who after the deed assists or hides the person who did it.--_adjs._ PARTIC'IPABLE, capable of being participated in or shared; PARTIC'IPANT, participating: sharing.--_n._ a partaker.--_adv._ PARTIC'IPANTLY.--_n._ PARTICIP[=A]'TION.--_adj._ PARTIC'IP[=A]TIVE, capable of participating.--_n._ PARTIC'IP[=A]TOR, one who partakes with another: a sharer. [L. _particip[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_pars_, part, _cap[)e]re_, to take.] PARTICIPLE, pär'ti-si-pl, _n._ a word having the value of an adjective but regularly formed from a verb.--_adj._ PARTICIP'IAL, having the nature of a participle: formed from a participle.--_adv._ PARTICIP'IALLY.[L.,--_participium_--_particeps_--_pars_, a part, _cap[)e]re_, to take.] PARTICLE, pär'ti-kl, _n._ a little part: a very small portion: (_physics_) the minutest part into which a body can be divided: an atom: (_gram._) an indeclinable word, as a preposition, a conjunction, an interjection: a word that can only be used in composition, as _wise_ in side_wise_: (_R.C. Church_) a crumb of consecrated bread, also the 'smaller breads' used in the communion of the laity.--_adj._ PARTIC'ULAR, relating to a part of anything: pertaining to a single person or thing: individual: special: worthy of special attention: concerned with or marking things single or distinct: exact: nice in taste: precise.--_n._ a distinct or minute part: a single point: a single instance: (_pl._) details.--_n._ PARTICULARIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ PARTIC'ULARISE, to mention the particulars of: to enumerate in detail: to give a special description of.--_v.i._ to mention or attend to single things or minute details.--_ns._ PARTIC'ULARISM, attention to one's own interest or party: a particular or minute description: the doctrine that salvation is offered only to particular individuals, the elect, and not freely to the whole race on condition of faith; PARTIC'ULARIST, one who holds the doctrine of particularism.--_adj._ PARTICULARIST'IC.--_n._ PARTICULAR'ITY, quality of being particular: minuteness of detail: a single act or case: a single or a minute circumstance: something peculiar or singular.--_adv._ PARTIC'ULARLY, in an especial manner: in a high degree: (_B._) in detail.--_n._ PARTIC'ULARNESS.--_adj._ PARTIC'UL[=A]TE, having the form of a small particle.--IN PARTICULAR, specially, distinctly. [Fr.,--L. _particula_, dim. of _pars_, _partis_, a part.] PARTIM, part'im, _adv._ in part. [L.] PARTING, pärt'ing, _adj._ putting apart: separating: departing: given at parting.--_n._ the act of parting: a division: a point or a line of division: the division of the hair on the head in dressing it: (_geol._) a division of a mineral into layers: a snapping or breaking under a great strain, as of a cable.--_n._ PART'ING-CUP, a drinking-cup with two handles on opposite sides. PARTISAN, pär'ti-zan, _n._ an adherent of a party or a faction: one who is too strongly devoted to his own party or sect to be able to understand or to judge fairly of others.--_adj._ adhering to a party.--_n._ PAR'TISANSHIP. [Fr. (It. _partigiano_),--L. _part[=i]ri_.] PARTISAN, pär'ti-zan, _n._ a kind of halberd or long-handled weapon, common in the Middle Ages: a soldier armed with such a weapon. [O. Fr. _pertuisane_, which is perh. from Old High Ger. _parta_ a battle-axe, seen in _halberd_.] PARTITION, par-tish'un, _n._ act of parting or dividing: state of being divided: separate part: that which divides: a wall between apartments: the place where separation is made.--_v.t._ to divide into shares: to divide into parts by walls.--_adjs._ PAR'T[=I]TE, divided into parts: (_bot._) parted nearly to the base; PAR'TITIVE, parting: dividing: distributive.--_n._ (_gram._) a word denoting a part or partition.--_adv._ PAR'TITIVELY. [Fr.,--L. _partitio_--_part[=i]ri_, divide.] PARTLET, pärt'let, _n._ a ruff or band worn round the neck or shoulders by women: a hen, from its habit of ruffling the feathers round its neck. [Prob. O. Fr. _Pertelote_, a woman's name.] PARTNER, pärt'n[.e]r, _n._ a sharer: an associate: one engaged with another in business: one who plays on the same side in a game: one who dances with another: a husband or wife.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to join as a partner.--_ns._ PART'NERSHIP, state of being a partner: a contract between persons engaged in any business; SLEEP'ING-PART'NER, one who has money invested in a business, but takes no part in its management. PARTRIDGE, pär'trij, _n._ a genus of gallinaceous birds preserved for game.--_n._ PAR'TRIDGE-WOOD, a hard variegated wood, from Brazil and the West Indies, used in cabinet-work. [Fr. _perdrix_--L. _perdix_, _perdicis_--Gr. _perdix_.] PART-SINGING, pärt'-sing-ing, _n._ act or practice of singing different parts in harmony.--_n._ PART'-SONG, a song sung in parts. PARTURE, pärt'[=u]r, _n._ (_Spens._) departure. PARTURIENT, pär-t[=u]'ri-ent, _adj._ bringing, or about to bring, forth young: fruitful.--_n._ PART[=U]RI'TION, act of bringing forth.--_adj._ PART[=U]'RITIVE. [L. _parturiens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _partur[=i]re_--_par[)e]re_, to bring forth.] PARTY, pär'ti, _n._ a part of a greater number of persons: a faction: a company met for a particular purpose, as a dinner party, a pleasure party, &c.: an assembly: one concerned in any affair: the person or persons on either side in a law-suit: (_colloq._) a single individual spoken of: (_mil._) a detachment of soldiers.--_adj._ belonging to a party and not to the whole: consisting of different parties, parts, or things: (_her._) parted or divided.--_adjs._ PAR'TI-COAT'ED, having on a coat of various colours; PAR'TI-COL'OURED, coloured differently at different parts.--_ns._ PAR'TYISM, devotion to party; PAR'TY-JU'RY, a jury half of natives and half of aliens; PAR'TY-MAN, a member of a party: a partisan; PAR'TY-POL'ITICS, politics viewed from a party stand-point, or arranged to suit the views or interests of a party; PAR'TY-SPIR'IT, the unreasonable spirit shown by a party-man toward those who do not belong to his party.--_adj._ PAR'TY-SPIR'ITED.--_ns._ PAR'TY-VER'DICT, a joint verdict; PAR'TY-WALL, a wall between two adjoining properties, built half on one and half on the other: a wall separating one house from another. [O. Fr. _partir_--L. _part[=i]ri_, to divide--_pars_, a part.] PARURE, pa-rür', _n._ a set of ornaments, &c. [Fr.] PARVANIMITY, par-va-nim'i-ti, _n._ littleness of mind. PARVENU, pär've-n[=u], _n._ an upstart: one newly risen into notice or power.--_adj._ like a parvenu. [Fr., pa.p. of _parvenir_--L. _perven[=i]re_, to arrive at--_per_, through, _ven[=i]re_, to come.] PARVIS, PARVISE, pär'vis, _n._ a porch, or an enclosed space before a church: a room over a church porch used as a store, or schoolroom, or as an ecclesiastic's chamber. [O. Fr.,--Low L. _paravisus_, corr. of Gr. _paradeisos_; cf. _Paradise_.] PAS, pä, _n._ a step, as in dancing or marching: a dance, as in 'Pas seul'=a dance by one person, 'Pas deux'=a dance of two persons.--PAS D'ARMES, a joust, a tilt, or a tourney.--HAVE THE PAS OF ONE, to take precedence of him. [Fr.] PASCH, pask, _n._ the Jewish Passover: Easter.--_adj._ PASCH'AL, pertaining to the Passover, or to Easter.--_ns._ PASCH'AL-CAN'DLE, a large candle blessed and placed on the altar on the day before Easter; PASCH'AL-FLOW'ER (see PASQUE); PASCH'AL-LAMB, the lamb slain and eaten at the Jewish Passover; PASCH'-EGG, an Easter-egg.--PASCH OF THE CROSS, Good-Friday; PASCHAL CONTROVERSY, a long dispute in the early church about the proper time for celebrating Easter. [A.S. _pascha_--L.,--Gr.,--Heb. _pesach_, the Passover--_pasach_, to pass over.] PASCUAGE, pas'k[=u]-[=a]j, _n._ the grazing or pasturing of cattle.--_adjs._ PAS'C[=U]AL, PAS'C[=U]OUS. [L. _pascuum_, pasture--_pasc[)e]re_, to feed.] PASH, pash, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to strike, to dash, to crush.--_n._ a blow. [Perh. imit.] PASH, pash, _n._ (_Shak._) the head, the face. PASHA, PACHA, pash'ä, _n._ a title given to Turkish officers who are governors of provinces or hold high naval and military commands.--_ns._ PASH'ALIC, PACH'ALIC, the jurisdiction of a pasha. [Turk.,--Pers. _p[=a]sh[=a]_, _p[=a]dsh[=a]h_.] PASIGRAPHY, pa-sig'ra-fi, _n._ a system of language-signs universally intelligible.--_adjs._ PASIGRAPH'IC, -AL.--_n._ PAS'ILALY, universal speech. [Gr. _pas_, all, _graphein_, to write.] PASQUE-FLOWER, pask'-flow'[.e]r, _n._ one of several genera of anemone, blooming about Easter--also _Campana_ and _Dane-flower_. PASQUIN, pas'kwin, _n._ a lampoon or satire--also PAS'QUIL.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to lampoon or satirise--also PAS'QUIL.--_ns._ PAS'QUILANT, PAS'QUILER, PASQUIN[=A]'DER, a lampooner; PASQUIN[=A]DE', a lampoon.--_v.t._ to lampoon. [_Pasquino_, a sarcastic tailor in Rome in the 15th century, near whose house a mutilated statue was dug up just after his death, on which lampoons were posted.] PASS, pas, _v.i._ to pace or walk onward: to move from one place or state to another: to travel: to change: to circulate: to be regarded: to go by: to go unheeded or neglected: to elapse, as time: to be finished: to move away: to disappear: (_B._) to pass away: to go through an examination or an inspection: to be approved: to meet with acceptance: to happen: to fall, as by inheritance: to flow through: to thrust, as with a sword: to run, as a road.--_v.t._ to go by, over, beyond, through, &c.: to spend: to omit: to disregard: to surpass: to enact, or to be enacted by: to cause to move: to send: to transfer: to give forth: to cause to go from one person or state to another: to approve: to undergo successfully: to give circulation to: (_fencing_) to thrust:--_pa.p._ passed and past.--_n._ a way through which one passes: a narrow passage, esp. over or through a range of mountains: a narrow defile: a passport: state or condition: a written permission to go out or in anywhere: a ticket: (_fencing_) a thrust: success in any examination or other test, a certificate of having reached a certain standard--without honours.--_adj._ PASS'ABLE, that may be passed, travelled over, or navigated: that may bear inspection: that may be accepted or allowed to pass: a little above the common: tolerable.--_n._ PASS'ABLENESS.--_adv._ PASS'ABLY.--_ns._ PASS'BOOK, a book that passes between a trader and his customer, in which credit purchases are entered: a bank-book; PASS'-CHECK, a ticket of admission to a place, or of readmission when one goes out intending to return; PASS'ER, one who passes; PASS'ER-BY, one who passes by or near; PASS'KEY, a key enabling one to enter a house: a key for opening several locks.--_adj._ PASS'LESS, having no pass: impassable.--_ns._ PASS'MAN, one who gains a degree or pass without honours at a university; PASS'PORT, a warrant of protection and permission to travel; PASS'WORD (_mil._), a private word by which a friend is distinguishable from a stranger, enabling one to pass or enter a camp, &c.--PASS MUSTER, to go through an inspection without fault being found; PASS OFF, to impose fraudulently, to palm off; PASS ON, to go forward: to proceed; PASS ON, or UPON, to come upon, to happen to: to give judgment or sentence upon: to practise artfully, to impose upon, to palm off; PASS OVER, or BY, to go to the other side of: to cross, to go past without visiting or halting: to overlook, to disregard; PASS THE TIME OF DAY, to exchange any ordinary greeting of civility; PASS THROUGH, to undergo, experience.--BRING TO PASS, to cause to happen; COME TO PASS, to happen. [O. Fr. _passer_--It. _passare_--_passus_, a step.] PASSADE, pa-s[=a]d', _n._ (_Shak._) a push or thrust with a sword: the motion of a horse turning backwards or forwards on the same spot of ground.--Also PASS[=A]'DO. PASSAGE, pas'[=a]j, _n._ act of passing: a moving from one place or state to another: a journey, as in a ship: course: time occupied in passing: means of passing in or out: a way: entrance: enactment of a law: right of passing: price paid for passing or for being conveyed between two places: occurrence, any incident or episode: a single clause or part of a book, &c.: a modulation in music: (_B._) a mountain-pass: ford of a river: (_zool._) migratory habits.--_v.i._ to cross: to walk sideways, of a horse.--PASSAGE OF ARMS, any feat of arms: a quarrel, esp. of words.--BIRD OF PASSAGE, a bird that passes from one climate to another at the change of the seasons. PASSAMEZZO. See PASSY-MEASURE. PASSANT, pas'ant, _adj._ (_her._) walking. [Fr.] PASSÉ, pas-s[=a]', _adj._ past one's best, faded, past the heyday of life: nearly out of date:--_fem._ PASSÉE. [Fr., pa.p. of _passer_, to pass.] PASSEMENTERIE, pas-men-te-r[=e]', _n._ trimming for dresses, as beaded lace. [Fr.] PASSENGER, pas'en-j[.e]r, _n._ one who passes: one who travels in some public conveyance.--PASSENGER PIGEON, a species of pigeon, a native of North America, having a small head and short bill, a very long, wedge-shaped tail, and long and pointed wings; PASSENGER TRAIN, a railway-train for the conveyance of passengers. [O. Fr. _passagier_ (Fr. _passager_), with inserted _n_, as in _messenger_, _nightingale_.] PASSE-PARTOUT, pas'-par-t[=oo]', _n._ a means of passing anywhere: a master-key: a kind of simple picture-frame, usually of pasteboard, within which the picture is fixed by strips of paper pasted over the edges. [Fr., a 'master-key,' from _passer_, to pass, _par_, over, _tout_, all.] PASSEPIED, pas'py[=a], _n._ a dance like the minuet, but quicker. [Fr.] PASSERES, pas'e-rez, _n.pl._ the name given by Cuvier to the order of birds otherwise called _Insessores_, comprising more than half of all the birds.--_adj._ PASS'ERINE, relating to the _Passeres_, an order of which the sparrow is the type. [L. _passer_, a sparrow.] PASSIBLE, pas'i-bl, _adj._ susceptible of suffering, or of impressions from external agents.--_ns._ PASSIBIL'ITY, PASS'IBLENESS, the quality of being passible.--_adv._ PASS'IBLY, in a passible manner. [L. _passibilis_--_pati_, _passus_, to suffer.] PASSIM, pas'im, _adv._ here and there. [L.] PASSIMETER, pa-sim'e-ter, _n._ a pocket pedometer. PASSING, pas'ing, _adj._ going by, through, or away: happening now: surpassing.--_adv._ exceedingly: very.--_ns._ PASS'ING-BELL, a bell tolled immediately after a person's death, originally to invite prayers for the soul passing into eternity; PASS'ING-NOTE (_mus._), a smaller note marking a tone introduced between two others, to effect a smooth passage from the one to the other, but forming no essential part of the harmony. PASSION, pash'un, _n._ power of feeling pain or suffering: strong feeling or agitation of mind, esp. rage: ardent love: eager desire: state of the soul when receiving an impression: suffering or passive condition, as opposed to _Action_: the sufferings, esp. the death, of Christ: (_pl._) excited conditions of mind.--_ns._ PASSIFL[=O]'RA, a genus of climbing herbs or shrubs, the passion-flowers; PASS'IONAL, PASS'IONARY, a book containing accounts of the sufferings of saints and martyrs.--_adjs._ PASS'IONAL, influenced by passion; PASS'IONATE, moved by passion: showing strong and warm feeling: easily moved to anger: intense.--_adv._ PASS'IONATELY.--_n._ PASS'IONATENESS.--_adj._ PASS'IONED, moved by passion: expressing passion.--_ns._ PASS'ION-FLOW'ER, a flower so called from a fancied resemblance to a crown of thorns, the emblem of Christ's passion; PASS'IONIST (_R.C._), one of a religious congregation devoted to the commemoration of the Passion of Christ by missions, &c.--_adj._ PASS'IONLESS, free from passion: not easily excited to anger.--_n._ PASS'ION-M[=U]'SIC, music to which words describing the sufferings and death of Christ are set.--_adj._ PASS'ION-PALE (_Tenn._), pale with passion.--_ns._ PASS'ION-PLAY, a religious drama representing the sufferings and death of Christ; PASS'ION-SUN'DAY, the fifth Sunday in Lent; PASS'ION-WEEK, name commonly given in England to Holy-week (as being the week of Christ's passion); but, according to proper rubrical usage, the week preceding Holy-week. [Fr.,--L. _passio_, _passionis_--_passus_, pa.p. of _pati_, to suffer.] PASSIVE, pas'iv, _adj._ suffering, unresisting: not acting: (_gram._) expressing the suffering of an action by the subject of the verb.--_adv._ PASS'IVELY.--_ns._ PASS'IVENESS, PASSIV'ITY, inactivity: patience: tendency of a body to preserve a given state, either of motion or of rest. [Fr.,--L. _passivus_--_pati_, suffer.] PASSMAN. See PASS. PASSOVER, pas'[=o]-v[.e]r, _n._ annual feast of the Jews, to commemorate the destroying angel passing over the houses of the Israelites when he slew the first-born of the Egyptians.--_adj._ pertaining to the Passover. PASSY-MEASURE, pas'si-mezh'[=u]r, _n._ (_Shak._) an old stately kind of dance, called also _Passamezzo_. [It. _passamezzo_--_passare_, to pass--_passo_--L. _passus_, a pace, _mezzo_--L. _medius_, the middle.] PAST, past, _pa.p._ of PASS.--_adj._ gone by: elapsed: ended: now retired from service: in time already passed.--_prep._ farther than: out of reach of: no longer capable of.--_adv._ by.--THE PAST, that which has passed, esp. time. PASTE, p[=a]st, _n._ a mass of anything made soft by wetting: flour and water forming dough for pies, &c.: a cement made of flour, water, &c.: a fine kind of glass for making artificial gems.--_v.t._ to fasten with paste.--_n._ PASTE'BOARD, a stiff board made of sheets of paper pasted together, &c.--_adj._ made of such, unsubstantial. [O. Fr. _paste_ (Fr. _pâte_)--Late L. _pasta_--Gr. _past[=e]_, a mess of food--_pastos_, salted--_passein_, to sprinkle.] PASTEL, pas'tel, _n._ chalk mixed with other materials and various colours for crayons, a drawing made with such, also the art: woad.--_n._ PAS'TELIST.[Fr. _pastel_--It. _pastello_--L. _pastillus_, a small loaf--_pasc[)e]re_, _pastum_, to feed.] PASTERN, pas't[.e]rn, _n._ the part of a horse's foot from the fetlock to the hoof, where the shackle is fastened. [O. Fr. _pasturon_ (Fr. _pâturon_)--O. Fr. _pasture_, pasture, a tether for a horse.] PASTEURISM, pas-t[.e]r'izm, _n._ the method of inoculation with the attenuated virus of certain diseases, esp. hydrophobia, as introduced by Louis _Pasteur_ (1822-95).--_adj._ PASTEUR'IAN.--_n._ PASTEURIS[=A]'TION, a method of arresting the fermentation in beer, wine, &c. by heating to at least 140° F.--_v.t._ PASTEUR'ISE. PASTICHE, pas-t[=e]sh', _n._ a mixture of many parts of different kinds, used of _music_, _painting_, &c.: a work in literature or art in direct imitation of another's style.--Also PASTIC'CIO. [It. _pasticcio_.] PASTIL, pas'til, _n._ Same as PASTEL. PASTILLE, pas-t[=e]l', _n._ a small cone of charcoal and aromatic substances, burned either as incense, or as a means of diffusing an agreeable odour: a small aromatic confection: a paper tube containing a firework which causes a small wheel to rotate in burning: (_art_) the same as _pastel_--also PAS'TIL.--_n._ PAS'TILLAGE.[Fr.,--L. _pastillus_, a small loaf.] PASTIME, pas't[=i]m, _n._ that which serves to pass away the time: amusement: recreation. PASTOR, pas'tur, _n._ one who has care of a flock: a shepherd: a clergyman.--_adj._ PAS'TORAL, relating to shepherds or to shepherd life: rustic: of or pertaining to the pastor of a church: addressed to the clergy of a diocese by their bishop.--_n._ a poem which describes the scenery and life of the country: a letter or an address by a pastor to his people, or by a bishop to his clergy: (_mus._) a simple melody.--_n._ PAS'TORALISM, pastoral character.--_adv._ PAS'TORALLY.--_ns._ PAS'TORATE, PAS'TORSHIP, the office of a pastor: the time during which one has been a pastor: the whole body of pastors in one church or district.--_adj._ PAS'TORLY, becoming a pastor.--PASTORAL ADDRESS, or LETTER (see PASTORAL, _n._); PASTORAL CHARGE, position of a pastor: the church, &c., over which a pastor is placed: an address to a newly ordained minister; PASTORAL EPISTLES, those in the New Test. to Timothy and Titus; PASTORAL STAFF, a tall staff borne as an emblem of episcopal authority, headed like a shepherd's crook, or having a T-shaped head; PASTORAL THEOLOGY, that part of theology which treats of the duties of pastors; PASTORAL WORK, the work of a pastor in visiting his people. [L., _pasc[)e]re_, _pastum_, to feed.] PASTOR, pas'tur, _n._ a beautiful bird allied to the starlings, native to Western Asia. PASTORALE, pas-t[=o]-rä'le, _n._ a variety of opera or cantata characterised by the idyllic or pastoral element: a vocal or instrumental piece intended to suggest pastoral life: one of the simple traditional open-air dramas still kept up among the Basques: one of the figures of a quadrille.--Also PASTOURELLE'. PASTRY, p[=a]s'tri, _n._ articles made of paste or dough: crust of pies, tarts, &c.: act or art of making articles of paste.--_n._ P[=A]S'TRYCOOK, one who cooks or sells pastry. [_Paste._] PASTURE, past'[=u]r, _n._ grass for grazing: ground covered with grass for grazing.--_v.t._ to feed on pasture: to supply with grass.--_v.i._ to feed on pasture: to graze.--_adj._ PAST'[=U]RABLE, that can be pastured: fit for pasture.--_ns._ PAST'[=U]RAGE, the business of feeding or grazing cattle: pasture-land: grass for feeding; PAST'[=U]RE-LAND, land appropriated to pasture.--_adj._ PAST'[=U]RELESS, destitute of pasture. [O. Fr. _pasture_ (Fr. _pâture_)--L. _pastura_--_pasc[)e]re_, _pastum_, to feed.] PASTY, p[=a]s'ti, _adj._ like paste.--_n._ a small pie of meat and crust baked without a dish. PAT, pat, _n._ a light, quick blow, as with the hand.--_v.t._ to strike gently: to tap:--_pr.p._ pat'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ pat'ted.--PAT ON THE BACK, to mark approval by patting on the back, to patronise. [Imit.] PAT, pat, _n._ a small, moulded lump of butter. [Celt., as Ir. _pait_, a lump.] PAT, pat, _adj._ fitly: at the right time or place.--_adv._ PAT'LY, fitly, conveniently.--_n._ PAT'NESS, fitness, appropriateness. [_Pat_, a light blow.] PATAGIUM, pat-[=a]-j[=i]'um, _n._ the wing-membrane of a bat, &c.: the parachute of a flying squirrel, &c.: the fold of integument between the upper arm and the forearm of a bird: one of the scales affixed to the pronotum of lepidopterous insects--the _tegula_. [L., 'a gold edging.'] PATAMAR, pat'a-mär, _n._ a vessel on the Bombay coast, with arched keel, and great stem and stern rake. PATAVINITY, pat-a-vin'i-ti, _n._ the style of Padua (L. _Patavium_), esp. the diction of Livy, a native of Patavium, hence provincialism generally. PATCH, pach, _v.t._ to mend by putting in a piece: to repair clumsily: to make up of pieces: to make hastily.--_n._ a piece sewed or put on to mend a defect: anything like a patch: a small piece of ground: a plot: (_Shak._) a paltry fellow, a fool--properly a jester: (_print._) an overlay to obtain a stronger impression: a small piece of black silk, &c., stuck by ladies on the face, to bring out the complexion by contrast--common in the 17th and 18th centuries.--_adj._ PATCH'ABLE.--_ns._ PATCH'-BOX, a fancy box for holding the patches worn on the face, generally having a mirror inside the lid; PATCH'ER, one who patches; PATCH'ERY (_Shak._), bungling work; PATCH'WORK, work formed of patches or pieces sewed together: work patched up or clumsily executed.--_adj._ PATCH'Y, covered with patches: inharmonious, incongruous.--NOT A PATCH ON, not fit to be compared with. [Low Ger. _patschen_; prob. conn. with _piece_.] PATCHOCKE, pach'ok, _n._ (_Spens._) a clown. [_Patch._] PATCHOULI, pa-ch[=oo]'li, _n._ a perfume got from the dried branches of the patchouli shrub, 2-3 ft. high: the plant itself.--Also PATCHOU'LY. [Tamil, _patchei_, gum, _elei_, a leaf.] PATE, p[=a]t, _n._ the crown of the head: the head.--_adj._ P[=A]T'ED, having a pate. [Through O. Fr., from Ger. _platte_, a plate; cf. Low L. _platta_, tonsure.] PÂTÉ, pä-t[=a]', _n._ pie: pasty.--PÂTÉ DE FOIE GRAS, pasty of fat goose liver: Strasburg pie. [Fr.] PATELLA, pa-tel'la, _n._ a little dish or vase: the knee-pan: a genus of gasteropodous univalve molluscs: the limpet.--_adjs._ PATEL'LAR, pertaining to the patella or knee-cap; PATEL'LATE or PATEL'LULATE; PATEL'LIFORM, of the form of a small dish or saucer. [L., dim. of _patina_, a pan.] PATEN, pat'en, _n._ the plate for the bread in the Eucharist. [Fr.,--L. _patina_, a plate--Gr. _patan[=e]_.] PATENT, p[=a]'tent, or pat'ent, _adj._ lying open: conspicuous: public: protected by a patent: (_bot._) spreading: expanding.--_n._ an official document, open, and having the Great Seal of the government attached to it, conferring an exclusive right or privilege, as a title of nobility, or the sole right for a term of years to the proceeds of an invention: something invented and protected by a patent.--_v.t._ P[=A]'TENT, to grant or secure by patent.--_adj._ P[=A]'TENTABLE, capable of being patented.--_ns._ P[=A]TENTEE', one who holds a patent, or to whom a patent is granted--also P[=A]'TENTER; P[=A]'TENT-LEATH'ER, a kind of leather to which a permanently polished surface is given by a process of japanning; P[=A]'TENTOR, one who grants or who secures a patent; P[=A]'TENT-RIGHT, the exclusive right reserved by letters-patent.--_n.pl._ P[=A]'TENT-ROLLS, the register of letters-patent issued in England.--PATENT MEDICINE, a medicine sold under the authority of letters-patent, any proprietary medicine generally on which stamp-duty is paid; PATENT OFFICE, an office for the granting of patents for inventions; PATENT OUTSIDE, or INSIDE, a newspaper printed on the outside or inside only, sold to a publisher who fills the other side with his own material, as local news, &c. [Fr.,--L. _patens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _pat[=e]re_, to lie open.] PATERA, pat'e-rä, _n._ a round flat dish for receiving a sacrificial libation among the Romans: (_archit._) the representation of such in bas-relief in friezes, &c.--often applied loosely to rosettes and other flat ornaments:--_pl._ PAT'ERÆ (-r[=e]).--_adj._ PAT'ERIFORM. [L.,--_pat[=e]re_, to lie open.] PATERCOVE, pat'[.e]r-k[=o]v, _n._ Same as PATRICO. PATERERO, pat-e-r[=a]'ro, _n._:--_pl._ PATERE'ROES (-r[=o]z). Same as PEDERERO. PATERFAMILIAS, p[=a]-t[.e]r-fa-mil'i-as, _n._ the father or head of a family or household:--_pl._ P[=A]TRESFAMIL'IAS. [L. _pater_, a father, _familias_, arch. form of _familiæ_, gen. of _familia_, a household.] PATERNAL, pa-t[.e]r'nal, _adj._ fatherly: showing the disposition of a father: derived from a father: hereditary.--_n._ PATER'NALISM.--_adv._ PATER'NALLY.--_n._ PATER'NITY, state of being a father: fatherhood: the relation of a father to his children: origination or authorship. [Fr. _paternel_--Low L. _paternalis_--L. _paternus_--_pater_ (Gr. _pat[=e]r_), a father.] PATERNOSTER, p[=a]'t[.e]r-nos-t[.e]r, or pat-[.e]r-nos't[.e]r, _n._ the Lord's Prayer: every eleventh bead in a R.C. rosary, at which, in telling their beads, the Lord's Prayer is repeated: the whole rosary: anything made of objects strung together like a rosary, esp. a fishing-line with hooks at intervals: (_archit._) an ornament shaped like beads, used in astragals, &c. [L. _Pater noster_, 'Our Father,' the first two words of the Lord's Prayer in Latin.] PATH, päth, _n._ a way trodden out by the feet: track: road: course of action or conduct:--_pl._ PATHS (pä_th_z).--_n._ PATH'FINDER, one who explores the route, a pioneer.--_adj._ PATH'LESS, without a path: untrodden. [A.S. _pæth_, _path_; Ger. _pfad_, Gr. _patos_, L. _pons_, _pontis_, a bridge.] PATHAN, pa-than', _n._ an Afghan proper, one of Afghan race settled in India. PATHETIC, -AL, pa-thet'ik, -al, _adj._ showing passion: affecting the tender emotions: causing pity, grief, or sorrow: touching: (_anat._) trochlear.--_adj._ PATHEMAT'IC, pertaining to emotion.--_adv._ PATHET'ICALLY.--_ns._ PATHET'ICALNESS; PATH'ETISM, animal magnetism; PATH'ETIST, one who practises this.--THE PATHETIC, the style or manner fitted to excite emotion. [Gr. _path[=e]tikos_, subject to suffering.] PATHIC, path'ik, _adj._ pertaining to disease.--_ns._ PATHOGEN'ESIS, PATHOG'ENY, mode of production or development of disease.--_adjs._ PATHOGENET'IC, PATHOGEN'IC, PATHOG'ENOUS, producing disease. PATHOGNOMONIC, p[=a]-thog-n[=o]-mon'ik. _adj._ characteristic of a disease.--_n._ PATHOG'NOMY. [Gr. _pathos_, suffering, _gn[=o]m[=o]n_, a judge.] PATHOLOGY, pa-thol'o-ji, _n._ science of the nature, causes, and remedies of diseases: the whole of the morbid conditions in a disease.--_adjs._ PATHOLOG'IC, -AL.--_adv._ PATHOLOG'ICALLY.--_ns._ PATHOL'OGIST, one versed in pathology; PATHOPH[=O]'BIA, morbid dread of disease. [Fr.,--Gr. _pathos_, suffering, _logos_, discourse.] PATHOS, p[=a]'thos, _n._ that in anything (as a word, a look, &c.) which touches the feelings or raises the tender emotions: the expression of deep feeling.--_n._ PATHOM'ETRY, the distinction of suffering into different kinds. [Gr., from _pathein_, 2 aorist of _paschein_, to suffer, feel.] PATHWAY, päth'w[=a], _n._ a path or way: a footpath: course of action. PATIBULARY, p[=a]-tib'[=u]-la-ri, _adj._ of or pertaining to a gibbet or gallows. [L. _patibulum_, a gibbet.] PATIENCE, p[=a]'shens, _n._ quality of being patient or able calmly to endure: (_Shak._) permission: a card-game, same as Solitaire (q.v.).--_adj._ P[=A]'TIENT, sustaining pain, &c., without repining: not easily provoked: not in a hurry: persevering: expecting with calmness: long-suffering.--_n._ one who bears or suffers: a person under medical treatment.--_adv._ P[=A]'TIENTLY. [Fr.,--L. _patentia_--_patiens_--_pati_, to bear.] PATIN, PATINE, pat'in, _n._ Same as PATEN. PATINA, pat'i-na, _n._ a bowl, pan, patella: the encrustation which age gives to works of art: the peculiar varnish-like rust which covers ancient bronzes and medals.--_adj._ PAT'IN[=A]TED.--_n._ PATIN[=A]'TION. [It.,--L. _patina_, a dish, a kind of cake.] PATIO, pat'i-[=o], _n._ a courtyard connected with a house. [Sp.,--L. _spatium_, a space.] PATLY, PATNESS. See PAT (3). PATOIS, pat'waw, _n._ a vulgar or provincial dialect. [Fr., orig. _patrois_--L. _patriensis_, indigenous--_patria_, one's native country.] PATONCE, pa-tons', _n._ (_her._) a cross whose four arms expand in curves from the centre, with floriated ends.--_adj._ PATONCÉE. [Fr.,--L. _pat[=e]re_, to expand.] PATRES CONSCRIPTI, p[=a]'tres kon-skrip't[=i], _n.pl._ conscript fathers: the senators of ancient Rome. [L. _patres_, pl. of _pater_, a father, _conscripti_, pl. of _conscriptus_,--_conscrib[)e]re_, to enrol.] PATRIAL, p[=a]'tri-al, _adj._ designating a race or nation.--_n._ a noun derived from the name of a country. PATRIA POTESTAS, p[=a]'tri-ä p[=o]-tes'tas, _n._ a father's control over his family, in ancient Rome, which was almost unlimited. [L.] PATRIARCH, p[=a]'tri-ärk, _n._ one who governs his family by paternal right: (_B._) one of the early heads of families from Adam downwards to Abraham, Jacob, and his sons: in Eastern churches, a dignitary superior to an archbishop.--_adjs._ PATRIARCH'AL, PATRIARCH'IC, belonging or subject to a patriarch: like a patriarch: of the nature of a patriarch.--_ns._ P[=A]'TRIARCHALISM, the condition of tribal government by a patriarch; P[=A]'TRIARCHATE, the office or jurisdiction of a patriarch or church dignitary: the residence of a patriarch; P[=A]'TRIARCHISM, government by a patriarch; P[=A]'TRIARCHY, a community of related families under the authority of a patriarch. [O. Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _patriarch[=e]s_--_pat[=e]r_, father, _arch[=e]_, beginning.] PATRICIAN, pa-trish'an, _n._ a nobleman in ancient Rome, being a descendant of one of the fathers or first Roman senators: a nobleman.--_adj._ pertaining to the ancient senators of Rome or to their descendants: of noble birth.--_n._ PATRIC'IATE, the position or duties of a patrician: the patrician order. [L. _patricius_--_pater_, _patris_, a father.] PATRICIDE, pat'ri-s[=i]d, _n._ the murder or the murderer of one's own father.--_adj._ PAT'RIC[=I]DAL, relating to patricide or the murder of a father. [L. _patricida_--_pater_, _patris_, father, _cæd[)e]re_, to kill.] PATRICO, pat'ri-k[=o], _n._ (_slang_) a gipsy or beggars' hedge-priest.--Also PAT'ERCOVE. PATRIMONY, pat'ri-mun-i, _n._ a right or estate inherited from a father or from one's ancestors: a church estate or revenue.--_adj._ PATRIM[=O]'NIAL, pertaining to a patrimony: inherited from ancestors.--_adv._ PATRIM[=O]'NIALLY. [Fr. _patrimoine_--L. _patrimonium_, a paternal estate--_pater_, _patris_, a father.] PATRIOT, p[=a]'tri-ot, or pat'-, _n._ one who truly loves and serves his fatherland.--_adj._ devoted to one's country.--_adj._ P[=A]TRIOT'IC, like a patriot: actuated by a love of one's country: directed to the public welfare.--_adv._ P[=A]TRIOT'ICALLY.--_n._ P[=A]'TRIOTISM, quality of being patriotic: love of one's country. [Fr.,--Low L.,--Gr. _patri[=o]t[=e]s_--_patrios_--_pat[=e]r_, a father.] PATRIPASSIAN, p[=a]-tri-pas'i-an, _n._ a member of one of the earliest classes of anti-Trinitarian sectaries (2d century), who denied the distinction of three persons in one God, maintaining that the sufferings of the Son could be predicated of the Father. [L. _pater_, father, _pati_, _passus_, to suffer.] PATRISTIC, -AL, pa-tris'tik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to the fathers of the Christian Church.--_ns._ P[=A]'TRIST, one versed in patristics; PATRIS'TICISM, mode of thought, &c., of the fathers.--_n.pl._ PATRIS'TICS, the knowledge of the fathers as a subject of study--sometimes PATROL'OGY. [Fr., coined from L. _pater_, _patris_, a father.] PATROL, pa-tr[=o]l', _v.i._ to go the rounds in a camp or garrison: to watch and protect.--_v.t._ to pass round as a sentry:--_pr.p._ patr[=o]l'ling; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ patr[=o]lled'.--_n._ the marching round of a guard in the night: the guard or men who make a patrol: (also PATR[=O]L'MAN) a policeman who walks about a certain beat for a specified time, such policemen collectively. [O. Fr. _patrouille_, a patrol, _patrouiller_, to march in the mud, through a form _patouiller_, from _pate_ (mod. _patte_), the paw or foot of a beast, of Teut. origin, cf. Ger. _patsche_, little hand.] PATRON, p[=a]'trun, _n._ a protector: one who countenances or encourages: one who has the right to appoint to any office, esp. to a living in the church: a guardian saint:--_fem._ P[=A]'TRONESS.--_v.t._ to treat as a patron.--_n._ P[=A]'TRONAGE, the support given by a patron: guardianship of saints: the right of bestowing offices, privileges, or church benefices.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to support.--_adj._ P[=A]'TRONAL.--_n._ P[=A]TRONIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ P[=A]'TRON[=I]SE, to act as a patron toward: to give countenance or encouragement to: to assume the air of a patron towards.--_n._ P[=A]'TRON[=I]SER.--_adj._ P[=A]'TRON[=I]SING.--_adv._ P[=A]'TRON[=I]SINGLY.--_adj._ P[=A]'TRONLESS. [Fr.,--L. _patronus_--_pater_, _patris_, a father.] PATRONYMIC, -AL, pat-r[=o]-nim'ik, -al, _adj._ derived from the name of a father or an ancestor.--_n._ PATRONYM'IC, a name taken from one's father or ancestor. [Gr. _pat[=e]r_, a father, _onoma_, a name.] PATROON, p[=a]-tr[=oo]n', _n._ one who received a grant of land under the old Dutch governments of New York and New Jersey.--_n._ PATROON'SHIP. [Dut.; cf. _Patron_.] PATTE, pat, _n._ a narrow band keeping a belt or sash in its place. [Fr.] PATTÉ, PATTÉE, pa-t[=a]', _adj._ (_her._) spreading toward the extremity. [O. Fr. _patte_, a paw.] PATTEN, pat'en, _n._ a wooden sole with an iron ring, worn under the shoe to keep it from the wet: the iron hoop attached to the boot in cases of hip-joint disease: the base of a pillar.--_v.i._ to go about on pattens.--_adj._ PATT'ENED, provided with pattens. [O. Fr. _patin_, clog--_patte_.] PATTER, pat'[.e]r, _v.i._ to pat or strike often, as hailstones: to make the sound of short quick steps:--_pr.p._ patt'ering; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ patt'ered. [A freq. of _pat_.] PATTER, pat'[.e]r, _v.i._ to repeat the Lord's Prayer: to pray: to repeat over and over again indistinctly, to mumble.--_v.t._ to repeat hurriedly, to mutter.--_n._ glib talk, chatter: the cant of a class.--_ns._ PATT'ERER, one who sells articles on the street by speechifying; PATT'ER-SONG, a comic song in which a great many words are sung or spoken very rapidly.--PATTER FLASH, to talk the jargon of thieves. [_Pater-noster_.] PATTERN, pat'[.e]rn, _n._ a person or thing to be copied: a model: an example: style of ornamental work: anything to serve as a guide in forming objects: the distribution of shot in a target at which a gun is fired.--_ns._ PATT'ERN-BOOK, a book containing designs of lace, &c., or in which patterns of cloth, &c., are pasted; PATT'ERN-BOX, in weaving, a box at each side of a loom containing the various shuttles that may be used; PATT'ERN-CARD, a piece of cardboard on which specimens of cloth are fixed; PATT'ERN-MAK'ER, one who makes the patterns for moulders in foundry-work; PATT'ERN-SHOP, the place in which patterns for a factory are prepared; PATT'ERN-WHEEL, the count-wheel in a clock movement. [Fr. _patron_, a protector, pattern.] PATTLE, pat'l, _n._ a paddle. PATTY, pat'i, _n._ a little pie:--_pl._ PATT'IES.--_n._ PATT'Y-PAN, a pan in which to bake these. [Fr. _pâté_.] PATULOUS, pat'[=u]-lus, _adj._ spreading. PAUCITY, paw'sit-i, _n._ fewness: smallness of number or quantity. [Fr.,--L. _paucitas_--_paucus_, few.] PAUL. Same as PAWL. PAULDRON, pawl'dron, _n._ a separable shoulder-plate in medieval armour. [O. Fr. _espalleron_--_espalle_, the shoulder.] PAULICIAN, paw-lish'an, _n._ a member of a Dualistic Eastern sect, founded about 660, professing peculiar reverence for _Paul_ and his writings. PAULINE, paw'l[=i]n, _adj._ of or belonging to the Apostle _Paul_.--_ns._ PAUL'INISM, the teaching or theology of Paul; PAUL'INIST, a follower of Paul. PAULO-POST-FUTURE, paw'l[=o]-p[=o]st-f[=u]'t[=u]r, _adj._ and _n._ the future perfect tense in grammar. PAUNCH, pawnsh, or pänsh, _n._ the belly: the first and largest stomach of a ruminant.--_v.t._ to eviscerate.--_adj._ PAUNCH'Y, big-bellied. [O. Fr. _panche_ (Fr. _panse_)--L. _pantex_, _panticis_.] PAUPER, paw'p[.e]r, _n._ a very poor or destitute person: one supported by charity or by some public provision:--_fem._ PAU'PERESS.--_n._ PAUPERIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ PAU'PERISE, to reduce to pauperism.--_n._ PAU'PERISM, state of being a pauper. [L.] PAUSE, pawz, _n._ a ceasing: a temporary stop: cessation caused by doubt: suspense: a mark for suspending the voice: (_mus._) a mark showing continuance of a note or rest.--_v.i._ to make a pause.--_adjs._ PAUS'AL; PAUSE'LESS.--_adv._ PAUSE'LESSLY.--_n._ PAUS'ER, one who pauses or deliberates.--_adv._ PAUS'INGLY, with pauses: by breaks: deliberately. [Fr.,--L. _pausa_--Gr. _pausis_, from _pauein_, to cause to cease.] PAVAN, pav'an, _n._ (_Shak._) a slow dance, much practised in Spain: music for this dance.--Also PAV'EN, PAV'IN. [Fr.,--Sp. _pavana_, _pavon_--L. _pavo_, peacock; or It., for _Padovana_, pertaining to _Padua_.] PAVE, p[=a]v, _v.t._ to lay down stone, &c., to form a level surface for walking on: to prepare, as a way or passage: to make easy and smooth in any way.--_ns._ P[=A]'VAGE, P[=A]'VIAGE, money paid towards paving streets.--_adj._ P[=A]VED--also P[=A]'VEN.--_ns._ PAVE'MENT, a paved road, floor, or side-walk, or that with which it is paved; P[=A]'VER, P[=A]'VIER, P[=A]'VIOR, P[=A]'VIOUR, one who lays pavements; P[=A]'VING, the act of laying pavement: pavement.--_adj._ employed or spent for paving.--PAVE THE WAY, to prepare the way for. [Fr. _paver_--L. _pav[=i]re_, to beat hard; cog. with Gr. _paiein_, to beat.] PAVID, pav'id, _adj._ timid. [L. _pavidus_.] PAVILION, pa-vil'yun, _n._ a tent: an ornamental building often turreted or domed: (_mil._) a tent raised on posts: a canopy or covering: the outer ear: a flag or ensign carried at the gaff of the mizzenmast.--_v.t._ to furnish with pavilions: to shelter, as with a tent.--_n._ PAVIL'ION-ROOF, a roof sloping equally on all sides. [Fr. _pavillon_--L. _papilio_, a butterfly, a tent.] PAVISE, pav'is, _n._ a shield for the whole body. [Fr.,--Low L. _pavensis_, prob. from _Pavia_ in Italy.] PAVON, pav'on, _n._ a small triangular flag attached to a lance. [L. _pavo_, a peacock.] PAVONINE, pav'o-n[=i]n, _adj._ pertaining to the peacock: resembling the tail of a peacock or made of its feathers: iridescent--also PAV[=O]'NIAN.--_n._ PAV[=O]NE' (_Spens._), the peacock. [L. _pavoninus_--_pavo_, _pavonis_, a peacock.] PAW, paw, _n._ the foot of a beast of prey having claws: the hand, used in contempt.--_v.i._ to draw the forefoot along the ground like a horse.--_v.t._ to scrape with the forefoot: to handle with the paws: to handle roughly: to flatter.--_adj._ PAWED, having paws: broad-footed. [O. Fr. _poe_, _powe_, prob. Teut.; cf. Dut. _poot_, Ger. _pfote_. Perh. related to O. Fr. _pate_ (cf. _Patrol_). But perh. Celt., as W. _pawen_, a paw.] PAWKY, pawk'i, _adj._ (_Scot._) sly, arch, shrewd. PAWL, pawl, _n._ a short bar lying against a toothed wheel to prevent a windlass, &c., from running back: a catch or click.--_v.t._ to stop by means of a pawl. [W. _pawl_, a stake, conn. with L. _palus_, a stake.] PAWN, pawn, _n._ something given as security for the repayment of money or the performance of a promise: state of being pledged.--_v.t._ to give in pledge.--_ns._ PAWN'BROKER, a broker who lends money on pawns or pledges; PAWN'BROKING, the business of a pawnbroker; PAWNEE', one who takes anything in pawn; PAWN'ER, one who gives a pawn or pledge as security for money borrowed; PAWN'SHOP, a shop of a pawnbroker; PAWN'TICKET, a ticket marked with the name of the article, the amount advanced, &c., delivered to the person who has pawned anything.--AT PAWN, pledged, laid away. [O. Fr. _pan_, prob. from L. _pannus_, a cloth.] PAWN, pawn, _n._ a common piece in chess. [O. Fr. _paon_, a foot-soldier--Low L. _pedo_, _pedonis_, a foot-soldier--L. _pes_, _pedis_, the foot.] PAWN, pawn, _n._ a gallery. PAWNEE, paw'n[=e], _n._ one of a tribe of Indians in North America.--_adj._ belonging to this tribe. PAX, paks, _n._ the kiss of peace (Rom. xvi. 16): a plaque or tablet used in giving the kiss of peace when the mass is celebrated by a high dignitary--a crucifix, a tablet with the image of Christ on the cross upon it, or a reliquary.--PAX VOBIS, PAX VOBISCUM, peace (be) with you. [L.] PAXWAX, paks'waks, _n._ the strong tendon in the neck of animals. [Orig. _fax-wax_--A.S. _feax_, _fex_, hair, _weaxan_, to grow.] PAY, p[=a], _v.t._ to satisfy or set at rest: to discharge, as a debt or a duty: to requite with what is deserved: to reward: to punish: to give, render.--_v.i._ to recompense: to be worth one's trouble: to be profitable:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ paid.--_n._ that which satisfies: money given for service: salary, wages.--_adj._ PAY'ABLE, that may be paid: that ought to be paid: due.--_ns._ PAY'-BILL, a statement of moneys to be paid, to workmen, soldiers, &c.; PAY'-CLERK, a clerk who pays wages; PAY'-DAY, a regular day for payment, as of wages; PAY'-DIRT, -GRAV'EL, gravel or sand containing enough gold to be worth working; PAYEE', one to whom money is paid; PAY'ER; PAY'-LIST, -ROLL, a list of persons entitled to pay, with the amounts due to each; PAY'MASTER, the master who pays: an officer in the army or navy whose duty it is to pay soldiers, &c.; PAY'MENT, the act of paying: the discharge of a debt by money or its equivalent in value: that which is paid: recompense: reward: punishment; PAY'-OFF'ICE, the place where payments are made; FULL'-PAY, the whole amount of wages, &c., without deductions; HALF'-PAY (see HALF).--PAY DOWN, to pay in cash on the spot; PAY FOR, to make amends for: to bear the expense of; PAY OFF, to discharge: to take revenge upon: to requite: (_naut._) to fall away to leeward; PAY OUT, to cause to run out, as rope; PAY ROUND, to turn the ship's head; PAY THE PIPER, to have all expenses to pay.--IN THE PAY OF, hired by. [Fr. _payer_--L. _pac[=a]re_, to appease; cf. _pax_, peace.] PAY, p[=a], _v.t._ (_naut._, and in the proverb 'the devil to pay') to smear with tar, pitch, &c. [Perh. through O. Fr. _peier_ (Sp. _empegar_) from L. _pic[=a]re_, to pitch.] PAYNE, p[=a]n, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to take pains, exert one's self. PAYNIM, PAINIM, p[=a]'nim, _n._ a pagan: a heathen. [O. Fr. _paienisme_, paganism--L. _paganismus_--_paganus_, a pagan.] PAYNISE, p[=a]'n[=i]z, _v.t._ to harden and preserve, as wood, by successive injections of solutions of calcium or barium sulphide followed by calcium sulphate. [_Payne_, inventor of the process.] PAYSAGE, p[=a]'s[=a]j, _n._ a landscape.--_n._ PAY'S[=A]GIST, a landscape-painter. [Fr.] PAYSE, p[=a]z, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to poise, to balance. PEA, p[=e], _n._ a climbing annual herb of the bean family, whose seeds are nutritious:--_pl._ PEAS, a definite number; PEASE, a quantity not numbered.--_ns._ PEA'-R[=I]'FLE, a rifle throwing a very small bullet; PEAS'COD, PEASE'COD, the pod or pericarp of the pea; PEA'-SHOOT'ER, a small metal tube for blowing peas through; PEA'-STONE, pisolite.--EGYPTIAN PEA, the chick-pea; FRENCH PEA, the common garden pea: (_pl._) canned peas made up in France; SPLIT PEAS, peas stripped of their membraneous covering in a mill, used for making pea-soup, or ground into meal; SWEET PEA, a climbing annual with large and fragrant flowers. [M. E. _pese_, pl. _pesen_ and _peses_--A.S. _pisa_, pl. _pisan_--L. _pisum_, Gr. _pison_.] PEA, p[=e], _n._ a pea-fowl. See PEACOCK. PEACE, p[=e]s, _n._ a state of quiet: freedom from disturbance: freedom from war: friendliness: calm: rest: harmony: silence.--_interj._ silence: be silent: hist!--_adj._ PEACE'ABLE, disposed to peace: free from war or disturbance: quiet: tranquil.--_n._ PEACE'ABLENESS.--_adv._ PEACE'ABLY.--_n._ PEACE'-BREAK'ER, one who breaks or disturbs the peace of others.--_adj._ PEACE'FUL, full of peace: quiet: tranquil: calm: serene.--_adv._ PEACE'FULLY.--_n._ PEACE'FULNESS.--_adj._ PEACE'LESS, without peace.--_ns._ PEACE'LESSNESS; PEACE'MAKER, one who makes or produces peace; one who reconciles enemies; PEACE'-OFF'ERING, an offering bringing about peace: among the Jews, an offering to God, either in gratitude for past or petition for future mercies (see Lev. iii.; vii. 11-21): satisfaction to an offended person; PEACE'-OFF'ICER, an officer whose duty it is to preserve the peace: a police-officer.--_adj._ PEACE'-PART'ED (_Shak._), dismissed from the world in peace.--_n._ PEACE'-PAR'TY, a political party advocating the making or the preservation of peace; PEACE'-PIPE (see CALUMET).--PEACE ESTABLISHMENT, the reduced military strength maintained in time of peace; PEACE OF GOD, the ancient cessation from suits between terms, and on Sundays and holy days.--BREACH OF THE PEACE (see BREACH); HOLD ONE'S PEACE, to be silent; KEEP PEACE, abstain from breaking the peace of others; KISS OF PEACE (see KISS); LETTERS OF PEACE (see PACIFY); MAKE ONE'S PEACE WITH, to reconcile or to be reconciled with; QUEEN'S, or KING'S, PEACE, the public peace, for the maintenance of which the sovereign as head of the executive is responsible; SWEAR THE PEACE, to take oath before a magistrate that a certain person ought to be put under bond to keep the peace. [O. Fr. _pais_ (Fr. _paix_)--L. _pax_, _pacis_, peace.] PEACH, p[=e]ch, _v.i._ to betray one's accomplice: to become informer.--_n._ PEACH'ER. [A corr. of _impeach_.] PEACH, p[=e]ch, _n._ a tree with a delicious, juicy fruit: the fruit of this tree.--_ns._ PEACH'-BLOSS'OM, a canary-yellow colour: pink with a yellowish tinge: a collector's name for a moth, the _Thyatira batis_; PEACH'-BRAND'Y, a spirit distilled from the fermented juice of the peach.--_adj._ PEACH'-COL'OURED, of the colour of a peach-blossom: pale red.--_ns._ PEACH'ERY, a hothouse in which peaches are grown; PEACH'-STONE, the hard nut enclosing the seed within the fruit of the peach; PEACH'-WA'TER, a flavouring extract used in cookery, prepared from the peach.--_adj._ PEACH'Y.--_n._ PEACH'-YELL'OWS, a disease that attacks peach-trees in the eastern United States. [O. Fr. _pesche_ (Fr. _pêche_, It. _persica_, _pesca_)--L. _Persicum_ (_malum_), the Persian (apple).] PEACOCK, p[=e]'kok, _n._ a large gallinaceous bird of the pheasant kind, remarkable for the beauty of its plumage, esp. that of its tail:--_fem._ PEA'HEN.--_v.t._ to cause to strut like a peacock.--_v.i._ to strut about proudly.--_ns._ PEA'CHICK, the young of the pea-fowl; PEA'COCK-FISH, a variegated labroid fish; PEA'-FOWL, the peacock or peahen. [A.S. _pawe_--L. _pavo_--Gr. _ta[=o]s_--Pers. _t[=a]wus_; and _cock_ (q.v.).] PEACOD. Same as PEASCOD. PEA-CRAB, p[=e]'-krab, _n._ a genus of small crustaceans, which live within the mantle-lobes of mussels, oysters, &c. PEAG, p[=e]g, _n._ polished shell-beads used as money among the North American Indians.--Also PEAK (p[=e]k). PEA-GREEN, p[=e]'-gr[=e]n, _adj._ a shade of green like the colour of green peas. PEA-JACKET, p[=e]'-jak'et, _n._ a coarse thick jacket worn esp. by seamen.--Also PEA'-COAT. [Dut. _pij_ (pron. p[=i]), a coat of coarse thick cloth; _jacket_.] PEAK, p[=e]k, _n._ a point: the pointed end of anything: the top of a mountain: (_naut._) the upper outer corner of a sail extended by a gaff or yard, also the extremity of the gaff.--_v.i._ to rise upward in a peak: to look thin or sickly.--_v.t._ (_naut._) to raise the point (of a gaff) more nearly perpendicular.--_adjs._ PEAKED, pointed: ending in a point: having a thin or sickly look; PEAK'ING, sickly, pining, sneaking; PEAK'ISH, having peaks: thin or sickly looking; PEAK'Y (_Tenn._), having or showing peaks. [M. E. _pec_--Ir. _peac_, a sharp thing. Cf. _Beak_, _Pike_.] PEAL, p[=e]l, _n._ a loud sound: a number of loud sounds one after another: a set of bells tuned to each other: a chime or carillon: the changes rung upon a set of bells.--_v.i._ to resound like a bell: to utter or give forth loud or solemn sounds.--_v.t._ to cause to sound loudly: to assail with noise: to celebrate. [For _appeal_; O. Fr. _apel_--_apeler_--L. _appell[=a]re_, inten. of _appell[)e]re_, _ap-_ (_ad_), to, _pell[)e]re_, to drive.] PEA-MAGGOT, p[=e]'-mag'ut, _n._ the caterpillar of a small moth which lays its eggs in pods of peas. PEAN, p[=e]n, _n._ one of the heraldic furs, differing from ermine only in the tinctures, the ground being sable and the spots of gold. [O. Fr. _panne_, a fur. Cf. _Pane_.] PEAN. See PÆAN. PEA-NUT, or _Ground-nut_. See GROUND. PEAR, p[=a]r, _n._ a common fruit of a somewhat conical shape, and very juicy to the taste: the tree on which it grows, allied to the apple.--_adj._ PEAR'IFORM, PEAR'-SHAPED, shaped like a pear--that is, thick and rounded at one end, and tapering to the other.--_n._ PEAR'-TREE. [A.S. _pera_ or _peru_--L. _pirum_, a pear (whence also Fr. _poire_).] PEAR, p[=e]'ar, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as PEER. PEARL, p[.e]rl, _n._ a well-known shining gem, found in several kinds of shellfish, but most esp. in the mother-of-pearl oyster: anything round and clear: anything very precious: a jewel: a while speck or film on the eye: (_print._) a size of type immediately above diamond, equal to 5 points (about 15 lines to the inch).--_adj._ made of, or belonging to, pearls.--_v.t._ to set or adorn with pearls: to make into small round grains.--_v.i._ to take a rounded form: to become like pearls.--_adj._ PEARL[=A]'CEOUS, resembling pearls or mother-of-pearl: spotted with white.--_ns._ PEARL'-ASH, a purer carbonate of potash, obtained by calcining potashes, so called from its pearly-white colour; PEARL'-BAR'LEY, barley after the skin has been ground off (prob. for 'pilled barley,' Fr. _orge perlé_); PEARL'-BUTT'ON, a button made of mother-of-pearl; PEARL'-DIV'ER, one who dives for pearls.--_adj._ PEARLED, set with pearls: like pearls: having a border trimmed with narrow lace.--_ns._ PEARL'-EDGE, a thread edging, a border on some ribbons formed by projecting loops of the threads; PEARL'-EYE, cataract.--_adj._ PEARL'-EYED, having a white speck on the eye.--_ns._ PEARL'-FISH'ER, one who fishes for pearls; PEARL'-FISH'ERY, the occupation of fishing for pearls, or the place where it is carried on; PEARL'-FISH'ING; PEARL'-GRAY, a pale gray colour.--_adj._ of a pale gray colour, like the pearl.--_ns._ PEARL'INESS, state of being pearly; PEARL'-NAU'TILUS, the pearly nautilus; PEARL'-OYS'TER, the oyster which produces pearls; PEARL'-POW'DER, a cosmetic for improving the appearance of the skin; PEARL'-WHITE, a material made from fish-scales, used in making artificial pearls: a kind of cosmetic.--_adj._ PEARL'Y, like a pearl, nacreous: yielding pearls: dotted with pearls: clear, transparent: having a pure sweet tone. [Fr. _perle_, acc. to Diez, prob. either a corr. of L. _pirula_, a dim. of _pirum_, a pear, or of L. _pilula_, dim. of _pila_, a ball.] PEARLING, p[.e]rl'ing, _n._ lace made of silk or other kind of thread.--Also PEARL'IN. [Ir. _peirlin_, fine linen.] PEARLING, p[.e]rl'ing, _n._ the process of removing the outer coat of grain. PEARMAIN, p[=a]r'm[=a]n, _n._ a name of several varieties of apple. PEART, p[=e]rt, _adj._ lively: saucy: in good health and spirits.--_adv._ PEART'LY. [_Pert._] PEASANT, pez'ant, _n._ a countryman: a rustic: one whose occupation is rural labour.--_adj._ of or relating to peasants, rustic, rural: rude.--_n._ PEAS'ANTRY, the body of peasants or tillers of the soil: rustics: labourers.--PEASANT PROPRIETOR, a peasant who owns and works his own farm; PEASANTS' WAR, a popular insurrection in Germany, in 1525, stamped out with horrible cruelty. [O. Fr. _paisant_ (Fr. _paysan_)--_pays_--L. _pagus_, a district.] PEASE, p[=e]z, _n._ (_Spens._) a blow. PEASE, p[=e]z, _indef. pl._ of PEA.--_ns._ PEASE'COD, PEAS'COD, the pericarp of the pea: a peacod; PEASE'-MEAL, PEASE'-PORR'IDGE, PEASE'-SOUP or PEA'-SOUP, meal, porridge, soup, made from pease. PEASEWEEP, p[=e]z'w[=e]p, _n._ (_prov._) the pewit. [Imit.] PEAT, p[=e]t, _n._ decayed vegetable matter like turf, cut out of boggy places, and when dried used for fuel.--_ns._ PEAT'-BOG, a district covered with peat: a place from which peat is dug--also PEAT'-BED, PEAT'-MOOR, PEAT'-MOSS; PEAT'-HAG, a ditch whence peat has been dug; PEAT'-REEK, the smoke of peat, supposed to add a delicate flavour to whisky; PEAT'-SPADE, a spade having a side wing at right angles for cutting peat in rectangular blocks.--_adj._ PEAT'Y, like peat: abounding in, or composed of, peat. [True form _beat_--M. E. _beten_, to mend a fire--A.S. _bétan_, to make better--_bót_, advantage.] PEBA, p[=e]'ba, _n._ a South American armadillo. PEBBLE, peb'l, _n._ a small roundish ball or stone: transparent and colourless rock-crystal used for glass in spectacles, a fine kind of glass: a large size of gunpowder.--_v.t._ to give (to leather) a rough appearance with small rounded prominences.--_adjs._ PEBB'LED, PEBB'LY, full of pebbles.--_ns._ PEBB'LE-POW'DER, gunpowder consisting of large cubical grains, and burning slowly--also _Cube-powder_ and _Prismatic-powder_; PEBB'LE-WARE, a kind of fine pottery made of various coloured clays mixed together; PEBB'LING, a way of graining leather with a ribbed or roughened appearance. [A.S. _papol_-(_-stán_), a pebble(-stone); akin to L. _papula_, a pustule.] PEBRINE, peb'rin, _n._ a destructive disease of silkworms.--_adj._ PEB'RINOUS. [Fr.] PECAN, p[=e]-kan', _n._ a North American tree whose wood is chiefly used for fuel, also the nut it yields. PECCABLE, pek'a-bl, _adj._ liable to sin.--_ns._ PECCABIL'ITY; PECC'ANCY, sinfulness: transgression.--_adj._ PECC'ANT, sinning: transgressing: guilty: morbid: offensive: bad.--_adv._ PECC'ANTLY. [L. _peccabilis_--_pecc[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to sin.] PECCADILLO, pek-a-dil'lo, _n._ a little or trifling sin: a petty fault:--_pl._ PECCADIL'LOS, PECCADIL'LOES. [Sp. _pecadillo_, dim. of _pecado_--L. _peccatum_, a sin.] PECCARY, pek'ar-i, _n._ a hog-like quadruped of South America. PECCAVI, pe-k[=a]'v[=i], I have sinned. [L. 1st pers. sing. perf. indic. act. of _pecc[=a]re_, I sin.] PECH, PEGH, peh, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to pant, to breathe hard. [Imit.] PECHT, peht, _n._ a corruption of _Pict_. PECK, pek, _n._ a measure of capacity for dry goods=2 gallons, or one-fourth of a bushel: a great amount. [M. E. _pekke_, prob. from _peck_, 'to pick up.'] PECK, pek, _v.t._ to strike with the beak: to pick up with the beak: to eat: to strike with anything pointed: to strike with repeated blows.--_ns._ PECK'ER, that which pecks: a woodpecker: (_slang_) spirit, as in 'to keep one's pecker up'=to keep up one's spirits; PECK'ING, the sport of throwing pebbles at birds.--_adj._ PECK'ISH, somewhat hungry. [_Pick._] PECKSNIFF, pek'snif, _n._ one who talks large about virtue and benevolence, while at heart a selfish and unprincipled hypocrite.--_adj._ PECK'SNIFFIAN.--_n._ PECK'SNIFFIANISM. [From Mr _Pecksniff_ in Dickens's _Martin Chuzzlewit_.] PECTEN, pek'ten, _n._ a genus of molluscs, one species of which is the scallop--so called from the valves having ribs radiating from the umbo to the margin like a comb: a membrane on the eyes of birds.--_adjs._ PECTIN[=A]'CEOUS, like the scallops; PEC'TINAL, of a comb: comb-like: having bones like the teeth of a comb; PEC'TIN[=A]TE, -D, having teeth like a comb: resembling the teeth of a comb.--_adv._ PEC'TIN[=A]TELY.--_n._ PECTIN[=A]'TION, the state of being pectinated--_adjs._ PECTIN[=E]'AL, having a comb-like crest; PEC'TINIBRANCHIATE, having comb-like gills; PEC'TINIFORM, comb-like. [L. _pecten_, a comb.] PECTIC, pek'tik, _adj._ congealing, curdling.--_ns._ PEC'TIN, PEC'TINE, a soluble gelatinising substance obtained from pectose; PEC'T[=O]SE, a substance yielding pectin, contained in the fleshy pulp of unripe fruit. [Gr. _p[=e]ktikos_, congealing--_p[=e]gnynai_, to make solid.] PECTORAL, pek't[=o]-ral, _adj._ relating to the breast or chest.--_n._ armour for the breast: an ornament worn on the breast, esp. the breastplate worn by the ancient Jewish high-priest, and the square of gold, embroidery, &c. formerly worn on the breast over the chasuble by bishops during mass: a pectoral cross: a pectoral fin: a medicine for the chest.--_adv._ PEC'TORALLY.--_n._ PECTORIL'OQUY, the sound of the patient's voice heard through the stethoscope when applied to the chest in certain morbid conditions of the lungs.--PECTORAL FINS, the anterior paired fins of fishes; PECTORAL THEOLOGY, a name sometimes applied to the theology of those Christians who make much of experience and emotion, as themselves guides to a knowledge of divine truth--in Neander's phrase, 'Pectus est quod facit theologum.' [Fr.,--L. _pectoralis_--_pectus_, _pectoris_, the breast.] PECULATE, pek'[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to take for one's own use money or property entrusted to one's care: to embezzle: to steal.--_ns._ PECUL[=A]'TION; PEC'UL[=A]TOR. [L. _pecul[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_--_pec[=u]lium_, private property, akin to _pecunia_, money.] PECULIAR, p[=e]-k[=u]l'yar, _adj._ one's own: belonging to no other: appropriate: particular: odd, uncommon, strange.--_n._ (_obs._) private property: a parish or church exempt from the jurisdiction of the ordinary or bishop in whose diocese it is placed.--_v.t._ PECUL'IARISE, to set apart.--_n._ PECULIAR'ITY, quality of being peculiar or singular: that which is found in one and in no other: that which marks a person off from others: individuality.--_adv._ PECUL'IARLY.--_n._ PEC[=U]'LIUM, private property, esp. that given by a father to a son, &c.--PECULIAR PEOPLE, the people of Israel: a sect of faith-healers, founded in London in 1838, who reject medical aid in cases of disease, and rely on anointing with oil by the elders, and on prayer, with patient nursing. [Fr.,--L. _peculiaris_--_peculium_, private property.] PECUNIARY, p[=e]-k[=u]'ni-ar-i, _adj._ relating to money: consisting of money.--_adv._ PEC[=U]'NIARILY.--_adj._ PEC[=U]'NIOUS, rich. [Fr.,--L. _pecuniarius_--_pecunia_, money--_pecu-_, which appears in L. _pecudes_ (pl.), cattle.] PED, ped, _n._ (_Spens._) a basket, a hamper. [_Pad._] PEDAGOGUE, ped'a-gog, _n._ a teacher: a pedant.--_v.t._ to teach.--_adjs._ PEDAGOG'IC, -AL, relating to teaching: belonging to, or possessed by, a teacher of children.--_ns._ PEDAGOG'ICS, PED'AGOGISM, PED'AGOGY, the science of teaching: instruction: discipline. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _paidag[=o]gos_--_pais_, _paidos_, a boy, _ag[=o]gos_, a leader--_agein_, to lead.] PEDAL, ped'al, _adj._ pertaining to a foot.--_n._ any part of a machine transmitting power from the foot: in musical instruments, a lever moved by the foot.--_v.i._ to work a pedal.--_n._ P[=E]D[=A]'LE, a foot-cloth in front of an altar: a collection of canons of general councils in the Greek Church.--_adjs._ P[=E]D[=A]'LIAN, relating to the foot, or to a metrical foot; PED'[=A]TE, divided like a foot: (_bot._) having the side lobes of a divided leaf also divided into smaller parts, the midribs of which do not run to a common centre as in the palmate leaf.--_adv._ PED'[=A]TELY.--_adj._ PEDAT'IFID, divided in a pedate manner, but having the divisions connected at the base.--COMBINATION PEDAL, a metal pedal in organs controlling several stops at once. [L. _pedalis_--_pes_, _pedis_, the foot.] PEDANT, ped'ant, _n._ one who makes a vain display of learning: a pretender to knowledge which he does not possess: (_Shak._) a pedagogue.--_adjs._ PEDANT'IC, -AL, displaying knowledge for the sake of showing.--_adv._ PEDANT'ICALLY, in a pedantic manner.--_ns._ PEDANT'ICISM, PED'ANTISM.--_v.i._ PED'ANTISE, to play the pedant.--_ns._ PEDANTOC'RACY, government by pedants; PED'ANTRY, acts, manners, or character of a pedant: vain display of learning: (_Swift_) the overrating of any kind of knowledge we pretend to. [Fr.,--It. _pedante_--L. _pædagogan_s, _-antis_, teaching--_pædagogus_, a pedagogue.] PEDDLE, ped'l, _v.i._ to travel about with a basket or bundle of goods, esp. of smallwares, for sale: to trifle.--_v.t._ to retail in small quantities.--_ns._ PEDD'LER, PED'LAR, PED'LER, a hawker or travelling merchant; PEDD'LERY, PED'LARY, the trade or tricks of a peddler: wares sold by a peddler.--_adj._ PEDD'LING, unimportant.--_n._ the trade or tricks of a peddler. [_Peddar_, _pedder_, one who carries wares in a _ped_ or basket.] PEDERASTY, ped'e-rast-i, _n._ unnatural commerce of males with males, esp. boys.--_n._ PED'ERAST, one addicted to this vice.--_adj._ PEDERAST'IC. [Gr., _pais_, _paidos_, a boy, _erast[=e]s_--_eraein_, to love.] PEDERERO, ped-e-r[=e]'r[=o], _n._ an old gun for discharging stones, pieces of iron, &c., also for firing salutes. PEDESIS, ped-[=e]'sis, _n._ the rapid oscillation of small particles in a liquid. PEDESTAL, ped'es-tal, _n._ anything that serves as a foot or a support: the foot or base of a pillar, &c.: the fixed casting which holds the brasses, in which a shaft turns, called also _Axle-guard_ or _Pillow-block_.--_v.t._ to place on a pedestal. [Sp.,--It. _piedestallo_--L. _pes_, _pedis_, the foot, It. _stallo_, a place.] PEDESTRIAN, p[=e]-des'tri-an, _adj._ going on foot: performed on foot: pertaining to common people: vulgar.--_n._ one journeying on foot: an expert walker, one who practises feats of walking or running.--_adj._ P[=E]DES'TRIAL, of or pertaining to the foot: pedestrian.--_adv._ P[=E]DES'TRIALLY.--_v.t._ P[=E]DES'TRIANISE, to traverse on foot.--_n._ P[=E]DES'TRIANISM, a going on foot: walking: the practice of a pedestrian. [L. _pedestris_--_pes_, _pedis_.] PEDETENTOUS, ped-[=e]-ten'tus, _adj._ proceeding slowly. PEDIATRICS, ped-i-at'riks, _n.pl._ that branch of medical science which relates to children and their special diseases.--Also PED'IATRY. [Gr. _pais_, _paidos_, a child, _iatrikos_, relating to a physician.] PEDICEL, ped'i-sel, _n._ the little footstalk by which a single leaf or flower is fixed on the twig or on the cluster of which it forms a part--also PED'ICLE.--_n._ PEDICELL[=A]'RIA, a minute structure on the skin of sea-urchins and star-fish, like a stalk with a three or two bladed snapping forceps at the summit.--_adjs._ PED'ICELLATE, PEDIC'[=U]LATE, provided with a pedicel.--_n._ PED'ICLE, a fetter for the foot. [Fr. _pédicelle_--L. _pediculus_, dim. of _pes_, _pedis_, the foot.] PEDICULUS, p[=e]-dik'[=u]-lus, _n._ a genus of lice, or an individual of it.--_adjs._ P[=E]DIC'ULAR, P[=E]DIC'ULOUS, lousy.--_ns._ P[=E]DICUL[=A]'TION, P[=E]DICUL[=O]'SIS, lousiness. PEDICURE, ped'i-k[=u]r, _n._ the treatment of corns, bunions, or the like: one who treats the feet. PEDIFEROUS, p[=e]-dif'e-rus, _adj._ footed--also P[=E]DIG'EROUS.--_adj._ PED'IFORM, foot-shaped. PEDIGREE, ped'i-gr[=e], _n._ a line of ancestors: a list, in order, of the ancestors from whom one has descended: lineage: genealogy.--_adj._ PED'IGREED, having a pedigree. [Skeat suggests Fr. _pied de grue_, crane's-foot, from its use in the drawing out of pedigrees.] PEDIMANOUS, p[=e]-dim'a-nus, _adj._ having all four feet like hands--of the opossums and lemurs.--_n._ PED'IMANE. [Illustration] PEDIMENT, ped'i-ment, _n._ (_archit._) a triangular or circular ornament which crowns the fronts of buildings, and serves as a finish to the tops of doors, windows, porticoes, &c.--_adjs._ PEDIMENT'AL; PED'IMENTED, furnished with a pediment: like a pediment. [L. _pedamentum_--_pes_, _pedis_, the foot.] PEDIPALP, ped'i-palp, _n._ a maxillipalp or maxillary palpus.--_adj._ pertaining to the same.--_n.pl._ PEDIPAL'PI, an order of _Arachnida_.--_adj._ PEDIPAL'POUS. PEDLAR. See PEDDLE. PEDOBAPTISM, p[=e]-d[=o]-bap'tizm, _n._ infant baptism.--_n._ PEDOBAP'TIST, one who believes in infant baptism. [Gr. _pais_, _paidos_, a child, _baptism_.] PEDOMETER, p[=e]-dom'et-[.e]r, _n._ an instrument, somewhat like a watch, by which the number of the steps of a pedestrian are registered, from which the distance he has walked is measured.--_adj._ PEDOMET'RIC. [L. _pes_, _pedis_, a foot, Gr. _metron_, a measure.] PEDOMOTOR, ped-[=o]-m[=o]'tor, _n._ a means for applying the foot as a driving power.--_adj._ PEDOM[=O]'TIVE. PEDOTROPHY, p[=e]-dot'r[=o]-fi, _n._ the rearing of children.--_adj._ PEDOTROPH'IC.--_n._ PEDOT'ROPHIST. [Gr. _pais_, _paidos_, a child, _trephein_, to nourish.] PEDUM, p[=e]'dum, _n._ a shepherd's crook. [L.] PEDUNCLE, p[=e]-dung'kl, _n._ the stalk by which a cluster of flowers or leaves is joined to a twig or branch--sometimes same as _pedicel_--also PEDUN'CULUS.--_adjs._ PEDUN'CULAR, PEDUN'CULATE, -D. [Fr. _pedoncule_--Low L. _pedunculus_--L. _pes_, _pedis_, the foot.] PEECE, p[=e]s, _n._ (_Shak._) a fabric, a fortified place. PEECED, p[=e]sd, _adj._ (_Spens._) imperfect. PEEK, p[=e]k, _v.i._ to peep.--_n._ PEEK'ABOO, a children's game, from the cry made when hiding one's eyes. PEEL, p[=e]l, _v.t._ to strip off the skin or bark: to bare.--_v.i._ to come off as the skin: to lose the skin: (_slang_) to undress.--_n._ the skin, rind, or bark: (_print._) a wooden pole with short cross-piece for carrying printed sheets to the poles on which they are to be dried: the wash or blade of an oar--not the loom: a mark ([Peel mark]) for cattle, for persons who cannot write, &c.--_adj._ PEELED, stripped of skin, rind, or bark: plundered.--_ns._ PEEL'ER, one who peels, a plunderer; PEEL'ING, the act of stripping: that which is stripped off: (_print._) the removing of the layers of a paper overlay, to get a lighter impression. [O. Fr. _peler_, to unskin--L. _pil[=a]re_, to deprive of hair--_pilus_, a hair; or _pellis_, a skin.] PEEL, p[=e]l, _n._ a small Border fortress.--Also PEEL'-TOW'ER. [_Pile_.] PEEL, p[=e]l, _n._ a baker's wooden shovel: a fire-shovel. [O. Fr. _pele_--L. _p[=a]la_, a spade.] PEEL, p[=e]l, _v.t._ to plunder: to pillage. [_Pill_ (v.).] PEELER, p[=e]l'[.e]r, _n._ a policeman, from Sir R. _Peel_, who established the Irish police (1812-18) and improved those in Britain (1828-30).--_n._ PEEL'ITE, a follower of Peel in the reform of the Corn-laws in 1846. PEEN, p[=e]n, _n._ the end of a hammer-head, usually shaped for indenting.--_v.t._ to strike with such. [Ger. _pinne_.] PEENGE, p[=e]nj, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to complain childishly. PEEP, p[=e]p, _v.i._ to chirp, or cry as a chicken.--_n._ the cry of a young chicken. [Fr. _piper_--L. _pip[=a]re_.] PEEP, p[=e]p, _v.i._ to look through a narrow opening: to look out from concealment: to look slyly or cautiously: to begin to appear.--_n._ a sly look: a beginning to appear, a glimpse: a narrow view, a slit.--_ns._ PEEP'ER, one that peeps: a prying person: a chicken just breaking the shell: (_slang_) the eye; PEEP'-HOLE, a hole through which one may look without being seen; PEEP'-O'-DAY, the first appearance of light in the morning; PEEP'-SHOW, a small show viewed through a small hole, usually fitted with a magnifying-glass; PEEP'-SIGHT, a plate on the breach with a small hole through which a gunner takes his sight.--PEEPING TOM, a prying fellow, esp. one who peeps in at windows; PEEP-O'-DAY BOYS, a band of Protestants in the north of Ireland, in the end of the 18th century--opposed to the Catholic _Defenders_. [Same as above, Fr. _piper_, to chirp like a bird, then to beguile, whence _peep_=to look out slyly.] PEER, p[=e]r, _n._ an equal in rank, ability, character, &c.: an associate: a nobleman: a member of the House of Lords:--_fem._ PEER'ESS.--_n._ PEER'AGE, the rank or dignity of a peer: the body of peers: a book containing a description of the history, connections, &c. of the different peers.--_adj._ PEER'LESS, having no peer or equal: matchless.--_adv._ PEER'LESSLY.--_n._ PEER'LESSNESS.--HOUSE OF PEERS, the House of Lords; SPIRITUAL PEER, one of the bishops or archbishops qualified to sit as members of the House of Lords; TEMPORAL PEER, one of the members of the House of Lords, other than the bishops. [O. Fr. (Fr. _pair_),--L. _par_, _paris_, equal.] PEER, p[=e]r, _v.i._ to look narrowly or closely: to peep: to appear:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ peered.--_adj._ PEER'Y, prying, sly. [M. E. _piren_--Low Ger. _piren_, orig. _pliren_, to draw the eyelids together.] PEERIE, PEERY, p[=e]r'i, _n._ a top spun with a string. PEEVERS, p[=e]v'ers, _n._ (_Scot._) the game of hop-scotch. PEEVISH, p[=e]v'ish, _adj._ habitually fretful: easily annoyed: hard to please: showing ill-nature: childish.--_adv._ PEEV'ISHLY.--_n._ PEEV'ISHNESS. [Prob. imit. of the puling of fretful infants.] PEEWIT. Same as PEWIT. PEG, peg, _n._ a wooden pin for fastening boards, or the soles of shoes: one of the pins on which the strings of a musical instrument are stretched: a reason or excuse for action: a drink of soda-water with brandy, &c.: a degree or step.--_v.t._ to fasten with a peg: to keep up the market price by buying or selling at a fixed price: to make points during the game of cribbage before the show of hands.--_v.i._ to work with unremitting effort:--_pr.p._ peg'ging; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ pegged.--_ns._ PEG'-FICHED, an English game played with pegs or pointed sticks; PEG'-FLOAT, a machine for rasping away the ends of pegs inside shoes.--_adj._ PEGGED, fashioned of, or furnished with, pegs.--_ns._ PEG'GING, the act of fastening with a peg: pegs collectively: a thrashing: determined perseverance in work; PEG'-LEG, a wooden leg of the simplest form, or one who walks on such; PEG'-STRIP, a ribbon of wood cut to the width, &c., of a shoe-peg; PEG'-TANK'ARD, a drinking-vessel having each one's share marked off by a knob; PEG'-TOP, a child's plaything made to spin round by winding a string round it and then rapidly pulling it off: (_pl._) a kind of trousers, wide at the top and narrow at the ankles.--_adj._ shaped like a top.--PEG AWAY, to keep continually working.--TAKE DOWN A PEG, to take down, to humble. [Scand.; as in Dan. _pig_, a spike.] PEGASUS, peg'a-sus, _n._ a winged horse which arose from the blood of the Gorgon Medusa, when she was slain by Perseus: a genus of small fishes with large, wing-like, pectoral fins: one of the constellations in the northern sky.--_adj._ PEGAS[=E]'AN. PEGGY, peg'i, _n._ one of several small warblers, the whitethroat, &c. [_Peggy_, from _Peg_=_Meg_--_Margaret_.] PEGMATITE, peg'ma-t[=i]t, _n._ coarsely crystallised granite.--_adj._ PEGMATIT'IC. PEHLEVI, p[=a]'le-v[=e], _n._ an ancient West Iranian idiom during the period of the Sassanides, largely mixed with Semitic words, and poorer in inflections and terminations than Zend (235-640 A.D.): the characters used in writing this language.--_adj._ of or pertaining to, or written in, Pehlevi. [Pers.] PEIGNOIR, p[=e]n-wär', _n._ a loose wrapper worn by women during their toilet. [Fr.] PEINCT, p[=a]ngkt, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to paint. PEINE, p[=a]n, _n._ a form of punishment by pressing to death--usually _Peine forte et dure_. [Fr.] PEIRASTIC, p[=i]-ras'tik, _adj._ tentative.--_n._ PEIRAM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the resistances of road-surface to traction. [Gr. _peira_, a trial.] PEISE, p[=a]z, _v.t._ (_Spens._, _Shak._) to poise, to weigh.--_n._ a weight. [_Poise_.] PEJORATION, p[=e]-j[=o]-r[=a]'shun, _n._ a becoming worse: deterioration.--_v.i._ P[=E]'JOR[=A]TE.--_adj._ and _n._ P[=E]'JOR[=A]TIVE.--_n._ P[=E]JOR'ITY. [L. _pejor_, worse, comp. of _malus_, bad.] PEKAN, pek'an, _n._ an American species of Marten--called also _Wood-shock_, _Fisher_, and _Black-fox_. PEKOE, p[=e]'k[=o], _n._ a scented black tea. [Chinese.] PELAGE, pel'[=a]j, _n._ the hair or wool of a mammal. [Fr.] PELAGIAN, p[=e]-l[=a]'ji-an, _n._ one who holds the views of _Pelagius_, a British monk of the 4th century, who denied original sin.--_adj._ pertaining to Pelagius.--_n._ PEL[=A]'GIANISM, the doctrines of Pelagius. PELAGIC, p[=e]-laj'ik, _adj._ inhabiting the deep sea, marine, oceanic. [Gr. _pelagos_, the sea.] PELARGONIUM, pel-ar-g[=o]'ni-um, _n._ a vast genus of beautiful flowering plants of order _Geraniaceæ_.--_adj._ P[=E]LAR'GIC, stork-like. [Gr. _pelargos_, stork, the beaked capsules resembling a stork's beak.] PELASGIC, p[=e]-las'jik, _adj._ pertaining to the _Pelasgians_ or _Pelasgi_, a race spread over Greece in prehistoric times, to whom are ascribed many enormous remains built of unhewn stones, without cement--the so-called PELASGIC ARCHITECTURE. Also PELAS'GIAN. PÊLE-MÊLE. See PELL-MELL, _adv._ PELERINE, pel'[.e]r-in, _n._ a woman's tippet or cape with long ends coming down in front. [Fr., a tippet--_pèlerin_, a pilgrim--L. _peregrinus_, foreign.] PELF, pelf, _n._ riches (in a bad sense): money. [O. Fr. _pelfre_, booty; allied to _pilfer_.] PELICAN, pel'i-kan, _n._ a large water-fowl, having an enormous distensible gular pouch: an alembic with tubulated head from which two opposite and crooked beaks extend and enter again the body of the vessel--used for continuous distillation: a dentist's instrument: (_her._) a pelican above her nest, with wings indorsed, wounding her breast with her beak in order to feed her young with her blood. [Low L. _pelicanus_--Gr. _pelikan_--_pelekus_, an axe.] PELIKE, pel'i-k[=e], _n._ a large vase like the hydria, double-handled. [Gr.] PELISSE, pe-l[=e]s', _n._ a cloak of silk or other cloth, with sleeves, worn by ladies: a garment lined with fur, a dragoon's jacket with shaggy lining. [Fr.,--Low L. _pellicea (vestis)_--L. _pellis_, a skin.] PELL, pel, _n._ a skin or hide: a roll of parchment. [O. Fr. _pel_ (Fr. _peau_)--L. _pellis_, a skin or hide.] PELLAGRA, pe-l[=a]'gra, _n._ a loathsome skin disease supposed to be common in the rice-producing part of the north of Italy.--_n._ PELL[=A]'GRIN, one afflicted with pellagra.--_adj._ PELL[=A]'GROUS, like or afflicted with pellagra. [Gr. _pella_, skin, _agra_, seizure.] PELLET, pel'et, _n._ a little ball, as of lint or wax: a small rounded boss: a small pill: a ball of shot.--_adj._ PELL'ETED, consisting of pellets: pelted, as with bullets. [O. Fr. _pelote_--L. _pila_, a ball.] PELLICLE, pel'i-kl, _n._ a thin skin or film: the film or scum which gathers on liquors.--_adj._ PELLIC'ULAR. PELLITORY, pel'i-tor-i, _n._ a genus of plants found most commonly on old walls and heaps of rubbish: the feverfew.--_n._ PELL'ITORY-OF-SPAIN, a plant which grows in Algeria, the root of which causes in the hands first a sensation of extreme cold, then one of a burning heat. [L. _parietaria_, the wall-plant--_parietarius_--_paries_, _parietis_, a wall.] PELL-MELL, pel-mel', _adv._ in great confusion: promiscuously: in a disorderly manner--also written _Pêle-mêle_.--_n._ PELL-MELL' (same as PALL-MALL). [O. Fr. _pesle-mesle_ (Fr. _pêle-mêle_), _-mesle_ being from O. Fr. _mesler_ (Fr. _mêler_), to mix--Low L. _miscul[=a]re_--L. _misc[=e]re_; and _pesle_, a rhyming addition, perh. influenced by Fr. _pelle_, shovel.] PELLUCID, pe-l[=u]'sid, _adj._ perfectly clear: letting light through: transparent.--_ns._ PELL[=U]CID'ITY, PELL[=U]'CIDNESS.--_adv._ PELL[=U]'CIDLY. [Fr.,--L. _pellucidus_--_per_, perfectly, _lucidus_, clear--_luc[=e]re_, to shine.] PELMA, pel'ma, _n._ the sole of the foot.--_n._ PELMAT'OGRAM, the impression of the foot. [Gr.] PELOPID, pel'[=o]-pid, _adj._ pertaining to _Pelops_.--_n._ one of his descendants. PELOPONNESIAN, pel-[=o]-po-n[=e]'zi-an, _adj._ of or pertaining to the _Peloponnesus_ or southern part of Greece.--_n._ an inhabitant or a native of the Peloponnesus.--PELOPONNESIAN WAR, a war between Athens and Sparta (431-404 B.C.). [Gr. _Pelops_, an ancient Greek hero, _n[=e]sos_, an island.] PELORIA, p[=e]-l[=o]'ri-a, _n._ the appearance of regularity in flowers normally irregular--also PEL'ORISM.--_adjs._ P[=E]LOR'IATE, P[=E]LOR'IC. [Gr. _pel[=o]r_, a monster.] PELT, pelt, _n._ a raw hide: the quarry or prey of a hawk all torn.--_ns._ PELT'MONGER, a dealer in skins; PELT'RY, the skins of animals with the fur on them: furs. [M. E. _pelt_, _peltry_--O. Fr. _pelleterie_--_pelletier_, a skinner--L. _pellis_, a skin.] PELT, pelt, _v.t._ to strike with something thrown: to cast.--_v.i._ to fall heavily, as rain.--_n._ a blow from something thrown.--_ns._ PEL'TER, a shower of missiles, a sharp storm of rain, &c.: a storm of anger; PEL'TING, an assault with a pellet, or with anything thrown. [Cf. _Pellet_.] PELTA, pel'ta, _n._ a light buckler.--_n._ PEL'TAST, a soldier armed with this.--_adjs._ PEL'T[=A]TE, -D, shield-shaped; PELTAT'IFID, PEL'TIFORM. [L.,--Gr. _pelt[=e]_.] PELTING, pel'ting, _adj._ (_Shak._) paltry, contemptible.--_adv._ PELT'INGLY. [_Paltry_.] PELVIS, pel'vis, _n._ the bony cavity at the lower end of the trunk, forming the lower part of the abdomen.--_adjs._ PEL'VIC, of or pertaining to the pelvis; PEL'VIFORM, openly cup-shaped.--_ns._ PELVIM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the diameters of the pelvis; PELVIM'ETRY. [L. _pelvis_, a basin.] PEMMICAN, PEMICAN, pem'i-kan, _n._ a North American Indian preparation, consisting of lean venison, dried, pounded, and pressed into cakes, now made of beef and used in Arctic expeditions, &c. PEMPHIGUS, pem'fi-gus, _n._ an affection of the skin with pustules.--_adj._ PEM'PHIGOID. [Gr.] PEN, pen, _v.t._ to shut up: to confine in a small enclosure:--_pr.p._ pen'ning; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ penned or pent.--_n._ a small enclosure: a fold for animals: a coop. [A.S. _pennan_, to shut up, in comp. _on pennan_, to unpen. Prop. to fasten with a _pin_.] PEN, pen, _n._ one of the large feathers of the wing of a bird: an instrument used for writing, formerly made of the feather of a bird, but now of steel, &c.: style of writing: a female swan--opp. to _Cob_.--_v.t._ to write, to commit to paper:--_pr.p._ pen'ning; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ penned.--_adj._ PEN'-AND-INK', written, literary: executed with pen and ink, as a drawing.--_ns._ PEN'-CASE, a holder for a pen or pens; PEN'CRAFT, skill in penmanship: the art of composition; PEN'-DRIV'ER, a clerk; PEN'FUL, what one can write with one dip of ink; PEN'-HOLD'ER, a holder for pens or nibs; PEN'-W[=I]'PER, a piece of cloth, leather, &c. for wiping pens after use; PEN'-WOM'AN, a female writer. [O. Fr. _penne_--L. _penna_, a feather.] PENAL, p[=e]'nal, _adj._ pertaining to, incurring, or constituting punishment: used for punishment.--_v.t._ P[=E]'NALISE, to lay under penalty.--_adv._ P[=E]'NALLY.--PENAL LAWS, laws prohibiting certain actions under penalties; PENAL SERVITUDE, hard labour in a prison as a punishment for crime--introduced in England in 1853 instead of transportation; PENAL STATUTE, a statute imposing a penalty or punishment for crime. [Fr.,--L. _poenalis_--_poena_, Gr. _poin[=e]_, punishment.] PENALTY, pen'al-ti, _n._ punishment: suffering in person or property for wrong-doing or for breach of a law: a fine or loss which a person agrees to pay or bear in case of his non-fulfilment of some undertaking: a fine.--UNDER PENALTY OF, so as to suffer, or (after a negative) without suffering the punishment of. PENANCE, pen'ans, _n._ repentance: external acts performed to manifest sorrow for sin, to seek to atone for the sin and to avert the punishment which, even after the guilt has been remitted, may still remain due to the offence--also the sacrament by which absolution is conveyed (involving contrition, confession, and satisfaction): any instrument of self-punishment.--_v.t._ to impose penance on: to punish. [O. Fr.; cf. _Penitence_.] PENANG-LAWYER, pe-nang'-law'y[.e]r, _n._ a walking-stick made from the stem of a Penang palm. [Prob. a corr. of _Penang liyar_, the wild areca.] PENANNULAR, p[=e]-nan'[=u]-lar, _adj._ shaped almost like a ring. [L. _pæna_, almost, _annularis_, annular.] PENATES, p[=e]-n[=a]'t[=e]s, _n.pl._ the household gods of ancient Rome who presided over and were worshipped by each family. [L., from root _pen-_ in L. _penitus_, within, _penetralia_, the inner part of anything.] PENCE, pens, _n._ plural of _penny_ (q.v.). PENCHANT, päng'shäng, _n._ inclination: decided taste: bias. [Fr., pr.p. of _pencher_, to incline, through a form _pendic[=a]re_, from L. _pend[=e]re_, to hang.] PENCIL, pen'sil, _n._ a small hair brush for laying on colours: any pointed instrument for writing or drawing without ink: a collection of rays of light converging to a point: the art of painting or drawing.--_v.t._ to write, sketch, or mark with a pencil: to paint or draw:--_pr.p._ pen'cilling; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ pen'cilled.--_ns._ PEN'CIL-CASE, a holder for a pencil; PEN'CIL-COM'PASS, a compass having a pencil on one of its legs for use in drawing.--_adjs._ PEN'CILLED, written or marked with a pencil: having pencils of rays: radiated: (_bot._) marked with fine lines, as with a pencil; PEN'CILLIFORM, having the form of a pencil, as of rays.--_ns._ PEN'CILLING, the art of writing, sketching, or marking with a pencil: marks made with a pencil: fine lines on flowers or the feathers of birds: a sketch; PEN'CIL-SKETCH, a sketch made with a pencil. [O. Fr. _pincel_ (Fr. _pinceau_)--L. _penicillum_, a painter's brush, dim. of _penis_, a tail.] PEND, pend, _n._ (_obs._) an enclosure: (_Scot._) a narrow close leading off a main street. PEND, pend, _v.i._ to hang, as in a balance, to impend.--_adj._ PEND'ING, hanging: remaining undecided: not terminated.--_prep._ during. PENDANT, pen'dant, _n._ anything hanging, esp. for ornament: an earring: a lamp hanging from the roof: an ornament of wood or of stone hanging downwards from a roof: a long narrow flag, at the head of the principal mast in a royal ship: something attached to another thing of the same kind, an appendix, a companion picture, poem, &c.--_ns._ PEN'DENCE, PEN'DENCY, a hanging in suspense: state of being undecided.--_adj._ PEN'DENT, hanging: projecting: supported above the ground or base: (_bot._) hanging downwards, as a flower or a leaf.--_n._ PENDEN'TIVE (_archit._), the triangular portion of a dome cut off between two supporting arches at right angles to each other.--_adv._ PEN'DENTLY.--_ns._ PEN'DICLE, an appendage: something attached to another, as a privilege, a small piece of ground for cultivation; PEN'D[=U]LET, a pendant. [Fr. _pendant_, pr.p. of _pendre_, to hang--L. _pendens_, _-entis_--_pr.p._ of _pend[=e]re_, to hang.] PENDRAGON, pen-drag'on, _n._ a chief leader: an ancient British chief.--_n._ PENDRAG'ONSHIP. [W. _pen_, head, _dragon_, a chief.] PENDULUM, pen'd[=u]-lum, _n._ any weight so hung from a fixed point as to swing freely: the swinging weight which regulates the movement of a clock: a lamp, &c., pendent from a ceiling: a guard-ring of a watch by which it is attached to a chain.--_adj._ PEN'DULAR, relating to a pendulum.--_v.i._ PEN'DULATE, to swing, vibrate.--_adjs._ PEN'DULENT, pendulous; PEN'DULINE, building a pendulous nest; PEN'DULOUS, hanging loosely: swinging freely, as the pensile nests of birds: (_bot._) hanging downwards, as a flower on a curved stalk.--_adv._ PEN'DULOUSLY.--_ns._ PEN'DULOUSNESS, PEN'DULOSITY.--PENDULUM WIRE, a kind of flat steel wire for clock pendulums.--COMPENSATION PENDULUM, a pendulum so constructed that its rod is not altered in length by changes of temperature; COMPOUND PENDULUM, every ordinary pendulum is _compound_, as differing from a SIMPLE PENDULUM, which is a material point suspended by an ideal line; INVARIABLE PENDULUM, a pendulum for carrying from station to station to be oscillated at each so as to fix the relative acceleration of gravity; LONG and SHORT PENDULUM, a pendulum for determining the absolute force of gravity by means of a bob suspended by a wire of varying length. [L., neut. of _pendulus_, hanging--_pend[=e]re_, to hang.] PENEIAN, p[=e]-n[=e]'yan, _adj._ relating to the river _Peneus_ in the famous Vale of Tempe in Thessaly. PENELOPISE, p[=e]-nel'o-p[=i]z, _v.i._ to act like _Penelope_, the wife of Ulysses, who undid at night the work she did by day, to gain time from her suitors. PENETRATE, pen'[=e]-tr[=a]t, _v.t._ to thrust into the inside: to pierce into: to affect the mind or feelings: to enter and to fill: to understand: to find out.--_v.i._ to make way: to pass inwards.--_ns._ PENETRABIL'ITY, PEN'ETRABLENESS.--_adj._ PEN'ETRABLE, that may be penetrated or pierced by another body: capable of having impressions made upon the mind.--_adv._ PEN'ETRABLY, so as to be penetrated--_n.pl._ PENETR[=A]'LIA, the inmost parts of a building: secrets: mysteries.--_ns._ PEN'ETRANCE, PEN'ETRANCY, the quality of being penetrant.--_adjs._ PEN'ETRANT, subtle, penetrating; PEN'ETRATING, piercing or entering: sharp: subtle: acute: discerning.--_adv._ PEN'ETRATINGLY.--_n._ PENETR[=A]'TION, the act or power of penetrating or entering: acuteness: discernment: the space-penetrating power of a telescope.--_adj._ PEN'ETRATIVE, tending to penetrate: piercing: sagacious: affecting the mind.--_adv._ PEN'ETRATIVELY, in a penetrative manner.--_n._ PEN'ETRATIVENESS, the quality of being penetrative: penetrative power. [L. _penetr[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_penes_, within.] PEN-FISH, pen'-fish, _n._ a sparoid fish of genus _Calamus_. PENFOLD. Same as PINFOLD. PENGUIN, pen'gwin, _n._ an aquatic bird in the southern hemisphere, unable to fly, but very expert in diving--also PIN'GUIN.--_n._ PEN'GUINERY, a breeding-place of penguins. [Ety. dub.; a corr. of _pen-wing_, or from W. _pen_, head, _gwen_, white.] PEN-GUN, pen'-gun, _n._ a pop-gun. PENICIL, pen'i-sil, _n._ a brush of hairs: a pledget for wounds, &c.--_adjs._ PEN'ICILLATE, PENICIL'LIFORM.--_n._ PENICIL'LIUM, one of the blue-moulds. PENINSULA, p[=e]-nin's[=u]-la, _n._ land so surrounded by water as to be almost an island.--_adj._ PENIN'SULAR, pertaining to a peninsula: in the form of a peninsula: inhabiting a peninsula.--_n._ PENINSULAR'ITY, state of being, or of inhabiting, a peninsula: narrow provincialism.--_v.t._ PENIN'SULATE, to form into a peninsula: to surround almost entirely with water.--PENINSULAR WAR, the war in Spain and Portugal, carried on by Great Britain against Napoleon's marshals (1804-1814).--THE PENINSULA, Spain and Portugal. [L.,--_pæne_, almost, _insula_, an island.] PENIS, p[=e]'nis, _n._ the characteristic external male organ.--_adj._ P[=E]'NIAL. [L., a tail.] PENISTONE, pen'i-st[=o]n, _n._ a coarse frieze.--PENISTONE FLAGS, a kind of sandstone for paving and building, brought from _Penistone_ in Yorkshire. PENITENT, pen'i-tent, _adj._ suffering pain or sorrow for sin: contrite: repentant.--_n._ one who is sorry for sin: one who has confessed sin, and is undergoing penance.--_ns._ PEN'ITENCE, PEN'ITENCY, state of being penitent: sorrow for sin.--_adj._ PENITEN'TIAL, pertaining to, or expressive of, penitence.--_n._ a book of rules relating to penance.--_adv._ PENITEN'TIALLY.--_adj._ PENITEN'TIARY, relating to penance: penitential.--_n._ a penitent: an office at the court of Rome for examining and issuing secret bulls, dispensations, &c.: a book for guidance in imposing penances: a place for the performance of penance: a house of correction and punishment for offenders.--_adv._ PEN'ITENTLY.--PENITENTIAL GARMENT, a rough garment worn for penance; PENITENTIAL PSALMS, certain psalms suitable for being sung by penitents, as the 6th, 32d, 38th, 51st, 102d, 130th, 143d. [Fr.,--L. _poenitens_, _-entis_--_poenit[=e]re_, to cause to repent.] PENKNIFE, pen'n[=i]f, _n._ a small knife, originally for making and mending quill pens. PENMAN, pen'man, _n._ a man skilled in the use of the pen: an author:--_pl._ PEN'MEN.--_n._ PEN'MANSHIP, the use of the pen: art or manner of writing. PENNA, pen'a, _n._ a feather, esp. one of the large feathers of the wings or tail.--_adj._ PENN[=A]'CEOUS. [L.] PENNAL, pen'al, _n._ a freshman at a German university--so called from their pennales or pen-cases.--_n._ PENN'ALISM, a system of fagging once in vogue at German universities. PEN-NAME, pen'-n[=a]m, _n._ a name, other than his real one, by which an author is known to the public: a nom de plume. PENNANT, pen'ant, _n._ a flag many times as long as it is wide: a streamer: a long narrow piece of bunting at the mast-heads of war-ships.--Also PENN'ON. [_Pennant_ is formed from _pennon_, with excrescent _t_; _pennon_ is Fr. _pennon_--L. _penna_, a wing.] PENNATE, -D, pen'[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ winged: (_bot._) same as PINNATE.--_adj._ PENNATIF'ID (see PINNATIFID).--_n._ PENNE (_Spens._), a feather.--_adj._ PENNED, having wings: winged: written with a pen.--_n._ PEN'NER, a case for holding pens: (_her._) a representation of such carried at the girdle.--_adjs._ PENNIF'EROUS, PENNIG'EROUS, feathered; PEN'NIFORM, like a feather in form. [L. _pennatus_--_penna_, wing.] PENNILL, pen'il, _n._ a kind of Welsh verse, in which the singer has to change words and measure according to the variations of his accompanist on the harp. [W. 'a verse,' pl. _pennillion_.] PENNON, pen'on, _n._ a flag, a medieval knight-bachelor's ensign: a long narrow flag: a pinion or wing.--_ns._ PENN'ONCELLE, a small flag like a pennon; PENN'ONCIER, a knight-bachelor.--_adj._ PENN'ONED, bearing a pennon. [Cf. _Pennant._] PENNY, pen'i, _n._ a copper coin (bronze since 1860), originally silver=1/12 of a shilling, or four farthings: a small sum: money in general: (_N.T._) a silver coin=7½d.: pound, in _fourpenny_, _sixpenny_, _tenpenny nails_=four, six, ten _pound_ weight to the thousand:--_pl._ PENNIES (pen'iz), denoting the number of coins; PENCE (pens), the amount of pennies in value.--_adjs._ PENN'IED, possessed of a penny; PENN'ILESS, without a penny: without money: poor.--_ns._ PENN'ILESSNESS; PENN'Y-A-LIN'ER, one who writes for a public journal at so much a line: a writer for pay; PENN'Y-A-LIN'ERISM, hack-writing; PENN'Y-DOG, the tope or miller's dog, a kind of shark; PENN'Y-POST, a means of carrying a letter for a penny; PENN'Y-RENT, income; PENN'YWEIGHT, twenty-four grains of troy weight (the weight of a silver penny); PENN'Y-WIS'DOM, prudence in petty matters.--_adj._ PENN'Y-WISE, saving small sums at the risk of larger: niggardly on improper occasions.--_ns._ PENN'Y-WORTH, a penny's worth of anything: the amount that can be given for a penny: a good bargain--also PENN''ORTH (_coll._); P[=E]'TER'S-PENCE, the name given to an old tribute offered to the Roman Pontiff, now a voluntary contribution.--PENNY FEE (_Scot._), a small wage; PENNY GAFF (_slang_), a low-class theatre; PENNY MAIL (_Scot._), rent in money, not in kind: a small sum paid to the superior of land; PENNY WEDDING, a wedding ceremonial in Scotland, at which the invited guests made contributions in money to pay the general expenses.--A PRETTY PENNY, a considerable sum of money; TURN AN HONEST PENNY, to earn money honestly. [A.S. _penig_, oldest form _pending_, where _pend_=Eng. _pawn_, Ger. _pfand_, Dut. _pand_, a pledge, all which are from L. _pannus_, a rag, a piece of cloth.] PENNYROYAL, pen'i-roi-al, _n._ a species of mint, much in use in domestic medicine, in the form of a warm infusion, to promote perspiration and as an emmenagogue. [Corr. from old form _pulial_, which is traced through O. Fr. to L. _puleium regium_, the plant pennyroyal--_pulex_, a flea.] PENOLOGY, PÆNOLOGY, p[=e]-nol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the study of punishment in its relation to crime: the management of prisons.--_n._ PENOL'OGIST. [Gr. _poin[=e]_, punishment, _logia_, description.] PENSÉE, pang-s[=a]', _n._ a thought. [Fr.] PENSEROSO, pen-se-r[=o]'so, _adj._ melancholy: thoughtful:--_fem. Penser[=o]'sa._ [It.] PENSILE, pen's[=i]l, _adj._ hanging: suspended.--_ns._ PEN'SILENESS, PENSIL'ITY. [Fr.,--L.,--_pend[=e]re_, hang.] PENSION, pen'shun, _n._ a stated allowance to a person for past services performed by himself or by some relative: a payment made to a person retired from service on account of age or weakness: a boarding-school or boarding-house on the Continent (pron. pong-siong'): a sum paid to a clergyman in place of tithes.--_v.t._ to grant a pension to.--_adjs._ PEN'SIONABLE, entitled, or entitling, to a pension; PEN'SIONARY, receiving a pension: consisting of a pension.--_n._ one who receives a pension: the syndic or legal adviser of a Dutch town.--_ns._ PEN'SIONER, one who receives a pension: a dependent: one who pays out of his own income for his commons, chambers, &c. at Cambridge University=an Oxford _commoner_; PEN'SIONNAIRE.--GRAND PENSIONARY, the president of the States-general of Holland. [Fr.,--L. _pension-em_--_pend[)e]re_, _pensum_, to weigh, pay.] PENSIVE, pen'siv, _adj._ thoughtful: reflecting: expressing thoughtfulness with sadness.--_adj._ PEN'SIVED (_Shak._), thought over.--_adv._ PEN'SIVELY.--_n._ PEN'SIVENESS, state of being pensive: gloomy thoughtfulness: melancholy. [Fr. _pensif_--L. _pens[=a]re_, to weigh--_pend[)e]re_, to weigh.] PENSTOCK, pen'stok, _n._ a trough conveying water to a water-wheel. PENSUM, pen'sum, _n._ an extra task given a scholar in punishment. PENT, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of pen, to shut up. PENTACAPSULAR, pen-ta-kap's[=u]-lar, _adj._ having five capsules. PENTACHORD, pen'ta-kord, _n._ a musical instrument with five strings: a diatonic series of five tones. PENTACLE, pent'a-kl, _n._ a figure formed by two equilateral triangles intersecting regularly so as to form a six-pointed star: properly a five-pointed object, the same as PENTAGRAM (q.v.), a defence against demons.--_adj._ PENTAC'ULAR. [O. Fr., but prob. not from Gr. _pente_, five, but O. Fr. _pente_, _pendre_, to hang. As applied to a magical figure prob. a corr. of _pentangle_, perh. _pentacol_--_pendre_, to hang, a, on, _col_, the neck.] PENTACOCCOUS, pen-ta-kok'us, _adj._ (_bot._) having five grains or seeds. PENTACROSTIC, pen-ta-kros'tik, _adj._ containing five acrostics of the same name.--_n._ a set of such verses. PENTACT, pen'takt, _adj._ five-rayed.--Also PENTAC'TINAL. PENTAD, pen'tad, _n._ the number five, a group of five things: a mean of temperature, &c., taken every five days. PENTADACTYLOUS, pen-ta-dak'ti-lus, _adj._ having five digits--also PENTADAC'TYL.--_n._ PENTADAC'TYLISM. PENTADELPHOUS, pen-ta-del'fus, _adj._ (_bot._) grouped together in five sets. PENTAGLOT, pen'ta-glot, _adj._ of five tongues.--_n._ a work in five languages. [Illustration] PENTAGON, pen'ta-gon, _n._ (_geom._) a plane figure having five angles and five sides: a fort with five bastions.--_adj._ PENTAG'ONAL.--_adv._ PENTAG'ONALLY. [Gr. _pentag[=o]non_--_pente_, five, _g[=o]nia_, angle.] [Illustration] PENTAGRAM, pen'ta-gram, _n._ a five-pointed star: a magic figure so called.--This is the proper _pentacle_.--_adj._ PENTAGRAMMAT'IC. [Gr. _pente_, five, _gramma_, a letter.] PENTAGRAPH=_Pantograph_. PENTAGYNIA, pent-a-jin'i-a, _n._ (_bot._) a Linnæan order of plants, characterised by their flowers having five pistils.--_n._ PENT'AGYN (_bot._), a plant having five styles.--_adjs._ PENTAGYN'IAN, PENTAG'YNOUS. [Gr. _pente_, five, _gyn[=e]_, a female.] PENTAHEDRON, pen-ta-h[=e]'dron, _n._ (_geom._) a solid figure bounded by five plane faces.--_adj._ PENTAH[=E]'DRAL. [Gr. _pente_, five, _hedra_, base.] PENTALPHA, pen-tal'fa, _n._ a five-pointed star: a pentacle. [Gr. _pente_, five, _alpha_.] PENTAMERON, pen-tam'e-ron, _n._ a famous collection of fifty folk-tales (Naples 1637) written in the Neapolitan dialect by Giambattista Basile, supposed to be told during five days by ten old women, for the entertainment of a Moorish slave who has usurped the place of the rightful princess. [It. _pentamerone_.] PENTAMEROUS, pen-tam'[.e]r-us, _adj._ (_bot._) consisting of or divided into five parts.--PENTAMERUS BEDS (_geol._), a name applied to the upper and lower Llandovery rocks, full of the brachiopods called _Pentamerus_. [Gr. _pente_, five, _meros_, part.] PENTAMETER, pen-tam'e-t[.e]r, _n._ a verse of five measures or feet.--_adj._ having five feet.--ELEGIAC PENTAMETER, a verse of six dactylic feet, the third and sixth with the first member only; IAMBIC PENTAMETER, in English, heroic couplets and blank verse. [Gr. _pentametros_--_pente_, five, _metron_, a measure.] PENTANDRIA, pen-tan'dri-a, _n._ (_bot._) a Linnæan order of plants, characterised by their flowers having five stamens.--_n._ PENTAN'DER, a plant of the class Pentandria.--_adjs._ PENTAN'DRIAN, PENTAN'DROUS. [Gr. _pente_, five, _an[=e]r_, _andros_, a man, a male.] PENTANGULAR, pen-tang'g[=u]-lar, _adj._ having five angles. PENTAPETALOUS, pen-ta-pet'a-lus, _adj._ having five petals. PENTAPHYLLOUS, pen-ta-fil'us, _adj._ having five leaves. [Gr. _pente_, five, _phyllon_, a leaf.] PENTAPODY, pen-tap'o-di, _n._ a measure of five feet. PENTAPOLIS, pen-tap'o-lis, _n._ a group of five cities.--_adj._ PENTAPOL'ITAN, esp. of the ancient _Pentapolis_ of Cyrenaica in northern Africa. [Gr. _pente_, five, _polis_, a city.] PENTARCHY, pen'tär-ki, _n._ government by five persons. [Gr. _pente_, five, _arch[=e]_, rule.] PENTASEPALOUS, pen-ta-sep'a-lus, _adj._ having five sepals. PENTASPERMOUS, pent-a-sp[.e]r'mus, _adj._ (_bot._) containing five seeds. [Gr. _pente_, five, _sperma_, seed.] PENTASTICH, pen'ta-stik, _n._ a composition of five verses.--_adj._ PENTAS'TICHOUS, five-ranked. PENTASTYLE, pen'ta-st[=i]l, _adj._ having five columns in front.--_n._ (_archit._) a building with a portico of five columns. [Gr. _pente_, five, _stylos_, a pillar.] PENTASYLLABIC, pen-ta-si-lab'ik, _adj._ having five syllables. PENTATEUCH, pen'ta-t[=u]k, _n._ a name used to denote the Jewish Thorah, the first five books of the Old Testament.--_adj._ PEN'TATEUCHAL. [Gr. _pente_, five, _teuchos_, a book--_teuchein_, to prepare.] PENTATHLON, pen-tath'lon, _n._ a contest consisting of five exercises--wrestling, throwing the discus, spear-throwing, leaping, and running--also PENTATH'LUM.--_n._ PENTATH'L[=E]TE, one who contests in the pentathlon. [Gr. _pente_, five, _athlon_, a contest.] PENTATONIC, pen-ta-ton'ik, _adj._ consisting of five tones. PENTECONTER, pen't[=e]-kon-t[.e]r, _n._ an ancient Greek ship having fifty oars. PENTECOST, pen't[=e]-kost, _n._ a Jewish festival held on the fiftieth day after the Passover, in commemoration of the giving of the law: the festival of Whitsuntide, held in remembrance of the descent of the Holy Ghost upon the assembled disciples at the feast of Pentecost.--_adj._ PENTECOST'AL.--_n.pl._ offerings formerly made to the parish priest at Whitsuntide. [Gr. _pent[=e]kost[=e]_ (_h[=e]mera_), the fiftieth (day).] PENTEGRAPH=_Pantograph_. PENTELIC, -AN, pen-tel'ik, -an, _adj._ describing a kind of marble found at Mount _Pentelicus_ near Athens. PENTETERIC, pen-te-ter'ik, _adj._ occurring every five years. [Gr., _pente_, five, _etos_, a year.] PENTHEMIMERAL, pen-th[=e]-mim'e-ral, _adj._ belonging to a metrical group of 2½ feet. [Gr. _pente_, five, _h[=e]mi_, half, _meros_, a part.] PENTHOUSE, pent'hows, _n._ a shed projecting from or adjoining a main building: a protection from the weather over a door or a window: anything resembling a penthouse.--_v.t._ to provide with a penthouse, shelter by means of a shed sloping from a wall, or anything similar. [A corr. of _pentice_, which is from Fr. _appentis_--L. _appendicium_, an appendage.] PENTICE, pen'tis, _n._ See PENTHOUSE. PENTILE=_Pantile_. PENTROOF, pent'r[=oo]f, _n._ a roof with a slope on one side only. [A hybrid word, from Fr. _pente_, a slope--_pendre_, to hang, and Eng. _roof_.] PENTSTEMON, pent-st[=e]'mon, _n._ a genus of perennial herbs of the order _Scrophularineæ_, common in California. [Gr. _pente_, five, _st[=e]m[=o]n_, warp, stamen.] PENTZIA, pent'si-a, _n._ a genus of South African shrubs, having yellow flowers in small heads, usually in corymbs.--The chief species is _Pentzia virgata_ or the 'sheep-fodder bush.' [Named after C. J. _Pentz_, a student under Thunberg.] PENULT, p[=e]-nult', or p[=e]'nult, PENULT'IMA, _n._ the syllable last but one.--_adj._ PENULT'IM[=A]TE, last but one.--_n._ the penult: the last member but one of any series. [L. _penultima_--_pæne_, almost, _ultimus_, last.] PENUMBRA, p[=e]-num'bra, _n._ a partial or lighter shadow round the perfect or darker shadow of an eclipse: the part of a picture where the light and shade blend into each other.--_adjs._ PENUM'BRAL, PENUM'BROUS. [L. _pæne_, almost, _umbra_, shade.] PENURY, pen'[=u]-ri, _n._ want: absence of means or resources: great poverty.--_adj._ PEN[=U]'RIOUS, showing penury: not bountiful: too saving: sordid: miserly.--_adv._ PEN[=U]'RIOUSLY.--_n._ PEN[=U]'RIOUSNESS. [Fr.,--L. _penuria_; Gr. _peina_, hunger, _pen[=e]s_, poor.] PEON, p[=e]'on, _n._ a day-labourer, esp. in South America, one working off a debt by bondage: in India, a foot-soldier, a messenger, a native policeman.--_ns._ P[=E]'ONAGE, P[=E]'ONISM, this kind of agricultural servitude. [Sp.,--Low L. _pedo_--L. _pes_, _pedis_, a foot.] PEONY, p[=e]'o-ni, _n._ a genus of plants of the natural order _Ranunculaceæ_, with large showy flowers, carmine, in some white. [O. Fr. _pione_ (Fr. _pivoine_)--L. _pæonia_, healing--Gr. _Pai[=o]n_.] PEOPLE, p[=e]'pl, _n._ persons generally: the men, women, and children of a country or a nation: the mass of persons as distinguished from the rulers, &c.: an indefinite number: inhabitants: the vulgar: the populace:--_pl._ PEOPLES (p[=e]'plz), races, tribes.--_v.t._ to stock with people or inhabitants.--PEOPLE'S PALACE, an institution for the amusement, recreation, and association of the working-classes, as that in the East End of London, inaugurated in 1887.--CHOSEN PEOPLE, the Israelites; GOOD PEOPLE, or FOLK, a popular euphemistic name for the fairies; PECULIAR PEOPLE (see PECULIAR); THE PEOPLE, the populace, the mass. [Fr. _peuple_--L. _populus_, prob. reduplicated from root of _plebs_, people.] PEOTOMY, p[=e]-ot'[=o]-mi, _n._ the amputation of the penis. [Gr. _peos_, the penis, _temnein_, to cut.] PEPERIN, pep'e-rin, _n._ a volcanic tufa found in the Alban Hills near Rome. [It. _peperino_--_pepe_, pepper--L. _piper_, pepper.] PEPITA, pe-p[=e]'ta, _n._ a nugget of gold. [Sp.] PEPLUM, pep'lum, _n._ an upper robe worn by women in ancient Greece.--Also PEP'LUS. [L.,--Gr. _peplos_.] PEPO, p[=e]'p[=o], _n._ a fruit like that of the gourd. [Gr.] PEPPER, pep'[.e]r, _n._ a pungent aromatic condiment consisting of the dried berries of the pepper-plant, entire or powdered: any plant of genus _Piper_: a plant of genus _Capsicum_, or one of its pods, whence _Cayenne pepper_.--_v.t._ to sprinkle with pepper: to hit or pelt with shot, &c.: to pelt thoroughly: to do for.--_adj._ PEPP'ER-AND-SALT', of a colour composed of a light ground dotted with fine spots of a dark colour, or of a dark ground with light spots.--_ns._ PEPP'ER-BOX, a box with a perforated top for sprinkling pepper on food; PEPP'ER-CAKE, a kind of spiced cake or gingerbread; PEPP'ER-CAST'ER, the vessel, on a cruet-stand, from which pepper is sprinkled; PEPP'ERCORN, the berry of the pepper plant: something of little value--PEPPERCORN RENT, a nominal rent; PEPP'ERER, one who sells pepper, a grocer; PEPP'ER-GIN'GERBREAD, hot-spiced gingerbread; PEPP'ER-GRASS, any plant of genus _Lepidium_; PEPP'ERINESS; PEPP'ERMINT, a species of mint, aromatic and pungent like pepper: a liquor distilled from the plant: a lozenge flavoured with peppermint--_Peppermint-drop_, a confection so flavoured; PEPP'ER-POT, a West Indian dish, of cassareep, together with flesh or dried fish and vegetables, esp. green okra and chillies: tripe shredded and stewed, with balls of dough and plenty of pepper; PEPP'ER-TREE, a shrub of the cashew family, native to South America, &c.--also PEPPER SHRUB and _Chili pepper_; PEPP'ERWORT, the dittander.--_adj._ PEPP'ERY, possessing the qualities of pepper: hot, choleric.--ÆTHIOPIAN PEPPER, the produce of _Xylopia Æthiopica_; BENIN PEPPER, of _Cubeba Clusii_; GUINEA PEPPER, or MALEGUETTA PEPPER, of _Amomum_; JAMAICA PEPPER, or PIMENTO, of species of Eugenia (_Myrtaceæ_); LONG PEPPER, the fruit of _Piper Longum_; WHITE PEPPER, the seed freed from the skin and fleshy part of the fruit by soaking in water and rubbing the dried fruit. [A.S. _pipor_--L. _piper_--Gr. _peperi_--Sans. _pippala_.] PEPPER'S GHOST, pep'[.e]rs g[=o]st, _n._ a device for associating on the same stage living persons and phantoms to act together--the phantom produced by a large sheet of unsilvered glass on the stage, practically invisible to the spectators, reflecting to them, along with a visible actor or actors, the appearance of another actor on an understage, himself invisible. [John H. _Pepper_ (b. 1821), the improver and exhibitor of Henry Dircks' invention.] PEPSIN, PEPSINE, pep'sin, _n._ one of the essential constituents of the gastric juice: the active agent in fermenting food in the stomach--a hydrolytic ferment.--_adj._ PEP'TIC, relating to or promoting digestion: having a good digestion.--_ns._ PEPTIC'ITY, eupepsia; PEP'TICS, digestion considered as a science: the digestive organs; PEP'TOGEN, a substance producing peptone, any preparation that facilitates digestion.--_adjs._ PEPTOGEN'IC, PEPTOG'ENOUS, PEPTON'IC.--_ns._ PEP'T[=O]NE, one of a class of albumenoids formed by the action of the chemical ferment pepsin and hydrochloric acid, the latter first converting into a syntonin or acid protein, the former converting this syntonin into peptone--they are soluble in water, are not coagulated by boiling, and pass readily through an animal membrane, being therefore easily absorbed; PEPTONIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ PEP'TONISE, to convert into peptones.--_n._ PEP'TONOID, a substance like peptone: one of certain food preparations. [Fr.,--Gr. _pepsis_, digestion--_peptein_, to digest.] PEPYSIAN, pep'is-i-an, _adj._ pertaining to Samuel _Pepys_ (1633-1703), his inimitable diary, or the collection of prints, books, ballads, &c. he bequeathed to Magdalene College, Cambridge. PER, p[.e]r, _prep._ through, by means of, according to.--PER ANNUM, year by year: for each year; PER CAPITA, by heads, implying equal rights to two or more persons; PER CENT., per hundred; PER CONTRA, on the contrary: as a set-off; PER DIEM, every day: day by day; PER MENSEM, monthly: by the month; PER SALTUM, at a single leap: all at once; PER SE, by himself, &c.: essentially. PERACUTE, per-a-k[=u]t', _adj._ very sharp or violent. PERADVENTURE, per-ad-vent'[=u]r, _adv._ by adventure: by chance: perhaps.--_n._ uncertainty: question. PERAMBULATE, per-am'b[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to walk through or over: to pass through for the purpose of surveying: to survey the boundaries of.--_ns._ PERAMBUL[=A]'TION, act of perambulating: a survey or inspection by travelling through: the district within which a person has the right of inspection; PERAM'BUL[=A]TOR, one who perambulates: an instrument for measuring distances on roads: a light carriage for a child.--_adj._ PERAM'BUL[=A]TORY. [L. _perambul[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_per_, through, _ambul[=a]re_, to walk.] PERCALE, per-käl', _n._ a closely woven French cambric.--_n._ PER'CALINE, a glossy cotton cloth. [Fr.] PERCASE, per-k[=a]s', _adv._ (_Bacon_) perchance, perhaps. [L. _per_, through, by, _casus_, a chance.] PERCEABLE, p[.e]rs'a-bl, _adj._ (_Spens._)=_Pierceable_. PERCEANT, p[.e]rs'ant, _adj._ piercing, penetrating.--_v.t._ PERC'EN (_Spens._), to pierce. [Fr. _perçant_, pr.p. of _percer_, to pierce.] PERCEIVE, per-s[=e]v', _v.t._ to become aware of through the senses: to get knowledge of by the mind: to see: to understand: to discern.--_adj._ PERCEIV'ABLE (same as PERCEPTIBLE).--_adv._ PERCEIV'ABLY (same as PERCEPTIBLY).--_ns._ PERCEIV'ER; PERCEIV'ING (_Bacon_), perception. [O. Fr. _percever_--L. _percip[)e]re_, _perceptum_--_per_, perfectly, _cap[)e]re_, to take.] PERCENTAGE, per-sen't[=a]j, _n._ rate per hundred: an allowance of so much for every hundred.--_adj._ PERCEN'TILE. [Cf. _Cent._] PERCEPT, p[.e]r'sept, _n._ that which is perceived by means of the senses.--_n._ PERCEPTIBIL'ITY, quality of being perceptible.--_adj._ PERCEP'TIBLE, that can be perceived: that may be known by the senses: discernible.--_adv._ PERCEP'TIBLY.--_n._ PERCEP'TION, act of perceiving: discernment: (_phil._) the faculty of perceiving: the evidence of external objects by our senses.--_adjs._ PERCEP'TIONAL; PERCEP'TIVE, having the power of perceiving or discerning.--_ns._ PERCEP'TIVENESS, the faculty or power of perceiving: readiness to perceive; PERCEPTIV'ITY, character or quality of being perceptive: power of perceiving.--_adj._ PERCEP'T[=U]AL, of the nature of perception. PERCH, p[.e]rch, _n._ a genus of fresh-water fishes.--_adjs._ PERCH'-BACKED, shaped like a perch's back; PER'CIFORM, percoid; PER'CINE, perciform; PER'COID, like the perch: pertaining to the perch family. [Fr. _perche_--L. _perca_--Gr. _perk[=e]_, a perch, prob. conn. with _perknos_, spotted.] PERCH, p[.e]rch, _n._ a rod on which birds roost: any high seat or position: a measure=5½ yards: a square measure=30¼ square yards: a pole joining the fore and hind gear of a spring carriage: a frame on which cloth is examined for flaws.--_v.i._ to sit or roost on a perch: to settle.--_v.t._ to place, as on a perch.--_ns._ PERCH'ER, a bird that perches on trees; PERCH'ING, the examination of cloth stretched on a frame for burs, knots, or holes--also called _Burling_.--_adj._ insessorial.--_ns._ PERCH'-PLATE, a plate or block above or below a carriage-reach, at the king-bolt; PERCH'-POLE, an acrobat's climbing-pole; PERCH'-STAY, one of the side-rods bracing the perch to the hind-axle. [Fr. _perche_--L. _pertica_, a rod.] PERCHANCE, per-chans', _adv._ by chance: perhaps. PERCHERON, per-she-rong', _n._ a horse of the Percheron breed, large strong draught-horses, usually dapple-gray--also _Norman_ and _Norman Percheron_.--_adj._ pertaining to the foregoing. [Fr.,--_Perche_, in southern Normandy.] PERCHLORIC, per-kl[=o]'rik, _adj._ pertaining to an acid, a syrupy liquid obtained by decomposing potassium perchlorate by means of sulphuric acid.--_n._ PERCHL[=O]'RATE, a salt of perchloric acid. PERCIPIENT, per-sip'i-ent, _adj._ perceiving: having the faculty of perception.--_n._ one who perceives or who has the power of perceiving.--_ns._ PERCIP'IENCE, PERCIP'IENCY. PERCLOSE, per-kl[=o]z', _n._ an enclosed place: (_archit._) a railing separating a tomb or chapel from the rest of the church: (_her._) the lower half of a garter with the buckle.--Also PAR'ACLOSE, PARCLOSE'. [O. Fr.,--L. _præ_, in front, _claud[)e]re_, _clausum_, to shut.] PERCOCT, per-kokt', _adj._ well-cooked. [L. _percoctus_, _percoqu[)e]re_, to cook thoroughly.] PERCOID, per'koid. See PERCH (1). PERCOLATE, p[.e]r'k[=o]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to strain through pores or small openings, as a liquid: to filter.--_v.i._ to pass or ooze through very small openings: to filter.--_n._ a filtered liquid.--_ns._ PERCOL[=A]'TION, act of filtering; PER'COLATOR, a filtering vessel. [L. _percol[=a]re_,_-[=a]tum_--_per_, through, _col[=a]re_, to strain.] PERCURRENT, per-kur'ent, _adj._ running through the whole length.--_adj._ PERCUR'SORY, running over slightly or in haste (same as _Cursory_). [L. _percurrens_, pr.p. of _percurr[)e]re_, _percursum_, to run through.] PERCUSS, per-kus', _v.t._ to strike so as to shake: to tap for purposes of diagnosis.--_adj._ PERCUS'SANT (_her._), bent round and striking the side, as a lion's tail--also PERCUSSED'. PERCUSSION, per-kush'un, _n._ the forcible striking of one body against another: collision, or the shock produced by it: impression of sound on the ear: (_med._) the tapping upon the body to find the condition of an internal organ by the sounds: in the jargon of palmistry, the outer side of the hand.--_adjs._ PERCUSS'IONAL, PERCUSS'IVE.--_ns._ PERCUSS'ION-BULL'ET, a bullet so formed as to explode on striking something: an explosive bullet; PERCUS'SION-CAP, a cap of copper partly filled with a substance which explodes when struck, formerly used for firing rifles, &c.; PERCUS'SION-FUSE, a fuse in a projectile set in action by concussion when the projectile strikes the object; PERCUS'SION-HAMM'ER, a small hammer for percussion in diagnosis; PERCUS'SION-LOCK, a kind of lock for a gun in which a hammer strikes upon a percussion-cap on the nipple, igniting the charge; PERCUS'SION-POW'DER, powder which explodes on being struck, called also _fulminating powder_.--_adv._ PERCUSS'IVELY.--_ns._ PERCUSS'OR; PERCUTEUR', an instrument for light percussion in neuralgia, &c.--_adj._ PERC[=U]'TIENT, striking or having power to strike.--_n._ that which strikes or has power to strike. [L. _percussion-em_--_percut[)e]re_, _percussum_--_per_, thoroughly, _quat[)e]re_, to shake.] PERCUTANEOUS, per-k[=u]-t[=a]'n[=e]-us, _adj._ done or applied through or by means of the skin.--_adv._ PERCUT[=A]'NEOUSLY. [L. _per_, through, _cutis_, the skin.] PERDENDO, per-den'd[=o], _adj._ (_mus._) dying away.--Also PERDEN'DOSI. [It.] PERDIE, PERDY, p[.e]r'di, _adv._=PARDIEU. PERDITION, per-dish'un, _n._ utter loss or ruin: the utter loss of happiness in a future state.--_n._ PER'DITA, a lost woman.--_adj._ PERDI'TIONABLE. [Fr.,--L. _perditio_--_perd[)e]re_, _perditum_--_per_, entirely, _d[)a]re_, to put.] PERDU, PERDUE, per-d[=u]', _adj._ lost to view: concealed: being on a forlorn hope or on a desperate enterprise: reckless.--_n._ (_Shak._) one lying in concealment or ambush: one on a forlorn hope. [Fr., pa.p. of _perdre_, to lose--L. _perd[)e]re_, to destroy.] PERDUELLION, per-d[=u]-el'i-on, _n._ treason. [L.] PERDURABLE, per'd[=u]-ra-bl, _adj._ (_Shak._) very durable, long continued.--_ns._ PERDURABIL'ITY, PERD[=U]'RANCE, PERDUR[=A]'TION.--_adv._ PERD[=U]'RABLY (_Shak._), very durably: everlastingly.--_v.i._ PERDURE', to last for a very long time. [L. _perdur[=a]re_--_per_, through, _dur[=a]re_, to last.] PEREGAL, per'e-gal, _adj._ fully equal.--_n._ equal. PEREGRINATE, per'[=e]-gri-n[=a]t, _v.i._ to travel through the country: to travel about from place to place: to live in a foreign country.--_adj._ foreign.--_ns._ PEREGRIN[=A]'TION, act of peregrinating or travelling about; PER'EGRIN[=A]TOR, one who travels about.--_adj._ PER'EGRINE, foreign, not native: migratory, as a bird.--_n._ a foreigner resident in any country: a kind of falcon.--_n._ PEREGRIN'ITY, foreignness. [L. _peregrin[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_--_peregrinus_, foreign.] PEREION, pe-r[=i]'on, _n._ the thorax in crustacea:--_pl._ PEREI'A.--_n._ PEREI'OPOD, one of the true thoracic limbs of a crustacean. [Gr. _perii[=o]n_, pr.p. of _periienai_, to go about.] PERELLE, pe-rel', _n._ Same as PARELLA. PEREMPTORY, per'emp-t[=o]-ri, _adj._ preventing debate: authoritative: dogmatical: final, determinate: fully resolved or determined: that must be done.--_adv._ PER'EMPTORILY.--_n._ PER'EMPTORINESS. [Fr.,--L. _peremptorius_--_perim[)e]re_, peremptum--_per_, entirely, _em[)e]re_, to take.] PERENNIAL, pe-ren'i-al, _adj._ lasting through the year: perpetual: never failing: growing constantly: (_bot._) lasting more than two years: of insects, living more than one year.--_n._ a plant which lives more than two years.--_v.i._ PERENN'ATE, to live perennially.--_n._ PERENN[=A]'TION.--_adv._ PERENN'IALLY. [L. _perennis_--_per_, through, _annus_, a year.] PERENNIBRANCHIATE, pe-ren-i-brang'ki-[=a]t, _adj._ having perennial branchiæ or gills.--Also PERENN'IBRANCH. PERFECT, p[.e]r'fekt, _adj._ done thoroughly or completely: completed: without blemish, fault, or error: having neither too much nor too little: entire, very great: in the highest degree: possessing every moral excellence: completely skilled or acquainted: (_gram._) expressing an act completed: (_bot._) having both stamens and pistils, hermaphrodite.--_v.t._ (or per-fekt') to make perfect: to finish: to teach fully, to make fully skilled in anything.--_ns._ PERFECT[=A]'TION (_rare_); PER'FECTER; PERFECT'I, a body of Catharists in the 12th and 13th centuries, of very strict lives; PERFECTIBIL'ITY, quality of being made perfect.--_adj._ PERFECT'IBLE, that may be made perfect.--_ns._ PERFEC'TION, state of being perfect: a perfect quality or acquirement: the highest state or degree; PERFEC'TIONISM (or PERFECTIBIL'ITY), the belief that man in a state of grace may attain to a relative perfection or a state of living without sin in this life; PERFEC'TIONIST, one who pretends to be perfect: one who thinks that moral perfection can be attained in this life: one of the Bible Communists or Free-lovers, a small American sect founded by J. H. Noyes (1811-86), which settled at Oneida in 1848, holding that the gospel if accepted secures freedom from sin.--_adj._ PERFECT'IVE, tending to make perfect.--_advs._ PERFECT'IVELY, PER'FECTLY, in a perfect manner: completely: exactly: without fault.--_n._ PER'FECTNESS, state or quality of being perfect: completeness: perfection: consummate excellence.--PERFECT INSECT, the imago or completely developed form of an insect; PERFECT METALS (see METAL); PERFECT NUMBER, a number equal to the sum of all its divisors, the number itself of course excepted, as 6 = 1 + 2 + 3, 28 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 14. [Fr.,--L. _perfectus_, pa.p. of _perfic[)e]re_--_per_, thoroughly, _fac[)e]re_, to do.] PERFERVID, per-fer'vid, _adj._ very fervid: very hot or eager.--_n._ PERFER'VIDNESS.--PERFERVIDUM INGENIUM, a very ardent disposition. [L. _perfervidus_, _præfervidus_--_præ_, before, _fervidus_, fervid.] PERFICIENT, p[.e]r-fish'ent, _adj._ effectual.--_n._ one who does a lasting work, esp. who endows a charity. PERFIDIOUS, per-fid'i-us, _adj._ faithless: unfaithful: basely violating trust: treacherous.--_adv._ PERFID'IOUSLY.--_ns._ PERFID'IOUSNESS, PER'FIDY, treachery. [L. _perfidiosus_--_perfidia_, faithlessness.] PERFOLIATE, -D, per-f[=o]'li-[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ (_bot._) having the stem as it were passing through the blade--of a leaf: having the leaf round the stem at the base: (_zool._) surrounded by a circle of hairs, &c., taxicorn. [L. _per_, through, _folium_, a leaf.] PERFORATE, p[.e]r'f[=o]-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to bore through: to pierce: to make a hole through.--_adj._ PER'FORABLE, capable of being perforated.--_n._ PER'FORANS, the long flexor muscle of the toes, or the deep flexor muscle of the fingers.--_adjs._ PER'FORANT, perforating; PER'FORATE, -D (_bot._), pierced with holes: having transparent dots, as the leaves of certain flowers.--_n._ PERFOR[=A]'TION, act of boring through: a hole through or into anything.--_adj._ PER'FOR[=A]TIVE, having power to pierce.--_ns._ PER'FOR[=A]TOR, one who bores, or an instrument for boring; PER'FOR[=A]TUS, the short flexor of the toes, or the superficial flexor of the fingers. [L. _perfor[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_per_, through, _for[=a]re_, to bore.] PERFORCE, per-f[=o]rs', _adv._ by force: of necessity. PERFORM, per-form', _v.t._ to do thoroughly: to carry out: to achieve: to act, as on the stage.--_v.i._ to do: to act a part: to play, as on a musical instrument.--_adj._ PERFOR'MABLE, capable of being performed: practicable.--_ns._ PERFOR'MANCE, act of performing: a carrying out of something: something done, esp. of a public character: a piece of work: an exhibition in a theatre or a place of amusement: an act or action; PERFOR'MER, one who performs, esp. one who makes a public exhibition of his skill: an actor, an actress, &c.--_adj._ PERFOR'MING, doing: trained to perform tricks. [O. Fr. _parfournir_, _par_--L. _per_, through, _fournir_, to furnish.] PERFUME, p[.e]r'f[=u]m, or p[.e]r-f[=u]m', _n._ sweet-smelling smoke: sweet scent: anything which yields a sweet odour.--_v.t._ (p[.e]r-f[=u]m') to fill with a pleasant odour: to scent.--_adj._ PERF[=U]'MATORY, yielding perfume.--_ns._ PER'FUME-FOUN'TAIN, a small appliance for throwing a jet or spray of perfume; PERF[=U]'MER, one who or that which perfumes: one who makes or sells perfumes; PERF[=U]'MERY, perfumes in general: the art of preparing perfumes; PER'FUME-SET, a set of articles for the toilet-table.--_adj._ PER'F[=U]MY. [Fr. _parfum_--L. _per_, through, _fumus_, smoke.] PERFUNCTORY, per-fungk't[=o]-ri, _adj._ done merely as a duty to be passed over: performed carelessly or without interest: negligent: slight.--_adv._ PERFUNC'TORILY, in a careless, half-hearted manner: without zeal or interest.--_n._ PERFUNC'TORINESS, careless performance: half-heartedness. [L. _perfunctorius_--_perfunctus_, pa.p. of _perfungi_, to execute--_per_, thoroughly, _fungi_, to do.] PERFUSE, per-f[=u]z', _v.t._ to pour through or over.--_n._ PERF[=U]'SION.--_adj._ PERF[=U]'SIVE, sprinkling, or tending to sprinkle. [L. _perfusus_, poured over--_per_, through, _fund[)e]re_, to pour.] PERGAMENEOUS, per-ga-m[=e]'n[=e]-us, _adj._ thin and parchment-like in texture.--_adj._ PERGAMENT[=A]'CEOUS, parchment-like. [L. _pergamena_, parchment.] PERGOLA, per'g[=o]-la, _n._ an arbour, a balcony.--Also PER'GULA. [It.,--L. _pergula_, a shed.] PERGUNNAH, p[.e]r-gun'a, _n._ a sub-division of a zillah or district in India.--Also PARGAN'A. [Hind.] PERHAPS, per-haps', _adv._ it may be: possibly. PERI, p[=e]'ri, _n._ in Persian mythology, a female elf or fairy, represented as descended from the fallen angels. [Fr. _péri_--Pers. _par[=i]_, a fairy.] PERIAGUA, per-i-ä'gwä, _n._ a canoe hollowed out of a single trunk, a dug-out: a vessel made by cutting a canoe in two lengthwise and inserting a large plank: a large keelless flat-bottomed boat for shoal-water navigation, decked at the ends only, propelled by rowing, or by sails on two masts capable of being struck.--Also PIROGUE'. [Sp. _piragua_.] PERIAKTOS, per-i-ak'tos, _n._ in the ancient Greek theatre a tall prism-shaped frame or screen at the side entrances, each carrying three scenes changed by turning the frames. [Gr.] PERIANTH, per'i-anth, _n._ the floral envelope where the calyx and corolla are not easily distinguished. [Gr. _peri_, around, _anthos_, a flower.] PERIAPT, per'i-apt, _n._ (_Shak._) an amulet. [Gr. _periapton_, something hung round, _peri_, about, _aptos_--_aptein_, to fasten.] PERIAXIAL, per-i-ak'si-al, _adj._ surrounding an axis. PERIBLAST, per'i-blast, _n._ the protoplasm about the nucleus of a cell.--_adj._ PERIBLAST'IC. [Gr. _peri_, about, _blastos_, a germ.] PERIBOLOS, pe-rib'o-los, _n._ a court enclosed by a wall, esp. one containing a temple or a church, the whole outer enclosure of sanctuary or refuge. [Gr. _peribolos_, encircling--_peri_, around, _ballein_, to throw.] PERICARDIUM, per-i-kär'di-um, _n._ (_anat._) the bag or sac composed of two layers which surrounds the heart.--_adjs._ PERICAR'DIAC, PERICAR'DIAL, PERICAR'DIAN.--_n._ PERICARD[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the pericardium. [Late L.,--Gr. _perikardion_--_peri_, around, _kardia_, heart.] PERICARP, per'i-kärp, _n._ (_bot._) the covering, shell, or rind of fruits: a seed-vessel.--_adj._ PERICARP'IAL. [Gr. _perikarpion_--_peri_, around, _karpos_, fruit.] PERICENTRAL, per-i-sen'tral, _adj._ surrounding a central body.--_adj._ PERICEN'TRIC. PERICHONDRIUM, per-i-kon'dri-um, _n._ the fibrous investment of cartilage. [Gr. _peri_, about, _chondros_, cartilage.] PERICLASE, per'i-kl[=a]z, _n._ a rare mineral consisting of magnesia with a little iron protoxide. [Gr. _peri_, about, _klasis_, fracture.] PERICLEAN, per-i-kl[=e]'an, _adj._ of _Pericles_ (died 429 B.C.) or the golden age of art and letters at Athens. PERICOPE, p[=e]-rik'[=o]-p[=e], _n._ an extract, esp. the selections from the epistles and gospels for the Sundays of the year. [Gr. _peri_, around, _koptein_, to cut.] PERICRANIUM, per-i-kr[=a]'ni-um, _n._ (_anat._) the membrane that surrounds the cranium.--_adj._ PERICR[=A]'NIAL.--_n._ PER'ICR[=A]NY (_obs._), the skull. [Late L.,--Gr. _perikranion_--_peri_, around, _kranion_, the skull.] PERICULUM, p[=e]-rik'[=u]-lum, _n._ (_Scots law_) a risk:--_pl._ PERIC'ULA. [L.] PERICYSTITIS, per-i-sis-t[=i]'tis, _n._ inflammation around the bladder. [Gr. _peri_, around, _kystis_, the bladder.] PERIDENTAL, per-i-den'tal, _adj._ surrounding the teeth. PERIDERM, per'i-derm, _n._ the hard integument of some tubularian hydromedusans: (_bot._) the outer bark.--_adj._ PER'IDERMAL. [Gr. _peri_, about, _derma_, skin.] PERIDESMIUM, per-i-des'mi-um, _n._ (_anat._) the areolar tissue round a ligament. [Gr. _peri_, around, _desmos_, a band.] PERIDIUM, p[=e]-rid'i-um, _n._ the outer coat of a sporophore in angiocarpous fungi.--_adj._ PERID'IAL.--_n._ PERID[=I]'OLUM (_bot._), an inner peridium inside of which the hymenium is formed. [Gr. _p[=e]ridion_, dim. of _p[=e]ra_, a wallet.] PERIDOTITE, per'i-d[=o]-t[=i]t, _n._ rock mainly composed of olivine.--_n._ PER'IDOT, chrysolite.--_adj._ PERIDOT'IC. PERIDROME, per'i-dr[=o]m, _n._ the space between the inner cell or chamber and the surrounding pillars in an ancient temple. [Gr. _peridromos_, running round--_peri_, around, _dromos_, a race.] PERIEGESIS, per-i-[=e]-j[=e]'sis, _n._ a progress or journey through. [Gr.] PERIENTERON, per-i-en'te-ron, _n._ the primitive perivisceral cavity.--_adj._ PERIENTER'IC. [Gr. _peri_, about, _enteron_, an intestine.] PERIFIBRUM, per-i-f[=i]'brum, _n._ the membraneous covering of the spicules and fibre of sponges. PERIGANGLIONIC, per-i-gang-gli-on'ik, _adj._ surrounding a ganglion. PERIGASTRIC, per-i-gas'trik, _adj._ surrounding the alimentary canal. PERIGEE, per'i-j[=e], _n._ (_astron._) the point of the moon's orbit at which it is nearest the earth--opp. to _Apogee_.--_adjs._ PERIG[=E]'AL, PERIG[=E]'AN. [Gr. _peri_, near, _g[=e]_, the earth.] PERIGENESIS, per-i-jen'e-sis, _n._ wave-generation, the dynamic theory of reproduction by a kind of wave-motion of plastidules. PERIGLOTTIS, per-i-glot'is, _n._ the epidermis of the tongue.--_adj._ PERIGLOTT'IC. PERIGONE, per'i-g[=o]n, _n._ (_bot._) the same as PERIANTH--also PERIG[=O]'NIUM.--_adj._ PERIG[=O]'NIAL. [Gr. _peri_, about, _gon[=e]_, seed.] PERIGRAPH, per'i-graf, _n._ an inaccurate delineation of anything.--_adj._ PERIGRAPH'IC. PERIGYNOUS, per-ij'i-nus, _adj._ (_bot._) denoting flowers which have the petals and stamens growing on the calyx, or around the pistil.--_n._ PERIGYN'IUM. [Gr. _peri_, about, _gyn[=e]_, a female.] PERIHELION, per-i-h[=e]'li-on, _n._ the point of the orbit of a planet or a comet at which it is nearest to the sun--opp. to _Aphelion_.--Also PERIH[=E]'LIUM. [Gr. _peri_, near, _h[=e]lios_, the sun.] PERIHEPATIC, per-i-h[=e]-pat'ik, _adj._ surrounding the liver. PERIL, per'il, _n._ danger: a source of danger: exposure to danger.--_v.t._ to expose to danger:--_pr.p._ per'illing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ per'illed.--_adj._ PER'ILOUS, full of peril: dangerous.--_adv._ PER'ILOUSLY.--_n._ PER'ILOUSNESS. [Fr. _péril_--L. _periculum_.] PERILYMPH, per'i-limf, _n._ the fluid which surrounds the membraneous labyrinth of the ear. PERIMETER, p[=e]-rim'e-t[.e]r, _n._ (_geom._) the circuit or boundary of any plane figure, or the sum of all its sides: an instrument for measuring the area over which a person can see distinctly.--_adjs._ PERIMET'RIC, -AL, pertaining to the perimeter.--_n._ PERIM'ETRY, the act of making perimetrical measurements. [Gr. _perimetros_--_peri_, around, _metron_, measure.] PERIMORPH, per'i-morf, _n._ a mineral enclosing another.--_adjs._ PERIMOR'PHIC, PERIMOR'PHOUS. PERINEUM, PERINÆUM, per-i-n[=e]'um, _n._ the lower part of the body between the genital organs and the rectum.--_adj._ PERIN[=E]'AL. [L.,--Gr.] PERIOD, p[=e]'ri-ud, _n._ the time in which anything is performed: (_astron._) the time occupied by one of the heavenly bodies in making its revolution: a stated interval of time, at the end of which certain events begin again to go through the same course as before: a series of events: a series of years: length of duration: the time at which anything ends: conclusion: (_gram._) a mark at the end of a sentence: (_rhet._) a complete sentence.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to put an end to.--_adjs._ PERIOD'IC, -AL, pertaining to a period: happening by revolution: occurring at regular intervals: pertaining to periodicals.--_ns._ PERIOD'ICAL, a magazine or other publication which appears in parts at regular periods; PERIOD'ICALIST, one who writes in a periodical.--_adv._ PERIOD'ICALLY.--_n._ PERIODIC'ITY, state of being periodic: tendency to happen over again at regular intervals of time.--PERIODICAL LITERATURE, literature published in magazines, &c.; PERIODIC FUNCTION, one whose operation being iterated a certain number of times restores the variable: a function having a period; PERIODIC INEQUALITY, a disturbance in the motion of a planet due to its position in its orbit relatively to another planet; PERIODIC LAW (_chem._), a relation of elements according to their atomic weights. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _periodos_--_peri_, around, _hodos_, a way.] PERIOPHTHALMUS, per-i-of-thal'mus, _n._ a genus of acanthopterous fishes, allied to gobies, with protruding mobile eyes, pectoral fins that can be used as legs. PERIORBITAL, per-i-or'bi-tal, _adj._ pertaining to the orbit of the eye. PERIOSTEUM, per-i-os't[=e]-um, _n._ a tough fibrous membrane which forms the outer coating of bones.--_adjs._ PERIOS'T[=E]AL, PERIOS'T[=E]OUS; PERIOSTIT'IC.--_n._ PERIOST[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the periosteum. [Gr. _periosteon_--_peri_, around, _osteon_, a bone.] PERIOTIC, per-i-[=o]'tik, _adj._ surrounding the inner ear.--_n._ a periotic bone. [Gr. _peri_, about, _ous_, _[=o]tos_, the ear.] PERIPATETIC, -AL, per-i-pa-tet'ik, -al, _adj._ walking about: of or pertaining to the philosophy of Aristotle, who taught while walking up and down in the Lyceum at Athens.--_n._ PERIPATET'IC, an adherent of the philosophy of Aristotle: one accustomed or obliged to walk: (_pl._) instruction by lectures.--_n._ PERIPATET'ICISM, the philosophy of Aristotle. [Gr. _peripat[=e]tikos_--_peri_, about, _patein_, to walk.] PERIPATUS, pe-rip'[=a]-tus, _n._ a genus of myriapods. PERIPETIA, per-i-pe-t[=i]'a, _n._ the dénouement of a drama. PERIPHERY, pe-rif'[.e]r-i, _n._ (_geom._) the circumference of a circle or of any closed figure: the outside of anything generally.--_adjs._ PERIPH'ERAL, PERIPHER'IC, -AL. [L.--Gr. _peri_, around, _pherein_, to carry.] PERIPHRACTIC, per-i-frak'tik, _adj._ enclosed around. [Gr. _peri_, about, _phrassein_, to enclose.] PERIPHRASE, per'i-fr[=a]z, _n._ a round-about way of speaking: the use of more words than are necessary to express an idea: (_rhet._) a figure employed to avoid a trite expression--also PERIPH'RASIS.--_v.t._ or _v.i._ to use circumlocution.--_adjs._ PERIPHRAS'TIC, -AL, containing or expressed by periphrasis or circumlocution.--_adv._ PERIPHRAS'TICALLY. [L.,--Gr. _periphrasis_--_peri_, about, _phrasis_, a speaking.] PERIPLAST, per'i-plast, _n._ the intercellular substance of an organ or tissue of the body.--_adj._ PERIPLAST'IC. PERIPLUS, per'i-plus, _n._ a circumnavigation. [Gr. _peri_, around, _ploos_, _plous_, a voyage.] PERIPTERY, pe-rip't[.e]r-i, _n._ (_archit._) a building surrounded by a wing or row of columns.--_adjs._ PERIP'TERAL, having a periptery or range of columns all round, said of a temple, &c.; PERIP'TEROUS, feathered on all sides: peripteral. [Gr. _peripteros_--_peri_, about, _pteron_, a wing.] PERIRHINAL, per-i-r[=i]'nal, _adj._ surrounding the nose. PERISCII, pe-rish'i-[=i], _n.pl._ the people within the polar circle, because their shadows, on some days in summer, move round in a complete circle, owing to the fact that on those days the sun does not set.--_adj._ PERIS'CIAN. [Gr. _periskios_, throwing a shadow all round; _peri_, around, _skia_, a shadow.] PERISCOPE, per'i-sk[=o]p, _n._ an instrument like the altiscope, used in directing submarine boats.--_adj._ PERISCOP'IC. [Gr. _peri_, about, _skopein_, to see.] PERISH, per'ish, _v.i._ to pass away completely: to waste away: to decay: to lose life: to be destroyed: to be ruined or lost.--_ns._ PERISHABIL'ITY, PER'ISHABLENESS, the quality of being liable to speedy decay or destruction.--_adj._ PER'ISHABLE, that may perish: subject to speedy decay.--_adv._ PER'ISHABLY.--_v.i._ PER'ISHEN (_Spens._), to perish. [O. Fr. _perir_, pr.p. _perissant_--L. _per[=i]re_, to perish--_per_, completely, _[=i]re_, to go.] PERISPERM, per'i-sp[.e]rm, _n._ (_bot._) that which is round a seed, the albumen.--_adj._ PERISPER'MIC. [Gr. _peri_, around, _sperma_, seed.] PERISPHERIC, -AL, per-i-sfer'ik, -al, _adj._ globular. PERISPORE, per'i-sp[=o]r, _n._ the outer covering of a spore. PERISSAD, pe-ris'ad, _n._ (_chem._) an atom whose valency is represented by an odd number--opp. to _Artiad_--also _adj._ [Gr. _perissos_, beyond the regular number.] PERISSODACTYLA, pe-ris-[=o]-dak'ti-la, _n._ one of the two divisions of the great mammalian order Ungulata, including the horse, tapir, and rhinoceros, distinguished by the third digit of each limb being symmetrical in itself, by the presence of an odd number of digits on the hind-foot, &c.--opp. to _Artiodactyla_.--_adjs._ PERISSODAC'TYL, PERISSODAC'TYLATE, PERISSODACTYL'IC, PERISSODAC'TYLOUS. [Gr. _perissos_, beyond the regular number, _daktylos_, a finger.] PERISSOLOGY, per-i-sol'[=o]-ji, _n._ verbiage.--_adj._ PERISSOLOG'ICAL, redundant in words. PERISSOSYLLABIC, pe-ris-o-si-lab'ik, _adj._ having superfluous syllables. PERISTALITH, pe-ris'ta-lith, _n._ a series of standing stones surrounding a barrow or burial-mound. [Gr. _peri_, around, _histanai_, to stand, _lithos_, a stone.] PERISTALTIC, per-i-stalt'ik, _adj._ noting the involuntary muscular action of the alimentary canal, by which it forces its contents onwards.--_n._ PERISTAL'SIS. [Gr. _peristaltikos_--_peristellein_, to wrap round--_peri_, around, _stellein_, to place.] PERISTEROPOD, p[=e]-ris'te-r[=o]-pod, _adj._ pigeon-toed--also _n._ [Gr. _peristera_, a pigeon, _pous_, _podos_, a foot.] PERISTOME, per'i-st[=o]m, _n._ the mouth-parts of echinoderms, &c.: the fringe of hair-like appendages round the rim of the capsule of a moss. PERISTYLE, per'i-st[=i]l, _n._ a range of columns round a building or round a square: a court, square, &c., with columns all round.--_adj._ PERISTY'LAR. [L. _peristylium_--Gr. _peristylon_, with pillars round the wall--_peri_, around, _stylos_, a column.] PERITHORACIC, per-i-th[=o]-ras'ik, _adj._ around the thorax. PERITOMOUS, pe-rit'[=o]-mus, _adj._ (_min._) cleaving in more directions than one parallel to the axis, the faces being all similar. [Gr. _peri_, round, _temnein_, to cut.] PERITONEUM, PERITONÆUM, per-i-t[=o]-n[=e]'um, _n._ a serous membrane which encloses all the viscera lying in the abdominal and pelvic cavities.--_adjs._ PERITON[=E]'AL; PERITONIT'IC.--_n._ PERITON[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the peritoneum. [Gr. _peritoneion_--_peri_, around, _teinein_, to stretch.] PERITYPHLITIS, per-i-tif-l[=i]'tis, _n._ inflammation of the cæcum, appendix, and connective tissue, or of the peritoneum covering cæcum and appendix. [Gr. _peri_, round, _typhlos_, blind (the cæcum being the 'blind gut').] PERIVASCULAR, per-i-vas'k[=u]-lar, _adj._ surrounding a vascular structure. PERIVISCERAL, per-i-vis'e-ral, _adj._ surrounding viscera. PERIWIG, per'i-wig, _n._ a peruke or small wig, usually shortened to _Wig_: an artificial head of hair.--_v.t._ to dress with a periwig.--_adj._ PER'IWIG-P[=A]'TED, wearing a periwig. [Old Dut. _peruyk_--Fr. _perruque_.] PERIWINKLE, per'i-wingk-l, _n._ a creeping evergreen plant, growing in woods. [M. E. _peruenke_, through A.S. _peruincæ_, from L. _pervinca_, _vinc[=i]re_, to bind.] PERIWINKLE, per'i-wingk-l, _n._ a small univalve mollusc: a small shellfish, abundant between tide-marks on the rocks, boiled and eaten as food. [Corrupted by confusion with preceding from A.S. _pinewincla_--_wincle_, a whelk; prov. Eng. _pin-patch_.] PERJURE, p[.e]r'j[=oo]r, _v.t._ to swear falsely (followed by a reciprocal pronoun): to cause to swear falsely.--_v.i._ to be false to one's oath.--_n._ (_Shak._) a perjured person.--_adj._ PER'JURED, having sworn falsely: being sworn falsely, as an oath.--_n._ PER'JURER.--_adjs._ PERJU'RIOUS, PER'JUROUS, guilty of perjury.--_n._ PER'JURY, false swearing: the breaking of an oath: (_law_) the crime committed by one who, when giving evidence on oath as a witness in a court of justice, gives evidence which he knows to be false. [Fr.,--L. _perjur[=a]re_--_per-_, _jur[=a]re_, to swear.] PERK, p[.e]rk, _adj._ trim: spruce: jaunty: proud.--_v.t._ to make smart or trim.--_v.i._ to hold up the head with smartness: to toss or jerk the head.--_adj._ PERK'Y (_Tenn._), perk, trim. [W. _perc_, trim.] PERK, p[.e]rk, _v.i._ (_prov._) to peer.--_adj._ PERK'ING, peering, inquisitive. PERKIN, per'kin, _n._ weak perry. PERLACEOUS=_Pearlaceous_. See PEARL. PERLITE, p[.e]r'l[=i]t, _n._ the name given to some vitreous rocks, as obsidian, which seem as if made up of little pearly or enamel-like spheroids.--_adj._ PERLIT'IC. PERLOUS, p[.e]rl'us, _adj._ (_Spens._). Same as PERILOUS. PERLUSTRATE, per-lus'tr[=a]t, _v.t._ to survey carefully.--_n._ PERLUSTR[=A]'TION. [L. _perlustr[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_.] PERMANENT, p[.e]r'ma-nent, _adj._ lasting: durable: not subject to change: not to be removed: (_zool._) always present.--_ns._ PER'MANENCE, PER'MANENCY, state or quality of being permanent: continuance in the same state, position, &c.: unlikelihood of change: duration.--_adv._ PER'MANENTLY.--PERMANENT WAY, the finished road of a railway. [Fr.,--L. _perman[=e]re_--_per_, through, _man[=e]re_, to continue.] PERMANGANATE, per-man'gan-[=a]t, _n._ a salt containing manganese.--_adj._ PERMANGAN'IC. PERMEATE, p[.e]r'm[=e]-[=a]t, _v.t._ to pass through the pores of: to penetrate and fill the pores of.--_n._ PERM[=E]ABIL'ITY.--_adj._ PER'M[=E]ABLE, that may be permeated or passed through: allowing the passage of liquids.--_adv._ PER'M[=E]ABLY.--_n._ PERM[=E][=A]'TION, act of permeating, or state of being permeated.--_adj._ PERM[=E][=A]'TIVE. [L. _permeatus_--_per_, through, _me[=a]re_, to pass.] PERMIAN, per'mi-an, _n._ a group of strata forming the uppermost division of the Palezoic series. PERMISCIBLE, per-mis'i-bl, _adj._ capable of being mixed. PERMIT, per-mit', _v.t._ to give leave to: to allow to be or to be done: to afford means: to give opportunity:--_pr.p._ permit'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ permit'ted.--_n._ (per'mit) a written permission, esp. from a custom-house officer to remove goods.--_n._ PERMISSIBIL'ITY.--_adj._ PERMISS'IBLE, that may be permitted: allowable.--_adv._ PERMISS'IBLY.--_n._ PERMIS'SION, act of permitting: liberty granted: allowance.--_adj._ PERMISS'IVE, granting permission or liberty: allowing: granted: not hindered.--_adv._ PERMISS'IVELY, by permission, without prohibition.--_ns._ PERMIT'TANCE, permission; PERMITT[=EE]', one to whom permission is granted; PERMIT'TER, one who permits.--PERMISSIVE BILL, a measure embodying the principles of local option for the regulation of the liquor traffic; PERMISSIVE LAWS, laws that permit certain things without enforcing anything. [L. _permitt[)e]re_, _-missum_, to let pass through--_per_, through, _mitt[)e]re_, to send.] PERMUTABLE, per-m[=u]'ta-bl, _adj._ that may be changed one for another.--_ns._ PERM[=U]'TABLENESS, PERMUTABIL'ITY.--_adv._ PERM[=U]'TABLY.--_ns._ PERM[=U]'TANT; PERMUT[=A]'TION, act of changing one thing for another: (_math._) the arrangement of things or letters in every possible order.--_v.t._ PERMUTE'. [L.,--_permut[=a]re_--_per_, through, _mut[=a]re_, to change.] PERN, p[.e]rn, _n._ a honey-buzzard.--Also PER'NIS. PERNICIOUS, per-nish'us, _adj._ killing utterly: hurtful: destructive: highly injurious.--_adv._ PERNI'CIOUSLY.--_n._ PERNI'CIOUSNESS. [Fr.,--L. _perniciosus_--_per_, completely, _nex_, _necis_, death by violence.] PERNICKETY, per-nik'e-ti, _adj._ easily troubled about trifles: (_coll._) fastidious.--_n._ PERNICK'ETINESS. PERNOCTATION, p[.e]r-nok-t[=a]'shun, _n._ act of passing the whole night, esp. in prayer or watching: a watch all night. [L. _per_, through, _nox_, _noctis_, night.] PERONE, per'[=o]-n[=e], _n._ the fibula or small bone of the leg.--_adjs._ PER[=O]N[=E]'AL; PER[=O]N[=E][=O]TIB'IAL, pertaining to the perone and the tibia.--_n._ a muscle from the fibula to the tibia in some marsupials: an anomalous muscle in man, constant in apes, between the inner side of the head of the fibula and the tibia.--_n._ PERON[=E]'US, one of several fibular muscles. [Fr.,--Gr. _peron[=e]_, the tongue of a buckle.] PEROPOD, p[=e]'r[=o]-pod, _adj._ having rudimentary hind limbs, as serpents--also _n._ [Gr. _p[=e]ros_, maimed, _pous_, _podos_, a foot.] PERORATION, per-[=o]-r[=a]'shun, _n._ the conclusion of a speech, usually summing up the points and enforcing the argument.--_v.i._ PER'ORATE, to make a peroration: (_coll._) to make a speech. [Fr.,--L. _peroratio_--_peror[=a]re_, to bring a speech to an end--_per_, through, _or[=a]re_, to speak--_os_, _oris_, the mouth.] PEROXIDE, per-ox'[=i]d, _n._ an oxide having a larger proportion of oxygen than any other oxide of the same series.--_n._ PEROXID[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ PEROX'IDISE. PERPEND, per-pend', _v.t._ to weigh in the mind, to consider carefully. [L. _perpend[)e]re_--_per_, inten., _pend[)e]re_, to weigh.] PERPEND, per'pend, _n._ in building, a bond-stone or bonder.--Also PER'PEND-STONE, PER'PENT-STONE. [O. Fr. _parpaigne_, Fr. _parpaing_.] PERPENDICULAR, p[.e]r-pen-dik'[=u]-lar, _adj._ exactly upright: extending in a straight line toward the centre of the earth: (_geom._) at right angles to a given line or surface.--_n._ a perpendicular line or plane.--_n._ PERPENDICULAR'ITY, state of being perpendicular.--_adv._ PERPENDIC'ULARLY.--PERPENDICULAR STYLE, a style of Gothic architecture in England which succeeded the Decorated style, prevailing from the end of the 14th to the middle of the 16th century, contemporary with the Flamboyant style in France, marked by stiff and rectilinear lines, mostly vertical window-tracery, depressed or four-centre arch, fan-tracery vaulting, and panelled walls. [Fr.,--L. _perpendicularis_--_perpendiculum_, a plumb-line--_per_, through, _pend[)e]re_, to weigh.] PERPETRATE, p[.e]r'p[=e]-tr[=a]t, _v.t._ to perform or commit (usually in a bad sense): to produce (as a poor pun).--_adj._ PER'PETRABLE.--_ns._ PERPETR[=A]'TION, act of committing a crime: the thing perpetrated: an evil action; PER'PETR[=A]TOR. [L. _perpetr[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_per_, thoroughly, _patr[=a]re_, to perform.] PERPETUAL, per-pet'[=u]-al, _adj._ never ceasing: everlasting: not temporary.--_adv._ PERPET'UALLY.--PERPETUAL CURATE, a curate of a parish where there was neither rector nor vicar, the tithes being in the hands of a layman--abolished in 1868, every incumbent not a rector now being a vicar; PERPETUAL MOTION, motion of a machine arising from forces within itself, constantly kept up without any force from without; PERPETUAL SCREW, an endless screw. [Fr. _perpétuel_--L. _perpetuus_, continuous.] PERPETUATE, per-pet'[=u]-[=a]t, _v.t._ to make perpetual: to cause to last for ever or for a very long time: to preserve from extinction or oblivion.--_adj._ PERPET'[=U]ABLE, capable of being perpetuated.--_n._ PERPET'UANCE, the act of making perpetual.--_adjs._ PERPET'U[=A]TE, -D, made perpetual: continued for an indefinite time.--_n._ PERPETU[=A]'TION, act of perpetuating or preserving from oblivion: preservation for ever, or for a very long time; PERPET[=U]'ITY, state of being perpetual: endless time: duration for an indefinite period: something lasting for ever: the sum paid for a perpetual annuity: the annuity itself. PERPLEX, per-pleks', _v.t._ to make difficult to be understood: to embarrass: to puzzle: to tease with suspense or doubt.--_n._ (_obs._) a difficulty.--_adv._ PERPLEX'EDLY.--_n._ PERPLEX'EDNESS.--_adj._ PERPLEX'ING.--_adv._ PERPLEX'INGLY.--_n._ PERPLEX'ITY, state of being perplexed: confusion of mind arising from doubt, &c.: intricacy: embarrassment: doubt. [Fr.,--L. _perplexus_, entangled--_per_, completely, _plexus_, involved, pa.p. of _plect[)e]re_.] PERQUISITE, p[.e]r'kwi-zit, _n._ an allowance granted over and above the settled wages: a fee allowed by law to an officer for a specific service.--_ns._ PERQUISI'TION, a strict search: diligent inquiry; PERQUIS'ITOR, the first purchaser of an estate. [L. _perquisitum_, from _perquir[)e]re_--_per_, thoroughly, _quær[)e]re_, to ask.] PERRADIAL, p[.e]r-r[=a]'di-al, _adj._ fundamentally radial.--_n._ PERR[=A]'DIUS. PERRIER, per'i-[.e]r, _n._ a machine for hurling stones. PERRON, per'on, _n._ an external flight of steps giving access to the entrance-door of a building. PERRUQUE, PERRUQUIER. See PERUKE. PERRY, per'i, _n._ an agreeable beverage made by fermenting the juice of pears. [Fr. _poiré_, from _poire_, a pear--L. _pirum_.] PERSANT, p[.e]rs'ant, _adj._ (_Spens._). Same as PERCEANT. PERSCRUTATION, per-skr[=oo]-t[=a]'shun, _n._ a thorough search through: a minute inquiry. [L. _per_, through, _scrut[=a]ri_, to search carefully.] PERSE, pers, _adj._ dark blue, bluish-gray.--_n._ a dark-blue colour, a cloth of such colour. [O. Fr. _pers_--L. _persicum_, a peach.] PERSECUTE, p[.e]r'se-k[=u]t, _v.t._ to pursue so as to injure or annoy: to follow after persistently: to annoy or punish, esp. for religious or political opinions.--_ns._ PERSEC[=U]'TION, act or practice of persecuting: state of being persecuted: a time of general oppression on account of religious opinions; PER'SEC[=U]TOR:--_fem._ PER'SEC[=U]TRIX. [Fr.,--L. _persequi_, _persecutus_--_per_, thoroughly, _sequi_, to follow.] PERSEUS, per's[=u]s, _n._ a fabled Greek hero, who slew the Gorgon Medusa, and rescued Andromeda from a sea-monster: a constellation in the northern sky. [Gr.] PERSEVERE, p[.e]r-s[=e]-v[=e]r', _v.i._ to persist in anything: to pursue anything steadily: to be constant: not to give over.--_n._ PERSEV[=E]'RANCE, act or state of persevering: continued application to anything which one has begun: a going on till success is met with.--_adj._ PERSEV[=E]'RING.--_adv._ PERSEV[=E]'RINGLY.--PERSEVERANCE OF SAINTS, the Calvinistic doctrine that those who are effectually called by God cannot fall away so as to be finally lost. [Fr.,--L. _persever[=a]re_--_perseverus_, very strict--_per_, very, _severus_, strict.] PERSIAN, p[.e]r'shi-an, _adj._ of, from, or relating to _Persia_, its inhabitants, or language.--_n._ a native of Persia: the language of Persia: (_archit._) male figures used instead of columns to support an entablature--also PER'SIC.--PERSIAN APPLE, the peach; PERSIAN BERRY, the fruit of several buckthorns; PERSIAN BLINDS (see PERSIENNE); PERSIAN WHEEL, a large wheel for raising water, fixed vertically with a number of buckets at its circumference. PERSICOT, per'si-kot, _n._ a cordial flavoured with kernels of peaches and apricots. [Fr.,--L. _persicum_, a peach.] PERSIENNE, per-si-en', _n._ an Eastern cambric or muslin with coloured printed pattern: (_pl._) Persian blinds, outside shutters of thin movable slats in a frame. PERSIFLAGE, p[.e]r'si-fläzh, _n._ a frivolous way of talking or treating any subject: banter.--_adj._ PER'SIFLANT, bantering.--_v.i._ PER'SIFL[=A]TE (_Thackeray_).--_n._ PER'SIFLOUR (_Carlyle_). [Fr.,--_persifler_, to banter--L. _per_, through, Fr. _siffler_--L. _sibil[=a]re_, to whistle, to hiss.] PERSIMMON, PERSIMON, per-sim'on, _n._ the American date-plum. [Amer. Ind.] PERSIST, per-sist', _v.i._ to stand throughout to something begun: to continue in any course, esp. against opposition: to persevere.--_ns._ PERSIS'TENCE, PERSIS'TENCY, quality of being persistent: perseverance: obstinacy: duration, esp. of an effect after the exciting cause has been removed.--_adj._ PERSIS'TENT, persisting: pushing on, esp. against opposition: tenacious: fixed: (_bot._) remaining till or after the fruit is ripe, as a calyx.--_advs._ PERSIS'TENTLY; PERSIS'TINGLY.--_adj._ PERSIS'TIVE (_Shak._), persistent. [Fr.,--L. _persist[)e]re_--_per_, through, _sist[)e]re_, to cause to stand--_st[=a]re_, to stand.] PERSON, p[.e]r'sun, _n._ character represented, as on the stage: character: an individual, sometimes used slightingly: a living soul: a human being: the outward appearance, &c.: bodily form: one of the three hypostases or individualities in the triune God: (_gram._) a distinction in form, according as the subject of the verb is the person speaking, spoken to, or spoken of.--_adj._ PER'SONABLE, having a well-formed body or person: of good appearance.--_n._ PER'SON[=A]GE, a person: character represented: an individual of eminence: external appearance.--_adj._ PER'SONAL, belonging to a person: having the nature or quality of a person: peculiar to a person or to his private concerns: pertaining to the external appearance: done in person: relating to one's own self: applied offensively to one's character: (_gram._) denoting the person.--_n._ PERSONALIS[=A]'TION, personification.--_v.t._ PER'SONALISE, to make personal.--_ns._ PER'SONALISM, the character of being personal; PER'SONALIST, one who writes personal notes; PERSONAL'ITY, that which distinguishes a person from a thing, or one person from another: individuality: a derogatory remark or reflection directly applied to a person--esp. in _pl._ PERSONAL'ITIES.--_adv._ PER'SONALLY, in a personal or direct manner: in person: individually.--_n._ PER'SONALTY (_law_), all the property which, when a man dies, goes to his executor or administrator, as distinguished from the realty, which goes to his heir-at-law.--_v.t._ PER'SON[=A]TE, to assume the likeness or character of: to represent: to counterfeit: to feign.--_adj._ (_bot._) mask-like, as in the corollary of the snapdragon: larval, cucullate.--_adj._ PER'SON[=A]TED, impersonated, feigned, assumed.--_ns._ PERSON[=A]'TION; PER'SON[=A]TOR.--_n._ PERSONIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ PER'SONISE, to personify.--_n._ PERSONNEL', the persons employed in any service, as distinguished from the materiel.--PERSONAL ESTATE, PROPERTY, movable goods or property, as distinguished from freehold or real property, esp. in land; PERSONAL EXCEPTION (_Scots law_), a ground of objection which applies to an individual and prevents him from doing something which, but for his conduct or situation, he might do; PERSONAL IDENTITY, the continued sameness of the individual person, through all changes both without and within, as testified by consciousness; PERSONAL RIGHTS, rights which belong to the person as a living, reasonable being; PERSONAL SECURITY, security or pledge given by a person, as distinguished from the delivery of some object of value as security; PERSONAL SERVICE, delivery of a message or an order into a person's hands, as distinguished from delivery in any other indirect way; PERSONAL TRANSACTION, something done by a person's own effort, not through the agency of another.--IN PERSON, by one's self, not by a representative. [Fr.,--L. _pers[=o]na_, a player's mask, perh. from _pers[)o]n[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_per_, through, _son[=a]re_, to sound.] PERSONA, p[.e]r-s[=o]'na, _n._ a person.--PERSONA GRATA, a person who is acceptable to those to whom he is sent.--DRAMATIS PERSONÆ, the characters in a play or story. [L.] PERSONIFY, per-son'i-f[=i], _v.t._ (_rhet._) to treat, look on, or describe as a person: to ascribe to any inanimate object the qualities of a person: to be the embodiment of:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ person'if[=i]ed.--_n._ PERSONIFIC[=A]'TION. [L. _persona_, a person, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] PERSPECTIVE, per-spek'tiv, _n._ a view or a vista: the art of drawing objects on a plane surface, so as to give the picture the same appearance to the eye as the objects themselves: just proportion in all the parts: a telescope or field-glass: a picture in perspective.--_adj._ pertaining or according to perspective.--_adv._ PERSPEC'TIVELY.--_ns._ PERSPEC'TOGRAPH, an instrument for indicating correctly the points and outlines of objects; PERSPECTOG'RAPHY, the science of perspective, or of delineating it.--PERSPECTIVE PLANE, the surface on which the picture of the objects to be represented in perspective is drawn.--IN PERSPECTIVE, according to the laws of perspective. [Fr.,--L. _perspic[)e]re_, _perspectum_--_per_, through, _spec[)e]re_, to look.] PERSPICACIOUS, p[.e]r-spi-k[=a]'shus, _adj._ of clear or acute understanding: quick-sighted.--_adv._ PERSPIC[=A]'CIOUSLY.--_ns._ PERSPIC[=A]'CIOUSNESS; PERSPICAC'ITY, state of being acute in discerning: keenness of sight or of understanding; PERSPIC[=U]'ITY, state of being perspicacious: clearness in expressing ideas so as to make them easily understood by others: freedom from obscurity.--_adj._ PERSPIC'[=U]OUS, that can be seen through: clear to the mind: easily understood: not obscure in any way: evident.--_adv._ PERSPIC'[=U]OUSLY.--_n._ PERSPIC'[=U]OUSNESS. [L. _perspicax_, _perspicacis_--_perspic[)e]re_, to see through.] PERSPIRE, per-sp[=i]r', _v.i._ and _v.t._ to emit or to be emitted, as moisture, through the pores of the skin: to sweat.--_n._ PERSPIRABIL'ITY.--_adj._ PERSP[=I]R'ABLE, capable of being perspired.--_v.i._ PER'SPIR[=A]TE (_rare_), to sweat.--_n._ PERSPIR[=A]'TION, act of perspiring: that which is perspired: moisture given out through the pores of the skin: sweat.--_adj._ PERSP[=I]R'ATORY, pertaining to or causing perspiration. [L. _perspir[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_per_, through, _spir[=a]re_, to breathe.] PERSTRINGE, p[.e]r-strinj', _v.t._ to criticise. PERSUADE, per-sw[=a]d', _v.t._ to influence successfully by argument, advice, &c.: to bring to any particular opinion: to cause to believe: to convince.--_adj._ PERSUAD'ABLE.--_n._ PERSUAD'ER.--_adj._ PERSU[=A]'SIBLE, capable of being persuaded.--_ns._ PERSU[=A]'SIBLENESS, PERSUASIBIL'ITY; PERSU[=A]'SION, act of persuading: state of being persuaded: settled opinion: a creed: a party adhering to a creed: (_Spens._) an inducement.--_adjs._ PERSU[=A]'SIVE, PERSU[=A]'SORY, having the power to persuade: influencing the mind or passions.--_n._ that which persuades or wins over.--_adv._ PERSU[=A]'SIVELY.--_n._ PERSU[=A]'SIVENESS. [Fr.,--L. _persuad[=e]re_, _-suasum_--_per_, thoroughly, _suad[=e]re_, to advise.] PERSUE, p[.e]rs'[=u], _n._ (_Spens._) a track. PERSULPHATE, p[.e]r-sul'f[=a]t, _n._ that sulphate of a metal which contains the relatively greater quantity of acid. PERT, p[.e]rt, _adj._ (_obs._) open: evident: plain. [O. Fr. _apert_--L. _aper[=i]re_, _apertum_, to open.] PERT, p[.e]rt, _adj._ forward: saucy: impertinent: too free in speech: (_obs._) clever.--_n._ an impudent person.--_adv._ PERT'LY.--_n._ PERT'NESS. [_Perk_.] PERTAIN, per-t[=a]n', _v.i._ to belong: to relate (with _to_).--_ns._ PER'TINENCE, PER'TINENCY, state of being pertinent or to the point: fitness for the matter on hand: suitableness: appositeness.--_adj._ PER'TINENT, pertaining or related to a subject: being to the point: fitted for the matter on hand: fitting or appropriate: suitable: apposite.--_adv._ PER'TINENTLY.--_n._ PER'TINENTNESS. [O. Fr. _partenir_--L. _pertin[=e]re_--_per_, thoroughly, _ten[=e]re_, to hold.] PERTINACIOUS, p[.e]r-ti-n[=a]'shus, _adj._ thoroughly tenacious: holding obstinately to an opinion or a purpose: obstinate: unyielding.--_adv._ PERTIN[=A]'CIOUSLY.--_ns._ PERTIN[=A]'CIOUSNESS; PERTINAC'ITY, quality of being pertinacious or unyielding: obstinacy: resoluteness. [Fr.,--L. _pertinax_, _-acis_, holding fast--_per_, thoroughly, _tenax_, tenacious--_ten[=e]re_, to hold.] PERTURB, per-turb', _v.t._ to disturb greatly: to agitate--also PER'TURBATE.--_adj._ PERTUR'BABLE, that can be agitated or confused.--_ns._ PERTUR'BANCE, PERTURB[=A]'TION, act of perturbing or state of being perturbed: disquiet of mind: irregular action, esp. (_astron._) the disturbance produced in the simple elliptic motion of one heavenly body about another by the action of a third body, or by the non-sphericity of the principal body; PERTUR'BANT, any disturbing thing.--_adjs._ PERTURB[=A]'TIONAL; PERTUR'BATIVE.--_n._ PERTUR'BATORY, the power of deflecting the divining-rod by magnetic influence.--_p.adj._ PERTURBED'.--_adv._ PERTURB'EDLY.--_ns._ PERTUR'BER, PERTURB[=A]'TOR:--_fem._ PER'TURB[=A]TRIX. [Fr.,--L. _perturb[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_per_, thoroughly, _turb[=a]re_, to disturb--_turba_, a crowd.] PERTUSION, p[.e]r-t[=u]'zhon, _n._ a hole made by a sharp instrument.--_adjs._ PERT[=U]'SATE, pierced at the apex; PERTUSE', -D, pierced with holes. [L. _pertund[)e]re_, _-tusum_--_per_, through, _tund[)e]re_, to strike.] PERTUSSIS, per-tus'is, _n._ whooping-cough.--_adj._ PERTUSS'AL. PERUKE, per-[=u]k', or per'[=u]k, _n._ an artificial cap of hair: a periwig--also PERRUQUE.--_adj._ PERUQU[=E]R'IAN, of or pertaining to the making of wigs.--_n._ PERRU'QUIER, a wigmaker. [Fr. _perruque_--It. _parrucca_ (Sp. _peluca_)--L. _pilus_, hair.] PERUSE, per-[=u]z', or per-[=oo]z', _v.t._ to read attentively: to examine carefully or in detail.--_ns._ PERUSAL (per-[=u]z'al, or per-[=oo]z'al), the act of perusing: careful examination: study: reading; PERUS'ER. [Formed from L. _per_, thoroughly, _uti_, _usum_, to use.] PERUVIAN, per-[=oo]'vi-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Peru_ in South America.--_n._ a native of Peru.--PERUVIAN BALSAM, a fragrant bitterish liquid yielded by a South American tree, used for asthma and in making soaps; PERUVIAN BARK, cinchona (q.v.). PERVADE, per-v[=a]d', _v.t._ to go through or penetrate: to spread all over.--_n._ PERV[=A]'SION.--_adj._ PERV[=A]'SIVE, tending or having power to pervade. [L. _pervad[)e]re_, _pervasum_--_per_, through, _vad[)e]re_, to go.] PERVERSE, per-v[.e]rs', _adj._ turned aside: obstinate in the wrong: stubborn: vexatious.--_adv._ PERVERSE'LY.--_ns._ PERVERSE'NESS, PERVER'SITY, state or quality of being perverse: inclination to oppose: wickedness.--_adj._ PERVER'SIVE, tending to pervert. [L. _perversus_, turned the wrong way.] PERVERT, per-v[.e]rt', _v.t._ to turn wrong or from the right course: to change from its true use: to corrupt: to turn from truth or virtue.--_v.i._ to go wrong or out of the right course.--_n._ (per'vert) one who has changed from a former position: an apostate.--_ns._ PERVER'SION, the act of perverting: a diverting from the true object: a turning from truth or propriety: misapplication; PERVERT'ER.--_adj._ PERVERT'IBLE, able to be perverted. [Fr. _pervertir_--L. _pervert[)e]re_--_per_, thoroughly, _vert[)e]re_, _versum_, to turn.] PERVEYAUNCE. Same as PURVEYANCE. PERVICACIOUS, per-vi-k[=a]'shus, _adj._ very obstinate.--_ns._ PERVIC[=A]'CIOUSNESS, PERVICAC'ITY. PERVIOUS, p[.e]r'vi-us, _adj._ permeable, penetrable: open, perforate.--_adv._ PER'VIOUSLY.--_n._ PER'VIOUSNESS. [L. _pervius_--_per_, through, _via_, a way.] PESADE, pe-z[=a]d', _n._ the act or position of a saddle-horse in rearing. [Fr.] PESETA, pe-s[=a]'ta, _n._ a silver coin of Spain worth 9½d. [Sp., dim. of _pesa_, weight.] PESHITO, pe-sh[=e]'to, _n._ a translation of the Bible into Syriac, made in the second century.--Also PESHIT'TO. [Syriac, _p[)e]shittá_, the simple.] PESHWA, pesh'wa, _n._ a chief or prince of the Mahrattas.--Also PEISH'WAH. PESKY, pes'ki, _adj._ annoying.--_adv._ PES'KILY. PESO, p[=a]'so, _n._ a Spanish dollar. [Sp.,--L. _pensum_, _pend[)e]re_, to weigh.] PESSARY, pes'a-ri, _n._ an instrument worn in the vagina to remedy displacement of the womb. [Fr. _pessaire_--Low L. _pessarium_--Gr. _pessos_, a pebble.] PESSIMISM, pes'i-mizm, _n._ the doctrine that on the whole the world is bad rather than good: a temper of mind that looks too much on the dark side of things: a depressing view of life.--_v.i._ PESS'IMISE.--_n._ PESS'IMIST, one who believes that everything is tending to the worst: one who looks too much on the dark side of things--opp. to _Optimist_.--_adjs._ PESSIMIS'TIC, -AL. [L. _pessimus_, worst.] PEST, pest, _n._ a deadly disease: a plague: anything destructive: a troublesome person.--_n._ PEST'HOUSE, a hospital for persons afflicted with any contagious disease.--_adj._ PESTIF'EROUS, contagious: pestilent: annoying.--_adv._ PESTIF'EROUSLY.--_n._ PEST'ILENCE, any contagious deadly disease: anything that is hurtful to the morals.--_adjs._ PEST'ILENT, producing pestilence: hurtful to health and life: mischievous: corrupt: troublesome; PESTILEN'TIAL, of the nature of pestilence: producing pestilence: destructive.--_advs._ PESTILEN'TIALLY, PEST'ILENTLY. [Fr. _peste_--L. _pestis_, a contagious disease.] PESTALOZZIAN, pes-ta-lot'si-an, _adj._ pertaining to graduated object-teaching as originated by Johann Heinrich _Pestalozzi_ (1745-1827). PESTER, pes't[.e]r, _v.t._ to disturb, to annoy.--_n._ a bother.--_n._ PES'TERER, one who pesters.--_adv._ PES'TERINGLY.--_n._ PES'TERMENT, annoyance. [Short for _impester_, O. Fr. _empestrer_ (Fr. _empêtrer_), to entangle, from _in_, in, Low L. _pastorium_, a foot-shackle--L. _pastus_, pa.p. of _pasc[)e]re_, to feed.] PESTLE, pes'l, or pest'l, _n._ an instrument for pounding anything in a mortar.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to pound with a pestle: to use a pestle. [O. Fr. _pestel_--L. _pistillum_, a pounder, _pins[)e]re_, _pistum_, to pound.] PET, pet, _n._ any animal tame and fondled: a word of endearment often used to young children: a favourite child: a wilful young woman--also PEAT.--_adj._ indulged: cherished: favourite.--_v.t._ to treat as a pet: to fondle:--_pr.p._ pet'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ pet'ted. [Celt., as Ir. _peat_, Gael. _peata_.] PET, pet, _n._ a sudden fit of peevishness or slight passion: ill-humour.--_v.i._ to be peevish, to sulk. [From the above word.] [Illustration] PETAL, pet'al, _n._ a flower-leaf: a corolla leaf.--_adjs._ PET'ALED, PET'ALIFORM, PET'ALOUS, having petals or flower-leaves; PET'ALINE, pertaining to or resembling a petal: attached to a petal.--_n._ PET'ALISM, a method of ostracism practised in ancient Syracuse, the name being written on an olive-leaf.--_adj._ PET'ALOID, having the form of a petal--also PETALOI'DEOUS. [Gr. _petalon_, a leaf.] PETARD, p[=e]-tärd', _n._ a kind of mortar filled with gunpowder, fixed to gates, barriers, &c., to break them down by explosion--(_Shak._) PETAR': a paper bomb in pyrotechny.--_ns._ PETARDEER', PETARDIER'.--HOIST WITH ONE'S OWN PETARD (see HOIST). [O. Fr.--_péter_, to crack or explode--L. _ped[)e]re_, cog. with Gr. _perdein_, Eng. _fart_.] PETARY, p[=e]'tar-i, _n._ a peat-bog. PETASUS, pet'a-sus, _n._ a low broad-brimmed hat worn by heralds, &c., characteristic of Hermes. [Gr.] PETAURIST, pe-taw'rist, _n._ a flying opossum, Australian squirrel, &c.--_adj._ PETAU'RINE. [Gr.] PETCHARY, pech'a-ri, _n._ the gray king-bird. PETECHIÆ, p[=e]-tek'i-[=e], _n.pl._ purple spots on the skin.--_adj._ PETECH'IAL. [L. _petigo_, a scab.] PETER, p[=e]'t[.e]r, _v.i._ in mining, to become exhausted (with _out_): (_fig._) to lose power or value. PETER, p[=e]'t[.e]r, _v.i._ to call for trumps at whist, by throwing away a higher card of a suit while holding a smaller.--_n._ this signal for trumps. PETEREL. Same as PETREL. PETERSHAM, p[=e]'t[.e]r-sham, _n._ a heavy greatcoat, also the rough-napped cloth, generally dark blue, of which it is made. [From Lord _Petersham_.] PETER'S-PENCE. See PENNY. PETIOLE, pet'i-[=o]l, _n._ the stalk which joins a leaf to the twig or branch: a footstalk--also PET[=I]'OLUS.--_adjs._ PET'IOLAR, -Y, pertaining to, or growing upon, a petiole; PET'IOL[=A]TE, -D, PET'IOLED, growing on a petiole.--_n._ PET'IOLULE, a little or partial petiole. [Fr.,--L. _petiolus_, a little foot--_pes_, _pedis_, a foot.] PETIT, pet'i, _adj._ small:--_fem._ PETITE (pe-t[=e]t').--_n._ PET'IT-MAÎ'TRE, a dandy, a coxcomb generally. [Fr.] PETITION, p[=e]-tish'un, _n._ a request generally from an inferior to a superior: a written request presented to a court of law, or to a body of legislators: a prayer: a supplication.--_v.t._ to present a petition to: to ask as a favour: to supplicate.--_adj._ PETIT'IONARY, offering or containing a petition: supplicatory.--_ns._ PETIT'IONER, one who offers a petition or prayer; PETIT'IONING, the act of presenting a petition: entreaty: solicitation; PETIT'IONIST.--_adj._ PET'ITORY, petitioning.--PETITIO PRINCIPII, the fallacy of begging the question--a taking for granted in argument of that which has yet to be proved. [Fr.,--L. _petitio_--_pet[)e]re_, _petitum_, to ask.] PETRARY, pe-tr[=a]'ri, _n._ an engine for hurling stones. PETRE. Same as SALTPETRE. PETREAN, p[=e]-tr[=e]'an, _adj._ pertaining to rock. [L. _petræus_--Gr. _petraios_--_petra_, a rock.] PETREL, pet'rel, _n._ a long-winged dusky sea-bird, rarely landing except to lay its eggs, esp. the STORMY PETREL, called by sailors 'Mother Carey's Chickens,' scarcely larger than a lark, the smallest web-footed bird known. [Fr.; from Matt. xiv. 29.] PETRIFY, pet'ri-f[=i], _v.t._ to turn into stone: to make hard like a stone: to fix in amazement.--_v.i._ to become stone, or hard like stone:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ pet'rified.--_n._ PETRES'CENCE.--_adjs._ PETRES'CENT, growing into or becoming stone; PETRIC'OLOUS, inhabiting rocks.--_n._ PETRIFAC'TION, the act of turning into stone: the state of being turned into stone: that which is made stone: a fossil.--_adjs._ PETRIFAC'TIVE, PETRIF'IC, changing animal or vegetable substances into stone; PET'RIF[=I]ABLE.--_ns._ PETROG'ENY, the science of the origin of rocks; PET'ROGLYPH, a rock-carving.--_adj._ PETROGLYPH'IC.--_ns._ PETROG'LYPHY, the art of writing on rocks or stones; PETROG'RAPHER, a student of petrography.--_adjs._ PETROGRAPH'IC, -AL.--_adv._ PETROGRAPH'ICALLY.--_n._ PETROG'RAPHY, the study of rocks: petrology.--_adj._ PETROLOG'ICAL.--_adv._ PETROLOG'ICALLY.--_ns._ PETROL'OGIST; PETROL'OGY, the science of the composition and classification of rocks.--_adjs._ PETR[=O]'SAL, of great hardness: petrous; P[=E]'TROUS, like stone: hard: rocky. [L. _petra_--Gr. _petra_, rock, L. _fac[)e]re_, _factum_, to make.] PETRINE, p[=e]'trin, _adj._ pertaining to, or written by, the Apostle _Peter_.--_n._ P[=E]'TRINISM, the Tübingen theory of F. C. Baur (1792-1860) and his school, of a doctrinal trend in primitive Christianity towards Judaism, ascribed to Peter and his party in opposition to _Paulinism_. [L. _Petrinus_--_Petrus_, Peter.] PETROLEUM, p[=e]-tr[=o]'l[=e]-um, _n._ a liquid inflammable substance issuing or pumped up from the earth in various parts of the world.--_ns._ PET'ROL, a spirit obtained from petroleum; PETROLEUR (p[=a]-tro-l[=a]r'), one of those Parisians who, with the help of petroleum, set fire to many of the public buildings of Paris in May 1871: an incendiary:--_fem._ PETROLEUSE'.--_adj._ PETROLIF'EROUS, yielding petroleum. [L. _petra_, rock, _oleum_, oil.] PETRONEL, pet'ro-nel, _n._ a large horse-pistol: a small carbine. [O. Fr. _petrinal_, the breast--L. _pectus_.] PETTED, pet'ed, _adj._ treated as a pet: indulged.--_adj._ PETT'ISH, given to take the pet: peevish: fretful.--_adv._ PETT'ISHLY.--_n._ PETT'ISHNESS. PETTICHAPS, PETTY-CHAPS, pet'i-chaps, _n._ the garden warbler, the willow-warbler, chiff-chaff. PETTICOAT, pet'i-k[=o]t, _n._ a loose under-skirt worn by females and little boys: (_coll._) a woman: a fisherman's loose canvas or oilcloth skirt: a bell-mouthed piece over the exhaust nozzles in the smoke-box of a locomotive, strengthening and equalising the draught through the boiler-tubes.--_adj._ feminine: female, as 'petticoat influence.'--_n._ PETT'ICOAT-AFFAIR', an affair in which a woman is concerned.--_n.pl._ PETT'ICOAT-BREECH'ES, a loose short breeches worn by men in the 17th century.--_adj._ PETT'ICOATED.--PETTICOAT GOVERNMENT, government by women, either at home or in the state. [_Petty_ + _coat_.] PETTIFOGGER, pet'i-fog-[.e]r, _n._ a lawyer who practises only in paltry cases.--_v.i._ PETT'IFOG, to play the pettifogger.--_n._ PETT'IFOGGERY, mean tricks: quibbles.--_adj._ PETT'IFOGGING. [_Petty_, and obs. _fog_, to cheat (cf. Old Dut. _focker_).] PETTITOES, pet'i-t[=o]z, _n.pl._ the feet of a sucking pig: (_Shak._) human feet. [_Petty_ + _toe_.] PETTLE, pet'l, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to indulge, pet. PETTO, pet'o, _n._ the breast. [It.,--L. _pectus_, breast.] PETTY, pet'i, _adj._ small: of less importance: lower in rank, power, &c.: inconsiderable, insignificant: contemptible.--_adv._ PETT'ILY.--_n._ PETT'INESS.--PETTY CASH, small sums of money received or paid; PETTY LARCENY (see LARCENY); PETTY OFFICER, a naval officer with rank corresponding to a non-commissioned officer in the army. [O. Fr. _petit._] PETULANT, pet'[=u]-lant, _adj._ showing peevish impatience, irritation, or caprice: forward, impudent in manner.--_ns._ PET'ULANCE, PET'ULANCY, sauciness: peevishness or impatience.--_adv._ PET'ULANTLY. [L. _petulans, -antis_--obs. _petul[=a]re,_ dim. of _pet[)e]re,_ to fall upon.] PETUNIA, p[=e]-t[=u]'ni-a, _n._ a Brazilian genus of ornamental plants of the nightshade family, with small undivided leaves and showy funnel-form flowers. [Amer. Ind. _petun,_ tobacco.] PEW, p[=u], _n._ an enclosed seat in a church.--_ns._ PEW'-FELL'OW, companion; PEW'-HOLD'ER, one who rents a pew in a church; PEW'-[=O]'PENER, an attendant who opens pews in a church; PEW'-RENT, rent paid for the use of a pew in church. [O. Fr. _pui_, a raised place--L. _podium_, a front seat in the amphitheatre--Gr. _podion_, orig. a footstool--_pous_, _podos_, foot.] PEWIT, p[=e]'wit, _n._ the lapwing, a bird with a black head and crest, common in moors.--Also P[=E]'WET, PEE'WIT. [Imit.; cf. Dut. _piewit_ or _kiewit_.] PEWTER, p[=u]'t[.e]r, _n._ an alloy of four parts of tin and one of lead: sometimes tin with a little copper and antimony: a vessel made of pewter, esp. a beer-tankard: (_slang_) prize-money.--_adj._ made of pewter.--_ns._ PEW'TERER, one who works in pewter; PEW'TER-MILL, a lapidaries' polishing-wheel for amethyst, agate, &c.--_adj._ PEW'TERY, belonging to pewter. [O. Fr. _peutre_ (It. _peltro_), from a Teut. root, seen in Low Ger. _spialter_, Eng. spelter.] PFENNIG, pfen'ig, _n._ a German copper coin, the hundredth part of a mark.--Also PFENN'ING. PHACITIS, f[=a]-s[=i]'tis, _n._ inflammation of the crystalline lens of the eye.--_n._ PHACOCYST[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the capsule of the crystalline lens of the eye.--_adj._ PH[=A]'COID, lentil-shaped.--_n._ PH[=A]'COSCOPE. [Gr. _phakos_, a lentil.] PHÆNOGAMOUS, PHENOGAMOUS, f[=e]-nog'a-mus, _adj._ having manifest flowers, phanerogamous.--_ns._ PHÆ'NOGAM, a phanerogamous plant; PHÆNOG[=A]'MIA=_Phanerogamia_.--_adj._ PHÆNOGAM'IC. [Gr. _phainein_, to show, _gamos_, marriage.] PHAETON, f[=a]'e-ton, _n._ a kind of open pleasure-carriage on four wheels, drawn by one or two horses, from _Phaëthon_, son of Helios, the sun, whose chariot he attempted to drive: a tropic bird.--_adj._ PHAËTON'IC. PHAGEDENA, PHAGEDÆNA, faj-e-d[=e]'na, _n._ a sloughing ulcer, hospital gangrene.--_adjs._ PHAGED[=E]'NIC, PHAGEDÆ'NIC. [Gr. _phagein_, to eat.] PHAGOCYTE, fag'o-s[=i]t, _n._ a white or colourless blood-corpuscle--also called _leucocyte_--an active amoeboid cell, which engulfs both nutritive and harmful particles.--_adjs._ PHAGOCYT'IC, -AL.--_ns._ PHAG'OCYTISM, the nature or function of a phagocyte; PHAGOCYT[=O]'SIS, the destruction of microbes by phagocytes. [Gr. _phagein_, to eat, _kytos_, a vessel.] PHALÆNA, f[=a]-l[=e]'na, _n._ the Linnæan genus including moths.--_adj._ PHAL[=E]'NOID. [Gr. _phalaina_, a moth.] PHALANGE, f[=a]-lanj', _n._ a phalanx of a digit: any of the joints of an insect's tarsus: a bundle of stamens joined by their filaments: a socialistic community in Fourier's dream of an ideal arrangement of society, consisting of 1800 persons living in a _phalanstère_--generally in _pl._, the usual _sing_. being PH[=A]'LANX (q.v.).--_adjs._ PHALAN'GAL, PHALAN'G[=E]AL, PHALAN'GIAL, PHALAN'GIAN; PHALAN'GIFORM; PHALANST[=E]'RIAN.--_ns._ PHALANST[=E]'RIANISM, PHALAN'STERISM; PHAL'ANSTERY, the dwelling of the phalange in the ideal social system of Fourier (1772-1837), a vast structure in the midst of a square league of cultivated land. PHALANGER, f[=a]-lan'jer, _n._ a genus of small arboreal Australasian marsupials. [Fr.,--L. _phalanx_.] PHALANX, fal'angks, or f[=a]'-, _n._ a line of battle: a square battalion of heavy-armed infantry drawn up in ranks and files close and deep: any compact body of men: one of the small bones of the fingers and toes:--_pl._ PHALAN'GES, or PHAL'ANXES. [L.,--Gr. _phalangks_.] PHALAROPE, fal'a-r[=o]p, _n._ a genus of wading birds, forming a sub-family of the snipes. [Gr. _phalaris_, a coot, _pous_, a foot.] PHALLUS, fal'us, _n._ the symbol of generation which figures in the rites and ceremonies of most primitive peoples: (_biol_.) the organ of sex.--_adj._ PHALL'IC.--_ns._ PHALL'ICISM, PHALL'ISM, the phallic worship.--_adj._ PHALL'OID. [L.,--Gr. _phallos_.] PHANARIOT, fa-nar'i-ot, _n._ one of the Greeks inhabiting the _Fanar_ quarter of Constantinople--in Turkish history mostly diplomatists, administrators, and bankers, also hospodars of Wallachia and Moldavia.--_adj._ PHANAR'IOT.--Also FANAR'IOT. PHANEROGAMOUS, fan-e-rog'a-mus, _adj._ having true flowers containing stamens and pistils--opp. to _Cryptogamous_--also PHANEROGAM'IC.--_n._ PHAN'EROGAM, a phanerogamic plant. [Gr. _phaneros_, visible, _gamos_, marriage.] PHANTASM, fan'tazm, _n._ a vain, airy appearance: a fancied vision: an apparition or spectre--also PHANTAS'MA (_Shak._):--_pl._ PHAN'TASMS, PHANTAS'MATA.--_adjs._ PHANTAS'MAL; PHANTASM[=A]'LIAN (_rare_).--_n._ PHANTASMAL'ITY.--_adv._ PHANTAS'MALLY.--_adjs._ PHANTASMAT'IC, -AL; PHANTAS'MIC; PHANTASMOGENET'IC, begetting phantasms.--_adv._ PHANTASMOGENET'ICALLY.--_adj._ PHANTASMOLOG'ICAL, pertaining to phantasms as subjects of inquiry.--_n._ PHANTASMOL'OGY, the science of phantasms. [Gr. _phantasma_--_phantazein_, to make visible--_phainein_, to bring to light--_pha-ein_, to shine.] PHANTASMAGORIA, fan-taz-ma-g[=o]'ri-a, _n._ a fantastic series of illusive images: a gathering of appearances or figures upon a flat surface by a magic-lantern.--_adjs._ PHANTASMAG[=O]'RIAL, pertaining to or resembling a phantasmagoria; PHANTASMAGOR'IC, -AL. [Gr. _phantasma_, an appearance, _agora_, an assembly--_ageirein_, to gather.] PHANTASTIC, PHANTASY. See FANTASTIC, FANTASY.--_n._ PHANT[=A]'SIAST, one of those Docetæ who believed Christ's body to have been a mere phantom. PHANTOM, fan'tom, _n._ a phantasm.--_adj._ illusive, spectral.--_adj._ PHANTOMAT'IC, relating to a phantom. [O. Fr. _fantosme_--Gr. _phantasma_.] PHARAOH, f[=a]'r[=o], _n._ a title of the kings of ancient Egypt.--_adj._ PHARAON'IC. [Heb.,--Egyptian.] PHARE, fär, _n._ a lighthouse.--Also PH[=A]'ROS. [_Pharos_.] PHARISEE, far'i-s[=e], _n._ one of a religious school among the Jews, marked by their strict observance of the law and of religious ordinances: any one more careful of the outward forms than of the spirit of religion, a formalist.--_adjs._ PHARIS[=A]'IC, -AL, pertaining to, or like, the Pharisees: hypocritical.--_adv._ PHARIS[=A]'ICALLY.--_ns._ PHARIS[=A]'ICALNESS; PHAR'IS[=A]ISM, PHAR'ISEEISM, the practice and opinions of the Pharisees: strict observance of outward forms in religion without the spirit of it: hypocrisy. [Late L. _pharisæus_--Gr. _pharisaios_--Heb. _p[=a]r[=u]sh_, separated from, _parash_, to separate.] PHARMACEUTIC, -AL, fär-ma-s[=u]'tik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to the knowledge or art of preparing medicines.--_adv._ PHARMACE[=U]'TICALLY.--_ns._ PHARMACE[=U]'TICS, the science of preparing medicines; PHARMACE[=U]'TIST, one who practises pharmacy. PHARMACOPOEIA, fär-ma-k[=o]-p[=e]'ya, _n._ a book containing directions for the preparation of medicines: a collection of drugs.--_adj._ PHARMACOPOE'IAL. [Gr. _pharmakon_, a drug, _poiein_, to make.] PHARMACY, fär'ma-si, _n._ a department of the medical art which consists in the collecting, preparing, preserving, and dispensing of medicines: the art of preparing and mixing medicines: a drug-store.--_ns._ PHAR'MACIST, a druggist, one skilled in pharmacy; PHARMACOGNOS'TICS, the sum of knowledge about drugs; PHARMACOG'RAPHY, a description of drugs; PHARMACOL'OGIST, one skilled in pharmacology; PHARMACOL'OGY, pharmacy; PHAR'MACON, a drug; PHARMACOP'OLIST, a dealer in drugs. [Fr. _pharmacie_--L.,--Gr. _pharmakon_, a drug.] PHARO=Faro. PHAROS, f[=a]'ros, _n._ a lighthouse or beacon, so named from the famous lighthouse on the island of _Pharos_ in the Bay of Alexandria.--_n._ PHAROL'OGY, the art or science of directing the course of ships by means of light-signals from the shore. PHARYNX, far'ingks, _n._ the cleft or cavity forming the upper part of the gullet, and lying behind the nose, mouth, and larynx:--_pl._ PHAR'YNGES, PHAR'YNXES.--_adjs._ PHARYN'G[=E]AL; PHARYNGIT'IC, pertaining to pharyngitis.--_n._ PHARYNG[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the mucous membrane of the pharynx.--_adjs._ PHARYNGOGLOS'SAL, pertaining to the pharynx and the tongue; -LARYN'GEAL, to that and the larynx; -N[=A]'SAL, and the nose; -[=O]'RAL, and the mouth.--_ns._ PHARYNGOG'RAPHY, a description of the pharynx; PHARYNG'[=O]SCOPE, an instrument for inspecting the pharynx; PHARYNG'OSCOPY; PHARYNGOT'OMY, the operation of making an incision into the pharynx to remove a tumour. [Late L.,--Gr. _pharyngkx_, the pharynx.] PHASE, f[=a]z, _n._ aspect, appearance, at any stage: an era: the form in which an object or a question presents itself to the mind: the appearance at a given time of the illuminated surface exhibited by a planet--also PH[=A]'SIS:--_pl._ PHAS'ES.--_adj._ PHASE'LESS, unchanging. [Gr. _phasis_--_phaein_, to shine.] PHASMA, fas'mä, _n._ a genus of gressorial orthopterous insects--walking-stick insects, spectre-insects (_Phasma_), and leaf-insects. PHEASANT, fez'ant, _n._ a gallinaceous bird abundant in Britain, and highly valued as food.--_n._ PHEAS'ANTRY, an enclosure for pheasants, where they may be bred and reared. [O. Fr. _faisan_--L. _Phasiana_ (_avis_)--Gr. _Phasianos_, of Phasis, in Colchis.] PHEER, f[=e]r, _n._ (_Shak._). Same as FERE, a mate. PHEESE, f[=e]z, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to beat, to drive off: to worry.--_v.i._ (_U.S._) to worry.--_n._ worry--better FEEZE.--_n._ PHEES'AR, one of the mad host's words (_Merry Wives_, I. iii. 10). PHELLOPLASTICS, fel-[=o]-plas'tiks, _n._ modelling in cork.--_n._ PHELL'OGEN, cork-meristem.--_adj._ PHELLOGENET'IC. [Gr. _phellos_, cork, _plassein_, to form.] PHENACETIN, f[=e]-nas'e-tin, _n._ a drug prepared from carbolic acid, good against fevers, insomnia, &c. PHENAKISTOSCOPE, fen-a-kis't[=o]-sk[=o]p, _n._ an optical instrument which produces the appearances of objects in motion, as birds flying, &c.--_n._ PHEN'AKISM (_Bacon_), deceit. [Gr. _phenakistikos_--_phenakizein_--_phenax_, a cheat.] PHENIX=_Phoenix_. PHENOGAM=_Phænogam_. PHENOGAMIA=_Phænogamia_. PHENOL, f[=e]'nol. _n._ phenyl alcohol or carbolic acid. [_Fr._] PHENOLOGY, PHÆNOLOGY, f[=e]-nol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the branch of biology treating of animal or plant life and development as affected by climate.--_adjs._ PHENOLOG'IC, -AL.--_n._ PHENOL'OGIST. [_Phenomenology_.] PHENOMENON, f[=e]-nom'e-non, _n._ an appearance: the appearance which anything makes to our consciousness, as distinguished from what it is in itself: an observed result: a remarkable or unusual person, thing, or appearance:--_pl._ PHENOM'ENA.--_adj._ PHENOM'ENAL, pertaining to a phenomenon: of the nature of a phenomenon: so strange as to excite great wonder: out of the common.--_v.t._ PHENOM'ENALISE, to represent as a phenomenon.--_ns._ PHENOM'ENALISM, the philosophical doctrine that the phenomenal and the real are identical--that phenomena are the only realities--also _Externalism_; PHENOM'ENALIST, one who believes in phenomenalism; PHENOMENAL'ITY, the character of being phenomenal.--_adv._ PHENOM'ENALLY.--_v.t._ PHENOM'ENISE, to bring into the world of experience.--_ns._ PHENOM'ENISM, the doctrines of the phenomenists; PHENOM'ENIST, one who believes only what he observes, or phenomena, one who rejects necessary primary principles.--_adj._ PHENOMEN[=O]LOG'ICAL.--_n._ PHENOMENOL'OGY, a description of phenomena. [Gr. _phainomenon_--_phainein_, to show.] PHENYL, f[=e]'nil, _n._ an organic radical found esp. in carbolic acid, benzole, and aniline.--_adjs._ PH[=E]'NIC, PHENYL'IC. [Fr. _phényle_.] PHEON, f[=e]'on, _n._ (_her._) the barbed iron head of a dart: the broad arrow marking property of the Crown. PHEW, f[=u], _interj._ an exclamation of disgust. PHIAL, f[=i]'al, _n._ a small glass vessel or bottle. [L. _phiala_--Gr. _phial[=e]_, a vial.] PHI BETA KAPPA, fi bet-a kap-a, the oldest of the American college Greek letter societies. [From the initial letters of its motto--_Philosophia biou kubern[=e]t[=e]s_, 'Philosophy is the guide of life.'] PHILADELPHIAN, fil-a-del'fi-an, _n._ one of a mystic sect emphasising 'brotherly love,' founded in London in 1652 under the influence of Boehme. [Gr. _philein_, to love, _adelphos_, a brother.] PHILANDER, fi-lan'd[.e]r, _v.i._ to make love: to flirt or coquet.--_n._ a lover.--_n._ PHILAN'DERER. [Gr. _philandros_, loving men--_philos_, dear--_philein_, to love, _an[=e]r_, _andros_, a man.] PHILANTHROPY, fi-lan'thr[=o]-pi, _n._ love of mankind, esp. as shown in good deeds and services to others: goodwill towards all men.--_ns._ PHIL'ANTHROPE, PHILAN'THROPIST, one who tries to benefit mankind.--_adjs._ PHILANTHROP'IC, -AL, doing good to others, benevolent.--_adv._ PHILANTHROP'ICALLY. [L.,--Gr. _philanthr[=o]pia_--_philos_, loving, _anthr[=o]pos_, a man.] PHILATELY, fi-lat'e-li, _n._ the study and collection of postage and revenue stamps and labels (also _Timbrophily_, _Timbrology_).--_adj._ PHILATEL'IC.--_n._ PHILAT'ELIST, one devoted to this pursuit. [Formed in 1865 from Gr. _philos_, loving, _atel[=e]s_, free of tax, 'prepaid'--_a-_, neg., _telos_, tax.] PHILHARMONIC, fil-har-mon'ik, _adj._ loving music. [Gr. _philos_, loving, _harmonia_, harmony.] PHILHELLENIC, fil-he-len'ik, _adj._ loving Greece.--_ns._ PHILHEL'LENE, PHILHEL'LENIST, a supporter of Greece, esp. in 1821-32; PHILHEL'LENISM, love of Greece. [Gr. _philos_, loving, _Hell[=e]n_, a Greek.] PHILIBEG, PHILABEG. See FILLIBEG. PHILIPPIAN, fi-lip'i-an, _n._ a native of _Philippi_ in Macedonia--also _adj._ PHILIPPIC, fil-ip'ik, _n._ one of the three orations of Demosthenes against Philip of Macedon, or of Cicero against Marc Antony: any discourse full of invective.--_v.i._ PHIL'IPPISE, to utter such. PHILISTINE, fil'is-tin, _n._ one of the ancient inhabitants of south-western Palestine, enemies of the Israelites--also PHILIS'TIAN, and PHILIS'TIM (_Milt._): a name applied by German students to shopkeepers and others not connected with the university: an uncultured person.--_n._ PHIL'ISTINISM. PHILL-HORSE, fil'-hors, _n._=_Thill-horse_, a shaft-horse. PHILOGYNY, fil-oj'i-ni, _n._ love of women.--_n._ PHILOG'YNIST. [Gr. _philos_, loving, _gyn[=e]_, a woman.] PHILOLOGY, fi-lol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the science of language: the study of etymology, grammar, rhetoric, and literary criticism: (_orig._) the knowledge which enabled men to study and explain the classical languages of Greece and Rome.--_ns._ PHILOL'OGER, PHILOL[=O]'GIAN, PHILOL'OGIST, PHIL'OLOGUE, one versed in philology.--_adjs._ PHILOLOG'IC, -AL.--_adv._ PHILOLOG'ICALLY.--COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY, study of languages by comparing their history, forms, and relationships with each other. [L.,--Gr. _philologia_--_philologos_, fond of words--_philos_, loving, _logos_, discourse.] PHILOMATH, fil'[=o]-math, _n._ a lover of learning.--_adjs._ PHILOMATH'IC, -AL.--_n._ PHILOM'ATHY, love of learning. [Gr. _philomath[=e]s_, fond of learning--_philos_, loving, _e-math-on_, 2d aorist _manthanein_, to learn.] PHILOMEL, fil'[=o]-mel, _n._ the nightingale.--Also PHILOM[=E]'LA. [Gr. _Philomela_, daughter of Pandion, king of Athens, changed into a nightingale or swallow.] PHILOMUSICAL, fil-[=o]-m[=u]'zi-cal, _adj._ fond of music. PHILOPENA, fil-[=o]-p[=e]'na, _n._ a game in which each of two persons eats a twin kernel of a nut, and one pays a forfeit to the other on certain conditions: the gift made as a forfeit, or the twin kernels shared. [Ger. _vielliebchen_--_viel_, much, _liebchen_, sweetheart.] PHILOPOLEMIC, fil-[=o]-p[=o]-lem'ik, _adj._ fond of war or of debate. PHILOPROGENITIVENESS, fil-[=o]-pr[=o]-jen'i-tiv-nes, _n._ (_phren._) the instinctive love of offspring. [Gr. _philos_, loving, L. _progenies_, progeny.] PHILOSOPHER, fi-los'[=o]-f[.e]r, _n._ a lover of wisdom: one versed in or devoted to philosophy: a metaphysician: one who acts calmly and rationally in all the affairs and changes of life--also PHIL'OSOPHE:--_fem._ PHILOS'OPHESS.--_adjs._ PHILOSOPH'IC, -AL, pertaining or according to philosophy: skilled in or given to philosophy: becoming a philosopher: rational: calm.--_adv._ PHILOSOPH'ICALLY.--_v.i._ PHILOS'OPHISE, to reason like a philosopher: to form philosophical theories.--_ns._ PHILOS'OPHISER, a would-be philosopher; PHILOS'OPHISM, would-be philosophy; PHILOS'OPHIST.--_adjs._ PHILOSOPHIST'IC, -AL.--_n._ PHILOS'OPHY, the science of being as being: the knowledge of the causes and laws of all phenomena: the collection of general laws or principles belonging to any department of knowledge: reasoning: a particular philosophical system: calmness of temper.--PHILOSOPHER'S STONE, an imaginary stone or mineral compound, long sought after by alchemists as a means of transforming other metals into gold.--MORAL, and NATURAL, PHILOSOPHY (see MORAL, NATURAL). [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _philosophos_--_philos_, a lover, _sophos_, wise.] PHILOTECHNIC, -AL, fil-[=o]-tek'nik, -al, _adj._ fond of the arts. PHILOZOIC, fil-[=o]-z[=o]'ik, _adj._ fond of animals. PHILTRE, PHILTER, fil't[.e]r, _n._ a charm or spell to excite love. [Fr. _philtre_--L. _philtrum_--Gr. _philtron_--_philos_, loving, _-tron_, denoting the agent.] PHIMOSIS, f[=i]-m[=o]'sis, _n._ stenosis of the preputial orifice. PHISNOMY, fis'no-mi, _n._ (_Shak._) the face--a corr. of _physiognomy_. PHIZ, fiz, _n._ (_humorous_) the face. PHLEBITIS, fl[=e]-b[=i]'tis, _n._ inflammation of a vein.--_ns._ PHLEB'OLITE, a calcareous concretion found in a vein; PHLEBOL'OGY, science of the veins; PHLEB'ORRHAGE, venous hemorrhage.--_adjs._ PHLEBOTOM'IC, -AL.--_v.t._ PHLEBOT'OMISE.--_ns._ PHLEBOT'OMIST; PHLEBOT'OMY, act of letting blood. [Gr. _phleps_, _phlebos_, a vein.] PHLEGETHONTIC, fleg-e-thon'tik, _adj._ pertaining to or resembling the river _Phlegethon_, a mythological river of the infernal regions, whose waves rolled torrents of fire, flowing into the lake of Acheron. [Gr. _phlegethein_--_phlegein_, to burn.] PHLEGM, flem, _n._ one of the four elements of which the ancients supposed the blood to be composed: the thick, slimy matter secreted in the throat, and discharged by coughing: sluggishness: indifference: calmness.--_adj._ PHLEGMAGOGIC (fleg-ma-goj'ik).--_ns._ PHLEG'MAGOGUE, a medicine expelling phlegm; PHLEGM[=A]'SIA, inflammation, esp. _Phlegmasia dolens_, puerperal tumid leg.--_adjs._ PHLEGMAT'IC, -AL, abounding in or generating phlegm: cold: sluggish: not easily excited.--_adv._ PHLEGMAT'ICALLY.--_n._ PHLEG'MON, inflammation in the connective tissue.--_adjs._ PHLEG'MONOID; PHLEGM'Y. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _phlegma_, _phlegmatos_--_phlegein_, to burn.] PHLEME=_Fleam_. PHLEUM, fl[=e]'um, _n._ a small genus of annual or perennial grasses--_timothy_, _cat's-tail grass_, _herd's grass_. [Gr. _phle[=o]s_.] PHLOEUM, fl[=e]'um, _n._ the cellular portion of bark next the epidermis--also _Epiphloeum_ and Bast.--_n._ PHL[=O]'ËM, the bast or liber portion of a vascular bundle. [Gr. _phloios_, bark.] PHLOGISTON, fl[=o]-jis'ton, _n._ an imaginary element, believed in till nearly the end of the 18th century as forming part of every combustible body, which by its disengagement caused burning, or fire in action.--_adj._ PHLOGIS'TIC (_chem._), containing or resembling phlogiston: inflaming: (_med._) inflammatory.--_v.t._ PHLOGIS'TICATE, to combine phlogiston with. [Gr.] PHLOX, floks, _n._ a well-known garden plant, so called from its colour. [Gr.,--_phlegein_, to burn.] PHLYCTÆNA, PHLYCTENA, flik-t[=e]'na, _n._ a small vesicle.--_adjs._ PHLYCT[=E]'NAR; PHLYCT[=E]'NOID; PHLYCT[=E]'NOUS. PHOBANTHROPY, f[=o]-ban'thr[=o]-pi, _n._ a morbid dread of mankind. PHOCINE, f[=o]'sin, _adj._ pertaining to the seal family.--_n._ PH[=O]'CA, a seal.--_adj._ PHOC[=A]'CEAN, relating to the genus _Phoca_.--_n._ a seal of this genus.--_n._ PHOCÆ'NA, a genus of delphinoid odontocete cetaceans--the true porpoises.--_adjs._ PH[=O]'CAL; PHOCÆ'NINE, like a porpoise. [L. _phoca_--Gr. _ph[=o]k[=e]_, a seal.] PHOEBUS, f[=e]'bus, _n._ the sun-god: the sun:--_fem._ PHOEBE (f[=e]'b[=e]), the moon. [L.,--Gr. _phoibos_, bright, _phæin_, to shine.] PHOENICIAN, PHENICIAN, f[=e]-nish'an, _adj._ pertaining to _Phoenicia_, on the coast of Syria, to its people, language, or arts.--_n._ an inhabitant of Phoenicia: the language, a Semitic dialect, akin to Hebrew. PHOENIX, PHENIX, f[=e]'niks, _n._ a fabulous bird said to have existed for 500 years all alone in the wilderness, and, after burning itself on a funeral pile, to have risen from its own ashes--hence, the emblem of immortality: a paragon. [L.,--Gr. _phoinix_.] PHOLAS, f[=o]'las, _n._ a genus of stone-bearing bivalves, a piddock:--_pl._ PH[=O]'LADES.--_n._ PH[=O]'LADITE, a fossil pholad. [Gr.] PHONATE, f[=o]'n[=a]t, _v.t._ to utter vocal sounds.--_n._ PHON[=A]'TION, emission of vocal sounds.--_adj._ PH[=O]'NATORY, pertaining to phonation.--_n._ PHONAU'TOGRAPH, an instrument for registering the vibrations of a sounding body.--_adj._ PHONAUTOGRAPH'IC.--_adv._ PHONAUTOGRAPH'ICALLY.--_n._ PHONOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the vibrations of a body. PHONETIC, -AL, f[=o]-net'ik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to, or in accordance with, the sound of the voice: representing elementary sounds: vocal.--_adv._ PHONET'ICALLY.--_n._ PHONETIC'IAN, a student of phonetics.--_v.t._ PHONET'ICISE, to make phonetic.--_ns._ PHONET'ICISM, phonetic character or representation; PHONET'ICIST, one who advocates phonetic-spelling.--_n.sing._ PHONET'ICS, the science of sounds, esp. of the human voice.--_ns._ PHONET'IC-SPELL'ING, spelling according to sound: the spelling of words as they are pronounced; PHONETIS[=A]'TION, art of representing sound by phonetic signs.--_v.t._ PH[=O]'NETISE, to represent phonetically.--_ns._ PH[=O]'NETISM, sound, pronunciation; PH[=O]'NETIST, a student of phonetics.--_adj._ PHON'IC, pertaining to sound.--_n.sing_. PHON'ICS, acoustics.--_adj._ PHONOCAMP'TIC, reflecting or deflecting sound.--_n._ PH[=O]'NOLITE, clinkstone. [Gr. _ph[=o]netikos_--_ph[=o]n[=e]_, a sound.] PHONOGRAPH, f[=o]'n[=o]-graf, _n._ a character or mark used to represent a sound (also PH[=O]'NOGRAM): an instrument by which spoken words or other sounds can be recorded, and afterwards given out again almost in the original tones.--_ns._ PHONOG'RAPHER, PHONOG'RAPHIST, one versed in phonography.--_adjs._ PHONOGRAPH'IC, -AL.--_adv._ PHONOGRAPH'ICALLY.--_ns._ PHONOG'RAPHY, the art of representing each spoken sound by a distinct character: phonetic shorthand; PH[=O]'N[=O]SCOPE, an apparatus for recording music as played, or for testing musical strings: a microphone. [Gr. _ph[=o]n[=e]_, sound, _graphein_, to write.] PHONOLOGY, f[=o]-nol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the science of the sounds of the voice, the manner in which these are combined in any language: phonetics.--_adj._ PHONOLOG'ICAL.--_n._ PHONOL'OGIST, one versed in phonology. [Gr. _ph[=o]n[=e]_, sound, _logos_, discourse.] PHONOTYPE, f[=o]'n[=o]-t[=i]p, _n._ a type or sign representing a sound.--_adjs._ PHONOTYP'IC, -AL, of or belonging to a phonotype, or to phonotypy.--_ns._ PH[=O]'NOTYPIST; PH[=O]'NOTYPY, the art of representing each of the elementary sounds by different types or distinct characters. [Gr. _ph[=o]n[=e]_, sound, _typos_, type.] PHORMINX, for'mingks, _n._ a kind of cithara. [Gr.] PHORMIUM, for'mi-um, _n._ a genus of New Zealand plants of the lily family--New Zealand flax or flax-lily. [Gr. _phormion_, a plant.] PHOSPHENE, fos'f[=e]n, _n._ a brilliant coloured spectrum seen when the finger is pressed into the internal corner of the eye. [Gr. _ph[=o]s_, light, _phainein_, to shine.] PHOSPHORUS, fos'f[=o]-rus, _n._ the morning-star: a yellowish substance, like wax, inflammable and giving out light in the dark.--_n._ PHOS'PHATE, a salt formed by the combination of phosphoric acid with a base.--_adj._ PHOSPHAT'IC, of the nature of, or containing, a phosphate.--_ns._ PHOS'PHIDE, a compound formed of phosphorus and some other element, as copper or iron; PHOS'PHITE, a salt of phosphorous acid; PHOS'PHOR, the morning-star: (_obs._) phosphorus.--_v.t._ PHOS'PHORATE, to combine or impregnate with phosphorus.--_n._ PHOS'PHOR-BRONZE, an alloy of copper, tin, and phosphorus.--_v.i._ PHOSPHORESCE', to shine in the dark like phosphorus.--_n._ PHOSPHORESC'ENCE.--_adjs._ PHOSPHORESC'ENT, shining in the dark like phosphorus; PHOSPHOR'IC, PHOS'PHOROUS, pertaining to or obtained from phosphorus.--_ns._ PHOS'PHORITE, a massive radiated variety of apatite; PHOS'PHURET, a compound of phosphorus with a metal.--_adj._ PHOS'PHURETTED, combined with phosphorus.--_n._ PHOS'SY-JAW, phosphorous poisoning.--PHOSPHATIC DIATHESIS (_med._), the condition in which there is a tendency in the urine to deposit white gravel. [L.,--Gr.,--_ph[=o]sphoros_, light-bearer--_ph[=o]s_, light, _phoros_, bearing, from _pherein_, to bear.] PHOTO, f[=o]'t[=o], _n._ a colloquial abbreviation of _photograph_. PHOTOCHEMISTRY, f[=o]-t[=o]-kem'is-tri, _n._ that branch of chemistry which treats of the chemical action of light.--_adj._ PHOTOCHEM'ICAL.--_n._ PHOTOCHEM'IST. PHOTOCHROMY, f[=o]'t[=o]-kr[=o]-mi, _n._ the art of reproducing colours by photography.--_adj._ PHOTOCHROMAT'IC.--_n._ PHOTOCHR[=O]'MOTYPE, a photo-process picture printed in colours by any of the ordinary methods of typography in colours. [Gr. _ph[=o]s_, _ph[=o]tos_, light, _chr[=o]ma_, colour.] PHOTO-ENGRAVING, f[=o]'t[=o]-en-gr[=a]'ving, _n._ a general term including all the various processes of mechanical engraving by the aid of photography.--The term PHOTOG'LYPHY is sometimes applied to photo-engraving by one process or other, often limited to photogravure.--_adj._ PHOTOGLYPH'IC. PHOTOGENY, f[=o]-toj'e-ni, _n._ the art of taking pictures by the action of light on a chemically prepared ground.--_adjs._ PHOTOGEN'IC, PHOTOG'ENOUS. PHOTOGRAPHY, f[=o]-tog'ra-fi, _n._ the art of producing pictures by the action of light on chemically prepared surfaces.--_n._ PH[=O]'TOGRAPH, a picture so produced.--_v.t._ to make a picture of by means of photography.--_ns._ PH[=O]TOG'RAPHER, PH[=O]TOG'RAPHIST.--_adj._ PH[=O]TOGRAPH'IC, -AL.--_adv._ PH[=O]TOGRAPH'ICALLY. [Gr. _ph[=o]s_, light, _graphein_, to draw.] PHOTOGRAVURE, f[=o]'t[=o]-gr[=a]-v[=u]r, _n._ a method of producing by means of photography and the action of acids on a sensitised surface a kind of mezzo-engraving on metal. [Fr.,--Gr. _ph[=o]s_, light, Fr. _gravure_, engraving.] PHOTOLITHOGRAPHY, f[=o]-t[=o]-li-thog'ra-fi, _n._ a method by which a photograph in line can be developed with ink so as to be transferred to stone as a lithograph.--_n._ PHOTOLITH'OGRAPH, a print produced by photolithography.--_v.t._ to reproduce by this aid.--_n._ PHOTOLITHOG'RAPHER.--_adj._ PHOTOLITHOGRAPH'IC. [Gr. _ph[=o]s_, _ph[=o]tos_, light, _lithos_, a stone, _graphein_, to write.] PHOTOLOGY, f[=o]-tol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the science of light.--_adjs._ PHOTOLOG'IC, -AL.--_n._ PHOTOL'OGIST. [Gr. _ph[=o]s_, _ph[=o]tos_, light, _logia_--_legein_, to say.] PHOTOLYSIS, f[=o]-tol'i-sis, _n._ (_bot._) the movements of protoplasm under the influence of light. [Gr. _ph[=o]s_, _ph[=o]tos_, light, _lysis_--_lyein_, to unloose.] PHOTOMECHANICAL, f[=o]-t[=o]-m[=e]-kan'i-kal, _adj._ pertaining to the mechanical production of pictures by the aid of light, as in photo-engraving, &c. PHOTOMETER, f[=o]-tom'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring the intensity of light, esp. for comparing the amount of light coming from different sources.--_adjs._ PHOTOMET'RIC, -AL.--_n._ PHOTOM'ETRY, the measurement of the intensity of light. [Gr. _ph[=o]s_, _ph[=o]tos_, light, _m[=e]tron_, a measure.] PHOTOMICROGRAPHY, f[=o]-t[=o]-m[=i]-krog'ra-fi, _n._ the enlargement of microscopic objects by means of the microscope, and the projection of the enlarged image on a sensitive film.--_ns._ PHOTOM[=I]'CROGRAPH; PHOTOMICROG'RAPHER.--_adj._ PHOTOMICROGRAPH'IC. [Gr. _ph[=o]s_, _ph[=o]tos_, light, _mikros_, little, _graphein_, to write.] PHOTOPHOBIA, f[=o]-t[=o]-f[=o]'bi-a, _n._ a dread of light.--_adj._ PHOTOPHOB'IC. PHOTOPHONE, f[=o]'t[=o]-f[=o]n, _n._ an apparatus for transmitting articulate speech to a distance along a beam of light. [Gr. _ph[=o]s_, _ph[=o]tos_, light, _ph[=o]n[=e]_, sound.] PHOTO-PROCESS, f[=o]'t[=o]-pros'es, _n._ any process by which is produced, by the agency of photography, a matrix from which prints can be made in ink--photogravure, photolithography, and photozincography. PHOTOPSIA, f[=o]-top'si-a, _n._ the condition of having the sensation of light without external cause.--Also PH[=O]'TOPSY. PHOTO-RELIEF, f[=o]'t[=o]-re-l[=e]f', _n._ a process of producing plates by means of photography, from which impressions can be taken in an ordinary printing-press. PHOTOSCULPTURE, f[=o]-t[=o]-skulp't[=u]r, _n._ the art of taking likenesses in the form of statuettes or medallions by the aid of photography. PHOTOSPHERE, f[=o]'t[=o]-sf[=e]r, _n._ the luminous envelope round the sun's globe, which is the source of light. [Gr. _ph[=o]s_, _ph[=o]tos_, light, _sphaira_, a sphere.] PHOTOTHERAPY, f[=o]-t[=o]-ther'a-pi, _n._ the art of healing (of lupus, &c.) by means of light, electric or other, focussed on the diseased part. [Gr. _ph[=o]s_, _ph[=o]tos_, light, _therapeuein_, to heal.] PHOTOTYPE, f[=o]'t[=o]-t[=i]p, _n._ a type or plate of the same nature as an engraved plate, produced from a photograph.--_n._ PH[=O]'TOTYPY_._ [Gr. _ph[=o]s_, _ph[=o]tos_, light, _typos_, type.] PHOTO-XYLOGRAPHY, f[=o]-t[=o]-z[=i]-log'ra-fi, _n._ wood-engraving after an impression has been taken on the wood-block by photography. [Gr. _ph[=o]s_, _ph[=o]tos_ light, _xylon_, a log of wood, _graphein_, to write.] PHOTOZINCOGRAPHY, f[=o]-t[=o]-zing-kog'ra-fi, _n._ the process of engraving on zinc by taking an impression by photography and etching with acids.--_n._ PHOTOZINC'OGRAPH, a picture so produced. PHRASE, fr[=a]z, _n._ two or more words expressing a single idea by themselves, or showing the manner or style in which a person expresses himself: part of a sentence: a short pithy expression: phraseology: (_mus._) a short clause or portion of a sentence.--_v.t._ to express in words: to style.--_n._ PHRASE'-BOOK, a book containing or explaining phrases.--_adj._ PHRASE'LESS, incapable of being described.--_ns._ PHRASE'-MAN, PHRASE'-MONG'ER, a wordy speaker or writer; PHR[=A]'SEOGRAM, PHR[=A]'SEOGRAPH, a combination of shorthand characters to represent a phrase or sentence.--_adjs._ PHRASEOLOG'IC, -AL, pertaining to phraseology: consisting of phrases.--_adv._ PHRASEOLOG'ICALLY.--_ns._ PHRASEOL'OGIST, a maker or a collector of phrases; PHR[=A]SEOL'OGY, style or manner of expression or arrangement of phrases: peculiarities of diction: a collection of phrases in a language; PHR[=A]'SER, a mere maker or repeater of phrases.--_adj._ PHR[=A]'SICAL.--_n._ PHR[=A]'SING, the wording of a speech or passage: (_mus._) the grouping and accentuation of the sounds in a melody. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _phrasis_--_phrazein_, to speak.] PHRATRY, fr[=a]'tri, _n._ a clan: a brotherhood--also PHR[=A]'TRIA.--_adj._ PHR[=A]'TRIC. [Gr. _phrat[=e]r_, a brother.] PHREN, _fren_, _n._ the thinking principle, mind: the diaphragm:--_pl._ PHRENES.--_ns._ PHR[=E]NAL'GIA, psychalgia; PHREN[=E]'SIS, delirium, frenzy.--_adjs._ PHRENET'IC, -AL (also FRENET'IC, -AL), having a disordered mind: frenzied: mad; PHRENIAT'RIC, pertaining to the cure of mental diseases; PHREN'IC, belonging to the diaphragm.--_ns._ PHREN'ICS, mental philosophy; PHREN'ISM, thought force.--_adj._ PHRENIT'IC, affected with phrenitis.--_ns._ PHREN[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the brain; PHRENOG'RAPHY, descriptive psychology; PHRENOPATH'IA, mental disease.--_adj._ PHRENOPATH'IC.--_n._ PHRENOPL[=E]'GIA, sudden loss of mental power. [Gr. _phr[=e]n_, the mind.] PHRENOLOGY, fr[=e]-nol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the theory that the various faculties and powers of the mind are connected with certain parts of the brain, and can be known by an examination of the outer surface of the skull: the science by which character can be read by examining the skull.--_adjs._ PHRENOLOG'IC, -AL.--_adv._ PHRENOLOG'ICALLY.--_n._ PHRENOL'OGIST, one who believes or is versed in phrenology. [Gr. _phr[=e]n_, _phrenos_, mind, _logos_, science.] PHRONESIS, fr[=o]'-n[=e]'sis, _n._ practical wisdom. [Gr.,--_phr[=e]n_, mind.] PHRYGIAN, frij'i-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Phrygia_ in Asia Minor, or to the Phrygians.--_n._ a native of Phrygia: a Montanist.--PHRYGIAN CAP, a conical cap with the top turned forward. PHTHALEIN, thal'e-in, _n._ one of a very important class of dye-yielding materials formed by the union of phenols with the anhydride of phthalic acid.--_adj._ PHTHAL'IC, pertaining to naphthalene.--_n._ PHTHAL'IN, a colourless crystalline compound obtained by reducing phthalein. PHTHIRIASIS, thi-r[=i]'a-sis, _n._ the lousy disease--_morbus pediculosus._ [L.,--Gr.] PHTHISIS, th[=i]'sis, _n._ consumption or wasting away of the lungs.--_adjs._ PHTHIS'IC, -AL (tiz'ik, -al), pertaining to or having phthisis.--_n._ PHTHISIOLOGY (tiz-i-ol'[=o]-ji), the sum of scientific knowledge about phthisis. [L.,--Gr. _phthiein_, to waste away.] PHYCOLOGY, f[=i]-kol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the knowledge of algæ or sea-weeds.--_n._ PHYCOG'RAPHY, systematic description of algae.--_adj._ PHYCOLOG'IC.--_n._ PHYCOL'OGIST. [Illustration] PHYLACTERY, fi-lak'te-ri, _n._ a charm or amulet: among the Jews, a slip of parchment inscribed with certain passages of Scripture, worn on the left arm or forehead: among the early Christians, a case in which relics were preserved.--_adjs._ PHYLACTER'IC, -AL. [L.,--Gr. _phylakt[=e]rion_, _phylakt[=e]r_, a guard--_phylassein_, to guard.] PHYLARCH, f[=i]'lark, _n._ in ancient Greece, the chief of a tribe: in Athens, the commander of the cavalry of a tribe.--_ns._ PHY'LARCHY, the office of a phylarch; PHYLE (f[=i]'l[=e]), a tribe or clan in ancient Greece.--_adj._ PHYLET'IC, pertaining to a race or tribe: pertaining to a phylum of the animal kingdom.--_n._ PHYLUM (f[=i]'lum), any primary division or sub-kingdom of the animal or vegetable kingdom:--_pl._ PHY'LA. PHYLLITE, fil'[=i]t, _n._ clay-slate or argillaceous schist.--_adj._ PHYLLIT'IC. [Gr.,--_phyllon_, a leaf.] PHYLLIUM, fil'i-um, _n._ a genus of orthopterous insects of family _Phasmidæ_--leaf-insects or walking-leaves. PHYLLODIUM, fi-l[=o]'di-um, _n._ a petiole which usurps the function of a leaf-blade.--_adj._ PHYLLODIN'EOUS. PHYLLOID, fil'oid, _adj._ leaf-like--also PHYLLOI'DEOUS.--_ns._ PHYL'LOMANCY, divination by leaves; PHYLLOM[=A]'NIA, abnormal production of leaves; PHYL'LOME, foliage.--_adj._ PHYLLOM'IC.--_n._ PHYL'LOMORPHY, the reversion of floral organs, as sepals and bracts, to leaves--better PHYL'LODY. PHYLLOPHAGOUS, fi-lof'a-gus, _adj._ feeding on leaves.--_n._ a member of the PHYLLOPH'AGA, a tribe of hymenopterous insects--the saw-flies: a group of lamellicorn beetles which are leaf-eaters--the chafers. PHYLLOPHOROUS, fi-lof'[=o]-rus, _adj._ producing leaves: (_zool._) having leaf-like organs. PHYLLOPOD, fil'[=o]-pod, _adj._ having foliaceous feet--also PHYLLOP'ODOUS.--_n._ a crustacean of the order _Phyllopoda_.--_adj._ PHYLLOPOD'IFORM. PHYLLORHINE, fil'[=o]-rin, _adj._ having a nose-leaf. PHYLLOSTOMATOUS, fil-[=o]-stom'a-tus, _adj._ leaf-nosed, as a bat.--_n._ PHYLL'OSTOME, a leaf-nosed bat.--_adj._ PHYLLOS'TOMINE, leaf-nosed. PHYLLOTAXIS, fil-[=o]-tak'sis, _n._ the disposition of leaves on the stem.--Also PHYLL'OTAXY. [Gr. _phyllon_, a leaf, _taxis_, arrangement.] PHYLLOXERA, fil-ok-s[=e]'ra, _n._ a genus of insects, belonging to a family nearly related to aphides and coccus insects, very destructive to vines. [Gr. _phyllon_, a leaf, _x[=e]ros_, dry.] PHYLOGENY, f[=i]-loj'e-ni, _n._ a biological term applied to the evolution or genealogical history of a race or tribe--also PHYLOGEN'ESIS.--_adv._ PHYLOGENET'ICALLY.--_adjs._ PHYLOGEN'IC, PHYLOGENET'IC. [Gr. _phylon_, race, _genesis_, origin.] PHYSALIA, f[=i]-s[=a]'li-a, _n._ a genus of large oceanic hydrozoans--_Portuguese man-of-war_. [Gr. _physallis_, a plant, bladder--_physa_, bellows.] PHYSALITE, fis'a-l[=i]t, _n._ a coarse topaz. PHYSETER, fi-s[=e]'t[.e]r, _n._ a sperm-whale. PHYSIC, fiz'ik, _n._ the science of medicine: the art of healing: a medicine: (_orig._) natural philosophy, physics.--_v.t._ to give medicine to:--_pr.p._ phys'icking; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ phys'icked.--_ns._ PHYSICIAN (fi-zish'an), one skilled in the use of physic or the art of healing: one who prescribes remedies for diseases: a doctor.--_ns._ PHYSIC'IANCY, post or office of physician; PHYSIC'IANSHIP; PHYS'IC-NUT, _Barbadoes_ or _Purging nut_, the seeds of _Jatropha curcas_.--PHYSIC GARDEN, a botanical garden. [O. Fr.,--Gr. _physik[=e]_, natural--Gr. _physis_, nature.] PHYSICAL, fiz'ik-al, _adj._ pertaining to nature or to natural objects: pertaining to material things: of or pertaining to natural philosophy: known to the senses: pertaining to the body.--_n._ PHYS'ICALIST, one who thinks that human thought and action are determined by the physical organisation.--_adv._ PHYS'ICALLY.--_ns._ PHYS'ICISM (-sizm), belief in the material or physical as opposed to the spiritual; PHYS'ICIST (-sist), a student of nature: one versed in physics: a natural philosopher: one who believes that life is merely a form of physical energy.--PHYSICAL ASTRONOMY, an account of the causes of the motions of the heavenly bodies; PHYSICAL EDUCATION, training of the bodily powers by exercise; PHYSICAL EXAMINATION, an examination of the bodily state of a person; PHYSICAL FORCE, force applied outwardly to the body, as distinguished from persuasion, &c.; PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, an account of the state of the earth in its natural condition--its mountain-chains, ocean-currents, distribution of plants and animals, conditions of climate, &c.; PHYSICAL TRUTH, the agreement of thought with what exists in nature; PHYSICAL WORLD, the world of matter. [Gr. _physikos_--_physis_, nature.] PHYSICS, fiz'iks, _n.pl._ used as _sing._ (_orig._) equivalent to PHYSICAL SCIENCE--i.e. the science of the order of nature: usually sig. (as distinguished from chemistry) the study of matter and the general properties of matter as affected by energy or force--also called _Natural philosophy_.--_ns._ PHYSICOLOG'IC, logic illustrated by physics; PHYS'ICO-THEOL'OGY, theology illustrated by natural philosophy. [L. _physica_--Gr. _physik[=e]_ (_the[=o]ria_, theory)--_physis_, nature.] PHYSIOCRACY, fiz-i-ok'r[=a]-si, _n._ the economic doctrine of the physiocrats (François Quesnay, 1694-1744, and his followers), that society should be governed by a natural order inherent in itself, land and its products the only true source of wealth, direct taxation of land the only proper source of revenue.--_n._ PHYS'IOCRAT, one who maintains these opinions.--_adj._ PHYSIOCRAT'IC.--_n._ PHYSIOC'RATISM. [Gr. _physis_, nature, _kratein_, to rule.] PHYSIOGENY, fiz-i-oj'e-ni, _n._ (_biol._) the genesis of function--also PHYSIOGEN'ESIS.--_adjs._ PHYSIOGENET'IC, PHYSIOGEN'IC. PHYSIOGNOMY, fiz-i-og'n[=o]-mi, _n._ the art of judging the qualities of a character from the external appearance, especially from the countenance: expression of countenance: the face as an index of the mind: the general appearance of anything.--_adjs._ PHYSIOGNOM'IC, -AL.--_adv._ PHYSIOGNOM'ICALLY.--_n.sing._ PHYSIOGNOM'ICS (same as PHYSIOGNOMY).--_n._ PHYSIOG'NOMIST. [For _physiognomony_--Gr. _physiogn[=o]monia_--_physis_, nature, _gn[=o]m[=o]n_, one who interprets--_gn[=o]nai_, to know.] PHYSIOGRAPHY, fiz-i-og'ra-fi, _n._ an exposition of the principles that underlie physical geography, and including the elements of physical science: an introduction to the study of nature: physical geography.--_n._ PHYSIOG'RAPHER, one versed in physiography.--_adjs._ PHYSIOGRAPH'IC, -AL. [Gr. _physis_, nature, _graphein_, to describe.] PHYSIOLATRY, fiz-i-ol'a-tri, _n._ nature-worship. PHYSIOLOGY, fiz-i-ol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the science of the nature and processes of life, of the vital phenomena of animals and plants and the functions of their parts--a branch of biology.--_adjs._ PHYSIOLOG'IC, -AL.--_adv._ PHYSIOLOG'ICALLY.--_v.i._ PHYSIOL'OGISE.--_n._ PHYSIOL'OGIST. [Gr. _physis_, nature, _logos_, science.] PHYSIOMEDICALISM, fiz-i-[=o]-med'i-kal-izm, _n._ the system of treating disease with only non-poisonous vegetable drugs.--_n._ PHYSIOMED'ICALIST. PHYSIQUE, fiz-[=e]k', _n._ the physical structure or natural constitution of a person. [Fr.] PHYSITHEISM, fiz'i-th[=e]-izm, _n._ the ascribing of physical form and attributes to deity.--_adj._ PHYSITHEIS'TIC. [Gr. _physis_, nature, _theos_, God.] PHYSIURGIC, fiz-i-ur'jik, _adj._ produced by natural causes, without man's intervention. PHYSNOMY, fiz'no-mi, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as PHYSIOGNOMY. PHYSOCLISTOUS, f[=i]-s[=o]-klis'tus, _adj._ having no air-bladder, or having it closed, as a fish. [Gr. _physa_, bellows, _kleistos_--_kleiein_, to close.] PHYSOGRADE, f[=i]'s[=o]-gr[=a]d, _adj._ moving by a vesicular float. [Gr. _physa_, bellows, L. _gradi_, to walk.] PHYSOPOD, f[=i]'s[=o]-pod, _adj._ with suckers on the feet. [Gr. _physa_, bellows, _pous_, _podos_, the foot.] PHYSOSTIGMINE, f[=i]-s[=o]-stig'min, _n._ a poisonous alkaloid, the active principle of the Calabar bean. [Gr. _physa_, bellows, _stigma_, stigma.] PHYSOSTOMOUS, f[=i]-sos't[=o]-mus, _adj._ having mouth and air-bladder connected by an air-duct, as a fish. [Gr. _physa_, bellows, _stoma_, a mouth.] PHYTOBRANCHIATE, f[=i]-t[=o]-brang'ki-[=a]t, _adj._ having leafy gills. [Gr. _phyton_, a plant, _brangchia_, gills.] PHYTOCHEMISTRY, f[=i]-t[=o]-kem'is-tri, _n._ the chemistry of plants--also PHY'TOCHIMY.--_adj._ PHYTOCHEM'ICAL. PHYTOGENESIS, f[=i]-t[=o]-jen'e-sis, _n._ the theory of the generation of plants--also PHYTOG'ENY.--_adjs._ PHYTOGENET'IC, -AL. [Gr. _phyton_, a plant, _genesis_, birth.] PHYTOGEOGRAPHY, f[=i]-t[=o]-je-og'ra-fi, _n._ the geographical distribution of plants.--_adjs._ PHYTOGEOGRAPH'IC, -AL. PHYTOGLYPHY, f[=i]-tog'li-fi, _n._ the art of printing from nature, by taking impressions from plants, &c., on soft metal, from which an electrotype plate is taken.--_adj._ PHYTOGLYPH'IC. [Gr. _phyton_, a plant, _glyphein_, to engrave.] PHYTOGRAPHY, f[=i]-tog'raf-i, _n._ the department of botany relating to the particular description of species of plants.--_n._ PHYTOG'RAPHER.--_adj._ PHYTOGRAPH'ICAL. [Gr. _phyton_, a plant, _graphein_, to write.] PHYTOID, f[=i]'toid, _adj._ plant-like, esp. of animals and organs. [Gr. _phyton_, a plant, _eidos_, form.] PHYTOLITHOLOGY, f[=i]-t[=o]-li-thol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the science of fossils plants.--_n._ PHYTOLITHOL'OGIST. PHYTOLOGY, f[=i]-tol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the science of plants, botany.--_adj._ PHYTOLOG'ICAL.--_n._ PHYTOL'OGIST. [Gr. _phyton_, a plant, _logia_, discourse.] PHYTONOMY, f[=i]-ton'[=o]-mi, _n._ the science of the origin and growth of plants: botany. [Gr. _phyton_, a plant, _nomos_, a law.] PHYTOPATHOLOGY, f[=i]-t[=o]-p[=a]-thol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the science of the diseases of plants.--_adj._ PHYTOPATHOLOG'ICAL.--_n._ PHYTOPATHOL'OGIST. PHYTOPHAGOUS, f[=i]-tof'a-gus, _adj._ feeding on plants--also PHYTOPHAG'IC.--_ns._ PHYTOPH'AGAN; PHYTOPH'AGY. [Gr. _phyton_, a plant, _phagein_, to eat.] PHYTOSIS, f[=i]-t[=o]'sis, _n._ the presence of vegetable parasites, or the diseases caused by them. PHYTOTOMY, f[=i]-tot'[=o]-mi, _n._ the dissection of plants.--_n._ PHYTOT'OMIST.--_adj._ PHYTOT'OMOUS. [Gr. _phyton_, a plant, _tomos_, a cutting--_temnein_, to cut.] PHYTOZOA, f[=i]-t[=o]-z[=o]'a, _n.pl._ plant-like animals: animals which more or less resemble plants in appearance and habits, such as sponges, sea-anemones, &c.:--_sing._ PHYTOZ[=O]'ON.--_adj._ and _n._ PHYTOZ[=O]'AN. [Gr. _phyton_, a plant, _z[=o]on_, an animal.] PI, PIE, p[=i], _n._ a mass of types confusedly mixed.--_v.t._ to reduce to a mixed mass, or to a state of pi, as types. [Cf. _Pie_, a magpie, &c.] PIA, p[=e]'a, _n._ a perennial Polynesian herb, whose fleshy tubers yield arrowroot. PIACERE, pia-ch[=a]'re, _n._ (_mus._) _a piacere_, at pleasure.--_adj._ PIACEVOLE (pia-ch[=a]'v[=o]-le), pleasant, playful. [It.] PIACULAR, p[=i]-ak'[=u]-lar, _adj._ serving to appease, expiatory: requiring expiation: atrociously bad.--_n._ PIACULAR'ITY. [L. _piaculum_, sacrifice--_pi[=a]re_, expiate--_pius_, pious.] PIAFFE, pi-af', _v.i._ in horsemanship, to advance at a piaffer.--_n._ PIAF'FER, a gait in which the feet are lifted in the same succession as the trot, but more slowly.--Also _Spanish-walk_. [Fr. _piaffer_.] PIA MATER, p[=i]'a m[=a]'t[.e]r, _n._ the vascular membrane investing the brain: (_Shak._) the brain. [L.] PIANOFORTE, pi-ä'no-f[=o]r't[=a], generally shortened to PIANO (pi-an'[=o]), _n._ a musical instrument furnished with wires struck by little hammers which are moved by keys, so as to produce both soft and strong sounds.--_ns._ PIANETTE', a small piano; PIANINO (p[=e]-a-n[=e]'n[=o]), an upright pianoforte; PIAN'ISM, the technique of the pianoforte: arrangement of music for the pianoforte.--_adv._ PIANIS'SIMO, very softly.--_n._ PIAN'IST, one who plays on the pianoforte, or one well skilled in it.--_adv._ PIÄN'O (_mus._), softly.--_ns._ PIAN'O-SCHOOL, a school where piano music is taught; PIAN'O-STOOL, a stool on which the player sits at the piano.--BOUDOIR, or CABINET, PIANO, an upright piano. [It., _piano_, soft--L. _planus_, plane, _forte_, strong--L. _fortis_, strong.] PIARIST, p[=i]'ar-ist, _n._ one of a religious congregation for the education of the poor, founded in Rome in 1617 by Joseph Calasanza. [L. _pius_, pious.] PIASSAVA, pi-as'a-va, _n._ a coarse stiff fibre used for rope-making in Brazil.--Also PIASS'ABA. [Port.] PIASTRE, PIASTER, pi-as't[.e]r, _n._ a silver coin of varying value, used in Turkey and other countries: the Spanish dollar. [Fr.,--It. _piastra_.] PIAZZA, pi-az'a, _n._ a place or square surrounded by buildings: a walk under a roof supported by pillars.--_adj._ PIAZZ'IAN. [It.,--L. _platea_, a place.] PIBROCH, p[=e]'broh, _n._ a form of bagpipe music, generally of a warlike character, including marches, dirges, &c. [Gael. _piobaireachd_, pipe-music--_piobair_, a piper--piob, a _pipe_, _fear_, a man.] PICA, p[=i]'ka, _n._ a size of type smaller than _English_ and larger than _Small pica_, equal to 12 points in the new system of sizes, about 6 lines to the inch, used by printers as a standard unit of measurement for thickness and length of leads, rules, borders, &c.--as 6-to-pica or 10-to-pica, according as 6 or 10 leads set together make a line of pica.--DOUBLE PICA, a size equal to 2 lines of small pica; DOUBLE SMALL PICA, a size of type giving about 3-1/3 lines to the inch; SMALL PICA, a size smaller than pica and larger than long-primer, about 11 points; TWO-LINE PICA, a size of about 3 lines to the inch, equal to 2 lines of pica, or to 24 points. [_Pie_ (2).] PICA, p[=i]'ka, _n._ a magpie. [_Pie._] PICADOR, pik-a-d[=o]r', _n._ a horseman armed with a lance, who commences a bull-fight by pricking the bull with his weapon. [Sp. _pica_, a pike.] PICAMAR, pik'a-mär, _n._ the bitter principle of tar. [L. _pix_, pitch, _amarus_, bitter.] PICARD, pik'ärd, _n._ a high shoe for men, introduced from France about 1720. PICAROON, pik-a-r[=oo]n', _n._ one who lives by his wits: a cheat: a pirate.--_adj._ PICARESQUE'.--PICARESQUE NOVELS, the tales of Spanish rogue and vagabond life, much in vogue in the 17th century. [Sp. _picaron_--_pícaro_, a rogue.] PICAYUNE, pik-a-y[=oo]n', _n._ a small coin worth 6¼ cents, current in United States before 1857, and known in different states by different names (_fourpence_, _fippence_, _fip_, _sixpence_, &c.).--_adj._ petty. [Carib.] PICCADILLY, pik'a-dil-i, _n._ a standing-up collar with the points turned over, first worn about 1870: a high collar worn in the time of James I.: an edging of lace on a woman's broad collar (17th century). PICCALILLI, pik'a-lil-i, _n._ a pickle of various vegetable substances with mustard and spices. PICCANINNY, PICKANINNY, pik'a-nin-i, _n._ a little child: an African or negro child. [Perh. from Sp. _pequeño niño_='little child.'] PICCOLO, pik'[=o]-l[=o], _n._ a flute of small size, having the same compass as an ordinary flute, while the notes all sound an octave higher than their notation.--Also _Flauto piccolo_, _Octave flute_, _Ottavino_. [It.] PICE, p[=i]s, _n.sing._ and _pl._ a money of account and a copper coin, ¼ anna. [Marathi _paisa_.] PICEA, p[=i]'s[=e]-a, _n._ a genus of coniferous trees, including the spruce. PICEOUS, pish'[=e]-us, _adj._ pitch-black. PICIFORM, pis'i-form, _adj._ like to, or relating to, the woodpecker. PICK, pik, _v.t._ to prick with a sharp-pointed instrument: to peck, as a bird: to pierce: to open with a pointed instrument, as a lock: to pluck or gather, as flowers, &c.: to separate or pull apart: to clean with the teeth: to gather: to choose: to select: to call: to seek, as a quarrel: to steal.--_v.i._ to do anything carefully: to eat by morsels.--_n._ any sharp-pointed instrument, esp. for loosening and breaking up hard soil, &c.: a picklock: foul matter collecting on printing-types, &c.: right or opportunity of first choice.--_n._ PICK'-CHEESE, the blue titmouse: the fruit of the mallow.--_adj._ PICKED (pikt), selected, hence the choicest or best: having spines or prickles, sharp-pointed.--_ns._ PICK'EDNESS; PICK'ER, one who picks or gathers up: one who removes defects from and finishes electrotype plates: a pilferer; PICK'ING, the act of picking, selecting, gathering, pilfering: that which is left to be picked: dabbing in stone-working: the final finishing of woven fabrics by removing burs, &c.: removing defects from electrotype plates; PICK'LOCK, an instrument for picking or opening locks; PICK'-ME-UP, a stimulating drink; PICK'POCKET, one who picks or steals from other people's pockets; PICK'-PURSE, one who steals the purse or from the purse of another.--_adj._ PICK'SOME, given to picking and choosing.--_n._ PICK'-THANK, an officious person who does what he is not desired to do in order to gain favour: a flatterer: a parasite.--_v.t._ to gain favour by unworthy means.--PICK A HOLE IN ONE'S COAT, to find fault with one; PICK A QUARREL, to find an occasion of quarrelling; PICK AT, to find fault with; PICK FAULT, to seek occasions of fault-finding; PICK OAKUM, to make oakum by untwisting old ropes; PICK OFF, to aim at and kill or wound, as with a rifle; PICK ONE'S WAY, to move carefully; PICK OUT, to make out: to mark with spots of colour, &c.; PICK TO PIECES, to tear asunder: to damage, as character; PICK UP, to improve gradually: to gain strength bit by bit: to take into a vehicle, or into one's company: to get as if by chance.--_adj._ gathered together by chance. [Celt., as Gael. _pioc_, to pick, W. _pigo_; cf. _Pike_.] PICKABACK, pik'a-bak, _adv._ on the back like a pack.--Also PICK'BACK, PICK'APACK. PICKAXE, pik'aks, _n._ a picking tool, with a point at one end of the head and a cutting blade at the other, used in digging. [M. E. _pikois_--O. Fr. _picois_, a mattock, _piquer_, to pierce, _pic_, a pick--Celt.] PICKEER, pi-k[=e]r', _v.i._ (_obs._) to act as a skirmisher.--_n._ PICKEER'ER. PICKEREL, pik'e-rel, _n._ an American pike: a wading bird, the dunlin. [_Pike_ + _er_ + _el_.] PICKET, pik'et, _n._ a pointed stake used in fortification: a small outpost or guard stationed in front of an army: a number of men sent out by a trades-union to prevent others from working against the wishes or decisions of the union: a game at cards: a punishment inflicted by making a person stand on one foot on a pointed stake.--_v.i._ to fasten to a stake, as a horse: to post a vanguard: to place a picket at or near.--_ns._ PICK'ET-FENCE, a fence of pickets or pales; PICK'ET-GUARD, a guard kept in readiness in case of alarm. [Fr. _piquet_, dim. of _pic_, a pickaxe.] PICKLE, pik'l, _n._ a liquid of salt and water in which flesh and vegetables are preserved: vinegar, &c., in which articles of food are preserved: anything pickled: a disagreeable position: (_coll._) a troublesome child.--_v.t._ to season or preserve with salt, vinegar, &c.--_ns._ PICK'LE-HERR'ING, a pickled herring: (_obs._) a merry-andrew; PICK'LE-WORM, the larva of a pyralid moth.--HAVE A ROD IN PICKLE, to have a punishment ready. [M. E. _pikil_, prob. _pick-le_; Dut. _pekel_; Ger. _pökel_.] PICKLE, pik'l, _n._ (_Scot._) a small quantity.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to eat sparingly: to pilfer. PICKWICKIAN, pik-wik'i-an, _adj._ relating to or resembling Mr _Pickwick_, the hero of Dickens's _Pickwick Papers_.--IN A PICKWICKIAN SENSE, in a merely hypothetical sense--a phrase by which the members of the Pickwick Club explained away unparliamentary language. PICNIC, pik'nik, _n._ a short excursion into the country by a pleasure-party who take their own provisions with them: an entertainment in the open air, towards which each person contributes.--_v.i._ to go on a picnic:--_pr.p._ pic'nicking; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ pic'nicked.--_n._ PIC'NICKER. [Prob. _pick_, to nibble, and _nick_, for _knack_, a trifle.] PICOT, p[=e]-k[=o]', _n._ a loop in an ornamental edging, the front of a flounce, &c.--_adj._ PICOTTÉ. [Fr.] PICOTEE, pik-[=o]-t[=e]', _n._ a florist's variety of carnation. [From the French botanist _Picot_, Baron de la Peyrouse, 1744-1818.] PICQUET. Same as PIQUET. PICQUÉ-WORK, p[=e]-k[=a]'-wurk, _n._ decoration by dots or slight depressions.--Also POUNCED-WORK. PICRA, pik'ra, _n._ a cathartic powder of aloes and canella. [Gr. _pikros_, bitter.] PICRIC, pik'rik, _adj._ carbazotic.--_n._ PIC'R[=A]TE, a salt of picric acid.--_adj._ PIC'R[=A]TED, mixed with a picrate as in a composition for a whistling rocket.--_ns._ PIC'R[=I]TE, one of the peridotites or olivine-rocks; PICROTOX'INE, a bitter poisonous principle in the seeds of _Cocculus indicus_.--PICRIC ACID, an acid used as a dye for wool, &c. [Gr. _pikros_, bitter.] PICT, pikt, _n._ one of an ancient race for 5½ centuries (296-844 A.D.) inhabiting eastern Scotland, from the Forth to the Pentland Firth, most probably Celts, but more nearly allied to the Cymry than to the Gael.--_adj._ PIC'TISH.--PICTISH TOWERS, a name sometimes given to brochs (q.v.); PICTS' HOUSES, a name popularly given in many parts of Scotland to rude underground dwellings or earth-houses; PICTS' WORK, a name sometimes given to the Catrail, the remains of a large earthwork extending for about fifty miles through the counties of Selkirk and Roxburgh. [L. _picti_, pl. of pa.p. of _ping[)e]re_, _pictum_, to paint.] PICTURE, pik't[=u]r, _n._ a painting: a likeness in colours: a drawing: painting: a resemblance: an image: a vivid verbal description.--_v.t._ to paint, to represent by painting: to form a likeness of in the mind: to describe vividly in words.--_n._ PIC'TOGRAPH, a picture or pictorial sign: a piece of picture-writing.--_adj._ PICTOGRAPH'IC.--_n._ PICTOG'RAPHY.--_adjs._ PICT[=O]'RIAL, PIC'T[=U]RAL, relating to pictures: illustrated by pictures: consisting of pictures.--_adv._ PICT[=O]'RIALLY.--_ns._ PIC'T[=U]RAL (_Spens._), a picture; PIC'TURE-BOOK, a book of pictures; PIC'TURE-FRAME, a frame surrounding a picture; PIC'TURE-GALL'ERY, a gallery, or large room, in which pictures are hung up for exhibition; PIC'TURE-ROD, a rod running round the upper part of the wall of a room, from which pictures are hung; PIC'TURE-WRIT'ING, the use of pictures to express ideas or relate events. [L. _pictura_--_ping[)e]re_, _pictum_, to paint.] PICTURESQUE, pik-t[=u]-resk', _adj._ like a picture: such as would make a good or striking picture: expressing the pleasing beauty of a picture.--_adv._ PICTURESQUE'LY.--_n._ PICTURESQUE'NESS. [It. _pittoresco_--_pittura_, a picture--L. _pictura_.] PICUL, PECUL, pik'ul, _n._ a Chinese weight of about 133-1/3 lb. PICUS, p[=i]'kus, _n._ a Linnæan genus of woodpeckers. PIDDLE, pid'l, _v.i._ to deal in trifles: to trifle: to eat with little relish: to make water.--_n._ PIDD'LER, a trifler.--_adj._ PIDD'LING, trifling, squeamish. [_Peddle._] PIDDOCK, pid'ok, _n._ the pholas. PIDGIN-ENGLISH, pij'in-ing'glish, _n._ a mixture of corrupted English with Chinese and other words, a sort of _lingua franca_ which grew up between Chinese on the sea-board and foreigners, as a medium of intercommunication in business transactions. [_Pidgin_, a Chinese corruption of _business_.] PIE, p[=i], _n._ a magpie: (_print._) type mixed or unsorted (cf. _Pi_). [Fr.,--L. _pica_.] PIE, p[=i], _n._ a book which ordered the manner of performing divine service: a service-book: an ordinal.--BY COCK AND PIE (_Shak._), a minced oath=By God and the service-book. [Fr.,--L. _pica_, lit. magpie, from its old black-letter type on white paper resembling the colours of the magpie.] PIE, p[=i], _n._ the smallest Indian copper coin, equal to 1/3 of a pice, or 1/12 of an anna. [Marathi _p[=a]'[=i]_, a fourth.] PIE, p[=i], _n._ a quantity of meat or fruit baked within a crust of prepared flour.--A FINGER IN THE PIE (see FINGER); HUMBLE-PIE (see HUMBLE); MINCE-PIE (see MINCE); PERIGORD PIE, a pie flavoured with truffles, abundant in _Perigord_ in France. [Perh. Ir. and Gael. _pighe_, pie.] PIEBALD, PYEBALD, p[=i]'bawld, _adj._ of various colours: having spots and patches. [For _pie-balled_--_pie_, a magpie, W. _bal_, a streak on a horse's forehead.] PIECE, p[=e]s, _n._ a part of anything: a single article: a definite quantity, as of cloth or paper: an amount of work to be done at one time: a separate performance: a literary or artistic composition: a gun: a coin: a man in chess or draughts: a person, generally a woman, in contempt.--_v.t._ to enlarge by adding a piece: to patch.--_v.i._ to unite by a joining of parts: to join.--_n.pl_. PIECE'-GOODS, cotton, linen, woollen, or silk fabrics sold retail in varying lengths.--_adj._ PIECE'LESS, not made of pieces: entire.--_adv._ PIECE'MEAL, in pieces or fragments: by pieces: little by little: bit by bit: gradually.--_adj._ made of pieces: single: separate.--_ns._ PIEC'ENER, a piecer; PIEC'ENING, or PIEC'ING, the act of mending, esp. the joining of the ends of yarn, thread, &c. so as to repair breaks; PIEC'ER, a boy or girl employed in a spinning-factory to join broken threads; PIECE'WORK, work done by the piece or quantity rather than by time.--PIÈCE DE RÉSISTANCE, principal piece: chief event or performance: chief dish at a dinner; PIECE OF EIGHT, the Spanish _peso duro_ ('hard dollar'), bearing the numeral 8, of the value of 8 reals (prob. the sign $ is derived from this); PIECE OUT, to put together bit by bit; PIECE UP, to patch up.--GIVE A PIECE OF ONE'S MIND, to give a rating frankly to any one's face; OF A PIECE, as if of the same piece, the same in nature, &c. [O. Fr. _piece_--Low L. _petium_, a piece of land--prob. L. _pes_, _pedis_, a foot.] PIED, p[=i]d, _adj._ variegated like a magpie: of various colours: spotted.--_n._ PIED'NESS. PIELED, p[=e]ld, _adj._ (_Shak._) peeled, bare, bald. PIEND, p[=e]nd, _n._ the sharp point or edge of a hammer: a salient angle. PIEPOWDER, p[=i]'pow-d[.e]r, _n._ an ancient court held in fairs and markets to administer justice in a rough-and-ready way to all comers--also _Court of Dusty Foot_.--_adj._ PIE'POWDERED, with dusty feet. [O. Fr. _piepoudreux_, a hawker, _pied_--L. _pes_, a foot, _poudre_, powder.] PIER, p[=e]r, _n._ the mass of stone-work between the openings in the wall of a building: an arch, bridge, &c.: a stone pillar on which the hinges of a gate are fixed: a mass of stone or wood-work projecting into the sea for landing purposes: a wharf.--_ns._ PIER'AGE, toll paid for using a pier; PIER'-GLASS, a mirror hung in the space between windows; PIER'-T[=A]'BLE, a table fitted for the space between two windows. [O. Fr. _pierre_, a stone--L. _petra_--Gr. _petra_, a rock.] PIERCE, p[=e]rs, _v.t._ to thrust or make a hole through: to enter, or force a way into: to touch or move deeply: to dive into, as a secret.--_v.i._ to penetrate.--_adj._ PIERCE'ABLE, capable of being pierced.--_n._ PIERC'ER, one who, or that which, pierces: any sharp instrument used for piercing: a stiletto.--_adj._ PIERC'ING.--_adv._ PIERC'INGLY.--_n._ PIERC'INGNESS. [O. Fr. _percer_, prob. _pertuisier_--_pertuis_, a hole--L. _pertund[)e]re_, _pertusum_, to thrust through.] PIERIAN, p[=i]-[=e]'ri-an, _adj._ pertaining to the Muses.--_n._ PIER'IDES, the nine Muses. [L. _Pierius_--Mt. _Pierus_, in Thessaly, the haunt of the Muses.] PIERROT, pye-r[=o]', _n._ a buffoon with loose long-sleeved white robe: an 18th-century women's low-cut basque, with sleeves. [Fr.] PIET, p[=i]'et, _n._ a pie or magpie. [_Pie._] PIETÀ, p[=e]-[=a]-ta', _n._ a representation of the Virgin embracing the dead body of Jesus. PIETRA-DURA, py[=a]'tra-d[=oo]'ra, _n._ Florentine mosaic-work, in which the inlaid materials are hard stones--jasper, agate, &c. PIETY, p[=i]'e-ti, _n._ the quality of being pious: reverence for the Deity, and desire to do His will: love and duty towards parents, friends, or country: sense of duty: dutiful conduct.--_ns._ P[=I]'ETISM, the doctrine and practice of the pietists; P[=I]'ETIST, one marked by strong devotional feeling: a name first applied to a sect of German religious reformers of deep devotional feeling (end of 17th century).--_adjs._ PIETIST'IC, -AL. [Fr. _piété_--L. _pietas_.] PIEZOMETER, p[=i]-e-zom'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring the compressibility of liquids. [Gr. _piezein_, to press, _metron_, a measure.] PIFFERO, pif'e-r[=o], _n._ a form of oboe: an organ-stop. PIG, pig, _n._ a swine of either gender: an oblong mass of unforged metal, as first extracted from the ore, so called because it is made to flow when melted in channels called _pigs_, branching from a main channel called the _sow_.--_v.i._ to bring forth pigs: to live together like pigs:--_pr.p._ pig'ging; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ pigged.--_adjs._ PIG'-EYED, having small dull eyes with heavy lids; PIG'-FACED, looking like a pig.--_n._ PIG'GERY, a place where pigs are kept.--_adj._ PIG'GISH, belonging to or like pigs: greedy, said of persons.--_n._ PIG'GISHNESS.--_adj._ PIG'HEADED, having a large or ill-formed head: stupidly obstinate.--_ns._ PIG'HEADEDNESS; PIG'-[=I]'RON, iron in pigs or rough bars; PIG'-LEAD, lead in pigs; PIG'-NUT (same as EARTH-NUT); PIG'SCONCE, a pigheaded fellow: a blockhead; PIG'SKIN, the skin of a pig prepared as a strong leather: a saddle; PIG'-STY, a pen for keeping pigs; PIG'S'-WASH, swill; PIG'S'-WHIS'PER (_slang_), a low whisper: a very short space of time; PIG'-TAIL, the tail of a pig: the hair of the head tied behind in the form of a pig's tail: a roll of twisted tobacco. [A.S. _pecg_; Dut. _bigge_, _big_.] PIG, pig, _n._ an earthen vessel. [_Piggin_.] PIGEON, pij'un, _n._ a well-known bird, the dove: any bird of the dove family.--_adjs._ PIG'EON-BREAST'ED, having a physical deformity, due to rickets, in which the chest is flattened from side to side, and the sternum or breast-bone is thrown forward; PIG'EON-HEART'ED, timid: fearful.--_n._ PIG'EON-HOLE, a hole or niche in which pigeons lodge in a dovecot: a division of a case for papers, &c.--_v.t._ to put into a pigeon-hole: to lay aside and treat with neglect.--_n._ PIG'EON-HOUSE, a dovecot.--_adj._ PIG'EON-LIV'ERED, timid: cowardly.--_n._ PIG'EONRY, a place for keeping pigeons.--_adj._ PIG'EON-TOED, having feet like pigeons, peristeropod: having turned-in toes. [Fr.,--L. _pipio_, _-onis_--_pip[=i]re_, to chirp.] PIGGIN, pig'in, _n._ a small wooden or earthen vessel. [Gael. _pigean_, dim. of _pigeadh_, or _pige_, a pot.] PIGHT, p[=i]t, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to place, to fix.--_adj._ placed, fixed, determined. [_Pitch_, to place.] PIGMEAN, pig-m[=e]'an, _adj._ like a pygmy: very small. PIGMENT, pig'ment, _n._ paint: any substance used for colouring: that which gives colour to animal and vegetable tissues.--_adjs._ PIGMENT'AL, PIG'MENTARY.--_n._ PIG'MENT-CELL, a cell which secrets pigment. [L. _pigmentum_--_ping[)e]re_, to paint.] PIGMY. Same as PYGMY. PIGNORATION, pig-n[=o]-r[=a]'shun, _n._ act of giving in pledge: (_law_) a seizing and detaining of cattle straying and doing damage, till the damage be made good. [L. _pignus_, _-oris_, a pledge.] PIKE, p[=i]k, _n._ a sharp point: a weapon with a long shaft and a sharp head like a spear, formerly used by foot-soldiers: a sharp-pointed hill or summit: a voracious fresh-water fish (so called from its pointed snout).--_adj._ PIKED, ending in a point.--_ns._ PIKE'-HEAD, the head of a pike or spear; PIKE'-KEEP'ER, the keeper of a turnpike; PIKE'LET, a tea-cake; PIKE'MAN, a man armed with a pike: a man in charge of a turnpike gate; PIKE'-PERCH, a common percoid fish; PIKE'STAFF, the staff or shaft of a pike: a staff with a pike at the end. [A.S. _píc_, _piic_, a pike; Dut. _piek_, Ger. _pike_, _pieke_; or Celt., as Gael. _pìc_, a pike, W. _pig_, a point.] PIKE, p[=i]k, _v.i._ to go quickly.--_n._ a turnpike.--_n._ P[=I]'KER, a tramp. PILA, p[=i]'la, _n._ in archæology and art, a mortar. [L.] PILAR, p[=i]'lar, _adj._ hairy.--Also PIL'ARY. PILASTER, pi-las't[.e]r, _n._ a square column, partly built into, partly projecting from a wall.--_adj._ PILAS'TERED, furnished with pilasters or inserted pillars. [Fr. _pilastre_--It. _pilastro_--L. _p[=i]la_, a pillar.] PILAU, pi-law', _n._ a dish, in origin purely Mohammedan, consisting of meat or fowl, boiled along with rice and spices.--Also PILLAU', PILAW', PILAFF', PILOW'. [Pers. _pil[=a]w_, _pilaw_.] PILCH, pilch, _n._ (_Shak._) a cloak or gown lined with furs: a flannel cloth or wrap for a child.--_n._ PILCH'ER, one who wears a pilch: a scabbard. [A.S. _pylce_--Low L. _pellicea_--L. _pellis_, skin.] PILCHARD, pil'chärd, _n._ a sea-fish like the herring, but thicker and rounder, caught chiefly on the Cornish coast. [Prob. Celt., Ir. _pilseir_.] PILE, p[=i]l, _n._ a roundish mass: a heap of separate objects: combustibles, esp. for burning dead bodies: a large building: a heap of shot or shell: (_elect._) a form of battery consisting of a number of dissimilar metal plates laid in pairs one above another, with an acid solution between them: (_slang_) a large amount of money: a fortune.--_v.t._ to lay in a pile or heap: to collect in a mass: to heap up: to fill above the brim.--_n._ P[=I]'LER, one who forms into a heap.--PILE ARMS, to place three muskets with fixed bayonets so that the butts remain firm, the muzzles close together pointing obliquely--also _Stack arms_. [Fr.,--L. _p[)i]la_, a ball.] PILE, p[=i]l, _n._ a pillar: a large stake driven into the earth to support foundations: a pyramidal figure in a heraldic bearing.--_v.t._ to drive piles into.--_ns._ PILE'-DRIV'ER, PILE'-EN'GINE, an engine for driving down piles; PILE'-DWELL'ING, a dwelling built on piles, a lake-dwelling; PILE'WORK, work or foundations made of piles; PILE'-WORM, a worm found eating into the timber of piles and ships: the teredo. [A.S. _píl_--L. _p[=i]la_, a pillar.] PILE, p[=i]l, _n._ hair, fur: the nap on cloth, esp. if regular and closely set.--_v.t._ to furnish with pile, to make shaggy.--_adj._ PILE'-WORN, worn threadbare. [O. Fr. _peil_, _poil_--L. _p[)i]lus_, a hair.] PILES, p[=i]lz, _n.pl._ hæmorrhoids. [L. _p[)i]la_, a ball.] PILEUM, pil'[=e]-um, _n._ (_ornith._) the top of the head from the base of the bill to the nape--including the forehead or front, the vertex or corona, and the hindhead or occiput:--_pl._ PIL'[=E]A. PILEUS, pil'[=e]-us, _n._ a Roman conical cap: (_bot._) the summit of the stipe bearing the hymenium in some fungi:--_pl._ PIL'EI (-[=i]).--_adjs._ PIL'[=E]ATE, -D, fitted with a cap: having the form of a cap or hat; PIL'[=E]IFORM.--_n._ PIL[=E]'OLUS, a little pileus:--_pl._ PIL[=E]'OLI. [L. _pileatus_--_pileus_, a cap of felt.] PILE-WORT, p[=i]l'-wurt, _n._ a buttercup, the celandine. PILFER, pil'f[.e]r, _v.i._ to steal small things.--_v.t._ to steal by petty theft.--_ns._ PIL'FERER; PIL'FERING, PIL'FERY, petty theft.--_adv._ PIL'FERINGLY. [_Pelf._] PILGARLICK, pil-gar'lik, _n._ a low fellow--perh. because _pilled_ or made bald by a shameful disease. PILGRIM, pil'grim, _n._ one who travels to a distance to visit a sacred place: a wanderer: a traveller: a silk screen formerly attached to the back of a woman's bonnet to protect the neck: (_slang_) a new-comer.--_adj._ of or pertaining to a pilgrim: like a pilgrim: consisting of pilgrims.--_ns._ PIL'GRIMAGE, the journey of a pilgrim: a journey to a shrine or other sacred place: the time taken for a pilgrimage: the journey of life, a lifetime; PIL'GRIM-BOTT'LE, a flat bottle holed at the neck for a cord.--PILGRIM FATHERS, the colonists who went to America in the ship _Mayflower_, and founded New England in 1620; PILGRIM'S SHELL, a cockle-shell used as a sign that one had visited the Holy Land; PILGRIM'S STAFF, a long staff which pilgrims carried as a sort of badge. [O. Fr. _pelegrin_ (Fr. _pèlerin_)--L. _peregrinus_, foreigner, stranger--_pereger_, a traveller--_per_, through, _ager_, land.] PILIFORM, pil'i-form, _adj._ slender as a hair.--_adjs._ PILIF'EROUS, PILIG'EROUS, bearing hairs. [L. _pilus_, a hair, _forma_, form.] PILING, p[=i]'ling, _n._ the act of piling up: the driving of piles: a series of piles placed in order: pilework. PILKINS, pil'kinz, _n._ (_prov._) the naked oat, _Avena nuda_.--Also PILL'AS, PILL'CORN. PILL, pil, _n._ a little ball of medicine: anything nauseous which must be accepted: (_slang_) a doctor: a disagreeable person.--_v.t._ (_slang_) to blackball.--_n._ PILL'-BOX, a box for holding pills: a kind of one-horse carriage. [Fr. _pilule_--L. _pilula_, dim. of _p[)i]la_, a ball.] PILL, pil, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to strip, peel: to deprive of hair.--_n._ (_Spens._) skin. [_Peel._] PILLAGE, pil'[=a]j, _n._ (_Shak._) act of plundering: plunder: spoil, esp. taken in war.--_v.t._ to plunder or spoil.--_v.t._ PILL, to rob or plunder.--_n._ PILL'AGER. [O. Fr.,--_piller_--L. _pil[=a]re_, to plunder.] PILLAR, pil'ar, _n._ (_archit._) a detached support, differing from a column in that it is not necessarily cylindrical, or of classical proportions: one who, or anything that, sustains: something resembling a pillar in appearance.--_adj._ PILL'ARED, supported by a pillar: having the form of a pillar.--_ns._ PILL'AR-BOX, a short pillar in a street with receptacle for letters to be sent by post; PILL'ARIST, PILL'AR-SAINT, a person in the early church who crucified the flesh by living on the summit of pillars in the open air, a stylite.--FROM PILLAR TO POST, from one state of difficulty to another: hither and thither. [O. Fr. _piler_ (Fr. _pilier_)--Low L. _pilare_--L. _p[=i]la_, a pillar.] PILLAU, pil-law', _n._ See PILAU. PILLICOCK, pil'i-kok, _n._ (_Shak._) a term of endearment. PILLION, pil'yun, _n._ a cushion for a woman behind a horseman: the cushion of a saddle. [Ir. _pilliun_, Gael. _pillean_, a pad, a pack-saddle--_peall_, a skin or mat, L. _pellis_, skin.] [Illustration] PILLORY, pil'o-ri, _n._ a wooden frame, supported by an upright pillar or post, and having holes through which the head and hands of a criminal were put as a punishment, disused in England since 1837.--_vs.t._ PILL'ORY, PILL'ORISE, to punish in the pillory: to expose to ridicule:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ pill'oried. [O. Fr. _pilori_; ety. dub.; Prov. _espitlori_--Low L. _speculatorium_, a lookout--L. _specularia_, a window, _speculum_, a mirror.] PILLOW, pil'[=o], _n._ a cushion filled with feathers, &c., for resting the head on: any cushion: a block of metal for bearing the end of a shaft, or the end of a bowsprit: the socket of a pivot.--_v.t._ to lay or rest on for support.--_v.i._ to rest the head on a pillow.--_ns._ PILL'OW-BIER, -BEER, -CASE, -SLIP, a cover which can be drawn over a pillow; PILL'OW-CUP, a last cup before going to bed.--_adjs._ PILL'OWED, supported by, or provided with, a pillow; PILL'OWY, like a pillow: soft. [A.S. _pyle_--L. _pulv[=i]nus_.] PILLWORM, pil'wurm, _n._ the millipede. PILOCARPUS, p[=i]-l[=o]-kär'pus, _n._ a shrub about four or five feet high, slightly branched, the branches erect, a native of Brazil.--_n._ PILOCAR'PINE, an alkaloid isolated from pilocarpus, with sudorific properties. [Gr. _pilos_, a cap, _karpos_, fruit.] PILOSE, p[=i]'l[=o]s, _adj._ hairy--also P[=I]'LOUS.--_n._ PILOS'ITY. [L. _pilosus_--_pilus_, hair.] PILOT, p[=i]'lut, _n._ the steersman of a ship: one who conducts ships in and out of a harbour, along a dangerous coast, &c.: a guide.--_v.t._ to conduct as a pilot: to direct through dangerous places.--_ns._ P[=I]'LOTAGE, the skill of a pilot: the act of piloting: the fee or wages of pilots; P[=I]'LOT-BOAT, a boat used by pilots for meeting or leaving ships; P[=I]'LOT-CLOTH, a coarse, stout kind of cloth for overcoats; P[=I]'LOT-EN'GINE, a locomotive engine sent on before a train to clear its way, as a pilot; P[=I]'LOT-FISH, a fish of the mackerel family, so called from its having been supposed to guide sharks to their prey; P[=I]'LOT-FLAG, the flag hoisted at the fore by a vessel needing a pilot; P[=I]'LOT-HOUSE, an enclosed place on deck to shelter the steering-gear and the pilot--also _Wheel-house_; P[=I]'LOT-JACK'ET, a pea-jacket worn by seamen; P[=I]'LOT-WHALE, the caaing-whale (q.v.). [Fr. _pilote_--Dut. _piloot_, from _peilen_, to sound, _loot_ (Ger. _loth_, Eng. _lead_), a sounding-lead.] PILULE, pil'[=u]l, _n._ a little pill--also PIL'ULA.--_adj._ PIL'ULAR, pertaining to pills. PILUM, p[=i]'lum, _n._ the heavy javelin used by Roman foot-soldiers:--_pl._ P[=I]'LA. [L.] PILUS, p[=i]'lus, _n._ one of the slender hairs on plants:--_pl._ P[=I]'LI. [L.] PIMENTO, pi-men'to, _n._ allspice or Jamaica pepper: the tree producing it.--Also PIMEN'TA. [Port. _pimenta_--L. _pigmentum_, paint.] PIMP, pimp, _n._ one who procures gratifications for the lust of others: a pander.--_v.i._ to pander.--_adjs._ PIMP'ING, petty: mean; PIMP'-LIKE. [Fr. _pimper_, a nasalised form of _piper_, to pipe, hence to cheat.] PIMPERNEL, pim'p[.e]r-nel, _n._ a plant of the primrose family, with reddish flowers--also _Poor man's weather-glass_, _Red chickweed_.--_n._ PIMPINEL'LA, a genus of umbelliferous plants--_anise_, _pimpernel_, _breakstone_. [Fr. _pimprenelle_ (It. _pimpinella_), either a corr. of a L. form _bipennula_, double-winged, dim. of _bi-pennis_--_bis_, twice, _penna_, feather; or from a dim. of L. _pampinus_, a vine-leaf.] PIMPLE, pim'pl, _n._ a pustule: a small swelling.--_adjs._ PIM'PLED, PIM'PLY, having pimples. [A.S. _pipel_, nasalised from L. _papula_, a pustule.] PIN, pin, _n._ a piece of wood or of metal used for fastening things together: a peg or nail: a sharp-pointed piece of wire with a rounded head for fastening clothes: anything that holds parts together: a piece of wood set up on end to be knocked down by a bowl, as in skittles: a peg used in musical instruments for fastening the strings: anything of little value.--_v.t._ to fasten with a pin: to fasten: to enclose: to seize and hold fast:--_pr.p._ pin'ning; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ pinned.--_ns._ PIN'-BUTT'OCK (_Shak._), a sharp, pointed buttock; PIN'CASE, PIN'CUSHION, a case or cushion for holding pins; PIN'-FEATH'ER, a small or short feather.--_adj._ PIN'-FEATH'ERED.--_ns._ PIN'-HOLD, a place where a pin is fixed; PIN'-HOLE, a hole made by a pin: a very small opening; PIN'-MON'EY, money allowed to a wife by her husband for private expenses, originally to buy pins; PIN'NER, one who pins or fastens: a pin-maker: a pinafore: a head-dress with a lappet flying loose; PIN'-POINT, the point of a pin: a trifle; PIN'TAIL, a genus of ducks, one handsome species of which is a winter visitor to many parts of the British coast.--_adj._ PIN'TAILED, having a long, narrow tail.--_n._ PIN'-WHEEL, a contrate wheel in which the cogs are pins set into the disc: a form of firework constructed to revolve rapidly while burning.--_v.t._ PIN'WORK, to work flax-yarn on a wooden pin so as to make it more supple for ease in packing.--PIN-FIRE CARTRIDGE, a cartridge for breech-loading guns; PINS AND NEEDLES, a feeling as of pricking under the skin, formication.--IN MERRY PIN, in a merry humour; ON ONE'S PINS, on one's legs: in good condition. [M. E. _pinne_, like Ir. and Gael. _pinne_, and Ger. _pinn_, from L. _pinna_ or _penna_, a feather.] PIN, pin, _n._ an induration of the membranes of the eye, cataract. [A.S. _pinn_--Low L. _pannus_.] PIÑA-CLOTH, p[=e]'nya-kloth, _n._ a beautiful fabric made of the fibres of the leaves of the pine-apple plant. PINAFORE, pin'a-f[=o]r, _n._ a loose covering of cotton or linen over a child's dress. [_Pin_ + _afore_.] PINASTER, pi-nas't[.e]r, _n._ the cluster-pine. PINCE-NEZ, pangs'-n[=a], _n._ a pair of eye-glasses with a spring for catching the nose. [Fr.] PINCERS. Same as PINCHERS. PINCH, pinsh, _v.t._ to grip hard: to squeeze between two hard or firm substances: to squeeze the flesh so as to give pain: to nip: to distress: to gripe.--_v.i._ to act with force: to bear or press hard: to live sparingly.--_n._ a close compression with the fingers: what can be taken up between the finger and thumb: an iron bar used as a lever for lifting weights, rolling wheels, &c.: a gripe: distress: oppression.--_n._ PINCH'COMMONS, a niggard, a miser.--_adj._ PINCHED, having the appearance of being tightly squeezed: hard pressed by want or cold: narrowed in size.--_ns._ PINCH'ER, one who, or that which, pinches; PINCH'ERS, PIN'CERS, an instrument for gripping anything firmly, esp. for drawing out nails, &c.; PINCH'FIST, PINCH'GUT PINCH'PENNY, a niggard.--_adv._ PINCH'INGLY, in a pinching manner.--AT A PINCH, in a case of necessity; KNOW WHERE THE SHOE PINCHES, to know where the cause of trouble or difficulty is. [O. Fr. _pincer_; prob. Teut., cf. Dut. _pitsen_, to pinch.] PINCHBECK, pinsh'bek, _n._ a yellow alloy of five parts of copper to one of zinc. [From Chris. PINCHBECK, an 18th-century London watchmaker.] PINDARI, PINDAREE, pin'dar-[=e], _n._ one of a band of freebooters who, after the overthrow of the Mogul empire in India, grew (1804-17) to be a formidable power in the Central Provinces. [Hind.] PINDARIC, pin-dar'ik, _adj._ after the manner of _Pindar_, one of the first of Greek lyric poets.--_n._ an ode in imitation of one of Pindar's: an ode of irregular metre.--_n._ PIN'DARISM, imitation of Pindar. PINDER, pin'd[.e]r, _n._ one who impounds stray cattle.--Also PIN'NER. [A.S. _pyndan_, to shut up--_pund._ Cf. _Pen_, v., and _Pound_, to shut up.] PINE, p[=i]n, _n._ a northern cone-bearing, evergreen, resinous tree, furnishing valuable timber.--_adj._ PIN'EAL.--_ns._ PIN'EAL-GLAND, a rounded body about the size of a pea, of a slightly yellowish colour, situated upon the anterior pair of corpora quadrigemina, and connected with the optic thalami by two strands of nerve fibres termed its peduncles; PINE'-APP'LE, a tropical plant, and its fruit, shaped like a pine-cone; PINE'-BARR'EN, a level sandy tract growing pines; PINE'-CH[=A]'FER, a beetle which eats pine-leaves.--_adjs._ PINE'-CLAD, PINE'-CROWNED, clad or crowned with pine-trees.--_ns._ PINE'-CONE, the cone or strobilus of a pine-tree; PINE'-FINCH, a small fringilline bird of North America; PINE'-HOUSE, a pinery; PINE'-NEED'LE, the circular leaf of the pine-tree; PINE'-OIL, an oil obtained from the resinous exudations of pine and fir trees; PIN'ERY, a place where pine-apples are raised: a pine forest; PIN[=E]'TUM, a plantation of pine-trees: a collection of pine-trees for ornamental purposes; PINE'-WOOD, a wood of pine-trees: pine timber; PINE'-WOOL, a fibrous substance prepared from the leaves of the pine, and used for flannels, hosiery, and blankets in hospitals.--_adjs._ P[=I]'NIC, pertaining to, or obtained from, the pine: noting an acid consisting of the portion of common resin soluble in cold alcohol; PINIC'OLINE, inhabiting pine-woods; P[=I]'NY, P[=I]'NEY, abounding in pine-trees.--PINE-TREE MONEY, silver money coined at Boston in the 17th century, and so called from the coins bearing the rude figure of a pine-tree on one side. [A.S. _pín_,--L. _p[=i]nus_ (for _pic-nus_),--_pix_, _picis_, pitch.] PINE, p[=i]n, _v.i._ to waste away under pain or mental distress: to languish with longing.--_v.t._ to grieve for: to bewail.--_n._ wasting pain: weary suffering.--DONE TO PINE, starved to death. [A.S. _pínian_, to torment--L. _poena_, punishment.] PINFOLD, pin'f[=o]ld, _n._ a pound or enclosure for cattle.--_v.t._ to impound. [For _pind-fold_=_pound-fold_.] PING, ping, _n._ the whistling sound of a bullet.--_v.i._ to produce such a sound.--_n._ PING'-PONG, a kind of indoor lawn-tennis, played with battledores or small rackets over a net on a table. [From the sounds made by the strokes on the ball.] PINGLE, ping'gl, _v.i._ (_prov._) to eat with feeble appetite: to dawdle.--_adj._ PING'LING, dawdling, feeble. PINGUID, ping'gwid, _adj._ fat.--_n._ PING'UITUDE. [L. _pinguis_, fat.] PINGUIN, pin'gwin, _n._ Same as PENGUIN. PINION, pin'yun, _n._ a wing: the joint of a wing most remote from the body of the bird: a small wheel with 'leaves' or teeth working into others.--_v.t._ to confine the wings of: to cut off the pinion: to confine by binding the arms. [O. Fr. _pignon_--L. _pinna_ (=_penna_), wing. Cf. _Pen_, n.] PINK, pingk, _n._ a boat with a narrow stern.--Also PINK'Y. [Dut.; Ger. _pinke_.] PINK, pingk, _v.t._ to stab or pierce, esp. with a sword or rapier: to decorate by cutting small holes or scallops.--_n._ a stab: an eyelet.--_adj._ PINKED, pierced or worked with small holes.--_n._ PINK'ING-[=I]'RON, a tool for pinking or scalloping. [Either through A.S. _pyngan_, from L. _pung[)e]re_, to prick; or acc. to Skeat, a nasalised form of _pick_.] PINK, pingk, _n._ a flower of any one of several plants of the genus _Dianthus_--carnation, &c.: a shade of light-red colour like that of the flower: a scarlet hunting-coat, also the person wearing such: the minnow, from the colour of its abdomen in summer: any type or example of excellence in its kind.--_adj._ of a pink colour.--_n._ PINK'INESS.--_adj._ PINK'ISH, somewhat pink.--_n._ PINK'-ROOT, the root of the Carolina or Indian pink, a common vermifuge.--PINK OF PERFECTION, the very highest state of perfection: an example of highest perfection.--DUTCH PINK, a yellow lake obtained from quercitron bark: (_slang_) blood. [Prob. a nasalised form of Celt. _pic_, a point--from the finely notched edges of the petals.] PINK, pingk, _v.i._ to wink: to half-shut.--_n._ PINK'-EYE, a disease in horses in which the eye turns somewhat red.--_adj._ PINK'-EYED, having pink eyes like a rabbit: having small or half-shut eyes.--_adj._ PINK'Y, winking. [Dut. _pinken_, to wink.] PINNA, pin'a, _n._ a single leaflet of a pinnate leaf: a wing, fin, or the like: the auricle of the ear:--_pl._ PINN'Æ.--_adjs._ PINN'ATE, -D, shaped like a feather: furnished with wings or fins.--_adv._ PINN'ATELY.--_adjs._ PINNAT'IFID, cut as a leaf, half-way down or more, with the divisions narrow or acute; PINNAT'ISECT (_bot._), pinnately divided; PINN'IFORM, like a feather or fin: pinnate; PINN'IGRADE, moving by fins--also _n._; PINN'IPED, PINNAT'IPED, fin-footed, as a bird; PINN'[=U]LATE, -D.--_n._ PINN'[=U]LE, one of the branchlets of a pinnate leaf: one of the lateral divisions of the finger-like stalks of an encrinite--also PINN'[=U]LA.--PINNATE LEAF, a compound leaf wherein a single petiole has several leaflets attached to each side of it. [L. _pinna_, a feather, dim. _pinnula_.] PINNACE, pin'[=a]s, _n._ a small vessel with oars and sails: a boat with eight oars: a man-of-war's boat. [Fr. _pinasse_--It. _pinassa_--L. _pinus_, a pine.] [Illustration] PINNACLE, pin'a-kl, _n._ a slender turret: a high point like a spire: the highest point of a mountain, &c.--_v.t._ to build with pinnacles: to place on a pinnacle. [Fr. _pinacle_--Low L. _pinna-culum_, double dim. from L. _pinna_, a feather.] PINNER, pin'[.e]r. See PIN. PINNET, pin'et, _n._ (_Scott_) a pinnacle. PINNOCK, pin'ok, _n._ the hedge-sparrow. PINNOED, pin'[=o]d, _adj._ (_Spens._) pinioned. PINNY, PINNIE, pin'[=i], _n._ a pinafore. [_Pinafore._] PINNYWINKLE, pin'i-wingk-l, _n._ an ancient form of torture for the fingers.--Also PINN'IEWINKLE, PIL'NIE-WINKS. [A corr. of _periwinkle_.] PINT, p[=i]nt, _n._ a measure of capacity=½ quart or 4 gills: (_med._) 12 ounces.--_ns._ PINT'-POT, a pot for holding a pint, esp. a pewter pot for beer: a seller or drinker of beer; PINT'-STOUP, a vessel for holding a Scotch pint. [Fr. _pinte_--Sp. _pinta_, mark--L. _picta_, _ping[)e]re_, to paint.] PINTADO, pin-tä'do, _adj._ painted, spotted.--_n._ the guinea-fowl: chintz, applied to all printed goods. PINTAIL, PIN-WHEEL. See PIN. PINTLE, pin'tl, _n._ a little pin: a long iron bolt: the bolt or pin on which the rudder of a ship turns. [Dim. of _pin_.] PINXIT, pingk'sit, _v.i._ and _v.t._ he or she painted--used in noting the painter of a picture, as Rubens _pinxit_. [L., 3d sing. perf. indic. of _ping[)e]re_, to paint.] PIONED, p[=i]'[=o]-ned, _adj._ (_Shak._) overgrown with marsh-marigolds, that flower being still called _peony_ around Stratford. PIONEER, p[=i]-[=o]-n[=e]r', _n._ one of a party of soldiers who clear the road before an army, sink mines, &c.: one who goes before to prepare the way for others.--_v.t._ to act as pioneer to.--_ns._ P[=I]'ONER (_Shak._), a pioneer; P[=I]'ONING (_Spens._), the work of pioneers: military works. [O. Fr. _peonier_ (Fr. _pionnier_)--pion, a foot-soldier--Low L. _pedo_, _pedonis_, a foot-soldier--L. _pes_, _pedis_, a foot.] PIOUS, p[=i]'us, _adj._ showing love, affection, or respect towards parents: having reverence and love for the DEITY: proceeding from religious feeling.--_adv._ P[=I]'OUSLY, in a pious manner.--_adj._ P[=I]'OUS-MIND'ED, of a pious disposition. [Fr. _pieux_--L. _pius_.] PIP, pip, _n._ a disease of fowls--also called _Roup_. [Low L. _pipita_--L. _pipuita_, rheum.] PIP, pip, _n._ the seed of fruit. [_Pippin_.] PIP, pip, _n._ one of the spots on dice or playing-cards. [Corr. of prov. _pick_--Fr. _pique_, a spade, at cards.] PIP, pip, _v.t._ (_slang_) to blackball. PIP, pip, _v.i._ to chirp, as a young bird. PIPE, p[=i]p, _n._ a musical wind instrument consisting of a long tube: any long tube: a tube of clay, &c., with a bowl at one end for smoking tobacco: a pipeful: the note of a bird: a cask containing two hogsheads.--_v.i._ to play upon a pipe: to whistle, to chirp: to make a shrill noise.--_v.t._ to play on a pipe: to call with a pipe, as on board ships: to give forth shrill notes: to supply with pipes, to convey by pipes.--_ns._ PIP'AGE, conveyance or distribution by pipes; PIPE'-CASE, a box softly lined to protect a pipe; PIPE'CLAY, a fine white plastic clay, very like kaolin, but containing a larger percentage of silica, used for making tobacco-pipes and fine earthenware.--_v.t._ to whiten with pipeclay: (_slang_) to blot out, as accounts.--_adj._ PIPED (p[=i]pt), tubulous or fistulous.--_ns._ PIPE'-FISH, a genus of fishes in the same order as the seahorse, having a long thin body covered with partially ossified plates, the head long, and the jaws elongated so as to form a tubular snout, hence the name; PIPE'-LAY'ER; PIPE'-LAY'ING, the laying down of pipes for gas, water, &c.; PIPE'-OFF'ICE, formerly an office in the Court of Exchequer in which the clerk of the pipe made out crown-land leases; PIP'ER; PIPE'-ROLL, a pipe-like roll, the earliest among the records of the Exchequer; PIPE'-ST[=A]'PLE, the stalk of a tobacco-pipe: a stalk of grass; PIPE'-STICK, the wooden tube used as the stem of some tobacco-pipes; PIPE'-TONGS, an implement for holding or turning metal pipes or pipe-fittings; PIPE'-TREE, the lilac; PIPE'-WINE (_Shak._), wine drawn from the cask, as distinguished from bottled wine; PIPE'-WRENCH, a wrench with one movable jaw, both so shaped as to bite together when placed on a pipe and rotated round it.--PIPE DOWN, to dismiss from muster, as a ship's company; PIPE OFF, to watch a house or person for purposes of theft; PIPE ONE'S EYE, to weep.--DRUNK AS A PIPER, very drunk; PAY THE PIPER, to bear the expense. [A.S. _pípe_; Dut. _pijp_, Ger. _pfeife_.] PIPERACEOUS, pip-e-r[=a]'shi-us, _adj._ pertaining to the PIPER[=A]'CEÆ, the pepper family.--_adj._ PIPER'IC, produced from such plants.--_n._ PIP'ERINE, an alkaloid found in pepper. [L. _piper_, pepper.] PIPETTE, pi-pet', _n._ a small tube for removing small portions of a fluid from one vessel to another. [Fr.] PIPI, p[=e]'p[=e], _n._ the astringent pods of _Cæsalpinia pipai_, a Brazilian plant used in tanning. PIPING, p[=i]'ping, _adj._ uttering a weak, shrill, piping sound, like the sick: sickly: feeble: boiling.--_n._ act of piping: sound of pipes: a system of pipes for any purpose: small cord used as trimming for dresses, &c.: a slip or cutting taken from a plant with a jointed stem. PIPISTREL, PIPISTRELLE, pip-is-trel', _n._ a small reddish-brown bat. [Fr.] PIPIT, pip'it, _n._ a genus of birds resembling larks in plumage and wagtails in habits, the most common British species being the titlark. PIPKIN, pip'kin, _n._ a small earthen pot. [_Pipe_.] PIPPIN, pip'in, _n._ a kind of apple. [O. Fr. _pepin_--L. _pepo_--Gr. _pep[=o]n_, a melon.] PIPUL, pip'ul, _n._ the sacred fig-tree.--Also PIP'AL, PIPP'UL-TREE, PEEP'UL-TREE. [Hind.] PIPY, p[=i]'pi, _adj._ like a pipe: tubular. PIQUANT, p[=e]'kant, _adj._ stimulating to the taste: of a lively spark.--_n._ PIQ'UANCY.--_adv._ PIQ'UANTLY. [Fr. _piquant_, pr.p. of _piquer_, to prick.] PIQUE, p[=e]k, _n._ an offence taken: a feeling of anger or vexation caused by wounded pride: spite: nicety: punctilio.--_v.t._ to wound the pride of: to offend: to pride or value (one's self):--_pr.p._ piq'uing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ piqued. [Fr. _pique_, a pike, pique; cf. _Pick_ and _Pike_.] PIQUÉ, p[=e]-k[=a]', _n._ a heavy cotton fabric having a surface corded or with a raised lozenge pattern: a similar pattern produced by quilting with the needle.--_n._ PIQUÉ-WORK. [Fr.] PIQUET. Same as PICKET. PIQUET, pi-ket', _n._ a game at cards.--_n._ PIQUE, in piquet, the scoring of 30 points in one hand before the other side scores at all. [_Picket_.] PIRAGUA, pi-rä'gwä. Same as PERIAGUA. PIRATE, p[=i]'r[=a]t, _n._ one who, without authority, attempts to capture ships at sea: a sea-robber: an armed vessel which, without legal right, plunders other vessels at sea: one who steals or infringes a copyright.--_v.t._ to rob at sea: to take without permission, as books or writings.--_n._ P[=I]'RACY, the crime of a pirate: robbery on the high seas: infringement of copyright.--_adjs._ PIRAT'IC, -AL, pertaining to a pirate: practising piracy.--_adv._ PIRAT'ICALLY. [Fr.,--L. _pirata_--Gr. _peirat[=e]s_--_peiraein_, to attempt.] PIRIFORM, pir'i-form, _adj._ pear-shaped. PIRN, pirn, _n._ anything that revolves or twists: a reel, bobbin, &c.: the amount of thread wound on a shuttle or reel. PIRNIE, pir'ni, _n._ (_Scot._) a striped woollen nightcap. PIROGUE, pi-r[=o]g'. See PERIAGUA. PIROUETTE, pir-[=oo]-et', _n._ a wheeling about, esp. in dancing: the whirling round of a horse on the same ground.--_v.i._ to execute a pirouette. [Fr.] PISCES, pis'[=e]z, _n._ the Fishes, the twelfth sign of the zodiac.--_ns._ PIS'CARY, right of fishing in another man's waters; PISCATOL'OGY, the scientific study of fishes; PISC[=A]'TOR, an angler:--_fem._ PISC[=A]'TRIX.--_adj._ PISCAT[=O]'RIAL, relating to fishes or fishing: fond of fishing--also PIS'CATORY.--_n._ PIS'CICAPTURE, the taking of fish.--_adjs._ PISCIC'OLOUS, parasitic upon fishes; PISCICUL'TURAL, pertaining to pisciculture.--_ns._ PIS'CICULTURE, the rearing of fish by artificial methods; PIS'CICULTURIST, a fish-culturist.--_adjs._ PIS'CIFORM, in shape like a fish: having the form of a fish; PIS'CINE, pertaining to fishes; PISCIV'OROUS, feeding on fishes. [L. _piscis_, a fish.] [Illustration] PISCINA, pis-[=i]'na, _n._ a basin or tank, esp. one for holding fishes or for growing water-plants: a fish-pond: (_archit._) a basin or sink on the south side of the altar in old churches, into which is emptied water used in washing any of the sacred vessels.--_adj._ PIS'CINAL, belonging to a fish-pond. [L., a fish-pond, a cistern--_piscis_, a fish.] PISÉ, p[=e]-z[=a]', _n._ stiff earth or clay rammed down to form walls or floors. [Fr.] PISH, pish, _interj._ expressing contempt. [Imit.] PISIFORM, p[=i]'si-form, _adj_. pea-shaped. [L. _pisum_, pea, _forma_, shape.] PISMIRE, pis'm[=i]r, _n._ an ant or emmet. [_Piss_, from the strong smell of the ant-hill, A.S. _mire_, ant.] PISOLITE, p[=i]'s[=o]-l[=i]t, _n._ a coarse oolite or concretionary limestone in large globules.--_adj._ PISOLIT'IC. [Gr. _pisos_, pea, _lithos_, stone.] PISS, pis, _v.i._ to discharge urine or make water.--_ns._ PISS'-A-BED (_prov._), the dandelion; PISS'ASPHALT, PIS'OPHALT, a variety of bitumen; PISS'-POT, a chamber-pot. [Fr. _pisser_; imit.] PISTACHIO, pis-t[=a]'shi-[=o], _n._ the almond-flavoured pistachio-nut, the fruit of the PIST[=A]'CHIA, a small genus of trees of the cashew family, native to western Asia. [It.,--L. _pistacium_--Gr. _pistakion_--Pers. _pist[=a]_.] PISTAREEN, pis-ta-r[=e]n', _n._ in West Indies, the peseta. PISTIL, pis'til, _n._ (_bot._) the female organ in the centre of a flower, consisting of three parts--_ovary_, _style_, and _stigma_.--_adjs._ PISTILL[=A]'CEOUS, PIS'TILLARY, growing on a pistil: pertaining to, or having the nature of, a pistil; PIS'TILL[=A]TE, having a pistil: having a pistil only; PISTILLIF'EROUS, bearing a pistil without stamens. [Fr.,--L. _pistillum_, a pestle.] PISTOL, pis'tol, _n._ a small hand-gun, held in one hand when fired.--_v.t._ to shoot with a pistol.--_ns._ PISTOLEER', one armed with a pistol; PIS'TOLET, a little pistol; PIS'TOL-SHOT. [O. Fr. _pistole_--It. _pistola_, said to be from _Pistoja_ (orig. _Pistola_), a town in Italy.] PISTOLE, pis't[=o]l, _n._ a Spanish gold coin=about 16 shillings. [Same as above.] PISTON, pis'tun, _n._ a circular plate of metal, or other material, used in pumps, steam-engines, &c., fitting and moving up and down within a tube or hollow cylinder.--_n._ PIS'TON-ROD, the rod to which the piston is fixed, and which moves up and down with it. [Fr.,--It. _pistone_--_pesto_, to pound--L. _pins[)e]re_, _pistum_.] PIT, pit, _n._ a hole in the earth: a place whence minerals are dug: the bottomless pit: the grave: the abode of evil spirits: a hole used as a trap for wild beasts: the hollow of the stomach, or that under the arm at the shoulder: the indentation left by smallpox: the ground-floor of a theatre: an enclosure in which cocks fight: the shaft of a mine.--_v.t._ to mark with little hollows: to lay in a pit: to set in competition:--_pr.p._ pit'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ pit'ted.--_ns._ PIT'-COAL, coal dug from a pit--not _charcoal_; PIT'-FRAME, the framework round a mine-shaft; PIT'-HEAD, the ground at the mouth of a pit, and the machinery, &c., on it; PIT'MAN, a man who works in a coal-pit or a saw-pit, esp. the man who works the pumping machinery in the shaft of a mine: (_mach._) a rod connecting a rotary with a reciprocating part.--_adj._ PIT'TED, marked with small pits.--_ns._ PIT'TING, the act of digging, or of placing in, a pit: a group of pit-marks: a corrosion of the inside of steam-boilers, &c.; PIT'-VILL'AGE, a group of miners' houses near a pit. [A.S. _pyt_, _pytt_--L. _puteus_, a well.] PITAKA, pit'a-ka, _n._ a collection of Buddhist scriptures, as made in Tibet. [Sans., 'basket.'] PITAPAT, pit'a-pat, _adv._ with palpitation or quick beating.--_adj._ fluttering.--_n._ a light, quick step: a succession of light taps.--_v.i._ to step or tread quickly. PITCH, pich, _n._ the solid black shining substance obtained by boiling down common tar.--_v.t._ to smear with pitch.--_adjs._ PITCH'-BLACK, PITCH'-DARK, dark as pitch: very dark.--_ns._ PITCH'-BLENDE, a black oxide of uranium; PITCH'-COAL, a kind of bituminous coal: jet; PITCH'INESS, state or quality of being pitchy; PITCH'-PINE, a kind of pine which yields pitch, and is much used in America as fuel; PITCH'-PLAS'TER, a plaster of Burgundy or white pitch; PITCH'-STONE, an old volcanic-like hardened pitch; PITCH'-TREE, the kauri pine, the Amboyna pine, or the Norway spruce.--_adj._ PITCH'Y, having the qualities of pitch: smeared with pitch: black like pitch: dark: dismal. [A.S. _pic_--L. _pix_, _pic-is_.] PITCH, pich, _v.t._ to thrust or fix in the ground: to fix or set in array: to fix the rate or price: to fling or throw: (_mus._) to set the keynote of.--_v.i._ to settle, as something pitched: to come to rest from flight: to fall headlong: to fix the choice: to encamp: to rise and fall, as a ship.--_n._ a throw or cast from the hand: any point or degree of elevation or depression: degree: degree of slope: a descent: the height of a note in speaking or in music: (_mech._) distance between the centres of two teeth in a wheel or a saw, or between the threads of a screw measured parallel to the axis.--_ns._ PITCHED'-BATT'LE, a battle in which the contending parties have fixed positions: a battle previously arranged for on both sides; PITCH'ER; PITCH'-FAR'THING, chuck-farthing; PITCH'FORK, a fork for pitching hay, &c.: a tuning-fork.--_v.t._ to lift with a pitchfork: to throw suddenly into any position.--_ns._ PITCH'ING, the act of throwing: a facing of stone along a bank to protect against the action of water; PITCH'PIPE, a small pipe to pitch the voice or tune with.--PITCH AND PAY (_Shak._), pay down at once, pay ready-money; PITCH AND TOSS, a game in which coins are thrown at a mark, the person who throws nearest having the right of _tossing_ all the coins, and keeping those which come down head uppermost; PITCH IN, to begin briskly; PITCH INTO, to assault. [A form of _pick_.] PITCHER, pich'[.e]r, _n._ a vessel for holding water, &c.--_n._ PITCH'ER-PLANT, a plant with leaves shaped like a pitcher or ascidium--_Nepenthes_, &c.--PITCHERS HAVE EARS, there may be listeners. [O. Fr. _picher_--Low L. _picarium_, a goblet--Gr. _b[=i]kos_, a wine-vessel, an Eastern word.] PITEOUS, pit'e-us, _adj._ showing or feeling pity: fitted to excite pity: mournful: compassionate: paltry.--_adv._ PIT'EOUSLY.--_n._ PIT'EOUSNESS. [O. Fr. _pitos_, _piteus_. Cf. _Pity_.] PITFALL, pit'fawl, _n._ a pit slightly covered, so that wild beasts may fall into it: any concealed danger. PITH, pith, _n._ the marrow or soft substance in the centre of the stems of dicotyledonous plants: force or energy: importance: condensed substance: quintessence.--_n._ PITH'-BALL, a pellet of pith.--_adv._ PITH'ILY.--_n._ PITH'INESS.--_adj._ PITH'LESS, wanting pith, force, or energy.--_n._ PITH'-P[=A]'PER, a thin sheet cut from pith for paper: rice-paper.--_adj._ PITH'Y, full of pith: forcible: strong: energetic. [A.S. _pitha_; Dut. _pit_, marrow.] PITHECUS, pi-th[=e]'kus, _n._ a name formerly used by zoologists for various groups of apes and monkeys.--_ns._ PITHECANTHR[=O]'PI, hypothetical ape-men; PITH[=E]'CIA, the genus of South American monkeys which includes the _Sakis_ and allied species.--_adj._ PITH[=E]'COID. [L.,--Gr. _pith[=e]kos_, an ape.] PITHOS, pith'os, _n._ a large spheroid Greek earthenware vase. [Gr.] PIT-MIRK, pit'-m[.e]rk, _adj._ (_Scot._) dark as pitch. PITRI, pit'r[=e], _n.pl._ the deceased ancestors of a man: in Hindu mythology, an order of divine beings inhabiting celestial regions of their own, and receiving into their society the spirits of those mortals for whom funeral rites have been duly performed. [Sans., 'father,' pl. _pitaras_.] PITSAW, pit'saw, _n._ a large saw for cutting timber, worked by the _pit-sawyer_ in the pit below the log and the _top-sawyer_ on the log. PITTACAL, pit'a-kal, _n._ a blue substance obtained from wood-tar oil and used in dyeing. [Gr. _pitta_, pitch, _kalos_, beautiful.] PITTANCE, pit'ans, _n._ an allowance of food or drink: a dole: a very small portion or quantity. [Fr. _pitance_, an allowance of food in a monastery--Low L. _pietantea_--L. _pietas_, pity.] PITUITARY, pit'[=u]-i-t[=a]-ri, _adj._ mucous--also PIT'[=U]ITAL, PIT'[=U]ITOUS.--_ns._ PIT[=U][=I]'TA, PIT'UITE, phlegm.--PITUITARY BODY, a rounded body of the size of a small bean, situated in the sella turcica in the sphenoid bone on the floor of the cavity of the skull. [L. _pituitarius_--_pituita_, mucus.] PITY, pit'i, _n._ a strong feeling for or with the sufferings of others: sympathy with distress: a cause or source of pity or grief.--_v.t._ to feel pity with: to sympathise with:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ pit'ied.--_adj._ PIT'IABLE, deserving pity: affecting: wretched.--_n._ PIT'IABLENESS.--_adv._ PIT'IABLY.--_n._ PIT'IER, one who pities.--_adj._ PIT'IFUL, feeling pity: compassionate: exciting pity: sad: despicable.--_adv._ PIT'IFULLY.--_n._ PIT'IFULNESS.--_adj._ PIT'ILESS, without pity: cruel.--_adv._ PIT'ILESSLY.--_n._ PIT'ILESSNESS.--_adv._ PIT'YINGLY, in a pitying manner.--IT PITIETH ME, YOU, THEM, &c. (_Pr. Bk._), it causeth pity in me, you, them, &c. [O. Fr. _pite_ (Fr. _pitié_, It. _pietà_)--L. _pietas_, _pietatis_--_pius_, pious.] PITYRIASIS, pit-i-r[=i]'a-sis, _n._ the term given to certain of the squamous or scaly diseases of the skin, in which there is a continual throwing off of bran-like scales of epidermis.--_adj._ PIT'YROID, bran-like. [Gr. _pityron_, bran.] PIÙ, p[=u], _adv._ more.--PIÙ ALLEGRO, quicker. [It.] PIVOT, piv'ut, _n._ the pin on which anything turns: the officer or soldier at the flank upon whom a company wheels: that on which anything depends or turns.--_adj._ PIV'OTAL, of the nature of a pivot: acting as a pivot.--_n._ PIV'OT-BRIDGE, a form of swing-bridge moving on a vertical pivot.--_adj._ PIV'OTED, furnished with a pivot or pivots.--_ns._ PIV'OT-GEAR'ING, a system of gearing permitting the driving-shaft to be swivelled so as to set the machine in any direction with relation to the power; PIV'OT-GUN, a gun mounted on a pivot, so as to be able to turn in any direction; PIV'OTING, the pivot-work in machines; PIV'OT-MAN, the soldier or officer who acts as a pivot (see PIVOT). [Fr. dim. of It. _piva_, a pipe, a peg, a pin--Low L. _pipa_.] PIX, piks, _n._ Same as PYX. PIXY, PIXIE, pik'si, _n._ a small Devonshire fairy.--_adj._ PIX'Y-LED, bewildered.--_ns._ PIX'Y-RING, a fairy-ring, a well-marked ring of a different kind of grass, common on meadows and heaths; PIX'Y-STOOL, a toadstool or mushroom. [_Puck_.] PIZE, p[=i]z, _n._ a term used in execration, like _pox_. PIZZICATO, pit-si-kä'to, _adj._ a phrase used in music for the violin or violoncello, to denote that here the strings are to be twitched with the fingers in the manner of a harp or guitar. [It.,--_pizzicare_, to twitch.] PIZZLE, piz'l, _n._ the penis of an animal, as a bull. [Low Ger. _pesel_.] PLACABLE, pl[=a]'ka-bl, or plak'a-bl, _adj._ that may be appeased: relenting: willing to forgive.--_ns._ PLACABIL'ITY, PL[=A]'CABLENESS.--_adv._ PL[=A]'CABLY.--_v.t._ PL[=A]'C[=A]TE, to conciliate.--_n._ PLAC[=A]'TION, propitiation.--_adj._ PL[=A]'CATORY, conciliatory. [L. _placabilis_--_plac[=a]re_, to appease, akin to _plac[=e]re_, to please.] PLACARD, plak'ärd, or pl[=a]-kärd', _n._ a written or printed paper stuck upon a wall as an advertisement, &c.: a public proclamation: the woodwork and frame of the door of a closet and the like.--_v.t._ PLACARD (pl[=a]-kärd', or plak'ärd), to publish or notify by placards. [Fr. _placard_, a bill stuck on a wall--_plaque_, plate, tablet; acc. to Diez, from Dut. _plak_, a piece of flat wood.] PLACCATE, plak'[=a]t, _n._ See PLACKET. PLACE, pl[=a]s, _n._ a broad way in a city: an open space used for a particular purpose: a particular locality: a town: room to dwell, sit, or stand in: the position held by anybody, employment, office, a situation: a mansion with its grounds: proper position or dignity, priority in such: stead: passage in a book: a topic, matter of discourse: in sporting contests, position among the first three.--_v.t._ to put in any place or condition: to find a home for: to settle: to lend: invest: to ascribe.--_n._ PLACE'-HUNT'ER, one who seeks eagerly official position or public office.--_adj._ PLACE'LESS, without place or office.--_ns._ PLACE'MAN, one who has a place or office under a government:--_pl._ PLACE'MEN; PLACE'MENT, placing or setting; PLACE'-MONG'ER, one who traffics in appointments to places; PLACE'-NAME, the name of a place or locality: a local name; PLAC'ER.--GIVE PLACE, to make room, to yield; HAVE PLACE, to have existence; IN PLACE, in position: opportune; OUT OF PLACE, inappropriate, unseasonable; TAKE PLACE, to come to pass: to take precedence of. [Fr.,--L. _platea_, a broad street--Gr. _plateia_, a street--_platys_, broad.] PLACEBO, pl[=a]-s[=e]'bo, _n._ in the R.C. service of vespers for the dead the name of the first antiphon, which begins with the word: a medicine given to humour or gratify a patient rather than to exercise any curative effect. [L., 'I will please'--_plac[=e]re_, to please.] PLACENTA, pla-sen'ta, _n._ the structure which unites the unborn mammal to the womb of its mother and establishes a nutritive connection between them: (_bot._) the portion of the ovary which bears the ovules:--_pl._ PLACEN'TÆ.--_adj._ PLACEN'TAL.--_n.pl._ PLACENT[=A]'LIA, placental mammals.--_adjs._ PLACENT[=A]'LIAN; PLACEN'TARY, pertaining to, or having, a placenta.--_n._ a mammal having a placenta.--_adjs._ PLACEN'TATE, PLACENTIF'EROUS.--_ns._ PLACENT[=A]'TION, the mode in which the placenta is formed and attached to the womb; PLACENT[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the placenta. [L., a flat cake, akin to Gr. _plakous_, a flat cake, from _plax_, _plak-os_, anything flat.] PLACER, plas'er, _n._ a place where the superficial detritus is washed for gold, &c.: hence any place holding treasures. [Sp.] PLACET, pl[=a]'set, _n._ a vote of assent in a governing body: permission given, esp. by a sovereign, to publish and carry out an ecclesiastical order, as a papal bull or edict. [L., 'it pleases,' 3d sing. pres. indic. of _plac[=e]re_, to please.] PLACID, plas'id, _adj._ gentle: peaceful.--_ns._ PLACID'ITY, PLAC'IDNESS.--_adv._ PLAC'IDLY. [Fr.,--L. _placidus_--_plac[=e]re_, to please.] PLACITORY, plas'i-t[=o]-ri, _adj._ of or relating to pleas or pleading in courts of law. PLACITUM, plas'i-tum, _n._ a public assembly in the Middle Ages, presided over by the sovereign, to consult on affairs of state: a resolution of such an assembly:--_pl._ PLAC'ITA. [L., from _plac[=e]re_, to please.] PLACK, plak, _n._ a small copper coin formerly current in Scotland, equal in value to the third part of an English penny.--_adj._ PLACK'LESS, penniless. [O. Fr. _plaque_, a plate.] PLACKET, plak'et, _n._ (_Shak._) the slit in a petticoat: a petticoat--hence, a woman: a placcate or additional plate of steel on the lower half of the breast-plate, or back-plate: a leather jacket strengthened with strips of steel. [Fr. _plaquet_--_plaquer_, to clap on.] PLACODERM, plak'o-d[.e]rm, _adj._ noting an order of fossil fishes having their skin covered with bony plates. [Gr. _plax_, _plakos_, anything flat, _derma_, skin.] PLACOID, plak'oid, _adj._ plate-like.--PLACOID FISHES, an order of fishes having placoid scales, irregular plates of hard bone, not imbricated, but placed near together in the skin. [Gr. _plax_, _plakos_, anything flat and broad, _eidos_, form.] PLACULA, plak'[=u]-la, _n._ a little plate or plaque.--_adjs._ PLAC'ULAR, PLAC'UL[=A]TE. PLAFOND, pla-fond', _n._ the ceiling of a room, any soffit. [Fr.] PLAGAL, pl[=a]'gal, _adj._ in Gregorian music, denoting a mode or melody in which the final is in the middle of the compass instead of at the bottom--opp. to _Authentic_. [Gr. _plagios_, sidewise--_plagos_, a side.] PLAGIARISE, pl[=a]'ji-ar-[=i]z, _v.t._ to steal from the writings or ideas of another.--_ns._ PL[=A]'GIARISM, the act or practice of plagiarising; PL[=A]'GIARIST, one who plagiarises; PL[=A]'GIARY, one who steals the thoughts or writings of others and gives them out as his own: the crime of plagiarism.--_adj._ practising literary theft. [Fr. _plagiaire_--L. _plagiarius_, a kidnapper--_plaga_, a net.] PLAGIOCLASE, pl[=a]'ji-[=o]-kl[=a]z, _n._ a group of triclinic feldspars whose cleavage planes are not at right angles to each other.--_adj._ PLAGIOCLAS'TIC. [Gr. _plagios_, oblique, _klasis_, a fracture.] PLAGIODONT, pl[=a]'ji-[=o]-dont, _adj._ having the teeth oblique. PLAGIOSTOME, pl[=a]'ji-[=o]-st[=o]m, _n._ a plagiostomous fish, one of the PLAGIOS'TOMI, a division of fishes, including sharks and rays.--_adjs._ PLAGIOSTOM'ATOUS, PLAGIOS'TOMOUS. PLAGIOTROPISM, pl[=a]-ji-ot'r[=o]-pizm, _n._ a mode of turning of the organs of plants in the direction of gravitation or of the ray of light.--_adj._ PLAGIOTROP'IC.--_adv._ PLAGIOTROP'ICALLY. [Gr. _plagios_, oblique, _tropos_, a turning.] PLAGIUM, pl[=a]'ji-um, _n._ the crime of kidnapping. PLAGUE, pl[=a]g, _n._ any great natural evil: a deadly disease or pestilence: a very troublesome person or thing, esp. a malignant kind of contagious fever, prevailing epidemically, characterised by buboes, or swellings of the lymphatic glands, by carbuncles and petechiæ.--_v.t._ to infest with disease or trouble: to harass or annoy:--_pr.p._ pl[=a]g'uing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ pl[=a]gued.--_ns._ PLAGUE'-MARK, -SPOT, a mark or spot of plague or foul disease: a place where disease is constantly present; PLAG'UER, one who plagues, vexes, or annoys; PLAGUE'-SORE.--_adv._ PLAG'UILY, vexatiously.--_adj._ PLAGUY (pl[=a]'gi), vexatious: (_Shak._) troublesome.--_adv._ vexatiously.--PLAGUE ON, may a curse rest on.--BE AT THE PLAGUE, to be at the trouble. [O. Fr. _plague_--L. _plaga_, a blow; Gr. _pl[=e]g[=e]_.] PLAICE, pl[=a]s, _n._ a broad, flat fish, in the same genus as the flounder. [O. Fr. _plaïs_ (Fr. _plie_)--Low L. _platessa_, a flat fish--Gr. _platys_, flat.] PLAID, plad, or pl[=a]d, _n._ a loose outer garment of woollen cloth, often of a tartan, or coloured striped pattern, a special dress of the Highlanders of Scotland.--_adj._ like a plaid in pattern or colours.--_adj._ PLAID'ED, wearing a plaid: made of plaid cloth.--_n._ PLAID'ING, a strong woollen twilled fabric. [Gael. _plaide_, a blanket, contr. of _peal-laid_, a sheepskin--_peall_, a skin, cog. with L. _pellis_, Eng. _fell_.] PLAIN, pl[=a]n, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to complain: to lament.--_ns._ PLAIN'ANT, one who complains: a plaintiff; PLAIN'ING (_Shak._), complaint. [O. Fr. _pleigner_ (Fr. _plaindre_)--L. _plang[)e]re_, to lament.] PLAIN, pl[=a]n, _adj._ without elevations, even, flat: level, smooth, without obstructions: free from difficulties, easy, simple: without ornament or beauty, homely: artless: sincere: evident, unmistakable: mere: not coloured, figured, or variegated: not highly seasoned, natural, not cooked or dressed: not trumps at cards.--_n._ an extent of level land: an open field.--_adv._ clearly: distinctly.--_v.t._ (_obs._) to make plain.--_n.pl._ PLAIN'-CLOTHES, clothes worn by an officer when off duty or not in uniform.--_ns._ PLAIN'-COOK, one able to cook all ordinary dishes; PLAIN'-DEAL'ER, one who deals or speaks his mind plainly.--_adj._ PLAIN'-DEAL'ING, speaking or acting plainly, candid.--_n._ candid speaking or acting, sincerity.--_adj._ PLAIN'-HEART'ED, having a plain or honest heart: sincere.--_n._ PLAIN'-HEART'EDNESS.--_adv._ PLAIN'LY.--_ns._ PLAIN'NESS; PLAIN'-SONG, the music of a recitative-like character and sung in unison, used in the Christian Church of the West from the earliest times, and still in use in all R.C. churches: a simple air without variations: a plain unvarnished statement; PLAIN'-SPEAK'ING, straight-forwardness or bluntness of speech.--_adj._ PLAIN'-SPOK'EN, speaking with plain, rough sincerity.--_n.pl._ PLAIN'STANES (_Scot._), flagstones, pavement.--_n._ PLAIN'WORK, plain needlework, as distinguished from embroidery.--PLAIN AS A PIKESTAFF, perfectly plain or clear. [Fr.,--L. _pl[=a]nus_, plain.] PLAINT, pl[=a]nt, _n._ lamentation: complaint: a sad song: (_law_) the exhibiting of an action in writing by a complainant.--_adj._ PLAINT'FUL, complaining: expressing sorrow.--_n._ PLAINT'IFF (_Eng. law_), one who commences a suit against another--opp. to _Defendant_.--_adj._ PLAINT'IVE, complaining: expressing sorrow: sad.--_adv._ PLAINT'IVELY.--_n._ PLAINT'IVENESS.--_adj._ PLAINT'LESS, without complaint: unrepining. [O. Fr. _pleinte_ (Fr. _plainte_)--L. _planctus_--_plang[)e]re_, _planctum_, to lament.] PLAISE, pl[=a]s, _n._ Same as PLAICE. PLAISTER, pl[=a]s't[.e]r, _n._ an obsolete form of _plaster_. PLAIT, pl[=a]t, _n._ a fold: a doubling over, as of cloth upon itself: a braid.--_v.t._ to fold: to double in narrow folds: to interweave.--_adj._ PLAIT'ED, folded over in narrow folds: braided: interwoven: intricate.--_ns._ PLAIT'ER, one who plaits or braids: a machine for making plaits, as in cloth; PLAIT'ING, the act of making plaits. [O. Fr. _pleit_, _ploit_ (Fr. _pli_)--L. _plic[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to fold.] PLAN, plan, _n._ a drawing of anything on a plane or flat surface: a drawing of a building as it stands on the ground: a scheme or project for accomplishing a purpose: a contrivance: a method or custom.--_v.t._ to make a sketch of on a flat surface: to form in design: to lay plans for:--_pr.p._ plan'ning; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ planned.--_adj._ PLAN'LESS.--_ns._ PLAN'NER, one who forms a plan: a projector; WORK'ING-PLAN, a draft on a large scale given to workmen to work from.--PLAN OF CAMPAIGN, the method of conducting the struggle of the Irish tenants against the landlords, organised by the National League in 1886, its officers collecting what they considered a fair rent, and offering it to the landlord, and where he refused to accept it spending it on the support of the persons evicted. [Fr.,--L. _planus_, flat.] PLANARIAN, pl[=a]-n[=a]'ri-an, _adj._ and _n._ a term practically coextensive with Turbellarian, applicable to the members of the lowest class of worm-like animals, living in fresh and salt water, and sometimes in damp earth.--_adjs._ PLANAR'IFORM, PLAN[=A]'RIOID. [L. _planarius_, flat.] PLANCH, planch, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to cover with planks. [Fr. _planche_--L. _planea_.] PLANCHET, plan'chet, _n._ a flat piece of metal ready to receive impression as a coin. PLANCHETTE, plan-shet', _n._ a small heart-shaped or triangular piece of board resting on three props, two of which are castors and one a pencil-point, which, while a person's fingers are lightly resting on it, sometimes moves, as if of its own accord, and traces with the pencil marks and even words upon a piece of paper below it. [Fr. _planchette_, a small board.] PLANE, pl[=a]n, _n._ (_geom._) a surface on which, if any two points be taken, the straight line joining them will lie entirely on the surface: (_astron._) a surface thought of as bounded by the line round which a heavenly body moves: any flat or level surface: any incline on which coal is lowered by the effect of gravity: any grade of life or of development.--_adj._ having the character of a plane: pertaining to, lying in, or forming a plane.--_v.t._ to make plane or smooth.--_adj._ PL[=A]'NARY, relating to a plane: flat.--_n._ PLANE'-T[=A]'BLE, a topographical instrument used in field-mapping, and having a sighting-telescope for observing objects, whose angles may be noted on a paper on the table of the instrument: an inclined table on which ore is dressed.--_v.t._ to survey with a plane-table.--_ns._ PLAN'IGRAPH, an instrument for reducing or enlarging drawings; PLANIM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the area of a plane figure.--_adjs._ PLANIMET'RIC, -AL.--_n._ PLANIM'ETRY, the mensuration of plane surfaces.--_adj._ PLANIPET'ALOUS, having flat petals.--_ns._ PLAN'ISHER, a thin flat-ended tool used for smoothing tin-plate and brasswork: a workman who planishes, esp. one who prepares copper-plates for engravers; PLAN'ISPHERE, a sphere projected on a plane.--_adjs._ PLANISPHER'IC; PL[=A]NO-CON'CAVE, plane on one side and concave on the other; PL[=A]'NO-CON'ICAL, plane on one side and conical on the other; PL[=A]'NO-CON'VEX, plane on one side and convex on the other.--_n._ PLANOG'RAPHIST, a map-maker.--_adj._ PL[=A]'NO-HORIZON'TAL, having a plane horizontal surface or position.--_ns._ PLANOM'ETER, a plane surface used in machine-making as a gauge for plane surfaces; PLANOM'ETRY, the measurement of plane surfaces.--_adj._ PL[=A]'NO-SUB'ULATE, smooth and awl-shaped.--PLANE ANGLE, an angle contained by two straight lines in a plane; PLANE FIGURE, a figure all of whose points lie in one plane; PLANE GEOMETRY, the geometry of plane figures; PLANE SAILING, the calculation of a ship's place in its course, as if the earth were flat instead of spherical: easy work; PLANE TRIGONOMETRY, that branch of trigonometry which treats of triangles described on a plane.--INCLINED PLANE (see INCLINE); PERSPECTIVE PLANE (see PERSPECTIVE). [Fr.,--L. _planus_, plain.] PLANE, pl[=a]n, _n._ a carpenter's tool for producing a level or smooth surface.--_v.t._ to make a surface (as of wood) level by means of a plane.--_ns._ PL[=A]'NER, a tool or machine for planing: a smooth wooden block used for levelling a form of type; PL[=A]N'ING-MACHINE', a machine for planing wood or metals.--_v.t._ PLAN'ISH, to make smooth: to polish. [Fr.,--Low L. _plan[=a]re_, to make level.] PLANET, plan'et, _n._ one of the bodies in the solar system which revolve in elliptic orbits round the sun.--_n._ PLANET[=A]'RIUM, a machine showing the motions and orbits of the planets.--_adjs._ PLAN'ETARY, pertaining to the planets: consisting of, or produced by, planets: under the influence of a planet: erratic: revolving; PLANET'IC, -AL.--_n._ PLAN'ETOID, a celestial body having the form or nature of a planet: one of a number of very small planets, often called asteroids, moving round the sun between Mars and Jupiter.--_adjs._ PLANETOI'DAL; PLAN'ET-STRICK'EN, PLAN'ET-STRUCK (_astrol._), affected by the influence of the planets: blasted.--_n._ PLAN'ETULE, a little planet.--MINOR PLANETS, the numerous group of very small planets which is situated in the solar system between Mars and Jupiter. [Fr. _planète_--Gr. _plan[=e]t[=e]s_, wanderer--_plan[=a]n_, to make to wander.] PLANE-TREE, pl[=a]n'-tr[=e], _n._ any one of the several trees constituting the genus _Platanus_, esp. the oriental or common plane-tree, with its variety the maple-leaved plane-tree, and the American plane-tree, usually called _sycamore_ or _buttonwood_ or _buttonball_: in Great Britain, the sycamore maple. [Fr. _plane_--L. _platanus_--Gr. _platanos_--_platys_, broad.] PLANGENT, plan'jent, _adj._ resounding: noisy. [L. _plangens_, _-gentis_--_plang[)e]re_, to beat.] PLANK, plangk, _n._ a long piece of timber, thicker than a board: one of the principles or aims of an associated party.--_v.t._ to cover with planks.--_n._ PLANK'ING, the act of laying planks: a series of planks: work made up of planks.--WALK THE PLANK, to be compelled to walk along a plank projecting over the ship's edge into the sea. [L. _planca_, a board; cf. _Plain_, even.] PLANKTON, plangk'ton, _n._ pelagic animals collectively. [Gr., _planktos_, wandering.] PLANODIA, pl[=a]-n[=o]'di-a, _n._ a false passage, such as may be made in using a catheter. PLANT, plant, _n._ a something living and growing, fixed on the ground and drawing food therefrom by means of its root, and developing into a stem, leaves, and seed: a sprout: any vegetable production: the tools or material of any trade or business: (_slang_) a trick, dodge, hidden plunder.--_v.t._ to put into the ground for growth: to furnish with plants: to set in the mind, implant: to establish.--_v.i._ to set shoots in the ground.--_adj._ PLANT'ABLE.--_ns._ PLANT'AGE (_Shak._), plants in general, or the vegetable kingdom; PLANT[=A]'TION, a place planted: a wood or grove: (_U.S._) a large estate: a colony: act or process of introduction: (_Milt._) the act of planting; PLANT'ER, one who plants or introduces: the owner of a plantation; PLANT'-HOUSE, a garden structure designed for the protection and cultivation of the plants of warmer climates than our own; PLANT'ICLE, a young plant; PLANT'ING, the act of setting in the ground for growth: the art of forming plantations of trees: a plantation.--_adj._ PLANT'LESS, destitute of vegetation.--_ns._ PLANT'LET, a little plant; PLANT'-LOUSE, a small homopterous insect which infests plants; PLANT'ULE, the embryo of a plant. [A.S. _plante_ (Fr. _plante_)--L. _planta_, a shoot, a plant.] PLANTAIN, plan't[=a]n, _n._ an important food-plant of tropical countries, so called from its broad leaf: a common roadside plant of several species, with broad leaves and seed-bearing spikes.--PLANTAIN EATER, one of a family of African, arboreal, vegetarian Pie-like birds. [Fr.,--L. _plantago_, _plantaginis_.] PLANTIGRADE, plant'i-gr[=a]d, _adj._ that walks on the sole of the foot.--_n._ a plantigrade animal, as the bear.--_adj._ PLANT'AR, pertaining to the sole of the foot. [L. _planta_, the sole, _gradi_, to walk.] PLANULA, plan'[=u]-la, _n._ the locomotory embryo of the coelenterates.--_adjs._ PLAN'ULAR; PLAN'ULIFORM; PLAN'ULOID. PLANURIA, pl[=a]-n[=u]'ri-a, _n._ the discharge of urine through an abnormal passage, uroplania.--Also PLAN'URY. PLAP, plap, _v.i._ to plash, fall with plashing sound. [Imit.] PLAQUE, plak, _n._ a flat piece of metal or other material, used for ornament, as a brooch, &c., or for painting on, to form a wall-picture.--_n._ PLAQUETTE', a small plaque. [Fr.; cf. _Plack_.] PLASH, plash, _v.t._ to bind and interweave the branches of.--_v.i._ to bend down a branch.--_n._ a small branch of a tree partly cut and bound to or twisted among other branches.--_n._ PLASH'ING, a mode of repairing a hedge by bending the branches and twisting them about each other. [O. Fr. _plassier_--L. _plexus_--_plect[)e]re_, to twist.] PLASH, plash, _n._ a dash of water: a puddle: a shallow pool: a splashing sound: a sudden downpour: a flash.--_v.i._ to dabble in water: to splash.--_v.t._ to sprinkle with colouring matter, as a wall.--_adj._ PLASH'Y, full of puddles: watery. [Imit.] PLASM, plazm, _n._ a mould or matrix: protoplasm--also PLAS'MA.--_adjs._ PLASMAT'IC, -AL, plastic, formative; PLAS'MIC, pertaining to plasma, protoplasmic.--_ns._ PLASM[=O]'DIUM, composite masses of primitive protozoa, in which numerous units are fused, or in rare cases simply combined in close contact; PLAS'MOGEN, true protoplasm; PLASMOG'ONY, the generation of an organism from plasma; PLASMOL'OGY, minute or microscopic anatomy, histology.--_v.t._ PLAS'MOLYSE.--_n._ PLASMOL'YSIS, the contraction of the protoplasm in active cells under the action of certain reagents.--_adj._ PLASMOLYT'IC. PLASMA, plas'ma, _n._ a green variety of translucent quartz or silica.--_adj._ PLAS'MIC. [Gr.,--_plassein_, to form.] PLASTER, plas't[.e]r, _n._ something that can be moulded into figures: a composition of lime, water, and sand for overlaying walls, &c.: (_med._) a medicinal agent consisting of an adhesive substance spread upon cloth or leather, so as to stick to the part of the body to which it is applied.--_adj._ made of plaster.--_v.t._ to cover with plaster: to cover with a plaster, as a wound: to besmear: (_fig._) to smooth over.--_ns._ PLAS'TERER, one who plasters, or one who works in plaster; PLAS'TERING, the art of covering the internal faces of walls, the partitions and ceiling of a building, with plaster: a covering of plaster: the plasterwork of a building; PLAS'TER-STONE, gypsum.--_adj._ PLAS'TERY, like plaster, containing plaster.--PLASTER CAST, a copy of an object got by pouring a mixture of plaster of Paris and water into a mould formed from the object; PLASTER OF PARIS, a kind of gypsum, originally found near _Paris_, used in building and in making casts of figures; POROUS PLASTER, a plaster for application to the body, full of small holes, which prevent it from wrinkling. [A.S. _plaster_--O. Fr. _emplastre_--L. _emplastrum_--Gr. _emplastron_.] PLASTIC, plas'tik, _adj._ having power to give form to: capable of being moulded: of or pertaining to moulding.--_ns._ PLASTIC'ITY, state or quality of being plastic; PLASTIL[=I]'NA, a modelling clay which remains soft and plastic for a considerable time; PLASTOG'RAPHY, imitation of handwriting. [Gr. _plastikos_--_plassein_, to mould.] PLASTRON, plas'tron, _n._ a breast-plate: a detachable part of a woman's dress hanging from the throat to the waist: a man's shirt-bosom: a fencer's wadded shield of leather worn on the breast: the ventral part of the shell of a chelonian or testudinate, the lower shell of a turtle or tortoise: the sternum with costal cartilages attached.--_adj._ PLAS'TRAL. PLAT, plat, _v.t._ Same as PLAIT. PLAT, plat, _n._ a piece of ground: a piece of ground ornamentally laid out: (_obs._) a plan, scheme.--_v.t._ to make a map or plan of.--_n._ PLAT'-BAND, a border of flowers in a garden: (_archit._) a slightly projecting square moulding, an architrave fascia, a list between flutings. [_Plot._] PLATANE, plat'[=a]n, _n._ the plane-tree.--Also PLAT'AN. [L. _platanus_--Gr. _platanos_--_platys_, broad.] PLATE, pl[=a]t, _n._ something flat: a thin piece of metal: wrought gold and silver: household utensils in gold and silver: a shallow dish nearly flat: an engraved piece of metal.--_v.t._ to overlay with a coating of plate or metal: to arm or defend with metal plates: to adorn with metal: to beat into thin plates.--_n._ PLATE'-ARM'OUR, armour of strong metal plates for protecting ships-of-war, &c.--_adj._ PL[=A]'TED, covered with plates of metal for strength, as ships: covered with a coating of a more precious metal: (_zool._) covered with hard scales.--_ns._ PLATE'-FLEET (_Milt._), vessels used for carrying precious metals; PLATE'FUL, as much as a plate will hold; PLATE'-GLASS, a fine kind of glass, cast in thick plates, used for mirrors and large shop-windows; PLATE'-LAY'ER, a workman whose occupation it is to lay the rails of a railway and fix them to the sleepers; PLATE'-MARK, a mark or stamp on gold or silver plate to indicate its purity and the place where it was made; PLATE'-POW'DER, a composition of rouge and prepared chalk used for cleaning gold and silver plate and plated articles; PLATE'-PRINT'ING, the process of printing from engraved plates; PL[=A]'TER, one who plates articles with a coating of gold or silver; PLATE'-RACK, a frame for holding plates, &c., when not in use; PLATE'-WARM'ER, an apparatus in which plates are warmed before the fire; PL[=A]'TING, the covering of an inferior metal with one of the precious metals: a thin coating of metal on another.--_adj._ PL[=A]'TY, like a plate.--HALF'-PLATE, in photography, a size of plate measuring 4¾ by 6½ in. (4¼ by 5½ in U.S.); QUAR'TER-PLATE, 3¼ by 4¼ in.; WHOLE'-PLATE, 6½ by 8½ in. [O. Fr. _plate_, fem. of _plat_, flat--Gr. _platys_, broad.] PLATEAU, pla-t[=o]', _n._ a broad flat space on an elevated position: a tableland:--_pl._ PLATEAUS, PLATEAUX (pla-t[=o]z'). [Fr.,--O. Fr. _platel_, dim. of _plat_.] PLATEN, plat'en, _n._ the flat part of a printing-press which comes down upon the form, and by which the impression is made. PLATFORM, plat'form, _n._ a raised level surface: a part of a floor raised above the rest to form a standing-place for speakers, workmen, &c.: (_mil._) an elevated floor for cannon: a statement of principles to which a body of men declare their adhesion, and on which they act: (_Shak._) a scheme, plan.--_v.t._ (_Milt._) to sketch, plan: (_Mrs Browning_) to support as on a platform.--_ns._ PLAT'FORM-BRIDGE (_Amer._), a movable gangway between the platforms of two railway carriages; PLAT'FORM-CAR, a railway car open all round and without a roof; PLAT'FORM-CRANE, a crane used on a railway platform, or one mounted on a movable truck; PLAT'FORM-SCALE, a weighing-machine with a flat surface for holding the thing to be weighed.--THE PLATFORM, the function of public oratory. [Fr. _plate-forme_, 'flat form.'] PLATIASMUS, plat-i-as'mus, _n._ imperfect speech. PLATINUM, plat'in-um, _n._ an important metal of a dim silvery appearance, between gold and silver in value, and very difficult to melt--older name PLAT'INA.--_adjs._ PLATIN'IC; PLATINIF'EROUS.--_v.t._ PLAT'INISE, to coat with platinum.--_ns._ PLAT'INOID, one of the metals with which platinum is always found associated--_palladium iridium_, &c.; PLAT'INOTYPE, a method of producing photographs by means of paper coated with a preparation of platinum: a picture so produced.--_adj._ PLAT'INOUS, containing or consisting of platinum. [Sp. _platina_--_plata_, plate.] PLATITUDE, plat'i-t[=u]d, _n._ flatness: that which exhibits dullness of thought: an empty remark made as if it were important.--_n._ PLATITUDIN[=A]'RIAN, one who indulges in platitudes.--_adj._ PLATIT[=U]'DINOUS. [Fr.,--_plat_, flat.] PLATONIC, -AL, pl[=a]-ton'ik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to _Plato_, the Greek philosopher (about 427-347 B.C.), or to his philosophical opinions.--_adv._ PL[=A]TON'ICALLY.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ PL[=A]'TONISE, to reason like Plato.--_ns._ PL[=A]'TONISM, the philosophical opinions of Plato; PL[=A]'TONIST, PL[=A]TON'IC, a follower of Plato.--PLATONIC LOVE, the love of soul for soul, a love into which sensual desire is supposed not to enter at all. PLATOON, pla-t[=oo]n', _n._ a number of recruits assembled for exercise--originally a small body of soldiers in a hollow square, to strengthen the angles of a longer formation: a subdivision of a company. [Fr. _peloton_, a ball, a knot of men--_pelote_--L. _p[)i]la_, a ball.] PLATTER, plat'[.e]r, _n._ a large flat plate or dish. [M. E. _plater_--O. Fr. _platel_--_plat_, a plate.] PLATTING, plat'ing, _n._ the process of making interwoven work: such work itself. PLATYCEPHALOUS, plat-i-sef'a-lus, _adj._ having the vault of the skull flattened.--Also PLATYCEPHAL'IC. PLATYPUS, plat'i-poos, _n._ the duck-bill (q.v.). [Gr. _platys_, flat, _pous_, a foot.] PLATYRHINE, plat'i-rin, _adj._ broad-nosed.--_n._ a platyrhine monkey. PLAUDIT, plawd'it, _n._ a mark of applause: praise bestowed.--_adj._ PLAUD'ITORY, applauding.--_adj._ PLAUS'IVE, applauding, approving: (_Shak._) plausible. [Shortened from L. _plaudite_, praise ye, a call for applause, 2d pers. pl. imper. of _plaud[)e]re_, _plausum_, to praise.] PLAUSIBLE, plawz'i-bl, _adj._ that may be applauded: seemingly worthy of approval or praise: superficially pleasing: apparently right: fair-spoken: popular.--_ns._ PLAUSIBIL'ITY, PLAUS'IBLENESS, an appearance of being right or worthy of approval: that which seems right and true at first sight.--_adv._ PLAUS'IBLY. [L. _plausibilis_--_plaud[)e]re_, to praise.] PLAUSTRAL, plä'stral, _adj._ of or pertaining to a wagon. [L. _plaustrum_, a wagon.] PLAY, pl[=a], _v.i._ to engage in some amusing exercise: to take part in a game, or a piece of diversion: to gamble: to sport: to trifle: to move irregularly or (_mech._) freely: to operate: to act in a theatre: to perform on a musical instrument: to practise a trick: to act a character: to act with repeated strokes.--_v.t._ to put in motion: to perform upon: to perform: to act a sportive part: to compete with.--_n._ amusement: any exercise for amusement: a contending for victory or for a prize: practice in a contest: gaming: action or use: manner of dealing, as fair-play: a dramatic composition: movement: room for action or motion: liberty of action.--_ns._ PLAY'-ACT'OR, one who acts a part in a play: an actor; PLAY'-ACT'ORISM, the manner or habits of a play-actor; PLAY'-BILL, a bill or advertisement of a play; PLAY'BOOK, a book of plays or dramas; PLAY'-CLUB, a wooden-headed golf-club used for driving the ball the longest distances; PLAY'-DAY, PLAY'-TIME, a day devoted to play: a holiday; PLAY'ER, one who plays: an actor of plays or dramas: a trifler: a musician: a professional at cricket; PLAY'FELLOW, PLAY'MATE, a fellow or mate in play or amusements.--_adj._ PLAY'FUL, given to play: sportive.--_adv._ PLAY'FULLY.--_ns._ PLAY'FULNESS; PLAY'-G[=O]'ER, one who habitually attends the theatre; PLAY'-G[=O]'ING; PLAY'-GROUND, a ground or place on which to play, esp. that connected with a school; PLAY'-HOUSE, a house where dramatic performances are represented: a theatre; PLAY'ING-CARD, one of a set of fifty-two cards used in playing games; PLAY'-MARE, the hobby-horse, one of the chief parts in the ancient morris-dance; PLAY'THING, anything for playing with: a toy; PLAY'WRIGHT, PLAY'-WRIT'ER, a writer of plays: one who adapts dramatic compositions for the stage.--PLAYED OUT, worked to the end: used up: tired; PLAY FAST AND LOOSE, to act in a tricky, inconstant way: to say one thing and do another; PLAY FINE, at billiards, to strike the object-ball near the edge--opp. to PLAY FULL, to strike it nearer the centre than the edge; PLAY OFF, to show or display; PLAY UP, to make a beginning of playing: to play more vigorously; PLAY UPON, to trifle with: to delude.--A PLAY UPON WORDS, a use of words so as to give them a double meaning; BRING INTO PLAY, to bring into exercise or use; COME INTO PLAY, to come into use; HOLD IN PLAY, to keep the attention of. [A.S. _plegan_, to play.] PLEA, pl[=e], _n._ the defender's answer to the plaintiff's demand or charge: an excuse: an apology: an action in a court of law: urgent entreaty. [O. Fr. _plait_ (Fr. _plaid_)--Low L. _placitum_, a decision--L. _placet_, it pleases, _plac[=e]re_, to please.] PLEACH, pl[=e]ch, _v.t._ to intertwine the branches of, as a hedge: (_Shak._) to fold, as the arms. [O. Fr. _plesser_--L. _plec-t[)e]re_, plait; Gr. _plek-ein_, weave.] PLEAD, pl[=e]d, _v.i._ to carry on a plea or lawsuit: to argue in support of a cause against another: to seek to persuade: to admit or deny a charge of guilt.--_v.t._ to discuss by arguments: to allege in pleading or defence: to offer in excuse:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ plead'ed, or (less correctly and coll.) pled.--_adj._ PLEAD'ABLE, capable of being pleaded.--_n._ PLEAD'ER.--_adj._ PLEAD'ING, imploring.--_n._ act of pleading or of conducting any cause: (_pl._) the statements of the two parties in a lawsuit (_law_).--_adv._ PLEAD'INGLY.--PLEAD GUILTY, or NOT GUILTY, to admit, or deny, guilt.--SPECIAL PLEADING, unfair argument aiming rather at victory than at truth. [O. Fr. _plaider_; cf. _Plea_.] PLEASE, pl[=e]z, _v.t._ to give pleasure to: to delight: to satisfy.--_v.i._ to like: to think fit: to choose: to give pleasure: used impers., followed by an object, originally dative, of the person=if it please you.--_n._ PLEAS'ANCE, merriment: a pleasure garden.--_adj._ PLEAS'ANT, pleasing: agreeable: cheerful: gay: facetious.--_adv._ PLEAS'ANTLY.--_ns._ PLEAS'ANTNESS; PLEAS'ANTRY, anything that promotes pleasure: merriment: lively or humorous talk: a trick:--_pl._ PLEAS'ANTRIES; PLEASE'MAN (_Shak._), an officious fellow, a pick-thank; PLEAS'ER, one who pleases or gratifies.--_adj._ PLEAS'ING, giving pleasure: agreeable: gratifying.--_n._ (_Shak._) pleasure given: (_B._) approbation.--_adv._ PLEAS'INGLY.--_n._ PLEAS'INGNESS, the quality of giving pleasure.--_adj._ PLEAS'URABLE, able to give pleasure: delightful: gratifying.--_n._ PLEAS'URABLENESS.--_adv._ PLEAS'URABLY.--_n._ PLEASURE (plezh'[=u]r), agreeable emotions: gratification of the senses or of the mind: what the will prefers: purpose: command: approbation.--_v.t._ (_arch._) to give pleasure to.--_ns._ PLEAS'URE-BOAT, a boat used for pleasure or amusement; PLEAS'URE-GROUND, ground laid out in an ornamental manner for pleasure; PLEAS'URE-HOUSE, a house to which one retires for recreation or pleasure.--_adj._ PLEAS'URELESS.--_ns._ PLEAS'URER, one who seeks pleasure; PLEAS'URE-TRIP, an excursion for pleasure.--AT PLEASURE, whenever and as one pleases. [O. Fr. _plaisir_ (Fr. _plaire_)--L. _plac[=e]re_, to please.] PLEAT, pl[=e]t, _v.t._ Same as PLAIT. PLEBEIAN, pl[=e]-b[=e]'an, _adj._ pertaining to, or consisting of, the common people: popular: vulgar.--_n._ originally one of the common people of ancient Rome: one of the lower classes.--_v.t._ PLEBEI'ANISE.--_ns._ PLEBEI'ANISM, state of being a plebeian: the conduct or manners of plebeians: vulgarity; PLEBIFIC[=A]'TION, the act of making plebeian.--_v.t._ PLEB'IFY, to make plebeian: to vulgarise. [Fr. _plébéien_--L. _plebeius_--_plebs_, _plebis_, the common people.] PLEBISCITE, pleb'i-s[=i]t, _n._ a decree of an entire nation, obtained by an appeal to universal suffrage, as in France under Napoleon III.: a method of obtaining an expression of opinion upon a certain point from the inhabitants of a district--also PLEBISC[=I]'TUM:--_pl._ PLEB'ISCITES, PLEBIS'CITA.--_adj._ PLEB'ISCITARY. [Fr.,--L. _plebiscitum_, decree of the people--_plebs_, the people, _scitum_, a decree--_sc[=i]re_, to know.] PLEBS, plebz, _n._ the common people. [L.] PLECTOGNATHI, plek-tog'n[=a]-th[=i], _n._ an order of bony fishes, including file-fishes, globe-fishes, coffer-fishes, sun-fishes.--_adjs._ PLECTOGNATH'IC, PLECTOG'NATHOUS. [Gr. _plectos_, plaited, _gnathos_, a jaw.] PLECTRUM, plek'trum, _n._ the quill or other form of instrument by which the strings of the Greek lyre were struck.--Also PLEC'TRE, PLEC'TRON. [L.--Gr.,--_pl[=e]ssein_, to strike.] PLED, pled, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _plead_. PLEDGE, plej, _n._ something given as a security: one who becomes surety for another: a sentiment of goodwill or friendship expressed by drinking together.--_v.t._ to give as security: to engage for by promise: to invite to drink by partaking of the cup first: to drink to the health of.--_ns._ PLEDGEE', the person to whom a thing is pledged; PLEDG'ER.--PLEDGE CARD, a card given, as a remembrancer, to a person who has signed the total abstinence pledge; PLEDGE CUP, a cup for drinking pledges.--HOLD IN PLEDGE, to keep as security; PUT IN PLEDGE, to pawn; TAKE, or SIGN, THE PLEDGE, to give a written promise to abstain from intoxicating liquor. [O. Fr. _plege_ (Fr. _pleige_); prob. L. _præb[=e]re_, to afford.] PLEDGET, plej'et, _n._ a wad of lint, cotton, &c., as for a wound or sore: an oakum string used in caulking. PLEIAD, pl[=i]'ad, _n._ one of the seven daughters of Atlas and Pleione, after death changed into stars:--_pl._ PLEI'ADS, PLEI'ADES, (_astron._) a group of seven or more stars in the shoulder of the constellation Taurus. PLEIOCENE. Same as PLIOCENE. PLEIOCHROISM, pl[=i]-ok'r[=o]-izm, _n._ the property in some crystals, such as some species of topaz, where three distinct colours may be observed on looking through them along three rectangular axes.--Also POL'YCHR[=O]ISM. [Gr. _plei[=o]n_, _ple[=o]n_, more, _chroa_, colour.] PLEISTOCENE, pl[=i]s't[=o]-s[=e]n, _n._ (_geol._) the name given to the system comprising the older accumulations belonging to the Quaternary or Post-Tertiary division. [Gr. _pleistos_, most, _kainos_, recent.] PLENARY, pl[=e]'n[=a]-ri, _adj._ full: entire: complete: (_law_) passing through all its stages--opp. to _Summary_: having full powers.--_adv._ PLEN'ARILY.--_ns._ PLEN'ARINESS; PL[=E]'NARTY, the state of a benefice when occupied; PL[=E]'NIST, one who believes all space to be filled with matter; PLEN'ITUDE, fullness: completeness: repletion; PL[=E]'NUM, space considered as in every part filled with matter.--PLENARY INSPIRATION, inspiration which excludes all mixture of error. [Low L. _plenarius_--L. _ple-nus_, full--_pl[=e]re_, to fill.] PLENICORN, plen'i-korn, _adj._ solid-horned, as a ruminant. PLENILUNAR, plen-i-l[=u]'nar, _adj._ pertaining to the full moon. PLENIPOTENCE, pl[=e]-nip'o-tens, _n._ complete power--also PLENIP'OTENCY.--_adj._ PLENIP'OTENT, having full power. [L. _plenus_, full, _potens_, _-entis_, powerful.] PLENIPOTENTIARY, plen-i-po-ten'shi-a-ri, _adj._ conferring or having full powers.--_n._ a person invested with full powers, esp. a special ambassador or envoy to some foreign court. [Low L. _plenipotentiarius_--L. _plenus_, full, _potens_, powerful.] PLENISH, plen'ish, _v.t._ to furnish: to provide, as a house or farm, with necessary furniture, implements, stock, &c.--_n._ PLEN'ISHING (_Scot._), furniture. [Fr.,--L. _plenus_, full.] PLENTY, plen'ti, _n._ a full supply: all that can be needed: abundance.--_adj._ being in abundance.--_adj._ PLEN'T[=E]OUS, fully sufficient: abundant: fruitful: well provided: rich: (_B._) giving plentifully.--_adv._ PLEN'T[=E]OUSLY.--_n._ PLEN'T[=E]OUSNESS.--_adj._ PLEN'TIFUL, copious: abundant: yielding abundance.--_adv._ PLEN'TIFULLY.--_n._ PLEN'TIFULNESS.--HORN OF PLENTY (see HORN). [O. Fr. _plente_--L. _plenus_, full.] PLEONASM, pl[=e]'o-nazm, _n._ use of more words than are necessary: (_rhet._) a redundant expression.--_n._ PL[=E]'ONAST, one who is given to pleonasm.--_adjs._ PLEONAS'TIC, -AL, redundant: using too many words.--_adv._ PLEONAS'TICALLY. [Gr. _pleonasmos_--_plei[=o]n_, more.] PLEROMA, pl[=e]-r[=o]'ma, _n._ fullness: abundance: in Gnosticism, divine being, including all æons which emanate from it. [Gr.,--_pl[=e]r[=e]s_, full.] PLEROPHORY, pl[=e]-rof'[=o]-ri, _n._ full conviction.--Also PLEROPH[=O]'RIA. PLESH, plesh, _n._ (_Spens._) a plash, a pool of water. PLESIOMORPHISM, pl[=e]-si-[=o]-mor'fizm, _n._ the property of certain substances of crystallising in similar forms while unlike in chemical composition--also _Isogonism_.--_adjs._ PLESIOMOR'PHIC, PLESIOMOR'PHOUS. PLESIOSAURUS, pl[=e]-zi-o-saw'rus, _n._ the type or leading genus of a family (_Plesiosauridæ_) of fossil sea-reptiles, which are characteristic of the Mesozoic systems. [Gr. _pl[=e]sios_, near, _sauros_, lizard.] PLETHORA, pleth'o-ra, _n._ excessive fullness of blood: over-fullness in any way.--_adjs._ PLETHORE'TIC, PLETHOR'IC, -AL, afflicted with plethora: superabundant: turgid.--_adv._ PLETHOR'ICALLY. [Gr. _pl[=e]th[=o]r[=e]_, fullness--_pleos_, full.] PLEUGH, pl[=u]h, _n._ (_Scot._) a plough.--_n._ PLEUGH'-PAID'LE (_Scot._), a small spade or 'paddle' for cleaning a plough. PLEURA, pl[=oo]'ra, _n._ a delicate serous membrane which covers the lungs and lines the cavity of the chest:--_pl._ PLEU'RÆ.--_adj._ PLEU'RAL.--_ns._ PLEURAPOPH'YSIS, a lateral process of a vertebra, with the morphological character of a rib:--_pl._ PLEURAPOPH'YSES; PLEURENCH'YMA (_bot._), the woody tissue of plants; PLEU'RISY, inflammation of the pleura, the investing membrane of the lung; PLEU'RISY-ROOT, a plant common in the United States, of which the root has medicinal repute, the infusion being used as a diaphoretic and expectorant.--_adjs._ PLEURIT'IC, -AL, pertaining to, or affected with, pleurisy: causing pleurisy.--_ns._ PLEUR[=I]'TIS, pleurisy; PLEURODYN'IA, neuralgia of the chest-wall, which may simulate closely the pain of pleurisy; PLEU'RO-PNEUM[=O]'NIA, inflammation of the pleura and lungs, a contagious disease peculiar to cattle. [Gr., a rib.] PLEURONECTIDÆ, pl[=oo]-ro-nek'ti-d[=e], _n.pl._ a family of flat-fishes, the flounders. [Gr. _pleura_, the side, _n[=e]kt[=e]s_, a swimmer.] PLEXIMETER, pleks-im'e-t[.e]r, _n._ a small plate of something hard and elastic, placed on the body, to receive the tap of the fingers or of the hammer in examination by percussion--also PLEXOM'ETER.--_adj._ PLEXIMET'RIC. [Gr. _pl[=e]xis_, a striking--_pl[=e]ssein_, to strike, _metron_, a measure.] PLEXURE, pleks'[=u]r, _n._ the act or process of weaving together: that which is woven together.--_adj._ PLEX'IFORM, in the form of network: formed into a plexus.--_n._ PLEX'US, a number of things, as veins, nerves, &c., woven together: a network: (_anat._) an interlacing of nerves, vessels, or fibres. [L. _plexus_, a twining--_plect[)e]re_, _plexum_, to twine.] PLIABLE, pl[=i]'a-bl, _adj._ easily bent or folded: supple: easily persuaded: yielding to influence.--_ns._ PLIABIL'ITY, PL[=I]'ABLENESS, quality of being pliable or flexible.--_adv._ PL[=I]'ABLY, in a pliable manner.--_ns._ PL[=I]'ANCY, PL[=I]'ANTNESS, the state of being pliant: readiness to be influenced.--_adj._ PL[=I]'ANT, bending easily: flexible: tractable: easily influenced.--_adv._ PL[=I]'ANTLY. [Fr. _pliable_--L. _plic[=a]re_, to fold.] PLICA, pl[=i]'ka, _n._ in the phrase PLICA POLONICA, a disease of the scalp, in which the hairs become matted together by an adhesive and often fetid secretion, occurring in several countries, but esp. in Poland. [L. _plic[=a]re_, to fold.] PLICATE, -D, pl[=i]'k[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ folded like a fan, as a leaf: plaited.--_adv._ PL[=I]'C[=A]TELY.--_ns._ PLIC[=A]'TION, PLIC'ATURE, act or process of folding: state of being folded: a fold. [L. _plicatus_--_plic[=a]re_, to fold.] PLIERS, pl[=i]'[.e]rz, _n.pl._ small pincers for bending. PLIGHT, pl[=i]t, _n._ something exposed to risk: security: pledge: engagement: promise.--_v.t._ to pledge: to promise solemnly: to give as security.--_n._ PLIGHT'ER, one who, or that which, plights. [A.S. _pliht_, risk, danger--_plión_, to imperil; cog. with Dut. _pligt_, Ger. _pflicht_, an obligation.] PLIGHT, pl[=i]t, _n._ condition: state (either good or bad). [O. Fr. _plite_--L. _plicitus_, _plic[=a]re_, to fold.] PLIGHT, pl[=i]t, _v.t._ to plait, to braid, to weave.--_n._ (_Spens._) a plait, a fold. [L. _plect[)e]re_, freq. of _plicäre_, to fold.] PLIM, plim, _v.i._ (_prov._) to swell. [_Plump_.] PLIMSOLL'S MARK. See LOAD-LINE, under LOAD. PLINTH, plinth, _n._ (_archit._) the square at the bottom of the base of a column: the projecting band at the bottom of a wall. [L. _plinthus_, Gr. _plinthos_, a brick.] PLIOCENE, pl[=i]'o-s[=e]n, _n._ (_geol._) the strata more recent than the Miocene or Second Tertiary. [Gr. _plei[=o]n_, more, _kainos_, recent.] PLISKIE, plis'ki, _n._ (_Scot._) condition or plight: a mischievous trick. PLOD, plod, _v.i._ to travel slowly and steadily: to study or work on steadily: to toil.--_v.t._ to get along by slow and heavy walking:--_pr.p._ plod'ding; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ plod'ded.--_n._ PLOD'DER, one who plods on: a dull, heavy, laborious man.--_adj._ PLOD'DING, laborious but slow.--_n._ slow movement: patient study.--_adv._ PLOD'DINGLY. [Orig. 'to wade through pools,' from Ir. _plod_, a pool.] PLONGE, plonj, _n._ the descending part of the path of a bomb: the superior slope of a parapet.--Also PLON'GÉE. PLONGE, plonj, _v.t._ to cleanse, as open sewers, by stirring with a pole when the tide is ebbing. PLOP, plop, _v.i._ to plump into water. [Imit.] PLOT, plot, _n._ a small piece of ground: a plan of a field, &c., drawn on paper: a patch or spot on clothes.--_v.t._ to make a plan of:--_pr.p._ plot'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ plot'ted. [A.S. _plot._] PLOT, plot, _n._ a complicated scheme, esp. for a mischievous purpose: a conspiracy: stratagem: the chain of incidents which are gradually unfolded in the story of a play, &c.--_v.i._ to scheme: to form a scheme of mischief: to conspire.--_v.t._ to devise:--_pr.p._ plot'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ plot'ted.--_adj._ PLOT'FUL.--_adj._ PLOT'-PROOF, safe from any danger by plots.--_ns._ PLOT'TER, one who plots: a conspirator; PLOT'TING.--_adv._ PLOT'TINGLY. [Fr. _complot_, acc. to Diez, from L. _complicitum_, pa.p. of _complic[=a]re_, to fold.] PLOT, plot, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to scald, steep in very hot water.--_n._ PLOT'TIE, a kind of mulled wine. PLOTTER, plot'[.e]r, _v.i._ to plouter (q.v.). PLOUGH, plow, _n._ an instrument for turning up the soil to prepare it for seed: tillage: a joiner's plane for making grooves.--_v.t._ to turn up with the plough: to make furrows or ridges in: to tear: to divide: to run through, as in sailing: (_university slang_) to reject in an examination.--_v.i._ to work with a plough.--_adj._ PLOUGH'ABLE, capable of being ploughed: arable.--_ns._ PLOUGH'BOY, a boy who drives or guides horses in ploughing; PLOUGH'ER; PLOUGH'GATE (_Scots law_), a quantity of land of the extent of 100 acres Scots; PLOUGH'ING; PLOUGH'-[=I]'RON, the coulter of a plough; PLOUGH'-LAND, land suitable for tillage: as much land as could be tilled with one plough, a hide of land; PLOUGH'MAN, a man who ploughs: a husbandman: a rustic:--_pl._ PLOUGH'MEN; PLOUGH'-MON'DAY, the Monday after Twelfth Day when, according to the old usage, the plough should be set to work again after the holidays; PLOUGH'-TAIL, the end of a plough where the handles are; PLOUGH'-TREE, a plough-handle; PLOUGH'WRIGHT, one who makes and mends ploughs.--PUT ONE'S HAND TO THE PLOUGH, to begin an undertaking.--SNOW PLOUGH, a strong triangular frame of wood for clearing snow off roads, railways, &c., drawn by horses or by a locomotive; STEAM PLOUGH, a plough driven by a stationary steam-engine; THE PLOUGH, the seven bright stars in the constellation of the Great Bear. [Ice. _plógr_; perh. Celt., Gael. _ploc_, a block.] PLOUGHSHARE, plow'sh[=a]r, _n._ the part of a plough which shears or cuts the ground in the bottom of the furrow. [_Plough_, and A.S. _scear_, a share of a plough, a shearing--_sceran_, to cut.] PLOUTER, plow't[.e]r, _v.i._ to paddle in water.--_n._ (_Scot._) a paddling or dabbling in water. PLOVER, pluv'[.e]r, _n._ a well-known wading bird. [Fr. _pluvier_--L. _pluvia_, rain.] PLOW, plow. Old spelling of _plough_. PLOY, ploi, _n._ employment: (_Scot._) a frolic. [_Employ_.] PLUCK, pluk, _v.t._ to pull off or away: to snatch: to strip, as a fowl of its feathers: (_slang_) to reject an examinee as inefficient.--_n._ a single act of plucking.--_n._ PLUCK'ER.--PLUCK OFF (_Shak._), to abate from the rank; PLUCK UP, to pull out by the roots: to summon up, as courage. [A.S. _pluccian_; akin to Dut. _plukken_, Ger. _pflücken_.] PLUCK, pluk, _n._ the heart, liver, and lungs of an animal--hence heart, courage, spirit.--_adjs._ PLUCKED, PLUCK'Y, having pluck or spirit.--_adv._ PLUCK'ILY.--_n._ PLUCK'INESS. PLUFFY, pluf'i, _adj._ puffy: blown out.--_n._ PLUFF (_Scot._), a puff of smoke or dust.--_v.t._ to throw out such. PLUG, plug, _n._ a block or peg used to stop a hole: a bung: a stopper: a branch from a water-pipe to supply a hose: a flat cake of tobacco: any worn-out or useless article: (_slang_) a silk hat.--_v.t._ to stop with a plug: to drive plugs into:--_pr.p._ plug'ging; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ plugged.--_ns._ PLUG'GER, one who, or that which, plugs, esp. a dentist's instrument for filling a hollow tooth; PLUG'GING, the act of stopping with a plug: the material of which a plug is made; PLUG'-UG'LY, a street ruffian.--FIRE PLUG, a contrivance by means of which a hose can be fixed to a water-main in case of fire. [Dut. _plug_, a bung, a peg (Sw. _plugg_, a peg, Ger. _pflock_); most prob. Celt., as in Ir., Gael., and W. _ploc_.] PLUM, plum, _n._ a well-known stone fruit of various colours, of the natural order _Rosaceæ_: the tree producing it: the best part of all: a sum of £100,000, a handsome fortune.--_ns._ PLUM'-CAKE, a cake containing raisins, currants, &c.; PLUM'-DUFF, a flour-pudding boiled with raisins.--_adj._ PLUM'MY, full of plums: desirable.--_ns._ PLUM'-PORR'IDGE, an antiquated dish, of porridge with plums, raisins, &c.; PLUM'-PUDD'ING, a national English dish made of flour and suet, with raisins, currants, and various spices. [A.S. _plúme_--L. _prunum_--Gr. _prounon_.] PLUMAGE, pl[=oo]m'[=a]j, _n._ the whole feathers of a bird. [Fr.,--_plume_, a feather.] PLUMB, plum, _n._ a mass of lead or other material, hung on a string, to show the perpendicular position: the perpendicular direction or position.--_adj._ perpendicular.--_adv._ perpendicularly.--_v.t._ to adjust by a plumb-line: to make perpendicular: to sound the depth of, as water by a plumb-line.--_n._ PLUMB'-BOB, a conoid-shaped metal weight at the end of a plumb-line.--_adjs._ PLUM'B[=E]AN, PLUM'B[=E]OUS, consisting of, or resembling, lead: stupid; PLUMB'IC, pertaining to, or obtained from, lead; PLUMBIF'EROUS, producing lead.--_n._ PLUMB'ING, the art of casting and working in lead, &c.--_adj._ PLUMB'LESS, incapable of being sounded.--_ns._ PLUMB'-LINE, a line to which a mass of lead is attached to show the perpendicular: a plummet; PLUMB'-RULE, a narrow board with a plumb-line fastened to the top, used to determine a perpendicular. [Fr. _plomb_--L. _plumbum_, lead.] PLUMBAGINEÆ, plum-ba-jin'[=e]-[=e], _n.pl._ a natural order of oxogenous plants found on seashores and salt-marshes. PLUMBAGO, plum-b[=a]'go, _n._ a mineral composed of carbon, iron, and other materials, used for pencils, &c., popularly called 'blacklead:' graphite: a genus of plants with blue or violet flowers.--_adj._ PLUMBAG'INOUS. [L. _plumbum_, lead.] PLUMBER, plum'[.e]r, _n._ one who works in lead, esp. one who fits into buildings the tanks, pipes, and fittings for conveying water, gas, and sewage.--_ns._ PLUMB'ER-BLOCK, a metal frame or case for holding the end of a revolving shaft: a pillow-block; PLUMB'ERY, articles of lead: the business of a plumber: a place for plumbing. PLUME, pl[=oo]m, _n._ a feather: a tuft of feathers: a feather worn as an ornament: a crest: a token of honour: a prize in a contest.--_v.t._ to dress the feathers of, as a bird: to adorn with plumes: to strip of feathers: to boast (used reflexively).--_ns._ PLUMASSIER (pl[=oo]-ma-s[=e]r'), one who prepares or deals in plumes; PLUME'-BIRD, a term sometimes given to the _Epimachidæ_ or long-tailed birds-of-Paradise.--_adjs._ PLUMED, adorned with feathers; PLUME'LESS.--_n._ PLUME'LET, a down-feather, a plumule: anything resembling a small plume.--_adj._ PLUME'-PLUCKED, stripped of plumes: (_Shak._) humbled.--_n._ PLUM'ERY, a display of plumes.--_adjs._ PLUMIG'EROUS, plumaged; PLU'MIPED, having feathered feet.--_n._ PLU'MIST, a feather-dresser.--_adjs._ PLU'MOSE, PLU'MOUS, feathery: plume-like; PLU'MY, covered or adorned with plumes. [O. Fr.,--L. _pluma_, a small soft feather.] PLUMMER, PLUMMERY. See PLUMBER, PLUMBERY. PLUMMET, plum'et, _n._ a weight of lead hung at a string, used for ascertaining the direction of the earth's attraction, and for sounding depths: a plumb-line. [O. Fr. _plomet_, dim. of _plom_, lead.] PLUMP, plump, _adv._ falling straight downward (like lead): heavily: suddenly.--_adj._ downright: unqualified.--_v.i._ to fall or sink suddenly: to give all one's votes to one candidate where there are more than one to be elected.--_v.t._ to cause to fall suddenly.--_n._ (_Scot._) a sudden downfall of rain.--_n._ PLUMP'ER, a vote given to one candidate only when more than one are to be elected: one who so votes: (_slang_) a downright lie.--_adv._ PLUMP'LY, fully, without reserve. [_Plumb._] PLUMP, plump, _adj._ fat and rounded: sleek: in good condition.--_v.i._ to grow fat or plump: to swell.--_v.t._ to make plump: to fatten.--_ns._ PLUMP'ER, a ball kept in the mouth to give the cheeks a rounded appearance; PLUMP'NESS.--_adj._ PLUMP'Y (_Shak._), plump, fat. [Teut.; Dut. _plomp_, lumpish, Ger. _plump_.] PLUMP, plump, _n._ a cluster: a clump (of persons or things). PLUMULARIA, pl[=oo]-m[=u]-l[=a]'ri-a, _n._ a genus of hydrozoa, belonging to the division _hydroidea_.--_adj._ PLUMUL[=A]'RIAN. [L. _plumula_, a little feather.] PLUMULE, pl[=oo]'m[=u]l, _n._ (_bot._) the first bud of a plant growing from seed, springing from between the cotyledons or seed leaves: a soft feather: a feathery scale on a butterfly's wing.--Also PLUM'ULA. [L. _plumula_, dim. of _pluma_, a feather.] PLUNDER, plun'd[.e]r, _v.t._ to seize the goods of another by force: to pillage.--_n._ that which is seized by force: booty: (_U.S._) household goods.--_ns._ PLUN'DERAGE, the stealing of goods on board ship; PLUN'DERER.--_adj._ PLUN'DEROUS. [Ger. _plündern_, to pillage--_plunder_, trash, baggage; akin to Low Ger. _plunnen_, rags.] PLUNGE, plunj, _v.t._ to cast suddenly into water or other fluid: to force suddenly (into): to immerse.--_v.i._ to sink suddenly into any fluid: to dive: to pitch suddenly forward and throw up the hind-legs, as a horse: to rush into any danger: (_slang_) to gamble recklessly.--_n._ act of plunging: act of rushing headlong, as a horse.--_n._ PLUNG'ER, one who plunges: a diver: a long solid cylinder used as a forcer in pumps: (_mil._) a cavalry-man: one who bets heavily.--_adj._ PLUNG'ING, rushing headlong: aimed from higher ground, as fire upon an enemy.--_n._ the putting or sinking under water, or other fluid: the act of a horse trying to throw its rider.--PLUNGE BATH, a bath large enough to allow the whole body under water. [O. Fr. _plonger_--L. _plumbum_, lead.] PLUPERFECT, pl[=oo]'p[.e]r-fekt, _adj._ (_gram._) noting that an action happened before some other past action referred to. [A corr. of L. _plus-quam-perfectum_, (lit.) _more than_ or _before perfect_.] PLURAL, pl[=oo]'ral, _adj._ containing or expressing more than one.--_n._ (_gram._) the form denoting more than one.--_n._ PLURALIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ PLU'RALISE, to make plural.--_v.i._ to hold two or more benefices simultaneously.--_ns._ PLU'RALISM, the state of being plural: the holding by one person of more than one office at once, esp. applied to ecclesiastical livings; PLU'RALIST, one who holds more than one office at one time; PLURAL'ITY, the state of being plural: a number consisting of more than one: the majority: the holding of more than one benefice at one time: the living held by a pluralist.--_adv._ PLU'RALLY. [Fr.,--L. _pluralis_--_plus_, _pluris_, more.] PLURILITERAL, pl[=oo]-ri-lit'[.e]r-al, _adj._ containing more letters than three. PLURILOCULAR, pl[=oo]-ri-lok'[=u]-lar, _adj._ multilocular. PLURIPAROUS, pl[=oo]-rip'a-rus, _adj._ having several young at a birth.--_n._ PLURIP'ARA, one who has borne two or more children. PLURIPRESENCE, pl[=oo]-ri-prez'ens, _n._ presence in more places than one. [L. _plus_, more, _præsentia_, presence.] PLURISY, pl[=oo]r'i-si, _n._ (_Shak._) superabundance. [L. _plus_, _pluris_, more.] PLUS, plus, _adj._ more: to be added: positive.--_n._ the sign (+) prefixed to positive quantities, and set between quantities or numbers to be added together: the sign of addition--opp. to _Minus_. [L. _plus_, more.] PLUSH, plush, _n._ a variety of cloth woven like velvet, but differing from it in having a longer and more open pile.--_adj._ PLUSH'Y, of or resembling plush. [Fr. _peluche_, through Low L., from L. _pilus_, hair. See PILE, a hairy surface.] PLUTOCRACY, pl[=oo]-tok'ra-si, _n._ government by the wealthy.--_n._ PLU'TOCRAT.--_adj._ PLUTOCRAT'IC.--_ns._ PLUTOL'OGIST; PLUTOL'OGY, the science of wealth: political economy. [Gr. _ploutokratia_--_ploutos_, wealth, _kratia_--_kratein_, to rule.] PLUTONIAN, pl[=oo]-t[=o]'ni-an, _adj._ infernal: dark: (_geol._) formed by the agency of heat at a depth below the surface of the earth, as granite--also PLUTON'IC.--_ns._ PLU'TONISM; PLU'TONIST.--PLUTONIC ACTION, the action of volcanic fires under the surface; PLUTONIC ROCKS, rocks formed under the surface by the action of fire, as granite, porphyry, &c.; PLUTONIC THEORY, the theory that the present state of the earth's crust is the result of the action of fire--opp. to _Neptunian theory_. [L.,--Gr. _Plout[=o]nios_--_Plout[=o]n_, Pluto, the god of the nether world.] PLUVIAL, pl[=oo]'vi-al, _adj._ pertaining to rain: rainy.--_ns._ PLU'VIOGRAPH, a self-recording rain-gauge; PLUVIOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the amount of rain that falls.--_adjs._ PLUVIOMET'RIC, -AL; PLU'VIOUS, rainy. [Fr.,--_pluvialis_--_pluvia_, rain.] PLY, pl[=i], _v.t._ to work at steadily: to use diligently: to urge: to address with importunity.--_v.i._ to work steadily: to go in haste: to make regular passages, as a boat, between two ports: (_naut._) to make way against the wind:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ plied.--_n._ a fold: bent: direction.--_n._ PLY'ER. [O. Fr. _plier_, to fold--L. _plic[=a]re_, to bend.] PLYERS. Same as PLIERS. PLYMOUTH BRETHREN, plim'uth breth'ren, _n.pl._ a rigid religious sect, originating at _Plymouth_ about 1830, out of a reaction against High Church principles and against a dead formalism associated with unevangelical doctrine.--_n._ PLYM'OUTHISM. PNEUMA, n[=u]'ma, _n._ breath: spirit, soul. [Gr.] PNEUMATIC, -AL, n[=u]-mat'ik, -al, _adj._ relating to air: consisting of air: moved by air or wind.--_n._ (_coll._) a bicycle fitted with pneumatic tires.--_adv._ PNEUMAT'ICALLY.--_n.sing._ PNEUMAT'ICS, the science which treats of air and other elastic fluids or gases.--_adj._ PNEUMATOLOG'ICAL.--_ns._ PNEUMATOL'OGIST, one versed in pneumatology; PNEUMATOL'OGY, the science of elastic fluids: pneumatics: the branch of philosophy which treats of spirits or mind: (_theol._) the doctrine of the Holy Spirit; PNEUMATOM'ETER, PNEUMOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the quantity of air inhaled into the lungs at a single inspiration.--_adj._ PNEUMOGAS'TRIC, pertaining to the lungs and the stomach.--_n._ PNEUM[=O]'NIA, inflammation of the tissues of the lungs--also PNEU'MON[=I]'TIS.--_adj._ PNEUMON'IC, pertaining to the lungs.--_n._ a medicine for lung diseases.--PNEUMATIC DESPATCH, a method of sending letters, telegrams, and small parcels through tubes by means of compressed air; PNEUMATIC RAILWAY, a railway along which the carriages are driven by compressed air; PNEUMATIC TROUGH, a trough of wood or iron, filled with water and used for collecting gases for experiment or examination; PNEUMATIC TIRE, a flexible air-inflated tube used as a tire on cycles, &c. [L.,--Gr. _pneumatikos_--_pneum-a_, _-atos_, wind, air--_pnein_, to blow, to breathe.] PNYX, niks, _n._ in ancient Athens, the public place of meeting for deliberation on political affairs: the assembly. [Gr.,--_pyknos_, crowded.] POACEÆ, p[=o]-[=a]'s[=e]-[=e], _n.pl._ a division of the order _Gramineæ_, the grasses.--_n._ P[=O]'A, a genus of grasses. [Gr. _poa_, grass.] POACH, p[=o]ch, _v.t._ to dress eggs by breaking them into boiling water. [Perh. Fr. _pocher_, to put in a pocket--_poche_, pouch.] POACH, p[=o]ch, _v.i._ to intrude on another's preserves in order to steal game.--_v.t._ to steal game.--_ns._ POACH'ER, one who poaches or steals game: the widgeon, from its habit of stealing the prey of other ducks; POACH'ING. [O. Fr. _pocher_, orig. to pocket--_poche_, pouch.] POACH, p[=o]ch, _v.t._ to stab: poke: to tread on, and make slushy.--_n._ POACH'INESS.--_adj._ POACH'Y, wet and soft. [O. Fr. _pocher_, to poke.] POCHARD, p[=o]'chard, _n._ a genus of diving ducks which are marine during the greater part of the year. [_Poacher_, the widgeon.] POCK, pok, _n._ a small elevation of the skin containing matter, as in smallpox.--_adjs._ POCKED, POCK'Y, infected with, or marked by, smallpox.--_ns._ POCK'MARK, POCK'PIT, the mark, pit, or scar left by a pock.--_adj._ POCK'PITTED. [A.S. _poc_, a pustule; Ger. _pocke_, Dut. _pok_. The correct pl. form was _pocks_, erroneously _pox_, and treated as singular.] POCKET, pok'et, _n._ a little pouch or bag, esp. one attached to a dress or to a billiard table: any cavity in which anything can lie: in mining, an irregular cavity filled with veinstone and ore: money, as being carried in the pocket: a bag of wool, &c., containing about 168 lb.--_v.t._ to put in the pocket: to take stealthily: to conceal:--_pr.p._ pock'eting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ pock'eted.--_ns._ POCK'ET-BOOK, a note-book: a book for holding papers or money carried in the pocket: a book for frequent perusal, to be carried in the pocket; POCK'ET-BOR'OUGH (see BOROUGH); POCK'ET-CLOTH, a pocket-handkerchief; POCK'ETFUL, as much as a pocket will hold; POCK'ET-GLASS, a small looking-glass for the pocket; POCK'ET-HAND'KERCHIEF, a handkerchief carried in the pocket; POCK'ET-HOLE, the opening into a pocket; POCK'ET-KNIFE, a knife with one or more blades folding into the handle for carrying in the pocket; POCK'ET-MON'EY, money carried for occasional expenses; POCK'ET-PICK'ING, act or practice of picking the pocket; POCK'ET-PIS'TOL, a pistol carried in the pocket: a small travelling flask for liquor.--POCKET AN INSULT, AFFRONT, &c., to submit to or put up with it; POCKET EDITION, a small portable edition of a standard book.--IN POCKET, in possession of money; OUT OF POCKET, to lose money by a transaction; PICK A PERSON'S POCKET, to steal from his pocket. [Fr. _pochette_, dim. of _poche_, pouch.] POCKMANTY, pok-man'ti, _n._ (_Scot._) portmanteau. POCOCURANTE, p[=o]-k[=o]-k[=oo]-ran'te, _n._ a careless or inattentive person.--_ns._ POCOCURANT'ISM, carelessness: inaccuracy; POCOCURANT'IST. [It. _poco_, little, _curare_, to care.] POCULIFORM, pok'[=u]-li-form, _adj._ cup-shaped. [L. _poculum_, cup.] POD, pod, _n._ the covering of the seed of plants, as the pea or bean: a shoal of fishes.--_v.i._ to fill, as a pod: to produce pods:--_pr.p._ pod'ding; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ pod'ded. [Allied to _pad_, anything stuffed.] PODAGRA, p[=o]-dag'ra, _n._ gout in the feet.--_adjs._ POD'AGRAL, PODAG'RIC, -AL, POD'AGROUS, gouty.--_n._ PODAL'GIA, pain, esp. neuralgia, in the foot. [Gr. _pous_, _podos_, the foot, _agra_, a catching.] PODARGUS, p[=o]-dar'gus, _n._ a genus of arboreal and nocturnal birds allied to the true Goatsuckers. [Gr. _pous_, the foot, _argos_, swift.] PODESTA, p[=o]-des'tä, _n._ a chief magistrate in the medieval Italian republics: an inferior municipal judge. [It.,--L. _potestas_, power.] PODGY, poj'i, _adj._ short and fat: thick. PODIUM, p[=o]'di-um, _n._ a continuous pedestal, a stylobate: (_anat._) a foot: (_bot._) a support, as a foot-stalk.--__adj.__ P[=O]'DIAL.--_ns._ PODIS'MUS, spasm of the muscles of the foot; P[=O]'DITE, a limb of a crustacean when ambulatory.--__adj.__ PODIT'IC. PODOCARPUS, pod-[=o]-kär'pus, _n._ a genus of tropical coniferous trees. [Gr. _pous_, _podos_, foot, _karpos_, fruit.] PODOPHTHALMA, pod-of-thal'ma, _n.pl._ a name often applied to a section of Crustacea. [Gr. _pous_, foot, _ophthalmos_, the eye.] PODOPHYLLUM, pod-[=o]-fil'um, _n._ a genus of plants of the barberry family, the fruit edible, other parts actively cathartic.--_n._ PODOPHYLL'IN, the resin obtained by means of rectified spirit from its root.--__adj.__ PODOPHYLL'OUS, having compressed leaf-like locomotive organs. [Gr. _pous_, _podos_, foot, _phyllon_, leaf.] PODURA, p[=o]-d[=u]'ra, _n._ a genus of apterous insects--_spring-tails_, _snow-fleas_. [Gr. _pous_, foot, _oura_, tail.] POE, p[=o]'e, _n._ the parson-bird of New Zealand. POEM, p[=o]'em, _n._ a composition in verse: a composition of high beauty of thought or language, although not in verse.--__adj.__ POEMAT'IC, relating to a poem. [Fr. _poème_--L. _poema_--Gr. _poi[=e]ma_, _poiein_, to make.] POENOLOGY. See PENOLOGY. POEPHAGOUS, p[=o]-ef'a-gus, _adj._ eating grass. POESY, p[=o]'e-si, _n._ the art of composing poems: poetry: a poem: poetical compositions. [Fr. _poésie_--L. _poesis_--Gr. _poi[=e]sis_--_poiein_, to make.] POET, p[=o]'et, _n._ the author of a poem: one skilled in making poetry: one with a strong imagination:--_fem._ P[=O]'ETESS.--_ns._ P[=O]'ETASTER, a petty poet: a writer of contemptible verses; P[=O]'ETASTRY.--_adjs._ POET'IC, -AL, pertaining or suitable to a poet or to poetry: expressed in poetry: marked by poetic language: imaginative.--_adv._ POET'ICALLY, in a poetic manner.--_n.sing._ POET'ICS, the branch of criticism which relates to poetry.--_n._ POET'ICULE, a petty poet.--_v.i._ P[=O]'ETISE, to write as a poet: to make verses.--_ns._ P[=O]'ET-LAU'REATE (see LAUREATE); P[=O]'ETRESS (_Spens._), a poetess; P[=O]'ETRY, the art of expressing in melodious words the thoughts which are the creations of feeling and imagination: utterance in song: metrical composition.--POETIC JUSTICE, ideal administration of reward and punishment; POETIC LICENSE, a departing from strict fact or rule by a poet for the sake of effect. [Fr. _poète_--L. _poeta_--Gr. _poi[=e]t[=e]s_--_poiein_, to make.] POGGE, pog, _n._ the armed bullhead. POH, p[=o], _interj._ exclamation of contempt. POIGNANT, poin'ant, _adj._ stinging, pricking: sharp: penetrating: acutely painful: satirical: pungent.--_n._ POIGN'ANCY, state of being poignant.--_adv._ POIGN'ANTLY. [O. Fr. _poignant_, _poindre_--L. _pung[)e]re_, to sting.] POIND, poind, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to seize.--_n._ POIND'ING (_Scots law_), the seizing and selling of a debtor's goods under process of law, or under the warrant of a heritable security. [_Pound._] POINT, point, _n._ anything coming to a sharp end: the mark made by a sharp instrument: (_geom._) that which has position but not length, breadth, or thickness: a mark showing the divisions of a sentence: (_mus._) a dot at the right hand of a note to lengthen it by one-half: needle-point lace: a very small space: a moment of time: a small affair: a single thing: a single assertion: the precise thing to be considered: anything intended: exact place: degree: the unit of count in a game: (_print._) a unit of measurement for type-bodies: an advantage: that which stings, as the point of an epigram: an imaginary relish, in 'potatoes and point:' a lively turn of thought: that which awakens attention: a peculiarity, characteristic: (_cricket_) the fielder standing at the immediate right of the batsman, and slightly in advance: a signal given by a trumpet: (_pl._) chief or excellent features, as of a horse, &c.: the switch or movable rails which allow a train to pass from one line to another.--_v.t._ to give a point to: to sharpen: to aim: to direct one's attention: to punctuate, as a sentence: to fill the joints of with mortar, as a wall.--_v.i._ to direct the finger, the eye, or the mind towards an object: to show game by looking, as a dog.--_adj._ POINT'ED, having a sharp point: sharp: intended for some particular person: personal: keen: telling: (_archit._) having sharply-pointed arches, Gothic.--_adv._ POINT'EDLY.--_ns._ POINT'EDNESS; POINT'ER, that which points: a dog trained to point out game; POINT'ING, the act of sharpening: the marking of divisions in writing by points or marks: act of filling the crevices of a wall with mortar; POINT'ING-STOCK, a thing to be pointed at, a laughing-stock; POINT'-LACE, a fine kind of lace wrought with the needle.--_adj._ POINT'LESS, having no point: blunt: dull: wanting keenness or smartness; POINTS'MAN, a man who has charge of the points or switches on a railway; POINT'-SYS'TEM, a standard system of sizes for type-bodies, one point being .0138 inch.--POINT FOR POINT, exactly: all particulars; POINT OF ORDER, a question raised in a deliberative society as to whether proceedings are according to the rules; POINT OF VIEW, the position from which one looks at anything; POINT OUT (_B._), to assign; POINTS OF THE COMPASS, the points _north_, _south_, _east_, and _west_, along with the twenty-eight smaller divisions, marked on the card of the mariner's compass.--At all points, completely; AT, or ON, THE POINT OF, just about to; CARDINAL POINT (see CARDINAL); CARRY ONE'S POINT, to gain what one contends for in controversy; FROM POINT TO POINT, from one particular to another; GIVE POINTS TO, to give odds to: to give an advantageous hint on any subject; IN POINT, apposite; IN POINT OF, with regard to; MAKE A POINT OF, to attach special importance to; STAND UPON POINTS, to be over-scrupulous; Strain a point, to go beyond proper limits; TO THE POINT, appropriate. [O. Fr.,--L. _punctum_--_pung[)e]re_, to prick.] POINT-BLANK, point'-blangk', _adj._ aimed directly at the mark: direct.--_adv._ directly.--POINT-BLANK SHOT, a shot fired in a horizontal line towards an object. [Fr. _point-blanc_, white point.] POINT-DEVICE, POINT-DEVISE, point'-de-v[=i]s', _n._ (_orig._) a lace worked with devices: anything uncommonly nice and exact.--_adj._ (_arch._) scrupulously neat. [Fr. _point_, lace, _devisé_, with a device.] POINTEL, poin'tel, _n._ a sharp instrument: any sharp-pointed thing. [O. Fr.,--Low L. _punctillum_, a little point.] POISE, poiz, _v.t._ to balance: to make of equal weight: to examine.--_v.i._ to hang in suspense.--_n._ weight: state of balance: equilibrium: a weight which balances another: a regulating power: the weight used in steelyards.--_n._ POIS'ER, one who, or that which, poises. [O. Fr. _poiser_ (Fr. _peser_)--L. _pens[=a]re_, inten. of _pend[)e]re_, to hang.] POISON, poi'zn, _n._ any substance which, introduced into the living organism, tends to destroy its life or impair its health: anything malignant or infectious: that which taints or destroys moral purity.--_v.t._ to infect or to kill with poison: to taint: to mar: to embitter: to corrupt.--_adj._ POI'SONABLE.--_ns._ POI'SONER; POI'SON-FANG, one of two large tubular teeth in the upper jaw of venomous serpents, through which poison passes from glands at their roots when the animal bites; POI'SON-GLAND, a gland which secretes poison; POI'SON-[=I]'VY, a shrub-vine of North America, causing a cutaneous eruption; POI'SON-NUT, the nux vomica.--_adj._ POI'SONOUS, having the quality of poison: destructive: impairing soundness or purity.--_adv._ POI'SONOUSLY.--_n._ POI'SONOUSNESS. [Fr.,--L. _potio_, a draught--_pot[=a]re_, to drink.] POITREL, poi'trel, _n._ armour to protect the horse's breast. [O. Fr. _poitral_--L. _pectorale_, a breast-plate--_pectus_, the breast.] POITRINE, poi'trin, _n._ the breast-plate of a knight. POKAL, p[=o]'kal, _n._ an ornamental drinking-vessel. POKE, p[=o]k, _n._ a bag: a pouch.--A PIG IN A POKE, a blind bargain, as of a pig bought without being seen. [Prob. Celt., as Ir. _poc_, a bag.] POKE, p[=o]k, _v.t._ to thrust or push against with something pointed: to search for with a long instrument: to thrust at with the horns.--_v.i._ to grope or feel, as in the dark.--_n._ act of pushing or thrusting: a thrust: a bonnet having a projecting front worn earlier in the century--also POKE'-BONN'ET.--_ns._ P[=O]'KER, an iron rod for poking or stirring the fire; PO'KER-DRAW'ING, a design burnt into lime-tree or other wood with 'pokers,' which rather resembled plumbers' soldering irons.--_adj._ P[=O]'KERISH, like a poker: stiff.--_adv._ P[=O]'KERISHLY.--_adj._ P[=O]'KING, drudging, servile.--_n._ P[=O]'KING-STICK, a small stick or rod of steel formerly used for adjusting the plaits of ruffs.--_adj._ P[=O]'KY, stupid: dull: confined, with little room: poor, shabby.--POKE FUN AT, to ridicule, make fun of. [Ir. _poc_, a blow, Gael. _puc_, to push.] POKER, p[=o]'k[.e]r, _n._ a bugbear.--_adj._ P[=O]'KERISH, causing terror: uncanny.--OLD POKER, the devil. POKER, p[=o]'k[.e]r, _n._ a round game at cards, first played in America about 1835. [Ety. uncertain.] POLABIAN, p[=o]-l[=a]'bi-an, _n._ one of an ancient Slavic race, belonging to the same group as the _Poles_, occupying the basin of the lower Elbe. POLACCA, po-lak'a, _n._ a species of vessel used in the Mediterranean, with three masts and a jib-boom; the fore and main masts being of one piece, and the mizzen-mast with a top and topmast. [It., 'a Polish vessel.'] POLACK, p[=o]l'ak, _n._ (_Shak._) a Pole.--Also POL'ANDER. POLAR, p[=o]'lar, _adj._ pertaining to, or situated near, either of the poles: pertaining to the magnetic poles: having a common meeting-point.--_n._ (_geom._) the line joining the points of contact, of tangents drawn to meet a curve from a point called the pole of the line.--_ns.pl._ P[=O]LAR-CO-OR'DINATES, co-ordinates defining a point by means of a radius vector and the angle which it makes with a fixed line through the origin; P[=O]'LAR-FOR'CES, forces that act in pairs and in different directions, as in magnetism.--_n._ POLARIM'ETER, the polariscope.--_adj._ POLAR[=I]'SABLE, capable of polarisation.--_ns._ POLARIS[=A]'TION (_opt._), a particular modification of rays of light, by the action of certain media or surfaces, so that they cannot be reflected or refracted again in certain directions: state of having polarity; POLAR'ISCOPE, an instrument for polarising light, and analysing its properties.--_v.t._ P[=O]'LARISE, to give polarity to.--_ns._ P[=O]'LARISER, that which polarises or gives polarity to; POLAR'ITY, state of having two opposite poles: a condition in certain bodies according to which their properties arrange themselves so as to have opposite powers in opposite directions, as in a magnet with its two poles.--POLAR BEAR, a large white bear found in the Arctic regions; POLAR CIRCLE, a parallel of latitude encircling each of the poles at a distance of 23° 28' from the pole--the north polar being called the arctic, the south the antarctic, circle; POLAR LIGHTS, the aurora borealis or australis. [L. _polaris_--_polus_, a pole.] POLDER, p[=o]l'd[.e]r, _n._ in the Netherlands, land below the level of the sea or nearest river, which, originally a morass or lake, has been drained and brought under cultivation: a morass. [Prob. cog. with _pool_.] POLE, p[=o]l, _n._ that on which anything turns, as a pivot or axis: one of the ends of the axis of a sphere, esp. of the earth: (_physics_) one of the two points of a body in which the attractive or repulsive energy is concentrated, as in a magnet: (_geom._) a point from which a pencil of rays radiates (see POLAR).--_n._ POLE'-STAR, a star at or near the pole of the heavens: a guide or director.--POLES OF THE HEAVENS, the two points in the heavens opposite to the poles of the earth--called also _Celestial poles_. [Fr.,--L. _polus_--Gr. _polos_--_pelein_, to be in motion.] POLE, p[=o]l, _n._ a pale or pile: a long piece of wood: an instrument for measuring: a measure of length, 5½ yards: in square measure, 30¼ yards.--_v.t._ to push or stir with a pole.--_v.i._ to use a pole.--__adj.__ POLE'-CLIPT (_Shak._), hedged in with poles.--UNDER BARE POLES, with all sails furled. [A.S. _pál_ (Ger. _pfahl_)--L. _palus_, a stake.] POLE, p[=o]l, _n._ a native of _Poland_. [Illustration] POLE-AXE, p[=o]l'-aks, _n._ a battle-axe consisting of an axe-head on a long handle: an axe used by sailors for cutting away rigging of ships. [Orig. _pollax_, from _poll_, the head, and _axe_.] POLECAT, p[=o]l'kat, _n._ a kind of weasel, which emits a stink--called also the _Fitchet_ and _Foumart_. [M. E. _polcat_; prob. Fr. _poule_, hen, and _cat_.] POLEMARCH, pol'e-mark, _n._ a title of several officials in ancient Greek states. POLEMIC, -AL, po-lem'ik, -al, _adj._ given to disputing: controversial.--_n._ one who disputes: one who speaks or writes in opposition to another: a controversy.--_adv._ POLEM'ICALLY.--_n.sing._ POLEM'ICS, contest or controversy: (_theol._) the history of ecclesiastical controversy.--_n._ POL'EMOSCOPE, a perspective glass so constructed as to give views of objects not lying directly before the eye. [Gr. _polemos_, war.] POLEMONIACEÆ, pol-e-m[=o]-ni-[=a]'s[=e]-[=e], _n.pl._ a natural order of plants--the phlox family. POLENTA, po-len'ta, _n._ an Italian dish, the chief ingredients of which are maize, meal, and salt. [It.,--L. _polenta_, peeled barley.] POLEY, p[=o]'li, _adj._ without horns: polled. [Prov. Eng.] POLIANTHES, pol-i-an'th[=e]z, _n._ a small genus of ornamental plants of the amaryllis family--the tuberose. [Gr. _polios_, white, _anthos_, a flower.] POLICE, p[=o]-l[=e]s', _n._ the system of regulations of a city, town, or district for the preservation of order and enforcement of law: the internal government of a state: (short for POLICE'-FORCE) the civil officers employed to preserve order, &c.--_v.t._ to guard or maintain order in: to put in order.--_n.pl._ POLICE'-COMMISS'IONERS, a body of men appointed to regulate the appointments and duties of the police.--_ns._ POLICE'-INSPECT'OR, a superior officer of police who has charge of a department, next in rank to a superintendent; POLICE'-MAG'ISTRATE, one who presides in a police court; POLICE'MAN, a member of a police-force; POLICE'-OFF'ICE, -ST[=A]'TION, the headquarters of the police of a district, used also as a temporary place of confinement; POLICE'-OFF'ICER, -CON'STABLE, a policeman; POLICE'-RATE, a tax levied for the support of the police.--POLICE COURT, a court for trying small offences brought before it by the police. [Fr.,--L. _politia_--Gr. _politeia_, the condition of a state--_polit[=e]s_, a citizen--_polis_, a city.] POLICY, pol'i-si, _n._ the art or manner of regulating or guiding conduct: the method and forms according to which the government and business of a country are carried on: a system of administration guided more by interest than by principle: dexterity of management: prudence: cunning: in Scotland, (esp. in _pl._) the pleasure-grounds around a mansion. [O. Fr. _policie_ (Fr. _police_)--L. _politia_--Gr. _politeia_.] POLICY, pol'i-si, _n._ a warrant for money in the funds: a writing containing a contract of insurance: a kind of gambling by betting on the numbers to be drawn in a lottery.--_n._ POL'ICY-HOLD'ER, one who holds a policy or contract of insurance. [Fr. _police_, a policy--L. _polyptychum_, a register--Gr. _polyptychon_--_polys_, many, _ptyx_, _ptychos_, fold.] POLING, p[=o]'ling, _n._ act of using a pole for any purpose. POLISH, p[=o]'lish, _adj._ relating to _Poland_ or to its people. POLISH, pol'ish, _v.t._ to make smooth and glossy by rubbing: to refine: to make elegant.--_v.i._ to become smooth and glossy.--_n._ a smooth, glossy surface: refinement of manners: anything used to produce a polish.--_adjs._ POL'ISHABLE; POL'ISHED, made smooth by rubbing: trained to act with great fineness and exactness: refined: polite.--_ns._ POL'ISHER, one who, or that which, polishes; POL'ISHING-PASTE, polishing material made in the form of paste; POL'ISHING-POW'DER, polishing material made in the form of powder, as whiting, diamond-dust, &c.; POL'ISHING-SLATE, a mineral used for polishing glass, marble, and metals, composed chiefly of silica, with a little alumina, lime, oxide of iron, and water; POL'ISHMENT. [O. Fr. _polir_, _polissant_--L. _pol[=i]re_, to make to shine.] POLITE, p[=o]-l[=i]t', _adj._ polished: smooth: refined: well-bred: obliging.--_adv._ POLITE'LY.--_ns._ POLITE'NESS, state or quality of being polite: refinement of manners: good-breeding; POLITESSE', politeness. [L. _politus_, pa.p. of _pol[=i]re_.] POLITIC, p[=o]l'i-tik, _adj._ pertaining to policy: well-devised: judicious in management: skilled in political affairs: prudent: discreet: cunning: (_Shak._) concerned with politics.--_adj._ POLIT'ICAL, pertaining to polity or government: pertaining to nations, or to parties in a nation who differ in their views of how it ought to be governed: derived from government.--_adv._ POLIT'ICALLY.--_ns._ POLIT'ICASTER (_Milt._), a petty politician; POLITIC'IAN, one versed in or devoted to politics: a man of artifice and cunning.--_adj._ (_Milt._) politic.--_adv._ POL'ITICLY.--_n.sing._ POL'ITICS, the art or science of government: the management of a political party: political affairs or opinions.--_adj._ POL'ITIQUE (_Bacon_), political, civil.--_n._ POL'ITY, the constitution of the government of a state or an institution: civil constitution: a body of people arranged under a system of government.--POLITICAL ECONOMY, the science which treats of the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth; POLITICAL SCIENCE, the science or study of government, as to its principles, aims, methods, &c.--BODY POLITIC, the whole body of a people, as constituting a state. [Fr. _politique_--Gr. _politikos_--_polit[=e]s_, a citizen.] POLKA, p[=o]l'ka, _n._ a dance of Bohemian origin, invented in 1830, and introduced into England in 1843--also its tune: a knitted jacket worn by women.--_v.i._ POLK, to dance a polka. [Bohem. _pulka_, half, from the half-step prevalent in it; or from Slav. _polka_, a Polish woman.] POLL, pol, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to exact from, to plunder. POLL, pol, _n._ a familiar name, often of a parrot. [Contr. of _Polly_, a form of _Molly_=_Mary_.] POLL, p[=o]l, _n._ the round part of the head, esp. the back of it: a register of heads or persons: the entry of the names of electors who vote for civil officers, such as members of Parliament: an election of civil officers: the place where the votes are taken.--_v.t._ to remove the top: to cut: to clip: to lop, as the branches of a tree: to enter one's name in a register: to bring to the poll as a voter: to give or to receive a vote.--_v.i._ to give a vote.--_ns._ POLL'ARCHY, government by the mob or masses; POLL'-BOOK, a register of voters; POLL'-CLERK, a clerk who assists at the polling of voters.--_adj._ POLLED, deprived of a poll: lopped: cropped, hence bald: having cast the horns, hence wanting horns.--_ns._ POLL'ER, one who polls; POLL'-MAN, one who takes the ordinary university degree, without honours; POLL'-TAX, a tax by the poll or head--i.e. on each person.--AT THE HEAD OF THE POLL, having the greatest number of votes at an election. [Old Dut. _polle_, _bol_, a ball, top--Ice. _kollr_, top, head.] POLLACK, pol'ak, _n._ a common fish on British coasts, belonging to the cod, haddock, and whiting group.--Also POLL'OCK. [Celt., as in Gael. _pollag_, a whiting.] POLLAN, pol'an, _n._ a fresh-water fish of the family _Salmonidæ_, a native of lakes in Ireland. POLLARD, pol'ard, _n._ a tree having the whole crown cut off, leaving it to send out new branches from the top of the stem: an animal without horns: a coarse kind of bran from wheat.--_v.t._ to make a pollard of. [Cf. _Poll_, the head.] POLLAXE. Same as POLEAXE. POLLEN, pol'en, _n._ the fertilising powder contained in the anthers of flowers: the male or fecundating element in flowers.--_v.t._ to cover with pollen.--_adj._ POLLEN[=A]'RIOUS, consisting of pollen.--_v.t._ POLL'ENISE, to supply with pollen.--_n._ POLL'EN-TUBE, the tube by which the fecundating element is conveyed to the ovule.--_adj._ POLL'INAR, covered with a fine dust like pollen.--_v.t._ POLL'INATE, to convey pollen to the stigma of.--_n._ POLLIN[=A]'TION, the transferring or supplying of pollen to the stigma of a flower, esp. by aid of insects or other external agents.--_adj._ POLLINIF'EROUS, bearing pollen.--_n._ POLLIN'IUM, an agglutinated mass of pollen grains.--_adjs._ POLLINIV'OROUS, feeding upon pollen; POLL'INOSE, covered with a powdery substance like pollen. [L., fine flour.] POLLENT, pol'ent, _adj._ powerful: strong. [L. _pollens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _poll[=e]re_, to be strong.] POLLEX, pol'eks, _n._ the thumb or the great-toe:--_pl._ POLLICES (pol'i-s[=e]z).--_adj._ POLL'ICAL. [L., the thumb.] POLLICITATION, po-lis-i-t[=a]'shun, _n._ a promise, a paper containing such: a promise without mutuality. POLLIWIG, pol'i-wig, _n._ a tadpole.--Also POLL'YWIG. POLLUSION, pol-l[=u]'shun, _n._ (_Shak._) for _allusion_. POLLUTE, pol-l[=u]t', _v.t._ to soil: to defile: to make foul: to taint: to corrupt: to profane: to violate.--_adj._ defiled.--_adj._ POLLUT'ED.--_adv._ POLLUT'EDLY.--_ns._ POLLUT'EDNESS; POLLUT'ER; POLL[=U]'TION, act of polluting: state of being polluted: defilement. [L. _pollu[)e]re_, _pollutus_--_pol_, towards, _lu[)e]re_, to wash.] POLLUX, pol'uks, _n._ (_myth._) the twin brother of Castor: a star in the constellation of the twins. [L.] POLLY. See POLL (2). POLO, p[=o]'lo, _n._ an equestrian game, which may be shortly described as hockey on horseback--of Oriental origin and high antiquity. POLO, p[=o]'lo, _n._ a Spanish gipsy dance. POLONAISE, p[=o]-l[=o]-n[=a]z', _n._ a light kind of gown looped up at the sides to show an ornamented petticoat: a short overcoat bordered with fur: a Polish national dance of slow movement in ¾ time, during which the dancers march or promenade: music for such a dance. [Fr., 'Polish.'] POLONY, po-l[=o]'ni, _n._ a dry sausage made of meat partly cooked. [Prob. a corr. of _Bologna sausage_.] POLT, p[=o]lt, _n._ a blow. POLTROON, pol-tr[=oo]n', _n._ an idle, lazy fellow: a coward: a dastard: one without spirit.--_adj._ base, vile, contemptible.--_n._ POLTROON'ERY, laziness: cowardice: want of spirit. [Fr. _poltron_--It. _poltro_ (for _polstro_), lazy--Ger. _polster_, a bolster.] POLVERINE, pol'v[.e]r-in, _n._ the calcined ashes of a Levantine and Syrian plant, used in glass-making. [It. _polverino_--L. _pulvis_, _pulv[)e]ris_, dust.] POLYACOUSTIC, pol-i-a-kowst'ik, _adj._ multiplying or magnifying sound.--_n._ an instrument for effecting this. POLYACT, pol'i-akt, _adj._ having numerous rays.--Also POLYAC'TINAL. POLYAD, pol'i-ad, _n._ (_chem._) an element whose valence is greater than two. POLYADELPH, pol'i-a-delf, _n._ a plant having its stamens united in three or more bundles by the filaments.--_n.pl._ POLYADEL'PHIA, the 18th class in the Linnæan system.--_adjs._ POLYADEL'PHIAN, POLYADEL'PHOUS. POLYANDRIA, pol-i-an'dri-a, _n._ a class of plants in the Linnæan system, having more than twenty stamens inserted on the receptacle.--_adjs._ POLYAN'DRIAN, POLYAN'DROUS.--_n._ POLYAN'DRY, the social usage of some races in certain stages of civilisation in which the woman normally forms a union with several husbands. [Gr. _polys_, many, _an[=e]r_, _andros_, a man.] POLYANTHUS, pol-i-an'thus, _n._ a kind of primrose much prized and cultivated by florists:--_pl._ POLYAN'THUSES.--_n._ POLYAN'THEA, a note-book for keeping choice quotations. [Gr. _polys_, many, _anthos_, a flower.] POLYARCHY, pol'i-ar-ki, _n._ government by many persons of whatever class.--_n._ POL'YARCHIST. [Gr. _polys_, many, _archein_, to rule.] POLYATOMIC, pol-i-a-tom'ik, _adj._ (_chem._) noting elements or radicals with an equivalency greater than two: with more than one atom in the molecule. POLYAUTOGRAPHY, pol-i-aw-tog'ra-fi, _n._ the art of multiplying copies of one's own handwriting. POLYBASIC, pol-i-b[=a]'sik, _adj._ (_chem._) capable of combining with more than two univalent bases. POLYCARPIC, pol-i-kar'pik, _adj._ fruiting many times or year after year. POLYCARPOUS, pol-i-kar'pus, _adj._ having the fruit composed of two or more distinct carpels. POLYCHORD, pol'i-kord, _adj._ having many chords. POLYCHRESTIC, pol-i-kres'tik, _adj._ admitting of use in various ways.--_n._ POL'YCHRESTY. POLYCHROITE, pol-i-kr[=o]'[=i]t, _n._ safranine. POLYCHROMATIC, pol-i-kr[=o]-mat'ik, _adj._ many-coloured--also POLYCHR[=O]'MIC.--_adj._ POL'YCHROME, having, or tinted with, several or many colours.--_n._ POL'YCHROMY, decoration or execution in many colours, esp. of statuary or buildings. POLYCLADOUS, pol-i-kl[=a]'dus, _adj._ much-branched.--_n._ POL'YCL[=A]DY, the production of a number of branches where there is normally but one. POLYCOTYLEDON, pol-i-kot-i-l[=e]'don, _n._ a plant whose embryo has more than two cotyledons or seed-lobes.--_adj._ POLYCOTYL[=E]'DONOUS. POLYCRACY, p[=o]-lik'r[=a]-si, _n._ government by many rulers. POLYCROTIC, pol-i-krot'ik, _adj._ having several beats--of pulses. POLYDACTYL, pol-i-dak'til, _adj._ having many digits.--_n._ a polydactyl animal.--_n._ POLYDAC'TYLISM, the condition of having many digits.--_adj._ POLYDAC'TYLOUS. POLYDIPSIA, pol-i-dip'si-a, _n._ excessive thirst. [Gr. _polys_, much, _dipsa_, thirst.] POLYERGIC, pol-i-er'jik, _adj._ acting in many ways. POLYFOIL, pol'i-foil, _n._ an opening or ornament consisting of several combined foliations, a combination of more than five foils.--Also _adj._ POLYGALACEÆ, pol-i-g[=a]-l[=a]'s[=e]-[=e], _n.pl._ an order of polypetalous plants--the milkwort family. POLYGAMY, p[=o]-lig'a-mi, _n._ the practice of having more than one wife at the same time.--_n.pl._ POLYG[=A]'MIA, the 23d class in the Linnæan system, embracing plants in which the stamens and pistils are separate in some flowers and associated in others.--_adj._ POLYG[=A]'MIAN.--_n._ POLYG'AMIST.--_adj._ POLYG'AMOUS, relating to polygamy: (_bot._) a term applied to plants which bear both unisexual and hermaphrodite flowers, either on the same or on different individual plants. [Gr.,--_polys_, many, _gamos_, marriage.] POLYGASTRIC, pol-i-gas'trik, _adj._ having, or appearing to have, many stomachs, as an animalcule.--Also POLYGAS'TRIAN. POLYGENESIS, pol-i-jen'e-sis, _n._ origin from many separate germs: the theory that organisms sprang from different cells.--_adjs._ POLYGENET'IC, POLYGEN'IC, POLYG'ENOUS.--_ns._ POLYG'ENISM; POLYG'ENIST; POLYG'ENY, the multiple genesis of man. POLYGLOT, pol'i-glot, _adj._ having or containing many languages.--_n._ a collection of versions in different languages of the same work, esp. a Bible of this kind: one who understands many languages.--_adjs._ POLYGLOT'TIC, POLYGLOT'TOUS. [Gr. _polys_, many, _gl[=o]tta_, the tongue.] POLYGON, pol'i-gon, _n._ a plane figure bound by a number of straight lines: a figure of many angles.--_adjs._ POLYG'ONAL, POLYG'ONOUS. [L.,--Gr. _polyg[=o]non_--_polys_, many, _g[=o]nia_, a corner.] POLYGONUM, po-lig'o-num, _n._ a kind of plant with many joints, as the bistort, knotweed, &c.--_n.pl._ POLYGON[=A]'CEÆ, an order of apetalous plants, mostly herbs--the buckwheat family. [Gr. _polys_, many, _gonu_, a knee.] POLYGRAM, pol'i-gram, _n._ a figure consisting of many lines.--_adj._ POLYGRAMMAT'IC. POLYGRAPH, pol'i-graf, _n._ an instrument for multiplying copies of a writing: a collection of different books.--_adjs._ POLYGRAPH'IC, -AL.--_n._ POLYG'RAPHY, voluminous writing: art of writing in various ciphers. POLYGYNY, p[=o]-lij'i-ni, _n._ polygamy.--_n._ POL'YGYN, a plant of the order POLYGYN'IA (_pl._), the 12th order in the first 13 classes of the Linnæan artificial system of plants, embracing those having flowers with more than twelve styles.--_adjs._ POLYGYN'IAN, POLYGYN'IC, POLYG'YNOUS. [Gr. _polys_, many, _gyn[=e]_, woman.] POLYHEDRON, pol-i-h[=e]'dron, _n._ a solid body with many bases or sides.--_adjs._ POLYH[=E]'DRAL, POLYH[=E]'DRICAL, POLYH[=E]'DROUS. [Gr. _polys_, many, _hedra_, a base.] POLYHISTOR, pol-i-his'tor, _n._ a person of great and varied learning. POLYHYMNIA, pol-i-him'ni-a, _n._ the muse of the sublime hymn. [Gr. _polys_, many, _hymnos_, a hymn.] POLYMATHY, p[=o]-lim'a-thi, _n._ knowledge of many arts and sciences.--_n._ POL'YMATH, a person possessing this.--_adj._ POLYMATH'IC.--_n._ POLYM'ATHIST. POLYMERISM, p[=o]-lim'[.e]r-ism, _n._ a particular form of isomerism, the property possessed by several compounds of having similar percentage composition but different molecular weights. [Gr. _polys_, many, _meros_, part.] POLYMORPHOUS, pol-i-mor'fus, _adj._ having many forms: varying in appearance: taking on many changes--also POLYMOR'PHIC.--_ns._ POL'YMORPH, an organism showing polymorphism: a substance that crystallises in two or more systems; POLYMOR'PHISM, the property of being polymorphous. [Gr. _polys_, many, _morph[=e],_ form.] POLYNESIAN, pol-i-n[=e]'zi-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Polynesia_, the numerous groups of islands in the Pacific within or near the tropics.--_n._ a native of Polynesia. [Gr. _polys_, many, _n[=e]sos_, an island.] POLYNOMIAL, pol-i-n[=o]'mi-al, _n._ an algebraic quantity of many names or terms--same as _multinomial_--also POL'YNOME.--_adj._ of many names or terms.--_n._ POLYN[=O]'MIALISM. [Gr. _polys_, many, L. _nomen_, a name.] POLYONYMOUS, pol-i-on'i-mus, _adj_. having many names.--_n._ POL'YONYM, a name consisting of several terms.--_adjs._ POLYON'YMAL; POLYONYM'IC, of more than two terms.--_ns._ POLYON'YMIST; POLYON'YMY, multiplicity of names for the same object. POLYOPIA, pol-i-[=o]'pi-a, _n._ multiple vision.--Also POL'YOPY. POLYOPTRUM, pol-i-op'trum, _n._ a glass through which objects appear multiplied but diminished.--Also POLYOP'TRON. POLYORAMA, pol-i-[=o]-ra'ma, _n._ an optical apparatus presenting many views. POLYP, POLYPE, pol'ip, _n._ a name usually applied to an animal like the fresh-water hydra, having a tubular body, and a wreath of many tentacles round the mouth: something with many feet or roots: a pedunculated tumour attached to the surface of a mucous membrane--in the nose, &c.--also POL'YPUS:--_pl._ POLYPES (pol'ips), POLYPI (pol'i-p[=i]).--_ns._ POL'YPARY, the horny or chitonous outer covering of a colony of polyps; POL'YPIDE, an individual zoöid of a polyzoarium or compound polyzoan; POLYP'IDOM, an aggregate of polypites or polypides; POL'YPIER, one individual of a compound polyp: a polypidom, polypary, or polyp-stock.--_adj._ POL'YPOUS. [Gr. _polypous_--_polys_, many, _pous_, foot.] POLYPETALOUS, pol-i-pet'al-us, _adj._ with many petals. [Gr. _polys_, many, _petalon_, a leaf.] POLYPHAGOUS, p[=o]-lif'a-gus, _adj._ eating many different kinds of food. POLYPHARMACY, pol-i-fär'ma-si _n._ the prescribing of too many medicines. POLYPHLOESBOEAN, pol-i-fles-b[=e]'an, _adj._ loud-roaring. [Homer's frequent description of the sea, _polys_, much, _phloisbos_, noise.] POLYPHONIC, pol-i-fon'ik, _adj._ capable of being read in more than one way: noting a musical composition of two or more parts, each with an independent melody of its own.--_ns._ POL'YPH[=O]NISM, POLYPH'ONY; POL'YPH[=O]NIST, a ventriloquist: a contrapuntist. [Gr. _polys_, many, _ph[=o]n[=e]_, a voice.] POLYPHYLETIC, pol-i-f[=i]-let'ik, _adj._ pertaining to many tribes or families: pertaining to the theory that animals are derived from several sources. POLYPHYLLOUS, pol-i-fil'us, _adj._ many-leafed. POLYPLASTIC, pol-i-plas'tik, _adj._ having or assuming many forms. POLYPODE, pol'i-p[=o]d, _n._ an animal with many feet. [Gr. _polypous_--_polys_, many, _pous_, _podos_, a foot.] POLYPODIUM, pol-i-p[=o]'di-um, _n._ a genus of ferns with spore-cases on the back of the frond, distinct, ring-shaped, in roundish _sori_, destitute of _indusium_.--_n._ POL'YPODY, a fern of the genus _Polypodium_, having the seed-clusters round, and on each side of the midrib. [Gr. _polys_, many, _pous_, a foot.] POLYPOROUS, p[=o]-lip'[=o]-rus, _adj._ having many pores. POLYPORUS, p[=o]-lip'or-us, _n._ a large genus of pore-bearing fungus, which grows on trees, from which amadou is prepared. [Gr. _polys_, many, _poros_, a passage.] POLYPTERUS, p[=o]-lip'te-rus, _n._ a genus of Ganoid fishes of one species, in the Nile and elsewhere. [Gr. _polys_, many, _pteron_, a wing.] POLYRHIZOUS, pol-i-r[=i]'zus, _adj._ possessing numerous rootlets.--Also POLYRH[=I]'ZAL. POLYSCOPE, pol'i-sk[=o]p, _n._ a multiplying lens: (_surg._) an instrument for throwing light into cavities of the body. POLYSEPALOUS, pol-i-sep'a-lus, _adj._ having the sepals separate from each other. POLYSPERM, pol'i-sperm, _n._ a tree whose fruit contains many seeds.--_adjs._ POLYSPER'MAL, POLYSPER'MOUS, containing many seeds. POLYSPOROUS, pol-i-sp[=o]'rus, _adj._ producing many spores. POLYSTIGMOUS, pol-i-stig'mus, _adj._ having many carpels. POLYSTOME, pol'i-st[=o]m, _n._ an animal with many mouths.--_adj._ POLYSTOM'ATOUS. POLYSTYLE, pol'i-st[=i]l, _adj._ having many columns.--_adj._ POLYSTY'LOUS. POLYSYLLABLE, pol'i-sil-a-bl, _n._ a word of many or of more than three syllables.--_adjs._ POLYSYLLAB'IC, -AL.--_ns._ POLYSYLLAB'ICISM, POLYSYLL'ABISM. POLYSYLLOGISM, pol-i-sil'[=o]-jizm, _n._ a combination of syllogisms.--_adj._ POLYSYLLOGIS'TIC. POLYSYMMETRICAL, pol-i-si-met'ri-kal, _adj._ divisible into exactly similar halves by more than one plane.--_adv._ POLYSYMMET'RICALLY.--_n._ POLYSYM'METRY. POLYSYNDETON, pol-i-sin'de-ton, _n._ (_rhet._) figurative repetition of connectives or conjunctions. POLYSYNTHETIC, -AL, pol-i-sin-thet'ik, -al, _adj._ made up of many separate elements: formed by the combination of many simple words, as words in the native languages of America.--_n._ POLYSYN'THESIS.--_adv._ POLYSYNTHET'ICALLY.--_ns._ POLYSYNTHET'ICISM, POLYSYN'THETISM, the character of being polysynthetic. POLYTECHNIC, -AL, pol-i-tek'nik, -al, _adj._ comprehending many arts.--_n._ an exhibition of objects illustrating many arts: an institution in which many arts are taught.--_ns._ POLYTECH'NICS, the science of the mechanical arts; POLYTECH'NIQUE, or POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL, an industrial school in which the technical sciences that rest in great part upon a mathematical basis, such as engineering, architecture, &c., are taught. [Gr. _polys_, many, _techn[=e]_, an art.] POLYTHALAMOUS, pol-i-thal'a-mus, _adj._ having many cells or chambers. POLYTHEISM, pol'i-th[=e]-izm, _n._ the doctrine of a plurality of gods.--_v.i._ POL'YTHEISE, to adhere to, or conform to, polytheism.--_n._ POL'YTHEIST, a believer in many gods.--_adjs._ POLYTHEIST'IC, -AL.--_adv._ POLYTHEIST'ICALLY. [Gr. _polys_, many, _theos_, a god.] POLYTOCOUS, p[=o]-lit'[=o]-kus, _adj._ producing many or several at a birth. POLYTRICHUM, p[=o]-lit'ri-kum, _n._ a genus of mosses, widely distributed in north temperate and arctic countries.--_adj._ POLYT'RICHOUS, very hairy, densely ciliate. [Gr. _polys_, many, _thrix_, _thrichos_, hair.] POLYTYPE, pol'i-t[=i]p, _n._ a cast or fac-simile of an engraving, matter in type, &c., produced by pressing a wood-cut or other plate into semi-fluid metal.--_v.t._ to reproduce by polytypage--also _adj._--_n._ POL'YTYPAGE, stereotyping by the above method. POLYZOA, pol-i-z[=o]'a, _n.pl._ a class of animals forming a crust on stones, shells, &c. under water:--_sing._ POLYZ[=O]'AN, POLYZ[=O]'ON.--_adjs._ POL'YZOAN, POLYZO[=A]'RIAL.--_ns._ POLYZO[=A]'RIUM, a compound polyzoan; POLYZ[=O]'ARY, the polypary or polypidom of a polyzoan.--_adjs._ POLYZ[=O]'IC, filled with imaginary animals, zoolatrous; POLYZ[=O]'ÖID, consisting of many zoöids. [Gr. _polys_, many, _z[=o]on_, an animal.] POLYZONAL, pol-i-z[=o]'nal, _adj._ composed of many zones or belts. POMADE, po-m[=a]d', _n._ a preparation of fine inodorous fat, such as lard or suet, used instead of liquid oil for the hair--also POM[=A]'TUM.--_v.t._ to anoint with pomade. [Fr. _pommade_--It. _pomada_, _pommata_, lip-salve--L. _pomum_, an apple.] POMANDER, p[=o]-man'd[.e]r, _n._ (_Shak._) a perfumed ball, or box containing perfumes, formerly supposed to ward off infection. [O. Fr. _pomme d'ambre_, apple of amber.] POME, p[=o]m, _n._ an apple or a fruit like an apple: a small globe of silver or the like, filled with hot water, on which in cold weather the priest at mass warms his numbed hands.--_n._ POM'ACE, the substance of apples or similar fruit: fish-scrap.--_n.pl._ POM[=A]'CEÆ, a suborder of _Rosaceæ_--the apple family--also POME'Æ.--_adj._ POM[=A]'CEOUS, relating to, consisting of, or resembling apples: like pomace.--_ns._ POME'-CIT'RON, a variety of apple; POM'EROY, the king-apple; POME'-WA'TER (_Shak._), a sweet, juicy apple; POMICUL'TURE, pomology.--_adjs._ POMIF'EROUS (_bot._), pome-bearing, applied to all plants producing the larger fruits, as distinguished from berry-bearing; POMOLOG'ICAL.--_ns._ POMOL'OGIST; POMOL'OGY, the science of garden-fruits. [L. _pomum_, an apple.] POMEGRANATE, pom'gran-[=a]t, _n._ a fruit much cultivated in warm countries, as large as a medium-sized orange, having a thick leathery rind filled with numerous seeds. [O. Fr. _pome grenate_--L. _pomum_, an apple, _granatum_, having many grains.] POMERANIAN, pom-e-r[=a]'ni-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Pomerania_ in northern Prussia.--POMERANIAN, or SPITZ, DOG, a cross from the Eskimo dog, about the size of a spaniel, with a sharp-pointed face and an abundant white, creamy, or black coat. POMFRET-CAKE, pom'fret-k[=a]k, _n._ a liquorice-cake. [_Pontefract_ in Yorkshire.] POMMEL, pum'el, _n._ a knob or ball: the knob on a sword-hilt: the high part of a saddle-bow.--_v.t._ to beat as with a pommel, or with anything thick or heavy: to beat soundly: to bruise:--_pr.p._ pomm'elling; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ pomm'elled.--_adjs._ POMM'ELED, POMM'ELLED (_her._), having a rounded knob ending in a smaller one; POMM'ETTY, ending in a small knob, esp. of a cross--also POMM'ELÉ. [O. Fr. _pomel_ (Fr. _pommeau_)--L. _pomum_, an apple.] POMONA, pom-[=o]'na, _n._ the goddess of fruit and garden produce. [L.--_pomum_, fruit, apple.] POM-POM, pom-pom, _n._ the name given to a one-pounder quick-firing shell gun, from its sound. POMP, pomp, _n._ a splendid procession: great show or display: ceremony: splendour: ostentation: grandeur.--_adv._ POMP[=O]'SO (_mus._), in a dignified style.--_adj._ POMP'OUS, displaying pomp or grandeur: grand: magnificent: dignified: boastful, self-important.--_adv._ POMP'OUSLY.--_ns._ POMP'OUSNESS, POMPOS'ITY. [Fr. _pompe_--L. _pompa_--Gr. _pomp[=e]_--_pempein_, to send.] POMPADOUR, pom'pa-d[=oo]r, _n._ an 18th-century head-dress, a fashion of dressing women's hair by brushing it up from the forehead and rolling it over a cushion: a corsage with low square neck: a pattern for silk, with leaves and flowers pink, blue, and gold. [Marquise de _Pompadour_, 1721-64.] POMPEIAN, pom-p[=e]'an, _adj._ pertaining to _Pompeii_, a city buried by an eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 A.D., excavated since 1755.--_n._ POMPEI'AN-RED, a red colour like that on the walls of Pompeian houses. POMPELMOOSE, pom'pel-m[=oo]s, _n._ the shaddock.--Also POM'PELMOUS, POM'PELO, PUM'ELO. POMPHOLYX, pom'f[=o]-liks, _n._ a vesicular eruption chiefly on the palms and soles. [Gr.,--_pomphos_, a blister.] POMPION=_Pumpion_. POMPON, pom'pon, _n._ a tuft of feathers, &c., for a hat, the coloured woollen ball on the front of a shako. [Fr.] PONCEAU, pon-s[=o]', _n._ a corn-poppy: corn-poppy colour. PONCEAU, pon-s[=o]', _n._ a small bridge or culvert. [Fr.] PONCHO, pon'ch[=o], _n._ a cloak worn by South American Indians, a blanket with a hole in the middle for the head: camlet or strong worsted. POND, pond, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to ponder. POND, pond, _n._ a pool of standing water.--_v.t._ to make into a pond.--_v.i._ to collect into a pond.--_ns._ PON'DAGE, the amount of water in a pond; POND'-LIL'Y, a plant of the aquatic genus _Nymphæa_; POND'-TUR'TLE, a terrapin, a mud turtle; POND'WEED, a common aquatic herb. [From A.S. _pyndan_, to shut in, thus a doublet of _pound_, an enclosure.] PONDER, pon'd[.e]r, _v.t._ to weigh in the mind: to think over: to consider.--_v.i._ to think (with _on_ and _over_).--_ns._ PONDERABIL'ITY, PON'DERABLENESS.--_adjs._ PON'DERABLE, that may be weighed: having sensible weight; PON'DERAL, ascertained by weight.--_ns._ PON'DERANCE, PONDER[=A]'TION, weight; PON'DERER, one who ponders.--_adv._ PON'DERINGLY.--_ns._ PON'DERLING, a thing of little weight; PON'DERMENT, the act of pondering.--_adj._ PON'DEROUS, weighty: massive: forcible: important: clumsy or unwieldy by reason of weight.--_adv._ PON'DEROUSLY.--_ns._ PON'DEROUSNESS, PONDEROS'ITY, weight: heaviness: heavy matter. [L. _ponder[=a]re_--_pondus_, _pond[)e]ris_, a weight.] PONE, p[=o]n, _n._ (_U.S._) bread made from Indian corn. PONENT, p[=o]'nent, _adj._ (_Milt._) western. PONEROLOGY, pon-[=e]-rol'[=o]-ji, _n._ (_theol._) the doctrine of wickedness. [Gr. _pon[=e]ros_, bad.] PONGEE, pon-j[=e]', _n._ a soft kind of silk, woven in China from the cocoons of a wild silkworm. [Chin.] PONGO, pong'g[=o], _n._ a large anthropoid ape of Borneo. PONIARD, pon'yard, _n._ a small dagger for stabbing.--_v.t._ to stab with a poniard. [Fr. _poignard_--_poing_, fist (It. _pugno_)--L. _pugnus_.] PONK, pongk, _n._ (_Spens._, _Shak._) a nocturnal spirit. [A false reading for _pouke_=_Puck_.] PONS, ponz, _n._ (_anat._) a part connecting two parts.--_adjs._ PON'TIC, PON'TILE, relating to the pons of the brain.--PONS ASIN[=O]RUM, the asses' bridge, a name given to Euclid, i. 5. [L., a bridge.] PONTAGE, pont'[=a]j, _n._ a toll paid on bridges: a tax for repairing bridges. [Low L. _pontagium_--L. _pons_, _pontis_, a bridge.] PONTIC, pon'tik, _adj._ pertaining to the _Pontus_, Euxine, or Black Sea, or the regions round it. PONTIFF, pon'tif, _n._ (_R.C._) a bishop, esp. the pope--originally an ancient Roman high-priest, the PON'TIFEX.--_adjs._ PONTIF'IC, -AL, of or belonging to a pontiff or to a bishop, esp. the pope: splendid: magnificent.--_n._ PONTIF'ICAL, an office-book of ecclesiastical ceremonies proper to a bishop.--_adv._ PONTIF'ICALLY.--_n.pl._ PONTIF'ICALS, the dress of a priest, bishop, or pope.--_n._ PONTIF'ICATE, the dignity of a pontiff or high-priest: the office and dignity or reign of a pope.--_v.i._ to perform the duties of a pontiff.--_n._ PON'TIFICE (_Milt._), bridge-work, a bridge.--PONTIFICAL MASS, mass celebrated by a bishop while wearing his full vestments. [Fr. _pontife_--L. _pontifex_, _pontificis_--_pon_s, _pont-is_, a bridge, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] PONTIL, pon'til, _n._ an iron rod used in glass-making for revolving the glass while soft.--Also PONTEE', PON'TY. [Fr.,--_point_, a point.] PONTINAL, pon'ti-nal, _adj._ bridging.--_n._ a bone of the skull of some fishes. PONTLEVIS, pont-lev'is, _n._ a drawbridge. [Fr.] PONTOON, pon-t[=oo]n', _n._ a flat kind of boat used in forming a bridge for the passage of an army: a bridge of boats: a lighter or barge used for loading or unloading ships--also PON'TON.--_ns._ PONTONIER', PONTONNIER', one who has charge of a pontoon; PONTOON'-BRIDGE, a platform or roadway supported upon pontoons. [Fr. _ponton_--L. _pons_, a bridge.] PONY, p[=o]'ni, _n._ a small horse--one less than 13 hands high: (_slang_) £25: a key or translation of the writings of an author: a small glass of beer.--_v.t._ to use a crib in translating.--_ns._ P[=O]'NY-CARR'IAGE, a small carriage drawn by one or more ponies; P[=O]'NY-EN'GINE, a small engine used for shunting wagons, &c.--JERUSALEM PONY, an ass. [Prob. Gael. _poniadh_.] POOD, p[=oo]d, _n._ a Russian weight, 36 lb. avoirdupois. POODLE, p[=oo]'dl, _n._ one of a breed of small curly-haired pet dogs, intelligent and affectionate. [Ger. _pudel_; Low Ger. _pudeln_, to waddle.] POOH, p[=oo], _interj._ of disdain.--_v.t._ POOH'-POOH, to express contempt for: to sneer at. [Imit.] POOL, p[=oo]l, _n._ a small body of water: a deep part of a stream of water.--_n._ POOL'ER, a stick for stirring a tan-vat. [A.S. _pól_ (Dut. _poel_, Ger. _pfuhl_)--Celt., as Ir. and Gael. _poll_, W. _pwll_.] POOL, p[=oo]l, _n._ the receptacle for the stakes in certain games: the stakes themselves: a set of players at quadrille, &c.: a game played on a billiard-table with six pockets by two or more persons.--_v.t._ to put into a common fund for redistribution.--_v.i._ to form a pool. [Fr. _poule_, orig. a hen--L. _pullus_, a young animal.] POON, p[=oo]n, _n._ name of a tree of India and Burma, very commonly used in the East Indies, particularly in shipbuilding, for planks and spars.--_n._ POON'-WOOD, the wood of the tree. POONAC, p[=oo]'nak, _n._ the cake left after expressing oil from coco-nut pulp. POOP, p[=oo]p, _n._ the hinder part of a ship: a deck above the ordinary deck in the after part of a ship.--_v.t._ to strike the stern, break in the stern of. [Fr. _poupe_--L. _puppis_, the poop.] POOR, p[=oo]r, _adj._ having little or nothing: without means: needy: spiritless: depressed: (_B._) humble: contrite: wanting in appearance: lean: wanting in strength: weak: wanting in value: inferior: wanting in fertility: sterile: wanting in fitness, beauty, or dignity: trifling: paltry: dear (endearingly).--_ns._ POOR'HOUSE, a house established at the public expense for sheltering the poor: an almshouse; POOR'JOHN (_Shak._), a coarse kind of fish, the hake when salted.--_n.pl._ POOR'-LAWS, laws providing for the support of the poor.--_adv._ POOR'LY.--_ns._ POOR'NESS; POOR'-RATE, a rate or tax for the support of the poor; POOR'-ROB'IN, an almanac; POOR'S'-BOX, a box for receiving contributions to the poor.--_adj._ POOR'-SPIR'ITED, cowardly: mean.--_ns._ POOR'-SPIR'ITEDNESS, cowardice; POOR'S'-ROLL (_Scots law_), the list of poor persons who are litigants, but unable to pay the expenses of litigation, and therefore are allowed to sue in _formâ pauperis_.--POOR MAN OF MUTTON (_Scot._), cold mutton broiled, esp. the shoulder; POOR MAN'S HERB, the hedge-hyssop; POOR WILL, a common American bird of the genus _Phalænoptilus_.--THE POOR, poor people collectively: those depending on public or private charity. [O. Fr. _poure_, _povre_ (Fr. _pauvre_)--L. _pauper_, poor.] POORTITH, p[=oo]r'tith, _n._ (_Scot._) poverty. POP, pop, _v.i._ to make a sharp, quick sound: to dart: to move quickly: to propose marriage.--_v.t._ to cause to make a sudden report: to thrust suddenly: to bring suddenly into notice: (_slang_) to pawn:--_pr.p._ pop'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ popped.--_n._ a sharp, quick sound or report: an effervescent beverage: (_slang_) a pistol.--_adv._ suddenly.--_adj._ coming without warning.--_v.t._ POP'-CORN, to parch maize till it bursts open.--_n._ corn so prepared.--_n.pl._ POP'-EYES, prominent eyes.--_ns._ POP'-GUN, a tube and rammer for shooting pellets, which makes a noise by the expansion of compressed air; POP'PER, anything that makes a popping sound; POP'-SHOP, a pawnshop; POP'-WEED, a name for the bladderwort.--POP OFF, to disappear all at once; POP THE QUESTION, to make an offer of marriage. [Imit.] POPE, p[=o]p, _n._ the bishop of Rome, head of the R.C. Church: a priest of the Eastern Church: the autocratic head of any church or organisation.--_ns._ POPE'DOM, office, dignity, or jurisdiction of the pope; POPE'HOOD, POPE'SHIP, the condition of being pope; POPE'LING, a little pope; POP'ERY, the religion of which the pope is the head: Roman Catholicism; POPE'S'-EYE, the gland surrounded with fat in the middle of the thigh of an ox or a sheep; POPE'S'-HEAD, a long-handled brush; POPE'S'-NOSE, the fleshy part of a bird's tail.--_adj._ POP'ISH, relating to the pope or to popery: taught by popery.--_adv._ POP'ISHLY.--POPE JOAN, a game at cards in which the eight of diamonds is removed. [A.S. _pápa_--L. _papa_, a father.] POPE, p[=o]p, _n._ a kind of perch. [Ety. obscure.] POPINJAY, pop'in-j[=a], _n._ a parrot: a mark like a parrot, put on a pole to be shot at: a fop or coxcomb. [O. Fr. _papegai_--Low L. _papagallus_--Late Gr. _papagas_, a parrot; prob. Eastern.] POPJOYING, pop'joi-ing, _n._ sport: amusement. [Perh. conn. with _popinjay_.] POPLAR, pop'lar, _n._ a tree common in the northern hemisphere, of rapid growth, and having dioecious flowers arranged in catkins, both male and female flowers with an oblique cup-shaped perianth. [O. Fr. _poplier_--L. _p[=o]pulus_, poplar-tree.] POPLIN, pop'lin, _n._ a kind of cloth consisting of a warp of silk and a weft of worsted, the latter, being thicker than the former, giving a corded appearance. [Fr. _popeline_. Ety. unknown.] POPLITEAL, pop-li-t[=e]'al, _adj._ of or pertaining to the back of the knee.--Also POPLIT'IC. [L. _poples_, _poplitis_, the hock.] POPPET, pop'et, _n._ a puppet: a piece of timber used to support a vessel while being launched: one of the heads of a lathe. [_Puppet._] POPPLE, pop'l, _v.i._ to flow, to bob up and down. POPPY, pop'i, _n._ a plant having large showy flowers, from one species of which opium is obtained.--_adj._ POPP'IED, covered or filled with poppies: listless, as the effects of opium.--_ns._ POPP'Y-HEAD, a carved ornament in wood, often finishing the end of a pew; POPP'Y-OIL, a fixed oil from the seeds of the opium-poppy. [A.S. _popig_--L. _papaver_, poppy.] POPULACE, pop'[=u]-l[=a]s, _n._ the common people: those who are not distinguished by rank, education, office, &c. [Fr.,--It. _popolazzo_--L. _populus_, people.] POPULAR, pop'[=u]-lar, _adj._ pertaining to the people: pleasing to, or prevailing among, the people: enjoying the favour of the people: easily understood: inferior: (_Shak._) vulgar.--_n._ POPULARIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ POP'ULARISE, to make popular or suitable to the people: to spread among the people.--_ns._ POP'ULARISER; POPULAR'ITY, POP'ULARNESS, quality or state of being popular or pleasing to the people: favour with the people: a desire to obtain favour with the people.--_adv._ POP'ULARLY.--_v.t._ POP'UL[=A]TE, to people: to furnish with inhabitants.--_v.i._ to increase in numbers.--_adj._ populous.--_n._ POPUL[=A]'TION, act of populating: the number of the inhabitants of any place.--_adj._ POP'ULOUS, full of people: numerously inhabited: (_Shak._) numerous.--_adv._ POP'ULOUSLY.--_n._ POP'ULOUSNESS. [Fr. _populaire_--L. _popularis_--_populus_, the people.] PORAL, p[=o]'ral. See PORE. PORBEAGLE, por-b[=e]'gl, _n._ a kind of tope or mackerel-shark. [Fr. _porc_, a hog + Eng. _beagle_.] PORCATE, por'k[=a]t, _adj._ ridged. PORCELAIN, pors'l[=a]n, _n._ a fine earthenware, white, thin, semi-transparent, first made in China: china-ware.--_adj._ of the nature of porcelain.--_adjs._ POR'CEL[=A]NOUS, PORCELL[=A]'NEOUS, POR'CELL[=A]NOUS.--_n._ POR'CELLANITE, a very hard, impure, jaspideous rock.--CAST, or FUSIBLE, PORCELAIN, a milky glass made of silica and cryolite with oxide of zinc; EGG-SHELL PORCELAIN, an extremely thin and translucent porcelain; FALSE PORCELAIN, a name given to the artificial or soft-paste porcelain; FRIT PORCELAIN, a name given to artificial soft-paste English porcelain, from its vitreous nature; TENDER PORCELAIN, a ware imitating hard-paste or natural porcelain. [O. Fr. _porcelaine_--It. _porcellana_, the Venus' shell--L. _porcella_, a young sow--_porcus_, a pig.] [Illustration] PORCH, p[=o]rch, _n._ a building forming an enclosure or protection for a doorway: a portico at the entrance of churches and other buildings: the public porch on the agora of Athens where Zeno the Stoic taught: (_fig._) the Stoic philosophy. [O. Fr. _porche_ (It. _portico_)--L. _porticus_--_porta_, a gate.] PORCINE, por's[=i]n, _adj._ pertaining to or resembling swine: swinish. [L. _porcinus_--_porcus_, a swine.] PORCUPINE, por'k[=u]-p[=i]n, _n._ one of the largest of rodent quadrupeds, covered with spines or quills. [O. Fr. _porc espin_--L. _porcus_, a pig, _spina_, a spine.] PORE, p[=o]r, _n._ a minute passage in the skin for the perspiration: an opening between the molecules of a body.--_adjs._ P[=O]'RAL, of or pertaining to pores; P[=O]'RIFORM, in the form of a pore.--_ns._ P[=O]'RINESS, POROS'ITY, P[=O]'ROUSNESS, quality of being porous--opp. to _Density_.--_adjs._ P[=O]'ROSE, containing pores; P[=O]'ROUS, P[=O]'RY, having pores: that can be penetrated by fluid.--_adv._ P[=O]'ROUSLY. [Fr.,--L. _porus_--Gr. _poros_, a passage.] PORE, p[=o]r, _v.i._ to look with steady attention on: to study closely.--_n._ P[=O]'RER. [_Peer_, to peep.] PORGY, PORGIE, por'ji, _n._ a fish of the genus _Pagrus_. PORIFERA, p[=o]-rif'e-ra, _n.pl._ sponges:--_sing._ POR'IFER.--_adjs._ PORIF'ERAL, PORIF'EROUS. [L. _porus_, a pore, _ferre_, to bear.] PORISM, por'ism, _n._ a proposition affirming the possibility of finding such conditions as will render a certain problem capable of innumerable solutions.--_adjs._ PORISMAT'IC, -AL; PORIS'TIC, -AL, reducing a determinate problem to an indeterminate. [Gr. _porizein_, to procure--_poros_, a way.] PORK, p[=o]rk, _n._ the flesh of swine: (_Milt._) a stupid fellow.--_ns._ PORK'-BUTCH'ER, one who kills pigs; PORK'-CHOP, a slice from a pig's rib; PORK'ER, a young hog: a pig fed for pork; PORK'LING, a young pig; PORK'-PIE, a pie made of pastry and minced pork.--_adj._ PORK'Y, fat.--PORK-PIE HAT, a hat somewhat like a pie in shape worn by men and women about the middle of the 19th century. [Fr. _porc_--L. _porcus_, a hog.] PORNOCRACY, p[=o]r-nok'r[=a]-si, _n._ the influence of courtezans--applied esp. to the dominant influence of certain profligate women over the Papal court in the earlier half of the 10th century.--_ns._ POR'NOGRAPH, an obscene picture or writing; PORNOG'RAPHER, a writer of such.--_adj._ PORNOGRAPH'IC.--_n._ PORNOG'RAPHY, the discussion of prostitution: obscene writing. [Gr. _porn[=e]_, a whore, _kratein_, to rule.] POROSIS, p[=o]-r[=o]'sis, _n._ formation of callus, the knitting together of broken bones. POROTYPE, p[=o]'r[=o]-t[=i]p, _n._ a copy of an engraved print made by placing it on chemically prepared paper and subjecting to the action of a gas. [Gr. _poros_, a pore, _typos_, an impression.] PORPENTINE, por'pen-t[=i]n, _n._ (_Shak._) a porcupine. PORPESS, PORPESSE, por'pes, _n._ Same as PORPOISE. PORPHYRIO, por-fir'i-[=o], _n._ a genus of _Rallidæ_, the hyacinthine gallinules. PORPHYROGENITUS, por-fir-[=o]-jen'i-tus, _n._ a title given to the Byzantine emperor, Constantine VII. (912-959), meaning 'born in the purple.'--_n._ PORPHYROGEN'ITISM, the Byzantine principle of the first son born after his father's accession succeeding to the throne. [Gr. _porphyra_, purple, _gennain_, to beget.] PORPHYRY, por'fir-i, _n._ a very hard, variegated rock, of a purple and white colour, used in sculpture (_porfido rosso antico_): an igneous rock having a ground-mass enclosing crystals of feldspar or quartz.--_v.t._ POR'PHYRISE, to cause to resemble porphyry: to make of a spotted appearance.--_n._ POR'PHYRITE, one of the crystalline igneous rocks, which consists principally of plagioclase.--_adjs._ PORPHYRIT'IC, PORPHYR[=A]'CEOUS, resembling or consisting of porphyry.--_n._ POR'PHYROID, a crystalline and schistose rock containing porphyritic crystals of feldspar. [Through Fr. and L. from Gr. _porphyrites_--_porphyra_, purple.] PORPOISE, por'pus, _n._ a genus of Cetecea in the family _Delphinidæ_, 4 to 8 feet long, gregarious, affording oil and leather--anciently POR'PESS. [O. Fr. _porpeis_--L. _porcus_, a hog, _piscis_, a fish.] PORPORINO, por-p[=o]-r[=e]'n[=o], _n._ an old alloy of quicksilver, tin, and sulphur, used in place of gold. [It.] PORRACEOUS, po-r[=a]'shus, _adj._ greenish like the leek. [L. _porrum_, a leek.] PORRECTION, po-rek'shun, _n._ the action of delivering as by outstretched hands.--_adj._ PORRECT', extended forward. [L., _porrig[)e]re_, to stretch out.] PORRIDGE, por'ij, _n._ a kind of pudding usually made by slowly stirring oatmeal amongst boiling water: a kind of broth, made by boiling vegetables in water. [Through O. Fr., from Low L. _porrata_--L. _porrum_, a leek. The affix _-idge_ (= _-age_) arose through confusion with _pottage_.] PORRIGO, po-r[=i]'g[=o], _n._ a general name for various skin diseases.--_adj._ PORRIG'INOUS. [L.] PORRINGER, por'in-j[.e]r, _n._ a small dish for porridge: (_Shak._) a head-dress shaped like such a dish.--Also PORR'ENGER. [From _porrige_=_porridge_, with inserted _n_ as in _passenger_.] PORT, p[=o]rt, _n._ the larboard or left side of a ship.--_v.t._ to turn to the left, as the helm.--_v.i._ to turn to larboard or left. [Ety. dub.] PORT, p[=o]rt, _n._ martial music on the bagpipes. [Gael.] PORT, p[=o]rt, _n._ bearing: demeanour: carriage of the body.--_v.t._ to hold, as a musket, in a slanting direction upward across the body.--_ns._ PORTABIL'ITY, PORT'ABLENESS, the state of being portable.--_adj._ PORT'ABLE, that may be carried: not bulky or heavy.--_ns._ PORT'AGE, act of carrying: carriage: price of carriage: a space between two rivers, canals, &c., over which goods and boats have to be carried; PORT'ANCE (_Spens._), carriage, bearing.--_adjs._ POR'T[=A]TE (_her._), in a position as if being carried; POR'TATILE, portable; POR'TATIVE, easily carried.--_ns._ PORT'-CRAY'ON, a metallic handle for holding a crayon; PORTE'-BONHEUR', a charm carried for luck; PORTE'-COCHÈRE, a carriage entrance leading from the street into a building; PORTE'-MON'NAIE, a small clasped pocket-book for holding money; PORT'-FIRE, a slow-match or match-cord. [Fr.,--L. _port[=a]re_, to carry.] PORT, p[=o]rt, _n._ a harbour: a haven or safe station for vessels: a place from which vessels start, and at which they finish their voyages.--_n._ PORT'-AD'MIRAL, the admiral commanding at a naval port.--_n.pl._ PORT'-CHARG'ES, payments which a ship has to pay while in harbour.--_n._ PORT'-WARD'EN, the officer in charge of a port: a harbour-master.--PORT OF CALL, a port where vessels can call for stores or repairs; PORT OF ENTRY, a port where merchandise is allowed by law to enter.--_Free port_, a port where no duty has to be paid on landing goods. [A.S. _port_--L. _portus_; akin to L. _porta_, a gate.] PORT, p[=o]rt, _n._ a gate or entrance, esp. of a walled town: an opening in the side of a ship for light or air: an opening through which guns can be fired: the lid of a porthole: a passage in a machine for oil, steam, &c.--_n._ PORT'AGE (_Shak._), an opening. [Fr. _porte_--L. _porta_, gate.] PORT, p[=o]rt, _n._ a dark-red wine from _Oporto_, Portugal. PORTA, p[=o]r'ta, _n._ the part of an organ where its vessels and ducts enter, esp. the transverse fissure of the liver: the foramen of Monro. PORTAL, p[=o]rt'al, _n._ a small gate: any entrance: (_archit._) the arch over a gate: the lesser of two gates.--PORTAL CIRCULATION, the capillary transmission of venous blood from one organ to another in its passage to the heart; PORTAL SYSTEM, the portal vein with its tributaries, &c.; PORTAL VEIN, the vein which conveys to the liver the venous blood from intestines, spleen, and stomach. [O. Fr. (Fr. _portail_)--Low L. _portale_--L. _porta_, a gate.] PORTCULLIS, p[=o]rt-kul'is, _n._ a sliding door of cross timbers pointed with iron, hung over a gateway, so as to be let down in a moment to keep out an enemy: (_her._) a lattice: one of the pursuivants of the English College of Heralds: an Elizabethan coin bearing a portcullis on the reverse.--_v.t._ to obstruct, as with a portcullis. [O. Fr. _portecoulisse_--_porte_, a gate, _coulisse_, a groove--L. _col[=a]re_, to strain.] PORTE, p[=o]rt, _n._ the Turkish government, so called from the 'High Gate,' or 'Sublime Porte,' the chief office of the Ottoman government. PORTEND, por-tend', _v.t._ to indicate the future by signs: to betoken: presage.--_n._ POR'TENT, that which portends or foreshows: an evil omen.--_adj._ PORTENT'OUS, serving to portend: foreshadowing ill: wonderful, dreadful, prodigious.--_adv._ PORTENT'OUSLY. [L. _portend[)e]re_, _portentum_--_pro_, forth, _tend[)e]re_, to stretch.] PORTER, p[=o]rt'[.e]r, _n._ a door-keeper or gate-keeper: one who waits at the door to receive messages:--_fem._ PORT'ERESS, PORT'RESS.--_n._ PORT'ERAGE, the office or duty of a porter.--PORTER'S LODGE, a house or an apartment near a gate for the use of the porter. [O. Fr. _portier_--Low L. _portarius_--L. _porta_, a gate.] PORTER, p[=o]rt'[.e]r, _n._ one who carries burdens for hire: a dark-brown malt liquor, prob. because a favourite drink with London porters.--_ns._ PORT'ERAGE, carriage: charge made by a porter for carrying goods; PORT'ER-HOUSE, a restaurant; PORT'ERHOUSE-STEAK (_U.S._), a choice cut of beef-steak next to the sirloin.--_adv._ PORT'ERLY, like a porter: coarse. [O. Fr. _porteur_--L. _port[=a]re_, to carry.] PORTFOLIO, p[=o]rt-f[=o]'li-[=o], _n._ a portable case for loose papers, drawings, &c.: a collection of such papers: the office of a minister of state. [Sp. _portafolio_--L. _port[=a]re_, to carry, _folium_, a leaf.] PORTHOLE, p[=o]rt'h[=o]l, _n._ a hole or opening in a ship's side for light and air, or for pointing a gun through. [_Port_, a gate, and _hole_.] PORTICO, p[=o]r'ti-k[=o], _n._ (_archit._) a range of columns in the front of a building: a colonnade: a porch before the entrance to a building: the Stoic philosophy:--_pl._ POR'TICOES, POR'TICOS.--_adj._ POR'TICOED, furnished with a portico. [It.,--L. _porticus_, a porch.] PORTIÈRE, por-ty[=a]r', _n._ a curtain hung over the door or doorway of a room. [Fr.] PORTIFORIUM, p[=o]r-ti-f[=o]'ri-um, _n._ a breviary:--_pl._ PORTIF[=O]'RIA.--Also PORT'FORY, PORT'OUS, PORT'UARY. PORTIFY, p[=o]r'ti-f[=i], _v.t._ (_hum._) to give one's self undue importance. [_Port_, the wine of that name, _-fy_, from L. _fac[)e]re_, to make, from the saying, 'Claret would be port if it could.'] PORTION, p[=o]r'shun, _n._ a part: an allotment: fate: destiny: dividend: the part of an estate descending to an heir: a wife's fortune.--_v.t._ to divide into portions: to allot a share: to furnish with a portion.--_adj._ POR'TIONED, having a portion or endowment.--_ns._ POR'TIONER, one who portions or assigns shares: (_Scots law_) the occupier of a small feu or portion of land: one of two or more incumbents on a benefice at one time; POR'TIONIST, one who has an academical allowance: the incumbent of a benefice which has more than one rector or vicar.--_adj._ POR'TIONLESS, having no portion, dowry, or property.--MARRIAGE PORTION, a gift given by a parent or guardian to a bride on her marriage. [O. Fr.,--L. _portio_, _portionis_, akin to _pars_, a part.] PORTLAND VASE. See VASE. PORTLY, p[=o]rt'li, _adj._ having a dignified port or mien: corpulent: (_Shak._) swelling.--_n._ PORT'LINESS, state of being portly. [_Port_, bearing.] PORTMAN, p[=o]rt'man, _n._ an inhabitant of a port-town, or one of the Cinque Ports.--_n._ PORT'-MOTE, a mote composed of such citizens. PORTMANTEAU, port-man't[=o], _n._ a bag for carrying apparel, &c., on journeys: a hook on which to hang clothing.--Also PORTMAN'TUA (_obs._). [Fr.,--_porter_, to carry, _manteau_, a cloak.] PORTOISE, p[=o]r'tiz, _n._ the gunwale of a boat.--Also PORT'LAST. PORTRAIT, p[=o]r'tr[=a]t, _n._ the likeness of a person, esp. of his face: a vivid description in words.--_v.t._ (_obs._) to portray.--_ns._ POR'TRAITIST, a portrait-painter; POR'TRAITURE, a likeness: the drawing of portraits, or describing in words: a collection of pictures.--_v.t._ PORTRAY (p[=o]r-tr[=a]'), to paint or draw the likeness of: to describe in words: (_obs._) to adorn.--_ns._ PORTRAY'AL, the act of portraying; PORTRAY'ER.--COMPOSITE PORTRAITS, a method of indicating the facial characteristics of a family or group of persons, while at the same time suppressing the peculiarities of individual members. [O. Fr. _portrait_, _portraire_--L. _pro_, forth, _trah[)e]re_, to draw.] PORTREEVE, p[=o]rt'r[=e]v, _n._ once the name of the principal magistrate in a port-town, esp. in London. [A.S. _portgeréfa_--_port_, a port, _geréfa_, a reeve.] PORTUGUESE, p[=o]r't[=u]-g[=e]z, _adj._ of or pertaining to _Portugal_ or to its inhabitants.--_n._ the people, a single inhabitant, or the language of Portugal.--PORTUGUESE MAN-OF-WAR, a species of _Physalia_. PORTULACEÆ, p[=o]r-t[=u]-l[=a]'s[=e]-[=e], _n.pl._ a natural order of exogenous plants, shrubby or herbaceous, generally succulent, mostly growing in dry places. [L. _portulaca_, purslane.] PORZANA, p[=o]r-z[=a]'na, _n._ an old name of the small European water-rail or crake. POS, poz, _adj._ (_slang_) an abbreviation of _positive_. POSADA, p[=o]-sä'dä, _n._ an inn. [Sp.,--_posar_, to lodge.] POSAUNE, p[=o]-zow'ne, _n._ the trombone. [Ger.] POSE, p[=o]z, _n._ a position: an attitude, either natural or assumed.--_v.i._ to assume an attitude.--_v.t._ to put in a suitable attitude: to posit. [Fr.,--_poser_, to place--Low L. _pausare_, to cease--L. _pausa_, pause--Gr. _pausis_. Between Fr. _poser_ and L. _pon[)e]re_, _positum_, there has been confusion, which has influenced the derivatives of both words.] POSE, p[=o]z, _v.t._ to puzzle: to perplex by questions: to bring to a stand.--_ns._ P[=O]'SER, one who, or that which, poses: a difficult question; P[=O]'SING.--_adv._ P[=O]'SINGLY. [M. E. _apposen_, a corr. of _oppose_, which in the schools meant to 'argue against.'] POSÉ, po-z[=a]', _adj._ (_her._) standing still. POSITION, po-zish'un, _n._ place, situation: attitude: a place taken or to be taken by troops: state of affairs: the ground taken in argument or in a dispute: principle laid down: place in society: method of finding the value of an unknown quantity by assuming one or more values (_single_, when one is assumed; _double_, when two).--_v.t._ POSIT (poz'it), to place in right position or relation: to lay down as something true or granted.--_adj._ POSI'TIONAL.--STRATEGIC POSITION, a position taken up by troops to check the movements of an enemy. [Fr.,--L.--_pon[)e]re_, _positum_, to place.] POSITIVE, poz'i-tiv, _adj._ definitely placed or laid down: clearly expressed: really existing: actual: not admitting of any doubt or qualification: decisive: settled by distinct appointment: arbitrarily prescribed, laid down--opp. to _Natural_: too confident in opinion: fully assured: certain: (_gram._) noting the simple form of an adjective--as _Positive degree_ of comparison: (_math._) greater than zero, to be added, as _Positive quantity_: (_phot._) having the lights and shades in the picture the same as in the original, instead of being reversed: (_electr._) having a relatively high potential--opp. to _Negative_ (q.v.).--_n._ that which is placed or laid down: that which may be affirmed: reality: a positive picture--opp. to _Negative_.--_adv._ POS'ITIVELY.--_ns._ POS'ITIVENESS, state or quality of being positive: certainty: confidence; POS'ITIVISM, actual or absolute knowledge; POS'ITIVIST, a believer in positivism.--POS'ITIVISM, POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY, the philosophical system originated by Comte (1798-1857)--its foundation the doctrine that man can have no knowledge of anything but phenomena, and that the knowledge of phenomena is relative, not absolute. [Fr.,--L. _positivus_, fixed by agreement--_pon[)e]re_, to place.] POSNET, pos'net, _n._ a small basin. [O. Fr. _pocenet_.] POSOLOGY, p[=o]-sol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the science of quantity.--_adjs._ POSOLOG'IC, -AL. [Gr. _posos_, how much, _logia_, discourse.] POSSE, pos'[=e], _n._ power: possibility.--POSSE COMITATUS, the power of the county: the body of men entitled to be called out by the sheriff to aid in enforcing the law. [L. _posse_, to be able.] POSSESS, poz-zes', _v.t._ to have or hold as an owner: to have the control of: to inform: to seize: to enter into and influence: to put (_one's self_) in possession (_of_): (_Spens._) to achieve: (_Shak._) put in possession of information, convince.--_adj._ POSSESSED', influenced by some evil spirit, demented.--_n._ POSSES'SION, act of possessing: the thing possessed: a country taken by conquest: property: state of being possessed, as by an evil spirit: madness.--_adjs._ POSSES'SIONARY, POSSES'SIVE, pertaining to or denoting possession.--_n._ POSSES'SIVE (_gram._), a pronoun denoting possession: the possessive case.--_adv._ POSSES'SIVELY.--_n._ POSSES'SOR, one who possesses: owner: proprietor: occupant.--_adj._ POSSES'SORY, relating to a possessor or possession: having possession.--GIVE POSSESSION, to put in another's power or occupancy; TAKE POSSESSION, to assume ownership; WRIT OF POSSESSION, a process directing a sheriff to put a person in possession of property recovered in ejectment. [Fr.,--L. _possid[=e]re_, _possessum_.] POSSET, pos'et, _n._ a dietetic preparation, made by curdling milk with some acidulous liquor, such as wine, ale, or vinegar.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to curdle.--POSSET CUP, a large cup or covered bowl for posset. [Prob. Ir. _pusoid_, a posset; cf. W. _posel_.] POSSIBLE, pos'i-bl, _adj._ that may be or happen: that may be done: not contrary to the nature of things.--_n._ POSSIBIL'ITY, state of being possible: that which is possible: a contingency.--_adv._ POSS'IBLY. [Fr.,--L. _possibilis_--_posse_, to be able.] POSSUM, pos'um, _n._ Same as OPOSSUM. POST, p[=o]st, _n._ a piece of timber fixed in the ground, generally as a support to something else: a pillar.--_v.t._ to fix on or to a post, or to any conspicuous position, in a public place: to expose to public reproach, to placard as having failed in an examination, &c.--_n._ POST'ER, one who posts bills: a large printed bill or placard for posting.--FROM PILLAR TO POST (see PILLAR). [A.S. _post_--L. _postis_, a doorpost--_pon[)e]re_, to place.] POST, p[=o]st, _n._ a fixed place, as a military station: a fixed place or stage on a road: an office: one who travels by stages, esp. carrying letters, &c.: a public letter-carrier: an established system of conveying letters: (_Shak._) a post-horse: (_Shak._) haste: a size of writing-paper, double that of common note-paper (so called from the water-mark, a postman's horn).--_v.t._ to set or station: to put in the post-office: (_book-k._) to transfer from the journal to the ledger: to supply with necessary information, as to _post up_ (cf. _Well posted up_).--v.i to travel with post-horses, or with speed.--_adv._ with posthorses: with speed.--_ns._ POST'AGE, the act of going by post: journey: money paid for conveyance of letters, &c., by post or mail; POST'AGE-STAMP, an adhesive stamp for affixing to letters to show that the postal charge has been paid.--_adj._ POST'AL, of or pertaining to the mail-service.--_ns._ POST'-BAG, a mail-bag; POST'-BILL, a way-bill of the letters sent from a post-office; POST'BOY, a boy that rides posthorses, or who carries letters; POST'-CARD, a stamped card on which a message may be sent by post; POST'-CHAISE, POST'-CHAR'IOT, a chaise or carriage with four wheels let for hire for the conveyance of those who travel with posthorses.--_v.i._ POST'-CHAISE, to travel by post-chaise.--_ns._ POST'-DAY, the day on which the post or mail arrives or departs; POST'ER, one who travels by post: (_Shak._) a courier: one who travels expeditiously: a posthorse.--_adj._ POST'-FREE, delivered by the post without payment.--_n._ POSTHASTE', haste in travelling like that of a post.--_adj._ speedy: immediate.--_adv._ with haste or speed.--_ns._ POST'-HORN, a postman's horn: a horn blown by the driver of a mail-coach; POST'HORSE, a horse kept for posting; POST'HOUSE, a house where horses are kept for the use of parties posting: a post-office; POST'MAN, a post or courier: a letter-carrier; POST'MARK, the mark or stamp put upon a letter at a post-office showing the time and place of reception and delivery; POST'MASTER, the manager or superintendent of a post-office: one who supplies posthorses: at Merton College, Oxford, a scholar who is supported on the foundation; POST'MASTER-GEN'ERAL, the minister who is the chief officer of the post-office department; POST'-OFF'ICE, an office for receiving and transmitting letters by post: a department of the government which has charge of the reception and conveyance of letters.--_adj._ POST'-PAID, having the postage paid, as a letter.--_ns._ POST'-TIME, the time for the despatch or for the delivery of letters; POST'-TOWN, a town with a post-office.--POSTAL NOTE, a note for a fixed designated sum issued by a postmaster, payable at any office; POSTAL ORDER, an order issued by the postmaster authorising the holder to receive at some particular post-office payment of the sum marked on it. [Fr. _poste_--L. _pon[)e]re_, _positum_, to place.] POST, p[=o]st, _adv._ and _prep._ after, behind--in compounds as _Post-abdominal_, _Post-anal_, _Post-axia_l, _Post-brachial_, _Post-canonical_, _Post-clavicle_, _Post-embryonic_, &c.--_adj._ POST'-CLASS'ICAL, after those Greek and Latin writers styled classical, but before the medieval.--_n._ POST'-COMMUN'ION, the part of the eucharistic office after the act of communion.--_adj._ succeeding communion.--_v.t._ POSTDATE', to date after the real time.--_n._ a date on a letter later than the real date on which it was written.--_adjs._ POST'-DIL[=U]'VIAL, POST'-DIL[=U]'VIAN, being or happening after the deluge.--_ns._ POST'-DIL[=U]'VIAN, one who has lived since the deluge; POST'-EN'TRY, an additional entry of merchandise at a custom-house.--_adjs._ POST'-EXIL'IC, POST'-EXIL'IAN, after the time of the Babylonian captivity of the Jews.--_ns._ POST'-EXIST'ENCE, future existence; POST'FIX, a letter, syllable, or word fixed to or put after another word, an affix.--_v.t._ POSTFIX', to add to the end of another word.--_adjs._ POST'-GL[=A]'CIAL, after the glacial epoch; POST'-GRAD'UATE, belonging to study pursued after graduation; POST'-MERID'IAN, coming after the sun has crossed the meridian: in the afternoon (written P.M.).--_n._ POST'-MILLEN[=A]'RIAN, one who believes in post-millennialism.--_adj._ POST'-MILLENN'IAL.--_n._ POST'-MILLENN'IALISM, the doctrine that the second coming of Christ will follow the millennium.--_adj._ POST'-MOR'TEM, after death.--_n._ a post-mortem examination.--_adjs._ POST'-N[=A]'TAL, after birth; POST'-N[=I]'CENE, after the first general council at _Nicæa_ in 325 A.D.--_n._ POST'-NOTE, a note issued by a bank, payable at some future time.--_adj._ POST'-NUP'TIAL, being or happening after marriage.--_ns._ POST'-[=O]'BIT, a bond or security given by heirs and others entitled to reversionary interests, whereby in consideration of a sum of money presently advanced, the debtor binds himself to pay a much larger sum after the death of some person, or of himself; POST'-POSI'TION, the state of being put back or out of the regular place: (_gram._) a word or particle placed after a word--opp. to a preposition, which is _placed before_.--_adjs._ POST'-POS'ITIVE; POST'-REMOTE', more remote in subsequent time or order; POST'-TER'TIARY, more recent than the Tertiary.--_n._ the most recent geological division. [L.] POST-CAPTAIN, p[=o]st'-kap't[=a]n, _n._ a captain in the British navy, so called in contradistinction to a commander because his name was 'posted' in the seniority list. POSTE RESTANTE, p[=o]st res-tant', _n._ a place in a post-office where letters are kept till called for. [Fr. _poste_, post-office, and pr.p. of _rester_, to remain.] POSTERIOR, pos-t[=e]'ri-or, _adj._ coming after: later in time or in position: situated behind: hinder.--_n._ POSTERIOR'ITY, state of being posterior--opp. to _Priority_.--_adv._ POST[=E]'RIORLY.--_n.pl._ POST[=E]'RIORS, short for posterior parts: (_hum._) the latter part, buttock.--_n._ POSTER'ITY, those coming after: succeeding generations: descendants: a race. [L., comp. of _posterus_, coming after--_post_, after.] POSTERN, p[=o]st'[.e]rn, _n._ a back door or gate: a small private door: (_fort._) a covered passage between the main ditch and the outworks of a fort, usually closed by a gate.--_adj._ back: private. [O. Fr. _posterne_, _posterle_--L. _posterula_, a dim. from _posterus_.] POSTHUMOUS, post'[=u]-mus, _adj._ born after the father's death: published after the death of the author.--_adv._ POST'HUMOUSLY. [L. _posthumus_, postumus, superl. of _posterus_, coming after--_post_, after.] POSTICHE, pos-t[=e]sh', _adj._ added after the work is finished. [Fr.] POSTIL, pos'til, _n._ a note in the margin of the Bible, so called because written after the text or other words: a marginal note: (_R.C._) a homily read after the gospel.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to make such notes.--_n._ POSTIL'LA, a sermon or homily explanatory of the gospel in the mass: any sermon.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ POS'TILLATE, to write or deliver a postil.--_ns._ POSTILL[=A]'TION; POS'TILLER, one who comments: a preacher. [O. Fr. _postille_ (It. _postilla_)--Low L. _postilla_--L. _post illa_ (_verba_), after those (words).] POSTILLION, p[=o]s-til'yun, _n._ a postboy: one who guides posthorses, or horses in any carriage, riding on one of them. [Fr. _postillon_.] POSTLIMINY, post-lim'i-ni, _n._ the right by which persons or things taken in war by the enemy are restored to their former status upon their coming again under the power of the nation to which they belonged: the return of a prisoner, exile, &c. to his former status.--_adjs._ POSTLIM'INARY, POSTLIMIN'IARY. [L. _postliminium_.] POSTPONE, p[=o]st-p[=o]n', _v.t._ to put off to a future time: to defer: to delay: to subordinate.--_n._ POSTPONE'MENT, act of putting off to an after-time: temporary delay--also POSTP[=O]'NENCE (_obs._). [L. _postpon[)e]re_, _-positum_--_post_, after, _pon[)e]re_, to put.] POST-PRANDIAL, p[=o]st-pran'di-al, _adj._ after dinner. [L. _post_, after, _prandium_, a repast.] POSTSCRIPT, p[=o]st'skript, _n._ a part added to a letter after the signature: an addition to a book after it is finished.--_adj._ POST'SCRIPTAL. [L., from _post_, after, _scriptum_, written, pa.p. of _scrib[)e]re_, to write.] POSTULATE, pos't[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to assume without proof: to take for granted or without positive consent: (_eccles._) to ask legitimate authority to admit a nominee by dispensation, when a canonical impediment is supposed to exist.--_v.i._ to make demands.--_n._ a position assumed as self-evident: (_geom._) a self-evident problem: a petition: a condition for the accomplishment of anything.--_ns._ POS'TULANT, a candidate; POSTUL[=A]'TION, the act of postulating: solicitation.--_adjs._ POS'TUL[=A]TORY, supplicatory: assuming or assumed without proof as a postulate; POS'TURAL. [L. _postul[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to demand--_posc[)e]re_, to ask urgently.] POSTURE, pos't[=u]r, _n._ the placing or position of the body, esp. of the parts of it with reference to each other: attitude: state or condition: disposition of mind.--_v.t._ to place in a particular manner.--_v.i._ to assume an affected manner.--_ns._ POS'TURE-M[=A]'KER, POS'TURE-MAS'TER, one who teaches or practises artificial postures of the body: an acrobat; POS'TURER, POS'TURIST, an acrobat. [Fr.,--L. _positura_--_pon[)e]re_, _positum_, to place.] POSY, p[=o]'zi, _n._ a verse of poetry, esp. a motto or an inscription on a ring: a motto sent with a bouquet: a bouquet. [_Poesy._] POT, pot, _n._ a metallic vessel for various purposes, esp. for cooking: a drinking vessel: an earthen vessel for plants: the quantity in a pot: (_slang_) a large sum of money, a prize.--_v.t._ to preserve in pots: to put in pots: to cook in a pot: to plant in a pot: to drain, as sugar, in a perforated cask: to shoot an enemy.--_v.i._ (_Shak._) to tipple:--_pr.p._ pot'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ pot'ted.--_n._ POT'-ALE, refuse from a grain distillery.--_adj._ POT'-BELL'IED, having a prominent belly.--_ns._ POT'-BELL'Y, a protuberant belly; POT'-BOIL'ER, a work in art or literature produced merely to secure the necessaries of life; POT'-BOY, a boy in a public-house who carries pots of ale to customers; POT'-COMPAN'ION, a comrade in drinking; POT'-HANG'ER, a hook on which to hang a pot; POT'-HAT, a high-crowned felt hat, worn by men; POT'-HEAD, a stupid person; POT'HERB, any vegetable which is boiled and used as food.--_n.pl._ POT'-HOLES, holes in the beds of rapid streams, made by an eddying current of water, which gives the stones a gyratory motion.--_ns._ POT'-HOOK, a hook hung in a chimney for supporting a pot: a letter shaped like a pot-hook; POT'-HOUSE, an ale-house; POT'-HUNT'ER, one who hunts or fishes for profit; POT'-LID, the cover of a pot; POT'-LIQ'UOR, a thin broth in which meat has been boiled; POT'-LUCK, what may happen to be in the pot for a meal without special preparation; POT'-MAN, a pot-companion: a pot-boy; POT'-MET'AL, an alloy of copper and lead; POT'-SHOP, a small public-house; POT'-STICK, a stick for stirring what is being cooked in a pot; POT'STONE, a massive variety of talc-schist, composed of a finely felted aggregate of talc, mica, and chlorite.--_adj._ POT'-VAL'IANT, brave owing to drink.--POTTED MEATS, meats cooked, seasoned, and hermetically sealed in tins or jars.--GO TO POT, to go to ruin, originally said of old metal, to go into the melting-pot; KEEP THE POT BOILING, to procure the necessaries of life; TAKE POT-LUCK, to accept an invitation to a meal where no preparation for guests has been made. [M. E. _pot_, from the Celt., as Ir. _pota_, Gael. _poit_, W. _pot._] POTABLE, p[=o]'ta-bl, _adj._ that may be drunk: liquid.--_n._ something drinkable.--_n._ P[=O]'TABLENESS. [Fr.,--L. _potabilis_--_p[=o]t[=a]re_, to drink.] POTAMOLOGY, pot-a-mol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the scientific study of rivers.--_n._ POTAMOG'RAPHY.--_adj._ POTAMOLOG'ICAL. POTASH, pot'ash, _n._ a powerful alkali, obtained from the ashes of plants--also POTASS'.--_n._ POT'ASH-WA'TER, a kind of aerated water, which, when of full medicinal strength, contains fifteen grains of the bicarbonate of potash in each bottle--usually much less is put in. [_Pot ashes._] POTASSA, p[=o]-tas'a, _n._ [Latinised form of _potash_.] POTASSIUM, p[=o]-tas'i-um, _n._ the metallic base of the alkali potash--it is of a bluish colour, and presents a strong metallic lustre. [_Potassa._] POTATION, p[=o]-t[=a]'shun, _n._ act of drinking: a draught: the liquor drunk.--_n._ POT[=A]'TOR, a drinker.--_adj._ P[=O]'T[=A]TORY. [L. _potatio_--_p[=o]t[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to drink.] POTATO, p[=o]-t[=a]'t[=o], _n._ one of the tubers of a plant almost universally cultivated for food in the temperate parts of the globe: the plant itself:--_pl._ POT[=A]'TOES.--_ns._ POT[=A]'TO-BEE'TLE, a North American beetle which commits fearful ravages among potatoes; POT[=A]'TO-BING (_Scot._), a heap of potatoes to be preserved; POT[=A]'TO-B[=O]'GLE (_Scot._), a scarecrow; POT[=A]'TO-DISEASE', -ROT, a destructive disease of the potato caused by a parasitic fungus; POT[=A]'TO-FING'ER (_Shak._), a fat finger, used in contempt; POT[=A]'TO-FLY, a dipterous insect of the same genus as the radish-fly, whose maggots are often abundant in bad potatoes in autumn.--SMALL POTATOES (_U.S._), anything petty or contemptible. [Sp. _patata_, _batata_, orig. Haytian.] POTCH, poch, _v.i._ (_Shak._) to thrust, to push. [Fr. _pocher_; from root of _poke_.] POTCHING-ENGINE, poch'ing-en'jin, _n._ in paper-making, a machine in which washed rags are bleached. POTEEN, POTHEEN, po-t[=e]n', _n._ Irish whisky, esp. that illicitly distilled. [Ir. _poitim_, I drink.] POTENT, p[=o]'tent, _adj._ strong: powerful in a physical or a moral sense: having great authority or influence.--_n._ a prince, potentate.--_ns._ P[=O]'TENCE, power: (_her._) a marking of the shape of [T shape]: in horology, the stud or counterbridge forming a step for the lower pivot of a verge (also P[=O]'TANCE); P[=O]'TENCY, power: authority: influence; P[=O]'TENTATE, one who possesses power: a prince.--_adj._ P[=O]TEN'TIAL, powerful, efficacious: existing in possibility, not in reality: (_gram._) expressing power, possibility, liberty, or obligation.--_n._ anything that may be possible: a possibility: the name for a function in the mathematical theory of attractions: the power of a charge or current of electricity to do work.--_n._ P[=O]TENTIAL'ITY.--_adv._ P[=O]TEN'TIALLY.--_n._ P[=O]TEN'TIARY, a person invested with power or influence.--_v.t._ P[=O]TEN'TIATE, to give power to.--_n._ P[=O]'TENTITE, a blasting substance.--_adv._ P[=O]'TENTLY.--_n._ P[=O]'TENTNESS.--POTENTIAL ENERGY, the power of doing work possessed by a body in virtue of the stresses which result from its position relatively to other bodies. [L. _potens_--_potis_, able, _esse_, to be.] POTENTILLA, p[=o]-ten-til'ä, _n._ a genus of plants of the natural order _Rosaceæ_, differing from _Fragaria_ (strawberry) in the fruit having a dry instead of a succulent receptacle--well-known varieties are _silver-weed_ and _wild strawberry_. POTHER, poth'[.e]r, _n._ bustle: confusion.--_v.t._ to puzzle: to perplex: to tease.--_v.i._ to make a pother. [_Potter._] POTICHE, p[=o]-t[=e]sh', _n._ a vase or jar of rounded form and short neck.--_n._ POTICHOM[=A]'NIA, the process of coating glass vessels on the inside with paper or linen decorations. [Fr.] POTIN, p[=o]-tang', _n._ an old compound of copper, zinc, lead, and tin. [Fr.] POTION, p[=o]'shun, _n._ a draught: a liquid medicine: a dose. [Fr.,--L. _potio_--_p[=o]t[=a]re_, to drink.] POT-POURRI, p[=o]-p[=oo]-r[=e]', _n._ a ragout of meats, vegetables, &c.: a mixture of sweet-scented materials, chiefly dried flowers: medley of musical airs: a literary production composed of unconnected parts. [Fr. _pot_, pot, _pourrir_, to rot--L. _putr[=e]re_, to putrefy.] POTSHERD, pot'sh[.e]rd, _n._ a piece of a broken pot--(_obs._) POT'-SHARD, POT'-SHARE. [_Pot_ and A.S. _sceard_, a shred--_sceran_, to divide.] POTTAGE, pot'[=a]j, _n._ anything cooked in a pot: a thick soup of meat and vegetables: oatmeal porridge.--_n._ POT'TINGER, a pottage-maker. [Fr. _potage_--_pot_.] POTTER, pot'[.e]r, _n._ one who makes earthenware.--_n._ POTT'ERY, earthenware vessels: a place where earthenware is manufactured: the business of a potter.--POTTER'S CLAY, clay used in the making of earthenware; POTTER'S FIELD, a burial-place for strangers (Matt. xxvii. 7); POTTER'S WHEEL, a horizontal wheel on which clay vessels are shaped. POTTER, pot'[.e]r, _v.i._ to be fussily engaged about trifles: to loiter.--_n._ POTT'ERER. [Prov. _pote_, to push.] POTTING, pot'ing, _n._ placing in a pot, as plants: preserving in a pot, as meats. POTTLE, pot'l, _n._ a little pot: a measure of four pints: a small basket for fruit.--_adjs._ POTT'LE-BOD'IED, having a body shaped like a pottle; POTT'LE-DEEP, to the bottom of the tankard.--_n._ POTT'LE-POT (_Shak._), a drinking-vessel holding two quarts. [_Pot._] POT-WALLER, pot'-wol'[.e]r, POT-WALLOPER, pot-wol'op-[.e]r, _n._ a pot-boiler: a voter in certain English boroughs where, before the Reform Bill of 1832, every one who boiled a pot--i.e. every male householder or lodger, was entitled to vote--also POT'-WALL'ONER.--_adj._ POT'-WALL'OPING. [Lit., 'pot-boiler,' the latter part of the word being from an Old Low Ger. _wallen_, to boil.] POUCH, powch, _n._ a poke, pocket, or bag: the bag or sac of an animal.--_v.t._ to put into a pouch: to pocket, submit to.--_adj._ POUCHED, having a pouch.--POUCHED MOUSE, a genus of small, lean, long-tailed, agile rodents, with cheek-pouches; POUCHED RAT, a genus of plump, short-tailed rodents, with cheek-pouches which open externally. [O. Fr. _poche_; cf. _Poke_, a bag.] POUCHONG, p[=oo]-shong', _n._ a superior black tea. POUDRETTE, p[=oo]-dret', _n._ manure of dried night-soil, charcoal, &c. [Fr.] POUFFE, p[=oo]f, _n._ in dressmaking, material gathered up into a kind of knot: a cushion stuffed so as to be very soft.--_n._ POUF, plaited gauze attached to a head-dress, as in 18th century. [Fr.] POULAINE, p[=oo]-l[=a]n', _n._ a long, pointed shoe. [O. Fr.] POULDRED, powl'drd, _adj._ (_Spens._) powdered. POULP, POULPE, p[=oo]lp, _n._ the octopus. [Fr.--L. _polypus._] POULT, p[=o]lt, _n._ a little hen or fowl: a chicken.--_ns._ POULT'ER (_Shak._), POULT'ERER, one who deals in fowls; POULT'-FOOT, a club-foot.--_adj._ POULT'-FOOT'ED (_arch._), club-footed.--_ns._ POULT'RY, domestic fowls; POULT'RY-YARD, a yard where poultry are confined and bred. [Fr. _poulet_, dim. of _poule_, fowl--L. _pullus_, the young of any animal.] POULTICE, p[=o]l'tis, _n._ a soft composition of meal, bran, &c. applied to sores.--_v.t._ to put a poultice upon. [L. _pultes_, pl. of _puls_, _pultis_ (Gr. _poltos_), porridge.] POUNCE, powns, _v.i._ to fall (_upon_) and seize with the claws: to dart suddenly (_upon_).--_v.t._ to ornament with small holes: to strike with the claws.--_n._ a hawk's claw: the paw of a lion or other animal.--_adj._ POUNCED, furnished with talons. [Orig. to _pierce_, to stamp holes in for ornament; through Romance forms, from L. _pung[)e]re_, _punctum_.] POUNCE, powns, _n._ a fine powder for preparing a surface for writing on: coloured powder sprinkled over holes pricked in paper to form a pattern on paper underneath.--_v.t._ to sprinkle with pounce, as paper or a pattern.--_ns._ POUNCE'-BOX, POUN'CET-BOX, a box with a perforated lid for sprinkling pounce. [Fr. _ponce_, pumice--L. _pumex_, _pumicis_, pumice-stone.] POUND, pownd, _n._ long the unit of weight in the western and central states of Europe, differing, however, in value in all of them--a weight of 16 oz. avoirdupois for general goods, the troy-pound of 12 oz. being for bullion (the troy lb. is defined as 5760 grains, of which the lb. avoirdupois contains 7000): the pound sterling, a money of account: a sovereign or 20s., also represented in Scotland by a note (the POUND SCOTS is 1/12th of the pound sterling, or 1s. 8d.--of its twenty shillings each is worth an English penny): (_Spens._) a balance.--_v.t._ (_slang_) to wager a pound on.--_ns._ POUND'AGE, a charge or tax made on each pound; POUND'AL, a name sometimes used for the absolute foot pound second unit of force, which will produce in one pound a velocity of one foot per second, after acting for one second; POUND'-CAKE, a sweet cake whose ingredients are measured by weight; POUND'ER, he who has, or that which weighs, many pounds--used only after a number, as a 12-pounder.--_adj._ POUND'-FOOL'ISH, neglecting the care of large sums in attending to little ones. [A.S. _pund_--L. _pondo_, by weight, _pondus_, a weight--_pend[)e]re_, to weigh.] POUND, pownd, _v.t._ to shut up or confine, as strayed animals.--_n._ an enclosure in which strayed animals are confined: a level part of a canal between two locks: a pound-net.--_ns._ POUND'AGE, a charge made for pounding stray cattle; POUND'-KEEP'ER; POUND'-NET, a kind of weir in fishing, forming a trap by an arrangement of nets (the _wings_, _leader_, and _pocket_, _bowl_, or _pound_). [A.S. _pund_, enclosure.] POUND, pownd, _v.t._ to beat into fine pieces: to bruise: to bray with a pestle.--_v.i._ to walk with heavy steps.--_n._ POUND'ER. [M. E. _pounen_--A.S. _punian_, to beat; _-d_ excrescent.] POUR, p[=o]r, _v.t._ to cause to flow or fall in streams or drops: to throw with force: to send forth in great quantity: to give vent to: to utter.--_v.i._ to flow: to issue forth: to rush.--_n._ POUR'ER. [Celt., as W. _bwrw_, to throw, Gael. _purr_, to push.] POURBOIRE, p[=oo]r-bwor', _n._ drink-money: a bribe. [Fr. _pour_, for, _boire_, to drink.] POURPARLER, p[=oo]r-pär'l[=a], _n._ a conference to arrange for some important transaction, as the formation of a treaty. [Fr. _pour_=L. _pro_, before, _parler_, to speak.] POURPOINT, p[=oo]r'point, _n._ a close-fitting men's quilted garment worn in the 14th century. POURTRAHED, p[=oo]r-tr[=a]d', _adj._ (_Spens._) portrayed or drawn. POURTRAY. Same as PORTRAY. POUSSE, pows, _n._ (_Spens._) pulse, pease. [_Pulse_ or _pease_.] POUSSE-CAFÉ, p[=oo]s'-ka-f[=a]', _n._ a cordial served after coffee. POUSSETTE, p[=oo]s-set', _v.t._ (_Tenn._) to waltz round each other, as two couples in a contra-dance. [Fr. _poussette_, _pouser_, to push.] POUT, powt, _v.i._ to push out the lips, in contempt or displeasure: to look sulky: to push out or be prominent.--_n._ a fit of sulkiness or ill-humour.--_ns._ POUT'ER, one who pouts: a variety of pigeon, having its breast inflated; POUT'ING, childish sullenness.--_adv._ POUT'INGLY, in a pouting or sullen manner. [Ety. dub.; cf. prov. Fr. _pot_, _pout_, lip, Fr. _bouder_, to pout; W. _pwdu_, pout.] POVERTY, pov'[.e]r-ti, _n._ the state of being poor: necessity: want: meanness: defect.--_adjs._ POV'ERTY-STRICK'EN, POV'ERTY-STRUCK, reduced to a state of poverty: in great suffering from poverty. [O. Fr. _poverte_ (Fr. _pauvreté_)--L. _paupertas_, _-tatis_--_pauper_, poor.] POWAN, pow'an, _n._ (_Scot._) the pollan, vendace, or Coregonus. POWDER, pow'd[.e]r, _n._ dust: any substance in fine particles: gunpowder, a mixture of charcoal, sulphur, and saltpetre: hair-powder.--_v.t._ to reduce to powder: to sprinkle with powder: to salt by sprinkling.--_v.i._ to crumble into powder: to use powder for the hair.--_n._ POW'DER-BOX, a box for toilet-powder, &c.--_adj._ POW'DERED, reduced to powder: sprinkled with powder: salted.--_ns._ POW'DER-FLASK, POW'DER-HORN, a flask or horn for carrying powder, fitted with a means of measuring the amount of each charge; POW'DERING-GOWN, a loose dressing-gown worn while the hair was being powdered; POW'DERING-TUB, a vessel in which meat is salted: a vessel in which venereal disease is treated by sweating; POW'DER-MAG'AZINE, a strongly built place where powder is stored; POW'DER-MILL, a mill in which gunpowder is made; POW'DER-MINE, an excavation filled with gunpowder for blasting rocks, &c.; POW'DER-MONK'EY, a boy formerly employed to carry powder to the gunners on board a ship-of-war; POW'DER-ROOM, the room in a ship where powder is kept.--_adj._ POW'DERY, resembling or sprinkled with powder: dusty: friable. [O. Fr. _poudre_--L. _pulvis_, _pulveris_, dust.] POWER, pow'[.e]r, _n._ that in a person or a thing which enables them to act on other persons or things: strength: energy: faculty of the mind: any agency: moving force of anything: right to command: rule: authority: influence: ability: capacity of suffering: a ruler: a divinity: the result of the continued multiplication of a quantity by itself any given number of times: (_optics_) magnifying strength: (_obs._) a great many.--_adjs._ POW'ERED, having power; POW'ERFUL, having great power: mighty: intense: forcible: efficacious.--_adv._ POW'ERFULLY.--_ns._ POW'ERFULNESS; POW'ER-HOUSE, a house where mechanical power (esp. electric) is generated.--_adj._ POW'ERLESS, without power: weak: impotent.--_adv._ POW'ERLESSLY.--_ns._ POW'ERLESSNESS; POW'ER-LOOM, a loom worked by some mechanical power, as water, steam, &c.--POWER OF ATTORNEY (see ATTORNEY); POWER OF SALE, a clause in securities and wills empowering property referred to to be sold on certain conditions; POWERS, or GREAT POWERS (see GREAT).--ABSOLUTE POWER, power subject to no control by law; CIVIL POWER, power of governing a state; MECHANICAL POWERS (see MECHANICAL). [O. Fr. _poer_ (Fr. _pouvoir_)--Low L. _pot-[)e]re_, to be able.] POWSOWDY, pow-sow'di, _n._ (_Scot._) any mixture of heterogeneous kinds of food.--Also POWSOW'DIE. POWTER, pow't[.e]r, _n._ a pigeon, the pouter. POWWOW, pow'wow, _n._ a Red Indian conjurer: a dance, feast, &c. before an expedition: any rowdy meeting.--_v.i._ to hold such a meeting: to deliberate: to perform conjurations.--Also PAW'WAW. POX, poks, _n._ pustules: an eruptive disease. [Written for _pocks_, pl. of _pock_.] POYNANT, poin'ant, _adj._ (_Spens._). Same as POIGNANT. POZZUOLANA. See PUZZOLANA. PRACTICE, prak'tis, _n._ the habit of doing anything: frequent use: state of being used: regular exercise for instruction: performance: method: medical treatment: exercise of any profession: a rule or method in arithmetic.--_ns._ PRACTICABIL'ITY, PRAC'TICABLENESS, quality of being practicable.--_adj._ PRAC'TICABLE, that may be practised, used, or followed: passable, as a road.--_adv._ PRAC'TICABLY.--_adj._ PRAC'TICAL, that can be put in practice: useful: applying knowledge to some useful end: derived from practice.--_ns._ PRACTICAL'ITY; PRAC'TICAL-JOKE, a trick of an annoying kind played on any one; PRAC'TICAL-KNOWL'EDGE, knowledge which results in action.--_adv._ PRAC'TICALLY, in a practical way: actually: by actual trial.--_n._ PRAC'TICALNESS. [M. E. _praktike_--O. Fr. _practique_--Gr. _praktikos_, fit for doing--_prassein_, to do.] PRACTICK, PRACTIC, prak'tik, _adj._ (_Spens._, _Shak._) skilful, hence treacherous, deceitful. PRACTISE, prak'tis, _v.t._ to put into practice or to do habitually: to perform: to exercise, as a profession: to use or exercise: to teach by practice: to commit.--_v.i._ to have or to form a habit: to exercise any employment or profession: to try artifices.--_n._ PRAC'TISANT (_Shak._), an agent.--_adj._ PRAC'TISED, skilled through practice.--_n._ PRAC'TISER.--_adj._ PRAC'TISING, actively engaged in professional employment. [From _practice_.] PRACTITIONER, prak-tish'un-[.e]r, _n._ one who practises or is engaged in the exercise of any profession, esp. medicine or law.--GENERAL PRACTITIONER, one who practises in all the branches of medicine and surgery. [Older form _practician_--O. Fr. _practicien_.] PRACTIVE, prak'tiv, _adj._ directly tending towards action. PRAD, prad, _n._ a horse in thieves' cant. PRÆ-. See PRE-. PRÆMUNIRE, PREMUNIRE, pr[=e]-m[=u]-n[=i]'re, _n._ the offence of disregard or contempt of the king and his government, especially the offence of introducing papal or other foreign authority into England: the writ founded on such an offence: the penalty incurred by the offence. [A corr. of L. _præmon[=e]re_, to cite.] PRÆNOMEN, pr[=e]-n[=o]'men, _n._ the name prefixed to the family name in ancient Rome, as _Caius_ in Caius Julius Cæsar: the generic name in zoology put before the specific name. PRÆTEXTA, pr[=e]-teks'ta, _n._ the outer garment, bordered with purple, worn at Rome by the higher magistrates and by free-born children till they assumed the _toga virilis_. [L., _prætex[)e]re_, to fringe.] PRÆTOR, PRETOR, pr[=e]'tor, _n._ a magistrate of ancient Rome, next in rank to the consuls.--_adjs._ PRÆT[=O]'RIAL, PRET[=O]'RIAL, PRÆT[=O]'RIAN, PRET[=O]'RIAN, pertaining to a prætor or magistrate: authorised or exercised by the prætor: judicial.--_ns._ PRÆT[=O]'RIUM, PRET[=O]'RIUM, the official residence of the Roman prætor, proconsul, or governor in a province: the general's tent in a camp: the council of officers who attended the general and met in his tent; PRÆ'TORSHIP.--PRÆTORIAN BAND OF GUARD, the bodyguard of the Roman Emperor; PRÆTORIAN GATE, the gate of a Roman camp directly in front of the general's tent, and nearest to the enemy. [L. _prætor_, for _præitor_--_præ_, before, _[=i]re_, _itum_, to go.] PRAGMATIC, -AL, prag-mat'ik, -al, _adj._ of or pertaining to public business: skilled in affairs: active: practical: interfering with the affairs of others: officious: meddlesome: self-important.--_n._ PRAGMAT'IC, a man of business, a busybody: a public decree.--_adv._ PRAGMAT'ICALLY.--_ns._ PRAGMAT'ICALNESS, PRAG'MATISM, activity: earnestness: meddlesomeness; PRAG'MATIST.--PRAGMATIC METHOD, a method of treating events with reference to their causes, conditions, and results--also called PRAG'MATISM; PRAGMATIC SANCTION, a special decree issued by a sovereign, such as that passed by the Emperor Charles VI. of Germany, securing the crown to Maria Theresa, and which led to the war so called in 1741. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _pragmatikos_--_pragma_--_pragmatos_, deed--_prassein_, to do.] PRAIRIE, pr[=a]'ri, _n._ an extensive meadow or tract of land, level or rolling, without trees, and covered with tall coarse grass.--_adj._ PRAI'RIED.--_ns._ PRAI'RIE-DOG, a small gregarious North American marmot; PRAI'RIE-HAWK, the American sparrow-hawk; PRAI'RIE-HEN, a gallinaceous North American bird: the sharp-tailed grouse; PRAI'RIE-WAR'BLER, an American warbler, yellow with black spots; PRAI'RIE-WOLF, the coyote. [Fr.,--Low L. _prataria_, meadow-land--L. _pratum_, a meadow.] PRAISE, pr[=a]z, _n._ the expression of the honour or value in which any person or thing is held: commendation on account of excellence or beauty: tribute of gratitude: a glorifying, as of God in worship: reason or ground of praise.--_v.t._ to express estimation of: to commend: to honour: to glorify, as in worship.--_n._ PRAIS'ER, one who praises.--_adv._ PRAISE'WORTHILY.--_n._ PRAISE'WORTHINESS.--_adj._ PRAISE'WORTHY, worthy of praise: commendable. [O. Fr. _preis_ (Fr. _prix_)--L. _pretium_, price.] PRÂKRIT, prä'krit, _n._ the collective name of those languages or dialects which are immediately derived from, or stand in an immediate relation to, Sanskrit.--_adj._ PRÂKRIT'IC. [Sans. _pr[=a]krita_, the natural--_prakriti_, nature.] PRAM, präm, _n._ a flat-bottomed Dutch lighter: a barge fitted as a floating battery. [Dut. _praam_.] PRAM, pram, _n._ a vulgar abbrev. of _perambulator_. PRANCE, prans, _v.i._ to strut about in a showy or warlike manner: to ride showily: to bound gaily, as a horse.--_adj._ PRANC'ING, riding showily: springing or bounding gaily.--_n._ the action of a horse in rearing, bounding, &c.--_adv._ PRANC'INGLY. [_Prank._] PRANDIAL, pran'di-al, _adj._ relating to dinner. [L. _prandium_, breakfast.] PRANK, prangk, _v.t._ to display or adorn showily: to put in right order.--_v.i._ to make great show.--_n._ a sportive action: a mischievous trick.--_n._ PRANK'ER.--_adv._ PRANK'INGLY.--_adjs._ PRANK'ISH, PRANK'SOME. [Closely akin to _prink_, a form of _prick_.] PRASE, pr[=a]z, _n._ a leek-green quartz.--_adjs._ PRAS'INE, PRAS'INOUS, lightish-green. PRATE, pr[=a]t, _v.i._ to talk idly: to tattle: to be loquacious.--_v.t._ to speak without meaning or purpose: to let out, as a secret.--_n._ trifling talk.--_n._ PR[=A]'TER, one who prates or talks idly.--_adj._ PR[=A]'TING, talking idly or unmeaningly.--_n._ idle talk.--_adv._ PR[=A]'TINGLY. [Low Ger. _pr[=a]ten_, Dan. _prate_, Dut. _praaten_.] PRATIQUE, prat'[=e]k, _n._ converse, intercourse: a license or permission to hold intercourse, or to trade after quarantine. [Fr.] PRATTLE, prat'l, _v.i._ to talk much and idly: to utter child's talk.--_v.t._ to talk about in a prattling way.--_n._ empty talk.--_ns._ PRATT'LEBOX, a prattler; PRATT'LEMENT, prattle; PRATT'LER, one who prattles: a child. [Freq. of _prate_.] PRAVITY, prav'i-ti, _n._ wickedness. PRAWN, prawn, _n._ a small edible crustacean like the shrimp. [L. _perna_, a mussel.] PRAXIS, praks'is, _n._ practice: an example or a collection of examples for exercise: a specimen.--_n._ PRAX'INOSCOPE, an optical instrument showing a body as if in motion, by means of successive pictures and an arrangement of mirrors in a horizontally rotating box. [Gr. _praxein_, to do.] PRAY, pr[=a], _v.i._ to ask earnestly: to entreat: to speak and make known one's desires to God.--_v.t._ to ask earnestly and reverently, as in worship: to supplicate: to get by praying:--_pr.p._ pr[=a]y'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ pr[=a]yed.--_ns._ PRAY'ER, the act of praying: entreaty: the words used: solemn giving of thanks and praise to God, and a making known of our requests to Him: a form of prayer used in worship: a petition to a public body; PRAY'ER-BOOK, a book containing prayers or forms of devotion.--_adj._ PRAY'ERFUL, full of, or given to, prayer: praying much or often: devotional.--_adv._ PRAY'ERFULLY.--_n._ PRAY'ERFULNESS.--_adj._ PRAY'ERLESS, without or not using prayer.--_adv._ PRAY'ERLESSLY.--_ns._ PRAY'ERLESSNESS; PRAY'ER-MEET'ING, a shorter and simpler form of public religious service, in which laymen often take part; PRAY'ER-MONG'ER, one who prays mechanically; PRAY'ER-RUG, a small carpet on which a Moslem kneels at prayer; PRAY'ING, the act of making a prayer: a prayer made.--_adj._ given to prayer.--_ns._ PRAY'ING-MACHINE', -MILL, -WHEEL, a revolving apparatus used for prayer in Tibet and elsewhere. [O. Fr. _preier_ (Fr. _prier_)--L. _prec[=a]ri_--_prex_, _precis_, a prayer.] PRE-, pr[=e], before, in compound words like _preanal_, _preauditory_, _preaxial_, _prebasal_, _prebrachial_, _precardiac_, _precentral_, _precerebral_, _precloacal_, _precordial_, _precoracoid_, _predentate_, _pre-esophageal_, &c. PREACE, pr[=e]s, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as PREASE. PREACH, pr[=e]ch, _v.i._ to pronounce a public discourse on sacred subjects: to discourse earnestly: to give advice in an offensive or obtrusive manner.--_v.t._ to publish in religious discourses: to deliver, as a sermon: to teach publicly.--_n._ (_coll._) a sermon.--_ns._ PREACH'ER, one who discourses publicly on religious matter: a minister or clergyman; PREACH'ERSHIP.--_v.i._ PREACH'IFY, to preach tediously: to weary with lengthy advice.--_ns._ PREACH'ING, the act of preaching: a public religious discourse: a sermon; PREACH'ING-CROSS, a cross in an open place at which monks, &c., preached.--_n.pl._ PREACH'ING-FR[=I]'ARS, the Dominicans.--_n._ PREACH'MENT, a sermon, in contempt: a discourse affectedly solemn.--_adj._ PREACH'Y, given to tedious moralising.--PREACH DOWN, and UP, to decry, or the opposite. [Fr. _prêcher_ (It. _predicare_)--L. _prædic[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to proclaim.] PREACQUAINT, pr[=e]-ak-kw[=a]nt', _v.t._ to acquaint beforehand.--_n._ PREACQUAINT'ANCE, previous knowledge. PRE-ADAMITE, pr[=e]-ad'a-m[=i]t, _n._ one who lived before _Adam_.--_adjs._ PREADAM'IC, -AL; PREADAMIT'IC, -AL. PREADAPTATION, pr[=e]-ad-ap-t[=a]'shun, _n._ previous adjustment of means to some end. PREADJUSTMENT, pr[=e]-ad-just'ment, _n._ previous arrangement. PREADMISSION, pr[=e]-ad-mish'un, _n._ previous admission. PREADMONISH, pr[=e]-ad-mon'ish, _v.t._ to admonish or caution beforehand.--_n._ PREADMONI'TION, previous warning. PREADVERTISE, pr[=e]-ad-v[.e]r-t[=i]z', _v.t._ to announce beforehand. PREAMBLE, pr[=e]-am'bl, _n._ preface: introduction, esp. that of an Act of Parliament, giving its reasons and purpose.--_adj._ PREAM'BULARY. [Fr. _préambule_--L. _præ,_ before, _ambul[=a]re_, to go.] PREANNOUNCE, pr[=e]-an-nowns', _v.t._ to announce beforehand. PREAPPOINT, pr[=e]-ap-point', _v.t._ to appoint beforehand.--_n._ PREAPPOINT'MENT, previous appointment. PREARRANGE, pr[=e]-ar-r[=a]nj', _v.t._ to arrange beforehand.--_n._ PREARRANGE'MENT. PREASE, pr[=e]s, _v.t._ or _v.i._ (_Spens._) to press, to crowd.--_n._ (_Spens._) a press, a crowd. PREASSURANCE, pr[=e]-a-sh[=oo]r'ans, _n._ previous assurance. PRE-AUDIENCE, pr[=e]-aw'di-ens, _n._ right to be heard before another: precedence at the bar among lawyers. PREBEND, preb'end, _n._ the share of the revenues of a cathedral or collegiate church allowed to a clergyman who officiates in it at stated times.--_adj._ PREB'ENDAL, relating to a prebend.--_ns._ PREB'ENDARY, a resident clergyman who enjoys a prebend, a canon: the honorary holder of a disendowed prebendal stall; PREB'ENDARYSHIP. [L. _præbenda_, a payment from a public source--_præb[=e]re_, to allow.] PRECARIOUS, pr[=e]-k[=a]'ri-us, _adj._ uncertain, because depending upon the will of another: held by a doubtful tenure: depending on chance: dangerous, risky.--_adv._ PREC[=A]'RIOUSLY.--_n._ PREC[=A]'RIOUSNESS. [L. _precarius_--_prec[=a]ri_, to pray.] PRECATORY, prek'a-t[=o]-ri, _adj._ relating to prayer, supplicatory.--_adj._ PREC'ATIVE (_obs._), suppliant. PRECAUTION, pr[=e]-kaw'shun, _n._ caution or care beforehand: a preventive measure: something done beforehand to ward off evil or secure good.--_v.t._ to warn or advise beforehand.--_adjs._ PRECAU'TIONAL, PRECAU'TIONARY, containing or proceeding from precaution: taking precaution. [Fr.,--L. _præ_, before, _cav[=e]re_, to be careful.] PRECEDE, pre-s[=e]d', _v.t._ to go before in time, rank, or importance.--_v.i._ to be before in time, or place. [Fr. _précéder_--L. _præced[)e]re_--_præ_, before, _ced[)e]re_, go.] PRECEDENCE, pr[=e]-s[=e]'dens, _n._ the act of going before in time: priority: the state of being before in rank: the place of honour: the foremost place in ceremony--also PREC[=E]'DENCY.--_adj._ PREC[=E]'DENT, going before in order of time: anterior.--_n._ PRECEDENT (pres'[=e]dent), a past action which may serve as an example or rule in the future: a parallel case in the past: an established habit or custom.--_adjs._ PREC'EDENTED, having a precedent: warranted by an example; PRECEDEN'TIAL, of the nature of a precedent.--_adv._ PREC[=E]'DENTLY.--_adj._ PREC[=E]'DING, going before in time, rank, &c.: antecedent: previous: former.--ORDER OF PRECEDENCE, the rules which fix the places of persons at a ceremony; PATENT OF PRECEDENCE, a royal grant giving to certain barristers right of superior rank; TAKE PRECEDENCE OF, to have a right to a more honourable place. [Fr.,--L. _præcedens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _præced[)e]re_, to go before.] PRECENTOR, pre-sen'tor, _n._ he that leads in music: the leader of a choir in a cathedral, &c.: the leader of the psalmody in Scotch churches.--_n._ PRECEN'TORSHIP. [L. _præ_, before, _cantor_, a singer.] PRECEPT, pr[=e]'sept, _n._ rule of action: a commandment: principle, or maxim: (_law_) the written warrant of a magistrate: a mandate.--_adj._ PRECEP'TIAL (_Shak._), consisting of precepts.--_n._ PRECEP'TION (_obs._), a precept.--_adj._ PRECEP'TIVE, containing or giving precepts: directing in moral conduct: didactic.--_n._ PRECEP'TOR, one who delivers precepts: a teacher: an instructor: the head of a school: the head of a preceptory of Knights Templars:--_fem._ PRECEP'TRESS.--_adjs._ PRECEPT[=O]'RIAL; PRECEP'TORY, giving precepts.--_n._ a religious house or college of the Knights Templars. [Fr.,--L. _præceptum_--_præcip[)e]re_, to take beforehand--_præ_, before, _cap[)e]re_, to take.] PRECES, pr[=e]'sez, _n.pl._ the alternate responsive petitions, as the versicles and suffrages, between the clergyman and the congregation in liturgical worship. [L., pl. of _prex_, a prayer.] PRECESSION, pr[=e]-sesh'un, _n._ the act of going before: a moving forward.--_adj._ PRECES'SIONAL.--PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES, a slow backward motion of the equinoctial points along the ecliptic, caused by the greater attraction of the sun and moon on the excess of matter at the equator, such that the times at which the sun crosses the equator come at shorter intervals than they would otherwise do. PRECHRISTIAN, pr[=e]-krist'yan, _adj._ existing before the Christian era. PRECINCT, pr[=e]'singkt, _n._ limit or boundary of a place: a district or division within certain boundaries: limit of jurisdiction or authority. [L. _præcinctus_, pa.p. of _præcing[)e]re_--_præ_, before, _cing[)e]re_, to gird.] PRECIOUS, presh'us, _adj._ of great price or worth: costly: highly esteemed: worthless, contemptible (in irony): fastidious, overnice: (_coll._) considerable: (_B._) valuable because rare.--_adv._ (_coll._) extremely.--_n._ PRECIOS'ITY, fastidiousness, affected overrefinement.--_adv._ PREC'IOUSLY.--_ns._ PREC'IOUS-MET'AL, a metal of great value, as gold or silver; PREC'IOUSNESS; PREC'IOUS-STONE, a stone of value and beauty for ornamentation: a gem or jewel. [O. Fr. _precios_ (Fr. _précieux_)--L. _pretiosus_--_pretium_, price.] PRECIPICE, pres'i-pis, _n._ a very steep place: any steep descent: a perpendicular bank or cliff.--_adj._ PRECIP'ITOUS, like a precipice: very steep: hasty: rash.--_adv._ PRECIP'ITOUSLY.--_n._ PRECIP'ITOUSNESS. [Fr.,--L. _præcipitium_--_præceps_, _præcipitis_, headlong--_præ_, before, _caput_, _capitis_, the head.] PRECIPITATE, pr[=e]-sip'i-t[=a]t, _v.t._ to throw head-foremost: to urge with eagerness: to hurry rashly: to hasten: (_chem._) to cause to fall to the bottom, as a substance in solution or suspension.--_v.i._ to fall headlong: to make too great haste.--_adj._ falling, flowing, or rushing headlong: lacking deliberation: overhasty: (_med._) ending soon in death.--_n._ (_chem._) a part of a solution, falling or causing to fall to the bottom.--_n._ PRECIPITABIL'ITY.--_adj._ PRECIP'ITABLE (_chem._), that may be precipitated.--_ns._ PRECIP'ITANCE, PRECIP'ITANCY, quality of being precipitate: haste in resolving or executing a purpose.--_adj._ PRECIP'ITANT, falling headlong: rushing down with too great velocity: hasty: unexpectedly brought on.--_n._ anything that causes part of a solution to fall to the bottom.--_advs._ PRECIP'ITANTLY; PRECIP'IT[=A]TELY, in a precipitate manner: headlong: without due thought.--_n._ PRECIPIT[=A]'TION, act of precipitating: great hurry: rash haste: rapid movement: (_chem._) the process by which any substance is made to separate from another in solution, and fall to the bottom.--_adj._ PRECIP'IT[=A]TIVE.--_n._ PRECIPIT[=A]'TOR, one who, or that which, precipitates or causes precipitation.--PRECIPITATE OINTMENT is of two kinds, _red_ and _white_--the former containing red oxide of mercury, the latter ammoniated mercury. [L. _præcipit[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_præceps_.] PRÉCIS, pr[=a]-s[=e]', _n._ a precise or abridged statement: an abstract: summary. [Fr.] PRECISE, pr[=e]-s[=i]s', _adj._ definite: exact: not vague: just of the right amount or measure: adhering too much to rule: excessively nice, punctilious, prim.--_adv._ PRECISE'LY.--_ns._ PRECISE'NESS; PRECI'SIAN, an over-precise person: a formalist: a puritan; PRECI'SIANISM; PRECI'SIANIST, PRECI'SIONIST, a precisian; PRECI'SION, quality of being precise: exactness: accuracy.--_v.t._ PRECI'SIONISE, to make precise.--_adj._ PREC[=I]'SIVE, cutting off: pertaining to precision. [Fr. _précis_--L. _præcisus_, pa.p. of _præcid[)e]re_--_præ_, before, _cæd[)e]re_, to cut.] PRECLASSICAL, pr[=e]-klas'i-kal, _adj._ previous to the classical time or usage. PRECLUDE, pr[=e]-klud', _v.t._ to shut out beforehand: to hinder by anticipation: to keep back: to prevent from taking place.--_n._ PRECL[=U]'SION, act of precluding or hindering: state of being precluded.--_adj._ PRECL[=U]'SIVE, tending to preclude: hindering beforehand.--_adv._ PRECL[=U]'SIVELY. [L. _præclud[)e]re_, _-clusum_--_præ_, before, _claud[)e]re_, to shut.] PRECOCIOUS, pr[=e]-k[=o]'shus, _adj._ having the mind developed very early, or too early: premature: forward: (_bot._) appearing before the leaves.--_adv._ PREC[=O]'CIOUSLY.--_ns._ PREC[=O]'CIOUSNESS, PRECOC'ITY, state or quality of being precocious: too early ripeness of the mind. [L. _præcox_, _præcocis_--_præ_, before, _coqu[)e]re_, to cook.] PRECOGNITION, pr[=e]-kog-nish'un, _n._ cognition, knowledge, or examination beforehand: (_Scots law_) an examination of witnesses as to whether there is ground for prosecution.--_v.t._ PRECOGNOSCE (pr[=e]-kog-nos'), to examine witnesses beforehand: to take a precognition. PRECOMPOSE, pr[=e]-kom-p[=o]z', _v.t._ to compose beforehand. PRECONCEIVE, pr[=e]-kon-s[=e]v', _v.t._ to conceive or form a notion of before having actual knowledge.--_ns._ PRECONCEIT', a preconceived notion; PRECONCEP'TION, act of preconceiving: previous opinion formed without actual knowledge. PRECONCERT, pr[=e]-kon-s[.e]rt', _v.t._ to settle beforehand.--_n._ PRECON'CERT, a previous arrangement.--_adv._ PRECONCERT'EDLY.--_n._ PRECONCERT'EDNESS. PRECONDEMN, pr[=e]-kon-dem', _v.t._ to condemn beforehand.--_n._ PRECONDEMN[=A]'TION. PRECONDITION, pr[=e]-kon-dish'un, _n._ a previous condition. PRECONFORM, pr[=e]-kon-form', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to conform in anticipation.--_n._ PRECONFOR'MITY. PRECONISE, pr[=e]'kon-[=i]z, _v.t._ to call upon or summon publicly: to confirm officially, of the pope.--_n._ PRECONIS[=A]'TION. [Fr.,--L. _præco_, a herald.] PRECONSCIOUS, pr[=e]-kon'shus, _adj._ pertaining to a state prior to consciousness. PRECONSENT, pr[=e]-kon-sent', _n._ a previous consent. PRECONSIGN, pr[=e]-kon-s[=i]n', _v.t._ to consign beforehand. PRECONSTITUTE, pr[=e]-kon'sti-t[=u]t, _v.t._ to constitute beforehand. PRECONSUME, pr[=e]-kon-s[=u]m', _v.t._ to consume beforehand. PRECONTEMPORANEOUS, pr[=e]-kon-tem-p[=o]-r[=a]'n[=e]-us, _adj._ prior to what is contemporaneous. PRECONTRACT, pr[=e]-kon-trakt', _v.t._ to contract beforehand: to betroth previously.--_n._ PRECON'TRACT, a previous contract or betrothal. PRECONTRIVE, pr[=e]-kon-tr[=i]v', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to contrive beforehand. PRECORDIAL, PRÆCORDIAL, pr[=e]-kor'di-al, _adj._ situated in front of the heart. PRECOURSE, pr[=e]-k[=o]rs', _v.t._ to announce beforehand. PRECRITICAL, pr[=e]-krit'i-kal, _adj._ previous to the critical philosophy of Kant. PRECULAR, prek'[=u]-lär, _n._ a beadsman. PRECURRENT, pr[=e]-kur'ent, _adj._ running forward: antrorse--opp. to _Recurrent_.--_ns._ PRECURR'ER (_Shak._), a forerunner; PRECURSE' (_Shak._), a prognostication.--_adj._ PRECUR'SIVE, anticipatory.--_n._ PRECUR'SOR, a forerunner: one who, or that which, indicates the approach of an event.--_adj._ PRECUR'SORY, forerunning: indicating something to follow. [L.,--_præ_, before, _cursor_--_curr[)e]re_, to run.] PREDACEOUS, pr[=e]-d[=a]'shus, _adj._ living by prey: predatory.--_adj._ PRED'ABLE, raptorial.--_n._ PRED[=A]'CEAN, a carnivorous animal.--_adj._ PR[=E]'DAL, pertaining to prey: plundering.--_n._ PRED[=A]'TION, the act of plundering.--_adv._ PRED'ATORILY, plunderingly.--_n._ PRED'ATORINESS, inclination to plunder.--_adj._ PRED'ATORY, plundering: characterised by plundering: living by plunder: ravenous. [L. _præda_, booty.] PREDATE, pr[=e]-d[=a]t', _v.t._ to date before the true date: to date by anticipation: to be earlier than. PREDECEASE, pr[=e]-d[=e]-s[=e]s', _n._ decease or death before some one or something else.--_v.t._ to die before. PREDECESSOR, pr[=e]-d[=e]-ses'or, _n._ one who has been before another in any office.--_v.t._ PREDECESS' (_rare_), to precede.--_adj._ PREDECES'SIVE. [L. _præ_, before, _decessor_, a retiring officer, _deced[)e]re_, _decessum_, to withdraw--_de_, away, _ced[)e]re_.] PREDECLARE, pr[=e]-d[=e]-kl[=a]r', _v.t._ to declare beforehand. PREDEFINE, pr[=e]-d[=e]-f[=i]n', _v.t._ to define beforehand.--_n._ PREDEFINI'TION. PREDELINEATION, pr[=e]-d[=e]-lin-[=e]-[=a]'shun, _n._ the old theory which supposed the whole body to be predelineated in little in the spermatozoon. PREDELLA, pr[=e]-del'a, _n._ the gradino, the step or ledge sometimes seen at the back of an altar, also the frieze along the bottom of an altar-piece. [It.] PREDESIGN, pr[=e]-d[=e]-z[=i]n', _v.t._ to design beforehand.--_v.t._ PREDES'IGNATE, to determine upon in advance.--_adj._ designated in advance: (_logic_) having the quantification of the predicate distinctly expressed (_Sir W. Hamilton_).--_n._ PREDESIGN[=A]'TION.--_adj._ PREDES'IGN[=A]TORY. PREDESTINE, pr[=e]-des'tin, _v.t._ to destine or decree beforehand: to foreordain.--_adj._ PREDESTIN[=A]'RIAN, pertaining to predestination.--_n._ one who holds the doctrine of predestination.--_n._ PREDESTIN[=A]'RIANISM.--_v.t._ PREDES'TINATE, to determine beforehand: to preordain by an unchangeable purpose.--_adj._ fore-ordained: fated.--_n._ PREDESTIN[=A]'TION, act of predestinating: (_theol._) the doctrine that God has from all eternity unalterably fixed whatever is to happen, esp. the eternal happiness or misery of men.--_n._ PREDESTIN[=A]'TOR, one who predestinates or foreordains: a predestinarian. PREDETERMINE, pr[=e]-d[=e]-t[.e]r'min, _v.t._ to determine or settle beforehand.--_adjs._ PREDETER'MINABLE, capable of being determined beforehand; PREDETER'MIN[=A]TE, determined beforehand.--_ns._ PREDETERMIN[=A]'TION, act of predetermining, or state of being predetermined; PREDETER'MINISM, determinism. PREDEVOTE, pr[=e]-d[=e]-v[=o]t', _adj._ foreordained. PREDIAL, pr[=e]'di-al, _adj._ consisting of land or farms: connected with land: growing from land. [Fr. _prédial_--L. _prædium_, an estate.] PREDICABLE, pred'i-ka-bl, _adj._ that may be predicated or affirmed of something: attributable.--_n._ anything that can be predicated of another, or esp. of many others: one of the five attributes--genus, species, difference, property, and accident.--_n._ PREDICABIL'ITY, quality of being predicable. PREDICAMENT, pr[=e]-dik'a-ment, _n._ (_logic_) one of the classes or categories which include all predicables: condition: an unfortunate or trying position.--_adj._ PREDICAMEN'TAL. [Low L. _predicamentum_, something predicated or asserted.] PREDICANT, pred'i-kant, _adj._ predicating: preaching.--_n._ one who affirms anything: a preacher, esp. a preaching-friar. PREDICATE, pred'i-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to affirm one thing of another: to assert: to base on certain grounds.--_n._ (_logic_ and _gram._) that which is stated of the subject.--_n._ PREDIC[=A]'TION, act of predicating: assertion: affirmation.--_adj._ PREDIC[=A]'TIVE, expressing predication or affirmation: affirming: asserting.--_adv._ PRED'IC[=A]TIVELY.--_adj._ PRED'IC[=A]TORY, affirmative. [L. _prædic[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to proclaim.] PREDICT, pr[=e]-dikt', _v.t._ to declare or tell beforehand: to prophesy.--_adj._ PREDIC'TABLE.--_n._ PREDIC'TION, act of predicting: that which is predicted or foretold: prophecy.--_adj._ PREDIC'TIVE, foretelling: prophetic.--_n._ PREDIC'TOR. [L. _prædictus_, pa.p. of _prædic[)e]re_--_præ_, before, _dic[)e]re_, to say.] PREDIGEST, pr[=e]-di-jest', _v.t._ to digest artificially before introducing into the body.--_n._ PREDIGES'TION. PREDILECTION, pr[=e]-di-lek'shun, _n._ a choosing beforehand: favourable prepossession of mind: partiality.--_v.t._ PREDILECT', to prefer. [L. _præ_, before, _dilectio_, _-onis_, choice--_dilig[)e]re_, _dilectum_, to love--_dis_, apart, _leg[)e]re_, to choose.] PREDISCOVER, pr[=e]-dis-kuv'[.e]r, _v.t._ to discover beforehand.--_n._ PREDISCOV'ERY. PREDISPOSE, pr[=e]-dis-p[=o]z', _v.t._ to dispose or incline beforehand: to render favourable.--_adj._ PREDISP[=O]'SING, inclining beforehand: making liable.--_n._ PREDISPOSI'TION, state of being predisposed or previously inclined: a state of body in which disease is easily excited.--_adj._ PREDISPOSI'TIONAL. PREDOMINATE, pr[=e]-dom'in-[=a]t, _v.t._ to dominate or rule over.--_v.i._ to be dominant over: to surpass in strength or authority: to prevail.--_ns._ PREDOM'INANCE, PREDOM'INANCY, condition of being predominant: superior influence: superiority: ascendency.--_adj._ PREDOM'INANT, ruling: having superior power: ascendant.--_adv._ PREDOM'INANTLY.--_n._ PREDOMIN[=A]'TION, ascendency.--PREDOMINANT PARTNER, the partner who has a larger stake in any business than the others--applied by Lord Rosebery (1894) to England as a member of the United Kingdom. PREDONE, pr[=e]-dun', _adj._ worn out, exhausted. PREDOOM, pr[=e]-d[=oo]m', _v.t._ to doom in anticipation or beforehand. PREDORSAL, pr[=e]-dor'sal, _adj._ situated before the dorsal region of the spine: cervical. PREDY, pr[=e]'di, _adj._ (_naut._) cleared for action. PREE, pr[=e], _v.t._ (_Scot._) to prove, esp. to taste. PRE-ELECT, pr[=e]-e-lekt', _v.t._ to elect or choose beforehand.--_n._ PR[=E]-ELEC'TION, choice or election made by previous decision. PRE-EMINENCE, pr[=e]-em'i-nens, _n._ state of being pre-eminent: superiority in excellence: (_Shak._) prerogative.--_adj._ PR[=E]-EM'INENT, eminent above others: surpassing others in good or bad qualities: outstanding: extreme.--_adv._ PR[=E]-EM'INENTLY. PRE-EMPLOY, pr[=e]-em-ploi', _v.t._ to employ beforehand. PRE-EMPTION, pr[=e]-em'shun, _n._ act or right of purchasing before others.--_v.t._ PR[=E]-EMPT' (_U.S._), to secure, as land, by the right of pre-emption.--_adjs._ PR[=E]-EMPT'IBLE; PR[=E]-EMPT'IVE.--_n._ PR[=E]-EMPT'OR. [L. _præ_, before, _emptio_, a buying--_em[)e]re_, to buy.] PREEN, pr[=e]n, _v.t._ to compose and arrange as birds do their feathers. [_Prune_ (v.).] PREEN, pr[=e]n, _n._ (_Scot._) a pin.--_v.t._ to fasten. [A.S. _preón_, a pin.] PRE-ENGAGE, pr[=e]-en-g[=a]j', _v.t._ to establish beforehand.--_n._ PR[=E]-ENGAGE'MENT. PRE-ESTABLISH, pr[=e]-es-tab'lish, _v.t._ to establish beforehand.--_n._ PR[=E]-ESTAB'LISHMENT.--PRE-ESTABLISHED HARMONY (see HARMONY). PREEVE, pr[=e]v, _n._ and _v.t._ obs. form of _proof_ and _prove_. PRE-EXAMINATION, pr[=e]-egz-am-i-n[=a]'shun, _n._ previous examination.--_v.t._ PR[=E]-EXAM'INE. PRE-EXILIC, pr[=e]-eg-zil'ik, _adj._ before the exile--of O.T. writings prior to the Jewish exile (_c._ 586-537 B.C.). PRE-EXIST, pr[=e]-egz-ist', _v.i._ to exist beforehand.--_n._ PR[=E]-EXIST'ENCE, the existence of the soul in a previous state, before the generation of the body with which it is united in this world.--_adj._ PR[=E]-EXIST'ENT, existent or existing beforehand. PREFACE, pref'[=a]s, _n._ something usually of an explanatory kind, spoken before: the introduction to a book, &c.: the ascription of glory, &c., in the liturgy of consecration of the eucharist: a title or epithet.--_v.t._ to introduce with a preface.--_adj._ PREFAT[=O]'RIAL, serving as a preface or introduction.--_adv._ PREF'ATORILY.--_adj._ PREF'ATORY, pertaining to a preface: serving as an introduction: introductory. [Fr. _préface_--L. _præfatio_--_præ_, before, _f[=a]ri_, _fatus_, to speak.] PREFECT, pr[=e]'fekt, _n._ one placed in authority over others: a commander: the administrative head of a modern French department.--_ns._ PR[=E]'FECTSHIP, his office or jurisdiction; PR[=E]'FECTURE, the office or district of a prefect: the house occupied by a prefect. [Fr. _préfet_--L. _præfectus_, pa.p. of _præfic[)e]re_--_præ_, over, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] PREFER, pr[=e]-f[.e]r', _v.t._ to esteem above another: to regard or hold in higher estimation: to choose or select before others: to promote: to exalt: to offer or present, as a request: to bring forward for consideration: to place in advance:--_pr.p._ prefer'ring; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ preferred'.--_ns._ PREFERABIL'ITY, PREF'ERABLENESS.--_adj._ PREF'ERABLE, worthy to be preferred or chosen: more desirable or excellent: of better quality.--_adv._ PREF'ERABLY, by choice: in preference.--_n._ PREF'ERENCE, the act of preferring: estimation above another: the state of being preferred: that which is preferred: choice.--_adj._ PREFERENTIAL (pref-[.e]r-en'shal), having a preference.--_adv._ PREFEREN'TIALLY.--_ns._ PREFER'MENT, the act of preferring: the state of being preferred or advanced: advancement to a higher position: promotion: superior place, esp. in the church; PREFER'RER, one who prefers.--PREFERENCE SHARES, or STOCK, shares or stock on which the dividends must be paid before those on other kinds. [Fr. _préférer_--L. _præferre_--_præ_, before, _ferre_, to bear.] PREFIGURE, pr[=e]-fig'[=u]r, _v.t._ to represent beforehand: to suggest by former types or figures.--_ns._ PREFIGUR[=A]'TION, PREFIG'UREMENT.--_adj._ PREFIG'UR[=A]TIVE, showing by previous figures, types, or similitudes. PREFIX, pr[=e]-fiks', _v.t._ to put before, or at the beginning: to fix beforehand.--_ns._ PR[=E]'FIX, a letter, syllable, or word put before another word to affect its meaning; PREFIX'ION, act of prefixing. PREFORM, pr[=e]-form', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to form beforehand: to determine the shape of beforehand.--_n._ PREFORM[=A]'TION.--_adj._ PREFOR'MATIVE. PREFRONTAL, pr[=e]-fron'tal, _adj._ pertaining to the forepart of the forehead.--_n._ a bone of this region. PREFULGENCY, pr[=e]-ful'jen-si, _n._ superior brightness. PREGLACIAL, pr[=e]-gl[=a]'shal, _adj._ (_geol._) prior to the glacial or drift period. PREGNABLE, preg'na-bl, _adj._ that may be taken by assault or force. [Fr. _prenable_--_prendre_, to take--L. _prehend[)e]re_.] PREGNANT, preg'nant, _adj._ being with child or young: fruitful: abounding with results: full of meaning: implying more than is actually expressed: ready-witted: clever: ingenious: full of promise: free: evident: clear.--_n._ PREG'NANCY, state of being pregnant: fertility: unusual capacity.--_adv._ PREG'NANTLY. [O. Fr.--L. _prægnans_, _-antis_.] PREHALLUX, pr[=e]-hal'uks, _n._ a cartilaginous spur on the inner side of the foot in some batrachians. PREHENSILE, pr[=e]-hen'sil, _adj._ seizing: adapted for seizing or holding--also PREHEN'SORY.--_adj._ PREHEN'SIBLE, that may be seized.--_ns._ PREHEN'SION, act of seizing or taking hold; PREHEN'SOR, one who takes hold. [L. _pre-hend[)e]re_, _-hensum_, to seize.] PREHISTORIC, pr[=e]-his-tor'ik, _adj._ relating to a time before that treated of in history.--_n._ PR[=E]HIS'TORY, history prior to record--the Ger. _Urgeschichte_. PREHNITE, pren'[=i]t, _n._ a hydrous silicate of alumina and lime, usually of a pale-green colour. [Named after _Prehn_, the discoverer of the mineral.] PREIGNAC, pr[=a]-nyak', _n._ an esteemed white wine of Bordeaux. [From _Preignac_ in the Gironde.] PRE-INSTRUCT, pr[=e]-in-strukt', _v.t._ to instruct beforehand. PRE-INTIMATION, pr[=e]-in-ti-m[=a]'shun, _n._ an intimation or suggestion made beforehand. PREJINK, pr[=e]-jingk', _adj._ (_Scot._) tricked out with dress.--Also PERJINK'. PREJUDGE, pr[=e]-juj', _v.t._ to judge or decide upon before hearing the whole case: to condemn unheard.--_n._ PREJUDG'MENT.--_adj._ PREJUDICAL (pre-j[=oo]'di-kal), pertaining to the determination of some undecided matter.--_v.t._ PREJUDIC[=A]TE (-j[=oo]d'-), to judge beforehand: to prejudge.--_v.i._ to decide without examination.--_n._ PREJUDIC[=A]'TION (-j[=oo]d-).--_adj._ PREJUDIC[=A]TIVE (-j[=oo]d'-), forming a judgment or opinion beforehand. [L. _præjudic[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_præ_, before, _judic[=a]re_, to judge.] PREJUDICE, prej'[=u]-dis, _n._ a judgment or opinion formed beforehand or without due examination: a prejudgment: unreasonable prepossession for or against anything: bias: injury or wrong of any kind: disadvantage: mischief.--_v.t._ to fill with prejudice: to cause a prejudice against: to prepossess: to bias the mind of: to injure or hurt.--_adj._ PREJUDI'CIAL, causing prejudice or injury: disadvantageous: injurious: mischievous: tending to obstruct.--_adv._ PREJUDI'CIALLY.--_n._ PREJUDI'CIALNESS. [O. Fr.,--L. _præjudicium_--_præ_, before, _judicium_, judgment.] PREKNOWLEDGE, pr[=e]-nol'ej, _n._ prior knowledge. PRELATE, prel'[=a]t, _n._ the holder of one of those higher dignities in the church to which, of their own right, is attached a proper jurisdiction, not derived by delegation from any superior official: a church dignitary.--_ns._ PREL'ACY, the office of a prelate: the order of bishops or the bishops collectively: church government by prelates: episcopacy; PREL'ATESHIP.--_adjs._ PRELAT'IC, -AL, pertaining to prelates or prelacy.--_adv._ PRELAT'ICALLY.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ PREL'ATISE, to make or to become prelatical.--_ns._ PREL'ATISM, PREL'ATURE, prelacy: the time during which a prelate exercises authority; PREL'ATIST, an upholder of prelacy. [Fr. _prélat_--L. _prelatus_--_præ_, before, _latus_, borne.] PRELECT, pr[=e]-lekt', _v.i._ to read before or in presence of others: to read a discourse: to lecture.--_ns._ PRELEC'TION, a lecture or discourse read to others; PRELEC'TOR, one who prelects: a lecturer. [L. _præleg[)e]re_--_præ_, before, _leg[)e]re_, _lectum_, to read.] PRELIBATION, pr[=e]-l[=i]-b[=a]'shun, _n._ a tasting beforehand, foretaste. [L. _prælibatio_--_præ_, before, _lib[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to taste.] PRELIMINARY, pr[=e]-lim'in-ar-i, _adj._ introductory: preparatory: preceding or preparing for the main discourse or business.--_n._ that which precedes: introduction--used mostly in _pl._--_adv._ PRELIM'INARILY. [L. _præ_, before, _liminaris_, relating to a threshold--_limen_, _liminis_, a threshold.] PRELINGUAL, pr[=e]-ling'gwal, _adj._ prior to language. PRELUDE, pr[=e]-l[=u]d', or prel'[=u]d, _n._ the introductory movement of a musical work: a prefatory piece to an oratorio, &c.: an organ voluntary before a church service: a preface: a forerunner.--_v.t._ PRELUDE', to play before: to preface, as an introduction.--_v.i._ to perform a prelude: to serve as a prelude.--_adjs._ PREL[=U]'DIAL and PREL[=U]'DIOUS (_rare_); PREL[=U]'SIVE, of the nature of a prelude: introductory.--_advs._ PREL[=U]'SIVELY; PREL[=U]'SORILY.--_adj._ PREL[=U]'SORY, introductory. [Fr.,--Late L. _præludium_--L. _præ_, before, _lud[)e]re_, to play.] PREMANDIBULAR, pr[=e]-man-dib'[=u]-lar, _adj._ in front of the lower jaw, as a bone of some reptiles. PREMATURE, pr[=e]-ma-t[=u]r', _adj._ mature before the proper time: happening before the proper time: too soon believed: unauthenticated (as a report).--_adv._ PR[=E]MAT[=U]RE'LY.--_ns._ PREMAT[=U]R'ITY, PR[=E]MAT[=U]RE'NESS. [L. _præmaturus_--_præ_, before, _maturus_, ripe.] PREMAXILLARY, pr[=e]-mak'si-l[=a]-ri, _adj._ in front of the maxilla.--_n._ such a bone. PREMEDITATE, pr[=e]-med'i-t[=a]t, _v.t._ to meditate upon beforehand: to design previously.--_v.i._ to deliberate beforehand.--_adv._ PREMED'IT[=A]TEDLY.--_n._ PREMEDIT[=A]'TION.--_adj._ PREMED'IT[=A]TIVE. [L., _præmedit[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_--_præ_, before, _medit[=a]ri_, to meditate.] PREMIER, pr[=e]'mi-[.e]r, _adj._ prime or first: chief: (_her._) most ancient.--_n._ the first or chief: the prime-minister.--_v.i._ to govern as premier.--_adj._ and _n._ PREMIÈRE (pre-my[=a]r'), first or leading actress, dancer, forewoman, &c.--_n._ PR[=E]'MIERSHIP. [Fr.,--L. _primarius_, of the first rank--_primus_, first.] PREMILLENNIAL, pr[=e]-mi-len'i-al, _adj._ of or pertaining to the times before the millennium--also PREMILLEN[=A]'RIAN.--_n._ one who believes in the premillennial advent of Christ.--_ns._ PREMILLEN[=A]'RIANISM; PREMILLENN'IALISM. PREMISE, PREMISS, prem'is, _n._ that which is premised or stated at the outset: a proposition previously stated or proved for after-reasoning: (_logic_) one of the two propositions in a syllogism from which the conclusion is drawn: the thing set forth in the beginning of a deed.--_n.pl._ PREM'ISES, a building and its adjuncts. PREMISE, pr[=e]-m[=i]z', _v.t._ to send or state before the rest: to make an introduction: to lay down propositions for subsequent reasonings. [Fr.,--L. (_sententia_) _præmissa_, (a sentence) put before--_præ_, before, _mitt[)e]re_, _missum_, to send.] PREMIUM, pr[=e]'mi-um, _n._ a reward: a prize: a bounty: payment made for insurance: the difference in value above the original price or par of stock--opp. to _Discount_: anything offered as an incentive.--_adjs._ PR[=E]'MIAL, PR[=E]'MIANT.--_v.t._ PR[=E]'MIATE, to reward with a premium.--AT A PREMIUM, above par (see PAR). [L. _præmium_--_præ_, above, _em[)e]re_, to buy.] PREMOLAR, pr[=e]-m[=o]'lar, _adj._ before a molar, in place or time, deciduous.--_n._ a milk-molar. PREMONISH, pr[=e]-mon'ish, _v.t._ to admonish or warn beforehand.--_n._ PR[=E]MONI'TION, a warning or sign (often a feeling) of what is going to happen.--_adjs._ PR[=E]MON'ITIVE, PR[=E]MON'ITORY, giving warning or notice beforehand.--_n._ PR[=E]MON'ITOR, one who, or that which, gives warning beforehand.--_adv._ PR[=E]MON'ITORILY. [_Pre-_, before, _monish_, a corr. form through O. Fr., from L. _mon[=e]re_, to warn.] PREMONSTRANT, pr[=e]-mon'strant, _n._ a member of an order of regular canons founded by St Norbert, in 1119, at a place in the forest of Coucy (near Laon in the dep. of Aisne), pointed out in a vision, and thence called Prémontré (L. _Pratum monstratum_=the meadow pointed out)--called also Norbertines, and in England, from their habit, White Canons.--Also PREMONSTRATEN'SIAN (_n._ and _adj._). PREMORSE, pr[=e]-mors', _adj._ ending abruptly, as if bitten off. [L. _præmord[=e]re_, _præmorsum_, to bite in front.] PREMOSAIC, pr[=e]-m[=o]-z[=a]'ik, _adj._ before the time of _Moses_. PREMOTION, pr[=e]-m[=o]'shun, _n._ previous motion. PRENASAL, pr[=e]-n[=a]'sal, _adj._ in front of the nasal passages. PRENATAL, pr[=e]-n[=a]'tal, _adj._ previous to birth. PRENOMINATE, pr[=e]-nom'in-[=a]t, _p.adj._ (_Shak._) forenamed. PRENOTION, pr[=e]-n[=o]'shun, _n._ preconception. PRENTICE, pren'tis, _n._ Short for _apprentice_. PREOCCIPITAL, pr[=e]-ok-sip'i-tal, _adj._ situated before the occipital region or lobe. PREOCCUPY, pr[=e]-ok'[=u]-p[=i], _v.t._ to occupy or take possession of beforehand: to fill beforehand or with prejudices.--_ns._ PR[=E]OC'CUPANCY, the act or the right of occupying beforehand; PR[=E]OC'CUPANT, a prior occupant.--_v.t._ PR[=E]OC'CUP[=A]TE (_Bacon_), to occupy before others.--_n._ PR[=E]OCCUP[=A]'TION.--_adj._ PR[=E]OC'CUPIED, already occupied: lost in thought, abstracted. PREOPTION, pr[=e]-op'shun, _n._ the right of first choice. PREORAL, pr[=e]-[=o]'ral, _adj._ situated in front of the mouth.--_adv._ PRE[=O]'RALLY. PREORDAIN, pr[=e]-or-d[=a]n', _v.t._ to ordain, appoint, or determine beforehand.--_n._ PREORDIN[=A]'TION. PREORDER, pr[=e]-or'd[.e]r, _v.t._ to arrange beforehand.--_n._ PREOR'DINANCE, a rule previously established. PREPAID, pr[=e]-p[=a]d', _adj._ paid beforehand. PREPARATION, prep-a-r[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of preparing: previous arrangement: the state of being prepared or ready: that which is prepared or made ready: (_anat._) a part of any animal body preserved as a specimen: the day before the Sabbath or other Jewish feast-day: devotional exercises introducing an office: (_mus._) the previous introduction, as an integral part of a chord, of a note continued into a succeeding dissonance.--_adj._ PR[=E]PAR'ATIVE, having the power of preparing or making ready: fitting for anything.--_n._ that which prepares the way: preparation.--_adv._ PR[=E]PAR'ATIVELY, by way of preparation.--_adj._ PR[=E]PAR'ATORY, preparing for something coming: previous: introductory. [Fr.,--L.] PREPARE, pr[=e]-p[=a]r', _v.t._ to make ready beforehand: to fit for any purpose: to make ready for use: to adapt: to form: to set or appoint: to provide: to equip.--_v.i._ to get one's self ready: to put everything in proper order: to lead up to.--_n._ (_Shak._) preparation.--_adj._ PREPARED', made ready, fit, or suitable: ready.--_adv._ PREP[=A]'REDLY.--_ns._ PREP[=A]'REDNESS; PREP[=A]'RER. [Fr.,--L. _præpar[=a]re_--_præ_, before, _par[=a]re_, to make ready.] PREPAY, pr[=e]-p[=a]', _v.t._ to pay before or in advance.--_n._ PREPAY'MENT. PREPENSE, pr[=e]-pens', _adj._ premeditated: intentional, chiefly in the phrase 'malice prepense'=malice aforethought or intentional--(_obs._) PREPEN'SIVE.--_v.t._ (_Spens._) to consider or deliberate beforehand.--_adv._ PREPENSE'LY, intentionally. [Fr.,--L. _præ_, before, _pens[=a]re_--_pend[)e]re_, _pensum_, to weigh.] PREPOLLENCE, pr[=e]-pol'ens, _n._ prevalence--also PREPOLL'ENCY.--_adj._ PREPOLL'ENT. PREPONDERATE, pr[=e]-pon'd[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.t._ to outweigh: to incline to one side: to exceed in power or influence.--_ns._ PREPON'DERANCE, PREPON'DERANCY, PREPONDER[=A]'TION, power or state of outweighing: excess of weight, number, or quantity: predominance.--_adj._ PREPON'DERANT, outweighing: superior in weight, power, or influence.--_advs._ PREPON'DERANTLY, PREPONDER[=A]'TINGLY. [L. _præ_, before, _ponder[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to weigh--_pondus_, a weight.] PREPOSITION, prep-[=o]-zish'un, _n._ a word placed before a noun or pronoun to show its relation to some other word of the sentence.--_adj._ PREPOSI'TIONAL.--_adv._ PREPOSI'TIONALLY.--_adj._ PREPOSI'TIVE, put before: prefixed.--_n._ a word or particle put before another word--opp. to _Post-positive_.--_n._ PREPOS'ITOR, a school-monitor. [Fr.,--L. _præpositio_--_præ_, before, _pon[)e]re_, _positum_, to place.] PREPOSSESS, pr[=e]-poz-zes', _v.t._ to possess beforehand: to fill beforehand, as the mind with some opinion: to bias or prejudice.--_adj._ PREPOSSESS'ING, tending to prepossess in one's favour: making a favourable impression.--_adv._ PREPOSSESS'INGLY.--_n._ PREPOSSES'SION, previous possession: impression formed beforehand, usually a favourable one. PREPOSTEROUS, pr[=e]-pos't[.e]r-us, _adj._ contrary to nature or reason: wrong: absurd: foolish.--_adv._ PREPOS'TEROUSLY.--_n._ PREPOS'TEROUSNESS, unreasonableness. [L. _præposterus_--_præ_, before, _posterus_, after--_post_, after.] PREPOTENT, pr[=e]-p[=o]'tent, _adj._ powerful in a very high degree: excelling others in influence or authority.--_ns._ PREP[=O]'TENCE, PREP[=O]'TENCY.--_adj._ PREPOTEN'TIAL. PREPUCE, pr[=e]'p[=u]s, _n._ the loose skin of the penis covering the glans: the foreskin.--_adj._ PREP[=U]'TIAL. [L. _præputium_.] PREPUNCTUAL, pr[=e]-pungk't[=u]-al, _adj._ excessively prompt.--_n._ PREPUNCTUAL'ITY. PRERAPHAELITISM, pr[=e]-raf'[=a]-el-[=i]-tizm, _n._ a style of painting begun in 1847-49 by D. G. Rossetti, W. Holman Hunt, J. E. Millais, and others in imitation of the painters who lived before _Raphael_ (1483-1523), and characterised by a truthful, almost rigid, adherence to natural forms and effects--also PRERAPH'AELISM.--_adj._ PRERAPH'AELITE, pertaining to, or resembling, the style of art before the time of Raphael--also _n._--_adj._ PRERAPH'AELITISH. PREREMOTE, pr[=e]-r[=e]-m[=o]t', _adj._ more remote in previous time or order. PREREQUISITE, pr[=e]-rek'wi-zit, _n._ something previously necessary: something needed in order to gain an end.--_adj._ required as a condition of something else. PREROGATIVE, pr[=e]-rog'a-tiv, _n._ a peculiar privilege shared by no other: a right arising out of one's rank, position, or nature.--_adj._ arising out of, or held by, prerogative.--_v.t._ to endow with a prerogative.--_adj._ PREROG'ATIVED (_Shak._), having a prerogative or exclusive privilege.--_adv._ PREROG'ATIVELY, by prerogative or exclusive privilege.--PREROGATIVE COURT, formerly a court having jurisdiction over testamentary matters.--ROYAL PREROGATIVE, the rights which a sovereign has by right of office, which are different in different countries. [Fr.,--L. _prærogativus_, that is asked before others for his opinion or vote--_præ_, before, _rog[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to ask.] PRESAGE, pr[=e]s'[=a]j, _n._ something that gives warning of a future event: a foreboding: a presentiment.--_v.t._ PR[=E]SAGE', to forebode: to warn of something to come: to predict.--_v.i._ to have a presentiment of.--_adj._ PRESAGE'FUL.--_ns._ PRESAGE'MENT, the act of presaging: that which is presaged: prediction; PRESAG'ER. [Fr. _présage_--L. _præsagium_--_præsag[=i]re_--_præ_, before, _sag[=i]re_, to perceive quickly.] PRESANCTIFY, pr[=e]-sangk'ti-f[=i], _v.t._ to consecrate beforehand. PRESARTORIAL, pr[=e]-sär-t[=o]'ri-al, _adj._ before the age of tailoring. [L. _sartor_--_sarc[=i]re_, to patch.] PRESBYOPIA, pres-bi-[=o]'pi-a, _n._ long-sightedness, together with diminished power of distinguishing things near, common in old age--also PRES'BYOPY.--_n._ PRES'BYOPE, one so affected.--_adj._ PRESBYOP'IC.--_n._ PRES'BYTE, one affected with presbyopia. [Gr. _presbys_, old, _[=o]ps_, _[=o]pos_, the eye.] PRESBYTER, prez'bi-t[.e]r, _n._ an elder, a priest: a minister or priest in rank between a bishop and a deacon: a member of a presbytery.--_adjs._ PRESBYT'ERAL, PRESBYT[=E]'RIAL, PRESBYT[=E]'RIAN, pertaining to, or consisting of, presbyters: pertaining to Presbytery or that form of church government in which all the clergy or presbyters are equal--opp. to _Episcopacy_.--_n._ PRESBYT'ER[=A]TE, the office of a presbyter: a presbytery.--_adv._ PRESBYT[=E]'RIALLY.--_ns._ PRESBYT[=E]'RIAN; PRESBYT[=E]'RIANISM, the form of church government by presbyters; PRES'BYTERSHIP; PRES'BYTERY, a church court ranking between the Kirk-session and the Synod, consisting of the ministers and one elder, a layman, from each church within a certain district: that part of the church reserved for the officiating priests: (_R.C._) a clergyman's house.--REFORMED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, a religious body in Scotland, called also _Cameronians_, who remained separate from the Church of Scotland and maintained the perpetual obligation of the Covenants--the greater part joined the Free Church in 1876; UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, a religious body formed by the union of the Secession and Relief Churches in 1847--itself uniting with the Free Church in 1900. [L.,--Gr. _presbyteros_, comp. of _presbys_, old.] PRESCIENCE, pr[=e]'shi-ens, _n._ knowledge of events beforehand: foresight.--_adj._ PR[=E]'SCIENT, knowing things beforehand.--_adv._ PR[=E]'SCIENTLY. [L. _præsciens_, pr.p. of _præsc[=i]re_--_præ_, before, _sc[=i]re_, to know.] PRESCIENTIFIC, pr[=e]-s[=i]-en-tif'ik, _adj._ before the scientific age, before knowledge was systematised. PRESCIND, pr[=e]-sind', _v.t._ to abstract from other facts or ideas.--_v.i._ to withdraw the attention (_from_).--_adj._ PR[=E]SCIN'DENT.--_n._ PR[=E]SCIS'SION. PRESCRIBE, pr[=e]-skr[=i]b', _v.t._ to lay down as a rule or direction: to give as an order: to appoint: (_med._) to give directions for, as a remedy: to render useless or invalid through lapse of time.--_v.i._ to lay down rules: to claim on account of long possession: to become of no force through time.--_ns._ PR[=E]SCRIB'ER; PR[=E]'SCRIPT, something prescribed: direction: model prescribed; PR[=E]SCRIPTIBIL'ITY.--_adj._ PR[=E]SCRIP'TIBLE, that may be prescribed.--_n._ PR[=E]SCRIP'TION, act of prescribing or directing: (_med._) a written direction for the preparation of a medicine: a recipe: (_law_) custom continued until it becomes a right or has the force of law.--_adj._ PR[=E]SCRIP'TIVE, consisting in, or acquired by, custom or long-continued use: customary.--PRESCRIPTIVE TITLE, a title established by right of prescription. [L. _præscrib[)e]re_, _-scriptum_--_præ_, before, _scrib[)e]re_, to write.] PRESEE, pr[=e]-s[=e]', _v.t._ to foresee. PRESENCE, prez'ens, _n._ state of being present--opp. of Absence: situation near or within sight, &c., companionship: approach face to face: nearness to the person of a superior: an assembly of great persons: mien: personal appearance: an apparition: calmness, readiness, as of mind: (_Shak._) a presence-chamber.--_ns._ PRES'ENCE-CHAM'BER, -ROOM, the chamber or room in which a great personage receives company.--_adj._ PRES'ENT, being in a certain place--opp. to _Absent_: now under view or consideration: being at this time: not past or future: ready at hand: attentive: not absent-minded: (_gram._) denoting time just now, or making a general statement.--_n._ present time or business: (_pl._) the writing of a letter, or a deed of any kind as actually shown at any time: any deed or writing.--_adj._ PR[=E]SEN'TIAL, having or implying actual presence.--_n._ PR[=E]SENTIAL'ITY.--_adv._ PR[=E]SEN'TIALLY.--_n._ PRES'ENTNESS, state of being present.--PRESENCE OF MIND, a state of mind which enables a person to speak or act with calmness and promptness in circumstances of great and sudden difficulties.--AT PRESENT, at the present time, now; REAL PRESENCE, a doctrine or belief that the body and blood of Christ are really and substantially present in the eucharist; THE PRESENT, the present time. [O. Fr.,--L. _præsentia_--_præsens_, _-sentis_--_præ_, before, _sens_, being.] PRESENT, pr[=e]-zent', _v.t._ to set before, to introduce into the presence of: to exhibit to view: to offer as a gift: to put into the possession of another: to make a gift of: to appoint to a benefice: to lay before for consideration: to point, as a gun before firing.--_n._ PRES'ENT, that which is presented or given, a gift.--_adj._ PR[=E]SENT'ABLE, fit to be presented: capable of being presented to a church living.--_n._ PRESENT[=A]'TION, act of presenting: a setting forth, as of a truth: representation: the act or the right of presenting to a benefice: the appearance of a particular part of the fetus at the superior pelvic strait during labour.--_adj._ PRESENT'ATIVE, having the right of presentation: pertaining to immediate cognition.--_ns._ PRESENT[=EE]', one who is presented to a benefice; PR[=E]SENT'ER.--_adj._ PR[=E]SENT'IVE, presentative, non-symbolic (of words).--_n._ PR[=E]SENT'IVENESS.--_adv._ PRES'ENTLY, after a little, by-and-by, shortly: (_arch._) without delay, at once.--_n._ PRESENT'MENT, act of presenting: the thing presented or represented: (_law_) notice taken of an offence by a grand-jury from their own knowledge or observation: accusation presented to a court by a grand-jury.--PRESENT ARMS, to bring the gun or rifle to a perpendicular position in front of the body, as a token of respect to a superior officer. [Fr.,--L. _præsent[=a]re_--_præsens_.] PRESENTIENT, pr[=e]-sen'shi-ent, _adj._ perceiving beforehand.--_n._ PR[=E]SEN'SION. PRESENTIMENT, pr[=e]-sen'ti-ment, _n._ a sentiment or feeling beforehand: previous opinion: an impression as of something unpleasant soon to happen. [O. Fr.,--L. _præsent[=i]re_.] PRESENTOIR, prez-en-twor', _n._ a tray or salver: a Japanese lacquered stand for a bowl. [Fr.] PRESERVE, pr[=e]-z[.e]rv', _v.t._ to keep safe from harm or injury: to defend: to keep in a sound state: to season for preservation: to make lasting: to keep up, as appearances.--_n._ that which is preserved, as fruit, &c.: that which preserves: a place for the protection of animals, as game: (_pl._) spectacles to protect the eyes from strong light, &c.--_n._ PR[=E]SERVABIL'ITY.--_adj._ PR[=E]SER'VABLE.--_n._ PR[=E]SERV[=A]'TION, act of preserving or keeping safe: state of being preserved: safety.--_adjs._ PR[=E]SER'VATIVE, PR[=E]SER'VATORY, tending to preserve: having the quality of preserving.--_n._ that which preserves: a preventive of injury or decay.--_n._ PR[=E]SERV'ER. [Fr. _préserver_--L. _præ_, beforehand, _serv[=a]re_, to preserve.] PRESES, pr[=e]'s[=e]z, _n._ (_Scot._) a president or chairman. PRESIDE, pr[=e]-z[=i]d', _v.i._ to direct or control, esp. at a meeting: to superintend.--_ns._ PRES'IDENCY, the office of a president, or his dignity, term of office, jurisdiction, or residence: a division of British India, as the _Presidency_ of Bengal; PRES'IDENT, one who presides over a meeting: a chairman: the chief officer of a college, institution, &c.: an officer elected from time to time, as chief ruler of a republic--also _adj._ (_Milt._).--_n.fem._ PRES'IDENTESS.--_adj._ PRESIDEN'TIAL, presiding over: pertaining to a president.--_n._ PRES'IDENTSHIP.--LORD PRESIDENT, the presiding judge of the Court of Session in Scotland; LORD PRESIDENT OF THE COUNCIL, a member of the House of Lords who presides over the privy council, with especial charge of education, sanitation, &c. [Fr. _présider_--L. _præsid[=e]re_--_præ_, before, _sed[=e]re_, to sit.] PRESIDIAL, pr[=e]-sid'i-al, _adj._ pertaining to a garrison.--_adj._ and _n._ PR[=E]SID'IARY.--_n._ PR[=E]SID'IO (_Sp. Amer._), a military post: a penitentiary. PRESIGNIFY, pr[=e]-sig'ni-f[=i], _v.t._ to signify beforehand.--_n._ PR[=E]SIGNIFIC[=A]'TION, the act of showing beforehand. PRESS, pres, _v.t._ to push on or against with a heavy weight or with great force: to squeeze out, as juice: to clasp or embrace: to bear heavily on: to distress: to urge strongly: to present to the mind with earnestness: to lay stress upon: to hurry on with great speed: to shape or smooth by the application of weight.--_v.i._ to exert pressure: to push with force: to crowd: to go forward with violence: to urge with vehemence and importunity: to exert a strong influence.--_n._ PRESS'ER.--_adj._ PRESS'ING, urgent: importunate: forcible.--_adv._ PRESS'INGLY.--_n._ PRES'SION. [Fr. _presser_--L. _press[=a]re_--_prem[)e]re_, _pressum_, to squeeze.] PRESS, pres, _n._ an instrument for squeezing bodies: a printing-machine: the art or business of printing and publishing: act of urging forward: urgency: strong demand: a crowd: a closet for holding articles.--_ns._ PRESS'-BED, a bed enclosed in a cupboard, or folding up into it; PRESS'FAT (_B._), the vat of an olive or wine press for collecting the liquor; PRESS'MAN, one who works a printing-press: a journalist or reporter: a member of a pressgang; PRESS'MARK, a mark upon a book to show its place among others in a library; PRESS'-ROOM, a room where printing-presses are worked; PRESS'-WORK, the operation of taking impressions from type or plates by means of the printing-press.--PRESS OF SAIL, as much sail as can be carried.--BRAHMAH PRESS, a hydraulic press called after Mr _Brahmah_, its inventor; CYLINDER PRESS, a printing-press in which the types are laid on a cylinder which revolves, instead of on a flat surface; HYDRAULIC PRESS (see HYDRAULIC); LIBERTY OF THE PRESS, the right of publishing books, &c., without submitting them to a government authority for permission; THE PRESS, the literature of a country, esp. its newspapers. PRESS, pres, _v.t._ to carry men off by violence to become soldiers or sailors.--_ns._ PRESS'GANG, a gang or body of sailors under an officer empowered to impress men into the navy; PRESS'-MON'EY (for _prest-money_), earnest-money. [Corr. from old form _prest_, from O. Fr. _prester_ (Fr. _prêter_), to lend--_præst[=a]re_, to offer--_præ_, before, _st[=a]re_, to stand.] PRESSIROSTER, pres-si-ros't[.e]r, _n._ one of a tribe of wading birds, the PRESSIROS'TRES, having a flattened beak.--_adj._ PRESSIROS'TRAL. [L. _pressus_, pa.p. of _prem[)e]re_, to press, _rostrum_, a beak.] PRESSURE, presh'[=u]r, _n._ act of pressing or squeezing: the state of being pressed: impulse: constraining force or influence: that which presses or afflicts: difficulties: urgency: strong demand: (_physics_) the action of force on something resisting it.--CENTRE OF PRESSURE (see CENTRE). [O. Fr.,--L. _pressura_--_prem[)e]re_, to press.] PREST, prest, _adj._ ready: neat: at hand.--_n._ ready-money: a loan.--_v.t._ to pay out: to lend. [L. _præsto_, ready.] PRESTER JOHN, pres't[.e]r jon, _n._ the name applied by medieval credulity (12th-14th cent.) to the supposed Christian sovereign of a vast empire in Central Asia. [O. Fr. _prester_ (Fr. _prêtre_), priest.] PRESTIDIGITATION, pres-ti-dij-i-t[=a]'shun, _n._ sleight of hand--also PRESTIG'I[=A]TION.--_adj._ PRESTIDIG'ITAL.--_ns._ PRESTIDIG'IT[=A]TOR, PRESTIG'I[=A]TOR, one who practises sleight of hand. PRESTIGE, pres-t[=e]zh', or pres'tij, _n._ influence arising from past conduct or from reputation. [Fr.,--L. _præstigium_, delusion--_præstingu[)e]re_, to deceive.] PRESTO, pres'to, _adv._ quick: at once: (_mus._) quickly, quicker than _allegro_:--_superl._ PRESTIS'SIMO. [It.,--L. _præsto_, ready.] PRESTRICTION, pr[=e]-strik'shun, _n._ blindness. [L. _præstring[)e]re_, _præstrictum_, to draw tight.] PRESTUDY, pr[=e]-stud'i, _v.t._ to study beforehand. PRESULTOR, pr[=e]-sul'tor, _n._ a leader of a dance. PRESUME, pr[=e]-z[=u]m', _v.t._ to take as true without examination or proof: to take for granted.--_v.i._ to venture beyond what one has ground for: to act forwardly or without proper right.--_adj._ PRES[=U]M'ABLE, that may be presumed or supposed to be true.--_adv._ PRES[=U]M'ABLY.--_adj._ PRES[=U]M'ING, venturing without permission: unreasonably bold.--_adv._ PRES[=U]M'INGLY.--_n._ PRESUMP'TION, act of presuming: supposition: strong probability: that which is taken for granted: confidence grounded on something not proved: conduct going beyond proper bounds: (_law_) an assuming of the truth of certain facts from the existence of others having some connection with them.--_adj._ PRESUMP'TIVE, presuming: grounded on probable evidence: (_law_) proving circumstantially.--_adv._ PRESUMP'TIVELY.--PRESUMPTIVE EVIDENCE, evidence for a fact derived from other facts having some connection with it: indirect evidence.--HEIR PRESUMPTIVE, the person, not son or daughter, at present next in succession to any living person. [Fr. _présumer_--L. _præsum[)e]re_--_præ_, before, _sum[)e]re_, to take--_sub_, under, _em[)e]re_, to buy.] PRESUMPTUOUS, pr[=e]-zump't[=u]-us, _adj._ full of presumption: going beyond the bounds of right or duty: bold and confident: founded on presumption: wilful.--_adv._ PRESUMP'TUOUSLY.--_n._ PRESUMP'TUOUSNESS. [L. _præsumptuosus_.] PRESUPPOSE, pr[=e]-sup-p[=o]z', _v.t._ to suppose before actual knowledge: to assume or take for granted.--_n._ PRESUPPOSI'TION. PRESURMISE, pr[=e]-sur-m[=i]z', _n._ (_Shak._) a surmise previously formed. PRETEND, pr[=e]-tend', _v.t._ to hold out as a cloak for something else: to lay claim to: to attempt, undertake: to offer as true something that is not so: to affect to feel: (_obs._) to offer, present.--_v.i._ to put in a claim: to make-believe.--_ns._ PRETENCE', something pretended: appearance or show to hide reality: false show or reason: pretext: assumption: claim; PRETEN'DANT, -ENT, a pretender.--_adjs_. PRETEN'DED, PRETEN'SED, ostensible, assumed.--_adv._ PRETEN'DEDLY.--_ns._ PRETEN'DER; PRETEN'DERSHIP.--_adv._ PRETEN'DINGLY.--_n._ PRETEN'SION, act of pretending: something pretended: false or fictitious appearance: claim either true or false.--_adj._ PRETEN'TIOUS, marked by or containing pretence: claiming more than is warranted: presumptuous: arrogant.--_adv._ PRETEN'TIOUSLY, in a pretentious manner.--_n._ PRETEN'TIOUSNESS, the quality of being pretentious. [Fr. _prétendre_--L. _prætend[)e]re_--_præ_, before, _tend[)e]re_, _tentum_, _tensum_, to stretch.] PRETENSE. Same as PRETENCE. PRETERCANINE, pr[=e]-t[.e]r-ka-n[=i]n', _adj._ more than canine. PRETERHUMAN, pr[=e]-t[.e]r-h[=u]'man, _adj._ more than human. PRETERIMPERFECT, pr[=e]-t[.e]r-im-p[.e]r'fekt, _adj._ implying that an event was happening at a certain past time. PRETERITE, pret'[.e]r-it, _adj._ gone by: past: noting the past tense.--_n._ the past tense.--_ns._ PRET'ERIST, one who holds the prophecies of the Apocalypse already fulfilled; PRET'ERITENESS.--_adj._ PRETERI'TIAL (_biol._), once active but now latent.--_n._ PRETERI'TION, the act of passing over: the doctrine that God passes over the non-elect in electing to eternal life those predestinated to salvation.--_adj._ PRETER'ITIVE, expressing past times. [L. _præteritus_--_præter_, beyond, _[=i]re_, _[=i]tum_, to go.] PRETERMIT, pr[=e]-t[.e]r-mit', _v.t._ to pass by: to omit: to leave undone:--_pr.p._ pr[=e]termit'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ pr[=e]termit'ted.--_n._ PRETERMIS'SION, the act of passing by: omission. [L. _præter_, past, _mitt[)e]re_, to send.] PRETERNATURAL, pr[=e]-t[.e]r-nat'[=u]-ral, _adj._ beyond what is natural: out of the regular course of things: extraordinary.--_n._ PRETERNAT'URALISM, belief in the preternatural: preternatural existence.--_adv._ PRETERNAT'URALLY.--_n._ PRETERNAT'URALNESS. PRETERNUPTIAL, pr[=e]-ter-nup'shal, _adj._ adulterous. PRETERPERFECT, pr[=e]-t[.e]r-p[.e]r'fekt, _adj._ denoting the perfect tense. PRETERPLUPERFECT, pr[=e]-t[.e]r-pl[=oo]'p[.e]r-fekt, _adj._ denoting the pluperfect tense. PRETEXT, pr[=e]'tekst, or pr[=e]-tekst', _n._ an assumed motive or reason put forward to conceal the real one: a pretence. [L. _prætextum_--_prætex[)e]re_--_præ_, before, _tex[)e]re_, to weave.] PRETHOUGHTFUL, pr[=e]-thawt'f[=oo]l, _adj._ forethoughtful, prudent. PRETIBIAL, pr[=e]-tib'i-al, _adj._ situated upon the front of the lower part of the leg. PRETOR, &c. See PRÆTOR, &c. PRETTY, pret'i, _adj._ tasteful: pleasing to the eye: having attractive but not striking beauty: neat: beautiful without dignity: small: affected: moderately large, considerable: puny, weak (a term of endearment): (in contempt) fine: (_obs._) shrewd, cunning: (_obs._) strong, warlike.--_adv._ in some degree: moderately.--_v.t._ PRETT'IFY, to make pretty in an excessively ornamental way.--_adv._ PRETT'ILY, in a pretty manner: pleasingly: elegantly: neatly.--_n._ PRETT'INESS.--_adj._ PRETT'YISH, somewhat pretty.--_n._ PRETT'YPRETTY (_coll._), a knick-knack.--_adj._ PRETT'Y-SP[=O]'KEN, speaking or spoken prettily.--PRETTY MUCH, very nearly. [A.S. _prættig_, tricky--_prætt_, trickery; prob. Low L. _practicus_--Gr. _praktikos_--_prattein_, to do.] PRETYPIFY, pr[=e]-tip'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to represent by a type what is to happen: to prefigure. PRETZEL, pret'sel, _n._ a brittle biscuit, cracknel. [Ger.,--Old High Ger. _brizilla_, _prezitella_--Low L. _bracellus_, also _braciolum_, a kind of cake.] PREVAIL, pr[=e]-v[=a]l', _v.i._ to be very powerful: to gain the victory: to have the upper hand: to have greater influence or effect: to overcome: to be in force: to succeed.--_v.t._ (_obs.)_ avail.--_adj._ PREVAIL'ING, having great power: controlling: bringing about results: very general or common.--_adv._ PREVAIL'INGLY.--_ns._ PREVAIL'MENT (_Shak._), prevalence; PREV'ALENCE, PREV'ALENCY, the state of being prevalent or wide-spread: superior strength or influence: preponderance: efficacy.--_adj._ PREV'ALENT, prevailing: having great power: victorious: wide-spread: most common.--_adv._ PREV'ALENTLY. [Fr. _prévaloir_--L. _præval[=e]re_--_præ_, before, _val[=e]re_, to be powerful.] PREVARICATE, pr[=e]-var'i-k[=a]t, _v.i._ to shift about from side to side, to evade the truth: to quibble: (_obs._) to undertake a thing with the purpose of defeating or destroying it: (_law_) to betray a client by collusion with his opponent.--_v.t._ (_obs._) to pervert, transgress.--_ns._ PR[=E]VARIC[=A]'TION, the act of quibbling to evade the truth; PR[=E]VAR'IC[=A]TOR, one who prevaricates to evade the truth: a quibbler. [L. _prævaric[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_--_præ_, inten., _varicus_, straddling--_varus_, bent.] PREVENANCY, prev'[=e]-nan-si, _n._ complaisance. PREVENT, pr[=e]-vent', _v.t._ to hinder: to check: to render impossible: (_orig._) to go before: to be earlier than.--_v.t._ PR[=E]VENE' (rare), to precede.--_n._ PREV[=E]'NIENCE.--_adj._ PREV[=E]'NIENT (_Milt._), going before: preceding: preventive.--_n._ PREVENTABIL'ITY, the quality of being preventable.--_adj._ PREVEN'TABLE, that may be prevented or hindered.--_ns._ PREVEN'TER, one who, or that which, prevents or hinders: (_naut._) an additional rope or spar for strengthening the ordinary one; PREVEN'TION, act of preventing: anticipation or forethought: obstruction.--_adjs._ PREVEN'TIVE, PREVEN'TATIVE, tending to prevent or hinder: preservative.--_n._ that which prevents: a preservative.--_adv._ PREVEN'TIVELY.--_n._ PREVEN'TIVENESS.--PREVENTIVE SERVICE, the service rendered by the coastguard in preventing smuggling. [L. _præventus_, pa.p. of _præven[=i]re_--_præ_, before, _ven[=i]re_, to come.] PREVERTEBRAL, pr[=e]-v[.e]r'te-bral, _adj._ situated or developing before the vertebræ. PREVIOUS, pr[=e]'vi-us, _adj._ going before in time: former.--_adv._ PR[=E]'VIOUSLY.--_n._ PR[=E]'VIOUSNESS, antecedence: priority in time.--PREVIOUS QUESTION, a motion made during a debate, 'that the main question be now put.' If the decision be 'yes,' the debate is ended and the question put and decided; if it be 'no,' the debate is adjourned in the British parliament, but continues in the American assembly. [L. _præevius_--_præ_, before, _via_, a way.] PREVISE, pr[=e]-viz', _v.t._ to foresee: to forewarn.--_n._ PREVI'SION, foresight: foreknowledge. [L. _prævid[=e]re_, _prævisum_, to foresee--_præ_, before, _vid[=e]re_, to see.] PREWARN, pr[=e]-wawrn', _v.t._ to warn beforehand. PREX, preks, _n._ in U.S. college slang the president of a college.--Also PREX'Y. PREY, pr[=a], _n._ that which is taken by robbery or force: booty: plunder: that which is or may be seized to be devoured: a victim: depredation: (_Shak._) the act of seizing.--_v.i._ to take plunder: to seize and devour: to waste or impair gradually: to weigh heavily (_on_ or _upon_), as the mind.--_adj._ PREY'FUL (_Shak._), having a disposition to prey on others.--BEAST OF PREY, one who devours other animals. [O. Fr. _praie_ (Fr. _proie_)--L. _præda_, booty.] PRIAPUS, pr[=i]-[=a]'pus, _n._ an ancient deity personifying male generative power.--_adjs._ PRIAP'IC, PRIAP[=E]'AN.--_n._ PR[=I]'APISM. PRICE, pr[=i]s, _n._ that at which anything is prized, valued, or bought: excellence: recompense.--_v.t._ to set value on: (_coll._) to ask the price of: (_Spens._) to pay the price of.--_ns._ PRICE'-CURR'ENT, -LIST, a list of the prices paid for any class of goods, &c.--_adjs._ PRICED, set at a value; PRICE'LESS, beyond price: invaluable: without value: worthless.--_n._ PRICE'LESSNESS.--PRICE OF MONEY, the rate of discount in lending or borrowing capital.--WITHOUT PRICE, priceless. [O. Fr. _pris_ (Fr. _prix_)--L. _pretium_, price.] PRICK, prik, _n._ that which pricks or penetrates: a sharp point: the act or feeling of pricking: a puncture: a sting: remorse: (_Shak._) a thorn, prickle, skewer, point of time: (_Spens._) point, pitch.--_v.t._ to pierce with a prick: to erect any pointed thing: to fix by the point: to put on by puncturing: to mark or make by pricking: to incite: to deck out as with flowers or feathers: to pain.--_v.i._ to have a sensation of puncture: to stand erect: to ride with spurs:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ pricked.--_adj._ PRICK'-EARED, having pointed ears.--_ns._ PRICK'ER, that which pricks: a sharp-pointed instrument: light-horseman: a priming wire; PRICK'ING; PRICKLE (prik'l), a little prick: a sharp point growing from the bark of a plant or from the skin of an animal.--_v.t._ to prick slightly.--_v.i._ (_Spens._) to be prickly.--_ns._ PRICK'LE-BACK, the stickle-back; PRICK'LINESS; PRICK'LING, the act of piercing with a sharp point: (_Shak._) the sensation of being pricked.--_adj._ prickly.--_adj._ PRICK'LY, full of prickles.--_ns._ PRICK'LY-HEAT, a severe form of the skin disease known as lichen, with itching and stinging sensations; PRICK'LY-PEAR, a class of plants with clusters of prickles and fruit like the pear; PRICK'-ME-DAIN'TY (_Scot._), an affected person.--_adj._ over-precise.--_ns._ PRICK'-SONG (_Shak._), a song set to music: music in parts; PRICK'-SPUR, a goad-spur; PRICK'-THE-GAR'TER (cf. _Fast-and-loose_); PRICK'-THE-LOUSE (_Scot._), a tailor. [A.S. _pricu_, a point; Ger. _prickeln_, Dut. _prikkel_, a prickle.] PRICKET, prik'et, _n._ (_Shak._) a buck in his second year. PRIDE, pr[=i]d, _n._ state or feeling of being proud: too great self-esteem: haughtiness: overbearing treatment of others: a proper sense of what is becoming to one's self: a feeling of pleasure on account of something worthily done: that of which men are proud: that which excites boasting: elevation, loftiness: beauty displayed, ornament, ostentation: high spirit, mettle: (_Shak._) lust.--_v.t._ to have or take pride: to value, as one's self, &c.--_adj._ PRIDE'FUL.--_adv._ PRIDE'FULLY.--_n._ PRIDE'FULNESS.--_adj._ PRIDE'LESS. [A.S. _prýte_--_prút_, proud.] PRIDIAN, prid'i-an, _adj._ pertaining to yesterday. [L. _pridie_--_prius_, before, _dies_, day.] PRIE-DIEU, pr[=e]-di[=u]', _n._ a praying-desk. [Fr.] PRIEF, pr[=e]f, _n._ (_Spens._) proof, trial, experiment. PRIER, PRYER, pr[=i]'er, _n._ one who pries. PRIEST, pr[=e]st, _n._ one who offers sacrifices or officiates in sacred offices: a minister above a deacon and below a bishop: a clergyman:--_fem._ PRIEST'ESS.--_ns._ PRIEST'CRAFT, priestly policy: the schemes of priests to gain wealth or power; PRIEST'HOOD, the office or character of a priest: the priestly order.--_adjs._ PRIEST'-LIKE, PRIEST'LY, pertaining to or like a priest.--_n._ PRIEST'LINESS.--_adj._ PRIEST'-RID'DEN, controlled by priests.--HIGH PRIEST, a chief priest, esp. the chief ecclesiastical officer in the ancient Jewish church. [A.S. _preóst_ (O. Fr. _prestre_, Fr. _prêtre_)--L. _presbyter_, an elder.] PRIEVE, pr[=e]v, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to prove. PRIG, prig, _n._ a pert fellow who gives himself airs of superior wisdom.--_adj._ PRIG'GISH, conceited and affected.--_adv._ PRIG'GISHLY.--_ns._ PRIG'GISHNESS, PRIG'GISM. [From _prick_, to adorn.] PRIG, prig, _n._ a thief.--_v.t._ (_slang_) to filch.--_v.i._ (_Scot._) to plead hard, haggle: to cheapen.--_ns._ PRIG'GER; PRIG'GERY.--_adj._ PRIG'GISH.--_n._ PRIG'GISM. [Prob. the same as _prick_, to spur.] PRILL, pril, _n._ (_prov._) a very rich piece of ore. PRILL, pril, _v.i._ (_prov._) to grow sour: to become tipsy. PRIM, prim, _adj._ exact and precise in manner: affectedly nice.--_v.t._ to deck with great nicety: to form with affected preciseness:--_pr.p._ prim'ming; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ primmed.--_adv._ PRIM'LY.--_n._ PRIM'NESS. [O. Fr. _prim_, fem. _prime_--L. _primus_, _prima_, first.] PRIMACY, pr[=i]'ma-si, _n._ state of being first in order of time, rank, &c.: the office or dignity of a primate or archbishop. PRIMA-DONNA, pr[=e]'ma-don'a, _n._ the first or leading female singer in an opera. [It.,--L. _prima domina_.] PRIMA FACIE, pr[=i]'ma f[=a]'shi-[=e], at first view or sight.--PRIMA FACIE CASE (_law_), a case established by sufficient evidence: a case consisting of evidence sufficient to go to a jury. [L. _prima_, abl. fem. of _primus_, first, _facie_, abl. of _facies_, a face.] PRIMAGE, pr[=i]m'[=a]j, _n._ an allowance to the captain of a vessel by the shipper or consignee of goods for care in lading the same (_hat-money_): amount or percentage of water carried from a boiler in priming. [_Prime_, first.] PRIMARY, pr[=i]'mar-i, _adj._ first: original: chief: primitive: elementary, preparatory.--_n._ that which is highest in rank or importance: a planet in relation to its satellite or satellites.--_adv._ PR[=I]'MARILY.--_ns._ PR[=I]'MARINESS, the state of being first in time, act, or intention; PR[=I]'MARY-AC'CENT, the accent immediately after a bar in music.--_ns.pl._ PR[=I]'MARY-COL'OURS, the colours obtained by passing the sun's rays through a prism: the colours of the rainbow--red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet; PR[=I]'MARY-PLAN'ETS, planets revolving round the sun--not satellites; PR[=I]'MARY-QUILLS, the largest feathers of a bird's wing; PR[=I]'MARY-ROCKS, the rocks which seem to have been first formed and contain no animal remains, as granites, &c. PRIMATE, pr[=i]'m[=a]t, _n._ the first or highest dignitary in a church: an archbishop.--_n._ PR[=I]'M[=A]TESHIP.--_adj._ PRIM[=A]'TIAL. PRIME, pr[=i]m, _adj._ first in order of time, rank, or importance: chief: excellent: original: early: in early manhood: (_Shak._) eager, bold: (_math._) incapable of being separated into factors.--_n._ the beginning: the dawn: the spring: the best part: the height of perfection: full health and strength: a religious service during the first hour after sunrise: (_fencing_) the first guard against sword-thrusts, also the first and simplest thrust.--_adj._ PR[=I]'MAL, first: original: chief.--_n._ PRIMAL'ITY.--_adv._ PRIME'LY.--_ns._ PRIME'-MIN'ISTER, the chief minister of state; PRIME'-MOV'ER, the force which puts a machine in motion: a steam-engine or a water-wheel; PRIME'NESS; PRIME'-NUM'BER, a first number--i.e. one divisible only by itself or unity.--PRIME COST (see COST). [L. _pr[=i]mus_ (for _pro-i-mus_).] PRIME, pr[=i]m, _v.t._ to put powder on the nipple of a firearm: to lay on the first coating of colour: to instruct or prepare beforehand.--_v.i._ to serve for the charge of a gun: in the steam-engine, to carry over hot water with the steam from the boiler into the cylinder.--_ns._ PR[=I]'MER; PR[=I]'MING; PR[=I]'MING-POW'DER, detonating powder: train of powder connecting a fuse with a charge. [_Prime_ (adj.).] PRIMER, prim'[.e]r, or pr[=i]'mer, _n._ a first book: a work of elementary religious instruction: a first reading-book: an elementary introduction to any subject: a kind of type of two species, _long_-primer (10 point) and _great_-primer (18 point). [Orig. a small prayer-book.] PRIMERO, pri-m[=a]'r[=o], _n._ an old game at cards. [Sp.] PRIMEVAL, pr[=i]-m[=e]'val, _adj._ belonging to the first ages: original: primitive.--_adv._ PRIM[=E]'VALLY. [L. _primævus_--_primus_, first, _ævum_, an age.] PRIMIGENIAL, pr[=i]-mi-j[=e]'ni-al, _adj._ first-born or made: primary: constituent--also PRIMOG[=E]'NIAL.--_adjs._ PRIMIG'ENOUS, PRIMIG[=E]'NIOUS, first formed; PRIMOGEN'ITAL (_obs._), PRIMOGEN'ITARY, PRIMOGEN'ITIVE, of or belonging to primogeniture.--_ns._ PRIMOGEN'ITOR, the first begetter or father: a forefather; PRIMOGEN'ITURE, state of being born first of the same parents: (_law_) the right of the eldest son to inherit his father's estates; PRIMOGEN'ITURESHIP. [Fr.,--L. _primo-genitus_, first-born--_primus_, first, _gign[)e]re_, _genitum_, to beget.] PRIMITIÆ, pri-mish'i-[=e], _n.pl._ first-fruits offered to the gods--also PRIMI'TIAS (_Spens._): the first year's revenue of a benefice. [L.,--_primus_, first.] PRIMITIVE, prim'i-tiv, _adj._ belonging to the beginning, or to the first times: original: ancient: antiquated, old-fashioned: not derived: (_biol._) rudimentary, primary or first of its kind: (_geol._) of the earliest formation.--_n._ a primitive word, or one not derived from another: (_math._) a form from which another is derived.--_ns.pl._ PRIM'ITIVE-COL'OURS, the colours from which all others are supposed to be derived--viz. red, yellow, and blue; PRIM'ITIVE-FA'THERS, the Christian writers before the Council of Nice, 325 A.D.--_adv._ PRIM'ITIVELY.--_n.pl._ PRIM'ITIVE-METH'ODISTS, a religious body founded in 1810, whose beliefs are the same as those of other Methodists, but whose working arrangements are nearly Presbyterian.--_n._ PRIM'ITIVENESS.--_n.pl._ PRIM'ITIVE-ROCKS (see PRIMARY-ROCKS). [Fr.,--L. _primitivus_, an extension of _primus_.] PRIMO, pr[=e]'m[=o], _n._ (_mus._) the first or principal part. PRIMORDIAL, pr[=i]-mor'di-al, _adj._ first in order: original: existing from the beginning: (_anat._) in a rudimentary state: (_bot._) first formed, as leaves or fruit.--_n._ first principle or element.--_ns._ PRIMOR'DIALISM; PRIMOR'DIUM. [L. _primus_, first, _ordo_, order.] PRIMP, primp, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to dress in an affected manner.--_v.i._ to be affected. [_Prink._] PRIMROSE, prim'r[=o]z, _n._ an early spring flower common in woods and meadows: a plant of the genus _Primula_: (_Spens._) the first or earliest flower, the first or choicest.--_adj._ resembling a primrose in colour: flowery, gay.--PRIMROSE LEAGUE, a political association for the spread of Conservative opinions--formed in 1883 in memory of Lord Beaconsfield, whose favourite flower is said to have been the _primrose_. [Fr. _prime rose_--as if L. _prima rosa_; really through O. Fr. _primerole_ and Low L. dim. forms from L. _primus_.] PRIMSIE, prim'si, _adj._ (_Scot._) prim, demure. PRIMULA, prim'[=u]-la, _n._ the genus of plants to which the primrose belongs. [L. _primus_, first.] PRIMUM MOBILE, pr[=i]'mum mob'i-l[=e], in the Ptolemaic system the outermost of the ten revolving spheres of the universe, supposed to carry the others with it: any great source of motion. [L.] PRIMUS, pr[=i]'mus, _n._ the bishop in the Scottish Episcopal Church who presides over the meetings of the other bishops, but without metropolitan authority. PRIMY, pr[=i]'mi, _adj._ (_Shak._) blooming. PRINCE, prins, _n._ one of the highest rank: a sovereign: son of a king or emperor: a title of nobility, as in Germany: the chief of any body of men:--_fem._ PRIN'CESS.--_v.i._ to play the prince (usually with _it_).--_ns._ PRINCE'-BISH'OP, a bishop who was also the civil ruler or prince of his diocese; PRINCE'-CON'SORT, the husband of a reigning queen; PRINCE'DOM, the estate, jurisdiction, sovereignty, or rank of a prince; PRINCE'HOOD, rank or quality of a prince; PRINCE'-IMP[=E]'RIAL, the eldest son of an emperor; PRINCE'KIN, PRINCE'LET, PRINCE'LING, a little or inferior prince.--_adj._ PRINCE'-LIKE, becoming a prince.--_n._ PRINCE'LINESS.--_adj._ PRINCE'LY, prince-like: becoming a prince: grand: august: regal.--_adv._ in a prince-like manner.--_adv._ PRIN'CESSLY, like a princess.--_n._ PRIN'CESS-ROY'AL, the eldest daughter of a sovereign.--_adj._ PRIN'CIFIED, ridiculously dignified.--_n._ MER'CHANT-PRINCE, a merchant who has gained great wealth.--PRINCE OF DARKNESS, PRINCE OF THIS WORLD, Satan; PRINCE OF PEACE, Christ: the Messiah; PRINCE OF WALES, the eldest son of the British sovereign; PRINCE RUPERT'S DROPS (see DROP); PRINCE'S FEATHER, a tall showy annual with spikes of rose-coloured flowers; PRINCE'S METAL, a gold-like alloy of 70 parts of copper and 25 of zinc. [Fr.,--L. _princeps_--_primus_, first, _cap[)e]re_, to take.] PRINCEPS, prin'seps, _n._ one who, or that which, is foremost, original, &c.: short for _editio princeps_, the first edition of a book. [L.] PRINCESSE, prin-ses', _adj._ of a woman's garment, close-fitting, the skirt and waist in one, and undraped. [Fr.] PRINCIPAL, prin'si-pal, _adj._ taking the first place: highest in rank, character, or importance: chief.--_n._ a principal person or thing: a head, as of a school or college: one who takes a leading part: money on which interest is paid: (_archit._) a main beam or timber: (_law_) the person who commits a crime, or one who aids and abets him in doing it: a person for whom another becomes surety, a person who, being _sui juris_, employs another to do an act which he is competent himself to do: (_mus._) an organ-stop: (_Shak._) the principal rafter.--_n._ PRINCIPAL'ITY, supreme power: the territory of a prince or the country which gives title to him: (_B._) a prince: (_obs._) a power: (_pl._) an order of angels, the seventh in the hierarchy of Dionysius.--_adv._ PRIN'CIPALLY.--_ns._ PRIN'CIPALNESS, the state of being principal or chief; PRIN'CIPALSHIP, position of a principal; PRIN'CIPATE, primary: a principality, esp. the office of the ancient Roman emperors. [L. _principalis_.] PRINCIPIA, prin-sip'i-a, _n.pl._ first principles: elements, used often as the contracted title of the 'Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica' of Newton.--_adj._ PRINCIP'IAL, elementary. [L., pl. of _principium_.] PRINCIPLE, prin'si-pl, _n._ a fundamental truth on which others are founded or from which they spring: a law or doctrine from which others are derived: an original faculty of the mind: a settled rule of action: (_chem._) a constituent part: (_obs._) a beginning.--_v.t._ to establish in principles: to impress with a doctrine.--_adj._ PRIN'CIPLED, holding certain principles.--PRINCIPLE OF CONTRADICTION, the logical principle that a thing cannot both be and not be; PRINCIPLE OF EXCLUDED MIDDLE (_logic_), the principle that a thing must be either one thing or its contradictory; PRINCIPLE OF SUFFICIENT REASON (see REASON).--FIRST PRINCIPLE, a very general principle not deducible from others. [L. _principium_, beginning--_princeps_.] PRINCOCK, prin'kok, _n._ (_Shak._) a conceited fellow: a coxcomb.--Also PRIN'COX. PRINK, pringk, _v.t._ to adorn ostentatiously.--_n._ PRINK'ER. [Weakened from _prank_.] PRINT, print, _v.t._ to press or impress: to mark by pressure: to impress letters on paper, &c.: to publish: (_phot._) to produce a positive picture from a negative.--_v.i._ to practise the art of printing: to publish a book.--_n._ a mark or character made by impression: the impression of types in general: a copy: a printed picture: an engraving: a newspaper: a printed cloth: calico stamped with figures: that which impresses its form on anything: a cut, in wood or metal: (_archit._) a plaster-cast in low relief.--_ns._ PRINT'ER, one who prints, esp. books, newspapers, &c.; PRINT'ING, act, art, or practice of printing; PRINT'ING-INK, ink used in printing; PRINT'ING-MACHINE', a printing-press worked by machinery; PRINT'ING-OFF'ICE, an establishment where books, &c., are printed; PRINT'ING-P[=A]'PER, a paper suitable for printing purposes; PRINT'ING-PRESS, a machine by which impressions are taken in ink upon paper from types.--_adj._ PRINT'LESS, receiving or leaving no impression.--_ns._ PRINT'-SELL'ER, one who sells prints or engravings; PRINT'-SHOP, a shop where prints are sold; PRINT'-WORKS, an establishment where cloth is printed.--PRINTER'S DEVIL (see DEVIL); PRINTER'S INK (same as PRINTING-INK); PRINTER'S MARK, an engraved device used by printers as a trade-mark.--IN PRINT, published in printed form: in stock, as opposed to books which cannot now be got--_Out of print_. [Shortened from O. Fr. _empreindre_, _empreint_--L. _imprim[)e]re_--_in_, into, _prem[)e]re_, to press.] PRIOR, pr[=i]'or, _adj._ former: previous: coming before in time.--_n._ the head of a priory: (in Italy) formerly a chief magistrate:--_fem._ PR[=I]'ORESS.--_ns._ PR[=I]'OR[=A]TE, PR[=I]'ORSHIP, the government or office of a prior: the time during which a prior is in office; PRIOR'ITY, state of being prior or first in time, place, or rank: preference; PR[=I]'ORY, a convent of either sex, under a prior or prioress, and next in rank below an abbey. [L. _prior_, former, comp. from _pro-_, in front.] PRISAGE, pr[=i]'z[=a]j, _n._ formerly a right of the English kings to seize for crown purposes, esp. that of taking two tuns of wine from every ship importing twenty tuns or more. [O. Fr.,--_prise_, taking.] PRISE, pr[=i]z, _n._ (_Spens._) an enterprise or adventure. PRISER, pr[=i]z'[.e]r, _n._ (_Shak._). Same as PRIZER. PRISM, prizm, _n._ (_geom._) a solid whose ends are similar, equal, and parallel planes, and whose sides are parallelograms: (_opt._) a solid glass, triangular-shaped body, used for resolving rays of light into their separate colours.--_adjs._ PRISMAT'IC, -AL, resembling or pertaining to a prism: separated or formed by a prism.--_adv._ PRISMAT'ICALLY.--_ns._ PRIS'MATOID, PRIS'MOID, a figure in the form of a prism.--_adjs_. PRIS'MATOIDAL, PRIS'MOIDAL; PRIS'MY, prismatic in colour. [L.,--Gr. _prisma_, _-atos_.] PRISON, priz'n, _n._ a building for the confinement of criminals, &c.: a jail: any place of confinement.--_v.t._ to shut in prison, restrain.--_n.pl._ PRIS'ON-BARS, whatever confines or restrains.--_ns._ PRIS'ONER, one arrested or confined in prison: a captive; PRIS'ONER'S-, PRIS'ON-BASE, a game among boys, in which those who are caught in a certain way are confined as prisoners--a corr. of _prison-bars_; PRIS'ON-F[=E]'VER, typhus-fever; PRIS'ON-HOUSE, place of confinement; PRIS'ONMENT (_Shak._), confinement in a prison--usually _imprisonment_; PRIS'ON-SHIP; PRIS'ON-VAN, a closed conveyance for carrying prisoners.--STATE PRISONER, one confined for a political offence in a state prison. [Fr.,--L. _prensio_, _-oni_s, for _prehensio_, a seizing--_prehend[)e]re_, _-hensum_, to seize.] PRISTINE, pris'tin, _adj._ as at first: former: belonging to the earliest time: ancient. [O. Fr.,--L. _pristinus_; cf. _priscus_, antique, _prior_, former.] PRITHEE, pri_th_'[=e], a corruption of _I pray thee_. PRITTLE-PRATTLE, prit'l-prat'l, _n._ empty talk. PRIVACY, pr[=i]'va-si, or priv'-, _n._ state of being private or retired from company or observation: a place of seclusion: retreat: retirement: secrecy. PRIVAT DOCENT, pr[=e]-vat' d[=o]-tsent', _n._ a teacher in connection with a German university, without share in its government or endowment, only receiving fees. [Ger.,--L. _privatus_, private, _docens_, _-entis_, teaching, _doc[=e]re_, to teach.] PRIVATE, pr[=i]'v[=a]t, _adj._ apart from the state: not invested with public office: peculiar to one's self: belonging to an individual person or company: not public: retired from observation: secret: not publicly known: not holding a commission.--_n._ a common soldier: (_Shak._) a person without public office, a secret message, privacy, retirement.--_adv._ PR[=I]'VATELY.--_n._ PR[=I]'VATENESS.--PRIVATE ACT, &c., an act, &c., which deals with the concerns of private persons--opp. to _General act_, &c.; PRIVATE JUDGMENT, the judgment of an individual, esp. on the meaning of a passage or doctrine of Scripture, as distinguished from the interpretation of the church; PRIVATE LAW, that part of law which deals with the rights and duties of persons quâ individuals; PRIVATE LEGISLATION, legislation affecting the interests of private persons; PRIVATE PARTS, the sexual organs; PRIVATE PROPERTY, RIGHTS, the property, rights of individual persons, as distinguished from that which belongs to a public body and is devoted to public use; PRIVATE TRUST, a trust managed in the interest of private parties; PRIVATE WRONG, an injury done to an individual in his private capacity.--IN PRIVATE, privately, in secret; _The private_ (_obs._), the private life of individuals. [L. _privatus_, pa.p. of _priv[=a]re_, to separate--_privus_, single.] PRIVATEER, pr[=i]-va-t[=e]r', _n._ an armed private vessel commissioned by a government to seize and plunder an enemy's ships: the commander of a privateer.--_v.i._ to cruise in a privateer: to fit out privateers.--_ns._ PRIVATEER'ING; PRIVATEER'SMAN. PRIVATION, pr[=i]-v[=a]'shun, _n._ state of being deprived of something, esp. of what is necessary for comfort: destitution: (_logic_) absence of any quality: (_obs._) degradation or suspension from an office.--_adj._ PRIV'ATIVE, causing privation: consisting in the absence of something.--_n._ that which is privative or depends on the absence of something else: (_logic_) a term denoting the absence of a quality: (_gram._) a prefix denoting absence or negation.--_adv._ PRIV'ATIVELY.--_n._ PRIV'ATIVENESS. [L.; cf. _Private_.] PRIVET, priv'et, _n._ a half-evergreen European shrub used for hedges. [Perh. _primet_--_prim_.] PRIVILEGE, priv'i-lej, _n._ an advantage to an individual: a right enjoyed only by a few: freedom from burdens borne by others: prerogative: a sacred and vital civil right: (_Shak._) superiority.--_v.t._ to grant a privilege to: to exempt: to authorise, license.--_adj._ PRIV'ILEGED.--BREACH OF PRIVILEGE, any interference with or slight done to the rights or privileges of a legislative body; QUESTION OF PRIVILEGE, any question arising out of the rights of an assembly or of its members; WRIT OF PRIVILEGE, an order for the release of a person from custody. [Fr.,--L. _privilegium_--_privus_, single, _lex_, _legis_, a law.] PRIVY, priv'i, _adj._ private: pertaining to one person: for private uses: secret: appropriated to retirement: admitted to the knowledge of something secret.--_n._ (_law_) a person having an interest in an action: a necessary house.--_adv._ PRIV'ILY, privately: secretly.--_ns._ PRIV'ITY, secrecy: something kept private: knowledge, shared with another, of something private or confidential: knowledge implying concurrence: relation between different interests, as, for example, in feudal tenure the interests of several persons in the same land, the mutual relationships of contractor and contractee, the relation caused by common knowledge in breaches of contract: (_obs._) seclusion, intimacy; PRIV'Y-CHAM'BER, private apartment in a royal residence; PRIV'Y-COUN'CIL, the private council of a sovereign to advise in the administration of government; PRIV'Y-COUN'CILLOR, a member of the privy-council; PRIV'Y-PURSE, the purse or money for the private or personal use of the sovereign; PRIV'Y-SEAL, -SIG'NET, the seal used by or for the king in subordinate matters, or those which are not to pass the great seal; PRIV'Y-VER'DICT, a verdict given to a judge out of court.--GENTLEMEN USHERS OF THE PRIVY-CHAMBER, four officials in the royal household who attend certain court ceremonies. [Fr. _privé_--L. _privatus_, private.] PRIZE, PRISE, pr[=i]z, _v.t._ to force open by means of a lever. [Fr.; cf. _Prize_, below.] PRIZE, pr[=i]z, _n._ that which is taken or gained by competition: anything taken from an enemy in war: (_hunting_) the note of the trumpet blown at the capture of the game: a captured vessel: that which is won in a lottery: anything offered for competition: a gain: a reward: (_Shak._) a competition.--_adj._ worthy of a prize: to which a prize is given.--_adjs._ PRIZ'ABLE, -EABLE, valuable.--_ns._ PRIZE'-COURT, a court for judging regarding prizes made on the high seas; PRIZE'-FIGHT, a combat in which those engaged fight for a prize or wager; PRIZE'-FIGHT'ER, a boxer who fights publicly for a prize; PRIZE'-FIGHT'ING; PRIZE'-LIST, recorded of the winners in a competition; PRIZE'MAN; PRIZE'-MON'EY, share of the money or proceeds from any prizes taken from an enemy; PRIZ'ER (_Shak._), one who competes for a prize; PRIZE'-RING, a ring for prize-fighting: the practice itself. [Fr. _prise_--_pris_, taken, pa.p. _prendre_--L. _prehend[)e]re_, to seize.] PRIZE, pr[=i]z, _v.t._ to set a price on: to value: to value highly.--_n._ valuation, estimate.--_n._ PRIZ'ER (_Shak._), an appraiser. [Fr. _priser_--O. Fr. _pris_, price (Fr. _prix_)--L. _pretium_, price.] PRO, pr[=o], Latin prep. meaning before, used in English in many phrases.--PRO AND CON, abbrev. of _pro et contra_, for and against.--_v.i._ to consider impartially.--_n.pl._ PROS AND CONS, arguments for and against an opinion.--PRO BONO PUBLICO, for the public good. PROA, pr[=o]'a, _n._ a small and swift Malay sailing-vessel, with both ends equally sharp. [Malay _prau_.] PROBABLE, prob'a-bl, _adj._ that can be proved: having more evidence for than against: giving ground for belief: likely: (_Shak._) plausible.--_n._ probable opinion.--_ns._ PROBABIL'IORIST; PROB'ABILISM (_R.C. theol._), the doctrine in casuistry that of two probable opinions, both reasonable, one may follow his own inclination, as a doubtful law cannot impose a certain obligation--opp. to PROBABIL'IORISM, according to which it is lawful to follow one's inclination only when there is a more probable opinion in its favour; PROB'ABILIST; PROBABIL'ITY, quality of being probable: appearance of truth: that which is probable: chance or likelihood of something happening:--_pl._ PROBABIL'ITIES.--_adv._ PROB'ABLY.--_adj._ PR[=O]'BAL (_Shak._), probable.--PROBABLE CAUSE, a reasonable ground that an accusation is true; PROBABLE ERROR, a quantity assumed as the value of an error, such that the chances of the real error being greater are equal to those of it being less than this quantity; PROBABLE EVIDENCE, evidence not conclusive, but admitting of some degree of force. [Fr.,--L. _probabilis_--_prob[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to prove.] PROBANG, pr[=o]'bang, _n._ an instrument for pushing obstructions down the oesophagus of a choking animal. PROBATE, pr[=o]'b[=a]t, _n._ the proof before a competent court that a written paper purporting to be the will of a person who has died is indeed his lawful act: the official copy of a will, with the certificate of its having been proved: the right or jurisdiction of proving wills.--_adj._ relating to the establishment of wills and testaments.--PROBATE COURT, a court created in 1858 to exercise jurisdiction in matters touching the succession to personal estate; PROBATE DUTY, a tax on property passing by will. [Cf. _Probable._] PROBATION, pr[=o]-b[=a]'shun, _n._ act of proving: any proceeding to elicit truth, &c.: trial: time of trial: moral trial: noviciate.--_adjs._ PROB[=A]'TIONAL, PROB[=A]'TIONARY, relating to probation or trial.--_n._ PROB[=A]'TIONER, one who is on probation or trial: (_Scot._) one licensed to preach, but not ordained to a pastorate.--_adjs._ PR[=O]'BATIVE, PR[=O]'BATORY, serving for proof or trial: relating to proof.--_n._ PROB[=A]'TOR, an examiner.--THE DOCTRINE OF FUTURE PROBATION, the doctrine that the gospel will be preached in another life to the unregenerate dead or to those who never heard it in life. [Fr.,--L.] PROBATUM EST, pr[=o]-b[=a]'tum est, it has been proved. [L., 3d sing. perf. indic. pass. of _prob[=a]re_, to prove.] PROBE, pr[=o]b, _n._ a proof or trial: a long, thin instrument for examining a wound, &c.: that which tries or probes.--_v.t._ to examine with or as with a probe: to examine thoroughly.--_n.pl._ PROBE'-SCISS'ORS, scissors used to open wounds, the blade having a button at the end. [L. _prob[=a]re_, to prove.] PROBITY, prob'i-ti, _n._ uprightness: honesty: virtue that has been tested. [Fr.,--L. _probitas_, _probus_, good.] PROBLEM, prob'lem, _n._ a matter difficult of settlement or solution: (_geom._) a proposition in which something is required to be done.--_adjs._ PROBLEMAT'IC, -AL, of the nature of a problem: questionable: doubtful.--_adv._ PROBLEMAT'ICALLY.--_v.i._ PROB'LEMATISE. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _probl[=e]ma_--_pro_, before, _ballein_, to throw.] PROBOSCIS, pr[=o]-bos'is, _n._ the trunk of some animals, as the elephant, for conveying food to the mouth: anything like a trunk:--_pl._ PROBOS'CIDES.--_adjs._ PROBOS'CID[=A]TE; PROBOSCID'EAN, having a proboscis.--_n._ a mammal of the _Proboscidea_.--_n._ PROBOS'CIS-MONK'EY, a monkey of Borneo, having a long mobile and retractile nose. [L.,--Gr. _proboskis_, a trunk--_pro_, in front, _boskein_, to feed.] PROCACITY, pr[=o]-kas'i-ti, _n._ petulance.--_adj._ PROC[=A]'CIOUS. PROCATHEDRAL, pr[=o]-ka-th[=e]'dral, _n._ a church used temporarily as a cathedral. PROCEED, pr[=o]-s[=e]d', _v.i._ to go forward: to advance: to act according to a method: to go from point to point: to issue: to be produced: to prosecute: to take an academic degree: (_Shak._) to be transacted, done.--_ns._ PROC[=E]'DURE, the act of proceeding or moving forward: a step taken or an act performed: progress: process: conduct; PROCEED'ER, one who goes forward or makes progress; PROCEED'ING, a going forward: progress: step: operation: transaction: (_pl._) a record of the transactions of a society: (_Shak._) advancement.--_n.pl._ PRO'CEEDS, the money arising from anything: rent: produce.--SPECIAL PROCEEDING, a judicial proceeding other than an action, as, for example, a writ of mandamus; SUMMARY PROCEEDINGS, certain statutory remedies taken without the formal bringing of an action by process and pleading. [Fr. _procéder_--L. _proced[)e]re_--_pro_, before, _ced[)e]re_, _cessum_, to go.] PROCELEUSMATIC, pros-e-l[=u]s-mat'ik, _adj._ inciting, encouraging.--_n._ in ancient prosody, a foot consisting of four short syllables. [Gr.,--_prokeleuein_, to incite before--_pro_, before, _keleuein_, to order.] PROCELLARIA, pros-e-l[=a]'ri-a, _n._ a Linnæan genus of petrels. PROCEPHALIC, pr[=o]-se-fal'ik, or pr[=o]-sef'a-lik, _adj._ of or pertaining to the forepart of the head.--PROCEPHALIC LOBES, two lobes in the embryo of the Podophthalmia which develop into the anterior parts of the head. [Gr. _pro_, before, _kephal[=e]_, head.] PROCEREBRUM, pr[=o]-ser'[=e]-brum, _n._ the fore-brain, consisting of the cerebral hemispheres, corpora striata, and olfactory lobes.--_adj._ PROCER'EBRAL. [L. _pro_, before, _cerebrum_, brain.] PROCERITE, pros'e-r[=i]t, _n._ the last segment of the antennæ in the Crustacea. [Gr. _pro_, before, _keras_, a horn.] PROCERITY, pr[=o]-ser'i-ti, _n._ tallness, loftiness.--_adj._ PROC[=E]'ROUS, tall. [L.,--_proc[=e]rus_, tall.] PROCÈS, pr[=o]-s[=a]', _n._ a law-suit: a trial.--PROCÈS VERBAL, a written account of facts in connection with a trial or other proceeding. [Fr.] PROCESS, pros'es, or pr[=o]-, _n._ a gradual progress: manner of acting or happening: operation: the whole proceedings in an action or prosecution: series of measures: a projection on a bone or plant (also PROCES'SUS): the same as photo-process, the reproduction as a drawing, &c., by any mechanical (esp. photographic) process: (_Shak._) a narrative, account.--_v.t._ to proceed against by legal process: to produce a reproduction of a drawing as above.--_n._ PROC'ESS-SERV'ER (_Shak._), a bailiff. [Fr. _procès_--L. _processus._] PROCESSION, pr[=o]-sesh'un, _n._ the act of proceeding: a train of persons in a formal march.--_adj._ PROCES'SIONAL, pertaining to a procession: consisting in a procession.--_n._ a book of the processions of the Romish Church: a hymn sung during a procession, esp. of clergy in a church.--_n._ PROCES'SIONALIST.--_adj._ PROCES'SIONARY.--_ns._ PROCES'SIONER (_U.S._), a county officer in Tennessee and North Carolina whose duty it is to survey lands; PROCES'SIONING (_U.S._), periodical survey and inspection of boundaries.--PROCESSION OF THE HOLY GHOST (_theol._), the emanation of the Holy Spirit from the Father (_single procession_), or from the Father and Son (_double procession_). [Fr.,--L.] PROCHEIN, pr[=o]'shen, _adj._ next, nearest.--PROCHEIN AMI, AMY, next friend, one who undertakes to assist a minor in prosecuting his or her rights. [Fr.,--L. _proximus_, nearest.] PROCHRONISM, pr[=o]'kron-izm, _n._ a dating of an event before the right time: a making earlier than it really was--opp. to _Parachronism_. [Gr. _pro_, before, _chronos_, time.] PROCIDENCE, pros'i-dens, _n._ a falling down, a prolapsus.--_adjs._ PROC'IDENT; PROCID'UOUS, falling from its proper place. PROCINCT, pr[=o]-singkt', _n._ (_Milt._) complete preparation. [L., _pro_, before, _cing[)e]re_, _cinctum_, to gird.] PROCLAIM, pr[=o]-kl[=a]m', _v.t._ to cry aloud: to publish abroad: to announce officially.--_ns._ PROCLAIM'; PROCLAIM'ANT; PROCLAIM'ER; PROCLAM[=A]'TION, the act of proclaiming: official notice given to the public.--PROCLAIMED DISTRICT, a district in which some unusually strict law is brought into force by a form of proclamation. [Fr. _proclamer_--L. _proclam[=a]re_--_pro_, out, _clam[=a]re_, to cry.] PROCLITIC, pr[=o]-klit'ik, _adj._ dependent in accent upon the following word.--_n._ a monosyllabic word which depends so much on the following word as to lose its accent. [Gr. _pro_, forward, _klinein_, lean.] PROCLIVITY, pr[=o]-kliv'i-ti, _n._ an inclining forward: tendency: inclination: aptitude.--_adjs._ PROCLIVE', inclining to a thing: having a natural tendency: prone; PROCL[=I]'VOUS, slanting forward and downward. [L. _proclivitas_--_proclivus_, having a slope forward--_pro_, forward, _clivus_, a slope.] PROCOELIAN, pr[=o]-s[=e]'li-an, _adj._ hollowed or cupped in front.--Also PROCOE'LOUS. [Gr. _pro_, before, _koilos_, hollow.] PROCONSUL, pr[=o]-kon'sul, _n._ a Roman official having the authority of a consul without his office: the governor of a province.--_adj._ PROCON'SULAR, pertaining to, or under the government of, a proconsul.--_ns._ PROCON'SULATE, PROCON'SULSHIP, the office, or term of office, of a proconsul. PROCRASTINATE, pr[=o]-kras'ti-n[=a]t, _v.t._ to put off till some future time: to postpone.--_v.i._ to delay.--_n._ PROCRASTIN[=A]'TION, a putting off till a future time: dilatoriness.--_adjs._ PROCRAS'TIN[=A]TIVE, PROCRAS'TIN[=A]TORY.--_n._ PROCRAS'TIN[=A]TOR. [L.--_pro_, off, _crastinus_--_cras_, to-morrow.] PROCREATE, pr[=o]'kr[=e]-[=a]t, _v.t._ to bring into being: to generate: to propagate: to produce.--_n._ PR[=O]'CREANT, one who, or that which, procreates or generates.--_adj._ procreating, connected with or related to reproduction.--_n._ PROCRE[=A]'TION, the act of procreating: generation: production.--_adj._ PR[=O]'CRE[=A]TIVE, having the power to procreate: generative: productive.--_ns._ PR[=O]'CRE[=A]TIVENESS; PR[=O]'CRE[=A]TOR, one who procreates: a father. [L. _procre[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_pro_, forth, _cre[=a]re_, to produce.] PROCRUSTEAN, pr[=o]-krus't[=e]-an, _adj._ violently making conformable to a standard--from _Procrustes_, a Greek robber, who stretched or cut a piece off the legs of his captives, so as to fit them to an iron bed. PROCTALGIA, prok-tal'ji-a, _n._ pain of the anus or rectum.--_n._ PROCT[=I]'TIS, inflammation thereof. [Gr. _proktos_, the anus, _algos_, pain.] PROCTOR, prok'tor, _n._ a procurator or manager for another: an attorney in the spiritual courts: a representative of the clergy in Convocation: an official in the English universities who attends to the morals of the students and enforces university regulations.--_ns._ PROC'TORAGE, PROC'TORSHIP.--_adj._ PROCT[=O]'RIAL, pertaining to a proctor: magisterial.--_v.t._ PROC'TORISE (_slang_), in the English universities, to summon before a proctor. [_Procurator_.] PROCTUCHA, prok-t[=u]'ka, _n.pl._ a group of the Turbellaria in which the digestive canal is furnished with an anal aperture.--_adj._ PROCT[=U]'CHOUS. [Gr. _pr[=o]ktos_, the anus, _echein_, to have.] PROCUMBENT, pr[=o]-kum'bent, _adj_. leaning forward: lying down or on the face: (_bot_.) trailing: without putting out roots, as a stem. [L. _pro_, forward, _cumb[)e]re_, to lie down.] PROCURE, pr[=o]-k[=u]r', _v.t._ to obtain for one's self or for another: to bring about: to attract: (_Spens._) to urge earnestly.--_v.i._ to pander, pimp.--_adj._ PROCUR'ABLE, that may be procured.--_ns._ PRO'CUR[=A]CY, office of a procurator; PROCUR[=A]'TION, the act of managing another's affairs: the instrument giving power to do this: a sum paid by incumbents to the bishop or archdeacon on visitations; PROC'UR[=A]TOR, one who takes care of a thing for another: a lawyer: a financial agent in an imperial province under the Roman emperors; PROC'URATOR-FIS'CAL (see FISCAL).--_adj._ PROCURAT[=O]'RIAL.--_n._ PROC'URATORSHIP.--_adj_. PROC'UR[=A]TORY.--_ns._ PROCURE'MENT, the act of procuring: a bringing about: management: agency; PROCUR'ER, one who procures: a pander:--_fem._ PROC'URESS. [Fr. _procurer_--L. _procur[=a]re_, to manage--_pro_, for, _cur[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to care for.] PROCUREUR, pr[=o]-kü-rer', _n._ a procurator.--PROCUREUR GÉNÉRAL (_French law_), the public prosecutor-in-chief. PROCYONIDÆ, pr[=o]-si-on'i-d[=e], _n.pl._ an American family of plantigrade carnivorous mammals, including raccoons and coatis. [Gr. _pro_, before, _ky[=o]n_, a dog.] PROD, prod, _n._ a goad, awl: a prick or punch with a pointed instrument.--_v.t._ to prick. [Perh. _brod._] PRODIGAL, prod'i-gal, _adj._ spending without necessity: wasteful: lavish: profuse.--_n._ one who throws away without necessity: a waster: a spendthrift.--_v.t._ PROD'IGALISE, PROD'IG[=A]TE, to spend lavishly, waste.--_n._ PRODIGAL'ITY, state or quality of being prodigal: extravagance: profusion: great liberality.--_adv._ PROD'IGALLY, wastefully. [Fr.,--L. _prodigus_--_prodig[)e]re_, to squander--_pro_, forth, _ag[)e]re_, to drive.] PRODIGY, prod'i-ji, _n._ a portent: any person or thing that causes great wonder: a wonder: a monster.--_adj._ PRODIG'IOUS, like a prodigy: astonishing: more than usually large in size or degree: monstrous.--_adv._ PRODIG'IOUSLY.--_n._ PRODIG'IOUSNESS. [Fr. _prodige_--L. _prodigium_, a prophetic sign--_pro_, before, _dic[)e]re_, to say.] PRODITOR, prod'i-tor, _n._ a traitor. [L.,--_prod[)e]re_, _-itum_, to betray--_pro_, forth, _d[)a]re_, to give.] PRODROMUS, prod'r[=o]-mus, _n._ a sign of approaching disease: a preliminary course or treatise:--_pl._ PROD'ROMI (-[=i]).--_adj._ PRODROM'IC. [Gr.] PRODUCE, pr[=o]-d[=u]s', _v.t._ to bring forward: to make longer: to bring forth: to bear: to exhibit: to yield: to bring about: to cause: (_geom._) to extend.--_v.i._ to yield: to create value.--_ns._ PROD'UCE, that which is produced: product: proceeds: crops: yield; PROD'UCE-BROK'ER, a dealer in natural products, esp. foreign or colonial; PRODUC'ER; PRODUCIBIL'ITY.--_adj._ PRODUC'IBLE, that may be produced: that may be generated or made: that may be exhibited.--_n._ PRODUC'IBLENESS.--_adj._ PRODUC'TILE, capable of being drawn out in length. [L. _produc[)e]re_, _-ductum_--_pro_, forward, _duc[)e]re_, to lead.] PRODUCT, prod'ukt, _n._ that which grows or is produced: work: composition: effect: (_arith._) the result of numbers multiplied together: (_Milt._) offspring.--_v.t._ PRODUCT' (_rare_), to produce.--_ns._ PRODUCTIBIL'ITY, capability of being produced; PRODUC'TION, act of producing: that which is produced: fruit: product: (_pol. econ._) creation of values: (_zool._) extension, protrusion: (_pl._) in Scots law, written documents produced in support of the action or defence.--_adj._ PRODUC'TIVE, having the power to produce: generative: fertile: efficient.--_adv._ PRODUC'TIVELY.--_ns._ PRODUC'TIVENESS, PRODUCTIV'ITY. PROEM, pr[=o]'em, _n._ an introduction: a prelude: a preface.--_adj._ PRO[=E]'MIAL. [Fr. _proème_--L. _prooemium_--Gr. _prooimion_--_pro_, before, _oimos_, a way.] PROEMBRYO, pr[=o]-em'bri-[=o], _n._ a cellular structure produced from the spore of some plants, from which the embryo arises. PROEMPTOSIS, pr[=o]-emp-t[=o]'sis, _n._ the addition of a day to a calendar or cycle, to correct error. [Gr.] PROFACE, pr[=o]'fas, _interj._ (_Shak._) may it profit you!--a phrase of welcome. [O. Fr.,--_prou_, profit, _face_, _fasse_, 3d pers. sing. pres. subj. of _faire_, to do.] PROFANE, pr[=o]-f[=a]n', _adj._ not sacred: common: secular: speaking or acting in contempt of sacred things: uninitiated: impious: impure.--_v.t._ to violate anything holy: to abuse anything sacred: to put to a wrong use: to pollute: to debase.--_n._ PROFAN[=A]'TION, desecration: irreverence to what is holy: a treating of anything with disrespect.--_adj._ PROFAN'ATORY.--_adv._ PROFANE'LY.--_ns._ PROFANE'NESS; PROF[=A]N'ER; PROFAN'ITY, irreverence: that which is profane: profane language or conduct. [Fr.,--L. _profanus_--_pro_, before, _fanum_, a temple.] PROFECTITIOUS, pr[=o]-fek-tish'us, _adj._ derived from an ancestor or ancestors. [Low L.,--L. _proficisci_, _profectus_, to proceed.] PROFESS, pr[=o]-fes', _v.t._ to own freely: to make open declaration of: to declare in strong terms: to announce publicly one's skill in: to affirm one's belief in: (_Spens._) to present the appearance of: (_R.C._) to receive into a religious order by profession.--_v.i._ to enter publicly into a religious state: (_Shak._) to pretend friendship.--_adj._ PROFESSED', openly declared: avowed: acknowledged.--_adv._ PROFESS'EDLY.--_n._ PROFES'SION, the act of professing: open declaration: pretence: an employment not mechanical and requiring some degree of learning: calling or known employment: the collective body of persons engaged in any profession: entrance into a religious order.--_adj._ PROFES'SIONAL, pertaining to a profession: engaged in a profession: undertaken as a means of subsistence, as opposed to _Amateur._--_n._ one who makes his living by an art, as opposed to an amateur who practises it merely for pastime.--_n._ PROFES'SIONALISM.--_adv._ PROFES'SIONALLY.--_ns._ PROFESS'OR, one who professes: one who openly declares belief in certain doctrines: one who publicly practises or teaches any branch of knowledge: a public and authorised teacher in a university:--_fem._ PROFESS'ORESS; PROFESS'ORATE, PROFESS[=O]'RI[=A]TE, the office of a professor or public teacher: his period of office: body of professors.--_adj._ PROFESS[=O]'RIAL.--_adv._ PROFESS[=O]'RIALLY.--_n._ PROFESS'ORSHIP. [Fr. _profès_, professed, said of a member of a religious order--L. _professus_, perf. p. of _profit[=e]ri_--_pro_, publicly, _fat[=e]ri_, to confess.] PROFFER, prof'[.e]r, _v.t._ to bring forward: to propose: to offer for acceptance.--_n._ an offer made: a proposal.--_n._ PROFF'ERER. [Fr. _proférer_--L. _proferre_--_pro_, forward, _ferre_, to bring.] PROFICIENCE, pr[=o]-fish'ens, _n._ state of being proficient: improvement in anything: advancement--also PROFI'CIENCY.--_adj._ PROFI'CIENT, competent: well skilled: thoroughly qualified.--_n._ one who has made considerable advancement in anything: an adept: an expert.--_adv._ PROFI'CIENTLY. [L. _proficiens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _profic[)e]re_, to make progress--_pro_, forward, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] PROFILE, pr[=o]'f[=i]l, _n._ an outline: a head or portrait in a side-view: the side-face: the outline of any object without foreshortening: a vertical section of country to show the elevations and depressions.--_v.t._ to draw in profile: to make an outline of: (_mech._) to give a definite form by chiselling, milling, &c.--_ns._ PR[=O]'FILIST, one who takes or makes profiles; PROFIL'OGRAPH, an instrument for automatically recording the profile of the ground it traverses. [It. _profilo_ (Fr. _profil_)--L. _pro_, before, _filum_, a thread.] PROFIT, prof'it, _n._ gain: the gain resulting from the employment of capital: the difference between the selling price and the first cost: advantage: addition to good or value: benefit: improvement.--_v.t._ to benefit or to be of advantage to: to improve.--_v.i._ to gain advantage: to receive profit: to improve: to be of advantage: to bring good.--_adj._ PROF'ITABLE, yielding or bringing profit or gain: lucrative: productive: advantageous: beneficial.--_n._ PROF'ITABLENESS.--_adv._ PROF'ITABLY.--_ns._ PROF'ITER; PROF'ITING, profit, gain, or advantage: (_B._) progress or proficiency.--_adj._ PROF'ITLESS, without profit, gain, or advantage.--_adv._ PROF'ITLESSLY.--_n._ PROF'IT-SHAR'ING, a voluntary agreement under which the employee receives a share, fixed beforehand, in the profits of a business.--PROFIT AND LOSS, gain or loss arising from buying and selling, &c.--NET PROFITS, clear gain after deduction of all outlay and expenses; RATE OF PROFIT, the amount of profit compared with the capital used in its production. [Fr.,--L. _profectus_, progress--_profic[)e]re_, _profectum_, to make progress.] PROFLIGATE, prof'li-g[=a]t, _adj._ abandoned to vice: without virtue or decency: dissolute: prodigal: (_obs._) overthrown, defeated.--_n._ one leading a profligate life: one shamelessly vicious: an abandoned person.--_ns._ PROF'LIGACY, PROF'LIGATENESS, state or quality of being profligate: a vicious course of life.--_adv._ PROF'LIGATELY. [L. _profligatus_, pa.p. of _proflig[=a]re_--_pro_, forward, _flig[)e]re_, to dash.] PROFLUENT, prof'l[=u]-ent, _adj._ flowing forth.--_n._ PROF'LUENCE. [L. _pro_, forth, _fluere_, to flow.] PRO FORMA, pr[=o] for'ma, as a matter of form. [L. _pro_, for, _forma_, abl. of _forma_, form.] PROFOUND, pr[=o]-fownd', _adj._ far below the surface: low: very deep: intense: abstruse: mysterious: occult: intellectually deep: penetrating deeply into knowledge.--_n._ the sea or ocean: an abyss, great depth.--_adv._ PROFOUND'LY, deeply: with deep knowledge or insight: with deep concern.--_ns._ PROFOUND'NESS, PROFUND'ITY, the state or quality of being profound: depth of place, of knowledge, &c.: that which is profound. [Fr. _profond_--L. _profundus_--_pro_, forward, _fundus_, bottom.] PROFUNDA, pr[=o]-fun'dä, _n._ a deep-seated artery, as of the arm, neck, or leg:--_pl._ PROFUN'DÆ. PROFUSE, pr[=o]-f[=u]s', _adj._ liberal to excess: lavish: extravagant.--_adv._ PROF[=U]SE'LY.--_ns._ PROF[=U]SE'NESS, PROF[=U]'SION, state of being profuse: extravagance: prodigality. [L. _profusus_, pa.p. of _profund[)e]re_--_pro_, forth, _fund[)e]re_, to pour.] PROG, prog, _v.t._ to thrust.--_v.i._ to go about, as if picking and plundering: to beg.--_n._ a pointed instrument: food got by begging. [Prob. related to W. procio, to stab.] PROGENERATE, pr[=o]-jen'e-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to beget.--_n._ PROGEN'ITOR, a forefather: an ancestor: a parent: the founder of a family:--_fem._ PROGEN'ITRESS, PROGEN'ITRIX.--_ns._ PR[=O]GEN'ITURE, a begetting; PROG'ENY, that which is brought forth: descendants: race: children. [Fr.,--L.,--_pro_, before, _genitor_, a parent, _gign[)e]re_, _genitum_, to beget.] PROGLOTTIS, pr[=o]-glot'is, _n._ a term applied to the detached segments of the body in the _Cestoidea_:--_pl._ PROGLOTT'ID[=E]S.--_adj._ PROGLOTT'IC. [Gr.,--_pro_, before, _gl[=o]ssa_, _gl[=o]tta_, tongue.] PROGNATHOUS, prog'n[=a]-thus, _adj._ having jaws projecting far forward--also PROGNATH'IC.--_n._ PROG'NATHISM. [Gr. _pro_, forward, _gnathos_, a jaw.] PROGNOSIS, prog-n[=o]'sis, _n._ foreknowledge: (_med._) the act or art of foretelling the course of a disease from the symptoms: the opinion thus formed.--_n._ PROGNOS'TIC, a foreshowing: a foretelling: an indication: a presage.--_adj._ foreknowing: foreshowing: indicating what is to happen by signs or symptoms.--_v.t._ PROGNOS'TIC[=A]TE, to foreshow: to foretell: to indicate as future by signs.--_n._ PROGNOSTIC[=A]'TION, the act of prognosticating or foretelling something future by present signs: a foretoken or previous sign.--_adj._ PROGNOS'TIC[=A]TIVE.--_n._ PROGNOS'TIC[=A]TOR, a predictor of future events, esp. a weather prophet. [Gr.,--_pro_, before, _gign[=o]skein_, to know.] PROGRAMME, PROGRAM, pr[=o]'gram, _n._ a public notice in writing: an outline of subjects and the order in which they are to be taken up at a meeting, exhibition, concert, &c.: a preliminary outline.--_n._ PR[=O]'GRAMMER, one who makes up a programme.--PROGRAMME MUSIC, music meant to give the hearers, by means of instruments, without words, the impressions of scenes and incidents. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _programma_--_pro_, before, _graphein_, to write.] PROGRESS, prog'res, _n._ a going forward or onward: advance: improvement of any kind: proficiency: course: passage from place to place: procession: a journey of state: a circuit.--_v.i._ PR[=O]GRESS', to go forward: to make progress: to grow better: to proceed: to advance: to improve.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to move or push forward.--_n._ PR[=O]GRES'SION, motion onward: act or state of moving onward: progress: regular and gradual advance: increase or decrease of numbers or magnitudes according to a fixed law: (_mus._) a regular succession of chords or the movements of the parts in harmony.--_adj._ PR[=O]GRES'SIONAL.--_ns._ PR[=O]GRES'SIONIST, PROG'RESSIST, one who believes in the progress of society and its future perfection: one who believes in the development of animals and plants from one simple form.--_adj._ PR[=O]GRESS'IVE, progressing or moving forward: advancing gradually: improving.--_n._ one in favour of reform.--_adv._ PR[=O]GRESS'IVELY.--_n._ PR[=O]GRESS'IVENESS.--ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSION (see ARITHMETIC); GEOMETRICAL PROGRESSION, a series of numbers or quantities in which each succeeding one is produced by _multiplying_ or _dividing_ the preceding one by a fixed number or quantity, as 1, 4, 16, 64, &c., or 18, 6, 2; HARMONIC PROGRESSION (see HARMONIC); MUSICAL PROGRESSION, the regular succession of chords or the movement of the parts of a musical composition in harmony, where the key continues unchanged. [Fr.,--L. _progressus_--_progredi_, to go forward--_pro_, forward, _gradi_, to go.] PROGYMNASIUM, pr[=o]-jim-n[=a]'zi-um, _n._ in Germany, a classical school in which the higher classes are wanting: a school preparatory to a gymnasium. PROHIBIT, pr[=o]-hib'it, _v.t._ to hinder: to check or repress: to prevent: to forbid: to interdict by authority.--_ns._ PROHIB'ITER; PROHIBI'TION, the act of prohibiting, forbidding, or interdicting: an interdict: the forbidding by law of the manufacture and sale of alcoholic drinks; PROHIB'ITIONISM; PROHIBI'TIONIST, one who favours prohibitory duties in commerce: one who advocates the forbidding by law of the manufacture and sale of alcoholic drinks.--_adj._ PROHIB'ITIVE.--_adv._ PROHIB'ITIVELY.--_adj._ PROHIB'ITORY, that prohibits or forbids: forbidding.--PROHIBITED DEGREES (see FORBIDDEN DEGREES, under DEGREE).--WRIT OF PROHIBITION (_law_), a writ from a superior tribunal staying proceedings in a lower court: (_Scots law_) a clause in a deed of entail forbidding the heir to sell the estate, contract debt, &c. [L. _prohib[=e]re_, _prohibitum_--_pro_, before, _hab[=e]re_, to have.] PROIN, proin, _v.t._ an obsolete form of _prune_. PRO INDIVISO, pr[=o] in-di-v[=i]'so, (_law_) applied to rights which two or more persons hold in common. PROJECT, pr[=o]j'ekt, _n._ a plan: a scheme: contrivance. [O. Fr. _project_ (Fr. _projet_)--L. _projectum_--_pro_, before, _jac[)e]re_, to throw.] PROJECT, pr[=o]-jekt', _v.t._ to throw out or forward: to cast forward in the mind: to contrive or devise: to exhibit (as in a mirror): to draw straight lines from a fixed point through every point of any body or figure, and let these fall upon a surface so as to form the points of a new figure: to exhibit in relief.--_v.i._ to shoot forward: to jut out: to be prominent.--_adj._ PROJEC'TILE, projecting or throwing forward: impelling or impelled forward: that can be thrust forward.--_n._ a body projected by force, esp. through the air: a cannon or rifle ball.--_adj._ PROJEC'TING.--_n._ PROJEC'TION, the act of projecting: that which juts out: a plan or design: a delineation: a representation of any object on a plane, esp. (_geom._) the earth's surface: (_alch._) the act of throwing anything into a crucible, hence the act or result of transmutation of metals: the crisis of any process, esp. a culinary process.--_adj._ PROJEC'TIVE, produced by projection: (_geom._) capable, as two plane figures, of being derived from one another by a number of projections and sections.--_ns._ PROJECTIV'ITY; PROJECT'MENT (_rare_), design; PROJEC'TOR, one who projects or forms schemes: a parabolic mirror: a camera for throwing an image on a screen; PROJEC'TURE, a jutting out beyond the main line or surface.--MERCATOR'S PROJECTION, a map of the world with meridian lines which are straight and parallel, and with parallels of latitude at distances from each other, increasing towards the poles, invented by the Flemish cosmographer, _Mercator_, in 1550. PROKER, pr[=o]'ker, _n._ (_prov._) a poker. PROLAPSE, pr[=o]-laps', _n._ (_med._) a falling down, or out, of some part of the body from the position which it usually occupies--also PROLAP'SUS.--_v.i._ to fall down: to protrude. [L. _prolabi_, _prolapsus_, to fall forward--_pro_, forward, _labi_, to fall.] PROLATE, pr[=o]'l[=a]t, _adj._ extended lengthwise: having the diameter between the poles longer than at right angles to it, as a spheroid.--_ns._ PROL[=A]TE'NESS, PROL[=A]'TION, a bringing forth: pronunciation: delay: (_mus._) a division. [L. _prolatus_, pa.p. of _proferre_, to bring forward--_pro_, forth, _ferre_, to bear.] PROLEG, pr[=o]'leg, _n._ one of the abdominal limbs of the larvæ of insects. PROLEGOMENA, pr[=o]-leg-om'en-a, _n.pl._ an introduction to a treatise:--_sing._ PROLEGOM'ENON.--_adjs._ PROLEGOM'ENARY, PROLEGOM'ENOUS, prefatory: prolix. [Gr.,--_pro_, before, _legein_, to say.] PROLEPSIS, pr[=o]-lep'sis, _n._ (_rhet._) a figure by which objections are anticipated and answered: the dating of an event before its proper time:--_pl._ PROLEP'S[=E]S.--_adjs._ PROLEP'TIC, -AL.--_adv._ PROLEP'TICALLY. [Gr.,--_pro_, before, _lambanein_, to take.] PROLETARIAN, pr[=o]-le-t[=a]'ri-an, _adj._ belonging to the poorest labouring class: having little or no property: plebeian: vulgar.--_n._ a member of the poorest class--also PROLETAIRE', PR[=O]'LETARY.--_adj._ PROLET[=A]'NEOUS, having numerous offspring.--_ns._ PROLET[=A]'RIANISM, the condition of the poorest classes; PROLET[=A]'RIAT, -E, the lowest class. [L. _proletarius_ (in ancient Rome), a citizen of the sixth and lowest class, who served the state not with his property, but with his children--_proles_, offspring.] PROLICIDE, pr[=o]'li-s[=i]d, _n._ infanticide. PROLIFERATE, pr[=o]-lif'e-r[=a]t, _v.i._ to grow by multiplication of elementary parts: (_zool._) to reproduce by proliferation.--_v.t._ to bear by reproduction.--_n._ PROLIFER[=A]'TION, the birth and growth of generative zoöids.--_adjs._ PROLIF'ER[=A]TIVE, PROLIF'EROUS.--_adv._ PROLIF'EROUSLY. [L. _proles_, progeny, _ferre_, to bear.] PROLIFIC, -AL, pr[=o]-lif'ik, -al, _adj._ bringing forth offspring: producing young or fruit: productive: bringing about results: (_bot._) applied to a flower from which another is produced.--_ns._ PROLIF'ICACY, PROLIF'ICNESS.--_adv._ PROLIF'ICALLY.--_n._ PROLIFIC[=A]'TION, the generation of young animals or plants: (_bot._) development of a shoot from an organ normally ultimate. [Fr. _prolifique_--L. _proles_ (for _pro-oles_), offspring, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] PROLIX, pr[=o]'liks, _adj._ tedious: long and wordy: dwelling too long on particulars: (_obs._) long.--_adj._ PROLIX'IOUS (_Shak._), dilatory, tedious.--_ns._ PROLIX'ITY, PROLIX'NESS.--_adv._ PROLIX'LY. [Fr. _prolixe_--L. _prolixus_--_pro_, forward, _liqui_, to flow.] PROLL, pr[=o]l, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to prowl, rob. [_Prowl._] PROLOCUTOR, pr[=o]-lok'[=u]-tor, _n._ the chairman of a convocation, or meeting of clergy: (_rare_) a spokesman:--_fem._ PR[=O]LOC'UTRIX.--_n._ PR[=O]LOC'UTORSHIP. [L., _pro_, before, _loqui_, _locutus_, to speak.] PROLOGUE, pr[=o]'log, _n._ a preface: the introductory verses before a play: (_Shak._) the speaker of a prologue.--_v.t._ to introduce with a prologue or preface.--_v.i._ PR[=O]'LOGISE, -UISE, to deliver a prologue. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _prologos_--_pro_, before, _logos_, speech.] PROLONG, pr[=o]-long', _v.t._ to lengthen out: (_Shak._) to put off to another time: to continue.--_v.i._ to lengthen out.--_v.t._ PROLONG'[=A]TE, to lengthen.--_ns._ PROLONG[=A]'TION, act of prolonging in space or time: the additional length made by prolonging; PROLONG'ER. [Fr. _prolonger_--L. _prolong[=a]re_--_pro_, forward, _longus_, long.] PROLONGE, pr[=o]-lonj', _n._ a hemp rope consisting of three pieces joined by two open rings, and having a hook at one end and a toggle at the other. [Fr.] PROLUSION, pr[=o]-l[=u]'zhun, _n._ a prelude, introduction: an essay preparatory to a more solid treatise. [L.,--_pro_, before, _lud[)e]re_, _lusum_, to play.] PROMACHOS, prom'a-kos, _n._ a deity who fights in front of, or champions, some person or state. [Gr.] PROMENADE, prom-e-näd', or -n[=a]d', _n._ a walk for pleasure, show, or exercise: a place for walking.--_v.i._ to walk for amusement, show, or exercise.--_n._ PROMENÄ'DER.--PROMENADE CONCERT, an entertainment in which the audience promenades or dances during the music. [Fr.,--from (_se_) _promener_, to walk--L. _promin[=a]re_, to drive forwards--_pro_, forward, _min[=a]re_, to drive.] PROMETHEAN, pr[=o]-m[=e]'th[=e]-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Prometheus_, who stole fire from heaven, for which Zeus chained him to a rock, to be tortured by a vulture.--_n._ a glass tube containing sulphuric acid and an inflammable mixture: a kind of lucifer-match.--_n._ PROM[=E]'THEUS, a large silk-spinning moth. [Gr., lit. 'forethinker;' or Sans. _pramantha_, a fire-stick.] PROMINENT, prom'i-nent, _adj._ standing out beyond the line or surface of something: projecting: most easily seen: conspicuous: principal: eminent: distinguished.--_ns._ PROM'INENCE, PROM'INENCY, state or quality of being prominent: conspicuousness: distinction.--_adv._ PROM'INENTLY. [Fr.,--L. _promin[=e]re_, to jut forth--_pro_, forth, _min[=e]re_, to jut.] PROMISCUOUS, pr[=o]-mis'k[=u]-us, _adj._ mixed: confused: collected together without order: indiscriminate: not restricted to one individual: (_prov._) casual, accidental.--_n._ PROMISC[=U]'ITY, mixture without order or distinction: promiscuous sexual intercourse.--_adv._ PROMIS'CUOUSLY.--_n._ PROMIS'CUOUSNESS. [L. _promiscuus_--_pro_, inten., _misc[=e]re_, to mix.] PROMISE, prom'is, _n._ an engagement made by a person either verbally or in writing to do or keep from doing something: expectation or that which causes expectation: a ground for hope of future excellence: (_rare_) fulfilment of what is promised.--_v.t._ to make an engagement to do or not to do something: to afford reason to expect: to assure: to engage to bestow.--_v.i._ to assure one by a promise: to afford hopes or expectations: (_rare_) to stand sponsor.--_ns._ PROM'ISE-BREACH (_Shak._), violation of promise; PROM'ISE-BREAK'ER (_Shak._), a violator of promises.--_adj._ PROM'ISE-CRAMMED (_Shak._), crammed or filled with promises.--_ns._ PROMIS[=EE]', the person to whom a promise is made; PROM'ISER, PROM'ISOR.--_adj._ PROM'ISING, affording ground for hope or expectation: likely to turn out well.--_advs._ PROM'ISINGLY; PROM'ISSORILY.--_adj._ PROM'ISSORY, containing a promise of some engagement to be fulfilled.--_n._ PROM'ISSORY-NOTE, a note by one person promising to pay a sum of money to another, or to bearer, at a certain date, or at sight, or on demand.--PROMISED LAND, the land promised by God to Abraham and his seed: Canaan: heaven.--BE PROMISED (_rare_), to have an engagement; BREACH OF PROMISE (see BREACH); CONDITIONAL PROMISE, a promise of which the obligation depends on certain conditions--opp. to _Absolute promise_; EXPRESS PROMISE, a promise expressed orally or in writing; THE PROMISE, the assurance of God to Abraham that his descendants should become the chosen people. [Fr. _promesse_--L. _promissa_, _promitt[)e]re_, to send forward--_pro_, forward, _mitt[)e]re_, to send.] PROMONTORY, prom'on-tor-i, _n._ a headland or high cape jutting out into the sea: (_anat._) a projection on the sacrum: a rounded elevation in the tympanum of the ear. [L. _promontorium_--_pro_, forward, _mons_, _montis_, a mountain.] PROMOTE, pr[=o]-m[=o]t', _v.t._ to move forward: to help on the growth or improvement of anything: to advance: to further: to encourage: to raise to a higher position: to elevate.--_ns._ PROM[=O]'TER; PROM[=O]'TION, the act of promoting: advancement in rank or in honour: encouragement: preferment.--_adj._ PROM[=O]'TIVE.--BE ON ONE'S PROMOTION, to have right or hope of promotion: to be on good behaviour with a view to chances of promotion. [L. _promotus_, pa.p. of _promov[=e]re_--_pro_, forward, _mov[=e]re_, to move.] PROMPT, promt, _adj._ prepared: ready and willing: acting with alacrity: cheerful: unhesitating: (_obs._) inclined, disposed.--_v.t._ to incite: to move to action: to assist a speaker when at a loss for words: to suggest to the mind.--_n._ a limit of time given for payment for merchandise purchased, the limit being stated on the _prompt-note_, the note of reminder.--_ns._ PROMPT'-BOOK, a copy of a play arranged for the prompter's use; PROMPT'ER; PROMPT'ING, the act of prompting or suggesting: that which is prompted or suggested; PROMPT'IT[=U]DE, promptness: readiness: willingness: quickness of decision and action.--_adv._ PROMPT'LY.--_ns._ PROMPT'NESS; PROMPT'[=U]ARY, a magazine, repository, a handbook; PROMPT'[=U]RE (_Shak._), suggestion: instigation. [Fr.,--L. _promptus_--_pr[=o]m[)e]re_, to bring forward--_pro_, forth, _em[)e]re_, to bring.] PROMULGATE, pr[=o]-mul'g[=a]t, _v.t._ to publish: to proclaim: to make widely known--(_arch._) PROMULGE'.--_ns._ PROMULG[=A]'TION, act of promulgating: publication: open declaration: (_law_) the first official publication of a new law; PROM'ULG[=A]TOR. [L. _promulg[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_.] PROMUSCIS, pr[=o]-mus'is, _n._ a proboscis, esp. of hemipters.--_adj._ PROMUS'CID[=A]TE, like or having a promuscis. PRONAOS, pr[=o]-n[=a]'os, _n._ the open porch in front of a temple. [Gr., _pro_, before, _naos_, a temple.] PRONATION, pr[=o]-n[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of turning the palm of the hand downwards--opp. to _Supination_.--_v.t._ PR[=O]'NATE, to turn the palm downwards effected by means of the pronator muscle.--_n._ PRON[=A]'TOR, a muscle of the forearm by which pronation is effected. [L. _pron[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to lead forward--_pronus_.] PRONE, pr[=o]n, _adj._ with the face downward: bending forward: headlong: disposed: inclined or sloping.--_adv._ PRONE'LY.--_n._ PRONE'NESS. [O. Fr.,--L. _pronus_; cog. with Gr. _pr[=e]n[=e]s_, prone.] PRONG, prong, _n._ the spike of a fork or similar instrument: one of several points or projections, as on an antler.--_v.t._ to stab with a prong.--_adj._ PRONGED, having prongs.--_n._ PRONG'-HOE.--_adj._ PRONG'-HORN, having horns with a prong.--_n._ the prong-buck or cabrit, the American antelope. [Nasalised form of Prov. Eng. _prog_, to prick--W. _procio_; cf. Gael. _brog_, to goad, _brog_, an awl.] PRONOMINAL. See PRONOUN. PRONONCÉ, pr[=o]-nong-s[=a]', _adj._ decided: self-asserting:--_fem._ PRONONCÉE. [Fr.; cf. _Pronounce_.] PRONOTUM, pr[=o]-n[=o]'tum, _n._ the tergal portion of the prothorax in the Insecta:--_pl._ PRON[=O]'TA.--_adj._ PRON[=O]'TAL. [Gr. _pro_, before, _n[=o]tos_, back.] PRONOUN, pr[=o]'nown, _n._ a word used instead of a noun.--_adj._ PRONOM'INAL, belonging to, or of the nature of, a pronoun.--_adv._ PRONOM'INALLY. PRONOUNCE, pr[=o]-nowns', _v.t._ to make known by speaking: to utter with the proper sound and accent: to speak distinctly: to utter formally: to utter rhetorically: to declare.--_v.i._ to utter confidently: to utter words.--_adjs._ PRONOUNCE'ABLE, capable of being pronounced; PRONOUNCED', marked with emphasis: marked.--_adv._ PRONOUN'CEDLY.--_ns._ PRONOUNCE'MENT, act of pronouncing: an announcement or proclamation; PRONOUN'CER.--_adjs._ PRONOUN'CING, PRONUN'CIAL, giving or marking pronunciation.--_n._ PRONUNCI[=A]'TION, act or mode of pronouncing: art of speaking distinctly and correctly: utterance. [Fr. _prononcer_--L. _pronunti[=a]re_--_pro_, forth, _nunci[=a]re_, to announce--_nuntius_, a messenger.] PRONUNCIAMENTO, pr[=o]-nun-si-a-men'to, _n._ a manifesto: a formal proclamation. [Sp.] PROOEMIUM, pr[=o]-[=e]'mi-um, _n._ same as PROEM--also PROE'MION: (_rhet._) exordium.--_adj._ PROOE'MISE. PROOF, pr[=oo]f, _n._ that which proves or establishes the truth of anything: test: (_obs._) experience: experiment: any process to discover or establish a truth: that which convinces: demonstration: evidence which convinces the mind: state of having been proved: (_pl._) in equity practice, the instruments of evidence in their documentary form: (_Scots law_) the taking of evidence by a judge upon an issue framed in pleading: a test, hence 'Armour of proof,' armour proved to be trustworthy: (_arith._) an operation checking the accuracy of a calculation: firmness of mind: a certain strength of alcoholic spirits: (_print._) an impression taken for correction, also 'proof-sheet:' an early impression of an engraving--'proof before letter'=one taken before the title is engraved on the plate: (_phot._) the first print from a negative.--_adj._ firm in resisting: noting alcoholic liquors having the specific gravity 0.920:--_pl._ PROOFS.--_ns._ PROOF'-ARM'OUR, armour proved to be able to resist ordinary weapons; PROOF'-CHARGE, an extraordinary amount of powder and shot put into a gun to test its strength; PROOF'-HOUSE, a house fitted up for proving the barrels of firearms; PROOF'-LEAF (same as PROOF-SHEET).--_adj._ PROOF'LESS, wanting proof or evidence.--_ns._ PROOF'-MARK, a mark stamped on a gun to show that it has stood the test; PROOF'-READ'ER, a person who reads printed proofs to discover and correct errors; PROOF'-SHEET, an impression taken on a slip of paper for correction before printing finally; PROOF'-SPIR'IT, a mixture containing fixed proportions of alcohol and water--nearly half its weight and fully half its volume of alcohol; PROOF'-TEXT, a passage of Scripture held to prove a certain doctrine.--ARTIST'S PROOF, a first impression from an engraved plate or block; BURDEN OF PROOF (see BURDEN); INDIA PROOF (see INDIAN). [O. Fr. _prove_ (Fr. _preuve_)--L. _prob[=a]re_, to prove.] PROOSTRACUM, pr[=o]-os'tra-kum, _n._ the forward continuation of the guard or rostrum in the Belemnites. [Gr. _pro_, before, _ostrakon_, shell.] PROOTIC, pr[=o]-ot'ik, _n._ a bone developed in some vertebrata in front of the ear--also _adj._ [Gr. _pro_, before, _ous_, _[=o]tos_, ear.] PROP, prop, _n._ anything on which a weight rests for support: a support: a stay.--_v.t._ to keep from falling by means of something placed under or against: to support or to sustain in any way:--_pr.p._ prop'ping; _pa.t_. and _pa.p._ propped.--_n._ PROP'PAGE. [Allied to Sw. _propp_, Ger. _propf_, a stopper; some connect also with Ger. _pfropf_, a graft--L. _propago_, a set, layer.] PROPÆDEUTIC, -AL, pr[=o]-p[=e]-d[=u]'tik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to preliminary instruction.--_n._ PROPÆDE[=U]'TIC, a preliminary branch of knowledge: (_pl._) the introduction to an art or science. [Gr. _pro_, before, _paideuein_, to teach.] PROPAGATE, prop'a-g[=a]t, _v.t._ to increase by generation or other natural process: to multiply plants by layers: to extend: to produce: to impel forward in space, as sound, light, energy, &c.: to spread from one to another: to promote: to extend the knowledge of: (_obs._) to increase.--_v.i._ to be produced or multiplied: to have young.--_adj._ PROP'AGABLE, that can be propagated or increased by generation or other natural process.--_ns._ PROPAGAN'DA, PROP'AGAND, a committee (_congregatio de propaganda fide_) at Rome charged with the management of the R.C. missions: any association for the spread of opinions and principles, esp. such as are opposed to the existing government; PROPAGAND'ISM, practice of propagating tenets or principles: zeal in spreading one's opinions: proselytism; PROPAGAND'IST, one who devotes himself to propagandism; PROPAG[=A]'TION, act of propagating: the spreading or extension of anything, as light, sound, energy, &c.: increase: enlargement.--_adj._ PROP'AG[=A]TIVE.--_ns._ PROP'AG[=A]TOR; PROPAGAT[=O]'RIUM (_biol._), the reproductive apparatus.--_adj._ PROP'AG[=A]TORY.--_ns._ PROP[=A]'GO, a layer or branch laid down to root; PROPAG'[=U]LUM, a runner or sucker ending in an expanded bud: a gemma or bud affecting asexual propagation in many algæ. [L. _prop[=a]g[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, conn. with _pro-p[=a]g-o_, a layer.] PROPALE, pr[=o]-p[=a]l', _v.t._ to disclose. PROPALINAL, pr[=o]-pal'i-nal, _adj._ moving backward and forward, as the under jaw in mastication. [L. _pro_, forward, Gr. _palin_, backward.] PROPAROXYTONE, pr[=o]-par-ok'si-t[=o]n, _adj._ having the acute accent on the antepenultimate or third last syllable.--_n._ a word having the acute accent on the antepenultimate. PROPEL, pr[=o]-pel', _v.t._ to drive forward: to urge onward by force:--_pr.p._ propel'ling; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ propelled'.--_n._ PROPEL'LANT, that which drives forward.--_adj._ PROPEL'LENT.--_ns._ PROPEL'LER, one who, or that which, propels: any kind of mechanism for moving a ship through the water, by a paddle-wheel, oar, screw, &c.: a vessel thus propelled: a spinning-bait; PROPEL'MENT, act of propelling: propelling mechanism. [L. _pro_, forward, _pell[)e]re_, to drive.] PROPEND, pr[=o]-pend', _v.i._ (_Shak._) to lean toward: to be in favour of anything.--_adj._ PROPEND'ENT. [L. _propend[=e]re_--_pro_, forward, _pend[=e]re_, _pensum_, to hang.] PROPENSE. pr[=o]-pens', _adj._ leaning towards in a moral sense: inclined: disposed.--_adv._ PROPENSE'LY.--_ns._ PROPENSE'NESS, PROPENS'ITY, inclination of mind: tendency to good or evil: disposition; PROPEN'SION, tendency to move in a certain direction.--_adj._ PROPEN'SIVE. [L. _propensus_, hanging forward.] PROPER, prop'[.e]r, _adj._ one's own: fitted for a person's nature or qualities: peculiar: belonging to only one of a species (as a name): natural: suitable: correct: just: right: becoming: (_B._) comely, pretty: in liturgics, used only on a particular day or festival.--_n._ something set apart for a special use.--_adv._ (_coll._) very, exceedingly.--_adv._ PROP'ERLY, in a proper manner: (_coll._) entirely, extremely.--_n._ PROP'ERNESS.--PROPERLY SPEAKING, in the strict sense: speaking without qualification. [Fr. _propre_--L. _proprius_, one's own, akin to _prope_, near.] PROPERISPOMENON, pr[=o]-per-i-sp[=o]m'e-non, _n._ a word with the circumflex accent on the penult. [Gr.,--_pro_, before, _peri_, round, _sp[=a]n_, to draw.] PROPERTY, prop'[.e]r-ti, _n._ that which is proper to any person or thing: a quality which is always present: any quality: that which is one's own: an estate: right of possessing, employing, &c.: ownership: (_Shak._) individuality: (_pl._) articles required by actors in a play.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to invest with certain properties: to make a tool of, appropriate.--_adj._ PROP'ERTIED, possessed of property or possessions.--_ns._ PROP'ERTY-MAN, -MAS'TER, one who has charge of the stage properties in a theatre; PROP'ERTY-ROOM, the room in which the stage properties of a theatre are kept; PROP'ERTY-TAX, a tax paid by persons possessed of property, at the rate of so much per cent. on its value.--MOVABLE or PERSONAL PROPERTY, property that may attend the person of the owner, movables; PRIVATE PROPERTY, that which belongs to an individual for his personal disposition and use--opp. to PUBLIC PROPERTY; REAL PROPERTY, lands, tenements, and hereditaments, real estate; QUALIFIED PROPERTY, the right a man has in reclaimed wild animals--also called SPECIAL PROPERTY: such right as a bailee has in the chattel transferred to him by the bailment. [O. Fr. _properte_--a doublet of _propriety_.] PROPHASIS, prof'a-sis, _n._ prognosis. [Gr.] PROPHECY, prof'e-si, _n._ a prediction: public interpretation of Scripture: instruction: (_B._) a book of prophecies. [O. Fr. _prophecie_--L. _prophet[=i]a_--Gr. _proph[=e]teia_--_proph[=e]t[=e]s_.] PROPHESY, prof'e-s[=i], _v.t._ to foretell: to predict.--_v.i._ (_B._) to exhort: to expound religious subjects.--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ proph'es[=i]ed.--_ns._ PROPH'ES[=I]ER; PROPH'ESYING. [_s_ has been arbitrarily substituted for _c_, to distinguish the verb from the noun.] PROPHET, prof'et, _n._ one who proclaims or interprets the will of God: one who announces things to come: one who predicts or foretells events: (_B._) one inspired by God to warn and teach: (_pl._) the writings of the prophets.--_n.fem._ PROPH'ETESS.--_ns._ PROPH'ETHOOD, PROPH'ETSHIP, quality, office of a prophet.--_adjs._ PROPHET'IC, -AL, pertaining to a prophet: containing prophecy: foreseeing or foretelling events.--_adv._ PROPHET'ICALLY.--_n._ PROPH'ETISM.--PROPHETIC OFFICE, the office of a prophet.--FORMER PROPHETS, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings; LATTER PROPHETS, the prophets properly so called; MAJOR PROPHETS, the prophets whose books come before that of Hosea; MINOR PROPHETS, the prophets from Hosea to Malachi; SCHOOL OF THE PROPHETS, a school among the ancient Jews for training young men as teachers of the people; THE PROPHETS, one of the three divisions into which the ancient Jews divided their Scriptures--consisting of the _former_ and the _latter_ prophets (see above). [Fr.,--L. _proph[=e]ta_--Gr. _proph[=e]t[=e]s_--_pro_, before, in behalf of, _ph[=e]-mi_, _phanai_, to speak.] PROPHYLACTIC, prof-i-lak'tik, _adj._ guarding against: defending from disease.--_n._ a medicine which wards off disease.--_n._ PROPHYLAX'IS. [Gr. _pro_, before, _phylassein_, to guard.] PROPINE, pr[=o]-p[=i]n', _v.t._ to pledge in drinking: to present, guarantee.--_n._ (_obs._) money given as drink-money, any pledge or gift: the power of giving.--_n._ PROPIN[=A]'TION, act of drinking healths. [O. Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _propinein_, _pro_, before, _pinein_, to drink.] PROPINQUITY, pr[=o]-ping'kwi-ti, _n._ nearness in time, place, or blood: proximity: neighbourhood.--_v.i._ PROPINQ'UATE, to approach. [L. _propinquitas_--_propinquu_s, near--_prope_, near.] PROPITIATE, pr[=o]-pish'i-[=a]t, _v.t._ to make propitious: to render favourable.--_v.i._ to make propitiation: to atone.--_adj._ PROPI'TIABLE, that maybe propitiated or rendered favourable.--_ns._ PROPITI[=A]'TION, act of propitiating: (_theol._) that which propitiates: atonement: the death of Christ as a ground of the forgiveness of sin; PROPI'TI[=A]TOR.--_adv._ PROPI'TIATORILY.--_adj._ PROPI'TI[=A]TORY, having power to propitiate: expiatory.--_n._ the Jewish mercy-seat.--_adj._ PROPI'TIOUS, favourable: disposed to be gracious or merciful: ready to forgive.--_adv._ PROPI'TIOUSLY.--_n._ PROPI'TIOUSNESS. [L. _propiti[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to make favourable--_propitius_, well disposed; orig. perh. an augur's term with reference to the flying of birds--_pro_, forward, _pet[)e]re_, to seek, orig. fly; by others conn. with _prope_, near.] PROPLASM, pr[=o]'plazm, _n._ a mould, matrix.--_adj._ PROPLAS'TIC, forming a mould. PROPODITE, prop'[=o]-d[=i]t, _n._ the sixth joint of the typical limb of a Crustacean. PROPODIUM, pr[=o]-p[=o]'di-um, _n._ the anterior division of the foot in some Gasteropoda and Pteropoda. [Gr. _pro_, before, _pous_, _podos_, the foot.] PROPOLIS, prop'[=o]-lis, _n._ a red, resinous, odorous substance like wax collected by bees and used to stop crevices in the hive, strengthen cells, &c. [Gr.,--_pro_, before, _polis_, city.] PROPONENT, pr[=o]-p[=o]'nent, _adj._ proposing.--_n._ one who makes a proposal or proposition: (_law_) one who propounds a will for probate. PROPORTION, pr[=o]-p[=o]r'shun, _n._ the relation of one thing to another in regard to magnitude: fitness of parts to each other: symmetrical arrangement: (_math._) the identity or equality of ratios: the 'rule of three,' in which three terms are given to find a fourth: equal or just share: (_obs._) form, figure.--_v.t._ to adjust: to form symmetrically: to correspond to: to divide into proper shares.--_adj._ PROPOR'TIONABLE, that may be proportioned: having a proper proportion.--_n._ PROPOR'TIONABLENESS.--_adv._ PROPOR'TIONABLY.--_adj._ PROPOR'TIONAL, having a due proportion: relating to proportion: (_math._) having the same or a constant ratio.--_n._ (_math._) a number or quantity in a proportion.--_n._ PROPORTIONAL'ITY.--_adv._ PROPOR'TIONALLY.--_adj_. PROPOR'TIONATE, adjusted according to a proportion: proportional.--_v.t._ to make proportional: to adjust in proportion.--_adv._ PROPOR'TIONATELY.--_ns._ PROPOR'TIONATENESS, the quality of being adjusted according to settled rates or comparative relation; PROPOR'TIONING, adjustment of proportions.--_adj._ PROPOR'TIONLESS, without proportion or symmetry of parts.--PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION, representation in a parliament, &c., according to the number of electors in an electoral district.--COMPOUND PROPORTION, a proportion between two quantities, each of which is the product of two or more, those of the first set being in their order proportional to those of the other; IN PROPORTION, in the degree or measure, according; INVERSE, or RECIPROCAL, PROPORTION, an equality of ratio between two quantities and the reciprocals of other two, as 6 : 3 = ½ : ¼. [L. _proportio_--_pro_, in comparison with, _portio_, _portionis_, part, share.] PROPOSE, pr[=o]-p[=o]z', _v.t._ to put forward or offer for consideration, &c.: to purpose or intend: (_obs._) to place out, state, utter, discourse: (_Shak._) to face, confront.--_v.i._ to form an intention or design: to offer, especially marriage: (_Shak._) to converse--_n._ (_obs._) talk, discourse.--_n._ PROP[=O]'SAL, anything proposed: terms or conditions proposed.--_n._ PROP[=O]'SER. [Fr.,--pfx. _pro-_, _poser_, to place.] PROPOSITION, prop-[=o]-zish'un, _n._ a placing before: offer of terms: that which is proposed: the act of stating anything: that which is stated: (_gram._ and _logic_) a complete sentence, or one which affirms or denies something: (_math._) a theorem or problem to be demonstrated or solved.--_adj._ PROPOSI'TIONAL, pertaining to, or of the nature of, a proposition: considered as a proposition. [Fr.,--L. _propositio_.] PROPOUND, pr[=o]-pownd', _v.t._ to offer for consideration: to exhibit.--_n._ PROPOUND'ER. [Orig. _propone_--L.,--_pro_, forth, _pon[)e]re_, to place.] PROPRÆTOR, PROPRETOR, pr[=o]-pr[=e]'tor, _n._ a magistrate of ancient Rome, who, after acting as prætor in Rome, was appointed to the government of a province. PROPRIETOR, pr[=o]-pr[=i]'e-tor, _n._ one who has anything as his property: an owner:--_fem._ PROPR[=I]'ETRESS, PROPR[=I]'ETRIX.--_adjs._ PROPR[=I]'ETARY, PROPRIET[=O]'RIAL, belonging to a proprietor.--_n._ PROPR[=I]'ETARY, a proprietor, owner: a body of proprietors: the rights of a proprietor.--_n._ PROPR[=I]'ETORSHIP, state or right of a proprietor: ownership.--PROPRIETARY RIGHT, the right of a proprietor: the common-law right of a playwright to control production or representation of his drama so long as unpublished: the right when protected by copyright after publication. PROPRIETY, pr[=o]-pr[=i]'e-ti, _n._ a person's right of possession: state of being proper or right: agreement with established principles or customs: fitness: accuracy: property: (_obs._) individuality.--THE PROPRIETIES, conventional customs of society. [Fr.,--L. _proprietas_--_proprius_, one's own.] PROPRIUM, pr[=o]'pri-um, _n._ selfhood. PROPROCTOR, pr[=o]-prok'tor, _n._ a substitute or assistant proctor. PROPTERYGIUM, pr[=o]-t[=e]-rij'i-um, _n._ the anterior basal cartilage of the fins in the _Elasmobranchii_:--_pl._ PROPTERY'GIA.--_adj._ PROPTERY'GIAL. [L. _pro_, before, L.,--Gr. _pterygion_, a fin, _pteron_, a wing.] PROPUGNATION, pr[=o]-pug-n[=a]'shun, _n._ (_Shak._) defence. [L., _pro_, for, _pugn[=a]re_, to fight.] PROPULSION, pr[=o]-pul'shun, _n._ act of propelling: a driving forward.--_adjs._ PROPUL'SIVE, PROPUL'SORY, tending or having power to propel. [Low L. _propulsio_--L. _propell[)e]re_, _propulsum_, to push forward.] PROPYLÆUM, pr[=o]-pi-l[=e]'um, _n._ a gateway of architectural importance, leading into a temple, &c.:--_pl._ PROPYLÆ'A.--_n._ PR[=O]'PYLON, a monumental gateway before the entrance of an ancient Egyptian temple, &c. [Gr. _pro_, before, _pyl[=e]_, a gate.] PRO RATA, pr[=o] r[=a]'ta, according to one's share: in proportion.--_v.t._ PROR[=A]TE', to assess pro rata. PRORE, pr[=o]r, _n._ Same as PROW. PRORECTOR, pr[=o]-rek'tor, _n._ a substitute or assistant rector. PRO RE NATA, pr[=o] r[=e] n[=a]'ta, dealing with something that arises unexpectedly or out of due course, for special business. [L. _pro_, for, _re_, abl. of _res_, thing, _nata_, abl. fem. of _natus_, born.] PROROGUE, pr[=o]-r[=o]g', _v.t._ to bring the meetings of parliament to an end for a time: to put off from one session to another:--_pr.p._ pror[=o]g'uing: _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ pror[=o]gued'.--_v.t._ PR[=O]'ROG[=A]TE.--_n._ PROROG[=A]'TION, act of proroguing: a lengthening out: a putting off to another time, esp. the bringing to an end of a session of parliament. [Fr.,--L. _prorog[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_pro_, forward, _rog[=a]re_, to ask.] PRORSAD, pror'sad, _adv._ (_anat._) forward.--_adj._ PROR'SAL, anterior. PROSAIC, -AL, pr[=o]-z[=a]'ik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to prose: like prose: commonplace in style, manner, or thought: dull.--_adv._ PROS[=A]'ICALLY.--_ns._ PROS[=A]'ICISM, PROS[=A]'ICNESS, quality of being prosaic; PR[=O]'SAISM, a prose idiom: a prosaic phrase; PR[=O]'SAIST, a writer of prose: a commonplace person. PROSCENIUM, pr[=o]-s[=e]'ni-um, _n._ the front part of the stage: the curtain and its framework. [L.,--Gr. _prosk[=e]nion_--_pro_, before, _sk[=e]n[=e]_, the stage.] PROSCRIBE, pr[=o]-skr[=i]b', _v.t._ to publish the names of persons to be punished: to put beyond the protection of law: to banish: to prohibit: to denounce, as doctrine.--_ns._ PR[=O]SCRIB'ER; PR[=O]'SCRIPT; PROSCRIP'TION, the act of proscribing or dooming to death or outlawry: utter rejection.--_adj._ PR[=O]SCRIP'TIVE, pertaining to, or consisting in, proscription.--_adv._ PR[=O]SCRIP'TIVELY. [L. _proscrib[)e]re_--_pr_o, before, publicly, _scrib[)e]re_, _scriptum_, to write.] PROSE, pr[=o]z, _n._ the direct, straightforward arrangement of words, free from poetical measures: ordinary spoken and written language: all writings not in verse.--_adj._ pertaining to prose: not poetical: plain: dull.--_v.i._ to write prose: to speak or write tediously.--_v.t._ to compose in prose.--_ns._ PROSE'-MAN, PR[=O]'SER, PROSE'-WRIT'ER, a writer of prose.--_adv._ PR[=O]'SILY, in a prosy manner: tediously.--_ns._ PR[=O]'SINESS, the state or quality of being prosy; PR[=O]'SING, speaking or writing in a dull or prosy way.--_adj._ PR[=O]'SY, dull, tedious. [Fr.,--L. _prosa_--_prorsus_, straightforward--_pro_, forward, _vert[)e]re_, _versum_, to turn.] PROSECT, pr[=o]-sekt', _v.t._ to dissect beforehand.--_v.i._ to perform the duties of a prosector, one who dissects a body for the illustration of anatomical lectures.--_ns._ PROSEC'TION; PROSEC'TOR.--_adj._ PROSECT[=O]'RIAL.--_n._ PROSEC'TORSHIP. [L. _pro_, before, _sec[=a]re_, to cut.] PROSECUTE, pros'[=e]-k[=u]t, _v.t._ to follow onwards or pursue, in order to reach or accomplish: to continue: to pursue by law: to bring before a court.--_v.i._ to carry on a legal prosecution.--_ns._ PROSEC[=U]'TION, the act of prosecuting or pursuing, esp. a civil or criminal suit: the party by which legal proceedings are instituted; PROS'EC[=U]TOR, one who prosecutes or pursues any plan or business: one who carries on a civil or criminal suit:--_fem._ PROS'EC[=U]TRIX.--PUBLIC PROSECUTOR, a person whose duty it is to conduct prosecutions in the public interest. [L. _prosequi_--_pro_, onwards, _sequi_, _secutus_, to follow.] PROSELYTE, pros'e-l[=i]t, _n._ one who has come over from one religion or opinion to another: a convert, esp. one who left the heathen and joined a Jewish community.--_v.t._ to convert.--_v.t._ PROS'ELYT[=I]SE, to make proselytes.--_ns._ PROS'ELYT[=I]SER, one who proselytises; PROS'ELYTISM, the act of proselytising or of making converts: conversion.--PROSELYTE OF THE GATE, a convert who was not compelled to submit to the regulations of the Mosaic law. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _pros[=e]lytos_--_proserchomai_, I come to--_pros_, to, _erchomai_, _[=e]lthon_, to come.] PROSENCEPHALON, pros-en-sef'a-lon, _n._ the fore-brain, comprising the cerebral hemispheres and olfactory processes.--_adj._ PROSENCEPHAL'IC. [Gr. _pros_, before, _enkephalon_, the brain--_en_, in, _kephal[=e]_, the head.] PROSENCHYMA, pros-eng'ki-ma, _n._ the fibro-vascular system or tissue of plants--opp. to _Parenchyma_, the soft tissues.--_adj._ PROSENCHYM'ATOUS. [Gr. _pros_, to, _enchyma_, an infusion.] PROSEUCHE, (-A), pros-[=u]'k[=e], (-kä), _n._ a place of prayer: among the Jews one that was not a synagogue, or the temple, usually roofless:--_pl._ PROSEU'CHÆ. [Gr. _pros_, towards, _euchesthai_, to pray.] PROSILIENCY, pr[=o]-sil'i-en-si, _n._ a standing forward. PROSIT, pr[=o]'sit, _interj._ good luck to you, a salutation in drinking healths customary among German students. [3d pers. sing. pres. subj. of _prodesse_, to be of use--_pro_, for, _esse_, to be.] PROSOBRANCHIATA, pros-[=o]-brangk-i-[=a]'ta, _n.pl._ an order or sub-class of gasteropods having the gills anterior to the heart.--_adj._ PROSOBRANCH'I[=A]TE. [Gr. _pros[=o]_, forward, _branchia_, gills.] PROSODY, pros'[=o]-di, _n._ that part of grammar which treats of quantity, accent, and the laws of verse or versification.--_adjs._ PROS[=O]'DIAL, PROSOD'IC, -AL, pertaining to prosody: according to the rules of prosody.--_ns._ PROS[=O]'DIAN, PROS'ODIST, one skilled in prosody.--_adv._ PROSOD'ICALLY. [Fr.,--L. _pros[=o]dia_, Gr. _pros[=o]dia_--_pros_, to, _[=o]d[=e]_, a song.] PROSOPOPEIA, PROSOPOPOEIA, pros-[=o]-p[=o]-p[=e]'ya, _n._ a rhetorical figure by which inanimate objects are spoken of as persons: personification. [Gr. _pros[=o]popoiia_--_pros[=o]pon_, a person, _poiein_, to make.] PROSOPULMONATA, pros-[=o]-pul-m[=o]-n[=a]'ta, _n.pl._ a group of air-breathing gasteropods in which the pulmonary sac occupies a forward position.--_adj._ PROSOPUL'MON[=A]TE. [Gr. _pros[=o]_, forward, L. _pulmo_, a lung.] PROSPECT, pros'pekt, _n._ a looking forward: that which the eye takes in at once: a view: object of view: a scene: expectation: a long, straight, wide street: outlook, exposure.--_v.i._ PROSPECT', to make a search, esp. for chances of mining for precious metals.--_ns._ PROSPEC'TER, -OR, one who explores for valuable minerals; PROSPEC'TING, searching a district for gold or silver mines with a view to further operations; PROSPEC'TION, the act of looking forward or of providing for future wants.--_adj._ PROSPEC'TIVE, looking forward: expected: acting with foresight: relating to the future: distant.--_n._ outlook: prospect.--_adv._ PROSPEC'TIVELY.--_ns._ PROSPEC'TIVENESS; PROSPEC'TUS, the outline of any plan submitted for public approval, particularly of a literary work or of a joint-stock concern. [L. _prospectus_--_prospic[)e]re_, _prospectum_--_pro_, forward, _spec[)e]re_, to look.] PROSPER, pros'p[.e]r, _v.t._ to make fortunate or happy: (_B._) to make to prosper.--_v.i._ to be successful: to succeed: to turn out well.--_n._ PROSPER'ITY, the state of being prosperous: success: good fortune.--_adj._ PROS'PEROUS, according to hope: in accordance with one's wishes: making good progress: favourable: successful.--_adv._ PROS'PEROUSLY.--_n._ PROS'PEROUSNESS. [L. _prosper_, _prosperus_--_pro_, in accordance with, _spes_, hope.] PROSPHYSIS, pros'-fi-sis, _n._ morbid adhesion of the eyelids to each other or to the eyeball. [Gr.] PROSTATE, pros't[=a]t, _adj._ standing in front, applied to a gland in males at the neck of the bladder.--_n._ the gland at the neck of the bladder.--_adj._ PROSTAT'IC.--_n._ PROSTAT[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the prostate gland. [Gr. _prostat[=e]s_--_pro_, before, _sta_, root of _hist[=e]mi_, I set up.] PROSTHENIC, pros-then'ik, _adj._ strong in the fore-parts. PROSTHESIS, pros'the-sis, _n._ addition, affixion, as of letters at the beginning of a word: the fitting of artificial parts to the body.--_adj._ PROSTHET'IC. [Gr.] PROSTITUTE, pros'ti-t[=u]t, _v.t._ to expose for sale for bad ends: to sell to lewdness: to devote to any improper purpose.--_adj._ openly devoted to lewdness: sold to wickedness.--_n._ a female who indulges in lewdness, esp. for hire, a whore: a base hireling.--_ns._ PROSTIT[=U]'TION, the act or practice of prostituting: lewdness for hire: the being devoted to infamous purposes; PROS'TIT[=U]TOR, one who prostitutes either himself or another. [L. _prostitu[)e]re_, _-[=u]tum_--_pro_, before, _statu[)e]re_, to place.] PROSTRATE, pros'tr[=a]t, _adj._ thrown forwards on the ground: lying at length: lying at mercy: bent in adoration.--_v.t._ to throw forwards on the ground: to lay flat: to overthrow: to sink totally: to bow in humble reverence.--_n._ PROSTR[=A]'TION, act of throwing down or laying flat: act of falling down in adoration: dejection: complete loss of strength. [L. _pro_, forwards, _stern[)e]re_, _stratum_, to strew.] PROSTYLE, pr[=o]'st[=i]l, _adj._ (_archit._) having a range of detached columns in front. PROSY. See PROSE. PROSYLLOGISM, pr[=o]-sil'[=o]-jizm, _n._ a syllogism of which the conclusion is the premise of another. PROTACTIC, pr[=o]-tak'tik, _adj._ placed at the beginning, introductory. PROTAGONIST, pr[=o]-tag'on-ist, _n._ a leading character, esp. in a play.--_n._ PR[=O]'TAGON, a nitrogenous substance obtained from the brain and other tissues. [Gr. _pr[=o]tos_, first, _ag[=o]nist[=e]s_, a combatant.] PROTAMOEBA, pr[=o]-ta-m[=e]'ba, _n._ a low form of the _Monera_, which is constantly changing its form by sending out and withdrawing pseudopodia. PRO TANTO, pr[=o] tan'to, for so much: to a certain extent: to the extent mentioned. PROTASIS, prot'a-sis, _n._ (_rhet._) the first part of a conditional sentence--opp. to _Apodosis_: the first part of a dramatic composition.--_adj._ PROTAT'IC. [Gr.,--_pro_, before, _tasis_, a stretching, _teinein_, to stretch.] PROTEAN, pr[=o]'t[=e]-an, _adj._ readily assuming different shapes, like _Proteus_, the sea-god, fabled to have the power of changing himself into an endless variety of forms: variable: inconstant. PROTECT, pr[=o]-tekt', _v.t._ to cover in front: to cover over: to shield from danger: to defend: to shelter.--_adv._ PROTEC'TINGLY.--_ns._ PROTEC'TION, act of protecting: state of being protected: preservation: defence: that which protects: guard: refuge: security: a writing guaranteeing against molestation or interference: passport: a fostering of home produce and manufactures by laying taxes on the importation of foreign goods; PROTEC'TIONISM, the doctrine of the protectionists; PROTEC'TIONIST, one who favours the protection of trade by law.--_adj._ favouring the economic doctrine of protection.--_adj._ PROTEC'TIVE, affording protection: defensive: sheltering.--_n._ that which protects.--_adv._ PROTEC'TIVELY.--_ns._ PROTEC'TIVENESS; PROTEC'TOR, one who protects from injury or oppression: a guardian: a regent:--_fem._ PROTEC'TRESS, PROTEC'TRIX.--_adjs._ PROTEC'TORAL, PROTECT[=O]'RIAL, pertaining to a protector or a regent.--_n._ PROTEC'TOR[=A]TE, government by a protector: the authority assumed by a superior: relation assumed by a strong nation to a weak one, whereby the latter is protected from hostile or foreign interference.--_adj._ PROTEC'TORLESS.--_ns._ PROTEC'TORSHIP; PROTEC'TORY, an institution for destitute children. [L., _pro_, in front, _teg[)e]re_, _tectum_, to cover.] PROTÉGÉ, pr[=o]-t[=a]-zh[=a]', _n._ one under the protection of another: a pupil: a ward:--_fem._ PROTÉGÉE. [Fr., pa.p. of _protéger_, to protect--L. _proteg[)e]re_.] PROTEIN, pr[=o]'t[=e]-in, _n._ the first element in any compound: formerly the supposed common radical of the group of bodies which form the most essential articles of food, albumen, fibrine, &c.--_n._ PR[=O]'T[=E]ID, a body containing protein: one of several bodies which go to make up the soft tissues of animals and vegetables. [Gr. _pr[=o]tos_, first, suffix _-in_.] PRO TEMPORE, pr[=o] tem'po-r[=e], for the time being: temporary--sometimes written _pro tem._--_adj._ PROTEMPOR[=A]'NEOUS, temporary. PROTEND, pr[=o]-tend', _v.t._ to stretch or hold out.--_ns._ PROTENSE' (_Spens._), extension; PROTEN'SION, duration; PROTEN'SITY.--_adj._ PROTEN'SIVE. [L.,--_pro_, forth, _tend[)e]re_, _tensum_, to stretch.] PROTEOLYTIC, pr[=o]-t[=e]-[=o]-lit'ik, _adj._ converting food material into protein.--_n._ PROTEOL'YSIS. [_Proteid_, Gr. _lyein_, to relax.] PROTERANDRY, prot-e-ran'dri, _n._ the maturity of the anthers of a perfect flower before its stigma is ready to receive the pollen.--_adj._ PROTERAN'DROUS. PROTEROGLYPHA, prot-e-rog'li-fa, _n.pl._ a group of snakes having the anterior maxillary teeth grooved. [Gr. _proteros_, fore, _glyphein_, to carve.] PROTEROGYNY, prot-e-roj'i-ni, _n._ the maturity of the stigmas of a perfect flower before its anthers have matured their pollen.--_adj._ PROTEROG'YNOUS. PROTERVITY, pr[=o]-ter'vi-ti, _n._ peevishness, wantonness:--_pl._ PROTER'VITIES. [O. Fr.,--L.,--_protervus_, wanton--_pro_, forth, _ter[)e]re_, to bruise.] PROTEST, pr[=o]-test', _v.i._ to bear witness before others: to declare openly: to give a solemn declaration of opinion (_against_).--_v.t._ to make a solemn declaration of: to note, as a bill of exchange, on account of non-acceptance or non-payment: (_rare_) to call as a witness: (_obs._) to publish, make known: (_Shak._) to vow.--_n._ PR[=O]'TEST, a solemn or formal declaration, esp. in writing, expressing dissent: the noting by a notary-public of an unpaid or unaccepted bill: a written declaration, usually by the master of a ship, stating the circumstances attending loss or injury of ship or cargo, &c.--_adj._ PROT'ESTANT, protesting: pertaining to the faith of those who protest against the errors of the Church of Rome.--_n._ one of those who, in 1529, protested against an edict of Charles V. and the Diet of Spires denouncing the Reformation: a member of one of those churches founded by the Reformers: one who protests.--_v.t._ PROT'ESTANTISE.--_ns._ PROT'ESTANTISM, the Protestant religion: state of being a Protestant; PROTEST[=A]'TION, an act of protesting: a solemn declaration: a declaration of dissent: a declaration in pleading; PROT'EST[=A]TOR; PROTEST'ER.--_adv._ PROTEST'INGLY. [Fr.,--L. _protest[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_, to bear witness in public--_pro_, before, _test[=a]ri_--_testis_, a witness.] PROTEUS. See PROTEAN. PROTEVANGELIUM, pr[=o]-t[=e]-van-jel'i-um, _n._ the earliest announcement of the gospel (Gen. iii. 15): an apocryphal gospel ascribed to James, Jesus' brother. PROTHALAMIUM, pr[=o]-tha-l[=a]'mi-um, _n._ a piece written to celebrate a marriage.--Also PROTHAL[=A]'MION. [Gr. _pro_, before, _thalamos_, a bride-chamber.] PROTHALLIUM, pr[=o]-thal'i-um, _n._ the green, leaf-like, cellular expansion which grows from the spore of a fern.--Also PROTHALL'US. [Gr. _pro_, before, _thallus_, a young shoot.] PROTHESIS, proth'e-sis, _n._ in the Greek Church the preliminary oblation of the eucharistic elements before the liturgy: the table used. [Gr.,--_pro_, before, _tithenai_, to place.] PROTHONOTARY, pr[=o]-thon'[=o]-ta-ri, _n._ a chief notary or clerk: one of the chief secretaries of the chancery at Rome: a chief clerk or registrar of a court, in certain of the United States--also PROTON'OTARY.--_adj._ PROTHONOT[=A]'RIAL.--_n._ PROTHONOT[=A]'RIAT, the college constituted by the twelve apostolical prothonotaries in Rome. [Late L.,--Gr. _pr[=o]tos_, first, L. _notarius_, a clerk.] PROTHORAX, pr[=o]-th[=o]'raks, _n._ the anterior segment of the thorax of insects.--_adj._ PROTHORAC'IC (-ras-). PROTISTA, pr[=o]-tis'ta, _n.pl._ a proposed term for a zoological kingdom including PROTOZOA and PROTOPHYTA. [Gr. _pr[=o]tistos_, superl. of _pr[=o]tos_, first.] PROTOCOCCUS, pr[=o]-t[=o]-kok'us, _n._ a microscopic vegetable organism forming the green scum upon trees, tiles, &c. [Gr. _pr[=o]tos_, first, _kokkos_, a berry.] PROTOCOL, pr[=o]'t[=o]-kol, _n._ the first copy of any document: the rough draft of an instrument or transaction: the original copy.--_v.i._ to issue, form protocols.--_v.t._ to make a protocol of--also PR[=O]'TOCOL[=I]SE.--_n._ PR[=O]'TOCOLIST, a registrar or clerk. [Fr.,--Low L. _protocollum_--Late Gr. _pr[=o]tokollon_, the first leaf, containing the writer's name, date, &c.--Gr. _pr[=o]tos_, first, _kolla_, glue.] PROTOGENAL, pr[=o]-toj'e-nal, _adj._ primitive.--_n._ PROTOGEN'ESIS, abiogenesis.--_adjs._ PROTOGENET'IC, PROTOGEN'IC, noting crystalline or fire-formed rocks: noting intercellular spaces formed within undifferentiated plant tissues.--_n._ PR[=O]'TOGINE, a variety of granite in the Alps. PROTOMARTYR, pr[=o]'t[=o]-mär-t[.e]r, _n._ St Stephen, the first Christian martyr: the first who suffers in any cause. PROTOPHYTE, pr[=o]'t[=o]-f[=i]t, _n._ the first or lowest order of plants.--_n.pl._ PROTOPH'YTA.--_adj._ PROTOPHYT'IC. [Gr. _pr[=o]tos_, first, _phyton_, a plant.] PROTOPLASM, pr[=o]'t[=o]-plazm, _n._ living matter: a homogeneous, structureless substance, forming the physical basis of life, endowed with contractility, with a chemical composition allied to that of albumen.--_adj._ PROTOPLASM'IC.--_n._ PR[=O]'TOPLAST, he who, or that which, was first formed: an original: the first parent.--_adj._ PROTOPLAST'IC. [Gr. _pr[=o]tos_, first, _plasma_, form--_plassein_, to form.] PROTOTHERIA, pr[=o]-t[=o]-th[=e]'ri-a, _n.pl._ the hypothetical primitive mammals, ancestors of the monotremes. [Gr. _pr[=o]tos_, first, _th[=e]r_, wild beast.] PROTOTYPE, pr[=o]'t[=o]-t[=i]p, _n._ the first or original type or model from which anything is copied: an exemplar: a pattern.--_adjs._ PR[=O]'TOTYPAL, PR[=O]TOTYP'ICAL. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr., _pr[=o]tos_, first, _typos_, a type.] PROTOVERTEBRÆ, pr[=o]-t[=o]-ver'te-br[=e], _n.pl._ the rudimentary segments formed in the vertebrate embryo from the medullary plates, from which the bodies of the vertebræ, spinal nerve-roots, &c. are developed.--_adjs._ PROTOVER'TEBRAL, PROTOVER'TEBRATE. PROTOXIDE, pr[=o]-tok's[=i]d, _n._ the first oxide--that is, an oxide containing one equivalent of oxygen combined with one equivalent of a base. PROTOZOA, pr[=o]-t[=o]-z[=o]'ä, _n.pl._ the first or lowest class of animals:--_sing._ PROTOZ[=O]'ON.--_adjs._ PROTOZ[=O]'AN; PROTOZ[=O]'IC, pertaining to the protozoa: containing remains of the earliest life of the globe. [Gr. _pr[=o]tos_, first, _z[=o]on_, an animal.] PROTRACT, pr[=o]-trakt', _v.t._ to draw out or lengthen in time: to prolong: to put off in time: to draw to a scale.--_p.adj._ PROTRAC'TED, drawn out in time: tedious: prolonged: postponed.--_adv._ PROTRAC'TEDLY.--_n._ PROTRAC'TER.--_adj._ PROTRAC'TILE, susceptible of being thrust out.--_n._ PROTRAC'TION, act of protracting or prolonging: the delaying of the termination of a thing: the plotting or laying down of the dimensions of anything on paper.--_adj._ PROTRAC'TIVE, drawing out in time: prolonging: delaying.--_n._ PROTRAC'TOR, one who, or that which, protracts: a mathematical instrument for laying down angles on paper, used in surveying, &c. [L.,--_pro_, forth, _trah[)e]re_, to draw.] PROTRUDE, pr[=o]-tr[=oo]d', _v.t._ to thrust or push forward: to drive along: to put out.--_v.i._ to be thrust forward or beyond the usual limit.--_adjs._ PROTRUD'ABLE, PROTRU'SILE, protractile; PROTRU'SIBLE, able to be protruded.--_n._ PROTRU'SION, the act of thrusting forward or beyond the usual limit: the state of being protruded: that which protrudes.--_adj._ PROTRU'SIVE, thrusting or impelling forward: protruding.--_adv._ PROTRU'SIVELY.--_n._ PROTRU'SIVENESS. [L. _protrud[)e]re_--_pro_, forward, _trud[)e]re_, to thrust.] PROTUBERANCE, pr[=o]-t[=u]b'[.e]r-ans, _n._ a prominence: a tumour.--_adj._ PROT[=U]'BERANT, swelling: prominent.--_adv._ PROT[=U]'BERANTLY.--_v.i._ PROT[=U]'BER[=A]TE, to bulge out.--_n._ PROT[=U]BER[=A]'TION. [L. _protuber[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_pro_, forward, _tuber_, a swelling.] PROUD, prowd (_comp._ PROUD'ER; _superl._ PROUD'EST), _adj._ having excessive self-esteem: arrogant: haughty: having a proper sense of what is becoming: daring: grand: ostentatious: giving reason for pride or boasting.--_n._ PROUD'-FLESH, a growth or excrescence of flesh in a wound.--_adjs._ PROUD'-HEART'ED (_Shak._), having a proud spirit; PROUD'ISH, somewhat proud.--_adv._ PROUD'LY.--_adj._ PROUD'-MIND'ED (_Shak._), proud in mind.--_n._ PROUD'NESS, the state or quality of being proud: pride.--_adjs._ PROUD'-PIED (_Shak._), gorgeously variegated; PROUD'-STOM'ACHED, of haughty spirit, arrogant. [A.S. _prut_, proud, _prýte_, pride.] PROVABLE, pr[=oo]v'a-bl, _adj._ that may be proved.--_n._ PROV'ABLENESS.--_adv._ PROV'ABLY, in a manner capable of proof. [O. Fr. _provable_, _prouvable_--L. _probabilis_, probable.] PROVAND, prov'and, _n._ (_Shak._) provender: provision--also PROV'END.--_adj._ PROV'ANT, belonging to a regular allowance: of common or inferior quality. [O. Fr.,--Low L. _præbenda_, a payment, pittance.] PROVE, pr[=oo]v, _v.t._ to try by experiment or by a test or standard: to make certain: to try by suffering: to establish or ascertain as truth by argument or other evidence: to demonstrate: to ascertain the genuineness of: to experience or suffer: (_math._) to ascertain the correctness of any result.--_v.i._ to make trial: to turn out: to be shown afterwards.--_n._ PROV'ER.--THE EXCEPTION PROVES THE RULE, the exception tests the rule, proving its general truth. [O. Fr. _prover_ (Fr. _prouver_), which, like A.S. _prófian_ and Ger. _proben_, is from L. _prob[=a]re_--_probus_, excellent.] PROVECTION, pr[=o]-vek'shun, _n._ the transfer of the final consonant from a word to the beginning of the next.--_n._ PR[=O]VEC'TOR (_math._), a contravariant operator formed by substituting signs of partial differentiation for the facients of a quantic. [L. _proveh[)e]re_, _provectum_, to carry forward.] PROVEDOR, (-E), prov'edor, (-d[=o]r), _n._ a purveyor. [Sp.] PROVEN, prov'n, (_Scots law_) same as PROVED, _pa.p._ of PROVE.--NOT PROVEN, a verdict declaring that guilt has not been fully made out, but which leaves the accused still under serious suspicion. PROVENANCE, prov'e-nans, _n._ the source from which anything comes or is derived.--Also PROV[=E]'NIENCE. [Fr.,--L. _pro_, forth, _ven[=i]re_, to come.] PROVENÇAL, pr[=o]-vang-sal', _adj._ of or pertaining to _Provence_, in France, or to its inhabitants--also PROVEN'CIAL.--_n._ a native, or the language of Provence, the _langue d'oc_ (q.v.). PROVENDER, prov'en-d[.e]r, _n._ dry food for beasts, as hay or corn: esp. a mixture of meal and cut straw or hay.--_v.t._ to feed. [O. Fr.,--L. _præbenda_, in Late L. a daily allowance of food.] PROVERB, prov'[.e]rb, _n._ a short familiar sentence expressing a well-known truth or moral lesson: a byword: (_B._) a difficult saying that requires explanation: (_pl._) a book of the Old Testament: a dramatic composition in which a proverb gives name and character to the plot.--_v.t._ to speak of proverbially: make a byword of: to provide with a proverb.--_adj._ PROVER'BIAL, like or pertaining to proverbs: widely spoken of.--_v.t._ PROVER'BIALISE, to turn into a proverb.--_ns._ PROVER'BIALISM, a saying in the form of, or like, a proverb; PROVER'BIALIST.--_adv._ PROVER'BIALLY. [Fr. _proverbe_--L. _proverbium_--_pro_, publicly, _verbum_, a word.] PROVIDE, pr[=o]-v[=i]d', _v.t._ to make ready beforehand: to prepare for future use: to supply: to appoint or give a right to a benefice before it is actually vacant.--_v.i._ to procure supplies or means of defence: to take measures: to arrange for as a necessary condition or arrangement.--_adj._ PROV[=I]'DABLE.--_conj._ PROV[=I]'DED, (often with _that_) on condition: upon these terms: with the understanding.--_n._ PROV[=I]'DER. [L. _provid[=e]re_--_pro_, before, _vid[=e]re_, to see.] PROVIDENCE, prov'i-dens, _n._ timely preparation: (_theol._) the foresight and care of God over all His creatures: God, considered in this relation: something occurring in which God's care is clearly shown: prudence in managing one's affairs.--_adjs._ PROV'IDENT, seeing beforehand, and providing for the future: cautious: prudent: economical; PROVIDEN'TIAL, effected by, or proceeding from, divine providence.--_advs._ PROVIDEN'TIALLY; PROV'IDENTLY.--_n._ PROV'IDENTNESS. [L. _provid-ens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _provid[=e]re_.] PROVINCE, prov'ins, _n._ a portion of an empire or a state marked off for purposes of government: a part of a country as distinguished from the capital: the district over which a governor or an archbishop has jurisdiction: a region: a business or duty: a person's business or calling: a department of knowledge.--_adj._ PROVIN'CIAL, relating to a province: belonging to a division of a country: local: showing the habits and manners of a province: unpolished: narrow.--_n._ an inhabitant of a province or country district: (_R.C._) the superintendent of the heads of the religious houses in a province.--_v.t._ PROVIN'CIALISE, to render provincial:--_pr.p._ provin'cial[=i]sing; _pa.p._ provin'cial[=i]sed.--_ns._ PROVIN'CIALISM, a manner, a mode of speech, or a turn of thought peculiar to a province or a country district: a local expression: narrowness; PROVINCIAL'ITY.--_adv._ PROVIN'CIALLY.--PROVINCIAL LETTERS, a series of letters written (1656-57) by Pascal against the doctrines and policy of the Jesuits. [Fr.,--L. _provincia_, a province; perh. _pro_, for, _vinc[)e]re_, to conquer.] PROVINCIAL, pr[=o]-vin'shal, _adj._ pertaining to _Provence_ or _Provençal_.--PROVINCIAL ROSE, the cabbage-rose--from _Provins-rose_, Provins in Seine-et-Marne, being famous for its roses: (_Shak._) a rosette formerly worn on the shoe. PROVINE, pr[=o]-v[=i]n', _v.i._ to propagate a vine by layering, to form a plant for the next season at a distance from the original plant. PROVISION, pr[=o]-vizh'un, _n._ act of providing: that which is provided or prepared: measures taken beforehand: a clause in a law or a deed: a rule for guidance: an appointment by the pope to a benefice not yet vacant: preparation: previous agreement: a store of food: provender.--_v.t._ to supply with provisions or food.--_adjs._ PROVI'SIONAL, PROVI'SIONARY, provided for the occasion: temporary: containing a provision.--_n._ PROVI'SIONAL-JUDG'MENT, a judgment given as far as the available evidence admits, but subject to correction under more light.--_adv._ PROVI'SIONALLY.--_ns._ PROVI'SIONAL-OR'DER, an order to do something granted by a secretary of state, which, when confirmed by the legislature, has the force of an act of parliament; PROVI'SIONAL-REM'EDY, a means of detaining in safety a person or property until a decision upon some point in which they are concerned be come to; PROVI'SION-MER'CHANT, a general dealer in articles of food. [Fr.,--L.,--_provisus_, pa.p. of _provid[=e]re_.] PROVISO, pr[=o]-v[=i]'z[=o], _n._ a provision or condition in a deed or other writing: the clause containing it: any condition:--_pl._ PROVISOS (pr[=o]-v[=i]'z[=o]z).--_adv._ PROV[=I]'SORILY.--_adj._ PROV[=I]'SORY, containing a proviso or condition: conditional: making provision for the time: temporary. [From the L. law phrase _proviso quod_, it being provided that.] PROVISOR, pr[=o]-v[=i]'zor, _n._ one who provides: a purveyor: a person to whom the pope has granted the right to the next vacancy in a benefice.--STATUTE OF PROVISORS, an act of the English parliament passed in 1351 to prevent the pope from exercising the power of creating provisors. PROVOKE, pr[=o]-v[=o]k', _v.t._ to call forth: to summon: to excite or call into action: to excite with anger: to offend: (_B._) to challenge.--_n._ PROVOC[=A]'TION, act of provoking: that which provokes: any cause of danger.--_adjs._ PROVOC'ATIVE, PROVOC'ATORY, tending to provoke or excite.--_n._ anything that stirs up or provokes.--_n._ PROVOC'ATIVENESS, the quality of being provocative.--_adj._ PROV[=O]'KABLE.--_ns._ PROV[=O]KE'MENT (_Spens._), provocation; PROV[=O]'KER, one who, or that which, provokes, causes, or promotes.--_adj._ PROV[=O]'KING, irritating.--_adv._ PROV[=O]'KINGLY.--THE PROVOCATION, the sojourn of the Jews in the wilderness, when they provoked God. [Fr. _provoquer_--L. _provoc[=a]re_, _pro_, forth, _voc[=a]re_, to call.] PROVOST, prov'ost, _n._ the dignitary set over a cathedral or collegiate church: the head of a college: (_Scotland_) the chief magistrate of certain classes of burghs, answering to mayor in England: (_Shak._) the keeper of a prison.--_ns._ PROV'OST-MAR'SHAL (_army_), an officer with special powers for enforcing discipline and securing prisoners till brought to trial: (_navy_) an officer having charge of prisoners; PROV'OSTRY, a district under a provost; PROV'OSTSHIP, the office of a provost.--LORD PROVOST, the style of the chief magistrates of Edinburgh, Glasgow, Perth, Aberdeen, and Dundee. [O. Fr. _provost_ (Fr. _prévôt_), L. _præpositus_, pa.p. of _præpon[)e]re_--_præ_, over, _pon[)e]re_, to place.] PROW, prow, _n._ the forepart of a ship: the bow or beak. [Fr. _proue_ (It. _prua_)--L. _prora_--Gr. _pr[=o]ra_, a prow--_pro_, before.] PROWESS, prow'es, _n._ bravery, esp. in war: valour: daring.--_adj._ PROW (_arch._), brave, valiant:--_superl._ PROW'EST. [O. Fr. _prou_ (Fr. _preux_), perh. from _prod_ in _prodesse_, to do good.] PROWL, prowl, _v.i._ to keep poking about: to rove about in search of prey or plunder.--_n._ (_coll._) the act of prowling: a roving for prey.--_n._ PROWL'ER.--_adj._ PROWL'ING.--_adv._ PROWL'INGLY. [Prob. for _progle_=_prokle_, a freq. form of _proke_, to thrust; cf. _Prog._] PROXIMATE, proks'i-m[=a]t, _adj._ nearest or next: without any one between, as a cause and its effect: having the most intimate connection: near and immediate.--_adj._ PROX'IMAL.--_advs._ PROX'IMALLY; PROX'IMATELY.--_n._ PROXIM'ITY, immediate nearness in time, place, relationship, &c.--_adj._ PROX'IMO, (_in_) the next (month)--often written _prox._--PROXIMATE CAUSE, a cause which immediately precedes the effect; PROXIMATE OBJECT, immediate object. [L. _proximus_, next, superl. from _prope_, near.] PROXY, prok'si, _n._ the agency of one who acts for another: one who acts or votes for another, or the writing by which he is authorised to do so: a substitute.--_v.i._ to vote or act by proxy.--_n._ PROX'YSHIP.--_adj._ PROX'Y-WED'DED (_Tenn._), wedded by proxy. [Obs. _procuracy_. Cf. _Procurator_.] PROZYMITE, proz'i-m[=i]t, _n._ one who uses leavened bread in the eucharist--opp. to _Azymite_. PRUDE, pr[=oo]d, _n._ a woman of affected modesty: one who pretends extreme propriety.--_n._ PRU'DERY, manners of a prude: pretended or overdone strictness of manner or behaviour.--_adj._ PRU'DISH, like a prude: affectedly modest or reserved: stiff: severe.--_adv._ PRU'DISHLY.--_n._ PRU'DISHNESS. [O. Fr. _prode_, fem. of _prou_, _prod_, excellent.] PRUDENT, pr[=oo]'dent, _adj._ cautious and wise in conduct: careful: discreet: dictated by forethought: frugal.--_n._ PRU'DENCE, quality of being prudent: wisdom applied to practice: attention to self-interest: caution.--_adj._ PRUDEN'TIAL, using or practising prudence.--_n._ a matter for prudence (generally _pl._).--_n._ PRUDENTIAL'ITY.--_advs._ PRUDEN'TIALLY; PRU'DENTLY. [Fr.,--L. _pr[=u]dens_, _pr[=u]dentis_, contr. of _providens_, pr.p. of _provid[=e]re_, to foresee.] PRUD'-HOMME, pr[=oo]-dom', _n._ a prudent man: a skilled workman: in France, one of a board of arbitrators formed from masters and workmen. [Fr. _prud_ or _prod_, good, _homme_, a man.] PRUINOSE, pr[=oo]'i-n[=o]s, _adj._ powdery, mealy.--Also PRU'INOUS. [L. _pruina_, hoar-frost.] PRUNE, pr[=oo]n, _v.t._ to trim by lopping off superfluous parts: to divest of anything superfluous: to arrange or dress feathers, as birds do.--_ns._ PRU'NER; PRU'NING, the act of pruning or trimming; PRU'NING-HOOK, a hooked bill for pruning with; PRU'NING-KNIFE, a large knife with a slightly hooked point for pruning.--_n.pl._ PRU'NING-SHEARS, shears for pruning shrubs, &c. [Older form _proin_, prob. from Fr. _provigner_, _provin_, a shoot--L. _propago_, _-inis_.] PRUNE, pr[=oo]n, _n._ a plum, esp. a dried plum.--_adj._ PRUNIF'EROUS, bearing plums. [Fr.,--L. _prunum_--Gr. _prounon_.] PRUNELLA, pr[=oo]-nel'a, _n._ sore throat: angina pectoris. [Low L., from Teut.; Ger. _bräune_, quinsy.] PRUNELLA, pr[=oo]-nel'a, _n._ a genus of plants, the best known of which is _Self-heal_, formerly used as a medicine. [Perh. from _prunella_, above.] PRUNELLA, pr[=oo]-nel'a, _n._ a strong woollen stuff, generally black--also PRUNELL'O.--_n._ PRUNELL'O, a little prune: a kind of dried plum. [Prob. Latinised form of Fr. _prunelle_, a sloe, dim. of Fr. _prune_, a plum.] PRURIENCE, pr[=oo]'ri-ens, _n._ state of being prurient: eager desire--also PRU'RIENCY.--_adj._ PRU'RIENT, itching or uneasy with desire: given to unclean thoughts.--_adv._ PRU'RIENTLY. [L. _pruriens_, pr.p. of _prur[=i]re_, to itch.] PRURIGO, pr[=oo]-r[=i]'g[=o], _n._ an eruption on the skin, causing great itching.--_adj._ PRURIG'INOUS.--_n._ PRUR[=I]'TUS. [L. _prurio_, an itching.] PRUSSIAN, prush'an, _adj._ of or pertaining to _Prussia_.--_n._ an inhabitant of Prussia.--_v.t._ PRUSS'IANISE.--_n._ PRUSS'IATE, a salt of prussic acid: a cyanide.--_adj._ PRUSS'IC, pertaining to Prussian blue.--PRUSSIAN BLUE, cyanide of potassium and iron; PRUSSIC ACID, a deadly poison, an acid first obtained from Prussian blue--also _Hydrocyanic acid_. PRY, pr[=i], _v.i._ to peer or peep into that which is closed: to inspect closely: to try to discover with curiosity:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ pried.--_n._ (_rare_) a peeping glance: one who pries--cf. _Paul Pry_, in John Poole's (1792-1879) comedy so called, first produced in 1825.--_ns._ PR[=I]'ER, PRY'ER.--_p.adj._ PRY'ING, looking closely into: inquisitive: curious.--_adv._ PRY'INGLY. [M. E. _prien_=_piren_, to peer; cf. _Peer_.] PRYS, pr[=i]s, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as PRICE. PRYSE, pr[=i]s, _v.t._ (_Spens._). Same as PRIZE. PRYTANEUM, prit-an-[=e]'um, _n._ the town-hall of an ancient Greek city where ambassadors were received, and citizens who had deserved well of the state were sometimes allowed to dine at the public expense. [Gr.,--_prytanis_, a presiding magistrate.] PRYTHEE, prith'[=e] (_Shak._). Same as _Prithee_. PSALM, säm, _n._ a sacred song.--_ns._ PSALM'-BOOK, a book containing psalms for purposes of worship; _Psalmist_ (säm'ist, or sal'mist), a composer of psalms, applied to David and to the writers of the Scriptural psalms.--_adjs._ PSALMOD'IC, -AL, pertaining to psalmody.--_v.i._ PSAL'MODISE, to practise psalmody.--_ns._ PSAL'MODIST, a singer of psalms; PSALMODY (sal'mo-di, or säm'o-di), the singing of psalms, esp. in public worship: psalms collectively.--_v.t._ to celebrate in psalms.--_ns._ PSALMOG'RAPHER, PSALMOG'RAPHIST, a writer of psalms; PSALMOG'RAPHY, the act or practice of writing psalms; PSALM'-TUNE, a tune to which a psalm is usually sung.--THE PSALMS, one of the books of the Old Testament. [A.S. _sealm_--Low L. _psalmus_--Gr. _psalmos_--_psallein_, to play on a stringed instrument.] PSALTER, sawl't[.e]r, _n._ the book of Psalms, esp. when separately printed: (_R.C._) a series of 150 devout sentences: a rosary of 150 beads, according to the number of the psalms.--_adj._ PSALT[=E]'RIAN, pertaining to a psalter: musical.--_ns._ PSAL'TERY, a stringed instrument used by the Jews: psalter; PSAL'TRESS, a woman who plays upon the psaltery. [O. Fr. _psaltier_--L. _psalterium_, a song sung to the psaltery.] PSALTERIUM, sawl-t[=e]'ri-um, _n._ the third division of a ruminant's stomach, the omasum or manyplies. PSAMMITIC, sa-mit'ik, _adj._ in geology, applied to derivative rocks composed of rounded grains, as ordinary sandstone. [Gr. _psammos_, sand.] PSCHENT, pshent, _n._ the sovereign crown of ancient Egypt, a combination of the white mitre of southern Egypt, with the red crown, square in front and pointed behind, of northern Egypt. [Egyptian.] PSELLISM, sel'izm, _n._ a defect in articulation--also PSELLIS'MUS. [Gr. _psellismos_--_psellos_, stammering.] PSEUDO-, s[=u]'d[=o], a prefix signifying false or spurious, as in _ns._ PSEUDÆSTH[=E]'SIA, imaginary feeling, as in an amputated limb; PSEUDEPIG'RAPHA (_pl._), spurious writings, especially those writings claiming to be Biblical, but not judged genuine or canonical by the consent of scholars.--_adjs._ PSEUDEPIGRAPH'IC, -AL.--_n._ PSEUDEPIG'RAPHY, the ascription to books of false names of authors.--_n._ PSEU'DO-APOS'TLE, a pretended apostle.--_adj._ PSEU'DO-ARCH[=A]'IC, archaistic.--_ns._ PSEUDOBLEP'SIS, visual illusion; PSEU'DO-CHRISTIAN'ITY, counterfeit Christianity; PSEUDOCHR[=O]'MIA, false perception of colour; PSEU'DO-CLAS'SICISM, false or affected classicism.--_adjs._ PSEU'DODONT, having false teeth, as a monotreme; PSEU'DODOX, false.--_n._ a common fallacy.--_ns._ PSEUDOGEU'SIA, false taste-perception; PSEU'DOGRAPH, a false writing.--_v.i._ PSEUDOG'RAPHISE, to write incorrectly.--_ns._ PSEUDOG'RAPHY, bad spelling; PSEUDOL'OGY, the science of lying; PSEU'DO-MAR'TYR, a false martyr; PSEUDOMEM'BRANE, a false membrane, or lining, as in some diseases of the throat.--_adj._ PSEUDOMEM'BRANOUS.--_n._ PSEU'DOMORPH.--_adj._ PSEUDOMOR'PHOUS, deceptive in form: (_min._) noting crystals which have a form of crystallisation foreign to the species to which they belong.--_ns._ PSEU'DONYM, a fictitious name assumed, as by an author; PSEUDONYM'ITY, state of being pseudonymous.--_adj._ PSEUDON'YMOUS, bearing a fictitious name.--_adv._ PSEUDON'YMOUSLY.--_n.pl._ PSEUDOP[=O]'DIA, the processes alternately thrust forth and drawn back by amoeboid cells:--_sing._ PSEUDOP[=O]'DIUM, PSEU'DOPOD.--_n._ PSEU'DOSCOPE, a species of stereoscope which causes the parts of bodies in relief to appear hollow, and _vice versâ_.--_adj._ PSEUDOSCOP'IC.--_n._ PSEU'DOSCOPY. [Gr. _pseud[=e]s_, false.] PSHAW, shaw, _interj._ expressing contempt.--_v.i._ to express contempt, as with this word. [Imit.] PSHAW, shaw, _n._ an upright cylindrical hat once worn by women in Spain. PSILANTHROPISM, s[=i]-lan'thr[=o]-pizm, _n._ the doctrine or belief of the mere human existence of Christ.--_adj._ PSILANTHROP'IC.--_ns._ PSILAN'THROPIST, one who thinks Christ a mere man; PSILAN'THROPY. [Gr. _psilos_, bare, _anthr[=o]pos_, man.] PSITTACI, sit'a-s[=i], _n.pl._ the parrot tribe.--_adjs._ PSIT'TACINE, PSITT[=A]'CEOUS. [Gr. _psittakos_.] PSOAS, s[=o]'as, _n._ a muscle of the loins and pelvis: the tenderloin.--_adj._ PSOAT'IC. [Gr. _psoa_, _psua_, generally in pl. _psoai_, _psuai_.] PSORIASIS, s[=o]-r[=i]'a-sis, _n._ a disease characterised by slight elevations of the surface of the skin covered with whitish scales.--_n._ PS[=O]'RA.--_adj._ PS[=O]'RIC. [Gr. _ps[=o]ri[=a]n_, to have the itch, _ps[=a]n_, to rub.] PSYCHIC, -AL, s[=i]'kik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to the soul, or living principle in man: spiritual: pertaining to the mind, or to its faculties and functions.--_ns._ PSY'CHE, the personified soul or spirit: the human soul or spirit or mind: a genus of bombycid moths: a cheval-glass; PSYCH[=I]'ATER, PSYCH[=I]'ATRIST, one who treats diseases of the mind, an alienist; PSYCH[=I]'ATRY, the treatment of mental diseases; PSY'CHIC, a spiritualistic medium; PSY'CHICS, the science of psychology; PSY'CHISM, the doctrine that there is a universal soul animating all living beings; PSY'CHIST; PSYCHOGEN'ESIS, PSYCHOG'ENY, the origination and development of the soul; PSYCHOG'ONY, the doctrine of the development of mind; PSY'CHOGRAPH, an instrument used for so-called spirit-writing.--_adj._ PSYCHOGRAPH'IC.--_n._ PSYCHOG'RAPHY, the natural history of mind: supposed spirit-writing by the hand of a medium.--_adjs._ PSYCHOLOG'IC, -AL, pertaining to psychology: pertaining to the mind.--_adv._ PSYCHOLOG'ICALLY.--_v.i._ PSYCHOL'OGISE.--_ns._ PSYCHOL'OGIST, one who studies psychology; PSYCHOL'OGY, the science which classifies and analyses the phenomena or varying states of the human mind; PSYCHOM'ACHY, a conflict of soul with body; PSY'CHOMANCY, necromancy; PSYCHOM'ETRY, the science of the measurement of the duration, &c., of mental processes: an occult power claimed by some charlatans of divining the secret properties of things by mere contact.--_adj._ PSY'CHOM[=O]TOR, pertaining to such mental action as induces muscular contraction.--_ns._ PSYCHONEUROL'OGY, that part of neurology which deals with mental action; PSYCHONEUR[=O]'SIS, mental disease without apparent anatomical lesion; PSYCHON'OMY, the science of the laws of mental action; PSYCHONOSOL'OGY, the branch of medical science that treats of mental diseases; PSYCHOPAN'NYCHISM, the theory that at death the soul falls asleep till the resurrection; PSYCHOPAN'NYCHIST; PSYCHOPAR'ESIS, mental weakness; PSY'CHOPATH, a morally irresponsible person; PSYCHOP'ATHIST, an alienist; PSYCHOP'ATHY, derangement of mental functions.--_adj._ PSY'CHO-PHYS'ICAL.--_ns._ PSY'CHO-PHYS'ICIST; PSY'CHO-PHYSIOL'OGY, PSY'CHO-PHYS'ICS, the knowledge of the manifold correspondences of the most intimate and exact kind that exist between states and changes of consciousness on the one hand, and states and changes of brain on the other--the concomitance being apparently complete as respects complexity, intensity, and time-order; PSY'CHOPLASM, the physical basis of consciousness; PSY'CHOPOMP, Hermes, the guide of spirits to the other world; PSYCH[=O]'SIS, mental condition: a change in the field of consciousness: any mental disorder; PSYCHOST[=A]'SIA, the weighing of souls; PSY'CHO-STAT'ICS, the theory of the conditions of the phenomena of mind; PSYCHOTH[=E]'ISM, the doctrine that God is pure spirit; PSYCHOTHERAPEU'TICS, PSYCHOTHER'APY, the art of curing mental disease.--PSYCHICAL RESEARCH, inquiring into alleged phenomena, apparently implying a connection with another world; PSYCHIC FORCE, a power not physical or mechanical, supposed to cause certain so-called spiritualistic phenomena. [L. _psychicus_--Gr. _psychikos_--_psych[=e]_, the soul--_psych[=e]in_, to breathe.] PSYCHROMETER, s[=i]-krom'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring the tension of aqueous vapour in the atmosphere: a wet and dry bulb hygrometer.--_adjs._ PSYCHROMET'RIC, -AL.--_ns._ PSYCHROM'ETRY; PSYCHROPH[=O]'BIA, morbid impressibility to cold; PSY'CHROPHORE, a refrigerating instrument like a catheter for cooling the urethra. [Gr. _psychros_, cold, _psychein_, to blow, _metron_, a measure.] PTARMIC, tar'mik, _n._ a medicine which causes sneezing. PTARMIGAN, tär'mi-gan, _n._ a species of grouse with feathered toes inhabiting the tops of mountains. [Gael. _tarmachan_.] PTERE, t[=e]r, _n._ (_zool._) an alate organ.--_ns._ PTERID'IUM, PTER[=O]'DIUM, a key-fruit or samara. PTERICHTHYS, ter-ik'this, _n._ a genus of fossil ganoid fishes in the Old Red Sandstone strata, with wing-like pectoral fins. [Gr. _pteron_, wing, _ichthys_, fish.] PTERION, t[=e]'ri-on, _n._ in craniometry, the region where the frontal, squamosal, parietal, and sphenoid bones meet:--_pl._ PT[=E]'RIA. PTERIS, t[=e]'ris, _n._ a genus of ferns which includes the brakes.--_ns._ PTERIDOL'OGIST, one versed in the study of ferns; PTERIDOL'OGY, the science of ferns; PTERIDOM[=A]'NIA, a passion for ferns; PTERIG'RAPHY, a description of ferns. [Gr. _pteris_--_pteron_, a feather.] PTERNA, ter'na, _n._ the heel-pad in birds:--_pl._ PTER'NÆ. PTERODACTYL, ter-[=o]-dak'til, _n._ an extinct flying reptile with large and bird-like skull, long jaws, and a flying-membrane like that of a bat. [Gr. _pteron_, wing, _daktylos_, finger.] PTEROGRAPHY, ter-og'ra-fi, _n._ the description of feathers.--_n._ PTEROG'RAPHER.--_adjs._ PTEROGRAPH'IC, -AL; PTEROLOG'ICAL.--_n._ PTEROL'OGY, the science of insects' wings. PTEROMYS, ter'[=o]-mis, _n._ a genus of _Sciuridæ_, the flying-squirrels. PTERON, t[=e]'ron, _n._ a range of columns, portico.--_n._ PTER[=O]'MA, a peridrome: a side-wall. [Gr.] PTEROPE, ter'[=o]p, _n._ a fruit-bat or flying-fox. PTEROPOD, ter'[=o]-pod, _n._ one of a class of molluscs which move about by means of wing-like appendages attached to the sides of the head, which are not, however, homologous to the foot of other molluscs:--_pl._ PTEROP'ODA. [Gr. _pteron_, wing, _pous_, _podos_, foot.] PTEROSAURIA, ter-[=o]-saw'ri-a, _n.pl._ a group of extinct flying reptiles. [Gr. _pteron_, wing, _sauros_, lizard.] PTERYGOID, ter'i-goid, _n._ one of a pair of bones in the facial apparatus of some vertebrata behind the palatines, known in human anatomy as the pterygoid plates of the sphenoid bone.--_adj._ aliform or alate.--_adj._ PTERYG'IAN.--_n._ PTERYG'IUM, a generalised limb of a vertebrate. PTERYLÆ, ter'i-l[=e], _n.pl._ the bands of contour feathers in birds.--_adjs._ PTERYLOGRAPH'IC, -AL.--_adv._ PTERYLOGRAPH'ICALLY.--_n._ PTERYLOG'RAPHY. PTILOSIS, t[=i]-l[=o]'sis, _n._ plumage or mode of feathering of a bird.--Also PTERYL[=O]'SIS. [Gr. _ptilon_, a feather.] PTISAN, tiz'an, _n._ a medicinal drink made from barley with other ingredients. [Gr. _ptisan[=e]_, peeled barley, barley-water--_ptissein_, to peel.] PTOCHOCRACY, t[=o]-kok'ra-si, _n._ the rule of paupers.--_n._ PTOCHOG'ONY, the production of beggars--wholesale pauperisation. [Gr. _pt[=o]chos_, a beggar.] PTOLEMAIC, tol-e-m[=a]'ik, _adj._ pertaining to the race of Egyptian kings called the _Ptolemies_: pertaining to _Ptolemy_ the astronomer (of the 2d century)--also PTOLEMÆ'AN.--_n._ PTOLEM[=A]'IST, one who believes in the Ptolemaic system of astronomy.--PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM, the method by which Ptolemy, the astronomer, explained the structure of the heavens and the motions of the heavenly bodies (139 A.D.). PTOMAÏNE, t[=o]'ma-in, _n._ a somewhat loosely used generic name for those bodies, usually poisonous, formed from animal tissues during putrefaction--_putrescine_, _cadaverine_, _creatinin_, _neurin_, _choline_, _muscarine_, &c.--Also PT[=O]'MAÏN. [Gr. _pt[=o]ma_, a corpse--_piptein_, to fall.] PTOSIS, t[=o]'sis, _n._ inability to raise the upper eyelid. [Gr.,--_piptein_, to fall.] PTYALIN, -E, t[=i]'a-lin, _n._ the nitrogenous essential principle of saliva.--_v.i._ PTY'ALISE, to salivate.--_n._ PTY'ALISM, salivation.--_adj._ PTYALOGOG'IC.--_ns._ PTYAL'OGOGUE, PTYS'MAGOGUE, a medicine which causes salivation. [Gr.,--_ptuein_, to spit.] PUB, pub, _n._ (_slang_) a public-house, tavern. PUBERTY, p[=u]'b[.e]r-ti, _n._ the age of full development: early manhood or womanhood: the period when a plant begins to flower.--_adjs._ P[=U]'BERAL; P[=U]BER'ULENT, covered with very fine downy hairs.--_ns._ P[=U]'BES, the pubic region, the hair growing thereon at puberty; P[=U]BES'CENCE, state of one arrived at puberty: (_bot_.) the soft, short hair on plants.--_adj._ P[=U]BES'CENT, arriving at puberty: (_bot._, _zool._) covered with soft, short hair; PUBIG'EROUS, pubescent. [Fr. _puberté_--L. _pubertas_, _-tatis_--_pubes_, _puber_, grown up.] PUBIS, p[=u]'bis, _n._ a bone of the pelvis which in man forms the anterior portion of the _os innominatum_.--_adjs._ P[=U]'BIC; PUBOFEM'ORAL; P[=U]'BO-IL'IAC; P[=U]'BO-IS'CHIAC; PUBOPROSTAT'IC; P[=U]'BO-UR[=E]'THRAL; PUBOVES'ICAL. [For _os pubis_, gen. of _pubes_, grown up.] PUBLIC, pub'lik, _adj._ of or belonging to the people: pertaining to a community or a nation: general: common to or shared in by all: generally known.--_n._ the people: the general body of mankind: the people, indefinitely: a public-house, tavern.--_ns._ PUB'LICAN, the keeper of an inn or public-house: (_orig_.) a farmer-general of the Roman taxes: a tax-collector; PUBLIC[=A]'TION, the act of publishing or making public: a proclamation: the act of printing and sending out for sale, as a book: that which is published as a book, &c.--_ns.pl._ PUB'LIC-BILLS, -LAWS, &c., bills, laws, &c. which concern the interests of the whole people; PUB'LIC-FUNDS, money lent to government for which interest is paid of a stated amount at a stated time.--_ns._ PUB'LIC-HOUSE, a house open to the public: one chiefly used for selling beer and other liquors: an inn or tavern; PUB'LIC-INSTIT[=U]'TION, an institution kept up by public funds for the public use, as an educational or charitable foundation; PUB'LICIST, one who writes on or is skilled in public law, or on current political topics; PUBLIC'ITY, the state of being public or open to the knowledge of all: notoriety; PUB'LIC-LAW (see INTERNATIONAL).--_adv._ PUB'LICLY.--_adjs._ PUB'LIC-MIND'ED, -SPIR'ITED, having a spirit actuated by regard to the public interest: with a regard to the public interest.--_ns._ PUB'LICNESS; PUB'LIC-OPIN'ION, the view which the people of a district or county take of any question of public interest; PUB'LIC-POL'ICY, the main principles or spirit upon which the law of a country is constructed; PUB'LIC-SPIR'IT, a strong desire and effort to work on behalf of the public interest.--_adv._ PUB'LIC-SPIR'ITEDLY.--_n._ PUB'LIC-SPIR'ITEDNESS.--_n.pl._ PUB'LIC-WORKS, permanent works or improvements made for public use or benefit.--PUBLIC HEALTH, the department in any government, municipality, &c. which superintends sanitation; PUBLIC HOLIDAY, a general holiday ordained by parliament; PUBLIC LANDS, lands belonging to government, esp. such as are open to sale, grant, &c.; PUBLIC ORATOR, an officer of English universities who is the voice of the Senate upon all public occasions; PUBLIC SCHOOL (see SCHOOL).--IN PUBLIC, in open view. [Fr.,--L. _publicus_--_populus_, the people.] PUBLISH, pub'lish, _v.t._ to make public: to divulge: to announce: to proclaim: to send forth to the public: to print and offer for sale: to put into circulation.--_adj._ PUB'LISHABLE.--_ns._ PUB'LISHER, one who makes public: one who publishes books; PUB'LISHMENT, publication, esp. of banns. PUCE, p[=u]s, _adj._ brownish-purple. [Fr. _puce_--L. _pulex_, _pul[)i]cis_, a flea.] PUCELLE, p[=u]-sel', _n._ a maid, virgin, esp. the Maid of Orleans, Jeanne d'Arc (1412-31): a wanton girl.--_n._ P[=U]'CELAGE, virginity. [O. Fr. through Low L.,--L. _pullus_, a young animal.] PUCK, puk, _n._ a goblin or mischievous sprite: a merry fairy in _Midsummer Night's Dream_.--_adj._ PUCK'ISH. [M. E. _pouke_--Celt., as Ir. _puca_, W. _pwca_, _bwg_; conn. with Ice. _púki_. Cf. _Pug_, _Bug_.] PUCKA, puk'a, _adj._ durable, substantial--opp. to _Cutcha_. [Anglo-Ind.] PUCK-BALL. Same as PUFF-BALL. PUCKER, puk'[.e]r, _v.t._ to gather into folds: to wrinkle.--_n._ a fold or wrinkle: a number of folds or wrinkles, esp. irregular ones: (_coll._) agitation, confusion.--_adj._ PUCK'ERY, astringent: tending to wrinkle. [Cf. _Poke_, a bag, and _Pock_.] PUD, pud, _n._ (_coll._) a paw, fist, hand. [Perh. Dut. _poot_, paw.] PUDDENING, pud'ning, _n._ a thick pad of rope, &c., used as a fender on the bow of a boat. PUDDER, pud'[.e]r, _n._ a pother, a bustle, a tumult.--_v.i._ to make a tumult or bustle.--_v.t._ to disturb: to perplex or confound. [_Pother._] PUDDING, p[=oo]d'ing, _n._ a skin or gut filled with seasoned minced meat, &c., a sausage: a soft kind of food made of flour, milk, eggs, &c.: a piece of good fortune.--_adjs._ PUDD'ING-FACED, having a fat, round, smooth face; PUDD'ING-HEAD'ED (_coll._), stupid.--_ns._ PUDD'ING-PIE, a pudding with meat baked in it; PUDD'ING-SLEEVE, a large loose sleeve; PUDD'ING-STONE, a conglomerate rock made up of rounded pebbles; PUDD'ING-TIME, dinner-time: (_obs._) critical time. [Prob. Celt., as W. _poten_, Ir. _putog_--_put_, a bag. The Low Ger. _pudding_, Fr. _boudin_, L. _botulus_, are prob. all related words.] PUDDLE, pud'l, _n._ an ill-shaped, awkward person. [Cf. Low Ger. _purrel_, something short and thick.] PUDDLE, pud'l, _n._ a small pool of muddy water: a mixture of clay and sand.--_v.t._ to make muddy: to stir up mud: to make water-tight by means of clay: to convert into bar or wrought iron.--_v.i._ to make a dirty stir.--_ns._ PUDD'LER, one who turns cast-iron into wrought-iron by puddling; PUDD'LING, the act of rendering impervious to water by means of clay: the process of converting cast into bar or wrought iron.--_adj._ PUDD'LY, dirty. [M. E. _podel_ (prob. for _plod-el_)--Celt.; Ir. _plodach_, _plod_, a pool.] PUDDOCK, pud'ok, _n._ Same as PADDOCK. PUDENCY, p[=u]'dens-i, _n._ (_Shak._) shamefacedness, modesty.--_n.pl._ PUDEN'DA, the genitals.--_adjs._ PUDEN'DAL, PUDEN'DOUS, P[=U]'DIC, -AL, pertaining to the pudenda.--_n._ PUDIC'ITY, modesty. [L., as if _pudentia_--_pudens_, pr.p. of _pud[=e]re_, to be ashamed.] PUDGY, puj'i, _adj._ fat and short: fleshy.--Also PODG'Y. PUEBLO, pweb'lo, _n._ a town or settlement in Spanish America: one of the communal habitations of the New Mexico aborigines.--_adj._ PUEB'LAN. [Sp., a town--L. _populus_, a people.] PUERILE, p[=u]'[.e]r-[=i]l, _adj._ pertaining to children: childish: trifling: silly.--_adv._ P[=U]'ERILELY.--_ns._ P[=U]'ERILENESS, P[=U]ERIL'ITY, quality of being puerile: that which is puerile: a childish expression. [Fr. _puéril_--L. _puerilis_--_puer_, a child.] PUERPERAL, p[=u]-[.e]r'p[.e]r-al, _adj._ relating to childbirth--also P[=U]ER'PEROUS.--_adv._ P[=U]ER'PERALLY.--PUERPERAL FEVER, fever occurring in connection with childbirth; PUERPERAL INSANITY, insanity occurring in connection with childbirth. [L. _puerpera_, a woman lately delivered--_puer_, a child, _par[)e]re_, to bear.] PUFF, puf, _v.i._ to blow in puffs or whiffs: to swell or fill with air: to breathe with vehemence: to blow at, in contempt: to bustle about.--_v.t._ to drive with a puff: to swell with a wind: to praise in exaggerated terms.--_n._ a sudden, forcible breath: a sudden blast of wind: a gust or whiff: a fungus ball containing dust: anything light and porous, or swollen and light: a kind of light pastry: a part of a fabric gathered up so as to be left full in the middle: a light ball or pad for dusting powder on the skin, &c.: an exaggerated expression of praise.--_ns._ PUFF'-ADD'ER, a large, venomous African serpent; PUFF'-BALL, a dried fungus, ball-shaped and full of dust; PUFF'-BIRD, a South American bird resembling the kingfisher in form, but living on insects; PUFF'-BOX, a box for holding powder for the toilet, and a puff for applying it.--_adj._ PUFFED, gathered up into rounded ridges, as a sleeve.--_ns._ PUFF'ER, one who puffs: one who raises the prices at an auction in order to excite the eagerness of the bidders to the advantage of the seller; PUFF'ERY, puffing or extravagant praise.--_adv._ PUFF'ILY.--_ns._ PUFF'INESS, state of being puffy or turgid: intumescence; PUFF'ING, the act of praising extravagantly.--_adv._ PUFF'INGLY.--_n._ PUFF'-PASTE, a short flaky paste for pastry.--_adj._ PUFF'Y, puffed out with air or any soft matter: tumid: bombastic: coming in puffs.--PUFF UP (_B._), to inflate. [Imit.; cf. Ger. _puffen_, &c.] PUFFIN, puf'in, _n._ a water-fowl having a short, thick, projecting beak like that of a parrot: a puff-ball. PUG, pug, _n._ a monkey: a fox: a small kind of dog: any small animal (in familiarity or contempt).--_n._ PUG'-DOG, a small, short-haired dog with wrinkled face, upturned nose, and short tail.--_adjs._ PUG'-FACED, monkey-faced; PUG'GING (_Shak._), thieving--a misprint for _prigging_.--_n._ PUG'-NOSE (sometimes abbrev. _pug_), a short, thick nose with the tip turned up. [_Puck._] PUG, pug, _n._ clay ground and worked with water.--_v.t._ to grind with water and make plastic: to line spaces between floors with mortar, felt, or other deafening.--_ns._ PUG'GING, beating or punching, esp. the working of clay for making bricks, in a pug-mill: (_archit._) clay, sawdust, plaster, &c. put between floors to deaden sound; PUG'-MILL, a machine for mixing and tempering clay. [Prov. Eng. _pug_, to strike. Cf. _Poke_.] PUGH, p[=oo], _interj._ of contempt or disdain. [Imit.] PUGILISM, p[=u]'jil-izm, _n._ the art of boxing or fighting with the fists, esp. in the prize-ring.--_ns._ P[=U]'GIL, a pinch; P[=U]'GILIST, one who fights with his fists.--_adj._ P[=U]GILIST'IC. [L. _pugil_, a boxer.] PUGNACIOUS, pug-n[=a]'shus, _adj._ fond of fighting: combative: quarrelsome.--_adv._ PUGN[=A]'CIOUSLY.--_n._ PUGNAC'ITY, readiness or inclination to fight: fondness for fighting: quarrelsomeness. [L. _pugnax_, _pugnacis_, fond of fighting--_pugn[=a]re_, to fight.] PUGREE, pug'r[=e], _n._ a light scarf worn round the hat to keep off the sun.--Also PUG'GREE, PUG'GERY, PUG'AREE. [Hind. _pagr[=i]_, a turban.] PUISNE, p[=u]'ne, _adj._ (_law_) younger or inferior in rank, applied to certain judges in England. [O. Fr. (Fr. _puiné_), from _puis_--L. _post_, after, _né_, pa.p. of _naître_--L. _nasci_, _natus_, to be born.] PUISSANT, p[=u]'is-ant, _adj._ potent or powerful: strong: forcible.--_n._ P[=U]'ISSANCE, power, strength, force.--_adv._ P[=U]'ISSANTLY.--_n._ P[=U]'ISSANTNESS. [Fr., (It. _possente_)--L. _potens_, powerful, modified by the influence of L. _posse_, to be able.] PUKE, p[=u]k, _v.i._ to spew, vomit: to sicken.--_n._ vomit: an emetic.--_n._ P[=U]'KER, one who vomits. [Perh. for _spuke_. Cf. _Spew_.] PUKE, p[=u]k, _adj._ (_Shak._) of a colour between black and russet: reddish-brown: puce.--_n._ PUKE'-STOCK'ING (_Shak._), a dark-coloured stocking. PULCHRITUDE, pul'kri-t[=u]d, _n._ comeliness. [L.] PULE, p[=u]l, _v.i._ to pipe or chirp: to cry, whimper, or whine, like a child.--_ns._ P[=U]'LER; P[=U]'LING, the cry as of a chicken: a kind of whine.--_adj._ whimpering: whining.--_adv._ P[=U]'LINGLY. [From Fr. _piauler_; imit. like It. _pigolare_, L. _pipil[=a]re_ and _pip[=a]re_, to pipe.] PULEX, p[=u]'leks, _n._ a genus of insects: the flea. [L.] PULKHA, pul'kä, _n._ a Laplander's sledge, shaped like a boat.--Also PULK. [Lap.] PULL, p[=oo]l, _v.t._ to draw, or try to draw, with force: to draw or gather with the hand: to tear: to pluck: to extract: to move, propel by tugging, rowing, &c.: to transport by rowing: in horse-racing, to check a horse in order to prevent its winning: to produce on a printing-press worked by hand: to raid or seize.--_v.i._ to give a pull: to draw.--_n._ the act of pulling: a struggle or contest: exercise in rowing: (_slang_) influence, a favourable chance, advantage: (_coll._) a drink, draught: (_print._) a single impression of a hand-press.--_ns._ PULL'-BACK, a restraint: a device for making a woman's gown hang close and straight in front; PULL'ER.--PULL A FACE, to draw the countenance into a particular expression: to grimace; PULL APART, to bring asunder by pulling; PULL DOWN, to take down or apart: to demolish; PULL FOR, to row in the direction of; PULL OFF, to carry anything through successfully; PULL ONE'S SELF TOGETHER, to collect one's faculties; PULL OUT, to draw out, lengthen; PULL THE LONG BOW, to lie or boast beyond measure; PULL THROUGH, to get to the end of something difficult or dangerous with some success; PULL UP, to tighten the reins: to take to task: to bring to a stop: to halt; PULL UP STAKES, to prepare to leave a place. [A.S. _pullian_; conn. with Low Ger. _pulen_, to pluck.] PULLET, p[=oo]l'et, _n._ a young hen.--_n._ PULL'ET-SPERM (_Shak._), the treadle or chalaza of an egg. [Fr. _poulette_, dim. of _poule_, a hen--Low L. _pulla_, a hen, fem. of L. _pullus_, a young animal.] [Illustration] PULLEY, p[=oo]l'i, _n._ a wheel turning about an axis, and having a groove on its rim in which a cord runs, used for raising weights:--_pl._ PULL'EYS.--_ns._ PULL'EY-BLOCK, a shell containing one or more sheaves, the whole forming a pulley; PULL'EY-SHELL, the casing of a pulley-block. [M. E. _poleyne_--Fr. _poulain_--Low L. _pullanus_--_pullus_; acc. to Diez, from Fr. _poulie_, itself from Eng. _pull_.] PULLMAN-CAR, p[=oo]l'man-kär, _n._ a railway sleeping-car or palace-car, first made by George M. _Pullman_ (b. 1831) in America. PULLULATE, pul'[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.i._ to germinate, bud.--_n._ PULLUL[=A]'TION. [L.,--_pullulus_, a young animal, sprout--_pullus_. Cf. _Pullet_.] PULMONARY, pul'm[=o]-n[=a]-ri, _adj._ pertaining to, or affecting, the lungs: done by the lungs: having lungs: pulmonic.--_adj._ PULMOBRANCH'IATE, breathing by lung-sacs.--_n._ PULMOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the capacity of the lungs.--_adj._ PULMON[=A]'RIOUS, diseased in the lungs.--_n.pl._ PULMON[=A]'TA, an order or sub-class of Gasteropoda, air-breathing.--_adjs._ PUL'MON[=A]TE, having lungs, lung-sacs, or lung-like organs; PULMON'IC, pertaining to or affecting the lungs.--_n._ a medicine for disease of the lungs: one affected by disease of the lungs.--_adj._ PULMONIF'EROUS, provided with lungs.--PULMONARY ARTERY, an artery which brings blood from the heart to the lungs; PULMONARY VEIN, a vein which brings blood from the lungs to the heart. [L. _pulmonarius_--_pulmo_, _pulmonis_, a lung--Gr. _pleum[=o]n_, _pneum[=o]n_, lung.] PULP, pulp, _n._ the soft fleshy part of bodies, e.g. of teeth: marrow: the soft part of plants, esp. of fruits: any soft mass: the soft mass obtained from the breaking and grinding of rags, &c., before it is hardened into paper.--_v.t._ to reduce to pulp: to deprive of pulp: to separate the pulp.--_v.i._ to become ripe or juicy, like the pulp of fruit.--_ns._ PULP'-EN'GINE, a machine for converting rags, &c., into pulp; PULP'IFIER, an apparatus for reducing fresh meat to a jelly-like pulp, to aid digestion.--_v.t._ PULP'IFY, to make into pulp. [Fr. _pulpe_--L. _pulpa_, flesh without bones.] PULPIT, p[=oo]l'pit, _n._ a platform for speaking from: an elevated or enclosed place in a church where the sermon is delivered: a desk.--_adj._ belonging to the pulpit.--_ns._ PULPITEER', PUL'PITER, one who speaks from a pulpit: a preacher.--_adj._ PUL'PITISH.--THE PULPIT, preachers or preaching collectively. [Fr.,--L. _pulpitum_, a stage.] PULPOUS, pulp'us, _adj._ consisting of, or resembling, pulp: soft.--_ns._ PULP'INESS; PULP'OUSNESS.--_adj._ PULP'Y, like pulp: soft. PULQUE, p[=oo]l'k[=a], _n._ a fermented drink, made in Mexico. [Sp., from Mex.] PULSATE, pul's[=a]t, _v.i._ to beat, as the heart or as a vein: to throb.--_adj._ PUL'SATILE, that can pulsate, as a wound: that may be struck or beaten, as a drum: played by beating: acting by pulsation.--_n._ PULS[=A]'TION, a beating or throbbing: a motion of the heart or pulse: any measured beat: a vibration.--_adj._ PUL'SATIVE.--_n._ PULS[=A]'TOR, a pulsometer: a jigging-machine, used in South African diamond-digging.--_adj._ PUL'SATORY, beating or throbbing.--_n._ any musical instrument played by being beaten on. [L. _puls[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to beat, freq. of _pell[)e]re_, _pulsum_, to drive.] PULSATILLA, pul-sa-til'a, _n._ the pasque-flower, _Anemone pulsatilla_. PULSE, puls, _n._ a beating or throbbing: a measured beat or throb: a vibration: the beating of the heart and the arteries: (_fig_.) feeling, sentiment.--_v.i._ to beat, as the heart: to throb.--_adj._ PULSE'LESS, having no pulsation: without life.--_ns._ PULSE'LESSNESS; PULSE'-RATE, the number of beats of a pulse per minute; PULSE'-WAVE, the expansion of the artery, moving from point to point, like a wave, as each beat of the heart sends the blood to the extremities.--_adj._ PULSIF'IC, exciting the pulse.--_ns._ PULSIM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the strength or quickness of the pulse; PULSOM'ETER, a pulsimeter: a kind of steam-condensing pump.--FEEL ONE'S PULSE, to find out by the sense of touch the force of the blood in the arteries: to find out what one is thinking on some point; PUBLIC PULSE, the movement of public opinion on any question; QUICK PULSE, a pulse in which the rise of tension is very rapid. [Fr. _pouls_--L. _pulsus_--_pell[)e]re_, _pulsum_.] PULSE, puls, _n._ grain or seed of beans, pease, &c.--_adj._ PULT[=A]'CEOUS, macerated and softened. [L. _puls_, porridge (Gr. _poltos_). Cf. _Poultice_.] PULU, p[=oo]'l[=oo], _n._ a silky fibre obtained from the Hawaiian tree-ferns, used for stuffing mattresses. PULVERABLE, pul'v[.e]r-a-bl, _adj._ that may be reduced to fine powder--also PUL'VER[=I]SABLE.--_adj._ PULVER[=A]'CEOUS, having a powdery surface.--_vs.t._ PUL'VERATE, PUL'VERISE, to reduce to dust or fine powder.--_vs.i._ to fall down into dust or powder: to roll or wallow in the dust.--_ns._ PUL'VERINE, ashes of barilla; PULVERIS[=A]'TION; PUL'VER[=I]SER.--_adj._ PUL'VEROUS, consisting of, or like, dust or powder.--_n._ PULVER'[=U]LENCE.--_adj._ PULVER'[=U]LENT, consisting of fine powder: powdery: dusty. [L. _pulvis_, _pulveris_, powder.] PULVIL, pul'vil, _n._ a bag of perfumed powder.--Also PULVIL'IO. [It. _polviglio_--L. _pulvillus_, a little cushion--_pulvinus_, a cushion.] PULVILLAR, pul'vi-lär, _adj._ cushion or pad-like.--_adj._ PULVIL'LIFORM, like a pulvillus.--_n._ PULVIL'LUS, a foot-pad between the clavi of the terminal tarsal joint of an insect's leg--also PULVIN'ULUS.--_adj._ PULV[=I]'NAR, padded: formed like a cushion.--_n._ a pillow or cushion: a peculiar prominence on a part of the human brain.--_adjs._ PUL'VIN[=A]TE, -D, PULVIN'IFORM, cushion-shaped. [L. _pulvillus_, _pulvinus_, a cushion, _pulvinar_, a soft couch.] PULWAR, pul'wär, _n._ a light keelless boat used on the Ganges.--Also PAL'WAR. PULZA-OIL, pul'zä-oil, _n._ an oil obtained from the seeds of _Fatropha Curcas_, from the Cape Verd Islands. PUMA, p[=u]'ma, _n._ a carnivorous animal, of the cat kind, of a reddish-brown colour without spots, called also the American lion. [Peruv. _puma_.] PUMICE, pum'is, or p[=u]'mis, _n._ a hard, light, spongy substance, formed of lava, from which gas or steam has escaped while hardening.--_v.t._ to polish or rub with pumice-stone--also P[=U]'MIC[=A]TE.--_adjs._ PUMI'CEOUS, PUM'ICIFORM, of or like pumice.--_ns._ PUM'ICE-STONE (same as PUMICE); P[=U]'MY (_Spens._), a pebble, stone. [A.S. _pumic-_(_-stán_), pumice (-stone)--L. _pumex_, _pumicis_, for _spumex_--_spuma_, foam--_spu[)e]re_. Cf. _Spume_, and _Pounce_, a fine powder.] PUMMEL. Same as POMMEL. PUMP, pump, _n._ a machine for raising water and other fluids to a higher level: a machine for drawing out or forcing in air.--_v.t._ to raise with a pump: to draw out information by artful questions.--_v.i._ to work a pump: to raise water by pumping.--_ns._ PUMP'AGE, the amount pumped; PUMP'-BARR'EL, the cylinder which forms the body of a pump.--_pa.p._ PUMPED (_coll._), out of breath, panting--sometimes with _out_.--_ns._ PUMP'ER; PUMP'-GEAR, the various parts which make up a pump; PUMP'-HAND'LE, the lever by means of which the pump is worked; PUMP'-HEAD, -HOOD, a frame covering the upper wheel of a chain-pump, serving to guide the water into the discharge-spout; PUMP'ING-EN'GINE, any form of motor for operating a pump; PUMP'-ROD, the rod by which the handle is fixed to the bucket which moves up and down inside; PUMP'-ROOM, the apartment at a mineral spring in which the waters are drunk; PUMP'-WELL, a well from which water is got by pumping.--PUMP SHIP, to urinate. [O. Fr. _pompe_ (cf. Ger. _pumpe_); perh. conn. with _plump_.] PUMP, pump, _n._ a thin-soled shoe used in dancing.--_adj._ PUMPED, wearing pumps. [Prob. Fr. _pompe_, ornament, show, from Teut., cf. Ger. _pumphosen_, wide pantaloons.] PUMPERNICKEL, pump'er-nik-el, _n._ a kind of coarse bread, made of unsifted rye, much used in Westphalia. [Ger., a heavy, stupid fellow, from _pumper_, a heavy fall, _nickel_=Nicholas.] PUMPKIN, pump'kin, _n._ a plant of the gourd family and its fruit.--Also PUMP'ION. [A corr. of O. Fr. _pompon_--L. _pep[=o]_--Gr. _pep[=o]n_, ripe.] PUMY. See PUMICE. PUN, pun, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to pound. [Cf. _Pound_.] PUN, pun, _v.i._ to play upon words similar in sound but different in meaning so as to produce a ludicrous idea:--_pr.p._ pun'ning; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ punned.--_n._ a play upon words.--_ns._ PUN'NAGE, PUN'NING, the act or habit of punning. [Ety. dub.; prob. to beat words=_pound_, to beat, from A.S. _punian_, to pound.] PUNCH, punsh, _n._ contr. of _Punchinello_, a humpbacked, hook-nosed puppet with a squeaking voice, one of the two main actors in the street puppet-show 'Punch and Judy:' PUNCH, or the London CHARIVARI, the chief illustrated English comic journal (begun 17th July 1841). [Through the influence of prov. Eng. _punch_, a variant of _bunch_, thick.] PUNCH, punsh, _adj._ (_prov._) short and fat.--_n._ a short and fat man: a short-legged, round-bodied horse.--_adj._ PUNCH'Y. [Prob. a variant of _bunch_.] PUNCH, punsh, _n._ a drink of five ingredients--spirit, water, sugar, lemon-juice, and spice.--_ns._ PUNCH'-BOWL, a large bowl for making punch in; PUNCH'-L[=A]D'LE, a ladle for filling glasses from a punch-bowl. [Hind. _panch_, five--Sans. _pancha_, five.] PUNCH, punsh, _v.t._ to prick or pierce with something sharp or blunt: to make a hole in with a steel tool.--_n._ a tool either blunt, or hollow and sharp-edged, for stamping or perforating: a kind of awl.--_n._ PUNCH'ER. [A shortened form of _puncheon_, a tool.] PUNCH, punsh, _v.t._ to strike or hit: to beat with the fist, as one's head.--_n._ a stroke or blow with the fist, elbow, &c. [Prob. a corr. of _punish_.] PUNCHEON, punsh'un, _n._ a steel tool with a die or a sharp point at one end for stamping or perforating metal plates: a short post or slab of wood with the face smoothed. [O. Fr. _poinson_--L. _punctio_, _-onis_--_pung[)e]re_, _punctum_, to prick.] PUNCHEON, punsh'un, _n._ a cask: a liquid measure of from 72 or 84 to 120 gallons. [O. Fr. _poinson_, a cask; perh. from the above.] PUNCHINELLO, punsh-i-nel'o, _n._ the short, hump-backed figure of a puppet-show: a buffoon, any grotesque personage. [It. _pulcinello_, dim. of _pulcino_, a chicken, child--L. _pullus_, a young animal.] PUNCTATE, -D, pungk't[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ pointed: (_bot._) punctured: full of small holes: pitted: dotted.--_ns._ PUNCT[=A]'TION; PUNCT[=A]'TOR, one who marks with dots--esp. applied to the Massoretes who invented the Hebrew vowel-points.--_adj._ PUNC'TIFORM, pointed. [L. _punctum_--_pung[)e]re_, _punctum_, to prick.] PUNCTILIO, pungk-til'yo, _n._ a nice point in behaviour or ceremony: nicety in forms: exact observance of forms.--_adj._ PUNCTIL'IOUS, attending to little points or matters: very nice or exact in behaviour or ceremony: exact or punctual to excess.--_adv._ PUNCTIL'IOUSLY.--_ns._ PUNCTIL'IOUSNESS; PUNC'TO (_Shak._), the point, or a blow with it in fencing: a nice point of ceremony. [Sp. _puntillo_, dim. of _punto_, point--L. _punctum_, a point.] PUNCTUAL, pungk't[=u]-al, _adj._ of or pertaining to a point: observant of nice points: punctilious: exact in keeping time and appointments: done at the exact time.--_ns._ PUNC'TUALIST; PUNCTUAL'ITY, quality or state of being punctual: the keeping of the exact time of an appointment: exactness.--_adv._ PUNC'TUALLY.--_n._ PUNC'TUALNESS. [Fr. _ponctuel_--_punctum_, a point.] PUNCTUATE, pungk't[=u]-[=a]t, _v.t._ to mark with points: to divide sentences by the usual points or marks: to emphasise.--_adv._ PUNC'TU[=A]TIM, point for point.--_n._ PUNCTU[=A]'TION, the act or art of dividing sentences by points or marks.--_adj._ PUNC'TU[=A]TIVE.--_n._ PUNC'TU[=A]TOR.--PUNCTUATION MARKS, the comma, semicolon, colon, period, &c. PUNCTUM, pungk'tum, _n._ (_anat._) a point, dot.--_adjs._ PUNC'T[=U]LATE, -D.--_ns._ PUNCT[=U]L[=A]'TION; PUNC'T[=U]LE; PUNC'T[=U]LUM.--PUNCTUM CÆCUM, the point of the retina from which the optic nerve fibres radiate, so called because impervious to light. PUNCTURE, pungk't[=u]r, _n._ a pricking: a small hole made with a sharp point.--_v.t._ to prick: to pierce with a pointed instrument.--_n._ PUNCTUR[=A]'TION. [L. _punctura_--_pung[)e]re_, to prick.] PUNDIT, pun'dit, _n._ a person who is learned in the language, science, laws, and religion of India: any learned man. [Hind. _pandit_--Sans. _pandita_.] PUNDONOR, pun'do-n[=o]r', _n._ point of honour. [Sp., contr. of _punto de honor_, point of honour.] PUNGENT, pun'jent, _adj._ sharp: pricking or acrid to taste or smell: keenly touching the mind: painful: keen: sarcastic.--_ns._ PUN'GENCY, PUN'GENCE.--_adv._ PUN'GENTLY. [L. _pungens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _pung[)e]re_, to prick.] PUNIC, p[=u]'nik, _adj._ pertaining to, or like, the ancient Carthaginians: faithless, treacherous, deceitful.--_n._ the language of ancient Carthage. [L. _Punicus_--_Poeni_, the Carthaginians.] PUNINESS, p[=u]'ni-nes, _n._ the state or quality of being puny or feeble: smallness: pettiness. [_Puny_.] PUNISH, pun'ish, _v.t._ to cause to pay a penalty: to cause loss or pain to a person for a fault or crime: (_coll._) to handle or beat severely, maul: (_coll._) to consume a large quantity of: to chasten.--_ns._ PUNISHABIL'ITY, PUN'ISHABLENESS.--_adj._ PUN'ISHABLE, that may be punished--said both of persons and crimes.--_ns._ PUN'ISHER; PUN'ISHMENT, act or process of punishing: loss or pain inflicted for a crime or fault: the consequences of a broken law.--_adjs._ PUNITIVE (p[=u]'ni-tiv), pertaining to punishment: inflicting punishment; P[=U]'NITORY, punishing: tending to punishment. [Fr. _punir_, _punis-sant_--L. _pun[=i]re_, to punish--_poena_, penalty.] PUNJABEE, PUNJABI, pun-jä'b[=e], _n._ a native or inhabitant of the _Punjab_ in India. PUNK, pungk, _n._ rotten wood used as tinder: (_Shak._) a strumpet. [_Spunk_.] PUNKA, PUNKAH, pung'ka, _n._ a large fan for cooling the air of an Indian house, consisting of a light framework covered with cloth and suspended from the ceiling of a room, worked by pulling a cord or by machinery. [Hind. _pankha_, a fan.] PUNSTER, pun'st[.e]r, _n._ one who makes puns. PUNT, punt, _n._ a flat-bottomed boat with square ends.--_v.t._ to propel, as a boat, by pushing with a pole against the bottom of a river: to kick the ball (_in football_) before it touches the ground, when let fall from the hands: to knock.--_v.i._ to pursue water-fowl in a punt with a punt-gun.--_ns._ PUNT'ER; PUNT'-FISHING, angling from a punt in a pond, river, or lake; PUNT'-GUN, a heavy gun of large bore used for shooting water-fowl from a punt; PUNTS'MAN, a sportsman who uses a punt. [A.S.,--L. _ponto_, a punt--_pons_, _pontis_, a bridge.] PUNT, punt, _v.i._ to play at basset or ombre.--_n._ PUNT'ER, one who marks the points in basset or ombre. [Fr., through Sp.--L. _punctum_, a point.] PUNTILLA, pun-til'a, _n._ lace-work. [Sp.] PUNTO, pun'to, _n._ (_Shak._) a point or hit: a pass or thrust made in fencing.--PUNTO DRITTO, a direct or straight hit; PUNTO RIVERSO, a back-handed stroke. [Sp. and It. _punto_--L. _punctum_, a point.] PUNY, p[=u]'ni, _adj._ (_comp._ P[=U]'NIER; _superl._ P[=U]'NIEST) small: feeble: petty. [Cf. _Puisne_.] PUP, pup, _v.t._ to bring forth puppies, as a bitch: to whelp:--_pr.p._ pup'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ pupped.--_n._ PUP.--BE IN PUP, to be pregnant, said of dogs. [_Puppy._] PUPA, p[=u]'pa, _n._ an insect enclosed in a case while passing from the caterpillar to the winged stage: a chrysalis--also P[=U]PE:--_pl._ PUPÆ (p[=u]'p[=e]).--_adjs._ P[=U]'PAL, P[=U]P[=A]'RIAL.--_n._ P[=U]P[=A]'RIUM, a pupa included within the last larval skin.--_v.i._ P[=U]P[=A]TE', to become a pupa.--_n._ P[=U]P[=A]'TION.--_adjs._ P[=U]'PIFORM; P[=U]PIG'EROUS.--_n._ P[=U]PIP'ARA, a division of dipterous insects having pupæ developed within the body of the mother.--_adjs._ P[=U]PIP'AROUS; P[=U]PIV'OROUS; P[=U]'POID. [L. _pupa_, a girl, a doll, fem. of _pupus_, a boy, a child; cf. _puer_, a boy.] PUPIL, p[=u]'pil, _n._ a little boy or girl: one under the care of a tutor: a scholar: a ward: (_law_) one under the age of puberty--i.e. under fourteen years for males, and twelve for females.--_adj._ under age.--_ns._ PUPILABIL'ITY (_rare_), pupilary nature: confidential character; P[=U]'PILAGE, P[=U]'PILLAGE, state of being a pupil: the time during which one is a pupil; PUPILAR'ITY, PUPILLAR'ITY, the time between birth and puberty.--_adjs._ P[=U]'PILARY, P[=U]'PILLARY, pertaining to a pupil or ward.--PUPIL TEACHER, one who is both a pupil and a teacher. [Fr. _pupille_--L. _pupillus_, _pupilla_, dims. of _pupus_, boy, _pupa_, girl.] PUPIL, p[=u]'pil, _n._ the round opening in the middle of the eye through which the light passes: the apple of the eye, so called from the baby-like figures seen on it: (_zool._) the central dark part of an ocellated spot.--_adjs._ P[=U]'PILARY, P[=U]'PILLARY; P[=U]'PILATE (_zool._), having a central spot of another colour.--_n._ PUPILLOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the size of the pupil of an eye. [Same as above word.] PUPPET, pup'et, _n._ a small doll or image moved by wires in a show: a marionette: one who acts just as another tells him.--_ns._ PUPP'ETRY, finery, affectation: a puppet-show; PUPP'ET-SHOW, -PLAY, a mock show or drama performed by puppets; PUPP'ET-VALVE, a valve like a pot-lid attached to a rod, and used in steam-engines for covering an opening. [O. Fr. _poupette_, dim. from L. _pupa_.] PUPPY, pup'i, _n._ a doll: a young dog: a whelp: a conceited young man.--_adj._ PUPP'Y-HEAD'ED (_Shak._), stupid.--_n._ PUPP'YHOOD, the condition of being a puppy.--_adj._ PUPP'YISH.--_n._ PUPP'YISM, conceit in men. [Fr. _poupée_, a doll or puppet--L. _pupa_.] PUR. See PURR. PURANA, p[=oo]-rä'na, _n._ one of a class of sacred poetical books in Sanscrit literature, forming with the Tantras the main foundation of the actual popular creed of the Brahmanical Hindus.--_adj._ PURAN'IC. [Sans. _pur[=a]na_--_pur[=a]_, ancient.] PURBLIND, pur'bl[=i]nd, _adj._ nearly blind, near-sighted: (_orig._) wholly blind.--_adv._ PUR'BLINDLY.--_n._ PUR'BLINDNESS. [For _pure-blind_--i.e. wholly blind; the meaning has been modified, prob. through some confusion with the verb to _pore_.] PURCHASE, pur'ch[=a]s, _v.t._ to acquire by seeking: to obtain by paying: to obtain by labour, danger, &c.: (_law_) to get in any way other than by inheritance: to raise or move by mechanical means: (_Shak._) to expiate by a fine or forfeit.--_n._ act of purchasing: that which is purchased or got for a price: value, advantage, worth: any mechanical power or advantage in raising or moving bodies.--_adj._ PUR'CHASABLE, that may be purchased: (hence of persons) venal, corrupt.--_n._ PUR'CHASER.--PURCHASE MONEY, the money paid, or to be paid, for anything; PURCHASE SHEARS, a very strong kind of shears, with removable cutters, and a strong spring at the back; PURCHASE SYSTEM, the method by which, before 1871, commissions in the British army could be bought.--(SO MANY) YEARS' PURCHASE, a price paid for a house, an estate, &c. equal to the amount of the rent or income during the stated number of years. [O. Fr. _porchacier_ (Fr. _pourchasser_), to seek eagerly, pursue--_pur_ (L. _pro_), for, _chasser_, to chase.] PURDAH, pur'dä, _n._ a curtain screening a chamber of state or the women's apartments: the seclusion itself. [Hind. _parda_, a screen.] PURE, p[=u]r, _adj._ (_comp._ PUR'ER; _superl._ PUR'EST) clean: unsoiled: unmixed: not adulterated: real: free from guilt or defilement: chaste: modest: mere: that and that only: complete: non-empirical, involving an exercise of mind alone, without admixture of the results of experience.--_n._ purity.--_adv._ quite: (_obs._) entirely.--_v.t._ to cleanse, refine.--_adv._ PURE'LY, without blemish: wholly, entirely: (_dial._) wonderfully, very much.--_n._ PURE'NESS.--PURE MATHEMATICS (see MATHEMATICS); PURE REASON, reason alone, without any mixture of sensibility; PURE SCIENCE, the principles of any science considered in themselves and their relation to each other, and not in their application to the investigation of other branches of knowledge, as _pure mathematics_, _pure logic_, &c. [Fr. _pur_--L. _purus_, pure.] PURÉE, pü-r[=a]', _n._ a soup, such as pea-soup, in which there are no pieces of solids. [Fr.] PURFLE, pur'fl, _v.t._ to decorate with a wrought or flowered border: (_archit._) to decorate with rich sculpture: (_her._) to ornament with a border of ermines, furs, &c.--_ns._ PUR'FLE, PUR'FLEW, a border of embroidery: (_her._) a bordure of ermines, furs, &c.; PUR'FLING.--_adj._ PUR'FLY (Carlyle), wrinkled. [O. Fr. _pourfiler_--L. _pro_, before, _filum_, a thread.] PURGE, purj, _v.t._ to make pure: to carry off whatever is impure or superfluous: to clear from guilt or from accusation: to evacuate, as the bowels: to trim, dress, prune: to clarify, as liquors.--_v.i._ to become pure by clarifying: to have frequent evacuations.--_n._ act of purging: a medicine that purges.--_n._ PURG[=A]'TION, a purging: a clearing away of impurities: (_law_) the act of clearing from suspicion or imputation of guilt, a cleansing.--_adj._ PUR'GATIVE, cleansing: having the power of evacuating the intestines.--_n._ a medicine that evacuates.--_adv._ PUR'GATIVELY.--_adjs._ PURGAT[=O]'RIAL, PURGAT[=O]'RIAN, pertaining to purgatory; PUR'GATORY, purging or cleansing: expiatory.--_n._ (_R.C._) a place or state in which souls are after death purified from venial sins: any kind or state of suffering for a time.--_ns._ PUR'GER, a person or thing that purges; PUR'GING, act of cleansing or clearing. [Fr. _purger_--L. _purg[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_purus_, pure, _ag[)e]re_, to do.] PURIFY, p[=u]'ri-f[=i], _v.t._ to make pure: to cleanse from foreign or hurtful matter: to free from guilt or uncleanness: to free from improprieties or barbarisms, as language.--_v.i._ to become pure:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ p[=u]'rif[=i]ed.--_n._ PURIFIC[=A]'TION, act of purifying: (_B._) the act of cleansing ceremonially by removing defilement: a cleansing of the soul from moral guilt or defilement: a crushing of desire after anything evil: the pouring of wine into the chalice to rinse it after communion, the wine being then drunk by the priest.--_adj._ P[=U]'RIFIC[=A]TIVE.--_n._ P[=U]'RIFIC[=A]TOR.--_adj._ P[=U]'RIFIC[=A]TORY, tending to purify or cleanse.--_n._ P[=U]'RIFIER.--PURIFICATION OF THE BLESSED VIRGIN MARY, a feast observed in the R.C. Church on February 2d, in commemoration of the purification of the Virgin Mary, according to the Jewish ceremonial (Lev. xii. 2) forty days after the birth of Christ. [Fr. _purifier_--L. _purific[=a]re_--_purus_, pure, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] PURIM, p[=u]'rim, _n._ the feast of lots held about 1st of March, in which the Jews commemorated their deliverance from the plot of Haman, as related in Esther. [Heb., pl. of _pur,_ lot.] PURISM, p[=u]r'izm, _n._ exclusion of mixture of any kind: pure or immaculate conduct or style: the doctrine of a purist: great nicety or care in the use of words.--_n._ P[=U]R'IST, one who is excessively pure or nice in the choice of words.--_adj._ P[=U]RIS'TIC. PURITAN, p[=u]r'i-tan, _n._ one aiming at greater strictness in religious life, esp. one of a religious and political party having such aims in the time of Elizabeth and the Stuarts.--_adj._ pertaining to the Puritans.--_adjs._ P[=U]RITAN'IC, -AL, like a Puritan: rigid: exact.--_adv._ P[=U]RITAN'ICALLY.--_v.i._ P[=U]R'ITANISE.--_n._ P[=U]R'ITANISM, a puritan manner of life: strictness of life: simplicity and purity of worship: the notions or practice of Puritans. [L. _puritas_, purity--_purus_, pure.] PURITY, p[=u]r'i-ti, _n._ condition of being pure: freedom from mixture of any kind: freedom from sin or defilement: chastity: sincerity: freedom from foreign or improper idioms or words. PURL, purl, _v.i._ to flow with a murmuring sound, as a stream over small stones: to ripple: to flow in eddies: to curl or swirl.--_v.t._ to whirl about: to unseat.--_n._ a soft murmuring sound, as of a stream among stones: an eddy or ripple.--_n._ PURL'ING, the act of flowing with a gentle, murmuring sound: the murmuring sound of a small stream. [Prob. freq. of _purr_; cf. Sw. _porla_, Ger. _perlen_, to bubble.] PURL, purl, _v.t._ to fringe with a waved edging, as lace: to invert stitches.--_n._ an embroidered border: a hem or fringe of twisted gold or silver thread: a ribbed or wavy appearance caused by inverted stitches: a kind of 16th-cent. lace. [_Purfle_.] PURL, purl, _n._ ale warmed and spiced. PURLIEU, pur'l[=u], _n._ the borders or environs of any place: (_orig._) the grounds on the borders of a royal forest, illegally added to the forest, but afterwards restored to their rightful owners, and marked out by perambulation. [Acc. to Skeat, a corr. of O. Fr. _puralee_ (a mere translation of L. _perambulatio_), land severed from a royal forest by perambulation--O. Fr. _pur_ (=L. _pro_), _allee_, a going.] PURLIN, PURLINE, pur'lin, _n._ a piece of timber stretching horizontally across the rafters underneath to support them in the middle. [Perh. Fr. _pour_, for, or _par_, through, _ligne_, a line.] PURLOIN, pur-loin', _v.t._ to carry off to a distance: to take for one's own use: to steal: to plagiarise.--_v.i._ to practise theft.--_n._ PURLOIN'ER. [O. Fr. _purloignier_--L. _prolong[=a]re_.] PURPLE, pur'pl, _n._ a very dark-red colour formed by the mixture of blue and red: a purple dress or robe, originally worn only by royalty: a robe of honour: the dignity of a king or emperor: a cardinalate, so called from the red hat and robes worn by cardinals.--_adj._ red tinged with blue: blood-red: bloody.--_v.t._ to dye purple: to clothe with purple.--_v.i._ to become purple in colour.--_n._ PUR'PLE-FISH, a shellfish of genus _Purpura_.--_adjs._ PUR'PLE-FROST'Y (_Tenn._), purple with frost or cold; PUR'PLE-HUED (_Shak._), having a purple hue.--_n.pl._ PUR'PLES, petechiæ or spots of livid red on the body: a disease of wheat: an early purple-flowered orchid.--_adj._ PUR'PLE-SPIKED, having purple spikes.--_ns._ PUR'PLE-WOOD, -HEART, the heartwood of _Copaifera pubiflora_, used for ramrods.--_adj._ PUR'PLISH, somewhat purple.--PURPLE EMPEROR, one of the largest of British butterflies, and one of the most richly coloured.--BORN IN THE PURPLE, of princely rank or birth; TYRIAN PURPLE, a fine purple dye for which the people of ancient Tyre were celebrated. [O. Fr. _porpre_ (Fr. _pourpre_)--L. _purpura_--Gr. _porphyra_, the purple-fish.] PURPORT, pur'p[=o]rt, _n._ design: meaning: signification.--_v.t._ (also PURPORT') to give out as its meaning: to convey to the mind: to seem to mean--often with an infinitive clause as its object.--_adj._ PUR'PORTLESS. [O. Fr., from _pur_ (Fr. _pour_)--L. _pro_, for, _porter_--L. _port[=a]re_, to carry.] PURPOSE, pur'pos, _n._ idea or aim kept before the mind as the end of effort: aim, intention: effect: (_Spens._) conversation: (_pl._) a sort of conversational game.--OF, or ON, PURPOSE, with design, intentionally; TO THE PURPOSE, to the point, or material to the question. [O. Fr. _pourpos_, _propos_--L. _propositum_, a thing intended--_pro_, forward, _pon[)e]re_, _positum_, to place.] PURPOSE, pur'pos, _v.t._ to intend (often followed by an infinitive or participial clause as its object).--_v.i._ to have an intention: (_Spens._) to discourse.--_adj._ PUR'POSEFUL, having an object: full of meaning.--_adv._ PUR'POSEFULLY.--_n._ PUR'POSEFULNESS.--_adj._ PUR'POSELESS, without purpose or effect: aimless.--_adv._ PUR'POSELESSLY.--_n._ PUR'POSELESSNESS.--_adj._ PUR'POSE-LIKE, having a definite purpose: having the appearance of being fit for a purpose.--_adv._ PUR'POSELY, with purpose: intentionally.--_n._ PUR'POSER.--_adj._ PUR'POSIVE, having an aim: (_biol._) functional.--_n._ PUR'POSIVENESS. [O. Fr. _purposer_, form of _proposer_, influenced by Fr. _propos_.] PURPRISE, pur-pr[=i]z', _n._ an enclosure: the whole compass of a manor.--_n._ PURPREST'URE, a private encroachment upon a public highway, &c. [O. Fr. _pourpris_--_pour_, for, _prendre_--L. _prehend[)e]re_, to take.] PURPURA, pur'p[=u]-ra, _n._ a genus of marine gasteropods: an eruption of small purple spots, caused by extravasation of blood in the skin--also called the _Purples_.--_adj._ PUR'PUR[=A]TE, of purple colour.--_n._ PUR'PURE, purple.--_adjs._ PURP[=U]'REAL, purple; PURP[=U]'RIC, relating to purpura. [L.,--Gr. _porphyra_.] PURR, PUR, pur, _v.i._ to utter a low, murmuring sound, as a cat when pleased: to signify by, or as by, purring.--_ns._ PURR; PURR'ING, the low, murmuring sound of a cat.--_adv._ PURR'INGLY. [Imit.] PURSE, purs, _n._ a small bag for money, orig. made of skin: a sum of money, esp. a sum given as a present or offered as a prize: a treasury: a person's finances.--_v.t._ to put into a purse: to contract as the mouth of a purse: to draw into folds or wrinkles.--_n._ PURSE'-BEAR'ER, one who has charge of the purse of another: a treasurer.--_adj._ PURSE'-BEAR'ING, pouched, marsupiate.--_ns._ PURSE'FUL, as much as a purse can hold: enough to fill a purse; PURSE'-MOUTH (_Tenn._), a pursed-up mouth; PURSE'-NET, a kind of net that can be closed like a purse; PURSE'-PRIDE.--_adj._ PURSE'-PROUD, proud of one's purse or wealth: insolent from wealth.--_ns._ PURS'ER, an officer who has charge of the provisions, clothing, and accounts of a ship, now termed a 'paymaster;' PURS'ERSHIP; PURSE'-SEINE, a seine which can be pursed into the shape of a bag.--_n.pl._ PURSE'-STRINGS, the strings fastening a purse.--_n._ PURSE'-TAK'ING, robbing.--A LIGHT, or EMPTY, PURSE, poverty; A LONG, or HEAVY, PURSE, riches; PRIVY PURSE, an allowance for the private expenses of the British sovereign: an officer in the royal household who pays the sovereign the grant of the civil list for his private expenses. [O. Fr. _borse_ (Fr. _bourse_)--Low L. _bursa_--Gr. _byrsa_, a hide.] PURSLANE, PURSLAIN, purs'l[=a]n, _n._ an annual plant, frequently used in salads. [O. Fr. _porcelaine_--L. _porcilaca_, _portulaca_.] PURSUE, pur-s[=u]', _v.t._ to follow after in order to overtake: to follow with haste: to chase: to follow up: to be engaged in: to carry on: to seek to obtain: to seek to injure: to imitate: to continue.--_v.i._ to follow: to go on or continue: to act as a prosecutor at law.--_n._ (_Spens._) pursuit.--_adj._ PURS[=U]'ABLE.--_n._ PURS[=U]'ANCE, the act of pursuing or following out: process: consequence.--_adj._ PURS[=U]'ANT, done while pursuing or seeking any purpose, hence agreeable.--_adv._ agreeably: conformably--also PURS[=U]'ANTLY.--_n._ PURS[=U]'ER, one who pursues: (_Scots law_) a plaintiff. [O. Fr. _porsuir_ (Fr. _poursuivre_)--L. _prosequi_, _-secutus_--_pro_, onwards, _sequi_, to follow.] PURSUIT, pur-s[=u]t', _n._ the act of pursuing: endeavour to attain: occupation: employment. PURSUIVANT, pur'swi-vant, _n._ an attendant or follower: a state messenger: an attendant on the heralds: one of four inferior officers in the English College of Arms. [Fr., pr.p. of _poursuivre_, to pursue.] PURSY, purs'i, _adj._ puffy: fat and short: short-breathed.--_n._ PURS'INESS. [O. Fr. _pourcif_ (Fr. _poussif_), orig. _poulsif_, broken-winded--O. Fr. _poulser_ (Fr. _pousser_), to push--L. _puls[=a]re_, to push.] PURTENANCE, pur'ten-ans, _n._ that which pertains or belongs to: (_B._) the inwards or intestines of an animal. [_Appurtenance_.] PURULENCE, p[=u]'r[=u]-lens, _n._ the forming of pus or matter: pus--also P[=U]'RULENCY.--_adj._ P[=U]'RULENT, consisting of, full of, or resembling pus or matter.--_adv._ P[=U]'RULENTLY. [_Pus._] PURVEY, pur-v[=a]', v.t, to provide, esp. with conveniences: to procure.--_v.i._ to provide: to buy in provisions for several persons: (with _to_) to pander.--_ns._ PURVEY'ANCE, the act of purveying: a procuring of victuals: that which is supplied: the former royal prerogative of pre-emption of necessaries; PURVEY'OR, one who provides victuals: an officer who formerly exacted provisions for the use of the king's household: a procurer. [O. Fr. _porvoir_ (Fr. _pourvoir_)--L. _provid[=e]re_, to provide.] PURVIEW, pur'v[=u], _n._ a condition or disposition: the part of a statute beginning with 'Be it enacted:' scope: limits. [O. Fr. _pourvieu_--_pourvoir_, to provide.] PUS, pus, _n._ a thick yellowish fluid exuded from inflamed tissues: that which has become putrid. [L. _pus_, _puris_, matter; akin to Gr. _pyon_.] PUSEYISM, p[=u]'zi-izm, _n._ a name given to the High Church and Catholic principles of Dr E. B. _Pusey_ (1800-82), and other Oxford divines, as set forth in 'Tracts for the Times.'--_adjs._ P[=U]SEYIST'IC, -AL.--_n._ P[=U]'SEYITE, one who holds the views of Dr Pusey. PUSH, p[=oo]sh, _v.t._ to thrust or press against: to drive by pressure: to press forward: to urge: to press hard: to thrust, as with a sword.--_v.i._ to make a thrust: to make an effort: to press against: to burst out.--_n._ a thrust: an impulse: assault: effort: exigence: (_Bacon_) a pustule, a pimple, eruption.--_n._ PUSH'ER, one who pushes: a stem or rod.--_adj._ PUSH'ING, pressing forward in business: enterprising: vigorous.--_n._ PUSH'ING-JACK, an implement for starting a railway-carriage, &c.--_adv._ PUSH'INGLY.--_n._ PUSH'-PIN (_Shak._), a children's game in which pins are pushed alternately. [Fr. _pousser_--L. _puls[=a]re_, freq. of _pell[)e]re_, _pulsum_, to beat.] PUSHTU, PUSHTOO, push't[=oo], _n._ the language of the Afghans proper.--Also PUSH'TO. [Afghan.] PUSILLANIMOUS, p[=u]-si-lan'i-mus, _adj._ wanting firmness of mind: of small courage: having a little mind: mean-spirited: cowardly.--_adv._ PUSILLAN'IMOUSLY.--_ns._ PUSILLAN'IMOUSNESS, PUSILLANIM'ITY, state or quality of being weak-minded: lack of spirit or courage: timidity. [L. _pusillanimis_--_pusillus_, very little, _animus_, the mind.] PUSS, p[=oo]s, _n._ a familiar name for a cat: a hare, in sportsmen's language: a playful name for a child or a girl.--_ns._ PUSS'-CLOV'ER, the rabbit's foot or stone-clover; PUSS'-GEN'TLEMAN, a dandy; PUSS'-MOTH, a moth of the genus Cerura; PUSS'-TAIL, a common grass with bristly spikes, belonging to the genus Setaria--also called _Foxtail_; PUSS'Y, a dim. of _puss_--also PUSS'Y-CAT; PUSS'Y-CAT, the silky catkin of various willows; PUSS'Y-WILL'OW, a common American willow, _Salix discolor_, with silky spring catkins.--PUSS IN THE CORNER, a children's game in which the places are continually being changed, while the player who is out tries to secure one of them. [Dut. _poes_, puss; Ir. and Gael. _pus_, a cat.] PUSTULE, pus't[=u]l, _n._ a small pimple containing pus: anything like a pustule, on plants or animals: a small blister.--_adjs._ PUS'T[=U]LAR, PUS'T[=U]LOUS, covered with pustules.--_v.t._ PUS'T[=U]L[=A]TE, to form into pustules.--_n._ PUST[=U]L[=A]'TION. [Fr.,--L. _pustula_, a pimple.] PUT, p[=oo]t, _v.t._ to push or thrust: to cast, throw: to drive into action: to throw suddenly, as a word: to set, lay, or deposit: to bring into any state or position: to offer: to propose: to express, state: to apply: to oblige: to incite: to add.--_v.i._ to place: to turn:--_pr.p._ putting (p[=oo]t'-); _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ put.--_n._ a push or thrust: a cast, throw, esp. of a heavy stone from the shoulder (see PUTTING): an attempt: a game at cards: a contract by which one person, in consideration of a certain sum of money paid to another, acquires the privilege of selling or delivering to the latter within a certain time certain securities or commodities, at a stipulated price (see OPTIONS).--_ns._ PUT'-OFF, -BY, an excuse, a makeshift, evasion; PUT'TER, one who puts.--PUT ABOUT, to change the course, as of a ship: to put to inconvenience, trouble: to publish; PUT AN END, or stop, to, to check, hinder: cause to discontinue; PUT AWAY, to renounce, to divorce; PUT BACK, to push backward: to delay: to say nay; PUT BY, to lay aside: to divert: to store up; PUT DOWN, to crush: to degrade: (_Shak._) to confute: to enter, as a name: (_rare_) to give up: to start for; PUT FOR, to set out vigorously towards a place; PUT FORTH, to extend: to propose: to publish: to exert: to depart; PUT IN, to introduce: to hand in: to appoint: to insert: to conduct a ship into a harbour; PUT IN FOR, to put in an application or claim for; PUT IN MIND, to bring to one's memory; PUT OFF, to lay aside: to baffle or frustrate: to defer or delay: to push from shore: (_Shak._) to discard; PUT ON, or UPON, to invest: to impute: to assume: to promote: to instigate: to impose upon: to hasten: to inflict: to deceive, trick: to foist or palm upon; PUT OUT, to expel, to extinguish: to place at interest: to extend: to publish: to disconcert: to offend: to expend: to dislocate; PUT OVER (_Shak._), to refer: to send: to defer: to place in authority; PUT THE CASE, PUT CASE, suppose the case to be; PUT THE HAND TO, to take hold of: to take or seize: to engage in (any affair); PUT THIS AND THAT TOGETHER, to infer from given premises; PUT THROUGH, to bring to an end: to accomplish; PUT TO, to apply, use: to add to: to bring or consign to; PUT TO DEATH, to kill; PUT TO IT, to press hard: to distress; PUT TO RIGHTS, to bring into proper order; PUT TO SEA, to set sail: to begin a voyage; PUT TO, or ON, TRIAL, to test: to try; PUT TWO AND TWO TOGETHER, to draw a conclusion from certain circumstances; PUT UP, to startle from a cover, as a hare: to put back to its ordinary place when not in use, as a sword: to accommodate with lodging: to nominate for election: (_with_) to bear without complaint: to take lodgings; PUT UP TO, to give information about, to instruct in. [A.S. _potian_, to push; prob. Celt., as Gael. _put_, W. _pwtio_.] PUT, put, _n._ a rustic, simpleton. [Perh. W. _pwt_, _pytiau_, any short thing.] PUT, put, _n._ a strumpet.--_ns._ P[=U]'T[=A]GE, a law phrase for a woman's fornication; P[=U]'TANISM, the habit of prostitution. [O. Fr. _pute_, a whore.] PUTAMEN, p[=u]-t[=a]'men, _n._ the hard bony stone of some fruits--cherry, peach, &c.: the soft shell of an egg: the outer and darker portion of the lenticular nucleus of the brain. [L.,--_put[=a]re_, to prune.] PUTATIVE, p[=u]'t[=a]-tiv, _adj._ supposed: reputed: commonly supposed to be.--_n._ PUT[=A]'TION, act of considering, estimation.--PUTATIVE MARRIAGE, a marriage prohibited by canon law, but entered into in good faith by at least one of the parties. [Fr.,--L. _putativus_--_put[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to suppose.] PUTCHOCK, p[=oo]-chok', _n._ the fragrant costus-root, exported from India to China--a chief ingredient in the Chinese pastille-rod, commonly called _jostick_.--ALSO PUTCHUK'. [Perh. Telegu _p[=a]ch'ck[=a]ku_, 'green leaf;' or more prob. Malay.] PUTEAL, p[=u]'t[=e]-al, _n._ a well-curb. [L.,--_puteus_, a well.] PUTELI, put'e-li, _n._ a flat-bottomed Ganges boat. PUTID, p[=u]'tid, _adj._ rotten: stinking: worthless.--_n._ P[=U]'TIDNESS. [L. _putidus_, putrid.] PUT-LOG, put'-log, _n._ a cross-piece in a scaffolding, the inner end resting in a hole left in the wall. PUTOIS, pü-twa', _n._ a brush of polecat's hair for pottery. [Fr.] PUTOO, put'[=oo], _n._ a dish made of palmyra-nut meal, scraped coco-nut, &c. PUTORIUS, p[=u]-t[=o]'ri-us, _n._ a large family of _Mustelidæ_, including weasels, stoats, polecats, ferrets, &c. PUTREFY, p[=u]'tre-f[=i], _v.t._ to make putrid or rotten: to corrupt.--_v.i._ to become putrid: to rot:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ p[=u]'trefied.--_adjs._ P[=U]TRED'INOUS, having an offensive smell; PUTREF[=A]'CIENT (also _n._), PUTREFAC'TIVE, pertaining to or causing putrefaction.--_ns._ PUTREFAC'TION, the act or process of putrefying: rottenness: corruption; PUTREFAC'TIVENESS; PUTRES'CENCE.--_adjs._ PUTRES'CENT, becoming putrid: pertaining to putrefaction; P[=U]'TRID, in a state of decay: showing putrefaction: stinking: rotten: corrupt.--_ns._ PUTRID'ITY, P[=U]'TRIDNESS, state of being putrid: corrupt matter: rottenness: corruption.--_adj._ P[=U]'TRIFIABLE, liable to putrefy. [O. Fr. _putrefier_--L. _putrefac[)e]re_, to make putrid--_puter_, _putris_, rotten.] PUTT, put, _v.i._ in golf, to play with a putter.--_n._ a short stroke made with a putter in attempting to hole a ball.--_ns._ PUTT'ER, one who throws a stone: one who takes coal along underground roads: a short, stiff golf-club used in putting; PUTT'ER-ON (_Shak._), an instigator; PUTT'ER-OUT (_obs._), one who deposited money on going abroad, on condition of receiving a larger sum on his return, the money to be forfeited in case of non-return; PUTT'ING, the act of hurling a heavy stone from the hand by a sudden push from the shoulder: the act of striking a golf-ball when near a hole, so as to cause it to fall into it; PUTT'ING-GREEN, the prepared ground immediately round a hole in a golf-course; PUTT'ING-STONE, a heavy stone raised by the hand and thrust forward from the shoulder, as a trial of strength and skill. [_Put._] PUTTIES, put'tiz, _n.pl._ strips of cloth wound round the legs, from ankle to knee, as leggings. PUTTOCK, p[=oo]t'ok, _n._ (_Shak._) a kite, a buzzard. PUTTOO, put'[=oo], _n._ a cloth made in Cashmere from the longer and coarser wool of the goat. PUTTY, put'i, _n._ an oxide of tin, or of lead and tin, used in polishing glass, &c.--_jewellers' putty_: a cement of whiting and linseed-oil, used in glazing windows: a fine cement of lime only--_plasterers' putty._--_v.t._ to fix or fill with putty:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ putt'ied.--_n._ PUTT'IER, a glazier.--_adj._ PUTT'Y-FACED, having a face resembling putty in pastiness or colour.--_ns._ PUTT'Y-KNIFE, a knife with a blunt, flexible blade for laying on putty; PUTT'Y-POW'DER, an artificially prepared oxide of tin used for polishing glass; PUTT'Y-ROOT, an American orchid the corm of whose root-stock contains a highly glutinous matter; PUTT'Y-WORK, decoration in a soft substance which grows very hard. [O. Fr. _potée_, properly that which is contained in a pot, Fr. _pot._] PUT-UP, poot'-up, _adj._ speciously conceived, planned, or carried out. [_Put._] PUTURE, p[=u]'t[=u]r, _n._ the claim to food for man, horse, and dog within the bounds of a forest, &c.--Also PUL'T[=U]RE. [O. Fr. _peulture_.] PUXI, puk'si, _n._ the edible larvæ of various flies of the genus _Ephydra_, found in the alkali lakes of western North America. [Mex. Ind.] PUY, pw[=e], _n._ one of the small volcanic cones in Auvergne, &c. [Fr.] PUZZEL, puz'l, _n._ (_obs._) a drab. [Fr. _pucelle_.] PUZZLE, puz'l, _n._ a difficulty to be solved: perplexity: something to try the ingenuity, as a toy or riddle.--_v.t._ to set a difficult question to: to pose: to perplex.--_v.i._ to be bewildered: to think long and carefully (with _out_, _over_).--_ns._ PUZZ'LEDOM (_coll._), bewilderment; PUZZ'LE-HEAD, one who is puzzle-headed.--_adj._ PUZZ'LE-HEAD'ED, having the head full of confused notions.--_ns._ PUZZ'LE-HEAD'EDNESS; PUZZ'LEMENT, the state of being puzzled; PUZZ'LE-MONK'EY (same as MONKEY-PUZZLE, q.v.); PUZZ'LE-PEG, a piece of wood so secured under a dog's jaw as to keep his nose from the ground; PUZZ'LER; PUZZ'LE-RING, a ring made of several small rings intricately linked together, capable of being taken apart and put together again.--_adj._ PUZZ'LING, posing: perplexing.--_adv._ PUZZ'LINGLY. [From M. E. _opposaile_ (Eng. _opposal_), an objection--_opposen_, _posen_. Cf. _Pose_ and _Oppose_.] PUZZOLANA, puz-[=o]-lä'na, _n._ a loosely coherent volcanic sand found at _Pozzuoli_, near Naples, forming a hydraulic cement with ordinary lime.--Also PUZZOLÄ'NO, POZZUOLÄ'NA. PYÆMIA, PYEMIA, p[=i]-[=e]'mi-a, _n._ a disease caused by the introduction into the blood of decomposing matter, from pus, &c.--_adjs._ PYÆ'MIC, PY[=E]'MIC. [Gr. _pyon_, pus, _haima_, blood.] PYCNID, pik'nid, _n._ a special receptacle in ascomycetous fungi, resembling a perithecium, in which stylospores or pycnospores are produced--also PYCNID'IUM.--_n._ PYC'NOSPORE, a stylospore. [Gr. _pyknos_, thick.] PYCNITE, pik'n[=i]t, _n._ a columnar variety of topaz. PYCNOGONIDA, pik-n[=o]-gon'i-da, _n.pl._ a division of marine arthropods, the sea-spiders.--_adj._ PYCNOG'ONOID. [Gr. _pyknos_, thick, _gony_, the knee.] PYCNOMETER, pik-nom'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for determining the specific gravity of solid bodies. [Gr. _pyknos_, thick, _metron_, measure.] PYCNON, pik'non, _n._ (_mus._) a small interval in Greek music, a quarter-tone: in medieval music, a semi-tone. [Gr. _pyknos_, thick.] PYCNOSTYLE, pik'n[=o]-st[=i]l, _adj._ (_archit._) noting a lower degree of intercolumniation, usually 1½ diameters. [Gr. _pyknos_, thick, _stylos_, a column.] PYEBALD. See PIEBALD. PYELITIS, p[=i]-e-l[=i]'tis, _n._ inflammation of the pelvis of the kidney--also _Endonephritis_.--_adjs._ PYELIT'IC; PYELONEPHRIT'IC.--_n._ PYELONEPHR[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the kidney and renal pelvis. [Gr. _pyelos_, the pelvis, _nephros_, the kidney.] PYENGADU, p[=i]-eng'ga-d[=oo], _n._ a large acacia-like tree of Burma, India, &c., with reddish-brown wood of great heaviness and hardness.--Also PYN'KADO. PYGAL, p[=i]'gal, _adj._ belonging to the rump or posteriors of an animal.--_n._ the posterior median or supracaudal plate of a chelonian carapace.--_n._ PY'GARG, a kind of antelope: the osprey or sea-eagle. [Gr. _pyg[=e]_, the rump, _argos_, white.] PYGMY, PIGMY, pig'mi, _n._ one of a fabulous dwarfish race of antiquity: a dwarf: any diminutive thing: one of several pygmy races in equatorial Africa and elsewhere: one of the ancient diminutive dwellers in underground houses, &c., in whom David MacRitchie sees the historical originals of the fairies and elves of folklore.--_adj._ resembling a pygmy: very small.--_adj._ PYGM[=E]'AN, dwarfish: diminutive. [O. Fr. _pigme_, _pygme_--L. _Pygmæi_--Gr. _Pygmaioi_, the Pygmies, a (Gr.) _pygm[=e]_--13½ in. long--_pygm[=e]_, fist.] PYGOPUS, p[=i]'g[=o]-pus, _n._ a genus of Australian lizards. PYGOSTYLE, p[=i]'g[=o]-st[=i]l, _n._ the vomer or ploughshare bone of a bird's tail.--_adj._ PY'GOSTYLED. [Gr. _pyg[=e]_, the rump, _stylos_, a column.] PYJAMAS, pe-jä'maz, _n.pl._ loose drawers or trousers tied round the waist, in India, used also by Europeans.--Also PAIJÄ'MAS, PAJÄ'MAS. [Hind. _p[=a]ëj[=a]ma_, lit. 'leg-clothing.'] PYLON, p[=i]'lon, _n._ a gateway to an Egyptian temple: the mass of building through which the gateway was pierced. [Gr. _pyl[=o]n_--_pyl[=e]_, a gate.] PYLORUS, pi-l[=o]'rus, _n._ the lower opening of the stomach leading to the intestines.--_adj._ PYLOR'IC. [L.,--Gr. _pyl[=o]ros_--_pyl[=e]_, an entrance, _ouros_, a guardian.] PYOGENESIS, p[=i]-[=o]-jen'e-sis, _n._ the formation of pus.--_adjs._ PYOGENET'IC, PYOGEN'IC, PY'OID.--_ns._ PYOPOI[=E]'SIS, suppuration; PYOP'TYSIS, expectoration of pus; PYORRH[=E]'A, purulent discharge; PY[=O]'SIS, the formation of pus. PYRAMID, pir'a-mid, _n._ a solid figure on a triangular, square, or polygonal base, with triangular sides meeting in a point: (_pl._) 'the Pyramids,' or great monuments of Egypt: a game played on a billiard-table in which the balls are arranged in pyramid shape.--_adjs._ PYRAM'IDAL, PYRAMID'IC, -AL, having the form of a pyramid.--_advs._ PYRAM'IDALLY, PYRAMID'ICALLY.--_ns._ PYRAMID'ICALNESS; PYRAMID'ION, the small pyramidal apex of an obelisk; PYRAM'IDIST, one versed in the history of the Pyramids; PYR'AMIS (_Shak._), a pyramid:--_pl._ PYRAM'IDES.--_adjs._ PYR'AMOID, PYRAM'IDOID. [L.,--Gr. _pyramis_, _pyramidos_; prob. Egypt. _pir-em-us_. Some connection with Gr. _pyr_, fire.] PYRAMIDON, pi-ram'i-don, _n._ in organ-building a stop having wooden pipes in the form of an inverted pyramid, giving very deep notes somewhat like those of a stopped diapason. PYRARGYRITE, p[=i]-rar'ji-r[=i]t, _n._ an ore of silver consisting of the sulphide of silver and antimony. [Gr. _pyr_, fire, _argyros_, silver.] PYRE, p[=i]r, _n._ a pile of wood, &c., on which a dead body is burned.--_adj._ PYR'AL. [L.,--Gr.,--_pyr_, fire.] PYRENE, p[=i]'r[=e]n, _n._ a stone or putamen.--_n._ PYR[=E]'NOCARP, any drupaceous fruit.--_adjs._ PYR[=E]'NOID, globular, nucleiform; PYR[=E]'NOUS. [Gr. _pyr[=e]n_.] PYRENE, p[=i]'r[=e]n, _n._ a hydrocarbon obtained from coal-tar. PYRENEAN, pir-[=e]-n[=e]'an, _adj._ of or pertaining to the _Pyrenees_, the range of mountains between France and Spain.--_n._ PYREN[=E]'ITE, a grayish-black garnet. [L. _Pyrenæi_ (_montes_), the Pyrenees.] PYRENOMYCETES, p[=i]-r[=e]-n[=o]-m[=i]-s[=e]'tez, _n.pl._ an order of ascomycetous fungi, including ergot, black-rot, &c. [Gr. _pyren_, a stone, _myk[=e]s_, pl. _myc[=e]tes_, a mushroom.] PYRETHRUM, pir-eth'rum, _n._ a genus of plants containing the fever-few, or golden-feather, so much used in gardens as a bordering. [L.,--Gr.,--_pyr_, fire.] PYRETIC, p[=i]-ret'ik, _adj._ pertaining to fever.--_n._ a remedy for fever.--_ns._ PYRETOL'OGY, the science of fevers; PYREX'IA, fever.--_adjs._ PYREX'IAL, PYREX'IC. [Gr. _pyrektikos_--_pyretos_, fever--_pyr_, fire.] PYRGOIDAL, pir-goi'dal, _adj._ tower-shaped. [Gr., _pyrgos_, a tower.] PYRHELIOMETER, pir-h[=e]-li-om'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring the intensity of the sun.--_adj._ PYRHELIOMET'RIC. [Gr. _pyr_, fire, _h[=e]lios_, sun, _metron_, measure.] PYRIFORM, pir'i-form, _adj._ pear-shaped. [L. _pirum_, a pear, _forma_, form.] PYRITE, p[=i]'r[=i]t, _n._ native iron disulphide of a pale-yellow colour and very hard--also IRON PYRITES.--COPPER PYRITES, yellow sulphide of copper and iron. [L.,--Gr. _pyrites_, a flint--_pyr_, fire.] PYRITEGIUM, pir-i-t[=e]'ji-um, _n._ the curfew-bell. [Low L.] PYRITES, pir-[=i]'t[=e]z, _n._ a term applied to a large class of mineral compounds of metals with sulphur, or with arsenic, or with both--crystalline, hard, generally brittle, and frequently yellow.--_adjs._ PYRIT[=A]'CEOUS; PYRIT'IC, -AL; PYRITIF'EROUS.--_v.t._ PYR'ITISE, to convert into pyrites.--_n._ PYRITOL'OGY, knowledge of pyrites.--_adj._ PYR'ITOUS. [L.,--Gr. _pyr_, fire.] PYRITOHEDRON, p[=i]-r[=i]-t[=o]-h[=e]'dron, _n._ a pentagonal dodecahedron.--_adj._ PYRITOH[=E]'DRAL. [Gr. _pyrit[=e]s_, pyrites, _hedra_, a seat.] PYRO-ACETIC, p[=i]'r[=o]-a-set'ik, _adj._ relating to acetic acid under heat. PYROBALLOGY, p[=i]-r[=o]-bal'[=o]-ji, _n._ the art of throwing fire: (_Sterne_) the science of artillery. [Gr. _pyr_, fire, _ballein_, to throw, _logia_--_legein_, to speak.] PYROCLASTIC, p[=i]-r[=o]-klas'tik, _adj._ formed by volcanic agencies. [Gr. _pyr_, fire, _klastos_, broken.] PYRO-ELECTRICITY, p[=i]'r[=o]-e-lek-tris'i-ti, _n._ that branch of electricity which deals with electrification as produced by change of temperature in certain crystallised bodies.--_adj._ PY'RO-ELEC'TRIC. PYROGALLIC, p[=i]-r[=o]-gal'ik, _adj._ obtained from gallic acid by the action of heat. PYROGEN, p[=i]'r[=o]-jen, _n._ any substance which causes fever when introduced into the blood.--_adjs._ PYROGENET'IC, PYROG'ENOUS, producing fire: produced by fire; PYROGEN'IC, producing fever. [Gr. _pyr_, fire, root of _gignesthai_, to become.] PYROGNOMIC, p[=i]-rog-nom'ik, _adj._ becoming incandescent when heated to a certain degree. [Gr. _pyr_, fire, _gn[=o]m[=o]n_, a mark.] PYROGNOSTIC, p[=i]-rog-nos'tik, _adj._ pertaining to fire or heat. [Gr. _pyr_, fire, _gn[=o]stikos_, knowing.] PYROGRAPHY, p[=i]-rog'ra-fi, _n._ the art of producing a design on wood by applying heat and pressure. [Gr. _pyr_, fire, _graphein_, to write.] PYROGRAVURE, p[=i]-r[=o]-gr[=a]-v[=u]r', _n._ a method of engraving on wood by a red-hot metallic point: a picture so produced. PYROLA, p[=i]'r[=o]-la, _n._ a genus of plants of the heath kind, called also _Wintergreen_: a single plant of this genus. [L., dim. of _pirus_, a pear-tree.] PYROLATRY, p[=i]-rol'a-tri, _n._ fire-worship.--_n._ PYROL'ATER, a fire-worshipper. [Gr. _pyr_, _pyros_, fire, _latreia_, worship.] PYROLETER, p[=i]-rol'e-t[.e]r, _n._ a fire-extinguishing chemical apparatus by which carbonic acid is generated and thrown on the fire. [Gr. _pyr_, fire, _olet[=e]r_, destroyer--_ollynai_, to destroy.] PYROLIGNEOUS, p[=i]-r[=o]-lig'ne-us, _adj._ procured by the distillation of wood--applied to a kind of acetic acid.--Also PYROLIG'NIC, PYROLIG'NOUS. PYROLOGY, p[=i]-r[=o]l-[=o]-ji, _n._ the science of heat: a treatise on heat.--_n._ PYROL'OGIST. [Gr. _pyr_, _pyros_, fire, _logos_, discourse.] PYROLUSITE, p[=i]-r[=o]-l[=u]'s[=i]t, _n._ native manganese dioxide. PYROMAGNETIC, p[=i]-r[=o]-mag-net'ik, _adj._ pertaining to magnetism as modified by the action of heat. PYROMANCY, p[=i]'r[=o]-man-si, _n._ divination by fire.--_adj._ PYROMAN'TIC. [Gr. _pyr_, _pyros_, fire, _manteia_, divination.] PYROMANIA, p[=i]-r[=o]-m[=a]'ni-a, _n._ a mania for destroying things by fire: insanity which takes this form.--_n._ PYROM[=A]'NIAC.--_adjs._ PYROM[=A]'NIAC, -AL. PYROMETAMORPHISM, p[=i]-r[=o]-met-a-mor'fizm, _n._ metamorphism due to heat, as opp. to _Hydrometamorphism_, that due to water. PYROMETER, p[=i]-rom'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument in the form of a metallic bar for measuring the temperature of bodies under heat.--_adjs._ PYROMET'RIC, -AL.--_n._ PYROM'ETRY, the science or art of measuring degrees of heat beyond the compass of the mercurial thermometer. [Gr. _pyr_, fire, _metron_, a measure.] PYROMORPHOUS, p[=i]-r[=o]-mor'fus, _adj._ assuming a crystallised form after fusion by heat. [Gr. _pyr_, _pyros_, fire, _morph[=e]_, form.] PYRONOMICS, p[=i]-r[=o]-nom'iks, _n._ the science of heat. PYROPE, p[=i]'r[=o]p, _n._ a gem nearly allied to garnet, of a deep-red colour and translucent, generally occurring in roundish grains. [Gr. _pyr[=o]pos_, fiery-eyed--_pyr_, _pyros_, fire, _[=o]ps_, _opos_, the face.] PYROPHANOUS, p[=i]-rof'a-nus, _adj._ made transparent by heat.--_n._ PY'ROPH[=A]NE, an opal translucent while hot by melted wax. [Gr. _pyr_, fire, _phainein_, to show.] PYROPHONE, p[=i]'r[=o]-f[=o]n, _n._ a musical instrument invented by Eugene Kastner (1873), in which the tones are produced by means of burning jets of hydrogen enclosed in graduated glass tubes. [Gr. _pyr_, fire, _ph[=o]n[=e]_, sound.] PYROPHORUS, p[=i]-rof'[=o]-rus, _n._ a substance which takes fire on exposure to air: a genus of elaterid beetles.--_n._ PY'ROPH[=O]RE, any composition which takes fire on exposure to air or water.--_adjs._ PYROPHOR'IC, PYROPH'OROUS. [Gr. _pyr_, fire, _pherein_, to carry.] PYROPHOSPHORIC, p[=i]-r[=o]-fos-for'ik, _adj._ formed by heating phosphoric acid. PYROPHOTOGRAPHY, p[=i]-r[=o]-f[=o]-tog'ra-fi, _n._ any photographic process in which heat is applied to fix the picture. PYROSCOPE, p[=i]'r[=o]-sk[=o]p, _n._ an instrument for measuring the intensity of radiating heat. [Gr. _pyr_, _pyros_, fire, _skopein_, to view.] PYROSILVER, p[=i]-r[=o]-sil'v[.e]r, _n._ electroplated ware in which the silver is made to sink into the pores of the plated baser metal by the action of heat. PYROSIS, p[=i]-r[=o]'sis, _n._ water-brash (q.v.). [Gr.,--_pyr_, fire.] PYROSOMA, p[=i]-r[=o]-s[=o]'ma, _n._ a genus of compound Tunicates, with brilliant phosphorescence, inhabiting the Mediterranean and the Atlantic--fire-flames. [Gr. _pyr_, fire, _s[=o]ma_, body.] PYROSTAT, p[=i]'r[=o]-stat, _n._ an automatic draught-regulator for chimney-stacks, smoke-pipes, &c. [Gr. _pyr_, fire, _statos_--_histanai_, to stand.] PYROSULPHURIC, p[=i]-r[=o]-sul-f[=u]'rik, _adj._ obtained from sulphuric acid by the action of heat. PYROTECHNICS, p[=i]-r[=o]-tek'niks, _n._ the art of making fireworks: the use and application of fireworks--also PY'ROTECHNY.--_adjs._ PYROTECH'NIC, -AL, pertaining to fireworks.--_n._ PYROTECH'NIST, a maker of fireworks: one skilled in pyrotechny. [Gr. _pyr_, fire, _technikos_, artistic--_techn[=e]_, art.] PYROTIC, p[=i]-rot'ik, _adj._ burning: caustic.--_n._ a caustic medicine. [Gr. _pyr[=o]tikos_--_pyr_, _pyros_, fire.] PYROXENE, p[=i]'rok-s[=e]n, _n._ an important mineral species, occurring in monoclinic crystals.--_adj._ PYROXEN'IC. [Gr. _pyr_, fire, _xenos_, a guest.] PYROXYLIC, p[=i]-rok-sil'ik, _adj._ obtained by distilling wood.--_ns._ PYROX'YLE, PYROX'YLIN, -E, gun-cotton.--PYROXYLIC SPIRIT, a mixture of acetone, methyl-alcohol, acetate of methyl, &c., obtained by the destructive distillation of wood in the manufacture of pyroligneous acid. [Gr. _pyr_, fire, _xylon_, wood.] PYRRHIC, pir'ik, _n._ a kind of war-dance among the ancient Greeks: a poetical foot consisting of two short syllables.--_adj._ pertaining to the dance or to the poetical foot.--_n._ PYR'RHICIST, one who dances the pyrrhic. [Gr. _pyrrhich[=e]_ (_orch[=e]sis_), a kind of war-dance, so called from _Pyrrhichos_, the inventor.] PYRRHIC, pir'ik, _adj._ of or pertaining to _Pyrrhus_, king of Epirus (318-272 B.C.).--PYRRHIC VICTORY, a victory gained at too great a cost, in allusion to Pyrrhus's exclamation after his victory of Asculum (279), 'Another such victory and we are lost!' PYRRHONIST, pir'r[=o]-nist, _n._ one who holds the tenets of _Pyrrho_, a philosopher of Elis (360-270 B.C.), who taught universal scepticism: a sceptic.--_adjs._ PYRRH[=O]'NEAN, PYRRHON'IC.--_n._ PYR'RHONISM, scepticism. PYRRHOUS, pir'us, _adj._ reddish. [Gr.] PYRUS, p[=i]'rus, _n._ a genus of trees and shrubs of the natural order _Rosaceæ_, sub-order _Pomeæ_. [L. _pyrus_, for _pirus_, a pear-tree.] PYTHAGOREAN, pi-thag-[=o]-r[=e]'an, _adj._ pertaining to _Pythagoras_ (_c._ 532 B.C.), a celebrated Greek philosopher, or to his philosophy.--_n._ a follower of Pythagoras.--_ns._ PYTHAG'ORISM, PYTHAGOR[=E]'ANISM, his doctrines.--PYTHAGOREAN PROPOSITION, the 47th proposition of Euclid, Book I., said to have been discovered by Pythagoras; PYTHAGOREAN SYSTEM, the astronomical system of Copernicus, erroneously attributed to Pythagoras; PYTHAGOREAN TRIANGLE, a triad of whole numbers proportional to the sides of a right-angled triangle--e.g. 3, 4, 5. PYTHIAN, pith'i-an, _adj._ pertaining to the _Pythia_, the priestess of Apollo at Delphi, who delivered the oracles of the god there: noting one of the four national festivals of ancient Greece, in honour of Apollo, held every four years at Delphi.--PYTHIAN VERSE, the dactylic hexameter. [Illustration] PYTHOGENIC, p[=i]-th[=o]-jen'ik, _adj._ produced by filth.--_n._ PYTHOGEN'ESIS. [Gr. _pythein_, to rot, root of _gignesthai_, to become.] PYTHOMETRIC, p[=i]-th[=o]-met'rik, _adj._ pertaining to the gauging of casks. [Gr. _pithos_, a wine-jar, _metron_, a measure.] PYTHON, p[=i]'thon, _n._ a genus of serpents of the boa family, all natives of the Old World, and differing from the true boas by having the plates on the under surface of the tail double: a demon, spirit.--_n._ PY'THONESS, the priestess of the oracle of Apollo at Delphi, in Greece: a witch.--_adj._ PYTHON'IC, pretending to foretell future events, like the Pythoness: prophetic: like a python.--_ns._ PY'THONISM, the art of predicting events by divination; PY'THONIST. [Gr. _Pyth[=o]n_, the serpent slain near Delphi by Apollo.] PYX, piks, _n._ (_R.C._) the sacred box in which the host is kept after consecration: the box at the British Mint containing sample coins.--_v.t._ to test the weight and fineness of, as the coin deposited in the pyx.--TRIAL OF THE PYX, final trial by weight and assay of the gold and silver coins of the United Kingdom, prior to their issue from the Mint. [L. _pyxis_, a box--Gr. _pyxis_--_pyxos_ (L. _buxus_), the box-tree.] PYXIDIUM, pik-sid'i-um, _n._ (_bot._) a pod or seed-vessel which opens in two halves, the upper one resembling a lid. [Gr. _pyxidion_, dim. of _pyxis_.] * * * * * Q the seventeenth letter of our alphabet--absent from the Anglo-Saxon alphabet, in which the sound was expressed by _cw_; in Scotland replacing _hw_, now always followed by _u_: Roman numeral=500. QUA, kwä, _adv._ as far as. [L.] QUAB, QUOB, kwob, _v.i._ (_obs._) to tremble. QUACK, kwak, _v.i._ to cry like a duck: to boast: to practise as a quack.--_v.t._ to doctor by quackery.--_n._ the cry of a duck: a boastful pretender to skill which he does not possess, esp. medical skill: a mountebank.--_adj._ pertaining to quackery: used by quacks.--_n._ QUACK'ERY, the pretensions or practice of a quack, esp. in medicine.--_adj._ QUACK'ISH, like a quack: boastful: trickish.--_n._ QUACK'ISM.--_v.i._ QUACK'LE (_rare_), to quack, croak.--_n._ QUACK'SALVER, a quack who deals in salves, ointments, &c.: a quack generally.--_adj._ QUACK'SALVING. [Imit.; cf. Ger. _quaken_, Dut. _kwaken_, Gr. _koax_, a croak.] QUAD, kwod, _n._ a quadrangle: (_slang_) a prison.--_v.t._ (_slang_) to put in prison.--Also QUOD. [_Quadrangle._] QUAD, kwod, _n._ (_print._) an abbreviation of _quadrat_.--_v.t._ to fill with quadrats. QUADRA, kwod'ra, _n._ a frame enclosing a bas-relief:--_pl._ QUAD'RÆ (-[=e]). [L. _quadrus_, square.] QUADRAGENARIAN, kwod-ra-j[=e]-n[=a]'ri-an, _adj._ consisting of forty: forty years old.--_n._ QUAD'RAGENE, an indulgence for forty days. QUADRAGESIMA, kwod-ra-jes'i-ma, _n._ the Latin name for the whole season of Lent, with its forty days: the name commonly assigned to the first Sunday in Lent, by analogy with the three Sundays which precede Lent--Septuagesima, Sexagesima, and Quinquagesima.--_adj._ QUADRAGES'IMAL, belonging to or used in Lent. [L.--_quadragesimus_, fortieth--_quadraginta_, forty--_quatuor_, four.] QUADRANGLE, kwod'rang-gl, _n._ a square surrounded by buildings: (_geom._) a plane figure having four equal sides and angles: in the jargon of palmistry, the space between the line of the heart and that of the head.--_adj._ QUADRANG'ULAR, of the form of a quadrangle.--_adv._ QUADRANG'ULARLY. [Fr.,--L. _quadrangulum_--_quatuor_, four, _angulus_, an angle.] QUADRANS, kwod'ranz, _n._ a Roman copper coin, the fourth part of the _as_:--_pl._ QUADRAN'TES. [L.] QUADRANT, kwod'rant, _n._ (_geom._) the fourth part of a circle, or an arc of 90°: an instrument used in astronomy for the determination of angular measurements: an instrument of navigation for measuring the altitude of the sun.--_adj._ QUADRANT'AL, pertaining to, equal to, or included in a quadrant. [L. _quadrans_, from _quatuor_, four.] QUADRAT, kwod'rat, _n._ a piece of type-metal lower than the letters, used in spacing between words and filling out blank lines (commonly QUAD)--distinguished as _en_ ([En quadrat]), _em_ ([Em quadrat]), _two-em_ ([Two-Em quadrat]), and _three-em_ ([Three-Em quadrat]). QUADRATE, kwod'r[=a]t, _adj._ squared: having four equal sides and four right angles: divisible into four equal parts: (_fig._) balanced: exact: suited.--_n._ a square or quadrate figure: the quadrate bone, that between the lower jaw and the cranium in birds and reptiles, suspending the lower jaw.--_v.i._ to square or agree with: to correspond.--_adj._ QUADRAT'IC, pertaining to, containing, or denoting a square.--_n._ (_alg._) an equation in which the highest power of the unknown quantity is the second: an old instrument for measuring latitudes: (_pl._) that branch of algebra which treats of quadratic equations.--_adj._ QUADRATIF'EROUS, having a distinct quadrate bone.--_ns._ QUADR[=A]'TRIX, a curve by which may be found straight lines equal to the circumference of circles or other curves; QUAD'R[=A]TURE, a squaring: (_geom._) the finding, exactly or approximately, of a square that shall be equal to a given figure of some other shape: the position of a heavenly body when 90° distant from another: (_Milt._) a square space; QUADR[=A]'TUS, the _quadratus femoris_, or square muscle of the femur in man, the _quadratus lumborum_, that of the loins, the _depressor labii inferioris_, that of the chin, which draws down the upper lip.--QUADRATURE OF THE CIRCLE, the problem of squaring the circle, insoluble both by the arithmetical and the geometrical method.--METHOD OF QUADRATURES, the name applied to any arithmetical method of determining the area of a curve. [O. Fr. _quadrat_--L. _quadratus_, pa.p. of _quadr[=a]re_, to square--_quatuor_, four.] QUADREL, kwod'rel, _n._ a square stone, brick, or tile: a square piece of turf. QUADRENNIAL, kwod-ren'yal, _adj._ comprising four years: once in four years.--_adv._ QUADRENN'IALLY.--_ns._ QUADRENN'IATE, QUADRENN'IUM, QUADRIENN'IUM, a period of four years. [L. _quadrennis_--_quatuor_, four, _annus_, a year.] QUADRIC, kwod'rik, _adj._ (_alg._) of the second degree, quadratic--esp. in solid geometry and where there are more than two variables.--_n._ QUAD'RICONE, a quadric cone. QUADRICENTENNIAL, kwod-ri-sen-ten'i-al, _adj._ pertaining to a period of 400 years.--_n._ the 400th anniversary of an event or its celebration. QUADRICEPS, kwod'ri-seps, _n._ the great muscle which extends the leg upon the thigh.--_adj._ QUADRICIP'ITAL. [L. _quatuor_, four, _caput_, head.] QUADRICORN, kwod'ri-korn, _adj._ and _n._ having four horns, antennæ, &c.--Also QUADRICORN'OUS. QUADRICYCLE, kwod'ri-s[=i]-kl, _n._ a four-wheeled vehicle propelled by the feet. [L. _quatuor_, four, Low L. _cyclus_--Gr. _kyklos_, a circle.] QUADRIDENTATE, kwod-ri-den't[=a]t, _adj._ having four teeth. QUADRIDIGITATE, kwod-ri-dij'i-t[=a]t, _adj._ having four digits: quadrisulcate. QUADRIFID, kwod'ri-fid, _adj._ four-cleft. QUADRIFOLIATE, kwod-ri-f[=o]'li-[=a]t, _adj._ four-leaved. QUADRIFORM, kwod'ri-form, _adj._ fourfold in form, arrangement, &c. QUADRIGA, kwod-r[=i]'ga, _n._ in Greek and Roman times a two-wheeled car drawn by four horses abreast:--_pl._ QUADR[=I]'GÆ. [L., a contr. of _quadrijugæ_--_quatuor_, four, _jugum_, a yoke.] QUADRIGEMINOUS, kwod-ri-jem'i-nus, _adj._ fourfold, having four similar parts.--Also QUADRIGEM'INAL, QUADRIGEM'IN[=A]TE. QUADRIGENARIOUS, kwod-ri-j[=e]-n[=a]'ri-us, _adj._ consisting of four hundred. QUADRIJUGATE, kwod-ri-j[=oo]'g[=a]t, _adj._ (_bot._) pinnate with four pairs of leaflets.--Also QUADRIJU'GOUS. QUADRILATERAL, kwod-ri-lat'[.e]r-al, _adj._ having four sides.--_n._ (_geom._) a plane figure having four sides: the four fortresses--Mantua, Verona, Peschiera, and Legnago--which form the points of a quadrilateral.--_n._ QUADRILAT'ERALNESS. [L. _quadrilaterus_--_quatuor_, four, _latus_, _lateris_, a side.] QUADRILITERAL, kwod-ri-lit'[.e]r-al, _adj._ of four letters.--_n._ a word or a root having four letters. [L. _quatuor_, four, _litera_, a letter.] QUADRILLE, kwa-dril', _n._ a square dance for four couples, consisting of five movements: music for such square dances: a game played by four with forty cards.--_v.i._ to play at quadrille: to dance quadrilles. [Fr.,--Sp. _cuadra_, a square--L. _quadra_, a square--_quatuor_, four.] QUADRILLION, kwod-ril'yun, _n._ a million raised to the fourth power, represented by a unit with twenty-four ciphers. [Coined from L. _quater_, four times, on the model of _million_.] QUADRILOBATE, kwod-ri-l[=o]'b[=a]t, _adj._ having four lobes or lobules.--Also QUAD'RILOBED. QUADRILOCULAR, kwod-ri-lok'[=u]-lar, _adj._ having four cells, cavities, or compartments. QUADRIMANOUS, kwod-rim'a-nus, _adj._ Same as QUADRUMANOUS. QUADRINOMIAL, kwod-ri-n[=o]'mi-al, _adj._ (_alg._) consisting of four divisions or terms.--_n._ an expression of four terms. [L. _quatuor_, four, Gr. _nom[=e]_, a division--_nemein_, to distribute.] QUADRIPARTITE, kwod-ri-par't[=i]t, _adj._ divided into four parts: (_bot._) deeply cleft into four parts, as a leaf: (_archit._) divided, as a vault, into four compartments.--_n._ a treatise divided into four parts.--_adv._ QUADRIPAR'TITELY.--_n._ QUADRIPARTI'TION. [L.,--_quatuor_, four, _part[=i]re_, _-[=i]tum_, to divide.] QUADRIPENNATE, kwod-ri-pen'[=a]t, _adj._ and _n._ having four wings. QUADRIPHYLLOUS, kwod-ri-fil'us, _adj._ having four leaves. QUADRIREME, kwod'ri-r[=e]m, _n._ a galley with four benches of oars. [L. _quadriremis_--_quatuor_, four, _remus_, an oar.] QUADRISECTION, kwod-ri-sek'shun, _n._ a division into four equal parts. [L. _quatuor_, four, _sec[=a]re_, _sectum_, to cut.] QUADRISYLLABLE, kwod-ri-sil'a-bl _n._ a word consisting of four syllables.--_adjs._ QUADRISYLLAB'IC, -AL. [L. _quatuor_, four, _syllaba_, a syllable.] QUADRIVALVULAR, kwod-ri-val'v[=u]-lar, _adj._ having four valves or valvular parts.--Also QUAD'RIVALVE. QUADRIVIUM, kwod-riv'i-um, _n._ the Pythagorean name for the four branches of mathematics--_arithmetic_, _music_, _geometry_, _astronomy_--when preceded by the trivium of _grammar_, _logic_, and _rhetoric_--together making up the seven liberal arts taught in the schools of the Roman Empire.--_adjs._ QUADRIV'IAL, QUADRIV'IOUS. [L., 'the place where four roads meet'--L. _quatuor_, four, _via_, a way.] QUADROON, kwod-r[=oo]n', _n._ the offspring of a mulatto and a white person, one 'quarter-blooded.'--Also QUARTEROON'. [Sp. _cuarteron_--_cuarto_, a fourth.] QUADRUMANE, kwod'r[=oo]-m[=a]n, _n._ one of the QUADRU'MANA, an order of mammalia having four hands, or four feet, with an opposable thumb--also QUAD'RUMAN.--_adj._ QUADRU'MANOUS, having four hands. [L. _quatuor_, four, _manus_, a hand.] QUADRUPED, kwod'r[=oo]-ped, _n._ a four-footed animal.--_adjs._ QUAD'RUPED, -AL, having four feet.--_n._ QUAD'RUPEDISM, the state of being a quadruped. [L. _quatuor_, four, _pes_, _pedis_, a foot.] QUADRUPLE, kwod'r[=oo]-pl, _adj._ fourfold.--_n._ four times the quantity or number.--_v.t._ to increase fourfold.--_v.i._ to become four times as many.--_n._ QUAD'RUPLET, any combination of four things--also QUART'ET: one of four born at a birth.--_adj._ QUAD'RUPLEX, fourfold, esp. of a telegraphic system capable of sending four messages, two in each direction, simultaneously over one wire.--_n._ an instrument of this kind.--_v.t._ to arrange for quadruplex transmission.--_adj._ QUADRU'PLICATE, fourfold.--_n._ one of four corresponding things.--_v.t._ to make fourfold.--_ns._ QUADRUPLIC[=A]'TION; QUADRU'PLIC[=A]TURE; QUADRUPLIC'ITY.--_adv._ QUAD'RUPLY, in a fourfold manner.--QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE, a league formed in 1718 between England, France, Austria, and Holland to counteract the ambitious schemes of Alberoni. [Fr.,--L. _quadruplus_--_quatuor_, four.] QUÆSITUM, kw[=e]-s[=i]'tum, _n._ something sought or required:--_pl._ QUÆS[=I]'TA. [L. neut. of _quæsitus_, pa.p. of _quær[)e]re_, to seek.] QUÆSTOR, kw[=e]s'tor, _n._ a magistrate with charge of the Roman public funds--originally who investigated cases of murder and executed sentence: in the Middle Ages an officer who announced indulgences: a treasurer--also QUES'TOR.--_ns._ QUÆS'TORSHIP, QUES'TORSHIP. [L.,--_quærere_, _quæsitum_, to seek.] QUAFF, kwaf, _v.t._ to drink in large draughts.--_v.i._ to drink largely.--_n._ QUAFF'ER. [_Quach_, _quaich_,--Gael. and Ir. _cuach_, a bowl.] QUAG, kwag, _n._ a quagmire (q.v.).--_adj._ QUAGG'Y, spongy, boggy. QUAGGA, kwag'a, _n._ one of the three species of striped wild horses, or more properly wild asses, peculiar to Africa, of which the zebra is the type. [Hottentot.] QUAGMIRE, kwag'm[=i]r, _n._ wet, boggy ground that yields under the feet.--_v.t._ to entangle, as in a quagmire.--_adj._ QUAG'MIRY. [_Quake_ and _mire_.] QUAHOG, kwa-hog', _n._ the common round clam of the North American Atlantic coast.--Also QUAHAUG'. [Amer. Ind. _poquauhock_.] QUAID, kw[=a]d, _adj._ (_Spens._) quelled, crushed. QUAIGH, kw[=a]h, _n._ (_Scot._) a kind of drinking-cup, usually made of wood. [Gael. _cuach_, a cup.] QUAIL, kw[=a]l, _v.i._ to cower: to fail in spirit: (_Shak._) to slacken.--_v.t._ to subdue: to terrify.--_n._ QUAIL'ING (_Shak._), act of one who quails: a failing in courage. [A.S. _cwelan_, to die; Ger. _quälen_, to suffer.] QUAIL, kw[=a]l, _n._ a small gallinaceous bird, related to the partridge family: (_Shak._) a whore.--_ns._ QUAIL'-CALL, -PIPE, a call for alluring quails into a net. [O. Fr. _quaille_--Low L. _quaquila_--Old Dut. _quakele_; cf. Low Ger. _quackel_, and _Quack_.] QUAINT, kw[=a]nt, _adj._ unusual: odd: whimsical: (_obs._) prim, affectedly nice: fine: (_Shak._) clever.--_adv._ QUAINT'LY.--_n._ QUAINT'NESS. [O. Fr. _coint_--L. _cognitus_, known. Some confusion with L. _comptus_, neat, is probable.] QUAKE, kw[=a]k, _v.i._ to tremble, esp. with cold or fear: to tremble from want of firmness.--_v.t._ to cause to tremble:--_pr.p._ qu[=a]'king; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ qu[=a]ked.--_n._ a shake: a shudder.--_ns._ QU[=A]'KINESS; QU[=A]'KING; QU[=A]'KING-GRASS, a native grass of the genus _Briza_, so called from the tremulous motion of its spikelets.--_adv._ QU[=A]'KINGLY.--_adj._ QU[=A]'KY, shaky. [A.S. _cwacian_; perh. allied to _quick_.] QUAKER, kw[=a]'k[.e]r, _n._ one of the Society of Friends, a religious sect founded by George Fox (1624-90): a dummy cannon: a collector's name for certain noctuoid moths.--_n._ QU[=A]'KER-BIRD, the sooty albatross.--_n.pl._ QU[=A]'KER-BUTT'ONS, the round seeds of _nux vomica_.--_ns._ QU[=A]'KER-COL'OUR, drab; QU[=A]'KERDOM, the Quakers as a class; QU[=A]'KERESS, a female Quaker.--_adjs._ QU[=A]'KERISH, QU[=A]'KERLY, like a Quaker.--_n._ QU[=A]'KERISM, the tenets of the Quakers.--STEWED QUAKER, molasses or honey, with butter and vinegar, taken hot against colds. [The nickname Quakers was first given them by Judge Bennet at Derby, because Fox bade him and those present _quake_ at the word of the Lord.] QUALIFY, kwol'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to render capable or suitable: to furnish with legal power: to limit by modifications: to soften: to abate: to reduce the strength of: to vary: (_Scots law_) to prove, confirm.--_v.i._ to take the necessary steps to fit one's self for a certain position.--_adj._ QUAL'IFIABLE.--_ns._ QUALIFIC[=A]'TION, that which qualifies: a quality that fits a person for a place, &c.: (_logic_) the attaching of quality, or the distinction of affirmative and negative, to a term: abatement: (_Shak._) pacification; QUAL'IFIC[=A]TIVE, that which qualifies, modifies, or restricts: a qualifying term or statement; QUAL'IFIC[=A]TOR (_R.C._), one who prepares ecclesiastical causes for trial.--_adj._ QUAL'IFIC[=A]TORY.--_p.adj._ QUAL'IFIED, fitted: competent: modified: limited.--_adv._ QUAL'IFIEDLY.--_ns._ QUAL'IFIEDNESS; QUAL'IFIER.--_adj._ QUAL'IFYING.--PROPERTY QUALIFICATION, the holding of a certain amount of property as a condition to the right of suffrage, &c. [Fr.,--Low L. _qualific[=a]re_--L. _qualis_, of what sort, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] QUALITY, kwol'i-ti, _n._ that which makes a thing what it is: property: peculiar power: acquisition: character: rank: superior birth or character: (_logic_) the character of a proposition as affirmative or negative: (_Shak._) character in respect to dryness or moisture, heat or cold: (_Shak._) cause, occasion.--_adj._ QUAL'IT[=A]TIVE, relating to quality: (_chem._) determining the nature of components.--_adv._ QUAL'IT[=A]TIVELY.--_adj._ QUAL'ITIED, furnished with qualities.--ACCIDENTAL QUALITY, a quality whose removal would not impair the identity of its subject, as opposed to an _Essential_ quality; THE QUALITY, persons of high rank, collectively. [Fr.,--L. _qualitas_, _qualitatis_.] QUALM, kwäm, _n._ a sudden attack of illness: a sensation of nausea: a scruple, as of conscience.--_adj._ QUALM'ISH, affected with qualm, or a disposition to vomit, or with slight sickness: uneasy.--_adv._ QUALM'ISHLY.--_n._ QUALM'ISHNESS. [A.S. _cwealm_, death; Ger. _qualm_, nausea; Sw. _qvalm_, a suffocating heat.] QUAMASH, kwa-mash', _n._ camass. QUANDANG, kwan'dang, _n._ a small Australian tree, with edible fruit, the native peach. [Austr.] QUANDARY, kwon-d[=a]'ri, or kwon'da-ri, _n._ a state of difficulty or uncertainty: a hard plight. [Prob. M. E. _wandreth_, peril--Ice. _vandrætdi_, trouble.] QUANNET, kwan'et, _n._ a file for scraping zinc plates: a kind of file used in comb-making. QUANT, kwant, _n._ a pushing or jumping pole, with a flat cap at the end, used in marshes. QUANTIC, kwon'tik, _n._ (_math._) a rational integral homogeneous function of two or more variables.--_adj._ QUAN'TICAL. [L. _quantus_, how great.] QUANTIFY, kwon'ti-f[=i], _v.t._ to determine with respect to quantity: to fix or express the quantity of.--_n._ QUANTIFIC[=A]'TION, the art, process, or form by which anything is quantified.--QUANTIFICATION OF THE PREDICATE, a phrase belonging to logic, signifying the attachment of the signs of quantity to the predicate. [L. _quantus_, how great, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] QUANTITY, kwon'ti-ti, _n._ the amount of anything: bulk: size: a determinate amount: a sum or bulk: a large portion: (_logic_) the extent of a conception: (_gram._) the measure of a syllable: (_mus._) the relative duration of a tone: (_math._) anything which can be increased, divided, or measured: (_Shak._) a small part: (_Shak._) proportion.--_adj._ QUAN'TIT[=A]TIVE, relating to quantity: measurable in quantity: (_chem._) determining the relative proportions of components.--_advs._ QUAN'TIT[=A]TIVELY, QUAN'TITIVELY.--_ns._ QUAN'TIT[=A]TIVENESS; QUANTIV'ALENCE (_chem._), the combining power of an atom as compared with that of the hydrogen atom, valence.--_adj._ QUANTIV'ALENT.--QUANTITATIVE LOGIC, the doctrine of probability.--CONSTANT QUANTITY (_math._), a quantity that remains the same while others vary. [Fr.,--L. _quantitas_, _quantitatis_--_quantus_, how much--_quam_, how.] QUANTUM, kwon'tum, _n._ quantity: amount:--_pl._ QUAN'TA.--QUANTUM SUFFICIT--as much as is sufficient. [L. _quantum_, neut. of _quantus_, how great.] QUAQUAVERSAL, kwä-kwä-ver'sal, _adj._ (_geol._) inclining outward in all directions from a centre: facing all ways.--_adv._ QUAQUAVER'SALLY. [L. _quaqua_, wheresoever, _vert[)e]re_, _versum_, to turn.] QUARANTINE, kwor'an-t[=e]n, _n._ a forced abstinence from communication with the shore which ships are compelled to undergo when they are last from some port where certain infectious diseases are raging--the time originally forty days: (_coll._) the isolation of a person, house, district, &c. afflicted with or recovering from contagious disease.--_v.t._ to prohibit from intercourse from fear of infection.--_adj._ QUARANTIN'ABLE, admitting of, or controlled by, quarantine.--QUARANTINE FLAG, a yellow flag displayed by a ship to signify the presence on board of contagious disease. [Fr. _quarantaine_--L. _quadraginta_, forty--_quatuor_, four.] QUARL, kwärl, _n._ a segment of fireclay used in making covers for retorts, &c. QUARL, kwärl, _n._ a medusa or jelly-fish. QUARREL, kwor'el, _n._ a square of glass placed diagonally: a lozenge or diamond: a diamond pane of glass: a small square tile: a square-headed arrow for a cross-bow: a graver, glaziers' diamond, or other tool having a several-edged head or point.--_ns._ QUARR'ELET, a small lozenge; QUARR'EL-PANE. [O. Fr.,--Low L. _quadrellus_--L. _quadrus_, square--_quatuor_, four.] QUARREL, kwor'el, _n._ an angry dispute: a breach of friendship: (_Shak._) a cause of complaint: a brawl: (_Shak._) a quarreller.--_v.i._ to cavil, find fault: to dispute violently: to fight: to disagree.--_v.t._ (_Scot._) to find fault with: to affect by quarrelling:--_pr.p._ quarr'elling; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ quarr'elled.--_ns._ QUARR'ELLER; QUARR'ELLING, strife: dissension: brawling.--_adjs._ QUARR'ELLOUS (_Shak._), quarrelsome; QUARR'ELSOME, disposed to quarrel: brawling: easily provoked.--_adv._ QUARR'ELSOMELY.--_n._ QUARR'ELSOMENESS.--QUARREL WITH ONE'S BREAD AND BUTTER, to act in a way prejudicial to one's means of subsistence.--PICK A QUARREL WITH, to try to get into a dispute with; TAKE UP A QUARREL (_Shak._), to settle a dispute. [O. Fr. _querele_--L. _querela_--_queri_, _questus_, to complain.] QUARRENDER, kwor'en-d[.e]r, _n._ (_prov._) a kind of apple. QUARRY, kwor'i, _n._ an excavation from which stone is taken for building, &c., by cutting, blasting, &c.--_v.t._ to dig from a quarry:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ quarr'ied.--_adj._ QUARR'IABLE, capable of being quarried.--_ns._ QUARR'IER, QUARR'Y-MAN, a man who works in a quarry.--_adj._ QUARR'Y-FACED, rough-faced.--_ns._ QUARR'YING-MACHINE', a rock-drill; QUARR'Y-WA'TER, the water contained in the pores of stone while unquarried, or newly quarried, before its evaporation. [O. Fr. _quarriere_ (Fr. _carrière_)--Low L. _quadraria_--L. _quadratus_, square.] QUARRY, kwor'i, _n._ the entrails of the game given to the dogs after the chase: the object of the chase: the game a hawk is pursuing or has killed: a heap of dead game. [O. Fr. _curee_, _cuiree_--_cuir_, the skin--L. _corium_, hide.] QUARRY, kwor'i, _n._ a small square tile.--_adj._ QUARR'IED, paved with such. [O. Fr. _quarre_--L. _quadratus_, square.] QUART, QUARTE, kärt, _n._ a sequence of four cards: one of the eight thrusts and parries in fencing.--QUART AND TIERCE, practice between fencers. [Fr. _quarte_.] QUART, kwort, or kwawrt, _n._ the fourth part of a gallon, or two pints: a vessel containing two pints: (_Spens._) a quarter: the peck or quarter of a bushel: (_mus._) the interval of a fourth.--_n._ QUART[=A]'TION, the parting of gold and silver by means of nitric acid.--QUART D'ÉCU (_Shak._), a cardecu. [Fr. _quarte_--L. _quartus_, fourth--_quatuor_, four.] QUARTAN, kwor'tan, _adj._ occurring every fourth day, as a fever or ague.--_n._ an ague of this character. [Fr. _quartaine_--L. _quartanus_, of the fourth.] QUARTER, kwor't[.e]r, _n._ a fourth part: the fourth part of a cwt.=28 lb. avoirdupois (abbrev. _qr._): 8 bushels, as a measure of capacity, for grain, &c.: the fourth part of an hour--of the year--of the moon's period--of a carcass (including a limb)--of the horizon, &c.: a cardinal point: (_her._) one of the four parts into which a shield is divided by quartering (_dexter chief_, _sinister chief_, _dexter base_, _sinister base_), an ordinary occupying one-fourth of the field: a region of a hemisphere: a division of a town, &c.: place of lodging, as for soldiers, esp. in _pl._: mercy granted to a disabled antagonist, prob. from the idea of the captor sending the prisoner to his quarters: (_Shak._) peace, concord: (_naut._) the part of a ship's side between the mainmast and the stern.--_v.t._ to divide into four equal parts: to divide into parts or compartments: to furnish with quarters: to lodge: to allot or share: to furnish with entertainment: (_her._) to bear as an appendage to the hereditary arms: to beat the ground for game.--_v.i._ to be stationed: to shift or change position: to range for game: to drive across a road from side to side.--_ns._ QUAR'TER[=A]GE, a quarterly payment: quarters, lodging: a name applied to a particular tax; QUAR'TER-BACK, a certain player or position in football (see BACK); QUAR'TER-BEND, a bend in a pipe or rod altering its direction 90°; QUAR'TER-BILL, a list of the stations for men on board a man-of-war during action; QUAR'TER-BLANK'ET, a horse-blanket for the hind quarters.--_n.pl._ QUAR'TER-BLOCKS, blocks fitted under the quarters of a yard, on each side the slings, for the topsail-sheets, &c., to reeve through.--_ns._ QUAR'TER-BOARD, topgallant bulwarks; QUAR'TER-BOAT, any boat hung to davits over the ship's quarter; QUAR'TER-BOOT, a leather boot to protect an overreaching horse's fore feet from being struck by the hind feet.--_adj._ QUAR'TER-BOUND, having leather or cloth on the back only.--_n.pl._ QUAR'TER-BOYS, automata which strike the quarter-hours in certain belfries.--_adjs._ QUAR'TER-BRED, having only one-fourth pure blood, as horses, cattle, &c.; QUAR'TER-CAST, cut in the quarter of the hoof.--_ns._ QUAR'TER-DAY, the first or last day of a quarter, on which rent or interest is paid; QUAR'TER-DECK, the part of the deck of a ship abaft the mainmast; QUAR'TER-DECK'ER (_coll._), a stickler for small points of etiquette on board ship.--_adj._ QUAR'TERED, divided into four equal parts: lodged, stationed for lodging: having hind quarters of a particular kind, as a short-_quartered_ horse: sawed into quarters: (_her._) having a square piece cut out of the centre.--_ns._ QUAR'TER-[=E]'VIL, -ILL, symptomatic anthrax, an infectious and frequently fatal disease of cattle, marked by hemorrhage into the subcutaneous areolar tissue of the limbs--also _Black-leg_, _Quarter_, or _Spaul_, &c.; QUAR'TERFOIL (_archit._), an ornamental carving disposed in four segments of circles like an expanded flower; QUAR'TER-GALL'ERY, a projecting balcony on each of the quarters of a large ship: a small structure on a ship's quarters containing the water-closet and bath-tub; QUAR'TER-GUN'NER, a petty-officer in the United States navy, having care, under the gunner, of arms, ammunition, &c.--_adj._ QUAR'TERING, sailing nearly before the wind: striking on the quarter of a ship, as a wind.--_n._ assignment of quarters to soldiers: (_archit._) a series of small upright posts for forming partitions of rooms, lathed and plastered only, or boarded also: (_her._) the bearing of two or more coats-of-arms on a shield divided by horizontal and perpendicular lines, denoting the alliances of the family--also, one of the divisions thus formed.--_ns._ QUAR'TERING-BLOCK, a block on which the body of a person condemned to be quartered was cut in pieces; QUAR'TER-LINE, the position of ships of a column ranged in a line when one is four points forward or abaft another's beam.--_adj._ QUAR'TERLY, relating to a quarter: consisting of, or containing, a fourth part: once a quarter of a year.--_adv._ once a quarter: (_her._) arranged according to the four quarters of a shield.--_n._ a periodical published every quarter of a year.--_ns._ QUAR'TERMASTER, an officer who looks after the quarters of the soldiers, and attends to the supplies--he is assisted by a non-commissioned officer named QUAR'TERMASTER-SER'GEANT: (_naut._) a first-class petty officer who attends to the helm, signals, &c.; QUAR'TERMASTER-GEN'ERAL, in the British army, a staff-officer of high rank (major-general or colonel) who deals with all questions of transport, marches, quarters, fuel, clothing, &c.; QUAR'TERN, the fourth part of a peck, a stone, or a pint: the quarter of a pound; QUAR'TERN-LOAF, a loaf weighing, generally, four pounds; QUARTEROON' (see QUADROON); QUAR'TER-PLATE, in photography, a size of plate measuring 3¼ by 4¼ inches: a picture of this size; QUAR'TER-ROUND, a moulding having an outline approximating to a quadrant, an _ovolo_: any tool adapted for making such; QUAR'TER-SEAL, the seal kept by the director of the Chancery of Scotland--the _testimonial_ of the Great Seal; QUAR'TER-SES'SIONS, a criminal court held quarterly by Justices of the Peace, established in 1350-51, but having had most of its administrative powers transferred in 1888 to the County Councils: county or borough sessions held quarterly; QUAR'TER-STAFF, a long staff or weapon of defence, grasped at a quarter of its length from the end and at the middle; QUAR'TER-TONE (_mus._), an interval equivalent to one-half of a semitone; QUAR'TER-WATCH (_naut._), one-half of the watch on deck; QUARTETTE', QUARTET', anything in fours: a musical composition of four parts for voices or instruments: a stanza of four lines.--_adj._ QUAR'TIC (_math._), of the fourth degree or order.--_n._ an algebraic function of the fourth degree.--_n._ QUAR'TILE (_astrol._), an aspect of planets when their longitudes differ by 90°.--_adj._ QUAR'TO, having the sheet folded into four leaves (abbrev. 4to).--_n._ a book of a quarto size:--_pl._ QUAR'TOS (demy quarto, 8¾ × 11¼ in.; medium quarto, 9¼ × 11¾ in.; royal quarto, 10 × 12½ in.).--BEAT UP THE QUARTERS OF, to disturb: to visit unceremoniously; COME TO CLOSE QUARTERS, to get into a hand-to-hand struggle.--SMALL QUARTO, a square octavo: a book having eight leaves to a sheet but the shape of a quarto.--WINTER QUARTERS, the quarters or station of an army during the winter. [O. Fr.,--L. _quartarius_--_quartus_, fourth.] QUARTODECIMAN, kwor-t[=o]-des'i-man, _n._ one of those who celebrated the Paschal festival on the 14th day of Nisan without regard to the day of the week. The western churches kept it on the Sunday after the 14th day--the usage approved by the Council of Nice (325 A.D.). [L. _quartodecimus_, fourteenth, _quatuor_, four, _decem_, ten.] QUARTZ, kworts, _n._ the common form of native silica, or the oxide of silicon, occurring both in crystals and massive, scratching glass easily, and becoming positively electrical by friction, colourless when pure--Rock-crystal, Common, and Compact Quartz.--_ns._ QUARTZ'-CRUSH'ER, -MILL, a machine, mill, where auriferous quartz is reduced to powder, and the gold separated by amalgamation.--_adj._ QUARTZIF'EROUS.--_ns._ QUARTZ'ITE, QUARTZ'-ROCK, a common rock, usually white, gray, or rusty in colour, and composed of an aggregate of quartz-grains welded together.--_adjs._ QUARTZIT'IC; QUARTZ'OSE, of or like quartz; QUARTZ'Y. [Ger. _quarz_.] QUASH, kwosh, _v.t._ to crush: to subdue or extinguish suddenly and completely: to annul. [O. Fr. _quasser_ (Fr. _casser_)--L. _quass[=a]re_, inten. of _quat[)e]re_, to shake.] QUASHEE, kwosh'e, _n._ a negro, esp. in West Indies. QUASHEY, kwosh'i, _n._ a pumpkin. QUASI, kw[=a]'s[=i], _conj._ and _adv._ as if: in a certain manner, sense, or degree--in appearance only, as '_quasi_-historical,' &c. [L.] QUASIMODO, kwas-i-m[=o]'do, _n._ the first Sunday after Easter, Low Sunday. [From the first words of the introit for the day, 1 Peter, ii. 2; L. _Quasi modo geniti infantes_, as new-born babes, &c.] QUASS, kwas, _n._ See KVASS. QUASSATION, kwas-s[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of shaking: the state of being shaken: concussion.--_adj._ QUAS'SATIVE. [L. _quassatio_--_quass[=a]re_, to shake.] QUASSIA, kwash'i-a, _n._ a South American tree, the bitter wood and bark of which are used as a tonic.--_ns._ QUASS'INE, QUASS'ITE, the bitter principle of quassia-wood, the Bitter-wood of the West Indies. [So called by Linnæus from a negro named _Quassi_, who first discoverer its value against fever.] QUAT, kwot, _n._ (_Shak._) a pimple: an insignificant person. QUATCH, kwoch, _adj._ (_Shak._) squat, flat. QUATERCENTENARY, qua-ter-sen'te-n[=a]-ri, _n._ a 400th anniversary. QUATERFOIL, kat'[.e]r-foil, _n._ See QUARTERFOIL. QUATERNARY, kwa-t[.e]r'nar-i, _adj._ consisting of four: by fours: pertaining to strata more recent than the Upper Tertiary: (_math._) containing four variables.--_n._ a group of four things.--_adjs._ QU[=A]T'ERN, QU[=A]TER'N[=A]TE, composed of, or arranged in, sets of four.--_n._ QU[=A]TER'NION, a set or group of four: a word of four syllables: (_pl._) in mathematics, a calculus of peculiar power and generality invented by Sir W. R. Hamilton of Dublin, as a geometry, primarily concerning itself with the operations by which one directed quantity or vector is changed into another.--_v.t._ to divide into quaternions: (_Milt._) to divide into companies.--_ns._ QU[=A]TER'NIONIST, a student of quaternions; QU[=A]TERN'ITY, the state of being four, a group of four.--QUATERNARY NUMBER, ten; so called by the Pythagoreans because equal to 1 + 2 + 3 + 4. QUATORZE, ka-torz', _n._ the four aces, kings, queens, knaves, or tens in the game of piquet.--_n._ QUATOR'ZAIN, a stanza or poem of fourteen lines. [Fr.] QUATRAIN, kwot'r[=a]n, _n._ a stanza of four lines rhyming alternately. [Fr.] QUATRE-FOIL, Fr. QUATRE-FEUILLE=QUARTERFOIL. QUATTROCENTO, kwot-r[=o]-chen'to, _n._ in Italian, a term for the 15th century, its literature and art: the early Renaissance.--_n._ QUATTROCEN'TIST. Outstanding _quattrocentisti_ in art are Donatello, Masaccio, Lippo Lippi, and Mantegna. [It., 'four hundred,' contr. for 1400.] QUAVER, kw[=a]'v[.e]r, _v.i._ to shake: to sing or play with tremulous modulations.--_n._ a trembling: a vibration of the voice: a note in music=half a crotchet or one-eighth of a semibreve.--_n._ QU[=A]'VERER.--_adv._ QU[=A]'VERINGLY. [Imit.; cf. _Quiver_, and Ger. _quabbeln_.] QUAY, k[=e], _n._ a landing-place: a wharf for the loading or unloading of vessels.--_n._ QUAY'AGE, payment for use of a quay. [O. Fr. _quay_--Celt., as in Bret. _kaé_, and W. _cae_, an enclosure.] QUAYD, kw[=a]d, _adj._ (_Spens._). Same as QUELLED. QUEACHY, kw[=e]'chi, _adj._ shaking: unsteady. [From _queach_, a variant of _quitch_.] QUEAN, kw[=e]n, _n._ a saucy girl or young woman: a woman of worthless character. [_Queen_.] QUEASY, kw[=e]'zi, _adj._ sick, squeamish: inclined to vomit: causing nausea: fastidious: ticklish, nice.--_adv._ QUEA'SILY.--_n._ QUEA'SINESS. [Scand.; Norw. _kveis_, sickness after a debauch, Ice. _-kveisa_, pains, as in _idhra-kveisa_, pains in the stomach.] QUEBRACHO, ke-brä'ch[=o], _n._ the bark of several hard-wooded South American trees--good in fever. [Port.,--_quebrahacho_, axe-breaker--_quebrar_, to break, _hacha_, _facha_, axe.] QUEBRADA, ke-brä'da, _n._ a ravine. [Sp. Amer.] QUEEN, kw[=e]n, _n._ the wife of a king: a female sovereign: the best or chief of her kind: a queen-bee or queen-ant: of playing-cards, one with the queen painted on it: the piece in chess which is the most deadly in attack.--_v.i._ to play the queen.--_ns._ QUEEN'-APP'LE, QUEEN'ING, the name of several varieties of apple; QUEEN'-BEE, the sole female of a bee-hive, considerably larger than an ordinary bee; QUEEN'-CON'SORT, the wife of the reigning sovereign--opp. to QUEEN'-REG'NANT, holding the crown in her own right; QUEEN'CRAFT, craft or policy on the part of a queen; QUEEN'DOM, queenly rule or dignity: the realm of a queen; QUEEN'-DOW'AGER, the widow of a deceased king; QUEEN'HOOD, the state of being a queen; QUEEN'LET, a petty queen.--_adjs._ QUEEN'-LIKE, QUEEN'LY, like a queen: becoming or suitable to a queen.--_n._ QUEEN'LINESS.--_adv._ QUEEN'LY, like a queen.--_ns._ QUEEN'-MOTH'ER, a queen-dowager, the mother of the reigning king or queen; QUEEN'-OF-THE-MEAD'OWS, the meadow-sweet; QUEEN'-POST (_archit._), one of two upright posts in a trussed roof, resting upon the tie-beam, and supporting the principal rafters; QUEEN'-R[=E]'GENT, a queen who reigns as regent; QUEEN'S'-ARM, a musket; QUEEN'SHIP, the state, condition, or dignity of a queen; QUEEN'-STITCH, a square or chequer pattern in embroidery stitch.--QUEEN ANNE'S BOUNTY, a fund for augmenting the incomes of the poorer clergy of England, set aside in 1703; QUEEN ANNE STYLE (_archit._), the style popular in the early part of the 18th century, the buildings plain and simple, with classic cornices and details, and frequently with large windows divided by mullions; QUEEN OF HEAVEN, a title often given to the goddess Astarte or Ashtoreth: among Roman Catholics, a title for the Virgin Mary; QUEEN OF THE MAY=_May-queen_ (see MAY); * QUEEN'S BENCH (court of: see KING); * QUEEN'S COLOUR, one of the pair of colours belonging to each regiment in our army; * QUEEN'S COUNSEL (see COUNSEL); * QUEEN'S ENGLISH, correct use of the English language; * QUEEN'S EVIDENCE (see EVIDENT); * QUEEN'S MESSENGER (see MESSAGE); QUEEN'S METAL, an alloy consisting chiefly of tin; QUEEN'S TOBACCO PIPE, the facetious designation of a peculiarly shaped kiln which used to be situated at the corner of the tobacco warehouses belonging to the London Docks, and in which contraband goods were burned; QUEEN'S WARE, a variety of Wedgwood ware, otherwise known as _cream-coloured ware_; QUEEN'S YELLOW, the yellow subsulphate of mercury. [A.S. _cwén_; Goth. _kw[=e]ns_, Ice. _kván_, _kvæn_.] * Now _King's Bench_, &c. QUEER, kw[=e]r, _adj._ odd, singular, quaint: open to suspicion, dubious: counterfeit: having a sensation of coming sickness.--_v.t._ (_slang_) to banter, ridicule.--_adj._ QUEER'ISH, somewhat singular.--_n._ QUEER'ITY (_rare_).--_adv._ QUEER'LY.--_n._ QUEER'NESS.--QUEER STREET, the imaginary residence of persons in financial and other difficulties.--A QUEER FISH (see FISH); SHOVE THE QUEER (_slang_), to pass bad money. [Low Ger. _queer_, across, oblique (Ger. _quer_); cf. _Thwart_.] QUEET, kw[=e]t, _n._ (_Scot._) an ankle. [_Coot_ (2).] QUEEZ-MADAM, kw[=e]z'-mad'am, _n._ (_Scot._) the cuisse-madam, a French jargonelle pear. QUEINT, kw[=a]nt, _adj._ (_Spens._). Same as QUAINT. QUEINT, kwent (_Spens._), _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _quench_. QUELCH, kwelch, _v.i._ (_prov._) to make a sucking sound like that of water in one's boots. QUELEA, kw[=e]'le-a, _n._ the weaver-bird of Africa. QUELL, kwel, _v.t._ to crush: subdue: to allay.--_v.i._ to die, perish, (_Shak._) abate.--_ns._ QUELL (_Shak._), murder: (_Keats_) power of quelling; QUELL'ER, one who quells or crushes: a slayer. [A.S. _cwellan_, to kill, causal of _cwelan_, to die. Cf. _Quail_ (v.).] QUEME, kw[=e]m, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to please, suit, fit. [A.S. _cwéman_; cf. Ger. _bequem_, fit.] QUENCH, kwensh, _v.t._ to put out: to destroy: to check: to allay: to place in water.--_v.i._ to lose zeal, grow cold.--_adj._ QUENCH'ABLE, that may be extinguished.--_ns._ QUENCH'ER, one who, or that which, quenches: a draught or drink; QUENCH'ING, act of extinguishing: the act of cooling the surface of molten metal and forming rosettes in the crust.--_adj._ QUENCH'LESS, that cannot be extinguished: irrepressible.--_adv._ QUENCH'LESSLY.--_n._ QUENCH'LESSNESS. [A.S. _cwencan_, to quench, causal of _cwincan_; cf. Old Fries. _kwinka_, to go out.] QUENELLE, ke-nel', _n._ a forcemeat ball of chicken, veal, or the like. [Fr.] QUENOUILLE-TRAINING, ke-n[=oo]'lye-tr[=a]'ning, _n._ the training of trees in a conical shape with the branches bent downwards. [Fr. _quenouille_, a distaff--Low L. _colucula_--L. _colus_, a distaff.] QUERCETUM, kwer-s[=e]'tum, _n._ a collection of living oaks. [L.,--_quercus_, an oak.] QUERCITRON, kwer'si-tron, _n._ the name both of a dye-stuff and of the species of oak of which it is the bark--the _Quercus coccinea_ of North America, also called _Dyer's oak_ and _Yellow-barked oak_.--_ns._ QUER'CITE, a sweet crystalline compound found in acorns; QUER'CITIN, a yellow crystalline compound derived from quercitrin by the action of mineral acids; QUER'CITRIN, a glucoside, the colouring-matter of quercitron-bark. [L. _quercus_, oak, _citrus_, a tree of the lemon kind.] QUERELA, kwe-r[=e]'la, _n._ a complaint preferred in a court.--_n._ QU[=E]'RENT, a plaintiff. [L.] QUERIMONIOUS, kwer-i-m[=o]'ni-us, _adj._ complaining: discontented.--_adv._ QUERIM[=O]'NIOUSLY.--_n._ QUERIM[=O]'NIOUSNESS. [L. _querimonia_, a complaining--_queri_, to complain.] QUERIST, kw[=e]'rist, _n._ one who inquires or asks questions. [_Query_.] QUERK, kw[.e]rk, _v.t._ (_prov_.) to throttle.--_v.i._ to grunt. QUERL, kw[.e]rl, _v.t._ (_U.S._) to twirl.--_n._ a coil. QUERN, kw[.e]rn, _n._ a stone handmill for grinding grain. [A.S. _cwyrn_, _cweorn_; Ice. _kvern_, Goth, _kwairnus_.] QUERQUEDULA, kwer-kwed'[=u]-la, _n._ the teal. [L.] QUERULOUS, kwer'[=u]-lus, _adj._ complaining: discontented: quarrelsome.--_adv._ QUER'ULOUSLY.--_n._ QUER'ULOUSNESS. [L.,--_queri_, to complain.] QUERY, kw[=e]'ri, _n._ an inquiry: the mark of interrogation.--_v.t._ to inquire into: to question: to doubt of: to mark with a query.--_v.i._ to question:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ qu[=e]'ried.--_adj._ QUES'ITIVE, interrogatory. [L. _quære_, imper. of _quær[)e]re_, _quæsitum_, to inquire.] QUEST, kwest, _n._ the act of seeking: search: pursuit: a searching party: a jury of inquest: inquiry, investigation: request or desire.--_v.i._ to go in search of, to go begging: to give tongue, as a dog after game.--_ns._ QUEST'ANT, QUEST'ER (_Shak._), one who seeks after anything, a candidate.--_adj._ QUEST'FUL. [O. Fr. _queste_ (Fr. _quête_)--L. _quæsita_ (_res_), a thing sought--_quær[)e]re_, _quæsitum_, to seek.] QUESTION, kwest'yun, _n._ a seeking: an inquiry: an examination, esp. by torture: an investigation: dispute: doubt: a subject of discussion, esp. the particular point actually before the house, the measure to be voted upon: (_Shak._) conversation.--_v.t._ to ask questions of: to examine by questions: to inquire of: to regard as doubtful: to challenge, take exception to: to have no confidence in.--_v.i._ to ask questions: to inquire: to debate, consider, to converse.--_adj._ QUEST'IONABLE, that may be questioned: doubtful: uncertain: suspicious.--_n._ QUEST'IONABLENESS.--_adv._ QUEST'IONABLY.--_adj._ QUEST'IONARY, asking questions.--_n._ one who hawks about for sale indulgences or relics.--_ns._ QUEST'IONER; QUEST'IONING, a query, doubt, suspicion.--_adv._ QUEST'IONINGLY.--_n._ QUEST'IONIST, a questioner, a doubter: at Cambridge, a student qualified to be a candidate for a degree.--_adj._ QUEST'IONLESS, unquestioning: beyond question or doubt: certainly.--_n._ QUEST'RIST (_Shak._), a seeker, a pursuer.--_adj._ QUEST'UARY (_obs._), greedy of gain, yielding gain.--QUESTION OF FACT, consideration as to the actual occurrence of an event.--BEG THE QUESTION (see BEG); CALL IN QUESTION, to challenge, to subject to judicial inquiry; IN QUESTION, under consideration, referring to a thing just mentioned; LEADING-QUESTION (see LEAD); OUT OF QUESTION, doubtless; OUT OF THE QUESTION, not to be thought of; POP THE QUESTION (see POP); PREVIOUS QUESTION (see PREVIOUS). [Fr.,--L. _quæstion-em_--_quær[)e]re_, _quæsitum_, to seek.] QUESTOR, QUESTORSHIP. See QUÆSTOR. QUETZAL, kwet'sal, _n._ the resplendent trogon, a native of Central America, the plumage of the male a magnificent golden green.--Also QUES'AL, QUIJ'AL. QUEUE, k[=u], _n._ a pendent braid of hair at the back of the head, a pigtail: a file of persons waiting in the order of arrival: a tailpiece, as of a violin: (_her._) the tail of a beast.--_v.t._ to tie or fasten in a queue or pigtail. [Fr.,--L. _cauda_, a tail.] QUEY, kw[=a], _n._ (_Scot._) a young cow or heifer, a cow that has not yet had a calf. [Ice. _kvíga_; Dan. _kvie_.] QUHILK, hwilk, _pron._ an obsolete Scotch form of which. QUIB, kwib. Same as QUIP. QUIBBLE, kwib'l, _n._ a turning away from the point in question into matters irrelevant or insignificant: an evasion, a pun: a petty conceit.--_v.i._ to evade a question by a play upon words: to cavil: to trifle in argument: to pun.--_n._ QUIBB'LER.--_adv._ QUIBB'LINGLY. [Freq. of _quip_.] QUICH, kwich, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to stir, to move.--Also QUINCH, QUITCH. [A.S. _cweccan_, causal of _cwacian_, to quake.] QUICK, kwik, _adj._ living: lively: speedy: nimble: ready: sensitive: hasty: pregnant: active, piercing.--_adv._ without delay: rapidly: soon.--_n._ a living animal or plant: the living: the living flesh: the sensitive parts: a hedge of some growing plant, quickset.--_adj._ QUICK'-AN'SWERED (_Shak._), quick at giving an answer.--_n._ QUICK'BEAM, the mountain-ash or rowan.--_adj._ QUICK'-CONCEIV'ING, quick at conceiving or understanding.--_v.t._ QUICK'EN, to make quick or alive: to revive: to reinvigorate: to cheer: to excite: to sharpen: to hasten.--_v.i._ to become alive: to move with activity.--_n._ the couch or quitch-grass.--_ns._ QUICK'ENER, one who, or that which, reinvigorates; QUICK'ENING, the period in pregnancy when the mother first becomes conscious of the movement of the child--from the sixteenth or seventeenth week onwards.--_adj._ QUICK'-EYED, having acute sight.--_ns._ QUICK'-GRASS=_Quitch-grass_; QUICK'-HEDGE, a hedge of living plants; QUICK'LIME, recently burnt lime, caustic and unslaked: carbonate of lime without its carbonic acid.--_adv._ QUICK'LY.--_ns._ QUICK'MARCH (same as QUICK'STEP); QUICK'MATCH (see MATCH); QUICK'NESS; QUICK'SAND, a movable sandbank in a sea, lake, &c., any large mass of sand saturated with water, often dangerous to travellers: anything treacherous.--_adj_. QUICK'-SCENT'ED, having a keen scent.--_n._ QUICK'SET, a living plant set to grow for a hedge, particularly the hawthorn.--_adj._ consisting of living plants.--_adj._ QUICK'-SIGHT'ED, having quick or sharp sight: quick in discernment.--_ns._ QUICK'-SIGHT'EDNESS, sharpness of sight or discernment; QUICK'SILVER, the common name for fluid mercury, so called from its great mobility and its silvery colour.--_v.t._ to overlay or to treat with quicksilver.--_adj._ QUICK'SILVERED.--_ns._ QUICK'SILVERING, the mercury on the back of a mirror; QUICK'STEP, a march in quick time: (_mus._) a march written in military quick time.--_adj._ QUICK'-TEM'PERED, irascible.--_n._ QUICK'-WA'TER, a solution of nitrates of mercury and of gold, for water-gilding.--_adj._ QUICK'-WIT'TED, having ready wit.--_ns._ QUICK'-WIT'TEDNESS; QUICK'-WORK, the part of a ship under water when laden: the part of the inner upper-works of a ship above the covering board: the short planks worked inside between the ports: spirketting.--SOME QUICK (_Spens._), something alive. [A.S. _cwic_; Ice. _kvikr_, Goth. _kwius_, living; allied to L. _vivus_.] QUICUNQUE, kw[=i]-kung'kwe, _n._ the so-called Athanasian Creed, from its first words, _Quicunque vult_='whosoever will.' QUID, kwid, _n._ what, substance: something.--TERTIUM QUID, something distinct from both mind and matter, itself immediately known, mediating between the mind and the reality. [L., what.] QUID, kwid, _n._ something chewed or kept in the mouth, esp. a piece of tobacco. [A corr. of _cud_.] QUID, kwid, _n._ (_slang_) a sovereign. QUIDAM, kw[=i]'dam, _n._ somebody, one unknown. [L.] QUIDDANY, kwid'a-ni, _n._ a confection of quince-juice and sugar. [L. _cydonium_. Cf. _Quince_.] QUIDDIT, kwid'it, _n._ an equivocation: a subtilty or quibble. [A contr. of _quiddity_.] QUIDDITY, kwid'i-ti, _n._ the essence of anything: any trifling nicety: a cavil: a captious question.--_adjs._ QUIDD'ATIVE, QUIDD'IT[=A]TIVE. [Low L. _quidditas_--L. _quid_, what.] QUIDDLE, kwid'l, _v.i._ to spend time in trifling.--_n._ one who does so.--_n._ QUIDD'LER, a trifler.--_adj._ QUIDD'LING. [L. _quid_.] QUIDNUNC, kwid'nungk, _n._ one always on the lookout for news: one who pretends to know all occurrences. [L., 'what now?'] QUID PRO QUO, kwid pr[=o] kw[=o], _n._ something given or taken as equivalent to something else. [L., 'something for something.'] QUIEN SABE, kien sä'be, who knows? a common reply to a question in the south-western United States, meaning 'I do not know.' [Sp. _quien_, who--L. _quis_, who; _sabe_, 3d pers. sing. pres. indic. of _saber_, to know--L. _sap[)e]re_, to have sense.] QUIESCENT, kw[=i]-es'ent, _adj._ being quiet, resting: not sounded, as a _quiescent_ letter: still: unagitated: silent.--_v.i._ QUIESCE', to become quiet: to become silent in pronunciation, as a letter.--_ns._ QUIES'CENCE, QUIES'CENCY, state of being at rest: rest of mind: silence: torpor.--_adv._ QUIES'CENTLY. [L. _quiescens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _quiesc[)e]re_, to rest.] QUIET, kw[=i]'et, _adj._ at rest: calm: smooth: peaceable: gentle, inoffensive: silent, still: free from gaudiness, in good taste: free from bustle or formality.--_n._ the state of being at rest: repose: calm: stillness: peace.--_v.t._ to bring to rest: to stop motion: to calm or pacify: to lull: to allay.--_v.i._ to become quiet, to abate.--_n._ QU[=I]'ET[=A]GE (_Spens._), quiet.--_v.t._ QU[=I]'ETEN, to make quiet, calm.--_v.i._ to become quiet.--_n._ QU[=I]'ETER (_Shak._), a person or thing that quiets.--_v.t._ QU[=I]'ETISE, to make quiet.--_ns._ QU[=I]'ETISM, rest of the mind: mental tranquillity: apathy: the doctrine that religious perfection on earth consists in passive and uninterrupted contemplation of the Deity; QU[=I]'ETIST, one who believes in this doctrine (Molinos, Mme. Guyon, &c.).--_adj._ QUIETIST'IC, pertaining to quietism.--_n._ QU[=I]'ETIVE, anything that induces quiet.--_adv._ QU[=I]'ETLY, in a quiet manner: without motion or alarm: calmly: silently: patiently.--_ns._ QU[=I]'ETNESS, QU[=I]'ETUDE, rest: repose: freedom from agitation or alarm: stillness: peace: silence.--_adj._ QU[=I]'ETSOME (_Spens._), calm, still, undisturbed.--_n._ QUI[=E]'TUS, a final settlement or discharge: ending generally: (_slang_) a severe blow.--AT QUIET (_B._), peaceful; IN QUIET, quietly; ON THE QUIET, clandestinely; OUT OF QUIET, disturbed. [L. _quietus_--_quisc[)e]re_, to rest.] QUIGHT, kw[=i]t, _adv._ a misspelt form of _quite_. QUI-HI, -HYE, kw[=i]'h[=i]', _n._ in Bengal, the Anglo-Indian call for a servant: (_coll._) an Anglo-Indian in Bengal. [Hind. _ko[=i] hai_, 'who is there?'] QUILL, kwil, _n._ a fold of a plaited or fluted ruff.--_v.t._ to flute: form with rounded ridges.--_adj._ QUILLED, crimped, fluted.--_n._ QUILL'ING, a narrow bordering of plaited lace or ribbon. [Fr. _quille_, a keel.] QUILL, kwil, _n._ a reed-pen: the feather of a goose or other bird used as a pen, hence a pen generally: the profession of letters: anything like a quill: the hollow basal stem of a feather: one of the large hollow sharp spines (modified hairs) of the hedgehog, porcupine, &c.: the reed on which weavers wind their thread: the instrument for striking the strings of certain instruments: the tube of a musical instrument: the hollow shaft or mandril of the seal-engraver's lathe: a train for igniting a blast: bark in a cylindrical roll.--_v.t._ to plait with small ridges like quills: to wind on a quill: to pluck out quills from.--_ns._ QUILL'-DRIV'ER (_slang_), one who works with a quill or pen, a clerk; QUILL'-DRIV'ING, writing.--_adj._ QUILLED, furnished with quills, or formed into a quill.--_ns._ QUILL'-NIB, a quill-pen shortened for use with a holder; QUILL'-TURN, the machine in which a weaver's quill is turned; QUILL'-WORK, embroidery with porcupine quills, done by the North American Indians; QUILL'-WORT, any plant of the genus Isoëtes, esp. _Isoëtes lacustris_.--IN THE QUILL (_Shak._), perhaps=penned, though others interpret 'in form and order like a quilled ruff.' [Explained by Skeat as orig. a stalk, hence anything pointed, O. Fr. _quille_, a peg--Old High Ger. _kegil_ or _chegil_ (Ger. _kegel_), a cone-shaped object, ninepin.] QUILLET, kwil'et, _n._ a trick in argument: a petty quibble. [L. _quidlibet_, 'what you will.'] QUILLET, kwil'et, _n._ (_prov._) a furrow: a small croft. QUILLON, k[=e]-lyong', _n._ one of the branches of the cross-guard of a sword. QUILT, kwilt, _n._ a bed-cover of two cloths sewed together with something soft between them: a thick coverlet.--_v.t._ to make into a quilt: to stitch together with something soft between, to stitch in: to sew like a quilt.--_adj._ QUILT'ED, stitched together as a quilt: (_Spens._) padded.--_ns._ QUILT'ER, a person or machine for making quilting; QUILT'ING, the act of making a quilt: that which is quilted: a cotton or linen cloth, like diaper, with raised pattern, for vests, &c.: a kind of coating formed of sinnet, strands of rope, &c., outside any vessel containing water: a thrashing with a rope's end; QUILT'ING-BEE, in New England, a gathering of women to help one in quilting a counterpane, followed by a supper to which men are admitted; QUILT'ING-COTT'ON, cotton-wadding; QUILT'ING-FRAME, an adjustable frame for holding a fabric for quilting. [O. Fr. _cuilte_ (Fr. _couette_)--L. _culcita_, a cushion.] QUIN, kwin, _n._ (_prov._) a kind of scallop. QUINARIAN, kw[=i]-n[=a]'ri-an, _adj._ classified in sets of five: (_zool._) relating to the circular or so-called natural system of classification, propounded in 1819 and much elaborated by Swainson in 1835--also QU[=I]'NARY.--_n._ one who supports this theory. [L. _quinarius_--_quini_, five each--_quinque_, five.] QUINATE, kw[=i]'n[=a]t, _adj._ (_bot._) having five leaflets on a petiole. [L. _quini_, five each.] QUINCE, kwins, _n._ the golden, globose or pear-shaped, fragrant fruit of a large shrub or small tree (_Pyrus Cydonia_) of the rose family, too austere to be eaten raw, but excellent for jellies, marmalade, and flavouring other fruits. [Pl. of _quine_--O. Fr. _coin_ (Fr. _coing_)--L. _cydonium_--Gr. _Cyd[=o]nia_, in Crete.] QUINCENTENARY, kwin-sen'te-n[=a]-ri, _adj._ relating to five hundred, especially five hundred years.--_n._ a five hundredth anniversary. QUINCH, kwinsh, _v.t._ (_Spens._). Same as QUITCH, _v.t._ [Illustration] QUINCUNX, kwin'kungks, _n._ an arrangement of five things, so as to occupy each corner and the centre of a square, esp. of trees or plants.--_adj._ QUINCUN'CIAL.--_adv._ QUINCUN'CIALLY. [L. _quinque_, five, _uncia_, a twelfth part, an ounce.] QUINDECEMVIR, kwin-d[=e]-sem'vir, _n._ one of a college of fifteen men in ancient Rome who had the charge of the Sibylline books:--_pl._ QUINDECEM'VIRI.--_ns._ QUINDEC'AGON, a plane figure with fifteen sides and angles; QUINDECEM'VIRATE, the body of the quindecemviri or their office; QUINDEC'IMA (_mus._), the interval of a fifteenth, or double-octave. [L.,--_quindecim_, fifteen (_quinque_, five, _decem_, ten), _vir_, a man.] QUINIBLE, kwin'i-bl, _n._ (_mus._) an interval of a fifth: a descant sung at the fifth. [L. _quinque_, five.] QUININE, kwin'[=e]n, ki-n[=e]n', or kw[=i]'n[=i]n, _n._ a colourless, inodorous, and very bitter alkaloid, obtained from the bark of the Cinchona tree, its salts used for agues and fevers.--_ns._ QU[=I]'NA, the bark of various species of Cinchona; QUINAM'INE, a natural white crystalline alkaloid obtained from various Cinchona barks; QUINAQU[=I]'NA, the bark of various species of Cinchona.--_adj._ QUIN'IC, pertaining to, or derived from, quinine.--_ns._ QUIN'IDINE, a white crystalline compound, isomeric with quinine, found in some Cinchona barks; QUINOL'OGY, the knowledge of quinine and other Cinchona alkaloids. [Fr.,--Sp. and Port. _quinina_--Peruv. _quina_, _kina_, bark.] QUINISEXT, kwin'i-sekst, _adj._ pertaining to five and six, or to the fifth and sixth. QUINNAT, kwin'at, _n._ the king-salmon. QUINOA, k[=e]'no-a, _n._ a Chilian and Mexican food-plant, resembling some British species of chenopodium, cultivated for its farinaceous seeds. [Peruv.] QUINOLINE, kwin'[=o]-lin, _n._ a pungent, colourless liquid obtained by the distillation of bones, coal-tar, and various alkaloids--the base of many organic bodies, isomeric with Leucol.--Also CHIN'OLINE. [Peruv. _quina_, _kina_, bark.] QUINONE, kwin'[=o]n, _n._ or _Benzoquinone_, a golden-yellow crystalline compound usually prepared by oxidising aniline with potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid: a general name applied to all benzene derivatives in which two oxygen atoms replace two hydrogen atoms.--Also KINONE (k[=e]'n[=o]n), as _Kinic_--_Quinic_. QUINQUAGESIMA, kwin-kwa-jes'i-ma, _n._ a period of fifty days.--_n._ QUINQUAGEN[=A]'RIAN, one who is between fifty and sixty years old.--QUINQUAGESIMA SUNDAY, the Sunday before Ash Wednesday, being the fiftieth day before Easter. [L. _quinquaginta_, fifty--_quinque_, five.] QUINQUANGULAR, kwin-kwang'g[=u]-lar, _adj._ having five angles.--_adjs._ QUINQUARTIC'ULAR, of five articles; QUINQUECAP'SULAR, having five capsules; QUINQUECOS'T[=A]TE, -D having five ribs; QUINQUEDEN'TATE, -D (_bot._), five-toothed; QUINQUEF[=A]'RIOUS, disposed in five sets or rows; QUIN'QUEFID, cleft into five segments; QUINQUEF[=O]'LIATE, -D (_bot._), having five leaves or leaflets; QUINQUELIT'ERAL, consisting of five letters; QUINQUEL[=O]'BATE, having five lobes; QUINQUELOC'ULAR, having five loculi; QUINQUEPÄR'TITE, five-parted; QUINQUESEP'TATE, having five septa; QUINQUES[=E]'RIAL, arranged in five series; QUINQUESYLLAB'IC, having five syllables; QUINQUEV'ALENT, having an equivalence of five; QUIN'QUEVALVE, QUINQUEVAL'VULAR, having five valves. QUINQUENNIAD, kwin-kwen'i-ad, _n._ a period of five years--also QUINQUENN'IUM.--_adj._ QUINQUENN'IAL, occurring once in five years: lasting five years.--_n._ a fifth anniversary or its celebration. QUINQUEREME, kwin'kwe-r[=e]m, _n._ an ancient galley having five banks of oars. [L.,--_quinque_, five, _remus_, an oar.] QUINQUINA, kin-k[=i]'nä, _n._ quinaquina. [_Quinine_.] QUINQUINO, kin'ki-n[=o], _n._ the tree (_Myroxylon Pereiræ_) which yields the balsam of Peru. QUINSY, kwin'zi, _n._ an inflammatory affection of the substance of the tonsils, attended when fully developed by suppuration.--_ns._ QUIN'SY-BERR'Y, the common black-currant; QUIN'SY-WORT, a small trailing British herb of the madder family. [O. Fr. _squinancie_ (Fr. _esquinancie_)--Gr. _kynanch[=e]_--_ky[=o]n_, a dog, _anchein_, to throttle.] QUINT, kwint, _n._ a set or a sequence of five: (_mus._) a fifth: the E string of a violin.--_adj._ QUINT'AN, recurring on every fifth day.--_n._ a malarial fever whose paroxysms recur on every fifth day. [Fr.,--L. _quintus_, fifth--_quinque_, five.] QUINTA, kwin'tä, _n._ a country house in Madeira. [Sp.] QUINTAD, kwin'tad, _n._ the same as _Pentad_. QUINTADENA, kwin-ta-d[=e]'na, _n._ in organ-building, a mutation stop yielding a tone one-twelfth above the digital struck. QUINTAIN, kwin't[=a]n, _n._ a post with a turning and loaded top or cross-piece, to be tilted at.--Also QUIN'TIN. [Fr.,--L. _quintana_, _quintus_, fifth, the place of recreation in the Roman camp being between the fifth and sixth maniples.] QUINTAL, kwin'tal, _n._ a hundredweight, either 112 or 100 pounds according to the scale.--The QUINTAL MÉTRIQUE, the modern French quintal, is 100 kilograms=220 lb. avoirdupois. [Fr. and Sp. _quintal_--Ar. _qint[)a]r_--L. _centum_, a hundred.] QUINTESSENCE, kwin-tes'ens, _n._ the pure concentrated essence of anything, the most essential part of anything: the fifth essence, according to the Pythagoreans, beyond earth, water, fire, air.--_adj._ QUINTESSEN'TIAL.--_v.t._ QUINTESSEN'TIALISE. [Fr.,--L. _quinta essentia_, fifth essence, orig. applied to ether, supposed to be purer than fire, the highest of the four ancient elements.] QUINTET, QUINTETTE, kwin-tet', _n._ a musical composition for five voices or instruments: a company of five singers or players. [It. _quintetto_, dim. of _quinto_, a fifth part--L. _quintus_, fifth--_quinque_, five.] QUINTIC, kwin'tik, _adj._ of the fifth degree. QUINTILE, kwin'til, _n._ the aspect of planets distant from each other the fifth part of the zodiac, or 72°. QUINTILLION, kwin-til'yun, _n._ the fifth power of a million, or a unit followed by thirty ciphers: generally, in U.S., the sixth power of one thousand, or a unit followed by eighteen ciphers. QUINTOLE, kwin't[=o]l, _n._ a five-stringed viol common in France in the 18th century: a group of five notes to be played in the time of three, four, or six. [It. _quinto_--L. _quintus_, fifth.] QUINTROON, kwin-tr[=oo]n', _n._ the offspring of a white by one who has one-sixteenth part of negro blood. [Sp. _quinteron_--L. _quintus_, fifth--_quinque_, five.] QUINTUPLE, kwin't[=u]-pl, _adj._ fivefold: (_mus._) having five crotchets in a bar.--_v.t._ to make or to increase fivefold.--_ns._ QUIN'T[=U]PLET, a set of five things: (_pl._) five young at a birth: (_mus._) same as QUINTOLE; QUINT[=U]'PLIC[=A]TE, consisting of five: one of five exactly corresponding things.--_v.t._ to make or to increase a set of fivefold.--_n._ QUINTUPLIC[=A]'TION. [Fr.,--L. _quintuplex_--_quintus_, fifth, _plic[=a]re_, to fold.] QUINZAINE, kwin'z[=a]n, _n._ the fifteenth day onward from a feast day, counting itself: a stanza of fifteen lines. [Fr. _quinze_, fifteen--L. _quindecim_--_quinque_, five, _decem_, ten.] QUINZE, kwinz, _n._ a card-game, like vingt-et-un, the object being to count as nearly to fifteen as possible without going above it. QUIP, kwip, _n._ a sharp, sarcastic turn, a gibe: a quick retort.--_v.i._ to use sarcasms.--_v.t._ to sneer at.--_adj._ QUIP'PISH. [W. _chwip_, a quick turn, _chwipio_, to move briskly.] QUIPU, k[=e]'p[=oo], or kwip'[=oo], _n._ the mnemonic language of coloured and knotted cords used by the Incas of ancient Peru--depending on order, colour, and kind.--Also QUIP'O. [Peruv., 'a knot.'] QUIRE, kw[=i]r, _n._ a collection of paper consisting of twenty-four sheets, the twentieth part of a ream, each having a single fold.--_v.t._ to fold in quires. [O. Fr. _quaier_ (Fr. _cahier_), prob. from Low L. _quaternum_, a set of four sheets,--L. _quatuor_, four.] QUIRE, kw[=i]r, _n._ old form of _choir_.--_n._ QU[=I]'RISTER, a chorister. QUIRINUS, kwi-r[=i]'nus, _n._ an Italic divinity identified with the deified Romulus.--_n._ QUIRIN[=A]'LIA, a festival in ancient Rome in honour of _Quirinus_, on Feb. 17. QUIRITES, kwi-r[=i]'tez, _n.pl._ the citizens of ancient Rome in their civil capacity. QUIRK, kw[.e]rk, _n._ a quick turn: an artful evasion: a quibble: a taunt or retort: a slight conceit: inclination, turn: fantastic phrase: (_archit._) an acute angle or recess.--_v.i._ to turn sharply.--_v.t._ to twist or turn: to furnish with a quirk or channel.--_adjs._ QUIRK'ISH, consisting of quirks; QUIRK'Y, abounding in quirks. [Skeat explains as prob. for obs. Eng. _quirt_, to turn; from W. _chwired_, a piece of craft, from _chwiori_, to turn briskly; cf. Gael. _cuireid_, a turn.] QUIRT, kw[.e]rt, _n._ a riding-whip much used in the western states of North America.--_v.t._ to flog with a quirt. [Perh. Sp. _cuerda_, a rope.] QUISCALUS, kwis'ka-lus, _n._ a genus of birds, the American grackles or crow-blackbirds. QUIT, kwit, _v.t._ to pay, requite: to release from obligation, accusation, &c.: to acquit: to depart from: to give up: to clear by full performance: (_Spens._) to remove by force: (_coll._) to give over, cease:--_pr.p._ quit'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ quit'ted.--_adj._ (_B._) set free: acquitted: released from obligation.--_n._ QUIT'-CLAIM, a deed of release.--_v.t._ to relinquish claim or title to.--_n._ QUIT'-RENT, a rent by which the tenants are discharged from all other services--in old records called _white rent_, as being paid in silver money.--_adj._ QUIT'TABLE, capable of being quitted.--_ns._ QUIT'TAL (_Shak._), requital, repayment; QUIT'TANCE, a quitting or discharge from a debt or obligation: acquittance: recompense.--_v.t._ (_obs._) to repay.--QUIT COST, to pay expenses; QUIT ONE'S SELF (_B._), to behave; QUIT SCORES, to balance accounts.--BE QUITS, to be even with one; CRY QUITTANCE, to get even; DOUBLE OR QUITS, in gambling, said when a stake due is either to become double or be reduced to nothing, according to the issue of a certain chance; NOTICE TO QUIT (_law_), notice to a tenant of real property that he must surrender possession. [O. Fr. _quiter_ (Fr. _quitter_)--Low L. _quiet[=a]re_, to pay--L. _quiet[=a]re_, to make quiet--_quietus_, quiet.] QUI TAM, kw[=i] tam, an action on a penal statute, brought partly at the suit of the state and partly at that of an informer--from the first words. [L. _qui_, who, _tam_, as well.] QUITCH, kwich, _n._ couch-grass.--Also QUITCH'-GRASS, QUICK'ENS. [Assibilated form of _quick_.] QUITCH, kwich, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to move. [A.S. _cweccan_, causative of _cwacian_, to quake.] QUITE, kw[=i]t (_Spens._). Same as QUIT. QUITE, kw[=i]t, _adv._ completely: wholly: entirely.--QUITE A LITTLE, a good few: considerable; QUITE SO, a phrase denoting assent in conversation. [Merely an adv. use of the adj. _quit_.] QUITTER, kwit'[.e]r, _n._ a fistulous sore on the quarters or the heel of the coronet of a horse's hoof.--_v.i._ to suppurate. QUIVER, kwiv'[.e]r, _adj._ (_Shak._) nimble, active. QUIVER, kwiv'[.e]r, _n._ a case for arrows.--_adj._ QUIV'ERED, furnished with a quiver: sheathed, as in a quiver. [O. Fr. _cuivre_; from Old High Ger. _kohhar_ (Ger. _köcher_); cog. with A.S. _cocer_.] QUIVER, kwiv'[.e]r, _v.i._ to shake with slight and tremulous motion: to tremble: to shiver.--_ns._ QUIV'ER, QUIV'ERING, a tremulous motion, shiver.--_adv._ QUIV'ERINGLY, with quivering.--_adj._ QUIV'ERISH, tremulous. [A.S. _cwifer_, seen in adv. _cwiferlíce_, eagerly. Cf. _Quick_ and _Quaver_.] QUI VIVE, k[=e] v[=e]v, Who goes there?--the challenge of French sentries to those who approach their posts.--BE ON THE QUI VIVE, to be on the alert. [Fr.,--_qui_, who, _vive_, 3d pers. sing. pres. subj. of _vivre_, to live--L. _viv[)e]re_.] QUIXOTIC, kwiks-ot'ik, _adj._ like Don _Quixote_, the knight-errant in the great romance of Cervantes (1547-1616), extravagantly romantic, aiming at an impossible ideal.--_adv._ QUIXOT'ICALLY.--_ns._ QUIX'OTISM, QUIX'OTRY, absurdly romantic, impracticable, and magnanimous notions, schemes, or actions like those of Don Quixote. QUIZ, kwiz, _n._ a riddle or enigma: one who quizzes another: an odd fellow: a monocular eye-glass, often with a handle: (_coll._) an oral examination of a pupil or class by a teacher.--_v.t._ to puzzle: to banter or make sport of: to examine narrowly and with an air of mockery.--_v.i._ to practise derisive joking:--_pr.p._ quiz'zing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ quizzed.--_ns._ QUIZ'ZER; QUIZ'ZERY.--_adj._ QUIZ'ZICAL.--_ns._ QUIZZICAL'ITY; QUIZZIFIC[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ QUIZ'ZIFY, to turn into a quiz.--_ns._ QUIZ'ZINESS, oddness; QUIZ'ZING, raillery; QUIZ'ZING-GLASS, a single eye-glass. [Origin obscure; doubtless framed from _question_, or direct from L. _quæso_, I ask.] QUOAD, kw[=o]'ad, _prep._ as far as, to this extent.--QUOAD HOC, as far as this; QUOAD OMNIA, in respect of all things; QUOAD SACRA, as far as concerns sacred matters, as a parish disjoined for ecclesiastical purposes only. [L.] QUOD, kwod, _n._ (_slang_) prison. QUODLIBET, kwod'li-bet, _n._ a scholastic argument upon a subject chosen at will, almost invariably theological: a humorous fanciful combination of two or more familiar melodies.--_n._ QUODLIBET[=A]'RIAN, one given to quodlibets.--_adjs._ QUODLIBET'IC, -AL. [L., 'what you please'--_quod_, what, _libet_, it pleases.] QUODLIN, kwod'lin, _n._ (_Bacon_). Same as CODLIN. QUOIF, koif, _n._ a cap or hood.--_v.t._ to cover or dress with a coif. QUOIN, koin, _n._ (_archit._) a wedge used to support and steady a stone: an external angle, esp. of a building: (_gun._) a wedge of wood or iron put under the breech of heavy guns or the muzzle of siege-mortars to raise them to the proper level: (_print._) a wedge used to fasten the types in the forms.--_v.t._ to wedge or steady with quoins. [_Coin._] QUOIT, koit, _n._ a heavy flat ring of iron for throwing as near as possible to one _hob_ or pin from the other--18 to 21 yards apart--the points in the game counted as in bowls or curling: (_pl._) the game played with such rings.--_v.i._ to throw quoits: to throw as with a quoit. [Perh. from O. Fr. _coiter_, to drive, which may be from L. _coact[=a]re_--_cog[)e]re_, to force.] QUONDAM, kwon'dam, _adj._ that was formerly: former. [L., formerly.] QUONIAM, kw[=o]'ni-am, _n._ the part of the 'Gloria in Excelsis' beginning 'For Thou only art holy:' the musical setting thereof: (_obs._) a kind of drinking-cup. [L., 'since now.'] QUOOK, kwook (_Spens._), _pa.t._ of _quake_. QUOP, kwop, _v.i._ to move: to throb, as the heart.--Also QUAB, QUAP. QUORUM, kw[=o]'rum, _n._ a number of the members of any body sufficient to transact business. [The first word of a commission formerly issued to certain justices, _of whom_ (L. _quorum_) a certain number had always to be present when the commission met.] QUOTA, kw[=o]'ta, _n._ the part or share assigned to each.--_n._ QUOT'ITY (_Carlyle_), the number of individuals in a collection. [It.,--L. _quotus_, of what number?--_quot_, how many?] QUOTE, kw[=o]t, _v.t._ to repeat the words of any one: to adduce for authority or illustration: to give the current price of: to enclose within quotation marks: (_Shak._) to set down in writing.--_v.i._ to make a quotation.--_adj._ QU[=O]'TABLE, that may be quoted.--_ns._ QU[=O]'TABLENESS, QU[=O]TABIL'ITY.--_adv._ QU[=O]'TABLY.--_ns._ QU[=O]T[=A]'TION, act of quoting: that which is quoted: the current price of anything; QU[=O]T[=A]'TION-MARK, one of the marks used to note the beginning and the end of a quotation--generally consisting of two inverted commas at the beginning, and two apostrophes at the end of a quotation; but a single comma and a single apostrophe are frequently used; QU[=O]'TER. [O. Fr. _quoter_, to number--Low L. _quot[=a]re_, to divide into chapters and verses--L. _quotus_, of what number?--_quot_, how many?] QUOTH, kw[=o]th, _v.t._ say, says, or said--used only in the 1st and 3d persons present and past, and always followed by its subject.--_interj._ QU[=O]'THÄ, forsooth, indeed. [A.S. _cwethan_, pa.t. _cwæth_, to say. For _quoth'a_, said he--_'a_ being a corr. of _he_.] QUOTIDIAN, kw[=o]-tid'i-an, _adj._ every day: occurring daily.--_n._ anything returning daily: (_med._) a kind of ague that returns daily. [Fr.,--L. _quotidianus_--_quot_, as many as, _dies_, a day.] QUOTIENT, kw[=o]'shent, _n._ (_math._) the number which shows how often one number is contained in another.--_n._ QU[=O]T[=I]'ETY, the proportionate frequency of an event. [Fr.,--L. _quotiens_, _quoties_, how often?--_quot_, how many?] QUOTUM, kw[=o]'tum, _n._ quota: share: part or proportion. [L., neut. of _quotus_; cf. _Quota_.] QUO WARRANTO, kw[=o] wo-ran'to, _n._ (_law_) the title of a writ by which a person or corporate body is summoned to show by what warrant a particular franchise or office is claimed. [So called from these words in the writ. L. _quo_, by what (abl. sing. neut. of _quis_, who, which, what), _warranto_, abl. of Low L. _warrantum_, warrant.] * * * * * R the eighteenth letter in our alphabet, belonging to the class of liquids--the 'dog's letter' (_littera canina_), from the trilling or vibration of the tip of the tongue: as a medieval numeral=80; [=R]=80,000.--THE THREE R'S, a humorous term for reading, writing, and arithmetic. RA, rä, _n._ the supreme sun-god of the Memphite system of ancient Egyptian mythology. RABANNA, ra-ban'a, _n._ matting made from the fibre of the raffia, in Madagascar. [Malagasy.] RABAT, ra-bä', _n._ a neck-band with flaps worn by French ecclesiastics: a turned-down collar or ruff--(_obs._) RAB'ATINE, RAB[=A]'TO. [Fr.] RABATE, ra-b[=a]t', _v.t._ to beat down.--_n._ abatement. [Fr. _rabattre_, to beat down--_re-_, again, _abattre_--L. _ad_, to, _batu[)e]re_, to beat.] RABBET, rab'et, _n._ a groove cut in the edge of a plank so that another may fit into it.--_v.t._ to groove a plank thus.--_ns._ RABB'ETING-MACHINE', -PLANE, -SAW, for ploughing and cutting grooves; RABB'ET-JOINT, a joint formed by fitting together timber with rabbets. [O. Fr. _raboter_, to plane--_rabouter_--_re-_, again, _aboter_, _abouter_, to thrust against.] RABBI, rab'i, or rab'[=i], RABBIN, rab'in, _n._ Jewish title of a doctor or expounder of the law:--_pl._ RABBIS (rab'[=i]z), RABB'INS.--_ns._ RABB'AN ('our master'), a title of greater honour than rabbi; RABB'INATE, the dignity of a rabbi.--_adjs._ RABBIN'IC, -AL, pertaining to the rabbis or to their opinions, learning, and language.--_n._ RABBIN'IC, the later Hebrew.--_adv._ RABBIN'ICALLY.--_ns._ RABB'INISM, the doctrine or teaching of the rabbis: a rabbinical peculiarity of expression: the late Jewish belief which esteemed the oral law equally with the written law of God; RABB'INIST, RABB'INITE, one who adheres to the Talmud and traditions of the rabbis; RABB[=O]'NI, my great master. [Gr.,--Heb. _rabbí_--_rab_, great, master--_r[=a]bab_, to be great. Cf. Ar. _rabb_, master, the Lord.] RABBIT, rab'it, _n._ a small rodent burrowing animal of the hare family: a cony: any member of the hare family.--_v.i._ to hunt rabbits.--_ns._ RABB'IT-BRUSH, a North American composite plant; RABB'IT-EAR, a long slender oyster; RABB'ITER, one who hunts rabbits; RABB'IT-FISH, the 'king of the herrings;' RABB'IT-HUTCH, a box for the rearing of rabbits; RABB'IT-MOTH, a moth in United States of a furry appearance; RABB'IT-MOUTH, harelip; RABB'IT-ROOT, the wild sarsaparilla; RABB'ITRY, a rabbit-warren; RABB'IT-SQUIRR'EL, a chincha, a South American rodent; RABB'IT-SUCK'ER (_Shak._), a sucking rabbit; RABB'IT-WARR'EN, a place where rabbits are kept and bred.--SNOW-SHOE RABBIT, an American hare found in the Rocky Mountains which turns white in winter; WELSH RABBIT, melted cheese with a little ale poured over a slice of hot toast--sometimes written 'Welsh rarebit' by wiseacres. [M. E. _rabet_, dim. of a form seen in Old Dut. _robbe_.] RABBIT, rab'it, _v.t._ an interjectional expression, like _confound_. [Perh. a corr. of _rabate_.] RABBLE, rab'l, _n._ a disorderly, noisy crowd: a mob: the lowest class of people.--_adj._ disorderly.--_v.i._ to utter nonsense.--_v.t._ (_Scot._) to mob.--_ns._ RABB'LEMENT, a tumultuous crowd of low people; RABB'LING (_Scot._), the act of assaulting in a disorderly manner, mobbing. [Allied to Old Dut. _rabbelen_, to gabble, Prov. Ger. _rabbeln_.] RABBLE, rab'l, _n._ an iron bar used in puddling.--_v.t._ to stir with a rabble.--_n._ RABB'LER. [O. Fr. _roable_ (Fr. _râble_)--L. _rutabulum_, a poker.] RABDOMANCY. Same as RHABDOMANCY. RABELAISIAN, rab-e-l[=a]'zi-an, _n._ characteristic of _Rabelais_ (1490-1553), broadly humorous, coarse. RABI, rab'i, _n._ the great grain crop of Hindustan. RABID, rab'id, _adj._ furious: mad: affected with _rabies_, as a dog: foolishly intense.--_adj._ RAB'IC, pertaining to rabies.--_adv._ RAB'IDLY.--_ns._ RAB'IDNESS; R[=A]'BIES, the disease (esp. of dogs) from which hydrophobia is communicated: canine madness.--_adjs._ R[=A]BIET'IC, resembling madness; R[=A]BIF'IC, communicating hydrophobia; R[=A]'BIOUS, raging. [L. _rabidus_--_rab[)e]re_, to rave.] RABOT, rab'ot, _n._ a rubber used in polishing marble. RACA, r[=a]'ka, _adj._ worthless--a term of contempt used by the Jews of Christ's day; cf. Matt. v. 22. [Chaldee _r[=e]k[=a]_, worthless; perh. conn. with _raq_, to spit (Ar. _r[=i]q_), or with _r[=i]q[=a]_, empty.] RACCAHOUT, rak'a-h[=oo]t, _n._ an Eastern dish made from the edible acorns of the oak. [Fr.,--Ar. _r[=a]quat_, _r[=a]qaout_, a nourishing starch.] RACCOON, RACOON, ra-k[=oo]n', _n._ a genus of the bear family of North America, valuable for its fur.--_ns._ RACCOON'-BERR'Y, the May apple of the United States; RACCOON'-OYS'TER, an oyster growing on the shores of the sea in United States. [Amer. Ind.] RACE, r[=a]s, _n._ the human family: the descendants of a common ancestor: a breed or variety: a tribal or national stock: a line of persons, as of statesmen, or of animals, as the feline race: a herd: peculiar flavour, as of wine, by which its origin may be recognised: (_Shak._) intrinsic character, vigour. [Fr.,--Old High Ger. _reiza_, a line.] RACE, r[=a]s, _n._ rapid motion: trial of speed: progress: course of action: a strong and rapid current: a canal to a water-wheel: a competitive trial of speed in running, walking, &c.: a horse-race, as the Ascot races.--_v.i._ to run swiftly: to contend in running.--_v.t._ to cause to race, as steamers, horses, &c.--_ns._ RACE'-CARD, a card containing information about races; RACE'-COURSE, -GROUND, -TRACK, the course over which races are run; RACE'-CUP, a piece of plate forming a prize at a race; RACE'HORSE, a horse bred for racing; RACE'-MEET'ING, a meeting for purposes of horse-racing; R[=A]'CER, one who races: a racehorse; RACE'-WAY, a mill-race; R[=A]'CING, the running of races; R[=A]'CING-BIT, a light jointed ring-bit; CONSOL[=A]'TION-RACE (see CONSOLATION); FLAT'-RACE, a horse-race over _level_ or clear ground--opp. to a _Hurdle-race_ or _Steeplechase_, which are called generally _Obstacle-races_.--RACING CALENDAR, a full list of races to be run. [A.S. _r['æ]s_, stream; Ice. _rás_, rapid course.] RACE, r[=a]s, _n._ (_Shak._) a root.--_n._ RACE'-GIN'GER, unpulverised ginger. [O. Fr. _rais_--L. _radix_, a root.] RACE, r[=a]s, _v.t._ (_obs._)=_Raze_.--_adj._ RACED. RACEME, ra-s[=e]m', _n._ a cluster: a flower-cluster, as in the currant.--_adjs._ RACEMED', having racemes; RACEM'IC, pertaining to, or obtained from, grapes: an acid obtained from a certain kind of grape; RACEMIF'EROUS, bearing racemes; RAC'EM[=O]SE, RAC'EMOUS, growing in, or resembling, a raceme.--_n._ RAC'EM[=U]LE, a small raceme.--_adj._ RACEM'UL[=O]SE, bearing small racemes. [Fr.,--L. _racemus_.] RACH, RATCH, rach, _n._ a dog that hunts by scent. [A.S. _ræcc_, a dog; Ice. _rakki_.] RACHIANECTES, ra-ki-an-ek'tez, _n._ the gray whale of the North Pacific. [Gr. _rhachia_, a rocky shore, _n[=e]kt[=e]s_, a swimmer.] RACHIS, r[=a]'kis, _n._ the spine: (_bot._) a branch or axis of inflorescence which proceeds in nearly a straight line from the base to the apex:--_pl._ R[=A]'CHID[=E]S.--_n._ R[=A]CHIAL'GIA, pain in the spine.--_adjs._ R[=A]CHIAL'GIC; R[=A]CHID'IAL, R[=A]CHID'IAN.--_n._ R[=A]CHIL'LA, a secondary rachis in a compound inflorescence.--_adj._ R[=A]CHIT'IC, rickety.--_ns._ R[=A]CH[=I]'TIS, rickets in children (see RICKETS): (_bot._) a disease which produces abortion in the fruit; R[=A]CH'ITOME, an anatomical instrument for opening the spinal canal. [Gr. _rachis_, the spine.] RACIAL, r[=a]'si-al, _adj._ relating to lineage, peculiar to a race.--_adv._ R[=A]'CIALLY. RACK, rak, _n._ an instrument for racking or extending: an engine for stretching the body in order to extort a confession, hence (_fig._) extreme pain, anxiety, or doubt: a framework on which articles are arranged, as _hat-rack_, _plate-rack_, _letter-rack_, &c.: the grating above a manger for hay: (_mech._) a straight bar with teeth to work into those of a wheel, pinion, or endless screw, for converting a circular into a rectilinear motion, or _vice versâ_: (_Scot._) the course in curling.--_v.t._ to stretch forcibly: to strain: to stretch on the rack or wheel: to torture: to exhaust: to worry, agitate: to wrest, overstrain: to practise rapacity: to extort: to place in a rack or frame: (_naut._) to seize together with cross-turns, as two ropes.--_n._ RACK'ER, one who tortures.--_adj._ RACK'ING, tormenting.--_ns._ RACK'-RAIL, a railway having cogs which work into similar cogs on a locomotive; RACK'-RENT, an annual rent stretched to the utmost value of the thing rented, exorbitant rent.--_v.t._ to subject to such rents.--_ns._ RACK'-RENT'ER, one who exacts or pays rack-rent; RACK'-STICK, a stick for stretching a rope; RACK'-TAIL, a bent arm in a repeating clock connected with the striking mechanism; RACK'WORK, a strong bar with cogs to correspond with similar cogs on a wheel, which either moves or is moved by the bar.--LIVE AT RACK AND MANGER, to live sumptuously and wastefully; ON THE RACK, stretched upon it: tortured by anxiety; PUT TO THE RACK, to put to the torture of the rack: to subject to keen suffering. [The radical sense is to stretch, closely allied to _reach_ (q.v.); cf. Ice. _rakkr_, straight, Ger. _rack_, a rail, _recken_, to stretch.] RACK, rak, _n._ same as WRACK=_Wreck_--now used only in the phrases GO TO RACK, GO TO RACK AND RUIN. [Cf. the next word.] RACK, rak, _n._ thin or broken clouds drifting across the sky.--_v.i._ to drift, to drive. [_Wrack_; cf. Ice. _rek_.] RACK, rak, _v.t._ to strain or draw off from the lees, as wine.--_ns._ RACK'ING-CAN, a vessel from which wine can be drawn without disturbing the lees; RACK'ING-COCK, -FAU'CET, a cock used in drawing off liquour from a cask; RACK'ING-PUMP, a pump for the transfer of liquor to casks. [O. Fr. _raquer_, _vin raqué_; prob. cog. with Sp. _rascar_, to scrape.] RACK, rak, _n._ (_prov._) the neck and spine of a fore-quarter of veal or mutton: the neck of mutton or pork. RACK, rak, _n._ the gait of a horse between a trot and a gallop.--_n._ RACK'ER, a horse that moves in this gait. [Perh. _rack_, to drift, or _rock_.] RACK, rak, _n._ same as ARRACK.--RACK PUNCH, a punch made with arrack. RACK, rak, _n._ a young rabbit. [Orig. unknown.] RACKABONES, rak'a-b[=o]nz, _n._ (_Amer._) a very lean person or animal. RACKAROCK, rak'a-rok, _n._ an explosive of potassium chlorate and nitro-benzol.--Also REND'ROCK. RACKET, RACQUET, rak'et, _n._ a bat for playing tennis: a snow-shoe: an organ-stop: a 17th-cent. musical instrument: (_pl._) a modern variety of the old game of tennis.--_v.t._ to strike, as with a racket.--_ns._ RACK'ET-, RACQ'UET-COURT, -GROUND, a court for playing rackets: a tennis-court; RACK'ET-TAIL, a humming-bird with two feathers like rackets.--_adj._ RACK'ET-TAILED. [O. Fr. _rachete_ (Fr. _raquette_)--Sp. _raqueta_--Ar. _r[=a]hat_, the palm of the hand.] RACKET, rak'et, _n._ a clattering noise: hurly-burly.--_v.i._ to make a clattering noise: to engage in racket of any kind: to be dissipated.--_n._ RACK'ETER.--_adj._ RACK'ETY.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ RACK'LE (_prov._), to rattle.--_n._ noisy talk. [Gael. _racaid_--_rac_, to cackle.] RACONTEUR, ra-kong-t[.e]r', _n._ a story-teller. [Fr.] RACOON. See RACCOON. RACOVIAN, ra-k[=o]'vi-an, _n._ a 17th-cent. Polish Socinian--their seminary being at _Rakow_. RACY, r[=a]'si, _adj._ having a strong flavour imparted by the soil, as wine: exciting to the mind by strongly characteristic thought or language: spirited: pungent, as a _racy_ story: peculiar to the race.--_adv._ R[=A]'CILY.--_n._ R[=A]'CINESS. [_Race_, a family.] RAD, rad (_Spens._), _pa.t._ of _read_ and _ride_. RAD, rad, _adj._ (_Scot._) afraid. RAD, rad, _n._ short for _radical_. RADDLE, rad'l, _v.t._ to interweave: to beat.--_n._ a hedge formed by interweaving the branches of trees: a hurdle: split wood like laths: a wooden bar used in domestic weaving. [Perh. a transposed form of _hurdle_; or perh. formed from _wreathe_, or _writhe_, and confused with _hurdle_.] RADDLE, rad'l, _n._ a layer of red pigment--also REDD'LE.--_v.t._ to colour coarsely, as with raddle: to do work in a slovenly way. [_Ruddle._] RADE, r[=a]d, old form of _rode_. RADIAL, r[=a]'di-al, _adj._ shooting out like a ray or radius: pertaining to the radius of the forearm: (_bot._) developing uniformly on all sides.--_ns._ R[=A]DI[=A]'LE, the radiocarpal bone:--_pl._ R[=A]DI[=A]'LIA; R[=A]DI[=A]'LIS, a radial muscle, artery, or nerve:--_pl._ R[=A]DI[=A]'LES; R[=A]DIALIS[=A]'TION, arrangement in radiating forms.--_v.t._ R[=A]'DIALISE, to make ray-like: to cause to radiate.--_n._ R[=A]DIAL'ITY, radial symmetry.--_adv._ R[=A]'DIALLY, in the manner of a radius or of rays.--_adjs._ R[=A]'DIOCAR'PAL, pertaining to the wrist or carpus; R[=A]'DIOMUS'CULAR, pertaining to the radius and to muscles; R[=A]'DIO-UL'NAR, pertaining to the radius and the ulna.--RADIAL ARTERY, the smaller of the branches of the branchial artery at the elbow. RADIAN, r[=a]'di-an, _n._ the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc equal to the radius. RADIANT, r[=a]'di-ant, _adj._ emitting rays of light or heat: issuing in rays: beaming with light: shining: (_her._) edged with rays.--_n._ (_opt._) the luminous point from which light emanates: (_astron._) the centre point from which meteoric showers proceed: (_geom._) a straight line from a point about which it is conceived to revolve.--_ns._ R[=A]'DIANCE, R[=A]'DIANCY, quality of being radiant: brilliancy: splendour.--_adv._ R[=A]'DIANTLY.--_adj._ R[=A]'DIOUS (_obs._), radiant.--RADIANT ENERGY, energy in the form of light or radiant heat; RADIANT HEAT, heat proceeding in rays or direct lines from a centre. [L. _radians_, _-antis_, pr.p. of _radi[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to radiate--_radius._] RADIATA, r[=a]-di-[=a]'ta, _n.pl._ the lowest of Cuvier's four great divisions of the animal kingdom--the organs of sense and motion disposed as rays round a centre. RADIATE, r[=a]'di-[=a]t, _v.i._ to emit rays of light: to shine: to proceed in direct lines from any point or surface.--_v.t._ to send out in rays: to furnish with rays.--_adjs._ R[=A]'DI[=A]TE, -D, formed of rays diverging from a centre: (_bot._) consisting of a disc in which the florets are tubular: (_min._) having crystals diverging from a centre: belonging to the _Radiata_: in coins, represented with rays proceeding from a centre, as a head or bust.--_adv._ R[=A]'DIATELY, in a radiate manner: with radiation from a centre.--_adj._ R[=A]DI[=A]'TIFORM, having the appearance of being radiate.--_adv._ R[=A]'DIATINGLY.--_n._ R[=A]DI[=A]'TION, act of radiating: the emission and diffusion of rays of light or heat.--_adj._ R[=A]'DIATIVE.--_n._ R[=A]'DIATOR, a body which radiates or emits rays of light or heat: a part of a heating apparatus for a room.--_adj._ R[=A]'DIATORY.--_ns._ R[=A]DIOFLAGELL'ATA, marine animalcules; R[=A]'DIOGRAPH, an instrument by which solar radiation is measured.--_adj._ R[=A]DIOL[=A]'RIAN, pertaining to the ooze at the bottom of the sea, composed of the shells of RADIOL[=A]'RIANS, a class of marine rhizopod _Protozoa_, so called from their having thread-like processes of living matter radiating outwards on all sides.--_ns._ R[=A]D[=I]'OLUS, one of the barbules of the main shaft of a feather; R[=A]DIOM'ETER, an instrument consisting of four horizontal arms of very fine glass, carefully poised so as to revolve easily on a point, the whole contained in a glass vessel almost exhausted of air--the arms move round under light or heat, more or less swiftly according to the strength of the rays.--_adj._ R[=A]DIOMET'RIC.--_ns._ R[=A]DIOMICROM'ETER, an instrument for measuring very small amounts of heat; R[=A]'DIOPHONE, an instrument for producing or transmitting sound by heat-rays.--_adj._ R[=A]DIOPHON'IC.--_ns._ R[=A]DIOPHON'ICS, R[=A]'DIOPHONY, the production of sound by radiant heat; R[=A]'DIUM, a rare element whose radiations act upon photographic plates and have properties like the X-rays. RADICAL, rad'i-kal, _adj._ pertaining to the root or origin: original: fundamental: intrinsic: primitive: implanted by nature: not derived: serving to originate: (_bot._) proceeding immediately from the root: (_politics_) ultra-liberal, democratic.--_n._ a root: a primitive word or letter: one who advocates radical reform, an uncompromising democratic politician: (_chem._) the base of a compound.--_v.t._ RAD'ICALISE, to make radical.--_v.i._ to become radical, adopt radical political principles.--_n._ RAD'ICALISM, the principles or spirit of a radical or democrat.--_adv._ RAD'ICALLY.--_n._ RAD'ICALNESS. [_Radix._] RADICATE, rad'i-k[=a]t, _adj._ deeply rooted: firmly established: (_zool._) fixed at the bottom as if rooted: (_conch._) adhering like a limpet.--_v.t._ to root: to plant or fix deeply and firmly:--_pr.p._ rad'ic[=a]ting; _pa.p._ rad'ic[=a]ted.--_adjs._ RAD'ICANT (_bot._), sending out roots from the stem above the ground; RADIC[=A]'RIAN, relating to roots; RAD'ICATED, rooted.--_ns._ RADIC[=A]'TION, the act or process of radicating or taking root deeply: (_bot._) the disposition of the root with respect to the ascending or descending stem; RAD'ICEL, a rootlet.--_adjs._ RADICIC'OLOUS, RADIC'OLOUS, living on roots, pertaining to the root-form of the phylloxera; RADICIFL[=O]'ROUS, flowering from the root; RADIC'IFORM, like a root.--_n._ RAD'ICLE, a little root: the part of a seed which in growing becomes the root.--_adjs._ RAD'IC[=O]SE, having a large root; RADIC'[=U]LAR, pertaining to a radicle.--_n._ RAD'IC[=U]LE (_bot._), that end of the embryo which is opposite to the cotyledons.--_adj._ RADIC'[=U]L[=O]SE (_bot._), covered with rootlets: radicose, having a large root. [L. _radic[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_, to take root--_radix_, a root.] RADISH, rad'ish, _n._ an annual whose succulent pungent root is eaten raw as a salad.--_ns._ RAD'ISH-FLY, an American insect; SEA'SIDE-RAD'ISH, the wild radish. [Fr. _radis_--Prov. _raditz_--L. _radix_, _radicis_, a root.] RADIUS, r[=a]'di-us, _n._ (_geom._) a straight line from the centre to the circumference of a circle: anything like a radius, as the spoke of a wheel: a ray: (_anat._) the exterior bone of the arm: (_bot._) the ray of a flower: the movable arm of a sextant: one of the radiating lines of a geometrical spider's web:--_pl._ R[=A]'DII ([=i]).--_ns._ R[=A]'DIUS-BAR, -ROD, in a steam-engine, a rod pivoted at one end and connected at the other with a concentrically moving part at a fixed distance.--RADIUS VECTOR (_pl._ _Radii vectores_), the distance from a fixed origin to any point of a curve. [L., a rod.] RADIX, r[=a]'diks, _n._ a root: primitive source: a primitive word from which other words are formed: the base of a system of logarithms:--_pl._ RADICES (r[=a]-d[=i]'s[=e]z). [L. _radix_, _radic-is_.] RADOUB, ra-d[=oo]b', _n._ the refitting of a ship. [Fr., _radouber_, to mend. Cf. _Redub_.] RADULA, rad'[=u]-la, _n._ the tongue or lingual ribbon of a mollusc.--_adjs._ RAD'[=U]LAR; RAD'[=U]L[=A]TE; RAD[=U]LIF'EROUS, bearing a radula; RAD'[=U]LIFORM, rasp-like: like a file. [L.,--_rad[)e]re_, to scrape.] RAFF, raf, _n._ the sweepings of society, the rabble: the riff-raff: rubbish: a low worthless fellow, a rowdy.--_v.t._ (_obs._) to snatch, to sweep off.--_adj._ RAFF'ISH, worthless. [O. Fr. _raffer_, to catch; cog. with Ger. _raffen_, to snatch; cf. _Riff-raff_.] RAFF, RAFFE, raf, _n._ (_naut._) a three-cornered sail set on a schooner when before the wind.--Also RAFF'IE. RAFFIA. Same as RAPHIA. RAFFLE, raf'l, _n._ a kind of sale by chance or lottery in which the price is subscribed equally by all who hope to win.--_v.i._ to try a raffle.--_n._ RAFF'LER. [Fr. _rafle_, a certain game of dice--_rafler_, to sweep away--Ger. _raffeln_, freq. of _raffen_ (A.S. _reafian_), to seize.] RAFFLE, raf'l, _n._ lumber, rubbish. [Cf. _Raff_ (1).] RAFFLED, raf'ld, _adj._ having the edge finely notched. RAFFLESIA, raf-l[=e]'zi-a, _n._ a remarkable genus of apetalous parasitic plants, named after Sir T. Stamford _Raffles_ (1781-1826), British governor in Sumatra (1818). RAFT, raft, _n._ (_U.S._) a miscellaneous or promiscuous lot. [A variant of _Raff_ (1).] RAFT, raft, _n._ a collection of pieces of timber fastened together for a support on the water: planks conveyed by water.--_v.t._ to transport on a raft: to form into a raft.--_v.i._ to manage a raft, travel by raft.--_ns._ RAFT'-BRIDGE, a bridge supported on rafts; RAFT'-DOG, an iron bar fitted for securing logs in a raft; RAFT'-DUCK, the black-head duck of the United States; RAFT'-PORT, a square hole in some ships for convenience in loading and unloading timber; RAFT'-ROPE, a rope used in whaling-vessels for stringing blubber; RAFTS'MAN, one who guides a raft. [Ice. _raptr_ (pron. _raftr_), a rafter--_ráf_, _ræfr_, a roof; cf. Old High Ger. _r[=a]fo_, a spar.] RAFTER, raft'[.e]r, _n._ an inclined beam supporting the roof of a house.--_v.t._ to furnish with rafters.--_n._ RAFT'ER-BIRD, the spotted fly-catcher.--PRINCIPAL RAFTER, a main timber in supporting the weight of a roof. [A.S. _ræfter_, a beam; Ice. _raptr_ (_raftr_), a beam; Dan. _raft_, a pole.] RAG, rag, _n._ a fragment of cloth: a rock having a rough irregular surface: a remnant, scrap: a beggarly person: anything rent or worn out.--_adj._ made of rags.--_v.t._ to make ragged.--_v.i._ to become ragged, to fray: (_U.S. slang_) to dress (_out_).--_ns._ RAG'ABASH, a low fellow; RAG'AMUFFIN, a low, disreputable person.--_adj._ RAG'AMUFFINLY.--_ns._ RAG'-BUSH, in some heathen countries, a bush dedicated to some deity and decorated with rags torn from the clothes of pilgrims; RAG'-DUST, the refuse of rags used by dyers; RAG'-FAIR, a fair or market for rags, old clothes, &c.; RAG'GERY, rags collectively; RAG'GING, the first rough separation of the ore from dross; RAG'-MAN, a man who collects or deals in rags; RAG'-MON'EY (_slang_), paper money; RAG'-PICK'ER, one who collects rags, &c., from ash-heaps, dung-hills, &c.: a machine for tearing old rags, &c., to pieces; RAG'-SHOP, a shop where rag-pickers dispose of their finds; RAG'-SORT'ER, one who sorts out rags for paper-making; RAG'-STONE, RAGG, an impure limestone, consisting chiefly of lime and silica; RAG'-TAG, the rabble; RAG'WEED, any plant of the composite genus _Ambrosia_; RAG'WHEEL, a wheel with teeth or cogs on the rim, which fit into the links of a chain or into rackwork: a cutlass polishing-wheel; RAG'-WOOL, shoddy; RAG'WORK, mason-work built of small stones about the size of bricks: a manufacture from strips of rag.--RAG-TAG AND BOBTAIL, a rabble. [Ice. _rögg_, shagginess.] RAG, rag, _v.t._ to banter, torment.--Also _n._ [Perh. from the previous word; others refer to Ice. _rægja_, to calumniate; cog. with A.S. _wrégan_, to accuse.] RAGBOLT, rag'b[=o]lt, _n._ an iron pin with barbed shank. RAGE, r[=a]j, _n._ violent excitement: enthusiasm: rapture: furious anger: intensity: any object much sought after, the fashion.--_v.i._ to be furious with anger: to exercise fury: to prevail fatally, as a disease: to be violently agitated, as the waves.--_v.t._ to enrage.--_adjs._ RAGE'FUL, full of rage, furious; R[=A]'GING, acting with rage, violence, or fury.--_adv._ R[=A]'GINGLY.--All the rage (_coll._), quite the fashion. [Fr.,--L. _rabies_--_rab[)e]re_, to rave.] RAGG, rag, _n._ (_geol._)=_Ragstone_. See under RAG (1). RAGGED, rag'ed, _adj._ torn or worn into rags: having a rough edge: ruggedly uneven, jagged: wearing ragged clothes: shabby.--_adv._ RAGG'EDLY.--_ns._ RAGG'EDNESS; RAGG'ED-ROB'IN, the cuckoo flower; RAGG'ED-SAIL'OR, the prince's feather-plant; RAGG'ED-SCHOOL, a school for the destitute; RAGG'ED-STAFF (_her._), a knotted stick with short stumps of branches on each side. [Cf. _Rag_.] RAGGEE, rag'[=e], _n._ a species of millet, grown in Southern India. [Hind.] RAGGLE, rag'l, _v.t._ to notch irregularly.--_n._ a ragged piece. [Freq. of _rag_.] RAGLAN, rag'lan, _n._ a loose, wide-sleeved overcoat. [From Lord _Raglan_ (1788-1855), commander of the English forces in the Crimea.] RAGMAN-ROLL, rag'man-r[=o]l, _n._ a parchment roll with pendent seals, any important document, esp. the collection of instruments by which the Scotch nobles subscribed allegiance to Edward I. of England, 1291-2-6, and at the parliament of Berwick: a vague story (cf. _Rigmarole_). [Prob. Ice. _ragmenni_, a craven--_ragr_, cowardly (A.S. _earg_), _madhr_, man.] RAGNARÖK, rag'na-r[=oo]k', _n._ the end of the world when the gods (Odin, Thor, &c.) shall be overcome by their enemies and the world burnt up. [Ice. _ragna rökr_, twilight of the gods--_rögn_, _régin_, the gods, _rökr_, darkness; but orig. _ragna rök_, the history of the gods--_rök_, reason, judgment.] RAGOUT, ra-g[=oo]', _n._ a stew of meat with kitchen herbs, the French equivalent of Irish stew: any spicy mixture or combination, even of persons. [Fr.,--_ragoûter_, to restore the appetite--L. _re_, again, Fr. _à_ (=_ad_), to, _goût_--L. _gustus_, taste.] RAGULY, rag'[=u]-li, _adj._ (_her._) ragged or notched at the edges.--Also RAG'ULED. RAGWORT, rag'wurt, _n._ any one of several herbs of genus _Senecio_: a large coarse weed with a yellow flower.--GOLDEN RAGWORT, a North American plant; WOOLLY RAGWORT, a plant from one to three feet high, found in the United States, and covered with hoary wool. [_Rag_, and A.S. _wyrt_, a plant.] RAHU, rä'h[=oo], _n._ in Hindu mythology, the demon who causes eclipses of sun and moon. RAIBLE, r[=a]'bl, _v.t._ and _v.i._ a Scotch form of _rabble_. RAID, r[=a]d, _n._ a hostile or predatory invasion: a sudden onset: an irruption, as if for assault or seizure.--_v.t._ to make a sudden attack.--_n._ RAID'ER, one who makes a raid.--RAID THE MARKET, to derange prices by a panic. [A.S. _rád_, a riding; Ice. _reidh_.] RAIL, r[=a]l, _n._ a bar of timber or metal extending from one support to another, as in fences, staircases, &c.: one of those steel bars used on the permanent way of a railway, generally of that form known as the T-rail: a barrier: the railway as a means of travel or transport: (_archit._) the horizontal part of a frame and panel: (_naut._) the forecastle-rail, poop-rail, and top-rail are bars across the forecastle, &c.--_v.t._ to enclose with rails: to furnish with rails.--_ns._ RAIL'-BEND'ER, a screw-press for straightening rails; RAIL'-BOR'ER, a hand-drill for rails; RAIL'-CHAIR, an iron block by which the rails are secured to the sleepers; RAIL'-CLAMP, a wedge for clamping a rail firmly; RAIL'-COUP'LING, a bar by which the opposite rails of a railway are connected at curves, switches, &c.; RAIL'-GUARD, a guard-rail before a front wheel; RAIL'ING, a fence of posts and rails: material for rails; RAIL'-PUNCH, a machine for punching holes in the webs of rails; RAIL'ROAD, RAIL'WAY, a road or way laid with iron rails on which carriages run.--_v.t._ RAIL'ROAD (_U.S._), to push forward fast.--_ns._ RAIL'ROADER, one employed about a railway; RAIL'ROAD-WORM, the apple maggot; RAIL'-SAW, a portable machine for sawing off metal rails; RAIL'-SPLIT'TER (_U.S._), one who splits logs into rails for a fence; RAIL'WAY-CAR, a vehicle for the transportation of passengers and goods; RAIL'WAY-CARR'IAGE, a carriage for the conveyance of passengers; RAIL'WAY-CROSS'ING, an intersection of railway-lines: an intersection of an ordinary road with a railroad; RAIL'WAY-SLIDE, a turn-table; RAIL'WAY-STITCH, a loose and rapid stitch in knitting or crochet-work; RAIL'WAY-TRAIN (see TRAIN).--RAILWAY COMPANY, a stock company formed for the construction and working of a railway, usually organised by a legislative enactment.--ELEVATED RAILWAY, an elevated bridge-like structure used for railway purposes, to avoid obstruction of surface roadways; MILITARY RAILWAY, a railway equipped for military service, the locomotives being armoured, and the carriages armour-plated and provided with portholes for rifles; PORTABLE RAILWAY, a light railway made in detachable sections, and so suited for carrying easily from place to place. [Low Ger. _regel_, prob. through O. Fr. _reille_; cf. Ger. _riegel_, a bar. Some refer to L. _regula_ through O. Fr. _reille_.] RAIL, r[=a]l, _v.i._ to brawl: to use insolent language.--_v.t._ to scoff at, affect by railing.--_n._ RAIL'ER, one who rails: one who insults or defames by opprobrious language.--_adj._ RAIL'ING, reproachful, insulting.--_n._ reproachful and insulting language.--_adv._ RAIL'INGLY, in a railing manner: scoffingly: insultingly.--_n._ RAILLERY (r[=a]l'[.e]r-i, or ral'-), railing or mockery: banter: good-humoured irony. [Fr. _railler_--L. _rallum_, a hoe--_rad[)e]re_, to scrape.] RAIL, r[=a]l, _n._ a genus of wading-birds with a harsh cry.--_n._ RAIL'-BIRD, the Carolina rail.--GOLDEN RAIL, a rail snipe. [O. Fr. _rasle_ (Fr. _râle_)--Old Dut. _ratelen_, to rattle.] RAIL, r[=a]l, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to flow or pour down. RAIL, r[=a]l, _n._ a robe--now only in _Night-rail_. RAIMENT, r[=a]'ment, _n._ that in which one is dressed: clothing in general. [For _arraiment_. Cf. _Array_.] RAIN, r[=a]n, _n._ water from the clouds in drops: a shower: a fall of any substance through the atmosphere in the manner of rain.--_v.i._ to fall from the clouds: to drop like rain.--_v.t._ to pour like rain.--_ns._ RAIN'BAND, a dark band in the solar spectrum; RAIN'-BIRD, a bird, like the RAIN'-CROW, supposed to foretell rain by its cries and actions; RAIN'BOW, the brilliant-coloured bow or arch seen when rain is falling opposite the sun, called _lunar rainbow_ when formed by the moon; RAIN'BOW-DART'ER, the soldier-fish.--_adjs._ RAIN'BOWED, formed with, or like, a rainbow; RAIN'BOW-TINT'ED, having tints like those of a rainbow: iridescent.--_ns._ RAIN'BOW-TROUT, a variety of the Californian salmon; RAIN'-CHAM'BER, an attachment to a furnace in which the fumes of any metal are condensed; RAIN'-CHART, -MAP, a chart giving information as to the distribution of rain in any part of the world; RAIN'-CLOUD, a cloud in meteorology called nimbus; RAIN'DROP, a drop of rain; RAIN'FALL, a fall of rain: the amount of water that falls in a given time in the form of rain; RAIN'-GAUGE, an instrument for measuring the quantity of rain that falls; RAIN'INESS, the state of being rainy.--_adj._ RAIN'LESS, without rain.--_ns._ RAIN'-MAK'ER, -DOC'TOR, a sorcerer, as those of Africa, professing to bring rain; RAIN'-POUR, a heavy rainfall; RAIN'-PRINT, one of the small pits seen on the surfaces of some argillaceous rocks, and believed to be the impressions of raindrops.--_adjs._ RAIN'-PROOF, -TIGHT, impervious to rain.--_ns._ RAIN'STORM; RAIN'-TREE, the genisaro of South America; RAIN'-WA'TER, water which falls in rain from the clouds.--_adj._ RAIN'Y, abounding with rain: showery.--RAIN CATS AND DOGS (see CAT).--A RAINY DAY (_fig._), a time of need or hardship: future want or need; THE FORMER AND THE LATTER RAIN, Palestine, the rain in spring and in autumn: rain in its season. [A.S. _regn_, _rén_, rain; Dut. and Ger. _regen_, Ice. _regn_.] RAINDEER. Same as REINDEER. RAISE, r[=a]z, _v.t._ to cause to rise: to lift up: to hoist: to set upright: to originate or produce: to bring together: to cause to grow or breed: to produce: to give rise to: to exalt: to increase the strength of: to excite: to collect: muster: (_Scot._) to rouse, inflame: to recall from death: to cause to swell, as dough: to extol: to bring up: to remove, take off, as a blockade: to collect, as to raise a company: to give rise to, as to raise a laugh.--_n._ an ascent, a cairn: (_coll._) an enlargement, increase.--_adj._ RAIS'ABLE, capable of being raised.--_ns._ RAIS'ER, one who, or that which, raises a building, &c.: (_archit._) the upright board on the front of a step in a flight of steps; RAIS'ING, the act of lifting: the embossing of sheet-metal by hammering or stamping: the process of deepening colours in dyeing: that with which bread is raised; RAIS'ING-BEE, a gathering of neighbours to help in raising the frame of a house, &c.; RAIS'ING-BOARD, a ribbed board by which to raise the grain of leather; RAIS'ING-GIG, a machine for raising a nap on cloth; RAIS'ING-PIECE, a piece of timber laid on a brick wall, or on a frame, to carry a beam or beams; RAIS'ING-PLATE, a horizontal timber supporting the heels of rafters.--RAISE A SIEGE, to relinquish a siege, or cause this to be done; RAISE BREAD, to make it light, as by yeast or leaven; RAISE CAIN, THE DEVIL, HELL, THE MISCHIEF, &c., to create confusion or riot; RAISED BEACH (_geol._), a terrace of gravel, &c., marking the margin of an ancient sea; RAISED EMBROIDERY, that in which the pattern is raised in relief from the ground; RAISED WORK, in lace-making, work having the edge or some other part of the pattern raised in relief; RAISE MONEY ON, to get money by pawning something; RAISE ONE'S DANDER (see DANDER); RAISE THE MARKET UPON (_coll._), to charge more than the regular price; RAISE THE WIND, to obtain money by any shift. [M. E. _reisen_--Ice. _reisa_, causal of _rísa_, to rise. Cf. _Rise_.] RAISIN, r[=a]'zn, _n._ a dried ripe grape.--RAISIN WINE, wine made from dried grapes. [Fr.,--L. _racemus_, a bunch of grapes.] RAISON D'ÊTRE, r[=a]-zong' d[=a]'tr, _n._ reason or excuse for being: rational ground for existence.--_adj._ RAISONNÉ (r[=a]-zo-n[=a]'), reasoned out, systematic, as in 'catalogue raisonné.' [Fr. _raison_, reason, _de_, of, _être_, to be.] RAJAH, RAJA, rä'ja, _n._ a native prince or king in Hindustan.--_ns._ RAJ (räj), rule; RA'JAHSHIP, the dignity or principality of a rajah; RAJPOOT, RAJPUT (räj-poot'), a member of various tribes in India, descended either from the old royal races of the Hindus or from the warrior caste. [Sans. _r[=a]jan_, a king, cog. with L. _rex_; Sans. _putra_, a son.] RAKE, r[=a]k, _n._ an instrument with teeth or pins for smoothing earth, &c.: any tool consisting of a flat blade at right angles to a long handle.--_v.t._ to scrape with something toothed: to draw together: to gather with difficulty: to level with a rake: to search diligently: to pass over violently and swiftly: (_naut._) to fire into, as a ship, lengthwise: to inter or hide, as by raking earth over a body.--_v.i._ to work with a rake: to search minutely.--_ns._ R[=A]'KER; R[=A]'KING, the act or operation of using a rake: the space raked at once: the quantity collected at once with a rake: sharp criticism.--_adj._ such as to rake, as a raking fire.--RAKE HELL, to search even hell to find a person equally bad; RAKE UP, to cover with material raked or scraped together: to draw from oblivion, to revive. [A.S. _raca_, a rake; Ger. _rechen_, Ice. _reka_, a shovel.] RAKE, r[=a]k, _n._ [Contr. of _rakehell_.] RAKE, r[=a]k, _n._ (_naut._) the projection of the stem and stern of a ship beyond the extremities of the keel: the inclination of a mast from the perpendicular.--_v.i._ to incline from the perpendicular or the horizontal.--_v.t._ to cause to incline or slope.--_adj._ R[=A]'KISH, having a rake or inclination of the masts.--_adv._ R[=A]'KISHLY. [Scand., Sw. _raka_, to reach.] RAKE, r[=a]k, _n._ a dissolute person: a libertine.--_v.i._ to lead a debauched life, esp. to make a practice of lechery.--_n._ RAKE'HELL, a rascal or villain: a debauchee.--_adjs._ RAKE'HELL, -Y, dissolute.--_ns._ RAKEHELL[=O]'NIAN, a rakehell; R[=A]'KERY, dissoluteness; RAKE'SHAME (_Milt._), a base, dissolute wretch.--_adj._ R[=A]'KISH, like a rake: dissolute: debauched.--_adv._ R[=A]'KISHLY.--_n._ R[=A]'KISHNESS, dissoluteness: the state of being rakish or dissolute: dissolute practices. [Corr. of M. E. _rakel_, corr. into _rakehell_, shortened to _rake_; Scand., as Sw. _rakkel_, a vagabond, Ice. _reikall_, unsettled--_reika_, to wander.] RAKE, r[=a]k, _v.i._ (_prov._) to wander, to take a course, proceed: (_hunting_) of a hawk, to fly wide of the game: of a dog, to follow a wrong course.--RAKE ABOUT (_Scot._), to gad or wander about. [M. E. _raken_--A.S. _racian_, to run; confused with M. E. _raiken_--Ice. _reika_, to wander.] RAKI, rak'[=e], _n._ a spirituous liquor used in the Levant and Greece.--Also RAK'EE. [Turk.] RAKSHAS, -A, rak'shas, -ä, _n._ in Hindu mythology, one of a class of evil spirits or genii, generally hideous, frequenting cemeteries. RÂLE, räl, _n._ (_path._) an abnormal sound heard on auscultation of the lungs. [Fr.,--_râler_, to rattle--Low Ger. _ratelen_, to rattle.] RALLENTANDO, ral-len-tan'd[=o], _adj._ (_mus._) becoming slower.--Also RALLENTA'TO, and abbrev. RALL. [It., _rallentare_, to slacken.] RALLIER, ral'i-[.e]r, _n._ one who rallies. RALLUS, ral'us, _n._ a genus containing the true rails, water-rails, and marsh-hens.--_adjs._ RALL'IFORM; RALL'INE. [_Rail._] RALLY, ral'i, _v.t._ to gather again: to collect and arrange, as troops in confusion: to recover.--_v.i._ to reassemble, esp. after confusion: to recover wasted strength:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ rallied (ral'id).--_n._ act of rallying: a mêlée of pantomimists, as at the end of a transformation scene: recovery of order: recovery of prices: the return of the ball in tennis, playing frequently from one side to the other.--_n._ RALL'YING-POINT, a place or person at or about whom people come together for action. [O. Fr. _rallier_--L. _re-_, again, _ad_, to, _lig[=a]re_, to bind. Cf. _Ally_.] RALLY, ral'i, _v.t._ to attack with raillery: to banter.--_v.i._ to exercise raillery:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ rall'ied.--_n._ satirical merriment.--_adv._ RALL'YINGLY. [Fr. _railler_. A variant of _rail_ (v.i.).] RALPH, ralf, _n._ (_slang_) the imp of mischief in a printing-house: a raven. RAM, ram, _n._ a male sheep, a tup: (_astron._) Aries (q.v.), one of the signs of the zodiac: an engine of war for battering, with a head like that of a ram: a hydraulic engine, called water-ram: a ship-of-war armed with a heavy iron beak for running down a hostile vessel.--_v.t._ to thrust with violence, as a ram with its head: to force together: to drive hard down:--_pr.p._ ram'ming; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ rammed.--_n._ RAM'-HEAD, an iron lever for raising great stones: a cuckold. [A.S. _ram_, _rom_; Ger. _ramm_.] RAM, ram, _adj._ strong-scented: (used as a prefix) very.--_n._ RAM'-CAT, a tom-cat.--_adj._ RAM'MISH, strong-scented: lewd.--_n._ RAM'MISHNESS.--_adj._ RAM'MY. [Ice. _ramr_, strong, as Ice. _ramliga_, strongly.] RAMADAN, RAMADHAN, ram-a-dan', _n._ the ninth month of the Mohammedan year, throughout which the faithful are required to fast from dawn to sunset--prop. RAMAZAN'. [Ar.,--_ramed_, to be hot.] RAMAL. See RAMUS. RAMAYANA, rä-mä'ya-nä, _n._ one of the two great epic poems of ancient India--the history of _Rama_. RAMBADE, ram'b[=a]d, _n._ the elevated platform built across the prow of a vessel for boarding. [Fr.] RAMBLE, ram'bl, _v.i._ to go from place to place without object: to visit many places: to be desultory, as in discourse.--_n._ a roving about: an irregular excursion: a place in which to ramble.--_n._ RAM'BLER.--_adj._ RAM'BLING, moving about irregularly: desultory.--_adv._ RAM'BLINGLY, in a rambling manner. [Freq. of M. E. _ramen_, to roam.] RAMBUSTIOUS, ram-bus'tyus, _adj._ (_slang_) boisterous. RAMBUTAN, ram-b[=oo]'tan, _n._ the edible fruit of a lofty Malaysian tree (_Nephelium lappaceum_).--Also RAMB[=OO]'TAN, RAMBOST'AN. [Malay.] RAMÉ, ra-m[=a]', _adj._ (_her._) attired. [O. Fr., 'branched.'] RAMEAL, r[=a]'m[=e]-al, _adj._; RAMIFY, &c. See under RAMUS. RAMED, ramd, _adj._ framed on the stocks, and adjusted by the RAM'-LINE, a small rope or line used for setting the frames fair, helping to form the sheer of the ship, &c. [Fr. _rame_, a branch--L. _ramus_.] RAMEKIN, ram'e-kin, _n._ toasted cheese and bread. [Fr. _ramequin_--Old Flem. _rammeken_.] RAMENT, r[=a]-ment', _n._ (_bot._) a bristle-shaped leaflet in the angle of a petiole:--_pl._ R[=A]MEN'TA, loose foliaceous scales on plants, esp. on the petioles and leaves of ferns.--_adj._ R[=A]MENT[=A]'CEOUS (_bot._), covered with ramenta. [L. _ramenta_, scrapings, pl. of _ramentum_--_rad[)e]re_, to scrape.] RAMFEEZLE, ram-f[=e]'zl, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to weary out. RAMGUNSHOCK, ram-gun'shok, _adj._ (_Scot._) rough. RAMICORN, r[=a]'mi-korn, _n._ the horny sheath of the side of the lower mandible in birds.--_adj._ possessing ramified antennæ. [L. _ramus_, branch, _cornu_, horn.] RAMIE, RAMEE, ram'[=e], _n._ China-grass, _Boehmeria nivea_, or its fibre, long used in the East for ropes and cordage, and for cloth in China and Japan.--Also _Rhea_ and _China-grass_. [Malay.] RAMIFY, RAMIFICATION, &c. See under RAMUS. RAMILIE, ram'il-[=e], _n._ a name applied to various 18th-cent. articles or fashions of dress, in honour of Marlborough's victory over the French at _Ramillies_ in Belgium in 1706--esp. to a form of cocked hat, and to a wig with a long plaited tail. RAMISM, r[=a]'mizm, _n._ the system of logic of Peter _Ramus_ (1515-72). RAM-LINE, ram'-l[=i]n. See under RAMED. RAMMEL, ram'el, _n._ refuse wood.--_v.i._ to turn to rubbish. [Through Fr. and Low L. forms from L. _ramus_, a branch.] RAMMER, ram'[.e]r, _n._ one who, or that which, rams or drives: an instrument used by founders and pavers for ramming, also by gunners. RAMOLLESCENCE, ram-o-les'ens, _n._ softening, mollifying.--_n._ RAMOLLISSE'MENT, a morbid softening of some organ or tissue of the body. RAMOON, ra-m[=oo]n', _n._ a West Indian mulberry. [Sp.,--L. _ramus_, a branch.] RAMOSE, r[=a]'m[=o]s, _adj._ branching, much-branched: (_bot._) branched as a stem or root.--_adv._ R[=A]'MOSELY.--_adj._ R[=A]'MOUS, branched, branchy. RAMP, ramp, _v.i._ to climb or creep up, as a plant: to leap or bound: to adapt a piece of iron to the woodwork of a gate.--_n._ a leap or bound: a gradual slope or inclined plane between one level and another: a concave bend at the top or cap of a railing, wall, or coping: a romp.--_adj._ RAMP[=A]'CIOUS=_Rampageous_ (q.v.).--_ns._ RAMP[=A]'DGEON, a furious fellow; RAM'P[=A]GE, or RAMP[=A]GE', a state of passion or excitement.--_v.i._ to storm or prance violently.--_adj._ RAMP[=A]'GEOUS, unruly: boisterous: glaring.--_ns._ RAMP[=A]'GEOUSNESS; RAMPALL'IAN (_Shak._), a mean wretch; RAMP'ER, a ruffian who infests race-courses; RAMPS'MAN (_slang_), a highway robber. [Fr. _ramper_, to creep, to clamber; from the Teut.; cf. Low Ger. _rappen_, to snatch, Ger. _raffen_.] [Illustration] RAMPANT, ramp'ant, _adj._ overgrowing usual bounds: rank in growth: overleaping restraint: (_her._) standing on the hind-legs.--_n._ RAMP'ANCY, state of being rampant.--_adv._ RAMP'ANTLY.--RAMPANT ARCH, an arch whose abutments are not on the same level. RAMPART, ram'part, _n._ that which defends from assault or danger: (_fort._) a mound or wall surrounding a fortified place.--_v.t._ to fortify with ramparts, to strengthen. [O. Fr. _rempart_ (orig. _rempar_)--_remparer_, to defend--_re_, again, _em_, to (=_en_), in, _parer_, to defend--L. _par[=a]re_, to prepare.] RAMPICK, ram'pik, _n._ any dead tree--also RAM'PIKE.--_adj._ RAM'PICKED. [Prob. _ran_, as in _roan_-tree, _rantle_-tree, and _pick_ or _pike_.] RAMPION, ram'pi-on, _n._ a perennial plant with esculent root. [Prob. through It. and Low L. forms from L. _rapum_, _rapa_, a turnip.] RAMPIRE, ram'p[=i]r, _n._=_Rampart_.--_adj._ RAM'PIRED. RAMPLER, ramp'l[.e]r, _n._ (_Scot._) a roving fellow. RAMROD, ram'rod, _n._ a rod used in ramming down the charge in a gun.--_n._ RAM'ROD-BAY'ONET.--_adj._ RAM'RODDY, stiff like a ramrod. RAMSHACKLE, ram'shak'l, _adj._ tumble-down: ill-made: out of repair--also RAM'SHACKLED.--_n._ (_Scot._) a careless fellow.--_adj._ RAM'SHACKLY. [Ice. _ramskakkr_, quite wrong--_ramr_, strong, very, _skakkr_, wry, unequal.] RAMSHACKLE, ram'shak'l, _v.t._=_Ransack_. RAMSHORN, ramz'horn, _n._ a semicircular work of low profile in the ditch of a fortified place: an ammonite: a fossil cephalopod. RAMSKIN, ram'skin, _n._ a cake made of dough mixed with grated cheese. [Prob. _Ramekin_.] RAMSONS, ram'zonz, _n.pl._ broad-leaved garlic. [A.S. _hramsan_ (pl.), with pl. _-s_ added.] RAMSTAM, ram'stam, _adj._ reckless: (_Scot._) forward.--_adv._ headlong.--_n._ a headstrong, giddy person. [_Ram_, intens. pfx., _stam_, a form of _stamp_.] RAMUS, r[=a]'mus, _n._ a small spray or twig.--_adjs._ R[=A]'MAL, R[=A]'MEAL, pertaining to a branch; R[=A]'M[=E]OUS (_bot._), belonging to, or growing on, a branch.--_n._ RAMIFIC[=A]'TION, division or separation into branches: a branch: a division or subdivision: (_bot._) manner of producing branches.--_adjs._ RAM'IFIED, branched; RAMIFL[=O]'ROUS, flowering on the branches; R[=A]'MIFORM (_bot._), resembling a branch.--_v.t._ RAM'IFY, to make or divide into branches.--_v.i._ to shoot into branches: to be divided or spread out:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ ram'if[=i]ed.--_adj._ RAMIP'AROUS, producing branches.--_ns._ RAM'ULE, RAM'ULUS, a small branch or artery.--_adjs._ RAM[=U]LIF'EROUS, RAM'[=U]LOSE, RAM'[=U]LOUS, having small branches.--_n._ RAMUS'C[=U]LE, a branchlet. [L. _ramus_, a branch.] RAN, _pa.t._ of _run_. RANA, r[=a]'na, _n._ the genus of the frogs.--_n._ RAN[=A]'RIUM, a place where frogs are reared. [L., 'a frog.'] RANA, rä'nä, _n._ prince or chief in Rajputana. [Hind.] RANCE, rans, _n._ a prop, as for the support of a congreve-rocket. [O. Fr. _ranche_--L. _ramex_, _-icis_, a staff--_ramus_, a branch.] RANCH, ranch, _n._ a stock farm in the west part of the United States.--_v.i._ to manage or work upon a ranch--also RANCHE, RANCH'O.--_ns._ RANCH'ER, RANCHERO (ran-ch[=a]'r[=o]), RANCH'MAN, one employed in ranching; RANCHERIA (ran-ch[=a]-r[=e]'a), a herdsman's hut: a village of herdsmen: a settlement of Indians; RANCH'ING, the business of cattle-breeding. [Sp. _rancho_, prop. 'mess' or 'mess-room;' in Mexico, a herdsman's hut, a grazing-farm.] RANCH, ransh, _v.t._ (_Dryden_) to tear, wound. [_Wrench_.] RANCID, ran'sid, _adj._ partially decomposed (used of oil or any greasy substance): sour: disgusting.--_adj._ RANCES'CENT, becoming rancid.--_adv._ RAN'CIDLY.--_ns._ RAN'CIDNESS, RANCID'ITY, the quality of being rancid. [L. _rancidus_, putrid.] RANCOUR, rang'kur, _n._ deep-seated enmity: spite: virulence: (_Shak._) sourness.--_adjs._ (_obs._) RANCK=_Rank_; RAN'COROUS, malicious: virulent.--_adv._ RAN'COROUSLY. [Fr.,--L. _rancor_, an old grudge--_rancere_, to be rancid.] RAND, rand, _n._ a strip of flesh or of leather: one of the slips beneath the heel of the shoe, called the _heel-rand_: a margin, border, edge, of a stream: a territory, as the Rand in the Transvaal.--_ns._ RAND'ING-MACHINE', a machine for fitting rands to heel-blanks; RAND'ING-TOOL, a tool for cutting out rands for shoes. [A.S. _rand_, _rond_, border.] RAND, rand, _v.i._ an old form of _rant_. RANDALL-GRASS, ran'dal-gras, _n._ the meadow fescue. RANDAN, ran'dan, _n._ a noise or uproar: a spree--in phrase, 'On the randan:' the finest part of the bran of wheat: a boat impelled by three oarsmen--also RANDAN GIG. [Prob. from _rand_, a variant of _rant_.] RANDLE-BAR, ran'dl-bar, _n._ the horizontal bar in an open chimney on which cooking-vessels are hung.--Also RAN'DLE-BALK. RANDLE-TREE. See RANTLE-TREE. RANDOM, ran'dum, _adj._ done or uttered at haphazard: left to chance: aimless--(_obs._) RAN'DON.--_n._ something done without aim, chance--now only in phrase, AT RANDOM, haphazard.--_adv._ RAN'DOMLY, without direction: by chance. [O. Fr. _randon_, urgency, haste; from Teut.; Ger. _rand_, a brim.] RANDY, ran'di, _n._ a virago: (_Scot._) a romping girl: a violent beggar. [_Rand_, _rant_.] RANEE. See RANI. RANG, rang, _pa.t._ of _ring_. RANGE, r[=a]nj, _v.t._ to rank or set in a row: to place in proper order: to rove or pass over: to sail in a direction parallel to.--_v.i._ to be placed in order: to lie in a particular direction: to have range or direction: to rove at large: to beat about, as for game: to sail or pass near: to be on a level: to extend.--_n._ a row or rank: a class or order: a wandering: room for passing to and fro: space occupied by anything moving: capacity of mind: extent of acquirements: the horizontal distance to which a shot is carried: a space through which a body moves, as the range of a thermometer: the long cooking-stove of a kitchen: a fire-grate.--_adj._ RANGÉ (_her._), arranged in order, said of small bearings set in a row fessewise.--_n._ RANGE'-FIND'ER, an instrument for determining the range of an object by sight.--_n.pl._ RANGE'-LIGHTS, lights placed in line, usually at or near a lighthouse, so as to direct the course of a ship through a channel: lights on board ship so placed as to give a ready indication of changes of course to other vessels.--_n._ RANG'ER, a rover: a dog that beats the ground: an officer who superintends a forest or park.--_n.pl._ RANG'ERS, a body of mounted troops: a name sometimes taken by clubs of football players, &c.--_ns._ RANG'ERSHIP; RANGE'-STOVE, a portable cooking-range.--_adj._ RAN'GY, disposed to roam: roomy. [Fr. _ranger_, to range--_rang_, a rank.] RANGIA, ran'ji-a, _n._ a family of bivalves. [From _Rang_, a French conchologist.] RANGIFER, ran'ji-fer, _n._ a genus of _Cervidæ_, to which the reindeer belongs.--_adjs._ RAN'GERINE, RANGIF'ERINE. [O. Fr. _rangier_, a reindeer, most prob. the Ice. _hreinn_, reindeer, L. _fera_, a wild beast.] RANI, RANEE, ran'[=e], _n._ the wife of a rajah. [Hind. _r[=a]n[=i]_--Sans. _r[=a]jñi_, queen, fem. of _r[=a]jan_.] RANIDÆ, ran'i-d[=e], _n.pl._ the largest family of batrachians, including about 250 species, of several genera.--_adjs._ RAN'IFORM, frog-like; R[=A]'NINE, pertaining to frogs; R[=A]NIV'OROUS, frog-eating. [L. _rana_, a frog.] RANK, rangk, _n._ a row or line, esp. of soldiers standing side by side: class or order: grade or degree: station: high social position or standing.--_v.t._ to place in a line: to range in a particular class: to place methodically: to take rank over.--_v.i._ to be placed in a rank or class: to have a certain degree of distinction: to be admitted as a claim against the property of a bankrupt.--_n._ RANK'ER, one who arranges or disposes in ranks: an officer who has risen from the ranks.--RANK AND FILE, the whole body of common soldiers.--TAKE RANK OF, to have the right to take a higher place than; TAKE RANK WITH, to take the same rank as; THE RANKS, the order of common soldiers. [O. Fr. _renc_ (Fr. _rang_)--Old High Ger. _hring_ or _hrinc_, Eng. _ring_.] RANK, rangk, _adj._ growing high and luxuriantly: coarse from excessive growth: raised to a high degree: excessive: very fertile: strong-scented: strong-tasted: rancid: utter, as rank nonsense: coarse: indecent: (_Shak._) ruttish: (_slang_) eager: (_law_) excessive: (_mech._) cutting deeply.--_adv._ (_Spens._) rankly, fiercely.--_v.i._ RANK'LE, to be inflamed: to fester: to be a source of disquietude or excitement: to rage.--_v.t._ to irritate.--_adv._ RANK'LY, offensively: to an inordinate degree.--_n._ RANK'NESS, exuberant growth: (_Shak._) insolence.--_adjs._ RANK'-R[=I]'DING, hard-riding; RANK'-SCENT'ED (_Shak._), strong-scented: rancid. [A.S. _ranc_, fruitful, rank; Ice. _rakkr_, bold, Dan. _rank_, lank, slender.] RANSACK, ran'sak, _v.t._ to search thoroughly: to plunder: to pillage.--_n._ eager search.--_n._ RAN'SACKER. [Scand. _rannsaka_--_rann_, a house, _sak_ (_sækja_), Eng. _seek_.] RANSOM, ran'sum, _n._ price paid for redemption from captivity or punishment: release from captivity: atonement: expiation.--_v.t._ to redeem from captivity, punishment, or ownership: (_Shak._) to set free for a price: (_Shak._) to expiate.--_adj._ RAN'SOMABLE.--_n._ RAN'SOMER.--_adj._ RAN'SOMLESS, without ransom: incapable of being ransomed. [Fr. _rançon_--L. _redemptio_; cf. _Redemption_.] RANT, rant, _v.i._ to use extravagant language: to be noisy in words: to be noisily merry.--_n._ empty declamation: bombast: (_Scot._) a frolic.--_ns._ RANT'ER, a noisy talker: a jovial fellow: a boisterous preacher: a byname for the Primitive Methodists: a nickname applied to the members of a sect of the Commonwealth time; RANT'ERISM.--_adv._ RANT'INGLY, boisterously.--_adj._ RANT'IPOLE, wild.--_n._ a reckless fellow. [Old Dut. _ranten_, to rave; Low Ger. _randen_, Ger. _ranzen_.] RANTLE-TREE, ran'tl-tr[=e], _n._ (_Scot._) a beam built into the gable of a cottage. RANULA, ran'[=u]-la, _n._ a tumour on the tongue of cattle.--_adj._ RAN'[=U]LAR. [L.] RANUNCULUS, r[=a]-nung'k[=u]-lus, _n._ a genus of plants, including the crowfoot, buttercup, &c.:--_pl._ R[=A]NUN'CUL[=I], R[=A]NUN'CULUSES.--_adj._ R[=A]NUNCUL[=A]'CEOUS, pertaining to, or resembling, plants of the order of which the ranunculus is the typical genus. [L., a dim. of _rana_, a frog.] RANZ-DES-VACHES, rong'-d[=a]-väsh', _n._ a melody of the Swiss, played on the alpenhorn. [Swiss Fr., either 'the lowing of the cows' or 'the line of cows.' _Vaches_, pl. of _vache_--L. _vacca_, a cow; _ranz_, either Swiss dial. _ranz_ (cf. Ger. _ranzen_), or for _rangs_, pl. of rang, a line.] RAP, rap, _n._ a sharp blow: a knock, or a sound made by knocking: a counterfeit coin current in Ireland for a halfpenny in the time of George I.--hence, 'Not worth a rap.'--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to strike with a quick blow: to knock: to utter sharply, as to rap out a lie: to swear falsely:--_pr.p._ rap'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ rapped.--_n._ RAP'PER, one who raps: a door-knocker. [Scand., as Dan. _rap_; imit.] RAP, rap, _v.t._ to seize and carry off: to transport out of one's self: to affect with rapture:--_pr.p._ rap'ping; _pa.p._ rapped or rapt. [Scand., as Ice. _hrapa_, to rush headlong, cog. with Ger. _raffen_, to snatch.] RAPACIOUS, ra-p[=a]'shus, _adj._ seizing by violence: given to plunder: ravenous: greedy of gain.--_n._ RAP[=A]'CES, the beasts and birds of prey.--_adv._ RAP[=A]'CIOUSLY.--_ns._ RAP[=A]'CIOUSNESS, RAPAC'ITY, the quality of being rapacious: ravenousness: extortion. [L. _rapax_, _rapacis_--_rap[)e]re_, _raptum_, to seize and carry off.] RAPE, r[=a]p, _n._ the act of seizing and carrying away by force: carnal knowledge of a woman without her consent.--_adj._ RAPE'FUL, given to violence or lust. [M. E. _rapen_, to haste, a variant of _rappen_, to seize, confused with L. _rap[)e]re_, to snatch.] RAPE, r[=a]p, _n._ a division of the county of Sussex, greater than the hundred. [Ice. _hreppr_, district.] RAPE, r[=a]p, _n._ a plant nearly allied to the turnip, cultivated for its herbage and oil-producing seeds: cole-seed.--_ns._ RAPE'-CAKE, cake made of the refuse, after the oil has been expressed from the rape-seed; RAPE'-OIL, oil obtained from rape-seed; RAPE'-SEED, the seed of the rape, cole-seed. [Through Fr. from L. _rapa_, _rapum_, a turnip; cog. with Gr. _rhapys_.] RAPE, r[=a]p, _n._ the stalk and skin of grapes. RAP-FULL, rap'-fool, _adj._ full of wind--of sails when close-hauled.--_n._ a sail full of wind. RAPHAELESQUE, raf-[=a]-el-esk', _adj._ in the manner of the great Italian painter _Raphael_, Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino (1483-1520).--_ns._ RAPH'[=A]ELISM, the principles of art of Raphael; RAPH'[=A]ELITE, one who follows the principles of Raphael; RAPH'[=A]ELITISM. RAPHANIA, raf-[=a]'ni-a, _n._ ergotism, a disease occurring in two forms, a spasmodic and a gangrenous, due to the use of rye, wheat, rice, &c., in which a poisonous fungus has developed.--_n._ RAPH'ANUS, a genus of _Cruciferæ_, the radish family. RAPHE, r[=a]'f[=e], _n._ (_anat._) a seam-like union of two lateral halves, either a median septum of connective tissue or a longitudinal ridge: the fibro-vascular cord joining the hilum of an anatropous or amphitropous ovule or seed with the chalaza: a line or rib connecting the nodules on a diatom-valve. [Gr. _rhaph[=e]_, a seam.] RAPHIA, r[=a]'fi-a, _n._ a genus of handsome pinnately-leaved palms. [Malagasy.] RAPHIDES, raf'i-d[=e]z, _n.pl._ crystals found in the interior of the cells of plants:--_sing._ R[=A]'PHIS.--_adjs._ R[=A]PHID'IAN, RAPHIDIF'EROUS. [Gr. _rhaphis_, _rhaphidos_, a needle--_rhaptein_, to sew.] RAPHIGRAPH, raf'i-graf, _n._ a kind of typewriter for the blind, pricking characters in paper by needle-points. [Gr. _rhaphis_, a needle, _graphein_, to write.] RAPID, rap'id, _adj._ hurrying along: very swift: speedy.--_n._ that part of a river where the current is most rapid (gen. in _pl._).--_n._ RAPID'ITY, quickness of motion or utterance: swiftness: velocity.--_adv._ RAP'IDLY.--_n._ RAP'IDNESS. [Fr. _rapide_--L. _rapidus_--_rap[)e]re_, to seize.] RAPIDAMENTE, ra-p[=e]-dä-men'te, _adv._ (_mus._) rapidly.--_adv._ RAP'IDO, with rapidity. [It.] RAPIER, r[=a]'pi-[.e]r, _n._ a light, highly tempered, edgeless, thrusting weapon, finely pointed, and about 3 feet in length, long the favourite weapon in duelling.--_n._ R[=A]'PIER-FISH, a swordfish. [Fr. _rapière_, prob. from Sp. _raspadera_--_raspar_, _rapar_, to rasp.] RAPINE, rap'in, _n._ act of seizing and carrying away forcibly: plunder: violence. [Fr.,--L. _rapina_--_rap[)e]re_, to seize.] RAPING, r[=a]'ping, _adj._ (_her._) tearing its prey: (_obs._) transporting, ravishing. RAPLOCH, rap'loh, _n._ and _adj._ (_Scot._) homespun. RAPPAREE, rap-ar-[=e]', _n._ a wild Irish plunderer: a vagabond. [Ir. _rapaire_, a robber.] RAPPEE, ra-p[=e]', _n._ a coarse, strong-flavoured snuff. [Fr. _râpé_, rasped, grated--_râper_, to rasp.] RAPPEL, ra-pel', _n._ the beat of the drum to call soldiers to arms. [Fr.] RAPPER, rap'[.e]r, _n._ one who raps, esp. a spiritualistic medium: a swinging knocker for making signals at the mouth of a shaft: a loud oath or bold lie.--_adj._ RAP'PING (_prov._), remarkably large. RAPPORT, ra-p[=o]r', _n._ accord, as in the French phrase, 'en rapport,' in harmony. [Fr.] RAPPROCHEMENT, ra-pr[=o]sh'mong, _n._ reunion. [Fr.] RAPSCALLION, rap-skal'yun, _n._ a rascal: a wretch. [_Rascallion_.] RAPT, rapt, _adj._ raised to rapture: transported: ravished:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _rap_ (2).--_v.t._ (_obs._) to grasp or carry off.--_n._ RAP'TOR, a ravisher. [_Rap_, to seize, influenced by L. _rap[)e]re_, to snatch.] RAPTORES, rap-t[=o]'r[=e]z, _n.pl._ an order of birds of prey distinguished by a hooked bill and sharp claws, and including the vultures, falcons, and owls--also RAPTAT[=O]'RES.--_adjs._ RAPT[=O]'RIAL, seizing by violence, as a bird of prey; RAPT[=O]'RIOUS. [L. _raptor_, a plunderer--_rap[)e]re_, to seize.] RAPTURE, rap't[=u]r, _n._ a seizing and carrying away: extreme delight: transport: ecstasy.--_adj._ RAP'T[=U]RED.--_n._ RAP'T[=U]RIST (_Spens._), one filled with rapture.--_adj._ RAP'T[=U]ROUS, seizing and carrying away: ecstatic.--_adv._ RAP'T[=U]ROUSLY. RARA AVIS, r[=a]'ra [=a]'vis, _n._ a rare bird: a remarkable person:--_pl._ R[=A]'RÆ [=A]'VES. [L.] RARE, r[=a]r, _adj._ (_comp._ R[=A]'RER; _superl._ R[=A]'REST) thin: not dense, as rarefied atmosphere: sparse: seldom met with: uncommon: excellent: especially good: extraordinary.--_ns._ R[=A]RE'BIT, an erroneous form of _Welsh-rabbit_; RAREFAC'TION, act of rarefying: expansion of aëriform bodies.--_adj._ RAR'EFIABLE, capable of being rarefied.--_v.t._ RAREFY (rar'e-f[=i], or r[=a]'re-f[=i]), to make rare, thin, or less dense: to expand a body.--_v.i._ to become less dense:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ rar'efied.--_adv._ R[=A]RE'LY, seldom: remarkably well.--_ns._ R[=A]RE'NESS, tenuity: scarcity; RARITY (rar'i-ti), state of being rare: thinness: subtilty: something valued for its scarcity: uncommonness. [Fr.,--L. _r[=a]rus_.] RARE, r[=a]r, _adj._ underdone--of meat. [A.S. _hr[=e]r_.] RAREE-SHOW, rar'[=e]-sh[=o], _n._ a show carried about in a box: a peep-show. [A corr. of _rarity-show_.] RARERIPE, r[=a]r'r[=i]p, _adj._ early ripe. [_Rathripe_.] RAS, ras, _n._ the chief vizier in Abyssinia: a headland, cape. [Ar., 'head.'] RASANT, r[=a]'zant, _adj._ (_fort._) sweeping or flanking, applied to fire. [Fr.] RASCAL, ras'kal, _n._ a dishonest fellow: a knave, rogue, scamp.--_adj._ worthless: mean.--_ns._ RAS'CALDOM, the class of rascals; RAS'CALISM, RASCAL'ITY, mean trickery or dishonesty: fraud: villainy: the rabble.--_adj._ RAS'CALLIEST (_Shak._, _superl._ of Rascally).--_n._ RASCALL'ION, a rascal: one of the lowest people: a low, mean wretch.--_adjs._ RAS'CALLY, RAS'CAL-LIKE, mean: vile: base. [Fr. _racaille_, scum of the people, through Low L. forms from L. _rad[)e]re_, _rasum_, to scrape.] RASE, r[=a]z, _v.t._ to scratch or blot out: to efface: to cancel: to level with the ground, demolish, or ruin (in this sense _raze_ is generally used).--_n._ a slight wound.--_ns._ R[=A]'SING, in shipbuilding, the act of marking figures upon timber; R[=A]'SING-[=I]'RON, a caulking-iron for cleaning the pitch, &c., from a vessel's seams; R[=A]'SING-KNIFE, an edged tool for making marks on timber, &c.; R[=A]'SION, a scraping: rasure; R[=A]'SURE, act of scraping, shaving, or erasing: obliterating: an erasure. [Fr. _raser_--L. _rad[)e]re_, _rasum_, to scrape.] RASH, rash, _adj._ (_comp._ RASH'ER; _superl._ RASH'EST) hasty: headstrong: incautious.--_adj._ RASH'-EMBRACED' (_Shak._), rashly undertaken.--_ns._ RASH'ER, a thin slice of broiled bacon, perh. because quickly roasted; RASH'LING, a rash person.--_adv._ RASH'LY, precipitately.--_n._ RASH'NESS. [Dan. and Sw. _rask_; Ger. _rasch_, rapid.] RASH, rash, _n._ a slight eruption on the skin. [O. Fr. _rasche_ (Fr. _rache_)--L. _rad[)e]re_, to scratch.] RASH, rash, _v.t._ (_obs._) to tear, to lacerate. [Fr. _arracher_, to uproot.] RASKOLNIK, ras-kol'nik, _n._ in Russia, a schismatic, a dissenter from the orthodox or Greek Church. RASORIAL, ra-s[=o]'ri-al, _adj._ belonging to an order of birds which scrape the ground for their food, as the hen.--_n.pl._ RAS[=O]'RES, the _Gallinæ_. [_Rase_.] RASP, rasp, _v.t._ to rub with a coarse file: to utter in a grating manner.--_v.i._ to have a grating effect.--_n._ a coarse file.--_ns._ RASP'ATORY, a surgeon's rasp; RASP'ER, that which rasps: (_coll._) a difficult fence; RASP'-HOUSE, a place where wood is reduced to powder for dyeing; RASP'ING, a filing.--_adj._ exasperating.--_adv._ RASP'INGLY.--_ns._ RASP'ING-MACHINE', a bark-cutting machine; RASP'ING-MILL; RASP'-PUNCH, a tool for cutting the teeth of rasps.--_adj._ RASP'Y, rough. [O. Fr. _rasper_ (Fr. _râper_)--Old High Ger. _rasp[=o]n_, whence Ger. _raspeln_, to rasp.] RASPBERRY, raz'ber-i, _n._ the fruit of several plants of genus _Rubus_, the plant producing it--also RASP.--_n._ RASP'BERRY-BUSH, the shrub which yields the raspberry.--RASPBERRY BORER, the larvæ of one of the clear-winged sphinxes; RASPBERRY VINEGAR, a drink of raspberry juice, vinegar, and sugar. RASTRUM, ras'trum, _n._ a music-pen. [_Rase._] RAT, rat, _n._ an animal of the genus _Mus_, larger and more destructive than the mouse: a renegade, turncoat: a workman who accepts lower than the authorised wages, who declines to join in a strike, or who takes a striker's work: a roll of anything used to puff out the hair which is turned over it.--_v.i._ (_coll._) to desert one's party and join their opponents for gain or power: to take lower than current wages, to refuse to join in a strike, to take a striker's place:--_pr.p._ rat'ting; _pa.p._ and _pa.t._ rat'ted.--_ns._ RAT'-CATCH'ER, one whose business it is to catch rats; RAT'-CATCH'ING; RAT'-HOLE (_print._), a pigeon-hole; RAT'-PIT, an enclosure where rats are killed; RAT'-POI'SON, a preparation of arsenic; RAT'S'-BANE, poison for rats: arsenious acid; RAT'-TAIL, an excrescence growing on a horse's leg.--_adj._ RAT'-TAILED, having a tail like a rat.--_ns._ RAT'TER, a terrier which catches rats; RAT'TERY, apostasy; RAT'TING, deserting one's principles: working for less than the usual prices: setting a dog to kill rats in a pit; RAT'-TRAP, a trap for catching rats.--RAT-TAILED LARVA, the larva of certain syrphid flies.--SMELL A RAT, to have a suspicion. [A.S. _ræt_; Ger. _ratte_.] RATA, rä'ta, _n._ a New Zealand tree related to various species of Ironwood, its wood once much used for making clubs, and valuable for shipbuilding. RATABLE, RATEABLE, r[=a]'ta-bl, _adj._ See RATE. RATAFIA, rat-a-f[=e]'a, _n._ a flavouring essence made with the essential oil of almonds: a fancy cake. [Fr.,--Malay _araqtáfía_, from Ar. _`araq_, Malay _táfía_, rum.] RATAN, ra-tan', _n._ Same as RATTAN. RATANY, rat'a-ni, _n._ a perennial procumbent shrub, yielding the medicinal _ratany root_. [Peruv.] RATAPLAN, rat-a-plong', _n._ the sound or rattle of the military drum, a tattoo. [Fr.; imit.] RAT-A-TAT, rat'-a-tat', _n._ sound of repeated knocks, as of a drumstick.--Also RAT'-TAT. [Imit.] RATCH, rach, _n._ a rack or bar with teeth into which a click drops: the wheel which makes a clock strike: a white mark on the face of a horse.--_v.t._ to stretch: to streak.--_v.i._ to sail by tacks.--_ns._ RATCH'ET, a bar acting on the teeth of a ratchet-wheel: a click or pall; RATCH'ET-COUP'LING, a device for uncoupling machinery in the event of a sudden stoppage; RATCH'ET-DRILL, a tool for drilling holes, the bit mounted in a stock and rotated by a ratchet-wheel and lever; RATCH'ET-JACK, a form of screw-jack; RATCH'ET-L[=E]'VER, a lever fitted round a ratchet-wheel; RATCH'ET-PUNCH, a punch worked by means of a ratchet-lever; RATCH'ET-WHEEL, a wheel having teeth against which a ratchet abuts, for changing a reciprocating into a rotatory motion, &c.; RATCH'ET-WRENCH, a ratchet bed-key wrench.--_adj._ RATCH'ETY, jerky.--_n._ RATCH'MENT (_archit._), a flying buttress springing from corner principals. [_Rack._] RATCHEL, rach'el, _n._ (_prov._) broken-stone, hard-pan.--Also RATCH'IL. RATE, r[=a]t, _n._ a ratio or proportion: allowance: standard: value: price: the class of a ship and of seamen: movement, as fast or slow: a tax.--_v.t._ to calculate: to estimate: to settle the relative rank, scale, or position of.--_v.i._ to make an estimate: to be placed in a certain class: to ratify.--_ns._ R[=A]TABIL'ITY, R[=A]'TABLENESS, quality of being ratable.--_adj._ R[=A]'TABLE, R[=A]'TEABLE, that may be rated or set at a certain value: subject to taxation.--_adv._ R[=A]'TABLY.--_ns._ R[=A]TE'-BOOK, a book of valuations; R[=A]TE'PAYER, one who pays a local tax.--_adj._ R[=A]TE'PAYING, paying, or relating to, an assessed local tax.--_ns._ R[=A]'TER, one who makes an estimate; R[=A]TE'-TITHE, a tithe paid for sheep and cattle; R[=A]'TING, a fixing of rates: classification according to rank or grade.--AT ANY RATE, by any means; BY NO RATE, by no means. [O. Fr.,--Low L. _rata_, rate--L. _r[=e]ri_, _ratus_, to think.] RATE, r[=a]t, _v.t._ to tax: to scold: to chide: to reprove. [M. E. _raten_, acc. to Skeat, from O. Fr. _aretter_, to impute--L. _ad_, to, _reput[=a]re_, to count. Others explain as Scand., Sw. _rata_, to reject.] RATEL, r[=a]'tel, _n._ a genus of quadrupeds of the bear family, nearly allied to the gluttons, and very like the badgers. [Fr., dim. of _rat_.] RAT-GOOSE, rat'-g[=oo]s, _n._ the brent or brant goose. RATH, räth, _adj._ early, soon--also RATHE.--_adv._ RATH (_arch._), early, soon.--_adj._ RATH'EREST (_Shak._), _superl._ of RATH.--_adv._ RATH'LY, suddenly.--_adj._ RATH'RIPE, early ripe. [A.S. _hræth_, quickly; Ice. _hradhr_, swift, Mid. High Ger. _hrad_, quick.] RATH, rath, _n._ a prehistoric hill-fort. [Ir.] RATH, rät, _n._ a name given to some Indian rock-cut Buddhist temples. RATH, rät, _n._ a Burmese state-carriage. RATHER, räth'[.e]r, _adv._ more willingly: in preference: especially: more so than otherwise: on the contrary: somewhat, in some degree: more properly: (_coll._) considerably, very much.--_adj._ RATH'ERISH, to a slight degree, somewhat.--RATHER BETTER THAN, somewhat in excess of.--THE RATHER, by so much the more. [A.S. _hrathor_, comp. of _hrathe_, early.] RATIFY, rat'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to approve and sanction: to settle:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ rat'ified.--_ns._ RATIFIC[=A]'TION, act of ratifying or confirming: confirmation; RAT'IFIER, one who, or that which, ratifies or sanctions. [Fr. _ratifier_--L. _ratus_, fixed by calculation--_r[=e]ri_, _ratus_, to think, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] RATIO, r[=a]'shi-o, _n._ the relation or the proportion of one thing to another: reason, cause: (_mus._) the relation between the vibration-numbers of two tones. [L. _ratio_, reason--_r[=e]ri_, _ratus_, to think.] RATIOCINATE, rash-i-os'i-n[=a]t, _v.i._ to reason:--_pr.p._ ratioc'inating; _pa.p._ ratioc'inated.--_n._ RATIOCIN[=A]'TION, the process of reasoning: deduction from premises.--_adjs._ RATIOC'IN[=A]TIVE, RATIOC'IN[=A]TORY. [L. _ratiocin[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_--_ratio_, reason.] RATION, r[=a]'shon, _n._ the quantity of provisions distributed to a soldier or sailor daily: an allowance.--_n._ R[=A]'TION-MON'EY, money paid as commutation for rations. [Fr.,--L. _ratio_.] RATIONAL, rash'on-al, _adj._ pertaining to the reason: endowed with reason: agreeable to reason: sane: intelligent: judicious: (_arith._, _alg._) noting a quantity which can be exactly expressed by numbers.--_n._ RATIONABIL'ITY, the possession of reason.--_adj._ RAT'IONABLE, reasonable.--_ns._ RATION[=A]'LE, a rational account of anything, with reasons for its existence: a theoretical explanation or solution; RATIONALIS[=A]'TION, subjection to rational principles.--_v.t._ RAT'IONALISE, to interpret like a rationalist: to think for one's self.--_v.i._ to rely entirely or unduly on reason.--_ns._ RAT'IONALISM, the religious system or doctrines of a rationalist; RAT'IONALIST, one who believes himself guided in his opinions solely by reason, independently of authority, esp. in regard to religion--denying supernatural revelation.--_adjs._ RATIONALIST'IC, -AL, pertaining to, or in accordance with, the principles of rationalism.--_adv._ RATIONALIST'ICALLY, in a rationalistic manner.--_n._ RATIONAL'ITY, quality of being rational: the possession or due exercise of reason: reasonableness.--_adv._ RAT'IONALLY, reasonably.--_n._ RAT'IONALNESS.--_n.pl._ RAT'IONALS, dress for women convenient for bicycling, &c.--breeches instead of skirts. RATIONAL, rash'on-al, _n._ the breast-plate of the Jewish high-priest: a pectoral worn by a bishop. [L. _rationale_, a mistaken rendering in the Vulgate of the Gr. _logion_, oracle.] RATITÆ, r[=a]-t[=i]'t[=e], _n._ a division of birds, including the ostriches, cassowaries, emus, and kiwis.--_n._ R[=A]'TITE, RAT'ITATE, raft-breasted, as a bird. RATIUNCULE, r[=a]-shi-ung'k[=u]l, _n._ a ratio very near unity. [Dim. of L. _ratio_.] [Illustration] RATLINE, RATLIN, rat'lin, _n._ one of the small lines or ropes traversing the shrouds and forming the steps of the rigging of ships--also RAT'LING, RATT'LING.--_n._ RAT'LINE-STUFF (_naut._), a tarred rope from which ratlines are made. [Prob. _rat-lines_.] RATOON, ra-t[=oo]n', _n._ a new shoot from the root of a sugar-cane.--_v.i._ to send up new shoots from the root after cropping. [Hind. _ratun_.] RATTAN, rat-an', _n._ a genus of palms having a smooth, reed-like stem several hundreds of feet in length: a walking-stick made of rattan: stems of rattan palm used as a raft. [Malay _rótan_.] RATTAN, ra-tan', _n._ the continuous beat of a drum. RATTEEN, rat-t[=e]n', _n._ a thick woollen stuff. [Fr.] RATTEN, rat'n, _v.t._ to break or take away a workman's tools, &c., for disobeying the trades-union--the loss being ironically attributed to rats. RATTINET, rat-ti-net', _n._ a thin variety of ratteen. RATTING. See RAT. RATTLE, rat'l, _v.i._ to clatter: to move along rapidly, with a clattering noise: to speak eagerly and noisily.--_v.t._ to cause to make a clatter: to stun with noise: to speak rapidly: to scold loudly.--_n._ a sharp noise rapidly repeated, as the death-rattle: a clatter: loud empty talk: loud scolding: a toy or instrument for rattling: a brisk jabberer: an annual meadow herb: a lousewort.--_adjs._ RATT'LE-BRAINED, -HEAD'ED, -PAT'ED, noisy: giddy: unsteady.--_ns._ RATT'LE-MOUSE, a bat; RATT'LEPATE, a noisy chatterer; RATT'LER, a loud, inconsiderate talker: (_coll._) a stunning blow: (_coll._) an impudent lie; RATT'LESNAKE, a poisonous snake having a number of hard, bony rings loosely jointed at the end of the tail, which make a rattling noise; RATT'LESNAKE-GRASS, an American grass; RATT'LESNAKE-MAS'TER, -ROOT, an American plant reputed to cure the bite of a rattlesnake; RATT'LESNAKE-WEED, a hawk-weed of the United States; RATT'LE-TRAP, a rickety vehicle; RATT'LEWORT, a plant of genus _Crotalaria_; RATT'LING, a clattering: railing.--_adj._ making a rattle: smart, lively: (_coll._) strikingly great. [A.S. _hrætele_, _hratele_, a plant--from the rattling of the seeds in the capsules; Ger. _rasseln_, Dut. _ratelen_, to rattle.] RATTLING, rat'ling, _n._ Same as RATLINE. RAUCITY, raws'i-ti, _n._ hoarseness: harshness of sound.--_adjs._ RAUC'ID, RAUCOUS (raw'kus), hoarse.--_adv._ RAUC'OUSLY. [L. _raucus_, hoarse.] RAUCLE, rawk'l, _adj._ (_Scot._) rough: fearless. RAUGHT, rawt (_Spens._)--(_obs._) _pa.t._ of _reach_. RAVAGE, rav'[=a]j, _v.t._ to lay waste: to destroy: to pillage.--_n._ devastation: ruin.--_n._ RAV'AGER. [Fr.,--_ravir_, to carry off by force--L. _rap[)e]re_.] RAVE, r[=a]v, _v.i._ to be mad: to be wild or raging, like a madman: to talk irrationally.--_v.t._ to utter wildly.--_ns._ R[=A]'VER, one who raves or is furious; R[=A]'VING, furious talk.--_adj._ delirious: distracted.--_adv._ R[=A]'VINGLY, in a raving manner: with frenzy: with distraction. [O. Fr. _râver_ (Fr. _rêver_), to be delirious--L. _rabies_, madness.] RAVE, r[=a]v, _n._ one of the side pieces of a wagon. RAVE, r[=a]v, _old pa.t._ of _rive_. RAVE-HOOK, r[=a]v'-hook, _n._ a ripping-iron. RAVEL, rav'el, _v.t._ to confuse, entangle: to untwist or unweave: to unravel (in this sense usually with _out_).--_v.i._ to be untwisted or unwoven: to become entangled: to search (with _into_):--_pr.p._ rav'elling; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ rav'elled.--_n._ a ravelled thread.--_adj._ RAV'ELLED, denoting bread made from flour and bran.--_ns._ RAV'ELLING, a ravelled thread; RAV'ELLING-EN'GINE, a machine for tearing rags.--_adv._ RAV'ELLY.--_n._ RAV'ELMENT, discord. [Dut. _ravelen_.] RAVELIN, rav'lin, _n._ a detached work with two embankments raised before the counterscarp. [Fr.,--It. _rivellino_.] RAVEN, r[=a]'vn, _n._ a kind of crow, noted for its croak and glossy black plumage.--_adj._ black, like a raven.--_adj._ R[=A]'VEN-COL'OURED (_Shak._).--_ns._ R[=A]'VEN'S-DUCK, fine hempen sail-cloth; R[=A]'VENSTONE, a gallows. [A.S. _hræfn_; Ice. _hrafn_, Dut. _raaf_.] RAVEN, RAVIN (_B._), rav'n, _v.t._ to obtain by violence: to devour with great eagerness or voracity.--_v.i._ to prey rapaciously.--_n._ prey: plunder.--_ns._ RAV'ENER, a plunderer; RAV'ENING (_B._), eagerness for plunder.--_adjs._ RAV'ENOUS, RAV'INED, voracious: devouring with rapacity: eager for prey or gratification.--_adv._ RAV'ENOUSLY.--_n._ RAV'ENOUSNESS. [O. Fr. _ravine_, plunder--L. _rapina_, plunder.] RAVINE, ra-v[=e]n', _n._ a long, deep hollow, worn away by a torrent: a deep, narrow mountain-pass. [Fr.,--L. _rapina_, rapine, violence.] RAVISH, rav'ish, _v.t._ to seize or carry away by violence: to rob: to have sexual intercourse with by force: to fill with ecstasy.--_n._ RAV'ISHER.--_p.adj._ RAV'ISHING, delighting to rapture: transporting: ecstatic.--_adv._ RAV'ISHINGLY, in a ravishing manner: with rapture.--_n._ RAV'ISHMENT, act of ravishing: abduction: rape: ecstatic delight: rapture. [Fr. _ravir_--L. _rap[)e]re_.] RAW, raw, _adj._ not altered from its natural state: not cooked or dressed: unbaked: not prepared or manufactured: not mixed: having the skin abraded: sore, as from abrasion of the skin: unfinished: immature: inexperienced: chilly and damp.--_n._ a galled place: an inveterate sore: hence (_fig._) a point on which one is particularly sensitive.--_adjs._ RAW'BONE (_Spens._), RAW'BONED, with little flesh on the bones: gaunt; RAW'-COLD (_Shak._), damp and cold.--_ns._ RAW'HEAD, a spectre mentioned to frighten children; RAW'HIDE, an untanned skin: a whip made of twisted, untanned leather.--_adj._ RAW'ISH, rather raw.--_adv._ RAW'LY.--_ns._ RAW'NESS; RAW'-PORT, a porthole through which an oar can be worked in a small vessel. [A.S. _hreáw_; Dut. _raauw_, Ice. _hrár_, Ger. _roh_.] RAX, raks, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to reach out, hand. [_Rack._] RAY, r[=a], _n._ array.--_v.t._ to array--hence, ironically, (_Shak._) to bedaub. [_Array._] RAY, r[=a], _n._ a line of light or heat: a beam or gleam of intellectual light: a radiating part of any structure: (_bot._) the outer part of a flower-cluster.--_v.t._ to radiate: to furnish with rays.--_v.i._ to shine out.--_adjs._ RAYED, having rays; RAY'LESS, without rays: destitute of light. [Fr. _raie_--L. _radius_, a rod.] RAY, r[=a], _n._ a popular name for such flat, cartilaginous fishes as the skate, thornback, and torpedo.--_n._ RAY'-OIL, oil prepared from the livers of ray-fish. [Fr. _raie_--L. _raia_.] RAY, r[=a], _n._ the scab--a disease of sheep. RAY, r[=a], _n._ (_mus._) the second note of the diatonic scale. RAYAH, rä'ya, _n._ a non-Mohammedan subject of Turkey who pays the capitation tax. [Ar. _raiya_--_ra`a_, to pasture.] RAYLE, r[=a]l, _v.i._ (_Spens._). Same as RAIL. RAYNE, r[=a]n, _v.i._ and _n._ (_Spens._). Same as RAIN. RAYON, r[=a]'on, _n._ (_Spens._) a ray. [Fr.] RAYONNANT, r[=a]'o-nant, _adj._ (_her._) sending forth rays. [Fr., _pr.p._ of _rayonner_, to emit rays--_rayon_, a ray.] RAZE, r[=a]z, _n._ (_Shak._). Same as RACE (3). RAZE, r[=a]z, _v.t._ to lay level with the ground: to overthrow: to destroy. [_Rase._] RAZE, r[=a]z, _n._ a swinging fence in a water-course to prevent the passage of cattle. RAZEE, ra-z[=e]', _n._ a ship-of-war cut down by reducing the number of decks. [Fr. _rasé_, cut down.] RAZOR, r[=a]'zor, _n._ a keen-edged implement for shaving: a tusk, as the _razors_ of a boar.--_adj_ R[=A]'ZORABLE (_Shak._), fit to be shaved.--_ns._ R[=A]'ZOR-BACK, a kind of baleen whale, also called _Rorqual_, _Fin-back_, or _Finner_: a hog whose back has the form of a ridge; R[=A]'ZOR-BILL, a species of auk, common on the coasts of the northern Atlantic; R[=A]'ZOR-BLADE, -CLAM, -FISH, -SHELL, a bivalve mollusc with an elongated, narrow shell; R[=A]'ZOR-HONE, a hone for sharpening razors; R[=A]'ZOR-PASTE, a paste for spreading on a razor-strop; R[=A]'ZOR-STROP, a strop for razors. [Fr. _rasoir_--L. _rad[)e]re_, _rasum_, to scrape.] RAZURE, r[=a]'zh[=oo]r, _n._ Same as ERASURE. RAZZIA, rat'si-a, _n._ a pillaging incursion--Algerian. RE, r[=a], _n._ (_mus._). Same as RAY. RE, r[=e], _n._ a word used in the legal phrase IN RE, in the case (of). [L., abl. of _res_, thing, case.] REABSORB, r[=e]-ab-sorb', _v.t._ to absorb, suck in, or swallow up again.--_n._ REABSORP'TION. REACCOMMODATE, r[=e]-a-kom'o-d[=a]t, _v.t._ to readjust. REACCUSE, r[=e]-a-k[=u]z', _v.t._ to accuse again. REACH, r[=e]ch, _v.t._ to stretch or extend: to attain or obtain by stretching out the hand: to hand over: to extend to: to arrive at: to get at: to gain.--_v.i._ to be extended: to mount up in quantity or number: to stretch out the hand: to try to obtain: to arrive.--_n._ act or power of reaching: extent of stretch: extent of force: penetration: artifice: contrivance: a straight portion of a stream between bends: (_naut._) the distance traversed between tacks.--_adj_ REACH'ABLE, within reach.--_ns._ REACH'ER, one who reaches; REACH'ING-POST, in rope-making, a post fixed at the lower end of a rope-walk.--_adjs_ REACH'LESS, unattainable; REACH'-ME-DOWN, ready-made.--HEAD REACH, the distance to windward traversed by a vessel while tacking. [A.S. _r['æ]can_; Ger. _reichen_, to reach.] REACQUITE, r[=e]-a-kw[=i]t', _v.t._ to pay back: to requite. REACT, r[=e]-akt', _v.t._ to act anew.--_v.i._ to return an impulse in the opposite direction: to act mutually on each other.--_n._ REAC'TION, action resisting other action: mutual action: backward tendency from revolution, reform, or progress.--_adj_ REAC'TIONARY, for or implying reaction.--_n._ one who attempts to reverse political action.--_n._ REAC'TIONIST.--_adj_ REAC'TIVE.--_adv._ REAC'TIVELY.--_ns._ REAC'TIVENESS, REACTIV'ITY. READ, r[=e]d, _v.t._ to utter aloud written or printed words: to peruse: to comprehend: to study, as to read law, science: to teach: to make out, from signs: to solve, as to read a dream: to interpret: to understand, as reading the stars: to note the indication of, as to read a barometer: impute by inference, as to read a meaning into a book.--_v.i._ to perform the act of reading: to practise much reading: to appear on reading: to advise: to speak: to acquire information: to utter the words of a book: (_mus._) to render music at first sight: to put a certain expression upon it: to be suitable for perusal:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ read (red).--_n._ READ, a reading, perusal: (_Spens._) counsel, a saying, an interpretation.--_adj_ READ (red), versed in books: learned.--_ns._ READABIL'ITY, READ'ABLENESS.--_adj_ READABLE (r[=e]d'a-bl), that may be read: worth reading: interesting: enabling to read.--_adv._ READ'ABLY.--_ns._ READ'ER, one who reads: one whose office it is to read prayers in a church, or lectures in a university, &c.: one who reads or corrects proofs: one who reads much: a reading-book; READ'ERSHIP, the office of a reader.--_adj._ READ'ING, addicted to reading.--_n._ act of reading: perusal: study of books: public or formal recital: the way in which a passage reads: an interpretation of a passage or work: a version: noting an instrument, as the reading of a barometer.--_ns._ READ'ING-BOOK, a book of exercises in reading; READ'ING-BOY (_print._), a reader's assistant; READ'ING-DESK, a desk for holding a book or paper while it is read: a church-lectern; READ'ING-LAMP, a form of lamp for use in reading; READ'ING-ROOM, a room with papers, periodicals, &c., resorted to for reading.--READ BETWEEN THE LINES, to detect a meaning not expressed; READ ONE'S SELF IN, in the Church of England, to read the Thirty-nine Articles and repeat the declaration of assent prescribed by law to a new incumbent.--PENNY READING, an entertainment consisting of readings, &c., to which the admission is a penny. [A.S. _r['æ]dan_, to discern, read--_r['æ]d_, counsel; Ger. _rathen_, to advise.] READDRESS, r[=e]-ad-dres', _v.t._ to address again. READEPTION, r[=e]-a-dep'shun, _n._ (_Bacon_) the act of regaining, recovery.--_v.t._ READEPT'. [L. _re-_, again, _adipisci_, _adeptus_, to obtain.] READJOURN, r[=e]-ad-jurn', _v.t._ to adjourn again.--_n._ READJOURN'MENT. READJUST, r[=e]-ad-just', _v.t._ to adjust or put in order again, or in a new way.--_n._ READJUST'MENT. READMIT, r[=e]-ad-mit', _v.t._ to admit again.--_ns._ READMIS'SION, act of readmitting: state of being readmitted; READMIT'TANCE, admittance or allowance to enter again. READORN, r[=e]-a-dorn', _v.t._ to decorate again. READY, red'i, _adj._ prepared at the moment: in proper time: prepared in mind: willing: not slow or awkward: dexterous: prompt: quick: present in hand: at hand: near: easy: on the point of: opportune: off-hand, as a ready retort.--_n._ a waiter's answer to a call: the position of a soldier's weapon after the order 'Make ready!' (_slang_) ready-money.--_v.t._ to dispose: to arrange.--_adv._ in a state of readiness or preparation.--_adv._ READ'ILY.--_n._ READ'INESS.--_adj._ READ'Y-MADE, made and ready for use: not made to order.--_ns._ READ'Y-MON'EY, cash payment; READ'Y-POLE, a bar across the chimney to support the pot-hook; READ'Y-RECK'ONER, a book of tables giving the value of any number of things from the lowest monetary unit upwards: also the interest on any sum of money from a day upwards.--_adj._ READ'Y-WIT'TED, having ready wit: clever: sharp.--MAKE READY, to prepare. [A.S. _r['æ]de_--_rídan_, to ride; Scot. _red_, to put in order, Ger. _be-reit_, ready.] REAFFIRM, re-af-f[.e]rm', _v.t._ to affirm again.--_n._ REAFFIRM[=A]'TION. REAFFOREST, r[=e]-af-for'est, _v.t._ to convert anew into a forest.--_n._ REAFFOREST[=A]'TION. REAGENT, r[=e]-[=a]'jent, _n._ a substance that reacts on and detects the presence of other bodies: a test: one who exerts reflex influence.--_n._ RE[=A]'GENCY. REAGGRAVATION, r[=e]-ag-rav-[=a]'shun, _n._ the last monitory before the excommunication. REAGREE, r[=e]-a-gr[=e]', _v.i._ to become reconciled. REAK, r[=e]k, _n._ (_obs._) a freak: a prank. REAL, r[=e]'al, _adj._ actually existing: not counterfeit or assumed: true: genuine: sincere: authentic: (_law_) pertaining to things fixed, as lands or houses.--_adj._ R[=E]'ALISABLE, that may be realised.--_n._ REALIS[=A]'TION, act of realising or state of being realised: a realising sense or feeling.--_v.t._ R[=E]'ALISE, to make real: to bring into being or act: to accomplish: to convert into real property or money: to obtain, as a possession: to feel strongly: to comprehend completely: to bring home to one's own experience.--_n._ R[=E]'ALISER, one who realises.--_p.adj._ R[=E]'ALISING, serving to make real or bring home to one as a reality: conversion of property into money.--_ns._ R[=E]'ALISM, the medieval doctrine that general terms stand for real existences--opp. to _Nominalism_: the doctrine that in external perception the objects immediately known are real existences: the tendency in art to accept and to represent things as they really are--opp. to _Idealism_--a method of representation without idealisation, raised by modern French writers into a system, claiming a monopoly of truth in its artistic treatment of the facts of nature and life; R[=E]'ALIST, one who holds the doctrine of realism: one who believes in the existence of the external world.--_adj._ R[=E]ALIST'IC, pertaining to the realists or to realism: life-like.--_adv._ R[=E]ALIST'ICALLY.--_n._ R[=E]AL'ITY, that which is real and not imaginary: truth: verity: (_law_) the fixed, permanent nature of real property.--_adv._ R[=E]'ALLY, in reality: actually: in truth.--_ns._ R[=E]'ALNESS, the condition of being real; R[=E]'ALTY, land, with houses, trees, minerals, &c. thereon: the ownership of, or property in, lands--also REAL ESTATE.--REAL PRESENCE (see PRESENCE); REAL SCHOOL, a modern German preparatory, scientific, or technical school--the highest grade being the REAL GYMNASIUM, or first-class modern school, as opp. to the _gymnasium_ proper, or classical school. [Low L. _realis_--L. _res_, a thing.] REAL, r[=e]-al', _n._ a Spanish coin, 100 of which=£1 sterling. [Sp.,--L. _regalis_, royal.] REALGAR, r[=e]-al'gar, _n._ a native sulphuret of arsenic, a mineral consisting of about 70 parts of arsenic and 30 of sulphur, and of a brilliant red colour. [Fr.,--Ar. _rahj-al-ghar_, 'powder of the mine.'] REALLEGE, r[=e]-al-lej', _v.t._ to allege again. REALLY, r[=e]-a-l[=i]', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to bring together again: to reform.--_v.t._ to arrange again.--_n._ REALL[=I]'ANCE, a renewed alliance. REALM, relm, _n._ a regal or royal jurisdiction: kingdom: province: country: dominion. [O. Fr. _realme_--Low L. _regalimen_--L. _regalis_, royal.] REALTY, r[=e]'al-ti, _n._ fealty: royalty (see also REAL, 1). REAM, r[=e]m, _n._ a quantity of paper consisting of 20 quires of 24 sheets. [O. Fr. _raime_ (Fr. _rame_)--Sp. _resma_--Ar. _rizma_ (pl. _rizam_), a bundle.] REAM, r[=e]m, _v.i._ (_prov._) to cream: to froth.--_n._ REAM'INESS.--_adj._ REAM'Y. REAM, r[=e]m, _v.t._ to stretch: to enlarge by a rotatory cutter.--_ns._ REAM'ER; REAM'ING-BIT. REAME, r[=e]m, _n._ (_Spens._) a realm. REAN, r[=e]n, _n._ a gutter. [_Run._] REANIMATE, r[=e]-an'i-m[=a]t, _v.t._ to restore to life: to infuse new life or spirit into: to revive.--_n._ REANIM[=A]'TION. REANNEX, r[=e]-an-neks', _v.t._ to annex again, to reunite.--_n._ REANNEX[=A]'TION. REANOINT, r[=e]-an-oint', _v.t._ to anoint anew. REANSWER, r[=e]-an's[.e]r, _v.t._ and _v.i._ (_Shak._) to answer back, to react. REAP, r[=e]p, _v.t._ to cut down, as grain: to clear off a crop: to gather by effort: to receive as a reward: to obtain a harvest.--_ns._ REAP'ER, REAP'MAN; REAP'ING-HOOK, a hook-shaped instrument, with a handle, for cutting grain: a sickle; REAP'ING-MACHINE', a machine for cutting grain, drawn by horses, &c.; REAP'-SIL'VER, money paid by feudal tenants as a commutation for their services in reaping the crops. [A.S. _rípan_, to pluck; Goth. _raupjan_, Ger. _raufen_.] REAPPAREL, r[=e]-ap-par'el, _v.t._ to clothe again. REAPPEAR, r[=e]-ap-p[=e]r', _v.i._ to appear again or a second time.--_n._ REAPPEAR'ANCE, a second appearance. REAPPLY, r[=e]-ap-pl[=i]', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to apply again.--_n._ REAPPLIC[=A]'TION. REAPPOINT, r[=e]-ap-point', _v.t._ to appoint again.--_n._ REAPPOINT'MENT. REAPPORTION, r[=e]-ap-p[=o]r'shun, _v.t._ to apportion again.--_n._ REAPPOR'TIONMENT. REAPPROACH, r[=e]-ap-pr[=o]ch', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to approach again. REAR, r[=e]r, _n._ the back or hindmost part: the last part of an army or fleet.--_ns._ REAR'-AD'MIRAL, an officer of the third rank, who commands the rear division of a fleet; REAR'DORSE, an open fireplace, without a chimney, against the rear wall of a room; REAR'-FRONT, the rear-rank of a body of troops when faced about; REAR'-GUARD, troops which protect the rear of an army; REAR'HORSE, an insect of the family _Mantidæ_; REAR'ING-BIT, a bit to prevent a horse from lifting his head when rearing; REAR'ING-BOX, in fish-culture, a fish-breeder; REAR'-LINE, the last rank of a battalion, &c., drawn up in open order; REAR'MOST, last of all; REAR'-RANK, the hindermost rank of a body of troops; REAR'WARD, RERE'WARD, (_B._), the rear-guard, the part which comes last. [O. Fr. _riere_--L. _retro_, behind.] REAR, r[=e]r, _v.t._ to bring up to maturity: to educate: to erect: (_Milt._) to lift upward, as steps: (_Spens._) to carry off by force: to stir up.--_v.i._ to rise on the hind-legs, as a horse.--_n._ REAR'ER, one who rears or raises: in coal-mines, a seam having an inclination of more than 30°. [A.S. _r['æ]ran_, to raise, the causal of _rísan_, to rise.] REAR, r[=e]r, _adj._ early: underdone.--_adjs._ REAR'-BOILED; REAR'-ROAST'ED. [_Rare._] REARGUE, r[=e]-ar'g[=u], _v.t._ to argue over again.--_n._ REAR'GUMENT. REARMOUSE. Same as REREMOUSE. REARRANGE, r[=e]-ar-r[=a]nj', _v.t._ to arrange anew.--_n._ REARRANGE'MENT. REASCEND, r[=e]-as-send', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to ascend, mount, or climb again.--_ns._ REASCEN'SION, REASCENT'. REASON, r[=e]'zn, _n._ an idea which supports or justifies an act or belief: a motive: proof: excuse: cause: an explanation: the faculty of the mind by which man draws conclusions, and determines right and truth: the exercise of reason: just view of things: right conduct: propriety: justice: that which is conformable to reason: (_logic_) a premise placed after its conclusion.--_v.i._ to exercise the faculty of reason: to deduce inferences from premises: to argue: to debate: (_B._) to converse.--_v.t._ to examine or discuss: to debate: to persuade by reasoning.--_adj._ REA'SONABLE, endowed with reason: rational: acting according to reason: agreeable to reason: just: not excessive: moderate.--_n._ REA'SONABLENESS.--_adv._ REA'SONABLY.--_ns._ REA'SONER; REA'SONING, act of reasoning: that which is offered in argument: course of argument.--_adj._ REA'SONLESS.--_n._ REA'SON-PIECE, a wall plate.--BY REASON OF, on account of: in consequence of; PRINCIPLE OF SUFFICIENT REASON, the proposition that nothing happens without a sufficient reason why it should be as it is and not otherwise; PURE REASON, reason absolutely independent of experience. [Fr. _raison_--L. _ratio_, _rationis_--_r[=e]ri_, _ratus_, to think.] REASSEMBLE, r[=e]-as-sem'bl, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to assemble or collect again.--_n._ REASSEM'BLAGE. REASSERT, r[=e]-as-sert', _v.t._ to assert again.--_n._ REASSER'TION. REASSESS, r[=e]-as-ses', _v.t._ to assess again.--_n._ REASSESS'MENT. REASSIGN, r[=e]-as-s[=i]n', _v.t._ to assign again: to transfer back what has been assigned.--_n._ REASSIGN'MENT. REASSUME, r[=e]-as-s[=u]m', _v.t._ to assume or take again.--_n._ REASSUMP'TION. REASSURE, r[=e]-a-sh[=oo]r', _v.t._ to assure anew: to give confidence to: to confirm: to insure an insurer.--_ns._ REASSUR'ANCE, repeated assurance: a second assurance against loss; REASSUR'ER.--_adj._ REASSUR'ING.--_adv._ REASSUR'INGLY. REAST, r[=e]st, _v.t._ to dry or smoke (as meat). [_Roast._] REATA, RIATA, r[=e]-ä'ta, _n._ a rope of raw hide, used in America for catching animals. [Sp.,--L. _re-_, back, _aptare_, to fit on.] REATTACH, r[=e]-at-tach', _v.t._ to attach again.--_n._ REATTACH'MENT. REATTAIN, r[=e]-at-t[=a]n', _v.t._ to attain again. REATTEMPT, r[=e]-at-temt', _v.t._ to attempt again. RÉAUMUR'S SCALE. See THERMOMETER. REAVE, r[=e]v, _v.t._ to take away by violence:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ reft.--_n._ REAV'ER. [A.S. _reáfian_, to rob--_reáf_, clothing, spoil; Ger. _rauben_, to rob.] REAWAKE, r[=e]-a-w[=a]k', _v.i._ to awake again. REBALLING, r[=e]-bawl'ing, _n._ the catching of eels with earthworms fastened to a ball of lead. REBAPTISE, r[=e]-bap-t[=i]z', _v.t._ to baptise again.--_ns._ REBAP'TISER; REBAP'TISM, REBAPTIS[=A]'TION; REBAP'TIST, one who baptises again: an anabaptist. REBATE, r[=e]-b[=a]t', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to beat to obtuseness, to blunt: to beat back: to allow as discount.--_n._ R[=E]B[=A]TE'MENT, deduction: diminution: narrowing: (_her._) a shortening, as of one arm of a cross. [Fr. _rebattre_, to beat back--L. _re-_, back, _battu[)e]re_, to beat.] REBATE, r[=e]-b[=a]t', _n._ same as RABATE--also a hard freestone used in pavements: wood fastened to a handle in beating mortar. REBEC, REBECK, r[=e]'bek, _n._ a musical instrument of the violin kind, with three strings played with a bow, introduced by the Moors into Spain. [O. Fr. _rebec_ (Sp. _rabel_)--Ar. _rab[=a]ba_.] REBECCAITE, r[=e]-bek'a-[=i]t, _n._ one of a set of rioters in South Wales, in 1843-44, who scoured the country by night, the leaders disguised in women's clothes, and threw down the toll-bars on the public roads; they were called 'Rebecca and her daughters,' from Gen. xxiv. 60.--_n._ REBECC'AISM. REBEL, reb'el, _n._ one who rebels.--_adj._ rebellious.--_v.i._ (re-bel') to renounce the authority of the laws and government to which one owes allegiance, or to take up arms and openly oppose them: to oppose any lawful authority:--_pr.p._ rebel'ling; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ rebelled'.--_n._ REBEL'LER, one who rebels: a rebel.--_adj._ REB'EL-LIKE (_Shak._), like a rebel.--_n._ REBELL'ION, act of rebelling: open opposition to lawful authority: revolt: the Great Rebellion in England from 1642 to 1660: the American civil war of 1861-65.--_adj._ REBELL'IOUS, engaged in rebellion: characteristic of a rebel or rebellion: (of things) refractory.--_adv._ REBELL'IOUSLY, in a rebellious manner: in opposition to lawful authority.--_n._ REBELL'IOUSNESS.--_adj._ REB'ELLY, rebellious. [Fr. _rebelle_--L. _rebellis_, insurgent--_re-_, again, _bellum_, war.] REBELLOW, r[=e]-bel'[=o], _v.i._ (_Spens._) to bellow in return: to echo back a loud noise. REBIND, r[=e]-b[=i]nd', _v.t._ to bind anew. REBIRTH, r[=e]-b[.e]rth', _n._ a new entrance into a living form, according to the doctrine of metempsychosis. REBITE, r[=e]-b[=i]t', _v.t._ to freshen worn lines in a plate. REBOANT, reb'[=o]-ant, _adj._ rebellowing: loudly resounding.--_n._ REBO[=A]'TION. [L. _reboans_, _-antis_, pr.p. of _rebo[=a]re_--_re-_, again, _bo[=a]re_, to cry aloud.] REBOIL, r[=e]-boil', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to cause to boil again. REBORN, r[=e]-bawrn', _adj._ endowed with fresh life. REBOUND, r[=e]-bownd', _v.i._ to bound or start back: to bound repeatedly: to recoil: to reverberate: to re-echo.--_v.t._ to repeat as an echo.--_n._ act of rebounding: recoil. REBRACE, r[=e]-br[=a]s', _v.t._ to renew the strength of. REBUFF, r[=e]-buf', _n._ a. beating back: sudden check: defeat: unexpected refusal.--_v.t._ to beat back: to check: to repel violently: to refuse. [O. Fr. _rebuffe_--It. _rebuffo_, a reproof--It. _ri_ (--L. _re-_), back, _buffare_, to puff.] REBUILD, r[=e]-bild', _v.t._ to build again: to renew.--_n._ REBUILD'ER. REBUKE, r[=e]-b[=u]k', _v.t._ to check with reproof: to chide or reprove: (_B._) to chasten.--_n._ direct reproof: reprimand: reprobation: (_B._) chastisement: a severe check.--_adjs._ REB[=U]K'ABLE; REBUKE'FUL.--_adv._ REBUKE'FULLY.--_n._ REB[=U]K'ER.--_adv._ REB[=U]K'INGLY. [O. Fr. _rebouquer_ (Fr. _reboucher_), from _re-_, back, _bouque_ (Fr. _bouche_), the mouth--L. _bucca_, the cheek.] REBULLITION, r[=e]-bul-ish'un, _n._ a renewed effervescence. [L. _rebull[=i]re_, to bubble up.] REBURSE, r[=e]-b[.e]rs', _v.t._ to pay over again. [L. _re-_, again, _bursa_, purse.] REBUS, r[=e]'bus, _n._ an enigmatical representation of a name or thing by using pictorial devices for letters, syllables, or parts of words: a riddle: (_her._) a coat of arms bearing an allusion to the name of the bearer:--_pl._ R[=E]'BUSES. [L., _res_, a thing--prob. from the device speaking to the beholder _non verbis sed rebus_.] REBUT, r[=e]-but', _v.t._ to butt or drive back: to repel: to reject: (_law_) to oppose by argument or proof.--_v.i._ (_law_) to return an answer:--_pr.p._ rebut'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ rebut'ted.--_adj._ R[=E]BUT'TABLE.--_ns._ R[=E]BUT'TAL; R[=E]BUT'TER, that which rebuts: a plaintiff's answer to a defendant's rejoinder. [O. Fr. _rebuter_, to repulse--L. _re-_, back, Mid. High Ger. _b[=o]zen_, to beat.] RECALCITRANT, r[=e]-kal'si-trant, _adj._ showing repugnance or opposition: refractory.--_v.i._ or (rarely) _v.t._ RECAL'CITRATE, to show repugnance.--_n._ RECALCITR[=A]'TION. [L. _recalcitrans_, -antis--_re-_, back, calcitr[=a]re, _-[=a]tum_, to kick--_calx_, _calcis_, the heel.] RECALESCE, r[=e]-kal-es', _v.t._ to show anew a state of glowing heat.--_n._ RECALES'CENCE (_phys._), a peculiar behaviour of iron when cooling from a white-heat. At 1000°, e.g., it glows more brilliantly for a short time. [L. _re-_, again, _calesc[)e]re_, to grow hot.] RECALL, r[=e]-kawl', _v.t._ to call back: to command to return: to revoke: to call back to mind.--_n._ act of recalling or revoking: a signal to soldiers to return.--_adj._ RECALL'ABLE, capable of being recalled.--_n._ RECAL'MENT, revocation. RECANT, r[=e]-kant', _v.t._ to withdraw (a former declaration): to retract.--_v.i._ to revoke a former declaration: to unsay what has been said, esp. to declare one's renunciation of a religious belief which one formerly maintained.--_ns._ R[=E]CANT[=A]'TION, act of recanting: a declaration contradicting a former one; R[=E]CANT'ER. RECAPITULATE, r[=e]-ka-pit'[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to go over again the chief points of anything.--_n._ RECAPIT[=U]L[=A]'TION, act of recapitulating: a summary of the main points of a preceding speech, treatise, &c.--_adjs._ RECAPIT'[=U]L[=A]TIVE; RECAPIT'[=U]L[=A]TORY, repeating again: containing a recapitulation. [L. _recapitul[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_re-_, again, _capitulum_--caput, head.] RECAPTION, r[=e]-kap'shun, _n._ reprisal: (_law_) taking back goods, wife, or children from one who has no right to detain them. RECAPTURE, r[=e]-kap't[=u]r, _v.t._ to capture back or retake, esp. a prize from a captor.--_n._ act of retaking: a prize recaptured.--_n._ RECAP'TOR. RECARBURISE, r[=e]-kär'b[=u]-r[=i]z, _v.t._ to restore the carbon to metal from which it has been removed.--_n._ RECARBONIS[=A]'TION. RECARNIFY, r[=e]-kär'ni-f[=i], _v.t._ to convert again into flesh. [L. _re-_, again, _carnify_, to change into flesh.] RECARRY, r[=e]-kar'i, _v.t._ to carry back or anew.--_n._ RECARR'IAGE. RECAST, r[=e]-kast', _v.t._ to cast or throw again: to cast or mould anew: to compute a second time.--_n._ a moulding or shaping anew, as of a book. RECEDE, r[=e]-s[=e]d', _v.i._ to go or fall back: to retreat: to bend or tend in a backward direction: to withdraw: to give up a claim.--_v.t._ to cede back, as to a former possessor.--_adj._ RECED'ING, sloping backward. [L. _reced[)e]re_, recessum--_re-_, back, _ced[)e]re_, to go.] RECEIPT, r[=e]-s[=e]t', _n._ act of receiving: place of receiving: power of holding: a written acknowledgment of anything received, a legal acknowledgment of money received in discharge of a debt or demand: that which is received: a recipe in cookery.--_v.t._ to give a receipt for: to sign: to discharge.--_adj._ RECEIPT'ABLE, that may be receipted.--_ns._ RECEIPT'-BOOK, a book containing receipts; RECEIPT'OR, one who gives a receipt. [O. Fr. _recete_ (Fr. _recette_)--L. _recipere_, _receptum_.] RECEIVE, r[=e]-s[=e]v', _v.t._ to take what is offered: to accept: to embrace with the mind: to assent to: to allow: to give acceptance to: to give admittance to: to welcome or entertain: to hold or contain: (_law_) to take goods knowing them to be stolen: (_B._) to bear with, to believe in.--_v.i._ to be a recipient: to hold a reception of visitors.--_n._ RECEIVABIL'ITY, RECEIV'ABLENESS, the quality of being receivable.--_adj._ RECEIV'ABLE, that may be received: a waiting payment, as bills receivable.--_ns._ RECEIV'EDNESS, the state or quality of being received or current; RECEIV'ER, one who receives: an officer who receives taxes: a person appointed by a court to hold and manage property which is under litigation, or receive the rents of land, &c.: one who receives stolen goods: (_chem._) a vessel for receiving and holding the products of distillation, or for containing gases: the glass vessel of an air-pump in which the vacuum is formed: the receiving part of a telegraph, telephone, &c.; RECEIV'ER-GEN'ERAL, an officer who receives the public revenue; RECEIV'ERSHIP, the office of a receiver; RECEIV'ING, the act of receiving; RECEIV'ING-HOUSE, a depôt: a house where letters and parcels are left for transmission; RECEIV'ING-IN'STRUMENT, an appliance by which operators at two telegraph stations can communicate; RECEIV'ING-OFF'ICE, a branch post-office for receipt of letters, &c.; RECEIV'ING-SHIP, a stationary ship for recruits for the navy. [O. Fr. _recever_ (Fr. _recevoir_)--L. _recip[)e]re_, _receptum_--_re-_, back, cap[)e]re, to take.] RECELEBRATE, r[=e]-sel'[=e]-br[=a]t, _v.t._ to celebrate again. RECENCY, r[=e]'sen-si, _n._ newness. [_Recent_.] RECENSION, r[=e]-sen'shun, _n._ a critical revisal of a text: a text established by critical revision: a review.--_n._ RECEN'SIONIST. [L. _recensio_--_recens[=e]re_--_re-_, again, _cens[=e]re_, to value.] RECENT, r[=e]'sent, _adj._ of late origin or occurrence: fresh: modern: (_geol._) belonging to the present geological period.--_adv._ R[=E]'CENTLY.--_n._ R[=E]'CENTNESS. [Fr.,--L. _recens_, _recentis_.] RECEPTACLE, r[=e]-sep'ta-kl, _n._ that into which anything is received or in which it is contained: (_bot._) the basis of a flower: (_zool._) an organ that receives and holds a secretion.--_n._ R[=E]'CEPT, an idea taken into the mind from without.--_adj._ RECEPTAC'ULAR (_bot._), pertaining to or serving as a receptacle.--_n._ RECEPTIBIL'ITY, receivability.--_adj._ RECEPT'IBLE, receivable.--_ns._ RECEP'TION, the act of receiving: admission: state of being received: acceptance: a receiving officially: (_Milt._) capacity for receiving: a receiving of guests for entertainment: welcome: treatment at first coming; RECEP'TION-ROOM.--_adj._ RECEPT'IVE, having the quality of receiving or containing: (_phil._) capable of receiving, or quick to receive, impressions.--_ns._ RECEPT'IVENESS; RECEPTIV'ITY, quality of being receptive. [L. _recip[)e]re_, _receptum_, to receive.] RECESS, r[=e]-ses', _n._ a going back or withdrawing: retirement: seclusion: a period of remission of business: part of a room formed by a receding of the wall: a retired spot: a nook: a sinus or depressed par.--_v.t._ to make a recess in: to put into a recess.--_adj._ RECESSED', having a recess.--RECESSED ARCH, one arch within another. [_Recede_.] RECESSION, r[=e]-sesh'un, _n._ act of receding: withdrawal: the state of being set back.--_adjs._ RECES'SIONAL; RECESS'IVE.--_adv._ RECESS'IVELY.--_n._ RECESS'US, a recess. RECESSION, r[=e]-sesh'un, _n._ a ceding or giving back. RECHABITE, rek'a-b[=i]t, _n._ one of the descendants of Jonadab, the son of _Rechab_, who abstained from drinking wine, in obedience to the injunction of their ancestor (Jer. xxxv. 6): a total abstainer from intoxicating drinks: a member of the Rechabite order of total abstainers.--_n._ RECH'ABITISM. RÉCHAUFFÉ, r[=a]-sh[=o]-f[=a]', _n._ a warmed-up dish: a fresh concoction of old literary material. [Fr.] RECHEAT, r[=e]-ch[=e]t', _n._ (_Shak._) a recall on the horn when the hounds have lost the scent, or at the end of the chase. [O. Fr. _recet_.] RECHERCHÉ, r[=e]-sher'sh[=a], _adj._ extremely nice: peculiar and refined: rare. [Fr.] RECHLESSE, rek'les, _adj._ Same as RECKLESS. RECHRISTEN, r[=e]-kris'n, _v.t._ to name again. RECIDIVATE, r[=e]-sid'i-v[=a]t, _v.i._ to fall again: to backslide.--_ns._ RECIDIV[=A]'TION; RECID'IVIST (_Fr. law_), a relapsed criminal.--_adj._ RECID'IVOUS, liable to backslide. [Fr.,--L. _recid[=i]vus_, falling back.] RECIPE, res'i-p[=e], _n._ a medical prescription: any formula for the preparation of a compound: a receipt:--_pl._ RECIPES (res'i-p[=e]z). [L., lit. 'take,' the first word of a medical prescription, imper. of _recip[)e]re_.] RECIPIENT, r[=e]-sip'i-ent, _adj._ receiving.--_n._ one who receives, that which receives.--_ns._ RECIP'IENCE, RECIP'IENCY, a receiving: receptiveness. [L. _recipiens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _recip[)e]re_, to receive.] RECIPROCAL, r[=e]-sip'r[=o]-kal, _adj._ acting in return: mutual: alternating: interchangeable: giving and receiving.--_n._ that which is reciprocal: (_math._) the quotient resulting from the division of unity by any given quantity.--_n._ RECIPROCAL'ITY, the state or quality of being reciprocal: mutual return.--_adv._ RECIP'ROCALLY, mutually: interchangeably: inversely.--_ns._ RECIP'ROCALNESS; RECIP'ROCANT (_math._), a contravariant expressing a certain condition of tangency: a differential invariant.--_adj._ RECIP'ROCANTIVE, relating to a reciprocant.--_v.t._ RECIP'ROC[=A]TE, to give and receive mutually: to requite: to interchange: to alternate.--_v.i._ to move backward and forward: (_coll._) to make a return or response.--_ns._ RECIP'ROCATING-EN'GINE, an engine in which the piston moves forward and backward in a straight line; RECIPROC[=A]'TION, interchange of acts: alternation.--_adj._ RECIP'ROC[=A]TIVE, acting reciprocally.--_n._ RECIPROC'ITY, mutual obligations: action and reaction: equality of commercial privileges.--_adjs._ REC'IPROCK, REC'IPROQUE (_Bacon_), reciprocal; RECIP'ROCOUS (_rare_), turning back: reciprocal.--RECIPROCAL PROPORTION is when, of four terms taken in order, the first has to the second the same ratio which the fourth has to the third; RECIPROCAL RATIO, the ratio of the reciprocals of two quantities; RECIPROCAL TERMS, those that have the same signification and consequently are convertible; RECIPROCATING MOTION, by this the power is transmitted from one part of a machine to another. [L. _reciprocus._] RECIPROCORNOUS, r[=e]-sip'r[=o]-kor-nus, _adj._ having horns like a ram. RECISION, r[=e]-sizh'un, _n._ the act of cutting off. [Fr.,--L.,--_recid[)e]re_, _recisum_, to cut off.] RECITE, r[=e]-s[=i]t', _v.t._ to read aloud from paper, or repeat from memory: to narrate: to give the particulars of.--_v.i._ to rehearse in public.--_ns._ REC[=I]'TAL, act of reciting: rehearsal: that which is recited: a narration: a vocal or instrumental performance, as a piano recital: (_law_) that part of a deed which recites the circumstances; RECITATION (res-i-t[=a]'shun), act of reciting: a public reading: rehearsal; RECIT[=A]'TIONIST, a public reciter; RECITATIVE (-t[=e]v'), (_mus._) a style of song resembling declamation, a kind of union of song and speech.--_adj._ in the style of recitative.--_adv._ RECITATIVE'LY, in the manner of recitative.--_ns._ RECITATI'VO (_mus._), recitative; RECIT'ER; RECIT'ING-NOTE, a note in chanting on which several syllables are sung. [Fr. _réciter_--L. _recit[=a]re_--L. _re-_, again, _cit[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to call.] RECK, rek, _v.t._ to care for: to regard.--_v.i._ (usually with _not_, and fol. by _of_) care: heed.--_adj._ RECK'LESS, careless: heedless of consequences: rash.--_adv._ RECK'LESSLY.--_ns._ RECK'LESSNESS; RECK'LING, a reckless person: the weakest in a litter: a helpless babe.--_adj._ stunted.--IT RECKS (_Milt._), it concerns. [A.S. _récan_, from a root seen in Old High Ger. _ruoh_, care, Ger. _ruchlos_, regardless.] RECKON, rek'n, _v.t._ to count: to place in the number or rank of: to esteem: to think, believe.--_v.i._ to calculate: to charge to account: to make up accounts: to settle accounts (fol. by _with_): to count or rely (with _on_ or _upon_): to have an impression: to think: to suppose.--_ns._ RECK'ONER; RECK'ONING, an account of time: settlement of accounts, &c.: charges for entertainment: standing as to rank: (_naut._) a calculation of the ship's position: (_B._) estimation: value.--RECKON FOR, to be answerable for; RECKON ON, or UPON, to count or depend upon; RECKON WITHOUT HIS HOST (see HOST).--DAY OF RECKONING, the day when an account must be given and a settlement made: the judgment-day. [A.S. _ge-recenian_, to explain; Ger. _rechnen_.] RECLAIM, r[=e]-kl[=a]m', _v.t._ to demand the return of: to regain: to bring back from a wild or barbarous state, or from error or vice: to bring into a state of cultivation: to bring into the desired condition: to make tame or gentle: to reform.--_v.i._ to cry out or exclaim: (_Scots law_) to appeal from the Lord Ordinary to the inner house of the Court of Session.--_adj._ RECLAIM'ABLE, that may be reclaimed or reformed.--_adv._ RECLAIM'ABLY.--_ns._ RECLAIM'ANT, one who reclaims; RECLAM[=A]'TION, act of reclaiming: state of being reclaimed, as of waste land: demand: recovery. [Fr.,--L. _re-_, again, _clam[=a]re_, to cry out.] RECLASP, r[=e]-klasp', _v.t._ to clasp again. RECLINATE, rek'li-n[=a]t, _adj._ reclined: (_bot._) bent downward, so as to have the point lower than the base, as a leaf.--_n._ RECLIN[=A]'TION, the act of reclining or leaning: the angle which the plane of a dial makes with a vertical plane, the intersection being a horizontal line: an operation in surgery for the cure of cataract. [L. _reclin[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to recline.] RECLINE, r[=e]-kl[=i]n', _v.t._ to lean or bend backwards: to lean to or on one side.--_v.i._ to lean: to rest or repose.--_adjs._ RECLINE' (_Milt._), leaning; RECLINED' (_bot._), same as RECLINATE.--_n._ RECL[=I]'NER.--_adj._ RECL[=I]'NING (_bot._), bending away from the perpendicular: recumbent.--_ns._ RECL[=I]'NING-BOARD, a board on which persons recline to gain erectness to the figure; RECL[=I]'NING-CHAIR, an invalid's chair. [Fr.,--L. _reclin[=a]re_--_re-_, back, _clin[=a]re_, to bend.] RECLOSE, r[=e]-kl[=o]z', _v.t._ to close again. RECLOTHE, r[=e]-kl[=o]th, _v.t._ to clothe again. RECLUSE, r[=e]-kl[=oo]s', _adj._ secluded: retired: solitary.--_n._ one shut up or secluded: one who lives retired from the world: a religious devotee living in a single cell, generally attached to a monastery.--_adv._ RECLUSE'LY, in retirement or seclusion from society.--_ns._ RECLUSE'NESS, seclusion from society: retirement; RECLU'SION, religious retirement or seclusion: the life of a recluse.--_adj._ RECLU'SIVE (_Shak._), affording retirement or seclusion.--_n._ RECLU'SORY, a recluse's cell. [Fr.,--L. _reclusus_, pa.p. of _reclud[)e]re_, to open, shut away--_re-_, away, _claud[)e]re_, to shut.] RECOCT, r[=e]-kokt', _v.t._ to cook anew, to vamp up.--_n._ RECOC'TION. RECOGNISE, rek'og-n[=i]z, _v.t._ to know again: to recollect: to acknowledge: to see the truth of.--_adj._ REC'OGNISABLE, that may be recognised or acknowledged.--_adv._ REC'OGNISABLY, in a recognisable manner.--_ns._ RECOG'NISANCE, a recognition: an avowal: a profession: a legal obligation entered into before a magistrate to do, or not do, some particular act: to enter into recognisances; REC'OGNISER, one who recognises; RECOGNI'TION, act of recognising: state of being recognised: recollection: avowal: (_Scots law_) a return of the feu to the superior.--_adjs._ RECOG'NITIVE, RECOG'NITORY. [L. _recognosc[)e]re_--_re-_, again, _cognosc[)e]re_, to know.] RECOIL, r[=e]-koil', _v.t._ to start back: to rebound: to return: to shrink from.--_n._ a starting or springing back: rebound: an escapement in which after each beat the escape-wheel recoils slightly.--_n._ RECOIL'ER, one who recoils.--_adj._ RECOIL'ING.--_adv._ RECOIL'INGLY.--_n._ RECOIL'MENT. [Fr. _reculer_--L. _re-_, back, Fr. _cul_, the hinder part--L. _culus_.] RECOIN, r[=e]-koin', _v.t._ to coin over again.--_ns._ RECOIN'AGE; RECOIN'ER. RECOLLECT, r[=e]-kol-ekt', _v.t._ to collect again. RECOLLECT, rek-ol-ekt', _v.t._ to remember: to recover composure or resolution (with reflex. pron.).--_n._ RECOLLEC'TION, act of recollecting or remembering: the power of recollecting: memory: that which is recollected: reminiscence.--_adj._ RECOLLEC'TIVE, having the power of recollecting. RECOLLECT, rek'ol-ekt, _n._ a member of a congregation of a monastic order following a very strict rule--mostly of the Franciscan order forming a branch of the Observantines.--Also REC'OLLET. RECOMBINE, r[=e]-kom-b[=i]n', _v.t._ to combine again.--_n._ RECOMBIN[=A]'TION. RECOMFORT, r[=e]-kum'furt, _v.t._ to comfort or console again: (_Bacon_) to give new strength.--_adj._ RECOM'FORTLESS (_Spens._), comfortless.--_n._ RECOM'FORTURE (_Shak._), restoration of comfort. RECOMMENCE, r[=e]-kom-ens', _v.t._ to commence again.--_n._ RECOMMENCE'MENT. RECOMMEND, rek-o-mend', _v.t._ to commend to another: to bestow praise on: to introduce favourably: to give in charge: to commit, as in prayer: to advise.--_adj._ RECOMMEND'ABLE, that may be recommended: worthy of praise.--_n._ RECOMMEND'ABLENESS, the quality of being recommendable.--_adv._ RECOMMEND'ABLY, so as to deserve recommendation.--_n._ RECOMMEND[=A]'TION, act of recommending: act of introducing with commendation: repute: letter of recommendation.--_adj._ RECOMMEND'[=A]TORY, that recommends: commendatory.--_n._ RECOMMEND'ER, one who, or that which, recommends. RECOMMIT, r[=e]-kom-it', _v.t._ to commit again: particularly, to send back to a committee.--_ns._ RECOMMIT'MENT, RECOMMIT'TAL. RECOMMUNICATE, r[=e]-kom-[=u]n'i-k[=a]t, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to communicate again. RECOMPACT, r[=e]-kom-pakt', _v.t._ to join anew. RECOMPENSE, rek'om-pens, _v.t._ to return an equivalent for anything: to repay or requite: to reward: to compensate: to remunerate.--_n._ that which is returned as an equivalent: repayment: reward: compensation: remuneration.--_n._ REC'OMPENSER. [Fr. _récompenser_--L. _re-_, again, _compens[=a]re_, to compensate.] RECOMPILE, r[=e]-kom-p[=i]l', _v.t._ to compile anew.--_ns._ RECOMPIL[=A]'TION, RECOMPILE'MENT, a new compilation. RECOMPLETE, r[=e]-kom-pl[=e]t', _v.t._ to complete anew.--_n._ RECOMPL[=E]'TION. RECOMPOSE, r[=e]-kom-p[=o]z', _v.t._ to compose again or anew: to form anew: to soothe or quiet.--_ns._ RECOMPOS'ER; RECOMPOSI'TION. RECONCILE, rek'on-s[=i]l, _v.t._ to restore to friendship or union: to bring to agreement: to bring to contentment: to pacify: to make consistent: to adjust or compose.--_adj._ REC'ONCILABLE, that may be reconciled: that may be made to agree: consistent.--_n._ REC'ONCILABLENESS, possibility of being reconciled: consistency: harmony.--_adv._ REC'ONCILABLY, in a reconcilable manner.--_ns._ REC'ONCILER; RECONCILI[=A]'TION, REC'ONCILEMENT, act of reconciling: state of being reconciled: renewal of friendship: propitiation: atonement: the bringing to agreement things at variance.--_adj._ RECONCIL'IATORY, serving or tending to reconcile. [Fr. _réconcilier_--L. _re-_, again, _concili[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to call together.] RECONDENSE, r[=e]-kon-dens', _v.t._ to condense again.--_n._ RECONDENS[=A]'TION. RECONDITE, r[=e]-kon'dit, or rek'on-d[=i]t, _adj._ secret: abstruse: profound.--_ns._ RECONDITE'NESS; RECON'DITORY, a storehouse. [L. _recond[)e]re_, _-itum_, to put away--_re-_, again, _cond[)e]re_, to put together.] RECONDUCT, r[=e]-kon-dukt', _v.t._ to conduct back or anew. RECONFIRM, r[=e]-kon-f[.e]rm', _v.t._ to confirm again. RECONJOIN, r[=e]-kon-join', _v.t._ to join anew. RECONNAISSANCE, re-kon'i-sans, _n._ the act of reconnoitring: a survey or examination: the examination of a tract of country with a view to military or engineering operations.--RECONNAISSANCE IN FORCE, an attack by a body of troops to discover the strength of the enemy. [Fr.] RECONNOITRE, rek-o-noi't[.e]r, _v.t._ to survey or examine: to survey with a view to military operations.--_v.i._ to make preliminary examination:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ reconnoi'tred.--_n._ a preliminary survey. [O. Fr. _reconoistre_ (Fr. _reconnaître_)--L. _recognosc[)e]re_, to recognise.] RECONQUER, r[=e]-kong'k[.e]r, _v.t._ to conquer again: to recover: to regain.--_n._ RECON'QUEST. RECONSECRATE, r[=e]-kon's[=e]-kr[=a]t, _v.t._ to consecrate anew.--_n._ RECONSECR[=A]'TION. RECONSIDER, r[=e]-kon-sid'[.e]r, _v.t._ to consider again, as to reconsider a motion or vote: to review.--_n._ RECONSIDER[=A]'TION. RECONSOLATE, r[=e]-kon's[=o]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ (_obs._) to comfort again. RECONSOLIDATE, r[=e]-kon-sol'i-d[=a]t, _v.t._ to consolidate anew.--_n._ RECONSOLID[=A]'TION. RECONSTITUTE, r[=e]-kon'sti-t[=u]t, _v.t._ to construct anew.--_adj._ RECONSTIT'[=U]ENT.--_n._ RECONSTIT[=U]'TION. RECONSTRUCT, r[=e]-kon-strukt', _v.t._ to construct again: to rebuild.--_n._ RECONSTRUC'TION.--_adj._ RECONSTRUC'TIONARY.--_n._ RECONSTRUC'TIONIST.--_adj._ RECONSTRUC'TIVE, able or tending to reconstruct. RECONTINUE, r[=e]-kon-tin'[=u], _v.t._ and _v.i._ to continue anew.--_n._ RECONTIN'[=U]ANCE. RECONVALESCENCE, r[=e]-kon-val-es'ens, _n._ restoration to health. RECONVENE, r[=e]-kon-v[=e]n', _v.t._ to convene or call together again.--_v.i._ to come together again. RECONVENT, r[=e]-kon-vent', _v.t._ to assemble together again.--_n._ RECONVEN'TION, a counter-action by a defendant against a plaintiff. RECONVERT, r[=e]-kon-v[.e]rt', _v.t._ to convert again.--_n._ RECONVER'SION. RECONVEY, r[=e]-kon-v[=a]', _v.t._ to transfer back to a former owner, as an estate.--_n._ RECONVEY'ANCE. RECORD, r[=e]-kord', _v.t._ to write anything formally, to preserve evidence of it: to bear witness to: to register or enrol: to celebrate.--_adj._ RECORD'ABLE, able to be recorded, worthy of record.--_ns._ RECORD[=A]'TION (_Shak._), remembrance; RECORD'ER, one who records or registers, esp. the rolls, &c., of a city: a judge of a city or borough court of quarter-sessions: an old musical instrument somewhat like a flageolet, but with the lower part wider than the upper, and a mouthpiece resembling the beak of a bird: a registering apparatus in telegraphy; RECORD'ERSHIP, the office of recorder, or the time of holding it. [O. Fr. _recorder_--L. _record[=a]re_, to call to mind--_re-_, again, _cor_, _cordis_, the heart.] RECORD, rek'ord, _n._ a register: a formal writing of any fact or proceeding: a book of such writings: a witness, a memorial: memory, remembrance: anything entered in the rolls of a court, esp. the formal statements or pleadings of parties in a litigation.--_n._ REC'ORD-OFF'ICE, a place where public records are kept.--BEAT, or BREAK, THE RECORD, to outdo the highest achievement yet done; CLOSE THE RECORD, an act of a Scottish judge after each party has said all he wishes to say by way of statement and answer; PUBLIC RECORDS, contemporary authenticated statements of the proceedings of the legislature, and the judgments of those higher courts of law known as Courts of Record; TRIAL BY RECORD, a common law mode of trial when a disputed former decision of the court is settled by producing the record. RECOUNT, r[=e]-kownt', _v.t._ to count again: to tell over again: to narrate the particulars of: to detail.--_n._ a second or repeated count.--_ns._ RECOUNT'AL, RECOUNT'MENT, relation in detail, recital. [O. Fr. _reconter_--_re-_, again, _conter_, to tell.] RECOUP, r[=e]-k[=oo]p', _v.t._ to make good: to indemnify.--_adj._ RECOUPÉ (_her._), divided a second time.--_n._ RECOUP'MENT, reimbursement: (_law_) reduction of the plaintiff's damages by keeping out a part. [Fr. _recouper_, to cut again--_re-_, again, _couper_, to cut, _coup_, a stroke--Low L. _colpus_--L. _colaphus_.] RECOURE, r[=e]-k[=oo]r', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to recover. RECOURSE, r[=e]-k[=o]rs', _n._ a going to for aid or protection: access.--_v.i._ to return.--_adj._ RECOURSE'FUL, returning. [Fr. _recours_--L. _recursus_--_re-_, back, _curr[)e]re_, _cursum_, to run.] RECOVER, r[=e]-kuv'[.e]r, _v.t._ to cover again. RECOVER, r[=e]-kuv'[.e]r, _v.t._ to get possession of again: to make up for: to retrieve: to cure: to revive: to bring back to any former state: to rescue: to obtain as compensation: to obtain for injury or debt: to reconcile.--_v.i._ to regain health: to regain any former state: (_law_) to obtain a judgment.--_n._ recovery: the forward movement in rowing, after one stroke to take another.--_n._ RECOVERABIL'ITY, the state of being recoverable.--_adj._ RECOV'ERABLE, that may be recovered or regained: capable of being brought to a former condition.--_ns._ RECOV'ERABLENESS, the state of being recoverable: capability of being recovered; RECOVEREE', one against whom a judgment is obtained in common recovery; RECOV'ERER, one who recovers; RECOV'EROR, one who recovers a judgment in common recovery; RECOV'ERY, the act of recovering: the act of regaining anything lost: restoration to health or to any former state: the power of recovering anything: (_law_) a verdict giving right to the recovery of debts or costs. [O. Fr. _recovrer_--L. _recuper[=a]re_--_re-_, again, and Sabine _cuprus_, good; some suggest _cup[)e]re_, to desire.] RECREANT, rek'r[=e]-ant, _adj._ cowardly: false: apostate: renegade.--_n._ a mean-spirited wretch: an apostate: a renegade.--_n._ REC'R[=E]ANCY, the quality of a recreant: a yielding, mean, cowardly spirit.--_adv._ REC'R[=E]ANTLY. [O. Fr., pr.p. of _recroire_, to change belief--Low L. (_se_) _re-cred[)e]re_, to own one's self beaten--L. _re-_, again, _cred[)e]re_, to believe.] RECREATE, rek'r[=e]-[=a]t, _v.t._ to revive: to reanimate: to cheer or amuse: to refresh: to delight.--_v.i._ to take recreation.--_n._ RECRE[=A]'TION, the act of recreating or state of being recreated: refreshment after toil, sorrow, &c.: diversion: amusement: sport.--_adjs._ RECRE[=A]'TIONAL, REC'RE[=A]TIVE, serving to recreate or refresh: giving relief in weariness, &c.: amusing.--_adv._ REC'RE[=A]TIVELY, so as to afford recreation or diversion.--_n._ REC'RE[=A]TIVENESS, the quality of being refreshing or amusing. RECREMENT, rek'r[=e]-ment, _n._ superfluous matter: dross.--_adjs._ RECREMENT'AL, RECREMENTI'TIAL, RECREMENTI'TIOUS. [L. _recrementum_, dross.] RECRIMINATE, r[=e]-krim'in-[=a]t, _v.t._ to criminate or accuse in return.--_v.i._ to charge an accuser with a similar crime.--_n._ RECRIMIN[=A]'TION, the act of recriminating or returning one accusation by another: a countercharge or accusation.--_adjs._ RECRIM'IN[=A]TIVE, RECRIM'IN[=A]TORY, recriminating or retorting accusations or charges.--_n._ RECRIM'IN[=A]TOR, one who recriminates. RECROSS, r[=e]-kros', _v.t._ to cross again.--_adj._ RECROSSED' (_her._), having the ends crossed. RECRUCIFY, r[=e]-kr[=oo]s'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to crucify anew. RECRUDESCENT, r[=e]-kr[=oo]-des'ent, _adj._ growing sore or painful again.--_v.i._ RECRUDESCE', to become raw again: to be renewed.--_ns._ RECRUDES'CENCE, RECRU'DENCY, RECRUDES'CENCY, the state of becoming sore again: a state of relapse: (_med._) increased activity after recovery: (_bot._) the production of a fresh shoot from a ripened spike. [L. _recrudescens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _recrudesc[)e]re_, to become raw again--_re-_, again, _crudesc[)e]re_, to become raw--_crudis_, crude.] RECRUIT, r[=e]-kr[=oo]t', _v.i._ to obtain fresh supplies: to recover in health, &c.: to enlist new soldiers.--_v.t._ to repair: to supply: to supply with recruits.--_n._ the supply of any want: a substitute for something wanting: a newly enlisted soldier.--_ns._ RECRUIT'AL, renewed supply; RECRUIT'ER.--_adj._ RECRUIT'ING, obtaining new supplies: enlisting recruits.--_n._ the business of obtaining new supplies or enlisting new soldiers.--_ns._ RECRUIT'ING-GROUND, a place where recruits may be obtained; RECRUIT'ING-PAR'TY, a party of soldiers engaged in enlisting recruits; RECRUIT'ING-SER'GEANT, a sergeant who enlists recruits; RECRUIT'MENT, the act, business, or employment of raising new supplies of men for an army. [O. Fr. _recruter_--_re-_, _croître_--L. _recresc[)e]re_--_re-_, again, _cresc[)e]re_, to grow.] RECRYSTALLISATION, r[=e]-kris-tal-[=i]z-[=a]'shun, _n._ the process of crystallising again.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ R[=E]CRYS'TALLISE. RECTA, rek'ta, _n.pl._--_adj._ REC'TAL. See RECTUM. RECTANGLE, rek'tang-gl, _n._ a four-sided figure with all its angles right angles and its opposite sides equal.--_adjs._ REC'TANGLED, having right angles; RECTANG'[=U]LAR, right-angled.--_n._ RECTANG[=U]LAR'ITY, the state or quality of being right-angled.--_adv._ RECTANG'[=U]LARLY, with, or at, right angles.--_n._ RECTANG'[=U]LARNESS.--RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA, a hyperbola whose asymptotes are at right angles to one another; RECTANGULAR SOLID, a solid whose axis is perpendicular to its base. [Fr.,--L. _rectus_, right, _angulus_, an angle.] RECTIFY, rek'ti-f[=i], _v.t._ to make straight or right: to adjust: to correct or redress: to purify by repeated crystallisation or sublimation, or by distillations: (_math._) to determine the length of a curve included between two limits: to prepare a sun-dial for an observation:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ rec'tified.--_adj._ RECTIF[=I]'ABLE, that may be rectified or set right.--_ns._ RECTIFIC[=A]'TION, the act of rectifying or setting right: the process of refining any substance by repeated distillation: rectification of a globe, its adjustment preparatory to the solution of a proposed problem; REC'TIFIER, one who corrects: one who refines a substance by repeated distillation.--RECTIFY THE COURSE OF A VESSEL, to determine its true course from indications of the ship's compass, and allowing for magnetic variations, &c.; RECTIFY THE GLOBE, to bring the sun's place in the ecliptic on a globe to the brass meridian. [Fr.,--L. _rectus_, straight, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] RECTIGRADE, rek'ti-gr[=a]d, _adj._ walking straight forward. [L. _rectus_, straight, _gradi_, to step.] RECTILINEAL, rek-ti-lin'[=e]-al, _adj._ bounded by straight lines: straight--also RECTILIN'EAR.--_adv._ RECTILIN'EALLY.--_n._ RECTILINEAR'ITY, the state or quality of being right-lined.--_adv._ RECTILIN'EARLY, in a right line.--_n._ RECTILIN'EARNESS. [L. _rectus_, straight, _linea_, a line.] RECTINERVED, rek'ti-nervd, _adj._ (_bot._) straight or parallel nerved. RECTION, rek'shun, _n._ (_gram._) the influence of a word in regard to the number, case, &c. of another word in a sentence. RECTIPETALITY, rek-ti-pe-tal'i-ti, _n._ (_bot._) the natural tendency of stems to grow in a straight line. RECTIROSTRAL, rek'ti-ros'tral, _adj._ having a straight bill. [L. _rectus_, straight, _rostrum_, a beak.] RECTISERIAL, rek-ti-s[=e]'ri-al, _adj._ placed in a straight line: (_bot._) arranged in one or more straight ranks. RECTITIS, rek't[=i]-tis, _n._ inflammation of the rectum.--_adj._ RECTIT'IC. RECTITUDE, rek'ti-t[=u]d, _n._ uprightness: correctness of principle or practice: integrity: correctness. [Fr.,--L. _rectitudo_--_rectus_, straight.] RECTO, rek't[=o], _n._ (_print._) the right-hand page--opp. to _Reverso_ or _Verso_: (_law_) a writ of right. RECTOR, rek'tor, _n._ a ruler: in the Church of England, a clergyman who has the charge and cure of a parish where the tithes are not impropriate, and who accordingly has the whole right to the ecclesiastical dues therein: a common name for all incumbents in the Episcopal churches of the United States and (since 1890) Scotland: the head-master of a superior public school in Scotland, Germany, &c.: the chief elective officer of certain Scotch and French universities: the head of Lincoln and of Exeter Colleges, Oxford, &c.: (_R.C._) an ecclesiastic in charge of a congregation, a college, or religious house, esp. the head of a Jesuit seminary.--_adjs._ REC'TORAL, RECT[=O]'RIAL, pertaining to a rector or to a rectory--_ns._ REC'TORATE, REC'TORSHIP; REC'TORESS, a female rector: a governess; REC'TORY, the province or mansion of a rector.--RECTOR MAGNIFICUS, the head of a German university.--LAY RECTOR, a layman who enjoys the great tithes of a parish; MISSIONARY RECTOR (_R.C._), a priest appointed to the charge of some important mission in England. [L.,--_reg[)e]re_, _rectum_, to rule.] RECTRIX, rek'triks, _n._ one of the long tail-feathers of a bird, so called because used in steering the bird in its flight:--_pl._ RECTRICES (rek'tri-s[=e]z). RECTUM, rek'tum, _n._ the lowest part of the large intestine:--_pl._ REC'TA.--_adj._ REC'TAL.--_ns._ REC'TOSCOPE, a speculum for rectal examination; RECTOT'OMY, the operation for dividing a rectal stricture.--_adjs._ REC'TO-UR[=E]'THRAL, pertaining to the rectum and to the urethra; REC'TO-[=U]'TERINE, to the rectum and the uterus; REC'TO-VAG'INAL, to the rectum and the vagina; REC'TO-VES'ICAL, to the rectum and the bladder. [L. _rectus_, straight.] RECTUS, rek'tus, _n._ a muscle so called from the straightness of its course:--_pl._ REC'TI. RECUBANT, rek'[=u]-bant, _adj._ reclining, recumbent--_n._ RECUB[=A]'TION. [L. _recub[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to lie back.] RECUIL, RECULE, r[=e]-k[=u]l' (_Spens._). Same as RECOIL. RECULTIVATE, r[=e]-kul'ti-v[=a]t, _v.t._ to cultivate again.--_n._ RECULTIV[=A]'TION. RECUMBENT, r[=e]-kum'bent, _adj._ lying back: reclining: idle.--_ns._ RECUM'BENCE, RECUM'BENCY.--_adv._ RECUM'BENTLY. [L. _recumb[)e]re_--_re-_, back, _cub[=a]re_, to lie down.] RECUPERATIVE, r[=e]-k[=u]'p[.e]r-a-tiv, _adj._ tending to recovery--also REC[=U]'PERATORY.--_adj._ R[=E]C[=U]'PERABLE, recoverable.--_v.t._ REC[=U]'PER[=A]TE, to recover, to regain strength.--_ns._ RECUPER[=A]'TION, recovery, as of something lost; REC[=U]'PER[=A]TOR, one who, or that which, recuperates. [L. _recuperativus_--_recuper[=a]re_, to recover.] RECUR, r[=e]-kur', _v.i._ to return, resort: to happen at a stated interval:--_pr.p._ recur'ring; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ recurred'.--_ns._ RECUR'RENCE, RECUR'RENCY, return.--_adj._ RECUR'RENT, returning at intervals: (_anat._) running back in the opposite to a former direction: (_entom._) turned back toward the base.--_adv._ RECUR'RENTLY.--RECURRING DECIMAL, a decimal in which after a certain point the digits are continually repeated--_repeating_, if but one recurring figure; circulating, if more than one. [Fr.,--L. _recurr[)e]re_--_re-_, back, _curr[)e]re_, to run.] RECURE, r[=e]-k[=u]r', _v.t._ to cure again: to recover--also _n._--_adjs._ RECURE'FUL; RECURE'LESS, incurable. RECURSANT, r[=e]-kur'sant, _adj._ (_her._) turned backwards, of an animal with its back toward the spectator. [L. _re-_, back, _cursans_, _-antis_, pr.p. of _curs[=a]re_, to run.] RECURVE, r[=e]-kurv', _v.t._ to curve or bend back--also RECUR'VATE.--_ns._ RECURV[=A]'TION, RECUR'VITY, RECUR'VATURE, the act of recurving: the state of being recurved: a bending backwards.--_adjs._ RECURVED'; RECURVIROS'TRAL, having a recurved bill; R[=E]CUR'VOUS, bent backward. RECUSANT, rek'[=u]-zant, or r[=e]-k[=u]'zant, _adj._ obstinate in refusal, esp. to comply with the Anglican ritual.--_n._ a nonconformist: one who refuses to acknowledge the supremacy of the sovereign in religious matters.--_ns._ REC'[=U]SANCE, REC'[=U]SANCY, state of being a recusant: nonconformity, or its tenets; RECUS[=A]'TION.--_adj._ REC[=U]'SATIVE. [Fr.,--L. _recusans_, pr.p. of _recus[=a]re_--_re-_, against, _causa_, a cause.] RECUSE, r[=e]-k[=u]z', _v.t._ (_law_) to reject.--_adj._ REC[=U]'SATIVE. RECUSSION, r[=e]-kush'un, _n._ the act of beating or striking back. [L. _recut[)e]re_, _recussum_, to beat back--_re-_, back, _quat[)e]re_, to shake.] RED, red, _adj._ (_comp._ RED'DER; _superl._ RED'DEST) of a colour like blood: ultra-radical, revolutionary.--_n._ one of the primary colours, of several shades, as scarlet, pink, carmine, vermilion, &c.: a red cent, the smallest coin of the United States.--_adjs._ RED'-BACKED, having a red back; RED'-BEAKED, -BILLED, having a red beak or bill; RED'-BELL'IED, having the under parts red.--_n._ RED'-BELL'Y, the United States slider, a terrapin: the Welsh torgoch, a char.--_adj._ RED'-BELT'ED, having a red band or bands.--_n._ RED'-BIRD, the common European bullfinch: the United States grosbeak, also the tanager.--_adj._ RED'-BLOOD'ED, having reddish blood.--_ns._ RED'-BOOK, a book containing the names of all persons in the service of the state: the peerage; RED'BREAST, a favourite song-bird, so called from the red colour of its breast, the robin; RED'-BUD, the Judas-tree of America; RED'-CABB'AGE, a variety of cabbage, with purplish heads, used for pickling; RED'-CAP, a species of goldfinch, having a conical crest of red feathers on the top of the head: a ghost with long teeth who haunts some Scotch castles; RED'-CENT, a copper cent; RED'-CHALK, -CLAY (see REDDLE); RED'-COAT, a British soldier, so called from his red coat; RED'-COCK (_slang_), an incendiary fire; RED'-COR'AL, the most important kind of coral in commerce, found off the coasts of Algiers and Tunis and the Italian islands.--_adj._ RED'-CORPUS'CLED, having red blood-discs.--_n._ RED'-CRAG, a division of the Pliocene.--_adjs._ RED'-CREST'ED, having a red crest; RED'-CROSS, wearing or distinguished by a cross of a red colour.--_n._ the badge and flag adopted by every society, of whatever nation, formed for the aid of the sick and wounded in time of war, recognised by the military authorities of its own nation, and enjoying certain privileges and immunities under the Convention of Geneva (1864).--_n._ RED'-DEER, a species of deer which is reddish-brown in summer: the common stag.--_v.t._ RED'DEN, to make red.--_v.i._ to grow red: to blush.--_adj._ RED'DISH, somewhat red: moderately red.--_ns._ RED'DISHNESS; RED'-DOG, the lowest grade of flour in high milling; RED'-DRUM, the southern red-fish, or red-bass, of the southern Atlantic coast of the United States; RED'-EARTH, the reddish loam frequently found in regions composed of limestones; RED'-EYE, or RUDD, a fresh-water fish of the same genus as the roach, chub, and minnow.--_adjs._ RED'-FACED (_Shak._), having a red face; RED'-FIG'URED, relating to an ancient Greek ceramic ware, in which a black glaze was painted over the surface so as to leave the design in the red of the body.--_n._ RED'-GUM, strophulus, a skin disease usually occurring in infants about the time of teething, and consisting of minute red pimples with occasional red patches.--_adjs._ RED'-HAIRED, RED'-HEAD'ED, having red hair.--_n._ RED'-HAND, a bloody hand: (_her._) a sinister hand, erect, open, and 'couped,' the distinguishing badge of baronets.--_adj._ RED'-HAND'ED, in the very act, as if with bloody hands.--_n._ RED'-HEAD, a person with red hair: the pochard, a red-headed duck.--_adj._ RED'-HOT, heated to redness.--_ns._ RED'-LAC, the Japan wax-tree; RED'-LATT'ICE (_Shak._), an alehouse window, then usually painted red; RED'-LEAD, a preparation of lead of a fine red colour, used in painting, &c.--_adj._ RED'-LEGGED, having red legs or feet, as a bird.--_n._ RED'-LEGS, the European red-legged partridge: the turnstone: the red-shank: (_bot._) the bistort.--_adj._ RED'-LETT'ER, having red letters: auspicious or fortunate, as a day, the holidays or saints' days being indicated by red letters in the old calendars.--_n._ RED'-LIQ'UOR, a crude aluminium acetate, used as a mordant in calico-printing.--_adjs._ RED'-LITT'EN, showing a red light; RED'-LOOKED (_Shak._), having a red look.--_adv._ RED'LY.--_adj._ RED'-MAD (_prov._), quite mad.--_n._ RED'-MET'AL, one of several alloys of copper used in silver-ware: a Japanese alloy used in decorative metal-work.--_adj._ RED'-NECKED, having a red neck.--_n._ RED'NESS.--_adjs._ RED'-NOSE, -NOSED, having a red nose, like a habitual drunkard.--_ns._ RED'-OAK, an oak with heavy and durable reddish wood, rising to ninety feet high in eastern North America; RED'-PLAGUE, a form of the plague marked by a red spot or bubo; RED'-POLL, a small northern finch: the common European linnet: the North American palm-warbler.--_adjs._ RED'-POLLED; RED'-RIBBED (_Tenn._), having red ribs.--_ns._ RED'-ROOT, a genus of plants of the natural order _Rhamnaceæ_--_New Jersey Tea_; REDS, or RED REPUBLICANS (see REPUBLIC); RED'-SAUN'DERS, the sliced or rasped heart-wood of _Pterocarpus santalinus_, used for giving colour to alcoholic liquors &c.--_v.i._ RED'SEAR, to break when too hot.--_ns._ RED'SEED, small crustaceans which float on the sea; RED'-SHANK, an aquatic bird of the snipe family, with legs of a bright-red colour: a name given in ridicule to the Scottish Highlanders, and to the Irish.--_adj._ RED'-SHORT, noting iron that is brittle at red-heat.--_ns._ RED'-SHORT'NESS; RED'SKIN, a Red Indian; RED'-STAFF, a miller's straight-edge, used in dressing millstones; RED'START, a bird belonging to the family of the warblers, appearing in Britain as a summer bird of passage; RED'STREAK, an apple, so called from the colour of its skin; RED'-TAIL, the red-tailed buzzard, one of the commonest hawks of North America.--_adj._ RED'-TAILED (_Shak._), having a red tail.--_ns._ RED'-THRUSH, the red-wing; RED'-TOP, a kind of bent grass; RED'-WA'TER, a disease of cattle, named from the urine being reddened with the red globules of the blood.--_adj._ RED'-WAT'-SHOD (_Scot._), walking in blood over the shoes.--_ns._ RED'-WEED, the common poppy; RED'-WING, a species of thrush well known in Britain as a winter bird of passage, having an exquisite, clear, flute-like song; RED'WOOD, a Californian timber-tree, growing to nearly three hundred feet high.--_adj._ RED'-WUD (_Scot._), stark mad.--RED-CROSS KNIGHT, a knight having on his shield a red cross; RED ENSIGN, the British flag for all vessels not belonging to the navy, consisting of a plain red flag, having the canton filled by the Union-jack (before 1864 also the special flag of the Red Squadron); RED-GUM TREE, a species of Eucalyptus attaining the height of 200 feet; RED PHEASANT, a tragopan; RED SNOW, snow coloured by the minute alga _Protococcus nivalis_, found in large patches in arctic and alpine regions.--INDIAN RED, a permanent red pigment, orig. a natural earth rich in oxide of iron, now prepared artificially.--ROYAL RED CROSS, a decoration for nurses, instituted by Queen Victoria in 1883. [A.S. _reád_; Ger. _roth_, L. _ruber_, Gr. _e-rythros_, Gael. _ruath_.] RED, red, _v.t._ to put in order, make tidy: to disentangle: (_coll._) to separate two men in fighting.--_ns._ RED'DER (_Scot._), one who endeavours to settle a quarrel; RED'DING, the process of putting in order; RED'DING-COMB, a large-toothed comb for dressing the hair; RED'DING-STRAIK (_Scot._), a stroke received in trying to separate fighters. RED, REDD, red (_Spens._), _pa.t._ of _read_, declared. REDACTION, r[=e]-dak'shun, _n._ the act of arranging in systematic order, esp. literary materials: the digest so made: an editorial staff.--_v.t._ REDACT', to edit, work up into literary form.--_n._ REDACT'OR, an editor.--_adj._ REDACT[=O]'RIAL. [Fr.,--L. _redactus_, pa.p. of _redig[)e]re_, to bring back.] REDAN, r[=e]-dan', _n._ (_fort._) the simplest form of fieldwork, consisting of two faces which form a salient angle towards the enemy, serving to cover a bridge or causeway--quite open at the gorge. [O. Fr. _redan_, _redent_--L. _re-_, back, _dens_, a tooth.] REDARGUE, r[=e]-där'g[=u], _v.t._ to disprove.--_n._ REDARG[=U]'TION. [O. Fr. _redarguer_--L. _redargu[)e]re_--_re-_, back, _argu[)e]re_, to argue.] REDDENDUM, re-den'dum, _n._ (_law_) the clause by which the rent is reserved in a lease:--_pl._ REDDEN'DA.--_n._ REDDEN'DO (_Scots law_), a clause in a charter specifying the services to be rendered by a vassal to his superior. [L., fut. part. pass. of _redd[)e]re_.] REDDING. See RED (2). REDDITION, re-dish'un, _n._ a giving back of anything: surrender: a rendering of the sense: explanation.--_adj._ REDD'ITIVE, returning an answer. [Fr.,--L. _reddition-em_--_redd[)e]re_, _redditum_, to restore.] REDDLE, red'l, _n._ an impure peroxide of iron (ferric oxide) associated with very variable proportions of clay or chalk--also RED'-CLAY, RADD'LE, RED'-CHALK.--_n._ REDD'LEMAN, a dealer in red clay. REDE, r[=e]d, _v.t._ to counsel or advise.--_n._ advice: a phrase: a motto.--_n._ REDE'CRAFT, logic.--_adj._ REDE'LESS, without counsel or wisdom. [_Read_.] REDECORATE, r[=e]-dek'o-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to decorate again. REDEDICATION, r[=e]-ded-i-k[=a]'shun, _n._ a second or renewed dedication. REDEEM, r[=e]-d[=e]m', _v.t._ to ransom: to relieve from captivity by a price: to rescue, deliver: to pay the penalty of: to atone for: to perform, as a promise: to improve, put to the best advantage: to recover, as a pledge.--_adj._ REDEEM'ABLE, that may be redeemed.--_ns._ REDEEM'ABLENESS; REDEEM'ER, one who redeems or ransoms, esp. Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the world.--_adjs._ REDEEM'ING, saving: good, as exceptional to what is bad; REDEEM'LESS, incurable; REDEMP'TIVE, pertaining to redemption: serving or tending to redeem; REDEMP'TORY, serving to redeem: paid for ransom. [O. Fr. _redimer_--L. _redim[)e]re_--_red-_, back, _em[)e]re_, to buy.] REDELIBERATE, r[=e]-de-lib'[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.i._ to deliberate again. REDELIVER, r[=e]-de-liv'[.e]r, _v.t._ to deliver back or again: to liberate a second time.--_ns._ REDELIV'ERANCE; REDELIV'ERY, the act of delivering back: a second delivery or liberation. REDEMAND, r[=e]-d[=e]-mand', _v.t._ to demand back or again.--_n._ the repetition of a demand: a demand for the return of a thing. REDEMISE, r[=e]-d[=e]-m[=i]z', _v.t._ to convey back, as an estate.--_n._ such a transfer. REDEMPTION, r[=e]-demp'shun, _n._ act of redeeming or buying back: ransom: release: the deliverance of mankind from sin and misery by Christ.--_ns._ REDEMP'TIONARY, one who is set at liberty, or released from a bond, by paying a compensation or fulfilling some stipulated conditions; REDEMP'TIONER, one who redeemed himself from debt, or the like, by service; REDEMP'TIONIST, one of an order of monks devoted to the redemption of Christian captives from slavery; REDEMP'TORIST, one of a congregation of R.C. missionary priests, founded by Alfonso Liguori in 1732, whose object is the religious instruction of the people and the reform of public morality, by periodically visiting, preaching, and hearing confessions. [Fr.,--L.,--_redemptus_, pa.p. of _redim[)e]re_, to redeem.] REDENTED, r[=e]-den'ted, _adj._ formed like the teeth of a saw. [O. Fr. _redent_, a double notching--L. _re-_, again, _dens_, _dentis_, a tooth.] REDESCEND, r[=e]-d[=e]-send', _v.i._ to descend again.--_n._ REDESCENT', a descending again. REDESCRIBE, r[=e]-d[=e]-skr[=i]b', _v.t._ to describe again. REDETERMINE, r[=e]-d[=e]-t[.e]r'min, _v.t._ to determine again. REDEVELOP, r[=e]-d[=e]-vel'op, _v.t._ to intensify in photography by a second process.--_n._ REDEVEL'OPMENT. REDHIBITION, red-hi-bish'un, _n._ (_law_) an action to oblige the seller to annul the sale because of a defect--also REHIBI'TION.--_adjs._ REDHIB'ITORY, REHIB'ITORY. REDIA, r[=e]'di-a, _n._ a stage in some trematode worms immediately before _cercaria_:--_pl._ R[=E]'DIÆ. [From _Redi_, an Italian naturalist.] REDIFFERENTIATE, r[=e]-dif-e-ren'shi-[=a]t, _v.i._ to differentiate a differential coefficient.--_n._ REDIFFERENTI[=A]'TION. REDIGEST, r[=e]-di-jest', _v.t._ to reduce to form again. REDINGOTE, red'ing-g[=o]t, _n._ a double-breasted outer coat with long full skirts, worn by men, also a similar outer garment for women. REDINTEGRATE, r[=e]-din't[=e]-gr[=a]t, _v.t._ to restore to integrity again: to renew:--_pr.p._ redin'tegr[=a]ting; _pa.p._ redin'tegr[=a]ted.--_n._ REDINTEGR[=A]'TION, restoration to integrity or to a whole or sound state: renovation. [L. _redintegr[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_re-_, again, _integr[=a]re_, to make whole--_integer_.] REDIRECT, r[=e]-di-rekt', _v.t._ to direct anew. REDISBURSE, r[=e]-dis-burs', _v.t._ to refund. REDISCOVER, r[=e]-dis-kuv'[.e]r, _v.t._ to discover again.--_n._ REDISCOV'ERY. REDISPOSE, r[=e]-dis-p[=o]z', _v.t._ to dispose or adjust again.--_n._ REDISPOSI'TION. REDISSEIZE, r[=e]-dis-s[=e]z', _v.t._ to disseize anew.--_ns._ REDISSEIZ'IN (_law_), a writ to recover seizin of lands; REDISSEIZ'OR. REDISSOLVE, r[=e]-di-zolv', _v.t._ to dissolve again.--_n._ REDISSOL[=U]'TION. REDISTRIBUTE, r[=e]-dis-trib'[=u]t, _v.t._ to apportion anew.--_n._ REDISTRIB[=U]'TION, a second or renewed distribution. REDISTRICT, r[=e]-dis'trikt, _v.t._ to divide again, as a state into districts.--_n._ REDIS'TRICTING (_U.S._). REDITION, r[=e]-dish'un, _n._ the act of going back. REDIVIDE, r[=e]-di-v[=i]d', _v.t._ to divide again or anew. REDIVIVUS, red-i-v[=i]'vus, _adj._ alive again: restored. REDOLENT, red'[=o]-lent, _adj._ diffusing odour or fragrance: scented.--_ns._ RED'OLENCE, RED'OLENCY.--_adv._ RED'OLENTLY. [Fr.,--L. _redolens_, _-entis_--_red-_, _re-_, again, _ol[=e]re_, to emit an odour.] REDONDILLA, red-on-d[=e]'lya, _n._ an early form of versification in which the 1st and 4th and the 2d and 3d lines of the stanza generally rhymed: in later Spanish use, a term applied to verses of 6 and 8 syllables in general, whether making perfect rhymes or assonances only. [Sp.,--L. _rotundus_, round.] REDORSE, r[=e]-dors', _n._ the reverse side of a dorsal or dorse. REDOUBLE, r[=e]-dub'l, _v.t._ to double again or repeatedly: to increase greatly: to multiply.--_v.i._ to become greatly increased: to become twice as much. REDOUBT, REDOUT, r[=e]-dowt', _n._ (_fort._) a field-work enclosed on all sides, its ditch not flanked from the parapet: a central or retired work within any other works, intended to afford the garrison a last retreat--also REDUIT'.--_adj._ (_her._) bent in many angles. [Fr. _redoute_, _réduit_, a redoubt--It. _ridotto_--L. _reduc[)e]re_, _reductum_--to bring back.] REDOUBT, r[=e]-dowt', _v.t._ (_arch._) to fear.--_adjs._ REDOUBT'ABLE, valiant; REDOUBT'ED (_Spens._).--_n._ REDOUBT'ING. [O. Fr. _redouter_, to fear greatly--L. _re-_, back, _dubit[=a]re_, to doubt.] REDOUND, r[=e]-downd', _v.i._ to be sent back by reaction, to rebound: to result, turn out: (_Spens._, _Milt._) to overflow, to be in excess.--_n._ the coming back, as an effect or consequence, return.--_n._ REDOUND'ING. [Fr. _rédonder_--L. _redund[=a]re_--_re-_, back, _und[=a]re_, to surge--_unda_, a wave.] REDOWA, red'[=o]-a, _n._ a Bohemian round dance, one form resembling the waltz, the other the polka: the music for such a dance, usually in quick triple time. [Fr.,--Bohem. _rejdowák_.] REDRAFT, r[=e]-draft', _n._ a second draft or copy: a new bill of exchange which the holder of a protested bill draws on the drawer or endorsers, for the amount of the bill, with costs and charges. REDRAW, r[=e]-draw', _v.t._ to draw again: to draw a second copy: to draw a new bill: to meet another bill of the same amount. REDRESS, r[=e]-dres', _v.t._ to set right: to relieve from: to make amends to: to compensate: to dress again.--_n._ relief: reparation.--_n._ REDRESS'ER, one who gives redress.--_adjs._ REDRESS'IBLE, that may be redressed; REDRESS'IVE, affording redress; REDRESS'LESS, without relief.--_n._ REDRESS'MENT, the act of redressing. REDRIVE, r[=e]-dr[=i]v', _v.t._ to drive back. RED-TAPE, red'-t[=a]p, _n._ the red tape used in public, and esp. government, offices for tying up documents, &c.: applied satirically to the intricate system of routine in vogue there: official formality.--_adj._ pertaining to official formality.--_ns._ RED'-T[=A]'PISM, the system of routine in government and other public offices; RED'-T[=A]'PIST, a great stickler for routine. REDUB, r[=e]-dub', _v.t._ (_obs._) to make amends for.--_n._ REDUB'BER, one who buys stolen cloth and so alters it as not to be recognised. REDUCE, r[=e]-d[=u]s', _v.t._ to bring into a lower state, as to reduce the ores of silver: to lessen: to impoverish: to subdue: to arrange: (_arith._ and _alg._) to change numbers or quantities from one denomination into another: to reduce to its proper form, as to reduce a fracture: to bring into a new form, as to reduce Latin to English: to weaken: to bring into a class: (_Scots law_) to annul by legal means: (_mil._) to strike off the pay-roll.--_ns._ REDUC'ER, one who reduces: a joint-piece for connecting pipes of varying diameter; REDUCIBIL'ITY, REDUC'IBLENESS, the quality of being reducible.--_adj._ REDUC'IBLE, that may be reduced.--_ns._ REDUC'ING-SCALE, a scale used by surveyors for reducing chains and links to acres and roods; REDUC'TION, act of reducing or state of being reduced: diminution: subjugation: a rule for changing numbers or quantities from one denomination to another.--_adj._ REDUC'TIVE, having the power to reduce.--REDUCE TO THE RANKS, to degrade, for misconduct, to the condition of a private soldier; REDUCTIO AD ABSURDUM, the proof of a proposition by proving the falsity of its contradictory opposite; REDUCTION WORKS, smelting works. [L. _reduc[)e]re_, _reductum_--_re-_, back, _duc[)e]re_, to lead.] REDUIT. See REDOUBT (1). REDUNDANCE, r[=e]-dun'dans, _n._ quality of being superfluous: superabundance--also REDUN'DANCY.--_adj._ REDUN'DANT, superfluous, as in words or images: (_Milt._) flowing back, as a wave.--_adv._ REDUN'DANTLY. [Fr.,--L. _redund-ans_, _-antis_, pr.p. of _redund[=a]re_, to redound.] REDUPLICATE, r[=e]-d[=u]'pli-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to double again: to multiply: to repeat.--_adj._ doubled.--_n._ REDUPLIC[=A]'TION, the act of redoubling: the repetition of a syllable, or of the initial part, in inflection and word-formation, as in L. _fefelli_, perf. of _fallo_, Gr. _tetupha_, perf. of _tupt[=o]_: (_anat._) a folding or doubling of a part or organ.--_adj._ RED[=U]'PLIC[=A]TIVE. REDUVIIDÆ, red-[=u]-v[=i]'i-d[=e], _n.pl._ a family of predacious bugs.--_adj._ RED[=U]'VIOID.--_n._ RED[=U]'VIUS, a genus embracing about fifty species, mostly African--the _Fly-bug_ is European. REDUX, r[=e]'duks, _adj._ led back, as from captivity, &c., as in Dryden's poem on the Restoration entitled _Astræa Redux_: (_med._) noting the reappearance of certain physical signs after interruption in consequence of disease. REE, r[=e], (_prov._) _v.t._ to riddle. REE, r[=e], _adj._ (_prov._) wild, tipsy. REEBOK, r[=e]'bok, _n._ a South African antelope. RE-ECHO, r[=e]-ek'[=o], _v.t._ to echo back.--_v.i._ to give back echoes: to resound.--_n._ an echo repeated. REECHY, r[=e]ch'i, _adj._ (_Shak._) smoky, sooty, tanned.--_n._ REECH, smoke--the Scotch _reek_ (q.v.). REED, r[=e]d, _v.t._ and _v.i._ (_Spens._) to deem. [Illustration] REED, r[=e]d, _n._ the common English name of certain tall grasses, growing in moist or marshy places, and having a very hard or almost woody culm: a musical pipe anciently made of a reed: the sounding part of several musical instruments, as the clarinet, bassoon, oboe, and bagpipe: the speaking part of the organ, though made of metal: the appliance in weaving for separating the threads of the warp, and for beating the weft up to the web: a tube containing the powder-train leading to the blast-hole: a piece of whalebone, &c., for stiffening the skirt or waist of a woman's dress: (_poet._) a missile weapon: reeds or straw for thatch: a measuring reed.--_v.t._ to thatch.--_ns._ REED'-BAND, a musical band including clarinets and other reed-instruments; REED'-BIRD, the bobolink; REED'-BUNT'ING, the black-headed bunting of Europe.--_adjs._ REED'ED, covered with reeds: formed with reed-like ridges or channels; REED'EN, consisting of a reed or reeds.--_ns._ REED'ER, a thatcher; REED'-GRASS, any one of the grasses called reeds; REED'INESS, the state of being reedy; REED'ING, the milling on the edge of a coin: (_archit._) ornamental beaded mouldings, &c.; REED'-IN'STRUMENT, a musical instrument, the tone of which is produced by the vibration of a reed; REED'-KNIFE, a metal implement for adjusting the tuning wires in a pipe-organ; REED'LING, the European bearded titmouse; REED'-MACE, any plant of the genus _Typha_, esp. either of two species, also called _Cat's tail_, the most common of which grows to a height of five or six feet, and is sometimes called _Bulrush_; REED'-M[=O]'TION, the mechanism which in power-looms moves the batten; REED'-OR'GAN, a key-board musical instrument of which the harmonium and the American organ are the principal types; REED'-PHEAS'ANT, the bearded titmouse or reedling; REED'-PIPE, in organ-building, a pipe whose tone is produced by the vibration of a reed: REED'-PLANE, a concave-soled plane used in making beads; REED'-STOP, a set of reed-pipes in organs, the use of which is controlled by a single stop-knob; REED'-WAR'BLER, a species of the warblers, frequenting marshy places, and building its nest on the reeds which grow there--also REED'-THRUSH; REED'-WREN, the greater reed-warbler: an American wren.--_adj._ REED'Y, abounding with reeds: resembling or sounding as a reed--_n._ masses of rods of iron imperfectly welded together. [A.S. _hreód_; Dut. _riet_, Ger. _ried_.] RE-EDIFY, r[=e]-ed'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to rebuild.--_n._ RE-EDIFIC[=A]'TION, the act of rebuilding: the state of being rebuilt. REEF, r[=e]f, _n._ a chain of rocks lying at or near the surface of the water: a shoal or elevated bank: a lode, vein, or ledge, in Australian mining phraseology. [Dut. _rif_; Ice. _rif_.] [Illustration] REEF, r[=e]f, _n._ a portion of a sail rolled or folded up.--_v.t._ to reduce the exposed surface of, as a sail: to gather up any material in a similar way.--_ns._ REEF'-BAND, a strong strip of canvas extending across a sail to strengthen it; REEF'ER, a reef-oyster: one who reefs: a short jacket worn by sailors: a midshipman; REEF'-GOOSE, the common wild goose of North America; REEF'ING, the gathering up of a curtain in short festoons; REEF'ING-JACK'ET, a pea-jacket; REEF'-KNOT, a square knot; REEF'-LINE, a temporary means of spilling a sail; REEF'-PEND'ANT, in fore and aft sails, a rope through a sheave-hole in the boom; REEF'-SQUID, a lashing used aboard the luggers on the south coast of England; REEF'-TACK'LE, a tackle used to facilitate reefing.--_adjs._ REEF'Y, full of reefs; CLOSE'-REEFED, the condition of a sail when all its reefs have been taken in. [Dut. _reef_, reef; Ice. _rif_, Dan. _reb_.] REEF, r[=e]f, _adj._ (_Scot._) scabby.--_n._ the itch. [A.S. _hreóf_, scabby.] REEK, r[=e]k, _n._ smoke: vapour.--_v.i._ to emit smoke or vapour: to steam.--_adj._ REEK'Y, full of reek: smoky: soiled with steam or smoke: foul. [A.S. _réc_; Ice. _reykr_, Ger. _rauch_, Dut. _rook_, smoke.] REEL, r[=e]l, _n._ a lively Scottish dance for two couples or more, its music generally written in common time of four crotchets in a measure, but sometimes in jig time of six quavers: music for such a dance.--_v.i._ to dance a reel. [Gael. _righil_.] REEL, r[=e]l, _n._ a rolling or turning frame for winding yarn, &c.--_v.t._ to wind on a reel.--_adj._ REEL'ABLE, capable of being reeled.--_ns._ REEL'-CLICK, an attachment to an angler's reel, which checks the line from running out too freely; REEL'-COTT'ON, sewing cotton thread wound on reels or spools; REEL'ER, one who reels: the grasshopper-warbler; REEL'-HOLD'ER, a rotatory frame to hold spools or reels of thread used in sewing: one of the watch in a man-of-war who hauls in the line when the log is heaved to ascertain the ship's speed; REEL'ING-MACHINE', a machine for winding thread on spools or reels: a machine which winds into hanks the cotton yarn received from the bobbins of the spinning-frames; REEL'-LINE, a fishing-line used on a reel by anglers, esp. the part _reeled_, as distinguished from that _cast;_ REEL'-PLATE, the metal plate of a fishing-reel that fits into the reel-seat; REEL'-SEAT, the groove on an angler's rod which receives the reel.--REEL OFF, to give out with rapidity or fluency. [A.S. _reól_, _hreól_.] REEL, r[=e]l, _v.i._ to stagger: to vacillate.--_n._ giddiness.--_adv._ REEL'-RALL (_Scot._), topsy-turvy. [Conn. with preceding word.] RE-ELECT, r[=e]-[=e]-lekt', _v.t._ to elect again.--_n._ RE-ELEC'TION. RE-ELEVATE, r[=e]-el'e-v[=a]t, _v.t._ to elevate again or anew. RE-ELIGIBLE, r[=e]-el'i-ji-bl, _adj._ capable of re-election.--_n._ RE-ELIGIBIL'ITY. REEM, r[=e]m, _n._ an animal mentioned in Job, xxxix. 9--unicorn, wild ox, or ox-antelope. RE-EMBARK, r[=e]-em-bärk', _v.t._ to embark or put on board again.--_n._ RE-EMBARK[=A]'TION. RE-EMBATTLE, r[=e]-em-bat'l, _v.t._ (_Milt._) to range again in order of battle. RE-EMBODY, r[=e]-em-bod'i, _v.t._ to embody again. RE-EMBRACE, r[=e]-em-br[=a]s', _v.t._ or _v.i._ to embrace again. RE-EMERGE, r[=e]-[=e]-m[.e]rj', _v.i._ to emerge again.--_n._ RE-EMERG'ENCE, the act of emerging again. REEMING, r[=e]m'ing, _n._ the act of opening the seams between the planks of a vessel with a caulking-iron, in order to admit the oakum. RE-ENACT, r[=e]-en-akt', _v.t._ to enact again.--_n._ RE-ENACT'MENT. RE-ENCOURAGEMENT, r[=e]-en-kur'[=a]j-ment, _n._ renewed or repeated encouragement. RE-ENDOW, r[=e]-en-dow', _v.t._ to endow again or anew. RE-ENFORCE, RE-ENFORCEMENT. Same as REINFORCE, REINFORCEMENT. RE-ENGAGE, r[=e]-en-g[=a]j', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to engage again or a second time.--_n._ RE-ENGAGE'MENT, a renewed or repeated engagement. RE-ENGENDER, r[=e]-en-jen'd[.e]r, _v.t._ to regenerate. RE-ENGRAVE, r[=e]-en-gr[=a]v', _v.t._ to engrave again or anew. RE-ENJOY, r[=e]-en-joi', _v.t._ to enjoy anew or a second time. RE-ENLIST, r[=e]-en-list, _v.t._ or _v.i._ to enlist again. RE-ENTER, r[=e]-en't[.e]r, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to enter again or anew: in engraving, to cut deeper where the aqua fortis has not bitten sufficiently.--_p.adj._ RE-EN'TERING, entering again: turning inwards.--_n._ RE-EN'TRANCE, the act of entering again.--_adj._ RE-EN'TRANT (same as RE-ENTERING).--_n._ RE-EN'TRY, an entering again: the resuming a possession lately lost.--RE-ENTERING ANGLE, an angle pointing inwards. RE-ENTHRONE, r[=e]-en-thr[=o]n', _v.t._ to restore to the throne.--_n._ RE-ENTHRONE'MENT. RE-ERECT, r[=e]-e-rekt', _v.t._ to erect again. REERMOUSE. Same as REREMOUSE. REESK, r[=e]sk, _n._ (_Scot._) rank grass, or waste land growing such. REEST, REIST, r[=e]st, _v.i._ (_Scot._) of a horse, suddenly to refuse to move, to baulk.--_v.t._ to arrest, stop. RE-ESTABLISH, r[=e]-es-tab'lish, _v.t._ to establish again: to restore.--_ns._ RE-ESTAB'LISHER, one who re-establishes; RE-ESTAB'LISHMENT. RE-ESTATE, r[=e]-es-t[=a]t', _v.t._ to re-establish. REEVE, r[=e]v, _n._ a steward or other officer (now used only in composition, as in _sheriff_)--a title applied to several classes of old English magistrates over various territorial areas, as _borough-reeves_, over boroughs; _port-reeves_, in trading towns, in ports; _high-reeves_, &c. [M. E. _reve_--A.S. _geréfa_--_róf_, excellent. Cf. Ger. _graf_.] REEVE, r[=e]v, _v.t._ to pass the end of a rope through any hole, as the channel of a block:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ reeved, also rove (_naut._). [_Reef_ (2).] RE-EXAMINE, r[=e]-eg-zam'in, _v.t._ to examine again or anew.--_n._ RE-EXAMIN[=A]'TION, a renewed or repeated examination. RE-EXCHANGE, r[=e]-eks-ch[=a]nj', _v.t._ to exchange again or anew.--_n._ a renewed exchange. RE-EXHIBIT, r[=e]-eg-zib'it, _v.t._ to exhibit again. RE-EXPEL, r[=e]-eks-pel', _v.t._ to expel again. RE-EXPORT, r[=e]-eks-p[=o]rt', _v.t._ to export again, as what has been imported.--_n._ RE-EXPORT[=A]'TION, the act of exporting what has first been imported. REFACTION, r[=e]-fak'shun, _n._ (_obs._) _retribution_. REFAIT, re-f[=a]', _n._ a drawn game, esp. in _rouge-et-noir_. REFASHION, r[=e]-fash'un, _v.t._ to fashion or mould again.--_n._ REFASH'IONMENT. REFASTEN, r[=e]-fas'n, _v.t._ to fasten again. REFECTION, r[=e]-fek'shun, _n._ refreshment: a meal or repast.--_n._ REFEC'TIONER.--_adj._ REFEC'TIVE, refreshing.--_n._ REFEC'TORY, the place where refections or meals are taken, esp. in convents or monasteries. [_Fr._,--L. _refectio_--_refic[)e]re_, _refectum_--_re-_, again, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] REFEL, r[=e]-fel', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to refute, to disprove. [O. Fr.,--L. _refell[)e]re_--_re-_, again, _fall[)e]re_, to deceive.] REFEOFF, r[=e]-fef', _v.t._ to reinvest. REFER, r[=e]-f[.e]r, _v.t._ to submit to another person or authority: to assign: to reduce: to carry back: to trace back: to hand over for consideration: to deliver over, as to refer a matter: to appeal: to direct for information.--_v.i._ to direct the attention: to give a reference: to have reference or recourse: to relate: to allude:--_pr.p._ refer'ring; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ referred'.--_adjs._ REF'ERABLE, REFER'RIBLE, that may be referred or assigned to.--_ns._ REFER[=EE]', one to whom anything is referred: an arbitrator, umpire, or judge; REF'ERENCE, the act of referring: a submitting for information or decision: relation: allusion: one who, or that which, is referred to: (_law_) the act of submitting a dispute for investigation or decision: a testimonial: a direction in a book, a quotation; REF'ERENCE-B[=I]'BLE, a Bible having references to parallel passages; REF'ERENCE-BOOK, a book to be referred to or consulted, as an encyclopædia; REF'ERENCE-L[=I]'BRARY, a library containing books to be consulted only in the premises.--_n.pl._ REF'ERENCE-MARKS (_print._), the characters *, +, &c., used to refer to notes, &c.--_ns._ REFERENDAR', in Germany, a legal probationer who has passed the first of the two examinations for the judicial service; REFEREN'DARY, one to whose decision a cause is referred, a referee: formerly a public official whose duty was to procure, execute, and despatch diplomas and charters, or who served as the medium of communication with a sovereign: the official through whom the patriarch of Constantinople communicates with the civil authorities; REFEREN'DUM, in Switzerland, the right of the people to have all legislative acts passed in the Federal or Cantonal Assemblies referred to them _en masse_.--_adj._ REFEREN'TIAL, containing a reference: pointing or referring to something else.--_adv._ REFEREN'TIALLY, in the way of reference.--_ns._ REFER'MENT; REFER'RER. [O. Fr. _referer_ (_référer_)--L. _referre_, to carry back--_re-_, back, _ferre_, to carry.] REFERRIBLE. Same as REFERABLE. REFIGURE, r[=e]-fig'[=u]r, _v.t._ to represent anew: (_astrol._) to restore the parabolic figure of, as of a parabolic mirror. REFILL, r[=e]-fil', _v.t._ to fill again. REFIND, r[=e]-f[=i]nd', _v.t._ to find or experience again. REFINE, r[=e]-f[=i]n', _v.t._ to separate from extraneous matter: to reduce to a fine or pure state: to purify: to clarify: to polish: to make elegant: to purify the manners, morals, language, &c.--_v.i._ to become fine or pure: to affect nicety: to improve in any kind of excellence.--_p.adj._ REFINED', made fine: polished: highly cultivated.--_adv._ REFIN'EDLY, in a refined manner: with affected elegance.--_ns._ REFIN'EDNESS, REFINE'MENT, act of refining or state of being refined: purification: separation from what is impure, &c.: cultivation: elegance: polish: purity: an excessive nicety; REFIN'ER, one who refuses anything: a piece of mechanism for refining, as a gas purifier; REFIN'ERY, a place for refining; REFIN'ING, the act or process of refining or purifying, particularly metals. [L. _re-_, denoting change of state, and _fine_; cf. Fr. _raffiner_.] REFIT, r[=e]-fit', _v.t._ to fit or prepare again.--_v.i._ to repair damages.--_ns._ REFIT', REFIT'MENT. REFLAME, r[=e]-fl[=a]m', _v.i._ to burst again into flame. REFLECT, r[=e]-flekt', _v.t._ to bend back: to throw back after striking upon any surface, as light, &c.--_v.i._ to be thrown back, as light, heat, &c.: to revolve in the mind: to consider attentively or deeply: to ponder: to cast reproach or censure (with _on_, _upon_).--_p.adj._ REFLECT'ED, cast or thrown back: turned upward: reflexed.--_adjs._ REFLECT'IBLE, capable of being reflected; REFLECT'ING, throwing back light, heat, &c.: given to reflection: thoughtful.--_adv._ REFLECT'INGLY, with reflection: with censure.--REFLECTING TELESCOPE, a form of telescope in which the image of the object to be viewed is produced by a concave reflector instead of a lens, as in the refracting telescope. [Fr.,--L. _reflect[)e]re_, _reflexum_--_re-_, again, _flect[)e]re_, to bend.] REFLECTION, REFLEXION, r[=e]-flek'shun, _n._ the act of reflecting: the change of direction when a ray of light, &c., strikes upon a surface and is thrown back: the state of being reflected: that which is reflected: the action of the mind by which it is conscious of its own operations: attentive consideration: contemplation: censure or reproach: (_anat._) the folding of a part, a fold.--_adj._ REFLECT'IVE, reflecting: considering the operations of the mind: exercising thought or reflection: (_gram._) reciprocal.--_adv._ REFLECT'IVELY.--_ns._ REFLECT'IVENESS; REFLECT'OR, one who, or that which, reflects: a mirror or polished reflecting surface: a censurer.--_adj._ REFLECT'ORY. REFLET, re-fl[=a]', _n._ iridescent glaze, as on pottery: ware possessing this property. REFLEX, r[=e]'fleks, _adj._ bent or turned back: reflected: reciprocal: acting and reacting, as reflex influence: (_physiol._) said of certain movements which take place independent of the will, being sent back from a nerve-centre in answer to a stimulus from the surface: (_paint._) illuminated by light reflected from another part of the same picture.--_n._ reflection: light reflected from an illuminated surface: a copy.--_v.t._ REFLEX', to bend back.--_p.adj._ REFLEXED' (_bot._), bent backward or downward.--_n._ REFLEXIBIL'ITY.--_adjs._ REFLEX'IBLE, REFLECT'IBLE, that may be reflected or thrown back.--_n._ REFLEX'ITY.--_adj._ REFLEX'IVE, turning backward: reflective: respecting the past: relating to a verb in which the action turns back upon the subject, as _I bethought myself_.--_adv._ REFLEX'IVELY.--_n._ REFLEX'IVENESS, the state or quality of being reflexive.--_adv._ R[=E]'FLEXLY (also REFLEX'LY).--_adj._ REFLEXOGEN'IC, tending to increase reflex motions. REFLOAT, r[=e]-fl[=o]t', _n._ ebb. REFLORESCENCE, r[=e]-flor-es'ens, _n._ a blossoming anew.--_v.i._ REFLOUR'ISH. REFLOW, r[=e]-fl[=o]', _v.i._ to flow back.--_ns._ REFLOW', REFLOW'ING. REFLOWER, r[=e]-flow'[.e]r, _v.i._ to bloom again. REFLUENT, ref'l[=oo]-ent, _adj._ flowing back: ebbing.--_ns._ REF'LUENCE, REF'LUENCY.--_adj._ R[=E]'FLUX, flowing or returning back: reflex.--_n._ a flowing back: ebb.--_n._ REFLUX'ING. [L. _refluens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _reflu[)e]re_--_re-_, back, _flu[)e]re_, _fluxum_, to flow.] REFOCILLATE, r[=e]-fos'il-[=a]t, _v.t._ (_obs._) to revive.--_n._ REFOCILL[=A]'TION. [L. _re-_, again, _focill[=a]re_, to cherish--_focus_, a hearth.] REFOLD, r[=e]-f[=o]ld', _v.t._ to fold again.--_adj._ REFOLD'ED. REFOOT, r[=e]-f[=oo]t', _v.t._ to supply with a new foot. REFOREST, r[=e]-for'est, _v.t._ to plant again with trees.--_n._ REFOREST[=A]'TION. REFORGE, r[=e]-f[=o]rj', _v.t._ to forge again or anew: to make over again.--_n._ REFORG'ER. REFORM, r[=e]-form', _v.t._ to form again or anew: to transform: to make better: to remove that which is objectionable from: to repair or improve: to reclaim.--_v.i._ to become better: to abandon evil: to be corrected or improved.--_n._ a forming anew: change, amendment, improvement: an extension or better distribution of parliamentary representation, as in the Reform Bill.--_adj._ REFOR'MABLE.--_n._ REFORM[=A]'TION, the act of forming again: the act of reforming: amendment: improvement: the great religious revolution of the 16th century, which gave rise to the various evangelical or Protestant organisations of Christendom.--_adjs._ REFOR'M[=A]TIVE, forming again or anew: tending to produce reform; REFOR'M[=A]TORY, reforming: tending to produce reform.--_n._ an institution for reclaiming youths and children who have been convicted of crime.--_adj._ REFORMED', formed again or anew: changed: amended: improved: denoting the churches formed after the Reformation, esp. those in which the Calvinistic doctrines, and still more the Calvinistic polity, prevail, in contradistinction to the _Lutheran_.--_ns._ REFOR'MER, one who reforms: one who advocates political reform: one of those who took part in the Reformation of the 16th century; REFOR'MIST, a reformer.--REFORMED PRESBYTERIANS, a Presbyterian denomination originating in Scotland (see CAMERONIAN); REFORM SCHOOL, a reformatory. [L. _re-_, again, _form[=a]re_, to shape--_forma_, form.] REFORMADE, ref-or-m[=a]d', _n._ (_Bunyan_) a reduced or dismissed soldier.--_n._ REFORM[=A]'DO, an officer without a command.--_adj._ degraded: penitent. REFORTIFY, r[=e]-for'ti-f[=i], _v.t._ to fortify again or anew. REFOUND, r[=e]-fownd', _v.t._ to establish on a new basis: to cast anew.--_n._ REFOUND'ER. REFRACT, r[=e]-frakt', _v.t._ to break back or open: to break the natural course, or bend from a direct line, as rays of light, &c.--_adj._ R[=E]FRAC'TABLE.--_p.adjs_. R[=E]FRAC'TED, turned out of its straight course, as a ray of light: (_bot._, &c.) bent back at an acute angle; R[=E]FRAC'TING, serving or tending to refract: refractive.--_n._ R[=E]FRAC'TION, the act of refracting: the change in the direction of a ray of light, heat, &c., when it enters a different medium.--_adj._ R[=E]FRAC'TIVE, refracting: pertaining to refraction.--_ns._ R[=E]FRAC'TIVENESS; R[=E]FRACTIV'ITY; R[=E]FRACTOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the refractive power of different substances; R[=E]FRAC'TOR, a refracting telescope.--ANGLE OF REFRACTION, the angle between a perpendicular and a ray of light after its change of direction, bearing a constant ratio to the sine of the _angle of incidence_--the index of refraction; ASTRONOMICAL, or ATMOSPHERIC, REFRACTION, the apparent angular elevation of the heavenly bodies above their true places, caused by the refraction of the rays of light in their passage through the earth's atmosphere; DOUBLE REFRACTION, the separation of an incident ray of light into two refracted rays, polarised in perpendicular planes. [L. _refring[)e]re_, _refractum_--_re-_, back, _frang[)e]re_, to break.] REFRACTORY, r[=e]-frak'to-ri, _adj._ breaking through rules: unruly: unmanageable: obstinate: perverse: difficult of fusion, as metals, &c.: not susceptible, as to disease.--_adv._ REFRAC'TORILY.--_n._ REFRAC'TORINESS. REFRACTURE, r[=e]-frak't[=u]r, _n._ a breaking again. REFRAGABLE, ref'ra-ga-bl, _adj._ that may be resisted: capable of refutation.--_ns._ REFRAGABIL'ITY, REF'RAGABLENESS.--_v.i._ REF'RAG[=A]TE (_obs._), to be contrary in effect. [L. _refrag[=a]ri_, to resist--_re-_, again, _frang[)e]re_, to break.] REFRAIN, r[=e]-fr[=a]n', _n._ a burden or chorus recurring at the end of each division of a poem: the musical form to which the burden of a song is set: an after-taste or other sense impression. [O. Fr. _refrain_--_refraindre_--L. _refring[)e]re_ (_refrang[)e]re_).] REFRAIN, r[=e]-fr[=a]n', _v.t._ to curb: to restrain.--_v.i._ to keep from action: to forbear.--_ns._ REFRAIN'ER; REFRAIN'MENT. [O. Fr. _refraindre_ (Fr. _refréner_)--Low L. _refren[=a]re_--_re-_, back, _frenum_, a bridle.] REFRAME, r[=e]-fr[=a]m', _v.t._ to frame again. REFRANATION, r[=e]f-ra-n[=a]'shun, _n._ (_astrol._) the failure of a planetary aspect to occur. REFRANGIBLE, r[=e]-fran'ji-bl, _adj._ that may be refracted, or turned out of a direct course, as rays of light, heat, &c.--_ns._ REFRANGIBIL'ITY, REFRAN'GIBLENESS. REFREEZE, r[=e]-fr[=e]z', _v.t._ to freeze a second time. REFRENATION, ref-r[=e]-n[=a]'shun, _n._ (_obs_.) the act of restraining. REFRESH, r[=e]-fresh', _v.t._ to give new strength, spirit, &c. to: to revive after exhaustion: to enliven: to restore a fresh appearance to.--_v.i._ to become fresh again: (_coll._) to take refreshment, as food and drink.--_v.t._ R[=E]FRESH'EN, to make fresh again.--_n._ R[=E]FRESH'ER, one who, or that which, refreshes: a fee paid to counsel for continuing his attention to a case, esp. when adjourned.--_adj._ R[=E]FRESH'FUL, full of power to refresh: refreshing.--_adv._ R[=E]FRESH'FULLY.--_p.adj._ R[=E]FRESH'ING, reviving, invigorating.--_adv._ R[=E]FRESH'INGLY, in a refreshing manner: so as to revive.--_ns._ R[=E]FRESH'INGNESS; REFRESH'MENT, the act of refreshing: new strength or spirit after exhaustion: that which refreshes, as food or rest--(_pl._) usually food and drink.--REFRESHMENT, or REFECTION, SUNDAY, the fourth Sunday in Lent. REFRIGERANT, r[=e]-frij'[.e]-rant, _adj._ making cold: cooling: refreshing.--_n._ that which cools.--_v.t._ R[=E]FRIG'ER[=A]TE, to make cold: to cool: to refresh.--_n._ R[=E]FRIGER[=A]'TION.--_adjs._ R[=E]FRIG'ER[=A]TIVE, R[=E]FRIG'ER[=A]TORY, cooling: refreshing.--_ns._ R[=E]FRIG'ER[=A]TOR, an apparatus for preserving food by keeping it at a low temperature: an ice-safe; R[=E]FRIG'ER[=A]TOR-CAR, a freight-car fitted for preserving meat, &c., during transmission, by means of cold; R[=E]FRIG'ER[=A]TORY, a cooler: a vessel or apparatus for cooling, used in brewing, &c.; R[=E]FRIG[=E]'RIUM (_obs._), cooling refreshment. [Fr.,--L. _re-_, denoting change of state, _friger[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to cool, _frigus_, cold.] REFRINGE, r[=e]-frinj', _v.t._ to infringe.--_n._ R[=E]FRING'ENCY, refractive power.--_adj._ R[=E]FRIN'GENT. REFT, reft, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _reave_. REFUGE, ref'[=u]j, _n._ that which affords shelter or protection: an asylum or retreat: a resource or expedient.--_v.t._ to find shelter for.--_v.i._ to take shelter.--_ns._ REFUG[=EE]', one who flees for refuge to another country, esp. from religious persecution or political commotion; REFUG[=EE]'ISM.--CITY OF REFUGE (see City); HOUSE OF REFUGE, an institution for the shelter of the destitute. [Fr.,--L. _refugium_--_re-_, back, _frug[)e]re_, to flee.] REFULGENCE, r[=e]-ful'jens, _n._ state of being refulgent: brightness: brilliance--also R[=E]FUL'GENCY.--_adj._ R[=E]FUL'GENT, casting a flood of light: shining: brilliant.--_adv._ R[=E]FUL'GENTLY. [Fr.,--L. _refulgens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _refulg[=e]re_--_re-_, inten., _fulg[=e]re_, to shine.] REFUND, r[=e]-fund', _v.t._ to repay: to restore: to return what has been taken.--_ns._ REFUND'; REFUND'ER; REFUND'MENT. [Fr.,--L. _refund[)e]re_, _refusum_--_re-_, back, _fund[)e]re_, to pour.] REFURBISH, r[=e]-fur'bish, _v.t._ to furbish again: to polish. REFURNISH, r[=e]-fur'nish, _v.t._ to furnish again: to supply or provide anew. REFUSE, r[=e]-f[=u]z', _v.t._ to reject: to deny, as a request, &c.: to disown: to fail to receive, to repel: (_mil._) to hold troops back from the regular alignment.--_v.i._ to decline acceptance: not to comply.--_adj._ REF[=U]'SABLE, capable of being refused.--_ns._ REF[=U]'SAL, denial of anything requested: rejection: the right of taking in preference to others; R[=E]F[=U]'SER. [Fr. _refuser_, prob. due to confusion of L. _refut[=a]re_, to drive back, _recus[=a]re_, to make an objection against.] REFUSE, ref'[=u]s, _adj._ refused: worthless.--_n._ that which is rejected or left as worthless: dross. REFUSE, r[=e]-f[=u]z', _v.t._ to melt again.--_n._ R[=E]F[=U]'SION, repeated fusion or melting, as of metals: restoration. REFUTE, r[=e]-f[=u]t', _v.t._ to repel: to oppose: to disprove.--_n._ R[=E]FUTABIL'ITY.--_adj._ R[=E]F[=U]'TABLE, that may be refuted or disproved.--_adv._ R[=E]F[=U]'TABLY.--_n._ REFUT[=A]'TION, the act of refuting or disproving.--_adj._ R[=E]F[=U]'T[=A]TORY, tending to refute: refuting.--_n._ R[=E]F[=U]'TER, one who, or that which, refutes. [Fr. _réfuter_--L. _refut[=a]re_--_re-_, back, root of _fund[)e]re_, _futilis_.] REGAIN, r[=e]-g[=a]n, _v.t._ to gain back or again: to recover. REGAL, r[=e]'gal, _adj._ belonging to a king: kingly: royal.--_adv._ R[=E]'GALLY. [Fr.,--L. _regalis_--_rex_, a king--_reg[)e]re_, to rule.] REGAL, r[=e]'gal, _n._ a small portable organ used to support treble voices.--Also RIG'OLE. [Fr.,--It.,--L. _regalis_, royal.] REGALE, r[=e]-g[=a]l', _v.t._ to entertain in a sumptuous manner: to refresh: to gratify.--_v.i._ to feast.--_n._ a regal or magnificent feast.--_ns._ REGALE'MENT, the act of regaling: entertainment: refreshment; REG[=A]'LER. [Fr. _régaler_, derived by Diez, like Sp. _regalar_, from L. _regel[=a]re_, to thaw. Scheler prefers to connect with O. Fr. _galer_, to rejoice (cf. _Gala_), and Skeat follows him.] REGALIA, r[=e]-g[=a]'li-a, _n.pl._ the ensigns of royalty: the crown, sceptre, &c., esp. those used at a coronation: the rights and privileges of kings: the distinctive symbols of a particular order.--_n._ R[=E]G[=A]'L[=E], the power of the sovereign in ecclesiastical affairs.--_adj._ R[=E]G[=A]'LIAN, regal, sovereign.--_ns._ R[=E]'GALISM, R[=E]GAL'ITY, state of being regal: royalty: sovereignty: (_Scot._) a territorial jurisdiction formerly conferred by the king.--_adv._ R[=E]'GALLY. [Neut. pl. of L. _regalis_, royal.] REGALIA, r[=e]-g[=a]'lya, _n._ a superior Cuban cigar. REGARD, r[=e]-gärd', _v.t._ to observe particularly: to hold in respect or affection: to pay attention to: to care for: to keep or observe: to esteem: to consider as important or valuable: to have respect or relation to.--_n._ (_orig._) look, gaze: attention with interest: observation: respect: affection: repute: relation: reference: (_pl._) good wishes.--_adjs._ REGAR'DABLE; REGAR'DANT, looking to: (_her._) looking behind or backward.--_n._ REGAR'DER.--_adj._ REGARD'FUL, full of regard: taking notice: heedful: attentive.--_adv._ REGARD'FULLY.--_n._ REGARD'FULNESS.--_prep._ REGAR'DING, respecting, concerning.--_adj._ REGARD'LESS, without regard: not attending: negligent: heedless.--_adv._ REGARD'LESSLY.--_ns._ REGARD'LESSNESS; REGARD'-RING, a ring set with stones whose initial letters make the word _regard_, as _r_uby, _e_merald, _g_arnet, _a_methyst, _r_uby, _d_iamond.--AS REGARDS, with regard to; IN REGARD OF, in view of; IN THIS REGARD, in this respect. [Fr. _regarder_--_re-_, again, _garder_, to keep.] REGATHER, r[=e]-gath'[.e]r, _v.t._ to gather again. REGATTA, r[=e]-gat'a, _n._ a race of yachts: any rowing or sailing match. [It. _regatta_, _rigatta_--Old It. _regattare_, to haggle, prob. a form of It. _recatare_, to retail--L. _re-_, again, _capt[=a]re_, to catch.] REGELATION, r[=e]-j[=e]-l[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of freezing anew.--_v.i._ R[=E]'GEL[=A]TE, to freeze together. [L. _re-_, again, _gel[=a]re_, to freeze.] REGENCY, r[=e]'jen-si, _n._ the office, jurisdiction, or dominion of a regent: a body entrusted with vicarious government.--_n._ R[=E]'GENCE (_obs._), government. REGENERATE, r[=e]-jen'[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.t._ to produce anew: (_theol._) to renew the heart and turn it to the love of God.--_adj._ regenerated, renewed: changed from a natural to a spiritual state.--_ns._ REGEN'ER[=A]CY, REGEN'ER[=A]TENESS, state of being _regenerate_.--_n._ REGENER[=A]'TION, act of regenerating: state of being regenerated: (_theol._) new birth, the change from a carnal to a Christian life: the renewal of the world at the second coming of Christ.--_adj._ REGEN'ER[=A]TIVE, pertaining to regeneration: renewal.--_adv._ REGEN'ER[=A]TIVELY.--_n._ REGEN'ER[=A]TOR, a chamber filled with a checker-work of fire-bricks, in which the waste heat is, by reversal of the draught, alternately stored up and given out to the gas and air entering the furnace.--_adj._ REGEN'ER[=A]TORY.--_n._ REGEN'ESIS, the state of being renewed.--BAPTISMAL REGENERATION (see BAPTISE). [L. _regener[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to bring forth again--_re-_, again, _gener[=a]re_, to generate.] REGENT, r[=e]'jent, _adj._ invested with interim or vicarious sovereign authority.--_n._ one invested with interim authority: one who rules for the sovereign: a college professor, as formerly in Scotland and elsewhere: a master or doctor who takes part in the regular duties of instruction and government in some universities.--_ns._ R[=E]'GENT-BIRD, an Australian bird related to the bower-birds; R[=E]'GENTESS; R[=E]'GENTSHIP, office of a regent: deputed authority. [Fr.,--L. _regens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _reg[)e]re_, to rule.] REGERMINATE, r[=e]-j[.e]r'min-[=a]t, _v.i._ to germinate or bud again.--_n._ REGERMIN[=A]'TION. REGEST, r[=e]-jest', _v.t._ (_obs._) to throw back.--_n._ a register. REGET, r[=e]-get', _v.t._ to get or obtain again. REGIAN, r[=e]'ji-an, _n._ (_obs._) a royalist.--R[=E]'GIAM MAJEST[=A]'TEM, a collection of ancient laws bearing to have been compiled by order of David I. of Scotland, now generally believed to be a compilation from Glanville's _Tractatus de legibus_. REGIBLE, rej'i-bl, _adj._ governable. REGICIDE, rej'i-s[=i]d, _n._ the murderer of a king--applied esp. to the members of the High Court of Justice who sentenced Charles I. to death.--_adj._ REGIC[=I]'DAL. [Fr.,--L. _rex_, _regis_, a king, _cæd[)e]re_, to kill.] REGIFUGIUM, r[=e]-ji-f[=u]'ji-um, _n._ an ancient Roman festival commemorating the expulsion of the Tarquins. REGILD, r[=e]-gild', _v.t._ to gild again or anew. RÉGIME, r[=a]-zh[=e]m', _n._ mode of ruling one's diet: form of government: administration.--ANCIEN RÉGIME, the political system that prevailed in France before the Revolution of 1789. [Fr.,--L. _regimen_--_reg[)e]re_, to rule.] REGIMEN, rej'i-men, _n._ rule prescribed: orderly government: any regulation for gradual improvement: (_med._) rule of diet, habit with regard to food: (_gram._) the government of one word by another: words governed:--_pl._ REGIM'INA.--_adj._ REGIM'INAL. [L.] REGIMENT, rej'i-ment, _n._ a body of soldiers constituting the largest permanent unit, commanded by a colonel: rule.--_v.t._ to form into a regiment: to organise.--_adj._ REGIMENT'AL, relating to a regiment.--_n.pl._ the uniform of a regiment.--_n._ REGIMENT[=A]'TION, classification.--REGIMENTAL DISTRICT, the territory allotted to each regiment for recruiting purposes. REGINA, r[=e]-j[=i]'na, _n._ (_U.S._) the striped water-snake. REGION, r[=e]'jun, _n._ a portion of land: country: any area or district, with respect to fauna, flora, &c.: (_Shak._) rank, dignity: (_Shak._) the elemental space between the earth and the moon's orbit.--_adj._ R[=E]'GIONAL, topical: local: topographical.--_n._ R[=E]'GIONALISM, sectionalism.--_adv._ R[=E]'GIONALLY.--_n._ REGION[=A]'RIUS, a title given to R.C. ecclesiastics who have jurisdiction over certain districts of Rome.--_adjs._ R[=E]'GIONARY; R[=E]GION'IC. [O. Fr.,--L. _regio_, _regionis_--_reg[)e]re_, to rule.] REGISTER, rej'is-t[.e]r, _n._ a written record, regularly kept: the book containing the register: that which registers or records: one who registers, as the Scotch 'Lord Clerk Register:' that which regulates, as the damper of a furnace or stove: a stop or range of pipes on the organ, &c.: the compass of a voice or of a musical instrument: (_print._) exact adjustment of position in the presswork of books printed on both sides.--_v.t._ to enter in a register: to record.--_adjs._ REG'ISTERABLE, REG'ISTRABLE, capable of being registered; REG'ISTERED, enrolled, as a registered voter.--_ns._ REG'ISTER-GRATE, a grate with a shutter behind; REG'ISTER-OFF'ICE, a record-office: an employment office; REG'ISTER-PLATE, in rope-making, a disc having holes so arranged as to give the yarns passing through them their proper position for entering into the general twist; REG'ISTRANT, one who registers, esp. a trade-mark or patent; REG'ISTRAR, one who keeps a register or official record; REG'ISTRAR-GEN'ERAL, an officer having the superintendence of the registration of all births, deaths, and marriages; REG'ISTRARSHIP, office of a registrar.--_v.t._ REG'ISTR[=A]TE.--_ns._ REGISTR[=A]'TION, act of registering: in organ-playing, the act of combining stops for the playing of given pieces of music; REG'ISTRY, act of registering: place where a register is kept: facts recorded.--REGISTRATION ACT, a statute of 1885 extending the borough system of registration to county towns; REGISTRATION OF BRITISH SHIPS, a duty imposed on ship-owners in order to secure to their vessels the privileges of British ships; REGISTRATION OF COPYRIGHT, the recording of the title of a book for the purpose of securing the copyright; REGISTRATION OF TRADE-MARKS, the public system of registering such, with a view to secure their exclusive use.--PARISH REGISTER, a book in which the births, deaths, and marriages are inscribed; SHIP'S REGISTER, a document showing the ownership of a vessel. [O. Fr. _registre_--Low L. _registrum_, for L. _regestum_, pl. _regesta_--_re-_, back, _ger[)e]re_, to carry.] REGIUS, r[=e]'ji-us, _adj._ appointed by the Crown, as R[=E]'GIUS PROFESS'OR, one whose chair was founded by Henry VIII.; in Scotland, any professor whose chair was founded by the Crown.--R[=E]'GIUM D[=O]'NUM, an annual grant of public money to Presbyterian and other nonconformist ministers in England, Scotland, and esp. Ireland, where it only ceased in 1871. REGIVE, r[=e]-giv', _v.t._ to restore. REGLEMENT, reg'l-ment, _n._ (_Bacon_) regulation.--_adj._ REGLEMEN'TARY. [Fr.] REGLET, reg'let, _n._ a flat, narrow moulding, used to separate panels, &c.: a fillet: (_print._) a ledge of wood thicker than a lead, and used for a like purpose.--_n._ REG'LET-PLANE, a plane for making printers' reglets. [Fr., dim. of _règle_--L. _regula_, a rule.] REGLOW, r[=e]-gl[=o]', _v.i._ to recalesce.--_n._ recalescence. REGMA, reg'ma, _n._ (_bot._) a capsule with two or more lobes, each of which dehisces at maturity:--_pl._ REG'MATA. [Gr. _rh[=e]gma_, a fracture.] REGMACARP, reg'ma-kärp, _n._ any dehiscent fruit. REGNAL, reg'nal, _adj._ pertaining to the reign of a monarch.--_n._ REG'NANCY, condition of being regnant: reign: predominance.--_adj._ REG'NANT, reigning or ruling: predominant: exercising regal authority.--_ns._ REG'NICIDE, the destroyer of a kingdom; REG'NUM, a badge of royalty, esp. the early form of the pope's tiara.--REGNAL YEAR, the year of a sovereign's reign. [L. _regnans_, _regnantis_, pr.p. of _regn[=a]re_, _reg[)e]re_, to rule.] REGORGE, r[=e]-gorj', _v.t._ to swallow again: (_Milt._) to swallow eagerly: to vomit, to throw back. REGRADE, r[=e]-gr[=a]d, _v.i._ (_obs._) to retire. REGRAFT, r[=e]-graft', _v.t._ to graft again. REGRANT, r[=e]-grant', _v.t._ to grant back.--_n._ a fresh grant. REGRATE, r[=e]-gr[=a]t', _v.t._ in masonry, to remove the outer surface so as to give a fresh appearance. REGRATE, r[=e]-gr[=a]t', _v.t._ to buy and sell again in the same market, thus raising the price--once a criminal offence in England.--_ns._ REGR[=A]'TER, -TOR, a huckster who buys and sells provisions in the same fair; REGR[=A]'TING. [O. Fr. _regrater_--Low L. _recatare_, to retail--L. _re-_, back, _capt[=a]re_, to catch.] REGREDE, r[=e]-gr[=e]d', _v.i._ to retrograde.--_n._ REGR[=E]'DIENCE. REGREET, r[=e]-gr[=e]t', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to greet or salute again.--_n._ (_Shak._) exchange of salutation. REGRESS, r[=e]-gres', _n._ passage back: return: power of returning: re-entry.--_v.i._ to go back: to return to a former place or state: (_astron._) to move from east to west.--_n._ REGRES'SION, act of going back or returning.--_adj._ REGRESS'IVE, going back: returning.--_adv._ REGRESS'IVELY, in a regressive manner: by return. [L. _regressus_, perf. p. of _regredi_--_re-_, back, _gradi_, _gressus_, to step, go.] REGRET, r[=e]-gret', _v.t._ to grieve at: to remember with sorrow:--_pr.p._ regret'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ regret'ted.--_n._ sorrow for anything: concern: remorse: a written expression of regret.--_adj._ REGRET'FUL, full of regret.--_adv._ REGRET'FULLY.--_adj._ REGRET'TABLE.--_adv._ REGRET'TABLY. [O. Fr. _regrater_, to desire, prob. from L. _re-_, again, and an Old Low Ger. form, appearing in A.S. _gr['æ]tan_, Goth. _gretan_, to weep, Scot. _greet_. Others explain as from L. _re-_, in neg. sense, and _gratus_, pleasing.] REGROWTH, r[=e]-gr[=o]th', _n._ a new growth. REGUERDON, r[=e]-g[.e]r'dun, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to reward.--_n._ (_Shak._) a reward.--_n._ REGUER'DONMENT. REGULA, reg'[=u]-la, _n._ a book of rules for a religious house: (_archit._) one of the bands under a Doric triglyph or between the canals of the triglyphs:--_pl._ REG'ULÆ (-l[=e]). [L. _regula_, a rule.] REGULAR, reg'[=u]-lar, _adj._ according to rule, or to law, order, custom, established practice, or mode prescribed: in accordance with nature or art, or the ordinary form or course of things: governed by rule: uniform: periodical: unbroken: methodical, orderly, systematic: strict: pursued with steadiness: straight: level: instituted according to established forms: normal, natural: consistent: usual, customary: (_gram._) according to ordinary rule, as 'regular verbs:' (_bot._) symmetrical in form: (_geom._) having all the sides and angles equal: belonging to the permanent or standing army--opp. to _Militia_ and _Volunteer_: (_coll._) thorough, out and out, as 'a regular deception:' as opp. to _Secular_ in the R.C. Church, denoting monks, friars, &c. under a monastic rule.--_n._ a soldier belonging to the permanent army: a member of a religious order who has taken the three ordinary vows: (_chron._) a number for each year, giving, added to the concurrents, the number of the day of the week on which the paschal full moon falls: a fixed number for each month serving to ascertain the day of the week, or the age of the moon, on the first day of any month.--_n.pl._ REGUL[=A]'RIA, the regular sea-urchins.--_n._ REGULARIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ REG'ULARISE, to make regular.--_n._ REGULAR'ITY, conformity to rule: method: uniformity.--_adv._ REG'ULARLY.--_n._ REG'ULARNESS.--_v.t._ REG'UL[=A]TE, to make regular: to adjust by rule: to subject to rules or restrictions: to put in good order.--_ns._ REG'ULATING-SCREW, in organ-building, a screw by which the dip of the digitals of the keyboard of an organ may be adjusted; REGUL[=A]'TION, act of regulating: state of being regulated: a rule or order prescribed: precept: law.--_adj._ REG'UL[=A]TIVE, tending to regulate.--_n._ REG'UL[=A]TOR, one who, or that which, regulates: a lever which regulates the motion of a watch, &c.: anything that regulates motion.--_adj._ REG'UL[=A]TORY.--_n.fem._ REG'UL[=A]TRESS. [L. _regularis_--_regula_, a rule--_reg[)e]re_, to rule.] REGULUS, reg'[=u]-lus, _n._ an intermediate and impure product in the smelting of metallic ores: antimony: the golden-crested wren.--_adj._ REG'ULINE.--_v.t._ REG'ULISE. [L., 'little king.'] REGUR, r[=e]'gur, _n._ the rich black cotton soil of India, full of organic matter.--Also R[=E]'GAR. [Hind.] REGURGITATE, r[=e]-gur'ji-t[=a]t, _v.t._ to throw or pour back from a deep place.--_v.i._ to be thrown or poured back:--_pr.p._ regur'git[=a]ting; _pa.p._ regur'git[=a]ted.--_n._ REGURGIT[=A]'TION, the act of pouring or flowing back. [O. Fr.,--Low L. _regurgit[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_re-_, back, _gurges_, _gurgitis_, a gulf.] REH, r[=a], _n._ a saline efflorescence which comes to the surface in extensive tracts of Upper India. REHABILITATE, r[=e]-ha-bil'i-t[=a]t, _v.t._ to reinstate, restore to former privileges.--_n._ REHABILIT[=A]'TION, the act of restoring to forfeited rights or privileges. [Fr. _réhabiliter_--L. _re-_, again, _habilit[=a]re_--_hab[=e]re_, to have.] REHANDLE, r[=e]-hand'l, _v.t._ to remodel. REHASH, r[=e]-hash', _v.t._ to hash over again.--_n._ something made up of materials formerly used. REHEAD, r[=e]-hed', _v.t._ to furnish with a head again. REHEAR, r[=e]-h[=e]r', _v.t._ to hear again: to try over again, as a lawsuit.--_n._ REHEAR'ING. REHEARSAL, r[=e]-h[.e]r'sal, _n._ act of rehearsing: recital: recital and performance for practice previous to public representation.--_v.t._ REHEARSE', to repeat what has already been said: to narrate: to recite before a public representation.--_ns._ REHEAR'SER; REHEAR'SING. [O. Fr. _rehercer_, _reherser_--_re-_, again, _hercer_, to harrow--_herce_ (Fr. _herse_), a harrow.] REHEAT, r[=e]-h[=e]t, _v.t._ to heat anew.--_n._ REHEAT'ER, an apparatus for restoring heat to a body. REHEEL, r[=e]-h[=e]l', _v.t._ to supply a heel to a stocking, boot, &c. REHIBITION. See REDHIBITION. REHYBRIDISE, r[=e]-h[=i]'bri-d[=i]z, _v.t._ to cause to interbreed with a different species. REHYPOTHECATE, r[=e]-h[=i]-poth'[=e]-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to lend as security bonds already pledged.--_n._ REHYPOTHEC[=A]'TION. REICHSRATH, r[=i]hs'rät, _n._ the chief deliberative body in the western part of the Austrian Empire, excluding Hungary, which has its own parliament. REICHSTAG, r[=i]hs'täh, _n._ the chief deliberative body in the German Empire, exercising legislative power in conjunction with the _Bundesrath_: the diet of the old German Empire. REIFICATION, r[=e]-if-i-k[=a]'shun, _n._ materialisation.--_v.t._ R[=E]'IFY, to make real or material. REIGN, r[=a]n, _n._ rule: dominion, as Reign of Terror: royal authority: supreme power: influence: time during which a sovereign rules.--_v.i._ to rule: to have sovereign power: to be predominant. [Fr. _règne_--L. _regnum_--_reg[)e]re_, to rule.] REILLUMINATE, r[=e]-il-l[=u]'min-[=a]t, _v.t._ to illuminate or enlighten again.--_n._ REILLUMIN[=A]'TION. REIMBURSE, r[=e]-im-burs', _v.t._ to refund: to pay an equivalent to for loss or expense.--_adj._ REIMBURS'ABLE, capable of being repaid: intended to be repaid.--_ns._ REIMBURSE'MENT, act of reimbursing; REIMBURS'ER, one who reimburses. [Fr. _rembourser_--_re-_, back, _embourser_, to put in a purse--_bourse_, a purse.] REIMPLACE, r[=e]-im-pl[=a]s', _v.t._ (_obs._) to replace. REIMPLANT, r[=e]-im-plant', _v.t._ to implant again.--_n._ REIMPLANT[=A]'TION. REIMPORT, r[=e]-im-p[=o]rt', _v.t._ to bring back: to import again.--_n._ REIMPORT[=A]'TION. REIMPOSE, r[=e]-im-p[=o]z', _v.t._ to retax.--_n._ REIMPOSI'TION, the act of reimposing: a tax levied anew. REIMPRESS, r[=e]-im-pres', _v.t._ to impress anew.--_n._ REIMPRES'SION, a second or repeated impression: the reprint of a work.--_v.t._ REIMPRINT', to print again. REIMPRISON, r[=e]-im-pris'n, _v.t._ to imprison again.--_n._ REIMPRIS'ONMENT. REIN, r[=a]n, _n._ the strap of a bridle: an instrument for curbing or governing: government.--_v.t._ to govern with the rein or bridle: to restrain or control: to rein in, to curb.--_v.i._ to obey the rein.--_ns._ REIN'-HOLD'ER, a clasp on the dash-board of a carriage for holding the reins; REIN'-HOOK, a hook on a gig-saddle for holding the bearing-rein.--_adj._ REIN'LESS, without rein or restraint.--_n._ REINS'MAN, a skilful driver.--REIN UP, to bring a horse to a stop.--GIVE THE REINS TO, to leave unchecked; TAKE THE REINS, to take the control. [O. Fr. _reine_ (Fr. _rêne_), through Late L. _retina_, from _retin[=e]re_, to hold back.] REINAUGURATE, r[=e]-in-aw'g[=u]-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to inaugurate again or anew. REINCARNATE, r[=e]-in-kär'n[=a]t, _v.t._ to embody anew.--_n._ REINCARN[=A]'TION. REINCENSE, r[=e]-in-sens', _v.t._ to rekindle. REINCITE, r[=e]-in-s[=i]t', _v.t._ to reanimate. REINCORPORATE, r[=e]-in-kor'p[=o]-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to incorporate or embody again or anew. REINCREASE, r[=e]-in-kr[=e]s', _v.t._ to augment. REINCRUDATION, r[=e]-in-kr[=oo]-d[=a]'shun, _n._ recrudescence. REINDEER, r[=a]n'd[=e]r, _n._ a kind of deer in the north, valuable for the chase and for domestic uses.--_n._ REIN'DEER-MOSS, a lichen, the winter food of the reindeer. [Ice. _hreinn_, and Eng. _deer_.] REINFECT, r[=e]-in-fekt', _v.t._ to infect again.--_n._ REINFEC'TION. REINFLAME, r[=e]-in-fl[=a]m', _v.t._ to rekindle. REINFORCE, r[=e]-in-f[=o]rs', _v.t._ to enforce again: to strengthen with new force or support: (_Spens._) to compel.--_ns._ REINFORCE'MENT, the act of reinforcing: additional force or assistance, esp. of troops; REINFOR'CER, any additional strengthening added to a thing.--_adj._ REINFOR'CIBLE. REINFORM, r[=e]-in-form', _v.t._ to inform anew. REINFUND, r[=e]-in-fund', _v.t._ to flow in again. REINFUSE, r[=e]-in-f[=u]z', _v.t._ to infuse again. REINGRATIATE, r[=e]-in-gr[=a]'shi-[=a]t, _v.t._ to recommend again: to favour. REINHABIT, r[=e]-in-hab'it, _v.t._ to inhabit again. REINOCULATION, r[=e]-in-ok-[=u]-l[=a]'shun, _n._ subsequent inoculation. REINS, r[=a]nz, _n.pl._ the kidneys: the lower part of the back over the kidneys: (_B._) the inward parts: the heart. [O. Fr.,--L. _renes_.] REINSCRIBE, r[=e]-in-skr[=i]b', _v.t._ to record a second time. REINSERT, r[=e]-in-s[.e]rt', _v.t._ to insert a second time.--_n._ REINSER'TION. REINSPECT, r[=e]-in-spekt', _v.t._ to inspect again.--_n._ REINSPEC'TION. REINSPIRE, r[=e]-in-sp[=i]r', _v.t._ to inspire anew. REINSTALL, r[=e]-in-stawl', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to put again in possession: (_Milt._) to seat again.--_n._ REINSTAL'MENT. REINSTATE, r[=e]-in-st[=a]t', _v.t._ to place in a former state.--_ns._ REINST[=A]TE'MENT, REINST[=A]'TION, act of reinstating: re-establishment. REINSTRUCT, r[=e]-in-strukt', _v.t._ to instruct again. REINSURE, r[=e]-in-sh[=oo]r', _v.t._ to insure a second time by other underwriters.--_ns._ REINSUR'ANCE; REINSUR'ER. REINTEGRATE, r[=e]-in'te-gr[=a]t, _v.t._ to bring into harmony.--_n._ REINTEGR[=A]'TION. REINTER, r[=e]-in-ter', _v.t._ to bury again. REINTERROGATE, r[=e]-in-ter'[=o]-g[=a]t, _v.t._ to interrogate again.--_n._ REINTERROG[=A]'TION. REINTRODUCE, r[=e]-in-tr[=o]-d[=u]s', _v.t._ to introduce again.--_n._ REINTRODUC'TION. REINVENT, r[=e]-in-vent', _v.t._ to create anew or independently.--_n._ REINVEN'TION. REINVEST, r[=e]-in-vest', _v.t._ to invest again or a second time.--_n._ REINVEST'MENT, act of reinvesting: a second investment. REINVESTIGATE, r[=e]-in-ves'ti-g[=a]t, _v.t._ to investigate again.--_n._ REINVESTIG[=A]'TION. REINVIGORATE, r[=e]-in-vig'or-[=a]t, _v.t._ to invigorate again.--_n._ REINVIGOR[=A]'TION. REINVITE, r[=e]-in-v[=i]t', to repeat an invitation.--_n._ REINVIT[=A]'TION. REINVOLVE, r[=e]-in-volv', _v.t._ to involve anew. REIS, r[=a]s, _n._ a Portuguese money, of which 1000 make a milreis--4s. 5d. [Port., pl. of _real_.] REISSUE, r[=e]-ish'[=oo], _v.t._ to issue again.--_n._ a second issue.--_adj._ REIS'SUABLE. REITER, r[=i]'t[.e]r, _n._ a German cavalry soldier. [Ger.] REITERATE, r[=e]-it'e-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to iterate or repeat again: to repeat again and again.--_adj._ REIT'ERANT, reiterating.--_adv._ REIT'ERATEDLY.--_n._ REITER[=A]'TION, act of reiterating.--_adj._ REIT'ER[=A]TIVE (_gram._), a word signifying repeated action. REJECT, r[=e]-jekt', _v.t._ to throw away: to refuse: to renounce: to despise.--_adjs._ REJEC'TABLE, REJEC'TIBLE.--_n.pl._ REJECTAMEN'TA, excrement.--_ns._ REJEC'TER, -OR; REJEC'TION, act of rejecting: refusal.--_adj._ REJEC'TIVE.--_n._ REJECT'MENT. [L. _rejic[)e]re_, _rejectum_--_re-_, back, _jac[)e]re_, to throw.] REJOICE, r[=e]-jois', _v.i._ to feel and express joy again and again: to be glad: to exult or triumph.--_v.t._ to make joyful: to gladden.--_ns._ REJOICE'MENT, rejoicing; REJOIC'ER; REJOIC'ING, act of being joyful: expression, subject, or experience of joy.--_adv._ REJOIC'INGLY, with joy or exultation. [O. Fr. _resjoir_ (Fr. _réjouir_)--_re-_, again, _jouir_, to enjoy--_joie_, joy.] REJOIN, r[=e]-join', _v.t._ to join again: to unite what is separated: to meet again.--_v.i._ to answer to a reply.--_ns._ REJOIN'DER, an answer joined on to another, an answer to a reply: (_law_) the defendant's answer to a plaintiff's _replication_; REJOIN'D[=U]RE (_Shak._), a joining again. REJOINT, r[=e]-joint', _v.t._ to joint anew: to fill up the joints of, as with mortar. REJOLT, r[=e]-jolt', _v.t._ to shake anew.--_n._ a new shock. REJOURN, r[=e]-jurn', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to adjourn or postpone, to defer.--_n._ REJOURN'MENT. [Fr. _réajourner_.] REJUDGE, r[=e]-juj', _v.t._ to re-examine. REJUVENATE, r[=e]-j[=oo]'ve-n[=a]t, _v.t._ to renew: to make young again.--_n._ REJUVEN[=A]'TION.--_v.i._ REJUVENESCE', to grow young again.--_n._ REJUVENES'CENCE, growing young again: (_biol._) a transformation whereby the entire protoplasm of a vegetative cell changes into a cell of a different character.--_adj._ REJUVENES'CENT.--_v.t._ REJU'VENISE, to rejuvenate. [L. _re-_, again, and _juvenescent_.] REKINDLE, r[=e]-kin'dl, _v.t._ to kindle again: to set on fire or arouse anew.--_v.i._ to take fire anew. RELAIS, re-l[=a]', _n._ (_fort._) a walk left within a rampart to keep earth from falling into the ditch. [Fr.] RELAPSE, r[=e]-laps', _v.i._ to slide, sink, or fall back: to return to a former state of practice: to backslide.--_n._ a falling back into a former bad state: (_med._) the return of a disease after convalescence.--_n._ RELAP'SER.--_adj._ RELAP'SING. [L. _relabi_, _relapsus_--_re-_, back, _labi_, to slide.] RELATE, r[=e]-l[=a]t', _v.t._ to describe: to tell: to ally by connection or kindred.--_v.i._ to have reference: to refer.--_adj._ REL[=A]'TED, allied or connected by kindred or blood.--_ns._ REL[=A]'TEDNESS; REL[=A]'TER, -OR, one who relates; REL[=A]'TION, act of relating or telling: recital: that which is related: mutual connection between two things, analogy: resemblance, affinity: connection by birth or marriage: a person related by blood or marriage, a relative.--_adj._ REL[=A]'TIONAL, having relation: exhibiting some relation.--_ns._ REL[=A]TIONAL'ITY; REL[=A]'TIONISM, the doctrine that relations have a real existence; REL[=A]'TIONIST; REL[=A]'TIONSHIP; REL[=A]'TOR (_law_), an informant on whose behalf certain writs are issued:--_fem._ REL[=A]'TRIX. [O. Fr.,--L. _referre_, _relatum_--_re-_, back, _ferre_, to carry.] RELATIVE, rel'a-tiv, _adj._ having relation: respecting: not absolute or existing by itself: considered as belonging to something else: (_gram._) expressing relation.--_n._ that which has relation to something else: a relation: (_gram._) a pronoun which relates to something before, called its antecedent.--_adj._ RELAT[=I]'VAL (or REL'ATIVAL).--_adv._ REL'ATIVELY.--_ns._ REL'ATIVENESS, RELATIV'ITY.--RELATIVITY OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE, the doctrine that the nature and extent of our knowledge is determined not merely by the qualities of the objects known, but necessarily by the conditions of our cognitive powers. RELAX, r[=e]-laks', _v.t._ to loosen one thing away from another: to slacken: to make less close, tense, or rigid: to make less severe: to relieve from attention or effort: to divert: to open or loosen, as the bowels: to make languid.--_v.i._ to become less close: to become less severe: to attend less.--_adj._ RELAX'ABLE.--_ns._ RELAX'ANT, a relaxing medicine; RELAX[=A]'TION, act of relaxing: state of being relaxed: remission of application: unbending: looseness.--_adj._ RELAX'ATIVE. [Fr.,--L. _relax[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_re-_, away from, _lax[=a]re_, to loosen--_laxus_, loose.] RELAY, r[=e]-l[=a]', _n._ a supply of horses, &c., to relieve others on a journey: a fresh set of dogs in hunting: a shift of men: a supplementary store of anything: (_electr._) an apparatus by which the current of the receiving telegraphic station is strengthened. [O. Fr. _relais_--_relaisser_--L. _relax[=a]re_, to loosen.] RELAY, r[=e]-l[=a]', _v.t._ to lay again, as a pavement. RELEASE, r[=e]-l[=e]s', _v.t._ to grant a new lease of.--_ns._ RELEAS[=EE]', RELESS[=EE]', the one to whom a release is granted; RELEAS'OR, RELESS'OR, one who grants a release. RELEASE, r[=e]-l[=e]s', _v.t._ to let loose from: to set free: to discharge from: to relieve: to let go, give up a right to.--_n._ a setting free: discharge or acquittance: the giving up of a claim: liberation from pain.--_adj._ RELEAS'ABLE.--_ns._ RELEASE'MENT (_Milt._), act of releasing or discharging; RELEAS'ER, -OR, RELESS'OR, one who executes a release. [O. Fr. _relaissier_--L. _lax[=a]re_, to relax.] RELEGATE, rel'e-g[=a]t, _v.t._ to send away, to consign: to exile: to dismiss: to remit.--_n._ RELEG[=A]'TION. [L. _releg[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_re-_, away, _leg[=a]re_, to send.] RELENT, r[=e]-lent', _v.i._ to slacken, to soften or grow less severe: to grow tender: to feel compassion.--_adj._ soft-hearted: yielding.--_n._ (_Spens._) relenting.--_adjs._ RELENT'ING, inclining to yield: too soft; RELENT'LESS, without relenting: without tenderness or compassion: merciless.--_adv._ RELENT'LESSLY.--_ns._ RELENT'LESSNESS; RELENT'MENT, the state of relenting: relaxation: compassion. [O. Fr. _ralentir_, to retard--L. _relentesc[)e]re_--_re-_, back, _lentus_, pliant.] RELET, r[=e]-let', _v.t._ to let again, as a house. RELEVANCY, rel'e-van-si, _n._ state of being relevant: pertinence: applicability: obvious relation: (_Scots law_) sufficiency for a decision--the arguments and evidence in point of law and of fact against and in favour of the accused--also REL'EVANCE.--_adj._ REL'EVANT, bearing upon, or applying to, the purpose: pertinent: related: sufficient legally. [Fr., pr.p. of _relever_, to raise again--L. _relev[=a]re_, to relieve.] RELEVATION, rel-e-v[=a]'shun, _n._ (_obs._) a raising up. RELIABLE, r[=e]-l[=i]'a-bl, _adj._ that may be relied upon: trustworthy.--_ns._ RELIABIL'ITY, REL[=I]'ABLENESS.--_adv._ REL[=I]'ABLY.--_n._ REL[=I]'ANCE, trust: confidence.--_adj._ REL[=I]'ANT, confident in one's self. [_Rely_.] RELIC, rel'ik, _n._ that which is left after loss or decay of the rest: a corpse (gener. _pl._): (_R.C._) any personal memorial of a reputed saint, to be held in reverence as an incentive to faith and piety: a memorial, a souvenir: a monument.--_n._ REL'IC-MONG'ER, one who traffics in relics. [Fr. _relique_--L. _reliquiæ_--_relinqu[)e]re_, _relictum_, to leave behind.] RELICT, rel'ikt, _n._ a woman surviving her husband, a widow. [L. _relicta_--_relinqu[)e]re_.] RELICTED, r[=e]-lik'ted, _adj._ (_law_) left bare, as land by the permanent retrocession of water.--_n._ RELIC'TION, land left bare by water: the recession of water. RELIEF, r[=e]-l[=e]f', _n._ the removal of any evil: release from a post or duty, replacement: one who replaces another: that which relieves or mitigates: aid: assistance to a pauper, as _outdoor relief_: a certain fine or composition paid by the heir of a tenant at the death of the ancestor: (_fine art_) the projection of a sculptured design from its ground, as _low relief_ (_bas-relief_, _basso-rilievo_), _middle relief_ (_mezzo-rilievo_), and _high relief_ (_alto-rilievo_), according as the carved figures project very little, in a moderate degree, or in a very considerable degree from the background: a work of art executed in relief: (_her._) the supposed projection of a charge from the surface of a field, indicated by shading on the sinister and lower sides: the condition of land surfaces as regards elevations and depressions--as indicated in a RELIEF'-MAP, in which the form of the country is expressed by elevations and depressions of the material used.--_ns._ RELIEF'-PERSPEC'TIVE, the art of applying the principles of perspective to relief in painting and sculpture, in theatrical settings, &c.; RELIEF'-WORK, public work to provide employment for the poor in times of distress.--RELIEF CHURCH, a body who left the Established Church of Scotland on account of the oppressive exercise of patronage, organised in 1761, uniting with the United Secession Church in 1847 to form the United Presbyterian Church. [O. Fr. _relef_--_relever_, to raise up--L. _re-_, again, _lev[=a]re_, to raise.] RELIEVE, r[=e]-l[=e]v', _v.t._ to remove from that which weighs down or depresses: to lessen: to ease: to help: to release: to support: to mitigate: to raise the siege of: (_art_) to set off by contrast: (_law_) to redress.--_adj._ RELIEV'ABLE.--_n._ RELIEV'ER, one who, or that which, relieves: (_slang_) a garment kept for being lent out.--_adj._ RELIEV'ING, serving to relieve: (_naut._) a temporary tackle attached to the tiller of a vessel in a storm.--RELIEVING ARCH, an arch in a wall to relieve the part below it from a superincumbent weight; RELIEVING OFFICER, a salaried official who superintends the relief of the poor. [O. Fr. _relever_, to raise again--L. _relev[=a]re_--_re-_, again, _lev[=a]re_, to raise--_levis_, light.] RELIEVO, RILIEVO, r[=e]-ly[=a]'v[=o], _n._ See ALTO-RELIEVO, BAS-RELIEF. RELIGHT, r[=e]-l[=i]t', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to light or take light anew. RELIGION, r[=e]-lij'un, _n._ the recognition of supernatural powers and of the duty lying upon man to yield obedience to these: the performance of our duties of love and obedience towards God: piety: any system of faith and worship: sense of obligation or duty.--_ns._ RELIG'IONER, RELIG'IONARY.--_v.t._ RELIG'IONISE, to imbue with religion.--_v.i._ to make profession of religion.--_ns._ RELIG'IONISM, RELIGIOS'ITY, religiousness, religious sentimentality; RELIG'IONIST, one attached to a religion: a bigot.--_adj._ RELIG'IONLESS, having no religion.--_adv._ RELIGI[=O]'SO (_mus._), in a devotional manner.--ESTABLISHED RELIGION, that form which is officially recognised by the state; NATURAL RELIGION, that religion which is derived from nature and not revelation; REVEALED RELIGION, that which is derived from positive revelation by divinely inspired Scripture, or otherwise. [L. _religio_, _-onis_--_re-_, back, _lig[=a]re,_ to bind.] RELIGIOUS, r[=e]-lij'us, _adj._ pertaining to religion: concerned with or set apart to religion, as a religious society, religious books: pious: godly: (_R.C._) bound to a monastic life: strict.--_n._ one bound by monastic vows.--_ns._ RELIGIEUSE (r[.e]-l[=e]-zhi-[.e]z'), a nun; RELIGIEUX (r[.e]-l[=e]-zhi-[.e]'), a monk.--_adv._ RELIG'IOUSLY.--_n._ RELIG'IOUSNESS, the state of being religious. RELINQUISH, r[=e]-ling'kwish, _v.t._ to abandon: to give up: to renounce a claim to.--_adj._ RELIN'QUENT, relinquishing.--_ns._ RELIN'QUISHER; RELIN'QUISHMENT, act of giving up. [O. Fr. _relinquir_--L. _relinqu[)e]re_, _relictum_--_re-_, away from, _linqu[)e]re_, to leave.] RELIQUARY, rel'i-kw[=a]-ri, _n._ a small chest or casket for holding relics: (_law_) one who owes a balance.--Also RELIQUAIRE'. [Fr. _reliquaire_; cf. _Relic_.] RELIQUE, re-l[=e]k', _n._ a relic.--_n.pl._ RELIQUIÆ (r[=e]-lik'wi-[=e]), remains, esp. of fossil organisms: (_archæology_) artifacts, or things made or modified by human art. RELIQUIDATE, r[=e]-lik'wi-d[=a]t, _v.t._ to adjust anew.--_n._ RELIQUID[=A]'TION. RELISH, rel'ish, _v.t._ to like the taste of: to be pleased with: to enjoy.--_v.i._ to have an agreeable taste: to give pleasure.--_n._ an agreeable peculiar taste or quality: enjoyable quality: power of pleasing: inclination or taste for: appetite: just enough to give a flavour: a sauce.--_adj._ REL'ISHABLE. [O. Fr. _relecher_, to lick again, from _re-_, again, _lecher_--L. _re-_, again, and Old High Ger. _lech[=o]n_, lick.] RELISTEN, r[=e]-lis'n, _v.i._ to listen again or anew. RELIVE, r[=e]-liv', _v.i._ to live again.--_v.t._ (_Spens._) to bring back to life. RELOAD, r[=e]-l[=o]d', _v.t._ to load again. RELOCATE, r[=e]-l[=o]'k[=a]t, _v.t._ to locate again.--_n._ RELOC[=A]'TION, the act of relocating: renewal of a lease. RELOVE, r[=e]-luv', _v.t._ to love in return. RELUCENT, r[=e]-l[=u]'sent, _adj._ shining: bright. RELUCTANT, r[=e]-luk'tant, _adj._ struggling or striving against: unwilling: disinclined.--_v.i._ R[=E]LUCT', to make resistance.--_ns._ RELUC'TANCE, RELUC'TANCY, state of being reluctant: unwillingness.--_adv._ RELUC'TANTLY.--_v.i._ RELUC'T[=A]TE, to be reluctant.--_n._ RELUCT[=A]'TION, repugnance. [L. _reluctans_, _-antis_, pr.p. of _reluct[=a]ri_--_re-_, against, _luct[=a]ri_, to struggle.] RELUME, r[=e]-l[=u]m', _v.t._ to light anew, to rekindle:--_pr.p._ rel[=u]m'ing; _pa.p._ rel[=u]med'.--_v.t._ REL[=U]'MINE (_Shak._), to relume, light anew. [Fr. _relumer_--L. _re-_, again, _lumen_, light.] RELY, r[=e]-l[=i]', _v.i._ to rest or repose: to have full confidence in: to lean:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ relied'.--_n._ REL[=I]'ER. [Acc. to Skeat, compounded from _re-_, back, and _lie_, to rest. Others explain as O. Fr. _relier_--L. _relig[=a]re_, to bind back.] REMAIN, r[=e]-m[=a]n', _v.i._ to stay or be left behind: to continue in the same place: to be left after or out of a greater number: to continue in an unchanged form or condition: to last.--_n._ stay: abode: what is left, esp. in _pl._ REMAINS', a corpse: the literary productions of one dead.--_n._ REMAIN'DER, that which remains or is left behind after the removal of a part: the balance: an interest in an estate to come into effect after a certain other event happens: that which remains of an edition when the sale of a book has practically ceased.--_adj._ left over. [O. Fr. _remaindre_--L. _reman[=e]re_--_re-_, back, _man[=e]re_, to stay.] REMAKE, r[=e]-m[=a]k', _v.t._ to make anew. REMANATION, r[=e]-ma-n[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of returning: reabsorption. [L. _reman[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to flow back.] REMAND, r[=e]-mand, _v.t._ to recommit or send back.--_n._ state or act of being remanded or recommitted, as a prisoner.--_n._ REM'ANENCE, REM'ANENCY, permanence.--_adj._ REM'ANENT, remaining: (_Scot._) additional.--_ns._ REMANES'CENCE, a residuum; REM'ANET, a postponed case. [O. Fr. _remander_--L. _remand[=a]re_--_re-_, back, _mand[=a]re_, to order.] REMARK, r[=e]-märk', _v.t._ to mark or take notice of: to express what one thinks or sees: to say.--_n._ words regarding anything: notice: any distinguishing mark on an engraving or etching indicating a certain state of the plate before completion, also a print or proof bearing this special remark--also REMARQUE'.--_adj._ REMARK'ABLE, deserving remark or notice: distinguished: famous: that may excite admiration or wonder: strange: extraordinary.--_n._ REMARK'ABLENESS.--_adv._ REMARK'ABLY.--_adj._ REMARKED', conspicuous: bearing a remark, as an etching.--_n._ REMARK'ER. [O. Fr. _remarquer_--_re-_, inten., _marquer_, to mark.] RE-MARK, r[=e]-märk', _v.t._ to mark a second time. REMARRY, r[=e]-mar'i, _v.t._ to marry again.--_n._ REMARR'IAGE. REMASTICATE, r[=e]-mas'ti-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to ruminate.--_n._ REMASTIC[=A]'TION. REMBLAI, rong-bl[=a]', _n._ (_fort._) the materials used to form the rampart and parapet: the mass of earth brought to form a railway embankment, &c. [Fr.] REMBLE, rem'bl, _v.t._ (_prov._) to remove. REMBRANDTESQUE, rem-bran-tesk', _adj._ like _Rembrandt_ (1607-1669), esp. in his characteristic contrast of high lights and deep shadows, and in his treatment of chiaroscuro.--Also REM'BRANDTISH. REMEANT, r[=e]'m[=e]-ant, _adj._ (_rare_) coming back. [L. _reme[=a]re_--_re-_, back, _me[=a]re_, to go.] REMEASURE, r[=e]-mezh'[=u]r, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to measure anew. REMEDY, rem'e-di, _n._ any medicine, appliance, or particular treatment that cures disease: that which counteracts any evil or repairs any loss--(_obs._) REM[=E]DE'.--_v.t._ to remove, counteract, or repair:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ rem'edied.--_adj._ REM[=E]'DIABLE, that may be remedied: curable.--_n._ REM[=E]'DIABLENESS.--_adv._ REM[=E]'DIABLY.--_adj._ REM[=E]'DIAL, tending to remedy or remove.--_adv._ REM[=E]'DIALLY.--_adjs._ REM[=E]'DI[=A]TE (_Shak._), remedial; REM'EDILESS, without remedy: incurable.--_adv._ REM'EDILESSLY.--_n._ REM'EDILESSNESS.--_p.adj._ REM'EDYING. [O. Fr. _remede_--L. _remedium_--_re-_, back, _med[=e]ri_, to restore.] REMEMBER, r[=e]-mem'b[.e]r, _v.t._ to keep in mind: to recall to mind: to recollect: (_B._) to meditate on: (_Shak._) to mention: to bear in mind with gratitude and reverence: to attend to: to give money for service done.--_adj._ REMEM'BERABLE, that may be remembered.--_adv._ REMEM'BERABLY.--_ns._ REMEM'BERER; REMEM'BRANCE, memory: that which serves to bring to or keep in mind: a memorial: the power of remembering: the length of time a thing can be remembered; REMEM'BRANCER, that which reminds: a recorder: an officer of exchequer.--REMEMBER ONE TO, to commend one to. [O. Fr. _remembrer_--L. _rememor[=a]re_--_re-_, again, _memor[=a]re_, to call to mind--_memor_, mindful.] REMERCIE, REMERCY, r[=e]-m[.e]r'si, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to thank. [O. Fr. _remercier_, _re-_, again, _mercier_, to thank, _merci_, thanks.] REMERGE, r[=e]-m[.e]rj', _v.t._ (_Tenn._) to merge again. REMEX, r[=e]'meks, _n._ one of the flight-feathers of a bird:--_pl._ REM'IG[=E]S. [L., 'a rower'--_remus_, an oar, _ag[)e]re_, to move.] REMIFORM, rem'i-form, _adj._ shaped like an oar.--_adj._ REM'IGABLE, capable of being rowed upon. [L. _remus_, an oar, _forma_, form, _ag[)e]re_, to move.] REMIGIA, r[=e]-mij'i-a, _n._ a genus of noctuid moths.--_adj._ REMIG'IAL. REMIGRATE, r[=e]-m[=i]'gr[=a]t, _v.i._ to migrate again.--_n._ REMIGR[=A]'TION. REMIND, r[=e]-m[=i]nd', _v.t._ to bring to the mind of again: to bring under the notice or consideration of.--_n._ REMIND'ER, one who, or that which, reminds.--_adj._ REMIND'FUL, tending to remind: calling to mind. REMINISCENCE, rem-i-nis'ens, _n._ recollection: an account of what is remembered: the recurrence to the mind of the past.--_n._ REMINIS'CENT, one who calls past events to mind.--_adj._ capable of calling to mind.--_adjs._ REMINISCEN'TIAL, REMINIS'CITORY, tending to remind. [Fr.,--Low L. _reminiscentiæ_, recollections--L. _reminisci_, to recall to mind.] REMIPED, rem'i-ped, _adj._ oar-footed.--_n._ one of an order of insects having feet adapted for swimming. [L. _remus_, an oar, _pes_, _pedis_, a foot.] REMISE, r[=e]-m[=i]z', _v.t._ to send or give back: to release, as a claim.--_n._ (_law_) return or surrender, as of a claim: an effective second thrust after the first has missed: a livery-carriage. [O. Fr.,--Low L. _remissa_, a pardon--L. _remitt[)e]re_, _remissum_, to remit.] REMISS, r[=e]-mis', _adj._ remitting in attention, &c.: negligent: not punctual: slack: not vigorous.--_adj._ REMISS'FUL, tending to remit or forgive: lenient.--_n._ REMISSIBIL'ITY.--_adj._ REMISS'IBLE, that may be remitted or pardoned.--_n._ REMIS'SION, slackening: abatement: relinquishment of a claim: release: pardon: remission of sins: the forgiveness of sins.--_adj._ REMISS'IVE, remitting: forgiving.--_adv._ REMISS'LY.--_n._ REMISS'NESS.--_adj._ REMISS'ORY, pertaining to remission. [O. Fr. _remis_--L. _remissus_, slack--_remitt[)e]re_, to remit.] REMIT, r[=e]-mit', _v.t._ to relax: to pardon: to resign: to restore: to transmit, as money, &c.: to put again in custody: to transfer from one tribunal to another: to refer for information.--_v.i._ to abate in force or violence:--_pr.p._ remit'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ remit'ted.--_n._ (_law_) a communication from a superior court to one subordinate.--_ns._ REMIT'MENT, act of remitting; REMIT'TAL, a remitting: surrender; REMIT'TANCE, that which is remitted: the sending of money, &c., to a distance: also the sum or thing sent; REMITT[=EE]', the person to whom a remittance is sent.--_adj._ REMIT'TENT, increasing and remitting, or abating alternately, as a disease.--_ns._ REMIT'TER, one who makes a remittance; REMIT'TOR (_law_), a remitting to a former right or title--(_obs._) REMIT'TER. [O. Fr. _remettre_--L. _remitt[)e]re_, _remissum_--_re-_, back, _mitt[)e]re_, to send.] REMNANT, rem'nant, _n._ that which remains behind after a part is removed, of a web of cloth, &c.: remainder: a fragment. [O. Fr. _remenant_, remainder.] REMOBOTH, rem'[=o]-both, _n._ a class of isolated hermit societies in Syria which would be bound by no rule, after the regulation of monasticism by Pachomius and Basil--like the Sarabaites in Egypt. REMODEL, r[=e]-mod'l, _v.t._ to model or fashion anew. REMODIFICATION, r[=e]-mod-i-fi-k[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of modifying again.--_v.t._ REMOD'IFY, to mould anew. REMOLADE, r[=e]-mo-lad', _n._ a kind of salad-dressing. [Fr.] REMOLECULISATION, r[=e]-mol-ek'u-l[=i]-z[=a]-shun, _n._ a rearrangement of the molecules leading to the formation of new compounds. REMOLLIENT, r[=e]-mol'i-ent, _adj._ mollifying. REMOLTEN, r[=e]-m[=o]lt'n, _p.adj._ melted again. REMONETISE, r[=e]-mon'e-t[=i]z, _v.t._ to restore to circulation in the form of money.--_n._ REMONETIS[=A]'TION. REMONSTRANCE, r[=e]-mon'strans, _n._ strong statement of reasons against an act: expostulation.--_adj._ REMON'STRANT, inclined to remonstrate.--_n._ one who remonstrates.--_adv._ REMON'STRANTLY.--_n.pl._ REMON'STRANTS, the Dutch Arminians whose divergence from Calvinism was expressed in five articles in the Remonstrance of 1610.--_v.i._ REMON'STR[=A]TE, to set forth strong reasons against a measure.--_n._ REMONSTR[=A]'TION.--_adjs._ REMON'STRATIVE, REMON'STRATORY, expostulatory.--_n._ REMON'STR[=A]TOR.--GRAND REMONSTRANCE, a famous statement of abuses presented to Charles I. by the House of Commons in 1641. [L. _re-_, again, _monstr[=a]re_, to point out.] REMONTANT, r[=e]-mon'tant, _adj._ blooming a second time.--_n._ a flower which blooms twice in a season. REMORA, rem'[=o]-ra, _n._ the sucking-fish, a genus not far removed from mackerel: an obstacle: a stoppage: (_her._) a serpent. REMORSE, r[=e]-mors', _n._ the gnawing pain of anguish or guilt: (_obs._) pity, softening.--_v.t._ REMORD' (_obs._), to strike with remorse.--_n._ REMORD'ENCY, compunction.--_adj._ REMORSE'FUL, full of remorse: compassionate.--_adv._ REMORSE'FULLY.--_n._ REMORSE'FULNESS, the state of being remorseful.--_adj._ REMORSE'LESS, without remorse: cruel.--_adv._ REMORSE'LESSLY.--_n._ REMORSE'LESSNESS. [O. Fr. _remors_ (Fr. _remords_)--Low L. _remorsus_--L. _remord[=e]re_, _remorsum_, to bite again--_re-_, again, _mord[=e]re_, to bite.] REMOTE, r[=e]-m[=o]t', _adj._ moved back to a distance in time or place: far: distant: primary, as a cause: not agreeing: not nearly related.--_adv._ REMOTE'LY.--_ns._ REMOTE'NESS; REM[=O]'TION (_Shak._), act of removing: remoteness. [_Remove._] REMOULD, r[=e]-m[=o]ld', _v.t._ to mould or shape anew. REMOUNT, r[=e]-mownt', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to mount again.--_n._ a fresh horse, or supply of horses. REMOVE, r[=e]-m[=oo]v', _v.t._ to put from its place: to take away: to withdraw: to displace: to make away with.--_v.i._ to go from one place to another.--_n._ any indefinite distance: a step in any scale of gradation, as promotion from one class to another, also a class or division: a dish to be changed while the rest remain: (_Shak._) the raising of a siege, a posting-stage.--_n._ REMOVABIL'ITY.--_adj._ REMO'VABLE, that may be removed.--_adv._ REMO'VABLY.--_n._ REMO'VAL, the act of taking away: displacing: change of place: a euphemism for murder.--_adj._ REMOVED' (_Shak._), remote: distant by degrees of relationship.--_ns._ REMO'VEDNESS (_Shak._), the state of being removed: remoteness; REMO'VER, one who removes: (_Bacon_) an agitator.--REMOVAL TERMS (_Scot._), Whitsunday and Martinmas. [O. Fr.,--L. _remov[=e]re_, _rem[=o]tum_--_re-_, away, _mov[=e]re_, to move.] REMPLI, rong-pl[=e]', _adj._ (_her._) having another tincture than its own covering the greater part. [Fr.] REMPLISSAGE, rong-pl[=e]-säzh', _n._ padding. [Fr.] REMUNERATE, r[=e]-m[=u]'n[.e]-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to render an equivalent for any service: to recompense.--_n._ REMUNERABIL'ITY, capability of being rewarded.--_adj._ REM[=U]'NERABLE, that may be remunerated: worthy of being rewarded.--_n._ REMUNER[=A]'TION, reward: recompense: requital.--_adj._ REM[=U]'NERATIVE, fitted to remunerate: lucrative: yielding due return.--_n._ REM[=U]'NERATIVENESS.--_adj._ REM[=U]'NERATORY, giving a recompense. [L. _remuner[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_re-_, in return, _muner[=a]re_, to give something--_munus_, _mun[)e]ris_, a gift.] REMURMUR, r[=e]-mur'mur, _v.t._ to murmur again: to repeat in low sounds.--_v.i._ to murmur back. REMUTATION, r[=e]-m[=u]-t[=a]'shun, _n._ alteration to a previous form. RENAISSANCE, re-n[=a]'sans, _n._ a new birth: the period (in the 15th century) at which the revival of arts and letters took place, marking the transition from the Middle Ages to the modern world--hence 'Renaissance architecture,' &c.--_adj._ relating to the foregoing. [Fr.; cf. _Renascent_.] RENAL, r[=e]-nal, _adj._ pertaining to the reins or kidneys.--_n._ REN, the kidney:--_pl._ RENES (r[=e]'nez). [L. _renalis_--_renes_, the kidneys.] RENAME, r[=e]-n[=a]m', _v.t._ to give a new name to. RENARD=_Reynard_ (q.v.). RENASCENT, r[=e]-nas'ent, _adj._ rising again into being.--_ns._ RENAS'CENCE, RENAS'CENCY, the same as RENAISSANCE.--_adj._ RENAS'CIBLE, capable of being reproduced. [L. _renascens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _renasci_--_re-_, again, _nasci_, to be born.] RENATE, r[=e]-n[=a]t', _adj._ (_obs._) born again: renewed. RENAVIGATE, re-nav'i-g[=a]t, _v.t._ to navigate again. RENCOUNTER, ren-kownt'[.e]r, RENCONTRE, räng-kong'tr, _n._ a meeting in contest: a casual combat: a collision.--_v.t._ to encounter. [Fr. _rencontre_.] REND, rend, _v.t._ to tear asunder with force: to split: to tear away.--_v.i._ to become torn: _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ rent. [A.S. _rendan_, to tear.] RENDER, ren'd[.e]r, _v.t._ to give up: to make up: to deliver, furnish, present: to cause to become: to translate into another language: to perform officially, as judgment: to cause to be: to reproduce, as music: to clarify: to plaster without the use of lath.--_n._ a surrender: a payment of rent: an account given.--_adj._ REN'DERABLE.--_ns._ REN'DERER; REN'DERING, the act of rendering: version: translation: interpretation; RENDI'TION, the act of surrendering, as fugitives from justice: translation.--_adj._ REND'IBLE, capable of being yielded up, or of being translated. [O. Fr. _rendre_--L. _redd[)e]re_--_re-_, away, _d[)a]re_, to give.] RENDEZVOUS, ren'de-v[=oo], or räng'-, _n._ an appointed place of meeting, esp. for troops or ships: a place for enlistment: a refuge:--_pl._ REN'DEZVOUS.--_v.i._ to assemble at any appointed place. [Fr. _rendez vous_, render yourselves--_rendre_, to render.] RENEGADE, ren'[=e]-g[=a]d, _n._ one faithless to principle or party: an apostate: a deserter--also RENEG[=A]'DO.--_n._ REN'EGATE, a renegade.--_adj._ apostate, traitorous.--_n._ RENEG[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ REN[=E]GE' (_Shak._), to deny, disown: to revoke at cards--also RENIG' (_U.S._).--_n._ REN[=E]'GER (_obs._). [Sp.,--Low L. _renegatus_--L. _re-_, inten., _neg[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to deny.] RENERVE, r[=e]-n[.e]rv', _v.t._ to reinvigorate. RENEW, r[=e]-n[=u]', _v.t._ to renovate: to transform to new life, revive: to begin again: to make again: to invigorate: to substitute: to regenerate.--_v.i._ to be made new: to begin again.--_n._ RENEWABIL'ITY.--_adj._ RENEW'ABLE, that may be renewed.--_ns._ RENEW'AL, renovation: regeneration: restoration; RENEW'EDNESS; RENEW'ER; RENEW'ING. RENFIERSE, ren-f[=e]rs', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to reinforce.--_pa.p._ RENFORST'. RENIDIFY, r[=e]-nid'i-f[=i], _v.i._ to build another nest.--_n._ RENIDIFIC[=A]'TION. RENIFORM, ren'i-form, _adj._ (_bot._) kidney-shaped. [L. _renes_, the kidneys, _forma_, form.] RENITENCE, ren'i-tens, or r[=e]-n[=i]'tens, _n._ the resistance of a body to pressure: disinclination--also REN'ITENCY.--_adj._ REN'ITENT. [Fr.,--L. _renitens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _reniti_, to resist.] RENNE, ren, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to run. RENNET, ren'et, _n._ prepared inner membrane of a calf's stomach, used to make milk coagulate--also RUNN'ET.--_v.t._ to treat with rennet.--_n._ RENN'ET-BAG, the fourth stomach of a ruminant. [A.S. _rinnan_, to run; Old Dut. _rinsel_, curds.] RENNET, ren'et, _n._ a sweet kind of apple. [O. Fr. _reinette_, dim. of _reine_, queen--L. _regina_, a queen; or _rainette_, dim. of _raine_, a frog--L. _rana_.] RENOMINATE, r[=e]-nom'i-n[=a]t, _v.t._ to nominate again.--_n._ RENOMIN[=A]'TION. RENOUNCE, r[=e]-nowns', _v.t._ to disclaim: to disown: to reject publicly and finally: to forsake.--_v.i._ to fail to follow suit at cards.--_n._ a failure to follow suit at cards.--_ns._ RENOUNCE'MENT, act of renouncing, disclaiming, or rejecting; RENOUN'CER. [O. Fr.,--L. _renunti[=a]re_--_re-_, away, _nunti[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to announce--_nuntius_, a messenger.] RENOVATE, ren'[=o]-v[=a]t, _v.t._ to renew or make new again: to restore to the original state.--_ns._ RENOV[=A]'TION, renewal: state of being renewed: (_theol._) regeneration: RENOV[=A]'TIONIST, one who believes in the improvement of society by the spiritual renovation of the individual; REN'OV[=A]TOR. [L. _re-_, again, _nov[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to make new--_novus_, new.] RENOWN, r[=e]-nown', _n._ a great name: celebrity: éclat.--_v.t._ to make famous.--_adj._ RENOWNED', celebrated: illustrious: famous.--_adv._ RENOWN'EDLY.--_n._ RENOWN'ER, one who gives renown: a swaggerer.--_adj._ RENOWN'LESS. [O. Fr. _renoun_ (Fr. _renom_)--L. _re-_, again, _nomen_, a name.] RENT, rent, _n._ an opening made by rending: fissure: break: tear: a schism, as a rent in a church. [_Rend._] RENT, rent, _n._ annual payment in return for the use of property held of another, esp. houses and lands: revenue.--_v.t._ to hold or occupy by paying rent: to let, or to hire, for a rent.--_v.i._ to be let for rent: to endow.--_adj._ RENT'ABLE.--_ns._ RENT'AL, a schedule or account of rents, with the tenants' names, &c.: a rent-roll: rent; RENT'ALLER; RENT'-CHARGE, a rent on a conveyance of land in fee simple; RENT'-DAY, the day on which rents are paid; RENTE (Fr.), annual income; RENT'ER, one who holds by paying rent for; RENT'ER-WARD'EN, the warden of a company who receives rents.--_adj._ RENT'-FREE, without payment of rent.--_ns._ RENT'-GATH'ERER, a collector of rents; RENT'-ROLL, a roll or account of rents: a rental or schedule of rents. [Fr. _rente_--L. _reddita_ (_pecunia_), money paid--_redd[)e]re_, to pay.] RENT, rent, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _rend_. RENTER, ren't[.e]r, _v.t._ to sew together edge to edge, without doubling.--_n._ RENT'ERER. [Fr. _rentraire_, to sew together.] RENTIER, rong-ty[=a]', _n._ one who has a fixed income from stocks, &c.: a fund holder. RENUENT, ren'[=u]-ent, _adj._ (_anat._) applied to muscles which throw back the head. [L. _renuens_, pr.p. of _renu[)e]re_, to nod the head.] RENULE, ren'[=u]l, _n._ a small kidney. [L. _ren_, kidney.] RENUMBER, r[=e]-num'b[.e]r, _v.t._ to affix a new number.--_v.t._ REN[=U]'MER[=A]TE, to count again. RENUNCIATION, re-nun-si-[=a]'shun, _n._ disowning: rejection: abandonment: (_law_) the legal act by which a person abandons a right acquired, but without transferring it to another: in the Anglican baptismal service, the part in which the candidate in person or by his sureties renounces the devil and all his works.--_n._ RENUN'CIANCE, renunciation.--_adj._ RENUN'CI[=A]TORY.--RENUNCIATION OF A LEASE, the surrender of a lease. [_Renounce._] RENVERSE, ren-v[.e]rs', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to reverse: to upset.--_adj._ (_her._) reversed.--_n._ RENVERSE'MENT. RENVOY, ren-voi', _v.t._ (_obs._) to send back.--Also _n._ REOBTAIN, r[=e]-ob-t[=a]n', _v.t._ to obtain again.--_adj._ REOBTAIN'ABLE. REOCCUPY, r[=e]-ok'[=u]-p[=i], _v.t._ to occupy anew.--_n._ REOCCUP[=A]'TION. REOPEN, r[=e]-[=o]'pn, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to open again. REOPPOSE, r[=e]-[=o]-p[=o]z', _v.t._ to oppose again. REORDAIN, r[=e]-or-d[=a]n', _v.t._ to ordain again, when the first ordination is defective.--_n._ REORDIN[=A]'TION, a second ordination. REORDER, r[=e]-or'd[.e]r, _v.t._ to repeat a command: to arrange anew. REORGANISE, r[=e]-or'gan-[=i]z, _v.t._ to organise anew: to rearrange.--_n._ REORGANIS[=A]'TION, the act of reorganising, as of troops. REORIENT, r[=e]-[=o]'ri-ent, _adj._ arising again. REOSSIFY, r[=e]-os'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to ossify again. REP, REPP, rep, _n._ a kind of cloth having a finely corded surface. [Prob. a corruption of _rib_.] REP, rep, _n._ a slang abbreviation of _reputation_. REPACE, r[=e]-p[=a]s', _v.t._ to pace again, retrace. REPACIFY, r[=e]-pas'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to pacify again. REPACK, r[=e]-pak', _v.t._ to pack a second time.--_n._ REPACK'ER. REPAID, r[=e]-p[=a]d', _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _repay_. REPAINT, r[=e]-p[=a]nt', _v.t._ to paint anew. REPAIR, r[=e]-p[=a]r', _v.i._ to betake one's self to: to go: to resort.--_n._ a retreat or abode. [O. Fr. _repairer_, to return to a haunt--Low L. _répatri[=a]re_, to return to one's country--L. _re-_, back, _patria_, native country.] REPAIR, r[=e]-p[=a]r', _v.t._ to restore after injury: to make amends for: to make good, as a loss: to mend: (_Spens._) to recover into position, as a weapon.--_n._ restoration after injury or decay: supply of loss.--_ns._ REPAIR'ER, one who restores or amends; REPAIR'MENT; REPARABIL'ITY.--_adj._ REP'ARABLE, that may be repaired.--_adv._ REP'ARABLY.--_n._ REPAR[=A]'TION, repair: supply of what is wasted: amends.--_adj._ REPAR'ATIVE, amending defect or injury.--_n._ that which restores to a good state: that which makes amends. [O. Fr. _reparer_--L. _repar[=a]re_--_re-_, again, _par[=a]re_, to prepare.] REPAND, r[=e]-pand', _adj._ bent or curved backward or upward: (_bot._) of leaves with uneven, slightly sinuous margin.--_adjs._ REPANDODEN'T[=A]TE, repand and toothed; REPAND'OUS, curved convexly upward. [L. _repandus_--_re-_, back, _pandus_, bent.] REPART, r[=e]-part', _v.t._ to divide, share. REPARTEE, rep-ar-t[=e]', _n._ a smart, ready, and witty reply.--_v.i._ to make witty replies. [O. Fr. _repartie_--_repartir_, to go back again--_re-_, back, _partir_, to set out--L. _part[=i]ri_, to divide.] REPARTIMIENTO, re-pär-ti-mi-en't[=o], _n._ a division: an assessment: allotment. [Sp.] REPARTITION, r[=e]-par-tish'un, _n._ a second partition: a division into smaller parts. REPASS, r[=e]-pas', _v.t._ to pass again: to travel back.--_v.i._ to pass or move back.--_n._ REPASS'AGE, the process of passing a second coat of glue as a finish over unburnished surfaces. REPASSION, r[=e]-pash'un, _n._ the reception of an effect from one body to another. REPAST, r[=e]-past', _n._ a meal: the food taken: victuals: repose--(_obs._) REPAS'TURE.--_v.t._ to feed.--_v.i._ to take food.--_n._ REPAST'ER, one who takes repast. [O. Fr.,--Low L. _repastus_ (whence Fr. _repas_)--L. _re-_, inten. _pastus_, food--_pasc[)e]re_, _pastum_, to feed.] REPASTINATION, r[=e]-pas-tin-[=a]'shun, _n._ (_obs._) a second digging up, as of a garden. REPATRIATE, r[=e]-p[=a]'tri-[=a]t, _v.t._ to restore to one's country.--_n._ REPATRI[=A]'TION. REPAY, r[=e]-p[=a]', _v.t._ to pay back: to make return for: to recompense: to pay again or a second time.--_v.i._ to requite.--_adj._ REPAY'ABLE, that is to be repaid: due, as a bill due in thirty days.--_n._ REPAY'MENT, act of repaying: the money or thing repaid. REPEAL, r[=e]-p[=e]l', _v.t._ to revoke by authority, as a law: to abrogate: to recall: to dismiss.--_n._ a revoking or annulling.--_ns._ REPEALABIL'ITY, REPEAL'ABLENESS.--_adj._ REPEAL'ABLE, that may be repealed.--_ns._ REPEAL'ER, one who repeals: one who seeks for a repeal, esp. of the union between Great Britain and Ireland; REPEAL'MENT, recall.--REPEAL AGITATION, a movement for the repeal of the legislative union between Great Britain and Ireland. [O. Fr. _rapeler_--_re-_, back, _apeler_--L. _appell[=a]re_, to call.] REPEAT, r[=e]-p[=e]t', _v.t._ to do again: to speak again, to iterate: to quote from memory: to rehearse: (_Scots law_) to refund.--_v.i._ to strike the hours, as a watch: to recur: the act of repeating.--_n._ (_mus._) a part performed a second time: a mark directing a part to be repeated.--_adjs._ REPEAT'ABLE; REPEAT'ED, done again: frequent.--_adv._ REPEAT'EDLY, many times repeated: again and again: frequently.--_ns._ REPEAT'ER, one who, or that which, repeats: a decimal in which the same figure or figures are continually repeated: a watch that strikes again the previous hour at the touch of a spring: a frigate appointed to attend an admiral in a fleet, and to repeat any signal he makes: (_teleg._) an instrument for automatically retransmitting a message: in calico-printing, a figure repeated at equal intervals in a pattern; REPEAT'ING, the fraud of voting at an election for the same candidate more than once.--REPEATING FIREARM, a firearm that may be discharged many times in quick succession; REPEAT ONE'S SELF, to say again what one has said already; REPEAT SIGNALS, to repeat those of the senior officer: to make a signal again. [O. Fr. _repeter_ (Fr. _répéter_)--L. _repet[)e]re_, _repetitum_--_re-_, again, _pet[)e]re_, to seek.] REPEL, r[=e]-pel', _v.t._ to drive back: to repulse: to check the advance of, to resist.--_v.i._ to act with opposing force: (_med._) to check or drive inwards:--_pr.p._ repel'ling; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ repelled'.--_ns._ REPEL'LENCE, REPEL'LENCY.--_adj._ REPEL'LENT, driving back: able or tending to repel.--_n._ that which repels.--_n._ REPEL'LER.--_adj._ REPEL'LESS. [O. Fr.,--L. _repell[)e]re_--_re-_, back, _pell[)e]re_, to drive.] REPENT, r[=e]-pent', _v.i._ to regret or sorrow for what one has done or left undone: to change from past evil: (_theol._) to feel such sorrow for sin as produces newness of life.--_v.t._ to remember with sorrow--often used impersonally, as 'it repenteth me.'--_adj._ REPENT'ABLE.--_n._ REPENT'ANCE, sorrow for what has been done or left undone: contrition for sin, producing newness of life.--_adj._ REPENT'ANT, repenting or sorry for past conduct: showing sorrow for sin.--_n._ a penitent.--_adv._ REPENT'ANTLY.--_n._ REPENT'ER.--_adv._ REPENT'INGLY.--_adj._ REPENT'LESS. [O. Fr. _repentir_--_re-_, and O. Fr. _pentir_--L. _poenit[=e]re_, to cause to repent.] REPENT, r[=e]'pent, _adj._ (_bot._) creeping. [L. _rep[)e]re_, to creep.] REPEOPLE, r[=e]-p[=e]'pl, _v.t._ to people anew. REPERCEPT, r[=e]-p[.e]r-sept', _n._ a represented percept.--_n._ REPERCEP'TION. REPERCOLATION, r[=e]-p[.e]r-ko-l[=a]'shun, _n._ in pharmacy, the successive application of the same menstruum to fresh parts of the substance to be percolated. REPERCUSSION, r[=e]-p[.e]r-kush'un, _n._ a striking or driving back: reverberation: (_mus._) frequent repetition of the same sound.--_v.t._ REPERCUSS'.--_adj._ REPERCUSS'IVE, driving back: causing to reverberate. [L. _repercussio_--_re-_, back, _percut[)e]re_--_per_, through, _quat[)e]re_, to strike.] REPERTOIRE, rep'[.e]r-twor, _n._ the list of musical works which a performer is ready to perform. REPERTOR, r[=e]-p[.e]r'tor, _n._ a finder. REPERTORY, rep'[.e]r-t[=o]-ri, _n._ a place where things are kept to be brought forth again: a treasury: a magazine. [Fr.,--Low L. _repertorium_--L. _reper[=i]re_, to find--_re-_, again, _par[)e]re_, to bring forth.] REPERUSE, r[=e]-p[.e]r-[=u]z', _v.t._ to peruse again.--_n._ REPER[=U]S'AL. REPET=L. _repetatur_, used in prescriptions=Let it be repeated. REPETITION, rep-[=e]-tish'un, _n._ act of repeating: recital from memory.--_ns._ REP'ETEND, that part of a repeating decimal which recurs continually: the burden of a song; REPETENT', a tutor or private teacher in Germany.--_adjs._ REPETI'TIONAL, REPETI'TIONARY.--_n._ REPETI'TIONER.--_adj._ REPETI'TIOUS, using undue repetitions.--_n._ REPETI'TIOUSNESS.--_adj._ REPET'ITIVE.--_n._ REPET'ITOR, a repetent. REPINE, r[=e]-p[=i]n', _v.i._ to fret one's self (with _at_ or _against_): to feel discontent: to murmur: to envy.--_n._ (_Shak._) a repining.--_ns._ REP[=I]'NER; REP[=I]'NING, the act of one who repines: (_Spens._) a failing, as of courage.--_adv._ REP[=I]'NINGLY. REPIQUE, r[=e]-p[=e]k', _n._ at piquet, the winning of thirty points or more from combinations or in one's own hand, before playing begins.--_v.t._ to score a repique. REPLACE, r[=e]-pl[=a]s', _v.t._ to place back: to put again in a former place, condition, &c.: to repay: to provide a substitute for: to take the place of.--_adj._ REPLACE'ABLE.--_ns._ REPLACE'MENT, act of replacing: the removal of an edge of crystal, by one plane or more; REPLAC'ER, a substitute; CAR'-REPLAC'ER, a device on American railways for replacing derailed wheels on the track.--REPLACING SWITCH, a pair of iron plates fitting over the rails, used as a bridge to replace on the track derailed railway stock. REPLAIT, r[=e]-pl[=a]t', _v.t._ to plait or fold again. REPLANT, r[=e]-plant', _v.t._ to plant anew: to reinstate.--_adj._ REPLANT'ABLE.--_n._ REPLANT[=A]'TION. REPLEAD, r[=e]-pl[=e]d', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to plead again.--_n._ REPLEAD'ER, a second course allowed for the correction of mispleading. REPLEDGE, r[=e]-plej', _v.t._ to pledge again: to demand judicially.--_n._ REPLED'GER. REPLENISH, r[=e]-plen'ish, _v.t._ to fill again: to fill completely: to stock abundantly.--_p.adj._ REPLEN'ISHED (_Shak._), complete, consummate.--_ns._ REPLEN'ISHER, one who replenishes: (_electr._) a static induction machine used for maintaining the charge of a quadrant electrometer; REPLEN'ISHMENT. [O. Fr. _replenir_, from _replein_, full--_re-_, again, _plenus_, full.] REPLETE, r[=e]-pl[=e]t', _adj._ full: completely filled, abounding.--_v.t._ to fill to repletion.--_ns._ REPLETE'NESS, REPL[=E]'TION, superabundant fullness: surfeit: (_med._) fullness of blood: plethora.--_adj._ REPL[=E]'TIVE.--_adv._ REPL[=E]'TIVELY.--_adj._ REPL[=E]'TORY. [O. Fr.,--L. _repletus_, pa.p. of _repl[=e]re_--_re-_, again, _pl[=e]re_, to fill.] REPLEVY, r[=e]-plev'i, _v.t._ (_law_) to recover goods distrained upon giving a pledge or security to try the right to them at law.--_n._ replevin.--_adjs._ REPLEV'IABLE, REPLEV'ISABLE.--_ns._ REPLEV'IN, an action for replevying; REPLEV'ISOR, a plaintiff in replevin. [O. Fr. _replevir_--_re-_, back, _plevir_, to pledge.] REPLICA, rep'li-ka, _n._ (_paint._) a copy of a picture done by the same hand that did the original: (_mus._) the same as repeat. [It.,--L. _replic[=a]re_, to repeat.] REPLICANT, rep'li-kant, _n._ one who makes a reply. REPLICATE, rep'li-k[=a]t, _adj._ folded: (_bot._) folded outward as in vernation, inward as in æstivation: (_mus._) a tone one or more octaves from a given tone.--_adj._ REP'LIC[=A]TILE.--_n._ REPLIC[=A]'TION.--_adj._ REP'LIC[=A]TIVE. REPLIER, r[=e]-pl[=i]'[.e]r, _n._ a respondent. REPLUM, rep'lum, _n._ (_bot._) the frame-like placenta across which the septum stretches. REPLUME, r[=e]-pl[=oo]m', _v.t._ to preen, as feathers. REPLUNGE, r[=e]-plunj', _v.t._ to immerse anew. REPLY, r[=e]-pl[=i]', _v.t._ to fold back: to answer.--_v.i._ to make response: to meet an attack, as to reply to the enemy's fire--(_law_) to a defendant's plea.--_n._ an answer: the power of answering: a counter-attack: (_mus._) the answer of a figure.--_ns._ REP'LICANT; REPLIC[=A]'TION, a reply: repetition: (_law_) the plaintiff's answer to a plea.--_adj._ REPLIC[=A]'TIVE. [O. Fr. _replier_--L. _replic[=a]re_, _re-_, back, _plic[=a]re_, to fold.] REPOLISH, r[=e]-pol'ish, _v.t._ to polish again. REPONE, r[=e]-p[=o]n', _v.t._ to replace: to reply. [O. Fr.,--L. _repon[)e]re_, _re-_, back, _pon[)e]re_, to put.] REPOPULATE, r[=e]-pop'[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to repeople.--_n._ REPOPUL[=A]'TION. REPORT, r[=e]-p[=o]rt', _v.t._ to bring back, as an answer or account of anything: to give an account of: to relate: to circulate publicly: to write down or take notes of, esp. for a newspaper: to lay a charge against: to echo back.--_v.i._ to make a statement: to write an account of occurrences.--_n._ a statement of facts: description: a formal or official statement, esp. of a judicial opinion or decision: rumour: sound: noise: (_B._) repute: hearsay: reputation.--_adj._ REPORT'ABLE, fit to be reported on.--_ns._ REPORT'AGE, report; REPORT'ER, one who reports, esp. for a newspaper; REPORT'ERISM, the business of reporting; REPORT'ING, the act of drawing up reports--newspaper reporting.--_adv._ REPORT'INGLY (_Shak._), by common report.--_adj._ REPORT[=O]'RIAL.--REPORT ONE'S SELF, to give information about one's self, one's whereabouts, &c.--BE REPORTED OF, to be spoken well or ill of. [O. Fr.,--L. _report[=a]re_--_re-_, back, _port[=a]re_, to carry.] REPOSE, r[=e]-p[=o]z', _v.t._ to lay at rest: to compose: to place in trust (with _on_ or _in_): to deposit: to tranquillise.--_v.i._ to rest: to sleep: to rest in confidence (with _on_ or _upon_): to lie.--_n._ a lying at rest: sleep: quiet: rest of mind: (_fine art_) that harmony which gives rest to the eye.--_n._ REP[=O]'SAL (_Shak._), the act of reposing: that on which one reposes.--_adj._ REP[=O]SED', calm: settled.--_adv._ REP[=O]'SEDLY.--_n._ REP[=O]'SEDNESS.--_adj._ REP[=O]SE'FUL.--_n._ REP[=O]'SER.--_v.t._ REPOS'IT, to lodge, as for safety--also _n._--_ns._ REP[=O]SI'TION, reduction; REPOS'ITOR, an instrument for restoring a displaced organ; REPOS'ITORY, a place where anything is laid up for safe keeping: a place where things are kept for sale: a shop. [Fr. _reposer_--_re-_, back, _poser_, to pose.] REPOSSESS, r[=e]-poz-zes', _v.t._ to possess again: to regain possession of.--_n._ REPOSSES'SION. REPOSURE, r[=e]-p[=o]'zhur, _n._ quiet repose. REPOT, r[=e]-pot', _v.t._ to shift plants from pot to pot. REPOUR, r[=e]-p[=o]r', _v.i._ to pour again. REPOUSSAGE, r[=e]-p[=oo]'säj, _n._ the hammering from behind of ornamental patterns upon a metal plate: or of etched plates making hollows which would show as spots in printing. REPOUSSÉ, r[=e]-p[=oo]'s[=a], _adj._ raised in relief by means of the hammer.--REPOUSSÉ WORK, vessels ornamented by hammering on the reverse side. REPPED, rept, _adj._ corded transversely. [_Rep._] REPREHEND, rep-r[=e]-hend', _v.t._ to blame: to reprove.--_n._ REPREHEN'DER.--_adj._ REPREHEN'SIBLE, worthy of being reprehended or blamed.--_n._ REPREHEN'SIBLENESS.--_adv._ REPREHEN'SIBLY, culpably.--_n._ REPREHEN'SION, reproof: censure.--_adj._ REPREHEN'SIVE, containing reproof: given in reproof.--_adv._ REPREHEN'SIVELY.--_adj._ REPREHEN'SORY. [O. Fr.,--L. _reprehend[)e]re_, _-hensum_--_re-_, inten., _prehend[)e]re_, to lay hold of.] REPRESENT, rep-r[=e]-zent', _v.t._ to exhibit the image of: to serve as a sign of: to personate or act the part of: to stand in the place of: to bring before the mind: to describe: to portray: to exemplify.--_n._ REPRESENTABIL'ITY.--_adj._ REPRESENT'ABLE, that may be represented.--_ns._ REPRESENT[=A]'MEN, representation; REPRESENT'ANCE (_obs._), likeness.--_adj._ REPRESENT'ANT, having vicarious power.--_n._ REPRESENT[=A]'TION, act of representing or exhibiting: that which represents: an image: picture: dramatic performance: part performed by a representative: share, participation: statement: delegation.--_adj._ REPRESENT[=A]'TIONAL.--_ns._ REPRESENT[=A]'TIONISM, the doctrine of Descartes, that in the perception of the external world the immediate object represents another object beyond the sphere of consciousness; REPRESENT[=A]'TIONIST.--_adj._ REPRESENT'ATIVE, representing: showing a likeness: bearing the character or power of others: replacing: presenting the full character of a class: (_logic_) mediately known.--_n._ one who stands for another, a deputy, delegate: (_law_) an heir.--_adv._ REPRESENT'ATIVELY.--_ns._ REPRESENT'ATIVENESS; REPRESENT'ER; REPRESENT'MENT.--REPRESENTATIVE FACULTY, the imagination.--HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, the lower branch of the United States Congress, consisting of members chosen biennially by the people. [O. Fr.,--L. _repræsent[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_re-_, again, _præsent[=a]re_, to place before.] REPRESS, r[=e]-pres', _v.t._ to restrain, quell--also _n._--_ns._ REPRESS'ER, -OR.--_adj._ REPRESS'IBLE, that may be restrained.--_adv._ REPRESS'IBLY.--_n._ REPRES'SION, act of repressing.--_adj._ REPRESS'IVE, tending or able to repress.--_adv._ REPRESS'IVELY. REPRESS, r[=e]-pres', _v.t._ to press a second time.--_n._ REPRESS'ING-MACHINE', a machine for making pressed bricks: a press for compressing cotton bales. REPRIEF, r[=e]-pr[=e]f, _n._ (_Spens._) reproof. REPRIEVE, r[=e]-pr[=e]v', _v.t._ to delay the execution of a criminal: to give a respite to: (_obs._) acquit, release.--_n._ a suspension of a criminal sentence: interval of ease or relief.--_n._ REPRIEV'AL. [O. Fr. _reprover_ (Fr. _réprouver_)--L. _reprob[=a]re_, to reprove.] REPRIMAND, rep'ri-mand, or -mand', _n._ a severe reproof.--_v.t._ to chide: to reprove severely: to administer reproof publicly or officially. [O. Fr.,--L. _reprimendum_--_reprim[)e]re_, _repressum_, to press back--_re-_, back, _prim[)e]re_, to press.] REPRIMER, r[=e]-pr[=i]'m[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for setting a cap upon a cartridge shell. REPRINT, r[=e]-print', _v.t._ to print again: to print a new impression of: printed matter from some other publication.--_n._ R[=E]'PRINT, another impression of a printed book or paper. REPRISAL, r[=e]-pr[=i]'zal, _n._ a seizing back or in retaliation: the retaking of goods captured by an enemy: anything seized, or inflicted, in retaliation: that which is seized for injury inflicted: (_rare_) a restitution. [O. Fr. _represaille_--It. _ripresaglia_--_ripreso_ (Fr. _reprise_), retaken--L. _re-pre(he)nd[)e]re_, to seize again.] REPRISE, r[=e]-pr[=i]z', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to take again, retake.--_n._ in maritime law, a ship recaptured from an enemy: in masonry, the return of a moulding in an internal angle: (_law_) yearly deductions, as annuities, &c.: (_mus._) the act of repeating a passage. [Fr. _reprise_--_reprendre_--L. _reprehend[)e]re_.] REPRIVE, r[=e]-pr[=i]v', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to deprive, take away. REPROACH, r[=e]-pr[=o]ch', _v.t._ to cast in one's teeth: to censure severely: to upbraid: to revile: to treat with contempt.--_n._ the act of reproaching: reproof: censure: blame in opprobrious language: disgrace: occasion of blame: an object of scorn.--_adj._ REPROACH'ABLE, deserving reproach: opprobrious.--_n._ REPROACH'ABLENESS.--_adv._ REPROACH'ABLY.--_n._ REPROACH'ER.--_adj._ REPROACH'FUL, full of reproach or blame: abusive: scurrilous: bringing reproach: shameful: disgraceful.--_adv._ REPROACH'FULLY.--_n._ REPROACH'FULNESS.--_adj._ REPROACH'LESS, without reproach.--THE REPROACHES, antiphons chanted in R.C. churches on Good Friday after the prayers which succeed the Gospel of the Passion, their subject the ingratitude of the Jews in rejecting and crucifying Christ. [Fr. _reprocher_--_re-_, back, _proche_, near--L. _propius_, comp. of _prope_, near.] REPROBATE, rep'r[=o]-b[=a]t, _adj._ condemned: base: given over to sin: depraved: vile: (_B._) that will not stand proof or trial: (_Sterne_) condemnatory.--_n._ an abandoned or profligate person: one lost to shame.--_v.t._ to disapprove: to censure: to disown.--_ns._ REP'R[=O]B[=A]CY, state of being a reprobate; REP'ROBANCE (_Shak._), reprobation; REP'ROB[=A]TENESS; REP'ROB[=A]TER; REPROB[=A]'TION, the act of reprobating: rejection: the act of abandoning to destruction: state of being so abandoned: the doctrine of the fore-ordination of the impenitent to eternal perdition: (_mil._) disqualification to bear office; REPROB[=A]'TIONER, one who maintains the doctrine of reprobation by divine decree.--_adj._ REPROB[=A]'TIVE, criminatory.--_n._ REP'ROB[=A]TOR (_Scots law_), an old form of action to prove a witness to be perjured or biassed.--_adj._ REP'ROB[=A]TORY, reprobative. [L. _reprobatus_, pa.p. of _reprob[=a]re_, to reprove.] REPRODUCE, r[=e]-pr[=o]-d[=u]s', _v.t._ to produce again: to form anew: to propagate: to represent.--_n._ REPROD[=U]'CER, one who reproduces: the diaphragm used in producing speech in the phonograph.--_adj._ REPROD[=U]'CIBLE.--_n._ REPRODUC'TION, the act of producing new organisms--the whole process whereby life is continued from generation to generation: repetition.--_adj._ REPRODUC'TIVE, tending to reproduce.--_ns._ REPRODUC'TIVENESS, REPRODUCTIV'ITY.--_adj._ REPRODUC'TORY.--REPRODUCTIVE FACULTY, the faculty of the association of ideas; REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS (_bot._), the organs appropriate to the production of seeds or spines: (_zool._) the generative system. REPROMISSION, r[=e]-pr[=o]-mish'un, _n._ (_obs._) a promise. REPROMULGATE, r[=e]-pr[=o]-mul'g[=a]t, _v.t._ to republish.--_n._ REPROMULG[=A]'TION. REPROOF, r[=e]-pr[=oo]f', _n._ a reproving or blaming: rebuke: censure: reprehension.--_adj._ REPROVABLE (-[=oo]v'-), deserving reproof, blame, or censure.--_n._ REPROV'ABLENESS.--_adv._ REPROV'ABLY.--_n._ REPRO'VAL, the act of reproving: reproof.--_v.t._ REPROVE', to condemn: to chide: to convict: to censure: to disprove or refute.--_ns._ REPRO'VER; REPRO'VING.--_adv._ REPRO'VINGLY. [O. Fr. _reprover_ (Fr. _réprouver_)--L. _reprob[=a]re_, the opposite of _approb[=a]re_ (cf. _Approve_)--_re-_, off, _prob[=a]re_, to try.] REPRUNE, r[=e]-pr[=oo]n', _v.t._ to trim again. REPTANT, rep'tant, _adj._ crawling: pertaining to the _Reptantia_, those gasteropod mollusca adapted for crawling.--_n._ REPT[=A]'TION, the act of creeping: (_math._) the motion of one plane figure around another, so that the longest diameter of one shall come into line with the shortest of the other.--_adjs._ REPTAT[=O]'RIAL, creeping or crawling; REP'TATORY (_zool._), creeping. REPTILE, rep't[=i]l, _adj._ moving or crawling on the belly or with very short legs: grovelling: low.--_n._ an animal that moves or crawls on its belly or with short legs: an oviparous quadruped: one of the class of REPTIL'IA (_n.pl._) occupying a central position in the Vertebrate series, beneath them Amphibians and Fishes, above them Birds and Mammals: a grovelling, low person.--_adjs._ REPTIL'IAN, belonging to reptiles; REPTILIF'EROUS, producing reptiles; REPTIL'IFORM, related to reptiles; REPTIL'IOUS, like a reptile.--_n._ REPTIL'IUM, a place where reptiles are kept.--_adjs._ REPTILIV'OROUS, feeding upon reptiles; REP'TILOID, reptile form.--REPTILIAN AGE (_geol._), the Mesozoic age, during which reptiles attained great development. [Fr.,--L. _reptilis_--_rep[)e]re_, to creep.] REPUBLIC, r[=e]-pub'lik, _n._ a commonwealth: a form of government without a monarch, in which the supreme power is vested in representatives elected by the people.--_adj._ REPUB'LICAN, belonging to a republic: agreeable to the principles of a republic.--_n._ one who advocates a republican form of government: a democrat: one of the two great political parties in the United States, opposed to the _Democrats_, favouring a high protective tariff, a liberal expenditure, and an extension of the powers of the national government.--_v.t._ REPUB'LICANISE.--_n._ REPUB'LICANISM, the principles of republican government: attachment to republican government.--_n._ REPUBLIC[=A]'RIAN.--REPUBLIC OF LETTERS, a name for the general body of literary and learned men.--REPUBLICAN ERA, the era adopted by the French after the downfall of the monarchy, beginning with 22d September 1792.--RED REPUBLICAN, a violent republican, from the red cap affected by such. [Fr. _république_--L. _respublica_, commonwealth.] REPUBLISH, r[=e]-pub'lish, _v.t._ to publish again or anew.--_ns._ REPUBLIC[=A]'TION, act of republishing: that which is republished, esp. a reprint of a book, &c.: a second publication of a former will; REPUB'LISHER. REPUDIATE, r[=e]-p[=u]'di-[=a]t, _v.t._ to reject: to disclaim, as liability for debt: to disavow: to divorce.--_adj._ REP[=U]'DIABLE, that may be repudiated: fit to be rejected.--_ns._ REPUDI[=A]'TION, the act of repudiating: rejection: an unprincipled method for the extinction of a debt by simply refusing to acknowledge the obligation: the state of being repudiated; REPUDI[=A]'TIONIST; REP[=U]'DI[=A]TOR. [L. _repudi[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_repudium_--_re-_, away, _pud[=e]re_, to be ashamed.] REPUGN, r[=e]-p[=u]n', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to fight against, to oppose.--_adj._ REPUGNABLE (r[=e]-p[=u]'-, or r[=e]-pug'-na-bl), capable of being resisted.--_ns._ REPUGNANCE (r[=e]-pug'-, like all the succeeding words), the state of being repugnant: resistance: aversion: reluctance; REPUG'NANCY.--_adj._ REPUG'NANT, hostile: adverse: contrary: distasteful: at variance.--_adv._ REPUG'NANTLY.--_n._ REPUG'NANTNESS.--_v.t._ REPUG'NATE, to oppose: to fight against.--_adj._ REPUGNAT[=O]'RIAL, serving as a means of defence.--_n._ REPUGNER (r[=e]-p[=u]'n[.e]r), one who rebels. [Fr.,--L. _repugn[=a]re_--_re-_, against, _pugn[=a]re_, to fight.] REPULLULATE, r[=e]-pul'[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.i._ to sprout again.--_n._ REPULLUL[=A]'TION.--_adj._ REPULLULES'CENT. REPULPIT, r[=e]-p[=oo]l'pit, _v.t._ to restore to the pulpit. REPULSE, r[=e]-puls', _v.t._ to drive back: to repel: to beat off: to refuse, reject.--_n._ the state of being repulsed or driven back: the act of repelling: refusal.--_ns._ REPUL'SER; REPUL'SION, act of repulsing or driving back: state of being repelled: aversion: the action by which bodies or their particles repel each other.--_adj._ REPUL'SIVE, that repulses or drives off: repelling: cold, reserved, forbidding: causing aversion and disgust.--_adv._ REPUL'SIVELY.--_n._ REPUL'SIVENESS.--_adj._ REPUL'SORY. [L. _repulsus_, pa.p. of _repell[)e]re_--_re-_, back, _pell[)e]re_, to drive.] REPURCHASE, r[=e]-pur'ch[=a]s, _v.t._ to purchase or buy back or again.--_n._ the act of buying again: that which is bought again. REPURGE, r[=e]-purj', _v.t._ to cleanse again. REPURIFY, r[=e]-p[=u]'ri-f[=i], _v.t._ to purify again. REPUTATION, rep-[=u]-t[=a]'shun, _n._ state of being held in repute: estimation: character in public opinion: credit: fame.--_adj._ REP'[=U]TABLE, in good repute: respectable: honourable: consistent with reputation.--_n._ REP'[=U]TABLENESS.--_adv._ REP'[=U]TABLY.--_adj._ REP'[=U]T[=A]TIVE, reputed: putative.--_adv._ REP'[=U]T[=A]TIVELY, by repute. [Fr.,--L. _reputation-em_, consideration--_re-put[=a]re_, to think over.] REPUTE, r[=e]-p[=u]t', _v.t._ to account or estimate: to hold.--_n._ estimate: established opinion: character.--_adv._ REP[=U]T'EDLY, in common repute or estimation.--_adj._ REPUTE'LESS (_Shak._), without good repute, disreputable.--REPUTED OWNER, a person who has to all appearance the title to the property. [Fr.,--L. _reput[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_re-_, again, _put[=a]re_, to reckon.] REQUERE, r[=e]-kw[=e]r', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to require. REQUEST, r[=e]-kwest', _v.t._ to ask for earnestly: to entreat: to desire.--_n._ petition: prayer: desire: demand: that which is requested: a want: a question: the state of being desired.--_n._ REQUEST'ER.--REQUEST NOTE, in the inland revenue, an application to obtain a permit for removing excisable articles: programme.--COURT OF REQUESTS, a former Court of Equity in England, inferior to the Court of Chancery, abolished in 1641: a local tribunal instituted in London by Henry VIII. for the recovery of small debts--called also _Court of Conscience_: LETTERS OF REQUEST, the formal instrument by which in English ecclesiastical law an inferior judge waives his jurisdiction over a cause, and refers it to a higher court. [O. Fr. _requeste_ (Fr. _requête_)--L. _requisitum_, pa.p. of _requir[)e]re_--_re-_, away, _quær[)e]re_, to seek.] REQUICKEN, r[=e]-kwik'n, _v.t._ to give new life to. REQUIEM, r[=e]'kwi-em, _n._ a hymn or mass sung for the rest of the soul of the dead: a grand musical composition in honour of the dead: (_obs._) rest, peace.--_n._ REQUIES'CENCE, repose.--REQUIESCAT IN PACE, may he (or she) rest in peace, often abbreviated _R.I.P._ [L., accus. of _requies_--(_re-_, inten., _quies_, rest); so called from the initial words of the introit, _Requiem æternam dona eis, Domine!_ 'Give eternal rest to them, O Lord!'] REQUIRE, r[=e]-kw[=i]r', _v.t._ to ask: to demand: to need: to exact: to direct.--_adj._ REQUIR'ABLE, that may be required: fit or proper to be required.--_ns._ REQUIRE'MENT, act of requiring: claim: demand; REQUIR'ER; REQUIR'ING. [Fr.,--L. _requir[)e]re_.] REQUISITE, rek'wi-zit, _adj._ required: needful: indispensable.--_n._ that which is required: anything necessary or indispensable.--_adv._ REQ'UISITELY.--_ns._ REQ'UISITENESS, state of being requisite; REQUISI'TION, the act of requiring: an application--for a public meeting, for a person to become a candidate for Parliament, &c.: a demand, as for necessaries for a military force: a written request or invitation.--_v.t._ to make a requisition or demand upon, to seize.--_n._ REQUISI'TIONIST, one who makes a requisition.--_adj._ REQUIS'ITIVE.--_n._ REQUIS'ITOR.--_adj._ REQUIS'ITORY.--_n._ REQUIS'ITUM, that which a problem asks for. REQUITE, r[=e]-kw[=i]t', _v.t._ to repay: to retaliate.--_adjs._ REQUIT' (_Spens._), requited, returned; REQU[=I]'TABLE.--_ns._ REQU[=I]'TAL, the act of requiting: payment in return: recompense: reward; REQUITE', requital.--_adjs._ REQUITE'FUL; REQUITE'LESS, without requital: free.--_ns._ REQUITE'MENT; REQU[=I]'TER. RERAIL, r[=e]-r[=a]l', _v.t._ to replace on the rails. REREAD, r[=e]-r[=e]d', _v.t._ to read again. REREBRACE, r[=e]r'br[=a]s, _n._ the armour of the upper arm from shoulder to elbow.--Also _Arrière-bras_. REREBRAKE, r[=e]r-br[=a]k', _n._ an appurtenance of a mounted warrior in the fifteenth century. REREDOS, r[=e]r'dos, _n._ the wall or screen at the back of an altar, usually in the form of a screen detached from the east wall, adorned with niches, statues, &c., or with paintings or tapestry: the back of an open fire-hearth, in medieval halls. [O. Fr., _rere_, rear, _dos_--L. _dorsum_, back.] REREFIEF, r[=e]r'f[=e]f, _n._ (_Scot._) an under-fief. RE-REITERATED, r[=e]-r[=e]-it'[.e]r-[=a]t-ed, _p.adj._ (_Tenn._) reiterated or repeated again and again. REREMOUSE, r[=e]r'mows, _n._ a bat. [A.S. _hréremús_--_hréran_, to move, _mús_, a mouse.] RERESUPPER, r[=e]r'sup-[.e]r, _n._ a late supper. REREWARD. Same as REARWARD. RES, r[=e]z, _n._ a thing, a point.--RES ANGUSTA DOMI, straitened circumstances; RES GESTÆ, things done; RES JUDIC[=A]TA, a matter decided. RESAIL, r[=e]-s[=a]l', _v.i._ to sail back. RESALE, r[=e]-s[=a]l', _n._ a second sale. RESALUTE, r[=e]-sa-l[=u]t', _v.t._ to salute anew or in return. RESAW, r[=e]-saw', _v.t._ to saw into still thinner pieces. RESCIND, r[=e]-sind', _v.t._ to cut away or off: to annul: to repeal: to reverse.--_adj._ RESCIND'ABLE.--_ns._ RESCIND'MENT; RESCIS'SION, the act of rescinding: the act of annulling or repealing.--_adj._ RESCIS'SORY.--RESCISSORY ACTIONS (_law_), those actions whereby deeds are declared void. [Fr.,--L. _rescind[)e]re_, _rescissum_--_re-_, back, _scind[)e]re_, to cut.] RESCORE, r[=e]-sk[=o]r', _v.t._ to rearrange music for voices and instruments. RESCRIBE, r[=e]-skr[=i]b', _v.t._ to write again.--_n._ RESCRIB'END[=A]RY, a papal official who determines what documents are to be copied and registered, &c. RESCRIPT, r[=e]'skript, _n._ the official answer of a pope or an emperor to any legal question: an edict or decree.--_n._ RESCRIP'TION, the answering of a letter.--_adj._ RESCRIP'TIVE.--_adv._ RESCRIP'TIVELY. [Fr.,--L. _rescriptum_--_re-_, back, _scrib[)e]re_, _scriptum_, to write.] RESCUE, res'k[=u], _v.t._ to free from danger or violence: to deliver: to liberate:--_pr.p._ res'c[=u]ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ res'c[=u]ed.--_n._ the act of rescuing: deliverance from violence or danger: forcible release from arrest or imprisonment.--_adj._ RES'CUABLE.--_ns._ RES'CUER; RESC[=U]SS[=EE]', the party rescued; RESCUS'SOR, one who makes an unlawful rescue. [M. E. _rescous_, a rescue--O. Fr. _rescousse_--_rescourre_--L. _re-_, away, _excut[)e]re_, to shake out--_ex_, out, _quat[)e]re_, to shake.] RESCUE-GRASS, res'k[=u]-gras, _n._ a species of brome-grass, native to South America. RESEARCH, r[=e]-s[.e]rch', _n._ a careful search: diligent examination or investigation: scrutiny.--_v.i._ to examine anew.--_n._ RESEARCH'ER.--_adj._ RESEARCH'FUL, inquisitive, prone to investigation. RESEAT, r[=e]-s[=e]t', _v.t._ to furnish with new seats. RÉSEAU, r[=a]-z[=o]', _n._ a fine meshed ground for lace-work. RESECTION, r[=e]-sek'shun, _n._ act of cutting off: removal of a bone's articular extremity.--_v.t._ RESECT', to cut off. [L. _resec[=a]re_, _re-_, again, _sec[=a]re_, to cut.] RESEDA, r[=e]-s[=e]'da, _n._ a genus of polypetalous plants, the mignonette family. RESEEK, r[=e]-s[=e]k', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to seek again. RESEIZE, r[=e]-s[=e]z', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to seize again: to reinstate.--_ns._ RESEIZ'ER; RESEIZ'[=U]RE. RESELL, r[=e]-sel', _v.t._ to sell again. RESEMBLE, r[=e]-zem'bl, _v.t._ to be similar to: to have the likeness of: to possess similar qualities or appearance: to compare: to make like.--_adj._ RESEMBLABLE, admitting of being compared.--_n._ RESEM'BLANCE, the state of resembling: similitude: likeness: similarity: that which is similar.--_adj._ RESEM'BLANT.--_n._ RESEM'BLER.--_adj._ RESEM'BLING.--_adv._ RESEM'BLINGLY. [O. Fr. _resembler_ (Fr. _ressembler_)--re-, again, _sembler_, to seem--L. _simul[=a]re_, to make like--_similis_, like.] RESEMINATE, r[=e]-sem'i-n[=a]t, _v.t._ to propagate again. RESEND, r[=e]-send', _v.t._ to send again or back. RESENT, r[=e]-zent', _v.t._ to take ill: to consider as an injury or affront: to be indignant at: to express indignation: to have a strong perception of: to perceive by the sense of smell--_v.i._ to be indignant.--_n._ RESENT'ER.--_adj._ RESENT'FUL, full of, or prone to, resentment.--_advs._ RESENT'FULLY; RESENT'INGLY.--_adj._ RESENT'IVE.--_n._ RESENT'MENT, the act of resenting: displeasure: anger. [O. Fr. _resentir_, _ressentir_--L. _re-_, in return, _sent[=i]re_, to feel.] RESERVE, r[=e]-z[.e]rv', _v.t._ to keep back: to keep for future or other use: to retain, except: to keep safe.--_n._ that which is reserved: that which is kept for future use: a part of an army or a fleet reserved to assist those engaged in action: that which is kept back in the mind: mental concealment: absence of freedom in words or action: caution: that part of capital which is retained to meet average liabilities.--_n._ RESERV[=A]'TION, the act of reserving or keeping back: the withholding from a statement of a word or clause necessary to convey its real meaning: something withheld: safe keeping: a clause, proviso, or limitation by which something is reserved: (_U.S._) a tract of public land reserved for some special purpose, as for Indians, schools, &c.: the practice of reserving part of the consecrated bread of the eucharist for the communion of the sick: the act of the pope to reserve to himself the right to nominate to certain benefices.--_adj._ RESERV'ATIVE.--_n._ RESERV'ATORY.--_n.pl._ RESERVES', the reserve forces of a country, the men composing such.--_n._ RESER'VIST, a soldier who belongs to the reserves.--MENTAL RESERVATION, the act of reserving or holding back some word or clause which is necessary to convey fully the meaning really intended by the speaker--distinct from equivocation (L. _equivocatio_ or _amphibolia_).--WITHOUT RESERVE, a phrase implying that a property will be sold absolutely, neither the vendor nor any one acting for him bidding it in. [O. Fr. _reserver_--L. _reserv[=a]re_--_re-_, back, _serv[=a]re_, to save.] RESERVED, r[=e]-z[.e]rvd', _adj._ characterised by reserve: not free or frank in words or behaviour: shy: cold.--_adv._ RESER'VEDLY.--_ns._ RESER'VEDNESS; RESER'VER.--RESERVED CASE, a sin, the power to absolve from which is reserved to the pope, or his legate, &c.; RESERVED LIST, formerly a list of officers on half-pay, who might be called upon in an emergency; RESERVED POWER, a reservation made in deeds, &c.; RESERVED POWERS (_U.S._), powers pertaining to sovereignty, but not delegated to a representative body. RESERVOIR, rez'[.e]r-vwor, _n._ a place where anything is kept in store: a place where water and other liquids are stored for use.--Also _v.t._ [Fr.] RESET, r[=e]-set', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to set again.--_n._ printed matter set over again.--_adj._ RESET'TABLE (_Tenn._), that may be reset. RESET, re-set', _v.t._ (_Scot._) to receive and hide, as stolen goods, or a criminal.--_n._ RESET'TER, one who receives and hides stolen goods. [Perh. _receipt_.] RESETTLE, r[=e]-set'l, v.t, and _v.i._ to settle again.--_n._ RESETT'LEMENT. RESHAPE, r[=e]-sh[=a]p', _v.t._ to give a new shape to. RESHIP, r[=e]-ship', _v.t._ to ship again.--_n._ RESHIP'MENT, the act of reshipping: things reshipped. RESIANT, rez'i-ant, _adj._ (_obs._) resident, always residing in a place.--_n._ RES'IANCE. [Doublet of _resident_.] RESIDE, r[=e]-z[=i]d', _v.i._ to remain sitting: to dwell permanently: to abide: to live: to inhere.--_ns._ RES'IDENCE, act of dwelling in a place: place where one resides, a domicile: that in which anything permanently inheres: the settling of liquors; RES'IDENCY, residence: the official dwelling of a government officer in India.--_adj._ RES'IDENT, dwelling in a place for some time: residing on one's own estate: residing in the place of one's duties: not migratory.--_n._ one who resides: a public minister at a foreign court.--_n._ RES'IDENTER (_Scot._).--_adjs._ RESIDEN'TIAL, residing: having actual residence--(_rare_) RESIDENT'AL; RESIDEN'TIARY, residing, esp. of one bound to reside for a certain time every year at a cathedral church.--_n._ one who keeps a certain residence, esp. an ecclesiastic.--_ns._ RESIDEN'TIARYSHIP; RES'IDENTSHIP; RES[=I]'DER. [O. Fr.,--L. _resid[=e]re_--_re-_, back, _sed[=e]re_, to sit.] RESIDUE, rez'i-d[=u], _n._ that which is left behind after a part is taken away: the remainder: the residuum of an estate after payment of debts and legacies.--_adj._ RESID'UAL, remaining as residue.--_n._ that which remains after a subtraction, as the difference between one of a series of observed values and the mean of the series, &c.--_ns._ RESID'UAL-AIR, that portion of air which cannot be expelled by the most violent efforts from the lungs; RESID'UAL-CHARGE, a charge of electricity spontaneously acquired by coated glass; RESID'UAL-MAG'NETISM, remanent magnetism; RESID'UAL-QUAN'TITY, a binomial connected with the sign - (_minus_).--_adj._ RESID'UARY, pertaining to the residue: receiving the remainder, as residuary estate.--_ns._ RESID'UARY-CLAUSE, that part of a will which disposes of whatever may be left after satisfying the other provisions of the will; RESID'UARY-LEGAT[=EE]', the legatee to whom is bequeathed the residuum.--_v.t._ RESID'UATE, to find the residual of.--_ns._ RESIDU[=A]'TION, the act of finding the residual; RESID'UENT, a by-product left after the removal of a principal product.--_adj._ RESID'UOUS, residual.--_n._ RESID'[=U]UM, that which is left after any process of purification: a residue. [O. Fr. _residu_--L. _residuum_--_resid[=e]re_, to remain behind.] RESIGN, r[=e]-s[=i]n', _v.t._ to sign again. RESIGN, r[=e]-z[=i]n', _v.t._ to yield up to another: to submit calmly: to relinquish: to entrust.--_v.i._ to submit one's self: to give up an office, &c.--_n._ RESIGN[=A]'TION, act of giving up: state of being resigned or quietly submissive: acquiescence: patience: (_Scots law_) the form by which a vassal returns the feu into the hands of a superior.--_p.adj._ RESIGNED', calmly submissive: uncomplaining.--_adv._ RESIGNED'LY, with submission.--_ns._ RESIGN[=EE]', the person to whom a thing is resigned; RESIGN'ER; RESIGN'MENT. [O. Fr.,--L. _resign[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to annul--_re-_, sig. reversal, _sign[=a]re_--_signum_, a mark.] RESILE, r[=e]-z[=i]l', _v.i._ to leap back: to fly from: to recoil, to recede:--_pr.p._ res[=i]l'ing; _pa.p._ res[=i]led'.--_ns._ RESILE'MENT; RESIL'IENCE, RESIL'IENCY, act of springing back or rebounding.--_adj._ RESIL'IENT, springing back or rebounding.--_ns._ RESILI'TION; RESILU[=A]'TION, renewed attack. [O. Fr.,--L. _resil[=i]re_, to leap back--_re-_, back, _sal[=i]re_, to leap.] RESIN, rez'in, _n._ an amorphous substance that exudes from plants, supposed to be the product of oxidation of volatile oils secreted by the plant: the precipitate obtained from a vegetable tincture by treatment with water.--_v.t._ to coat with resin.--_adj._ RESIN[=A]'CEOUS, resinous.--_n._ RES'IN[=A]TE, a salt of the acids obtained from turpentine.--_adj._ RESINIF'EROUS, yielding resin.--_n._ RESINIFIC[=A]'TION, the process of treating with resin.--_adj._ RES'INIFORM.--_vs.t._ RES'INIFY, to change into resin; RES'INISE, to treat with resin.--_adjs._ RES'INO-ELEC'TRIC, containing negative electricity; RES'INOID; RES'INOUS, having the qualities of, or resembling, resin.--_adv._ RES'INOUSLY.--_n._ RES'INOUSNESS.--_adj._ RES'INY, like resin.--GUM RESINS, the milky juices of certain plants solidified by exposure to air; HARD RESINS, at ordinary temperatures solid and brittle, easily pulverised, containing little or no essential oil (_copal_, _lac_, _jalap_, &c.); SOFT RESINS, mouldable by the hand--some are viscous and semi-fluid _balsams_ (_turpentine_, _storax_, _Canada balsam_, &c.). [Fr.,--L. _res[=i]na_.] RESINATA, rez-i-n[=a]'ta, _n._ the common white wine in Greece, its peculiar odour due to the resin of the wine.--_v.t._ RES'IN[=A]TE. RESIPISCENCE, res-i-pis'ens, _n._ change to a better frame of mind.--_adj._ RESIPIS'CENT, right-minded. [Fr.,--L. _resipiscentia_--_resipisc[)e]re_, to repent--_re-_, again, _sap[)e]re_, to be wise.] RESIST, r[=e]-zist', _v.t._ to strive against: to oppose.--_v.i._ to make opposition.--_n._ a composition applied to a surface to enable it to resist chemical action: a material, as a paste, applied to a fabric to prevent the action of a dye or mordant from affecting the parts not to be coloured.--_ns._ RESIS'TAL (_obs._); RESIS'TANCE, act of resisting: opposition: (_mech._) the power of a body which acts in opposition to the impulse of another: (_electr._) that property of a conductor in virtue of which the passage of a current through it is accompanied with a dissipation of energy; RESIS'TANCE-BOX, a box containing one or more resistance-coils; RESIS'TANCE-COIL, a coil of wire which offers a resistance to the passage of a current of electricity; RESIS'TANT, one who, or that which, resists.--_adjs._ RESIS'TANT, RESIS'TENT, making resistance.--_ns._ RESIS'TER; RESISTIBIL'ITY, RESIS'TIBLENESS.--_adj._ RESIS'TIBLE.--_advs._ RESIS'TIBLY; RESIS'TINGLY.--_adj._ RESIS'TIVE.--_adv._ RESIS'TIVELY.--_n._ RESISTIV'ITY.--_adj._ RESIST'LESS, irresistible: unresisting, unable to resist.--_adv._ RESIST'LESSLY.--_ns._ RESIST'LESSNESS; RESIST'-STYLE, in calico printing, the process of dyeing in a pattern by the use of a resist; RESIST'-WORK, calico printing, in which the pattern is produced by means of resist which preserves parts uncoloured. [Fr.,--L. _resist[)e]re_--_re-_, against, _sist[)e]re_, to make to stand.] RESMOOTH, r[=e]-sm[=oo]_th_', _v.t._ to smooth again. RESOLDER, r[=e]-sol'd[.e]r, _v.t._ to solder again. RESOLUBLE, rez'[=o]-l[=u]-bl, _adj._ that may be resolved, soluble.--_n._ RES'OLUBLENESS. RESOLUTE, rez'[=o]-l[=u]t, _adj._ resolved: determined: having a fixed purpose: constant in pursuing a purpose: bold.--_n._ a determined person.--_adv._ RES'OL[=U]TELY.--_n._ RES'OL[=U]TENESS. RESOLUTION, rez-o-l[=u]'shun, _n._ act of resolving: analysis: solution: state of being resolved: fixed determination: steadiness: that which is resolved: certainty: (_mus._) the relieving of a discord by a following concord: a formal proposal put before a public assembly, or the formal determination of such on any matter: (_math._) reduction, solution: (_med._) the disappearance or dispersion of a tumour or inflammation.--_n._ RESOL[=U]'TIONER, one of a party in Scotland who approved of the resolutions of the Commission of General Assembly (1650) admitting to take part in the struggle against Cromwell all persons except those excommunicate and hostile to the Covenant--opp. to the _Protesters_.--_adj._ RES'OL[=U]TIVE.--RESOLUTION OF FORCES, OR OF VELOCITIES, the application of the principle of the parallelogram of forces or velocities to the separation of a force or velocity into parts. RESOLVE, r[=e]-zolv', _v.t._ to separate into parts: to analyse: to free from doubt or difficulty: to explain: to decide: to fix by resolution or formal declaration: (_math._) to solve: (_med._) to disperse, as a tumour: (_mus._) to carry a discord into a concord.--_v.i._ to determine.--_n._ anything resolved or determined: resolution: fixed purpose.--_n._ RESOLVABIL'ITY.--_adj._ ROSOL'VABLE, that may be resolved or reduced to its elements.--_n._ RESOL'VABLENESS.--_adv._ RESOL'VABLY.--_adj._ RESOLVED', fixed in purpose.--_adv._ RESOL'VEDLY, firmly: clearly.--_n._ RESOL'VEDNESS.--_adj._ RESOL'VENT, having power to resolve.--_n._ that which causes solution: (_med._) a substance which resolves tumours: (_math._) an equation upon whose solution the solution of a given problem depends.--_n._ RESOL'VER. [Fr.,--L. _resolv[)e]re_, _resolutum_--_re-_, inten., _solv[)e]re_, to loose.] RESONANCE, rez'[=o]-nans, _n._ act of resounding: the returning of sound by reflection or by the production of vibrations in other bodies: the sound discovered by means of auscultation--also RES'ONANCY.--_n._ RES'ONANCE-BOX, a chamber in a musical instrument for increasing its sonority.--_adj._ RES'ONANT, returning sound: vibrating.--_adv._ RES'ONANTLY.--_v.i._ RES'ON[=A]TE, to resound.--_n._ RESON[=A]'TOR, a vessel for the analysis of complex sounds. [L. _reson[=a]re_, _re-_, back, _son[=a]re_, to sound.] RESORB, r[=e]-sorb', _v.t._ to reabsorb, to swallow up.--_adj._ RESORB'ENT. [L. _resorb[)e]re_, to suck back.] RESORCIN, r[=e]-sor'sin, _n._ a colourless crystalline phenol.--_adj._ RESOR'CINAL.--_n._ RESOR'CINISM. [Fr.] RESORPTION, r[=e]-sorp'shun, _n._ the disappearance of an organ by absorption.--_adj._ RESORP'TIVE. RESORT, r[=e]-zort', _v.i._ to go: to betake one's self: to have recourse: to apply.--_n._ act of resorting: a place much frequented: a haunt: resource: company.--_n._ RESORT'ER, a frequenter.--LAST RESORT, the last means of relief, the final tribunal--the French _dernier ressort_. [Fr. _ressortir_--L. _re-_, back, _sort[=i]ri_, to cast lots--_sors_, _sortis_, a lot.] RESOUND, r[=e]-zownd', _v.t._ to sound back: to echo: to praise or celebrate with sound: to spread the fame of.--_v.i._ to be sent back or echoed: to echo: to sound loudly: to be much mentioned.--_ns._ RESOUND'; RESOUND'ER, a monotelephone. RESOURCE, re-s[=o]rs', _n._ a source of help: an expedient: (_pl._) means of raising money: means of any kind: funds.--_adj._ RESOURCE'FUL, shifty.--_n._ RESOURCE'FULNESS.--_adj._ RESOURCE'LESS. [O. Fr. _resource_--_resourdre_--L. _resurg[)e]re_, to rise again.] RESOW, r[=e]-s[=o]', _v.t._ to sow again. RESPEAK, r[=e]-sp[=e]k', _v.i._ to speak again, echo. RESPECT, r[=e]-spekt', _v.t._ to esteem for merit: to honour: to relate to: to regard unduly: to heed.--_n._ act of esteeming highly: regard: expression of esteem: deportment arising from esteem: relation: reference: point of view, any particular: (_B._) good-will, also undue regard: partiality: reflection: decency: reputation.--_n._ RESPECTABIL'ITY, state or quality of being respectable.--_adj._ RESPEC'TABLE, worthy of respect or regard: moderate in excellence or number: not mean or despicable: reputable: moderately well-to-do.--_n._ RESPEC'TABLENESS.--_adv._ RESPEC'TABLY, moderately: pretty well.--_adj._ RESPEC'TANT (_her._), facing one another--said of figures of animals.--_n._ RESPEC'TER.--_adj._ RESPECT'FUL, full of respect: marked by civility.--_adv._ RESPECT'FULLY.--_n._ RESPECT'FULNESS.--_prep._ RESPEC'TING, regarding: considering.--_n._ RESPEC'TION, respect.--_adj._ RESPEC'TIVE, having respect or reference to: relative: relating to a particular person or thing: particular.--_adv._ RESPEC'TIVELY.--_ns._ RESPEC'TIVENESS; RESPEC'TIVIST (_obs._), a captious critic.--_adjs._ RESPECT'LESS, regardless; RESPEC'T[=U]OUS (_obs._), causing respect: respectful.--HAVE RESPECT OF PERSONS, unduly to favour certain persons, as for their wealth, &c.; IN RESPECT OF, in comparison with; WITH RESPECT TO, with regard to. [O. Fr.,--L. _respic[)e]re_, _respectum_--_re-_, back, _spec[)e]re_, to look.] RESPELL, r[=e]-spel', _v.t._ to spell again, or in new form. RESPERSE, r[=e]-spers', _v.t._ to sprinkle.--_n._ RESPER'SION. RESPIRE, r[=e]-sp[=i]r', _v.i._ to breathe again and again: to breathe: to take rest.--_v.t._ to breathe out--in the higher animals there is an absorption of oxygen and a discharge of carbonic acid, also in plants.--_n._ RESP[=I]RABIL'ITY, quality of being respirable.--_adj._ RESP[=I]R'ABLE, that may be breathed: fit for respiration.--_n._ RESP[=I]R'ABLENESS; RESPIR[=A]'TION, the function of breathing: relief from toil.--_adjs._ RESPIR[=A]'TIONAL; RESP[=I]R'ATIVE.--_ns._ RES'PIR[=A]TOR, a network of fine wire for respiring or breathing through; RESPIRAT[=O]'RIUM, a gill-like organ used by certain insects to draw water from the air.--_adj._ R[=E]SPI'RATORY (or res'pi-r[=a]-t[=o]-ri), pertaining to, or serving for, respiration.--_ns._ RESP[=I]R'ING; RESPIROM'ETER, an apparatus for supplying air to a diver under water.--Artificial respiration, respiration induced by artificial means. [Fr.,--L. _respir[=a]re_--_re-_, sig. repetition, _spir[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to breathe.] RESPITE, res'pit, _n._ temporary cessation of anything: pause: interval of rest: (_law_) temporary suspension of the execution of a criminal.--_v.t._ to grant a respite to: to relieve by a pause: to delay.--_adj._ RES'PITELESS. [O. Fr. _respit_ (Fr. _répit_)--L. _respectus_, respect.] RESPLENDENT, r[=e]-splen'dent, _adj._ very splendid, shining brilliantly: very bright: (_her._) issuing rays.--_ns._ RESPLEN'DENCE, RESPLEN'DENCY, state of being resplendent.--_adv._ RESPLEN'DENTLY. [L. _resplend[=e]re_--_re-_, inten., _splend[=e]re_, to shine.] RESPLIT, r[=e]-split', _v.t._ to split again. RESPOND, r[=e]-spond', _v.i._ to answer or reply: to correspond to or suit: to be answerable: to make a liturgical response: to be liable for payment.--_v.t._ to satisfy.--_n._ a versicle, &c., occurring at intervals, as in the responses to the commandments in the Anglican service: (_archit._) a pilaster, &c., in a wall for receiving the impost of an arch.--_ns._ RESPON'DENCE, RESPON'DENCY, act of responding: reply: (_Spens._) correspondence.--_adj._ RESPON'DENT, answering: corresponding to expectation.--_n._ one who answers, esp. in a law-suit: one who refutes objections.--_ns._ RESPONDEN'TIA, a loan on the cargo of a vessel; RESPON'SAL, a liturgical response: a proctor for a monastery; RESPONSE', a reply: an oracular answer: the answer made by the congregation to the priest during divine service: reply to an objection in a formal disputation: a short anthem sung at intervals during a lection; RESPONSIBIL'ITY, RESPON'SIBLENESS, state of being responsible: what one is responsible for: a trust.--_adj._ RESPON'SIBLE, liable to be called to account or render satisfaction: answerable: capable of discharging duty: able to pay.--_adv._ RESPON'SIBLY.--_n.pl._ RESPON'SIONS, the first of the three examinations for the B.A. degree at Oxford, familiarly called 'smalls.'--_adj._ RESPON'SIVE, inclined to respond: answering: correspondent.--_adv._ RESPON'SIVELY.--_n._ RESPON'SIVENESS, the state of being responsive.--_adj._ RESPONS[=O]'RIAL, responsive.--_n._ an office-book containing the responsories.--_adj._ RESPON'SORY, making answer.--_n._ a portion of a psalm sung between the missal lections: the answer of the people to the priest in church service: a response book.--_n._ RESPON'S[=U]RE (_obs._), response. [Fr.,--L. _respond[=e]re_, _responsum_--_re-_, back, _spond[=e]re_, to promise.] RESSAUT, res-awt', _n._ (_archit._) a projection of one part from another. [Fr.,--L. _resil[=i]re_, to leap back.] REST, rest, _n._ cessation from motion or disturbance: peace: quiet: sleep: the final sleep, or death: place of rest, as an inn, &c.: repose: release: security: tranquillity: stay: that on which anything rests or is supported: a pause of the voice in reading: (_mus._) an interval between tones, also its mark: in ancient armour, a projection from the cuirass to support the lance: a quick and continued returning of the ball at tennis: in the game of primero, the final stake made by the player.--_v.i._ to cease from action or labour: to be still: to repose: to sleep: to be dead: to be supported: to lean or trust: to be satisfied: to come to an end: to be undisturbed: to take rest: to lie: to trust: (_law_) to terminate voluntarily the adducing of evidence: to be in the power of, as 'it rests with you.'--_v.t._ to lay at rest: to quiet: to place on a support.--_n._ REST'-CURE, the treatment of exhaustion by isolation in bed.--_adj._ REST'FUL (_Shak._), being at rest, quiet, giving rest.--_adv._ REST'FULLY, in a state of rest.--_ns._ REST'FULNESS, the state or quality of being restful: quietness; REST'-HOUSE a house of rest for travellers in India, a dak-bungalow REST'INESS (_obs._), sluggishness.--_adj._ REST'ING-OW'ING (_Scots law_), indebted.--_ns._ REST'ING-PLACE, a place of security, or of rest, the grave: in building, a landing in a staircase; REST'ING-SPORE, a spore which germinates after a period of dormancy; REST'ING-STAGE, -STATE, a state of suspended activity, as of woody plants, bulbs; REST'ING-WHILE, a period of leisure.--AT REST, applied to a body, means, having no velocity with respect to that on which the body stands. [A.S. _rest_, _ræst_; Ger. _rast_, Dut. _rust_.] REST, rest, _n._ that which remains after the separation of a part: remainder: others: balance of assets above liabilities.--_v.i._ to remain.--FOR THE REST, as regards other matters. [Fr. _reste_--L. _rest[=a]re_, to remain--_re-_, back, _st[=a]re_, to stand.] REST, rest, _v.t._ (_coll._) to arrest. RESTANT, res'tant, _adj._ remaining persistent. RESTATE, r[=e]-st[=a]t', _v.t._ to state again.--_n._ RESTATE'MENT. RESTAUR, res-tawr', _n._ the remedy which assurers have against each other, or a person has against his guarantor. [Fr.] RESTAURANT, res't[=o]-rang, or res't[=o]-rant, _n._ a house for the sale of refreshments: an eating-house.--_n._ RESTAURATEUR (res-t[=o]'ra-t[.e]r), the keeper of a restaurant. [Fr.,--restaurer, to restore.] RESTEM, r[=e]-stem', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to force back against the current: to move back against, as a current. REST-HARROW, rest'-har'[=o], _n._ a half-shrubby plant with a spiny stem and tough, woody roots, common in ill-cleaned land: a small moth. RESTIBRACHIUM, res-ti-br[=a]'ki-um, _n._ (_anat._) the inferior peduncle of the cerebellum.--_adj._ RESTIBR[=A]'CHIAL. RESTIFF, an obsolete form of _restive_. RESTIFORM, res'ti-form, _adj._ cord-like.--RESTIFORM BODY, the inferior peduncle of the cerebellum. [L. _restis_, a net, _forma_, form.] RESTILY, res'ti-li, _adv._ stubbornly, sluggishly. RESTINCTION, r[=e]-stingk'shun, _n._ the act of extinguishing.--_v.t._ RESTING'UISH, to quench. RESTIO, res'ti-[=o], _n._ a genus of glumaceous plants.--_n._ RESTIOI'DEÆ. RESTIPULATE, r[=e]-stip'[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.i._ to stipulate anew.--_n._ RESTIPUL[=A]'TION. RESTITUTION, res-ti-t[=u]'shun, _n._ act of restoring what was lost or taken away: indemnification: making good: (_law_) the restoration of what a party had gained by a judgment.--_v.t._ RES'TIT[=U]TE (_obs._), to restore.--_adj._ RES'TIT[=U]TIVE.--_n._ RES'TIT[=U]TOR. [L. _restitutio_--_restitu[)e]re_, to set up again--_re-_, again, _statu[)e]re_, to make to stand.] RESTIVE, res'tiv, _adj._ unwilling to go forward: obstinate: jibbing back like a restive horse.--_adv._ RES'TIVELY.--_n._ RES'TIVENESS. [O. Fr. _restif_--L. _rest[=a]re_, to rest.] RESTLESS, rest'les, _adj._ in continual motion: uneasy: passed in unquietness: seeking change or action: unsettled: turbulent.--_adv._ REST'LESSLY.--_n._ REST'LESSNESS. [_Rest_, cessation from motion.] RESTORE, r[=e]-st[=o]r', _v.t._ to repair: to replace: to return: to bring back to its former state: to revive: to cure: to compensate: to mend: (_mus._) to bring a note back to its original signification.--_adj._ REST[=O]R'ABLE, that may be restored to a former owner or condition.--_ns._ REST[=O]R'ABLENESS, the state or quality of being restorable; REST[=O]R[=A]'TION, act of restoring: replacement: recovery: revival: reparation: renewal: restoration of a building to its original design: (_theol._) receiving of a sinner to the divine favour: the final recovery of all men: (_palæont._) the proper adjustment of the bones of an extinct animal; REST[=O]R[=A]'TIONIST, one who holds the belief that after a purgation all wicked men and angels will be restored to the favour of God, a universalist.--_adj._ REST[=O]R'ATIVE, able or tending to restore, esp. to strength and vigour.--_n._ a medicine that restores.--_adv._ REST[=O]R'ATIVELY.--_ns._ REST[=O]RE'MENT; REST[=O]R'ER.--THE RESTORATION, the re-establishment of the monarchy with the return of Charles II. in 1660. [Fr. _restaurer_--L. _restaur[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_re-_, again, root _st[=a]re_, to stand.] RESTRAIN, r[=e]-str[=a]n', _v.t._ to hold back: to check: to withhold, to forbid: to hinder: to limit.--_adj._ RESTRAIN'ABLE, capable of being restrained.--_adv._ RESTRAIN'EDLY.--_n._ RESTRAIN'ER (_phot._), a chemical used to retard the act of the developer in an overexposed plate, &c.--_p.adj._ RESTRAIN'ING.--_ns._ RESTRAIN'MENT; RESTRAINT', act of restraining: state of being restrained: want of liberty: limitation: hinderance: reserve; RESTRAINT'-BED, -CHAIR, used for the insane. [O. Fr. _restraindre_--L. _restring[)e]re_, _restrictum_--_re-_, back, _string[)e]re_, to draw tightly.] RESTRENGTHEN, r[=e]-strength'n, _v.t._ to strengthen anew. RESTRIALL, r[=e]-str[=i]'al, _adj._ (_her._) divided barwise, palewise, and pilewise. RESTRICT, r[=e]-strikt', _v.t._ to limit: to confine: to repress: to attach limitations.--_adv._ RESTRIC'TEDLY.--_n._ RESTRIC'TION, act of restricting: limitation: confinement.--_adj._ RESTRIC'TIVE, having the power or tendency to restrict: astringent.--_adv._ RESTRIC'TIVELY.--_n._ RESTRIC'TIVENESS, the state or quality of being restrictive. [_Restrain._] RESTRIKE, r[=e]-str[=i]k', _v.t._ to strike again, as a coin. RESTRINGE, r[=e]-strinj', _v.t._ to contract: to astringe.--_ns._ RESTRIN'GEND, RESTRIN'GENT, an astringent. RESTY, rest'i, _adj._ (_Spens._) restive: (_Milt._) disposed to rest, indolent. RESUBLIME, r[=e]-sub-l[=i]m', _v.t._ to sublime again.--_n._ RESUBLIM[=A]'TION. RESUDATION, r[=e]-s[=u]-d[=a]'shun, _n._ a sweating again. RESULT, r[=e]-zult', _v.i._ to issue (with _in_): to follow as a consequence from facts: to rebound: to be the outcome: to terminate.--_n._ consequence: conclusion: decision: resolution, as the result of a council.--_n._ RESUL'TANCE, act of resulting.--_adj._ RESUL'TANT, resulting from combination.--_n._ (_phys._) a force compounded of two or more forces.--_n._ RESUL'T[=A]TE (_obs._), a result.--_adjs._ RESULT'FUL, having results or effect; RESUL'TIVE; RESULT'LESS, without result.--_n._ RESULT'LESSNESS.--RESULTANT TONE, a tone produced by the simultaneous sounding of two sustained tones; RESULTING FORCE, a motion which is the result of two or more motions combined. [Fr.,--L. _result[=a]re_--_resil[=i]re_. Cf. _Resilient_.] RESUME, r[=e]-z[=u]m', _v.t._ to take back what has been given: to take up again: to begin again after interruption.--_adj._ RES[=U]'MABLE, liable to be taken back again, or taken up again. [L. _resum[)e]re_--_re-_, back, _sum[)e]re_, _sumptum_, to take.] RÉSUMÉ, r[=a]-z[=u]-m[=a]', _n._ a summing up: a summary.--_v.t._ RESUME'. [Fr.,--L. _resum[)e]re_, to resume.] RESUMMON, r[=e]-sum'un, _v.t._ to summon again: to recover.--_n._ RESUMM'ONS, a second summons. RESUMPTION, r[=e]-zump'shun, _n._ act of resuming or taking back again, as the resumption of a grant: the return to special payments.--_adj._ RESUMP'TIVE.--_n._ a restoring medicine. RESUPINATE, r[=e]-s[=u]'pin-[=a]t, _adj._ lying on the back: (_bot._) inverted in position by a twisting of the stalk upside down--also RES[=U]PINE'.--_n._ RESUPIN[=A]'TION. [L. _resupinatus_, pa.p. pass. of _resupin[=a]re_, to bend back--_re-_, back, _supinus_, bent backward.] RESURGE, r[=e]-surj', _v.i._ to rise again.--_n._ RESUR'GENCE.--_adj._ RESUR'GENT, rising again or from the dead.--_v.t._ RESURRECT' (_coll._), to restore to life.--_n._ RESURREC'TION, the rising again from the dead: the life thereafter: a restoration: body-snatching.--_adj._ RESURREC'TIONARY.--_v.t._ RESURREC'TIONISE.--_ns._ RESURREC'TIONIST, RESURREC'TION-MAN, one who steals bodies from the grave for dissection. [L. _re-_, again, _surg[)e]re_, _surrectum_, to rise.] RESURPRISE, r[=e]-sur-pr[=i]z', _n._ a second surprise. RESURVEY, r[=e]-sur-v[=a]', _v.t._ to survey again, to review.--_n._ a second or renewed survey. RESUSCITATE, r[=e]-sus'i-t[=a]t, _v.t._ to revive, to revivify.--_v.i._ to revive: to awaken and come to life again.--_adjs._ RESUS'CITABLE; RESUS'CITANT.--_n._ one who, or that which, resuscitates.--_n._ RESUSCIT[=A]'TION, act of reviving from a state of apparent death: state of being revivified.--_adj._ RESUS'CIT[=A]TIVE, tending to resuscitate: reviving: revivifying: reanimating.--_n._ RESUS'CIT[=A]TOR, one who resuscitates.--RESUSCITATIVE FACULTY, the reproductive faculty of the mind. [L. _re-_, again, _suscit[=a]re_--_sus-_, _sub-_, from beneath, _cit[=a]re_, to put into quick motion--_ci[=e]re_, to make to go.] RET, ret, _v.t._ to expose hemp, jute, &c. to moisture. RETABLE, r[=e]-t[=a]'bl, _n._ a shelf behind the altar for the display of lights, vases of flowers, &c. [Fr.] RETAIL, r[=e]-t[=a]l', _v.t._ to sell or deal out in small parts: to sell in broken parts, or at second hand: to hand down by report.--_adj._ pertaining to retail.--_ns._ R[=E]'TAIL, the sale of goods in small quantities; RETAIL'ER; RETAIL'MENT. [Fr. _retailler_, to cut again--_re-_, again, _tailler_, to cut.] RETAILLE, r[.e]-ta-ly[=a]', _adj._ (_her._) cut or divided twice. RETAIN, r[=e]-t[=a]n', _v.t._ to keep in possession: to detain: to employ by a fee paid: to restrain: to keep up, as to retain a custom: to keep in mind.--_adj._ RETAIN'ABLE, that may be retained.--_ns._ RETAIN'ER, one who is retained or kept in service: a dependant, but higher than a servant: a sutler: a retaining fee; RETAIN'ERSHIP; RETAIN'MENT.--RETAINING FEE, the advance fee paid to a lawyer to defend a cause; RETAINING WALL, a wall to prevent a bank from slipping down.--GENERAL RETAINER, a fee to secure a priority of claim on a counsel's services; SPECIAL RETAINER, a fee for a particular case. [Fr.,--L. _retin[=e]re_--_re-_, back, _ten[=e]re_, to hold.] RETAKE, r[=e]-t[=a]k', _v.t._ to take or receive again: to recapture. RETALIATE, r[=e]-tal'i-[=a]t, _v.t._ to return like for like: to repay.--_v.i._ to return like for like.--_n._ RETALI[=A]'TION, act of retaliating: 'lex talionis:' retribution.--_adjs._ RETAL'I[=A]TIVE, RETAL'I[=A]TORY, returning like for like. [L. _retali[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_re-_, in return, _talio_, _-onis_, like for like--_talis_, of such a kind.] RETAMA, re-tä'mä, or re-t[=a]'mä, _n._ a group of yellow-flowered shrubs, with rush-like branches. RETARD, r[=e]-tärd', _v.t._ to keep back: to delay: to defer.--_adj._ RETAR'DANT.--_n._ RETARD[=A]'TION, delay: hinderance: obstacle: (_phys._) a continuous decrement in velocity: in acoustics, the distance by which one wave is behind another: (_mus._) the act of diminishing the rate of speed: (_teleg._) decrease in the speed of telegraph signalling.--_adjs._ RETAR'D[=A]TIVE, tending or serving to retard; RETAR'D[=A]TORY.--_ns._ RETAR'DER; RETARD'MENT.--RETARDATION OF MEAN SOLAR TIME, the change of the sun's right ascension in a sidereal day. [Fr.,--L. _retard[=a]re_--_re-_, inten., _tard[=a]re_, to make slow--_tardus_, slow.] RETCH, rech, _v.i._ to try to vomit: to strain: to reach. [A.S. _hr['æ]can_--_hr['æ]c_, a cough; Ice. _hrækja_.] RETCHLESS, rech'les, _adj._ (_obs._) reckless.--_adv._ RETCH'LESSLY.--_n._ RETCH'LESSNESS. RETE, r[=e]'t[=e], _n._ a network of blood-vessels, a plexus.--_adjs._ RET[=E]'CIOUS; R[=E]'TIAL. RETECTION, r[=e]-tek'shun, _n._ the act of disclosing something concealed. RETELL, r[=e]-tel', _v.t._ to tell again. RETENTION, r[=e]-ten'shun, _n._ act or power of retaining: memory: restraint: custody: preservation: (_med._) power of retaining, inability to void: (_Scots law_) a lien, the right of withholding a debt until a debt due to the claimant is paid.--_n._ RETENT', that which is retained.--_adj._ RETEN'TIVE, having power to retain.--_adv._ RETEN'TIVELY.--_ns._ RETEN'TIVENESS, RETENTIV'ITY; RETEN'TOR, a muscle which serves to retain an organ in place.--MAGNETIC RETENTIVENESS, coercive force. RETEPORE, r[=e]'te-p[=o]r, _n._ a coral of the genus _Reteporidæ_. RETEX, r[=e]-teks', _v.t._ to annul. RETEXTURE, r[=e]-tekst'[=u]r, _n._ a second or new texture. RETIARY, r[=e]'shi-[=a]-ri, _adj._ net-like: constructing a web to catch prey: provided with a net.--_n._ a gladiator who fights with a net--also RETI[=A]'RIUS.--_n.pl._ R[=E]'TI[=A]RIÆ, the spinning spiders. [L. _retiarius_--_rete_, a net.] RETICENCE, ret'i-sens, _n._ concealment by silence: reserve in speech--also RET'ICENCY.--_adj._ RET'ICENT, concealing by silence: reserved in speech. [Fr.,--L. _retic[=e]re_--_re-_, _tac[=e]re_, to be silent.] RETICLE, ret'i-kl, _n._ Same as RETICULE. RETICULE, ret'i-k[=u]l, RETICLE, ret'i-kl, _n._ a little network bag: a lady's workbag: an attachment to a telescope consisting of a network of lines ruled on glass.--_adj._ RETIC'ULAR, having the form of network: formed with interstices: (_anat._) cellular.--_ns._ RETICUL[=A]'R[=E]; RETICUL[=A]'RIA, a genus of the myxomycetous fungi.--_n.pl._ RETICULARI[=A]'CEÆ.--_adjs._ RETICUL[=A]'RIAN; RETICUL[=A]'RIOUS.--__adv.__ RETIC'ULARLY.--_adjs._ RETIC'ULARY; RETIC'UL[=A]TE, -D, netted: having the form or structure of a net: having veins crossing like network, as a reticulate leaf.--_n._ RETICUL[=A]'TION, a method of copying a painting by the help of threads stretched across a frame.--_adj._ RETIC'UL[=O]SE, finely reticulate.--_n._ RETIC'ULUM, a network: the second stomach of a ruminant: a southern constellation.--RETICULAR CARTILAGE, a cartilage in which the matrix is permeated with elastic fibres; RETICULAR LAYER OF SKIN, the deeper part of the corium; RETICULATED GLASS, ware made from glass, in which one set of coloured lines meets with another; RETICULATED MICROMETER, a micrometer for an optical instrument with a reticule in the focus of an eyepiece; RETICULATED MOULDING, a fillet interlaced in various ways; RETICULATED WORK, masonry constructed with diamond-shaped stones. [L. _reticulum_--_rete_, net.] RETIERCÉ, r[=e]-ty[=a]r's[=a], _adj._ (_her._) divided fesswise into three equal parts. RETIFERA, r[=e]-tif'er-a, _n._ the true limpet. RETIFORM, r[=e]'ti-form, _adj._ having the form or structure of a net. [L. _rete_, net, _forma_, form.] RETINA, ret'i-na, _n._ the innermost coating of the eye, consisting of a fine network of optic nerves.--_adj._ RET'INAL, pertaining to the retina of the eye.--_n._ RETIN[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the retina. [Fr.,--L. _rete_, a net.] RETINACULUM, ret-i-nak'[=u]-lum, _n._ (_anat._) a connecting band: one of the annular ligaments which hold the tendons close to the bones of the larger joints: (_zool._) one of the retractor muscles of the proboscis of certain worms: (_bot._) a small viscid gland. RETINALITE, r[=e]-tin'a-l[=i]t, _n._ a green translucent variety of serpentine. RETINERVED, r[=e]'ti-n[.e]rvd, _adj._ netted, veined. RETINITE, ret'i-n[=i]t, _n._ pitch-stone or obsidian. RETINOID, ret'i-noid, _adj._ resin-like. RETINOL, ret'i-nol, _n._ a hydro-carbon oil used in printers' ink. RETINOPHORA, ret-i-nof'[=o]-ra, _n._ a cell of the embryonic eye of anthropods. RETINOSCOPY, ret'in-[=o]-sk[=o]-pi, _n._ examination of the retina with an ophthalmoscope. RETINOSPORA, ret-in-os'p[=o]-ra, _n._ a genus of coniferous trees, in use for lawn decoration. RETINUE, ret'i-n[=u], _n._ the body of retainers who follow a person of rank: a suite: a cortege. [_Retain._] RETINULA, r[=e]-tin'[=u]-la, _n._ (_entom._) a group of pigmented cells.--_adj._ RETIN'ULAR. RETIPED, r[=e]'tip-ed, _n._ having reticulated tarsi. RETIRACY, r[=e]-t[=i]r'[=a]-si, _n._ retirement. RETIRADE, ret-i-räd', _n._ a retrenchment in the body of a bastion which a garrison may defend. [Fr.] RETIRE, r[=e]-t[=i]r', _v.i._ to draw back: to retreat: to recede: to go to bed.--_v.t._ to withdraw from circulation, as to retire a bill: to cause to retire.--_n._ a call sounded on a bugle: act of retiring: retreat: (_obs._) a place of retreat.--_n._ RET[=I]'RAL, the act of taking up a bill when due.--_adj._ RETIRED', withdrawn: secluded: private: withdrawn from business.--__adv.__ RETIRED'LY.--_ns._ RETIRED'NESS; RETIRE'MENT, act of retiring or withdrawing from society or from public life, or of an army: state of being retired: solitude: privacy.--_p.adj._ RETIR'ING, reserved: unobtrusive: retreating: modest: given to one who retires from a public office or service.--RETIRED LIST, a list of officers who are relieved from active service but receive a certain amount of pay. [O. Fr. _retirer_--_re-_, back, _tirer_, to draw.] RETITELÆ, ret-i-t[=e]'l[=e], _n.pl._ a group of spiders which spin irregular webs.--_n._ RETITEL[=A]'RIAN. RETOLD, r[=e]-t[=o]ld', _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _retell_. RETORQUE, r[=e]-t[=o]rk', _v.t._ (_obs._) to turn back. RETORSION, r[=e]-t[=o]r'shun, _n._ retaliation. [Illustration] RETORT, r[=e]-tort', _v.t._ to throw back: to return: to retaliate: to separate by means of a retort.--_v.i._ to make a sharp reply.--_n._ a ready and sharp reply: a witty answer: a vessel used in distillation, properly a spiral tube.--_p.adj._ RETOR'TED (_her._), interlaced.--_ns._ RETOR'TER; RETOR'TION.--_adj._ RETOR'TIVE.--_n._ RETORT'-SEAL'ER, an instrument for removing the encrustation in coal-gas retorts. [Fr.,--L. _retortum_, pa.p. of _retorqu[=e]re_--_re-_, back, _torqu[=e]re_, to twist.] RETOSS, r[=e]-tos', _v.t._ to toss back. RETOUCH, r[=e]-tuch', _v.t._ to improve, as a picture, by new touches.--_n._ the reapplication of the artist's hand to a work: (_phot._) the act of finishing and correcting.--_ns._ RETOUCH'ER; RETOUCH'MENT.--RETOUCHING FRAME, a desk formed of fine ground glass, used for retouching negatives. RETOUR, r[=e]-t[=oo]r', _n._ a returning: (_Scots law_) an extract from chancery of the service of an heir to his ancestor.--_adj._ RETOURED'. RETOURN, r[=e]-turn', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to turn back. RETRACE, r[=e]-tr[=a]s', _v.t._ to trace back: to go back by the same course: to renew the outline of: to repeat.--_adj._ RETRACE'ABLE. RETRACT, r[=e]-trakt', _v.t._ to retrace or draw back: to recall: to recant.--_v.i._ to take back what has been said or granted.--_adjs._ RETRAC'TABLE, RETRAC'TIBLE, capable of being retracted or recalled.--_n._ RETRACT[=A]'TION.--_p.adj._ RETRAC'TED (_her._), couped by a line diagonal to the main direction: (_bot._) bent back.--_adj._ RETRAC'TILE, that may be drawn back, as claws.--_n._ RETRAC'TION, act of retracting or drawing back: recantation.--_adj._ RETRAC'TIVE, able or ready to retract.--_adv._ RETRAC'TIVELY.--_n._ RETRAC'TOR, one who, or that which, retracts or draws back: in breech-loading firearms, a device for withdrawing a cartridge-shell from the barrel: (_surg._) an instrument for holding apart the edges of a wound during operation: a bandage to protect the soft parts from injury by the saw: (_zool._) a muscle serving to draw in any part. [Fr.,--L. _retrah[)e]re_, _retractum_--_re-_, back, _trah[)e]re_, to draw.] RETRAD, r[=e]'trad, _adv._ (_anat._) backward. RETRAHENS, r[=e]'tr[=a]-henz, _n._ (_anat._) a muscle which draws the ear backward.--_adj._ R[=E]'TR[=A]HENT. RETRAIT, r[=e]-tr[=a]t', _n._ (_Spens._) a picture, a portrait: aspect.--_adj._ retired. [O. Fr.,--_retraire_, to draw back, to take a portrait--L. _retrah[)e]re_--_re-_, back, _trah[)e]re_, to draw.] RETRAL, r[=e]'tral, _adj._ back, posterior. RETRANCHÉ, re-trong-sh[=a]', _adj._ (_her._) divided bend-wise twice or into three parts. RETRANSFER, r[=e]-trans-f[.e]r', _v.t._ to transfer back.--_n._ RETRANS'FER. RETRANSFORM, r[=e]-trans-form', _v.t._ to transform or change back again.--_n._ RETRANSFORM[=A]'TION, a second or renewed transformation: a change back to a former state. RETRANSLATE, r[=e]-trans-l[=a]t', _v.t._ to translate anew: to translate back into the original languages.--_n._ RETRANSL[=A]'TION. RETRANSMISSION, r[=e]-trans-mish'un, _n._ a repeated transmission.--_v.t._ R[=E]'TRANSMIT. RETRATE, r[=e]-tr[=a]t', _n._ (_Spens._)=_retreat_. RETRAVERSE, r[=e]-trav'[.e]rs, _v.t._ to traverse again. RETRAXIT, r[=e]-trak'sit, _n._ (_law_) the open renunciation of a suit in court. RETREAT, r[=e]-tr[=e]t', _n._ a drawing back or retracing one's steps: retirement: place of privacy: withdrawal: a place of security: a shelter: (_mil._) the act of retiring in order from before the enemy, or from an advanced position: the signal for retiring from an engagement or to quarters: a special season of religious meditation.--_v.i._ to draw back: to recede: to consider: to retire, esp. to a place of shelter: to retire before an enemy or from an advanced position: in fencing, to move back so as to avoid the point of the adversary's sword: to slope back, as a retreating forehead.--_ns._ RETREAT'ER; RETREAT'MENT. [O. Fr. _retrete_--L. _retractus_, pa.p. of _retrah[)e]re_.] RETREE, r[=e]-tr[=e]', _n._ in paper-making, broken or imperfect paper. RETRENCH, r[=e]-trensh', _v.t._ to cut off or away: to render less: to curtail.--_v.i._ to live at less expense: to economise.--_n._ RETRENCH'MENT, cutting off: lessening or abridging: reduction: economy: (_fort._) a work within another for prolonging the defence. [O. Fr. _retrencher_ (Fr. _retrancher_)--_re-_, off, _trencher_, to cut, which, acc. to Littré, is from L. _trunc[=a]re_, to cut off.] RETRIAL, r[=e]-tr[=i]'al, _n._ a repetition of trial. RETRIBUTE, r[=e]-trib'[=u]t, _v.t._ to give back: to make repayment of.--_ns._ R[=E]TRIB'[=U]TER, -OR; RETRIB[=U]'TION, repayment: suitable return: reward or punishment: retaliation.--_adjs._ R[=E]TRIB'[=U]TIVE, repaying: rewarding or punishing suitably; R[=E]TRIB'[=U]TORY. [L. _retributio_--_retribu[)e]re_, to give back--_re-_, back, _tribu[)e]re_, to give.] RETRIEVE, r[=e]-tr[=e]v', _v.t._ to recover: to recall or bring back: to bring back to a former state: to repair: to search for and fetch, as a dog does game--also _n._ (_obs._).--_adj._ RETRIEV'ABLE, that may be recovered.--_n._ RETRIEV'ABLENESS, the state of being retrievable.--_adv._ RETRIEV'ABLY.--_ns._ RETRIEV'AL; RETRIEVE'MENT; RETRIEV'ER, a dog trained to find and fetch game that has been shot. [O. Fr. _retreuver_ (Fr. _retrouver_)--_re-_, again, _trouver_, to find--Low L. _tropare_--L. _tropus_, a song--Gr. _tropos_, a trope.] RETRIM, r[=e]-trim', _v.t._ to trim again. RETRIMENT, ret'ri-ment, _n._ dregs. [L. _retrimentum._] RETROACT, r[=e]-tr[=o]-akt', _v.i._ to act backward, or in return or opposition, or on something past or preceding.--_n._ RETROAC'TION.--_adj._ RETROAC'TIVE.--_adv._ RETROAC'TIVELY, in a retroactive manner: by operating on something past.--RETROACTIVE LAW, a retrospective law. [L. _retroactus_, _retroag[)e]re_--_retro_, backward, _ag[)e]re_, _actum_, to do.] RETROBULBAR, r[=e]-tr[=o]-bul'bär, _adj._ being behind the eyeball. RETROCEDE, r[=e]-tr[=o]-s[=e]d', _v.t._ to go back: to relapse: to retire: to give back.--_adj._ RETROC[=E]'DENT.--_n._ RETROCES'SION (_med._), the disappearance of a tumour inwardly: a retreating outline: (_Scots law_) the act of retroceding, or giving back, as of a right by an assignee. [Fr.,--L. _retroced[)e]re_, _-cessum_--_retro_, backward, _ced[)e]re_, to go.] RETROCHOIR, r[=e]'tr[=o]-kw[=i]r, _n._ (_archit._) an extension of a church behind the high altar, as a chapel. RETROCLUSION, r[=e]-tr[=o]-kl[=oo]'zhun, _n._ a method of using the pin in acupressure. RETROCOLLIC, r[=e]-tr[=o]-kol'ik, _adj._ pertaining to the back of the neck. RETRODATE, r[=e]'tr[=o]-d[=a]t, _v.t._ to assign a date to a book earlier than its actual publication. RETRODUCT, r[=e]-tr[=o]-dukt', _v.t._ to draw back: to withdraw.--_n._ RETRODUC'TION. RETROFLEX, r[=e]'tr[=o]-fleks, _adj._ reflexed, bent backward--also R[=E]'TROFLEXED.--_n._ RETROFLEC'TION. [L. _retro_, backward, _flect[)e]re_, _flexum_, to bend.] RETROFRACT, -ED, r[=e]'tr[=o]-frakt, -ed, _adj._ (_bot._) bent sharply back, so as to appear as if broken. [L. _retro_, backward, _fractus_, pa.p. of _frang[)e]re_, _fractum_, to break.] RETROGRADE, ret'r[=o]-, or r[=e]'tr[=o]-gr[=a]d, _adj._ going backward: falling from better to worse: contrary: (_biol._) becoming less highly organised, as 'a retrograde theory:' swimming backwards, as many animals: (_astron._) moving westwards relatively to the fixed stars.--_v.i._ to go backwards.--_ns._ RETROGRAD[=A]'TION, deterioration; R[=E]'TROGRESS, falling off; R[=E]TROGRES'SION, a going backward: a decline in quality or merit.--_adjs._ R[=E]TROGRES'SIONAL, R[=E]TROGRESS'IVE.--_adv._ R[=E]TROGRESS'IVELY.--_n._ R[=E]TROGRESS'IVENESS. [L. _retrogradus_, going backward--_retro_, backward, _gradi_, _gressus_, to go.] RETROLINGUAL, r[=e]-tr[=o]-ling'gwal, _adj._ serving to retract the tongue. RETROMINGENT, r[=e]-tr[=o]-min'jent, _adj._ urinating backward.--_n._ RETROMIN'GENCY.--_adv._ RETROMIN'GENTLY. RETRO-OCULAR, r[=e]-tr[=o]-ok'[=u]-lar, _adj._ situated behind the eyeball. RETRO-OPERATIVE, r[=e]-tr[=o]-op'e-r[=a]-tiv, _adj._ retrospective in effect. RETROPOSITION, r[=e]-tr[=o]-p[=o]-zish'un, _n._ displacement backward. RETROPULSION, r[=e]-tr[=o]-pul'shun, _n._ a disorder of locomotion: repulsion.--_adj._ RETROPUL'SIVE. RETRORSE, r[=e]-trors', _adj._ turned back or downward--_adv._ RETRORSE'LY. RETROSERRATE, r[=e]-tr[=o]-ser'[=a]t, _adj._ (_entom._) armed with minute retrorse teeth. RETROSPECT, ret'r[=o]-spekt, or r[=e]'-, _n._ a looking back: a contemplation of the past: the past.--_n._ RETROSPEC'TION, the act or faculty of looking back on the past.--_adj._ RETROSPEC'TIVE.--_adv._ RETROSPEC'TIVELY. [L. _retrospectus_, pa.p. of _retrospic[)e]re_--_retro_, back, _spec[)e]re_, to look.] RETROSTERNAL, r[=e]-tr[=o]-ster'nal, _adj._ being behind the sternum. RETROTARSAL, r[=e]-tr[=o]-tar'sal, _adj._ being behind the tarsus of the eye. RETROTRACHEAL, r[=e]-tr[=o]-tr[=a]'k[=e]-al, _adj._ being at the back of the trachea. RETROUSSAGE, re-tr[=oo]-sazh', _n._ a method of producing effective tones in the printing of etchings by skilful treatment of the ink in certain parts. RETROUSSÉ, re-tr[=oo]-s[=a]', _adj._ turned up: pug. RETROVACCINATE, r[=e]-tr[=o]-vak'si-n[=a]t, _v.t._ to vaccinate a cow with human virus.--_ns._ RETROVACCIN[=A]'TION; RETROVAC'CINE. RETROVENE, r[=e]'tr[=o]-v[=e]n, _adj._ inclined backward. RETROVERT, r[=e]'tr[=o]-v[.e]rt, _v.t._ to turn back.--_n._ one who returns to his original creed.--_n._ RETROVER'SION, a turning or falling back. [L. _retro_, backward, _vert[)e]re_, to turn.] RETROVISION, r[=e]-tr[=o]-vizh'un, _n._ the power of mentally seeing past events. RETRUDE, r[=e]-tr[=oo]d', _v.t._ to thrust back.--_adj._ RETRUSE'.--_n._ RETRU'SION. [L. _retrud[)e]re_, _retrusum_.] RETRY, r[=e]-tr[=i]', _v.t._ to try again: to put on trial a second time. RETTING, ret'ing, _n._ the act or process of preparing flax for use by rotting the useless part of the plant.--_n._ RETT'ERY. [Conn. with _rot_.] RETUND, r[=e]-tund', _v.t._ to blunt, as the edge of a weapon. RETURN, r[=e]-turn', _v.i._ to come back to the same place or state: to answer: to retort: to turn back: to repeat: to revert: to recur: to reappear.--_v.t._ to bring or send back: to transmit: to give back: to repay: to give back in reply: to report: to give an account: to cast back: to reflect: to re-echo: to revolve: to restore: to requite: to return a call: to elect, as a member of parliament: in card-playing, to lead back in response to the lead of one's partner: in tennis, to bat the ball back over the net: in fencing, to give a thrust or cut after parrying a sword-thrust.--_n._ the act of going back: revolution: periodic renewal: the act of bringing or sending back: restitution: repayment: the profit on capital or labour: a reply: a report or account, esp. official: (_pl._) a light-coloured and mild kind of tobacco: (_law_) the rendering back of a writ to the proper officer: (_mil._) the return of the men fit for duty: (_archit._) the continuation in a different direction of the face of a building, as a moulding.--_adj._ RETUR'NABLE, legally requiring to be returned.--_ns._ RETURN'-BEND, a pipe-coupling in the shape of the letter [U shape]; RETURN'-CAR'GO, a cargo brought back in place of merchandise previously sent out; RETURN'-CHECK, a ticket for readmission; RETURN'-DAY, the day fixed when the defendant is to appear in court; RETUR'NER; RETUR'NING-OFF'ICER, the officer who makes returns of writs, &c.: the presiding officer at an election.--_adj._ RETURN'LESS.--_ns._ RETURN'-MATCH, a second match played by the same set of players; RETURN'-SHOCK, an electric shock due to the action of induction sometimes felt after a lightning-flash; RETURN'-TAG, a tag attached to a railway-car as evidence of its due arrival; RETURN'-TICK'ET, a ticket issued by a company for a journey and its return, usually at a reduced charge; RETURN'-VALVE, a valve which opens to allow reflux of a fluid in case of overflow. [Fr. _retourner_--_re-_, back, _tourner_, to turn--L. _torn[=a]re_, to turn.] RETUSE, r[=e]-t[=u]s', _adj._ (_bot._) terminating in a round end, with a centre somewhat depressed. [L. _retusus_--_retund[)e]re_, to blunt.] RETYRE, r[=e]-t[=i]r', _n._ (_Spens._) retirement. RETZIA, ret'si-a, _n._ a genus of brachiopods. REUNE, r[=e]-[=u]n', _v.t._ (_obs._) to reunite.--_v.i._ to hold a reunion.--_adjs._ RE[=U]'NIENT; RE[=U]'NITIVE. REUNION, r[=e]-[=u]n'yun, _n._ a union after separation: an assembly or social gathering. [Fr. _réunion_--_re-_, again, _union_, union.] REUNITE, r[=e]-[=u]-n[=i]t', _v.t._ to join after separation: to reconcile after variance.--_v.i._ to become united again: to join again.--_v.t._ RE[=U]'NIFY.--_adv._ REUN[=I]'TEDLY.--_n._ REUNI'TION.--_adj._ RE[=U]'NITIVE. REURGE, r[=e]-urj', _v.t._ to urge again. REUS, r[=e]'us, _n._ (_law_) a defendant. [L.] REUSE, r[=e]-[=u]z', _v.t._ to use again.--_n._ (r[=e]-[=u]s') repeated use. REUTILISE, r[=e]-[=u]'til-[=i]z, _v.t._ to make use of a second time. REUTTER, r[=e]-ut'[.e]r, _v.t._ to utter again. REV., an abridgment of _Reverend_, in addressing clergymen, as 'Rev. Thomas Davidson;' deans are styled 'Very Reverend,' also principals of universities in Scotland, if clergymen, and the moderator of the General Assembly for the time being; bishops are styled 'Right Reverend,' and archbishops, 'Most Reverend.' REVACCINATE, r[=e]-vak'si-n[=a]t, _v.t._ to vaccinate again.--_n._ REVACCIN[=A]'TION. REVALENTA, rev-a-len'ta, _n._ the ordinary name of lentil-meal. REVALESCENT, rev-a-les'ent, _adj._ beginning to grow well.--_n._ REVALES'CENCE. REVALUE, r[=e]-val'[=u], _v.t._ to value again.--_n._ REVALU[=A]'TION. REVAMP, r[=e]-vamp', _v.t._ to patch up again. REVE, rev, _v.i._ (_obs._) to dream. [_Rave._] REVEAL, r[=e]-v[=e]l', _v.t._ to unveil: to make known, as by divine agency: to disclose.--_n._ REVEALABIL'ITY.--_adj._ REVEAL'ABLE.--_ns._ REVEAL'ABLENESS; REVEAL'ER; REVEAL'MENT, revelation.--REVEALED RELIGION, that which has been supernaturally revealed. [O. Fr. _reveler_ (Fr. _révéler_)--L. _revel[=a]re_--_re-_, back, _vel[=a]re_, to veil--_velum_, a veil.] REVEAL, r[=e]-v[=e]l', _n._ (_archit._) the square ingoing of a window, doorway, or the like, between the frame and the outer surface of the wall.--Also REVEL'. REVEHENT, r[=e]'v[=e]-hent, _adj._ carrying forth: taking away. REVEILLE, re-v[=a]l'ye, _n._ the sound of the drum or bugle at daybreak to awaken soldiers. [O. Fr. _reveil_--_re-_, again, _esveiller_, to awake--L. _vigil[=a]re_, to watch.] REVEL, rev'el, _v.i._ to feast in a riotous or noisy manner: to carouse.--_v.i._ to draw back:--_pr.p._ rev'elling; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ rev'elled.--_n._ a riotous feast: carousal: a kind of dance: a wake.--_ns._ REV'EL-COIL, REV'EL-DASH (_obs._), a wild revel; REV'ELLER, one who takes part in carousals: a low liver; REV'EL-MAS'TER, the director of Christmas revels: the lord of misrule; REV'ELMENT; REV'EL-ROUT, lawless revelry; REV'ELRY, riotous or noisy festivity. [O. Fr. _reveler_--L. _rebell[=a]re_, to rebel.] REVELATION, rev-[=e]-l[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of revealing: that which is revealed: the revealing divine truth: that which is revealed by God to man: the Apocalypse or last book of the New Testament.--_adj._ REVEL[=A]'TIONAL.--_n._ REVEL[=A]'TIONIST.--_adj._ REV'EL[=A]TORY. [Fr.,--L. _revelatio_--_revel[=a]re_, to reveal.] REVELLENT, r[=e]-vel'ent, _adj._ causing revulsion. REVENANT, rev'[=e]-nant, _n._ one who returns after a long absence, esp. from the dead: a ghost. [Fr.] REVENGE, r[=e]-venj', _v.t._ to punish in return: to avenge.--_v.i._ to take vengeance.--_n._ the act of revenging: injury inflicted in return: a malicious injuring in return for an injury received: the passion for retaliation.--_adj._ REVENGE'FUL, full of revenge or a desire to inflict injury in return: vindictive: malicious.--_adv._ REVENGE'FULLY.--_n._ REVENGE'FULNESS.--_adj._ REVENGE'LESS.--_ns._ REVENGE'MENT; REVENG'ER.--_adv._ REVENG'INGLY.--GIVE ONE HIS REVENGE, to play a return match with a defeated opponent. [O. Fr. _revenger_, _revencher_ (Fr. _revancher_)--L. _re-_, in return, _vindic[=a]re_, to lay claim to.] REVENUE, rev'en-[=u] (earlier r[=e]-ven'[=u]), _n._ the receipts or rents from any source: return, as a revenue of praise: income: the income of a state.--_n._ REV'ENUE-CUT'TER, an armed vessel employed by custom-house officers in preventing smuggling.--_adj._ REV'ENUED.--_ns._ REV'ENUE-EN'SIGN, a distinctive flag authorised in 1798 in United States; REV'ENUE-OFF'ICER, an officer of the customs or excise; IN'LAND-REV'ENUE, revenue derived from stamps, excise, income-tax, &c. [Fr. _revenue_, pa.p. of _revenir_, to return--L. _reven[=i]re_--_re-_, back, _ven[=i]re_, to come.] REVERBERATE, r[=e]-v[.e]r'b[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.t._ to send back, echo: to reflect: to drive from side to side: to fuse.--_v.i._ to echo: to resound: to bound back: to be repelled: to use heat, as in the fusion of metals.--_v.t._ REVERB' (_Shak._).--_adj._ REVER'BERANT, resounding, beating back.--_n._ REVERBER[=A]'TION, the reflection of sound, &c.--_adj._ REVER'BER[=A]TIVE.--_n._ REVER'BER[=A]TOR.--_adj._ REVER'BER[=A]TORY.--REVERBERATORY FURNACE, a furnace in which the flame is reflected on the substance to be burned. [L.,--_re-_, back, _verber[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to beat--_verber_, a lash.] REVERDURE, r[=e]-ver'd[=u]r, _v.t._ to cover again with verdure. REVERE, r[=e]-v[=e]r', _v.t._ to regard with respectful awe: to venerate.--_adj._ REV[=E]R'ABLE, worthy of reverence.--_n._ REV'ERENCE, fear arising from high respect: respectful awe: veneration: honour: an act of revering or obeisance: a bow or courtesy: a title of the clergy.--_v.t._ to regard with reverence: to venerate or honour.--_n._ REV'ERENCER.--_adjs._ REV'EREND, worthy of reverence: a title of the clergy (see REV.): (_B._) awful: venerable; REV'ERENT, showing reverence: submissive: humble; REVEREN'TIAL, proceeding from reverence: respectful: submissive.--_advs._ REVEREN'TIALLY; REV'ERENTLY.--_n._ RE'VERER, one who reveres.--DO REVERENCE, to do honour; MAKE REVERENCE, to worship; SAVING YOUR REVERENCE, with all due respect to you. [O. Fr. _reverer_ (Fr. _révérer_)--L. _rever[=e]ri_--_re-_, inten., _ver[=e]ri_, to feel awe.] REVERIE, REVERY, rev'e-ri, _n._ an irregular train of thoughts or fancies in meditation: voluntary inactivity of the external senses to the impressions of surrounding objects during wakefulness: mental abstraction: a waking dream: a brown study.--_n._ REV'ERIST. [O. Fr. _resveri_ (Fr. _rêverie_)--_resver_, _rever_, to dream.] REVERS, re-v[=a]r' (gener. r[=e]-v[=e]r'), _n._ that part of a garment which is turned back, as the lapel of a coat. REVERSE, r[=e]-v[.e]rs', _v.t._ to place in the contrary order or position: to change wholly: to overthrow: to change by an opposite decision: to annul: to revoke, as a decree: to recall.--_n._ that which is reversed: the opposite: the back, esp. of a coin or medal: change: misfortune: a calamity: in fencing, a back-handed stroke: (_her._) the exact contrary of what has been described just before, as an escutcheon.--_adj._ turned backward: having an opposite direction: upset.--_n._ REVER'SAL, act of reversing.--_adj._ REVERSED', turned or changed to the contrary: inside out: (_bot._) resupinate.--_adv._ REVER'SEDLY.--_adj._ REVERSE'LESS, unalterable.--_adv._ REVERSE'LY, in a reverse order: on the other hand: on the opposite.--_ns._ REVER'SER (_Scots law_), a mortgager of land; REVER'SI, a game played by two persons with sixty-four counters; REVERSIBIL'ITY, the capability of being reversed, as of heat into work and work into heat.--_adj._ REVER'SIBLE, that may be reversed, as in a fabric having both sides well finished.--_ns._ REVER'SING-CYL'INDER, the cylinder of a small auxiliary steam-engine; REVER'SING-GEAR, those parts of a steam-engine by which the direction of the motion is changed; REVER'SING-L[=E]'VER, a lever in a steam-engine which operates the slide-valve; REVER'SING-MACHINE', a moulding-machine in founding, in which the flask can be reversed; REVER'SING-M[=O]'TION, any mechanism for changing the direction of motion of an engine; REVER'SING-SHAFT, a shaft which permits a reversal of the order of steam passage through the ports; REVER'SING-VALVE, the valve of a reversing-cylinder; REVER'SION, the act of reverting or returning: that which reverts or returns: the return or future possession of any property after some particular event: the right to future possession: (_biol._) return to some type of ancestral character: return to the wild state after domestication.--_adj._ REVER'SIONARY, relating to a reversion: to be enjoyed in succession: atavic.--_ns._ REVER'SIONER; REVER'SIS, an old French game of cards in which the aim was to take the fewest tricks.--_adj._ REVER'SIVE.--_n._ REVER'SO (_print._), any one of the left-hand pages of a book.--REVERSE A BATTERY, to turn the current of electricity by means of a commutator; REVERSE SHELL, a univalve shell which has its volutions the reversed way of the common screw; REVERSIONARY ANNUITY, a deferred annuity. [L. _reversus_, pa.p. of _revert[)e]re_, to turn back--_re-_, back, _vert[)e]re_, to turn.] REVERT, r[=e]-v[.e]rt', _v.t._ to turn or drive back: to reverse.--_v.i._ to return: to fall back: to refer back: to return to the original owner or his heirs.--_adjs._ R[=E]VER'TANT (_her._), flexed, bent twice at a sharp angle; R[=E]VER'TED, reversed; R[=E]VER'TIBLE, that may revert or be reverted; R[=E]VER'TIVE, tending to revert: changing: turning to the contrary.--_adv._ R[=E]VER'TIVELY, by way of reversion. [Fr.,--L. _revert[)e]re_.] REVERY. Same as REVERIE. REVEST, r[=e]-vest', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to clothe again: to vest again in a possession or office.--_v.i._ to take effect again: to return to a former owner. [Fr.,--L.,--_revest[=i]re_--_re-_, again, _vest[=i]re_, to clothe.] REVESTIARY, r[=e]-ves'ti-[=a]-ri, _n._ an apartment in a church in which ecclesiastical garments are kept. REVESTU, r[=e]-ves't[=u], _adj._ (_her._) covered by a square set diagonally, the corners of which touch the edges of the space covered. [O. Fr.] REVESTURE, r[=e]-ves't[=u]r, _n._ (_obs._) vesture. REVET, r[=e]-vet', _v.t._ (_fort._) to face with masonry, &c., as an embankment with a steep slope.--_n._ REVET'MENT, a retaining wall, a facing of stone, wood, &c. [Fr. _revêtir_, to reclothe.] REVIBRATE, r[=e]-v[=i]'br[=a]t, _v.i._ to vibrate back or in return.--_n._ REVIBR[=A]'TION. REVICT, r[=e]-vikt', _v.t._ (_obs._) to reconquer.--_n._ REVIC'TION, return to life, revival. REVICTUAL, r[=e]-vit'l, _v.t._ to furnish again with provisions. REVIE, r[=e]-v[=i]', _v.t._ to vie with, or rival: to stake a larger sum at cards: to outdo.--_v.i._ to exceed an adversary's wager in card-playing: to retort. REVIEW, r[=e]-v[=u]', _v.t._ to re-examine: to revise: to examine critically: to see again: to retrace: to inspect, as a body of troops.--_n._ a viewing again: a reconsideration: a revision: a careful or critical examination: a critique: a written discussion: a periodical with critiques of books, &c.: the inspection of a body of troops or a number of ships: (_law_) the judicial revision of a higher court.--_adj._ REVIEW'ABLE, capable of being reviewed.--_ns._ REVIEW'AGE, the work of reviewing; REVIEW'AL, a review of a book: a critique on a new publication; REVIEW'ER, an inspector: a writer in a review.--COURT OF REVIEW, the court of appeal from the commissioners of bankruptcy. [Fr. _revue_, pa.p. of _revoir_--L. _re-_, again, _vid[=e]re_, to see.] REVIGORATE, r[=e]-vig'or-[=a]t, _v.t._ to give new vigour to:--_pr.p._ revig'or[=a]ting: _pa.p._ revig'or[=a]ted.--_p.adj._ REVIG'OR[=A]TED, endued with new vigour or strength. [L. _re-_, again, _vigor[=a]tus_, _vigor[=a]re_--_vigor_, vigour.] REVILE, r[=e]-v[=i]l', _v.t._ to reproach: to calumniate.--_v.i._ to speak contemptuously.--_ns._ REVILE'MENT, the act of reviling, reproach; REVIL'ER.--_adv._ REVIL'INGLY. [Pfx. _re-_, again, O. Fr. _aviler_, to make vile, from _a_--L. _ad_, _vil_--L. _vilis_, cheap.] REVINCE, r[=e]-vins', _v.t._ (_obs._) to refute, to disprove. REVINDICATE, r[=e]-vin'di-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to reclaim, to claim what has been illegally taken away.--_n._ REVINDIC[=A]'TION. [Low L. _revindic[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--L. _re-_, again, _vindic[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to lay claim to.] REVIRE, r[=e]-v[=i]r', _v.t._ (_obs._) to revive.--_n._ REVIRES'CENCE (_Swinburne_), renewal of youth or vigour. REVISE, r[=e]-v[=i]z', _v.t._ to review and amend: to examine with a view to correction.--_n._ review: a second proof-sheet.--_ns._ REV[=I]'SAL, REVI'SION, review: re-examination; REV[=I]SED'-VER'SION, a fresh English translation of the Bible, issued, the New Testament in 1881, the Old in 1885; REV[=I]'SER, -OR (_print._), one who examines proofs; REV[=I]'SING-BARR'ISTER, a barrister appointed annually by the English judges to revise the list of voters for members of parliament, the revision generally taking place between August and October of each year.--_adjs._ REVI'SIONAL, REVI'SIONARY, pertaining to revision.--_n._ REVI'SIONIST.--_adj._ REV[=I]'SORY. [Fr. _reviser_--L. _revis[)e]re_--_re-_, back, _vis[)e]re_, inten. of _vid[=e]re_, to see.] REVISIT, r[=e]-viz'it, _v.t._ to visit again.--_ns._ REVIS'IT; REVIS'ITANT.--_adj._ revisiting.--_n._ REVISIT[=A]'TION. REVITALISE, r[=e]-v[=i]'tal-[=i]z, _v.t._ to restore vitality to.--_n._ REVITALIS[=A]'TION. REVIVE, re-v[=i]v', _v.i._ to return to life, vigour, or fame: to recover from neglect, oblivion, or depression: to regain use or currency: to have the memory refreshed.--_v.t._ to restore to life again: to reawaken in the mind: to recover from neglect or depression: to bring again into public notice, as a play: to recall, to restore to use: to reproduce: (_chem._) to restore to its natural state.--_n._ REV[=I]VABIL'ITY.--_adj._ REV[=I]'VABLE, capable of being revived.--_adv._ REV[=I]'VABLY.--_ns._ REV[=I]'VAL, recovery from languor, neglect, depression, &c.: renewed performance of, as of a play: renewed interest in or attention to: a time of extraordinary religious awakening: restoration: quickening: renewal, as of trade: awakening, as revival of learning: (_law_) reinstatement of an action; REV[=I]'VALISM; REV[=I]'VALIST, one who promotes religious revivals: an itinerant preacher.--_adj._ REV[=I]VALIS'TIC.--_ns._ REV[=I]VE'MENT; REV[=I]'VER, one who, or that which, revives: a compound for renovating clothes; REVIVIFIC[=A]'TION (_chem._), the reduction of a metal from a state of combination to its natural state.--_v.t._ REVIV'IFY, to cause to revive: to reanimate: to enliven.--_v.i._ to become efficient again as a reagent.--_adv._ REV[=I]'VINGLY.--_n._ REVIVIS'CENCE, an awakening from torpidity, after hibernation.--_adj._ REVIVIS'CENT.--_n._ REV[=I]'VOR (_law_), the revival of a suit which was abated by the death of a party or other cause.--THE ANGLO-CATHOLIC REVIVAL, a strong reaction within the Church of England towards the views of doctrine and practice held by Laud and his school (see TRACTARIANISM). [O. Fr. _revivre_--L. _re-_, again, _viv[)e]re_, to live.] REVOKE, r[=e]-v[=o]k', _v.t._ to annul by recalling: to repeal: to reverse: to neglect to follow suit (at cards).--_n._ revocation, recall: act of revoking at cards.--_adj._ REV'OCABLE, that may be revoked.--_ns._ REV'OCABLENESS, REVOCABIL'ITY.--_adv._ REV'OCABLY.--_n._ REVOC[=A]'TION, _a_ recalling: repeal: reversal.--_adj._ REV'OC[=A]TORY.--_n._ REVOKE'MENT (_Shak._), revocation.--REVOCATION OF THE EDICT OF NANTES, the taking away by Louis IV., in 1685, of the Huguenot privileges granted by Henry IV. in 1598. [Fr.,--L. _revoc[=a]re_--_re-_, back, _voc[=a]re_, to call.] REVOLT, r[=e]-v[=o]lt', _v.i._ to renounce allegiance: to be grossly offended: to mutiny: to be shocked.--_v.t._ to cause to rise in revolt: to shock.--_n._ a rebellion: insurrection, desertion: a change of sides: fickleness.--_n._ REVOL'TER.--_adj._ REVOL'TING, causing a turning away from: shocking: repulsive.--_adv._ REVOL'TINGLY. [O. Fr. _revolte_--It. _rivolta_--L. _revolv[)e]re_, to roll back, _re-_, back, _volv[)e]re_, _volutum_, to turn.] REVOLUTION, rev-[=o]-l[=u]'shun, _n._ act of revolving: motion round a centre: course which brings to the same point or state: space measured by a revolving body: a radical change, as of one's way of living: fundamental change in the government of a country: a revolt: a complete rotation through 360°: a round of periodic changes, as the revolutions of the seasons: the winding of a spiral about its axis: change of circumstances: consideration.--_adj._ REVOL[=U]'TIONARY, pertaining to, or tending to, a revolution in government.--_v.t._ REVOL[=U]'TIONISE, to cause a revolution or entire change of anything.--_ns._ REVOL[=U]'TIONISM; REVOL[=U]'TIONIST, one who promotes or favours a revolution.--THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION, the change from the position of colonies to that of national independence effected by the thirteen American colonies of England in 1776; THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, the downfall of the old French monarchy and the old absolutism (1789); THE REVOLUTION, the expulsion of James II. from the throne of England (1689), and the establishment of a really constitutional government under William III. and Mary. [_Revolve._] REVOLVE, r[=e]-volv', _v.i._ to roll back: to roll round on an axis: to move round a centre: to rotate, as the planets: to meditate.--_v.t._ to cause to turn: to consider.--_n._ a radical change.--_v.i._ REV'OLUTE, to revolve.--_adj._ rolled backward.--_adjs._ REV'OL[=U]TIVE, cogitating; REVOL'VABLE.--_ns._ REVOLVE'MENT, reflection; REVOL'VENCY, revolution.--_adj._ REVOL'VING, turning, moving round.--_ns._ REVOL'VING-FUR'NACE, a furnace used in making black ash; REVOL'VING-LIGHT, a lamp in a lighthouse so arranged as to appear and disappear at intervals. [Fr.,--L. _revolv[)e]re_, _revol[=u]tum_--_re-_, back, _volv[)e]re_, to roll.] REVOLVER, r[=e]-volv'[.e]r, _n._ that which revolves: a firearm having barrels or chambers which revolve upon a common centre, and are fired in turn by one lock mechanism: a revolving cannon. REVOMIT, r[=e]-vom'it, _v.t._ to reject from the stomach. REVULSION, r[=e]-vul'shun, _n._ disgust: the diverting of a disease from one part to another: forced separation: a sudden change, esp. of feeling: a counter-irritant.--_adj._ REVUL'SIVE, tending to revulsion.--_n._ REVUL'SOR, an apparatus for applying heat and cold in turns for medical purposes. [L. _revulsio_--_revell[)e]re_, _revulsum_--_re-_, away, _vell[)e]re_, to tear.] REW, r[=oo], _v.t._ (_Spens._). Same as RUE. REW, r[=oo], _n._ (_Spens._). Same as ROW. REWAKEN, r[=e]-w[=a]'kn, _v.i._ to waken again. REWARD, r[=e]-wawrd', _n._ that which is given in return for good or evil: recompense: retribution: the fruit of one's own labour: regard: requital: remuneration: guerdon: consideration.--_v.t._ to give in return: to requite, whether good or evil: to punish: (_B._) to recompense: to compensate: to notice carefully: to watch over.--_adj._ REWAR'DABLE, capable or worthy of being rewarded.--_n._ REWAR'DABLENESS.--_adv._ REWAR'DABLY.--_n._ REWAR'DER, one who rewards.--_adjs._ REWARD'FUL, yielding reward; REWARD'LESS, having or receiving no reward. [O. Fr. _rewarder_, _reswarder_, _regarder_--_re-_, again, _warder_, _guarder_, to guard; of Teut. origin.] REWEIGH, r[=e]-w[=a]', _v.t._ to weigh again. REWET, r[=oo]'et, _n._ the revolving part of a wheel-lock. REWIN, r[=e]-win', _v.t._ to win back or again. REWOOD, r[=e]-w[=oo]d', _v.t._ to plant again. REWORD, r[=e]-wurd', _v.t._ to repeat in the same words, to re-echo: to put into different words. REWRITE, r[=e]-r[=i]t', _v.t._ to write a second time. REX, reks, _n._ a king.--PLAY REX (_obs._), to handle roughly. [L.; cf. Sans. _r[=a]jan_, Gael. _righ_.] REYNARD, r[=a]'nard, or ren'ard, _n._ a fox, from the name given to the fox in the famous beast epic of Low Ger. origin, _Reynard the Fox_--also REN'ARD.--_adj._ REN'ARDINE. [Fr.,--Old Flem. _Reinaerd_, _Reinaert_--Mid. High Ger. _Reinhart_ (Old High Ger. _Reginhart_), lit. 'strong in counsel.'] RHABARBARATE, ra-bär'ba-r[=a]t, _adj._ (_obs._) impregnated with rhubarb.--_n._ RHABAR'BARUM, rhubarb. RHABARBARINE, ra-bär'ba-rin, _n._ chrysophanic acid. RHABDAMMININA, rab-da-mi-n[=i]'na, _n._ a group of marine imperforate foraminiferous protozoans. [Gr. _rhabdos_, a rod, _ammos_, sand.] RHABDITE, rab'd[=i]t, _n._ a smooth, rod-like structure found in the cells of the integument of most turbellarian worms: one of the hard parts composing the ovipositor of some insects.--_adj._ RHABDIT'IC. [Gr. _rhabdos_, a rod.] RHABDOCOELA, rab-d[=o]-s[=e]'la, _n._ a prime division of turbellarian worms.--_adjs._ RHABDOCOE'LIDAN, RHABDOCOE'LOUS. [Gr. _rhabdos_, a rod, _koilos_, hollow.] RHABDOCREPIDA, rab-d[=o]-krep'i-da, _n._ a sub-order of lithistidan sponges. [Gr. _rhabdos_, a rod, _kr[=e]pis_, a foundation.] RHABDOID, rab'doid, _n._ a spindle-shaped body chemically related to the plastids, found in certain cells of irritable plants like _Drosera_, _Dionæa_, &c.--_adj._ RHABDOID'AL, rod-like: (_anat._) sagittal. [Gr. _rhabdos_, a rod.] RHABDOLITH, rab'd[=o]-lith, _n._ a minute rhabdoidal concretion of calcareous matter forming the armature of a rhabdosphere.--_adj._ RHABDOLITH'IC. RHABDOLOGY, rab-dol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the art of computing by Napier's bones or rods.--Also RABDOL'OGY. RHABDOM, rab'dom, _n._ (_entom._) a tubular rod-like structure in the eye, the central axis of a retinula.--_adj._ RHAB'D[=O]MAL. RHABDOMANCY, rab'd[=o]-man-si, _n._ divination by means of rods, esp. the impudent imposture of finding water, &c., by means of the divining-rod.--_n._ RHAB'DOMANCER.--_adj._ RHABDOMAN'TIC. [Gr. _rhabdos_, rod, _manteia_, divination.] RHABDOME, rab'd[=o]m, _n._ in sponges, the shaft of a cladose rhabdus, bearing the cladome. RHABDOMESODON, rab-d[=o]-mes'[=o]-don, _n._ a genus of polyzoans. [Gr. _rhabdos_, a rod, _mesos_, middle, _odous_, _odontos_, a tooth.] RHABDOMYOMA, rab-d[=o]-m[=i]-[=o]'ma, _n._ a myoma consisting of striated muscular fibres. RHABDONEMA, rab-d[=o]-n[=e]'ma, _n._ a genus of small nematoid worms. [Gr. _rhabdos_, a rod, _n[=e]ma_, a thread.] RHABDOPHANE, rab'd[=o]-f[=a]n, _n._ a rare phosphate of the yttrium and cerium earths. [Gr. _rhabdos_, a rod, _phan[=e]s_, appearing.] RHABDOPHORA, rab-dof'[=o]-ra, _n._ a group of fossil organisms.--_adjs._ RHABDOPH'[=O]RAN, RHABDOPH'[=O]ROUS. RHABDOPLEURA, rab-d[=o]-pl[=oo]'ra, _n._ a marine polyzoan. [Gr. _rhabdos_, a rod, _pleuron_, a rib.] RHABDOSPHERE, rab'd[=o]-sf[=e]r, _n._ a minute spherical body found in the depths of the Atlantic. [Gr. _rhabdos_, a rod, _sphaira_, sphere.] RHABDOSTEIDÆ, rab-dos-t[=e]'i-d[=e], _n._ a family of fossil-toothed cetaceans--its typical genus, RHABDOS'T[=E]US. [Gr. _rhabdos_, rod, _osteon_, bone.] RHABDOSTYLA, rab-d[=o]-st[=i]'la, _n._ a genus of peritrichous ciliate infusorians. [Gr. _rhabdos_, rod, _stylos_, pillar.] RHABDUS, rab'dus, _n._ a simple, straight spicule.--_adj._ RHAB'DOUS. [Gr. _rhabdos_, a rod.] RHACHIOMYELITIS, r[=a]-ki-[=o]-m[=i]-e-l[=i]'tis, _n._ inflammation of the spinal cord--_myelitis._--_ns._ RHACHIOT'OMY, incision into the spinal canal; RHACHIS'CHISIS, defective formation of the spinal canal--_spina bifida._ [Gr. _rhachis_, the spine, _myelos_, marrow.] RHACHITIS=_Rachitis_ (q.v.). RHACOCHILUS, rak-[=o]-k[=i]'lus, _n._ a genus of embiotocoid fishes. [Gr. _rhakos_, a rag, _cheilos_, the lip.] RHACOPHORUS, r[=a]-kof'[=o]-rus, _n._ a genus of batrachians, with long and webbed feet, adapting it for long leaps. [Gr. _rhakos_, a rag, _pherein_, to bear.] RHADAMANTHINE, ra-da-man'thin, _n._ of _Rhadamanthus_, judge of the lower world, with Minos and Æacus--applied generally to a solemn and final judgment.--Also RHADAMAN'TINE. RHÆTIAN, r[=e]'shi-an, _adj._ pertaining to the ancient Rhætians or their country _Rhætia_, a Roman province between the Po and the Danube--also RHÆ'TIC.--_adj._ and _n._ RHÆ'TO-ROMAN'IC, pertaining to a group of Romance dialects spoken in south-eastern Switzerland.--RHÆTIC BEDS, a series of strata forming the uppermost portion of the Trias, extensively developed in the _Rhætian_ Alps. RHAGADES, rag'a-d[=e]z, _n.pl._ fissures of the skin. [Gr. _rhagas_ (pl. _rhagades_), a crack.] RHAGODIA, ra-g[=o]'di-a, _n._ a genus of apetalous plants. [Gr. _rhag[=o]d[=e]s_, like grapes--_rhax_, _rhagos_, a grape.] RHAGON, rag'on, _n._ a form of sponge with clustered spherical flagellated endodermal chambers.--_adjs._ RHAG'ON[=A]TE, RHAG'OSE. [Gr. _rhax_, _rhagos_, a grape.] RHAMNACEÆ, ram-n[=a]'s[=e]-[=e], _n._ an order of polypetalous plants.--_adj._ RHAMN[=A]'CEOUS. RHAMNUS, ram'nus, _n._ a genus of polypetalous shrubs and trees, including the buckthorn. [Gr.] RHAMPHASTIDÆ, ram-fas'ti-d[=e], _n._ a family of picarian birds, toucans. [Gr. _rhamphos_, a beak.] RHAMPHOCELUS, ram-f[=o]-c[=e]'lus, _n._ a remarkable genus of tanagers, native to South America. RHAMPHODON, ram'f[=o]-don, _n._ the saw-billed humming-bird. [Gr. _rhamphos_, a curved beak, _odous_, a tooth.] RHAMPHOID, ram'foid, _adj._ beak-shaped. RHAMPHOLEON, ram-f[=o]'l[=e]-on, _n._ a genus of chameleons. [Gr. _rhamphos_, a curved beak, _le[=o]n_, lion.] RHAMPHOMICRON, ram-f[=o]-mik'ron, _n._ a genus of humming-birds. [Gr. _rhamphos_, a beak, _mikros_, little.] RHAMPHORHYNCHUS, ram-f[=o]-ring'kus, _n._ a genus of pterodactyls. [Gr. _rhamphos_, a curved beak, _rhyngchos_, a beak.] RHAMPHOTHECA, ram-f[=o]-th[=e]'ka, _n._ (_ornith._) the integument of the whole beak. [Gr. _rhamphos_, a curved beak, _th[=e]k[=e]_, a sheath.] RHAPIDOPHYLLUM, ra-pi-d[=o]-fil'um, _n._ a genus of palms--the blue palmetto of Florida.--_n._ RH[=A]'PIS, a genus of Chinese palms. [Gr. _rhapis_, rod, _phyllon_, leaf.] RHAPONTIC, r[=a]-pon'tik, _n._ rhubarb. [L., 'Pontic rha.'] RHAPSODIC, -AL, rap-sod'ik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to, consisting of, or resembling rhapsody: gushing.--_adv._ RHAPSOD'ICALLY.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ RHAP'SODISE, to write or utter rhapsodies: to express with poetic feeling:--_pr.p._ rhap'sod[=i]sing; _pa.p._ rhap'sod[=i]sed.--_n._ RHAP'SODIST, one who recites or sings rhapsodies, esp. one of a class of men in ancient Greece who travelled from place to place reciting Homer and other epic poetry--also RHAP'SODE: one who composes verses extempore: one who speaks or writes disjointedly.--_adj._ RHAPSODIS'TIC.--_ns._ RHAP'SODOMANCY, divination by means of verses; RHAP'SODY, any wild unconnected composition: a part of an epic poem for recitation at one time: a jumble: (_mus._) composition irregular in form. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _rhaps[=o]dia_, _rhaptein_, to sew, _[=o]d[=e]_, a song.] RHEA, r[=e]'a, _n._ the ramie plant or fibre. RHEA, r[=e]'a, _n._ the daughter of Uranus and Ge, wife and sister of Kronos: the only three-toed ostrich: the fifth satellite of Jupiter. RHEIC, r[=e]'ik, _adj._ pertaining to rhubarb.--_n._ RH[=E]'INE, rheic acid. RHEIN-BERRY, r[=i]n'ber-i, _n._ the common buckthorn.--Also RHINE'-BERR'Y. RHEMATIC, r[=e]-mat'ik, _adj._ derived from a verb.--_n._ the doctrine of propositions. RHEMISH, r[=e]'mish, _adj._ pertaining to _Rheims_ in north-eastern France.--RHEMISH VERSION, the English translation of the New Testament used by Roman Catholics, prepared at Rheims in 1582, forming part of the Douay Bible--Old Testament part prepared at _Douay_ in 1609-10. RHENISH, ren'ish, _adj._ pertaining to the river _Rhine_.--_n._ Rhine wine, hock, light and still. [L. _Rhenus_.] RHEOCORD, r[=e]'[=o]-kord, _n._ a metallic wire used in measuring the resistance of an electric current. [Gr. _rhein_, to flow, _chord[=e]_, a cord.] RHEOMETER, REOMETER, r[=e]-om'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring the strength of currents, as of electricity: a galvanometer.--_adj._ RHEOMET'RIC.--_n._ RHEOM'ETRY, fluxions. [Gr. _rhein_, to flow, _metron_, measure.] RHEOSCOPE, r[=e]'[=o]-sk[=o]p, _n._ an electroscope.--_adj._ RHEOSCOP'IC. [Gr. _rhein_, to flow, _skopein_, to view.] RHEOSTAT, r[=e]'o-stat, _n._ the name given by Wheatstone to an instrument for varying an electric resistance between given limits.--_adj._ RHEOSTAT'IC.--_n._ RHEOSTAT'ICS, the statics of fluids. [Gr. _rhein_, to flow, _statos_, verbal adj. of _histanai_, to stand.] RHEOTOME, r[=e]'[=o]-t[=o]m, _n._ a means by which an electric current can be periodically interrupted. [Gr. _rhein_, to flow, _temnein_, to cut.] RHEOTROPE, r[=e]'[=o]-tr[=o]p, _n._ an instrument for periodically changing the direction of an electric current.--_n._ RHEOT'R[=O]PISM, the effect of a current of water upon the direction of plant growth. [Gr. _rhein_, to flow, _trepein_, to turn.] RHESUS, r[=e]'sus, _n._ the boonder, one of the most widely distributed Indian monkeys, much venerated by the natives: (_entom._) a genus of coleopterous insects.--_adj._ RH[=E]'SIAN. [Gr.] RHETORIC, ret'or-ik, _n._ the theory and practice of eloquence, whether spoken or written, the whole art of using language so as to persuade others: the art of speaking with propriety, elegance, and force: artificial oratory: declamation.--_adj._ RHETOR'ICAL, pertaining to rhetoric: oratorical.--_adv._ RHETOR'ICALLY.--_v.i._ RHETOR'IC[=A]TE (_obs._), to act the orator.--_ns._ RHETORIC[=A]'TION (_obs._); RHETORI'CIAN, one who teaches the art of rhetoric: an orator.--_v.i._ RHET'ORISE, to play the orator. [Fr.,--L. _rhetorica_ (_ars_)--Gr. _rh[=e]torik[=e]_ (_techn[=e]_), the rhetorical (art)--_rh[=e]t[=o]r_, a public speaker--_erein_, to speak.] RHEUM, r[=oo]m, _n._ the mucous discharge from the lungs or nostrils caused by cold: (_obs._) spleen, choler: a genus of apetalous plants.--_n._ RHEUMAT'IC, one who suffers from rheumatism: (_pl._) rheumatic pains (_coll._).--_adjs._ RHEUMAT'IC, -AL, pertaining to or affected with rheumatism: choleric.--_n._ RHEUM'ATISM, a name still used somewhat loosely, but applying specially to an acute febrile disease, with swelling and pain in and around the larger joints.--_adjs._ RHEUMATIS'MAL; RHEUM'ATOID, resembling rheumatism.--_n._ RHEUMOPHTHAL'MIA, rheumatic ophthalmia.--_adj._ RHEUM'Y, full of or causing rheum. [L.,--Gr. _rheuma_--_rhein_, to flow.] RHEXIA, rek'si-a, _n._ a genus of polypetalous plants, native to North America, of the tribe RHEXIEÆ (rek-s[=i]'[=e]-[=e]). [L.,--Gr. _rh[=e]xis_--_rh[=e]gnynai_, to break.] RHIGOLENE, rig'[=o]-l[=e]n, _n._ a volatile product of petroleum distillation. [Gr. _rhigos_, cold, _elaion_, oil.] RHINACANTHUS, r[=i]-na-kan'thus, _n._ a genus of gamopetalous plants in tropical Africa, India, &c. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose, _akanthos_, acanthus.] RHINÆ, r[=i]'n[=e], _n.pl._ one of the main divisions of sharks. [L.,--Gr. _rhin[=e]_, a file.] RHINÆSTHESIA, r[=i]-nez-th[=e]'si-a, _n._ sense of smell. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose, _aisth[=e]sis_, perception.] RHINAL, r[=i]'nal, _adj._ pertaining to the nose. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose.] RHINALGIA, r[=i]-nal'ji-a, _n._ neuralgic pains in the nose. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose, _algos_, pain.] RHINANTHUS, r[=i]-nan'thus, _n._ a genus of gamopetalous plants. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose, _anthos_, flower.] RHINARIUM, r[=i]-n[=a]'ri-um, _n._ (_entom._) the nostril-piece. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose.] RHINASTER, r[=i]-nas't[.e]r, _n._ the two-horned rhinoceros: the star-nosed moles. [Gr. _rhis_, nose, _ast[=e]r_, star.] RHINENCEPHALON, r[=i]-nen-sef'a-lon, _n._ the olfactory lobe of the brain.--_adjs._ RHINENCEPHAL'IC, RHINENCEPH'ALOUS. [Gr. _rhis_, nose, _enkephalos_, brain.] RHINESTONE, r[=i]n'st[=o]n, _n._ an imitation gem-stone made of paste or strass. RHINEURYNTER, r[=i]-n[=u]-rin't[.e]r, _n._ a small inflatable bag used for plugging the nose. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose, _eurynein_, to widen.] RHINICHTHYS, r[=i]-nik'this, _n._ a North American genus of cyprinoid fishes. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose, _ichthys_, fish.] RHINIDÆ, r[=i]'ni-d[=e], _n._ a family of plagiostomous fishes. [L. _rhina_, shark--Gr. _rhin[=e]_.] RHINITIS, ri-n[=i]'tis, _n._ inflammation of the nose. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose.] RHINO, r[=i]'n[=o], _n._ (_slang_) money, cash.--Also R[=I]'NO. RHINOBATUS, r[=i]-nob'a-tus, _n._ the typical genus of the _Rhinobatidæ_, or shark-rays: (_entom._) a genus of coleopterous insects. RHINOBLENNORRHEA, r[=i]-n[=o]-blen-[=o]-r[=e]'a, _n._ mucous discharges from the nose. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose, _blennos_, mucus, _rhoia_, flow.] RHINOCAUL, r[=i]'n[=o]-kawl, _n._ the support of the olfactory bulb. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose, _kaulos_, stalk.] RHINOCEROS, r[=i]-nos'[.e]r-os, _n._ a genus forming a family of ungulate mammals, found in Africa and India, having a very thick skin lying in enormous folds, clumsy, and with one or two horns on the nose:--_pl._ RHINOC'EROSES.--_adjs._ RHINOC[=E]'RIAL, RHINOC[=E]'RICAL.--_ns._ RHINOC'EROS-AUK, a bird belonging to the family _Alcidæ_; RHINOC'EROS-BEE'TLE, a beetle of the genus _Dynastes_ having a large up-curved horn on the head; RHINOC'EROS-BIRD, a beefeater, the hornbill; RHINOC'EROS-TICK, the tick which infests rhinoceroses; RHINOC'EROT (_obs._), a rhinoceros.--_adjs._ RHINOCEROT'IC; RHINOCEROT'IFORM, shaped like a rhinoceros. [L.,--Gr. _rhinoker[=o]s_--_rhis_, _rhinos_, nose, _keras_, a horn.] RHINOCHILUS, r[=i]-n[=o]-k[=i]'lus, _n._ a genus of harmless serpents. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose, _cheilos_, a lip.] RHINOCLEISIS, r[=i]-n[=o]-kl[=i]'sis, _n._ nasal obstruction. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose, _kleisis_, _kl[=e]sis_, a closing.] RHINOCRYPTA, r[=i]-n[=o]-krip'ta, _n._ a remarkable genus of rock-wrens. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose, _kryptos_, hidden.] RHINODERMA, r[=i]-n[=o]-der'ma, _n._ a genus of batrachians, some species bearing a large pouch for the young. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose, _derma_, skin.] RHINODON, r[=i]'n[=o]-don, _n._ an immense shark in the Indian Ocean. [Gr. _rhin[=e]_, a shark, _odous_, tooth.] RHINODYNIA, r[=i]-n[=o]-din'i-a, _n._ pain in the nose. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose, _odyn[=e]_, pain.] RHINOLITH, r[=i]'n[=o]-lith, _n._ a stony concretion found in the nose.--_n._ RHINOLITH[=I]'ASIS. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose, _lithos_, a stone.] RHINOLOGY, r[=i]-nol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the knowledge of the nose.--_adj._ RHINOLOG'ICAL.--_n._ RHINOL'OGIST, a specialist in diseases of the nose. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose--_logia_--_legein_, to speak.] RHINOLOPHUS, r[=i]-nol'[=o]-fus, _n._ a genus of horse-shoe bats. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose, _lophos_, crest.] RHINOMACER, r[=i]-nom'a-s[.e]r, _n._ a genus of rhynchophorous beetles. [Gr. _rhis_, nose, _makros_, long.] RHINOPHARYNGITIS, r[=i]-n[=o]-far-in-j[=i]'tis, _n._ inflammation of the mucous membrane of the nose. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose, _pharyngx_.] RHINOPHIS, r[=i]'n[=o]-fis, _n._ a genus of shield-tailed serpents. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose, _ophis_, a serpent.] RHINOPHORE, r[=i]'n[=o]-f[=o]r, _n._ an organ bearing an olfactory sense. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose, _pherein_, to bear.] RHINOPHRYNE, r[=i]-n[=o]-fr[=i]'n[=e], _n._ a genus of spade-footed toads. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose, _phryn[=e]_, a toad.] RHINOPHYLLA, r[=i]-n[=o]-fil'a, _n._ a genus of South American small tailless bats. [Gr. _rhis_, nose, _phyllon_, a leaf.] RHINOPHYMA, r[=i]-n[=o]-f[=i]'ma, _n._ hyperemia of nose-skin. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose, _phyma_, a tumour.] RHINOPLASTIC, r[=i]-n[=o]-plas'tik, _adj._ noting a surgical operation for affixing an artificial nose.--_ns._ RH[=I]'NOPLAST, one who undergoes this operation; RH[=I]'NOPLASTY, plastic surgery of the nose. [Gr. _rhis_, nose, _plastikos_, moulding--_plassein_, to mould.] RHINOPOMA, r[=i]-n[=o]-p[=o]'ma, _n._ a genus of Old World bats. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose, _p[=o]ma_, a cover.] RHINOPOMASTES, r[=i]-n[=o]-p[=o]-mas't[=e]z, _n._ a genus of African wood-hoopoes. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose, _p[=o]mat[=e]rion_, dim. of _p[=o]ma_, a cover.] RHINOPTERA, r[=i]-nop'te-ra, _n._ a genus of rays. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose, _pteron_, wing.] RHINORRHAGIA, r[=i]-n[=o]-r[=a]'ji-a, _n._ hæmorrhage from the nose. [Gr. _rhis_, nose, _rhagia_--_rhegnynai_, break.] RHINORRHEA, r[=i]-n[=o]-r[=e]'a, _n._ mucous discharge from the nose.--_adj._ RHINORRH[=E]'AL. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose, _rhoia_--_rhein_, to flow.] RHINORTHA, r[=i]-nor'tha, _n._ a genus of cuckoos: a genus of hemipterous insects. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose, _orthos_, straight.] RHINOSCLEROMA, r[=i]-n[=o]-skl[=e]-r[=o]'ma, _n._ a disease with reddish swelling and thickening of nose, lips, and pharynx. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose, _skl[=e]ros_, hard.] RHINOSCOPE, r[=i]'n[=o]-sk[=o]p, _n._ an instrument for examining the nose.--_adj._ RHINOSCOP'IC.--_n._ RH[=I]'NOSCOPY. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose, _skopein_, to see.] RHINOTHECA, r[=i]-n[=o]-th[=e]'ka, _n._ the integument of a bird's upper mandible. [Gr. _rhis_, _rhinos_, nose, _th[=e]k[=e]_, a sheath.] RHIPICERA, r[=i]-pis'e-ra, _n._ a genus of serricorn beetles native to South America and Australia. [Gr. _rhipis_, a fan, _keras_, horn.] RHIPIDATE, rip'i-d[=a]t, _adj._ fan-shaped.--_n._ RH[=I]PID'ION, in the Greek Church, the eucharistic fan or flabellum. [Gr. _rhipis_, _rhipidos_, a fan.] RHIPIDISTIA, rip-i-dis'ti-a, _n._ an order of rhipidopterygian fishes.--_adj._ RHIPIDIS'TIOUS. [Gr. _rhipis_, a fan, _histion_, a sail.] RHIPIDOGLOSSA, rip-i-d[=o]-glos'a, _n._ a group of prosobranchiate gasteropods. [Gr. _rhipis_, _rhipidos_, a fan, _gl[=o]ssa_, the tongue.] RHIPIDOGORGIA, rip-i-d[=o]-gor'ji-a, _n._ a genus of alcyonarian polyps of fan-like shape. [Gr. _rhipis_, _rhipidos_, a fan, _gorgos_, fierce.] RHIPIDOPTERA, rip-i-dop'te-ra, _n.pl._ fan-winged insects--a group of the coleoptera.--_adj._ RHIPIDOP'TEROUS. [Gr. _rhipis_, _rhipidos_, a fan, _pteron_, a wing.] RHIPIDOPTERYGIA, rip-i-dop-te-rij'i-a, _n.pl._ a superorder of teleostomous fishes.--_adj._ RHIPIDOPTERYG'IAN. [Gr. _rhipis_, a fan, _pteryx_, a wing.] RHIPIDURA, rip-i-d[=u]'ra, _n._ the posterior pair of pleopods of a crustacean: the fan-tailed fly-catcher. [Gr. _rhipis_, _rhipidos_, a fan, _oura_, a tail.] RHIPIPHORUS, r[=i]-pif'o-rus, _n._ a genus of heteromerous beetles. [Gr. _rhipis_, a fan, _pherein_, to carry.] RHIPIPTERA, r[=i]-pip'te-ra, _n.pl._ an order of insects.--_n._ RHIPIP'TERAN, a rhipipter.--_adj._ RHIPIP'TEROUS. [_Rhipidoptera_.] RHIPSALIS, rip'sa-lis, _n._ a genus of Cacti. [Gr. _rhips_, a mat.] RHIPTOGLOSSA, rip-t[=o]-glos'a, _n._ a sub-order of lizards.--_adj._ RHIPTOGLOSS'ATE. [Gr. _rhiptein_, to throw, _gl[=o]ssa_, the tongue.] RHIZANTH, r[=i]'zanth, _n._ a plant that seems to flower from the root.--_n.pl._ RHIZANTHEÆ (r[=i]-zan'th[=e]-[=e]), one of the five classes into which Lindley divides the vegetable kingdom. RHIZIC, r[=i]'zik, _adj._ pertaining to the root of an equation. [Gr. _rhizikos_--_rhiza_, a root.] RHIZINA, ri-z[=i]'na, _n._ a rhizoid.--Also RH[=I]'ZINE. RHIZOCARPIC, r[=i]-z[=o]-kär'pik, _adj._ with annual stem and perennial root--also RHIZOCAR'POUS.--_n.pl._ RHIZOCAR'PEÆ, a group of cryptogams.--_adj._ RHIZOCAR'P[=E]AN. [Gr. _rhiza_, root, _karpos_, fruit.] RHIZOCAUL, r[=i]'z[=o]-kawl, _n._ the root-stock of a polyp. [Gr. _rhiza_, root, _kaulos_, stalk.] RHIZOCEPHALA, r[=i]-z[=o]-sef'a-la, _n._ a group of small parasitic crustaceans.--_adj._ RHIZOCEPH'ALOUS. [Gr. _rhiza_, root, _kephal[=e]_, head.] RHIZOCRINUS, r[=i]-zok'ri-nus, _n._ a genus of crinoids.--_n._ RHIZOC'RINOID, a crinoid of this genus. [Gr. _rhiza_, root, _krinon_, lily.] RHIZODONT, r[=i]'z[=o]-dont, _n._ having teeth rooted or ankylosed to the jaw in sockets, as crocodiles. [Gr. _rhiza_, root, _odous_, _odontos_, a tooth.] RHIZOFLAGELLATA, r[=i]-z[=o]-flaj-e-l[=a]'ta, _n._ an order of flagellate infusoria.--_adj._ RHIZOFLAG'ELLATE. [Gr. _rhiza_, root, and Eng. _flagellum_.] RHIZOGEN, r[=i]'z[=o]-jen, _n._ a parasitic plant growing on the root of another plant.--_adjs._ RHIZOGEN'IC, RHIZOG'ENOUS. [Gr. _rhiza_, root, _gen[=e]s_, producing.] RHIZOID, r[=i]'zoid, _adj._ root-like.--_n._ a filamentous organ like a root developed on all kinds of thalli, and on moss-stems.--_adjs._ RHIZOI'DAL, RHIZOI'D[=E]OUS. [Gr. _rhiz[=o]-d[=e]s_, root-like--_rhiza_, a root.] RHIZOMANIA, r[=i]-z[=o]-m[=a]'ni-a, _n._ an abnormal development of adventitious roots, as in the ivy, fig, &c. [Gr. _rhiza_, root, _mania_, madness.] RHIZOME, r[=i]'z[=o]m, _n._ a root-stock, an underground stem when its shape is cylindrical, ending in a bud and bearing leaves or scales.--Also RHIZ[=O]'MA. [Gr. _rhiz[=o]ma_--_rhiza_, root.] RHIZOMORPH, r[=i]'z[=o]-morf, _n._ (_bot._) a term for the peculiar mycelial growths by which certain fungi attach themselves to higher plants.--_adjs._ RHIZOMOR'PHOID, RHIZOMOR'PHOUS. [Gr. _rhiza_, root, _morph[=e]_, form.] RHIZOMYS, r[=i]'z[=o]-mis, _n._ a genus of mole-rats, including the Asian bay bamboo-rat. [Gr. _rhiza_, root, _mys_, mouse.] RHIZONYCHIUM, r[=i]-z[=o]-nik'i-um, _n._ a claw-joint.--_adj._ RHIZONYCH'IAL. [Gr. _rhiza_, root, _onyx_, a claw.] RHIZOPHAGOUS, r[=i]-zof'a-gus, _adj._ root-eating: pertaining to the Rhizophaga.--_n._ RHIZOPH'AGA, a class of marsupials, as the wombat. [Gr. _rhiza_, root, _phagein_, to eat.] RHIZOPHORA, r[=i]-zof'[=o]-ra, _n._ a small genus of trees, the mangroves. RHIZOPHORE, r[=i]'z[=o]-f[=o]r, _n._ the structure bearing the true roots in certain species of _Selaginella_.--_adj._ RHIZOPH'OROUS. [Gr. _rhiza_, root, _pherein_, to bear.] RHIZOPHYDIUM, r[=i]-z[=o]-fid'i-um, _n._ a genus of unicellular fungi.--_adj._ RHIZOPHYD'IAL. [Gr. _rhiza_, root, _pheidos_, sparing.] RHIZOPOD, r[=i]'z[=o]-pod, _n._ one of the RHIZOP'ODA, a division of the _Protozoa_, esp. a class with pseudopodia for locomotion and the ingestion of food.--_adjs._ RHIZOP'ODAL, RHIZOP'ODOUS. [Gr. _rhiza_, a root, _pous_, _podos_, a foot.] RHIZORISTIC, r[=i]-z[=o]-ris'tik, _adj._ (_math._) pertaining to the separation of the roots of an equation. [Gr. _rhiza_, root, _horizein_, to limit.] RHIZOSTOMATA, r[=i]-z[=o]-st[=o]'ma-ta, _n.pl._ an order of discomedusans:--_sing._ RHIZOS'TOMA.--_adjs._ RHIZOST[=O]'MATOUS, RHIZOST[=O]'MEAN. [Gr. _rhiza_, root, _stoma_, _stomatos_, mouth.] RHIZOTA, r[=i]-z[=o]'ta, _n._ an order of _Rotifera_.--_adj._ RH[=I]'ZOTE, rooted. [Gr. _rhiza_, root.] RHIZOTAXIS, r[=i]-z[=o]-tak'sis, _n._ the arrangement of roots.--Also RH[=I]'ZOTAXY. [Gr. _rhiza_, root, _taxis_, order.] RHIZOTROGUS, r[=i]-z[=o]-tr[=o]'gus, _n._ a genus of melolonthine beetles. [Gr. _rhiza_, root, _tr[=o]gein_, to gnaw.] RHODANIC, r[=o]-dan'ik, _adj._ (_chem._) producing a rose-red colour. [Gr. _rhodon_, a rose.] RHODEINA, r[=o]-d[=e]-[=i]'na, _n._ a group of cyprinoid fishes--its typical genus, RH[=O]'D[=E]US. [Gr. _rhodon_, rose.] RHODEORETIN, r[=o]-d[=e]-or'e-tin, _n._ one of the elements of resin of jalap.--_adj._ RHODEORETIN'IC. [Gr. _rhodon_, rose, _rh[=e]tin[=e]_, resin.] RHODIAN, r[=o]'di-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Rhodes._--RHODIAN LAWS, the earliest system of marine law; RHODIAN SCHOOL, a school of Hellenistic sculpture, of which the Laocoon is the greatest product. RHODITES, r[=o]-d[=i]'t[=e]z, _n._ a genus of gallflies infesting the rose. [Gr. _rhodit[=e]s_, rosy--_rhodon_, a rose.] RHODIUM, r[=o]'di-um, _n._ a white, very hard metal, resembling aluminium, extracted from the ore of platinum, and so called from the rose-colour of its salts. [Gr. _rhodon_, a rose.] RHODIUM-WOOD, r[=o]'di-um-w[=oo]d, _n._ a sweet-scented wood. RHODOCRINUS, r[=o]-dok'ri-nus, _n._ a genus of paleozoic encrinites. [Gr. _rhodon_, rose, _krinon_, lily.] RHODODENDRON, r[=o]-d[=o]-den'dron, _n._ a genus of trees and shrubs of the natural order _Ericaceæ_, having evergreen leaves and large, beautiful flowers like roses. [Gr. _rhodon_, rose, _dendron_, tree.] RHODOMELA, r[=o]-dom'e-la, _n._ a genus of marine algæ. [Gr. _rhodon_, rose, _melas_, black.] RHODOMONTADE. Same as RODOMONTADE. RHODONITE, r[=o]'d[=o]-n[=i]t, _n._ a native manganese silicate. [Gr. _rhodon_, a rose.] RHODOPE, r[=o]'d[=o]-p[=e], _n._ a genus of the family _Rhodopidæ_, marine invertebrates of dubious relationships. [_Rhodop[=e]_, a Thracian nymph.] RHODOPHANE, r[=o]'d[=o]-f[=a]n, _n._ a red pigment found in the retinal cones of the eyes of certain fishes, reptiles, and birds. [Gr. _rhodon_, rose, _phan[=e]s_, appearing.] RHODOPHYL, r[=o]'d[=o]-fil, _n._ the compound pigment found in the red algæ.--_adj._ RHODOPHYL'LOUS. [Gr. _rhodon_, rose, _phyllon_, leaf.] RHODOPSIN, r[=o]-dop'sin, _n._ a purple pigment found in the retina. [Gr. _rhodon_, rose, _opsis_, view.] RHODORA, r[=o]-d[=o]'ra, _n._ a handsome shrub with terminal clusters of pale purple flowers preceding the deciduous leaves: a genus of _Ericaceæ_, now included in Rhododendron. [Gr. _rhodon_, a rose.] RHODOSTAUROTIC, r[=o]-d[=o]-staw-rot'ik, _adj._ (_obs._) rosicrucian. [Gr. _rhodon_, rose, _stauros_, a cross.] RHODOSTETHIA, r[=o]-d[=o]-st[=e]'thi-a, _n._ a genus of _Laridæ_, with rose-tinted breast and wedge-shaped tail. [Gr. _rhodon_, rose, _st[=e]thos_, the breast.] RHODOTHAMNUS, r[=o]-d[=o]-tham'nus, _n._ a genus of small shrubs, the ground Cistus. [Gr. _rhodon_, rose, _thamnos_, bush.] RHODYMENIA, r[=o]-di-m[=e]'ni-a, _n._ a genus of marine algæ. [Gr. _rhodon_, rose, _hym[=e]n_, membrane.] RHOEADIC, r[=e]-ad'ik, _adj._ pertaining, to or derived from, the red poppy, _Papaver Rhoeas_.--_n._ RHOE'ADINE, a non-poisonous alkaloid found in the same. [Gr. _rhoias_, _rhoiados_, a poppy.] RHOMB, romb, _n._ a quadrilateral figure having its sides equal but its angles not right angles: (_crystal._) a rhombohedron: (_Milt._) a material circle--also RHOM'BUS.--_adj._ RHOM'BIC.--_ns._ RHOMBICOSIDODECAH[=E]'DRON, a solid having sixty-two faces; RHOMBICUBOCTAH[=E]'DRON, a solid having twenty-six faces.--_adjs._ RHOM'BIFORM, RHOM'BOID, shaped like a rhomb.--FRESNEL'S RHOMB, a rhomb of crown glass so cut that a ray of light entering one of its faces at right angles shall emerge at right angles at the opposite face, after undergoing two total reflections. [L. _rhombus_--Gr. _rhombos_--_rhembein_, to turn round and round.] RHOMBOCOELIA, rom-b[=o]-s[=e]'li-a, _n._ a dilatation of the spinal cord in the sacral region.--_adj._ RHOMBOCOE'LIAN. [Gr. _rhombos_, rhomb, _koilia_, a cavity.] RHOMBOGEN, rom'b[=o]-jen, _n._ the infusoriform embryo of a nematoid worm.--_adjs._ RHOMBOGEN'IC, RHOMBOG'ENOUS. [Gr. _rhombos_, rhomb, _gen[=e]s_, producing.] RHOMBOHEDRON, rom-b[=o]-h[=e]'dron, _n._ a solid bounded by six rhombic planes.--_adj._ RHOMBOH[=E]'DRAL.--_adv._ RHOMBOH[=E]'DRALLY. [Gr. _rhombos_, rhomb, _hedra_, a base.] RHOMBOID, rom'boid, _n._ a figure of the form of a rhomb: a quadrilateral figure having only its opposite sides and angles equal.--_adj._ RHOMBOID'AL, having the shape of a rhomboid. [Gr. _rhombos_, rhomb, _eidos_, form.] RHOMBOIDEUM, rom-boi'd[=e]-um, _n._ (_anat._) the ligament which unites the sternal end of the clavicle with the cartage of the first rib. RHOMBUS. Same as RHOMB. RHONCHUS, rong'kus, _n._ a râle, esp. when bronchial.--_adjs._ RHONCH'AL, RHONCH'IAL. [L.,--Gr. _rhengchos_, a snoring--_rhengkein_, to snore.] RHOPALIC, r[=o]-pal'ik, _n._ a hexameter in which each succeeding word contains one syllable more than what precedes it. [Gr. _rhopalikos_, club-like, _rhopalon_, a club.] RHOPALOCERA, r[=o]-pa-los'e-ra, _n.pl._ an order of _Lepidoptera_, with clubbed antennæ.--_adjs._ RHOPALOC'ERAL, RHOPALOC'EROUS. [Gr. _rhopalon_, a club, _keras_, a horn.] RHOPALODINIDÆ, r[=o]-pa-l[=o]-din'i-d[=e], _n.pl._ the sea-gourds. RHOTACISM, r[=o]'ta-sizm, _n._ erroneous pronunciation of the letter _r_: burring: the tendency of _s_ to change into _r_.--_v.i._ RH[=O]'TACISE. RHUBARB, r[=oo]'bärb, _n._ a plant, the tender acidulous leaf-stalks of which are much used in cooking, and the root in medicine: the root of any medicinal rhubarb, with cathartic properties.--_adj._ RHU'BARBY.--MONK'S RHUBARB, the patience dock. [O. Fr. _rheubarbe_--Low L. _rheubarbarum_--Gr. _rh[=e]on barbaron_--_rh[=e]on_, adj. of _rha_, the rha-plant, from the _Rha_, the Volga.] RHUMB, rumb, or rum, _n._ any vertical circle, hence any point of the compass.--_ns._ RHUMB'-LINE, a line which cuts all the meridians at the same angle; RHUMB'-SAIL'ING, the course of a vessel keeping straight on a rhumb-line. [Fr. _rumb_, a by-form of _rhombe_, through L., from Gr. _rhombos_, rhomb.] RHUS, rus, _n._ a genus of shrubs and trees, the cashew-nut family. [L.,--Gr. _rhous_, sumac.] RHUSMA, rus'ma, _n._ a mixture of quicklime and orpiment, used as a depilatory.--Also RUS'MA. RHYACOLITE, r[=i]-ak'[=o]-l[=i]t, _n._ a glassy feldspar found at Mt. Somma in Italy. [Gr. _rhyax_, _rhyakos_, a stream, _lithos_, stone.] RHYACOPHILIDÆ, r[=i]-a-k[=o]-fil'i-d[=e], _n._ a family of neuropterous insects.--_n._ RHYACOPH'ILUS, a genus of _Scolopacidæ_--the green or solitary sandpiper. [Gr. _rhyax_, a stream, _philein_, to love.] RHYME, RIME, r[=i]m, _n._ the recurrence of similar sounds at certain intervals: (_orig._) words arranged in numbers or verse: poetry: metre: a short poem.--_v.i._ to correspond in sound: to harmonise: to chime: to make rhymes or verses.--_v.t._ to put into rhyme.--_adj._ RHYME'LESS, without rhyme or reason: without sound or sense: neither pleasant to the mind nor to the ear.--_ns._ RHYME'-LETT'ER, the repeated letters in alliteration (q.v.); RHY'MER, RHY'MIST, R[=I]'MIST, an inferior poet: a minstrel; RHYME'-ROY'AL (so called from its use by King James I. of Scotland in the _King's Quair_), a seven-line stanza borrowed by Chaucer from the French--its formula, _a b a b b c c_; RHYME'STER, a poetaster: a would-be poet.--_adjs._ RHY'MIC, R[=I]'MIC.--FEMININE RHYME (see FEMININE); MALE, or MASCULINE, RHYME, a rhyme in which the accent and rhyme fall on the final syllable only.--NEITHER RHYME NOR REASON, without either sound or sense.--THE RHYMER, Thomas the Rhymer, the earliest poet of Scotland (_flor._ 1286). [Properly _rime_ (the _hy_ being due to the influence of _Rhythm_)--A.S. _rim_, number, cog. with Old High Ger. _r[=i]m_ (Ger. _reim_).] RHYNCHÆNUS, ring-k[=e]'nus, _n._ a genus of coleopterous insects, of the family of snout-beetles. [Gr. _rhyngchaina_, having a large snout.] RHYNCHEA, ring-k[=e]'a, _n._ the painted snipe.--_adj._ RHYNCHÆ'AN. [Gr. _rhyngchos_, snout.] RHYNCHETIDÆ, ring-ket'i-d[=e], _n.pl._ a family of suctorial infusorians--its typical genus, RHYNCH[=E]'TA. [Gr. _rhyngchos_, snout, _chait[=e]_, a mane.] RHYNCHITES, ring-k[=i]'t[=e]z, _n.pl._ a genus of weevils. [Gr. _rhyngchos_, a snout.] RHYNCHOCOELA, ring-k[=o]-s[=e]'la, _n.pl._ a group of proctuchous turbellarians, the nemerteans.--_adj._ RHYNCHOCOE'LAN. [Gr. _rhyngchos_, snout, _koilos_, hollow.] RHYNCHOCYONIDÆ, ring-k[=o]-s[=i]-on'i-d[=e], _n.pl._ a family of small insectivorous mammals, native to eastern Africa.--_n._ RHYNCHOC'YON. [Gr. _rhyngchos_, snout, _ky[=o]n_, a dog.] RHYNCHODONT, ring'k[=o]-dont, _adj._ having the beak toothed, as the falcon. [Gr. _rhyngchos_, snout, _odous_, _odontos_, tooth.] RYNCHOFLAGELLATE, ring-k[=o]-flaj'e-l[=a]t, _adj._ having a flagellum like a snout. RHYNCHOLITE, ring'k[=o]-l[=i]t, _n._ the fossil beak of a tetrabranchiate cephalopod. [Gr. _rhyngchos_, snout, _lithos_, stone.] RHYNCHONELLA, ring-k[=o]-nel'a, _n._ a typical genus of _Rhynchonellidæ_, a family of arthropomatous brachiopods. [Gr _rhyngchos_, a snout.] RHYNCHOPHORA, ring-kof'[=o]-ra, _n.pl._ a section of tetramerous coleopterous insects: the weevils.--_adjs._ RHYNCHOPH'ORAN, RHYNCHOPH'OROUS. [Gr. _rhyngchos_, snout, _pherein_, to bear.] RHYNCHOPS, ring'kops, _n._ the skimmers or scissor-bills. [Gr. _rhyngchos_, snout, _[=o]ps_, _[=o]pos_, an eye.] RHYNCHOSIA, ring-k[=o]'si-a, _n._ a genus of leguminous plants. [Gr. _rhyngchos_, a snout.] RHYNCHOSPORA, ring-kos'p[=o]-ra, _n._ a genus of sedge-like plants--the beak-rush or beak-sedge. [Gr. _rhyngchos_, snout, _sporos_, seed.] RHYNCHOTA, ring-k[=o]'ta, _n._ an order of true hexapod insects.--_adjs._ RHYNCH'[=O]TE, beaked; RHYNCH[=O]'TOUS, belonging to the Rhynchota. [Gr. _rhyngchos_, a snout.] RHYNCHOTUS, ring-k[=o]'tus, _n._ a genus of the South American tinamous, including the ynambu. [Gr. _rhyngchos_, a snout.] RHYNE, r[=i]n, _n._ the best kind of Russian hemp. RHYOLITE, r[=i]'[=o]-l[=i]t, _n._ an igneous rock, called also _Liparite_ and _Quartz-trachyte_.--_adj._ RHYOLIT'IC. [Gr. _rhyax_, a stream, _lithos_, a stone.] RHYPAROGRAPHY, rip-a-rog'ra-fi, _n._ _genre_ or still-life pictures, esp. of low subjects.--_adj._ RHYPAROGRAPH'IC. [Gr. _rhyparos_, dirty, _graphein_, to write.] RHYPHUS, r[=i]'fus, _n._ a genus of gnats. RHYPTICUS, rip'ti-kus, _n._ a genus of serranoid fishes--the soap-fishes. [Gr. _rhyptikos_--_rhypein_, to cleanse--_rhypos_, dirt.] RHYSIMETER, r[=i]-sim'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring the velocity of fluids and the speed of ships. [Gr. _rhysis_, a flowing, _metron_, a measure.] RHYSSA, ris'a, _n._ a genus of long-tailed ichneumon flies. [Gr. _rhyssos_, wrinkled, _eryein_, to draw.] RHYSSODES, ri-s[=o]'d[=e]z, _n.pl._ a genus of clavicorn beetles. [Gr. _rhyssod[=e]s_, wrinkled-looking--_rhyssos_, wrinkled, _eidos_, form.] RHYTHM, ri_th_m, or rithm, _n._ flowing motion: metre: regular recurrence of accents: harmony of proportion: a measure, or foot: (_mus._) the regular succession of heavy and light accents: (_phys._) the succession of alternate and opposite states.--_adjs._ RHYTH'MIC, -AL, having or pertaining to rhythm or metre.--_adv._ RHYTH'MICALLY.--_n._ RHYTH'MICS, the science of rhythm.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ RHYTH'MISE, to subject to rhythm: to observe rhythm.--_n._ RHYTH'MIST, one who composes in rhythm.--_adj._ RHYTHM'LESS, destitute of rhythm.--_ns._ RHYTHMOM'ETER, an instrument for marking rhythms for music, a metronome; RHYTHMOPOE'IA, the art of composing rhythmically. [L.,--Gr. _rhythmos_--_rhein_, to flow.] RHYTINA, ri-t[=i]'na, _n._ a genus of _Sirenia_, akin to the dugong and the manatee, once plentiful in the northern Pacific. [Gr. _rhytis_, a wrinkle.] RHYTON, r[=i]'ton, _n._ a Greek drinking-vase, with one handle, generally ending in a beast's head:--_pl._ RHY'TA. [Gr.] RIALTO, ri-al't[=o], _n._ a famous bridge over the Grand Canal, Venice, [It., _rio_, stream--L. _rivus_, a stream--It. _alto_, deep--L. _altus_, deep.] RIANT, r[=i]'ant, _adj._ laughing: gay.--_n._ R[=I]'ANCY. [Fr.,--L. _ridens_, pr.p. of _rid[=e]re_, to laugh.] RIATA. See REATA. RIB, rib, _n._ one of the bones from the backbone which encircle the chest: anything like a rib in form or use: a piece of meat containing one or more ribs: a piece of timber which helps to form or strengthen the side of a ship: a vein of a leaf, or an insect's wing: a prominence running in a line: a ridge: (_archit._) a moulding or projecting band on a ceiling: one of the rods on which the cover of an umbrella is extended: (_coll._) a wife (from Gen. ii., 21-23).--_v.t._ to furnish or enclose with ribs: to form with rising lines--as corduroy: to enclose:--_pr.p._ rib'bing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ ribbed.--_ns._ RIB'-BAND, a piece of timber bolted longitudinally to the ribs of a vessel to hold them in position; RIB'BING, an arrangement of ribs; RIB'-GRASS, the ribwort plantain.--_adj._ RIB'LESS, having no ribs.--_n._ RIB'LET, a rudimentary rib.--_adjs._ RIB'-LIKE, like a rib: resembling a rib; RIB'-NOSED, having the snout ribbed, as a baboon.--_v.t._ RIB'-ROAST, to beat soundly.--_ns._ RIB'-ROAST'ER (_coll._), a severe blow on the ribs; RIB'-ROAST'ING, a severe beating; RIB'-VAULT'ING. [A.S. _ribb_; Ger. _rippe_.] RIB, rib, _n._ hound's tongue: water-cress. [A.S. _ribbe_.] RIBALD, rib'ald, _n._ a loose, low character.--_adj._ low, base, mean: licentious: foul-mouthed--also RIB'AUD (_Spens._).--_adjs._ RIB'ALDISH, RIB'ALDROUS, ribald.--_n._ RIB'ALDRY, obscenity: filthiness: low and vulgar scurrility--also RIB'AUDRY (_obs._). [O. Fr. _ribald_, _ribaut_ (Fr. _ribaud_, It. _ribaldo_)--Old High Ger. _hr[=i]p[=a]_, Mid. High Ger. _ribe_, a whore.] RIBAND, rib'and, _n._ Same as RIBBON. RIBATTUTA, r[=e]-bat-t[=oo]'ta, _n._ (_mus._) a melodic embellishment. [It.] RIBAUDEQUIN, ri-baw'de-kin, _n._ a movable cheval-de-frise. [O. Fr.; of doubtful origin.] RIBBLE-RABBLE, rib'l-rab'l, _n._ a mob: indecent language.--_n._ RIBB'LE-ROW, a list of rabble. RIBBON, rib'on, _n._ a fillet or strip of silk: a narrow strip: (_pl._) reins for driving: a shred: a watch-spring: an endless saw: (_her._) a bearing considered usually as one of the subordinaries: (_naut._) a painted moulding on the side of a ship--also RIB'AND, RIBB'AND.--_adj._ made of ribbon: having bands of different colours.--_v.t._ to adorn with ribbons: to stripe: to streak.--_ns._ RIBB'ON-BRAKE, a brake having a band which nearly surrounds the wheel whose motion is to be checked; RIBB'ON-FISH, a long, slender, compressed fish, like a ribbon; RIBB'ON-GRASS, a variety of striped canary-grass: Lady's Garter; RIBB'ONISM, a system of secret associations among the lower classes in Ireland, at its greatest height from about 1835 to 1855--from the green badge worn; RIBB'ONMAN, a member of a Ribbon society; RIBB'ON-MAP, a map printed on a long strip which winds on an axis within a case; RIBB'ON-SEAL, a North Pacific seal, banded and striped; RIBB'ON-SNAKE, a harmless striped snake abundant in the United States; RIBB'ON-STAMP, a simple form of printing-press for transferring colours to paper; RIBB'ON-WAVE, a common geometrid moth; RIBB'ON-WEED, a seaweed whose frond has a long, flat blade; RIBB'ON-WIRE, a strong tape with wire threads for strengthening garments; RIBB'ON-WORM, tapeworm.--BLUE RIBBON, the ribbon of the Order of the Garter: anything which marks the attainment of some ambition, also the object itself: the badge adopted by a teetotal society; RED RIBBON, the ribbon of the Order of the Bath. [O. Fr. _riban_ (Fr. _ruban_), perh. Celt.; cf. Ir. _ribin_, Gael. _ribean_. Diez suggests Dut. _ring-band_, necktie, collar.] RIBES, ribz, _n.sing._ and _pl._ a currant, currants.--_n.sing._ RIBES (r[=i]'b[=e]z), a genus of shrubs belonging to the natural order _Ribesiaceæ_, familiar examples of which are the garden Gooseberry and the Currant. [O. Fr. _ribes_--Low L. _ribus_--Ar. _r[=i]b[=e]s_, _r[=i]b[=a]s_.] RIBIBE, rib-[=i]b', _n._ (_obs._) a rebec: an old woman.--_v.i._ to play on a ribibe. [_Rebec._] RIBSTON-PIPPIN, rib'ston-pip'in, _n._ a fine variety of winter apple--from _Ribston_ in Yorkshire, where Sir Henry Goodricke (1642-1705) first introduced them. RICARDIAN, ri-kär'di-an, _adj._ pertaining to the political economist David _Ricardo_ (1772-1823), or his theory. RICASSO, ri-kas'[=o], _n._ that part of a rapier-blade next to the hilt. [Ety. unknown.] RICCIA, rik'si-a, _n._ a genus of cryptogamous plants. [From the Italian botanist P. Francisco _Ricci_.] RICE, r[=i]s, _n._ one of the most useful and extensively cultivated of grains, like oats when ripe.--_ns._ RICE'-BIRD, the reed-bird: the paddy bird or Java sparrow; RICE'-BIS'CUIT, a sweet biscuit made of flour mixed with rice; RICE'-DUST, RICE'-MEAL, the refuse of rice, a valuable food for cattle; RICE'-FIELD-MOUSE, the rice-rat; RICE'-FLOUR, a ground rice for puddings, for a face-powder, &c.; RICE'-GLUE, a cement made by boiling rice-flour in soft water; RICE'-HEN, the common American gallinule; RICE'-MILK, milk boiled and thickened with rice; RICE'-P[=A]'PER, a white smooth paper, made by the Chinese from the pith of _Fatsia (Aralia) papyrifera_, a tree peculiar to Formosa; RICE'-PLANT'ER, an implement for sowing rice; RICE'-POUND'ER, a rice-mill; RICE'-PUDD'ING, a pudding made of rice and milk, sweetened, often with eggs, raisins, &c.; RICE'-SOUP, a soup of rice with flour, &c.; RICE'-STITCH, an embroidery-stitch resembling rice in grain; RICE'-WA'TER, water in which rice has been boiled--a nourishing drink for invalids; RICE'-WEE'VIL, a weevil that destroys stored rice, &c. [O. Fr. _ris_--L. _oryza_--Gr. _oryza_, from Old Pers., whence also Ar. _uruzz_, _ruzz_.] RICERCATA, r[=e]-cher-kä'ta, _n._ a very elaborate form of fugue. [It. _ricercare_, to search out.] RICH, rich (_comp._ RICH'ER, _superl._ RICH'EST), _adj._ abounding in possessions: wealthy: valuable: sumptuous: fertile: full of agreeable or nutritive qualities: affluent: productive, as a rich mine: costly: mighty: ruling: ample: of superior quality: luxurious: of great moral worth: highly seasoned or flavoured, as rich pastry: bright, as a colour: full of harmonious sounds, as a rich voice: full of beauty, as a rich landscape: of a vivid colour: extravagant, as a rich joke.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to enrich.--_v.i. to_ grow rich.--_v.i._ RICH'EN, to become rich, or of higher quality of any kind.--_adj._ RICH'-LEFT (_Shak._), left with much wealth, richly endowed.--_adv._ RICH'LY.--_n._ RICH'NESS, wealth: abundance: fruitfulness: value: costliness: abundance of imagery. [A.S. _ríce_, rich; Ger. _reich_, Dut. _rijk_, Goth. _reiks_.] RICHARDIA, ri-chär'di-a, _n._ a small genus of South African herbs of the Arum family, including the calla-lily. [From the French botanists, L. C. M. _Richard_ (1754-1821) and his son.] RICHARDSONIA, rich-ärd-s[=o]'ni-a, _n._ a genus of gamopetalous plants, belonging to the madder family, native to the warmer parts of America. [Named from the 17th-cent. Eng. botanist, Richard _Richardson_.] RICHEL-BIRD, rich'el-b[.e]rd, _n._ (_prov._) the least tern. RICHES, rich'ez, _n.pl._ (in _B._ sometimes _n.sing._) wealth: richness: abundance: an intellectual treasure, as the riches of wisdom: the pearl, flower, or cream of anything. [M. E. _richesse_ (n.sing.)--O. Fr. _richesse_--Mid. High Ger. _ríche_.] RICINIÆ, r[=i]-sin'i-[=e], _n._ a division of mites or acarines. [L. _ricinus_, a tick.] RICINIUM, r[=i]-sin'i-um, _n._ a mantle, chiefly worn by women, among the ancient Romans. RICINUS, ris'i-nus, _n._ a genus of apetalous plants, whose one species is _Ricinus communis_, the castor-oil plant.--_adj._ RICINOL'IC, pertaining to, or obtained from, castor-oil. [L. _ricinus_, the castor-oil plant.] RICK, rik, _n._ a pile or heap, as of hay.--_n.pl._ RICK'ERS, the stems of young trees cut up for spars, &c.--_ns._ RICK'LE (_Scot._), a pile of stones loosely thrown together: a small rick of grain; RICK'-RACK, a kind of open-work edging made of serpentine braid; RICK'-STAND, a flooring on which a rick is made; HAY'-RICK'ER, a horse-rake for cocking up hay. [A.S. _hreác_; Ice. _hraukr._] RICKETS, rik'ets, _n.sing._ a disease of children, characterised by softness and curvature of the bones.--_adv._ RICK'ETILY, shakily.--_n._ RICK'ETINESS, unsteadiness.--_adjs._ RICK'ETLY, shaky; RICK'ETY, affected with rickets: feeble, unstable. [From M. E. _wrikken_, to twist, allied to A.S. _wringan_, to twist. The medical term _rachitis_ was coined about 1650, with a punning allusion to Gr. _rhachis_, the spine.] RICOCHET, rik-[=o]-sh[=a]', or -shet', _n._ a rebound along the ground, as of a ball fired at a low elevation.--_v.i._ to skip along the ground:--_pr.p._ ricochet'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ ricochet'ted. [Fr.; ety. unknown.] RICOLITE, r[=e]'k[=o]-l[=i]t, _n._ a stratified ornamental stone. [_Rico_ in New Mexico, Gr. _lithos_, a stone.] RICTUS, rik'tus, _n._ the gape of the bill: the throat of the calyx.--_adj._ RIC'TAL. [L., a gaping.] RID, rid, _v.t._ to free: to deliver: to remove by violence: to clear: to disencumber: to expel: to separate: to despatch: (_obs._) to banish, to kill:--_pr.p._ rid'ding; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ rid.--_ns._ RID'DANCE, act of ridding or freeing: destruction: the earth thrown up by a burrowing animal; RID'DER, one who rids or relieves.--A GOOD RIDDANCE, a welcome relief; GET RID OF, to get deliverance from. [A.S. _hreddan_, to snatch away; Ger. _retten_.] RIDDLE, rid'l, _n._ an obscure description of something which the hearer is asked to name: a puzzling question: an enigma: anything puzzling, even a person.--_v.i._ to make riddles: to speak obscurely: to plait.--_adj._ RIDD'LE-LIKE (_Shak._), like a riddle or enigma.--_ns._ RIDD'LER; RIDD'LING (_Spens._), skill in explaining riddles.--_adv._ RIDD'LINGLY. [A.S. _r['æ]delse_--_r['æ]dan_, to guess, to read--_r['æ]d_, counsel; cog. with Dut. _raad_, Ger. _rath_.] RIDDLE, rid'l, _n._ a large sieve for separating coarser materials from finer.--_v.t._ to separate with a riddle, as grain from chaff: to make full of holes like a riddle, as with shot.--_n.pl._ RIDD'LINGS, siftings. [A.S. _hridder_; Gael. _criathar_.] RIDDLEMEREE, rid'l-me-r[=e]', _n._ rigmarole. RIDE, r[=i]d, _v.i._ to be borne, as on horseback or in a carriage: to practise riding: to manage a horse: to float, as a ship at anchor: to move easily: to domineer: to overlap.--_v.t._ to do or perform by riding, as a race: to be carried through: to gallop through: to rest on so as to be carried: to control, esp. harshly:--_pa.t._ r[=o]de; _pa.p._ rid'den.--_n._ act of riding: an excursion on horseback or in a vehicle: the course passed over in riding, a place for riding: a district inspected by an excise-officer: (_print._) a fault caused by the overlapping of leads, &c.--_adjs._ R[=I]'DABLE, R[=I]'DEABLE, capable of being ridden: passable on horseback.--_n._ R[=I]'DER, one who rides on a horse: one who manages a horse: one who breaks a horse: a commercial traveller: an addition to a document after its completion, on a separate piece of paper: an additional clause: a mounted robber: a knight: a small forked weight which straddles the beam of a balance to measure the weight: a Dutch gold coin.--_adjs._ R[=I]'DERED, having stakes laid across the bars; R[=I]'DERLESS, without a rider; R[=I]'DING, used to ride or travel: suitable for riding on, as a horse.--_n._ a road for riding on: a district visited by an excise-officer.--_n.pl._ R[=I]'DING-BITTS, the bitts to which a ship's cable is secured when riding at anchor.--_ns._ R[=I]'DING-BOOT, a high boot worn in riding; R[=I]'DING-CLERK, a mercantile traveller; R[=I]'DING-COMMIT'TEE, a committee of ministers sent by the General Assembly to carry out an ordination or induction, where the local presbytery refused to act, under the Moderate domination in Scotland in the 18th century; R[=I]'DING-GLOVE, a gauntlet; R[=I]'DING-HAB'IT, the long upper habit, garment, or skirt worn by ladies when riding; R[=I]'DING-HOOD, a hood formerly worn by women when riding.--_n.pl._ R[=I]'DING-IN'TERESTS (_Scots law_), interests depending on other interests.--_ns._ R[=I]'DING-LIGHT, a light hung out in the rigging at night when a vessel is riding at anchor; R[=I]'DING-MAS'TER, one who teaches riding; R[=I]'DING-RHYME, the iambic pentameter, heroic verse--from its use in Chaucer's _Tales_ of the Canterbury pilgrims; R[=I]'DING-ROBE, a riding-habit; R[=I]'DING-ROD, a light cane for equestrians; R[=I]'DING-SAIL, a triangular sail; R[=I]'DING-SCHOOL, a place where riding is taught, esp. a military school; R[=I]'DING-SKIRT, a skirt fastened round a woman's waist in riding; RI'DING-SPEAR, a javelin; R[=I]'DING-SUIT, a suit adapted for riding; R[=I]'DING-WHIP, a switch with short lash, used by riders; BUSH'-R[=I]'DER, in Australia, a cross-country rider.--RIDE A HOBBY, to pursue to excess a favourite theory; RIDE AND TIE, to ride and go on foot alternately; RIDE DOWN, to overthrow, treat with severity; RIDE EASY, when a ship does not pitch--opp. to RIDE HARD, when she pitches violently; RIDE IN THE MARROW-BONE COACH(_slang_), to go on foot; RIDE OUT, to keep afloat throughout a storm; RIDE OVER, to domineer; RIDE ROUGH-SHOD, to pursue a course regardless of the consequences to others; RIDE SHANK'S MARE (_slang_), to walk; RIDE THE HIGH HORSE, to have grand airs; RIDE THE MARCHES (see MARCH); RIDE THE SPANISH MARE, to be put astride a boom as a punishment; RIDE THE WILD MARE (_Shak._), to play at see-saw; RIDE TO HOUNDS, to take part in a fox-hunt, esp. to ride close behind the hounds; RIDING THE FAIR, the ceremony of proclaiming a fair. [A.S. _ridan_; Dut. _rijden_, Ger. _reiten_.] RIDEAU, r[=e]-d[=o]', _n._ an eminence commanding a plain, covering the entrance to a camp, &c. [Fr.] RIDGE, rij, _n._ the back, or top of the back: anything like a back, as a long range of hills: an extended protuberance: a crest: the earth thrown up by the plough between the furrows, a breadth of ground running the whole length of the field, divided from those on either side by broad open furrows, helping to guide the sowers and reapers and effecting drainage in wet soils: the upper horizontal timber of a roof: the highest portion of a glacis.--_v.t._ to form into ridges: to wrinkle.--_ns._ RIDGE'-BAND, that part of the harness of a cart which goes over the saddle; RIDGE'-BONE, the spine.--_adj._ RIDGED, having ridges on a surface: ridgy.--_ns._ RIDGE'-FILL'ET, a fillet between two flutes of a column; RIDGE'-HARR'OW, a harrow made to lap upon the sides of a ridge over which it passes; RIDGE'-PLOUGH, a plough with a double mould-board; RIDGE'-POLE, the timber forming the ridge of a roof; RIDGE'-ROPE, the central rope of an awning.--_adj._ RIDG'Y, having ridges. [A.S. _hrycg_; Ice. _hryggr_, Ger. _rücken_, back.] RIDGEL, rij'el, _n._ a male animal with but one testicle.--Also RIDG'IL, RIDG'LING--(_Scot._) RIG'LAN, RIG'GOT. RIDICULE, rid'i-k[=u]l, _n._ wit exposing one to laughter: derision: mockery.--_v.t._ to laugh at: to expose to merriment: to deride: to mock.--_n._ RID'I C[=U]LER.--_v.t._ RIDIC'[=U]LISE.--_n._ RIDIC[=U]LOS'ITY.--_adj._ RIDIC'[=U]LOUS, deserving or exciting ridicule: absurd: (_obs._) outrageous.--_adv._ RIDIC'[=U]LOUSLY.--_n._ RIDIC'[=U]LOUSNESS. [L. _ridiculus_--_rid[=e]re_, to laugh.] RIDING, r[=i]'ding, _n._ one of the three divisions of the county of York. [A corr. of _thriding_--Ice. _þridjungr_, the third, _þriði_, third, _þrir_, three.] RIDOTTO, ri-dot'[=o], _n._ a house of public entertainment: a dancing party.--_v.i._ to frequent such. [It.] RIE, an old spelling of _rye_. RIEM, r[=e]m, _n._ a raw-hide thong. [Dut.] RIESEL-IRON, r[=e]'zel-[=i]'urn, _n._ a kind of nipper used to remove irregularities from the edges of glass. RIEVE, RIEVER. Same as REAVE, REAVER. RIFACIMENTO, r[=e]-fä-chi-men't[=o], _n._ a recasting of literary works:--_pl._ RIFACIMEN'TI. [It.] RIFE, r[=i]f, _adj._ prevailing: abundant: plentiful: well supplied: current: manifest.--_adv._ RIFE'LY.--_n._ RIFE'NESS. [A.S. _rífe_; Dut. _rijf_, Ice. _rífr_.] RIFFLE, rif'l, _n._ in mining, the lining of the bottom of a sluice: in seal engraving, a small iron disc at the end of a tool.--_n._ RIFF'LER, a curved file for working in depressions. [Dan. _rifle_, a groove.] RIFF-RAFF, rif'-raf, _n._ sweepings: refuse: the rabble, the mob. [Explained by Skeat as M. E. _rif and raf_--O. Fr. _rif et raf_, also _rifle et rafle_. _Rifler_, to rifle, ransack--Ice. _hrífa_, to catch; _rafler_--Teut., cf. Ger. _raffen_, to seize.] RIFLE, r[=i]'fl, _v.t._ to carry off by force: to strip, to rob: to whet, as a scythe.--_n._ R[=I]'FLER. [O. Fr. _rifler_--Scand., Ice. _hrífa_, to seize.] RIFLE, r[=i]'fl, _v.t._ to groove spirally, as a gun-barrel.--_n._ a musket with a barrel spirally grooved--many varieties, the _Enfield_, _Minié_, _Martini-Henry_, _Chassepot_, _Mannlicher-repeating_, _Remington_, _Lee-Metford_, &c.--_ns._ R[=I]'FLE-BIRD, an Australian bird-of-Paradise; R[=I]'FLE-CORPS, a body of soldiers armed with rifles; R[=I]'FLEMAN, a man armed with a rifle; R[=I]'FLE-PIT, a pit dug to shelter riflemen; R[=I]'FLE-RANGE, a place for practice with the rifle; R[=I]'FLING, the act of cutting spiral grooves in the bore of a gun; R[=I]'FLING-MACHINE'. [Scand.; Dan. _rifle_, to groove, freq. of _rive_, to tear.] RIFT, rift, _n._ an opening split in anything: a fissure: a veil: a fording-place.--_v.t._ to rive: to cleave.--_v.i._ to split: to burst open. [_Rive._] RIG, rig, _v.t._ to clothe, to dress: to put on: to equip: (_naut._) to fit with sails and tackling:--_pr.p._ rig'ging; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ rigged.--_n._ sails and tackling: an equipage, or turn-out, for driving, &c.: fishing-tackle: (_coll._) costume, dress.--_ns._ RIG'GER, one who rigs or dresses: in machinery, a large cylindrical pulley, or narrow drum; RIG'GING, tackle: the system of cordage which supports a ship's masts and extends the sails: the roof; RIG'GING-LOFT, the place in a theatre from which the scenery is raised; RIG'GING-SCREW, a machine formed of a clamp worked by a screw; RIG'GING-TREE, a roof-tree; RIG'-OUT, an outfit.--RIG OUT, to furnish with complete dress, &c.; RIG THE MARKET, to raise or lower prices artificially. [Scand.; Norw. _rigga_, to bandage, to put on sails, _rigg_, rigging.] RIG, rig, _n._ (_Scot._) a ridge: a path. [_Ridge._] RIG, rig, _n._ a frolic, trick: (_obs._) a wanton.--_v.i._ to romp, act the wanton.--_adj._ RIG'GISH (_Shak._), wanton, lewd.--_n._ RIG'GITE, one who plays rigs, a jester.--RUN A RIG, to play a trick; RUN THE RIG UPON, to play a trick upon. [Prob. _wriggle_.] RIGADOON, rig-a-d[=oo]n', _n._ a lively dance for one couple, or its music: formerly in the French army, a beat of drum while culprits were being marched to punishment. [Fr. _rigaudon_.] RIGATION, r[=i]-g[=a]'shun, _n._ irrigation. [_Irrigation._] RIGESCENT, r[=i]-jes'ent, _n._ growing stiff. RIGGLE, rig'l, _n._ a species of sand-eel. RIGHT, r[=i]t, _adj._ straight: most direct: upright: erect: according to truth and justice: according to law: true: correct: just: fit: proper: exact: most convenient: well performed: most dexterous, as the hand: on the right-hand: on the right-hand of one looking towards the mouth of a river: righteous: duly genuine: correct in judgment: equitable: not crooked: to be preferred: precise: in good health: denoting the side designed to go outward, as cloth: opposed to left, as the right-hand: (_math._) upright from a base: containing 90 degrees.--_n._ RIGHT'NESS. [A.S. _riht_; Ger. _recht_, L. _rectus_.] RIGHT, r[=i]t, _adv._ in a straight or direct line: in a right manner: according to truth and justice: correctly: very: in a great degree. RIGHT, r[=i]t, _n._ that which is right or correct: truth: justice: virtue: freedom from error: what one has a just claim to: privilege: property: the right side.--_n._ RIGHT'-ABOUT', in the opposite direction.--_adj._ RIGHT'-ANG'LED, having a right angle or angles; RIGHT'-DRAWN (_Shak._), drawn in a right or just cause.--_v.t._ RIGHT'EN, to set right.--_n._ RIGHT'ER, one who sets right or redresses wrong.--_adj._ RIGHT'FUL, having a just claim: according to justice: belonging by right.--_adv._ RIGHT'FULLY.--_ns._ RIGHT'FULNESS, righteousness: justice; RIGHT'-HAND, the hand which is more used, convenient, and dexterous than the other.--_adj._ chiefly relied on.--_adj._ RIGHT'-HAND'ED, using the right-hand more easily than the left: dextral: clockwise.--_ns._ RIGHT'-HAND'EDNESS; RIGHT'-HAND'ER, a blow with the right-hand.--_adjs._ RIGHT'-HEART'ED, having right or kindly dispositions: good-hearted; RIGHT'LESS, without right.--_adv._ RIGHT'LY, uprightly: suitably: not erroneously.--_adj._ RIGHT'-MIND'ED, having a right or honest mind.--_ns._ RIGHT'-MIND'EDNESS, the state of being right-minded; RIGHT'NESS, the character of being right, correctness: the state of being on the right-hand; RIGHT-OF-WAY, the right which the public has to the free passage over roads or tracks, esp. such as are not statutory roads.--_advs._ RIGHTS (_obs._); RIGHT'WARD.--_n._ RIGHT'-WHALE, the Greenland whale, the most important species of the true whales.--RIGHT AND LEFT, on both sides; RIGHT ASCENSION (see ASCENSION); RIGHT BANK OF A RIVER, the bank on the right hand of a person looking in the direction the water flows; RIGHT DOWN, plainly; RIGHT OF ACTION, a right which will sustain a civil action; RIGHT OFF, immediately; RIGHT THE HELM, to put it amidships, in a line with the keel.--ABSOLUTE RIGHTS, those which belong to human beings as such; AT ALL RIGHTS, in all points; BASE RIGHT (_Scots law_), the right which a disposer acquires when he disposes of feudal property; BY RIGHT, or RIGHTS, rightfully; CLAIM OF RIGHT, the statement of the right of the church to spiritual independence and liberty from the interference of the civil courts in her spiritual functions, adopted by an immense majority of the General Assembly in 1842; CONTINGENT RIGHTS, such as are distinguished from vested rights; DECLARATION AND BILL OF RIGHTS, the instrument drawn up by the Convention Parliament which called the Prince and Princess of Orange to the throne of England in 1689, stating the fundamental principles of the constitution; DECLARATION OF THE RIGHTS OF MAN, a famous statement of the constitution and principles of civil society and government adopted by the French National Assembly in August 1789; DO ONE RIGHT, to do one justice; HAVE A RIGHT, to be under a moral necessity; HAVE RIGHT, to be right; IN ONE'S OWN RIGHT, by absolute and personal right; IN THE RIGHT, free from error; NATURAL RIGHTS, those which exist by virtue of natural law--liberty, security of person and property; PETITION OF RIGHT, an action by which a subject vindicates his rights against the Crown; PUBLIC RIGHTS, the rights which the state has over the subject, and the subject against the state; PUT TO RIGHTS, to arrange; THE RIGHT, among continentals, the conservatives, from their usually sitting on the president's right in legislative assemblies; THE RIGHT SIDE, the place of honour; WRIT OF RIGHT, an action to establish the title to real property. RIGHTEOUS, r[=i]'tyus, _adj._ living and acting according to right and justice: free from guilt or sin: equitable: merited.--_adv._ RIGHT'EOUSLY, in a righteous manner: (_arch._) justly.--_n._ RIGHT'EOUSNESS, purity of life: rectitude: conformity to a right standard: a righteous act or quality: holiness: the coming into spiritual reconciliation with God by means of the righteousness of Christ being imputed to a man in consequence of faith.--ORIGINAL RIGHTEOUSNESS, the condition of man before the Fall as made in the image of God. [A.S. _rihtwís_--_riht_, right, _wís_, wise.] RIGID, rij'id, _adj._ not easily bent: stiff: severe: strict: unyielding: harsh: without delicacy: wanting in ease.--_n._ RIGID'ITY, the quality of resisting change of form: stiffness of manner.--_adv._ RIG'IDLY.--_n._ RIG'IDNESS.--_adj._ RIGID'[=U]LOUS, rather stiff. [L. _rigidus_--_rig[=e]re_, to be stiff with cold.] RIGMAROLE, rig'ma-r[=o]l, _n._ a repetition of foolish words: a long story: balderdash.--_adj._ prolix, tedious. [A corr. of _ragman-roll_, a document with a long list of names, or with numerous seals pendent.] RIGOL, rig'ol, _n._ (_Shak._) a ring, a circle of a crown or coronet. [It. _rigolo_--Teut.; Ger. _ringel_, a ring.] RIGOLETTE, rig-[=o]-let', _n._ a light head-wrap. RIGOR, r[=i]'gur, _n._ the same as RIGOUR: (_med._) a sense of chilliness with contraction of the skin, a preliminary symptom of many diseases.--_n._ R[=I]'GOR-MOR'TIS, the characteristic stiffening of the body caused by the contraction of the muscles after death. RIGOUR, rig'ur, _n._ the quality of being rigid or severe: stiffness of opinion or temper: strictness: exactness: violence: relentlessness: severity of climate: _(med._, spelt RIGOR; see above).--_adj._ RIG'OROUS, exercising rigour: allowing no abatement: marked by severity: harsh: scrupulously accurate: very severe.--_adv._ RIG'OROUSLY.--_ns._ RIG'OROUSNESS; RIG'OURISM (_R.C._), the opposite of _Probalilism_; RIG'OURIST, a person of strict principles: a purist. [L. _rigor_--_rig[=e]re._] RIGSDAG, rigz'dag, _n._ the parliament of Denmark. RIGVEDA, rig-v[=a]'da, _n._ the first of the four Vedas. [Sans., _rich_, a hymn, _veda_, knowledge.] RIGWIDDIE, rig-wid'i, _n._ (_Scot._) the rope that goes over a horse's back to support the shafts of the vehicle it draws. [_Rig_, the back, _widdie_, _withy_, a rope.] RILE, r[=i]l, _v.t._ to make angry, to vex--a form of _roil_. RILIEVO, or RELIEVO. See ALTO-RELIEVO. RILL, ril, _n._ a small murmuring brook: a streamlet.--_v.i._ to flow in small streams.--_ns._ RILL'ET (_Tenn._), a rivulet, a little rill; RILL'-MARK, a marking produced by the oozing of water on sand. [Low Ger. _rille_, a channel; Ger. _rille_, a furrow.] RIM, rim, _n._ a raised margin, border, brim: in a wheel, the circular part farthest from the nave.--_v.t._ to put a rim to:--_pr.p._ rim'ming; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ rimmed.--_n._ RIM'-FIRE, a cartridge which has a detonating substance placed in some part of the rim of its base.--_adjs._ RIM'IFORM; RIM'LESS.--_ns._ RIM'MER, an instrument for ornamenting pastry; RIM'-PL[=A]N'ER, a machine for dressing wheel-fellies; RIM'-SAW, a saw, the cutting part of which is annular. [A.S. _rima_.] RIM, rim, _n._ a membrane: the peritoneum. [A.S. _reóma_.] RIMBASE, rim'b[=a]s, _n._ a short cylinder connecting a trunnion with the body of a cannon. RIME, r[=i]m, _n._ hoar-frost: frozen dew.--_adj._ R[=I]'MY. [A.S. _hrím_; Dut. _rijm_, Ger. _reif_.] RIME, r[=i]m, _n._ a rent, chink, or fissure--also R[=I]'MA:--_pl._ R[=I]'MÆ.--_adj._ R[=I]MOSE', full of rimes or chinks: having numerous minute fissures, mostly parallel, like the bark of a tree.--_n._ RIMOS'ITY, state of being rimose or chinky.--_adj._ R[=I]'MOUS, rimose. [L. _rima_.] RIMPLE, rim'pl, _v.i._ to wrinkle. RIMULA, rim'[=u]-la, _n._ (_conch._) a genus of fossil keyhole limpets.--_adjs._ RIM'[=U]LIFORM, shaped like a crack; RIM'[=U]LOSE. [L., dim. of _rima_, a crack.] RINABOUT, rin'a-bowt, _n._ (_Scot._) a vagrant. RIND, r[=i]nd, _n._ the external covering, as the skin of fruit, the bark of trees, &c.--_v.t._ to strip the rind from.--_adj._ RIND'ED.--_n._ RIND'-GALL, a defect in timber. [A.S. _rinde_; Dut. and Ger. _rinde_; prob. Old High Ger. _rinta_, _rinda_.] RINDERPEST, rin'd[.e]r-pest, _n._ a malignant and contagious disease of cattle. [Ger., 'cattle-plague.'] RINE, r[=i]n, _v.t._ to touch.--_n._ the same as RIND. [A.S. _hrínan_; Ice. _hrína_, to hurt.] RINE, r[=i]n, _n._ (_prov._) a ditch or water-course.--Also RHINE, RONE, RUNE. [A.S. _ryne_, a run, flow--_rinnan_, to run; Ger. _ronne_, a channel.] RINFORZANDO, rin-for-tsan'd[=o], _adj._ (_mus._) with special emphasis. [It.] RING, ring, _n._ a circle: a small hoop, usually of metal, worn on the finger or in the ear as an ornament: a circular area for races, &c.: a circular course, a revolution: a clique organised to control the market: an arena or prize-ring: the commercial measure of staves for casks: (_archit._) a cincture round a column: (_anat._) an annulus: a group or combination of persons.--_v.t._ to encircle: to fit with a ring: to surround: to wed with a ring: (_hort._) to cut out a ring of bark from a tree.--_v.i._ to move in rings.--_ns._ RING'-AR'MATURE, an armature in which the coils of wire are wound round a ring; RING'-ARM'OUR, armour made of metal rings (see CHAIN-MAIL).--_v.t._ RING'-BARK, to strip a ring of bark round a tree to kill it.--_ns._ RING'BILL, the ring-necked duck; RING'-BOLT, an iron bolt with a ring through a hole at one end; RING'BONE, in farriery, a bony callus on a horse's pastern-bone, the result of inflammation: the condition caused by this; RING'-BUNT'ING, the reed-bunting; RING'-CARR'IER, a go-between; RING'-D[=I]'AL, a portable sun-dial; RING'-DOG, an iron apparatus for hauling timber; RING'-DOTT'EREL, the ringed plover; RING'DOVE, the cushat or wood-pigeon, so called from a white ring or line on the neck; RING'-DROP'PING, a trick practised by rogues upon simple people.--_adj._ RINGED, surrounded as with a ring, annulose, annulate: wearing a wedding-ring.--_ns._ RINGED'-CAR'PET, a British geometrid moth; RING'-FENCE, a fence continuously encircling an estate, a limit; RING'-FING'ER, the third finger of the left hand, on which women wear their marriage-ring.--_adj._ RING'-FORMED, annular.--_ns._ RING'-FRAME, any one of a class of spinning-machines with vertical spindles; RING'-GAUGE, a measure consisting of a ring of fixed size used for measuring spherical objects; RING'LEADER, the head of a riotous body: one who opens a ball; RING'LET, a little ring: a curl, esp. of hair.--_adj._ RING'LETED.--_ns._ RING'LOCK, a puzzle-lock; RING'-MAIL, chain-armour; RING'MAN, the third finger of the hand: one interested in the prize-ring; RING'-MAS'TER, one who has charge of a circus-ring and the performances in it; RING'-MON'EY, rudely formed rings anciently used for money; RING'-NECK, a kind of ring-plover: the ring-necked duck; RING'-NET, a net for catching butterflies; RING'-OU'SEL, a species of thrush, with a white band on the breast; RING'-PARR'OT, a common Indian parrot; RING'-PERCH, the perch of North America; RING'-PLOV'ER, a ring-necked plover; RING'-ROPE, a rope for hauling the cable in rough weather; RING'-SAW, a scroll-saw with annular web; RING'-SMALL, broken stones of such a size as to pass through a ring two inches in diameter; RING'-SNAKE, the collared snake, a harmless serpent of the United States; RING'STER, a member of a ring; RING'-STOP'PER, a piece of rope by which the ring of an anchor is secured to the cat-head.--_adjs._ RING'-STRAKED (_B._), -STREAKED, streaked with rings.--_n._ RING'-TAIL (_naut._), a studding-sail set upon the gaff of a fore-and-aft sail: a light sail set abaft and beyond the spanker: the female of the hen-harrier, named from a rust-coloured ring formed by the tips of the tail-feathers when expanded.--_adj._ RING'-TAILED, having the tail marked with bars or rings of colour, as a lemur: having a tail curled at the end.--_ns._ RING'-THRUSH, the ring-ousel; RING'-TIME (_Shak._), time for marrying; RING'-VALVE, a hollow cylindrical valve; RING'-WORK, a material composed of rings interlinked; RING'WORM, a skin disease in which itchy pimples appear in rings.--RING THE CHANGES (see CHANGE).--RIDE, or TILT, AT THE RING, to practise the sport of riding rapidly, spear in hand, and carrying off with it a ring hung up; THE RING, pugilism and the persons connected with it. [A.S. _hring_; Ice. _hring-r_, Ger., Dan., and Sw. _ring_.] RING, ring, _v.i._ to sound as a bell when struck: to tinkle: to practise the art of ringing bells: to continue to sound: to be filled with report: to resound: to echo.--_v.t._ to cause to sound, as a metal: to produce by ringing:--_pa.t._ rang, rung; _pa.p._ rung.--_n._ a sound, esp. of metals: the sound of many voices: a chime of many bells.--_ns._ RING'ER; RING'ING, the act of causing to sound, as music-bells: resounding.--_adv._ RING'INGLY.--RING BACKWARD, to change the order of ringing; RING DOWN, to conclude; RING IN (_theat._), to signal the conductor to begin; RINGING OF THE EARS, a sound in the ears; RING UP, to rouse by the ringing of a bell. [A.S. _hringan_; cog. with Ice. _hringja_, to ring bells, _hringla_, to clink, Dan. _ringle_, to tinkle.] RINGE, rinj, _n._ a whisk made of heather. RINGENT, rin'jent, _adj._ gaping. RINGICULA, rin-jik'[=u]-la, _n._ a genus of tectibranchiates. RINK, ringk, _n._ the area where a race is run or games are played: a place artificially prepared for skating: a certain piece of ice marked off for curling--about 40 yards in length, and 9 in breadth. [Simply a variant of _ring_, a circle.] RINSE, rins, _v.t._ to cleanse by introducing water: to cleanse with clean water.--_ns._ RINS'ER; RINS'ING-MACHINE', in cotton manufacture, a series of tanks for cleansing. [O. Fr. _rinser_ (Fr. _rincer_)--Ice. _hreinsa_; Ger. and Dut. _rein_, pure.] RINTHEREOUT, rin'th[=a]r-[=oo]t, _n._ (_Scot._) a vagrant: a vagabond. RIO, RIYO, r[=a]-[=o]', _n._ a Japanese ounce, esp. of silver: a tael. RIOT, r[=i]'ot, _n._ uproar: tumult: a disturbance of the peace: excessive feasting: luxury.--_v.i._ to brawl: to raise an uproar: to run to excess in feasting, behaviour, &c.: to be highly excited: to throw into a tumult: to annoy.--_ns._ R[=I]'OTER; R[=I]'OTING; R[=I]'OTISE (_Spens._), riot, extravagance.--_adj._ R[=I]'OTOUS, engaging in riot: seditious: tumultuous: luxurious: wanton.--_adv._ R[=I]'OTOUSLY.--_ns._ R[=I]'OTOUSNESS; R[=I]'OTRY.--RIOT ACT, a statute designed to prevent riotous assemblies.--RUN RIOT, to act without restraint or control. [Fr. _riotte_; ety. dub.] RIP, rip, _v.t._ to divide by cutting or tearing: to cut open: to take out by cutting or tearing: to tear up for search or alteration: to explode, give vent to.--_v.i._ to break out violently.--_v.t._ to utter violently (with _out_):--_pr.p._ rip'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ ripped.--_n._ a tear: a rent: a place torn: (_slang_) a vicious person: a worthless horse: a ripple. [Scand., Norw. _ripa_, to scratch; Ice. _rífa_, to rive.] RIP, rip, _n._ (_Scot._) a handful of grain not thrashed. RIPARIAN, r[=i]-p[=a]'ri-an, _adj._ belonging to a river-bank: of animals, shore-loving.--_adj._ RIP[=A]'RIAL.--RIPARIAN NATIONS, nations possessing opposite banks of the same river; RIPARIAN PROPRIETOR, an owner who has property in the soil to the centre of the stream; RIPARIAN RIGHTS, the right of fishery belonging to the proprietor of a stream. [L. _ripa_, a river-bank.] RIPE, r[=i]p, _adj._ ready for harvest: arrived at perfection: fit for use: developed to the utmost: finished: ready: resembling ripe fruit: mature, as ripe judgment.--_v.i._ to grow ripe, to ripen.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to make ripe.--_adv._ RIPE'LY.--_v.i._ R[=I]'PEN, to grow ripe: to approach or reach perfection.--_v.t._ to make ripe: to bring to perfection.--_n._ RIPE'NESS. [A.S. _ripe_, conn. with _rip_, harvest; cog. with Dut. _riip_, Ger. _reif_; akin to A.S. _ripan_, to reap.] RIPE, r[=i]p, _v.t._ to search, to rummage. [_Rip._] RIPIDOLITE, r[=i]-pid'[=o]-l[=i]t, _n._ the commonest member of the chlorite family of minerals. RIPIENO, ri-py[=a]'n[=o], _adj._ (_mus._) supplementary.--_n._ a supplementary instrument or performer:--_pl._ RIPIE'NI.--_n._ RIPIENIST (ri-py[=a]'nist), a supplementary instrumentalist. [It.] RIPON, RIPPON, rip'on, _n._ a spur. [_Ripon_, city.] RIPOSTE, ri-p[=o]st', _n._ a quick short thrust in fencing: a repartee. [Fr.] RIPPER, rip'[.e]r, _n._ a tool used in shaping roof-slates: a ripping-tool: one who does his work well: a robber. RIPPER, rip'[.e]r, _n._ one who brings fish from the coast inland. [L. _riparius_.] RIPPER, rip'[.e]r, _n._ a fog-horn. RIPPLE, rip'l, _n._ the light fretting of the surface of water: a little curling wave.--_v.t._ to cause a ripple in.--_v.i._ to curl on the surface, as running water.--_ns._ RIPP'LE-BARR'EL, a drum used in theatres; RIPP'LE-GRASS, the rib-grass; RIPP'LE-MARK, a mark produced on sand at the bottom by the gentle flow of water: (_geol._) the mark left on a sea-beach by receding waves, and left impressed on the surface of rocks.--_adj._ RIPP'LE-MARKED.--_ns._ RIPP'LET, a small ripple: rippling: an eddy; RIPP'LING, an eddy caused by conflicting currents or tides--also _adj._--_adv._ RIPP'LINGLY.--_adj._ RIPP'LY, rippling. [Variant of earlier _rimple_, A.S. _hrimpan_, to wrinkle, pa.p. _hrumpen_.] RIPPLE, rip'l, _v.t._ to pluck the seeds from stalks of flax by drawing them through an iron comb.--_n._ the comb for rippling.--_n._ RIPP'LER, an apparatus for rippling flax. [Low Ger. _repel_, _reppel_, a ripple, hoe, Ger. _riffel_.] RIPRAP, rip'rap, _n._ broken stones used for walls. RIPSACK, rip'sak, _n._ the Californian gray whale. RIP-SAW, rip'-saw, _n._ a hand-saw, with large but narrow-set teeth, for sawing timber lengthwise. RIPT=ripped. See RIP. RIPUARIAN, rip-[=u]-[=a]'ri-an, _adj._ riparian. RISALDAR, ris-al-där', _n._ the native commander of a troop of cavalry in the British Indian army.--_n._ RIS'ALA, a troop of native irregular cavalry. RISBAN, ris'ban, _n._ a piece of ground upon which a fort is constructed for defence of a post. [Fr.,--Ger. _rissbank_.] RISBERM, ris-berm', _n._ a glacis in jetties to withstand the violence of the sea. RISE, r[=i]z, _v.i._ to move from a lower to a higher position: to stand up: to ascend: to grow upward: to swell in quantity or extent: to take an upright position: to leave the place of rest: to tower up: to appear above the horizon: to break forth: to appear: to have its source: to increase in size, value, &c.: to become excited or hostile: to break forth into commotion or insurrection: to increase in rank, fortune, or fame: to be promoted: to be perceptible to other senses: to excavate upward: to come to mind: to close a session: (_B._) to ascend from the grave:--_pa.t._ r[=o]se; _pa.p._ risen (riz'n).--_n._ act of rising: ascent: degree of elevation: a steep: origin: increase: (_archit._) the upright piece of a step from tread to tread: (_mining_) a shaft excavated from below: (_mus._) elevation of the voice.--_n._ R[=I]'SER, a rebel: one who, or that which, rises.--RISE FROM THE RANKS, to win a commission; RISE TO THE OCCASION, to be equal to an emergency.--TAKE A RISE OUT OF, to take the conceit out of a person by making him ridiculous. [A.S. _rísan_; Ice. _rísa_, Goth. _reisan_, Ger. _reisen_.] RISE, r[=i]s, _n._ a twig, a small bush.--_ns._ RISE'BUSH, a faggot; R[=I]'SEL, a support for a climbing vine; RISE'-WOOD, small wood cut for hedging. [A.S. _hrís_; Ger. _reis_.] RISHI, rish'i, _n._ a sage or poet, the author of a Vedic hymn.--THE SEVEN RISHIS, the stars of the Great Bear. [Sans.] RISIBLE, riz'i-bl, _adj._ capable of exciting laughter: laughable: amusing.--_ns._ RISIBIL'ITY, quality of being risible; RIS'IBLENESS.--_adv._ RIS'IBLY. [L. _risibilis_--_rid[=e]re_, _risum_, to laugh.] RISING, r[=i]'zing, _n._ act of rising: a revolt: resurrection: the quantity of dough set to rise at one time: (_B._) a tumour.--_adj._ increasing in importance: advancing: approaching a specified amount, as rising three years old.--_ns._ R[=I]'SING-LARK, the skylark; R[=I]'SING-LINE, a line drawn to determine the sweep of the floor-heads throughout the ship's length; R[=I]'SING-MAIN, the column of pumps in a mine through which water is lifted to the surface; R[=I]'SING-SEAT, in a Friends' meeting, that occupied by ministers and elders. RISK, risk, _n._ hazard: chance of loss or injury.--_v.t._ to expose to hazard: to venture, to take the chance of.--_n._ RISK'ER, one who risks.--_adj._ RISK'Y, dangerous: venturesome.--RUN A RISK, to incur hazard. [Fr. _risque_ (It. _risico_)--Sp. _risco_, a rock--L. _resec[=a]re_, to cut off--_re-_, off, _sec[=a]re_, to cut.] RISLEY, riz'li, _n._ a Risley performer is an acrobat who lies on his back and carries burdens on his feet. RISORIAL, r[=i]-s[=o]'ri-al, _adj._ risible, causing laughter.--_n._ RIS[=O]'RIUS, the laughing muscle. [_Risible_.] RISOTTO, ri-zot't[=o], _n._ a stew of onions, butter, rice. [It.] RISP, risp, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to rasp. RISP, risp, _n._ a branch, green stalks. RISSA, ris'a, _n._ the genus of birds including the kittiwakes. RISSOLE, ris'[=o]l, _n._ fish or meat minced and fried with bread-crumbs and egg. [Fr.] RISTORI, ris-t[=o]'ri, _n._ a woman's loose open jacket--from Madame _Ristori_, the famous actress. RISUS, r[=i]'sus, _n._ a laugh: a grin. [L.] RIT, rit, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to strike.--_n._ a scratch, tear, &c. [Dut. _ritten_, to tear.] RITARDANDO, r[=e]-tar-dan'd[=o], _adj._ (_mus._) diminishing in speed. [It.] RITE, r[=i]t, _n._ a religious usage or ceremony.--_adv._ RITE'LY, with due rites.--AMBROSIAN RITE, the Ambrosian office and liturgy; MOZARABIC RITE (see MOZARABIC). [L. _ritus_.] RITHE, r[=i]_th_, _n._ (_prov._) a small stream. [A.S. _ríth_.] RITORNELLE, r[=e]-tor-nel', _n._ (_mus._) an instrumental prelude belonging to a vocal work.--Also RITORNEL'LO. [It.] RITTER, rit'[.e]r, _n._ a knight.--_n._ RITT'-MAS'TER, a captain of cavalry. [Ger. _ritter_.] RITTOCK, rit'ok, _n._ the common tern.--Also RÍPP'OCK. RITUAL, rit'[=u]-al, _adj._ consisting of or prescribing rites.--_n._ manner of performing divine service, or a book containing it: the body of rites employed in the church: the code of ceremonies observed by an organisation, as the ritual of the Freemasons.--_ns._ RIT'[=U]ALISM, systems of rituals or prescribed forms of religion: the observance of them: the name popularly given to the great increase of ceremonial and symbolism by means of special vestments, &c., in the Church of England since about 1860-65: RIT'[=U]ALIST, one skilled in or devoted to a ritual: one of the party devoted to ritualism in the Church of England.--_adj._ RIT[=U]ALIST'IC, pertaining to the ritual.--_adv._ RIT'[=U]ALLY. [L. _ritualis_; cf. _Rite_.] RIVA, r[=i]'va, _n._ a rift or cleft. [Ice. _rifa_.] RIVAGE, riv'[=a]j, _n._ a bank, shore. [Fr.,--L. _ripa_, a bank.] RIVAL, r[=i]'val, _n._ one pursuing the same object as another: one who strives to equal or excel another: a competitor.--_adj._ having the same claims: standing in competition.--_v.t._ to stand in competition with: to try to gain the same object as another: to try to equal or excel:--_pr.p._ r[=i]'valling; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ r[=i]'valled.--_n._ R[=I]'VALESS, a female rival.--_adj._ R[=I]'VAL-H[=A]T'ING, jealous.--_v.i._ R[=I]'VALISE, to enter into rivalry.--_ns._ RIVAL'ITY (_Shak._), rivalry, equality in rank or authority; R[=I]'VALRY, act of rivalling: competition: emulation; R[=I]'VALSHIP, emulation. [Fr.,--L. _rivalis_--_rivus_, a brook.] RIVE, r[=i]v, _v.t._ to tear asunder: to split: to pierce: to explode.--_v.i._ to be split asunder:--_pa.t._ r[=i]ved; _pa.p._ r[=i]ved, riv'en.--_n._ that which is torn. [Scand., Ice. _rífa_, to rive; Dut. _rijven_, Ger. _reiben_.] RIVE, r[=i]v, _n._ a bank: shore.--_v.i._ to land. RIVEL, riv'el, _v.t._ to wrinkle. [A.S. _rifian_, to wrinkle.] RIVELING, riv'ling, _n._ a rough shoe once worn in Scotland: (_obs._) a Scotchman. [A.S. _rifeling_.] RIVER, riv'[.e]r, _n._ a large running stream of water.--_adj._ RIV'ERAIN, riparian.--_ns._ RIV'ER-BANK, the bank of a river; RIV'ER-B[=A]S'IN, the whole region drained by a river and its affluents; RIV'ER-BED, the channel in which a river flows; RIV'ER-BIRCH, the red birch; RIV'ER-BOTT'OM, the alluvial land along the margin of a river; RIV'ER-CARP, the common carp; RIV'ER-CHUB, the horny-head or jerker; RIV'ER-COURSE, the bed of a river; RIV'ER-CRAB, a fresh-water crab; RIV'ER-CRAFT, small vessels which ply on rivers; RIV'ER-CRAY'FISH, a crayfish proper; RIV'ER-DOL'PHIN, a Gangetic dolphin; RIV'ER-DRAG'ON (_Milt._), a crocodile; RIV'ER-DUCK, a fresh-water duck; RIV'ERET, RIV'ERLING, a small river; RIV'ER-FLAT, alluvial land along a river; RIV'ER-GOD, the tutelary deity of a river; RIV'ER-HEAD, the spring of a river; RIV'ER-HOG, the capybara; RIV'ER-HORSE, the hippopotamus.--_adj._ RIV'ERINE, pertaining to, or resembling, a river.--_ns._ RIV'ER-JACK, the common water-snake of Europe; RIV'ER-MAN, one who makes his livelihood by dragging the river for sunken goods; RIVER-MUSS'EL, a fresh-water mussel; RIV'ER-OTT'ER, the common European otter; RIV'ER-PERCH, a Californian surf-fish; RIV'ER-PIE, the water-ousel; RIV'ER-SHORE, the shore or bank of a river; RIV'ER-SIDE, the bank of a river; RIV'ER-SMELT, the gudgeon; RIV'ER-SNAIL, a pond snail; RIV'ER-SWALL'OW, the sand-martin; RIV'ER-TIDE, the tide from the sea rising or ebbing in a river; RIV'ER-TOR'TOISE, a soft-shelled turtle; RIV'ER-WALL, a wall made to confine the waters of a river within definite bounds.--_adj._ RIV'ERY, pertaining to rivers, like rivers. [Fr. _rivière_ (It. _riviera_, shore, river)--Low L. _riparia_, a shore district--L. _ripa_, a bank.] RIVESALTES, r[=e]v'salt, _n._ a sweet wine made from Muscat grapes. [_Rivésaltes_ in southern France.] RIVET, riv'et, _n._ bearded wheat. [Illustration] RIVET, riv'et, _n._ a bolt of metal fastened by being hammered at both ends.--_v.t._ to fasten with a rivet: to make firm or immovable:--_pr.p._ riv'eting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ riv'eted.--_ns._ RIV'ET-CUT'TER, a tool for cutting off the ends of rivets; RIV'ETER, RIV'ETTER; RIV'ET-HEARTH, a light portable furnace for heating rivets; RIV'ETING; RIV'ETING-HAMM'ER; RIV'ETING-MACHINE', a power-machine for forcing hot rivets into position in metal-work, and heading them; RIV'ETING-SET, a hollow-faced punch for swaging rivet-heads; RIV'ET-KNOB, a tool for swaging rivet-heads; RIV'ET-MACHINE', a machine for making rivets from rod-iron. [O. Fr. _rivet_; acc. to Diez from the root of Ice. _rífa_, Dan. _rive_, Ger. _reiben_, Eng. _rive_.] RIVIÈRE, r[=e]-vi[=a]r, _n._ a necklace of precious stones, particularly diamonds. [Fr.] RIVINA, ri-v[=i]'na, _n._ a genus of apetalous plants, the pokeweed family. RIVING, r[=i]'ving, _n._ the act of separating.--_ns._ RI'VING-KNIFE, a tool for splitting shingles; R[=I]'VING-MACHINE', a machine for splitting wood for hoops. RIVO, r[=i]'v[=o], _interj._ (_Shak._) a drinking cry. RIVOSE, r[=i]'v[=o]s, _adj._ furrowed. [L. _rivus_, a stream.] RIVULARIA, riv-[=u]-l[=a]'ri-a, _n._ a genus of fresh-water algæ. RIVULET, riv'[=u]-let, _n._ a small stream, brook: a geometrid moth.--_adj._ RIV'[=U]LOSE (_bot._), marked with irregular lines. [L. _rivulus_--_rivus_, a stream.] RIX-DOLLAR, riks'-dol'ar, _n._ the rigs-daler of Denmark, &c. RIXY, rik'si, _n._ (_prov._) the sea-swallow. RIXY, rik'si, _adj._ quarrelsome.--_n._ RIX[=A]'TION, a brawl. [Fr. _rixe_--L. _rixa_, a quarrel.] RIZOM, riz'om, _n._ a plume, as of oats.--_adj._ RIZ'OMED (_her._), having grains, as an oat-stalk. RIZZER, riz'[.e]r, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to dry in the sun.--_n._ a rizzered haddock. RIZZER, riz'[.e]r, _n._ (_Scot._) a red currant. RIZZLE, riz'l, _v.t._ (_prov._) to roast imperfectly. RIZZLE, riz'l, _v.i._ (_prov._) to creep, as ivy. ROACH, r[=o]ch, _n._ a silvery fresh-water fish: a concave curve in the foot of a square sail.--_v.t._ to arch: to cut short. [O. Fr. _roche_--Teut.; Ger. _roche_.] ROACH, r[=o]ch, _n._ a rock: refuse gritty stone.--AS SOUND AS A ROACH, perfectly sound. ROAD, r[=o]d, _n._ a highway for traffic: (_B._) a plundering excursion.--_ns._ ROAD, ROAD'STEAD, ROADS, a place where ships ride at anchor; ROAD'-[=A]G'ENT, a highwayman: a commercial traveller; ROAD'-BED, the bed or foundation of a road: the whole superstructure thereon; ROAD'-BOOK, a guide-book; ROAD'-CAR, a kind of omnibus; ROAD'-HARR'OW, a machine for dragging over roads out of repair; ROAD'ING, the act of running races with teams; ROAD'-LEV'EL, a plumb-level used in the construction of roads; ROAD'-LOCOM[=O]'TIVE, a road-steamer; ROAD'-MACHINE', a scraper used in road-making; ROAD'MAN, ROADS'MAN, one who keeps a road in repair; ROAD'-MET'AL, broken stones for roads; ROAD'-ROLL'ER, a heavy roller used on a macadamised road; ROAD'-RUN'NER, a large ground-cuckoo; ROAD'-SCR[=A]P'ER, an implement for levelling roads and clearing them of loose stones, &c.; ROAD'SIDE, footpath: wayside; ROAD'STEAD, a place near a shore where vessels may anchor; ROAD'-STEAM'ER, a locomotive with broad wheels for roads; ROAD'STER, a horse for driving or riding on the road: a coach-driver: a bicycle, or tricycle; ROAD'-SURVEY'OR, one who supervises roads; ROAD'WAY, the way or part of a road or street travelled by carriages; ROAD'-WEED, a plant of the genus Plantago.--_adj._ ROAD'WORTHY, fit for the road.--BY THE ROAD, by the highway; ON THE ROAD, travelling; RULE OF THE ROAD, the custom of the country in passing on a highway; TAKE TO THE ROAD, to become a highwayman. [A.S. _rád_, a riding--_rád_, pa.t. of _rídan_, to ride.] ROAM, r[=o]m, _v.i._ to rove about: to ramble.--_v.t._ to wander over: to range.--_n._ ROAM'ER, a wanderer. [M. E. _romen_, _ramen_; allied to A.S. _á-r['æ]man_, to spread out, Old High Ger. _r[=a]man_, _r[=a]men_, to direct one's course; the meaning influenced by M. E. _Rome-rennere_, a pilgrim.] ROAN, r[=o]n, _adj._ having a bay or dark colour, with spots of gray and white: of a mixed colour, with a decided shade of red.--_n._ a roan colour: a roan horse: grained sheepskin leather. [O. Fr. _roan_ (Fr. _rouan_)--Low L. _rufanus_--L. _rufus_, red.] ROAN-TREE, r[=o]n'-tr[=e]. See _Rowan_. ROAR, r[=o]r, _v.i._ to utter a full, loud sound: to bellow, as a beast: to cry aloud: to bawl: to guffaw.--_n._ a full, loud sound: the cry of a beast: an outcry of mirth, esp. of laughter.--_ns._ ROAR'ER; ROAR'ING, act or sound of roaring: a disease of horses causing them to roar in breathing.--_adv._ ROAR'INGLY.--ROARING BOYS, swaggerers; ROARING FORTIES, the stormy tract between 49° and 50° N. latitude; ROARING GAME, curling. [A.S. _rárian_; Mid. High Ger. _r[=e]ran_, Ger. _röhren_, to cry as a stag, to bellow.] ROAST, r[=o]st, _v.t._ to cook before a fire, or in an oven: to expose a person to ridicule: to parch by exposure to heat: to heat to excess: to dissipate the volatile parts of by heat.--_n._ that which is roasted.--_ns._ ROAS'TER, anything suitable for roasting: a furnace used in making ball soda; ROAS'TER-SLAG, slag from the fifth stage of copper-smelting; ROAS'TING; ROAS'TING-CYL'INDER, a furnace for roasting ore; ROAS'TING-EAR, an ear of maize fit for roasting; ROAS'TING-JACK, an apparatus for turning the spit on which meat is roasted; ROAS'TING-KILN; ROAS'TING-OV'EN; ROAST'-[=I]'RON, a gridiron.--ROASTBEEF PLANT, an iris of Western Europe.--RULE THE ROAST, to domineer. [A.S. _róstian_; cog. with Dut. _roosten_, Ger. _rösten_; or O. Fr. _rostir_ (Fr. _rôtir_)--Old High Ger. _r[=o]stan_; or Celt., as Gael. _rost_, W. _rhostio_, Bret. _rosta_, all meaning to roast.] ROB, rob, _v.t._ to take away from by force or theft: to plunder: to steal: to deprive: (_B._) to withhold what is due.--_v.i._ to commit robbery:--_pr.p._ rob'bing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ robbed.--_ns._ ROB'BER, one who robs; ROB'BER-COUN'CIL (_Latrocinium Ephesinum_), the council which met at Ephesus in August 449, under the presidency of Dioscurus, whose horde of fanatical monks by sheer violence carried the restoration of Eutyches--its resolutions were annulled at Chalcedon in 451; ROB'BER-CRAB, a hermit-crab; ROB'BER-FLY, any dipterous insect of the family _Asilidæ_; ROB'BER-GULL, the skua; ROB'BERY, theft from the person, aggravated by violence or intimidation: plundering.--ROBBING PETER TO PAY PAUL, paying and repaying out of the same fund: taking what is due to one to pay another. [O. Fr. _rober_--Old High Ger. _roub[=o]n_, Ger. _rauben_.] ROB, rob, _n._ the juice of ripe fruit mixed with honey or sugar. [Fr.,--Sp.,--Ar. _robb_, purified syrup of boiled fruit.] ROBALO, rob'a-l[=o], _n._ a fish of the genus _Centropomus_. [Sp.,--L. _labrus_--Gr. _labrax_.] ROBBIN, rob'in, _n._ a short piece of spun-yarn to fasten the head of a sail: the spring of a carriage: the package in which spices, &c., are exported from the East Indies. ROBE, r[=o]b, _n._ a gown or outer garment: a dress of dignity or state: a rich dress: a dressed skin: the largest and strongest tobacco-leaves: the early form of the chasuble.--_v.t._ to dress, clothe.--_v.i._ to assume official vestments.--_ns._ ROBE'-DE-CHAM'BRE, a dressing-gown; ROBE'-M[=A]K'ER, a maker of official robes; ROB'ING, the act of putting on ceremonious apparel: a trimming on women's garments; ROB'ING-ROOM, a room in which those wearing official robes, as lawyers, &c., put them on.--MASTER OF THE ROBES, an officer having the charge of the sovereign's robes; THE ROBE, or THE LONG ROBE, the legal profession. [Fr. _robe_, _robbe_; from Old High Ger. _raup_ (Ger. _raub_), booty.] ROBERD, rob'[.e]rd, _n._ the chaffinch. ROBERTSMAN, rob'[.e]rts-man, _n._ a stout robber.--Also ROB'ERDSMAN. ROBIN, rob'in, _n._ the ROB'IN-RED'BREAST, a well-known and widely-spread singing bird of the family _Sylviidæ_, with a reddish-orange breast: the red-breasted thrush of North America: the sea-robin or red-breasted merganser: a trimming in front of a dress.--_ns._ ROB'IN-BREAST, the robin-snipe; ROB'IN-DIP'PER, the buffle-headed duck; ROB'INET, a chaffinch: a little robin: a tap; ROB'IN-GOOD'FELLOW, the English name of a domestic spirit or brownie, described as the offspring of a woman and Oberon, king of the fairies: an elf or fairy generally, Puck; ROB'IN-RUN-IN-THE-HEDGE, the ground-ivy: the bed-straw; ROB'IN-SNIPE, the red-breasted sandpiper; ROB'IN'S-RYE, the hair-cap moss. [A familiar form of _Robert_; cf. _Jack_-daw, _Mag_-pie.] ROBINIA, r[=o]-bin'i-a, _n._ a genus of leguminous trees and shrubs--the _Locust-tree_, the _False Acacia_, _Thorn Acacia_, often simply Acacia. [From the Paris gardener Jean _Robin_ (1550-1629).] ROBLE, r[=o]'bl, _n._ one of the white oaks of California. [Sp.,--L. _robur_, oak.] ROBORANT, rob'or-ant, _adj._ giving strength.--_n._ a strengthening medicine.--_adj._ ROB[=O]'REOUS, like oak, strong. [L. _robor[=a]re_, to strengthen.] ROBURITE, rob'[=u]-r[=i]t, _n._ a flameless explosive, composed of chlorinated dinitro-benzene mixed with sufficient ammonium nitrate to completely oxidise it. ROBUST, r[=o]-bust', _adj._ of great strength or vigour: requiring strength: rude, rough.--_adj._ ROBUST'IOUS (_Milt._), violent, rough.--_adv._ ROBUST'IOUSLY.--_n._ ROBUST'IOUSNESS.--_adv._ ROBUST'LY.--_n._ ROBUST'NESS. [Fr.,--L. _robustus_--_robur_, oak.] ROC, rok, _n._ an immense fabulous bird, able to carry off an elephant--also ROK, RUC, RUKH.--ROC'S EGG, a mare's nest. [Pers. _rukh_.] ROCAILLE, r[=o]-kal'-ye, _n._ a scroll ornament of the eighteenth century. ROCAMBOLE, rok'am-b[=o]l, _n._ a plant of the same genus with garlic, onion, leek, &c., long cultivated in kitchen-gardens.--Also ROK'AMBOLE. ROCCELLA, rok-sel'a, _n._ a genus of parmeliaceous lichens, yielding dyers' archil or orchil.--_adjs._ ROCCEL'LIC, ROCCEL'LINE. [Cf. _Archil._] ROCCUS, rok'us, _n._ a genus of serranoid fishes, including the rock-fish or striped bass of the United States. ROCHEA, r[=o]'k[=e]-a, _n._ a genus of plants of the order _Crassulaceæ_. [From the botanist _Laroche_.] ROCHELLE-POWDER, r[=o]-shel'-pow'd[.e]r, _n._ seidlitz-powder.--_n._ ROCHELLE'-SALT, the popular name of the tartrate of soda and potash discovered in 1672 by a _Rochelle_ apothecary named Seignette. ROCHET, roch'et, _n._ a close-fitting fine linen or lawn vestment proper to bishops and abbots: a mantlet worn by the peers of England during ceremonies. [O. Fr., dim. of Low L. _roccus_--Old High Ger. _roch_ (A.S. _rocc_, Ger. _rock_), a coat.] ROCHES MOUTONNÉES, rosh m[=oo]-to-n[=a], _n.pl._ smooth, rounded, hummocky bosses and undulating surfaces of rock, common in regions overflowed by glacier-ice. [Fr., _roche_, a rock, _moutonnée_, masc. _moutonné_, rounded like a sheep's back.] ROCK, rok, _n._ a large mass of stone: (_geol._) a natural deposit of sand, earth, or clay: that which has the firmness of a rock, foundation, support, defence: (_Scot._) a distaff: a hard sweetmeat.--_v.t._ to throw stones at.--_ns._ ROCK'-AL'UM, alum stone; ROCK'-AWAY, a four-wheeled North American pleasure-carriage; ROCK'-BAD'GER, a ground-squirrel of North America; ROCK'-B[=A]S'IN, a lacustrine hollow in a rock, excavated by glacier-ice; ROCK'-BASS, a centrarchoid fish, the goggle-eye; ROCK'-BIRD, a cock of the rock.--_adj._ ROCK'-BOUND, hemmed in by rocks.--_ns._ ROCK'-BREAK'ER, a machine for breaking stones for road-metal; ROCK'-BUTT'ER, an impure alum efflorescence of a butter-like consistency found oozing from some alum slates; ROCK'-CAN'DY, pure sugar in large crystals: candy-sugar; ROCK'-CIST, a plant of the genus _Helianthemum_; ROCK'-COOK, the small-mouthed wrasse; ROCK'-CORK, mountain cork, a variety of asbestos; ROCK'-CRAB, a crab found at rocky sea-bottoms.--_adj._ ROCK'-CROWNED, surmounted with rocks.--_ns._ ROCK'-CRYS'TAL, the finest and purest quartz, the name being generally applied, however, only to crystals in which the six-sided prism is well developed; ROCK'-DOL'PHIN, the sea-scorpion; ROCK'-DOVE, the rock-pigeon or blue-rock; ROCK'-DRILL, a machine-drill worked by steam, &c.; ROCK'-EEL, a fish of the family _Xiphidiontidæ_; ROCK'-ELM, an American elm; ROCK'ER, the rock-dove; ROCK'ERY, ROCK'WORK, a mound made with pieces of rock, earth, &c. for the cultivation of ferns, &c.; ROCK'-F[=E]'VER, intermittent fever; ROCK'-FIRE, in pyrotechny, a composition of resin, sulphur, nitre, regulus of antimony, and turpentine, burning slowly; ROCK'-FISH, a name applied to various different varieties of wrasse, the striped bass, black goby, &c.; ROCK'-GOAT, an ibex; ROCK'-HAWK, the merlin; ROCK'-HEAD, bed-rock; ROCK'-HOP'PER, a curl-crested penguin; ROCK'IE (_Scot._), the rock-lintie or twite; ROCK'INESS; ROCK'-LEATH'ER, rock-cork; ROCK'-LIL'Y, a tropical American cryptogamous plant: a white-flowered Australian orchid; ROCK'-LIM'PET, a limpet which adheres to rocks; ROCK'LING, a genus of fishes of the cod family _Gadidæ_, of which several species frequent the British seas; ROCK'-LIN'TIE (_Scot._), the twite: the ROCK'-LARK; ROCK'-MAN'IKIN, a rock-bird; ROCK'-MOSS, lichen which yields archil; ROCK'-OIL, petroleum; ROCK'-OU'SEL, the ring-ousel; ROCK'-OYS'TER, an oyster-like bivalve; ROCK'-PI'GEON, a pigeon inhabiting rocks and caves: the sand-pigeon; ROCK'-PIP'IT, the British tit-lark.--_n.pl._ ROCK'-PLANTS, a term applied in gardening to a very miscellaneous group of plants which by their habit of growth are adapted to adorn rockeries.--_ns._ ROCK'-PLOV'ER, the rock-snipe; ROCK'-RABB'IT, a hyrax; ROCK'-ROSE, a plant of either of the genera _Cistus_ and _Helianthemum_ of the rock-rose family (_Cistaceæ_); ROCK'-RU'BY, a ruby-red garnet; ROCK'-SALM'ON, the coal-fish: an amber-fish; ROCK'-SALT, salt in solid form; ROCK'-SER'PENT, a venomous Indian serpent, allied to the cobra; ROCK'-SL[=A]T'ER, a wood-louse; ROCK'-SNAKE, a python or anaconda; ROCK'-SNIPE, the purple sandpiper; ROCK'-SOAP, a deep-black mineral used for crayons, consisting of silica, alumina, peroxide of iron, and water; ROCK'-SPARR'OW, a finch: the ring-sparrow; ROCK'-STAR'LING, the rock-ousel; ROCK'-SWIFT, the white-throated rock-swift of North America; ROCK'-TAR, petroleum; ROCK'-TEM'PLE, a temple hewn out of the solid rock; ROCK'-THRUSH, any bird of the genus _Monticola_ or _Petrocincla_; ROCK'-TRIPE, lichens of the genus _Umbilicaria_; ROCK'-TROUT, the common American brook-trout: sea-trout; ROCK'-V[=I]'OLET, an alga growing on moist rocks in the Alps; ROCK'-WAR'BLER, a small Australian bird; ROCK'-WIN'KLE, a periwinkle; ROCK'-WOOD, ligniform asbestos; ROCK'WORK (_archit._), masonry in imitation of masses of rock: a rockery; ROCK'-WREN, a wren which frequents rocks.--_adj._ ROCK'Y, full of rocks: resembling a rock: hard: unfeeling. [O. Fr. _roke_, roche; prob. Celt., as in Gael. _roc_, W. _rhwg_, a projection.] ROCK, rok, _n._ a distaff.--_n._ ROCK'ING, an evening party in the country. [Ice. _rokkr_; Ger. _rocken_.] ROCK, rok, _v.t._ to move backward and forward: to lull or quiet.--_v.i._ to be moved backward and forward, to reel.--_ns._ ROCK'ER, the curved support on which a cradle or rocking-chair rocks: a rocking-horse or chair: a mining cradle; ROCK'-CAM, a cam keyed to a rock-shaft; ROCK'ING, a swaying backward and forward: the abrading of a copper plate with a rocker, preparatory to mezzo-tinting: the motion by which the design on a steel mill is transferred to a copper cylinder; ROCK'ING-BEAM, an oscillating beam in an automatic transmitter; ROCK'ING-CHAIR, a chair mounted on rockers; ROCK'ING-HORSE, the figure of a horse, of wood or other material, mounted on rockers for children: a hobby-horse; ROCK'ING-PIER, a pier fastened by a movable joint so as to allow it to rock slightly; ROCK'ING-STONE, a logan, or large mass of rock so finely poised as to move backward and forward with the slightest impulse; ROCK'ING-TREE, in weaving, the axle from which the lay of a loom is suspended; ROCK'-SHAFT, in steam-engines, a shaft that oscillates instead of revolving.--_adj._ ROCK'Y, disposed to rock: tipsy. [A.S. _roccian_; cf. Dan. _rokke_, to rock, Ger. _rücken_, to pull.] ROCKEL, rok'el, _n._ (prov.) a woman's cloak. ROCKET, rok'et, _n._ a firework which is projected through the air, used for making signals in war, and for saving life at sea by conveying a line over a stranded vessel.--_v.i._ to fly straight up rapidly when flushed.--_ns._ ROCK'ET-CASE, a case for holding the materials of a rocket; ROCK'ETER. [Old It. _rocchetto_; of Teut. origin. Cf. _Rock_, a distaff.] ROCKET, rok'et, _n._ any one of several ornamental Old World herbs of the genus Hesperis, of the mustard family. [O. Fr. _roquette_--L. _eruca_, cole-wort.] ROCOCO, r[=o]-k[=o]'k[=o], _n._ a debased style of architecture and decoration in the 18th century, marked by endless multiplication of ornamental details. [Fr., prob. from Fr. _rocaille_, rockwork.] ROCTA, rok'ta, _n._ a medieval musical instrument, resembling the violin. ROD, rod, _n._ a long twig: a slender stick: anything long and slender, as a magic rod, a lightning-rod, a fishing-rod, &c.: an instrument of correction: an emblem of power or authority: a pole or perch (5½ yards, or 16½ feet)--the square rod, generally called rood, is employed in estimating masonry-work, and contains 16½ × 16½, or 272¼ sq. feet: (_fig._) punishment: authority: oppression: (_B._) race or tribe: one of the layers of rods composing the retina of the eye: any bar connecting parts of a machine.--_v.t._ to furnish with rods, esp. lightning-rods.--_ns._ ROD'-FISH'ER; ROD'-FISH'ING, fly-fishing: angling; ROD'-LINE, a fishing-line not wound on a reel; ROD'-MACHINE', in wood-working, a machine for cutting cylindrical sticks such as broom-handles; ROD'-RING, one of the rings along a fishing-rod through which the line runs; ROD'STER, an angler.--NAPIER'S RODS (see NAPIERIAN). [A.S. _ród_; Dut. _roede_, Ger. _ruthe_; L. _rudis_.] RODDIN, rod'in, _n._ (_Scot._) rowan-tree. RODE, r[=o]d, _pa.t._ of ride. RODE, r[=o]d, _n._ (_Spens._) a raid, an incursion: also, a roadstead. [_Road._] RODENT, r[=o]'dent, _adj._ gnawing: belonging to the _Rodentia_.--_n._ a rodent mammal.--_n.pl._ RODEN'TIA, an order of mammals including squirrels, beavers, rats, rabbits, &c. [L. _rod[)e]re_, to gnaw.] RODEO, r[=o]-d[=a]'[=o], _n._ a gathering of cattle to be branded. [Sp., _rodar_, to go round--L. _rot[=a]re_, to wheel.] RODGE, roj, _n._ (prov.) the gray duck.--Also RADGE. RODOMEL, rod'[=o]-mel, _n._ the juice of roses mixed with honey. [Gr. _rhodon_, rose, _meli_, honey.] RODOMONTADE, rod-[=o]-mon-t[=a]d', _n._ vain boasting, like that of _Rodomonte_ in the _Orlando Furioso_ of Ariosto (earlier ROD'OMONT).--_v.i._ to bluster or brag.--_ns._ RODOMONT[=A]'DIST, RODOMONT[=A]'DO (_obs._). ROE, r[=o], _n._ the eggs or spawn of fishes: a mottled appearance in wood, esp. mahogany.--_adj._ ROED, containing roe. [Ice. _hrogn_; Ger. _rogen_.] ROE, r[=o], _n._ a species of deer, smaller than the fallow-deer: also the female of the hart.--_ns._ ROE'BUCK, the male of the roe, having usually one front antler and two hinder ones; ROE'BUCK-BERR'Y, the stone-bramble; ROE'-DEER, a roebuck or roe. [A.S. _ráh_; Ger. _reh_, Dut. _ree_.] ROE-STONE, r[=o]'-st[=o]n, _n._ the same as _Oolite_ (q.v.). ROG, rog, _v.t._ (_obs._) to shake. ROGATION, r[=o]-g[=a]'shun, _n._ an asking: supplication.--_n.pl._ ROG[=A]'TION-DAYS, the three days before the festival of Ascension, the Litany being anciently recited in procession then.--_ns._ ROG[=A]'TION-FLOW'ER, the milk-wort; ROG[=A]'TION-SUN'DAY, that before Ascension-day; ROG[=A]'TION-WEEK, the week in which the rogation-days occur.--_adj._ ROG'ATORY. [L.,--_rog[=a]re_, to ask.] ROGER, roj'[.e]r, _n._ (prov.) ram: a rogue.--(SIR) ROGER-DE-COVERLEY, an English country-dance. ROGGAN, rog'an, _n._ (_prov._) a rocking-stone. ROGGENSTEIN, rog'en-st[=i]n, _n._ a kind of oolite in which the grains are cemented by argillaceous matter. [Ger., _roggen_, rye, _stein_, stone.] ROGGLE, rog'l, _v.i._ (_prov._) to shake. ROGUE, r[=o]g, _n._ a dishonest person: a knave: a mischievous or frolicsome person: a vagrant, a sturdy beggar: a wag: a playful person: a plant that falls short of a standard.--_v.i._ to play the rogue.--_v.t._ to cheat.--_ns._ ROGUE'-EL'EPHANT, one which lives solitarily, and is of dangerous temper; ROGUE'-HOUSE, a lock-up; ROGUE'-MON'EY, an assessment formerly levied in every county in Scotland for the expenses of catching and prosecuting criminals; ROG'UERY, knavish tricks: fraud: mischievousness: waggery; ROGUE'SHIP; ROGUE'S'-MARCH, music played when drumming a soldier from a regiment, or driving any one away in disgrace.--_adj._ ROG'UISH, knavish: mischievous: waggish.--_adv._ ROG'UISHLY.--_n._ ROG'UISHNESS.--_adj._ R[=O]'GUY (_obs._).--ROGUES' GALLERY, a collection of photographs of criminals kept at police headquarters. [O. Fr. _rogue_, proud; either from Bret. _rok_, proud, or acc. to Diez, from Ice. _hrók-r_, proud.] ROHAN, r[=o]'han, _n._ an East Indian timber-tree--called also _Red-wood_ and _East Indian mahogany_. ROIL, roil, _v.t._ to render turbid: to vex: to rile: to salt fish with a machine called a ROIL'ER--also ROYLE.--_adj._ ROIL'Y, muddy. [O. Fr. _roeler_, _roler_, to disturb, cog. with _roll_; or O. Fr. _roille_--L. _robigo_, rust.] ROINISH, roi'nish, _adj._ (_Shak._) mangy, mean.--Also ROI'NOUS. [O. Fr. _roigneux_--L. _robiginosus_, rusty--_robigo_, rust.] ROIST, roist, ROISTER, rois't[.e]r, _v.i._ to bluster, swagger, bully.--_ns._ ROIS'TER (_arch._), ROIS'TERER.--_adj._ ROIS'TEROUS.--_p.adj. _ ROIS'TING (_Shak._), blustering, bullying. [O. Fr. _rustre_, a rough, rude fellow--O. Fr. _ruste_--L. _rusticus_, rustic.] ROITELET, roi'te-let, _n._ a petty king: (_ornith._) a kinglet or gold-crest. ROKE, r[=o]k, _n._ (_prov_.) mist: smoke.--_adj._ R[=O]'KY, misty, foggy. ROKEAGE, r[=o]'k[=a]j, _n._ parched and sweetened Indian corn--also R[=O]'KEE.--Also called _Pinole_. ROKELAY, rok'e-l[=a], _n._ Same as ROQUELAURE. ROKER, r[=o]k'[.e]r, _n._ the thornback ray. ROLAND, r[=o]'land, _n._ a chivalrous hero, from _Roland_ in the Charlemagne legend, slain by the Gascons at Roncesvalles in 778.--A ROLAND FOR AN OLIVER, a blow for a blow, anything done or said to match something else. RÔLE, r[=o]l, _n._ the part performed by an actor in a play: any important part played in public life. [Fr.] ROLE, r[=o]l, _n._ an ancient unit of quantity, seventy-two sheets of parchment. ROLL, r[=o]l, _v.i._ to turn like a wheel: to turn on an axis: to be formed into a roll or cylinder: to move, as waves: to be tossed about: to move tumultuously: to be hurled: to rock, or move from side to side: to wallow: to spread under a roller: to sound as a drum beaten rapidly: to move onward.--_v.t._ to cause to roll: to turn on an axis: to wrap round on itself: to enwrap: to drive forward: to move upon wheels: to press or smooth with rollers: to beat rapidly, as a drum.--_n._ act of rolling: that which rolls: a revolving cylinder making sheets, plates, &c.: a roller: that which is rolled up--hence parchment, paper, &c. wound into a circular form: a document: a register: a kind of fancy bread: the continued sound of a drum, of thunder, &c.: a swagger or rolling gait.--_adj._ ROLL'-ABOUT', podgy.--_ns._ ROLL'-CALL, the calling of the roll or list of names, as in the army; ROLL'-C[=U]'M[=U]LUS, a form of strato-cumulus cloud; ROLL'ER, that which rolls: a cylinder used for rolling, grinding, &c.: one of a family of Picarian birds: a long, broad bandage: (_pl._) long heavy waves; ROLL'ER-SKATE, a skate mounted on wheels or rollers for use on asphalt or some other smooth surface.--_adj._ ROLL'ING, modulating: moving on wheels: making a continuous sound.--_ns._ ROLL'ING-MILL, a place in which metal is made into sheets, bars, rails, or rods, by working it between pairs of rolls: a machine for rolling metal, &c., into any required form, or for crushing materials between rollers; ROLL'ING-PIN, a cylindrical piece of wood for rolling dough, paste, &c. to any required thickness; ROLL'ING-PRESS, a press of two cylinders for rolling or calendering cloth; ROLL'ING-STOCK, the stock or store of locomotive-engines, carriages, &c. of a railway; ROLL'WAY, an incline: a shoot.--MASTER OF THE ROLLS, the head of the Record-office. [O. Fr. _roler_, _roeler_ (Fr. _rouler_)--Low L. _rotul[=a]re_--L. _rotula_, a little wheel--_rota_, a wheel.] ROLLICK, rol'lik, _v.i._ to move or act with a careless, swaggering, frolicsome air:--_pr.p._ rol'licking; _pa.p._ rol'licked.--_adj._ ROL'LICKING, careless, swaggering. [Prob. _roll_, with dim. suffix.] ROLLOCK. See _Rowlock_. ROLY-POLY, r[=o]l'i-p[=o]l'i, _n._ a pudding made of a sheet of paste, covered with sweetmeats, and rolled up: a stout podgy person: an old game in which balls are bowled into holes or thrown into hats placed on the ground.--_adj._ round, podgy. ROM, rom, _n._ a gipsy. [Gipsy _rom_, man, husband.] ROMAGE, rum'[=a]j, _n._ (_Shak._) tumult. [_Rummage._] ROMAIC, ro-m[=a]'ik, _n._ modern Greek, the language of the descendants of the Eastern Romans: Hellenic.--_adj._ pertaining to the foregoing.--_n._ ROM[=A]'IKA, a modern Greek dance. [Fr. _Romaïque_--modern Gr. _Rh[=o]maikos_--_Rh[=o]m[=e]_, Rome.] ROMAL, r[=o]-mal', _n._ a braided thong of leather, serving as a horseman's whip. [Sp. _ramal_--L. _ramale_--_ramus_, a branch.] ROMALEA, r[=o]-m[=a]'l[=e]-a, _n._ a genus of large-bodied, short-winged locusts. [Gr. _rh[=o]m[=e]_, strength.] ROMAN, r[=o]'man, _adj._ pertaining to _Rome_ or to the Romans: pertaining to the Roman Catholic religion, papal: (_print._) noting the letters commonly used, as opposed to Italics: written in letters (as IV.), not in figures (as 4).--_n._ a native or citizen of Rome: a Romanist in religion: a Roman letter or type.--_adj._ ROMAN'IC, pertaining to Rome or its people.--_n._ ROMANIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ R[=O]'MAN[=I]SE, to convert to the Roman Catholic religion: to Latinise: to represent by Roman letters or types.--_v.i._ to conform to Roman Catholic opinions or practices: to print in Roman letters.--_n._ ROMAN[=I]'SER.--_adj._ R[=O]'MANISH, pertaining to Romanism.--_ns._ R[=O]'MANISM, the tenets of the Roman Catholic Church; R[=O]'MANIST, a Roman Catholic.--_adj._ ROMAN CATHOLIC.--_adj._ R[=O]'MANO-BYZAN'TINE, pertaining to an early medieval style of architecture in which Byzantine and Western elements are combined.--_ns._ ROME'-PENN'Y, -SCOT, Peter's pence.--_adv._ ROME'WARD, toward the Roman Catholic Church.--_adj._ R[=O]'MISH, belonging to Rome, or to the Roman Catholic Church.--_n._ R[=O]'MIST.--ROMAN ARCHITECTURE, a style characterised by the size and boldness of its round arches and vaults, &c.--baths, aqueducts, basilicas, amphitheatres, &c.; ROMAN CANDLE, a firework discharging a succession of white or coloured stars; ROMAN CATHOLIC, denoting those who recognise the spiritual supremacy of the Pope or Bishop of Rome--as a noun, a member of the Roman Catholic Church; ROMAN CATHOLICISM, the doctrines and polity of the Roman Catholic Church collectively; ROMAN CEMENT, a cement which hardens under water; ROMAN COLLAR, a collar made of lawn or fine linen, bound and stitched, worn by priests over a black collar, by bishops over a purple, and cardinals over a scarlet; ROMAN EMPIRE, the ancient empire of Rome, divided in the 4th century into the Eastern and Western Empires; ROMAN LAW, the civil law.--HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE (see HOLY). [L. _Romanus_--_Roma_, Rome.] ROMANCE, r[=o]-mans', _n._ a general name for those modern languages in southern Europe which sprang from a corruption of the Roman or Latin language--Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Provençal, French, Roumanian, Romansch, &c.: a tale written in one of these dialects: any fictitious and wonderful tale: a fictitious narrative in prose or verse which passes beyond the limits of real life: a ballad.--_adj._ belonging to the dialects called Romance.--_v.i._ to write or tell romances: to talk extravagantly: to build castles in the air.--_ns._ ROMAN'CER, ROMAN'CIST.--_adjs._ ROMAN'CICAL (_Lamb_), dealing with romance; ROMAN'IC, Romance: derived from the Roman alphabet. [O. Fr. _romans_--Low L. adv. (_loqui_) _romanice_, (to speak) in the Roman or Latin tongue--L. _Romanicus_, Roman.] ROMANESQUE, r[=o]-man-esk', _n._ that which pertains to romance: (_archit._) the style of round-arched and vaulted architecture which succeeded Roman architecture, from about the time of Constantine (c. 350 A.D.) till it was gradually superseded by Gothic in the 12th century: the dialect of Languedoc. [Fr.,--Sp. _Romanesco_--L. _Romanicus_.] ROMANSCH, r[=o]-mansh', _n._ the language spoken from the Grisons to Friuli on the Adriatic.--Also RHÆ'TO-ROMAN'IC. ROMANT, r[=o]-mant', _v.i._ to romance: to exaggerate.--_n._ a romance--generally R[=O]MAUNT'. ROMANTIC, r[=o]-man'tik, _adj._ pertaining to or resembling romance: fictitious: extravagant, wild: fantastic: sentimental: imaginative.--_adv._ ROMAN'TICALLY.--_ns._ ROMAN'TICISM, the revolt from the severity, pedanticism, and commonplaceness of a classical or pseudo-classical to a more picturesque, original, free and imaginative style in literature and art, marking the close of the 18th century: romantic feeling; ROMAN'TICIST; ROMAN'TICNESS. ROMANY, ROMMANY, rom'a-ni, _n._ a gipsy: the language of the gipsies.--_adj._ belonging to the gipsies.--ROMANY RYE, a gentleman who affects the society of gipsies. [Gipsy, _rom_, man.] ROMERO, r[=o]-m[=a]'r[=o], _n._ the pilot-fish. ROMIC, r[=o]'mik, _n._ a phonetic notation devised by Henry Sweet, based upon the original _Roman_ values of the letters, supplemented by turned and ligatured letters and diagraphs--in part a recasting of Ellis's Glossic. ROMP, romp, _v.i._ to play noisily: to skip about in play.--_n._ a girl who romps: rude frolic.--_adv._ ROMP'INGLY, in a romping manner: boisterously: rudely.--_adj._ ROMP'ISH, fond of romping or noisy play.--_adv._ ROMP'ISHLY.--_n._ ROMP'ISHNESS. [Ramp.] ROMPU, rom-p[=u]', _adj._ (_her._) fracted. [Fr.] RONCADOR, rong'ka-d[=o]r, _n._ one of several sciænoid fishes of the Pacific coast. [Sp.,--L. _rhonchus_, a snoring.] RONCHIL. See RONQUIL. RONDACHE, ron-dash', _n._ a buckler. [O. Fr. _rond_.] RONDE, rond, _n._ (_print._) an angular writing-type. RONDEAU, ron'd[=o], _n._ a form of poem characterised by closely-knit rhymes and a refrain, and, as defined in the 17th century, consisting of thirteen lines, divided into three unequal strophes--the two or three first words of the first line serving as the burden, recurring after the eighth and thirteenth lines--brought into vogue by Swinburne: (_mus._) a rondo.--_ns._ RON'DEL, a form of French verse, earlier than the rondeau, consisting of thirteen octosyllabic or decasyllabic lines on two rhymes--practised by Charles of Orleans, &c.; RON'DELET, a poem of five lines and two refrains; RON'DO, a musical composition of several strains, during which the first part or subject is repeated several times--often occurring as one of the movements of a sonata: the musical setting of a rondeau: a game of hazard played with small balls; RONDOLET'TO, a simple rondo. [Fr., from _rond_, round.] RONDELLE, ron-del', _n._ anything round: one of the successive crusts formed on molten metal when cooling, a rosette.--_n._ ROND'LE, a round, step of a ladder (same as RONDELLE). [O. Fr., dim. of _rond_, round.] RONDURE, ron'd[=u]r, _n._ (_Shak._) a round, a circle, the globe. [Fr. _rondeur_--_rond_, round.] RONE, r[=o]n, _n._ (_Scot._) a shrub, a thicket. RONE, r[=o]n, _n._ the gutter which collects the rain from the roof--a dial. form of _rine_. RONG, rong (_Spens._), _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of ring. RONGEUR, rong-zh[.e]r, _n._ a forceps for gouging bones. RONIN, r[=o]'nin, _n._ a discharged Japanese samurai, an outcast or outlaw. [Jap., lit. 'wave-man.'] RONION, RONYON, run'yun, _n._ a mangy, scabby animal or person. [Fr. _rogneux_--_rogne_, mange.] RONQUIL, rong'kil, _n._ a fish of the North Pacific.--Also RON'CHIL. [Sp. _ronquillo_--_ronco_--L. _raucus_, hoarse.] RONT, ront. Same as _Runt_ (q.v.). RÖNTGEN RAYS. See X-RAYS. ROOD, r[=oo]d, _n._ the fourth part of an acre, or forty perches--from the rod used in measuring: a figure of Christ's cross, and often of the crucifix, esp. that placed at the entrance to the choir in medieval churches.--_ns._ ROOD'-BEAM (_archit._), a beam across the chancel of a church for supporting the rood; ROOD'-LOFT, a gallery over the rood-screen; ROODMAS-DAY, Holy-rood-day; ROOD'-SCREEN, an ornamental partition separating the choir from the nave; ROOD'-STEEP'LE, a spire built over the entrance to the chancel; ROOD'-TREE, the cross; H[=O]'LY-ROOD, a crucifix. [Same as _rod_. A.S. _ród_.] ROODEBOK, r[=oo]d'e-bok, _n._ the bush-buck. [Dut. _rood_, red, _bok_, buck.] ROOF, r[=oo]f, _n._ the top covering of a house or building: a vault or arch, or the inner side of it: a house or dwelling: the upper part of the palate: the loftiest part, the roof and crown of things: the top of a subterraneous excavation: (_geol._) the overlying stratum.--_v.t._ to cover with a roof: to shelter.--_ns._ ROOF'ER, one who roofs; ROOF'ING, covering with a roof: materials for a roof: the roof itself: shelter.--_adj._ ROOF'LESS, without a roof: having no house or home: unsheltered.--_ns._ ROOF'LET, a small roof or covering; ROOF'-PLATE, a wall-plate which receives the lower ends of the rafters of a roof.--_adj._ ROOF'-SHAPED, shaped like a gable roof.--_ns._ ROOF'-ST[=A]'GING, a scaffold used in working on an inclined roof; ROOF'-TREE, the beam at the peak of a roof: the roof.--_adj._ ROOF'Y, having a roof or roofs.--FRENCH ROOF, a form of roof with almost vertical sides; GOTHIC ROOF, a very high-pitched roof; MANSARD ROOF (see MANSARD); SQUARE ROOF, one in which the chief rafters meet at a right angle. [A.S. _hróf_; Dut. _roef_.] ROOK, rook, _n._ a species of crow--from its croak: the ruddy duck: a cheat: a simpleton.--_v.i._ to cheat.--_ns._ ROOK'ER, a swindler; ROOK'ERY, a group of trees on which rooks build: a cluster of mean tenements: a resort of thieves: a disturbance.--_adj._ ROOK'Y (_Shak._), inhabited by rooks. [A.S. _hróc_; Goth. _hrukjan_, to croak.] ROOK, rook, _n._ a castle or piece used in playing chess. [O. Fr. _roc_--Pers. _rokh_.] ROOKLE, r[=oo]k'l, _v.i._ to poke about like a pig. [_Rootle._] ROOL, r[=oo]l, _v.t._ to raggle, to ruffle. ROOM, r[=oo]m, _n._ space: a chamber: extent of place: space unoccupied: freedom to act: fit occasion: place of another: stead: (_B._) a seat: a particular place: a box in a theatre: office: the inner room of a cottage: a garret.--_v.i._ to occupy a room, to lodge.--_adv._ (_naut._) off from the wind.--_n._ ROOM'AGE, capacity.--_adj._ ROOMED, containing rooms.--_ns._ ROOM'ER, a lodger; ROOM'FUL, as much or as many as a room will hold.--_adv._ ROOM'ILY.--_n._ ROOM'INESS.--_adsj._ ROOM'-RID'DEN, confined to one's room; ROOM'SOME, roomy.--_adv._ ROOM'Y, having ample room: wide: spacious.--GIVE ROOM, to withdraw so as to leave space for others; MAKE ROOM, to open a way. [A.S. _rúm_; Ger. _raum_, Dut. _ruim_.] ROOM, r[=oo]m, _n._ a deep-blue dye.--Also ROUM. ROON, r[=oo]n, _n._ (_Scot._) a rim or border. ROOP, r[=oo]p, _v.i._ (_obs._) to roar.--_n._ hoarseness.--_adsj._ ROOP'IT, ROOP'Y (_Scot._), hoarse. [A.S. _hrópan_, pa.t. _hreóp_; cf. Ger. _rufen_, to cry out.] ROOSE, r[=oo]z, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to praise highly. [M. E. _rosen_--Scand., Ice. _hrósa_, to praise.] ROOST, r[=oo]st, _n._ a pole or support on which a bird rests at night: a number of fowls resting together: (_Scot._) the inner roof of a cottage.--_v.i._ to sit or sleep on a roost.--_n._ ROOST'ER, the male of the domestic fowl, cock: any bird that roosts.--AT ROOST, roosting, asleep. [A.S. _hróst_; Dut. _roest_.] ROOT, r[=oo]t, _n._ the part of a plant which is fixed in the earth, and which draws up sap from the soil: an edible root: anything like a root, a growing plant together with its root: the bottom: a word from which others are derived: the cause, occasion, or basis of anything: the source: the lowest place: the first ancestor, or progenitor: (_math._) the factor of a quantity which multiplied by itself produces that quantity: any value of the unknown quantity in an equation which will render both sides of it identical.--_v.i._ to fix the root: to be firmly established: to tear up: to eradicate: to exterminate.--_v.t._ to plant in the earth: to implant deeply.--_ns._ ROOT'AGE, the act of striking roots; ROOT'-BEER, a drink made from roots of dandelion, sassafras, &c.; ROOT'-B[=O]R'ER, an insect which bores the roots of plants.--_adj._ ROOT'-BOUND (_Milt._), fixed in the earth by, or as by, the root.--_ns._ ROOT'-CAP, a cap-like layer of cells at the tip of roots; ROOT'-CROP, a crop of esculent roots, esp. of single-rooted plants, as turnips, &c.; ROOT'-DIG'GER, a form of tongs for raising carrots, &c.; ROOT'-EAT'ER, any animal feeding habitually on roots.--_adj._ ROOT'ED, firmly planted: fixed by the roots: deep-seated, as a rooted dislike.--_adv._ ROOT'EDLY.--_ns._ ROOT'EDNESS; ROOT'ER.--_adj._ ROOT'-FAST, firmly rooted.--_ns._ ROOT'-F[=I]'BRIL, one of the fine divisions of a root; ROOT'-FORM, a form assumed by an insect when feeding on roots; ROOT'-GRAFT'ING, the process of grafting scions on a part of the root of some appropriate stock; ROOT'-HAIR, a delicate filament developed from a single cell.--_adj._ ROOT'-HEAD'ED, fixed as if rooted by the head.--_ns._ ROOT'-HOUSE, a rustic-house: a storehouse for potatoes, &c.; ROOT'-KNOT, an abnormal knot of a root.--_adj._ ROOT'LESS, destitute of roots.--_ns._ ROOT'LET, a little root: a radicle; ROOT'-LOUSE, one of the plant-lice; ROOT'-PAR'ASITE, a plant which grows upon, and derives its nourishment from, the root of another plant; ROOT'-PRES'SURE, an upward flow of sap, 'bleeding;' ROOT'-PULP'ER, a mill for grinding roots; ROOT'-SHEATH, the sheath of the root of a hair or feather; ROOT'-STOCK (_bot._), a prostrate rooting stem, either fleshy or woody, which yearly produces young branches or plants: origin.--_adj._ ROOT'Y, abounding in roots: rank.--ROOT AND BRANCH, completely; ROOT OF BITTERNESS, a dangerous error drawing away to apostasy; ROOT OF THE MATTER, that which is essential.--STRIKE, or TAKE, ROOT, to root, to become fixed. [Scand.; Ice. _rót_; Dan. _rod_; Goth. _waurts_, A.S. _wyrt_.] ROOT, r[=oo]t, _v.t._ to turn up with the snout.--_v.i_. to turn up the earth with the snout.--_n._ ROOT'ER.--_v.t._ ROOT'LE. [A.S. _wrótan_--_wrót_, a snout.] ROPALIC=_Rhopalic_ (q.v.). ROPE, showing method of construction. [Illustration] ROPE, r[=o]p, _n._ a thick twisted cord: a string consisting of a number of things united, as a rope of pearls: anything glutinous and stringy: a local lineal measure, 20 feet.--_v.i._ to fasten with a rope, to restrain: to catch with a noosed rope: to tether: to enclose: to extend into a thread, as by a glutinous quality.--_ns._ ROPE'-CLAMP, a pair of clamping jaws for securing the end of a cord; ROPE'-DANC'ER, one who performs acrobatic feats on a rope: a rope-walker; ROPE'-DRILL'ING, a method of boring holes in which a rope is used; ROPE'-HOUSE, an evaporating-house in salt manufacture; ROPE'-LADD'ER, a ladder made of ropes; ROPE'-MACHINE', a machine for making ropes from yarn; ROPE'-M[=A]K'ER, R[=O]'PER, a maker of ropes; ROPE'-M[=A]K'ING; ROPE'-POR'TER, a pulley to save the ropes of steam-ploughs from friction; ROPE'-PULL'ING, the sport of pulling at a rope, each party endeavouring to draw the other over a line; ROPE'-PUMP, a machine for raising water by an endless rope; R[=O]'PER, a crafty fellow: one who throws the lasso; ROPE'-RAIL'WAY, a cable-railway.--_adj._ ROPE'-RIPE, deserving to be hanged.--_ns._ ROPE'-RUN'NER, a railway brakesman; R[=O]'PERY, a place where ropes are made; ROPE'-SPIN'NER, one who spins ropes by a revolving wheel; ROPE'-STITCH, a kind of work in which the stitches are laid diagonally side by side; ROPE'-TRICK, a juggling trick in which a man is firmly tied with ropes from which he extricates himself: (_Shak._) a trick deserving the gallows; ROPE'-WALK, a long narrow shed used for the spinning of ropes; ROPE'-WINCH, a set of three whirlers for twisting simultaneously the three yarns of a rope; ROPE'-YARN, a yarn of many fibres for ropes.--_adv._ R[=O]'PILY.--_n._ R[=O]'PINESS, stringiness: viscosity.--_adjs._ R[=O]'PING, R[=O]'PISH, R[=O]'PY, stringy, glutinous.--ROPE IN, to gather in, to enlist; ROPE OF SAND, a tie easily broken; ROPE'S END, an instrument of punishment.--BE AT THE END OF ONE'S ROPE, to have exhausted one's powers or resources; GIVE A PERSON ROPE, to allow a person full scope; ON THE HIGH ROPE, elated, arrogant. [A.S. _ráp_; Ice. _reip_, Dut. _reep_, Ger. _reif_.] ROQUELAURE, rok'e-l[=o]r, _n._ a short cloak worn in the 18th century. [Fr.] ROQUET, r[=o]-k[=a]', _n._ in the game of croquet, a stroke by which a player strikes another's ball.--_v.t._ to make this shot. [Prob. formed from _croquet_.] RORIC, r[=o]'rik, _adj._ pertaining to dew: dewy--(_obs._) R[=O]'RAL.--_n._ RORID'ULA, a genus of polypetalous plants of the Sundew family.--_adjs._ RORIF'EROUS, producing dew; RORIF'LUENT, flowing with dew; R[=O]'RULENT, full of dew: covered with bloom which may be rubbed off. [L. _ros_, _roris_, dew.] RORQUAL, ror'kwal, _n._ a genus of whales of the largest size. [Sw. _rörhval_--_rör_, round, _hval_, whale.] ROSACEOUS, r[=o]-z[=a]'shus, _adj._ (_bot._) pertaining to the rose family: with the petals arranged like the rose.--_ns._ ROS[=A]'RIAN, a rose-fancier; ROS[=A]'RIUM, a rose-garden; R[=O]'SA-S[=O]'LIS, a cordial made with spirits and various flavourings.--_adj._ R[=O]'S[=A]TED, crowned with roses. [L. _rosaceous_--_rosa_, a rose.] ROSALIA, r[=o]-z[=a]'li-a, _n._ a form of melody in which a phrase is repeated, each time being transposed a step forward. [It.] ROSANILINE, r[=o]-zan'i-lin, _n._ a derivative of aniline: magenta: roseine. ROSARY, r[=o]'za-ri, _n._ the string of beads by which Roman Catholics count their prayers: a series of devotions, aves, paternosters, and glorias: a rose-garden: a chaplet: an anthology.--FESTIVAL OF THE ROSARY, a festival on the first Sunday in October, commemorating the victory over the Turks at Lepanto in 1571. [O. Fr. _rosarie_--Low L. _rosarium_--L. _rosa_, a rose.] ROSCID, ros'id, _adj._ dewy. [L.,--_ros_, _roris_, dew.] ROSE, _pa.t._ of _rise_. ROSE, r[=o]z, _n._ any shrub of the genus _Rosa_, having stems generally prickly, flowers terminal, often corymbose, in colour white, yellow, pink, or red: a flower of one of these shrubs: any one of various plants resembling the true rose: a rosette: a perforated nozzle of a pipe, &c.: light crimson, the colour of the rose: an ornamental tie: erysipelas: (_her._) a conventional representation of the flower.--_v.t._ to flush.--_n._ ROSE'-AC[=A]'CIA, the moss-locust, a tree with deep rose-coloured flowers.--_adjs._ R[=O]'SEAL, like a rose in smell or colour; R[=O]'SE[=A]TE, rosy: full of roses: blooming: red.--_ns._ ROSE'-BEE'TLE, -BUG, a coleopterous insect about an inch long, which is destructive to flowers, esp. roses: the rose-chafer; ROSE'-BERR'Y, the fruit of the rose: a hip; ROSE'-BIT, a cylindrical bit, the oblique surface of which is cut into teeth.--_adj._ ROSE'-BREAST'ED, having rose-colour on the breast.--_ns._ ROSE'-BUD, the bud of the rose: a young girl; ROSE'-BURN'ER, ROSETTE'-BURN'ER, a gas-burner in which the gas issues from a series of openings arranged radially round a centre; ROSE'-BUSH, the shrub which bears roses; ROSE'-CAM'PHOR, one of the two volatile oils composing attar-of-roses; ROSE'-CAM'PION, a red flower, _Lychnis coronaria_; ROSE'-CARN[=A]'TION, a carnation striped with rose-colour; ROSE'-CH[=A]F'ER, an injurious beetle whose grubs destroy the roots of strawberries, &c.; ROSE'-COL'OUR, the colour of a rose, pink: fancied beauty or attractiveness.--_adj._ ROSE'-COL'OURED, having the colour of a rose.--_n._ ROSE'-CROSS, a cross within a circle: a Rosicrucian.--_adj._ ROSE'-CUT, cut with a smooth, round surface, as a precious stone, and not in facets.--_p.adj._ ROSED (_Shak._), crimsoned, flushed.--_ns._ ROSE'-D[=I]'AMOND, a diamond nearly hemispherical, cut into twenty-four triangular facets; ROSE'-DROP, a rose-flavoured orange: a pimply eruption on the nose caused by tippling; ROSE'-EN'GINE, a form of lathe combining the rotary motion of the mandrel with a radial movement of the tool-rest; ROSE'-FES'TIVAL, a festival celebrated on 8th June, at Salency in France; ROSE'-FLY'CATCHER, an American fly-catching warbler; ROSE'-GALL, a gall produced on roses by an insect; ROSE'-GER[=A]'NIUM, a house-plant with rose-scented leaves; ROSE'-HAW, the fruit of the wild-rose: a ROSE'-HIP.--_adj._ ROSE'-HUED, rose-coloured.--_n._ ROSE'-KNOT, a rosette of ribbon or other soft material.--_adj._ ROSE'-LIPPED, having red lips.--_ns._ ROSE'-MALL'OW, a plant of the same genus, but larger, and having a finer flower than the common mallow, the hollyhock; ROSE'-MOULD'ING (_archit._), a moulding ornamented with roses; ROSE'-N[=O]'BLE, an ancient English gold coin, stamped with the figure of a rose, and current at the value of 6s. 8d. (see NOBLE, a coin).--_adj._ ROSE'-PINK, having a pink or rose colour: sentimental.--_n._ a crimson-pink colour.--_ns._ ROSE'-QUARTZ, a transparent quartz; ROSE'-RASH (see ROSEOLA).--_adjs._ ROSE'-RED, red as a rose; ROSE'-RINGED, with a collar of red feathers, as a parrot.--_ns._ ROSE'-ROOT, a succulent herb, having a rose-scented root; R[=O]'SERY, a place where roses are cultivated; ROSE'-SAW'FLY, a sawfly which attacks the rose; ROSE'-TAN'AGER, the summer red-bird; ROSE'-T[=O]'PAZ, an artificial colour of the true topaz produced by heat; ROSE'-TREE, a standard rose; ROSE'-VIN'EGAR, an infusion made by steeping roses in vinegar; ROSE'-WA'TER, water distilled from rose-leaves.--_adj._ sentimental, as 'rose-water philosophy.'--_ns._ ROSE'-WIN'DOW, a circular window with its compartments branching from a centre, like a rose; ROSE'WOOD, the wood of a Brazilian tree having a fragrance like that of roses; ROSE'WOOD-OIL, oil obtained from rosewood; ROSE'-WORM, the larva of a moth which feeds on the leaves of the rose, &c.; ROSE'-YARD, a rose-garden.--_adj._ R[=O]'SIED, decorated with roses or the colour of roses.--_n._ R[=O]'SIER (_Spens._), a rose tree or bush.--_adv._ R[=O]'SILY.--_n._ R[=O]'SINESS.--_adjs._ R[=O]'SY, like a rose: red: blooming: blushing: charming; R[=O]'SY-BOS'OMED, -COL'OURED; R[=O]'SY-BRIGHT, bright like a rose: blooming.--_n._ R[=O]'SY-DROP, _acne rosacea_: a grog-blossom.--_adjs._ R[=O]'SY-FING'ERED, Homer's favourite epithet of the dawn: with rosy fingers; R[=O]'SY-KIN'DLED, blushing with a rosy colour; R[=O]'SY-MAR'BLED, marbled with rosy colour.--_ns._ R[=O]'SY-MARSH, -RUS'TIC, -WAVE, names of moths.--_adj._ R[=O]'SY-TINT'ED, tinted of a rose-colour.--UNDER THE ROSE (L., _sub rosâ_), under the pledge of secrecy, the rose being, among the ancients, the symbol of secrecy; WARS OF THE ROSES, a disastrous dynastic struggle between the Houses of Lancaster and York, which desolated England during the 15th century, from the first battle of St Albans (1455) to that of Bosworth (1485). [A.S. _róse_--L. _rosa_, Gr. _rhodon_.] ROSELET, roz'let, _n._ the summer fur of the ermine. ROSELITE, r[=o]'ze-l[=i]t, _n._ a mineral occurring in small red crystals, being a native arseniate of cobalt. [Ger. _roselith_, from the mineralogist Gustav _Rose_ (1798-1873), Gr. _lithos_, a stone.] ROSELLA, r[=o]-zel'a, _n._ the Australian rose-parrakeet. ROSELLE, r[=o]-zel', _n._ an East Indian rose-mallow. ROSEMARY, r[=o]z'm[=a]-ri, _n._ a small fragrant evergreen shrub of a pungent taste, growing in the countries round the Mediterranean--an ancient emblem of fidelity. [O. Fr. _rosmarin_--L. _ros-marinus_--_ros_, dew, _marinus_--_mare_, the sea.] ROSEOLA, r[=o]-z[=e]'[=o]-la, _n._ a rash of rose-coloured patches. ROSET, r[=o]'zet, _n._ a red colour used by painters. ROSET, ros'et, _n._ (_Scot._) rosin. ROSETTA-STONE, r[=o]-zet'a-st[=o]n, _n._ a slab of black basalt found at _Rosetta_ in Egypt in 1799, having inscribed upon it, in hieroglyphics, demotic or enchorial, and Greek, a decree in honour of Ptolemy V.--the first clue to the decipherment of hieroglyphics. ROSETTA-WOOD, r[=o]-zet'a-w[=oo]d, _n._ a handsome orange-wood used in cabinet-making. ROSETTE, r[=o]-zet', _n._ an imitation of a rose by means of a ribbon: a form of knot: (_archit._) a rose-shaped ornament: a disc formed by throwing water on melted metal.--_adj._ ROSET'TED.--RED ROSETTE, or button, the rosette worn by officers of the Legion of Honour. [Fr., dim. of _rose_.] ROSICRUCIAN, roz-i-kr[=oo]'shi-an, _n._ one of a secret society of the 17th century, the members of which made great pretensions to an acquaintance with the secrets of Nature, the transmutation of metals, power over elemental spirits, magical signatures, &c.--_n._ ROSICRU'CIANISM. [Prob. Latinised from Christian _Rosenkreuz_ ('rose cross,' L. _rosa_, rose, _crux_, cross), the alleged founder in 1459; or from L. _roscidus_, dewy--_ros_, dew, _crux_, _crucis_, a cross.] ROSIN, roz'in, _n._ the solid left after distilling off the oil from crude turpentine.--_v.t._ to rub or cover with rosin.--_adj._ ROS'INED.--_ns._ ROS'IN-OIL, an oil from pine resin for lubricating machinery; ROS'IN-WOOD, any plant of the genus _Silphium_.--_adj._ ROS'INY, like or containing rosin. [_Resin._] ROSING, r[=o]'zing, _n._ the operation of imparting a pink tint to raw white silk. ROSLAND, ros'land, _n._ (_prov._) moorish land.--_n._ ROSS, a swamp. ROSMARINE, roz'ma-r[=e]n, _n._ (_Spens._) a sea-monster supposed to lick dew off the rocks: rosemary: the walrus. [_Rosemary._] ROSMARUS, ros'ma-rus, _n._ the genus containing the walruses. ROSMINIANISM, ros-min'i-an-izm, _n._ the philosophical system of Antonio _Rosmini_-Serbati (1797-1855), founder of the Institute of the Brethren of Charity--its fundamental conception, _being_ considered as the form of the intelligence.--_n._ ROSMIN'IAN, a member of the foregoing. ROSOLIO, ROSOGLIO, r[=o]-z[=o]'li-[=o], _n._ a red wine of Malta: a sweet cordial from raisins. [Fr.,--It.,--L. _ros solis_, dew of the sun.] ROSS, ros, _n._ the scaly matter on the surface of trees: (_Scot._) the refuse of plants.--_v.t._ to strip the bark from.--_n._ ROSS'ING-MACHINE', a machine for removing the bark of a tree. [Norw. _ros_, scale.] ROSSIGNOL, ros'i-nyol, _n._ the nightingale. [Fr.] ROSTELLARIA, ros-te-l[=a]'ri-a, _n._ a genus of marine univalves.--_adj._ and _n._ ROSTELL[=A]'RIAN.--_adjs._ ROS'TELLATE; ROSTEL'LIFORM.--_n._ ROSTEL'LUM, any small beak-shaped process, as in the stigma of many violets: the forepart of the head of tapeworms--also ROS'TEL. [L. _rostellum_, a little beak.] ROSTER, ros't[.e]r, _n._ the list of individuals, or corps, kept by the various staff officers of the army to ensure the allotment of duties in proper rotation: (_coll._) any roll of names. [Dut. _rooster_--L. _register_, a list.] ROSTRUM, ros'trum, _n._ in ancient Rome, an erection for public speakers in the Forum, adorned with the beaks or heads of ships taken in war: the platform from which a speaker addresses his audience: the snout of an animal, or the beak of a bird: the beak of a ship, an ancient form of ram:--_pl._ ROS'TRUMS, ROS'TRA.--_adjs._ ROS'TRAL, like a rostrum or beak; ROS'TR[=A]TE, -D, beaked.--_n.pl._ ROSTRIF'ERA, a suborder of gasteropods, with contractile rostrum or snout.--_adjs._ ROSTRIF'EROUS, having a rostrum; ROS'TRIFORM, shaped like a rostrum; ROS'TRO-ANTEN'NARY, pertaining to the rostrum and antennæ of a crustacean; ROS'TROID, resembling a rostrum; ROSTROLAT'ERAL, situated alongside the rostrum.--_n._ ROS'TRULUM, the mouth part of a flea. [L. _rostrum_, the beak--_rod[)e]re_, _rosum_, to gnaw.] ROSULA, roz'[=u]-la, _n._ a small rose: a genus of Echinoderms.--_adjs._ ROS'[=U]LAR, ROS'[=U]LATE, having the leaves in rose-like clusters. ROT, rot, _v.i._ to putrefy: to become decomposed: to become morally corrupt: to become affected with sheep-rot.--_v.t._ to cause to rot: to bring to corruption:--_pr.p._ rot'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ rot'ted.--_n._ decay: putrefaction: a special disease of the sheep, as of the potato: a decay (called _dry-rot_) which attacks timber: (_slang_) rant, bosh.--_ns._ ROT'-GRASS, the soft grass: the butterwort: the penny-rot; ROT'GUT, bad liquor; ROT'-STEEP, the process of steeping cottons to remove impurities. [A.S. _rotian_, pa.p. _rotod_; cf. Ice. _rotinn_, putrid.] ROTA, r[=o]'ta, _n._ a wheel: a course: a school or military roll: an ecclesiastical tribunal in the R.C. Church, consisting of twelve prelates called auditors, having its seat at the papal court.--_adj._ R[=O]'TAL.--_n.pl._ ROT[=A]'LIA, the typical genus of _Rotaliidæ_, small foraminifers of rotate figure.--_adjs._ ROT[=A]'LIAN; ROTAL'IFORM; R[=O]'TALINE.--_n._ R[=O]'TALITE, a fossil rotalian.--_adj._ R[=O]'TARY, turning round like a wheel: rotatory: held in rotation.--_v.t._ R[=O]'T[=A]TE, to turn anything round like a wheel: to cause to turn or to pass in rotation.--_v.i._ to turn round like a wheel: to go round in succession.--_adj._ wheel-shaped.--_ns._ ROT[=A]'TING-RING, a band of brass, &c., placed round a projectile to give it rotation; ROT[=A]'TION, a turning round like a wheel: series or appropriate succession, as of crops: recurrent order.--_adjs._ ROT[=A]'TIONAL, R[=O]'T[=A]TIVE.--_adv._ R[=O]'T[=A]TIVELY.--_n._ ROT[=A]'TOR, any rotational agency: a muscle producing rotatory motion.--_n.pl._ ROTAT[=O]'RIA, the wheel-animalcules--also ROTIF'ERA.--_adjs._ ROTAT[=O]'RIAL, ROTAT[=O]'RIAN; R[=O]'TATORY, turning round like a wheel: following in succession. [L. _rota_, a wheel.] ROTCHE, roch, _n._ the little auk, or sea-dove.--Also ROTCH'IE. [Prob. Dut. _rotje_, a petrel.] ROTE, r[=o]t, _n._ the mechanical repetition of words without knowledge of the meaning: a row or rank.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to learn by rote. [O. Fr. _rote_, a track--Low L. _rupta_, a road--_rump[)e]re_, to break.] ROTE, r[=o]t, _n._ a musical instrument with strings.--_n._ R[=O]'TOUR. [O. Fr. _rote_, a fiddle (cf. Old High Ger. _hrot[=a]_), from Celt.; W. _crwth_, Gael. _cruit_.] ROTE, r[=o]t, _n._ the sound of the surf. ROTELLA, r[=o]-tel'a, _n._ a disc, a round shield: a genus of gasteropods. [Dim. of L. _rota_, a wheel.] ROTHER, roth'[.e]r, _adj._ (_Shak._) roaring, lowing, denoting cattle generally, or horned or black cattle.--_n._ ROTH'ER-BEAST. [A.S. _hrýther_, an ox, a cow; cf. Ger. pl. _rinder_, horned cattle.] ROTHESAY HERALD, one of the six Scottish heralds. ROTIFER, r[=o]t'if-[.e]r, _n._ one of a class of minute aquatic animals, popularly called wheel-animalcules, with an anterior equipment of cilia whose movements suggest a rapidly rotating wheel:--_pl._ ROTIF'ERA.--_adjs._ ROTIF'ERAL; ROTIF'EROUS; R[=O]'TIFORM, wheel-shaped: (_bot._) having a short tube and spreading limb. [L. _rota_, a wheel, _ferre_, to carry.] ROTL, rot'l, _n._ an Arabian pound of twelve ounces. ROTONDE, r[=o]-tond', _n._ a ruff worn during the beginning of the 17th century: a cope. [Fr.] ROTOR, r[=o]'tor, _n._ a quantity having magnitude, direction, and position. [_Rotator._] ROTTEN, rot'n, _adj._ putrefied: corrupt: decomposed: unsound: treacherous: fetid: friable, as rottenstone.--_adv._ ROTT'ENLY, in a rotten manner: defectively.--_ns._ ROTT'ENNESS; ROTT'ENSTONE, a soft and earthy stone powdered to polish brass, &c.--_v.t._ to polish with rottenstone. [_Rot._] ROTTLERA, rot'ler-a, _n._ a genus of Indian euphorbiaceous plants now included under _Mallotus_, yielding kamila (q.v.) dye. ROTTOLO, rot'[=o]-l[=o], _n._ a Levantine weight. [It.] ROTULA, rot'[=u]-la, _n._ the patella or knee-pan: one of the five radial pieces in the dentary apparatus of the sea-urchin.--_adjs._ ROT'[=U]LAR; ROT'[=U]LIFORM. ROTUND, r[=o]-tund', _adj._ round: spherical: convexly protuberant.--_ns._ ROTUN'DA, ROTUN'DO, a round building, esp. with a dome, as the Pantheon at Rome.--_adjs._ ROTUN'D[=A]TE, rounded off, specifically noting bodies rounded off at the end; ROTUNDIF[=O]'LIOUS, having round leaves; ROTUN'DIOUS, ROTUND[=O]'VATE (_bot._), egg-shaped.--_ns._ ROTUND'NESS, ROTUN'DITY, globular form.--_adj._ ROTUND'-POINT'ED, bluntly pointed. [L. _rotundus_--_rota_, a wheel.] ROTURE, r[=o]-t[=u]r', _n._ in Canadian law, a grant made of feudal property: plebeian rank in France.--_n._ ROTURIER (ro-tü-ri-[=a]'), a plebeian. [Fr.,--Low L. _ruptura_, ground broken by the plough--L. _rump[)e]re_, _ruptum_, to break.] ROUBLE. Same as RUBLE. ROUCHED, rowcht, _adj._ wrinkled, puckered. [_Ruck_, a wrinkle.] ROUCOU, r[=oo]'k[=oo], _n._ a dye--arnotto. [Fr.,--Braz.] ROUÉ, r[=oo]-[=a]', _n._ a fashionable profligate: a rake, debauchee.--_n._ ROU'ERIE, debauchery. [A name given by Philippe, Duke of Orléans, Regent of France 1715-23, to his dissolute companions--Fr. _roué_, one broken on the wheel--pa.p. of _rouer_--_roue_--L. _rota_, a wheel.] ROUELLE, r[=oo]-el', _n._ a wheel-like amulet of the ancient Gauls, intended to symbolise the sun.--_n._ ROUELLE'-GUARD, a guard having the shape of a disc, as on some old daggers. [Fr.] ROUEN-CROSS. See CROSS. ROUGE, r[=oo]zh, _n._ a powder used to give artificial colour to the cheeks or lips.--_v.t._ to colour with rouge.--_v.i._ to use rouge: to blush.--_ns._ ROUGE'-BERR'Y, a shrub of tropical America, whose berries supply a cosmetic; ROUGE'-DISH, a saucer containing a thin layer of dry rouge; ROUGE-ET-NOIR, a modern game of chance, played by the aid of packs of cards on a table covered with green cloth--also _Trente-un_ and _Trente-et-quarante_.--ROUGE CROIX, one of the four pursuivants of the English College of Heralds; ROUGE DRAGON, one of the pursuivants of the Heralds' College. [Fr. _rouge_ (It. _roggio_, _robbio_)--L. _rubeus_, red.] ROUGET, r[=oo]-zh[=a]', _n._ an infectious disease of swine. [Fr.,--_rouge_, red.] ROUGH, ruf, _adj._ not smooth: uneven: uncut: unpolished: unfinished: boisterous: tempestuous: violent: harsh: severe: rude: coarse: disordered in appearance: hasty, as a rough guess: stale: astringent: in Greek grammar, marking the stronger aspiration, equivalent to Eng. _h_.--_n._ rough condition, crudeness: a piece inserted in a horse's shoe to keep him from slipping: a bully, a ruffian, a rowdy.--_v.t._ to make rough: to roughen a horse's shoes to keep him from slipping: to shape roughly: to roughen.--_v.i._ to break the rules in boxing by too great violence.--_n._ ROUGH'AGE, coarse material for bedding cattle, &c.--_adj._ ROUGH'-BILLED, having a rough, horny excrescence on the beak.--_v.t._ ROUGH'-CAST, to mould in a rough, unfinished way: to form anything in its first rudiments.--_n._ a rude model: a form in its rudiments: a kind of semi-fluid mortar containing fine gravel, thrown in a thin coating on outer walls.--_vs.t._ ROUGH'-CULL, to cull oysters hastily; ROUGH'-DRAFT, -DRAW, to trace roughly; ROUGH'-DRY, to dry without smoothing.--_adj._ dry without having been smoothed.--_v.t._ ROUGH'EN, to make rough.--_v.i._ to become rough.--_n._ ROUGH'ER, a workman who shapes something preparatory to a finishing operation: a piece of woollen cloth in preparation for fulling.--_adjs._ ROUGH'-FOOT'ED, having feathered feet, as a grouse; ROUGH'-GRAINED, coarse-grained.--_v.t._ ROUGH'-GRIND, to grind roughly.--_n._ ROUGH'-HEAD, the iguanoid lizard.--_v.t._ ROUGH'-HEW, to hew coarsely: (_Shak._) to give to anything the first appearance of form.--_n._ ROUGH'-HEW'ER.--_p.adj._ ROUGH'-HEWN, not yet nicely finished: unpolished: unrefined.--_ns._ ROUGH'-HOUND, the dogfish: a kind of shark; ROUGH'IE (_Scot._), dried heath; ROUGH'ING-MILL, a metal disc charged with wet emery, &c., for grinding gems.--_adjs._ ROUGH'ISH, rather rough; ROUGH'-LEGGED, having legs covered with feathers.--_adv._ ROUGH'LY, coarsely: harshly: rudely.--_ns._ ROUGH'NESS, crudeness: rawness: harshness: asperity: physical or mental rudeness: (_U.S._) fodder consisting of dried corn-stalks: (_Scot._) plenty, esp. of food.--_adj._ ROUGH'-PER'FECT, of an actor when nearly perfect in the memorising of a part.--_ns._ ROUGH'-RID'ER, one who rides rough or untrained horses: a horse-breaker; ROUGH'-SCUFF, a coarse fellow: the rabble.--_adj._ ROUGH'-SHOD, shod with roughened shoes, as a horse in frosty weather.--_n._ ROUGH'-SLANT, a shed partially enclosed, for shelter.--_adj._ ROUGH'-SPUN, rude, homely.--_ns._ ROUGH'-STRING, one of the supports for the steps of a wooden stairway; ROUGH'-STUFF, coarse paint laid on after the priming, and before the finish; ROUGH'-TAIL, a shield-tail snake.--_adj._ ROUGH'-TAILED.--_n._ ROUGH'-WING, a British moth: a rough-winged swallow.--_adj._ ROUGH'-WINGED.--_v.t._ ROUGH'-WORK, to work over hastily without attention to execution in detail--also _n._--ROUGH AND READY, rough in manner but prompt in action; ROUGH AND TUMBLE, said of fighting in any style or by any means: indiscriminate, confused, not too particular about decorum, fairness, &c.; ROUGH DIAMOND (see DIAMOND); ROUGH IT, to take what comes.--CUT UP ROUGH, to become quarrelsome or violent; IN THE ROUGH, in an unwrought or rude condition; RIDE ROUGH-SHOD (see RIDE). [A.S. _rúh_, rough; Ger. _rauch_, _rauh_, Dut. _ruig_.] ROUGHT, rawt, an obsolete pret. of _reck_. ROULADE, r[=oo]-lad', _n._ (_mus._) a melodic embellishment: a run. [Fr.,--_rouler_, to roll.] ROULE, r[=oo]l, _n._ an obsolete form of _roll_. ROULEAU, r[=oo]-l[=o]', _n._ a roll of paper containing a certain number of coins: a large piping or trimming: one of a bundle of fascines to cover besiegers:--_pl._ ROULEAUX'. [Fr.] ROULETTE, r[=oo]l-et', _n._ a little ball or roller: a game of chance played on an oblong table divided into numbered and coloured spaces, and having in the centre a rotating disc on which a ball is rolled until it drops into one of the spaces, the player winning if he has staked his money on that space or its colour: an engraver's tool: a cylindrical object used to curl hair upon: (_geom._) a particular kind of curve. [Fr.,--_rouler_, to roll.] ROUM. See ROOM (2). ROUNCE, rowns, _n._ a wheel-pulley in a hand printing-press: a game of cards. ROUNCEVAL, rown'se-val, _n._ (_obs._) a giant: anything large and strong: the marrow-fat pea. ROUNCY, rown'si, _n._ (_obs._) a common hackney: a nag: a vulgar woman. ROUND, rownd, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to address in a whisper. [A.S. _runian_, to whisper.] ROUND, rownd, _adj._ circular: globular: cylindrical: whole: complete: plump: large: not inconsiderable, as a sum: whole, unbroken: smooth-flowing, continuous, as a sound: full, expressive: open: plain: positive: bold, brisk, without hesitation or delicacy, plain-spoken: candid, as a 'round unvarnished tale': severe: well turned, in a literary sense: periodic: (_archit._) vaulted.--_adv._ on all sides: every way: circularly: in a revolution: from one side or party to another: not in a direct line, circuitously: in a round manner: from beginning to end.--_prep._ around: on every side of: all over.--_n._ that which is round: a circle or globe: a series of actions: the time of such a series: a turn: routine: revolution: cycle: an accustomed walk: a rundle or step of a ladder: a song or dance having a frequent return to the same point: a volley or general discharge of firearms, a single charge of ammunition for a musket or field-piece: that in which a whole company takes part, as a treat of liquor, &c.: prescribed circuit, as a policeman's round: the whole scope, as the round of science: one of a series, as rounds of applause: a bout in a boxing match: a brewer's vessel for holding beer while undergoing fermentation.--_v.t._ to make round: to surround: to go round: to complete: to make full and flowing: to encircle: to make a course round.--_v.i._ to grow or become round or full: to go round: to go the rounds, as a guard.--_adj._ ROUND'ABOUT, encircling: circuitous: indirect.--_n._ a horizontal revolving wheel on which children ride: a round-dance: a short jacket.--_adv._ ROUND'ABOUTLY.--_ns._ ROUND'ABOUTNESS; ROUND'-ALL, an acrobatic feat.--_adjs._ ROUND'-ARCHED, of a style characterised by semicircular arches; ROUND'-ARM, in cricket, swinging the arm more or less horizontally; ROUND'-BACKED, having a round or curved back: round-shouldered; ROUND'-CREST'ED, fan-crested.--_ns._ ROUND'-DANCE, a dance in a circle, or in which the couples wheel; ROUND'ER, one that frequents a place: a tool for making an edge round: (_pl._) an English game out of which base-ball grew, played with a small ball and a bat about two feet long.--_adj._ ROUND'-FACED, having a round face.--_ns._ ROUND'-FISH, the common carp: the shadwaiter; ROUND'HAND, a style of penmanship in which the letters are well rounded and free; ROUND'HEAD, a Puritan, so called in the time of Charles I. from the Puritan fashion of having the hair cut close to the head.--_adj._ ROUND'HEADED.--_ns._ ROUND'-HOUSE, in ships, a cabin or house on the after-part of the quarterdeck: on American railways, an engine-house; ROUND'ING, in bookbinding, the shaping the folded and sewed sheets into a convex form at the back; ROUND'ING-MACHINE', various machines for producing round forms, as a machine for sawing out circular heads for casks; ROUND'ING-PLANE, a woodworking tool for rounding the handles of rakes, &c.; ROUND'ING-TOOL, an instrument used in forging for rounding a rod: a kind of draw-plate in saddlery for shaping round leather straps; ROUND'-[=I]'RON, a plumber's tool for finishing soldered work.--_adj._ ROUND'ISH, somewhat round.--_ns._ ROUND'ISHNESS; ROUND'LE (_Spens._), a roundelay; ROUND'LET, a little circle.--_adv._ ROUND'LY, in a round manner: fully: completely: boldly: openly: plainly: briskly: generally.--_adj._ ROUND'-MOUTHED (_zool._), having a mouth without any lower jaw.--_n._ ROUND'NESS, quality of being round, globular, or cylindrical: cylindrical form: fullness: smoothness of flow: plainness: boldness: a kind of muff.--_n.pl._ ROUND'-NUM'BERS, an indefinite or approximate statement of a number, as a population, say, of 10,000.--_v.t._ ROUND'-RIDGE, to plough into round ridges.--_ns._ ROUNDS'MAN (_U.S._), a policeman who acts as inspector; ROUND'-STONE, small stones used for paving; ROUND'-T[=A]'BLE, the group of twelve knights, the bravest of all the throng, who form the centre of the mythical King Arthur's retinue, sitting with the king at a round table; ROUND'-TOP, a round platform at the mast-head.--_n.pl._ ROUND'-TOW'ERS, tall narrow circular towers tapering gradually from the base to the summit, found abundantly in Ireland, and occasionally in Scotland, now generally believed to be the work of Christian architects and built for religious purposes.--_n._ ROUND'-UP, the forming of upward curves: the bringing together of all the cattle in a ranch: a finishing of an arrangement: the convexity of a deck.--_adj._ ROUND'-WINGED, having rounded wings, as some British moths.--_n._ ROUND'-WORM, one of a class of worms (_Nematoda_) in which the body is elongated and more or less cylindrical, most of them parasitic--opposed to the flatworms or _Plathelminthes_, such as tapeworms and flukes.--ROUND ABOUT, in an opposite direction: an emphatic form of round; ROUND OF BEEF, a cut of the thigh, through and across the bone; ROUND OFF, to finish completely; ROUND TO, to turn the head of a ship to the wind.--ALL ROUND, in all respects; BRING ROUND (see BRING); COME ROUND (see COME); SCOLD ROUNDLY, to bring to book. [O. Fr. _roond_ (Fr. _rond_)--L. _rotundus_--_rota_, a wheel.] ROUNDEL, rown'del, _n._ anything of a round form or figure: a circle: a ring-dance, a rondel.--_n._ ROUN'DELAY, a round: a song in which parts are repeated: a dance in a ring. [O. Fr. _rondel_ (Fr. _rondeau_), dim. of _rond_, round.] ROUNDROBIN, rownd-rob'in, _n._ a name given to a protest signed by a number of persons in a circular form, so that no one shall be obliged to head the list. [Fr. _rond ruban_, round ribbon.] ROUNDURE, rown'd[=u]r, _n._ (_Shak._)=RONDURE. ROUP, rowp, _n._ (_Scot._) a sale by auction.--_v.t._ to sell by auction. ROUP, r[=oo]p, _n._ an infectious disease of the respiratory passages of poultry. ROUSE, rowz, _v.t._ to raise up: to stir up: to awaken: to excite to anything: to put into action: to startle or start, as an animal: to work about in salt, to roil.--_v.i._ to awake: to be excited to action.--_n._ the reveille.--_adv._ (_obs._) vehemently.--_adj._ ROUS'ANT (_her._), starting up, as a bird in the attitude of rising.--_ns._ ROUSE'MENT, an awakening religious discourse; ROUS'ER, one who, or that which, rouses, anything astonishing.--_adj._ ROUS'ING, having power to awaken: great, violent.--_adv._ ROUS'INGLY.--_adj._ ROUS'Y, noisy, riotous. [Scand., Sw. _rusa_, Dan. _ruse_, to rush.] ROUSE, rowz, _n._ a carousal: a bumper. [Scand., Sw. _rus_, drunkenness, Ice. _rúss_; cf. Dut. _roes_, Ger. _rausch_.] ROUSSETTE, r[=oo]-set', _n._ a fruit-eating bat: a dogfish. [Fr.] ROUST, rowst, _v.t._ to stir up.--_v.i._ to move energetically. ROUST, r[=oo]st, _n._ a current in the sea.--_v.i._ to drive strongly. ROUSTABOUT, rowst'a-bowt', _n._ (_Amer._) a common wharf labourer: a shiftless vagrant.--Also ROUS'TER. ROUT, rowt, _n._ a tumultuous crowd, a rabble: a large party: a fashionable evening assembly.--_n._ ROUT'-CAKE, a rich sweet cake for evening parties.--_adjs._ ROUT'ISH, clamorous: disorderly; ROUT'OUS. [O. Fr. _route_, a band--Low L. _rupta_, thing broken--L. _rump[)e]re_, _ruptum_, to break.] ROUT, rowt, _n._ the defeat of an army or body of troops: the disorder of troops defeated: a pack of wolves.--_v.i._ to assemble together.--_v.t._ to put to disorderly flight: to defeat and throw into confusion: to conquer: to drag out, or into the light.--PUT TO ROUT, to put to flight. [O. Fr. _route_--L. _ruptus_, _rupta_, pa.p. of _rump[)e]re_, to break.] ROUT, rowt, _v.i._ to roar like a cow: to snore: to howl like the wind. [A.S. _hrútan_, to roar.] ROUT, rowt, _v.t._ to root up, as a pig: to scoop out.--_v.i._ to poke about--also WROUT.--_n._ ROUT'ER, a sash-plane, as ROUT'ER-GAUGE, for inlaid work.--_v.t._ ROUT'ER, to cut out, leaving some parts in relief.--_ns._ ROUT'ER-PLANE, a plane for the bottoms of rectangular cavities; ROUT'ER-SAW; ROUT'ING-MACHINE', a shaping-machine for wood, metal, or stone. [_Root._] ROUT, rowt, _n._ the brent goose. [Ice. _hrota_.] ROUTE, r[=oo]t, _n._ a course to be traversed: a line of march: road: track.--_n._ ROUTE'-STEP, an order of march in which soldiers are not required to keep step.--STAR ROUTE, in the United States, a post route by means other than steam, the blank contracts for which have three groups of four stars. [Fr.,--L. _rupta_ (_via_), 'a broken way.'] ROUTH, rowth, _adj._ (_Scot._) plentiful, abundant--also _n._--_adj._ ROUTH'IE, plentiful, well filled. ROUTIER, r[=oo]-ti-[=a]', _n._ a French brigand of the 12th century: any brigand or armed robber. ROUTINE, r[=oo]-t[=e]n', _n._ course of duties: regular course of action: an unvarying round.--_adj._ keeping an unvarying round.--_adj._ ROUTI'NARY, customary, ordinary.--_ns._ ROUTINEER'; ROUTI'NISM; ROUTI'NIST. [Fr.] ROUTLE, row'tl, _v.t._ (_dial._) to disturb: to root out. ROUX, r[=oo], _n._ a mixture of melted butter and flour for soups, &c. [Fr.] ROVE, r[=o]v, _v.t._ to wander over: to plough into ridges.--_v.i._ to wander about: to ramble: to range: to aim, as in archery, at some casual mark: to be light-headed: to be full of fun.--_n._ a wandering.--_ns._ R[=O]'VER, one who roves: a robber or pirate: a wanderer: an inconstant person: in archery, a person shooting with a long bow and arrow: an arrow used by a rover: an irregular point to be aimed at: in croquet, a ball that has gone through all the hoops; R[=O]'VERY; R[=O]'VING, the act of wandering.--_adv._ R[=O]'VINGLY.--_n._ R[=O]'VINGNESS.--SHOOT AT ROVERS, to shoot at random. [M. E. _rover_, a robber--Dut. _roover_, a pirate, _rooven_, to rob--_roof_. The verb _rove_ is from the noun _roof_, plunder.] ROVE, r[=o]v, _v.t._ to draw through an eye: to bring wool into the form it receives before being spun into thread: to ravel out thread: to undo what has been knit: to card.--_n._ a roll of wool or cotton drawn out and twisted.--_ns._ R[=O]'VING, the process of giving the first twist to yarn: a slightly twisted sliver of carded fibre; R[=O]'VING-FRAME, a machine for the manufacture of cotton and worsted; R[=O]'VING-MACHINE', a machine for winding on bobbins; R[=O]'VING-PLATE, a scraper used for giving a grindstone a true circular form; R[=O]'VING-REEL, a device for measuring a hank of yarn. [Prob. a variant of _reeve_ or of _rive_.] ROVE-BEETLE, r[=o]v'-b[=e]'tl, _n._ a brachelytrous coleopterous insect, as the devil's coach-horse.--_n._ R[=O]'VER-BEE'TLE, a salt-water insect. ROW, r[=o], _n._ a line: a rank: persons or things in a line.--_v.t._ to arrange in a line. [A.S. _ráw_, _ráwe_; Ger. _reihe_, Dut. _rij_.] ROW, r[=o], _v.t._ to impel with an oar: to transport by rowing.--_v.i._ to work with the oar: to be moved by oars.--_n._ an excursion in a rowing-boat.--_adj._ ROW'ABLE.--_ns._ ROW'BOAT, a boat moved by rowers; ROW'ER; ROW'-PORT, a small square hole in small vessels near the water-line for the oars in a calm. [A.S. _rówan_; Ger. _rudern_, Ice. _róa_.] ROW, row, _n._ a noisy squabble: uproar: an outbreak: a brawl.--_v.t._ to injure by wild treatment: to abuse, scold.--_v.i._ to behave in a riotous way.--_adj._ ROW'DY, noisy and turbulent, given to quarrelling.--_n._ a rough, disreputable fellow.--_n._ ROW'DY-DOW, a sustained noise or hubbub, a row.--_adjs._ ROW'DY-DOW'DY, given to raising rows, uproarious; ROW'DYISH.--_ns._ ROW'DYISM, the conduct of a rowdy or rough, turbulence; ROW'ER, one given to quarrels. [Put for _rouse_ (q.v.).] ROW, row, _n._ (_Scot._) a form of _roll_.--_n._ ROW'-CLOTH, a folding cloak of warm cloth. ROWAN, row'an, _n._ the mountain-ash, or quicken-tree, a British tree belonging to the natural order _Rosaceæ_, whose acid fruit--ROWAN BERRIES--is sometimes used for preserves.--Also ROAN-TREE. [Scand., Sw. _röun_, Dan. _rön_, Ice. _reynir_.] ROWEL, row'el, _n._ the little wheel in a spur, set with sharp points: a little flat wheel or ring on horses' bits: a seton inserted in the flesh of an animal.--_v.t._ to put spurs on: to apply the spur to.--_ns._ ROW'EL-HEAD, the axis on which a rowel turns; ROW'ELING-NEED'LE, a needle used for inserting a rowel or seton; ROW'ELING-SCIS'SORS, a farrier's instrument for inserting rowels; ROW'EL-SPUR, a spur having several radiating points. [Fr. _rouelle_--Low L. _rotella_, dim. of L. _rota_, a wheel.] ROWEN, row'en, _n._ the aftermath, or second crop of hay: (_prov._) a stubble-field. ROWLOCK, r[=o]'lok, or rul'uk, _n._ a contrivance on the wale of a boat, to rest the oar in rowing.--Also ROLL'OCK, RULL'OCK. [Prob. A.S. _árlóc_.] ROWME, rowm, _n._ (_Spens._) room, space, place. ROXBURGHE, roks'bur-[=o], _n._ a style of binding for books, with cloth or paper sides, plain leather back, gilt-top, other sides untrimmed, named from the Duke of _Roxburghe_ (1740-1804). ROY, roi, _n._ (_obs._) a king. [O. Fr.,--L. _rex_, _regis_.] ROYAL, roi'al, _adj._ regal, kingly: magnificent: illustrious: magnanimous: enjoying the favour or patronage of the sovereign: of more than common size or excellence.--_n._ a large kind of paper (19 by 24 in. for writing-paper, 20 by 25 for printing-paper): (_obs._) a royal person, a king: a gold coin: a sail immediately above the topgallant sail: one of the shoots of a stag's head: a small mortar: a tuft of beard on the lower lip, an imperial.--_n._ ROY'ALET, a petty king.--_v.t._ ROY'ALISE (_Shak._), to make royal.--_ns._ ROY'ALISM, attachment to kings or to kingly government; ROY'ALIST, an adherent of royalism: a cavalier during the English civil war: in American history, an adherent of the British government: in French history, a supporter of the Bourbons--also _adj._--_adv._ ROY'ALLY.--_n._ ROY'AL-MAST, the fourth and highest part of the mast from the deck, commonly made in one piece with the topgallant mast.--_adj._ ROY'AL-RICH (_Tenn._), rich as a king.--_n._ ROY'ALTY, kingship: the character, state, or office of a king: majesty: the person of the king or sovereign: fixed sum paid to the Crown or other proprietor, as on the produce of a mine, &c.: kingdom: royal authority: a royal domain: (_Scot._) the bounds of a royal burgh.--ROYAL BOUNTY, a fund from which the sovereign grants money to the female relatives of officers who die of wounds; ROYAL CASHMERE, a thin material of pure wool; ROYAL FERN (_Osmunda regalis_), the most striking of British ferns; ROYAL HORNED CATERPILLAR, a large bombycid moth of the United States; ROYAL HOUSEHOLD, the body of persons in the service of the sovereign.--THE ROYALS, a name formerly given to the first regiment of foot in the British army. [Fr.,--L. _regalis_, regal.] ROYENA, roi'e-na, _n._ a genus of gamopetalous plants of the ebony family. [From the 18th-century Dutch botanist Adrian van _Royen_.] ROYNE, roin, _v.t._ to bite, to gnaw.--_adj._ ROY'NISH (_Shak._), scurvy, mangy: mean. [O. Fr. _rogne_, mange--L. _rubigo_, rust.] ROYNE, roin, _v.i._ to whisper, mutter.--Also ROIN, ROWND. [Cf. _Round_, to whisper.] ROYSTERER, roist'[.e]r-[.e]r, _n._ Same as ROISTERER. ROYTISH, roi'tish, _adj._ (_obs._) wild: irregular. RUB, rub, _v.t._ to move something over the surface of with pressure or friction: to clean, polish, or smooth, by passing something over: to wipe: to scour: to remove by friction (with _off_, _out_): to erase or obliterate (with _out_): to touch hard, fret: at bowls, to touch the jack with the bowl.--_v.i._ to move along with pressure, friction, or difficulty: to get through difficulties: to grate, to fret:--_pr.p._ rub'bing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ rubbed.--_n._ the act of rubbing: that which rubs: a collision: an obstruction: difficulty: a pinch: a joke: a sarcasm: a flaw: a rubber at cards.--_ns._ RUB'-A-DUB, the sound of the drum when beaten; RUB'-[=I]'RON, a wheel-guard, or wheel-guard plate; RUB'STONE, a whetstone: a coarse-grained sandstone used for sharpening instruments.--RUBBED WORK, work in stone smoothed by rubbing with gritstone; RUB DOWN, to rub from top to bottom; RUB IN, to force into the pores of by friction: to reiterate or emphasise; RUB OUT, to erase; RUB THE WRONG WAY, to irritate by opposition; RUB UP, to polish: to freshen the memory. [Most prob. Celt.; Gael. _rub_, W. _rhwbio_, to rub, to grind.] RUBASSE, r[=oo]-bas', _n._ a beautiful variety of rock-crystal. [Fr.,--L. _rubeus_, reddish.] RUBATO, r[=oo]-bä'to, _adj._ (_mus._) in modified or distorted rhythm. [It., pa.p. of _rubare_, to steal.] RUBBER, rub'[.e]r, _n._ one who rubs down horses: one who practises massage: a coarse towel for rubbing the body: a piece of caoutchouc for erasing pencil-marks, india-rubber: a brush for erasing marks of chalk: the cushion of an electric machine: a whetstone, a file: an emery-cloth: an overshoe: a rub, as 'One who plays with bowls must expect to meet with rubbers': a contest of three games, as at whist--also the deciding game in such a series.--_adj._ made of caoutchouc or india-rubber.--_ns._ RUBB'ER-CLOTH, a fabric coated with caoutchouc; RUBB'ER-DAM, a sheet of caoutchouc used by dentists to keep saliva out of a tooth while being filled; RUBB'ER-GAUGE, a device for measuring the amount of india-rubber needed to make a given article; RUBB'ER-MOULD, a vulcanite mould used by dentists in shaping the plates for artificial teeth; RUBB'ER-MOUNT'ING, in saddlery, harness-mounting with vulcanite in imitation of leather-work.--_n.pl._ RUBB'ERS, a disease in sheep, with great heat and itchiness.--_ns._ RUBB'ER-SAW, a circular rotatory knife for cutting india-rubber; RUBB'ER-STAMP, an instrument for stamping by hand with ink, the letters, &c., being in flexible vulcanised rubber; RUBB'ER-TYPE, a type cast in rubber; RUBB'ING, an application of friction: a copy of an inscribed surface produced by rubbing heel-ball or plumbago upon paper laid over it.--_ns._ RUBB'ING-MACHINE', a machine used in linen bleaching; RUBB'ING-POST, a stone or wooden post set up for cattle to rub themselves against; RUBB'ING-STONE, a gritstone for erasing the marks on a stone. RUBBISH, rub'ish, _n._ waste matter: the fragments of ruinous buildings: any mingled mass: nonsense: trash: trumpery: litter.--_n._ RUBB'ISH-HEAP, a pile of rubbish.--_adj._ RUBB'ISHING, trashy: paltry.--_n._ RUBB'ISH-PULL'EY, a gin-block.--_adj._ RUBB'ISHY, worthless. [M. E. _robows_, _robeux_--O. Fr. _robeux_, pl. of _robel_, dim. of _robe_, _robbe_, trash, whence also _rubble_; cf. It. _roba_, rubbish, spoil.] RUBBLE, rub'l, _n._ the upper fragmentary decomposed matter of a mass of rock: water-worn stones: small, undressed stones used in coarse masonry.--_ns._ RUBB'LE-STONE (same as RUBBLE): also (_geol._) a kind of conglomerate rock; RUBB'LE-WORK, a coarse kind of masonry of stones left almost as they come from the quarry, or only dressed a little with the hammer.--_adj._ RUBB'LY. [O. Fr. _robel_, pl. _robeux_, dim. of _robe_, _robbe_, _rubbish_; cf. It. _roba_, and the cognate _rob_.] RUBECULA, r[=oo]-bek'[=u]-la, _n._ a genus of birds, such as the robin redbreast. [L. _rub[=e]re_, to be red.] RUBEDITY, r[=oo]-bed'i-ti, _n._ ruddiness.--_adj._ RUBED'INOUS. [L. _rubedo_, redness--_rub[=e]re_, to be red.] RUBEFACIENT, r[=oo]b-e-f[=a]'shent, _adj._ making ruby or red.--_n._ (_med._) an external application which stimulates and consequently reddens the skin.--_n._ RUBEFAC'TION, the effect or action of a rubefacient. [L. _rub[=e]re_, to be red, _faciens_, _-entis_, _pr.p._ of _fac[)e]re_, to make.] RUBELLA, r[=oo]-bel'a, _n._ a contagious disease, with rose-coloured eruption.--Also RUB[=E]'OLA, and _German measles_. RUBESCENT, r[=oo]-bes'ent, _adj._ tending to a red colour.--_n._ RUBES'CENCE, a growing or becoming red: tendency to redness. [L. _rubesc[)e]re_, to grow red--_ruber_, red.] RUBIA, r[=oo]'bi-a, _n._ a genus of gamopetalous plants, including the madder.--_n._ RU'BIAN, a colour-producing matter of madder.--_adj._ RUBIAN'IC.--_n._ RU'BIATE. [L.,--_rubeus_, reddish, _rub[=e]re_, to be red.] RUBICAN, r[=oo]'bi-kan, _adj._ of a bay, sorrel, or black colour, with some light-gray or white on the flanks: of a red predominant over gray colour. [Fr.,--L. _rubric[=a]re_, to colour red.] RUBICEL, RUBICELLE, r[=oo]'bi-sel, _n._ an orange or flame-coloured variety of spinel. RUBICON, r[=oo]b'i-kon, _n._ a stream of Central Italy, forming the boundary in the republican period of ancient Roman history between the province of Gallia Cisalpina and Italia proper.--PASS THE RUBICON, to take a decisive, irrevocable step, as Julius Cæsar's crossing this stream, the limit of his province--a virtual declaration of war against the republic. RUBICUND, r[=oo]'bi-kund, _adj._ inclining to redness: ruddy.--_n._ RUBICUN'DITY. [Fr.,--L. _rubicundus_, very red--_rub[=e]re_, to be red.] RUBIDIUM, r[=oo]-bid'i-um, _n._ a soft silvery-white metallic element. [L. _rubidus_, red.] RUBIFY, r[=oo]'bi-f[=i], _v.t._ to make red.--_adj._ RUBIF'IC.--_n._ RUBIFIC[=A]'TION.--_adj._ RU'BIFORM. [Fr.,--L. _rubefac[)e]re_--_rub[=e]re_, to be red, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] RUBIGO, r[=oo]-b[=i]'g[=o], _n._ a kind of rust on plants: mildew.--_adjs._ RUBIG'INOSE, brown-red; RUBIG'INOUS. [L., rust.] RUBINE, r[=oo]'bin, _n._ an aniline dye.--_adj._ RUBIN'EOUS, of a glassy semi-transparent crimson. [L. _rubeus_, red.] RUBIRETIN, r[=oo]-bi-ret'in, _n._ a resinous colouring matter in madder. [L. _rubeus_, red, Gr. _hr[=e]tin[=e]_, resin.] RUBLE, ROUBLE, r[=oo]'bl, _n._ the unit of the Russian money system, divided into 100 copecks--the present silver ruble is equivalent to 2s. 1½d. [Russ. _rubl[)i]_--_rubit[)i]_, cut off, prob. from Pers. _r[=u]p[=i]ya_, a rupee.] RUBRIC, r[=oo]'brik, _n._ the directions for the service, in office-books, formerly in red letters: any heading, guiding, rule, &c. printed conspicuously in red: a flourish after a signature: a thing definitely settled: red ochre.--_v.t._ to enjoin services.--_adjs._ RU'BRIC, -AL, agreeing with a rubric.--_adv._ RU'BRICALLY, over formally.--_v.t._ RU'BRICATE, to illuminate with red letters: to formulate as a rubric.--_adj._ represented in red.--_ns._ RUBRIC[=A]'TION, that which is illuminated; RUBRIC[=A]'TOR, one who rubricates; RUBRIC'IAN, one versed in the rubric; RUBRIC'ITY, accordance with the rubric.--_adj._ RU'BRICOSE (_bot._), marked with red.--_n._ RU'BRISHER (_obs._), a painter of ornamental letters in early manuscripts. [L. _rubrica_, red earth--_ruber_, red.] RUBUS, r[=oo]'bus, _n._ a genus of rosaceous plants including the raspberry, &c. [L., a bramble-bush.] RUBY, r[=oo]'bi, _n._ a pure transparent red-coloured corundum, inferior in hardness to the diamond only among gems: redness, anything red: (_her._) the tincture red or gules: (_print._) a type smaller than nonpareil and larger than pearl--5½ points in the new system: the red bird of Paradise: the ruby hummer of Brazil.--_adj._ red.--_v.t._ to make red:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ ru'bied.--_adj._ RU'BIED (_Shak._), red as a ruby.--_n._ RU'BINE (_Spens._), same as RUBY.--_adj._ RU'BIOUS (_Shak._), ruby, red, ruddy.--_ns._ RU'BY-BLENDE, a clear red variety of zinc sulphide: ruby silver; RU'BY-TAIL, a gold-wasp, or cuckoo-fly.--_adj._ RU'BY-THROAT'ED, like a humming-bird, with a ruby gorget.--_ns._ RU'BY-T[=I]'GER, a British moth; RU'BY-WOOD, red sandalwood.--ROCK RUBY, a ruby-red garnet. [O. Fr. _rubi_--L. _rubeus_--_ruber_, red.] RUCERVUS, r[=oo]-ser'vus, _n._ a genus of East Indian _Cervidæ_.--_adj._ RUCER'VINE. RUCHE, r[=oo]sh, _n._ a plaited frilling.--Also RUCH'ING. [Fr., prob. Celt., Bret. _rusk_.] RUCK, ruk, _n._ a wrinkle, fold, or crease.--_v.t._ to wrinkle, to crease: to annoy, ruffle.--_v.i._ to have a folded, wrinkled, or ridgy surface. [Ice. _hrukka_, a wrinkle.] RUCK, ruk, _v.i._ to squat: to crouch down: to cower: to huddle together.--_v.t._ to perch, to roost. RUCK, ruk, _n._ a crowd: a press: the common run: trash, nonsense.--_v.t._ to gather in heaps. [Prob. Scand.; Old Sw. _ruka_, a heap.] RUCK, ruk, _n._ a small heifer. RUCKLE, ruk'l, _n._ (_Scot._) a rattling noise in the throat, as from suffocation.--_v.i._ to emit such a sound. [Prob. cog. with Dut. _rogchelen_, to hawk.] RUCTATION, ruk-t[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of belching: eructation. [L. _ruct[=a]re_, to belch.] RUCTION, ruk'shun, _n._ (_slang_) a vexation: a disturbance: a rumpus. [Prob. a corr. of _eruption_.] RUD, rud, _n._ redness: blush: flush: red ochre for marking sheep.--_v.t._ to make red. [A.S. _rudu_, redness, _reódan_, to redden.] RUD, rud, _v.t._ (_prov._) to rub: to polish. RUDAS, r[=oo]'das, _n._ (_Scot._) a foul-mouthed old woman: a randy, a hag.--_adj._ bold, coarse. RUDBECKIA, rud-bek'i-a, _n._ a genus of composite plants, abundant in the eastern and central United States, the cone-flowers. [Named from the Swedish botanist Olaus _Rudbeck_ (1630-1702).] RUDD, rud, _n._ the fish red-eye. RUDDER, rud'[.e]r, _n._ the instrument by which a ship is rowed or steered, its primitive form an oar working at the stern: that which guides anything: a bird's tail-feather.--_ns._ RUDD'ER-BAND, a gearing with which the rudder is braced when the ship is at anchor; RUDD'ER-BRACE, a strap to receive a pintle of the rudder; RUDD'ER-BRAKE, a compressor for controlling the rudder in a seaway; RUDD'ER-CHAIN, a strong chain often shackled to the after-part of a rudder to prevent its loss; RUDD'ER-COAT, a covering of tarred canvas used to prevent water rushing in at the rudder-hole; RUDD'ER-FISH, the pilot-fish: the amber-fish: the barrel-fish.--_adj._ RUDD'ERLESS, having no rudder.--_ns._ RUDD'ER-POST, the shank of a rudder, having the blade at one end and the attachments at the other; RUDD'ER-STOCK, the blade of the rudder, connected by hinges with the sternpost of a vessel; RUDD'ER-TRUNK, a casing of wood fitted into the post, through which the rudder-stock is inserted; RUDD'ER-WHEEL, a small wheel at the end of a plough helping to guide it. [A.S. _róther_; Ger. _ruder_, an oar.] RUDDER, rud'[.e]r, _n._ a riddle or sieve.--_v.t._ RUDD'LE, to sift together: to mix, as through a sieve. RUDDLE, rud'l, _v.t._ to interweave: to cross-plait, as in making lattice-work. [_Raddle_.] RUDDLE, rud'l, _n._ a species of red earth, red ochre: (_obs._) ruddiness.--_v.t._ to mark with ruddle--also RADD'LE, REDD'LE.--_n._ RUDD'LEMAN=_Reddleman_. [A.S. _rudu_, redness--_reád_, red.] RUDDOC, RUDDOCK, rud'uk, _n._ (_Spens._) the redbreast: a gold coin: a kind of apple. [A.S. _rudduc_--_rudu_, redness--_reád_, red.] RUDDY, rud'i (_comp._ RUDD'IER, _superl._ RUDD'IEST), _adj._ red: of the colour of the skin in high health: rosy, glowing, bright.--_v.t._ to make red.--_adv._ RUDD'ILY.--_ns._ RUDD'INESS; RUDD'Y-DIV'ER, -DUCK, an American duck with wedge-shaped tail; RUDD'Y-RUDD'ER, the long-eared sun-fish. [A.S. _rudig_, _rudi_--_rudu_, redness--_reád_, red.] RUDE, r[=oo]d (_comp._ RU'DER, _superl._ RU'DEST), _adj._ crude: uncultivated: barbarous: rough: harsh: ignorant: uncivil: not smoothed: of low rank: mean: savage: brutal: ferocious: ill-bred: boorish: stormy: robust: not in good taste.--_adj._ RUDE'-GROW'ING, rough: wild.--_adv._ RUDE'LY.--_ns._ RUDE'NESS; RUDES'BY (_Shak._), an uncivil fellow. [Fr.,--L. _rudis_, rough.] RUDENTURE, r[=oo]-den't[=u]r, _n._ the figure of a rope with which the flutings of columns are sometimes filled.--_adj._ RUDEN'TED. [Fr.] RUDERAL, r[=oo]'de-ral, _adj._ (_bot._) growing in waste places or among rubbish.--_n._ RUDER[=A]'TION, the act of paving with small stones and mortar. [L. _rudus_, rubbish.] RUDESHEIMER, rü'des-h[=i]-m[.e]r, _n._ one of the white Rhine wines highly esteemed--named from _Rüdesheim_ on the Rhine, opposite Bingen. RUDGE, ruj, _n._ (_prov._) a partridge. RUDGE-WASH, ruj'-wash, _n._ kersey cloth made of fleece wool as it comes from the sheep's back. RUDIMENT, r[=oo]d'i-ment, _n._ anything in its rude or first state: a first principle or element: (_pl._) the introduction to any science: (_biol._) that which is in its first stage of development: the beginning of any part or organ, that which is vestigial, an aborted part.--_v.t._ to ground: to settle in first principles.--_adjs._ RUDIMEN'TAL, RUDIMEN'TARY, pertaining to, consisting in, or containing rudiments or first principles: initial: elementary: undeveloped: (_biol._) beginning to be formed: arrested in development.--_adv._ RUDIMEN'TARILY.--_n._ RUDIMENT[=A]'TION. RUDMAS-DAY, rud'mas-d[=a], _n._ Holy Rood Day. RUE, r[=oo], _n._ a plant of any species of genus _Ruta_, with bitter leaves and greenish-yellow flowers--an emblem of bitterness and grief--called _Herb of grace_: any bitter infusion.--_ns._ RUE'-ANEM'ONE, an American wild-flower; RUE'-WORT, a plant of the rue family. [Fr. _rue_--L. _ruta_--Gr. _rhyt[=e]_.] RUE, r[=oo], _v.t._ to be sorry for: to lament: to repent of: to compassionate: to try to withdraw from, as a bargain.--_v.i._ to be sorrowful: to suffer: to have pity upon:--_pr.p._ rue'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ rued.--_n._ sorrow.--_n._ RUE'-BAR'GAIN, a forfeit for withdrawing from a bargain.--_adj._ RUE'FUL, sorrowful: piteous: deplorable: mournful: melancholy.--_adv._ RUE'FULLY.--_ns._ RUE'FULNESS; RU'ING, repentance. [A.S. _hreówan_, to be sorry for--_hreów_, sorrow; Ger. _reue_, Old High Ger. _hriuwa_, mourning.] RUELLE, r[=oo]-el', _n._ the space between the bed and the wall, a bed-chamber where great French ladies held receptions in the morning in the 17th and 18th centuries. [Fr., a lane--L. _ruga_, a wrinkle.] RUELLIA, r[=oo]-el'i-a, _n._ a genus of gamopetalous plants, tropical and American--the _manyroot_, _spiritleaf_, _Christmas-pride_ of Jamaica, &c. [From the 16th-century French botanist, Jean _Ruel_.] RUFESCENCE, r[=oo]-fes'ens, _n._ reddishness.--_adj._ RUFES'CENT. [L. _rufesc[)e]re_, to grow reddish--_rufus_, red.] RUFF, ruf, _n._ an ornament of frills formerly worn round the neck: anything plaited: a bird belonging to the sandpiper sub-family of the Snipe family, the male with an erectile ruff during the breeding season--_fem._ REEVE: a band of long hair growing round the neck of some dogs: (_mach._) an annular ridge formed on a shaft to prevent motion endwise: a breed of domestic pigeons: (_obs._) a display.--_v.t._ to pucker: to draw up in folds: to ruffle, disorder: in falconry, to hit without trussing: (_Scot._) to applaud by making noise with hands or feet.--_adj._ RUFFED, having a ruff, as the ruffed grouse. [Prob. _ruffle_.] RUFF, ruf, _n._ an old game at cards: the act of trumping when the player has no cards of the suit left.--_v.t._ to trump in this way. [Perh. conn. with It. _ronfa_, a card-game.] RUFF, ruf, _n._ ruggedness.--_v.t._ to heckle flax on a coarse heckle: to nap hats.--_n._ RUFF'ER, a coarse heckle for flax.--_adj._ RUFF'Y-TUFF'Y, disordered, rough.--_adv._ helter-skelter, pell-mell. RUFF, ruf, _n._ a low vibrating beat of a drum. RUFF, ruf, _n._ a small fresh-water fish of the Perch family, abundant in England, about six inches long, with only one dorsal fin.--Also _Pope_. RUFFIAN, ruf'i-an, _n._ a brutal, boisterous fellow: a robber: a murderer: a pander.--_adj._ brutal: boisterous: licentious: stormy.--_v.i._ to play the ruffian, to rage.--_n._ RUFF'IANAGE.--_adj._ RUFF'IANISH, having the qualities or manners of a ruffian.--_n._ RUFF'IANISM, conduct of a ruffian.--_adjs._ RUFF'IANLY, like a ruffian: violent; RUFF'INOUS (_obs._), ruffianly, outrageously. [O. Fr. _ruffian_ (Fr. _rufien_; It. _rufiano_), prob. from Old Dut. _roffen_, _roffelen_, a pander.] RUFFIN, ruf'in, _n._ (_Spens._) the ruff-fish. RUFFLE, ruf'l, _v.t._ to make like a ruff, to wrinkle: to form into plaits: to form with ruffles: to disorder: to agitate.--_v.i._ to grow rough: to flutter.--_n._ annoyance: a quarrel: a plaited article of dress: a tumult: agitation.--_adj._ RUFF'LED.--_ns._ RUFF'LEMENT; RUFF'LER, a machine for making ruffles; RUFF'LING, ruffles generally.--RUFFLE ONE'S FEATHERS, to make one angry. [Cf. Dut. _ruifelen_, to wrinkle, _ruyffel_, a wrinkle.] RUFFLE, ruf'l, _v.i._ to act turbulently: to swagger.--_v.t._ to bully.--_n._ RUFF'LER, a bully. [_Ruffian._] RUFOUS, r[=oo]'fus, _adj._ reddish or brownish-red: having reddish hair.--_adj._ RU'F[=U]LOUS, somewhat rufous. [L. _rufus_, akin to _ruber_, red.] RUG, rug, _n._ a coarse, rough woollen cloth or coverlet: a soft, woolly mat: a cover for a bed: a blanket or coverlet: a covering for the floor: a travelling robe: a rough, shaggy dog: a kind of strong liquor.--_n._ RUG'GING, heavy napped cloth for rugs: a coarse cloth for horse-boots. [Scand., Sw. _rugg_; cf. _Rough_.] RUG, rug, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to pull roughly.--_n._ a tug.--GET A RUG, to get a haul at something desirable. RUG, rug, _adj._ (_prov._) snug: warm. RUGA, r[=oo]'ga, _n._ a fold: a crease: a corrugation.--_adj._ RU'GATE. [L., a fold.] RUGBY, rug'bi, _n._ the game of football according to the rules of the _Rugby_ Football Union (1871), the sides numbering 15 each, played on ground 110 by 75 yards. RUGGED, rug'ed, _adj._ rough: uneven: shaggy: sour: stormy: grating to the ear: wrinkled: ruffled: homely: unpolished: rough: ungentle: (_U.S._) robust.--_adv._ RUGG'EDLY.--_n._ RUGG'EDNESS.--_adjs._ RUGG'Y, rough: uneven; RUG'-HEAD'ED, shock-headed. [Scand.; cf. _Rug_.] RUGINE, r[=oo]'jin, _n._ a surgeon's rasp, a nappy cloth.--_v.t._ to use a rugine. [Fr.] RUGOSA, r[=oo]-g[=o]'sa, _n._ an order of sclerodermatous stone corals. RUGOSE, r[=oo]'g[=o]s, _adj._ wrinkled: full of wrinkles: (_bot._) having the veinlets sunken and the spaces between them elevated, as the leaves of the sage--also RU'GOUS.--_adv._ RU'GOSELY.--_n._ RUGOS'ITY.--_adj._ RU'G[=U]LOSE. [L. _rugosus_--_ruga_, a wrinkle.] RUIN, r[=oo]'in, _n._ a rushing or falling down violently: destruction: overthrow: that which destroys: the remains of a building demolished or decayed (usually in _pl._): the state of being ruined: wreck, material or moral.--_v.t._ to demolish: to destroy: to defeat: to impoverish: to bring to ruin: to undo: to spoil: to seduce, debauch.--_v.i._ to run to ruin: to fall into decay: to do irreparable harm.--_adj._ RU'INABLE (_Bacon_), capable of being ruined.--_v.t._ RU'IN[=A]TE (_Shak._), to ruin, to destroy: to demolish: to reduce to poverty.--_v.i._ (_Spens._) to fall:--_pr.p._ ru'in[=a]ting; _pa.p._ ru'in[=a]ted.--_adj._ (_obs._) falling to ruin: ruined.--_ns._ RUIN[=A]'TION, overthrow: subversion; RU'INER.--_adjs._ RU'INIFORM, having the appearance of ruins; RU'INOUS, fallen to ruins: decayed: pernicious.--_adv._ RU'INOUSLY.--_n._ RU'INOUSNESS, the state or quality of being ruinous: mischievousness. [Fr.,--L. _ruina_--_ru[)e]re_, to tumble down.] RULE, r[=oo]l, _n._ government: a principle: a standard: a statute, a maxim, formula, or order: an instrument used in drawing lines or making calculations mechanically: a minor law, something established for guidance and direction, esp. the regulations of monasteries, corporate societies, &c.: the limits of a prison (esp. in _pl._): conformity to rule, uniformity: in American parliamentary law, the regulations adopted by a deliberative body for the regulation of its proceedings: (_gram._) the expression of some established form of construction: the description of a process for solving a problem: a general proposition, as 'Failure is the rule, success the exception': (_law_) an order regulating the court: (_print._) a thin strip of rolled brass, cut type high, used for printing: in plastering, a strip of wood on the face of the wall as a guide to assist in keeping the plane surface.--_v.t._ to dispose: to regulate: to dominate: to govern: to manage: to prevail upon: to settle as by a rule: to establish by decision: to determine, as a court: to mark with lines.--_v.i._ to exercise power (with _over_): to decide: to lay down and settle: to stand or range, as prices.--_adj._ RU'LABLE, governable: allowable.--_ns._ RULE'-CASE (_print._), a tray with partitions for rules; RULE'-CUT'TER (_print._), a machine for cutting brass rules into short lengths; RULE'-DRILL'ER, a teacher who teaches by rote; RULE'-JOINT, a pivoted joint used by surveyors, &c.--_adj._ RULE'LESS, lawless.--_ns._ RULE'LESSNESS; RULE'-MONG'ER, a stickler for rules; RU'LER, a sovereign: a governor: an instrument used in drawing lines: in engraving, a straight steel bar employed in engraving the lines; RU'LERSHIP; RULE'-WORK (_print._), work with many rules, as tables of figures, &c.--_adj._ RU'LING, predominant: prevailing: reigning.--_n._ the determination by a judge, esp. an oral decision: the act of making ruled lines.--_n._ RU'LING-EN'GINE, a machine for ruling diffraction gratings.--_adv._ RU'LINGLY.--_ns._ RU'LING-MACHINE', a machine used by engravers for ruling in flat tints: a machine for ruling parallel coloured lines upon writing-paper; RU'LING-PEN, a form of pen for drawing lines of even thickness; SLID'ING-RULE, a rule having one or more scales which slide over others for the purpose of facilitating calculations.--RULE OF FAITH, not the sum of the Christian faith as laid down in creeds and confessions, but, in polemical theology, the sources whence the doctrines of the faith are to be authoritatively derived--the Scriptures, the tradition of the Church, the teaching of the Fathers, &c.; RULE OF THE ROAD, the regulations to be observed in the movements of conveyances either on land or at sea--thus in England drivers, riders, and cyclists take the left side in meeting, and the right in passing; RULE OF THREE, the method of finding the fourth term when three are given; RULE OF THUMB, any rough process of measurement.--A RULE TO SHOW CAUSE, or A RULE NISI, a rule which is conditional (see NISI); As a rule, on the whole; ONE HOUR RULE, a rule prohibiting members of the United States House of Representatives speaking more than an hour. [O. Fr. _reule_ (Fr. _règle_)--L. _regula_--_reg[)e]re_, to rule.] RULE, r[=oo]l, _n._ revelry.--_v.i._ to revel. [_Revel._] RULLION, rul'yon, _n._ a shoe made of untanned leather: a coarse woman: (_Scot._) an ill-conditioned beast. [A.S. _rifeling_, a kind of shoe.] RUM, rum, _n._ a spirit distilled from the fermented juice of the sugar-cane, or from molasses.--_ns._ RUM'-BARGE, a warm drink; RUM'-BLOSS'OM, -BUD, a pimple on the nose; RUM'-CHERR'Y, the wild black cherry of North America; RUM'-SELL'ER (_U.S._), the keeper of a rum-shop; RUM'-SHOP; RUM'-SHRUB, a liqueur of rum, sugar, lime or lemon juice, &c. [Abbrev. of _rumbullion_; prob. related to _rumble_.] RUM, rum, _adj._ good: queer, droll, odd.--_n._ any odd person or thing.--_adv._ RUM'LY, finely (used ironically). [A Gipsy word, _rom_, a husband.] RUMAL, r[=oo]'mal, _n._ a handkerchief: a small shawl or veil.--Also ROO'MAL, RO'MAL. [Hind.] RUMBLE, rum'bl, _v.i._ to make a confused noise from rolling heavily: to roll about.--_v.t._ to rattle.--_n._ a low, heavy, continued sound: a jarring roar, rumour: confusion: a seat for servants behind a carriage: a revolving box in which articles are polished by mutual attrition.--_ns._ RUM'BLER; RUM'BLE-TUM'BLE, a rumble-seat; RUM'BLING, a low, heavy, continued sound.--_adv._ RUM'BLINGLY. [Teut.; found in Dut. _rommelen_, _rummeln_.] RUMBO, rum'b[=o], _n._ a strong liquor.--_n._ RUMBOOZE', a tipple: a mixed drink. [_Rum._] RUMBULLION, rum-bul'yon, _n._ a great tumult: a strong liquor.--Also RUMBOUL'ING. RUMEN, r[=oo]'men, _n._ the paunch and first stomach of a ruminant:--_pl._ RU'MINA. [L.] RUMEX, r[=oo]'meks, _n._ a genus of apetalous plants to which belong dock and sorrel, &c. RUMFUSTIAN, rum-fus'tyan, _n._ a hot drink of sherry, eggs, &c. RUMGUMPTION, rum-gump'shun, _n._ (_Scot._) rough and homely common-sense: shrewdness of intellect--also RUM'BLEGUMP'TION.--_adj._ RUMGUMP'TIOUS, shrewd: sharp. RUMINANT, r[=oo]'mi-nant, _adj._ having the power of ruminating or chewing the cud--also RU'MINAL.--_n._ an animal that chews the cud, as the ox, &c.--_n.pl._ RUMINAN'TIA, the even-toed or Artiodactyl Ungulates, which chew the cud--the _Tragulidæ_, often called musk-deer; the _Cotylophora_, including antelopes, sheep, goats, oxen, giraffes, deer; the _Camelidæ_, or camels and llamas.--_adv._ RU'MINANTLY.--_v.i._ RU'MIN[=A]TE, to chew the cud: to meditate.--_v.t._ to chew over again: to muse on.--_adj._ (_bot._) appearing as if chewed, as in the nutmeg, &c.--_adv._ RU'MIN[=A]TINGLY.--_n._ RUMIN[=A]'TION, act of chewing the cud: calm reflection.--_adj._ RU'MINATIVE, well-considered.--_n._ RU'MIN[=A]TOR. [L. _rumin[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_rumen_, the gullet.] RUMKIN, rum'kin, _n._ (_obs._) a kind of drinking-vessel. RUMKIN, rum'kin, _n._ a tailless fowl. RUMMAGE, rum'[=a]j, _v.t._ to turn things over in search: to clear a ship's hold of goods: to pack: to stow closely: to ransack: to explore: to bring to light: to stir.--_v.i._ to make a search.--_n._ a careful search: an upheaval.--_n._ RUMM'AGER.--RUMMAGE SALE, a sale of unclaimed goods. [_Room-age._] RUMMER, rum'[.e]r, _n._ a large drinking-glass. [Dut. _roemer_; Ger. _römer_--prob. from such being used in the _Römersaal_ at Frankfurt.] RUMMY, rum'i, _adj._ rum: queer. RUMOUR, r[=oo]'mur, _n._ flying report; a current story.--_v.t._ to report: to circulate by report.--_adj._ RU'MOROUS, vaguely heard.--_n._ RU'MOURER (_Shak._), a reporter, a spreader of news. [Fr.,--L. _rumor_, a noise.] RUMP, rump, _n._ the end of the backbone of an animal with the parts adjacent.--_n._ RUM'PER.--_adj._ RUMP'-FED (_Shak._), fattened in the rump, fat-bottomed.--_adj._ RUMP'LESS, having no tail.--_ns._ RUMP'-POST, the share bone or pygostyle of a bird; RUMP'-STEAK, steak cut from the thigh near the rump.--THE RUMP, the remnant of the Long Parliament, after Col. Pryde's expulsion of about a hundred Presbyterian royalist members. [Ice. _rumpr_, Ger. _rumpf_, Dut. _rumpe_.] RUMPLE, rum'pl, _v.t._ to crush out of shape: to make uneven.--_n._ a fold or wrinkle. [A variant of _rimple_. A.S. _hrimpan_, to wrinkle; Dut. _rompelen_.] RUMPUS, rum'pus, _n._ an uproar: a disturbance. RUMSWIZZLE, rum'swiz'l, _n._ a cloth made in Ireland from pure wool undyed. RUN, run, _v.i._ to move swiftly on the legs, to hasten, rush on: to move, travel, ply regularly to: to pass by: to have a certain form: (_law_) to have legal authority: to be current, as money: to average: to reach, have course in any direction: to make a fault, to slip, as thread in knitting: to stand as a candidate: to pass from one state to another: to pass quickly in thought, to dwell repeatedly upon in thought: to continue in operation, be in constant motion, to be carried, to extend: to move swiftly: to pass quickly on the ground: to flee: to go, as ships, &c.: to have course in any direction, to extend, spread: to flow: to dart: to turn: to extend through a period: to pierce: to fuse or melt: to turn or rotate: to be busied: to become: to be in force: to discharge matter, as a sore: to have a general tendency: to pass, fall: to creep: to press with immediate demands for payment, as a bank.--_v.t._ to cause to move swiftly, to keep running: to force forward: to push: to cause to pass: to fuse: to discharge, as a sore: to pursue in thought: to incur: to pour forth: to execute: to chase: to break through, as to run the blockade: to pierce: to sew: to fish in: to evade: to manage: to tease:--_pr.p._ run'ning; _pa.t._ ran; _pa.p._ run, as '_run_ brandy,' that which has been smuggled in.--_n._ act of running: course: flow: discharge from a sore: distance sailed: voyage: continued series: general reception: prevalence: popular clamour: an unusual pressure, as on a bank, for payment: a trip: the run of events: a small stream: the quantity run: the act of migrating: in base-ball, the complete circuit made by the player which enables him to score one: in cricket, a passing from one wicket to another, by which one point is scored: a range of pasturage: a pair of millstones: the aftermost part of a ship's bottom: (_mus._) a succession of consecutive notes: a roulade.--_ns._ RUN'ABOUT, a gadabout: a vagabond: an open wagon; RUN'AWAY, one who runs away from danger or restraint: a fugitive.--_adj._ fleeing from danger or restraint: done by or in flight.--_ns._ RUN'LET, RUN'NEL, a little run or stream: a brook; RUN'MAN, a deserter from a ship-of-war; RUN'NER, one who, or that which, runs: a racer: a messenger, agent, one employed to solicit patronage: a rooting stem that runs along the ground: a rope to increase the power of a tackle: a deserter: a smuggler: a manager of an engine: a Bow Street officer: in saddlery, a loop of metal through which a rein is passed: that on which anything slides: in moulding, a channel cut in a mould: the rotating-stone of a grinding-mill: the movable piece to which the ribs of an umbrella are attached: a tool in which lenses are fastened for polishing: a vessel for conveying fish, oysters, &c.--_adj._ RUN'NING, kept for the race: successive: continuous: flowing: easy: cursive: discharging matter.--_prep._ (_coll._) approaching or about.--_n._ act of moving swiftly: that which runs or flows, the quantity run: a discharge from a wound: the act of one who risks dangers, as in running a blockade: strength to run: the ranging of any animal.--_n._ RUN'NING-BLOCK, a block in an arrangement of pulleys.--_n.pl._ RUN'NING-DAYS, the days occupied on a voyage, &c., under a charter, including Sundays.--_ns._ RUN'NING-FIGHT, a fight kept up between one party that flees and another that pursues; RUN'NING-FIRE (_mil._), a rapid succession of firing; RUN'NING-GEAR, the wheels and axles of a vehicle; RUN'NING-HAND, a style of rapid writing without lifting the pen; RUN'NING-KNOT, a knot made so as to form a noose when the rope is pulled.--_n.pl._ RUN'NING-LIGHTS, the lights shown by vessels between sunset and sunrise.--_adv._ RUN'NINGLY.--_ns._ RUN'NING-OR'NAMENT, an ornament in which the design is continuous; RUN'NING-REIN, a form of driving-rein; RUN'NING-RIG'GING, all the rigging except the shrouds, stays, and lower mast-head pendants; RUN'NING-THRUSH, a disease in the feet of horses; RUN'NING-T[=I]'TLE, the title of a book, &c., continued from page to page on the upper margin; RUN'NING-TRAP, a pipe so formed as to be a seal against the passage of gases; RUN'WAY, a trail, track, or passage-way.--RUN ACROSS, to come upon by accident; RUN AWAY WITH, to carry away in uncontrollable fright: to carry off in fleeing; RUN DOWN, to chase to exhaustion: to run against and sink, as a ship: to overbear, to crush; RUN DOWN A COAST, to sail along it; RUN HARD, to press hard behind in a race or other competition; RUN IN, to go in: to arrest and take to a lock-up: (_print._) to insert a word, &c., without making a break or new paragraph: to alter the position of matter to fill vacant space; RUN INTO DEBT, to get into debt; RUN IN THE BLOOD, family, to belong to one by natural descent; RUN OFF, to cause to flow out: to take impressions of, to print: to repeat, recount; RUN ON (_print._), to continue in the same line, and not a new paragraph; RUN OUT, to come to an end; RUN OVER, to overflow: to go over cursorily; RUN RIOT (see RIOT); RUN THE CHANCE, to encounter all risks; RUN THROUGH, to expend, to waste, to pierce through and through; RUN TOGETHER, to mingle or blend; RUN TO SEED, to shoot up too rapidly, to become exhausted, to go to waste; RUN UP, to make or mend hastily: to build hurriedly: to string up, hang.--IN THE LONG-RUN, in the end or final result; IN THE RUNNING, or OUT OF THE RUNNING, competing, or not competing, in a contest, with good hopes of success in a candidature, &c., or the opposite; MAKE GOOD ONE'S RUNNING, to keep abreast with others; TAKE UP THE RUNNING, to go off at full speed; THE COMMON RUN, THE RUN, or THE RUN OF MANKIND, ordinary people. [A.S. _rinnan_; Ger. _rennen_, Ice. _renna_, to run.] RUNAGATE, run'a-g[=a]t, _n._ a vagabond: renegade: an apostate: a fugitive. [A corr. of _renegade_, but modified both in form and meaning by _run_.] RUNCH, runch, _n._ the charlock: the wild radish.--_n.pl._ RUNCH'-BALLS, dried charlock. RUNCH, runch, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to grind, as with the teeth. RUNCINATE, runs'in-[=a]t, _adj._ (_bot._) having the lobes convex before and straight behind, or pointing backward as in the dandelion. [L. _runcinatus_, pa.p. of _runcin[=a]re_, to plane off--_runcina_, a plane.] RUNDALE, run'd[=a]l, _n._ a system of holding land in single holdings made up of detached pieces. RUNDLE, run'dl, _n._ a round, a rung or step of a ladder: a ring, an orbit: a ball.--_adj._ RUN'DLED. [_Roundel._] RUNDLET, rund'let, _n._ a small barrel.--Also RUN'LET. RUNE, r[=oo]n, _n._ one of the characters or letters used by the peoples of northern Europe down to the 16th century: (_pl._) the ancient Scandinavian alphabet or _futhorc_--from its first six letters _f_, _u_, _th_, _o_, _r_, _c_ (the writing is called _Runic_, the individual letters _Rune-staves_, or less correctly _Runes_): a secret, a mystic sentence: any song mystically expressed.--_n._ RUNE'CRAFT.--_adj._ RUNED.--_n._ RU'NER.--_adj._ RU'NIC, relating to runes, to the ancient Teutonic nations, or to their characters.--_ns._ RUNOL'OGIST, one versed in Runic remains; RUNOL'OGY.--RUNIC KNOTS, a form of interlaced ornament. [A.S. _rún_, a secret. The word is found in M. E. _rounen_, to whisper, and is cog. with Old High Ger. _runa_, a secret, Goth. _runa_, secret.] RUNG, rung, _n._ one of the floor-timbers of a ship: one of the rounds of a ladder: a bar: a heavy staff: a cudgel: one of the radial handles of a steering-wheel. [A.S. _hrung_, a beam; Ger. _runge_.] RUNG, rung, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of ring.--_adj._ having a ring through the nose, as a hog. RUNKLE, runk'l, _v.i._ to wrinkle: to crease. RUNN, run, _n._ in India, a tract of sandy or boggy land--often overflowed by the tide. [Hind. _r[=a]n_.] RUNNEL, run'el, _n._ a little brook. [A.S. _rynel_, dim. of _ryne_, a stream--_rinnan_, to run.] RUNRIG, run'rig, _n._ a species of ownership under which the alternate ridges of a field belong to different owners--also RUN'RIDGE, RUN'DALE, a survival of the simple form of open-field husbandry, under the tribal system once universally prevalent in the western districts of Britain. RUNT, runt, _n._ a young ox or cow: an undersized animal: a dwarf: a bow: a breed of domestic pigeons: the dead stump of a tree: the stem of a cabbage.--_adj._ RUNT'Y. RUPEE, r[=oo]-p[=e]', _n._ an East Indian silver coin, nominally worth about 2s.--at present about 1s. 4½d. [Hind. _r[=u]p[=i]yah_--Sans. _r[=u]pya_, silver.] RUPERT'S-DROP, r[=oo]'perts-drop, _n._ a detonating bulb, or glass bubble--probably discovered by Prince _Rupert_ (1619-82). RUPESTRINE, r[=oo]-pes'trin, _adj._ rock-inhabiting. [L. _rupes_, a rock.] RUPIA, r[=oo]'pi-a, _n._ a severe form of skin disease, with flattish distinct _bullæ_ or blebs, containing a serous, purulent, or sanious fluid, becoming thick scabs. [Gr. _hrypos_, filth.] RUPICAPRA, r[=oo]-pi-kap'ra, _n._ a genus of antelopes--the chamois. RUPICOLA, r[=oo]-pik'[=o]-la, _n._ a genus of rock-manikins or cocks of the rock.--_adjs._ RUPIC'OLINE, RUPIC'OLOUS, growing or living among rocks. [L. _rupes_, a rock, _col[)e]re_, to inhabit.] RUPPIA, rup'i-a, _n._ a genus of monocotyledonous plants of the order _Naiadaceæ_--to which _Ditch_ or _Tassel grass_ belongs. [From the 18th-cent. German botanist H. B. _Ruppius_.] RUPTURE, rup't[=u]r, _n._ the act of breaking or bursting: the state of being broken: a breach of the peace: hernia (q.v.), esp. abdominal.--_v.t._ to break or burst: to part by violence.--_v.i._ to suffer a breach: (_bot._) to dehisce irregularly.--_adj._ RUP'TILE (_bot._), dehiscent by an irregular splitting of the walls.--_n._ RUP'TION, a breach.--_adj._ RUP'TIVE.--_n._ RUP'T[=U]ARY, a member of the plebeian class. [Fr.,--Low L. _ruptura_--L. _rump[)e]re_, _ruptum_, to break.] RURAL, r[=oo]'ral, _adj._ of or belonging to the country: suiting the country: rustic: pertaining to agriculture.--_n._ (_obs._) a countryman.--_ns._ RU'RAL-DEAN, an ecclesiastic under the bishop and archdeacon, with the peculiar care of the clergy of a district; RU'RAL-DEAN'ERY.--_v.t._ RU'RALISE, to render rural.--_v.i._ to become rural: to rusticate.--_ns._ RU'RALISM; RU'RALIST; RURAL'ITY.--_adv._ RU'RALLY.--_n._ RU'RALNESS.--_adj._ RURIDEC'ANAL, pertaining to a rural dean or deanery. [Fr.,--L. _ruralis_--_rus_, _ruris_, the country.] RUSA, r[=oo]'za, _n._ a genus of East Indian stags. [Malay.] RUSALKA, r[=oo]-sal'ka, _n._ a Russian water-nymph. RUSCUS, rus'kus, _n._ a genus of monocotyledonous plants of the order _Liliaceæ_--containing _Butcher's broom_, _Shepherd's myrtle_, &c. [L. _ruscum_.] RUSE, r[=oo]z, _n._ a turning or doubling, as of animals to get out of the way of dogs: a trick, fraud, or the use of such.--_n._ RUSE-DE-GUERRE, a stratagem of war. [O. Fr. _ruse_--_ruser_, _re[=u]ser_, to get out of the way--L. _recus[=a]re_, to decline.] RUSH, rush, _v.i._ to move with a shaking, rustling noise, as the wind: to move forward violently: to enter rashly and hastily.--_v.t._ to drive: to push, to secure by rushing.--_n._ a rushing or driving forward: an eager demand: urgent pressure, as of business: a stampede of cattle: in football, when a player forces his way by main strength.--_n._ RUSH'ER, in football, a player whose special duty it is to force the ball toward his opponents' goal: a go-ahead person. [Skeat explains M. E. _ruschen_ as from Sw. _ruska_, to rush, to shake, an extension of Old Sw. _rusa_, to rush. Cf. _Rouse_.] RUSH, rush, _n._ a genus (_Juncus_) of marshy plants, some absolutely destitute of leaves, but with barren scapes resembling leaves: the name esp. of those species with no proper leaves, the round stems known as rushes: a wick: the merest trifle.--_n._ RUSH'-BEAR'ING, a country feast, when the parish church was strewn with rushes, between haymaking and harvest: the day of the festival.--_adj._ RUSH'-BOTT'OMED, having a seat or bottom made with rushes.--_ns._ RUSH'-BUCK'LER (_obs._), a swash-buckler; RUSH'-CAN'DLE, -LIGHT, a candle or night-light having a wick of rush-pith: a small, feeble light.--_adj._ RUSH'EN, made of rushes.--_ns._ RUSH'-HOLD'ER, a clip-candlestick used for rush-lights; RUSH'INESS.--_adj._ RUSH'-LIKE, resembling a rush: weak.--_ns._ RUSH'-LIL'Y, a plant of the species of blue-eyed grass; RUSH'-NUT, the _Cyperus esculentus_, whose tubers are eaten in southern Europe; RUSH'-TOAD, the natterjack.--_adjs._ RUSH'Y, full of, or made of, rushes; RUSH'Y-FRINGED.--_n._ RUSK'IE, any utensil made of straw, &c., as a basket, &c.--FLOWERING RUSH, an aquatic plant; MARRY WITH A RUSH, to wed in jest. [A.S. _risce_, like Ger. _risch_, from L. _ruscum_, _rustum_.] RUSK, rusk, _n._ a kind of light hard cake: a kind of light soft cake or sweetened biscuit. [Sp. _rosca_, a roll; cf. _Rosca de mar_, a sea-rusk; origin unknown.] RUSMA. See RHUSMA. RUSSEL, rus'el, _n._ (_obs._) a fox: a twilled woollen material.--_n._ RUSS'EL-CORD, a kind of rep made of cotton and wool. [O. Fr. _roussel_--L. _russus_, red.] RUSSET, rus'et, _adj._ rusty or reddish-brown: coarse: rustic: of russet-leather.--_n._ a coarse homespun dress.--_ns._ RUSS'ETING, an apple of a russet colour and rough skin; RUSS'ET-LEATH'ER.--_adj._ RUSS'ETY. [O. Fr. _rousset_--L. _russus_, red.] RUSSIAN, rush'yan, _adj._ relating to _Russia_, a country of Europe, or to its people.--_n._ a native of Russia: the Russian language.--_adj._ RUSS, belonging to the Russians.--_n._ a Russian: the Russian language.--_v.t._ RUSS'IANISE, to give Russian characteristics to.--_n._ RUSSIFIC[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ RUS'SIFY, to Russianise.--_ns._ RUS'SO-BYZAN'TINE, the national art of Russian architecture; RUS'SOPHILE, one who favours Russian policy (also _adj._); RUS'SOPHILISM; RUS'SOPHILIST; RUS'SOPHOBE, one who dreads or hates the Russians--also RUS'SOPHOBIST; RUSSOPH[=O]'BIA, the dread of Russian policy.--RUSSIA LEATHER (see LEATHER). RUSSULA, rus'[=u]-la, _n._ a genus of hymenomycetous fungi--so called from the colour of the pileus in some. [Low L. _russulus_, reddish--L. _russus_, red.] RUST, rust, _n._ the reddish-brown coating on iron exposed to moisture: anything resembling rust: a disease of cereals and grasses, with brown spots on the leaves, caused by fungi: a corrosive: an injurious habit: any foul matter.--_v.i._ to become rusty: to become dull by inaction.--_v.t._ to make rusty: to impair by time and inactivity.--_adjs._ RUST'-COL'OURED; RUST'FUL.--_adv._ RUST'ILY.--_ns._ RUST'INESS; RUST'-MITE, certain mites of the family of gall-mites.--_adjs._ RUST'-PROOF, not liable to rust; RUST'Y, covered with rust: impaired by inactivity, out of practice: dull: affected with rust-disease: time-worn: of a rusty black: rough: obstinate: discoloured.--_ns._ RUST'Y-BACK, a fern; RUST'Y-BLACK'BIRD, the grackle; BLACK'-RUST, a fungus with dark-coloured spores.--RIDE, or TURN, RUSTY, to become obstinate or stubborn in opposition. [A.S. _rust_; Ger. _rost_.] RUSTIC, rus'tik, _adj._ pertaining to the country: rural: rude: awkward: simple: coarse: artless: unadorned: made of rustic-work.--_n._ a peasant: a clown: a noctuoid moth.--_adj._ RUS'TICAL.--_adv._ RUS'TICALLY.--_n._ RUS'TICALNESS.--_v.t._ RUS'TICATE, to send into the country: to banish for a time from town or college.--_v.i._ to live in the country.--_n._ RUSTIC[=A]'TION.--_v.i._ RUS'TICISE.--_ns._ RUSTIC'ITY, rustic manner: simplicity: rudeness; RUSTIC'OLA, the European woodcock; RUS'TIC-WARE, a terra-cotta of a light-brown paste, having a brown glaze; RUS'TIC-WORK, various stonework, as frosted work, punctured work, &c.: in woodwork, summer-houses, &c. [Fr. _rustique_--L. _rusticus_--_rus_, the country.] RUSTLE, rus'l, _v.i._ to make a soft, whispering sound, as silk, straw, &c.: (_U.S._) to stir about.--_n._ a quick succession of small sounds, as that of dry leaves: a rustling, a movement with rustling sound.--_ns._ RUS'TLER, one who, or that which, rustles: (_U.S._) an active fellow; RUS'TLING, a quick succession of small sounds, as that of dry leaves.--_adv._ RUS'TLINGLY. [Skeat makes it a freq. of Sw. _rusta_, to stir, a variant of Old Sw. _ruska_, to shake. Cf. _Rush_; and cf. Ger. _rauschen_, _ruschen_, to rustle.] RUSTRE, rus't[.e]r, _n._ (_her._) a lozenge pierced with a circular opening.--_adj._ RUS'TRED. [Fr.] RUSURE, r[=oo]'zh[=u]r, _n._ (_prov._) the sliding down of a bank. RUT, rut, _n._ a track left by a wheel: an established course.--_v.t._ to form ruts in:--_pr.p._ rut'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ rut'ted.--_adj._ RUT'TY, full of ruts. [O. Fr. _route_--Low L. _rupta_, a way.] RUT, rut, _n._ the noise made by deer during sexual excitement: the periodic time of heat of animals.--_v.i._ to be in heat.--_v.t._ (_rare_) to copulate with.--_adj._ RUT'TISH, inclined to rut: lustful.--_n._ RUT'TISHNESS, libidinousness. [O. Fr. _ruit_, _rut_--L. _rugitus_--_rug[=i]re_, to roar.] RUTA, r[=oo]'ta, _n._ a genus of polypetalous plants--the general name of the species is _Rue_.--_adj._ RUT[=A]'CEOUS. [Gr. _hryt[=e]_, rue.] RUTABAGA, r[=oo]-ta-b[=a]'ga, _n._ the Swedish turnip. [Fr.; ety. unknown.] RUTELA, r[=oo]'te-la, _n._ a genus of lamellicorn beetles. [L. _rutilus_, red.] RUTH, r[=oo]th, _n._ pity, tenderness, sorrow: cruelty.--_adj._ RUTH'FUL, pitiful, sorrowful: piteous, causing pity.--_adv._ RUTH'FULLY, in a sorrowful manner.--_adj._ RUTH'LESS, without pity: insensible to misery: cruel.--_adv._ RUTH'LESSLY.--_n._ RUTH'LESSNESS. [M. E. _ruthe_, _reuth_--Scand.; Ice. _hryggth_, _hrygth_, sorrow.] RUTHENIAN, r[=oo]-th[=e]'ni-an, _adj._ of or pertaining to the _Ruthenians_, a branch of the little Russian division of the Slav race, on both sides of the Carpathians.--_n._ one of this race. RUTHENIUM, r[=oo]-th[=e]'ni-um, _n._ a hard brittle metal discovered in 1843 by Claus in the ore of platinum, forming no fewer than four different oxides. [_Ruthenia_, a name of Russia.] RUTIC, r[=oo]'tik, _adj._ pertaining to, or derived from, _rue_. RUTICILLA, r[=oo]-ti-sil'a, _n._ the redstart. RUTILANT, r[=oo]'ti-lant, _adj._ shining: glittering.--_v.i._ RU'TIL[=A]TE, to emit rays of light. [L. _rutilans_, pr.p. of _rutil[=a]re_, to be reddish.] RUTILE, r[=oo]'til, _n._ one of the three forms in which titanium dioxide occurs. [Fr.,--L. _rutilus_, red.] RUTTER, rut'[.e]r, _n._ (_obs._) a trooper: a mercenary horse-soldier: a man of fashion. [O. Fr. _routier_--Low L. _ruptarius_--_rupta_, a troop.] RUTTER, rut'[.e]r, _n._ a direction specially for a course by sea: a marine chart. [O. Fr. _routier_, a chart.] RUTTLE, rut'l, _v.i._ (_prov._) to gurgle. [M. E. _rotelen_, _ratelen_, to rattle.] RUVID, r[=oo]'vid, _adj._ rough. [L. _ruidus_, rough.] RYAL, r[=i]'al, _n._ an old English gold coin worth about ten shillings, called a _Rose-noble_.--Also R[=I]'AL. RYE, r[=i], _n._ a genus of grasses allied to wheat and barley, one species of which is cultivated as a grain: (_her._) a bearing representing a stalk of grain with the ear bending down.--_ns._ RYE'-GRASS, a variety of grass cultivated for pasture and fodder; RYE'-MOTH, an insect whose larva feeds on stems of rye; RYE'-WOLF, an evil creature of German folklore lurking in the rye-fields; RYE'-WORM, an insect which devours the stems of rye. [A.S. _ryge_; Ice. _rúgr_, Ger. _rocken_, _roggen_.] RYFE, r[=i]f, _adj._ (_Spens._). Same as RIFE. RYKE, r[=i]k, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to reach. RYND, rind, _n._ in a burstone mill, the iron which supports the upper stone. [A.S. _hrindan_, to thrust.] RYOT, r[=i]'ut, _n._ a Hindu cultivator or peasant.--_ns._ RY'OTWAR, RY'OTWARI, the arrangement about rent made annually in India, esp. in Madras, between the government officials and the ryots. [Hind. _raiyat_--Ar. _ra`iya_, a subject.] RYPE, r[=i]p, _n._ a ptarmigan. [Dan.] RYPECK, r[=i]'pek, _n._ (_prov._) a pole used to move a punt while fishing.--Also R[=I]'PECK, R[=E]'PECK. RYVE, r[=i]v, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to pierce. [_Rive._] * * * * * Corrections made to printed original. Under "Octagon" (in etymology):--"angle", printed as "agle" in original. Under "Paraclete":--"Paracl[=e]t'ice", printed as "Paracl[=e]t'i-ce" in original. Under "Paraclete":--"Paracl[=e]t'icon", printed as "Paracl[=e]t'i-con" in original. Under "Pavonine" (in etymology):--"pavonis", printed as "panonis" in original. Under "Potable" (in etymology):--"potabilis", printed as "potablilis" in original. Under "Pyxidium":--"pod", printed as "pool." in original. Under "Road":--"plumb-level", printed as "plum-level" in original. Under "Rosminianism":--"1797", printed as "1737" in original. 
34595	----	Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they are listed at the end of the text. * * * * * In this e-text a-breve is represented by [)a], a-macron by [=a], y-dotted-over by [.y], s-acute by ['s] etc. Page numbers enclosed by curly braces (example: {25}) have been incorporated to facilitate the use of the Table of Contents. * * * * * THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. BY ROBERT GORDON LATHAM, M.D., F.R.S., LATE FELLOW OF KING'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE; FELLOW OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS, LONDON; MEMBER OF THE ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY, NEW YORK; LATE PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON. THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND GREATLY ENLARGED. LONDON: TAYLOR, WALTON, AND MABERLY, UPPER GOWER STREET, AND IVY LANE, PATERNOSTER ROW. 1850. * * * * * LONDON: Printed by SAMUEL BENTLEY & Co., Bangor House, Shoe Lane. * * * * * TO THE REV. WILLIAM BUTCHER, M.A., OF ROPSLEY, LINCOLNSHIRE, IN ADMIRATION OF HIS ACCOMPLISHMENTS AS A LINGUIST, AND AS A TESTIMONY OF PRIVATE REGARD, THE FOLLOWING PAGES ARE INSCRIBED, BY HIS FRIEND, THE AUTHOR. LONDON, _Nov. 4, 1841_. * * * * * {v} PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. * * * * * The first edition of the present work was laid before the public, with the intention of representing in a form as systematic as the extent of the subject would allow, those views concerning the structure and relations of the English language, which amongst such scholars as had studied them with the proper means and opportunities, were then generally received; and which, so being received, might take their stand as established and recognized facts. With the results of modern criticism, as applied to his native tongue, it was conceived that an educated Englishman should be familiar. To this extent the special details of the language were exhibited; and to this extent the work was strictly a Grammar of the English Language. But besides this, it was well known that the current grammarians, and the critical philologists, had long ceased to write alike upon the English, or {vi} indeed upon any other, language. For this reason the sphere of the work became enlarged; so that, on many occasions, general principles had to be enounced, fresh terms to be defined, and old classifications to be remodelled. This introduced extraneous elements of criticism, and points of discussion which, in a more advanced stage of English philology, would have been superfluous. It also introduced elements which had a tendency to displace the account of some of the more special and proper details of the language. There was not room for the exposition of general principles, for the introduction of the necessary amount of preliminary considerations, and for the _minutiæ_ of an extreme analysis. Nor is there room for all this at present. A work that should, at one and the same time, prove its principles, instead of assuming them, supply the full and necessary preliminaries in the way of logic, phonetics, and ethnology, and, besides this, give a history of every variety in the form of every word, although, perhaps, a work that one man might write, would be a full and perfect _Thesaurus_ of the English Language, and, would probably extend to many volumes. For, in the English language, there are many first principles to be established, and much historical knowledge to be applied. Besides which, the particular points both of etymology and syntax are far more numerous than is imagined. Scanty as is the amount of declension and conjugation in current use, there are to be found in every department of our grammars, {vii} numerous isolated words which exhibit the fragments of a fuller inflection, and of a more highly developed etymology. This is well-known to every scholar who has not only viewed our language as a derivative of the Anglo-Saxon, and observed that there are similar relations between many other languages (_e. g._ the Italian and Latin, the German and Moeso-Gothic, &c.), but who has, also, generalized the phenomena of such forms of relationship and derivation, and enabled himself to see in the most uninflected languages of the nineteenth century, the fragments of a fuller and more systematic inflection, altered by time, but altered in a uniform and a general manner. The point, however, upon which, in the prefaces both of the first edition of the present work and of his English Grammar, the writer has most urgently insisted is the _disciplinal_ character of grammatical studies in general, combined with the fact, that the grammatical study of one's own language is almost _exclusively_ disciplinal. It is undoubtedly true, that in schools something that is called English Grammar is taught: and it is taught pretty generally. It is taught so generally that, I believe, here are only two classes of English boys and girls who escape it--those who are taught nothing at all in any school whatever, and those who are sent so early to the great classical schools (where nothing is taught but Latin and Greek), as to escape altogether the English part of their scholastic education. But {viii} what is it that is thus generally taught? not the familiar practice of speaking English--that has been already attained by the simple fact of the pupil having been born on English soil, and of English parents. Not the scientific theory of the language--that is an impossibility with the existing text-books. Neither, then, of these matters is taught. Nevertheless labour is expended, and time is consumed. What is taught? Something undoubtedly. The facts, that language is more or less regular (_i. e._ capable of having its structure exhibited by rules); that there is such a thing as grammar; and that certain expressions should be avoided, are all matters worth knowing. And they are all taught even by the worst method of teaching. But are these the proper objects of _systematic_ teaching? Is the importance of their acquisition equivalent to the time, the trouble, and the displacement of more valuable subjects, which are involved in their explanation? I think not. Gross vulgarity of language is a fault to be prevented; but the proper prevention is to be got from habit--not rules. The proprieties of the English language are to be learned, like the proprieties of English manners, by conversation and intercourse; and the proper school for both, is the best society in which the learner is placed. If this be good, systematic teaching is superfluous; if bad, insufficient. There _are_ undoubted points where a young person may doubt as to the grammatical propriety of a certain expression. In this case let him ask some one older, and more instructed. Grammar, {ix} as an _art_, is, undoubtedly, _the art of speaking and writing correctly_--but then, as an _art_, it is only required for _foreign_ languages. For our _own_ we have the necessary practice and familiarity. The claim of English grammar to form part and parcel of an English education stands or falls with the value of the philological and historical knowledge to which grammatical studies may serve as an introduction, and with the value of scientific grammar as a _disciplinal_ study. I have no fear of being supposed to undervalue its importance in this respect. Indeed in assuming that it is very great, I also assume that wherever grammar is studied as grammar, the language which the grammar so studied should represent, must be the mother-tongue of the student; _whatever that mother-tongue may be_--English for Englishmen, Welsh for Welshmen, French for Frenchmen, German for Germans, &c. This study is the study of a theory; and for this reason it should be complicated as little as possible by points of practice. For this reason a man's mother-tongue is the best medium for the elements of scientific philology, simply because it is the one which he knows best in practice. Now if, over and above the remarks upon the English language, and the languages allied to it, there occur in the present volume, episodical discussions of points connected with other languages, especially the Latin and Greek, it is because a greater portion of the current ideas on philological subjects {x} is taken from those languages than from our own. Besides which, a second question still stands over. There is still the question as to the relative disciplinal merits of the different _non_-vernacular languages of the world. What is the next best vehicle for philological philosophy to our mother-tongue, whatever that mother-tongue maybe? Each Athenian who fought at Salamis considered his own contributions to that great naval victory the greatest; and he considered them so because they were _his own_. So it is with the language which we speak, and use, and have learned as our own. Yet each same Athenian awarded the second place of honour to Themistocles. The great classical languages of Greece and Rome are in the position of Themistocles. They are the best when the question of ourselves and our possessions is excluded. They are the best in the eyes of an indifferent umpire. More than this; if we take into account the studies of the learned world, they are second only to the particular mother-tongue of the particular student, in the way of practical familiarity. Without either affirming or denying that, on the simple scores of etymological regularity, etymological variety, and syntactic logic, the Sanskrit may be their equal, it must still be admitted that this last-named language has no claims to a high value as a practical philological discipline upon the grounds of its universality as a point of education; nor will it have. Older than the Greek, it may (or may not) be; more multiform than the Latin, it may (or may not) be: but equally rich in the attractions {xi} of an unsurpassed literature, and equally influential as a standard of imitation, it neither has been nor can be. We may admit all that is stated by those who admire its epics, or elucidate its philosophy; we may admire all this and much more besides, but we shall still miss the great elements of oratory and history, that connect the ancient languages of Greece and Italy with the thoughts, and feelings, and admiration of recent Europe. The same sort of reasoning applies to the Semitic languages. One element they have, in their grammatical representation, which gives them a value in philological philosophy, in the abstract, above all other languages--the _generality_ of the expression of their structure. This is _symbolic_, and its advantage is that it exhibits the naturally universal phenomena of their construction in a universal language. Yet neither this nor their historical value raises them to the level of the classical languages. Now, what has just been written has been written with a view towards a special inference, and as the preliminary to a practical deduction; and it would not have been written but for some such ulterior application. If these languages have so high a disciplinal value, how necessary it is that the expression of their philological phenomena should be accurate, scientific, and representative of their true growth and form? How essential that their grammars should exhibit nothing that may hereafter be unlearned? _Pace grammaticorum dixerim_, this is not the case. Bad {xii} as is Lindley Murray in English, Busby and Lilly are worse in Greek and Latin. This is the comparison of the men on the low rounds of the ladder. What do we find as we ascend? Is the grammatical science of even men like Mathiæ and Zump _much_ above that of Wallis? Does Buttmann's Greek give so little to be unlearned as Grimm's German? By any one who has gone far in comparative philology, the answer will be given in the negative. This is not written in the spirit of a destructive criticism. If an opinion as to the fact is stated without reserve, it is accompanied by an explanation, and (partially, perhaps) by a justification. It is the business of a Greek and Latin grammarian to teach Greek and Latin _cito, tute, ac jucunde_,--_cito_, that is, between the years of twelve and twenty-four; _tute_, that is, in a way that quantities may be read truly, and hard passages translated accurately; _jucunde_, that is, as the taste and memory of the pupil may determine. With this view the grammar must be _artificial_. Granted. But then it should profess to be so. It should profess to address the memory only, not the understanding. Above all it should prefer to leave a point untaught, than to teach it in a way that must be unlearned. In 1840, so little had been done by Englishmen for the English language, that in acknowledging my great obligations to foreign scholars, I was only able to speak to what _might be done_ by my own countrymen. Since then, however, there has been a good {xiii} beginning of what is likely to be done well. My references to the works of Messrs. Kemble, Garnet, and Guest, show that my authorities are _now_ as much English as German. And this is likely to be the case. The details of the syntax, the illustrations drawn from our provincial dialects, the minute history of individual words, and the whole system of articulate sounds can, for the English, only be done safely by an Englishman: or, to speak more generally, can, for any language, only be dealt with properly by the grammarian whose mother-tongue is that language. The _Deutsche Grammatik_ of Grimm is the work not of an age nor of a century, but, like the great history of the Athenian, a [Greek: ktêma eis aei]. It is the magazine from whence all draw their facts and illustrations. Yet it is only the proper German portion that pretends to be exhaustive. The Dutch and Scandinavians have each improved the exhibition of their own respective languages. Monument as is the _Deutsche Grammatik_ of learning, industry, comprehensiveness, and arrangement, it is not a book that should be read to the exclusion of others: nor must it be considered to exhibit the grammar of the Gothic languages, in a form unsusceptible of improvement. Like all great works, it is more easily improved than imitated. One is almost unwilling to recur to the old comparison between Aristotle, who absorbed the labour of his predecessors, and the Eastern sultans, who kill-off their younger brothers. But such is the case with Grimm and his fore-runners in philology. Germany, that, in {xiv} respect to the Reformation, is content to be told that Erasmus laid the egg which Luther hatched, must also acknowledge that accurate and systematic scholars of other countries prepared the way for the _Deutsche Grammatik_,--Ten Kate in Holland; Dowbrowsky, a Slavonian; and Rask, a Dane. Nor are there wanting older works in English that have a value in Gothic philology. I should be sorry to speak as if, beyond the writers of what may be called the modern school of philology, there was nothing for the English grammarian both to read and study. The fragments of Ben Jonson's English Grammar are worth the entireties of many later writers. The work of Wallis is eminently logical and precise. The voice of a mere ruler of rules is a sound to flee from; but the voice of a truly powerful understanding is a thing to be heard on all matters. It is this which gives to Cobbett and Priestley, to Horne Tooke as a subtle etymologist, and to Johnson as a practical lexicographer, a value in literary history, which they never can have in grammar. It converts unwholesome doctrines into a fertile discipline of thought. The method of the present work is mixed. It is partly historical, and partly logical. The historical portions exhibit the way in which words and inflections _have been_ used; the logical, the way in which they _ought to be_ used. Now I cannot conceal from either my readers or myself the fact that philological criticism at the present moment is of an essentially {xv} historical character. It has been by working the historical method that all the great results both in general and special scholarship have been arrived at; and it is on historical investigation that the whole _induction_ of modern philology rests. All beyond is _à priori_ argument; and, according to many, _à priori_ argument out of place. Now, this gives to the questions in philology, to questions concerning the phenomena of concord, government, &c. a subordinate character. It does so, however, improperly. Logic is in language what it is in reasoning,--a rule and standard. But in its application to reasoning and to language there is this difference. Whilst illogical reasoning, and illogical grammar are equally phenomena of the human mind, even as physical disease is a phenomenon of the human body, the illogical grammar can rectify itself by its mere continuance, propagation, and repetition. In this respect the phenomena of language stand apart from the other phenomena of either mind or organized matter. No amount of false argument can make a fallacy other than a fallacy. No amount of frequency can make physical disease other than a predisposing cause to physical disorganization. The argument that halts in its logic, is not on a _par_ with the argument that is sound. Such also is the case with any bodily organ. No prevalence of sickness can ever evolve health. Language, however, as long as it preserves the same amount of intelligibility is always language. Provided it serve as a medium, it does its proper work; {xvi} and as long as it does this, it is, as far as its application is concerned, faultless. Now there is a limit in logical regularity which language is perpetually overstepping; just as there is a logical limit which the reasoning of common life is perpetually overstepping, and just as there is a physiological limit which the average health of men and women may depart from. This limit is investigated by the historical method; which shows the amount of latitude in which language may indulge and yet maintain its great essential of intelligibility. Nay, more, it can show that it sometimes transgresses the limit in so remarkable a manner, as to induce writers to talk about the _corruption of a language_, or _the pathology of a language_, with the application of many similar metaphors. Yet it is very doubtful whether all languages, in all their stages, are not equally intelligible, and, consequently, equally what they ought to be, viz., mediums of intercourse between man and man; whilst, in respect to their growth, it is almost certain that so far from exhibiting signs of dissolution, they are, on the contrary, like the Tithonus of mythology, the Strulbrugs of Laputa, or, lastly, such monsters as Frankenstein, very liable to the causes of death, but utterly unable to die. Hence, in language, _whatever is, is right_; a fact which, taken by itself, gives great value to the historical method of inquiry, and leaves little to the _à priori_ considerations of logic. But, on the other hand, there is a limit in logical regularity, which language _never_ oversteps: and as {xvii} long as this is the case, the study of the logical standard of what language is in its normal form must go hand in hand with the study of the processes that deflect it. The investigation of the irregularities of language--and be it remembered that almost all change implies original irregularity--is analogous to the investigation of fallacies in logic. It is the comparison between the rule and the practice, with this difference, that in language the practice can change the rule, which in logic is impossible. I am sure that these remarks are necessary in order to anticipate objections that may be raised against certain statements laid down in the syntax. I often write as if I took no account of the historical evidence, in respect to particular uses of particular words. I do so, not because I undervalue that department of philology, but because it is out of place. To show that one or more writers, generally correct, have used a particular expression is to show that they speak, in a few instances, as the vulgar speak in many. To show that the vulgar use one expression for another is to show that two ideas are sufficiently allied to be expressed in the same manner: in other words, the historical fact is accompanied by a logical explanation; and the historical deviation is measured by a logical standard. I am not desirous of sacrificing a truth to an antithesis, but so certain is language to change from logical accuracy to logical licence, and, at the same time, so certain is language, when so changed, to be {xviii} just as intelligible as before, that I venture upon asserting that, not only _whatever is, is right_, but also, that in many cases, _whatever was, was wrong_. There is an antagonism, between logic and practice; and the phenomena on both sides must be studied. * * * * * {xix} CONTENTS. PART I. GENERAL ETHNOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. CHAPTER I. GERMANIC ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE--DATE. SECTION PAGE 1. English not originally British 1 2. Germanic in origin 2 3-10. Accredited details of the different immigrations from Germany into Britain 2-4 10-12. Accredited relations of the Jutes, Angles, and Saxons to each other as Germans 4 13. Criticism of evidence 5 Extract from Mr. Kemble 6 14. Inference 9 CHAPTER II. GERMANIC ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE--THE IMMIGRANT TRIBES AND THEIR RELATION TO EACH OTHER. 15-20. The Jute immigration doubtful 10-12 22. Difficulties in identifying the Saxons 13 23. Difficulties in identifying the Angles 13 25-29. Populations with the greatest _à priori_ likelihood of having immigrated 14, 15 26. Menapians 15 27. Batavians 15 28. Frisians 15 29. Chauci 15 30. Inference 16 {xx} 31-34. Saxons and Nordalbingians 16, 17 35-50. Populations, whereof the continental relation help us in fixing the original country of the Angles and Saxons 17-21 36. Germans of the Middle Rhine 17 Franks 18 Salians 18 Chamavi 18 37. Thuringians 18 38. Catti 18 39. Geographical conditions of the Saxon Area 18 40. Its _Eastern_ limit 19 41-50. Slavonian frontier 20, 21 41. " Polabi 20 42. " Wagrians 20 43. " Obotriti 20 44. " Lini 20 45. " Warnabi 21 46. " Morizani 21 47. " Doxani 21 48. " Hevelli 21 49. " Slavonians of Altmark 21 50. " Sorabians 21 51. Saxon area 21 CHAPTER III. OF THE DIALECTS OF THE SAXON AREA AND OF THE SO-CALLED OLD SAXON. 52, 53. Extent and frontier 23 54-62. Anglo-Saxon and Old Saxon 23-25 63. Old-Saxon _data_ 25 64. Specimen 26 CHAPTER IV. AFFINITIES OF THE ENGLISH WITH THE LANGUAGES OF GERMANY AND SCANDINAVIA. 65. _General_ affinities of the English language 28 67. The term _Gothic_ 28 69. _Scandinavian_ branch 28 70. _Teutonic_ branch 31 {xxi} 71. Moeso-Gothic 31 73. Origin of the Moeso-Goths 32 76. Name not Germanic 33 77. Old High German 35 78. Low Germanic division 36 79. Frisian 36 81. Old Frisian 37 82. Platt-Deutsch 38 83. Anglo-Saxon and Icelandic compound 38 84. Scandinavian article 40 88. Scandinavian verb 44 91. Declension in _-n_ 45 92. Difference between languages of the same division 46 93. Weak and strong nouns 46 Moeso-Gothic inflections 47 94. Old Frisian and Anglo-Saxon 50 98. The term _German_ 56 99. The term _Dutch_ 57 100. The term _Teutonic_ 58 101. The term _Anglo-Saxon_ 59 102. _Icelandic_, Old Norse 59 CHAPTER V. ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE--GERMANIC ELEMENTS. 106. The _Angles_ 62 109. Extract from Tacitus 63 " Ptolemy 63 110. Extracts connecting them with the inhabitants of the Cimbric Chersonesus 64 111. The district called Angle 65 113. Inferences and remarks 65 114. What were the _Langobardi_ with whom the Angles were connected by Tacitus? 66 115. What were the Suevi, &c. 66 116. What were the Werini, &c. 67 117. What were the Thuringians, &c. 67 121. Difficulties respecting the Angles 68 123-128. Patronymic forms, and the criticism based on them 68-72 129-131. Probably German immigrants _not_ Anglo-Saxon 72, 73 {xxii} CHAPTER VI. THE CELTIC STOCK OF LANGUAGES, AND THEIR RELATIONS TO THE ENGLISH. 132. Cambrian Celtic 74 133. Gaelic Celtic 77 136. Structure of Celtic tongues 79-83 138. The Celtic of Gaul 84 139. The Pictish 84 CHAPTER VII. THE ANGLO-NORMAN AND THE LANGUAGES OF THE CLASSICAL STOCK. 140. The Classical languages 86 141. Extension of the Roman language 86 142. The divisions 87 Specimen of the Romanese 88 Specimen of the Wallachian 88 143. French dialects 89 Oath of Ludwig 90 144. Norman-French 91 CHAPTER VIII. THE POSITION OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AS INDO-EUROPEAN. 147. The term _Indo-European_ 94 148. Is the Celtic Indo-European? 95 PART II. HISTORY AND ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. CHAPTER I. HISTORICAL AND LOGICAL ELEMENTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 149. Celtic elements 97 150. Latin of the First Period 98 151. Anglo-Saxon 98 152. Danish or Norse 98 153. Roman of the Second Period 100 {xxiii} 154. Anglo-Norman 101 155. Indirect Scandinavian 101 156. Latin of the Third Period 101 157. Greek elements 102 158. Classical elements 102 159. Latin words 103 160. Greek elements 104 161, 162. Miscellaneous elements 105 163, 164. Direct and ultimate origin of words 106, 107 165. Distinction 107 166-168. Words of foreign simulating a vernacular origin 107-109 169-171. Hybridism 109, 110 172. Incompletion of radical 110 173. Historical and logical analysis 111 CHAPTER II. THE RELATION OF THE ENGLISH TO THE ANGLO-SAXON AND THE STAGES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 174. Ancient and modern languages 112 175. English and Anglo-Saxon compared 113 176. Semi-Saxon stage 117 177-179. Old English stage 119, 122 180. Middle English 122 181. Present tendencies of the English 123 182. Speculative question 123 CHAPTER III. THE LOWLAND SCOTCH. 183-188. Lowland Scotch 124-127 189. Extracts 127 190. Points of difference with the English 130 CHAPTER IV. ON CERTAIN UNDETERMINED AND FICTITIOUS LANGUAGES OF GREAT BRITAIN. 191, 192. The Belgæ 132-135 193. Caledonians, Iberians 135 194. Supposed affinities of the Irish 135 Extract from Plautus 136 195. Hypothesis of a Finnic race 139 {xxiv} PART III. SOUNDS, LETTERS, PRONUNCIATION, AND SPELLING. CHAPTER I. GENERAL NATURE OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 196. Preliminary remarks 141 197. Vowels and consonants 143 198. Divisions of articulate sounds 143 199. Explanation of terms 143 _Sharp_ and _flat_ 143 _Continuous_ and _explosive_ 144 200. General statements 144 201. _H_ no articulation 144 CHAPTER II. SYSTEM OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 202. System of vowels 145 _é_ fermé, ó _chiuso_, _ü_ German 145 203. System of mutes 145 Lenes and aspirates 146 204. Affinities of the liquids 147 205. Diphthongs 147 206. Compound sibilants 148 207. _Ng_ 148 208-210. Further explanation of terms 148-150 211. System of vowels 150 212. System of mutes 150 213. Varieties 150 214. Connection in phonetics 151 CHAPTER III. ON CERTAIN COMBINATIONS OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 215. Unpronounceable combinations 152 216. Unstable combinations 153 217. Effect of _y_ 153 218, 219. Evolution of new sounds 153, 154 220. Value of a sufficient system of sounds 154 {xxv} 221. Double consonants rare 154 222. Reduplications of consonants rare 155 223. True aspirates rare 155 CHAPTER IV. EUPHONY; THE PERMUTATION AND TRANSITION OF LETTERS. 224. Euphonic change exhibited 157 225. The _rationale_ of it 157 226. The combinations _-mt_, _-nt_ 158 227. The combination _-pth_ 158 228. Accommodation of vowels 158 229. Permutation of letters 159 230. Transition of letters 160 CHAPTER V. ON THE FORMATION OF SYLLABLES. 231. Distribution of consonants between two syllables 161 CHAPTER VI. ON QUANTITY. 232. _Long_ and _short_ 164 233. How far coincident with _independent_ and _dependent_ 164 234. Length of vowels and length of syllables 165 CHAPTER VII. ON ACCENT. 235. Accent 167 236. How far accent always on the root 168 237. Verbal accent and logical accent 168 238. Effect of accent on orthography 169 239. Accent and quantity _not_ the same 170 CHAPTER VIII. THE PRINCIPLES OF ORTHOEPY. 240. Meaning of the word _orthoepy_ 172 241. Classification of errors in pronunciation 172 242-244. Causes of erroneous enunciation 172-175 {xxvi} 245. Appreciation of standards of orthoepy 175 246. Principles of critical orthoepy 176 CHAPTER IX. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 247. Province of orthography 178 248. Imperfections of alphabets 178 249. Applications of alphabets 180 250. Changes of sound, and original false spelling 181 251. Theory of a perfect alphabet 181 252. Sounds and letters in English 182 253. Certain conventional modes of spelling 187 254. The inconvenience of them 189 255. Criticism upon the details of the English orthography 189-200 CHAPTER X. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE ENGLISH ALPHABET. 256. Bearings of the question 200 257. Phoenician Period 200 258, 259. Greek Period 201-203 260-262. Latin Period 203-205 263. The Moeso-Gothic alphabet 205 264. The Anglo-Saxon alphabet 205 265. The Anglo-Norman Period 207 266. Extract from the Ormulum 208 267. The _Runes_ 209 268. The order of the alphabet 210 269. Parallel and equivalent orthographies 213 PART IV. ETYMOLOGY. CHAPTER I. ON THE PROVINCE OF ETYMOLOGY. 270. Meaning of the term etymology 214 {xxvii} CHAPTER II. ON GENDER. 271. Latin genders 217 272. Words like _he-goat_ 217 273. Words like _genitrix_ 217 274. Words like _domina_ 218 275. Sex 219 276. True Genders in English 219 277. Neuters in _-t_ 220 278. Personification 220 279. True and apparent genders 221 CHAPTER III. THE NUMBERS. 280, 281. Dual number 225 282-284. Plural in _-s_ 226-230 285. The form in _child-r-en_ 230 286. The form in _-en_ 232 287. _Men_, _feet_, &c. 232 288. _Brethren_, &c. 232 CHAPTER IV. ON THE CASES. 289, 290. Meaning of word _case_ 234 291. Cases in English 237 292, 293. Determination of cases 239 294, 295. Analysis of cases 241 296. Case in _-s_ 241 CHAPTER V. THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 297. True personal pronoun 243 298. _We_ and _me_ 244 CHAPTER VI. ON THE TRUE REFLECTIVE PRONOUN IN THE GOTHIC LANGUAGES AND ON ITS ABSENCE IN THE ENGLISH. 299. The Latin _se_, _sui_ 247 {xxviii} CHAPTER VII. THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, ETC. 300. _He_, _she_, _it_, _this_, _that_, _the_ 249 301. _These_ 251 302. _Those_ 253 CHAPTER VIII. THE RELATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND CERTAIN OTHER PRONOUNS. 303. _Who_, _what_, &c. 255 304. Indo-European forms 255 305. Miscellaneous observations 256 CHAPTER IX. ON CERTAIN FORMS IN -ER. 306, 307. _Eith-er_, _ov-er_, _und-er_, _bett-er_ 260, 261 308. Illustration from the Laplandic 261 309. Idea of alternative 262 CHAPTER X. THE COMPARATIVE DEGREE. 310. Forms in _-tara_ and _-îyas_ 263 311. Change from _-s_ to _-r_ 263 312. Moeso-Gothic comparative 264 313. Comparison of adverbs 264 314. _Elder_ 265 315. _Rather_ 265 316. Excess of expression 266 317. _Better_, &c. 266 318. Sequence in logic 266 319-325. _Worse_, &c. 267-270 CHAPTER XI. ON THE SUPERLATIVE DEGREE. 326. Different modes of expression 271 327. The termination _-st_ 272 {xxix} CHAPTER XII. THE CARDINAL NUMBERS. 328, 329. Their ethnological value 273 Variations in form 274 10+2 and 10×2 275 330. Limits to the inflection of the numeral 276 CHAPTER XIII. ON THE ORDINAL NUMBERS. 331. _First_ 277 332. _Second_ 277 333. _Third_, _fourth_, &c. 278 334, 335. Ordinal and superlative forms 278-280 CHAPTER XIV. THE ARTICLES. 336. _A_, _the_, _no_ 281 CHAPTER XV. DIMINUTIVES, AUGMENTATIVES, AND PATRONYMICS. 337, 338. Diminutives 283 339. Augmentatives 285 340. Patronymics 286 CHAPTER XVI. GENTILE FORMS. 341. _Wales_ 288 CHAPTER XVII. ON THE CONNECTION BETWEEN THE NOUN AND VERB, AND ON THE INFLECTION OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 342-344. Substantival character of verbs 289 345, 346. Declension of the infinitive 290 CHAPTER XVIII. ON DERIVED VERBS. 347. _Rise_, _raise_, &c. 292 {xxx} CHAPTER XIX. ON THE PERSONS. 348-351. Persons in English 294-298 352. Person in _-t_, _-art_, &c. 298 353. Forms like _spakest_, _sungest_, &c. 299 354. Plurals in _-s_ 299 CHAPTER XX. ON THE NUMBERS OF VERBS. 355. Personal signs of numbers 300 _Run_, _ran_ 301 CHAPTER XXI. ON MOODS. 356. The infinitive mood 302 357. The imperative mood 302 358. The subjunctive mood 302 CHAPTER XXII. OF TENSES IN GENERAL. 359. General nature of tenses 303 360. Latin preterites 304 361. Moeso-Gothic perfects 304 Reduplication 305 362. Strong and weak verbs 305 CHAPTER XXIII. THE STRONG TENSES. 363. _Sang_, _sung_ 307 364-376. Classification of strong verbs 308-316 CHAPTER XXIV. THE WEAK TENSES. 377. The weak inflection 317 378. First division 318 379. Second division 318 {xxxi} 380. Third division 319 381. Preterites in _-ed_ and _-t_ 319 382. Preterites like _made_, _had_ 321-327 _Would_, _should_ 322 _Aught_ 322 _Durst_ 322 _Must_ 323 _Wist_ 324 _Do_ 325 _Mind_ 325 _Yode_ 327 CHAPTER XXV. ON CONJUGATIONS. 383. So-called irregularities 328 384. Principles of criticism 329 Coincidence of form 329 Coincidence of distribution 329 Coincidence of order 329 385. Strong verbs once weak 332 386. Division of verbs into _strong_ and _weak_ natural 333 387. Obsolete forms 334 388. Double forms 334 CHAPTER XXVI. DEFECTIVENESS AND IRREGULARITY. 389. Difference between defectiveness and irregularity 335 Vital and obsolete processes 336 Processes of necessity 337 Ordinary processes 338 Positive processes 338 Processes of confusion 339 390. _Could_ 339 391. _Quoth_ 340 CHAPTER XXVII. THE IMPERSONAL VERBS. 392-394. _Meseems_, _methinks_, _me listeth_ 342 {xxxii} CHAPTER XXVIII. THE VERB SUBSTANTIVE. 395. The verb substantive defective 344 396. _Was_ 344 397. _Be_ 344 398, 399. Future power of _be_ 345 400. _Am_ 346 _Worth_ 347 CHAPTER XXIX. THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 401. The form in _-ing_ 348 402. Substantival power of participle 349 403. Taylor's theory 349 CHAPTER XXX. THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 404-406. Similarity to the preterite 351 407. _Forlorn_, _frore_ 352 408. The form in _-ed_, _-d_, or _-t_ 352 409. The _y-_ in _y-cleped_, &c. 353 CHAPTER XXXI. ON COMPOSITION. 410-414. Definition of composition 355-357 415-417. Parity of accent 358 418. Obscure compounds 361 419. Exceptions 362 420. _Peacock_, _peahen_, &c. 364 421. Third element in compound words 365 422. Improper compounds 365 423. Decomposites 365 424. Combinations 366 CHAPTER XXXII. ON DERIVATION AND INFLECTION. 425. Derivation 367 426. Classification of derived words 368 427. Words like _ábsent_ and _absént_, &c. 369 {xxxiii} 428. Words like _churl_, _tail_, &c. 370 429. Forms like _tip_ and _top_, &c. 370 430. Obscure derivatives 370 CHAPTER XXXIII. ADVERBS. 431. Classification of adverbs 371 432. Adverbs of deflection 372 433. Words like _darkling_ 373 434. Words like _brightly_ 374 CHAPTER XXXIV. ON CERTAIN ADVERBS OF PLACE. 435-439. _Here_, _hither_, _hence_ 374 440. _Yonder_ 375 _Anon_ 375 CHAPTER XXXV. ON WHEN, THEN, AND THAN. 441. Origin of the words 377 CHAPTER XXXVI. ON PREPOSITIONS, ETC. 442. Prepositions 378 443. Conjunctions 378 444. _Yes_ and _no_ 379 445. Particles 379 CHAPTER XXXVII. ON THE GRAMMATICAL POSITION OF THE WORDS _MINE_ AND _THINE_. 446. Peculiarities of inflection of pronouns 380 447. Powers of the genitive case 381 448. Ideas of possession and partition 382 449. Adjectival expressions 382 450. Evolution of cases 383 451. Idea of possession 383 452. Idea of partition 383 {xxxiv} 453. _A posteriori_ argument 384 454-458. Analogy of _mei_ and [Greek: emou] 384 459. Etymological evidence 386 460. Syntactic evidence 387 461. Value of the evidence of certain constructions 387 462, 463. Double adjectival form 388 CHAPTER XXXVIII. ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE WEAK PRÆTERITE. 464. Forms like _salb-ôdêdum_ 390 465, 466. The Slavonic præterite 391 PART V. SYNTAX. CHAPTER I. ON SYNTAX IN GENERAL. 467. The term _syntax_ 392 468. What is _not_ syntax 392 469. What _is_ syntax 394 470. Pure syntax 395 471, 472. Mixed syntax 395 473. Figures of speech 395 474. Personification 395 475. Ellipsis 395 476. Pleonasm 395 477. Zeugma 397 478. [Greek: Pros to sêmainomenon] 397 479. Apposition 398 480. Collective nouns 398 481, 482. Complex forms 399 483. Convertibility 399 484. Etymological convertibility 400 485. Syntactic convertibility 400 486. Adjectives used as substantives 400 {xxxv} 487. Uninflected parts of speech used as such 400 488. Convertibility common in English 401 CHAPTER II. SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 489. Convertibility 402 490. Ellipsis 403 491. Proper names 403 CHAPTER III. SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 492. Pleonasm 404 493. Collocation 404 494. Government 404 495. _More fruitful_, &c. 405 496. _The better of the two_ 405 497. Syntax of adjectives simple 406 CHAPTER IV. SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 498, 499. Syntax of pronouns important 407 500, 501. Pleonasm 407 CHAPTER V. THE TRUE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 502. _Pronomen reverentiæ_ 409 503. _You_ and _ye_ 409 504. _Dativus ethicus_ 409 505. Reflected personal pronouns 410 506. Reflective neuter verbs 410 507. Equivocal reflectives 411 CHAPTER VI. ON THE SYNTAX OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, AND ON THE PRONOUNS OF THE THIRD PERSON. 508. True demonstrative pronoun 412 509. _His mother_, _her father_ 412 {xxxvi} 510, 511. Use of _its_ 412 512. _Take them things away_ 413 513, 514. _Hic_ and _ille_, _this_ and _that_ 413 CHAPTER VII. ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE WORD _SELF_. 515. Government, apposition, composition 416 516. _Her-self_, _itself_ 416 517. _Self_ and _one_ 417 518, 519. Inflection of _self_ 418 CHAPTER VIII. ON THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 520, 521. _My_ and _mine_, &c. 419 CHAPTER IX. THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 522-524. _That_, _which_, _what_ 422 525. _The man_ as _rides to market_ 423 526, 527. Plural use of _whose_ 423 528, 529. Concord of relative and antecedent 423 530. Ellipsis of the relative 424 531. Relative equivalent to demonstrative pronoun 425 Demonstrative equivalent to substantive 425 532. Omission of antecedent 426 533. [Greek: Chrômai bibliois hois echô] 426 534. Relatives with complex antecedents 427 CHAPTER X. ON THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 535. Direct and oblique interrogations 428 536-539. _Whom do they say that it is?_ 428-430 CHAPTER XI. THE RECIPROCAL CONSTRUCTION. 540, 541. Structure of reciprocal expressions 431 {xxxvii} CHAPTER XII. THE INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 542. _On dit_=_one says_ 433 543-546. _It_ and _there_ 433 _Es sind_ 434 CHAPTER XIII. THE ARTICLES. 547. Repetition of article 435 CHAPTER XIV. THE NUMERALS. 548. _The thousand-and-first_ 436 549. _The first two_ and _two first_ 436 CHAPTER XV. ON VERBS IN GENERAL. 550. Transitive verbs 437 551. Auxiliary verbs 438 552. Verb substantive 438 CHAPTER XVI. THE CONCORD OF VERBS. 553-556. Concord of person 439 557. Plural subjects with singular predicates 443 Singular subjects with plural predicates 443 CHAPTER XVII. ON THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 558, 559. _Objective_ and _modal_ government 444 560. Appositional construction 445 561. Verb and genitive case 448 562. Verb and accusative case 448 563. The partitive construction 448 564. _I believe it to be him_ 448 565. [Greek: phêmi einai despotês] 449 566. _It is believed to be_ 449 {xxxviii} CHAPTER XVIII. ON THE PARTICIPLES. 567. _Dying-day_ 451 568. _I am beaten_ 451 CHAPTER XIX. ON THE MOODS. 569. The infinitive mood 452 570. Objective construction 452 570. Gerundial construction 453 571. Peculiarities of imperatives 454 572. Syntax of subjunctives 454 CHAPTER XX. ON THE TENSES. 573. Present form habitual 455 574. Præterite form aorist 455 CHAPTER XXI. SYNTAX OF THE PERSONS OF VERBS. 575, 576. _I, or he am (is) wrong_ 456 CHAPTER XXII. ON THE VOICES OF VERBS. 577. The word _hight_ 458 CHAPTER XXIII. ON THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 578. Classification 459 579. Time and tense 461 Present 461 Aorist 461 Future 461 Imperfect 462 Perfect 462 {xxxix} Pluperfect 462 Future present 462 Future præterite 462 Emphatic tenses 463 Predictive future 463 Promissive future 463 580. _Historic_ present 463 581. Use of perfect for present 464 582, 583. Varieties of tense 465 Continuance 465 Habit 466 584. Inference of continuance 466 Inference of contrast 467 585. _Have_ with a participle 467 586. _I am to speak_ 469 587. _I am to blame_ 469 588. _Shall_ and _will_ 469 589. Archdeacon Hare's theory 470 590. Mr. De Morgan's theory 472 591. _I am beaten_ 474 592, 593. Present use of _ought, &c._ 475 CHAPTER XXIV. THE SYNTAX OF ADVERBS. 594. The syntax of adverbs simple 477 595. _Full_ for _fully, &c._ 477 596. The termination _-ly_ 477 597. _To sleep the sleep of the righteous_ 478 598. From _whence, &c._ 478 CHAPTER XXV. ON PREPOSITIONS. 599. All prepositions govern cases 479 600, 601. None, in English, govern genitives 479 602. Dative case after prepositions 481 603. From _to die_ 481 604. For _to go_ 481 605. No prepositions in composition 481 {xl} CHAPTER XXVI. ON CONJUNCTIONS. 606. Syntax of conjunctions 482 607. Convertibility of conjunctions 482 608. Connexion of prepositions 483 609, 610. Relatives and conjunctions 484 611. Government of mood 485 612. Conditional propositions 486 613. Variations of meaning 486 614. _If_ and _since_ 487 615. Use of that 487 616. Succession of tenses 488 Succession of moods 489 617. Greek constructions 489 618. _Be_ for _may be_ 491 619. Disjunctives 491 620-623. Either, neither 492 CHAPTER XXVII. THE SYNTAX OF THE NEGATIVE. 624. Position of the negative 495 625. Distribution of the negative 495 626. Double negative 496 627. Questions of appeal 496 628. Extract from Sir Thomas More 496 CHAPTER XXVIII. OF THE CASE ABSOLUTE. 629. _He excepted, him excepted_ 498 . . . . . . PART VI. PROSODY. 630-632. Metre 499 633. Classical metres measured by quantities 500 634. English metre measured by accents 500 {xli} 635. Alliteration 500 636. Rhyme 501 637. Definition of Rhyme 503 638. Measures 503 639. Dissyllabic and trisyllabic 503 640. Dissyllabic measures 504 641. Trisyllabic measures 504 642. Measures different from feet 505 643. Couplets, stanzas, &c. 506 644, 645. Names of elementary metres 507, 508 646. Scansion 509 647. Symmetrical metres 509 648. Unsymmetrical metres 510 649. Measures of _one_ and of _four_ syllables 510 650. Contrast between English words and English metre 510 651-653. The classical metres as read by Englishmen 511, 512 654-657. Reasons against the classical nomenclature as applied to English metres 513-515 658-661. The classical metres metrical to English readers--why 515-517 662. Symmetrical metres 517 663. Unsymmetrical metres 517 664. Classical metres unsymmetrical 518 665-667. Conversion of English into classical metres 519, 520 668, 669. Cæsura 520, 521 670-672. English hexameters, &c. 522-526 673. Convertible metres 526 674. Metrical and grammatical combinations 527 675. Rhythm 528 676, 677. Rhyme--its parts 529 . . . . . . PART VII. THE DIALECTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 678. Bearing of the investigation 531 679. Structural and _ethnological_ views 531 680-682. Causes that effect change 532 683, 684. Preliminary notices 533 685. Philological preliminaries 533 686, 687. Present provincial dialects 534-540 688-691. Caution 540-544 {xlii} 692-696. Districts north of the Humber 545-552 697. South Lancashire 552 698. Shropshire, &c. 553 699. East Derbyshire, &c. 553 700. Norfolk and Suffolk 554 701. Leicestershire, &c. 555 702. Origin of the present written language 555 703. Dialects of the Lower Thames 556 704. Kent--Frisian theory 557 705. Sussex, &c. 559 706. Supposed East Anglian and Saxon frontier 560 707. Dialects of remaining counties 560 708. Objections 561 709. Dialect of Gower 561 710. ---- the Barony of Forth 563 711. Americanisms 565 712. Extract from a paper of Mr. Watts 566 713. Gypsy language, &c. 572 714. _Talkee-talkee_ 573 715, 716. Varieties of the Anglo-Norman 574 717-719. Extracts from Mr. Kemble 575-580 PRAXIS 581 * * * * * {1} AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE * * * * * PART I. GENERAL ETHNOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. -------- CHAPTER I. GERMANIC ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.--DATE. § 1. The first point to be remembered in the history of the English Language, is that it was not the original language of any of the British Islands altogether or of any portion of them. Indeed, of the _whole_ of Great Britain it is not the language at the present moment. Welsh is spoken in Wales, Manks in the Isle of Man, Scotch Gaelic in the Highlands of Scotland, and Irish Gaelic in Ireland. Hence, the English that is now spoken was once as foreign to our country as it is at present to the East Indies; and it is no more our primitive vernacular tongue, than it is the primitive vernacular tongue for North America, Jamaica, or Australia. Like the English of Sydney, or the English of Pennsylvania, the English of Great Britain spread itself at the expense of some earlier and more aboriginal language, which it displaced and superseded. {2} § 2. The next point involves the real origin and the real affinities of the English Language. Its _real_ origin is on the continent of Europe, and its _real_ affinities are with certain languages there spoken. To speak more specifically, the native country of the English Language is _Germany_; and the _Germanic_ languages are those that are the most closely connected with our own. In Germany, languages and dialects allied to each other and allied to the mother-tongue of the English have been spoken from times anterior to history; and these, for most purposes of philology, may be considered as the aboriginal languages and dialects of that country. § 3. _Accredited details of the different immigrations from Germany into Britain._--Until lately the details of the different Germanic invasions of England, both in respect to the particular tribes by which they were made, and the order in which they succeeded each other, were received with but little doubt, and as little criticism. Respecting the tribes by which they were made, the current opinion was, that they were chiefly, if not exclusively, those of the Jutes, the Saxons, and the Angles. The particular chieftains that headed each descent were also known, as well as the different localities upon which they descended. These were as follows:-- § 4. _First settlement of invaders from Germany._--The account of this gives us the year 449 for the first permanent Germanic tribes settled in Britain. Ebbsfleet, in the Isle of Thanet, was the spot where they landed; and the particular name that these tribes gave themselves was that of _Jutes_. Their leaders were Hengist and Horsa. Six years after their landing they had established the kingdom of Kent; so that the county of Kent was the first district where the original British was superseded by the mother-tongue of the present English, introduced from Germany. § 5. _Second settlement of invaders from Germany._--In the year 477 invaders from Northern Germany made the second permanent settlement in Britain. The coast of Sussex was the spot whereon they landed. The particular name that these tribes gave themselves was that of _Saxons_. Their leader {3} was Ella. They established the kingdom of the South Saxons (Sussex); so that the county of Sussex was the second district where the original British was superseded by the mother-tongue of the present English, introduced from Northern Germany. § 6. _Third settlement of invaders from Germany._--In the year 495 invaders from Northern Germany made the third permanent settlement in Britain. The coast of Hampshire was the spot whereon they landed. Like the invaders last mentioned, these tribes were Saxons. Their leader was Cerdic. They established the kingdom of the West Saxons (Wessex); so that the county of Hants was the third district where the original British was superseded by the mother-tongue of the present English, introduced from Northern Germany. § 7. _Fourth settlement of invaders from Germany._--A.D. 530, certain Saxons landed in Essex, so that the county of Essex was the fourth district where the original British was superseded by the mother-tongue of the present English, introduced from Northern Germany. § 8. _Fifth settlement of invaders from Germany._--These were _Angles_ in Norfolk and Suffolk. This settlement, of which the precise date is not known, took place during the reign of Cerdic in Wessex. The fifth district where the original British was superseded by the mother-tongue of the present English was the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk; the particular dialect introduced being that of the _Angles_. § 9. _Sixth settlement of invaders from Germany._--In the year 547 invaders from Northern Germany made the sixth permanent settlement in Britain. The south-eastern counties of Scotland, between the rivers Tweed and Forth, were the districts where they landed. They were of the tribe of the Angles, and their leader was Ida. The south-eastern parts of Scotland constituted the sixth district where the original British was superseded by the mother-tongue of the present English, introduced from Northern Germany. § 10. It would be satisfactory if these details rested upon cotemporary evidence; in which case the next question would {4} be that of the relations of the immigrant tribes to each other _as Germans_, _i.e._ the extent to which the Jute differed from (or agreed with) the Angle, or the Saxon, and the relations of the Angle and the Saxon to each other. Did they speak different languages?--different dialects of a common tongue!--or dialects absolutely identical? Did they belong to the same or to different confederations? Was one polity common to all? Were the civilizations similar? Questions like these being answered, and a certain amount of mutual difference being ascertained, it would then stand over to inquire whether any traces of this original difference were still to be found in the modern English. Have any provincial dialects characteristics which are Jute rather than Angle? or Angle rather than Saxon? It is clear that the second of these questions is involved in the answer given to the first. § 11. _The accredited relations of the Jutes, Angles, and Saxons to each other as Germans._--These are as follows:-- 1. That the geographical locality of the Jutes was the Peninsula of Jutland. 2. That that of Angles, was the present Dutchy of Sleswick; so that they were the southern neighbours of the Jutes. 3. That that of the Saxons was a small tract north of the Elbe, and some distinct point--more or less extensive--between the Elbe and Rhine. 4. That, although there were, probably, dialectal differences between the languages, the speech of all the three tribes was mutually intelligible. § 12. Assuming, then, the accuracy of our historical facts, the inference is, that, without expecting to find any very prominent and characteristic differences between the different inhabitants of England arising out of the original differences between the Germanic immigrants, we are to look for what few there are in the following quarters-- 1. For the characteristic _differentiæ_ of the Jutes, in Kent, part of Sussex, and the Isle of Wight. 2. For those of the Saxons in Sussex, Essex, Hants (Wessex), and Middlesex. {5} 3. For those of the Angles in Norfolk, Suffolk, Yorkshire, Durham, and Northumberland. Or, changing the expression:-- 1. The _differentiæ_ of the people of Kent, part of Sussex, and the Isle of Wight (if any), are to be explained by the _differentiæ_ of the original Jute immigrants-- 2. Those of the rest of Sussex, Wessex, Essex, and Middlesex, by those of the Saxons-- 3. Those of the people of Norfolk, &c., by those of the Angles. Such is our reasoning, and such a sketch of our philological researches--assuming that the opinions just exhibited, concerning the dates, conductors, localities, and order, are absolute and unimpeachable historical facts. § 13. _Criticism of the aforesaid details._--As a preliminary to this part of the subject, the present writer takes occasion to state once for all, that nearly the whole of the following criticism is not his own (except, of course, so far as he adopts it--which he does), but Mr. Kemble's, and that it forms the introduction to his valuable work on the Saxons in England. 1. _The evidence to the details just given, is not historical, but traditional._--_a._ Bede, from whom it is chiefly taken, wrote more than 300 years after the supposed event, _i.e._, the landing of Hengist and Horsa, in A.D. 449. _b._ The nearest contemporary author is Gildas, and _he_ lived at least 100 years after it. 2. _The account of Hengist's and Horsa's landing, has elements which are fictional rather than historical_--_a._ Thus "when we find Hengist and Horsa approaching the coasts of Kent in three keels, and Ælli effecting a landing in Sussex with the same number, we are reminded of the Gothic tradition which carries a migration of Ostrogoths, Visigoths, and Gepidæ, also in three vessels, to the mouths of the Vistula." _b._ The murder of the British chieftains by Hengist is told _totidem verbis_, by Widukind, and others of the Old Saxons in Thuringia. _c._ Geoffry of Monmouth relates also, how "Hengist obtained from the Britons as much land as could be enclosed {6} by an ox-hide; then, cutting the hide into thongs, enclosed a much larger space than the granters intended, on which he erected Thong Castle--a tale too familiar to need illustration, and which runs throughout the mythus of many nations. Among the Old Saxons, the tradition is in reality the same, though recorded with a slight variety of detail. In their story, a lap-full of earth is purchased at a dear rate from a Thuringian; the companions of the Saxon jeer him for his imprudent bargain; but he sows the purchased earth upon a large space of ground, which he claims, and, by the aid of his comrades, ultimately wrests it from the Thuringians." 3. _There is direct evidence in favour of there having been German tribes in England anterior to_ A.D. 447.--_a._ At the close of the Marcomannic war, Marcus Antoninus transplanted a number of Germans into Britain.--Dio Cassius, lxxi. lxiii. _b._ Alemannic auxiliaries served along with Roman legions under Valentinian. _c._ The _Notitia utriusque imperii_, of which the latest date is half a century earlier than the epoch of Hengist, mentions, as an officer of State, the _Comes littoris Saxonici per Britannias_; his government extending along the coast from Portsmouth to the Wash. I conclude with the following extract:--"We are ignorant what _fasti_ or even mode of reckoning the revolutions of seasons prevailed in England, previous to the introduction of Christianity. We know not how any event before the year 600 was recorded, or to what period the memory of man extended. There may have been rare annals: there may have been poems: if such there were they have perished, and have left no trace behind, unless we are to attribute to them such scanty notices as the Saxon Chronicle adds to Beda's account. From such sources, however, little could have been gained of accurate information either as to the real internal state, the domestic progress, or development of a people. The dry bare entries of the Chronicles in historical periods may supply the means of judging what sort of annals were likely to exist before the general introduction of the Roman alphabet and parchment, while, in all probability, runes supplied the place of letters, and {7} stones, or the _beech_-wood, from which their name is derived, of _books_. Again, the traditions embodied in the epic, are pre-eminently those of kings and princes; they are heroical, devoted to celebrate the divine or half-divine founders of a race, the fortunes of their warlike descendants, the manners and mode of life of military adventurers, not the obscure progress, household peace, and orderly habits of the humble husband-man. They are full of feasts and fighting, shining arms and golden goblets: the gods mingle among men almost their equals, share in the same pursuits, are animated by the same passions of love, and jealousy, and hatred; or, blending the divine with the mortal nature, become the founders of races, kingly, because derived from divinity itself. But one race knows little of another, or its traditions, and cares as little for them. Alliances or wars alone bring them in contact with one another, and the terms of intercourse between the races will, for the most part, determine the character under which foreign heroes shall be admitted into the national epos, or whether they shall be admitted at all. All history, then, which is founded in any degree upon epical tradition (and national history is usually more or less so founded) must be to that extent imperfect, if not inaccurate; only when corrected by the written references of contemporaneous authors, can we assign any certainty to its records. "Let us apply these observations to the early events of Saxon history: of Kent, indeed, we have the vague and uncertain notices which I have mentioned; even more vague and uncertain are those of Sussex and Wessex. Of the former, we learn that in the year 477, Ælli, with three sons, Cymen, Wlencing, and Cissa, landed in Sussex; that in the year 485 they defeated the Welsh, and that in 491 they destroyed the population of Anderida. Not another word is there about Sussex before the arrival of Augustine, except a late assertion of the military pre-eminence of Ælli among the Saxon chieftains. The events of Wessex are somewhat better detailed; we learn that in 495 two nobles, Cerdic and Cyneríc, came to England, and landed at _Cerdices-ora_, where, on the {8} same day, they fought a battle: that in 501 they were followed by a noble named Port, who, with his two sons, Bieda and Mægla, made a forcible landing at Portsmouth: and that in 508, they gained a great battle over a British king, whom they slew, together with five thousand of his people. In 514 Stuff and Wihtgár, their nephews, brought them a reinforcement of three ships; in 519, they again defeated the Britons, and established the kingdom of Wessex. In 527, a new victory is recorded; in 530, the Isle of Wight was subdued and given to Wihtgár; and in 534, Cerdic died, and was succeeded by Cyneríc, who reigned twenty-six years. In 544, Wihtgár died. A victory of Cyneríc, in 552 and 556, and Ceawlin's accession to the throne of Wessex are next recorded. Wars of the West-Saxon kings are noted in 568, 571, 577, 584. From 590 to 595, a king of that race, named Ceól, is mentioned: in 591, we learn the expulsion of Ceawlin from power; in 593, the deaths of Ceawlin, Cwichelm, and Crida, are mentioned, and in 597, the year of Augustine's arrival, we learn that Ceólwulf ascended the throne of Wessex. "Meagre as these details are, they far exceed what is related of Northumberland, Essex, or East-Anglia. In 547, we are told that Ida began to reign in the first of these kingdoms, and that he was succeeded in 560, by Ælli: that after a reign of _thirty_ years, he died in 588, and was succeeded by Æþelríc, who again, in 593, was succeeded by Æþelfriþ. This is all we learn of Northumbria; of Mercia, Essex, East-Anglia, and the innumerable kingdoms that must have been comprised under these general appellations, we hear not a single word. "If this be all that we can now recover of events, a great number of which must have fallen within the lives of those to whom Augustine preached, what credit shall we give to the inconsistent accounts of earlier actions? How shall we supply the almost total want of information respecting the first settlements? What explanation have we to give of the alliance between Jutes, Angles, and Saxon, which preceded the invasions of England? What knowledge will these records {9} supply of the real number and quality of the chieftains, the language and blood of the populations who gradually spread themselves from the Atlantic to the Frith of Forth; of the remains of Roman cultivation, or the amount of British power with which they had to contend? of the vicissitudes of good and evil fortune which visited the independent principalities before they were swallowed up in the kingdoms of the heptarchy, or the extent of the influence which they retained after the event! On all these several points we are left entirely in the dark; and yet these are facts which it most imports us to know, if we would comprehend the growth of a society which endured for at least 700 years in England, and formed the foundation of that in which we live."--_The Saxons in England._ Vol. I, pp. 28-32. § 14. _Inference._--As it is nearly certain, that the year 449 is _not_ the date of the first introduction of German tribes into Britain, we must consider that the displacement of the original British began at an earlier period than the one usually admitted, and, consequently, that it was more gradual than is usually supposed. Perhaps, if we substitute the middle of the fourth, instead of the middle of the fifth century, as the epoch of the Germanic immigrations into Britain, we shall not be far from the truth. * * * * * {10} CHAPTER II. GERMANIC ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.--THE IMMIGRANT TRIBES, AND THEIR RELATIONS TO EACH OTHER. § 15. By referring to §§ 3-12, it may be seen that out of the numerous tribes and nations of Germany, _three_ in particular have been considered as the chief, if not the exclusive, sources of the present English, viz.: the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes. To criticise the evidence which derives the _English_ in general from the _Angles_, the particular inhabitants of _Sussex_, _Essex_, _Middlesex_ and _Wessex_, from the _Saxons_, and the _Anglo-Saxon_ language from the _Angle_ and _Saxon_ would be superfluous; whilst to doubt the truth of the main facts which it attests would exhibit an unnecessary and unhealthy scepticism. That the Angles and Saxons formed at least seven-tenths of the Germanic invaders may be safely admitted. The _Jute_ element, however, requires further notice. § 16. The _Jutes_.--Were any of the German immigrants _Jutes_? If so, what were their relations to the other German tribes? _a._ Were there Jutes in England? That there was a Jute element in England is to be maintained, not upon the _tradition_ that one of the three ships of Hengist and Horsa was manned by Jutes, but from the following extract from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle:-- "Of Jotum comon Cantware and Wihtware, þæt is seo mæiað, þe nú eardaþ on Wiht, and þæt cynn on West-Sexum ðe man gyt hæt Iútnacynn. Of Eald-Seaxum comon Eást-Seaxan, and Suð-Seaxan, and West-Seaxan. Of Angle comon {11} (se á siððan stód westig betwix Iútum and Seaxum) Eást-Engle, Middel-Angle, Mearce, and ealle Norðymbra." From the Jutes came the inhabitants of Kent and of Wight, that is, the race that now dwells in Wight, and that tribe amongst the West-Saxons which is yet called the Jute tribe. From the Old-Saxons came the East-Saxons, and South-Saxons, and West-Saxons. From the Angles Land (which has since always stood waste betwixt the Jutes and Saxons) came the East-Angles, Middle-Angles, Mercians, and all the Northumbrians. Here the words _gyt hæt Iútnacynn_ constitute cotemporary evidence. Still there is a flaw in it; since it is quite possible that the term _Iútnacynn_ may have been no true denomination of a section of the Germans of England, but only the synonym of a different word, _Wiht-sætan_. Alfred writes--comon hi of þrym folcum þam strangestan Germaniæ; þæt of _Seaxum_, and of _Angle_, and of _Geatum_. Of Geatum fruman sindon Cantware and _Wiht-sætan_, þæt is seo þeód se Wiht þæt ealond on eardað--_they came of three folk, the strongest of Germany; that of_ Saxons _and of_ Angles, _and of_ Geats. _Of_ Geats _originally are_ the Kent people _and_ Wiht-set; _that is the people which_ Wiht _the Island live on_. This changes the reasoning, and leads us to the following facts. _a._ The word in question is a compound=_Wight_=_the name of the isle_, + _sætan_=_people_; as Somer-_set_, and Dor-_set_. _b._ The peninsula _Jut_-land was also called _Vit_-land, or _With_-land. _c._ The _wiht_- in _Wiht_-sætan is, undoubtedly, no such element as the _vit_- in _Vit_-land=_Jut-land_; since it represents the older Celtic term, known to us in the Romanized form _Vectis_. Putting all this together, it becomes possible (nay probable) that the whole doctrine of a _Jute_ element in the Anglo-Saxon migration may have arisen out of the fact of there being a portion of the people of Southern England neighbours of the Saxons, and bearing the name _Wiht_-sætan; a fact which, taken along with the juxtaposition of the _Vit_-landers (_Jut_-landers) and Saxons on the Continent, suggested to the writers of a long later age the doctrine of a Jute migration. § 17. As this last objection impugns the evidence rather than the fact, the following question finds place:-- {12} What were the Jutes of Germany? At present they are the natives of Jutland, and their language is Danish rather than German. Neither is there reason to suppose that during the third and fourth centuries it was otherwise. § 18. This last circumstance detracts from the likelihood of the _fact_; since in no part of Kent, Sussex, Hants, nor even in the Isle of Wight--a likely place for a language to remain unchanged--have any traces of the old Jute been found. § 19. On the other hand the fact of Jutes, _even though Danes_, being members of a Germanic confederation is not only probable, but such was actually the case; at least for continental wars--_subactis, cum Saxonibus, Euciis_ (Eutiis), _qui se nobis_ (_i.e._, the Franks), _propriâ voluntate tradiderunt ... usque in Oceani littoribus dominio nostro porrigitur_.--Theodebert to the Emperor Justinian.-- "Quem _Geta_, Vasco tremunt, Danus, Eutheo,[1] Saxo, Britannus, Cum patre quos acie te domitasse patet." Venantius Fortunatus ad Chilpericum regem.[2] § 20. _Inference._--Of the three following views--(1.) that the Jutes of Jutland in the fourth and fifth centuries spoke Saxon; (2.) that they spoke Danish at home, but lost their language after three or four centuries' residence in England; and (3.) that a later historian was induced by the similarity between the term _Wiht-sætan_, as applied to the _people of the Isle of Wight_, and _Wit-land_, as applied to _Jutland_, combined with the real probability of the fact supposed, to assume a Jute origin for the Saxons of the parts in question, the third is, in the mind of the present writer, the most probable. § 21. It has already been stated that concerning the Angles and Saxons, no reasonable man will put the question which was put in respect to the Jutes, _viz._, had they any real place among the Germanic invaders of England? Respecting, however, their relations to each other, and their respective geographical localities whilst occupants of Germany, anterior to {13} their immigration into Britain, there is much that requires investigation. What were the Saxons of Germany--what the Angles? § 22. _Difficulties respecting the identification of the Saxons._--There are two senses of the word _Saxon_, one of which causes difficulty by being too limited; the other by being too wide. _a._ _The limited sense of the word Saxon._--This is what we get from Ptolemy, the first author who names the Saxons, and who gives them a limited locality at the mouth of the Elbe, bounded by the Sigulones, the Sabalingi, the Kobandi, the Chali, the Phundusii, the Harudes, and other tribes of the Cimbric Peninsula, of which the Saxons just occupied the neck, and three small islands opposite--probably Fohr, Sylt, and Nordstand. Now a sense of the word _Saxon_ thus limited, would restrict the joint conquerors of Britain to the small area comprized between the Elbe and Eyder, of which they do not seem even to have held the whole. _b._ _The wide sense of the word Saxon._--The reader need scarcely be reminded that the present kingdom of Saxony is as far inland as the northern frontier of Bohemia. Laying this, however, out of the question, as the effect of an extension subsequent to the invasion of Britain, we still find Saxons in ancient Hanover, ancient Oldenburg, ancient Westphalia, and (speaking roughly) over the greater part of the country drained by the Weser, and of the area inclosed by the eastern feeders of the Lower Rhine, the Elbe, and the range of the Hartz. Now as it is not likely that the limited Saxon area of Ptolemy should have supplied the whole of our Saxon population, so on the other hand, it is certain, that of a considerable portion of the Saxon area in its _wider_ extent tribes other than the Saxons of England, were occupants. § 23. _Difficulties respecting the word Angle._--The reader is referred to an extract from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, in § 16, where it is stated, that "from the Angles' land (which has since always stood waste betwixt the Jutes and the {14} Saxons) came the East-Angles, Middle-Angles, Mercians, and all the Northumbrians." Thus to bring the great Angle population from an area no larger than the county of Rutland, is an objection--but it is not the chief one. The chief objection to the Angles of England being derived from the little district of Anglen, in Sleswick, lies in the fact of there being mention of _Angli_ in another part of Germany. § 24. This exposition of the elements of uncertainty will be followed by an enumeration of-- 1. Those portions of the Germanic populations, which from their geographical position, are the likeliest, _à priori_, to have helped to people England. 2. Those portions of the Germanic population, which although not supposed to have contributed in any notable degree to the population of Britain, had such continental relations to the Angles and Saxons, as to help in fixing their localities. These two scenes of facts, give us what may be called our preliminary _apparatus criticus_. § 25. Between the northern limits of the Celtic populations of Gaul and the southern boundary of the Scandinavians of Jutland, we find the area which is most likely to have given origin to the Germans of England. This is best considered under two heads. _a._ That of the proper _seaboard_, or the _coast_ from the Rhine to the Eyder. _b._ That of the _rivers_, _i.e._, the communications between the ocean and the inland country. This double division is _sufficient_, since it is not likely that Britain was peopled by any tribes which were not either maritime, or the occupants of a river. On the other hand, it is _necessary_, since although the _à priori_ view is in favour of the _coast_ having supplied the British immigration, the chances of its having proceeded from the interior by the way of the large rivers Rhine, Weser, and Elbe, must also be taken into consideration. {15} The importance of this latter alternative, will soon be seen. § 26. _The Menapians._--Locality, from the country of the Morini on the French side of the Straits of Dover, to the Scheldt. It is generally considered that these were not Germans but Celts. The fact, however, is by no means ascertained. If Germans, the Menapians were the tribes nearest to Britain. Again, supposing that the present Flemings of Belgium are the oldest inhabitants of the country, their origin is either wholly, or in part, Menapian. Mentioned by Cæsar. § 27. _The Batavians._--Mentioned by Cæsar; locality, from the Maas to the Zuyder Zee. Conterminous with the Menapians on the south, and with the Frisians on the north. If the present Dutch of Holland be the inhabitants of the country from the time of Cæsar downwards, their origin is Batavian. § 28. _The Frisians._--First known to the Romans during the campaign of Drusus--"tributum _Frisiis_ transrhenano populo--Drusus jusserat modicum;"[3] Tacitus, Ann. iv. 72. Extended, according to Ptolemy, as far north as the Ems--[Greek: tên de parôkeanitin katechousin ... hoi Phrissioi, mechri tou Amisiou potamou]. Now, as the dialect of the modern province of Friesland differs in many important points from the Dutch of Holland and Flanders; and as there is every reason to believe that the same, or greater difference, existed between the old Frisians and the old Batavians, assuming each to have been the mother-tongues of the present Frisian and Dutch respectively, we may consider that in reaching the parts to the north of the Zuyder-Zee, we have come to a second sub-division of the Germanic dialects; nevertheless, it is not the division to which either the Angles or the Saxons belong, as may be ascertained by the difference of dialect, or rather language. § 29. _The Chauci._--Connected with the Frisii.--Falling into two divisions--the lesser (?) Chauci, from the Ems to the Weser; the greater (?) Chauci from the Weser to the Elbe--[Greek: meta de toutous] (the Frisians), {16} [Greek: Kauchoi hoi mikroi mechri tou Ouisourgios potamou, eita Kauchoi hoi meizous, mechri tou Albios potamou.] Tacitus describes the Chauci thus:--"Tam immensum terrarum spatium non tenent tantum Chauci, sed et implent; populus inter Germanos nobilissimus." The Frisians, as has been stated, represent a separate subdivision of the German dialects, as opposed to the ancient Batavian, and the modern Dutch and Flemish. Did the Chauci represent a third, or were they part of the Frisian division? The latter is the more likely, and that for the following reasons--Vestiges of Frisian dialects are to be found on the Continent, in Oldenburgh, and also in the island of Heligoland. More important still is the North-Frisian dialect. _North of the Elbe_, in the Dutchy of Sleswick, and from the Eyder to Tondern, we find a tract of land called, by Saxo Grammaticus, _Frisia Minor_, and by other writers, _Frisia Eydorensis_. Now, as there are no grounds for considering these _North_ Frisians as other than indigenous to the tract in question, we get an additional reason for looking upon the intermediate line of coast as Frisian rather than either Angle or Saxon--or, at least, such parts of it as are not expressly stated to be otherwise. § 30. _Inference._--As the whole coast south of the Elbe seems to have been occupied by tribes speaking either Frisian or Batavian dialects, and as neither of these sub-divisions represents the language of the Angles and Saxons, the original localities of those invaders must be sought for either north of the Elbe, or inland, along the course of the rivers, _i.e._--inland. § 31. _The Saxons and Nordalbingians._--North of the Elbe, and south of the Eyder (as stated in § 22), we meet the Saxons of Ptolemy; but that in a very circumscribed locality. In the ninth century, the tribes of these parts are divided into three divisions:-- _a._ The _Holtsati_=the people of Holstein. Here _holt_=_wood_, whilst _sat_ is the _-set_ in Somer-_set_ and Dor-_set_. {17} _b._ The _Thiedmarsi_=_the people of Ditmarsh_. _c._ The _Stormarii_=_the people of Stormar_. Besides the names of these three particular divisions the tribes between the Elbe and Eyder were called by the _general_ name of _Nordalbingii_=_i.e. people to the north of the Elbe_. § 32. _The people of Anglen_--North of the Nordalbingii; Anglen being the name of a _district_ between the Schlie and Flensburg. § 33. _The Jutes._--In _Jut_-land, north of the Angles and the Northfrisians. § 34. _The Saxons of Holstein, how large their area?_--There is no reason for considering the Nordalbingian _Holtsati_, _Thiedmarsi_ and _Stormarii_ as other than Saxons; although the fact of the Northfrisians to the north, and of the Frisians of Hanover to the south of them, is a slight complication of the _primâ facie_ view. Neither is it necessary to identify the two divisions, and to consider the Saxons as Frisians, or the Frisians as Saxons, as is done by some authors. It is only necessary to perceive the complication which the existence of the Northfrisians introduces, and to recognise the improbability of _parts_ of the present dutchies of Holstein and Sleswick having constituted the _whole_ of the Anglo-Saxon area. In other words, we have to ascertain in what direction the Germanic population represented by the Saxons at the mouth of the Elbe extended itself--for some further extension there undoubtedly must have been. § 35. This brings us to the other series of preliminary facts, viz.: the consideration of the more important tribes of the middle and lower courses of the three great rivers, the Rhine, the Weser, and the Elbe. § 36. _The Germans of the Middle Rhine._--Of the Germans of the Lower and Middle Rhine, it is only necessary to mention one-- _The Franks._--We shall see that, taking the two terms in their widest sense, the _Franks_ and the _Saxons_ were in contact, a fact which makes it necessary to notice at least some portion of the Frank area. {18} _a._ _Salian Franks._--If the element _Sal-_ represent the _-sel_, in the name of the Dutch river _Y-ssel_, the locality of the Salian Franks was Overyssel and Guelderland, whilst their ethnological relations were most probably with the Batavians. _b._ _Chamavi._--In the Tabula Peutingeriana we find--Chamavi qui _Elpranci_ (_leg. et Franci_). They were conterminous with the Salii--[Greek: Hupedexamên men moiran tou Saliôn ethnous, Chamabous de exêlasa].--Julian, Op. p. 280.--D.N. The following extract is more important, as it shows that a Roman communication _at least_ took place between the Rhine and Britain: [Greek: Chamabôn gar mê bouleuomenôn, adunaton estin tên tês Bretannikês nêsou sitopompian epi ta Rhômaika phrouria diapempesthai].--Eunap. in Except. leg. ed., Bonn, p. 42.--D.N. The name Chamavi is still preserved in that of the district of _Hameland_, near Deventer.--D.N. and G.D.S. The Bructeri, Sigambri, and Ripuarian Franks bring us to the Franks of the Middle Rhine, a portion of the division which it is not necessary to follow. § 37. _The Thuringians._--First mentioned in the beginning of the fourth century. Locality, between the Hartz, the Werra a feeder of the Weser, and the Sala a feeder of the Elbe. As early as the sixth century the Thuringians and Saxons are conterminous, and members of the same confederation against the Franks.--D.N. § 38. _The Catti._--Locality, the valley of the Fulda, forming part of the Upper Weser. Conterminous with the Thuringi (from whom they were separated by the river Werra) on the east, and the Franks on the west. The modern form of the word _Catti_ is _Hesse_, and the principality of Hesse is their old locality.--G.D.S. § 39._ Geographical conditions of the Saxon area._--_Southern and northern limits._--The Saxons were in league with the Thuringians and Jutes against the Franks. By the Jutes they were limited on the north, by the Thuringians on the south-east, and by the Franks on the south-west; the middle portion of the southern frontier being formed by the Catti between the Franks and Thuringians. {19} This gives us a _southern_ and a _northern_ limit. _Western limit._--This is formed by the Batavians and Frisians of the sea-coast, _i.e._, by the Batavians of Holland, Guelderland, and Overyssel, and, afterwards, by the Frisians of West and East Friesland, and of Oldenburg. Here, however, the breadth of the non-Saxon area is uncertain. Generally speaking, it is broadest in the southern, and narrowest in the northern portion. The Frisian line is narrower than the Batavian, whilst when we reach the Elbe the Saxons appear on the sea-coast. Perhaps they do so on the Weser as well. § 40. _Eastern limit._--_Preliminary remark._--Before the eastern limit of the Saxons is investigated, it will be well to indicate the extent to which it differs from the southern. _a._ The Thuringians, Catti (or Hessians), and Franks, on the southern boundary of the Saxon area were _Germans_. Hence the line of demarcation between their language was no broad and definite line, like that between the English and the Welsh, but rather one representing a difference of dialect, like that between the Yorkshire and the Lowland Scotch. Hence, too, we ought not only not to be surprised, if we find dialects intermediate to the Frank and Saxon, the Saxon and Thuringian, &c., but we must expect to find them. _b._ The same is the case with the Batavian and Frisian frontier.--We really find specimens of language which some writers call Saxon, and others Dutch (Batavian). The eastern frontier, however, will be like the frontier between England and Wales, where the line of demarcation is broad and definite, where there are no intermediate and transitional dialects, and where the two contiguous languages belong to different philological classes.--_The languages to the east of the Saxon area will be allied to the languages of Russia, Poland, and Bohemia;_ i.e., _they will be not Germanic but Slavonic._ _Note._--The northern frontier of the Saxon area is intermediate in character to the western and southern on one hand, and to the eastern on the other; the Danish of the Cimbric Peninsula being--though not German--Gothic. {20} We begin at the northern portion of the Saxon area, _i.e._, the south-eastern corner of the Cimbric Peninsula, and the parts about the Town of Lubeck; where the Dutchies of Mecklenburg Schwerin and Holstein join. The attention of the reader is particularly directed to the dates. § 41. _Slavonians of Holstein, Mecklenburg, and Lauenburg._--The _Polabi_--From _po_=_on_, and _Labe_=_the Elbe_. Name Slavonic. Germanized by the addition of the termination--_ing_, and so become _Po-lab-ing-i_; just as in _Kent_ we find the _Kent-ing-s_. Conterminous with the Nordalbingian _Stormarii_, from whom they are divided by the river _Bille_, a small confluent of the Elbe. Capital Ratzeburg. First mentioned by writers subsequent to the time of Charlemagne.--D.N. § 42. The _Wagrians_.--North of the Polabi, and within the Cimbric Peninsula, divided from the Danes by the Eyder, from the Non-Danish Nordalbingians by the Trave. Capital Oldenburg. The Isle of Femern was Wagrian. Authorities--chiefly writers of and subsequent to the time of Charlemagne. In one of these we learn that the town of _Haðum_ (Sleswick) lies between the Angles, the Saxons, and the _Wends_. Now, _Wend_ is the German designation of the _Slavonians_; so that there must have been Slavonians in the Cimbric Peninsula at least as early as the ninth century.--D.N. § 43. _Obotriti_, written also _Obotritæ_, _Abotriti_, _Abotridi_; _Apodritæ_, _Abatareni_, _Apdrede_, _Afdrege_, and for the sake of distinction from a people of the same name, _Nort-Obtrezi_, occupants of the western part of Mecklenburg, and extended as far east as the Warnow, as far south as Schwerin. Called by Adam of Bremen, _Reregi_. The Obotrites were allies of the Franks against the Saxons, and after the defeat and partial removal of the latter, were transplanted to some of their localities.--"Saxones transtulit" (_i.e._, Charlemagne), "in Franciam et pagos transalbianos Abodritis dedit."--Eginhart Ann. A.D. 804.--D.N. § 44. The _Lini_--Slavonians on the left bank of the Elbe, and the first met with on that side of the river. Occupants of Danneburg, Luchow and Wustrow, in Luneburg. By the {21} writers subsequent to the time of Charlemagne the _Smeldengi_ (a German designation), and the _Bethenici_ are mentioned along with the Lini (or Linones). Of this Slavonic a Paternoster may be seen in the Mithridates representing the dialect of the neighbourhood in Luchow in A.D. 1691. It is much mixed with the German. About the middle of the last century this (Cis-Albian Slavonic) dialect became extinct.--D.N. § 45. The _Warnabi_ or _Warnavi_.--Locality. Parts about Grabow, Valley of the Elbe. This is the locality of the _Varini_ of Tacitus, the [Greek: Ouirounoi] of Ptolemy, and the _Werini_ of later writers, a tribe connected with the Angli, and generally considered as Germanic.--D.N. § 46. _Morizani._--The district round the Moritz Lake.--D.N. § 47. _Doxani._--Locality; the valley of the Dosse.--D.N. § 48. _Hevelli._--Locality; the valley of the Hevel. These are the Slavonians of Brandenburg and Mittelmark.--D.N. § 49. _Slavonians of Altmark._--In Altmark, as in Lunenburg, though on the German side of the Elbe we find the names of the places Slavonic, _e.g._, Klotze, Wrepke, Solpke, Blatz, Regatz, Colbitz, &c.; so that Altmark, like Lunenburg, was originally a _Cis_-Albian Slavonic locality. § 50. South of the Hevel we meet with the _Sorabian_, or _Sorb_ Slavonians, the descendants of whom form at the present time part of the population of Lusatia and Silesia. It is not, however, necessary to follow these further, since the German frontier now begins to be Thuringian rather than Saxon. § 51. _Saxon area._--From the preceding investigations we determine the area occupied by the Saxons of Germany to be nearly as follows: _a._--_Ethnologically considered._--Tract bounded on the north by the North Frisian Germans and Jute Danes of Sleswick; on the north and north-east by the Slavonians of the Elbe, sometimes _Trans_-Albian like the Wagrians and Obotrites; sometimes _Cis_-Albian, like the Linones and the Slaves of Altmark; on the south by the Thuringians, Catti, and Franks; on the west by the Franks, Batavians, and Frisians. _b._ _Considered in relation to the ancient population that it {22} comprised._--The country of the Saxons of Ptolemy; the Angli of Tacitus; the Langobardi of Tacitus; the Angrivarii; the Dulgubini; the Ampsivarii (?); the Bructeri Minores (?); the Fosi, and Cherusci; and probably part of the Cauci. Of populations mentioned by the later writers (_i.e._ of those between the seventh and eleventh centuries), the following belong to this area--the Stormarii, Thietmarsi, Hotsati (=the Nordalbingii, or Nordleudi), the Ostfali, (Osterluidi), Westfali, Angarii, and Eald-Seaxan (Old Saxons). _c._ _Considered in relation to its modern population._--Here it coincides most closely with the kingdom of Hanover, _plus_ parts of the Dutchies of Holstein and Oldenburg, and parts of Altmark? Brunswick? and Westphalia, and _minus_ the Frisian portion of East Friesland, and the Slavonic part of Luneburg. d. _River system._--By extending the Saxons of Westphalia as far as Cleves (which has been done by competent judges) we carry the western limit to the neighbourhood of the Rhine. This, however, is as far as it can safely be carried. In the respect to the Upper Ems, it was probably Saxon, the lower part being Frisian. The Weser is pre-eminently the river of the Saxons, with the water-system of which their area coincides more closely than with any other physical division. The Elbe was much in the same relation to the Germans and Slavonians, as the Rhine was to the Germans and the Gauls. Roughly speaking, it is the frontier--the _Cis_-Albian Slaves (the Linones and the Slavonians of Altmark) being quite as numerous as the _Trans_-Albian Germans, (the people of Stormar, Ditmarsh, and Holstein). The Eyder was perhaps equally Danish, Frisian, and Saxon. _e._ _Mountains._--The watershed of the Weser on the one side, and of the Ruhr and Lippe on the other, is the chief high land _contained_ within the Saxon area, and is noticed as being the line most likely to form a subdivision of the Saxon population, either in the way of dialect or political relations--_in case such a subdivision exists_, a point which will be considered in the next chapter. * * * * * {23} CHAPTER III. OF THE DIALECTS OF THE SAXON AREA, AND OF THE SO-CALLED, OLD SAXON. § 52. The area occupied by the Saxons of Germany has been investigated; and it now remains to ask, how far the language of the occupants was absolutely identical throughout, or how far it fell into dialects or sub-dialects. In doing this, it may as well be asked, First, what we expect, _à priori_; Second, what we really find. § 53. To the Saxon area in Germany, there are five philological frontiers, the Slavonic, the Frisian, the Batavian, the Frank, and the Thuringian, to which may probably be added the Hessian; in each of which, except the Slavonic, we may expect that the philological phenomenon of intermixture and transition will occur. Thus-- _a._ The Saxon of Holstein may be expected to approach the Jute and Frisian. _b._ That of South Oldenburg and East Friesland, the Frisian and Batavian. _c._ That of Westphalia, the Batavian and Frank. _d_, e. That of the Hessian and Thuringian frontiers, the Hessian and Thuringian. Finally, the Saxon of the centre of the area is expected to be the Saxon of the most typical character. § 54. Such is what we expect. How far it was the fact is not known for want of _data_. What is known, however, is as follows.--There were at least _two_ divisions of the Saxon; (1st) the Saxon of which the extant specimens are of English origin, and (2nd), the Saxon of which the extant specimens are of continental origin. We will call these at present the Saxon of England, and the Saxon of the Continent. {24} § 55. Respecting the Saxon of England and the Saxon of the Continent, there is good reason for believing that the first was spoken in the northern, the second in the southern portion of the Saxon area, _i.e._, the one in Hanover and the other in Westphalia, the probable boundaries between them being the line of highlands between Osnaburg and Paderborn. § 56. Respecting the Saxon of England and the Saxon of the Continent, there is good reason for believing that, whilst the former was the mother-tongue of the Angles and the conquerors of England, the latter was that of the Cherusci of Arminius, the conquerors and the annihilators of the legions of Varus. § 57. Respecting the Saxon of England and the Saxon of the Continent, it is a fact that whilst we have a full literature in the former, we have but fragmentary specimens of the latter--these being chiefly the following: (1) the Heliand, (2) Hildubrand and Hathubrant, (3) the Carolinian Psalms. § 58. The preceding points have been predicated respecting the difference between the two ascertained Saxon dialects, for the sake of preparing the reader for the names by which they are known. Supposing the nomenclature to be based upon any of the preceding facts, we might have the following nomenclature:-- FOR THE SAXON OF THE CONTINENT. FOR THE SAXON OF ENGLAND. 1. Continental Saxon. Insular Saxon. 2. German Saxon. English Saxon. 3. Westphalian Saxon. Hanoverian Saxon. 4. South-Saxon. North Saxon. 5. Cheruscan Saxon. Angle Saxon. 6. Saxon of the Heliand.[4] Saxon of Beowulf.[4] Of these names the last would be the best for strictly scientific purposes, or for the purposes of investigation; since the fact upon which it is based is the most undeniable. Such is what the nomenclature might be, or, perhaps, ought to be. What it is _is_ another question. {25} § 59. The Saxon of England is called Anglo-Saxon; a term against which no exception can be raised. § 60. The Saxon of the Continental _used to_ be called _Dano_-Saxon, and _is_ called _Old_ Saxon. § 61. _Why called _Dano_-Saxon._--When the poem called _Heliand_ was first discovered (and that in an English library), the difference in language between it and the common Anglo-Saxon composition was accounted for by the assumption of a _Danish_ intermixture. § 62. _Why called _Old_ Saxon._--When the Continental origin of the _Heliand_ was recognised, the language was called _Old Saxon_, because it represented the Saxon of the mother-country, the natives of which were called _Old_ Saxons by the _Anglo_-Saxons themselves. Still the term is exceptionable; the Saxon of the Heliand is most probably a _sister_-dialect of the _Anglo_-Saxon, rather the _Anglo_-Saxon itself is a continental locality. Exceptionable, however, as it is, it will be employed. § 63. The _data_ for the study of the Old Saxon are as follows:-- 1. _Abrenuntiatio Diaboli, e Codice Vaticano._--Graff, Diutisca, ii. 191. 2. _Confessionis Formulæ, e Codice Essensi._--Lacomblet, Archiv, für Geschichte des Niederrhins, 1, 4-9. 3. _Fragmentum de Festo omnium Sanctorum, e Codice Essensi._--Ibid. 4. _Rotulus redituum Essensis._--Ibid. 5. _The Frekkenhorst Roll._--Denkmäler von Dorow, 1, 2, 1. 6. _Glossæ Saxonicæ, e Codice Argentorat._--Diutisca, 192. 7. _T. Lipsii; Epist. cent. III. ad Belgas pertinentium, Ep._ 44. 8. _Hildebrand._--Heroic fragment, in alliterative metre. 9. _The Carolinian Psalms._--A translation of the Psalms, referred to the time of Charlemagne; sometimes considered to be old Batavian. 10. _Heliand_, a Gospel Harmony in alliterative metre, and the chief _Old_ Saxon composition extant. {26} SPECIMEN. § 64. _Heliand_, pp. 12, 13. (_Schmeller's Edition._) LUC. II. 8-13. Tho uuard managun cud, Then it was to many known, Obar thesa uuidon uuerold. Over this wide world. Uuardos antfundun, The words they discovered, Thea thar ehuscalcos Those that there, as horse-grooms, Uta uuarun, Were without, Uueros an uuahtu, Men at watch, Uuiggeo gomean, Horses to tend, Fehas aftar felda: Cattle on the field-- Gisahun finistri an tuue They saw the darkness in two Telatan an lufte; Dissipated in the atmosphere, Endi quam lioht Godes, And came a light of God Uuanum thurh thui uuolcan; --through the welkin; Endi thea uuardos thar And the words there Bifeng an them felda. Caught on the field. Sie uurdun an forhtun tho, They were in fright then Thea man an ira moda; The men in their mood-- Gisahun thar mahtigna They saw there mighty Godes Engil cuman; Angel of God come; The im tegegnes sprac. That to them face to face spake. Het that im thea uuardos-- It bade them these words-- "Uuiht ne antdredin "Dread not a whit Ledes fon them liohta. Of mischief from the light. Ic scal eu quad he liobora thing, I shall to you speak glad things, Suido uuarlico Very true; Uuilleon seggean, Say commands; Cudean craft mikil. Show great strength. Nu is Krist geboran, Now is Christ born, An thesero selbun naht, In this self-same night; Salig barn Godes, The blessed child of God, An thera Davides burg, In David's city, Drohtin the godo. The Lord the good. That is mendislo That is exultation Manno cunneas, To the races of men, Allaro firiho fruma. Of all men the advancement. Thar gi ina fidan mugun, There ye may find him An Bethlema burg, In the city of Bethlehem, Barno rikiost. The noblest of children-- Hebbiath that te tecna, Ye have as a token {27} That ic eu gitellean mag, That I tell ye Uuarun uuordun, True words, That he thar biuundan ligid, That he there swathed lieth, That kind an enera cribbiun, The child in a crib, Tho he si cuning obar al Though he be King over all Erdun endi himiles, Earth and Heaven, Endi obar eldeo barn, And over the sons of men, Uueroldes uualdand." Of the world the Ruler." Reht so he tho that uuord gespracenun Right as he that word spake, So uuard thar engilo te them So was there of Angels to them, Unrim cuman, In a multitude, come Helag heriskepi, A holy host, Fon hebanuuanga, From the Heaven-plains, Fagar folc Godes, The fair folk of God, Endi filu sprakun, And much they spake Lofuuord manag, Praise-words many, Liudeo herron; _To_ the Lord of Hosts (people). Athobun tho helagna sang, They raised the holy song, Tho sie eft te hebanuuanga As they back to the Heaven-plains Uundun thurh thin uuolcan. Wound through the welkin. Thea uuardos hordun, The words they heard, Huo thin engilo craft How the strength of the Angels Alomahtigna God, The Almighty God, Suido uuerdlico, Very worthily, Uuordun louodun. With words praised. "Diurida si nu," quadun sie, "Love be there now," quoth they, "Drohtine selbun, "To the Lord himself An them hohoston On the highest Himilo rikea; Kingdom of Heaven, Endi fridu an erdu, And peace on earth Firiho barnum, To the children of men, Goduuilligun gumun, Goodwilled men Them the God antkennead, Who know God, Thurh hluttran hugi." Through a pure mind." * * * * * {28} CHAPTER IV. AFFINITIES OF THE ENGLISH WITH THE LANGUAGES OF GERMANY AND SCANDINAVIA. § 65. The last chapter has limited the Anglo-Saxon area to the northern part of the Saxon area in general. Further details, however, upon this point, may stand over until the _general_ affinities of the English language have been considered. § 66. Over and above those languages of Germany and Holland which were akin to the dialects of the Angles and the Saxons, cognate languages were spoken in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Iceland, and the Feroe isles, _i.e._, in Scandinavia. § 67. The general collective designation for the Germanic tongues of Germany and Holland, and for the Scandinavian languages of Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Iceland, and the Feroe Isles, is taken from the name of those German tribes who, during the decline of the Roman Empire, were best known to the Romans as the _Goths_; the term _Gothic_ for the Scandinavian and Germanic languages, collectively, being both current and convenient. § 68. Of this great _stock_ of languages the Scandinavian is one _branch_; the Germanic, called also Teutonic, another. § 69. The Scandinavian branch of the Gothic stock comprehends, 1. The dialects of Scandinavia Proper, _i.e._, of Norway and Sweden; 2. of the Danish isles and Jutland; 3. of Iceland; 4. of the Feroe Isles. On the side of Lapland the languages of this branch come in contact with the Laplandic and Finlandic; whilst in Sleswick they are bounded by the Low German. {29} SPECIMENS. _Icelandic_ (Fareyïnga-Saga--Ed. Mohnike). Ok nú er þat eitthvert sinn um sumarit, at Sigmundr mælti til þóris: "Hvat mun verða, þo at við farim í skóg þenna, er hèr er norðr frá garði?" þórir svarar: "á því er mèr eingi forvitni," segir hann. "Ekki er mèr svâ gefit," segir Sigmundr, "ok þángat skal ek fara." "þú munt ráða hljóta," segir þûrir, "en brjótum við þa boðorð fóstra míns." Nu fóru þeir, ok hafði Sigmundr viðaröxi eina i hendi sèr; koma i skóginn, ok í rjôðr eitt fagurt; ok er þeir hafa þar eigi leingi verit, þá heyra þeir björn mikinn harðla ok grimligan. þat var viðbjörn mikill, úlfgrár at lit. þeir hlaupa nu aptra á stiginn þan, er þeir hölðu þángat farit; stigrinn var mjór ok þraurigr, ok hleypr þórir fyrir, en Sigmundr síðar. Dýrit bleypr nú eptir þeim á stiginn, ok verðr því þraungr stigrinn, ok brotna eikrnar fyrir þvi. Sigmundr snyr þá skjótt út af stignum millum trjánna, ok biðr þar til er dyrit kemr jafn-fram honum. þa höggr hann jafnt meðal hlusta á d[^y]rinu með tveim höndum, svâ at exin sökkr. En d[^y]rit fellr áfram, ok er dautt. _Feroic._ Nú vär so til ajna Ferina um Summari, at Sigmundur snakkaji so vi Towra: "Kvat man bagga, towat vìd färin uj henda Skowin, uj èr hèr noran-firi Gärin?" Towrur svärar, "Ikkji hävi e Hu at forvitnast ettir tuj," sìir han. "Ikkji eri e so sintur," sìir Sigmundur, "og häar skäl e fara." "Tù fert tå at råa," sìir Towrur, "men tå browtum vid Forbo Fostirfäjir mujns." Nù fowru tajr, og Sigmundur heji ajna öksi til Brennuvì uj Hondini; tajr koma in uj Skowin, og å ajt väkurt rudda Plos men ikkji häva tajr veri här lájngji, firin tajr hojra kvödtt Brak uj Skownun, og bråt ettir sujgja tajr ajna egvulia stowra Bjödn og gruiska. Tä vä ajn stowr Skowbjödn grågulmut å Litinun. Tair lejpa nù attir å Råsina, sum tajr höddu gingji ettir; Råsin vär mjåv og trong; Towrur lejpur undan, og Sigmundur attanå. Djowri leipur nù ettir tajmum å Råsini; og nù verur Råsin trong kjå tuj, so at Ajkjinar brotnavu frå tuj. Sigmundur snujur tå kvikliani útäf Råsini inimidlum Trjini, og bujar här til Djowri kjemur abajnt han. Tå höggur han bajnt uj Ojrnalystri å Djowrinum vi båvun Hondun, so at öxin sökkur in, og Djowri dettir bajnt framettir, og er standejt. _Swedish._ Och nu var det engång on sommaren, som Sigmund sade till Thorer: "Hvad månde väl deraf warda, om vi åter gå ut i skogen, som ligger der norr on gården?" "Det är jag alldeles icke nyfiken att veta," svarade Thor. "Icke går det så med mig," sade Sigmund, "och ditret mäste jag." "Du kommer då att råda," sade Thor, "men dermed öfverträda vi vår {30} Fosterfaders bud." De gingo nu åstad, och Sigmund bade en vedyxa i handen; de kommo in i skogen, och strat derpå fingo de se en ganska stor och vildsinnt björn, en dråpelig skogsbjörn, varg-grå till färgen. De sprungo då tillbaka på samma stig som de hade kommit dit. Stigen var smal och trång; och Thorer sprang fråmst, men Sigmund efterst. Djuret lopp nu efter dem på stigen, och stigen blef trång för detsamma, så att träden sönderbrötos i dess lopp. Sigmund vände då kurtigt retaf från stigen, och ställde sig mellan träden, samt stod der, tills djuret kom fram midt för honom. Då fattade han yxan med begge händerna, och högg midt emellan öronen på djuret, så att yxan gick in, och djuret störtade framåt, och dog på stället. _Danish._ Og nu var det engang om Sommeren, at Sigmund sagde til Thorer: "Hvad mon der vel kan flyde af, om vi end gaae hen i den Skov, som ligger her nordenfor Gaarden?" "Det er jeg ikken nysgjerrig efter at vide," svarede Thorer. "Ei gaar det mig saa," sagde Sigmund, "og derud maa jeg." "Du kommer da til at raade," sagde Thorer, "men da overtræde, vi vor Fosterfaders Bud." De gik nu, og Sigmund havde en Vedöxe i Haanden; de kom ind i Skoven, og strax derpaa saae de en meget stor og grum Björn, en drabelig Skovejörn, ulvegraa af Farve. De löb da tilbage ad den samme Sti, ad hvilken de vare komne derhen. Stien var smal og trang; og Thorer löb forrest, men Sigmund bagerst. Dyret löb nu efter dem paa Stien, og Stien blev trang for det, og Træerne brödes i dets. Löb Sigmund dreiede da nu hurtig ud af Stien, og stillede sig imellem Træerne, og stod der indtil Dyret kom frem lige for ham. Da fattede han öxen med begge Hænder, og hug lige imellem örerne paa Dyret, saa at öxen sank i, og Dyret styrtede fremad, og var dödt paa Stedet. _English._ And now is it a time about the summer, that Sigmund spake to Thorir: "What would become, even if we two go into the wood (shaw), which here is north from the house?" Thorir answers, "Thereto there is to me no curiosity," says he. "So is it not with me," says Sigmund, "and thither shall I go." "Thou mayst counsel," says Thorir, "but we two break the bidding-word of foster-father mine." Now go they, and Sigmund had a wood-axe in his hands; they come into the wood, and into a fair place; and as they had not been there long, they hear a bear, big, fierce, and grim. It was a wood-bear, big, wolf-grey in hue. They run (leap) now back (after) to the path, by which they had gone thither. The path was narrow and strait; and Thorir runs first, and Sigmund after. The beast runs now after them on the path, and the path becomes strait, and broken oaks before it. Sigmund turns then short out of the path among the trees, and bides there till the beast comes even with him. Then cuts he even in between {31} the ears of the beast with his two hands, so that the axe sinks, and the beast falls forward, and is dead. § 70. The Teutonic branch falls into three divisions:-- 1. The Moeso-Gothic. 2. The High Germanic. 3. The Low Germanic. § 71. It is in the Moeso-Gothic that the most ancient specimen of any Gothic tongue has been preserved. It is also the Moeso-Gothic that was spoken by the conquerors of ancient Rome; by the subjects of Hermanic, Alaric, Theodoric, Genseric (?), Euric, Athanaric, and Totila. This history of this language, and the meaning of the term by which it is designated, is best explained by the following passages:-- _a._ A.D. 482. "Trocondo et Severino consulibus--Theodoricus cognomento Valamer utramque Macedoniam, Thessaliamque depopulatus est, Larissam quoque metropolim depredatus, Fausto solo consule (A.D. 485)--Idem Theodoricus rex Gothorum Zenonis Augusti munificentia pene pacatus, magisterque præsentis militiæ factus, consul quoque designatus, _creditam sibi Ripensis Daciæ partem_ Moesiæque _inferioris, cum suis satellitibus pro tempore tenuit_."--Marcellini Comitis Chronicon, D.N. _b._ "Frederichus ad Theodoricum regem, qui tunc apud Novam Civitatem provinciæ Moesiæ morabatur, profectus est."--Vita S. Severini, D.N. _c._ "Zeno misit ad Civitatem Novam, in quâ erat Theodoricus dux Gothorum, filius Valameris, et eum invitavit in solatium sibi adversus Basiliscum."--Anon. Valesii, p. 663, D.N. d. _Civitas Nova_ is Nicopolis on the Danube; and the nation thus spoken of is the Gothic nation in the time of Zeno. At this time they are settled in the Lower Moesia, or Bulgaria. How they got here from the _northern_ side of the Danube we find in the history of the reign of Valens. When pressed by intestine wars, and by the movements of the Huns, they were assisted by that emperor, and settled in the parts in question. {32} Furthermore, they were converted to Christianity; and the Bible was translated into their language by their Bishop Ulphilas. Fragments of this translation, chiefly from the Gospels, have come down to the present time; and the Bible translation of the Arian Bishop Ulphilas, in the language of the Goths of Moesia, during the reign of Valens, exhibits the earliest sample of any Gothic tongue. § 72. How Gothic tribes reached the Lower Danube is a point upon which there is a variety of opinion. The following facts, however, may serve as the basis of our reasoning. A.D. 249-251--The Goths are found about equidistant from the Euxine Sea, and the eastern portion of the range of Mount Hæmus, in the Lower Moesia, and at Marcianopolis. Here they gain a great battle against the Romans, in which the Emperor Decius is killed. His successor, Gallus, purchases a peace. Valerian defends himself against them. During the reign of Gallienus they appear as _maritime_ warriors, and ravage Asia Minor, Greece, and Illyria. A.D. 269--Are conquered at Naissus, on the western boundary of Moesia _Superior_ by Claudius. A.D. 282--Are defeated by Carus. A.D. 321--Ravage Moesia (Inferior?) and Thrace. A.D. 336--Attacked by Constantine in Dacia--_north_ of the Danube. A.D. 373--In the reign of Valens (as already stated), they were admitted to settle within the limits of the empire. § 73. Now, although all this explains, how a Gothic language was spoken in Bulgaria, and how remnants of it have been preserved until the nineteenth century, the manner in which the tribe who spoke it reached Marcianopolis, so as to conquer the Emperor Decius, in A.D. 249, is unexplained. Concerning this there are three opinions-- _A._ _The Baltic doctrine._ According to this the Goths migrated from the Baltic to the Mæotis, from the Mæotis to the Euxine, and from the Euxine to the Danube, along which river they moved from _east to west_. {33} _B._ _The Getic doctrine._--Here the Goths are made out to be the aborigines of the Lower Danube, of Dacia, Moesia, and even Thrace; in which case their movement was, also, from _east to west_. _C._ _The German doctrine._--Here the migration is from west to east, along the course of the Danube, from some part of south-eastern Germany, as its starting-point, to Asia Minor as its extreme point, and to Bulgaria (_Moesia Inferior_) as its point of settlement. § 74. Respecting the first of these views the most that can be said in its favour is, that it is laid down by Jornandes, who wrote in the fifth century, and founded his history upon the earlier writings of Ablavius and Dexippus, Gothic historians, who, in their turn took their account from the old legends of the Goths themselves--_in priscis eorum carminibus, pæne historico ritu_. On the other hand, the evidence is, at best, traditional, the fact improbable, and the likelihood of some such genealogy being concocted after the relationship between the Goths of the Euxine, and Germans of the Baltic had been ascertained exceedingly great. § 75. The second is supported by no less an authority than Grimm, in his latest work, the History of the German Language;--and the fact of so learned and comprehensive an investigator having admitted it, is, in the mind of the present writer, the only circumstance in its favour. Over and above the arguments that may be founded on a fact which will soon be noticed, the chief reasons are deduced from a list of Dacian or Getic plants in Dioscorides, which are considered to bear names significant in the German. Whether or not, the details of this line of criticism will satisfy the reader who refers to them, it is certain that they are not likely to take a more cogent form than they take in the hands of the _Deutsche Grammatik_. § 76. The third opinion is the likeliest; and if it were not for a single difficulty would, probably, never have been demurred to. The fact in question is the similarity between the words _Getæ_ and _Gothi_. The fact that a tribe called G-O-T-H-I should, when they first peopled the Moesogothic country, have hit upon the {34} country of a people with a name so like their own as G-E-T-Æ, by mere accident, is strange. English or American colonies might be sent to some thousand places before one would be found with a name so like that of the mother-country as _Get_ is to _Got_. The chances, therefore, are that the similarity of name is _not_ accidental, but that there is some historical, ethnological, or geographical grounds to account for it. Grimm's view has been noticed. He recognises the difficulty, and accounts for it by making the _Goths_ indigenous to the land of Getæ. To a writer who (at one and the same time) finds difficulty in believing that this similarity is accidental and is dissatisfied with Grimm's reasoning, there seems to be no other alternative but to consider that the Goths of the Lower Danube had no existence at all in Germany _under that name_, that they left their country under a different[5] one, and that they took the one by which they were known to the Romans (and through them to us), on reaching the land of the _Getæ_--as, in England, the Saxons of _Essex_ and _Wessex_ did _not_ (since they brought their name with them), but as the East and West _Kent-ings_[6] did. This doctrine, of course, falls to the ground directly it can be shown that the Goths of Moesia were either called _Goths_ in Germany, or any where else, anterior to their settlement in the _Geta_-land. Be this, however, as it may, the first division of the Teutonic branch of languages is the Moeso-Gothic of the Goths of the Lower Danube, in the fourth century, as preserved in the translation of Ulphilas, and in other less important fragments. SPECIMEN. LUKE i. 46-56. Jah quaþ Mariam. Mikileid saivala meina Fan, jah svegneid ahma meins du Goþa nasjand meinamma. Unte insahu du hnaivenai þiujos seinaizos: {35} sai allis fram himma nu audagjand mik alla kunja. Unte gatavida mis mikilein sa mahteiga, jah veih namo is. Jah armahairtei is in aldins aldê þaim ogandam ina. Gatavida svinthein in arma seinamma; distahida mikilþuhtans gahugdai hairtins seinis; gadrausida mahteigans af stolam, jah ushauhida gahnaividans; gredigans gasôþida þiuþe, jah gabignandans insandida lausans; hleibida Israela þiumagu seinamma, gamundans armahairteins, sva sve rodida du attam unsaraim Abrahaima jah fraiv is und aiv. § 77. The Old High German, called also Francic and Alemannic, was spoken in the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries, in Suabia, Bavaria, and Franconia. It is in the Old High German that the Krist of Otfrid, the Psalms of Notker, the Canticle of Willeram, the Glosses of Kero, the Vita Annonis, &c., are composed. SPECIMEN. KRIST, i. 12. (Edit. Graff.) Tho uuarun thar in lante hirta haltente; Thes fehes datun uuarta uuidar fianta. Zi ín quam boto sconi, engil scinenti; Joh uuurtun sie inliuhte fon himilisgen liohte. Forahtun sie in tho gahun so sinan anasahun; Joh hintarquamun harto thes Gotes boten uuorto. Sprah ther Gotes boto sar. "Ih scal íú sagen uuuntar. Ju scal sin fon Gote heil; nales forahta nihein. Ih scal iu sagen imbot, gibot ther himilisgo Got; Ouh nist ther er gihorti so fronisg arunti. Thes uuirdit uuorolt sinu zi euuidon blidu, Joh al giscaft thiu in uuorolti thesa erdun ist ouh dretenti Niuuui boran habet thiz lant then himilisgon Heilant; The ist Druhtin Krist guater fon iungeru muater. In Bethleem thiue kuninga thie uuarun alle thanana, Fon in uuard ouh giboran iu sin muater magad sconu. Sagen ih íú, guate man, uuio ir nan sculut findan, Zeichen ouh gizami thuruh thaz seltsani. Zi theru burgi faret hinana, ir findet, so ih íú sageta, Kind niuuui boranaz in kripphun gilegitaz. Tho quam unz er zin tho sprah engilo heriscaf, Himilisgu menigi, sus alle singenti-- In himilriches hohi si Gote guallichi; Si in erdu fridu ouh allen thie fol sin guates uuillen {36} _The Same, in English._ Then there was in the land herdsmen feeding: Of their cattle they made watch against foes. To them came a messenger fair, an angel shining, And they became lit with heavenly light. They feared, suddenly as on him they looked; And followed much the words of God's messenger: Spake there God's messenger strait, "I shall to you say wonders. To you shall there be from God health; fear nothing at all. I shall to you say a message, the bidding of the heavenly God: Also there is none who has heard so glad an errand. Therefore becomes his world for ever blythe, And all creatures that in the world are treading this earth. Newly borne has this land the heavenly Savior, Who is the Lord Christ, good, from a young mother. In Bethleem, of the kings they were all thence-- From them was also born his mother, a maid fair. I say to you, good men, how ye him shall find, A sign and token, through this wonder. To your burgh fare hence, ye find, so as I to you said, A child, new born, in a crib lying." Then came, while he to them spake, of angels an host, A heavenly retinue, thus all singing: "In the heavenly kingdom's highth be to God glory; Be on earth peace also to all who are full of God's will." The Middle High German ranges from the thirteenth Century to the Reformation. § 78. The Low Germanic Division, to which the Anglo-Saxon belongs, is currently said to comprise six languages, or rather four languages in different stages. I. II.--The Anglo-Saxon and Modern English. III.--The Old Saxon. IV. V.--The Old Frisian and Modern Dutch. VI.--The Platt-Deutsch, or Low German. § 79. _The Frisian and Dutch._--It is a current statement that the Old Frisian bears the same relation to the Modern Dutch of Holland that the Anglo-Saxon does to the English. The truer view of the question is as follows:-- {37} 1. That a single language, spoken in two dialects, was originally common to both Holland and Friesland. 2. That from the northern of these dialects we have the Modern Frisian of Friesland. 3. From the southern, the Modern Dutch of Holland. The reason for this refinement is as follows:-- The Modern Dutch has certain grammatical forms _older_ than those of the Old Frisian; _e.g._, the Dutch infinitives and the Dutch weak substantives, in their oblique cases, end in _-en_; those of the Old Frisian in _-a_: the form in _-en_ being the older. § 80. The true Frisian is spoken in few and isolated localities. There is-- 1. The Frisian of the Dutch state called Friesland. 2. The Frisian of the parish of Saterland, in Westphalia. 3. The Frisian of Heligoland. 4. The North Frisian, spoken in a few villages of Sleswick. One of the characters of the North Frisian is the possession of a Dual Number. § 81. In respect to its stages, we have the Old Frisian of the Asega-bog, the Middle Frisian of Gysbert Japicx, and the Modern Frisian of the present Frieslanders, Westphalians, and Heligolanders. _Asega-bog_, i. 3. p. 13, 14. (_Ed. Wiarda._) Thet is thiu thredde liodkest and thes Kynig Kerles ieft, theter allera monna ek ana sina eyna gode besitte umberavat. Hit ne se thet ma hine urwinne mith tele and mith rethe and mith riuchta thingate, sa hebbere alsam sin Asega dema and dele to lioda londriuchte. Ther ne hach nen Asega nenne dom to delande hit ne se thet hi to fara tha Keysere fon Rume esweren hebbe and thet hi fon da liodon ekeren se. Sa hoch hi thenne to demande and to delande tha fiande alsare friounde, thruch des ethes willa, ther hi to fara tha Keysere fon Rume esweren heth, tho demande and to delande widuon and weson, waluberon and alle werlosa liodon, like to helpande and sine threa knilinge. Alsa thi Asega nimth tha unriuchta mida and tha urlouada panninga, and ma hini urtinga mi mith twam sine juenethon an thes Kyninges bonne, sa ne hoch hi nenne dom mar to delande, truch thet thi Asega thi biteknath thene prestere, hwande hia send siande and hia skilun wesa agon there heliga Kerstenede, hia skilun helpa alle tham ther hiam seluon nauwet helpa ne muge. {38} _The Same, in English._ That is the third determination and concession of King Charles, that of all men each one possess his own goods (house?) unrobbed. It may not be that any man overcome him with charge (tales), and with summons (rede), and with legal action. So let him hold as his Asega (judge) dooms and deals according to the land-right of the people. There shall no Asega deal a doom unless it be that before the Cæsar of Rome he shall have sworn, and that he shall have been by the people chosen. He has then to doom and deal to foes as to friends, through the force (will) of the oath which he before the Cæsar of Rome has sworn, to doom and to deal to widows and orphans, to wayfarers and all defenceless people, to help them as his own kind in the third degree. If the Asega take an illegal reward, or pledged money, and a man convict him before two of his colleagues in the King's Court, he has no more to doom, since it is the Asega that betokens the priest, and they are seeing, and they should be the eyes of the Holy Christendom, they should help all those who may nought help themselves. § 82. _The Low German and Platt-Deutsch._--The words _Low German_ are not only lax in their application, but they are _equivocal_; since the term has two meanings, a _general_ meaning when it signifies a division of the Germanic languages, comprising English, Dutch, Anglo-Saxon, Old Saxon, and Frisian, and a limited one when it means the particular dialects of the Ems, the Weser, and the Elbe. To avoid this the dialects in question will be henceforth called by their continental name of _Platt-Deutsch_; which although foreign, is convenient. § 83. The points of likeness and difference between two languages belonging to different branches of the same Gothic stock may be partially collected from the following comparison between certain Icelandic, Norse or Scandinavian, and certain Anglo-Saxon or Germanic inflections. Declension of substantives ending with a _vowel_. _Saxon._ _Icelandic._ _Neuter._ _Neuter._ _Sing. Nom._ Eáge (_an eye_). Auga (_an eye_). _Acc._ Eáge Auga. _Dat._ Eágan Auga. _Gen._ Eágan Auga. {39} _Plur. Nom._ Eágan Augu. _Acc._ Eágan Augu. _Dat._ Eágan Augum. _Gen._ Eágan Augna. _Masculine._ _Masculine._ _Sing. Nom._ Nama (_a name_). Bogi (_a bow_). _Acc._ Naman Boga. _Dat._ Naman Boga. _Gen._ Naman Boga. _Plur. Nom._ Naman Bogar. _Acc._ Naman Boga. _Dat._ Namum Bogum. _Gen._ Namena Boga. _Feminine._ _Feminine._ _Sing. Nom._ Tunge (_a tongue_). Túnga (_a tongue_). _Acc._ Tungan Túngu. _Dat._ Tungan Túngu. _Gen._ Tungan Túngu. _Plur. Nom._ Tungan Túngur. _Acc._ Tungan Túngur. _Dat._ Tungum Túngum. _Gen._ Tungena Túngna. Declension of Substantives ending with a _Consonant_. _Saxon._ _Icelandic._ _Neuter._ _Neuter._ _Sing. Nom._ Leáf (_a leaf_). Skip (_a ship_). _Acc._ Leáf Skip. _Dat._ Leáfe Skipi. _Gen._ Leáfes Skips. _Plur. Nom._ Leáf Skip. _Acc._ Leáf Skip. _Dat._ Leáfum Skipum. _Gen._ Leáfa Skipa. _Masculine._ _Masculine._ _Sing. Nom._ Smið (_a smith_). Konungr (_a king_). _Acc._ Smið Konung. _Dat._ Smiðe Konungi. _Gen._ Smiðes Konungs. {40} _Plur. Nom._ Smiðas Konungar. _Acc._ Smiðas Konunga. _Dat._ Smiðum Konungum. _Gen._ Smiða Konunga. _Feminine._ _Feminine._ _Sing. Nom._ Spr['æ]c (_a speech_). Brúðr (_a bride_). _Acc._ Spr['æ]ce Brúi. _Dat._ Spr['æ]ce Brúði. _Gen._ Spr['æ]ce Brúðar. _Plur. Nom._ Spr['æ]ca Brúðir. _Acc._ Spr['æ]ca Brúðir. _Dat._ Spr['æ]cum Brúðum. _Gen._ Spr['æ]ca Brúða. § 84. The most characteristic difference between the Saxon and Icelandic lies in the peculiar position of the definite article in the latter language. In Saxon, the article corresponding with the modern word _the_, is _þæt_, _se_, _seó_, for the neuter, masculine, and feminine genders respectively; and these words, regularly declined, are _prefixed_ to the words with which they agree, just as is the case with the English and with the majority of languages. In Icelandic, however, the article, instead of preceding, _follows_ its noun, _with which it coalesces_, having previously suffered a change in form. The Icelandic article corresponding to _þæt_, _se_, _seó_, is _hitt_ (N.), _hinn_ (M.), _hin_ (F.): from this the _h_ is ejected, so that, instead of the regular inflection (_a_), we have the forms (_b_). _a._ _Neut._ _Masc._ _Fem._ _Sing. Nom._ Hitt Hinn Hin. _Acc._ Hitt Hinn Hina. _Dat._ Hinu Hinum Hinni. _Gen._ Hins Hins Hinnar. _Plur. Nom._ Hin Hinir Hinar. _Acc._ Hin Hina Hinar. _Dat._ Hinum Hinum Hinum. _Gen._ Hinna Hinna Hinna. _b._ _Sing. Nom._ --it --inn --in. _Acc._ --it --inn --ina (-na). {41} _Dat._ --nu --num --inni (-nni). _Gen._ --ins --ins --innar (-nnar). _Plur. Nom._ --in --nir --nar. _Acc._ --in --na --nar. _Dat._ --num --num --num. _Gen._ --nna --nna --nna. whence, as an affix, in composition, _Neut._ _Masc._ _Fem._ _Sing. Nom._ Augat Boginn Túngan. _Acc._ Augat Boginn Túnguna. _Dat._ Auganu Boganum Túngunni. _Gen._ Augans Bogans Túngunnar. _Plur. Nom._ Augun Bogarnir Túngurnar. _Acc._ Augun Bogana Túngurnar. _Dat._ Augunum Bogunum Túngunum. _Gen._ Augnanna Boganna Túngnanna. § 85. In the Swedish, Norwegian, and Danish this peculiarity in the position of the definite article is preserved. Its origin, however, is concealed; and an accidental identity with the indefinite article has led to false notions respecting its nature. In the languages in point the _i_ is changed into _e_, so that what in Icelandic is _it_ and _in_, is in Danish _et_ and _en_. _En_, however, as a separate word, is the numeral _one_, and also the indefinite article _a_; whilst in the neuter gender it is _et_--en Sol, _a sun_; et Bord, _a table_: Solen, _the sun_; Bordet, _the table_. From modern forms like those just quoted, it has been imagined that the definite is merely the indefinite article transposed. This it is not. Reference will be made to this passage on more occasions than one, to show how words originally distinct may, in the process of time, take the appearance of being identical. To apply an expression of Mr. Cobbett's, _en_=_a_, and _-en_=_the_, are _the same combination of letters, but not the same word_. {42} DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. _Saxon_. _Icelandic_. _Definite_.[7] _Definite_.[7] _Singular_. _Singular_. _Neut_. _Masc_. _Fem_. _Neut_. _Masc_. _Fem_. _Nom_. Góde Góda Góde. _Nom_. Haga Hagi Haga. _Acc_. Góde Gódan Gódan. _Acc_. Haga Haga Högu. _Abl_. Gódan Gódan Gódan. _Abl_. Haga Haga Högu. _Dat_. Gódan Gódan Gódan. _Dat_. Haga Haga Högu. _Gen_. Gódan Gódan Gódan. _Gen_. Haga Haga Högu. _Plural_. _Högu_ is the Plural form for all _Nom_. Gódan Gódan Gódan. the Cases and all the Genders. _Acc_. Gódan Gódan Gódan. _Abl_. Gódum Gódum Gódum. _Dat_. Gódum Gódum Gódum. _Gen_. Gódena Gódena Gódena. _Indefinite_. _Indefinite_. _Singular_. _Singular_. _Neut_. _Masc_. _Fem_. _Neut_. _Masc_. _Fem_. _Nom_. Gód Gód Gód. _Nom_. Hagt Hagr Hög. _Acc_. Gód Gódne Góde. _Acc_. Hagt Hagan Hög. _Abl_. Góde Góde Gódre. _Abl_. Högu Högum Hagri. _Dat_. Gódum Gódum Gódre. _Dat_. Högu Högum Hagri. _Gen_. Gódes Gódes Gódre. _Gen_. Hags Hags Hagrar. _Plural_. _Plural_. _Nom_. Góde Góde Góde. _Nom_. Hög Hagir Hagar. _Acc_. Góde Góde Góde. _Acc_. Hög Haga Hagar. _Abl_. Gódum Gódum Gódum. _Abl_. Högum Högum Högum. _Dat_. Gódum Gódum Gódum. _Dat_. Högum Högum Högum. _Gen_. Gódra Gódra Gódra. _Gen_. Hagra Hagra Hagra. § 86. Observe in the Icelandic forms the absence of the termination _-an_. Observe also the neuter termination _-t_, as _hagr_, _hagt_. Throughout the modern forms of the Icelandic (_viz._ the Swedish, Danish, and Norwegian languages) this termination is still preserved: e.g., _en god Hest_, a good horse; _et godt Hjært_, a good heart; _en skön Pige_, a beautiful damsel; _et skarpt Svoerd_, a sharp sword. {43} § 87. Amongst the pronouns the following differences present themselves. The Saxon forms are, for the pronoun of the second person, _þu_ (thou), _git_ (ye _two_), _ge_ (ye); whilst in Icelandic they are _þu_, _þið_, _per_, respectively. Again, in Saxon there is no reflective pronoun corresponding with the Latin _se_. In Icelandic we have _sik_, _sér_, _sin_, corresponding to the Latin _se_, _sibi_, _suus_. Besides this, the word _sin_ is declined, so that like the Latin _suus_ it becomes adjectival. _Sing. Nom._ Sitt Sinn Sín. _Acc._ Sitt Sinn Sína. _Dat._ Sínu Sínum Sinni. _Gen._ Sins Sins Sinnar. _Plur. Nom._ Sín Sínir Sínar. _Acc._ Sín Sína Sínar. _Dat._ Sínum Sínum Sínum. _Gen._ Sinna Sinna Sinna. In Saxon there is of course no such an adjectival form. _There_ the Possessives of the Third Person correspond not with the Latin _suus_, _sua_, _suum_; but with the Latin _ejus_ and _eorum_. The English words _his_ and _her_ are _genitive_ cases, not _adjectives_. Further remarks upon the presence of the Reflective Pronoun _sik_ in Icelandic, and its absence in Saxon, will appear in the sequel. THE NUMERALS. _Saxon._ _Icelandic._ 1. Án Eitt, einn, ein. 2. Twá Tvö, tveir. 3. Þreó Þrju, þrir. 4. Feower Fjögur, fjórir. 5. Fíf Fimm. 6. Six Sex. 7. Seofon Sjö. 8. Eahta Átta. 9. Nigon Niu. 10. Tyn Tiu. Of the Icelandic verbs the infinitives end in _-a_; as _kalla_, to call; _elska_, to love; whereas the Saxon termination is _-an_; as _lufian_, to love; _wyrcan_, to work. {44} § 88. The persons are as follows:-- _Saxon._ _Icelandic._ _Pres. Sing._ 1. Bærne Brenni. 2. Bærnst Brennir. 3. Bærnð Brennir. _Plur._ 1. Bærnað Brennum. 2. Bærnað Brennið. 3. Bærnað Brenna. § 89. The characteristic, however, of the Icelandic (indeed, of all the Scandinavian languages) is the possession of a _passive_ form, or a _passive_ voice, ending in _-st_:--_Ek_, _þu_, _hann brennist_=_I_, _thou_, _he is burnt_; _Ver brennumst_=_We are burnt_; _þér brennizt_=_ye are burnt_; _þeir brennast_=_they are burnt_. Past tense, _Ek_, _þu_, _hann brendist_; _ver brendumst_, _þér brenduzt_, _þeir brendust_. Imperat.: _brenstu_=_be thou burnt_. Infinit.: _brennast_=_to be burnt_. In the modern Danish and Swedish, the passive is still preserved, but without the final _t_. In the _older_ stages of Icelandic, on the other hand, the termination was not _-st_ but _-sc_; which _-sc_ grew out of the reflective pronoun _sik_. With these phenomena the Scandinavian languages give us the evolution and development of a passive voice; wherein we have the following series of changes:--1st. the reflective pronoun coalesces with the verb, whilst the sense changes from that of a reflective to that of a middle verb; 2nd. the _c_ changes to _t_, whilst the middle sense passes into a passive one; 3rd. _t_ is dropped from the end of the word, and the expression that was once reflective then becomes strictly passive. Now the Saxons have no passive voice at all. That they should have one _originating_ like that of the Scandinavians was impossible. Having no reflective pronoun, they had nothing to evolve it from. _The Auxiliary Verb._ _Saxon._ _Icelandic._ _Indicative. Present._ _Sing._ 1. Eom (_I am_) Em. 2. Eart. Ert. 3. Is. Er. {45} _Plur._ 1. Synd (Syndon) Erum. 2. Synd (Syndon) Eruð. 3. Synd (Syndon) Eru. _Indicative. Past._ _Sing._ 1. W['æ]s Var. 2. W['æ]re Vart. 3. W['æ]s Var. _Plur._ 1. W['æ]ron Vorum. 2. W['æ]ron Voru. 3. W['æ]ron Voru. _Subjunctive. Present._ _Sing._ 1. Sý Sé. 2. Sý Sér. 3. Sý Sé. _Plur._ 1. Sýn Séum. 2. Sýn Seuð. 3. Sýn Séu. _Subjunctive. Past._ _Sing._ 1. W['æ]re Væri. 2. W['æ]re Værir. 3. W['æ]re Væri. _Plur._ 1. W['æ]ron Værum. 2. W['æ]ron Væru. 3. W['æ]ron Væruð. _Infinitive._ Wesan Vera. _Participle._ Wesende Verandi. § 90. Recapitulating, we find that the characteristic differences of the greatest importance between the Icelandic and Saxon are three in number:-- 1st. The peculiar nature of the definite article. 2nd. The neuter form of the adjectives in _-t_. 3rd. The existence of a passive voice in _-sc_, _-st_, or _-s_. § 91. In the previous comparison the substantives were divided as follows:--1st. into those ending with a vowel; 2ndly, into those ending with a consonant. In respect to the substantives ending with a vowel (_eáge_, _nama_, _tunge_), it may have been observed that their cases were in A. S. almost {46} exclusively formed in _-n_, as _eágan_, _tungan_, &c.; whilst words like _skip_ and _smið_ had, throughout their whole declension, no case formed in _-n_; no case indeed wherein the sound of _-n_ entered. This enables us (at least with the A. S.) to make a general assertion concerning the substantives ending in a _vowel_ in contrast to those ending in a _consonant_, viz. that they take an inflection in _-n_. In Icelandic this inflection in _-n_ is concealed by the fact of _-an_ having been changed into _-a_. However, as this _-a_ represents _-an_, and as fragments or rudiments of _-n_ are found in the genitive plurals of the neuter and feminine genders (_augna_, _tungna_), we may make the same general assertion in Icelandic that we make in A. S., _viz._ that substantives ending in a vowel take an inflection in _-n_. § 92. The points of likeness and difference between two languages, belonging to different _divisions_ of the same Germanic _branch_, may be partially collected from the following comparison between certain Moeso-Gothic and certain Anglo-Saxon inflections. § 93. It must, however, be premised, that, although the distinction between nouns taking an inflection in _-n_, and nouns not so inflected, exists equally in the Moeso-Gothic and the Icelandic, the form in which the difference shows itself is different; and along with the indication of this difference may be introduced the important terms _weak_ and _strong_, as applied to the declension of nouns. _Weak_ nouns end in a vowel; or, if in a consonant, in a consonant that has become final from the loss of the vowel that originally followed it. They also form a certain proportion of their oblique cases in _-n_, or an equivalent to _-n_--Nom. _augô_, gen. _aug-in-s_. _Strong_ nouns end in a consonant; or, if in a vowel, in one of the vowels allied to the semivowels _y_ or _w_, and through them to the consonants. They also form their oblique cases by the addition of a simple inflection, without the insertion of _n_. Furthermore, be it observed that _nouns_ in general are _weak_ and _strong_, in other words, that adjectives are _weak_ or {47} _strong_, as well as substantives. Between substantives and adjectives, however, there is this difference:-- 1. A substantive is _either_ weak or strong, _i.e._, it has one of the two inflections, but not both. _Augô_=_an eye_, is weak under all circumstances; _waurd_=_a word_, is strong under all circumstances. 2. An adjective is _both_ weak and strong. The Anglo-Saxon for _good_ is sometimes _god_ (strong), sometimes _gode_ (weak). Which of the two forms is used depends not on the word itself, but on the state of its construction. In this respect the following two rules are important:-- 1. The definite sense is generally expressed by the weak form, as _se blinde man_=_the blind man_. 2. The indefinite sense is generally expressed by the strong form, as _sum blind man_=_a blind man_. Hence, as far as adjectives are concerned, the words _definite_ and _indefinite_ coincide with the words _weak_ and _strong_ respectively, except that the former are terms based on the syntax, the latter terms based on the etymology of the word to which they apply. _Declension of Weak Substantives in Moeso-Gothic._ _Neuter._ _Singular._ _Plural._ _Nom._ Áugô (_an eye_) Áugôna. _Acc._ Áugô Áugôna. _Dat._ Áugin Áugam. _Gen._ Áugins Áugônê. _Masculine._ _Nom._ Manna (_a man_) Mannans. _Acc._ Mannan Mannans. _Dat._ Mannin Mannam. _Gen._ Mannins Mannanê. _Feminine._ _Nom._ Tuggô (_a tongue_) Tuggôns. _Acc._ Tuggôn Tuggôns. _Dat._ Tuggôn Tuggôm. _Gen._ Tuggôns Tuggônô. {48} _Declension of Strong Substantives in Moeso-Gothic._ _Neuter._ _Singular._ _Plural._ _Nom._ Vaúrd (_a word_) Vaúrda. _Acc._ Vaúrd Vaúrda. _Dat._ Vaúrda Vaúrdam. _Gen._ Vaúrdis Vaúrdê. _Masculine._ _Nom._ Fisks (_a fish_) Fiskôs. _Acc._ Fisk Fiskans. _Dat._ Fiska Fiskam. _Gen._ Fiskis Fiskê. _Feminine._ _Nom._ Brûþs (_a bride_) Brûþeis. _Acc._ Brûþ Brûþins. _Dat._ Brûþai Brûþim. _Gen._ Brûþais Brûþê. These may be compared with the Saxon declensions; viz. _aúgô_ with _eáge_, _manna_ with _nama_, _tuggô_ with _tunge_, _vaúrd_ with _leáf_, _fisks_ with _smið_, and _brûþs_ with _spræc_. _Declension of Weak (or Definite) Adjectives in Moeso-Gothic._[8] _Singular._ _Neuter._ _Masculine._ _Feminine._ _Nom._ Blindô Blinda Blindô. _Acc._ Blindô Blindan Blindôn. _Dat._ Blindin Blindin Blindôn. _Gen._ Blindins Blindins Blindôns. _Plural._ _Nom._ Blindôna Blindans Blindôns. _Acc._ Blindôna Blindans Blindôns. _Dat._ Blindam Blindam Blindôm. _Gen._ Blindônê Blindanê Blindônô. {49} _Declension of strong (or indefinite) adjectives in Moeso-Gothic._[9] _Singular._ _Nom._ Blindata Blinds Blinda. _Acc._ Blindata Blindana Blinda. _Dat._ Blindamma Blindamma Blindái. _Gen._ Blindis Blindis Blindáizôs. _Plural._ _Nom._ Blinda Blindái Blindôs. _Acc._ Blinda Blindans Blindôs. _Dat._ Blindáim Blindáim Blindáim. _Gen._ Blindáizê Blindáizê Blindáizô. _Observe_--In the neuter form _blindata_ M. G. we have the sound of _t_, as in Icelandic. This becomes _z_ (_ts_) in Old High German, and _s_ in modern German. The conjugation of the M. G. is as follows. From the Anglo-Saxon it differs most in its plural persons. _Indicative._ _Subjunctive._ M.G. A.S. M.G. A.S. _Present._ _Present._ _Sing._ 1. Sôk-ja Lufie. _Sing._ 1. Sôkjáu } 2. Sôk-eis Lufast. 2. Sôkjáis } Lufige. 3. Sôk-eiþ Lufað. 3. Sôkjái } _Plur._ 1. Sôk-jam Lufiað. _Plur._ 1. Sôkjáima } 2. Sôk-eiþ Lufiað. 2. Sôkjáiþ } Lufion. 3. Sôk-jand Lufiað. 3. Sôkjáina } _Præt._ _Præt._ _Sing._ 1. Sôkida Lufode. _Sing._ 1. Sôkidêdjáu } 2. Sôkides Lufodest. 2. Sôkidêdeis } Lufode. 3. Sôkida Lufode. 3. Sôkidêdi } _Plur._ 1. Sôkidêdum Lufodon. _Plur._ 1. Sôkidêdeima } 2. Sôkidêduþ Lufodon. 2. Sôkidêdeiþ } Lufodon. 3. Sôkidêdun Lufodon. 3. Sôkidêdeina } The conjugation of the auxiliary verb in Moeso-Gothic is as follows. It may be compared with the A. S. § 89. {50} _Indicative. Pres._ _Subjunctive. Pres._ _Sing._ _Plur._ _Sing._ _Plur._ 1. Im (_I am_) Sijum. 1. Sijáu Sijáima. 2. Is Sijuþ. 2. Sijáis Sijáiþ. 3. Ist Sind. 3. Sijái Sijáina. _Præt._ _Præt._ 1. Vas Vêsum. 1. Vêsjáu Vêseima. 2. Vast Vêsuþ. 2. Vêseis Vêseiþ. 3. Vas Vêsun. 3. Vêsei Vêseina. _Inf._ Visan and Sijan--(_to be_). _Part._ Visands--(_being_). § 94. The points of likeness or difference between two languages, each of the Low Germanic division, may be partially collected from the following comparison between certain Old Frisian and certain Anglo-Saxon inflections. In the comparison the first point to be noticed is the _Transition of Letters_. _á_ in Frisian corresponds to _eá_ in A. S.; as _dád_, _rád_, _lás_, _strám_, _bám_, _cáp_, _áre_, _háp_, Frisian; _deád_, _reád_, _leás_, _streám_, _beám_, _ceáp_, _eáre_, _heáp_, Saxon; _dead_, _red_, _loose_, _stream_, _tree_ (boom), _bargain_ (cheap, chapman), _ear_, _heap_, English. _é_ Frisian corresponds to ^a), the A. S. _á_; as _Eth_, _téken_, _hél_, _bréd_, Fris.; _áþ_, _tácen_, _hál_, _brád_, Saxon; _oath_, _token_, _hale_, _broad_, English;--^b), to A. S. _æ_; _hér_, _déde_, _bréda_, Frisian; _hær_, _dæd_, _brædan_, A. S.; _hair_, _deed_, _roast_, English. _e_ to _ea_ and _æ_ A. S.--Frisian _thet_, A. S. _þæt_, Engl. _that_, Fris. _gers_, A. S. _gærs_, Engl. _grass_.--Also to _eo_; _prestere_, Fr.; _preost_ A. S., _priest_ Engl.; _berch_ Fr., _beorh_ A. S.; _hill_ (_berg_, as in _iceberg_) Engl.; _melok_ Fr., _meoloc_ A. S., _milk_ Engl. _i_ to _eo_ A. S.--Fr. _irthe_, A. S. _eorðe_; Fris. _hirte_; A. S. _heorte_; Fris. _fir_ A. S. _feor_=in English _earth_, _heart_, _far_. _já_=_eo_ A. S.; as _bjada_, _beódan_, _bid_--_thet fjarde_, _feorðe_, _the fourth_--_sják_, _seóc_, _sick_. _ju_=_y_ or _eo_ A. S.; _rjucht_, _ryth_, _right_--_frjund_, _freond_, _friend_. {51} _Dsz_=A. S. _cg_; Fr. _sedza_, _lidzja_; A. S. _secgan_, _licgan_; Engl. _to say_, _to lie_. _Tz_, _ts_, _sz_, _sth_=A. S. _c_ or _ce_; as _szereke_, or _sthereke_, Frisian; _cyrice_ A. S., _church_ Engl.; _czetel_ Fr., _cytel_ A. S., _kettle_ English. _ch_ Fr.=_h_ A. S., as _thjach_ Fr., _þeóh_ A. S., _thigh_ Engl.--_berch_, _beórh_, _hill_ (berg)--_dochter_, _dohtor_, _daughter_, &c. As a general statement we may say, that in the transition letters the Frisian corresponds with the A. S. more closely than it does with any other language. It must, moreover, be remarked, that, in such pairs of words as _frjund_ and _freond_, the difference (as far at least as the _e_ and _j_ are concerned) is a mere difference of orthography. Such also is probably the case with the words _déd_ and _dæd_, and many others. The Anglo-Saxon inflection of ^a) Substantives ending in a vowel, ^b) Substantives ending in a consonant, ^c) Adjectives with an indefinite ^d) Adjectives with a definite sense, ^e) Verbs Active ^f) and verbs auxiliar, may be seen in the comparison between the A. S. and the Icelandic. The corresponding inflections in Frisian are as follows:-- (_a_). _Substantives ending in a vowel._ _Neuter._ _Masculine._ _Feminine._ _Sing. Nom._ Áre (_an ear_) Campa (_a champion_) Tunge (_a tongue_). _Acc._ Áre Campa Tunga. _Dat._ Ára Campa Tunga. _Gen._ Ára Campa Tunga. _Plur. Nom._ Ára Campa Tunga. _Acc._ Ára Campa Tunga. _Dat._ Áron Campon Tungon. _Gen._ Árona Campona Tungona. (_b_). _Substantives ending in a consonant._ _Neuter._ _Feminine._ _Sing. Nom._ Skip (_a ship_) Hond (_a hand_). _Acc._ Skip Hond. {52} _Dat._ Skipe Hond. _Gen._ Skipis Honde. _Plur. Nom._ Skipu Honda. _Acc._ Skipu Honda. _Dat._ Skipum Hondum (-on). _Gen._ Skipa Honda. With respect to the masculine substantives terminating in a consonant, it must be observed that in A. S. there are two modes of declension; in one, the plural ends in _-s_; in the other, in _-a_. The specimen in § 83 represents the first of these modes only. From this the Frisian is essentially different. With the second it has a close alliance; _e.g._:-- _Saxon._ _Frisian._ _Sing. Nom._ Sunu (_a son_) Sunu. _Acc._ Sunu Sunu. _Dat._ Suna Suna. _Gen._ Suna Suna. _Plur. Nom._ Suna Suna. _Acc._ Suna Suna. _Dat._ Sunum Sunum. _Gen._ Sunena (Sunena). (_c_). _Indefinite Declension of Adjectives._ _Neuter._ _Masculine._ _Feminine._ _Sing. Nom._ Gód Gód Gód. _Acc._ Gód Gódene Góde. _Dat._ Góda (-um) Góda (-um). Gódere. _Gen._ Gódes Gódes Gódere. _Plur. Nom._ Góde Góde Góde. _Acc._ Góde Góde Góde. _Dat._ Gódum (-a) Gódum (-a) Gódum (-a). _Gen._ Gódera Gódera Gódera. (_d_). _Definite._ _Neuter._ _Masculine._ _Feminine._ _Sing. Nom._ Góde Góda Góde. _Acc._ Góde Góda Góda. {53} _Dat._ Góda Góda Góda. _Gen._ Góda Góda Góda. _Plur. Nom._ Góda Góda Góda. _Acc._ Góda Góda Góda. _Dat._ Góda (-on) Góda (-on) Góda (-on). _Gen._ Góda (-ona) Góda (-ona) Góda (-ona). (_e_). _The Persons of the Present Tense._ _Indicative Mood._ _Sing._ 1. Berne _I burn._ 2. Bernst _Thou burnest._ 3. Bernth _He burns._ _Plur._ 1. Bernath _We burn._ 2. Bernath _Ye burn._ 3. Bernath _They burn._ In the inflection of the verbs there is between the Frisian and A. S. this important difference. In A. S. the infinite ends in _-an_ _macian_, to make, _læran_, to learn, _bærnan_, to burn; whilst in Frisian it ends in _-a_, as _maka_, _léra_, _berna_. (_f_). _The Auxiliar Verb_ Wesa, _To Be_. _Indicative._ _Present._ _Past._ _Sing._ 1. Ik ben 1. Ik } 2. ? 2. Thú } Was. 3. Hi is 3. Hi } _Plur._ 1. Wi } 1. Wi } 2. I } Send 2. I } Weron. 3. Hja } 3. Hja } _Subjunctive._ _Present._ _Past._ _Sing._ 1. 2. 3. Se 1. 2. 3. Wére. _Plur._ 1. 2. 3. Se 1. 2. 3. Wére. _Infin. Wesa._ _Pr. Part._ Wesande. _Past Part._ E-wesen. The Frisian numerals (to be compared with those of the Anglo-Saxons, p. 43), are as follows:--_Én_, _twá_, _thrjú_, {54} _fjúwer_, _fíf_, _sex_, _sjúgun_, _achta_, _njugun_, _tian_, &c. Of these the first three take an inflection, e.g., _En_, like _Gode_ and the adjectives, has both a definite and an indefinite form, _en_, and _thet ene_; whilst _twa_ and _thrjú_ run as follows:--_Nom._ and _Acc. Neut._ twa; _Masc._ twene; _Fem._ twa; _Dat._ twam; _Gen._ twira.--_Nom._ and _Acc. Neut._ thrju; _Masc._ thre; _Fem._ thrja; _Dat._ thrim; _Gen._ thrira. In respect to the Pronouns, there is in the Old Frisian of Friesland no dual number, as there is in Anglo-Saxon. On the other hand, however, the Frisians (whilst they have no such form as _his_) possess, like the Icelandic, the inflected adjectival pronoun _sin_, corresponding to the Latin _suus_: whilst, like the Anglo-Saxons, and unlike the Icelanders, they have nothing to correspond with the Latin _se_. § 95. In Frisian there is between the demonstrative pronoun used as an article, and the same word used as a demonstrative in the limited sense of the term, the following difference of declension:-- THE ARTICLE. _Neuter._ _Masculine._ _Feminine._ _Sing. Nom._ Thet Thi Thjú. _Acc._ Thet Thene Thá. \----------\/--------/ _Dat._ Thá There. _Gen._ Thes There. \--------------\/-------------/ _Plur. Nom._ Thá. _Acc._ Thá. _Dat. _ Thá. _Gen._ Théra. PRONOUN. _The Demonstrative in the limited sense of the word._ _Neuter._ _Masculine._ _Feminine._ _Sing. Nom._ Thet Thi Se. _Acc._ Thet Thene Se. \---------\/--------/ _Dat._ Tham There. _Gen._ Thes There. \-------------\/---------------/ {55} _Plur. Nom._ Se. _Acc._ Se. _Dat._ Thám. _Gen._ Théra. The Saxons draw no such a distinction. With them the article and demonstrative is declined as follows:-- _Neuter._ _Masculine._ _Feminine._ _Sing. Nom._ Þæt Se Seo. _Acc._ Þæt Þone Þá. \-----\/----/ _Dat._ Þam Þ['æ]re. _Gen._ Þæs Þ['æ]re. \--------\/-------/ _Plur. Nom._ Þá. _Acc._ Þá. _Dat._ Þám. _Gen._ Þára. § 96. _Specimen of Glossarial affinity._--Taken from Rask's Preface to his Frisian Grammar:-- _Frisian._ _Anglo Saxon._ _English._ Áge Eáge _Eye_. Háved Heáfod _Head_. Kind Cild _Child_. Erva Eafora _Heir_. Drochten Drihten _Lord_. Nacht Niht _Night_. Réd R['æ]d _Council_ (_Rede_). Déde D['æ]d _Deed_. Nose Nasu _Nose_. Éin Ágen _Own_. Kápie Ceapige _I buy_ (_Chapman_). Dua Don _To do_. Slá Sleán _Slay_. Gunga Gangan _Go_ (_Gang_). * * * * * § 97. In this Chapter there has been, thus far, an attempt to do two things at once. Firstly, to exhibit the _general_ likeness between stocks, branches, &c.; and secondly, to show the _special_ affinities between certain languages allied to our {56} own, and of the Gothic Stock. What follows, consists of certain observations upon two or three points of nomenclature. § 98. _German._--The points to remember concerning this term are-- 1. That it is no national name, but a name given by the Latins to the natives of the country called Germania. The word _German_ is foreign to all the Gothic languages. 2. That it was first applied to proper Germanic tribes in the time of Julius Cæsar, and that it served to distinguish the Gothic Germans from the Celtic Gauls. 3. That, anterior to the time of Cæsar, there is no proof of it being applied as a distinctive designation to any of the tribes to whom it was afterwards limited. The first tribe to whom it was applied, was (in the opinion of the present writer) a Gallic tribe. 4. That since the time of Julius Cæsar, its application has been constant, _i.e._, it has always meant Gothic tribes, or Gothic languages. 5. That sometimes it has been general to the whole nation--_Unde fit ut tantæ populorum multitudines arctoo sub axe oriantur, ut non immerito universa illa regio Tanai tenus usque ad occiduum, licet et propriis loca ea singula nuncupentur nominibus, generali tamen vocabulo Germania vocitetur ... Gothi, siquidem, Vandalique, Rugi, Heruli, atque Turcilingi, necnon etiam aliæ feroces ac barbaræ nationes e Germania prodierunt._--Paulus Diaconus. 6. That sometimes it has been peculiar and distinctive to certain prominent portions of the nation--_equi frænis_ Germanicis, _sellis_ Saxonicis _falerati_. 7. That the general power of the word has been, with few exceptions, limited to the Germans of Germany. We do not find either English or Scandinavian writers calling their countrymen _Germani_. 8. That the two German tribes most generally meant, when the word _German_ is used in a limited sense, are the Franks and the Alemanni. 9. That by a similar latitude the words _Francic_ and {57} _Alemannic_ have been occasionally used as synonymous with _Germanic_. 10. That the origin of the word _Germani_, in the Latin language, is a point upon which there are two hypotheses. _a._ That it is connected with the Latin word _Germani_=_brothers_, meaning either tribes akin to one another, or tribes in a degree of _brotherly_ alliance with Rome. _b._ That it grew out of some such German word as _Herman_, _Irmin_, _Wehrmann_, or the _Herm-_ in _Hermunduri_, _Hermiones_, &c. Neither of these views satisfies the present writer. For all the facts concerning the word _Germani_, see the Introduction to the third edition of the Deutsche Grammar. § 99. _Dutch._--For the purposes of Philology the meaning given to this word is inconvenient. In England, it means the language of the people of Holland. In Germany, Holland, and Scandinavia, it means the language of the people of Germany in _general_; and this _general_ power of the word is retained even with us in the expression High-Dutch, and Low-Dutch. In the present work the term is avoided as much as possible. Nevertheless, wherever it occurs it means the Dutch of Holland. The origin of the word has been a subject of much investigation; the question, however, may be considered to be settled by the remarks of Grimm, D. G.--_Introduction to the third edition_. 1. It was originally no national name at all. 2. In the earliest passage where it occurs, the derivative form _þiudiskô_ corresponds with the Greek word [Greek: ethnikôs]--_The Moeso-Gothic Translation of the New Testament_--_Galatians_, ii. 14. 3. The derivation of the word from the substantive _þiudu_=_a people_, _a nation_, is undoubted. 4. So also is the derivation of the modern word _Dutch_, in all its varied forms:--Old High-German, _Diutisc_; Anglo-Saxon, _Þeódisc_; Latin, _Theodisca_, _Theudisca_, _Teutisca_; Italian, _Tedesco_; Danish, _Tyske_; English, _Dutch_; the latter part of the word being the adjectival ending _-isc_=_ish_. {58} 5. The original meaning being _of, or belonging to, the people_, or _of, or belonging to, the nation_, secondary meanings grew out of it. 6. Of these the most remarkable are _a_) the power given to the word in Ulphilas (_heathen_), illustrated by the similarly secondary power of the Greek [Greek: ethnikos]; _b_) the meaning _vernacular_, _provincial_ or _vulgar_ given to it as applied to language. 7. This latter power was probably given to it about the ninth century. 8. That it was not given much before, is inferred from negative evidence. The word _theotisca_ is not found in the Latin writers of the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries, although there are plenty of passages where it might well have been used had it existed. The terms really used are either _patrius sermo_, _sermo barbaricus_, _sermo vulgaricus_, _lingua rustica_; or else the names of particular tribes, as _lingua Anglorum_, _Alamannorum_. 9. That it was current in the ninth century is evident from a variety of quotations:--_Ut quilibet episcopus homilias aperte transferre studeat in rusticam Romanam linguam, aut _þeotiscam_, quo tandem cuncti possint intelligere quæ dicantur._--Synodus Turonensis. _Quod in lingua _Thiudisca_ scaftlegi, id est armorum depositio, vocatur._--Capit. Wormatiense. _De collectis quas _Theudisca_ lingua heriszuph appellat._--Conventus Silvacensis. _Si _barbara_, quam _Teutiscam_ dicunt, lingua loqueretur._--Vita Adalhardi, &c.--D.G., i. p. 14, _Introduction_. 10. That its present national sense is wholly secondary and derivative, and that originally it was no more the name of a people or a language than the word _vulgate_ in the expression _the vulgate translation of the Scriptures_ is the name of a people or a language. § 100. _Teutonic._--About the tenth century the Latin writers upon German affairs began to use not only the words _Theotiscus_ and _Theotiscé_, but also the words _Teutonicus_ and _Teutonicé_. Upon this, Grimm remarks that the latter term sounded more learned; since _Teutonicus_ was a classical word, an adjective derived from the Gentile name of the Teutones conquered by Manus. Be it so. It then follows that the connexion between _Teutonicus_ and _Theotiscus_ is a mere accident, the origin {59} of the two words being different. The worthlessness of all evidence concerning the Germanic origin of the Teutonic tribes conquered by Marius, based upon the connexion between the word _Teuton_ and Dutch, has been pointed out by the present writer in the 17th number of the Philological Transactions.[10] All that is proved is this, _viz._, that out of the confusion between the two words arose a confusion between the two nations. These last may or may not have been of the same race. § 101. _Anglo-Saxon_--In the ninth century the language of England was _Angle_, or _English_. The _lingua Anglorum_ of Bede is translated by Alfred _on englisce_. The term _Saxon_ was in use also at an early (perhaps an equally early) date--_fures quos_ Saxonice _dicimus vergeld_ þeóvas. The compound term _Anglo-Saxon_ is later.--Grimm, _Introduction to the third edition of_ D.G., p. 2. § 102. _Icelandic, Old Norse._--Although _Icelandic_ is the usual name for the mother-tongue of the Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian, the Norwegian philologists generally prefer the term _Old Norse_. In favour of this view is the fact that Norway was the mother-country, Iceland the colony, and that much of what is called Old Icelandic was composed in Norway. Still the reason is insufficient; since the present term _Icelandic_ is given to the language not because Iceland _was_ the country that _produced_, but because it is the country that has _preserved_ it. This leads to the argument in its most general form--should a language be named from the colony, or from the mother-country? The Norwegians say from the mother-country. Let us consider this. Suppose that whilst the Latin of Virgil and Cicero in Italy had been changing into the modern Italian, in some old Roman colony (say Sardinia) it had remained either wholly {60} unaltered, or else, altered so little as for the modern _Sardinian_--provided he could read at all--to be able to read the authors of the Augustan age, just like those of the era of Charles Albert; no other portion of the old Roman territory--not even Rome itself--having any tongue more like to that of the Classical writers, than the most antiquated dialect of the present Italian. Suppose, too, that the term _Latin_ had become obsolete, would it be imperative upon us to call the language of the Classics _Old Italian_, _Old Roman_, or at least _Old Latin_, when no modern native of Rome, Latium, or Italy could read them? Would it be wrong to call it _Sardinian_ when every Sarde _could_ read them? I think not. _Mutatis mutandis_, this is the case with Iceland and Norway. * * * * * {61} CHAPTER V. ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE--GERMANIC ELEMENTS. § 103. The population and, to a certain extent, the language of England, have been formed of three elements, which in the most general way may be expressed as follows:-- _a._ Elements referable to the original British population, and derived from times anterior to the Anglo-Saxon invasion. _b._ Anglo-Saxon, Germanic, or imported elements. _c._ Elements introduced since the Anglo-Saxon conquest. § 104. Each of these requires a special analysis, but that of the second will be taken first, and will form the contents of the present chapter. All that we have at present learned concerning the Germanic invaders of England, is the geographical area which they wholly or partially occupied, and the tribes and nations with which they were conterminous whilst in Germany. How far, however, it was simple Saxons who conquered England single-handed, or how far the particular Saxon Germans were portions of a complex population, requires further investigation. Were the Saxons one division of the German population, whilst the Angles were another? or were the Angles a section of the Saxons, so that the latter was a generic term, including the former? Again, although the Saxon invasion may be the one which has had the greatest influence, and drawn the most attention, why may there not have been separate and independent migrations, the effects and record of which, have in the lapse of time, become fused with those of the more important divisions? Questions like these require notice, and in a more advanced state of what may be called _minute ethnographical_ {62} _philology_ will obtain more of it than has hitherto been their share. At present our facts are few, and our methods of investigation imperfect. § 105. In respect to this last, it is necessary to distinguish between the opinions based on _external_, and the opinions based on _internal_ evidence. To the former class belong the testimonies of cotemporary records, or (wanting these) of records based upon transmitted, but cotemporary, evidence. To the latter belong the inferences drawn from similarity of language, name, and other ethnological _data_. Of such, a portion only will be considered in the present chapter; not that they have no proper place in it, but because the minuter investigation of an important section of these (_i.e._, the subject of the _English dialects_) will be treated as a separate subject elsewhere. § 106. _The Angles; who were they, and what was their relation to the Saxons?_--The first answer to this question embodies a great fact in the way of internal evidence, _viz._, that they were the people from whom _England_ derives the name it bears=_the Angle-land_, i.e., _land of the Angles_. Our language too is _English_, i.e., _Angle_. Whatever, then, they may have been on the Continent, they were a leading section of the invaders here. Why then has their position in our inquiries been hitherto so subordinate to that of the Saxons? It is because their definitude and preponderance are not so manifest in Germany as we infer (from the terms _England_ and _English_) it to have been in Britain. Nay more, their historical place amongst the nations of Germany, and within the German area, is both insignificant and doubtful; indeed, it will be seen from the sequel, that _in and of themselves_ we know next to nothing about them, knowing them only in their _relations_, _i.e._, to ourselves and to the Saxons. The following, however, are the chief facts that form the foundation for our inferences. § 107. Although they are the section of the immigration which gave the name to England, and as such, the preponderating element in the eyes of the present _English_, they were not so in the eyes of the original British; who neither knew at the time of the Conquest, nor know now, of any other name for their German enemies but _Saxon_. And _Saxon_ is the {63} name by which the present English are known to the Welsh, Armorican, and Gaelic Celts. Welsh _Saxon_. Armorican _Soson_. Gaelic _Sassenach_. § 108. Although they are the section of the immigration which gave the name to _England_, &c., they were quite as little Angles as Saxons, in the eyes of foreign cotemporary writers; since the expression _Saxoniæ trans-marinæ_, occurs as applied to England. § 109. Although they are the section of the immigration which gave the name to _England_, &c., the material notice of them as Germans of Germany, are limited to the following facts. _Extract from Tacitus._--This merely connects them with certain other tribes, and affirms the existence of certain religious ordinances common to them-- "Contra Langobardos paucitas nobilitat: plurimis ac valentissimis nationibus cincti, non per obsequium, sed proeliis et periclitando tuti sunt. Reudigni deinde, et Aviones, et _Angli_, et Varini, et Eudoses, et Suardones, et Nuithones, fluminibus aut silvis muniuntur: nec quidquam notabile in singulis, nisi quod in commune Herthum, id est, Terram matrem colunt, eamque intervenire rebus hominum, invehi populis, arbitrantur. Est in insula Oceani castum nemus, dicatumque in eo vehiculum, veste contectum, attingere uni sacerdoti concessum. Is adesse penetrali deam intelligit, vectamque bobus feminis multâ cum veneratione prosequitur. Læti tunc dies, festa loca, quæcumque adventu hospitioque dignatur. Non bella ineunt, non arma sumunt, clausum omne ferrum; pax et quies tunc tantùm nota, tunc tantùm amata, donec idem sacerdos satiatam conversatione mortalium deam templo reddat: mox vehiculum et vestes, et, si credere velis, numen ipsum secreto lacu abluitur. Servi ministrant, quos statim idem lacus haurit. Arcanus hinc terror, sanctaque ignorantia, quid sit id, quod tantùm perituri vident."[11] _Extract from Ptolemy._--This connects the Angles with {64} the _Suevi_, and _Langobardi_, and places them on the Middle Elbe. [Greek: Entos kai mesogeiôn ethnôn megista men esti to, te tôn Souêbôn tôn Angeilôn, hoi eisin anatolikôteroi tôn Langobardôn, anateinontes pros tas arktous mechri tôn mesôn tou Albios potamou.] _Extract from Procopius._--For this see § 129. _Heading of a law referred to the age of Charlemagne._--This connects them with the Werini (Varni), and the Thuringians--"Incipit lex _Angliorum_ et _Verinorum_ (_Varni_); hoc est _Thuringorum_."--Zeuss, 495, and Grimm. G.D.S. § 110. These notices agree in giving the Angles a German locality, and in connecting them ethnologically, and philologically with the Germans of Germany. The notices that follow, traverse this view of the question, by indicating a slightly different area, and Danish rather than German affinities. _Extracts connecting them with the inhabitants of the Cimbric Peninsula._--_a._ The quotation from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle of § 16. _b._ From Bede; "Porro de Anglis, hoc est illa patria, quæ _Angulus_ dicitur, et ab eo tempore usque hodie, manere desertus inter provincias Jutarum et Saxonum perhibetur."--Angl. i. 15. _c._ From Alfred, "And be wæstan eald Seaxum is Albe muða þære ea and Frisland. And þanon west norð is þæt land, the man _Angle_, hæt and Sillende, and summe dæl Dena."[12]--Oros. p. 20. Also, speaking of Other's voyage,[13] "He seglode to þæm porte þe man hæt Hæþum; se stent betwuhs Winedum and Seaxum, and _Angle_, and hyrð in on Dene ... and þa {65} twegen dagas ær he to Hædhum come, him wæs on þæt steorbord Gothland and Sillende and iglanda fela. On þæm landum eardodon Engle, ær hi hiðer on land comon."[14]--Oros. p. 23. d. From Etherwerd, writing in the eleventh century--"_Anglia_ vetus sita est inter Saxones et Giotos, habens oppidum capitale, quod sermone Saxonico _Sleswic_ nuncupatur, secundum vero Danos _Hathaby_."[14] § 111. _The district called Angle._--The district of _Anglen_, so called (where it is mentioned at all) at the present moment, is a part of the Dutchy of Sleswick, which is literally an _Angle_; _i.e._, a triangle of irregular shape, formed by the Schlie, the Flensborger Fiord, and a line drawn from Flensborg to Sleswick; every geographical name in it being, at present, Danish, whatever it may have been previously. Thus some villages end in _bye_ (Danish=_town_) as Hus-_bye_, Herreds-_bye_, Ulse-_bye_, &c.; some in _gaard_ (=_house_), as _Oegaard_; whilst the other Danish forms are _skov_=_wood_ (_shaw_), _hofved_=_head_, _lund_=_grove_, &c. In short it has nothing to distinguish it from the other parts of the peninsula. § 112. Add to these the Danish expression, that _Dan_ and _Angul_ were brothers, as the exponent of a recognised relationship between the two populations, and we have a view of the evidence in favour of the Danish affinity. § 113. _Inferences and remarks._--_a._ That whilst the root _Angl-_ in Tacitus, Ptolemy, Procopius, and the Leges Anglorum, &c., is the name of a _people_, the root _Angl-_ in the _Anglen_ of Sleswick, is the name of a district; a fact which is further confirmed by the circumstance of there being in at least one other part of Scandinavia, a district with a similar name--"Hann átti bu a Halogolandi i _Aungli_."[14]--Heimskringla, iii. 454. _b._ That the derivation of the _Angles_ of England from the _Anglen_ of Sleswick is an inference of the same kind with the one respecting the Jutes (see § 20), made by the same writers, probably on the same principle, and most likely incorrectly. _c._ That the Angles of England were the Angli of Tacitus, {66} Ptolemy, Procopius, and the Leges Anglorum et Werinorum, whatever these were. § 114. What were the _Langobardi_, with whom the Angles were connected by Tacitus? The most important facts to be known concerning them are, (1) that the general opinion is in favour of their having belonged to the _High_-German, or Moeso-Gothic division, rather than to the _Low_; (2) that their original locality either reached or lay beyond the Elbe; a locality, which, in the tenth century, was _Slavonic_, and which, in the opinion of the present writer, we have no reason to consider to have been other than Slavonic during the nine preceding ones.--That they were partially, at least, on this side of the Elbe, we learn from the following:--"Receptæ Cauchorum nationes, fracti Langobardi, gens etiam Germanis feritate ferocior; denique usque ad flumen Albim ... Romanus cum signis perductus exercitus."[15]--Velleius Paterc. ii. 106. § 115. What were the _Suevi_, with whom the Angles were connected by Tacitus? The most important facts to be known concerning them are, (1) that the general opinion is in favour of their having belonged to the _High_-German or Moeso-Gothic, division, rather than to the _Low_; (2) that their original locality either reached or lay beyond the Elbe; a locality, which, in the tenth century, was _Slavonic_, and which, in the opinion of the present writer, we have no reason to consider to have been other than Slavonic during the nine preceding ones. In other words, what applies to the Langobardi applies to the Suevi also. What the Suevi were, the Semnones were also, "Vetustissimos se nobilissimosque Suevorum Semnones memorant." Tac. Germ., 39. Speaking, too, of their great extension, he says, _centum pagi ab iis habitantur_.[15] Velleius states that there were Suevi on the west of the Middle Elbe, Ptolemy, that there were Suevi to the east of it, _i.e._, as far as the River Suebus (Oder?).--[Greek: Kai to tôn Souêbôn tôn Semnonôn, hoitines diêkousi meta ton Albin apo tou eirêmenou merous] {67} (the middle Elbe) [Greek: pros anatolas mechri tou Souêbou potamou].[16] In the letter of Theodeberht to the Emperor Justinian, we find the _North_-Suevians mentioned along with the Thuringians, as having been conquered by the Franks; "Subactis Thuringis ... _Norsavorum_ gentis nobis placata majestas colla subdidit."[16] § 116. What were the _Werini_, with whom the Angles were connected in the _Leges Anglorum et Werinorum_? Without having any particular _data_ for connecting the Werini (Varni, [Greek: Ouarnoi]) with either the High-German, or the Moeso-Gothic divisions, there are in favour of their being Slavonic in locality, the same facts as applied to the Suevi and Langobardi, with the additional one, that the name probably exists at present in the River _Warnow_, of Mecklenburg Schwerin, at the mouth of which (Warnemunde) the town of Rostock stands. § 117. What were the _Thuringians_, with whom the Angles are connected in the _Leges Anglorum_, &c.; Germanic in locality, and most probably allied to the Goths of Moesia in language. § 118. Of the Reudigni, Eudoses, Nuithones, Suardones, and Aviones, too little is known in detail to make the details an inquiry of importance. Respecting them all, it may be said at once, that whatever may be the Germanic affinities involved in their connection with the Suevi, Langobardi, Angli, &c., they are traversed by the fact of their locality being in the tenth century Slavonic. § 119. The last tribe which will be mentioned, is that of the _Angrarii_, most probably another form of the _Angrivarii_ of Tacitus, the name of the occupants of the valley of the Aller, the northern confluent of the Weser. As this word is compound (-_varii_=_ware_=_inhabitants_), the root remains _Angr-_, a word which only requires the _r_ to become _l_ in order to make _Angl-_. As both the locality and the relation to the Saxons, make the _Angrivarian_ locality one of the best we could assume for the _Angles_, the only {68} difficulty lies in the change from _r_ to _l_. Unfortunately, this, in the Saxon-German, is an unlikely one. § 120. The last fact connected with the Angles, will be found in a more expanded form in the Chapter on the Dialects of the English Language. It relates to the distribution over the conquered parts of Britain. Their chief area was the Midland and Eastern counties, Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, Leicestershire, &c., rather than the parts south of the Thames, which were Saxon, and those north of the Wash, where Danish influences have been considerable. § 121. The reader has now got a general view of the extent to which the position of the Angles, as a German tribe, is complicated by conflicting statements; statements which connect them with (probably) _High_-German Thuringians, Suevi, and Langobardi, and with (probably) _Slavonic_ Varni, Eudoses, Suardones, &c.; whereas in England, they are scarcely distinguishable from the _Low_-German Saxons. In the present state of our knowledge, the only safe fact seems to be, that of the common relation of both _Angle_ and Saxon, to the present _English_ of England. This brings the two sections within a very close degree of affinity, and makes it probable, that just, as at present, descendants of the Saxons are English (_Angle_) in Britain, so, in the third and fourth centuries, ancestors of the Angles were Saxons in Germany. Why, however, the one name preponderated on the Continent, and the other in England is difficult to ascertain. § 122. By considering the Angles as Saxons under another name (or _vice versâ_), and by treating the statement as to the existence of Jutes in Hampshire and the Isle of Wight as wholly unhistorical, we get, as a general expression for the Anglo-Germanic immigration, that it consisted of the closely allied tribes of the North-Saxon area, an expression that implies a general uniformity of population. Is there reason to think that the uniformity was absolute? § 123. The following series of facts, when put together, will prepare us for a fresh train of reasoning concerning the different geographical and ethnological relations of the {69} immigrants into England, during their previous habitation in Germany. 1. The termination _-as_ is, like the _-s_ in the modern English, the sign of the plural number in Anglo-Saxon. 2. The termination _-ing_ denotes, _in the first instance_, a certain number of individuals collected together, and united with each other as a clan, tribe, family, household. 3. In doing this, it generally indicates a relationship of a _personal_ or _political_ character. Thus two _Baningas_ might be connected with each other, and (as such) indicated by the same term from any of the following causes--relationship, subordination to the same chief, origin from the same locality, &c. 4. Of these _personal_ connections, the one which is considered to be the commonest is that of _descent_ from a common ancestor, so that the termination _-ing_ in this case, is a real _patronymic_. 5. Such an ancestor need not be real; indeed, he rarely if ever is so. Like the _eponymus_ of the classical writers, he is the hypothetical, or mythological, progenitor of the clan, sept, or tribe, as the case may be; _i.e._, as Æolus, Dorus, and Ion to the Æolians, Dorians, and Ionians. Now, by admitting these facts without limitation, and by applying them freely and boldly to the Germanic population of England, we arrive at the following inferences. 1. That where we meet two (or more) households, families, tribes, clans, or septs of the same name (that name ending in _-ing_), in different parts of England, we may connect them with each other, either directly or indirectly; directly when we look on the second as an offset from the first; indirectly, when we derive both from some third source. 2. That when we find families, tribes, &c., of the same name, both in Britain and in Germany, we may derive the English ones from the continental. Now neither of these views is hypothetical. On the contrary each is a real fact. Thus in respect to divisions of the population, designated by names ending in _-ing_, we have 1. In Essex, Somerset, and Sussex,--_Æstingas_. 2. In Kent, Dorset, Devonshire, and Lincoln,--_Alingas_. {70} 3. In Sussex, Berks, and Northamptonshire,--_Ardingas_. 4. In Devonshire, Gloucestershire, and Sussex,--_Arlingas_. 5. In Herts, Kent, Lincolnshire, and Salop,--_Baningas_. 6. In Norfolk, Suffolk, Surrey, Sussex, and the Isle of Wight,--_Beadingas_. 7. In Kent, Devonshire, Lincolnshire, Herefordshire, Salop, and Somerset,--_Beringas_. 8. In Bedford, Durham, Kent, Lancashire, Lincolnshire, Norfolk, Northamptonshire, Northumberland, Salop, Sussex, and the Isle of Wight,--_Billingas_, &c.--the list being taken from Mr. Kemble, vol. i. p. 64. § 124. On the other hand, the following Anglo-Saxon names in _-ing_, reappear in different parts of Germany, sometimes in definite geographical localities, as the occupants of particular districts, sometimes as mentioned in poems without further notice. 1. _Wælsingas_,--as the Volsungar of the Iceland, and the Wælsingen of the German heroic legends. 2. _Herelingas_,--mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon poem known by the name of the Traveller's Song, containing a long list of the Gothic tribes, families, nations, &c. 3. _Brentingas._--Ibid. 4. _Scyldingas._--Ibid. 5. _Scylfingas._--Ibid. 6. _Ardingas._ 7. _Baningas_, Traveller's Song, mentioned as the subjects of Becca. 8. _Helsingas._--Ibid. 9. _Myrgingas._--Ibid. 10. _Hundingas._--Ibid. 11. _Hocingas._--Ibid. 12. _Seringas._--Ibid. 13. _Dhyringas_=Thuringians. (?) 14. _Bleccingas._ 15. _Gytingas._ 16. _Scydingas._ 17. _Dylingas._ § 125. We will still, for argument's sake, and for the sake {71} of the illustration of an ethnological method, take these names along with the observations by which they were preceded, as if they were wholly unexceptionable; and, having done this, ask how far each is known as _German_. So doing, we must make two divisions: _a._ Those which we have no reason to think other than Angle or Saxon. _b._ Those which indicate elements of the migration other than Angle or Saxon. § 126. _Patronymics which do not necessarily denote a non-Saxon element._--Of these, the following are so little known, that they may pass as Saxons, simply because we have no grounds for thinking them aught else; the Brentings, Banings, Helsings, Serings, Ardings, Hundings, Blekings, Herelings, Gytings, Scydings, Dylings. The Scyldings and Scefings, belong, in a more positive way, to the Anglo-Saxon division; since their eponymi, Scyld and Sceaf, form a portion of the Anglo-Saxon mythology. § 127. _Patronymics indicating a non-Saxon, rather than a Saxon element._--_a._ The Wælsings--In the way of tradition and mythology, this is a _Frank_ gentile name. _b._ The Myrgings.--_Ditto._ This is the German form of the Merovingians. _c._ The Hocings.--This is the German form of the Chauci, and, as such, a Frisian gentile name. d. The Dhyrings.--Perhaps Thuringians of Thuringia. Thus, then, if we still assume that the method in question is unexceptionable, we have, from the evidence of what may be called either the _gentile forms_, or the _patronymics_ in _-ing_, reasons for believing that Frank _Myrgings_, Frisian _Hocings_, and Thuringian _Dhyrings_, formed part of the invasion--these, at least; possibly others besides. And why should the reason be other than unexceptionable? Do we not in North America, believe, that, _as a general rule_, the families with particular names, coincide with the families so-called in England; that the names of certain places, _sometimes_, at least, indicate a population originating in places similarly designated here? that the Smiths and Johnstons {72} are English in origin, and that O'Connors and O'Neils are Irish? We certainly believe all this, and, in many cases, we believe it, on the ground of the identity of name only. § 128. _Exceptions._--Still there are exceptions. Of these the most important are as follows:-- 1. The termination _-ing_ is sometimes added to an undoubtedly British root, so as to have originated within the island, rather than to have been brought from the continent, _e.g._, the _Kent-ings_=_the people of Kent_. In such a case, the similarity to a German name, if it exist at all, exists as an accident. 2. The same, or nearly the same, name may not only occur in different parts of one and the same division of the Germanic areas, but in different ones, _e.g._, the Dhyrings _may_ denote the Thuringians of Thuringia; but they may also denote the people of a district, or town, in Belgium, designated as _Dorringen_.[17] Still as a method, the one in question should be understood; although it has been too short a time before the learned world to have borne fruit. N.B.--What applies to the coincidence of _gentile_ or _patronymic_ names on the two sides of the water, applies also to dialects; _e.g._, if (say) the Kentish differed from the other dialects of England, just in the same way, and with the same peculiar words and forms, as (say) the Verden dialect differed from the ones of Germany, we might fairly argue, that it was from the district of Verden that the county of Kent is peopled. At present we are writing simply for the sake of illustrating certain philological methods. The question of dialect will be treated in Part VII. § 129. _German tribes where there is no direct evidence as to their having made part of the population of England, but where the _à priori_ probabilities are strongly in their favour._ This applies to--_a._ The Batavians. No direct evidence, but great _à priori_ probability. _b._ _The Frisians._--Great _à priori_ probability, and {73} something more; [Greek: Brittian de tên nêson ethnê tria poluanthrôpotata echousi, basileus te heis autôn hekastôi ephestêken, onomata de keitai tois ethnesi toutois Angiloi te kai Phrissones kai hoi têi nêsôi homônumoi Brittônes. Tosautê de hê tônde tôn ethnôn poluanthrôpia phainetai ousa hôste ana pan etos kata pollous enthende metanistamenoi xun gunaixi kai paisin es Phrangous chôrousin].[18]--Procop. B. G. iv. 20. § 130. I believe, for my own part, there were portions in the early Germanic population of Britain, which were not strictly either Angle or Saxon (Anglo-Saxon); but I do this without thinking that it bore any great ratio to the remainder, and without even guessing at what that ratio was, or whereabouts its different component elements were located--the Frisians and Batavians being the most probable. With this view, there may have been Jutes as well; notwithstanding what has been said in §§ 16-20; since the reasoning there is not so against a Jute element _in toto_, as against that particular Jute element, in which Beda, Alfred, and the later writers believed and believe. § 131. No exception against the existence of Batavian, Frisian, Frank, and other elements not strictly Anglo-Saxon, is to be taken from the absence of traces of such in the present language, and that for the following reason. _Languages which differ in an older form may so far change according to a common principle, as to become identical in a newer one._ _E.g._, the Frisian infinitive in verbs ends in _-a_, (as _bærna_=_to burn_), the Saxon in _-an_ (as _bærnan_=_to burn_). Here is a difference. Let, however, the same change affect both languages; that change being the abandonment, on both sides, of the infinitive termination altogether. What follows? even that the two originally different forms _bærn-a_, and _bærn-an_, both come out _bærn_ (_burn_); so that the result is the same, though the original forms were different. * * * * * {74} CHAPTER VI. THE CELTIC STOCK OF LANGUAGES, AND THEIR RELATIONS TO THE ENGLISH. § 132. The languages of Great Britain at the invasion of Julius Cæsar were of the Celtic stock. Of the Celtic stock there are two branches. 1. The British or Cambrian branch, represented by the present Welsh, and containing, besides, the Cornish of Cornwall (lately extinct) and the Armorican of the French province of Brittany. It is almost certain that the old British, the ancient language of Gaul, and the Pictish were of this branch. 2. The Gaelic or Erse Branch, represented by the present Irish Gaelic, and containing, besides, the Gaelic of the Highlands of Scotland and the Manks of the Isle of Man. SPECIMENS. BRITISH. _The Lord's Prayer in Cornish._ _Old Cornish._ An Taz, ny es yn nêf, bethens thy hannow ughelles, gwrênz doz thy gulas ker: bethens thy voth gwrâz yn oar kepare hag yn nêf: ro thyn ny hithow agan peb dyth bara; gava thyn ny ny agan cam, kepare ha gava ny neb es cam ma erbyn ny; nyn homfrek ny en antel, mez gwyth ny the worth drok: rag gans te yn an mighterneth, and creveder, hag an' worryans, byz a venitha. _Modern Cornish._ Agan Taz, leb ez en nêv, benigas beth de hanno, gurra de gulasketh deaz, de voth beth gwrêz en' oar pokar en nêv; ro dony hithow agan pyb dyth bara; ha gava do ny agan cabmow, pokara ny gava an gy leb es cam mo war bidn ny; ha na dege ny en antail, brez gwitha ny dort droge; rag an mychteyrneth ew chee do honnen, ha an crêvder, ha an 'worryans, rag bisqueth ha bisqueth. {75} _Welsh_ (Cambrian). _Luke_ XV. 11. 19. _The Prodigal Son._ 11. Yr oedd gan ryw wr ddau fab: 12. A 'r jeuangaf o honynt a ddwedoddwrth _ei_ dâdd, Fy nhâd, dyro i mi y rhan a ddigwydd o 'r da. Ac efe a ranodd iddynt _ei_ fywyd. 13. Ac yn ôl ychydig ddyddiau y mâb jeuangaf a gasglodd y cwbl ynghyd, ac a gymmerth ei daith i wlâd bell; ac yno efe a wasgarodd ei dda, gan fyw yn affrallon. 14. Ac wedi iddo dreulio 'r cwbl, y cododd newyn mawr trwy 'r wlâd honno; ac yntef a ddechreuodd fod mewn eisiau. 15. Ac efe a aeth, ac a lynodd wrth un o ddinaswyr y wlâd honno; ac efe a 'i hanfonodd ef i 'w faefydd i borthi môch. 16. Ac efe a chwennychai lenwi ei fol â 'r cibaua fwytai 'r môch; ac ni roddodd neb iddo. 17. A phan ddaeth arto ei hur, efe addywedodd, Pa sawl gwâs cyflog o 'r eiddo fy nhâd sydd yn cael eu gwala a 'i gweddill o fara, a minnau yn marw o newyn! 18. Mi a godaf, ac a âf at fy nhâd, ac a ddwyedaf wrtho, Fy nhâd, pechais yn erbyn y nef, ac o'th flaen dithau. 19. Ac mwyach nid ydwyf deilwng i 'm galw yn fâb i ti: gwna si fel un o'th weision cyflog. _Armorican of Bas-Bretagne_ (Cambrian). THE SAME. 11. Eunn dén en doa daou vab. 12. Hag ar iaouanka anézhô a lavaraz d'he dâd.--Va zâd, ro d'in al lôden zanvez a zigouéz d'in. Hag hén a rannaz hé zanvez gant ho. 13. Hag eunn nébeûd dervésiou goudé, ar mâb iaounka, ô véza dastumet kémend en doa en em lékéaz enn hent évit mond étrézég eur vrô bell meûrbeá, hag énô é tispiñaz hé zanvez ô véva gant gadélez. 14. Ha pa en doé dispiñet kémend en doa, é c'hoarvézaz eunn naounégez vrâz er vrô-ze, hag é teûaz, da ézommékaat. 15. Kuîd éz éaz eta, hag en em lakaad a réaz é gópr gand eunn dén eûz ar vro. Hag hé man hen kasaz enn eunn ti d'ézhan war ar méaz, évit mesa ar môc'h. 16. C'hoantéed en divije leûña he góf gand ar c'hlosou a zebré ar môc'h: ha dén na rôé d'ézhan. 17. Hôgen ô veza distrôed d'ezhan hé unar, é lavaraz: a béd gôpraer zo é ti va zâd hag en deûz bara é leiz, ha mé a varv aman gand ann naoun! {76} 18. Sévet a rinn, hag éz inn étrézé va zad, hag é livirinn d'ezhan: Va zâd, pech 'ed em euz a eneb ann env hag enu da enep. 19. N'ounn két talvoudek pello 'ch da véza galved da vâb: Va zigémer ével unar euz da c'hôpraerien. GAELIC. _Irish Gaelic_ (Gaelic). THE SAME. 11. Do bhádar diás mac ag duine áirighe: 12. Agus a dubhairt an ti dob óige aca re _na_ athair, Athair, tabhair dhamh an chuid roitheas _misi_ dod mhaóin. Agus do roim seision a mhaoin eatorra. 13. Agus tar éis bheagáin aimsire ag cruinniughadh a choda uile don mhac dob óige, do chúaidh sé air coigcrigh a dtalamh imchian, agus do dhiombail se ann sin a mhaóin lé na bheathaidh báoth-chaithfigh. 14. Agus tar éis a choda uile do chaitheamh dho, deirigh gorta romhór ann sa tír sin; agus do thosaigh seision ar bheith a ríachdanus. 15. Agus do imthigh sé roimhe agus do cheangal sé e féin do cháthruightheoir don tír sin; noch do chuir fá na dhúichte a mach é do bhúachuilleachd muc. 16. Agus bá mhián leis a bholg do línoadh do na féithléoguibh do ithidís na muca: agus ní thugadh éunduine dhó íad. 17. Agus an tan do chuimhnigh sé air féin, a dubhairt sé, Gá mhéd do luchd tuarasdail matharsa aga bhfúil iomarcdid aráin, agus misi ag dul a múghd lé gorta! 18. Eíréochaidh mé agus rachaidh mé dionnsuighe mathair, agus deáruidh me ris; A athair! do pheacaid mé a naghaidh neimhe agusad fhíadhnuisisi. 19. Agus ní fiú mé feasda do mhacsa do ghairm dhoim: déana mé mar áon dod luchd thuarasduil. _Scotch Gaelic_ (Gaelic). THE SAME. 11. Bha aig duine àraidh dithis mhac: 12. Agus thubhairt _mac_ a b'òige dhiubh r' _a athair_, Athair, thoir dhomhsa chuid-roim a thig _orm_, do _d_ mhaoin. Agus roinn e eatorra a bheathacahadh. 13. Agus an déigh beagain do láithibh, chruinnich am mac a b'òige a chuid uile, agus ghabh e a thurus do dhùthaich fad air astar, agus an sin chaith e a mhaoin le beatha struidheasaich. 14. Agus an uair achaith e a _chuid_ uile, dh' éirich gorta ro mhòr san tír sin; agus thoisich e ri bhi ann an uireasbhuidh. 15. Agus chaidh e agus cheangail se e féin ri aon do shaor-dhaoinibh na dùcha sin: agus chuir ed' fhearan e, a bhiadhadh mhuc. {77} 16. Agus bu mhiann leis a bhrú a liònadh do na plaosgaibh a bha na mucan ag itheadh; oir cha d' thug neach air bith dha. 17. Agus un uair a thainig e chuige féin, thubhairt e, Cia lìon do luchd tuarasdail m'atharsa aig am bheil aran gu leoir agus r' a sheach-nadh, 'nuair a ta mise a' bàsachadh le gorta! 18. Eiridh me, agus théid omi dh' ionnsuidh m' athar, agus their mi ris athair, pheaeaich mi 'n aghaidh fhlaitheanais, agus a' d' là thairsa. 19. Agus cha 'n fhiu mi tuilleadh gu 'n goirte do mhacsa dhiom: deon mi mar aon do d' luchd tuarasdail. _Manks_ (Gaelic). THE SAME. 11. Va daa vac ec dooinney dy row: 12. As doort y fer saa rish e ayr; Ayr! cur dooys yh ayrn dy chooid ta my chour. As rheynn eh e chooid orroo. 13. As laghyn ny lurg shen, hymsee yn mac saa ooilley cooidjagh as ghow eh jurnah gys cheer foddey, as ayns shen hug he jummal er e chooid liorish baghey rouanagh. 14. As tra va ooilley baarit eihey, dirree genney vooar ayns y cheer shen; as ren eh toshiaght dy ve ayns feme. 15. As hie eh as daill eh eh-hene rish cummaltagh jeh'n cheer shen; as hug eshyn eh magh gys ny magheryn echey dy ve son bochilley muickey. 16. As by-vian lesh e volg y lhieeney lesh ny bleaystyn va ny muckyn dy ee: as cha row dooinney erbee hug eooney da. 17. As tra v'eh er jeet huggey hene, dooyrt eh, Nagh nhimmey sharvaant failt t'ee my ayr ta nyn saie arran oe, as fooilliagh, as ta mish goll mow laecal beaghey! 18. Trog-ym orrym, as hem roym gys my ayr, as jir-ym rish, Ayr! ta mee er n'yannoo peecah noi niau, as kiongoyrt rhyt's. 19. As cha vel mee ny-sodjey feeu dy ve enmyssit dty vac: dell rhym myr rish fer jeh dty harvaantyr failt. § 133. Taken altogether the Celtic tongues form a very remarkable class. As compared with those of the Gothic stock they are marked by the following characteristics-- _The scantiness of the declension of Celtic nouns._--In Irish there is a peculiar form for the dative plural, as _cos_=_foot_, _cos-aibh_=_to feet_ (ped-_ibus_); and beyond this there is nothing else whatever in the way of _case_, as found in the German, Latin, Greek, and other tongues. Even the isolated form in question is not found in the Welsh and Breton. Hence {78} the Celtic tongues are preeminently uninflected in the way of _declension_. § 134.--2. _The agglutinate character of their verbal inflections._--In Welsh the pronouns for _we_, _ye_, and _they_, are _ni_, _chwyi_, and _hwynt_ respectively. In Welsh also the root=_love_ is _car_. As conjugated in the plural number this is-- car-_wn_ = am-_amus_. car-_ych_ = am-_atis_. car-_ant_ = am-_ant_. Now the _-wn_, _-ych_, and _-ant_, of the persons of the verbs are the personal pronouns, so that the inflection is really a verb and a pronoun in a state of _agglutination_; _i. e._, in a state where the original separate existence of the two sorts of words is still manifest. This is probably the case with languages in general. The Celtic, however, has the peculiarity of exhibiting it in an unmistakable manner; showing, as it were, an inflexion in the process of formation, and (as such) exhibiting an early stage of language. § 135. _The system of initial mutations._--The Celtic, as has been seen, is deficient in the ordinary means of expressing case. How does it make up for this? Even thus. The noun changes its initial letter according to its relation to the other words of the sentence. Of course this is subject to rule. As, however, I am only writing for the sake of illustrating in a general way the peculiarities of the Celtic tongues, the following table, from Prichard's Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations, is sufficient. Câr, _a kinsman_. 1. _form_, Câr agos, _a near kinsman_. 2. Ei gâr, _his kinsman_. 3. Ei châr, _her kinsman_. 4. Vy nghâr, _my kinsman_. Tâd, _a father_. 1. _form_, Tâd y plentyn, _the child's father_. 2. Ei dâd, _his father_. 3. Ei thâd, _her father_. 4. Vy nhâd, _my father_. Pen, _a head_. 1. _form_, Pen gwr, _the head of a man_. 2. Ei ben, _his head_. 3. Ei phen, _her head_. 4. Vy mhen, _my head_. Gwâs, _a servant_. 1. _form_, Gwâs fydhlon, _a faithful servant_. 2. Ei wâs, _his servant_. {79} 3. Vy ngwas, _my servant_. Duw, _a god_. 1. _form_, Duw trugarog, _a merciful god_. 2. Ei dhuw, _his god_. 3. Vy nuw, _my god_. Bara, _bread_. 1. _form_, Bara cann, _white bread_. 2. Ei vara, _his bread_. 3. Vy mara, _my bread_. Lhaw, _a hand_. 1. _form_, Lhaw wenn, _a white hand_. 2. Ei law, _his hand_. Mam, _a mother_. 1. _form_, Mam dirion, _a tender mother_. 2. Eivam, _his mother_. Rhwyd, _a net_. 1. _form_, Rhwyd lawn, _a full net_. 2. Ei rwyd, _his net_. From the Erse. Súil, _an eye_. 1. _form_, Súil. 2. A húil, _his eye_. Sláinte, _health_. 2. _form_, Do hláinte, _your health_. § 136. When we have seen that one of the great characteristics of the Celtic tongues is to express inflection by initial changes, we may ask how far the principle of such change is common to the two branches--British or Gaelic; this and a few other details being quite sufficient to show the affinity between them. _Inflections formed by Changes of Initial Consonants._ The changes in Welsh, classified according to the relationship of the sounds are-- 1. From the sharp lenes to the corresponding flats; as _p_ to _b_, _t_ to _d_, _c_ to _g_. The changes in Irish are the same. 2. From the flat lenes to their corresponding so-called aspirates; as _b_ to _v_, _d_ to _ð_. This is the change in Welsh. In Irish we have the same, but only as far as _b_ is concerned; the aspirate of _d_ (_ð_) being wanting in that language. In neither Welsh nor Irish occurs the true aspirate of _g_. In neither Welsh nor Irish occurs the true aspirate of _c_; which, being wanting, is replaced by the sound of the _ch_ in the German _auch_, here spelt _ç_. Now the Welsh grammarians deal with the changes from sharp to flat, and from lene to aspirate, alike; since, in respect to the grammar of their language, they are enabled to state that they take place under the same circumstances. {80} Taken collectively they are called light: and words wherein _p_ is changed to _b_, and those wherein _b_ is changed to _v_, are equally said to assume the light sound. This the Welsh express in spelling, and write _ben_ for _pen_, and _vraint_ for _braint_, &c. In Irish the arrangement is different. When a so-called aspirate is substituted for a lene, the word is said to take an aspiration, and _bheul_ is written _beul_. If, however, the sharp be made flat, the original sound is said to be eclipsed. In spelling, however, it is preserved; so that _teine_, with the _t_ changed, is written _dteine_, and pronounced _deine_. With this view we can now ask how far the change from _p_ to _b_, _t_ to _d_, _c_ to _g_, _b_ to _v_, _c_ to _ç_, takes place in Irish and Welsh under similar circumstances. In _Welsh_--after all verbs, except those of the infinitive mood; as _caravi gaer_ (for _caer_)=_I love a fort_. In _Irish_--after all verbs, provided that the substantive be masculine; as _ta me ag gearrad çrainn_=_I am cutting (at to cut) a tree_. Here _çrainn_ comes from _crainn_. This change in Irish extends only to the change from lene to aspirate. In _Welsh_--after the possessive pronouns _thy_, _thine_, _his_, _its_, _mine_ (but not _my_); as _dy vâr_ (for _bâr_)=_thy wrath_; _ei vraint_ (from _braint_)=_his privilege_. _N. B._ Although the same word (_ei_) means _her_, _his_, and _its_, it induces the light change only when it is either masculine or neuter. In _Irish_--after the possessive pronouns _my_, _thy_, and _his_. Here the change is of the first sort only, or an aspiration; as _mo vàs_ (_bàs_)=_my death_; _do ços_ (_cos_)=_thy foot_; _çeann_ (_ceann_)=_his head_. _N. B._ Although the same word (_a_) means _her_, _his_, and _its_, it induces the aspirate only when it is either masculine or neuter. In _Welsh_--the initials of adjectives become light when their substantive is feminine. In _Irish_--the initials of adjectives singular, aspirated in the oblique cases only of the masculine, are aspirated throughout in the feminine. In _Welsh_--after certain adverbs called formative, used like the English words _to_, _as_, &c., in the formation of the degrees of nouns, and the moods of verbs (in other words, {81} after certain particles), initial sounds become light; as _rhy vyçan_ (_byçan_)=_very_ (_over_) _little_; _ni çarav_ (_carav_)=_I do not love_. In _Irish_--the same, in respect to the change from lene to aspirate; _ro veag_=_very little_; _ni vualim_ (_bualim_)=_I do not beat_; _do vuaileas_=_I struck_, &c. In _Welsh_--initials are light after all prepositions except _in_ and _towards_. In _Irish_--the prepositions either eclipse the noun that they govern or else aspirate it. A Welsh grammarian would say that it made them light. In _Welsh_--initials of feminines become light after the Articles. In _Irish_--masculines are aspirated in the genitive and dative singular; feminines in the nominative and dative. _N.B._ The difference here is less than it appears to be. The masculine dative is changed, not as a masculine, but by the effect of the particle _do_, the sign of the dative; the genitive, perhaps, is changed _ob differentiam_. This being the fact, the nominative is the only case that is changed _as such_. Now this is done with the feminines only. The inflection explains this. _Masc._ _Fem._ _Nom._ an crann=_the tree_. _Nom._ an ços=_the foot_. _Gen._ an çrainn. _Gen._ an cos. _Dat._ don çrann. _Dat._ don ços. _Acc._ an crainn. _Acc._ an cos. Such the changes from sharp to flat, and from lene to aspirate. The second order of changes is remarkable, _viz._ from the mutes to their corresponding liquids, and, in the case of series _k_, to _ng_. This, in Welsh, is as follows:-- _Sharp._ _Flat._ _p_ to [19]_m=h_. _b_ to _m_. _t_ to [19]_n=h_. _d_ to _n_. _k_ to _ng=h_. _g_ to _ng_. _e.g._, _nheyrnas_ for _teyrnas_, _ngherð_ for _cerð_, _nuw_ for _duw_, &c. {82} In Irish the combinations _m_ + _h_, _n_ + _h_, _ng_ + _h_ are wanting: _t_, however, under certain conditions, becomes _h_, as _mo high_ (_tigh_)=_my house_. With the unaspirated liquids the change, however, coincides with that of the Welsh--_ar maile_ (spelt _mbaile_)=_our town_; _ar nia_ (spelt _ndia_)=_our God_; _ar ngearran_=_our complaint_. These words come respectively from _baile_, _dia_, _gearran_. To show that this change takes place in Irish and Welsh under similar circumstances is more than can be expected; since _ð_ being wanting in Irish, leaves _d_ to be changed into _n_. _Inflections formed by changes in the middle of words_. _Plurals from Singulars_. _Welsh._ _Irish._ _Singular._ _Plural._ _Singular._ _Plural._ Aber = _a conflux_; ebyr. Ball = _a spot_; baill. Barð = _a bard_; beirð. Cnoc = _a hill_; cnoic. Bràn = _a crow_; brain. Poll = _a pit_; poil. Fon = _a staff_; fyn Fonn = _a tune_; foinn. Maen = _a stone_; mein. Crann = _a tree_; crainn. Gûr = _a man_; gûyr. Fear = _a man_; fir. &c. &c. _Inflections formed by addition._ _Plural forms._--When not expressed by a change of vowel, _-d_ (or an allied sound) both in Welsh and Irish has a plural power; as _merç_, _merçed_; _hyð_, _hyðoð_; _teyrn_, _teyrneð_=_girls_, _stags_, _kings_; Welsh:--_gealaç_, _gealaçad_; _sgolog_, _sgolagad_; _uiseog_, _uiseogad_=_moons_, _farmers_, _larks_; Irish. In each language there are plural forms in _-d_. Also in _-n_, as _dyn_=_a person_, _dynion_=_persons_. In Irish there is the form _cu_=_a greyhound_; Plural _cuin_. It may be doubted, however, whether _-n_ is not ejected in the singular rather than added in the plural. Also in _-au_, Welsh (as _pén-au_=_heads_), and in _-a_, Irish (as _cos-a_=_feet_). In each language there is, in respect to both case and {83} gender, an equal paucity of inflections. The Irish, however, preserves the Indo-European dative plural in _b_; as _ços-aiv_=ped-_ibus_. The ordinals in Welsh are expressed by _-ved_; as _saiþ_=_seven_, _seiþved_=_seventh_. The ordinals in Irish are expressed by _-vad_, as _seaçt_=_seven_, _seaçt-vad_=_seventh_ (spelt _seachmhadh_). The terminations _-n_ and _-g_ are diminutive in Welsh; as _dyn-yn_=_mannikin_, _oen-ig_=_lambkin_. They have the same power in Irish; as _cnoc-an_=_a hillock_; _duil-eog_=_a leaflet_. In Irish, currently spoken, there is no inflection for the comparative degrees;--there is, however, an obsolete form in _-d_, as _glass_, _glaiside_=_green_, _greener_. In Welsh the true comparative ends in _ç_, as _main_=_slender_, _mainaç_=_more slender_. A form, however, exists in _-ed_, meaning equality, and so implying comparison, _viz._, _mein-ed_=_so slender_. As expressive of an agent, the termination _-r_ is common to both languages. Welsh, _mor-ûr_=_a seaman_; _telynaur_=_a harpist_; Irish, _sealg-aire_=_a hunter_; _figead-oir_=_a weaver_. As expressive of "abounding in," the termination _-c_ (or _-g_) is common in both languages. Welsh, _boliûag_=_abounding in belly_; _toirteaç_=_abounding in fruit_. In each language a sound of series _t_, is equivalent to the English _-ly_. Welsh, _mab-aið_=_boy-like_. Irish, _duin-eata_=_manly_. Of the personal terminations it may be said, that those of both the Irish and Welsh are those of the other European tongues, and that they coincide and differ in the same way with those of the Gothic stock: the form in _m_ being the one more constant. For the theory of the personal terminations, the reader is referred to the Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations, by Dr. Prichard. The present notices being indicative of grammatical affinities only, the glossarial points of likeness between the Welsh and Irish are omitted. § 137. The Celtic tongues have lately received especial illustration from the researches of Mr. Garnett. Amongst other, the two following points are particularly investigated by him:-- {84} 1. The affinities of the ancient language of Gaul. 2. The affinities of the Pictish language or dialect. § 138. _The ancient language of Gaul Cambrian._--The evidence in favour of the ancient language of Gaul being Cambrian rather than Gaelic, lies in the following facts:-- The old Gallic glosses are more Welsh than Gaelic. _a._ _Petorritum_=_a four-wheeled carriage_, from the Welsh, _peaer_=_four_, and _rhod_=_a wheel_. The Gaelic for _four_ is _ceathair_, and the Gaelic compound would have been different. _b._ _Pempedula_, the _cinque-foil_, from the Welsh _pump_=_five_, and _dalen_=_a leaf_. The Gaelic for _five_ is _cuig_, and the Gaelic compound would have been different. _c._ _Candetum_=a measure of 100 feet, from the Welsh _cant_=100. The Gaelic for _a hundred_ is _cead_, and the Gaelic compound would have been different. d. _Epona_=_the goddess of horses_. In the Old Armorican the root _ep_=_horse_. The Gaelic for a horse is _each_. _e._ The evidence from the names of geographical localities in Gaul, both ancient and modern, goes the same way: _Nantuates_, _Nantouin_, _Nanteuil_, are derived from the Welsh _nant_=_a valley_, a word unknown in Gaelic. _f._ The evidence of certain French provincial words, which are Welsh and Armorican rather than Erse or Gaelic. _g._ An inscription on an ancient Celtic tablet found at Paris, A.D. 1711, and representing a bull and three birds (cranes), is TARWOS TRI GARANOS. Now, for the first two names, the Gaelic affords as good an explanation as the Welsh; the third, however, is best explained by the Welsh. _Bull_ = _tarw_, Welsh; _tarbh_, Gaelic. _Three_ = _tri_, Welsh; _tre_, Gaelic. _Crane_ = _garan_, Welsh; _corr_, Gaelic. § 139. _The Pictish most probably Cambrian._--The evidence in favour of the Pictish being Cambrian rather than Gaelic lies in the following facts:-- _a._ When St. Columba preached, whose mother-tongue was Irish Gaelic, he used an interpreter--_Adamnanus apud {85} Colgarum_, 1, 11, c.32. This is a point of external evidence, and shows the _difference_ between the Pict and Gaelic. What follows are points of internal evidence, and show the affinity between the Pict and Welsh. _b._ A manuscript in the Colbertine library contains a list of Pictish kings from the fifth century downwards. These names are not only more Celtic than Gothic, but more Welsh than Gaelic. _Taran_=_thunder_ in Welsh. _Uven_ is the Welsh _Owen_. The first syllable in _Talorg_ (=_forehead_) is the _tal_ in _Talhaiarn_=_iron forehead_, _Taliessin_=_splendid forehead_, Welsh names. _Wrgust_ is nearer to the Welsh _Gwrgust_ than to the Irish _Fergus_. Finally, _Drust_, _Drostan_, _Wrad_, _Necton_, closely resemble the Welsh _Trwst_, _Trwstan_, _Gwriad_, _Nwython_. _Cineod_ and _Domhnall_ (_Kenneth_ and _Donnell_), are the only true Erse forms in the list. _c._ The only Pictish common name extant is the well-known compound _pen val_, which is in the oldest MS. of Bede _peann fahel_. This means _caput valli_, and is the name for the eastern termination of the Vallum of Antoninus. Herein _pen_ is unequivocally Welsh, meaning _head_. It is an impossible form in Gaelic. _Fal_, on the other hand, is apparently Gaelic, the Welsh for a _rampart_ being _gwall_. _Fal_, however, occurs in Welsh also, and means _inclosure_. The evidence just indicated is rendered nearly conclusive by an interpolation, apparently of the twelfth century, of the Durham MS. of Nennius, whereby it is stated that the spot in question was called in Gaelic _Cenail_. Now Cenail is the modern name _Kinneil_, and it is also a Gaelic translation of the Pict _pen val_, since _cean_ is the Gaelic for _head_, and _fhail_ for _rampart_ or _wall_. If the older form were Gaelic, the substitution, or translation, would have been superfluous. d. The name of the _Ochil Hills_ in Perthshire is better explained from the Pict _uchel_=_high_, than from the Gaelic _uasal_. _e._ Bryneich, the British form of the province Bernicia, is better explained by the Welsh _bryn_=_ridge_ (_hilly country_), than by any word in Gaelic.--Garnett, in _Transactions of Philological Society_. * * * * * {86} CHAPTER VII. THE ANGLO-NORMAN, AND THE LANGUAGES OF THE CLASSICAL STOCK. § 140. The languages of Greece and Rome belong to one and the same stock. The Greek and its dialects, both ancient and modern, constitute the Greek or Hellenic branch of the Classical stock. The Latin in all its dialects, the old Italian languages allied to it, and the modern tongues derived from the Roman, constitute the Latin or Ausonian branch of the Classical stock. Now, although the Greek or Hellenic dialects are of secondary importance in the illustration of the history of the English language, the Latin or Ausonian elements require a special consideration. The French element appeared in our language as a result of the battle of Hastings (A.D. 1066), _perhaps, in a slight degree, at a somewhat earlier period_. § 141. Previous to the notice of the immediate relations of the Norman-French, or, as it was called after its introduction into England, Anglo-Norman, its position in respect to the other languages derived from the Latin may be exhibited. The Latin language overspread the greater part of the Roman empire. It supplanted a multiplicity of aboriginal languages; just as the English of North America _has_ supplanted the aboriginal tongues of the native Indians, and just as the Russian _is_ supplanting those of Siberia and Kamskatcha. Sometimes the war that the Romans carried on against the old inhabitants was a war of extermination. In this case the original language was superseded _at once_. In other cases their influence was introduced gradually. In this case the influence of the original language was greater and more permanent. {87} Just as in the United States the English came in contact with an American, whilst in New Holland it comes in contact with an Australian language, so was the Latin language of Rome engrafted, sometimes on a Celtic, sometimes on a Gothic, and sometimes on some other stock. The nature of the original language must always be borne in mind. From Italy, its original seat, the Latin was extended in the following chronological order:-- 1. To the Spanish Peninsula; where it overlaid or was engrafted on languages allied to the present Biscayan (_i.e._, languages of the Iberic stock), mixed in a degree (scarcely determinable) with Celtic elements=Celtiberic. 2. To Gaul, or France, where it overlaid or was engrafted on languages of the Celtic stock. This took place, at least for the more extreme parts of Gaul, in the time of Julius Cæsar; for the more contiguous parts, in the earlier ages of the Republic. 3. To Dacia and Pannonia; where it overlaid or was engrafted on a language the stock whereof is undetermined. The introduction of the Latin into Dacia and Pannonia took place in the time of Trajan. From (1stly,) the original Latin of Italy, and from the imported Latin, of (2ndly,) the Spanish Peninsula, (3rdly,) Gaul, (4thly,) Dacia and Pannonia, we have (amongst others) the following modern languages--1st Italian, 2nd Spanish and Portuguese, 3rd French, 4th Wallachian. How far these languages differ from each other is currently known. _One_ essential cause of this difference is the difference of the original language upon which the Latin was engrafted. § 142. I am not doing too much for the sake of system if I classify the languages, of which the Italian, French, &c., are the representatives, as the languages of Germany were classified, _viz._, into divisions. I. The Spanish and Portuguese are sufficiently like the Italian to be arranged in a single division. This may conveniently be called the Hesperian division. II. The second division is the Transalpine. This comprises the languages of Gaul, _viz._, the Modern French, the {88} Anglo-Norman, and the Provençal. It also includes a language not yet mentioned, the Romanese (_Rumonsch_), or the language of the Grisons, or Graubünten, of Switzerland. _Specimen of the Romanese_. _Luke_ XV. 11. 11. Ün Hum veva dus Filgs: 12. Ad ilg juven da quels schet alg Bab, "Bab mi dai la Part de la Rauba c' aud' à mi:" ad el parchè or ad els la Rauba. 13. A bucca bears Gis suenter, cur ilg Filg juven vet tut mess ansemel, scha tilà 'l navent en ünna Terra dalunsch: a lou sfiget el tut sia Rauba cun viver senza spargn. 14. A cur el vet tut sfaig, scha vangit ei en quella Terra ün grond Fumaz: ad el antschavet a ver basengs. 15. Ad el mà, à: sa plidè enn ün Burgeis da quella Terra; a quel ilg tarmatet or sin sês Beins a parchirar ils Porcs. 16. Ad el grigiava dad amplanir sieu Venter cun las Criscas ch' ils Porcs malgiavan; mo nagin lgi deva. 17. Mo el mà en sasez a schet: "Quonts Fumelgs da mieu Bab han budonza da Pann, a jou miei d' fom!" 18. "Jou vi lavar si, ad ir tier mieu Bab, e vi gir a lgi: 'Bab, jou hai faig puccau ancunter ilg Tschiel ad avont tei; 19. "'A sunt bucca pli vangonts da vangir numnaus tieu Filg: fai mei esser sco ün da tes Fumelgs.'" III. The third division is the Dacian, Pannonian, or Wallachian, containing the present languages of Wallachia and Moldavia. In the _Jahrbücher der Literatur_, June, 1829, specimens are given of two of its dialects: 1, the Daco-Wallachian, north of the Danube; 2, the Macedono-Wallachian, south of the Danube. The present specimen varies from both. It is taken from the New Testament, printed at Smyrna, 1838. The Dacian division is marked by placing the article after the noun, as _homul_=_the man_=_homo ille_. _Luke_ XV. 11. 11. Un om avea do[)i] fec´or[)i]. 12. Shi a zis c´el ma[)i] tinr din e[)i] tatlu[)i] su: tat, dm[)i] partea c´e mi se kade de avucie: shi de a imprcit lor avuciea. 13. Shi nu dup multe zile, adunint toate fec orul c´el ma[)i] tinr, s'a dus intr 'o car departe, shi akolo a rsipit toat avuciea ca, viecuind intr dezm[)i]erdr[)i]. {89} 14. Shi keltuind el toate, c'a fkut foamete mare intr' ac´ea car: shi el a inc´eput a se lipsi. 15. Shi mergina c'a lipit de unul din lkuitori[)i] cri[)i] ac´eia: si 'l a trimis pre el la carinide sale c pask porc´i[)i]. 16. Shi doria c 'sh[)i] sature pinctec´ele s[)u] de roshkobele c´e minka porc´i[)i]; shi nimin[)i] nu [)i] da lu[)i]. 17. Iar viind intru sine, a zis: kic[)i] argac[)i] a[)i] tatlu[)i] mie[)u] sint indestulac[)i] de pi[)i]ne, iar e[)u] p[)i]ei[)u] de foame. 18. Skula-m-vio[)u], shi m' voi[)u] duc´e la tata mic[)u], shi vio[)u] zic´e lui: 19. Tat, greshit-am la c´er shi inaintea ta, shi nu mai sint vrednik a m kema fiul t[)u]; fm ka pre unul din argaci[)i] t[)i]. § 143. Such is the _general_ view of the languages derived from the Latin, _i.e._, of the languages of the Latin branch of the Classical stock. The French languages of the Transalpine division require to be more minutely exhibited. Between the provincial French of the north and the provincial French of the south, there is a difference, at the present day, at least of dialect, and perhaps of language. This is shown by the following specimens: the first from the canton of Arras, on the confines of Flanders; the second, from the department of Var, in Provence. The date of each is A.D. 1807. I. _Luke_ XV. 11. 11. Ain homme avoüait deeux garchéons. 12. L'pus jone dit a sain père, "Main père, baillé m'chou qui doüo me 'r'v'nir ed vous bien," et leu père leu partit sain bien. 13. Ain n'sais yur, tro, quate, chéon jours après l'pus tiò d'cnés déeux éféans oyant r'cuéllé tout s'n' héritt'main, s'ot' ainvoye dains nâin pahis gramain loüon, dû qu'il échilla tout s'n' argint ain fageant l'braingand dains chés cabarets. 14. Abord qu'il o eu tout bu, tout mié et tout drélé, il o v'nu adonc dains ch' pahis lo ainn' famaine cruüelle, et i c'mainchouait d'avoir fon-ye d' pon-ye (_i.e_. faim de pain). II. THE SAME. 11. Un homé avié dous enfans. 12. Lou plus pichoun diguét a son päiré, "Moun päiré, dounas mi ce què {90} mi reven de vouastré ben;" lou päiré faguet lou partagé de tout ce que poussédavo. 13. Paou de jours après, lou pichoun vendét tout se què soun päiré li avié desamparat, et s'en anét dins un päis fourço luench, ounté dissipét tout soun ben en debaucho. 14. Quand aguét ton aecaba, uno grosso famino arribet dins aqueou päis et, leou, si veguét reduech à la derniero misèro. Practically speaking, although in the central parts of France the northern and southern dialects melt each into the other, the Loire may be considered as a line of demarcation between two languages; the term language being employed because, in the Middle Ages, whatever may be their real difference, the northern tongue and the southern tongue were dealt with not as separate dialects, but as distinct languages--the southern being called Provençal, the northern Norman-French. Of these two languages (for so they will in the following pages be called, for the sake of convenience) the southern or Provençal approaches the dialects of Spain; the Valencian of Spain and the Catalonian of Spain being Provençal rather than standard Spanish or Castilian. The southern French is sometimes called the Langue d'Oc, and sometimes the Limousin. It is in the Southern French (Provençal, Langue d'Oc, or Limousin) that we have the following specimen, _viz_., the Oath of Ludwig, sworn A.D. 842. _The Oath of the King._ Pro Deo amur et pro Xristian poblo et nostro commun salvament, d'ist di en avant, in quant Deus savir et podir me dunat, si salvarai eo cist meon fradre Karlo, et in ajudha et in cadhuna cosa, si cum om per dreit son fradra salvar dist, in o quid il mi altresi fazet: et ab Ludher nul plaid nunquam prindrai qui, meon vol, cist meon fradre Karle in damno sit. _The Oath of the People._ Si Loduuigs sagrament, que son fradre Karlo jurat, conservat; et Karlus, meos sendra, de suo part non lo stanit; si io returnar non l'int pois, ne io, ne neuls cui eo returnar int pois, in nulla ajudha contra Lodhuwig num li iver. _The same in Modern French._ Pour de Dieu l'amour et pour du Chrêtien peuple et le notre commun salut, de ce jour en avant, en quant que Dieu savoir et pouvoir me donne {91} assurément sauverai moi ce mon frère Charles, et en aide, et en chacune chose, ainsi comme homme par droit son frère sauver doit, en cela que lui à moi pareillement fera: et avec Lothaire nul traité ne onques prendrai qui, à mon vouloir, à ce mien frère Charles en dommage soit. * * * * * Si Louis le serment, qu'à son frère Charles il jure, conserve; Charles, mon seigneur, de sa part ne le maintient; si je détourner ne l'en puis, ni moi, ne nul que je détourner en puis, en nulle aide contre Louis ne lui irai. § 144. The Norman-French, spoken from the Loire to the confines of Flanders, and called also the Langue d'Oyl, differed from the Provençal in (amongst others) the following circumstances. 1. It was of later origin; the southern parts of Gaul having been colonized at an early period by the Romans. 2. It was in geographical contact, not with the allied languages of Spain, but with the Gothic tongues of Germany and Holland. It is the Norman-French that most especially bears upon the history of the English language. The proportion of the original Celtic in the present languages of France has still to be determined. It may, however, be safely asserted, that at a certain epoch between the first and fifth centuries, the language of Gaul was more Roman and less Celtic than that of Britain. SPECIMEN. _From the Anglo-Norman Poem of Charlemagne._ Un jur fu Karléun al Seint-Denis muster, Reout prise sa corune, en croiz seignat sun chef, E ad ceinte sa espée: li pons fud d'or mer. Dux i out e demeines e baruns e chevalers. Li emperères reguardet la reine sa muillers. Ele fut ben corunée al plus bel e as meuz. Il la prist par le poin desuz un oliver, De sa pleine parole la prist à reisuner: "Dame, véistes unkes humc nul de desuz ceil Tant ben séist espée ne la corone el chef? Uncore cunquerrei-jo citez ot mun espeez." Cele ne fud pas sage, folement respondeit: {92} "Emperere," dist-ele, trop vus poez preiser. "Uncore en sa-jo on ki plus se fait léger, Quant il porte corune entre ses chevalers; Kaunt il met sur sa teste, plus belement lui set." In the northern French we must recognise not only a Celtic and a Classical, but also a Gothic element: since Clovis and Charlemagne were no Frenchmen, but Germans; their language being _High_-Germanic. The High-Germanic element in French has still to be determined. In the northern French of _Normandy_ there is a second Gothic element, _viz._, a Scandinavian element. By this the proper northern French underwent a further modification. Until the time of the Scandinavians or Northmen, the present province of Normandy was called Neustria. A generation before the Norman Conquest, a Norwegian captain, named in his own country _Rolf_, and in France _Rollo_, or _Rou_, settled upon the coast of Normandy. What Hengist and the Germans are supposed to have been in Britain, Rollo and his Scandinavians were in France. The province took from them its name of Normandy. The _Norwegian_ element in the Norman-French has yet to be determined. Respecting it, however, the following statements may, even in the present state of the question, be made:-- 1. That a Norse dialect was spoken in Normandy at Bayeux, some time after the battle of Hastings. 2. That William the Conqueror understood the Norse language. 3. That the names Jersey, Guernsey, and Alderney are as truly Norse names as Orkney and Shetland. * * * * * {93} CHAPTER VIII. THE POSITION OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AS INDO-EUROPEAN. § 145. In each of the three preceding chapters a separate stock of languages has been considered; and it has been shown, in some degree, how far languages of the same stock differ from, or agree with, each other. Furthermore, in each stock there has been some particular language that especially illustrates the English. In the Gothic stock there has been the Anglo-Saxon; in the Celtic the Welsh; and in the Classical the Anglo-Norman. Nevertheless, the importance of the languages of these three divisions is by no means equal. The Gothic tongues supply the basis of our investigations. The Celtic afford a few remnants of that language which the Anglo-Saxon superseded. The Anglo-Norman language exhibits certain superadded elements. § 146. Over and above the Gothic, Celtic, and Classical languages, there are others that illustrate the English; and some of our commonest grammatical inflections can be but half understood unless we go beyond the groups already enumerated. The Gothic, Celtic (?),[20] and Classical stocks are but subordinate divisions of a wider class. Each has a sufficient amount of mutual affinities to be illustrative of each other, and each is contained, along with two other groups of equal value, under a higher denomination in philology. What is the nature of that affinity which connects languages so different as the Gothic, Celtic (?), and Classical stocks? or what is the amount of likeness between, _e.g._, the {94} German and Portuguese, the Greek and Islandic, the Latin and Swedish, the Anglo-Saxon and Italian? And what other languages are so connected? What other philological groups are connected with each other, and with the languages already noticed, by the same affinities which connect the Gothic, Celtic (?), and Classical stocks? Whatever these languages may be, it is nearly certain that they will be necessary, on some point or other, for the full illustration of the English. As both these questions are points of general, rather than of English, philology, and as a partial answer may be got to the first from attention to the degree in which the body of the present work exhibits illustrations drawn from widely different languages, the following statements are considered sufficient. § 147. The philological denomination of the class which contains the Gothic, Celtic (?), and Classical divisions, and, along with the languages contained therein, all others similarly allied, is _Indo-European_; so that the Gothic, Celtic (?), Classical and certain other languages are Indo-European. All Indo-European languages illustrate each other. The other divisions of the great Indo-European group of languages are as follows:-- 1. The Iranian stock of languages.--This contains the proper Persian languages of Persia (Iran) in all their stages, the Kurd language, and all the languages of Asia (whatever they may be) derived from the Zend or Sanskrit. 2. The Sarmatian stock of languages.--This contains the languages of Russia, Poland, Bohemia, and of the Slavonian tribes in general. It contains also the Lithuanic languages, _i.e._, the Lithuanic of Lithuania, the old Prussian of Prussia (now extinct), and the Lettish or Livonic of Courland and Livonia. 3, 4, 5. The Classical, Gothic, and Celtic (?) stocks complete the catalogue of languages undoubtedly Indo-European, and at the same time they explain the import of the term. Indo-European is the name of a class which embraces the majority of the languages of _Europe_, and is extended over {95} Asia as far as _India._ Until the Celtic was shown by Dr. Prichard to have certain affinities with the Latin, Greek, Slavonic, Lithuanic, Gothic, Sanskrit, and Zend, as those tongues had with each other, the class in question was called Indo-_Germanic_; since, up to that time, the Germanic languages had formed its western limit. * * * * * § 148. _Meaning of the note of interrogation (?) after the word Celtic._--In a paper read before the Ethnological Society, February 28th, 1849, and published in the Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine, the present writer has given reasons for considering the claims of the Celtic to be Indo-European as somewhat doubtful; at the same time he admits, and highly values, all the facts in favour of its being so, which are to be found in Prichard's Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations. He believes, however, that the Celtic can only be brought in the same group with the Gothic, Slavonic, &c., by _extending_ the value of the class. "To draw an illustration from the common ties of relationship, as between man and man, it is clear that a family may be enlarged in two ways. "_a._ A brother, or a cousin, may be discovered, of which the existence was previously unknown. Herein the family is enlarged, or increased, by the _real_ addition of a new member, in a recognised degree of relationship. "_b._ A degree of relationship previously unrecognised may be recognised, _i.e._, a family wherein it was previously considered that a second-cousinship was as much as could be admitted within its pale, may incorporate third, fourth, or fifth cousins. Here the family is enlarged, or increased, by a _verbal_ extension of the term. "Now it is believed that the distinction between increase by the way of real addition, and increase by the way of verbal extension, has not been sufficiently attended to. Yet, that it should be more closely attended to, is evident; since, in mistaking a verbal increase for a real one, the whole end and aim of classification is overlooked. The publication of Dr. Prichard's Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations, in 1831, {96} supplied philologists with the most definite addition that has perhaps, yet been made to ethnographical philology. "Ever since then the Celtic has been considered to be Indo-European. Indeed its position in the same group with the Iranian, Classical, Slavono-Lithuanic, and Gothic tongues, supplied the reason for substituting the term Indo-_European_ for the previous one Indo-_Germanic_. "On the other hand, it seems necessary to admit that _languages are allied just in proportion as they were separated from the mother-tongue in the same stage of its development_. "If so, the Celtic became detached anterior _to the evolution of the declension of nouns_, whereas the Gothic, Slavonic, Classical and Iranian languages all separated _subsequent to that stage_."[21] This, along with other reasons indicated elsewhere,[22] induces the present writer to admit an affinity between the Celtic and the other so-called Indo-European tongues, but to deny that it is the same affinity which connects the Iranian, Classical, Gothic and Slavonic groups. * * * * * {97} PART II. HISTORY AND ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. -------- CHAPTER I. HISTORICAL AND LOGICAL ELEMENTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. § 149. The Celtic elements of the present English fall into five classes. 1. Those that are of late introduction, and cannot be called original and constituent parts of the language. Such are (amongst others) the words _flannel_, _crowd_ (a fiddle), from the Cambrian; and _kerne_ (an Irish foot-soldier), _galore_ (enough), _tartan_, _plaid_, &c., from the Gaelic branch. 2. Those that are common to both the Celtic and Gothic stocks, and are Indo-European rather than either Welsh, or Gaelic, or Saxon. Such (amongst others) are _brother_, _mother_, in Celtic _brathair_, _mathair_; the numerals, &c. 3. Those that have come to us from the Celtic, but have come to us through the medium of another language. Such are _druid_ and _bard_, whose _immediate_ source is, not the Celtic but, the Latin. 4. Celtic elements of the Anglo-Norman, introduced into England after the Conquest, and occurring in that language as remains of the original Celtic of Gaul. 5. Those that have been retained from the original Celtic of the island, and which form genuine constituents of our language. These fall into three subdivisions. _a._ Proper names--generally of geographical localities; as _the Thames_, _Kent_, &c. {98} _b._ Common names retained in the provincial dialects of England, but not retained in the current language; as _gwethall_=_household stuff_, and _gwlanen_=_flannel_ in Herefordshire. _c._ Common names retained in the current language.--The following list is Mr. Garnett's:-- _Welsh_. _English_. Basgawd _Basket_. Berfa _Barrow_. Botwm _Button_. Bràn _Bran_. Clwt _Clout_, _Rag_. Crochan _Crock_, _Crockery_. Crog _Crook_, _Hook_. Cwch _Cock_, in _Cock-boat_. Cwysed _Gusset_. Cyl, Cyln _Kiln_ (_Kill_, provinc.). Dantaeth _Dainty_. Darn _Darn_. Deentur _Tenter_, in _Tenterhook_. Fflaim _Fleam_, _Cattle-lancet_. Fflaw _Flaw_. Ffynnell (air-hole) _Funnel_. Gefyn (fetter) _Gyve_. Greidell _Grid_, in _Gridiron_. Grual _Gruel_. Gwald (hem, border) _Welt_. Gwiced (little door) _Wicket_. Gwn _Gown_. Gwyfr _Wire_. Masg (stitch in netting) _Mesh_. Mattog _Mattock_. Mop _Mop_. Rhail (fence) _Rail_. Rhasg (slice) _Rasher_. Rhuwch _Rug_. Sawduriaw _Solder_. Syth (glue) _Size_. Tacl _Tackle_. § 150. _Latin of the first period._--Of the Latin introduced by Cæsar and his successors, the few words remaining are those that relate to military affairs; _viz._ _street_ (_strata_); _coln_ (as in _Lincoln_=_Lindi colonia_); _cest_ (as in _Gloucester_=_glevæ castra_) from _castra_. The Latin words introduced between the time of Cæsar and Hengist may be called the _Latin of the first period_, or the _Latin of the Celtic period_. § 151. _The Anglo-Saxon._--This is not noticed here, because from being the staple of the present language it is more or less the subject of the book throughout. § 152. _The Danish, or Norse._--The pirates that pillaged Britain, under the name of Danes, were not exclusively the inhabitants of Denmark. Of the three Scandinavian nations, the Swedes took the least share, the Norwegians the greatest {99} in these invasions. Not that the Swedes were less piratical, but that they robbed elsewhere,--in Russia, for instance, and in Finland. The language of the three nations was the same; the differences being differences of dialect. It was that which is now spoken in Iceland, having been once common to Scandinavia and Denmark. Whether this was aboriginal in _Denmark_, is uncertain. In _Scandinavia_ it was imported; the tongue that it supplanted having been, in all probability, the mother-tongue of the present Laplandic. The Danish that became incorporated with our language, under the reign of Canute and his sons, may be called the direct Danish (Norse or Scandinavian) element, in contradistinction to the indirect Danish of §§ 144, 155. The determination of the amount of Danish in English is difficult. It is not difficult to prove a word _Scandinavian_. We must also show that it is not German. A few years back the current opinion was against the doctrine that there was much Danish in England. At present, the tendency is rather the other way. The following facts are from Mr. Garnett.--Phil. Trans. Vol. i. 1. The Saxon name of the present town of _Whitby_ in Yorkshire was _Streoneshalch_. The present name _Whitby_, _Hvitby_, or _White-town_, is Danish. 2. The Saxon name of the capital of Derbyshire was _Northweortheg_. The present name is Danish. 3. The termination _-by_=_town_ is Norse. 4. On a monument in Aldburgh church, Holdernesse, in the East Riding of Yorkshire, referred to the age of Edward the Confessor, is found the following inscription:-- _Ulf_ het aræran cyrice _for hanum_ and for Gunthara saula. "Ulf bid rear the church for him and for the soul of Gunthar." Now, in this inscription, _Ulf_, in opposition to the Anglo-Saxon _wulf_, is a Norse form; whilst _hanum_ is a Norse dative, and by no means an Anglo-Saxon one.--Old Norse _hanum_, Swedish _honom_. 5. The use of _at_ for _to_ as the sign of the infinitive mood {100} is Norse, not Saxon. It is the regular prefix in Icelandic, Danish, Swedish, and Feroic. It is also found in the northern dialects of the Old English, and in the particular dialect of Westmoreland at the present day. 6. The use of _sum_ for _as_; _e.g._--_swa sum_ we forgive oure detturs. 7. Isolated words in the northern dialects are Norse rather than Saxon. _Provincial._ _Common Dialect._ _Norse._ Braid _Resemble_ Bråas, _Swed_. Eldin _Firing_ Eld, _Dan_. Force _Waterfall_ Fors, _D. Swed_. Gar _Make_ Göra, _Swed_. Gill _Ravine_ Gil, _Iceland_. Greet _Weep_ Grata, _Iceland_. Ket _Carrion_ Kiöd=Flesh, _Dan_. Lait _Seek_ Lede, _Dan_. Lathe _Barn_ Lade, _Dan_. Lile _Little_ Lille, _Dan_. § 153. _Roman of the Second Period._--Of the Latin introduced under the Christianised Saxon sovereigns, many words are extant. They relate chiefly to ecclesiastical matters, just as the Latin of the Celtic period bore upon military affairs.--_Mynster_, a minster, _monasterium_; _portic_, a porch, _porticus_; _cluster_, a cloister, _claustrum_; _munuc_, a monk, _monachus_; _bisceop_, a bishop, _episcopus_; _arcebisceop_, archbishop, _archiepiscopus_; _sanct_, a saint, _sanctus_; _profost_, a provost, _propositus_; _pall_, a pall, _pallium_; _calic_, a chalice, _calix_; _candel_, a candle, _candela_; _psalter_, a psalter, _psalterium_; _mæsse_, a mass, _missa_; _pistel_, an epistle, _epistola_; _prædic-ian_, to preach, _prædicare_; _prof-ian_, to prove, _probare_. The following are the names of foreign plants and animals:--_camell_, a camel, _camelus_; _ylp_, elephant, _elephas_; _ficbeam_, fig-tree, _ficus_; _feferfuge_, feverfew, _febrifuga_; _peterselige_, parsley, _petroselinum_. Others are the names of articles of foreign origin, as _pipor_, pepper, _piper_; _purpur_, purple, _purpura_; _pumicstan_, pumice-stone, _pumex_. {101} The above-given list is from Guest's English Rhythms (B. iii. c. 3). It constitutes that portion of the elements of our language which may be called the Latin of the second, or Saxon period. § 154. _The Anglo-Norman element._--For practical purposes we may say that the French or Anglo-Norman element appeared in our language after the battle of Hastings, A.D. 1066. Previous, however, to that period we find notices of intercourse between the two countries. 1. The residence in England of Louis Outremer. 2. Ethelred II. married Emma, daughter of Richard Duke of Normandy, and the two children were sent to Normandy for education. 3. Edward the Confessor is particularly stated to have encouraged French manners and the French language in England. 4. Ingulphus of Croydon speaks of his own knowledge of French. 5. Harold passed some time in Normandy. 6. The French article _la_, in the term _la Drove_, occurs in a deed of A.D. 975.--See Ranouard, _Journal des Savans_, 1830. The chief Anglo-Norman elements of our language are the terms connected with the feudal system, the terms relating to war and chivalry, and a great portion of the law terms--_duke_, _count_, _baron_, _villain_, _service_, _chivalry_, _warrant_, _esquire_, _challenge_, _domain_, &c. § 155. The Norwegian, Danish, Norse, or Scandinavian element of the Anglo-Norman (as in the proper names _Guernsey_, _Jersey_, _Alderney_, and perhaps others) constitutes the _indirect_ Scandinavian element of the English. § 156. _Latin of the Third Period._--This means the Latin which was introduced between the battle of Hastings and the revival of literature. It chiefly originated with the monks, in the universities, and, to a certain extent, in the courts of law. It must be distinguished from the _indirect_ Latin introduced as part and parcel of the Anglo-Norman. It has yet to be accurately analyzed. {102} _Latin of the Fourth Period._--This means the Latin which has been introduced between the revival of literature and the present time. It has originated in the writings of learned men in general, and is distinguished from that of the previous periods by-- 1. Being less altered in form-- 2. Preserving, in the case of substantives, in many cases its original inflections; _axis_, _axes_; _basis_, _bases_-- 3. Relating to objects and ideas for which the increase of the range of science in general has required a nomenclature. § 157. _Greek._--Words derived _directly_ from the Greek are in the same predicament as the Latin of the third period--_phænomenon_, _phænomena_; _criterion_, _criteria_, &c.; words which are only _indirectly_ of Greek origin, being considered to belong to the language from which they were immediately introduced into the English. Such are _deacon_, _priest_, &c., introduced through the Latin; thus a word like _church_ proves no more in regard to a Greek element in English, than the word _abbot_ proves in respect to a Syrian one. § 158. The Latin of the fourth period and the Greek agree in retaining, in many cases, the Latin or Greek inflexions rather than adopting the English ones; in other words, they agree in being but _imperfectly incorporated_. The phænomenon of imperfect incorporation (an important one) is reducible to the following rules:-- 1. That it has a direct ratio to the date of the introduction, _i.e._, the more recent the word the more likely it is to retain its original inflexion. 2. That it has a relation to the number of meanings belonging to the words: thus, when a single word has two meanings, the original inflexion expresses one, the English inflexion another--_genius_, _genii_, often (_spirits_), _geniuses_ (_men of genius_). 3. That it occurs with substantives only, and that only in the expression of number. Thus, although the plural of substantives like _axis_ and _genius_ are Latin, the possessive cases are English. So also are the degrees of comparison, for {103} adjectives like _circular_, and the tenses, &c. for verbs, like perambulate. § 159. The following is a list of the chief Latin substantives, introduced during the latter part of the fourth period; and, preserving the _Latin_ plural forms-- FIRST CLASS. _Words wherein the Latin Plural is the same as the Latin Singular._ (_a_) _Sing._ _Plur._ (_b_) _Sing._ _Plur._ | Apparatus apparat_us_ | Caries cari_es_ Hiatus hiat_us_ | Congeries congeri_es_ Impetus impet_us_. | Series seri_es_ | Species speci_es_ | Superficies superfici_es_. SECOND CLASS. _Words wherein the Latin Plural is formed from the Latin Singular by changing the last Syllable._ (_a_).--_Where the Singular termination _-a_ is changed in the Plural into _-æ__:-- _Sing._ _Plur._ | _Sing._ _Plur._ | Formul_a_ formul_æ_ | Nebul_a_ nebul_æ_ Lamin_a_ lamin_æ_ | Scori_a_ scori_æ_. Larv_a_ larv_æ_ | (_b_).--_Where the singular termination _-us_ is changed in the Plural into _-i__:-- _Sing._ _Plur._ | _Sing._ _Plur._ | Calcul_us_ calcul_i_ | Polyp_us_ polyp_i_ Coloss_us_ coloss_i_ | Radi_us_ radi_i_ Convolvul_us_ convolvul_i_ | Ranuncul_us_ ranuncul_i_ Foc_us_ foc_i_ | Sarcophag_us_ sarcophag_i_ Geni_us_ geni_i_ | Schirrh_us_ schirrh_i_ Mag_us_ mag_i_ | Stimul_us_ stimul_i_ Nautil_us_ nautil_i_ | Tumul_us_ tumul_i_. Oesophag_us_ oesophag_i_ | (_c_).--_Where the Singular termination _-um_ is changed in the Plural into _-a__:-- _Sing._ _Plur._ | _Sing._ _Plur._ | Animalcul_um_ animalcul_a_ | Mausole_um_ mausole_a_ Arcan_um_ arcan_a_ | Medi_um_ medi_a_ Collyri_um_ collyri_a_ | Memorand_um_ memorand_a_ Dat_um_ dat_a_ | Menstru_um_ menstru_a_ Desiderat_um_ desiderat_a_ | Moment_um_ moment_a_ {104} Effluvi_um_ effluvi_a_ | Premi_um_ premi_a_ Empori_um_ empori_a_ | Scholi_um_ scholi_a_ Encomi_um_ encomi_a_ | Spectr_um_ spectr_a_ Errat_um_ errat_a_ | Specul_um_ specul_a_ Gymnasi_um_ gymnasi_a_ | Strat_um_ strat_a_ Lixivi_um_ lixivi_a_ | Succedane_um_ succedanea. Lustr_um_ lustr_a_ | (_d_).--_Where the singular termination _-is_ is changed in the Plural into _-es__:-- _Sing._ _Plur._ | _Sing._ _Plur._ | Amanuens_is_ amanuens_es_ | Ellips_is_ ellips_es_ Analys_is_ analys_es_ | Emphas_is_ emphas_es_ Antithes_is_ antithes_es_ | Hypothes_is_ hypothes_es_ Ax_is_ ax_es_ | Oas_is_ oas_es_ Bas_is_ bas_es_ | Parenthes_is_ parenthes_es_ Cris_is_ cris_es_ | Synthes_is_ synthes_es_ Diæres_is_ diæres_es_ | Thes_is_ thes_es_. THIRD CLASS. _Words wherein the Plural is formed by inserting _-e_ between the last two sounds of the singular, so that the former number always contains a syllable more than the latter_:-- _Sing_. _Plur_. Apex _sounded_ apec-_s_ apic_es_ Appendix -- appendic-_s_ appendic_es_ Calix -- calic-_s_ calic_es_ Cicatrix -- cicatric-_s_ cicatric_es_ Helix -- helic-_s_ helic_es_ Index -- indec-_s_ indic_es_ Radix -- radic-_s_ radic_es_ Vertex -- vertec-_s_ vertic_es_ Vortex -- vortec-_s_ vortic_es_. In all these words the _c_ of the singular number is sounded as _k_, of the plural as _s_. § 160. The following is a list of the chief Greek substantives lately introduced, and preserving the _Greek_ plural forms-- FIRST CLASS. _Words where the singular termination _-on_ is changed in the plural into _-a__:-- _Sing._ _Plur._ Apheli_on_ apheli_a_ Periheli_on_ periheli_a_ Automat_on_ automat_a_ Criteri_on_ criteri_a_ Ephemer_on_ ephemer_a_ Phænomen_on_ phænomen_a_. {105} SECOND CLASS. _Words where the plural is formed from the original root by adding either _-es_ or _-a_, but where the singular rejects the last letter of the original root._ _Plurals in _-es__:-- _Original root._ _Plur._ _Sing._ Apsid- apsid_es_ apsis Cantharid- cantharid_es_ cantharis Chrysalid- chrysalid_es_ chrysalis Ephemerid- ephemerid_es_ ephemeris Tripod- tripod_es_ tripos. _Plurals in_ -a:-- _Original root._ _Plur._ _Sing._ Dogmat- dogmat_a_ dogma Lemmat- lemmat_a_ lemma Miasmat- miasmat_a_ miasma[23] § 161. _Miscellaneous elements._--Of miscellaneous elements we have two sorts; those that are incorporated in our language, and are currently understood (_e.g._, the Spanish word _sherry_, the Arabic word _alkali_, and the Persian word _turban_), and those that, even amongst the educated, are considered strangers. Of this latter kind (amongst many others) are the Oriental words _hummum_, _kaftan_, _gul_, &c. Of the currently understood miscellaneous elements of the English language, the most important are from the French; some of which agree with those of the Latin of the fourth period, and the Greek in preserving the _French_ plural forms--as _beau_, _beaux_, _billets-doux_. _Italian._--Some words of Italian origin do the same: as _virtuoso_, _virtuosi_. _Hebrew._--The Hebrew words, _cherub_ and _seraph_ do the same; the form _cherub-im_, and _seraph-im_, being not only plurals but Hebrew plurals. Beyond the words derived from these five languages, none form their plurals other than after the English method, _i.e._, in _-s_: as _waltzes_, from the German word _waltz_. § 162. The extent to which a language, which like the English, at one and the same time requires names for many objects, comes in contact with the tongues of half the world, {106} and has, moreover, a great power of incorporating foreign elements, derives fresh words from varied sources, may be seen from the following incomplete notice of the languages which have, in different degrees, supplied it with new terms. _Arabic._--Admiral, alchemist, alchemy, alcohol, alcove, alembic, algebra, alkali, assassin, from a paper of Mr. Crawford, read at the British Association, 1849. _Persian._--Turban, caravan, dervise, &c.--_Ditto._ _Turkish._--Coffee, bashaw, divan, scimitar, janisary, &c.--_Ditto._ _Hindu languages._--Calico, chintz, cowrie, curry, lac, muslin, toddy, &c.--_Ditto._ _Chinese._--Tea, bohea, congou, hyson, soy, nankin, &c.--_Ditto._ _Malay._--Bantam (fowl), gamboge, rattan, sago, shaddock, &c.--_Ditto._ _Polynesian._--Taboo, tattoo.--_Ditto._ _Tungusian_, or some similar Siberian language.--Mammoth, the bones of which are chiefly from the banks of the Lena. _North American Indian._--Squaw, wigwam, pemmican. _Peruvian._--Charki=prepared meat; whence _jerked_ beef. _Caribbean._--Hammock. _Ancient Carian._--Mausoleum. § 163. In § 157 a distinction is drawn between the _direct_ and _indirect_, the latter leading to the _ultimate origin_ of words. Thus a word borrowed into the English from the French, might have been borrowed into the French from the Latin, into the Latin from the Greek, into the Greek from the Persian, &c., and so _ad infinitum_. The investigation of this is a matter of literary curiosity rather than any important branch of philology. The ultimate known origin of many common words sometimes goes back to a great date, and points to extinct languages-- _Ancient Nubian (?)_--Barbarous. _Ancient Egyptian._--Ammonia. _Ancient Syrian._--Cyder. _Ancient Syrian._--Pandar. {107} _Ancient Lydian._--Mæander. _Ancient Persian._--Paradise. § 164. Again, a word from a given language may be introduced by more lines than one; or it may be introduced twice over; once at an earlier, and again at a later period. In such a case its form will, most probably, vary; and, what is more, its meaning as well. Words of this sort may be called _di-morphic_, their _di-morphism_, having originated in one of two reasons--a difference of channel, or a difference of date. Instances of the first are, _syrup_, _sherbet_, and _shrub_, all originally from the _Arabic_, _srb_; but introduced differently, viz., the first through the Latin, the second through the Persian, and the third through the Hindoo. Instances of the second are words like _minster_, introduced in the Anglo-Saxon, as contrasted with _monastery_, introduced during the Anglo-Norman period. By the proper application of these processes, we account for words so different in present form, yet so identical in origin, as _priest_ and _presbyter_, _episcopal_ and _bishop_, &c. § 165. _Distinction._--The history of the languages that have been spoken in a particular country, is a different subject from the history of a particular language. The history of the languages that have been spoken in the United States of America, is the history of _Indian_ languages. The history of the languages of the United States is the history of the Germanic language. § 166. _Words of foreign simulating a vernacular origin._--These may occur in any mixed language whatever; they occur, however, oftener in the English than in any other. Let a word be introduced from a foreign language--let it have some resemblance in sound to a real English one: lastly, let the meanings of the two words be not absolutely incompatible. We may then have a word of foreign origin taking the appearance of an English one. Such, amongst others, are _beef-eater_, from _boeuffetier_; _sparrow-grass_, _asparagus_; _Shotover_, _Chateau vert_;[24] _Jerusalem_, _Girasole_;[25] _Spanish {108} beefeater_, _Spina befida_; _periwig_, _peruke_; _runagate_, _renegade_; _lutestring_, _lustrino_;[26] _O yes_, _Oyez!_ _ancient_, _ensign_.[27] _Dog-cheap._--This has nothing to do with _dogs_. The first syllable is _god_=_good_ transposed, and the second the _ch-p_ in _chapman_ (=_merchant_) _cheap_, and _East-cheap_. In Sir J. Mandeville, we find _god-kepe_=_good bargain_. _Sky-larking._--Nothing to do with _larks_ of any sort; still less the particular species, _alauda arvensis_. The word improperly spelt _l-a-r-k_, and banished to the slang regions of the English language, is the Anglo-Saxon _lác_=_game_, or _sport_; wherein the _a_ is sounded as in _father_ (not as in _farther_). _Lek_=_game_, in the present Scandinavian languages. _Zachary Macaulay_=_Zumalacarregui_; _Billy Ruffian_=_Bellerophon_; _Sir Roger Dowlass_=_Surajah Dowlah_, although so limited to the common soldiers, and sailors who first used them, as to be exploded vulgarisms rather than integral parts of the language, are examples of the same tendency towards the irregular accommodation of misunderstood foreign terms. _Birdbolt._--An incorrect name for the _gadus lota_, or _eel-pout_, and a transformation of _barbote_. _Whistle-fish._--The same for _gadus mustela_, or _weazel-cod_. _Liquorice_=_glycyrrhiza_. _Wormwood_=_weremuth_, is an instance of a word from the same language, in an antiquated shape, being equally transformed with a word of really foreign origin. § 167. Sometimes the transformation of the _name_ has engendered a change in the object to which it applies, or, at least, has evolved new ideas in connection with it. How easy for a person who used the words _beef-eater_, _sparrow-grass_, or _Jerusalem_, to believe that the officers designated by the former either eat or used to eat more beef than other people (or at least had an allowance of that viand); that the second word was the name for a _grass_, or herb of which _sparrows_ were fond; and that _Jerusalem_ artichokes came from Palestine. What has just been supposed is sometimes a real {109} occurrence. To account for the name _Shotover-hill_, I have heard that Little John _shot over_ it. Here the confusion in order to set itself right, breeds a fiction. Again, in chess, the piece now called the _queen_, was originally the _elephant_. This was in Persian, _ferz_. In French it became _vierge_, which, in time, came to be mistaken for a derivative, and _virgo_=_the virgin_, _the lady_, _the queen_. § 168. Sometimes, where the form of a word in respect to its _sound_ is not affected, a false spirit of accommodation introduces an unetymological _spelling_; as _frontispiece_[28] from _frontispecium_, _sover_eig_n_, from _sovrano_, _colle_a_gue_ from _collega_, _lant_h_orn_ (old orthography) from _lanterna_. The value of forms like these consists in their showing that language is affected by false etymologies as well as by true ones. * * * * * § 169. In _lambkin_ and _lancet_, the final syllables (_-kin_ and _-et_) have the same power. They both express the idea of smallness or diminutiveness. These words are but two out of a multitude, the one (_lamb_) being of Saxon, the other (_lance_) of Norman origin. The same is the case with the superadded syllables: _-kin_ is Saxon; _-et_ Norman. Now to add a Saxon termination to a Norman word, or _vice versâ_, is to corrupt the English language. This leads to some observations respecting-- § 170. _Introduction of new words_--_Hybridism._--Hybridism is a term derived from _hybrid-a_, _a mongrel_; a Latin word _of Greek extraction_. The terminations _-ize_ (as in _criticize_), _-ism_ (as in _criticism_), _-ic_ (as in _comic_), these, amongst many others, are Greek terminations. To add them to words of other than of Greek origin is to be guilty of hybridism. The terminations _-ble_ (as in _penetrable_), _-bility_ (as in _penetrability_, _-al_ (as in _parental_)--these, amongst many others, are Latin terminations. To add them to words of other than of Latin origin is to be guilty of hybridism. {110} Hybridism is the commonest fault that accompanies the introduction of new words. The hybrid additions to the English language are most numerous in works on science. It must not, however, be concealed that several well established words are hybrid; and that, even in the writings of the classical Roman authors, there is hybridism between the Latin and the Greek. The etymological view of every word of foreign origin is, not that it is put together in England, but that it is brought whole from the language to which it is vernacular. Now no derived word can be brought whole from a language unless, in that language, all its parts exist. The word _penetrability_ is not derived from the English word _penetrable_, by the addition of _-ty_. It is the Latin word _penetrabilitas_ imported. _In derived words all the parts must belong to one and the same language_, or, changing the expression, _every derived word must have a possible form in the language from which it is taken_. Such is the rule against Hybridism. § 171. A true word sometimes takes the appearance of a hybrid without really being so. The _-icle_, in _icicle_, is apparently the same as the _-icle_ in _radicle_. Now, as _ice_ is Gothic, and _-icle_ classical, hybridism is simulated. _Icicle_, however, is not a derivative but a compound; its parts being _is_ and _gicel_, both Anglo-Saxon words. § 172. _On Incompletion of the Radical._--Let there be in a given language a series of roots ending in _-t_, as _sæmat_. Let a euphonic influence eject the _-t_, as often as the word occurs in the nominative case. Let the nominative case be erroneously considered to represent the root, or radical, of the word. Let a derivative word be formed accordingly, _i.e._, on the notion that the nominative form and the radical form coincide. Such a derivative will exhibit only a part of the root; in other words, the radical will be incomplete. Now all this is what actually takes place in words like _hæmo-ptysis_ (_spitting of blood_), _sema-phore_ (_a sort of telegraph_). The Greek imparisyllabics eject a part of the root in the nominative case; the radical forms being _hæmat-_ and _sæmat-_, not _hæm-_ and _sæm-_. {111} Incompletion of the radical is one of the commonest causes of words being coined faultily. It must not, however, be concealed, that even in the classical writers, we have (in words like [Greek: distomos]) examples of incompletion of the radical. * * * * * § 173. The preceding chapters have paved the way for a distinction between the _historical_ analysis of a language, and the _logical_ analysis of one. Let the present language of England (for illustration's sake only) consist of 40,000 words. Of these let 30,000 be Anglo-Saxon, 5,000 Anglo-Norman, 100 Celtic, 10 Latin of the first, 20 Latin of the second, and 30 Latin of the third period, 50 Scandinavian, and the rest miscellaneous. In this case the language is considered according to the historical origin of the words that compose it, and the analysis (or, if the process be reversed, the synthesis) is an historical analysis. But it is very evident that the English, or any other language, is capable of being contemplated in another view, and that the same number of words may be very differently classified. Instead of arranging them according to the languages whence they are derived, let them be disposed according to the meanings that they convey. Let it be said, for instance, that out of 40,000 words, 10,000 are the names of natural objects, that 1000 denote abstract ideas, that 1000 relate to warfare, 1000 to church matters, 500 to points of chivalry, 1000 to agriculture, and so on through the whole. In this case the analysis (or, if the process be reversed, the synthesis) is not historical but logical; the words being classed not according to their origin, but according to their meaning. Now the logical and historical analysis of a language generally in some degree coincides, as may be seen by noticing the kind of words introduced from the Anglo-Norman, the Latin of the fourth period, and the Arabic. * * * * * {112} CHAPTER II. THE RELATION OF THE ENGLISH TO THE ANGLO-SAXON, AND THE STAGES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. § 174. The relation of the present English to the Anglo-Saxon is that of a _modern_ language to an _ancient_ one: the words _modern_ and _ancient_ being used in a defined and technical sense. Let the word _smiðum_ illustrate this. _Smiðum_, the dative plural of _smið_, is equivalent in meaning to the English _to smiths_, or to the Latin _fabris_. _Smiðum_ however, is a single Anglo-Saxon word (a substantive, and nothing more); whilst its English equivalent is two words _i.e._, a substantive with the addition of a preposition). The letter _s_, in _smiths_ shows that the word is plural. The _-um_, in _smiðum_, does this and something more. It is the sign of the _dative case_ plural. The _-um_ in _smiðum_, is the part of a word. The preposition to is a separate word with an independent existence. _Smiðum_ is the radical syllable _smið_, _plus_ the subordinate inflectional syllable _-um_, the sign of the dative case. _To smiths_ is the substantive _smiths_, _plus_ the preposition _to_, equivalent in power to the sign of a dative case, but different from it in form. As far, then, as the word just quoted is concerned, the Anglo-Saxon differs from the English thus. It expresses a given idea by a modification of the form of the root, whereas the modern English denotes the same idea by the addition of a preposition. The Saxon inflection is superseded by a combination of words. The part that is played by the preposition with nouns, is played by the auxiliaries (_have_, _be_, &c.) with verbs. The sentences in italics are mere variations of the same general statement. (1.) _The earlier the stage of a given {113} language the greater the amount of its inflectional forms, and the later the stage of a given language, the smaller the amount of them._ (2.) _As languages become modern they substitute prepositions and auxiliary verbs for cases and tenses._ (3.) _The amount of inflection is in the inverse proportion to the amount of prepositions and auxiliary verbs._ (4.) _In the course of time languages drop their inflection and substitute in its stead circumlocutions by means of prepositions, &c. The reverse never takes place._ (5.) _Given two modes of expression, the one inflectional _(smiðum)_, the other circumlocutional _(to smiths)_, we can state that the first belongs to an early, the second to a late, stage of language._ The present chapter, then, showing the relation of the English to the Anglo-Saxon, shows something more. It exhibits the general relation of a modern to an ancient language. As the English is to the Anglo-Saxon, so are the Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian, to the old Norse; so also the Modern High German to the Moeso-Gothic; so the Modern Dutch of Holland to the Old Frisian; so, moreover, amongst the languages of a different stock, are the French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanese and Wallachian to the Latin, and the Romaic to the Ancient Greek. § 175. Contrasted with the English, but contrasted with it only in those points where the ancient tongue is compared with the modern one, the Anglo-Saxon has the following differences. NOUNS. _Of Gender._--In Anglo-Saxon there are three genders, the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. With _adjectives_ each gender has its peculiar declension; with _substantives_ there are also appropriate terminations, but only to a certain degree; _e.g._, of words ending in _-a_ (_nama_, a name; _cuma_, a guest), it may be stated that they are always masculine; of words in _-u_ (_sunu_, a son; _gifu_, a gift), that they are never neuter; in other words, that they are either mas. or fem. The definite article varies with the gender of its substantive; _þæt eage_, the eye; _se steorra_, the star; _seo tunge_, the tongue. {114} _Of Number._--The plural form in _-en_ (as in _oxen_), rare in English, was common in Anglo-Saxon. It was the regular termination of a whole declension; _e.g._, _eágan_, eyes; _steorran_, stars; _tungan_, tongues. Besides this, the Anglo-Saxons had forms in _-u_ and _-a_, as _ricu_, kingdoms; _gifa_, gifts. The termination _-s_, current in the present English was confined to a single gender and to a single declension, as _endas_, ends; _dagas_, days; _smiðas_, smiths. _Of Case._--Of these the Saxons had, for their substantives, at least three; viz. the nominative, dative, genitive. With the pronouns and adjectives there was a true accusative form; and with a few especial words an ablative or instrumental one. _Smið_, a smith; _smiðe_, to a smith; _smiðes_, of a smith. Plural, _smiðas_, smiths; _smiðum_, to smiths; _smiða_, of smiths: _he_, he; _hine_, him; _him_, to him; _his_, his; _se_, the; _þa_, the; _þy_, with the; _þam_, to the; _þæs_, of the. Of the dative in _-um_, the word _whilom_ (_at times_, _at whiles_) is a still extant and an almost isolated specimen. _Of Declension._--In _Anglo-Saxon_ it is necessary to determine the termination of a substantive. There is the weak, or simple declension for words ending in a vowel (as _eage_, _steorra_, _tunga_), and the strong, or complex declension for words ending in a consonant (_smið_, _spræc_, _leáf_). The letters _i_ and _u_ are dealt with as semivowels, semivowels being dealt with as consonants; so that words like _sunu_ and _gifu_ belong to the same declension as _smið_ and _spr['æ]c_. That the form of adjectives varies with their definitude or indefinitude, has been seen from § 93: definite adjectives following the inflection of the simple; indefinite ones that of the complex declension. The detail of the Anglo-Saxon declension may be collected from §§ 83-89. The Anglo-Saxon inflection of the participles present is remarkable. With the exception of the form for the genitive plural definite (which, instead of _-ena_, is _-ra_,) they follow the declension of the adjectives. From the masculine substantives formed from them, and denoting the agent, they may be distinguished by a difference of inflection. {115} _Participle._ _Substantive._ Wegferende=_Wayfaring_. Wegferend=_Wayfarer_. _Sing. Nom._ Wegferende Wegferend. _Acc._ Wegferendne Wegferend. _Abl._ Wegferende Wegferende. _Dat._ Wegferendum Wegferende. _Gen._ Wegferendes Wegferendes. _Plur. Nom._ Wegferende Wegferendas. _Dat._ Wegferendum Wegferendum. _Gen._ Wegferendra Wegferenda. _Pronouns Personal._--Of the pronominal inflection in Saxon, the character may be gathered from the chapter upon pronouns. At present, it may be stated that, like the Moeso-Gothic and the Icelandic, the Anglo-Saxon language possessed for the first two persons a _dual_ number; inflected as follows: _1st Person._ _2nd Person._ _Nom._ Wit _We two._ _Nom._ Git _Ye two._ _Acc._ Unc _Us two._ _Acc._ Inc _You two._ _Gen._ Uncer _Of us two._ _Gen._ Incer _Of you two._ Besides this, the demonstrative, possessive, and relative pronouns, as well as the numerals _twa_ and _þreo_, had a fuller declension than they have at present. VERBS. _Mood._--The subjunctive mood that in the present English (with the exception of the conjugation of the verb substantive) differs from the indicative only in the third person singular, was in Anglo-Saxon inflected as follows: _Indicative Mood._ _Pres. Sing._ 1. Lufige. _Plur._ 1. } 2. Lufast. 2. } Lufiað. 3. Lufað. 3. } _Subjunctive Mood._ _Pres. Sing._ 1.} _Plur._ 1. } 2.} Lufige. 2. } Lufion. 3.} 3. } The Saxon infinitive ended in _-an_ (_lufian_), and besides this there was a so-called gerundial form, to _lufigenne_. {116} _Tense._--In regard to tense, the Anglo-Saxon coincided with the English. The present language has two tenses, the present and the past; the Saxon had no more. This past tense the modern English forms either by addition (_love_, _loved_), or by change (_fall_, _fell_). So did the Anglo-Saxons. _Number and Person._--In the present English the termination -_eth_ (_moveth_) is antiquated. In Anglo-Saxon it was the only form recognized. In English the plural number (indicative as well as subjunctive) has no distinguishing inflection. It was not so in Anglo-Saxon. There, although the _persons_ were identical in form, the _numbers_ were distinguished by the termination -_að_ for the indicative, and -_n_ for the subjunctive. (_See above._) For certain forms in the second conjugation, see the remarks on the forms _drunk_ and _drank_, in Part IV. Such are the chief points in the declension of nouns and the conjugation of verbs that give a difference of character between the ancient Anglo-Saxon and the modern English: and it has already been stated that the difference between the New and the Old German, the Dutch and the Frisian, the Italian, &c., and the Latin, the Romaic and the Greek, &c., are precisely similar. How far two languages pass with equal rapidity from their ancient to their modern, from their inflected to their uninflected state (in other words, how far all languages alter at the same rate), is a question that will be noticed elsewhere. At present, it is sufficient to say, that (just as we should expect _à priori_) languages do _not_ alter at the same rate. Akin to the last question is a second one: viz.: how far the rate of change in a given language can be accelerated by external circumstances. This second question bears immediately upon the history of the English language. The grammar of the current idiom compared with the grammar of the Anglo-Saxon is simplified. How far was this simplification of the grammar promoted by the Norman Conquest. The current views exaggerate the influence of the Norman Conquest and of French connexions. The remark of Mr. Price in his Preface to Warton, acceded to by Mr. Hallam in his Introduction to the Literature of Europe, is, that every one of the {117} other Low Germanic languages (affected by nothing corresponding to the Norman Conquest) displays the same simplification of grammar as the Anglo-Saxon (affected by the Norman Conquest) displays. Confirmatory of this remark, it may be added, that compared with the Icelandic, the Danish and Swedish do the same. Derogatory to it is the comparatively complex grammar of the _new_ German, compared, not only with the Old High German, but with the Moeso-Gothic. An extract from Mr. Hallam shall close the present section and introduce the next. "Nothing can be more difficult, except by an arbitrary line, than to determine the commencement of the English language: not so much, as in those on the Continent, because we are in want of materials, but rather from an opposite reason, the possibility of showing a very gradual succession of verbal changes that ended in a change of denomination. We should probably experience a similar difficulty, if we knew equally well the current idiom of France or Italy in the seventh and eighth centuries. For when we compare the earliest English of the thirteenth century with the Anglo-Saxon of the twelfth, it seems hard to pronounce why it should pass for a separate language, rather than a modification or simplification of the former. We must conform, however, to usage, and say that the Anglo-Saxon was converted into English:--1. By contracting and otherwise modifying the pronunciation and orthography of words. 2. By omitting many inflections, especially of the noun, and consequently making more use of articles and auxiliaries. 3. By the introduction of French derivatives. 4. By using less inversion and ellipsis, especially in poetry. Of these, the second alone, I think, can be considered as sufficient to describe a new form of language; and this was brought about so gradually, that we are not relieved from much of our difficulty, as to whether some compositions shall pass for the latest offspring of the mother, or the earlier fruits of the daughter's fertility. It is a proof of this difficulty that the best masters of our ancient language have lately introduced the word Semi-Saxon, which is to cover everything from A.D. 1150 to A.D. 1250."--Chapter i. 47. § 176. At a given period, then, the Anglo-Saxon of the standard, and (if the expression may be used) classical authors, such as Cædmon, Alfred, Ælfric, &c., had undergone such a change as to induce the scholars of the present age to denominate it, not Saxon, but _Semi_-Saxon. It had ceased to be genuine Saxon, but had not yet become English. In certain parts of the kingdom, where the mode of speech {118} changed more rapidly than elsewhere, the Semi-Saxon stage of our language came earlier. It was, as it were, precipitated. The History of King Leir and his Daughters is found in two forms. Between these there is a difference either of dialect or of date, and possibly of both. Each, however, is Semi-Saxon. The extracts are made from Thorpe's Analecta Anglo-Saxonica, p. 143. Bladud hafde ene sune, Bladud hadde one sone, Leir was ihaten; Leir was ihote, Efter his fader daie, After his fader he held þis lond, He heold þis drihlice lond, In his owene hond, Somed an his live, Ilaste his lif-dages, Sixti winter. Sixti winter. He makade ane riche burh, He makede on riche borh, Þurh radfulle his crafte, Þorh wisemenne reade, And he heo lette nemnen, And hine lette nemni, Efter him seolvan; After him seolve; Kaer-Leir hehte þe burh. Kair-Leir hehte þe borh. Leof heo wes þan kinge, Leof he was þan kinge; Þa we, an ure leod-quide, Þe we, on ure speche, Leir-chestre clepiad, Leþ-chestre cleopieþ, Geare a þan holde dawon. In þan eolde daiye. The Grave, a poetical fragment, the latter part of the Saxon Chronicle, a Homily for St. Edmund's Day (given in the Analecta), and above all the printed extracts of the poem of Layamon, are the more accessible specimens of the Semi-Saxon. The Ormulum, although in many points English rather than Saxon, retains the dual number of the Anglo-Saxon pronouns. However, lest too much stress be laid upon this circumstance, the epistolary character of the Ormulum must be borne in mind. It is very evident that if, even in the present day, there were spoken in some remote district the language of Alfred and Ælfric, such a mode of speech would be called, not Modern English, but Anglo-Saxon. This teaches us that the stage of language is to be measured, not by its date, but by its structure. Hence, Saxon ends and Semi-Saxon begins, not at a given year, A.D., but at that time {119} (whenever it be) when certain grammatical inflections disappear, and certain characters of a more advanced stage are introduced. Some amongst others, of the earlier changes of the standard Anglo-Saxon are, 1. The substitution of -_an_ for -_as_, in the plural of substantives, _munucan_ for _munucas_ (monks); and, conversely, the substitution of -_s_ for -_n_, as _steorres_ for _steorran_ (stars). The use of -_s_, as the sign of the plural, without respect to gender, or declension, may be one of those changes that the Norman Conquest forwarded; -_s_ being the sign of the plural in Anglo-Norman. 2. The ejection or shortening of final vowels, _þæt ylc_ for _þæt ylce_; _sone_ for _sunu_; _name_ for _nama_; _dages_ for _dagas_. 3. The substitution of -_n_ for -_m_ in the dative case, _hwilon_ for _hwilum_. 4. The ejection of the -_n_ of the infinitive mood, _cumme_ for _cuman_ (_to come_), _nemne_ for _nemnen_ (_to name_). 5. The ejection of -_en_ in the participle passive, _I-hote_ for _gehaten_ (_called_, _hight_). 6. The gerundial termination -_enne_, superseded by the infinitive termination -_en_; as _to lufian_ for _to lufienne_, or _lufigenne_. 7. The substitution of -_en_ for -_að_ in the persons plural of verbs; _hi clepen_ (_they call_) for _hi clypiað_, &c. The preponderance (not the occasional occurrence) of forms like those above constitute Semi-Saxon in contradistinction to standard Saxon, classical Saxon, or Anglo-Saxon proper. § 177. _Old English Stage._--Further changes convert Semi-Saxon into Old English. Some, amongst others, are the following:-- 1. The ejection of the dative plural termination -_um_, and the substitution of the preposition _to_ and the plural sign -_s_; as _to smiths_ for _smiðum_. Of the dative singular the -_e_ is retained (_ende_, _worde_); but it is by no means certain that, although recognized in writing, it was recognized in pronunciation also. 2. The ejection of -_es_ in the genitive singular whenever the {120} preposition _of_ came before it; _Godes love_ (_God's love_), but the _love of God_, and not the _love of Godes_. 3. The syllable _-es_ as a sign of the genitive case extended to all genders and to all declensions; _heart's_ for _heortan_; _sun's_ for _sunnan_. 4. The same in respect to the plural number; _sterres_ for _steorran_; _sons_ for _suna_. 5. The ejection of _-na_ in the genitive plural; as _of tunges'_ for _tungena_. 6. The use of the word _the_, as an article, instead of _se_, &c. The preponderance of the forms above (and not their occasional occurrence) constitutes old English in contradistinction to Semi-Saxon. The following extract from Henry's history (vol. viii. append. iv.) is the proclamation of Henry III. to the people of Huntingdonshire, A.D. 1258. It currently passes for the earliest specimen of English. "Henry, thurg Godes fultome, King on Engleneloande, lhoaurd on Yrloand, Duke on Normand, on Acquitain, Eorl on Anjou, send I greting, to alle hise holde, ilærde & ilewerde on Huntingdonschiere. "That witen ge well alle, thæt we willen & unnen (grant) thæt ure rædesmen alle other, the moare del of heom, thæt beoth ichosen thurg us and thurg thæt loandes-folk on ure Kuneriche, habbith idon, and schullen don, in the worthnes of God, and ure threowthe, for the freme of the loande, thurg the besigte of than toforen iseide rædesmen, beo stedfæst and ilestinde in alle thinge abutan ænde, and we heaten alle ure treowe, in the treowthe thæt heo us ogen, thet heo stede-feslliche healden & weren to healden & to swerien the isetnesses thet beon makede and beo to makien, thurg than toforen iseide rædesmen, other thurg the moare del of heom alswo, also hit is before iseide. And thet æheother helpe thet for to done bitham ilche other, aganes alle men in alle thet heo ogt for to done, and to foangen. And noan ne of mine loande, ne of egetewhere, thurg this besigte, muge beon ilet other iwersed on oniewise. And gif oni ether onie cumen her ongenes, we willen & heaten, thæt alle ure treowe heom healden deadlichistan. And for thæt we willen thæt this beo stædfast and lestinde, we senden gew this writ open, iseined with ure seel, to halden amanges gew ine hord. Witnes us-selven æt Lundæn, thæne egetetenthe day on the monthe of Octobr, in the two and fowertigthe geare of ure crunning." § 178. The songs amongst the political verses printed by the Camden Society, the romance of Havelok the Dane, {121} William and the Werwolf, the Gestes of Alisaundre, King Horn, Ipomedon, and the King of Tars; and, amongst the longer works, Robert of Gloucester's Chronicle, and the poems of Robert of Bourn (Brunn), are (amongst others) Old English. Broadly speaking, the _Old_ English may be said to begin with the reign of Henry III., and to end with that of Edward III. In the Old English the following forms predominate. 1. A fuller inflection of the demonstrative pronoun, or definite article; _þan_, _þenne_, _þære_, _þam_;--in contradistinction to the Middle English. 2. The presence of the dative singular in _-e_; _ende_, _smithe_;--_ditto_. 3. The existence of a genitive plural in _-r_ or _-ra_; _heora_, theirs; _aller_, of all;--_ditto_. This with substantives and adjectives is less common. 4. The substitution of _heo_ for _they_, of _heora_ for _their_, of _hem_ for _them_;--in contradistinction to the later stages of English, and in contradistinction to old Lowland _Scotch_. (See Chapter III.) 5. A more frequent use of _min_ and _thin_, for _my_ and _thy_;--in contradistinction to middle and modern English. 6. The use of _heo_ for _she_;--in contradistinction to middle and modern English and old Lowland _Scotch_. 7. The use of broader vowels; as in _iclep_u_d_ or _iclep_o_d_ (for _iclep_e_d_ or _ycl_e_pt_); _geong_o_st_, youngest; _ascode_, asked; _eldore_, elder. 8. The use of the strong preterits (_see_ the chapter on the tenses of verbs), where in the present English the weak form is found; _wex_, _wop_, _dalf_, for _waxed_, _wept_, _delved_. 9. The omission not only of the gerundial termination _-enne_, but also of the infinitive sign _-en_ after _to_; _to honte_, _to speke_;--in contradistinction to Semi-Saxon. 10. The substitution of _-en_ for _-eþ_ or _-eð_ in the first and second persons plural of verbs; _we wollen_, we will: _heo schullen_, they should;--_ditto_. 11. The comparative absence of the articles _se_ and _seo_;--_ditto_. {122} 12. The substitution of _ben_ and _beeth_, for _synd_ and _syndon_=_we_, _ye_, _they are_;--in contradistinction to Semi-Saxon. § 179. The degree to which the Anglo-Saxon was actually influenced by the Anglo-Norman has been noticed. The degree wherein the two languages came in contact is, plainly, another consideration. The first is the question, How far one of two languages influenced the other? The second asks, How far one of two languages had the opportunity of influencing the other? Concerning the extent to which the Anglo-Norman was used, I retail the following statements and quotations. 1. "Letters even of a private nature were written in Latin till the beginning of the reign of Edward I., soon after 1270, when a sudden change brought in the use of French."--_Mr. Hallam, communicated by Mr. Stevenson_ (_Literature of Europe, I. 52, and note_). 2. Conversation between the Members of the Universities was ordered to be carried on either in Latin or French:--"_Si qua inter se proferant, colloquio Latino vel saltem Gallico perfruantur._"--_Statutes of Oriel College, Oxford.--Hallam, ibid._ from Warton. 3. "The Minutes of the Corporation of London, recorded in the Town Clerk's Office, were in French, as well as the Proceedings in Parliament, and in the Courts of Justice."--_Ibid._ 4. "In Grammar Schools, boys were made to construe their Latin into French,"--_Ibid._ "_Pueri in scholis, contra morem cæterarum nationum, et Normannorum adventu, derelicto proprio vulgari, construere Gallice compelluntur. Item quod filii nobilium ab ipsis cunabulorum crepundiis ad Gallicum idioma informantur. Quibus profecto rurales homines assimulari volentes, ut per hoc spectabiliores videantur, Francigenari satagunt omni nisu._"--_Higden_ (_Ed. Gale_, p. 210). That there was French in England before the battle of Hastings appears on the authority of Camden:-- "Herein is a notable argument of our ancestors' steadfastness in esteeming and retaining their own tongue. For, as _before the Conquest_, they misliked nothing more in King Edward the Confessor, than that he was Frenchified, and accounted the desire of a foreign language then to be a foretoken of the bringing in of foreign powers, which indeed happened."--_Remains_, p. 30. § 180. In Chaucer and Mandeville, and perhaps in all the writers of the reign of Edward III., we have a transition {123} from the Old to the Middle English. The last characteristic of a grammar different from that of the present English, is the plural form in _-en_; _we tellen_, _ye tellen_, _they tellen_. As this disappears, which it does in the reign of Queen Elizabeth (Spenser has it continually), the Middle English may be said to pass into the New or Modern English. § 181. The _present_ tendencies of the English may be determined by observation; and as most of them will be noticed in the etymological part of this volume, the few here indicated must be looked upon as illustrations only. 1. The distinction between the subjunctive and indicative mood is likely to pass away. We verify this by the very general tendency to say _if it is_, and _if he speaks_, for _if it be_, and _if he speak_. 2. The distinction (as far as it goes) between the participle passive and the past tense is likely to pass away. We verify this by the tendency to say _it is broke_, and _he is smote_, for _it is broken_, and _he is smitten_. 3. Of the double forms, _sung_ and _sang_, _drank_ and _drunk_, &c. one only will be the permanent. As stated above, these tendencies are a few out of a number, and have been adduced in order to indicate the subject rather than to exhaust it. § 182. What the present language of England would have been had the Norman Conquest never taken place, the analogy of Holland, Denmark, and of many other countries enables us to determine. It would have been much as it is at present. What it would have been had the _Saxon_ conquest never taken place, is a question wherein there is far more speculation. Of France, of Italy, of Wallachia, and of the Spanish Peninsula, the analogies all point the same way. They indicate that the original Celtic would have been superseded by the Latin of the conquerors, and consequently that our language in its later stages would have been neither British nor Gaelic, but Roman. Upon these analogies, however, we may refine. Italy, was from the beginning, Roman; the Spanish Peninsula was invaded full early; no ocean divided Gaul from Rome; and the war against the ancestors of the Wallachians was a war of extermination. * * * * * {124} CHAPTER III. ON THE LOWLAND SCOTCH. § 183. The term _Lowland_ is used to distinguish the Scotch of the South-east from the Scotch of the Highlands. The former is English in its immediate affinities, and Germanic in origin; the latter is nearly the same language with the Gaelic of Ireland, and is, consequently, Celtic. The question as to whether the Lowland Scotch is a dialect of the English, or a separate and independent language, is a verbal rather than a real one. Reasons for considering the Scotch and English as _dialects_ of one and the same language lie in the fact of their being (except in the case of the more extreme forms of each) mutually intelligible. Reasons for calling one a dialect of the other depend upon causes other than philological, _e.g._, political preponderance, literary development, and the like. Reasons for treating the Scotch as a separate substantive language lie in the extent to which it has the qualities of a regular cultivated tongue, and a separate substantive literature--partially separate and substantive at the present time, wholly separate and substantive in the times anterior to the union of the crowns, and in the hands of Wyntoun, Blind Harry, Dunbar, and Lindsay. § 184. Reasons for making the _philological_ distinction between the English and Scotch dialects exactly coincide with the geographical and political boundaries between the two kingdoms are not so easily given. It is not likely that the Tweed and Solway should divide modes of speech so accurately as they divide laws and customs; that broad and trenchant lines of demarcation should separate the Scotch {125} from the English exactly along the line of the Border; and that there should be no Scotch elements in Northumberland, and no Northumbrian ones in Scotland. Neither is such the case. Hence, in speaking of the Lowland Scotch, it means the language in its typical rather than in its transitional forms; indeed, it means the _literary_ Lowland Scotch which, under the first five Stuarts, was as truly an independent language as compared with the English, as Swedish is to Danish, Portuguese to Spanish, or _vice versâ_. § 185. This limitation leaves us fully sufficient room for the notice of the question as to its _origin_; a notice all the more necessary from the fact of its having created controversy. What is the _primâ facie_ view of the relations between the English of England, and the mutually intelligible language (Scotch or English, as we choose to call it) of Scotland? One of three:-- 1. That it originated in England, and spread in the way of extension and diffusion northwards, and so reached Scotland. 2. That it originated in Scotland, and spread in the way of extension and diffusion southwards, and so reached England. 3. That it was introduced in each country from a common source. In any of these cases it is Angle, or Saxon, or Anglo-Saxon, even as English is Angle, or Saxon, or Anglo-Saxon. § 186. A view, however, different from these, and one disconnecting the Lowland Scotch from the English and Anglo-Saxon equally, is what may be called the _Pict_ doctrine. Herein it is maintained that the Lowland _Scotch is derived from the Pict, and that the Picts were of Gothic_ origin. The reasoning upon these matters is to be found in the Dissertation upon the Origin of the Scottish Language prefixed to Jamieson's Etymological Dictionary: two extracts from which explain the view which the author undertakes to combat:-- _a._ "It is an opinion which, after many others, has been pretty generally received, and, perhaps, almost taken for granted, that the language spoken in the Lowlands of {126} Scotland is merely a corrupt dialect of the English, or at least of the Anglo-Saxon." _b._ "It has generally been supposed that the Saxon language was introduced into Scotland in the reign of Malcolm Canmore by his good queen and her retinue; or partly by means of the intercourse which prevailed between the inhabitants of Scotland and those of Cumberland, Northumberland, Westmoreland, and Durham, which were held by the Kings of Scotland as fiefs of the crown of England. An English writer, not less distinguished for his amiable disposition and candour than for the cultivation of his mind, has objected to this hypothesis with great force of argument." § 187. Now, as against any such notion as that involved in the preceding extracts, the reasoning of the learned author of the Scottish Dictionary may, perhaps, be valid. No such view, however, is held, at the present moment, by any competent judge; and it is doubtful whether, in the extreme way in which it is put forward by the opponent of it, it was ever maintained at all. Be this, however, as it may, the theory which is opposed to it rests upon the following positions-- 1. That the Lowland Scotch were Picts. 2. That the Picts were Goths. In favour of this latter view the chief reasons are-- 1. That what the Belgæ were the Picts were also. 2. That the Belgæ were Germanic. Again-- 1. That the natives of the Orkneys were Picts. 2. That they were also Scandinavian. So that the Picts were Scandinavian Goths. From whence it follows that--assuming what is true concerning the Orkneys is true concerning the Lowland Scotch--the Lowland Scotch was Pict, Scandinavian, Gothic, and (as such) more or less Belgic. For the non-Gothic character of the Picts see the researches of Mr. Garnett, as given in § 139, as well as a paper--believed to be from the same author--in the Quarterly Review for 1834. {127} For the position of the Belgæ, see Chapter IV. § 188. That what is true concerning the Orkneys (viz. that they were Scandinavian) is _not_ true for the south and eastern parts of Scotland, is to be collected from the peculiar distribution of the Scottish Gaelic; which indicates a distinction between the Scandinavian of the north of Scotland and the Scandinavian of the east of England. The Lowland Scotch recedes as we go northward. Notwithstanding this, it is _not_ the extreme north that is most Gaelic. In Caithness the geographical names are Norse. _Sutherland_, the most northern county of Scotland, takes its name from being _south_; that is, of Norway. The Orkneys and Shetland are in name, manners, and language, Norse or Scandinavian. The Hebrides are Gaelic mixed with Scandinavian. The Isle of Man is the same. The word _Sodor_ (in Sodor and Man) is Norse, with the same meaning as it has in _Sutherland_. All this indicates a more preponderating, and an earlier infusion of Norse along the coast of Scotland, than that which took place under the Danes upon the coasts of England, in the days of Alfred and under the reign of Canute. The first may, moreover, have this additional peculiarity, _viz._ of being Norwegian rather than Danish. Hence I infer that the Scandinavians settled in the northern parts of Scotland at an early period, but that it was a late period when they ravaged the southern ones; so that, though the language of Orkney may be Norse, that of the Lothians may be Saxon. To verify these views we want not a general dictionary of the Scottish language taken altogether, but a series of local glossaries, or at any rate a vocabulary, 1st, of the northern; 2ndly, of the southern Scottish. Between the English and Lowland Scotch we must account for the likeness as well as the difference. The Scandinavian theory accounts for the difference only. § 189. Of the following specimens of the Lowland Scotch, the first is from The Bruce, a poem written by Barbour, Archdeacon of Aberdeen, between the years 1360 and 1375; the second from Wyntoun; the third from Blind Harry's poem, Wallace, 1460; and the fourth from Gawin Douglas's translation of the Æneid, A.D. 1513. {128} _The Bruce_, iv. 871--892. And as he raid in to the nycht, So saw he, with the monys lycht, Schynnyng off scheldys gret plenté; And had wondre quhat it mycht be. With that all hale thai gaiff a cry, And he, that hard sa suddainly Sic noyis, sumdele affrayit was. Bot in schort time he till him tais His spyrites full hardely; For his gentill hart, and worthy, Assurit hym in to that nede. Then with the spuris he strak the sted, And ruschyt in amaing them all. The feyrst he met he gert him fall; And syne his suord he swapyt out, And roucht about him mony rout, And slew sexsum weill sone and ma: Then wndre him his horss thai sla: And he fell; but he smertty rass, And strykand rowm about him mass: And slew off thaim a quantité. But woundyt wondre sar was he. _Wyntoun's Chronicle_, I. xiii. 1--22. Blessyde Bretayn Beelde sulde be Of all þe Ilys in þe Se, Quhare Flowrys are fele on Feldys fayre Hale of hewe, haylsum of ayre. Of all corne þare is copy gret, Pese and A'tys, Bere and Qwhet: Báth froyt on Tre, and fysche in flwde; And tyl all Catale pasture gwde. Solynus Sayis, in Brettany Sum steddys growys sá habowndanly Of Gyrs, þat sum tym (but) þair Fe Frá fwlth of Mete refrenyht be, Ðair fwde sall turne þam to peryle, To rot, or bryst, or dey sum quhyle. Ðare wylde in Wode has welth at wille; Ðare hyrdys hydys Holme and Hille: Ðare Bwyis bowys all for Byrtht, {129} Báthe Merle and Ma[:w]esys mellys for myrtht: Ðare huntyng is at all kyne Dere, And rycht gud hawlkyn on Bÿwer; Of Fysche þaire is habowndance; And nedfulle thyng to Mannys substance. _Wallace_, xi. 230-262. A lord off court, quhen he approchyt thar, Wnwisytly sperd, withoutyn prouision; "Wallace, dar ye go fecht on our lioun?" And he said; "Ya, so the Kyng suffyr me; Or on your selff, gyff ye ocht bettyr be." Quhat will ye mar? this thing amittyt was, That Wallace suld on to the lioun pas. The King thaim chargyt to bring him gud harnas: Then he said; "Nay, God scheild me fra sic cass. I wald tak weid, suld I fecht with a man; But (for) a dog, that nocht off armes can, I will haiff nayn, bot synglar as I ga." A gret manteill about his hand can ta, And his gud suerd; with him he tuk na mar; Abandounly in barrace entryt thar. Gret chenys was wrocht in the yet with a gyn, And pulld it to quhen Wallace was tharin. The wod lyoun, on Wallace quhar he stud, Rampand he braid, for he desyryt blud; With his rude pollis in the mantill rocht sa. Aukwart the bak than Wallace can him ta, With his gud suerd, that was off burnest steill, His body in twa it thruschyt euirilkdeill. Syn to the King he raykyt in gret ire, And said on lowd; "Was this all your desyr, To wayr a Scot thus lychtly in to wayn? Is thar mar doggis at ye wald yeit haiff slayne? Go, bryng thaim furth, sen I mon doggis qwell, To do byddyng, quhill that with thee duell. It gaynd full weill I graithit me to Scotland; For grettar deidis thair men has apon hand, Than with a dog in battaill to escheiff-- At you in France for euir I tak my leiff." {130} _Gawin Douglas_, Æn. ii. As Laocon that was Neptunus priest, And chosin by cavil vnto that ilk office, Ane fare grete bull offerit in sacrifice, Solempnithe before the haly altere, Throw the still sey from Tenedos in fere, Lo twa gret lowpit edderis with mony thraw First throw the flude towart the land can draw. (My sprete abhorris this matter to declare) Aboue the wattir thare hals stude euirmare, With bludy creistis outwith the wallis hie, The remanent swam always vnder the se, With grisly bodyis lynkit mony fald, The salt fame stouris from the fard they hald, Unto the ground thay glade with glowand ene, Stuffit full of venom, fire and felloun tene, With tounges quhissling in thar mouthis red, Thay lik the twynkilland stangis in thar hed. We fled away al bludles for effere. Bot with ane braide to Laocon in fere Thay stert attanis, and his twa sonnys zyng First athir serpent lappit like ane ring, And with thare cruel bit, and stangis fell, Of tender membris tuke mony sory morsel; Syne thay the preist invadit baith twane, Quhilk wyth his wappins did his besy pane His childer for to helpen and reskew. Bot thay about him lowpit in wympillis threw, And twis circulit his myddel round about, And twys faldit thare sprutillit skynnis but dout, About his hals, baith neck and hed they schent. As he ettis thare hankis to haue rent, And with his handis thaym away haue draw, His hede bendis and garlandis all war blaw Full of vennum and rank poysoun attanis, Quhilk infekkis the flesche, blude, and banys. § 190. In the way of orthography, the most characteristic difference between the English and Scotch is the use, on the part of the latter, of _qu_ for _wh_; as _quhen_, _quhare_, _quhat_, for _when_, _where_, _what_. The substitution of _sch_ for _sh_ (as _scho_ for _she_), and of _z_ for the Old English _[gh]_ (as _zour_ for _[gh]eowr_, _your_), is as much northern English as Scotch. {131} In pronunciation, the substitution of _d_ for _ð_ (if not a point of spelling), as in _fader_ for _father_; of _a_ for _o_, as _báith_ for _both_; of _s_ for _sh_, as _sall_ for _shall_; and the use of the guttural sound of _ch_, as in _loch_, _nocht_, are the same. The ejection of the _n_ before _t_, or an allied sound, and the lengthening of the preceding vowel, by way of compensation, as in _begouth_ for _beginneth_, seems truly Scotch. It is the same change that in Greek turns the radical syllable [Greek: odont] into [Greek: odous]. The formation of the plural of verbs in _-s_, rather than in _-th_ (the Anglo-Saxon form), is Northern English as well as Scotch:--Scotch, _slepys_, _lovys_; Northern English, _slepis_, _lovis_; Old English, _slepen_, _loven_; Anglo-Saxon _slepiað_, _lufiað_. The formation of the plural number of the genitive case by the addition of the syllable _-is_ (_blastis_, _birdis_, _bloomis_), instead of the letter _-s_ (_blasts_, _birds_, _blooms_), carries with it a metrical advantage, inasmuch as it gives a greater number of double rhymes. The same may be said of the participial forms, _affrayit_, _assurit_, for _affrayd_, _assured_. Concerning the comparative rate of change in the two languages no general assertion can be made. In the Scotch words _sterand_, _slepand_, &c., for _steering_, _sleeping_, the form is antiquated, and Anglo-Saxon rather than English. It is not so, however, with the words _thai_ (_they_), _thaim_ (_them_), _thair_ (_their_), compared with the contemporary words in English, _heo_, _hem_, _heora_. In these it is the Scottish that is least, and the English that is most Anglo-Saxon. * * * * * {132} CHAPTER IV. OF CERTAIN UNDETERMINED AND FICTITIOUS LANGUAGES OF GREAT BRITAIN. § 191. The languages mentioned in the present chapter claim their place on one ground only,--_they have been the subject of controversy_. The notice of them will be brief. The current texts upon which the controversies have turned will be quoted; whilst the opinion of the present writer is left to be collected from the title of the chapter. _The Belgæ._--By some these are considered a Germanic rather than a Celtic tribe; the view being supported by the following extracts from Cæsar:--"_Gallia est omnis divisa in tres partes; quarum unam incolunt Belgæ, aliam Aquitani, tertiam, qui ipsorum lingua Celtæ, nostra Galli, appellantur. Hi omnes lingua, institutis, legibus inter se differunt. Gallos--a Belgis Matrona et Sequana dividit._"--B. G. i. "_Belgæ ab extremis Galliæ finibus oriuntur._"--B. G. ii. "_Quum ab his quæreret, quæ civitates, quantæque in armis essent, et quid in bello possent, sic reperiebat: plerosque Belgas esse ortos a Germanis, Rhenumque antiquitùs transductos, propter loci fertilitatem ibi consedisse; Gallosque, qui ea loca incolerent, expulisse; solosque esse qui patrum nostrorum memoria, omni Gallia vexata Teutones Cimbrosque intra fines suos ingredi prohibuerunt._"--B. G. ii. 4. "_Britanniæ pars interior ab iis incolitur quos natos in insulâ ipsâ memoriâ proditum dicunt: maritima pars ab iis, qui prædæ ac belli inferendi causa ex Belgio transierant._"--B. G. v. 12. § 192. The possibly Germanic origin of the Belgæ, and the Belgic element of the British population, are matters which bear upon the question indicated in § 10, or that of the Germanic influences anterior to A.D. 449. {133} They have a still more important bearing, the historian over and above identifying the Belgæ with the Germans, affirms _that what applies to the Belgæ applies to the Picts_ also. Now this is one of the arguments in favour of the doctrine exhibited (and objected to) in pp. 124-127, and the extent of questions upon which it bears, may be collected from the following quotation:--"A variety of other considerations might be mentioned, which, although they do not singly amount to proof, yet merit attention, as viewed in connexion with what has been already stated. "As so great a part of the eastern coast of what is now called England was so early peopled by the Belgæ, it is hardly conceivable that neither so enterprising a people, nor any of their kindred tribes, should ever think of extending their descents a little farther eastward. For that the Belgæ and the inhabitants of the countries bordering on the Baltic, had a common origin, there seems to be little reason to doubt. The Dutch assert that their progenitors were Scandinavians, who, about a century before the common era, left Jutland and the neighbouring territories, in quest of new habitations.[29] The Saxons must be viewed as a branch from the same stock; for they also proceeded from modern Jutland and its vicinity. Now, there is nothing repugnant to reason in supposing that some of these tribes should pass over directly to the coast of Scotland opposite to them, even before the Christian era. For Mr. Whitaker admits that the Saxons, whom he strangely makes a Gaulic people, in the second century applied themselves to navigation, and soon became formidable to the Romans.[30] Before they could become formidable to so powerful a people, they must have been at least so well acquainted with navigation as to account it no great enterprise to cross from the shores of the Baltic over to Scotland, especially if they took the islands of Shetland and Orkney in their way. "As we have seen that, according to Ptolemy, there were, in his time, different tribes of Belgæ, settled on the northern {134} extremity of our country: the most natural idea undoubtedly is, that they came directly from the Continent. For had these Belgæ crossed the English Channel, according to the common progress of barbarous nations, it is scarcely supposable that this island would have been settled to its utmost extremity so early as the age of Agricola. "There is every reason to believe, that the Belgic tribes in Caledonia, described by Ptolemy, were Picts. For as the Belgæ, Picts, and Saxons seem to have had a common origin, it is not worth while to differ about names. These frequently arise from causes so trivial, that their origin becomes totally inscrutable to succeeding ages. The Angles, although only one tribe, have accidentally given their name to the country which they invaded, and to all the descendants of the Saxons and Belgæ, who were by far more numerous. "It is universally admitted, that there is a certain national character, of an external kind, which distinguishes one people from another. This is often so strong that those who have travelled through various countries, or have accurately marked the diversities of this character, will scarcely be deceived even as to a straggling individual. Tacitus long ago remarked the striking resemblance between the Germans and Caledonians. Every stranger, at this day, observes the great difference and complexion between the Highlanders and Lowlanders. No intelligent person in England is in danger of confounding the Welsh with the posterity of the Saxons. Now, if the Lowland Scots be not a Gothic race, but in fact the descendants of the ancient British, they must be supposed to retain some national resemblance of the Welsh. But will any impartial observer venture to assert, that in feature, complexion, or form, there is any such similarity as to induce the slightest apprehension that they have been originally the same people?"[31] It is doubtful, however, whether Cæsar meant to say more than that over above certain differences which distinguished the Belgæ from the other inhabitants of the common country _Gallia_, there was an intermixture of Germans. {135} The import of a possibly Germanic origin for the Belgæ gives us the import of a possibly Germanic origin for-- § 193. _The Caledonians._--A speculative sentence of Tacitus indicates the chance of the Caledonians being Germanic:--"_Britanniam qui mortales initio coluerint, indigenæ an advecti, ut inter barbaros, parum compertum. Habitus corporum varii: atque ex eo argumenta: namque rutilæ Caledoniam habitantium comæ, magni artus, Germanicam originem adseverant._"--Agricola, xi. The continuation of the passage quoted in § 193 has induced the notion that there have been in Britain Spanish, Iberic, or Basque tribes:--"_Silurum colorati vultus, et torti plerumque crines, et posita contra Hispania, Iberos veteres trajecisse, easque sedes occupâsse fidem faciunt._"--Agricola, xi. As this, although an opinion connected with the history of the languages of Great Britain, is not an opinion connected with the history of the English language, it is a question for the Celtic, rather than the Gothic, philologist. The same applies to the points noticed in §§ 136-138. Nevertheless they are necessary for the purposes of minute philological analysis. § 194. As early as the year A.D. 1676, an opinion was advanced by[32] Aylett Sammes, in a work entitled Britannia Antiqua Illustrata, that the first colonisers of Ireland were the merchants of Tyre and Sidon. In confirmation of this opinion the existence of several Eastern customs in Ireland was adduced by subsequent antiquarians. Further marks of an Eastern origin of the Irish were soon found in the Gaelic dialect of that country. Finally, the matter (in the eyes at least of the national writers) was satisfactorily settled by the famous discovery, attributed to General Vallancey, of the true meaning of the Carthaginian lines in Plautus. In the Little Carthaginian (Poenulus) of the Latin comic writer Plautus, a portion of the dialogue is carried on in the language of Carthage. That the Punic language of Carthage should closely {136} resemble that of the mother-city Tyre, which was Phoenician; and that the Phoenician of Tyre should be allied to the language of Palestine and Syria, was soon remarked by the classical commentators of the time. Joseph Scaliger asserted that the Punic of the Poenulus _differed but little from pure Hebrew_--"_Ab Hebraismi puritate parum abesse._" Emendated and interpreted by Bochart, the first ten lines of a speech in Act v. s. 1. stand thus:-- 1. N' yth alionim valionuth sicorath jismacon sith 2. Chy-mlachai jythmu mitslia mittebariim ischi 3. Liphorcaneth yth beni ith jad adi ubinuthai 4. Birua rob syllohom alonim ubymisyrtohom 5. Bythrym moth ymoth othi helech Antidamarchon 6. Ys sideli: brim tyfel yth chili schontem liphul 7. Uth bin imys dibur thim nocuth nu' Agorastocles 8. Ythem aneti hy chyr saely choc, sith naso. 9. Binni id chi lu hilli gubylim lasibil thym 10. Body aly thera ynn' yss' immoncon lu sim-- _The Same, in Hebrew Characters._ [Hebrew: N' 'T `LYWNYM W`LYWNWT SHKWRT YSMKWN Z'T:] .1 [Hebrew: KY MLKY NTMW: MTSLYCH MDBRYHM `SQY:] .2 [Hebrew: LPWRQNT 'T BNY 'T YD `DY WBNWTY:] .3 [Hebrew: BRWCH RB SHLHM `LYWNYM WBMSHWRTHM:] .4 [Hebrew: BT`RM MWT CHNWT 'WTY HLK 'NTYDMRKWN:] .5 [Hebrew: 'YSH SHYD`LY: BRM T`PL 'T CHYLY SHKYNTM L'PL:] .6 [Hebrew: 'T BN 'MYTS DBWR TM NQWT` NWH 'GWRST`WQLYS:] .7 [Hebrew: CHWTM CHNWTY HW' KYWR SH'LY CHWQ Z'T NWSH':] .8 [Hebrew: BYNY `D KY LW H'LH GBWLYM LSHBT TM:] .9 [Hebrew: BW' DY `LY TR` 'N': HNW 'SH'L 'M MNKR LW 'M] .01 Six lines following these were determined to be _Liby_-Phoenician, or the language of the native Africans in the neighbourhood of Carthage, mixed with Punic. These, it was stated, had the same meaning with the ten lines in Carthaginian. The following lines of Plautus have, by all commentators, {137} been viewed in the same light, _viz._ as the Latin version of the speech of the Carthaginian. 1. Deos deasque veneror, qui hanc urbem colunt, 2. Ut, quod de mea re huc veni, rite venerim. 3. Measque hic ut gnatas, et mei fratris filium 4. Reperire me siritis: Di, vostram fidem! 5. Quæ mihi surruptæ sunt, et fratris filium: 6. Sed hic mihi antehac hospes Antidamas fuit. 7. Eum fecisse aiunt, sibi quod faciendum fuit. 8. Ejus filium hic esse prædicant Agorastoclem: 9. Deum hospitalem et tesseram mecum fero: 10. In hisce habitare monstratum est regionibus. 11. Hos percunctabor, qui huc egrediuntur foras. Guided by the metrical _paraphrase_ of the original author, Bochart laid before the scholars of his time a Latin version, of which the following is an English translation:-- _Close Translation of Bochart's Latin Version._ 1. I ask the gods and goddesses that preside over this city, 2. That my plans may be fulfilled.--May my business prosper under their guidance! 3. The release of my son and my daughters from the hands of a robber. 4. May the gods grant this, through the mighty spirit that is in them and by their providence! 5. Before his death, Antidamarchus used to sojourn with me. 6. A man intimate with me: but he has joined the ranks of those whose dwelling is in darkness (the dead). 7. There is a general report that his son has here taken his abode; _viz._ Agorastocles. 8. The token (tally) of my claim to hospitality is a carven tablet, the sculpture whereof is my god. This I carry. 9. A witness has informed me that he lives in this neighbourhood. 10. Somebody comes this way through the gate: behold him: I'll ask him whether he knows the name. To professed classics and to professed orientalists, the version of Bochart has, _on the whole_, appeared satisfactory. Divisions of opinion there have been, it is true, even amongst those who received it; but merely upon matters of detail. Some have held that the Punic is Syriac rather than Hebraic, whilst others have called in to its interpretation the Arabic, {138} the Maltese, or the Chaldee; all (be it observed) languages akin to the Hebrew. Those who look further than this for their affinities, Gesenius[33] dismisses in the following cavalier and cursory manner:--"_Ne eorum somnia memorem, qui e Vasconum et Hiberniæ linguis huic causæ succurri posse opinati sunt; de quibus copiosius referre piget._" The remark of Gesenius concerning the pretended affinities between the Punic and Hibernian arose from the discovery attributed to General Vallancey; _viz._ that the speech in Plautus was Irish Gaelic, and consequently that the Irish was Carthaginian, and _vice versâ_. The word _attributed_ is used because the true originator of the hypothesis was not Vallancey, but O'Neachtan. _The Gaelic Version._ 1. N 'iath all o nimh uath lonnaithe socruidshe me comsith 2. Chimi lach chuinigh! muini is toil, miocht beiridh iar mo scith 3. Liomhtha can ati bi mitche ad éadan beannaithe 4. Bior nar ob siladh umhal: o nimh! ibhim a frotha! 5. Beith liom! mo thime noctaithe; neil ach tan ti daisic mac coinme 6. Is i de leabhraim tafach leith, chi lis con teampluibh ulla 7. Uch bin nim i is de beart inn a ccomhnuithe Agorastocles! 8. Itche mana ith a chithirsi; leicceath sith nosa! 9. Buaine na iad cheile ile: gabh liom an la so bithim'! 10. Bo dileachtach nionath n' isle, mon cothoil us im. _In English._ 1. Omnipotent much-dreaded Deity of this country! assuage my troubled mind! 2. Thou! the support of feeble captives! being now exhausted with fatigue, of thy free will guide to my children! 3. O let my prayers be perfectly acceptable in thy sight! 4. An inexhaustible fountain to the humble: O Deity! let me drink of its streams! 5. Forsake me not! my earnest desire is now disclosed, which is only that of recovering my daughters. 6. This was my fervent prayer, lamenting their misfortunes in thy sacred temples. 7. O bounteous Deity! it is reported here dwelleth Agorastocles. {139} 8. Should my request appear just, let here my disquietudes cease. 9. Let them be no longer concealed; O that I may this day find my daughters! 10. They will be fatherless, and preys to the worst of men, unless it be thy pleasure that I should find them. From the quotations already given, the general reader may see that both the text and the translation of Plautus are least violated in the reading and rendering of Bochart, a reading and rendering which no _Gothic_ or _Semitic_ scholar has ever set aside. § 195. _The hypothesis of an aboriginal Finnic population in Britain and elsewhere._--A Celtic population of Britain preceded the Germanic. Are there any reasons for believing that any older population preceded the Celtic? The reasoning upon this point is preeminently that of the Scandinavian (_i.e._ Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian) school of philology and ethnology. Arndt, I believe, was the first who argued that if the so-called Indo-European nations were as closely connected with each other as they are generally considered, their separation from the common stock must have been subsequent to the occupation of Europe by some portion or other of the human species--in other words, that this earlier population must have been spread over those areas of which the Indo-Europeans took possession only at a later period. That the divisions of such an earlier population were, _at least_, as closely connected with each other as the different members of the so-called Indo-European class, was a reasonable opinion. It was even reasonable to suppose that they were _more_ closely connected; since the date of their diffusion must have been nearer the time of the original dispersion of mankind. If so, all Europe (the British Isles included) might have had as its aborigines a family older than the oldest members of the Indo-European stock; a family of which every member may now be extinct, or a family of which remains may still survive. Where are such remains to be sought? In two sorts of localities-- {140} 1. Parts _beyond_ the limits of the area occupied by the so-called Indo-Europeans. 2. Parts _within_ the limits of the so-called Indo-Europeans; but so fortified by nature as to have been the stronghold of a retiring population. What are the chief parts coming under the first of these conditions? _a._ The countries beyond the Indo-Europeans of the Scandinavian and Slavonic areas, _i.e._ the countries of the Laplanders and Finnlanders. _b._ The countries beyond the Indo-Europeans of the Iranian stock, _i.e._ the Dekkan, or the country of those natives of India (whatever they may be) whose languages are not derived from the Sanscrit. What are parts coming under the second of these conditions? _a._ The Basque districts of the Pyrenees, where the language represents that of the aborigines of Spain anterior to the conquest of the Roman. _b._ The Albanians.--Such the doctrine of the _continuity_ of an _ante_-Indo-European population, from Cape Comorin to Lapland, and from Lapland to the Pyrenees. There is _some_ philological evidence of this: whether there is _enough_ is another matter. This view, which on its _philological_ side has been taken up by Rask, Kayser, and the chief Scandinavian scholars, and which, whether right or wrong, is the idea of a bold and comprehensive mind, as well as a powerful instrument of criticism in the way of a provisional theory, has also been adopted on its _physiological_ side by the chief Scandinavian anatomists and palæontologists--Retzius, Eschricht, Niilson, and others. Skulls differing in shape from the Celtic skulls of Gaul, and from the Gothic skulls of Germany and Scandinavia, have been found in considerable numbers; and generally in burial-places of an apparently greater antiquity than those which contain typical Celtic, or typical Gothic crania. Hence there is some _anatomical_ as well as philological evidence: whether there is enough is another question. * * * * * {141} PART III. SOUNDS, LETTERS, PRONUNCIATION, SPELLING. -------- CHAPTER I. GENERAL NATURE OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS. § 196. To two points connected with the subject of the following Chapter, the attention of the reader is requested. I. In the comparison of sounds the ear is liable to be misled by the eye. The syllables _ka_ and _ga_ are similar syllables. The vowel is in each the same, and the consonant is but slightly different. Now the words _ka_ and _ga_ are more allied to each other than the words _ka_ and _ba_, _ka_ and _ta_, &c., because the consonantal sounds of _k_ and _g_ are more allied than the consonantal sounds of _k_ and _b_, _k_ and _t_. Comparing the syllables _ga_ and _ka_, we see the affinity between the sounds, and we see it at the first glance. It lies on the surface, and strikes the ear at once. It is, however, very evident that ways might be devised, or might arise from accident, of concealing the likeness between the two sounds, or, at any rate, of making it less palpable. One of such ways would be a faulty mode of spelling. If instead of _ga_ we wrote _gha_ the following would be the effect: the syllable would appear less simple than it really was; it would look as if it consisted of three parts instead of two, and consequently its affinity to _ka_ would seem less than it really was. It is perfectly true that a little consideration would tell us that, as long as the sound remained the same, the relation {142} of the two syllables remained the same; and that, if the contrary appeared to be the case, the ear was misled by the eye. Still a little consideration would be required. Now in the English language we have, amongst others, the following modes of spelling that have a tendency to mislead:-- The sounds of _ph_ and of _f_, in _Philip_ and _fillip_, differ to the eye, but to the ear are identical. Here a difference is simulated. The sounds of _th_ in _thin_, and of _th_ in _thine_, differ to the ear, but to the eye seem the same. Here a difference is concealed. These last sounds appear to the eye to be double or compound. This is not the case; they are simple single sounds, and not the sounds of _t_ followed by _h_, as the spelling leads us to imagine. II. Besides improper modes of spelling, there is another way of concealing the true nature of sounds. If I say that _ka_ and _ga_ are allied, the alliance is manifest; since I compare the actual sounds. If I say _ka_ and _gee_ are allied, the alliance is concealed; since I compare, not the actual sounds, but only the names of the letters that express those sounds. Now in the English language we have, amongst others, the following names of letters that have a tendency to mislead:-- The sounds _fa_ and _va_ are allied. The names _eff_ and _vee_ conceal this alliance. The sounds _sa_ and _za_ are allied. The names _ess_ and _zed_ conceal the alliance. In comparing sounds it is advisable to have nothing to do either with letters or names of letters. Compare the sounds themselves. In many cases it is sufficient, in comparing consonants, to compare syllables that contain those consonants; _e.g._, to determine the relations of _p_, _b_, _f_, _v_, we say _pa_, _ba_, _fa_, _va_; or for those of _s_ and _z_, we say _sa_, _za_. Here we compare _syllables_, each consonant being followed by a vowel. At times this is insufficient. We are often obliged to isolate the consonant from its vowel, and bring our organs to utter (or half utter) imperfect sounds of _p'_, _b'_, _t'_, _d'_. In doing this we isolate the consonant. {143} § 197. Let any of the _vowels_ (for instance, the _a_ in _father_) be sounded. The lips, the tongue, and the parts within the throat remain in the same position: and as long as these remain in the same position the sound is that of the vowel under consideration. Let, however, a change take place in the position of the organs of sound; let, for instance, the lips be closed, or the tongue be applied to the front part of the mouth: in that case the vowel sound is cut short. It undergoes a change. It terminates in a sound that is different, according to the state of those organs whereof the position has been changed. If, on the vowel in question, the lips be closed, there then arises an imperfect sound of _b_ or _p_. If, on the other hand, the tongue be applied to the front teeth, or to the fore part of the palate, the sound is one (more or less imperfect) of _t_ or d. This fact illustrates the difference between the vowels and the consonants. It may be verified by pronouncing the _a_ in _fate_, _ee_ in _feet_, _oo_ in _book_, _o_ in _note_, &c. It is a further condition in the formation of a vowel sound, that the passage of the breath be uninterrupted. In the sound of the _l'_ in _lo_ (isolated from its vowel) the sound is as continuous as it is with the _a_ in _fate_. Between, however, the consonant _l_ and the vowel _a_ there is this difference: with _a_, the passage of the breath is uninterrupted; with _l_, the tongue is applied to the palate, breaking or arresting the passage of the breath. § 198. The primary division of our articulate sounds is into vowels and consonants. The latter are again divided into liquids (_l_, _m_, _n_, _r_) and mutes (_p_, _b_, _f_, _v_, _t_, _d_, _g_, _s_, _z_, &c.) _Definitions_ for the different sorts of articulate sounds have still to be laid down. In place of these, we have general assertions concerning the properties and qualities of the respective classes. Concerning the consonants as a class, we may predicate one thing concerning the liquids, and concerning the mutes, another. What the nature of these assertions is, will be seen after the explanation of certain terms. § 199. _Sharp and flat._--Take the sounds of _p_, _f_, _t_, _k_, _s_; isolate them from their vowels, and pronounce them. The sound is the sound of a whisper. {144} Let _b_, _v_, _d_, _g_, _z_, be similarly treated. The sound is no whisper, but one at the natural tone of our voice. Now _p_, _f_, _t_, _k_, _s_ (with some others that will be brought forward anon) are _sharp_, whilst _b_, _v_, &c. are _flat_. Instead of _sharp_, some say _hard_, and instead of _flat_, some say _soft_. The Sanskrit terms _sonant_ and _surd_ are, in a scientific point of view, the least exceptionable. They have, however, the disadvantage of being pedantic. The _tenues_ of the classics (as far as they go) are sharp, the _mediæ_ flat. _Continuous and explosive._--Isolate the sounds of _b_, _p_, _t_, _d_, _k_, _g_. Pronounce them. You have no power of prolonging the sounds, or of resting upon them. They escape with the breath, and they escape at once. It is not so with _f_, _v_, _sh_, _zh_. Here the breath is transmitted by degrees, and the sound can be drawn out and prolonged for an indefinite space of time. Now _b_, _p_, _t_, &c. are explosive _f_, _v_, &c. continuous. § 200. Concerning the vowels, we may predicate _a_) that they are all continuous, _b_) that they are all flat. Concerning the liquids, we may predicate _a_) that they are all continuous, _b_) that they are all flat. Concerning the mutes, we may predicate _a_) that one half of them is flat, and the other half sharp, and _b_) that some are continuous, and that others are explosive. § 201.--The letter _h_ is no articulate sound, but only a breathing. For the semivowels and the diphthongs, see the sequel. * * * * * {145} CHAPTER II. SYSTEM OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS. § 202.--The attention of the reader is now directed to the following _foreign_ vowel sounds. 1. _é fermé_, of the French.--This is a sound allied to, but different from, the _a_ in _fate_, and the _ee_ in _feet_. It is intermediate to the two. 2. _u_ of the French, _ü_ of the Germans, _y_ of the Danes.--This sound is intermediate to the _ee_ in _feet_, and the _oo_ in _book_. 3. _o chiuso_, of the Italians.--Intermediate to the _o_ in _note_, and the _oo_ in _book_. For these sounds we have the following sequences: _a_ in _fate_, _é fermé_, _ee_ in _feet_, _ü_ in _übel_ (German), _oo_ in _book_, _o chiuso_, _o_ in _note_. And this is the true order of alliance among the vowels; _a_ in _fate_, and _o_ in _note_, being the extremes; the other sounds being transitional or intermediate. As the English orthography is at once singular and faulty, it exhibits the relationship but imperfectly. § 203. _The system of the mutes._--Preliminary to the consideration of the system of the mutes, let it be observed:-- 1. that the _th_ in _thin_ is a simple single sound, different from the _th_ in _thine_, and that it may be expressed by the sign þ. 2. That the _th_ in _thine_ is a simple single sound, different from the _th_ in _thin_, and that it may be expressed by the sign ð. 3. That the _sh_ in _shine_ is a simple single sound, and that it may be expressed by the sign [sigma] (Greek [Greek: sigma]). 4. That the _z_ in _azure_, _glazier_ (French _j_), is a simple single sound, and that it may be expressed by the sign [zeta] (Greek [Greek: zêta]). {146} 5. That in the Laplandic, and possibly in many other languages, there are two peculiar sounds, different from any in English, German, and French, &c., and that they may respectively be expressed by the sign _[kappa]_ and the sign _[gamma]_ (Greek [Greek: kappa] and [Greek: gamma]). With these preliminary notices we may exhibit the system of the sixteen mutes; having previously determined the meaning of two fresh terms, and bearing in mind what was said concerning the words sharp and flat, continuous and explosive. _Lene and aspirate._--From the sound of _p_ in _pat_, the sound of _f_ in _fat_ differs in a certain degree. This difference is not owing to a difference in their sharpness or flatness. Each is sharp. Neither is it owing to a difference in their continuity or explosiveness; although, at the first glance, such might appear to be the case. _F_ is continuous, whilst _p_ is explosive. _S_, however, is continuous, and _s_, in respect to the difference under consideration, is classed not with _f_ the continuous sound but with _p_ the explosive one. I am unable to account for the difference between _p_ and _f_. It exists: it is visible. It has been expressed by a term. _P_ is called _lene_, _f_ is called _aspirate_. As _f_ is to _p_ so is _v_ to b. As _v_ is to _b_ so is _þ_ to _t_. As _þ_ is to _t_ so is _ð_ to d. As _ð_ is to _d_ so is _[kappa]_ to _k_. As _[kappa]_ is to _k_ so is _[gamma]_ to _g_. As _[gamma]_ is to _g_ so is _[sigma]_ to _s_. As _[sigma]_ is to _s_ so is _[zeta]_ to _z_. Hence _p_, _b_, _t_, _d_, _k_, _g_, _s_, _z_, are _lene_; _f_, _v_, _þ_, _ð_, _[kappa]_, _[gamma]_, _[sigma]_, _[zeta]_, are _aspirate_. Also _p_, _f_, _t_, _þ_, _k_, _[kappa]_, _s_, _[sigma]_, are _sharp_, whilst _b_, _v_, _d_, _ð_, _g_, _[gamma]_, _z_, _[zeta]_, are _flat_; so that there is a double series of relationship capable of being expressed as follows:-- _Lene_. _Aspirate_. _Sharp_. _Flat_. _Sharp_. _Flat_. _p_ _b_ _f_ _v_ _t_ _d_ _þ_ _ð_ _k_ _g_ _[kappa]_ _[gamma]_ _s_ _z_ _[sigma]_ _[zeta]_ _Sharp_. _Flat_. _Lene_. _Aspirate_. _Lene_. _Aspirate_ _p_ _f_ _b_ _v_ _t_ _þ_ _d_ _ð_ _k_ _[kappa]_ _g_ _[gamma]_ _s_ _[sigma]_ _z_ _[zeta]_ {147} I am not familiar enough with the early grammarians to know when the terms _lene_ and _aspirate_ were first used. They were the Latin equivalents to the Greek words [Greek: psilon] (_psilon_) and [Greek: dasu] (_dasy_) respectively. The Greek terms are preferable. _They_ convey no determinate idea, whereas the Latin terms convey a false one. The origin of the word aspirate I imagine to be as follows. The Latin language, wanting both the sound of the Greek _theta_, and the sign to express it (_[theta]_) rendered it by _th_. This orthography engenders the false notion that _[theta]_ differed from _[tau]_ by the addition of the aspirate _h_. To guard against similar false notions, I rarely hereafter use the word aspirate without qualifying it by the addition of the adjective _so-called_. All the so-called aspirates are continuous; and, with the exception of _s_ and _z_, all the lenes are explosive. I believe that in the fact of each mute appearing in a fourfold form (_i.e._ sharp, or flat, lene, or (so-called) aspirate), lies the essential character of the mutes as opposed to the liquids. _Y_ and _w_.--These sounds, respectively intermediate to _[gamma]_ and _i_ (the _ee_ in _feet_), and to _[upsilon]_ and _u_ (_oo_ in _book_), form a transition from the vowels to the consonants. § 204. It has been seen that the sixteen mutes are reducible to four series. Of these series, _p_, _t_, _k_, _s_, may respectively be taken as the types. Of the liquids it may be predicated as follows:-- 1. That _m_ is allied to the series _p_.--The combination _inp_ has a tendency to become _imp_. 2. That _n_ is allied to the series _t_.--The combination _imt_ has a tendency to become either _impt_, or _int_. 3. That _l_ is allied to the series _k_.--The evidence of this lies deep in comparative philology. 4. That _r_ is allied to the series _s_.--The evidence of this is of the same nature with that of the preceding assertion. The series _p_ and _k_ have this peculiarity.--They are connected with the vowels through _w_ and _u_ (_oo_), and through _y_ and _i_ (_ee_) respectively. § 205. The French word _roi_ and the English words _oil_, {148} _house_, are specimens of a fresh class of articulations; _viz._, of compound vowel sounds or _diphthongs_. The diphthong _oi_ is the vowel _o_ modified, plus the _semi_vowel _y_ (not the _vowel_ _i_) modified. The diphthongal sound in _roi_ is the vowel _o_ modified, _plus_ the semivowel _w_ (not the vowel _u_ or _oo_) modified. In _roi_ the semivowel element precedes, in _oil_ it follows. In _roi_ it is the semivowel allied to series _p_; in _oil_ it is the semivowel allied to series _k_. _The nature of the modification that the component parts of a diphthong undergo has yet to be determined_; although it is certain there is one. If it were not so, the articulations would be _double_, not _compound_. The words quoted indicate the nature of the diphthongal system. 1. Diphthongs with the semivowel _w_, _a_) _preceding_, as in the French word _roi_, _b_) _following_, as in the English word _new_. 2. Diphthongs with the semivowel _y_, _a_) _preceding_, as is common in the languages of the Lithuanic and Slavonic stocks, _b_) _following_, as in the word _oil_. 3. Triphthongs with a semivowel both _preceding_ and _following_. The diphthongs in English are four; _ow_ as in _house_, _ew_ as in _new_, _oi_ as in _oil_, _i_ as in _bite_, _fight_. § 206. _Chest_, _jest_.--Here we have compound consonantal sounds. The _ch_ in _chest_ is _t_ + _sh_ ([sigma]), the _j_ in _jest_ is _d_ + _zh_ ([zeta]). I believe that in these combinations one or both the elements, _viz._, _t_ and _sh_, _d_ and _zh_, are modified; but I am unable to state the exact nature of this modification. § 207. _Ng._--The sound of the _ng_ in _sing_, _king_, _throng_, when at the end of a word, or of _singer_, _ringing_, &c. in the middle of a word, is not the natural sound of the combination _n_ and _g_, each letter retaining its natural power and sound; but a simple single sound, of which the combination _ng_ is a conventional mode of expressing. § 208. Other terms, chiefly relating to the vowels, have still to be explained. The _é_ of the French has been called _fermé_, or _close_ (Italian, _chiuso_). Its opposite, the _a_ in _fate_, is _open_. Compared with _a_ in _fate_, and the _o_ in _note_, _a_ in _father_, {149} and the _aw_ in _bawl_, are _broad_, the vowels of _note_ and _fate_ being _slender_. § 209. In _fat_, the vowel is, according to common parlance, _short_; in _fate_, it is _long_. Here we have the introduction of two fresh terms. For the words _long_ and _short_, I would fain substitute _independent_ and _dependent_. If from the word _fate_ I separate the final consonantal sound, the syllable, _fa_ remains. In this syllable the _a_ has precisely the sound that it had before. It remains unaltered. The removal of the consonant has in nowise modified its sound or power. It is not so with the vowel in the word _fat_. If from this I remove the consonant following, and so leave the _a_ at the end of the syllable, instead of in the middle, I must do one of two things: I must sound it either as the _a_ in _fate_, or else as the _a_ in _father_. Its (so-called) short sound it cannot retain, unless it be supported by a consonant following. For this reason it is _dependent_. The same is the case with all the so-called short sounds, _viz._, the _e_ in _bed_, _i_ in _fit_, _u_ in _bull_, _o_ in _not_, _u_ in _but_. To the preceding remarks the following statements may be added. 1. That the words _independent_ and _dependent_ correspond with the terms _perfect_ and _imperfect_ of the Hebrew grammarians. 2. That the Hebrew grammars give us the truest notions respecting these particular properties of vowels. The following sentences are copied from Lee's Hebrew Grammar, Art. 33, 34:--"By _perfect vowels_ is meant, vowels which, being preceded by a consonant" (_or without being so preceded_), "will constitute a complete syllable, as [Hebrew: BA] _b[=a]_. By _imperfect vowels_ is meant those vowels which are not generally" (_never_) "found to constitute syllables without either the addition of a consonant or of an accent. Such syllables, therefore, must be either like [Hebrew: BDA] _bad_, or [Hebrew: BA] _b[=a]_, _i.e._, followed by a consonant, or accompanied by an accent." For further remarks on this subject, see the chapter on accent. § 210. Before _i_, _e_, and _y_ of the English alphabet, and before _ü_ and _ö_ German, the letters _c_ and _g_ have the tendency to assume the sound and power of _s_ or _z_, of _sh_ or _zh_, of _ch_ or _j_; {150} in other words, of becoming either _s_ or some sound allied to _s_. Compared with _a_, _o_, and _u_ (as in _gat_, _got_, _gun_), which are _full_, _i_, _e_, _y_, are _small_ vowels. It not every vowel that is susceptible of every modification. _I_ (_ee_) and _u_ (_oo_) are incapable of becoming broad. _E_ in _bed_ (as I have convinced myself), although both broad and slender, is incapable of becoming independent. For the _u_ in _but_, and for the _ö_ of certain foreign languages, I have no satisfactory systematic position. § 211. _Vowel System._ _Broad._ | _Slender._ | | _Independent._ |_Independent._ | _Dependent._ | | _a_, in _father_ |_a_, in _fate_ |_a_, in _fat_. |_e fermé_, _long_ |_e fermé_, _short_. _e_, in _meine_, Germ.| |_e_, in _bed_. |_ee_, in _feet_ |_i_, in _pit_. |_ü_, of the German, _long_ |the same, _short_. |_oo_, in _book_ |_ou_, in _could_. |_o chiuso_ |the same, _short_. _aw_, in _bawl_ |_o_, in _note_ |_o_, in _note_. From these, the semivowels _w_ and _y_ make a transition to the consonants _v_ and the so-called aspirate of _g_ ([gamma], not being in English), respectively. § 212. _System of Consonants._ _Liquids._ | _Mutes._ | _Semivowels._ | | | _Lene._ | _Aspirate._ | | | | | _Sharp._ _Flat._ | _Sharp._ _Flat._ | | | | _m_ | _p_ _b_ | _f_ _v_ | _w_ _n_ | _t_ _d_ | _þ_ _ð_ | _l_ | _k_ _g_ | [kappa] [gamma] | _y_ _r_ | _s_ _z_ | [sigma] [zeta] | § 213. Concerning the vowel system I venture no assertion. The consonantal system I conceive to have been exhibited above in its whole fulness. The number of mutes, _specifically_ distinct, I consider to be sixteen and no more: the number of liquids, four. What then are the powers of the numerous letters in alphabets like those of Arabia and Armenia? What {151} is the German _ch_, and Irish _gh_? _Varieties_ of one or other of the sounds exhibited above, and not articulations specifically distinct. § 214. There is a _difference between a connexion in phonetics and a connexion in grammar_.--Phonetics is a word expressive of the subject-matter of the present chapter. The present chapter determines (amongst other things) the systematic relation of articulate sounds. The word _phônæticos_ ([Greek: phônêtichos]) signifies _appertaining to articulate sounds_. It is evident that between sounds like _b_ and _v_, _s_ and _z_, there is a connexion in phonetics. Now in the grammar of languages there is often a change, or a permutation of letters: _e.g._, in the words _tooth_, _teeth_, the vowel, in _price_, _prize_, the consonant, is changed. Here there is a connexion in grammar. That the letters most closely allied in phonetics should be most frequently interchanged in grammar, is what, on _à priori_ grounds, we most naturally are led to expect. And that such is _often_ the case, the study of languages tells us. That, however, it is always so, would be a hasty and an erroneous assertion. The Greek language changes _p_ into _f_. Here the connexion in phonetics and the connexion in language closely coincide. The Welsh language changes _p_ into _m_. Here the connexion in phonetics and the connexion in language do _not_ closely coincide. * * * * * {152} CHAPTER III. OF CERTAIN COMBINATIONS OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS. § 215. Certain combinations of articulate sounds are incapable of being pronounced. The following rule is one that, in the forthcoming pages, will frequently be referred to. _Two (or more) _mutes_, of different degrees of sharpness and flatness, are incapable of coming together in the same syllable._ For instance, _b_, _v_, _d_, _g_, _z_, &c. being flat, and _p_, _f_, _t_, _k_, _s_, &c. being sharp, such combinations as _abt_, _avt_, _apd_, _afd_, _agt_, _akd_, _atz_, _ads_, &c., are unpronounceable. _Spelt_, indeed, they may be; but attempts at pronunciation end in a _change_ of the combination. In this case either the flat letter is changed to its sharp equivalent (_b_ to _p_, _d_ to _t_, &c.) or _vice versâ_ (_p_ to _b_, _t_ to _d_). The combinations _abt_, and _agt_, to be pronounced, must become either _apt_ or _abd_, or else _akt_ or _agd_. For determining which of the two letters shall be changed, in other words, whether it shall be the first that accommodates itself to the second, or the second that accommodates itself to the first, there are no general rules. This is settled by the particular habit of the language in consideration. The word _mutes_ in the second sentence of this section must be dwelt on. It is only with the _mutes_ that there is an impossibility of pronouncing the heterogeneous combinations above mentioned. The liquids and the vowels are flat; but the liquids and vowels, although flat, may be followed by a sharp consonant. If this were not the case, the combinations _ap_, _at_, _alp_, _alt_, &c. would be unpronounceable. The semivowels, although flat, admit of being followed by a sharp consonant. The law exhibited above may be called the law of accommodation. {153} Combinations like _gt_, _kd_, &c., may be called incompatible combinations. § 216. _Unstable combinations._--That certain sounds in combination with others have a tendency to undergo changes, may be collected from the observation of our own language, as we find it spoken by those around us, or by ourselves. The _ew_ in _new_ is a sample of what may be called an unsteady or unstable combination. There is a natural tendency to change it either into _oo_ (_noo_) or _yoo_ (_nyoo_); perhaps also into _yew_ (_nyew_). § 217. _Effect of the semivowel _y_ on certain letters when they precede it._--Taken by itself the semivowel _y_, followed by a vowel (_ya_, _yee_, _yo_, _you_, &c.), forms a stable combination. Not so, however, if it be preceded by a consonant, of the series _t_, _k_, or _s_, as _tya_, _tyo_; _dya_, _dyo_; _kya_, _kyo_; _sya_, _syo_. There then arises an unstable combination. _Sya_ and _syo_ we pronounce as _sha_ and _sho_; _tya_ and _tyo_ we pronounce as _cha_ and _ja_ (_i.e._ _tsh_, _dzh_.). This we may verify from our pronunciation of words like _sure_, _picture_, _verdure_ (_shoor_, _pictshoor_, _verdzhoor_), having previously remarked that the _u_ in those words is not sounded as _oo_ but as _yoo_. The effect of the semivowel _y_, taken with instability of the combination _ew_, accounts for the tendency to pronounce _dew_ as if written _jew_. § 218. _The evolution of new sounds._--To an English ear the sound of the German _ch_ falls strange. To an English organ it is at first difficult to pronounce. The same is the case with the German vowels _ö_ and _ü_ and with the French sounds _u_, _eu_, &c. To a German, however, and a Frenchman, the sound of the English _th_ (either in _thin_ or _thine_) is equally a matter of difficulty. The reason of this lies in the fact of the respective sounds being absent in the German, French, and English languages; since sounds are easy or hard to pronounce just in proportion as we have been familiarised with them. There is no instance of a new sound being introduced at once into a language. Where they originate at all, they are _evolved_, not imported. {154} § 219. _Evolution of sounds._--Let there be a language where there is no such a sound as that of _z_, but where there is the sound of _s_. The sound of _z_ may be evolved under (amongst others) the following conditions. 1. Let there be a number of words ending in the flat mutes; as _slab_, _stag_, _stud_, &c. 2. Let a certain form (the plural number or the genitive case) be formed by the addition of _is_ or _es_; as _slabis_, _stages_, _studes_, &c. 3. Let the tendency that words have to contract eject the intermediate vowel, _e_ or _i_, so that the _s_ of the inflexion (a _sharp_ mute) and the _b_, _d_, _g_, &c. of the original word (_flat_ mutes) be brought into juxta-position, _slabs_, _studs_, _stags_. There is then an incompatible termination, and one of two changes must take place; either _b_, _d_, or _g_ must become _p_, _t_, or _k_ (_slaps_, _staks_, _stuts_); or _s_ must become _z_ (_stagz_, _studz_, _slabz_). In this latter case _z_ is evolved. Again, Let there be a language wherein there are no such sounds as _sh_, _ch_ (_tsh_), or _j_ (_dzh_); but where there are the sounds of _s_, _t_, _d_, and _y_. Let a change affect the unstable combinations _sy_, _ty_, _dy_. From this will arise the evolved sounds of _sh_, _ch_, and _j_. The phenomena of evolution help to determine the pronunciation of dead languages. § 220. _On the value of a sufficient system of sounds._--In certain imaginable cases, a language may be materially affected by the paucity of its elementary articulate sounds. In a given language let there be the absence of the sound _z_, the other conditions being those noted in the case of the words _stag_, _slab_, _stud_, &c. Let the intermediate vowel be ejected. Then, instead of the _s_ being changed into an evolved _z_, let the other alternative take place; so that the words become _staks_, _slaps_, _stuts_. In this latter case we have an alteration of the original word, brought about by the insufficiency of the system of articulate sounds. § 221. _Double consonants rare._--It cannot be too clearly understood that in words like _pitted_, _stabbing_, _massy_, &c. there is no real reduplication of the sounds of _t_, _b_, and _s_, respectively. Between the words _pitted_ (as with the small-pox) and _pitied_ (as being an object of pity) there is a difference in {155} spelling only. In speech the words are identical. _The reduplication of the consonant is in English, and the generality of languages, a conventional mode of expressing upon paper the shortness (dependence) of the vowel that precedes._ § 222. Real reduplications of consonants, _i.e._, reduplications of their _sound_, are, in all languages, extremely rare. I am fully aware of certain statements made respecting the Laplandic and Finlandic languages, _viz._, that doubled consonants are, in them, of common occurrence. Notwithstanding this, I have an impression that it is generally under one condition that true reduplication takes place. In compound and derived words, where the original root _ends_, and the superadded affix _begins_ with the same letter, there is a reduplication of the sound, and not otherwise. In the word _soulless_, the _l_ is doubled to the ear as well as to the eye; and it is a false pronunciation to call it _souless_ (_soless_). In the "Deformed Transformed" it is made to rhyme with _no less_, improperly. "Clay, not dead but soulless, Though no mortal man would choose thee, An immortal no less Deigns not to refuse thee." In the following words, all of which are compounds, we have true specimens of the doubled consonant. _n_ is doubled in _unnatural_, _innate_, _oneness_. _l_ -- _soulless_, _civil-list_, _palely_. _k_ -- _book-case_. _t_ -- _seaport-town_. It must not, however, be concealed, that, in the mouths even of correct speakers, one of the doubled sounds is often dropped. § 223. _True aspirates rare._--The criticism applied to words like _pitted_, &c., applies also to words like _Philip_, _thin_, _thine_, &c. There is therein no sound of _h_. How the so-called aspirates differ from their corresponding lenes has not yet been determined. That it is _not_ by the addition of _h_ is evident. _Ph_ and _th_ are conventional modes of spelling simple single sounds, which might better be expressed by simple single signs. {156} In our own language the _true_ aspirates, like the true duplications, are found only in compound words; and there they are often slurred in the pronunciation. We find _p_ and _h_ in the words _haphazard_, _upholder_. -- _b_ and _h_ -- _abhorrent_, _cub-hunting_. -- _f_ and _h_ -- _knife-handle_, _offhand_. -- _v_ and _h_ -- _stave-head_. -- _d_ and _h_ -- _adhesive_, _childhood_. -- _t_ and _h_ -- _nuthook_. -- _th_ and _h_ -- _withhold_. -- _k_ and _h_ -- _inkhorn_, _bakehouse_. -- _g_ and _h_ -- _gig-horse_. -- _s_ and _h_ -- _race-horse_, _falsehood_. -- _z_ and _h_ -- _exhibit_, _exhort_. -- _r_ and _h_ -- _perhaps_. -- _l_ and _h_ -- _well-head_, _foolhardy_. -- _m_ and _h_ -- _Amherst_. -- _n_ and _h_ -- _unhinge_, _inherent_, _unhappy_. Now in certain languages the _true_ aspirates are of common occurrence, _i.e._, sounds like the _t_ in _nuthook_, the _ph_ in _haphazard_, &c., are as frequent as the sounds of _p_, _b_, _s_, &c. In the spelling of these sounds by means of the English we are hampered by the circumstance of _th_ and _ph_ being already used in a different sense. * * * * * {157} CHAPTER IV. EUPHONY; THE PERMUTATION AND THE TRANSITION OF LETTERS. § 224. 1. Let there be two syllables, of which the one ends in _m_, and the other begins with _r_, as we have in the syllables _num-_ and _-rus_ of the Latin word _numerus_. 2. Let an ejection of the intervening letters bring these two syllables into immediate contact, _numrus_. The _m_ and _r_ form an unstable combination. To remedy this there is a tendency (mark, not an absolute necessity) to insert an intervening sound. In English, the form which the Latin word _numerus_ takes is _num_b_er_; in Spanish, _nom_b_re_. The _b_ makes no part of the original word, but has been inserted for the sake of euphony; or, to speak more properly, by a euphonic process. The word euphony is derived from [Greek: eu] (_well_), and [Greek: phônê] (_fônæ_, a voice). The province of euphony has not been very accurately determined. § 225. In the word _number_, _nombre_, the letter inserted was _b_; and for _b_ being the particular letter employed, there is a reason derived from the _system_ of articulate sounds. 1. That the letter inserted should be a consonant is evident. The _vowel_ _e_ (in _num_e_rus_) had been previously ejected. 2. That it should be a mute is evident. A liquid would have given the unstable or unpronounceable combinations _mnr_, _mlr_, _mrr_, _mmr_. 3. That it should be a consonant, either of series _b_ or of series _s_, was natural; it being series _b_ and series _s_ with which _m_ and _r_ are respectively connected. 4. That it should be a consonant of series _b_, rather than one of series _s_, we collect from the fact that _msr_ (_numsrus_) or _mzr_ (_numzrus_) give inharmonious, and, consequently, unstable combinations. {158} 5. That of the _b_ series, it should be _b_ or _v_ (flat) rather than _p_ or _f_ (sharp), we infer from the fact of _m_ and _r_ both being flat. 6. Of _v_ and _b_, the latter alone gives a stable combination, so that we have the Spanish form _nom_b_re_, and not _nom_v_re_. In this we have an illustration of the use of attending to the nature and connections of articulate sounds in general. § 226. The affinity of _m_ for the series _b_, of _n_ for the series _t_, gives occasion to further euphonic changes. The combinations _mt_, _md_, _mþ_, _mð_, are unstable. The syllables _emt_, _emd_, are liable to one of two modifications. Either _p_ or _b_ will be inserted, and so make them _empt_ (as in _tempt_), _embd_ (as in _Embden_), or else the _m_ will become _n_, forming the syllable _ent_, _end_, _enþ_, _enð_. Similar tendencies, in a certain degree, affect the combinations _enp_, _enb_. They are liable to become _emp_, or _emb_. Any one may see that the word _enperor_ embarrasses the utterance. § 227. The combination _tupt_ is stable, so also is the combination _tuft_. But the combination _tupth_ is unstable: since the _p_ is lene, the _þ_ is a (so-called) aspirate. Hence arises a process of accommodation by which the word becomes either _tupt_ or _tufth_ (_tufþ_). In respect to the unstable combination _tupth_, we may observe this, _viz._ that the ways of altering it are two. Either the first letter may be accommodated to the second, _tufþ_, or the second may be accommodated to the first, _tupt_. Which of these two changes shall take place is determined by the particular habit of the language. In Greek we add to the radical syllable [Greek: tup]-, the inflectional syllable -[Greek: thên]. The _first_ letter, [pi], is accommodated to the second, [theta], and the word becomes [Greek: tuphthên] (_tyfþæn_), as in [Greek: etuphthên] (_etyfþæn_). In English we add to the radical syllable _stag_, the inflectional syllable _s_. Here the _second_ letter is accommodated to the first, and the resulting word is not _staks_, but _stagz_. § 228. The Irish Gaelic, above most other languages, illustrates a euphonic principle that modifies the vowels of a word. The vowels _a_, _o_, _u_, are full, whilst _i_, _e_, _y_, are small. Now if to a syllable containing a small vowel, as _buil_, there be added {159} a syllable containing a broad one, as _-am_, a change takes place. Either the first syllable is accommodated to the second, or the second to the first; so that the vowels respectively contained in them are either both full or both small. Hence arises, in respect to the word quoted, either the form _bu_a_l_a_m_, or else the form _bu_i_l_i_m_. § 229. In the words _give_ and _gave_ we have a change of tense expressed by a change of vowel. In the words _price_ and _prize_ a change of meaning is expressed by a change of consonant. In _clothe_ and _clad_ there is a change both of a vowel and of a consonant. In the words _to use_ and _a use_ there is a similar change, although it is not expressed by the spelling. To the ear the verb _to use_ ends in _z_, although not to the eye. The following are instances of the permutation of letters. _Permutation of Vowels._ _a_ to _[)e]_, as _man_, _men_. _a_ to _oo_, as _stand_, _stood_. _a_ to _u_, as _dare_, _durst_. _a_ to _[=e]_, as _was_, _were_. _ea_ to _o_, as _speak_, _spoken_. _ea=[)e]_ to _ea=[=e]_, as _breath_, _breathe_. _ee_ to _[)e]_, as _deep_, _depth_. _ea_ to _o_, as _bear_, _bore_. _i_ to _a_, as _spin_, _span_. _i_ to _u_, as _spin_, _spun_. _i=ei_ to _o_, as _smite_, _smote_. _i=ei_ to _[)i]_, as _smite_, _smitten_. _i_ to _a_, as _give_, _gave_. _i=ei_ to _a_, as _rise_, _raise_. _[)i]_ to _e_, as _sit_, _set_. _ow_ to _ew_, as _blow_, _blew_. _o_ to _e_, as _strong_, _strength_. _oo_ to _ee_, as _tooth_, _teeth_. _o_ to _i_, as _top_, _tip_. _o_ to _e_, as _old_, _elder_; _tell_, _told_. _[)o]_ to _e_, as _brother_, _brethren_. _[=o]=oo_ to _i_, as _do_, _did_. _o=oo_ to _o=[)u]_, as _do_, _done_. _oo_ to _o_, as _choose_, _chose_. {160} _Permutation of Consonants._ _f_ to _v_, _life_, _live_; _calf_, _calves_. _þ_ to _ð_, _breath_, _to breathe_. _ð_ to _d_, _seethe_, _sod_; _clothe_, _clad_. _d_ to _t_, _build_, _built_. _s_ to _z_, _use_, _to use_. _s_ to _r_, _was_, _were_; _lose_, _forlorn_. In _have_ and _had_ we have the _ejection_ of a sound; in _work_ and _wrought_, the _transposition_ of one. Important changes are undergone by the sounds _k_, _g_, and the allied ones _nk_, _ng_, _y_, as will be seen in the chapter on verbs. _Permutation of Combinations._ _ie_=_i_ to _ow_, as _grind_, _ground_. _ow_ to _i_=_ei_, as _mouse_, _mice_; _cow_, _kine_. _ink_ to _augh_, as _drink_, _draught_. _ing_ to _ough_, as _bring_, _brought_. _y_ (formerly _g_), _ough_, as _buy_, _bought_. _igh_=_ei_ to _ough_, as _fight_, _fought_. _eek_ to _ough_, as _seek_, _sought_. It must be noticed that the list above is far from being an exhaustive one. The expression too of the changes undergone has been rendered difficult on account of the imperfection of our orthography. The whole section has been written in illustration of the meaning of the word _permutation_, rather than for any specific object in grammar. § 230. In all the words above the change of sound has been brought about by the grammatical inflection of the word wherein it occurs. This is the case with the words _life_ and _live_, and with all the rest. With the German word _leben_, compared with the corresponding word _live_, in English, the change is similar. It is brought about, however, not by a grammatical inflection, but by a difference of time, and by a difference of place. This indicates the distinction between the permutation of letters and the transition of letters. In dealing with permutations, we compare different parts of speech; in dealing with transitions, we compare different languages, or different stages of a single language. * * * * * {161} CHAPTER V. ON THE FORMATION OF SYLLABLES. § 231. In respect to the formation of syllables, I am aware of no more than one point that requires any especial consideration. In certain words, of more than one syllable, it is difficult to say to which syllable an intervening consonant belongs. For instance, does the _v_ in _river_, and the _v_ in _fever_, belong to the first or the second syllable? Are the words to be divided thus, _ri-ver_, _fe-ver_? or thus, _riv-er_, _fev-er_? The solution of the question lies by no means on the surface. In the first place, the case is capable of being viewed in two points of view--an etymological and a phonetic one. That the _c_ and _r_ in _become_, _berhymed_, &c. belong to the second syllable, we determine at once by taking the words to pieces; whereby we get the words _come_ and _rhymed_ in an isolated independent form. But this fact, although it settles the point in etymology, leaves it as it was in phonetics; since it in nowise follows, that, because the _c_ in the _simple_ word _come_ is exclusively attached to the letter that follows it, it is, in the _compound_ word _become_, exclusively attached to it also. To the following point of structure in the consonantal sounds the reader's attention is particularly directed. 1. Let the vowel _a_ (as in _fate_) be sounded.--2. Let it be followed by the consonant _p_, so as to form the syllable _[=a]p_. To form the sound of _p_, it will be found that the lips close on the sound of _a_, and arrest it. Now, if the lips be left to themselves they will not _remain_ closed on the sound, but will open again, in a slight degree indeed, but in a degree sufficient to cause a kind of vibration, or, at any rate, to allow an {162} escape of the remainder of the current of breath by which the sound was originally formed. To re-open in a slight degree is the natural tendency of the lips in the case exhibited above. Now, by an effort, let this tendency to re-open be counteracted. Let the remaining current of breath be cut short. We have, then, only this, _viz._, so much of the syllable _[=a]p_ as can be formed by the _closure_ of the lips. All that portion of it that is caused by their re-opening is deficient. The resulting sound seems truncated, cut short, or incomplete. It is the sound of _p_, _minus_ the remnant of breath. All of the sound _p_ that is now left is formed, not by the _escape_ of the breath, but by the _arrest_ of it. The _p_ in _[=a]p_ is a _final_ sound. With initial sounds the case is different. Let the lips be _closed_, and let an attempt be made to form the syllable _pa_ by suddenly opening them. The sound appears incomplete; but its incompleteness is at the _beginning_ of the sound, and not at the end of it. In the natural course of things there would have been a current of breath _preceding_, and this current would have given a vibration, now wanting. All the sound that is formed here is formed, not by the _arrest_ of breath, but by the _escape_ of it. I feel that this account of the mechanism of the apparently simple sound _p_, labours under all the difficulties that attend the _description_ of a sound; and for this reason I again request the reader to satisfy himself either of its truth or its inaccuracy, before he proceeds to the conclusions that will be drawn from it. The account, however, being recognised, we have in the current natural sound of _p_ two elements:-- 1. That formed by the current of air and the closure of the lips, as in _[=a]p_. This may be called the sound of breath _arrested_. 2. That formed by the current of air and the opening of the lips, as in _p[=a]_. This may be called the sound of breath _escaping_. Now what may be said of _p_ may be said of all the other consonants, the words _tongue_, _teeth_, &c. being used instead of _lips_, according to the case. {163} Let the sound of breath arrested be expressed by [pi], and that of breath escaping be expressed by [varpi], the two together form the current natural sound _p_ ([pi]+[varpi]=_p_). Thus _[=a]p_ (as quoted above) is _p_ - [varpi], or [pi]; whilst _pa_ (sounded similarly) is _p_ - [pi], or [varpi]. In the formation of syllables, I consider that the sound of breath arrested belongs to the first, and the sound of breath escaping to the second syllable; that each sound being expressed by a separate sign, the word _happy_ is divided thus, _ha[pi]-[varpi]y_; and that such is the case with all consonants between two syllables. The _whole_ consonant belongs neither to one syllable nor the other. Half of it belongs to each. The reduplication of the _p_ in _happy_, the _t_ in _pitted_, &c, is a mere point of spelling, of which more will be said in the chapter on orthography. * * * * * {164} CHAPTER VI. ON QUANTITY. § 232. The dependent vowels, as the _a_ in _fat_, _i_ in _fit_, _u_ in _but_, _o_ in _not_, have this character; _viz._ they are all uttered with rapidity, and pass quickly in the enunciation, the voice not resting on them. This rapidity of utterance becomes more evident when we contrast with them the prolonged sounds of the _a_ in _fate_, _ee_ in _feet_, _oo_ in _book_, _o_ in _note_; wherein the utterance is retarded, and wherein the voice rests, delays, or is prolonged. The _f_ and _t_ of _fate_ are separated by a longer interval than the _f_ and _t_ of _fat_; and the same is the case with _fit_, _feet_, &c. Let the _n_ and the _t_ of _not_ be each as 1, the _o_ also being as 1: then each letter, consonant or vowel, shall constitute 1/3 of the whole word. Let, however, the _n_ and _t_ of _note_ be each as 1, the _o_ being as 2. Then, instead of each consonant constituting 1/3 of the whole word, it shall constitute but ¼. Upon the comparative extent to which the voice is prolonged, the division of vowels and syllables into _long_ and _short_ has been established: the _o_ in _note_ being long, the _o_ in _not_ being short. And the longness or shortness of a vowel or syllable is said to be its quantity. § 233. The division of _vowels_ into long and short coincides _nearly_ with the division of them into independent and dependent. Mark the word _vowels_, and mark the word _nearly_. In the length and shortness of vowels there are degrees. This is especially the case with the broad vowels. The _a_ in _father_ is capable of being pronounced either very quickly, or very slowly. It may be attend most rapidly and yet preserve its broad character, _i.e._, become neither the _a_ in _fat_, nor the _a_ in _fate_. {165} In the independence and dependence of vowels there are no degrees. Subject to the views laid down in the next section, the vowel _ee_ in _seeing_ is long, and it is certainly independent. Whether the _syllable see-_ be long is another question. 1. All long vowels are independent, but all independent vowels are not long. 2. All dependent vowels are short, but all short vowels are not dependent. Clear notions upon these matters are necessary for determining the structure of the English and classical metres. § 234. The qualified manner in which it was stated that the _vowel_ in the word _seeing_ was long, and the attention directed to the word _vowels_ in the preceding section, arose from a distinction, that is now about to be drawn, between the length of _vowels_ and the length of _syllables_. The independent vowel in the syllable _see-_ is long; and long it remains, whether it stand as it is, or be followed by a consonant, as in _seen_, or by a vowel, as in _see-ing_. The dependent vowel in the word _sit_ is short. If followed by a vowel it becomes unpronounceable, except as the _ea_ in _seat_ or the _i_ in _sight_. By a consonant, however, it may be followed, and still retain its dependent character and also its shortness. Such is the power it has in the word quoted, _sit_. Followed by a _second_ consonant, it still retains its shortness, _e.g._, _sits_. Whatever the comparative length of the _syllables_, _see_ and _seen_, _sit_ and _sits_, may be, the length of their respective _vowels_ is the same. Now, if we determine the character of the syllable by the character of the vowel, all syllables are short wherein there is a short vowel, and all are long wherein there is a long one. Measured by the quantity of the vowel the word _sits_ is short, and the syllable _see-_ in _seeing_ is long. But it is well known that this view is not the view commonly taken of the syllables _see_ (in _seeing_) and _sits_. It is well known, that, in the eyes of a classical scholar, the _see_ (in _seeing_) is short, and that in the word _sits_ the _i_ is long. The classic differs from the Englishman thus,--_He measures his {166} quantity, not by the length of the vowel but, by the length of the syllable taken altogether._ The perception of this distinction enables us to comprehend the following statements. I. That vowels long by nature may _appear_ to become short by position, and _vice versâ_. II. That, by a laxity of language, the _vowel_ may be said to have changed its quantity, whilst it is the _syllable_ alone that has been altered. III. That, if one person measures his quantities by the vowels, and another by the syllables, what is short to the one, shall be long to the other, and _vice versâ_. The same is the case with nations. IV. That one of the most essential differences between the English and the classical languages is that the quantities (as far as they go) of the first are measured by the vowel, those of the latter by the syllable. To a Roman the word _monument_ consists of two short syllables and one long one; to an Englishman it contains three short syllables. These remarks are appreciated when we consider the comparative characters of the classical and the English prosody. * * * * * {167} CHAPTER VII. ON ACCENT. § 235. In the word _tyrant_ there is an emphasis, or stress, upon the first syllable. In the word _presume_ there is an emphasis, or stress, on the second syllable. This emphasis, or stress, is called _Accent_. The circumstance of a syllable bearing an accent is sometimes expressed by a mark (´); in which case the word is said to be accentuated, _i.e._, to have the accent signified in writing. Words accented on the last syllable--_Brigáde_, _preténce_, _harpoón_, _reliéve_, _detér_, _assúme_, _besoúght_, _beréft_, _befóre_, _abroád_, _abóde_, _abstrúse_, _intermíx_, _superádd_, _cavaliér_. Words accented on the last syllable but one--_An´chor_, _ar´gue_, _hásten_, _fáther_, _fóxes_, _smíting_, _húsband_, _márket_, _vápour_, _bárefoot_, _archángel_, _bespátter_, _disáble_, _terrífic_. Words accented on the last syllable but two--_Régular_, _an´tidote_, _for´tify_, _suscéptible_, _incontrovértible_. Words accented on the last syllable but three (rare)--_Réceptacle_, _régulating_, _tálkativeness_, _ábsolutely_, _lúminary_, _inévitable_, &c. A great number of words are distinguished by the accent alone. The following list is from Nares' Orthoepy, a work to which the reader is referred. An _áttribute_. To _attríbute_. The month _Aúgust_. An _augúst_ person. A _com´pact_. _Compáct_ (close). To _con´jure_ (magically). _Conjúre_ (enjoin). _Des´ert_, wilderness. _Desért_, merit. _Inválid_, not valid. _Invalíd_, a sickly person. _Mínute_, 60 seconds. _Minúte_, small. _Súpine_, part of speech. _Supíne_, careless, &c. {168} That class of words that by a change of accent are converted from nouns into verbs (_súrvey_, _survéy_, _cóntrast_, _contrást_, &c.) will be noticed more at large in the Chapter on Derivation. § 236. In words like _thínking_, _fóxes_, _lon´ger_, _len´gthen_, &c. we have two parts; first the original word, the root, or the radical part, as _think_, _fox_, _long_, _length_, &c.; and next, the inflectional, or the subordinate part, _-ing_, _-es_, _-er_, _-en_, &c. To assert as a universal rule that the _accent is always on the root, and never on the subordinate part of a word_, is too much. Although in the _English_ language such an assertion (with one exception) is found true; by the French and other languages it is invalidated. In words like _len´g-then-ing_, we have a _second_ inflectional or subordinate syllable; and the accent remains in its original place, _absolutely, but not relatively_. _It is all the farther from the end of the word._ Besides indicating the propriety of determining the place of the accent by counting from the end, rather than the beginning of a word, this circumstance indicates something else. Imagine the English participles to be declined, and to possess cases, formed by the addition of fresh syllables. In this case the word _len´gthening_ would become a quadri-syllable. But to throw the accent to the fourth syllable from the end is inconvenient. Hence a necessity of removing it from the radical, and placing it on an inflectional syllable. The German word _lében_ (to _live_) illustrates the foregoing sentence. _Léb-_ is the root, _léb-end_=_living_, from whence _lebéndig_=_lively_ (with the accent on an inflectional syllable), although this last word might without inconvenience have been accented on the first syllable; that being only the third from the end. Confusion between the radical and inflectional syllables of a word, arising from the situation of the accent, may work the deterioration of a language. § 237. In _týrant_ and _presúme_, we deal with single words; and in each _word_ we determine which _syllable_ is accented. {169} Contrasted with the sort of accent that follows, this may be called a _verbal_ accent. In the line, Better for _us_, perhaps, it might appear, (POPE'S _Essay on Man_, I. 169.) the pronoun _us_ is strongly brought forward. An especial stress or emphasis is laid upon it, denoting that _there are other beings to whom it might not appear_, &c. This is collected from the context. Here there is a _logical_ accent. "When one word in a sentence is distinguished by a stress, as more important than the rest, we may say that it is _emphatical_, or that an _emphasis_ is laid upon it. When one syllable in a word is distinguished by a stress, and more audible than the rest, we say that it is accented, or that an accent is put upon it. Accent, therefore, is to syllables what emphasis is to sentences; it distinguishes one from the crowd, and brings it forward to observation."--(Nares' Orthoepy, Part II. Chap. I.) § 238. Accent plays an important part in determining the nature of certain compound words--For this, see the Chapter on Composition. It also plays an important part in determining the nature of the English metres--See Prosody. Thirdly (the subject of the present section), it plays an important part in all systems of orthography. The quotation from Professor Lee's Hebrew Grammar, in p. 149, is referred to; and a particular attention to a somewhat difficult subject is requisite. The _u_ in the word _monument_ is what a classic would call _short_. The second _syllable_ in the word _monument_ is what a classical scholar would call _short_. The vowel is _short_, and the syllable taken altogether is _short_. Herein it agrees with the first syllable _mon-_. It differs, however, from the syllable _mon-_ in being destitute of an accent, _mónument_. With the third syllable _-ment_, it agrees in the eyes of an Englishman, but differs in the eyes of a scholar. The vowels _u_ and _e_ are equally short, and, as the Englishman measures by the vowel {170} the syllables _-u_ and _-ment_ are both short. Not so, however, with the scholar. He measures by the syllable and determines that the _e_, although naturally a short vowel, is made _long_ by position. However, in being each destitute of an accent the syllables _-u_ and _-ment_ agree. Be it remarked a second time that the accent in _mónument_ lies on the first syllable. Now the _-u_ in _mónument_ although _short_, is not _dependent_. If, however, the syllable _-nu_ take an accent; that is, if the place of the accent be removed from the first to the second syllable, the vowel _u_ still being kept short, we have a word which we spell thus, _monumment_. Now the _u_ in _monumment_ is not only short, but dependent. It is upon this effect of an accent that the quotation from Lee's Hebrew Grammar, p. 149, especially bears. And now two questions arise:--1. How is it that the accent has the effect of rendering such a syllable as the _u_ in _monumment_ dependent? 2. Why do we in spelling such a syllable double the consonant? An accent falling upon a syllable must, of necessity, do one of two things: it must affect the vowel, or it must affect the consonant. If it affect the vowel, the vowel becomes the predominant part of the syllable, as in _mónooment_; but, if it affect the consonant, the consonant becomes the predominant part of the syllable, as _monum´ment_. In words like _monumment_ the consonant is, strictly speaking, as single as it is in _monument_, or _monooment_. Its _absolute_ sound is the same. Not so its _relative_ sound. This is exaggerated by two circumstances:--1, The comparative shortness of the vowel _u_; 2, the fact of the accent falling on it. The increased relative importance of the letter _m_ in the word _monumment_ is mistaken for a reduplication of the sound. This is the reason why in most languages the shortness of a vowel is expressed by the doubling of the consonant following; this doubling being no true reduplication of the sound, but a mere orthographical conventionality. § 239. Accent and quantity, as may have been collected from pp. 164-167, do _not_ coincide. Nothing shows this more {171} clearly than words like the adjective _augúst_, and the substantive _Aúgust_ (the month), where the quantity remains the same, although the accent is different. The following quotation from Mr. Guest's English Rhythms is made for the sake of four things:-- 1. Of showing that the generality of writers have the credit of confusing accent with quantity-- 2. Of showing that there is a reason for such a confusion having existed-- 3. Of indicating the propriety of the expressions in italics--It is not stated that the consonant _c_ is doubled, but that it is added to the first syllable. The difference lies, not in its reduplication, but in its distribution. 4. Of taking a slight exception--A syllable (accented or unaccented) must be either independent or dependent; if the latter, then in most immediate contact with the consonant that follows. "Besides the increase of loudness, and the sharper tone which distinguishes the accented syllable, there is also a tendency to dwell upon it, or, in other words, to lengthen its quantity. We cannot increase the loudness or the sharpness of a tone without a certain degree of muscular action: and to put the muscles in motion requires time. It would seem that the time required for producing a perceptible increase in the loudness or sharpness of a tone is greater than that of pronouncing some of our shorter syllables. If we attempt, for instance, to throw the accent on the first syllable of the word _become_, we must either lengthen the vowel, and pronounce the word _bee-come_, _or add the adjoining consonant to the first syllable, and so pronounce the word_ _bec-ome_. We often find it convenient to lengthen the quantity even of the longer syllables, when we wish to give them a very strong and marked accent. Hence, no doubt, arose the vulgar notion, that accent always lengthens the quantity of a syllable. "It is astonishing how widely this notion has misled men, whose judgment, in most other matters of criticism, it would be very unsafe to question. Our earlier writers, almost to a man, confound accent with quantity."--B. i. C. iv. * * * * * {172} CHAPTER VIII. THE PRINCIPLES OF ORTHOEPY. § 240. The present chapter is one, not upon the details of the pronunciation of the English language, but upon the principles of orthoepy. For the details of pronunciation the reader is referred to Nares' Orthoepy, and to the common pronouncing dictionaries, with the preliminary recommendation to use them with caution. _Orthoepy_, a word derived from the Greek _orthon_ (_upright_), and _epos_ (_a word_), signifies the right utterance of words. Orthoepy differs from orthography by determining how words are spoken, whereas orthography decides how they are spelt. The one is a question of speech, the other a question of spelling. Orthography presupposes orthoepy. § 241. Of pronunciation there are two kinds, the colloquial and the rhetorical. In common conversation we pronounce the _i_ in _wind_, like the _i_ in _bit_; in rehearsing, or in declamation, however, we pronounce it like the _i_ in _bite_; that is, we give it a diphthongal sound. In reading the Scriptures we say _blesséd_; in current speech we say _blest_. It is the same with many words occurring in poetry. § 242. Errors in pronunciation are capable of being classified. In the first place, they may be arranged according to their situation. The man who pronounces the verb _to survéy_, as if it was _súrvey_ (that is, with the accent on the wrong syllable), errs in respect to the accentuation of the word; the situation, or seat of his error, being the accent. To say _or[=a]tor_ instead of _or[)a]tor_ is to err in respect to the quantity of the word, the seat of the error being in the quantity; and to pronounce the _a_ in _father_, as it is pronounced in Yorkshire, or the _s_ in _sound_, as it is pronounced in Devonshire (that is, as _z_), is to err in {173} the matter of the articulate sounds. To mispronounce a word because it is misspelt[34] is only indirectly an error of orthoepy. It is an error, not so much of orthoepy, as of orthography; and to give a wrong inflection to a word is not bad pronunciation but bad grammar. For practical purposes, however, many words that are really points of grammar and of orthography, may be dealt with as points of orthoepy. That the preceding classification is natural I am induced to believe by the following circumstances. Errors in the way of articulation generally arise from a source different from those of accent and of quantity. Errors in accent and quantity are generally referable to insufficient grammatical or etymological knowledge, whilst the errors of articulation betray a provincial dialect. The misdivision of syllables, an orthoepical error of a fourth kind, has in the English, and perhaps in other languages, given rise to a peculiar class of words. There have been those who have written _a nambassador_ for _an ambassador_, misdividing the syllables, and misdistributing the sound of the letter _n_. The double form (_a_ and _an_) of the English indefinite article, encourages this misdivision. Now, in certain words an error of this kind has had a permanent influence. The English word _nag_ is, in Danish, _ög_; the _n_, in English, having originally belonged to the indefinite _an_, which preceded it. The words, instead of being divided thus, _an ag_, were divided thus, _a nag_, and the fault became perpetuated. That the Danish is the true form we collect, firstly, from the ease with which the English form is accounted for, and, secondly, from the old Saxon form _ehu_, Latin _equus_. In _adder_ we have the process reversed. The true form is _nadder_, old English; _natter_, German. Here the _n_ is taken from the substantive and added to the article. In _newt_ and _eft_ we have each form. The list of words of this sort can be increased. § 243. In the second place, faults of pronunciation may be arranged according to their cause. {174} 1. _The fault of incompetent enunciation._--A person who says _sick_ for _thick_, or _elebben_ for _eleven_, does so, not because he knows no better, but because he cannot enounce the right sounds of _th_ and _v_. He is _incompetent_ to it. His error is not one of ignorance. It is an acoustic or a phonetic defect. As such it differs from-- 2. _The fault of erroneous enunciation._--This is the error of a person who talks of _jocholate_ instead of _chocolate_. It is not that he _cannot_ pronounce rightly, but that he mistakes the nature of the sound required. Still more the person who calls _a hedge_ _a nedge_, and _an edge_ _a hedge_. § 244. Incompetent enunciation, and erroneous enunciation are, however, only the proximate and immediate causes of bad orthoepy. Amongst the remote causes (the immediate causes of _erroneous_ enunciation) are the following. I. _Undefined notions as to the language to which a word belongs._--The flower called _anemone_ is variously pronounced. Those who know Greek say _anem[=o]ne_, speaking as if the word was written _anemohny_. The mass say, _anem[)o]ne_, speaking as if the word was written _anemmony_. Now, the doubt here is as to the language of the word. If it be Greek, it is _anem[=o]ne_. [Greek: Haima rhodon tiktei, ta de dakrua tan anemônan]. BION. And if it be English, it is (on the score of analogy) as undoubtedly _anémmony_. The pronunciation of the word in point is determined when we have determined the language of it. II. _Mistakes as to fact, the language of a word being determined._--To know the word _anem[=o]ne_ to be Greek, and to use it as a Greek word, but to call it _anem[)o]ny_, is not to be undecided as to a matter of language, but to be ignorant as to a matter of quantity. III. _Neglect of analogy._--Each and all of the following words, _orator_, _theatre_, _senator_, &c. are in the Latin language, from whence they are derived, accented on the second syllable; as _orátor_, _theátre_, _senátor_. In English, on the contrary, they are accented on the first; as _órator_, _théatre_, {175} _sénator_. The same is the case with many other words similarly derived. They similarly suffer a change of accent. So many words do this, that it is the rule in English for words to throw their accent from the second syllable (counting from the end of the word) to the third. It was on the strength of this rule,--in other words, on the analogies of _orator_, &c., that the English pronunciation of the Greek word [Greek: anemônê] was stated to be _anémmone_. Now, to take a word derived from the Latin, and to look to its original quantity only, without consulting the analogies of other words similarly derived, is to be neglectful of the analogies of our own language, and attentive to the quantities of a foreign one. These, amongst others, the immediate causes of erroneous enunciation, have been adduced not for the sake of exhausting, but for the sake of illustrating the subject. § 245. In matters of orthoepy it is the usual custom to appeal to one of the following standards. I. _The authority of scholars._--This is of value up to a certain point only. The fittest person for determining the classical pronunciation of a word like _anemone_ is the classical scholar; but the mere classical scholar is far from being the fittest person to determine the analogies that such a word follows in English. II. _The usage of educated bodies, such as the bar, the pulpit, the senate, _&c.__--These are recommended by two circumstances: 1. The chance that each member of them is sufficiently a scholar in foreign tongues to determine the original pronunciation of derived words, and sufficiently a critic in his own language to be aware of the analogies that are in operation. 2. The quantity of imitators that, irrespective of the worth of his pronunciation, each individual can carry with him. On this latter ground the stage is a sort of standard. The objection to the authority of educated bodies is its impracticability. It is only the usage of the component individuals that can be determined. Of these many may carry with them the dialects of their provinces, so that, although good standards on points of accent and quantity, they are bad ones upon points of articulation. {176} III. _The authority of societies constituted with the express purpose of taking cognizance of the language of the country._--These, although recognized in Italy and other parts of the Continent, have only been proposed in Great Britain. Their inefficacy arises from the inutility of attempting to fix that which, like language, is essentially fluctuating. IV. _The authority of the written language._--The value of this may be collected from the chapter on orthography. V. These, amongst others, the standards that have been appealed to, are adduced not for the sake of exhausting the subject, but to show the unsatisfactory nature of authority in matters of speech. § 246. For a person, on a point of pronunciation, to trust to his own judgment, he must be capable, with every word that he doubts about, of discussing three questions:-- I. _The abstract or theoretical propriety of a certain pronunciation._--To determine this he must have a sufficient knowledge of foreign tongues and a sufficient knowledge of English analogies. He must also have some test by which he can determine to what language an equivocal word belongs. Of tests for this purpose, one, amongst others, is the following:--Let it be asked whether the word _lens_ (in Optics) is English or Latin; whether it is to be considered as a naturalised word or a strange one. The following fact will give an answer. There is of the word _lens_ a plural number, and this plural number is the English form _lenses_, and not the Latin form _lentes_. The existence of an English inflection proves that the word to which it belongs is English, although its absence does not prove the contrary. That the word _anemone_ is English (and consequently pronounced _anem[)o]ne_) we know from the plural form, which is not _anemonæ_, but _anemones_. II. _The preference of one pronunciation over another on the score of utility._--The word _ascetic_, for certain orthographical reasons, notwithstanding its origin from the Greek word _askeó_, is called _assetic_. From similar reasons there is a tendency to call the word _sceptic_, _septic_. Theoretical propriety (and, be it observed, the analogy of _ascetic_ has not been overlooked) is in {177} favour of the word being sounded _skeptic_. The tendency of language, however, is the other way. Now, the tendency of language and the theoretical propriety being equal, there is an advantage (a point of utility) in saying _skeptic_, which turns the scale. By sounding the _k_ we distinguish the word _skeptic_ from _septic_. By this the language gains a point in perspicuity, so that we can talk of the _anti-skeptic_ writings of Bishop Warburton and of the _anti-septic_ properties of charcoal. III. _The tendencies of language_.--From p. 153, we see that the combination _ew_ is an unstable combination, that it has a tendency to become _yoo_, and that the _y_ in _yoo_ has a tendency to change a _d_ preceding into _j_; in other words, we see the reason why, by many persons, _dew_ is pronounced _jew_. It is generally an easier matter to say how a word will be sounded a hundred years hence, than to determine its present pronunciation. Theoretical propriety is in favour of _dew_, so also is the view in the way of utility. Notwithstanding this, posterity will say _jew_, for the tendencies of language are paramount to all other influences. We may now judge of the relative value of the three lines of criticism exhibited above. Other things being equal, the language should have the advantage of the doubt, and the utility of a given pronunciation should prevail over its theoretical propriety. Where, however, the tendencies are overwhelming, we can only choose whether, in doubtful words, we shall speak like our ancestors, or like our posterity.[35] * * * * * {178} CHAPTER IX. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. § 247. Orthoepy determines the correct pronunciation of words, and deals with a language as it is _spoken_; orthography determines the correct spelling of words, and deals with a language as it is _written_. The term is derived from the Greek words _orthos_ (_upright_), and _graphé_, or _grafæ_ (_writing_). Orthography is less essential to language than orthoepy; since all languages are spoken, whilst but a few languages are written. Orthography presupposes orthoepy. Orthography addresses itself to the eye, orthoepy to the ear. Orthoepy deals with the articulate sounds that constitute syllables and words; orthography treats of the signs by which such articulate sounds are expressed in writing. A _letter_ is the sign of an articulate (and, in the case of _h_, of an inarticulate) sound. A full and perfect system of orthography consists in two things:--1. The possession of a sufficient and consistent alphabet. 2. The right application of such an alphabet. This position may be illustrated more fully. § 248. First, in respect to a full and perfect alphabet. Let there be in a certain language, simple single articulate sounds, to the number of forty, whilst the simple single signs, or letters, expressive of them, amount to no more than _thirty_. In this case the alphabet is insufficient. It is not full enough: since ten of the simple single articulate sounds have no corresponding signs whereby they may be expressed. In our own language, the sounds (amongst others) of _th_ in _thin_, and of _th_ in _thine_, are simple and single, whilst there is no sign equally simple and single to spell them with. An alphabet, however, may be sufficient, and yet imperfect. It may err on the score of inconsistency. Let there be in a {179} given language two simple single sounds, for instance, the _p_ in _pate_, and the _f_ in _fate_. Let these sounds stand in a given relation to each other. Let a given sign, for instance, [Hebrew: P] (as is actually the case in Hebrew), stand for the _p_ in _pate_; and let a second sign be required for the _f_ in _fate_. Concerning the nature of this latter sign, two views may be taken. One framer of the alphabet, perceiving that the two sounds are mere modifications of each other, may argue that no new sign (or letter) is at all necessary, but that the sound of _f_ in _fate_ may be expressed by a mere modification of the sign (or letter) [Hebrew: P], and may be written thus [Hebrew: P], or thus [Hebrew: P]´ or [Hebrew: P]', &c.; upon the principle that, like sounds should be expressed by like signs. The other framer of the alphabet, contemplating the difference between the two sounds, rather than the likeness, may propose, not a mere modification of the sign [Hebrew: P], but a letter altogether new, such as _f_, or [phi], &c., upon the principle that sounds of a given degree of dissimilitude should be expressed by signs of a different degree of dissimilitude. Hitherto the expression of the sounds in point is a matter of convenience only. No question has been raised as to its consistency or inconsistency. This begins under conditions like the following:--Let there be in the language in point the sounds of the _t_ in _tin_, and of the _th_ in _thin_; which (it may be remembered) are precisely in the same relation to each other as the _p_ in _pate_ and the _f_ in _fate_. Let each of these sounds have a sign (or letter) expressive of it. Upon the nature of these signs, or letters, will depend the nature of the sign or letter required for the _f_ in _fate_. If the letter expressing the _th_ in _thin_ be a mere modification of the letter expressing the _t_ in _tin_, then must the letter expressive of the _f_ in _fate_ be a mere modification of the letter expressing the _p_ in _pate_, and _vice versâ_. If this be not the case, the alphabet is inconsistent. In the English alphabet we have (amongst others) the following inconsistency:--The sound of the _f_ in _fate_, in a certain relation to the sound of the _p_ in _pate_, is expressed by a totally distinct sign; whereas, the sound of the _th_ in _thin_ (similarly related to the _t_ in _tin_) is expressed by no new sign, but by a mere modification of _t_; viz., _th_. {180} A third element in the faultiness of an alphabet is the fault of erroneous representation. The best illustration of this we get from the Hebrew alphabet, where the sounds of [Hebrew: T] and [Hebrew: T`], mere _varieties_ of each other, are represented by distinct and dissimilar signs, whilst [Hebrew: T] and [Hebrew: T], sounds _specifically_ distinct, are expressed by a mere modification of the same sign, or letter. § 249. _The right application of an alphabet._--An alphabet may be both sufficient and consistent, accurate in its representation of the alliances between articulate sounds, and in nowise redundant; and yet, withal, it may be so wrongly applied as to be defective. Of defect in the use or application of the letters of an alphabet, the three main causes are the following:-- 1. _Unsteadiness in the power of letters._--Of this there are two kinds. In the first, there is one sound with two (or more) ways of expressing it. Such is the sound of the letter _f_ in English. In words of Anglo-Saxon origin it is spelt with a single simple sign, as in _fill_; whilst in Greek words it is denoted by a combination, as in _Philip_. The reverse of this takes place with the letter _g_; here a single sign has a double power; in _gibbet_ it is sounded as _j_, and in _gibberish_ as _g_ in _got_. 2. _The aim at secondary objects._--The natural aim of orthography, of spelling, or of writing (for the three terms mean the same thing), is to express the _sounds_ of a language. Syllables and words it takes as they meet the ear, it translates them by appropriate signs, and so paints them, as it were, to the eye. That this is the natural and primary object is self-evident; but beyond this natural and primary object there is, with the orthographical systems of most languages, a secondary one, _viz._ the attempt to combine with the representation of the sound of a given word the representation of its history and origin. The sound of the _c_, in _city_, is the sound that we naturally spell with the letter _s_, and if the expression of this sound was the _only_ object of our orthographists, the word would be spelt accordingly (_sity_). The following facts, however, traverse {181} this simple view of the matter. The word is a derived word; it is transplanted into our own language from the Latin, where it is spelt with a _c_ (_civitas_); and to change this _c_ into _s_ conceals the origin and history of the word. For this reason the _c_ is retained, although, as far as the mere expression of sounds (the primary object in orthography) is concerned, the letter is a superfluity. In cases like the one adduced the orthography is bent to a secondary end, and is traversed by the etymology. 3. _Obsoleteness._--It is very evident that modes of spelling which at one time may have been correct, may, by a change of pronunciation, become incorrect; so that orthography becomes obsolete whenever there takes place a change of speech without a correspondent change of spelling. § 250. _Difference between the change of a sound and the original false expression of a sound._--The letter _u_ is a simple single sign. The sound of _ow_, in _town_, is a diphthongal, or a double, sound. Now, in Anglo-Saxon, the modern word _town_ is spelt _tún_. In this case one of two things must have taken place: either the word must have changed its sound, or the Anglo-Saxons must have expressed it falsely and improperly. § 251. From the foregoing sections we arrive at the theory of a full and perfect alphabet and orthography, of which a few (amongst many others) of the chief conditions are as follow:-- 1. That for every simple single sound, incapable of being represented by a combination of letters, there be a simple single sign. 2. That sounds within a determined degree of likeness be represented by signs within a determined degree of likeness; whilst sounds beyond a certain degree of likeness be represented by distinct and different signs, _and that uniformly_. 3. That no sound have more than one sign to express it. 4. That no sign express more than one sound. 5. That the primary aim of orthography be to express the sounds of words, and not their histories. {182} 6. That changes of speech be followed by corresponding changes of spelling. With these principles in our mind we may measure the imperfections of our own and of other alphabets. § 252. Previous to considering the sufficiency or insufficiency of the English alphabet, it is necessary to enumerate the elementary articulate sounds of the language. The enumeration of these is, strictly speaking, a point, not of orthography, but of orthoepy. It is, however, so intimately connected with the former that the present chapter seems its proper place. The vowels belonging to the English language are the _twelve_ following:-- 1. That of _a_ in _father_. | 7. That of _e_ in _bed_. 2. -- _a_ -- _fat_. | 8. -- _i_ -- _pit_. 3. -- _a_ -- _fate_. | 9. -- _ee_ -- _feet_. 4. -- _aw_ -- _bawl_. | 10. -- _u_ -- _bull_. 5. -- _o_ -- _not_. | 11. -- _oo_ -- _fool_. 6. -- _o_ -- _note_. | 12. -- _u_ -- _duck_. For the relations of these see Chapter II. The diphthongal sounds are _four_. 1. That of _ou_ in _house_. 2. -- _ew_ -- _new_. 3. -- _oi_ -- _oil_. 4. -- _i_ -- _bite_. This last sound being most incorrectly expressed by the single letter _i_. The consonantal sounds are, 1. the two semivowels; 2. the four liquids; 3. fourteen out of the sixteen mutes; 4. _ch_ in _chest_, and _j_ in _jest_, compound sibilants; 5. _ng_, as in _king_; 6. the aspirate _h_. In all, twenty-four. 1. _w_ as in _wet_. | 13. _th_ -- _thin_. 2. _y_ -- _yet_. | 14. _th_ -- _thine_. 3. _m_ -- _man_. | 15. _g_ -- _gun_. 4. _n_ -- _not_. | 16. _k_ -- _kind_. 5. _l_ -- _let_. | 17. _s_ -- _sin_. 6. _r_ -- _run_. | 18. _z_ -- _zeal_. 7. _p_ -- _pate_. | 19. _sh_ -- _shine_. {183} 8. _b_ -- _ban_. | 20. _z_ -- _azure_, _glazier_. 9. _f_ -- _fan_. | 21. _ch_ -- _chest_. 10. _v_ -- _van_. | 22. _j_ -- _jest_. 11. _t_ -- _tin_. | 23. _ng_ -- _king_. 12. _d_ -- _din_. | 24. _h_ -- _hot_. Some writers would add to these the additional sound of the _é fermé_ of the French; believing that the vowel in words like _their_ and _vein_ has a different sound from the vowel in words like _there_ and _vain_. For my own part I cannot detect such a difference either in my own speech or that of my neighbours; although I am far from denying that in certain _dialects_ of our language such may have been the case. The following is an extract from the Danish grammar for Englishmen, by Professor Rask, whose eye, in the matter in question, seems to have misled his ear: "The _é fermé_, or _close é_, is very frequent in Danish, but scarcely perceptible in English; unless in such words as, _their_, _vein_, _veil_, which appear to sound a little different from _there_, _vain_, _vale_." The vowels being twelve, the diphthongs four, and the consonantal sounds twenty-four, we have altogether as many as forty sounds, some being so closely allied to each other as to be mere modifications, and others being combinations rather than simple sounds; all, however, agreeing in requiring to be expressed by letters or by combinations of letters, and to be distinguished from each other. Now, although every sound specifically distinct should be expressed by a distinct sign, it does not follow that mere modifications or varieties (especially if they be within certain limits) should be so expressed. In the Greek language sounds as like as the _o_ in _not_ and the _o_ in _note_ are expressed by signs as unlike as [omicron] and [omega]; that is, by the letters _omicron_ and _omega_ respectively; and so it is with [epsilon] and [eta]. All that can be said in this case is, that it is the character of the Greek alphabet to represent a difference which the English neglects. With respect to the diphthongs it is incorrect, uncommon, and inconvenient to represent them by simple single signs, rather than by combinations. In the English language the sounds {184} of _ou_, _ew_, and _oi_, are properly spelt with two letters. Not so, however, of _i_ in _bite_. The compound sibilants may also be expressed not by single signs, but by the combinations _tsh_ and _dzh_; although, for certain reasons, such a mode of spelling is inconvenient. With these views we may appreciate, I. _The insufficiency of the English alphabet._ A. _In respect to the vowels._--Notwithstanding the fact that the sounds of the _a_ in _father_, _fate_, and _fat_, and of the _o_ and the _aw_ in _note_, _not_, and _bawl_, are modifications of _a_ and _o_ respectively, we have still _six_ vowel sounds specifically distinct, for which (_y_ being a consonant rather than a vowel) we have but _five_ signs. The _u_ in _duck_, specifically distinct from the _u_ in _bull_, has no specifically distinct sign to represent it. B. _In respect to the consonants._--The _th_ in _thin_, the _th_ in _thine_, the _sh_ in _shine_, the _z_ in _azure_, and the _ng_ in _king_, five sounds specifically distinct, and five sounds perfectly simple require corresponding signs, which they have not. II. _Its inconsistency._--The _f_ in _fan_, and the _v_ in _van_ sounds in a certain degree of relationship to _p_ and _b_, are expressed by signs as unlike as _f_ is unlike _p_, and as _v_ is unlike b. The sound of the _th_ in _thin_, the _th_ in _thine_, the _sh_ in _shine_, similarly related to _t_, _d_, and _s_, are expressed by signs as like _t_, _d_, and _s_, respectively, as _th_ and _sh_. The compound sibilant sound of _j_ in _jest_ is spelt with the single sign _j_, whilst the compound sibilant sound in _chest_ is spelt with the combination _ch_. III. _Erroneousness._--The sound of the _ee_ in _feet_ is considered the long (independent) sound of the _e_ in _bed_; whereas it is the long (independent) sound of the _i_ in _pit_. The _i_ in _bite_ is considered as the long (independent) sound of the _i_ in _pit_; whereas it is a diphthongal sound. The _u_ in _duck_ is looked upon as a modification of the _u_ in _bull_; whereas it is a specifically distinct sound. The _ou_ in _house_ and the _oi_ in _oil_ are looked upon as the compounds of _o_ and _i_ and of _o_ and _u_ respectively; whereas the latter element of them is not _i_ and _u_, but _y_ and _w_. The _th_ in _thin_ and the _th_ in _thine_ are dealt with as one {185} and the same sound; whereas they are sounds specifically distinct. The _ch_ in _chest_ is dealt with as a modification of _c_ (either with the power of _k_ or of _s_); whereas its elements are _t_ and _sh_. IV. _Redundancy._--As far as the representation of sounds is concerned the letter _c_ is superfluous. In words like _citizen_ it may be replaced by _s_; in words like _cat_ by _k_. In _ch_, as in _chest_, it has no proper place. In _ch_, as in _mechanical_, it may be replaced by _k_. _Q_ is superfluous, _cw_ or _kw_ being its equivalent. _X_ also is superfluous, _ks_, _gz_, or _z_, being equivalent to it. The diphthongal forms _æ_ and _oe_, as in _Æneas_ and _Croesus_, except in the way of etymology, are superfluous and redundant. V. _Unsteadiness._--Here we have (amongst many other examples), 1. The consonant _c_ with the double power of _s_ and _k_; 2. _g_ with its sound in _gun_ and also with its sound in _gin_; 3. _x_ with its sounds in _Alexander_, _apoplexy_, _Xenophon_. In the foregoing examples a single sign has a double power; in the words _Philip_ and _filip_, &c., a single sound has a double sign. In respect to the degree wherein the English orthography is made subservient to etymology, it is sufficient to repeat the statement that the _c_, _æ_, and _oe_ are retained in the alphabet for etymological purposes only. The defects noticed in the preceding sections are _absolute_ defects, and would exist, as they do at present, were there no language in the world except the English. This is not the case with those that are now about to be noticed; for them, indeed, the word _defect_ is somewhat too strong a term. They may more properly be termed inconveniences. Compared with the languages of the rest of the world the use of many letters in the English alphabet is _singular_. The letter _i_ (when long or independent) is, with the exception of England, generally sounded as _ee_. With Englishmen it has a diphthongal power. The inconvenience of this is the necessity that it imposes upon us, in studying foreign languages, of {186} unlearning the sound which we give it in our own, and of learning the sound which it bears in the language studied. So it is (amongst many others) with the letter _j_. In English this has the sound of _dzh_, in French of _zh_, and in German of _y_. From singularity in the use of letters arises inconvenience in the study of foreign tongues. In using _j_ as _dzh_ there is a second objection. It is not only inconvenient, but it is theoretically incorrect. The letter _j_ was originally a modification of the vowel _i_. The Germans, who used it as the semivowel _y_, have perverted it from its original power less than the English have done, who sound it _dzh_. With these views we may appreciate, of the English alphabet and orthography, I). _Its convenience or inconvenience in respect to learning foreign tongues._--The sound given to the _a_ in _fate_ is singular. Other nations sound it as _a_ in _father_. The sound given to the _e_, long (or independent), is singular. Other nations sound it either as _a_ in _fate_, or as _é fermé_. The sound given to the _i_ in _bite_ is singular. Other nations sound it as _ee_ in _feet_. The sound given to the _oo_ in _fool_ is singular. Other nations sound it as the _o_ in _note_, or as the _ó chiuso_. The sound given to the _u_ in _duck_ is singular. Other nations sound it as the _u_ in _bull_. The sound given to the _ou_ in _house_ is singular. Other nations, more correctly, represent it by _au_ or _aw_. The sound given to the _w_ in _wet_ is somewhat singular, but is also correct and convenient. With many nations it is not found at all, whilst with those where it occurs it has the sound (there or thereabouts) of _v_. The sound given to _y_ is somewhat singular. In Danish it has a vowel power. In German the semivowel sound is spelt with _j_. The sound given to _z_ is not the sound which it has in German and Italian; but its power in English is convenient and correct. The sound given to _ch_ in _chest_ is singular. In other languages it has generally a guttural sound; in French that of {187} _sh_. The English usage is more correct than the French, but less correct than the German. The sound given to _j_ (as said before) is singular. II.) _The historical propriety of certain letters._--The use of _i_ with a diphthongal power is not only singular and inconvenient, but also historically incorrect. The Greek _iota_, from whence it originates, has the sound of _i_ and _ee_, as in _pit_ and _feet_. The _y_, sounded as in _yet_, is historically incorrect. It grew out of the Greek [upsilon], a vowel, and no semivowel. The Danes still use it as such, that is, with the power of the German _ü_. The use of _j_ for _dzh_ is historically incorrect. The use of _c_ for _k_ in words derived from the Greek, as _mechanical_, _ascetic_, &c., is historically incorrect. The form _c_ is the representative of [gamma] and [sigma] and not of the Greek _kappa_. In remodelling alphabets the question of historical propriety should be recognized. Other reasons for the use of a particular letter in a particular sense being equal, the historical propriety should decide the question. The above examples are illustrative, not exhaustive. § 253. _On certain conventional modes of spelling._--In the Greek language the sounds of _o_ in _not_ and of _o_ in _note_ (although allied) are expressed by the unlike signs or letters [omicron] and [omega], respectively. In most other languages the difference between the sounds is considered too slight to require for its expression signs so distinct and dissimilar. In some languages the difference is neglected altogether. In many, however, it is expressed, and that by some modification of the original letter. Let the sign (-) denote that the vowel over which it stands is long, or independent, whilst the sign (U) indicates shortness, or dependence. In such a case, instead of writing _not_ and _n[omega]t_, like the Greeks, we may write _n[)o]t_ and _n[=o]t_, the sign serving for a fresh letter. Herein the expression of the nature of the sound is natural, because the natural use of (-) and (U) is to express length or shortness, dependence or independence. Now, supposing the broad sound of _o_ {188} to be already represented, it is very evident that, of the other two sounds of _o_, the one must be long (independent), and the other short (dependent); and as it is only necessary to express one of these conditions, we may, if we choose, use the sign (-) alone; its presence denoting length, and its absence shortness (independence or dependence). As signs of this kind, one mark is as good as another; and instead of (-) we may, if we choose, substitute such a mark as (´) (and write _nót_=_n[=o]t_=_n[omega]t_=_n[=o]te)_; provided only that the sign (´) expresses no other condition or affection of a sound. This use of the mark (´), _viz._ as a sign that the vowel over which it is placed is long (independent), is common in many languages. But is this use of (´) natural? For a reason that the reader has anticipated, it is not natural, but conventional. It is used elsewhere not as the sign of _quantity_, but as the sign of _accent_; consequently, being placed over a letter, and being interpreted according to its natural meaning, it gives the idea, not that the syllable is long, but that it is emphatic or accented. Its use as a sign of quantity is an orthographical expedient, or a conventional mode of spelling. The English language abounds in orthographical expedients; the mode of expressing the quantity of the vowels being particularly numerous. To begin with these: The reduplication of a vowel where there is but one syllable (as in _feet_, _cool_), is an orthographical expedient. It merely means that the syllable is long (or independent). The juxta-position of two different vowels, where there is but one syllable (as in _plain_, _moan_), is an orthographical expedient. It generally means the same as the reduplication of a vowel, _i.e._, that the syllable is long (independent). The addition of the _e_ mute, as in _plane_, _whale_ (whatever may have been its origin), is, at present, but an orthographical expedient. It denotes the lengthening of the syllable. The reduplication of the consonant after a vowel, as in _spotted_, _torrent_, is in most cases but an orthographical expedient. It merely denotes that the preceding vowel is short (dependent). {189} The use of _ph_ for _f_ in _Philip_, is an orthographical expedient, founded upon etymological reasons. The use of _th_ for the simple sound of the first consonant in _thin_ and _thine_, is an orthographical expedient. The combination must be dealt with as a single letter. _X_, however, and _q_ are not orthographical expedients. They are orthographical compendiums. The above instances have been adduced as illustrations only. Further details will be found hereafter. For many of them we can give a reason (for instance, for the reduplication of a consonant to express the shortness of the preceding vowel), and of many of them we can give an historical account (see Chapter X.). § 254. The mischief of orthographical expedients is this:--When a sign, or letter, is used in a _conventional_, it precludes us from using it (at least without further explanation) in its _natural_ sense: _e.g._, the double _o_ in _mood_ constitutes but one syllable. If in a foreign language we had, immediately succeeding each other, first the syllable _mo_, and next the syllable _od_, we should have to spell it _mo-od_, or _möod_ or _mo-[o-hook]d_, &c. Again, it is only by our knowledge of the language that the _th_ in _nuthook_, is not pronounced like the _th_ in _burthen_. In the languages of India the true sound of _t_ + _h_ is common. This, however, we cannot spell naturally because the combination _th_ conveys to us another notion. Hence such combinations as _thh_, or _t`_, &c., in writing Hindoo words. A second mischief of orthographical conventionalities, is the wrong notions that they engender, the eye misleading the ear. That _th_ is really _t_ + _h_, no one would have believed had it not been for the spelling. § 255. The present section is the partial application of the preceding observations. It is a running commentary upon the orthographical part of Dr. Johnson's Grammar. Presuming a knowledge of the detail of the English orthography, it attempts an explanation of some of its leading characters. Many of these it possesses in common with other tongues. Several are peculiar to itself. {190} "_A_, sounded as _aw_, or as a modification of _o_."--_A_, as in _father_, and _o_, as in _note_ (as may be seen in p. 150), form the extremities of the vowel system. Notwithstanding this, the two sounds often interchange. The orthographical systems of most languages bear witness to this. In French the _au_ in _autel_ has the sound of _o_; in Danish _aa_=_o_ (_baade_ being pronounced _bohde_); in Swedish _å_ has the same power. In Old English the forms _hond_, _strond_, &c., occur, instead of _hand_, strand, &c. In Anglo-Saxon, brád, stán, &c., correspond to the English forms _broad_, _stone_. I am not able to say whether _a_ changes oftenest to _o_, or _o_ to a. The form _hond_ is older than the form _hand_. In the word _salt_, however, the _a_ was pronounced as the _a_ in _fat_ before it was pronounced (as at present) like the _o_ in _not_. If this were not the case it would never have been spelt with an a. In the words _launch_ and _haunch_, by some called _lanch_, _hanch_, and by others _lawnch_, _hawnch_, we find a present tendency to interchange these sounds. The change from _a_ to _o_ takes place most especially before the liquid _l_, _wall_, _call_, _fall_. When the liquid _l_ is followed by another consonant, it (_viz._ _l_) is generally sunk in pronunciation, _falcon_, _salmon_, &c., pronounced _faucon_, _sammon_, or _saumon_. The reason of this lies in the following fact, _viz._, _that syllables wherein there are, at the same time, two final consonants and a long vowel, have a tendency to become shortened by one of two processes, viz., either by ejecting one of the consonants, or by shortening the vowel_. That the _l_ in _falcon_ is affected not by the change of _a_ to _o_, but by the change of a short vowel to a long, or of a slender one to a broad one, is shown in the tendency which the common people have to say _hode_ for _hold_, as well as by the Scotch form _gowd_ for _gold_. This fact bears upon the difficult problem in the Greek (and in other languages), _viz._, whether the _lengthening_ of the vowel in words like _[Greek: odous]_ (compared with _[Greek: odontos]_), is the cause or the effect of the rejection of the consonant. "_E_ is long, as in _scene_; or short, as in _cellar_."'--_Johnson._ It has been stated before that the (so-called) long sound of _e_ is non-existent, and the _e_ in _scene_, is the (so-called) long sound of the _i_ in _pit_. {191} For the power of _e_ in _since_ and _once_, see the remarks on _s_. For the power of _e_ in _hedge_ and _oblige_, see the remarks on _g_. The power of _e_ mute in words like _cane_, _bane_, _tune_, _robe_, _pope_, _fire_, _cure_, _tube_, has already been noticed. It serves to denote the length of the preceding vowel. For this purpose it is retained; but it was not for this purpose that it was invented. Originally it expressed a sound, and it is only by a change of language that it has come, as it were by accident, to be an orthographical expedient. Let a word consist of two syllables. Let the latter end in a vowel. Let there be between the vowel of the first and the vowel of the second syllable, one consonant and no more, _e. g._, _namæ_. Let the consonant belong to the root of the word; and let the first syllable of the word be the essential and the radical part of it. Let this same syllable (as the essential and radical part of it) have an accent. The chances are that, under such circumstances, the vowel of the first syllable will be long (independent), just as the chances are that a vowel followed by two consonants will be short. Let a change in language affect the _final_ vowel, so that a word which was originally pronounced _nama_, should become, first, _namë_, and afterwards _n[=a]m_, _naim_, or _næm_; the vowel being sounded as the _a_ in _fate_. Let the final _e_, although lost in pronunciation, be retained in the spelling. The chances are that, the above conditions being given, such an _e_ (final and mute) shall, whenever it occurs, occur at the end of a long syllable. The next process is for a succeeding generation to mistake a coincidence for a sign, and to imagine that an _e_ mute expresses the length of syllable. I consider this to be the key to the use of the _e_ mute in all words where it is preceded by one consonant only. From the circumstance that the French and the English are the only nations wherein the _e_ mute is part and parcel of the orthography, it has been hastily imagined that the employment of it is to be attributed to the Norman Conquest. The truth, however, is, that we find it equally in words of Saxon and of Norman origin. The fact that, in certain words, an _e_ mute is preceded by {192} two consonants and by a short vowel, does not militate against the view given above. "_I_ has a sound, long, as in _fine_, and short, as in _fin_. That is eminently observable in _i_, which may be likewise remarked in other letters, that the short sound is not the long sound contracted, but a sound wholly different."--_Johnson._ This extract has been made in order to add the authority of Johnson to the statement so often repeated already; _viz._, that the _i_ in _bite_ is not the long sound of the _i_ in _bit_. For the sound of _u_ in _guest_, _prorogue_, _guard_, see the remarks on _g_. As a vowel, _y_ is wholly superfluous. It is a current remark that more words end in _y_ (_fortify_, _pretty_) than in any other letter. This is true only in respect to their spelling. As a matter of _speech_, the _y_ final has always the sound either of the _ee_ in _feet_, or of the _i_ in _bite_. Such is the case with the words _fortify_ and _pretty_, quoted above. For some reason or other, the vowel _e_ is never, in English, written at the end of words, unless when it is mute; whilst _i_ is never written at all. Instead of _cri_, we write _cry_, &c. This is a peculiarity of our orthography, for which I have no satisfactory reason. It _may_ be, that with words ending in _e_, _y_ is written for the sake of showing that the vowel is not mute, but sounded. Again, the adjectives ending in _y_ as _any_, and the adverbs in _ly_, as _manly_, in the older stages of our language ended, not in _y_, but in _ig_ (_manlig_, _ænig_); so that the present _y_, in such words, may be less the equivalent of _i_ than the compendium of _ig_. I venture this indication with no particular confidence. The _b_ in _debtor_, _subtile_, _doubt_, agrees with the _b_ in _lamb_, _limb_, _dumb_, _thumb_, _womb_, in being mute. It differs, however, in another respect. The words _debtor_, _subtle_, _doubt_, are of classical, the words _lamb_, _limb_, _dumb_, &c., are of Saxon, origin. In _debtor_, &c., the _b_ was, undoubtedly, at one time, pronounced, since it belonged to a different syllable; _debitor_, _subtilis_, _dubito_, being the original forms. I am far from being certain that with the other words, _lamb_, &c., this was the case. With them the _b_ belonged (if it belonged to the word at all) to the same syllable as the _m_. I think, {193} however, that instead of this being the case, the _b_, in _speech_, never made a part of the word at all; that it belongs now, and that it always belonged, to the _written_ language only; and that it was inserted in the spelling upon what may be called the principle of imitation. For a further illustration of this, see the remarks on the word _could_. "_Ch_ has a sound which is analysed into _tsh_, as _church_, _chin_, _crutch_. _C_ might be omitted in the language without loss, since one of its sounds might be supplied by _s_, and the other by _k_, but that it preserves to the eye the etymology of words, as _face_ from _facies_, _captive_ from _captivus_"--_Johnson._ Before _a_, _o_, _u_ (that is, before a full vowel), _c_ is sounded as _k_; before _e_, _i_, and _y_ (that is, before a small vowel), it has the power of _s_. This change of sound according to the nature of the vowel following, is so far from being the peculiarity of the English, that it is common in all languages; except that sometimes _c_, instead of becoming _s_, becomes _ts_, _tsh_, _ksh_, in other words, some other sibilant; _but always a sibilant_. A reference to p. 153 will explain this change. At a certain time, _k_ (written _c_, as is the case in Latin) becomes changed by the vowel following into _ksh_, and from thence into _s_, _ts_, or _tsh_. That the syllables _cit_, _cyt_, _cet_, were at one time pronounced _kit_, _kyt_, _ket_, we believe: 1. from the circumstance that if it were not so, they would have been spelt with an _s_; 2. from the comparison of the Greek and Latin languages, where the words _cete_, _circus_, _cystis_, Latin, are [Greek: kêtê, kirkos], [Greek: kustis], Greek. In the words _mechanical_, _choler_, &c., derived from the Greek, it must not be imagined that the _c_ represents the Greek _kappa_ or [kappa]. The combination _c_ + _h_ is to be dealt with as a single letter. Thus it was that the Romans, who had in their language neither the sound of [chi], nor the sign [kappa], rendered the Greek _chi_ ([chi]), just as by _th_ they rendered [theta], and by _ph_, [phi]. The faulty representation of the Greek [chi] has given rise to a faulty representation of the Greek [kappa], as in _ascetic_, from [Greek: askêtikos]. "_C_, according to the English orthography, never ends a {194} word; therefore we write _stick_, _block_, which were originally _sticke_, _blocke_. In such words _c_ is now mute."--_Johnson._ Just as there was a prejudice against _i_ or _e_ ending a word there seems to have been one in the case of c. In the word _Frederick_ there are three modes of spelling: 1. Frederic; 2. Frederik; 3. Frederick. Of these three it is the last only that seems, to an Englishman, natural. The form Frederic seems exceptionable, because the last letter is _c_, whilst Frederik is objected to because _k_ comes in immediate contact with the short vowel. Now the reason against _c_ ending a word seems this. From what has been remarked above, _c_ seems, in and of itself, to have no power at all. Whether it shall be sounded as _k_ or as _s_ seems undetermined, except by the nature of the vowel following. If the vowel following be small, _c_=_s_, if full, _c_=_k_. But _c_ followed by nothing is equivocal and ambiguous. Now _c_ final is _c_ followed by nothing; and therefore _c_ equivocal, ambiguous, indefinite, undetermined. This is the reason why _c_ is never final. Let there be such words as _sticke_ and _blocke_. Let the _k_ be taken away. The words remain _stice_, _bloce_. The _k_ being taken away, there is a danger of calling them _stise_, _blose_. A verbal exception being taken, the statement of Dr. Johnson, that in words like _stick_ and _block_ the _c_ is mute, is objectionable. The mute letter is not so much the _c_ as the _k_. "_G_ at the end of a word is always hard, as _ring_, _sing_."--_Johnson._ A verbal exception may be taken here. _Ng_, is not a combination of the sounds of _n_+_g_, but the representation of a simple single sound; so that, as in the case of _th_ and _sh_, the two letters must be dealt with as a single one. "_G_ before _n_ is mute, as _gnash_, _sign_, _foreign_."--_Johnson._ The three words quoted above are not in the same predicament. In words like _gnash_ the _g_ has been silently dropped on the score of euphony (see remarks on _k_); in _sign_ and _foreign_ the _g_ has not been dropped, but changed. It has taken the allied sound of the semivowel _y_, and so, with the preceding vowel, constitutes a diphthong. {195} Before _a_, _o_, _u_ (full vowels), _g_ has the sound, as in _gay_, _go_, _gun_: before _e_, _i_, _y_, that of _gem_, _giant_. At the end of a word (that is, followed by nothing at all), or followed by a consonant, it has the same sound that it has before _a_, _o_, _u_--_agog_, _grand_. This shows that such is its natural sound. In _hedge_ and _oblige_ the _e_ mute serves to show that the _g_ is to be pronounced as _j_. Let there be the word _r[)o]g_. Let the vowel be lengthened. Let this lengthening be expressed by the addition of _e_ mute, _roge_. There is now a risk of the word being called _roje_. This is avoided by inserting _u_, as in _prorogue_. Why, however, is it that the _u_ runs no chance of being pronounced, and the word of being sounded _prorogwé_? The reason for this lies in three facts. 1. The affinities between the sounds of _ga_ and _ka_. 2. The fact that _qu_ is merely _kw_. 3. The fact that in _qu_, followed by another vowel, as in _quoit_ (pronounced _koyt_), _antique_, &c., the _u_ is altogether omitted in pronunciation. In other words, the analogy of _qu_ is extended to _gu_. For the varied sounds of _gh_ in _plough_, _tough_, _enough_ (_enow_), _through_, we must remember that the original sound of _gh_ was a hard guttural, as is at present the case in Scotland, and between _g_, _h_, _f_, _v_, _w_, there are frequent interchanges. "_H_ is a note of aspiration."--It is under the notion that _th_, _ph_, _sh_, as in _thin_, _thine_, _Philip_, _shine_, are aspirated sounds, that _h_ is admitted in the spelling. As has been repeatedly stated, _th_, _ph_, _sh_ are to be treated as single signs or letters. "_J_, consonant, sounds uniformly like the soft _g_ (_i.e._, as in _gem_), and is, therefore, a letter useless, except in etymology, as _ejaculation_, _jester_, _jocund_, _juice_."--_Johnson._ It may be added that it never occurs in words of Saxon origin, and that in the single word _Allelujah_ it has the sound of _y_, as in the German. _K_ never comes before _a_, _o_, _u_, or before a consonant. It is used before _e_, _i_, _y_, where _c_ would, according to the English analogy, be liable to be sounded as _s_; as in _kept_, _king_, _skirt_. These words, if written _cept_, _cing_, _scirt_, would run the risk of being sounded _sept_, _sing_, _sirt_. Broadly speaking, _k_ is never {196} used except where _c_ would be inconvenient. The reason of this lies in the fact of there being no such letter as _k_ in the Latin language. Hence arose in the eyes of the etymologist the propriety of retaining, in all words derived from the Latin (_crown_, _concave_, _concupiscence_, &c.), the letter _c_, to the exclusion of _k_. Besides this, the Anglo-Saxon alphabet, being taken from the Roman, excluded _k_, so that _c_ was written even before the small vowels, _a_, _e_, _i_, _y_; as _cyning_, or _cining_, _a king_. _C_ then supplants _k_ upon etymological grounds only. In the languages derived from the Latin this dislike to the use of _k_ leads to several orthographical inconveniences. As the tendency of _c_, before _e_, _i_, _y_, to be sounded as _s_ (or as a sound allied to _s_), is the same in those languages as in others; and as in those languages, as in others, there frequently occur such sounds as _kit_, _ket_, _kin_, &c., a difficulty arises as to the spelling. If spelt _cit_, _cet_, &c., there is the risk of their being sounded _sit_, _set_. To remedy this, an _h_ is interposed--_chit_, _chet_, &c. This, however, only substitutes one difficulty for another, since _ch_ is, in all probability, already used with a different sound, _e.g._, that of _sh_, as in French, or that of _k_ guttural, as in German. The Spanish orthography is thus hampered. Unwilling to spell the word _chimera_ (pronounced _kimera_) with a _k_; unable to spell it with either _c_ or _ch_, it writes the word _quimæra_. This distaste for _k_ is an orthographical prejudice. Even in the way of etymology it is but partially advantageous, since in the other Gothic languages, where the alphabet is less rigidly Latin, the words that in English are spelt with a _c_, are there written with _k_,--_kam_, German; _komme_, Danish; _skrapa_, Swedish;=_came_, _come_, _scrape_. The use of _k_ final, as in _stick_, &c., has been noticed in p. 194. "_Skeptic_, for so it should be written, not _sceptic_."--_Johnson._ Quoted for the sake of adding authority to the statement made in p. 193, _viz._, that the Greek _kappa_ is to be represented not by _c_, but by _k_. "_K_ is never doubled, but _c_ is used before it to shorten the vowel by a double consonant, as _c[)o]ckle_, _p[)i]ckle_."--_Johnson._ {197} This is referable to the statement that _k_ is never used where _c_ is admissible. "_K_ is used before _n_, _knell_, _knot_, but totally loses its sound."--_Johnson._ This, however, is not the ease in the allied languages; in German and Danish, in words like _knecht_, _knive_, the _k_ is sounded. This teaches us that such was once the case in English. Hence we learn that in the words _knife_, _knight_ (and also in _gnaw_, _gnash_), we have an antiquated or obsolete orthography. For the ejection of the sound of _l_ in _calf_, _salmon_, _falcon_, &c. see under a. For the _l_ in _could_, see that word. "_N_ is sometimes mute after _m_, as _damn_, _condemn_, _hymn_."--_Johnson._ In all these words the _n_ originally belonged to a succeeding syllable, _dam-no_, _condem-no_, _hym-nus_. _Q_, accurately speaking, is neither a letter, nor an abbreviation. It is always followed by _u_, as _queen_, _quilt_, and the two letters _qu_ must be looked upon as a single sign, equivalent to (but scarcely an abbreviation) of _kw_. _Q_ is not=_k_ alone. The combination _qu_, is never sounded _koo_. Neither is _kw_. If it were so, there would be in the word _queen_ (currently speaking) _three_ sounds of _u_, _viz._, two belonging to _q_ (=_kw_), and one belonging to _u_ itself. _W_ being considered as=2 _u_: _q_=_k_ + ½ _w_. This view of _q_ bears upon the theory of words like _prorogue_, &c. The reader is referred to p. 152. There he is told that, when a word ends in a flat consonant, _b_, _v_, _d_, _g_, the plural termination is not the sound of _s_, but that of _z_ (_stagz_, _dogz_); although _s_ be the letter _written_. Such also is the case with words ending in the vowels or the liquids (_peaz_, _beanz_, _hillz_, not _peace_, _beance_, _hillce_). This fact influences our orthography. The majority of words ending in _s_ are found to be plural numbers, or else (what is the same thing in respect to form) either genitive cases, or verbs of the third person singular; whilst in the majority of these the _s_ is sounded as _z_. Hence, the inference from analogy that _s_ single, at the end of words, is sounded as _z_. Now this fact hampers the orthography of those words wherein _s_ final retains its natural sound, as _since_, _once_, _mass_, _mace_; for let these be {198} written _sins_, _ons_, _mas_, the chances are that they will be pronounced _sinz_, _onz_, _maz_. To remedy this, the _s_ may be doubled, as in _mass_. This, however, can be done in a few cases only. It cannot be done conveniently where the vowel is long, the effect of a double consonant being to denote that the preceding vowel is short. Neither can it be done conveniently after a consonant, such combinations as _sinss_, &c., being unsightly. This throws the grammarian upon the use of _c_, which, as stated above, has, in certain situations, the power of _s_. To write, however, simply _sinc_, or _onc_, would induce the risk of the words being sounded _sink_, _onk_. To obviate this, _e_ is added, which has the double effect of not requiring to be sounded (being mute), and of showing that the _c_ has the sound of _s_ (being small). "It is the peculiar quality of _s_ that it may be sounded before all consonants, except _x_ and _z_, in which _s_ is comprised, _x_ being only _ks_, and _z_ only a hard [flat] or gross _s_. This _s_ is therefore termed by grammarians _suæ potestatis litera_, the reason of which the learned Dr. Clarke erroneously supposed to be, that in some words it might be doubled at pleasure."--_Johnson._ A reference to the current Greek Grammars will indicate another reason for [sigma] being called _suæ potestatis litera_. It will there be seen that, whilst [pi], [beta], [phi]--[kappa], [gamma], [chi]--[tau], [delta], [theta]--are grouped together, as _tenues_, _mediæ_, and _aspiratæ_, and as _inter se cognatæ_, [sigma] stands by itself; [zeta] its media (flat sound) being treated as a double letter, and _sh_, its so-called aspirate, being non-existent in the Greek language. The sound of _ti_ before a vowel, as in _salvation_, is explained in p. 153. "_Th_ has two sounds; the one soft [flat], as _thus_, _whether_; the other hard [sharp], as _thing_, _think_. The sound is soft [flat] in all words between two vowels, as _father_, _whether_; and between _r_ and a vowel, as _burthen_."--_Johnson._ The reason of the latter statement lies in the fact of both the vowels and _r_ being _flat_ (see p. 152), and so exerting a flattening influence upon the sounds in contact with them. In the substantives _breath_ and _cloth_, the _th_ is sharp (_i.e._, as _th_ in _thin_); in the verbs _breathe_ and _clothe_, the _th_ is flat (_i.e._, {199} as _th_ in _thine_).--A great number of substantives may be made verbs by changing the sound of their final consonant. However, with the words _breathe_ and _clothe_, a second change has taken place, _viz._, the vowel has been lengthened. Now of these two changes, _viz._, the lengthening of the vowel, and the flattening of the consonant, which is the one represented by the _e_ mute, in _clothe_ and _breathe_, as compared with _cloth_ and _breath_? I imagine the former. Hence an exception is taken to the following statement of Dr. Johnson:--"When it (_th_) is softened [flattened] at the end of a word, an _e_ silent must be added, as _breath_, _breathe_, _cloth_, _clothe_." The sounds of the _s_ in _sure_, of the _t_ in _picture_ (when pronounced _pictshure_), and of the _z_ in _azure_ and _glazier_, are explained in p. 153. The present chapter is intended not to exhaust the list, but to illustrate the character of those orthographical expedients which insufficient alphabets, changes in language, and the influences of etymology engender both in the English and in other tongues. * * * * * {200} CHAPTER X. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE ENGLISH ALPHABET. § 256. The preceding chapter has exhibited the theory of a full and perfect alphabet; it has shown how far the English alphabet falls short of such a standard; and, above all, it has exhibited the various conventional modes of spelling which the insufficiency of alphabets, combined with other causes, has engendered. The present chapter gives a _history_ of our alphabet, whereby many of its defects are _accounted for_. These defects, it may be said, once for all, the English alphabet shares with those of the rest of the world; although, with the doubtful exception of the French, it possesses them in a higher degree than any. With few, if any, exceptions, all the modes of writing in the world originate, directly or indirectly, from the Phoenician, Hebrew, or Semitic alphabet. This is easily accounted for when we call to mind,--1. The fact that the Greek, the Latin, and the Arabian alphabets, are all founded upon this; and, 2. The great influence of the nations speaking those three languages. The present sketch, however, is given only for the sake of accounting for defects. § 257. _Phoenician, Hebrew, or Semitic Period._--At a certain period the alphabet of Palestine, Phoenicia, and the neighbouring languages of the Semitic tribes, consisted of twenty-two separate and distinct letters. For these see the Hebrew Grammars and the Phoenicia of Gesenius. The chances are, that, let a language possess as few elementary articulate sounds as possible, an alphabet of only twenty-two letters will be insufficient. Now, in the particular case of the languages in point, the number of elementary sounds, as we infer from the present Arabic, was above the average. {201} It may safely be asserted, that the original Semitic alphabet was _insufficient_ for even the Semitic languages. It was, moreover, _inconsistent_: since sounds as like as those of _teth_ and _tau_ (mere variations of each other) were expressed by signs as unlike as [Hebrew: T`] and [Hebrew: T]; whilst sounds as unlike as those of _beth_ with a point, and _beth_ without a point (_b_ and _v_), were expressed (if expressed at all) by signs as like as [Hebrew: B] and [Hebrew: B]. In this state it was imported into Greece. Now, as it rarely happens that any two languages have precisely the same elementary articulate sounds, so it rarely happens that an alphabet can be transplanted from one tongue to another, and be found, at once, to coincide. The Greeks had, in all probability, sounds which were wanting in Palestine and Phoenicia. In Palestine and Phoenicia it is certain that there were sounds wanting in Greece. Of the twenty-two Phoenician letters the Greeks took but twenty-one. The eighteenth letter, _tsadi_, [Hebrew: TS], was never imported into Europe. § 258. _Greek Period._--Compared with the Semitic, the _Old_ Greek alphabet ran thus:-- _Hebrew._ _Greek._ | _Hebrew._ _Greek._ | 1. [Alef] [Alpha]. | 13. [Mem] [Mu]. 2. [Bet] [Beta]. | 14. [Nun] [Nu]. 3. [Gimel] [Gamma]. | 15. [Samekh] [Sigma]? 4. [Dalet] [Delta]. | 16. [Ayin] [Omicron]. 5. [He] [Epsilon]. | 17. [Pe] [Pi]. 6. [Vav] [Digamma]. | 18. [Tsadi] -- 7. [Zayin] [Zeta]. | A letter called 8. [Khet] [Eta]. | 19. [Kuf] koppa, afterwards 9. [Tet] [Theta]. | ejected. 10. [Yod] [Iota]. | 20. [Resh] [Rho]. 11. [Kaf] [Kappa]. | 21. [Shin] [San] afterwards [Sigma]? 12. [Lamed] [Lambda]. | 22. [Tav] [Tau]. Such the order and form of the Greek and Hebrew letters. Here it may be remarked, that, of each alphabet, it is only the modern forms that are compared; the likeness in the _shape_ of the letters may be seen by comparing them in their {202} older stages. Of these the exhibition, in a work like the present, is inconvenient. They may, however, be studied in the work already referred to in the _Phoenicia_ of Gesenius. The _names_ of the letters are as follows:-- _Hebrew._ _Greek._ | _Hebrew._ _Greek._ | 1. Aleph Alpha. | 12. Lamed Lambda. 2. Beth Bæta. | 13. Mem Mu. 3. Gimel Gamma. | 14. Nun Nu. 4. Daleth Delta. | 15. Samech Sigma? 5. He E, _psilon_ | 16. Ayn O. 6. Vaw _Digamma_. | 17. Pi Pi. 7. Zayn Zæta. | 18. Tsadi ---- 8. Heth Hæta. | 19. Kof Koppa, _Archaic_. 9. Teth Thæta. | 20. Resh Rho. 10. Yod Iôta. | 21. Sin San, _Doric_. 11. Kaph Kappa. | 22. Tau Tau. § 259. The Asiatic alphabet of Phoenicia and Palestine is now adapted to the European language of Greece. The first change took place in the manner of writing. The Orientals wrote from right to left; the Greeks from left to right. Besides this, the following principles, applicable whenever the alphabet of one language is transferred to another, were recognised:-- 1. Letters for which there was no use were left behind. This was the case, as seen above, with the eighteenth letter, _tsadi_. 2. Letters expressive of sounds for which there was no precise equivalent in Greek, were used with other powers. This was the case with letters 5, 8, 16, and probably with some others. 3. Letters of which the original sound, in the course of time, became changed, were allowed, as it were, to drop out of the alphabet. This was the case with 6 and 19. 4. For such simple single elementary articulate sounds as there was no sign or letter representant, new signs, or letters, were invented. This principle gave to the Greek alphabet the new signs [phi], [chi], [upsilon], [omega]. 5. The new signs were not mere modifications of the older {203} ones (as was the case with [Hebrew: P], [Hebrew: P], [Hebrew: B], [Hebrew: B], &c. in Hebrew), but new, distinct, and independent letters. In all this there was an improvement. The faults of the newer Greek alphabet consisted in the admission of the compendium [psi]=_ps_, and the retention of the fifteenth letter (_samech_, _xi_), with the power of _ks_, it being also a compendium. § 260. _The Italian or old Latin period._--That it was either from the original Phoenician, or from the _old_ Greek, that the Italian alphabets were imported, we learn from the existence in them of the letters _f_ and _q_, corresponding respectively to the sixth and nineteenth letters; these having, in the second stage of the Greek alphabet, been ejected. § 261. The first alphabet imported into Italy was the Etruscan. In this the [beta], [delta], and [omicron] were ejected, their sounds (as it is stated) not being found in the Etruscan language. Be it observed, that the sounds both of [beta] and [delta] are _flat_. Just as in the Devonshire dialect the flat sounds (_z_, _v_, &c.) have the preponderance, so, in the Etruscan, does there seem to have been a preponderating quantity of the sharp sounds. This prepares us for a change, the effects whereof exist in almost all the alphabets of Europe. In Greek and Hebrew the third letter (_gimel_, _gamma_) had the power of the flat mute _g_, as in _gun_. In the Etruscan it had the power of _k_. In this use of the third letter the Romans followed the Etruscans: but, as they had also in their language the sound of _g_ (as in _gun_), they used, up to the Second Punic War, the third letter (_viz._ _c_), to denote both sounds. In the Duillian column we have MACESTRATOS, CARTHACINIENSES.[36] Afterwards, however, the separate sign (or letter) _g_ was invented, being originally a mere modification of c. The _place_ of _g_ in the alphabet is involved in the history of _z_. § 262. The Roman alphabet had a double origin. For the first two centuries after the foundation of the city the alphabet used was the Etruscan, derived directly from the Greek, and from the _old_ Greek. This accounts for the presence of _f_ and _q_. {204} Afterwards, however, the Romans modified their alphabet by the alphabet of the Italian Greeks; these Italian Greeks using the late Greek alphabet. This accounts for the presence of _v_, originating in the Greek _ypsilon_. In accommodating the Greek alphabet to their own language, the Latins recognised the following principles:-- I. The ejection of such letters as were not wanted. Thus it was that the seventh letter (_zayn_, _zæta_) was thrown out of the alphabet, and the new letter, _g_, put in its place. Subsequently, _z_ was restored for the sake of spelling Greek words, but was placed at the end of the alphabet. Thus also it was, that _thæta_, _kappa_ (_c_ being equivalent to _k_), and the fifteenth letter, were ejected, while [psi] and [chi] were never admitted. In after-times the fifteenth letter (now _xi_) was restored, for the same reason that _z_ was restored, and, like _z_, was placed at the end of the alphabet. II. The use of the imported letters with a new power. Hence the sixth letter took the sound, not of _v_ or _w_, but of _f_; and the eighth of _h_. Beyond this the Romans made but slight alterations. In ejecting _kappa_, _thæta_ and _chi_, they did mischief. The same in changing the power of c. The representation of [phi] by _ph_, and of [theta] by _th_ was highly erroneous. The retention of _x_ and _q_ was unnecessary. _V_ and _j_, two letters whereby the alphabet was really enriched, were mere modifications of _u_ and _i_ respectively. _Y_ also seems a modification of _v_. Neither the Latin, Greek, nor Hebrew orthographies were much warped to etymological purposes. It should be observed, that in the Latin the letters have no longer any names (like _beth_, _bæta_), except such as are derived from their powers (_be_, _ce_). It may now be seen that with a language containing such sounds as the _th_ in _thin_ and _thine_, and the _ch_ in the German _auch_, it is to their advantage to derive their alphabet from the Greek; whilst, with a language containing such sounds as _h_ and _v_, it is to their advantage to derive it from the Latin. It may also be seen, that, without due alterations and {205} additions, the alphabet of one country will not serve as the alphabet of another. § 263. _The Moeso-Gothic alphabet._--In the third century the classical alphabets were applied to a Gothic language. I use the word alphabets because the Moeso-Gothic letters borrowed from both the Latin and the Greek. Their form and order may be seen in Hickes' Thesaurus and in Lye's Grammar. With the Greek they agree in the following particulars. 1. In the sound of the third letter being not that of [kappa] (_c_), but of the _g_ in _gun_. 2. In retaining _kappa_ and _chi_. 3. In expressing the simple single sound of _th_ by a simple single sign. This sign, however, has neither the shape nor alphabetical position of the Greek _thæta_. With the Latin they agree, 1. in possessing letters equivalent to _f_, _g_, _h_, _q_, _y_. 2. In placing _z_ at the end of the alphabet. The Moeso-Gothic alphabet seems to have been formed on eclectic principles, and on principles sufficiently bold. Neither was its application traversed by etymological views. I cannot trace its influence, except, perhaps, in the case of the Anglo-Saxon letters _þ_ and _[wynn]_, upon any other alphabet; nor does it seem to have been acted upon by any earlier Gothic alphabet. § 264. _The Anglo-Saxon alphabet._--What sort of an alphabet the Gothic languages possess we know: what sort of alphabet they require, we can determine. For the following sounds (amongst others) current in the Gothic, either one or both of the classical languages are deficient in corresponding signs. 1. The _th_ in _thin_.--A sign in Greek ([theta]), but none in Latin. 2. The _th_ in _thine_.--A sign neither in Greek nor Latin. 3. The _ch_ in the German _auch_.--A sign in Greek ([chi]), but none in Latin. 4. The flat sound of the same, or the probable sound of the _h_ in _þurh_, _leoht_, _&c_., Anglo-Saxon.--A sign neither in Greek nor Latin. {206} 5. The _sh_ in _shine_.--A sign neither in Greek nor Latin. 6. The _z_ in _azure_.--A sign neither in Greek nor Latin. 7. The _ch_ in _chest_.--A sign neither in Greek nor Latin, unless we suppose that at the time when the Anglo-Saxon alphabet was formed, the Latin _c_ in words like _civitas_ had the power, which it has in the present Italian, of _ch_. 8. The _j_ in _jest_.--A sign neither in Greek nor Latin, unless we admit the same supposition in respect to _g_, that has been indicated in respect to c. 9. The sound of the _kj_; in the Norwegian _kjenner_; _viz._, that (thereabouts) of _ksh_.--A sign neither in Latin nor Greek. 10. The English sound of _w_.--A sign neither in Latin nor Greek. 11. The sound of the German _ü_, Danish _y_.--No sign in Latin; probably one in Greek, _viz._, [upsilon]. 12. Signs for distinguishing the long and short vowels, as [epsilon] and [eta], [omicron] and [omega].--Wanting in Latin, but existing in Greek. In all these points the classical alphabets (one or both) were deficient. To make up for their insufficiency one of two things was necessary, either to coin new letters, or to use conventional combinations of the old. In the Anglo-Saxon alphabet (derived from the Latin) we have the following features:-- 1. _C_ used to the exclusion of _k_. 2. The absence of the letter _j_, either with the power of _y_, as in German, of _zh_, as in French, or of _dzh_, as in English. 3. The absence of _q_; a useful omission, _cw_ serving instead. 4. The absence of _v_; _u_, either single or double, being used instead. 5. The use of _y_ as a vowel, and of _e_ as _y_. 6. The absence of _z_. 7. Use of _uu_, as _w_, or _v_: Old Saxon. 8. The use, in certain conditions, of _f_ for _v_. 9. The presence of the simple single signs _þ_ and _ð_, for the _th_ in _thin_, and the _th_ in _thine_. Of the Anglo-Saxon alphabet we may safely say that it was _insufficient_. The points wherein the Latin alphabet was {207} improved in its adaptation to the Gothic tongues, are, 1. the admission of _þ_ and _ð_; 2. the evolution of _w_ out of _u_. Upon this latter circumstance, and on _k_ and _z_, I make the following extract from the Latin Dedication of Otfrid's Krist:--"Hujus enim linguæ barbaries, ut est inculta et indisciplinabilis, atque insueta capi regulari freno grammaticæ artis, sic etiam in multis dictis scriptu est difficilis propter literarum aut congeriem, aut incognitam sonoritatem. Nam interdum tria _u u u_ ut puto quærit in sono; priores duo consonantes, ut mihi videtur, tertium vocali sono manente," And, further, in respect to other orthographical difficulties:--"Interdum vero nec _a_, nec _e_, nec _i_, nec _u_, vocalium sonos præcanere potui, ibi _y_ Grecum mihi videbatur ascribi. Et etiam hoc elementum lingua hæc horrescit interdum; nulli se characteri aliquotiens in quodam sono nisi difficile jungens. _K_ et _z_ sæpius hæc lingua extra usum Latinitatis utitur; quæ grammatici inter litteras dicunt esse superfluas. Ob stridorem autem dentium interdum ut puto in hac lingua _z_ utuntur, _k_ autem propter faucium sonoritatem." § 265. _The Anglo-Norman Period._--Between the Latin alphabet, as applied to the Anglo-Saxon, and the Latin alphabet, as applied to the Norman-French, there are certain points of difference. In the first place, the sound-system of the languages (like the French) derived from the Latin, bore a greater resemblance to that of the Romans, than was to be found amongst the Gothic tongues. Secondly, the alphabets of the languages in point were more exclusively Latin. In the present French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese, there is an exclusion of the _k_. This is not the case with the Anglo-Norman. Like the Latins, the Anglo-Normans considered that the sound of the Greek [theta] was represented by _th_: not, however, having this sound in their language, there was no corresponding sign in their alphabet. The greatest mischief done by the Norman influence was the ejection from the English alphabet of _þ_ and _ð_. In other respects the alphabet was improved. The letters _z_, _k_, _j_, were either imported or more currently recognised. The letter _y_ took a semi-vowel power, having been previously represented by _e_; {208} itself having the power of _i_. The mode of spelling the compound sibilant with _ch_ was evolved. My notions concerning this mode of spelling are as follows:--At a given period the sound of _ce_ in _ceaster_, originally that of _ke_, had become, first, that of _ksh_, and, secondly, that of _tsh_; still it was spelt _ce_, the _e_, in the eyes of the Anglo-Saxons, having the power of _y_. In the eyes also of the Anglo-Saxons the compound sound of _ksh_, or _tsh_, would differ from that of _k_ by the addition of _y_: this, it may be said, was the Anglo-Saxon view of the matter. The Anglo-Norman view was different. Modified by the part that, in the combination _th_, was played by the aspirate _h_, it was conceived by the Anglo-Normans, that _ksh_, or _tsh_, differed from _k_, not by the addition of _y_ (expressed by _e_), but by that of _h_. Hence the combination _ch_ as sounded in _chest_. The same was the case with _sh_. This latter statement is a point in the history, not so much of an alphabet, as of an orthography. The preceding sketch, as has been said more than once before, has been given with one view only, _viz._, that of accounting for defective modes of spelling. The history of almost all alphabets is the same. Originally either insufficient, erroneous, or inconsistent, they are transplanted from one language to a different, due alterations and additions rarely being made. § 266. The reduplication of the consonant following, to express the shortness (dependence) of the preceding vowel, is as old as the classical languages: _terra_, [Greek: thalassa]. The following extract from the Ormulum (written in the thirteenth century) is the fullest recognition of the practice that I have met with. The extract is from Thorpe's Analecta Anglo-Saxonica. And whase wilenn shall þis boc, Efft oþerr siþe writenn, Himm bidde iec þatt hett write rihht, Swa sum þiss boc himm tæcheþþ; All þwerrt utt affterr þatt itt iss Oppo þiss firrste bisne, Wiþþ all swilc rime als her iss sett, Wiþþ alse fele wordess: {209} And tatt he loke wel þatt he _An boc-staff write twiggess_,[37] Eggwhær þær itt uppo þiss boc Iss writenn o þatt wise: Loke he well þatt hett write swa, Forr he ne magg noht elless, On Englissh writenn rihht te word, Þatt wite he wel to soþe. Concerning the various other orthographical expedients, such as the reduplication of the vowel to express its length (_mood_), &c., I can give no satisfactory detailed history. The influence of the Anglo-Norman, a language derived from the Latin, established, in its fullest force, the recognition of the etymological principle. § 267. "I cannot trace the influence of the Moeso-Gothic alphabet, except, perhaps, in the case of the Anglo-Saxon letters _þ_ and _[wynn]_, upon any other alphabet; _nor does it seem to have been itself acted upon by any earlier Gothic alphabet_." (See p. 205.) The reason for the remark in Italics was as follows: In the Icelandic language the word _run_ signifies a _letter_, and the word _runa_ a _furrow_, or _line_. It has also some secondary meanings, which it is unnecessary to give in detail. Upon a vast number of inscriptions, some upon rocks, some upon stones of a defined shape, we find an alphabet different (at least, apparently so) from that of the Greeks, Latins, and Hebrews, and also unlike that of any modern nation. In this alphabet there is a marked deficiency of curved or rounded lines, and an exclusive preponderance of straight ones. As it was engraved rather than written, this is what we naturally expect. These letters are called Runes, and the alphabet which they constitute is called the Runic alphabet. Sometimes, by an extension of meaning, the Old Norse language, wherein they most frequently occur, is called the Runic language. This is as incorrect as to call a language an alphabetic language. To say, however, the Runic stage of a language is neither inaccurate nor inconvenient. The Runic alphabet, whether borrowed or invented by the early Goths, is of greater antiquity {210} than either the oldest Teutonic or the Moeso-Gothic alphabets. The forms, names, and order of the letters may be seen in Hickes' Thesaurus, in Olai Wormii Literatura Runica, in Rask's Icelandic Grammar, and in W. Grimm's Deutsche Runer. The original number of the Runic letters is sixteen; expressing the sounds of _f_, _u_, _þ_, _o_, _r_, _k_, _h_, _n_, _a_, _i_, _s_, _t_, _b_, _l_, _m_, _y_. To these are added four spurious Runes, denoting _c_, _x_, _æ_, _ö_, and eight pointed Runes after the fashion of the pointed letters in Hebrew. In all this we see the influence of the imported alphabet upon the original Runes, rather than that of the original Runes upon the imported alphabet. It should, however, be remarked, that in the Runic alphabet the sound of _th_ in _thin_ is expressed by a simple sign, and that by a sign not unlike the Anglo-Saxon þ. § 268. _The Order of the Alphabet._--In the history of our alphabet, we have had the history of the changes in the arrangement, as well as of the changes in the number and power of its letters. The following question now presents itself: _viz._, Is there in the order of the letters any _natural_ arrangement, or is the original as well as the present succession of letters arbitrary and accidental? In the year 1835 I conceived, that in the order of the Hebrew alphabet I had discovered a very artificial arrangement. I also imagined that this artificial arrangement had been detected by no one besides myself. Two years afterwards a friend[38] stated to me that he had made a similar observation, and in 1839 appeared, in Mr. Donaldson's New Cratylus, the quotation with which the present section will be concluded. The three views in the main coincide; and, as each has been formed independently (Mr. Donaldson's being the first recorded), they give the satisfactory result of three separate investigations coinciding in a theory essentially the same. The order of the Hebrew alphabet is as follows:-- _Name._ _Sound._ 1. _Aleph_ Either a vowel or a breathing. 2. _Beth_ B. 3. _Gimel_ G. as in _gun_. {211} 4. _Daleth_ D. 5. _He_ Either a vowel or an aspirate. 6. _Vaw_ V. 7. _Zayn_ Z. 8. _Kheth_ a variety of K. 9. _Teth_ a variety of T. 10. _Yod_ I. 11. _Caph_ K. 12. _Lamed_ L. 13. _Mem_ M. 14. _Nun_ N. 15. _Samech_ a variety of S. 16. _Ayn_ Either a vowel or--? 17. _Pe_ P. 18. _Tsadi_ TS. 19. _Koph_ a variety of K. 20. _Resh_ R. 21. _Sin_ S. 22. _Tau_ T. Let _beth_, _vaw_, and _pe_ (_b_, _v_, _p_) constitute a series called series P. Let _gimel_, _kheth_, and _koph_ (_g_, _kh_, _k`_) constitute a series called series K. Let _daleth_, _teth_, and _tau_ (_d_, _t`_, _t_) constitute a series called series T. Let _aleph_, _he_, and _ayn_ constitute a series called the vowel series. Let the first four letters be taken in their order. 1. _Aleph_ of the vowel series. 2. _Beth_ of series P. 3. _Gimel_ of series K. 4. _Daleth_ of series T. Herein the consonant of series B comes next to the letter of the vowel series; that of series K follows; and, in the last place, comes the letter of series D. After this the order changes: _daleth_ being followed by _he_ of the vowel series. 5. _He_ of the vowel series. 6. _Vaw_ of series P. 7. _Zayn_ ---- 8. _Kheth_ of series K. 9. _Teth_ of series T. In this second sequence the _relative_ positions of _v_, _kh_, and _t`_ are the same in respect to each other, and the same in respect to the vowel series. The sequence itself is broken by the letter _zayn_, but it is remarkable that the principle of the sequence is the same. Series P follows the vowel, and series T is farthest from it. After this the system becomes but fragmentary. Still, even now, _pe_, of series P, follows _ayn_; _tau_, of {212} series D, is farthest from it; and _koph_, of series K, is intermediate. I am satisfied that we have in the Hebrew alphabet, and in all alphabets derived from it (consequently in the English), if not a system, the rudiments of a system, and that the system is of the sort indicated above; in other words, that the order of the alphabet is a _circulating order_. In Mr. Donaldson's hands this view is not only a fact, but an instrument of criticism:--"The fact is, in our opinion, the original Semitic alphabet contained only sixteen letters. This appears from the organic arrangement of their characters. The remaining sixteen letters appear in the following order:--_aleph_, _beth_, _gimel_, _daleth_, _he_, _vaw_, _kheth_, _teth_, _lamed_, _mem_, _nun_, _samech_, _ayn_, _pe_, _koph_, _tau_. If we examine this order more minutely, we shall see that it is not arbitrary or accidental, but strictly organic, according to the Semitic articulation. We have four classes, each consisting of four letters: the first and second classes consist each of three mutes, preceded by a breathing; the third of the three liquids and the sibilant, which, perhaps, closed the oldest alphabet of all; and the fourth contains the three supernumerary mutes, preceded by a breathing. We place the characters first vertically:-- Aleph [Alef] First breathing Beth [Bet] B } Gimel [Gimel] G } _Media._ Daleth [Dalet] D } He [He] Second breathing. Vaw [Vav] Bh } Kheth [Khet] Gh } _Aspirate._ Teth [Tet] Dh } Lamed [Lamed] L } Mem [Mem] M } _Liquids._ Nun [Nun] N } Samech [Samekh] S _The Sibilant_. Ayn [Ayin] Third breathing. Pe [Pe] P } Koph [Kuf] K } _Tenues._ Tau [Tav] T } In the horizontal arrangement we shall, for the sake of greater simplicity, omit the liquids and the sibilant, and then we have {213} _Breathings._ _Labials._ _Palatals._ _Linguals._ [Alef] [Bet] [Gimel] [Dalet] [He] [Vav] [Khet] [Tet] [Ayin] [Pe] [Kuf] [Tav] In this we see, that, while the horizontal lines give us the arrangement of the mutes according to the breathings, the vertical columns exhibit them arranged according to the organ by which they are produced. Such a classification is obviously artificial." § 269. _Parallel and equivalent orthographies._--Let there be in two given languages the sound of _k_, as in _kin_. Let each of these languages represent it by the same letter, _k_. In this case, the two orthographies are identical. Let, however, one nation represent it by _k_, and another by c. In this case the orthographies are not identical, but parallel. The same is the case with combinations. Let one nation (say the Anglo-Saxon) represent the sound of _y_ (in _ye_) by _e_, whilst another nation (the Norse) represents it by _j_. What the Anglo-Saxon spells _ceaster_, the Northman spells _kjaster_; and what the Northman spells _kjære_, the Anglo-Saxon spells _ceære_. Let the sound of this _ce_ and _kj_ undergo a change, and become _ksh_; _kjære_ and _ceære_, being pronounced _kshære_. The view of the Northman and Anglo-Saxon will be the same; each will consider that the compound sound differs from the simple one by the addition of the sound of _y_; that sound being expressed in one nation by _e_, and in the other by _j_. In this case the two expressions of the compound sound are parallel, its elements being considered the same, although the signs by which those elements are expressed are different. Let, however, a different view of the compound sound be taken. Let it be thought that the sound of _ksh_ differs from that of _k_, not by the addition of the sound of _y_, but by that of _h_; and so let it be spelt _kh_ or _ch_. In this case the orthographies _kh_ and _kj_ (or _ce_) are not parallel, but equivalent. They express the same sound, but they do not denote the same elements. The same sound is, very possibly, expressed by the Anglo-Saxon _ce_, the Norwegian _kj_, and the English _ch_. In this case _ce_ and _kj_ are parallel, _ce_ and _ch_ equivalent, orthographies. * * * * * {214} PART IV. ETYMOLOGY. -------- CHAPTER I. ON THE PROVINCE OF ETYMOLOGY. § 270. The word etymology, derived from the Greek, in the current language of scholars and grammarians, has a double meaning. At times it is used in a wide, and at times in a restricted, sense. What follows is an exhibition of the province or department of etymology. If in the English language we take such a word as _fathers_, we are enabled to divide it into two parts; in other words, to reduce it into two elements. By comparing it with the word _father_, we see that the _s_ is neither part nor parcel of the original word. The word _fathers_ is a word capable of being analysed; _father_ being the original primitive word, and _s_ the secondary superadded termination. From the word _father_, the word _fathers_ is derived, or (changing the expression) deduced, or descended. What has been said of the word _fathers_ may also be said of _fatherly_, _fatherlike_, _fatherless_, &c. Now, from the word _father_, all these words (_fathers_, _fatherly_, _fatherlike_ and _fatherless_) differ in form, and (not, however, necessarily) in meaning. To become such a word as _fathers_, &c., the word _father_ is changed. Of changes of this sort, it is the province of etymology to take cognizance. Compared with the form _fathers_, the word _father_ is the older form of the two. The word _father_ is a word current in this the nineteenth century. The same word was current in {215} the first century, although under a different form, and in a different language. Thus, in the Latin language, the form was _pater_; and earlier still, there is the Sanskrit form _pitr_. Now, just as the word _father_, compared with _fathers_, is original and primitive, so is _pater_, compared with _father_, original and primitive. The difference is, that in respect to _father_ and _fathers_, the change that takes place, takes place within the same language, whilst the change that takes place between _pater_ and _father_ takes place within different languages. Of changes of this latter kind it is the province of etymology to take cognizance. In its widest signification, etymology takes cognizance _of the changes of the form of words_. However, as the etymology that compares the forms _fathers_ and _father_ is different from the etymology that compares _father_ and _pater_, we have, of etymology, two sorts: one dealing with the changes of form that words undergo in one and the same language (_father_, _fathers_), the other dealing with the changes that words undergo in passing from one language to another (_pater_, _father_). The first of these sorts may be called etymology in the limited sense of the word, or the etymology of the grammarian. In this case it is opposed to orthoepy, orthography, syntax, and the other parts of grammar. This is the etymology of the ensuing pages. The second may be called etymology in the wide sense of the word, historical etymology, or comparative etymology. It must be again repeated that the two sorts of etymology agree in one point, viz., in taking cognizance of the _changes of form that words undergo_. Whether the change arise from grammatical reasons, as _father_, _fathers_, or from a change of language taking place in the lapse of time, as _pater_, _father_, is a matter of indifference. In the Latin _pater_, and in the English _father_, we have one of two things, either two words descended or derived from each other, or two words descended or derived from a common original source. In _fathers_ we have a formation deduced from the radical word _father_. {216} In _fatherlike_ we have a compound word capable of being analysed into the two primitive words, 1. _father_; 2. _like_. With these preliminaries we may appreciate (or criticise) Dr. Johnson's explanation of the word etymology. "ETYMOLOGY, N. S. (_etymologia_, Lat.) [Greek: etumos] (_etymos_) _true_, and [Greek: logos] (_logos_) _a word_. "1. _The descent or derivation of a word from its original; the deduction of formations from the radical word; the analysis of compounds into primitives._ "2. _The part of grammar which delivers the inflections of nouns and verbs._" * * * * * {217} CHAPTER II. ON GENDER. § 271. The nature of gender is best exhibited by reference to those languages wherein the distinction of gender is most conspicuous. Such a language, amongst others, is the Latin. How far is there such a thing as gender in the English language? This depends upon the meaning that we attach to the word gender. In the Latin language, where there are confessedly genders, we have the words _taurus_, meaning a _bull_, and _vacca_, meaning a _cow_. Here the natural distinction of sex is expressed by _wholly_ different words. With this we have corresponding modes of expression in English: _e.g._, _Male._ _Female._ | _Male._ _Female._ | Bachelor Spinster. | Horse Mare. Boar Sow. | Ram Ewe. Boy Girl. | Son Daughter. Brother Sister. | Uncle Aunt. Buck Doe. | Father Mother, &c. The mode, however, of expressing different sexes by _wholly_ different words is not a matter of gender. The words _boy_ and _girl_ bear no _etymological_ relation to each other; neither being derived from the other, nor in any way connected with it. § 272. Neither are words like _cock-sparrow_, _man-servant_, _he-goat_, &c., as compared with _hen-sparrow_, _maid-servant_, _she-goat_, &c., specimens of gender. Here a difference of sex is indicated by the addition of a fresh term, from which is formed a compound word. § 273. In the Latin words _genitrix_=_a mother_, and _genitor_=_a father_, we have a nearer approach to gender. Here the difference of sex is expressed by a difference of termination; {218} the words _genitor_ and _genitrix_ being in a true etymological relation, _i. e._, either derived from each other, or from some common source. With this we have, in English corresponding modes of expression: _e. g._, _Male._ _Female._ | _Male._ _Female._ | Actor Actress. | Lion Lioness. Arbiter Arbitress. | Peer Peeress. Baron Baroness. | Poet Poetess. Benefactor Benefactress. | Sorcerer Sorceress. Count Countess. | Songster Songstress. Duke Duchess. | Tiger Tigress. This, however, in strict grammatical language, is an approach to gender rather than gender itself. Its difference from true grammatical gender is as follows:-- Let the Latin words _genitor_ and _genitrix_ be declined:-- _Sing. Nom._ Genitor Genitrix. _Gen._ Genitor-_is_ Genitric-_is_. _Dat._ Genitor-_i_ Genitric-_i_. _Acc._ Genitor-_em_ Genitric-_em_. _Voc._ Genitor Genitrix. _Plur. Nom._ Genitor-_es_ Genitric-_es_. _Gen._ Genitor-_um_ Genitric-_um_. _Dat._ Genitor-_ibus_ Genitric-_ibus_. _Acc._ Genitor-_es_ Genitric-_es_. _Voc._ Genitor-_es_ Genitric-_es_. The syllables in italics are the signs of the cases and numbers. Now these signs are the same in each word, the difference of meaning (or sex) not affecting them. § 274. Contrast, however, with the words _genitor_ and _genitrix_ the words _domina_=_a mistress_, and _dominus_=_a master_. _Sing. Nom._ Domin-_a_ Domin-_us_. _Gen._ Domin-_æ_ Domin-_i_. _Dat._ Domin-_æ_ Domin-_o_. _Acc._ Domin-_am_ Domin-_um_. _Voc._ Domin-_a_ Domin-e. _Plur. Nom._ Domin-_æ_ Domin-_i_. _Gen._ Domin-_arum_ Domin-_orum_. _Dat._ Domin-_abus_ Domin-_is_. _Acc._ Domin-_as_ Domin-_os_. _Voc._ Domin-_æ_ Domin-_i_. {219} Here the letters in italics, or the signs of the cases and numbers, are different, the difference being brought about by the difference of gender. Now it is very evident that, if _genitrix_ be a specimen of gender, _domina_ is something more. As terms, to be useful, must be limited, it may be laid down, as a sort of definition, that _there is no gender where there is no affection of the declension_: consequently, that, although we have, in English, words corresponding to _genitrix_ and _genitor_, we have no true genders until we find words corresponding to _dominus_ and _domina_. § 275. The second element in the notion of gender, although I will not venture to call it an essential one, is the following:--In the words _domina_ and _dominus_, _mistress_ and _master_, there is a _natural_ distinction of sex; the one being masculine, or male, the other feminine, or female. In the words _sword_ and _lance_ there is _no natural_ distinction of sex. Notwithstanding this, the word _hasta_, in Latin, is as much a feminine gender as _domina_, whilst _gladius_=_a sword_ is, like _dominus_, a masculine noun. From this we see that, in languages wherein there are true genders, a fictitious or conventional sex is attributed even to inanimate objects. Sex is a natural distinction, gender a grammatical one. § 276. "Although we have, in English, words corresponding to _genitrix_ and _genitor_, we have no true genders until we find _words corresponding to dominus and domina_."--The sentence was intentionally worded with caution. Words like _dominus_ and _domina_, that is, words where the declension is affected by the sex, _are_ to be found. The pronoun _him_, from the Anglo-Saxon and English _he_, as compared with the pronoun _her_, from the Anglo-Saxon _heò_, is affected in its declension by the difference of sex, and is a true, though fragmentary, specimen of gender: for be it observed, that as both words are in the same case and number, the difference in form must be referred to a difference of sex expressed by gender. The same is the case with the form _his_ as compared with _her_. The pronoun _it_ (originally _hit_), as compared with _he_, is a specimen of gender. {220} The relative _what_, as compared with the masculine _who_, is a specimen of gender. The forms _it_ (for _hit_) and _he_ are as much genders as _hic_ and _hæc_, and the forms _hic_ and _hæc_ are as much genders as _dominus_ and _domina_. § 277. The formation of the neuter gender by the addition of _-t_, in words like _wha-t_, _i-t_, and _tha-t_, occurs in other Indo-European languages. The _-t_ in _tha-t_ is the _-d_ in _istu-d_, Latin, and the _-t_ in _ta-t_, Sanskrit. Except, however, in the Gothic tongues, the inflection _-t_ is confined to the _pronouns_. In the Gothic this is not the case. Throughout all those languages where there is a neuter form for _adjectives_ at all, that form is either _-t_, or a sound derived from it:--Moeso-Gothic, _blind-ata_; Old High German, _plint-ez_; Icelandic, _blind-t_; German, _blind-es_=_blind_, _cæc-um_.--See Bopp's Comparative Grammar, Eastwick and Wilson's translation, p. 171. _Which_, as seen below, is _not_ the neuter of _who_. § 278. Just as there are in English fragments of a gender modifying the declension, so are there, also, fragments of the second element of gender; _viz._, the attribution of sex to objects naturally destitute of it. _The sun in _his_ glory_, _the moon in _her_ wane_, are examples of this. A sailor calls his ship _she_. A husbandman, according to Mr. Cobbett, does the same with his _plough_ and working implements:--"In speaking of a _ship_ we say _she_ and _her_. And you know that our country-folks in Hampshire call almost everything _he_ or _she_. It is curious to observe that country labourers give the feminine appellation to those things only which are more closely identified with themselves, and by the qualities or conditions of which their own efforts, and their character as workmen, are affected. The mower calls his _scythe_ a _she_, the ploughman calls his _plough_ a _she_; but a prong, or a shovel, or a harrow, which passes promiscuously from hand to hand, and which is appropriated to no particular labourer, is called a _he_."--_English Grammar_, Letter V. Now, although Mr. Cobbett's statements may account for a sailor calling his ship _she_, they will not account for the custom of giving to the sun a masculine, and to the moon a {221} feminine, pronoun, as is done in the expressions quoted at the head of this section; still less will it account for the circumstance of the Germans reversing the gender, and making the _sun_ feminine, and the _moon_ masculine. Let there be a period in the history of a nation wherein the sun and moon are dealt with, not as inanimate masses of matter, but as animated divinities. Let there, in other words, be a period in the history of a nation wherein dead things are personified, and wherein there is a mythology. Let an object like the _sun_ be deemed a male, and an object like the _moon_ a female, deity. The Germans say the _sun in _her_ glory_; the _moon in _his_ wane_. This difference between the usage of the two languages, like so many others, is explained by the influence of the classical languages upon the English.--"_Mundilfori had two children; a son, Mâni (Moon), and a daughter, Sôl (Sun)._"--Such is an extract (taken second-hand from Grimm, vol. iii. p. 349) out of an Icelandic mythological work, _viz._, the prose Edda. In the classical languages, however, _Phoebus_ and _Sol_ are masculine, and _Luna_ and _Diana_ feminine. Hence it is that, although in Anglo-Saxon and Old-Saxon the _sun_ is _feminine_, it is in English masculine. _Philosophy_, _charity_, &c., or the names of abstract qualities personified, take a conventional sex, and are feminine from their being feminine in Latin. As in these words there is no change of form, the consideration of them is a point of rhetoric, rather than of etymology. Upon phrases like _Cock Robin_, _Robin Redbreast_, _Jenny Wren_, expressive of sex, much information may be collected from Grimm's Deutsche Grammatik, vol. iii. p. 359. § 279. The remainder of this chapter is devoted to miscellaneous remarks upon the true and apparent genders of the English language. 1. With the false genders like _baron_, _baroness_, it is a general rule that the feminine form is derived from the masculine, and not the masculine from the feminine; as _peer_, _peeress_. The words _widower_, _gander_, and _drake_ are exceptions. For {222} the word _wizard_, from _witch_, see the section on augmentative forms. 2. The termination _-ess_, in which so large a portion of our feminine substantives terminate, is not of Saxon but of classical origin, being derived from the termination _-ix_, _genitrix_. 3. The words _shepherdess_, _huntress_, and _hostess_ are faulty; the radical part of the word being Germanic, and the secondary part classical: indeed, in strict English grammar, the termination _-ess_ has no place at all. It is a classic, not a Gothic, element. 4. The termination _-inn_, so current in German, as the equivalent to _-ess_, and as a feminine affix (_freund_=_a friend_; _freundinn_=_a female friend_), is found only in one or two words in English. There were five _carlins_ in the south That fell upon a scheme, To send a lad to London town To bring them tidings hame. BURNS. _Carlin_ means an _old woman_: Icelandic, _kerling_; Sw., _käring_; Dan. _kælling_. Root, _carl_. _Vixen_ is a true feminine derivative from _fox_. German, _füchsinn_. _Bruin_=_the bear_, may be either a female form, as in Old High German _përo_=_a he-bear_, _pirinn_=_a she-bear_, or it may be the Norse form _björn_=_a bear_, male or female. Words like _margravine_ and _landgravine_ prove nothing, being scarcely naturalised. 5. The termination _-str_, as in _webster_, _songster_, and _baxter_, was originally a feminine affix. Thus, in Anglo-Saxon, Sangere, _a male singer_ } { Sangëstre, _a female singer_. Bäcere, _a male baker_ } { Bacestre, _a female baker_. Fiðelere, _a male fiddler_ } were { Fiðelstre, _a female fiddler_. Vebbere, _a male weaver_ } opposed { Vëbbëstre, _a female weaver_. Rædere, _a male reader_ } to { Rædestre, _a female reader_. Seamere, _a male seamer_ } { Seamestre, _a female seamer_. The same is the case in the present Dutch of Holland: _e.g._, _spookster_=_a female fortune-teller_; _bakster_=_a {223} baking-woman_; _waschster_=_a washerwoman_. (Grimm, Deutsche Grammatik, iii. p. 339.) The word _spinster_ still retains its original feminine force. 6. The words _songstress_ and _seamstress_, besides being, as far as concerns the intermixture of languages, in the predicament of _shepherdess_, have, moreover, a double feminine termination; 1st. _-str_, of Germanic, 2nd. _-ess_, of classical, origin. 7. In the word _heroine_ we have a Greek termination, just as _-ix_ is a Latin, and _-inn_ a German one. It must not, however, be considered as derived from _hero_, by any process of the English language, but be dealt with as a separate importation from the Greek language. 8. The form _deaconess_ is not wholly unexceptionable; since the termination _-ess_ is of Latin, the root _deacon_ of Greek origin: this Greek origin being rendered all the more conspicuous by the spelling, _deacon_ (from _diaconos_), as compared with the Latin _decanus_. 9. The circumstance of _prince_ ending in the sound of _s_, works a change in the accent of the word. As _s_ is the final letter, it is necessary, in forming the plural number, and the genitive case, to add, not the simple letter _s_, as in _peers_, _priests_, &c., but the syllable _-es_. This makes the plural number and genitive case the same as the feminine form. Hence the feminine form is accented _princéss_, while _peéress_, _príestess_, &c., carry the accent on the first syllable. _Princéss_ is remarkable as being the only word in English where the accent lies on the subordinate syllable. 10. It is uncertain whether _kit_, as compared with _cat_, be a feminine form or a diminutive form; in other words, whether it mean a _female cat_ or a _young cat_.--See the Chapter on the Diminutives. 11. _Goose_, _gander_.--One peculiarity in this pair of words has already been indicated. In the older forms of the word _goose_, such as [Greek: chên], Greek; _anser_, Latin; _gans_, German, as well as in the derived form _gander_, we have the proofs that, originally, there belonged to the word the sound of the letter _n_. In the forms [Greek: odous], [Greek: odontos], Greek; _dens_, _dentis_, Latin; _zahn_, {224} German; _tooth_, English, we find the analogy that accounts for the ejection of the _n_, and the lengthening of the vowel preceding. With respect, however, to the _d_ in _gander_, it is not easy to say whether it is inserted in one word or omitted in the other. Neither can we give the precise power of the _-er_. The following forms (taken from Grimm, iii. p. 341) occur in the different Gothic dialects. _Gans_, fem.; _ganazzo_, masc., Old High German--_gôs_, f.; _gandra_, m., Anglo-Saxon--_gâs_, Icelandic, f.; _gaas_, Danish, f.; _gassi_, Icelandic, m.; _gasse_, Danish, m.--_ganser_, _ganserer_, _gansart_, _gänserich_, _gander_, masculine forms in different New German dialects. 12. Observe, the form _gänserich_ has a masculine termination. The word _täuberich_, in provincial New German, has the same form and the same power. It denotes a _male dove_; _taube_, in German, signifying a _dove_. In _gänserich_ and _täuberich_, we find preserved the termination _-rich_ (or _-rik_), with a masculine power. Of this termination we have a remnant, in English, preserved in the curious word _drake_. To _duck_ the word _drake_ has no etymological relation whatsoever. It is derived from a word with which it has but one letter in common; _viz._ the Latin _anas_=_a duck_. Of this the root is _anat-_, as seen in the genitive case _anatis_. In Old High German we find the form _anetrekho_=_a drake_; in provincial New High German there is _enterich_ and _äntrecht_, from whence come the English and Low German form _drake_. (Grimm, Deutsche Grammatik, iii. p. 341.) 13. _Peacock_, _peahen_, _bridegroom_.--In these compounds, it is not the words _pea_ and _bride_ that are rendered masculine or feminine by the addition of _cock_, _hen_, and _groom_, but it is the words _cock_, _hen_, and _groom_ that are modified by prefixing _pea_ and _bride_. For an appreciation of this distinction, see the Chapter on Composition. * * * * * {225} CHAPTER III. THE NUMBERS. § 280. In the Greek language the word _patær_ signifies a father, speaking of _one_, whilst _patere_ signifies _two fathers_, speaking of a pair, and thirdly, _pateres_ signifies _fathers_, speaking of any number beyond two. The three words, _patær_, _patere_, and _pateres_, are said to be in different numbers, the difference of meaning being expressed by a difference of form. These numbers have names. The number that speaks of _one_ is the singular, the number that speaks of _two_ is the _dual_ (from the Latin word _duo_=_two_), and the number that speaks of _more than two_ is the _plural_. All languages have numbers, but all languages have not them to the same extent. The Hebrew has a dual, but it is restricted to nouns only (in Greek being extended to verbs). It has, moreover, this peculiarity; it applies, for the most part, only to things which are naturally double, as _the two eyes_, _the two hands_, &c. The Latin has no dual number at all, except the natural dual in the words _ambo_ and _duo_. § 281. The question presents itself,--to what extent have we numbers in English? Like the Greek, Hebrew, and Latin, we have a singular and a plural. Like the Latin, and unlike the Greek and Hebrew, we have no dual. § Different from the question, to what degree have we numbers? is the question,--over what extent of our language have we numbers? This distinction has already been foreshadowed or indicated. The Greeks, who said _typtô_=_I beat_, _typteton_=_ye two beat_, _typtomen_=_we beat_, had a dual number for their verbs as well as their nouns; while the Hebrew dual was limited to the nouns only. In the Greek, then, the dual {226} number is spread over a greater extent of the language than in the Hebrew. There is no dual in the present English. It has been seen, however, that in the Anglo-Saxon there _was_ a dual. But the Anglo-Saxon dual, being restricted to the personal pronouns (_wit_=_we two_; _git_=_ye two_), was not co-extensive with the Greek dual. There is no dual in the present German. In the ancient German there was one. In the present Danish and Swedish there is no dual. In the Old Norse and in the present Icelandic a dual number is to be found. From this we learn that the dual number is one of those inflections that languages drop as they become modern. The numbers, then, in the present English are two, the singular and the plural. Over what extent of language have we a plural? The Latins say, _bonus pater_=_a good father_; _boni patres_=_good fathers_. In the Latin, the adjective _bonus_ changes its form with the change of number of the substantive that it accompanies. In English it is only the substantive that is changed. Hence we see that in the Latin language the numbers were extended to adjectives, whereas in English they are confined to the substantives and pronouns. Compared with the Anglo-Saxon, the present English is in the same relation as it is with the Latin. In the Anglo-Saxon there were plural forms for the adjectives. For the forms _selves_ and _others_, see the Syntax. For the present, it is sufficient to foreshadow a remark which will be made on the word _self_, _viz._ that whether it be a pronoun, a substantive, or an adjective, is a disputed point. Words like _wheat_, _pitch_, _gold_, &c., where the idea is naturally singular; words like _bellows_, _scissors_, _lungs_, &c., where the idea is naturally plural; and words like _deer_, _sheep_, where the same form serves for the singular and plural, inasmuch as there takes place no change of form, are not under the province of etymology. § 282. The current rule is, that the plural number is formed from the singular by adding _s_, as _father_, _fathers_. {227} However, if the reader will revert to the Section upon the sharp and flat Mutes, where it is stated that mutes of different degrees of sharpness and flatness cannot come together in the same syllable, he will find occasion to take to the current rule a verbal exception. The letter added to the word _father_, making it _fathers_, is _s_ to the eye only. To the ear it is _z_. The word sounds _fatherz_. If the _s_ retained its sound, the spelling would be _fatherce_. In _stags_, _lads_, &c., the sound is _stagz_, _ladz_. The rule, then, for the formation of the English plurals, rigorously expressed, is as follows.--_The plural is formed from the singular, by adding to words ending in a vowel, a liquid or flat mute, the flat lene sibilant (z); and to words ending in a sharp mute, the sharp lene sibilant (s): e.g._ (the _sound_ of the word being expressed), _pea_, _peaz_; _tree_, _treez_; _day_, _dayz_; _hill_, _hillz_; _hen_, _henz_; _gig_, _gigz_; _trap_, _traps_; _pit_, _pits_; _stack_, _stacks_. Upon the formation of the English plural some further remarks are necessary. I. In the case of words ending in _b_, _v_, _d_, the _th_ in _thine_=ð, or _g_, a change either of the final flat consonant, or of the sharp _s_ affixed, was not a matter of choice, but of necessity; the combinations _abs_, _avs_, _ads_, _aðs_, _ags_, being unpronounceable. See the Section on the Law of Accommodation. II. Whether the first of the two mutes should be accommodated to the second (_aps_, _afs_, _ats_, _aþs_, _asks_), or the second to the first (_abz_, _avz_, _aðz_, _agz_), is determined by the habit of the particular language in question; and, with a few apparent exceptions (mark the word _apparent_), it is the rule of the English language to accommodate the second sound to the first, and not _vice versâ_. III. Such combinations as _peas_, _trees_, _hills_, _hens_, &c. (the _s_ preserving its original power, and being sounded as if written _peace_, _treece_, _hillce_, _hence_), being pronounceable, the change from _s_ to _z_, in words so ending, is _not_ a matter determined by the necessity of the case, but by the habit of the English language. IV. Although the vast majority of our plurals ends, not in _s_, but in _z_, the original addition was not _z_, but _s_. This we {228} infer from three facts: 1. From the spelling; 2. from the fact of the sound of _z_ being either rare or non-existent in Anglo-Saxon; 3. from the sufficiency of the causes to bring about the change. It may now be seen that some slight variations in the form of our plurals are either mere points of orthography, or else capable of being explained on very simple euphonic principles. § 283. _Boxes, churches, judges, lashes, kisses, blazes, princes._--Here there is the addition, not of the mere letter _s_, but of the syllable _-es_. As _s_ cannot be immediately added to _s_, the intervention of a vowel becomes necessary; and that all the words whose plural is formed in _-es_ really end either in the sounds of _s_, or in the allied sounds of _z_, _sh_, or _zh_, may be seen by analysis; since _x_=_ks_, _ch_=_tsh_, and _j_ or _ge_=_dzh_, whilst _ce_, in _prince_, is a mere point of orthography for _s_. _Monarchs, heresiarchs._--Here the _ch_ equals not _tsh_, but _k_, so that there is no need of being told that they do not follow the analogy of _church_, &c. _Cargoes, echoes._--From _cargo_ and _echo_, with the addition of _e_; an orthographical expedient for the sake of denoting the length of the vowel _o_. _Beauty, beauties; key, keys._--Like the word _cargoes_, &c., these forms are points, not of etymology, but of orthography. § 284. "A few _apparent_ exceptions."--These words are taken from Observation II. in the present section. The apparent exceptions to the rule there laid down are the words _loaf_, _wife_, and a few others, whose plural is not sounded _loafs_, _wifs_ (_loafce_, _wifce_), but _loavz_, _wivz_ (written _loaves_, _wives_). Here it seems as if _z_ had been added to the singular; and, contrary to rule, the final letter of the original word been accommodated to the _z_, instead of the _z_ being accommodated to the final syllable of the word, and so becoming _s_. It is, however, very probable that instead of the plural form being changed, it is the singular that has been modified. In the Anglo-Saxon the _f_ at the end of words (as in the present Swedish) had the power of _v_. In the allied language the words in point are spelt with the _flat_ mute, as _weib_, _laub_, _kalb_, _halb_, _stab_, {229} German. The same is the case with _leaf_, _leaves_; _calf_, _calves_; _half_, _halves_; _staff_, _staves_; _beef_, _beeves_: this last word being Anglo-Norman. _Pence._--The peculiarity of this word consists in having a _flat_ liquid followed by the sharp sibilant _s_ (spelt _ce_), contrary to the rule given above. In the first place, it is a contracted form from _pennies_; in the second place, its sense is collective rather than plural; in the third place, the use of the sharp sibilant lene distinguishes it from _lens_, sounded _lenz_. That its sense is collective rather than plural (a distinction to which the reader's attention is directed), we learn from the word _sixpence_, which, compared with _sixpences_, is no plural, but a singular form. _Dice._--In respect to its form, peculiar for the reason that _pence_ is peculiar. We find the sound of _s_ after a vowel, where that of _z_ is expected. This distinguishes _dice_ for play, from _dies_ (_diez_) for coining. _Dice_, perhaps, like _pence_, is collective rather than plural. In _geese_, _lice_, and _mice_, we have, apparently, the same phenomenon as in _dice_, viz., a sharp sibilant (_s_) where a _flat_ one (_z_) is expected. The _s_, however, in these words is not the sign of the plural, but the last letter of the original word. _Alms._--This is no true plural form. The _s_ belongs to the original word, Anglo-Saxon, _ælmesse_; Greek, [Greek: eleêmosunê]; just as the _s_ in _goose_ does. How far the word, although a true singular in its form, may have a collective signification, and require its verb to be plural, is a point not of etymology, but of syntax. The same is the case with the word _riches_, from the French _richesse_. In _riches_ the last syllable being sounded as _ez_, increases its liability to pass for a plural. _News_, _means_, _pains._--These, the reverse of _alms_ and _riches_, are true plural forms. How far, in sense, they are singular is a point not of etymology, but of syntax. _Mathematics_, _metaphysics_, _politics_, _ethics_, _optics_, _physics._--The following is an exhibition of my hypothesis respecting these words, to which I invite the reader's criticism. All the words in point are of Greek origin, and all are derived from a Greek adjective. Each is the name of some department of {230} study, of some art, or of some science. As the words are Greek, so also are the sciences which they denote, either of Greek origin, or else such as flourished in Greece. Let the arts and sciences of Greece be expressed, in Greek, rather by a substantive and an adjective combined, than by a simple substantive; for instance, let it be the habit of the language to say _the musical art_, rather than _music_. Let the Greek for _art_ be a word in the feminine gender; _e.g._, [Greek: technê] (_tekhnæ_), so that the _musical art_ be [Greek: hê mousikê technê] (_hæ mousikæ tekhnæ_). Let, in the progress of language (as was actually the case in Greece), the article and substantive be omitted, so that, for the _musical art_, or for _music_, there stand only the feminine adjective, [Greek: mousikê]. Let there be, upon a given art or science, a series of books, or treatises; the Greek for _book_, or _treatise_, being a neuter substantive, [Greek: biblion] (_biblion_). Let the substantive meaning _treatise_ be, in the course of language, omitted, so that whilst the science of physics is called [Greek: phusikê] (_fysikæ_), _physic_, from [Greek: hê phusikê technê], a series of treatises (or even chapters) upon the science shall be called [Greek: phusika] (_fysika_) or physics. Now all this was what happened in Greece. The science was denoted by a feminine adjective singular, as [Greek: phusikê] (_fysicæ_), and the treatises upon it, by the neuter adjective plural, as [Greek: phusika] (_fysica_). The treatises of Aristotle are generally so named. To apply this, I conceive, that in the middle ages a science of Greek origin might have its name drawn from two sources, viz., from the name of the art or science, or from the name of the books wherein it was treated. In the first case it had a singular form, as _physic_, _logic_; in the second place a plural form, as _mathematics_, _metaphysics_, _optics_. In what number these words, having a collective sense, require their verbs to be, is a point of syntax. § 285. The plural form _children_ (_child-er-en_) requires particular notice. In the first place it is a double plural: the _-en_ being the _-en_ in _oxen_, whilst the simpler form _child-er_ occurs in the old English, and in certain provincial dialects. Now, what is the _-er_ in _child-er_? In Icelandic, no plural termination is commoner than {231} that in _-r_; as _geisl-ar_=_flashes_, _tung-ur_=_tongues_, &c. Nevertheless, it is not the Icelandic that explains the plural form in question. Besides the word _childer_, we collect from the other Gothic tongue the following forms in _-r_.-- Hus-er, _Houses_. Old High German. Chalp-ir, _Calves_. ditto. Lemp-ir, _Lambs_. ditto. Plet-ir, _Blades of grass_. ditto. Eig-ir, _Eggs_. ditto. and others, the peculiarity of which is the fact of their all being _of the neuter gender_. The particular Gothic dialect wherein they occur most frequently is the Dutch of Holland. Now, the theory respecting the form so propounded by Grimm (D. G. iii. p. 270) is as follows:-- 1. The _-r_ represents an earlier _-s_. 2. Which was, originally, no sign of a plural number, but merely a neuter derivative affix, common to the singular as well as to the plural number. 3. In this form it appears in the Moeso-Gothic: _ag-is_=_fear_ (whence _ague_=_shivering_), _hat-is_=_hate_, _rigv-is_=_smoke_ (_reek_). In none of these words is the _-s_ radical, and in none is it limited to the singular number. To these views Bopp adds, that the termination in question is the Sanskrit _-as_, a neuter affix; as in _têj-as_=_splendour_, _strength_, from _tij_=to _sharpen_.--V. G. pp. 141-259, Eastwick's and Wilson's translation. To these doctrines of Grimm and Bopp, it should be added, that the reason why a singular derivational affix should become the sign of the plural number, lies, most probably, in the _collective_ nature of the words in which it occurs: _Husir_=_a collection of houses_, _eigir_=_a collection of eggs, eggery _or_ eyry_. For further observations on the power of _-r_, and for reasons for believing it to be the same as in the words _Jew-r-y_, _yeoman-r-y_, see a paper of Mr. Guest's, Philol. Trans., May 26, 1843. There we find the remarkable form _lamb-r-en_, from Wicliffe, Joh. xxi. _Lamb-r-en_ : _lamb_ :: _child-r-en_ : _child_. {232} § 286. _The form in -en._--In the Anglo-Saxon no termination of the plural number is more common than _-n_: _tungan_, tongues; _steorran_, stars. Of this termination we have evident remains in the words _oxen_, _hosen_, _shoon_, _eyne_, words more or less antiquated. This, perhaps, is _no_ true plural. In _welk-in_=_the clouds_, the original singular form is lost. § 287. _Men, feet, teeth, mice, lice, geese._--In these we have some of the oldest words in the language. If these were, to a certainty, true plurals, we should have an appearance somewhat corresponding to the weak and strong tenses of verbs; _viz._, one series of plurals formed by a change of the vowel, and another by the addition of the sibilant. The word _kye_, used in Scotland for _cows_, is of the same class. The list in Anglo-Saxon of words of this kind is different from that of the present English. _Sing._ _Plur._ Freónd Frýnd _Friends._ Feónd Fynd _Foes._ Niht Niht _Nights._ Bóc Béc _Books._ Burh Byrig _Burghs._ Bróc Bréc _Breeches._ Turf Týrf _Turves._ § 288. _Brethren._--Here there are two changes. 1. The alteration of the vowel. 2. The addition of _-en._ Mr. Guest quotes the forms _brethre_ and _brothre_ from the Old English. The sense is collective rather than plural. _Peasen_=_pulse_.--As _children_ is a double form of one sort (_r_ + _en_), so is _peasen_ a double form of another (_s_ + _en_); _pea_, _pea-s_, _pea-s-en_. Wallis speaks to the _singular_ power of the form in _-s_:--"Dicunt nonnulli _a pease_, pluraliter _peasen_; at melius, singulariter _a pea_, pluraliter _pease_:"--P. 77. He might have added, that, theoretically, _pease_ was the proper singular form; as shown by the Latin _pis-um_. _Pullen_=poultry. _Lussurioso._--What? three-and-twenty years in law? _Vendice._--I have known those who have been five-and-fifty, and all about _pullen_ and pigs.--_Revenger's Tragedy_, iv. 1. {233} If this were a plural form, it would be a very anomalous one. The _-en_, however, is no more a sign of the plural than is the _-es_ in _rich-es_ (_richesse_). The proper form is in _-ain_ or _-eyn_. A false theefe, That came like a false fox, my _pullain_ to kill and mischeefe. _Gammer Gurton's Needle_, v. 2. _Chickens._--A third variety of the double inflection (_en_ + _s_), with the additional peculiarity of the form _chicken_ being used, at present, almost exclusively in the singular number, although, originally, it was, probably, the plural of _chick_. So Wallis considered it:--"At olim etiam per _-en_ vel _-yn_ formabant pluralia: quorum pauca admodum adhuc retinemus. Ut, _an ox_, _a chick_, pluraliter _oxen_, _chicken_ (sunt qui dicunt in singulari _chicken_, et in plurali _chickens_)."--(P. 77). _Chick_, _chick-en_, _chick-en-s_. _Fern._--According to Wallis the _-n_ in _fer-n_ is the _-en_ in _oxen_, in other words, a plural termination:--"A _fere_ (_filix_) pluraliter _fern_ (verum nunc plerumque _fern_ utroque numero dicitur, sed et in plurali _ferns_); nam _fere_ et _feres_ prope obsoleta sunt."--(P. 77.) Subject to this view, the word _fer-n-s_ would exhibit the same phenomenon as the word _chicke-n-s_. It is doubtful, however, whether Wallis's view be correct. A reason for believing the _-n_ to be radical is presented by the Anglo-Saxon form _fearn_, and the Old High German, _varam_. _Women._--Pronounced _wimmen_, as opposed to the singular form _woomman_. Probably an instance of accommodation. _Houses._--Pronounced _houz-ez_. The same peculiarity in the case of _s_ and _z_, as occurs between _f_ and _v_ in words like _life_, _lives_, &c. _Paths, youths._--Pronounced _padhz_, _yoodhz_. The same peculiarity in the case of _þ_ and _ð_, as occurs between _s_ and _z_ in the words _house_, _houses_. "Finita in _f_ plerumque alleviantur in plurali numero, substituendo _v_; ut _wife_, _wives_, &c. Eademque alleviatio est etiam in _s_ et _th_, quamvis retento charactere, in _house_, _cloth_, _path_."--P. 79. * * * * * {234} CHAPTER IV. ON THE CASES. § 289. The extent to which there are, in the English language, cases, depends on the meaning which we attach to the word case. In the sentence _a house of a father_, the idea expressed by the words _of a father_, is an idea of relation between them and the word _house_. This idea is an idea of property or possession. The relation between the words _father_ and _house_ may be called the possessive relation. This relation, or connexion, between the two words is expressed by the preposition _of_. In _a fathers house_ the idea is, there or thereabouts, the same; the relation or connexion between the two words being the same. The expression, however, differs. In _a father's house_ the relation, or connexion, is expressed, not by a preposition, but by a change of form, _father_ becoming _father's_. _He gave the house to a father._--Here the words _father_ and _house_ stand in another sort of relationship; the relationship being expressed by the preposition _to_. The idea _to a father_ differs from the idea _of a father_, in being expressed in one way only; _viz._, by the preposition. There is no second mode of expressing it by a change of form, as was done with _father's_. _The father taught the child._--Here there is neither preposition nor change of form. The connexion between the words _father_ and _child_ is expressed by the arrangement only. Now if the relation alone between two words constitutes a case, the words or sentences, _child_; _to a father_; _of a father_; and _father's_, are all equally cases; of which one may be {235} called the accusative, another the dative, a third the genitive, and so on. Perhaps, however, the relationship alone does not constitute a case. Perhaps there is a necessity of either the addition of a preposition (as in _of a father_), or of a change in form (as in _father's_). In this case (although _child_ be not so) _father's_, _of a father_, and _to a father_, are all equally cases. Now it is a remark, at least as old as Dr. Beattie,[39] that if the use of a preposition constitute a case, there must be as many cases in a language as there are prepositions, and that "_above a man_, _beneath a man_, _beyond a man_, _round about a man_, _within a man_, _without a man_, shall be cases, as well as _of a man_, _to a man_, and _with a man_." For etymological purposes it is necessary to limit the meaning of the word case; and, as a sort of definition, it may be laid down that _where there is no change of form there is no case_. With this remark, the English language may be compared with the Latin. _Latin._ _English._ _Sing. Nom._ _Pater_ _a father._ _Gen._ _Patris_ _a father's._ _Dat._ _Patri_ _to a father._ _Acc._ _Patrem_ _a father._ _Abl._ _Patre_ _from a father._ Here, since in the Latin language there are five changes of form, whilst in English there are but _two_, there are (as far, at least, as the word _pater_ and _father_ are concerned) three more cases in Latin than in English. It does not, however, follow that because in _father_ we have but two cases, there may not be other words wherein there are more than two. _In order to constitute a case there must be a change of form._--This statement is a matter of definition. A second question, however, arises out of it; _viz._, whether _every change of form constitute a case_? In the Greek language there are the words [Greek: erin] (_erin_), and [Greek: erida] (_erida_). Unlike the words _father_ and _father's_ these two words have precisely the same meaning. Each is called an accusative; and each, {236} consequently, is said to be in the same case with the other. This indicates the statement, that in order to constitute a case there must be not _only a change of form_, _but also a change of meaning_. Whether such a limitation of the word be convenient, is a question for the general grammarian. At present we merely state that there _is no change of case unless there be a change of form_. Hence, in respect to the word _patribus_ (and others like it), which is sometimes translated _from fathers_, and at other times _to fathers_, we must say, not that in the one case the word is ablative and in the other dative, but that a certain case is used with a certain latitude of meaning. This remark bears on the word _her_ in English. In _her book_ the sense is that of the case currently called genitive. In _it moved her_, the sense is that of the case currently called the accusative. If we adhere, however, to what we have laid down, we must take exceptions to this mode of speaking. It is not that out of the single form _her_ we can get two cases, but that a certain form has two powers; one that of the Latin genitive, and another that of the Latin accusative. § 290. This leads to an interesting question, _viz._, what notions are sufficiently allied to be expressed _by_ the same form, and _in_ the same case? The word _her_, in its two senses, may, perhaps, be dealt with as a single case, because the notions conveyed by the genitive and accusative are, perhaps, sufficiently allied to be expressed by the same word. Are the notions, however, _of a mistress_, and _mistresses_, so allied? I think not; and yet in the Latin language the same form, _dominæ_, expresses both. Of _dominæ_=_of a mistress_, and of _dominæ_=_mistresses_, we cannot say that there is one and the same case with a latitude of meaning. The words were, perhaps, once different. And this leads to the distinction between _a real and an accidental identity of form_. In the language of the Anglo-Saxons the genitive cases of the words _smith_ (_smið_), _end_ (_ende_), and _day_ (_dæg_), were, respectively, _smithes_ (_smiðes_), _endes_, and _dayes_ (_dæges_); whilst the nominative plurals were, respectively, _smithas_ (_smiðas_), _endas_, and _dayas_ (_dægas_). A process of change took place, by which the vowel of the last syllable in each {237} word was ejected. The result was, that the forms of the genitive singular and the nominative plural, originally different, became one and the same; so that the identity of the two cases is an accident. This fact relieves the English grammarian from a difficulty. The nominative plural and the genitive singular are, in the present language of England, identical; the apostrophe in _father's_ being a mere matter of orthography. However, there was _once_ a difference. This modifies the previous statement, which may now stand thus:--_for a change of case there must be a change of form existing or presumed_. § 291. _The number of our cases and the extent of language over which they spread._--In the English language there is undoubtedly a _nominative_ case. This occurs in substantives, adjectives, and pronouns (_father_, _good_, _he_) equally. It is found in both numbers. _Accusative._--Some call this the objective case. The words _him_ (singular) and _them_ (plural) (whatever they may have been originally) are now true accusatives. The accusative case is found in pronouns only. _Thee_, _me_, _us_, and _you_ are, to a certain extent, true accusatives. They are accusative thus far: 1. They are not derived from any other case. 2. They are distinguished from the forms _I_, _my_, &c. 3. Their meaning is accusative. Nevertheless, they are only imperfect accusatives. They have no sign of case, and are distinguished by negative characters only. One word of English is probably a true accusative in the strict sense of the term, _viz._, the word _twain_=_two_. The _-n_ in _twai-n_ is the _-n_ in _hine_=_him_ and _hwone_=_whom_. This we see from the following inflection:-- _Neut._ _Masc._ _Fem._ _N. and Ac._ Twá, Twégen, Twá. \------\/-------/ _Abl. and Dat._ Twám, Tw['æ]m. _Gen._ Twegra, Twega. Although nominative as well as accusative, I have little doubt as to the original character of _twégen_ being accusative. The {238} _-n_ is by no means radical; besides which, it _is_ the sign of an accusative case, and is _not_ the sign of a nominative. _Note._--The words _him_ and _them_ are true accusatives in even a less degree than _thee_, _me_, _us_, and _you_. The Anglo-Saxon equivalents to the Latin words _eos_ and _illos_ were _hi_ (or _hig_) and _þá_ (or _þæge_); in other words, the sign of the accusative was other than the sound of _-m_. The case which _really_ ended in _-m_ was the so-called dative; so that the Anglo-Saxon forms _him_ (or _heom_) and _þám_=the Latin _iis_ and _illis_. This fact explains the meaning of the words, _whatever they may have been originally_, in a preceding sentence. It also indicates a fresh element in the criticism and nomenclature of the grammarian; _viz._, the extent to which the _history_ of a form regulates its position as an inflection. _Dative._--In the antiquated word _whilom_ (_at times_), we have a remnant of the old dative in _-m_. The _sense_ of the word is adverbial; its form, however, is that of a dative case. _Genitive._--Some call this the possessive case. It is found in substantives and pronouns (_father's_, _his_), but not in adjectives. It is formed like the nominative plural, by the addition of the lene sibilant (_father_, _fathers_; _buck_, _bucks_); or if the word end in _s_, by that of _es_ (_boxes_, _judges_, &c.) It is found in both numbers: _the men's hearts_; _the children's bread_. In the plural number, however, it is rare; so rare, indeed, that wherever the plural ends in _s_ (as it almost always does), there is no genitive. If it were not so, we should have such words as _fatherses_, _foxeses_, _princesseses_, &c. _Instrumental._--The following extracts from Rask's Anglo-Saxon Grammar, teach us that there exist in the present English two powers of the word spelt _t-h-e_, or of the so-called definite article. "The demonstrative pronouns are _þæt_, _se_, _seó_ (_id_, _is_, _ea_), which are also used for the article; and _þis_, _þes_, _þeós_ (_hoc_, _hic_, _hæc_). They are thus declined:-- {239} _Neut._ _Masc._ _Fem._ _Neut._ _Masc._ _Fem._ _Sing. N._ þæt se seó þis þes þeós. _A._ þæt þone þá þis þisne þás. \----\/----/ \-----\/-----/ _Abl._ þý þ['æ]re þise þisse. _D._ þám þ['æ]re þisum þisse. _G._ þæs þ['æ]re þises þisse. \--------\/-------/ \--------\/--------/ _Plur. N. and A._ þá þás. _Abl. and D._ þám þisum. _G._ þára þissa. "The indeclinable _þe_ is often used instead of _þæt_, _se_, _seo_, in all cases, but especially with a relative signification, and, in later times, as an article. Hence the English article _the_. "_þy_ seems justly to be received as a proper _ablativus instrumenti_, as it occurs often in this character, even in the masculine gender; as, _mid þy áþe_=_with that oath_ (Inæ Reges, 53). And in the same place in the dative, _on þ['æ]m áþe_=_in that oath_."--Pp. 56, 57. Hence the _the_ that has originated out of the Anglo-Saxon _þý_ is one word; the _the_ that has originated out of the Anglo-Saxon _þe_, another. The latter is the common article: the former the _the_ in expressions like _all the more_, _all the better_=_more by all that_, _better by all that_, and the Latin phrases _eo majus_, _eo melius_. That _why_ is in the same case with the instrumental _the_ (=_þy_) may be seen from the following Anglo-Saxon inflection of the interrogative pronoun:-- _Neut._ _Masc._ _N._ Hwæt Hwá. _A._ Hwæt Hwone (hwæne). \------\/------/ _Abl._ _Hwi_ _D._ Hwám (hwæ'm) _G._ Hwæs. Hence, then, in _the_ and _why_ we have instrumental ablatives, or, simply, _instrumentals_. § 292. _The determination of cases._--How do we determine cases? In other words, why do we call _him_ and _them_ {240} accusatives rather than datives or genitives? By one of two means; _viz._, either by the sense or the form. Suppose that in the English language there were ten thousand dative cases and as many accusatives. Suppose, also, that all the dative cases ended in _-m_, and all the accusatives in some other letter. It is very evident that, whatever might be the meaning of the words _him_ and _them_ their form would be dative. In this case the meaning being accusative, and the form dative, we should doubt which test to take. My own opinion is, that it would be convenient to determine cases by the _form_ of the word _alone_; so that, even if a word had a dative sense only once, where it had an accusative sense ten thousand times, such a word should be said to be in the dative case. Now, as stated above, the words _him_ and _them_ (to which we may add _whom_) were once dative cases; _-m_ in Anglo-Saxon being the sign of the dative case. In the time of the Anglo-Saxons their sense coincided with their form. At present they are dative forms with an accusative meaning. Still, as the word _give_ takes after it a dative case, we have, even now, in the sentence, _give it him_, _give it them_, remnants of the old dative sense. To say _give it to him_, _to them_, is unnecessary and pedantic: neither do I object to the expression, _whom shall I give it_? If ever the _formal_ test become generally recognised and consistently adhered to, _him_, _them_, and _whom_ will be called datives with a latitude of meaning; and then the only true and unequivocal accusatives in the English language will be the forms _you_, _thee_, _us_, _me_, and _twain_. _My_, an accusative form (_meh_, _me_, _mec_), has now a genitive sense. The same may be said of _thy_. _Me_, originally an accusative form (both _me_ and _my_ can grow out of _mec_ and _meh_), had, even with the Anglo-Saxons, a dative sense. _Give it me_ is correct English. The same may be said of _thee_. _Him_, a dative form, has now an accusative sense. _Her._--For this word, as well as for further details on _me_ and _my_, see the Chapters on the Personal and Demonstrative Pronouns. {241} § 293. When all traces of the original dative signification are effaced, and when all the dative cases in a language are similarly affected, an accusative case may be said to have originated out of a dative. § 294. Thus far the question has been concerning the immediate origin of cases: their remote origin is a different matter. The word _um_ occurs in Icelandic. In Danish and Swedish it is _om_; in the Germanic languages _omme_, _umbi_, _umpi_, _ymbe_, and also _um_. Its meaning is _at_, _on_, _about_. The word _whilom_ is the substantive _while_=_a time_ or _pause_ (Dan. _hvile_=_to rest_), with the addition of the preposition _om_. That the particular dative form in _om_ has arisen out of the noun _plus_ the preposition is a safe assertion. I am not prepared, however, to account for the formation of all the cases in this manner. § 295. _Analysis of cases._--In the word _children's_ we are enabled to separate the word into three parts. 1. The root _child_. 2. The plural signs _r_ and _en_. 3. The sign of the genitive case, _s_. In this case the word is said to be analysed, since we not only take it to pieces, but also give the respective powers of each of its elements; stating which denotes the case, and which the number. Although it is too much to say that the analysis of every case of every number can be thus effected, it ought always to be attempted. § 296. _The true nature of the genitive form in s._--It is a common notion that the genitive form _father's_ is contracted from _father his_. The expression in our liturgy, _for Jesus Christ his sake_, which is merely a pleonastic one, is the only foundation for this assertion. As the idea, however, is not only one of the commonest, but also one of the greatest errors in etymology, the following three statements are given for the sake of contradiction to it. 1. The expression the _Queen's Majesty_ is not capable of being reduced to the _Queen his Majesty_. 2. In the form _his_ itself, the _s_ has precisely the power that it has in _father's_, &c. Now _his_ cannot be said to arise out of _he_ + _his_. 3. In all the languages of the vast Indo-European tribe, except the Celtic, the genitive ends in _s_, just as it does in {242} English; so that even if the words _father his_ would account for the English word _father's_, it would not account for the Sanskrit genitive _pad-as_, of a foot; the Zend _dughdhar-s_, of a daughter; the Lithuanic _dugter-s_; the Greek [Greek: odont-os]; the Latin _dent-is_, &c. For further remarks upon the English genitive, see the Cambridge Philological Museum, vol. ii. p. 246. * * * * * {243} CHAPTER V. THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. § 297. _I, we, us, me, thou, ye._--These constitute the true personal pronouns. From _he_, _she_, and _it_, they differ in being destitute of gender. These latter words are demonstrative rather than personal, so that there are in English true personal pronouns for the first two persons only. In other languages the current pronouns of the third person are, as in English, demonstrative rather than personal. The usual declension of the personal pronouns is exceptionable. _I_ and _me_, _thou_ and _ye_, stand in no etymological relations to each other. The true view of the words is, that they are not irregular but defective. _I_ has no _oblique_, and _me_ no nominative case. And so with respect to the rest. _I_, in German _ich_, Icelandic _ek_, corresponds with [Greek: egô], and _ego_ of the classical languages; _ego_ and [Greek: egô] being, like _I_, defective in the oblique cases. _My_, as stated above, is a form originally accusative, but now used in a genitive sense. _Me._--In Anglo-Saxon this was called a dative form. The fact seems to be that both _my_ and _me_ grow out of an accusative form, _meh_, _mec_. That the sound of _k_ originally belonged to the pronouns _me_ and _thee_, we learn not only from the Anglo-Saxons _mec_, _þec_, _meh_, _þeh_, but from the Icelandic _mik_, _þik_, and the German _mich_, _dich_. This accounts for the form _my_; since _y_=_ey_, and the sounds of _y_ and _g_ are allied. That both _me_ and _my_ can be evolved from _mik_, we see in the present Scandinavian languages, where, very often even in the same district, _mig_ is pronounced both _mey_ and _mee_. {244} _We_ and _our_.--These words are not in the condition of _I_ and _me_. Although the fact be obscured, they are really in an etymological relation to each other. This we infer from the alliance between the sounds of _w_ and _ou_, and from the Danish forms _vi_ (_we_), _vor_ (_our_). It may be doubted, however, whether _our_ be a true genitive rather than an adjectival form. In the form _ours_ we find it playing the part, not of a case, but of an independent word. Upon this, however, too much stress cannot be laid. In Danish it takes a neuter form: _vor_=_noster_; _vort_=_nostrum_. From this I conceive that it agrees, not with the Latin genitive _nostrûm_, but with the adjective _noster_. _Us, we, our._--Even _us_ is in an etymological relation to _we_. That _we_ and _our_ are so, has just been shown. Now in Anglo-Saxon there were two forms of _our_, _viz_., _úre_ (=_nostrûm_), and _user_ (=_noster_). This connects _we_ and _us_ through _our_. From these preliminary notices we have the changes in form of the true personal pronouns, as follows:-- 1ST PERSON _1st Term._ (_for nominative singular_). _I._ Undeclined. _2nd Term._ (_for the singular number_). Acc. _Me_. Gen. _My_. Form in _n_--_Mine_. _3rd Term._ (_for the plural number_). Nom. _We_. Acc. _Us_. Form in _r_--_Our_, _ours_. 2ND PERSON. _1st Term._ (_for the singular number_). Nom. _Thou_. Acc. _Thee_. Gen. _Thy_. Form in _n_--_Thine_. _2nd Term._ (_for the plural number_). Nom. _Ye_. Acc. _You_. Form in _r_--_Your_, _yours_. § 298. _We_ and _me_ have been dealt with as distinct words. But it is only for practical purposes that they can be considered to be thus separate; since the sounds of _m_ and _w_ are allied, and in Sanskrit the singular form _ma_=_I_ is looked upon as part of the same word with _vayam_=_we_. The same is the case with the Greek [Greek: me] (_me_), and the plural form [Greek: hêmeis] (_hæmeis_)=_we_. _You._--As far as the practice of the present mode of speech {245} is concerned, the word _you_ is a _nominative_ form; since we say _you move_, _you are moving_, _you were speaking_. Why should it not be treated as such? There is no absolute reason why it should not. All that can be said is, that the historical reason and the logical reason are at variance. The Anglo-Saxon form for _you_ was _eow_, for _ye_, _ge_. Neither bear any sign of case at all, so that, form for form, they are equally and indifferently nominative and accusative, as the habit of language may make them. Hence, it, perhaps, is more logical to say that a certain form (_you_) is used _either_ as a nominative or accusative, than to say that the accusative case is used instead of a nominative. It is clear that _you_ can be used instead of _ye_ only so far as it is nominative in power. _Ye._--As far as the evidence of such expressions as _get on with ye_ is concerned, the word _ye_ is an accusative form. The reasons why it should or should not be treated as such are involved in the previous paragraph. _Me._--Carrying out the views just laid down, and admitting _you_ to be a nominative, or _quasi_-nominative case, we may extend the reasoning to the word _me_, and call it also a secondary nominative; inasmuch as such phrases as _it is me_=_it is I_ are common. Now to call such expressions incorrect English is to assume the point. No one says that _c'est moi_ is bad French, and that _c'est je_ is good. The fact is, that the whole question is a question of degree. Has or has not the custom been sufficiently prevalent to have transferred the forms _me_, _ye_, and _you_ from one case to another, as it is admitted to have done with the forms _him_ and _whom_, once dative, but now accusative? _Observe._--That the expression _it is me_=_it is I_ will not justify the use of _it is him_, _it is her_=_it is he_ and _it is she_. _Me_, _ye_, _you_, are what may be called _indifferent_ forms, _i. e._ nominative as much as accusative, and accusative as much as nominative. _Him_ and _her_, on the other hand, are not indifferent. The _-m_ and _-r_ are respectively the signs of cases other than the nominative. Again: the reasons which allow the form _you_ to be {246} considered as a nominative plural, on the strength of its being used for _ye_, will not allow it to be considered a nominative singular on the strength of its being used for _thou_. It is submitted to the reader, that in phrases like _you are speaking_, &c., even when applied to a single individual, the idea is really plural; in other words, that the courtesy consists in treating _one_ person as _more than one_, and addressing him as such, rather than in using a plural form in a singular sense. It is certain that, grammatically considered, _you_=_thou_ is a plural, since the verb with which it agrees is plural:--_you are speaking_, not _you art speaking_. * * * * * {247} CHAPTER VI. ON THE TRUE REFLECTIVE PRONOUN IN THE GOTHIC LANGUAGES, AND ON ITS ABSENCE IN ENGLISH. § 299. A true reflective pronoun is wanting in English. In other words, there are no equivalents to the Latin pronominal forms _sui_, _sibi_, _se_. Nor yet are there any equivalents in English to the so-called adjectival forms _suus_, _sua_, _suum_: since _his_ and _her_ are the equivalents to _ejus_ and _illius_, and are not adjectives but genitive cases. At the first view, this last sentence seems unnecessary. It might seem superfluous to state, that, if there were no such primitive form as _se_ (or its equivalent), there could be no such secondary form as _suus_ (or its equivalent). Such, however, is not the case. _Suus_ might exist in the language, and yet _se_ be absent; in other words, the derivative form might have continued whilst the original one had become extinct. Such is really the case with the _Old_ Frisian. The reflective personal form, the equivalent to _se_, is lost, whilst the reflective possessive form, the equivalent to _suus_, is found. In the _Modern_ Frisian, however, both forms are lost; as they also are in the present English. The history of the reflective pronoun in the Gothic tongues is as follows:-- _In Moeso-Gothic._--Found in three cases, _seina_, _sis_, _sik_=_sui_, _sibi_, _se_. _In Old Norse._--Ditto. _Sin_, _ser_, _sik_=_sui_, _sibi_, _se_. _In Old High German._--The dative form lost; there being no such word as _sir_=_sis_=_sibi_. Besides this, the genitive {248} or possessive form _sin_ is used only in the masculine and neuter genders. _In Old Frisian._--As stated above, there is here no equivalent to _se_; whilst there _is_ the form _sin_=_suus_. _In Old Saxon._--The equivalent to _se_, _sibi_, and _sui_ very rare. The equivalent to _suus_ not common, but commoner than in Anglo-Saxon. _In Anglo-Saxon._--No instance of the equivalent to _se_ at all. The forms _sinne_=_suum_, and _sinum_=_suo_, occur in Beowulf. In Cædmon cases of _sin_=_suus_ are more frequent. Still the usual form is _his_=_ejus_. In the Dutch, Danish, and Swedish, the true reflectives, both personal and possessive, occur; so that the modern Frisian and English stand alone in respect to the entire absence of them.--Deutsche Grammatik, iv. 321-348. The statement concerning the absence of the true reflective in English, although negative, has an important philological bearing on more points than one. 1. It renders the use of the word _self_ much more necessary than it would be otherwise. 2. It renders us unable to draw a distinction between the meanings of the Latin words _suus_ and _ejus_. 3. It precludes the possibility of the evolution of a middle voice like that of the Old Norse, where _kalla-sc_=_kalla-sik_. * * * * * {249} CHAPTER VII. THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, &c. § 300. The demonstrative pronouns are, 1. _He_, _it_. 2. _She_. 3. _This_, _that_. 4. _The_. _He_, _she_, and _it_, generally looked on as personal, are here treated as demonstrative pronouns, for the following reasons. 1. The personal pronouns form an extremely natural class, if the pronouns of the two first persons (and _se_ when found in the language) be taken by themselves. This is not the case if they be taken along with _he_, _it_, and _she_. The absence of gender, the peculiarity in their declension, and their defectiveness are marked characters wherein they agree with each other, but not with any other words. 2. The idea expressed by _he_, _it_, and _she_ is naturally that of demonstrativeness. In the Latin language _is_, _ea_, _id_; _ille_, _illa_, _illud_; _hic_, _hæc_, _hoc_, are demonstrative pronouns in sense, as well as in declension. 3. The plural forms _they_, _them_, in the present English, are the plural forms of the root of _that_, a true demonstrative pronoun; so that even if _he_, _she_, and _it_ could be treated as personal pronouns, it could only be in their so-called singular number. 4. The word _she_ has grown out of the Anglo-Saxon _seó_. Now _seó_ was in Anglo-Saxon the feminine form of the definite article; the definite article being a demonstrative pronoun. Compared with the Anglo-Saxon the present English stands as follows:-- _She._--The Anglo-Saxon form _heó_, being lost to the language, is replaced by the feminine article _seó_. _Her._--This is a case, not of the present _she_, but of the Anglo-Saxon _heó_: so that _she_ may be said to be defective in {250} the oblique cases and _her_ to be defective in the nominative. _Him._--A true dative form, which has replaced the Anglo-Saxon _hine_. When used as a dative, it was neuter as well as masculine. _His._--Originally neuter as well as masculine. Now as a neuter, replaced by _its_--"et quidem ipsa vox _his_, ut et interrogativum _whose_, nihil aliud sunt quam _hee's_, _who's_, ubi _s_ omnino idem præstat quod in aliis possessivis. Similiter autem _his_ pro _hee's_ eodem errore quo nonnunquam _bin_ pro _been_; item _whose_ pro _who's_ eodem errore quo _done_, _gone_, _knowne_, _growne_, &c., pro _doen_, _goen_, _knowen_, vel _do'n_, _go'n_, _know'n_, _grow'n_; utrobique contra analogiam linguæ; sed usu defenditur."--Wallis, c. v. _It._--Changed from the Anglo-Saxon _hit_, by the ejection of _h_. The _t_ is no part of the original word, but a sign of the neuter gender, forming it regularly from _he_. The same neuter sign is preserved in the Latin _id_ and _illud_. _Its._--In the course of time the nature of the neuter sign _t_, in _it_, the form being found in but a few words, became misunderstood. Instead of being looked on as an affix, it passed for part of the original word. Hence was formed from _it_ the anomalous genitive _its_, superseding the Saxon _his_. The same was the case with-- _Hers._--The _r_ is no part of the original word, but the sign of the dative case. These formations are of value in the history of cases. _They_, _their_, _them_.--When _hit_ had been changed into _it_, when _heó_ had been replaced by _she_, and when the single form _the_, as an article, had come to serve for all the cases of all the genders, two circumstances took place: 1. The forms _þám_ and _þára_ as definite articles became superfluous; and, 2. The connexion between the plural forms _hí_, _heom_, _heora_, and the singular forms _he_ and _it_, grew indistinct. These were conditions favourable to the use of the forms _they_, _them_, and _their_, instead of _hí_, _heom_, _heora_. _Theirs._--In the same predicament with _hers_ and _its_; either the case of an adjective, or a case formed from a case. {251} _Than_ or _then_, and _there_.--Although now adverbs, they were once demonstrative pronouns, in a certain case and in a certain gender.--_Than_ and _then_ masculine accusative and singular, _there_ feminine dative and singular. An exhibition of the Anglo-Saxon declension is the best explanation of the English. Be it observed, that the cases marked in italics are found in the present language. I. Se, _seó_. Of this word we meet two forms only, both of the singular number, and both in the nominative case; _viz._ masc. _se_; fem. _seó_ (the). The neuter gender and the other cases of the article were taken from the pronoun _þæt_ (that). II. _þæt_ (that, the), and _þis_ (this). _Neut._ _Masc._ _Fem._ _Neut._ _Masc._ _Fem._ Sing. Nom. _þæt_ -- -- _þis_ þes þeós. Acc. _þæt_ _þone_ þâ. þis þisne þás. Abl. _þy_ _þy_ _þ['æ]re_. _þise_ þise þisse. Dat. þám þám _þ['æ]re_. þisum þisum þisse. Gen. þæs þæs _þ['æ]re_. þises þises þisse. \----------\/----------/ \---------\/---------/ Plur. Nom. Acc. _þá_. _þás_. Abl. Dat. _þám_. þisum. Gen. _þára_. þissa. III. _Hit_ (it), _he_ (he), _heó_ (she). Sing. Nom. _hit_ _he_ heó. Acc. _hit_ hine hí. Dat. _him_ _him_ _hire_. Gen. _his_ _his_ _hire_. \--------\/--------/ Plur. Nom. Acc. hi Dat. him (heom). Gen. hira (heora). IV. _þe_ (the)--Undeclined, and used for all cases and genders. § 301. _These._--Here observe-- {252} 1st. That the _s_ is no inflection, but a radical part of the word, like the _s_ in _geese_. 2nd. That the Anglo-Saxon form is _þâs_. These facts create difficulties in respect to the word _these_. Mr. Guest's view is, perhaps, the best; _viz._ that the plural element of the word is the letter _e_, and that this _-e_ is the old English and Anglo-Saxon adjective plural; so that _thes-e_ is formed from _thes_, as _gode_ (=_boni_) is formed from _god_ (=_bonus_). The nominative plural in the Old English ended in _e_; as, _Singular._ _Plural._ _M._ _F._ _N._ _M._ _F._ _N._ _God_, _god_, _god_, _gode_. In Old English MSS. this plural in _-e_ is general. It occurs not only in adjectives and pronouns as a regular inflection, but even as a plural of the genitive _his_, that word being treated as a nominative singular; so that _hise_ is formed from _his_, as _sui_ from _suus_, or as _eji_ might have been formed from _ejus_; provided that in the Latin language this last word had been mistaken for a nominative singular. The following examples are Mr. Guest's. 1. In these lay a gret multitude of _syke_ men, _blinde_, crokid, and _drye_. _Wicliffe_, Jon. v. 2. In all the orders foure is non that can So much of dalliance and faire language, He hadde ymade ful many a marriage-- His tippet was ay farsed ful of knives, And pinnes for to given _faire_ wives. _Chau._, Prol. 3. And _al_ the cuntre of Judee wente out to him, and _alle_ men of Jerusalem.--_Wiclif_, Mark i. 4. He ghyueth lif to _alle_ men, and brething, and _alle_ thingis; and made of von _al_ kynde of men to inhabit on _al_ the face of the erthe.--_Wicliffe_, Dedis of Apostlis, xvii. 5. That fadres sone which _alle_ thinges wrought; And _all_, that wrought is with a skilful thought, The Gost that from the fader gan procede, Hath souled hem. _Chau._, The Second Nonnes Tale. {253} 6. And _alle_ we that ben in this aray And maken _all_ this lamentation, We losten _alle_ our husbondes at that toun. _Chau._, The Knightes Tale. 7. A _good_ man bryngeth forth _gode_ thingis of _good_ tresore.--_Wicliffe_, Matt. xii. 8. So every _good_ tree maketh _gode_ fruytis, but an yvel tree maketh yvel fruytes. A _good_ tree may not mak yvel fruytis, neither an yvel tree may make _gode_ fruytis. Every tree that maketh not _good_ fruyt schal be cut down.--_Wicliffe_, Matt. vii. 9. Men loveden more darknessis than light for her werkes weren _yvele_, for ech man that doeth _yvel_, hateth the light.--_Wicliffe_, Jon. iii. 10. And _othere_ seedis felden among thornes wexen up and strangliden hem, and _othere_ seedis felden into good lond and gaven fruyt, sum an hundred fold, _another_ sixty fold, an _other_ thritty fold, &c.--_Wicliffe_, Matt. xiii. 11. Yet the while he spake to the puple lo _his_ mother and _hise_ brethren stonden withoute forth.--_Wicliffe_, Matt. xii. 12. And _hise_ disciplis camen and token _his_ body.--_Wicliffe_, Matt. xiv. 13. Whan _thise_ Bretons tuo were fled out of _this_ lond Ine toke his feaute of alle, &c. _Rob. Brunne_, p. 3. 14. _This_ is thilk disciple that bereth witnessyng of _these_ thingis, and wroot them.--_Wicliffe_, John xxi. 15. Seye to us in what powers thou doist _these_ thingis, and who is he that gaf to thee _this_ power.--_Wicliffe_, Luke xx. § 302. _Those._--Perhaps the Anglo-Saxon _þá_ with _s_ added. Perhaps the _þás_ from _þis_ with its power altered. Rask, in his Anglo-Saxon Grammar, writes "from þis we find, in the plural, þæs for þás. From which afterwards, with a distinction in signification, _these_ and _those_." The English form _they_ is illustrated by the Anglo-Saxon form _ðage_=_þá_. The whole doctrine of the forms in question has yet to assume a satisfactory shape. The present declension of the demonstrative pronouns is as follows:-- I. _The_--Undeclined. {254} II. _She_--Defective in the oblique cases. III. _He_. _Masc._ _Neut._ _Fem._ _Nom._ He It (from _hit_) -- _Acc._ Him It Her. _Dat._ Him -- Her. _Gen._ His -- Her. _Secondary Gen._ -- Its Hers. No plural form. IV. _That._ _Neut._ _Masc._ _Fem._ _Sing. Nom._ That -- -- _Acc._ That Than,[40] then -- _Dat._ -- -- There.[40] \-----------------\/----------------/ _Plur. Nom._ They.[41] _Acc._ Them.[41] _Gen._ Their.[41] _Secondary Gen._ Theirs.[41] V. _Singular_, This. _Plural_, These. VI. _Those_. * * * * * {255} CHAPTER VIII. THE RELATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND CERTAIN OTHER PRONOUNS. § 303. In the relative and interrogative pronouns, _who_, _what_, _whom_, _whose_, we have, expressed by a change of form, a neuter gender, _what_; a dative case, _whom_; and a genitive case, _whose_: the true power of the _s_ (_viz._ as the sign of a case) being obscured by the orthographical addition of the _e_ mute. To these may be added, 1. the adverb _why_, originally the ablative form _hvi_ (_quo modo? quâ viâ?_). 2. The adverb _where_, a feminine dative, like _there_. 3. _When_, a masculine accusative (in Anglo-Saxon _hwæne_), and analogous to _then_. § 304. The following points in the history of the demonstrative and relative pronouns are taken from Grimm's Deutsche Grammatik, vol. iii. pp. 1, 2, 3. Throughout the Indo-European tribe the interrogative or relative idea is expressed by _k_, or by a modification of _k_; e.g., _qu_, _hv_, or _h_; as Sanskrit, _kas_, who; _kataras_, which of two; _katama_, which of many.--Lithuanic, _kas_, who; _koks_, of what sort; _kokelys_, how great; _kaip_, how.--Slavonic: _kto_, who, Russian and Polish; _kdo_, who, Bohemian; _kotory_, which, Russian; _kolik_, how great.--_Quot_, _qualis_, _quantus_, Latin.--[Greek: Kosos], [Greek: koios], [Greek: kote], Ionic Greek; in the other dialects, however, [Greek: poteros], [Greek: posos], &c.--Gothic: _hvas_, who, Moeso-Gothic; _huer_, Old High German; _hvaþar_, which of two, Moeso-Gothic; _huëdar_, Old High German; _hvem_, _hvad_, _huanne_, _huar_, Norse; _what_, _why_, _which_, _where_, &c., English. Throughout the Indo-European tribe the demonstrative idea is expressed by _t_, or by a modification of it; as, Sanskrit, _tat_, that; _tata-ras_, such a one out of two.--Lithuanic, _tas_, he; _toks_, such; _tokelys_, so great; _taip_, so.--Slavonic, _t'_ or {256} _ta_, he; _taku_, such; _tako_, so.--_Tot_, _talis_, _tantum_, Latin.--[Greek: Tosos], [Greek: toios], [Greek: tote], Greek; _this_, _that_, _thus_, English, &c. The two sounds in the Danish words _hvi_, _hvad_, &c., and the two sounds in the English, _what_, _when_ (Anglo-Saxon, _hwæt_, _hwæne_), account for the forms _why_ and _how_. In the first the _w_ alone, in the second the _h_ alone, is sounded. The Danish for why is _hvi_, pronounced _vi_; in Swedish the word is _hu_. § 305. The following remarks (some of them not strictly etymological) apply to a few of the remaining pronouns. For further details, see Grimm, D. G. iii. 4. _Same._--Wanting in Anglo-Saxon, where it was replaced by the word _ylca_, _ylce_. Probably derived from the Norse. _Self._--In _myself_, _thyself_, _herself_, _ourselves_, _yourselves_, a substantive (or with a substantival power), and preceded by a genitive case. In _himself_ and _themselves_ an adjective (or with an adjectival power), and preceded by an accusative case. _Itself_ is equivocal, since we cannot say whether its elements are _it_ and _self_, or _its_ and _self_; the _s_ having been dropped in utterance. It is very evident that either the form like _himself_, or the form like _thyself_, is exceptionable; in other words, that the use of the word is inconsistent. As this inconsistency is as old as the Anglo-Saxons, the history of the word gives us no elucidation. In favour of the forms like _myself_ (_self_ being a substantive), are the following facts:-- 1. The plural word _selves_, a substantival, and not an adjectival form. 2. The Middle High German phrases, _mîn lîp_, _dîn lîp_, _my body_, _thy body_, equivalent in sense to _myself_, _thyself_. 3. The circumstance that if _self_ be dealt with as a substantive, such phrases as _my own self_, _his own great self_, &c., can be used; whereby the language is a gainer. "Vox _self_, pluraliter _selves_, quamvis etiam pronomen a quibusdam censeatur (quoniam ut plurimum per Latinum _ipse_ redditur), est tamen plane nomen substantivum, cui quidem vix aliquod apud Latinos substantivum respondet; proxime tamen accedet vox _persona_ vel _propria persona_, ut _my self_, _thy self_, _our selves_, _your selves_, &c. (_ego ipse_, _tu ipse_, _nos ipsi_, {257} _vos ipsi_, &c.), ad verbum _mea persona_, _tua persona_, &c. Fateor tamen _himself_, _itself_, _themselves_ vulgo dici pro _his-self_, _its-self_, _theirselves_; at (interposito _own_) _his own self_, &c., _ipsius propria persona_, &c."--Wallis, c. vii. 4. The fact that many persons actually say _hisself_ and _theirselves_. _Whit._--As in the phrase _not a whit_. This enters in the compound pronouns _aught_ and _naught_. _One._--As in the phrase _one does so and so_. From the French _on_. Observe that this is from the Latin _homo_, in Old French _hom_, _om_. In the Germanic tongues _man_ is used in the same sense: _man sagt_=_one says_=_on dit_. _One_, like _self_ and _other_, is so far a substantive, that it is inflected. Gen. sing, _one's own self_: plural, _my wife and little ones are well_. _Derived pronouns._--_Any_, in Anglo-Saxon, _ænig_. In Old High German we have _einîc_=_any_, and _einac_=_single_. In Anglo-Saxon _ânega_ means _single_. In Middle High German _einec_ is always _single_. In New High German _einig_ means, 1. _a certain person_ (_quidam_), 2. _agreeing_; _einzig_, meaning _single_. In Dutch _ênech_ has both meanings. This indicates the word _án_, _one_, as the root of the word in question.--Grimm, D. G. iii. 9. _Compound pronouns._--_Which_, as has been already stated more than once, is most incorrectly called the neuter of _who_. Instead of being a neuter, it is a compound word. The adjective _leiks_, _like_, is preserved in the Moeso-Gothic words _galeiks_, and _missaleiks_. In Old High German the form is _lih_, in Anglo-Saxon _lic_. Hence we have Moeso-Gothic, _hvêleiks_; Old High German, _huëlih_; Anglo-Saxon, _huilic_ and _hvilc_; Old Frisian, _hwelik_; Danish, _hvilk-en_; German, _welch_; Scotch, _whilk_; English, _which_. (Grimm, D. G., iii. 47). The same is the case with-- 1. _Such._--Moeso-Gothic, _svaleiks_; Old High German, _sôlih_; Old Saxon, _sulîc_; Anglo-Saxon, _svilc_; German, _solch_; English, _such_. (Grimm, D. G. iii. 48). Rask's derivation of the Anglo-Saxon _swilc_ from _swa-ylc_, is exceptionable. 2. _Thilk._--An old English word, found in the provincial dialects, as _thick_, _thuck_, _theck_, and hastily derived by Tyrwhitt, {258} Ritson, and Weber, from _së ylca_, is found in the following forms: Moeso-Gothic, _þêleiks_; Norse, _þvilikr_. (Grimm, iii. 49.) 3. _Ilk._--Found in the Scotch, and always preceded by the article; _the ilk_, or _that ilk_, meaning _the same_. In Anglo-Saxon this word is _ylca_, preceded also by the article _se ylca_, _seó ylce_, _þæt ylce_. In English, as seen above, the word is replaced by _same_. In no other Gothic dialect does it occur. According to Grimm, this is no simple word, but a compound one, of which some such word as _ei_ is the first, and _lîc_ the second element. (Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 50.) _Aught._--In Moeso-Gothic is found the particle _aiv_, _ever_, but only in negative propositions; _ni_ (_not_) preceding it. Its Old High German form is _êo_, _io_; in Middle High German, _ie_ in New High German, _je_; in Old Saxon, _io_; in Anglo-Saxon, _â_; in Norse, _æ_. Combined with this particle the word _whit_ (_thing_) gives the following forms: Old High German, _éowiht_; Anglo-Saxon, _âviht_; Old Frisian, _âwet_; English, _aught_. The word _naught_ is _aught_ preceded by the negative particle. (Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 52.) _Each._--The particle _gi_ enters, like the particle in the composition of pronouns. Old High German, _êogalîher_, every one; _êocalih_, all; Middle High German, _iegelich_; New High German, _jeglich_; Anglo-Saxon, _ælc_; English, _each_; the _l_ being dropped, as in _which_ and _such_. _Ælc_, as the original of the English _each_ and the Scotch _ilka,_[42] must by no means be confounded with the word _ylce_, _the same_. (Grimm, D. G. iii. 54.) _Every_, in Old English, _everich_, _everech_, _everilk one_, is _ælc_, preceded by the particle _ever_. (Grimm, D. G. iii. 54.) _Either._--Old High German, _êogahuëdar_; Middle High German, _iegewëder_; Anglo-Saxon, _æghväðer_, _ægðer_; Old Frisian, _eider_. _Neither._--The same, with the negative article prefixed. _Neither_ : _either_ :: _naught_ : _aught_. _Other_, _whether_.--These words, although derived forms, being simpler than some that have preceded, might fairly {259} have been dealt with before. They make, however, a transition from the present to the succeeding chapter, and so find a place here. A. _First_, it may be stated of them that the idea which they express is not that _of one out of many_, but that of _one out of two_. 1. In Sanskrit there are two forms, ^a) _kataras_, the same word as _whether_, meaning _which out of two_; ^b) _katamas_, _which out of many_. So also _êkateras_, _one out of two_; _êkatamas_, _one out of many_. In Greek, the Ionic form [Greek: koteros] ([Greek: poteros]); in Latin, _uter_, _neuter_, _alter_; and in Moeso-Gothic, _hvathar_, have the same form and the same meaning. 2. In the Scandinavian language the word _anden_, Dano-Saxon _annar_, Iceland corresponds to the English word _second_, and not the German _zweite:_ e. g., _Karl den Anden_, _Charles the Second_. Now _anthar_ is the older form of _other_. B. _Secondly_, it may be stated of them, that the termination _-er_ is the same termination that we find in the comparative degree. 1. The idea expressed by the comparative degree is the comparison, not of _many_, but of _two_ things; _this is better than that_. 2. In all the Indo-European languages where there are pronouns in _-ter_, there is also a comparative degree in _-ter_. See next chapter. 3. As the Sanskrit form _kataras_ corresponds with the comparative degree, where there is the comparison of _two things with each other_; so the word _katamas_ is a superlative form; and in the superlative degree lies the comparison of _many_ things with each other. Hence _other_ and _whether_ (to which may be added _either_ and _neither_) are pronouns with the comparative form. _Other_ has the additional peculiarity of possessing the plural form _others_. Hence, like _self_, it is, in the strictest sense, a substantival pronoun. * * * * * {260} CHAPTER IX. ON CERTAIN FORMS IN -ER. § 306. Preparatory to the consideration of the degrees of comparison, it is necessary to make some remarks upon a certain class of words, which, with considerable differences of signification, all agree in one fact, viz., all terminate in _-er_, or _t-er_. 1. Certain pronouns, as _ei-th-er_, _n-ei-th-er_, _whe-th-er_, _o-th-er_. 2. Certain prepositions and adverbs, as _ov-er_, _und-er_, _af-t-er_. 3. Certain adjectives, with the form of the comparative, but the power of the positive degree; as _upp-er_, _und-er_, _inn-er_, _out-er_, _hind-er_. 4. All adjectives of the comparative degree; as _wis-er_, _strong-er_, _bett-er_, &c. Now what is the idea common to all these words, expressed by the sign _-er_, and connecting the four divisions into one class? It is not the mere idea of comparison; although it is the comparative degree, to the expression of which the affix in question is more particularly applied. Bopp, who has best generalised the view of these forms, considers the fundamental idea to be that of _duality_. In the comparative degree we have a relation between one object and _some_ other object like it, or a relation between two single elements of comparison: _A is wiser than B_. In the superlative degree we have a relation between one object and _all_ others like it, or a relation between one single and one complex element of comparison: _A is wiser than B, C, D_, &c. "As in comparatives a relation between _two_, and in superlatives a relation between _many_, lies at the bottom, it is {261} natural that their suffixes should be transferred to other words, whose chief notion is individualised through that of duality or plurality."--Vergleichende Grammatik, § 292, Eastwick's and Wilson's Translation. The most important proofs of the view adduced by Bopp are,-- 1. The Sanskrit forms _kataras_=_which of two persons?_ a comparative form; _katamas_=_which of more than two persons?_ a superlative form. Similarly, _êkataras_=_one of two persons_; _êkatamas_=_one of more than two persons_. 2. The Greek forms, [Greek: hekateros]=_each or either out of two persons_; [Greek: hekastos]=_each or any out of more than two persons_. § 307. The more important of the specific modifications of the general idea involved in the comparison of two objects are,-- 1. Contrariety; as in _inner_, _outer_, _under_, _upper_, _over_. In Latin the words for _right_ and _left_ end in _-er_,--_dexter_, _sinister_. 2. Choice in the way of an alternative; as _either_, _neither_, _whether_, _other_. An extension of the reasoning probably explains forms like the Greek [Greek: ampho-ter-os], and the _plural_ possessive forms [Greek: nôi-ter-os], [Greek: hême-ter-os], &c, which, like our own forms in _-r_, (_ou-r_, _you-r_) correspond in termination with the comparative degree ([Greek: sophô-ter-os], _wiser_). Words, also, like _hither_ and _thither_ are instances of what is probably the effect of a similar association of ideas. § 308. A confirmation of Bopp's view is afforded by the Laplandic languages. Herein the distinction between _one of two_ and _one of more than two_ is expressed by affixes; and these affixes are the signs of the comparative and superlative: _gi_=_who_; _gua-bba_=_who of two_; _gutte-mush_=_who of many_. 1. _Gi_=_who_, so that _guabba_ may be called its comparative form. 2. _Gutte_ also=_who_, so that _guttemush_ may be called its superlative. 3. Precisely as the words _guabba_ and _guttemush_ are formed, so also are the regular degrees of adjectives. {262} _a._ _Nuorra_=_young_; _nuor-ab_=_younger_; _nuora-mush_=_youngest_. _b._ _Bahha_=_bad_; _baha-b_=_worse_; _baha-mush_=_worst_. The following extracts from Stockfleth's Lappish Grammar were probably written without any reference to the Sanskrit or Greek. "_Guabba_, of which the form and meaning are comparative, appears to have originated in a combination of the pronoun _gi_, and the comparative affix _-abbo_."--"_Guttemush_, of which the form and meaning are superlative, is similarly derived from the pronoun _gutte_, and the superlative affix _-mush_."--Grammatik i det Lappiske Sprog, §§ 192, 193. § 309. _Either_, _neither_, _other_, _whether_.--It has just been stated that the general fundamental idea common to all these forms is that of _choice between one of two objects in the way of an alternative_. Thus far the termination _-er_ in _either_, &c., is the termination _-er_ in the true comparatives, _brav-er_, _wis-er_, &c. _Either_ and _neither_ are common pronouns. _Other_, like _one_, is a pronoun capable of taking the plural form of a substantive (_others_), and also that of the genitive case (_the other's money_, _the other's bread_). _Whether_ is a pronoun in the almost obsolete form _whether (=which) of the two do you prefer_, and a conjunction in sentences like _whether will you do this or not?_ The use of the form _others_ is recent. "_They are taken out of the way as all other._"--Job. "_And leave their riches for other._"--Psalms. * * * * * {263} CHAPTER X. THE COMPARATIVE DEGREE. § 310. The proper preliminary to the study of the comparative and quasi-comparative forms in English is the history of the inflection or inflections by which they are expressed. There is no part of our grammar where it is more necessary to extend our view beyond the common limit of the Gothic stock of languages, than here. In the Sanskrit language the signs of the comparative degree are two:--1. _-tara_, as _punya_=_pure_; _punya-tara_=_purer_; 2. _-îyas_, as _k['s]ipra_=_swift_; _k['s]êpîyas_=_swifter_. Of these the first is the most in use. The same forms occur in the Zend; as _husko_=_dry_; _huskô-tara_=_drier_; _-îyas_, however, is changed into _-is_. In the classical languages we have the same forms. 1. in _uter_, _neuter_, _alter_, [Greek: poteros], [Greek: leptoteros]. 2. In the adverb _magis_, Lat. In Bohemian and Polish, _-ssj_ and _-szy_ correspond with the Sanskrit forms _-îyas_. Thus we collect, that, expressive of the comparative degree, there are two parallel forms; _viz._, the form in _tr_, and the form in _s_; of which one is the most in use in one language, and the other in another. § 311. Before we consider the Gothic forms of the comparative, it may be advisable to note two changes to which it is liable. 1. The change of _s_ into _r_; the Latin word _meliorem_ being supposed to have been originally _meliosem_, and the _s_ in _nigrius_, _firmius_, &c., being considered not so much the sign of the neuter gender as the old comparative _s_ in its oldest form. 2. The ejection of _t_, as in the Latin words _inferus_, _superus_, compared with the Greek [Greek: leptoteros] (_leptoteros_). {264} § 312. Now, of the two parallel forms, the Gothic one was the form _s_; the words _other_ and _whether_ only preserving the form _tr_. And here comes the application of the remarks that have just gone before. The vast majority of our comparatives end in _r_, and so seem to come from _tr_ rather than from _s_. This, however, is not the case. The _r_ in words like _sweeter_ is derived, not from _tar_--_t_, but from _s_, changed into _r_. In Moeso-Gothic the comparative ended in _s_ (_z_); in Old High German the _s_ has become _r_: Moeso-Gothic _aldiza_, _batiza_, _sutiza_; Old High German, _altiro_, _betsiro_, _suatsiro_; English, _older_, _better_, _sweeter_. The importance of a knowledge of the form in _s_ is appreciated when we learn that, even in the present English, there are vestiges of it. § 313. _Comparison of adverbs._--_The sun shines bright._--Herein the word _bright_ means _brightly_; and although the use of the latter word would have been the more elegant, the expression is not ungrammatical; the word _bright_ being looked upon as an adjectival adverb. _The sun shines to-day brighter than it did yesterday, and to-morrow it will shine brightest._--Here also the sense is adverbial; from whence we get the fact, that adverbs take degrees of comparison. Now let the root _mag-_, as in _magnus_, [Greek: megas], and _mikil_ (Norse), give the idea of greatness. In the Latin language we have from it two comparative forms: 1. the adjectival comparative _major_=_greater_; 2. the adverbial comparative _magis_=_more_ (_plus_). The same takes place in Moeso-Gothic: _maiza_ means _greater_, and is adjectival; _mais_ means _more_, and is adverbial. The Anglo-Saxon forms are more instructive still; _e.g._, _þäs þe mâ_=_all the more_, _þäs þe bet_=_all the better_, have a comparative sense, but not a comparative form, the sign _r_ being absent. Now, compared with _major_, and subject to the remarks that have gone before, the Latin _magis_ is the older form. With _mâ_ and _bet_, compared with _more_ and _better_, this may or may not be the case. _Mâ_ and _bet_ may each be one of two forms; 1. a positive used in a comparative sense; 2. a true comparative, which has lost {265} its termination. The present section has been written not for the sake of exhausting the subject, but to show that in the comparative degree there were often two forms; of which one, the adverbial, was either more antiquated, or more imperfect than the other: a fact bearing upon some of the forthcoming trains of etymological reasoning. § 314. _Change of vowel._--By reference to Rask's Grammar, § 128, it may be seen that in the Anglo-Saxon there were, for the comparative and superlative degrees, two forms; _viz._ _-or_ and _-re_, and _-ost_ and _-este_, respectively. By reference to p. 159 of the present volume, it may be seen that the fulness or smallness of a vowel in a given syllable may work a change in the nature of the vowel in a syllable adjoining. In the Anglo-Saxon the following words exhibit a change of vowel. _Positive._ _Comparative._ _Superlative._ Lang, Lengre, Lengest. _Long._ Strang, Strengre, Strengest. _Strong._ Geong, Gyngre, Gyngest. _Young._ Sceort, Scyrtre, Scyrtest. _Short._ Heáh, Hyrre, Hyhst. _High._ Eald, Yldre, Yldest. _Old._ Of this change, the word last quoted is a still-existing specimen, as _old_, _elder_ and _older_, _eldest_ and _oldest_. Between the two forms there is a difference in meaning, _elder_ being used as a substantive, and having a plural form, _elders_. § 315. The previous section has stated that in Anglo-Saxon there were two forms for the comparative and superlative degrees, one in _-re_ and _-este_, the other in _-or_ and _-ost_, respectively. Now the first of these was the form taken by adjectives; as _se scearpre sweord_=_the sharper sword_, and _se scearpeste sweord_=_the sharpest sword_. The second, on the other hand, was the form taken by adverbs; as, _se sweord scyrð scearpor_=_the sword cuts sharper_, and _se sweord scyrð scearpost_=_the sword cuts sharpest_. The adjectival form has, as seen above, a tendency to make the vowel of the preceding syllable small: _old_, _elder_. {266} The adverbial form has a tendency to make the vowel of the preceding syllable full. Of this effect on the part of the adverbial form the adverbial comparative _rather_ is a specimen. We pronounce the _a_ as in _father_, or full. Nevertheless, the positive form is small, the _a_ being pronounced as the _a_ in _fate_. The word _rather_ means _quick_, _easy_=the classical root [Greek: rhad-] in [Greek: rhadios]. What we do _quickly_ and _willingly_ we do _preferably_. Now if the word _rather_ were an adjective, the vowel of the comparative would be sounded as the _a_ in _fate_. As it is, however, it is adverbial, and as such is properly sounded as the _a_ in _father_. The difference between the action of the small vowel in _-re_, and of the full in _-or_, effects this difference. § 316. _Excess of expression._--Of this two samples have already been given: 1. in words like _songstress_; 2. in words like _children_. This may be called _excess of expression_; the feminine gender, in words like _songstress_, and the plural number, in words like _children_, being expressed twice over. In the vulgarism _betterer_ for _better_, and in the antiquated forms _worser_ for _worse_, and _lesser_ for _less_, we have, in the case of the comparatives, as elsewhere, an excess of expression. In the Old High German we have the forms _betsërôro_, _mêrôro_, _êrërëra_=_better_, _more_, _ere_. § 317. _Better._--Although in the superlative form _best_ there is a slight variation from the strict form of that degree, the word _better_ is perfectly regular. So far, then, from truth are the current statements that the comparison of the words _good_, _better_, and _best_ is irregular. The inflection is not irregular, but defective. As the statement that applies to _good_, _better_, and _best_ applies to many words besides, it will be well in this place, once for all, to exhibit it in full. § 318. _Difference between a sequence in logic and a sequence in etymology._--The ideas or notions of _thou_, _thy_, _thee_, are ideas between which there is a metaphysical or logical connexion. The train of such ideas may be said to form a sequence and such a sequence may be called a logical one. The forms (or words) _thou_, _thy_, _thee_, are forms or words {267} between which there is a formal or an etymological connexion. A train of such words may be called a sequence, and such a sequence may be called an etymological one. In the case of _thou_, _thy_, _thee_, the etymological sequence tallies with the logical one. The ideas of _I_, _my_, and _me_ are also in a logical sequence: but the forms _I_, _my_, and _me_ are not altogether in an etymological one. In the case of _I_, _my_, _me_, the etymological sequence does _not_ tally (or tallies imperfectly) with the logical one. This is only another way of saying that between the words _I_ and _me_ there is no connexion in etymology. It is also only another way of saying, that, in the oblique cases, _I_, and, in the nominative case, _me_, are defective. Now the same is the case with _good_, _better_, _bad_, _worse_, &c. _Good_ and _bad_ are defective in the comparative and superlative degrees; _better_ and _worse_ are defective in the positive; whilst between _good_ and _better_, _bad_ and _worse_, there is a sequence in logic, but no sequence in etymology. To return, however, to the word _better_; no absolute positive degree is found in any of the allied languages, and in none of the allied languages is there found any comparative form of _good_. Its root occurs in the following adverbial forms: Moeso-Gothic, _bats_; Old High German, _pats_; Old Saxon and Anglo-Saxon, _bet_; Middle High German, _baz_; Middle Dutch, _bat_, _bet_.--Grimm, D. G. iii. 604. § 319. _Worse._--Moeso-Gothic, _vairsiza_; Old High German, _wirsiro_; Middle High German, _wirser_; Old Saxon, _wirso_; Anglo-Saxon, _vyrsa_; Old Norse, _vërri_; Danish, _værre_; and Swedish, _värre_. Such are the adjectival forms. The adverbial forms are Moeso-Gothic, _vairs_; Old High German, _virs_; Middle High German, _wirs_; Anglo-Saxon, _vyrs_: Old Norse, _vërr_; Danish, _værre_; Swedish, _värre_.--Grimm, D. G. iii. 606. Whether the present form in English be originally adjectival or adverbial is indifferent; since, as soon as the final _a_ of _vyrsa_ was omitted, the two words would be the same. The forms, however, _vairsiza_, _wirser_, _worse_, and _vërri_, make the word one of the most perplexing in the language. {268} If the form _worse_ be taken without respect to the rest, the view of the matter is simply that in the termination _s_ we have a remnant of the Moeso-Gothic forms, like _sutiza_, &c., in other words, the old comparative in _s_. _Wirser_ and _vairsiza_ traverse this view. They indicate the likelihood of the _s_ being no sign of the degree, but a part of the original word. Otherwise the _r_ in _wirser_, and the _z_ in _vairsiza_, denote an excess of expression. The analogies of _songstress_, _children_, and _betsërôro_ show that excess of expression frequently occurs. The analogy of _mâ_ and _bet_ show that _worse_ may possibly be a positive form. The word _vërri_ indicates the belief that the _s_ is no part of the root. Finally the euphonic processes of the Scandinavian languages tell us that, even had there been an _s_, it would, in all probability, have been ejected. These difficulties verify the statement that the word _worse_ is one of the most perplexing in the language. § 320. _Much_, _more_.--Here, although the words be unlike each other, there is a true etymological relation. Moeso-Gothic, _mikils_; Old High German, _mihhil_; Old Saxon, _mikil_; Anglo-Saxon, _mycel_; Old Norse, _mickill_; Scotch, _muckle_ and _mickle_ (all ending in _l_): Danish, _megen_, m.; _meget_, n.; Swedish, _mycken_, m.; _myckett_, n. (where no _l_ is found). Such is the adjectival form of the positive, rarely found in the Modern Gothic languages, being replaced in German by _gross_, in English by _great_, in Danish by _stor_. The adverbial forms are _miök_ and _miög_, Norse; _much_, English. It is remarkable that this last form is not found in Anglo-Saxon, being replaced by _sâre_, Germ, _sehr_.--Grimm, D. G. iii. 608. The adverbial and the Norse forms indicate that the _l_ is no part of the original word. Comparison with other Indo-European languages gives us the same circumstance: Sanskrit, _maha_; Latin, _mag-nus_; Greek, [Greek: megas] (_megas_). There is in Moeso-Gothic the comparative form _máiza_, and there is no objection to presuming a longer form, _magiza_; since in the Greek form [Greek: meizôn], compared with [Greek: megas], there {269} is a similar disappearance of the _g_. In the Old High German we find _mêro_, corresponding with _máiza_, Moeso-Gothic, and with _more_, English. _Mickle_ (replaced by _great_) expresses size; _much_, quantity; _many_, number. The words _more_ and _most_ apply equally to number and quantity. I am not prepared either to assert or to deny that _many_, in Anglo-Saxon _mænig_, is from the same root with _much_. Of the word _mâ_ notice has already been taken. Its later form, _moe_, occurs as late as Queen Elizabeth, with an adjectival as well as an adverbial sense. § 321. _Little_, _less_.--Like _much_ and _more_, these words are in an etymological relation to each other. Moeso-Gothic, _leitils_; Old High German, _luzil_; Old Saxon, _luttil_; Anglo-Saxon, _lytel_; Middle High German, _lützel_; Old Norse, _lîtill_. In these forms we have the letter _l_. Old High German Provincial, _luzíc_; Old Frisian, _litich_; Middle Dutch, _luttik_; Swedish, _liten_; Danish, _liden_.--Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 611. From these we find that the _l_ is either no part of the original word, or one that is easily got rid of. In Swedish and Danish there are the forms _lille_ and _liden_; whilst in the neuter form, _lidt_, the _d_ is unpronounced. Even the word _liden_ the Danes have a tendency to pronounce _leen_. My own notion is that these changes leave it possible for _less_ to be derived from the root of _little_. According to Grimm, the Anglo-Saxon _lässa_ is the Gothic _lasivôza_, the comparative of _lasivs_=_weak_.--Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 611. In Anglo-Saxon there was the adjectival form _læssa_, and the adverbial form _læs_. In either case we have the form _s_. § 322. _Near_, _nearer_.--Anglo-Saxon, _neah_; comparative, _nearre_, _near_, _nyr_; superlative, _nyhst_, _nehst_. Observe, in the Anglo-Saxon positive and superlative, the absence of the _r_. This shows that the English positive _near_ is the Anglo-Saxon comparative _nearre_, and that in the secondary comparative _nearer_, we have an excess of expression. It may be, however, that the _r_ in _near_ is a mere point of orthography, and that it is not pronounced. The fact that in the English language the words _father_ and _farther_ are, for the most part, pronounced alike, is the key to the forms _near_ and _nearer_. {270} § 323. _Farther._--Anglo-Saxon _feor_, _fyrre_, _fyrrest_. The _th_ seems euphonic, inserted by the same process that gives the [delta] in [Greek: andros]. _Further._--Confounded with _farther_, although in reality from a different word, _fore_. Old High German, _furdir_; New High German, _der vordere_; Anglo-Saxon, _fyrðre_. § 324. _Former._--A comparative formed from the superlative; _forma_ being such. Consequently, an instance of excess of expression, combined with irregularity. Languages have a comparative without a superlative degree; no _language has a superlative degree without having also a comparative one_. § 325. In Moeso-Gothic _spêdists_ means _last_, and _spêdiza_=_later_. Of the word _spêdists_ two views may be taken. According to one it is the positive degree with the addition of _st_; according to the other, it is the comparative degree with the addition only of _t_. Now, Grimm and others lay down as a rule, that the superlative is formed, not directly from the positive, but indirectly through the comparative. With the exception of _worse_ and _less_, all the English comparatives end in _r_: yet no superlative ends in _rt_, the form being, not _wise_, _wiser_, _wisert_, but _wise_, _wiser_, _wisest_. This fact, without invalidating the notion just laid down, gives additional importance to the comparative forms in _s_; since it is from these, before they have changed to _r_, that we must suppose the superlatives to have been derived. The theory being admitted, we can, by approximation, determine the comparative antiquity of the superlative degree. It was introduced into the Indo-European tongues after the establishment of the comparative, and before the change of _-s_ into _-r_. I give no opinion as to the truth of this theory. * * * * * {271} CHAPTER XI. THE SUPERLATIVE DEGREE. § 326. The history of the superlative form, accurately parallel with what has been stated of the comparative, is as follows:-- In Sanskrit there is, 1. the form _tama_, 2. the form _ishta_; the first being the commonest. The same is the case in the Zend. Each of these appears again in the Greek. The first, as [Greek: tat] (_tat_), in [Greek: leptotatos] (_leptotatos_); the second, as [Greek: ist] (_ist_), in [Greek: oiktistos] (_oiktistos_). For certain reasons, Grimm thinks that the tat stands for _tamt_, or _tant_. In Latin, words like _intimus_, _extimus_, _ultimus_, preserve _im_; whilst _venustus_, _vetustus_, and _robustus_, are considered as positives, preserving the superlative form _-st_. Just as in _inferus_ and _nuperus_, there was the ejection of the _t_ in the comparative _ter_, so in _infimus_, _nigerrimus_, &c., is there the ejection of the same letter in the superlative _tim_. This gives us, as signs of the superlative, 1. _tm_; 2. _st_; 3. _m_, _t_ being lost; 4. _t_, _m_ being lost. Of the first and last of these, there are amongst the _true_ superlatives, in English, no specimens. Of the third, there is a specimen in the Anglo-Saxon _se forma_, _the first_, from the root _fore_, as compared with the Latin _primus_, and the Lithuanic _pirmas_. The second, _st_ (_wise_, _wisest_), is the current termination. Of the English superlatives, the only ones that demand a detailed examination are those that are generally despatched without difficulty; _viz._, the words in _most_; such as _midmost_, _foremost_, &c. The current view is the one adopted by Rask in his Anglo-Saxon Grammar (§ 133), _viz._, that they are {272} compound words, formed from simple ones by the addition of the superlative term _most_. Grimm's view is opposed to this. In appreciating Grimm's view, we must bear in mind the phenomena of _excess of expression_; at the same time we must not depart from the current theory without duly considering the fact stated by Rask; which is, that we have in Icelandic the forms _nærmeir_, _fjærmeir_, &c., _nearer_, and _farther_, most unequivocally compounded of _near_ and _more_, and of _far_ and _more_. Let especial notice be taken of the Moeso-Gothic forms _fruma_, first; _aftuma_, last; and of the Anglo-Saxon forms _forma_, _aftema_, aftermost; _ufema_, upmost; _hindema_, hindmost; _midema_, midmost; _innema_, inmost; _ûtema_, outmost; _siðema_, last; _latema_, last; _niðema_, nethermost. These account for the _m_. Add to this, with an excess of expression, the letters _st_. This accounts for the whole form, as _mid-m-ost_, _in-m-ost_, &c. Such is Grimm's view. _Furthermost_, _innermost_, _hindermost_.--Here there is a true addition of _most_, and an excess of inflection, a superlative form being added to a word in the comparative degree. _Former._--Here, as stated before, a comparative sign is added to a word in the superlative degree. § 327. The combination _st_ occurs in other words besides those of the superlative degree; amongst others, in certain adverbs and prepositions, as _among_, _amongst_; _while_, _whilst_; _between_, _betwixt_.--Its power here has not been well explained. * * * * * {273} CHAPTER XII. OF THE CARDINAL NUMBERS. § 328. In one sense the cardinal numbers form no part of a work on etymology. They are single words, apparently simple, and, as such, appertaining to a dictionary rather than to a grammar. In another sense they are strictly etymological. They are the basis of the ordinals, which are formed from them by derivation. Furthermore, some of them either have, or are supposed to have, certain peculiarities of form which can be accounted for only by considering them derivatives, and that of a very peculiar kind. § 329. It is an ethnological fact, that the numerals are essentially the same throughout the whole Indo-European class of languages. The English _three_ is the Latin _tres_, the Sanskrit _tri_, &c. In the Indo-European languages the numerals agree, even when many common terms differ. And it is also an ethnological fact, that in a great many other groups of languages the numerals differ, even when many of the common terms agree. This is the case with many of the African and American dialects. Languages alike in the common terms for common objects differ in respect to the numerals. What is the reason for this inconsistency in the similarity or dissimilarity of the numerals as compared with the similarity or dissimilarity of other words? I believe that the following distinction leads the way to it:-- The word _two_=2, absolutely and unequivocally, and in a primary manner. The word _pair_ also=2; but not absolutely, not unequivocally, and only in a secondary manner. {274} Hence the distinction between absolute terms expressive of number, and secondary terms expressive of number. When languages separate from a common stock before the use of certain words is fixed as _absolute_, there is room for considerable latitude in the choice of numerals; _e.g._, whilst with one tribe the word _pair_=_two_, another tribe may use the word _couple_, a third _brace_, and so on. In this case dialects that agree in other respects may differ in respect to their numerals. When, on the other hand, languages separate from a common stock after the meaning of such a word as _two_ has been fixed absolutely, there is no room for latitude; and the numerals agree where the remainder of the language differs. 1. _One_=_unus_, Latin; [Greek: heis] ([Greek: hen]), Greek. 2. _Two_=_duo_, [Greek: duo]. 3. _Three_=_tres_, [Greek: treis]. 4. _Four_=_quatuor_, [Greek: tettara]. This is apparently problematical. Nevertheless, the assumed changes can be verified by the following forms:-- [alpha]. _Fidvor_, Moeso-Gothic. To be compared with _quatuor_. [beta]. [Greek: Pisures], Æolic. Illustrates the change between [tau]- and [pi]- (allied to _f-_), within the pale of the classical languages. 5. _Five_=_quinque_, [Greek: pente]. Verified by the following forms:-- [alpha]. [Greek: Pempe], Æolic Greek. [beta]. _Pump_, Welsh. These account for the change from the _n_ + _t_ in [Greek: pente] to _m_ + _p_. [gamma]. _Fimf_, Moeso-Gothic; _fünf_, Modern High German. [delta]. _Fem_, Norse. The change from the [pi]- of [Greek: pente] to the _qu-_ of _quinque_ is the change so often quoted by Latin and Celtic scholars between _p_ and _k_: [Greek: hippos], [Greek: hikkos], _equus_. 6. _Six_=[Greek: hex], _sex_. 7. _Seven_=[Greek: hepta], _septem_. This form is difficult. The Moeso-Gothic form is _sibun_, without a _-t-_; the Norse, _syv_, without either _-t-_ or _-n_ (=_-m_). A doubtful explanation of the form _seven_, &c., will be found in the following chapter. {275} 8. _Eight_=[Greek: oktô], _octo_. 9. _Nine_=[Greek: ennea], _novem_. The Moeso-Gothic form is _nigun_, the Icelandic _niu_. In the Latin _novem_ the _v_=the _g_ of _nigun_. In the English and Greek it is wanting. The explanation of the _-n_ and _-m_ will be found in the following chapter. 10. _Ten_=[Greek: deka], _decem_. The Moeso-Gothic form is _tihun_; wherein the _h_=the _c_ of _decem_ and the [kappa] of [Greek: deka]. The Icelandic form is _tiu_, and, like [Greek: deka], is without the _-n_ (or _-m_). The hypothesis as to the _-m_ or _-n_ will be given in the next chapter. 11. _Eleven._ By no means the equivalent to _undecim_=1 + 10. [alpha]. The _e_ is _ein_=_one_. _Ein_lif, _ein_-lef, _ei_lef, _ei_lf, _e_lf, Old High German; _and_lova, Old Frisian; _end_-leofan, _end_lufan, Anglo-Saxon. This is universally admitted. [beta]. The _-lev-_ is a modification of the root _laib-an_=_manere_=_to stay_=_to be over_. Hence _eleven_=_one over_ (_ten_). This is _not_ universally admitted. [gamma]. The _-n_ has not been well accounted for. It is peculiar to the Low Germanic dialects.--Deutsche Grammatik, ii. 946. 12. _Twelve_=the root _two_ + the root _laib_=_two over_ (_ten_). _Tvalif_, Moeso-Gothic; _zuelif_, Old High German; _toll_, Swedish. The same doubts that apply to the doctrine of the _-lv-_ in _eleven_ representing the root _-laib_, apply to the _-lv-_ in _twelve_.--Deutsche Grammatik, ii. 946. 13. _Thirteen_=3 + 10. So on till twenty. 30. _Thirty_=3 × 10, or three decads. This difference in the decimal power of the syllables _-teen_ and _-ty_ is illustrated by-- [alpha]. The Moeso-Gothic.--Here we find the root _tig-_ used as a true substantive, equivalent in form as well as power to the Greek [Greek: dek-as]. _Tváim tigum þusandjom_=_duobus decadibus myriadum_. (Luke xiv. 31.) _Jêrê þrijê tigivé_=_annorum duarum decadum._ (Luke iii. 23.) _þrins tiguns silubrinaize_=_tres decadas argenteorum._ (Matthew xxvii. 3, 9.)--Deutsche Grammatik, ii. 948. {276} [beta]. The Icelandic.--"The numbers from 20 to 100 are formed by means of the numeral substantive, _tigr_, declined like _viðr_, and naturally taking the word which it numerically determines in the genitive case. _Nom._ Fjórir tigir manna = _four tens of men_. _Gen._ Fjögurra tiga manna = _of four tens of men_. _Dat._ Fjórum tigum manna = _to four tens of men_. _Acc._ Fjóra tiga manna = _four tens of men_. "This is the form of the inflection in the best and oldest MSS. A little later was adopted the _indeclinable_ form _tigi_, which was used adjectivally."--Det Oldnorske Sprogs Grammatik, af P. A. Munch, og C. B. Unger, Christiania, 1847. § 330. Generally speaking, the greater part of the numerals are undeclined, even in inflected languages. As far as _number_ goes, this is necessary. _One_ is naturally and exclusively singular. _Two_ is naturally dual. The rest are naturally and exclusively plural. As to the inflection of gender and cases, there is no reason why all the numerals should not be as fully inflected as the Latin _unus_, _una_, _unum_, _unius_. * * * * * {277} CHAPTER XIII. ON THE ORDINAL NUMBERS. § 331. The remarks at the close of the last chapter but one indicated the fact that superlative forms were found beyond the superlative degree. The present chapter shows that they are certainly found in some, and possibly in all of the ordinal numbers. _First._--In Moeso-Gothic, _fruma_, _frumist_; in Anglo-Saxon, _forma_, _fyrmest_; in Old High German, _vurist_; in Old Norse, _fyrst_; in New High German, _erst_. In all these words, whether in _m_, in _mst_, or in _st_, there is a superlative form. The same is the case with _pratamas_, Sanskrit; _fratemas_, Zend; [Greek: prôtos], Greek; _primus_, Latin; _primas_, Lithuanic. Considering that, _compared with the other ordinals_, the ordinal of _one_ is a sort of superlative, this is not at all surprising. Between the words _one_ and _first_ there is no etymological relation. This is the case in most languages. _Unus_, _primus_, [Greek: heis], [Greek: prôtos], &c. § 332. _Second._--Between this word and its cardinal, _two_, there is no etymological connexion. This is the case in many, if not in most, languages. In Latin the cardinal is _duo_, and the ordinal _secundus_, a gerund of _sequor_, and meaning _the following_. In Anglo-Saxon the form was _se oðer_=_the other_. In the present German, the ordinal is _zweite_, a word etymologically connected with the cardinal _zwei_=_two_. Old High German, _andar_; Old Saxon, _othar_; Old Frisian, _other_; Middle Dutch, _ander_. In all these words we have the comparative form _-ter_; and considering that, _compared with the word first_, the word _second_ is a sort of {278} comparative, there is nothing in the circumstance to surprise us. The Greek forms [Greek: deuteros] and [Greek: heteros], the Latin _alter_, and the Lithuanic _antras_, are the same. § 333. With the third ordinal number begin difficulties: 1. in respect to their form; 2. in respect to the idea conveyed by them. 1. Comparing _third_, _fourth_, _fifth_, &c., with _three_, _four_, and _five_, the formation of the ordinal from the cardinal form may seem simply to consist in the addition of _d_ or _th_. Such, however, is far from being the case. 2. Arguing from the nature of the first two ordinals, namely, the words _first_ and _second_, of which one has been called a superlative and the other a comparative, it may seem a simple matter to associate, in regard to the rest, the idea of ordinalism with the idea of comparison. A plain distinction, however, will show that the case of the first two ordinals is peculiar. _First_ is a superlative, not as compared with its cardinal, _one_, but as compared with the other numerals. _Second_, or _other_, is a comparative, not as compared with its cardinal, _two_, but as compared with the numeral _one_. Now it is very evident, that, if the other ordinals be either comparatives or superlatives, they must be so, not as compared with one another, but as compared with their respective cardinals. _Sixth_, to be anything like a superlative, must be so when compared with _six_. § 334. Now there are, in etymology, two ways of determining the affinity of ideas. The first is the metaphysical, the second the empirical, method. _This is better than that_, is a sentence which the pure metaphysician may deal with. He may first determine that there is in it the idea of comparison; and next that the comparison is the comparison between _two_ objects, and no more than two. This idea he may compare with others. He may determine, that, with a sentence like _this is one and that is the other_, it has something in common; since both assert something concerning _one out of two objects_. Upon this connexion in sense he is at liberty to reason. He is at liberty to conceive that in certain languages words expressive {279} of allied ideas may also be allied in form. Whether such be really the case, he leaves to etymologists to decide. The pure etymologist proceeds differently. He assumes the connexion in meaning from the connexion in form. All that he at first observes is, that words like _other_ and _better_ have one and the same termination. For this identity he attempts to give a reason, and finds that he can best account for it by presuming some affinity in sense. Whether there be such an affinity, he leaves to the metaphysician to decide. This is the empirical method. At times the two methods coincide, and ideas evidently allied are expressed by forms evidently allied. At times the connexion between the ideas is evident; but the connexion between the forms obscure: and _vice versâ_. Oftener, however, the case is as it is with the subjects of the present chapter. Are the ideas of ordinalism in number, and of superlativeness in degree, allied? The metaphysical view, taken by itself, gives us but unsatisfactory evidence; whilst the empirical view, taken by itself, does the same. The two views, however, taken together, give us evidence of the kind called cumulative, which is weak or strong according to its degree. Compared with _three_, _four_, &c., all the ordinals are formed by the addition of _th_, or _t_; and _th_, _ð_, _t_, or _d_, is the ordinal sign, not only in English, but in the other Gothic languages. But, as stated before, this is not the whole of the question. The letter _t_ is found, with a similar power, 1. In Latin, as in _tertius_, _quartus_, _quintus_, _sextus_; 2. Greek, as in [Greek: tritos] (_tritos_), [Greek: tetartos] (_tetartos_), [Greek: pemptos] (_pemptos_), [Greek: hektos] (_hectos_), [Greek: ennatos] (_ennatos_), [Greek: dekatos] (_dekatos_); 3. Sanskrit, as in _tritiyas_, _['c]atu['r]tas_, _shasht´as_=_third_, _fourth_, _sixth_; 4. In Zend, as in _thrityas_=_the third_, _haptathas_=_the seventh_; 5. In Lithuanic, as _ketwirtas_=_fourth_, _penktas_=_fifth_, _szesztas_=_sixth_; 6. In Old Slavonic, as in _cétvertyi_=_fourth_, _pjatyi_=_fifth_, _shestyi_=_sixth_, _devjatyi_=_ninth_, _desjatyi_=_tenth_. Speaking more generally, it is found, with a similar force, throughout the Indo-European stock. The following forms indicate a fresh train of reasoning. {280} The Greek [Greek: hepta] (_hepta_), and Icelandic _sjau_, have been compared with the Latin _septem_ and the Anglo-Saxon _seofon_. In the Greek and Icelandic there is the absence, in the Latin and Anglo-Saxon the presence, of a final liquid (_m_ or _n_). Again, the Greek forms [Greek: ennea] (_ennea_), and the Icelandic _níu_=_nine_, have been compared with the Latin _novem_ and the Gothic _nigun_. Thirdly, the Greek [Greek: deka] (_deka_), and the Icelandic _tíu_, have been compared with the Latin _decem_ and the Gothic _tihun_=_ten_. These three examples indicate the same circumstance; _viz._ that the _m_ or _n_, in _seven_, _nine_, and _ten_, is no part of the original word. § 335. The following hypotheses account for these phenomena; _viz._ that the termination of the ordinals is the superlative termination _-tam_: that in some words, like the Latin _septimus,_ the whole form is preserved; that in some, as in [Greek: tetartos]=_fourth_, the _t_ only remains; and that in others, as in _decimus_, the _m_ alone remains. Finally, that in _seven_, _nine_, and _ten_, the final liquid, although now belonging to the cardinal, was once the characteristic of the ordinal number. For a fuller exhibition of these views, see Grimm, Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 640. * * * * * {281} CHAPTER XIV. THE ARTICLES. § 336. In the generality of grammars the definite article _the_, and the indefinite article _an_, are the very first parts of speech that are considered. This is exceptionable. So far are they from being essential to language, that, in many dialects, they are wholly wanting. In Greek there is no indefinite, in Latin there is neither an indefinite nor a definite article. In the former language they say [Greek: anêr tis]=_a certain man_: in the Latin the words _filius patris_ mean equally _the son of the father_, _a son of a father_, _a son of the father_, or _the son of a father_. In Moeso-Gothic and in Old Norse, there is an equal absence of the indefinite article; or, at any rate, if there be one at all, it is a different word from what occurs in English. In these the Greek [Greek: tis] is expressed by the Gothic root _sum_. Now, as it is very evident that, as far as the sense is concerned, the words _some man_, _a certain man_, and _a man_, are, there or thereabouts, the same, an exception may be taken to the statement that in Greek and Moeso-Gothic there is no indefinite article. It may, in the present state of the argument, be fairly said that the words _sum_ and [Greek: tis] are pronouns with a certain sense, and that _a_ and _an_ are no more; consequently, that in Greek the indefinite article is [Greek: tis], in Moeso-Gothic _sum_, and in English _a_ or _an_, A distinction, however, may be made. In the expression [Greek: anêr tis] (_anær tis_)=_a certain man_, or _a man_, and in the expression _sum mann_, the words _sum_ and [Greek: tis] preserve their natural and original meaning; whilst in _a man_ and _an ox_ the words _a_ and _an_ are used in a secondary sense. These words, as is currently known, are one and the same, the _n_, in the form _a_, being ejected through a euphonic process. They are, moreover, the same words with the numeral _one_; {282} Anglo-Saxon, _án_; Scotch, _ane_. Now, between the words _a man_ and _one man_, there is a difference in meaning; the first expression being the most indefinite. Hence comes the difference between the English and the Moeso-Gothic expressions. In the one the word _sum_ has a natural, in the other the word _an_ has a secondary power. The same reasoning applies to the word _the_. Compared with _a man_, the words _the man_ are very definite. Compared, however, with the words _that man_, they are the contrary. Now, just as _an_ and _a_ have arisen out of the numeral _one_, so has _the_ arisen out of the demonstrative pronoun _þæt_, or at least from some common root. It will be remembered that in Anglo-Saxon there was a form _þe_, undeclined, and common to all the cases of all the numbers. In no language in its oldest stage is there ever a word giving, in its primary sense, the ideas of _a_ and _the_. As tongues become modern, some noun with a _similar_ sense is used to express them. In the course of time a change of form takes place, corresponding to the change of meaning; _e. g._, _one_ becomes _an_, and afterwards a. Then it is that articles become looked upon as separate parts of speech, and are dealt with accordingly. No invalidation of this statement is drawn from the Greek language. Although the first page of the etymology gives us [Greek: ho], [Greek: hê], [Greek: to] (_ho_, _hæ_, _to_), as the definite articles, the corresponding page in the syntax informs us, that, in the oldest stage of the language, [Greek: ho] (_ho_)=_the_, had the power of [Greek: houtos] (_howtos_)=_this_. The origin of the articles seems uniform. In German _ein_, in Danish _en_, stand to _one_ in the same relation that _an_ does. The French _un_, Italian and Spanish _uno_, are similarly related to _unus_=_one_. And as, in English _the_, in German _der_, in Danish _den_, come from the demonstrative pronouns, so in the classical languages are the French _le_, the Italian _il_ and _lo_, and the Spanish _el_, derived from the Latin demonstrative, _ille_. In his Outlines of Logic, the present writer has given reasons for considering the word _no_ (as in _no man_) an article. That _the_, in expressions like _all the more_, _all the better_, &c., is no article, has already been shown. * * * * * {283} CHAPTER XV. DIMINUTIVES, AUGMENTATIVES, AND PATRONYMICS. § 337. Compared with the words _lamb_, _man_, and _hill_, the words _lambkin_, _mannikin_, and _hillock_ convey the idea of comparative smallness or diminution. Now, as the word _hillock_=_a little hill_ differs in form from _hill_ we have in English a series of diminutive forms, or diminutives. The English diminutives may be arranged according to a variety of principles. Amongst others: 1. _According to their form._--The word _hillock_ is derived from _hill_, by the addition of a syllable. The word _tip_ is derived from _top_, by the change of a vowel. 2. _According to their meaning._--In the word _hillock_ there is the simple expression of comparative smallness in size. In the word _doggie_ for _dog_, _lassie_ for _lass_, the addition of the _-ie_ makes the word not so much a diminutive as a term of tenderness or endearment. The idea of smallness, accompanied, perhaps, with that of neatness, generally carries with it the idea of approbation. The word _clean_ in English, means, in German, _little_=_kleine_. The feeling of protection which is extended to small objects engenders the notion of endearment. In Middle High German we have _vaterlìn_=_little father_, _mütterlìn_=_little mother_. In Middle High German there is the diminutive _sunnelìn_; and the French _soleil_ is from the Latin form _solillus_. In Slavonic the word _slunze_=_sun_ is a diminutive form. The Greek word [Greek: meiôsis] (_meiôsis_) means diminution; the Greek word [Greek: hupokorisma] means an endearing expression. Hence we get names for the two kinds of diminutives; _viz._, the term _meiotic_ for the true diminutives, and the term _hypocoristic_ for the diminutives of endearment.--Grimm, Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 664. {284} 3. _According to their historical origin._--The syllable _-ock_, as in _hillock_, is of Anglo-Saxon and Gothic origin. The _-et_, as in _lancet_, is of French and classical origin. 4. _According as they affect proper names or common names._--_Hawkin_, _Perkin_, _Wilkin_, &c. In these words we have the diminutives of _Hal_, _Peter_, _Will_, &c. § 338. The diminutive forms of Gothic origin are the first to be considered. 1. _Those formed by a change of vowel._--_Tip_, from _top_. The relation of the feminine to the masculine is allied to the ideas conveyed by many diminutives. Hence in the word _kit_, from _cat_, it is doubtful whether there be meant a female cat or a little cat. _Kid_ is a diminutive form of _goat_. 2. _Those formed by the addition of a letter or letters._--Of the diminutive characteristics thus formed the commonest, beginning from the simpler forms, are _Ie._--Almost peculiar to the Lowland Scotch; as _daddie_, _lassie_, _minnie_, _wifie_, _mousie_, _doggie_, _boatie_, &c.--Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 686. _Ock._--_Bullock_, _hillock_. _Kin._--_Lambkin_, _mannikin_, _ladikin_, &c. As is seen above, common in proper names. _En._--_Chicken_, _kitten_, from _cock_, _cat_. The notion of diminution, if indeed that be the notion originally conveyed, lies not in the _-en_, but in the vowel. In the word _chicken_, from _cock_, observe the effect of the small vowel on the c. The consideration of words like _duckling_ and _gosling_ is purposely deferred. The chief diminutive of classical origin is-- _Et_, as in _trumpet_, _lancet_, _pocket_; the word _pock_, as in _meal-pock_=_a meal-bag_, being found in the Scottish. From the French _-ette_, as in _caissette_, _poulette_. The forms _-rel_, as in _cockerel_, _pickerel_, and _-let_, as in _streamlet_, require a separate consideration. The first has nothing to do with the Italian forms _acquerella_ and _coserella_--themselves, perhaps, of Gothic, rather than of classical origin. In the Old High-German there are a multitude of diminutive forms in _-l_; as _ouga_=_an eye_, _ougili_=_a little eye_, _lied_=_a song_, _liedel_=_a little song_. "In Austria and Bavaria {285} are the forms _mannel_, _weibel_, _hundel_, &c., or _mannl_, _weibl_, _hundl_, &c. In some districts there is an _r_ before the _l_, as _madarl_=_a little maid_, _muadarl_=_a little mother_, _briadarl_=_a little brother_, &c. This is occasioned by the false analogy of the diminutives of the derived form in _r_."--Deutsche Grammatik, iii. p. 674. This indicates the nature of words like _cockerel_. Even in English the diminutive power of _-el_ can be traced in the following words:-- _Soare_=a deer in its third year. _Sor-rel_=a deer in its second year.--See _Love's Labour Lost_, with the note. _Tiercel_=a small sort of hawk, one-third less (_tierce_) than the common kind. _Kantle_=_small corner_, from _cant_=_a corner_.--_Henry IV._ _Hurdle_; in Dutch _horde_; German, _hurde_. _Hording_, without the _-l_, is used in an allied sense by builders in English. In the words in point we must assume an earlier form, _cocker_ and _piker_, to which the diminutive form _-el_ is affixed. If this be true, we have, in English, representatives of the diminutive form _-l_, so common in the High Germanic dialects. _Wolfer_=_a wolf_, _hunker_=_a haunch_, _flitcher_=_a flitch_, _teamer_=_a team_, _fresher_=_a frog_,--these are north country forms of the present English.[43] The termination _-let_, as in _streamlet_, seems to be double, and to consist of the Gothic diminutive _-l_, and the French diminutive _-t_. § 339. _Augmentatives._--Compared with _capello_=_a hat_, the Italian word _capellone_=_a great hat_ is an augmentative. The augmentative forms, pre-eminently common in the Italian language, often carry with them a depreciating sense. The termination _-rd_ (in Old High German, _-hart_), as in _drunkard_, _braggart_, _laggard_, _stinkard_, carries with it this idea of depreciation. In _buzzard_, and _reynard_, the name of the _fox_, it is simply augmentative. In _wizard_, from _witch_, it has the power of a masculine form. The termination _-rd_, taken from the Gothic, appears in {286} the modern languages of classical origin: French, _vieillard_; Spanish, _codardo_. From these we get at, second-hand, the word _coward_.--Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 707. The word _sweetheart_ is a derived word of this sort, rather than a compound word; since in Old High German and Middle High German, we have the corresponding form _liebhart_. Now the form for _heart_ is in German not _hart_, but _herz_. Words like _braggadocio_, _trombone_, _balloon_, being words of foreign origin, prove nothing as to the further existence of augmentative forms in English. § 340. _Patronymics._--In the Greek language the notion of lineal descent, in other words, the relation of the son to the father, is expressed by a particular termination; as, [Greek: Pêleus] (_Peleus_), [Greek: Pêleidês] (_Peleidæs_), the son of Peleus. It is very evident that this mode of expression is very different from either the English form _Johnson_, or Gaelic _MacDonald_. In these last-named words, the words _son_ and _Mac_ mean the same thing; so that _Johnson_ and _MacDonald_ are not derived, but compound words. This Greek way of expressing descent is peculiar, and the words wherein it occurs are classed together by the peculiar name _patronymic_, from _patær_=_a father_, and _onoma_=_a name_. Is there anything in English corresponding to the Greek patronymics? It was for the sake of this question that the consideration of the termination _-ling_, as in _duckling_, &c., was deferred. The termination _-ling_, like the terminations _-rel_ and _-let_, is compound. Its simpler form is _-ing_. This, from being affixed to the derived forms in _-l_, has become _-ling_. In Anglo-Saxon the termination _-ing_ is as truly patronymic as [Greek: -idês] is in Greek. In the Bible-translation the son of Elisha is called _Elising_. In the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle occur such genealogies as the following:--_Ida wæs Eopping, Eoppa Êsing, Êsa Inging, Inga Angenviting, Angenvit Alocing, Aloc Beonocing, Beonoc Branding, Brand Bældæging, Bældæg Vódening, Vóden Friðowulfing, Friðowulf Finning, Finn Godwulfing, Godwulf Geating_=Ida was the son of Eoppa, Eoppa of Esing, Esing of Inga, Inga of Angenvit, {287} Angenvit of Aloc, Aloc of Beonoc, Beonoc of Brand, Brand of Bældag, Bældag of Woden, Woden of Friðowulf, Friðowulf of Finn, Finn of Godwulf, Godwulf of Geat.--In Greek, [Greek: Ida ên Eoppeidês, Eoppa Êseidês, Êsa Ingeidês, Inga Angenphiteidês], &c. In the plural number these forms denote the _race of_; as _Scyldingas_=_the Scyldings_, or the race of _Scyld_, &c. Edgar Atheling means Edgar of the race of the nobles. The primary of _-ing_ and _-l-ing_ is descent or relationship; from these comes the idea of youth and endearment, and thence the true diminutive idea. In _darling_, _stripling_, _duckling_, _gosling_ (pr. _gesling_), _kitling_ (pr. for _kitten_), _nestling_, _yearling_, _chickling_, _fatling_, _fledgling_, _firstling_, the idea of descent still remains. In _hireling_ the idea of diminution is accompanied with the idea of contempt. In _changeling_ we have a Gothic termination and a classical root. See, for the full exposition of this view, Deutsche Grammatik, ii. 349-364, iii. 682. In the opening speech of Marlow's Jew of Malta we have the following lines:-- Here have I pursed their paltry _silverlings_. Fie! what a trouble 'tis to count this trash! Well fare the Arabs, that so richly pay For what they traffick in with wedge of gold. The word _silverlings_ has troubled the commentators. _Burst their silverbins_ has been proposed as the true reading. The word, however, is a true diminutive, as _siluparlinc_, _silarbarling_=_a small silver coin_, Old High German. A good chapter on the English diminutives may be seen in the Cambridge Philological Museum, vol. i. p. 679. * * * * * {288} CHAPTER XVI. GENTILE FORMS. § 341. These have been illustrated by Mr. Guest in the Transactions of the Philological Society. The only word in the present English that requires explanation is the name of the principality _Wales_. 1. The form is plural, however much the meaning may be singular; so that the _-s_ in _Wale-s_ is the _-s_ in _fathers_, &c. 2. It has grown out of the Anglo-Saxon from _wealhas_=_foreigners_, the name by which the Welsh are spoken of by the Germans of England, just as the Italians are called Welsh by the Germans of Germany: _wal-nuts_=_foreign nuts_. 3. The transfer of the name of the _people_ inhabiting a certain country to the _country_ so inhabited, was one of the commonest processes in both Anglo-Saxon and Old English.--Guest, Phil. Trans. * * * * * {289} CHAPTER XVII. ON THE CONNEXION BETWEEN THE NOUN AND VERB, AND ON THE INFLECTION OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. § 342. In order to understand clearly the use of the so-called infinitive mood in English, it is necessary to bear in mind two facts, one a matter of logic, the other a matter of history. In the way of logic, the difference between a noun and a verb is less marked than it is in the way of grammar. Grammatically, the contrast is considerable. The inflection of nouns expresses the ideas of sex as denoted by gender, and of relation in place as denoted by cases. That of verbs rarely expresses sex, and never position. On the other hand, however, it expresses what no noun ever does or can express; _e.g._, the relation of the agent to the individual speaking, by means of person; the time in which acts take place, by means of tense; and the conditions of their occurrence, by means of mood. The idea of number is the only one that, on a superficial view, is common to these two important parts of speech. Logically, the contrast is inconsiderable. A noun denotes an object of which either the senses or the intellect can take cognizance, and a verb does no more. _To move_=_motion_, _to rise_=_rising_, _to err_=_error_, _to forgive_=_forgiveness_. The only difference between the two parts of speech is this, that, whereas a noun may express any object whatever, verbs can only express those objects which consist in an action. And it is this superadded idea of action that superadds to the verb the phenomena of tense, mood, person, and voice; in other words, the phenomena of conjugation. § 343. A noun is a word capable of declension only. A {290} verb is a word capable of declension and conjugation also. The fact of verbs being declined as well as conjugated must be remembered. The participle has the declension of a noun adjective, the infinite mood the declension of a noun substantive. Gerunds and supines, in languages where they occur, are only names for certain cases of the verb. Although in all languages the verb is equally capable of declension, it is not equally declined. The Greeks, for instance, used forms like [Greek: to phthonein]=_invidia_. [Greek: tou phthonein]=_invidiæ_. [Greek: en tôi phthonein]=_in invidia_. oftener than the Romans. The fact of there being an article in Greek may account for this. § 344. Returning, however, to the illustration of the substantival character of the so-called infinitive mood, we may easily see-- [alpha]. The name of any action may be used without any mention of the agent. Thus, we may speak of the simple fact of _walking_ or _moving_, independently of any specification of the _walker_ or _mover_. [beta]. That, when actions are spoken of thus indefinitely, the idea of either person or number has no place in the conception; from which it follows that the so-called infinitive mood must be at once impersonal, and without the distinction of singular, dual, and plural. [gamma]. That, nevertheless, the ideas of time and relation in space _have_ place in the conception. We can think of a person being _in the act of striking a blow_, of his _having been in the act of striking a blow_, or of his _being about to be in the act of striking a blow_. We can also think of a person being _in the act of doing a good action_, or of his being _from the act of doing a good action_. This has been written to show that verbs of languages in general are as naturally declinable as nouns. What follows will show that the verbs of the Gothic languages in particular were actually declined, and that fragments of this declension remain in the present English. § 345. The inflection of the verb in its impersonal (or {291} infinitive form) consisted, in full, of three cases, a nominative (or accusative), a dative, and a genitive. The genitive is put last, because its occurrence in the Gothic language is the least constant. In Anglo-Saxon the nominative (or accusative) ended in -an: Lufian =_to love_=_amare_. Bærnan =_to burn_=_urere_. Syllan =_to give_=_dare_. Be it observed, that the _-en_ in words like _strengthen_, &c., is a derivational termination, and by no means a representation of the Anglo-Saxon infinitive inflection. The Anglo-Saxon infinitive inflection is lost in the present English, except in certain provincial dialects. In Anglo-Saxon the dative of the infinitive verb ended in _-nne_, and was (as a matter of syntax) generally, perhaps always, preceded by the preposition _to_. To lufienne =_ad amandum_. To bærnenne =_ad urendum_. To syllanne =_ad dandum_. The genitive, ending in _-es_, occurs only in Old High German and Modern High German, _plâsannes_, _weinnenes_. § 346. With these preliminaries we can take a clear view of the English infinitives. They exist under two forms, and are referable to a double origin. 1. The independent form.--This is used after the words _can_, _may_, _shall_, _will_, and some others, as, _I can speak_, _I may go_, _I shall come_, _I will move_. Here there is no preposition, and the origin of the infinitive is from the form in _-an_. 2. The prepositional form.--This is used after the majority of English verbs, as _I wish to speak_, _I mean to go_, _I intend to come_, _I determine to move_. Here we have the preposition _to_ and the origin of the infinitive is from the form in _-nne_. Expressions like _to err_=_error_, _to forgive_=_forgiveness_, in lines like To err is human, to forgive divine, are very remarkable. They exhibit the phenomena of a nominative case having grown not only out of a dative but out of a dative _plus_ its governing preposition. * * * * * {292} CHAPTER XVIII. ON DERIVED VERBS. § 347. Of number, person, mood, tense, and conjugation, special notice is taken in their respective chapters. Of the divisions of verbs into active and passive, transitive and intransitive, unless there be an accompanying change of form, etymology takes no cognisance. The forces of the auxiliary verbs, and the tenses to which they are equivalent, are also points of syntax rather than of etymology. Four classes, however, of derived verbs, as opposed to simple, especially deserve notice. I. Those ending in _-en_; as _soften_, _whiten_, _strengthen_, &c. Here it has been already remarked that the _-en_ is a derivational affix; and not a representative of the Anglo-Saxon infinitive form _-an_ (as _lufian_, _bærnan_=_to love_, _to burn_), and the Old English _-en_ (as _tellen_, _loven_). II. Transitive verbs derived from intransitives by a change of the vowel of the root. _Primitive Intransitive Form._ _Derived Transitive Form._ Rise Raise. Lie Lay. Sit Set. Fall Fell. Drink Drench. In Anglo-Saxon these words were more numerous than they are at present. The following list is taken from the Cambridge Philological Museum, ii. 386. _Intrans. Infinitive._ _Trans. Infinitive._ Yrnan, _to run_ Ærnan, _to make to run_. Byrnan, _to burn_ Bærnan, _to make to burn_. {293} Drincan, _to drink_ Drencan, _to drench_. Sincan, _to sink_ Sencan, _to make to sink_. Liegan, _to lie_ Lecgan, _to lay_. Sittan, _to sit_ Settan, _to set_. Drífan, _to drift_ Dræfan, _to drive_. Fëallan, _to fall_ Fyllan, _to fell_. Wëallan, _to boil_ Wyllan, _to make to boil_. Flëogan, _to fly_ A-fligan, _to put to flight_. Bëogan, _to bow_ Bígan, _to bend_. Faran, _to go_ Feran, _to convey_. Wacan, _to wake_ Weccan, _to awaken_. All these intransitives form their præterite by a change of vowel, as _sink_, _sank_; all the transitives by the addition of _d_ or _t_, as _fell_, _fell'd_. III. Verbs derived from nouns by a change of accent; as _to survéy_, from a _súrvey_. For a fuller list see the Chapter on Derivation. Walker attributes the change of accent to the influence of the participial termination _-ing_. All words thus affected are of foreign origin. IV. Verbs formed from nouns by changing a final sharp consonant into its corresponding flat one; as, _The_ use _to_ use, _pronounced_ uze. _The_ breath _to_ breathe -- breadhe. _The_ cloth _to_ clothe -- clodhe. * * * * * {294} CHAPTER XIX. ON THE PERSONS. § 348. Compared with the Latin, the Greek, the Moeso-Gothic, and almost all the ancient languages, there is, in English, in respect to the persons of the verbs, but a very slight amount of inflection. This may be seen by comparing the English word _call_ with the Latin _voco._ _Sing._ _Plur._ _Sing._ _Plur._ 1. Voc-_o_. Voc-_amus_. Call. Call. 2. Voc-as. Voc-_atis_. Call-est. Call. 3. Voc-at. Voc-_ant_. [44]Call-eth. Call. Here the Latins have different forms for each different person, whilst the English have forms for two only; and even of these one (_callest_) is becoming obsolete. With the forms of _voco_ marked in italics there is, in the current English, nothing correspondent. In the word _am_, as compared with _are_ and _art_, we find a sign of the first person singular. In the old forms _tellen_, _weren_, &c., we have a sign of the plural number. In the Modern English, the Old English, and the Anglo-Saxon, the peculiarities of our personal inflections are very great. This may be seen from the following tables of comparison:-- _Present Tense, Indicative Mood._ _Moeso-Gothic._ _1st person._ _2nd person._ _3rd person._ _Singular._ Sôkja. Sôkeis. Sôkeiþ--_seek._ _Plural._ Sôkjam. Sôkeiþ. Sôkjand. {295} _Old High German._ _Singular._ Prennu. Prennîs. Prennit--_burn._ _Plural._ Prennames. Prennat. Prennant. _Icelandic._ _Singular._ Kalla. Kallar. Kallar--_call._ _Plural._ Köllum. Kalliþ. Kalla. _Old Saxon._ _Singular._ Sôkju. Sôkîs. Sôkîd--_seek._ _Plural._ Sôkjad. Sôkjad. Sôkjad. _Anglo-Saxon._ _Singular._ Lufige. Lufast. Lufað. _Plural._ Lufiað. Lufiað. Lufiað. _Old English._ _Singular._ Love. Lovest. Loveth. _Plural._ Loven. Loven. Loven. _Modern English._ _Singular._ Love. Lovest. Loveth (or Loves). _Plural._ Love. Love. Love. Herein remark; 1. the Anglo-Saxon addition of _t_ in the second person singular; 2. the identity in form of the three persons of the plural number; 3. the change of _-að_ into _-en_ in the Old English plural; 4. the total absence of plural forms in the Modern English; 5. the change of the _th_ into _s_, in _loveth_ and _loves_. These are points bearing especially upon the history of the English persons. The following points indicate a more general question. 1. The full form _prennames_ in the newer Old High German, as compared with _sókjam_ in the _old_ Moeso-Gothic. 2. The appearance of the _r_ in Icelandic. 3. The difference between the Old Saxon and the Anglo-Saxon in the second person singular; the final _t_ being absent in Old Saxon. 4. The respective powers of M in the first, of S in the second, and of T (or its allied sounds) in the third persons singular; {296} of MES in the first, of T (or its allied sounds) in the second, and of ND in the third persons plural. In this we have a regular expression of the persons by means of regular signs; and this the history of the personal terminations verifies. § 349. _First person singular._--That the original sign of this person was M we learn from the following forms: _dadâmi_, Sanskrit; _dadhâmi_, Zend; _[Greek: didômi]_, Greek; _dumi_, Lithuanic; _damy_, Slavonic=_I give_. The Latin language preserves it in _sum_ and _inquam_, and in the first persons of tenses, like _legam_, _legebam_, _legerem_, _legissem_. The form _im_=_I am_ occurs in Moeso-Gothic; and the words _stom_=_I stand_, _lirnem_=_I shall learn_, in Old High German. The word _am_ is a fragmentary specimen of it in our own language. _Plural._--The original sign MES. _Dadmas_, Sanskrit; _[Greek: didomes]_, afterwards _[Greek: didomen]_, Greek; _damus_, Latin=_we give_. The current form in Old High German. These forms in M may or may not be derived from the pronoun of the first person; _mâ_, Sanskrit; _me_, Latin, English, &c. _Second person singular._--The original sign S. _Dadasi_, Sanskrit; [Greek: didôs], Greek; _das_, Latin; _dasi_, Slavonic. Preserved in the Gothic languages. _Plural._--The original sign T, or an allied sound. _Dadyata_, Sanskrit; _daidhyâta_, Zend; [Greek: didote], Greek; _datis_, Latin; _d[ou]kite_, Lithuanic; _dashdite_, Slavonic=_ye give_. Current in the Gothic languages. These forms in T and S may or may not be derived from the pronoun of the second person; _tva_, Sanskrit; [Greek: su], Greek; _thou_, English. _Third person singular._---The original sign T. _Dadati_, Sanskrit; _dadhâiti_, Zend; [Greek: didôti], Old Greek; _dat_, Latin; _d[ou]sti_, Lithuanic; _dasty_, Slavonic=_he gives_. Preserved in the Gothic languages. _Plural._--The original sign NT. _Dadenti_, Zend; [Greek: didonti], afterwards [Greek: didousi], Greek; _dant_, Latin=_they give_. In Moeso-Gothic and Old High German. The preceding examples are from Grimm and Bopp. To them add the Welsh form _carant_=_they love_, and the Persian _budend_=_they are_. {297} The forms in T and NT may or may not be derived from the demonstrative pronoun _ta_, Saxon; [Greek: to], Greek; _that_, English, &c. § 350. The present state of the personal inflection in English, so different from that of the older languages, has been brought about by two processes. I. _Change of form._--^a) The ejection of _-es_ in _-mes_, as in _sôkjam_ and _köllum_, compared with _prennames_; ^b) the ejection of _-m_, as in the first person singular, almost throughout; ^c) the change of _-s_ into _-r_, as in the Norse _kallar_, compared with the Germanic _sôkeis_; ^d) the ejection of _-d_ from _-nd_, as in _loven_ (if this be the true explanation of that form) compared with _prennant_; ^e) the ejection of _-nd_, as in _kalla_; ^f) the addition of _-t_, as in _lufast_ and _lovest_. In all these cases we have a change of form. II. _Confusion or extension._--In vulgarisms like _I goes_, _I is_, one person is used instead of another. In vulgarisms like _I are_, _we goes_, one number is used instead of another. In vulgarisms like _I be tired_, or _if I am tired_, one mood is used instead of another. In vulgarisms like _I give_ for _I gave_, one tense is used for another. In all this there is confusion. There is also extension: since, in the phrase _I is_, the third person is used instead of the first; in other words, it is used with an extension of its natural meaning. It has the power of the third person + that of the first. In the course of time one person may entirely supplant, supersede, or replace another. The application of this is as follows:-- The only person of the plural number originally ending in ð is the second; as _sókeiþ_, _prennat_, _kalliþ_, _lufiað_; the original ending of the first person being _-mes_, or _-m_, as _prennames_, _sôkjam_, _köllum_. Now, in Anglo-Saxon, the _first_ person ends in ð, as _lufiað_. Has _-m_, or _-mes_, changed to ð, or has the second person superseded the first? The latter alternative seems the likelier. § 351. The detail of the persons seems to be as follows:-- _I call_, first person singular.--The word _call_ is not one person more than another. It is the simple verb, wholly uninflected. It is very probable that the first person was the {298} one where the characteristic termination was first lost. In the Modern Norse language it is replaced by the second: _Jeg taler_=_I speak_, Danish. _Thou callest_, second person singular.--The final _-t_ appears throughout the Anglo-Saxon, although wanting in Old Saxon. In Old High German it begins to appear in Otfrid, and is general in Notker. In Middle High German and New High German it is universal.--Deutsche Grammatik, i. 1041. 857. _He calleth_, or _he calls_, third person singular.--The _-s_ in _calls_ is the _-th_ in _calleth_, changed. The Norse form _kallar_ either derives its _-r_ from the _-th_ by way of change, or else the form is that of the second person replacing the first. _Lufiað_, Anglo-Saxon, first person plural.--The second person in the place of the first. The same in Old Saxon. _Lufiað_, Anglo-Saxon, third person plural.--Possibly changed from -ND, as in _sôkjand_. More probably the second person. _Loven_, Old English.--For all the persons of the plural. This form may be accounted for in three ways: 1. The _-m_ of the Moeso-Gothic and High Old German became _-n_; as it is in the Middle and Modern German, where all traces of the original _-m_ are lost. In this case the first person has replaced the other two. 2. The _-nd_ may have become _-n_; in which case it is the third person that replaces the others. 3. The indicative form _loven_ may have arisen out of a subjunctive one; since there was in Anglo-Saxon the form _lufion_, or _lufian_, subjunctive. In the Modern Norse languages the third person replaces the other two: _Vi tale_, _I tale_, _de tale_=_we talk_, _ye talk_, _they talk_. § 352. _The person in_ -T.--_Art_, _wast_, _wert_, _shalt_, _wilt_. Here the second person singular ends, not in _-st_, but in _-t_. A reason for this (though not wholly satisfactory) we find in the Moeso-Gothic and the Icelandic. In those languages the form of the person changes with the tense, and the second singular of the præterite tense of one conjugation is, not _-s_, but _-t_; as Moeso-Gothic, _svôr_=_I swore_, _svôrt_=_thou swarest_, _gráip_=_I griped_, _gráipt_=_thou gripedst_; Icelandic, _brannt_=_thou burnest_, _gaft_=_thou_ {299} _gavest_. In the same languages ten verbs are conjugated like præterites. Of these, in each language, _skal_ is one. _Moeso-Gothic._ _Singular._ _Dual._ _Plural._ 1. Skal. Skulu. Skulum. 2. Skalt. Skuluts. Skuluþ. 3. Skall. Skuluts. Skulun. _Icelandic._ _Singular._ _Plural._ 1. Skall. Skulum. 2. Skalt. Skuluð. 3. Skal. Skulu. § 353. _Thou spakest, thou brakest, thou sungest._[45]--In these forms there is a slight though natural anomaly. They belong to the class of verbs which form their præterite by changing the vowel of the present; as _sing_, _sang_, &c. Now, all words of this sort in Anglo-Saxon formed their second singular præterite, not in _-st_, but in _-e_; as _þú funde_=_thou foundest_, _þú sunge_=_thou sungest_. The English termination is derived from the present. Observe that this applies only to the præterites formed by changing the vowel. _Thou loved'st_ is Anglo-Saxon as well as English, _viz._, _þú lufodest_. § 354. In the northern dialects of the Anglo-Saxon the -ð of plurals like _lufiað_=_we love_ becomes _-s_. In the Scottish this change was still more prevalent: The Scottes come that to this day _Havys_, and Scotland haldyn ay. WINTOUN, 11. 9. 73. James I. of England ends nearly all his plurals in _-s_. * * * * * {300} CHAPTER XX. ON THE NUMBERS OF VERBS. § 355. The inflection of the present tense, not only in Anglo-Saxon, but in several other languages as well, has been given in the preceding chapter. As compared with the present plural forms, _we love_, _ye love_, _they love_, both the Anglo-Saxon _we lufiað_, _ge lufiað_, _hi lufiað_, and the Old English _we loven_, _ye loven_, _they loven_, have a peculiar termination for the plural number which the present language wants. In other words, the Anglo-Saxon and the Old English have a plural _personal_ characteristic, whilst the Modern English has nothing to correspond with it. The word _personal_ is printed in italics. It does not follow, that, because there is no plural _personal_ characteristic, there is also no plural characteristic. There is no reason against the inflection of the word _love_ running thus--_I love_, _thou lovest_, _he loves_; _we lave_, _ye lave_, _they lave_; in other words, there is no reason against the vowel of the root being changed with the number. In such a case there would be no _personal_ inflection, though there would be a plural, or a _numeral_, inflection. Now, in Anglo-Saxon, with a great number of verbs such a plural inflection not only actually takes place, but takes place most regularly. It takes place, however, in the past tense only. And this is the case in all the Gothic languages as well as in Anglo-Saxon. Amongst the rest, in-- _Moeso-Gothic._ Skáin, _I shone_; skinum, _we shone_. Smáit, _I smote_; smitum, _we smote_. Káus, _I chose_; kusum, _we chose_. Láug, _I lied_; lugum, _we lied_. Gab, _I gave_; gêbum, _we gave_. At, _I ate_; étum, _we ate_. Stal, _I stole_; stêlum, _we stole_. Qvam, _I came_; qvêmum, _we came_. {301} _Anglo-Saxon._ Arn, _I ran_; urnon, _we run_. Ongan, _I began_; ongunnon, _we begun_. Span, _I span_; spunnon, _we spun_. Sang, _I sang_; sungon, _we sung_. Swang, _I swang_; swungon, _we swung_. Dranc, _I drank_; druncon, _we drunk_. Sanc, _I sank_; suncon, _we sunk_. Sprang, _I sprang_; sprungon, _we sprung_. Swam, _I swam_; swummon, _we swum_. Rang, _I rang_; rungon, _we rung_. In all the Anglo-Saxon words, it may be remarked that the change is from _a_ to _u_, and that both the vowels are short, or dependent. Also, that the vowel of the present tense is _i_ short; as _swim_, _sing_, &c. The Anglo-Saxon form of _run_ is _yrnan_. In the following words the change is from the Anglo-Saxon _á_ to the Anglo-Saxon _[=i]_. In English, the regularity of the change is obscured by a change of pronunciation. Bát, _I bit_; biton, _we bit_. Smát, _I smote_; smiton, _we smit_. From these examples the reader has himself drawn his inference; _viz._ that words like _Began, begun._ _Ran, run._ _Span, spun._ _Sang, sung._ [46]_Swang, swung._ _Sprang, sprung._ _Sank, sunk._ _Swam, swum._ _Rang, rung._ [46]_Bat, bit._ _Smote, smit._ _Drank, drunk, &c.,_ generally called double forms of the past tense, were originally different numbers of the same tense, the forms in _u_, as _swum_, and the forms in _i_, _bit_, being plural. * * * * * {302} CHAPTER XXI. ON MOODS. § 356. The Anglo-Saxon infinitive has already been considered. § 357. Between the second plural imperative, and the second plural indicative, _speak ye_ and _ye speak_, there is no difference of form. Between the second singular imperative _speak_, and the second singular indicative, _speakest_, there is a difference in form. Still, as the imperative form _speak_ is distinguished from the indicative form _speakest_ by the negation of a character rather than by the possession of one, it cannot be said that there is in English any imperative mood. § 358. _If he speak_, as opposed to _if he speaks_, is characterised by a negative sign only, and consequently is no true example of a subjunctive. _Be_, as opposed to _am_, in the sentence _if it be so_, is an uninflected word used in a limited sense, and consequently no true example of a subjunctive. The only true subjunctive inflection in the English language is that of _were_ and _wert_, as opposed to the indicative forms _was_ and _wast_. _Indicative._ | _Subjunctive._ _Singular._ _Plural._ | _Singular._ _Plural._ 1. I was. We were. | If I were. If we were. 2. Thou wast. Ye were. | If thou wert. If ye were. 3. He was. They were. | If he were. If they were. * * * * * {303} CHAPTER XXII. ON TENSES IN GENERAL. § 359. The nature of tenses in general is best exhibited by reference to the Greek; since in that language they are more numerous, and more strongly marked than elsewhere. _I strike, I struck._--Of these words, the first implies an action taking place at the time of speaking, the second marks an action that has already taken place. These two notions of present and of past time, being expressed by a change of form, are true tenses. They are however, the only true tenses in our language. In _I was beating_, _I have beaten_, _I had beaten_, and _I shall beat_, a difference of time is expressed; but as it is expressed by a combination of words, and not by a change of form, no true tenses are constituted. In Greek the case is different. [Greek: Tuptô] (_typtô_)=_I beat_; [Greek: etupton] (_etypton_)=_I was beating_; [Greek: tupsô] (_typsô_)=_I shall beat_; [Greek: etupsa] (_etypsa_)=_I beat_; [Greek: tetupha] (_tetyfa_)=_I have beaten_; [Greek: etetuphein] (_etetyfein_)=_I had beaten_. In these words we have, of the same mood, the same voice, and the same conjugation, six different tenses;[47] whereas, in English, there are but two. The forms [Greek: tetupha] and [Greek: etupsa] are so strongly marked, that we recognise them wheresoever they occur. The first is formed by a reduplication of the initial [tau], and, consequently, may be called the reduplicate form. As a tense it is called the perfect. In the form [Greek: etupsa] an [epsilon] is prefixed, and an [sigma] is added. In the allied language of Italy {304} the [epsilon] disappears, whilst the [sigma] (_s_) remains. [Greek: Etupsa] is said to be an aorist tense. _Scripsi_ : _scribo_ :: [Greek: etupsa] : [Greek: tuptô]. § 360. Now in the Latin language a confusion takes place between these two tenses. Both forms exist. They are used, however, indiscriminately. The aorist form has, besides its own, the sense of the perfect. The perfect has, besides its own, the sense of the aorist. In the following pair of quotations, _vixi_, the aorist form, is translated _I have lived_, while _tetigit_, the perfect form, is translated _he touched_. _Vixi_, et quem dederat cursum Fortuna peregi; Et nunc magna mei sub terras ibit imago.--_Æn._ iv. Ut primum alatis _tetigit_ magalia plantis.--_Æn._ iv. When a difference of form has ceased to express a difference of meaning, it has become superfluous. This is the case with the two forms in question. One of them may be dispensed with; and the consequence is, that, although in the Latin language both the perfect and the aorist forms are found, they are, with few exceptions, never found in the same word. Wherever there is the perfect, the aorist is wanting, and _vice versâ_. The two ideas _I have struck_ and _I struck_ are merged into the notion of past time in general, and are expressed by one of two forms, sometimes by that of the Greek perfect, and sometimes by that of the Greek aorist. On account of this the grammarians have cut down the number of Latin tenses to _five_; forms like _cucurri_ and _vixi_ being dealt with as one and the same tense. The true view is, that in _curro_ the aorist form is replaced by the perfect, and in _vixi_ the perfect form is replaced by the aorist. § 361. In the present English there is no undoubted perfect or reduplicate form. The form _moved_ corresponds in meaning not with [Greek: tetupha] and _momordi_, but with [Greek: etupsa] and _vixi_. Its sense is that of [Greek: etupsa], and not that of [Greek: tetupha]. The notion given by [Greek: tetupha] we express by the circumlocution _I have beaten_. We have no such form as _bebeat_ or _memove_. In the Moeso-Gothic, however, there was a true reduplicate form; in other words, a perfect tense as well as an aorist. It {305} is by the possession of this form that the verbs of the first six conjugations are characterized. 1st. Falþa, _I fold_ . Fáifalþ, _I have folded_, or _I folded_. Halda, _I feed_ . Háihald, _I have fed_, or _I fed_. Haha, _I hang_ . Háihah, _I have hanged_, or _I hanged_. 2nd. Háita, _I call_ . Háiháit, _I have called_, or _I called_. Láika, _I play_ . Láiláik, _I have played_, or _I played_. 3d. Hláupa, _I run_ . Hláiláup, _I have run_, or _I ran_. 4th. Slêpa, _I sleep_ . Sáizlêp, _I have slept_, or _I slept_. 5th. Láia, _I laugh_ . Láilô, _I have laughed_, or _I laught_. Sáija, _I sow_ . Sáisô, _I have sown_, or _I sowed_. 6th Grêta, _I weep_ . Gáigrôt, _I have wept_, or _I wept_. Têka, _I touch_ . Táitôk, _I have touched_, or _I touched_. In Moeso-Gothic, as in Latin, the perfect forms have, besides their own, an aorist sense, and _vice versâ_. In Moeso-Gothic, as in Latin, few (if any) words are found in both forms. In Moeso-Gothic, as in Latin, the two forms are dealt with as a single tense; _láilô_ being called the præterite of _láia_, and _svôr_ the præterite of _svara_. The true view, however, is that in Moeso-Gothic, as in Latin, there are two past tenses, each having a certain latitude of meaning, and each, in certain words, replacing the other. The reduplicate form, in other words, the perfect tense, is current in none of the Gothic languages except the Moeso-Gothic. A trace of it is found in the Anglo-Saxon of the seventh century in the word _heht_, which is considered to be _hê-ht_, the Moeso-Gothic _háiháit_, _vocavi_. This statement is taken from the Cambridge Philological Museum, ii. 378. _Did_ from _do_ is also considered to be a reduplicate form. § 362. In the English language the tense corresponding with the Greek aorist and the Latin forms like _vixi_, is formed after two modes; 1, as in _fell_, _sang_, and _took_, from _fall_, _sing_, and _take_, by changing the vowel of the present: 2, as in _moved_ and _wept_, from _move_ and _weep_, by the addition of _d_ or _t_; the _d_ or _t_ not being found in the original word, but being a fresh element added to it. In forms, on the contrary, like _sang_ and _fell_, no addition being made, no new element appears. The {306} vowel, indeed, is changed, but nothing is added. Verbs, then, of the first sort, may be said to form their præterites out of themselves; whilst verbs of the second sort require something from without. To speak in a metaphor, words like _sang_ and _fell_ are comparatively independent. Be this as it may, the German grammarians call the tenses formed by a change of vowel the strong tenses, the strong verbs, the strong conjugation, or the strong order; and those formed by the addition of _d_ or _t_, the weak tenses, the weak verbs, the weak conjugation, or the weak order. _Bound_, _spoke_, _gave_, _lay_, &c., are strong; _moved_, _favoured_, _instructed_, &c., are weak. For the proof that the division of verbs into weak and strong is a natural division, see the Chapter on Conjugation. * * * * * {307} CHAPTER XXIII. THE STRONG TENSES. § 363. The strong præterites are formed from the present by changing the vowel, as _sing_, _sang_, _speak_, _spoke_. The first point in the history of these tenses that the reader is required to be aware of, is stated in the Chapter upon the Numbers, viz., that, in Anglo-Saxon, several præterites change, in their plural, the vowel of their singular; as Ic sang, _I sang_. We sungon, _we sung_. Þu sunge, _thou sungest_. Ge sungon, _ye sung_. He sang, _he sang_. Hi sungon, _they sung_. As a general rule, the second singular has the same vowel with the plural persons, as _burne_, _thou burntest_, plural _burnon_, _we burnt_. The bearing of this fact upon the præterites has been indicated in p. 300. In a great number of words we have a double form, as _ran_ and _run_, _sang_ and _sung_, _drank_ and _drunk_, &c. One of these forms is derived from the singular, and the other from the plural. I cannot say at what period the difference of form ceased to denote a difference of sense. In cases where but one form is preserved, that form is not necessarily the singular one. For instance, Ic f_a_nd, _I found_, we f_u_ndon, _we found_, are the Anglo-Saxon forms. Now the present word _found_ comes, not from the singular _fand_, but from the plural _fund_; although in the Lowland Scotch dialect and in the old writers, the singular form occurs. Donald Caird finds orra things, Where Allan Gregor _fand_ the tings.--Scott. Even in the present English it will be found convenient to {308} call the forms like _sang_ and _drank_ the singular, and those like _sung_ and _bound_ the plural forms. Be it observed, that, though this fact accounts for most of our double forms, it will not account for all. In the Anglo-Saxon, Ic spr['æ]c, _I spake_, we spr['æ]con, _we spake_. There is no change of number to account for the two forms _spake_ and _spoke_. _First Class._ § 364. Contains the two words _fall_ and _fell_, _hold_ and _held_, where the sound of _o_ is changed into that of _[)e]_. Here must be noticed the natural tendency of _a_ to become _o_; since the forms in Anglo-Saxon are, _Ic fealle_, I fall; _Ic feoll_, I fell; _Ic healde_, I hold; _Ic heold_, I held. _Second Class._ § 365. Here the præterite ends in _-ew_. Words of this class are distinguished from those of the third Class by the different form of the present tense. _Present._ _Præterite._ Draw Drew. Slay Slew. Fly Flew. In these words the _w_ has grown out of a _g_, as may be seen from the Anglo-Saxon forms. The word _see_ (_saw_) belongs to this class: since, in Anglo-Saxon, we find the forms _geseáh_ and _gesegen_, and in the Swedish the præterite form is _saag_. _Third Class._ § 366. Here an _o_ before _w_, in the present, becomes _e_ before _w_ in the præterite; as _Present._ _Præterite._ Blow. Blew. Crow. Crew. Throw. Threw. Know. Knew. Grow. Grew. _Fourth Class._ § 367. Contains the single word _let_, where a short _e_ in the {309} present remains unchanged in the præterite. In the Anglo-Saxon the present form was _Ic læte_, the præterite _Ic lét_. _Fifth Class._ § 368. Contains the single word _beat_, where a long _e_ remains unchanged. In Anglo-Saxon the forms were _Ic beate_, _Ic beot_. _Sixth Class._ § 369. Present _come_, præterite _came_, participle _come_. In Anglo-Saxon, _cume_, _com_, _cumen_. _Seventh Class._ § 370. In this class we have the sounds of the _ee_, in _feet_, and of the _a_ in _fate_ (spelt _ea_ or _a_), changed into _o_ or _oo_. As several words in this class have a second form in _a_, the præterite in _o_ or _oo_ will be called the primary, the præterite in _a_ the secondary form. _Present._ _Primary Præterite._ _Secondary Præterite._ Heave [48]Hove -- Cleave Clove [48]Clave. Weave Wove -- Freeze Froze -- Steal Stole [48]Stale. Speak Spoke Spake. Swear Swore Sware. Bear Bore Bare. Tear Tore [48]Tare. Shear [48]Shore -- Wear Wore [48]Ware. Break Broke Brake. Shake Shook -- Take Took -- Forsake Forsook -- Stand Stood -- -- Quoth -- Get Got [48]Gat. The præterite of _stand_ was originally long. This we collect {310} from the spelling, and from the Anglo-Saxon form _stód_. The process that ejects the _nd_ is the same process that, in Greek, converts [Greek: odont-os] into [Greek: odous]. All the words with secondary forms will appear again in the eighth class. _Eighth Class._ § 371. In this class the sound of the _ee_ in _feet_, and the _a_ in _fate_ (spelt _ea_), is changed into a. Several words of this class have secondary forms. Further details may be seen in the remarks that come after the following list of verbs. _Present._ _Primary Præterite._ _Secondary Præterite._ Speak Spake Spoke. Break Brake Broke. Cleave [49]Clave Clove. Steal [49]Stale Stole. Eat Ate -- Seethe -- [49]Sod. Tread [49]Trad Trod. Bear Bare Bore. Tear Tare Tore. Swear Sware Swore. Wear [49]Ware Wore. Bid Bade Bid. Sit Sate -- Give Gave -- Lie Lay -- Get [49]Gat Got. Here observe,--1. That in _speak_, _cleave_, _steal_, the _ea_ has the same power with the _ee_ in _freeze_ and _seethe_; so that it may be dealt with as the long (or independent) sound of the _i_ in _bid_, _sit_, _give_. 2. That the same view may be taken of the _ea_ in _break_, although the word by some persons is pronounced _brake_. _Gabrika_, _gabrak_, Moeso-Gothic; _briku_, _brak_, Old Saxon; _brece_, _brac_, Anglo-Saxon. Also of _bear_, _tear_, _swear_, _wear_. In the provincial dialects these words are even now pronounced _beer_, _teer_, _sweer_. The forms in the allied languages are, in {311} respect to these last-mentioned words, less confirmatory; Moeso-Gothic, _svara_, _báira_; Old High German, _sverju_, _piru_. 3. That the _ea_ in _tread_ was originally long; Anglo-Saxon, _tredan_, _trede_, _tr['æ]d_, _treden_. 4. _Lie._--Here the sound is diphthongal, having grown out of the Anglo-Saxon forms _licgan_, _l['æ]g_, _legen_. 5. _Sat._--The original præterite was long. This we collect from the spelling _sate_, and from the Anglo-Saxon _s['æ]t_. _Ninth Class._ § 372. _A_, as in _fate_, is changed either into the _o_ in _note_, or the _oo_ in _book_. Here it should be noticed that, unlike _break_ and _swear_, &c., there is no tendency to sound the _a_ of the present as _ee_, neither is there, as was the case with _clove_ and _spoke_, any tendency to secondary forms in a. A partial reason for this lies in the original nature of the vowel. The original vowel in _speak_ was e. If this was the _é fermé_ of the French, it was a sound from which the _a_ in _fate_ and the _ee_ in _feet_ might equally have been evolved. The vowel sound of the verbs of the present class was that of _a_ for the present and that of _ó_ for the præterite forms; as _wace_, _wóc_, _grafe_, _gróf_. Now of these two sounds it may be said that the _a_ has no tendency to become the _ee_ in _feet_, and that the _ó_ has no tendency to become the _a_ in _fate_. The sounds that are evolved from the accentuated _ó_, are the _o_ in _note_ and the _oo_ in _book_. _Present._ _Præterite._ Awake Awoke. Wake Woke. Lade [50]Lode. Grave [50]Grove. Take Took. Shake Shook. Forsake Forsook. Shape [50]Shope. _Tenth Class._ § 373. Containing the single word _strike_, _struck_, _stricken_. It is only in the Middle High German, the Middle Dutch, the New High German, the Modern Dutch, and the English, that {312} this word is found in its præterite forms. These are, in Middle High German, _streich_; New High German, _strich_; Middle Dutch, _strêc_; Modern Dutch, _strîk_. Originally it must have been referable to the ninth class. _Eleventh Class._ § 374. In this class we first find the secondary forms accounted for by the difference of form between the singular and plural numbers. The change is from the _i_ in _bite_ to the _o_ in _note_, and the _i_ in _pit_. Sometimes it is from the _i_ in _bit_ to the _a_ in _bat_. The Anglo-Saxon conjugation (A) may be compared with the present English (B). A. _Present._ _Præterite sing._ _Præterite plur._ Scine (_shine_) Sceán (_I shone_) Scinon (_we shone_). Arise (_arise_) Arás (_I arose_) Arison (_we arose_). Smite (_smite_) Smát (_I smote_) Smiton (_we smite_). B. _Present._ _Præt.--Sing. form._ _Præt.--Pl. form._ Rise Rose [51]Ris. Abide Abode -- Shine Shone -- Smite Smote Smit. Ride Rode [51]Rid. Stride Strode Strid. Slide [51]Slode Slid. Glide [51]Glode -- Chide [51]Chode -- Drive Drove [51]Driv. Thrive Throve [51]Thriv. Strive Strove -- Write Wrote Writ. Climb Clomb -- Slit [51]Slat Slit. Bite [51]Bat Bit. On this list we may make the following observations and statements. {313} 1. That, with the exception of the word _slit_, the _i_ is sounded as a diphthong. 2. That, with the exception of _bat_ and _slat_, it is changed into _o_ in the singular and into _[)i]_ in the plural forms. 3. That, with the exception of _shone_, the _o_ is always long (or independent). 4. That, even with the word _shone_, the _o_ was originally long. This is known from the final _-e_ mute, and from the Anglo-Saxon form _scéan_; Moeso-Gothic, _skáin_; Old Norse, _skein_. 5. That the _o_, in English, represents an _á_ in Anglo-Saxon. 6. That the statement last made shows that even _bat_ and _slat_ were once in the same condition with _arose_ and _smote_, the Anglo-Saxon forms being _arás_, _smát_, _bát_, _slát_. _Twelfth Class._ § 375. In this class _i_ is generally short; originally it was always so. In the singular form it becomes _[)a]_, in the plural, _[)u]_. _Present._ _Præt.--Sing. form._ _Præt.--Pl. form._ Swim Swam Swum. Begin Began Begun. Spin [52]Span Spun. Win [52]Wan [53]Won. Sing Sang Sung. Swing [52]Swang Swung. Spring Sprang Sprung. Sting [52]Stang Stung. Ring Rang Rung. Wring [52]Wrang Wrung. Fling Flang Flung. Cling -- Clung. [52]Hing Hang Hung. String [52]Strang Strung. Sling -- Slung. Sink Sank Sunk. Drink Drank Drunk. Shrink Shrank Shrunk. Stink [52]Stank Stunk. Swink -- -- Slink -- Slunk. Swell Swoll -- {314} Melt [54]Molt -- Help [54]Holp -- Delve [54]Dolv -- Dig -- Dug. Stick [54]Stack Stuck. Run Ran Run. Burst -- Burst. Bind Band Bound. Find [54]Fand Found. Grind -- Ground. Wind -- Wound. Upon this list we make the following observations and statements:-- 1. That, with the exceptions of _bind_, _find_, _grind_, and _wind_, the vowels are short (or dependent) throughout. 2. That, with the exception of _run_ and _burst_, the vowel of the present tense is either the _i_ or e. 3. That _i_ short changes into _a_ for the singular, and into _u_ for the plural forms. 4. That _e_ changes into _o_ in the singular forms; these being the only ones preserved. 5. That the _i_ in _bind_, &c., changes into _ou_ in the plural forms; the only ones current. 6. That the vowel before _m_ or _n_ is, with the single exception of _run_, always _i_. 7. That the vowel before _l_ and _r_ is, with the single exception of _burst_, always e. 8. That, where the _i_ is sounded as in _bind_, the combination following is _-nd_. 9. That _ng_ being considered as a modification of _k_ (the Norse and Moeso-Gothic forms being _drecka_ and _drikjan_), it may be stated that _i_ short, in the twelfth class, precedes either a liquid or a mute of series _k_. From these observations, even on the English forms only, we find thus much regularity; and from these observations, even on the English forms only, we may lay down a rule like the following: _viz._ that _i_ or _u_, short, before the consonants _m_, _n_, {315} or _ck_, is changed into _a_ for the singular, and into _u_ for the plural forms; that _i_ long, or diphthongal, becomes _ou_; that _e_ before _l_ becomes _o_; and that _u_ before _r_ remains unchanged. This statement, however, is nothing like so general as the one that, after a comparison of the older forms and the allied languages, we are enabled to make. Here we are taught, 1. That, in the words _bind_, &c., the _i_ was once pronounced as in _till_, _fill_; in other words, that it was the simple short vowel, and not the diphthong _ey_; or at least that it was treated as such. _Moeso-Gothic._ Binda Band Bundum Bundans. Bivinda Bivand Bivundum Bivundums. Finþa Fanþ Funþum Funþans. _Anglo-Saxon._ Bind Band Bundon Bunden. Finde Fand Fundon Funden. Grinde Grand Grundon Grunden. Winde Wand Wundon Wunden. _Old Norse._ Finn Fann Funðum Funninn. Bind Batt Bundum Bundinn. Vind Vatt Undum Undinn. When the vowel _[)i]_ of the present took the sound of the _i_ in _bite_, the _[)u]_ in the præterite became the _ou_ in _mouse_. From this we see that the words _bind_, &c., are naturally subject to the same changes with _spin_, &c., and that, _mutatis mutandis_, they are so still. 2. That the _e_ in _swell_, &c., was once _[)i]_. This we collect from the following forms:--_hilpa_, Moeso-Gothic; _hilfu_, Old High German; _hilpu_, Old Saxon; _hilpe_, Middle High German; _hilpe_, Old Frisian. _Suillu_=_swell_, Old High German. _Tilfu_=_delve_, Old High German; _dilbu_, Old Saxon. _Smilzu_, Old High German=_smelt_ or _melt_. This shows that originally the vowel _i_ ran throughout, but that before _l_ and _r_ it was changed into e. This change took place at different periods in different dialects. The Old Saxon preserved the {316} _i_ longer than the Anglo-Saxon. It is found even in the _middle_ High German; in the _new_ it has become _e_; as _schwelle_, _schmelze_. In one word _milk_, the original _i_ is still preserved; although in Anglo-Saxon it was _e_; as _melce_, _mealc_=_milked_, _mulcon_. In the Norse the change from _i_ to _e_ took place full soon, as _svëll_=_swells_. The Norse language is in this respect important. 3. That the _o_ in _swoll_, _holp_, was originally _a_; as Hilpa Halp Hulpum Moeso-Gothic. Suillu Sual Suullumês Old High German. Hilfu Half Hulfumês Ditto. Tilfu Talf Tulfumês Ditto. Hilpe Halp Hulpun Middle High German. Dilbe Dalp Dulbun Ditto. Hilpe Halp Hulpon Ditto. Svëll Svall Sullum Old Norse. Melte Mealt Multon Anglo-Saxon. Helpe Haelp Hulpon Ditto. Delfe Dealf Dulfon Ditto. 4. That a change between _a_ and _o_ took place by times. The Anglo-Saxon præterite of _swelle_ is _sweoll_; whilst _ongon_, _bond_, _song_, _gelomp_, are found in the same language for _ongan_, _band_, _sang_, _gelamp_.--Rask's Anglo-Saxon Grammar, p. 90. 5. That _run_ is only an apparent exception, the older form being _rinn_. The rain _rinns_ down through Merriland town; So doth it down the Pa.--_Old Ballad._ The Anglo-Saxon form is _yrnan_; in the præterite _arn_, _urnon_. A transposition has since taken place. The word _run_ seems to have been originally no present, but a præterite form. 6. That _burst_ is only an apparent exception. Before _r_, _[)e]_, _[)i]_, _[)u]_, are pronounced alike. We draw no distinction between the vowels in _pert_, _flirt_, _hurt_. The Anglo-Saxon forms are, _berste_, _byrst_, _bærse_, _burston_, _borsten_. _Thirteenth Class._ § 376. Contains the single word _choose_, in the præterite _chose_; in Anglo-Saxon, _ceóse_, _ceás_. * * * * * {317} CHAPTER XXIV. THE WEAK TENSES. § 377. The præterite tense of the weak verbs is formed by the addition of _-d_ or _-t_. If necessary, the syllable _-ed_ is substituted for _-d_. The current statement that the syllable _-ed_, rather than the letter _-d_, is the sign of the præterite tense, is true only in regard to the written language. In _stabbed_, _moved_, _bragged_, _whizzed_, _judged_, _filled_, _slurred_, _slammed_, _shunned_, _barred_, _strewed_, the _e_ is a point of spelling only. In _language_, except in declamation, there is no second vowel sound. The _-d_ comes in immediate contact with the final letter of the original word, and the number of syllables remains the same as it was before. When, however, the original word ends in _-d_ or _-t_, as _slight_ or _brand_, then, and then only (and that not always), is there the addition of the syllable _-ed_; as in _slighted_, _branded_. This is necessary, since the combinations _slightt_ and _brandd_ are unpronounceable. Whether the addition be _-d_ or _-t_ depends upon the flatness or sharpness of the preceding letter. After _b_, _v_, _th_ (as in _clothe_), _g_, or _z_, the addition is _-d_. This is a matter of necessity. We say _stabd_, _môvd_, _clôthd_, _braggd_, _whizzd_, because _stabt_, _môvt_, _clotht_, _braggt_, _whizzt_, are unpronounceable. After _l_, _m_, _n_, _r_, _w_, _y_, or a vowel, the addition is also _-d_. This is the habit of the English language. _Filt_, _slurt_, _strayt_, &c., are as pronounceable as _filld_, _slurrd_, _strayd_, &c. It is the habit, however, of the English language to prefer the latter forms. All this, as the reader has probably observed, is merely the reasoning concerning the _s_, in words like {318} _father's_, &c., applied to another letter and to another part of speech. For some historical notices respecting the use of _-d_, _-t_, and _-ed_, in the spelling of the English præterites and participles, the reader is referred to the Cambridge Philological Museum, vol. i. p. 655. § 378. The verbs of the weak conjugation fall into three classes. In the first there is the simple addition of _-d_, _-t_, or _-ed_. Serve, served. Cry, cried. Betray, betrayed. Expel, expelled. Accuse, accused. Instruct, instructed. Invite, invited. Waste, wasted. Dip, dipped (_dipt_). Slip, slipped (_slipt_). Step, stepped (_stept_). Look, looked (_lookt_). Pluck, plucked (_pluckt_). Toss, tossed (_tost_). Push, pushed (_pusht_). Confess, confessed (_confest_) To this class belong the greater part of the weak verbs and all verbs of foreign origin. § 379. In the second class, besides the addition of _-t_ or _-d_, the vowel is _shortened_. It also contains those words which end in _-d_ or _-t_, and at the same time have a short vowel in the præterite. Such, amongst others, are _cut_, _cost_, &c., where the two tenses are alike, and _bend_, _rend_, &c., where the præterite is formed from the present by changing _-d_ into _-t_, as _bent_, _rent_, &c. In the following list, the words ending in _-p_ are remarkable; since, in Anglo-Saxon, each of them had, instead of a weak, a strong præterite. Leave, left. Cleave, cleft. Bereave, bereft. Deal, de[)a]l_t_. Feel, fel_t_. Dream, dre[)a]m_t_. Lean, le[)a]n_t_. Learn, learn_t_. Creep, crept. Sleep, slept. Leap, lept. Keep, kept. Weep, wept. Sweep, swept. Lose, lost. Flee, fled. In this class we sometimes find _-t_ where the _-d_ is expected; the forms being _left_ and _dealt_, instead of _leaved_ and _dealed_. {319} § 380. Third class.--In the second class the vowel of the present tense was _shortened_ in the præterite. In the third class it is _changed_. Tell, told. Will, would. Sell, sold. Shall, should. To this class belong the remarkable præterites of the verbs _seek_, _beseech_, _catch_, _teach_, _bring_, _think_, and _buy_, _viz._, _sought_, _besought_, _caught_, _taught_, _brought_, _thought_, and _bought_. In all these, the final consonant is either _g_ or _k_, or else a sound allied to those mutes. When the tendency of these sounds to become _h_ and _y_, as well as to undergo farther changes, is remembered, the forms in point cease to seem anomalous. In _wrought_, from _work_, there is a transposition. In _laid_ and _said_ the present forms make a show of regularity which they have not. The true original forms should be _legde_ and _sægde_, the infinitives being _lecgan_, _secgan_. In these words the _i_ represents the semivowel _y_, into which the original _g_ was changed. The Anglo-Saxon forms of the other words are as follows:-- Byegan, bóhte. Sècan, sóhte. Wyrcan, wórhte. Bringan, bróhte. Þencan, þóhte. § 381. Out of the three classes into which the weak verbs in Anglo-Saxon are divided, only one takes a vowel before the _d_ or _t_. The other two add the syllables _-te_, or _-de_, to the last letter of the original word. The vowel that, in one out of the three Anglo-Saxon classes, precedes _d_ is _o_. Thus we have _lufian_, _lufode_; _clypian_, _clypode_. In the other two classes the forms are respectively _bærnan_, _bærnde_; and _tellan_, _tealde_, no vowel being found. The participle, however, as stated above, ended, not in _-de_ or _-te_, but in _-d_ or _-t_; and in two out of the three classes it was preceded by a vowel, _gelufod_, _bærned_, _geteald_. Now in those conjugations where no vowel preceded the _d_ of the præterite, and where the original word ended in _-d_ or _-t_, a difficulty, which has already been indicated, arose. To add the sign of the præterite to a word like _eard-ian_ (_to dwell_) was an easy matter, inasmuch as {320} _eard__ian_ was a word belonging to the first class, and in the first class the præterite was formed in _-ode_. Here the vowel _o_ kept the two d's from coming in contact. With words, however, like _métan_ and _sendan_, this was not the case. Here no vowel intervened; so that the natural præterite forms were _met-te_, _send-de_, combinations wherein one of the letters ran every chance of being dropped in the pronunciation. Hence, with the exception of the verbs in the first class, words ending in _-d_ or _-t_ in the root admitted no additional _d_ or _t_ in the præterite. This difficulty, existing in the present English as it existed in the Anglo-Saxon, modifies the præterites of most words ending in _-t_ or _-d_. In several words there is the actual addition of the syllable _-ed_; in other words _d_ is separated from the last letter of the original word by the addition of a vowel; as _ended_, _instructed_, &c. Of this _e_ two views may be taken. 1. It may be derived from the original _o_ in _-ode_, the termination of the first class in Anglo-Saxon. This is the opinion which we form when the word in question is known to have belonged to the Anglo-Saxon language, and, in it, to the first class. _Ended_, _planted_, _warded_, _hated_, _heeded_, are (amongst others) words of this sort; their Anglo-Saxon forms being _endode_, _plantode_, _weardode_, _hatode_, and _eahtode_, from _endian_, _plantian_, _weardian_, _hatian_, and _eahtian_. 2. The form may be looked upon, not as that of the præterite, but as that of the participle in a transferred sense. This is the view when we have two forms, one with the vowel, and the other without it, as _bended_ and _bent_, _wended_ and _went_, _plighted_ and _plight_. A. In several words the final _-d_ is changed into _-t_, as _bend_, _bent_; _rend_, _rent_; _send_, _sent_; _gild_, _gilt_; _build_, _built_; _spend_, _spent_, &c. B. In several words the vowel of the root is changed; as _feed_, _fed_; _bleed_, _bled_; _breed_, _bred_; _meet_, _met_; _speed_, _sped_; _r[=e]ad_, _r[)e]ad_, &c. Words of this last-named class cause occasional difficulty to the grammarian. No addition is made to the root, and, in this circumstance, they agree with the strong verbs. Moreover, there is a change of the vowel. {321} In this circumstance also they agree with the strong verbs. Hence with forms like _fed_ and _led_ we are in doubt as to the conjugation. This doubt we have three means of settling, as may be shown by the word _beat_. _a._ _By the form of the participle._--The _-en_ in _beaten_ shows that the word _beat_ is strong. _b._ _By the nature of the vowel._--The weak form of _to beat_ would be _bet_, or _be[)a]t_, after the analogy of _feed_ and _r[=e]ad_. By some persons the word is pronounced _bet_, and with those who do so the word is weak. _c._ _By a knowledge of the older forms._--The Anglo-Saxon form is _beáte_, _beot_. There is no such a weak form as _beáte_, _bætte_. The præterite of _sendan_ is _sende_, weak. There is in Anglo-Saxon no such form as _sand_, strong. In all this we see a series of expedients for separating the præterite form from the present, when the root ends with the same sound with which the affix begins. The addition of the vowel takes place only in verbs of the first class. The change from a long vowel to a short one, as in _feed_, _fed_, &c., can only take place where there is a long vowel to be changed. Where the vowels are short, and, at the same time, the word ends in _-d_, the _-d_ of the present may become _-t_ in the præterite. Such is the case with _bend_, _bent_. When there is no long vowel to shorten, and no _-d_ to change into _-t_, the two tenses, of necessity, remain alike; such is the case with _cut_, _cost_, &c. Words like _planted_, _heeded_, &c., belong to the first class. Words like _feed_, _lead_, to the second class. _Bend_ and _cut_ belong also to the second class; they belong to it, however, by what may be termed an etymological fiction. The vowel would be changed if it could. § 382. _Made, had._--In these words there is nothing remarkable but the ejection of a consonant. The Anglo-Saxon forms are _macode_ and _hæfde_, respectively. The words, however, in regard to the amount of change, are not upon a par. The _f_ in _hæfde_ was probably sounded as _v_. Now _v_ {322} is a letter excessively liable to be ejected, which _k_ is not. _K_, before it is ejected, is generally changed into either _g_ or _y_. _Would, should, could._--It must not be imagined that _could_ is in the same predicament with these words. In _will_ and _shall_ the _-l_ is part of the original word. This is not the case with _can_. For the form _could_, see the Chapter upon Irregularity. _Aught._--In Anglo-Saxon _áhte_, the præterite of the present form _áh_, plural _ágan_.--As late as the time of Elizabeth we find _owe_ used for _own_. The present form _own_ seems to have arisen from the plural _ágen_. _Aught_ is the præterite of the Anglo-Saxon _áh_; _owed_ of the English _owe_=_debeo_; _owned_ of the English _own_=_possideo_. The word _own_, in the expression _to own to a thing_, has a totally different origin. It comes from the Anglo-Saxon _an_ (plural, _unnon_)=_I give_, or _grant_=_concedo_. _Durst._--The verb _dare_ is both transitive and intransitive. We can say either _I dare do such a thing_, or _I dare_ (_challenge_) _such a man to do it_. This, in the present tense, is unequivocally correct. In the past the double power of the word _dare_ is ambiguous; still it is, to my mind at least, allowable. We can certainly say _I dared him to accept my challenge_; and we can, perhaps, say _I dared venture on the expedition_. In this last sentence, however, _durst_ is the preferable expression. Now, although _dare_ is both transitive and intransitive, _durst_ is only intransitive. It never agrees with the Latin word _provoco_; only with the Latin word _audeo_. Moreover, the word _durst_ has both a present and a past sense. The difficulty which it presents consists in the presence of the _-st_, letters characteristic of the second person singular, but here found in all the persons alike; as _I durst_, _they durst_, &c. The Moeso-Gothic forms are _dar_, _dart?_ _dar_, _daúrum_, _daúruþ_, _daúrun_, for the persons of the present tense; and _daúrsta_, _daúrstês_, _daúrsta_, &c., for those of the præterite. The same is the case throughout the Germanic languages. No _-s_, however, appears in the Scandinavian; the præterites being _þorði_ and _törde_, Icelandic and Danish. The Anglo-Saxon is _dear_=_I dare_, _dearst_=_thou darest_, _durron_=_we_, {323} _ye_, or _they dare_; subjunctive, _durre_, _dorste_, _dorston_. Old Saxon, present, _dar_; præterite _dursta_. The Moeso-Gothic tense, _daúrsta_, instead of _daúrda_, shows the antiquity of this form in _-s_. The readiest mode of accounting for the form in question is to suppose that the second singular has been extended over all the other persons. This view, however, is traversed by the absence of the _-s_ in the Moeso-Gothic present. The form there (real or presumed) is not _darst_, but _dart_. Of this latter form, however, it must be remarked that its existence is hypothetical. In Matthew xxvi. 67, of the Moeso-Gothic Gospel of Ulphilas, is found the form _kaúpastêdun_, instead of _kaúpatidédun_, the præterite plural of _kaúpatjan_=_to beat_. Here there is a similar insertion of the _-s_.--Deutsche Grammatik, i. 848, 852, 853. The _-s_ in _durst_ has still to be satisfactorily accounted for. _Must._--A form common to all persons, numbers, and tenses. That neither the _-s_ nor the _-t_ are part of the original root, is indicated by the Scandinavian form _maae_ (Danish), pronounced _moh_; præterite _maatte_. The readiest mode of accounting for the _-s_ in _must_, is to presume that it belongs to the second singular, extended to the other persons, _mo-est_=_must_. Irrespective, however, of other objections, this view is traversed by the forms _môtan_, Moeso-Gothic (an infinitive), and _mót_, Moeso-Gothic, Old Saxon, and Anglo-Saxon (a first person present). These neutralise the evidence given by the Danish form _maae_, and indicate that the _-t_ is truly a part of the original root. Now, the _-t_ being considered as part of the root, the _-s_ cannot be derived from the second singular; inasmuch as it precedes, instead of following the _-t_. At one time, for want of a better theory, I conceived, that in the word in point (and also in _durst_ and a few others), we had traces of the Scandinavian passive. This notion I have, for evident reasons, abandoned. In p. 298 it was stated that the Moeso-Gothic termination of the second singular of the strong præterites was _-t_. It is {324} here mentioned that _must_ is a præterite form. Now the final letter of the root _mot_, and the sign of the second singular of the strong præterite, are the same, _-t_. Now, as _-t_ cannot be immediately added to _t_, the natural form of the second singular _mót-t_ is impracticable. Hence, before the _-t_ of the second person, the _-t_ of the root is changed, so that, instead of _máimáit-t_, _bigat-t_, _fáifalþ-t_, _láilot-t_, &c., we have _máimáis-t_, _bigas-t_, _fáifals-t_, _láilos-t_, &c., Moeso-Gothic.--See Deutsche Grammatik, 844. The euphonic reason for the _-s_, in _must_, is sufficient to show that it is in a different predicament from _durst_. The provincial form _mun_, there or thereabouts equivalent in meaning to _must_, has no etymological connexion with this last named word. It is a distinct word, in Scandinavian _monne_. _Wist._--In its present form a regular præterite from _wiss_=_know_. The difficulties of this word arise from the parallel forms _wit_ (as in _to wit_), and _wot_=_knew_. The following are the forms of this peculiar word:-- In Moeso-Gothic, 1 sing. pres. ind. _váit_; 2. do., _váist_; 1. pl. _vitum_; præterite 1. s. _vissa_; 2 _vissêss_; 1. pl. _vissêdum_. From the form _váist_ we see that the second singular is formed after the manner of _must_; that is, _váist_ stands instead of _váit-t_. From the form _vissêdum_ we see that the præterite is not strong, but weak; therefore that _vissa_ is euphonic for _vista_. In Anglo-Saxon.--_Wât_, _wâst_, _witon_, _wiste_ and _wisse_, _wiston_.--Here the double forms, _wiste_ and _wisse_, verify the statement concerning the Moeso-Gothic _vissa_. In Icelandic.--_Veit_, _veizt_, _vitum_, _vissi_. Danish _ved_, _vide_, _vidste_. Observe the form _vidste_; since, in it, the _-d_ of the root (in spelling, at least), is preserved. The _-t_ of the Anglo-Saxon _wiste_ is the _-t_, not of the root, but of the inflection. In respect to the four forms in question, _viz._, _wit_, _wot_, _wiss_, _wist_; the first seems to be the root; the second a strong præterite regularly formed, but used (like [Greek: oida] in Greek) with a present sense; the third a weak præterite, of which the _-t_ has been ejected by a euphonic process, used also with a {325} present sense; the fourth is a second singular from _wiss_ after the manner of _wert_ from _were_, a second singular from _wit_ after the manner of _must_, a secondary præterite from _wiss_, or finally, the form _wisse_, anterior to the operation of the euphonic process that ejected the _-t_. _Do._--In the phrase _this will do_=_this will answer the purpose_, the word _do_ is wholly different from the word _do_, meaning _to act_. In the first case it is equivalent to the Latin _valere_; in the second to the Latin _facere_. Of the first the Anglo-Saxon inflection is _deáh_, _dugon_, _dohte_, _dohtest_, &c. Of the second it is _dó_, _dóð_, _dyde_, &c. I doubt whether the præterite did_,_ as equivalent to _valebat_=_was good for_, is correct. In the phrase _it did for him_=_it finished him_, either meaning may be allowed. In the present Danish they write _duger_, but say _duer_: as _duger et noget?_=_Is it worth anything?_ pronounced _dooer deh note?_ This accounts for the ejection of the _g_. The Anglo-Saxon form _deah_ does the same. In respect to the præterite of _do_=_facio_, difficulties present themselves. Is the word weak?--This is the view that arises from the form _did_. The participle _done_ traverses this view. Is the word strong?--In favour of this notion we have the English participle _done_, and the præterite second singular in Old High German _tâti_. Against it are the Old Saxon _dédos_, and the Anglo-Saxon _dydest_, as second singulars. Is there a reduplication?--If this were the case, we might assume such a form as _dôan_, _dáidô_, for the Moeso-Gothic. This view, however, is traversed by the substantival forms _dêds_, Moeso-Gothic; _tât_, Old High German; _dæd_, Anglo-Saxon; which show that the second _-d_ is part of the original word. The true nature of the form _did_ has yet to be exhibited.--See Deutsche Grammatik, i. 1041. _Mind--mind and do so and so._--In this sentence the word _mind_ is wholly different from the noun _mind_. The Anglo-Saxon forms are _geman_, _gemanst_, _gemunon_, without the _-d_; this letter occurring only in the præterite tense (_gemunde_, {326} _gemundon_), of which it is the sign. _Mind_ is, then, a præterite form with a present sense; whilst _minded_ (as in _he minded his business_) is an instance of excess of inflection; in other words, it is a præterite formed from a præterite. A præterite formed upon a præterite may also be called a secondary præterite; just as the word _theirs_, derived from _their_ (a case formed from a case), is called a secondary genitive. In like manner the present form _mind_ is not a genuine present, but a præterite with a present sense; _its form being taken as the test_. Presents of this sort may be called transformed præterites. It is very evident that the præterites most likely to become present are those of the strong class. In the first place, the fact of their being præterite is less marked. The word _tell_ carries with it fewer marks of its tense than the word _moved_. In the second place they can more conveniently give rise to secondary præterites. A weak præterite already ends in _-d_ or _-t_. If this be used as a present, a second _-d_ or _-t_ must be appended. Hence it is that all the transposed præterites in the Gothic tongues were, before they took the present sense, not weak, but strong. The word in question, _mind_ (from whence _minded_), is only an apparent exception to this statement. Now the words _shall_, _can_, _owe_ (whence _aught_), _dare_, _may_, _man_ (of the Anglo-Saxon _geman_, the origin of _mind_), are, (irrespective of their other peculiarities), for certain etymological reasons, looked upon as præterite forms with a present sense. And the words _should_, _could_, _aught_, _dared_ (or _durst_), _must_, _wist_, _might_, _mind_, are, for certain etymological reasons, looked upon as secondary præterites. This fact alters our view of the form _minded_. Instead of being a secondary præterite, it is a tertiary one. _Geman_ (the apparent present) being dealt with as a strong præterite with a present sense, _mind_ (from the Anglo-Saxon _gemunde_) is the secondary præterite, and _minded_ (from the English _mind_) is a tertiary præterite. To analyse the word, the {327} præterite is first formed by the vowel _a_, then by the addition of _-d_, and, thirdly, by the termination _-ed_; _man_, _mind_, _minded_. The proof of this we collect from the second persons singular, Moeso-Gothic. The second singular præterite of the strong class is _-t_; of the weak class, _-es_; of the present, both weak and strong, _-s_. Now the second singular of the words in point is _skal-t_, _kan-t_, _áih-t_, _dar-t?_ _mag-t_, _man-t_, respectively.--Deutsche Grammatik, i. 852. Besides this, in Anglo-Saxon, the plural forms are those of the strong præterites. See Rask, p. 79. _Yode._--The obsolete præterite of _go_, now replaced by _went_, the præterite of _wend_. Regular, except that the initial _g_ has become _y_. * * * * * {328} CHAPTER XXV. ON CONJUGATION. § 383. The current statement respecting verbs like _sing_ and _fall_, &c., is that they are irregular. How far this is the case may be seen from a review of the twelve classes in Moeso-Gothic, where the change of the vowel is subject to fewer irregularities than elsewhere. In the first six conjugations the præterite is replaced by a perfect tense. Consequently, there is a reduplication. Of these the fifth and sixth superadd to the reduplication a change of the vowel. _Present._ _Past.[55]_ _Past Participle._ _Sing._ _Plural._ 1. Salta Sáisalt Sáisaltum Saltans _Leap._ 2. Háita Háiháit Háiháitum Háitans _Call._ 3. Hláupa Hláiláup Hláiláupum Hláupans _Run._ 4. Slêpa Sáizlêp Sáislêpum Slêpans _Sleep._ 5. Láia Láilô Láilôum Láilans _Laugh._ 6. Grêta Gáigrôt Gáigrôtum Grêtans _Weep._ 7. Svara Svôr Svôrum Svarans _Swear._ 8. Greipa Gráip Gripum Gripans _Gripe._ 9. Biuda Báuþ Budum Budans _Offer._ 10. Giba Gab Gêbum Gibans _Give._ 11. Stila Stal Stêlum Stulans _Stole._ 12. Rinna Rann Runnum Runnans _Run._ Exhibited in a tabular form, the changes of the vowels in Moeso-Gothic are as follows:-- _Prs._ _Pst. S._ _Pst. Pl._ _Part._ 1. a a a a 2. ái ái ái ái 3. áu áu áu áu 4. ê ê ê ê {329} 5. ái ô ô a 6. ê ô ô ê 7. a ô ô a 8. ei ái i i 9. iu áu u u 10. i a ê i 11. i a ê u 12. i a u u § 384. Such is the arrangement of the strong verbs in Moeso-Gothic, with which the arrangement of the strong verbs in the other Gothic languages may or may not coincide. For a full and perfect coincidence three things are necessary:--1. the coincidence of form; 2. the coincidence of distribution; 3. the coincidence of order. 1. _Coincidence of form._.--Compared with the Moeso-Gothic _rinna_, _rann_, _runnum_, _runnans_, the Old High German inflection coincides most rigidly; _e.g._, _rinnu_, _ran_, _runnumês_, _runnanê_. The vowel is the same in the two languages, and it is similarly changed in each. It is very evident that this might be otherwise. The Moeso-Gothic _i_ might have become _e_, or the _u_ might have become _o_. In this case, the formula for the two languages would not have been the same. Instead of _i, a, u, u_ (see the tabular arrangement), serving for the Old High German as well as the Moeso-Gothic, the formula would have been, for the Moeso-Gothic, _i, a, u, u_, and for the Old High German _e, a, u, u_, or _i, a, o, o_. The forms in this latter case would have been equivalent, but not the same. 2. _Coincidence of distribution._--A given number of words in the Moeso-Gothic form their præterites by changing _i_ into _a_; in other words, a given number of verbs in Moeso-Gothic are inflected like _rinna_ and _rann_. The same is the case with the Old High German. Now if these words are the same in the two languages, the Moeso-Gothic and the Old High German (as far as the agreement extends) coincide in the distribution of their verbs; that is, the same words are arranged in the same class, or (changing the phrase) are distributed alike. 3. _Coincidence of order._--The conjugation to which the Moeso-Gothic words _rinna_ and _rann_ belong is the twelfth. The same is the case in Old High German. It might, {330} however, have been the case that in Old High German the class corresponding with the twelfth in Moeso-Gothic was the first, second, third, or any other. Now a coincidence of form, a coincidence of distribution, and a coincidence of order, in all the classes of all the Gothic languages, is more than can be expected. If such were the case, the tenses would be identical throughout. Coincidence of form is infringed upon by the simple tendency of sounds to change. _Hilpa_ in Moeso-Gothic is _helpe_ in Anglo-Saxon: _hulpans_ in Moeso-Gothic is _holfanêr_ in Old High German, and _holpen_ in Anglo-Saxon. A change, however, of this sort is insufficient to affect the arrangement. _Helpan_, in Anglo-Saxon, is placed in the same class with _spinnan_; and all that can be said is, that the Moeso-Gothic _i_ is, in Anglo-Saxon, represented not by _i_ exclusively, but sometimes by _i_ and sometimes by _[)e]_. Coincidence of distribution is of great etymological importance. A word may in one stage of a language take the form of one conjugation, and in another that of another. The word _climban_ is, in Anglo-Saxon, placed in the same conjugation with _drincan_, &c. For this there was a reason; _viz._, the fact of the _i_ being short. For the _i_ being short there was a reason also. The _b_ preceded the vowel _a_, and consequently was sounded. This was the case whether the word was divided _clim-ban_ or _climb-an_. _An_, however, was no part of the original word, but only the sign of the infinitive mood. As such it became ejected. The letter _b_ then came at the end of the word; but as the combination _mb_, followed by nothing was unstable, _b_ was soon lost in pronunciation. Now _b_ being lost, the vowel which was once short became lengthened, or rather it became the sound of the diphthong _ei_; so that the word was no longer called _cl[)i]mb_, but _clime_. Now the words that follow the analogy of _spin_, _span_ ,&c. (and consequently constitute the twelfth class), do so, not because the vowel is _i_, but because it is a short _i_; and when the _i_ is sounded like a diphthong, the præterite is formed differently. The Anglo-Saxon præterite of _climban_ was sounded _cl[)o]mm_, and rhymed to _from_; the English præterite (when strong) of {331} _climb_ is sounded _cl[=o]mbe_, rhyming to _roam_. The word _climb_, which was once classed with _spin_ and _sing_, is now to be classed with _arise_ and _smite_; in other words, it is distributed differently. Coincidence in the order of the classes is violated when a class which was (for instance) the third in one language becomes, in another language the fourth, &c. In Moeso-Gothic the class containing the words _smeita_, _smáit_, _smitum_, _smitans_, is the eighth. This is a natural place for it. In the class preceding it, the vowel is the same in both numbers. In the classes that follow it, the vowel is changed in the plural. The number of classes that in Moeso-Gothic change the vowel is five; _viz._, the eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth. Of these the eighth is the first. The classes where the change in question takes place form a natural subdivision, of which the eighth class stands at the head. Now in Anglo-Saxon the vowel is not changed so much as in the Moeso-Gothic. In words like _choose_, _give_, and _steal_, the vowel remains unaltered in the plural. In Moeso-Gothic, however, these words are, respectively, of the ninth, tenth, and eleventh classes. It is not till we get to the eleventh that the Anglo-Saxon plurals take a fresh vowel. As the presence or absence of a change of vowel naturally regulates the order of the classes, the eighth class in Moeso-Gothic becomes the eleventh in Anglo-Saxon. If it were not so, the classes where a change took place in the plural would be separated from each other. The later the stage of the language, the less complete the coincidence in the classes. Of the present arrangement, the twelfth class coincides most throughout the Gothic languages. In the word _climb_, a reason was given for its having changed from the twelfth class to the eleventh class. This, in the present state of our knowledge, cannot always be done. These statements are made lest the reader should expect to find between the English and the Anglo-Saxon classification anything more than a partial coincidence. A detailed exhibition of the English conjugations would form a work of {332} itself. Moreover, the present classes of the strong verbs must, to a great degree, be considered as provisional. Observe, that it is the _classes_ of the strong verbs that are provisional. With the great divisions into weak and strong, the case is far otherwise. The general assertions which will be made in p. 333, respecting the strong conjugation, show most cogently that the division is a natural one. § 385. Preliminary, however, to making them, the reader's attention is directed to the following list of verbs. In the present English they all form the præterite in _-d_ or _-t_; in Anglo-Saxon, they all form it by a change of the vowel. In other words they are weak verbs that were once strong. _Præterites._ _English._ | _Anglo-Saxon._ | _Present._ _Præterite._ | _Present._ _Præterite._ Wreak Wreaked. | Wrece Wr['æ]c. Fret Fretted. | Frete Fr['æ]t. Mete Meted. | Mete M['æ]t. Shear Sheared. | Scere Scear. Braid Braided. | Brede Br['æ]d. Knead Kneaded. | Cnede Cn['æ]d. Dread Dreaded. | Dr['æ]de Dred. Sleep Slept. | Slápe Slep. Fold Folded. | Fealde Feold. Wield Wielded. | Wealde Weold. Wax Waxed. | Weaxe Weox. Leap Leapt. | Hleápe Hleop. Sweep Swept. | Swápe Sweop. Weep Wept. | Wepe Weop. Sow Sowed. | Sáwe Seow. Bake Baked. | Bace Bók. Gnaw Gnawed. | Gnage Gnóh. Laugh Laughed. | Hlihhe Hlóh. Wade Waded. | Wade Wód. Lade Laded. | Hlade Hlód. Grave Graved. | Grafe Gróf. Shave Shaved. | Scafe Scóf. Step Stepped. | Steppe Stóp. Wash Washed. | Wacse Wócs. Bellow Bellowed. | Belge Bealh. {333} Swallow Swallowed. | Swelge Swealh. Mourn Mourned. | Murne Mearn. Spurn Spurned. | Spurne Spearn. Carve Carved. | Ceorfe Cearf. Starve Starved. | Steorfe Stærf. Thresh Threshed. | Þersce Þærse. Hew Hewed. | Heawe Heow. Flow Flowed. | Flówe Fleow. Row Rowed. | Rówe Reow. Creep Crept. | Creópe Creáp. Dive Dived. | Deófe Deáf. Shove Shoved. | Scéofe Sceáf. Chew Chewed. | Ceówe Ceáw. Brew Brewed. | Breówe Breáw. Lock Locked. | Lûce Leác. Suck Sucked. | Sûce Seác. Reek Reeked. | Reóce Reác. Smoke Smoked. | Smeóce Smeác. Bow Bowed. | Beóge Beáh. Lie Lied. | Leóge Leáh. Gripe Griped. | Grípe Gráp. Span Spanned. | Spanne Spén. Eke Eked. | Eáce Eóc. Fare Fared. | Fare Fôr. § 386. The first of the general statements made concerning strong verbs, with a view of proving that the order is _natural_, shall be the one arising out of the preceding list of præterites. I. Many strong verbs become weak; whilst no weak verb ever becomes strong. II. All the strong verbs are of Saxon origin. None are classical. III. The greater number of them are strong throughout the Gothic tongues. IV. No new word is ever, upon its importation, inflected according to the strong conjugation. It is always weak. As early as A.D. 1085, the French word _adouber_=_to dubb_, was introduced into English. Its præterite was _dubbade_.[56] {334} V. All derived words are inflected weak. The intransitive forms _drink_ and _lie_, are strong; the transitive forms _drench_ and _lay_, are weak. The fourth statement will again be recurred to. The present object is to show that the division into strong and weak is natural. § 387. _Obsolete forms._--Instead of _lept_, _slept_, _mowed_, _snowed_, &c., we find, in the provincial dialects and in the older writers, the strong forms _lep_, _step_, _mew_, _snew_, &c. This is no more than what we expect. Here there are two forms, and each form is of a different conjugation. § 388. _Double Forms._--In _lep_ and _mew_ we have two forms, of which one only is current. In _swoll_ and _swelled_, in _clomb_ and _climbed_, and in _hung_ and _hanged_, we have two forms, of which both are current. These latter are true double forms. Of double forms there are two kinds. 1. Those like _swoll_ and _swelled_; where there is the same tense, but a different conjugation. 2. Those like _spoke_ and _spake_; where the tense is the same and the conjugation the same, but where the form is different. The bearings of these double forms (which, however, are points of general rather than of English grammar) are as follows. Their number in a given language may be very great, and the grammarian of a given language may call them, not double forms of the same tense, but different tenses. Let the number of words like _swoll_ and _swelled_ be multiplied by 1000. The chances are, that, in the present state of etymology, they would be called first præterites and second præterites. The bearing of this remark upon the so-called aorists and futures of the Greek language is evident. I think that a writer in the Cambridge Philological Museum[57] indicates the true nature of those tenses. They are the same tense in a different conjugation, and differ from _swoll_ and _swelled_ only in the frequency of their occurrence. Difference of form, and difference of conjugation, may each simulate a difference of tense. * * * * * {335} CHAPTER XXVI. DEFECTIVENESS AND IRREGULARITY. § 389. In § 361 the distinction between irregularity and defectiveness was slightly foreshadowed. In pp. 243, 267, it was exhibited in its principles. In the present chapter the difference is more urgently insisted on. The words that have hitherto served as illustrations are the personal pronouns _I_ and _me_, and the adjectives _good_, _better_, and _best_. See the sections referred to above. The view of these words was as follows: _viz._, that none of them were irregular, but that they were all defective. _Me_ wanted the nominative, _I_ the oblique cases. _Good_ was without a comparative, _better_ and _best_ had no positive degree. Now _me_ and _better_ may be said to make good the defectiveness of _I_ and _good_; and _I_ and _good_ may be said to replace the forms wanting in _me_ and _better_. This gives us the principle of compensation. To introduce a new term, _I_ and _me_, _good_ and _better_, may be said to be complementary to each other. What applies to nouns applies to verbs also. _Go_ and _went_ are not irregularities. _Go_ is (at least in the present stage of our language) defective in the past tense. _Went_ (at least in its current sense) is without a present. The two words, however, compensate their mutual deficiencies, and are to each other complementary. The distinction between defectiveness and irregularity, is the first instrument of criticism for coming to true views concerning the proportion of the regular and irregular verbs. The second instrument of criticism in determining the irregular verbs, is the meaning that we attach to terms. {336} It is very evident that it is in the power of the grammarian to raise the number of etymological irregularities to any amount, by narrowing the definition of the word irregular; in other words, by framing an exclusive rule. The current rule of the common grammarians is that the præterite is formed by the addition of _-t_, or _-d_, or _-ed_. Now this position is sufficiently exclusive; since it proscribes not only the whole class of strong verbs, but also words like _bent_ and _sent_, where _-t_ exists, but where it does not exist as _an addition_. The regular forms, it may be said, should be _bended_ and _sended_. Exclusive, however, as the rule in question is, it is plain that it might be made more so. The regular forms might, by the _fiat_ of a rule, be restricted to those in _-d_. In this case words like _wept_ and _burnt_ would be added to the already numerous list of irregulars. Finally, a further limitation might be made, by laying down as a rule that no word was regular, unless it ended in _-ed_. Thus much concerning the modes of making rules exclusive, and, consequently, of raising the amount of irregularities. This is the last art that the philosophic grammarian is ambitious of acquiring. True etymology reduces irregularity by making the rules of grammar, not exclusive, but general. The _quantum_ of irregularity is in the inverse proportion to the generality of our rules. In language itself there is no irregularity. The word itself is only another name for our ignorance of the processes that change words; and, as irregularity is in the direct proportion to the exclusiveness of our rules, the exclusiveness of our rules is in the direct proportion to our ignorance of etymological processes. The explanation of some fresh terms will lead us towards (but not to) the definition of the word irregular. I. _Vital and obsolete processes._--The word _moved_ is formed from _move_, by the addition of _-d_. The addition of _-d_ is the process by which the present form is rendered præterite. The word _fell_ is formed from _fall_, by changing _a_ into e. The change of vowel is the process by which the present form is {337} rendered præterite. Of the two processes the result is the same. In what respect do they differ? For the sake of illustration, let a new word be introduced into the language. Let a præterite tense of it be formed. This præterite would be formed, not by changing the vowel, but by adding _-d_. No new verb ever takes a strong præterite. The like takes place with nouns. No new substantive would form its plural, like _oxen_ or _geese_, by adding _-en_, or by changing the vowel. It would rather, like _fathers_ and _horses_, add the lene sibilant. Now, the processes that change _fall_, _ox_, and _goose_ into _fell_, _oxen_, and _geese_, inasmuch as they cease to operate on the language in its present stage, are obsolete processes; whilst those that change _move_ into _moved_, and _horse_ into _horses_, operating on the language in its present stage, are vital processes. A definition of the word irregular might be so framed as to include all words whose forms could not be accounted for by the vital processes. Such a definition would, in the present English, make words like _bent_, _sought_, &c. (the euphonic processes being allowed for), regular, and all the strong verbs irregular. The very fact of so natural a class as that of the strong verbs being reduced to the condition of irregulars, invalidates such a definition as this. II. _Processes of necessity as opposed to processes of habit._--The combinations _-pd-_, _-fd-_, _-kd-_, _-sd-_, and some others, are unpronounceable. Hence words like _step_, _quaff_, _back_, _kiss_, &c., take after them the sound of _-t_: _stept_, _quafft_, &c. (the _sound_ being represented), being their præterites, instead of _stepd_, _quaffd_. Here the change from _-d_ (the natural termination) to _-t_ is a matter (or process) of necessity. It is not so with words like _weep_ and _wept_, &c. Here the change of vowel is not necessary. _Weept_ might have been said if the habit of the language had permitted. A definition of the word irregular might be so framed as to include all words whose natural form was modified by any euphonic process whatever. In this case _stept_ (modified by a {338} process of necessity), and _wept_ (modified by a process of habit), would be equally irregular. A less limited definition might account words regular as long as the process by which they are deflected from their natural form was a process of necessity. Those, however, which were modified by a process of habit it would class with the irregulars. Definitions thus limited arise from ignorance of euphonic processes, or rather from an ignorance of the generality of their operation. III. _Ordinary processes as opposed to extraordinary processes._--The whole scheme of language is analogical. A new word introduced into a language takes the forms of its cases or tenses, &c., from the forms of the cases or tenses, &c., of the old words. The analogy is extended. Now few forms (if any) are so unique as not to have some others corresponding with them; and few processes of change are so unique as not to affect more words than one. The forms _wept_ and _slept_ correspond with each other. They are brought about by the same process; _viz._ by the shortening of the vowel in _weep_ and _sleep_. The analogy of _weep_ is extended to _sleep_, and _vice versâ_. Changing our expression, a common influence affects both words. The alteration itself is an ultimate fact. The extent of its influence is an instrument of classification. When processes affect a considerable number of words, they may be called ordinary processes; as opposed to extraordinary processes, which affect one or few words. When a word stands by itself, with no other corresponding to it, we confess our ignorance, and say that it is affected by an extraordinary process, by a process peculiar to itself, or by a process to which we know nothing similar. A definition of the word irregular might be so framed as to include all words affected by extraordinary processes; the rest being considered regular. IV. _Positive processes as opposed to ambiguous processes._--The words _wept_ and _slept_ are similarly affected. Each is changed from _weep_ and _sleep_ respectively; and we know that {339} the process which affects the one is the process that affects the other also. Here there is a positive process. Reference is now made to words of a different sort. The nature of the word _worse_ is explained in p. 267, and the reader is referred to the section. There the form is accounted for in two ways, of which only one can be the true one. Of the two processes, each might equally have brought about the present form. Which of the two it was, we are unable to say. Here the process is ambiguous. A definition of the word irregular might be so framed as to include all words affected by ambiguous processes. V. _Normal processes as opposed to processes of confusion._--Let a certain word come under class A. Let all words under class A be similarly affected. Let a given word come under class A. This word will be affected even as the rest of class A is affected. The process affecting, and the change resulting, will be normal, regular, or analogical. Let, however, a word, instead of really coming under class A, _appear_ to do so. Let it be dealt with accordingly. The analogy then is a false one. The principle of imitation is a wrong one. The process affecting is a process of confusion. Examples of this (a few amongst many) are words like _songstress_, _theirs_, _minded_, where the words _songstr-_, _their-_, and _mind-_, are dealt with as roots, which they are not. Ambiguous processes, extraordinary processes, processes of confusion--each, or all of these are legitimate reasons for calling words irregular. The practice of etymologists will determine what definition is most convenient. With extraordinary processes we know nothing about the word. With ambiguous processes we are unable to make a choice. With processes of confusion we see the analogy, but, at the same time, see that it is a false one. § 390. _Could._--With all persons who pronounce the _l_ this word is truly irregular. The Anglo-Saxon form is _cuðe_. The _-l_ is inserted by a process of confusion. _Can_, _cunne_, _canst_, _cunnon_, _cunnan_, _cuðe_, _cuðon_, _cuð_--such are the remaining forms in Anglo-Saxon. None of them {340} account for the _-l_. The presence of the _-l_ makes the word _could_ irregular. No reference to the allied languages accounts for it. Notwithstanding this, the presence of the _-l_ is accounted for. In _would_ and _should_ the _-l_ has a proper place. It is part of the original words, _will_ and _shall_. A false analogy looked upon _could_ in the same light. Hence a true irregularity; _provided that the_ L _be pronounced_. The L, however, is pronounced by few, and that only in pursuance to the spelling. This reduces the word _could_ to an irregularity, not of language, but only of orthography. That the mere ejection of the _-n_ in _can_, and that the mere lengthening of the vowel, are not irregularities, we learn from a knowledge of the processes that convert the Greek [Greek: odontos] (_odontos_) into [Greek: odous] (_odows_). § 391. The verb _quoth_ is truly defective. It is found in only one tense, one number, and one person. It is the third person singular of the præterite tense. It has the further peculiarity of preceding its pronoun. Instead of saying _he quoth_, we say _quoth he_. In Anglo-Saxon, however, it was not defective. It was found in the other tenses, in the other number, and in other moods. _Ic cweðe_, _þu cwyst_, _he cwyð_. _Ic cwæð_, _þú cwæðe_, _he cwæð_, _we cwædon_, _ge cwædon_, _hi cwædon_. Imperative, _cweð_. Participle, _gecweden_. In the Scandinavian it is current in all its forms. There, however, it means, not _to speak_ but to _sing_. As far as its conjugation goes, it is strong. As far as its class goes, it follows the form of _speak_, _spoke_. Like speak, its Anglo-Saxon form is in _æ_, as _cwæð_. Like one of the forms of _speak_, its English form is in o, as _quoth_, _spoke_. The whole of the present chapter is indicative of the nature of irregularity, and of the elements that should enter into the definition of it, rather than exhaustive of the detail. The principle that I recognise for myself is to consider no word irregular unless it can be proved so. This view includes the words affected by ambiguous processes, and by processes of confusion, and no others. The words affected by {341} extraordinary processes form a provisional class, which a future increase of our etymological knowledge may show to be regular. _Worse_ and _could_ (its spelling being considered) are the fairest specimens of our irregulars. The class, instead of filling pages, is exceedingly limited. * * * * * {342} CHAPTER XXVII. THE IMPERSONAL VERBS. § 392. _Meseems._--Equivalent to _it seems to me_; _mihi videtur_, [Greek: phainetai moi]. The verb _seems_ is intransitive; consequently the pronoun _me_ has the power of a dative case. The pronoun it is not required to accompany the verb. § 393. _Methinks._--In Anglo-Saxon there are two forms; _þencan_=_to think_, and _þincan_=_to seem_. It is from the latter form that the verb in _methinks_ comes. Such being the case, it is intransitive, and consequently the pronoun _me_ has the power of a dative case. The pronoun _it_ is not required to accompany the verb. Of this word we have also the past form _methought_. Methought I saw my late espoused wife Brought to me, like Alcestis, from the grave. MILTON. § 394. _Me listeth_, or _me lists_.--Equivalent to _it pleases me_=_me juvat_. Anglo-Saxon _lystan_=_to wish_, _to choose_, also _to please_, _to delight_; Norse, _lysta_. Unlike the other two, the verb is transitive, so that the pronoun _me_ has the power of an accusative case. The pronoun _it_ is not required to accompany the verb. These three are the only true impersonal verbs in the English language. They form a class by themselves, because no pronoun accompanies them, as is the case with the equivalent expressions _it appears_, _it pleases_, and with all the other verbs in the language. In the old language impersonal verbs, or rather the impersonal use of verbs, was commoner than at present. Him _oughten_ now to have the lese pain. _Legend of Good Women_, 429. {343} Him _ought_ not to be a tyrant. _Legend of Good Women_, 377. Me mete.--CHAUCER. Well me quemeth.--_Conf. Amantis._ In the following lines the construction is, _it shall please your Majesty_. I'll muster up my friends to meet your Grace, Where and what time your Majesty shall please. _Richard III_., iv. 4. See a paper of Mr. Guest's, Phil. Trans., vol. ii. 241. Strictly speaking, the impersonal verbs are a part of syntax rather than of etymology. * * * * * {344} CHAPTER XXVIII. THE VERB SUBSTANTIVE. § 395. The verb substantive is generally dealt with as an irregular verb. This is inaccurate. The true notion is that the idea of _being_ or _existing_ is expressed by four different verbs, each of which is defective in some of its parts. The parts, however, that are wanting in one verb, are made up by the inflections of one of the others. There is, for example, no præterite of the verb _am_, and no present of the verb _was_. The absence, however, of the present form of _was_ is made up by the word _am_, and the absence of the præterite form of _am_ is made up by the word _was_. § 396. _Was._--Defective, except in the præterite tense, where it is found both in the indicative and conjunctive. _Indicative._ | _Conjunctive._ | _Sing._ _Plur._ | _Sing._ _Plur._ | 1. Was. Were. | 1. Were. Were. 2. Wast. Were. | 2. Wert. Were. 3. Was. Were. | 3. Were. Were. In the older stages of the Gothic languages the word has both a full conjugation and a regular one. In Anglo-Saxon it has an infinitive, a participle present, and a participle past. In Moeso-Gothic it is inflected throughout with _-s_; as _visa_, _vas_, _vêsum_, _visans_. In that language it has the power of the Latin _maneo_ = _to remain_. The _-r_ first appears in the Old High German; _wisu_, _was_, _wârumês_, _wësaner_. In Norse the _s_ entirely disappears, and the word is inflected with _r_ throughout; _vera_, _var_, _vorum_, &c. § 397. _Be._--Inflected in Anglo-Saxon throughout the present tense, both indicative and subjunctive; found also as an {345} infinitive _beón_, as a gerund to _beonne_, and as a participle _beonde_. In the present English its inflection is as follows:-- _Present._ _Indicative._ | _Conjunctive._ | _Imperative._ _Sing._ _Plur._ | _Sing._ _Plur._ | _Sing._ _Plur._ | | 1. -- -- | Be. Be. | -- -- 2. Beest. -- | Beest? Be. | Be. Be. 3. -- -- | Be. Be, Bin. | -- -- | | _Infin._ To be. _Pres. P._ Being. _Past Part._ Been. The line in Milton beginning _If thou beest he_--(P. L. b. ii.), leads to the notion that the antiquated form _beest_ is not indicative, but conjunctive. Such, however, is not the case: _býst_ in Anglo-Saxon is indicative, the conjunctive form being _beó_.--_And every thing that pretty bin_ (Cymbeline).--Here the word _bin_ is the conjunctive plural, in Anglo-Saxon _béon_; so that the words _every thing_ are to be considered equivalent to the plural form _all things_. The phrase in Latin would stand thus, _quotquot pulcra sint_; in Greek thus, [Greek: ha an kala êi]. The _indicative_ plural is, in Anglo-Saxon, not _beón_, but _beóð_ and _beó_. § 398. In the Deutsche Grammatik, i. 1051, it is stated that the Anglo-Saxon forms _beó_, _bist_, _bið_, _beoð_, or _beó_, have not a present, but a future sense; that whilst _am_ means _I am_, _beó_ means _I shall be_; and that in the older languages it is only where the form _am_ is not found that _be_ has the power of a present form. The same root occurs in the Slavonic and Lithuanic tongues with the same power; as, _esmi_=_I am_; _búsu_=_I shall be_, Lithuanic.--_Esmu_=_I am_; _buhshu_=_I shall be_, Livonic.--_Jesm_=_I am_; _budu_=_I shall be_, Slavonic.--_Gsem_=_I am_; _budu_=_I shall be_, Bohemian. This, however, proves, not that there is in Anglo-Saxon a future tense (or form), but that the word _beó_ has a future sense. There is no fresh tense where there is no fresh form. The following is a specimen of the future power of _beón_ in Anglo-Saxon:--"_Hi ne _beóð_ na cílde, soðlice, on domesdæge, ac _beóð_ swa micele menn swa swa hi, migton beón gif hi full weoxon on gewunlicre ylde._"--Ælfric's Homilies. "They _will not_ be children, forsooth, on Domesday, but _will be_ as much {346} (so muckle) men as they might be if they were full grown (waxen) in customary age." § 399. If we consider the word _beón_ like the word _weorðan_ (see below) to mean not so much _to be_ as to _become_, we get an element of the idea of futurity. Things which are _becoming anything_ have yet something further to either do or suffer. Again, from the idea of futurity we get the idea of contingency, and this explains the subjunctive power of _be_. In English we often say _may_ for _shall_, and the same was done in Anglo-Saxon.--"_Ic ðe secge, heò is be ðam húse ðe Fegor hátte, and nán man nis ðe hig wíte_ (_shall, may know_) _ær ðám myclan dóme_."--Ælfric's Homilies, 44. § 400. _Am._--Of this form it should be stated, that the letter _-m_ is no part of the original word. It is the sign of the first person, just as it is in all the Indo-European languages. It should also be stated, that, although the fact be obscured, and although the changes be insufficiently accounted for, the forms _am_, _art_, _are_, and _is_, are not, like _am_ and _was_, parts of different words, but forms of one and the same word; in other terms, that, although between _am_ and _be_ there is no etymological connexion, there is one between _am_ and _is_. This we collect from the comparison of the Indo-European languages. 1. 2. 3. Sanskrit _Asmi._ _Asi._ _Asti._ Zend _Ahmi._ _Ani._ _Ashti_. Greek [Greek: Eimi]. [Greek: Eis]. [Greek: Ei]. Latin _Sum._ _Es._ _Esti._ Lithuanic _Esmi._ _Essi._ _Esti._ Old Slavonic _Yesmy._ _Yesi._ _Yesty._ Moeso-Gothic _Im._ _Is._ _Ist._ Old Saxon -- [58]_Is._ _Ist._ Anglo-Saxon _Eom._ _Eart._ _Is._ Icelandic _Em._ _Ert._ _Er._ English _Am_. _Art._ _Is._ In English and Anglo-Saxon the word is found in the {347} present indicative only. In English it is inflected through both numbers; in Anglo-Saxon in the singular number only. The Anglo-Saxon plurals are forms of the German _seyn_, a verb whereof we have, in the present English, no vestiges. _Worth._--In the following lines of Scott, the word _worth_=_is_, and is a fragment of the regular Anglo-Saxon verb _weorðan_=_to be_, or _to become_; German, _werden_. Woe _worth_ the chase, woe _worth_ the day, That cost thy life, my gallant grey. _Lady of the Lake._ * * * * * {348} CHAPTER XXIX. THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. § 401. The present participle, called also the active participle and the participle in _-ing_, is formed from the original word by adding _-ing_; as, _move_, _moving_. In the older languages the termination was more marked, being _-nd_. Like the Latin participle in _-ns_, it was originally declined. The Moeso-Gothic and Old High German forms are _habands_ and _hapêntêr_=_having_, respectively. The _-s_ in the one language, and the _-êr_ in the other, are the signs of the case and gender. In the Old Saxon and Anglo-Saxon the forms are _-and_ and _-ande_; as _bindand_, _bindande_=_binding_. In all the Norse languages, ancient and modern, the _-d_ is preserved. So it is in the Old Lowland Scotch, and in many of the modern provincial dialects of England, where _strikand_, _goand_, is said for _striking_, _going_. In Staffordshire, where the _-ing_ is pronounced _-ingg_, there is a fuller sound than that of the current English. In Old English the form in _-nd_ is predominant, in Middle English, the use fluctuates, and in New English the termination _-ing_ is universal. In the Scotch of the modern writers we find the form _-in_. The rising sun o'er Galston muirs Wi' glorious light was glintin'; The hares were hirplin' down the furs, The lav'rocks they were chantin'. BURNS' _Holy Fair_. It is with the oblique cases of the present participles of the classical languages, rather than with the nominative, that we must compare the corresponding participle in Gothic; _e.g._, {349} [Greek: echont-os] (_ekhontos_), Greek; _habent-is_, Latin; _hapênt-êr_, Old High German. § 402. It has often been remarked that the participle is used in many languages as a substantive. This is true in Greek, [Greek: Ho prassôn]=_the actor_, when a male. [Greek: Hê prassousa]=_the actor_, when a female. [Greek: To pratton]=_the active principle of a thing_. § 403. But it is also stated, that, in the English language, the participle is used as a substantive in a greater degree than elsewhere, and that it is used in several cases and in both numbers, _e.g._, _Rising_ early is healthy, There is health _in rising_ early. This is the advantage _of rising_ early. The _risings_ in the North, &c. Archbishop Whately has some remarks on this substantival power in his Logic. Some remarks of Mr. R. Taylor, in the Introduction to his edition of Tooke's Diversions of Purley, modify this view. According to these, the _-ing_ in words like _rising_ is not the _-ing_ of the present participle; neither has it originated in the Anglo-Saxon _-end_. It is rather the _-ing_ in words like _morning_, which is anything but a participle of the non-existent verb _morn_, and which has originated in the Anglo-Saxon substantival termination _-ung_. Upon this Rask writes as follows:--"_Gitsung_, _gewilnung_=_desire_; _swutelung_=_manifestation_; _clænsung_=_a cleansing_; _sceawung_=_view_, _contemplation_; _eorð beofung_=_an earthquake_; _gesomnung_=_an assembly_. This termination is chiefly used in forming substantives from verbs of the first class in _-ian_; as, _hálgung_=_consecration_, from _hálgian_=_to consecrate_. These verbs are all feminine."--Anglo-Saxon Grammar, p. 107. Now, whatever may be the theory of the origin of the termination _-ing_ in old phrases like _rising early is healthy_, it cannot apply to expressions of recent introduction. Here the direct origin in _-ung_ is out of the question. {350} The view, then, that remains to be taken of the forms in question is this: 1. That the older forms in _-ing_ are substantival in origin, and=the Anglo-Saxon _-ung_. 2. That the latter ones are participial, and have been formed on a false analogy. * * * * * {351} CHAPTER XXX. THE PAST PARTICIPLE. § 404. The participle in _-en_.--In the Anglo-Saxon this participle was declined like the adjectives. Like the adjectives, it is, in the present English, undeclined. In Anglo-Saxon it always ended in _-en_, as _sungen_, _funden_, _bunden_. In English this _-en_ is often wanting, as _found_, _bound_; the word _bounden_ being antiquated. Words where the _-en_ is wanting may be viewed in two lights; 1, they may be looked upon as participles that have lost their termination; 2, they may be considered as præterites with a participial sense. § 405. _Drank, drunk, drunken._--With all words wherein the vowel of the plural differs from that of the singular, the participle takes the plural form. To say _I have drunk_, is to use an ambiguous expression; since _drunk_ may be either a participle _minus_ its termination, or a præterite with a participial sense. To say _I have drank_, is to use a præterite for a participle. To say _I have drunken_, is to use an unexceptionable form. In all words with a double form, as _spake_ and _spoke_, _brake_ and _broke_, _clave_ and _clove_, the participle follows the form in _o_, as _spoken_, _broken_, _cloven_. _Spaken_, _braken_, _claven_, are impossible forms. There are degrees in laxity of language, and to say _the spear is broke_ is better than to say _the spear is brake_. These two statements bear upon the future history of the præterite. That of the two forms _sang_ and _sung_, one will, in the course of language, become obsolete is nearly certain; and, as the plural form is also that of the participle, it is the plural form which is most likely to be the surviving one. {352} § 406. As a general rule, we find the participle in _-en_ wherever the præterite is strong; indeed, the participle in _-en_ may be called the strong participle, or the participle of the strong conjugation. Still the two forms do not always coincide. In _mow_, _mowed_, _mown_; _sow_, _sowed_, _sown_; and several other words, we find the participle strong, and the præterite weak. I remember no instances of the converse. This is only another way of saying that the præterite has a greater tendency to pass from strong to weak than the participle. § 407. In the Latin language the change from _s_ to _r_, and _vice versâ_, is very common. We have the double forms _arbor_ and _arbos_, _honor_ and _honos_, &c. Of this change we have a few specimens in English. The words _rear_ and _raise_, as compared with each other, are examples. In Anglo-Saxon a few words undergo a similar change in the plural number of the strong præterites. Ceóse, _I choose_; ceás, _I chose_; curon, _we chose_; gecoren, _chosen_. Forleóse, _I lose_; forleás, _I lost_; forluron, _we lost_; forloren, _lost_. Hreose, _I rush_; hreás, _I rushed_; hruron, _we rushed_; gehroren, _rushed_. This accounts for the participial form _forlorn_, or _lost_, in New High German _verloren_. In Milton's lines, ---- the piercing air Burns _frore_, and cold performs the effect of fire. _Paradise Lost_, b. ii. we have a form from the Anglo-Saxon participle _gefroren_=_frozen_. § 408. The participle in _-d_, _-t_, or _-ed_.--In the Anglo-Saxon this participle was declined like the adjective. Like the adjective, it is, in the present English, undeclined. In Anglo-Saxon it differed in form from the præterite, inasmuch as it ended in _-ed_, or _-t_, whereas the præterite ended in _-ode_, _-de_, or _-te_: as, _lufode_, _bærnde_, _dypte_, præterites; _gelufod_, _bærned_, _dypt_, participles. As the ejection of the _e_ reduces words like _bærned_ and _bærnde_ to the same form, it is easy to account for the present {353} identity of form between the weak præterites and the participles in _-d_: _e. g._, _I moved_, _I have moved_, &c. § 409. In the older writers, and in works written, like Thomson's Castle of Indolence, in imitation of them, we find prefixed to the præterite participle the letter _y-_, as _yclept_=_called_: _yclad_=_clothed_: _ydrad_=_dreaded_. The following are the chief facts and the current opinion concerning this prefix:-- 1. It has grown out of the fuller forms _ge-_: Anglo-Saxon, _ge-_: Old Saxon, _gi-_: Moeso-Gothic, _ga-_: Old High German, _ka-_, _cha-_, _ga-_, _ki-_, _gi-_. 2. It occurs in each and all of the Germanic languages of the Gothic stock. 3. It occurs, with a few fragmentary exceptions, in none of the Scandinavian languages of the Gothic stock. 4. In Anglo-Saxon it occasionally indicates a difference of sense; as _hâten_=_called_, _ge_-hâten=_promised_, _boren_=_borne_, _ge_-boren=_born_. 5. It occurs in nouns as well as verbs. 6. Its power, in the case of nouns, is generally some idea of _association_, or _collection_.--Moeso-Gothic, _sinþs_=_a journey_, _ga-sinþa_=_a companion_; Old High German, _perc_=_hill_; _ki-perki_ (_ge-birge_)=_a range of hills_. 7. But it has also a _frequentative_ power; a frequentative power which is, in all probability, secondary to its collective power: since things which recur frequently recur with a tendency to collection or association; Middle High German, _ge-rassel_=_rustling_; _ge-rumpel_=_c-rumple_. 8. And it has also the power of expressing the possession of a quality. _Anglo-Saxon._ _English._ _Anglo-Saxon._ _Latin._ Feax _Hair_ _Ge_-feax _Comatus_. Heorte _Heart_ _Ge_-heort _Cordatus_. Stence _Odour_ _Ge_-stence _Odorus_. This power is also a collective, since every quality is associated with the object that possesses it: _a sea with waves_=_a wavy sea_. {354} 9. Hence it is probable that the _ga-_, _ki-_, or _gi-_, Gothic, is the _cum_ of Latin languages. Such is Grimm's view, as given in Deutsche Grammatik, i. 1016. Concerning this, it may be said that it is deficient in an essential point. It does not show how the participle past is collective. Undoubtedly it may be said that every such participle is in the condition of words like _ge-feax_ and _ge-heort_; _i. e._, that they imply an association between the object and the action or state. But this does not seem to be Grimm's view; he rather suggests that the _ge-_ may have been a prefix to verbs in general, originally attached to all their forms, but finally abandoned everywhere except in the case of the participle. The theory of this prefix has yet to assume a satisfactory form. * * * * * {355} CHAPTER XXXI. COMPOSITION. § 410. In the following words, amongst many others, we have palpable and indubitable specimens of composition. _Day-star_, _vine-yard_, _sun-beam_, _apple-tree_, _ship-load_, _silver-smith_, &c. The words _palpable_ and _indubitable_ have been used, because, in many cases, as will be seen hereafter, it is difficult to determine whether a word be a true compound or not. Now, in each of the compounds quoted above, it may be seen that it is the second word which is qualified, or defined, by the first, and that it is not the first which is qualified or defined, by the second. Of _yards_, _beams_, _trees_, _loads_, _smiths_, there may be many sorts, and, in order to determine what _particular_ sort of _yard_, _beam_, _tree_, _load_, or _smith_, may be meant, the words _vine_, _sun_, _apple_, _ship_, and _silver_, are prefixed. In compound words it is the _first_ term that defines or particularises the second. § 411. That the idea given by the word _apple-tree_ is not referable to the words _apple_ and _tree_, irrespective of the order in which they occur, may be seen by reversing the position of them. The word _tree-apple_, although not existing in the language, is as correct a word as _thorn-apple_. In _tree-apple_, the particular sort of _apple_ meant is denoted by the word _tree_, and if there were in our gardens various sorts of plants called _apples_, of which some grew along the ground and others upon trees, such a word as _tree-apple_ would be required in order to be opposed to _earth-apple_, or _ground-apple_, or some word of the kind. In the compound words _tree-apple_ and _apple-tree_, we have the same elements differently arranged. However, as the {356} word _tree-apple_ is not current in the language, the class of compounds indicated by it may seem to be merely imaginary. Nothing is farther from being the case. A _tree-rose_ is a rose of a particular sort. The generality of roses being on _shrubs_, this grows on a _tree_. Its peculiarity consists in this fact, and this particular character is expressed by the word _tree_ _prefixed_. A _rose-tree_ is a _tree_ of a particular sort, distinguished from _apple-trees_, and _trees_ in general (in other words, particularised or defined) by the word _rose_ _prefixed_. A _ground-nut_ is a _nut_ particularised by growing in the ground. _A nut-ground_ is a _ground_ particularised by producing nuts. A _finger-ring_, as distinguished from _ear-rings_, and from _rings_ in general (and so particularised), is a _ring_ for the _finger_. A _ring finger_, as distinguished from _fore-fingers_, and from _fingers_ in general (and so particularised), is a _finger_ whereon _rings_ are worn. § 412. At times this rule seems to be violated. The words _spitfire_ and _daredevil_ seem exceptions to it. At the first glance it seems, in the case of a _spitfire_, that what he (or she) _spits_ is _fire_; and that, in the case of a _daredevil_, what he (or she) _dares_ is the _devil_. In this case the initial words _spit_ and _dare_, are particularised by the final ones _fire_ and _devil_. The true idea, however, confirms the original rule. A _spitfire_ voids his fire by spitting. A _daredevil_, in meeting the fiend, would not shrink from him, but would defy him. A _spitfire_ is not one who spits fire, but one whose fire is _spit_. A _daredevil_ is not one who dares even the devil, but one by whom the devil is even dared. § 413. Of the two elements of a compound word, which is the most important? In one sense the latter, in another sense the former. The latter word is the most _essential_; since the general idea of _trees_ must exist before it can be defined or particularised; so becoming the idea which we have in _apple-tree_, _rose-tree_, &c. The former word, however, is the most _influential_. It is by this that the original idea is qualified. The latter word is the staple original element: the former is the superadded influencing element. Compared with each {357} other, the former element is active, the latter passive. Etymologically speaking, the former element, in English compounds, is the most important. § 414. Most numerous are the observations that bear upon the composition of words; _e.g._, how nouns combine with nouns, as in _sunbeam_; nouns with verbs, as in _daredevil_, &c. It is thought sufficient in the present work to be content with, 1. defining the meaning of the term composition; 2. explaining the nature of some obscure compounds. Composition is the joining together, _in language_, of two _different words_, and _treating the combination as a single term_. Observe the words in italics. _In language._--A great number of our compounds, like the word _merry-making_, are divided by the sign -, or the hyphen. It is very plain that if all words _spelt_ with a hyphen were to be considered as compounds, the formation of them would be not a matter of speech, or language, but one of writing or spelling. This distinguishes compounds in language from mere printers' compounds. _Different._--In Old High German we find the form _sëlp-sëlpo_. Here there is the junction of two words, but not the junction of two _different_ ones. This distinguishes composition from gemination.--Grimm, Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 405. _Words._--In _father-s_, _clear-er_, _four-th_, &c., there is the addition of a letter or a syllable, and it may be even of the part of a word. There is no addition, however, of a whole word. This distinguishes composition from derivation. _Treating the combination as a single term._--In determining, in certain cases, between derived words and compound words, there is an occasional perplexity; the perplexity, however, is far greater in determining between a compound word and _two words_. In the eyes of one grammarian the term _mountain height_ may be as truly a compound word as _sunbeam_. In the eyes of another grammarian it may be no compound word, but two words, just as _Alpine height_ is two words; _mountain_ being dealt with as an adjective. It is in the determination of this that the accent plays an important part. This fact was foreshadowed in the Chapter upon Accents. {358} § 415. The attention of the reader is drawn to the following line, slightly altered, from Churchill:-- "Then rést, my friénd, _and spáre_ thy précious bréath." On each of the syllables _rest_, _friend_, _spare_, _prec-_, _breath_, there is an accent. Each of these syllables must be compared with the one that precedes it; _rest_ with _then_, _friend_ with _my_, and so on throughout the line. Compared with the word _and_, the word _spare_ is not only accented, but the accent is conspicuous and prominent. There is so little on _and_, and so much on _spare_, that the disparity of accent is very manifest. Now, if in the place of _and_, there was some other word, a word not so much accented as _spare_, but still more accented than _and_, this disparity would be diminished, and the accents of the two words might be said to be at _par_, or nearly so. As said before, the line was slightly altered from Churchill, the real reading being Then rést, my friénd, _spare, spare_ thy précious breath.-- In the true reading we actually find what had previously only been supposed. In the words _spare, spare_, the accents are nearly at _par_. Such the difference between accent at _par_ and disparity of accent. Good illustrations of the parity and disparity of accent may be drawn from certain names of places. Let there be such a sentence as the following: _the lime house near the bridge north of the new port._ Compare the parity of accent on the separate words _lime_ and _house_, _bridge_ and _north_, _new_ and _port_, with the disparity of accent in the compound words _Límehouse_, _Brídgenorth_, and _Néwport_. The separate words _beef steak_, where the accent is nearly at _par_, compared with the compound word _sweépstakes_, where there is a great disparity of accent, are further illustrations of the same difference. § 416. The difference between a compound word and two words is greatest where the first is an adjective. This we see in comparing such terms as the following: _bláck bírd_, meaning a _bird that is black_, with _bláckbird_=the Latin _merula_; or _blúe béll_, meaning a _bell that is blue_, with _blúebell_, the flower. {359} Expressions like _a shárp edgéd instrument_, meaning _an instrument that is sharp and has edges_, as opposed to a _shárp-edged instrument_, meaning _an instrument with sharp edges_, further exemplify this difference. Subject to four small classes of exceptions, it may be laid down, that, in the English language, _there is no composition unless there is either a change of form or a change of accent_. The reader is now informed, that unless, in what has gone before, he has taken an exception to either a statement or an inference, he has either seen beyond what has been already laid down by the author, or else has read him with insufficient attention. This may be shown by drawing a distinction between a compound form and a compound idea. In the words _a red house_, each word preserves its natural and original meaning, and the statement is _that a house is red_. By a parity of reasoning _a mad house_ should mean a _house that is mad_; and, provided that each word retain its natural meaning and its natural accent, such is the fact. Let a _house_ mean, as it often does, a _family_. Then the phrase, _a mad house_, means that the _house_, _or family_, _is mad_, just as a _red house_ means that the _house is red_. Such, however, is not the current meaning of the word. Every one knows that _a mad house_ means _a house for mad men_; in which case it is treated as a compound word, and has a marked accent on the first syllable, just as _Límehouse_ has. Now, compared with the word _red house_, meaning a house of a _red colour_, and compared with the words _mad house_, meaning a _deranged family_, the word _mádhouse_, in its common sense, expresses a compound idea; as opposed to two ideas, or a double idea. The word _beef steak_ is evidently a compound idea; but, as there is no disparity of accent, it is not a compound word. Its sense is compound; its form is not compound, but double. This indicates the objection anticipated, which is this: _viz._, that a definition, which would exclude such a word as _beef steak_ from the list of compounds, is, for that very reason, exceptionable. I answer to this, that the term in question is a compound idea, and not a compound form; in other words, that it is a compound in logic, but not a compound in etymology. {360} Now etymology, taking cognisance of forms only, has nothing to do with ideas, except so far as they influence forms. Such is the commentary upon the words, "_treating the combination as a single term_;" in other words, such the difference between a compound word and two words. The rule, being repeated, stands (subject to the four classes of exceptions) thus: _There is no true composition without either a change of form or a change of accent._ As I wish to be clear upon this point, I shall illustrate the statement by its application. The word _trée-rose_ is often pronounced _trée róse_; that is, with the accent at _par_. It is compound in the one case; it is two words in the other. The words _mountain ash_ and _mountain height_ are generally (perhaps always) pronounced with an equal accent on the syllables _mount-_ and _ash_, _mount-_ and _height_, respectively. In this case the word _mountain_ must be dealt with as an adjective, and the words considered as two. The word _moúntain wave_ is often pronounced with a visible diminution of accent on the last syllable. In this case there is a disparity of accent, and the word is compound. § 417. The following quotation indicates a further cause of perplexity in determining between compound words and two words:-- 1. A wet sheet and a blowing gale, A breeze that follows fast; That fills the white and swelling sail, And bends the _gallant mast_. ALLAN CUNNINGHAM. 2. Britannia needs no bulwarks, No towers along the steep; Her march is o'er the _mountain-wave_, Her home is on the deep. THOMAS CAMPBELL. To speak first of the word (or words) _gallant mast_. If _gallant_ mean _brave_, there are _two words_. If the words be two, there {361} is a stronger accent on _mast_. If the accent on _mast_ be stronger, the rhyme with _fast_ is more complete; in other words, the metre favours the notion of the words being considered as _two_. _Gallant-mast_, however, is a compound word, with an especial nautical meaning. In this case the accent is stronger on _gal-_ and weaker on _-mast_. This, however, is not the state of things that the metre favours. The same applies to _mountain wave_. The same person who in prose would throw a stronger accent on _mount-_ and a weaker one on _wave_ (so dealing with the word as a compound), might, in poetry, make the words _two_, by giving to the last syllable a parity of accent. The following quotation from Ben Jonson may be read in two ways; and the accent may vary with the reading. 1. Lay thy bow of pearl apart, And thy _silver shining_ quiver. 2. Lay thy bow of pearl apart, And thy _silver-shining_ quiver. _Cynthia's Revels._ § 418. _On certain words wherein the fact of their being compound is obscured._--Composition is the addition of a word to a word, derivation is the addition of letters or syllables to a word. In a compound form each element has a separate and independent existence; in a derived form, only one of the elements has such. Now it is very possible that in an older stage of a language two words may exist, may be put together, and may so form a compound; at the time in point each word having a separate and independent existence: whilst, in a later stage of language, only one of these words may have a separate and independent existence, the other having become obsolete. In this case a compound word would take the appearance of a derived one, since but one of its elements could be exhibited as a separate and independent word. Such is the case with, amongst others, the word _bishopric_. In the present language the word _ric_ has no separate and independent existence. For all this, the word {362} is a true compound, since, in Anglo-Saxon, we have the noun _ríce_ as a separate, independent word, signifying _kingdom_ or domain. Again, without becoming obsolete, a word may alter its form. This is the case with most of our adjectives in _-ly_. At present they appear derivative; their termination _-ly_ having no separate and independent existence. The older language, however, shows that they are compounds; since _-ly_ is nothing else than _-lic_, Anglo-Saxon; _-lih_, Old High German; _-leiks_, Moeso-Gothic;=_like_, or _similis_, and equally with it an independent separate word. For the following words a separate independent root is presumed rather than shown. It is presumed, however, on grounds that satisfy the etymologist. _Mis-_, as in _misdeed_, &c.--Moeso-Gothic, _missô_=_in turns_; Old Norse, _â mis_=_alternately_; Middle High German, _misse_=_mistake_. The original notion _alternation_, thence _change_, thence _defect_. Compare the Greek [Greek: allôs].--Grimm, Deutsche Grammatik, ii. 470. _Dom_, as in _wisdom_, &c.--The substantive _dôm_ presumed.--Deutsche Grammatik, ii. 491. _Hood_ and _head_, as in _Godhead_, _manhood_, &c.--The substantive _háids_=_person_, _order_, _kind_, presumed.--Deutsche Grammatik, ii. 497. Nothing to do with the word _head_. _Ship_, as in _friendship_.--Anglo-Saxon, _-scipe_ and _-sceäft_; German, _-schaft_; Moeso-Gothic, _gaskafts_=_a creature_, or _creation_. The substantive _skafts_ or _skap_ presumed. The _-skip_ or _-scape_ in _landskip_ is only an older form.--Deutsche Grammatik, ii. 522. _Less_, as in _sleepless_, &c., has nothing to do with _less_. Derived from _láus_, _lôs_, _destitute of_=Latin, _expers_.--Deutsche Grammatik, ii. 565. For the further details, which are very numerous, see the Deutsche Grammatik, vol. iii. § 419. "Subject to four classes of exceptions, it may be laid down that _there is no true composition unless there is either a change of form or a change of accent_."--Such is the statement made in p. 359. The first class of exceptions consists {363} of those words where the natural tendency to disparity of accent is traversed by some rule of euphony. For example, let two words be put together, which at their point of contact form a combination of sounds foreign to our habits of pronunciation. The rarity of the combination will cause an effort in utterance. The effort in utterance will cause an accent to be laid on the latter half of the compound. This will equalize the accent, and abolish the disparity. The word _monkshood_, the name of a flower (_aconitum napellus_), where, to my ear at least, there is quite as much accent on the _-hood_ as on the _monks-_, may serve in the way of illustration. Monks is one word, hood another. When joined together, the _h-_ of the _-hood_ is put in immediate opposition with the _-s_ of the _monks-_. Hence the combination _monkshood_. At the letters _s_ and _h_ is the point of contact. Now the sound of _s_ followed immediately by the sound of _h_ is a true aspirate. But true aspirates are rare in the English language. Being of rare occurrence, the pronunciation of them is a matter of attention and effort; and this attention and effort creates an accent which otherwise would be absent. Hence words like _monkshóod_, _well-héad_, and some others. Real reduplications of consonants, as in _hop-pole_, may have the same parity of accent with the true aspirates: and for the same reasons. They are rare combinations that require effort and attention. The second class of exceptions contains those words wherein between the first element and the second there is so great a disparity, either in the length of the vowel, or the length of the syllable _en masse_, as to counteract the natural tendency of the first element to become accented. One of the few specimens of this class (which after all may consist of double words) is the term _upstánding_. Here it should be remembered, that words like _hapházard_, _foolhárdy_, _uphólder_, and _withhóld_ come under the first class of the exceptions. The third class of exceptions contains words like _perchánce_ and _perháps_. In all respects but one these are double words, just as _by chance_ is a double word. _Per_, however, differs from _by_ in having no separate existence. This sort of words {364} we owe to the multiplicity of elements (classical and Gothic) in the English language. To anticipate objections to the rule respecting the disparity of accent, it may be well to state in fresh terms a fact already indicated, viz., that the same combination of words may in one sense be compound, and in the other double (or two). _An uphill game_ gives us the combination _up_ + _hill_ as a compound. _He ran up hill_ gives us the combination _up_ + _hill_ as two words. So it is with _down_ + _hill_, _down_ + _right_, and other words. _Man-servant_, _cock-sparrow_, &c., are double or compound, as they are pronounced _mán-sérvant_, _mán-servant_, _cóck-spárrow_, or _cóck-sparrow_. The fourth class is hypothetical. I can, however, imagine that certain compounds may, if used almost exclusively in poetry, and with the accent at _par_, become so accented even in the current language. § 420. For a remark on the words _peacock_, _peahen_, see the Chapter upon Gender.--If these words be rendered masculine or feminine by the addition of the elements _-cock_ and _-hen_, the statements made in the beginning of the present chapter are invalidated. Since, if the word _pea-_ be particularized, qualified, or defined by the words _-cock_ and _-hen_, the second term defines or particularises the first, which is contrary to the rule of p. 355. The truth, however, is, that the words _-cock_ and _-hen_ are defined by the prefix _pea-_. Preparatory to the exhibition of this, let us remember that the word _pea_ (although now found in composition only) is a true and independent substantive, the name of a species of fowl, like _pheasant_, _partridge_, or any other appellation. It is the Latin _pavo_, German _pfau_. Now, if the word _peacock_ mean a _pea_ (_pfau_ or _pavo_) that is a male, then do _wood-cock_, _black-cock_, and _bantam-cock_, mean _woods_, _blacks_, and _bantams_ that are male. Or if the word _peahen_ mean a _pea_ (_pfau_ or _pavo_) that is female, then do _moorhen_ and _guineahen_ mean _moors_ and _guineas_ that are female. Again, if a _peahen_ mean a _pea_ (_pfau_ or _pavo_) that is female, then does the compound _pheasant-hen_ mean the same as _hen-pheasant_; which is not the case. The fact is that _peacock_ means a _cock that is a pea_ (_pfau_ or _pavo_); {365} _peahen_ means a _hen that is a pea_ (_pfau_ or _pavo_); and, finally, _peafowl_ means a _fowl that is a pea_ (_pfau_ or _pavo_). In the same way _moorfowl_ means, not a _moor that is connected with a fowl_, but a _fowl that is connected with a moor_. § 421. It must be clear, _ex vi termini_, that in every compound word there are two parts; _i. e._, the whole or part of the original, and the whole or part of the superadded word. In the most perfect forms of inflection there is a third element, _viz._, a vowel, consonant, or syllable that joins the first word with the second. In the older forms of all the Gothic languages the presence of this third element was the rule rather than the exception. In the present English it exists in but few words. _a._ The _-a-_ in _black-a-moor_ is possibly such a connecting element. _b._ The _-in-_ in _night-in-gale_ is most probably such a connecting element. Compare the German form _nacht-i-gale_, and remember the tendency of vowels to take the sound of _-ng_ before _g_. § 422. _Improper compounds._--The _-s-_ in words like _Thur-s-day_, _hunt-s-man_, may be one of two things. _a._ It may be the sign of the genitive case, so that _Thursday_=_Thoris dies_. In this case the word is an improper compound, since it is like the word _pater-familias_ in Latin, in a common state of syntactical construction. _b._ It may be a connecting sound, like the _-i-_ in _nacht-i-gale_. Reasons for this view occur in the following fact:-- In the Modern German languages the genitive case of feminine nouns ends otherwise than in _-s_. Nevertheless, the sound of _-s-_ occurs in composition equally, whether the noun it follows be masculine or feminine. This fact, as far as it goes, makes it convenient to consider the sound in question as a connective rather than a case. Probably, it is neither one nor the other exactly, but the effect of a false analogy. § 423. _Decomposites._--"Composition is the joining together of _two_ words."--See p. 357. In the first edition the sentence ran "_two or more_" words; being so written to account for compounds like _mid-ship-man_, {366} _gentle-man-like_, &c., where the number of verbal elements seems to amount to three. Nevertheless, the caution was unnecessary. Compound radicals like _midship_ and _gentleman_, are, for the purposes of composition, single words. Compounds wherein one element is compound are called decomposites. § 424. The present chapter closes with the notice of two classes of words. They are mentioned now, not because they are compounds, but because they can be treated of here more conveniently than elsewhere. There are a number of words which are never found by themselves; or, if so found, have never the same sense that they have in combination. Mark the word combination. The terms in question are points of combination, not of composition: since they form not the parts of words, but the parts of phrases. Such are the expressions _time and tide_--_might and main_--_rede me my riddle_--_pay your shot_--_rhyme and reason_, &c. These words are evidently of the same class, though not of the same species with _bishopric_, _colewort_, _spillikin_, _gossip_, _mainswearer_, and the words quoted in p. 362. These last-mentioned terms give us obsolete words preserved in composition. The former give us obsolete words preserved in combination. The other words are etymological curiosities. They may occur in any language. The English, however, from the extent of its classical element, is particularly abundant in them. It is a mere accident that they are all compound words. * * * * * {367} CHAPTER XXXII. ON DERIVATION AND INFLECTION. § 425. Derivation, like _etymology_, is a word used in a wide and in a limited sense. In the wide sense of the term every word, except it be in the simple form of a root, is a derived word. In this sense the cases, numbers, and genders of nouns, the persons, moods, and tenses of verbs, the ordinal numbers, the diminutives, and even the compound words, are alike matters of derivation. In the wide sense of the term the word _fathers_, from _father_, is equally in a state of derivation with the word _strength_, from _strong_. In the use of the word, even in its limited sense, there is considerable laxity and uncertainty. _Gender, number, case._--These have been called the _accidents_ of the noun, and these it has been agreed to separate from derivation in its stricter sense, or from derivation properly so called, and to class together under the name of declension. Nouns are declined. _Person, number, tense, voice._--These have been called the accidents of a verb, and these it has been agreed to separate from derivation properly so called, and to class together under the name of conjugation. Verbs are conjugated. Conjugation and declension constitute inflection. Nouns and verbs, speaking generally, are inflected. Inflection, a part of derivation in its wider sense, is separated from derivation properly so called, or from derivation in its limited sense. The degrees of comparison, or certain derived forms of adjectives; the ordinals, or certain derived forms of the numerals; the diminutives, &c., or certain derived forms of the substantive, have been separated from derivation properly {368} so called. I am not certain, however, that for so doing there is any better reason than mere convenience. By some the decrees of comparison are considered as points of inflection. Derivation proper, the subject of the present chapter, comprises all the changes that words undergo, which are not referable to some of the preceding heads. As such, it is, in its details, a wider field than even composition. The details, however, are not entered into. § 426. Derivation proper may be divided according to a variety of principles. Amongst others, I. _According to the evidence._--In the evidence that a word is not simple, but derived, there are at least two degrees. A. That the word _strength_ is a derived word I collect to a certainty from the word _strong_, an independent form, which I can separate from it. Of the nature of the word _strength_ there is the clearest evidence, or evidence of the first degree. B. _Fowl, hail, nail, sail, tail, soul; _in Anglo-Saxon_, fugel, hægel, nægel, segel, tægel, sawel._ --These words are by the best grammarians considered as derivatives. Now, with these words I can not do what was done with the word _strength_, I can not take from them the part which I look upon as the derivational addition, and after that leave an independent word. _Strength_ - _th_ is a true word; _fowl_ or _fugel_ - _l_ is no true word. If I believe these latter words to be derivations at all, I do it because I find in words like _handle_, &c., the _-l_ as a derivational addition. Yet, as the fact of a word being sometimes used as a derivational addition does not preclude it from being at other times a part of the root, the evidence that the words in question are not simple, but derived, is not cogent. In other words, it is evidence of the second degree. II. _According to the effect._--The syllable _-en_ in the word _whiten_ changes the noun _white_ into a verb. This is its effect. We may so classify as to arrange combinations like _-en_ (whose effect is to give the idea of the verb) in one order; whilst combinations like _th_ (whose effect is, as in the word _strength_, to give the idea of abstraction) form another order. III. _According to the form._--Sometimes the derivational {369} element is a vowel (as the _-ie_ in _doggie_); sometimes a consonant combined: in other words, a syllable (as the _-en_ in _whiten_); sometimes a change of vowel without any addition (as the _i_ in _tip_, compared with _top_); sometimes a change of consonant without any addition (as the _z_ in _prize_, compared with _price_; sometimes it is a change of _accent_, like _a súrvey_, compared with _to survéy_. To classify derivations in this manner is to classify them according to their form. For the detail of the derivative forms, see Deutsche Grammatik, ii. 89-405. IV. _According to the historical origin of the derivational elements._--For this see the Chapter upon Hybridism. V. _According to the number of the derivational elements._--In _fisher_, as compared with _fish_, there is but one derivational affix. In _fishery_, as compared with _fish_, the number of derivational elements is two. § 427. The list (taken from Walker) of words alluded to in p. 293, is as follows:-- _Nouns._ _Verbs._ Ábsent absént. Ábstract abstráct. Áccent accént. Áffix affíx. Aúgment augmént. Cólleague colléague. Cómpact compáct. Cómpound compóund. Cómpress compréss. Cóncert concért. Cóncrete concréte. Cónduct condúct. Cónfine confíne. Cónflict conflíct. Cónserve consérve. Cónsort consórt. Cóntract contráct. Cóntrast contrást. Cónverse convérse. Cónvert convért. Désert desért. Déscant descánt. Dígest digést. Éssay essáy. Éxtract extráct. Férment fermént. Fréquent freqúent. Ímport impórt. Íncense incénse. Ínsult insúlt. Óbject objéct. Pérfume perfúme. Pérmit permít. Préfix prefíx. Prémise premíse. Présage preságe. Présent presént. Próduce prodúce. Próject projéct. Prótest protést. Rébel rebél. Récord recórd. {370} Réfuse refúse. Súbject subjéct. Súrvey survéy. Tórment tormént. Tránsfer transfér. Tránsport. transpórt. § 428. _Churl_, _earl_, _owl_, _fowl_, _hail_, _nail_, _sail_, _snail_, _tail_, _hazel_, _needle_, _soul_, _teazle_, _fair_, _beam_, _bottom_, _arm_, _team_, _worm_, _heaven_, _morn_, _dust_, _ghost_, _breast_, _rest_, _night_, _spright_, _blind_, _harp_, _flax_, _fox_, _finch_, _stork_, &c. All these words, for certain etymological reasons, are currently considered, by the latest philologists, as derivatives. Notwithstanding the general prevalence of a fuller form in the Anglo-Saxon, it is clear that, in respect to the evidence, they come under division B. § 429. Forms like _tip_, from _top_, _price_ and _prize_, &c., are of importance in general etymology. Let it be received as a theory (as with some philologists is really the case) that fragmentary sounds like the _-en_ in _whiten_, the _-th_ in _strength_, &c., were once _words_; or, changing the expression, let it be considered that all derivation was once composition. Let this view be opposed. The first words that are brought to militate against it are those like _tip_ and _prize_, where, instead of any _addition_, there is only _a change_; and, consequently, no vestiges of an older _word_. This argument, good as far as it goes, is rebutted in the following manner. Let the word _top_ have attached to it a second word, in which second word there is a small vowel. Let this small vowel act upon the full one in _top_, changing it to _tip_. After this, let the second word be ejected. We then get the form _tip_ by the law of accommodation, and not as an immediate sign of derivation. The _i_ in _chick_ (from _cock_) may be thus accounted for, the _-en_ in _chicken_ being supposed to have exerted, first, an influence of accommodation, and afterwards to have fallen off. The _i_ in _chick_ may, however, be accounted for by simple processes. § 430. In words like _bishopric_, and many others mentioned in the last chapter, we had compound words under the appearance of derived ones; in words like _upmost_, and many others, we have derivation under the appearance of composition. * * * * * {371} CHAPTER XXXIII. ADVERBS. § 431. _Adverbs._--The adverbs are capable of being classified after a variety of principles. Firstly, they may be divided according to their meaning. In this case we speak of the adverbs of time, place, number, manner. This division is logical rather than etymological. A division, however, which although logical bears upon etymology, is the following:-- _Well, better, ill, worse._--Here we have a class of adverbs expressive of degree, or intensity. Adverbs of this kind are capable of taking an inflection, _viz._, that of the comparative and superlative degrees. _Now, then, here, there._--In the idea expressed by these words there are no degrees of intensity. Adverbs of this kind are incapable of taking any inflection. Words like _better_ and _worse_ are adjectives or adverbs as they are joined to nouns or verbs. Adverbs differ from nouns and verbs in being susceptible of one sort of inflection only, _viz._, that of degree. Secondly, adverbs may be divided according to their form and origin. This is truly an etymological classification. A _Better, worse._--Here the combination of sounds gives equally an adjective and an adverb. _This book is better than that_--here _better_ agrees with _book_, and is therefore adjectival. _This looks better than that_--here _better_ qualifies _looks_, and is therefore adverbial. Again; _to do a thing with violence_ is equivalent _to do a thing violently_. This shows how adverbs may arise out of cases. In words like the English _better_, the Latin _vi_=_violenter_, the Greek [Greek: kalon]=[Greek: kalôs], we have {372} adjectives in their degrees, and substantives in their cases, with adverbial powers. In other words, nouns are deflected from their natural sense to an adverbial one. Adverbs of this kind are adverbs of deflection. B _Brightly, bravely._--Here an adjective is rendered adverbial by the addition of the derivative syllable _-ly_. Adverbs like _brightly_, &c., may (laxly speaking) be called adverbs of derivation. C _Now._--This word has not satisfactorily been shown to have originated as any other part of speech but as an adverb. Words of this sort are adverbs absolute. _When, now, well, worse, better._--here the adverbial expression consists in a single word, and is _simple_. _To-day_, _yesterday_, _not at all_, _somewhat_--here the adverbial expression consists of a compound word, or a phrase. This indicates the division of adverbs into simple and complex. § 432. The adverbs of deflection (of the chief importance in etymology) may be arranged after a variety of principles. I. According to the part of speech from whence they originate. This is often an adjective, often a substantive, at times a pronoun, occasionally a preposition, rarely a verb. II. According to the part of the inflection from whence they originate. This is often an ablative case, often a neuter accusative, often a dative, occasionally a genitive. The following notices are miscellaneous rather than systematic. _Else, unawares, eftsoons._--These are the genitive forms of adjectives. _By rights_ is a word of the same sort. _Once, twice, thrice._--These are the genitive forms of numerals. _Needs_ (as in _needs must go_) is the genitive case of a substantive. _Seldom._--The old dative (singular or plural) of the adjective _seld_. _Whilom._--The dative (singular or plural) of the substantive _while_. _Little, less, well._--Neuter accusatives of adjectives. _Bright_, in the _sun shines bright_, is a word of the same class. The {373} neuter accusative is a common source of adverbs in all tongues. _Athwart._--A neuter accusative, and a word exhibiting the Norse neuter in _-t_. § 433. _Darkling._--This is no participle of a verb _darkle_, but an adverb of derivation, like _unwaringun_=_unawares_, Old High German; _stillinge_=_secretly_, Middle High German; _blindlings_=_blindly_, New High German; _darnungo_=_secretly_, Old Saxon; _nichtinge_=_by night_, Middle Dutch; _blindeling_=_blindly_, New Dutch; _bæclinga_=_backwards_, _handlunga_=_hand to hand_, Anglo-Saxon; and, finally, _blindlins_, _backlins_, _darklins_, _middlins_, _scantlins_, _stridelins_, _stowlins_, in Lowland Scotch.--Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 236. § 434. "Adverbs like _brightly_ may (laxly speaking) be called adverbs of derivation." Such the assertion made a few paragraphs above. The first circumstance that strikes the reader is, that the termination _-ly_ is common both to adjectives and to adverbs. This termination was once an independent word, _viz._, _leik_. Now, as _-ly_ sprung out of the Anglo-Saxon _-lice_, and as words like _early_, _dearly_, &c., were originally _arlîce_, _deorlîce_, &c., and as _arlîce_, _deorlîce_, &c., were adjectives, the adverbs in _-ly_ are (_strictly speaking_) adverbs, not of derivation, but of deflection. It is highly probable that not only the adverbs of derivation, but that also the absolute adverbs, may eventually be reduced to adverbs of deflection. For _now_, see Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 249. * * * * * {374} CHAPTER XXXIV. ON CERTAIN ADVERBS OF PLACE. § 435. It is a common practice for languages to express by different modifications of the same root the three following ideas:-- 1. The idea of rest _in_ a place. 2. The idea of motion _towards_ a place. 3. The idea of motion _from_ a place. This habit gives us three correlative adverbs--one of position, and two of direction. § 436. It is also a common practice of language to depart from the original expression of each particular idea, and to interchange the signs by which they are expressed. § 437. This may be seen in the following table, illustrative of the forms _here_, _hither_, _hence_, and taken from the Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 199. _Moeso-Gothic_ þar, þaþ, þaþro, _there, thither, thence_. hêr, hiþ, hidrô, _here, hither, hence_. _Old High German_ huâr, huara, huanana, _where, whither, whence_. dâr, dara, danana, _there, thither, thence_. hear, hêra, hinana, _here, hither, hence_. _Old Saxon_ huar, huar, huanan, _where, whither, whence_. thar, thar, thanan, _there, thither, thence_. hêr, hër, hënan, _here, hither, hence_. _Anglo-Saxon_ þar, þider, þonan, _there, thither, thence_. hvar, hvider, hvonan, _where, whither, whence_. hêr, hider, hënan, _here, hither, hence_. _Old Norse_ þar, þaðra, þaðan, _there, thither, thence_. hvar, hvert, hvaðan, _where, whither, whence_. hêr, hëðra, hëðan, _here, hither, hence_. _Middle High German_ dâ, dan,dannen, _there, thither, thence_. wâ, war, wannen, _where, whither, whence_. hie, hër, hennen, _here, hither, hence_. {375} _Modern High German_ da, dar, dannen, _there, thither, thence_. wo, wohin, wannen, _where, whither, whence_. hier, her, hinnen, _here, hither, hence_. § 438. These local terminations were commoner in the earlier stages of language than at present. The following are from the Moeso-Gothic:-- Ïnnaþrô = _from within_. [=U]taþrô = _from without_. Ïnnaþrô = _from above_. Fáirraþrô = _from afar_. Allaþrô = _from all quarters_. Now a reason for the comparative frequency of these forms in Moeso-Gothic lies in the fact of the Gospel of Ulphilas being a translation from the Greek. The Greek forms in [Greek: -then, esôthen, exôthen, anôthen, porrhôthen, pantothen], were just the forms to encourage such a formation as that in _-þro_.--Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 199, &c. § 439. The _-ce_ (=_es_) in _hen-ce_, _when-ce_, _then-ce_, has yet to be satisfactorily explained. The Old English is _whenn-es_, _thenn-es_. As far, therefore, as the spelling is concerned, they are in the same predicament with the word _once_, which is properly _on-es_, the genitive of _one_. This statement, however, explains only the peculiarity of their orthography; since it by no means follows, that, because the _-s_ in _ones_ and the _-s_ in _whennes_, _thennes_ are equally replaced by _-ce_ in orthography, they must equally have the same origin in etymology. § 440. _Yonder._--In the Moeso-Gothic we have the following forms: _jáinar_, _jáina_, _jáinþrô_=_illic_, _illuc_, _illinc_. They do not, however, explain the form _yon-d-er_. It is not clear whether the _d_=the _-d_ in _jâind_, or the _þ_ in _jáinþro_. _Anon_, as used by Shakspeare, in the sense of _presently_.--The probable history of this word is as follows: the first syllable contains a root akin to the root _yon_, signifying _distance in place_. The second is a shortened form of the Old High German and Middle High German, _-nt_, a termination expressive, 1, of removal in space; 2, of removal in time; Old High German, _ënont_, _ënnont_; Middle High German, {376} _ënentlig_, _jenunt_=_beyond_. The transition from the idea of _place_ to that of _time_ is shown in the Old High German, _nâhunt_, and the Middle High German, _vërnent_=_lately_; the first from the root _nigh_, the latter from the root _far_.--See Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 215. * * * * * {377} CHAPTER XXXV. ON WHEN, THEN, AND THAN. § 441. The Anglo-Saxon adverbs are _whenne_ and _þenne_=_when_, _then_. The masculine accusative cases of the relative and demonstrative pronoun are _hwæne_ (_hwone_) and _þæne_ (_þone_). Notwithstanding the difference, the first form is a variety of the second; so that the adverbs _when_ and _then_ are pronominal in origin. As to the word _than_, the conjunction of comparison, it is a variety of _then_; the notions of _order_, _sequence_, and _comparison_ being allied. _This is good_: _then_ (or _next in order_) _that is good_, is an expression sufficiently similar to _this is better than that_ to have given rise to it. * * * * * {378} CHAPTER XXXVI. PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS. § 442. _Prepositions._--Prepositions, as such, are wholly unsusceptible of inflection. Other parts of speech, in a state of inflection, may be used with a prepositional sense. This, however, is not an inflection of prepositions. No word is ever made a preposition by the addition of a derivational[59] element. If it were not for this, the practical classification of the prepositions, in respect to their form, would coincide with that of the adverbs. As it is, there are only the prepositions of deflection, and the absolute prepositions. On another principle of division there are the simple prepositions (_in_, _on_, &c.), and the complex prepositions (_upon_, _roundabout_, _across_). The prepositions of deflection, when simple, originate chiefly in adverbs, as _up_, _down_, _within_, _without_, unless, indeed, we change the assertion, and say that the words in point (and the others like them) are adverbs originating in prepositions. The absence of characteristic terminations renders these decisions difficult. The prepositions of deflection, when complex, originate chiefly in nouns, accompanied by an absolute preposition; as _instead of_ of substantival, _between_ of adjectival origin. The absolute prepositions, in the English language, are _in_, _on_, _of_, _at_, _up_, _by_, _to_, _for_, _from_, _till_, _with_, _through_. § 443. _Conjunctions._--Conjunctions, like prepositions, are wholly unsusceptible of inflection. Like prepositions they {379} are never made by means of a derivational element. Like prepositions they are either simple (as _and_, _if_), or complex (as _also_, _nevertheless_). The conjunctions of deflection originate chiefly in imperative moods (as _all_ save _one_, _all_ except _one_); participles used like the ablative absolute in Latin (as _all_ saving _one_, _all_ excepting _one_); adverbs (as _so_); prepositions (as _for_); and relative neuters (as _that_). The absolute conjunctions in the English language are _and_, _or_, _but_, _if_. § 444. _Yes, no._--Although _not_ may be reduced to an adverb, _nor_ to a conjunction, and _none_ to a noun, these two words (the direct affirmative, and the direct negative) are referable to none of the current parts of speech. Accurate grammar places them in a class by themselves. § 445. _Particles._--The word particle is a collective term for all those parts of speech that are _naturally_ unsusceptible of inflection; comprising, 1, interjections; 2, direct affirmatives; 3, direct negatives; 4, absolute conjunctions; 5, absolute prepositions; 6, adverbs unsusceptible of degrees of comparison; 7, inseparable prefixes. * * * * * {380} CHAPTER XXXVII. ON THE GRAMMATICAL POSITION OF THE WORDS MINE AND THINE. § 446. The inflection of pronouns has its natural peculiarities in language; it has also its natural difficulties in philology. These occur not in one language in particular, but in all generally. The most common peculiarity in the grammar of pronouns is the fact of what may be called their _convertibility_. Of this _convertibility_ the following statements serve as illustration:-- 1. _Of case._--In our own language the words _my_ and _thy_, although at present possessives, were previously datives, and, earlier still, accusatives. Again, the accusative _you_ replaces the nominative _ye_, and _vice versâ_. 2. _Of number._--The words _thou_ and _thee_ are, except in the mouths of Quakers, obsolete. The plural forms, _ye_ and _you_, have replaced them. 3. _Of person._--Laying aside the habit of the Germans and other nations, of using the third person plural for the second singular (as in expressions like _wie befinden sie sich_ = _how do they find themselves?_ instead of _how do you find yourself?_) the Greek language gives us examples of interchange in the way of persons in the promiscuous use of [Greek: nin, min, sphe], and [Greek: heautou]; whilst _sich_ and _sik_ are used with a similar latitude in the Middle High German and Scandinavian. 4. _Of class._--The demonstrative pronouns become _a._ Personal pronouns. _b._ Relative pronouns. _c._ Articles. The reflective pronoun often becomes reciprocal. {381} These statements are made for the sake of illustrating, not of exhausting, the subject. It follows, however, as an inference from them, that the classification of pronouns is complicated. Even if we knew the original power and derivation of every form of every pronoun in a language, it would be far from an easy matter to determine therefrom the paradigm that they should take in grammar. To place a word according to its power in a late stage of language might confuse the study of an early stage. To say that because a word was once in a given class, it should always be so, would be to deny that in the present English _they_, _these_, and _she_ are personal pronouns at all. The two tests, then, of the grammatical place of a pronoun, its _present power_ and its _original power_, are often conflicting. In the English language the point of most importance in this department of grammar is the place of forms like _mine_ and _thine_; in other words, of the forms in _-n_. Are they genitive cases of a personal pronoun, as _mei_ and _tui_ are supposed to be in Latin, or are they possessive pronouns like _meus_ and _tuus_? Now, if we take up the common grammars of the English language _as it is_, we find, that, whilst _my_ and _thy_ are dealt with as genitive cases, _mine_ and _thine_ are considered adjectives. In the Anglo-Saxon grammars, however, _min_ and _þin_, the older forms of _mine_ and _thine_, are treated as genitives; of which _my_ and _thy_ have been dealt with as abbreviated forms, and that by respectable scholars. Now, to prove from the syntax of the older English that in many cases the two forms were convertible, and to answer that the words in question are _either_ genitive cases or adjectives, is lax philology; since the real question is, _which of the two is the primary, and which the secondary meaning?_ § 447. The _à priori_ view of the likelihood of words like _mine_ and _thine_ being genitive cases, must be determined by the comparison of three series of facts. 1. The ideas expressed by the genitive case, with particular reference to the two preponderating notions of possession and partition. {382} 2. The circumstance of the particular notion of possession being, in the case of the personal pronouns of the two first persons singular, generally expressed by a form undoubtedly adjectival. 3. The extent to which the idea of partition becomes merged in that of possession, and _vice versâ_. § 448. _The ideas of possession and partition as expressed by genitive forms._--If we take a hundred genitive cases, and observe their construction, we shall find, that, with a vast majority of them, the meaning is reducible to one of two heads; _viz._, the idea of possession or the idea of partition. Compared with these two powers all the others are inconsiderable, both in number and importance; and if, as in the Greek and Latin languages, they take up a large space in the grammars, it is from their exceptional character rather than from their normal genitival signification. Again, if both the ideas of possession and partition may, and in many cases must be, reduced to the more general idea of relation, this is a point of grammatical phraseology by no means affecting the practical and special bearings of the present division. § 449. _The adjectival expression of the idea of possession._--All the world over, a property is a possession; and _persons_, at least, may be said to be the owners of their attributes. Whatever may be the nature of words like _mine_ and _thine_, the adjectival character of their Latin equivalents, _meus_ and _tuus_, is undoubted. _The ideas of partition and possession merge into one another._--_A man's spade is the_ possession _of a man; a man's hand is the_ part _of a man._ Nevertheless, when a man uses his hand as the instrument of his will, the idea which arises from the fact of its being _part_ of his body is merged in the idea of the possessorship which arises from the feeling of ownership or mastery which is evinced in its subservience and application. Without following the refinements to which the further investigation of these questions would lead us, it is sufficient to suggest that the preponderance of the two allied ideas of partition and possession is often determined by the {383} personality or the non-personality of the subject, and that, when the subject is a person, the idea is chiefly possessive; when a thing, partitive--_caput fluvii_=_the head, which is a part, of a river_; _caput Toli_=_the head, which is the possession, of Tolus_. But as persons may be degraded to the rank of things, and as things may, by personification, be elevated to the level of persons, this distinction, although real, may become apparently invalid. In phrases like a _tributary to the Tiber_--_the criminal lost his eye_--_this field belongs to that parish_--the ideas of possessorship and partition, as allied ideas subordinate to the idea of relationship in general, verify the interchange. § 450. These observations should bring us to the fact that there are two ideas which, more than any other, determine the evolution of a genitive case--the idea of partition and the idea of possession; _and that genitive cases are likely to be evolved just in proportion as there is a necessity for the expression of these two ideas_.--Let this be applied to the question of the à priori probability of the evolution of a genitive case to the pronouns of the first and second persons of the singular number. § 451. _The idea of _possession_, and its likelihood of determining the evolution of a genitive form to the pronouns of the first and second person singular._ --It is less likely to do so with such pronouns than with other words, inasmuch as it is less necessary. It has been before observed, that the practice of most languages shows a tendency to express the relation by adjectival forms--_meus_, _tuus_. An objection against the conclusiveness of this argument will be mentioned in the sequel. § 452. _The idea of _partition_, and its likelihood of determining the evolution of a genitive form, &c._--Less than with other words. A personal pronoun of the _singular_ number is the name of a unity, and, as such, the name of an object far less likely to be separated into parts than the name of a collection. Phrases like, _some of them_, _one of you_, _many of us_, _any of them_, _few of us_, &c., have no analogues in the singular number, such as _one of me_, _a few of thee_, &c. The partitive words that can {384} combine with singular pronouns are comparatively few; _viz._, _half_, _quarter_, _part_, &c.: and they can all combine equally with plurals--_half of us_, _a quarter of them_, _a part of you_, _a portion of us_. The partition of a singular object with a pronominal name is of rare occurrence in language. This last statement proves something more than appears at first sight. It proves that no argument in favour of the so-called _singular_ genitives, like _mine_ and _thine_, can be drawn from the admission (if made) of the existence of the true plural genitives _ou-r_, _you-r_, _thei-r_. The two ideas are not in the same predicament. We can say, _one of ten_, or _ten of twenty_; but we cannot say _one of one_--_Wæs hira Matheus sum_=_Matthew was one of them_; Andreas--_Your noither_=_neither of you_; Amis and Ameloun--from Mr. Guest: _Her eyder_=_either of them_; Octavian.--Besides this, the form of the two numbers are neither identical, nor equally genitival; as may be seen by contrasting _mi-n_ and _thi-n_ with _ou-r_ and _you-r_. § 453. Such are the chief _à priori_ arguments against the genitival character of words like _mine_ and _thine_. Akin to these, and a point which precedes the _à posteriori_ evidence as to the nature of the words in question, is the determination of the side on which lies the _onus probandi_. This question is material; inasmuch as, although the present writer believes, for his own part, that the forms under discussion are adjectival rather than genitival, this is not the point upon which he insists. What he insists upon is the fact of the genitival character of _mine_ and _thine_ requiring a particular proof; which particular proof no one has yet given: in other words, his position is that they are not to be thought genitive until proved to be such. It has not been sufficiently considered that the _primâ facie_ evidence is against them. They have not the form of a genitive case--indeed, they have a different one; and whoever assumes a second form for a given case has the burden of proof on his side. § 454. Against this circumstance of the _-n_ in _mine_ and _thine_ being the sign of anything rather than of a genitive case, and against the _primâ facie_ evidence afforded by it, the {385} following facts may, or have been, adduced as reasons on the other side. The appreciation of their value, either taken singly or in the way of cumulative evidence, is submitted to the reader. It will be seen that none of them are unexceptionable. § 455. _The fact, that, if the words _mine_ and _thine_ are not genitive cases, there is not a genitive case at all._--It is not necessary that there should be one. Particular reasons in favour of the probability of personal pronouns of the singular number being destitute of such a case have been already adduced. _It is more likely that a word should be defective than that it should have a separate form._ § 456. _The analogy of the forms _mei_ and _[Greek: emou]_ in Latin and Greek._--It cannot be denied that this has some value. Nevertheless, the argument deducible from it is anything but conclusive. 1. It is by no means an indubitable fact that _mei_ and [Greek: emou] are really cases of the pronoun. The _extension_ of a principle acknowledged in the Greek language might make them the genitive cases of adjectives used pronominally. Thus, [Greek: To emon] = [Greek: egô], [Greek: Tou emou] = [Greek: emou], [Greek: Tôi emôi] = [Greek: emoi]. Assume the omission of the article and the extension of the Greek principle to the Latin language, and [Greek: emou] and _mei_ may be cases, not of [Greek: eme] and _me_, but of [Greek: emos] and _meus_. 2. In the classical languages the partitive power was expressed by the genitive. "---- multaque pars mei Vitabit Libitinam." This is a reason for the evolution of a genitive power. Few such forms exist in the Gothic; _part my_ is not English, nor was _dæl min_ Anglo-Saxon,=_part of me_, or _pars mei_. § 457. The following differences of form, are found in the different Gothic languages, between the equivalents of _mei_ and _tui_, the so-called genitives of _ego_ and _tu_, and the equivalents of _meus_ and _tuus_, the so-called possessive adjectives. {386} _Moeso-Gothic_ meina = _mei_ _as_ opposed to meins = _meus_. þeina = _tui_ " þeins = _tuus_. _Old High German_ mîn = _mei_ " mîner = _meus_. dîn = _tui_ " dîner = _tuus_. _Old Norse_ min = _mei_ " minn = _meus_. þin=_tui_ " þinn = _tuus_. _Middle Dutch_ mîns = _mei_ " mîn = _meus_. dîns = _tui_ " dîn = tuus. _Modern High German_ mein = _mei_ " meiner = meus. dein = _tui_ " deiner = tuus. In this list, those languages where the two forms are alike are not exhibited. This is the case with the Anglo-Saxon and Old Saxon. In the above-noticed differences of form lie the best reasons for the assumption of a genitive case, as the origin of an adjectival form; and, undoubtedly, in those languages, where both forms occur, it is convenient to consider one as a case and one as an adjective. § 458. But this is not the present question. In Anglo-Saxon there is but one form, _min_ and _þin_=_mei_ and _meus_, _tui_ and _tuus_, indifferently. Is this form an oblique case or an adjective? This involves two sorts of evidence. § 459. _Etymological evidence._--Assuming two _powers_ for the words _min_ and _þin_, one genitive, and one adjectival, which is the original one? or, going beyond the Anglo-Saxon, assuming that of two _forms_ like _meina_ and _meins_, the one has been derived from the other, which is the primitive, radical, primary, or original one? Men, from whom it is generally unsafe to differ, consider that the adjectival form is the derived one; and, as far as forms like _mîner_, as opposed to _mîn_, are concerned, the evidence of the foregoing list is in their favour. But what is the case with the Middle Dutch? The genitive _mîns_ is evidently the derivative of _mîn_. The reason why the forms like _mîner_ seem derived is because they are longer and more complex than the others. Nevertheless, it is by no means an absolute rule in philology that the least compound form is the oldest. A word may be {387} adapted to a secondary meaning by a change in its parts in the way of omission, as well as by a change in the way of addition. Such is the general statement. Reasons for believing that in the particular cases of the words in question such is the fact, will be found hereafter. As to the question whether it is most likely for an adjective to be derived from a case, or a case from an adjective, it may be said, that philology furnishes instances both ways. _Ours_ is a case derived, in syntax at least, from an adjective. _Cujus_ (as in _cujum pecus_) and _sestertium_ are Latin instances of a nominative case being evolved from an oblique one. § 460. _Syntactic evidence._--If in Anglo-Saxon we found such expressions as _dæl min_=_pars mei_, _hælf þin_=_dimidium tui_, we should have a reason, as far as it went, for believing in the existence of a genitive with a partitive power. Such instances, however, have yet to be quoted; whilst, even if quoted, they would not be _conclusive_. Expressions like [Greek: sos pothos]=_desiderium tui_, [Greek: sê promêthiai] = _providentiâ propter te_, show the extent to which the possessive expression encroaches on the partitive. 1. The words _min_ or _þin_, with a power anything rather than possessive, would not for that reason be proved (on the strength of their meaning) to be genitive cases rather than possessive pronouns; since such latitude in the power of the possessive pronoun is borne out by the comparison of languages--[Greek: pater hêmôn] (not [Greek: hêmeteros]) in Greek is _pater noster_ (not _nostrum_) in Latin. § 461. Again--as _min_ and _þin_ are declined like adjectives, even as _meus_ and _tuus_ are so declined, we have means of ascertaining their nature from the form they take in certain constructions; thus, _min_ra=_me_orum, and _min_re=_me_æ, are the genitive plural and the dative singular respectively. Thus, too, the Anglo-Saxon for _of thy eyes_ should be _eagena þinra_, and the Anglo-Saxon for _to my widow_, should be _wuduwan minre_; just as in Latin, they would be _oculorum tuorum_, and _viduæ meæ_. If, however, instead of this we find such expressions as _eagena þin_, or _wuduwan min_, we find evidence in favour of a {388} genitive case; for then the construction is not one of concord, but one of government, and the words _þin_ and _min_ must be construed as the Latin forms _tui_ and _mei_ would be in _oculorum mei_, and _viduæ mei_; viz.: as genitive cases. Now, whether a sufficient proportion of such constructions (real or apparent) exist or not, they have not yet been brought forward. Such instances have yet to be quoted; whilst even if quoted, they would not be conclusive. § 462. A few references to the _Deutsche Grammatik_ will explain this. As early as the Moeso-Gothic stage of our language, we find rudiments of the omission of the inflection. The possessive pronouns in the _neuter singular_ sometimes take the inflection, sometimes appear as crude forms, _nim thata badi theinata_=[Greek: aron sou ton krabbaton] (Mark ii. 9.) opposed to _nim thata badi thein_ two verses afterwards. So also with _mein_ and _meinata_.--Deutsche Grammatik, iv. 470. It is remarkable that this omission should begin with forms so marked as those of the neuter (_-ata_). It has, perhaps, its origin in the adverbial character of that gender. _Old High German._--Here the nominatives, both masculine and feminine, lose the inflection, whilst the neuter retains it--_thin dohter_, _sîn quenâ_, _min dohter_, _sinaz lîb_. In a few cases, when the pronoun comes after, even the _oblique_ cases drop the inflection.--Deutsche Grammatik, 474-478. _Middle High German._--_Preceding_ the noun, the nominative of all genders is destitute of inflection; _sîn lîb_, _mîn ere_, _dîn lîb_, &c. _Following_ the nouns, the oblique cases do the same; _ine herse sîn_.--Deutsche Grammatik, 480. The influence of position should here be noticed. Undoubtedly a place _after_ the substantive influences the omission of the inflection. This appears in its _maximum_ in the Middle High German. In Moeso-Gothic we have _mein leik_ and _leik meinata_.--Deutsche Grammatik, 470. § 463. Now by assuming (which is only a fair assumption) the extension of the Middle High German omission of the inflection to the Anglo-Saxon; and by supposing it to affect the words in question in _all_ positions (_i.e._, both before and {389} after their nouns), we explain these constructions by a process which, in the mind of the present writer, is involved in fewer difficulties than the opposite doctrine of a genitive case, in words where it is not wanted, and with a termination which is foreign to it elsewhere. To suppose _two_ adjectival forms, one inflected (_min_, _minre_, &c.), and one uninflected, or common to all genders and both numbers (_min_), is to suppose no more than is the case with the uninflected _þe_, as compared with the inflected _þæt_.--See pp. 251-253. * * * * * {390} CHAPTER XXXVIII. ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE WEAK PRÆTERITE. § 464. The remote origin of the weak præterite in _-d_ or _-t_, has been considered by Grimm, in the Deutsche Grammatik. He maintains that it is the _d_ in _d-d_, the reduplicate præterite of _do_. In all the Gothic languages the termination of the past tense is either _-da_, _-ta_, _-de_, _-ði_, _-d_, _-t_, or _-ed_, for the singular, and _-don_, _-ton_, _-tûmês_, or _-ðum_, for the plural; in other words, _d_, or an allied sound, appears once, if not oftener. In the plural præterite of the Moeso-Gothic we have something more, _viz._ the termination _-dêdum_; as _nas-idêdum_, _nas-idêduþ_, _nas-idêdum_, from _nas-ja_; _sôk-idêdum_, _sôk-idêduþ_, _sôk-idêdum_ from _sôk-ja_; _salb-ôdêdum_, _salb-ôdêduþ_, _sâlb-ôdêdun_, from _salbô_. Here there is a second d. The same takes place with the dual form _salb-ôdêduts_; and with the subjunctive forms, _salb-ôdêdjan_, _salb-ôdêduts_, _salb-ôdêdi_, _salb-ôdêdeits_, _salb-ôdêdeima_, _salb-ôdêdeiþ_, _salb-ôdêdeina_. The English phrase, _we did salve_, as compared with _salb-ôdêdum_, is confirmatory of this.--Deutsche Grammatik, i. 1042. § 465. Some remarks of Dr. Trithen's on the Slavonic præterite, in the Transactions of the Philological Society, induce me to identify the _d-_ in words like _moved_, &c., with the _-t_ of the passive participles of the Latin language; as found in mon-_it_-us, voc-_at_-us, rap-_t_-us, and probably in Greek forms like [Greek: tuph-th-eis]. l. The Slavonic præterite is commonly said to possess genders: in other words, there is one form for speaking of a past action when done by a male, and another for speaking of a past action when done by a female. 2. These forms are identical with those of the participles, masculine or feminine, as the case may be. Indeed the præterite is a participle; and the fact of its being so accounts for {391} the apparently remarkable fact of its inflection. If, instead of saying _ille amavit_, the Latins said _ille amatus_, whilst instead of saying _illa amavit_ they said _illa amata_, they would exactly use the grammar of the Slavonians. 3. Hence, as one language, the Slavonic gives us the undoubted fact of an active præterite growing out of a passive participle (unless, indeed, we chose to say that both are derived from a common origin); and as the English participle and præterite, when weak, are nearly identical, we have reason for believing that the _d_, in the English active præterite, is the _t_ in the Latin passive participle. § 466. The following extract exhibits Dr. Trithen's remarks on the Slavonic verb:-- "A peculiarity which distinguishes the grammar of all the Slavish languages, consists in the use of the past participle, taken in an active sense, for the purpose of expressing the præterite. This participle generally ends in _l_; and much uncertainty prevails both as to its origin and its relations, though the termination has been compared by various philologists with similar affixes in the Sanscrit, and the classical languages. "In the Old Slavish, or the language of the church, there are three methods of expressing the past tense: one of them consists in the union of the verb substantive with the participle; as, _Rek esm´_ _chital esmi´_ _Rek esi´_ _chital esi´_ _Rek est´_ _chital est´_. "In the corresponding tense of the Slavonic dialect we have the verb substantive placed before the participle: _Yasam imao_ _mi´ smo_ _imali_ _Ti si imao_ _vi´ ste_ _imali_ _On ye imao_ _omi su_ _imali_. "In the Polish it appears as a suffix: _Czytalem_ _czytalismy_ _Czytales_ _czytaliscie_ _Czytal_ _czytalie_. "And in the Servian it follows the participle: _Igrao sam_ _igrali smo_ _Igrao si_ _igrali ste_ _Igrao ye_ _igrali su_. "The ending _ao_, of _igrao_ and _imao_, stands for the Russian _al_, as in some English dialects _a'_ is used for _all_." * * * * * {392} PART V. SYNTAX. -------- CHAPTER I. ON SYNTAX IN GENERAL. § 467. The word _syntax_ is derived from the Greek _syn_ (_with_ or _together_), and _taxis_ (_arrangement_). It relates to the arrangement, or putting together of words. Two or more words must be used before there can be any application of studied syntax. Much that is considered by the generality of grammarians as syntax, can either be omitted altogether, or else be better studied under another name. § 468. To reduce a sentence to its elements, and to show that these elements are, 1, the subject, 2, the predicate, 3, the copula; to distinguish between simple terms and complex terms,--this is the department of logic. To show the difference in force of expression, between such a sentence as _great is Diana of the Ephesians_, and _Diana of the Ephesians is great_, wherein the natural order of the subject and predicate is reversed, is a point of rhetoric. _I am moving._--To state that such a combination as _I am moving_ is grammatical, is undoubtedly a point of syntax. Nevertheless it is a point better explained in a separate treatise, than in a work upon any particular language. The expression proves its correctness by the simple fact of its universal intelligibility. _I speaks._--To state that such a combination as _I speaks_, {393} admitting that _I_ is exclusively the pronoun in the first person, and that _speaks_ is exclusively the verb in the third, is undoubtedly a point of syntax. Nevertheless, it is a point which is better explained in a separate treatise, than in a work upon any particular language. An expression so ungrammatical, involves a contradiction in terms, which unassisted common sense can deal with. This position will again be reverted to. _There is to me a father._--Here we have a circumlocution equivalent to _I have a father_. In the English language the circumlocution is unnatural. In the Latin it is common. To determine this, is a matter of idiom rather than of syntax. _I am speaking, I was reading._--There was a stage in the Gothic languages when these forms were either inadmissible, or rare. Instead thereof, we had the present tense, _I speak_, and the past, _I spoke_. The same is the case with the classical languages in the classical stage. To determine the difference in idea between these pairs of forms is a matter of metaphysics. To determine at what period each idea came to have a separate mode of expression is a matter of the _history_ of language. For example, _vas láisands_ appears in Ulphilas (Matt. vii. 29). There, it appears as a rare form, and as a literal translation of the Greek [Greek: ên didaskôn] (_was teaching_). The Greek form itself was, however, an unclassical expression for [Greek: edidaske]. In Anglo-Saxon this mode of speaking became common, and in English it is commoner still.--Deutsche Grammatik, iv. 5. This is a point of idiom involved with one of history. _Swear by your sword--swear on your sword._--Which of these two expressions is right? This depends on what the speaker means. If he mean _make your oath in the full remembrance of the trust you put in your sword, and with the imprecation, therein implied, that it shall fail you, or turn against you if you speak falsely_, the former expression is the right one. But, if he mean swear _with your hand upon your sword_, it is the latter which expresses his meaning. To take a different view of this question, and to write as a rule that {394} _verbs of swearing are followed by the preposition on_ (or _by_) is to mistake the province of the grammar. Grammar tells no one what he should wish to say. It only tells him how what he wishes to say should be said. Much of the criticism on the use of _will_ and _shall_ is faulty in this respect. _Will_ expresses one idea of futurity, _shall_ another. The syntax of the two words is very nearly that of any other two. That one of the words is oftenest used with a first person, and the other with a second, is a fact, as will be seen hereafter, connected with the nature of _things_, not of words. § 469. The following question now occurs. If the history of forms of speech be one thing, and the history of idioms another; if this question be a part of logic, and that question a part of rhetoric; and if such truly grammatical facts as government and concord are, as matters of common sense, to be left uninvestigated and unexplained, what remains as syntax? This is answered by the following distinction. There are two sorts of syntax; theoretical and practical, scientific and historical, pure and mixed. Of these, the first consists in the analysis and proof of those rules which common practice applies without investigation, and common sense appreciates, in a rough and gross manner, from an appreciation of the results. This is the syntax of government and concord, or of those points which find no place in the present work, for the following reason--_they are either too easy or too hard for it_. If explained scientifically they are matters of close and minute reasoning; if exhibited empirically they are mere rules for the memory. Besides this they are universal facts of languages in general, and not the particular facts of any one language. Like other universal facts they are capable of being expressed symbolically. That the verb (A) agrees with its pronoun (B) is an immutable fact: or, changing the mode of expression, we may say that language can only fulfil its great primary object of intelligibility when A = B. And so on throughout. A formal syntax thus exhibited, and even devised _à priori_, is a philological possibility. And it is also the measure of philological anomalies. {395} § 470. _Pure syntax._--So much for one sort of syntax; _viz._, that portion of grammar which bears the same relation to the practice of language, that the investigation of the syllogism bears to the practice of reasoning. The positions concerning it are by no means invalidated by such phrases as _I speaks_ (for _I speak_), &c. In cases like these there is no contradiction; since the peculiarity of the expression consists not in joining two incompatible persons, but in mistaking a third person for a first--_and as far as the speaker is concerned, actually making it so_. I must here anticipate some objections that may be raised to these views, by stating that I am perfectly aware that they lead to a conclusion which to most readers must appear startling and to some monstrous, _viz._, to the conclusion that _there is no such thing as bad grammar at all_; _that everything is what the speaker chooses to make it_; _that a speaker may choose to make any expression whatever, provided it answer the purpose of language, and be intelligible_; _that, in short, whatever is is right_. Notwithstanding this view of the consequence I still am satisfied with the truth of the premises. I may also add that the terms _pure_ and _mixed_, themselves suggestive of much thought on the subject which they express, are not mine but Professor Sylvester's. § 471. _Mixed syntax._--That, notwithstanding the previous limitations, there is still a considerable amount of syntax in the English, as in all other languages, may be seen from the sequel. If I undertook to indicate the essentials of mixed syntax, I should say that they consisted in the explanation of combinations _apparently_ ungrammatical; in other words, that they ascertained the results of those causes which disturb the regularity of the pure syntax; that they measured the extent of the deviation; and that they referred it to some principle of the human mind--so accounting for it. _I am going._--Pure syntax explains this. _I have gone._--Pure syntax will not explain this. Nevertheless, the expression is good English. The power, however, of both _have_ and _gone_ is different from the usual power of those words. This difference mixed syntax explains. {396} § 472. Mixed syntax requires two sorts of knowledge--metaphysical, and historical. 1. To account for such a fact in language as the expression _the man as rides to market_, instead of the usual expression _the man who rides to market_, is a question of what is commonly called metaphysics. The idea of comparison is the idea common to the words _as_ and _who_. 2. To account for such a fact in language as the expression _I have ridden a horse_ is a question of history. We must know that when there was a sign of an accusative case in English the word _horse_ had that sign; in other words that the expression was, originally, _I have a horse as a ridden thing_. These two views illustrate each other. § 473. In the English, as in all other languages, it is convenient to notice certain so-called figures of speech. They always furnish convenient modes of expression, and sometimes, as in the case of the one immediately about to be noticed, _account_ for facts. § 474. _Personification._--The ideas of apposition and collectiveness account for the apparent violations of the concord of number. The idea of personification applies to the concord of gender. A masculine or feminine gender, characteristic of persons, may be substituted for the neuter gender, characteristic of things. In this case the term is said to be personified. _The cities who aspired to liberty._--A personification of the idea expressed by _cities_ is here necessary to justify the expression. _It_, the sign of the neuter gender, as applied to a male or female _child_, is the reverse of the process. § 475. _Ellipsis_ (from the Greek _elleipein_=_to fall short_), or a _falling short_, occurs in sentences like _I sent to the bookseller's_. Here the word _shop_ or _house_ is understood. Expressions like _to go on all fours_, and _to eat of the fruit of the tree_, are reducible to ellipses. § 476. _Pleonasm_ (from the Greek _pleonazein_=_to be in excess_) occurs in sentences like _the king, he reigns_. Here the word _he_ is superabundant. In many _pleonastic_ {397} expressions we may suppose an interruption of the sentence, and afterwards an abrupt renewal of it; as _the king_--_he reigns_. The fact of the word _he_ neither qualifying nor explaining the word _king_, distinguishes pleonasm from apposition. Pleonasm, as far as the view above is applicable, is reduced to what is, apparently, its opposite, _viz._, ellipsis. _My banks, they are furnished_,--_the most straitest sect_,--these are pleonastic expressions. In _the king, he reigns_, the word _king_ is in the same predicament as in _the king, God bless him_. The double negative, allowed in Greek and Anglo-Saxon, but not admissible in English, is pleonastic. The verb _do_, in _I do speak_, is _not_ pleonastic. In respect to the sense it adds intensity. In respect to the construction it is not in apposition, but in the same predicament with verbs like _must_ and _should_, as in _I must go_, &c.; _i. e._ it is a verb followed by an infinitive. This we know from its power in those languages where the infinitive has a characteristic sign; as, in German, Die Augen _thaten_ ihm winken.--GOETHE. Besides this, _make_ is similarly used in Old English.--_But men make draw the branch thereof, and beren him to be graffed at Babyloyne._--Sir J. Mandeville. § 477. _The figure zeugma._--_They wear a garment like that of the Scythians, but a language peculiar to themselves._--The verb, naturally applying to _garment_ only, is here used to govern _language_. This is called in Greek, _zeugma_ (junction). § 478. _My paternal home was made desolate, and he himself was sacrificed._--The sense of this is plain; _he_ means _my father_. Yet no such substantive as _father_ has gone before. It is supplied, however, from the word _paternal_. The sense indicated by _paternal_ gives us a subject to which _he_ can refer. In other words, the word _he_ is understood, according to what is indicated, rather than according to what is expressed. This figure in Greek is called _pros to semainomenon_ (_according to the thing indicated_). {398} § 479. _Apposition._--_Cæsar, the Roman emperor, invades Britain._--Here the words _Roman emperor_ explain, or define, the word _Cæsar_; and the sentence, filled up, might stand, _Cæsar, that is, the Roman emperor_, &c. Again, the words _Roman emperor_ might be wholly ejected; or, if not ejected, they might be thrown into a parenthesis. The practical bearing of this fact is exhibited by changing the form of the sentence, and inserting the conjunction _and_. In this case, instead of one person, two are spoken of, and the verb _invades_ must be changed from the singular to the plural. Now the words _Roman emperor_ are said to be in apposition to _Cæsar_. They constitute, not an additional idea, but an explanation of the original one. They are, as it were, _laid alongside_ (_appositi_) _of_ the word _Cæsar_. Cases of doubtful number, wherein two substantives precede a verb, and wherein it is uncertain whether the verb should be singular or plural, are decided by determining whether the substantives be in apposition or the contrary. No matter how many nouns there may be, as long as it can be shown that they are in apposition, the verb is in the singular number. § 480. _Collectiveness as opposed to plurality._--In sentences like _the meeting_ was _large_, _the multitude_ pursue _pleasure_, _meeting_, and _multitude_ are each collective nouns; that is, although they present the idea of a single object, that object consists of a plurality of individuals. Hence, _pursue_ is put in the plural number. To say, however, _the meeting were large_ would sound improper. The number of the verb that shall accompany a collective noun depends upon whether the idea of the multiplicity of individuals, or that of the unity of the aggregate, shall predominate. _Sand and salt and a mass of iron is easier to bear than a man without understanding._--Let _sand and salt and a mass of iron_ be dealt with as a series of things the aggregate of which forms a mixture, and the expression is allowable. _The king and the lords and commons_ forms _an excellent frame of government_.--Here the expression is doubtful. Substitute _with_ for the first _and_, and there is no doubt as to the propriety of the singular form _is_. {399} § 481. _The reduction of complex forms to simple ones._--Take, for instance, the current illustration, viz., _the-king-of-Saxony's army_.--Here the assertion is, not that the army belongs to _Saxony_, but that it belongs to the _king of Saxony_; which words must, for the sake of taking a true view of the construction, be dealt with as a single word in the possessive case. Here two cases are dealt with as one; and a complex term is treated as a single word. The same reasoning applies to phrases like _the two king Williams_. If we say _the two kings William_, we must account for the phrase by apposition. § 482. _True notion of the part of speech in use._--In _he is gone_, the word _gone_ must be considered as equivalent to _absent_; that is, as an adjective. Otherwise the expression is as incorrect as the expression _she is eloped_. Strong participles are adjectival oftener than weak ones; their form being common to many adjectives. _True notion of the original form._--In the phrase _I must speak_, the word _speak_ is an infinitive. In the phrase _I am forced to speak_, the word _speak_ is (in the present English) an infinitive also. In one case, however, it is preceded by _to_; whilst in the other, the particle _to_ is absent. The reason for this lies in the original difference of form. _Speak_ - _to_=the Anglo-Saxon _sprécan_, a simple infinitive; _to speak_, or _speak + to_=the Anglo-Saxon _to sprécanne_, an infinitive in the dative case. § 483. _Convertibility._--In the English language, the greater part of the words may, as far as their form is concerned, be one part of speech as well as another. Thus the combinations _s-a-n-th_, or _f-r-e-n-k_, if they existed at all, might exist as either nouns or verbs, as either substantives or adjectives, as conjunctions, adverbs, or prepositions. This is not the case in the Greek language. There, if a word be a substantive, it will probably end in _-s_, if an infinitive verb, in _-ein_, &c. The bearings of this difference between languages like the English and languages like the Greek will soon appear. At present, it is sufficient to say that a word, {400} originally one part of speech (_e.g._ a noun), may become another (_e.g._ a verb). This may be called the convertibility of words. There is an etymological convertibility, and a syntactic convertibility; and although, in some cases, the line of demarcation is not easily drawn between them, the distinction is intelligible and convenient. § 484. _Etymological convertibility._--The words _then_ and _than_, now adverbs or conjunctions, were once cases: in other words, they have been converted from one part of speech to another. Or, they may even be said to be cases, at the present moment; although only in an historical point of view. For the practice of language, they are not only adverbs or conjunctions, but they are adverbs or conjunctions exclusively. § 485. _Syntactic convertibility._--The combination _to err_, is at this moment an infinitive verb. Nevertheless it can be used as the equivalent to the substantive _error_. _To err is human_=_error is human_. Now this is an instance of syntactic conversion. Of the two meanings, there is no doubt as to which is the primary one; which primary meaning is part and parcel of the language at this moment. The infinitive, when used as a substantive, can be used in a singular form only. _To err_=_error_; but we have no such form as _to errs_=_errors_. Nor is it wanted. The infinitive, in a substantival sense, always conveys a general statement, so that even when singular, it has a plural power; just as _man is mortal_=_men are mortal_. § 486. _The adjective used as a substantive._--Of these, we have examples in expressions like the _blacks of Africa_--_the bitters and sweets of life_--_all fours were put to the ground_. These are true instances of conversion, and are proved to be so by the fact of their taking a plural form. _Let the blind lead the blind_ is not an instance of conversion. The word _blind_ in both instances remains an adjective, and is shown to remain so by its being uninflected. § 487. _Uninflected parts of speech, used as substantive._--When King Richard III. says, _none of your ifs_, he uses the word _if_ as a substantive=_expressions of doubt_. {401} So in the expression _one long now_, the word _now_=_present time_. § 488. The convertibility of words in English is very great; and it is so because the structure of the language favours it. As few words have any peculiar signs expressive of their being particular parts of speech, interchange is easy, and conversion follows the logical association of ideas unimpeded. _The convertibility of words is in the inverse ratio to the amount of their inflection._ * * * * * {402} CHAPTER II. SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. § 489. The phenomena of convertibility have been already explained. The remaining points connected with the syntax of substantives, are chiefly points of either ellipsis, or apposition. _Ellipsis of substantives._--The historical view of phrases, like _Rundell and Bridge's_, _St. Pauls'_, &c., shows that this ellipsis is common to the English and the other Gothic languages. Furthermore, it shows that it is met with in languages not of the Gothic stock; and, finally, that the class of words to which it applies, is, there or thereabouts, the same generally. A. 1. The words most commonly understood, are _house_ and _family_, or words reducible to them. In Latin, _Dianæ_=_ædem Dianæ_.--Deutsche Grammatik, iv. 262. 2. _Country, retinue._--Deutsche Grammatik, iv. 262. 3. _Son_, _daughter_, _wife_, _widow_.--Deutsche Grammatik, iv. 262.--[Greek: Nêleus Kodrou], Greek. B. The following phrases are referable to a different class of relations-- 1. _Right and left_--supply _hand_. This is, probably, a real ellipsis. The words _right_ and _left_, have not yet become true substantives; inasmuch as they have no plural forms. In this respect, they stand in contrast with _bitter_ and _sweet_; inasmuch as we can say _he has tasted both the bitters and sweets of life_. Nevertheless, the expression can be refined on. 2. _All fours._--_To go on all fours._ No ellipsis. The word _fours_, is a true substantive, as proved by its existence as a plural. From expressions like [Greek: potêrion psuchrou] (Matt. xiv. 51), {403} from the Greek, and _perfundit gelido_ (understand _latice_), from the Latin, we find that the present ellipsis was used with greater latitude in the classical languages than our own. § 490. _Proper names can only be used in the singular number._--This is a rule of logic, rather than of grammar. When we say _the four Georges_, _the Pitts and Camdens_, &c., the words that thus take a plural form, have ceased to be proper names. They either mean-- 1. The persons called _George_, &c. 2. Or, persons so like _George_, that they may be considered as identical. § 491. _Collocation._--In the present English, the genitive case always precedes the noun by which it is governed--_the man's hat_=_hominis pileus_; never _the hat man's_=_pileus hominis_. * * * * * {404} CHAPTER III. SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. § 492. _Pleonasm._--Pleonasm can take place with adjectives only in the expression of the degrees of comparison. Over and above the etymological signs of the comparative and superlative degrees, there may be used the superlative words _more_ and _most_. And this pleonasm really occurs-- _The_ more serener _spirit_. _The_ most straitest _sect_. These are instances of pleonasm in the strictest sense of the term. § 493. _Collocation._--As a general rule, the adjective precedes the substantive--_a good man_, not _a man good_. When, however, the adjective is qualified by either the expression of its degree, or accompanied by another adjective, it may follow the substantive-- A man _just and good_. A woman _wise and fair_. A hero _devoted to his country_. A patriot _disinterested to a great degree_. _Single simple_ adjectives thus placed after their substantive, belong to the poetry of England, and especially to the ballad poetry--_sighs profound_--_the leaves green_. § 494. _Government._--The only adjective that governs a case, is the word _like_. In the expression, _this is like him_, &c., the original power of the dative remains. This we infer-- 1. From the fact that in most languages which have {405} inflections to a sufficient extent, the word meaning _like_ governs a dative case. 2. That if ever we use in English any preposition at all to express similitude, it is the preposition _to_--_like to me_, _like to death_, &c. Expressions like _full of meat_, _good for John_, are by no means instances of the government of adjectives; the really governing words being the prepositions _to_ and _for_ respectively. The most that can be said, in cases like these, is that particular adjectives determine the use of particular prepositions--thus the preposition _of_, generally follows the adjective _full_, &c. § 495. The positive degree preceded by the adjective more, is equivalent to the comparative form--_e. g._, _more wise_=_wiser_. The reasons for employing one expression in preference to the other, depend upon the nature of the particular word used. When the word is, at one and the same time, of Anglo-Saxon origin and monosyllabic, there is no doubt about the preference to be given to the form in _-er_. Thus, _wis-er_ is preferable to _more wise_. When, however, the word is compound, or trisyllabic, the combination with the word _more_, is preferable. _more fruitful_ _fruitfuller_. _more villanous_ _villanouser_. Between these two extremes, there are several intermediate forms wherein the use of one rather than another, will depend upon the taste of the writer. The question, however, is a question of euphony, rather than of aught else. It is also illustrated by the principle of not multiplying secondary elements. In such a word as _fruit-full-er_, there are two additions to the root. The same is the case with the superlative, _fruit-full-est_. § 496. The 9th Chapter of Part IV., should be read carefully. There, there is indicated a refinement upon the current notions as to the power of the comparative degree, {406} and reasons are given for believing that the fundamental notion expressed by the comparative inflexion is the idea of comparison or contrast between _two_ objects. In this case, it is better in speaking of only two objects to use the comparative degree rather than the superlative--even when we use the definite article _the_. Thus-- This is _the better_ of the two is preferable to This is _the best_ of the two. This principle is capable of an application more extensive than our habits of speaking and writing will verify. Thus, to go to other parts of speech, we should logically say-- Whether of the two rather than Which of the two. Either the father or the son, but not Either the father, the son, or the daughter. This statement may be refined on. It is chiefly made for the sake of giving fresh prominence to the idea of duality expressed by the terminations _-er_ and _-ter_. § 497. The absence of inflection simplifies the syntax of adjectives. Violations of concord are impossible. We could not make an adjective disagree with its substantive if we wished. * * * * * {407} CHAPTER IV. SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. § 498. The syntax of substantives is, in English, simple, from the paucity of its inflections, a condition which is unfavourable towards the evolution of constructional complexities; the most remarkable exception being the phenomenon of convertibility noticed above. The same is the case with adjectives. The want of inflexion simplifies their syntax equally with that of the substantives. But with the pronouns this is not the case. Here we have-- 1. Signs of gender; 2. Signs of case; 3. Signs of number, to a greater extent, and with more peculiarities, than elsewhere. Furthermore, the pronouns exhibit in a great degree the phenomena of conversion indicated in p. 400. § 499. _Pleonasm in the syntax of pronouns._--In the following sentences the words in italics are pleonastic. 1. The king _he_ is just. 2. I saw _her_, the queen. 3. The _men_, they were there. 4. The king, _his_ crown. Of these forms, the first is more common than the second and third, and the fourth more common than the first. § 500. The fourth has another element of importance. It has given rise to the absurd notion that the genitive case in _-s_ (_father-s_) is a contraction from _his_ (_father his_). To say nothing about the inapplicability of this rule to feminine genders, and plural numbers, the whole history of the Indo-Germanic languages is against it. {408} 1. We cannot reduce _the queen's majesty_ to _the queen his majesty_. 2. We cannot reduce _the children's bread_ to _the children his bread_. 3. The Anglo-Saxon forms are in _-es_, not in _his_. 4. The word _his_ itself must be accounted for; and that cannot be done by assuming to be _he_ + _his_. 5. The _-s_ in _father's_ is the _-is_ in _patris_, and the -[Greek: os] in [Greek: pateros]. § 501. The preceding examples illustrate an apparent paradox, _viz._, the fact of pleonasm and ellipsis being closely allied. _The king he is just_, dealt with as a _single_ sentence, is undoubtedly pleonastic. But it is not necessary to be considered as a mere simple sentence. _The king_--may represent a first sentence incomplete, whilst _he is just_ represents a second sentence in full. What is pleonasm in a single sentence, is ellipsis in a double one. * * * * * {409} CHAPTER V. THE TRUE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. § 502. _Personal pronouns._--The use of the second person plural instead of the second singular has been noticed in p. 246. This use of one number for another is current throughout the Gothic languages. A pronoun so used is conveniently called the _pronomen reverentiæ_. § 503. In English, however, there is a second change over and above the change of number, _viz._ that of case. We not only say _ye_ instead of _thou_, but _you_ instead of _ye_.--(See p. 245). Mr. Guest remarks, "that at one time the two forms _ye_ and _you_ seem to have been nearly changing place in our language. As I have made _ye_ one, Lords, one remain; So I grow stronger _you_ more honour gain. _Henry VIII._ 4, 2. What gain _you_ by forbidding it to teaze _ye_, It now can neither trouble you nor please _ye_. DRYDEN." In German and the Danish the _pronomen reverentiæ_ is got at by a change, not of number, but of person--in other words, the pronoun of the _third_ person is used instead of that of the _second_; just as if, in the English, we said _will they walk_=_will you walk_, _will ye walk_, _wilt thou walk_. § 504. _Dativus ethicus._--In the phrase Rob me the exchequer.--_Henry IV._ the _me_ is expletive, and is equivalent to _for me_. This expletive use of the dative is conveniently called the _dativus ethicus_. It occurs more frequently in the Latin than in the {410} English, and more frequently in the Greek than in the Latin. § 505. _The reflected personal pronoun._--In the English language there is no equivalent to the Latin _se_, the German _sich_, and the Scandinavian _sik_, and _sig_. It follows from this that the word _self_ is used to a greater extent than would otherwise be the case. _I strike me_ is awkward, but not ambiguous. _Thou strikest thee_ is awkward, but not ambiguous. _He strikes him_ is ambiguous; inasmuch as _him_ may mean either the _person who strikes_ or some one else. In order to be clear we add the word _self_ when the idea is reflective. _He strikes himself_ is, at once, idiomatic, and unequivocal. So it is with the plural persons. _We strike us_ is awkward, but not ambiguous. _Ye strike you_ is the same. _They strike them_ is ambiguous. This shows the value of a reflective pronoun for the third person. As a general rule, therefore, whenever we use a verb reflectively we use the word _self_ in combination with the personal pronoun. Yet this was not always the case. The use of the simple personal pronoun was current in Anglo-Saxon, and that, not only for the two first persons, but for the third as well. The exceptions to this rule are either poetical expressions, or imperative moods. He sat _him_ down at a pillar's base.--BYRON. Sit thee down. § 506. _Reflective neuters._--In the phrase _I strike me_ the verb _strike_ is transitive; in other words, the word _me_ expresses the object of an action, and the meaning is different from the meaning of the simple expression _I strike_. In the phrase _I fear me_ (used by Lord Campbell in his Lives of the Chancellors), the verb _fear_ is intransitive or neuter; in other words, the word _me_ (unless, indeed, _fear_ mean _terrify_) {411} expresses no object of any action at all; whilst the meaning is the same as in the simple expression _I fear_. Here the reflective pronoun appears out of place, _i. e._, after a neuter or intransitive verb. Such a use, however, is but the fragment of an extensive system of reflective verbs thus formed, developed in different degrees in the different Gothic languages; but in all more than in the English. § 507. _Equivocal reflectives._--The proper place of the reflective is _after_ the verb. The proper place of the governing pronoun is, in the indicative and subjunctive moods, _before_ the verb. Hence in expressions like the preceding there is no doubt as to the power of the pronoun. The imperative mood, however, sometimes presents a complication. Here the governing person may follow the verb. _Mount ye_=either _be mounted_, or _mount yourselves_. In phrases like this, and in phrases _Busk ye_, _busk ye_, my bonny, bonny bride, _Busk ye_, _busk ye_, my winsome marrow, the construction is ambiguous. _Ye_ may either be a nominative case governing the verb _busk_, or an accusative case governed by it. This is an instance of what may be called the _equivocal reflective_. * * * * * {412} CHAPTER VI. ON THE SYNTAX OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, AND THE PRONOUNS OF THE THIRD PERSON. § 508. Reasons have been given in p. 249, for considering the so-called pronouns of the third person (_he_, _she_, _it_, _they_) demonstrative rather than truly personal. § 509. As _his_, and _her_, are genitive cases (and not adjectives), there is no need of explaining such combinations as _his mother_, _her father_, inasmuch as no concord of gender is expected. The expressions are respectively equivalent to _mater ejus_, not _mater sua_; _pater ejus_, -- _pater suus_. § 510. From p. 250, it may be seen that _its_ is a secondary genitive, and it may be added, that it is of late origin in the language. The Anglo-Saxon form was _his_, the genitive of _he_ for the neuter and masculine equally. Hence, when, in the old writers, we meet _his_, where we expect _its_, we must not suppose that any personification takes place, but simply that the old genitive common to the two genders is used in preference to the modern one limited to the neuter, and irregularly formed. This has been illustrated by Mr. Guest. The following instances are the latest specimens of its use. "The apoplexy is, as I take it, a kind of lethargy. I have read the cause of _his_ effects in Galen; _it_ is a kind of deafness."--2 _Henry IV._ i. 2. "If the salt have lost _his_ flavour, wherewith shall it be seasoned. _It_ is neither fit for the land nor yet for the dunghill, but men cast _it_ out."--_Luke_ xiv. 35. "Some affirm that every plant has _his_ particular fly or caterpillar, which it breeds and feeds."--WALTON'S _Angler_. "This rule is not so general, but that _it_ admitteth of _his_ exceptions."--CAREW. {413} "The genitive _its_ is of late introduction into our language. Though used by our dramatists and many of their cotemporaries, it does not occur in the versions of our Bible, the substitute being _his_ or the compound term _thereof_."--Phil. Trans., No. 25. § 511. For the archaic and provincial use of _him_ and _he_ for _it_ see _ibid._; remembering that the two cases are different. _His_ for _its_ is an old form retained: _him_ and _he_ for _it_ are really changes of gender. § 512. _Take them things away._--Here we have _them_ for _those_. The expression, although not to be imitated, is explained by the originally demonstrative power of _them_. Sometimes the expression is still more anomalous, and we hear the so-called nominative case used instead of the accusative. In the expression _take they things away_, the use of _they_ for _them_ (itself for _those_) is similarly capable of being, down to a certain period of our language, explained as an archaism. The original accusative was _þa_, and _þo_: the form in _-m_ being dative. § 513. _This_ and _that_.--The remarks upon the use of these words in certain expressions is brought at once to the Latin scholar by the quotation of the two following lines from Ovid, and the suggestion of a well-known rule in the Eton Latin Grammar. _Quocunque aspicies nihil est nisi pontus et aer;_ _Nubibus hic tumidus, fluctibus ille minax._ Here _hic_ (=_this_ or _the one_) refers to the antecedent last named (the _air_); whilst _ille_ (=_that_ or _the other_) refers to the antecedent first named (the _sea_). Now on the strength of this example, combined with others, it is laid down as a rule in Latin that _hic_ (_this_) refers to the last-named antecedent, _ille_ to the first-named. § 514. What is the rule in English? Suppose we say _John's is a good sword and so is Charles's_; _this cut through a thick rope, the other cut through an iron rod_. Or instead of saying _this_ and _that_ we may say _the one_ and _the other_. It is clear that, in determining to which of the {414} two swords the respective demonstratives refer, the meaning will not help us at all, so that our only recourse is to the rules of grammar; and it is the opinion of the present writer that the rules of grammar will help us just as little. The Latin rule is adopted by scholars, but still it is a Latin rule rather than an English one. The truth is, that it is a question which no authority can settle; and all that grammar can tell us is (what we know without it) that _this_ refers to the name of the idea which is logically the most close at hand, and _that_ to the idea which is logically the most distant. What constitutes nearness or distance of ideas, in other words, what determines the sequence of ideas is another question. That the idea, however, of sequence, and, consequently of logical proximity and logical distance, is the fundamental idea in regard to the expressions in question is evident from the very use of the words _this_ and _that_. Now the sequence of ideas is capable of being determined by two tests. 1. The idea to which the name was last given, or (changing the expression) the name of the last idea may be the nearest idea in the order of sequence, and, consequently, the idea referred to by the pronoun of proximity. In this case the idea closest at hand to the writer of the second line of the couplet quoted above was the idea of the _atmosphere_ (_aer_), and it was, consequently, expressed by (_this_) _hic_. 2. Or the idea to which the name was first given, or (changing the expression) the name of the first idea may be the nearest idea in the order of sequence, and consequently the idea referred to it by the pronoun of proximity; inasmuch as the idea which occurs first is the most prominent one, and what is prominent appears near. In this case, the idea closest at hand to the writer of the second line of the couplet quoted above would have been the idea of the _sea_ (_pontus_), and it would, consequently, have been the idea expressed by _this_ (_hic_). As Ovid, however, considered the idea at the end of the last half of one sentence to be the idea nearest to the {415} beginning of the next, we have him expressing himself as he does. On the other hand, it is easy to conceive a writer with whom the nearest idea is the idea that led the way to the others. As I believe that one and the same individual may measure the sequence of his ideas sometimes according to one of these principles, and sometimes according to another, I believe that all rules about the relations of _this_ and _that_ are arbitrary. It is just a matter of chance whether a thinker take up his line of ideas by the end or by the beginning. The analogies of such expressions as the following are in favour of _this_, in English, applying to the _first_ subject, _that_ to the _second_; since the word _attorney_ takes the place of _this_, and applies to the first name of the two, _i. e._, to _Thurlow_. "It was a proud day for the bar when Lord North made Thurlow (1) and (2) Wedderburn (1) Attorney (2) and Solicitor General."--_Mathias from Lord Campbell's Lives of the Chancellors._ * * * * * {416} CHAPTER VII. ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE WORD SELF. § 515. The undoubted constructions of the word _self_, in the present state of the cultivated English, are three-fold. 1. _Government._--In _my-self_, _thy-self_, _our-selves_, and _your-selves_, the construction is that of a common substantive with an adjective or genitive case. _My-self_=_my individuality_, and is similarly construed--_mea individualitas_ (or _persona_), or _mei individualitas_ (or _persona_). 2. _Apposition._--In _him-self_ and _them-selves_, when accusative, the construction is that of a substantive in apposition with a pronoun. _Him-self_=_him, the individual._ 3. _Composition._--It is only, however, when _himself_ and _themselves_, are in the accusative case, that the construction is appositional. When they are used as nominatives, it must be explained on another principle. In phrases like He _himself_ was present. They _themselves_ were present. There is neither apposition nor government; _him_ and _them_, being neither related to _my_ and _thy_, so as to be governed, nor yet to _he_ and _they_, so as to form an apposition. In order to come under one of these conditions, the phrases should be either _he his self_ (_they their selves_), or else _he he self_ (_they they selves_). In this difficulty, the only logical view that can be taken of the matter, is to consider the words _himself_ and _themselves_, not as two words, but as a single word compounded; and even then, the compound will be of an irregular kind; inasmuch as the inflectional element _-m_, is dealt with as part and parcel of the root. § 516. _Her-self._--The construction here is ambiguous. It is one of the preceding constructions. Which, however it is, {417} is uncertain; since _her_ may be either a so-called genitive, like _my_, or an accusative like _him_. _Itself_--is also ambiguous. The _s_ may represent the _-s_ in _its_, as well as the _s-_ in _self_. This inconsistency is as old as the Anglo-Saxon stage of the English language. § 517. In the exhibition of the second construction of the word _self_ it was assumed that the case was a case of apposition, and that _self_ was substantival in character. Nevertheless, this is by no means a necessary phenomenon. _Self_ might, as far as its power is determined by its construction alone, in words like _himself_ as easily be an adjective as a substantive. In which case the construction would be a matter, not of apposition, but of _agreement_. To illustrate this by the Latin language, _himself_, might equal either _eum personam_ (_him, the person_), or _eum personalem_ (_him personal_). The evidence, however, of the forms like _myself_, as well as other facts adduceable from comparative philology, prove the substantival character of _self_. On the other hand, it ought not to be concealed that another word, whereof the preponderance of the adjectival over the substantival power is undoubted, is found in the Old English, with just the same inconsistency as the word _self_; _i.e._, sometimes in government (like a substantive), and sometimes in either concord or apposition, like a word which may be _either_ substantive or adjective. This word is _one_; the following illustrations of which are from Mr. Guest.--_Phil. Trans. No. 22._ In this world wote I no knight, Who durst _his one_ with hym fight. _Ipomedon_, 1690. þah ha _hire ane_ were Ayein so kene keisere and al his kine riche. _St. Catherine_, 90. Though she _alone_ were Against so fierce a kaiser, and all his kingdom. Here _his one_, _her one_, mean _his singleness_, _her singleness_. He made his mone Within a garden all _him one_. GOWER, _Confess. Amant._ {418} Here _him one_ = _himself_ in respect to its construction. § 518. As to the inflection of the word _-self_, all its compounds are substantives; inasmuch as they all take plural forms as far as certain logical limitations will allow them to do so--_ourselves_, _yourselves_, _themselves_. _Myself_, _thyself_, _himself_, _itself_, and _herself_, are naturally singular, and under no circumstances can become plural. _Themselves_ is naturally plural, and under no circumstances can become singular. _Ourselves_ and _yourselves_ are naturally plural; yet under certain circumstances they become singular. _a._ Just as men say _we_ for _I_, so may they say _our_ for _my_. _b._ Just as men say _you_ for _thou_, so may they say _your_ for _thy_. In respect to the inflection in the way of case, there are no logical limitations whatever. There is nothing against the existence of a genitive form _self's_ except the habit of the English language not to use one, founded on the little necessity for so doing.--_Are you sure this is your own?_ _Yes, I am sure it is my own self's._ Such an expression is both logic and grammar. When an adjective intervenes between _self_ and its personal pronoun the construction is always in the way of government; in other words, the personal pronoun is always put in the genitive case. His own self, _not_ him own self. Their own selves, _not_ them own selves. § 519. The construction of _self_ and a personal pronoun with a verb may be noticed in this place. It is only in the case of the two pronouns of the singular number that any doubt can arise. 1. When _myself_ or _thyself_ stands alone, the verb that follows is in the third person--_myself is_ (not _am_) _weak_, _thyself is_ (not _art_) _weak_. Here the construction is just the same as in the proposition _my body is weak_. 2. When _myself_ or _thyself_ is preceded by _I_ or _thou_, the verb that follows is in the first person--_I, myself, am_ (not _is_) _weak_; _thou, thyself, art_ (not _is_) _weak_. * * * * * {419} CHAPTER VIII. ON THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. § 520. The possessive pronouns fall into two classes. The first class contains the forms connected, partially in their etymology and wholly in their syntax, with _my_ and _thy_, &c. The second class contains the forms connected, partially in their etymology and wholly in their syntax, with _mine_ and _thine_, &c. The first class is the class of what may be called the _oblique_ possessives; the name being founded upon the etymological fact of their being connected with the oblique cases of the pronominal inflection.--_My_, _thy_, _his_ (as in _his book_), _her_, _its_ (as in _its book_), _our_, _your_, _their_. These are conveniently considered as the equivalents to the Latin forms _mei_, _tui_, _ejus_, _nostrum_, _vestrum_, _eorum_. The second class is the class of what may be called the _absolute_ possessives; the name being founded upon the syntactic fact of their being able to form the term of a proposition by themselves; as _whose is this?_ _Mine_ (not _my_).--_Mine_, _thine_, _his_ (as _in the book is his_), _hers_, _ours_, _yours_, _theirs_ are conveniently considered as the equivalents to the Latin forms _meus, mea, meum_; _tuus, tua, tuum_; _suus, sua, suum_; _noster, nostra, nostrum_; _vester, vestra, vestrum_. How far either or both of these two classes of pronouns are cases, or adjectives, is a point of etymology that has already been noticed (Part IV., chap. 37). How far either or both are cases or adjectives is, in syntax, a matter of indifference. § 521. There is, however, a palpable difference between the construction of _my_ and _mine_. We cannot say _this is mine hat_, and we cannot say _this hat is my_. Nevertheless, this {420} difference is not explained by any change of construction from that of adjectives to that of cases. As far as the syntax is concerned the construction of _my_ and _mine_ is equally that of an adjective _agreeing_ with a substantive, and of a genitive (or possessive) case _governed_ by a substantive. Now a common genitive case can be used in two ways; either as part of a term, or as a whole term (_i. e._, absolutely).--1. As part of a term--_this is John's hat_. 2. As a whole term--_this hat is John's_. And a common adjective can be used in two ways; either as part of a term, or as a whole term (_i. e._, absolutely).--1. As part of a term--_these are good hats_. 2. As a whole term--_these hats are good_. Now whether we consider _my_, and the words like it, as adjectives or cases, they possess only _one_ of the properties just illustrated, _i. e._, they can only be used as part of a term--_this is my hat_; not _this hat is my_. And whether we consider _mine_, and the words like it, as adjectives or cases, they possess only _one_ of the properties just illustrated, _i. e._, they can only be used as whole terms, or absolutely--_this hat is mine_; not _this is mine hat_. For a full and perfect construction whether of an adjective or a genitive case, the possessive pronouns present the phenomenon of being, singly, incomplete, but, nevertheless, complimentary to each other when taken in their two forms. In the absolute construction of a genitive case, the term is formed by the single word only so far as the _expression_ is concerned. A substantive is always _understood_ from what has preceded.--_This discovery is Newton's_=_this discovery is Newton's discovery._ The same with adjectives.--_This weather is fine_=_this weather is fine weather._ And the same with absolute pronouns.--_This hat is mine_=_this hat is my hat_; and _this is a hat of mine_=_this is a hat of my hats_. In respect to all matters of syntax considered exclusively, it is so thoroughly a matter of indifference whether a word be an adjective or a genitive case that Wallis considers the {421} forms in _-'s_ like _father's_, not as genitive cases but as adjectives. Looking to the logic of the question alone he is right, and looking to the practical syntax of the question he is right, also. He is only wrong on the etymological side of the question. "Nomina substantiva apud nos nullum vel generum vel casuum discrimen sortiuntur."--p. 76. "Duo sunt adjectivorum genera, a substantivis immediate descendentia, quæ semper substantivis suis præponuntur. Primum quidem adjectivum possessivum libet appellare. Fit autem a quovis substantivo, sive singulari sive plurali, addito _-s_.--Ut _man's nature_, _the nature of man_, natura humana vel hominis; _men's nature_, natura humana vel hominum; _Virgil's poems_, _the poems of Virgil_, poemata Virgilii vel Virgiliana."--p. 89. * * * * * {422} CHAPTER IX. THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS. § 522. The word _that_, although originally, when a demonstrative pronoun, a neuter singular, is now used as a relative for all genders, and both numbers. 1. He _that_ spoke.--_Masculine gender._ 2. She _that_ spoke.--_Feminine gender._ 3. They _that_ fought.--_Plural number._ 4. The man _that_ I struck.--_Objective case._ § 523. Etymologically, _which_ is no true neuter of _who_, but a compound word. It is used, however, with less latitude than _that_. The beginning of the Lord's Prayer exhibits it in combination with a masculine noun. Generally, however, it is confined to the neuter gender; in which it is common to both numbers. 1. The dagger _which_ stabbed Cæsar.--_Nominative singular._ 2. The daggers _which_ stabbed Cæsar.--_Nominative plural._ 3. The dagger _which_ I grasp.--_Objective singular._ 4. The daggers _which_ I grasp.--_Objective plural._ § 524. _Which_ has so nearly replaced _what_ that the general use of this last word with its proper power, as a neuter relative, is, in the present English, vulgar, _e.g._, 1. The dagger _what_ stabbed Cæsar. 2. The dagger _what_ I grasp. In one case, however, _what_ is used as a true relative, _viz._, when the antecedent is either _this_ or _that_. This is _what_ I mean; _not_, this is _which_ I mean. That is _what_ I mean; _not_, that is _which_ I mean. {423} § 525. The word _as_, properly a conjunction, is occasionally used as a relative--_the man_ as _rides to market_. This expression is not to be imitated. It ought, however, to be explained. _As_ is a conjunction denoting comparison. The ideas of comparison and equivalence are allied. The relative is _ex vi termini_ the equivalent, in one part of a sentence, to the antecedent in another. (1) The man--(2) who speaks. Here _who_=_man_. (1) As white--(2) as snow. Here _snow_=_white_. § 526. It is necessary that the relative be in the same _gender_ as the antecedent--_the man who_--_the woman who_--_the thing which_. § 527. It is necessary that the relative be in the same _number_ with the antecedent. As, however, _who_, _which_, _whom_, are equally singular and plural, and as _what_, which is really singular, is not used as a relative, the application of this law is limited to the word _whose_. Now _whose_ is, etymologically, a genitive case, and a genitive case of the singular number. Hence the expression _the men whose daggers stabbed Cæsar_ can only be justified by considering that the word _whose_ is plural as well as singular. Such is the case. If not the expression is as illogical as _homines_ cujus _sicæ_, &c. would be in Latin. § 528. It is _not_ necessary for the relative to be in the same case with its antecedent. 1. John, _who_ trusts me, comes here. 2. John, _whom_ I trust, comes here. 3. John, _whose_ confidence I possess, comes here. 4. I trust John _who_ trusts me. § 529. The reason why the relative must agree with its antecedent in both number and gender, whilst it need not agree with it in case, is found in the following observations. 1. All sentences containing a relative contain two verbs--_John who_ (1) _trusts me_ (2) _comes here_. 2. Two verbs express two actions--(1) _trust_ (2) _come_. 3. Whilst, however, the actions are two in number, the {424} person or thing which does, or suffers them is single--_John_. 4. _He_ (_she_ or _it_) is single _ex vi termini_. The relative expresses the _identity_ between the subjects (or objects) of the two actions. Thus _who_=_John_, or is another name for John. 5. Things and persons that are one and the same, are of one and the same gender. The _John_ who _trusts_ is necessarily of the same gender with the _John_ who _comes_. 6. Things and persons that are one and the same, are of one and the same number. The number of _Johns_ who _trust_, is the same as the number of _Johns_ who _come_. Both these elements of concord are immutable. 7. But a third element of concord is not immutable. The person or thing that is an agent in the one part of the sentence, may be the object of an action in the other. The _John_ whom I _trust_ may _trust_ me also. Hence _a._ I trust John--_John_ the object. _b._ John trusts me--_John_ the agent. As the relative is only the antecedent in another form, it may change its case according to the construction. 1. I trust John--(2) _John_ trusts me. 2. I trust John--(2) _He_ trusts me. 3. I trust John--(2) _Who_ trusts me. 4. John trusts me--(2) I trust _John_. 5. John trusts me--(2) I trust _him_. 6. John trusts me--(2) I trust _whom_. 7. John trusts me--(2) _Whom_ I trust. 8. John--(2) _Whom_ I trust trusts me. § 530. _The books I want are here._--This is a specimen of a true ellipsis. In all such phrases in _full_, there are _three_ essential elements. 1. The first proposition; as _the books are here_. 2. The second proposition; as _I want_. 3. The word which connects the two propositions, and without which, they naturally make separate, independent, unconnected statements. Now, although true and unequivocal ellipses are scarce, {425} the preceding is one of the most unequivocal kind--the word which connects the two propositions being wanting. § 531. One or two points connected with the construction of those sentences wherein relative pronouns occur, are necessary to be familiarly understood in order for us to see our way clearly to certain real and apparent anomalies in the syntax of this class of words. 1. Every sentence wherein a relative occurs, is complex, _i.e._, it consists of two propositions--_the man who rides is come_=(1) _the man is come_; (2) _who rides_. Here the relative _who_ has no meaning in itself, but takes a meaning from the noun of the preceding clause. 2. _The relative is the demonstrative or personal pronoun under another form._--The two propositions (1) _the man is come_; (2) _who rides_=(1) _the man is come_; (2) _he rides_. 3. _The demonstrative or personal pronoun is the substantive in another form._--The two propositions (1) _the man is come_; (2) _he rides_=(1) _the man is come_; (2) _the man rides_. 4. Hence the relative is the equivalent to a demonstrative pronoun, or to a substantive, indifferently. 5. But the relative is the equivalent to the pronoun and substantive, and _something more_. In sentences like The man is come--he rides-- The man is come--the man rides. The identity between the person mentioned in the two propositions is implied, not expressed. This the relative _expresses_; and hence its use in languages. 6. From these observations we get a practical rule for determining doubtful constructions. _a._ Reduce the sentence to the several propositions (which are never less than two) which it contains. _b._ Replace the relative by its equivalent personal or demonstrative pronoun, or by its equivalent substantive. _c._ The case of the demonstrative or substantive, is the case of the relative also. By applying this rule to such expressions as Satan, than _whom_ None higher sat, thus spake {426} we find them, _according to the current etymology_, incorrect-- Satan spake--none sat higher than he sat. Satan spake--none sat higher than Satan sat. Hence the expression should be, Satan than _who_ None higher sat. _Observe._--The words, _according to the current etymology_, indicate an explanation which, rightly or wrongly, has been urged in favour of expressions like the one in question, and which will be noticed in a future chapter. § 532. _Observe._--That three circumstances complicate the syntax of the relative pronoun. 1. The elliptic form of the generality of the sentences wherein it follows the word _than_. 2. The influence of the oblique interrogation. 3. The influence of an omitted relative. § 533. This last finds place in the present chapter. _When the relative and antecedent are in different cases, and the relative is omitted, the antecedent is sometimes put in the case of the relative._ He whom I accuse has entered. Contracted according to p. 424. He I accuse has entered. Changed, according to the present section,-- Him I accuse has entered. And so (as shown by Mr. Guest, _Philological Transactions_), Shakspeare has really written,-- _Him_ I accuse, The city gates by this has entered. _Coriolanus_, v. 5. Better leave undone, than by our deeds acquire Too high a fame, when _him_ we serve's away. _Antony and Cleopatra_, iii. 1. The reason of this is clear. The verb that determines {427} the case of the relative is brought in contact with the antecedent, and the case of the antecedent is accommodated to the case of the relative. The Greek phrase, [Greek: chrômai bibliois hois echô], is an instance of the converse process. § 534. _When there are two words in a clause, each capable of being an antecedent, the relative refers to the latter._ 1. _Solomon the son of David who slew Goliah._ This is unexceptionable. 2. _Solomon the son of David who built the temple._ This is exceptionable. Nevertheless, it is defensible, on the supposition that _Solomon-the-son-of-David_ is a single many-worded name. * * * * * {428} CHAPTER X. ON THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. § 535. Questions are of two sorts, direct and oblique. _Direct._--Who is he? _Oblique._--Who do you say that he is? All difficulties about the cases of the interrogative pronoun may be determined by framing an answer, and observing the case of the word with which the interrogative coincides. Whatever be the case of this word will also be the case of the interrogative. DIRECT. _Qu._ _Who_ is this?--_Ans._ _I._ _Qu._ _Whose_ is this?--_Ans._ _His._ _Qu._ _Whom_ do you seek?--_Ans._ _Him._ OBLIQUE. _Qu._ _Who_ do you say that it is?--_Ans._ _He._ _Qu._ _Whose_ do you say that it is?--_Ans._ _His._ _Qu._ _Whom_ do you say that they seek?--_Ans._ _Him._ _Note._--The answer should always be made by means of a pronoun, as, by so doing we distinguish the accusative case from the nominative. _Note._--And, if necessary, it should be made in full. Thus the full answer to _whom do you say that they seek?_ is, _I say that they seek him_. § 536. Nevertheless, such expressions as _whom do they say that it is?_ are common, especially in oblique questions. The following examples are Mr. Guest's.--_Philological Transactions._ "And he axed hem and seide, _whom_ seien the people that I am? Thei answereden and seiden, Jon Baptist--and he seide to hem, But _whom_ seien ye that I am?"--WICLIF, _Luke_ ix. {429} "Tell me in sadness _whom_ she is you love." _Romeo and Juliet_, i. 1. "And as John fulfilled his course, he said, _whom_ think ye that I am?"--_Acts_ xiii. 25. Two circumstances encourage this confusion. 1. The presence of a second verb, which takes the appearance of a governing verb. 2. The omission of a really oblique antecedent or relative. 3. The use of accusative for nominative forms in the case of personal pronouns. § 537. _The presence of a second verb_, &c.--_Tell_ me _whom_ she _is_. Here _tell_ is made to govern _whom_, instead of _whom_ being left, as _who_, to agree with _she_. § 538. _The omission_, &c.--Tell me _whom_ she is you _love_. Here the full construction requires a second pronoun--tell me _who_ she is _whom_ you _love_; or else, tell me _her whom_ you love. § 539. To the question, _who is_ this? many would answer not _I_, but _me_. This confusion of the case in the answer favours a confusion of case in the question. It is clear that much of this reasoning applies to the relative powers of _who_, as well as to the interrogative. But, it is possible that there may be no incorrectness at all: insomuch as _whom_ may have become a true nominative. Mr. Guest has truly remarked that such is the case in the Scandinavian language, where _hve-m_=_who_=_qui_. This view, if true, justifies the use of _whom_ after the conjunctions _than_ and _as_; so that the expression,-- Satan than _whom_ None higher sat, may be right. Nevertheless, it does not justify such expressions as-- None sit higher than _me_. None sit higher than _thee_. None sit higher than _us_. None sit higher than _her_. {430} The reason of this is clear. _Whom_ is supposed to be admissible, not because the sentence admits an accusative case; but because custom has converted it into a nominative. For my own part, I doubt the application of the Danish rule to the English language. Things may be going that way, but they have not, as yet, gone far enough. * * * * * {431} CHAPTER XI. THE RECIPROCAL CONSTRUCTION. § 540. In all sentences containing the statement of a reciprocal or mutual action there are in reality two assertions, _viz._, the assertion that A. _strikes_ (or _loves_) B., and the assertion that B. _strikes_ (or _loves_) A.; the action forming one, the reaction another. Hence, if the expressions exactly coincided with the fact signified, there would always be two propositions. This, however, is not the habit of language. Hence arises a more compendious form of expression, giving origin to an ellipsis of a peculiar kind. Phrases like _Eteocles and Polynices killed each other_ are elliptical, for _Eteocles and Polynices killed--each the other_. Here the second proposition expands and explains the first, whilst the first supplies the verb to the second. Each, however, is elliptic. The first is without the object, the second without the verb. That the verb must be in the plural (or dual) number, that one of the nouns must be in the nominative case, and that the other must be objective, is self-evident from the structure of the sentence; such being the conditions of the expression of the idea. An aposiopesis takes place after a plural verb, and then there follows a clause wherein the verb is supplied from what went before. § 541. This is the syntax. As to the power of the words _each_ and _one_ in the expression (_each other_ and _one another_), I am not prepared to say that in the common practice of the English language there is any distinction between them. A distinction, however, if it existed would give strength to our language. Where two persons performed a reciprocal action on another, the expression might be _one another_; as _Eteocles and Polynices killed one another_. Where more than two {432} persons were engaged on each side of a reciprocal action the expression might be _each other_; as, _the ten champions praised each other_. This amount of perspicuity is attained, by different processes, in the French, Spanish, and Scandinavian languages. 1. French.--_Ils_ (_i.e._, A. and B.) _se battaient--l'un l'autre_. _Ils_ (A. B. C.) _se battaient--les uns les autres_. In Spanish, _uno otro_=_l'un l'autre_, and _unos otros_=_les uns les autres_. 2. Danish.--_Hin_ander=the French _l'un l'autre_; whilst _hverandre_=_les uns les autres_. The Lapplandic, and, probably other languages, have the same elements of perspicuity. * * * * * {433} CHAPTER XII. THE INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. § 542. Different nations have different methods of expressing indeterminate propositions. Sometimes it is by the use of the passive voice. This is the common method in Latin and Greek, and is also current in English--_dicitur_, [Greek: legetai], _it is said_. Sometimes the verb is reflective--_si dice_=_it says itself_, Italian. Sometimes the plural pronoun of the third person is used. This also is an English locution--_they say_=_the world at large says_. Finally, the use of some word=_man_ is a common indeterminate expression. The word _man_ has an indeterminate sense in the Modern German; as, _man sagt_=_they say_. The word _man_ was also used indeterminately in the Old English, although it is not so used in the Modern.--Deutsche Grammatik. In the Old English, the form _man_ often lost the _-n_, and became _me_.--Deutsche Grammatik. This form is also extinct. The present indeterminate pronoun is _one_; as, _one says_=_they say_=_it is said_=_man sagt_, German=_on dit_, French=_si dice_, Italian. It has been stated in p. 257, that the indeterminate pronoun _one_ has no etymological connection with the numeral _one_; but that it is derived from the French _on_=_homme_=_homo_=_man_; and that it has replaced the Old English, _man_ or _me_. § 543. Two other pronouns, or, to speak more in accordance with the present habit of the English language, one {434} pronoun, and one adverb of pronominal origin are also used indeterminately viz., _it_ and _there_. § 544. _It_ can be either the subject or the predicate of a sentence,--_it is this_, _this is it_, _I am it_, _it is I_. When _it_ is the subject of a proposition, the verb necessarily agrees with it, and can be of the singular number only; no matter what be the number of the predicate--_it is this_, _it is these_. When _it_ is the predicate of a proposition, the number of the verb depends upon the number of the subject. These points of universal syntax are mentioned here for the sake of illustrating some anomalous forms. § 545. _There_ can only be the predicate of a subject. It differs from _it_ in this respect. It follows also that it must differ from _it_ in never affecting the number of the verb. This is determined by the nature of the subject--_there is this_, _there are these_. When we say _there is these_, the analogy between the words _there_ and _it_ misleads us; the expression being illogical. Furthermore, although a predicate, _there_ always stands in the beginning of propositions, _i.e._, in the place of the subject. This also misleads. § 546. Although _it_, when the subject, being itself singular, absolutely requires that its verb should be singular also, there is a tendency to use it incorrectly, and to treat it as a plural. Thus, in German, when the predicate is plural, the verb joined to the singular form _es_ (=_it_) is plural--_es sind menschen_, literally translated=_it are men_; which, though bad English, is good German. * * * * * {435} CHAPTER XIII. THE ARTICLES. § 547. The rule of most practical importance about the articles is the rule that determines when the article shall be repeated as often as there is a fresh substantive, and when it shall not. When two or more substantives following each other denote the same object, the article precedes the first only. We say _the secretary and treasurer_ (or, _a secretary and treasurer_), when the two offices are held by one person. When two or more substantives following each other denote different objects, the article is repeated, and precedes each. We say _the_ (or _a_) _secretary and the_ (or _a_) _treasurer_, when the two offices are held by different persons. This rule is much neglected. * * * * * {436} CHAPTER XIV. THE NUMERALS. § 548. The numeral _one_ is naturally single. All the rest are naturally plural. Nevertheless such expressions--_one two_ (=_one collection of two_), _two threes_ (=_two collections of three_), are legitimate. These are so because the sense of the word is changed. We may talk of several _ones_ just as we may talk of several _aces_; and of _one two_ just as of _one pair_. Expressions like _the thousandth-and-first_ are incorrect. They mean neither one thing nor another: 1001st being expressed by _the thousand-and-first_, and 1000th + 1st being expressed by _the thousandth and the first_. Here it may be noticed that, although I never found it to do so, the word _odd_ is capable of taking an ordinal form. The _thousand-and-odd-th_ is as good an expression as the _thousand-and-eight-th_. The construction of phrases like the _thousand-and-first_ is the same construction as we find in the _king-of-Saxony's army_. § 549. It is by no means a matter of indifference whether we say the _two first_ or the _first two_. The captains of two different classes at school should be called the _two first boys_. The first and second boys of the same class should be called the _first two boys_. I believe that when this rule is attended to, more is due to the printer than to the author: such, at least, is the case with myself. * * * * * {437} CHAPTER XV. ON VERBS IN GENERAL. § 550. For the purposes of syntax it is necessary to divide verbs into the five following divisions: transitive, intransitive, auxiliary, substantive, and impersonal. _Transitive verbs._--In transitive verbs the action is never a simple action. It always affects some object or other,--_I move my limbs_; _I strike my enemy_. The presence of a transitive verb implies also the presence of a noun; which noun is the name of the object affected. A transitive verb, unaccompanied by a noun, either expressed or understood, is a contradiction in terms. The absence of the nouns, in and of itself, makes it intransitive. _I move_ means, simply, _I am in a state of moving_. _I strike_ means, simply, _I am in the act of striking_. Verbs like _move_ and _strike_ are naturally transitive. _Intransitive verbs._--An act may take place, and yet no object be affected by it. _To hunger_, _to thirst_, _to sleep_, _to wake_, are verbs that indicate states of being, rather than actions affecting objects. Verbs like _hunger_, and _sleep_, are naturally intransitive. Many verbs, naturally transitive, may be used as intransitive,--_e.g._, _I move_, _I strike_, &c. Many verbs, naturally intransitive, may be used as transitives,--_e.g._, _I walked the horse_=_I made the horse walk_. This variation in the use of one and the same verb is of much importance in the question of the government of verbs. A. Transitive verbs are naturally followed by some noun or other; and that noun is _always_ the name of something affected by them _as an object_. {438} B. Intransitive verbs are not naturally followed by any noun at all; and when they are so followed, the noun is _never_ the name of anything affected by them _as an object_. Nevertheless, intransitive verbs may be followed by nouns denoting the manner, degree, or instrumentality of their action,--_I walk with my feet_=_incedo pedibus_. § 551. _The auxiliary verbs_ will be noticed fully in Chapter XXIII. § 552. The verb _substantive_ has this peculiarity, _viz._ that for all purposes of syntax it is no verb at all. _I speak_ may, logically, be reduced to _I am speaking_; in which case it is only the _part_ of a verb. Etymologically, indeed, the verb substantive is a verb; inasmuch as it is inflected as such: but for the purposes of construction, it is a copula only, _i.e._, it merely denotes the agreement or disagreement between the subject and the predicate. This does not apply to the infinitive mood. The infinitive mood of the so-called verb substantive is a noun; not, however, because it is a verb substantive, but because it is an infinitive mood. For the _impersonal_ verbs see Part IV., Chapter 27. * * * * * {439} CHAPTER XVI. THE CONCORD OF VERBS. § 553. The verb must agree with its subject in person, _I walk_, not _I walks_: _he walks_, not _he walk_. It must also agree with it in number,--_we walk_, not _we walks_: _he walks_, not _he walk_. Clear as these rules are, they require some expansion before they become sufficient to solve all the doubtful points of English syntax connected with the concord of the verb. A. _It is I, your master, who command you._ Query? would _it is I, your master, who commands you_, be correct? This is an example of a disputed point of concord in respect to the person of the verb. B. _The wages of sin is death._ Query? would _the wages of sin _are_ death_ be correct? This is an example of a disputed point of concord in respect to the number of the verb. § 554. In respect to the concord of person the following rules will carry us through a portion of the difficulties. _Rule._--In sentences, where there is but one proposition, when a noun and a pronoun of different persons are in apposition, the verb agrees with the first of them,--_I, your master, command you_ (not _commands_): _your master, I, commands you_ (not _command_). To understand the nature of the difficulty, it is necessary to remember that subjects may be extremely complex as well as perfectly simple; and that a complex subject may contain, at one and the same time, a noun substantive and a pronoun,--_I, the keeper_; _he, the merchant_, &c. Now all noun-substantives are naturally of the third person--_John speaks_, _the men run_, _the commander gives orders_. Consequently the verb is of the third person also. {440} But, the pronoun with which such a noun-substantive may be placed in apposition, may be a pronoun of either person, the first or second: _I_ or _thou_--_I the commander_--_thou the commander_.--In this case the construction requires consideration. With which does the verb agree? with the substantive which requires a third person? or with the pronoun which requires a first or second? Undoubtedly the idea which comes first is the leading idea; and, undoubtedly, the idea which explains, qualifies, or defines it, is the subordinate idea: and, undoubtedly, it is the leading idea which determines the construction of the verb. We may illustrate this from the analogy of a similar construction in respect to number--_a man with a horse and a gig meets me on the road_. Here the ideas are three; nevertheless the verb is singular. No addition of subordinate elements interferes with the construction that is determined by the leading idea. In the expression _I, your master_, the ideas are two; viz. the idea expressed by _I_, and the idea expressed by _master_. Nevertheless, as the one only explains or defines the other, the construction is the same as if the idea were single. _Your master, I_, is in the same condition. The general statement is made concerning the _master_, and it is intended to say what _he_ does. The word _I_ merely defines the expression by stating who the master is. Of the two expressions the latter is the awkwardest. The construction, however, is the same for both. From the analysis of the structure of complex subjects of the kind in question, combined with a rule concerning the position of the subject, which will soon be laid down, I believe that, for all single propositions, the foregoing rule is absolute. _Rule._--In all single propositions the verb agrees in person with the noun (whether substantive or pronoun) which comes first. § 555. But the expression _it is I, your master, who command_ (or _commands_) _you_, is not a single proposition. It is a sentence containing two propositions. 1. _It is I._ 2. _Who commands you._ {441} Here, the word _master_ is, so to say, undistributed. It may belong to either clause of the sentence, _i.e._, the whole sentence may be divided into Either--_it is I your master_-- Or--_your master who commands you_. This is the first point to observe. The next is that the verb in the second clause (_command_ or _commands_) is governed, not by either the personal pronoun or the substantive, but by the relative, _i.e._, in the particular case before us, not by either _I_ or _master_, but by _who_. And this brings us to the following question--with which of the two antecedents does the _relative_ agree? with _I_ or with _master_? This may be answered by the two following rules:-- _Rule 1._--When the two antecedents are in the same proposition, the relative agrees with the first. Thus-- 1. It is _I_ your _master_-- 2. Who _command_ you. _Rule 2._--When the two antecedents are in different propositions, the relative agrees with the second. Thus-- 1. It is _I_-- 2. Your _master_ who _commands_ you. This, however, is not all. What determines whether the two antecedents shall be in the same or in different propositions? I believe that the following rules for what may be called _the distribution of the substantive antecedent_ will bear criticism. _Rule 1._ That when there is any natural connection between the substantive antecedent and the verb governed by the relative, the antecedent belongs to the second clause. Thus, in the expression just quoted, the word _master_ is logically connected with the word _command_; and this fact makes the expression, _It is I your master who commands you_ the better of the two. _Rule 2._ That when there is no natural connection between the substantive antecedent and the verb governed by the {442} relative, the antecedent belongs to the first clause. _It is I, John, who command_ (not _commands_) _you_. To recapitulate, the train of reasoning has been as follows:-- 1. The person of the second verb is the person of the relative. 2. The person of the relative is that of one of two antecedents. 3. Of such two antecedents the relative agrees with the one which stands in the same proposition with itself. 4. Which position is determined by the connection or want of connection between the substantive antecedent and the verb governed by the relative. Respecting the person of the verb in the _first_ proposition of a complex sentence there is no doubt. _I, your master, who commands you to make haste, am_ (not _is_) _in a hurry_. Here, _I am in a hurry_ is the first proposition; _who commands you to make haste_, the second. It is not difficult to see why the construction of sentences consisting of two propositions is open to an amount of latitude which is not admissible in the construction of single propositions. As long as the different parts of a complex idea are contained within the limits of a single proposition, their subordinate character is easily discerned. When, however, they amount to whole propositions, they take the appearance of being independent members of the sentence. § 556. _The concord of number._--It is believed that the following three rules will carry us through all difficulties of the kind just exhibited. _Rule 1._ That the verb agrees with the subject, and with nothing but the subject. The only way to justify such an expression as _the wages of sin is death_, is to consider _death_ not as the subject, but as the predicate; in other words, to consider the construction to be, _death is the wages of sin_. _Rule 2._ That, except in the case of the word _there_ (p. 434), the word which comes first is always the subject, until the contrary be proved. {443} _Rule 3._ That no number of connected singular nouns can govern a plural verb, unless they be connected by a copulative conjunction. _The sun _and_ moon shine_,--_the sun_ in conjunction with _the moon shines_. § 557. _Plural subjects with singular predicates._--The wages of sin _are_ death.--Honest men _are_ the salt of the earth. _Singular subjects with plural predicates._--These constructions are rarer than the preceding: inasmuch as two or more persons (or things) are oftener spoken of as being equivalent to one, than one person (or thing) is spoken of as being equivalent to two or more. Sixpence _is_ twelve halfpennies. He _is_ all head and shoulders. Vulnera totus _erat_. Tu _es_ deliciæ meæ. [Greek: Hektor, atar su moi essi patêr kai potnia mêtêr,] [Greek: Êde kasignêtos, su de moi thaleros parakoitês]. * * * * * {444} CHAPTER XVII. ON THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. § 558. The government of verbs is of two sorts, (1.) _objective_, and (2.) _modal_. It is objective where the noun which follows the verb is the name of some object affected by the action of the verb,--as _he strikes me_; _he wounds the enemy_. It is modal when the noun which follows the verb is not the name of any object affected by the verb, but the name of some object explaining the manner in which the action of the verb takes place, the instrument with which it is done, the end for which it is done, &c. The government of all transitive verbs is necessarily objective. It may also be modal,--_I strike the enemy with the sword_=_ferio hostem gladio_. The government of all intransitive verbs can only be modal,--_I walk with the stick_. When we say, _I walk the horse_, the word _walk_ has changed its meaning, and signifies _make to walk_, and is, by the very fact of its being followed by the name of an object, converted from an intransitive into a transitive verb. The modal construction may also be called the _adverbial construction_; because the effect of the noun is akin to that of an adverb,--_I fight with bravery_=_I fight bravely_: _he walks a king_=_he walks regally_. The modal (or adverbial) construction (or government) sometimes takes the appearance of the objective: inasmuch as intransitive verbs are frequently followed by a substantive; which substantive is in the objective case. Nevertheless, this is no proof of government. For a verb to be capable of governing an objective case, it must be a verb signifying an action affecting an object: and {445} if there be no such object, there is no room for any objective government. _To break the sleep of the righteous_, is to _affect, by breaking, the sleep of the righteous_: but, _to sleep the sleep of the righteous_, is not to _affect by sleeping the sleep of the righteous_; since the act of sleeping is an act that affects no object whatever. It is a _state_. We may, indeed, give it the appearance of a transitive verb, as we do when we say, _the opiate slept the patient_, meaning thereby, _lulled to sleep_; but the transitive character is only apparent. _To sleep the sleep of the righteous_ is to _sleep in agreement with_--or _according to_--or _after the manner of_--_the sleep of the righteous_, and the construction is adverbial. In the grammars of the classical languages, the following rule is exceptionable--_Quodvis verbum admittit accusativum nominis sibi cognati_. It does so; but it governs the accusative case not objectively but modally. § 559. Modal verbs may be divided into a multiplicity of divisions. Of such, it is not necessary in English to give more than the following four:-- 1. _Appositional._--As, _she walks a queen_: _you consider me safe_. The appositional construction is, in reality, a matter of concord rather than of gender. It will be considered more fully in the following section. 2. _Traditive._--As, _I give the book to you_=_do librum tibi_. _I teach you the lesson_=[Greek: didaskô se tên didaskalian]. In all traditive expressions there are three ideas; (1.) an agent, (2.) an object, (3.) a person, or thing, to which the object is made over, or transferred, by the agent. For this idea the term dative is too restricted: since in Greek and some other languages, both the name of the object conveyed, and the name of the person to whom it is conveyed are, frequently, put in the accusative case. 3. _Instrumental._--As, _I fight with a sword_=_pugno ense_=_feohte sweorde_,--Anglo-Saxon. 4. _Emphatic._--As, _he sleeps the sleep of the righteous_. § 560. _Verb and nominative case._--No verb governs a nominative case. The appositional construction _seems_ to require such a form of government; but the form is only apparent. {446} It is I. It is thou. It is he, &c. Here, although the word _is_ is _followed_ by a nominative case, it by no means governs one--at least not as a verb. It has been stated above that the so-called verb substantive is only a verb for the purposes of etymology. In syntax, it is only a part of a verb, _i. e._, the copula. Now this fact changes the question of the construction in expressions like _it is I_, &c., from a point of government to one of concord. In the previous examples the words _it_, _is_, and _I_, were, respectively, _subject_, _copula_, and _predicate_; and, as it is the function of the copula to denote the agreement between the predicate and the subject, the real point to investigate is the nature of the concord between these two parts of a proposition. Now the predicate need agree with the subject in case only. 1. It has no necessary concord in gender--_she is a man in courage_--_he is a woman in effeminacy_--_it is a girl_. 2. It has no necessary concord in number--_sin is the wages of death_--_it is these that do the mischief_. 3. It has no necessary concord in person--_I am he whom you mean_. 4. It _has_, however, a necessary concord in case. Nothing but a nominative case can, by itself, constitute a term of either kind--subject or predicate. Hence, both terms must be in the nominative, and, consequently, both in the same case. Expressions like _this is for me_ are elliptic. The logical expression is _this is a thing for me_. _Rule._--The predicate must be of the same case with its subject. Hence--The copula instead of determining[60] a case expresses a concord. {447} _Rule 1._--All words connected with a nominative case by the copula (_i.e._, the so-called verb-substantive) must be nominative.--_It is I_; _I am safe_. _Rule 2._--All words in apposition with a word so connected must be nominative.--It is difficult to illustrate this from the English language from our want of inflexions. In Latin, however, we say _vocor Johannes_=_I am called John_, not _vocor Johannem_. Here the logical equivalent is _ego sum vocatus Johannes_--where-- 1. _Ego_, is nominative because it is the subject. 2. _Vocatus_ is nominative because it is the predicate agreeing with the subject. 3. _Johannes_, is nominative because it is part of the predicate, and in apposition with _vocatus_. N.B. Although in precise language _Johannes_ is said to agree with _vocatus_ rather than to be in apposition with it, the expression, as it stands, is correct. Apposition is the agreement of substantives, agreement the apposition of adjectives. _Rule 3._--All verbs which, when resolved into a copula and participle, have their participle in apposition (or agreeing) with the noun, are in the same condition as simple copulas--_she walks a queen_=_she is walking a queen_=_illa est incedens regina_. _Rule 4._--The construction of a subject and copula preceded by the conjunction _that_, is the same in respect to the predicate by which they are followed as if the sentence were an isolated proposition. This rule determines the propriety of the expression--_I believe that it is he_ as opposed to the expression _I believe that it is him_. _I believe_=_I am believing_, and forms one proposition. _It is he_, forms a second. _That_, connects the two; but belongs to neither. {448} Now, as the relation between the subject and predicate of a proposition cannot be affected by a word which does not belong to it, the construction is the same as if the propositions were wholly separate. N.B. The question (in cases where the conjunction _that_ is not used), as to the greater propriety of the two expressions--_I believe it to be him_--_I believe it to be he_--has yet to be considered. § 561. _The verb and genitive case._--No verb in the present English governs a genitive case. In Anglo-Saxon certain verbs did: _e.g._, _verbs of ruling_ and others--_weolde thises middangeardes_=_he ruled_ (_wealded_) _this earth's_. Genitive cases, too, governed by a verb are common both in Latin and Greek. _To eat of the fruit of the tree_ is no genitive construction, however much it may be equivalent to one. _Fruit_ is in the objective case, and is governed not by the verb but by the preposition _of_. § 562. _The verb and accusative._--All transitive verbs govern an accusative case,--_he strikes me_, _thee_, _him_, _her_, _it_, _us_, _you_, _them_. _The verb and dative case._--The word _give_, and a few others, govern a dative case. Phrases like _give it him_, _whom shall I give it_, are perfectly correct, and have been explained above. The prepositional construction _give it_ to _him_,--_to whom shall I give it?_ is unnecessary. The evidence of this is the same as in the construction of the adjective _like_. § 563. _The partitive construction._--Certain transitive verbs, the action whereof is extended not to the whole, but only to a part of their object, are followed by the preposition of and an objective case. _To eat of the fruit of the tree_=_to eat a part_ (or _some_) _of the fruit of the tree_: _to drink of the water of the well_=_to drink a part_ (or _some_) _of the water of the well_. It is not necessary, here, to suppose the ellipsis of the words _part_ (or _some_). The construction is a construction that has grown out of the partitive power of the genitive case; for which case the preposition _of_, followed by the objective, serves as an equivalent. § 564. It has been already stated that forms like _I believe_ {449} _it to be him_, and forms like _I believe it to be he_, had not been investigated. Of these, the former is, logically, correct. Here, the word, _to be_, is, in respect to its power, a noun. As such, it is in the accusative case after the verb _believe_. With this accusative infinitive, _it_ agrees, as being part of the same complex idea. And _him_ does the same. In English we have two methods of expressing one idea; the method in question, and the method by means of the conjunction, _that_. 1. _I believe it to be him._ 2. _I believe that it is he._ In the first example, _it_ is the object; and _it-to-be-him_ forms one complex term. In the second, _he_ agrees with _it_; and _it_ is the subject of a separate, though connected, proposition. Of these two forms the Latin language adopts but one, _viz._, the former,--_credo eum esse_, not _credo quod illud est ille_. § 565. _The expression_ ob differentiam.--The classical languages, although having but one of the two previous forms, are enabled to effect a variation in the application of it, which, although perhaps illogical, is convenient. When the speaker means himself, the noun that follows, _esse_, or [Greek: einai], is nominative,--[Greek: phêmi einai despotês]=_I say that I am the master_: _ait fuisse celerrimus_=_he says that he himself was the swiftest_--but, [Greek: phêmi einai despotên]=_I say that he_ (some one else) _is the master_; and _ait fuisse celerrimum_=_he says that he_ (some one else) _is the swiftest_. This, though not adopted in English, is capable of being adopted,--_He believes it to be he_ (_i.e._, the speaker) _who invented the machine_; but, _he believes it to be him_ (that is, another person) _who invented it_. § 566. When the substantive infinitive, _to be_, is preceded by a passive participle, combined with the verb substantive, the construction is nominative,--_it is believed to be he who spoke_, not _it is believed to be him_.--Here there are two propositions: 1. It is believed.-- 2. Who spoke. {450} Now, here, _it_ is the subject, and, as such, nominative. But it is also the equivalent to _to be he_, which must be nominative as well. _To be he is believed_=_esse-ille creditur_,--or, changing the mode of proof,-- 1. _It_ is the subject and nominative. 2. _Believed_ is part of the predicate; and, consequently, nominative also. 3. _To be he_ is a subordinate part of the predicate, in apposition with _believed_--_est creditum, nempe entitas ejus_. Or, _to be he is believed_=_esse-ille est creditum_. As a general expression for the syntax of copulas and appositional constructions, the current rule, that _copulas and appositional verbs must be followed by the same case by which they are preceded_, stands good. * * * * * {451} CHAPTER XVIII. ON THE PARTICIPLES. § 567. The present participle, or the participle in _-ing_, must be considered in respect to its relations with the substantive in _-ing_. _Dying-day_ is, probably, no more a participle than _morning-walk_. In respect to the syntax of such expressions as the forthcoming, I consider that they are _either_ participles or substantives. 1. When substantives, they are in regimen, and govern a genitive case--_What is the meaning of the lady's holding up her train?_ Here the word _holding_=_the act of holding_.--_Quid est significatio elevationis pallæ de parte foeminæ._ 2. When participles, they are in apposition or concord, and would, if inflected, appear in the same case with the substantive, or pronoun, preceding them--_What is the meaning of the lady holding up her train?_ Here the word _holding_=_in the act of holding_, and answers to the Latin _foeminæ elevantis_.--_Quid est significatio foeminæ elevantis pallam?_ For the extent to which the view differs from that of Priestley, and still more with that of Mr. Guest, see _Phil. Trans._, 25. § 568. The past participle corresponds not with the Greek form [Greek: tuptomenos], but with the form [Greek: tetummenos]. _I am beaten_ is essentially a combination, expressive not of present but of past time, just like the Latin _sum verberatus_. Its Greek equivalent is not [Greek: eimi tuptomenos]=_I am a man in the act of being beaten_, but [Greek: eimi tetummenos]=_I am a man who has been beaten_. It is past in respect to the action, though present in respect to the state brought about by the action. This essentially past element in the so-called present expression, _I am beaten_, will be again referred to. * * * * * {452} CHAPTER XIX. ON THE MOODS. § 569. The infinitive mood is a noun. The current rule that _when two verbs come together the latter is placed in the infinitive mood_ means that one verb can govern another only by converting it into a noun--_I begin to move_=_I begin the act of moving_. Verbs, _as verbs_, can only come together in the way of apposition--_I irritate_, _I beat_, _I talk at him_, _I call him names_, &c. § 570. The construction, however, of English infinitives is twofold. (1.) Objective. (2.) Gerundial. When one verb is followed by another without the preposition _to_, the construction must be considered to have grown out of the objective case, or from the form in _-an_. This is the case with the following words, and, probably, with others. I may go, _not_ I may _to_ go. I might go, -- I might _to_ go. I can move, -- I can _to_ move. I could move, -- I could _to_ move. I will speak, -- I will _to_ speak. I would speak, -- I would _to_ speak. I shall wait, -- I shall _to_ wait. I should wait, -- I should _to_ wait. Let me go, -- Let me _to_ go. He let me go, -- He let me _to_ go. I do speak, -- I do _to_ speak. I did speak, -- I did _to_ speak. I dare go, -- I dare _to_ go. I durst go, -- I durst _to_ go. Thou shalt not _see_ thy brother's ox or his ass _fall_ down by the way. We _heard_ him _say_ I will destroy the temple. {453} I _feel_ the pain _abate_. He _bid_ her _alight_. I would fain _have_ any one _name_ to me that tongue that any one can speak as he should do by the rules of grammar. This, in the present English, is the rarer of the two constructions. When a verb is followed by another, preceded by the preposition _to_, the construction must be considered to have grown out of the so-called gerund, _i.e._, the form in _-nne_, _i.e._, the dative case--_I begin to move_. This is the case with the great majority of English verbs. The following examples, from the Old English, of the gerundial construction where we have, at present, the objective, are Mr. Guest's. 1. Eilrid _myght nought to stand_ þam ageyn. _R. Br._ 2. Whether feith schall _mowe to save_ him? WICLIF, _James_ ii. 3. My woful child what flight _maist thou to take_? HIGGINS, _Lady Sabrine_, 4. 4. Never to retourne no more, Except he _would_ his life _to loose_ therfore. HIGGINS, _King Albanaet_, 6. 5. He said he _could not to forsake_ my love. HIGGINS, _Queen Elstride_, 20. 6. The mayster _lette_ X men and mo _To wende_. _Octavian_, 381. 7. And though we owe the fall of Troy requite, Yet _let_ revenge thereof from gods _to_ lighte. HIGGINS, _King Albanaet_, 16. 8. _I durst_, my lord, _to wager_ she is honest. _Othello_, iv. 2. 9. Whom, when on ground, she grovelling _saw to roll_, She ran in haste, &c. _F. Q._ iv. 7, 32. {454} § 571. Imperatives have three peculiarities. (1.) They can only, in English, be used in the second person: (2.) They take pronouns after, instead of before, them: (3.) They often omit the pronoun altogether. § 572. For the syntax of subjunctives, see the Chapter on Conjunctions. * * * * * {455} CHAPTER XX. ON THE TENSES. § 573. Notwithstanding its name, the present tense in English, does not express a strictly _present_ action. It rather expresses an habitual one. _He speaks well_=_he is a good speaker_. If a man means to say that he is in the act of speaking, he says _I am speaking_. It has also, especially when combined with a subjunctive mood, a future power--_I beat you_ (=_I will beat you_) _if you don't leave off_. § 574. The English præterite is the equivalent, not to the Greek perfect but the Greek aorist. _I beat_=[Greek: etupsa] not [Greek: tetupha]. The true perfect is expressed, in English, by the auxiliary _have_ + the past participle. * * * * * {456} CHAPTER XXI. SYNTAX OF THE PERSONS OF VERBS. § 575. For the impersonal verbs see Part IV. Chapter 27. § 576. _The concord of persons._--A difficulty that occurs frequently in the Latin language is rare in English. In expressions like _ego et ille_ followed by a verb, there arises a question as to the person in which that verb should be used. Is it to be in the first person in order to agree with _ego_, or in the _third_ in order to agree with _ille_? For the sake of laying down a rule upon these and similar points, the classical grammarians arrange the persons (as they do the genders) according to their _dignity_, making the verb (or adjective if it be a question of gender) agree with the most _worthy_. In respect to persons, the first is more worthy than the second, and the second more worthy than the third. Hence, the Latins said-- _Ego_ et _Balbus sustulimus_ manus. _Tu_ et _Balbus sustulistis_ manus. Now, in English, the plural form is the same for all three persons. Hence we say _I and you are friends_, _you and I are friends_, _I and he are friends_, &c., so that, for the practice of language, the question as to the relative dignity of the three persons is a matter of indifference. Nevertheless, it _may_ occur even in English. Whenever two or more pronouns of different persons, and of the _singular_ number, follow each other _disjunctively_, the question of concord arises. _I or you_,--_you or he_,--_he or I_. I believe that, in these cases, the rule is as follows:-- 1. Whenever the words _either_ or _neither_ precede the {457} pronouns, the verb is in the third person. _Either you or I is in the wrong_; _neither you nor I is in the wrong_. 2. Whenever the disjunctive is simple (_i. e._ unaccompanied with the word _either_ or _neither_) the verb agrees with the _first_ of the two pronouns. _I_ or _he am_ in the wrong. _He_ or _I is_ in the wrong. _Thou_ or _he art_ in the wrong. _He_ or _thou is_ in the wrong. The reasons for these rules will appear in the Chapter on Conjunctions. Now, provided that they are correct, it is clear that the English language knows nothing about the relative degrees of dignity between these three pronouns; since its habit is to make the verb agree with the one which is placed first--whatever may be the person. I am strongly inclined to believe that the same is the case in Latin; in which case (in the sentence _ego et Balbus sustulimus manus_) _sustulimus_ agrees, in person, with _ego_, not because the first person is the worthiest, but because it comes first in the proposition. That the greater supposed worth of the first person may be a reason for putting it first in the proposition is likely enough. * * * * * {458} CHAPTER XXII. ON THE VOICES OF VERBS. § 577. In English there is neither a passive nor a middle voice. The following couplet from Dryden's "Mac Flecnoe" exhibits a construction which requires explanation:-- An ancient fabric, raised to'inform the sight, There stood of yore, and Barbican _it hight_. Here the word _hight_=_was called_, and seems to present an instance of the participle being used in a passive sense without the so-called verb substantive. Yet it does no such thing. The word is no participle at all; but a simple preterite. Certain verbs are _naturally_ either passive or active, as one of two allied meanings may predominate. _To be called_ is passive; so is, _to be beaten_. But, _to bear as a name_ is active; so is, _to take a beating_. The word, _hight_, is of the same class of verbs with the Latin _vapulo_; and it is the same as the Latin word, _cluo_.--_Barbican cluit_=_Barbican audivit_=_Barbican it hight_. * * * * * {459} CHAPTER XXIII. ON THE AUXILIARY VERBS. § 578. The auxiliary verbs, in English, play a most important part in the syntax of the language. They may be classified upon a variety of principles. The following, however, are all that need here be applied. A. _Classification of auxiliaries according to their inflectional or non-inflectional powers._--Inflectional auxiliaries are those that may either replace or be replaced by an inflection. Thus--_I am struck_=the Latin _ferior_, and the Greek [Greek: tuptomai]. These auxiliaries are in the same relation to verbs that prepositions are to nouns. The inflectional auxiliaries are,-- 1. _Have_; equivalent to an inflection in the way of tense--_I have bitten=mo-mordi_. 2. _Shall_; ditto. _I shall call_=_voc-abo_. 3. _Will_; ditto. _I will call_=_voc-abo_. 4. _May_; equivalent to an inflection in the way of mood. _I am come that I may see_=_venio ut vid-eam_. 5. _Be_; equivalent to an inflection in the way of voice. _To be beaten_=_verberari_, [Greek: tuptesthai]. 6. _Am, art, is, are_; ditto. Also equivalent to an inflection in the way of tense. _I am moving_=_move-o_. 7. _Was, were_; ditto, ditto. _I was beaten_=[Greek: e-tuphthên]. _I was moving_=_move-bam_. _Do_, _can_, _must_, and _let_, are non-inflectional auxiliaries. B. _Classification of auxiliaries according to their non-auxiliary significations._--The power of the word _have_ in the combination of _I have a horse_ is clear enough. It means possession. The power of the same word in the combination _I have been_ is not so clear; nevertheless it is a power which has grown out of the idea of possession. This shows that {460} the power of a verb as an auxiliary may be a modification of its original power; _i. e._, of the power it has in non-auxiliary constructions. Sometimes the difference is very little: the word _let_, in _let us go_, has its natural sense of permission unimpaired. Sometimes it is lost altogether. _Can_ and _may_ exist only as auxiliaries. 1. Auxiliary derived from the idea of possession--_have_. 2. Auxiliaries derived from the idea of existence--_be_, _is_, _was_. 3. Auxiliary derived from the idea of future destination, dependent upon circumstances external to the agent--_shall_. There are etymological reasons for believing that _shall_ is no present tense, but a perfect. 4. Auxiliary derived from the idea of future destination, dependent upon the volition of the agent--_will_. _Shall_ is simply predictive; _will_ is predictive and promissive as well. 5. Auxiliary derived from the idea of power, dependent upon circumstances external to the agent--_may_. 6. Auxiliary derived from the idea of power, dependent upon circumstances internal to the agent--_can_. _May_ is simply permissive; _can_ is potential. In respect to the idea of power residing in the agent being the cause which determines a contingent action, _can_ is in the same relation to _may_ as _will_ is to _shall_. "_May_ et _can_, cum eorum præteritis imperfectis, _might_ et _could_, potentiam innuunt: cum hoc tamen discrimine: _may_ et _might_ vel de jure vel saltem de rei possibilitate dicuntur, at _can_ et _could_ de viribus agentis."--WALLIS, p. 107. 7. Auxiliary derived from the idea of sufferance--_let_. 8. Auxiliary derived from the idea of necessity--_must_. "_Must_ necessitatem innuit. Debeo, oportet, necesse est urere, _I must burn_. Aliquando sed rarius in præterito dicitur _must_ (quasi ex _must'd_ seu _must't_ contractum). Sic, si de præterito dicatur, _he must_ (seu _must't_) _be burnt_, oportebat uri seu necesse habuit ut ureretur."--WALLIS, 107. 9. Auxiliary derived from the idea of action--_do_. C. _Classification of auxiliary verbs in respect to their mode_ {461} _of construction._--Auxiliary verbs combine with others in three ways. 1. _With participles._--_a_) With the present, or active, participle--_I am speaking_: _b_) With the past, or passive, participle--_I am beaten_, _I have beaten_. 2. _With infinitives._--_a_) With the objective infinitive--_I can speak_: _b_) With the gerundial infinitive--_I have to speak_. 3. _With both infinitives and participles._--_I shall have done, I mean to have done._ D. _Auxiliary verbs may be classified according to their effect._--Thus--_have_ makes the combination in which it appears equivalent to a tense; _be_ to a passive form; _may_ to a sign of mood, &c. This sketch of the different lights under which auxiliary verbs may be viewed, has been written for the sake of illustrating, rather than exhausting, the subject. § 579. The following is an exhibition of some of the _times_ in which an action may take place, as found in either the English or other languages, expressed by the use of either an inflection or a combination. _Time considered in one point only_-- 1. _Present._--An action taking place at the time of speaking, and incomplete.--_I am beating_, _I am being beaten_. _Not_ expressed, in English, by the simple present tense; since _I beat_ means _I am in the habit of beating_. 2. _Aorist._--An action that took place in past time, or previous to the time of speaking, and which has no connection with the time of speaking.--_I struck_, _I was stricken_. Expressed, in English, by the præterite, in Greek by the aorist. The term aorist, from the Greek [Greek: a-oristos]=_undefined_, is a convenient name for this sort of time. 3. _Future._--An action that has neither taken place, nor is taking place at the time of speaking, but which is stated as one which _will_ take place.--Expressed, in English, by the combination of _will_ or _shall_ with an infinitive mood. In Latin and Greek by an inflection. _I shall_ (or _will_) _speak_, [Greek: lek-sô], _dica-m_. {462} None of these expressions imply more than a single action; in other words, they have no relation to any second action occurring simultaneously with them, before them, or after them.--_I am speaking now_, _I spoke yesterday_, _I shall speak to-morrow_. Of course, the act of mentioning them is not considered as an action related to them in the sense here meant. By considering past, present, or future actions not only by themselves, but as related to other past, present, or future actions, we get fresh varieties of expression. Thus, an act may have been going on, when some other act, itself an act of past time, interrupted it. Here the action agrees with a present action, in being incomplete; but it differs from it in having been rendered incomplete by an action that has past. This is exactly the case with the-- 4. _Imperfect._--_I was reading when he entered._ Here we have two acts; the act of _reading_ and the act of _entering_. Both are past as regards the time of speaking, but both are present as regards each other. This is expressed, in English, by the past tense of the verb substantive and the present participle, _I was speaking_; and in Latin and Greek by the imperfect tense, _dicebam_, [Greek: etupton]. 5. _Perfect._--Action past, but connected with the present by its effects or consequences.--_I _have_ written, and here is the letter._ Expressed in English by the auxiliary verb _have_, followed by the _participle passive in the accusative case and neuter gender of the singular number_. The Greek expresses this by the reduplicate perfect: [Greek: te-tupha]=_I have beaten._ 6. _Pluperfect._--Action past, but connected with a second action, subsequent to it, _which is also past_.--_I _had_ written when he _came_ in._ 7. _Future present._--Action future as regards the time of speaking, present as regards some future time.--_I shall _be speaking_ about this time to-morrow._ 8. _Future præterite._--Action future as regards the time of speaking, past as regards some future time.--_I shall _have spoken_ by this time to-morrow._ {463} These are the chief expressions which are simply determined by the relations of actions to each other, and to the time of speaking, either in the English or any other language. But over and above the simple idea of _time_, there may be others superadded: thus, the phrase, I do _speak_ means, not only that _I am in the habit of speaking_, but that I also _insist_ upon it being understood that I am so. Again, an action that is mentioned as either taking place, or as having taken place at a given time, may take place again and again. Hence the idea of _habit_ may arise out of the idea of either present time or aorist time. [alpha]. In English, the present form expresses _habit_. See p. 455. [beta]. In Greek the aorist expresses habit. Again, one tense, or one combination, may be used for another. _I was speaking when he enters._ The results of these facts may now be noticed: 1. The _emphatic present and præterite._--Expressed by _do_ (or _did_), as stated above. A man says _I do_ (or _did_) _speak_, _read_, &c., when, either directly or by implication, it is asserted or implied that he does not. As a question implies doubt, _do_ is used in interrogations. "_Do_ et _did_ indicant emphatice tempus præsens, et præteritum imperfectum. _Uro_, _urebam_; _I burn_, _I burned_: vel (emphatice) _I do burn_, _I did burn_."--WALLIS, p. 106. 2. _The predictive future._--_I shall be there to-morrow._ This means simply that the speaker will be present. It gives no clue to the circumstances that will determine his being so. 3. The _promissive future._--_I will be there to-morrow._--This means not only that the speaker will be present, but that he _intends_ being so. For further observations on _shall_ and _will_, see pp. 471-474. 4. That the power of the present tense is, in English, not present, but habitual, has already been twice stated. § 580. _The representative expression of past and future time._--An action may be past; yet, for the sake of bringing it more vividly before the hearers, we may make it present. {464} _He walks (_for_ walked) up to him, and knocks (_for_ knocked) him down._ This denotes a single action; and is by no means the natural habitual power of the English present. So, in respect to a future, _I beat you if you don't leave off_, for _I will beat you_. This use of the present tense is sometimes called the _historic_ use of the present tense. I find it more convenient to call it the representative use; inasmuch as it is used more after the principles of painting than of history; the former of which, necessarily, _represents_ things as present, the latter, more naturally, describes them as _past_. The use of the representative present to express simple actions is unequivocally correct. To the expression, however, of complex actions it gives an illogical character,--_As I was doing this he enters_ (for _entered_). Nevertheless, such a use of the present is a fact in language, and we must take it as it occurs. § 581. The present tense can be used instead of the future; and that on the principle of representation. Can a future be used for a present? No. The present tense can be used instead of the aorist; and that on the principle of representation. Can a past tense, or combination, be used for a present? In respect to the perfect tense there is no doubt. The answer is in the affirmative. For all purposes of syntax a perfect tense, or a combination equivalent to one, is a present tense. Contrast the expression, _I come that I may see_; with the expression, _I came that I might see_; _i.e._, the present construction with the aorist. Then, bring in the perfect construction, _I have come_. It differs with the aorist, and agrees with the present. _I have come that I may see._ The reason for this is clear. There is not only a present element in all perfects, but for the purposes of syntax, the present element predominates. Hence expressions like _I shall go_, need give us no trouble; even though _shall_ be considered as a perfect tense. Suppose the root, _sk-ll_ to mean _to be destined_ (or _fated_). Provided we consider the effects of the action to be continued up to the time of speaking, we may say _I _have been_ destined to go_, just as well as we can say _I _am_ destined to go_. {465} The use of the aorist as a present (except so far as both the tenses agree in their power of expressing _habitual_ actions) is a more difficult investigation. It bears upon such expressions as _I ought to go_, &c., and will be taken up in p. 475. § 582. Certain adverbs, _i.e._, those of time, require certain tenses. _I am then_, _I was now_, _I was hereafter_, &c., are contradictory expressions. They are not so much bad grammar as impossible nonsense. Nevertheless, we have in Latin such expressions as "Ut _sumus_ in ponto ter frigore constitit Ister." Here the connection of the present and perfect ideas explains the apparent contradiction. The present state may be the result of a previous one; so that a preterite element may be involved in a present expression. _Ut sumus_=_since I have been where I am_. It is hardly necessary to remark that such expressions as _since I am here_ (where _since_=_inasmuch as_) do not come under this class. § 583. Two fresh varieties in the use of tenses and auxiliary verbs may be arrived at by considering the following ideas, which may be superadded to that of simple time. 1. _Continuance in the case of future actions._--A future action may not only take place, but continue: thus, a man may, on a given day, not only be called by a particular name, but may _keep_ that name. When Hesiod says that, notwithstanding certain changes which shall have taken place, good shall _continue_ to be mixed with bad, he does not say, [Greek: esthla michthêsetai kakoisin], but, [Greek: All' empês kai toisi memixetai esthla kakoisin]. _Opera et Dies._ Again,-- [Greek: Epeith' ho politês entetheis en katalogôi] [Greek: Oudeis kata spoudas metengraphêsetai], [Greek: All' hosper ên to prôtun engegrapsetai]. ARISTOPH. _Equites_, 1366. {466} Here [Greek: metengraphêsetai] means _change from one class to another_, [Greek: êngegrapsetai] _continuance in the same_.--See Mathiæ, ii. § 498. Upon the lines,-- [Greek: Hothen pros andrôn husterôn keklêsetai] [Greek: Doureios hippos]. _Troades_, 13, 14. Seidler remarks that [Greek: klêthêsetai], est _nomen accipiet_; [Greek: keklêsetai], _nomen geret_. Now it is quite true that this Greek tense, the so-called _paulo-post-futurum_, "bears the same relation to the other futures as, among the tenses of past time, the perfectum does to the aorist."--(Mathiæ.) And it is also true that it by no means answers to the English _shall have been_. Yet the logical elements of both are the same. In the English expression, the _past_ power of the perfect predominates, in the Greek its _present_ power. 2. _Habit in the case of past actions._--_I had dined when I rode out._ This may apply to a particular dinner, followed by a particular ride. But it may also mean that when the speaker _had dined, according to habit, he rode out, according to habit also_. This gives us a variety of pluperfect; which is, in the French language, represented by separate combination--_j'avais diné_, _j'eus diné_. § 584. It is necessary to remember that the connection between the present and the past time, which is involved in the idea of a perfect tense ([Greek: tetupha]), or perfect combination (_I have beaten_), is of several sorts. It may consist in the _present proof_ of the _past_ fact,--_I have written, and here is the evidence_. It may consist in the _present effects_ of the _past_ fact,--_I have written, and here is the answer_. Without either enumerating or classifying these different kinds of connexion, it is necessary to indicate two sorts of _inference_ to which they may give origin. 1. _The inference of continuance._--When a person says, _I have learned my lesson_, we presume that he can say it, _i. e._, that, _he has a present knowledge of it_. Upon this principle {467} [Greek: kektêmai]=_I have earned_=_I possess_. The past action is assumed to be continued in its effects. 2. _The inference of contrast._--When a person says, _I have been young_, we presume that he is so no longer. The action is past, but it is continued up to the time of speaking by the contrast which it supplies. Upon this principle, _fuit Ilium_ means _Ilium is no more_. In speaking, this difference can be expressed by a difference of accent. _I _have_ learned my lesson_, implies that _I don't mean to learn it again_. _I have _learned_ my lesson_, implies that _I can say it_. § 585. The construction of the auxiliary, _may_, will be considered in the Chapter on Conjunctions; that of _can_, _must_, and _let_, offer nothing remarkable. The combination of the auxiliary, _have_, with the past participle requires notice. It is, here, advisable to make the following classifications. 1. The combination with the participle of a _transitive verb_.--_I have ridden the horse_; _thou hast broken the sword_; _he has smitten the enemy_. 2. The combination with the participle of an _intransitive_ verb,--_I have waited_; _thou hast hungered_; _he has slept_. 3. The combination with the participle of the verb substantive,--_I have been_; _thou hast been_; _he has been_. It is by examples of the first of these three divisions that the true construction is to be shown. For an object of any sort to be in the possession of a person, it must previously have existed. If I possess a horse, that horse must have had a previous existence. Hence, in all expressions like _I have ridden a horse_, there are two ideas, a past idea in the participle, and a present idea in the word denoting possession. For an object of any sort, affected in a particular manner, to be in the possession of a person, it must previously have been affected in the manner required. If I possess a horse that has been ridden, the riding must have taken place before I mention the fact of the ridden horse being in my possession; inasmuch as I speak of it as a thing already done,--the participle, _ridden_, being in the past tense. {468} _I have ridden a horse_=_I have a horse ridden_=_I have a horse as a ridden horse_, or (changing the gender and dealing with the word _horse_ as a thing)=_I have a horse as a ridden thing_. In this case the syntax is of the usual sort. (1) _Have_=_own_=_habeo_=_teneo_; (2) _horse_ is the accusative case=_equum_; (3) _ridden_ is a past participle agreeing either with _horse_, or _with a word in apposition with it understood_. Mark the words in italics. The word _ridden_ does not agree with _horse_, since it is of the neuter gender. Neither if we said _I have ridden the horses_, would it agree with _horses_; since it is of the singular number. The true construction is arrived at by supplying the word _thing_. _I have a horse as a ridden thing_=_habeo equum equitatum_ (neuter). Here the construction is the same as _triste lupus stabulis_. _I have horses as a ridden thing_=_habeo equos equitatam_ (singular, neuter). Here the construction is-- "Triste ... maturis frugibus imbres, Arboribus venti, nobis Amaryllides iræ." or in Greek-- [Greek: Deinon gunaixin hai di' ôdinôn gonai]. The classical writers supply instances of this use of _have_. _Compertum habeo_, milites, verba viris virtutem non addere=_I have discovered_=_I am in possession of the discovery_. Quæ cum ita sint, satis de Cæsare hoc _dictum habeo_. 2. The combination of _have_ with an intransitive verb is irreducible to the idea of possession: indeed, it is illogical. In _I have waited_, we cannot make the idea expressed by the word _waited_ the object of the _verb_ have or _possess_. The expression has become a part of language by means of the extension of a false analogy. It is an instance of an illegitimate imitation. 3. The combination of _have_ with _been_ is more illogical still, and is a stronger instance of the influence of an illegitimate imitation. In German and Italian, where even _intransitive_ verbs are combined with the equivalents to the English _have_ {469} (_haben_ and _avere_), the verb substantive is not so combined; on the contrary, the combinations are Italian; _io sono stato_=_I am been_. German; _ich bin gewesen_=_ditto_. which is logical. § 586. _I am to speak._--Three facts explain this idiom. 1. The idea of _direction towards an object_ conveyed by the dative case, and by combinations equivalent to it. 2. The extent to which the ideas of necessity, obligation, or intention are connected with the idea of _something that has to be done_, or _something towards which some action has a tendency_. 3. The fact that expressions like the one in question historically represent an original dative case, or its equivalent; since _to speak_ grows out of the Anglo-Saxon form _to sprecanne_, which, although called a gerund, is really a dative case of the infinitive mood. When Johnson (see Mr. Guest, _Phil. Trans._ No. 44) thought that, in the phrase _he is to blame_, the word _blame_ was a noun, if he meant a noun in the way that _culpa_ is a noun, his view was wrong. But if he meant a noun in the way that _culpare_, _ad culpandum_, are nouns, it was right. § 587. _I am to blame._--This idiom is one degree more complex than the previous one; since _I am to blame_=_I am to be blamed_. As early, however, as the Anglo-Saxon period the gerunds were liable to be used in a passive sense: _he is to lufigenne_=not _he is to love_, but _he is to be loved_. The principle of this confusion may be discovered by considering that _an object to be blamed_, is _an object for some one to blame_, _an object to be loved_ is _an object for some one to love_. § 588. _Shall_ and _will._--The simply predictive future verb is _shall_. Nevertheless, it is only used in the first person. The second and third persons are expressed by the promissive verb _will_. The promissive future verb is _will_. Nevertheless, it is only used in the first person. The second and third persons are expressed by the predictive verb _shall_. {470} "In _primis_ personis _shall_ simpliciter prædicentis est; _will_, quasi promittentis aut minantis. "In secundis et tertiis personis, _shall_ promittentis est aut minantis: _will_ simpliciter prædicentis. "Uram=_I shall burn_. Ures=_Thou wilt burn_. Uret=_He will burn_. Uremus=_We shall burn_. Uretis=_Ye will burn_. Urent=_They will burn_. nempe, hoc futurum prædico. "_I will burn._ _Thou shalt burn._ _He shall burn._ _We will burn._ _Ye shall burn._ _They shall burn._ nempe, hoc futurum spondeo, vel faxo ut sit." Again--"_would_ et _should_ illud indicant quod erat vel esset futurum: cum hoc tantum discrimine: _would_ voluntatem innuit, seu agentis propensionem: _should_ simpliciter futuritionem."--Wallis, p. 107. § 589. Archdeacon Hare explains this by a _usus ethicus_. "In fact, this was one of the artifices to which the genius of the Greek language had recourse, to avoid speaking presumptuously of the future: for there is an awful, irrepressible, and almost instinctive consciousness of the uncertainty of the future, and of our own powerlessness over it, which, in all cultivated languages, has silently and imperceptibly modified the modes of expression with regard to it: and from a double kind of _litotes_, the one belonging to human nature generally, the other imposed by good-breeding on the individual, and urging him to veil the manifestations of his will, we are induced to frame all sorts of shifts for the sake of speaking with becoming modesty. Another method, as we know, frequently adopted by the Greeks was the use of the conditional moods: and as sentiments of this kind always imply some degree of intellectual refinement, and strengthen with its increase, this is called an Attic usage. The same name too has often been given to the above-mentioned middle forms of the future; not that in either case the practice was peculiar to the Attic dialect, but that it was more general where the feelings which produced it were {471} strong and more distinct. Here again our own language supplies us with an exact parallel: indeed this is the only way of accounting for the singular mixture of the two verbs _shall_ and _will_, by which, as we have no auxiliary answering to the German _werde_, we express the future tense. Our future, or at least what answers to it, is, _I shall_, _thou wilt_, _he will_. When speaking in the first person, we speak submissively: when speaking to or of another, we speak courteously. In our older writers, for instance in our translation of the Bible, _shall_ is applied to all three persons: we had not then reacht that stage of politeness which shrinks from the appearance even of speaking compulsorily of another. On the other hand the Scotch use _will_ in the first person: that is, as a nation they have not acquired that particular shade of good-breeding which shrinks from thrusting itself[61] forward." {472} § 590. _Notice of the use of _will_ and _shall_, by Professor De Morgan._--"The matter to be explained is the synonymous character of _will_ in the first person with _shall_ in the second and third; and of _shall_ in the first person with _will_ in the second and third: _shall_ (1) and _will_ (2, 3) are called _predictive_: _shall_ (2, 3) and _will_ (1) _promissive_. The suggestion now proposed will require four distinctive names. "Archdeacon Hare's _usus ethicus_ is taken from the brighter side of human nature:--'When speaking in the first person we speak submissively; when speaking to or of another, we speak courteously.' This explains _I shall_, _thou wilt_; but I cannot think it explains _I will_, _thou shalt_. It often happens {473} that _you will_, with a persuasive tone, is used courteously for something next to, if not quite, _you shall_. The present explanation is taken from the darker side; and it is to be feared that the _à priori_ probabilities are in its favour. "In introducing the common mode of stating the future tenses, grammar has proceeded as if she were more than a formal science. She has no more business to collect together _I shall_, _thou wilt_, _he will_, than to do the same with _I rule_, _thou art ruled_, _he is ruled_. "It seems to be the natural disposition of man to think of his own volition in two of the following catagories, and of another man's in the other two: Compelling, non-compelling; restrained, non-restrained. {474} "The _ego_, with reference to the _non-ego_, is apt, thinking of himself, to propound the alternative, 'Shall I compel, or shall I leave him to do as he likes?' so that, thinking of the other, the alternative is, 'shall he be restrained, or shall he be left to his own will?' Accordingly, the express introduction of his own will is likely to have reference to compulsion, in case of opposition: the express introduction of the will of another, is likely to mean no more than the gracious permission of the _ego_ to let _non-ego_ do as he likes. Correlatively, the suppression of reference to his own will, and the adoption of a simply predictive form on the part of the _ego_, is likely to be the mode with which, when the person is changed, he will associate the idea of another having his own way; while the suppression of reference to the will of the _non-ego_ is likely to infer restraint produced by the predominant will of the _ego_. "Occasionally, the will of the _non-ego_ is referred to as under restraint in modern times. To _I will not_, the answer is sometimes _you shall_, meaning, in spite of the will--sometimes _you will_, meaning that the will will be changed by fear or sense of the inutility of resistance."[62] § 591. _I am beaten._--This is a present combination, and it is present on the strength of the verb _am_, not on the strength of the participle _beaten_, which is præterite. The following table exhibits the _expedients_ on the part of the different languages of the Gothic stock, since the loss of the proper passive form of the Moeso-Gothic. _Language._ Latin _datur_. Latin _datus est_. _Moeso-Gothic_ gibada, ist, vas, varth gibans. _Old High German_ ist, wirdit kepan, was, warth kepan. _Notker_ wirt keben, ist keben. _Middle High German_ wirt geben, ist geben. _New High German_ wird gegeben, ist gegeben worden. _Old Saxon_ is, wirtheth gebhan, was, warth gebhan. _Middle Dutch_ es, blîft ghegheven, waert, blêf ghegeven. _New Dutch_ wordt gegeven, es gegeven worden. _Old Frisian_ werth ejeven, is ejeven. {475} _Anglo-Saxon_ weorded gifen, is gifen. _English_ is given, has been given. _Old Norse_ er gefinn, hefr verit gefinn. _Swedish_ gifves, har varit gifven. _Danish_ bliver, vorder given, har varet given. Deutsche Grammatik, iv. 19. § 592. _Ought, would, &c., used as presents._--These words are not in the predicament of _shall_. They are _present_ in power, and _past_ in form. So, perhaps, is _shall_. But they are not, like _shall_, perfect forms; _i. e._, they have no natural present element in them. They are _aorist_ præterites. Nevertheless, they have a present sense. So had their equivalents in Greek: [Greek: echrên]=[Greek: chrê], [Greek: edei]=[Greek: dei], [Greek: prosêken]=[Greek: prosêkei]. In Latin, too, _would_ was often not represented by either _volo_ or _volebam_, but by _velim_. I believe that the _usus ethicus_ is at the bottom of this construction. The assertion of _duty_ or _obligation_ is one of those assertions which men like to soften in the expression: _should_, _ought_. So is the expression of power, as denoted by _may_ or _can_--_might_, _could_. Very often when we say _you should_ (or _ought to_) _do this_, we leave to be added by implication--_but you do not_. Very often when we say _I could_ (or _might_) _do this_, we leave to be added by implication--_but I do not exert my power_. Now, if what is left undone be the _present_ element in this assertion, the duty to do it, or the power of doing it, constitutes a past element in it; since the power (or duty) is, in relation to the performance, a cause--insufficient, indeed, but still antecedent. This hypothesis is suggested rather than asserted. § 593. By substituting the words _I am bound_ for _I ought_, {476} we may see the expedients to which this present use of the præterite forces us. _I_ am bound _to do this_ now = _I_ owe _to do this_ now. However, we do not say _owe_, but _ought_. Hence, when we wish to say _I_ was bound _to do this_ two years ago, we cannot say _I ought_ (_owed_) _to do this_, &c., since _ought_ is already used in a present sense. We therefore say, instead, _I_ ought to have done _this_ two years ago; which has a similar, but by no means an identical meaning. _I was bound to pay two years ago, _means_ two years ago I was under an obligation to make a payment, either then or at some future time._ _I was bound to have paid, _&c., means_ I was under an obligation to have made a payment._ If we use the word _ought_, this difference cannot be expressed. Common people sometimes say, _you had not ought to do so and so_; and they have a reason for saying it. The Latin language is more logical. It says not _debet factum fuisse_, but _debuit fieri_. * * * * * {477} CHAPTER XXIV. THE SYNTAX OF ADVERBS. § 594. The syntax of the adverb is simpler than that of any other part of speech, excepting, perhaps, that of the adjective. Adverbs have no concord. Neither have they any government. They _seem_, indeed, to have it, when they are in the comparative or superlative degree; but it is merely apparent. In _this is better than that_, the word _that_ is governed neither by _better_ nor by _than_. It is not governed at all. It is a nominative case; the subject of a separate proposition. _This is better_ (_i. e._, _more good_) _than that is good_. Even if we admit such an expression as _he is stronger than me_ to be good English, there is no adverbial government. _Than_, if it govern _me_ at all, governs it as a preposition. The position of an adverb is, in respect to matters of syntax, pre-eminently parenthetic; _i. e._, it may be omitted without injuring the construction. _He is fighting--now_; _he was fighting--then_; _he fights--bravely_; _I am--almost--tired_, &c. § 595. By referring to the Chapter on the Adverbs, we shall find that the neuter adjective is frequently converted into an adverb by deflection. As any neuter adjective may be so deflected, we may justify such expressions as _full_ (for _fully_) _as conspicuous_, and _peculiar_ (for _peculiarly_) _bad grace_, &c. We are not, however, bound to imitate everything that we can justify. § 596. The termination _-ly_ was originally adjectival. At present it is a derivational syllable by which we can convert an adjective into an adverb: _brave_, _brave-ly_. {478} When, however, the adjective ends in _-ly_ already, the formation is awkward. _I eat my daily bread_ is unexceptionable English; _I eat my bread daily_ is exceptionable. One of two things must here take place: the two syllables _-ly_ are packed into one (the full expression being _dai-li-ly_), or else the construction is that of a neuter adjective deflected. Adverbs are convertible. _The then men_=[Greek: hoi nun brotoi], &c. This will be seen more clearly in the Chapter on Conjunctions. § 597. It has been remarked that in expressions like _he sleeps the sleep of the righteous_, the construction is adverbial. So it is in expressions like _he walked a mile_, _it weighs a pound_. The ideas expressed by _mile_ and _pound_ are not the names of anything that serves as either object or instrument to the verb. They only denote the _manner_ of the action, and define the meaning of the verb. § 598. _From whence, from thence._--This is an expression which, if it have not taken root in our language, is likely to do so. It is an instance of excess of expression in the way of syntax; the _-ce_ denoting direction _from_ a place, and the preposition doing the same. It is not so important to determine what this construction _is_, as to suggest what it is _not_. It is _not_ an instance of an adverb governed by a preposition. If the two words be dealt with as logically separate, _whence_ (or _thence_) must be a noun=_which place_ (or _that place_); just as _from then till now_=_from that time to this_. But if (which is the better view) the two words be dealt with as one (_i. e._, as an improper compound) the preposition _from_ has lost its natural power, and become the element of an adverb. * * * * * {479} CHAPTER XXV. ON PREPOSITIONS. § 599. All prepositions govern an oblique case. If a word cease to do this, it ceases to be a preposition. In the first of the two following sentences the word _up_ is a preposition, in the second an adverb. 1. _I climbed up the tree._ 2. _I climbed up._ All prepositions in English precede the noun which they govern. _I climbed up the tree_, never _I climbed the tree up_. This is a matter not of government, but of collocation. It is the case in most languages; and, from the frequency of its occurrence, the term _pre-position_ (or _prefix_) has originated. Nevertheless, it is by no means a philological necessity. In many languages the prepositions are _post-positive_, following their noun. § 600. No preposition, in the present English, governs a genitive case. This remark is made, because expressions like the _part of the body_=_pars corporis_,--_a piece of the bread_=_portio panis_, make it appear as if the preposition _of_ did so. The true expression is, that the preposition _of_ followed by an objective case, is equivalent, in many instances, to the genitive case of the classical languages. § 601. The writer, however, of a paper on English preterites and genitives, in the Philological Museum (II. 261) objects to the current doctrine concerning such constructions as, _this is a picture of the king's_. Instead of considering the sentence elliptic, and equivalent to _this is a picture of_ or (_from_) _the king's pictures_, he entertains the following view,--"I confess, however, that I feel some doubt whether this phrase is {480} indeed to be regarded as elliptical, that is, whether the phrase in room of which it is said to stand, was ever actually in use. It has sometimes struck me that this may be a relict of the old practice of using the genitive after nouns as well as before them, only with the insertion of the preposition _of_. One of the passages quoted above from 'Arnold's Chronicle,' supplies an instance of a genitive so situated; and one cannot help thinking that it was the notion that _of_ governed the genitive, that led the old translators of Virgil to call his poem _The Booke of Eneidos_, as it is termed by Phaer, and Gawin Douglas, and in the translation printed by Caxton. Hence it may be that we put the genitive after the noun in such cases, in order to express those relations which are most appropriately expressed by the genitive preceding it. _A picture of the king's_ is something very different from _the king's picture_: and so many other relations are designated by _of_ with the objective noun, that if we wish to denote possession thereby, it leaves an ambiguity: so, for this purpose, when we want to subjoin the name of the possessor to the thing possest, we have recourse to the genitive, by prefixing which we are wont to express the same idea. At all events as, if we were askt whose castle Alnwick is, we should answer, _The Duke of Northumberland's_; so we should also say, _What a grand castle that is of the Duke of Northumberland's!_ without at all taking into account whether he had other castles besides: and our expression would be equally appropriate, whether he had or not." Again, Mr. Guest quotes, amongst other passages, the following:-- Suffice this hill _of ours_-- They fought two houres _of the nightes_-- Yet neither class of examples is conclusive. _Ours_ does not necessarily mean _of us_. It may also mean of _our hills_, _i. e._, of _the hills of our choice_. _Nightes_ may mean _of the night's hours_. In the expression, _what a grand castle_, &c., it is submitted to the reader that we _do_ take into our account other castles, which the Duke of Northumberland {481} may or may not have. _The Booke of Eneidos_ is a mistaken Latinism. As it does not seem to have been sufficiently considered that the real case governed by _of_ (as by _de_ in Latin) is the ablative, it is the opinion of the present writer that no instance has yet been produced of _of_ either governing, or having governed a genitive case. § 602. It is not so safe to say in the present English that no preposition governs a dative. The expression _give it him_ is good English; and it is also equivalent to the Latin _da ei_. But we may also say _give it to him_. Now the German _zu_=_to_ governs a dative case, and in Anglo-Saxon, the preposition _to_, when prefixed to the infinitive mood, required the case that followed it to be a dative. § 603. When the infinitive mood is used as the subject of a proposition, _i.e._, as a nominative case, it is impossible to allow to the preposition _to_, by which it is preceded, any separate existence whatever,--_to rise_=_rising_; _to err_=_error_. Here the preposition must, for the purposes of syntax, be considered as incorporated with the noun, just like an inseparable inflection. As such it may be preceded by another preposition. The following example, although a Grecism, illustrates this:-- Yet not to have been dipt in Lethe's lake, Could save the son of Thetis _from to die_. § 604. Akin to this, but not the same, is the so-called vulgarism, consisting of the use of the preposition _for_. _I am ready to go=I am ready for going_=the so-called vulgarism, _I am ready_ for _to go_. Now, this expression differs from the last in exhibiting, not only a _verbal_ accumulation of prepositions, but a _logical_ accumulation as well: inasmuch as _for_ and _to_ express like ideas. § 605. Composition converts prepositions into adverbs. Whether we say _upstanding_ or _standing-up_, we express the _manner_ in which an action takes place, and not the relation between two substantives. The so-called prepositional compounds in Greek ([Greek: anabainô, apothnêskô], &c.) are all adverbial. * * * * * {482} CHAPTER XXVI. ON CONJUNCTIONS. § 606. A CONJUNCTION is a part of speech which connects _propositions_,--_the day is bright_, is one proposition. _The sun shines_, is another. _The day is bright_ because _the sun shines_ is a pair of propositions connected by the conjunction, _because_. From this it follows, that whenever there is a conjunction, there are two subjects, two copulas, and two predicates: _i.e._, two propositions in all their parts. But this may be expressed compendiously. _The sun shines_, _and the moon shines_, may be expressed by the _sun and moon shine_. Nevertheless, however compendious may be the expression, there are always two propositions wherever there is one conjunction. A part of speech that merely combines two words is a preposition--_the sun along with the moon shines_. It is highly important to remember that conjunctions connect propositions. It is also highly important to remember that many double propositions may be expressed so compendiously as to look like one. When this takes place, and any question arises as to the construction, they must be exhibited in their fully expanded form; _i.e._, the second subject, the second predicate, and the second copula must be supplied. This can always be done from the first proposition,--_he likes you better than me_=_he likes you better than he likes me_. The compendious expression of the second proposition is the first point of note in the syntax of conjunctions. § 607. The second point in the syntax of conjunctions is the fact of their great convertibility. Most conjunctions have been developed out of some other part of speech. {483} The conjunction of comparison, _than_, is derived from the adverb of time, _then_; which is derived from the accusative singular of the demonstrative pronoun. The conjunction, _that_, is derived also from a demonstrative pronoun. The conjunction, _therefore_, is a demonstrative pronoun + a preposition. The conjunction, _because_, is a substantive governed by a preposition. One and the same word, in one and the same sentence, may be a conjunction or preposition, as the case may be. _All fled but John._--If this mean _all fled_ except _John_, the word _but_ is a preposition, the word _John_ is an accusative case, and the proposition is single. If, instead of _John_, we had a personal pronoun, we should say _all fled but_ him. _All fled but John._--If this mean _all fled, but John did not fly_, the word _but_ is a conjunction, the word _John_ is a nominative case, and the propositions are two in number. If, instead of _John_, we had a personal pronoun, we should say, _all fled but_ he. From the fact of the great convertibility of conjunctions it is often necessary to determine whether a word be a conjunction or not. _If it be a conjunction, it cannot govern a case. If it govern a case, it is no conjunction but a preposition._ A conjunction cannot govern a case, for the following reason,--the word that follows it _must_ be the subject of the second proposition, and, as such, a nominative case. § 608. The third point to determine in the syntax of conjunctions is the certainty or uncertainty in the mind of the speaker as to the facts expressed by the propositions which they serve to connect. 1. Each proposition may contain a certain, definite, absolute fact--_the day is clear_ because _the sun shines_. Here, there is neither doubt nor contingency of either the _day being clear_, or of the _sun shining_. 2. Of two propositions one may be the condition of the other--_the day will be clear_ if _the sun shine_. Here, although it is certain that _if the sun shine the day will be clear_, there is {484} no certainty of _the sun shining_. Of the two propositions one only embodies a certain fact, and that is certain only conditionally. Now an action, wherein there enters any notion of uncertainty, or indefinitude, and is at the same time connected with another action, is expressed, not by the indicative mood, but by the subjunctive. _If the sun_ shine (not _shines_) _the day will be clear_. Simple uncertainty will not constitute a subjunctive construction,--_I am_, perhaps, _in the wrong_. Neither will simple connection,--_I am wrong_ because _you are right_. But, the two combined constitute the construction in question,--_if I_ be _wrong_, _you are right_. Now, a conjunction that connects two certain propositions may be said to govern an indicative mood. And a conjunction that connects an uncertain proposition with a certain one, may be said to govern a subjunctive mood. _The government of mood is the only form of government of which conjunctions are capable._ § 609. Previous to the question of the government of conjunctions in the way of mood, it is necessary to notice certain points of agreement between them and the relative pronouns; inasmuch as, in many cases, the relative pronoun exerts the same government, in the way of determining the mood of the verb, as the conjunction. Between the relative pronouns and conjunctions in general there is this point of connection,--both join propositions. Wherever there is a relative, there is a second proposition. So there is wherever there is a conjunction. Between certain relative pronouns and those particular conjunctions that govern a subjunctive mood there is also a point of connection. Both suggest an element of uncertainty or indefinitude. This the relative pronouns do, through the logical elements common to them and to the interrogatives: these latter essentially suggesting the idea of doubt. Wherever the person, or thing, connected with an action, and expressed by a relative be indefinite, there is room for the use {485} a subjunctive mood. Thus--he that troubled you shall bear his judgment, _whosoever_ he _be_. § 610. By considering the nature of such words as _when_, their origin as relatives on the one hand, and their conjunctional character on the other hand, we are prepared for finding a relative element in words like _till_, _until_, _before_, _as long as_, &c. These can all be expanded into expressions like _until the time when_, _during the time when_, &c. Hence, in an expression like _seek out his wickedness till thou_ find (not _findest_) _none_, the principle of the construction is nearly the same as in _he that troubled you_, &c., or _vice versâ_.[63] § 611. In most conditional expressions the subjunctive mood should follow the conjunction. All the following expressions are conditional. 1. _Except_ I _be_ by Silvia in the night, There is no music in the nightingale. SHAKSPEARE. 2. Let us go and sacrifice to the Lord our God, _lest_ he _fall_ upon us with pestilence.--_Old Testament._ 3.---- Revenge back on itself recoils. Let it. I reck not, _so_ it _light_ well aimed. J. MILTON. 4. _If_ this _be_ the case. 5. _Although_ my house _be_ not so with God.--_Old Testament._ 6. He shall not eat of the holy thing _unless_ he _wash_ his flesh with water.--_Old Testament._ Expressions like _except_ and _unless_ are equally conditional with words like _if_ and _provided that_, since they are equivalent to _if--not_. Expressions like _though_ and _although_ are peculiar. They join propositions, of which the one is a _primâ facie_ reason against the existence of the other: and this is the conditional element. In the sentence,_ if the children be so badly brought up, they are not to be trusted_, the _bad bringing-up_ is the reason {486} for their _being unfit to be trusted_; and, as far as the expression is concerned, _is admitted to be so_. The only uncertainty lies in the question as to the degree of the badness of the education. The inference from it is unequivocal. But if, instead of saying _if_, we say _although_, and omit the word _not_, so that the sentence run _although the children be so badly brought up they are to be trusted_, we do two things: we indicate the general relation of cause and effect that exists between _bad bringing-up_ and _unfitness for being trusted_, but we also, at the same time, take an exception to it in the particular instance before us. These remarks have been made for the sake of showing the extent to which words like _though_, &c., are conditional. It must be remembered, however, that conjunctions, like the ones lately quoted, do not govern subjunctive moods because they are conditional, but because, in the particular condition which they accompany, there is an element of uncertainty. § 612. This introduces a fresh question. Conditional conjunctions are of two sorts:-- 1. Those which express a condition as an actual fact, and one admitted as such by the speaker. 2. Those which express a condition as a possible fact, and one which the speaker either does not admit, or admits only in a qualified manner. Since _the children_ are _so badly brought up_, &c.--This is an instance of the first construction. The speaker admits as an actual fact the _bad bringing-up of the children_. If _the children_ be _so badly brought-up_, &c.--This is an instance of the second construction. The speaker admits as a possible (perhaps, as a probable) fact the _bad bringing-up of the children_: but he does not adopt it as an indubitable one. § 613. Now, if every conjunction had a fixed unvariable meaning, there would be no difficulty in determining whether a condition was absolute, and beyond doubt, or possible, and liable to doubt. But such is not the case. _Although_ may precede a proposition which is admitted as well as one which is doubted. {487} _a._ Although _the children_ are, &c. _b._ Although _the children_ be, &c. _If_, too, may precede propositions wherein there is no doubt whatever implied: in other words it may be used instead of _since_. In some languages this interchange goes farther than in others; in the Greek, for instance, such is the case with [Greek: ei], to a very great extent indeed. Hence we must look to the meaning of the sentence in general, rather than to the particular conjunction used. It is a philological fact (probably referable to the _usus ethicus_) that _if_ may stand instead of _since_. It is also a philological fact that when it does so it should be followed by the indicative mood. This is written in the way of illustration. What applies to _if_ applies to other conjunctions as well. § 614. As a point of practice, the following method of determining the amount of doubt expressed in a conditional proposition is useful:-- Insert, immediately after the conjunction, one of the two following phrases,--(1.) _as is the case_; (2.) _as may or may not be the case_. By ascertaining which of these two supplements expresses the meaning of the speaker, we ascertain the mood of the verb which follows. When the first formula is one required, there is no element of doubt, and the verb should be in the indicative mood. _If_ (_as is the case_), _he _is_ gone, I must follow him_. When the second formula is the one required, there _is_ an element of doubt, and the verb should be in the subjunctive mood. _If_ (_as may or may not be the case_) _he _be_ gone, I must follow him_. § 615. The use of the word _that_ in expressions like _I eat that I may live_, &c., is a modification of the subjunctive construction, that is conveniently called _potential_. It denotes that one act is done for the sake of supplying the _power_ or opportunity for the performance of another. In English the word _that_, so used, cannot be said to govern a mood, although generally followed by either _may_ or _might_. {488} It should rather be said to require a certain combination to follow it. The most important point connected with the powers of _that_ is the so-called _succession of tenses_. § 616. _The succession of tenses._--Whenever the conjunction _that_ expresses intention, and consequently connects two verbs, the second of which takes place _after_ the first, the verbs in question must be in the same tense. I _do_ this _that_ I _may_ gain by it. I _did_ this _that_ I _might_ gain by it. In the Greek language this is expressed by a difference of mood; the subjunctive being the construction equivalent to _may_, the optative to _might_. The Latin idiom coincides with the English. A little consideration will show that this rule is absolute. For a man _to be doing_ one action (in present time) in order that some other action may _follow_ it (in past time) is to reverse the order of cause and effect. To do anything in A.D. 1851, that something may result from it in 1850 is a contradiction; and so it is to say _I _do_ this _that_ I _might_ gain by it_. The reasons against the converse construction are nearly, if not equally cogent. To have done anything at any _previous_ time in order that a _present_ effect may follow, is, _ipso facto_, to convert a past act into a present one, or, to speak in the language of the grammarian, to convert an aorist into a perfect. To say _I _did_ this_ that _I may gain by it_, is to make, by the very effect of the expression, either _may_ equivalent to _might_, or _did_ equivalent to _have done_. _I _did_ this_ that _I _might_ gain_. _I _have done_ this_ that _I _may_ gain_. A clear perception of the logical necessity of the law of the succession of tenses, is necessary for understanding the nature of several anomalous passages in the classical writers. In the following, an aorist is followed not by an optative, but by a subjunctive. [Greek: Ouk agathon polukoiraniê; heis koiranos estô,] [Greek: Heis basileus, hôi edôke Kronou pais ankulomêteô] [Greek: Skêptron t' êde themistas, hina sphisin embasileuêi.] {489} Here it is necessary to construe [Greek: edôke], _has given and continues to allow_, which is to construe it like a _perfect_[64] tense. Upon similar passages Mathiæ writes, "but frequently the conjunctive is used, although the preceding word be in the time past, viz., when the verb which depends upon the conjunction shows an action continued to the present time." That means when the verb is really a perfect. In Latin, where the same form is both aorist and perfect, the succession of tenses is a means of determining which of the two meanings it conveys. _Veni ut videam_=_I have come that I may see._ _Veni ut viderem_=_I came that I might see_. Arnold states, from Krüger and Zumpt, that even where the præterite was clearly a perfect (_i. e._, =_to have_ with the participle), the Roman ear was so accustomed to the _imperfect_ subjunctive, that it preferred such an expression _as diu dubitavi num melius esset to diu dubitavi num melius sit_. The latter part of the statement is sure enough; but it is by no means so sure that _dubitavi_, and similar forms in similar constructions are perfects. There is no reason for considering this to be the case in the present instance. It seems to be so, because it is connected with _diu_; but an action may last a long time, and yet not last up to the time of speaking. _Diu dubitavi_ probably expresses, _I doubted a long time_, and leaves it to be inferred that _now I do not doubt_. § 617. It has been stated above that whilst the Latin and English have a succession of _tenses_, the Greek language {490} exhibits what may be called a succession of _moods_. This suggests inquiry. Is the difference real? If so, how is it explained? If not, which of the two grammatical systems is right?--the English and Latin on the one side, or the Greek on the other? Should [Greek: tuptoimi] be reduced to a past tense, or _verberarem_ be considered an optative mood. The present writer has no hesitation in stating his belief, that all the phænomena explicable by the assumption of an optative mood are equally explicable by an expansion of the subjunctive, and a different distribution of its tenses. 1. Let [Greek: tupsô] be considered a subjunctive _future_ instead of a subjunctive aorist. 2. Let [Greek: tuôtoimi] be considered an _imperfect subjunctive_. 3. Let [Greek: tetuphoimi] be considered a _pluperfect subjunctive_. 4. Let [Greek: tupsaimi] be considered an aorist _subjunctive_. Against this view there are two reasons: 1. The double forms [Greek: tupsaimi] and [Greek: tupsoimi], one of which would remain unplaced. 2. The use of the optative and conjunctive in simple propositions, as-- [Greek: ô pai, genoio patros eutuchesteros.] The first reason I am not prepared to impugn. _Valeat quantum_, &c. The second indicates a class of expressions which tense will _not_ explain, and which mood _will_. Yet this is not conclusive. _Would that thou wert_ is thoroughly optative: yet it is expressed by a tense. The _form_ of the so-called optatives proves nothing. Neither the subjunctive nor the optative has any signs of _mood_ at all, except the negative one of the absence of the augment. Their signs are the signs of _tense_. In favour of the view are the following reasons:-- 1. The analogy of other languages. The imperfect has a subjunctive in Latin. So has the future. 2. The undoubtedly future character of the so-called aorist imperative. To give an order to do a thing in _past_ time is a philological contradiction. Forms like [Greek: blepson] _must_ be future. Though [Greek: thes] and [Greek: tithei] differ in power, they both mean an {491} action subsequent to, or, at any rate, simultaneous with the order given; certainly not one anterior to it. § 618. _Be_ may stand for _may be_. In this case the preterite is not _were_ but _might be_. The sentence, _what_ care _I how fair the lady_ be, _if she be not fair to her admirer_? is accurate. Here _be_ = _may be_. But, _what_ cared _I how fair the lady_ were, _if she were not fair to her admirer_? is inaccurate. It ought to run thus,--_what_ cared _I how fair the lady_ might be, _if she were not fair to her admirer_?[65] § 619. _Disjunctives_.--Disjunctives (_or_, _nor_) are of two sorts, real, and nominal. _A king or queen always rules in England._ Here the disjunction is real; _king_ or _queen_ being different names for different objects. In all _real_ disjunctions the inference is, that if one out of two (or more) individuals (or classes) do not perform a certain action, the other does. _A sovereign or supreme ruler always rules in England._ Here the disjunction is nominal; _sovereign_ and _supreme governor_ being different names for the same object. In all nominal disjunctives the inference is, that if an agent (or agents) do not perform a certain action under one name, he does (or they do) it under another. Nominal disjunctives are called by Harris, _sub_disjunctives. In the English language there is no separate word to distinguish the nominal from the real disjunctive. In Latin, {492} _vel_ is considered by Harris to be disjunctive, _sive_ subdisjunctive. As a periphrasis the combination _in other words_ is subdisjunctive. Both nominal and real disjunctives agree in this,--whatever may be the number of nouns which they connect, the construction of the verb is the same as if there were but one--Henry _or_ John, _or_ Thomas, _walks_ (not _walk_); the sun, _or_ solar luminary, _shines_ (not _shine_). The disjunctive _isolates_ the subject however much it may be placed in juxtaposition with other nouns. § 620. _Either, neither._--Many disjunctives imply an alternative. If it be not this person (or thing) that performs a certain action (or exists in a certain state) it is some other. If a person (or thing) do not perform a certain action (or exist in a certain state), under one name, he (or it) does so under another. This alternative is expressed by the word _either_. When the word _either_ is connected immediately with the copula of a proposition, it is, if not a true conjunction, at least _a part of a conjunctional periphrasis_.--_This either is or is not so._ When it belongs more to one of the terms of a proposition than to the copula, it is a pronoun,--_Either I or you is in the wrong_. _It is either you or I._ I use the words, _part of a conjunctional periphrasis_, because the full conjunction is _either_ + _or_ (or _neither_ + _nor_); the essential conjunctions being the latter words. To these, _either_ (or _neither_) is superadded, indicating the _manner_ in which the disjunction expressed by _or_ (or _nor_) takes place; _i. e._, they show that it takes place in the manner of an alternative. Now, this superadded power is rather adverbial than conjunctional. § 621. From the pronominal character of the word _either_, when it forms part of a term, and from the power of the disjunctive, _or_, in _isolating_ the subject of the verb, combined with an assumption which will be explained hereafter, we get at the principle of certain rules for doubtful constructions. In expressions like _either you or I is in the wrong_, we must {493} consider _either_ not only as _a_ pronoun, but as _the leading_ pronoun of the proposition; a pronoun of which _or I_ is an explanation; and, finally, as the pronoun which determines the person of the verb. _Either you or I is wrong_=_one of us_ (_you or I_) _is wrong_. Then, as to expressions like _I, or you, am in the wrong_. Here, _I_ is the leading pronoun, which determines the person of the verbs; the words, _or you_, being parenthetic, and subordinate. These statements bear upon the rules of p. 457. § 622. Will this principle justify such expressions as _either they or we is in the wrong_? Or will it justify such expressions as _either he or they is in the wrong_? Or will it justify such expressions as _I or they am in the wrong_? In all which sentences one pronoun is plural. Perhaps not. The assumption that has been just alluded to, as helping to explain certain doubtful constructions, is the following, _viz._, that in cases of apposition, disjunction, and complex terms, the _first_ word is the one which determines the character of the sentence wherein it occurs. This is a practice of the English language, which, in the opinion of the present writer, nothing but a very decided preponderance of a difference in person, gender, or number, can overrule. Such may fairly be considered to be the case in the three examples just adduced; especially as there is also the secondary influence of the conjunctional character of the word _either_. Thus, although we say,-- _One of two parties, they or we, is in the wrong._ We also say,-- _Either they or we are in the wrong_. As for the other two expressions, they are in the same predicament, with an additional reason for the use of the plural. It _contains_ the singular. The chief object of the present remarks has been less to explain details than to give due prominence to the following leading principles. 1. That _either_ (or _neither_) is[66] essentially singular in number. {494} 2. That it is, like any common noun, of the third person. 3. That it is pronominal where it is in apposition with another noun. 4. That when it is the first word of the proposition it determines the concord of the verb, unless its character of a noun of the singular number and third person be disguised by the prominence of some plural form, or some pronoun of the first or second person in the latter part of the term. 5. That in a simple disjunctive proposition (_i.e._, one where _either_ does not occur) all nouns are subordinate to the first. § 623. I believe that the use of _either_ is limited to _real_ disjunctives; in other words, that we can say _either a king or a queen always reigns in England_, but that we cannot say _either a sovereign or a supreme ruler always reigns in England_. * * * * * {495} CHAPTER XXVII. THE SYNTAX OF THE NEGATIVE. § 624. When the verb is in the infinitive mood, the negative precedes it.--_Not to advance is to retreat._ When the verb is not in the infinitive mood, the negative follows it.--_He advanced not. I cannot._ This rule is absolute. It only _seems_ to precede the verb in such expressions as _I do not advance_, _I cannot advance_, _I have not advanced_, &c. However, the words _do_, _can_, and _have_, are no infinitives; and it consequently follows them. The word _advance_ is an infinitive, and it consequently precedes it. Wallis's rule makes an equivalent statement, although differently. "Adverbium negandi _not_ (non) verbo postponitur (nempe auxiliari primo si adsit; aut si non adsit auxiliare, verbo principali): aliis tamen orationis partibus præfigi solet."--P. 113. That the negative is rarely used, except with an auxiliary, in other words, that the presence of a negative converts a simple form like _it burneth not_ into the circumlocution it _does not burn_, is a fact in the practice of the English language. The syntax is the same in either expression. § 625. What may be called the _distribution_ of the negative is pretty regular in English. Thus, when the word _not_ comes between an indicative, imperative, or subjunctive mood and an infinitive verb, it almost always is taken with the word which it _follows--I can not eat_ may mean either _I can--not eat_ (_i.e._, _I can abstain_), or _I can not--eat_ (_i.e._, _I am unable to eat_); but, as stated above, it _almost_ always has the latter signification. But not _always_. In Byron's "Deformed Transformed" we find the following lines:-- {496} Clay! not dead but soulless, Though no mortal man would choose thee, An immortal no less Deigns _not to refuse_ thee. Here _not to refuse_=_to accept_; and is probably a Grecism. _To not refuse_ would, perhaps, be better. The next expression is still more foreign to the English idiom:-- For _not_ to have been dipped in Lethe's lake _Could save_ the son of Thetis from to die. Here _not_ is to be taken with _could_. § 626. In the present English, two negatives make an affirmative. _I have not not seen him_=_I have seen him_. In Greek this was not the case. _Duæ aut plures negativæ apud Græcos vehementius negant_ is a well-known rule. The Anglo-Saxon idiom differed from the English and coincided with the Greek. The French negative is only apparently double; words like _point_, _pas_, mean not _not_, but _at all_. _Je ne parle pas_ = _I not speak at all_, not _I not speak no_. § 627. _Questions of appeal._--All questions imply want of information; want of information may then imply doubt; doubt, perplexity; and perplexity the absence of an alternative. In this way, what are called, by Mr. Arnold,[67] _questions of appeal_, are, practically speaking, negatives. _What should I do?_ when asked in extreme perplexity, means that nothing can well be done. In the following passage we have the presence of a question instead of a negative:-- Or hear'st thou (_cluis_, Lat.) rather pure ætherial stream, Whose fountain who (_no one_) shall tell? _Paradise Lost._ § 628. The following extract from the Philological Museum (vol. ii.) illustrates a curious and minute distinction, which the author shows to have been current when Wicliffe wrote, but which was becoming obsolete when Sir Thomas More wrote. It is an extract from that writer against Tyndall. {497} "I would not here note by the way that Tyndall here translateth _no_ for _nay_, for it is but a trifle and mistaking of the Englishe worde: saving that ye shoulde see that he whych in two so plain Englishe wordes, and so common as in _naye_ and _no_ can not tell when he should take the one and when the tother, is not for translating into Englishe a man very mete. For the use of these two wordes in aunswering a question is this. _No_ aunswereth the question framed by the affirmative. As for ensample if a manne should aske Tindall himselfe: ys an heretike meete to translate Holy Scripture into Englishe? lo to thys question if he will aunswere trew Englishe, he must aunswere _nay_ and not _no_. But and if the question be asked hym thus lo: is not an heretike mete to translate Holy Scripture into Englishe? To this question if he will aunswere trewe Englishe, he must aunswere _no_ and not _nay_. And a lyke difference is there betwene these two adverbs _ye_ and _yes_. For if the question bee framed unto Tindall by the affirmative in thys fashion. If an heretique falsely translate the New Testament into Englishe, to make his false heresyes seem the word of Godde, be his bokes worthy to be burned? To this questyon asked in thys wyse, yf he will aunswere true Englishe, he must aunswere _ye_ and not _yes_. But now if the question be asked him thus lo; by the negative. If an heretike falsely translate the Newe Testament into Englishe to make his false heresyes seme the word of God, be not hys bokes well worthy to be burned? To thys question in thys fashion framed if he will aunswere trewe Englishe he may not aunswere _ye_ but he must answere _yes_, and say yes marry be they, bothe the translation and the translatour, and al that wyll hold wyth them." * * * * * {498} CHAPTER XXVIII. ON THE CASE ABSOLUTE. § 629. Broadly speaking, all adverbial constructions are absolute. The term, however, is conveniently limited to a particular combination of the noun, verb, and participle. When two actions are connected with each other either by the fact of their simultaneous occurrence, or as cause and effect, they may be expressed within the limits of a single proposition, by expressing the one by means of a verb, and the other by means of a noun and participle agreeing with each other. _The door being open, the horse was stolen._ Considering the nature of the connection between the two actions, we find good grounds for expecting _à priori_ that the participle will be in the instrumental case, when such exists in the language; and when not, in some case allied to it, _i.e._, the ablative or dative. In Latin the ablative is the case that is used absolutely. _Sole orto, claruit dies._ In Anglo-Saxon the absolute case was the dative. This is logical. In the present English, however, the nominative is the absolute case. _He made the best proverbs, him alone excepted_, is an expression of Tillotson's. We should now write _he alone excepted_. The present mode of expression is only to be justified by considering the nominative form to be a dative one, just as in the expression _you are here_, the word _you_, although an accusative, is considered as a nominative. A real nominative absolute is as illogical as a real accusative case governing a verb. * * * * * {499} PART VI. ON THE PROSODY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. § 630. Prosody deals with metre; and with accent, quantity and the articulate sounds, as subordinate to metre. For these the reader is referred to Part III. Chapters 1. 6. 7. _Metre_ is a general term for the recurrence, within certain intervals, of syllables similarly affected. Syllables may be similarly affected: 1. in respect to their quantities; 2. in respect to their accents; 3. in respect to their articulations. 1. P[)a]l[=a]i k[)y]næg[)e]to[=u]nt[)a] k[=a]i m[)e]tro[=u]m[)e]n[=o]n. [Greek: Palai kunêgetounta kai metroumenon.]--SOPH. _Ajax_, 3. Here there is the recurrence of similar quantities. 2. The wáy was lóng, the wínd was cóld. _Lay of the Last Minstrel._ Here there is the recurrence of similar accents. 3. The way was long, the wind was _cold_, The minstrel was infirm and _old_.--_Ditto._ Here, besides the recurrence of similar accents, there is a recurrence of the same articulate sounds; _viz._ of _o_ + _ld_. § 631. Metres founded upon the periodic recurrence of similar articulations are of two sorts. 1. _Alliterative metres._--In alliterative metres a certain {500} number of words, within a certain period, must _begin_ with a similar articulation. In Caines cynne þone cwealm gewræc. CÆDMON. Alliteration is the general character of all the _early_ Gothic metres. (See Rask's _Anglo-Saxon Grammar_, Rask, _On the Icelandic Prosody_, and Conybeare, _On Anglo-Saxon Poetry_.) 2. _Assonant metres._--In assonant metres a certain number of words, within a certain period, must _end_ with a similar articulation. All _rhymes_ and all approaches to rhyme, form the assonant metres. The word _assonant_ has a limited as well as a general sense. § 632. All metre goes by the name of poetry, although all poetry is not metrical. The Hebrew poetry (_see_ Lowth, _De Sacra Poesi Hebræorum_) is characterized by the recurrence of similar _ideas_. § 633. The metres of the classical languages consist _essentially_ in the recurrence of similar quantities; accent also playing a part. The incompatibility of the classical metres with the English prosody lies in the fact (stated at p. 166), _that the classic writer measures quantity by the length of the syllable taken altogether, while the Englishman measures it by the length of the vowel alone_. § 634. The English metres consist essentially of the recurrence of similar accents; the recurrence of similar articulations being sometimes (as in all rhyming poetry) superadded. § 635. In the specimen of alliteration lately quoted the only articulation that occurred was the letter c. It is very evident that the _two_, the _three_, or the _four_ first letters, or even the whole syllable, might have coincided. Such is the case with the following lines from Lord Byron: Already doubled is the cape, the bay Receives the _prow_, that _prou_dly _sp_urns the _sp_ray. Alliteration, as an ornament, must be distinguished from alliteration as the essential character of metre. Alliteration, as an ornament, is liable to many varieties. {501} § 636. _Rhyme._--In _English_ versification, _rhyme_ is, next to accent, the most important element. The true nature of a rhyme may best be exhibited after the analysis of a syllable, and the exhibition of certain recurrent combinations, that look like rhyme without being so. Let the syllable _told_ be taken to pieces. For metrical purposes it consists of three parts or elements: 1, the vowel (_o_); 2, the part preceding the vowel (_t_); 3, the part following the vowel (_ld_). The same may be done with the word _bold_. The two words can now be compared with each other. The comparison shows that the vowel is in each the same (_o_); that the part following the vowel (_ld_) is the same; and, finally, that the part preceding the vowel is _different_ (_t_ and _b_). This difference between the part preceding the vowel is essential. _Told_, compared with itself (_told_), is no rhyme, but an _homoeoteleuton_ ([Greek: homoios], _homoios_=_like_, and [Greek: teleutê], _teleutæ_=_end_) or _like-ending_. It differs from a rhyme in having the parts preceding the vowel alike. Absolute identity of termination is not recognized in English poetry, except so far as it is mistaken for rhyme. The soft-flowing outline that steals from the _eye_, Who threw o'er the surface? did you or did _I_? WHITEHEAD. Here the difference in spelling simulates a difference in sound, and a _homoeoteleuton_ takes the appearance of a rhyme. _Bold_ and _note_.--As compared with each other, these words have two of the elements of a rhyme: _viz._ the identity of the vowel, and the difference of the parts preceding it. They want, however, the third essential, or the identity of the parts following; _ld_ being different from _t_. The coincidence, however, as far as it goes, constitutes a point in metre. The words in question are assonances in the limited sense of the term; and because the identity lies in the _vowels_, they may be named vowel assonances. Vowel assonances are recognized in (amongst others) the Spanish and Scandinavian metrical systems. In English they occur only when they pass as rhymes. {502} _Bold_ and _mild_.--Here also are two of the elements of a rhyme, viz., the identity of the parts following the vowel (_ld_), and the difference of the parts preceding (_b_ and _m_). The identity of the vowel (_o_ being different from _i_) is, however, wanting. The words in question are assonances in the limited sense of the term, and consonantal assonances. Recognized in the Scandinavian, they occur in English only when they pass as rhymes. Rhymes may consist of a single syllable, as _told_, _bold_, of two syllables, as _water_, _daughter_; of three, as _cheerily_, _wearily_. Now, the rhyme begins where the dissimilarity of parts immediately before the main vowel begins. Then follows the vowel; and, lastly, the parts after the vowel. All the parts after the vowel must be absolutely identical. Mere similarity is insufficient. Then come ere a _minute's_ gone, For the long summer day Puts its wings, swift as _linnets'_ on, For flying away.--CLARE.[68] In the lines just quoted there is no rhyme, but an assonance. The identity of the parts after the main syllable is destroyed by the single sound of _g in gone_. A rhyme, to be perfect, must fall on syllables equally accented.--To make _sky_ and the last syllable of merri_ly_ serve as rhymes, is to couple an accented syllable with an unaccented one. A rhyme, to be perfect, must fall upon syllables absolutely accented.--To make the last syllables of words like fligh_ty_ and merri_ly_ serve as rhymes, is to couple together two unaccented syllables. Hence there may be (as in the case of blank verse) accent without rhyme; but there cannot be rhyme without accent. A rhyme consists in the combination of like and unlike _sounds_.--Words like _I_ and _eye_ (_homoeoteleuta_), _ease_ and _cease_ (vowel assonances), _love_ and _grove_ (consonantal assonances), are printers' rhymes; or mere combinations of like and unlike letters. {503} A rhyme, moreover, consists in the combination of like and unlike _articulate_ sounds. _Hit_ and _it_ are not rhymes, but identical endings; the _h_ being no articulation. To my ear, at least, the pair of words, _hit_ and _it_, comes under a different class from the pair _hit_ (or _it_) and _pit_. § 637. A full and perfect rhyme (the term being stringently defined) consists in _the recurrence of one or more final syllables equally and absolutely accented, wherein the vowel and the part following the vowel shall be identical, whilst the part preceding the vowel shall be different. It is also necessary that the part preceding the vowel be articulate._[69] The deviations from the above-given rule, so common in the poetry of all languages, constitute not rhymes, but assonances, &c., that, by poetic licence, are recognized as equivalents to rhymes. § 638. _Measure._--In lines like the following, the accent occurs on every second syllable; in other words, every accented syllable is accompanied by an unaccented one. The wáy was lóng, the wínd was cóld. This accented syllable and its accompanying unaccented one constitute a _measure_. The number of the syllables being two, the measure in question is dissyllabic. § 639. In lines like the following the accent falls on every third syllable, so that the number of syllables to the measure is three, and the measure is trisyllabic. At the clóse of the dáy when the hámlet is stíll.--BEATTIE. The primary division of the English measures is into the dissyllabic and the trisyllabic. {504} § 640. _Dissyllabic measures._--The words _týrant_ and _presúme_ are equally dissyllabic measures; in one, however, the accent falls on the first, in the other on the second syllable. This leads us to a farther division of the English measures. A measure like _presúme_ (where the accent lies on the second syllable) may be repeated throughout a whole verse, or a whole series of verses; as, Then fáre thee wéll mine ówn dear lóve; The wórld has nów for ús No gréater gríef, no paín abóve, The páin of párting thús.--MOORE. Here the accent falls on the second syllable of the measure. A measure like _týrant_ (where the accent lies on the first syllable) may be repeated throughout a whole verse, or a whole series of verses; as, Héed! O héed, my fátal stóry; Í am Hósier's ínjured ghóst; Cóme to séek for fáme and glóry, Fór the glóry Í have lóst.--GLOVER. The number of dissyllabic measures is, of necessity, limited to two. § 641. _Trisyllabic measures._--The words _mérrily_, _disáble_, _cavaliér_, are equally trisyllabic, but not similarly accented. Each constitutes a separate measure, which may be continued through a whole verse, or a whole series of verses; as, 1. Mérrily, mérrily, sháll I live nów, Únder the blóssom that hángs on the bóugh. _Tempest._ 2. But váinly thou wárrest; For thís is alóne in Thy pówer to decláre: That ín the dim fórest Thou heárd'st a low moáning, And sáw'st a bright lády surpássingly faír. _Christabel._ {505} There's a beáuty for éver unfádingly bríght; Like the lóng ruddy lápse of a súmmer-day's níght. _Lalla Rookh._ The number of trisyllabic measures is, of necessity, limited to three. § 642. The nature of measures may, as we have already seen, be determined by the proportion of the accented and unaccented syllables. It may also be determined by the proportion of the long and short syllables.--In the one case we measure by the accent, in the other by the quantity. Measures determined by the quantity are called _feet_. The word _foot_ being thus defined, we have no _feet_ in the English metres; since in English we determine our measures by accent only. The classical grammarians express their feet by symbols; [-] denoting length, [U] shortness. Forms like [U- -U -UU U-U UU-] &c., are the symbolical representations of the classical feet. The classical grammarians have names for their feet; _e.g._, _iambic_ is the name of [U-], _trochee_ of [-U], _dactyle_ of [-UU], _amphibrachys_ of [U-U], _Anapæst_ of [UU-], &c. The English grammarians have no symbols for their feet: since they have no form for expressing the absence of the accent. Sometimes they borrow the classical forms [U] and [-]. These, however, being originally meant for the expression of _quantity_, confusion arises from the use of them. Neither have the English grammarians names for their measures. Sometimes, they borrow the classical terms _iambic_, _trochee_, &c. These, however, being meant for the expression of _quantity_, confusion arises from the use of them. As symbols for the English measures, I indicate the use of _a_ as denoting an accented, _x_ an unaccented syllable; or else that of + as denoting an accented, - an unaccented syllable. Finally, ´ may denote the accent, ¨ the absence of it. As names for the English measures I have nothing to offer. At times it is convenient to suppose that they have a definite order of arrangement, and to call words like _týrant_ the _first_ measure, and words like _presúme_ the second measure. In like manner, _mérrily_ is measure 3; _disáble_, 4; and _cavaliér_, 5. As the number of measures is (from the necessity of the case) limited, this can be done conveniently. The classical {506} names are never used with impunity. Their adoption invariably engenders confusion. It is very true that, _mutatis mutandis_ (_i. e._, accent being substituted for quantity), words like _týrant_ and _presúme_ are trochees and iambics; but it is also true that, with the common nomenclature, the full extent of the change is rarely appreciated. Symbolically expressed, the following forms denote the following measures: 1. + - , or ´ ¨, or _a x_ = _týrant_. 2. - + , or ¨ ´, or _x a_ = _presúme_. 3. + - -, or ´ ¨ ¨, or _a x x_ = _mérrily_. 4. - + -, or ¨ ´ ¨, or _x a x_ = _disáble_. 5. - - +, or ¨ ¨ ´, or _x x a_ = _cavaliér_. On these measures the following general assertions may be made; _viz._ That the dissyllabic measures are, in English, commoner than the trisyllabic. That, of the dissyllabic measures, the second is commoner than the first. That of the trisyllabic measures, No. 3 is the least common. That however much one measure may predominate in a series of verses, it is rarely unmixed with others. In _Týrants_ swim sáfest in a púrple floód-- MARLOWE-- the measure _a x_ appears in the place of _x a_. This is but a single example of a very general fact, and of a subject liable to a multiplicity of rules. § 643. Grouped together according to certain rules, measures constitute lines or verses; and grouped together according to certain rules, lines constitute couplets, triplets, stanzas, &c. The absence or the presence of rhyme constitutes blank verse, or rhyming verse. The succession, or periodic return, of rhymes constitutes stanzas, or continuous metre as the case may be. The quantity of rhymes in succession constitutes couplets, or triplets. The quantity of _accents_ in a line constitutes the nature of the verse, taken by itself. {507} The succession, or periodic return, of verses of the same length has the same effect with the succession, or periodic return, of rhymes; _viz._, it constitutes stanzas, or continuous metre, as the case may be. This leads to the nomenclature of the English metres. Of these, none in any of the trisyllabic measures have recognized and technical names; neither have any that are referable to the measure _a x_. § 644. Taking, however, those that are named, we have the following list of terms. 1. _Octosyllabics._--Four measures _x a_, and (unless the rhyme be double) eight syllables. Common in Sir W. Scott's poetry. The way was long the wind was cold. _Lay of the Last Minstrel._ 2. _Heroics._--Five measures _x a_. This is the common measure in narrative and didactic poetry. To err is human, to forgive divine. 3. _Alexandrines._--Six measures _x a_. This name is said to be taken from the early romances on the deeds of Alexander the Great. He lifted up his hand | that back againe did start.--SPENSER. 4. _Service metre._--Seven measures _x a_. This is the common metre of the psalm-versions. Thence its name. But one request I made to him | that sits the skies above, That I were freely out of debt | as I were out of love. SIR JOHN SUCKLING. § 645. Such are the names of certain lines or verses taken by themselves. Combined or divided they form-- 1. _Heroic couplets._--Heroics, in rhyming couplets, successive.-- 'Tis hard to say if greater want of skill Appear in writing or in judging ill. _Essay on Criticism._ The heroic couplet is called also _riding rhyme_; it being the metre wherein Chaucer's Canterbury Tales (told by a party riding to Canterbury) are chiefly written. {508} 2. _Heroic triplets._--Same as the preceding, except that three rhymes come in succession. 3. _Blank verse._--Heroics without rhyme. 4. _Elegiacs._--The metre of Gray's Elegy. Heroics in four-line stanzas with alternate rhymes. 5. _Rhyme royal._--Seven lines of heroics, with the last two rhymes successive, and the first five recurring at intervals. Sometimes the last line is an Alexandrine. There are varieties in this metre according to the intervals of the first five rhymes:-- This Troilus in gift of curtesie With hauke on hond, and with a huge rout Of knights, rode and did her companie Passing all the valey far without, And ferther would have ridden out of doubt, Full faine, and wo was him to gone so sone, And tourne he must, and it was eke to doen. CHAUCER'S _Troilus_. 6. _Ottava rima._--The metre in Italian for narrative poetry. Eight lines of heroics; the first six rhyming alternately, the last two in succession.--Byron's Don Juan in English, Orlando Furioso, &c., in Italian. 7. _Spenserian stanza._--Eight lines of heroics closed by an Alexandrine. There are varieties of this metre according to the interval of the rhymes. 8. _Terza rima._--Taken from the Italian, where it is the metre of Dante's Divina Commedia. Heroics with _three_ rhymes recurring at intervals.--Lord Byron's Prophecy of Dante. 9. _Poulterer's measure._--Alexandrines and service measures alternately. Found in the poetry of Henry the Eighth's time. 10. _Ballad metre._--Stanzas of four lines; the first and third having four, the second and fourth having three measures each. Rhymes alternate. Turn, gentle hermit of the dale, And guide thy lonely way, To where yon taper cheers the vale With hospitable ray. _Edwin and Angelina._ {509} § 646. _Scansion._--Let the stanza just quoted be read as two lines, and it will be seen that a couplet of ballad metre is equivalent to a line of service metre. Such, indeed, was the origin of the ballad metre. Observe also the pause (marked |) both in the Alexandrine and the service metres. This indicates a question as to where lines _end_; in other words, how can we distinguish one long line from two short ones. It may, perhaps, partake of the nature of a metrical fiction to consider that (in all rhyming poetry) the length of the verse is determined by the occurrence of the rhyme. Nevertheless, as the matter cannot be left to the printer only, and as some definition is requisite, the one in point is attended by as few inconveniences as any other. It must not, however, be concealed that lines as short as It screamed and growled, | and cracked and howled-- it treats as _two_; and that lines as long as Where Virtue wants and Vice abounds, And Wealth is but a baited hook-- it reduces to a single verse. § 647. In metres of measure _a x_, the number of syllables is double the number of accents, unless the final rhyme be single; in which case the syllables are the fewest. In metres of measure _x a_ the number of syllables is double the number of accents, unless the rhyme be double (or treble); in which case the syllables are the most numerous. Now this view (which may be carried throughout the whole five measures) of the proportion between the accents and the syllables, taken with the fact that it is determined by the nature of the final syllable, indicates a division of our metres into symmetrical (where the number of the syllables is the multiple of the number of accents), and unsymmetrical (where it is not so). For practical purposes, however, the length of the last measure may be considered as indifferent, and the terms indicated may be reserved for the forthcoming class of metres. {510} § 648. Of the metres in question, Coleridge's Christabel and Byron's Siege of Corinth are the current specimens. In the latter we have the couplet: He sát him dówn at a píllar's báse, And dréw his hánd athwárt his fáce. In the second of these lines, the accents and the syllables are symmetrical; which is not the case with the first. Now to every, or any, accent in the second line an additional unaccented syllable may be added, and the movement be still preserved. It is the fact of the accents and syllables (irrespective of the latitude allowed to the final measure) being here unsymmetrical (or, if symmetrical, only so by accident) that gives to the metres in question their peculiar character. Added to this, the change from _x x a_, to _x a x_, and _a x x_, is more frequent than elsewhere. One point respecting them must be borne in mind; _viz._, that they are essentially trisyllabic metres from which unaccented syllables are withdrawn, rather than dissyllabic ones wherein unaccented syllables are inserted. § 649. Of measures of one, and of measures of four syllables the occurrence is rare, and perhaps equivocal. § 650. The majority of English _words_ are of the form _a x_; that is, words like _týrant_ are commoner than words like _presúme_. The majority of English _metres_ are of the form _x a_; that is, lines like _The wáy was lóng, the wínd was cóld_ are commoner than lines like _Qúeen and húntress cháste and fáir._ The multitude of unaccentuated words like _the_, _from_, &c., taken along with the fact that they _precede_ the words with which they agree, or which they govern, accounts for the apparent antagonism between the formulæ of our _words_ and the formulæ of our _metres_. The contrast between a Swedish line of the form _a x_, and its literal English version (_x a_), {511} shows this. In Swedish, the secondary part of the construction _follows_, in English it _precedes_, the main word:-- _Swedish._ Vár_en_ kómm_er_; fúgl_en_ qvittr_ar_; skóv_en_ lófv_as_; sól_en_ lér. _English._ _The_ spríng _is_ cóme; _the_ bírd _is_ blýthe; _the_ wóod _is_ gréen; _the_ sún _is_ bríght. This is quoted for the sake of showing the bearing of the etymology and syntax of a language upon its prosody. § 651. _The classical metres as read by Englishmen._--In p. 500 it is stated that "the metres of the classical languages consist essentially in the recurrence of similar quantities; _accent playing a part_." Now there are reasons for investigating the facts involved in this statement more closely than has hitherto been done; since the following circumstances make some inquiry into the extent of the differences between the English and the classical systems of metre, an appropriate element of a work upon the English language. 1. The classical poets are authors preeminently familiarized to the educated English reader. 2. The notions imbibed from a study of the classical prosodies have been unduly mixed up with those which should have been derived more especially from the poetry of the Gothic nations. 3. The attempt to introduce (so-called) Latin and Greek metres into the Gothic tongues, has been partially successful on the Continent, and not unattempted in Great Britain. § 652. The first of these statements requires no comment. The second, viz., "that the notions imbibed, &c." will bear some illustration; an illustration which verifies the assertion made in p. 505, that the English grammarians "sometimes borrow the classical terms _iambic_, _trochee_," &c., and apply them to their own metres. How is this done? In two ways, one of which is wholly incorrect, the other partially correct, but inconvenient. To imagine that we have in English, for the practical purposes of prosody, syllables _long in quantity_ or _short in quantity_, syllables capable of being arranged in groups {512} constituting feet, and feet adapted for the construction of hexametres, pentametres, sapphics, and alcaics, just as the Latins and Greeks had, is wholly incorrect. The English system of versification is founded, not upon the periodic recurrence of similar _quantities_, but upon the periodic recurrence of similar accents. The less incorrect method consists in giving up all ideas of the existence of _quantity_, in the proper sense of the word, as an essential element in English metre; whilst we admit _accent_ as its equivalent; in which case the presence of an accent is supposed to have the same import as the lengthening and the absence of one, as the shortening of a syllable; so that, _mutatis mutandis_, _a_ is the equivalent to [-], and _x_ to [U]. In this case the metrical notation for-- The wáy was lóng, the wínd was cóld-- Mérrily, mérrily, sháll I live nów-- would be, not-- _x a, x a, x a, x a,_ _a x x, a x x, a x x, a_ respectively, but-- [U - U - U - U -] [- U U - U U - U U -] Again-- As they splásh in the blóod of the slíppery streét, is not-- _x x a, x x a, x x a, x x a_, but [U U - U U - U U - U U -] § 653. With this view there are a certain number of classical _feet_, with their syllables affected in the way of _quantity_, to which they are equivalent English _measures_ with their syllables affected in the way of _accent_. Thus if the formula A, [- U] be a classical, the formula _a x_ is an English _trochee_. B, [U -] " " _x a_ " _iambus_. C, [- U U] " " _a x x_ " _dactyle_. D, [U - U] " " _x a x_ " _amphibrachys_. E, [U U -] " " _x x a_ " _anapæst_. {513} And so on in respect to the larger groups of similarly affected syllables which constitute whole lines and stanzas; verses like A. Cóme to séek for fáme and glóry-- B. The wáy was lóng, the wínd was cóld-- C. Mérrily, mérrily sháll I live nów-- D. But váinly thou wárrest-- E. At the clóse of the dáy when the hámlet is stíll-- are (A), trochaic; (B), iambic; (C), dactylic; (D), amphibrachych; and (E), anapæstic, respectively. And so, with the exception of the word _amphibrachych_ (which I do not remember to have seen) the terms have been used. And so, with the same exception, systems of versification have been classified. § 654. _Reasons against the classical nomenclature as applied to English metres._--These lie in the two following facts:-- 1. Certain English metres have often a very different character from their supposed classical analogues. 2. Certain classical _feet_ have no English equivalents. § 655. _Certain English metres have often a very different metrical character, &c._--Compare such a so-called English anapæst as-- As they splásh in the blóod of the slíppery stréet-- with [Greek: Dekaton men etos tod' epei Priamou.] For the latter line to have the same movement as the former, it must be read thus-- Dekatón men etós to d' epéi Priamóu. Now we well know that, whatever may be any English scholar's notions of the Greek accents, this is not the way in which he reads Greek anapæsts. Again the _trochaic_ movement of the _iambic_ senarius is a point upon which the most exclusive Greek metrists have insisted; urging the necessity of reading (for example) the first line in the Hecuba-- H['æ]ko nékron keuthmóna kai skótou pýlas. {514} rather than-- Hækó nekrón keuthmóna kai skotóu pylás. § 656. I have said that _certain English metres have often a very different metrical character_, &c. I can strengthen the reasons against the use of classical terms in English prosody, by enlarging upon the word _often_. The frequency of the occurrence of a difference of character between classical and English metres similarly named is not a matter of _accident_, but is, in many cases, a necessity arising out of the structure of the English language as compared with that of the Greek and Latin--especially the Greek. With the exception of the so-called second futures, there is no word in Greek whereof the _last_ syllable is accented. Hence, no English line ending with an accented syllable can have a Greek equivalent. Accent for accent-- GREEK. LATIN. ENGLISH. _Týpto_, _Vóco_ = _Týrant_, _Týptomen_, _Scríbere_ = _Mérrily_, _Keuthmóna_, _Vidístis_ = _Disáble_, but no Greek word (with the exception of the so-called second futures like [Greek: nemô]=_nemô_) and (probably) no Latin word at all, is accented like _presúme_ and _cavalíer_. From this it follows that although the first three measures of such so-called English anapæsts as-- As they splásh in the blóod of the slíppery stréet, may be represented by Greek equivalents (_i. e._, equivalents in the way of accent)-- Ep' omóisi feroúsi ta kleína-- a parallel to the last measure (_-ery stréet_) can only be got at by one of two methods; _i. e._, by making the verse end in a so-called second future, or else in a vowel preceded by an accented syllable, and cut off-- Ep' omóisi feróusi ta kleína nemó-- {515} or, Ep' omóisi feróusi ta kleína prosóp'.[70] Now it is clear that when, over and above the fact of certain Greek metres having a different movement from their supposed English equivalents, there is the additional circumstance of such an incompatibility being less an accident than a necessary effect of difference of character in the two languages, the use of terms suggestive of a closer likeness than either does or ever can exist is to be condemned; and this is the case with the words, _dactylic_, _trochaic_, _iambic_, _anapæstic_, as applied to English versification. § 657. _Certain classical feet have no English equivalents._--Whoever has considered the principles of English prosody, must have realized the important fact that, _ex vi termini, no English measure can have either more or less than _one_ accented syllable_. On the other hand, the classical metrists have several measures in both predicaments. Thus to go no farther than the trisyllabic feet, we have the pyrrhic ([U U]) and tribrach ([U U U]) without a long syllable at all, and the spondee ([- -]), amphimacer ([- U -]), and molossus ([- - -]) with more than one long syllable. It follows, then that (even _mutatis mutandis_, _i.e._, with the accent considered as the equivalent to the long syllable) English pyrrhics, English tribrachs, English amphimacers, English spondees, and English molossi are, each and all, prosodial impossibilities. It is submitted to the reader that the latter reason (based wholly upon the limitations that arise out of the structure of language) strengthens the objections of the previous section. § 658. _The classical metres metrical even to English readers._ The attention of the reader is directed to the difficulty involved in the following (apparently or partially) contradictory facts. 1. Accent and quantity differ; and the metrical systems founded upon them differ also. {516} 2. The classical systems are founded upon quantity. 3. The English upon accent. 4. Nevertheless, notwithstanding the difference of the principle upon which they are constructed, the classical metres, even as read by Englishmen, and read _accentually_, are metrical to English ears. § 659. Preliminary to the investigation of the problem in question it is necessary to remark-- 1. That, the correctness or incorrectness of the English pronunciation of the dead languages has nothing to do with the matter. Whether we read Homer exactly, as Homer would read his own immortal poems, or whether we read them in such a way as would be unintelligible to Homer reappearing upon earth, is perfectly indifferent. 2. That whether, as was indicated by the author of [Greek: Metron ariston], we pronounce the anapæst _p[)a]t[)u]læ_, precisely as we pronounce the dactyle _T[=i]t[)y]r[)e]_, or draw a distinction between them is also indifferent. However much, as is done in some of the schools, we may say _scri-bere_ rather than _scrib-ere_, or _am-or_, rather than _a-mor_, under the notion that we are lengthening or shortening certain syllables, one unsurmountable dilemma still remains, viz., that the shorter we pronounce the vowel, the more we suggest the notion of the consonant which follows it being doubled; whilst double consonants _lengthen_ the vowel which precedes them. Hence, whilst it is certain that _patulæ_ and _Tityre_ may be pronounced (and that without hurting the metre) so as to be both of the same _quantity_, it is doubtful what that _quantity_ is. Sound for sound _T[)i]tyre_ may be as short as _p[)a]tulæ_. Sound for sound _p[=a]ttulæ_ may be as long as _T[=i]ttyre_. Hence, the only assumptions requisite are-- _a._ That Englishmen do _not_ read the classical metres according to their quantities. _b._ That, nevertheless, they find metre in them. § 660. _Why are the classical metres metrical to English readers?_--Notwithstanding the extent to which quantity differs from accent, there is no metre so exclusively founded upon the former as to be without a certain amount of the {517} latter; and in the majority (at least) of the classical (and probably other) metres _there is a sufficient amount of accentual elements to constitute metre; even independent of the quantitative ones._ § 661. _Latitude in respect to the periodicity of the recurrence of similarly accented syllables in English._--Metre (as stated in p. 499), "is the recurrence, within certain intervals, of syllables similarly affected." The particular way in which syllables are _affected_ in English metre is that of _accent_. The more regular the period at which similar accents recur the more typical the metre. Nevertheless absolute regularity is not requisite. This leads to the difference between symmetrical and unsymmetrical metres. § 662. _Symmetrical metres._--Allowing for indifference of the number of syllables in the last measure, it is evident that in all lines where the measures are dissyllabic the syllables will be a multiple of the accents, _i. e._, they will be twice as numerous. Hence, with three accents there are six syllables; with four accents, eight syllables, &c. Similarly, in all lines where the measures are trisyllabic the syllables will also be multiples of the accents, _i. e._, they will be thrice as numerous. Hence, with three accents there will be nine syllables, with four accents, twelve syllables, and with seven accents, twenty-one syllables. Lines of this sort may be called symmetrical. § 663. _Unsymmetrical metres._--Lines, where the syllables are _not_ a multiple of the accents, may be called unsymmetrical. Occasional specimens of such lines occur interspersed amongst others of symmetrical character. Where this occurs the general character of the versification may be considered as symmetrical also. The case, however, is different where the whole character of the versification is unsymmetrical, as it is in the greater part of Coleridge's Christabel, and Byron's Siege of Corinth. {518} In the yéar since Jésus diéd for mén, Eíghteen húndred yeárs and tén, Wé were a gállant cómpaný, Ríding o'er lánd and sáiling o'er séa. Óh! but wé went mérrilý! We fórded the ríver, and clómb the high híll, Néver our steéds for a dáy stood stíll. Whéther we láy in the cáve or the shéd, Our sleép fell sóft on the hárdest béd; Whéther we cóuch'd on our róugh capóte, Or the róugher plánk of our glíding bóat; Or strétch'd on the beách or our sáddles spréad As a píllow beneáth the résting héad, Frésh we wóke upón the mórrow. Áll our thóughts and wórds had scópe, Wé had héalth and wé had hópe, Tóil and trável, bút no sórrow. § 664. _Many_ (_perhaps all_) _classical metres on a level with the unsymmetrical English ones_.--The following is the notation of the extract in the preceding section. _x x a x a x a x a_ _a x a x a x a_ _a x x a x a x a_ _a x x a x a x x a_ _a x a x a x x_ _x a x x a x x a x x a_ _a x x a x x a x a_ _a x x a x x a x x a_ _x a x a x x a x a_ _a x x a x x a x a_ _x x a x a x x a x a_ _x a x x a x x a x a_ _x x a x x a x a x a_ _a x a x a x a x_ _a x a x a x a_ _a x a x a x a_ _a x a x a x a x_ Now many Latin metres present a recurrence of accent little more irregular than the quotation just analysed. The following is the accentual formula of the first two stanzas of the second ode of the first Book of Horace. {519} _Accentual Formula of the Latin Sapphic._ _a a x a x | a x a x a x_ _a x x a x | a x a x a x_ _a x x a x | a x a x a x_ _ a x x a x_ _a x x a x | a x a x a x_ _a x x a x | a x a x a x_ _a x x a x | a x a x a x_ _ a x x a x_ _Latin Asclepiad._ _Horace, Od._ I. I., 1-6. _ x a x a x x | a x x a x x_ _ a x x a x x | a x a x a x_ _ a x a x a x x | a x x a x x_ _ a x a x a x | a x x a x x_ _ a x a x a x | a x x a x x_ _ x a x a x x | a x x a x a x_ _Latin Hexameter._ _Æn._ I., 1-5. _a x x a x a x a x x a x x a x_ _x a x x a x a x x x a x x a x_ _a x x x a x a x x x a x x a x_ _x a x x a x a x x x a x x a x._ A longer list of examples would show us that, throughout the whole of the classical metres the same accents recur, sometimes with less, and sometimes with but very little more irregularity than they recur in the _unsymmetrical_ metres of our own language. § 665. _Conversion of English into classical metres._--In the preface to his Translation of Aristophanes, Mr. Walsh has shown (and, I believe, for the first time), that, by a different distribution of lines, very fair hexameters may be made out of the well-known lines on the Burial of Sir John Moore:-- Not a drum was Heard, not a funeral note as his corse to the rampart we hurried, Not a soldier dis- Charged his farewell shot o'er the grave where our hero we buried. {520} We buried him Darkly at dead of night, the sods with our bayonets turning; By the struggling Moonbeams' misty light and the lantern dimly burning. Lightly they'll Talk of the spirit that's gone, and o'er his cold ashes upbraid him, But little he'll Reck if they let him sleep on in the grave where a Briton has laid him. § 666. Again, such lines as Coleridge's-- 1. Make réady my gráve clothes to-mórrow; or Shelly's-- 2. Líquid Péneus was flówing, are the exact analogues of lines like-- 1. Jam lácte depúlsum leónem, and 2. Gráto Pýrrha sub ántro. § 667. The rationale of so remarkable a phænomenon as _regularity of accent in verses considered to have been composed with a view to quantity only_ has yet to be investigated. That it was necessary to the structure of the metres in question is certain. § 668. _Cæsura._--The _cæsura_ of the classical metrists is the result of-- 1. The necessity in the classical metres (as just indicated) of an accented syllable in certain parts of the verses. 2. The nearly total absence in the classical languages of words with an accent on the last syllable. From the joint effect of these two causes, it follows that in certain parts of a verse no final syllable can occur, or (changing the expression) no word can terminate. Thus, in a language consisting chiefly of dissyllables, of which the first alone was accented, and in a metre which required the sixth syllable to be accented, the fifth and seventh would each be at end of words, and that simply because the sixth was not. Whilst in a language consisting chiefly of either dissyllables or trisyllables, and in a metre of the same sort as before, {521} if the fifth were not final, the seventh would be so, or _vice versa_. § 669. _Cæsura_ means _cutting_. In a language destitute of words accented on the last syllable, and in a metre requiring the sixth syllable to be accented, a measure (foot) of either the formula _x a_, or _x x a_ (_i. e._, a measure with the accent at the end), except in the case of words of four or more syllables, must always be either itself divided, or else cause the division of the following measures--_division_ meaning the distribution of the syllables of the measure (foot) over two or more words. Thus-- _a._ If the accented syllable (the sixth) be the first of a word of any length, the preceding one (the fifth) must be the final one of the word which went before; in which case the first and last parts belong to different words, and the measure (foot) is divided or _cut_. _b._ If the accented syllable (the sixth) be the second of a word of three syllables, the succeeding one which is at the end of the word, is the first part of the measure which follows; in which case the first and last parts of the measure (foot) which follows the accented syllable is divided or _cut_. As the _cæsura_, or the necessity for dividing certain measures between two words, arises out of the structure of language, it only occurs in tongues where there is a notable absence of words accented on the last syllable. Consequently there is no cæsura[71] in the English. § 670. As far as accent is concerned, the classical poets write in _measures_ rather than _feet_. See p. 505. {522} § 671. Although the idea of writing English hexameters, &c., on the principle of an accent in a measure taking the place of the long syllables in a foot, is chimerical; it is perfectly practicable to write English verses upon the same {523} principle which the classics themselves have written on, _i.e._, with accents recurring within certain limits; in which case the so-called classical metre is merely an unsymmetrical verse of a new kind. This may be either blank verse or rhyme. {524} § 672. The chief reason against the naturalization of metres of the sort in question (over and above the practical one of our having another kind in use already), lies in the fact of their being perplexing to the readers who have _not_ been {525} trained to classical cadences, whilst they suggest and violate the idea of _quantity_ to those who have. _Why_ his idea of quantity is violated may be seen in p. 165. {526} § 673. _Convertible metres._--Such a line as-- Ere her faithless sons betray'd her, may be read in two ways. We may either lay full stress upon the word _ere_, and read-- Ére her faíthless sóns betráy'd her; or we may lay little or no stress upon either _ere_ or _her_, reserving the full accentuation for the syllable _faith-_ in _faithless_, in which case the reading would be Ere her faíthless sóns betráy'd her. Lines of this sort may be called examples of _convertible metres_, since by changing the accent a dissyllabic line may be converted into one partially trisyllabic, and _vice versâ_. This property of convertibility is explained by the fact of accentuation being _a relative quality_. In the example before us _ere_ is sufficiently strongly accented to stand in contrast to _her_, but it is not sufficiently strongly accented to stand upon a par with the _faith-_ in _faithless_ if decidedly pronounced. The real character of convertible lines is determined from the character of the lines with which they are associated. {527} That the second mode of reading the line in question is the proper one, may be shown by reference to the stanza wherein it occurs. Let Érin remémber her dáys of óld, Ere her faíthless sóns betráy'd her, When Málachi wóre the cóllar of góld, Which he wón from the próud inváder. Again, such a line as For the glory I have lost, although it may be read For the glóry I have lóst, would be read improperly. The stanza wherein it occurs is essentially dissyllabic (_a x_). Heéd, oh heéd my fátal stóry! Í am Hósier's ínjured ghóst, Cóme to seék for fáme and glóry-- Fór the glóry Í have lóst. § 674. _Metrical and grammatical combinations._--Words, or parts of words, that are combined as measures, are words, or parts of words, combined _metrically_, or in _metrical combination_. {528} Syllables combined as words, or words combined as portions of a sentence, are syllables and words _grammatically combined_, or in _grammatical combination_. The syllables _ere her faith-_ form a metrical combination. The words _her faithless sons_ form a grammatical combination. When the syllables contained in the same measure (or connected metrically) are also contained in the same construction (or connected grammatically), the metrical and the grammatical combinations coincide. Such is the case with the line Remémber | the glóries | of Brían | the Bráve; where the same division separates both the measure and the subdivisions of the sense, inasmuch as the word _the_ is connected with the word _glories_ equally in grammar and in metre, in syntax and in prosody. So is _of_ with _Brian_, and _the_ with _Brave_. Contrast with this such a line as A chieftain to the Highlands bound. Here the metrical division is one thing, the grammatical division another, and there is no coincidence. _Metrical_, A chíef | tain tó | the Hígh | lands bóund. _Grammatical_, A chieftain | to the Highlands | bound. In the following stanza the coincidence of the metrical and grammatical combination is nearly complete:-- To árms! to árms! The sérfs, they róam O'er híll, and dále, and glén: The kíng is deád, and tíme is cóme To choóse a chiéf agáin. In Wárriors or chiéfs, should the sháft or the swórd Piérce me in léading the hóst of the Lórd, Heéd not the córse, though a kíng's in your páth, Búry your stéel in the bósoms of Gáth.--BYRON. there is a non-coincidence equally complete. § 675. _Rhythm._--The character of a metre is marked and prominent in proportion as the metrical and the grammatical {529} combinations coincide. The extent to which the measure _a x x_ is the basis of the stanza last quoted is concealed by the antagonism of the metre and the construction. If it were not for the axiom, that _every metre is to be considered uniform until there is proof to the contrary_, the lines might be divided thus:-- _a x, x a, x x a, x x a,_ _a x, x a x, x a x, x a,_ _a x, x a, x x a, x x a,_ _a x, x a x, x a x, x a._ The variety which arises in versification from the different degrees of the coincidence and non-coincidence between the metrical and grammatical combinations may be called _rhythm_. § 676. _Constant and inconstant parts of a rhythm._--See § 636. Of the three parts or elements of a rhyme, the vowel and the part which follows the vowel are _constant_, _i.e._, they cannot be changed without changing or destroying the rhyme. In _told_ and _bold_, _plunder_, _blunder_, both the _o_ or _u_ on one side, and the _-ld_ or _-nder_ on the other are immutable. Of the three parts, or elements, of a rhyme the part which precedes the vowel is _inconstant_, _i.e_, it must be changed in order to effect the rhyme. Thus, _old_ and _old_, _told_ and _told_, _bold_ and _bold_, do _not_ rhyme with each other; although _old_, _bold_, _told_, _scold_, &c. do. _Rule 1._ In two or more syllables that rhyme with each other, neither the vowel nor the sounds which _follow_ it can be _different_. _Rule 2._ In two or more syllables that rhyme with each other, the sounds which _precede_ the vowel cannot be _alike_. Now the number of sounds which can precede a vowel is limited: it is that of the consonants and consonantal combinations; of which a list can be made _a priori_. _p_ _pl_ _pr_ _b_ _bl_ _br_ _f_ _fl_ _fr_ _v_ _vl_ _vr_ _t_ _tl_ _tr_ _d_ _dl_ _dr_ _th_ _thl_ _thr_ _dh_ _dhl_ _dhr_ _k_ _kl_ _kr_ _g_ _gl_ _gr_ _s_ _sp_ _sf_ _st_ _sth,_ _&c._ and so on, the combinations of s being the most complex. {530} This gives us the following method (or receipt) for the discovery of rhymes:-- 1. Divide the word to which a rhyme is required, into its _constant_ and _inconstant_ elements. 2. Make up the inconstant element by the different consonants and consonantal combinations until they are exhausted. 3. In the list of words so formed, mark off those which have an existence in the language; these will all rhyme with each other; and if the list of combinations be exhaustive, there are no other words which will do so. _Example._--From the word _told_, separate the _o_ and _-ld_, which are constant. Instead of the inconstant element _t_, write successively, _p_, _pl_, _pr_, _b_, _bl_, _br_, &c.: so that you have the following list:--_t-old_, _p-old_, _pl-old_, _pr-old_, _b-old_, _bl-old_, _br-old_, &c. Of these _plold_, _blold_, and _brold_, have no existence in the language; the rest, however, are rhymes. § 677. All words have the same number of possible, but not the same number of actual rhymes. Thus, _silver_ is a word amenable to the same process as _told--pilver_, _plilver_, _prilver_, _bilver_, &c.; yet _silver_ is a word without a corresponding rhyme. This is because the combinations which answer to it do not constitute words, or combinations of words in the English language. This has been written, not for the sake of showing poets how to manufacture rhymes, but in order to prove that a result which apparently depends on the ingenuity of writers, is reducible to a very humble mechanical process, founded upon the nature of rhyme and the limits to the combinations of consonants. * * * * * {531} PART VII. THE DIALECTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. § 678. The consideration of the dialects of the English language is best taken in hand after the historical investigation of the elements of the English population. For this, see Part I. It is also best taken in hand after the analysis of the grammatical structure of the language. For this, see Part IV. This is because both the last-named subjects are necessary as preliminaries. The structure of the language supplies us with the points in which one dialect may differ from another, whilst the history of the immigrant populations may furnish an ethnological reason for such differences as are found to occur. For a further illustration of this see pp. 4, 5. § 679. By putting together the history of the migrations into a country, and the grammatical structure of the language which they introduced, we find that there are two methods of classifying the dialects. These may be called the ethnological, and the structural methods. According to the former, we place in the same class those dialects which were introduced by the same section of immigrants. Thus, a body of Germans, starting from the same part of Germany, and belonging to the same section of the Germanic population, even if, whilst at sea, they separated into two, three, or more divisions, and landed upon widely separated portions of Great Britain, would introduce dialects which were allied _ethnologically_; even though, by one of them changing rapidly, and the others not changing at all, they might, in their external characters, differ from each other, and agree with dialects of a different introduction. Hence, the ethnological principle is essentially historical, and {532} is based upon the idea of _affiliation_ or affinity in the way of descent. The _structural_ principle is different. Two dialects introduced by different sections (perhaps it would be better to say _sub_-sections) of an immigrant population may suffer similar changes; _e. g._, they may lose the same inflexions, adopt similar euphonic processes, or incorporate the same words. In this case, their external characters become mutually alike. Hence, if we take two (or move) such dialects, and place them in the same class, we do so simply because they are alike; not because they are affiliated. Such are the two chief principles of classification. Generally, they coincide; in other words, similarity of external characters is _primâ facie_ evidence of affinity in the way of affiliation, identity of origin being the safest assumption in the way of cause; whilst identity of origin is generally a sufficient ground for calculating upon similarity of external form; such being, _a priori_, its probable effect. Still, the evidence of one in favour of the other is only _primâ facie_ evidence. Dialects of the same origin may grow unlike; dialects of different origins alike. § 680. The causes, then, which determine those minute differences of language, which go by the name of _dialects_ are twofold.--1. Original difference; 2. Subsequent change. § 681. The original difference between the two sections (or _sub_-sections) of an immigrant population are referable to either--1. Difference of locality in respect to the portion of the country from which they originated; or 2. Difference in the date of the invasion. Two bodies of immigrants, one from the Eyder, and the other from the Scheldt, even if they left their respective localities on the same day of the same month, would most probably differ from one another; and that in the same way that a Yorkshireman differs from a Hampshire man. On the other hand, two bodies of immigrants, each leaving the very same locality, but one in 200 A.D., and the other in 500 A.D., would also, most probably, differ; and that as a Yorkshireman of 1850 A.D. differs from one of 1550 A.D. {533} § 682. The subsequent changes which may affect the dialect of an immigrant population are chiefly referable to either, 1. Influences exerted by the dialects of the aborigines of the invaded country; 2. Influences of simple growth, or development. A dialect introduced from Germany to a portion of Great Britain, where the aborigines spoke Gaelic, would (if affected at all by the indigenous dialect) be differently affected from a dialect similarly circumstanced in a British, Welsh, and Cambrian district. A language which changes rapidly, will, at the end of a certain period, wear a different aspect from one which changes slowly. § 683. A full and perfect apparatus for the minute philology of the dialects of a country like Great Britain, would consist in-- 1. The exact details of the present provincialisms. 2. The details of the history of each dialect through all its stages. 3. The exact details of the provincialisms of the whole of that part of Germany which contributed, or is supposed to have contributed, to the Anglo-Saxon immigration. 4. The details of the original languages or dialects of the Aboriginal Britons at the time of the different invasions. This last is both the least important and the most unattainable. § 684. Such are the preliminaries which are wanted for the purposes of investigation. Others are requisite for the proper understanding of the facts already ascertained, and the doctrines generally admitted; the present writer believing that these two classes are by no means coextensive. Of such preliminaries, the most important are those connected with 1. the structure of language, and 2. the history of individual documents; in other words, certain points of philology, and certain points of bibliography. § 685. _Philological preliminaries._--These are points of pronunciation, points of grammatical structure, and glossarial peculiarities. It is only the first two which will be noticed. They occur in 1. the modern, 2. the ancient local forms of speech. {534} § 686. _Present provincial dialects._--In the way of grammar we find, in the present provincial dialects (amongst many others), the following old forms-- 1. A plural in _en_--_we call-en_, _ye call-en_, they _call-en_. Respecting this, the writer in the Quarterly Review, has the following doctrine:-- "It appears to have been popularly known, if not in East Anglia proper, at all events in the district immediately to the westward, since we find it in Orm, in an Eastern-Midland copy of the Rule of Nuns, sæc. XIII., and in process of time in Suffolk. Various conjectures have been advanced as to the origin of this form, of which we have no certain examples before the thirteenth century.[72] We believe the true state of the case to have been as follows. It is well known that the Saxon dialects differ from the Gothic, Old-German, &c. in the form of the present indicative plural--making all three persons to end in _-aþ_ or _-ad_;_--we--[gh]e--hi--lufi-aþ_ (_-ad_). Schmeller and other German philologists observe that a nasal has been here elided, the true ancient form being _-and_, _-ant_, or _-ent_. Traces of this termination are found in the Cotton MS. of the Old Saxon Evangelical Harmony, and still more abundantly in the popular dialects of the Middle-Rhenish district from Cologne to the borders of Switzerland. These not only exhibit the full termination _-ent_, but also two modifications of it, one dropping the nasal and the other the dental. _E.g._:-- Pres. Indic. Plur. 1, 2, 3 liebent; " " lieb-et; " " lieb-en; --the last exactly corresponding with the Mercian. It is remarkable that none of the above forms appear in classical German compositions, while they abound in the Miracle-plays, vernacular sermons, and similar productions of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, specially addressed to the uneducated classes. We may, therefore, reasonably conclude from analogy that similar forms were popularly current in our midland counties, gradually insinuating themselves into the {535} written language. We have plenty of examples of similar phenomena. It would be difficult to find written instances of the pronouns _scho_, or _she_, _their_, _you_, the auxiliaries _sal_, _suld_, &c., before the twelfth century; but their extensive prevalence in the thirteenth proves that they must have been popularly employed somewhere even in times which have left us no documentary evidence of their existence." I prefer to consider this termination as _-en_, a mere extension of the subjunctive form to the indicative. 2. An infinitive form in _-ie_; as to _sowie_, to _reapie_,--Wiltshire. (Mr. Guest). 3. The participial form in _-and_; as _goand_, _slepand_,--Lincolnshire (?), Northumberland, Scotland. 4. The common use of the termination _-th_ in the third person present; _goeth_, _hath_, _speaketh_,--Devonshire. 5. Plural forms in _-en_; as _housen_,--Leicestershire and elsewhere. 6. Old preterite forms of certain verbs; as, _Clom_, from _climb_, Hereford and elsewhere. _Hove_, -- _heave_, ditto. _Puck_, -- _pick_, ditto. _Shuck_, -- _shook_, ditto. _Squoze_, -- _squeeze_, ditto. _Shew_, -- _sow_, Essex. _Rep_, -- _reap_, ditto. _Mew_, -- _mow_, ditto, &c. The following changes (a few out of many) are matters not of grammar, but of pronunciation:-- Ui for _oo_--_cuil_, _bluid_, for _cool_, _blood_,--Cumberland, Scotland. Oy for _i_--_foyne_, _twoyne_, for _fine_, _twine_,--Cheshire, Cambridgeshire, Suffolk. Oy for _oo_--_foyt_ for _foot_,--Halifax. Oy for _o_--_noite_, _foil_, _coil_, _hoil_, for _note_, _foal_, _coal_, _hole_,--Halifax. Oy for _a_--_loyne_ for _lane_,--Halifax. Ooy for _oo_--_nooin_, _gooise_, _fooil_, _tooil_, for _noon_, _goose_, _fool_, _tool_,--Halifax. {536} W inserted (with or without a modification)--as _spwort_, _scworn_, _whoam_, for _sport_, _scorn_, _home_,--Cumberland, West Riding of Yorkshire. Ew for _oo_, or _yoo_--_tewn_ for _tune_,--Suffolk, Westmoreland. Iv for _oo_, or _yoo_ when a vowel follows--as _Samivel_ for _Samuel_; _Emmanivel_ for _Emmanuel_. In all these we have seen a tendency to _diphthongal_ sounds. In the following instances the practice is reversed, and instead of the vowel being made a diphthong, the diphthong becomes a vowel, as, O for _oy_--_boh_ for _boy_, Suffolk, &c. Oo for _ow_--_broon_ for _brown_,--Bilsdale. Ee for _i_--_neet_ for _night_,--Cheshire. O for _ou_--_bawn'_ for _bound_,--Westmoreland. Of these the substitution of _oo_ for _ow_, and of _ee_ for _i_, are of importance in the questions of the Appendix. [=E][=e] for _a_--_theere_ for _there_,--Cumberland. [=E][=e] for _[)e]_--_reed_, _seeven_, for _red_, _seven_,--Cumberland, Craven. [=A] for _[=o]_--_sair_, _mair_, _baith_, for _sore_, _more_, _both_,--Cumberland, Scotland. [)A] for _[)o]_--_saft_ for _soft_,--Cheshire. O for _[)a]_--_mon_ for _man_,--Cheshire. _Lond_ for _land_,--East-Anglian Semi-Saxon. _Y_ inserted before a vowel--_styake_, _ryape_, for _stake_, _rope_,--Borrowdale; especially after _g_ (a point to be noticed), _gyarden_, _gyown_, for _garden_, _gown_,--Warwickshire, &c.; and at the beginning of a word, as _yat_, _yan_, for _ate_, _one_ (_ane_),--Westmoreland, Bilsdale. _H_ inserted--_hafter_, _hoppen_, for _after_, _open_,--Westmoreland, &c. _H_ omitted--_at_, _ard_, for _hat_, _hard_,--_Passim_. _Transition of Consonants._ _B_ for _v_--_Whitehebbon_ for _Whitehaven_,--Borrowdale. _P_ for _b_--_poat_ for _boat_.--Welsh pronunciation of many English words. See the speeches of Sir Hugh Evans in Merry Wives of Windsor. _V_ for _f_--_vind_ for _find_,--characteristic of Devonshire, Kent. {537} _T_ for _d_ (final)--_deet_ for _deed_,--Borrowdale. _T_ for _ch_ (_tsh_)--_fet_ for _fetch_,--Devonshire. _D_ for _j_ (_dzh_)--_sled_ for _sledge_,--Hereford. _D_ for _th_ (_þ_)--_wid_=_with_; _tudder_=_the other_,--Borrowdale, Westmoreland. Initial (especially before a consonant)--_drash_, _droo_=_thrash_, _through_,--Devonshire, Wilts. _K_ for _ch_ (_tsh_)--_thack_, _pick_, for _thatch_, _pitch_,--Westmoreland, Lincolnshire, Halifax. _G_ for _j_ (_dzh_)--_brig_ for _bridge_--Lincolnshire, Hereford. _G_ preserved from the Anglo-Saxon--_lig_, _lie_. Anglo-Saxon, _licgan_,--Lincolnshire, North of England. _Z_ for _s_--_zee_ for _see_,--Devonshire. _S_ for _sh_--_sall_ for _shall_,--Craven, Scotland. _Y_ for _g_--_yet_ for _gate_,--Yorkshire, Scotland. _W_ for _v_--_wiew_ for _view_,--Essex, London. _N_ for _ng_--_bleedin_ for _bleeding_,--Cumberland, Scotland. _Sk_ for _sh_--_busk_ for _bush_,--Halifax. _Ejection of Letters._ _K_ before _s_, the preceding vowel being lengthened by way of compensation--_neist_ for _next_, _seist_ for _sixth_,--Halifax. _D_ and _v_ after a consonant--_gol_ for _gold_, _siller_ for _silver_,--Suffolk. The ejection of _f_ is rarer; _mysel_ for _myself_, however, occurs in most dialects. _L_ final, after a short vowel,--in which case the vowel is lengthened--_poo_ for _pull_,--Cheshire, Scotland. _Al_ changed to _a_ open--_hawf_ for _half_, _saumo_n for _salmon_,--Cumberland, Scotland. _Transposition._ Transpositions of the liquid _r_ are common in all our provincial dialects; as _gars_, _brid_, _perty_, for _grass_, _bird_, _pretty_. Here the provincial forms are the oldest, _gærs_, _brid_, &c., being the Anglo-Saxon forms. Again; _acsian_, Anglo-Saxon=_ask_, English. § 687. _Ancient forms of speech._--In the way of grammar-- 1. The _ge-_ (see § 409), prefixed to the past participle (_ge-boren_=_borne_) is, in certain localities,[73] omitted. {538} 2. The present[74] plural form _-s_, encroaches upon the form in _-n_. Thus, _munuces_=_munucan_=_monks_. 3. The infinitive ends in _-a_, instead of _-an_. This is Scandinavian, but it is also Frisian. 4. The particle _at_ is used instead of _to_ before the infinitive verb. 5. The article[74] _the_ is used instead of _se_, _seo_, _þæt_=[Greek: ho, hê, to], for both the numbers, and all the cases and genders. 6. The form in _-s_ (_use_, _usse_) replaces _ure_=_our_. In the way of sound-- 1. Forms with the slenderer, or more vocalic[74] sounds, replace forms which in the West-Saxon are broad or diphthongal.[75] Beda mentions that _Coelin_ is the Northumbrian form of _Ceawlin_. 2. The simple[74] sound of _k_ replaces the combination out of which the modern sound of _ch_ has been evolved. 3. The sound of _sk_ replaces either the _sh_, or the sound out of which it has been evolved. The meaning of these last two statements is explained by the following extract: "Another characteristic is the infusion of Scandinavian words, of which there are slight traces in monuments of the tenth century, and strong and unequivocal ones in those of the thirteenth and fourteenth. Some of the above criteria may be verified by a simple and obvious process, namely, a reference to the topographical nomenclature of our provinces. Whoever takes the trouble to consult the Gazetteer of England will find, that of our numerous 'Carltons' not one is to be met with south of the Mersey, west of the Staffordshire Tame, or south of the Thames; and that 'Fiskertons,' 'Skiptons,' 'Skelbrookes,' and a whole host of similar names are equally _introuvables_ in the same district. They are, with scarcely a single exception, northern or eastern; and we know from Ælfric's Glossary, from Domesday and the Chartularies, that this distinction of pronunciation was established as early as the eleventh century. 'Kirby' or 'Kirkby,' is a specimen of joint Anglian and {539} Scandinavian influence, furnishing a clue to the ethnology of the district wherever it occurs. The converse of this rule does not hold with equal universality, various causes having gradually introduced soft palatal sounds into districts to which they did not properly belong. Such are, however, of very partial occurrence, and form the exception rather than the rule."--_Quarterly Review_, No. CLXIV. _Bibliographical preliminaries._--The leading facts here are the difference between 1. the locality of the authorship, and 2, the locality of the transcription of a book. Thus: the composition of a Devonshire poet may find readers in Northumberland, and his work be transcribed by Northumbrian copyist. Now this Northumbrian copyist may do one of two things: he may transcribe the Devonian production _verbatim et literatim_; in which case his countrymen read the MS. just as a Londoner reads Burns, _i.e._, in the dialect of the writer, and not in the dialect of the reader. On the other hand, he may _accommodate_ as well as transcribe, _i.e._, he may change the _non_-Northumbrian into Northumbrian expressions, in which case his countrymen read the MS. in their own rather than the writer's dialect. Now it is clear, that in a literature where transcription, _combined with accommodation_, is as common as _simple_ transcription, we are never sure of knowing the dialect of an author unless we also know the dialect of his transcriber. In no literature is there more of this _semi_-translation than in the Anglo-Saxon and the early English; a fact which sometimes raises difficulties, by disconnecting the evidence of authorship with the otherwise natural inferences as to the dialect employed; whilst, at others, it smoothes them away by supplying as many specimens of fresh dialects, as there are extant MSS. of an often copied composition. Inquiring whether certain peculiarities of dialect in Layamon's Brut, really emanated from the author, a writer in the Quarterly Review, (No. clxiv.) remarks, that to decide this it "would be necessary to have access either to the priest's autograph, or to a more faithful copy of it than it was the practice to make either in his age or the succeeding {540} ones. A transcriber of an early English composition followed his own ideas of language, grammar, and orthography; and if he did not entirely obliterate the characteristic peculiarities of his original, he was pretty sure, like the Conde de Olivares, 'd'y meter beaucour du sein.' The practical proof of this is to be found in the existing copies of those works, almost every one of which exhibits some peculiarity of features. We have 'Trevisa' and 'Robert of Gloucester,' in two distinct forms--'Pier's Ploughman,' in at least three, and 'Hampole's Pricke of Conscience,' in half a dozen, without any absolute certainty which approximates most to what the authors wrote. With regard to Layamon, it might be supposed that the older copy is the more likely to represent the original; but we have internal evidence that it is not the priest's autograph; and it is impossible to know what alterations it may have undergone in the course of one or more transcriptions." Again, in noticing the orthography of the Ormulum (alluded to in the present volume, § 266), he writes: "It is true that in this instance we have the rare advantage of possessing the author's autograph, a circumstance which cannot with confidence be predicated of any other considerable work of the same period. The author was, moreover, as Mr. Thorpe observes, a kind of critic in his own language; and we therefore find in his work, a regularity of orthography, grammar, and metre, hardly to be paralleled in the same age. All this might, in a great measure, disappear in the very next copy; for fidelity of transcription was no virtue of the thirteenth or the fourteenth century; at least with respect to vernacular works. It becomes, therefore, in many cases a problem of no small complication, to decide with certainty respecting the original metre, or language, of a given mediæval composition, with such data as we now possess." From all this it follows, that the inquirer must talk of _copies_ rather than of _authors_. § 688. _Caution._--Differences of spelling do not always imply differences of pronunciation; perhaps they may be _primâ facie_ of such. Still it is uncritical to be over-hasty in {541} separating, as specimens of _dialect_, works which, perhaps, only differ in being specimens of separate _orthographies_. § 689. _Caution._--The accommodation of a transcribed work is susceptible of _degrees_. It may go so far as absolutely to replace one dialect by another, or it may go no farther than the omission of the more unintelligible expressions, and the substitution of others more familiar. I again quote the Quarterly Review,--"There are very few matters more difficult than to determine _à priori_, in what precise form a vernacular composition of the thirteenth century might be written, or what form it might assume in a very short period. Among the Anglo-Saxon charters of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, many are modelled upon the literary Anglo-Saxon, with a few slight changes of orthography and inflection; while others abound with dialectical peculiarities of various sorts. Those peculiarities may generally be accounted for from local causes. An East-Anglian scribe does not employ broad western forms, nor a West of England man East-Anglian ones; though each might keep his provincial peculiarities out of sight, and produce something not materially different from the language of Ælfric." § 690. _Caution._--In the Reeve's Tale, Chaucer puts into the mouth of one of his north-country clerks, a native of the Strother, in the north-west part of the deanery of Craven, where the Northumbrian dialect rather preponderates over the Anglian, certain Yorkshire glosses. "Chaucer[76] undoubtedly copied the language of some native; and the general accuracy, with which he gives it, shows that he was an attentive observer of all that passed around him. "We subjoin an extract from the poem, in order to give our readers an opportunity of comparing southern and northern English, as they co-existed in the fifteenth century. It is from a MS. that has never been collated; but which we believe to be well worthy the attention of any future editor of the Canterbury Tales. The italics denote variations from the printed text:-- {542} "John highte that oon and Aleyn highte that other: Of _oo_ toun were thei born that highte Strother, Ffer in the north I can not tellen where. This Aleyn maketh redy al his gere-- And on an hors the sak he caste anoon. Fforth goth Aleyn the clerk and also John, With good swerde and bokeler by his side. John knewe the weye--hym nedes no gide; And atte melle the sak a down he layth. Aleyn spak first: Al heyle, Symond--in fayth-- How fares thi fayre daughter and thi wyf? Aleyn welcome--quod Symkyn--be my lyf-- And John also--how now, what do ye here? By God, quod John--Symond, nede has _na_ pere. Hym bihoves _to_ serve him self that has na swayn; Or _ellis_ he is a fool as clerkes sayn. Oure maunciple I hope he wil be ded-- Swa _werkes hym_ ay the wanges in his heed. And therefore is I come and eek Aleyn-- To grynde oure corn, and carye it _ham_ agayne, I pray yow _spedes_[77] us _hethen_ that ye may. It shal be done, quod Symkyn, by my fay! What wol ye done while it is in hande? By God, right by the hoper wol I stande, Quod John, and see _how gates_ the corn gas inne; _Yit_ saugh I never, by my fader kynne, How that the hoper wagges til and fra! Aleyn answerde--John wil _ye_ swa? Than wil I be bynethe, by my crown, And se _how gates_ the mele falles down In til the trough--that sal be my disport. _Quod John_--In faith, I is of youre sort-- I is as ille a meller as _are_ ye. * * * * * * And when the mele is sakked and ybounde, This John goth out and fynt his hors away-- And gan to crie, harow, and wele away!-- Our hors is lost--Aleyn, for Godde's banes, Stepe on thi feet--come of man attanes! Allas, oure wardeyn has his palfrey lorn! This Aleyn al forgat bothe mele and corn-- {543} Al was out of his mynde, his housbonderie. What--whilke way is he goon? he gan to crie. The wyf come lepynge _in_ at a ren; She saide--Allas, youre hors goth to the fen With wylde mares, as faste as he may go. Unthank come on this hand that _band_ him so-- And he that _bet_ sholde have knet the reyne. Alas! quod John, Alayn, for Criste's peyne, Lay down thi swerde, and I _wil_ myn alswa; I is ful _swift_--God wat--as is a ra-- By Goddes _herte_ he sal nought scape us bathe. Why ne hadde thou put the capel in the lathe? Il hayl, by God, Aleyn, thou _is_ fonne." "Excepting the obsolete forms _hethen_ (hence), _swa_, _lorn_, _whilke_, _alswa_, _capel_--all the above provincialisms are still, more or less, current in the north-west part of Yorkshire. _Na_, _ham_(e), _fra_, _banes_, _attanes_, _ra_, _bathe_, are pure Northumbrian. _Wang_ (cheek or temple) is seldom heard, except in the phrase _wang tooth_, _dens molaris_. _Ill_, adj., for _bad_--_lathe_ (barn)--and _fond_ (foolish)--are most frequently and familiarly used in the West Riding, or its immediate borders." Now this indicates a class of writings which, in the critical history of our local dialect, must be used with great caution and address. An imitation of dialect may be so lax as to let its only merit consist in a deviation from the standard idiom. In the Lear of Shakspeare we have speeches from a Kentish clown. Is this the dialect of the character, the dialect of the writer, or is it some conventional dialect appropriated to theatrical purposes? I think the latter. In Ben Jonson's Tale of a Tub, one (and more than one of the characters) speaks thus. His residence is the neighbourhood of London, Tottenham Court. Is it no sand? nor buttermilk? if't be, Ich 'am no zive, or watering-pot, to draw Knots in your 'casions. If you trust me, zo-- If not, _pra_forme 't your zelves, '_C_ham no man's wife, But resolute Hilts: you'll vind me in the buttry. _Act_ I. _Scene_ 1. {544} I consider that this represents the dialect of the neighbourhood of London, not on the strength of its being put in the mouth of a man of Tottenham, but from other and independent circumstances. Not so, however, with the provincialisms of another of Ben Jonson's plays, the Sad Shepherd:-- ---- shew your sell Tu all the sheepards, bauldly; gaing amang hem. Be mickle in their eye, frequent and fugeand. And, gif they ask ye of Eiarine, Or of these claithes; say that I ga' hem ye, And say no more. I ha' that wark in hand, That web upon the luime, sall gar em thinke. _Act_ II. _Scene_ 3. The scene of the play is Sherwood Forest: the language, however, as far as I may venture an opinion, is not the language from which the present Nottinghamshire dialect has come down. § 691. _Caution._--Again, the word _old_, as applied to language, has a double meaning. The language of the United States was imported from England into America in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. The language of South Australia has been introduced within the present generation. In one sense, the American English is older than the Australian. It was earliest separated from the mother-tongue. The language, however, of America may (I speak only in the way of illustration, and consequently hypothetically), in the course of time, become the least old of the two; the word _old_ being taken in another sense. It may change with greater rapidity. It may lose its inflections. It may depart more from the structure of the mother-tongue, and preserve fewer of its _old_ elements. In this sense the Australian (provided that it has altered least, and that it retain the greatest number of the _old_ inflections) will be the older tongue of the two. Now what may be said of the language of two countries, may be said of the dialects of two districts. The one dialect may run its changes apace; the other alter but by degrees. {545} Hence, of two works in two such dialects, the one would appear older than the other, although in reality the two were cotemporary. Hence, also, it is a lax expression to say that it is the old forms (the archaisms) that the provincial dialects retain. The provincial forms are archaic only when the current language changes more rapidly than the local idiom. When the local idiom changes fastest, the archaic forms belong to the standard mode of speech. The provincial forms, _goand_, _slepand_, for _going_ and _sleeping_, are archaic. Here the archaism is with the provincial form. The forms _almost_, _horses_, _nought but_, contrasted with the provincialisms _ommost_, _hosses_, _nobbot_, are archaic. They have not been changed so much as they will be. Here the archaism (that is, the nearer approach to the older form) is with the standard idiom. A sequestered locality is preservative of old forms. But writing and education are preservatives of them also. § 692. With these preliminaries a brief notice of the English dialects, in their different stages, may begin. _The districts north of the Humber._--There is so large an amount of specimens of the dialects of this area in the Anglo-Saxon stage of our language, the area itself so closely coincides with the political division of the kingdom of Northumberland, whilst the present arrangement (more or less provisional) of the Anglo-Saxon dialects consists of the divisions of them into the, 1, West-Saxon; 2, Mercian; and 3, Northumbrian, that it is best to give a general view of the whole tract before the minuter details of the different counties which compose them are noticed. The _data_ for the Northumbrian division of the Anglo-Saxon dialects are as follows:-- 1. _Wanley's Fragment of Cædmon._--The north-east of Yorkshire was the birth-place of the Anglo-Saxon monk Cædmon. Nevertheless, the form in which his poems in full have come down to us is that of a West-Saxon composition. This indicates the probability of the original work having first been re-cast, and afterwards lost. Be this as it may, the {546} following short fragment has been printed by Wanley, from an ancient MS., and by Hickes from Bede, Hist. Eccl., 4, 24, and it is considered, in the first form, to approach or, perhaps, to represent the Northumbrian of the original poem. 1. 2. _Wanley._ _Hickes._ Nu seylun hergan Nú we sceolan herigean Herfaen-ricaes uard, Heofon-ríces weard, Metudes mæcti, Metodes mihte, End his modgethanc. And his módgethanc. Uerc uuldur fadur, Weorc wuldor-fæder, Sue he uundra gihuaes, Sva he wundra gewæs, Eci drictin, Ecé driten, Ord stelidæ. Ord onstealde. He ærist scopa, Ne ['æ]rest scóp, Elda barnum, Eorðan bearnum, Heben til hrofe; Heofon tó rófe; Haleg scepen: Hálig scyppend: Tha mittungeard, Dá middangeard, Moncynnæs uard, Moncynnes weard, Eci drictin, Ece drihten, Æfter tiaðæ, Æfter teóde, Firum foldu, Firum foldan, Frea allmectig. Freá almihtig. _Translation._ Now we should praise For earth's bairns, The heaven-kingdom's preserver, Heaven to roof; The might of the Creator, Holy shaper; And his mood-thought. Then mid-earth, The glory-father of works, Mankind's home, As he, of wonders, each Eternal Lord, Eternal Lord, After formed, Originally established. For the homes of men, He erst shaped, Lord Almighty. 2. _The death-bed verses of Bede._ Fore the neidfaerae, Before the necessary journey, Naenig uuiurthit No one is Thoc-snotturra Wiser of thought Than him tharf sie Than he hath need To ymbhycganne, To consider, {547} Aer his hionongae, Before his departure, Huaet, his gastae, What, for his spirit, Godaes aeththa yflaes, Of good or evil, Æfter deothdaege, After the death-day, Doemid uuieorthae. Shall be doomed. From a MS. at St. Gallen; quoted by Mr. Kemble, _Archæologia_, vol. xxviii. 3. _The Ruthwell Runes._--The inscription in Anglo-Saxon Runic letters, on the Ruthwell Cross, is thus deciphered and translated by Mr. Kemble:-- . . . . . . . mik. . . . . . . me. Riiknæ kyningk The powerful King, Hifunæs hlafard, The Lord of Heaven, Hælda ic ne dærstæ. I dared not hold. Bismerede ungket men, They reviled us two, Bâ ætgæd[r]e, Both together, Ik (n)iðbædi bist(e)me(d) I stained with the pledge of crime. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . geredæ . . . . prepared Hinæ gamældæ Himself spake Estig, ða he walde Benignantly when he would An galgu gistîga Go up upon the cross, Môdig fore Courageously before Men, . . . . . Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mid stralum giwundæd, Wounded with shafts, Alegdun hiæ hinæ, They laid him down, Limwêrigne. Limb-weary. Gistodun him . . . They stood by him. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Krist wæs on rôdi; Christ was on cross. Hweðræ ther fûsæ Lo! there with speed Fearran cwomu From afar came Æððilæ ti lænum. Nobles to him in misery. Ic that al bih (eôld) I that all beheld . . . . . sæ (...) . . . . . . . . . . Ic w(æ)s mi(d) ga(l)gu I was with the cross Æ (. . . .) rod . ha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . {548} "The dialect of these lines is that of Northumberland in the seventh, eighth, and even ninth centuries. The first peculiarity is in the _æ_ for _e_ in the oblique cases, and which I have observed in the cotemporary MS. of Cuðberht's letter at St. Gallen. This, which is strictly organic, and represents the uncorrupted Gothic genitive in _-as_, and dative in _-a_, as well as the Old Saxon forms of the substantive, is evidence of great antiquity. But that which is, perhaps, the most characteristic of the Northumbrian dialect is the formation of the infinitive in _-a_ and _-æ_, instead of _-an_ (_hældæ_, _gistiga_). The Durham Book has, I believe, throughout but one single verb, which makes the infinitive in _-an_, and that is the anomalous word _bean_=_to be_; even _wosa_ and _wiortha_ following the common rule. The word _ungket_ is another incontrovertible proof of extreme antiquity, having, to the best of my knowledge, never been found but in this passage. It is the dual of the first personal pronoun _Ic_, and corresponds to the very rare dual of the second personal pronoun _incit_, which occurs twice in Cædmon."[78] 4. _The Cotton Psalter._--This is a Latin Psalter in the Cotton collection, accompanied by an Anglo-Saxon interlineation. Place uncertain. Time, ninth century or earlier. The following points of difference between this and the West-Saxon are indicated by Mr. Garnett, Phil. Soc. No. 27. COTTON PSALTER. WEST-SAXON. Boen, _prayer_ Bën. Boec, _books_ Béc. Coelan, _cool_ Célan. Doeman, _judge_ Déman. Foedan, _feed_ Fédan. Spoed, _fortune_ Spéd. Swoet, _sweet_ Swét. Woenan, _think_, _ween_ Wénan. 5. _The Durham Gospels--Quatuor Evangelia Latine, ex translatione B. Hieronymi, cum glossâ interlineatâ Saxonica._ Nero, D. 4. {549} _Matthew_, cap. 2. miððy arod gecenned were haelend in ðær byrig Cum ergo natus esset Jesus in Bethleem Judææ in dagum Herodes cyninges heonu ða tungulcraeftga of eustdael in diebus Herodis Regis, ecce magi ab oriente cweoðonde cwomun to hierusalem hiu cwoedon huer is ðe acenned venerunt Hierosolymam, dicentes, Ubi est qui natus tungul is cynig Judeunu gesegon we forðon sterru his in est rex Judæorum? vidimus enim stellam ejus in eustdæl and we cwomon to worðanne hine geherde wiototlice oriente et venimus adorare eum. Audiens autem ða burgwæras herodes se cynig gedroefed wæs and alle ða hierusolemisca mið Herodes turbatus est et omnis Hierosolyma cum mesapreusti him and gesomnede alle ða aldormenn biscopa illo. Et congregatis (_sic_) omnes principes sacerdotum geascode and ða uðuutta ðæs folces georne gefragnde fra him huer crist et scribas populi, sciscitabatur ab iis ubi Christus acenned were. nasceretur. 6. _The Rituale Ecclesiæ Dunhelmensis._--Edited for the Surtees Society by Mr. Stevenson. Place: neighbourhood of Durham. Time: A.D. 970. Differences between the Psalter and Ritual:-- _a._ The form for the first person is in the Psalter generally _-u_. In the Ritual it is generally _-o_. In West Saxon, _-e_. PSALTER.--_Getreow-u_, I believe; _cleopi-u_, I call; _sell-u_, I give; _ondred-u_, I fear; _ageld-u_, I pay; _getimbr-u_, I build. Forms in _-o_; _sitt-o_, I sit; _drinc-o_, I drink. RITUAL.--_Feht-o_, I fight; _wuldrig-o_, I glory. The ending in _-u_ is rarer. _b._ In the West Saxon the plural present of verbs ends in _-að_: _we lufi-að_, _ge lufi-að_, _hi lufi-að_. The Psalter also exhibits this West Saxon form. But the plurals of the Ritual {550} end in _-s_: as, _bidd-as_=_we pray_; _giwoed-es_=_put on_; _wyrc-as_=_do_. _c._ The infinitives of verbs end in the West Saxon in _-an_, as _cwed-an_=_to say_. So they do in the Psalter. But in the Ritual the _-n_ is omitted, and the infinitive ends simply in _-a_: _cuoetha_=_to say_; _inngeonga_=_to enter_. d. The oblique cases and plurals of substantives in West Saxon end in _-an_: as _heortan_=_heart's_; _heortan_=_hearts_. So they do in the Psalter. But in the Ritual the _-n_ is omitted, and the word ends simply in _-a_ or _-e_; as _nome_=_of a name_ (West Saxon _nam-an_); _hearta_=_hearts_. 7. _The Rushworth Gospels._--Place, Harewood in Wharfdale, Yorkshire. Time, according to Wanley, the end of the ninth century. Here observe-- 1. That the Ruthwell inscription gives us a sample of the so-called Northumbrian Anglo-Saxon, and that as it is spoken in Scotland, _i.e._, in Galloway. For the bearings of this see Part II., c. 3. 2. That the Rushworth Gospels take us as far south as the West Riding of Yorkshire. 3. That there are no specimens from any Cumberland, Westmoreland, or North Lancashire localities, these being, most probably, exclusively Celtic. § 693. The most general statements concerning this great section of the Anglo-Saxon, is that-- 1. It prefers the slenderer and more vocalic to the broader and more diphthongal forms. 2. The sounds of _k_ and _s_, to those of _ch_ and _sh_. 3. The forms without the prefix _ge-_, to those with them. Nevertheless the form _ge-cenned_ (=_natus_) occurs in the first line of the extract from the Durham Gospels. § 694. The Old and Middle English MSS. from this quarter are numerous; falling into two classes: 1. Transcriptions with accommodation from works composed southwards. Here the characteristics of the dialect are not absolute. {551} 2. Northern copies of northern compositions. Here the characteristics of the dialect are at the maximum. Sir Tristram is one of the most important works of this class; and in the wider sense of the term _Northumbrian_, it is a matter of indifference on which side of the Border it was composed. See § 190. § 695. Taking the counties in detail, we have-- _Northumberland._--Northern frontier, East Scotland; the direction of the influence being from South to North, rather than from North to South, _i. e._, Berwickshire and the Lothians being Northumbrian and English, rather than Northumberland Scotch. West frontier Celtic--the Cumberland and Westmoreland Britons having been encroached upon by the Northumbrians of Northumberland. Present dialect.--Believed to be nearly uniform over the counties of Northumberland and Durham; but changing in character in North Yorkshire, and in Cumberland and Westmoreland. The Anglo-Saxon immigration considered to have been Angle (so-called) rather than Saxon. Danish admixture--Very great. Possibly, as far as the marks that it has left on the language, greater than in any other part of _England_.[79]--See § 152. _Cumberland, Westmoreland, North Lancashire._--Anglo-Saxon elements introduced from portions of Northumbria rather than directly from the Continent. Celtic language persistent until a comparatively late though undetermined period. Northern frontier, West-Scotland--the direction of the influence being from Scotland to England, rather than _vice versâ_; Carlisle being more of a Scotch town than Berwick. Specimens of the dialects in the older stages, few and doubtful. Topographical nomenclature characterized by the preponderance of compounds of _-thwaite_; as _Braithwaite_, &c. {552} _North_ Lancashire, Westmoreland, and Cumberland, "exhibit many Anglian[80] peculiarities, which may have been occasioned in some degree by the colonies in the south, planted in that district by William Rufus (Saxon Chronicle, A.D. 1092.) A comparison of Anderson's ballads with Burns's songs, will show how like Cumbrian is to Scottish, but how different. We believe that Weber is right in referring the romance of Sir Amadas to this district. The mixture of the Anglian forms _gwo_, _gwon_, _bwons_, _boyd-word_ (in pure Northumbrian), _gae_, _gane_, _banes_, _bod-worde_, with the northern terms, _tynt_, _kent_, _bathe_, _mare_, and many others of the same class, could hardly have occurred in any other part of England."[81] _Yorkshire, North and part of West Riding._--The Anglo-Saxon specimens of this area have been noticed in § 692. The extract from Chaucer is also from this district. The modern dialects best known are-- 1. _The Craven._--This, in northern localities, "becomes slightly tinctured with Northumbrian."--Quart. Rev. _ut supra_. 2. _The Cleveland._--With not only Northumbrian, but even Scotch characters. Quart. Rev. _ut supra_. Danish admixture--Considerable. All these dialects, if rightly classified, belong to the Northumbrian division of the Angle branch of the Anglo-Saxon language; whilst, if the _primâ facie_ view of their affiliation or descent, be the true one, they are the dialects of § 692, in their modern forms. § 696. The classification which gives this arrangement now draws a line of distinction at the river Ribble, in Lancashire, which separates _South_ from North Lancashire; whilst in Yorkshire, the East Riding, and that part of the West which does not belong to the Wapentake of Claro, belong to the class which is supposed to exclude the previous and contain the following dialects:-- § 697. _South Lancashire and Cheshire._--Sub-varieties of {553} the same dialects, but not sub-varieties of the previous ones. The plural form in _-en_ is a marked character of this dialect--at least of the Lancashire portion. Supposed original population--Angle rather than Saxon. Original political relations--Mercian rather than Northumbrian. These last two statements apply to all the forthcoming areas north of Essex. The latter is a simple historical fact; the former supposes an amount of difference between the Angle and the Saxon which has been assumed rather than proved; or, at any rate, which has never been defined accurately. The elements of uncertainty thus developed, will be noticed in §§ 704-708. At present it is sufficient to say, that if the South Lancashire dialect has been separated from the north, on the score of its having been _Mercian_ rather than _Northumbrian_, the principle of classification has been based upon _political_ rather than _philological_ grounds; and as such is exceptionable. § 698. _Shropshire, Staffordshire, and West Derbyshire._--Supposing the South Lancashire and Cheshire to be the Mercian (which we must remember is a _political_ term), the Shropshire, Staffordshire, and _West_ Derbyshire are Mercian also; transitional, however, in character. Shropshire and Cheshire have a Celtic frontier. Here, also, both the _a priori_ probabilities and the known facts make the Danish intermixture at its _minimum_. § 699. _East Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire._--Here the language is considered to change from the mode of speech of which the South Lancashire is the type, to the mode of speech of which the Norfolk and Suffolk dialect is the type. Danish elements may now be expected, Derbyshire being the most inland Danish area. Original political relations--Mercian. Specimens of the dialects in their older stages, preeminently scanty. _Hallamshire._--This means the parts about Sheffield {554} extended so as to include that portion of the West Riding of Yorkshire which stands over from § 696. Probably belonging to the same group with the _South_ Lancashire. _East Riding of Yorkshire._--It is not safe to say more of this dialect than that its affinities are with the dialects spoken to the _north_ rather than with those spoken to the south of it, _i.e._, that of-- _Lincolnshire._--Frontier--On the Nottinghamshire and Leicestershire frontier, passing into the form of speech of those counties. Pretty definitely separated from that of Norfolk. Less so from that of North Cambridgeshire. Scarcely at all from that of Huntingdonshire, and North Northamptonshire. Danish admixture.--The number of towns and villages ending in the characteristic Danish termination _-by_, at its _maximum_; particularly in the neighbourhood of Spils_by_. Traditions Danish, _e. g._, that of Havelok the Dane, at Grimsby. Physiognomy, Danish. Language not Danish in proportion to the other signs of Scandinavian intermixture. Specimens of the dialects in its older form--Havelok[82] the Dane (?), Manning's Chronicle (supposing the MS. to have been transcribed in the county where the author was born). Provincial peculiarities (_i.e._, deviations from the written language) nearly at the _minimum_. _Huntingdonshire, North Northamptonshire, and Rutland._--_Anglo-Saxon period._--The latter part of the Saxon Chronicle was written at Peterboro. Probably, also, the poems of Helena and Andreas. Hence, this area is that of the _old_ Mercian in its most typical form; whilst South Lancashire is that of the _new_--a practical instance of the inconvenience of applying _political_ terms to philological subjects. § 700. _Norfolk, Suffolk, and the fen part of Cambridgeshire._--Here the population is pre-eminently Angle. The political character East-Anglian rather than Mercian. {555} Specimens of the dialects in the Anglo-Saxon stage.--The Natale St. Edmundi, in Thorpe's Analecta Anglo-Saxonica. Early English--The Promtuarium Parvulorum. § 701. _Leicestershire, Warwickshire, and South Northamptonshire._--Mercian (so-called) rather than West-Saxon (so-called). Probably, approaching the written language of England more closely than is the case with the dialects spoken to the south of them. Certainly, approaching the written language of England less closely than is the case with the dialect of Huntingdonshire, North Northamptonshire, and South Lincolnshire. § 702. These remarks have the following import. They bear upon the question of the origin of the _written_ language of England. Mr. Guest first diverted the attention of scholars from the consideration of the West Saxon of the chief Anglo-Saxon writers as the mother-dialect of the present English, to the Mercian; so turning their attention from the south to the centre of England. The general principle that a _central_ locality has the _a priori_ likelihood in its favour, subtracts nothing from the value of his suggestion. Neither does the fact of the nearest approach to the written language being found about the parts in question; since the doctrine to which the present writer commits himself, viz., that in the parts between Huntingdon and Stamford, the purest English is most generally spoken, is, neither universally recognised, nor yet part of Mr. Guest's argument. Mr. Guest's arguments arose out of the evidence of the MSS. of the parts in question. That the dialect most closely allied to the dialect (or dialects) out of which the present literary language of England is developed, is to be found either in Northamptonshire or the neighbouring counties is nearly certain. Mr. Guest looks for it on the western side of that county (Leicestershire); the present writer on the eastern (Huntingdonshire). § 703. It is now convenient to pass from the dialects of {556} the water-system of the Ouse, Nene, and Welland to those spoken along the lower course of the Thames. These, to a certain extent, may be dealt with like those to the north of the Humber. Just as the latter were, in the first instance, and in the more general way, thrown into a single class (the Northumbrian), so may the dialects in question form the provisional centre of another separate class. For this we have no very convenient name. The dialects, however, which it contains agree in the following points. 1. These are considered to be derived from that variety of the Anglo-Saxon which is represented by the chief remains of the Anglo-Saxon literature, _i.e._, the so-called standard or classical language of Alfred, Ælfric, the present text of Cædmon, &c. 2. About half their _present eastern_ area consists of the _counties_ ending in _-sex_; viz., Sus_sex_, Es_sex_, and Middle_sex_. 3. Nearly the _whole_ of their _original_ area consisted in _kingdoms_ (or sub-kingdoms) ending in _-sex_; viz., the districts just enumerated, and the kingdom of Wes_sex_. Hence they are-- _a._--_Considered with reference to their literary history._--They are dialects whereof the literary development began early, but ceased at the time of the Norman Conquest, being superseded by that of the central dialects (_Mercian_ so-called) of the island. The truth of this view depends on the truth of Mr. Guest's doctrine noticed in page 555. If true, it is by no means an isolated phænomenon. In Holland the present Dutch is the descendant of some dialect (or dialects) which was uncultivated in the earlier periods of the language; whereas the Old Frisian, which was _then_ the written language, is _now_ represented by a provincial dialect only. "In speaking of the Anglo-Saxon language, scholars universally intend that particular form of speech in which all the principal monuments of our most ancient literature are composed, and which, with very slight variations, is found in Beowulf and Cædmon, in the Exeter and Vercelli Codices, in the translation of the Gospels and Homilies, and in the works {557} of Ælfred the Great. For all general purposes this nomenclature is sufficiently exact; and in this point of view, the prevalent dialect, which contains the greatest number of literary remains, may be fairly called the Anglo-Saxon language, of which all varying forms were dialects. It is, however, obvious that this is in fact an erroneous way of considering the subject; the utmost that can be asserted is, that Ælfred wrote his own language, viz., that which was current in Wessex; and that this, having partly through the devastations of heathen enemies in other parts of the island, partly through the preponderance of the West-Saxon power and extinction of the other royal families, become the language of the one supreme court, soon became that of literature and the pulpit also."--Kemble. Phil. Trans. No. 35. _b._--_Considered in respect to their political relations._--Subject to the influence of the _Wessex_ portion of the so-called Heptarchy, rather than to the _Mercian_, _c._--_Considered ethnologically_--_Saxon_ rather than _Angle_. The exceptions that lie against this class will be noticed hereafter. § 704. _Kent_--_Theoretically_, Kent, is Jute rather than Saxon, and Saxon rather than Angle. Celtic elements, probably, at the _minimum_. Predominance of local terms compounded of the word _-hurst_; as, Pens_hurst_, Staple_hurst_, &c. _Frisian hypothesis._--The following facts and statements (taken along with those of §§ 15-20, and §§ 129-131), pre-eminently require criticism. 1. Hengest the supposed father of the Kentish kingdom is a Frisian hero--Kemble's _Sächsische Stamtaffel_. 2. The dialect of the Durham Gospels and Ritual contain a probably Frisian form. 3. "The country called by the Anglo-Saxons Northumberland, and which may loosely be said to have extended from the Humber to Edinburgh, and from the North Sea to the hills of Cumberland, was peopled by tribes of Angles. Such, at least, is the tradition reported by Beda, who adds that Kent was first settled by Jutes. Who these Jutes were is {558} not clearly ascertained, but from various circumstances it may be inferred that there was at least a considerable admixture of Frisians amongst them. Hengest, the supposed founder of the Kentish kingdom, is a Frisian hero, and Jutes, 'ëotenas,' is a usual name for the Frisians in Bëówulf. Beda, it is true, does not enumerate Frisians among the Teutonic races by which England was colonized, but this omission is repaired by the far more valuable evidence of Procopius, who, living at the time of some great invasion of Britain by the Germans, expressly numbers Frisians among the invaders. Now the Anglo-Saxon traditions themselves, however obscurely they may express it, point to a close connection between Kent and Northumberland: the latter country, according to these traditions, was colonized from Kent, and for a long time received its rulers or dukes from that kingdom. Without attaching to this legend more importance than it deserves, we may conclude that it asserts an original communion between the tribes that settled in the two countries; and consequently, if any Frisic influence is found to operate in the one, it will be necessary to inquire whether a similar action can be detected in the other. This will be of some moment hereafter, when we enter upon a more detailed examination of the dialect. The most important peculiarity in which the Durham Evangeles and Ritual differ from the Psalter is the form of the infinitive mood in verbs. This in the Durham books is, with exception of one verb, beán, _esse_, invariably formed in _-a_, not in _-an_, the usual form in all the other Anglo-Saxon dialects. Now this is also a peculiarity of the Frisic, and of the Old Norse, and is found in no other Germanic tongue; it is then an interesting inquiry whether the one or the other of these tongues is the origin of this peculiarity; whether, in short, it belongs to the old, the original Frisic form which prevailed in the fifth, sixth and seventh centuries, or whether it is owing to Norse influence, acting in the ninth and tenth, through the establishment of Danish invaders and a Danish dynasty in the countries north of the Humber."--Kemble. Phil. Trans. No. 35. The details necessary for either the verification or the overthrow of the doctrine of a similarity of origin between {559} portions of the Northumbrian[83] and portions of the Kentish population have yet to be worked out. So have the _differentiæ_ between the dialects of _Kent_, and the dialects of Sus_sex_, Es_sex_, Middle_sex_, and Wes_sex_. _Probable Anglo-Saxon of Kent._--Codex Diplomaticus, No. 191. § 705. _Sussex._--The characteristics are involved in those of Kent--thus, if Kent be simply Saxon the two counties have the same ethnological relation; whilst if Kent be Frisian or Jute(?) Sussex may be either like or unlike. _Hampshire._--_Theoretically_, Saxon rather than Angle, and West Saxon (Wessex) rather than south, east, or Middle-Saxon. Jute elements in either the Hants or Isle of Wight dialects, hitherto undiscovered. Probably, non-existent. Present dialect certainly not the closest representative of the classical Anglo-Saxon, _i. e._, the so-called _West_ Saxon. _Berkshire._--Present dialect, probably, the closest representative of the classical Anglo-Saxon. _Cornwall._--Celtic elements at the _maximum_. _Devonshire and West Somerset._--Present dialect strongly marked by the use of _z_ for _s_ (_Zomerzet_=_Somerset_). Celtic elements probably considerable. _Worcestershire._--The language of the Anglo-Saxon period is characterized by the exclusive, or nearly exclusive, use of _s_ in the forms _usse_ and _usses_ for _ure_ and _ures_. See Codex Diplomaticus, Nos. 95 and 97. The affiliation of the present dialect has yet to be investigated. _North Glostershire._--_Politically_, both North Gloster and Worcestershire are Mercian rather than West-Saxon. Now the language of Layamon was North Gloster. And one at least of the MSS. is supposed to represent this language. Nevertheless its character is said to be West Saxon rather than Mercian. What does this prove? Not that the West Saxon dialect {560} extended into Mercia, but that a political nomenclature is out of place in philology. _The Welsh frontier._--_Herefordshire, &c._--Celtic elements. General character of the dialects, probably, that of the counties immediately to the east of them. _Essex._--_Theoretically_, Saxon rather than Angle. No such distinction, however, is indicated by the ascertained characteristic of the Essex dialects as opposed to the East Anglian, Suffolk, and the Mercian. _Hertfordshire._--I am not aware of any thing that distinguishes the South Hertfordshire form of speech from those of-- _Middlesex._--Here, as far as there are any characteristics at all, they are those of _Es_sex. The use of _v_ for _w_, attributed (and partially due) to Londoners, occurs--not because there is any such thing as a London dialect, but because London is a town on the Essex side of Middlesex. _Surrey._--The name (_Suð rige_=_southern kingdom_) indicates an original political relation with the parts _north_ rather than _south_ of the Thames. The evidence of the dialect is, probably, the other way. § 706. _Supposed East-Anglian and Saxon frontier._--For the area just noticed there are two lines of demarcation--one geographical, and one ethnological. _a._ _Geographical._--The river Thames. _b._ _Ethnological._--The line which separates Middle_sex_ and Es_sex_ (_so-called_ Saxon localities) from Herts and Suffolk (_so-called_ Angle localities). Of these the first line involves an undeniable fact; the second a very doubtful one. No evidence has been adduced in favour of disconnecting Saxon Essex from Anglian Suffolk, nor yet for connecting it with Sus_sex_ and Wes_sex_. The termination _-sex_ is an undoubted fact; the difference between the Saxons and Angles which it is supposed to indicate is an assumption. § 707. The dialects of the remaining counties have, probably, the transitional characters, indicated by their geographical position. _Dorset_--Hants and Somerset. {561} _Wilts._--Hants, Dorset, Somerset, Berks. _Buckingham, Beds, Northampton._--These connect the two most convenient _provisional_ centres of the so-called West-Saxon of Alfred, &c., and mother-dialect of the present written English, viz.: Wantage and Stamford (or Huntingdon); and in doing this they connect dialects which, although placed in separate classes (West-Saxon and Mercian), were, probably, more alike than many subdivisions of the same group. To investigate the question as to the Mercian or West-Saxon origin of the present written English without previously stating whether the comparison be made between such extreme dialects as those of the New Forest, and the neighbourhood of Manchester, or such transitional ones as those of Windsor and Northampton is to reduce a real to a mere verbal discussion. _Warwickshire, Staffordshire._--From their central position, probably transitional to both the north and south, and the east and west groups. Celtic elements increasing. Danish elements decreasing. Perhaps at the _minimum_. § 708. The exceptions suggested in §§ 703, 704, lie not only against the particular group called West-Saxon, but (as may have been anticipated) against all classifications which assume either-- 1. A coincidence between the philological divisions of the Anglo-Saxon language, and the political division of the Anglo-Saxon territory. 2. Any broad difference between the Angles and the Saxons. 3. The existence of a Jute population. * * * * * § 709. _English dialects not in continuity with the mother-tongue._--Of these the most remarkable are those of-- 1. _Little England beyond Wales._--In Pembrokeshire, and a part of Glamorganshire, the language is English rather than Welsh. The following extracts from Higden have effected the belief that this is the result of a Flemish colony. "_Sed {562} et Flandrenses, tempore Regis Henrici Primi in magna copia juxta Mailros ad orientalem Angliæ plagam habitationem pro tempore accipientes, septimam in insula gentem fecerunt: jubente tamen eodem rege, ad occidentalem Walliæ partem, apud Haverford, sunt translati. Sicque Britannia ... his ... nationibus habitatur in præsenti ... Flandrensibus in West Wallia_." A little below, however, we learn that these Flemings are distinguished by their origin only, and not by their language:--"_Flandrenses vero qui in Occidua Walliæ incolunt, dimissa jam barbarie, Saxonice satis loquuntur_."--Higden, edit. Gale, p. 210. On the other hand, Mr. Guest has thrown a reasonable doubt upon this inference; suggesting the probability of its having been simply English. The following vocabulary collected by the Rev. J. Collins,[84] in the little peninsula of Gower, confirms this view. It contains no exclusively Flemish elements. Angletouch, n. s. _worm_. Bumbagus, n. s. _bittern_. Brandis, n. s. _iron stand for a pot or kettle_. Caffle, adj. _entangled_. Cammet, adj. _crooked_. Cloam, n. s. _earthenware_. Charnel, n. s. _a place raised in the roof for hanging bacon_. Clit, v. _to stick together_. Deal, n. s. _litter, of pigs_. Dotted, adj. _giddy, of a sheep_. Dome, adj. _damp_. Dreshel, n. s. _a flail_. Eddish, n. s. _wheat-stubble_. Evil, n. s. a _three-pronged fork for dung, &c._ Firmy, v. _to clean out, of a stable, &c._ Fleet, adj. _exposed in situation_, _bleak_. Flott, n. s. _aftergrass_. Flamiring, s. _an eruption of the nature of erysipelas_. Fraith, adj. _free-spoken_, _talkative_. Frithing, adj. _a fence made of thorns wattled_. Foust, v. act. _to tumble_. Flathin, n. s. _a dish made of curds, eggs, and milk_. Gloy, n. s. _refuse straw after the "reed" has been taken out_. Gloice, n. s., _a sharp pang of pain_. Heavgar, adj. _heavier_ (so also _near-ger_, _far-ger_). Hamrach, n. s. _harness collar made of straw_. Hay, n. s. _a small plot of ground attached to a dwelling_. Kittybags, n. s. _gaiters_. Lipe, n. s. _matted basket of peculiar shape_. {563} Letto, n. s. _a lout_, _a foolish fellow_. Main, adj. _strong_, _fine_ (_of growing crops_), Nesseltrip, n. s. _the small pig in a litter_. Nommet, n. s. _a luncheon of bread, cheese, &c._--_not a regular meal_. Noppet, Nipperty, adj. _lively_--_convalescent_. Ovice, n. s. _eaves of a building_. Plym, v. _to fill_, _to plump up_. Plym, adj. _full_. Planche, v. _to make a boarded floor_. Peert, adj. _lively_, _brisk_. Purty, v. n. _to turn sulky_. Quat, v. act. _to press down_, _flatten_. Quapp, v. n. _to throb_. Rathe, adj. _early, of crops_. Reremouse, n. s. _bat_. Ryle, v. _to angle in the sea_. Riff, n. s. _an instrument for sharpening scythes_. Seggy, v. act. _to tease_, _to provoke_. Semmatt, n. s. _sieve made of skin for winnowing_. Shoat, n. s. _small wheaten loaf_. Showy, v. n. _to clear_ (_of weather_); (show, _with termination_ y, _common_). Soul, n. s. _cheese, butter, &c_. (_as eaten with bread_). Snead, n. s. _handle of a scythe_. Songalls, n. s. _gleanings_: "to gather _songall_" _is_ to glean. Sull, _or_ Zull, n. s. _a wooden plough_. Stiping, n. s. _a mode of fastening a sheep's foreleg to its head by a band of straw, or withy_. Susan, n. s. _a brown earthenware pitcher_. Sump, n. s. _any bulk that is carried_. Suant, part. _regular in order_. Slade, n. s. _ground sloping towards the sea_. Tite, v. _to tumble over_. Toit, n. s. _a small seat or stool made of straw_. Toit, adj. _frisky_, _wanton_. Vair, n. s. _weasel_ or _stoat_. Want, n. s. _a mole_. Wirg, n. s. _a willow_. Wimble, v. _to winnow_. Weest, adj. _lonely_, _desolate_. Wash-dish, n. s. _the titmouse_. § 710. _The baronies of Forth and Bargie in the County Wexford._--The barony of Forth "lies south of the city of Wexford, and is bounded by the sea to the south and east, and by the barony of Bargie to the west. It is said to have been colonized by the Welshmen who accompanied Strongbow in his invasion of Ireland; but by the term Welshmen, as here used, we must no doubt understand the English settlers of Gower and Pembroke. Vallancey published a specimen of their language. Some of the grammatical forms can hardly {564} fail to interest the English scholar, and we may venture more particularly to call his attention to the verbal ending _th_. In no other of our spoken dialects do we find the _th_ still lingering as an inflection of the _plural_ verb." ADDRESS IN THE BARONY OF FORTH LANGUAGE. _Presented in August 1836, to the Marquis of Normanby, then Earl of Mulgrave, and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland; with a Translation of the Address in English._ _To's Excellencie Consantine Harrie Phipps, Earle Mulgrave, "Lord Lieutenant-General, and General Governor of Ireland;" Ye soumissive spakeen o' ouz Dwellers o' Baronie Forthe, Weisforthe._ Mai't be plesaunt to th' Excellencie, Wee, Vassales o' "His Most Gracious Majesty" Wilyame ee 4th an az wee verilie chote na coshe an loyale Dwellers na Baronie Forth, crave na dicke luckie acte t'uck necher th' Excellencie, an na plaine garbe o' oure yola talke, wi' vengem o' core t'gie oure zense o'ye grades wilke be ee dighte wi' yer name, and whilke wee canna zie, albeit o' "Governere" Statesman an alike. Yn ercha an ol o' whilke yt beeth wi' gleezom o'core th' oure eene dwitheth apan ye vigere o'dicke zovereine, Wilyame ee Vourthe unnere fose fatherlie zwae oure deis be ee spant, az avare ye trad dicke lone ver name was ee kent var ee _Vriene o' Levertie_, an _He fo brack ge neckers o' Zlaves_--Mang ourzels--var wee dwitheth an Irelone az oure general haime--y'ast bie' ractzom homedelt tous ye lass ee mate var ercha vassale, ne'er dwith ee na dicke wai n'ar dicka. Wee dewithe ye ane fose deis bee gien var ee gudevare o' ee lone ye zwae, t'avance {565} pace an levertie, an wi'out vlinch ee garde o' general riochts an poplare vartue.--Ye pace--yea wee ma' zei ye vaste pace whilke be ee stent o'er ye lone zince th' ast ee cam, prooth, y'at we alane needed ye giftes o' general riochts, az be displayte bie ee factes o' thie governmente. Ye state na dicke die o'ye lone, na whilke be ne'er fash n'ar moil, albeit "Constitutional Agitation" ye wake o'hopes ee blighte, stampe na per zwae ee be rare an lightzom. Yer name var zetch avanct avare y'e, e'en a dicke var hie, arent whilke ye brine o' zea, an ee crags o'noghanes cazed nae balk. Na oure glades ana whilke we dellte wi' mattoc, an zing t'oure caules wi plou, we hert ee zough o'ye colure o' pace na name o' "_Mulgrave_." Wi "Irishmen" oure general hopes be ee bond, az "Irishmen," an az dwellers na coshe an loyale o' Baronie Forthe, w'oul dei an ercha dei, oure maunes an aure gurles, prie var lang an happie zins, home o'leurnagh an ee vilt wi benizons, an yersel an oure zoverine 'till ee zin o'oure deis be var ay be ee go t'glade. * * * * * _To His Excellency Constantine Henry Phipps, Earl Mulgrave, Lord Lieutenant-General and General Governor of Ireland: The humble Address of the Inhabitants of Barony Forth, Wexford._ May it please your Excellency, We, the subjects of His Most Gracious Majesty William IV., and as we truly believe both faithful and loyal inhabitants of the Barony Forth, beg leave, at this favourable opportunity to approach Your Excellency, and in the simple garb of our old dialect to pour forth from the strength (or fulness) of our hearts, our strength (or admiration) of the qualities which characterize your name, and for which we have no words but of "Governor," "Statesman," &c. Sir, each and every condition, it is with joy of heart that our eyes rest upon the representative of that Sovereign, William IV., under whose paternal rule our days are spent; for before your foot pressed the soil, your name was known to us as the _Friend of Liberty_, and _He who broke the fetters of the Slave_. Unto ourselves--for we look on Ireland to be our common country--you have with impartiality (of hand) ministered the laws made for every subject, without regard to this party or that. We behold you, one whose days devoted to the welfare of the land you govern, to promote peace and liberty--the uncompromising guardian of common rights and public virtue. The peace, yes we may say the profound peace, which overspreads the land since your arrival, proves that we alone stood in need of the enjoyment of common privileges, as is demonstrated by the results of your government. The condition, this day, of the country, in which is neither tumult nor confusion, but that constitutional agitation, the consequence of disappointed hopes, confirm your rule to be rare and enlightened. Your fame for such came before you, even into this retired spot, to which neither the waters of the sea yonder, nor the mountains above, caused any impediment. In our valleys, where we were digging with the spade, or as we whistled to our horses in the plough, we heard in the word "Mulgrave," the sound of the wings of the dove of peace. With Irishmen our common hopes are inseparably wound up; as Irishmen, and as inhabitants, faithful and loyal, of the Barony Forth, we will daily, and every day, our wives and our children, implore long and happy days, free from melancholy and full of blessings, for yourself and good Sovereign, until the sun of our lives be for ever gone down the dark valley of death.[85] § 711. _Americanisms._--These, which may be studied in the excellent dictionary of J. R. Bartlett, are chiefly referable to five causes-- {566} 1. Influence of the aboriginal Indian languages. 2. Influence of the languages introduced from Europe anterior to the predominance of English; viz.: French in Louisiana, Spanish in Florida, Swedish in Pennsylvania and Delaware, and Dutch in New York. 3. Influence, &c., subsequent to the predominance of the English; viz.: German in Pennsylvania, and Gaelic and Welsh generally. 4. Influence of the original difference of dialect between the different portions of the English population. 5. Influence of the preponderance of the Anglo-Saxon over the Anglo-Norman element in the American population in general. § 712. _Extract._--In a sound and sagacious paper upon the Probable Future Position of the English Language,[86] Mr. Watts, after comparing the previous predominance of the French language beyond the pale of France, with the present spread of the German beyond Germany, and after deciding in favour of the latter tongue, remarks that there is "The existence of another language whose claims are still more commanding. That language is our own. Two centuries ago the proud position that it now occupies was beyond the reach of anticipation. We all smile at the well-known boast of Waller in his lines on the death of Cromwell, but it was the loftiest that at the time the poet found it in his power to make:-- 'Under the tropie is our language spoke, And part of Flanders hath received our yoke.' "'I care not,' said Milton, 'to be once named abroad, though perhaps I could attain to that, being content with these islands as my world.' A French Jesuit, Garnier, in 1678, laying down rules for the arrangement of a library, thought it superfluous to say anything of English books, because, as he observed, 'libri Anglicâ scripti linguâ vix mare transmittunt.' Swift, in the earlier part of the eighteenth century, in his 'Proposal for correcting, improving, and {567} ascertaining the English Tongue,' observed, 'the fame of our writers is usually confined to these two islands." Not quite a hundred years ago Dr. Johnson seems to have entertained far from a lofty idea of the legitimate aspirations of an English author. He quotes in a number of the 'Rambler' (No. 118, May 4th, 1751), from the address of Africanus as given by Cicero, in his Dream of Scipio:--'The territory which you inhabit is no more than a scanty island inclosed by a small body of water, to which you give the name of the great sea and the Atlantic Ocean. And even in this known and frequented continent what hope can you entertain that your renown will pass the stream of Ganges or the cliffs of Caucasus, or by whom will your name be uttered in the extremities of the north or south towards the rising or the setting sun? So narrow is the space to which your fame can be propagated, and even there how long will it remain?' 'I am not inclined,' remarks Johnson, 'to believe that they who among us pass their lives in the cultivation of knowledge or acquisition of power, have very anxiously inquired what opinions prevail on the further banks of the Ganges.... The hopes and fears of modern minds are content to range in a narrower compass; a single nation, and a few years have generally sufficient amplitude to fill our imagination.' What a singular comment on this passage is supplied by the fact that the dominions of England now stretch from the Ganges to the Indus, that the whole space of India is dotted with the regimental libraries of its European conquerors, and that Rasselas has been translated into Bengalee! A few years later the great historian of England had a much clearer perception of what was then in the womb of Fate. When Gibbon, as has been already mentioned, submitted to Hume, a specimen of his intended History of Switzerland, composed in French, he received a remarkable letter in reply: 'Why,' said Hume, 'do you compose in French and carry faggots into the wood, as Horace says with regard to Romans who wrote in Greek? I grant that you have a like motive to those Romans, and adopt a language much more generally diffused than your native tongue, but have you not remarked the fate {568} of those two ancient languages in following ages? The Latin, though then less celebrated and confined to more narrow limits, has in some measure outlived the Greek, and is now more generally understood by men of letters. Let the French therefore triumph in the present diffusion of their tongue. Our solid and increasing establishments in America, where we need less dread the inundation of barbarians, promise a superior stability and duration to the English language.' "Every year that has since elapsed has added a superior degree of probability to the anticipations of Hume. At present the prospects of the English language are the most splendid that the world has ever seen. It is spreading in each of the quarters of the globe by fashion, by emigration, and by conquest. The increase of population alone in the two great states of Europe and America in which it is spoken, adds to the number of its speakers in every year that passes, a greater amount than the whole number of those who speak some of the literary languages of Europe, either Swedish, or Danish, or Dutch. It is calculated that, before the lapse of the present century, a time that so many now alive will live to witness, it will be the native and vernacular language of about one hundred and fifty millions of human beings. "What will be the state of Christendom at the time that this vast preponderance of one language will be brought to bear on all its relations,--at the time when a leading nation in Europe and a gigantic nation in America make use of the same idiom,--when in Africa and Australasia the same language is in use by rising and influential communities, and the world is circled by the accents of Shakspeare and Milton? At that time such of the other languages of Europe as do not extend their empire beyond this quarter of the globe will be reduced to the same degree of insignificance in comparison with English, as the subordinate languages of modern Europe to those of the state they belong to,--the Welsh to the English, the Basque to the Spanish, the Finnish to the Russian. This predominance, we may flatter ourselves, will be a more signal blessing to literature than that of any other language could possibly be. The English is essentially a {569} medium language;--in the Teutonic family it stands midway between the Germanic and Scandinavian branches--it unites as no other language unites, the Romanic and the Teutonic stocks. This fits it admirably in many cases for translation. A German writer, Prince Pückler Muskau, has given it as his opinion that English is even better adapted than German to be the general interpreter of the literature of Europe. Another German writer, Jenisch, in his elaborate 'Comparison of Fourteen Ancient and Modern Languages of Europe,' which obtained a prize from the Berlin Academy in 1796, assigns the general palm of excellence to the English. In literary treasures what other language can claim the superiority? If Rivarol more than sixty years back thought the collective wealth of its literature able to dispute the pre-eminence with the French, the victory has certainly not departed from us in the time that has since elapsed,--the time of Wordsworth and Southey, of Rogers and Campbell, of Scott, of Moore, and of Byron. "The prospect is so glorious that it seems an ungrateful task to interrupt its enjoyment by a shade of doubt: but as the English language has attained to this eminent station from small beginnings, may it not be advisable to consider whether obstacles are not in existence, which, equally small in their beginnings, have a probability of growing larger? The first consideration that presents itself is that English is not the only language firmly planted on the soil of America, the only one to which a glorious future is, in the probable course of things, assured. "A sufficient importance has not always been attached to the fact, that in South America, and in a portion of the northern continent, the languages of the Peninsula are spoken by large and increasing populations. The Spanish language is undoubtedly of easier acquisition for the purposes of conversation than our own, from the harmony and clearness of its pronunciation; and it has the recommendation to the inhabitants of Southern Europe of greater affinity to their own languages and the Latin. Perhaps the extraordinary neglect which has been the portion of this language for the last {570} century and a half may soon give place to a juster measure of cultivation, and indeed the recent labours of Prescott and Ticknor seem to show that the dawn of that period has already broken. That the men of the North should acquire an easy and harmonious southern language seems in itself much more probable than that the men of the south should study a northern language, not only rugged in its pronunciation, but capricious in its orthography. The dominion of Spanish in America is, however, interrupted and narrowed by that of Portuguese, and to a singular degree by that of the native languages, some of which are possibly destined to be used for literary purposes in ages to come. "At the time when Hume wrote his letter to Gibbon, the conquest of Canada had very recently been effected. The rivalry of the French and English in North America had been terminated by the most signal triumph of the English arms. Had measures been taken at that time to discourage the use of French and to introduce that of English, there can be little doubt that English would now be as much the language of Quebec and Montreal as it is of New York and the Delaware. Those measures were not taken. At this moment, when we are approaching a century from the battle of the Heights of Abraham, there is still a distinction of races in Canada, nourished by a distinction of language, and both appear likely to continue. "Within the United States themselves, a very large body of the inhabitants have remained for generation after generation ignorant of the English language. The number is uncertain. According to Stricker, in his dissertation 'Die Verbreitung des deutschen Volkes über die Erde,' published in 1845, the population of German origin in the United States in 1844 was 4,886,632, out of a total of 18,980,650. This statement, though made in the most positive terms, is founded on an estimate only, and has been shown to be much exaggerated. Wappaus (in his 'Deutsche Auswanderung und Colonisation'), after a careful examination, arrives at the conclusion that the total cannot amount to a million and a half. Many of these are of course acquainted with both {571} languages--in several cases where amalgamation has taken place, the German language has died out and been replaced by the English,--but the number of communities where it is still prevalent is much larger than is generally supposed. In Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Missouri, to say nothing of other states, there are masses of population of German origin or descent, who are only acquainted with German. This tendency has of late years increased instead of declining. It has been a favourite project with recent German emigrants to form in America a state, in which the language should be German, and from the vast numbers in which they have crossed the Atlantic, there is nothing improbable in the supposition, that, by obtaining a majority in some one state, this object will be attained. In 1835 the legislature of Pennsylvania placed the German language in its legal rights on the same footing with the English. "It may be asked if any damage will be done by this? The damage, it may be answered, will be twofold. The parties who are thus formed into an isolated community, with a language distinct from that of those around them, will be placed under the same disadvantages as the Welsh of our own day, who find themselves always as it were some inches shorter than their neighbours, and have to make an exertion to be on their level. Those of them who are only masters of one language are in a sort of prison; those who are masters of two, might, if English had been their original speech, have had their choice of the remaining languages of the world to exert the same degree of labour on, with a better prospect of advantage. In the case of Welsh, the language has many ties: even those who see most clearly the necessity of forsaking it, must lament the harsh necessity of abandoning to oblivion the ancient tongue of an ancient nation. But these associations and feelings could not be pleaded in favour of transferring the Welsh to Otaheite; and when these feelings are withdrawn, what valid reason will remain for the perpetuation of Welsh, or even, it may be said, of German? "The injury done to the community itself is perhaps the greatest; but there is a damage done to the world in general. It will be a splendid and a novel experiment in modern society, if a single language becomes so predominant over all others as {572} to reduce them in comparison to the proportion of provincial dialects. To have this experiment fairly tried, is a great object. Every atom that is subtracted from the amount of the majority has its influence--it goes into the opposite scale. If the Germans succeed in establishing their language in the United States, other nations may follow. The Hungarian emigrants, who are now removing thither from the vengeance of Austria, may perpetuate their native Magyar, and America may in time present a surface as checkered as Europe, or in some parts, as Hungary itself, where the traveller often in passing from one village to another, finds himself in the domain of a different language. That this consummation may be averted must be the wish not only of every Englishman and of every Anglo-American, but of every sincere friend of the advancement of literature and civilization. Perhaps a few more years of inattention to the subject will allow the evil to make such progress that exertion to oppose it may come too late." * * * * * § 713. Of the Gypsy language I need only say, that it is not only Indo-Germanic, but that it is Hindoo. Few words from it have mixed themselves with our standard (or even our provincial) dialects. Thieves' language, or that dialect for which there is no name, but one from its own vocabulary, _viz._ Slang, is of greater value in philology than in commerce. It serves to show that in speech nothing is arbitrary. Its compound phrases are either periphrastic or metaphorical; its simple monosyllables are generally those of the current language in an older form. The thieves of London are conservators of Anglo-Saxonisms. In this dialect I know of no specimens earlier than the reign of Queen Elizabeth. In the dramatic literature of that age they are rife and common. The Roaring Girl, the Jolly Beggars, amongst the plays, and Deckar's Bellman amongst the tracts, preserve us a copious vocabulary, similar to what we have now, and similar to what it was in Gay's time. Of this the greater part is Saxon. Here and there appears a word of Latin origin, _e.g._, _pannum_, bread; _cassons_, cheese. Of the Gypsy language I have discovered no trace. {573} § 714. The Talkee-Talkee is a Lingua Franca based on the English, and spoken by the Negroes of Surinam. It is Dutch rather than English; it shows, however, the latter language as an element of admixture. SPECIMEN.[87] 1. Drie deh na bakka dem holi wan bruiloft na Cana na Galilea; on mamma va Jesus ben de dapeh. 2. Ma dem ben kali Jesus nanga hem discipel toe, va kom na da bruiloft. 3. En teh wieni kaba, mamma va Jesus takki na hem; dem no habi wieni morro. 4. Jesus takki na hem: mi mamma, hoeworko mi habi nanga joe? Tem va mi no ben kom jette. 5. Hem mamma takki na dem foetoeboi; oene doe sanni a takki gi oene. 6. Ma dem ben poetti dapeh siksi biggi watra-djoggo, na da fasi va Djoe vo krieni dem: inniwan djoggo holi toe effi drie kannetjes. 7. Jesus takki na dem [foetoeboi]: Oene foeloe dem watra-djoggo nanga watra. Ed dem foeloe dem teh na moeffe. 8. En dan a takki na dem: Oene poeloe pikinso, tjarri go na grang-foetoeboi. En dem doe so. 9. Ma teh grangfoetoeboi tesi da watra, dissi ben tron wieni, kaba a no sabi, na hoepeh da wieni komotto (ma dem foetoeboi dissi ben teki da watra ben sabi): a kali da bruidigom. 10. A takki na hem: Inniwan somma njoesoe va gi fossi da morro switti wieni, en teh dem dringi noeffe kaba, na bakka da mendre swittiwan; ma joe ben kiebri da morro boennewan. 11. Datti da fossi marki dissi Jesus ben doe; en datti ben passa na Cana na Galilea va dem somma si hem glori. En dem discipel va hem briebi na hem. 1. Three day after back, them hold one marriage in Cana in Galilee, and mamma of Jesus been there. 2. But them been call Jesus with him disciple, for come to that marriage. 3. And when wine end, mamma of Jesus talk to him, them no have wine more. 4. Jesus talk to him, me mamma how work me have with you? Time of me no been come yet. 5. Him mamma talk to them footboy, ye do things he talk to ye. 6. But them been put there six big water-jug, after the fashion of Jew for clean them; every one jug hold two or three firkins. {574} 7. Jesus talk to them (footboy): ye fill them water jug with water. And them fill them till to mouth. 8. And then he talk to them, ye pour little, carry go to grandfootboy. And them do so. 9. But when grandfootboy taste that water, this been turn wine, could he no know from where that wine come-out-of (but them footboy this been take that water well know): he call the bridegroom. 10. He talk to him, every one man use of give first the more sweet wine; and when them drink enough end, after back the less sweety wine: but you been cover that more good wine. 11. That the first miracle that Jesus been do, and that been pass in Cana in Galilee, for them men see him glory. And them disciple of him believe in him. § 715. That the Anglo-Norman of England was, in the reign of Edward III., not the French of Paris (and most probably not the Franco-Norman of Normandy), we learn from the well-known quotation from Chaucer:-- And Frenche she spake ful feteously, After the scole of Stratforde at Bowe, For Frenche of Parys was to her unknowe. _Prologue to the Canterbury Tales._ § 716. The concluding extract from the Testamenta Eboracensia, published by the Surtees' Society, is from the will of a gentleman in Yorkshire. To me it seems to impugn the assertion of Higden, that the Norman was spoken throughout England without a variety of pronunciation: "Mirandum videtur quomodo nativa propria Anglorum lingua, in unica insula coartata, pronunciatione ipsa fit tam diversa, cum tamen Normannica lingua, quæ adventicia est, univoca maneat penes cunctos."--_Ed. Gale_, p. 210. _Testamenta Eboracensia_, CLIX. En le noune de Dieu, et de notre Dame Sante Marie, et en noun de teuz le sauntez de Paradyse, Amen. Moi Brian de Stapylton devise m'alme a Dieu et a notre Dame Saunte Marie, et a touz lez Sauntz de Paradyse, et mon chautiff corps d'estre enterre en le Priourie de le Parke decoste ma compaigne, que Dieu l'assoille, et sur mon corps seit un drape de blew saye; et ma volunte ett au l'aide de Dieu d'avoire un herce ov synke tapirs, chescun tapir de synk livers, et tresze hommes vestuz en bluw ov tresze torchez, {575} de queux tresze torchez, si ne saiount degastez, jeo voile que quatre demore a le dit Priorie. Item jeo devyse que j'ay un homme armes en mes armes et ma hewme ene sa teste, et quy soit bien monte et un homme de bon entaille de qil condicon que y sort. Item jeo devyse que touz ceaux, qui a moy appendent meignialx en ma maison, soient vestuz en bluw a mes costagez. Et a touz les poores, qils veignent le jour de mon enterment jeo devise et voile que chescun ait un denier en ovre de charrte, et en aide de ma chitiffe alme, et jeo voile que les sires mes compaignons mez aliez et mez voiseignez, qui volliont venir de lour bone gre prier pour moy et pour faire honour a mon chettife corps, qi peue ne vault, jeo oille et chargez mez executour que y soient mesme cel jour bien a eise, et q'il eient a boiere asseth, et a cest ma volunté parfournir jeo devise ci marcæ ove l'estore de maison taunke juiste seit. § 717. _Relations of dialects_ (_so-called_) _to languages_ (_so-called_).--"It is necessary clearly to conceive the nature and character of what we call dialects. The Doric, Æolic, and Ionic for example, in the language of grammarians, are dialects of the Greek: to what does this assertion amount? To this only, that among a people called the Greeks, some being Dorians spoke a language called Doric, some being Æolians spoke another language called Æolic, while a third class, Ionians, spoke a third language called, from them, Ionic. But though all these are termed dialects of the Greek, it does not follow that there was ever a Greek language of which these were variations, and which had any being apart from these. Dialects then are essentially languages: and the name dialect itself is but a convenient grammarian's phrase, invented as part of the machinery by which to carry on reasonings respecting languages. We learn the language which has the best and largest literature extant; and having done so, we treat all very nearly resembling languages as _variations_ from what we have learnt. And that dialects are in truth several languages, will readily appear to any one who perceives the progressive development of the principle of separation in cognate tongues. The language of the Bavarian highlander or High Dutch, the language of the Hanoverian lowlander or Low Dutch, are German dialects: elevate, as it is called, regulate, and purify the one, and it assumes the {576} name and character of a language--it is German. Transplant the other to England, let nine centuries pass over it, and it becomes a language too, and a language of more importance than any which was ever yet spoken in the world, it has become English. Yet none but practised philologists can acknowledge the fact that the German and English languages are dialects of one Teutonic tongue." § 718. _Relation of dialects to the older stages of the mother-tongue._--This has been noticed in § 691. The following extract from Mr. Kemble's paper just quoted, illustrates what he calls the _spontaneity_ of dialects:-- "Those who imagine language invented by a man or men, originally confined and limited in its powers, and gradually enlarged and enriched by continuous practice and the reflection of wise and learned individuals--unless, indeed, they look upon it as potentially only--in _posse_ though not in _esse_--as the tree may be said to exist in the seed, though requiring time and culture to flourish in all its majesty--appear to neglect the facts which history proves. There is nothing more certain than this, that the earlier we can trace back any one language, the more full, complete, and consistent are its forms; that the later we find it existing, the more compressed, colloquial, and business-like it has become. Like the trees of our forests, it grows at first wild, luxuriant, rich in foliage, full of light and shadow, and flings abroad in its vast branches the fruits of a vigorous youthful nature: transplanted into the garden of civilization and trained for purposes of commerce, it becomes regulated, trimmed and pruned; nature indeed still gives it life, but art prescribes the direction and extent of its vegetation. Compare the Sanscrit with the Gothic, the Gothic with the Anglo-Saxon, and again the Anglo-Saxon with the English: or what is even better, take two periods of the Anglo-Saxon itself, the eighth and tenth centuries for example. Always we perceive a compression, a gradual loss of fine distinctions, a perishing of forms, terminations and conjugations, in the younger state of the language. The truth is, that in language up to a certain period, there is a real indwelling vitality, a principle acting {577} unconsciously but pervasively in every part: men wield their forms of speech as they do their limbs, spontaneously, knowing nothing of their construction, or the means by which these instruments possess their power. There are flexors and extensors long before the anatomist discovers and names them, and we use our arms without inquiring by what wonderful mechanism they are made obedient to our will. So is it with language long before the grammarian undertakes its investigation. It may even be said, that the commencement of the age of self-consciousness is identical with the close of that of vitality in language; for it is a great error to speak of languages as dead, only when they have ceased to be spoken. They are dead when they have ceased to possess the power of adaptation to the wants of the people, and no longer contain in themselves the means of their own extension. The Anglo-Saxon, in the spirit and analogy of his whole language, could have used words which had never been heard before, and been at once understood: if we would introduce a new name for a new thing, we must take refuge in the courtesy of our neighbours, and borrow from the French, or Greek, or Latin, terms which never cease to betray their foreign origin, by never putting off the forms of the tongue from which they were taken, or assuming those of the tongue into which they are adopted. The English language is a dead one. "In general it may be said that dialects possess this vitality in a remarkable degree, and that their very existence is the strongest proof of its continuance. This is peculiarly the case when we use the word to denote the popular or provincial forms of speech in a country where, by common consent of the learned and educated classes, one particular form of speech has been elevated to the dignity of the national language. It is then only the strength of the principles which first determined the peculiarities of the dialect that continues to support them, and preserves them from being gradually rounded down, as stones are by friction, and confounded in the course of a wide-spreading centralization. Increased opportunity of intercommunion with other provincials or the metropolis (dependent upon increased facilities of locomotion, {578} the improvement of roads and the spread of mechanical inventions) sweeps away much of these original distinctions, but it never destroys them all. This is a necessary consequence of the fact that they are in some degree connected with the physical features of the country itself, and all those causes which influence the atmosphere. A sort of pseudo-vitality even till late periods bears witness to the indwelling power, and the consciousness of oppression from without: _false_ analogies are the form this life assumes. How often have we not heard it asserted that particular districts were remarkable for the Saxonism of their speech, because they had retained the archaisms, _kine_, _shoon_, _housen_! Well and good! Archaisms they are, but they are false forms nevertheless, based upon an analogy just as erroneous as that which led men in the last century to say _crowed_, _hanged_ for _crew_, _hung_. The Anglo-Saxon language never knew any such forms, and one wonders not to find by their side equally gratuitous Saxonisms, _mousen_, _lousen_."--Phil. Soc. No. 35. The doctrine that languages become _dead_ when they lose a certain power of evolving new forms out of previously existing ones, is incompatible with views to which the present writer has committed himself in the preface. If the views there exhibited be true the test of the _vitality_ of a language, if such metaphors _must_ be used, is the same as the test of vitality in material organisms, _i.e._, the power of fulfilling certain functions. Whether this is done by the evolution of new forms out of existing materials, or by the amalgamation (the particular power of the English language) of foreign terms is a mere difference of process. § 719. _Effect of common physical conditions._--I again quote the same paper of Mr. Kemble's:-- "Professor Willis of Cambridge, in the course of some most ingenious experiments upon the organization and conditions of the human larynx, came upon the law which regulated the pronunciation of the vowels. He found this to be partly in proportion to the size of the opening in the pipe, partly to the force with which the air was propelled through it, and by the adaptation of a tremulous artificial larynx to the pipe of an {579} organ, he produced the several vowels at will. Now bearing in mind the difference between the living organ and the dead one, the susceptibility of the former to dilatation and compression, from the effects, not only of the human will, but also of cold, of denser or thinner currents of air, and above all the influence which the general state of the body must have upon every part of it, we are furnished at once with the necessary hypothesis; viz. that climate, and the local positions on which climate much depends, are the main agency in producing the original variations of dialect. Once produced, tradition perpetuates them, with subsequent modifications proportionate to the change in the original conditions, the migration to localities of a different character, the congregation into towns, the cutting down of forests, the cultivation of the soil, by which the prevalent degrees of cold and the very direction of the currents of air are in no small degree altered. It is clear that the same influences will apply to all such consonants as can in any way be affected by the greater or less tension of the organs, consequently above all to the gutturals; next to the palatals, which may be defined by the position of the tongue; least of all to the labials, and generally to the liquids also, though these may be more or less strongly pronounced by different peoples. This hint must suffice here, as the pursuit of it is rather a physiological than a philological problem, and it is my business rather to show historically what facts bear upon my present inquiry, than to investigate the philosophical reasons for their existence. Still, for the very honour of human nature, one of whose greatest and most universal privileges is the recognition of and voluntary subjection to the laws of beauty and harmony, it is necessary to state that no developed language exists which does not acknowledge some internal laws of euphony, from which many of its peculiarities arise, and which by these assimilates its whole practice and assumes an artistical consistency. On this faculty, which is rather to be considered as a moral quality of the people than a necessity of their language, depends the facility of employing the language for certain purposes of art, and {580} the form which poetry and rhythm shall assume in the period of their cultivation. "In reviewing the principal languages of the ancient and modern world, where the migrations of those that spoke them can be traced with certainty, we are struck with the fact that the dwellers in chains of mountains, or on the elevated plains of hilly districts, strongly affect broad vowels and guttural consonants. Compare the German of the Tyrol, Switzerland, or Bavaria, with that of the lowlands of Germany, Westphalia, Hanover, and Mecklenburg: compare the Doric with the Attic, or still more the soft Ionic Greek: follow the Italian of our own day into the mountains of the Abruzzi: pursue the English into the hills of Northumberland; mark the characteristics of the Celtic in the highlands of Wales and Scotland, of the Vascongado, in the hilly ranges of Spain. Everywhere we find the same type; everywhere the same love for broad sounds and guttural forms; everywhere these appear as the peculiarity of mountaineers. The difference of latitude between Holstein and Inspruck is not great; that between Newcastle and Coventry is less; Sparta is more southerly than Athens; Crete more so than either; but this does not explain our problem; its solution is found in the comparative number of feet above the level of the sea, in the hills and the valleys which they enclose." If true, the bearings of this is important; since, if common physical conditions effect a common physiognomy of language, we may have a certain amount of resemblance without a corresponding amount of ethnological affinity. * * * * * {581} PRAXIS. The following extracts are given in the form of simple texts. They are meant, more especially, to be explained by masters to their classes; and as such were used by myself during the time that I was Professor of the English language and literature at University College. They are almost all taken from editions wherein either a translation or a full commentary can be found by reference. To have enlarged the present Appendix into a full Praxis, would have been to overstep the prescribed limits of the present work. I. MOESO-GOTHIC. _Mark, Chap. 1._ 1. 2. Anastodeins aivaggeljons ïesuis xristaus sunaus guþs. sve gameliþ ïst ïn esaï in praufetau. sai. ïk ïnsandja aggilu meinana faura þus. saei gamanveiþ vig þeinana faura þus. stibna vopjandins 3. ïn auþidai. manveiþ vig fraujins. raihtos vaurkeiþ 4. staigos guþs unsaris. vas ïohannes daupjands ïn auþidai jah 5. merjands daupein ïdreigos du aflageinai fravaurhte. jah usïddjedun du ïmma all ïudaialand jah ïairusaulymeis jah daupidai vesun allai ïn ïaurdane awai fram ïmma andhaitandans fravaurhtim 6. seinaim. vasuþ-þan ïohannes gavasiþs taglam ulbandaus jah gairda filleina bi hup seinana jah matida þramsteins 7. jah miliþ haiþivisk jah merida qiþands. qimiþ svinþoza mis sa afar mis. þizei ïk ni ïm vairþs anahneivands andbindan skaudaraip 8. skohe is. aþþan ïk daupja ïzvis ïn vatin. ïþ ïs daupeiþ ïzvis {582} 9. ïn ahmin veihamma. jah varþ ïn jainaim dagam. qam ïesus fram nazaraiþ galeilaias jah daupiþs vas fram ïohanne ïn 10. ïaurdane. jah suns usgaggands us þamma vatin gasaw usluknans 11. himinans jah ahman sve ahak atgaggandan ana ïna. jah stibna qam us himinam. þu ïs sunus meins sa liuba. ïn þuzei 12. vaila galeikaida. jah suns sai. ahma ïna ustauh ïn auþida. 13. jah vas in þizai auþidai dage fidvortiguns fraisans fram satanin 14. jah vas miþ diuzam jah aggileis andbahtidedun ïmma. ïp afar þatei atgibans varþ ïohannes. qam ïesus ïn galeilaia merjands 15. aivaggeljon þiudangardjos guþs qiþands þatei usfullnoda þata mel jah atnewida sik þiudangardi guþs. ïdreigoþ jah galaubeiþ 16. ïn aivaggeljon. jah warbonds faur marein galeilaias gasaw seimonu jah andraian broþar ïs. þis seimonis. vairpandans 17. nati ïn marein. vesun auk fiskjans. jah qaþ ïm ïesus. hirjats 18. afar mis jah gatauja ïgqis vairþan nutans manne. jah suns 19. affetandans þo natja seina laistidedun afar ïmma. jah jainþro ïnngaggands framis leitil gasaw ïakobu þana zaibaidaiaus jah 20. ïohanne broþar ïs jah þans ïn skipa manvjandans natja. jah suns haihait ïns jah affetandans attan seinana zaibaidaiu ïn þamma skipa miþ asnjam galiþun afar ïmma jah galiþun ïn kafarnaum. 21. jah suns sabbato daga galeiþands ïn synagogen laisida 22. ïns jah usfilmans vaurþun ana þizai laiseinai ïs. unte vas laisjands 23. ïns sve valdufni habands jah ni svasve þai bokarjos. jah vas ïn þizai synagogen ïze manna ïn unhrainjamma ahmin jah 24. ufhropida qiþands. fralet. wa uns jah þus ïesu nazorenai. qamt fraqistjan uns. kann þuk was þu ïs. sa veiha guþs. 25. jah andbait ïna ïesus qiþands. þahai jah usgagg ut us þamma. 26. ahma unhrainja. jah tahida ïna ahma sa unhrainja jah hropjands 27. stibnai mikilai usïddja us ïmma. jah afslauþnodedun allai sildaleikjandans. svaei sokidedun miþ sis misso qiþandans. wa sijai þata. wo so laiseino so niujo. ei miþ valdufnja jah ahmam þaim unhrainjam anabiudiþ jah ufhausjand ïmma. 28. usïddja þan meriþa ïs suns and allans bisitands galeilaias. 29. jah suns us þizai synagogen usgaggandans qemun ïn garda seimonis 30. jah andraiïns miþ ïokobau jah ïohannem. ïþ svaihro 31. seimonis log ïn brinnon. jah suns qeþun ïmma bi ïja. jah duatgaggands urraisida þo undgreipands handu ïzos. jah affailot 32. þo so brinno suns jah andbahtida ïm. andanahtja þan vaurþanamma. þan gasaggq sauïl. berun du ïmma allans þans ubil {583} 33. habandans jah unhulþons habandans. jah so baurgs alla garunnana 34. vas at daura. jah gahailida managans ubil habandans missaleikaim sauhtim jah unhulþons managos usvarp jah ni 35. fralailot rodjan þos unhulþons. unte kunþedun ïna. jah air uhtvon usstandans usïddja jah galaiþ ana auþjana staþ jah jainar 36. baþ. jah galaistans vaurþun ïmma seimon jah þai miþ 37. ïmma. jah bigitandans ïna qeþun du ïmma þatei allai þuk 38. sokjand. jah qaþ du ïm. gaggam du þaim bisunjane haimom 39. jah baurgim. ei jah jainar merjau. unte duþe qam. jah vas merjands ïn synagogim ïze and alla galeilaian jah unholþons 40. usvairpands. jah qam at ïmma þrutsfill habands bidjands ïna jah knivam knussjands jah qiþands du ïmma þatei. jabai 41. vileis. magt mik gahrainjan. ïþ ïesus ïnfeinands ufrakjands handu seina attaitok ïmma jah qaþ ïmma. viljau. vairþ hrains. 42. jah biþe qaþ þata ïesus. suns þata þrutsfill affaiþ af ïmma jah 43. hrains varþ. jah gawotjands ïmma suns ussandida ïna jah qaþ 44. du ïmma. saiw ei mannhun ni qiþais vaiht ak gagg þuk silban ataugjan gudjin jah atbair fram gahraineinai peinai. þatei 45. anabauþ moses du veitvodiþai ïm. ïþ ïs usgaggands dugann merjan filu jah usqiþan þata vaurd. svasve ïs juþan ni mahta andaugjo ïn baurg galeiþan ak uta ana auþjaim stadim vas. jah ïddjedun du ïmma allaþro. II. OLD HIGH-GERMAN. MUSPILLI. _From Schmeller._ ... sîn ta piqueme, Das er towian scal, Wanta sâr so sih dui sêla In dem sind arhevit, Ente si den lîhhamun Likkan lâzzit; So quimith ein heri Fona himilzungalon; Daz andar fona pehhe: {584} Dar pâgant siu umpi. Sorgên mac diu sêla, Unzi diu suona argêt, Za wideremo herie, Si gihalot werde. Wanta ipu sia daz Satanazsses Kisindi giwinnit, Das leitet sia sâr Dar iru leid wirdit, In fiur enti in finstri, Dazu ist reht virinlih ding. Upi sia avar kihalont die, Die dar fona himile quemant, Enti si dero engilo eigan wirdit, Die pringant sia sâr ûf in himilo rîhhi, Darî est lîp âno tôd, lioht âno finstri, Selida âno sorgun; dar nist neoman suih. Denne der mar in pardîsu Pû kiwinnit, Hûs in himile, Dar quimit imu hilfa kinuok Pidiu ist durft mihhil allero manno welilihemo Daz in es sîn muot kispane, Daz er kotes willun Kerno tuo, Ente hella fuir Harto wîsê, Pehhes pina, Dar piutit den Satanaz altist Heizzan lauc. So mac huckan za diu, Sorgên drâto Der sih suntigen weiz. Wê demo in vinstrî scal Sîno virina stuen, Prinnan in pehhe; Daz ist rehto palwig ding-- Daz man den harêt ze gote, Ente imo helfa ni quimit; Wânit sih kinâda {585} Diu wênaga sêla Ni ist in kihuctin Himiliskin gote, Wanta hiar in werolti After ni werkôta. So denne der mahtigo khuninc Daz mahal kipannit Dara scal queman Chunno kilîhhaz Denne ni kitar parno nohhein Den pan furisizzan, Dî allero manno welîh Ze demo mahale sculi, Der scal er, vora demo ricche, Az rahhu stantan, Pî daz er, in werolti, Kiwerkota hapêta. Daz hôrt ih rahhon Dia werolt-rehtwîson, Daz sculi der Antichristo Mit Eliase pâgan. Der warch ist kiwâfanit; Denne wirdit untar in wîk arhapan; Khensun sind so kreftic, Diri kosa ist so mihhil. Elias strîtît Pî den ewigon lîp, Wili den rehtkernon Daz rîhhi kistarkan; Pidiu scal imo halfan Der himiles kiwaltit. Der Anticristo stêt Pî dem Altfiante Stêt pî demo Satanase, Der inan farsenkan scal; Pidiu scal er in der wîcsteti Wunt pivallan, Enti in demo sinde Sigalos werdan. {586} Doh wânit des vila gotmanno, Daz Elias in demo wîge arwartit (werdit). Sâr so daz Eliases pluot In erda kitruifit, So inprinnant die perga, Poum ni kistentit Einic in erdu, Aha artruknênt, Muor varsuilhet sih, Suilizot lougui der himil Mâno vallit, Prinnit mittilagart, Stein ni kistentit einik in erdu. Verit denne stuatago in lant, Verit mit diu viuriu Viriho wîsôn, Dar ni mai denne mâk andremo Helfan vora dema Muspille. Denne daz preita wasal Allaz varprinnit, Enti viur enti luft Iz allaz arfurpit, War ist denne diu marha, Dar man dar eo mit sînem magon (Diu marha ist farprunnan Diu sêla stêt pidungan), Ni weiz mit win puoze; Sâr verit si za wîze. Pidui ist dem manne so guot, Denne er ze demo mahale quimit, Daz er rahhono welihha Rehto arteile; Denne ni darf er sorgên, Denne er ze deru suonu quimit. Denne varant engila; Uper dio marho, Wecchant diota, Wîssant ze dinge; Denne scal manno gelîh {587} Fona deru moltu arsten; Lôssan sih ar dero lêuuo vazzon Scal imo avar sîn lîp piqueman, Daz er sîn reht allaz Kirahhon muozzi, Enti imo after sînen tâtin Arteilet werde. Denne der gisizzit, Der dar suonnan scal, Enti arteillan scal, Tôten enti quekken, Denne stêt darumpi Engilo menigi, Quotero gomono girust so mihhil. Dara quimit ze deru rightungu so vilo dia dar arstent, So dar manno nohhein Wiht pimîdan ni mak; Dar scal denne hant sprehhan, Houpit sagên, Allero lido wehh Unsi id den luzigun vinger. Ni weiz der wênago man Wielihhan urteil er habêt; Denne er mit den miaton Marrit daz rehta, Daz der tiuval darpî Kitarnit stentit; Der habêt in ruovu Rahhono welihha, Daz der man er enti sîd Upiles kifrumita, Daz er iz allaz kisagêt, Denne or ze deru suonu quimit. * * * * * * {588} III. ANGLO-SAXON. Evangelium Nicodemi, xxi. _From Thwaite's Heptateuch._ Hyt wæs ða swiþe angrislic, ða ða Satanas, ðære Helle ealdor and þæs deaþes heretoga, cwæþ to þære Helle; "Gegearwa þe sylfe, þat ðu mæge Chryst onfon; se hyne sylfne gewuldrod hæfð, and ys Godes sunu and eac man, and eac se Deað ys hyne ondrædende, and myn sawl ys swa unrot þæt me þincþ þæt ic alybban ne mæg, for þig he ys mycel wyðerwynna and yfel wyrcende ongean me, and eac ongean þe: and fæla, þe ic hæfde to me gewyld and to atogen, blynde and healte, gebygede and hreoslan, eallo he fram ðe atyhð." Seo Hell þa, swiþe grymme and swiþe egeslice, answarode ða Satanase ðam ealdan deofle, and cwæð: "Hwæt is se þe ys swa strang and swa myhtig, gif he man is, þæt he ne sig þone Deað ondrædende, þe wyt gefyrn beclysed hæfdon, for þam ealle þa þe on eorþan anweald hæfdon þu hig myd þynre myhte to me getuge, and ic hig fæste geheold; and, gif þu swa mihhtig eart swa þu ær wære, hwæt ys se man and se Hælend þe ne sig þone Deað and þyne mihte ondrædende? to forðan ic wat, gif he on mennyscnysse swa mihtig ys, þæt he naþer ne unc ne þond Deað ne ondræt, þonne gefohð he þe and þe byþ æfre wa to ecere worulde." Satanos þa, þæs cwicsusles ealdor þære Helle andswarode, and þus cwæd: "Hwæt twyneð þe, oþþe hwæt ondrædst þu þe þone Hælend to onfonne, mynne wyþerwynnan and eac þynne; Ac forðon ic his costnode, and ic gedyde him þæt eal þæt Iudeisce folc þæt hig wæron ongean him myd yrre and mid andan awehte, and ic gedyde þæt he wæs mid spere gesticod, and ic gedyde þæt hym man dryncan mengde myd eallan and myd ecede, and ic gedyde þæt man hym treowene rode gegearwode, and hyne þær on aheng, and hyne mid næglum gefæstnode and nu æt nextan ic wylle his deað to þe gelædan, and he sceal beon underþeod agwhær ge me ge þe." Seo Hell þa swyþe angrysenlice þus cwoeþ; "Wyte þæt ðu swa do þæt he ða deadan fram me ateo, for þam þe her fæla syndon geornfulle fram me mig, þæt hig on me wunian noldon; ac ic wat þæt hig {589} fram mig ne gewytaþ þurh heora agene myhte, butan hig se Ælmytiga God fram me ateo, se þe Lazarum of me genam, þone þe ic heold deadne feower nyht fæstne gebunden, ac ic hyne æft cwicne ageaf þurh his bedodu." Da andswarode Satanas and cwæþ: "Se ylca hyt is se þe Lazarum of unc bam genam." Seo Hell hym þa þus to cwæp. "Eala hic halgige þe þuhr þyne mægenu, and eac þuhr myne, þæt þu næfre ne geþafige pæt he on me cume, for þam þa ic gehyrde, þæt worde his bebodes, ic was myd miclum ege afyriht, and ealle mynne arleasan þenas wæron samod myd me gedrehte and gedrefede, swa þæt we ni myhton Lazarum gehealdan, ac he wæs hyne asceacende eal swa earn þonne he myd hrædum flythe wyle forð afleon, and he swa wæs fram us ræfende, and seo eorþe þe Lazarus deadan lichaman heold, heo hyne cwycne ageaf, and þæt ic nu wat þæt se man þe eall þæt gedyde þæt he ys on Gode strang and myhtig, and gif þu hyne to me lædest, ealle þa þe her syndon on þysum wælhreowan cwearterne beclysde, and on þysum bendum myd synnum gewryðene, ealle he myd þys godcundnysse fram me atyhð, and to lyfe gelæt." IV. _From Schmid's Anglo-Saxon Laws._ Þis syndon þa domas þe Ælfred se cyning geceas. Drihten wæs precende þæs word to Moyse and þus cwæð: 1. Ic eam drihten þin god. Ic þe utgelædde of Ægypta land and of heora þeowdome; ne lufa þu oðre fremde godas ofer me. 2. Ne minne naman ne cig þu on idelnesse, forþon þe þu ne bist unscyldig wið me, gif þu on idelnesse cigst minne naman. 3. Gemine þæt þu gehalgie þone ræstedæg. Wyrceað eow syx dagas, and on þam seofaðan restað eow, þu and þin sunu and þine dohter and þin þeowe and þine wylne and þin weorcynten and se cuma þe bið binnan þinan durum. Forþam on syx dagum Crist geworhte heofenas and eorðan, sæas and ealle gesceafta þe on him sint and hine gereste on þam seofaðan dæge, and forþon drihten hine gehalgode. 4. Ara þinum fæder and þinre meder, þa þe drihten sealde þe, þæt þu sy þy leng libbende on eorðan. 5. Ne slea þu. {590} 6. Ne stala þu. 7. Ne lige þu dearnunga. 8. Ne sæge þu lease gewitnesse wið þinum nehstan. 9. Ne wilna þu þines nehstan yrfes mid unrihte. 10. Ne wyrc þu þe gyldene godas oððe seolfrene. 11. Þis synd þa domas þe þu him settan scealt. § 1. Gif hwa gebycge Christenne þeow, VI gear þeowige he, þe seofoðan beo he freoh orceapunga. § 2. Mid swylce hrægle he ineode, mid swilce gange he ut. § 3. Gif he wif sylf hæbbe, gange heo ut mid him. § 4. Gif se hlaford þonne him wif sealde, sy heo and hire beam þæs hlafordes. § 5. Gif se þeowa þonne cwæðe: nelle ic fram minum hlaforde, ne fram minum wife, ne fram minum bearne,--breng hine þonne his hlaford to þære dura þæs temples and þurhþyrlige his eare mid eale to tacne, þæt he sy æfre syððan þeow. * * * * * 13. Se man þe his gewealdes monnan ofslea, swelte se deaðe. Se-þe hine þonne neades ofsloge oððe unwillum oððe ungewealdes, swylce hine god swa sende on his honda and he hine ne ymb syrede, sy he his feores wyrðe and folcrihtre bot, gif he fryðstowe gesece. Gif hwa þonne of gyrnesse oððe gewealdes ofslea his þone nehstan þurh syrwa, aluc þu hine fram minum weofode, to þam þæt he deaðe swelte. 14. Se-þe slea his fæder oððe his modor, ne sceal deaðe sweltan. 15. Se-þe frione forstæle and he hyne bebycge and hit onbetæled sy, þæt he hine bereccan ne mæg, swelte se deaðe. § 1. Se-se wyrge his fæder oððe his modor, swelte se deaðe. 16. Gif hwa slea his þone nehstan mid stane oððe mid fyste, and he þeah utgangan mæge be stafe, begyte him læce and wyrce his weorc þa hwile, þe he sylf ne mæge. 17. Se-þe slea his agenne þeowne esne oððe mennen, and he ne sy þy dæges dead, þeah he libbe twa niht oððe þreo, ne bið he ealles swa scyldig, forþon þe hit wæs his agen feoh. Gif he þonne sy idæges dead, þonne sitte seo scyld on him. 18. Gif hwa on ceast eacniend wif gewerde, bete þone æfwyrdlan swa him domeras gereccan. Gif heo dead sy, sylle sawle wið sawle. 19. Gif hwa oðrum his eage oðdo, sylle his agen for; toð for toð, handa for handa, fet for fet, bærning for bærning, wund wið wund, læl wið læle. {591} 20. Gif hwa ofslea his þeowe oððe his þeowenne þæt eage ut, and he þonne hi gedo ænigge, gefreoge hi forþon. Gif he þonne toð ofslea, do þæt ylce. 21. Gif oxa ofhnite wer oððe wif, þæt hy deade synd, sy he mid stanum ofweorpod and ne sy his flæsc geeton and se hlaford bið unscyldig. § 1. Gif se oxa hnitol wære twam dagum ære oððe þrym and se hlaford hit wist and hine inne betynan nolde, and he þonne were oððe wif ofsloge, sy he mid stanum ofworpod and sy se hlaford ofslegen oððe forgolden, swa þæt witan to riht findan. § 2. Sunu oððe dohtor gif he ofstinge, þæs ylcan domes sy he wyrðe. § 3. Gif he þonne þeow oððe þeowe mennen ofstynge, gesylle þæm hlaford XXX scill. seolfres and se oxa sy mid stanum ofworpod. 22. Gif hwa adelfe wæterpytte oððe betynedne untyne and hine eft ne betyne, gyld swylc neat swa þær on befealle and hæbbe him þæt dead. 23. Gif oxa oðres mannes oxan gewundige and he þonne dead sy, bebycggen þone oxan and hæbben him þæt weorð gemæne and eac þæt flæsc swa þæs deadan. Gif se hlaford þonne wiste, þæt se oxa hnitol wære and hine healdan nolde, sylle him oðerne oxan fore and hæbbe him ealle þæt flæsc. 24. Gif hwa forstæle oðres oxan and hine ofslea oððe bebycge, sylle twegen wið and feower sceap wið anum. Gif he hæbbe hwæt he sylle, sy he sylf beboht wið þam feoh. 25. Gif þeof brece mannes hus nihtes and he wyrðe þær ofslægen, ne sy he na manslæges scyldig, þe him sloge. Gif he syððan æfter sunnan upgonge þis deð, he bið mansleges scyldig and he þonne sylfa swylte, butan he nyddæda wære. Gif mid him cwicum sy funden þæt he ær stale, be twyfealdum forgylde hit. 26. Gif hwa gewerde oðres monnes wingeard oððe his æceras oððe his landes awuht, gebete swa hit man geeahtige. 27. Gif fyr sy ontended ryt to bærnenne, gebete þone æfwerdelsan se þæt fyr ontendeð. 28. Gif hwa oðfæste his friend feoh, gif he hit sylf stæl, forgylde be twyfealdum. § 1. Gif he nyste, hwa hit stæle, geladige hine sylfne, þæt he þær nan facn ne gefremede. § 2. Gif hit þonne cucu feoh wære and he secge, þæt hit here name oððe þæt hit sylf acwæle, and he gewitnesse hæbbe, ne þearf he þæt gyldan. § 3. Gif he þonne gewitnesse næbbe, and he him ne getriewe ne sy, swerige he þonne. {592} * * * * * 30. Þa foemnan þe gewunniað onfon galdorcræftigan and scinlæcan and wiccan, ne læt þu þa libban. * * * * * 32. And se þe godgeldum onsæcge ofer god ænne, swelte deaðe. 33. Utancumene and ætþeodige ne geswenc þu no, forþon þe ge wæron ælþeodige on Ægypta land. 34. Þa wudewan and þa steopcilde ne sceaððað ne hi nawer deriað. Gif ge þonne elles doð, hi cleopiað to me and ic gehire hi, and ic eow þonne slea mid minum sweorde and ic gedo pæt eowra wif bið wudewan and eowre bearn byð steopcilde. 35. Gif þu feoh to borh gesylle þinum geferan, þe mid þe eardian wille, ne nide þu hine swa nidling and ne gehene þu hine mid þy eacan. 36. Gif man næbbe butan anfeald hrægle hine mid to wreonne and to werianne and he hit to wedde sylle, ær sunnan setlgange sy hit agyfen. Gif þu swa ne dest, þonne cleopað he to me and ic hine gehyre, forþon þe ic eom swiðe mildheort. 37. Ne tæl þu þinne drihten, ne þone hlaford þæs folces ne werge þu. 38. Þine teoðan sceattas and þine frumripan gangendes and weaxendos agyfe þu gode. 39. Ealle þæt flæsc þæt wilddeor læfan, ne etan ge þæt ac syllað hit hundum. 40. Leases mannes word ne recce þu no þæs to gehyranno, ne his domas ne geþafa þu, ne næne gewitnysse æfter him ne saga þu. 41. Ne wend þu þe na on þæs folces unræd and on unriht gewillon hiora spræce and gecleps ofer þin riht, and on þæs unwisestan lare þu ne geþafa. 42. Gif þe becume oðres mannes gymeleas feoh on hand, þeah hit sy þin feonde, gecyðe hit him. 43. Dem þu swiðe emne; de dem þu oðerne dom pæm welegan oðerne þam earman, ne oðerne þam leofran oðerne þam laðran ne deme þu. 44. Onscuna þu a leasunga. 45. Soðfæstne man and unscildigne, ne acwele þu þone æfre. 46. Ne onfo þu næfre medsceattum, forþon hi ablendað ful oft wisra manna geþoht and hiora word onwendað. {593} 47. Þam ælþeodigan and utancumenan ne læt þu na uncuðlice wið hine, ne mid nanum unrihtum þu hine ne drecce. 48. Ne swerigen ge næfre under hæðene godas, ne on nanum þingum ne cleopien ge to him. V. OPENING OF BEOWULF. _Edited and Translated by J. M. Kemble._ Hwæt we Gár-Dena, in gear-dagum, þeód-c[.y]ninga, þr[.y]m ge-frunon-- hû ða æþelingas ellen fremedon-- oft Sc[.y]ld Scefing, sceaþen(a) þreátum, moneg[=u] mægþum, meodo-setla of-teáh-- egsode eorl-- s[.y]ððan ['æ]rest wearð feá-sceaft funden; he þæs frófre ge-bá(d), weóx under wolcnum, weorð-m[.y]ndum þáh; oð [=þ] him ['æ]g-hwl[.y]c þára ymb-sittendra, ofer hron-ráde, hýran scolde, gomban g[.y]ldan-- [=þ] w['æ]s gód c[.y]ning-- ðæm eafera w['æ]s æfer cenned, geong in geardum, þone gód sende folce to frófre; f[.y]ren-þearfe on-geat, [=þ] híe ['æ]r drugon, aldor-(le)áse. lange hwíle, him þæs líf-freá, wuldres wealdend, worold-áre for-geaf-- Beó-wulf w['æ]s breme, bl['æ]d wíde sprang, Sc[.y]ldes eafera, Scede-landum in-- swa sceal (wig-fru)ma góde ge-wircean-- fromum feo-giftum, on fæder-(feo)rme; [=þ] hine, on [.y]lde, eft ge-wunigen wi(l)-ge-síþas, þonne wig cume. leóde ge-l['æ]sten, lof-d['æ]d[=u] sceal, in mægþage-hwære, man ge-þeón---- him, ðá Sc[.y]ld ge-wát tó ge-scæp hwíle fela-hror feran on freán wæ re-- hí h[.y]ne þá æt-b['æ]ron tó brimes faroðe, sw['æ]se ge-síþas, swá he selfa bæd; {594} þenden wordum weóld wine Sc[.y]ldinga leóf land-fruma lange áhte---- þær æt hýðe stód hringed-stefna, isig and út-fús, æþelinges fær; á-ledon þá leófne þeóden, beága br[.y]ttan, on bearm scipes, m['æ]rne be m['æ]ste: þær w['æ]s mádma fela of feor-wegum frætwa ge-l['æ]ded. Ne hýrde ic c[.y]mlicor ceol ge-g[.y]rwan, hilde-wæpnum and heaðo-w['æ]dum, billum and b[.y]rnum him on bearme læg mádma menigo, þa him mid scoldon on flódes æht feor ge-wítan. Nalæs hí hine læssan lácum teódan, þeód-ge-streónum, þon þá d[.y]don þe hine, æt frum-sceafte, forð on-sendon, ['æ]nne ofer ýðe, umbor-wesende. þá g[.y]t híe him á-setton segen (g[.y]l denne, heáh ofer heáfod-- leton holm ber(an) geafon on gár-secg: him w['æ]s geomor-sefa murnende mód---- men ne cunnon secgan, tó sóðe, séle rædenne, hæleð under heofen[=u] hwá þæm hlæste on-feng. VI. THE BATTLE OF BRUNANBURG. _From Warton's History of English Poetry,_ _Ed._ 1840. Vol. I. p. lxvii. _Translated_ by R. Taylor. Æthelstán cyning, eorla drihten, boorna beáh-gyfa, and his bróther eac, Eadmund ætheling, ealdor langne tir, geslogon æt secce, sweorda ecgum, ymbe Brunanburh. Bord-weal clufon, heowon heatho-linda, hamora lafum, eáforan Eadweardes. Swa him geæthele wæs from cneo-mægum thæt híe æt campe oft, {595} with lathra gehwæne, land ealgodon, hord and hámas, hettend crungon. Scotta leode, and scip-flotan, fæge feollon. Feld dennade, secga swate, sith-than sunne úp, on morgen-tíd, mære tuncgol, glád ofer grundas, Godes candel be orht, éces Drihtnes; oth-thæt sio æthele gesceaft, sáh tó setle. Thær læg secg monig, gárum ageted, guman northere, ofer scyld scoten. Swylc Scyttisc eac, werig wiges sæd. West-Seaxe forth, ondlangne dæg eorod-cystum, on last lægdon lathum theodum. Heowon here-flyman, hindan thearle, mecum mylen-scearpum. Myrce ne wyrndon heardes hand-plegan, hæletha nanum, thára the mid Anlafe, ofer ear-geblond, on lides bosme, land gesohton, fæge to feohte. Fife lægon, on thám campstede, cyningas geonge, sweordum aswefede. Swylc seofen éac eorlas Anlafes; unrím heriges, flotan and Sceotta. Thær geflymed wearth Northmanna bregu, nyde gebæded, to lides stefne, litle werede. Cread cnear on-flot, cyning ut-gewat, on fealowe flod, feorh generede. Swylc thær éac se froda, mid fleame cóm, on his cyththe north, Constantinus, har hylderinc Hreman ne thórfte meca gemanan. Her wæs his maga sceard, freonda gefylled, on folc-stede, beslægen æt secce; and his sunu (he) forlet on wæl-stowe, wundum-forgrunden, geongne æt guthe. Gylpan ne thórfte, beorn blanden-feax, bill-geslehtes, eald inwitta; ne Anláf thy má, mid heora here-lafum, hlihan ne thorfton, {596} thæt hí beadu-weorca beteran wurdon, on camp-stede, cumbol-gehnastes, gár mittinge, gumena gemotes, wæpen-gewrixles, thæs the híe on wæl-felda with Eadweardes eáforan plegodon. Gewiton hym tha Northmen, nægledon cnearrum, dreorig daretha láf, on dinges mere, ofer deop wæter, Dyflin secan, eft Yraland, æwisc-mode. Swylce thá gebrother, begen æt samne, cyning and ætheling, cyththe sohton, West Seaxna land, wiges hremige. Læton him behindan, hrá brittian, salowig padan, thone sweartan hræfn, hyrned-nebban; and thone hasean padan, earn æftan hwit, æses brucan, grædigne guth-hafoc; and thæt græge deor, wulf on wealde. Ne wearth wæl máre, on thys igland, æfre gyta, folces gefylled, beforan thissum, sweordes ecgum, thæs the us secgath béc, ealde uthwitan, sith-than eastan hider Engle and Seaxe úp becomon, ofer brade brimu Brytene sohton, wlance wig-smithas, Weales ofer-comon, eorlas árhwáte, eard begeaton. VII. HILDIBRAND AND HATHUBRAND. TEXT OF GRIMM. TRANSLATION IBID. Also in--_Langue et Litérature des Anciens Francs, par G. Gley_. Ih gihorta that seggen, that sie urhetton ænon muotin Hildibraht enti Hathubrant untar heriuntuem, Sunu fatar ungo; iro saro rihtun, Garutun se iro guthhamun, gurtun sih iro suert ana, Helidos, ubar ringa, do sie to dero hiltu ritun. {597} Hiltibraht gimahalta, Heribrantes sunu, her was heroro man, Ferahes frotoro, her fragen gistuont, Fohem wortum: wer sin fater wari; Fires in folche, eddo weliches cnuosles du sis? Ibu du mi aenan sages, ik mideo are-wet, Chind in chuninchriche, chud ist min al irmindeot. Hadubraht gimahalti Hiltibrantes sunu: Dat sagetun mi Usere liuti alte anti frote, dea erhina warun, Dat Hilbrant haetti min fater, ïh heittu Hadubrant. Forn her ostar gihueit, floh her Otachres nid Hina miti Theotriche enti sinero degano filu; Her furlach in lante luttila sitten Prut in bure; barn unwahsan, Arbeolosa heraet, ostar hina det, Sid delriche darba gistuontum, fatereres mines, Dat was so friuntlaos man, her was Otachre unmettirri, Degano dechisto, unti Deotriche darba gistontum; Her was eo folches at ente, imo was eo feheta ti leop. Chud was her chonnem mannuma, ni wanin ih, in lib habbe. Wittu Irmin-Got, quad Hiltibraht, obana ab havane, Dat du neo danahalt mit sus sippan man dinc in gileitos! Want her do ar arme wuntane bouga, Cheiswringu gitan, so imo seder chuning gap Huneo truhtin; dat ih dir it un bi huldi gibu! Hadubraht gimalta, Hiltibrantes sunu: Mit geru scal man geba infahan, Ort widar orte, du bist dir, alter Hun, ummet, Spaher, spenis mi mit dinem wortema, Wilihuh di nu speru werpan, Pist al so gialtet man, so du ewin inwit fortos; Dat sagetun mi Sacolidante Westar ubar Wentilsaeo, dat man wic furnam, Tot ist Hiltibraht Heribrantes suno, Hildibrant gimahalta Heribrantes suno: wela gisihu ih, In dinem hrustim, dat du habes heine herron goten, Dat du noh bi desemo riche reccheo ni wurti, Welaga, nu waltant Got, quad Hiltibrant, we wurt skihit! Ih wallota sumaro enti wintro sehstick urlante. Dar man mih eo scerita in folc scestantero. {598} So man mir at burc einigeru banun ni gifasta; Nu scal mih suasat chind suertu hauwan, Bieton mit sinu billiu, eddo ih imo tí banin werden. Doh maht du nu aodlicho, ibu dir din ellent aoc, In sus heremo man hrusti girwinnan; Rauba bi hrahanen ibu du dar enic reht habes. Der si doh nu argosto, quad Hildibrant, ostarliuto, Der dir nu wiges warne, nu dih es so wel lustit. Gudea gimeirum niused emotti. Wer dar sih hiutu dero prel-zilo hrumen muotti, Erdo desero brunnono bedero waltan. Do laettun se aerist asckim scritan Scarpen scurim, dat in dem sciltim stout; Do stoptun tosamene, starmbort chludun, Hewun harmilicco huitte scilti Unti im iro lintun luttilo wurtun-- VIII. OLD SAXON. FROM THE TEXT OF A. YPEIJ. _Taalkundig Magazijn._ P. 1, No. 1.--_p. 54._ _Psalm_ LIV. 2. Gehori got gebet min, in ne furuuir bida mina; thenke te mi in gehori mi. 3. Gidruouit bin an tilogon minro, in mistrot bin fan stimmon fiundes, in fan arbeide sundiges. 4. Uuanda geneigedon an mi unreht, in an abulge unsuoti uuaron mi. 5. Herta min gidruouit ist an mi, in forta duodis fiel ouir mi. 6. Forthta in biuonga quamon ouer mi, in bethecoda mi thuisternussi. 7. In ic quad "uuie sal geuan mi fetheron also duuon, in ic fliugon sal, in raston sal." 8. Ecco! firroda ic fliende, inde bleif an eudi. 9. Ic sal beidan sin, thie behaldon mi deda fan luzzilheide geistis in fan geuuidere. {599} 10. Bescurgi, herro, te deile tunga iro, uuanda ic gesag unriht in fluoc an burgi. 11. An dag in naht umbefangan sal sia ouir mura ira, unreht in arbeit an mitdon iro in unreht. 12. In ne te fuor fan straton iro prisma in losunga. 13. Uuanda of fiunt flukit mi, is tholodit geuuisso; in of thie thie hatoda mi, ouir mi mikila thing spreke, ic burge mi so mohti geburran, fan imo. 14. Thu geuuisso man einmuodigo, leido min in cundo min. 15. Thu samon mit mi suota nami muos, an huse gode giengon uuir mit geluni. 16. Cum dot ouir sia, in nithir stigin an hellon libbinda. Uuanda arheide an selethe iro, an mitdon ini. 17. Ic eft te gode riepo, in herro behielt mi. 18. An auont in an morgan in an mitdondage tellon sal ic, in kundon; in he gehoron sal. 19. Irlosin sal an frithe sela mina fan then, thia ginacont mi, uuanda under managon he uuas mit mi. 20. Gehorun sal got in ginetheron sal sia; thie ist er uueroldi. 21. Ne geuuisso ist ini uuihsil; in ne forchtedon got. Theneda hant sina an uuitherloni. IX. MODERN DUTCH OF HOLLAND. _Mark_, _Chap._ I. 1. Het begin des Evangelies van JEZUS CHRISTUS, den Zoon van God. 2. Gelijk geschreven is in de Profeten: ziet, Ik zend mijnen Engel voor uw aangezigt, die uwen weg voor u heen bereiden zal. 3. De stem des roependen in de woestijn: bereidt den weg des Heeren, maakt zijne paden regt! 4. Johannes was doopende in de woestijn, en predikende den doop der bekeering tot vergeving der zonden. 5. En al het Joodsche land ging tot hem uit, en die van Jerûzalem; en werden allen van hem gedoopt in the rivier de Jordaan, belijdende hunne zonden. 6. En Johannes was gekleed met kemelshaar, en met eenen {600} lederen gordel om zijne lendenen, en at sprinkhannen en wilden honig. 7. En hij predikte, zeggende: na mij komt, die sterker is dan ik, wien ik niet waardig ben, nederbukkende, den riem zijner schoenen te ontbinden. 8. Ik heb ulieden wel gedoopt met water, maar hij zal u doopen met den Heiligen Geest. 9. En het geschiedde in diezelve dagen, dat Jezus kwam van Názareth, _gelegen_ in Galiléa, en werd van Johannes gedoopt in de Jordaan. 10. En terstond, als hij uit het water opklom, zag bij de hemelen opengaan, en den Geest, gelijk eene duive, op hem nederdalen. 11. En er geschiedde eene stem nit de hemelen: gij zijt mijn geliefde Zoon, in denwelken Ik mijn welbehagen heb! 12. En terstond dreef hem de Geest uit in de woestijn. 13. En hij was aldaar in de woestijn vertig dagen, verzocht van den Satan; en was bij de wilde gedierten; en de Engelen dienden hem. 14. En nadat Johannes overgeleverd was, kwam Jezus in Galiléa, predikende het Evangelie van het Koningrijk Gods, 15. En zeggende: de tijd is vervuld, en het Koningrijk Gods nabij gekomen; bekeert u, en gelooft het Evangelie. 16. En wandelende bij de Galilésche zee, zag hij Simon en Andréas, zijnen broeder, werpende het net in de zee (want zij waren visschers); 17 En Jezus zeide tot hen: volgt mij na, en ik zal maken, dat gij visschers der menschen zult worden. 18. En zij, terstond hunne netten verlatende, zijn hem gevolgd. 19. En van daar een weinig voortgegaan zijnde, zag hij Jacobus, den zoon van Zebedéüs, en Johannes, zijnen broeder, en dezelve in het schip hunne netten vermakende. 20. En terstond riep hij hen; en zij, latende hunnen vader Zebedéüs in het schip, met de huurlingen, zijn hem nagevolgd. 21. En zij kwamen binnen Kapernaüm; en terstond op den Sabbatdag in de Synagoge gegaan zijnde, leerde hij. 22. En zij versloegen zich over zijne leer: want hij leerde hen, als magt hebbende, en niet als de Schriftgeleerden. {601} 23. En er was in hunne Synagoge een mensch, met eenen onreinen geest, en hij riep uit, 24. Zeggende: laat af, wat hebben wij met u _te doen_, gij Jezus Nazaréner! zijt gij gekomen, om ons to verderven? Ik ken u, wie gij zijt, _namelijk_ de Heilige Gods. 25. En Jezus bestrafte hem, zeggende: zwijg stil, en ga nit van hem. 26. En de onreine geest, hem scheurende, en roepende met eene groote stem, ging uit van hem. 27. En zij werden allen verbaasd, zoodat zij onder elkander vraagden, zeggende: wat is dit? wat nieuwe leer is deze, dat hij met magt ook den onreineen geesten gebiedt, en zig hem gehoorzaam zijn! 28. En zijn gerucht ging terstond uit, in het geheel omliggen land van Galiléa. 29. En van stonde aan uit de Synagoge gegaan zijnde, kwamen zij in het huis van Simon en Andréas, met Jacobus en Johannes. 30. En Simons vrouws moeder lag met de koorts; en terstond zeiden zij hem van haar. 31. En hij, tot haar gaande, vattede hare hand, en rigtte ze op; en terstond verliet haar de koorts, en zij diende henlieden. 32. Als het nu avond geworden was, toen de zon onderging, bragten zij tot hem allen, die kwalijk gesteld, en van den duivel bezeten waren. 33. En de geheele stad was bijeenvergaderd omtrent de deur. 34. En hij genas er velen, die door verscheidene ziekten kwalijk gesteld waren; en wierpe vele duivelen uit, en liet de duivelen niet toe te spreken, omdat zij hem kenden. 35. En des morgens vroeg, als het nog diep in den nacht was, opgestaan zijnde, ging hij uit, en ging henen in eene woeste plaats, en bad aldaar. 36. En Simon, en die met hem _waren_, zijn hem nagevolgd. 37. En zij hem gevonden hebbende, zeiden tot hem: zig zoeken u allen. 38. En hij zeide tot hen: laat ons in de bijliggende vlekken gaan, opdat ik ook daar predike: want daartoe ben ik uitgegaan. 39. En hij predikte in hunne Synagogen, door geheel Galiléa, en wierp de duivelen uit. 40. En tot hem kwam een melaatsche, biddende hem, en vallende {602} voor hem op de knieën, en tothem zeggende: indien gij wilt, gij kunt mij reinigen. 41. En Jezus, met barmhartigheid innerlijk bewogen zijnde, strekte de hand uit, en raakte hem aan, en zeide tot hem: ik wil, word gereinigd. 42. En als hij _dit_ gezegd had, ging de melaatschheid terstond van hem, en hy werd gereinigd. 43. En als hij hem strengelijk verboden had, deed hij hem terstond van zich gaan; 44. En zeide tot hem: zie, dat gij niemand iets zegt; maar ga heen en vertoon u zelven den Priester, en offer voor uwe reiniging, hetgeen Mozes geboden heeft, hun tot eene getuigenis. 45. Maar hij vitgegaan zijnde, begon vele dingen te verkondigen, en dat woord te verbreiden, alzoo dat hij niet meer openbaar in de stad kon komen, maar was buiten in de woeste plaatsen; en zij kwamen tot hem van alle kanten. X. OLD NORSE. THE DESCENT OF ODIN. _From the Edda of Sæmund. Copenhagen Edition._ 2. Upp reis Óðinn alda gautr, ok hann á Sleipni söðul um lagði; reið hann niðr þaðan Niflheljar til, moetti hann hvelpi þeim er or helju kom. 3. Sá var blóðugr, um brjóst framan, ok galdrs föður gól um lengi. Framm reið Óðinn, foldvegr dundi, hann kom at háfu Heljar ranni. 4. Þá reið Óðinn fyr austan dyrr, þar er hann vissi völu leiði. Nam hann vittugri valgaldr kveða, unz nauðig reis, nás orð um kvað: {603} 5. "Hvat er manna þat mér ókunnra, er mér hefir aukit erfit sinni? var ek snivin snjófi ok slegin regni ok drifin döggu, dauð var ek lengi. 6. "Vegtamr ek heiti, sonr em ek Valtams, segðu mér or helju, ek mun or heimi: hveim eru bekkir baugum sánir, flet fagrlig flóð gulli? 7. "Hér stendr Baldri of brugginn mjöðr, skirar veigar, liggr skjöldr yfir; en ásmegir í ofvæni; nauðug sagðak nú mun ek þegja. 8. "Þegiattu völva! þik vil ek fregna, unz alkunna, vil ek enn vita: hverr mun Baldri at bana verða, ok Oðins son aldri ræna? 9. "Höðr berr háfan hróðrbarm þinnig; hann mun Baldri at bana verða, ok Óðins son aldri ræna; nauðug sagðak, nú mun ek þegja. 10. "Þegiattu völva! þik vil ek fregna, unz alkunna, vil ek enn vita: hverr mun heipt Heði hefnt of vinna eða Baldrs bana á bál vega? 11. "Rindr berr i vostrsölum, sá mun Oðins sonr einnættr vega; bond um þvær né höfuð kembir áðr a bál um berr Baldrs andskota; nauðug sagðak, nú mun ek þegja. 12. "Þegiattu völva! þik vil ek fregna, unz alkunna, vil ek enn vita: hverjar 'ro þær meyjar, er at muni gráta ok á himin verpa hálsa skautum? {604} 13. "Ertattu Vegtamr, sem ek hugða, heldr ertu Óðinn, aldinn gautr." "Ertattu völva né vis kona, heldr ertu þriggja þursa móðir. 14. "Heim rið þú, Óðinn! ok ver hróðigr! svá komit manna meir aptr á vit, er lauss Loki liðr or böndum, ok ragna rök rjúfendr koma." XI. ICELANDIC. _From Snorro's Heimskringla. Translated by Laing._ Y'NGLINGA SAGA. KAP. I. _Her Segir frá Landa Skipan._ Sva er sagt, at kringla heimsins, sú er mannfólkit byggir, er mjök vag-skorin: gánga höf stór úr útsjánum inn í jordina. Er þat kunnigt, at haf gengr af Njorvasundum, ok allt út til Jórsala-lands. Af hafinu gengr lángr hafsbotn til landnordrs, er heitir Svartahaf: sa skilr heims þridjúngana: heitir fyrin austan Asia, en fyrir vestan kalla sumir Evrópa, en sumir Enea. En nordan at Svartahafi gengr Sviþjod in mikla eda in kalda. Svíþjód ena miklu kalla sumir menn ecki minni enn Serkland hít mikla; sumir jafna henni vid Bláland hit mikla. Hinn neyrdri lutr Svíþjódar liggr óbygdr af frosti ok kulda, swa sem hinn sydri lutr Blálands er audr af sólarbruna. I Svíþjód eru stór hérut mörg: þar eru ok margskonar þjodir undarligar, ok margar túngur: þar eru risar, ok þar eru dvergar: þar eru ok blámenn; þar eru dýr ok drekar furdulega stórin. Ur Nordri frá fjöllum þeim, er fyrir utan eru bygd alla, fellr á um Svíþjód, sú er at rettu heitir Tanais; hún var fordum köllut Tanaqvísl edr Vanaquísl; hún kémur til sjávar inu i Svarta-haf. I Vanaqlvíslum var þa kallat Vanaland, edr Vanheimr; sú á skiir heimsþridjúngana; heitir fyrir austan Asia, en fyrir vestan Evrópa. {605} KAP. II. _Frá Asía Mönnum._ Fyrir austan Tanaqvísl í Asía, var kallat Asa-land edr Asaheimr; en höfutborgina, er í var landinu, kölludu þeir Asgard. En í borginni var höfdíngi sá er Odinn var kalladr, þar var blótstadr mikill. Þar var þar sidr at 12 hofgodar vóru æztir; skyldu þeir ráda fyrir blótum ok dómum manna í milli; þat eru Diar kalladir edr drottnar: þeim skyldi þjónustu veita allr folk ok lotníng. Odinn var hermadr mikill ok mjök vidförull, ok eignadiz mörg riki: han var sva Sigrfæll, at í hvörri orustu feck hann gagn. Ok sva kom at hans menn trúdu því, at hann ætti heimilann sigr í hverri orustu. Þat var háttr hans ef ann sendi menn sína til orustu, edr adrar sendifarar, at hann lagdi adr hendur í höfut þeim, ok gaf þeim bjanak; trúdu þeir at þá mundi vel faraz. Sva var ok um hans menn, hvar sem þeir urdu í naudum staddir á sjá edr á landi, þá kölludu þeir á nafn hans, ok þóttuz jafnan fá af þvi fro; þar þottuz þeir ega allt traust er hann var. Hann fór opt sva lángt í brot, at hann dvaldiz í ferdinni mörg misseri. XII. SAGA ÓLAFS KONÚNGS TRYGGVASONAR. _Bardagi í Storð_. Hákon konúngr hafði þá fylkt liði síno, ok segja menn at hann steypti af sèr brynjunni áðr orrostan tækist; Hákon konúngr valdi mjök menn með sèr í hirð at afli ok hreysti, svâ sem gert hafði Haraldr konúngr faðir hans; þar var þá með konúngi Þorálfr hinn sterki Skólmsson, ok gekk á aðra hlið konúngi; hann hafði hjálm ok skjöld, kesju ok sverð þat er kallat var Fetbreiðr; þat var mælt at þeir Hákon konúngr væri jafnsterkir; þessa getr Þórðr Sjáreksson í drápu þeirri er hann orti um Þórálf: Þar er bavðbarðir börðust bands jó draugar landa lystr gekk herr til hjörva hnitz í Storð á Fitjum: ok gimslöngvir gánga gífrs hlèmána drífu nausta blaks hit næsta Norðmanna gram þorði. {606} En er fylkíngar gengu saman, var fyrst skotit spjótum, þvínæst brugðu menn sverðum; Gerðist þá orostan óð ok mannskjæd; Hákon konúngr ok Þórálfr gengu þá fram um merkin ok hjöggu til beggja handa; Hákon konúngr var auðkendr, meiri enn aðrir menn, lýsti ok mjök af hjálmi hans er sólin shein á; þá varð vopnaburðr mikill at konúngi; tók þá Eyvindr Finnsson hatt einn, ok setti yfir hjálm konúngsins; þá kallaði hátt Eyvindr Skreyja: leynist hann nú Norðmanna konúngr, eðr hefir hann flýit, þvíat horfinn er nú gullhjálmrinn? Eyvindr ok Álfr bróðir hans gengu þá hart fram svâ sem óðir ok galnir væri, hjöggu til beggja handa; þa mælti Hákon konúngr hátt til Eyvindar: haltu svâ fram stefnunni ef þú vill finna hann Norðmanna konúng, Var þá skampt at bíða at Eyvindr kom þar, reiddi upp sverþit ok hjó til konúngs; Þórálfr skaut við honum Eyvindi skildinum, svâ at hann stakaði við; konúngr tók þá tveim höndum sverþit Kvernbít, ok hjó til Eyvindar, klauf hjálminn ok höfuðit alt í herþar niðr; í því bili drap Þórálfr Álf Askmann. Svâ segir Eyvindr Skáldaspillir: Veit ek at beit enn bitri byggvíng meðal dyggvan búlka skiðs or báðum benvöndr konúngs höndum: úfælinnklauf ála eldraugar skör hauga gullhjaltaðum galtar grandráðr Dana brandi. Eptir fall þeirra bræðra gekk Hákon konúngr svâ hart fram at alt hravkk fur honum; sló þá felmt ok flótta á lið Eiríks sona, en Hákon konúngr var í öndverðri sinni fylkíng, ok fylgði fast flóttamönnum, ok hjó tídt ok hart; þá fló ör ein, er Fleinn er kallaðr, ok kom í hönd Hákoni konúngi uppi í músina firir neþan öxl, ok er þat margra manna sögn at skósveinn Gunnhildar, sá er Kispíngr er nefndr, ljóp fram í þysinn ok kallaði: gefi rúm konúngs bananum, ok skaut þá fleinnum til konúngs; en sumir segja at engi vissi hverr skaut; má þat ok vel vera, firir því at örvar ok spjót ok önnur skotvâpn flugu svâ þykkt sem drífa; fjöldi manns fèll þar af Eiríks sonum, en honúngarnir allir komust á skipin, ok rèro þegar undan, en Hákonar menn eptir þeim; svâ segir Þórðr Sjáreksson: {607} Varði víga myrðir vídt svá skal frið slíta jöfur vildo þann eldast öndvert fólk á löndum: starf hófst upp, þá er arfi ótta vanr á flótta gulls er gramr var fallinn Gunnhildar kom sunnan. Þrót var sýnt þá er settust sinn róðr við þraum stinna maðr lèt önd ok annarr úfár bændr sárir afreks veit þat er jöfri allríkr í styr slíkum göndlar njörðr sá er gerði gekk næst hugins drekku. XIII. MODERN SWEDISH. FRITHIOFS SAGA. XI. _Frithiof hos Angantyr._ 1. Nu är att säga huru Jarl Angantyr satt än; Uti sin sal af furu, Ock drack med sina män; Han var så glad i hågen, Såg ut åt blånad ban, Der solen sjunk i vågen, Allt som än gyllne svan. 2. Vid fönstret, gamle Halvar Stod utanför på vakt; Hann vaktade med allvar, Gaf ock på mjödet akt. En sed den gamle hade; Hann jemt i botten drack; Ock intet ord hann sade; Blott hornett i hann stack. 3. Nu slängde han det vida I salen in och qvad, "Skepp ser jag böljan rida; Den färden är ej glad. Män ser jag döden nära, Nu lägga de i land: Ock tvenne jättar bära De bleknade på strand." {608} 4. Utöfver böljans spegel, Från salen Jarl såg ned: "Det är Ellidas segel, Och Frithiof, tror jag, med. På gångan och på pannan, Kånns Thorstens son igen: Så blickar ingen annan I Nordens land som den." 5. Från dryckesbord held modig Sprang Atle Viking då: Svartskåggig Berserk, blodig Ock grym at se uppå. "Nu, sad' han, vil jag pröfva, Hvad rycktet ment dermed, At Frithiof svärd kann döfva; Och alldrig ber om fred." 6. Och upp med honom sprungo Hanns bistra kämpar tolf: Med forhand luften stungo, Och svängde svärd ock kolf. De stormade mot stranden, Hvor tröttadt drakskepp stod. Men Frithiof satt å sanden Ock talte kraft och mod. 7. "Lätt kunde jag dig fälla," Shrek Atle med stort gny. "Vill i ditt val dock ställa, Att kämpa eller fly. Men blott on fred du beder Fastän än kämpe hård, Jag som än vän dig leder, Allt up til Jarlens gård." 8. "Väl är jag trött af färden;" Genmälte Frithiof vred, "Dock må vi pröfva svärden, Förr än jag tigger fred." Då såg man stålen ljunga, I solbrun kämpehand; På Angurvadels tunga, Hvar runa stod i brand. 9. Nu skiftas svärdshugg dryga, Och dråpslag hagla nu; Och begges skjöldar flyga, På samma gång itu. De kämpar utan tadel Stå dock i kredsen fast; Men skarpt bet Angurvadel, Och Atles klinga brast. 10. "Mod svärdlös man jag svänger," Sad Frithiof, "ei mitt svärd." Men lyster det dig länger, Vi pröfva annan färd. Som vågor då on hösten, De begge storma an; Ock stållbeklädda brösten, Slå tätt emot hvarann. 11. De brottades som björnar, Uppå sitt fjäll af snö; De spände hop som örnar, Utöfver vredgad sjö. Rodfästad klippa hölle Vel knappast ut att stå; Ock lummig jernek fölle För mindre tag än så. {609} 12. Från pannan svetten lackar, Och bröstet häfves kallt; Och buskar, sten, ock backar, Uppsparkas öfver allt. Med bäfvän slutet bida Stållklädde män å strand; Det brottandet var vida Berömdt i Nordens land. 13. Til slut dock Frithiof fällde Sin fiende til jord, Hann knät mod bröstet ställde, Och tallte vredens ord, "Blott nu mitt svärd jag hade, Du svarte Berserksskägg, Jag genom lifvet lade, På dig den hvassa ägg. 14. "Det skal ei hinder bringa," Sad Atle stolt i håg, "Gå du, ock ta din klinga, Jag licgar som jag låg. Den ena, som den andra, Skal engång Valhall se: Idag skal jag väl vandra; I morgon du kanske." 15. Ei lange Frithiof dröjde; Den lek han sluta vill: Han Angurvadel höjde; Men Atle låg dock still. Det rörde hjeltens sinne; Sin vrede då hann band; Höll midt i huggett inne, Ock tog den fallnes hand. THE END. LONDON: Printed by SAMUEL BENTLEY & CO., Bangor House, Shoe Lane. * * * * * NOTES [1] Qu. the people of _Euten_, in Holstein. [2] Zeus, p. 591. [3] From Zeuss, _v. v. Frisii, Chauci_. [4] The chief works in the two dialects or languages. [5] Probably, for reasons, too long to enter upon, those of Grutungs and Tervings; this latter pointing to Thuringia, the present provincial dialect of which tract was stated, even by Michaelis, to be more like the Moeso-Gothic than any other dialect of Germany. [6] Nearly analogous to _Ostro_-goth, and _Visi_-goth. [7] The meaning of these terms is explained in § 90-92. The order of the cases and genders is from Rask. It is certainly more natural than the usual one. [8] Compare with the Anglo-Saxon adjectives in § 85. [9] Compare with the Anglo-Saxon adjectives in § 85. [10] The syllables _vulg-_, and _Belg-_, are quite as much alike as _Teuton-_, and _Deut-sch_; yet how unreasonable it would be for an Englishman to argue that he was a descendant of the _Belgæ_ because he spoke the _Vulgar_ Tongue. _Mutatis mutandis_, however, this is the exact argument of nine out of ten of the German writers. [11] Tacitus, De Mor. Germ. 40. [12] And on the west of the Old Saxons is the mouth of the river Elbe and Friesland; and then north-west is the land which is called _Angle_ and Sealand, and some part of the Danes. [13] He sailed to the harbour which is called Hæðum, which stands betwixt the Wends (_i.e._ the Wagrian Slaves, for which see § 42) and Saxons, and _Angle_, and belongs to Denmark ... and two days before he came to Hæðum, there was on his starboard Gothland, and Sealand, and many islands. On that land lived _Angles_, before they hither to the land came. [14] Zeus, in _voc_. [15] Zeus, in _voc._ [16] Zeus, in _voc._ [17] See G. D. S. Vol. ii. II. [18] Zeus, p. 492. [19] As in _Amherst_ and _inherent_. [20] The meaning of the note of interrogation is explained in § 148. [21] Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine. [22] Natural History of Man. [23] This list is taken from Smart's valuable and logical English Grammar. [24] As in _Shotover Hill_, near Oxford. [25] As in _Jerusalem artichoke_. [26] A sort of silk. [27] _Ancient Cassio_--"Othello." [28] This class of words was pointed out to me by the very intelligent Reader of my first edition. [29] V. Beknopte Historie van't Vaderland, i. 3, 4. [30] Hist. Manch. b. i. c. 12. [31] Dissertation of the Origin of the Scottish Language.--JAMIESON'S Etymological Dictionary, vol. i. p. 45, 46. [32] Sir W. Betham's Gael and Cymry, c. iii. [33] Scripturæ Linguæque Phoeniciæ Monumenta, iv. 3. [34] To say, for instance, _Chemist_ for _Chymist_, or _vice versâ_; for I give no opinion as to the proper mode of spelling. [35] Mr. Pitman, of Bath, is likely to add to his claims as an orthographist by being engaged in the attempt to determine, inductively, the orthoepy of a certain number of doubtful words. He collects the pronunciations of a large number of educated men, and takes that of the majority as the true one. [36] Gesenius, p. 73. [37] Write one letter twice. [38] Rev. W. Harvey, author of Ecclesiæ Anglicanæ Vindex Catholicus. [39] Murray's Grammar, vol. i. p. 79. [40] Used as adverbs. [41] Used as the plurals of _he_, _she_, and _it_. [42] Different from _ilk_. [43] Guest, ii. 192. [44] Or _call-s._ [45] _Thou s_a_ngest_, _thou dr_a_nkest_, &c.--For a reason given in the sequel, these forms are less unexceptionable than _s_u_ngest_, _dr_u_nkest_, &c. [46] Antiquated. [47] As the present section is written with the single view of illustrating the subject, no mention has been made of the forms [Greek: tupô] (_typô_), and [Greek: etupon] (_etypon_). [48] Obsolete. [49] Obsolete. [50] Obsolete. [51] The forms marked thus^{[51]} are either obsolete or provincial. [52] Obsolete. [53] Sounded _wun_. [54] Obsolete. [55] Præterite, or Perfect. [56] Philological Museum, ii. p. 387. [57] Vol. ii. p. 203. [58] Found rarely; bist being the current form.--Deutsche Grammatik, i. 894. [59] _Over, under, after._--These, although derived forms, are not prepositions of derivation; since it is not by the affix _-er_ that they are made prepositions. _He went over_, _he went under_, _he went after_--these sentences prove the forms to be as much adverbial as prepositional. [60] In the first edition of this work I wrote, "Verbs substantive govern the nominative case." Upon this Mr. Connon, in his "System of English Grammar," remarks, "The idea of the _nominative_ being _governed_ is contrary to all received notions of grammar. I consider that the verb _to be_, in all its parts, acts merely as a connective, and can have no effect in governing anything." Of Mr. Connon's two reasons, the second is so sufficient that it ought to have stood alone. The true view of the so-called verb substantive is that it is no verb at all, but only the fraction of one. Hence, what I wrote was inaccurate. As to the question of the impropriety of considering nominative cases fit subjects for government it is a matter of definition. [61] The paper _On certain tenses attributed to the Greek verb_ has already been quoted. The author, however, of the doctrine on the use of _shall_ and _will_, is not the author of the doctrine alluded to in the Chapter on the Tenses. There are, in the same number of the Philological Museum, two papers under one title: first, the text by a writer who signs himself T. F. B.; and, next, a comment, by the editor, signed J. C. H. (Julius Charles Hare). The _usus ethicus_ of the future is due to Archdeacon Hare; the question being brought in incidentally and by way of illustration. The subject of the original paper was the nature of the so-called second aorists, second futures, and preterite middles. These were held to be no separate tenses, but irregular forms of the same tense. Undoubtedly this has long been an opinion amongst scholars; and the writer of the comments is quite right in stating that it is no novelty to the learned world. I think, however, that in putting this forward as the chief point in the original paper, he does the author somewhat less than justice. His merit, in my eyes, seems to consist, not in showing that real forms of the _aoristus secundus_, _futurum secundum_, and _præteritum medium_ were either rare or equivocal (this having been done before), but in illustrating his point from the English language; in showing that between double forms like [Greek: sunelechthên] and [Greek: sunelegên], and double forms like _hang_ and _hanged_, there was only a difference in degree (if there was that), not of kind; and, finally, in enouncing the very legitimate inference, that either we had two preterites, or that the Greeks had only one. "Now, if the circumstances of the Greek and English, in regard to these two tenses, are so precisely parallel, a simple and obvious inquiry arises, Which are in the right, the Greek grammarians or our own? For either ours must be wrong in not having fitted up for our verb the framework of a first and second preterite, teaching the pupil to say, 1st pret. _I finded_, 2d pret. _I found_; 1st pret. _I glided_, 2d pret. _I glode_: or the others must be so in teaching the learner to imagine two aorists for [Greek: heuriskô], as, aor. 1, [Greek: heurêsa], aor. 2, [Greek: heuron]; or for [Greek: akouô], aor. 1, [Greek: êkousa], aor. 2, [Greek: êkoon]."--p. 198. The inference is, that of the two languages it is the English that is in the right. Now the following remarks, in the comment, upon this inference are a step in the wrong direction:--"The comparison, I grant, is perfectly just; but is it a just inference from that comparison, that we ought to alter the system of our Greek grammars, which has been drawn up at the cost of so much learning and thought, for the sake of adapting it to the system, if system it can be called, of our own grammars, which are seldom remarkable for anything else than their slovenliness, their ignorance, and their presumption? Is the higher to be brought down to the level of the baser? is Apollo to be drest out in a coat and waistcoat? Rather might it be deemed advisable to remodel the system of our own grammars." This, whether right or wrong as a broad assertion, was, in the case in hand, irrelevant. No _general_ superiority had been claimed for the English grammars. For all that had been stated in the original paper they might, as compared with the Greek and Latin, be wrong in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred. All that was claimed for them was that they were right in the present instance; just as for a clock that stands may be claimed the credit of being right once in every twelve hours. That the inference in favour of altering the _system_ of the Greek grammars is illegitimate is most undeniably true; but then it is an inference of the critic's not of the author's. As the illustration in question has always seemed to me of great value,--although it may easily be less original than I imagine,--I have gone thus far towards putting it in a proper light. Taking up the question where it is left by the two writers in question, we find that the difficulties of the so-called _second_ tenses in Greek are met by reducing them to the same tense in different conjugations; and, according to the current views of grammarians, this is a point gained. Is it so really? Is it not rather the substitution of one difficulty for another? A second conjugation is a second mode of expressing the same idea, and a second tense is no more. Real criticism is as unwilling to multiply the one as the other. Furthermore, the tendency of English criticism is towards the very doctrines which the Greek grammarian wishes to get rid of. _We_ have the difficulty of a second conjugation: but, on the other hand, instead of four past tenses (an imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, and aorist), we have only one (the aorist). Now, when we find that good reasons can be given for supposing that the strong preterite in the Gothic languages was once a reduplicate perfect, we are at liberty to suppose that what is now the same tense under two forms, was, originally, different tenses. Hence, in English, we avoid the difficulty of a second conjugation by the very same process which we eschew in Greek; viz., the assumption of a second _tense_. But this we can do, as we have a tense to spare. Will any process reconcile this conflict of difficulties? I submit to scholars the following hypotheses:-- 1. That the _true_ second future in Greek (_i.e._, the future of verbs with a liquid as a characteristic) is a variety of the _present_, formed by accentuating the last syllable; just as _I beát you_=_I will beat you_. 2. That this accent effects a change on the quantity and nature of the vowel of the penultimate. 3. That the second aorist is an _imperfect_ formed from this secondary present. 4. That the so-called perfect middle is a similar perfect active. [62] Transactions of Philological Society. No. 90, Jan. 25, 1850. [63] Notwithstanding the extent to which a relative may take the appearance of conjunction, there is always one unequivocal method of deciding its true nature. The relative is always a _part_ of the second proposition. A conjunction is _no part_ of either. [64] Unless another view be taken of the construction, and it be argued that [Greek: edôke] is, etymologically speaking, no aorist but a perfect. In form, it is almost as much one tense as another. If it wants the reduplication of the perfect, it has the perfect characteristic [kappa], to the exclusion of the aorist [sigma]; and thus far the evidence is equal. The persons, however, are more aorist than perfect. For one of Mathiæ's aorists ([Greek: methêke]) a still better case might be made, showing it to be, even in etymology, more perfect than aorist. [Greek: Kteinei me chrusou, ton talaipôron, charin] [Greek: Xenos patrôios, kai ktanôn es oidm' halos] [Greek: Methêch', hin' autos chruson en domois echêi.] [Greek: Keimai d' ep' aktais.] Eur. _Hec._ [65] It is almost unnecessary to state that the sentence quoted in the text is really a beautiful couplet of Withers's poetry _transposed_. It was advisable to do this, for the sake of guarding against the effect of the rhyme. To have written, What care I how fair she _is_ If she be not fair to me? would have made the grammar seem worse than it really was, by disappointing the reader of a rhyme. On the other hand, to have written, What care I how fair she _were_, If she were not kind as _fair_? would have made the grammar seem better than it really was, by supplying one. [66] In the first edition of the present work I inaccurately stated that _neither_ should take a plural and _either_ a singular verb; adding that "in predicating something concerning _neither you nor I_, a negative assertion is made concerning _both_. In predicating something concerning _either you or I_, a positive assertion is made concerning _one of two_." This Mr. Connon (p. 129) has truly stated to be at variance with the principles laid down by me elsewhere. [67] Latin Prose Composition, p. 123. [68] Quoted from Guest's English Rhythms. [69] To the definition in the text, words like _old_ and _bold_ form no exception. At the first view it may be objected that in words like _old_ there is no part preceding the vowel. Compared, however, with _bold_, the negation of that part constitutes a difference. The same applies to words like _go_ and _lo_, where the negation of a part following the vowel is a point of identity. Furthermore, I may observe, that the word _part_ is used in the singular number. The assertion is not that every individual sound preceding the vowel must be different, but that the aggregate of them must be so. Hence, _pray_ and _bray_ (where the _r_ is common to both forms) form as true a rhyme as _bray_ and _play_, where all the sounds preceding _a_, differ. [70] For _prosópa_. The Greek has been transliterated into English for the sake of showing the effect of the accents more conveniently. [71] For the sake of showing the extent to which the _accentual element_ must be recognised in the classical metres, I reprint the following paper On the Doctrine of the Cæsura in the Greek senarius, from the Transactions of the Philological Society, June 23, 1843:-- "In respect to the cæsura of the Greek tragic senarius, the rules, as laid down by Porson in the Supplement to his Preface to the Hecuba, and as recognized, more or less, by the English school of critics, seem capable of a more general expression, and, at the same time, liable to certain limitations in regard to fact. This becomes apparent when we investigate the principle that serves as the foundation to these rules; in other words, when we exhibit the _rationale_, or doctrine, of the cæsura in question. At this we can arrive by taking cognizance of a second element of metre beyond that of quantity. "It is assumed that the element in metre which goes, in works of different writers, under the name of ictus metricus, or of arsis, is the same as accent, _in the sense of that word in English_. It is this that constitutes the difference between words like _týrant_ and _resúme_, or _súrvey_ and _survéy_; or (to take more convenient examples) between the word _Aúgust_, used as the name of a month, and _augúst_, used as an adjective. Without inquiring how far this coincides with the accent and accentuation of the classical grammarians, it may be stated that, in the forthcoming pages, arsis, ictus metricus, and accent (_in the English sense of the word_), mean one and the same thing. With this view of the arsis, or ictus, we may ask how far, in each particular foot of the senarius, it coincides with the quantity. _First Foot._--In the first place of a tragic senarius it is a matter of indifference whether the arsis fall on the first or second syllable; that is, it is a matter of indifference whether the foot be sounded as _týrant_ or as _resúme_, as _Aúgust_ or as _augúst_. In the following lines the words [Greek: hêkô], [Greek: palai], [Greek: eiper], [Greek: tinas], may be pronounced either as [Greek: hê´kô], [Greek: pa´lai], [Greek: ei´per], [Greek: ti´nas], or as [Greek: hêkô´], [Greek: palai´], [Greek: eiper´], [Greek: tina´s], without any detriment to the character of the line wherein they occur. [Greek: Hê´kô nekrôn keuthmôna kai skotou pulas.] [Greek: Pa´lai kunêgetounta kai metroumenon.] [Greek: Ei´per dikaios esth' emos ta patrothen.] [Greek: Ti´nas poth' hedras tasde moi thoazete.] or, [Greek: Hêkô´ nekrôn keuthmôna kai skotou pulas.] [Greek: Palai´ kunêgetounta kai metroumenon.] [Greek: Eiper´ dikaios esth' emos ta patrothen.] [Greek: Tina´s poth' hedras tasde moi thoazete.] _Second Foot._--In the second place, it is also a matter of indifference whether the foot be sounded as _Aúgust_ or as _augúst_. In the first of the four lines quoted above we may say either [Greek: ne´krôn] or [Greek: nekrô´n], without violating the rhythm of the verse. _Third Foot._--In this part of the senarius it is no longer a matter of indifference whether the foot be sounded as _Aúgust_ or as _augúst_; that is, it is no longer a matter of indifference whether the arsis and the quantity coincide. In the circumstance that the last syllable of the third foot _must_ be accented (in the English sense of the word), taken along with a second fact, soon about to be exhibited, lies the doctrine of the penthimimer and hepthimimer cæsuras. The proof of the coincidence between the arsis and the quantity in the third foot is derived partly from _a posteriori_, partly from _a priori_ evidence. 1. In the Supplices of Æschylus, the Persæ, and the Bacchæ, three dramas where licences in regard to metre are pre-eminently common, the number of lines wherein the sixth syllable (_i. e._, the last half of the third foot) is without an arsis, is at the highest sixteen, at the lowest five; whilst in the remainder of the extant dramas the proportion is undoubtedly smaller. 2. In all lines where the sixth syllable is destitute of ictus, the iambic character is violated: as [Greek: Thrêkên perasa´ntes mogis pollôi ponôi.] [Greek: Duoin gerontoi´n de stratêgeitai phugê.] These are facts which may be verified either by referring to the tragedians, or by constructing senarii like the lines last quoted. The only difficulty that occurs arises in determining, in a dead language like the Greek, the absence or presence of the arsis. In this matter the writer had satisfied himself of the truth of the two following propositions:--1. That the accentuation of the grammarians denotes some modification of pronunciation other than that which constitutes the difference between _Aúgust_ and _augúst_; since, if it were not so, the word [Greek: angelon] would be sounded like _mérrily_, and the word [Greek: angelôn] like _disáble_; which is improbable, 2. That the arsis lies upon radical rather than inflectional syllables, and out of two inflectional syllables upon the first rather than the second; as [Greek: ble´p-ô, bleps-a´s-a], not [Greek: blep-ô´, bleps-as-a´]. The evidence upon these points is derived from the structure of language in general. The _onus probandi_ lies with the author who presumes an arsis (accent in the English sense) on a _non_-radical syllable. Doubts, however, as to the pronunciation of certain words, leave the precise number of lines violating the rule given above undetermined. It is considered sufficient to show that wherever they occur the iambic character is violated. The circumstance, however, of the last half of the third foot requiring an arsis, brings us only half way towards the doctrine of the cæsura. With this must be combined a second fact, arising out of the constitution of the Greek language in respect to its accent. In accordance with the views just exhibited, the author conceives that no Greek word has an arsis upon the last syllable, except in the three following cases:-- 1. Monosyllables, not enclitic; as [Greek: sphô´n, pa´s, chthô´n, dmô´s, nô´n, nu´n], &c. 2. Circumflex futures; as [Greek: nemô´, temô´], &c. 3. Words abbreviated by apocope; in which case the penultimate is converted into a final syllable; [Greek: dô´m', pheides´th', kentei´t', egô´g'], &c. Now the fact of a syllable with an arsis being, in Greek, rarely final, taken along with that of the sixth syllable requiring, in the senarius, an arsis, gives as a matter of necessity, the circumstance that, in the Greek drama, the sixth syllable shall occur anywhere rather than at the end of a word; and this is only another way of saying, that, in a tragic senarius, the syllable in question shall generally be followed by other syllables in the same word. All this the author considers as so truly a matter of necessity, that the objection to his view of the Greek cæsura must lie either against his idea of the nature of the accents, or nowhere; since, that being admitted, the rest follows of course. As the sixth syllable must not be final, it must be followed in the same word by one syllable, or by more than one. 1. _The sixth syllable followed by one syllable in the same word._--This is only another name for the seventh syllable occurring at the end of a word, and it gives at once the hepthimimer cæsura: as [Greek: Hêkô nekrôn keuthmô´na kai skotou pulas.] [Greek: Hiktêriois kladoi´sin exestemmenoi.] [Greek: Homou te paianô´n te kai stenagmatôn.] 2. _The sixth syllables followed by two_ (_or more_) _syllables in the same word_. This is only another name for the eighth (or some syllable after the eighth) syllable occurring at the end of a word; as [Greek: Odmê broteiôn hai´matôn me prosgela.] [Greek: Lamprous dunastas em´prepontas aitheri.] Now this arrangement of syllables, taken by itself, gives anything rather than a hepthimimer; so that if it was at this point that our investigations terminated, little would be done towards the evolution of the _rationale_ of the cæsura. It will appear, however, that in those cases where the circumstance of the sixth syllable being followed by two others in the same words, causes the eighth (or some syllable after the eighth) to be final, either a penthimimer cæsura, or an equivalent, will, with but few exceptions, be the result. This we may prove by taking the eighth syllable and counting back from it. What _follows_ this syllable is immaterial: it is the number of syllables in the same word that _precedes_ it that demands attention. 1. _The eighth syllable preceded in the same word by nothing._--This is equivalent to the seventh syllable at the end of the preceding word: a state of things which, as noticed above, gives the hepthimimer cæsura. [Greek: Anêrithmon gela´sma pam|mêtor de gê.] 2. _The eighth syllable preceded in the same word by one syllable._--This is equivalent to the sixth syllable at the end of the word preceding; a state of things which, as noticed above, rarely occurs. When however it does occur, one of the three conditions under which a final syllable can take an arsis must accompany it. Each of these conditions requires notice. [alpha]). With a non-enclitic _mono_-syllable the result is a penthimimer cæsura; since the syllable preceding a monosyllable is necessarily final. [Greek: Hêkô sebi´zôn so´n Klu´tai|mnêstra kratos.] No remark has been made by critics upon lines constructed in this manner, since the cæsura is a penthimimer, and consequently their rules are undisturbed. [beta]). With _poly_-syllabic circumflex futures constituting the third foot, there would be a violation of the current rules respecting the cæsura. Notwithstanding this, if the views of the present paper be true, there would be no violation of the iambic character of the senarius. Against such a line as [Greek: Kagô to son nemô´ pothei|non aulion] there is no argument _a priori_ on the score of the iambic character being violated; whilst in respect to objections derived from evidence _a posteriori_, there is sufficient reason for such lines being rare. [gamma]). With _poly_-syllables abbreviated by apocope, we have the state of things which the metrists have recognised under the name of quasi-cæsura; as [Greek: Kenteite mê pheide´sth' egô | 'tekon Parin.] 3. _The eighth syllable preceded in the same word by two syllables._--This is equivalent to the fifth syllable occurring at the end of the word preceding: a state of things which gives the penthimimer cæsura; as [Greek: Odmê broteiôn hai´ matôn | me prosgela.] [Greek: Lamprous dunastas em´prepon tas aitheri.] [Greek: Apsuchon eikô pro´sgelôisa sômatos.] 4. _The eighth syllable preceded in the same word by three or more than three syllables._--This is equivalent to the fourth (or some syllable preceding the fourth) syllable occurring at the end of the word preceding; a state of things which would include the third and fourth feet in one and the same word. This concurrence is denounced in the Supplement to the Preface to the Hecuba; where, however, the rule, as in the case of the quasi-cæsura, from being based upon merely empirical evidence, requires limitation. In lines like [Greek: Kai talla poll' epei´kasai | dikaion ên,] or (an imaginary example), [Greek: Tois soisin aspidê´strophois|in andrasi,] there is no violation of the iambic character, and consequently no reason against similar lines having been written; although from the average proportion of Greek words like [Greek: epeikasai] and [Greek: aspidêstrophoisin], there is every reason for their being rare. After the details just given, the recapitulation is brief. 1. It was essential to the character of the senarius that the sixth syllable, or latter half of the third foot, should have an arsis, ictus metricus, or accent in the English sense. To this condition of the iambic rhythm the Greek tragedians, either consciously or unconsciously, adhered. 2. It was the character of the Greek language to admit an arsis on the last syllable of a word only under circumstances comparatively rare. 3. These two facts, taken together, caused the sixth syllable of a line to be anywhere rather than at the end of a word. 4. If followed by a single syllable in the same word, the result was a hepthimimer cæsura. 5. If followed by more syllables than one, some syllable in an earlier part of the line ended the word preceding, and so caused either a penthimimer, a quasi-cæsura, or the occurrence of the third and fourth foot in the same word. 6. As these two last-mentioned circumstances were rare, the general phænomenon presented in the Greek senarius was the occurrence of either the penthimimer or hepthimimer. 7. Respecting these two sorts of cæsura, the rules, instead of being exhibited in detail, may be replaced by the simple assertion that there should be an arsis on the sixth syllable. From this the rest follows. 8. Respecting the non-occurrence of the third and fourth feet in the same word, the assertion may be withdrawn entirely. 9. Respecting the quasi-cæsura, the rules, if not altogether withdrawn, may be extended to the admission of the last syllable of circumflex futures (or to any other polysyllables with an equal claim to be considered accented on the last syllable) in the latter half of the third foot. [72] _Sceolon_, _aron_, and a few similar words, are no real exceptions, being in structure not present tenses but preterites. [73] Quarterly Review, No. clxiv. [74] Quarterly Review, No. clxiv. [75] From the Quarterly Review, No. cx. [76] From the Quarterly Review, No. cx. [77] Apparently a _lapsus calami_ for _spede_. [78] J. M. Kemble, "On Anglo-Saxon Runes," _Archæologia_, vol. xxviii. [79] But not of _Great Britain_. The Lowland Scotch is, probably, more Danish than any South-British dialect. [80] In opposition to the typical Northumbrian. [81] Quarterly Review--_ut supra_. [82] The subject is a Lincolnshire tradition; the language, also, is pre-eminently Danish. On the other hand, the modern Lincolnshire dialect is by no means evidently descended from it. [83] For some few details see Phil. Trans., No. 36. [84] Transactions of the Philological Society. No. 93. [85] Philological Transactions. No. 84. [86] Transactions of the Philological Society, No. 92. [87] Quarterly Review, vol. xliii. * * * * * Changes made against printed original. Page xxv. "227. The combination _-pth_": 'combinations' in original. Page xxxiv. "465, 466. The Slavonic præterite": 'pærterite' in original. Page xli. "676, 677. Rhyme--its parts": '677, 677' in original. Page 3, § 9. "The south-eastern parts of Scotland": 'south-western' in original (compare 'south-eastern', 2 sentences earlier). Page 6, § 13(3c). "half a century earlier than the epoch of Hengist": 'earlier that' in original. Page 50. § 94. "certain Anglo-Saxon inflections.": 'Anglo-Saxons' in original. Ibid. "hér, déde, bréda, Frisian;": 'Frisian; Fris.' in original. Ibid. "ju=y or eo": 'eo' omitted in original. Page 71. § 127. "a population originating in places": 'orginating' in original. Page 112. § 174. "Smiðum however, is a single": 'Smðium' in original. Page 143. § 198. "Concerning the consonants as a class": 'vowels' (for 'consonants') in original. Page 150. § 212. Table, first row, Lene Flat: "b": 'v' in original (compare § 203). Page 158. § 227. "the þ is a (so-called) aspirate": 'the f' in original. Ibid. "the second may be accommodated to the first, tupt": 'tuft' in original. Page 160. § 229. "ð to d": 'þ to d' in original. Page 161. § 231. "the v in fever": 'the e' in original. Page 194. § 255. "the statement ... that ... the c is mute": 'the k' in original. Page 202. § 258. "17. Pe Pi.": '17. Pi Phi.' in original. Page 265. § 315. "se scearpeste sweord": 'sword' in original. Page 286. § 340. "In Anglo-Saxon the termination -ing": 'terminations' in original. Page 300. § 355. "I ate ... we ate": 'ete' for 'ate' (twice) in original. Page 301. Ibid. "swungon, we swung": 'swangon' in original (does not fit criterion for this table). Page 323. § 382. "accounting for the -s in must": 'in most' in original. Page 324. § 382. "wit, wot, wiss, wist": 'wit, wot, wiss, wsst' in original. Page 356. § 411. "the word rose prefixed": 'the word tree prefixed' in original (the same as the contrary case). Page 368. § 426(II). "form another order": 'from another order' in original. Page 398. § 479. "the words Roman emperor might be wholly ejected": 'the word' in original. Page 411. § 507. "in the indicative and subjunctive moods": 'is the' in original. Page 434. § 545. "the analogy between the words there and it": 'these and it' in original. Page 465. § 581. "will be taken up in p. 475": '§ 475' in original. Page 482. § 606. "a pair of propositions connected by the conjunction": 'prepositions' in original. Page 490. § 617. "4. Let tupsaimi be considered an aorist subjunctive": 'on aorist' in original. Page 562. § 709. "distinguished by their origin only": 'distinguised' in original. Footnote 8. "the Anglo-Saxon adjectives in § 85": '§ 20' in original. Footnote 63. "deciding its true nature": 'rue nature' in original. 
38538	----	Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they are listed at the end of the text. * * * * * In this version [=e] signifies "e macron"; [)e] "e breve"; [.e] "e with dot above"; and so forth. CHAMBERS'S TWENTIETH CENTURY DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE PRONOUNCING, EXPLANATORY, ETYMOLOGICAL, WITH COMPOUND PHRASES, TECHNICAL TERMS IN USE IN THE ARTS AND SCIENCES, COLLOQUIALISMS, FULL APPENDICES, AND COPIOUSLY ILLUSTRATED EDITED BY REV. THOMAS DAVIDSON ASSISTANT-EDITOR OF 'CHAMBERS'S ENCYCLOPÆDIA' EDITOR OF 'CHAMBERS'S ENGLISH DICTIONARY' LONDON: 47 Paternoster Row W. & R. CHAMBERS, LIMITED EDINBURGH: 339 High Street 1908 EXPLANATIONS TO THE STUDENT. THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE WORDS.--Every word is given in its _alphabetical_ order, except in cases where, to save space, derivatives are given after and under the words from which they are derived. Each uncompounded verb has its participles, when irregular, placed after it. Exceptional plurals are also given. When a word stands after another, with no meaning given, its meanings can be at once formed from those of the latter, by adding the signification of the affix: thus the meanings of _Darkness_ are obtained by prefixing the meaning of _ness_, _state of being_, to those of _Dark_. Many words from French and other tongues, current in English usage, but not yet fairly Anglicised, are inserted in the list of Foreign Phrases, &c., at the end, rather than in the body of the Dictionary. THE PRONUNCIATION.--The Pronunciation is given immediately after each word, by the word being spelled anew. In this new spelling, every consonant used has its ordinary unvarying sound, _no consonant being employed that has more than one sound_. The same sounds are always represented by the same letters, no matter how varied their actual spelling in the language. No consonant used has any mark attached to it, with the one exception of _th_, which is printed in common letters when sounded as in _thick_, but in italics when sounded as in _th_en. _Unmarked vowels_ have always their short sounds, as in _lad_, _led_, _lid_, _lot_, _but_, _book_. The _marked vowels_ are shown in the following line, which is printed at the top of each page:-- f[=a]te, fär; m[=e], h[.e]r; m[=i]ne; m[=o]te; m[=u]te; m[=oo]n; _th_en. The vowel _u_ when marked thus, _ü_, has the sound heard in Scotch _bluid_, _gude_, the French _du_, almost that of the German _ü_ in _Müller_. Where more than one pronunciation of a word is given, that which is placed first is more accepted. THE SPELLING.--When more than one form of a word is given, that which is placed first is the spelling in current English use. Unfortunately our modern spelling does not represent the English we actually speak, but rather the language of the 16th century, up to which period, generally speaking, English spelling was mainly phonetic, like the present German. The fundamental principle of all rational spelling is no doubt the representation of every sound by an invariable symbol, but in modern English the usage of pronunciation has drifted far from the conventional forms established by a traditional orthography, with the result that the present spelling of our written speech is to a large extent a mere exercise of memory, full of confusing anomalies and imperfections, and involving an enormous and unnecessary strain on the faculties of learners. Spelling reform is indeed an imperative necessity, but it must proceed with a wise moderation, for, in the words of Mr Sweet, 'nothing can be done without unanimity, and until the majority of the community are convinced of the superiority of some one system unanimity is impossible.' The true path of progress should follow such wisely moderate counsels as those of Dr J. A. H. Murray:--the dropping of the final or inflexional silent _e_; the restoration of the historical _-t_ after breath consonants; uniformity in the employment of double consonants, as in _traveler_, &c.; the discarding of _ue_ in words like _demagogue_ and _catalogue_; the uniform levelling of the agent _-our_ into _-or_; the making of _ea = [)e]_ short into _e_ and the long _ie_ into _ee_; the restoration of _some_, _come_, _tongue_, to their old English forms, _sum_, _cum_, _tung_; a more extended use of _z_ in the body of words, as _chozen_, _praize_, _raize_; and the correction of the worst individual monstrosities, as _foreign_, _scent_, _scythe_, _ache_, _debt_, _people_, _parliament_, _court_, _would_, _sceptic_, _phthisis_, _queue_, _schedule_, _twopence-halfpenny_, _yeoman_, _sieve_, _gauge_, _barque_, _buoy_, _yacht_, &c. Already in America a moderate degree of spelling reform may be said to be established in good usage, by the adoption of _-or_ for _-our_, as _color_, _labor_, &c.; of _-er_ for _-re_, as _center_, _meter_, &c.; _-ize_ for _-ise_, as _civilize_, &c.; the use of a uniform single consonant after an unaccented vowel, as _traveler_ for _traveller_; the adoption of _e_ for _oe_ or _æ_ in _hemorrhage_, _diarrhea_, &c. THE MEANINGS.--The current and most important meaning of a word is usually given first. But in cases like _Clerk_, _Livery_, _Marshal_, where the force of the word can be made much clearer by tracing its history, the original meaning is also given, and the successive variations of its usage defined. THE ETYMOLOGY.--The Etymology of each word is given after the meanings, within brackets. Where further information regarding a word is given elsewhere, it is so indicated by a reference. It must be noted under the etymology that whenever a word is printed thus, BAN, BASE, the student is referred to it; also that here the sign--is always to be read as meaning 'derived from.' Examples are generally given of words that are cognate or correspond to the English words; but it must be remembered that they are inserted merely for illustration. Such words are usually separated from the rest by a semicolon. For instance, when an English word is traced to its Anglo-Saxon form, and then a German word is given, no one should suppose that our English word is derived from the German. German and Anglo-Saxon are alike branches from a common Teutonic stem, and have seldom borrowed from each other. Under each word the force of the prefix is usually given, though not the affix. For fuller explanation in such cases the student is referred to the list of Prefixes and Suffixes in the Appendix. * * * * * LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THIS DICTIONARY. _aor._ aorist. _abbrev._ abbreviation. _abl._ ablative. _acc._ according. _accus._ accusative. _adj._ adjective. _adv._ adverb. _agri._ agriculture. _alg._ algebra. _anat._ anatomy. _app._ apparently. _arch._ archaic. _archit._ architecture. _arith._ arithmetic. _astrol._ astrology. _astron._ astronomy. _attrib._ attributive. _augm._ augmentative. _B._ Bible. _biol._ biology. _book-k._ book-keeping. _bot._ botany. _c._ (_circa_) about. _c._, _cent._ century. _carp._ carpentry. _cf._ compare. _chem._ chemistry. _cog._ cognate. _coll._, _colloq._ colloquially. _comp._ comparative. _conch._ conchology. _conj._ conjunction. _conn._ connected. _contr._ contracted. _cook._ cookery. _corr._ corruption. _crystal._ crystallography. _dat._ dative. _demons._ demonstrative. _der._ derivation. _dial._ dialect, dialectal. _Dict._ Dictionary. _dim._ diminutive. _dub._ doubtful. _eccles._ ecclesiastical history. _e.g._ for example. _elect._ electricity. _entom._ entomology. _esp._ especially. _ety._ etymology. _fem._ feminine. _fig._ figuratively. _fol._ followed; following. _fort._ fortification. _freq._ frequentative. _fut._ future. _gen._ genitive. _gener._ generally. _geog._ geography. _geol._ geology. _geom._ geometry. _ger._ gerundive. _gram._ grammar. _gun._ gunnery. _her._ heraldry. _hist._ history. _hort._ horticulture. _hum._ humorous. _i.e._ that is. _imit._ imitative. _imper._ imperative. _impers._ impersonal. _indic._ indicative. _infin._ infinitive. _inten._ intensive. _interj._ interjection. _interrog._ interrogative. _jew._ jewellery. _lit._ literally. _mach._ machinery. _masc._ masculine. _math._ mathematics. _mech._ mechanics. _med._ medicine. _metaph._ metaphysics. _mil._ military. _Milt._ Milton. _min._ mineralogy. _mod._ modern. _Mt._ Mount. _mus._ music. _myth._ mythology. _n._, _ns._ noun, nouns. _nat. hist._ natural history. _naut._ nautical. _neg._ negative. _neut._ neuter. _n.pl._ noun plural. _n.sing._ noun singular. _N.T._ New Testament. _obs._ obsolete. _opp._ opposed. _opt._ optics. _orig._ originally. _ornith._ ornithology. _O.S._ old style. _O.T._ Old Testament. _p._, _part._ participle. _p.adj._ participial adjective. _paint._ painting. _paleog._ paleography. _paleon._ paleontology. _palm._ palmistry. _pa.p._ past participle. _pass._ passive. _pa.t._ past tense. _path._ pathology. _perf._ perfect. _perh._ perhaps. _pers._ person. _pfx._ prefix. _phil._, _philos._ philosophy. _philol._ philology. _phon._ phonetics. _phot._ photography. _phrenol._ phrenology. _phys._ physics. _physiol._ physiology. _pl._ plural. _poet._ poetical. _pol. econ._ political economy. _poss._ possessive. _Pr.Bk._ Book of Common Prayer. _pr.p._ present participle. _prep._ preposition. _pres._ present. _print._ printing. _priv._ privative. _prob._ probably. _Prof._ Professor. _pron._ pronoun; pronounced; pronunciation. _prop._ properly. _pros._ prosody. _prov._ provincial. _q.v._ which see. _R.C._ Roman Catholic. _recip._ reciprocal. _redup._ reduplication. _refl._ reflexive. _rel._ related; relative. _rhet._ rhetoric. _sculp._ sculpture. _Shak._ Shakespeare. _sig._ signifying. _sing._ singular. _spec._ specifically. _Spens_. Spenser. _subj._ subjunctive. _suff._ suffix. _superl._ superlative. _surg._ surgery. _term._ termination. _teleg._ telegraphy. _Tenn._ Tennyson. _Test._ Testament. _theat._ theatre; theatricals. _theol._ theology. _trig._ trigonometry. _ult._ ultimately. _v.i._ verb intransitive. _voc._ vocative. _v.t._ verb transitive. _vul._ vulgar. _zool._ zoology. * * * * * Amer. American. Ar. Arabic. A.S. Anglo-Saxon. Austr. Australian. Bav. Bavarian. Beng. Bengali. Bohem. Bohemian. Braz. Brazilian. Bret. Breton. Carib. Caribbean. Celt. Celtic. Chal. Chaldean. Chin. Chinese. Corn. Cornish. Dan. Danish. Dut. Dutch. Egypt. Egyptian. Eng. English. Finn. Finnish. Flem. Flemish. Fr. French. Fris. Frisian. Gael. Gaelic. Ger. German. Goth. Gothic. Gr. Greek. Heb. Hebrew. Hind. Hindustani. Hung. Hungarian. Ice. Icelandic. Ind. Indian. Ion. Ionic. Ir. Irish. It. Italian. Jap. Japanese. Jav. Javanese. L. Latin. Lith. Lithuanian. L. L. Low or Late Latin. M. E. Middle English. Mex. Mexican. Norm. Norman. Norw. Norwegian. O. Fr. Old French. Pers. Persian. Peruv. Peruvian. Pol. Polish. Port. Portuguese. Prov. Provençal. Rom. Romance. Russ. Russian Sans. Sanskrit. Scand. Scandinavian. Scot. Scottish. Singh. Singhalese. Slav. Slavonic. Sp. Spanish. Sw. Swedish. Teut. Teutonic. Turk. Turkish. U.S. United States. W. Welsh. * * * * * CHAMBERS'S TWENTIETH CENTURY DICTIONARY. * * * * * E the fifth letter in our own and the cognate alphabets, with four sounds--e.g. _e_ in _e_vil, _i_ in _E_ngland, _u_ in the last syllable of elev_e_n, Italian _e_ in pr_e_y. A subscript _e_ is commonly used to lengthen the previous vowel, as in not, not_e_; bit, bit_e_; (_mus._) the third note or sound of the natural diatonic scale, and the third above the tonic C. EACH, [=e]ch, _adj._ every one in any number separately considered.--_adv._ EACH'WHERE, everywhere. [A.S. _['æ]lc_, supposed to be for _á-ge-líc_, from _á_ (=_aye_), pfx. _ge-_, and _líc_, like--i.e. aye-like.] EADISH, obsolete form of EDDISH. EAGER, [=e]'g[.e]r, _adj._ excited by desire: ardent to do or obtain: (_obs._) earnest: keen, severe, sour, acid, bitter.--_adv._ EA'GERLY.--_n._ EA'GERNESS. [O. Fr. _aigre_--L. _acer_, _acris_, sharp.] EAGER. Same as EAGRE. EAGLE, [=e]'gl, _n._ a name given to many birds of prey in the family _Falconidæ_: a military standard carrying the figure of an eagle: a gold coin of the United States, worth ten dollars.--_adjs._ EA'GLE-EYED, EA'GLE-SIGHT'ED, having a piercing eye: discerning; EA'GLE-FLIGHT'ED, mounting high.--_ns._ EA'GLE-HAWK, a name applied to several eagles of comparatively small size; EA'GLE-OWL, a genus of large owls, the largest in Europe; EA'GLE-STONE, a variety of argillaceous oxide of iron occurring in egg-shaped masses; EA'GLET, a young or small eagle.--_adj._ EA'GLE-WINGED, having an eagle's wings.--_ns._ EA'GLE-WOOD, another name for agalloch or calambac; SPREAD'-EA'GLE (see Spread). [O. Fr. _aigle_--L. _aquila_.] EAGRE, [=e]'g[.e]r, _n._ rise of the tide in a river (same as Bore). [Ety. dub.; hardly from A.S. _égor_, flood.] EALDORMAN. See ALDERMAN. EAN, [=e]n, _v.t._ or _v.i._ (_Shak._) to bring forth young.--_n._ EAN'LING, a young lamb. [A.S. _éanian_.] EAR, [=e]r, _n._ a spike, as of corn.--_v.i._ to put forth ears.--_n._ EAR'-COCK'LE, a disease of wheat.--_adj._ EARED, of corn, having ears. [A.S. _éar_; Ger. _ähre_.] EAR, [=e]r, _v.t._ (_obs._) to plough or till.--_n._ EAR'ING (_obs._), ploughing. [A.S. _erian_; cf. L. _ar[=a]re_, Gr. _aroein_.] EAR, [=e]r, _n._ the organ of hearing, or the external part merely: the sense or power of hearing: the faculty of distinguishing sounds: attention: anything like an ear.--_ns._ EAR'ACHE, an ache or pain in the ear; EAR'BOB, an earring; EAR'-CAP, a covering to protect the ear from cold; EAR'DROP, an ornamental pendant hanging from the ear; EAR'DRUM, the drum or middle cavity of the ear, tympanum (q.v.).--_adj._ EARED, having ears.--_n._ EAR'-HOLE, the aperture of the ear.--_adj._ EAR'-KISS'ING, whispered.--_n._ EAR'LAP, the tip of the ear: an ear-cap.--_adj._ EAR'LESS, wanting ears.--_ns._ EAR'LOCK, a curl near the ear worn by Elizabethan dandies; EAR'MARK, a mark set on the ears of sheep whereby their owners may distinguish them: a distinctive mark.--_v.t._ to put an earmark on.--_n._ EAR'-PICK, an instrument for clearing the ear.--_adj._ EAR'-PIERC'ING, shrill, screaming.--_ns._ EAR'RING, an ornamental ring worn in the ear; EAR'-SHELL, any shell of the family _Haliotidæ_; EAR'SHOT, the distance at which a sound can be heard; EAR'-TRUM'PET, a tube to aid in hearing; EAR'WAX, a waxy substance secreted by the glands of the ear; EAR'WIG, an insect which was supposed to creep into the brain through the ear: a flatterer.--_v.t._ to gain the ear of: to bias: to torment by private importunities (A.S. _éarwicga_, _éare_, ear, _wicga_, earwig).--_n._ EAR'WITNESS, a witness that can testify from his own hearing.--ABOUT ONE'S EARS, said of a house falling, &c.; BE ALL EARS, to give every attention; GIVE EAR, to attend; GO IN AT ONE EAR AND OUT AT THE OTHER, used of words which make no permanent impression; HAVE A PERSON'S EAR, to be secure of his favourable attention; HAVE ITCHING EARS, to be desirous of hearing novelties (2 Tim. iv. 3); LEND AN EAR, to listen; OVER HEAD AND EARS, overwhelmed: deeply engrossed or involved; SET BY THE EARS, to set at strife; SPEAK IN THE EAR, to whisper; TICKLE THE EAR, to flatter; TURN A DEAF EAR, to refuse to listen; WALLS HAVE EARS, a proverbial phrase implying that there may be listeners behind the wall. [A.S. _éare_; cf. L. _auris_, Ger. _ohr_.] [Illustration] EARL, [.e]rl, _n._ an English nobleman ranking between a marquis and a viscount:--_fem._ COUNT'ESS.--_ns._ EARL'DOM, the dominion or dignity of an earl; EARL'-MAR'SHAL, an English officer of state, president of the Heralds' College--the Scotch form _Earl-marischal_. [A.S. _eorl_, a warrior, hero; cf. Ice. _jarl_.] EARLES-PENNY. See ARLES. EARLY, [.e]r'li, _adj._ in good season: at or near the beginning of the day: relating to the beginning: happening in the near future.--_adv._ near the beginning: soon.--_n._ EAR'LINESS.--EARLY AND LATE, at all times; EARLY BIRD, an early riser; EARLY ENGLISH (_archit._), generally applied to the form of Gothic in which the pointed arch was first employed in Britain. The Early English succeeded the _Norman_ towards the end of the 12th century, and merged into the _Decorated_ at the end of the 13th.--KEEP EARLY HOURS, to rise and go to bed betimes; SMALL AND EARLY (_coll._), applied to evening parties; THE EARLY BIRD CATCHES THE WORM, a proverb in favour of early rising. [A.S. _árlíce_--_['æ]r_, before.] EARN, [.e]rn, _v.t._ to gain by labour: to acquire: to deserve.--_n.pl._ EARN'INGS, what one has earned: money saved. [A.S. _earnian_, to earn; cog. with Old High Ger. _aran_, to reap; Ger. _ernte_, harvest.] EARN, [.e]rn, _v.i._ to yearn. [A variant of _yearn_.] EARNEST, [.e]r'nest, _adj._ showing strong desire: determined: eager to obtain: intent: sincere: serious.--_n._ seriousness: reality.--_adv._ EAR'NESTLY.--_n._ EAR'NESTNESS. [A.S. _eornost_, seriousness; Ger. _ernst_.] EARNEST, [.e]r'nest, _n._ money given in token of a bargain made--also EAR'NEST-MON'EY, EAR'NEST-PENN'Y: a pledge: first-fruits. [ETY. obscure; possibly conn. with _arles_.] EARST, obsolete form of ERST. EARTH, [.e]rth, _n._ the name applied to the third planet in order from the sun: the matter on the surface of the globe: soil: dry land, as opposed to sea: the world: the inhabitants of the world: dirt: dead matter: the human body: a fox's hole: (_pl._) the name applied by the alchemists and earlier chemists to certain substances now known to be oxides of metal, which were distinguished by being infusible, and by insolubility in water.--_v.t._ to hide or cause to hide in the earth: to bury.--_v.i._ to burrow: to hide.--_ns._ EARTH'-BAG, a sack of earth used in fortifications; EARTH'-BATH, a bath of earth or mud; EARTH'-BOARD, the board of a plough, or other implement, that turns over the earth.--_adjs._ EARTH'-BORN, born from or on the earth; EARTH'-BOUND, bound or held by the earth, as a tree; EARTH'-BRED, mean, grovelling.--_n._ EARTH'-CLOS'ET, a system consisting of the application of earth to the deodorisation of fæcal matters.--_adjs._ EARTH'-CRE[=A]'TED, made of earth; EARTH'EN, made of earth or clay: earthly.--_ns._ EARTH'ENWARE, crockery; EARTH'-FALL, a landslide.--_adj._ EARTH'-FED, contented with earthly things.--_ns._ EARTH'FLAX, asbestos; EARTH'-HOG (see AARDVARK); EARTH'-HOUSE, the name given to the ancient underground dwellings in Ireland and Scotland, also called _Picts' houses_; EARTH'-HUNG'ER, the passion for acquiring land; EARTH'INESS; EARTH'LINESS; EARTH'LING, a dweller on the earth.--_adjs._ EARTH'LY, belonging to the earth: vile: worldly; EARTH'LY-MIND'ED, having the mind intent on earthly things.--_ns._ EARTH'LY-MIND'EDNESS; EARTH'-NUT, the popular name of certain tuberous roots growing underground; EARTH'-PEA, the hog-peanut; EARTH'-PLATE, a buried plate of metal forming the earth-connection of a telegraph-wire, lightning-conductor, &c.; EARTH'QUAKE, a quaking or shaking of the earth: a heaving of the ground; EARTH'-SHINE, the faint light visible on the part of the moon not illuminated by the sun; EARTH'-TREM'OR, a slight earthquake.--_adv._ EARTH'WARD, toward the earth.--_ns._ EARTH'WORK, a fortification of earth; EARTH'-WORM, the common worm: a mean person, a poor creature.--_adj._ EARTH'Y, consisting of, relating to, or resembling earth: inhabiting the earth: gross: unrefined. [A.S. _eorthe_; cf. Dut. _aarde_, Ger. _erde_.] EASE, [=e]z, _n._ freedom from pain or disturbance: rest from work: quiet: freedom from difficulty: naturalness.--_v.t._ to free from pain, trouble, or anxiety: to relieve: to calm.--_adj._ EASE'FUL, ease-giving: quiet, fit for rest.--_n._ EASE'MENT, relief: assistance: support: gratification.--_adv._ EAS'ILY.--_n._ EAS'INESS.--_adj._ EAS'Y, at ease: free from pain: tranquil: unconstrained: giving ease: not difficult: yielding: not straitened (in circumstances): not tight: not strict, as in 'easy virtue.'--_interj._ EASY! a command to lower, or to go gently, to stop rowing, &c.--_n._ EAS'Y-CHAIR, an arm-chair for ease or rest.--_adj._ EAS'Y-G[=O]'ING, good-natured: indolent.--EASE ONE'S SELF, to relieve nature.--CHAPEL OF EASE (see CHAPEL); FREE AND EASY (see FREE).--HONOURS EASY, when the honours are evenly divided at whist: ILL AT EASE, uncomfortable; STAND AT EASE, used of soldiers, when freed from 'attention;' TAKE IT EASY, to be quite unconcerned: to be in no hurry; TAKE ONE'S EASE, to make one's self comfortable. [O. Fr. _aise_; cog. with It. _agio_; Prov. _ais_, Port. _azo_.] EASEL, [=e]z'l, _n._ the frame on which painters support their pictures while painting. [Dut. _ezel_, or Ger. _esel_, an ass.] EASLE, [=e]s'l, _n._ (_Burns_) hot ashes. [A.S. _ysle_; cf. Ice. _usli_.] EASSEL, a Scotch form for _eastward_, easterly. EAST, [=e]st, _n._ that part of the heavens where the sun first shines or rises: one of the four cardinal points of the compass.--_adj._ toward the rising of the sun.--_ns._ EAST'-END, the eastern part of London, the habitation of the poorer classes; EAST'-END'ER.--_adjs._ EAST'ER, EAST'ERN, toward the east: connected with the east: dwelling in the east.--_n._ EAST'ERLING, a native of the East: a trader from the shores of the Baltic.--_adj._ EAST'ERLY, coming from the eastward: looking toward the east.--_adv._ on the east: toward the east.--_adjs._ EAST'ERNMOST, EAST'MOST, situated farthest east.--_ns._ EAST'-IN'DIAMAN, a vessel used in the East India trade; EAST'ING, the course gained to the eastward: distance eastward from a given meridian; EAST'LAND, the land in the East.--_adv._ EAST'WARD, toward the east.--EAST-BY-SOUTH (NORTH), 11¼ degrees from due east; EAST-SOUTH (NORTH)-EAST, 22½ degrees from due east.--EASTWARD POSITION, the position of the celebrant at the Eucharist, when he stands in front of the altar and facing it, instead of the usual practice of standing at the north end of the altar, facing southward.--ABOUT EAST (_slang_), in proper manner; THE EAST, the countries to the east of Europe; TURNING TO THE EAST, a practice for both clergy and laity during service, esp. while singing the creeds, the _Gloria Patri_, and the _Gloria in Excelsis._ [A.S. _east_; Ger. _ost_; akin to Gr. _[=e][=o]s_, the dawn.] EASTER, [=e]st'[.e]r, _n._ a Christian festival commemorating the resurrection of Christ, held on the Sunday after Good-Friday.--_n._ EAST'ER-DAY, Easter Sunday.--_ns.pl._ EAST'ER-DUES, -OFF'ERINGS, 'customary sums' which from time immemorial have been paid to the parson by his people at Easter.--_ns._ EAST'ER-EGG, eggs stained of various colours, given as presents on Easter; EAST'ERTIDE, Eastertime, either Easter week or the fifty days between Easter and Whitsuntide. [A.S. _éastre_; Ger. _ostern_. Bede derives the word from _Eastre_, a goddess whose festival was held at the spring equinox.] EAT, [=e]t, _v.t._ to chew and swallow: to consume: to corrode.--_v.i._ to take food:--_pr.p._ eat'ing; _pa.t._ ate ([=a]t or et); _pa.p._ eaten ([=e]tn) or (_obs._) eat (et).--_adj._ EAT'ABLE, fit to be eaten.--_n._ anything used as food (chiefly _pl._).--_ns._ EAT'AGE, grass or fodder for horses, &c.: the right to eat; EAT'ER, one who, or that which, eats or corrodes; EAT'ING, the act of taking food.--_p.adj._ that eats: corroding.--_ns._ EAT'ING-HOUSE, a place where provisions are sold ready dressed: a restaurant; GOOD'-EAT'ING, something good for food.--EAT AWAY, to destroy gradually: to gnaw; EAT IN, used of the action of acid; EAT ITS HEAD OFF, used of an animal which costs as much for food as it is worth; EAT ONE'S HEART, to pine away, brooding over misfortune; EAT ONE'S TERMS, to study for the bar, with allusion to the number of times in a term that a student must dine in the hall of an Inn of Court; EAT ONE'S WORDS, to retract: to recant; EAT OUT, to finish eatables: to encroach upon; EAT THE AIR (_Shak._) to be deluded with hopes; EAT UP, to devour: to consume, absorb; EAT WELL, to have a good appetite. [A.S. _etan_; cf. Ger. _essen_, Ice. _eta_, L. _ed[)e]re_, Gr. _edein_.] EATH, [=e]th, _adj._ (_obs._) easy.--_adv._ EATH'LY. [A.S. _éathe_, easily; cf. Old High Ger. _odi_, easy.] EAU, [=o], _n._ the French word for water, used in English in various combinations.--EAU CRÉOLE, a fine Martinique liqueur, made by distilling the flowers of the mammee-apple with spirit of wine; EAU DE COLOGNE (see under COLOGNE-EARTH); EAU DE VIE, brandy. EAVES, [=e]vz, _n.pl._ the projecting edge of the roof: anything projecting.--_ns._ EAVES'DRIP, EAVES'DROP, the water which falls from the eaves of a house: the place where the drops fall.--_v.i._ and _v.t._ EAVES'DROP, to stand under the eaves or near the windows of a house to listen: to listen for secrets.--_ns._ EAVES'DROPPER, one who thus listens: one who tries to overhear private conversation; EAVES'DROPPING. [A.S. _efes_, the clipped edge of thatch; cf. Ice. _ups_.] EBB, eb, _n._ the going back or retiring of the tide: a decline or decay.--_v.i._ to flow back: to sink: to decay.--_n._ EBB'-TIDE, the ebbing or retiring tide. [A.S. _ebba_; Ger. _ebbe_; cog. with _even_.] EBENEZER, eb-en-[=e]z'er, _n._ a memorial stone set up by Samuel after the victory of Mizpeh (1 Sam. vii. 12): a name sometimes applied to a chapel or meeting-house. [Heb., 'stone of help.'] EBIONITE, [=e]'bi-on-[=i]t, _n._ a name applied to Jewish Christians who remained outside the Catholic Church down to the time of Jerome. They held the Mosaic laws binding on Christians, and denied the apostolate of Paul and the miraculous birth of Jesus.--_v.t._ E'BIONISE.--_adj._ EBIONIT'IC.--_ns._ EBION[=I]T'ISM, E'BIONISM. [Heb. _eby[=o]n_, poor.] EBLIS, eb'lis, _n._ the chief of the fallen angels or wicked jinns in Mohammedan mythology.--Also IB'LEES. EBON, eb'on, EBONY, eb'on-i, _n._ a kind of wood almost as heavy and hard as stone, usually black, admitting of a fine polish.--_adj._ made of ebony: black as ebony.--_v.t._ EB'ONISE, to make furniture look like ebony.--_ns._ EB'ONIST, a worker in ebony; EB'ONITE, vulcanite (see under VULCAN). [L.,--Gr. _ebenos_; cf. Heb. _hodn[=i]m_, pl. of _hobni_, _obni_--_eben_, a stone.] ÉBOULEMENT, [=a]-bool'mong, _n._ the falling in of the wall of a fortification: a landslide or landslip. [Fr.] EBRACTEATE, -D, e-brak't[=e]-[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ (_bot._) without bracts. EBRIATED, [=e]'bri-[=a]t-ed, _adj._ intoxicated.--_n._ EBR[=I]'ETY, drunkenness.--_adj._ E'BRI[=O]SE, drunk.--_n._ EBRIOS'ITY. [L. _ebri[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to make drunk.] ÉBRILLADE, [=a]-br[=e]-lyad', _n._ the sudden jerking of a horse's rein when he refuses to turn. [Fr.] EBULLIENT, e-bul'yent, _adj._ boiling up or over: agitated: enthusiastic.--_ns._ EBULL'IENCE, EBULL'IENCY, a boiling over; EBULLI'TION, act of boiling: agitation: an outbreak. [L. _ebullient-em_, _ebull[=i]re_--_e_, out, and _bull[=i]re_, to boil.] EBURNINE, eb-ur'nin, _adj._ of or like ivory--also EBUR'NEAN.--_ns._ EBURN[=A]'TION, a morbid change of bone by which it becomes very hard and dense; EBURNIFIC[=A]'TION, art of making like ivory. [L. _ebur_.] ÉCARTÉ, [=a]-kär't[=a], _n._ a game for two, played with the thirty-two highest cards, one feature being the right to discard or throw out certain cards for others. [Fr.,--_e_, out, _carte_, a card.] ECAUDATE, [=e]-kaw'd[=a]t, _adj._ tailless. ECBASIS, ek'ba-sis, _n._ (_rhet._) a figure in which the speaker treats of things according to their consequences.--_adj._ ECBAT'IC, denoting a mere result, not an intention. [Gr.] ECBLASTESIS, ek-blas-t[=e]'sis, _n._ (_bot._) the production of buds within flowers. ECBOLE, ek'bo-l[=e], _n._ (_rhet._) a digression: (_mus._) the raising or sharping of a tone.--_adj._ ECBOL'IC, promoting parturition.--_n._ a drug with this quality. [Gr.] ECCALEOBION, ek-kal-e-[=o]'bi-on, _n._ a machine for the artificial hatching of eggs. [Gr., 'I call out life.'] ECCE, ek'si, Latin word for 'behold.'--ECCE HOMO, behold the man (John, xix. 5)--in art, a Christ crowned with thorns. ECCENTRIC, -AL, ek-sen'trik, -al, _adj._ departing from the centre: not having the same centre as another, said of circles: out of the usual course: not conforming to common rules: odd.--_n._ ECCEN'TRIC, a circle not having the same centre as another: (_mech._) a contrivance for taking an alternating rectilinear motion from a revolving shaft: an eccentric fellow.--_adv._ ECCEN'TRICALLY.--_n._ ECCENTRIC'ITY, the distance of the centre of a planet's orbit from the centre of the sun: singularity of conduct: oddness. [Fr.,--Low L. _eccentricus_--Gr. _ek_, out of, _kentron_, centre.] ECCHYMOSIS, ek-ki-m[=o]'sis, _n._ a discoloration of the surface produced by blood effused below or in the texture of the skin.--_adjs._ EC'CHYMOSED, ECCHYMOT'IC. [Gr.,--_ek_, out of, and _chymos_, juice.] ECCLESIA, e-kl[=e]'zi-a, _n._ a popular assembly, esp. of Athens, where the people exercised full sovereignty, and all above twenty years could vote: applied by the Septuagint commentators to the Jewish commonwealth, and from them to the Christian Church.--_adj._ ECCL[=E]'SIAL.--_ns._ ECCL[=E]'SIARCH, a ruler of the church; ECCL[=E]'SIAST, the preacher--Solomon formerly considered as the author of Ecclesiastes: an ecclesiastic; ECCL[=E]'SIASTES, one of the books of the Old Testament, traditionally ascribed to Solomon; ECCLESIAS'TIC, one consecrated to the church, a priest, a clergyman.--_adjs._ ECCL[=E]'SIASTIC, -AL, belonging to the church.--_adv._ ECCLESIAS'TICALLY, in an ecclesiastical manner.--_ns._ ECCLESIAS'TICISM, attachment to ecclesiastical observances, &c.: the churchman's temper or spirit; ECCLESIAS'TICUS, name of a book of the Apocrypha; ECCLESIOL'ATRY, excessive reverence for church forms and traditions.--_adj._ ECCLESIOLOG'ICAL.--_ns._ ECCLESIOL'OGIST, a student of church forms and traditions; ECCLESIOL'OGY, the science of building and decorating churches: the science relating to the church. [Low L.,--Gr. _ekklesia_, an assembly called out of the world, the church--_ek_, out, and _kalein_, to call.] ECCOPROTIC, ek-[=o]-prot'ik, _adj._ laxative, mildly cathartic.--_n._ a laxative. ECCRINOLOGY, ek-ri-nol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the branch of physiology relating to the secretions. ECCRISIS, ek'ri-sis, _n._ expulsion of waste or morbid matter.--_n._ ECCRIT'IC, a medicine having this property. [Gr.] ECDYSIS, ek'di-sis, _n._ the act of casting off an integument, as in serpents. [Gr.] ECHE, [=e]k, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to eke out: to augment. [A.S. _écan_; akin to L. _aug[=e]re_, to increase. See EKE.] ECHELON, esh'e-long, _n._ an arrangement of troops in battalions or divisions placed parallel to one another, but no two on the same alignment, each having its front clear of that in advance. [Fr., from _échelle_, a ladder or stair. See SCALE.] ECHIDNA, ek-id'na, _n._ a genus of Australian toothless burrowing monotremate mammals, armed with porcupine-like spines, laying eggs instead of bringing forth the young.--_n._ ECHID'NINE, serpent-poison. [Formed from Gr. _echidna_, a viper.] ECHINATE, -D, ek'in-[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ prickly like a hedgehog: set with prickles or bristles.--_ns._ ECH[=I]'NITE, a fossil sea-urchin; ECH[=I]'NODERM, one of the ECHINODER'MATA, a class of animals having the skin strengthened by calcareous plates, or covered with spikes.--_adjs._ ECHINODER'MATOUS, relating to the Echinodermata; ECH'INOID, like a sea-urchin.--_n._ one of the ECHINOI'DEA.--_n._ ECH[=I]'NUS, a sea-urchin: (_archit._) the convex projecting moulding of eccentric curve in Greek examples, supporting the abacus of the Doric capital. [Gr. _echinos_, a hedgehog, and _derma_, skin.] ECHO, ek'[=o], _n._ the repetition of sound caused by a sound-wave coming against some opposing surface, and being reflected: a device in verse in which a line ends with a word which recalls the sound of the last word of the preceding line: imitation: an imitator:--_pl._ ECHOES (ek'[=o]z).--_v.i._ to reflect sound: to be sounded back: to resound.--_v.t._ to send back the sound of: to repeat a thing said: to imitate: to flatter slavishly:--_pr.p._ ech'[=o]ing; _pa.p._ ech'[=o]ed.--_ns._ ECH'OISM, the formation of imitative words; ECH'OIST, one who repeats like an echo.--_adj._ ECH'OLESS, giving no echo, unresponsive.--_ns._ ECHOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the length of sounds; ECHOM'ETRY, the art of measuring such.--CHEER TO THE ECHO, to applaud most heartily, so that the room resounds. [L.,--Gr. _[=e]ch[=o]_, a sound.] ÉCLAIRCISSEMENT, ek-l[=a]r-sis'mong, _n._ the act of clearing up anything: explanation.--COME TO AN ÉCLAIRCISSEMENT, to come to an understanding: to explain conduct that seemed equivocal. [Fr. _éclaircir_, pr.p. _-cissant_, _é_--L. _ex_, out, _clair_--L. _clarus_, clear.] ECLAMPSIA, ek-lamp'si-a, _n._ a term often erroneously applied as synonymous with epilepsy, while it is really the equivalent of convulsions, but usually restricted to such as are due to such local or general causes as teething, child-bearing, &c.--also ECLAMP'SY.--_adj._ ECLAMP'TIC. [Formed from Gr. _eklampein_, to shine forth.] ÉCLAT, [=a]-klä', _n._ a striking effect: applause: splendour: social distinction, notoriety. [Fr. _éclat_, from O. Fr. _esclater_, to break, to shine.] ECLECTIC, ek-lek'tik, _adj._ selecting or borrowing: choosing the best out of everything: broad, the opposite of exclusive.--_n._ one who selects opinions from different systems, esp. in philosophy.--_adv._ ECLEC'TICALLY.--_n._ ECLEC'TICISM, the practice of an eclectic: the doctrine of the ECLEC'TICS, a name applied to certain Greek thinkers in the 2d and 1st centuries B.C., later to Leibnitz and Cousin. [Gr. _eklektikos_--_ek_, out, _legein_, to choose.] ECLIPSE, e-klips', _n._ an obscuration of one of the heavenly bodies by the interposition of another, either between it and the spectator, or between it and the sun: loss of brilliancy: darkness.--_v.t._ to hide a luminous body wholly or in part: to darken: to throw into the shade, to cut out, surpass.--_p.adjs._ ECLIPSED', darkened, obscured; ECLIPS'ING, darkening, obscuring.--_n._ ECLIP'TIC, the name given to the great circle of the heavens round which the sun _seems_ to travel, from west to east, in the course of a year: a great circle on the globe corresponding to the celestial ecliptic.--_adj._ pertaining to an eclipse or the ecliptic. [Through O. Fr. and L. from Gr. _ekleipsis_--_ek_, out, _leipein_, to leave.] ECLOGITE, ek'loj-[=i]t, _n._ a crystalline rock, composed of smaragdite and red garnet. [Gr. _eklog[=e]_, selection--_ek_, out, _legein_, to choose.] ECLOGUE, ek'log, _n._ a short pastoral poem like Virgil's _Bucolics_. [L. _ecloga_--Gr. _eklog[=e]_, a selection, esp. of poems--_ek_, out of, _legein_ to choose.] ECONOMY, ek-on'o-mi, _n._ the management of a household or of money matters: a frugal and judicious expenditure of money: a system of rules or ceremonies: a dispensation, as 'the Christian economy:' regular operations, as of nature.--_adjs._ ECONOM'IC, -AL, pertaining to economy: frugal: careful.--_adv._ ECONOM'ICALLY.--_ns._ ECONOM'ICS, the science of household management: political economy; ECONOMIS[=A]'TION, act of economising.--_v.i._ ECON'OMISE, to manage with economy: to spend money carefully: to save.--_v.t._ to use prudently: to spend with frugality.--_ns._ ECONOM[=I]'SER, ECON'OMIST, one who is economical: one who studies political economy.--POLITICAL ECONOMY (see under POLITIC). [L. _oeconomia_--Gr. _oikonomia_--_oikos_, a house, _nomos_, a law.] ÉCORCHÉ, [=a]-kor'sh[=a], _n._ a figure in which the muscles are represented stripped of the skin, for purposes of artistic study. [Fr. _écorcher_, to flay.] ÉCOSSAISE, [=a]-ko-s[=a]z', _n._ a kind of country-dance of Scotch origin, or music appropriate to such.--DOUCHE ÉCOSSAISE, the alternation of hot and cold douches. [Fr., fem. of _Écossais_, Scotch.] ECOSTATE, [=e]-kos't[=a]t, _adj._ (_bot._) not costate: ribless. ECPHLYSIS, ek'fli-sis, _n._ (_path._) vesicular eruption. ECPHONESIS, ek-f[=o]-n[=e]'sis, _n._ (_rhet._) a figure of speech which uses questions, interjections, &c., for variety: in Greek use, the part of the service spoken in an audible tone. ECPHRACTIC, ek-frak'tik, _adj._ (_med._) serving to remove obstructions.--_n._ a drug with such properties. ECRASEUR, [=a]-kra-z[.e]r, _n._ (_surg._) an instrument for removing tumours. [Fr.] ECSTASY, ek'sta-si, _n._ a word applied to states of mind marked by temporary mental alienation and altered or diminished consciousness: excessive joy: enthusiasm, or any exalted feeling.--_v.t._ to fill with joy.--_adjs._ EC'STASIED, enraptured; ECSTAT'IC, causing ecstasy: amounting to ecstasy: rapturous.--_n._ one given to ecstasy: something spoken in a state of ecstasy.--_adv._ ECSTAT'ICALLY. [Through O. Fr. and Low L. from Gr. _ekstasis_--_ek_, aside, _histanai_, to make to stand.] ECTAL, ek'tal, _adj._ (_anat._) outer, external--opp. to _Ental._--_adv._ EC'TAD. [Gr. _ektos_, without.] ECTASIS, ek'ta-sis, _n._ the pronunciation of a vowel as long. ECTHLIPSIS, ek-thlip'sis, _n._ omission or suppression of a letter. [Gr.] ECTHYMA, ek-th[=i]'ma, _n._ a pustular disease of the skin, in which the pustules often reach the size of a pea, and have a red, slightly elevated, hardish base. [Gr., _ek_, _thyein_, to boil.] ECTOBLAST, ek'to-blast, _n._ the outer wall of a cell.--_adj._ ECTOBLAS'TIC. ECTODERM, ek'to-d[.e]rm, _n._ the external germinal layer of the embryo. [Gr. _ektos_, outside, _derma_, skin.] ECTOPARASITE, ek-t[=o]-par'a-s[=i]t, _n._ an external parasite. ECTOPIA, ek-t[=o]'pi-a, _n._ (_path._) morbid displacement of parts.--_adj._ ECTOP'IC. ECTOPLASM, ek'to-plasm, _n._ the exterior protoplasm or sarcode of a cell.--_adjs._ ECTOPLAS'MIC, ECTOPLAS'TIC. ECTOZOA, ek-t[=o]-z[=o]'a, _n.pl._ external parasites generally--opp. to _Entozoa_.--_n._ ECTOZ[=O]'AN, one of the Ectozoa. ECTROPION, -UM, ek-tr[=o]p'i-on, -um, _n._ eversion of the margin of the eyelid, so that the red inner surface is exposed.--_adj._ ECTROP'IC. [Gr. _ek_, out, and _trepein_, to turn.] ECTYPE, ek't[=i]p, _n._ a reproduction or copy.--_adj._ EC'TYPAL.--_n._ ECTYPOG'RAPHY. [Gr. _ek_, out, and _typos_, a figure.] ÉCU, [=a]'kü, or [=a]-k[=u]', _n._ a French silver coin, usually considered as equivalent to the English crown--there were also gold _écus_ weighing about 60 grains: a common name for the five-franc piece. [Fr.,--L. _scutum_, a shield.] ECUMENIC, -AL, ek-[=u]-men'ik, -al, _adj._ general, universal, belonging to the entire Christian Church.--Also OECUMEN'IC, -AL. ECZEMA, ek'ze-ma, _n._ a common skin disease, in which the affected portion of the skin is red, and is covered with numerous small papules, which speedily turn into vesicles.--_adj._ ECZEM'ATOUS. [Gr., from _ekzein_--_ek_, out, _zeein_, to boil.] EDACIOUS, e-d[=a]'shus, _adj._ given to eating: gluttonous.--_adv._ ED[=A]'CIOUSLY.--_ns._ ED[=A]'CIOUSNESS; EDAC'ITY. [L. _edax_, _ed[=a]cis_--_ed[)e]re_, to eat.] EDDA, ed'a, _n._ the name of two Scandinavian books--the 'Elder' Edda, a collection of ancient mythological and heroic songs (9th-11th century); and the 'Younger' or prose Edda, by Snorri Sturluson (_c._ 1230), mythological stories, poetics, and prosody. [Ice., 'great-grandmother.'] EDDISH, ed'dish, _n._ pasturage, or the eatable growth of grass after mowing. [Dubiously referred to A.S. _edisc_, a park.] EDDY, ed'i, _n._ a current of water or air running back, contrary to the main stream, thus causing a circular motion: a whirlpool: a whirlwind.--_v.i._ to move round and round:--_pr.p._ edd'ying; _pa.p._ edd'ied.--_n._ EDD'YING, the action of the verb _eddy_. [Prob. from A.S. _ed_, back; cf. Ice. _ida_--_id_, back.] EDELWEISS, [=a]'del-v[=i]s, _n._ a small white composite, with pretty white flower, found growing in damp places at considerable altitudes (5000-7000 feet) throughout the Alps. [Ger. _edel_, noble, _weiss_, white.] EDEMATOSE, -OUS. Same as OEDEMATOSE, -OUS (q.v. under OEDEMA). EDEN, [=e]'den, _n._ the garden where Adam and Eve lived: a paradise.--_adj._ EDEN'IC. [Heb. _[=e]den_, delight, pleasure.] EDENTATE, -D, e-den't[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ without teeth: wanting front teeth--also EDEN'TAL.--_ns._ EDENT[=A]'TA, a Cuvierian order of mammals, having no teeth or very imperfect ones; EDENT[=A]'TION, toothlessness.--_adj._ EDEN'TULOUS, edentate. [L. _edent[=a]tus_, toothless--_e_, out of, _dens_, _dentis_, a tooth.] EDGE, ej, _n._ the border of anything: the brink: the cutting side of an instrument: something that wounds or cuts: sharpness of mind or appetite: keenness.--_v.t._ to put an edge on: to place a border on: to exasperate: to urge on: to move by little and little.--_v.i._ to move sideways.--_n._ EDGE'-BONE, the haunch-bone.--_adjs._ EDGED; EDGE'LESS, without an edge: blunt.--_ns._ EDGE'-RAIL, a rail of such form that the carriage-wheels roll on its edges, being held there by flanges; EDGE'-TOOL, EDGED TOOL, a tool with a sharp edge.--_advs._ EDGE'WAYS, EDGE'WISE, in the direction of the edge: sideways.--_ns._ EDG'INESS, angularity, over-sharpness of outline; EDG'ING, any border or fringe round a garment: a border of box, &c., round a flower-bed.--_adj._ EDG'Y, with edges, sharp, hard in outline.--EDGE IN A WORD, to get a word in with difficulty; EDGE OF THE SWORD, a rhetorical phrase for the sword as the symbol of slaughter.--OUTSIDE EDGE, figure in skating, made on the outer edge of the skate.--PLAY WITH EDGE-TOOLS, to deal carelessly with dangerous matters.--SET ON EDGE, to excite; SET THE TEETH ON EDGE, to cause a strange grating feeling in the teeth; to rouse an instinctive dislike. [A.S. _ecg_; cf. Ger. _ecke_, L. _acies_.] EDIBLE, ed'i-bl, _adj._ fit to be eaten.--_n._ something for food.--_ns._ EDIBIL'ITY, ED'IBLENESS, fitness for being eaten. [L. _edibilis_--_ed[)e]re_, to eat.] EDICT, [=e]'dikt, _n._ something proclaimed by authority: an order issued by a king or lawgiver.--_adj._ EDICT'AL.--_adv._ EDICT'ALLY. [L. _edictum_--_e_, out, _dic[)e]re_, _dictum_, to say.] EDIFY, ed'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to build: to build up the faith of: to strengthen spiritually towards faith and holiness: to comfort: to improve the mind:--_pr.p._ ed'ifying; _pa.p._ ed'ified.--_n._ EDIFIC[=A]'TION, instruction: progress in knowledge or in goodness.--_adj._ ED'IFICATORY, tending to edification.--_n._ ED'IFICE, a large building or house.--_adj._ EDIFIC'IAL, structural.--_n._ ED'IFIER, one who edifies.--_adj._ ED'IFYING, instructive: improving.--_adv._ ED'IFYINGLY. [Fr. _édifier_--L. _ædific[=a]re_--_ædes_, a house, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] EDILE. See ÆDILE. EDIT, ed'it, _v.t._ to prepare the work of an author for publication: to superintend the publication of (a newspaper, &c.): to compile, garble, or cook up materials into literary shape.--_ns._ EDI'TION, the publication of a book: the number of copies of a book printed at a time; ED'ITOR, one who edits a book: one who conducts a newspaper or journal:--_fem._ ED'ITRESS.--_adj._ EDIT[=O]'RIAL, of or belonging to an editor.--_n._ an article in a newspaper written by the editor, a leading article.--_adv._ EDIT[=O]'RIALLY.--_n._ ED'ITORSHIP. [L. _ed[)e]re_, _ed[)i]tum_--_e_, out, _d[)a]re_, to give.] EDUCATE, ed'[=u]-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to bring up children: to train: to teach: to cultivate any power.--_adj._ ED'UCABLE.--_n._ EDUC[=A]'TION, the bringing up or training, as of a child: instruction: strengthening of the powers of body or mind.--_adj._ EDUC[=A]'TIONAL.--_adv._ EDUC[=A]'TIONALLY.--_n._ EDUC[=A]'TIONIST, one skilled in methods of educating or teaching: one who promotes education.--_adj._ ED'UCATIVE, of or pertaining to education: calculated to teach.--_n._ ED'UCATOR. [L. _educ[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_educ[)e]re_--_e_, out, _duc[)e]re_, to lead.] EDUCE, [=e]-d[=u]s', _v.t._ to draw out: to extract: to cause to appear.--_n._ inference.--_adj._ EDUC'IBLE, that may be educed or brought out and shown.--_ns._ E'DUCT, what is educed; EDUC'TION, the act of educing; EDUC'TION-PIPE, the pipe by which the exhaust steam is led from the cylinder of a steam-engine into the condenser or the atmosphere; EDUC'TOR, he who, or that which, educes. [L. _educ[)e]re_, _eductum_--_e_, out, and _duc[)e]re_, to lead.] EDULCORATE, [=e]-dul'k[=o]-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to sweeten: to free from acids, &c.--_adj._ EDUL'CORANT.--_n._ EDULCOR[=A]'TION.--_adj._ EDUL'COR[=A]TIVE.--_n._ EDUL'COR[=A]TOR. EE, [=e], Scotch form of _eye_:--_pl._ EEN. EEL, _n._ a name widely applied in popular usage, but justifiably extended to all the members of the family _Murænidæ_--the body is much elongated, cylindrical or ribbon-shaped.--_ns._ EEL'-BAS'KET, a basket for catching eels; EEL'-POUT, in England, a Burbot (q.v.); in parts of Scotland, a Blenny (q.v.): a well-known fish, with a slimy body, living chiefly in mud; EEL'-SPEAR, an instrument with broad prongs for catching eels. [A.S. _['æ]l_; Ger., Dut. _aal_.] E'EN, [=e]n, a contraction of _even_. E'ER, [=a]r, a contraction of _ever_. EERIE, EERY, [=e]'ri, _adj._ exciting fear: weird: affected with fear: timorous.--_adv._ EE'RILY.--_n._ EE'RINESS (_Scot._). [M. E. _arh_, _eri_--A.S. _earg_, timid.] EFFABLE, ef'a-bl, _adj._ capable of being expressed. [Fr.,--L. _eff[=a]ri_--_ex_, out, _f[=a]ri_, to speak.] EFFACE, ef-f[=a]s', _v.t._ to destroy the surface of a thing: to rub out: to obliterate, wear away.--_adj._ EFFACE'ABLE, that can be rubbed out.--_n._ EFFACE'MENT. [Fr. _effacer_--L. _ex_, out, _facies_, face.] EFFECT, ef-fekt', _n._ the result of an action: impression produced: reality: the consequence intended: (_pl._) goods: property.--_v.t._ to produce: to accomplish.--_ns._ EFFEC'TER, EFFEC'TOR.--_adjs._ EFFEC'TIBLE, that may be effected; EFFEC'TIVE, having power to effect: causing something: powerful: serviceable.--_adv._ EFFEC'TIVELY.--_n._ EFFEC'TIVENESS.--_adjs._ EFFECT'LESS, without effect, useless; EFFEC'TUAL, successful in producing the desired effect: (_Shak._) decisive.--_n._ EFFECTUAL'ITY.--_adv._ EFFEC'TUALLY.--_v.t._ EFFEC'TUATE, to accomplish.--_n._ EFFECTUA'TION.--EFFECTUAL CALLING (_theol._), the invitation to come to Christ which the elect receive.--FOR EFFECT, so as to make a telling impression; GENERAL EFFECT, the effect produced by a picture, &c., as a whole; GIVE EFFECT TO, to accomplish, perform; IN EFFECT, in truth, really: substantially.--LEAVE NO EFFECTS, to die without property to bequeath.--TAKE EFFECT, to begin to operate: to come into force. [Fr.,--L. _effic[)e]re_, _effectum_, to accomplish--_ex_, out, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] EFFEIR, EFFERE, e-f[=e]r', _n._ Scotch form of _affair_. EFFEMINATE, ef-fem'in-[=a]t, _adj._ womanish: unmanly: weak: cowardly: voluptuous.--_n._ an effeminate person.--_v.t._ to make womanish: to unman: to weaken.--_v.i._ to become effeminate.--_n._ EFFEM'INACY, womanish softness or weakness: indulgence in unmanly pleasures.--_adv._ EFFEM'INATELY.--_n._ EFFEM'INATENESS. [L. _effemin[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to make womanish--_ex_, out, and _femina_, a woman.] EFFENDI, ef-fen'di, _n._ a Turkish title for civil officials and educated persons generally. [Turk.; from Gr. _authent[=e]s_, an absolute master.] EFFERENT, ef'e-rent, _adj._ conveying outward or away. EFFERVESCE, ef-f[.e]r-ves', _v.i._ to boil up: to bubble and hiss: to froth up.--_ns._ EFFERVES'CENCE; EFFERVES'CENCY.--_adjs._ EFFERVES'CENT, boiling or bubbling from the disengagement of gas; EFFERVES'CIBLE. [L. _effervesc[)e]re_--_ex_, inten., and _ferv[=e]re_, to boil.] EFFETE, ef-f[=e]t', _adj._ exhausted: worn out with age. [L. _eff[=e]tus_, weakened by having brought forth young--_ex_, out, _fetus_, a bringing forth young.] EFFICACIOUS, ef-fi-k[=a]'shus, _adj._ able to produce the result intended.--_adv._ EFFIC[=A]'CIOUSLY.--_ns._ EFFIC[=A]'CIOUSNESS; EFFICAC'ITY; EF'FICACY, virtue: energy. [Fr.,--L. _efficax_, _efficacis_--_effic[)e]re_.] EFFICIENT, ef-fish'ent, _adj._ capable of producing the desired result: effective.--_n._ the person or thing that effects.--_ns._ EFFI'CIENCE, EFFI'CIENCY, power to produce the result intended, adequate fitness.--_adv._ EFFI'CIENTLY. [Fr.,--L. _efficiens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _effic[)e]re_--_ex_, out, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] EFFIERCE, ef-f[=e]rs', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to make fierce. EFFIGY, ef'fi-ji, _n._ a likeness or figure of a person: the head or impression on a coin: resemblance--(_arch._) EFFIG'IES.--BURN IN EFFIGY, to burn a figure of a person, expressing dislike or contempt. [Fr.,--L. _effigies_--_effing[)e]re_--_ex_, inten., _fing[)e]re_, to form.] EFFLORESCE, ef-flo-res', _v.i._ to blossom forth: (_chem._) to become covered with a white dust: to form minute crystals.--_ns._ EFFLORES'CENCE, EFFLORES'CENCY, production of flowers: the time of flowering: a redness of the skin: the formation of a white powder on the surface of bodies, or of minute crystals.--_adj._ EFFLORES'CENT, forming a white dust on the surface: shooting into white threads. [L. _effloresc[)e]re_--_ex_, out, _floresc[)e]re_, to blossom--_flos_, _floris_, a flower.] EFFLUENT, ef'floo-ent, _adj._ flowing out.--_n._ a stream that flows out of another stream or lake.--_n._ EF'FLUENCE, a flowing out: that which flows from any body: issue. [L. _effluens_, _-entis_, _pr.p._ of _efflu[)e]re_--_ex_, out, _flu[)e]re_, to flow.] EFFLUVIUM, ef-fl[=oo]'vi-um, _n._ minute particles that flow out from bodies: disagreeable vapours rising from decaying matter:--_pl._ EFFLU'VIA.--_adj._ EFFLU'VIAL. [Low L.,--L. _efflu[)e]re_.] EFFLUX, ef'fluks, _n._ act of flowing out: that which flows out.--Also EFFLUX'ION. [L. _efflu[)e]re_, _effluxum_.] EFFODIENT, e-f[=o]'di-ent, _adj._ (_zool._) habitually digging. EFFOLIATION, e-f[=o]-li-[=a]'shun, _n._ the removal or fall of the leaves of a plant. EFFORCE, ef-f[=o]rs', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to compel. [Fr. _efforcer_--Late L. _efforti[=a]re_--_ex_, out, _fortis_, strong.] EFFORT, ef'fort, _n._ a putting forth of strength: attempt: struggle.--_adj._ EF'FORTLESS, making no effort: passive. [Fr.,--L. _ex_, out, _fortis_, strong.] EFFRAY, an obsolete form of _affray_. EFFRONTERY, ef-frunt'[.e]r-i, _n._ shamelessness: impudence: insolence. [O. Fr.,--L. _effrons_, _effrontis_--_ex_, out, _frons_, _frontis_, the forehead.] EFFULGE, ef-fulj', _v.i._ to shine forth: to beam:--_pr.p._ effulg'ing; _pa.p._ effulged'.--_n._ EFFUL'GENCE, great lustre or brightness: a flood of light.--_adj._ EFFUL'GENT, shining forth: extremely bright: splendid.--_adv._ EFFUL'GENTLY. [L. _effulg[=e]re_, to shine out, pr.p. _effulgens_, _-entis_--_ex_, out, _fulg[=e]re_, to shine.] EFFUSE, ef-f[=u]z', _v.t._ to pour out: to pour forth, as words: to shed.--_n._ effusion, loss.--_adj._ loosely spreading, not compact, expanded.--_n._ EFF[=U]'SION, act of pouring out: that which is poured out or forth: quality of being effusive.--_adj._ EFF[=U]'SIVE, pouring forth abundantly: gushing: expressing emotion in a pronounced manner.--_adv._ EFF[=U]'SIVELY.--_n._ EFF[=U]'SIVENESS. [L. _effund[)e]re_, _effusum_--_ex_, out, _fund[)e]re_, to pour.] EFT, eft, _n._ a kind of lizard: a newt. [A.S. _efeta_. Origin obscure. See NEWT.] EFT, eft, _adj._ ready (_Shak._, _Much Ado_, IV. ii. 38). EFT, eft, _adv._ (_Spens._) afterwards, again, forthwith, moreover.--_adv._ EFTSOONS' (_obs._), soon afterwards, forthwith. [A.S. _æft_, _eft_, after, again. See AFT.] EGAD, [=e]-gad', _interj._ a minced oath. [_By God_.] EGAL, [=e]'gal, _adj._ (_Shak._) equal.--_n._ EGAL'ITY, equality. [Fr. _égalité_--_égal_--L. _æquus_, equal.] EGER, [=e]'g[.e]r, _n._ Same as EAGRE. EGENCE, [=e]'jens, _n._ exigence. EGESTION, ej-est'yun, _n._ the passing off of excreta from within the body.--_v.t._ EGEST', to discharge.--_n.pl._ EGEST'A, things thrown out, excrements.--_adj._ EGEST'IVE. [L. _eger[)e]re_--_e_, out, _ger[)e]re_, to carry.] EGG, eg, _n._ an oval body laid by birds and certain other animals, from which their young are produced: anything shaped like an egg.--_ns._ EGG'-APP'LE, or PLANT, the brinjal or aubergine, an East Indian annual with egg-shaped fruit; EGG'-BIRD, a sooty tern; EGG'-C[=O]'SY, a covering put over boiled eggs to keep in the heat after being taken from the pot: EGG'-CUP, a cup for holding an egg at table; EGG'ER, EGG'LER, one who collects eggs; EGG'ERY, a place where eggs are laid; EGG'-FLIP, a hot drink made of ale, with eggs, sugar, spice, &c.; EGG'-GLASS, a small sand-glass for regulating the boiling of eggs; EGG'-NOG, a drink compounded of eggs and hot beer, spirits, &c.; EGG'-SHELL, the shell or calcareous substance which covers the eggs of birds; EGG'-SLICE, a kitchen utensil for lifting fried eggs out of a pan; EGG'-SPOON, a small spoon used in eating eggs from the shell.--A BAD EGG (_coll._), a worthless person; PUT ALL ONE'S EGGS INTO ONE BASKET, to risk all on one enterprise; TAKE EGGS FOR MONEY, to be put off with mere promises of payment; TEACH YOUR GRANDMOTHER TO SUCK EGGS, spoken contemptuously to one who would teach those older and wiser than himself; TREAD UPON EGGS, to walk warily, to steer one's way carefully in a delicate situation. [A.S. _æg_; cf. Ice. _egg_, Ger. _ei_, perh. L. _ovum_, Gr. _[=o]on_.] EGG, eg, _v.t._ to instigate. [Ice. _eggja_--_egg_, an edge; cog. with A.S. _ecg_. See EDGE.] EGIS. See ÆGIS. EGLANDULAR, [=e]-glan'd[=u]-lar, _adj._ having no glands. EGLANTINE, eg'lan-t[=i]n, _n._ a name given to the sweet-brier, and some other species of rose, whose branches are covered with sharp prickles. [Fr.,--O. Fr. _aiglent_, as if from a L. _aculentus_, prickly--_acus_, a needle, and suff. _lentus_.] EGLATERE, eg-la-t[=e]r', _n._ (_Tenn._) eglantine. EGMA, eg'ma, _n._ (_Shak._) a corruption of _enigma_. EGO, [=e]'g[=o], _n._ the 'I,' that which is conscious and thinks.--_ns._ E'G[=O]ISM (_phil._), the doctrine that we have proof of nothing but our own existence: (_ethics_), the theory of self-interest as the principle of morality: selfishness; E'G[=O]IST, one who holds the doctrine of egoism: one who thinks and speaks too much of himself.--_adjs._ EG[=O]IST'IC, -AL, pertaining to or manifesting egoism.--_ns._ EG[=O]'ITY, the essential element of the ego; E'G[=O]THEISM, the deification of self.--_v.i._ E'GOTISE, to talk much of one's self.--_ns._ E'GOTISM, a frequent use of the pronoun I: speaking much of one's self: self-exaltation; E'GOTIST, one full of egotism.--_adjs._ EGOTIST'IC, -AL, showing egotism: self-important: conceited.--_adv._ EGOTIST'ICALLY. [L. _ego_, I.] EGOPHONY, [=e]-gof'o-ni, _n._ a tremulous resonance heard in auscultation in cases of pleurisy.--Also ÆGOPH'ONY. [Gr. _aix_, a goat, _phon[=e]_, voice.] EGREGIOUS, e-gr[=e]'ji-us, _adj._ prominent: distinguished: outrageous: enormous (in bad sense).--_adv._ EGR[=E]'GIOUSLY.--_n._ EGR[=E]'GIOUSNESS. [L. _egregius_, chosen out of the flock--_e_, out, _grex_, _gregis_, a flock.] EGRESS, [=e]'gres, _n._ act of going out: departure: the way out: the power or right to depart.--_n._ EGRES'SION, the act of going out. [L. _egredi_, _egressus_--_e_, out, forth, and _gradi_, to go.] EGRET, [=e]'gret, _n._ a form of _aigrette_. EGYPTIAN, [=e]-jip'shi-an, _adj._ belonging to Egypt.--_n._ a native of Egypt: a gipsy.--_adj._ EGYPTOLOG'ICAL.--_ns._ EGYPTOL'OGIST; EGYPTOL'OGY, the science of Egyptian antiquities.--EGYPTIAN DARKNESS, darkness like that of Exod. x. 22. EH, [=a], _interj._ expressing inquiry or slight surprise.--_v.i._ to say 'Eh.' EIDENT, [=i]'dent, _adj._ busy: (_Scot._) diligent. [M. E. _ithen_--Ice. _iðinn_, diligent.] EIDER, [=i]'d[.e]r, _n._ the eider-duck, a northern sea-duck, sought after for its fine down.--_n._ EI'DER-DOWN, the soft down of the eider-duck, used for stuffing quilts. [Prob. through Sw. from Ice. _æðar_, gen. of _æðr_, an eider-duck.] EIDOGRAPH, [=i]'do-graf, _n._ an instrument for copying drawings. [Gr. _eidos_, form, _graphein_, to write.] EIDOLON, [=i]-d[=o]'lon, _n._ an image: a phantom or apparition: a confusing reflection or reflected image:--_pl._ EID[=O]'LA. [Gr. See IDOL.] EIFFEL-TOWER, [=i]f'el-tow'[.e]r, _n._ a colossal building--from the iron structure, 985 feet high, erected (1887-89) in the Champ-de-Mars at Paris by Gustave _Eiffel_. EIGHT, [=a]t, _n._ the cardinal number one above seven: the figure (8 or viii.) denoting eight.--_adj._ noting the number eight.--_adjs._ and _ns._ EIGHT'EEN, eight and ten, twice nine; EIGHT'EENM[=O], same as OCTODECIMO (q.v.); EIGHT'EENTH, the ordinal number corresponding to eighteen.--_n._ EIGHT'FOIL (_her._), an eight-leaved grass.--_adjs._ EIGHT'FOLD, eight times any quantity; EIGHTH, the ordinal number corresponding to eight.--_n._ an eighth part.--_adv._ EIGHTH'LY, in the eighth place.--_adjs._ and _ns._ EIGHT'IETH, the ordinal number corresponding to eighty; EIGHT'Y, eight times ten, fourscore.--AN EIGHT, a crew of a rowing-boat, consisting of eight oarsmen; AN EIGHT-OAR, or simply EIGHT, the boat itself; AN EIGHT DAYS, a week; FIGURE OF EIGHT, a figure shaped like an 8 made in skating; PIECE OF EIGHT, a Spanish coin; THE EIGHTS, annual bumping boat-races which take place in the summer term in Oxford and Cambridge between the various colleges. [A.S. _eahta_; Ger. _acht_, L. _octo_, Gr. _okt[=o]_.] EIGNE, [=a]n, _adj._ first-born. [Corrupt spelling of _ayne_--Fr. _aîné_.] EIKON, [=i]'kon, _n._ Same as ICON. EILD, [=e]ld, _adj._ (_Scot._) not yielding milk. [See YELD.] EILD. Same as ELD (q.v.). EINE, [=e]n, _n.pl._ (_obs._) eyes. [See EEN, under EE.] EIRACK, [=e]'rak, _n._ (_Scot._) a young hen. EIRENICON, [=i]-r[=e]'ni-kon, _n._ a proposal calculated to promote peace.--_adj._ EIR[=E]'NIC. [Gr.,--_eir[=e]n[=e]_, peace.] EIRIE, [=e]'ri, _n._ Same as EERIE. EISTEDDFOD, es-teth'vod, _n._ a congress of Welsh bards and musicians held in various towns for the preservation and cultivation of national poetry and music. [W.; lit. 'session,' _eistedd_, to sit.] EITHER, _[=e]'_th_[.e]r_, or _[=i]'_th_[.e]r_, _adj._ or _pron._ the one or the other: one of two: each of two.--_conj._ correlative to _or_: (_B._) or. [A.S. _['æ]gðer_, a contr. of _['æ]ghthwæðer_=_á_, aye, the pfx. _ge-_, and _hwæther_, the mod. _whether_. See also EACH.] EJACULATE, e-jak'[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to eject: to utter with suddenness.--_v.i._ to utter ejaculations.--_n._ EJACUL[=A]'TION, a sudden utterance in prayer or otherwise: what is so uttered.--_adjs._ EJAC'ULATIVE; EJAC'ULATORY, uttered in short, earnest sentences. [L. _e_, out, and _jacul[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_--_jac[)e]re_, to throw.] EJECT, e-jekt', _v.t._ to cast out: to dismiss: to dispossess of: to expel.--_ns._ E'JECT, a coinage of Prof. Clifford for an inferred existence, a thing thrown out of one's own consciousness, as distinguished from _object_, a thing presented in one's consciousness; EJEC'TION, discharge: expulsion: state of being ejected: vomiting: that which is ejected.--_adj._ EJEC'TIVE.--_ns._ EJECT'MENT, expulsion; dispossession: (_law_) an action for the recovery of the possession of land; EJECT'OR, one who ejects or dispossesses another of his land: any mechanical apparatus for ejecting. [L. _eject[=a]re_, freq. of _ejic[)e]re_, _ejectum_--_e_, out, _jac[)e]re_, to throw.] EKE, [=e]k, _v.t._ to add to or increase: to lengthen.--_n._ E'KING, act of adding: what is added.--EKE OUT, to supplement: to prolong. [A.S. _écan_, akin to L. _aug[=e]re_, to increase.] EKE, [=e]k, _adv._ in addition to: likewise. [A.S. _éac_; Ger. _auch_; from root of _eke_, _v.t_.] ELABORATE, e-lab'or-[=a]t, _v.t._ to labour on: to produce with labour: to take pains with: to improve by successive operations.--_adj._ wrought with labour: done with fullness and exactness: highly finished.--_adv._ ELAB'ORATELY.--_ns._ ELAB'ORATENESS; ELABOR[=A]'TION, act of elaborating: refinement: the process by which substances are formed in the organs of animals or plants.--_adj._ ELAB'ORATIVE.--_ns._ ELAB'ORATOR, one who elaborates; ELAB'ORATORY=LABORATORY. [L. _elabor[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_e_, out, _labor[=a]re_--_labor_, labour.] ÉLAN, [=a]-long', _n._ impetuosity, dash. [Fr.] ELANCE, e-lans', _v.t._ to throw out, as a lance. [Fr. _élancer_.] ELAND, [=e]'land, _n._ the South African antelope, resembling the elk in having a protuberance on the larynx. [Dut.; Ger. _elend_, the elk--Lith. _élnis_, the elk.] ELAPSE, e-laps', _v.i._ to slip or glide away: to pass silently, as time.--_n._ ELAP'SION. [L. _elapsus_, _elabi_--_e_, out, away, _labi_, _lapsus_, to slide.] ELASMOBRANCHIATE, e-las-mo-brang'ki-[=a]t, _adj._ pertaining to a class, subclass, or order of fishes including sharks and skates, having lamellar branchiæ or plate-like gills. ELASTIC, e-las'tik, _adj._ having a tendency to recover the original form: springy: able to recover quickly a former state or condition after a shock: flexible: yielding.--_n._ a piece of string, cord, &c. made elastic by having india-rubber woven in it.--_adv._ ELAS'TICALLY.--_ns._ ELASTIC'ITY, springiness: power to recover from depression; ELAS'TICNESS. [Coined from Gr. _elastikos_, _elaunein_, fut. _elasein_, to drive.] ELATE, e-l[=a]t', _adj._ lifted up: puffed up with success: exalted.--_v.t._ to raise or exalt: to elevate: to make proud.--_adv._ ELAT'EDLY.--_ns._ ELAT'EDNESS; EL'ATER, an elastic filament in certain liverworts and scale-mosses: a skip-jack beetle; ELAT[=E]'RIUM, a substance contained in the juice of the fruit of the squirting cucumber, yielding the purgative ELAT'ERIN; EL[=A]'TION, pride resulting from success. [L. _el[=a]tus_, pa.p. of _efferre_--_e_, out, _ferre_, to carry.] ELBOW, el'b[=o], _n._ the joint where the arm bows or bends: any sharp turn or bend.--_v.t._ to push with the elbow: to jostle.--_ns._ EL'BOW-CHAIR, an arm-chair; EL'BOW-GREASE, humorously applied to vigorous rubbing; EL'BOW-ROOM, room to extend the elbows: space enough for moving or acting: freedom.--AT ONE'S ELBOW, close at hand; BE OUT AT ELBOW, to wear a coat ragged at the elbows; UP TO THE ELBOWS, completely engrossed. [A.S. _elnboga_--_el-_, allied to L. _ulna_, the arm, _boga_, a bend--_bugan_, to bend. See ELL; BOW, _n._ and _v.t._] ELCHEE, elt'shi, _n._ an ambassador.--Also EL'CHI, ELT'CHI. [Turk.] ELD, eld, _n._ old age, senility: former times, antiquity. ELDER, eld'[.e]r, _n._ a genus of plants consisting chiefly of shrubs and trees, with pinnate leaves, small flowers (of which the corolla is wheel-shaped and five-cleft), and three-seeded berries--the Common Elder is the Scotch _Bourtree_.--_ns._ ELD'ER-BERR'Y, the acidulous purple-black drupaceous fruit of the elder; ELD'ER-GUN, a popgun made of elder-wood by extracting the pith; ELD'ER-WINE, a pleasant wine made from elder-berries.--ELDER-FLOWER WATER, distilled water, with an agreeable odour, made from the flowers. [A.S. _ellærn_, _ellen_.] ELDER, eld'[.e]r, _adj._ older: having lived a longer time: prior in origin.--_n._ one who is older: an ancestor: one advanced to office on account of age: one of a class of office-bearers in the Presbyterian Church--equivalent to the _presbyters_ of the New Testament.--_n._ ELD'ERLINESS.--_adj._ ELD'ERLY, somewhat old: bordering on old age.--_n._ ELD'ERSHIP, state of being older: the office of an elder.--_adj._ ELD'EST, oldest. [A.S. _eldra_, _yldra_, comp. of _eald_, old.] ELDING, el'ding, _n._ (_prov._) fuel. [Ice.,--_eldr_, fire.] EL DORADO, el d[=o]-rä'd[=o], the golden land of imagination of the Spanish conquerors of America: any place where wealth is easily to be made. [Sp. _el_, the, _dorado_, pa.p. of _dorar_, to gild.] ELDRITCH, el'drich, _adj._ (_Scot._) weird, hideous. [Der. obscure: perh. conn. with _elf_.] ELEATIC, el-e-at'ik, _adj._ noting a school of philosophers, specially connected with _Elea_, a Greek city of Lower Italy, and including Zenophanes, Parmenides, and Zeno.--_n._ one belonging to this school. ELECAMPANE, el'e-kam-p[=a]n', _n._ a composite plant allied to Aster, formerly much cultivated for its medicinal root. [Formed from Low L. _enula campana_.] ELECT, e-lekt', _v.t._ to choose out: to select for any office or purpose: to select by vote.--_adj._ chosen: taken by preference from among others: chosen for an office but not yet in it (almost always after the noun, as 'consul elect').--_n._ one chosen or set apart.--_n._ ELEC'TION, the act of electing or choosing: the public choice of a person for office, usually by the votes of a constituent body: freewill: (_theol._) the exercise of God's sovereign will in the predetermination of certain persons to salvation: (_B._) those who are elected.--_v.i._ ELECTIONEER', to labour to secure the election of a candidate.--_n._ ELECTIONEER'ER.--_n._ and _adj._ ELECTIONEER'ING, the soliciting of votes and other business of an election.--_adj._ ELECT'IVE, pertaining to, dependent on, or exerting the power of choice.--_adv._ ELECT'IVELY.--_ns._ ELECTIV'ITY; ELECT'OR, one who elects: one who has a vote at an election: the title formerly belonging to those princes and archbishops of the German Empire who had the right to elect the Emperor:--_fem._ ELECT'RESS, ELECT'ORESS.--_adjs._ ELECT'ORAL, ELECT[=O]'RIAL, pertaining to elections or to electors: consisting of electors.--_ns._ ELECT'ORATE, the dignity or the territory of an elector: the body of electors; ELECT'ORSHIP.--THE ELECT (_theol._), those chosen by God for salvation. [L. _e_, out, _leg[)e]re_, to choose.] ELECTRIC, e-lek'trik, _adj._ pertaining to or produced by electricity.--_n._ any electric substance: a non-conductor of electricity, as amber, glass, &c.--_adj._ ELEC'TRICAL.--_adv._ ELEC'TRICALLY.--_ns._ ELEC'TRIC-EEL (see GYMNOTUS); ELECTRI'CIAN, one who studies, or is versed in, the science of electricity; ELECTRIC'ITY, name of the cause of certain phenomena of attraction and repulsion: the phenomena themselves: the science which investigates the nature and laws of these phenomena.--_adj._ ELEC'TRIF[=I]ABLE.--_n._ ELECTRIFIC[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ ELEC'TRIFY, to communicate electricity to: to excite suddenly: to astonish: to adapt to electricity as the motive power:--_pa.p._ elec'trified.--_n._ ELEC'TRISATION.--_v.t._ ELEC'TR[=I]SE, to electrify.--_ns._ ELEC'TRODE, either of the poles of a galvanic battery; ELEC'TROLIER, a device for suspending a group of incandescent lamps; ELEC'TRUM, amber: an alloy of gold and silver.--ELECTRIC RAILWAY, a railway on which electricity is the motive-power; ELECTRIC SPARK, one of the forms in which accumulated electricity discharges itself; ELECTRIC STORM, a violent disturbance in the electrical condition of the earth. [L. _electrum_--Gr. _elektron_, amber, in which electricity was first observed.] ELECTRO-BIOLOGY, e-lek'tro-b[=i]-ol'o-ji, _n._ the science which treats of the electricity developed in living organisms: that view of animal magnetism according to which the actions, feelings, &c. of a person are controlled by the will of the operator.--_adj._ ELEC'TRO-BALLIS'TIC, of an apparatus for determining by electricity the velocity of a projectile.--_ns._ ELEC'TRO-BIOL'OGIST; ELEC'TRO-CHEM'ISTRY, that branch of chemical science which treats of the agency of electricity in effecting chemical changes.--_v.t._ ELEC'TROCUTE, to inflict a death penalty by means of electricity.--_ns._ ELECTROC[=U]'TION, capital punishment by electricity; ELEC'TRO-DYNAM'ICS, the branch of physics which treats of the action of electricity; ELEC'TRO-DYNAMOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the strength of electro-dynamic action; ELEC'TRO-ENGRAV'ING, an etching process in which the etched plate is placed in an electro-bath to deepen the 'bite;' ELEC'TRO-GILD'ING, electroplating with gold; ELEC'TRO-KINET'ICS, that branch of science which treats of electricity in motion; ELECTROL'OGY, the science of applied electricity.--_v.t._ ELEC'TROLYSE, to subject to electrolysis.--_ns._ ELECTROL'YSIS, the process of chemical decomposition by electricity; ELEC'TROLYTE, a body which admits of electrolysis.--_adj._ ELECTROLYT'IC.--_n._ ELEC'TRO-MAG'NET, a piece of soft iron rendered magnetic by a current of electricity passing through a coil of wire wound round it.--_adj._ ELEC'TRO-MAGNET'IC.--_ns._ ELEC'TRO-MAG'NETISM, a branch of science which treats of the relation of electricity to magnetism; ELEC'TRO-MET'ALLURGY, a name given to certain processes by which electricity is applied to the working of metals, as in electroplating and electrotyping; ELECTROM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the quantity of electricity.--_adjs._ ELECTROMET'RIC, -AL, pertaining to the measurement of electricity.--_ns._ ELECTROM'ETRY, the science of electrical measurements; ELEC'TRO-M[=O]'TION, the passage of an electric current in a voltaic circuit: motion produced by electricity employed as power.--_adjs._ ELEC'TRO-M[=O]'TIVE, pertaining to the motion of electricity or the laws governing it.--_n._ ELEC'TRO-M[=O]'TOR, an apparatus for applying electricity as a motive-power.--_adj._ ELEC'TRO-NEG'ATIVE, appearing, as an element in electrolysis, at the positive electrode: having the property of becoming negatively electrified by contact with a dissimilar substance.--_ns._ ELEC'TROPH[=O]NE, an instrument for producing sounds resembling trumpet-tones by electric currents of high tension; ELECTROPH'ORUS, an instrument for obtaining statical electricity by means of induction; ELEC'TRO-PHYSIOL'OGY, the study of the electric phenomena of living organisms.--_v.t._ ELEC'TROPLATE, to plate or cover with silver by electrolysis.--_n._ ELEC'TROPLATING.--_adjs._ ELEC'TRO-P[=O]'LAR, having, as an electrical conductor, one end or surface positive and the other negative; ELEC'TRO-POS'ITIVE, attracted by bodies negatively electrified, or by the negative pole of a voltaic battery: assuming positive potential when in contact with another substance.--_ns._ ELEC'TROSCOPE, an instrument for detecting the presence of electricity in a body and the nature of it; ELEC'TRO-STAT'ICS, that branch of science which treats of electricity at rest; ELEC'TRO-TINT, a style of etching by means of galvanism; ELEC'TROTYPE, the art of copying an engraving or type on a metal deposited by electricity.--_adj._ ELECTROTYP'IC.--_ns._ ELEC'TROTYPIST; ELEC'TROTYPY, the art of copying.--_adj._ ELEC'TRO-V[=I]'TAL, electrical and dependent upon vital processes. ELECTUARY, e-lek't[=u]-ar-i, _n._ a composition of medicinal powders with honey or sugar. [Low L. _electuarium_--Gr. _ekleikton_--_ekleichein_, to lick up.] ELECTRON. See page 1208. ELEEMOSYNARY, el-e-mos'i-nar-i, _adj._ relating to charity or almsgiving: dependent on charity: given in charity. [Gr. _ele[=e]mosyn[=e]_, compassionateness, alms--_eleos_, pity. See ALMS.] ELEGANT, el'e-gant, _adj._ pleasing to good taste: graceful: neat: refined: nice: richly ornamental.--_ns._ EL'EGANCE, EL'EGANCY, the state or quality of being elegant: the beauty of propriety: refinement: that which is elegant; ELEGANTE (el-e-gangt'), a lady of fashion.--_adv._ EL'EGANTLY. [Fr.,--L. _elegans_, _-antis_--_e_, out, and root of _leg[)e]re_, to choose.] ELEGY, el'e-ji, _n._ a song of mourning: a funeral-song: a poem written in elegiac metre.--_adj._ ELEG[=I]'AC, belonging to elegy: mournful: used in elegies, esp. noting the kind of metre, alternate hexameter and pentameter lines.--_n._ elegiac verse.--_adj._ ELEG[=I]'ACAL.--_ns._ EL[=E]'GIAST, EL'EGIST, a writer of elegies.--_v.i._ EL'EG[=I]SE, to write an elegy.--_v.t._ to write an elegy on. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _elegos_, a lament.] ELEMENT, el'e-ment, _n._ a first principle: one of the essential parts of anything: an ingredient: the proper state or sphere of any thing or being: (_pl._) the rudiments of learning: the bread and wine used in the Eucharist: fire, air, earth, and water, supposed by the ancients to be the foundation of everything: (_chem._) the simplest known constituents of all compound substances: (_astron._) those numerical quantities, and those principles deduced from astronomical observations and calculations, which are employed in the construction of tables exhibiting the planetary motions.--_adj._ ELEMENT'AL, pertaining to elements or first principles: fundamental: belonging to or produced by elements.--_n._ ELEMENT'ALISM, the theory which resolves the divinities of antiquity into the elemental powers.--_adv._ ELEMENT'ALLY.--_adj._ ELEMENT'ARY, of a single element: primary: uncompounded: pertaining to the elements: treating of first principles.--ELEMENTAL SPIRITS, beings in medieval belief who presided over the four 'elements,' living in and ruling them. [Fr.,--L. _elementum_, pl. _elementà_, first principles.] ELEMI, el'em-i, _n._ a fragrant resinous substance, obtained from the Manila pitch-tree, Arbol de la Brea.--_n._ EL'EMIN, the crystallisable portion of elemi. [Cf. Fr. _élémi_, Sp. _elemi_; perh. Ar.] ELENCH, e-lengk', ELENCHUS, e-lengk'us, _n._ refutation: a sophism.--_adjs._ ELENCH'IC, -AL, ELENC'TIC. [L.,--Gr. _elengchos_--_elengchein_, to refute.] ELEPHANT, el'e-fant, _n._ the largest quadruped, having a very thick skin, a trunk, and two ivory tusks: a special size of paper.--_ns._ ELEPHAN'TIAC, one affected with elephantiasis; ELEPHANT[=I]'ASIS, a disease chiefly of tropical climates, consisting of an overgrowth of the skin and connective tissue of the parts affected, with occasional attacks of inflammation resembling erysipelas.--_adjs._ ELEPHANT'INE, pertaining to an elephant: like an elephant: very large or ungainly; ELEPHANT'OID, elephant-like.--_ns._ EL'EPHANT-SEAL, the largest of the seals, the male measuring about 20 feet in length; EL'EPHANT'S-FOOT, a plant of which the root-stock forms a large fleshy mass resembling an elephant's foot, used as food by the Hottentots; EL'EPHANT-SHREW, name applied to a number of long-nosed, long-legged Insectivora, natives of Africa, and notable for their agile jumping over loose sand.--A WHITE ELEPHANT, a gift which occasions the recipient more trouble than it is worth--a white elephant being a common gift of the kings of Siam to a courtier they wished to ruin. [M. E. _olifaunt_--O. Fr. _olifant_--L. _elephantum_, _elephas_, _-antis_--Gr. _elephas_, acc. to some from Heb. _eleph_, _aleph_, an ox.] ELEUSINIAN, el-[=u]-sin'i-an, _adj._ relating to _Eleusis_ in Attica.--ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES, the mysteries of Demeter celebrated at Eleusis. ELEUTHERIAN, el-[=u]-th[=e]'ri-an, _adj._ bountiful. ELEUTHEROMANIA, el-[=u]th-er-o-m[=a]'ni-a, _n._ mad zeal for freedom.--_n._ ELEUTHEROM[=A]'NIAC (_Carlyle_), one possessed with such. [Formed from Gr. _eleutheros_, free, and _mania_.] ELEVATE, el'e-v[=a]t, _v.t._ to raise to a higher position: to raise in mind and feelings: to improve: to cheer: to exhilarate: to intoxicate.--_p.adjs._ EL'EVATE, -D, raised: dignified: exhilarated.--_ns._ ELEV[=A]'TION, the act of elevating or raising, or the state of being raised: exaltation: an elevated place or station: a rising ground: height: (_archit._) a representation of the flat side of a building, drawn with mathematical accuracy, but without any attention to effect: (_astron._, _geog._) the height above the horizon of an object on the sphere, measured by the arc of a vertical circle through it and the zenith: (_gun._) the angle made by the line of direction of a gun with the plane of the horizon; EL'EVATOR, the person or thing that lifts up: a lift or machine for raising grain, &c., to a higher floor: a muscle raising a part of the body.--_adj._ EL'EVATORY, able or tending to raise. [L. _elev[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_e_, out, up, _lev[=a]re_, to raise--_levis_, light. See LIGHT (2).] ELÈVE, [=a]-lev', _n._ a pupil. [Fr.] ELEVEN, e-lev'n, _n._ the cardinal number next above ten: the figure (11 or xi.) denoting eleven: a team of eleven cricketers.--_adj._ noting the number eleven.--_adj._ and _n._ ELEV'ENTH, the ordinal number corresponding to eleven.--ELEVENTH HOUR, the very last moment, referring to Matt. xx. 6, 9. [A.S. _endleofon_; cf. Goth. _ainlif_.] ELF, elf, _n._ in European folklore, a supernatural being, generally of human form but diminutive size, more malignant than a fairy: a dwarf: a tricky being:--(_pl._) ELVES.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) of the hair, to entangle.--_n._ ELF'-CHILD, a changeling, or a child supposed to have been left by elves in place of one stolen by them.--_adj._ ELF'IN, of or relating to elves.--_n._ a little elf: a child.--_adjs._ ELF'ISH, ELV'AN, ELV'ISH, elf-like, mischievous: tricky: disguised.--_n._ ELF'-LAND, the land of the elves or fairies.--_n.pl._ ELF'-LOCKS (_Shak._) locks of hair clotted together, supposed to have been done by elves.--_ns._ ELF'-SHOT, ELF'-BOLT, ELF'-AR'ROW, an arrow-head of flint or stone. [A.S. _ælf_; cf. Ice. _álfr_, Sw. _elf_.] ELGIN MARBLES. See MARBLE. ELICIT, e-lis'it, _v.t._ to entice: to bring to light: to deduce.--_n._ ELICIT[=A]'TION. [L. _elic[)e]re_, _elicitum_.] ELIDE, e-l[=i]d', _v.t._ to rebut: to cut off, as a syllable.--_n._ ELI'SION, the suppression of a vowel or syllable. [L. _elid[)e]re_, _elisum_--_e_, out, _læd[)e]re_, to strike.] ELIGIBLE, el'i-ji-bl, _adj._ fit or worthy to be chosen: legally qualified: desirable.--_n._ (_coll._) a person or thing eligible.--_ns._ EL'IGIBLENESS, ELIGIBIL'ITY, fitness to be elected or chosen: the state of being preferable to something else: desirableness.--_adv._ EL'IGIBLY. [Fr.,--L. _elig[)e]re_. See ELECT, _v.t._] ELIMINATE, [=e]-lim'in-[=a]t, _v.t._ to thrust out: to remove, cancel: to leave out of consideration.--_adj._ ELIM'INABLE.--_n._ ELIMIN[=A]'TION. [L. _elimin[)a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_e_, out, _limen_, _liminis_, a threshold.] ELIQUATION, same as LIQUATION. See LIQUATE. ELISION. See ELIDE. ELITE, [=a]-l[=e]t, _n._ a chosen or select part: the best of anything. [Fr. _élite_--L. _electa_ (_pars_, a part, understood). See ELECT, _v.t._] ELIXIR, e-liks'[.e]r, _n._ more fully, ELIXIR VITÆ, or ELIXIR OF LIFE, a liquor once supposed to have the power of indefinitely prolonging life or of transmuting metals: the quintessence of anything: a substance which invigorates: (_med._) a compound tincture. [Low L.,--Ar. _al-iks[=i]r_, the philosopher's stone, from _al-_, the, _iks[=i]r_, prob. from Late Gr. _x[=e]rion_, a desiccative powder for wounds--Gr. _x[=e]ros_, dry.] ELIZABETHAN, e-liz-a-beth'an, _adj._ pertaining to Queen _Elizabeth_ (1533-1603) or her time--of dress, manners, literature, &c.--_n._ a poet or dramatist of that age.--ELIZABETHAN ARCHITECTURE, a name applied to the mixed style which sprang up on the decline of Gothic, marked by Tudor bow-windows and turrets decorated with classic cornices and pilasters, long galleries, enormous square windows, large apartments, plaster ceilings wrought into compartments, &c. ELK, elk, _n._ the largest species of deer, found in the north of Europe and in North America.--IRISH ELK, a giant deer now extinct, known from the remains found in the Pleistocene diluvium, esp. of Ireland. [Perh. from the Scand., Ice. _elgr_, Sw. _elg_.] ELL, el, _n._ a measure of length originally taken from the arm: a cloth measure equal to 1¼ yd.--_n._ ELL'WAND, a measuring rod.--GIVE HIM AN INCH AND HE'LL TAKE AN ELL, a proverb, signifying that to yield one point entails the yielding of all. [A.S. _eln_; Dut. _el_, Ger. _elle_, L. _ulna_, Gr. _[=o]len[=e]_.] ELLAGIC, e-laj'ik, _adj._ pertaining to gall-nuts. ELLEBORIN, el'[=e]-b[=o]-rin, _n._ a very acrid resin found in winter hellebore. ELLIPSE, el-lips', _n._ an oval: (_geom._) a figure produced by the section of a cone by a plane passing obliquely through the opposite sides.--_ns._ ELLIP'SIS (_gram._), a figure of syntax by which a word or words are left out and implied:--_pl._ ELLIP'S[=E]S; ELLIP'SOGRAPH, an instrument for describing ellipses; ELLIP'SOID (_math._), a surface every plane section of which is an ellipse.--_adjs._ ELLIPSOI'DAL; ELLIP'TIC, -AL, pertaining to an ellipse: oval: pertaining to ellipsis: having a part understood.--_adv._ ELLIP'TICALLY.--_n._ ELLIPTIC'ITY, deviation from the form of a circle or sphere: of the earth, the difference between the equatorial and polar diameters. [L.,--Gr. _elleipsis_--_elleipein_, to fall short--_en_, in, _leipein_, to leave.] ELLOPS, el'ops, _n._ a kind of serpent or fish. [Gr.] ELM, elm, _n._ a genus of trees of the natural order _Ulmaceæ_, with serrated leaves unequal at the base, and small flowers growing in clusters appearing before the leaves.--_adjs._ ELM'EN, made of elm; ELM'Y, abounding with elms. [A.S. _elm_; Ger. _ulme_, L. _ulmus_.] ELMO'S FIRE, el'm[=o]z f[=i]r, _n._ the popular name of an electric appearance sometimes seen like a brush or star of light at the tops of masts, spars, &c.--Also known as the Fire of St Elias, of St Clara, of St Nicholas, and of Helena, as well as _composite_ or _composant_ (_corpus sanctum_) on the Suffolk sea-board. [Explained as a corr. of _Helena_, name of the sister of Castor and Pollux, or of St Erasmus, a 3d-cent. bishop, Italianised as _Ermo_, _Elmo_.] ELOCUTION, el-o-k[=u]'shun, _n._ the art of effective speaking, more esp. of public speaking, regarding solely the utterance or delivery: eloquence.--_adj._ ELOC[=U]'TIONARY.--_n._ ELOC[=U]'TIONIST, one versed in elocution: a teacher of elocution. [Fr.,--L. _elocution-em_, _eloqui_, _eloc[=u]tus_--_e_, out, _loqui_, to speak.] ÉLOGE, [=a]-l[=o]zh', ELOGIUM, [=e]-l[=o]'ji-um, ELOGY, el'o-ji, _n._ a funeral oration: a panegyric.--_n._ EL'OGIST, one who delivers an éloge. [Fr. _éloge_--L. _elogium_, a short statement, an inscription on a tomb, perh. confused with _eulogy_.] ELOHIM, e-l[=o]'him, _n._ the Hebrew name for God.--_n._ EL[=O]'HIST, the writer or writers of the Elohistic passages of the Old Testament.--_adj._ ELOHIST'IC, relating to Elohim--said of those passages in the Old Testament in which Elohim is used as the name for the Supreme Being instead of Jehovah. [Heb., pl. of _Eloah_--explained by Delitzsch as a plural of intensity.] ELOIN, ELOIGN, e-loin', _v.t._ to convey to a distance, to separate and remove.--_ns._ ELOIN'MENT, ELOIGN'MENT. [O. Fr. _esloignier_ (Fr. _éloigner_)--Low L. _elong[=a]re_. See ELONGATE.] ELONGATE, e-long'g[=a]t, _v.t._ to make longer: to extend.--_p.adjs._ ELONG'ATE, -D.--_n._ ELONG[=A]'TION, act of lengthening out: distance. [Low L. _elong[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_e_, out, _longus_, long.] ELOPE, e-l[=o]p, _v.i._ to escape privately, said esp. of a woman, either married or unmarried, who runs away with a lover: to run away, bolt.--_n._ ELOPE'MENT, a secret departure, esp. of a woman with a man. [Cf. Old Dut. _ontl[=o]pen_, Ger. _entlaufen_, to run away.] ELOQUENT, el'o-kwent, _adj._ having the power of speaking with fluency, elegance, and force: containing eloquence: persuasive.--_n._ EL'OQUENCE, the utterance of strong emotion in correct, appropriate, expressive, and fluent language: the art which produces fine speaking: persuasive speech.--_adv._ EL'OQUENTLY. [L. _eloquens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _eloqui_.] ELSE, els, _pron._ other.--_adv._ otherwise: besides: except that mentioned.--_advs._ ELSE'WHERE, in or to another place; ELSE'WISE, in a different manner: otherwise. [A.S. _elles_, otherwise--orig. gen. of _el_, other; cf. Old High Ger. _alles_ or _elles_.] ELSIN, el'sin, _n._ (_Scot._) an awl. [From Old Dut. _elssene_ (mod. _els_), from same root as _awl_.] ELTCHI. Same as ELCHEE. ELUCIDATE, e-l[=u]'si-d[=a]t, _v.t._ to make lucid or clear: to throw light upon: to illustrate.--_n._ ELUCID[=A]'TION.--_adjs._ EL[=U]'CIDATIVE, EL[=U]'CIDATORY, making clear: explanatory.--_n._ EL[=U]'CIDATOR. [Low L. _elucid[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_e_, inten., _lucidus_, clear.] ELUCUBRATION. Same as LUCUBRATION. ELUDE, e-l[=u]d', _v.t._ to escape by stratagem: to baffle.--_adj._ EL[=U]'DIBLE.--_n._ EL[=U]'SION, act of eluding: evasion.--_adj._ EL[=U]'SIVE, practising elusion: deceptive.--_adv._ EL[=U]'SIVELY.--_n._ EL[=U]'SORINESS.--_adj._ EL[=U]'SORY, tending to elude or cheat: evasive: deceitful. [L. _elud[)e]re_, _elusum_--_e_, out, _lud[)e]re_, to play.] ELUL, [=e]'lul, _n._ the 12th month of the Jewish civil year, and 6th of the ecclesiastical. [Heb.,--_âlal_, to reap.] ELUTRIATE, e-l[=u]'tri-[=a]t, _v.t._ to separate by means of water the finer particles of earth and pigments from the heavier portions.--_ns._ EL[=U]'TION, washing from impurity; ELUTRI[=A]'TION. [L. _elutri[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to wash out, _elu[)e]re_--_e_, out, _lu[)e]re_, to wash.] ELVAN, elv'an, _n._ the miner's name in the south-west of England for a granular crystalline rock, composed of quartz and orthoclase, which forms veins associated with granite.--Also ELV'ANITE. [Prob. Corn. _elven_, spark.] ELVAN, ELVES, ELVISH. See under ELF. ELYSIUM, e-lizh'i-um, _n._ (_myth._) among the Greeks, the abode of the blessed after death: any delightful place.--_adj._ ELYS'IAN, pertaining to Elysium: delightful: glorious. [L.,--Gr. _[=e]lysion_ (_pedion_), the Elysian (plain).] ELYTRUM, el'it-rum, _n._ the fore-wing of beetles, modified to form more or less hard coverings for the hind pair--also EL'YTRON:--_pl._ EL'YTRA.--_adjs._ EL'YTRAL; ELYT'RIFORM; ELYTRIG'EROUS. [Gr. _elytron_, a sheath.] ELZEVIR, el'ze-vir, _adj._ published by the _Elzevirs_, a celebrated family of printers at Amsterdam, Leyden, and other places in Holland, whose small neat editions were chiefly published between 1592 and 1681: pertaining to the type used in their 12mo and 16mo editions of the Latin classics.--_n._ a special form of printing types. EM, em, _n._ the name of the letter M: (_print._) the unit of measurement in estimating how much is printed on a page. 'EM, [.e]m, _pron._ him: (_coll._) them. [Orig. the unstressed form of _hem_, dat. and accus. pl. of _he_; but now used coll. as an abbreviation of _them_.] EMACIATE, e-m[=a]'shi-[=a]t, _v.t._ to make meagre or lean: to deprive of flesh: to waste.--_v.i._ to become lean: to waste away.--_p.adjs._ EM[=A]'CIATE, -D.--_n._ EMACI[=A]'TION, the condition of becoming emaciated or lean: leanness. [L. _emaci[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_e_, inten., _maci[=a]re_, to make lean--_macies_, leanness.] EMANATE, em'a-n[=a]t, _v.i._ to flow out or from: to proceed from some source: to arise.--_adj._ EM'ANANT, flowing from.--_ns._ EMAN[=A]'TION, a flowing out from a source, as the universe considered as issuing from the essence of God: the _generation_ of the Son and the _procession_ of the Spirit, as distinct from the origination of created beings: that which issues or proceeds from some source; EM'ANATIST.--_adjs._ EM'ANATIVE, EM'ANATORY, EMAN[=A]'TIONAL. [L. _eman[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_e_, out from, _man[=a]re_, to flow.] EMANCIPATE, e-man'si-p[=a]t, _v.t._ to set free from servitude: to free from restraint or bondage of any kind.--_ns._ EMANCIP[=A]'TION, the act of setting free from bondage or disability of any kind: the state of being set free; EMANCIP[=A]'TIONIST, an advocate of the emancipation of slaves; EMAN'CIPATOR; EMAN'CIPIST, a convict who has served his time of punishment in a penal colony. [L. _emancip[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_e_, away from, _mancip[=a]re_, to transfer property--_manceps_, _-cipis_, one who gets property, from _manus_, the hand, _cap[)e]re_, to take.] EMARGINATE, e-mär'jin-[=a]t, _v.t._ to take away the margin of.--_p.adj._ (_bot._) depressed and notched instead of pointed at the summit, as a leaf: (_min._) having all the edges of the primitive form crossed by a face: (_zool._) having the margin broken by a notch or segment of a circle.--_n._ EMARGIN[=A]'TION. [L. _emargin[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_e_, out, _margin[=a]re_, to provide with a margin--_margo_, a margin.] EMASCULATE, e-mas'k[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to deprive of the properties of a male: to castrate: to deprive of masculine vigour: to render effeminate.--_ns._ EMASCUL[=A]'TION; EMAS'CUL[=A]TOR.--_adj._ EMAS'CUL[=A]TORY. [Low L. _emascul[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_e_, neg., _masculus_, dim. of _mas_, a male.] EMBACE, em-b[=a]s', _v.t._ (_Spens._). Same as EMBASE. EMBALE, em-b[=a]l', _v.t._ to make up, as into a bale: to bind up: to enclose. [Fr. _emballer_--_em_--L. _in_, _balle_, a bale.] EMBALL, em-bawl', _v.t._ to encircle: ensphere.--_n._ EMBALL'ING. EMBALM, em-bäm', _v.t._ to preserve from decay by aromatic drugs, as a dead body: to perfume: to preserve with care and affection.--_ns._ EMBALM'ER; EMBALM'ING; EMBALM'MENT. [Fr. _embaumer_, from _em_, in, and _baume_. See BALM.] EMBANK, em-bangk', _v.t._ to enclose or defend with a bank or dike.--_n._ EMBANK'MENT, the act of embanking: a bank or mound made to keep water within certain limits: a mound constructed so as to carry a level road or railway over a low-lying place. [Coined from _em_, in, and _bank_.] EMBAR, em-bär', _v.t._ to shut in; to hinder or stop:--_pr.p._ embar'ring; _pa.p._ embarred'.--_n._ EMBAR'RING. EMBARCATION. Same as EMBARKATION. EMBARGO, em-bär'g[=o], _n._ a temporary order from the Admiralty to prevent the arrival or departure of ships: a stoppage of trade for a short time by authority:--_pl._ EMBAR'GOES.--_v.t._ to lay an embargo on: to seize.--_pr.p._ embar'g[=o]ing; _pa.p._ embar'g[=o]ed. [Sp.,--_embargar_, to impede, to restrain--Sp. _em_, in, _barra_, a bar. See BARRICADE and EMBARRASS.] EMBARK, em-bärk', _v.t._ to put on board ship: to engage in any affair.--_v.i._ to go on board ship: to engage in a business: to enlist.--_n._ EMBARK[=A]'TION, a putting or going on board: that which is embarked: (_obs._) a vessel.--_p.adjs._ EMBARKED'; EMBARK'ING.--_n._ EMBARK'MENT. [Fr. _embarquer_, from _em_, in, _barque_, a bark.] EMBARRASS, em-bar'as, _v.t._ to encumber: to involve in difficulty, esp. in money matters: to perplex.--_p.adj._ EMBARR'ASSED, perplexed: constrained.--_n._ EMBARR'ASSMENT, perplexity or confusion: difficulties in money matters.--EMBARRAS DES RICHESSES, a superabundance of materials, an abundance so great that choice is difficult. [Fr. _embarrasser_--_em_, in, _barre_, bar.] EMBASE, em-b[=a]z', _v.t._ (_obs._) to bring down: to degrade.--_p.adj._ EMBASED'.--_n._ EMBASE'MENT. [_Em_ and _base_.] EMBASSY, em'bas-i, _n._ the charge or function of an ambassador: the person or persons sent on an undertaking.--_ns._ EM'BASSADE, EM'BASSAGE (same as AMBASSAGE); EMBASS'ADOR (same as AMBASSADOR). EMBATHE, em-b[=a]_th_' _v.t._ to bathe. EMBATTLE, em-bat'l, _v.t._ to furnish with battlements.--_p.adj._ EMBATT'LED, furnished with battlements: (_her._) having the outline like a battlement.--_n._ EMBATT'LEMENT (same as BATTLEMENT). [_Em_, and O. Fr. _bastiller_, from the same root as _battlement_, _bastille_, and _baste_, to sew. The form of this word is due to a confusion with Eng. _battle_.] EMBATTLE, em-bat'l, _v.t._ to range in order of battle: to arm--_p.adj._ EMBATT'LED, arranged for battle. [O. Fr. _embataillier_--_en_, in, _bataille_, battle.] EMBAY, em-b[=a]', _v.t._ to enclose in a bay: to land-lock.--_n._ EMBAY'MENT, a bay. [_Em_, in, into, and _bay_.] EMBAY, em-b[=a]', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to bathe. [_Em_, in, and Fr. _baigner_. See BAGNIO.] EMBED, em-bed', IMBED, im-, _v.t._ to place in a mass of matter: to lay, as in a bed.--_n._ EMBED'MENT, the act of embedding: state of being embedded. EMBELLISH, em-bel'ish, _v.t._ to make beautiful with ornaments: to decorate: to make graceful: to illustrate pictorially, as a book.--_n._ EMBELL'ISHER.--_adv._ EMBELL'ISHINGLY.--_n._ EMBELL'ISHMENT, act of embellishing or adorning: decoration: ornament. [Fr. _embellir_, _embellissant_--_em_, in, _bel_, _beau_, beautiful.] EMBER, em'b[.e]r, _n._ a live piece of coal or wood: chiefly in _pl._ red-hot ashes: smouldering remains of a fire. [A.S. _['æ]merge_; Ice. _eimyrja_. The _b_ is simply euphonic.] EMBER-DAYS, em'b[.e]r-d[=a]z, _n.pl._ the three Fast-days in each quarter (Wednesday, Friday, Saturday)--following the first Sunday in Lent, Whitsunday, Holy Cross Day (Sept. 14th), and St Lucia's Day (Dec. 13th).--_n._ EM'BER-WEEK, the week in which the ember-days occur. [A.S. _ymbryne_, a circuit--_ymb_, round (Ger. _um_, L. _ambi-_), and _ryne_, a running, from _rinnan_, to run.] EMBER-GOOSE, em'b[.e]r-g[=oo]s, _n._ a kind of sea-fowl, the Great Northern Diver. [Norw. _emmer_; Ger. _imber_.] EMBEZZLE, em-bez'l, _v.t._ to appropriate fraudulently what has been entrusted.--_ns._ EMBEZZ'LEMENT, fraudulent appropriation of another's property by the person to whom it was entrusted; EMBEZZ'LER. [Perh. from root of _imbecile_, the primary sense being to weaken: (_obs._) BEZZ'LE, to squander, from O. Fr. _besiler_, to destroy, is the same word.] EMBITTER, em-bit'[.e]r, _Imbitter_, im-, _v.t._ to make bitter: to increase (ill-feeling).--_p.adj._ EMBITT'ERED, soured.--_n._ EMBITT'ERER.--_p.adj._ EMBITT'ERING.--_n._ EMBITT'ERMENT. EMBLAZON, em-bl[=a]'zn, _v.t._ to deck in blazing colours: (_her._) to blazon or adorn with figures: to depict heraldically.--_v.t._ EMBLAZE', to illuminate.--_ns._ EMBL[=A]'ZONER; EMBL[=A]'ZONMENT, an emblazoning; EMBL[=A]'ZONRY, the art of emblazoning or adorning: devices on shields. [_Em_, and _blaze_, _blazon_.] EMBLEM, em'blem, _n._ a picture representing to the mind something different from itself: a type or symbol: (_Milton_) an inlaid ornament.--_v.t._ to symbolise.--_n._ EMBL[=E]'MA, an inlaid ornament:--_pl._ EMBL[=E]'MATA.--_adjs._ EMBLEMAT'IC, -AL, pertaining to or containing emblems: symbolical: representing.--_adv._ EMBLEMAT'ICALLY.--_v.t._ EMBLEM'ATISE, EM'BLEMISE, to represent by an emblem:--_pr.p._ emblem'at[=i]sing; _pa.p._ emblem'at[=i]sed.--_n._ EMBLEM'ATIST, a writer or inventor of emblems. [L. _embl[=e]ma_--Gr. _em_ (=_en_), in, _ballein_, to cast.] EMBLEMENTS, em'bl-ments, _n.pl._ crops raised by the labour of the cultivator, but not fruits nor grass. [O. Fr. _emblaer_, to sow with corn--Low L. _imblad[=a]re_--_in_, in, _bladum_, wheat.] EMBLOOM, em-bl[=oo]m', _v.t._ to cover with bloom. EMBLOSSOM, em-blos'om, _v.t._ to cover with blossom. EMBODY, em-bod'i, IMBODY, im-, _v.t._ to form into a body: to make corporeal: to make tangible: to express (an idea in words): to organise.--_v.i._ to unite in a body or mass.--_p.adj._ EMBOD'IED.--_n._ EMBOD'IMENT, act of embodying: state of being embodied: that in which something is embodied. [_Em_, in, and _body_.] EMBOGUE, em-b[=o]g', _v.i._ to discharge itself. EMBOIL, em-boil', _v.i._ (_Spens._) to burn with anger.--_v.t._ to cause to burn with anger: to irritate. EMBOLDEN, em-b[=o]ld'n, IMBOLDEN, im-, _v.t._ to make bold or courageous. [_Em_, to make, and _bold_.] EMBOLISM, em'bo-lizm, _n._ the insertion of days in an account of time to produce regularity: an intercalated prayer for deliverance from evil coming after the Lord's Prayer: (_med._) the presence of obstructing clots in the blood-vessels.--_adjs._ EMBOLIS'MAL, EMBOLIS'MIC.--_n._ EM'BOLUS, the clot of fibrin obstructing a blood-vessel, causing embolism. [Fr.,--Gr. _embolismos_--_emballein_, to cast in.] EMBONPOINT, ang-bong-pwang', _adj._ stout, plump, full in figure, mostly of women: well-fed.--_n._ stoutness, plumpness, well-fed condition. [Fr.,--_en bon point_, in good form.] EMBORDER, em-bord'[.e]r, _v.t._ (_Milton_) to border. EMBOSCATA, em-bos-k[=a]'ta, _n._ an erroneous form of It. _imboscáta_, an ambuscade. EMBOSOM, em-booz'um, IMBOSOM, im-, _v.t._ to take into the bosom: to receive into the affections: to enclose or surround. [_Em_, in, into, and _bosom_.] EMBOSS, em-bos', _v.t._ to produce (a raised pattern) by pressure upon sheet-metal, leather, cloth, &c.: to ornament with raised-work: (_Spens._) to cover with armour: to be wrapped in.--_p.adj._ EMBOSSED', formed or covered with bosses: raised, standing out in relief: (_bot._) having a protuberance in the centre.--_ns._ EMBOSS'ER; EMBOSS'MENT, a prominence like a boss: raised-work. [_Em_, in, into, and _boss_.] EMBOSS, em-bos', _v.i._ (_Milton_) to plunge into the depths of a wood.--_v.t._ to make to foam at the mouth. [O. Fr. _embosquer_, _em_--L. _in_, in, _bosc_, a wood. See AMBUSH.] EMBOUCHURE, ang-boo-shür', _n._ the mouth of a river: the mouth-hole of a wind musical instrument. [Fr.,--_em-boucher_, to put to the mouth--_en_, in, _bouche_, a mouth.] EMBOUND, em-bownd', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to bound, enclose. EMBOW, em-b[=o]', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to bow or arch.--_p.adj._ EMBOWED', arched, vaulted: bent like a bow: the heraldic term noting anything bent like a bow--as, e.g., the arm of a man. [_Em_ and _bow_.] EMBOWEL, em-bow'el, _v.t._ properly, to enclose in something else; but also used for disembowel, to remove the entrails from:--_pr.p._ embow'elling; _pa.p._ embow'elled.--_n._ EMBOW'ELMENT. [_Em_, in, into, and _bowel_.] EMBOWER, em-bow'er, IMBOWER, im-, _v.t._ to place in a bower: to shelter, as with trees.--_p.adjs._ EMBOW'ERED; EMBOW'ERING.--_n._ EMBOW'ERMENT. [_Em_, in, and _bower_.] EMBOX, em-boks', _v.t._ to set in a box. [_Em_, in, _box_.] EMBRACE, em-br[=a]s', _v.t._ to take in the arms: to press to the bosom with affection: to take eagerly or willingly: to comprise: to admit, adopt, or receive.--_v.i._ to join in an embrace.--_n._ an embracing: fond pressure in the arms.--_ns._ EMBRACE'MENT; EMBRAC'ER.--_adjs._ EMBRAC'ING, EMBRAC'IVE.--_adv._ EMBRAC'INGLY.--_n._ EMBRAC'INGNESS. [O. Fr. _embracer_ (Fr. _embrasser_)--L. _in_, in, into, _bracchium_, an arm. See BRACE.] EMBRACE, em-br[=a]s', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to brace, to fasten, or bind:--_pr.p._ embrac'ing; _pa.p._ embraced'. [_Em_, in, and _brace_.] EMBRACER, em-br[=a]'ser, _n._ (_law_) one who influences jurors by corrupt means to deliver a partial verdict--also EMBR[=A]'CEOR, EMBR[=A]'SOR.--_n._ EMBRAC'ERY, the offence of an embracer. [O. Fr. _embraceor_, from _embraser_, to set on fire.] EMBRAID, em-br[=a]d', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to braid. EMBRANCHMENT, em-bransh'ment, _n._ a branching off, as an arm of a river, a spur of a mountain, &c. [Fr.] EMBRANGLE, em-brang'gl, IMBRANGLE, im-, _v.t._ to confuse, perplex.--_n._ EMBRAN'GLEMENT. [_Em_, in, and _brangle_.] EMBRASURE (_Shak._)=EMBRACEMENT. EMBRASURE, em-br[=a]'zh[=u]r, _n._ a door or window with the sides slanted on the inside: an opening in a wall for cannon. [Fr.,--O. Fr. _embraser_, to slope the sides of a window, _em_--L. _in_, _braser_, to skew.] EMBRAVE, em-br[=a]v', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to make brave or showy, to decorate: to inspire with bravery. EMBREAD, _v.t._ (_Spens._) embraid. EMBREATHE, em-br[=e]_th_', _v.t._ to breathe into, to inspire with. [_En_ and _breathe_.] EMBROCATE, em'br[=o]-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to moisten and rub, as a sore with a lotion.--_n._ EMBROC[=A]'TION, act of embrocating: the lotion used. [Low L. _embroc[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, from Gr. _embroch[=e]_, a lotion--_embrechein_, to soak in--_em_ (=_en_), in, into, _brechein_, to wet.] EMBROGLIO=IMBROGLIO. EMBROIDER, em-broid'[.e]r, _v.t._ to ornament with designs in needlework, originally on the border.--_ns._ EMBROID'ERER; EMBROID'ERY, the art of producing ornamental patterns by means of needlework on textile fabrics, &c.: ornamental needlework: variegation or diversity: artificial ornaments. [M. E. _embrouderie_--O. Fr. _embroder_, _em_, and _broder_, prob. Celt., acc. to Skeat. Bret. _brouda_, to pierce; confused with Fr. _border_, to border.] EMBROIL, em-broil', _v.t._ to involve in a broil, or in perplexity (_with_): to entangle: to distract: to throw into confusion.--_n._ EMBROIL'MENT, a state of perplexity or confusion: disturbance. [Fr. _embrouiller_--_em_, in, _brouiller_, to break out.] EMBRONZE, em-bronz', _v.t._ to form in bronze. EMBROWN, em-brown', IMBROWN, im-, _v.t._ to make brown: to darken, obscure.--_p.adj._ EMBROWN'ING. EMBRUE, em-br[=oo]', _v.t._ Same as IMBRUE. EMBRYO, em'bri-[=o], EMBRYON, em'bri-on, _n._ the young of an animal in its earliest stages of development: the part of a seed which forms the future plant: the beginning of anything:--_pl._ EM'BRYOS, EM'BRYONS.--_ns._ EMBRYOC'TOMY, destruction of the fetus in the uterus; EMBRYOG'ENY, the formation and development of the embryo; EMBRYOG'RAPHY, description of the embryo.--_adjs._ EMBRYOLOG'IC, -AL, of or pertaining to embryology.--_ns._ EMBRYOL'OGIST; EMBRYOL'OGY, science of the embryo or fetus of animals.--_adjs._ EM'BRYONATE, -D, in the state of an embryo; EMBRYON'IC, EMBRYOT'IC, of or relating to anything in an imperfect state: rudimentary.--_ns._ EMBRYOT'OMY, the division of a fetus to effect delivery; EMBRYUL'CIA, forcible extraction of a fetus. [Low L.,--Gr. _embryon_--_em_ (=_en_), in, _bryein_, to swell.] EME, [=e]m, _n._ (_obs._) an uncle. [A.S. _éam_; Dut. _oom_.] EMEND, e-mend', _v.t._ to remove faults or blemishes from: to correct or improve.--_adj._ EMEND'ABLE, that may be emended.--_n.pl._ EMEND'ALS, funds set apart for repairs in the accounts of the Inner Temple.--_v.t._ EM'ENDATE, to correct errors.--_ns._ EMEND[=A]'TION, removal of an error or fault: correction; EM'END[=A]TOR, a corrector of errors in writings: one who corrects or improves.--_adj._ EMEN'D[=A]TORY, mending or contributing to correction. [L. _emend[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_e_, out, _menda_, a fault.] EMERALD, em'[.e]r-ald, _n._ a very highly esteemed mineral of the same species with the beryl, from which it differs in scarcely anything but its colour, a beautiful velvety green.--_n._ EM'ERALD-COPP'ER (see DIOPTASE).--EMERALD ISLE, a name for Ireland, owing to its greenness; EMERALD TYPE (_print._), a small size of type. [O. Fr. _esmeralde_--L. _smaragdus_--Gr. _smaragdos_.] EMERGE, e-m[.e]rj', _v.i._ to rise out of: to issue or come forth: to reappear after being concealed: to come into view: to result.--_ns._ EMER'GENCE, EMER'GENCY, act of emerging: sudden appearance: an unexpected occurrence: pressing necessity; EMER'GENCY-MAN, a man provided for any special service, esp. in Irish evictions, and in saving the crops and other property of men boycotted.--_adj._ EMER'GENT, emerging: suddenly appearing: arising unexpectedly: urgent.--_adv._ EMER'GENTLY.--_n._ EMER'SION, act of emerging: (_astron._) the reappearance of a heavenly body after being eclipsed by another or by the sun's brightness. [L. _emerg[)e]re_, _emersum_--_e_, out of, _merg[)e]re_, to plunge.] EMERITUS, e-mer'i-tus, _adj._ honourably discharged from the performance of public duty, esp. noting a retired professor.--_n._ one who has been honourably discharged from public duties:--_pl._ EMER'ITI. [L. _emeritus_, having served one's time--_emer[=e]ri_, to deserve, do one's duty--_e_, sig. completeness, and _mer[=e]re_, to deserve.] EMERODS, em'e-rodz, _n.pl._ (_B._) now HEMORRHOIDS. EMERY, em'[.e]r-i, _n._ a very hard mineral, a variety of corundum, used as powder for polishing, &c.--_v.t._ to rub or coat with emery.--_ns._ EM'ERY-P[=A]'PER, paper covered with emery-powder for polishing; EM'ERY-POW'DER, ground emery; EM'ERY-WHEEL, a wheel coated with emery for polishing. [O. Fr. _esmeril_, _emeril_--Low L. _smericulum_--Gr. _sm[=e]ris_--_smaein_, to rub.] EMETIC, e-met'ik, _adj._ causing vomiting.--_n._ a medicine that causes vomiting.--_n._ EM'ESIS, vomiting.--_adj._ EMET'ICAL.--_adv._ EMET'ICALLY.--_n._ EM'ETIN, the alkaloid forming the active principle of ipecacuanha-root, violently emetic.--_adj._ EM'ETO-CATHART'IC, producing both vomiting and purging.--_n._ EMETOL'OGY, the study of emesis and emetics, [Through L., from Gr. _emetikos_--_emeein_, to vomit.] EMEU. See EMU. ÉMEUTE, em-üt', _n._ a popular rising or uproar. [Fr.] EMICANT, em'i-kant, _adj._ beaming forth.--_n._ EMIC[=A]'TION. EMICTION, e-mik'shun, _n._ the discharging of urine: urine.--_adj._ EMIC'TORY, promoting the flow of urine. [L. _eming[)e]re_, _emictum_--_e_, out, _ming[)e]re_, to make water.] EMIGRATE, em'i-gr[=a]t, _v.i._ and _v.t._ to remove from one country to another as a place of abode.--_adj._ EM'IGRANT, emigrating or having emigrated.--_n._ one who emigrates.--_n._ EMIGR[=A]'TION.--_adj._ EMIGR[=A]'TIONAL.--_n._ EMIGR[=A]'TIONIST, an advocate or promoter of emigration.--_adj._ EMIGR[=A]'TORY.--_n._ EMIGRÉ ([=a]-m[=e]-gr[=a]), a royalist who quitted France during the Revolution. [L. _emigr[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_e_, from, _migr[=a]re_, to remove.] EMINENT, em'i-nent, _adj._ rising above others: conspicuous: distinguished: exalted in rank or office.--_ns._ EM'INENCE, EM'INENCY, a part eminent or rising above the rest: a rising ground: height: distinction: a title of honour: homage: a title given in 1631 to cardinals, till then styled Most Illustrious.--_adj._ EMINEN'TIAL.--_adv._ EM'INENTLY.--EMINENT DOMAIN (_dominium eminens_), the right by which the supreme authority in a state may compel a proprietor to part with what is his own for the public use. [L. _eminens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _emin[=e]re_--_e_, out, _min[=e]re_, to project.] EMIR, em-[=e]r', or [=e]'mir, _n._ a title given in the East and in the north of Africa to all independent chieftains, and also to all the supposed descendants of Mohammed through his daughter Fatima.--_n._ EM'IRATE, the office of an emir. [Ar. _am[=i]r_, ruler.] EMIT, e-mit', _v.t._ to send out: to throw or give out: in issue: to utter (a declaration):--_pr.p._ emit'ting; _pa.p._ emit'ted.--_n._ EM'ISSARY, one sent out on a secret mission: a spy: an underground channel by which the water of a lake escapes.--_adj._ that is sent forth.--_n._ EMIS'SION, the act of emitting: that which is issued at one time.--_adjs._ EMIS'SIVE, EMIS'SORY, emitting, sending out.--EMISSION THEORY, the theory that all luminous bodies emit with equal velocities a number of elastic corpuscles, which travel in straight lines, are reflected, and are refracted. [L. _emitt[)e]re_, _emissum_--_e_, out of, _mitt[)e]re_, to send.] EMMANUEL, em-an'[=u]-el, IMMANUEL, im-, _n._ the symbolical name of the child announced by Isaiah (Isa. vii. 14), and applied to the Messiah (Matt. i. 23). [Heb.,--_im_, with, _anu_, us, _el_, God.] EMMARBLE, em-mär'bl, _v.t._ to turn to marble, to petrify. [_Em_ and _marble_.] EMMENAGOGUES, em-en'a-gogz, _n.pl._ medicines intended to restore, or to bring on for the first time, the menses.--_adj._ EMMENAGOG'IC (-goj'ik).--_n._ EMMENOL'OGY, knowledge about menstruation. [Gr. _emm[=e]na_, menses, _ag[=o]gos_, drawing forth.] EMMET, em'et, _n._ (_prov._) the ant. [A.S. _['æ]mete_.] EMMETROPIA, em-e-tr[=o]'pi-a, _n._ the normal condition of the refractive media of the eye.--_adj._ EMMETROPI'C. [Gr., _en_, in, _metron_, measure, _[=o]ps_, the eye.] EMMEW, e-m[=u]', _v.t._ to confine.--Also IMMEW'. EMMOVE, em-m[=oo]v', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to move, to excite. EMMOLLIENT, e-mol'yent, _adj._ softening: making supple.--_n._ (_med._) a substance used to soften the textures to which they are applied, as poultices, fomentations, &c.--_n._ EMOLLES'CENCE, incipient fusion.--_v.t._ EMMOLL'IATE, to soften: to render effeminate.--_n._ EMOLLI'TION, the act of softening or relaxing. [L. _emoll[=i]re_, _emollitum_--_e_, inten., _moll[=i]re_, to soften--_mollis_, soft.] EMOLUMENT, e-mol'[=u]-ment, _n._ advantage: profit arising from employment, as salary or fees.--_adj._ EMOLUMEN'TAL. [L. _emolimentum_--_emol[=i]ri_, to work out--_e_, sig. completeness, _mol[=i]re_, to toil.] EMONG, e-mung', _prep._ (_obs._) among.--Also EMONGST'. EMOTION, e-m[=o]'shun, _n._ a moving of the feelings: agitation of mind: (_phil._) one of the three groups of the phenomena of the mind.--_adj._ EM[=O]'TIONAL.--_n._ EM[=O]'TIONALISM, tendency to emotional excitement, the habit of working on the emotions, the indulgence of superficial emotion.--_adv._ EM[=O]'TIONALLY.--_adjs._ EM[=O]'TIONLESS; EM[=O]'TIVE, pertaining to the emotions. [L. _emotion-em_--_emov[=e]re_, _em[=o]tum_, to stir up--_e_, forth, _mov[=e]re_, to move.] EMP-. For words not found under this, see IMP-. EMPÆSTIC, em-p[=e]'stik, _adj._ pertaining to the art of embossing, stamped. [Gr. _empaiein_, to emboss.] EMPACKET, em-pak'et, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to pack up. EMPAIR, em-p[=a]r', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to impair. EMPANEL, em-pan'el, IMPANEL, im-, _v.t._ to enter the names of a jury on a panel.--_n._ EMPAN'ELMENT. EMPANOPLY, em-pan'[=o]-pli, _v.t._ to invest in full armour. EMPATRON, em-p[=a]'trun, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to patronise. EMPEOPLE, em-p[=e]'pl, _v.t._ (_obs._) to fill with people: to form into a people or community. EMPERISH, em-per'ish, _v.t._ (_obs._) to impair. EMPEROR, em'p[.e]r-or, _n._ the head of the Roman Empire: the highest title of sovereignty:--_fem._ EM'PRESS.--_ns._ EM'PEROR-MOTH, except the Death's-head, the largest British moth, its expanse of wings being about three inches; EM'PERORSHIP; EM'PERY, empire, power. [O. Fr. _emperere_--L. _imperator_ (fem. _imperatrix_)--_imper[=a]re_, to command.] EMPHASIS, em'fa-sis, _n._ stress of the voice on particular words or syllables to make the meaning clear: impressiveness of expression or weight of thought: intensity:--_pl._ EM'PHASES (-s[=e]z).--_v.t._ EM'PHAS[=I]SE, to make emphatic.--_adjs._ EMPHAT'IC, -AL, uttered with or requiring emphasis: forcible: impressive.--_adv._ EMPHAT'ICALLY.--_n._ EMPHAT'ICALNESS. [L.,--Gr.,--_em_ (=_en_), in, into, and _phasis_--_phaein_, _phainein_, to show.] EMPHLYSIS, em'fli-sis, _n._ a vesicular tumour. [Gr., _en_, in, _phlysis_--_phlyein_, to break out.] EMPHRACTIC, em-frak'tik, _adj._ stopping the pores of the skin.--_n._ a substance with this property. [Gr., _en_, in, _phrassein_, to stop.] EMPHYSEMA, em-fis-[=e]'ma, _n._ (_med._) an unnatural distention of a part with air.--_adj._ EMPHYSEM'ATOUS. [Gr.,--_emphysaein_, to inflate.] EMPHYTEUSIS, em-fit-[=u]'sis, _n._ in Roman law, a perpetual right in a piece of land, for which a yearly sum was paid to the proprietor.--_adj._ EMPHYTEU'TIC. [L.,--Gr.,--_emphyteuein_, to implant.] EMPIERCE, em-p[=e]rs', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to pierce. EMPIGHT, em-p[=i]t', _p.adj._ (_Spens._) fixed. [_Em_ and _pitch_.] EMPIRE, em'p[=i]r, _n._ supreme control or dominion: the territory under the dominion of an emperor. [Fr.,--L. _imperium_--_imper[=a]re_, to command.] EMPIRIC, -AL, em-pir'ik, -al, _adj._ resting on trial or experiment: known only by experience.--_n._ EMPIR'IC, one who makes trials or experiments: one whose knowledge is got from experience only: a quack.--_adv._ EMPIR'ICALLY.--_ns._ EMPIR'ICISM (_phil._) the system which, rejecting all _a priori_ knowledge, rests solely on experience and induction: dependence of a physician on his _experience_ alone without a regular medical education: the practice of medicine without a regular education: quackery: EMPIR'ICIST, one who practises empiricism.--_adj._ EMPIRIC[=U]T'IC (_Shak._), empirical. [Fr.,--L. _empiricus_--Gr. _empeirikos_--_em_, in, _peira_, a trial.] EMPLACEMENT, em-pl[=a]s'ment, _n._ the act of placing: (_mil._) a platform placed for guns. EMPLASTER, em-plas't[.e]r, _n._ and _v._ same as PLASTER.--_adj._ EMPLAS'TIC, glutinous: adhesive.--_n._ a medicine causing constipation. EMPLECTON, em-plek'ton, _n._ masonry in which the outsides of the walls are ashlar and the insides filled up with rubbish.--Also EMPLEC'TUM. [Gr.] EMPLOY, em-ploy', _v.t._ to occupy the time or attention of: to use as a means or agent: to give work to.--_n._ a poetical form of _employment_.--_adj._ EMPLOY'ABLE, that may be employed.--_ns._ EMPLOY'É, one who is employed:--_fem._ EMPLOY'ÉE; EMPLOY[=EE]', a person employed; EMPLOY'ER; EMPLOY'MENT, act of employing: that which engages or occupies: occupation. [Fr. _employer_--L. _implic[=a]re_, to infold--_in_, in, and _plic[=a]re_, to fold. _Imply_ and _implicate_ are parallel forms.] EMPLUME, em-pl[=oo]m', _v.t._ to furnish with a plume. EMPOISON, em-poi'zn, _v.t._ to put poison in: to poison.--_p.adj._ EMPOI'SONED.--_n._ EMPOI'SONMENT. EMPORIUM, em-p[=o]'ri-um, _n._ a place to which goods are brought from various parts for sale: a shop: a great mart:--_pl._ EMP[=O]'RIA. [L.,--Gr. _emporion_--_emporos_, a trader, _em_ (=_en_), in, _poros_, a way.] EMPOVERISH, em-pov'[.e]r-ish, _v.t._ See IMPOVERISH. EMPOWER, em-pow'[.e]r, _v.t._ to authorise. EMPRESS. See EMPEROR. EMPRESSEMENT, ang-pres'mang, _n._ cordiality. [Fr.] EMPRISE, em-pr[=i]z', _n._ (_Spens._) an enterprise: a hazardous undertaking. [O. Fr. _emprise_--L. _in_, in, _prehend[)e]re_, to take.] EMPTION, emp'shun, _n._ act of buying, purchase.--_adj._ EMP'TIONAL. [L. _em[)e]re_, to buy.] EMPTY, emp'ti, _adj._ having nothing in it: unfurnished: without effect: unsatisfactory: wanting substance: foolish.--_v.t._ to make empty: to deprive of contents.--_v.i._ to become empty: to discharge its contents:--_pa.p._ emp'tied.--_n._ an empty vessel, box, sack, &c.:--_pl._ EMP'TIES.--_ns._ EMP'TIER: EMP'TINESS, state of being empty: want of substance: unsatisfactoriness: inanity.--_adj._ EMP'TY-HAND'ED, carrying nothing, esp. of a gift.--_n._ EMP'TYING.--COME AWAY EMPTY, to come away without having received anything. [A.S. _['æ]metig_--_['æ]metta_, leisure, rest. The _p_ is excrescent.] EMPTYSIS, emp'ti-sis, _n._ hemorrhage from the lungs. EMPURPLE, em-pur'pl, _v.t._ to dye or tinge purple. EMPUSA, em-p[=u]'za, _n._ a goblin or spectre sent by Hecate.--Also EMPUSE'. [Gr. _empousa_.] EMPYEMA, em-pi-[=e]'ma, _n._ a collection of pus in the pleura. [Gr.,--_em_ (=_en_), in, and _pyon_, pus.] EMPYESIS, em-pi-[=e]'sis, _n._ pustulous eruption. [Gr.] EMPYREAL, em-pir'[=e]-al, or em-pir-[=e]'al, _adj._ formed of pure fire or light: pertaining to the highest and purest region of heaven: sublime.--_adj._ EMPYREAN (em-pi-r[=e]'an, or em-pir'e-an), empyreal.--_n._ the highest heaven, where the pure element of fire was supposed by the ancients to subsist: the heavens. [Coined from Gr. _empyros_, fiery--_em_ (=_en_), in, and, _pyr_, fire.] EMPYREUMA, em-pir-[=u]'ma, _n._ the burned smell and acrid taste which result when vegetable or animal substances are burned:--_pl._ EMPYREU'MATA.--_adjs._ EMPYREUMAT'IC, -AL.--_v.t._ EMPYREU'MATISE. [Gr.,--_empyreuein_, to kindle.] EMRODS (_obs._), for EMERODS. EMU, EMEU, [=e]'m[=u], _n._ a genus of running birds or _Ratitæ_ in the cassowary family, belonging to Australia.--_n._ E'MU-WREN, a small Australian bird of genus _Stipiturus_. [Port. _ema_, an ostrich.] EMULATE, em'[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to strive to equal or excel: to imitate, with a view to equal or excel: to rival.--_adj._ (_Shak._) ambitious.--_n._ EMUL[=A]'TION, act of emulating or attempting to equal or excel: rivalry: competition: contest: (_obs._) jealous rivalry.--_adj._ EM'ULATIVE, inclined to emulation, rivalry, or competition.--_n._ EM'ULATOR:--_fem._ EM'ULATRESS.--_adj._ EM'ULATORY, arising from or expressing emulation.--_v.t._ EM'ULE (_obs_), to emulate.--_adj._ EM'ULOUS, eager to emulate: desirous of like excellence with another: engaged in competition or rivalry.--_adv._ EM'ULOUSLY--_n._ EM'ULOUSNESS. [L. _æmul[=a]ri_, _æmul[=a]tus_--_æmulus_, striving with.] EMULGENT, e-mul'jent, _adj._ milking or draining out, chiefly referring to the action of the kidneys. [L. _emulgens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _emulg[=e]re_, to milk.] EMULSION, e-mul'shun, _n._ a milky liquid prepared by mixing oil and water by means of another substance that combines with both.--_adj._ EMUL'SIC, pertaining to emulsion.--_v.t._ EMUL'SIFY.--_n._ EMUL'SIN, a peculiar ferment present in the bitter and sweet almond, which forms a constituent of all almond emulsions.--_adj._ EMUL'SIVE. [Fr.,--L. _emulg[=e]re_, _emulsum_, to milk out--_e_, out, and _mulg[=e]r_e, to milk.] EMUNCTORY, e-mungk'tor-i, _n._ an organ of the body that carries off waste: an excretory duct.--_v.t._ EMUNGE', to clean. [L. _emung[)e]re_, _emunctum_, to blow the nose, to cleanse.] EMURE, a variant of _immure_. EMYS, em'is, _n._ a genus of marsh tortoises, found in South and Middle Europe, North Africa, and South-west Asia. [Gr. _emys_.] ENABLE, en-[=a]'bl, _v.t._ to make able: to give power, strength, or authority to. ENACT, en-akt', _v.t._ to perform: to act the part of: to establish by law.--_n._ (_Shak._) that which is enacted.--_adjs._ ENACT'ING, ENACT'IVE, that enacts.--_ns._ ENACT'MENT, the passing of a bill into law: that which is enacted: a law; ENACT'OR, one who practises or performs anything: one who forms decrees or establishes laws; ENACT'URE (_Shak._), action. ENALLAGE, en-al'a-j[=e], _n._ (_gram._) the exchange of one case, mood, or tense for another. [Gr.,--_en_, and _allassein_, to change.] ENAMEL, en-am'el, _n._ the name given to vitrified substances applied chiefly to the surface of metals: any smooth hard coating, esp. that of the teeth: anything enamelled.--_v.t._ to coat with or paint in enamel: to form a glossy surface upon, like enamel:--_pr.p._ enam'elling; _pa.p._ enam'elled.--_adj._ EN-AM'ELLAR.--_ns._ ENAM'ELLER, ENAM'ELLIST; ENAM'ELLING. [O. Fr. _enameler_--_en_, in, _esmail_, enamel. Cf. Eng. _Smelt_, _Melt_.] ENAMOUR, en-am'ur, _v.t._ to inflame with love: to charm.--_p.adjs._ ENAM'OURED; ENAM'OURING.--BE ENAMOURED (with _of_, _with_), to be in love. [O. Fr. _enamourer_--_en_, to make, _amour_--L. _amor_, love.] ENANTHESIS, en-an-th[=e]'sis, _n._ an eruption on the skin from internal disease. [Gr.] ENANTIOPATHY, en-an-ti-op'a-thi, _n._ a synonym of allopathy. [Gr. _enantios_, opposite, _pathos_, suffering.] ENANTIOSIS, e-nan-ti-[=o]'sis, _n._ (_rhet._) the expression of an idea by negation of its contrary, as 'he is no fool'='he is wise.' [Gr.] ENARCHED, en-ärcht', _adj._ (_her._) arched, like an arch. ENARCHING, a variant of _inarching_. ENARMED, en-ärmed', _adj._ (_her._) having horns, hoofs, &c. of a different colour from the body. ENARRATION, [=e]-na-r[=a]'shun, _n._ narration. ENARTHROSIS, en-ar-thr[=o]'sis, _n._ (_anat._) a joint of 'ball-and-socket' form, allowing motion in all directions.--_adj._ ENARTHR[=O]'DIAL. [Gr.,--_en_, in, and _arthroein_, _arthr[=o]sein_, to fasten by a joint--_arthron_, a joint.] ENATE, [=e]'n[=a]t, _adj._ growing out. ENAUNTER, en-än't[.e]r, _conj._ (_obs._) lest by chance. [Contr. from _in adventure_.] ENCÆNIA, en-s[=e]'ni-a, _n._ the annual commemoration of founders and benefactors at Oxford, held in June.--Also ENC[=E]'NIA. [L.,--Gr. _egkainia_, a feast of dedication--_en_, in, _kainos_, new.] ENCAGE, en-k[=a]j', _v.t._ to shut up in a cage. ENCAMP, en-kamp', _v.t._ to form into a camp.--_v.i._ to pitch tents: to halt on a march.--_n._ ENCAMP'MENT, the act of encamping: the place where an army or company is encamped: a camp. ENCANTHIS, en-kan'this, _n._ a small tumour of the inner angle of the eye. [Gr.] ENCARNALISE, en-kär'nal-[=i]z, _v.t._ to embody: to make carnal. ENCARPUS, en-kar'pus, _n._ a festoon ornamenting a frieze. [Gr.] ENCASE, en-k[=a]s', INCASE, in-, _v.t._ to enclose in a case: to surround, cover.--_n._ ENCASE'MENT, the enclosing substance: a covering. ENCASHMENT, en-kash'ment, _n._ payment in cash of a note, draft, &c. ENCAUSTIC, en-kaws'tik, _adj._ having the colours burned in.--_n._ an ancient method of painting in melted wax.--ENCAUSTIC TILE, a decorative glazed and fired tile, having patterns of different coloured clays inlaid in it and burnt with it. [Fr.,--Gr.,--_egkaiein_, _egkausein_--_en_, in, _kaiein_, to burn.] ENCAVE, en-k[=a]v', _v.t._ to hide in a cave. ENCEINTE, äng-sangt', _n._ (_fort._) an enclosure, generally the whole area of a fortified place. [Fr.,--_enceindre_, to surround--L. _in_, in, _cing[)e]re_, _cinctum_, to gird.] ENCEINTE, äng-sangt', _adj._ pregnant, with child. [Fr.,--L. _incincta_, girt about.] ENCEPHALON, en-sef'al-on, _n._ the brain.--_adj._ ENCEPHAL'IC, belonging to the head or brain.--_ns._ ENCEPHAL[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the brain; ENCEPH'ALOCELE, a protrusion of portion of the brain through the skull, where the bones are incomplete in infancy.--_adj._ ENCEPH'ALOID, resembling the matter of the brain.--_n._ ENCEPHALOT'OMY, dissection of the brain.--_adj._ ENCEPH'ALOUS, cephalous. [Gr.,--_en_, in, _kephal[=e]_, the head.] ENCHAFE, en-ch[=a]f', _v.t._ (_obs._) to make warm. ENCHAIN, en-ch[=a]n', _v.t._ to put in chains: to hold fast: to link together.--_n._ ENCHAIN'MENT [Fr. _enchainer_--_en_, and _chaîne_, a chain--L. _catena_.] ENCHANT, en-chant', _v.t._ to act on by songs or rhymed formulas of sorcery: to charm: to delight in a high degree.--_p.adj._ ENCHANT'ED, under the power of enchantment: delighted: possessed by witches or spirits.--_n._ ENCHANT'ER, one who enchants: a sorcerer or magician: one who charms or delights:--_fem._ ENCHANT'RESS.--_adv._ ENCHANT'INGLY, with the force of enchantment: in a manner to charm or delight.--_n._ ENCHANT'MENT, act of enchanting: use of magic arts: that which enchants. [Fr. _enchanter_--L. _incant[=a]re_, to sing a magic formula over--_in_, on, _cant[=a]re_, to sing.] ENCHARGE, en-chärj', _v.t._ to enjoin: to entrust. [O. Fr. _encharger_. See CHARGE.] ENCHASE, en-ch[=a]s', _v.t._ to fix in a border: to set with jewels: to engrave: to adorn with raised or embossed work.--_p.adj._ ENCHASED'. [Fr. _enchâsser_--_en_, in, _châssis_, _caisse_, a case--L. _capsa_, a case. See CHASE, _n._ CHASE, _v.t._, is a contraction.] ENCHEASON, en-ch[=e]'zn, _n._ (_Spens._) reason, cause, occasion. [O. Fr. _encheson_, _encheoir_, to fall in; influenced by L. _occasio_, occasion.] ENCHEER, en-ch[=e]r', _v.t._ to cheer, comfort. ENCHIRIDION, en-ki-rid'i-on, _n._ a book to be carried in the hand for reference: a manual. [Gr. _encheiridion_--_en_, in, and _cheir_, the hand.] ENCHONDROMA, en-kon-dr[=o]'ma, _n._ (_path._) an abnormal cartilaginous growth. [Formed from Gr. _en_, in, _chondros_, cartilage.] ENCHORIAL, en-k[=o]'ri-al, _adj._ belonging to or used in a country: used by the people, noting esp. the written characters used by the common people in Egypt as opposed to the hieroglyphics.--Also ENCHOR'IC. [Gr. _ench[=o]rios_--_en_, in, and _ch[=o]ra_, a place, country.] ENCHYMATOUS, en-kim'a-tus, _adj._ infused, distended by infusion. ENCINCTURE, en-singk't[=u]r, _v.t._ to surround with a girdle.--_n._ an enclosure. ENCIRCLE, en-s[.e]rk'l, _v.t._ to enclose in a circle: to embrace: to pass round.--_n._ ENCIRC'LING. ENCLASP, en-klasp', _v.t._ to clasp. ENCLAVE, en-kl[=a]v', or äng-kl[=a]v', _n._ a territory entirely enclosed within the territories of another power.--_v.t._ to surround in this way. [Fr.,--Late L. _inclav[=a]re_--L. _in_, and _clavis_, a key.] ENCLITIC, en-klit'ik, _adj._ that inclines or leans upon.--_n._ (_gram._) a word or particle which always follows another word, so united with it as to seem a part of it.--_n._ EN'CLISIS.--_adv._ ENCLIT'ICALLY. [Gr. _engklitikos_--_en_, in, _klinein_, to bend.] ENCLOISTER, en-klois't[.e]r, _v.t._ to immure. ENCLOSE, en-kl[=o]z', INCLOSE, in-, _v.t._ to close or shut in: to confine: to surround: to put in a case, as a letter in an envelope, &c.: to fence, esp. used of waste land.--_ns._ ENCLOS'ER; ENCLOS'URE, the act of enclosing: state of being enclosed: that which is enclosed: a space fenced off: that which encloses: a barrier. [Fr.,--L. _includ[)e]re_, _inclusum_--_in_, in, _claud[)e]re_, to shut.] ENCLOTHE, en-kl[=o]_th_', _v.t._ to clothe. ENCLOUD, en-klowd', _v.t._ to cover with clouds. ENCOLOUR, en-kul'ur, _v.t._ to colour, tinge. ENCOLPION, en-kol'pi-on, _n._ an amulet: a Greek pectoral cross.--Also ENCOL'PIUM. [Gr.] ENCOLURE, engk-ol-[=u]r', _n._ (_Browning_) a horse's mane. ENCOMIUM, en-k[=o]'mi-um, _n._ high commendation: a eulogy:--_pl._ ENC[=O]'MIUMS.--_n._ ENC[=O]'MIAST, one who utters or writes encomiums: a praiser.--_adjs._ ENCOMIAS'TIC, -AL, bestowing praise.--_adv._ ENCOMIAS'TICALLY. [L.,--Gr. _egk[=o]mion_, a song of praise--_en_, in, _k[=o]mos_, festivity.] ENCOMPASS, en-kum'pas, _v.t._ to surround or enclose: (_obs._) to go round.--_n._ ENCOM'PASSMENT. ENCORE, äng-k[=o]r', _adv._ again: once more.--_n._ a call for the repetition of a song, &c.: the repetition of a song, &c.--_v.t._ to call for a repetition of. [Fr. (It. _ancora_)--perh. from L. (_in_) _hanc horam_, till this hour, hence=still.] ENCOUNTER, en-kown'ter, _v.t._ to meet face to face, esp. unexpectedly: to meet in contest: to oppose.--_n._ a meeting unexpectedly: an interview: a fight: (_Shak._) behaviour. [O. Fr. _encontrer_--L. _in_, in, _contra_, against.] ENCOURAGE, en-kur'[=a]j, _v.t._ to put courage in: to inspire with spirit or hope: to incite: to patronise: to cherish.--_ns._ ENCOUR'AGEMENT, act of encouraging: that which encourages; ENCOUR'AGER,--_p.adj._ ENCOUR'AGING, giving ground to hope for success.--_adv._ ENCOUR'AGINGLY. [O. Fr. _encoragier_ (Fr. _encourager_)--_en_, to make, _corage_, courage.] ENCRADLE, en-kr[=a]'dl, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to lay in a cradle. ENCRATITE, en'kra-t[=i]t, _n._ one of a heretical sect in the early church, who abstained from marriage, and from flesh and wine.--_n._ EN'CRATISM. [Formed from Gr. _egkrat[=e]s_, continent--_en_, in, _kratos_, strength.] ENCREASE, obsolete form of _increase_. ENCRIMSON, en-krim'zn, _v.t._ to tinge with a crimson colour.--_p.adj._ ENCRIM'SONED. ENCRINITE, en'kri-n[=i]t, _n._ a common fossil crinoid, found thick in limestone and marble--called also _Stone-lily_.--_adjs._ ENCR[=I]'NAL, ENCRIN'IC, ENCRIN[=I]'TAL, ENCRINIT'IC, relating to or containing encrinites. [Formed from Gr. _en_, in, _krinon_, a lily.] ENCROACH, en-kr[=o]ch', _v.i._ to seize on the rights of others: to intrude: to trespass.--_n._ ENCROACH'ER.--_adv._ ENCROACH'INGLY.--_n._ ENCROACH'MENT, act of encroaching: that which is taken by encroaching. [O. Fr. _encrochier_, to seize--_en-_, and _croc_, a hook.] ENCRUST, en-krust', INCRUST, in-, _v.t._ to cover with a crust or hard coating: to form a crust on the surface of.--_v.i._ to form a crust.--_n._ ENCRUST[=A]'TION, act of encrusting: a crust or layer of anything: an inlaying of marble, mosaic, &c. [Fr.,--L. _incrust[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_in_, on, _crusta_, crust.] ENCUMBER, en-kum'b[.e]r, _v.t._ to impede the motion of: to hamper: to embarrass: to burden: to load with debts.--_ns._ ENCUM'BERMENT, the act of encumbering: the state of being encumbered; ENCUM'BRANCE, that which encumbers or hinders: a legal claim on an estate: one dependent on another--e.g. 'a widow without encumbrances'=a widow without children; ENCUM'BRANCER. [O. Fr. _encombrer_, from _en-_, and _combrer_.] ENCURTAIN, en-kur'tin, _v.t._ to curtain, to veil. ENCYCLICAL, en-sik'lik-al, _adj._ sent round to many persons or places.--_n._ a letter addressed by the pope to all his bishops condemning current errors or advising the Christian people how to act in regard to great public questions.--Also ENCYC'LIC. [Gr. _engkyklios_--_en_, in, _kyklos_, a circle.] ENCYCLOPÆDIA, ENCYCLOPEDIA, en-s[=i]-klo-p[=e]'di-a, _n._ the circle of human knowledge: a work containing information on every department, or on a particular department, of knowledge, generally in alphabetical order: a name specially given to the work of the French writers Diderot, D'Alembert, and others in the third quarter of the 18th century.--_adjs._ ENCYCLOPÆ'DIAN, embracing the whole circle of learning; ENCYCLOPÆ'DIC, -AL, pertaining to an encyclopædia: full of information.--_ns._ ENCYCLOPÆ'DISM, knowledge of everything; ENCYCLOPÆ'DIST, the compiler, or one who assists in the compilation, of an encyclopædia: esp. a writer for the French Encyclopédie (1751-65). [Formed from Gr. _engkyklopaideia_--_engkyklios_, circular, _paideia_, instruction.] ENCYST, en-sist', _v.t._ or _v.i._ to enclose or become enclosed in a cyst or vesicle.--_ns._ ENCYST[=A]'TION, ENCYST'MENT.--_adj._ ENCYST'ED. [Illustration] END, end, _n._ the last point or portion: termination or close: death: consequence: object aimed at: a fragment.--_v.t._ to bring to an end: to destroy.--_v.i._ to come to an end: to cease.--_n._ END'-ALL, that which ends all.--_adj._ END'ED, brought to an end: having ends.--_n._ END'ING, termination: conclusion: that which is at the end: (_gram._) the terminating syllable or letter of a word.--_adj._ END'LESS, without end: everlasting: objectless.--_adv._ END'LESSLY.--_n._ END'LESSNESS.--_adv._ END'LONG, lengthwise: continuously: on end.--_adj._ END'MOST, farthest.--_n._ END'SHIP (_obs._) a village.--_advs._ END'WAYS, END'WISE, on the end: with the end forward.--END FOR END, with the position of the ends reversed; ENDLESS SCREW, an arrangement for producing slow motion in machinery, consisting of a screw whose thread gears into a wheel with skew teeth; END ON, having the end pointing directly to an object--(_naut._) opp. to _Broadside on_: (_min._) opp. to _Face on_.--A SHOEMAKER'S END, a waxed thread ending in a bristle.--AT LOOSE ENDS, in disorder; AT ONE'S WITS' END, at the end of one's ability to decide or act.--BEGIN AT THE WRONG END, to manage badly; BE THE END OF, to cause the death of.--COME TO THE END OF ONE'S TETHER, to go as far as one's powers permit.--HAVE AT ONE'S FINGER-ENDS, to be thoroughly acquainted, to have in perfect readiness.--IN THE END, after all: at last.--LATTER END, the end of life.--MAKE BOTH ENDS MEET, to live within one's income (both ends meaning both ends of the year).--NO END (_coll._), very much, a great deal.--ON END, erect.--ROPE'S END (see ROPE). [A.S. _ende_; cf. Ger. and Dan. _ende_, Goth. _andeis_; Sans. _ánta_.] ENDAMAGE, en-dam'[=a]j, _v.t._ same as DAMAGE.--_n._ ENDAM'AGEMENT, damage, injury, loss. ENDANGER, en-d[=a]n'j[.e]r, _v.t._ to place in danger: to expose to loss or injury.--_ns._ ENDAN'GERER; ENDAN'GERMENT, hazard, peril. ENDEAR, en-d[=e]r', _v.t._ to make dear or more dear.--_adjs._ ENDEARED', beloved; ENDEAR'ING.--_adv._ ENDEAR'INGLY.--_n._ ENDEAR'MENT, act of endearing: state of being endeared: that which excites or increases affection: a caress. ENDEAVOUR, en-dev'ur, _v.i._ to strive to accomplish an object: to attempt or try.--_v.t._ to attempt.--_n._ an exertion of power towards some object: attempt or trial.--_n._ ENDEAV'OURMENT (_Spens._), endeavour.--DO ONE'S ENDEAVOUR, to do one's utmost. [Fr. _en devoir_--_en_, in (with force of 'to do' or 'make,' as in _en-amour_, _en-courage_), and _devoir_, duty.] ENDECAGON, en-dek'a-gon, _n._ a plane figure of eleven sides--also HENDEC'AGON.--_adjs._ ENDECAG'YNOUS, having eleven pistils; ENDECAPHYL'LOUS, having eleven leaflets; ENDECASYLLAB'IC, having eleven syllables. ENDEICTIC, en-d[=i]k'tik, _adj._ showing, exhibiting.--_n._ ENDEIX'IS, an indication. [Gr.] ENDEMIC, -AL, en-dem'ik, -al, ENDEMIAL, en-d[=e]'mi-al, _adj._ peculiar to a people or a district, as a disease.--_n._ ENDEM'IC, a disease affecting a number of persons simultaneously, in such manner as to show a distinct connection with certain localities.--_adv._ ENDEM'ICALLY.--_ns._ ENDEMI'CITY, state of being endemic; ENDEMIOL'OGY, knowledge of endemic diseases. [Gr. _end[=e]mios_--_en_, in, and _d[=e]mos_, a people, a district.] ENDENIZEN, en-den'i-zn, _v.t._ to naturalise, to make a denizen. ENDERMIC, -AL, en-d[.e]rm'ik, -al, _adj._ through or applied directly to the skin--also ENDERMAT'IC.--_n._ EN'DERON, the corium, derma, or true skin. [Gr. _en_, in, and _derma_, the skin.] ENDEW, en-d[=u]', _v.t._ (_obs._) to endow.--Also ENDUE'. ENDIRON. See ANDIRON. ENDITE, obsolete form of _indite_. ENDIVE, en'div, _n._ an annual or biennial plant of the same genus as chicory, used as a salad. [Fr.,--L. _intubus_.] ENDOCARDIUM, en-do-kar'di-um, _n._ the lining membrane of the heart.--_adjs._ ENDOCAR'DIAC, ENDOCAR'DIAL.--_n._ ENDOCARD[=I]'TIS, disease of the internal surface of the heart, resulting in the deposit of fibrin on the valves. [Gr. _endon_, within, _kardia_, heart.] ENDOCARP, en'do-kärp, _n._ the inner coat or shell of a fruit. [Gr. _endon_, within, and _karpos_, fruit.] ENDOCHROME, en'd[=o]-kr[=o]m, _n._ the colouring matter, other than green, of vegetable cells, esp. of algæ: (_zool._) the coloured endoplasm of a cell. [Gr. _endon_, within, _chr[=o]ma_, colour.] ENDODERM, en'do-derm, _n._ the inner layer of the Blastoderm (q.v.). [Gr. _endon_, within, _derma_, skin.] ENDOGAMY, en-dog'am-i, _n._ the custom forbidding a man to marry any woman who is not of his kindred.--_adj._ ENDOG'AMOUS. [Gr. _endon_, within, _gamos_, marriage.] ENDOGEN, en'do-jen, _n._ a plant that grows from within, or by additions to the inside of the stem, as the palm, grasses, &c.--_adj._ ENDOG'ENOUS, increasing by internal growth. [Gr. _endon_, within, and _gen[=e]s_, born.] ENDOLYMPH, en'd[=o]-limf, _n._ the fluid within the membranous labyrinth of the ear. ENDOMORPH, en'do-morf, _n._ a mineral enclosed within another mineral, the latter being termed a _perimorph_. [Gr. _endon_, within, _morph[=e]_, form.] ENDOPHAGY, en-d[=o]'faj-i, _n._ in cannibalism, the practice of eating one of the same stock. [Gr. _endon_, within, _phagos_, an eater.] ENDOPARASITE, en-d[=o]-par'a-s[=i]t, _n._ an internal parasite. ENDOPHLOEUM, en-d[=o]-fl[=e]'um, _n._ (_bot._) the inner bark. ENDOPHYLLOUS, en-d[=o]-fil'us, _adj._ (_bot._) being or formed within a sheath, as the young leaves of monocotyledons. ENDOPLASM, en'd[=o]-plazm, _n._ (_bot._) the granular and fluid part of the protoplasm of a cell--opp. to _Ectoplasm_: (_zool._) the interior protoplasm of a protozoan.--Also EN'DOSARC. ENDOPLEURA, en-d[=o]-pl[=oo]'ra, _n._ (_bot._) the innermost coat of a seed. ENDORHIZAL, en-d[=o]-r[=i]'zal, _adj._ (_bot._) having the radicle of the embryo enclosed within a sheath, as in endogenous plants.--Also ENDORH[=I]'ZOUS. ENDORSE, en-dors', INDORSE, in-, _v.t._ to write one's name on the back of: to assign by writing on the back of: to give one's sanction to: to lay on the back, to load.--_adj._ ENDORS'ABLE.--_ns._ ENDORS[=EE]', the person to whom a bill, &c., is assigned by endorsement; ENDORSE'MENT, act of endorsing: that which is written on a bill: sanction; ENDORS'ER. [Changed from M. E. _endosse_ under the influence of Low L. _indors[=a]re_--_in_, on, _dorsum_, the back.] ENDOSKELETON, en-d[=o]-skel'e-ton, _n._ the internal skeleton or framework of the body.--_adj._ ENDOSKEL'ETAL. ENDOSMOSIS, en-dos-m[=o]'sis, _n._ the passage of a fluid inwards through an organic membrane, to mix with another fluid inside--also EN'DOSMOSE.--_n._ ENDOSMOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring endosmotic action.--_adjs._ ENDOSMOMET'RIC; ENDOSMOT'IC, pertaining to or of the nature of endosmosis.--_adv._ ENDOSMOT'ICALLY. [Gr. _endon_, within, and _[=o]smos_.] ENDOSOME, en'd[=o]-s[=o]m, _n._ the innermost part of the body of a sponge.--_adj._ EN'DOS[=O]MAL. ENDOSPERM, en'd[=o]-sperm, _n._ (_bot._) the albumen of a seed.--_adj._ ENDOSPER'MIC. ENDOSS, en-dos', _v.t._ (_obs._) to endorse: (_Spens._) to write. [M. E. _endosse_--O. Fr. _endosser_.] ENDOSTEUM, en-dos't[=e]-um, _n._ (_anat._) the internal periosteum.--_adj._ ENDOS'T[=E]AL.--_n._ ENDOST[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the endosteum. ENDOSTOME, en'd[=o]-st[=o]m, _n._ (_bot._) the foramen of the inner integument of an ovule: the inner peristome of mosses. ENDOW, en-dow', _v.t._ to give a dowry or marriage-portion to: to settle a permanent provision on: to enrich with any gift or faculty: to present.--_ns._ ENDOW'ER; ENDOW'MENT, act of endowing: that which is settled on any person or institution: a quality or faculty bestowed on any one. [Fr. _en_ (=L. _in_), _douer_, to endow--L. _dot[=a]re_--_dos_, _dotis_, a dowry.] ENDUE, en-d[=u]', INDUE, in-, _v.t._ to put on, as clothes: to invest or clothe with: to supply with.--_n._ ENDUE'MENT, adornment. [O. Fr. _enduire_--L. _induc[)e]re_--_in_, into, _duc[)e]re_, to lead. In certain senses the word is closely related to _indu[)e]re_, to put on.] ENDURE, en-d[=u]r', _v.t._ to remain firm under: to bear without sinking: to tolerate.--_v.i._ to remain firm: to last.--_adj._ ENDUR'ABLE, that can be endured or borne.--_n._ ENDUR'ABLENESS.--_adv._ ENDUR'ABLY.--_ns._ ENDUR'ANCE, state of enduring or bearing: continuance: a suffering patiently without sinking: patience; ENDUR'ER.--_adv._ ENDUR'INGLY. [O. Fr. _endurer_--L. _indur[=a]re_--_in_, in, _durus_, hard.] ENDYMION, en-dim'i-on, _n._ a beautiful youth whom Selene (the moon) wrapped in perpetual sleep that she might kiss him without his knowledge. ENE, [=e]n, _adv._ (_Spens._) once. [A.S. _['æ]ne_--_án_, one.] ENEID, e-n[=e]'id, _n._ Same as ÆNEID. ENEMA, en'e-ma, or e-n[=e]'ma, _n._ a liquid medicine thrown into the rectum: an injection. [Gr.,--_enienai_, to send in--_en_, in, and _hienai_, to send.] ENEMY, en'e-mi, _n._ one who hates or dislikes: a foe: a hostile army.--_adj._ (_obs._) hostile.--HOW GOES THE ENEMY? (_slang_) what o'clock is it?--THE ENEMY, THE OLD ENEMY, the Devil; THE LAST ENEMY, death. [O. Fr. _enemi_ (mod. Fr. _ennemi_)--L. _inimicus_--_in_, neg., _amicus_, a friend.] ENEMY, a prov. form of _anemone_. ENERGUMEN, en-er-g[=u]'men, _n._ one possessed: a demoniac. [Low L.,--Gr. _energoumenos_--_energein_--_en_, in, _ergon_, work.] ENERGY, en'[.e]r-ji, _n._ power of doing work: power exerted: vigorous operation: strength: (_physics_) the term, as applied to a material system, used to denote the power of doing work possessed by that system.--_adjs._ ENERGET'IC, -AL, having or showing energy: active: forcible: effective.--_adv._ ENERGET'ICALLY.--_n.pl._ ENERGET'ICS, the science of the general laws of energy.--_adj._ ENER'GIC, exhibiting energy.--_v.t._ EN'ERGISE, to give strength or active force to.--_v.i._ to act with force:--_pr.p._ en'erg[=i]sing; _pa.p._ en'erg[=i]sed.--CONSERVATION OF ENERGY (see CONSERVATION). [Gr. _energeia_--_en_, in, _ergon_, work.] ENERVATE, en-[.e]r'v[=a]t, _v.t._ to deprive of nerve, strength, or courage: to weaken.--_adj._ weakened: spiritless.--_n._ ENERV[=A]'TION.--_adj._ ENER'VATIVE.--_v.t._ ENERVE' (_obs._), to enervate. [L. _enerv[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_e_, out of, _nervus_, a nerve.] ENEW, e-n[=u]', _v.t._ in falconry, to drive back to the water: to pursue. [O. Fr. _enewer_--_en_, in, _eau_, water.] ENFEEBLE, en-f[=e]'bl, _v.t._ to make feeble: to weaken.--_n._ ENFEE'BLEMENT, weakening: weakness. ENFELON, en-fel'on, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to make fierce. ENFEOFF, en-fef', _v.t._ to give a fief to: to invest with a possession in fee: to surrender.--_n._ ENFEOFF'MENT, act of enfeoffing: the deed which invests with the fee of an estate. [O. Fr. _enfeffer_--_en-_, and _fief_. See FIEF, FEOFF.] ENFEST, en-fest, _v.t._ (_Spens._). Same as INFEST. ENFETTER, en-fet'[.e]r, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to bind in fetters. ENFIERCE, en-f[=e]rs', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to make fierce. ENFILADE, en-fi-l[=a]d', _n._ a number of rooms with the doors opening into a common passage: a fire that rakes a line of troops, &c., from end to end; a situation or a body open from end to end.--_v.t._ to rake with shot through the whole length of a line. [Fr.,--_enfiler_--_en_ (=L. _in_), and _fil_, a thread. See FILE, a line or wire.] ENFILED, en-f[=i]ld', _p.adj._ (_her._) thrust through with a sword. [See ENFILADE.] ENFIRE, en-f[=i]r', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to set on fire, inflame. ENFLESH, en-flesh', _v.t._ to turn into flesh. ENFLOWER, en-flow'[.e]r, _v.t._ to cover with flowers. ENFOLD, en-f[=o]ld', INFOLD, in-, _v.t._ to wrap up.--_n._ ENFOLD'MENT, act of enfolding: that which enfolds. ENFORCE, en-f[=o]rs', _v.t._ to gain by force: to give force to: to put in force: to give effect to: to urge: (_Spens._) to attempt.--_adj._ ENFORCE'ABLE.--_adv._ ENFORC'EDLY, by violence, not by choice.--_n._ ENFORCE'MENT, act of enforcing: compulsion: a giving effect to: that which enforces. [O. Fr. _enforcer_--_en_ (=L. _in_), and _force_.] ENFOREST, en-for'est, _v.t._ to turn into forest. ENFORM, en-form', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to fashion. ENFOULDERED, en-fowl'd[.e]rd, _p.adj._ (_Spens._) mixed with lightning or fire. [_En_, in, and O. Fr. _fouldre_ (Fr. _foudre_)--L. _fulgur_, lightning, _fulg[)e]re_, to flash.] ENFRAME, en-fr[=a]m', _v.t._ to put in a frame. ENFRANCHISE, en-fran'chiz, _v.t._ to set free: to give a franchise or political privileges to.--_n._ ENFRAN'CHISEMENT, act of enfranchising: liberation: admission to civil or political privileges. [O. Fr. _enfranchir_--_en_, and _franc_, free. See FRANCHISE.] ENFREE, en-fr[=e]', ENFREEDOM, en-fr[=e]'dum, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to set free, to give freedom to. ENFREEZE, en-fr[=e]z', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to freeze: turn to ice:--_pr.p._ enfreez'ing: _pa.p._ enfr[=o]z'en, enfr[=o]z'ened. ENGAGE, en-g[=a]j', _v.t._ to bind by a gage or pledge: to render liable: to gain for service: to enlist: to gain over: to betroth: (_archit._) to fasten: to win: to occupy: to enter into contest with: (_obs._) to entangle.--_v.i._ to pledge one's word: to become bound: to take a part: to enter into conflict.--_p.adj._ ENGAGED', pledged: promised, esp. in marriage: greatly interested: occupied: (_archit._) partly built or sunk into, or so appearing: geared together, interlocked.--_n._ ENGAGE'MENT, act of engaging: state of being engaged: that which engages: betrothal: promise: employment: a fight or battle.--_p.adj._ ENGAG'ING, winning: attractive.--_adv._ ENGAG'INGLY.--ENGAGE FOR, to answer for. [Fr. _engager_--_en gage_, in pledge. See GAGE.] ENGAOL, en-j[=a]l', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to put in gaol. ENGARLAND, en-gär'land, _v.t._ to put a garland round. ENGARRISON, en-gar'i-sn, _v.t._ to establish as a garrison. ENGENDER, en-jen'd[.e]r, _v.t._ to beget: to bear: to breed: to sow the seeds of: to produce.--_v.i._ to be caused or produced.--_ns._ ENGEN'DRURE, ENGEN'DURE, act of engendering: generation. [Fr. _engendrer_--L. _ingener[=a]re_--_in_, and _gener[=a]re_, to generate.] ENGILD, en-gild', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to gild. ENGINE, en'jin, _n._ a complex and powerful machine, esp. a prime mover: a military machine: anything used to effect a purpose: a device: contrivance: (_obs._) ability, genius.--_v.t._ to contrive: to put into action.--_ns._ EN'GINE-DRIV'ER, one who manages an engine, esp. who drives a locomotive; ENGINEER', an engine maker or manager: one who directs works and engines: a soldier belonging to the division of the army called Engineers, consisting of men trained to engineering work.--_v.i._ to act as an engineer.--_v.t._ to arrange, contrive.--_ns._ ENGINEER'ING, the art or profession of an engineer; EN'GINE-MAN, one who drives an engine; EN'GINE-ROOM, the room in a vessel in which the engines are placed; EN'GINERY, the art or business of managing engines: engines collectively: machinery; EN'GINE-TURN'ING, a kind of ornament made by a rose-engine, as on the backs of watches, &c.--CIVIL ENGINEER (see CIVIL). [O. Fr. _engin_--L. _ingenium_, skill. See INGENIOUS.] ENGIRD, en-g[.e]rd', _v.t._ to gird round. ENGIRDLE, en-g[.e]rd'l, ENGIRT, en-g[.e]rt', _v.t._ to surround, as with a girdle: to encircle. ENGLISH, ing'glish, _adj._ belonging to _England_ or its inhabitants.--_n._ the language of the people of England.--_v.t._ to translate a book into English: to make English.--_ns._ ENG'LANDER, an Englishman; ENG'LISHER, ENG'LISHMAN, a native or naturalised inhabitant of England; ENG'LISHRY, the fact of being an Englishman; in Ireland, the population of English descent.--OLD ENGLISH, or _Anglo-Saxon_, the language spoken in England from 450 till about 1150; MIDDLE ENGLISH till 1500; MODERN ENGLISH from 1500 onwards (EARLY ENGLISH often means Early Middle English; (_archit._), see EARLY).--PRESENTMENT OF ENGLISHRY, the offering of proof that a person murdered belonged to the English race, to escape the fine levied on the hundred or township for the murder of a Norman. [A.S. _Englisc_, from _Engle_, _Angle_, from the Angles who settled in Britain.] ENGLOBE, en-gl[=o]b', _v.t._ to enclose as in a globe. ENGLOOM, en-gl[=oo]m', _v.t._ to make gloomy. ENGLUT, en-glut', _v.t._ to glut, to fill: to swallow. ENGORE, en-g[=o]r', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to gore: to wound. ENGORGE, en-gorj', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to devour, to glut.--_v.i._ (_Milton_) to feed voraciously.--_adj._ ENGORGED', filled to excess with blood.--_n._ ENGORGE'MENT, the act of swallowing greedily: (_med._) an obstruction of the vessels in some part of the system. ENGOUEMENT, ang-g[=oo]'mang, _n._ excessive fondness. [Fr.] ENGOULED, en-g[=oo]ld', _adj._ (_her._) of bends, crosses, &c., the extremities of which enter the mouths of animals.--Also ENGOUL'EE. ENGRACE, en-gr[=a]s', _v.t._ to put grace into. ENGRAFF, obsolete form of _engraft_. ENGRAFT, en-graft', INGRAFT, in-, _v.t._ to graft (a shoot of one tree) into another: to introduce something: to fix deeply.--_ns._ ENGRAFT[=A]'TION, act of engrafting: ENGRAFT'MENT, engrafting: the thing engrafted: a scion. ENGRAIL, en-gr[=a]l', _v.t_ (_her._) to make a border composed of a series of little semicircular indents: to make rough.--_v.i._ to form an edging or border: to run in indented lines.--_n._ ENGRAIL'MENT, the ring of dots round the edge of a medal: (_her._) indentation in curved lines. [O. Fr. _engresler_ (Fr. _engrêler_)--_gresle_, hail. See GRAIL.] ENGRAIN, en-gr[=a]n', INGRAIN, in-, _v.t._ to dye of a fast or lasting colour: to dye in the raw state: to infix deeply.--_n._ ENGRAIN'ER. [Orig. 'to dye in grain' (meaning _with grain_)--i.e. cochineal.] ENGRASP, en-grasp', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to grasp. ENGRAVE, en-gr[=a]v', _v.t._ to cut out with a graver a representation of anything on wood, steel, &c.: to imprint: to impress deeply.--_ns._ ENGRAV'ER; ENGRAV'ERY, the art of the engraver; ENGRAV'ING, act or art of cutting or incising designs on metal, wood, &c., for the purpose of printing impressions from them in ink on paper, or other similar substance--in metal, the lines to be printed are sunk or incised; in wood, the lines to be printed appear in relief, the wood between them being cut away: an impression taken from an engraved plate: a print. [Fr. _en_ (=L. _in_), and _grave_, _v._] ENGRAVE, en-gr[=a]v', _v.t._ to deposit in the grave. ENGRIEVE, en-gr[=e]v', _v.i._ (_Spens._) to grieve. ENGROOVE, en-gr[=oo]v', INGROOVE, in-, _v.t._ to cut a groove or furrow in: to make into a groove. ENGROSS, en-gr[=o]s', _v.t._ to occupy wholly, monopolise: to absorb: to copy a writing in a large hand or in distinct characters: to write in legal form: to make gross.--_ns._ ENGROSS'ER; ENGROSS'ING, the conduct of those who buy merchandise in large quantities to obtain command of the market; ENGROSS'MENT, act of engrossing: that which has been engrossed: a fair copy.--ENGROSSING A DEED, the writing it out in full and regular form on parchment or paper for signature. [From Fr. _en gros_, in large--L. _in_, in, _grossus_, large. See GROSS.] ENGUARD, en-gärd', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to guard or defend. ENGUICHÉ, äng-g[=e]-sh[=a]', _adj._ (_her._) having a different tincture inside the mouth, of trumpets, &c. [Fr.] ENGULF, en-gulf', INGULF, in-, _v.t._ to swallow up wholly, as in a gulf: to cast into a gulf: to overwhelm.--_n._ ENGULF'MENT. ENGYSCOPE, en'ji-sk[=o]p, _n._ a kind of reflecting microscope.--Also EN'GISCOPE. [Gr. _enggys_, near, _skopein_, to view.] ENHALO, en-h[=a]'l[=o], _v.t._ to surround with a halo. ENHANCE, en-hans', _v.t._ to heighten: to add to, increase.--_n._ ENHANCE'MENT, act of enhancing: state of being enhanced: aggravation. [Prob. from O. Fr. _enhaucer_--L. _in_, and _altus_, high.] ENHARMONIC, -AL, en-har-mon'ik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to music constructed on a scale containing intervals less than a semitone: pertaining to that scale of music current among the Greeks, in which an interval of 2½ tones was divided into two quarter tones and a major third.--_adv._ ENHARMON'ICALLY. [L.,--Gr.,--_en_, in, _harmonia_, harmony.] ENHEARSE, en-h[.e]rs', INHEARSE, in-, _v.t._ to put in a hearse. ENHEARTEN, en-härt'n, _v.t._ to encourage: to cheer. ENHUNGER, en-hung'g[.e]r, _v.t._ to make hungry. ENHYDROUS, en-h[=i]'drus, _adj._ containing water or other fluid.--_n._ ENHY'DRITE, a mineral containing water. [Gr. _en_, in, and _hyd[=o]r_, water.] ENHYPOSTATIC, en-h[=i]-p[=o]-stat'ik, _adj._ possessing substantial or personal existence, possessing personality not independently but by union with a person.--_n._ ENHYPOST[=A]'SIA.--_v.t._ ENHYPOS'TATISE. ENIGMA, en-ig'ma, _n._ a statement with a hidden meaning to be guessed: anything very obscure: a riddle.--_adjs._ ENIGMAT'IC, -AL, relating to, containing, or resembling an enigma: obscure: puzzling.--_adv._ ENIGMAT'ICALLY.--_v.t._ ENIG'MATISE, to utter or deal in riddles.--_ns._ ENIG'MATIST, one who enigmatises; ENIGMATOG'RAPHY, science of enigmas and their solution. [L. _ænigma_--Gr. _ainigma_--_ainissesthai_, to speak darkly--_ainos_, a fable.] ENISLE, en-[=i]l', INISLE, in-, _v.t._ to isolate. ENJAMBMENT, en-jamb'ment, _n._ in verse, the continuation of a sentence beyond the end of the line. [Fr.,--_enjamber_--_en_, in, _jambe_, leg.] ENJOIN, en-join', _v.t._ to lay upon, as an order: to order or direct with authority or urgency.--_n._ ENJOIN'MENT. [Fr. _enjoindre_--L. _injung[)e]re_--_in_, and _jung[)e]re_, to join.] ENJOY, en-joi', _v.t._ to joy or delight in: to feel or perceive with pleasure: to possess or use with satisfaction or delight: to have the use of: to have sexual intercourse with.--_adj._ ENJOY'ABLE, capable of being enjoyed or of giving joy.--_n._ ENJOY'MENT, state or condition of enjoying: satisfactory possession or use of anything; pleasure: happiness. [O. Fr. _enjoier_, to give joy to--_en_ (=L. _in_), and _joie_, joy; or O. Fr. _enjoir_, to enjoy--_en_, and _joir_--L. _gaud[=e]re_, to rejoice.] ENKERNEL, en-k[.e]r'nel, _v.t._ to enclose in a kernel. ENKINDLE, en-kin'dl, _v.t._ to kindle or set on fire: to inflame: to rouse.--_p.adj._ ENKIN'DLED. ENLACE, en-l[=a]s', _v.t._ to encircle, surround: to embrace.--_n._ ENLACE'MENT. ENLARD, en-lärd', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to grease, to baste. ENLARGE, en-lärj', _v.t._ to make larger: to increase in size or quantity: to expand: to amplify discourse: to set free.--_v.i._ to grow large or larger: to be diffuse in speaking or writing: to expatiate.--_adj._ ENLARGED'.--_adv._ ENLAR'GEDLY.--_ns._ ENLAR'GEDNESS; ENLARGE'MENT, act of enlarging: state of being enlarged: increase: extension: diffuseness of speech or writing: a setting at large: release. [O. Fr. _enlarger_--_en_ (=L. _in_), _large_, large.] ENLEVEMENT, en-l[=e]v'ment, _n._ (_Scots law_) abduction of a woman or child. ENLIGHTEN, en-l[=i]t'n, _v.t._ to lighten or shed light on: to make clear to the mind: to impart knowledge to: to elevate by knowledge or religion--(_obs._) ENLIGHT'.--_n._ ENLIGHT'ENMENT, act of enlightening: state of being enlightened: the spirit of the French philosophers of the 18th century. ENLINK, en-lingk', _v.t._ to connect closely. ENLIST, en-list', _v.t._ to enrol: to engage as a soldier, &c.: to employ in advancing an object.--_v.i._ to engage in public service, esp. as a soldier: to enter heartily into a cause.--_n._ ENLIST'MENT, act of enlisting: state of being enlisted. ENLIVEN, en-l[=i]v'n, _v.t._ to put life into: to excite or make active: to make sprightly or cheerful: to animate.--_ns._ ENLIV'ENER; ENLIV'ENMENT. ENLOCK, en-lok', _v.t._ to lock up, enclose. ENLUMINE, en-l[=oo]'min, _v.t._ (_Spens._). See ILLUMINE. ENMARBLE, en-mär'bl, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to turn to marble, to harden. ENMESH, en-mesh', EMMESH, em-, IMMESH, im-, _v.t._ to catch in a mesh or net, to entangle. ENMEW, en-m[=u]', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to coop up, as in a cage. ENMITY, en'mi-ti, _n._ the quality of being an enemy: unfriendliness: ill-will: hostility. [O. Fr. _enemistié_--L. _inimicus_. See ENEMY.] ENMOSSED, en-most', _p.adj._ covered with moss. ENMOVE, en-m[=oo]v', _v.t._ Same as EMMOVE. ENMURE. Same as IMMURE. ENNEA, en'[=e]-a, a prefix in words of Greek origin, signifying nine.--_n._ EN'NEAD, the number nine, a system of nine objects.--_adj._ ENNEAD'IC.--_n._ EN'NEAGON, a polygon with nine angles.--_adjs._ ENNEAG'ONAL; ENNEAG'YNOUS, having nine pistils or styles; ENNEAH[=E]'DRAL, having nine faces.--_n._ ENNEAN'DRIA, the ninth Linnæan class of plants, with nine stamens.--_adjs._ ENNEAN'DRIAN; ENNEAPHYL'LOUS, nine-leaved; ENNEASPER'MOUS, having nine seeds. ENNOBLE, en-n[=o]'bl, _v.t._ to make noble: to elevate, distinguish: to raise to nobility.--_n._ ENN[=O]'BLEMENT, the act of making noble: that which ennobles. [Fr. _ennoblir_--Fr. _en_ (=L. _in_), and _noble_.] ENNUI, äng-nw[=e]', _n._ a feeling of weariness or disgust from satiety, &c.: the occasion of ennui.--_v.t._ to weary: to bore.--_adj._ ENNUYÉ (äng-nw[=e]-y[=a]'), bored. [Fr.,--O. Fr. _anoi_--L. _in odio_, as _in odio habeo_, lit. 'I hold in hatred,' i.e. I am tired of. See ANNOY.] ENODAL, [=e]-n[=o]'dal, _adj._ without nodes. ENOMOTY, e-nom'[=o]-ti, _n._ a band of sworn soldiers, esp. the smallest Spartan subdivision. [Gr.] ENORMOUS, e-nor'mus, _adj._ excessive: immense: atrocious--(_obs._) ENORM'.--_n._ ENOR'MITY, state or quality of being enormous: that which is enormous: a great crime: great wickedness.--_adv._ ENOR'MOUSLY.--_n._ ENOR'MOUSNESS. [L. _enormis_--_e_, out of, _norma_, rule.] ENORTHOTROPE, en-or'th[=o]-tr[=o]p, _n._ a toy consisting of a card on which confused objects are transformed into various pictures, by causing it to revolve rapidly. [Gr. _en_, in, _orthos_, upright, _tropos_, turning.] ENOUGH, e-nuf', _adj._ sufficient: giving content: satisfying want.--_adv._ sufficiently.--_n._ sufficiency: as much as satisfies desire or want. [A.S. _ge-nóh_, _ge-nóg_; Goth. _ga-nóhs_; Ger. _ge-nug_; Ice. _g-nóg-r_.] ENOUNCE, e-nowns', _v.t._ to enunciate: to proclaim: to utter or articulate. [Fr. _énoncer_--L. _enunti[=a]re_.] ENOW=ENOUGH, but often used as its plural. ENOW, e-now', _adv._ just now: (_Scot._) soon. [Contr. from 'even now.'] EN PASSANT, äng pas'ang, _adv._ in passing: by the way. [Fr.] ENQUIRE. See INQUIRE. ENRACE, en-r[=a]s', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to give race or origin to. ENRAGE, en-r[=a]j', _v.t._ to make angry.--_p.adj._ ENRAGED', angered: furious.--_n._ ENRAGE'MENT, act of enraging, state of being enraged, excitement. [O. Fr. _enrager_--_en_ (=L. _in_), and _rage_, rage.] ENRANGE, en-r[=a]nj', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to arrange: to rove over. ENRANK, en-rangk', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to place in order. ENRAPTURE, en-rap't[=u]r, _v.t._ to put in rapture: to transport with pleasure or delight.--_p.adjs._ ENRAP'TURED, ENRAPT', delighted: transported. ENRAVISH, en-rav'ish, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to enrapture. ENREGIMENT, en-rej'i-ment, _v.t._ to form in a regiment. ENREGISTER, en-rej'is-t[.e]r, _v.t._ to register: to enrol. ENRICH, en-rich', _v.t._ to make rich: to fertilise: to adorn: to enhance.--_n._ ENRICH'MENT, act of enriching; that which enriches. ENRIDGE, en-rij', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to form into ridges. ENRING, en-ring', _v.t._ to encircle: to put a ring on. ENROBE, en-r[=o]b', _v.t._ to dress, clothe, or invest. ENROL, ENROLL, en-r[=o]l', _v.t._ to insert in a roll or register: to enlist: to record: to leave in writing:--_pr.p._ enr[=o]l'ling; _pa.p._ enr[=o]lled'.--_ns._ ENROL'LER; ENROL'MENT, act of enrolling: that in which anything is enrolled: a register. [O. Fr. _enroller_ (Fr. _enrôler_)--_en_, and _rolle_, roll.] ENROOT, en-r[=oo]t', _v.t._ to fix by the root: to implant firmly: (_Shak._) to join firmly, as root by root. ENROUGH, en-ruf', _v.t._ to make rough. ENROUND, en-rownd', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to surround. ENS, enz, _n._ an entity, as opposed to an attribute. [A late _pr.p._ form, from L. _esse_, to be.] ENSAMPLE, en-sam'pl, _n._ example.--_v.t._ to give an example of. [O. Fr. _essample_. See EXAMPLE.] ENSANGUINE, en-sang'gwin, _v.t._ to stain or cover with blood.--_p.adj._ ENSAN'GUINED, bloody. ENSATE, en's[=a]t, _adj._ ensiform. ENSCHEDULE, en-shed'[=u]l, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to insert in a schedule. ENSCONCE, en-skons', _v.t._ to cover or protect as with a sconce or earth-work: to hide safely. ENSEAL, en-s[=e]l', _v.t._ to put one's seal to: to seal up. ENSEAM, en-s[=e]m', _v.t._ to mark as with a seam. ENSEAM, en-s[=e]m', _v.t._ to cover with grease. [_Seam_, grease.] ENSEAM, en-s[=e]m', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to contain. [Der. obscure; cf. Ice. _semja_, to put together.] ENSEAR, en-s[=e]r', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to dry up. ENSEMBLE, äng-sangb'l, _n._ all the parts of a thing taken together.--TOUT ENSEMBLE, general appearance or effect. [Fr. _ensemble_, together--L. _in_, in, _simul_, at the same time.] ENSEPULCHRE, en-sep'ul-k[.e]r, _v.t._ to put in a sepulchre. ENSEW (_Spens._). Same as ENSUE. ENSHIELD, en-sh[=e]ld', _v.t._ to shield or protect.--_adj._ (_Shak._) shielded or protected. ENSHRINE, en-shr[=i]n', _v.t._ to enclose in or as in a shrine: to preserve with affection. ENSHROUD, en-shrowd', _v.t._ to cover with a shroud: to cover up. ENSIFORM, en'si-form, _adj._ having the shape of a sword. [L. _ensis_, a sword, and _forma_, form.] ENSIGN, en's[=i]n, _n._ a sign or mark: the sign or flag distinguishing a nation or a regiment: one who carries the colours: until 1871, the title given to officers of the lowest commissioned rank in the British infantry.--_ns._ EN'SIGN-BEAR'ER; EN'SIGNCY, EN'SIGNSHIP, the rank or commission of an ensign in the army. [O. Fr. _enseigne_--L. _insignia_, pl. of _insigne_, a distinctive mark--_in_, and _signum_, a mark.] ENSILAGE, en'sil-[=a]j, _n._ the storing of green fodder, &c., in pits.--_v.t._ EN'SILE, to store by ensilage. [Fr.,--Sp. _en_, and _silo_--L.,--Gr. _siros_, pit for corn.] ENSKY, en-sk[=i]', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to place in the sky. ENSLAVE, en-sl[=a]v', _v.t._ to make a slave of: to subject to the influence of.--_p.adj._ ENSLAVED'.--_ns._ ENSLAVE'MENT, act of enslaving: state of being enslaved: slavery: bondage; ENSLAV'ER. ENSNARE, en-sn[=a]r', INSNARE, in-, _v.t._ to catch in a snare: to entrap: to entangle. ENSNARL, en-snärl', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to entangle. ENSORCELL, en-s[=o]r'sel, _v.t._ to bewitch. [O. Fr. _ensorceler_--_en_, and _sorcier_, a sorceror.] ENSOUL, en-s[=o]l', INSOUL, in-, _v.t._ to join with the soul: to animate as a soul. ENSPHERE, en-sf[=e]r', INSPHERE, in-, _v.t._ to enclose in a sphere: to give a spherical form. ENSTAMP, en-stamp', _v.t._ to mark as with a stamp. ENSTEEP, en-st[=e]p', _v.t._ to steep: to lay under water. ENSTYLE, en-st[=i]l', _v.t._ to style, call. ENSUE, en-s[=u]', _v.i._ to follow, to come after: to result (with _from_).--_v.t._ (_B._, _arch._) to follow after:--_pr.p._ ens[=u]'ing; _pa.p._ ens[=u]ed'. [O. Fr. _ensuir_ (Fr. _ensuivre_)--L. _in_, after, _sequi_, to follow.] ENSURE, en-sh[=oo]r', _v.t._ to make sure. [See INSURE.] ENSWATHE, en-sw[=a]th', INSWATHE, in-, _v.t._ to wrap in a swathe.--_n._ ENSWATHE'MENT. ENSWEEP, en-sw[=e]p', _v.t._ to sweep over. ENTABLATURE, en-tab'lat-[=u]r, _n._ that part of a design in classic architecture which surmounts the columns and rests upon the capitals. [Prob. through Fr. from It. _intavolatura_--_in_, in, _tavola_, a table.] ENTAIL, en-t[=a]l', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to carve. [O. Fr. _entailler_--Low L. _en_, into, _tale[=a]re_, to cut.] ENTAIL, en-t[=a]l', _v.t._ to settle an estate on a series of heirs, so that the immediate possessor may not dispose of it: to bring on as an inevitable consequence:--_pr.p._ entail'ing; _pa.p._ entailed'.--_n._ an estate entailed: the rule of descent of an estate.--_ns._ ENTAIL'ER; ENTAIL'MENT, act of entailing: state of being entailed. [O. Fr. _entailler_, to cut into--_en_, in, into, _tailler_, to cut--L. _talea_, a twig.] ENTAL, en'tal, _adj._ internal. [Gr. _entos_, within.] ENTAME, en-t[=a]m', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to tame. ENTANGLE, en-tang'gl, _v.t._ to twist into a tangle, or so as not to be easily separated: to involve in complications: to perplex: to ensnare.--_n._ ENTANG'LEMENT, a confused state: perplexity. ENTASIS, en'ta-sis, _n._ (_archit._) the swelling outline of the shaft of a column--also ENT[=A]'SIA: constrictive or tonic spasm.--_adj._ ENTAS'TIC. [Gr.,--_en_, in, _teinein_, to stretch.] ENTELECHY, en-tel'ek-i, _n._ (_phil._) actuality: distinctness of realised existence. [Gr. _entelecheia_--_en_, in, _telos_, perfection, _echein_, to have.] ENTELLUS, en-tel'us, _n._ the hanuman of India. ENTENDER, en-tend'[.e]r, _v.t._ to make tender: to weaken. ENTER, en't[.e]r, _v.i._ to go or come in: to penetrate: to engage in: to form a part of.--_v.t._ to come or go into: to join or engage in: to begin: to put into: to enrol or record: to cause to be inscribed, as a boy's name at school, a horse for a race, &c.--_n._ (_Shak._) ingoing.--_adj._ EN'TERABLE.--_ns._ EN'TERCLOSE, a passage between two rooms; EN'TERER; EN'TERING.--ENTER A PROTEST, to write it in the books: thence simply, to protest; ENTER INTO, to become a party to: to be interested in: to be part of; ENTER ON, to begin: to engage in. [Fr. _entrer_--L. _intrare_, to go into, related to _inter_, between.] ENTERDEAL, obsolete form of _interdeal_. ENTERIC, en-ter'ik, _adj._ of or pertaining to the intestines.--_ns._ ENTERADENOG'RAPHY, description of the intestinal glands; ENTERADENOL'OGY, the branch of anatomy relating to the intestinal glands; ENTERAL'GIA, intestinal neuralgia; ENTER[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the intestines; EN'TEROCELE, a hernial tumour containing part of the intestines; ENTEROGASTR[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the stomach and bowels; EN'TEROLITE, EN'TEROLITH, an intestinal concretion or calculus; ENTEROL'OGY, a treatise on the internal parts of the body; EN'TERON, the entire intestine or alimentary canal:--_pl._ EN'TERA; ENTEROP'ATHY, disease of the intestines; ENTEROPNEUST'A, a class of worm-like animals, having the paired respiratory pouches opening from the front part of the alimentary canal; ENTEROT'OMY, dissection or incision of the intestines. [Gr. _enterikos_--_enteron_, intestine.] ENTERPRISE, en't[.e]r-pr[=i]z, _n._ that which is attempted: a bold or dangerous undertaking: an adventure: daring.--_v.t._ to undertake.--_n._ EN'TERPRISER, an adventurer.--_p.adj._ EN'TERPRISING, forward in undertaking: adventurous.--_adv._ EN'TERPRISINGLY. [O. Fr. _entreprise_, pa.p. of _entreprendre_--_entre_, in, _prendre_--L. _prehend[)e]re_, to seize.] ENTERTAIN, en-t[.e]r-t[=a]n', _v.t._ to receive and treat hospitably: to hold the attention of and amuse by conversation: to amuse: to receive and take into consideration: to keep or hold in the mind: to harbour.--_n._ ENTERTAIN'ER.--_p.adj._ ENTERTAIN'ING, affording entertainment: amusing.--_adv._ ENTERTAIN'INGLY.--_n._ ENTERTAIN'MENT, act of entertaining: hospitality at table: that which entertains: the provisions of the table: a banquet: amusement: a performance which delights. [Fr. _entretenir_--L. _inter_, among, _ten[=e]re_, to hold.] ENTERTAKE, en-t[.e]r-t[=a]k', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to entertain. ENTERTISSUE. See INTERTISSUE. ENTHEASM, en'th[=e]-azm, _n._ divine inspiration, ecstasy.--_adj._ ENTHEAS'TIC.--_adv._ ENTHEAS'TICALLY. ENTHELMINTHA, en-thel-min'tha, _n.pl._ a general name of intestinal worms. ENTHRAL, en-thrawl', INTHRAL, in-, _v.t._ to bring into thraldom or bondage: to enslave: to shackle.--_ns._ ENTHRAL'DOM, condition of being enthralled; ENTHRAL'MENT, act of enthralling: slavery. ENTHRONE, en-thr[=o]n', _v.t._ to place on a throne: to exalt to the seat of royalty: to install as a bishop: to exalt.--_ns._ ENTHRONE'MENT, ENTHRONIS[=A]'TION, the act of enthroning or of being enthroned.--_v.t._ ENTHR[=O]'NISE, to enthrone, as a bishop: to exalt. ENTHUSIASM, en-th[=u]'zi-azm, _n._ intense interest: intensity of feeling: passionate zeal.--_n._ ENTH[=U]'SIAST, one inspired by enthusiasm: one who admires or loves intensely.--_adjs._ ENTHUSIAS'TIC, -AL, filled with enthusiasm; zealous: ardent.--_adv._ ENTHUSIAS'TICALLY. [Through L., from Gr. _enthusiasmos_, a god-inspired zeal--_enthousiazein_, to be inspired by a god--_en_, in, _theos_, a god.] ENTHYMEME, en'thi-m[=e]m, _n._ (_rhet._) an argument consisting of only two propositions, an antecedent and a consequent: a syllogism in which the major proposition is suppressed.--_adj._ ENTHYMEMAT'ICAL. [From L. from Gr. _enthym[=e]ma_, a consideration--_enthymeesthai_, to consider--_en_, in, _thymos_, the mind.] ENTICE, en-t[=i]s', _v.t._ to induce by exciting hope or desire: to tempt: to lead astray.--_adj._ ENTICE'ABLE.--_ns._ ENTICE'MENT, act of enticing: that which entices or tempts: allurement; ENTIC'ER.--_p.adj._ ENTIC'ING.--_adv._ ENTIC'INGLY. [O. Fr. _enticier_, provoke; prob. related to L. _titio_, a firebrand.] ENTIRE, en-t[=i]r', _adj._ whole: complete: unmingled: not castrated, specially of a horse.--_n._ the whole: completeness: a stallion: porter or stout as delivered from the brewery.--_adv._ ENTIRE'LY.--_ns._ ENTIRE'NESS, ENTIRE'TY, completeness: the whole.--IN ITS ENTIRETY, in its completeness. [O. Fr. _entier_--L. _integer_, whole, from _in_, not, _tang[)e]re_, to touch.] ENTITLE, en-t[=i]'tl, _v.t._ to give a title to: to style: to give a claim to. [O. Fr. _entiteler_--Low L. _intitul[=a]re_--_in_, in, _titulus_, title.] ENTITY, en'ti-ti, _n._ being: existence: a real substance. [Low L. _entitat-em_--_ens_ (q.v.).] ENTOBLAST, en't[=o]-blast, _n._ the nucleolus of a cell. ENTOCELE, en't[=o]-s[=e]l, _n._ morbid displacement of parts. ENTOIL, en-toil', _v.t._ to entangle or ensnare. ENTOMB, en-t[=oo]m', _v.t._ to place in a tomb: to bury.--_n._ ENTOMB'MENT, burial. [O. Fr. _entoumber_--_en_, in, _tombe_, a tomb.] ENTOMOLOGY, en-to-mol'o-ji, _n._ the science which treats of insects.--_adjs._ ENTOM'IC, -AL, relating to insects.--_n._ ENTOMOG'RAPHY, descriptive entomology.--_adj._ EN'TOMOID, insect-like.--_n._ ENTOM'OLITE, a fossil insect.--_adj._ ENTOMOLOG'ICAL.--_adv._ ENTOMOLOG'ICALLY.--_v.t._ ENTOMOL'OGISE.--_ns._ ENTOMOL'OGIST, one learned in entomology.--_n.pl._ ENTOMOPH'AGA, a sub-section of _Hymenoptera terebrantia_, or boring hymenopterous insects.--_adjs._ ENTOMOPH'AGAN, ENTOMOPH'AGOUS, insectivorous; ENTOMOPH'ILOUS, insect-loving--of such flowers as are specially adapted for fertilisation by the agency of insects.--_ns._ EN'TOMOTAXY, preparation of insects for preservation; ENTOMOT'OMIST; ENTOMOT'OMY, dissection of insects. [Gr. _entoma_, insects, _logia_, a discourse, _phagein_, to eat, _philein_, to love, _taxis_, arrangement, _temnein_, to cut.] ENTOMOSTOMATA, en-to-mo-stom'a-ta, _n.pl._ a family of mollusca. [Gr. _entomos_, cut into--_en_, in, _temnein_, to cut, _stoma_, a mouth.] ENTOMOSTRACA, en-to-mos'tra-ka, _n.pl._ a general name for the lower orders of crustacea--_Phyllopods_, _Ostracods_, _Copepods_, and _Cirripedes_:--_sing._ ENTOMOS'TRACAN.--_adj._ ENTOMOS'TRACOUS. [Gr. _entomos_, cut in--_en_, in, _temnein_, to cut, _ostrakon_, a shell.] ENTONIC, en-ton'ik, _adj._ showing high tension. ENTOPERIPHERAL, en-t[=o]-pe-rif'e-ral, _adj._ situated or originated within the periphery or external surface of the body. ENTOPHYTE, en'to-f[=i]t, _n._ a parasitic plant which grows in a living animal.--_adj._ ENTOPHYT'IC.--_adv._ ENTOPHYT'ICALLY.--_adj._ EN'TOPHYTOUS. [Gr. _enton_, within, and _phyton_, a plant.] ENTOTIC, en-tot'ik, _adj._ of the interior of the ear. ENTOURAGE, äng-t[=oo]-razh', _n._ surroundings: followers. [Fr.,--_entourer_, to surround--_en_, in, _tour_, a circuit.] ENTOZOA, en-to-z[=o]'a, _n.pl._ animals that live inside of other animals: internal parasites such as Tapeworms (q.v.):--_sing._ ENTOZ[=O]'ON.--_adjs._ ENTOZ[=O]'AL, ENTOZ[=O]'IC.--_ns._ ENTOZOOL'OGIST; ENTOZOOL'OGY.--_adj._ ENTOZOOT'IC. [Gr. _entos_, within, _z[=o]on_, an animal.] ENTR'ACTE, äng-trakt', _n._ the time between two acts in a play: (_mus._) an instrumental piece performed between acts. [Fr., _entre_, between, _acte_, an act.] ENTRAIL, en-tr[=a]l', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to interlace, entwine.--_n._ (_Spens._) twisting, entanglement. [O. Fr. _entreillier_--_en_, and _treille_, trellis-work.] ENTRAILS, en'tr[=a]lz, _n.pl._ the internal parts of an animal's body, the bowels: the inside of anything: (_obs._) the seat of the emotions. [O. Fr. _entraille_--Low L. _intralia_--_inter_, within.] ENTRAIN, en-tr[=a]n', _v.t._ to put into a railway train, esp. used of troops. ENTRAIN, en-tr[=a]n', _v.t._ to draw after. [Fr. _entraîner_.] ENTRAMMEL, en-tram'el, _v.t._ to trammel, fetter. ENTRANCE, en'trans, _n._ act of entering: power or right to enter: the place for entering, the door: the beginning.--_n._ EN'TRANT, one who, or that which, enters. [Fr. _entrer_--L. _intr[=a]re_, to enter.] ENTRANCE, en-trans', _v.t._ to put into a trance: to fill with rapturous delight.--_n._ ENTRANCE'MENT, state of trance or of excessive joy.--_p.adj._ ENTRANC'ING, charming, transporting. ENTRAP, en-trap', _v.t._ to catch, as in a trap: to ensnare: to entangle.--_ns._ ENTRAP'MENT, act of entrapping: the state of being entrapped: ENTRAP'PER. [O. Fr. _entraper_--_en_, in, _trappe_, a trap.] ENTREASURE, en-trezh'[=u]r, _v.t._ to lay up, as in a treasury. ENTREAT, en-tr[=e]t', _v.t._ to ask earnestly: to beseech: to pray for: (_orig._) to treat, to deal with--so in _B._--_v.i._ to pray.--_adjs._ ENTREAT'ABLE; ENTREAT'FUL (_Spens._); ENTREAT'ING, that entreats.--_adv._ ENTREAT'INGLY, in an entreating manner: with solicitation.--_adj._ ENTREAT'IVE, pleading.--_ns._ ENTREAT'MENT, act of entreating: (_Shak._) discourse; ENTREAT'Y, act of entreating; earnest prayer. [O. Fr. _entraiter_--_en_, and _traiter_, to treat.] ENTRÉE, äng-tr[=a]', _n._ entry, freedom of access, admittance: a made dish served at dinner between the chief courses: (_mus._) an introduction or prelude: the act of entering, a formal entrance. [Fr.] ENTREMETS, äng-tr'm[=a]', _n._ any dainty served at table between the chief courses--formerly ENTREMES, ENTREMESSE. [O. Fr. _entremes_--_entre_, between, _mes_ (mod. _mets_), a dish.] ENTRENCH, en-trensh', INTRENCH, in-, _v.t._ to dig a trench around: to fortify with a ditch and parapet.--_v.i._ to encroach.--_n._ ENTRENCH'MENT, an earthen parapet thrown up to give cover against an enemy's fire and the ditch or trench from which the earth is obtained: any protection: an encroachment.--ENTRENCH UPON, to encroach upon. ENTREPAS, äng'tr'pä, _n._ a gait between a walk and a trot, an amble. [Fr.] ENTREPÔT, äng'tr'p[=o], _n._ a storehouse: a bonded warehouse: a seaport through which exports and imports pass. [Fr.] ENTRESOL, en'ter-sol, or äng'tr'sol, _n._ a low story between two main stories of a building, generally above the first story; in London, usually between the ground-floor and the first story. [Fr.,--_entre_, between, _sol_, the ground.] ENTROCHITE, en'tr[=o]-k[=i]t, _n._ a wheel-like joint of an encrinite or fossil crinoid--also EN'TROCHUS.--_adj._ EN'TROCHAL. [Gr. _en_, in, _trochos_, a wheel.] ENTROPION, -UM, en-tr[=o]'pi-on, -um, _n._ inversion of the edge of the eyelid. [Gr. _entrop[=e]_.] ENTROPY, en'trop-i, _n._ a term in physics signifying 'the available energy.' ENTRUST, en-trust', INTRUST, in-, _v.t._ to give in trust: to commission: to commit to another, trusting his fidelity.--_n._ ENTRUST'MENT. ENTRY, en'tri, _n._ act of entering: a passage into a short lane leading into a court: act of committing to writing: the thing written: (_law_) the taking possession of.--_n._ EN'TRY-MON'EY, the money paid on entering a society, club, &c.--PORT OF ENTRY (see PORT). ENTWINE, en-tw[=i]n', _v.t._ to interlace: to weave. ENTWIST, en-twist', _v.t._ to twist round. ENUBILATE, [=e]-n[=u]'bi-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to clear from clouds.--_adj._ EN[=U]'BILOUS. ENUCLEATE, en-[=u]'kle-[=a]t, _v.t._ to lay bare, explain: to extract.--_n._ ENUCLE[=A]'TION. [L. _enucle[=a]re_--_e_, out, _nucleus_, a kernel.] ENUMERATE, e-n[=u]'mer-[=a]t, _v.t._ to count the number of: to name over.--_n._ ENUMER[=A]'TION, act of numbering: a detailed account: a summing up.--_adj._ EN[=U]'MERATIVE.--_n._ EN[=U]'MERATOR, one who enumerates. [L. _e_, out, _numer[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to number.] ENUNCIATE, e-nun'shi-[=a]t, _v.t._ to state formally: to pronounce distinctly.--_adj._ ENUN'CIABLE, capable of being enunciated.--_n._ ENUNCI[=A]'TION, act of enunciating: manner of uttering or pronouncing: a distinct statement or declaration: the words in which a proposition is expressed.--_adjs._ ENUN'CI[=A]TIVE, ENUN'CI[=A]TORY, containing enunciation or utterance: declarative.--_n._ ENUN'CI[=A]TOR, one who enunciates. [L. _enunti[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_e_, out, _nunti[=a]re_, to tell--_nuntius_, a messenger.] ENURE, e-n[=u]r', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to practise.--_v.i._ to belong. [_En-_, and _ure_--O. Fr. _oeuvre_--work.] ENURESIS, en-[=u]-r[=e]'sis, _n._ incontinence of urine. ENVASSAL, en-vas'al, _v.t._ to reduce to vassalage. ENVAULT, en-vawlt', _v.t._ to enclose in a vault. ENVEIGLE. See INVEIGLE. ENVELOP, en-vel'up, _v.t._ to cover by wrapping: to surround entirely: to hide.--_n._ ENVELOPE (en'vel-[=o]p, sometimes, but quite unnecessarily, äng'vel-[=o]p), that which envelops, wraps, or covers, esp. the cover of a letter.--_adj._ ENVEL'OPED (_her._), entwined, as with serpents, laurels, &c.--_n._ ENVEL'OPMENT, a wrapping or covering on all sides. [O. Fr. _enveloper_; origin obscure. Skeat refers it to the assumed Teut. root of M. E. _wlappen_, Eng. _lap_.] ENVENOM, en-ven'um, _v.t._ to put venom into: to poison: to taint with bitterness or malice. [O. Fr. _envenimer_--_en_, and _venim_, venom.] ENVERMEIL, en-v[.e]r'mil, _v.t._ (_Milt._) to dye red, to give a red colour to. [O. Fr. _envermeiller_--_en_, in, _vermeil_, red, vermilion.] ENVIRON, en-v[=i]'run, _v.t._ to surround: to encircle: to invest:--_pr.p._ env[=i]'roning; _pa.p._ env[=i]'roned.--_n._ ENV[=I]'RONMENT, a surrounding: conditions influencing development or growth.--_n.pl._ ENVIRONS (en-v[=i]'runz, or en'vi-), the places that environ: the outskirts of a city: neighbourhood. [Fr. _environner_--_environ_, around--_virer_, to turn round; cf. _veer_.] ENVISAGE, en-viz'[=a]j, _v.t._ to face: to consider.--_n._ ENVIS'AGEMENT. [Fr. _envisager_--_en_, and _visage_, the visage.] ENVOY, en'voi, _n._ a messenger, esp. one sent to transact business with a foreign government: a diplomatic minister of the second order.--_n._ EN'VOYSHIP. [For Fr. _envoyé_--_envoyer_, to send.] ENVOY, ENVOI, en'voi, _n._ the concluding part of a poem or a book: the author's final words, esp. now the short stanza concluding a poem written in certain archaic metrical forms. [O. Fr. _envoye_--_envoiier_, to send--_en voie_, on the way--L. _in_, on, _via_, a way.] ENVY, en'vi, _v.t._ to look upon with a grudging eye: to hate on account of prosperity:--_pr.p._ en'vying; _pa.p._ en'vied.--_n._ grief at the sight of another's success: a wicked desire to supplant one: a desire for the advantages enjoyed by another: (_B._) ill-will.--_adj._ EN'VIABLE, that is to be envied.--_n._ EN'VIABLENESS, the state or quality of being enviable.--_adv._ EN'VIABLY.--_n._ EN'VIER, one who envies.--_adj._ EN'VIOUS, feeling envy: directed by envy: (_Spens._) enviable.--_adv._ EN'VIOUSLY.--_ns._ EN'VIOUSNESS; EN'VYING (_B._), jealousy, ill-will. [Fr. _envie_--L. _invidia_--_in_, on, _vid[=e]re_, to look.] ENWALL, en-wawl', INWALL, in-, _v.t._ to enclose within a wall. ENWALLOW, en-wol'[=o], _v.t._ (_Spens._) to roll about, to wallow. ENWHEEL, en-hw[=e]l', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to encircle. ENWIND, en-w[=i]nd', INWIND, in-, _v.t._ to wind itself round. ENWOMB, en-w[=oo]m', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to make pregnant: (_Shak._) to conceive in the womb: to contain. ENWRAP, en-rap', INWRAP, in-, _v.t._ to cover by wrapping: to perplex: to engross.--_n._ ENWRAP'MENT.--_p.adj._ ENWRAP'PING. ENWREATHE, en-r[=e]_th_', INWREATHE, in-, _v.t._ to wreathe: to encircle as with a wreath. ENZONE, en-z[=o]n', _v.t._ to enclose as with a zone. ENZOOTIC, en-z[=o]-ot'ik, _adj._ endemic among animals in a particular district.--_n._ a disease of this character. ENZYM, ENZYME, en'zim, _n._ any of the unorganised ferments: leavened bread--opp. to _Azym_ (q.v.).--_adj._ ENZYMOT'IC. [Gr. _en_, in, _zym[=e]_, leaven.] EOAN, [=e]-[=o]'an, _adj._ of or pertaining to dawn. [L.,--Gr. _[=e][=o]s_, dawn.] EOCENE, [=e]'[=o]-s[=e]n, _adj._ (_geol._) first in time of the three subdivisions of the Tertiary formation. [Gr. _[=e][=o]s_, daybreak, _kainos_, new.] EOLIAN, EOLIC, EOLIPILE. Same as ÆOLIAN, ÆOLIC, ÆOLIPILE. EON. See ÆON. EOTHEN, [=e]-[=o]'then, _adv._ from the east--the name given by Kinglake to his book of travel in the East (1844). [Gr., lit. 'from morn,' 'at earliest dawn.'] EOZOÖN, [=e]-[=o]-z[=o]'on, _n._ an assumed organism whose remains constitute reefs of rocks in the Archæan system in Canada.--_adj._ EOZ[=O]'IC. [Gr. _[=e][=o]s_, dawn, _z[=o]on_, an animal.] EPACRID, ep'a-krid, _n._ a plant of order _Epacridaceæ_, a small order of heath-like shrubs or small trees. [Gr. _epi_, upon, _akris_, a summit.] EPACT, [=e]'pakt, _n._ the moon's age at the beginning of the year: the excess of the solar month or year above the lunar: (_pl._) a set of nineteen numbers used for fixing the date of Easter and other church festivals, by indicating the age of the moon at the beginning of each civil year in the lunar cycle. [Fr.,--Gr. _epaktos_, brought on--_epi_, on, _agein_, to bring.] EPAGOGE, ep-a-g[=o]'j[=e], _n._ induction, proof by example. EPALPATE, [=e]-pal'p[=a]t, _adj._ having no palps or feeders. EPANADIPLOSIS, ep-a-na-di-pl[=o]'sis, _n._ (_rhet._) a figure by which a sentence begins and ends with the same word, as in Phil. iv. 4. [Gr.] EPANALEPSIS, ep-a-na-lep'sis, _n._ (_rhet._) repetition or resumption, as in 1 Cor. xi. 18 and 20. [Gr.] EPANODOS, e-pan'[=o]-dos, _n._ recapitulation of the chief points in a discourse. [Gr.] EPANORTHOSIS, ep-an-or-th[=o]'sis, _n._ (_rhet._) the retracting of a statement in order to correct or intensify it, as 'For Britain's guid! for her destruction!' [Gr.] EPANTHOUS, ep-an'thus, _adj._ growing upon flowers. [Gr. _epi_, upon, _anthos_, a flower.] EPARCH, ep'ärk, _n._ the governor of a Greek province.--_n._ EP'ARCHY, the province or territory ruled over by an eparch. [Gr. _eparchos_--_epi_, upon, _arch[=e]_, dominion.] EPAULEMENT, e-pawl'ment, _n._ a side-work of a battery or earthwork to protect it from a flanking fire.--_n._ EPAULE', the shoulder of a bastion. [Fr.,--_épauler_, to protect--_épaule_, shoulder.] EPAULET, EPAULETTE, ep'ol-et, _n._ a shoulder-piece: a badge of a military or naval officer (now disused in the British army): an ornament on the shoulder of a lady's dress. [Fr. _épaulette_--_épaule_, the shoulder.] EPEIRA, ep-[=i]r'a, _n._ a genus of spiders, the type of the _Epeiridæ_, including the common garden spider. [Gr. _epi_, on, _eiros_, wool.] EPENCEPHALON, ep-en-sef'a-lon, _n._ the hindmost of the divisions of the brain.--_adj._ EPENCEPHAL'IC. EPENTHESIS, e-pen'the-sis, _n._ the insertion of a letter or syllable within a word.--_adj._ EPENTHET'IC. [Gr.] EPEOLATRY, ep-e-ol'a-tri, _n._ worship of words. [Gr. _epos_, word, _latreia_, worship.] EPERGNE, e-p[.e]rn', _n._ an ornamental stand for a large dish for the centre of a table. [Perh. from Fr. _épargne_, saving--_épargner_, to save.] EPEXEGESIS, ep-eks-e-j[=e]'sis, _n._ the addition of words to make the sentence more clear.--_adjs._ EPEXEGET'IC, -AL.--_adv._ EPEXEGET'ICALLY. [Gr. _epi_, in addition, _ex[=e]geisthai_, to explain.] EPHA, EPHAH, [=e]'fa, _n._ a Hebrew measure for dry goods. [Heb.; prob. of Egyptian origin.] EPHEBE, ef-[=e]b', _n._ (_Greek antiquities_) a young citizen from 18 to 20 years of age. [L. _eph[=e]bus_--Gr. _eph[=e]bos_--_epi_, upon, _h[=e]b[=e]_, early manhood.] EPHEMERA, ef-em'er-a, _n._ the Mayfly, a genus of short-lived insects: that which lasts a short time.--_adj._ EPHEM'ERAL, existing only for a day: daily: short-lived.--_n._ anything lasting a short time.--_ns._ EPHEMERAL'ITY; EPHEM'ERID, an insect belonging to the group _Ephemeridæ_.--_adj._ EPHEMERID'IAN.--_ns._ EPHEM'ERIS, an account of daily transactions: a journal: an astronomical almanac:--_pl._ EPHEMERIDES (ef-e-mer'i-d[=e]z); EPHEM'ERIST, one who studies the daily motions of the planets; EPHEM'ERON, an insect that lives but a day.--_adj._ EPHEM'EROUS. [Through L.,--Gr. _eph[=e]meros_, living a day--_epi_, for, _h[=e]mera_, a day.] EPHESIAN, ef-[=e]'zi-an, _adj._ of or pertaining to _Ephesus_.--_n._ an inhabitant of Ephesus: (_Shak._) 'a jolly companion.' EPHOD, ef'od, _n._ a kind of linen surplice worn by the Jewish priests: a surplice, generally. [Heb. _aphad_, to put on.] EPHOR, ef'or, _n._ a class of magistrates whose office apparently originated at Sparta, being peculiar to the Doric states.--_n._ EPH'ORALTY. [Gr. _epi_, upon, and root of _horaein_, to see.] EPIBLAST, ep'i-blast, _n._ Same as ECTODERM. EPIC, ep'ik, _adj._ applied to a poem which recounts a great event in an elevated style: lofty: grand.--_n._ an epic or heroic poem: a story comparable to those in epic poems.--_ns._ EP'ICISM; EP'ICIST.--EPIC DIALECT, the Greek in which the books of Homer are written. [L. _epicus_--Gr. _epikos_--_epos_, a word.] EPICALYX, ep-i-k[=a]'liks, _n._ an external or accessory calyx outside of the true calyx, as in _Potentilla_. EPICARP, ep'i-kärp, _n._ (_bot._) the outermost layer of the pericarp or fruit. [Gr. _epi_, upon, _karpos_, fruit.] EPICEDIUM, ep-i-s[=e]'di-um, _n._ a funeral ode.--_adjs._ EPIC[=E]'DIAL, EPIC[=E]'DIAN, elegiac. [L.,--Gr. _epik[=e]deion_--_epi_, upon, _k[=e]dos_, care.] EPICENE, ep'i-s[=e]n, _adj._ and _n._ common to both sexes: (_gram._) of either gender. [Through L.,--Gr. _epikoinos_--_epi_, upon, _koinos_, common.] EPICHEIREMA, ep-i-k[=i]-r[=e]'ma, _n._ a syllogism confirmed in its major or minor premise, or in both, by an incidental proposition. [Gr. _epicheir[=e]ma_, attempt--_epi_, upon, _cheir_, the hand.] EPICLINAL, ep-i-kl[=i]'nal, _adj._ (_bot._) placed on the torus or receptacle of a flower. EPICURE, ep'i-k[=u]r, _n._ a follower of _Epicurus_ (341-270 B.C.), a Greek philosopher, who taught that pleasure was the chief good: one given to sensual enjoyment: one devoted to the luxuries of the table.--_adj._ EPICUR[=E]'AN, pertaining to Epicurus: given to luxury.--_n._ a follower of Epicurus: one given to the luxuries of the table.--_n._ EPICUR[=E]'ANISM, the doctrine of Epicurus: attachment to these doctrines.--_v.i._ EP'ICURISE, to play the epicure, to feast, riot: to profess the philosophy of Epicurus.--_n._ EP'ICURISM, the doctrines of Epicurus: luxury: sensual enjoyment. EPICYCLE, ep'i-s[=i]-kl, _n._ a circle having its centre on the circumference of a greater circle on which it moves.--_adj._ EPICY'CLIC.--_n._ EPICY'CLOID, a curve described by every point in the plane of a circle moving on the convex circumference of another circle.--_adj._ EPICYCLOI'DAL. [Gr. _epi_, upon, _kyklos_, a circle.] EPIDEICTIC, -AL, ep-i-d[=i]k'tik, -al, _adj._ done for show or display. [Gr. _epi_, upon, _deiknynai_, to show.] EPIDEMIC, -AL, ep-i-dem'ik, -al, _adj._ affecting a community at a certain time: general.--_n._ EPIDEM'IC, a disease falling on great numbers in one place, simultaneously or in succession.--_adv._ EPIDEM'ICALLY.--_n._ EPIDEMIOL'OGY, the science of epidemics. [Gr. _epid[=e]mos_, general--_epi_, among, _d[=e]mos_, the people.] EPIDERMIS, ep-i-d[.e]r'mis, _n._ scarf-skin or cuticle, forming an external covering of a protective nature for the true skin or corium.--_adjs._ EPIDER'MATOID; EPIDER'MIC, EPIDER'MAL, EPIDER'MIDAL. [Gr. _epidermis_--_epi_, upon, _derma_, the skin.] EPIDOTE, ep'i-d[=o]t, _n._ a silicate of aluminium, iron, and calcium. EPIGASTRIUM, ep-i-gas'tri-um, _n._ the part of the abdomen which chiefly corresponds to the situation of the stomach, extending from the sternum towards the navel.--_adj._ EPIGAS'TRIC. [Gr. _epi_, upon, _gast[=e]r_, the stomach.] EPIGENE, ep'i-j[=e]n, _adj._ applied to the geological agents of change which affect chiefly the superficial position of the earth's crust, as the atmosphere, water, &c.--_adjs._ EPIG'ENOUS, growing on the surface of a part; EPIG[=E]'OUS, growing on the earth--also EPIG[=E]'AL. [Gr. _epi_, upon, _gennaein_, to produce.] EPIGENESIS, ep-i-jen'e-sis, _n._ the development of the organism by the growth and differentiation of a single germ--i.e. by the division or segmentation of a fertilised egg-cell.--_n._ EPIGEN'ESIST.--_adj._ EPIGENET'IC. [Gr. _epi_, upon, _genesis_, genesis.] EPIGLOTTIS, ep-i-glot'is, _n._ the cartilage at the root of the tongue that partly closes the aperture of the larynx.--_adj._ EPIGLOTT'IC. [Gr. _epi_, upon, _gl[=o]tta_ (_gl[=o]ssa_), the tongue.] EPIGRAM, ep'i-gram, _n._ any concise and pointed or sarcastic saying: a short poem on one subject ending with an ingenious thought.--_adjs._ EPIGRAMMAT'IC, -AL, relating to or dealing in epigrams: like an epigram: concise and pointed.--_adv._ EPIGRAMMAT'ICALLY.--_v.t._ EPIGRAM'MATISE, to make an epigram on.--_n._ EPIGRAM'MATIST, one who writes epigrams. [Through Fr. and L., from Gr. _epigramma_--_epi_, upon, _gramma_, a writing--_graphein_, to write.] EPIGRAPH, ep'i-graf, _n._ an inscription, esp. on a building: a citation or motto at the commencement of a book or its parts.--_v.t._ to provide with an epigraph.--_ns._ EPIG'RAPHER, EPIG'RAPHIST.--_adj._ EPIGRAPH'IC.--_n._ EPIG'RAPHY. [Gr. _epi-graph[=e]_--_epi_, upon, _graphein_, to write.] EPIGYNOUS, e-pij'i-nus, _adj._ (_bot._) growing upon the top of the ovary. EPILEPSY, ep'i-lep-si, _n._ a chronic functional disease of the nervous system, manifested by recurring attacks of sudden insensibility or impairment of consciousness, commonly accompanied by peculiar convulsive seizures.--_n._ EPILEP'TIC, an epileptic patient.--_adjs._ EPILEP'TIC, -AL; EPILEP'TOID. [Gr. _epilepsia_--_epi_, upon, _lambanein_, _l[=e]psesthai_, to seize.] EPILOGUE, ep'i-log, _n._ the conclusion of a book: a speech or short poem at the end of a play.--_adjs._ EPILOG'IC (-loj'ik), EPILOGIS'TIC.--_v.i._ EPIL'OGISE ('o-j[=i]z), to write an epilogue. [Fr.--L.--Gr. _epilogos_, conclusion--_epi_, upon, _legein_, to speak.] EPINASTY, ep'i-nas-ti, _n._ (_bot._) curvature of an organ, caused by a more active growth on its upper side.--_adj._ EPINAS'TIC.--_adv._ EPINAS'TICALLY. EPIPERIPHERAL, ep-i-pe-rif'e-ral, _adj._ situated on the periphery or outer surface of the body. EPIPETALOUS, ep-i-pet'a-lus, _adj._ (_bot._) inserted or growing on a petal. EPIPHANY, e-pif'an-i, _n._ a church festival celebrated on Jan. 6, in commemoration of the manifestation of Christ to the wise men of the East: the manifestation of a god. [Gr. _epiphaneia_, appearance--_epi_, to, _phainein_, to show.] EPIPHLOEUM, ep-i-fl[=e]'um, _n._ (_bot._) the corky envelope of the bark next the epidermis. EPIPHRAGM, ep'i-fram, _n._ (_bot._) the dilated apex of the columella in urn-mosses: the disc with which certain molluscs close the aperture of their shell. EPIPHYLLOSPERMOUS, ep-i-fil-[=o]-sper'mus, _adj._ (_bot._) bearing fruit on the back of the fronds, as ferns. EPIPHYLLOUS, ep-i-fil'us, _adj._ (_bot._) growing upon a leaf, esp. on its upper surface. EPIPHYSIS, ep-if'i-sis, _n._ any portion of a bone having its own centre of ossification: the pineal gland: a small upper piece of each half of an alveolus of a sea-urchin:--_pl._ EPIPH'YSES. [Gr.] EPIPHYTE, ep'i-f[=i]t, _n._ one of a species of plants attached to trees, and deriving their nourishment from the decaying portions of the bark, and perhaps also from the air.--_adjs._ EPIPHY'TAL, EPIPHYT'IC. [Gr. _epi_, upon, and _phyton_, a plant.] EPIPLASTRON, ep-i-plas'tron, _n._ the anterior lateral one of the nine pieces of which the plastron of a turtle may consist. EPIPLOON, e-pip'l[=o]-on, _n._ the great omentum.--_adj._ EPIPL[=O]'IC. [Gr.] EPIPOLISM, e-pip'[=o]-lizm, _n._ fluorescence.--_adj._ EPIPOL'IC. [Gr.] EPIRHIZOUS, ep-i-r[=i]'zus, _adj._ growing on a root. EPISCOPACY, e-pis'ko-pas-i, _n._ the government of the church by bishops: the office of a bishop: the period of office: the bishops, as a class.--_adj._ EPIS'COPAL, governed by bishops: belonging to or vested in bishops.--_adj._ EPISCOP[=A]'LIAN, belonging to bishops, or government by bishops.--_n._ one who belongs to the Episcopal Church.--_n._ EPISCOP[=A]'LIANISM, episcopalian government and doctrine.--_adv._ EPIS'COPALLY.--_ns._ EPIS'COPANT (_Milt._); EPIS'COPATE, a bishopric: the office of a bishop: the order of bishops.--_v.i._ (_Milt._) to act as a bishop.--_v.t._ EPIS'COP[=I]SE.--_n._ EPIS'COPY (_Milt._), survey, superintendence. [L. _episcopatus_--Gr. _episkopos_, an overseer.] EPISEMON, ep-i-s[=e]'mon, _n._ the characteristic device of a city, &c.: one of three obsolete Greek letters used as numerals--[vau], vau; [koppa], koppa; and [san], san, sampi. EPISODE, ep'i-s[=o]d, _n._ a story introduced into a narrative or poem to give variety: an interesting incident.--_adjs._ EP'IS[=O]DAL, EPIS[=O]'DIAL, EPIS[=O]D'IC, EPIS[=O]D'ICAL, pertaining to or contained in an episode: brought in as a digression.--_adv._ EPIS[=O]D'ICALLY, by way of episode: incidentally. [Gr. _epeisodion_--_epi_, upon, _eisodos_, a coming in--_eis_, into, _hodos_, a way.] EPISPASTIC, ep-i-spas'tik, _adj._ producing a blister on the skin.--_n._ a blister. EPISPERM, ep'i-sp[.e]rm, _n._ the outer integument of a seed. [Gr. _epi_, upon, and _sperma_, seed.] EPISTAXIS, ep-is-tak'sis, _n._ bleeding from the nose. EPISTEMOLOGY, ep-is-t[=e]-mol'oj-i, _n._ the theory of knowledge.--_adj._ EPISTEMOLOG'ICAL. [Gr. _epist[=e]m[=e]_, knowledge, _logia_, discourse.] EPISTERNUM, ep-i-ster'num, _n._ the interclavicle: the epiplastron: the presternum of mammals.--_adj._ EPISTER'NAL. EPISTILBITE, ep-i-stil'b[=i]t, _n._ a whitish hydrous silicate of aluminium, calcium, and sodium. EPISTLE, e-pis'l, _n._ a writing sent to one, a letter: esp. a letter to an individual or church from an apostle, as the Epistles of Paul: the extract from one of the apostolical epistles read as part of the communion service.--_v.i._ (_Milt._) to preface.--_ns._ EPIS'TLER, EPIS'TOLER, a letter-writer; EPIS'TLER, one who reads the liturgical epistle in the communion service.--_adjs._ EPIS'TOLARY, EPIS'TOLATORY, EPISTOL'IC, -AL, pertaining to or consisting of epistles or letters: suitable to an epistle: contained in letters.--_n._ EPIS'TOLET, a short letter.--_v.i._ EPIS'TOLISE, to write a letter.--_ns._ EPIS'TOLIST, a writer of letters; EPISTOLOG'RAPHY, letter-writing. [O. Fr.,--L. _epistola_--Gr. _epistol[=e]_--_epi_, _stellein_, to send.] EPISTROPHE, e-pis'tr[=o]-f[=e], _n._ (_rhet._) a form of repetition in which successive clauses end with the same word, as in 2 Cor. xi. 22: a refrain in music. EPISTYLE, ep'i-st[=i]l, _n._ Same as ARCHITRAVE. [Gr. _epi_, upon, _stylos_, a pillar.] EPITAPH, ep'i-taf, _n._ a commemorative inscription on a tombstone or monument.--_v.t._ to write an epitaph upon.--_adjs._ EPITAPH'IAN, EPITAPH'IC.--_n._ EP'ITAPHIST, a writer of epitaphs. [Gr. _epitaphion_--_epi_, upon, _taphos_, a tomb.] EPITASIS, e-pit'a-sis, _n._ the main action of a Greek drama, leading to the catastrophe--opp. to _Protasis_. EPITHALAMIUM, ep-i-tha-l[=a]'mi-um, _n._ a song or poem in celebration of a marriage.--_adj._ EPITHALAM'IC. [Gr. _epithalamion_--_epi_, upon, _thalamos_, a bedchamber, marriage.] EPITHELIUM, ep-i-th[=e]'li-um, _n._ the cell-tissue which invests the outer surface of the body and the mucous membranes connected with it, and also the closed cavities of the body.--_adj._ EPITH[=E]'LIAL.--_n._ EPITHELI[=O]'MA, carcinoma of the skin.--_adj._ EPITHELIOM'ATOUS. [Gr.,--_epi_, upon, _th[=e]l[=e]_, nipple.] EPITHEM, ep'i-them, _n._ (_med._) a soft external application. [Gr. _epithema_--_epi_, upon, _tithenai_, to place.] EPITHET, ep'i-thet, _n._ an adjective expressing some real quality of the thing to which it is applied, or an attribute expressing some quality ascribed to it: (_Shak._) term, expression.--_v.t._ to term.--_adj._ EPITHET'IC, pertaining to an epithet: abounding with epithets.--_n._ EPITH'ETON (_Shak._), epithet. [Gr. _epithetos_, added--_epi_, on, _tithenai_, to place.] EPITHYMETIC, ep-i-thim-et'ik, _adj._ pertaining to desire. [Gr.,--_epi_, upon, _thymos_, the soul.] EPITOME, e-pit'o-me, _n._ an abridgment or short summary of anything, as of a book.--_adj._ EPITOM'ICAL, like an epitome.--_v.t._ EPIT'OMISE, to make an epitome of: to shorten: to condense.--_ns._ EPIT'OMISER, EPIT'OMIST, one who abridges.--IN EPITOME, on a small scale. [Gr.,--_epi_, _temnein_, to cut.] EPITONIC, ep-i-ton'ik, _adj._ overstrained. [Gr.,--_epi_, upon, _teinein_, to stretch.] EPITRITE, ep'i-tr[=i]t, _n._ (_pros._) a foot made up of three long syllables and one short. [L.,--Gr.,--_epi_, in addition, _tritos_, the third.] EPIZEUXIS, ep-i-z[=u]k'sis, _n._ (_rhet._) the immediate repetition of a word for emphasis. [Gr.] EPIZOON, ep-i-z[=o]'on, _n._ a parasitic animal that lives on the bodies of other animals and derives its nourishment from the skin--also EPIZ[=O]'AN:--_pl._ EPIZ[=O]'A.--_adj._ EPIZOOT'IC, pertaining to epizoa: (_geol._) containing fossil remains: epidemic, as applied to animals. [Gr. _epi_, upon, _z[=o]on_, an animal.] EPOCH, ep'ok, or [=e]'-, _n._ a point of time fixed or made remarkable by some great event from which dates are reckoned: a period remarkable for important events: (_astron._) the mean heliocentric longitude of a planet in its orbit at any given time.--_adjs._ EP'OCHAL; EP'OCH-M[=A]'KING.--MAKE, MARK, AN EPOCH, to begin an important era. [Gr. _epoch[=e]_--_epechein_, to stop--_epi_, upon, _echein_, to hold.] EPODE, ep'[=o]d, _n._ a kind of lyric poem invented by Archilochus, in which a longer verse is followed by a shorter one: the last part of a lyric ode, sung after the strophe and antistrophe.--_adj._ EPOD'IC. [Gr. _ep[=o]dos_--_epi_, on, _[=o]d[=e]_, an ode.] EPONYM, ep'o-nim, _n._ a mythical personage created to account for the name of a tribe or people: a special title.--_adj._ EPON'YMOUS. [Gr. _epi_, upon, to, _onoma_, a name.] EPOPEE, ep'o-p[=e], EPOPOEIA, ep-o-p[=e]'ya, _n._ epic poetry: an epic poem. [Formed from Gr. _epopoiia_--_epos_, a word, an epic poem, _poiein_, to make.] EPOPT, ep'opt, _n._ one initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries. [Gr. _epi_, upon, and root _op-_, to see.] EPOS, ep'os, _n._ the elementary stage of epic poetry: an epic poem: a series of events such as are treated in epic poetry. [L.,--Gr. _epos_, a word.] EPROUVETTE, ep-roov-et', _n._ a machine for testing the strength of gunpowder. [Fr.,--_éprouver_, to try.] EPSOM, ep'sum, _n._ a useful purgative medicine, acting as a refrigerant, and sometimes as a diuretic.--Also EP'SOM-SALT. [From _Epsom_, a town in Surrey.] EPULOTIC, ep-[=u]-lot'ik, _adj._ cicatrising.--_n._ a cicatrising medicament. EQUABLE, [=e]'kwa-bl, or ek'wa-bl, _adj._ equal and uniform: smooth: not variable: of even temper.--_ns._ EQUABIL'ITY, E'QUABLENESS, the state or condition of being equable.--_adv._ E'QUABLY. [L. _æquabilis_--_æqu[=a]re_--_æquus_, equal.] EQUAL, [=e]'kwal, _adj._ identical: of the same value: adequate: in just proportion: fit: equable: uniform: equitable: evenly balanced: just.--_n._ one of the same age, rank, &c.--_v.t._ to be, or to make, equal to:--_pr.p._ [=e]'qualling; _pa.p._ [=e]'qualled.--_n._ EQUALIS[=A]'TION, the act of making equal: state of being equalised.--_v.t._ E'QUALISE, to make equal.--_adj._ and _n._ EQUALIT[=A]R'IAN, of or pertaining to the equality of mankind.--_n._ EQUAL'ITY, the condition of being equal: sameness: evenness.--_adv._ E'QUALLY.--_n._ E'QUALNESS, the state of being equal: evenness: uniformity.--_v.t._ EQU[=A]TE', to reduce to an average or to a common standard of comparison: to regard as equal:--_pr.p._ equ[=a]t'ing; _pa.p._ equ[=a]t'ed.--_ns._ EQU[=A]'TION, the act of making equal: (_alg._) a statement of the equality of two quantities: reduction to a mean proportion; EQU[=A]'TOR (_geog._), a great circle passing round the middle of the globe and dividing it into two equal parts: (_astron._) the equinoctial.--_adj._ EQUAT[=O]'RIAL, of or pertaining to the equator.--_n._ an instrument for observing and following a celestial body in any part of its diurnal course.--_adv._ EQUAT[=O]'RIALLY, so as to have motion or direction parallel to the equator.--EQUAL TO THE OCCASION, fit or able for an emergency.--EQUATION OF TIME, the reduction from mean solar time to apparent solar time.--AN EQUAL (_Spens._), a state of equality.--PERSONAL EQUATION, any error common to all the observations of some one person, any tendency to error or prejudice due to the personal characteristics of some person for which allowance must be made. [L. _æqualis_--_æqu[=a]re_, to make equal--_æquus_, equal.] EQUANIMITY, [=e]-kwa-nim'i-ti, _n._ equality or evenness of mind or temper.--_adj._ EQUAN'IMOUS.--_adv._ EQUAN'IMOUSLY. [L. _æquanimitas_--_æquus_, equal, _animus_, the mind.] EQUERRY, ek'we-ri, _n._ in the royal household, an official under the Master of the Horse, whose main duty is to accompany the sovereign when riding in state. [Fr. _écurie_--Low L. _scuria_, a stable--Old High Ger. _scûr_ (Ger. _scheuer_), a shed.] EQUESTRIAN, e-kwes'tri-an, _adj._ pertaining to horses or horsemanship: on horseback.--_n._ one who rides on horseback:--_fem._ EQUESTRIENNE'.--_n._ EQUES'TRIANISM, horsemanship. [L. _equester_, _equestris_--_eques_, a horseman--_equus_, a horse.] EQUI-, [=e]'kwi, a prefix meaning equal, from L. _æquus_.--_adj._ EQUIAN'GULAR, consisting of or having equal angles.--_n._ EQUIBAL'ANCE, equal weight.--_adjs._ EQUIDIFF'ERENT, having equal differences; EQUIDIS'TANT, equally distant.--_adv._ EQUIDIS'TANTLY.--_adj._ EQUILAT'ERAL, having all sides equal.--_v.t._ EQUIL[=I]'BR[=A]TE, to balance: to counterpoise.--_ns._ EQUILIBR[=A]'TION; EQUILIB'RITY, EQUILIB'RIUM, equal balancing: equality of weight or force: level position; EQUIMUL'TIPLE, a number multiplied by the same number as another.--_adj._ EQUIP[=E]'DAL, equal-footed.--_ns._ EQUIPEN'DENCY, act of hanging in equipoise; E'QUIPOISE, equality of weight or force: the state of a balance when the two weights are equal.--_v.t._ to counterbalance.--_n._ EQUIS[=O]'NANCE, the consonance which exists between octaves.--_adj._ E'QUIVALVE, having valves equal in size or form. EQUINE, [=e]'kw[=i]n, EQUINAL, [=e]-kw[=i]n'al, _adj._ pertaining to a horse or horses.--_n._ EQUIN'IA, horse-pox, glanders, farcy. [L. _equinus_--_equus_, a horse.] EQUINOX, [=e]'kwi-noks, _n._ the time when the sun crosses the equator, making the night equal in length to the day, about 21st March and 23d Sept.--_adj._ EQUINOC'TIAL, pertaining to the equinoxes, the time of the equinoxes, or to the regions about the equator.--_n._ a great circle in the heavens corresponding to the equator of the earth.--_adv._ EQUINOC'TIALLY, in the direction of the equinox.--EQUINOCTIAL GALES, high gales popularly supposed to prevail about the times of the equinoxes--the belief is unsupported by observation. [L. _æquus_, equal, _nox_, _noctis_, night.] EQUIP, e-kwip', _v.t._ to fit out: to furnish with everything needed for any service or work:--_pr.p._ equip'ping; _pa.p._ equipped'.--_n._ E'QUIP[=A]GE, that with which one is equipped: furniture required for any service, as that of a soldier, &c.: a carriage and attendants, retinue.--_v.t._ (_obs._) to furnish with an equipage.--_n._ EQUIP'MENT, the act of equipping: the state of being equipped: things used in equipping or furnishing: outfit. [Fr. _équiper_, prob. Ice. _skipa_, to set in order, _skip_, a ship.] EQUIPOLLENT, e-kwi-pol'ent, _adj._ having equal power or force: equivalent.--_n._ an equivalent.--_ns._ EQUIPOLL'ENCE, EQUIPOLL'ENCY. [L. _æquus_, equal, _pollens_, _pollentis_, pr.p. of _poll[=e]re_, to be able.] EQUIPONDERATE, [=e]-kwi-pon'd[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.i._ to be equal in weight: to balance.--_adj._ equal in weight.--_n._ EQUIPON'DERANCE.--_adj._ EQUIPON'DERANT. [L. _æquus_, equal, _pondus_, _ponderis_, weight.] EQUISETUM, ek-wi-s[=e]'tum, _n._ a genus of herbaceous plants having leafless articulated and whorled stems and branches--also _Horse-tail_.--_adjs._ EQUISET[=A]'CEOUS; EQUISET'IC; EQUISET'IFORM. [L.,--_equus_, a horse, _seta_, a bristle.] EQUITATION, ek-wi-t[=a]'shun, _n._ the art of riding on horseback.--_adjs._ EQ'UITANT, riding: straddling, overlapping; EQUIV'OROUS, eating horse-flesh. [L.,--_equit[=a]re_--_equus_, a horse.] EQUITY, ek'wi-ti, _n._ right as founded on the laws of nature: moral justice, of which laws are the imperfect expression: the spirit of justice which enables us to interpret laws rightly: fairness.--_adj._ EQ'UITABLE, possessing or showing equity: held or exercised in equity.--_n._ EQ'UITABLENESS.--_adv._ EQ'UITABLY. [Fr. _equité_--L. _æquitas_--_æquus_, equal.] EQUIVALENT, e-kwiv'a-lent, _adj._ equal in value, power, meaning, &c.--_n._ a thing equivalent.--_n._ EQUIV'ALENCE.--_adv._ EQUIV'ALENTLY. [Fr.,--L. _æquus_, equal, _valens_, _valentis_, pr.p. of _val[=e]re_, to be worth.] EQUIVOCAL, e-kwiv'[=o]-kal, _adj._ capable of meaning two or more things: of doubtful meaning: capable of a double explanation: suspicious: questionable.--_adv._ EQUIV'OCALLY.--_n._ EQUIV'OCALNESS.--_v.i._ EQUIV'OC[=A]TE, to use equivocal or doubtful words in order to mislead.--_ns._ EQUIVOC[=A]'TION, act of equivocating or using ambiguous words to mislead; EQUIV'OC[=A]TOR.--_adj._ EQUIV'OC[=A]TORY, containing or characterised by equivocation.--_ns._ E'QUIVOKE, E'QUIVOQUE, an equivocal expression: equivocation: a quibble. [L. _æquus_, equal, _vox_, _vocis_, the voice, a word.] ERA, [=e]'ra, _n._ a series of years reckoned from a particular point, or that point itself: an important date. [Late L. _æra_, a number, orig. 'counters,' pieces of copper used in counting, being the neut.pl. of _æs_, _æris_, copper.] ERADIATE, e-r[=a]'di-[=a]t, _v.i._ to shoot out like a ray of light:--_pr.p._ er[=a]'diating; _pa.p._ er[=a]'diated.--_n._ ERADI[=A]'TION, the act of eradiating; emission of radiance. [L. _e_, out, _radius_, a ray.] ERADICATE, e-rad'i-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to pull up by the roots: to destroy.--_adj._ ERAD'ICABLE, that may be eradicated.--_p.adj._ ERAD'IC[=A]TED, rooted up: (_her._) said of a tree, or part of a tree, torn up by the roots.--_n._ ERADIC[=A]'TION, the act of eradicating: state of being eradicated.--_adj._ ERAD'IC[=A]TIVE, serving to eradicate or drive thoroughly away.--_n._ ERAD'IC[=A]TOR. [L. _eradic[=a]re_, to root out--_e_, out, _radix_, _radicis_, a root.] ERASE, e-r[=a]s', _v.t._ to rub or scrape out: to efface: to destroy.--_adj._ ER[=A]'SABLE.--_p.adj._ ERASED', rubbed out: effaced: (_her._) torn off, so as to leave jagged edges.--_ns._ ER[=A]'SER, one who, or that which, erases, as _ink-eraser_; ER[=A]'SION, ERASE'MENT, ER[=A]'SURE, the act of erasing: a rubbing out: the place where something written has been rubbed out. [L. _erad[)e]re_--_e_, out, _rad[)e]re_, _rasum_, to scrape.] ERASTIAN, e-rast'yan, _n._ a follower of Thomas _Erastus_ (1524-83), a Swiss physician, who denied the church the right to inflict excommunication and disciplinary penalties: one who minimises the spiritual independence of the church, subordinating her jurisdiction to the state--a position not held by Erastus at all.--_adj._ relating to the Erastians or their doctrines.--_n._ ERAST'IANISM, control of church by state. ERATO, er'a-t[=o], _n._ the Muse of lyric poetry. ERBIUM, er'bi-um, _n._ a rare metal, the compounds of which are present in the mineral gadolinite, found at Ytterby in Sweden. [From Ytt_erby_.] ERE, [=a]r, _adv._ before, sooner.--_prep._ before.--_conj._ sooner than.--_advs._ ERELONG', before long: soon; ERENOW', before this time; EREWHILE', formerly: some time before. [A.S. _['æ]r_; cf. Dut. _eer_.] EREBUS, er'e-bus, _n._ (_myth._) the dark and gloomy cavern between earth and Hades: the lower world, hell. [L.,--Gr. _Erebos_.] ERECT, e-rekt', _v.t._ to set upright: to raise: to build: to exalt: to establish.--_adj._ upright: directed upward.--_adj._ ERECT'ED.--_ns._ ERECT'ER, ERECT'OR, one who, or that which, erects or raises: a muscle which assists in erecting a part or an organ: an attachment to a compound microscope for making the image erect instead of inverted.--_adj._ ERECT'ILE, that may be erected.--_ns._ ERECTIL'ITY, quality of being erectile; EREC'TION, act of erecting: state of being erected: exaltation: anything erected: a building of any kind.--_adj._ ERECT'IVE, tending to erect.--_adv._ ERECT'LY.--_n._ ERECT'NESS. [L. _erectus_, _erig[)e]re_, to set upright--_e_, out, _reg[)e]re_, to direct.] EREMACAUSIS, er-e-ma-kaw'sis, _n._ (_chem._) slow combustion or oxidation. [Gr. _erema_, slowly, _kausis_--_kaiein_, to burn.] EREMITE, er'e-m[=i]t, _n._ a recluse who lives apart, from religious motives: a hermit.--_adjs._ EREMIT'IC, -AL.--_n._ ER'EMITISM, state of being an eremite. [Late L.,--Gr. _er[=e]mos_, desert.] ERETHISM, er'e-thizm, _n._ excitement or stimulation of any organ.--_adjs._ ERETHIS'MIC, ERETHIS'TIC, ERETHIT'IC. [Gr.] ERF, erf, _n._ a garden-plot in South Africa. [Dut.] ERG, erg, _n._ the unit of work in the centimetre-gramme-second system--that is, the quantity of work done by a force which, acting for one second upon a mass of one gramme, produces a velocity of one centimetre per second. [Gr. _erg-on_, work.] ERGO, [.e]r'go, _adv._ (_logic_) therefore, used to mark the conclusion of a syllogism.--_v.i._ ER'GOTISE, to wrangle. [L. _ergo_, therefore.] ERGOT, [.e]r'got, _n._ a disease, consisting of a parasitical fungus, found on the seed of certain plants, esp. rye and some other grasses.--_ns._ ER'GOTINE, the active principle of ergot of rye; ER'GOTISM, poisoning caused by eating bread made of rye diseased with ergot; ERGOTIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ ER'GOTISE. [Fr.] ERIC, er'ik, _n._ the blood-fine paid by a murderer to his victim's family in old Irish law.--Also ER'IACH, ER'ICK. ERICA, e-r[=i]'ka, _n._ the scientific name for heath.--_adj._ ERIC[=A]'CEOUS, belonging to plants of the genus _Erica_. [L.,--Gr. _ereik[=e]_, heath.] ERINGO. Same as ERYNGO. ERINITE, er'i-n[=i]t, _n._ native arseniate of copper found in Cornwall and Ireland. [_Erin_, old name of Ireland.] ERINYS, e-r[=i]'nis, _n._ one of the Furies:--_pl._ ERINYES (e-rin'i-[=e]z). ERIOMETER, er-i-om'e-ter, _n._ an optical instrument for measuring small diameters of fibres, &c. [Gr. _erion_, wool, _metron_, a measure.] ERISTIC, -AL, er-is'tik, -al, _adj._ of or pertaining to controversy. [Gr. _erizein_, to strive--_eris_, strife.] ERL-KING, [.e]rl'-king, _n._ for German _erl-könig_, a mistranslation (meaning 'alder-king') of the Danish _ellerkonge_ (i. e. _elverkonge_, king of the elves). ERMELIN, [.e]r'me-lin, _n._ (_arch._) ermine. ERMINE, [.e]r'min, _n._ a well-known carnivore belonging to the genus which includes polecat, weasel, ferret, &c.--its white fur often used as an emblem of purity: ermine fur used for the robes of judges and magistrates.--_adj._ ER'MINED, adorned with ermine. [O. Fr. _ermine_ (Fr. _hermine_), perh. from L. (_mus_) _Armenius_, lit. mouse of Armenia, whence it was brought to Rome; but acc. to Skeat from Old High Ger. _harmin_ (Ger. _hermelin_), ermine-fur.] ERNE, [.e]rn, _n._ the eagle. [A.S. _earn_; cf. Ice. _orn_, Dut. _arend_.] ERNE, [.e]rn, _v.i._ obsolete form of _earn_, to yearn. ERODE, e-r[=o]d', _v.t._ to eat away: to wear away.--_n._ ER[=O]'DENT, a caustic drug.--_adj._ ER[=O]SE', gnawed.--_n._ ER[=O]'SION, act or state of eating or being eaten away.--_adj._ ER[=O]'SIVE, having the property of eating away. [L. _e_, out, _rod[)e]re_, _rosum_, to gnaw.] EROSTRATE, e-ros'tr[=a]t, _adj._ (_bot._) having no beak. EROTESIS, er-[=o]-t[=e]'sis, _n._ (_rhet._) a figure consisting of an oratorical question.--_adj._ EROTET'IC. [Gr.] EROTIC, er-ot'ik, _adj._ pertaining to love: amatory.--_n._ an amatory poem.--_ns._ EROTOM[=A]'NIA, morbid sexual passion; EROTOM[=A]'NIAC, one affected with this. [Gr. _er[=o]tikos_--_er[=o]s_, _er[=o]tos_, love.] ERR, er, _v.i._ to wander from the right way: to go astray: to mistake: to sin.--_adj._ ERR'ABLE, capable of erring.--_n._ ERRAT'IC, a wanderer: an erratic boulder.--_adjs._ ERRAT'IC, -AL, wandering: having no certain course: not stationary: irregular.--_adv._ ERRAT'ICALLY.--_n._ ERR[=A]'TUM, an error in writing or printing, esp. one noted in a list at the end of a book:--_pl._ ERR[=A]'TA.--_adj._ ERR[=O]'NEOUS, erring: full of error: wrong: mistaken: (_obs._) wandering.--_adv._ ERR[=O]'NEOUSLY.--_ns._ ERR[=O]'NEOUSNESS; ERR'OR, a deviation from truth, right, &c.: a blunder or mistake: a fault: sin; ERR'ORIST. [Fr. _errer_--L. _err[=a]re_, to stray; cog. with Ger. _irren_, and _irre_, astray.] ERRAND, er'and, _n._ a message: a commission to say or do something.--A FOOL'S ERRAND, a useless undertaking; GO AN ERRAND, to go with messages; MAKE AN ERRAND, to invent a reason for going. [A.S. _['æ]rende_; Ice. _eyrindi_; prob. conn. with Goth. _áirus_, Ice. _árr_, a messenger.] ERRANT, er'ant, _adj._ wandering: roving: wild: (_obs._) thorough (cf. ARRANT).--_n._ a knight-errant.--_adv._ ERR'ANTLY.--_n._ ERR'ANTRY, an errant or wandering state: a rambling about like a knight-errant. [Fr.,--L. _errans_, _errantis_, pr.p. of _err[=a]re_.] ERRHINE, er'in, _adj._ affecting the nose.--_n._ a sternutatory. [Gr., _en_, in, _rhis_, _rhinos_, the nose.] ERSE, [.e]rs, _n._ the name given by the Lowland Scotch to the language of the people of the West Highlands, as being of Irish origin--now sometimes used for Irish, as opposed to Scotch, Gaelic. [_Irish_.] ERST, [.e]rst, _adv._ at first: formerly.--_adv._ ERST'WHILE, formerly. [A.S. _['æ]rest_, superl. of _['æ]r_. See ERE.] ERUBESCENT, er-[=oo]-bes'ent, _adj._ growing red: blushing.--_ns._ ERUBES'CENCE, ERUBES'CENCY. [L. _erubescens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _erubesc[)e]re_, to grow red--_e_, out, and _rubesc[)e]re_--_rub[=e]re_, to be red. See RUBY.] ERUCTATE, e-ruk't[=a]t, _v.t._ to belch out, as wind from the stomach.--_n._ ERUCT[=A]'TION, the act of belching: a violent ejection of wind or other matter from the earth, as a volcano, &c. [L. _eruct[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_e_, out, _ruct[=a]re_, to belch forth.] ERUDITE, er'[=oo]-d[=i]t, _adj._ learned.--_n._ a learned person.--_adv._ ER'UDITELY.--_n._ ERUDI'TION, state of being erudite or learned: knowledge gained by study: learning, esp. in literature. [L. _erud[=i]re_, _erud[=i]tum_, to free from rudeness--_e_, from, _rudis_, rude.] ERUPT, e-rupt', _v.i._ to break out or through, as a volcano.--_n._ ERUP'TION, a breaking or bursting forth: that which bursts forth: a breaking out of spots on the skin.--_adjs._ ERUP'TIONAL; ERUPT'IVE, breaking forth: attended by or producing eruption: produced by eruption.--_n._ ERUPT'IVENESS. [L. _erump[)e]re_, _eruptum_.--_e_, out, _rump[)e]re_, to break.] ERYNGO, e-ring'go, _n._ a genus of evergreen plants resembling thistles, the young leaves of _E. maritimum_ (sea-holly) being sometimes eaten as a salad. [L. _eryngion_--Gr. _[=e]ryngos_.] ERYSIMUM, er-is'i-mum, _n._ a genus of _Cruciferæ_, allied to Hedge-mustard and Dame's Violet. [Formed through L. from Gr. _erysimon_.] ERYSIPELAS, er-i-sip'e-las, _n._ an inflammatory disease, generally in the face, marked by a bright redness of the skin.--_adj._ ERYSIPEL'ATOUS. [Gr.; prob. from the root of _erythros_, red, _pella_, skin.] ERYTHEMA, er-i-th[=e]'ma, _n._ a name applied to certain skin diseases, but scarcely used by any two writers in exactly the same sense.--_adjs._ ERYTHEMAT'IC, ERYTHEM'ATOUS. [Gr.,--_erythainein_, to redden--_erythros_, red.] ERYTHRITE, e-rith'r[=i]t, _n._ a reddish hydrous arseniate of cobalt.--_adj._ ERYTHRIT'IC. ESCALADE, es-ka-l[=a]d', _n._ the scaling of the walls of a fortress by means of ladders.--_v.t._ to scale: to mount and enter by means of ladders--sometimes written ESCAL[=A]'DO. [Fr.,--Sp. _escalada_--_escala_, a ladder--L. _scala_.] ESCALLOP, es-kal'up, _n._ a variant of _scallop_.--_adj._ ESCALL'OPED. (_her._), covered with scallop-shells. [Illustration] ESCAPE, es-k[=a]p', _v.t._ to free from: to pass unobserved: to evade: to issue.--_v.i._ to flee and become safe from danger: to be passed without harm.--_n._ act of escaping: flight from danger or from prison.--_adj._ ESCAP'ABLE.--_ns._ ESCAP[=A]DE', an escape: a mischievous freak; ESC[=A]PE'MENT, act of escaping: means of escape: part of a timepiece connecting the wheelwork with the pendulum or balance, and allowing a tooth to escape at each vibration; ESCAPE'-VALVE, a valve on a boiler so as to let the steam escape when wanted. [O. Fr. _escaper_ (Fr. _échapper_)--L. _ex cappa_, (lit.) 'out of one's cape or cloak.'] ESCARMOUCHE, e-skär'moosh, _n._ (_obs._) a skirmish. [Fr.] ESCARP, es-kärp', _v.t._ to make into a scarp or sudden slope.--_n._ a scarp or steep slope: (_fort._) the side of the ditch next the rampart.--_n._ ESCARP'MENT, the precipitous side of any hill or rock: escarp. [Fr. _escarper_, to cut down steep, from root of _scarp_.] ESCHALOT, esh-a-lot'. See SHALLOT. ESCHAR, es'kär, _n._ a slough or portion of dead or disorganised tissue, gen. of artificial sloughs produced by the application of caustics.--_adj._ ESCHAROT'IC, tending to form an eschar: caustic.--_n._ a caustic substance. [L.,--Gr. _eschara_, a hearth.] ESCHATOLOGY, es-ka-tol'o-ji, _n._ (_theol._) the doctrine of the last or final things, as death, judgment, the state after death.--_adjs._ ESCHATOLOG'IC, -AL.--_n._ ESCHATOL'OGIST. [Gr. _eschatos_, last, _logia_, a discourse.] ESCHEAT, es-ch[=e]t', _n._ property which falls to the state for want of an heir, or by forfeiture: (_Spens._) plunder.--_v.t._ to confiscate.--_v.i._ to fall to the lord of the manor or the state.--_adj._ ESCHEAT'ABLE.--_ns._ ESCHEAT'AGE; ESCHEAT'OR. [O. Fr. _eschete_--_escheoir_ (Fr. _échoir_)--Low L.,--L. _ex_, out, _cad[)e]re_, to fall.] ESCHEW, es-ch[=oo]', _v.t._ to shun: to flee from: to abstain from. [O. Fr. _eschever_; cog. with Ger. _scheuen_, to shun.] ESCLANDRE, e-sklang'dr, _n._ notoriety: any unpleasantness. [Fr.,--L. _scandalum_.] ESCORT, es'kort, _n._ a body of men, or a single man, accompanying any one on a journey, for protection, guidance, or merely courtesy: attendance.--_v.t._ ESC[=O]RT', to attend as guide or guard. [Fr. _escorte_--It. _scorta_--_scorgere_, to guide--L. _ex_, out, _corrig[)e]re_, to set right.] ESCOT, es-kot', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to pay a reckoning for, to maintain. [O. Fr. _escoter_, _escot_=_scot_, a tax.] ESCRITOIRE, es-kri-twor', _n._ a writing-desk.--_adj._ ESCRIT[=O]'RIAL. [Fr. _escritoire_--Low L. _scriptorium_--L. _scrib[)e]re_, _scriptum_, to write.] ESCROLL, es-kr[=o]l', _n._ (_her._). Same as SCROLL. ESCUAGE, es'k[=u]-[=a]j, _n._ scutage. ESCULAPIAN, es-k[=u]-l[=a]'pi-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Esculapius_, and hence to the art of healing.--Also ÆSCUL[=A]'PIAN. [_Æsculapius_, god of medicine.] ESCULENT, es'k[=u]-lent, _adj._ eatable: fit to be used for food by man.--_n._ something that is eatable. [L. _esculentus_, eatable--_esca_, food--_ed[)e]re_, to eat.] ESCUTCHEON, es-kuch'un, _n._ a shield on which a coat of arms is represented: a family shield: the part of a vessel's stern bearing her name.--_adj._ ESCUTCH'EONED ('und), having an escutcheon.--ESCUTCHEON OF PRETENCE, an escutcheon placed with the arms of an heiress in the centre of her husband's coat.--A BLOT ON THE ESCUTCHEON, a stain on one's good name. [O. Fr. _escuchon_--L. _scutum_, a shield.] ESEMPLASTIC, es-em-plas'tik, _adj._ shaping into one. ESKAR, ESKER. Same as ASAR (q.v.). ESKIMO, es'ki-m[=o], _n._ and _adj._ one of a nation constituting the aboriginal inhabitants of the whole northern coast of America, and spread over the Arctic islands, Greenland, and the nearest Asiatic coast.--_n._ ESKIMO DOG, a half-tamed variety, widely distributed in the Arctic regions, and indispensable for drawing the sledges. [Said by Dr Rink to be from an Indian word=eaters of raw flesh.] ESLOIN, es-loin'. See ELOIN. ESNECY, es'ne-si, _n._ the right of first choice belonging to the eldest. ESOPHAGUS. See OESOPHAGUS. ESOTERIC, es-o-ter'ik, _adj._ inner: secret: mysterious: (_phil._) taught to a select few--opp. to _Exoteric_.--_adv._ ESOTER'ICALLY.--_ns._ ESOTER'ICISM, ESOT'ERISM, the holding of esoteric opinions.--ESOTERIC BUDDHISM (see THEOSOPHY). [Gr. _es[=o]terikos_--_es[=o]ter[=o]_, inner, a comp. form from _es[=o]_, within.] ESPALIER, es-pal'y[.e]r, _n._ a lattice-work of wood on which to train fruit-trees: a fruit-tree trained on stakes: (_obs._) a row of trees so trained.--_v.t._ to train as an espalier. [Fr.,--It. _spalliera_, a support for the shoulders--_spalla_, a shoulder. Cf. EPAULET.] ESPARTO, es-par't[=o], _n._ a strong kind of grass found in the south of Europe, esp. in Spain, used for making baskets, cordage, paper, &c. [Sp.,--L. _spartum_--Gr. _sparton_, a kind of rope.] ESPECIAL, es-pesh'al, _adj._ special: particular: principal: distinguished.--_adv._ ESPEC'IALLY.--IN ESPECIAL, in particular. [O. Fr.,--L. _specialis_--_species_.] ESPERANCE, es'p[.e]r-ans, _n._ (_Shak._) hope. [Fr.,--L. _sperans_, pr.p. of _sper[=a]re_, to hope.] ESPIÈGLE, es-pi-[=a]'gl, _adj._ roguish, frolicsome.--_n._ ESPIÈG'LERIE, raillery: frolicsomeness. [Fr.] ESPIONAGE, es'pi-on-[=a]j, _n._ practice or employment of spies. [Fr.,--_espionner_--_espion_, a spy.] ESPLANADE, es-pla-n[=a]d', _n._ a level space between a citadel and the first houses of the town: any level space for walking or driving in. [Fr.,--Sp. _esplanada_--L. _explan[=a]re_--_ex_, out, _planus_, flat.] ESPOUSE, es-powz', _v.t._ to give in marriage: to take as spouse: to wed: to take with a view to maintain: to embrace, as a cause.--_ns._ ESPOUS'AL, the act of espousing or betrothing: the taking upon one's self, as a cause: (_pl._) a contract or mutual promise of marriage; ESPOUS'ER. [O. Fr. _espouser_ (Fr. _épouser_)--L. _spons[=a]re_--_spond[=e]re_, _sponsum_, to promise.] ESPRIT, es-pr[=e]', _n._ spirit: liveliness.--ESPRIT DE CORPS (es-pr[=e]' d' k[=o]r), regard for the character of that body to which one belongs; ESPRIT FORT (es-pr[=e]' f[=o]r), a person of strong character. [Fr. _esprit_, spirit, _corps_, body, _fort_, strong.] ESPY, es-p[=i]', _v.t._ to watch: to see at a distance: to catch sight of: to observe: to discover unexpectedly.--_n._ ESP[=I]'AL, the act of espying: observation. [O. Fr. _espier_, from root of _spy_.] ESQUIMAU, es'ki-m[=o] (_pl._ ESQUIMAUX, es'ki-m[=o]z). Same as ESKIMO. ESQUIRE, es-kw[=i]r', _n._ (_orig._) a squire or shield-bearer: an attendant on a knight: a landed proprietor: a title of dignity next below a knight: a title given to younger sons of noblemen, &c.: a general title of respect in addressing letters. [O. Fr. _esquier_ (Fr. _écuyer_)--L. _scutarius_--_scutum_, a shield.] ESS, the name of the letter S (q.v.). ESSAY, es'[=a], _n._ a trial: an experiment: a written composition less elaborate than a treatise.--_v.t._ ESSAY', to try: to attempt: to make experiment of:--_pr.p._ essay'ing; _pa.p._ essayed'.--_ns._ ESSAY'ER, ES'SAYIST, one who essays: a writer of essays; ESSAYETTE', ES'SAYKIN, a little essay.--_adjs._ ES'SAYISH; ESSAYIS'TIC. [O. Fr. _essai_--L. _exagium_, weighing--_exag[)e]re_, to try, examine.] ESSE, es'i, _n._ used in phrase IN ESSE, in existence, opposed to _In posse_, in potentiality. [L. _esse_, to be.] ESSENCE, es'ens, _n._ the inner distinctive nature of anything: the qualities which make any object what it is: a being: the extracted virtues of any drug: the solution in spirits of wine of a volatile or essential oil: a perfume.--_adj._ ESSEN'TIAL, relating to or containing the essence: necessary to the existence of a thing: indispensable or important in the highest degree: highly rectified: pure.--_n._ something necessary: a leading principle.--_n._ ESSENTIAL'ITY, the quality of being essential: an essential part.--_adv._ ESSEN'TIALLY.--_n._ ESSEN'TIALNESS. [Fr.,--L. _essentia_--_essens_, _-entis_, assumed pr.p. of _esse_, to be.] ESSENE, es-s[=e]n', _n._ one of a small religious fraternity among the ancient Jews leading retired ascetic lives and holding property in common.--_n._ ESSEN'ISM. [Bishop Lightfoot prefers the der. from Heb. _ch[=a]sh[=a]_, to be silent, whence _chashsh[=a][=i]m_, 'the silent ones' who meditate on mysteries.] ESSOIN, es-soin', _n._ (_law_) excuse for not appearing in court: (_Spens._) excuse.--_n._ ESSOIN'ER. [O. Fr. _essoine_ (Fr. _exoine_), _es_--L. _ex_, out, _soin_, care.] ESSORANT, es'[=o]-rant, _adj._ (_her._) about to soar. ESTABLISH, es-tab'lish, _v.t._ to settle or fix: to confirm: to prove a point: to ordain: to found: to set up in business: to institute by law as the recognised state church, and to support officially and financially.--_p.adj._ ESTAB'LISHED, fixed: ratified: instituted by law and supported by the state.--_ns._ ESTAB'LISHER; ESTAB'LISHMENT, act of establishing: fixed state: that which is established: a permanent civil or military force: one's residence and style of living: the church established by law.--_adj._ ESTABLISHMENT[=A]R'IAN, maintaining the principle of the established church.--_n._ one who maintains this principle. [O. Fr. _establir_, pr.p. _establissant_--L. _stabil[=i]re_--_stabilis_, firm--_st[=a]re_, to stand.] ESTACADE, es-ta-k[=a]d', _n._ a dike of piles in a morass, river, &c., against an enemy. [Fr.,--Sp.] ESTAFETTE, es-ta-fet', _n._ a military courier or express. [Fr.,--It. _staffetta_--Old High Ger. _stapho_, a step.] ESTAMINET, es-tam-in-[=a]', a restaurant where smoking is allowed. [Fr.] ESTATE, es-t[=a]t', _n._ condition or rank: position: property, esp. landed property: fortune: an order or class of men in the body-politic: (_pl._) dominions: possessions.--_v.t._ to give an estate to: (_arch._) to bestow upon.--_n._ ESTATES'MAN, statesman.--MAN'S ESTATE, the state of manhood; THE ESTATES OF THE REALM are three--Lords Spiritual, Lords Temporal, and Commons; but often misused for the legislature--king, lords, and commons.--The ancient parliament of Scotland consisted of the king and the THREE ESTATES--viz.: (1) archbishops, bishops, abbots, and mitred priors; (2) the barons and the commissioners of shires and stewartries; (3) the commissioners from the royal burghs;--in France, the nobles, clergy, and THIRD ESTATE (_tiers état_) remained separate down to 1789; THE FOURTH ESTATE, often used humorously for the press. [O. Fr. _estat_ (Fr. _état_)--L. _status_, a state.] ESTEEM, es-t[=e]m', _v.t._ to set a high estimate or value on: to regard with respect or friendship: to consider or think.--_n._ high estimation or value: favourable regard.--_p.adj._ ESTEEMED', respected.--_adj._ ES'TIMABLE, that can be estimated or valued: worthy of esteem: deserving our good opinion.--_adv._ ES'TIMABLY.--_v.t._ ES'TIM[=A]TE, to judge of the worth of a thing: to calculate.--_n._ reputation: a valuing in the mind: judgment or opinion of the worth or size of anything: a rough calculation: estimation.--_n._ ESTIM[=A]'TION, act of estimating: a reckoning of value: esteem, honour: importance: conjecture.--_adj._ ES'TIM[=A]TIVE.--_n._ ES'TIM[=A]TOR.--HOLD IN ESTIMATION, to esteem highly.--THE ESTIMATES, accounts given before parliament showing the probable expenditure for the year. [Fr. _estimer_--L. _æstim[=a]re_.] ESTHETIC, ESTHETICS. See ÆSTHETIC, ÆSTHETICS. ESTHONIAN, es-th[=o]'ni-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Esthonia_, the most northerly of the Baltic provinces of Russia, or its population, language, or customs.--_ns._ ESTH, an Esthonian of the original Finnish stock; ESTH'LANDER, an Esthonian of the mixed race, in which the German element preponderates. ESTIVAL, ESTIVATION. See ÆSTIVAL, ÆSTIVATION. ESTOP, es-top', _v.t._ to stop or bar: (_law_) to hinder, preclude:--_pr.p._ estop'ping; _pa.p._ estop'ped.--_ns._ ESTOP'P[=A]GE, the state of being estopped; ESTOP'PEL, a conclusive admission, which cannot be denied by the party whom it affects. [O. Fr. _estoper_--_estoupe_--L. _stuppa_, tow. See STOP.] ESTOVERS, es-t[=o]'v[.e]rz, _n.pl._ (_law_) necessaries allowed by law, as wood to a tenant for necessary repairs, &c.--COMMON OF ESTOVERS, the right of taking necessary wood from another's estate for household use and the making of implements of industry. [O. Fr. _estovoir_, necessaries.] ESTRADE, es-träd', _n._ a low platform. [Fr.,--Sp. _estrado_.] ESTRANGE, es-tr[=a]nj', _v.t._ to treat as an alien: to alienate: to divert from its original use or possessor.--_p.adj._ ESTRANGED', alienated: disaffected.--_ns._ ESTRANG'EDNESS; ESTRANGE'MENT; ESTRANG'ER. [O. Fr. _estranger_ (Fr. _étranger_)--L. _extrane[=a]re_--_extraneus_. See STRANGE.] ESTRAY, e-str[=a]', _n._ a beast found within a manor or lordship, and not owned.--_v.i._ to stray. [See ASTRAY.] ESTREAT, e-str[=e]t', _n._ (_law_) a true extract, copy, or note of some original writing or record, esp. of fines and amercements to be levied by bailiffs or other officers.--_v.t._ to extract from the records of a court, as a forfeited recognisance: to levy fines under an estreat. [O. Fr. _estraite_--L. _extrah[)e]re_--_ex_, out, and _trah[)e]re_, to draw. See EXTRACT.] ESTRICH, es'trich, ESTRIDGE, es'trij, _n._ (_obs._) the ostrich. ESTUARY, es't[=u]-ar-i, _n._ the wide lower part of a river where it becomes tidal.--_adjs._ ESTU[=A]'RIAN, ES'T[=U]ARINE. [L. _æstuarium_--_æstus_, tide.] ESURIENT, es-[=u]'ri-ent, _adj._ hungry: penurious.--_n._ ES[=U]'RIENCE, hunger: neediness. [L. _esuriens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _esur[=i]re_, to be hungry--_ed[)e]re_, to eat.] ET CETERA, et set'er-a, usually written ETC. or &C., a phrase meaning 'and so on.'--_n._ something in addition, which can easily be understood. [L. _et_ and, _cetera_, the rest.] ETCH, ech, _v.t._ or _v.i._ to make designs on metal, glass, &c. by eating out the lines with an acid.--_ns._ ETCH'ER, one who etches; ETCH'ING, the act or art of etching or engraving: the impression from an etched plate; ETCH'ING-GROUND, the coating of wax or varnish on a plate prepared for etching; ETCH'ING-NEED'LE, a fine-pointed steel instrument used in etching. [From Ger. _ätzen_, to corrode by acid; from same root as Ger. _essen_. See EAT.] ETERNAL, [=e]-t[.e]r'nal, _adj._ without beginning or end of existence: everlasting: ceaseless: unchangeable--(_arch._) ETERNE'.--_v.t._ ETER'NALISE, ETER'NISE, to make eternal: to immortalise.--_n._ ETER'NALIST, one who thinks that matter has existed from eternity.--_adv._ ETER'NALLY.--_n._ ETER'NITY, eternal duration: the state or time after death.--THE ETERNAL, an appellation of God; THE ETERNITIES, the eternal reality or truth. [Fr. _éternel_--L. _æternus_, _æviternus_--_ævum_--Gr. _aion_, a period of time, an age.] ETESIAN, e-t[=e]'zhan, _adj._ periodical: blowing at stated seasons, as certain winds. [L. _etesius_--Gr. _et[=e]sios_, annual--_etos_, a year.] ETHE, [=e]th, _adj._ (_Spens._) easy. [A.S. _eath._] ETHER, [=e]'th[.e]r, _n._ the clear, upper air: the subtile medium supposed to fill all space: a colourless, transparent, volatile liquid of great mobility and high refractive power, and possessing a fragrant odour and a fiery, passing to a cooling, taste.--_adj._ ETH[=E]'REAL, consisting of ether: heavenly: airy: spirit-like.--_n._ ETHEREALIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ ETH[=E]'REALISE, to convert into ether, or the fluid ether: to render spirit-like.--_n._ ETHEREAL'ITY.--_adv._ ETH[=E]'REALLY.--_adj._ ETH[=E]'REOUS (_Milt._), ethereal.--_n._ ETHERIFIC[=A]'TION.--_adj._ E'THERIFORM.--_n._ ETHERIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ E'THERISE, to convert into ether: to stupefy with ether.--_n._ E'THERISM, the condition induced by using ether. [L.,--Gr. _aith[=e]r_, _aithein_, to light up.] ETHIC, eth'ik, _adj._ relating to morals: treating of morality or duty.--_n._ (more commonly in _pl._ ETH'ICS) the science of morals, that branch of philosophy which is concerned with human character and conduct: a treatise on morals.--_adj._ ETH'ICAL, relating to the science of ethics.--_adv._ ETH'ICALLY.--_n._ ETH'ICIST, one versed in ethics.--ETHICAL DATIVE, the dative of a first or second personal pronoun implying an indirect interest in the fact stated, used colloquially to give a livelier tone to the sentence. [Gr. _[=e]thikos_--_[=e]thos_, custom.] ETHIOPIAN, [=e]-thi-[=o]'pi-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Ethiopia_, a name given to the countries south of Egypt inhabited by the negro races.--_n._ a native of Ethiopia: a blackamoor--(_arch._) ETHIOP.--_adj._ ETHIOP'IC.--_n.pl._ [=E]'THIOPS, a term applied by the ancient chemists to certain oxides and sulphides of the metals which possessed a dull, dingy, or black appearance. [Gr. _Aithiops_, sun-burnt, Ethiopian--_aithein_, to burn, _[=o]ps_, the face.] ETHMOID, -AL, eth'moid, -al, _adj._ resembling a sieve.--ETHMOID BONE, one of the eight somewhat cubical bones which collectively form the cranial box. [Gr. _[=e]thmos_, a sieve, and _eidos_, form.] ETHNIC, -AL, eth'nik, -al, _adj._ concerning nations or races: pertaining to the heathen.--_ns._ ETH'NIC, a heathen; ETH'NICISM, heathenism; ETHNOG'RAPHER.--_adj._ ETHNOGRAPH'IC.--_n._ ETHNOG'RAPHY, the scientific description of the races of the earth.--_adj._ ETHNOLOG'ICAL.--_adv._ ETHNOLOG'ICALLY.--_ns._ ETHNOL'OGIST; ETHNOL'OGY, the science that treats of the varieties of the human race. [L.,--Gr. _ethnos_, a nation; Gr. _graph[=e]_, writing, _logia_, discourse.] ETHOLOGY, [=e]-thol'o-ji, _n._ a discourse on ethics: the science of character.--_adjs._ ETHOLOG'IC, -AL, relating to ethology: treating of morality.--_ns._ ETHOL'OGIST, one versed in ethology or ethics; [=E]'THOS, habitual character and disposition: the quality of a work of art which produces a high moral impression. [Gr. _[=e]thos_, custom, _logia_, a discourse.] ETHYL, [=e]'thil, _n._ a colourless, inflammable gas, insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol--supposed base of ether. [Gr. _aith[=e]r_, ether, _hyl[=e]_, base.] ETIOLATE, [=e]-ti-o-l[=a]t', _v.t._ (_med._, _bot._) to cause to grow pale from want of light and fresh air.--_v.i._ to become pale from disease or absence of light.--_n._ ETIOL[=A]'TION. [Fr. _étioler_, to become pale, to grow into stubble, _éteule_, stubble--L. _stipula_, a stalk.] ETIOLOGY, [=e]-ti-ol'o-ji, _n._ Same as ÆTIOLOGY. ETIQUETTE, et-i-ket', _n._ forms of ceremony or decorum: ceremony: the unwritten laws of courtesy observed between members of the same profession, as 'medical etiquette.' [Fr. See TICKET.] ETNA, et'na, _n._ a vessel for heating water, &c., at table or in the sick-room, in a cup placed in a saucer is which alcohol is burned.--_adj._ ÆTN[=E]'AN. [From the volcano, Mount _Ætna_.] ETONIAN, et-[=o]n'i-an, _n._ and _adj._ one educated at _Eton_ College.--ETON JACKET, a boy's dress-coat, untailed. ETRURIAN, et-r[=u]'ri-an, _adj._ and _n._ of or belonging to _Etruria_.--_adj._ and _n._ ETRUS'CAN, of or belonging to ancient Etruria or its people, language, art, &c.--sometimes jocularly put for Tuscan. ETTLE, et'l, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to purpose, intend.--_v.t._ to guess.--_n._ purpose, intent. [Ice., _ætla_, to think, from root of Goth. _aha_, understanding.] ÉTUDE, [=a]-tüd', _n._ (_mus._) a composition intended either to train or to test the player's technical skill. [Fr.] ETUI, ETWEE, et-w[=e]', _n._ a small case for holding valuables. [Fr.] ETYMOLOGY, et-i-mol'o-ji, _n._ the investigation of the derivation and original signification of words: the science that treats of the origin and history of words: the part of grammar relating to inflection.--_adjs._ ETYM'IC; ETYMOLOG'ICAL.--_adv._ ETYMOLOG'ICALLY.--_ns._ ETYMOLOG'ICON, -CUM, an etymological dictionary.--_v.t._ ETYMOL'OGISE, to give, or search into, the etymology of a word.--_ns._ ETYMOL'OGIST, one skilled in or who writes on etymology; ET'YMON, the origin of a word: an original root: the genuine or literal sense of a word. [O. Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _etymos_, true, _logia_, an account.] ETYPIC, -AL, [=e]-tip'ik, -al, _adj._ unconformable to type. EUCALYPTUS, [=u]-kal-ip'tus, _n._ the 'gum-tree,' a large Australian evergreen, beneficial in destroying the miasma of malarious districts.--_ns._ EU'CALYPT, a eucalyptus; EUCALYP'TOL, a volatile, colourless, limpid oil. [Coined from Gr. _eu_, well, _kalyptos_, covered--_kalyptein_, to cover.] EUCHARIST, [=u]'ka-rist, _n._ the sacrament of the Lord's Supper: the elements of the sacrament, as 'to receive the Eucharist.'--_adjs._ EUCHARIST'IC, -AL. [Gr. _eucharistia_, thanksgiving--_eu_, well, and _charizesthai_, to show favour--_charis_, grace, thanks.] EUCHLORINE, [=u]-kl[=o]'rin, _n._ a very explosive green-coloured gas, prepared by the action of strong hydrochloric acid on chlorate of potash.--_adj._ EUCHL[=O]'RIC. [Gr. _eu_, well, _chloros_, green.] EUCHOLOGION, [=u]-ko-l[=o]'ji-on, _n._ a formulary of prayers, primarily that of the Greek Church.--Also EUCHOL'OGY. [Gr. _euchologion_--_euch[=e]_, a prayer, _logia_--_legein_, to speak.] EUCHRE, [=u]'k[.e]r, _n._ an American game at cards for two, three, or four persons, with the 32, 28, or 24 highest cards of the pack--if a player fails to make three tricks he is _euchred_, and his adversary scores against him.--_v.t._ to outwit. [Ety. uncertain; prob. Ger., like the term _bower_ (q.v.), used in the game; some have suggested a Sp. _yuca_.] EUCLASE, [=u]'kl[=a]s, _n._ a silicate of aluminium and glucinum occurring in pale-green transparent crystals. [Fr.,--Gr. _eu_, well, _klasis_, breaking.] EUCLIDEAN, [=u]-klid'e-an, or [=u]-kli-d[=e]'an, _adj._ pertaining to Euclid, a mathematician of Alexandria about 300 B.C. EUDEMONISM, EUDÆMONISM, [=u]-d[=e]'mon-izm, _n._ the system of ethics that makes happiness the test of rectitude--whether _Egoistic_, as Hobbes, or _Altruistic_, as Mill.--_ns._ EUD[=E]'MONIST, EUDÆ'MONIST. [Gr. _eudaimonia_, happiness--_eu_, well, _daim[=o]n_, a god.] EUDIOMETER, [=u]-di-om'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring the purity of, or the quantity of oxygen contained in, the air.--_adjs._ EUDIOMET'RIC, -AL.--_n._ EUDIOM'ETRY. [Gr. _eudios_, clear, _metron_, measure.] EUGE, [=u]'j[=e], _interj._ well! well done! [L.] EUGENIC, [=u]-jen'ik, _adj._ pertaining to race culture.--_n.pl._ EUGEN'ICS, the science of such.--_n._ EU'GENISM. EUGENIN, [=u]'je-nin, _n._ a substance procured from the distilled water of cloves. EUGH, EUGHEN, obsolete forms of _yew_, _yewen_. EUGUBINE, [=u]'g[=u]-bin, _adj._ pertaining to the ancient town of _Eugubium_ or _Iguvium_ (mod. _Gubbio_), or to its famous seven tablets of bronze, the chief monument of the ancient Umbrian tongue. EUHARMONIC, [=u]-har-mon'ik, _adj._ producing perfectly concordant sounds. EUHEMERISM, [=u]-h[=e]'me-rizm, _n._ the system which explains mythology as growing out of real history, its deities as merely magnified men.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ EUH[=E]'MERISE.--_n._ and _adj._ EUH[=E]'MERIST.--_adj._ EUHEMERIS'TIC.--_adv._ EUHEMERIS'TICALLY. [From _Euhemerus_, a 4th-cent. (B.C.) Sicilian philosopher.] EULOGIUM, [=u]-l[=o]'ji-um, EULOGY, [=u]'lo-ji, _n._ a speaking well of: a speech or writing in praise of.--_adjs._ EULOG'IC, -AL, containing eulogy or praise.--_adv._ EULOG'ICALLY.--_v.t._ EU'LOG[=I]SE, to speak well of: to praise.--_n._ EU'LOGIST, one who praises or extols another.--_adj._ EULOGIST'IC, full of praise.--_adv._ EULOGIST'ICALLY. [Late L. _eulogium_--Gr. _eulogion_ (classical _eulogia_)--_eu_, well, _logia_, a speaking.] EUMENIDES, [=u]-men'i-d[=e]z, _n.pl._ the Erinyes or Furies--the euphemistic name for these. [Gr. _eu_, well, _menos_, mind.] EUNOMY, [=u]'n[=o]-mi, _n._ equal, righteous law. [Gr.] EUNUCH, [=u]'nuk, _n._ a castrated man--often employed as chamberlain in the East.--_v.t._ EU'NUCHATE.--_n._ EU'NUCHISM, the state of being a eunuch. [Gr. _eunouchos_--_eun[=e]_, a couch, _echein_, to have charge of.] EUONYM, [=u]'[=o]-nim, _n._ a fitting name for anything. [Gr.] EUPATRID, [=u]-pat'rid, _n._ a member of the Athenian aristocracy. [Gr. _eupatrid[=e]s_--_eu_, well--_pat[=e]r_, father.] EUPEPSY, [=u]-pep'si, _n._ good digestion--opp. to _Dyspepsia_.--_adj._ EUPEP'TIC, having good digestion.--_n._ EUPEPTIC'ITY. [Gr. _eupepsia_--_eu_, well, _pepsis_, digestion--_peptein_, to digest.] EUPHEMISM, [=u]'fem-izm, _n._ a figure of rhetoric by which an unpleasant or offensive thing is designated by an indirect and milder term.--_v.t._ or _v.i._ EU'PHEMISE, to express by a euphemism: to use euphemistic terms.--_adj._ EUPHEMIST'IC.--_adv._ EUPHEMIST'ICALLY. [Gr. _euph[=e]mismos_--_euph[=e]mos_--_eu_, well, _ph[=e]m[=e]_--_phanaí_, to speak.] EUPHONY, [=u]'fo-ni, _n._ an agreeable sound: a pleasing, easy pronunciation--also EUPH[=O]'NIA.--_adjs._ EUPHON'IC, -AL, EUPH[=O]'NIOUS, pertaining to euphony: agreeable in sound.--_adv._ EUPH[=O]'NIOUSLY.--_v.t._ EU'PHON[=I]SE, to make euphonious.--_n._ EUPH[=O]'NIUM, the bass instrument of the saxhorn family: a variation of the harmonica, invented by Chladni in 1790. [Gr. _euph[=o]nia_--_eu_, well, _ph[=o]n[=e]_, sound.] EUPHORBIA, [=u]-for'bi-a, _n._ the _Spurge_ genus.--_n._ EUPHOR'BIUM, a gum resin. [L.,--_Euphorbus_, a physician to Juba, king of Mauritania.] EUPHRASY, [=u]'fra-zi, _n._ (_bot._) the plant eyebright, formerly regarded as beneficial in disorders of the eyes. [Gr. _euphrasia_, delight--_euphrainein_, to cheer--_eu_, well, _phr[=e]n_, the heart.] EUPHROSYNE, [=u]-fros'i-n[=e], _n._ one of the three Charities or Graces: merriment. [Gr. _euphr[=o]n_, cheerful.] EUPHUISM, [=u]'f[=u]-izm, _n._ an affected and bombastic style of language: a high-flown expression.--_v.i._ EU'PHUISE.--_n._ EU'PHUIST.--_adj._ EUPHUIST'IC. [From _Euphues_, a popular book by John Lyly (1579-80).--Gr. _euphy[=e]s_, graceful--_eu_, well, _phy[=e]_, growth--_phyesthai_, to grow.] EURASIAN, [=u]-r[=a]'zi-an, _adj._ descended from a European on the one side and an Asiatic on the other: of or pertaining to Europe and Asia taken as one continent. [From the combination of _Europe_ and _Asia_.] EUREKA, [=u]-r[=e]'ka, _n._ a brilliant discovery. [Gr. perf. indic. of _euriskein_, to find; the cry of Archimedes as he ran home naked from the bath, where a method of detecting the adulteration of Hiero's crown had suddenly occurred to him.] EURIPUS, [=u]-r[=i]'pus, _n._ an arm of the sea with strong currents: the water-channel between the arena and cavea of a Roman hippodrome. [Gr.] EUROCLYDON, [=u]-rok'li-don, _n._ the tempestuous wind by which St Paul's ship was wrecked (Acts, xxvii. 14). [Gr., from _euros_, the east wind, _klyd[=o]n_, a wave--_klyzein_, to dash over.] EUROPEAN, [=u]-ro-p[=e]'an, _adj._ belonging to _Europe_.--_n._ a native or inhabitant of Europe. EURUS, [=u]'rus, _n._ the east wind. [L.,--Gr. _euros_, the east wind.] EUSEBIAN, [=u]-s[=e]'bi-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Eusebius_ of Cæsarea, father of ecclesiastical history (died 340), or to the Arian _Eusebius_ of Nicomedia (died 342). EUSKARIAN, [=u]s-k[=a]'ri-an, _adj._ Basque. [Basque _Euskara_, the Basque language.] EUSTACHIAN, [=u]-st[=a]'ki-an, _adj._ pertaining to the tube leading from the middle ear to the pharynx, or to the rudimentary valve at the entrance of the inferior vena cava in the heart. [Named from the Italian physician Bartolommeo _Eustachio_ (died 1574).] EUTAXY, [=u]'tak-si, _n._ good order.--_adj._ EUTAXIT'IC. [Gr.] EUTERPEAN, [=u]-t[.e]r'pe-an, _adj._ relating to EUTER'PE, the muse who presided over music--hence relating to music. [Gr. _Euterp[=e]_--_eu_, well, _terpein_, to delight.] EUTHANASIA, [=u]-than-[=a]'zi-a, _n._ an easy mode of death.--Also EUTHAN'ASY. [Gr. _euthanasia_--_eu_, well, _thanatos_, death.] EUTROPHY, [=u]'tr[=o]-fi, _n._ healthy nutrition. [Gr.] EUTYCHIAN, [=u]-tik'i-an, _adj._ of or pertaining to the doctrine of _Eutyches_, a 5th-cent. archimandrite of Constantinople, who held that after the incarnation of Christ all that was human in Him became merged in the divine, and that Christ had but one nature.--_n._ a follower of Eutyches. EVACUATE, e-vak'[=u]-[=a]t, _v.t._ to throw out the contents of: to discharge: to withdraw from.--_adj._ EVAC'UANT, purgative.--_n._ EVACU[=A]'TION, act of emptying out: a withdrawing from: that which is discharged.--_adj._ EVAC'U[=A]TIVE.--_n._ EVAC'U[=A]TOR, one who evacuates: (_law_) one who nullifies or makes void. [L. _e_, out, _vacu[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to empty--_vacuus_, empty.] EVADE, e-v[=a]d', _v.t._ to escape or avoid artfully: to baffle. [L. _evad[)e]re_--_e_, out, _vad[)e]re_, to go.] EVAGATION, e-vag-[=a]'shun, _n._ wandering: a digression. [Fr.,--L. _evag[=a]ri_--_e_, out, _vag[=a]ri_, to wander.] EVAGINATE, [=e]-vaj'i-n[=a]t, _v.t._ to draw from a sheath.--_n._ EVAGIN[=A]'TION. EVALUATE, e-val'[=u]-[=a]t, _v.t._ to determine the value of.--_n._ EVALU[=A]'TION. EVANESCENT, ev-an-es'ent, _adj._ fleeting; imperceptible.--_v.i._ EVANESCE', to fade away.--_n._ EVANES'CENCE.--_adv._ EVANES'CENTLY. [L. _evanescens_, _-entis_--_e_, _vanesc[)e]re_, to vanish--_vanus_, empty.] EVANGEL, e-van'jel, _n._ (_poet._) good news, esp. the gospel: a salutary principle, esp. relating to morals, politics, &c.--_adjs._ EVANGEL'IC, -AL, of or pertaining to the gospel: relating to the four gospels: according to the doctrine of the gospel: maintaining the truth taught in the gospel: Protestant: applied to the school which insists especially on the total depravity of unregenerate human nature, the justification of the sinner by faith alone, the free offer of the gospel to all, and the plenary inspiration and exclusive authority of the Bible.--_n._ EVANGEL'ICAL, one who belongs to the evangelical school.--_adv._ EVANGEL'ICALLY.--_ns._ EVANGEL'ICALNESS; EVANGEL'ICISM, EVANGEL'ICALISM, evangelical principles; EVANGELIS[=A]'TION, act of proclaiming the gospel.--_v.t._ EVAN'GEL[=I]SE, to make known the good news: to make acquainted with the gospel.--_v.i._ to preach the gospel from place to place.--_ns._ EVAN'GELISM; EVAN'GELIST, one who evangelises: one of the four writers of the gospels: an assistant of the apostles: one authorised to preach, but without a fixed charge; EVANGELIS'TARY, a book containing passages from the gospels to be read at divine service--also EVANGELIST[=A]'RION, EVAN'GELIARY.--_adj._ EVANGELIS'TIC, tending or intended to evangelise.--_n._ EVAN'GELY (_obs._), the gospel. [L. _evangelicus_--Gr. _euangelikos_--_eu_, well, _angellein_, to bring news.] EVANISH, e-van'ish, _v.i._ to vanish: to die away.--_ns._ EVAN'ISHMENT, EVANI'TION. [See EVANESCE.] EVAPORATE, e-vap'or-[=a]t, _v.i._ to fly off in vapour: to pass into an invisible state: to depart, vanish.--_v.t._ to convert into steam or gas.--_adj._ EVAP'ORABLE, able to be evaporated or converted into vapour.--_n._ EVAPOR[=A]'TION, act of evaporating or passing off in steam or gas: the process by which a substance changes into the state of vapour.--_adj._ EVAP'OR[=A]TIVE.--_ns._ EVAP'ORATOR; EVAPOROM'ETER. [L. _e_, off, _vapor[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_vapor_, vapour.] EVASION, e-v[=a]-'zhun, _n._ act of evading or eluding: an attempt to escape the force of an argument or accusation: an excuse.--_adjs._ EV[=A]'SIBLE, capable of being evaded; EV[=A]'SIVE, that evades or seeks to evade: not straightforward: shuffling.--_adv._ EV[=A]'SIVELY.--_n._ EV[=A]'SIVENESS. EVE, [=e]v, EVEN, [=e]v'n, _n._ (_poet._) evening: the night before a day of note: the time just preceding a great event. [A.S. _['æ]fen_; Dut. _avond_; Ger. _abend_.] EVECTION, e-vek'shun, _n._ (_astron._) a lunar inequality resulting from the combined effect of the irregularity of the motion of the perigee, and alternate increase and decrease of the eccentricity of the moon's orbit. [L. _evection-em_--_e_, out, _veh[)e]re_, _vectum_, to carry.] EVEN, [=e]v'n, _adj._ flat: level: uniform: (_Shak._) straightforward: parallel: equal on both sides: not odd, able to be divided by 2 without a remainder.--_v.t._ to make even or smooth: to put on an equality: (_Shak._) to act up to.--_adv._ exactly so: indeed: so much as: still.--_n._ EV'EN-CHRIS'TIAN (_obs._), fellow-Christian.--_adj._ EV'EN-DOWN, straight-down (of rain): downright, honest.--_adv._ thoroughly.--_adj._ EV'EN-HAND'ED, with an equal, fair, or impartial hand: just.--_adv._ EV'ENLY.--_adj._ EV'EN-MIND'ED, having an even or calm mind: equable.--_n._ EV'ENNESS.--BE EVEN WITH, to be revenged on: to be quits with. [A.S. _efen_; Dut. _even_, Ger. _eben_.] EVENING, [=e]v'ning, _n._ the close of the daytime: the decline or end of life: an evening party or gathering.--_ns._ EV'ENFALL, early evening, twilight; EVE'NING-DRESS, the dress worn by ladies and gentlemen at evening parties; EVE'NING-PRIM'ROSE, a species of _Oenothera_, native of Virginia, but now naturalised in many parts of Europe on river-banks, in thickets, &c.--eaten after dinner it incites to wine-drinking; EVE'NING STAR, applied to Venus, when seen in the west setting soon after the sun; EV'ENSONG, evening prayer, the Anglican form appointed to be said or sung at evening: the time proper for such; EV'ENTIDE, the time of evening, evening. [A.S. _['æ]fnung_, from _['æ]fen_, even.] EVENT, e-vent', _n._ that which happens: the result: any incident or occurrence: an item in a programme or series of sports.--_adjs._ EVENT'FUL, full of events: momentous; EVENT'[=U]AL, happening as a consequence: final.--_n._ EVENT[=U]AL'ITY, a contingency: (_phren._) the propensity to take notice of events, changes, or facts.--_adv._ EVENT'[=U]ALLY, finally: at length. [L. _eventus_--_even[)i]re_--_e_, out, _ven[=i]re_, to come.] EVENTRATION, e-ven-tr[=a]'shun, _n._ act of opening the belly; protrusion of an organ from the abdomen. EVER, ev'[.e]r, _adv._ always: eternally: at any time: at all times: continually: in any degree.--_n._ EV'ERGLADE, a large shallow lake or marsh: chiefly in _pl._ such a marsh in southern Florida, enclosing thousands of islets covered with dense thickets.--_adj._ EV'ERGREEN, always green.--_n._ a plant that remains green all the year.--_adv._ EVERMORE', unceasingly: eternally.--EVER AND ANON, now and then.--EVERGLADE STATE, Florida.--EVER SO, to any extent; FOR EVER, to all eternity; SELDOM OR EVER, used for seldom if ever, or seldom or never. [A.S. _['æ]fre_, always; der. uncertain; perh. cog. with Goth. _aiws_.] EVERLASTING, ev-[.e]r-last'ing, _adj._ endless: eternal.--_n._ eternity.--_adv._ EVERLAST'INGLY.--_n._ EVERLAST'INGNESS.--EVERLASTING FLOWER, the popular name of certain plants, whose flowers may be kept for years without much diminution of beauty; FROM, or TO, EVERLASTING, from, or to, all eternity; THE EVERLASTING, God. EVERT, e-vert', _v.t._ to turn inside out.--_n._ EVER'SION. [L. _evert[)e]re_--_e_, out, _vert[)e]re_, _versum_, to turn.] EVERY, ev'[.e]r-i, _adj._ each one of a number: all taken separately.--_pron._ EV'ERYBODY, every person.--_adj._ EV'ERYDAY, of or belonging to every day, daily: common, usual: pertaining to week-days, in opposition to Sunday.--_pron._ EV'ERYTHING, all things: all.--_advs._ EV'ERYWAY, in every way or respect; EV'ERYWHEN, at all times; EV'ERYWHERE, in every place.--EVERY BIT, the whole; EVERY NOW AND THEN, or AGAIN, at intervals; EVERY OTHER, every second--e.g. every other day, every alternate day. [A.S. _['æ]fre_, ever, and _['æ]lc_, each.] EVICT, e-vikt', _v.t._ to dispossess by law: to expel from.--_ns._ EVIC'TION, the act of evicting from house or lands: the dispossession of one person by another having a better title of property in land; EVIC'TOR. [L. _evictus_, pa.p. of _evinc[)e]re_, to overcome.] EVIDENT, ev'i-dent, _adj._ that is visible or can be seen: clear to the mind: obvious.--_n._ EV'IDENCE, that which makes evident: means of proving an unknown or disputed fact: information in a law case, as 'to give evidence:' a witness.--_v.t._ to render evident: (_obs._) to attest, prove.--_adjs._ EVIDEN'TIAL, EVIDEN'TIARY, furnishing evidence: tending to prove.--_advs._ EVIDEN'TIALLY; EV'IDENTLY (_N.T._), visibly.--IN EVIDENCE, received by the court as competent evidence: plainly visible, conspicuous--a penny-a-liner's phrase adopted from the Fr. _en evidence_; TURN KING'S (QUEEN'S) EVIDENCE (of an accomplice in a crime), to give evidence against his partners. [L. _evidens_, _-entis_--_e_, out, _vid[=e]re_, to see.] EVIL, [=e]'vl, _adj._ wicked: mischievous: disagreeable: unfortunate.--_adv._ in an evil manner: badly.--_n._ that which produces unhappiness or calamity: harm: wickedness: depravity: sin.--_ns._ E'VIL-DO'ER, one who does evil; E'VIL-EYE, a supposed power to cause evil or harm by the look of the eye.--_adj._ E'VIL-F[=A]'VOURED, having a repulsive appearance: ugly.--_n._ E'VIL-F[=A]'VOUREDNESS (_B._), ugliness: deformity.--_adv._ E'VILLY, in an evil manner: not well.--_adj._ E'VIL-MIND'ED, inclined to evil: malicious: wicked.--_ns._ E'VILNESS, state of being evil: wickedness; E'VIL-SPEAK'ING, the speaking of evil: slander.--_adj._ E'VIL-STARRED (_Tenn._), born under the influence of an unpropitious star, unfortunate.--_n._ E'VIL-WORK'ER, one who works or does evil.--THE EVIL ONE, the devil.--SPEAK EVIL OF, to slander. [A.S. _yfel_; Dut. _euvel_; Ger. _übel_. _Ill_ is a doublet.] EVINCE, e-vins', _v.t._ to prove beyond doubt: to show clearly: to make evident.--_n._ EVINCE'MENT.--_adj._ EVINC'IBLE, that may be evinced or made evident.--_adv._ EVINC'IBLY.--_adj._ EVINC'IVE, tending to evince, prove, or demonstrate. [L. _evinc[)e]re_--_e_, inten., _vinc[)e]re_, to overcome.] EVIRATE, [=e]'vir-[=a]t, _v.t._ to castrate: to render weak or unmanly. [L. _evir[=a]re_--_e_, out, _vir_, a man.] EVISCERATE, e-vis'[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.t._ to tear out the viscera or bowels: to gut.--_n._ EVISCER[=A]'TION. [L. _e_, out, _viscera_, the bowels.] EVITE, e-v[=i]t', _v.i._ to avoid.--_v.t._ EV'ITATE (_Shak._) to avoid.--_n._ EVIT[=A]'TION, the act of shunning. [L. _evit[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_e_, out, _vit[=a]re_, to shun.] EVITERNAL, ev-i-t[.e]r'nal, _adj._ eternal.--_adv._ EVITER'NALLY.--_n._ EVITER'NITY. EVOKE, e-v[=o]k', _v.t._ to call out: to draw out or bring forth.--_v.t._ EV'OCATE, to call up (spirits) from the dead.--_n._ EVOC[=A]'TION. [L. _evoc[=a]re_--_e_, out, and _voc[=a]re_, to call.] EVOLUTION, ev-ol-[=u]'shun, _n._ the act of unrolling or unfolding: gradual working out or development: a series of things unfolded: the doctrine according to which higher forms of life have gradually arisen out of lower: (_arith._, _alg._) the extraction of roots: (_pl._) the orderly movements of a body of troops or of ships of war.--_adjs._ EVOL[=U]'TIONAL, EVOL[=U]'TIONARY, of or pertaining to evolution.--_ns._ EVOL[=U]'TIONISM, the theory of evolution; EVOL[=U]'TIONIST, one skilled in evolutions or military movements: one who believes in evolution as a principle in science.--_adj._ EV'OL[=U]TIVE. [L. _evolutionem_--_evolv[)e]re_.] EVOLVE, e-volv', _v.t._ to unroll: to disclose: to develop: to unravel.--_v.i._ to disclose itself: to result.--_n._ EV'OL[=U]TE (_math._), an original curve from which another curve (the _involute_) is described by the end of a thread gradually unwound from the former.--_adj._ EVOLV'ABLE, that can be drawn out.--_n._ EVOLVE'MENT.--_adj._ EVOLV'ENT. [L. _evolv[)e]re_--_e_, out, _volv[)e]re_, _vol[=u]tum_, to roll.] EVULGATE, e-vul'g[=a]t, _v.t._ to divulge: to publish. [L. _evulg[=a]re_, _[=a]tum_--_e_, out, _vulgus_, the people.] EVULSION, e-vul'shun, _n._ a plucking out by force. [L. _e_, out, _vell[)e]re_, _vulsum_, to pluck.] EWE, [=u], _n._ a female sheep.--_ns._ EWE'-CHEESE, cheese made from the milk of ewes; EWE'-LAMB, a female lamb: a poor man's one possession--used in reference to 2 Sam. xii.; EWE'-NECK, of horses, a thin hollow neck.--_adj._ EWE'-NECKED. [A.S. _eowu_; cf. L. _ovis_, Gr. _oïs_, Sans, _avi_, a sheep.] EWER, [=u]'[.e]r, _n._ a large jug with a wide spout, placed on a washstand to hold water. [Through Fr. from L. _aquarium_--_aqua_, water, whence also Fr. _eau_.] EWEST, [=u]'est, _adj._ (_Scot._) near. EWFT, eft, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as EFT (1). EWHOW, [=a]'hwow, _interj._ (_Scot._) an exclamation of sorrow. EWIGKEIT, [=a]'vih-k[=i]t, _n._ eternity. [Ger.] EX, eks, used adjectively in words like _ex_-emperor, to signify _late_. See Prefixes in Appendix. EXACERBATE, egz-as'[.e]r-b[=a]t, or eks-, _v.t._ to embitter: to provoke: to render more violent or severe, as a disease.--_ns._ EXACERB[=A]'TION, EXACERBES'CENCE, increase of irritation or violence, esp. the increase of a fever or disease: embitterment. [L. _exacerb[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ex_, and _acerb[=a]re_, from _acerbus_, bitter.] EXACT, egz-akt', _v.t._ to force from: to compel full payment of: to make great demands, or to demand urgently: to extort: to inflict.--_v.i._ to practice extortion.--_adj._ precise: careful: punctual: true: certain or demonstrable.--_p.adj._ EXACT'ING, compelling full payment of: unreasonable in making demands.--_ns._ EXAC'TION, act of exacting or demanding strictly: an oppressive demand: that which is exacted, as excessive work or tribute; EXACT'ITUDE, exactness: correctness.--_adv._ EXACT'LY.--_ns._ EXACT'MENT; EXACT'NESS, quality of being exact: accuracy; EXACT'OR, -ER, one who exacts: an extortioner: one who claims rights, often too strictly:--_fem._ EXACT'RESS.--EXACT SCIENCES, the mathematical sciences, of which the results are demonstrable. [L. _exig[)e]re_, _exactum_--_ex_, out, _ag[)e]re_, to drive.] EXAGGERATE, egz-aj'[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.t._ to magnify unduly: to represent too strongly: to intensify.--_n._ EXAGGER[=A]'TION, extravagant representation: a statement in excess of the truth.--_adjs._ EXAGG'ERATIVE, EXAGG'ERATORY, containing exaggeration or tending to exaggerate.--_n._ EXAGG'ERATOR. [L. _exagger[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ex_, _agger[=a]re_, to heap up--_agger_, a heap.] EXALBUMINOUS, eks-al-b[=u]'min-us, _adj._ (_bot._) without albumen.--Also EXALB[=U]'MINOSE. EXALGIN, eks-al'jin, _n._ an anodyne obtained from coal-tar products. [Gr.,--_ex_, out, _algos_, pain.] EXALT, egz-awlt', _v.t._ to elevate to a higher position: to elate or fill with the joy of success: to extol: (_chem._) to refine or subtilise.--_n._ EXALT[=A]'TION, elevation in rank or dignity: high estate: elation: (_astrol._) the position of a planet in the zodiac where it was supposed to wield the greatest influence.--_p.adj._ EXALT'ED, elevated: lofty: dignified.--_n._ EXALT'EDNESS. [L. _exalt[=a]re_--_ex_, _altus_, high.] EXAMINE, egz-am'in, _v.t._ to test: to inquire into: to question.--_n._ EX[=A]'MEN, examination.--_adj._ EXAM'INABLE.--_ns._ EXAM'INANT, an examiner; EXAM'INATE, one who is examined; EXAMIN[=A]'TION, careful search or inquiry: trial: testing of capacity of pupils, also contracted to EXAM.; EXAMIN[=EE]', one under examination; EXAM'INER, EXAM'IN[=A]TOR, one who examines.--_p.adj._ EXAM'INING, that examines, or is appointed to examine. [Fr.,--L. _examin[=a]re_--_examen_ (=_exagmen_), the tongue of a balance.] EXAMPLE, egz-am'pl, _n._ that which is taken as a specimen of the rest, or as an illustration of the rule, &c.: the person or thing to be imitated or avoided: a pattern: a warning: a former instance.--_v.t._ to exemplify: to instance.--_n._ EXAM'PLAR, a pattern, model.--_adj._ EXAM'PLARY, serving for an example. [O. Fr.,--L. _exemplum_--_exim[)e]re_, to take out--_ex_, out of, _em[)e]re_, _emptum_, to take.] EXANIMATE, egz-an'i-m[=a]t, _adj._ lifeless: spiritless: depressed.--_n._ EXANIM[=A]'TION.--_adj._ EXAN'IMOUS [L. _exanim[=a]tus_--_ex_, neg., _animus_, spirit, life.] EXANTHEMA, eks-an-th[=e]'ma, _n._ one of a class of febrile diseases with distinctive eruptions on the skin, appearing at a definite period and running a recognisable course:--_pl._ EXANTH[=E]'MATA.--_adjs._ EXANTHEMAT'IC, EXANTHEM'ATOUS.--_ns._ EXANTHEMATOL'OGY; EXANTH[=E]'SIS, the appearing of an exanthema. [Gr.,--_ex_, out, _antheein_, to blossom.] EXARCH, eks'ärk, _n._ name formerly given to the vicegerent of the Byzantine empire in Italy: a bishop: (_Gr. Church_) an ecclesiastical inspector.--_n._ EXARCH'ATE, the office of an exarch. [Gr. _exarchos_--_ex_, and _archein_, to lead.] EXASPERATE, egz-as'p[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.t._ to make very angry: to irritate in a high degree.--_p.adj._ irritated.--_adjs._ EXAS'PERATING, EXAS'PERATIVE, provoking.--_ns._ EXASPER[=A]'TION, act of irritating; state of being exasperated: provocation: rage: aggravation; EXAS'PERATOR. [L. _ex_, inten., _asper[=a]re_, to make rough--_asper_, rough.] EXCALIBUR, eks-kal'ib-[.e]r, _n._ the name of King Arthur's sword. [O. Fr. _escalibor_--_caliburn_; cf. Ir. _caladbolg_, a famous sword.] EXCAMBION, eks-kam'bi-on, _n._ legal term for the exchange of lands--also EXCAM'BIUM.--_v.t._ EXCAMB', to exchange. [Low L. _excambi[=a]re_.] EXCAVATE, eks'ka-v[=a]t, _v.t._ to hollow or scoop out: to dig out.--_ns._ EXCAV[=A]'TION, act of excavating: a hollow or cavity made by excavating; EX'CAVATOR, one who excavates: a machine used for excavating. [L. _excav[=a]re_--_ex_, out, _cavus_, hollow.] EXCEED, ek-s[=e]d', _v.t._ to go beyond the limit or measure of: to surpass or excel.--_v.i._ to go beyond a given or proper limit.--_p.adj._ EXCEED'ING, surpassing, excessive.--_adv._ EXCEED'INGLY, very much: greatly. [L. _ex_, beyond, _ced[)e]re_, _cessum_, to go.] EXCEL, ek-sel', _v.t._ to be superior to: to exceed: to surpass.--_v.i._ to have good qualities in a high degree: to perform very meritorious actions: to be superior:--_pr.p._ excel'ling; _pa.p._ excelled'.--_ns._ EX'CELLENCE, EX'CELLENCY, great merit: any excellent quality: worth: greatness: a title of honour given to persons high in rank or office.--_adj._ EX'CELLENT, surpassing others in some good quality: of great virtue, worth, &c.: superior: valuable.--_adv._ EX'CELLENTLY.--_adj._ EXCEL'SIOR (L. _comp._), higher still. [L. _excell[)e]re_--_ex_, out, up, and a word from the root of _celsus_, high.] EXCEPT, ek-sept', _v.t._ to take or leave out: to exclude.--_v.i._ to object.--_prep._ leaving out: excluding: but.--_adj._ and _n._ EXCEPT'ANT.--_prep._ EXCEPT'ING, with the exception of, except.--_n._ EXCEP'TION, the act of excepting: that which is excepted: exclusion: objection: offence.--_adj._ EXCEP'TIONABLE, objectionable.--_adv._ EXCEP'TIONABLY.--_adj._ EXCEP'TIONAL, peculiar.--_adv._ EXCEP'TIONALLY.--_adjs._ EXCEP'TIOUS, disposed to take exception; EXCEPT'IVE, including, making, or being an exception; EXCEPT'LESS (_Shak._), making an exception, usual.--_n._ EXCEPT'OR. [L. _excip[)e]re_, _exceptum_--_ex_, out, _cap[)e]re_, to take.] EXCERPT, ek's[.e]rpt, or ek-s[.e]rpt', _n._ a passage selected from a book, an extract.--_v.t._ EXCERPT', to select: to extract.--_ns._ EXCERPT'ING, EXCERP'TION; EXCERP'TOR. [L. _excerptum_, pa.p. of _excerp[)e]re_--_ex_, out, _carp[)e]re_, to pick.] EXCESS, ek-ses', _n._ a going beyond what is usual or proper: intemperance: that which exceeds: the degree by which one thing exceeds another.--_adj._ EXCES'SIVE, beyond what is right and proper: immoderate: violent.--_adv._ EXCES'SIVELY.--_n._ EXCES'SIVENESS.--CARRY TO EXCESS, to do too much. [L. _excessus_--_exced[)e]re_, _excessum_, to go beyond.] EXCHANGE, eks-ch[=a]nj', _v.t._ to give or leave one place or thing for another: to give and take mutually: to barter.--_n._ the giving and taking one thing for another: barter: the thing exchanged: process by which accounts between distant parties are settled by bills instead of money: the difference between the value of money in different places: the building where merchants, &c., meet for business.--_n._ EXCHANGEABIL'ITY.--_adj._ EXCHANGE'ABLE, that may be exchanged.--_n._ EXCHAN'GER, one who exchanges or practises exchange: (_B._) a money-changer, a banker. [O. Fr. _eschangier_ (Fr. _échanger_)--Low L. _excambi[=a]re_--L. _ex_, out, _camb[=i]re_, to barter.] EXCHEAT, eks-ch[=e]t', _n._ (_Spens._). Same as ESCHEAT. EXCHEQUER, eks-chek'[.e]r, _n._ a superior court which had formerly to do only with the revenue, but now also with common law, so named from the chequered cloth which formerly covered the table, and on which the accounts were reckoned.--_v.t._ to proceed against a person in the Court of Exchequer.--EXCHEQUER BILL, bill issued at the Exchequer, under the authority of acts of parliament, as security for money advanced to the government.--CHANCELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER (see CHANCELLOR); COURT OF EXCHEQUER, originally a revenue court, became a division of the High Court of Justice in 1875, and is now merged in the Queen's Bench Division. [From root of _check_, _checker_.] EXCIDE, ek-sid', _v.t._ to cut off. [L. _excid[)e]re_--_ex_, out, _cæd[)e]re_, to cut.] EXCIPIENT, ek-sip'i-ent, _n._ a substance mixed with a medicine to give it consistence, or used as a vehicle for its administration. EXCISE, ek-s[=i]z', _n._ a tax on certain home commodities and on licenses for certain trades; the department in the civil administration which is concerned with this tax.--_v.t._ to subject to excise duty.--_adj._ EXCIS'ABLE, liable to excise duty.--_n._ EXCISE'MAN, an officer charged with collecting the excise. [Old Dut. _excijs_--O. Fr. _acceis_, tax--Low L. _accens[=a]re_, to tax--_ad_, to, _census_, tax.] EXCISE, ek-s[=i]z', _v.t._ to cut off or out.--_n._ EXCI'SION, a cutting out or off of any kind: extirpation. [L. _excid[)e]re_, to cut out--_ex_, out, _cæd[)e]re_, to cut.] EXCITE, ek-s[=i]t', _v.t._ to call into activity: to stir up: to rouse: to irritate.--_ns._ EXC[=I]TABIL'ITY, EXC[=I]T'ABLENESS.--_adj._ EXC[=I]T'ABLE, capable of being excited, easily excited.--_ns._ EXCITANT (ek'sit-ant, or ek-s[=i]t'ant), that which excites or rouses the vital activity of the body: a stimulant; EXCIT[=A]'TION, act of exciting: means of excitement: state of excitement.--_adjs._ EXC[=I]T'[=A]TIVE, EXC[=I]T'[=A]TORY, tending to excite.--_p.adj._ EXC[=I]T'ED, agitated.--_ns._ EXCITE'MENT, agitation: that which excites; EXC[=I]T'ER.--_p.adj._ EXC[=I]T'ING, tending to excite.--_adj._ EXC[=I]'TO-M[=O]'TOR, exhibiting muscular contraction. [Fr.,--L. _excit[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_exci[=e]re_--_ex_, out, _ci[=e]re_, to set in motion.] EXCLAIM, eks-kl[=a]m', _v.i._ to cry out: to utter or speak vehemently.--_n._ an exclamation, outcry.--_n._ EXCLAM[=A]'TION, vehement utterance: outcry: an uttered expression of surprise, and the like: the mark expressing this (!): an interjection.--_adjs._ EXCLAM'ATIVE, EXCLAM'ATORY, containing or expressing exclamation. [Fr. _exclamer_--L. _exclam[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ex_, out, _clam[=a]re_, to shout.] EXCLAVE, eks'kl[=a]v, _n._ a part of a country, province, &c. disjoined from the main part--opp. to _Enclave_. EXCLUDE, eks-kl[=oo]d', _v.t._ to close or shut out: to thrust out: to hinder from entrance: to hinder from participation: to except.--_ns._ EXCLU'SION, a shutting or putting out: ejection: exception; EXCLU'SIONISM; EXCLU'SIONIST, one who excludes, or would exclude, another from a privilege.--_adj._ EXCLU'SIVE, able or tending to exclude: debarring from participation: sole: not taking into account.--_n._ one of a number who exclude others from their society.--_adv._ EXCLU'SIVELY.--_ns._ EXCLU'SIVENESS; EXCLU'SIVISM.--_adj._ EXCLU'SORY, exclusive.--EXCLUSIVE DEALING, the act of abstaining deliberately from any business or other transactions with persons of opposite political or other convictions to one's own--a euphemism for _boycotting_ (q.v.). [L. _exclud[)e]re_--_ex_, out, _claud[)e]re_, to shut.] EXCOGITATE, eks-koj'i-t[=a]t, _v.t._ to discover by thinking: to think earnestly or laboriously.--_n._ EXCOGIT[=A]'TION, laborious thinking: invention: contrivance. [L. _excogit[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ex_, out, _cogit[=a]re_, to think.] EXCOMMUNICATE, eks-kom-[=u]n'i-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to put out of or expel from the communion of the church: to deprive of church privileges.--_adj._ EXCOMMUN'ICABLE.--_ns._ EXCOMMUNIC[=A]'TION, act of expelling from the communion of a church--(_Milt._) EXCOMMUN'ION.--_adj._ EXCOMMUN'ICATORY, of or pertaining to excommunication. [From Late L. _excommunic[=a]re_--L. _ex_, out, _communis_, common.] EXCORIATE, eks-k[=o]'ri-[=a]t, _v.t._ to strip the skin from.--_n._ EXCORI[=A]'TION, the act of excoriating: the state of being excoriated. [L. _excori[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ex_, from, _corium_, the skin.] EXCORTICATE, eks-kor'ti-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to strip the bark off.--_n._ EXCORTIC[=A]'TION. EXCREMENT, eks'kre-ment, _n._ useless matter discharged from the animal system: dung.--_adjs._ EXCREMENT'AL, EXCREMENTI'TIAL, EXCREMENTI'TIOUS, pertaining to or containing excrement. [L. _excrementum_--_excern[)e]re_--_ex_, out, _cern[)e]re_, to sift.] EXCRESCENCE, eks-kres'ens, _n._ that which grows out unnaturally from anything else: an outbreak: a wart or tumour: a superfluous part.--_ns._ EX'CREMENT, an outgrowth; EXCRES'CENCY, state of being excrescent: excrescence.--_adjs._ EXCRES'CENT, growing out: superfluous; EXCRESCEN'TIAL. [Fr.,--L.,--_excresc[)e]re_--_ex_, out, _cresc[)e]re_, to grow.] EXCRETE, eks-kr[=e]t', _v.t._ to separate from: to eject.--_ns.pl._ EXCR[=E]'TA, EXCR[=E]TES', matters discharged from the animal body.--_n._ EXCR[=E]'TION, act of excreting matter from the animal system: that which is excreted.--_adjs._ EXCR[=E]'TIVE, able to excrete; EXCR[=E]'TORY, having the quality of excreting.--_n._ a duct that helps to receive and excrete matter. [L. _ex_, from, _cern[)e]re_, _cretum_, to separate.] EXCRUCIATE, eks-kr[=oo]'shi-[=a]t, _v.t._ to torture: to rack: to pain, grieve.--_p.adj._ EXCRU'CI[=A]TING, extremely painful: racking: torturing: agonising.--_adv._ EXCRU'CIATINGLY.--_n._ EXCRUCI[=A]'TION, torture: vexation. [L. _ex_, out, _cruci[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to crucify--_crux_, _crucis_, a cross.] EXCULPATE, eks-kul'p[=a]t, _v.t._ to clear from the charge of a fault or crime: to absolve: to vindicate.--_n._ EXCULP[=A]'TION.--_adj._ EXCUL'PATORY, tending to free from the charge of fault or crime. [L. _ex_, from, _culpa_, a fault.] EXCURSION, eks-kur'shun, _n._ a going forth: an expedition: a trip for pleasure or health: a wandering from the main subject: a digression.--_adj._ EXCUR'RENT (_bot._), projecting beyond the edge or point.--_vs.i._ EXCURSE', to digress; EXCUR'SIONISE, to go on an excursion.--_n._ EXCUR'SIONIST, one who goes on a pleasure-trip.--_adj._ EXCUR'SIVE, rambling: deviating.--_adv._ EXCUR'SIVELY.--_ns._ EXCUR'SIVENESS; EXCUR'SUS, a dissertation on some particular point appended to a book or chapter.--EXCURSION TRAIN, a special train, usually with reduced fares, for persons making an excursion. [L. _excursio_--_ex_, out, _curr[)e]re_, _cursum_, to run.] EXCUSE, eks-k[=u]z', _v.t._ to free from blame or guilt: to forgive: to free from an obligation: to release, dispense with: to make an apology or ask pardon for.--_n._ (eks-k[=u]s') a plea offered in extenuation of a fault: indulgence.--_adj._ EXCUS'ABLE, admitting of justification.--_n._ EXCUS'ABLENESS.--_adv._ EXCUS'ABLY.--_adj._ EXCUS'ATORY, making or containing excuse: apologetic.--EXCUSE ME, an expression used as an apology for any slight impropriety, or for controverting a statement that has been made. [L. _excus[=a]re_--_ex_, from, _causa_, a cause, accusation.] EXEAT, eks'[=e]-at, _n._ formal leave, as for a student to be out of college for more than one night. [L., 'let him go out.'] EXECRATE, eks'e-kr[=a]t, _v.t._ to curse: to denounce evil against: to detest utterly.--_adj._ EX'ECRABLE, deserving execration: detestable: accursed.--_adv._ EX'ECRABLY.--_n._ EXECR[=A]'TION, act of execrating: a curse pronounced: that which is execrated.--_adj._ EX'ECR[=A]TIVE, of or belonging to execration.--_adv._ EX'ECR[=A]TIVELY.--_adj._ EX'ECR[=A]TORY. [L. _exsecr[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_, to curse--_ex_, from, _sacer_, sacred.] EXECUTE, eks'e-k[=u]t, _v.t._ to perform: to give effect to: to carry into effect the sentence of the law: to put to death by law.--_adj._ EXEC'UTABLE, that can be executed.--_ns._ EXEC'UTANT, one who executes or performs; EX'ECUTER; EXEC[=U]'TION, act of executing or performing: accomplishment: completion: carrying into effect the sentence of a court of law: the warrant for so doing: the infliction of capital punishment; EXEC[=U]'TIONER, one who executes, esp. one who inflicts capital punishment.--_adj._ EXEC'UTIVE, designed or fitted to execute: active: qualifying for or pertaining to the execution of the law.--_n._ the power or authority in government that carries the laws into effect: the persons who administer the government.--_adv._ EXEC'UTIVELY.--_n._ EXEC'UTOR, one who executes or performs: the person appointed to see a will carried into effect:--_fem._ EXEC'UTRESS, EXEC'UTRIX.--_adj._ EXECUT[=O]'RIAL.--_n._ EXEC'UTORSHIP.--_adj._ EXEC'UTORY, executing official duties: designed to be carried into effect. [Fr. _exécuter_--L. _exsequi_, _exsecutus_--_ex_, out, _sequi_, to follow.] EXEDRA, eks'e-dra, _n._ a raised platform with steps, in the open air: an apse, recess, niche--also EX'HEDRA:--_pl._ EX'EDRÆ. [L.] EXEGESIS, eks-e-j[=e]'sis, _n._ the science of interpretation, esp. of the Scriptures.--_ns._ EX'EGETE, EXEGET'IST, one who interprets the Scriptures.--_adjs._ EXEGET'IC, -AL, pertaining to exegesis: explanatory.--_adv._ EXEGET'ICALLY.--_n.pl._ EXEGET'ICS, the science of exegesis. [Gr. _ex[=e]gesis_--_ex[=e]geesthai_, to explain--_ex_, out, _h[=e]geesthai_, to guide.] EXEME, eks-[=e]m', _v.t._ (_Scot._) to release, exempt. [L. _exim[)e]re_--_ex_, out, _em[)e]re_, to take.] EXEMPLAR, egz-em'plar, _n._ a person or thing to be imitated: the ideal model of an artist: a type: an example.--_adv._ EX'EMPLARILY.--_ns._ EXEM'PLARINESS, the state or quality of being exemplary; EXEMPLAR'ITY, exemplariness: exemplary conduct.--_adj._ EXEMPLARY (egz-em'plar-i, or egz'em-plar-i), worthy of imitation or notice. [O. Fr. _exemplaire_--Low L. _exemplarium_--_exemplum_, example.] EXEMPLIFY, egz-em'pli-f[=i], _v.t._ to illustrate by example: to make an attested copy of: to prove by an attested copy:--_pr.p._ exem'plifying; _pa.p._ exem'plified.--_adj._ EXEM'PLIF[=I]ABLE.--_n._ EXEMPLIFIC[=A]'TION, act of exemplifying: that which exemplifies: a copy or transcript. [L. _exemplum_, example, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] EXEMPT, egz-emt', _v.t._ to free, or grant immunity (with _from_).--_adj._ taken out: not liable to: released: unaffected by.--_n._ EXEMP'TION, act of exempting: state of being exempt: freedom from any service, duty, &c.: immunity. [Fr.,--L. _exim[)e]re_, _exemptum_--_ex_, out, _em[)e]re_, to buy.] EXENTERATE, eks-en't[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.t._ to disembowel.--_p.adj._ disembowelled.--_n._ EXENTER[=A]'TION. [L. _exenter[=a]re_--Gr. _ex_, out, _enteron_, intestine.] EXEQUATUR, eks-e-kw[=a]'tur, _n._ an official recognition of a consul or commercial agent given by the government of the country in which he is to be. [L. _exequatur_='let him execute'--the opening word.] EXEQUY, eks'e-kwi (only in _pl._ EXEQUIES, eks'e-kwiz), _n._ a funeral procession: funeral rites.--_adj._ EX[=E]'QUIAL. [L. _exequiæ_--_ex_, out, _sequi_, to follow.] EXERCISE, eks'[.e]r-s[=i]z, _n._ a putting in practice: exertion of the body for health or amusement: discipline: a lesson, task, academical disputation, &c.: (_Shak._) skill: (_pl._) military drill: an act of worship or devotion: a discourse, the discussion of a passage of Scripture, giving the coherence of text and context, &c.--the _addition_, giving the doctrinal propositions, &c.: the Presbytery itself.--_v.t._ to train by use: to improve by practice: to afflict: to put in practice: to use: to wield.--_adj._ EX'ERCISABLE. [O. Fr. _exercice_--L. _exercitium_--L. _exerc[=e]re_, _-citum_--_ex_, out, _arc[=e]re_, to shut up.] EXERCITATION, egz-er-sit-[=a]'shun, _n._ the putting into practice: employment: exercise: a discourse. [L. _exercit[=a]re_--_exerc[=e]re_, to exercise.] EXERGUE, eks'erg, or egz-erg', _n._ the part on the reverse of a coin, below the main device, often filled up by the date, &c.--_adj._ EXER'GUAL. [Fr.,--Gr. _ex_, out, _ergon_, work.] EXERT, egz-[.e]rt', _v.t._ to bring into active operation: to do or perform.--_n._ EXER'TION, a bringing into active operation: effort: attempt.--_adj._ EXERT'IVE, having the power or tendency to exert: using exertion. [L. _exser[)e]re_, _exsertum_--_ex_, out, _ser[)e]re_, to put together.] EXEUNT, eks'[=e]-unt. See EXIT. EXFOLIATE, eks-f[=o]'li-[=a]t, _v.i._ and _v.t._ to come off, or send off, in scales.--_n._ EXFOLI[=A]'TION.--_adj._ EXF[=O]'LIATIVE. [L. _exfoli[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ex_, off, _folium_, a leaf.] EXHALE, egz-h[=a]l', _v.t._ to emit or send out as vapour: to evaporate.--_v.i._ to rise or be given off as vapour.--_adjs._ EXHAL'ABLE, that can be exhaled; EXHAL'ANT, having the quality of exhaling.--_n._ EXHAL[=A]'TION, act or process of exhaling: evaporation: that which is exhaled: vapour: steam. [Fr. _exhaler_--L. _exhal[=a]re_--_ex_, out, _hal[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to breathe.] EXHALE, egz-h[=a]l', _v.t._ to draw out: (_Shak._) to cause to flow. [Pfx. _ex-_, and _hale_, to draw.] EXHAUST, egz-awst', _v.t._ to draw out the whole of: to use the whole strength of: to wear or tire out: to treat of or develop completely.--_n._ the exit of steam from the cylinder when it has done its work in propelling the piston--escaping by the _exhaust-pipe_ and regulated by the _exhaust-valve_.--_p.adj._ EXHAUST'ED, drawn out: emptied: consumed: tired out.--_n._ EXHAUST'ER, he who or that which exhausts.--_adj._ EXHAUST'IBLE, that may be exhausted.--_n._ EXHAUST'ION, act of exhausting or consuming: state of being exhausted: extreme fatigue.--_adjs._ EXHAUST'IVE, tending to exhaust; EXHAUST'LESS, that cannot be exhausted. [L. _exhaur[=i]re_, _exhaustum_--_ex_, out, _haur[=i]re_, to draw.] EXHEREDATE, eks-her'i-d[=a]t, _v.t._ (_rare_) to disinherit.--_n._ EXHERED[=A]'TION. [L. _exhered[=a]re_--_ex_, out, _heres_, _-edis_, heir.] EXHIBIT, egz-ib'it, _v.t._ to hold forth or present to view: to present formally or publicly.--_n._ (_law_) a document produced in court to be used as evidence: something exhibited: an article at an exhibition.--_ns._ EXHIB'ITER, EXHIB'ITOR; EXHIBI'TION, presentation to view: display: a public show, esp. of works of art, manufactures, &c.: that which is exhibited: an allowance or bounty to scholars in a university; EXHIBI'TIONER, one who enjoys an exhibition at a university; EXHIBI'TIONIST.--_adjs._ EXHIB'ITIVE, serving for exhibition: representative; EXHIB'ITORY, exhibiting.--MAKE AN EXHIBITION OF ONE'S SELF, to behave foolishly, exciting ridicule. [L. _exhib[=e]re_, _-itum_--_ex_, out, _hab[=e]re_, _-itum_, to have.] EXHILARATE, egz-il'a-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to make hilarious or merry: to enliven: to cheer.--_adj._ EXHIL'ARANT, exhilarating: exciting joy, mirth, or pleasure.--_n._ an exhilarating medicine.--_p.adj._ EXHIL'AR[=A]TING, cheering: gladdening.--_adv._ EXHIL'AR[=A]TINGLY.--_n._ EXHILAR[=A]'TION, state of being exhilarated: joyousness.--_adjs._ EXHIL'AR[=A]TIVE, EXHIL'AR[=A]TORY. [L. _exhilar[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ex_, inten., _hilaris_, cheerful.] EXHORT, egz-hort', or egz-[=o]rt', _v.t._ to urge strongly to good deeds, esp. by words or advice: to animate: to advise or warn.--_n._ EXHORT[=A]'TION, act of exhorting: language intended to exhort: counsel: a religious discourse.--_adjs._ EXHORT'ATIVE, EXHORT'ATORY, tending to exhort or advise. [L. _exhort[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_--_ex_, inten., _hort[=a]ri_, to urge.] EXHUME, eks-h[=u]m', _v.t._ to take out of the ground or place of burial: to disinter: to bring to light--also EX'HUMATE.--_ns._ EXHUM[=A]'TION, act of exhuming: disinterment; EXHUM'ER, one who exhumes. [L. _ex_, out of, _humus_, the ground.] EXIES, ek'siz, _n.pl._ (_Scot._) ecstasy: hysterics. [Perh. from _access_, an attack, a fit.] EXIGENT, eks'i-jent, _adj._ pressing: demanding immediate attention or action.--_n._ end, extremity: (_Browning_) a needed amount.--_adj._ EXIGEANT', exacting.--_n.fem._ EXIGEANTE'.--_ns._ EX'IGENCE, EX'IGENCY, pressing necessity: emergency: distress.--_adj._ EX'IGIBLE, capable of being exacted.--_ns._ EXIG[=U]'ITY, EXIG'UOUSNESS.--_adj._ EXIG'UOUS, small: slender. [L. _exigens_, _-entis_--_exig[)e]re_--_ex_, out, _ag[)e]re_, to drive.] EXILE, eks'[=i]l, or egz'[=i]l, _n._ state of being sent out of one's native country: expulsion from home: banishment: one away from his native country.--_v.t._ to expel from one's native country, to banish.--_n._ EX'[=I]LEMENT, banishment.--_adj._ EXIL'IC, pertaining to exile, esp. that of the Jews in Babylon. [O. Fr. _exil_--L. _exsilium_, banishment--_ex_, out of, and root of _sal[=i]re_, to leap.] EXILITY, eks-il'i-ti, _n._ slenderness, smallness: refinement. [L. _exilis_, slender, contraction for _exigilis_.] EXIMIOUS, eg-zim'i-us, _adj._ excellent, distinguished. [L. _eximius_--_exim[)e]re_--_ex_, out, _em[)e]re_, to take.] EXIST, egz-ist', _v.i._ to have an actual being: to live: to continue to be.--_n._ EXIST'ENCE, state of existing or being: continued being: life: anything that exists: a being.--_adjs._ EXIST'ENT, having being: at present existing; EXISTEN'TIAL. [L. _exist[)e]re_, _exsist[)e]re_--_ex_, out, _sist[)e]re_, to make to stand.] EXIT, eks'it, _n._ a direction in playbooks to an actor to go off the stage: the departure of a player from the stage: any departure: a way of departure: a passage out: a quitting of the world's stage, or life: death:--_pl._ EX'EUNT.--_v.i._ to make an exit. [L. _exit_, he goes out, _exeunt_, they go out--_ex[=i]re_, to go out--_ex_, out, and _[=i]re_, _itum_, to go.] EX LIBRIS, eks l[=i]'bris, _n._ a book-plate--lit. 'from the books of.' [L.] EXODE, ek's[=o]d, _n._ the concluding part of a Greek drama: a farce or afterpiece. [Gr.] EXODUS, eks'o-dus, _n._ a going out or departure, esp. that of the Israelites from Egypt (1491 B.C., Usher): the second book of the Old Testament.--_adj._ EXOD'IC.--_n._ EX'ODIST, one who goes out: an emigrant. [L.,--Gr. _exodos_--_ex_, out, _hodos_, a way.] EXOGAMY, eks-og'a-mi, _n._ the practice of marrying only outside of one's own tribe.--_adj._ EXOG'AMOUS. [Gr. _exo_, out, _gamos_, marriage.] EXOGEN, eks'o-jen, _n._ a plant belonging to the great class that increases by layers growing on the outside of the wood.--_adj._ EXOG'ENOUS (-oj'), growing by successive additions to the outside. [L. _ex[=o]_, outside, and _gen_, root of _gignesthai_, to be produced.] EXOMIS, eks-[=o]'mis, _n._ a sleeveless vest, worn by workmen and slaves--(_Browning_) EX[=O]'MION. [Gr. _ex[=o]mis_--_ex_, out, _[=o]mos_, shoulder.] EXON, eks'on, _n._ one of the four officers of the yeomen of the Royal Guard. [App. intended to express the pronunciation of Fr. _exempt_ (Dr Murray).] EXONERATE, egz-on'[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.t._ to free from the burden of blame or obligation: to acquit.--_n._ EXONER[=A]'TION, act of exonerating or freeing from a charge or blame.--_adj._ EXON'ERATIVE, freeing from a burden or obligation. [L. _exoner[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ex_, from, _onus_, _oneris_, burden.] EXOPHAGY, eks-of'a-ji, _n._ the custom among cannibals of eating only the flesh of persons not of their own tribe.--_adj._ EXOPH'AGOUS. [Formed from Gr. _ex[=o]_, outside, _phagein_, to eat.] EXORABLE, ek's[=o]-ra-bl, _adj._ capable of being moved by entreaty.--_n._ EXOR[=A]'TION, entreaty. EXORBITANT, egz-or'bi-tant, _adj._ going beyond the usual limits: excessive.--_ns._ EXOR'BITANCE, EXOR'BITANCY, extravagance: enormity.--_adv._ EXOR'BITANTLY.--_v.i._ EXOR'BIT[=A]TE, to stray. [L. _exorbitans_, _-antis_, pr.p. of _exorbit[=a]re_--_ex_, out of, _orbita_, a track--_orbis_, a circle.] EXORCISE, eks'or-s[=i]z, or eks-or'-, _v.t._ to adjure by some holy name: to call forth or drive away, as a spirit: to deliver from the influence of an evil spirit.--_ns._ EX'ORCISM, act of exorcising or expelling evil spirits by certain ceremonies: a formula for exorcising; EX'ORCIST, one who exorcises or pretends to expel evil spirits by adjurations: (_R.C. Church_) the third of the minor orders. [Through Late L., from Gr. _exorkizein_--_ex_, out, _horkos_, an oath.] EXORDIUM, egz-or'di-um, _n._ the introductory part of a discourse or composition.--_adj._ EXOR'DIAL, pertaining to the exordium: introductory. [L. _exord[=i]ri_--_ex_, out, _ord[=i]ri_, to begin.] EXOSKELETON, ek-s[=o]-skel'e-tun, _n._ any structure produced by the hardening of the integument, as the scales of fish, but esp. when bony, as the carapace of the turtle, &c.--_adj._ EXOSKEL'ETAL. [Gr. _ex[=o]_, outside, _skeleton_.] EXOSMOSE, eks'os-m[=o]z, _n._ the passage outward of fluids, gases, &c. through porous media, esp. living animal membranes--also EXOSM[=O]'SIS.--_adj._ EXOSMOT'IC. [L.,--Gr. _ex_, out, _[=o]smos_, pushing.] EXOSTOME, eks'os-t[=o]m, _n._ the small opening in the outer coating of the ovule of a plant. [Gr. _ex[=o]_, without, _stoma_, a mouth.] EXOSTOSIS, eks-os-t[=o]'sis, _n._ (_anat._) morbid enlargement of a bone. [Gr. _ex_, out, _osteon_, a bone.] EXOTERIC, -AL, eks-o-ter'ik, -al, _adj._ external: fit to be communicated to the public or multitude--opp. to _Esoteric_.--_n._ EXOTER'ICISM. [Gr. _ex[=o]terikos_--comp. formed from _ex[=o]_, outside.] EXOTIC, egz-ot'ik, _adj._ introduced from a foreign country--the opposite of _indigenous_.--_n._ anything of foreign origin: something not native to a country, as a plant, a word, a custom.--_ns._ EXOT'ICISM, EX'OTISM. [L.,--Gr. _ex[=o]tikos_--_ex[=o]_, outside.] EXPAND, eks-pand', _v.t._ to spread out: to lay open: to enlarge in bulk or surface: to develop, or bring out in fuller detail.--_v.i._ to become opened: to enlarge.--_ns._ EXPANSE', a wide extent of space: the firmament; EXPANSIBIL'ITY.--_adj._ EXPANS'IBLE, capable of being expanded.--_adv._ EXPANS'IBLY.--_adj._ EXPANS'ILE, capable of expansion.--_n._ EXPAN'SION, act of expanding: state of being expanded: enlargement: that which is expanded: immensity: extension.--_adj._ EXPANS'IVE, widely extended: diffusive.--_adv._ EXPANS'IVELY.--_ns._ EXPANS'IVENESS; EXPANSIV'ITY. [L. _expand[)e]re_--_ex_, out, _pand[)e]re_, _pansum_, to spread.] EX PARTE, eks pär'ti, _adj._ on one side only: partial: prejudiced. [L. _ex_, out, _pars_, _partis_, part.] EXPATIATE, eks-p[=a]'shi-[=a]t, _v.i._ to range at large: to enlarge in discourse, argument, or writing.--_n._ EXPATI[=A]'TION, act of expatiating or enlarging in discourse.--_adjs._ EXP[=A]'TIATIVE, EXP[=A]'TIATORY, expansive.--_n._ EXP[=A]'TIATOR. [L. _exspati[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_--_ex_, out of, _spati[=a]ri_, to roam--_spatium_, space.] EXPATRIATE, eks-p[=a]'tri-[=a]t, _v.t._ to send out of one's native country: to banish, or exile.--_n._ EXPATRI[=A]'TION, act of expatriating: exile, voluntary or compulsory. [Low L. _expatri[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ex_, out of, _patria_, fatherland.] EXPECT, eks-pekt', _v.t._ to wait for: to look forward to as something about to happen: to anticipate: to hope.--_n._ (_Shak._) expectation.--_ns._ EXPECT'ANCE, EXPECT'ANCY, act or state of expecting: that which is expected: hope.--_adj._ EXPECT'ANT, looking or waiting for.--_n._ one who expects: one who is looking or waiting for some benefit or office.--_adv._ EXPECT'ANTLY.--_ns._ EXPECT[=A]'TION, act or state of expecting: prospect of future good: that which is expected: the ground or qualities for anticipating future benefits or excellence: promise: the value of something expected: (_pl._) prospect of fortune or profit by a will; EXPECT[=A]'TION-WEEK, the period between Ascension Day and Whitsunday--during this time the Apostles continued praying in expectation of the Comforter.--_adj._ EXPECT'ATIVE, giving rise to expectation: reversionary.--_n._ an expectancy.--_n._ EXPECT'ER (_Shak._), one who waits for a person or thing.--_adv._ EXPECT'INGLY, in a state of expectation. [L. _exspect[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ex_, out, _spect[=a]re_, to look, freq. of _spec[)e]re_, to see.] EXPECTORATE, eks-pek'to-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to expel from the breast or lungs by coughing, &c.: to spit forth.--_v.i._ to discharge or eject phlegm from the throat.--_adj._ EXPEC'TORANT, tending to promote expectoration.--_n._ a medicine which promotes expectoration.--_n._ EXPECTOR[=A]'TION, act of expectorating: that which is expectorated: spittle.--_adj._ EXPEC'TOR[=A]TIVE, having the quality of promoting expectoration. [L. _expector[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ex_, out of, from, _pectus_, _pectoris_, the breast.] EXPEDIENT, eks-p[=e]'di-ent, _adj._ suitable: advisable: (_Shak._) hasty.--_n._ that which serves to promote: means suitable to an end: contrivance.--_ns._ EXP[=E]'DIENCE (_Shak._), haste, despatch: expediency; EXP[=E]'DIENCY, fitness: desirableness: self-interest.--_adj._ EXPEDIEN'TIAL.--_adv._ EXP[=E]'DIENTLY. [L. _expediens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _exped[=i]re_.] EXPEDITE, eks'pe-d[=i]t, _v.t._ to free from impediments: to hasten: to send forth: to despatch.--_adj._ free from impediment: unencumbered: quick: prompt.--_adv._ EX'PEDITELY.--_n._ EXPEDI'TION, speed: promptness: any undertaking by a number of persons: a hostile march or voyage: those who form an expedition.--_adjs._ EXPEDI'TIONARY; EXPEDI'TIOUS, characterised by expedition or rapidity: speedy: prompt.--_adv._ EXPEDI'TIOUSLY.--_n._ EXPEDI'TIOUSNESS, quickness.--_adj._ EXPED'ITIVE. [L. _exped[=i]re_, _-itum_--_ex_, out, _pes_, _pedis_, a foot.] EXPEL, eks-pel', _v.t._ to drive out: eject: to discharge: to banish: (_Shak._) to keep off:--_pr.p._ expel'ling; _pa.p._ expelled'. [L. _expell[)e]re_, _expulsum_--_ex_, out, _pell[)e]re_, to drive.] EXPEND, eks-pend', _v.t._ to lay out: to employ or consume in any way: to spend.--_ns._ EXPEND'ITURE, act of expending or laying out: that which is expended: the process of using up: money spent; EXPENSE' (_Shak._), expenditure: outlay: cost: (_pl._) the cost of a lawsuit (_Scots law_).--_adj._ EXPENS'IVE, causing or requiring much expense: extravagant.--_adv._ EXPENS'IVELY.--_n._ EXPENS'IVENESS.--BE AT THE EXPENSE OF, to pay the cost of. [L. _expend[)e]re_--_ex_, out, _pend[)e]re_, _pensum_, to weigh.] EXPERIENCE, eks-p[=e]'ri-ens, _n._ thorough trial of: practical acquaintance with any matter gained by trial: repeated trial: long and varied observation, personal or general: wisdom derived from the changes and trials of life.--_v.t._ to make trial of, or practical acquaintance with: to prove or know by use: to suffer, undergo.--_p.adj._ EXP[=E]'RIENCED, taught by experience: skilful: wise.--_adjs._ EXP[=E]'RIENCELESS, having no experience; EXPERIEN'TIAL, pertaining to or derived from experience.--_ns._ EXPERIEN'TIALISM; EXPERIEN'TIALIST.--EXPERIENCE MEETING, a religious meeting, where those present relate their religious experiences. [Fr.,--L. _experientia_, from _exper[=i]ri_--_ex_, inten., and old verb _per[=i]ri_, to try.] EXPERIMENT, eks-per'i-ment, _n._ a trial: something done to prove some theory, or to discover something unknown.--_v.i._ to make an experiment or trial: to search by trial.--_adj._ EXPERIMENT'AL, founded or known by experiment: taught by experience: tentative.--_v.i._ EXPERIMENT'ALISE.--_ns._ EXPERIMENT'ALIST, EXPER'IMENTIST, one who makes experiments.--_adv._ EXPERIMENT'ALLY.--_n._ EXPERIMENT[=A]'TION.--_adj._ EXPERIMENT'ATIVE. [L. _experimentum_, from _exper[=i]ri_, to try thoroughly.] EXPERT, eks-p[.e]rt', _adj._ taught by practice: having a familiar knowledge: having a facility of performance: skilful, adroit.--_n._ EX'PERT, one who is expert or skilled in any art or science: a specialist: a scientific or professional witness.--_adv._ EXPERT'LY.--_n._ EXPERT'NESS. [Fr.,--L. _expertus_--_exper[=i]ri_, to try thoroughly.] EXPIATE, eks'pi-[=a]t, _v.t._ to make complete atonement for: to make satisfaction or reparation for.--_p.adj._ (_Shak._) expired.--_adj._ EX'PIABLE, capable of being expiated, atoned for, or done away.--_ns._ EXPI[=A]'TION, act of expiating or atoning for: the means by which atonement is made: atonement; EX'PI[=A]TOR, one who expiates.--_adj._ EX'PI[=A]TORY, having the power to make expiation or atonement. [L. _expi[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ex_, inten., _pi[=a]re_, to appease, atone for.] EXPIRE, eks-p[=i]r', _v.t._ to breathe out: to emit or throw out from the lungs: to emit in minute particles.--_v.i._ to breathe out the breath of life: to die out (of fire): to die: to come to an end.--_adj._ EXP[=I]'RABLE, that may expire or come to an end.--_ns._ EXP[=I]'RANT, one expiring; EXPIR[=A]'TION, the act of breathing out: (_obs._) death: end: that which is expired.--_adj._ EXP[=I]'RATORY, pertaining to expiration, or the emission of the breath.--_p.adj._ EXP[=I]'RING, dying: pertaining to or uttered at the time of dying.--_n._ EXP[=I]'RY, the end or termination: expiration. [Fr. _expirer_--L. _ex_, out, _spir[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to breathe.] EXPISCATE, eks-pis'k[=a]t, _v.t._ to find out by skilful means or by strict examination.--_n._ EXPISC[=A]'TION.--_adj._ EXPIS'CATORY. [L. _expisc[=a]ri_, _expisc[=a]tus_--_ex_, out, _pisc[=a]ri_, to fish--_piscis_, a fish.] EXPLAIN, eks-pl[=a]n', _v.t._ to make plain or intelligible: to unfold and illustrate the meaning of: to expound: to account for.--_adj._ EXPLAIN'ABLE, that may be explained or cleared up.--_ns._ EXPLAIN'ER, one who explains; EXPLAN[=A]'TION, act of explaining or clearing from obscurity: that which explains or clears up: the meaning or sense given to anything: a mutual clearing up of matters.--_adv._ EXPLAN'ATORILY.--_adj._ EXPLAN'ATORY, serving to explain or clear up: containing explanations.--EXPLAIN AWAY, to modify the force of by explanation, generally in a bad sense. [O. Fr. _explaner_--L. _explan[=a]re_--_ex_, out, _plan[=a]re_--_planus_, plain.] EXPLETIVE, eks'ple-tiv, _adj._ filling out: added for ornament or merely to fill up.--_n._ a word or syllable inserted for ornament or to fill up a vacancy: an oath.--_adj._ EX'PLETORY, serving to fill up: expletive. [L. _expletivus_--_ex_, out, _pl[=e]re_, to fill.] EXPLICATE, eks'pli-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to unfold, develop: to lay open or explain the meaning of.--_adj._ EX'PLICABLE, capable of being explicated or explained.--_n._ EXPLIC[=A]'TION, act of explicating or explaining: explanation.--_adjs._ EX'PLIC[=A]TIVE, EX'PLIC[=A]TORY, serving to explicate or explain. [L. _explic[=a]re_, _explic[=a]tum_ or _explicitum_--_ex_, out, _plic[=a]re_, to fold.] EXPLICIT, eks-plis'it, _adj._ not implied merely, but distinctly stated: plain in language: outspoken: clear: unreserved.--_adv._ EXPLIC'ITLY.--_n._ EXPLIC'ITNESS. [L. _explicitus_, from _explic[=a]re_.] EXPLICIT, eks'plis-it, _n._ a term formerly put at the end of a book, indicating that it is finished. [Contr. from L. _explicitus_ est liber, the book is unrolled.] EXPLODE, eks-pl[=o]d', _v.t._ to cry down, as an actor: to bring into disrepute, and reject: to cause to blow up.--_v.i._ to burst with a loud report: to burst into laughter.--_p.adj._ EXPL[=O]'DED, rejected, discarded.--_n._ EXPL[=O]'SION, act of exploding: a sudden violent burst with a loud report: a breaking out of feelings, &c.--_adj._ EXPL[=O]'SIVE, liable to or causing explosion: bursting out with violence and noise.--_n._ something that will explode.--_adv._ EXPL[=O]'SIVELY.--_n._ EXPL[=O]'SIVENESS. [L. _explod[)e]re_, _explosum_--_ex_, out, _plaud[)e]re_, to clap the hands.] EXPLOIT, eks-ploit', _n._ a deed or achievement, esp. an heroic one: a feat.--_v.t._ to work up: to utilise for one's own ends.--_adj._ EXPLOIT'ABLE.--_ns._ EXPLOIT'AGE, EXPLOIT[=A]'TION, the act of successfully applying industry to any object, as the working of mines, &c.: the act of using for selfish purposes. [O. Fr. _exploit_--L. _explicitum_, ended.] EXPLORE, eks-pl[=o]r', _v.t._ to search for the purpose of discovery: to examine thoroughly.--_n._ EXPLOR[=A]'TION, act of searching thoroughly.--_adjs._ EXPLOR'ATIVE, EXPLOR'ATORY, serving to explore: searching out.--_n._ EXPLOR'ER, one who explores.--_p.adj._ EXPLOR'ING, employed in or intended for exploration. [Fr.,--L. _explor[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to search out--prob. from _ex_, out, _plor[=a]re_, to make to flow.] EXPONENT, eks-p[=o]'nent, _n._ he who, or that which, points out, or represents: (_alg._) a figure which shows how often a quantity is to be multiplied by itself, as _a_^3: an index: an example, illustration.--_adj._ EXPONEN'TIAL (_alg._), pertaining to or involving exponents.--_n._ an exponential function.--EXPONENTIAL CURVE, a curve expressed by an exponential equation; EXPONENTIAL EQUATION, one in which the _x_ or _y_ occurs in the exponent of one or more terms, as 5^{_x_} = 800; EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION, a quantity with a variable exponent; EXPONENTIAL SERIES, a series in which exponential quantities are developed; EXPONENTIAL THEOREM gives a value of any number in terms of its natural logarithm, and from it can at once be derived a series determining the logarithm. [L. _exponens_--_ex_, out, _pon[)e]re_, to place.] EXPONIBLE, eks-p[=o]'ni-bl, _adj._ able to be, or requiring to be, explained. EXPORT, eks-p[=o]rt', _v.t._ to carry or send out of a country, as goods in commerce.--_n._ EX'PORT, act of exporting: that which is exported: a commodity which is or may be sent from one country to another, in traffic.--_adj._ EXPORT'ABLE, that may be exported.--_ns._ EXPORT[=A]'TION, act of exporting, or of conveying goods from one country to another; EXPORT'ER, the person who exports, or who ships goods to a foreign or distant country for sale--opp. to _Importer_. [L. _export[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ex_, out of, _port[=a]re_, to carry.] EXPOSE, eks-p[=o]z', _v.t._ to lay forth to view: to deprive of cover, protection, or shelter: to make bare: to abandon (an infant): to explain: to make liable to: to disclose: to show up.--_ns._ EXPOSÉ (eks-p[=o]-z[=a]'), an exposing: a shameful showing up: a formal recital or exposition; EXPOS'EDNESS, the act of exposing: the state of being exposed; EXPOS'ER; EXPOSI'TION, act of exposing: a setting out to public view: the abandonment of a child: a public exhibition: act of expounding, or laying open of the meaning of an author: explanation: commentary.--_adj._ EXPOS'ITIVE, serving to expose or explain: explanatory: exegetical.--_n._ EXPOS'ITOR, one who, or that which, expounds: an interpreter:--_fem._ EXPOS'ITRESS.--_adj._ EXPOS'ITORY, serving to explain: explanatory.--_n._ EXP[=O]'SURE (_Shak._, EXPOS'TURE), act of laying open or bare: act of showing up an evil: state of being laid bare: openness to danger: position with regard to the sun, influence of climate, &c. [Fr. _exposer_--L. _expon[)e]re_, to expose.] EXPOSTULATE, eks-post'[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.i._ to reason earnestly with a person on some impropriety of his conduct: to remonstrate: (_Shak._) to discuss: (_Milt._) to claim.--_n._ EXPOSTUL[=A]'TION, act of expostulating, or reasoning earnestly with a person against his conduct: remonstrance.--_adjs._ EXPOST'ULATIVE, EXPOST'ULATORY, containing expostulation.--_n._ EXPOST'ULATOR. [L. _expostul[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ex_, inten., _postul[=a]re_, to demand.] EXPOUND, eks-pownd', _v.t._ to expose, or lay open the meaning of: to explain: to interpret: to explain in a certain way.--_n._ EXPOUND'ER, one who expounds: an interpreter. [O. Fr. _espondre_--L. _expon[)e]re_--_ex_, out, _pon[)e]re_, to place.] EXPRESS, eks-pres', _v.t._ to press or force out: to emit: to represent or make known by a likeness or by words: to declare, reveal: to out into words: to state plainly: to designate.--_adj._ pressed or clearly brought out: exactly representing: directly stated: explicit: clear: intended or sent for a particular purpose.--_adv._ with haste: specially: with an express train.--_n._ a messenger or conveyance sent on a special errand: a regular and quick conveyance: (_U.S._) a system organised for the speedy and safe transmission of parcels or merchandise.--_n._ EXPRESS'AGE, the system of carrying by express.--_adj._ EXPRESS'IBLE.--_ns._ EXPRES'SION, act of expressing or forcing out by pressure: act of representing or giving utterance to: faithful and vivid representation by language, art, the features, &c.: that which is expressed: look: feature: the manner in which anything is expressed: tone of voice or sound in music.--_adjs._ EXPRES'SIONAL, of or pertaining to expression; EXPRES'SIONLESS.--_n._ EXPRES'SION-STOP, a stop in a harmonium, by which the performer can regulate the air to produce expression.--_adj._ EXPRES'SIVE, serving to express or indicate: full of expression: vividly representing: emphatic: significant.--_adv._ EXPRES'SIVELY.--_n._ EXPRES'SIVENESS.--_adv._ EXPRESS'LY.--_ns._ EXPRESS'-R[=I]'FLE, a modern sporting rifle for large game at short range, with heavy charge of powder and light bullet; EXPRESS'-TRAIN, a railway-train at high speed and with few stops; EXPRES'SURE, the act of expressing: (_Shak._) expression. [O. Fr. _expresser_--L. _ex_, out, _press[=a]re_, freq. of _prem[)e]re_, _pressum_, to press.] EXPROMISSION, eks-pr[=o]-mish'un, _n._ the intervention of a new debtor, substituted for the former one, who is consequently discharged by the creditor.--_n._ EXPROMIS'SOR. EXPROPRIATE, eks-pr[=o]'pri-[=a]t, _v.t._ to dispossess.--_n._ EXPROPRI[=A]'TION. [L. _expropri[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ex_, out, _proprium_, property.] EXPUGNABLE, eks-pug'na-bl, or eks-p[=u]'-, _adj._ (_rare_) capable of being stormed.--_v.t._ EXP[=U]GN', to overcome.--_n._ EXPUGN[=A]'TION. [Fr.,--L. _expugn[=a]re_.] EXPULSION, eks-pul'shun, _n._ the act of expelling: banishment.--_v.t._ EXPULSE' (_obs._), to expel forcibly, eject.--_adj._ EXPUL'SIVE, able or serving to expel. [L. _expulsio_. See EXPEL.] EXPUNGE, eks-punj', _v.t._ to wipe out: to efface.--_n._ EXPUNC'TION. [L. _expung[)e]re_, to prick out, erase--_ex_, out, _pung[)e]re_, to prick.] EXPURGATE, eks'pur-g[=a]t, or eks-pur'-, _v.t._ to purge out or render pure: to purify from anything noxious or erroneous.--_ns._ EXPURG[=A]'TION, act of expurgating or purifying: the removal of anything hurtful or evil: exculpation; EXPURGATOR (eks'pur-g[=a]-tor, or eks-pur'ga-tor), one who expurgates or purifies.--_adjs._ EXPURGAT[=O]'RIAL, EXPUR'GATORY, tending to expurgate or purify.--_v.t._ EXPURGE', to purify, expurgate. [L. _expurg[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ex_, out, _purg[=a]re_, to purge.] EXQUISITE, eks'kwi-zit, _adj._ of superior quality: excellent: of delicate perception or close discrimination: not easily satisfied: fastidious: exceeding, extreme, as pain or pleasure.--_n._ one exquisitely nice or refined in dress: a fop.--_adv._ EX'QUISITELY.--_n._ EX'QUISITENESS. [L. _exquisitus_--_ex_, out, _quær[)e]re_, _quæsitum_, to seek.] EXSANGUINOUS, eks-sang'gwin-us, _adj._ without blood: anæmic--also EXSANG'UINE, -D, EXSANGUIN'EOUS.--_n._ EXSANGUIN'ITY. [L. _ex_, neg., _sanguis_, blood.] EXSCIND, ek-sind', _v.t._ to cut off. [L. _ex_, off, _scind[)e]re_, to cut.] EXSECT, ek-sekt', _v.t._ to cut out.--_n._ EXSEC'TION. [L. _ex_, out, _sec[=a]re_, to cut.] EXSERT, eks-sert', _v.t._ to protrude.--_p.adj._ EXSERT'ED, projecting.--_adj._ EXSER'TILE.--_n._ EXSER'TION. EXSICCATE, ek'si-k[=a]t, or ek-sik'-, _v.t._ to dry up.--_adj._ EXSICC'ANT.--_n._ EXSICC[=A]'TION.--_adj._ EXSICC'ATIVE.--_n._ EX'SICC[=A]TOR. [L. _exsicc[=a]re_--_ex-_, _siccus_, dry.] EXSPUTORY, ek-sp[=u]'t[=o]-ri, _adj._ that is spit out or rejected. [L. _expu[)e]re_, _exsputum_, to spit out.] EXSTIPULATE, ek-stip'[=u]-l[=a]t, _adj._ (_bot._) without stipules. EXSUCCOUS, eks-suk'us, _adj._ destitute of sap. EXSUFFLICATE, eks-suf'fli-k[=a]t, _adj._ (_Shak._) puffed out, contemptible, abominable.--_v.t._ EXSUF'FL[=A]TE, to exorcise. [Prob. from L. _ex_, out, and _suffl[=a]re_, to blow out--_sub_, under, _fl[=a]re_, to blow.] EXTANT, eks'tant, _adj._ standing out, or above the rest: still standing or existing. [L. _extans_, _antis_--_ex_, out, _st[=a]re_, to stand.] EXTASY, EXTATIC. Same as ECSTASY, ECSTATIC. EXTEMPORE, eks-tem'po-re, _adv._ on the spur of the moment: without preparation: suddenly.--_adj._ sudden: rising at the moment: of a speech delivered without help of manuscript.--_adjs._ EXTEM'PORAL, EXTEMPOR[=A]'NEOUS, EXTEM'PORARY, done on the spur of the moment: hastily prepared: speaking extempore: done without preparation: off-hand.--_advs._ EXTEMPOR[=A]'NEOUSLY; EXTEM'PORARILY.--_ns._ EXTEM'PORINESS; EXTEMPORIS[=A]'TION, the act of speaking extempore.--_v.i._ EXTEM'PORISE, to speak extempore or without previous preparation: to discourse without notes: to speak off-hand. [L. _ex_, out of, _tempus_, _temporis_, time.] EXTEND, eks-tend', _v.t._ to stretch out: to prolong in any direction: to enlarge, expand: to widen: to hold out: to bestow or impart: (_law_) to seize: to make a valuation of property by the oath of a jury.--_v.i._ to stretch: to be continued in length or breadth.--_adj._ EXTEND'ANT (_her._), displayed.--_adv._ EXTEND'EDLY.--_adjs._ EXTEND'IBLE; EXTENSE' (_obs._), extensive.--_n._ EXTENSIBIL'ITY.--_adjs._ EXTENS'IBLE, EXTENS'ILE, that may be extended.--EXTEN'SION, a stretching out, prolongation, or enlargement: that property of a body by which it occupies a portion of space: (_logic_) a term, opposed to _Intension_, referring to the extent of the application of a term or the number of objects included under it (UNIVERSITY EXTENSION, the enlargement of the aim of a university, in providing instruction for those unable to become regular students).--_adj._ EXTEN'SIONAL.--_ns._ EXTEN'SIONIST; EXTEN'SITY, sensation from which perception of extension is derived.--_adj._ EXTENS'IVE, large: comprehensive.--_adv._ EXTENS'IVELY.--_ns._ EXTENS'IVENESS; EXTEN'SOR, a muscle which extends or straightens any part of the body; EXTENT', the space or degree to which a thing is extended: bulk: compass: scope: the valuation of property: (_law_) a writ directing the sheriff to seize the property of a debtor, for the recovery of debts of record due to the Crown: (_Shak._) seizure, attack: (_Shak._) maintenance: (_Shak._) behaviour.--_adj._ stretched out. [L. _extend[)e]re_, _extentum_, or _extensum_--_ex_, out, _tend[)e]re_, to stretch.] EXTENUATE, eks-ten'[=u]-[=a]t, _v.t._ to lessen: to underrate: to weaken the force of: to palliate.--_p.adj._ EXTEN'UATING, palliating.--_adv._ EXTEN'UATINGLY.--_n._ EXTENU[=A]'TION, act of representing anything as less wrong or criminal than it is: palliation: mitigation.--_adjs._ EXTEN'UATIVE, EXTEN'UATORY, tending to extenuate: palliative.--_n._ EXTEN'UATOR. [L. _extenu[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ex_, inten., _tenuis_, thin.] EXTERIOR, eks-t[=e]'ri-or, _adj._ outer: outward, external: on or from the outside: foreign.--_n._ outward part or surface: outward form or deportment: appearance.--_n._ EXTERIOR'ITY.--_adv._ EXT[=E]'RIORLY, outwardly. [L. _exterior_, comp. of _exter_, outward--_ex_, out.] EXTERMINATE, eks-t[.e]r'mi-n[=a]t, _v.t._ to destroy utterly: to put an end to: to root out.--_adj._ EXTER'MINABLE, that can be exterminated: used in the sense of 'illimitable' by Shelley.--_n._ EXTERMIN[=A]'TION, complete destruction or extirpation.--_adjs._ EXTER'MIN[=A]TIVE, EXTER'MIN[=A]TORY, serving or tending to exterminate.--_n._ EXTER'MIN[=A]TOR.--_v.t._ EXTER'MINE (_Shak._), to exterminate. [L. _extermin[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ex_, out of, _terminus_.] EXTERNAL, eks-t[.e]r'nal, _adj._ exterior: lying outside: outward: belonging to the world of outward things: that may be seen: not innate or intrinsic: accidental: foreign.--_n._ exterior: (_pl._) the outward parts: outward or non-essential forms and ceremonies.--_n._ EXT[=E]'RIOR, an exterior thing, the outside.--_adj._ EXTERN', external, outward.--_n._ a day-scholar.--_n._ EXTERNALIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ EXTER'NALISE, to give form to.--_ns._ EXTER'NALISM, undue regard to mere externals or non-essential outward forms, esp. of religion; EXTERNAL'ITY, external character: superficiality: undue regard to externals.--_adv._ EXTER'NALLY.--_n._ EXTER'NAT, a day-school. [L. _externus_--_exter_.] EXTERRANEOUS, eks-ter-r[=a]'ne-us, _adj._ belonging to or coming from abroad, foreign.--_adjs._ EXTERRIT[=O]'RIAL, EXTRATERRIT[=O]'RIAL, exempt from territorial jurisdiction. [L. _exterraneus_--_ex_, out of, _terra_, the earth.] EXTERSION, eks-ter'shun, _n._ the act of rubbing out. EXTINCT, eks-tingkt', _adj._ put out: extinguished: no longer existing: dead.--_adj._ EXTINCT'ED, extinguished.--_ns._ EXTINCTEUR (eks-tang'tür, eks-tingk'tür--see EXTINGUISHER); EXTINC'TION, a quenching or destroying: destruction: suppression.--_adj._ EXTINCT'IVE, tending to extinguish.--_n._ EXTINCT'URE (_Shak._), extinction. EXTINE, eks'tin, _n._ (_bot._) the outer coat of the pollen-grain or of a spore. EXTINGUISH, eks-ting'gwish, _v.t._ to quench: to destroy, annihilate: to obscure by superior splendour.--_v.i._ to die out.--_adj._ EXTING'UISHABLE.--_ns._ EXTING'UISHER, one who, or that which, extinguishes: a small hollow conical instrument for putting out a candle--also in Fr. form EXTINCTEUR; EXTING'UISHMENT, the act of extinguishing: (_law_) putting an end to a right by consolidation or union. [L. _extingu[)e]re_, _extinctum_--_ex_, out, _stingu[)e]re_, to quench.] EXTIRPATE, eks't[.e]r-p[=a]t, _v.t._ to root out: to destroy totally: to exterminate--(_obs._) EXTIRP'.--_adj._ EXTIRP'ABLE.--_ns._ EXTIRP[=A]'TION, extermination: total destruction; EXTIRP'ATOR.--_adj._ EXTIRP'ATORY. [L. _exstirp[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ex_, out, and _stirps_, a root.] EXTOL, eks-tol', _v.t._ to magnify: to praise:--_pr.p._ extolling; _pa.p._ extolled'.--_n._ EXTOL'MENT, the act of extolling: the state of being extolled. [L. _extoll[)e]re_--_ex_, up, _toll[)e]re_, to lift or raise.] EXTORT, eks-tort', _v.t._ to gain or draw from by compulsion or violence.--_p.adj._ wrongfully obtained.--_adj._ EXTORS'IVE, serving or tending to extort.--_adv._ EXTORS'IVELY.--_n._ EXTOR'TION, illegal or oppressive exaction: that which is extorted.--_adjs._ EXTOR'TIONARY, pertaining to or implying extortion; EXTOR'TION[=A]TE, oppressive.--_ns._ EXTOR'TIONER, one who practises extortion; EXTOR'TIONIST.--_adj._ EXTOR'TIONOUS. [L. _extorqu[=e]re_, _extortum_--_ex_, out, _torqu[=e]re_, to twist.] EXTRA, eks'tra, _adj._ beyond or more than the usual or the necessary: extraordinary: additional.--_adv._ unusually.--_n._ what is extra or additional, as an item above and beyond the ordinary school curriculum: something over and above the usual course or charge in a bill, &c.: a special edition of a newspaper containing later news, &c.--_adjs._ EX'TRA-CONDENSED' (_print._), extremely narrow in proportion to the height; EX'TRA-CON'STELLARY, outside of the constellations; EXTRAD[=O]'TAL, not forming part of the dowry; EX'TRA-FOLI[=A]'CEOUS (_bot._), situated outside of or away from the leaves; EX'TRA-FOR[=A]'NEOUS, outdoor; EX'TRA-JUDI'CIAL, out of the proper court, or beyond the usual course of legal proceeding.--_adv._ EX'TRA-JUDI'CIALLY.--_adjs._ EX'TRA-LIM'ITAL, not found within a given faunal area: lying outside a prescribed area--also EXTRALIM'ITARY; EX'TRA-MUN'DANE, beyond the material world; EX'TRA-M[=U]'RAL, without or beyond the walls; EX'TRA-OFFI'CIAL, not being within official rights, &c.; EX'TRA-PAR[=O]'CHIAL, beyond the limits of a parish; EX'TRA-PHYS'ICAL, not subject to physical laws; EX'TRA-PROFES'SIONAL, outside the usual limits of professional duty; EXTR'A-PRO'VINCIAL, outside the limits of a particular province; EX'TRA-REG'ULAR, unlimited by rules; EX'TRA-S[=O]'LAR, beyond the solar system; EX'TRA-TROP'ICAL, situated outside the tropics; EX'TRA-[=U]'TERINE, situated outside the uterus; EXTRAVAS'CULAR, situated outside of the vascular system. [Perh. a contraction for _extraordinary_.] EXTRACT, eks-trakt', _v.t._ to draw out by force or otherwise: to choose out or select: to find out: to distil.--_n._ EX'TRACT, anything drawn from a substance by heat, distillation, &c., as an essence: a passage taken from a book or writing.--_adjs._ EXTRACT'ABLE, EXTRACT'IBLE; EXTRACT'IFORM.--_n._ EXTRAC'TION, act of extracting: derivation from a stock or family: birth: lineage: that which is extracted.--_adj._ EXTRACT'IVE, tending or serving to extract.--_n._ an extract.--_n._ EXTRACT'OR, he who, or that which, extracts.--EXTRACT THE ROOT OF A QUANTITY, to find its root by a mathematical process; EXTRACTIVE MATTER, the soluble portions of any drug. [L. _extrah[)e]re_, _extractum_--_ex_, out, _trah[)e]re_, to draw.] EXTRADITION, eks-tra-dish'un, _n._ a delivering up by one government to another of fugitives from justice.--_adj._ EXTRAD[=I]'TABLE.--_v.t._ EX'TRADITE, to hand over to justice. [L. _ex_, from, _traditio_--_trad[)e]re_, _traditum_, to deliver up.] EXTRADOS, eks-tr[=a]'dos, _n._ the convex surface of an arch or vault. [Fr.] EXTRANEOUS, eks-tr[=a]n'yus, _adj._ external: foreign: not belonging to or dependent on a thing: not essential.--_n._ EXTRAN[=E]'ITY.--_adv._ EXTRAN'EOUSLY. [L. _extraneus_, external, _ex_, from, _extra_, outside.] EXTRAORDINARY, eks-tror'di-nar-i, or eks-trä-or'-, _adj._ beyond ordinary: not usual or regular: wonderful: special or supernumerary, as 'physician extraordinary' in a royal household, and 'extraordinary professor' in a German university, both being inferior to the ordinary official.--_n.pl._ EXTRAOR'DINARIES, things that exceed the usual order, kind, or method.--_adv._ EXTRAOR'DINARILY.--_n._ EXTRAOR'DINARINESS. [L. _extra_, outside, _ordo_--_inis_, order.] EXTRAUGHT, eks-trawt' (_Shak._), _pa.p._ of EXTRACT. EXTRAVAGANT, eks-trav'a-gant, _adj._ wandering beyond bounds: irregular: unrestrained: excessive: profuse in expenses: wasteful.--_ns._ EXTRAV'AGANCE, excess: lavish expenditure: (_Milt._) digression; EXTRAV'AGANCY (_Shak._), vagrancy: extravagance.--_adv._ EXTRAV'AGANTLY.--_v.i._ EXTRAV'AG[=A]TE, to wander: to exceed proper bounds. [L. _extra_, beyond, _vagans_, _-antis_, pr.p. of _vag[=a]ri_, to wander.] EXTRAVAGANZA, eks-trav-a-gan'za, _n._ an extravagant or eccentric piece of music or literary production: extravagant conduct or speech. [It.] EXTRAVASATE, eks-trav'a-s[=a]t, _v.t._ to let out of the proper vessels.--_adj._ let out of its proper vessel: extravasated.--_n._ EXTRAVAS[=A]'TION, act of extravasating: the escape of any of the fluids of the living body from their proper vessels through a rupture in their walls. [L. _extra_, out of, _vas_, a vessel.] EXTREAT, eks-tr[=e]t', _n._ (_Spens._) extraction. EXTREME, eks-tr[=e]m', _adj._ outermost: most remote: last: highest in degree: greatest: excessive: most violent: most urgent: stringent.--_n._ the utmost point or verge: end: utmost or highest limit or degree: great necessity.--_adv._ EXTR[=E]ME'LY.--_ns._ EXTR[=E]'MISM; EXTR[=E]'MIST.--_adj._ EXTREM'ITAL.--_n._ EXTREM'ITY, the utmost limit: the highest degree: greatest necessity or distress: (_pl._) the hands and feet.--EXTREME UNCTION (see UNCTION).--GO TO EXTREMES, to go too far: to use extreme measures.--IN EXTREMIS (L.), at the point of death; IN THE EXTREME, in the last, highest degree: extremely; THE LAST EXTREMITY, the utmost pitch of misfortune: death. [O. Fr. _extreme_--L. _extremus_, superl. of _exter_, on the outside.] EXTRICATE, eks'tri-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to free from hinderances or perplexities: to disentangle: to set free.--_adj._ EX'TRICABLE.--_n._ EXTRIC[=A]'TION, disentanglement: act of setting free. [L. _extric[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ex_, out, _tricæ_, hinderances.] EXTRINSIC, -AL, eks-trin'sik, -al, _adj._ external: not contained in or belonging to a body: foreign: not essential--opp. to _Intrinsic_.--_n._ EXTRINSICAL'ITY.--_adv._ EXTRIN'SICALLY. [Fr.,--L. _extrinsecus_--_exter_, outside, _secus_, beside.] EXTRORSE, eks-trors', _adj._ turned outward.--Also EXTROR'SAL. [L. _extra_, outside, _versus_, turned.] EXTRUDE, eks-tr[=oo]d', _v.t._ to force or urge out: to expel: to drive off.--_n._ EXTRU'SION, act of extruding, thrusting, or throwing out: expulsion.--_adjs._ EXTRU'SIVE, EXTRU'SORY. [L. _extrud[)e]re_, _extrusum_--_ex_, out, _trud[)e]re_, to thrust.] EXUBERANT, eks-[=u]'b[.e]r-ant, _adj._ plenteous: overflowing: happy: lavish.--_ns._ EX[=U]'BERANCE, EX[=U]'BERANCY, quality of being exuberant: an overflowing quantity: superfluousness: outburst.--_adv._ EX[=U]'BERANTLY.--_v.i._ EX[=U]'BER[=A]TE, to be exuberant. [L. _exuberans_, pr.p. of _exuber[=a]re_--_ex_, inten., _uber_, rich.] EXUDE, eks-[=u]d', _v.t._ to discharge by sweating: to discharge through pores or incisions, as sweat, moisture, &c.--_v.i._ to flow out of a body through the pores.--_n._ EXUD[=A]'TION, act of exuding or discharging through pores: that which is exuded. [L. _exud[=a]re_--_ex_, out, _sud[=a]re_, to sweat.] EXUL, eks'ul, _n._ (_Spens._) an exile. EXULCERATE, egz-ul'ser-[=a]t, _v.t._ to exasperate, afflict.--_n._ EXULCER[=A]'TION, ulceration: exasperation. [L. _exculcer[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ex_, out, _ulcer[=a]re_.] EXULT, egz-ult', _v.i._ to rejoice exceedingly: to triumph.--_ns._ EXULT'ANCE, EXULT'ANCY, exultation: triumph.--_adj._ EXULT'ANT, exulting: triumphant.--_n._ EXULT[=A]'TION, rapturous delight: transport.--_adv._ EXULT'INGLY. [L. _exsult[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, from _exsil[=i]re_--_ex_, out or up, _sal[=i]re_, to leap.] EXUVIÆ, eks-[=u]'vi-[=e], _n.pl._ cast-off skins, shells, or other coverings of animals: (_geol._) fossil shells and other remains of animals.--_adj._ EX[=U]'VIAL.--_v.i._ EX[=U]'VI[=A]TE, to lay aside an old covering or condition for a new one.--_n._ EXUVI[=A]'TION, the act of exuviating. [L., from _exu[)e]re_, to draw off.] EYALET, [=i]'a-let, _n._ a division of the Turkish Empire--_vilayet_. [Turk.,--Ar. _iy[=a]lah[=a]l_, to govern.] EYAS, [=i]'as, _n._ an unfledged hawk.--_adj._ (_Spens._) unfledged.--_n._ EY'AS-MUS'KET, an unfledged male hawk: (_Shak._) a child. [_Eyas_, a corr. of _nyas_--Fr. _niais_--L. _nidus_, nest.] EYE, [=i], _n._ (_obs._) a brood. [For _nye_, _neye_; _a neye_=an eye. See EYAS.] EYE, [=i], _n._ the organ of sight or vision, more correctly the globe or movable part of it: the power of seeing: sight: regard: aim: keenness of perception: anything resembling an eye, as the hole of a needle, loop or ring for a hook, &c.: the seed-bud of a potato: (_pl._) the foremost part of a ship's bows, the hawse-holes.--_v.t._ to look on: to observe narrowly.--_v.i._ (_Shak._) to appear:--_pr.p._ ey'ing or eye'ing; _pa.p._ eyed ([=i]d).--_ns._ EYE'-BALL, the ball, globe, or apple of the eye; EYE'-BEAM, a glance of the eye; EYE'BRIGHT, a beautiful little plant of the genus _Euphrasia_, formerly used as a remedy for diseases of the eye (see EUPHRASY); EYE'BROW, the hairy arch above the eye.--_v.t._ to provide with artificial eyebrows.--_adj._ EYE'BROWLESS, without eyebrows.--_p.adj._ EYED, having eyes: spotted as if with eyes.--_ns._ EYE'-DROP (_Shak._), a tear; EYE'-FLAP, a blinder on a horse's bridle; EYE'-GLANCE, a quick look; EYE'GLASS, a glass to assist the sight, esp. such as stick on the nose by means of a spring: the eye-piece of a telescope and like instrument: (_Shak._) the lens of the eye; EYE'LASH, the line of hairs that edges the eyelid.--_adj._ EYE'LESS, without eyes or sight: deprived of eyes: blind.--_ns._ EYE'LET, EYE'LET-HOLE, a small eye or hole to receive a lace or cord, as in garments, sails, &c.: a small hole for seeing through: a little eye.--_v.i._ to make eyelets.--_ns._ EYE'LIAD, obsolete form of _oeillade_; EYE'LID, the lid or cover of the eye: the portion of movable skin by means of which the eye is opened or closed at pleasure; EYE'-[=O]'PENER, something that opens the eyes literally or figuratively, a startling story: a drink, esp. in the morning; EYE'-PIECE, the lens or combination of lenses at the eye-end of a telescope; EYE'-PIT, the socket of the eye; EYE'-SALVE, salve or ointment for the eyes; EYE'-SERV'ANT, a servant who does his duty only when under the eye of his master; EYE'-SERV'ICE, service performed only under the eye or inspection of an employer: formal worship; EYE'-SHOT, the reach or range of sight of the eye: a glance; EYE'SIGHT, power of seeing: view: observation; EYE'SORE, anything that is offensive to the eye or otherwise; EYE'-SPLICE, a kind of eye or loop formed by splicing the end of a rope into itself; EYE'-SPOT, a spot like an eye.--_adj._ EYE'-SPOT'TED (_Spens._), marked with spots like eyes.--_ns._ EYE'-STONE, a small calcareous body used for removing substances from under the eyelid; EYE'-STRING, the muscle which raises the eyelid; EYE'-TOOTH, one of the two canine teeth of the upper jaw, between the incisors and premolars; EYE'-WA'TER, water flowing from the eye: a lotion for the eyes; EYE'-WINK (_Shak._), a rapid lowering and raising of the eyelid: a glance: the time of a wink; EYE'-WIT'NESS, one who sees a thing done.--EYE FOR EYE, _lex talionis_ (Ex. xxi. 24); EYE OF DAY, the sun.--ALL MY EYE (_slang_) unreal; BE ALL EYES, to give all attention; BE A SHEET IN THE WIND'S EYE, to be intoxicated; CLAP, LAY, SET, EYES ON (_coll._), to see; CRY ONE'S EYES OUT, to weep bitterly; CUT ONE'S EYE-TOOTH, to cease to be a child: to be shrewd; GIVE AN EYE TO, to attend to; GREEN EYE, jealousy; HAVE AN EYE TO, to contemplate: to have regard to; IN EYE, in sight; IN ONE'S MIND'S EYE, in contemplation; IN THE EYES OF, in the estimation, opinion, of; IN THE WIND'S EYE, against the wind; KEEP ONE'S EYE ON, to observe closely: to watch; MAKE A PERSON OPEN HIS EYES, to cause him astonishment; MAKE EYES AT, to look at in an amorous way: to ogle; MIND YOUR EYE (_slang_), take care; MY EYE! a mild asseveration; NAKED EYE (see NAKED); OPEN A PERSON'S EYES, to make him see: to show him something of which he is ignorant; PIPE, or PUT THE FINGER IN, THE EYE, to weep; SEE EYE TO EYE, from Is. lii. 8, but used in the sense of 'to think alike;' SEE WITH HALF AN EYE, to see without difficulty; UNDER THE EYE OF, under the observation of; UP TO THE EYES, deeply engaged. [A.S. _éage_; cf. Goth. _augo_, Ger. _auge_, Dut. _oog_, Ice. _auga_.] EYNE, [=i]n, _n.pl._ (_arch._) eyes. EYOT, [=i]'ot, _n._ a little island. [A variant of _ait_.] EYRE, [=a]r, _n._ a journey or circuit: a court of itinerant justices.--JUSTICES IN EYRE, itinerant judges who went on circuit. [O. Fr. _eire_, journey, from L. _iter_, a way, a journey--_[=i]re_, _itum_, to go.] EYRY, EYRIE, old spellings of _aerie_. * * * * * F the sixth letter in the English and Latin alphabets--its sound called a labio-dental fricative, and formed by bringing the lower lip into contact with the upper teeth: (_mus._) the fourth note of the natural diatonic scale of C: as a medieval Roman numeral=40; [=F]=40,000.--THE THREE F'S, fair rent, fixity of tenure, and free sale. FA', fä, _v._ and _n._ a Scotch form of _fall_. FA'ARD, färd, _adj._ a Scotch form of _favoured_. FABACEOUS, f[=a]-b[=a]'shi-us, _adj._ bean-like. [L. _faba_, a bean.] FABIAN, f[=a]'bi-an, _adj._ delaying, avoiding battle, cautious, practising the policy of delay.--_n._ a member of a small group of Socialists in England, called by this name. [From Q. _Fabius_ Maximus, surnamed Cunctator ('delayer'), from the masterly tactics with which he wore out the strength of Hannibal, whom he dared not meet in battle.] FABLE, f[=a]'bl, _n._ a narrative in which things irrational, and sometimes inanimate, are, for the purpose of moral instruction, feigned to act and speak with human interests and passions: any tale in literary form, not necessarily probable in its incidents, intended to instruct or amuse: the plot or series of events in an epic or dramatic poem: a fiction or myth: a ridiculous story, as in 'old wives' fables,' a falsehood: subject of common talk.--_v.i._ to tell fictitious tales: (_obs._) to tell falsehoods.--_v.t._ to feign: to invent.--_p.adj._ F[=A]'BLED, mythical.--_n._ F[=A]'BLER, a writer or narrator of fictions.--_adj._ FAB'ULAR.--_v.i._ FAB'UL[=I]SE, to write fables, or to speak in fables.--_ns._ FAB'ULIST, one who invents fables; FABULOS'ITY, FAB'ULOUSNESS.--_adj._ FAB'ULOUS, feigned, false: related in fable: immense, amazing.--_adv._ FAB'ULOUSLY. [Fr. _fable_--L. _fabula_, _f[=a]ri_, to speak.] FABLIAU, fab-li-[=o]', _n._ one of a group of over a hundred metrical tales, usually satirical in quality, produced in France from about the middle of the 12th to the end of the 13th century:--_pl._ FAB'LIAUX. [Fr.] FABRIC, fab'rik, or f[=a]'brik, _n._ workmanship: texture: anything framed by art and labour: building, esp. the construction and maintenance of a church, &c.: manufactured cloth: any system of connected parts.--_v.t._ (_Milt._) to construct.--_n._ FAB'RICANT, a manufacturer. [Fr. _fabrique_--L. _fabrica_--_faber_, a worker in hard materials.] FABRICATE, fab'ri-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to put together by art and labour: to manufacture: to produce: to devise falsely.--_n._ FABRIC[=A]'TION, construction: manufacture: that which is fabricated or invented: a story: a falsehood.--_adj._ FAB'RICATIVE.--_n._ FAB'RICATOR. [L. _fabric[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_--_fabrica_, fabric.] FAÇADE, fa-s[=a]d', _n._ the exterior front or face of a building. [Fr.,--_face_, after It. _facciata_, the front of a building--_faccia_, the face.] FACE, f[=a]s, _n._ the front part of the head, including forehead, eyes, nose, mouth, cheeks, and chin: the outside make or appearance: front or surface of anything: the edge of a cutting-tool, &c.: the part of a coal-seam actually being mined: cast of features, any special appearance or expression of the countenance: look, configuration: boldness, effrontery; presence: (_B._) anger or favour.--_v.t._ to meet in the face or in front: to stand opposite to: to resist: to put an additional face or surface on; to cover in front.--_v.i._ to turn the face, as in military tactics--'right face,' &c.--_ns._ FACE'-ACHE, neuralgia in the nerves of the face; FACE'-CARD, a playing-card bearing a face (king, queen, or knave); FACE'-CLOTH, a cloth laid over the face of a corpse.--_adj._ FACED, having the outer surface dressed, with the front, as of a dress, covered ornamentally with another material.--_n._ FACE'-GUARD, a kind of mask to guard or protect the face.--_adj._ FACE'LESS, without a face.--_ns._ FAC'ER, one who puts on a false show: a bold-faced person: (_slang_) a severe blow on the face, anything that staggers one; FAC'ING, a covering in front for ornament or protection.--FACE DOWN, to abash by stern looks; FACE OUT, to carry off by bold looks; FACE THE MUSIC (_U.S. slang_), to accept the situation at its worst; FACE-TO-FACE, in front of, in actual presence of.--ACCEPT ONE'S FACE, to show him favour or grant his request; FLY IN THE FACE OF, to set one's self directly against; HAVE TWO FACES, or BE TWO-FACED, to be disingenuous; ON THE FACE OF IT, on its own showing: palpably plain; PULL A LONG FACE, to look dismal and unhappy; PUT A GOOD FACE ON, to assume a bold or contented bearing as regards; RIGHT FACE! LEFT FACE! RIGHT ABOUT FACE! words of command, on which the soldiers individually turn to the side specified; RUN ONE'S FACE (_U.S. slang_), to obtain things on credit by sheer impudence; SET ONE'S FACE AGAINST, to oppose strenuously; SHOW ONE'S FACE, to appear, to come in view; SHUT THE DOOR IN HIS FACE, to shut the door before him, refusing him admittance; TO HIS FACE, in his presence, openly. [Fr. _face_--L. ''facies'', form, face; perh. from _fac[)e]re_, to make.] FACET, fas'et, _n._ a small surface, as of a crystal.--_v.t._ to cut a facet upon, or cover with facets.--_adj._ FAC'ETED, having or formed into facets. [Fr. _facette_, dim. of _face_.] FACETIOUS, fa-s[=e]'shus, _adj._ witty, humorous, jocose: bawdy--(_obs._ or _arch._) FACETE'.--_n.pl._ FACETIÆ (fa-s[=e]'shi-[=e]), witty or humorous sayings or writings: a bookseller's term for improper books--of all degrees of indecency.--_adv._ FAC[=E]'TIOUSLY.--_n._ FAC[=E]'TIOUSNESS. [Fr., from L. _fac[=e]tia_--_facetus_, merry, witty.] FACIAL, f[=a]'shal, _adj._ of or relating to the face.--_adv._ F[=A]'CIALLY.--FACIAL ANGLE, in craniometry, the angle formed by lines drawn to show to what extent the jaws are protruding and the forehead receding. FACIES, f[=a]'shi-[=e]z, _n._ general aspect of anything: the face, features. [L.] FACILE, fas'il, _adj._ easily persuaded: affable: yielding: easy of access or accomplishment: courteous: easy.--_n._ FAC'ILENESS.--_v.t._ FACIL'IT[=A]TE, to make easy: to lessen difficulty.--_ns._ FACILIT[=A]'TION; FACIL'ITY, quality of being facile; dexterity: easiness to be persuaded: pliancy: easiness of access: affability: (_Scots law_) a condition of mental weakness short of idiocy, but such as makes a person easily persuaded to do deeds to his own prejudice:--_pl._ FACIL'ITIES, means that render anything easily done. [Fr.,--L. _facilis_, easy--_fac[)e]re_, to do.] FACINOROUS, fa-sin'o-rus, _adj._ atrociously wicked.--_n._ FACIN'OROUSNESS. [L. _facinorosus_--_facinus_, a crime--_fac[)e]re_, to do.] FAC-SIMILE, fak-sim'i-l[=e], _n._ an exact copy, as of handwriting, a coin, &c.--_adj._ exactly corresponding.--_v.t._ to make a fac-simile of, to reproduce.--_n._ FAC-SIM'ILIST. [L. _fac_, imper. of _fac[)e]re_, to make, _simile_, neut. of _similis_, like.] FACT, fakt, _n._ a deed or anything done: anything that comes to pass: reality, or a real state of things, as distinguished from a mere statement or belief, a datum of experience: truth: the assertion of a thing done: an evil deed, a sense now surviving only in 'to confess the fact,' 'after' or 'before the fact.'--_adj._ FACT'UAL, pertaining to facts: actual.--_ns._ FACTUAL'ITY; FACT'UM, a thing done, a deed.--AS A MATTER OF FACT, in reality.--THE FACT OF THE MATTER, the plain truth about the subject in question. [L. _factum_--_fac[)e]re_, to make.] FACTION, fak'shun, _n._ a company of persons associated or acting together, mostly used in a bad sense: a contentious party in a state or society: dissension.--_adj._ FAC'TIONAL.--_ns._ FAC'TIONARY, a member of a faction; FAC'TIONIST.--_adj._ FAC'TIOUS, turbulent: disloyal.--_adv._ FAC'TIOUSLY.--_n._ FAC'TIOUSNESS. [L. _factionem_--_fac[)e]re_, to do.] FACTITIOUS, fak-tish'us, _adj._ made by art, in opposition to what is natural or spontaneous: conventional.--_adv._ FACTI'TIOUSLY.--_n._ FACTI'TIOUSNESS.--_adjs._ FAC'TITIVE, causative; FAC'TIVE (_obs._), making. [L. _factitius_--_fac[)e]re_, to make.] FACTOR, fak'tor, _n._ a doer or transactor of business for another: one who buys and sells goods for others, on commission: (_Scot._) an agent managing heritable estates for another: (_math._) one of two or more parts, which, when multiplied together, result in a given number--e.g. 6 and 4 are factors of 24: an element in the composition of anything, or in bringing about a certain result.--_ns._ FAC'TORAGE, the fees or commission of a factor.--_adj._ FACT[=O]'RIAL, of or pertaining to a factor.--_v.t._ FAC'TORISE (_U.S._), to warn not to pay or give up goods: to attach the effects of a debtor in the hands of a third person.--_ns._ FAC'TORSHIP; FAC'TORY, a manufactory: a trading settlement in a distant country.--JUDICIAL FACTOR, a person appointed by the Court to manage the estate of a person under some incapacity. [L.,--_fac[)e]re_.] FACTOTUM, fak-t[=o]'tum, _n._ a person employed to do all kinds of work for another. [Low L.,--L. _fac_, imper. of _fac[)e]re_, to do, _totum_, all.] FACTURE, fak't[=u]r, _n._ the act or the result of making, workmanship. FACULA, fak'[=u]-la, _n._ a spot brighter than the rest of the surface, sometimes seen on the sun's disc:--_pl._ FAC'ULÆ. [L., 'a torch,' dim. of _fax_, torch.] FACULTY, fak'ul-ti, _n._ facility or power to act: any particular ability or aptitude: an original power of the mind: any physical capability or function: personal quality or endowment: right, authority, or privilege to act: license: a department of learning at a university, or the professors constituting it: the members of a profession: executive ability.--_adj._ FAC'ULT[=A]TIVE, optional: of or pertaining to a faculty.--COURT OF FACULTIES, a court established by Henry VIII., whereby authority is given to the Archbishop of Canterbury to grant dispensations and faculties. [Fr.,--L. _facultatem_--_facilis_, easy.] FACUNDITY, fa-kun'di-ti, _n._ (_obs._) eloquence. FAD, fad, _n._ a weak or transient hobby, crotchet, or craze: any unimportant belief or practice intemperately urged.--_adjs._ FAD'DISH, given to fads--also FAD'DY.--_ns._ FAD'DISNNESS; FAD'DISM; FAD'DIST, one who is a slave to some fad. [Ety. dub.] FADAISE, fa-d[=a]z', _n._ a trifling thought or expression. [Fr.] FADDLE, fad'l, _v.i._ (_prov._) to trifle.--_n._ nonsense, trifling--usually in _fiddle-faddle_. FADE, f[=a]d, _v.i._ to lose strength, freshness, or colour gradually: to vanish.--_adj._ insipid: weak.--_adv._ F[=A]'DEDLY.--_adj._ FADE'LESS.--_adv._ FADE'LESSLY.--_n._ F[=A]'DING (_Shak._), the burden of a song.--_adj._ F[=A]'DY, wearing away. [O. Fr. _fader_--_fade_--L. _vapidum_, acc. to Gaston Paris.] FADGE, faj, _v.i._ to agree: to succeed, turn out well. [Ety. dub.; not conn. with A.S. _fégan_, to join.] FÆCES, FECES, f[=e]'s[=e]z, _n.pl._ sediment after infusion or distillation: dregs: the solid excrements.--_adj._ FÆ'CAL, of or pertaining to fæces. [L., pl. of _fæx_, _fæcis_, grounds.] FAERIE, FAERY, f[=a]'[.e]r-i, _n._ (_arch._) the world of fairies, fairyland: (_obs._) a fairy. [A variant of _fairy_.] FAG, fag, _v.i._ to become weary or tired out: to work hard: to be a fag.--_v.t._ to weary: to use as a fag:--_pr.p._ fag'ging; _pa.p._ fagged.--_n._ at Eton, Winchester, &c., a schoolboy forced to do menial offices for one older, who in turn protects him: a tiresome piece of work: drudgery.--_ns._ FAG'GERY, drudgery: fagging; FAG'GING, laborious drudgery: a usage in virtue of which senior boys are authorised to exact a variety of services from the junior boys.--TO FAG OUT, to field, as a fag, in cricket. [Ety. dub.; perh. a corr. of _flag_, to droop, which see.] FAG-END, fag'-end, _n._ the end of a web of cloth that hangs loose: the untwisted end of a rope: the refuse or meaner part of a thing. FAGGOT, FAGOT, fag'ut, _n._ a bundle of sticks for fuel, fascines, &c.: a stick: anything like a faggot: a bundle of pieces of iron or steel cut off into suitable lengths for welding: a soldier numbered on the muster-roll, but not really existing: a voter who has obtained his vote expressly for party purposes, on a spurious or sham qualification.--_adj._ got up for a purpose, as in 'Faggot vote.'--_v.t._ to tie together.--_ns._ FAGG'OTING, FAG'OTING, a kind of embroidery in which some of the cross-threads are drawn together in the middle. [Fr. _fagot_, a bundle of sticks, perh. from L. _fax_, a torch.] FAGOTTO, fag-ot'o, _n._ a bassoon.--_n._ FAGOTT'IST, one who plays on the bassoon. [It.] FAHLERZ, fäl'erts, _n._ gray copper, or gray copper ore. [Ger.] FAHRENHEIT, fä'ren-h[=i]t, or far'en-[=i]t, _n._ the name applied to a thermometer, the freezing-point of which is marked at 32, and the boiling-point at 212 degrees (see THERMOMETER for the relations between the two scales). [Named from the inventor, Gabriel D. _Fahrenheit_ (1686-1736).] FAIENCE, f[=a]'yäns, _n._ a fine kind of pottery, glazed and painted. [Fr.; prob. from _Faenza_ in Italy.] FAIK, f[=a]k, _v.i._ and _v.t._ (_Scot._) to abate: to excuse. FAIL, f[=a]l, _n._ a turf, sod.--_n._ FAIL'-DIKE (_Scot._), a turf-wall. [Perh. from Gael. _fàl_, a sod.] FAIL, f[=a]l, _v.i._ to fall short or be wanting (with _in_): to fall away: to decay: to die: to prove deficient under trial, examination, pressure, &c.: to miss: to be disappointed or baffled: to be unable to pay one's debts.--_v.t._ to be wanting to: not to be sufficient for: to leave undone, omit: to disappoint or desert any one:--_pr.p._ fail'ing; _pa.p._ failed.--_n._ (_Shak._) failure.--_p.adj._ FAILED, decayed, worn out: bankrupt.--_n._ FAIL'ING, a fault, weakness: a foible.--_prep._ in default of.--_n._ FAIL'URE, a falling short, or cessation: omission: decay: bankruptcy.--FAIL OF, to come short of accomplishing any purpose; WITHOUT FAIL, infallibly. [O. Fr. _faillir_--L. _fall[)e]re_, to deceive; cf. Dut. _feilen_, Ger. _fehlen_, Ice. _feila_.] FAIN, f[=a]n, _adj._ glad or joyful: inclined (with _to_): content to accept, for want of better: compelled: (_Spens._) wont.--_v.i._ (_Spens._) to delight.--_adv._ gladly.--_adv._ FAIN'LY, gladly.--_n._ FAIN'NESS, eagerness. [A.S. _fægen_, joyful: cf. Ice. _feginn_, glad.] FAIN, f[=a]n, _v.i._ (_Spens._). Same as FEIGN. FAINÉANT, f[=a]-nyang', _adj._ and _n._ do-nothing, applied esp. to the later Merovingian kings of France, mere puppets, under whom the mayors of the Palace really governed the country.--_ns._ FAI'NEANCE (_Kingsley_), FAI'NEANCY, FAINEANT'ISE. [Fr., _faire_, to do, _néant_, nothing.] FAINT, f[=a]nt, _adj._ wanting in strength: fading: lacking distinctness: not bright or forcible: weak in spirit: lacking courage: depressed: done in a feeble way.--_v.i._ to become feeble or weak: to lose strength, colour, &c.: to swoon: to fade or decay: to vanish: to lose courage or spirit: to become depressed.--_v.t._ (_rare_) to render faint.--_n._ a swoon.--_p.adj._ FAINT'ED (_Milt._), exhausted.--_adjs._ FAINT'-HEART, FAINT'-HEART'ED, cowardly: timorous.--_adv._ FAINT'-HEART'EDLY.--_ns._ FAINT'-HEART'EDNESS; FAINT'ING.--_adj._ FAINT'ISH, slightly faint.--_n._ FAINT'ISHNESS.--_adv._ FAINT'LY.--_n._ FAINT'NESS, want of strength: feebleness of colour, light, &c.: dejection.--_adj._ FAINT'Y, faintish. [O. Fr. _feint_ (Fr. _feindre_), feigned--L. _fing[)e]re_, to feign.] FAIR, f[=a]r, _adj._ bright: clear: free from blemish: pure: pleasing to the eye: beautiful: free from a dark hue: of a light shade: free from clouds or rain: favourable: unobstructed: open: prosperous: frank: impartial: just: pleasing: plausible: hopeful: moderate: pretty good.--_n._ that which is fair: (_arch._) a woman.--_v.t._ to make fair.--_v.i._ to clear up, as the weather from rain.--_adv._ kindly, honestly, clearly: straight: (_Shak._) favourably.--_adjs._ FAIR'-AND-SQUARE, honest--also used adverbially; FAIR'-BOD'ING (_Shak._), auspicious.--_n._ FAIR'-COP'Y, the state of a document copied after final correction.--_adjs._ FAIR'-FACED, with a light complexion: beautiful: specious; FAIR'-HAIRED, having fair or light-coloured hair; FAIR'-HAND, having a fair appearance; FAIR'ISH, somewhat fair: pretty well, pretty drunk.--_adv._ FAIR'LY.--_adj._ FAIR'-MIND'ED, judging fairly.--_ns._ FAIR'NESS; FAIR'-PLAY, honest dealing: justice.--_adjs._ FAIR'-SEEM'ING, appearing fair; FAIR'-SPOK'EN, bland and civil in language and address.--_ns._ FAIR'-TRADE, free-trade: a euphemism for smuggling: a mild form of the protective system, in which the basis of economic policy is supposed to be reciprocity or free-trade only with such nations as grant similar privileges--also used adverbially; FAIR'-WAY, the part of a river, roadstead, &c. by which vessels enter or leave.--_adj._ FAIR'-WEATH'ER, suitable only for fair weather or favourable circumstances.--BE IN A FAIR WAY TO, to be likely to succeed in; KEEP FAIR WITH, to keep on amiable terms with; STAND FAIR WITH, to be in the good graces of.--THE FAIR, THE FAIR SEX, the female sex. [A.S. _fæger_.] FAIR, f[=a]r, _n._ a great periodical market for one kind of merchandise, or for the general sales and purchases of a district: a collection of miscellaneous goods for sale on behoof of charity at a bazaar, &c.--_n._ FAIR'ING, a present given at a fair, any complimentary gift.--A DAY AFTER THE FAIR, too late; GET ONE'S FAIRING (_Scot._), to get one's deserts. [O. Fr. _feire_--L. _feria_, holiday.] FAIRY, f[=a]r'i, _n._ an imaginary being, generally of diminutive and graceful human form, capable of kindly or unkindly acts towards man: fairy-folk collectively: an enchantress, or creature of overpowering charm.--_adj._ like a fairy, fanciful, whimsical, delicate.--_adv._ FAIR'ILY.--_n.pl._ FAIR'Y-BEADS, the separate joints of the stems of fossil crinoids found in carboniferous limestone.--_ns._ FAIR'Y-BUTT'ER, a name applied in northern England to certain gelatinous fungi; FAIR'YDOM; FAIR'YHOOD, FAIR'YISM; FAIR'YLAND, the country of the fairies.--_adj._ FAIR'Y-LIKE, like or acting like fairies.--_n._ FAIR'Y-MON'EY, money given by fairies, which quickly changes into withered leaves, &c.: money found.--_ns.pl._ FAIR'Y-RINGS, -CIR'CLES, spots or circles in pastures, either barer than the rest of the field, or greener--due to the outwardly spreading growth of various fungi.--_ns._ FAIR'Y-STONE, a fossil echinite found abundantly in chalk-pits; FAIR'Y-TALE, a story about fairies: an incredible tale. [O. Fr. _faerie_, enchantment--_fae_ (mod. _fée_). See FAY.] FAITH, f[=a]th, _n._ trust or confidence in any person: belief in the statement of another: belief in the truth of revealed religion: confidence and trust in God: the living reception by the heart of the truth as it is in Christ: that which is believed: any system of religious belief, esp. the religion one considers true--'the faith;' fidelity to promises: honesty: word or honour pledged.--_adjs._ FAITHED (_Shak._), credited; FAITH'FUL, full of faith, believing: firm in adherence to promises, duty, allegiance, &c.: loyal: conformable to truth: worthy of belief: true.--_adv._ FAITH'FULLY, sincerely, truthfully, exactly.--_ns._ FAITH'FULNESS; FAITH'-HEAL'ING, a system of belief based on James, v. 14, that sickness may be treated without any medical advice or appliances, if the prayer of Christians be accompanied in the sufferer by true faith.--_adj._ FAITH'LESS, without faith or belief: not believing, esp. in God or Christianity: not adhering to promises, allegiance, or duty: delusive.--_adv._ FAITH'LESSLY.--_ns._ FAITH'LESSNESS; FAITH'WORTHINESS, trustworthiness.--_adj._ FAITH'WORTHY, worthy of faith or belief.--BAD FAITH, treachery.--FATHER OF THE FAITHFUL, Abraham: the caliph.--IN GOOD FAITH, with sincerity.--THE FAITHFUL, believers. [M. E. _feith_, _feyth_--O. Fr. _feid_--L. _fides_--_fid[)e]re_, to trust.] FAITOR, f[=a]'tor, _n._ an impostor: an evil-doer, a scoundrel.--Often FAI'TOUR. [O. Fr. _faitor_--L. _factor_.] FAKE, f[=a]k, _v.t._ to fold, coil.--_n._ a coil of rope, &c. FAKE, f[=a]k, _v.t._ to steal: to make up an article so as to hide its defects.--_n._ FAKE'MENT, any swindling device. [Prof. Skeat thinks it merely the Mid. Dut. _facken_, to catch; Mr Bradley suggests the earlier _feak_, _feague_, Ger. _fegen_, to furbish up.] FAKIR, fa-k[=e]r', or f[=a]'k[.e]r, _n._ a member of a religious order of mendicants or penitents in India, &c.--_n._ FAKIR'ISM, religious mendicancy. [Ar. _faqîr_, a poor man, _fakr_, _faqr_, poverty.] FA-LA, fä-lä, _n._ an old kind of madrigal. FALBALA, fal'ba-la, _n._ a trimming for women's petticoats: a furbelow. [Ety. dub.; cf. _furbelow_.] FALCADE, fal'k[=a]d', _n._ the motion of a horse when he throws himself on his haunches in a very quick curvet. [Fr.,--L. _fulcatus_, bent.] FALCATE, -D, fal'k[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ (_astron._, _bot._) bent like a sickle, as the crescent moon, and certain leaves.--_ns._ FALC[=A]'TION; FAL'CULA, a falcate or falciform claw.--_adj._ FAL'CULATE. [L. _falx_, a sickle.] FALCHION, fawl'shun, _n._ a short, broad sword, bent somewhat like a sickle.--_adj._ FAL'CIFORM, sickle-shaped. [O. Fr. _fauchon_, through Low L., from L. _falx_, a sickle.] FALCON, fol'kon, or faw'kn, _n._ a bird of prey formerly trained to the pursuit of game: a kind of cannon.--_ns._ FAL'CONER, one who sports with, or who breeds and trains, falcons or hawks for taking wild-fowl; FAL'CONET, a small field-gun in use till the 16th century.--_adj._ FAL'CON-EYED, keen-eyed.--_ns._ FAL'CON-GEN'TIL, -GEN'TLE, the female and young of the goshawk.--_adj._ FAL'CONINE.--_n._ FAL'CONRY, the art of training or hunting with falcons. [O. Fr. _faucon_--Low L. _falc[=o]n-em_--L. _falx_, a hook or sickle.] FALDAGE, fal'd[=a]j, _n._ the right, often reserved by the lord of a manor, of folding his tenant's sheep in his own fields for the sake of the manure: a fee paid for exemption from the foregoing. FALDERAL, fäl'der-al, _n._ a meaningless refrain in songs: any kind of flimsy trifle--also FOL'DEROL and FAL DE ROL.--FALDERAL IT, to sing unmeaning sounds. FALDETTA, fal-det'a, _n._ a Maltese woman's combined hood and cape. [It.] FALDSTOOL, fawld'st[=oo]l, _n._ a folding or camp stool: a kind of stool for the king at his coronation: a bishop's armless seat: a small desk in churches in England, at which the litany should be sung or said.--_n._ FALD'ISTORY, a bishop's seat within the chancel. [Low L. _faldistolium_--Old High Ger. _faldan_ (Ger. _falten_), to fold, _stuol_ (Ger. _stuhl_), stool.] FALERNIAN, fa-ler'ni-an, _adj._ pertaining to a district (_Falernus ager_) in Campania, famous of old for its wine.--_n._ FALER'NE, a modern sweet white wine, produced near Naples. FALL, fawl, _v.i._ to drop down: to descend by the force of gravity: to become prostrate: (of a river) to discharge itself: to slope down: to sink as if dead: to vanish: to die away: to lose strength, subside: to decline in power, wealth, value, or reputation: to be overthrown: to be compelled to yield: to become downcast: to sink into sin, to yield to temptation: to depart from the faith: to become dejected: to pass gently into any state, as 'to fall in love,' 'to fall asleep:' to befall: to issue, occur: to enter upon with haste or vehemence: to rush: to be dropped in birth: to be required or necessary: to fall away:--_pr.p._ fall'ing; _pa.t._ fell; _pa.p._ fallen (faw'ln).--_n._ the act of falling, in any of its senses: descent by gravity, a dropping down: that which falls--a trap-door, &c.: as much as comes down at one time, as 'a fall of snow,' &c.: overthrow: death: descent from a better to a worse position: slope or declivity: descent of water: a cascade: length of a fall: outlet of a river: decrease in value: a sinking of the voice: the time when the leaves fall, autumn: a bout at wrestling: the yielding of a city or stronghold to the enemy: that which falls: a lapse into sin, esp. that of Adam and Eve, called 'the Fall:' a kind of collar worn in the 17th century.--_adj._ FALL'EN, in a degraded state, ruined.--_ns._ FALL'ING, that which falls; FALL'ING-BAND (see BAND); FALL'ING-SICK'NESS, epilepsy; FALL'ING-STAR, a meteor; FALL'ING-STONE, a portion of an exploded meteor; FALL'TRANK, a medicine compounded of certain aromatic and astringent Swiss plants, of repute for accidents; FALL'-TRAP, a trap which operates by falling.--FALL-A, to begin; FALL ACROSS, to meet by chance; FALL AMONG, to come into the midst of; FALL AWAY, to decline gradually, to languish: to grow lean: to revolt or apostatise; FALL BACK, to retreat, give way; FALL BACK, FALL EDGE, no matter what may happen; FALL BACK UPON, to have recourse to some expedient or resource in reserve; FALL BEHIND, to slacken, to be outstripped; FALL FLAT, to fail completely, as a shopman in attracting attention or purchasers, a new book, &c.; FALL FOUL, to come in collision: to quarrel (with _of_); FALL IN (_with_), to concur or agree: to comply: to place themselves in order, as soldiers; FALL OFF, to separate or be broken: to die away, to perish: to revolt or apostatise; FALL ON, to begin eagerly: to make an attack: to meet; FALL ON ONE'S FEET, to come well out of a difficulty, to gain any unexpected good fortune; FALL OUT, to quarrel: to happen or befall; FALL OVER (_Shak._), to go over to the enemy; FALL SHORT, to be deficient (with _of_); FALL THROUGH, to fail, come to nothing; FALL TO, to begin hastily and eagerly: to apply one's self to; FALL UPON, to attack: to attempt: to rush against.--TRY A FALL, to take a bout at wrestling. [A.S. _feallan_; Ger. _fallen_; prob. conn. with L. _fall[)e]re_, to deceive.] FALL, fawl, _n._ the cry given when a whale is sighted, or harpooned: the chase of a whale.--LOOSE FALL, the losing of a whale. [Prob. from the north-eastern Scotch pronunciation of _whale_.] FALLACY, fal'a-si, _n._ something fallacious: deceptive appearance: an apparently genuine but really illogical argument: (_obs._) deception.--_adj._ FALL[=A]'CIOUS, calculated to deceive or mislead: not well founded: causing disappointment: delusive.--_adv._ FALL[=A]'CIOUSLY.--_n._ FALL[=A]'CIOUSNESS. [O. Fr. _fallace_, deceit--L. _fallacia_, from _fallax_, deceptive--_fall[)e]re_, to deceive.] FALLAL, fal'lal', or fal-lal', _n._ a piece of ribbon worn as a streamer, any trifling ornament.--_adj._ foppish, trifling.--_n._ FALLAL'ERY.--_adv._ FALLAL'ISHLY. FALLIBLE, fal'i-bl, _adj._ liable to error or mistake.--_n._ FALLIBIL'ITY, liability to err.--_adv._ FALL'IBLY. [Fr.,--Low L. _fallibilis_, from _fall[)e]re_, to deceive.] FALLOPIAN, fal-l[=o]'pi-an, _adj._ denoting two tubes or ducts through which the ova pass from the ovary to the uterus in the human subject. [So called because supposed to have been discovered by the Italian anatomist _Fallopius_ (1523-62).] FALLOW, fal'[=o], _adj._ left untilled or unsowed for a time.--_n._ land that has lain a year or more untilled or unsown after having been ploughed.--_v.t._ to plough land without seeding it.--_ns._ FALL'OWNESS, state of being fallow or untilled; GREEN FALL'OW, fallow where land is cleaned by a green crop, as turnips. [Ety. dub.; prob. an assumed A.S. _fealgian_, that may be confounded with the following word, from the reddish colour of unsown land.] FALLOW, fal'[=o], _adj._ of a brownish-yellow colour.--_ns._ FALL'OW-CHAT, FALL'OW-FINCH, the wheatear or stonechat; FALL'OW-DEER, a yellowish-brown deer smaller than the red-deer, with broad flat antlers. [A.S. _falu_; cf. Ger. _fahl_, Ice. _folr_.] FALSE, fawls, _adj._ deceptive or deceiving: untruthful: unfaithful to obligations: untrue: not genuine or real, counterfeit: hypocritical: not well founded, or not according to rule: artificial, as opposed to natural, of teeth, &c.--_adv._ incorrectly: faithlessly.--_n._ (_Shak._) falsehood: untruth.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to betray.--_ns._ FALSE CONCEPTION, a uterine growth consisting of some degenerate mass instead of a foetus; FALSE'FACE, a mask.--_adjs._ FALSE'-FACED (_Shak._), hypocritical; FALSE'-HEART'ED, treacherous, deceitful.--_n._ FALSE'HOOD, state or quality of being false: want of truth: want of honesty: deceitfulness: false appearance: an untrue statement: a lie.--_adv._ FALSE'LY.--_ns._ FALSE'NESS; FALS'ER (_Spens._), a deceiver, a liar.--_adjs._ FALSID'ICAL, deceptive; FALS'ISH, somewhat false.--_ns._ FALS'ISM, a self-evident falsity; FALS'ITY, quality of being false: a false assertion.--PLAY ONE FALSE, to act falsely or treacherously to a person; PUT IN A FALSE POSITION, to bring any one into a position in which he must be misunderstood. [O. Fr. _fals_ (mod. _faux_)--L. _falsus_, pa.p. of _fall[)e]re_, to deceive.] FALSETTO, fawl-set'o, _n._ a forced voice of a range or register above the natural, the head voice. [It. _falsetto_, dim. of _falso_, false.] FALSIFY, fawls'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to forge or counterfeit: to prove untrustworthy: to break by falsehood:--_pr.p._ fals'ifying; _pa.p._ fals'ified.--_adj._ FALS'IF[=I]ABLE, capable of being falsified.--_ns._ FALSIFIC[=A]'TION, the act of making false: the giving to a thing the appearance of something which it is not; FALS'IFIER, one who falsifies. [Fr.,--Low L. _falsific[)a]re_--L. _falsus_, false, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] FALSTAFFIAN, fal'staf-i-an, _adj._ like Shakespeare's _Falstaff_--corpulent, jovial, humorous, and dissolute. FALTER, fawl't[.e]r, _v.i._ to stumble: to fail or stammer in speech: to tremble or totter: to be feeble or irresolute.--_n._ any unsteadiness.--_n._ FAL'TERING, feebleness, deficiency.--_adv._ FAL'TERINGLY, in a faltering or hesitating manner. [Prob. a freq. of _falden_, fold. The conn. with _fault_, in which the _l_ is late, is untenable.] FALX, falks, _n._ a sickle-shaped part or process, as of the dura mater of the skull: a chelicera: a poison-fang of a snake: a rotula of a sea-urchin:--_pl._ FALCES (fal's[=e]z). [L., a sickle.] FAMBLE, fam'bl, _n._ (_slang_) the hand--also FAM.--_v.t._ to feel or handle. [Der. obscure; perh. from the obs. verb _famble_, in its probable original sense, 'to grope, fumble.'] FAME, f[=a]m, _n._ public report or rumour: renown or celebrity, chiefly in good sense.--_v.t._ to report: to make famous.--_n._ F[=A]'MA, report, rumour, fame.--_adjs._ FAMED, renowned; FAME'LESS, without renown.--FAMA CLAMOSA (_Scot._), any notorious rumour ascribing immoral conduct to a minister or office-bearer in a church.--HOUSE OF ILL FAME, a brothel. [Fr.,--L. _fama_, from _f[=a]ri_, to speak; cog. with Gr. _ph[=e]m[=e]_, from _phanai_, to say.] FAMILIAR, fa-mil'yar, _adj._ well acquainted or intimate: showing the manner of an intimate: free: unceremonious: having a thorough knowledge of: well known or understood: private, domestic: common, plain.--_n._ one well or long acquainted: a spirit or demon supposed to attend an individual at call: a member of a pope's or bishop's household: the officer of the Inquisition who arrested the suspected.--_v.t._ FAMIL'IARISE, to make thoroughly acquainted: to accustom: to make easy by practice or study.--_n._ FAMILIAR'ITY, intimate acquaintanceship: freedom from constraint: any unusual or unwarrantable freedom in act or speech toward another, acts of license--usually in _pl._--_adv._ FAMIL'IARLY. [O. Fr. _familier_--L. _familiaris_, from _familia_, a family.] FAMILY, fam'i-li, _n._ the household, or all those who live in one house under one head, including parents, children, servants: the children of a person: the descendants of one common progenitor: race: honourable or noble descent: a group of animals, plants, languages, &c. more comprehensive than a genus.--_ns._ FAM'ILISM, the family feeling; FAM'ILIST, one of the 16th-cent. mystical sect known as the Family of Love, which based religion upon love independently of faith.--FAMILY BIBLE, a large Bible for family worship, with a page for recording family events; FAMILY COACH, a large carriage able to carry a whole family; FAMILY MAN, a man with a family: a domesticated man.--BE IN THE FAMILY WAY, to be pregnant; IN A FAMILY WAY, in a domestic manner. [L. _familia_--_famulus_, a servant.] FAMINE, fam'in, _n._ general scarcity of food: extreme scarcity of anything, as in 'famine prices,' &c.: hunger: starvation. [Fr., through an unrecorded Low L. _famina_, from L. _fames_, hunger.] FAMISH, fam'ish, _v.t._ to starve.--_v.i._ to die or suffer extreme hunger or thirst.--_n._ FAM'ISHMENT, starvation. [Obs. _fame_, to starve--L. _fames_, hunger.] FAMOUS, f[=a]'mus, _adj._ renowned: noted.--_v.t._ to make famous.--_adv._ F[=A]'MOUSLY.--_n._ F[=A]'MOUSNESS. [O. Fr.,--L. _famosus_--_fama_.] FAMULUS, fam'[=u]-lus, _n._ a private secretary or factotum: an attendant, esp. on a magician or scholar.--_n._ FAM'ULIST, a collegian of inferior position (Dr Murray doubts the word). [L. _famulus_, a servant.] [Illustration] FAN, fan, _n._ an instrument for winnowing grain: a broad, flat instrument used by ladies to cool themselves: a wing: a small sail to keep a windmill to the wind: the agitation of the air caused by a fan.--_v.t._ to cool with a fan: to winnow: to ventilate: to remove by waving a fan:--_pr.p._ fan'ning; _pa.p._ fanned.--_ns._ FAN'-BLAST, in ironworks the blast produced by a fan, as distinguished from that produced by a blowing-engine; FAN'-CRICK'ET, the mole-cricket, fen-cricket, or churr-worm.--_adj._ FAN'-NERVED, in entomology, having a fan-like arrangement of the nervures or veins of the wings.--_ns._ FAN'LIGHT, a window resembling in form an open fan; FAN'NER, a machine with revolving fans, used for winnowing grain, &c.; FAN'-PALM, a species of palm 60 or 70 feet high, with fan-shaped leaves, used for umbrellas, tents, &c.; FAN'-TAIL, an artificial fan-tailed variety of the domestic pigeon; FAN'-TR[=A]C'ERY (_archit._), tracery rising from a capital or a corbel, and diverging like the folds of a fan over the surface of a vault; FAN'-WHEEL, a wheel with fans on its rim for producing a current of air. [A.S. _fann_, from L. _vannus_, a fan; cf. Fr. _van_.] FANAL, f[=a]'nal, _n._ (_arch._) a lighthouse, a beacon. [Fr.,--Gr. _phanos_, a lantern, _phainein_, to show.] FANATIC, fa-nat'ik, _adj._ extravagantly or unreasonably zealous, esp. in religion: excessively enthusiastic.--_n._ a person frantically or excessively enthusiastic, esp. on religious subjects.--_adj._ FANAT'ICAL, fanatic, (_Shak._) extravagant.--_adv._ FANAT'ICALLY.--_v.t._ FANAT'ICISE, to make fanatical.--_v.i._ to act as a fanatic.--_n._ FANAT'ICISM, wild and excessive religious enthusiasm. [Fr.,--L. _fanaticus_, belonging to a temple, inspired by a god, _fanum_, a temple.] FANCY, fan'si, _n._ that faculty of the mind by which it recalls, represents, or makes to appear past images or impressions: an image or representation thus formed in the mind: an unreasonable or capricious opinion: a whim: capricious inclination or liking: taste: (_Shak._) love.--_adj._ pleasing to, or guided by, fancy or caprice: elegant or ornamental.--_v.t._ to portray in the mind: to imagine: to have a fancy or liking for: to be pleased with: to breed animals:--_pr.p._ fan'cying; _pa.p._ fan'cied.--_p.adj._ FAN'CIED, formed or conceived by the fancy: imagined.--_n._ FAN'CIER, one who has a special liking for anything, or who keeps a special article for sale: one who is governed by fancy.--_adj._ FAN'CIFUL, guided or created by fancy: imaginative: whimsical: wild.--_adv._ FAN'CIFULLY.--_n._ FAN'CIFULNESS.--_adj._ FAN'CILESS, destitute of fancy.--_ns._ FAN'CY-BALL, a ball at which fancy-dresses in various characters are worn; FAN'CY-DRESS, dress arranged according to the wearer's fancy, to represent some character in history or fiction; FAN'CY-FAIR, a special sale of fancy articles for some charitable purpose.--_adj._ FAN'CY-FREE (_Shak._), free from the power of love.--_n.pl._ FAN'CY-GOODS, fabrics of variegated rather than simple pattern, applied generally to articles of show and ornament.--_n._ FAN'CY-MONG'ER (_Shak._), one who deals in tricks of imagination.--_adj._ FAN'CY-SICK (_Shak._), of distempered mind, love-sick.--_ns._ FAN'CY-STITCH, a more intricate and decorative stitch than _plain-stitch_; FAN'CY-STROKE (_billiards_), an unusual stroke, or one made to show off one's skill; FAN'CY-WORK, ornamental needlework.--THE FANCY, sporting characters generally, esp. pugilists: pugilism. [Contracted from _fantasy_.] FAND, fand (_Spens._), _pa.t._ of FIND. FAND, fand, FOND, fond, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to try, attempt. [A.S. _fandian_.] FANDANGO, fan-dan'go, _n._ an old Spanish dance for two, in ¾ time, with castanets, proceeding gradually from a slow and uniform to the liveliest motion: a gathering for dancing, a ball. [Sp.] FANE, f[=a]n, _n._ (_obs._) a flag: weathercock. [_Vane_.] FANE, f[=a]n, _n._ a temple. [L. _fanum_.] FANFARE, fan-f[=a]r', _n._ a flourish of trumpets or bugles--also FANFARADE'.--_ns._ FAN'FARON, one who uses bravado: a blusterer, braggart; FAN'FARONADE, vain boasting: bluster: ostentation.--_v.i._ to bluster. [Fr. _fanfare_, perh. from the sound.] FANG, fang, _n._ the tooth of a ravenous beast: a claw or talon: the venom-tooth of a serpent: (_Shak._) a grip, catch.--_v.t._ (_obs._) to seize upon, catch.--_adjs._ FANGED, having fangs, clutches, or anything resembling them; FANG'LESS, having no fangs or tusks: toothless.--LOSE THE FANG (of a pump), to be dry, to have no water (_Scot._). [A.S. _fang_, from _fón_, to seize; Ger. _fangen_, to catch, Dut. _vangen_.] FANGLE, fang'gl, _n._ (_Milt._) fancy.--_adj._ FANG'LED (_obs._ save in _newfangled_, q.v.), newly made, new-fashioned: showy, gaudy.--_n._ FANG'LENESS. FANION, fan'yun, _n._ a small marking-flag used at a station in surveying. [O. Fr.,--Low L. _fano_.] FANNEL, fan'el, _n._ a vexillum or banner. FANON, fan'on, _n._ a cloth for handling the holy vessels or the offertory bread: a maniple or napkin used by the celebrant at mass: an orale: a fannel: one of the lappets of a mitre: (_surg._) a fold of linen laid under a splint. [O. Fr.] FANTASIA, fan-tä'zi-a, _n._ a musical composition, not governed by the ordinary musical rules. [It., from Gr. _phantasia_. See FANCY.] FANTASY, PHANTASY, fan'ta-si, _n._ fancy: imagination: mental image: love: whim, caprice.--_v.t._ to fancy, conceive mentally.--_adj._ FAN'TASIED, filled with fancies.--_n._ FAN'TASM (same as PHANTASM).--_adj._ FAN'TASQUE, fantastic.--_ns._ FAN'TAST, a person of fantastic ideas; FANTAS'TIC, one who is fantastical.--_adjs._ FANTAS'TIC, -AL, fanciful: not real: capricious: whimsical: wild.--_adv._ FANTAS'TICALLY.--_n._ FANTAS'TICALNESS.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ FANTAS'TICATE.--_ns._ FANTAS'TICISM; FANTAS'TICO (_Shak._), a fantastic. [O. Fr.,--Low L. _phantasticus_--Gr. _phantastikos_, _phantazein_, to make visible. _Fancy_ is a doublet.] FANTOCCINI, fan-to-ch[=e]'n[=e], _n.pl._ puppets worked by machinery: dramatic performances by puppets. [It., pl. of _fantoccino_, dim. of _fantoccio_, a puppet--_fante_, a boy.] FANTOM, fan'tom, _n._ Same as PHANTOM. FAP, fap, _adj._ (_Shak._) fuddled, drunk. FAQUIR, fak-[=e]r', _n._ Same as FAKIR. FAR, fär, _adj._ remote: more distant of two: remote from or contrary to purpose or design.--_adv._ to a great distance in time, space, or proportion: remotely: considerably or in great part: very much: to a great height: to a certain point, degree, or distance.--_v.t._ (_prov._) to remove to a distance.--_adjs._ FAR'-AWAY', distant: abstracted, absent-minded; FAR'-FETCHED, fetched or brought from a remote place: forced, unnatural--(_obs._) FAR'FET.--_advs._ FAR'-FORTH (_Spens._), very far; FAR'MOST, most distant or remote.--_n._ FAR'NESS, the state of being far: remoteness, distance.--_adj._ and _adv._ FAR'-OFF, distant.--_adjs._ FAR'-REACH'ING, exerting influence to a great distance and for a long time; FAR'-SIGHT'ED, seeing to a great distance: having defective eyesight for near objects; FAR'-SOUGHT, sought for at a distance; FAR'-SPENT, far advanced.--FAR AND AWAY, by a great deal; BY FAR, in a very great degree; I'LL SEE YOU FAR (or FARTHER) FIRST, I will not do it by any means; IN SO FAR AS, to the extent that. [A.S. _feor_; Dut. _ver_; Ice. _fiarre_; Ger. _fern_.] FAR, fär, _n._ (_prov._) a litter of pigs. FARAD, far'ad, _n._ the name of the practical unit of electrical capacity--the capacity of a conductor which when raised to a potential of one volt has a charge of one coulomb.--_adj._ FARAD'IC.--_n._ FARADIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ FAR'ADISE.--_ns._ FAR'ADISM; MICROFAR'AD, the millionth part of a farad. [From Michael _Faraday_ (1791-1867).] FARAND, FARRAND, far'and, _adj._ (_Scot._) having a certain favour or appearance, esp. in such compound forms as _auld-farand_, old-fashioned; _ill-faured_, ill-favoured, &c. [M. E. _farand_, comely. Origin obscure; most prob. the verb _fare_ (q.v.).] FARCE, färs, _n._ a style of comedy marked by low humour and extravagant wit: ridiculous or empty show.--_n._ FAR'CEUR, a joker.--_adj._ FAR'CICAL.--_n._ FARCICAL'ITY, farcical quality.--_adv._ FAR'CICALLY.--_v.t._ FAR'CIFY, to turn into a farce. [Fr. _farce_, stuffing, from L. _farc[=i]re_, to stuff, applied, acc. to H. Bradley, to words put between _Kyrie_ and _Eleison_ in religious services, then to the interpolated _gag_ in a religious play, next a buffoon performance.] FARCE, färs, _v.t._ to cram: to stuff, fill with stuffing: (_Shak._) to swell out.--_n._ FAR'CING, stuffing. [O. Fr. _farsir_--L. _farc[=i]re_, to cram.] FARCY, fär'si, _n._ a disease of horses like glanders--(_obs._) FAR'CIN.--_adj._ FAR'CIED.--_n._ FAR'CY-BUD, a swollen lymphatic gland, as in farcy. [Fr. _farcin_--Low L. _farciminum_.] FARD, färd, _n._ white paint for the face.--_v.t._ to paint with such, to embellish. [Fr., of Teut. origin, Old High Ger. _farwjan_, to colour.] FARDAGE, fär'd[=a]j, _n._ (_naut._) loose wood or other material stowed among the cargo to keep it from shifting, or put under it to keep it above the bilge. [Fr.] FARDEL, fär'del, _n._ a pack: anything cumbersome or irksome.--_adj._ FAR'DEL-BOUND, constipated, esp. of cattle and sheep, by the retention of food in the third stomach. [O. Fr. _fardel_ (Fr. _fardeau_), dim. of _farde_, a burden--Ar. _fardah_, a package (Devic).] FARDING-BAG, fär'ding-bag, _n._ the first stomach of a cow or other ruminant. FARE, f[=a]r, _v.i._ to get on or succeed: to happen well or ill to: to be in any particular state, to be, to go on: to feed.--_n._ the price of passage--(_orig._) a course or passage: those conveyed in a carriage: food or provisions for the table.--_interj._ FAREWELL', may you fare well! a wish for safety or success.--_n._ well-wishing at parting: the act of departure.--_adj._ parting: final. [A.S. _faran_; Ger. _fahren_.] FARINA, fa-r[=i]'na, or fa-r[=e]'na, _n._ ground corn: meal: starch: pollen of plants.--_adjs._ FARIN[=A]'CEOUS, mealy; FARINOSE', yielding farina. [L.,--_far_.] FARL, färl, _n._ (_Scot._) the quarter of a round cake of flour or oatmeal. [_Fardel_, a fourth part.] FARM, färm, _n._ land let or rented for cultivation or pasturage, with the necessary buildings: (_Spens._) habitation: (_Shak._) a lease.--_v.t._ to let out as lands to a tenant: to take on lease: to grant certain rights in return for a portion of what they yield, as to farm the taxes: to cultivate, as land.--_adj._ FARM'ABLE.--_ns._ FARM'-BAI'LIFF; FARM'ER, one who farms or cultivates land: the tenant of a farm: one who collects taxes, &c., for a certain rate per cent.:--_fem._ FARM'ERESS; FARM'ERING, the business of a farmer.--_n.pl._ FARM'ERS-GEN'ERAL, the name given before the French Revolution to the members of a privileged association in France, who leased the public revenues of the nation.--_ns._ FARM'ERY, the buildings of a farm; FARM'-HOUSE, a house attached to a farm in which the farmer lives; FARM'ING, the business of cultivating land; FARM'-L[=A]'BOURER.--_n.pl._ FARM'-OFF'ICES, the offices or outbuildings on a farm.--_ns._ FARM'STEAD, a farm with the buildings belonging to it; FARM'-YARD, the yard or enclosure surrounded by the farm buildings. [A.S. _feorm_, goods, entertainment, from Low L. _firma_--L. _firmus_, firm. The Low L. _firma_ meant a fixed payment, also a signature (whence our 'firm' in business); from 'rent' _farm_ passed to 'lease,' then to 'a tract of land held on lease.' _Farm_ is therefore a doublet of _firm_.] FARO, f[=a]r'o, _n._ a game of chance played by betting on the order in which certain cards will appear when taken singly from the top of the pack. [Perh. from King _Pharaoh_ on one of the cards.] FARRAGO, far-r[=a]'g[=o], _n._ a confused mass.--_adj._ FARR[=A]'GINOUS, miscellaneous, jumbled. [L., _far_, grain.] FARRIER, far'i-[.e]r, _n._ one who shoes horses: one who cures the diseases of horses.--_n._ FARR'IERY, the art of curing the diseases of cattle. [O. Fr. _ferrier_, through Low L. _ferrarius_, from L. _ferrum_, iron.] FARROW, far'[=o], _n._ a litter of pigs.--_v.i._ or _v.t._ to bring forth pigs. [A.S. _fearh_, a pig; Ger. _ferkel_.] FARROW, far'r[=o], _adj._ not producing young in a particular season, said of cows. [Ety. dub.; with _farrow cow_ cf. Flem. _verwekoe_, _varwekoe_.] FARSE, färs, _n._ an explanation of the Latin epistle in the vernacular.--_v.t._ to extend by interpolation. FART, fart, _v.i._ to break wind.--_n._ a noisy expulsion of wind. [A.S. _feortan_; Ger. _farzen_.] FARTHER, fär'_th_[.e]r, _adj._ (_comp._ of FAR) more far or distant: tending to a greater distance: longer: additional.--_adv._ at or to a greater distance; more remotely: beyond: moreover.--_adjs._ and _advs._ FAR'THERMORE, furthermore; FAR'THERMOST, furthermost.--_adj._ FARTHEST (_superl._ of FAR), most far, distant, or remote.--_adv._ at or to the greatest distance. [A rather recent form, comp. of _far_, the euphonic _th_ being inserted from the analogy of _further_.] FARTHING, fär'_th_ing, _n._ the fourth of a penny: anything very small: (_B._) the rendering for two names of coins, one the fourth part of the other--_assarion_, used as the Gr. equivalent of the L. _as_, and _kodrantes_ (L. _quadrans_), a coin equivalent to two _lepta_.--_n._ FAR'THINGFUL. [A.S. _féorthing_, a fourth part--_féortha_, fourth, and dim. _-ing_, or _-ling_.] FARTHINGALE, fär'_th_ing-g[=a]l, _n._ a kind of crinoline of whalebone for distending women's dress. [O. Fr. _verdugale_--Sp. _verdugado_, hooped, _verdugo_, rod.] FASCES, fas'[=e]z, _n.pl._ a bundle of rods with an axe in the middle, borne before the ancient Roman principal magistrates. [L. _fascis_, a bundle.] FASCIA, fash'i-a, _n._ (_archit._) a flat space or band between mouldings: (_anat._) a layer of condensed connective tissue between some muscle and any other tissue.--_adjs._ FAS'CIAL; FAS'CIATED.--_n._ FASCI[=A]'TION (_bot._), a form of monstrosity by the flattening of a single stem, or the lateral union of several stems. [L.] FASCICLE, fas'i-kl, _n._ a little bundle: (_bot._) a close cluster, the flowers crowded together, as in the sweet-william--also FAS'CICULE.--_adjs._ FAS'CICLED, FASCIC'ULAR, FASCIC'ULATE, -D, united as in a bundle.--_n._ FASCIC'ULUS, a fascicle: a part of a book issued in parts. [L. _fasciculus_, dim. of _fascis_, a bundle.] FASCINATE, fas'i-n[=a]t, _v.t._ to control by the glance: to charm: to captivate: to enchant, esp. by the evil eye.--_adj._ FAS'CINATING, charming, delightful.--_n._ FASCIN[=A]'TION, the act of charming: power to harm by looks or spells: mysterious attractive power exerted by a man's words or manner: irresistible power of alluring: state of being fascinated. [L. _fascin[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_; perh. allied to Gr. _baskainein_, to bewitch.] FASCINE, fas-s[=e]n', _n._ (_fort._) a brushwood faggot bound together with wire, yarn, or withes, used to fill ditches, &c. [Fr.,--L. _fascina_--_fascis_, a bundle.] FASH, fash, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to trouble, annoy.--_v.i._ to be vexed at, to take trouble or pains.--_n._ pains, trouble.--_adj._ FASH'IOUS, troublesome, vexatious.--_ns._ FASH'IOUSNESS, FASH'ERY. [O. Fr. _fascher_ (Fr. _fâcher_)--L. _fastidium_, _fastidiosus_, fastidious.] FASHION, fash'un, _n._ the make or cut of a thing: form or pattern: prevailing mode or shape of dress: a prevailing custom: manner: genteel society: appearance.--_v.t._ to make: to mould according to a pattern: to suit or adapt.--_adj._ FASH'IONABLE, made according to prevailing fashion: prevailing or in use at any period: observant of the fashion in dress or living: moving in high society: patronised by people of fashion.--_n._ a person of fashion.--_n._ FASH'IONABLENESS.--_adv._ FASH'IONABLY.--_ns._ FASH'IONER; FASH'IONIST.--_adjs._ FASH'IONMONGERING, FASH'IONMONGING (_Shak._), behaving like a fop.--AFTER, or IN, A FASHION, in a way: to a certain extent; IN THE FASHION, in accordance with the prevailing style of dress, &c.--opp. to _Out of fashion_. [O. Fr. _fachon_--L. _faction-em_--_fac[)e]re_, to make.] FAST, fast, _adj._ firm: fixed: steadfast: fortified: (of sleep) sound (_Shak._).--_adv._ firmly, unflinchingly: soundly or sound (asleep): quickly: close, near.--_n._ FAST-AND-LOOSE, the name of a cheating game practised at fairs--called also _Prick-the-garter_.--_adj._ FAST'-HAND'ED, close-fisted.--_adv._ FAST'LY (_Shak._), firmly.--_n._ FAST'NESS, fixedness: a stronghold, fortress, castle.--FAST BY, close to.--PLAY FAST AND LOOSE (from the foregoing), to be unreliable, to say one thing and do another; HARD-AND-FAST (see HARD). [A.S. _fæst_; Ger. _fest_.] FAST, fast, _adj._ quick: rapid: rash: dissipated.--_adv._ swiftly: in rapid succession: extravagantly.--_adj._ FAST'ISH, somewhat fast. [A special use of _fast_, firm, derived from the Scand., in the sense of urgent.] FAST, fast, _v.i._ to keep from food: to go hungry: to abstain from food in whole or part, as a religious duty.--_n._ abstinence from food: special abstinence enjoined by the church: the day or time of fasting.--_ns._ FAST'-DAY, a day of religious fasting: (_Scot._) a day for humiliation and prayer, esp. before celebrations of the Lord's Supper; FAST'ENS, short for _Fastens-eve_ (Scot. _Fasten-e'en_ and _Fastern's-e'en_), _Fastens Tuesday_, Shrove Tuesday; FAST'ER, one who fasts: FAST'ING, religious abstinence. [A.S. _fæstan_, to fast; Ger. _fasten_, to keep: perh. allied with _fast_, firm, in the sense of making strict.] FASTEN, fas'n, _v.t._ to make fast or tight: to fix securely: to attach firmly one thing to another: to confirm.--_v.i._ to fix itself.--_n._ FAS'TENING, that which fastens. FASTI, fas't[=i], _n.pl._ those days among the ancient Romans on which it was lawful to transact legal or public business--opp. to _Nefasti_: an enumeration of the days of the year, a calendar. [L.] FASTIDIOUS, fas-tid'i-us, _adj._ affecting superior taste: over-nice: difficult to please.--_adv._ FASTID'IOUSLY.--_n._ FASTID'IOUSNESS. [L. _fastidiosus_--_fastidium_, loathing--_fastus_, pride, _tædium_, loathing.] FASTIGIATE, fas-tij'i-[=a]t, _adj._ pointed, sloping to a point or edge--also FASTIG'IATED.--_n._ FASTIG'IUM, the apex of a building: the pediment of a portico. [L. _fastig[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_fastigium_, a gable-end, roof.] FAT, fat, _adj._ plump, fleshy: fruitful, esp. profitable: gross: thick, full-bodied, esp. of printing-types.--_n._ an oily substance under the skin: solid animal oil: the richest part of anything.--_v.t._ to make fat.--_v.i._ to grow fat:--_pr.p._ fat'ting; _pa.p._ fat'ted.--_adj._ FAT'BRAINED (_Shak._), dull of apprehension.--_ns._ FAT'-HEN (_prov._), any one of various plants of thick succulent foliage, esp. pigweed, orach, and ground-ivy; FAT'LING, a young animal fattened for slaughter.--_adj._ small and fat.--_n._ FAT'-LUTE, a mixture of pipe-clay and linseed-oil, for filling joints, &c.--_adv._ FAT'LY, grossly: in a lumbering manner.--_n._ FAT'NESS, quality or state of being fat: fullness of flesh: richness: fertility: that which makes fertile.--_v.t._ FAT'TEN, to make fat or fleshy: to make fertile.--_v.i._ to grow fat.--_ns._ FAT'TENER, he who, or that which, fattens; FAT'TENING, the process of making fat: state of growing fat; FAT'TINESS.--_adjs._ FAT'TISH, somewhat fat; FAT'-WITTED, dull, stupid; FAT'TY, containing fat or having the qualities of fat.--FAT IMAGES, those in relief.--THE FAT IS IN THE FIRE, things have gone to confusion. [A.S. _fæt_; Ger. _fett_.] FAT, fat, _n._ a vessel for holding liquids: a vat: a dry measure of nine bushels. [See VAT.] FATA MORGANA, fä'tä mor-gä'nä, a striking kind of mirage seen most often in the Strait of Messina. [Supposed to be caused by the fairy (_fata_) _Morgana_ of Arthurian romance.] FATE, f[=a]t, _n._ inevitable destiny or necessity: appointed lot: ill-fortune: doom: final issue: (_pl._) the three goddesses of fate, Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos, who determined the birth, life, and death of men--the FATAL SISTERS.--_adj._ F[=A]T'AL, belonging to or appointed by fate: causing ruin or death: mortal: calamitous.--_ns._ F[=A]T'ALISM, the doctrine that all events are subject to fate, and happen by unavoidable necessity; F[=A]T'ALIST, one who believes in fatalism.--_adj._ F[=A]T'ALISTIC, belonging to or partaking of fatalism.--_n._ FATAL'ITY, the state of being fatal or unavoidable: the decree of fate: fixed tendency to disaster or death: mortality: a fatal occurrence.--_adv._ F[=A]T'ALLY.--_adjs._ F[=A]T'ED, doomed: destined: (_Shak._) invested with the power of destiny: (_Dryden_) enchanted; FATE'FUL, charged with fate.--_adv._ FATE'FULLY.--_n._ FATE'FULNESS. [L. _fatum_, a prediction--_fatus_, spoken--_f[=a]ri_, to speak.] FATHER, fä'_th_[.e]r, _n._ a male parent: an ancestor or forefather: a fatherly protector: a contriver or originator: a title of respect applied to a venerable man, to confessors, monks, priests, &c.: a member of certain fraternities, as 'Fathers of the Oratory,' &c.: the oldest member of any profession or other body: one of a group of ecclesiastical writers of the early centuries, usually ending with Ambrose, Jerome, and Augustine: the first person of the Trinity.--_v.t._ to adopt: to ascribe to one as his offspring or production.--_ns._ FA'THERHOOD, state of being a father: fatherly authority; FA'THER-IN-LAW, the father of one's husband or wife; FA'THERLAND, the land of one's fathers--from the Ger. _Vaterland_; FA'THER-LASH'ER, a name applied to two bull-heads found on the British coasts, belonging to the Gurnard family.--_adj._ FA'THERLESS, destitute of a living father: without a known author.--_ns._ FA'THERLESSNESS; FA'THERLINESS.--_adj._ FA'THERLY, like a father in affection and care: paternal.--_n._ FA'THERSHIP.--HOLY FATHER, the Pope.--BE GATHERED TO ONE'S FATHERS (_B._), to die and be buried. [A.S. _fæder_; Ger. _vater_, L. _pater_, Gr. _pat[=e]r_.] FATHOM, fa_th_'um, _n._ a nautical measure=6 feet: depth: (_Shak._) penetration.--_v.t._ to try the depth of: to comprehend or get to the bottom of.--_adjs._ FATH'OMABLE; FATH'OMLESS.--_n._ FATH'OM-LINE, a sailor's line and lead for taking soundings. [A.S. _faethm_; Dut. _vadem_, Ger. _faden_.] FATIDICAL, fa-tid'ik-al, _adj._ having power to foretell future events: prophetical.--_adv._ FATID'ICALLY. [L. _fatidicus_--_fatum_, fate, _dic[)e]re_, to tell.] FATIGUE, fa-t[=e]g', _n._ weariness from labour of body or of mind: toil: military work, distinct from the use of arms.--_v.t._ to reduce to weariness: to exhaust one's strength: to harass.--_pr.p._ fatigu'ing; _pa.p._ fatigued'.--_adj._ FAT'IGATE (_Shak._), fatigued.--_n._ FATIGUE'-D[=U]'TY, the part of a soldier's work distinct from the use of arms--also in _fatigue-dress_, &c.--_adv._ FATIGU'INGLY. [Fr.,--L. _fatig[=a]re_, to weary.] FATISCENT, f[=a]-tis'ent, _adj._ gaping.--_n._ FATIS'CENCE. FATTRELS, fat'relz, _n.pl._ (_Scot._) ends of ribbon. [O. Fr. _fatraille_, trumpery.] FATUOUS, fat'[=u]-us, _adj._ silly: imbecile: without reality--also FAT[=U]'ITOUS.--_n._ FAT[=U]ITY, unconscious stupidity: imbecility. [L. _fatuus_.] FAUBOURG, f[=o]'b[=oo]rg, _n._ a suburb just beyond the walls, or a district recently included within a city. [O. Fr. _forbourg_, lit. 'out-town'--_fors_ (Fr. _hors_)--L. _foris_, out of doors, and O. Fr. _bourg_, town.] FAUCES, faw's[=e]z, _n.pl._ the upper part of the throat, from the root of the tongue to the entrance of the gullet.--_adj._ FAU'CAL, produced in the fauces, as certain Semitic guttural sounds. [L.] FAUCET, faw'set, _n._ a pipe inserted in a barrel to draw liquid. [Fr. _fausset_.] FAUGH, faw, _interj._ an exclamation of contempt or disgust. [Prob. from the sound.] FAULCHION, an obsolete form of _falchion_. FAULT, fawlt, _n._ a failing: error: blemish: imperfection: a slight offence: (_geol._, _min._) a displacement of strata or veins: (_tennis_) a stroke in which the player fails to serve the ball into the proper place.--_adj._ FAULT'FUL (_Shak._), full of faults or crimes.--_adv._ FAULT'ILY.--_n._ FAULT'INESS.--_adj._ FAULT'LESS, without fault or defect.--_adv._ FAULT'LESSLY.--_n._ FAULT'LESSNESS.--_adj._ FAULT'Y, imperfect, defective: guilty of a fault: blamable.--AT FAULT, open to blame: (of dogs) unable to find the scent; FIND FAULT (_with_), to censure for some defect. [O. Fr. _faute_, _falte_--L. _fall[)e]re_, to deceive.] FAUNA, fawn'a, _n._ animals collectively, or those of a particular country, or of a particular geological period:--_pl._ FAUN'Æ, FAUN'AS.--_n._ FAUN, a Roman rural deity, protector of shepherds.--_adj._ FAUN'AL.--_n._ FAUN'IST, one who studies a fauna. [L. _faunus_, from _fav[=e]re_, _fautum_, to favour.] FAUTEUIL, f[=o]-tey', _n._ an arm-chair, esp. a president's chair, the seat of one of the forty members of the French Academy. [Fr.] FAUTOR, faw'tor, _n._ a favourer or supporter. [O. Fr. _fauteur_--L. _fautor_--_fav[=e]re_, to favour.] FAVEOLATE, f[=a]-v[=e]'[=o]-l[=a]t, _adj._ honeycombed.--Also FAVOSE'. FAUVETTE, f[=o]-vet', _n._ a name applied to warblers in general. [Fr.] FAVONIAN, fav-[=o]'ni-an, _adj._ pertaining to the west wind, favourable. [L. _Favonius_, the west wind.] FAVOUR, f[=a]'vur, _n._ countenance: good-will: a kind deed: an act of grace or lenity: indulgence: partiality: advantage: a knot of ribbons worn at a wedding, or anything worn publicly as a pledge of a woman's favour: (_arch._) countenance, appearance: a letter or written communication: (_Shak._) an attraction or grace.--_v.t._ to regard with good-will: to be on the side of: to treat indulgently: to afford advantage to: (_coll._) to resemble.--_adj._ F[=A]'VOURABLE, friendly: propitious: conducive to: advantageous.--_n._ F[=A]'VOURABLENESS.--_adv._ F[=A]'VOURABLY.--_p.adj._ F[=A]'VOURED, having a certain appearance, featured--as in _ill-favoured_, _well-favoured_.--_ns._ F[=A]'VOUREDNESS; F[=A]'VOURER; F[=A]'VOURITE, a person or thing regarded with favour or preference: one unduly loved: a kind of curl of the hair, affected by ladies of the 18th century.--_adj._ esteemed, preferred.--_n._ F[=A]'VOURITISM, the practice of showing partiality.--_adj._ F[=A]'VOURLESS, without favour: (_Spens._) not favouring.--FAVOURS TO COME, favours still expected; CURRY FAVOUR (see CURRY). [O. Fr.,--L. _favor_--_fav[=e]re_, to favour, befriend.] FAVUS, f[=a]v'us, _n._ a disease of the skin, chiefly of the hairy scalp. [L. 'a honeycomb.'] FAW, faw, _n._ a gipsy. [From the surname _Faa_.] FAWN, fawn, _n._ a young deer.--_adj._ resembling a fawn in colour.--_v.i._ to bring forth a fawn. [O. Fr. _faon_, through Low L. from L. _foetus_, offspring.] FAWN, fawn, _v.i._ to cringe, to flatter in a servile way (with _upon_).--_n._ (_rare_) a servile cringe or bow: mean flattery.--_ns._ FAWN'ER, one who flatters to gain favour; FAWN'ING, mean flattery: sycophancy.--_adv._ FAWN'INGLY.--_n._ FAWN'INGNESS. [A variant of _fain_, to rejoice--A.S. _fægen_, glad.] FAY, f[=a], _n._ a fairy. [O. Fr. _fee_--L. _fata_, a fairy--L. _fatum_, fate.] FAY, f[=a], _n._ (_Shak._) faith. FAY, f[=a], _v.i._ to fit, unite closely.--_v.t._ to fit together closely. [A.S. _fégan_; Ger. _fügen_.] FAY, FEY, f[=a], _v.t._ (_prov._) to clean out, as a ditch. FEAGUE, f[=e]g, _v.t._ (_obs._) to whip: to perplex. [Cog. with Dut. _vegen_, Ger. _fegen_.] FEAL, f[=e]'al, _adj._ (_obs._) loyal, faithful. FEAL, f[=e]l, _v.t._ (_prov._) to conceal. FEALTY, f[=e]'al-ti, or f[=e]l'ti, _n._ the vassal's oath of fidelity to his feudal lord: loyalty. [O. Fr. _fealte_--L. _fidelitat-em_--_fidelis_, faithful--_fid[)e]re_, to trust.] FEAR, f[=e]r, _n._ a painful emotion excited by danger: apprehension of danger or pain: alarm: the object of fear: aptness to cause fear: (_B._) deep reverence: piety towards God.--_v.t._ to regard with fear: to expect with alarm: (_B._) to stand in awe of: to venerate: (_obs._) to terrify: to make afraid.--_v.i._ to be afraid: to be in doubt.--_adj._ FEAR'FUL, timorous: exciting intense fear: terrible.--_adv._ FEAR'FULLY.--_n._ FEAR'FULNESS.--_adj._ FEAR'LESS, without fear: daring: brave.--_adv._ FEAR'LESSLY.--_ns._ FEAR'LESSNESS; FEAR'NOUGHT (same as DREADNAUGHT).--_adj._ FEAR'SOME, causing fear, frightful.--_adv._ FEAR'SOMELY. [A.S. _f['æ]r_, fear, _f['æ]ran_, to terrify; cf. Ger. _gefahr_, Ice. _fár_, harm, mischief.] FEAR, f[=e]r, _n._ (_Spens._) a companion. [See FERE.] FEASIBLE, f[=e]z'i-bl, _adj._ practicable.--_ns._ FEAS'IBLENESS, FEASIBIL'ITY.--_adv._ FEAS'IBLY. [Fr. _faisable_, that can be done--_faire_, _faisant_--L. _fac[)e]re_, to do.] FEAST, f[=e]st, _n._ a day of unusual solemnity or joy: a festival in commemoration of some event--_movable_, such as occurs on a specific day of the week succeeding a certain day of the month, as _Easter_; _immovable_, at a fixed date, as Christmas: a rich and abundant repast: rich enjoyment for the mind or heart.--_v.i._ to hold a feast: to eat sumptuously: to receive intense delight.--_v.t._ to entertain sumptuously.--_ns._ FEAST'-DAY; FEAST'ER.--_adj._ FEAST'FUL, festive, joyful, luxurious.--_ns._ FEAST'ING; FEAST'-RITE, a rite or custom observed at feasts.--_adj._ FEAST'-WON (_Shak._), won or bribed by feasting.--FEAST OF FOOLS, FEAST OF ASSES, medieval festivals, held between Christmas and Epiphany, in which a burlesque bishop was enthroned in church, and a burlesque mass said by his orders, and an ass driven round in triumph.--DOUBLE FEAST (_eccles._), one on which the antiphon is doubled. [O. Fr. _feste_ (Fr. _fête_)--L. _festum_, a holiday, _festus_, solemn, festal.] FEAT, f[=e]t, _n._ a deed manifesting extraordinary strength, skill, or courage.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to fashion.--_adj._ neat, deft.--_adj._ FEAT'EOUS, dexterous, neat.--_adv._ FEAT'LY, neatly, dexterously--(_Spens._) FEAT'EOUSLY. [Fr. _fait_--L. _factum_--L. _fac[)e]re_, to do.] FEATHER, fe_th_'[.e]r, _n._ one of the growths which form the covering of a bird: a feather-like ornament: the feathered end of an arrow: nature, kind, as in 'birds of a feather:' birds collectively: anything light or trifling.--_v.t._ to furnish or adorn with feathers.--_ns._ FEATH'ER-BED, a mattress filled with feathers; FEATH'ER-BOARD'ING (same as WEATHER-BOARDING, q.v.).--_p.adj._ FEATH'ERED, covered or fitted with feathers, or anything feather-like: like the flight of a feathered animal, swift: smoothed as with feathers.--_ns._ FEATH'ER-EDGE, an edge of a board or plank thinner than the other edge; FEATH'ER-GRASS, a perennial grass, so called from the feathery appearance of its awns; FEATH'ER-HEAD, FEATH'ER-BRAIN, a frivolous person; FEATH'ERINESS; FEATH'ERING, plumage: the fitting of feathers to arrows: (_archit._) an arrangement of small arcs or foils separated by projecting cusps, frequently forming the feather-like ornament on the inner mouldings of arches; FEATH'ER-STAR, a crinoid of feathery appearance and radiate structure; FEATH'ER-WEIGHT, the lightest weight that may be carried by a racing-horse: a boxer, wrestler, &c., of a class below the light-weights--hence one of small importance or ability.--_adj._ FEATH'ERY, pertaining to, resembling, or covered with feathers.--FEATHER AN OAR, to turn the blade of the oar horizontally as it comes out of the water, thus lessening the resistance of the air; FEATHER ONE'S NEST, to accumulate wealth for one's self while serving others in a position of trust.--A FEATHER IN ONE'S CAP, some striking mark of distinction; BE IN HIGH FEATHER, to be greatly elated or in high spirits; MAKE THE FEATHERS FLY, to throw into confusion by a sudden attack; SHOW THE WHITE FEATHER, to show signs of cowardice--a white feather in a gamecock's tail being considered as a sign of degeneracy. [A.S. _feðer_; Ger. _feder_; L. _penna_, Gr. _pteron_.] FEATURE, f[=e]t'[=u]r, _n._ the marks by which anything is recognised: the prominent traits of anything: the cast of the face: (_pl._) the countenance.--_v.t._ (_coll._) to have features resembling.--_adjs._ FEAT'URED, with features well marked; FEAT'URELESS, destitute of distinct features; FEAT'URELY, handsome. [O. Fr. _faiture_, from fut. part. of L. _fac[)e]re_, to make.] FEBRICULE, feb'ri-k[=u]l, _n._ a slight fever.--_adj._ FEBRI'CULOSE.--_n._ FEBRICULOS'ITY. [L. _febricula_, dim. of _febris_, fever.] FEBRIFIC, fe-brif'ik, _adj._ producing fever, feverish.--Also FEBRIF[=A]'CIENT. [L. _febris_, fever, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] FEBRIFUGE, feb'ri-f[=u]j, _n._ a medicine for removing fever.--_adj._ FEBRIF'UGAL (or feb'-). [L. _febris_, fever, _fug[=a]re_, to put to flight.] FEBRILE, f[=e]'bril, or feb'ril, _adj._ pertaining to fever: feverish.--_n._ FEBRIL'ITY. [Fr.,--L. _febris_, fever.] FEBRONIANISM, feb-r[=o]'ni-an-izm, _n._ a system of doctrine antagonistic to the claims of the Pope and asserting the independence of national churches, propounded in 1763 by Johann Nikolaus von Hontheim under the pseudonym 'Justinus _Febronius_.' FEBRUARY, feb'r[=oo]-ar-i, _n._ the second month of the year. [L. _Februarius_ (_mensis_), the month of expiation, _februa_, the feast of expiation.] FECES, FECAL. See FÆCES, FÆCAL. FECIAL. See FETIAL. FECK, fek, _n._ (_Scot._) strength, value, quantity, number: the bulk of anything.--_adj._ FECK'LESS, spiritless.--_adv._ FECK'LY, mostly. [Corr. of _effect_.] FECULA, fek'[=u]-la, _n._ starch obtained as a sediment by breaking down certain plants or seeds in water. [L. _fæcula_, dim. of _fæx_, dregs.] FECULENT, fek'[=u]-lent, _adj._ containing fæces or sediment: muddy: foul.--_ns._ FEC'ULENCE, FEC'ULENCY. FECUND, fek'und, _adj._ fruitful: fertile: prolific.--_v.t._ FEC'UND[=A]TE, FECUND'[=A]TE, to make fruitful: to impregnate.--_ns._ FECUND[=A]'TION, the act of impregnating: the state of being impregnated; FECUND'ITY, fruitfulness: prolificness in female animals. [Fr.,--L. _fecundus_, fruitful.] FED, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of FEED. FEDARY, fed'ar-i (_Shak._). Same as FEDERARY. FEDERAL, fed'[.e]r-al, _adj._ pertaining to or consisting of a treaty or covenant: confederated, founded upon mutual agreement: of a union or government in which several states, while independent in home affairs, combine for national or general purposes, as in the United States (in the American Civil War, _Federal_ was the name applied to the states of the North which defended the Union against the _Confederate_ separatists of the South).--_n._ a supporter of federation: a Unionist soldier in the American Civil War.--_n._ FED'ERACY.--_v.t._ FED'ERALISE.--_ns._ FED'ERALISM, the principles or cause maintained by federalists; FED'ERALIST, a supporter of a federal constitution or union; FED'ERARY (_Shak._), a confederate.--_adj._ FED'ER[=A]TE, united by league: confederated.--_n._ FEDER[=A]'TION, the act of uniting in league: a federal union.--_adj._ FED'ER[=A]TIVE, united in league.--FEDERAL (or COVENANT) THEOLOGY, that first worked out by Cocceius (1603-69), based on the idea of two covenants between God and man--of Works and of Grace (see COVENANT). [Fr. _fédéral_--L. _foedus_, _foederis_, a treaty, akin to _fid[)e]re_, to trust.] FEE, f[=e], _n._ price paid for services, as to a lawyer or physician: recompense, wages: the sum exacted for any special privilege: a grant of land for feudal service: an unconditional inheritance--FEE'-SIM'PLE, possession: ownership.--_v.t._ to pay a fee to: to hire:--_pr.p._ fee'ing; _pa.p._ feed.--_ns._ FEE'-GRIEF (_Shak._), a private grief; FEE'ING-MAR'KET (_Scot._), a fair or market at which farm-servants are hired for the year or half-year following; FEE'-TAIL, an entailed estate, which on failure of heirs reverts to the donor.--BASE FEE, a qualified fee, a freehold estate of inheritance to which a qualification is annexed; CONDITIONAL FEE, a fee granted on condition, or limited to particular heirs: the estate of a mortgagee of land, possession of which is conditional on payment; GREAT FEE, the holding of a tenant of the Crown. [A.S. _feoh_, cattle, property: a special kind of property, property in land; Ger. _vieh_, Ice. _fé_; allied to L. _pecus_, cattle, _pecunia_, money.] FEEBLE, f[=e]'bl, _adj._ weak: wanting in strength of body, energy, or efficiency: showing weakness or incapacity: faint: dull.--_adj._ FEE'BLE-MIND'ED, weak-minded: irresolute.--_n._ FEE'BLENESS--(_Spens._) FE'BLESSE.--_adv._ FEE'BLY. [O. Fr. _foible_, for _floible_--L. _flebilis_, lamentable, from _fl[=e]re_, to weep.] FEED, f[=e]d, _v.t._ to give food to: to nourish: to furnish with necessary material: to foster.--_v.i._ to take food: to nourish one's self by eating:--_pr.p._ feed'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ fed.--_n._ an allowance of provender, esp. to cattle: the motion forward of anything being fed to a machine: (_Milt._) a meal: (_Shak._) pasture land.--_ns._ FEED'ER, he who feeds, or that which supplies: an eater: one who abets another: one who fattens cattle: (_obs._) a parasite; FEED'-HEAD, the cistern that supplies water to the boiler of a steam-engine; FEED'-HEAT'ER, an apparatus for heating the water supplied to a steam-boiler; FEED'ING, act of eating: that which is eaten: pasture: the placing of the sheets of paper in position for a printing or ruling machine; FEED'ING-BOTT'LE, a bottle for supplying liquid food to an infant; FEED'-PIPE, a pipe for supplying a boiler or cistern with water; FEED'-PUMP, a force-pump for supplying a steam-engine boiler with water. [A.S. _fédan_, to feed.] FEE-FAW-FUM, f[=e]'-faw'-fum', _n._ a nursery word for anything frightful. FEEL, f[=e]l, _v.t._ to perceive by the touch: to handle or try by touch: to be conscious of: to be keenly sensible of: to have an inward persuasion of.--_v.i._ to know by the touch: to have the emotions excited: to produce a certain sensation when touched, as to feel hard or hot:--_pr.p._ feel'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ felt.--_n._ the sensation of touch.--_ns._ FEEL'ER, a remark cautiously dropped, or any indirect stratagem, to sound the opinions of others: (_pl._) jointed fibres in the heads of insects, &c., possessed of a delicate sense of touch, termed _antennæ_; FEEL'ING, the sense of touch: perception of objects by touch: consciousness of pleasure or pain: tenderness: emotion: sensibility, susceptibility, sentimentality: opinion as resulting from emotion: (_pl._) the affections or passions.--_adj._ expressive of great sensibility or tenderness: easily affected.--_adv._ FEEL'INGLY.--FEEL AFTER (_B._), to search for. [A.S. _félan_, to feel; Ger. _fühlen_; prob. akin to L. _palp[=a]re_, to quiver.] FEER, f[=e]r, _n._ (_Spens._) a companion, a spouse. [A.S. _ge-féra_, a companion--_ge-féran_, to travel.] FEE-SIMPLE, FEE-TAIL. See under FEE. FEET, f[=e]t, _pl._ of FOOT.--_adj._ FEET'LESS, without feet. FEIGN, f[=a]n, _v.t._ to invent: to imagine: to make a show or pretence of, to counterfeit, simulate.--_adj._ FEIGNED, pretended: simulating.--_adv._ FEIGN'EDLY.--_ns._ FEIGN'EDNESS; FEIGN'ING. [Fr. _feindre_, pr.p. _feignant_, to feign.--L. _fing[)e]re_, _fictum_, to form.] FEINT, f[=a]nt, _n._ a false appearance: a pretence: a mock-assault: a deceptive movement in fencing, boxing, &c.--_v.i._ to make a feint. [Fr., see above.] FELDSPAR, feld'spär, _n._ (_min._) a general term for the most important rock-forming group of minerals--all anhydrous silicates of alumina--divided into those in which the minerals crystallise in _monoclinic_ and in _triclinic_ forms--also FEL'SPAR, FELD'SPATH.--_adjs._ FELDSPATH'IC, FELD'SPATHOSE. [Ger. _feldspath_--_feld_, a field, _spath_, spar.] FELICITY, fe-lis'i-ti, _n._ happiness: delight: a blessing: a happy event.--_v.t._ FELIC'IT[=A]TE, to express joy or pleasure to: to congratulate.--_n._ FELICIT[=A]'TION, the act of congratulating.--_adj._ FELIC'ITOUS, happy: prosperous: delightful: appropriate.--_adv._ FELIC'ITOUSLY. [Fr.,--L. _felicitat-em_, from _felix_, _-icis_, happy.] FELINE, f[=e]'l[=i]n, _adj._ pertaining to the cat or the cat kind: like a cat.--_ns._ FELIN'ITY; F[=E]'LIS, the cats as a genus, the typical genus of family F[=E]'LIDÆ and subfamily F[=E]L[=I]'NÆ. [L. _felinus_--_felis_, a cat.] FELL, fel, _n._ a barren hill. [Ice. _fjall_; Dan. _fjeld_.] FELL, fel, _pa.t._ of FALL. FELL, fel, _v.t._ to cause to fall: to bring to the ground: to cut down.--_adj._ FELL'ABLE.--_n._ FELL'ER, a cutter of wood. [A.S. _fellan_, causal form of _feallan_, to fall.] FELL, fel, _n._ a skin.--_n._ FELL'MONGER, a dealer in skins. [A.S. _fel_; cf. L. _pellis_, Gr. _pella_, Ger. _fell_.] FELL, fel, _n._ (_Spens._) anger, melancholy. [L. _fel_, bile.] FELL, fel, _adj._ cruel: fierce: bloody: deadly: keen, eager, spirited: (_Scot._) very great, huge.--_adj._ FELL'-LURKING (_Shak._), lurking with treacherous purpose.--_n._ FELL'NESS.--_adv._ FELL'Y. [O. Fr. _fel_, cruel--L. _fello_. See FELON.] FELLAH, fel'ä, _n._ an Arabic name applied contemptuously by the Turks to the labouring or agricultural population of Egypt--descendants of the ancient Egyptian, intermingled with Syrians, Arabs, &c.:--_pl._ FELL'AHS, FELL'AHÎN. [Ar., 'tiller of the soil.'] FELLIC, fel'ik, _adj._ obtained from bile--also FELLIN'IC.--_adj._ FELLIF'LUOUS, flowing with gall. [L. _fel_, gall.] FELLOE. See FELLY. FELLONOUS, fel'lon-us, _adj._ (_Spens._) fell.--_adj._ FEL'LONEST, most fell. FELLOW, fel'[=o], _n._ an associate: a companion and equal: one of a pair, a mate: a member of a university who enjoys a fellowship: a member of a scientific or other society: an individual, a person generally: a worthless person.--_ns._ FELL'OW-CIT'IZEN, one belonging to the same city; FELL'OW-COMM'ONER, at Cambridge and elsewhere, a privileged class of undergraduates, dining at the Fellows' table; FELL'OW-CREA'TURE, one of the same race; FELL'OW-FEEL'ING, feeling between fellows or equals: sympathy; FELL'OW-HEIR, a joint-heir.--_adv._ FELL'OWLY (_Shak._), companionable.--_ns._ FELL'OW-MAN, a man of the same common nature with one's self; FELL'OW-SERV'ANT, one who has the same master; FELL'OWSHIP, the state of being a fellow or partner: friendly intercourse: communion: an association: an endowment in a college for the support of graduates called Fellows: the position and income of a fellow: (_arith._) the proportional division of profit and loss among partners.--GOOD FELLOWSHIP, companionableness; RIGHT HAND OF FELLOWSHIP, the right hand given by one minister or elder to another at an ordination in some churches. [M. E. _felawe_--Ice. _félagi_, a partner in goods, from _fé_ (Ger. _vieh_), cattle, property, and _lag_, a laying together, a law. Cf. Eng. FEE, and LAW.] FELLY, fel'[=i], FELLOE, fel'[=o], _n._ one of the curved pieces in the circumference of a wheel: the circular rim of the wheel. [A.S. _felg_; Ger. _felge_.] FELON, fel'on, _n._ one guilty of felony: a convict: a wicked person: an inflamed sore.--_adj._ wicked or cruel.--_adj._ FEL[=O]'NIOUS, wicked: depraved: done with the deliberate intention to commit crime.--_adv._ FEL[=O]'NIOUSLY.--_n._ FEL[=O]'NIOUSNESS, the quality of being felonious.--_adj._ FEL'ONOUS (_Spens._), felonious.--_ns._ FEL'ONRY, a body of felons; FEL'ONY, (_orig._) a crime punished by total forfeiture of lands, &c.: a grave crime, beyond a misdemeanour, as that punishable by penal servitude or death. [O. Fr.,--Low L. _fellonem_, _fello_, a traitor, prob. L. _fel_, gall.] FELSITE, fel's[=i]t, _n._ a fine-grained, compact rock, a variety of quartz-porphyry--also FEL'STONE.--_adj._ FELSIT'IC. [Fr.,--Ger. _fels_, rock.] FELSPAR. Same as FELDSPAR. FELT, felt, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of FEEL. FELT, felt, _n._ a fabric formed without weaving, by means of the natural tendency of the fibres of wool and certain kinds of hair to interlace with and cling to each other.--_v.t._ to make into felt: to cover with felt.--_v.t._ FELT'ER, to mat together like felt.--_n._ FELT'ING, the art or process of making felt: the felt itself. [A.S. _felt_; cf. Dut. _vilt_, Ger. _filz_.] FELUCCA, fe-luk'a, _n._ a class of small merchant-vessels, used in the Mediterranean, with two masts, lateen sails, and often a rudder at each end. [It. _feluca_, which, like Fr. _felouque_, is from Ar. _fulk_, a ship.] FEMALE, f[=e]'m[=a]l, _adj._ of the sex that produces young: pertaining to females: (_bot._) having a pistil or fruit-bearing organ.--_n._ one of the female sex, a woman.--_ns._ FEMAL'ITY, FEMINAL'ITY, the female nature.--_adj._ FEM'INAL.--_n._ FEMIN[=E]'ITY, the quality of being female.--_adj._ FEM'ININE, pertaining to women: tender: womanly: (_gram._) the gender denoting females.--_adv._ FEM'ININELY.--_ns._ FEM'ININENESS; FEMININ'ITY, the nature of the female sex.--FEMALE SCREW, a screw cut upon the inward surface of a cylindrical hole in wood or metal; FEMININE RHYME, a rhyme between words that terminate each in an unaccented syllable. [Fr. _femelle_--L. _femella_, dim. of _femina_, a woman.] FEMERELL, fem'er-el, _n._ a louvre or covering on the roof of a kitchen, &c., to allow the smoke to escape. FEMUR, f[=e]'mer, _n._ the thigh-bone.--_adj._ FEM'ORAL, belonging to the thigh.--FEMORAL ARTERY, the main artery of the thigh. [L. _femoralis_--_femur_, thigh.] FEN, fen, _n._ a kind of low marshy land often, or partially, covered with water: a morass or bog.--_ns._ FEN'-BERR'Y, the cranberry; FEN'-FIRE, the Will-o'-the-wisp.--_adjs._ FEN'NY, FEN'NISH; FEN'-SUCKED (_Shak._), drawn out of bogs. [A.S. _fenn_; Ice. _fen_.] FEN, fen, _v.t._ an exclamatory phrase in boys' games, meaning 'Check!' 'Bar!' [Cf. FEND.] FENCE, fens, _n._ a wall or hedge for enclosing animals or for protecting land: the art of fencing: defence: a receiver of stolen goods, also a receiving-house.--_v.t._ to enclose with a fence: to fortify.--_v.i._ to practise fencing: to conceal the truth by equivocal answers.--_adjs._ FENCED, enclosed with a fence; FENCE'LESS, without fence or enclosure, open.--_n._ FENC'ER, one who practises fencing with a sword.--_adj._ FENC'IBLE, capable of being fenced or defended.--_n.pl._ FENC'IBLES, volunteer regiments raised for local defence during a special crisis: militia enlisted for home service.--_p.adj._ FENC'ING, defending or guarding.--_n._ the act of erecting a fence: the art of attack and defence with a sword or other weapon.--_n._ FENC'ING-MAS'TER, one who teaches fencing.--FENCE THE TABLES, in the ancient usage of Scotland, to debar from partaking in communion those guilty of any known sin.--SIT ON THE FENCE, to be still hesitating as between two opinions; SUNK FENCE, a ditch or water-course. [Abbrev. of _defence_.] FEND, fend, _v.t._ to ward off: to shut out: to defend.--_v.i._ to offer resistance: to make provision for.--_n._ self-support, the shift one makes for one's self.--_adj._ FEND'Y, shifty. [Abbrev. of _defend_.] FENDER, fend'[.e]r, _n._ a metal guard before a fire to confine the ashes: a protection for a ship's side against piers, &c., consisting of a bundle of rope, &c.--_ns._ FEND'ER-BEAM, a fender of wood, protecting a ship's side in dock: a permanent buffer at the end of a railway siding; FEND'ER-BOARD, a board protecting the steps of a carriage from the dust thrown up by the wheels. [_Fend_.] FENESTELLA, fen-es-tel'a, _n._ a niche on the south side of an altar, containing the piscina, and sometimes the credence: a genus of Polyzoa, like the recent 'lace coral,' very common in Palæozoic rocks. [L., dim. of _fenestra_, a window.] FENESTRAL, fe-nes'tral, _adj._ belonging to or like a window: with transparent spots--also FENES'TR[=A]TE.--_n._ FENESTR[=A]'TION, the arrangement of windows in a building. [L. _fenestralis_--_fenestra_, window.] FENGITE, fen'j[=i]t, _n._ a transparent alabaster for window panes. FENIAN, f[=e]'ne-an, _n._ a member of an association of Irishmen founded in New York in 1857 for the overthrow of the English government in Ireland.--_adj._ belonging to the legendary Fenians, or to the modern conspirators.--_n._ F[=E]'NIANISM. [Old Ir. _Féne_, one of the names of the ancient population of Ireland, confused in modern times with _fíann_, the militia of Finn and other ancient Irish kings.] FENKS, fengks, _n._ the refuse of whale-blubber.--Also FINKS. FENNEC, fen'ek, _n._ a little African fox with large ears. [Moorish.] FENNEL, fen'el, _n._ a genus of umbelliferous plants, allied to Dill, but distinguished by the cylindrical, strongly-ribbed fruit, the flower yellow.--_n._ FENN'EL-FLOW'ER, the _Nigella Damascena_, or ragged lady. [A.S. _finul_--L. _foeniculum_, fennel--_fenum_, hay.] FENT, fent, _n._ (_prov._) a slit, crack: a remnant or odd piece. [O. Fr. _fente_--L. _find[)e]re_, to cleave.] FENUGREEK, fen'[=u]-gr[=e]k, _n._ a genus of leguminous plants, allied to clover and melilot. [L. _fenum-græcum_, 'Greek hay.'] FEOD, FEODAL, FEODARY. Same as FEUD, FEUDAL, FEUDARY. FEOFF, fef, _n._ a fief.--_v.t._ to grant possession of a fief or property in land.--_ns._ FEOFFEE', the person invested with the fief; FEOFF'ER, FEOFF'OR, he who grants the fief; FEOFF'MENT, the gift of a fief or feoff. [O. Fr. _feoffer_ or _fiefer_--O. Fr. _fief_. See FEE.] FERACIOUS, fe-r[=a]'shus, _adj._ fruitful.--_n._ FERAC'ITY (_rare_). [L. _ferax_, _-acis_--_ferre_, to bear.] FER-DE-LANCE, f[=a]r'de-längs', _n._ the lance-headed or yellow viper of tropical America. FERE, f[=e]r, _n._ (_Spens._) a mate, companion, equal. [A.S. _geféra_, a companion, _ge-féran_, to travel.] FERETORY, fer'e-tor-i, _n._ a shrine for relics carried in processions. [L. _feretrum_--_ferre_, to bear.] FERIAL, f[=e]'ri-al, _adj._ pertaining to holidays (_feriæ_), belonging to any day of the week which is neither a fast nor a festival. [Fr.,--L. _feria_, a holiday.] FERINE, f[=e]'rin, _adj._ pertaining to, or like, a wild beast: savage.--_n.pl._ FERÆ (f[=e]'r[=e]), wild animals.--_adj._ F[=E]'RAL, wild, run wild.--_n._ FER'ITY, wildness.--F[=E]RÆ NATURÆ, those animals that are wild or not domesticated, including game animals--deer, hares, pheasants, &c. [L. _ferinus_--_fera_, a wild beast--_ferus_; akin to Gr. _th[=e]r_, Ger. _thier_, a beast.] FERINGHEE, fer-ing'g[=e], _n._ a Hindu name for an Englishman.--Also FARIN'GEE. [A corr. of _Frank_.] FERLY, fer'li, _adj._ fearful: sudden: singular.--_n._ a wonder.--_v.i._ to wonder. [A.S. _f['æ]rlic_, sudden; cf. Ger. _ge-fährlich_, dangerous.] FERM, f[.e]rm, _n._ a farm: (_Spens._) abode, lodging. FERMATA, fer-mä'ta, _n._ (_mus._) a pause or break. [It.] FERMENT, f[.e]r'ment, _n._ what excites fermentation, as yeast, leaven: internal motion amongst the parts of a fluid: agitation: tumult.--_v.t._ FERMENT', to excite fermentation: to inflame.--_v.i._ to rise and swell by the action of fermentation: to work, used of wine, &c.: to be in excited action: to be stirred with anger.--_n._ FERMENTABIL'ITY.--_adj._ FERMENT'ABLE, capable of fermentation.--_n._ FERMENT[=A]'TION, the act or process of fermenting: the change which takes place in liquids exposed to air: the kind of spontaneous decomposition which produces alcohol: restless action of the mind or feelings.--_adj._ FERMENT'ATIVE, causing or consisting in fermentation.--_n._ FERMENT'ATIVENESS.--_adj._ FERMENTES'CIBLE, capable of being fermented. [Fr.,--L. _fermentum_, for _fervimentum_--_ferv[=e]re_, to boil.] FERMETURE, fer'me-t[=u]r, _n._ a mechanism for closing the chamber of a breech-loading gun. [Fr.,--L. _firm[=a]re_, to make fast.] FERN, fern, _n._ one of the beautiful class of higher or vascular cryptogamous plants--the natural order _Filices_.--_ns._ FERN'ERY, a place for rearing ferns; FERN'-OWL, the European goatsucker or night-jar; FERN'-SEED, the spores of ferns, which, properly gathered, render the bearers invisible; FERN'SHAW, a thicket of ferns; FERN'TICLE, a freckle.--_adjs._ FERN'TICLED; FERN'Y. [A.S. _fearn_; Ger. _farn_.] FEROCIOUS, fe-r[=o]'shus, _adj._ savage, fierce: cruel.--_adv._ FER[=O]'CIOUSLY.--_ns._ FER[=O]'CIOUSNESS; FEROC'ITY, savage cruelty of disposition: untamed fierceness. [L. _ferox_, _ferocis_, wild--_ferus_, wild.] FERRANDINE, fer'an-din, _n._ a silk and wool or silk and hair cloth.--Also FARR'ANDINE. [Fr.] FERRARA, fer-ä'ra, _n._ a make of sword-blade highly esteemed in Scotland from about the close of the 16th century--often ANDREA FERRARA--said to have been made at Belluno in Venetia by Cosmo, Andrea, and Gianantonio _Ferrara_. [Perh. a native of _Ferrara_, or prob. merely the It. _ferrajo_, a cutler--L. _ferrarius_, a smith.] FERREOUS, fer'e-us, _adj._ pertaining to, or made of, iron. [L. _ferreus_--_ferrum_, iron.] FERRET, fer'et, _n._ ribbon woven from spun silk. [Corr. from It. _fioretto_--L. _flos_, _floris_, a flower.] FERRET, fer'et, _n._ a half-tamed albino variety of the polecat, employed in unearthing rabbits.--_v.t._ to drive out of a hiding-place: to search out cunningly:--_pr.p._ ferr'eting; _pa.p._ ferr'eted.--_n._ FERR'ETER, one who uses a ferret to catch rabbits, &c.: one who searches minutely. [O. Fr. _furet_, a ferret--Low L. _furon-em_, robber--L. _fur_, a thief.] FERRIAGE, fer'ri-[=a]j, _n._ See FERRY. FERRIC, fer'ik, _adj._ pertaining to or obtained from iron: noting an acid compounded of iron and oxygen.--_ns._ FERR'ATE, a salt formed by the union of ferric acid with a base; FERROCYANOGEN (fer-o-s[=i]-an'[=o]-jen), a compound radical supposed by chemists to exist in ferrocyanic acid and the ferrocyanides, the chief of which is potassium ferrocyanide, yielding Prussian blue; FERR'OTYPE, a photographic process in which the negative was developed by a saturated solution of protosulphate of iron. [L. _ferrum_, iron.] FERRIFEROUS, fer-rif'[.e]r-us, _adj._ bearing or yielding iron. [L. _ferrum_, iron, _ferre_, to bear.] FERRUGINOUS, fer-r[=oo]'jin-us, _adj._ of the colour of iron-rust impregnated with iron.--_n._ FERRU'GO, a disease of plants, commonly called rust. [L. _ferrugineus_--_ferrugo_, _-inem_, iron-rust--_ferrum_, iron.] FERRULE, fer'il, or fer'[=oo]l, _n._ a metal ring or cap on a staff, &c., to keep it from splitting.--Also FERR'EL. [O. Fr. _virole_--L. _viriola_, a bracelet.] FERRY, fer'i, _v.t._ to carry or convey over a water in a boat:--_pr.p._ ferr'ying; _pa.p._ ferr'ied.--_n._ a place where one is carried by boat across a water: the right of conveying passengers: the ferry-boat.--_ns._ FERR'IAGE, provision for ferrying: the fare paid for such; FERR'Y-BOAT; FERR'Y-MAN. [A.S. _ferian_, to convey, _faran_, to go; Ger. _fähre_, a ferry--_fahren_, to go, to carry.] FERTILE, f[.e]r'til, _adj._ able to bear or produce abundantly: rich in resources: inventive: fertilising.--_adv._ FER'TILELY.--_n._ FERTILIS[=A]'TION, the act or process of fertilising.--_v.t._ FER'TILISE, to make fertile or fruitful: to enrich.--_ns._ FER'TILISER, one who, or that which, fertilises; FERTIL'ITY, fruitfulness: richness: abundance. [Fr.,--L. _fertilis_--_ferre_, to bear.] FERULE, fer'[=oo]l, _n._ a cane or rod used for striking children in punishment.--_n._ FER'ULA, a staff of command.--_adj._ FERUL[=A]'CEOUS, pertaining to canes or reeds. [L. _ferula_, a cane--_fer[=i]re_, to strike.] FERVENT, f[.e]r'vent, _adj._ ardent: zealous: warm in feeling.--_n._ FER'VENCY, eagerness: warmth of devotion.--_adv._ FER'VENTLY.--_adjs._ FERVES'CENT, growing hot; FER'VID, very hot: having burning desire or emotion: zealous.--_n._ FERVID'ITY.--_adv._ FER'VIDLY.--_ns._ FER'VIDNESS; FER'VOUR, heat: heat of mind, zeal. [Fr.,--L. _ferv[=e]re_, to boil.] FESCENNINE, fes'e-nin, _adj._ scurrilous.--FESCENNINE VERSES consisted of dialogues in rude extempore verses, generally in Saturnian measure, in which the parties rallied and ridiculed one another. The style, afterwards popular at Rome, originated in the Etruscan town _Fescennium_. FESCUE, fes'k[=u], _n._ a genus of grasses, very nearly allied to Brome-grass, and including many valuable pasture and fodder grasses: a small straw or wire used to point out letters to children when learning to read. [O. Fr. _festu_--L. _fest[=u]ca_, a straw.] FESSE, FESS, fes, _n._ (_her._) one of the ordinaries--a band over the middle of an escutcheon, one-third its breadth. [Fr. _fasce_--L. _fascia_, a band.] FESTAL, fes'tal, _adj._ pertaining to a feast or holiday: joyous: gay.--_adv._ FES'TALLY.--_n._ FESTIL'OGY, a treatise on ecclesiastical festivals. FESTER, fes't[.e]r, _v.i._ to become corrupt or malignant: to suppurate.--_v.t._ to cause to fester or rankle.--_n._ a wound discharging corrupt matter. [O. Fr. _festre_--L. _fistula_, an ulcer.] FESTINATE, fes'ti-n[=a]t, _v.t._ to accelerate.--_adj._ (_Shak._) hurried, hasty.--_adv._ FES'TINATELY (_Shak._), hastily.--_n._ FESTIN[=A]'TION. [L. _festina[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to hurry.] FESTIVE, fes'tiv, _adj._ festal: mirthful.--_n._ FES'TIVAL, a joyful celebration: a feast.--_adv._ FES'TIVELY.--_n._ FESTIV'ITY, social mirth: joyfulness: gaiety.--_adj._ FES'TIVOUS, festive. [L. _festivus_--_festus_.] FESTOON, fes-t[=oo]n', _n._ a garland suspended between two points: (_archit._) an ornament like a wreath of flowers, &c.--_v.t._ to adorn with festoons.--_n._ FESTOON'-BLIND, a window-blind of cloth gathered into rows of festoons in its width. [Fr. _feston_--Low L. _festo_(_n-_), a garland--L. _festum_.] FET, FETT, fet, _v.t._ obsolete form of _fetch_. FETAL. See FOETUS. FETCH, fech, _v.t._ to bring: to go and get: to obtain as its price: to accomplish in any way: to bring down, to cause to yield: to reach or attain.--_v.i._ to turn: (_naut._) to arrive at.--_n._ the act of bringing: space carried over: a stratagem.--_adj._ FETCH'ING, fascinating.--FETCH AND CARRY, to perform humble services for another; FETCH A PUMP, to pour water in so as to make it draw; FETCH OUT, to draw forth, develop; FETCH TO, to revive, as from a swoon; FETCH UP, to recover: to come to a sudden stop. [A.S. _feccan_, an altered form of _fetian_, to fetch; cf. Ger. _fassen_, to seize.] FETCH, fech, _n._ the apparition, double, or wraith of a living person.--_n._ FETCH'-CAN'DLE, a nocturnal light, supposed to portend a death. [Ety. unknown.] FÊTE, f[=a]t, _n._ a festival: a holiday.--_v.t._ to entertain at a feast.--_n._ FÊTE'-DAY, a birthday.--FÊTE CHAMPÊTRE, an outdoor entertainment. [Fr.] FETIAL, f[=e]'shal, _adj._ pertaining to the Roman _fetiales_, heraldic, ambassadorial.--Also F[=E]'CIAL. FETICH, FETISH, f[=e]'tish, _n._ an object, either natural or artificial, capable of being appropriated by an individual whose possession of it procures the services of a spirit lodged within it.--_ns._ F[=E]'TICHISM, F[=E]'TISHISM, the worship of a fetich: a belief in charms.--_adjs._ FETICHIST'IC, FETISHIST'IC. [Fr. _fétiche_--Port. _feitiço_, magic: a name given by the Portuguese to the gods of West Africa--Port. _feitiço_, artificial--L. _factitius_--_fac[)e]re_, to make.] FETICIDE. See FOETUS. FETID, f[=e]'tid, or fet'id, _adj._ stinking: having a strong offensive odour.--_ns._ F[=E]'TIDNESS, F[=E]'TOR, FOE'TOR. [L. _foetidus_--_foet[=e]re_, to stink.] FETLOCK, fet'lok, _n._ a tuft of hair that grows behind on horses' feet: the part where this hair grows.--_adj._ FET'LOCKED, tied by the fetlock. [History obscure; often explained as compounded of _foot_ and _lock_ (of hair); cf. Ger. _fiszloch_.] FETTER, fet'[.e]r, _n._ a chain or shackle for the feet: anything that restrains--used chiefly in _pl._--_v.t._ to put fetters on: to restrain.--_adjs._ FETT'ERED, bound by fetters: (_zool._) of feet bent backward and apparently unfit for walking; FETT'ERLESS, without fetters, unrestrained.--_n._ FETT'ERLOCK (_her._) a shackle or lock. [A.S. _feter_--_fét_, feet, pl. of _fót_, foot.] FETTLE, fet'l, _v.t._ (_prov._) to arrange, mend.--_v.i._ to potter fussily about.--_n._ preparedness, ready condition. [Prob. A.S. _fetel_, a belt.] FETUS. See FOETUS. FEU, f[=u], _n._ (_Scot._) a tenure where the vassal, in place of military services, makes a return in grain or in money: a right to the use of land, houses, &c., in perpetuity, for a stipulated annual payment (FEU'-D[=U]'TY).--_v.t._ to vest in one who undertakes to pay the feu-duty--_n._ FEU'AR, one who holds real estate in consideration of a payment called feu-duty. [O. Fr. _feu_. See the variant FEE.] FEUD, f[=u]d, _n._ a war waged by private individuals, families, or clans against one another on their own account: a bloody strife.--RIGHT OF FEUD, the right to protect one's self and one's kinsmen, and punish injuries. [O. Fr. _faide_, _feide_--Low L. _faida_--Old High Ger. _f[=e]hida_. See FOE.] FEUD, f[=u]d, _n._ a fief or land held on condition of service.--_adj._ FEUD'AL, pertaining to feuds or fiefs: belonging to feudalism.--_n._ FEUDALIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ FEUD'ALISE.--_ns._ FEUD'ALISM, the system, during the Middle Ages, by which vassals held lands from lords-superior on condition of military service; FEUD'ALIST; FEUDAL'ITY, the state of being feudal: the feudal system.--_adv._ FEUD'ALLY.--_adjs._ FEUD'ARY, FEUD'ATORY, holding lands or power by a feudal tenure--also _ns._--_ns._ FEUD'IST, a writer on feuds: one versed in the laws of feudal tenure. [Low L. _feudum_, from root of _fee_.] FEUILLETON, f[.e]'lye-tong, _n._ the portion of a newspaper set apart for intelligence of a non-political character--criticisms on art or letters, or a serial story--usually marked off by a line.--_n._ FEUIL'LETONISM, superficial qualities in literature, &c. [Fr. dim. of _feuillet_, a leaf--L. _folium_, a leaf.] FEVER, f[=e]'v[.e]r, _n._ disease marked by great bodily heat and quickening of pulse: extreme excitement of the passions, agitation: a painful degree of anxiety.--_v.t._ to put into a fever.--_v.i._ to become fevered.--_adj._ F[=E]'VERED, affected with fever, excited.--_ns._ F[=E]'VER-FEW, a composite perennial closely allied to camomile, so called from its supposed power as a febrifuge; F[=E]'VER-HEAT, the heat of fever: an excessive degree of excitement.--_adj._ F[=E]'VERISH, slightly fevered: indicating fever: fidgety: fickle: morbidly eager.--_adv._ F[=E]'VERISHLY.--_n._ F[=E]'VERISHNESS.--_adj._ F[=E]'VEROUS, feverish: marked by sudden changes. [A.S. _féfor_--L. _febris_.] FEW, f[=u], _adj._ small in number: not many.--_n._ FEW'NESS.--A FEW, used colloquially for 'a good bit;' A GOOD FEW, a considerable number; IN FEW=in a few (words), briefly; SOME FEW, an inconsiderable number; THE FEW, the minority. [A.S. _féa_, pl. _féawe_; Fr. _peu_; L. _paucus_, small.] FEWTER, f[=u]'t[.e]r, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to set close, to fix in rest, as a spear. [O. Fr. _feutre_--_feutre_, felt.] FEWTRILS, f[=u]'trilz, _n.pl._ (_prov._) little things, trifles. [See FATTRELS.] FEY, FAY, f[=a], _adj._ doomed, fated soon to die, under the shadow of a sudden or violent death--often marked by extravagantly high spirits. [M. E. _fay_, _fey_--A.S. _f['æ]ge_, doomed; cf. Dut. _veeg_, about to die.] FEZ, fez, _n._ a red brimless cap of wool or felt, fitting closely to the head, with a tassel of black or blue, worn in Turkey, Egypt, &c.--in Africa usually called _tarbûsh_. [From _Fez_ in Morocco.] FIACRE, f[=e]-ä'kr, _n._ a hackney-coach. [Fr., from the Hôtel de St _Fiacre_ in Paris, where first used.] FIANCÉE, f[=e]-ong-s[=a]', _n._ a woman betrothed:--_masc._ FIANCÉ. [Fr., _fiancer_, to betroth--L. _fidentia_, confidence, _fid[)e]re_, to trust.] FIARS, f[=i]'arz, _n.pl._ (_Scot._) the prices of grain legally _struck_ or fixed for the year at the _Fiars_ Court, so as to regulate the payment of stipend, rent, and prices not expressly agreed upon. [Conn. with _fiar_, the holder of a _fee_ (q.v.).] FIASCO, fi-as'ko, _n._ a failure in a musical performance: a failure of any kind. [It. _fiasco_, bottle, perh. from L. _vasculum_, a little vessel, _vas_, a vessel.] FIAT, f[=i]'at, _n._ a formal or solemn command: a short order or warrant of a judge for making out or allowing processes, letters-patent, &c.--(_Spens._) F[=I]'AUN.--_v.t._ to sanction, [L. 'let it be done,' 3d pers. sing. pres. subj. of _fi[)e]ri_, passive of _fac[)e]re_, to do.] FIB, fib, _n._ something said falsely: a mild expression for a lie.--_v.i._ to tell a fib or lie: to speak falsely:--_pr.p._ fib'bing; _pa.p._ fibbed.--_ns._ FIB'BER, one who fibs; FIB'BERY (_rare_), the habit of fibbing; FIB'STER, a fibber. [An abbrev. of _fable_.] FIBRE, f[=i]'b[.e]r, _n._ a conglomeration of thread-like tissue such as exists in animals or vegetables: any fine thread, or thread-like substance: material, substance.--_adjs._ F[=I]'BRED, having fibres; F[=I]'BRELESS, having no fibres; F[=I]'BRIFORM, fibrous in form or structure.--_ns._ F[=I]'BRIL, a small fibre; one of the extremely minute threads composing an animal fibre; FIBRIL'LA, a fibril, filament.--_n.pl._ FIBRIL'LÆ.--_n._ FIBRILL[=A]'TION, the process of becoming fibrillated.--_adj._ F[=I]'BRILLOUS, formed of small fibres.--_ns._ F[=I]'BRIN, a proteid substance which appears in the blood after it is shed, and by its appearance gives rise to the process of coagulation or clotting; FIBRIN[=A]'TION, the process of adding fibrin to the blood.--_adj._ F[=I]'BRINOUS, of or like fibrin.--_n._ FIBROCAR'TILAGE, a firm elastic material like fibrous tissue and cartilage.--_adj._ F[=I]'BROID, of a fibrous character.--_ns._ F[=I]'BROIN, the chief chemical constituent of silk, cobwebs, and the horny skeleton of sponges; FIBR[=O]'MA, a tumour or growth consisting largely of fibrous matter; FIBR[=O]'SIS, a morbid growth of fibrous matter.--_adj._ F[=I]'BROUS, composed of fibres.--_n._ F[=I]'BROUSNESS. [Fr.,--L. _fibra_, a thread.] FIBROLINE, fib'r[=o]-l[=e]n, _n._ a yarn manufactured from the waste in hemp, flax, and jute spinning works, for backs of carpets, &c. FIBULA, fib'[=u]-la, _n._ a clasp or buckle; the outer of the two bones from the knee to the ankle.--_adjs._ FIB'ULAR, FIB'ULATE, FIB'ULOUS. [L.] FICHU, f[=e]-shü', _n._ a three-cornered cape worn over the shoulders, the ends crossed upon the bosom: a triangular piece of muslin, &c., for the neck. [Fr.] FICKLE, fik'l, _adj._ inconstant: changeable.--_n._ FICK'LENESS. [A.S. _ficol_; _gefic_, fraud.] FICO, f[=e]'ko, _n._ (_Shak._) a motion of contempt by placing the thumb between two fingers. [It.,--L.] FICTILE, fik'til, _adj._ used or fashioned by the potter, plastic. [L. _fictilis_--_fing[)e]re_, to form or fashion.] FICTION, fik'shun, _n._ a feigned or false story: a falsehood: romance: the novel, story-telling as a branch of literature: a supposition of law that a thing is true, which is either certainly not true, or at least is as probably false as true.--_adj._ FIC'TIONAL.--_n._ FIC'TIONIST, a writer of fiction.--_adj._ FICTI'TIOUS, imaginary: not real: forged.--_adv._ FICTI'TIOUSLY.--_adj._ FIC'TIVE, fictitious, imaginative.--_n._ FIC'TOR, one who makes images of clay, &c. [Fr.,--L. _fiction-em_--_fictus_, pa.p. of _fing[)e]re_.] FID, fid, _n._ a conical pin of hard wood, used by sailors to open the strands of a rope in splicing: a square bar of wood or iron, with a shoulder at one end, used to support the weight of the topmast or top-gallant-mast when swayed up into place. FIDDLE, fid'l, _n._ a stringed instrument of music, called also a _Violin_.--_v.t._ or _v.i._ to play on a fiddle: to be busy over trifles, to trifle:--_pr.p._ fidd'ling; _pa.p._ fidd'led.--_ns._ FIDD'LE-BLOCK, a long block having two sheaves of different diameters in the same plane; FIDD'LE-BOW, a bow strung with horse-hair, with which the strings of the fiddle are set vibrating.--_interjs._ FIDD'LE-DE-DEE, FIDD'LESTICK (often _pl._), nonsense!--_v.i._ FIDD'LE-FADD'LE, to trifle, to dally.--_n._ trifling talk.--_adj._ fussy, trifling.--_interj._ nonsense!--_n._ FIDD'LE-FADD'LER.--_adj._ FIDD'LE-FADD'LING.--_ns._ FIDD'LE-HEAD, an ornament at a ship's bow, over the cut-water, consisting of a scroll turning aft or inward; FIDD'LER, one who fiddles: a small crab of genus _Gelasimus_; FIDD'LE-STRING, a string for a fiddle; FIDD'LE-WOOD, a tropical American tree yielding valuable hard wood.--_adj._ FIDD'LING, trifling, busy about trifles.--FIDDLER'S GREEN, a sailor's name for a place of frolic on shore.--PLAY FIRST, or SECOND, FIDDLE, to take the part of the first, or second, violin-player in an orchestra: to take a leading, or a subordinate, part in anything; SCOTCH FIDDLE, the itch. [A.S. _fiðele_; Ger. _fiedel_. See VIOLIN.] FIDELITY, fi-del'i-ti, _n._ faithful performance of duty: faithfulness to a husband or wife: honesty: firm adherence. [L. _fidelitat-em_--_fidelis_, faithful--_fid[)e]re_, to trust.] FIDGET, fij'et, _v.i._ to be unable to rest: to move uneasily:--_pr.p._ fidg'eting; _pa.p._ fidg'eted.--_n._ irregular motion: restlessness: (_pl._) general nervous restlessness, with a desire of changing the position.--_v.i._ FIDGE, to move about restlessly: to be eager.--_n._ FIDG'ETINESS.--_adj._ FIDG'ETY, restless: uneasy. [Perh. related to _fike_ (q.v.).] FIDUCIAL, fi-d[=u]'shi-al, _adj._ showing confidence or reliance: of the nature of a trust.--_adv._ FID[=U]'CIALLY.--_adj._ FID[=U]'CIARY, confident: unwavering: held in trust.--_n._ one who holds anything in trust: (_theol._) one who depends for salvation on faith without works, an Antinomian. [L. _fiducia_, confidence, from _fid[)e]re_, to trust.] FIE, f[=i], _interj._ denoting disapprobation or disgust. [Scand., Ice. _fý_, _fei_, fie! cf. Ger. _pfui_.] FIEF, f[=e]f, _n._ land held of a superior in fee or on condition of military service: a feud. [Fr.,--Low L. _feudum_.] FIELD, f[=e]ld, _n._ country or open country in general: a piece of ground enclosed for tillage or pasture: the range of any series of actions or energies: the locality of a battle: the battle itself: room for action of any kind: a wide expanse: (_her._) the surface of a shield: the background on which figures are drawn: the part of a coin left unoccupied by the main device: those taking part in a hunt: all the entries collectively against which a single contestant has to compete: all the parties not individually excepted, as 'to bet on the field' in a horse-race.--_v.t._ at cricket and base-ball, to catch or stop and return to the fixed place.--_v.i._ to stand in positions so as to catch the ball easily in cricket.--_ns._ FIELD'-ALLOW'ANCE, a small extra payment to officers on active service; FIELD'-ARTILL'ERY, light ordnance suited for active operations in the field; FIELD'-BED, a camp or trestle bedstead; FIELD'-BOOK, a book used in surveying fields.--_n.pl._ FIELD'-COL'OURS, small flags used for marking the position for companies and regiments, also any regimental headquarters' flags.--_n._ FIELD'-DAY, a day when troops are drawn out for instruction in field exercises: any day of unusual bustle.--_adj._ FIELD'ED (_Shak._), encamped.--_ns._ FIELD'ER, one who fields; FIELD'FARE, a species of thrush, having a reddish-yellow throat and breast spotted with black; FIELD'-GLASS, a binocular telescope slung over the shoulder in a case; FIELD'-GUN, a light cannon mounted on a carriage; FIELD'-HAND, an outdoor farm labourer; FIELD'-HOS'PITAL, a temporary hospital near the scene of battle; FIELD'-ICE, ice formed in the polar seas in large surfaces, distinguished from icebergs; FIELD'ING, the acting in the field at cricket as distinguished from batting; FIELD'-MAR'SHAL, an officer of the highest rank in the army; FIELD'-MEET'ING, a conventicle; FIELD'-MOUSE, a species of mouse that lives in the fields; FIELD'-NIGHT, a night marked by some important gathering, discussion, &c.; FIELD'-OFF'ICER, a military officer above the rank of captain, and below that of general; FIELD'PIECE, a cannon or piece of artillery used in the field of battle; FIELD'-PREACH'ER, one who preaches in the open air; FIELD'-PREACH'ING; FIELDS'MAN, a fielder.--_n.pl._ FIELD'-SPORTS, sports of the field, as hunting, racing, &c.--_n._ FIELD'-TRAIN, a department of the Royal Artillery responsible for the safety and supply of ammunition during war.--_advs._ FIELD'WARD, -WARDS, toward the fields.--_n.pl._ FIELD'WORKS, temporary works thrown up by troops in the field, either for protection or to cover an attack upon a stronghold.--FIELD OF VISION, the compass of visual power.--KEEP THE FIELD, to keep the campaign open: to maintain one's ground. [A.S. _feld_; cf. Dut. _veld_, the open country, Ger. _feld_.] FIEND, f[=e]nd, _n._ the devil: one actuated by the most intense wickedness or hate.--_adj._ FIEND'ISH, like a fiend; malicious.--_n._ FIEND'ISHNESS.--_adj._ FIEND'LIKE, like a fiend: fiendish. [A.S. _feónd_, pr.p. of _feón_, to hate; Ger. _feind_, Dut. _vijand_.] FIERCE, f[=e]rs, _adj._ ferocious: violent: angry.--_adv._ FIERCE'LY.--_n._ FIERCE'NESS. [O. Fr. _fers_ (Fr. _fier_)--L. _ferus_, wild, savage.] FIERY, f[=i]r'i, or f[=i]'[.e]r-i, _adj._ ardent: impetuous: irritable.--_adv._ FIER'ILY.--_ns._ FIER'INESS; FIER'Y-CROSS (see CROSS).--_adjs._ FIER'Y-FOOT'ED, swift in motion; FIER'Y-HOT, impetuous; FIER'Y-NEW, hot from newness; FIER'Y-SHORT, short and passionate. FIFE, f[=i]f, _n._ a smaller variety of the flute, usually with only one key.--_v.i._ to play on the fife.--_ns._ FIFE'-M[=A]'JOR (_obs._), the chief fifer in a regiment; FIF'ER, one who plays on a fife; FIFE'-RAIL, the rail round the mainmast for belaying-pins. [Fr. _fifre_, Ger. _pfeife_, both, acc. to Littré, from L. _pip[=a]re_, to chirp.] FIFISH, f[=i]'fish, _adj._ (_Scot._) whimsical, cranky. [_Fife_.] FIFTEEN, fif't[=e]n, _adj._ and _n._ five and ten.--_adj._ FIF'TEENTH, the fifth after the tenth: being one of fifteen equal parts.--_n._ a fifteenth part.--THE FIFTEEN, the Jacobite rising of 1715. [A.S. _fíftyne_--_fíf_, five, _týn_, ten.] FIFTH, fifth, _adj._ next after the fourth.--_n._ one of five equal parts: (_mus._) a tone five diatonic degrees above or below any given tone.--_adv._ FIFTH'LY, in the fifth place.--_ns._ FIFTH'-MON'ARCHISM; FIFTH'-MON'ARCHIST.--FIFTH-MONARCHY MEN, an extreme sect of the time of the Puritan revolution, who looked for the establishment of a new reign of Christ on earth, in succession to Daniel's four great monarchies of Antichrist. [A.S. _fífta_.] FIFTY, fif'ti, _adj._ and _n._ five tens or five times ten.--_adj._ FIF'TIETH, the ordinal of fifty.--_n._ a fiftieth part. [A.S. _fíftig_--_fíf_, five, _tig_, ten.] FIG, fig, _n._ the fig-tree (_Ficus_), or its fruit, growing in warm climates: a thing of little consequence.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to insult by a contemptuous motion of the fingers.--_ns._ FIG'-LEAF, the leaf of the fig-tree: an imitation of such a leaf for veiling the private parts of a statue or picture: any scanty clothing (from Gen. iii. 7): a makeshift; FIG'-TREE, the tree which produces figs. [Fr. _figue_--L. _ficus_, a fig.] FIG, fig, _n._ (_coll._) figure: dress.--_v.t._ to dress, get up.--_n._ FIG'GERY, dressy ornament. FIGARO, fig'ar-o, _n._ a type of cunning and dexterity from the dramatic character, first barber and then valet-de-chambre, in the _Barbier de Seville_ and the _Mariage de Figaro_, by Beaumarchais: the name adopted by a famous Paris newspaper founded 1854. FIGHT, f[=i]t, _v.i._ to strive with: to contend in war or in single combat.--_v.t._ to engage in conflict with: to gain by fight: to cause to fight:--_pr.p._ fight'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ fought (fawt).--_n._ a struggle: a combat: a battle or engagement.--_n._ FIGHT'ER.--_adj._ FIGHT'ING, engaged in or fit for war.--_n._ the act of fighting or contending.--_ns._ FIGHT'ING-COCK, a gamecock, a pugnacious fellow; FIGHT'ING-FISH (_Betta pugnax_), a small Siamese fresh-water fish, kept for its extraordinary readiness for fighting, bets being laid on the issue.--FIGHT IT OUT, to struggle on until the end; FIGHT SHY OF, to avoid from mistrust.--LIVE LIKE FIGHTING-COCKS, to get the best of meat and drink. [A.S. _feohtan_; Ger. _fechten_.] FIGMENT, fig'ment, _n._ a fabrication or invention. [L. _figmentum_--_fing[)e]re_, to form.] FIGULINE, fig'[=u]-lin, _adj._ such as is made by the potter, fictile.--_n._ an earthen vessel:--_pl._ pottery. [L.--_figulinus_--_figulus_, potter.] FIGURE, fig'[=u]r, _n._ the form of anything in outline: the representation of anything in drawing, &c.: a drawing: a design: a statue: appearance: a character denoting a number: value or price: (_rhet._) a deviation from the ordinary mode of expression, in which words are changed from their literal signification or usage: (_logic_) the form of a syllogism with respect to the position of the middle term: steps in a dance: a type or emblem.--_v.t._ to form or shape: to make an image of: to mark with figures or designs: to imagine: to symbolise: to foreshow: to note by figures.--_v.i._ to make figures: to appear as a distinguished person.--_n._ FIGURABIL'ITY, the quality of being figurable.--_adjs._ FIG'URABLE; FIG'URAL, represented by figure.--_n._ FIG'URANTE, a ballet dancer, one of those dancers who dance in troops, and form a background for the solo dancers:--_masc._ FIG'URANT.--_adj._ FIG'URATE, of a certain determinate form: (_mus._) florid.--_n._ FIGUR[=A]'TION, act of giving figure or form: (_mus._) mixture of chords and discords.--_adj._ FIG'URATIVE (_rhet._), representing by, containing, or abounding in figures: metaphorical: flowery: typical.--_adv._ FIG'URATIVELY.--_ns._ FIG'URATIVENESS, state of being figurative; FIG'URE-CAST'ER, an astrologer; FIG'URE-CAST'ING, the art of preparing casts of animal or other forms.--_adj._ FIG'URED, marked or adorned with figures.--_ns._ FIG'URE-DANCE, a dance consisting of elaborate figures; FIG'UREHEAD, the figure or bust under the bowsprit of a ship; FIG'URE-WEAV'ING, the weaving of figured fancy fabrics; FIG'URINE, a small carved or sculptured figure, often specially such as are adorned with painting and gilding; FIG'URIST, one who uses or interprets figures.--FIGURATE NUMBERS, any series of numbers beginning with unity, and so formed that if each be subtracted from the following, and the series so formed be treated in the same way, by a continuation of the process, equal differences will be obtained. [Fr.,--L. _figura_, _fing[)e]re_, to form.] FIKE, f[=i]k, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to fidget restlessly.--_n._ restlessness: any vexatious requirement or detail in work.--_n._ FIK'ERY, fuss.--_adj._ FIK'Y. [Prob. Ice. _fíkja_.] FILACEOUS, fil-[=a]'shus, _adj._ composed of threads. [L. _filum_, a thread.] FILACER, fil'[=a]-ser, _n._ an officer in the Court of Common Pleas who formerly filed original writs and made out processes on them.--Also FIL'AZER. [O. Fr. _filacier_--_filace_, a file for papers--L. _filum_.] FILAMENT, fil'a-ment, _n._ a slender or thread-like object: a fibre: (_bot._) the stalk of the stamen which supports the pollen-containing anther.--_adjs._ FILAMENT'ARY, FILAMENT'OSE; FILAMENT'OID, like a filament; FILAMENT'OUS, thread-like. [Fr.,--L. _filum_, a thread.] FILANDERS, fil-an'd[.e]rz, _n.pl._ a disease in hawks caused by a small intestinal worm, the _filander_. [Fr. _filandres_--L. _filum_.] FILAR, f[=i]'lar, _adj._ pertaining to a thread. FILATURE, fil'a-t[=u]r, _n._ the reeling of silk, or the place where it is done.--_n._ FIL'ATORY, a machine for forming or spinning threads. [Fr.,--L. _filum_, a thread.] FILBERT, fil'bert, _n._ the nut of the cultivated hazel--(_obs._) FIL'BERD. [Prob. from St _Philibert_, whose day fell in the nutting season, Aug. 22 (O.S.).] FILCH, filch, _v.t._ to steal: to pilfer.--_n._ FILCH'ER, a thief.--_adv._ FILCH'INGLY. [Ety. unknown.] FILE, f[=i]l, _n._ a line or wire on which papers are placed in order: the papers so placed: a roll or list: a line of soldiers ranged behind one another: the number of men forming the depth of a battalion.--_v.t._ to put upon a file: to arrange in an orderly manner: to put among the records of a court: to bring before a court.--_v.i._ to march in a file.--_n._ FILE'-LEAD'ER.--FILE OFF, to wheel off at right angles to the first direction; FILE WITH, to rank with, to be equal to.--SINGLE FILE, INDIAN FILE, of men marching one behind another. [Fr. _file_--L. _filum_, a thread.] FILE, f[=i]l, _n._ a steel instrument with sharp-edged furrows for smoothing or rasping metals, &c.: any means adopted to polish a thing, as a literary style: a shrewd, cunning person, a deep fellow: a pickpocket.--_v.t._ to cut or smooth with, or as with, a file: to polish, improve.--_n._ FILE'-CUT'TER, a maker of files.--_adj._ FILED, polished, smooth.--_ns._ FILE'-FISH, a fish of genus _Balistes_, the skin granulated like a file; FIL'ER, one who files; FIL'ING, a particle rubbed off with a file. [A.S. _feól_; Ger. _feile_; Dut. _vijl_.] FILE, f[=i]l, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to defile, pollute. FILEMOT, fil'e-mot, _adj._ of a dead-leaf colour--also _n._ the colour itself. [Fr. _feuillemorte_, a dead leaf.] FILIAL, fil'yal, _adj._ pertaining to or becoming a son or daughter: bearing the relation of a child.--_adv._ FIL'IALLY. [Fr.,--Low L. _filialis_--L. _filius_, a son.] FILIATE, FILIATION. Same as AFFILIATE, AFFILIATION. FILIBUSTER, FILLIBUSTER, fil'i-bus-t[.e]r, _n._ a lawless military or piratical adventurer, as in the West Indies: a buccaneer.--_v.i._ to obstruct legislation wantonly by endless speeches, motions, &c.--_n._ FIL'IBUSTERISM, the character or actions of a filibuster. [Sp. _filibustero_, through Fr. _flibustier_, _fribustier_, from Dut. _vrijbueter_, _vrijbuiter_ (cf. Eng. _freebooter_, Ger. _freibeuter_), from _vrij_, free, _buit_, booty.] FILICES, fil'i-sez, _n.pl._ the ferns.--_adjs._ FIL'ICAL; FILIC'IFORM; FIL'ICOID. FILIFORM, fil'i-form, _adj._ having the form of a filament: long and slender. [L. _filum_, thread, _forma_, form.] FILIGREE, fil'i-gr[=e], _n._ a kind of ornamental metallic lacework of gold and silver, twisted into convoluted forms, united and partly consolidated by soldering--earlier forms, FIL'IGRAIN, FIL'IGRANE.--_adj._ FIL'IGREED, ornamented with filigree. [Fr. _filigrane_--It. _filigrana_--L. _filum_, thread, _granum_, a grain.] FILIOQUE, fil-i-[=o]'kwe, _n._ the clause inserted into the Nicene Creed at Toledo in 589, which asserts that the Holy Ghost proceeds from the Son, as well as from the Father--not accepted by the Eastern Church. [L., 'and from the son.'] FILL, fil, _v.t._ to make full: to put into until all the space is occupied: to supply abundantly: to satisfy: to glut: to perform the duties of: to supply a vacant office.--_v.i._ to become full: to become satiated.--_n._ as much as fills or satisfies: a full supply: a single charge of anything.--_ns._ FILL'ER, he who, or that which, fills: a vessel for conveying a liquid into a bottle; FILL'ING, anything used to fill up, stop a hole, to complete, &c., as the woof, in weaving: supply. [A.S. _fyllan_, _fullian_--_ful_, full.] FILL, fil, _n._ (_Shak._) the thill or shaft of a cart or carriage. [See THILL.] FILLET, fil'et, _n._ a little string or band, esp. to tie round the head: meat or fish boned and rolled, roasted or baked: a piece of meat composed of muscle, esp. the fleshy part of the thigh: (_archit._) a small space or band used along with mouldings.--_v.t._ to bind or adorn with a fillet:--_pr.p._ fill'eting; _pa.p._ fill'eted. [Fr. _filet_, dim. of _fil_, from L. _filum_, a thread.] FILLIBEG, PHILIBEG, fil'i-beg, _n._ the kilt, the dress or petticoat reaching nearly to the knees, worn by the Highlanders of Scotland. [Gael. _feileadhbeag_--_feileadh_, plait, fold, _beag_, little.] FILLIP, fil'ip, _v.t._ to strike with the nail of the finger, forced from the ball of the thumb with a sudden jerk: to incite, drive:--_pr.p._ fill'iping; _pa.p._ fill'iped.--_n._ a jerk of the finger from the thumb: anything which excites. [A form of _flip_.] FILLISTER, fil'is-ter, _n._ a rabbeting plane used in making window-sashes. FILLY, fil'i, _n._ a young mare: a lively, wanton girl. [Dim. of _foal_.] FILM, film, _n._ a thin skin or membrane: a very slender thread: the coating on a plate prepared to act as a medium for taking a picture.--_v.t._ to cover with a film, or thin skin.--_n._ FILM'INESS.--_adj._ FILM'Y, composed of film or membranes. [A.S. _filmen_, extended from _fell_, a skin.] FILOPLUME, f[=i]'lo-pl[=oo]m, _n._ a long slender feather. [Formed from L. _filum_, thread, _pluma_, a feather.] FILOSE, f[=i]'l[=o]s, _adj._ ending in a thread-like process.--_n._ FILOSELLE', ferret or floss silk. [L. _filum_, thread.] FILTER, fil'ter, _n._ a contrivance arranged for purifying a liquid of solid insoluble matter by passing it through some porous substance which does not allow the solid particles to pass through.--_v.t._ to purify liquor by a filter.--_v.i._ to pass through a filter: to percolate.--_ns._ FIL'TER-P[=A]'PER, porous paper for use in filtering; FIL'TER-PUMP, a contrivance devised by the chemist Bunsen for accelerating the filtering process. [O. Fr. _filtre_--Low L. _filtrum_, felt.] FILTH, filth, _n._ foul matter: anything that defiles, physically or morally.--_adv._ FILTH'ILY.--_n._ FILTH'INESS.--_adj._ FILTH'Y, foul: unclean: impure. [A.S. _fýldh_--_fúl_, foul.] FILTRATE, fil'tr[=a]t, _v.t._ to filter or percolate.--_n._ FILTR[=A]'TION, act or process of filtering. FIMBLE, fim'bl, _n._ the male plant of hemp, yielding a weaker and shorter fibre than the _Carl hemp_ or female plant. [Dut. _femel_.] FIMBRIATE, -D, fim'bri-[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ fringed.--_n._ FIM'BRIA, a fringing filament.--_v.t._ FIM'BRIATE, to fringe: to hem.--_adj._ FIM'BRICATE, fimbriate. [L. _fimbri[=a]tus_--_fimbriæ_, fibres.] FIMETARIOUS, fim-[=e]-t[=a]'ri-us, _adj._ growing on dung. [Illustration] FIN, fin, _n._ the organ by which a fish balances itself and swims.--_n._ FIN'-BACK, a finner or fin-whale.--_adjs._ FIN'-FOOT'ED, having feet with toes connected by a membrane; FINNED, having fins; FIN'NY, furnished with fins.--_n._ FIN'-RAY, one of the rods or rays supporting a fish's fin.--_adj._ FIN'-TOED, having feet with membranes connecting the toes, as aquatic birds. [A.S. _finn_; L. _pinna_, a fin.] FINABLE, f[=i]n'a-bl, _adj._ liable to a fine. FINAL, f[=i]'nal, _adj._ last: decisive, conclusive: respecting the end or motive: of a judgment ready for execution.--_ns._ F[=I]'NALISM; F[=I]'NALIST; FINAL'ITY, state of being final: completeness or conclusiveness.--_adv._ F[=I]'NALLY.--FINAL CAUSE (see CAUSE). [Fr.,--L. _finalis_--_finis_, an end.] FINALE, fi-nä'l[=a], _n._ the end: the last passage in a piece of music: the concluding piece in a concert. [It. _finale_, final--L. _finis_.] FINANCE, fi-nans', _n._ money affairs or revenue, esp. of a ruler or state: public money: the art of managing or administering the public money.--_v.t._ to manage financially, to furnish with sums of money.--_adj._ FINAN'CIAL, pertaining to finance.--_n._ FINAN'CIALIST, a financier.--_adv._ FINAN'CIALLY.--_n._ FINANCIER', one skilled in finance: an officer who administers the public revenue.--_v.i._ and _v.t._ to finance. [Fr.,--Low L. _financia_--Low L. _fin[=a]re_, to pay a fine--_finis_. See FINE (2).] FINCH, finsh, _n._ a name applied to many Passerine birds, esp. to those of the genus _Fringilla_ or family _Fringillidæ_--_bullfinch_, _chaffinch_, _goldfinch_, &c.--_adjs._ FINCH'-BACKED, FINCHED, striped or spotted on the back. [A.S. _finc_; Ger. _fink_.] FIND, f[=i]nd, _v.t._ to come upon or meet with: to discover or arrive at: to perceive: to experience: to supply: to determine after judicial inquiry:--_pr.p._ f[=i]nd'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ found.--_ns._ FIND'ER; FIND'-FAULT (_Shak._), one who finds fault with another; FIND'ING, act of one who finds: that which is found: a judicial verdict: (_pl._) the appliances which some workmen have to supply, esp. of shoemakers--everything save leather.--FIND ONE IN (something), to supply one with something; FIND ONE'S ACCOUNT (in anything), to find satisfactory profit or advantage in it; FIND ONE'S LEGS, to rise, or to recover the use of one's legs, as after being drunk, &c.; FIND ONE'S SELF, to feel, as regards health, happiness, &c.; FIND OUT, to discover. [A.S. _findan_; Ger. _finden_.] FINDON-HADDOCK. See FINNAN-HADDOCK. FINE, f[=i]n, _adj._ excellent: beautiful: not coarse or heavy: subtle: thin: slender: exquisite: nice: delicate: overdone: showy: splendid: striking or remarkable (often _ironically_): pure, refined: consisting of small particles; sharp, keen.--_v.t._ to make fine: to refine: to purify: to change by imperceptible degrees.--_adv._ (_Scot._) for finely, well.--_v.t._ FINE'-DRAW, to draw or sew up a rent so finely that it is not seen.--_p.adj._ FINE'-DRAWN, drawn out too finely.--_adj._ FINE'ISH, somewhat fine.--_adv._ FINE'LY.--_ns._ FINE'NESS; FIN'ER (same as REFINER); FIN'ERY, splendour, fine or showy things: a place where anything is fined or refined: a furnace for making iron malleable.--_adjs._ FINE'-SPOK'EN, using fine phrases; FINE'-SPUN, finely spun out: artfully contrived.--FINE ARTS, as painting, sculpture, music, those chiefly concerned with the beautiful--opp. to the _Useful_ or _Industrial arts_. [Fr.,--L. _finitus_, finished, from _fin[=i]re_, to finish, _finis_, an end.] FINE, f[=i]n, _n._ a composition: a sum of money imposed as a punishment.--_v.t._ to impose a fine on: to punish by fine: (_Shak._) to pledge or pawn.--_adj._ FINE'LESS (_Shak._), endless.--IN FINE, in conclusion. [Low L. _finis_, a fine--L. _finis_, an end.] FINEER, fi-n[=e]r', _v.i._ to get goods on credit by fraudulent artifice. [Prob. Dut.; cog. with FINANCE.] FINESSE, fi-nes', _n._ subtlety of contrivance: artifice: an endeavour by a player holding (say) queen and ace to take the trick with the lower card.--_v.i._ to use artifice.--_ns._ FINES'SER; FINES'SING. [Fr.] FINGER, fing'g[.e]r, _n._ one of the five terminal parts of the hand: a finger-breadth: skill in the use of the hand or fingers: execution in music.--_v.t._ to handle or perform with the fingers: to pilfer: to toy or meddle with.--_v.i._ to use lightly with the fingers, as a musical instrument.--_ns._ FING'ER-AL'PHABET, a deaf and dumb alphabet; FING'ER-BOARD, the board, or part of a musical instrument, on which the keys for the fingers are placed; FING'ER-BOWL, -GLASS, a bowl for holding the water used to cleanse the fingers after a meal; FING'ER-BREADTH, the breadth of a finger, the fourth part of a palm, forming 1/16 of a foot.--_adj._ FING'ERED, having fingers, or anything like fingers.--_ns._ FING'ER-GRASS, grass of genus _Digitaria_; FING'ER-HOLE, a hole in the side of the tube of a flute, &c., capable of being closed by the player's finger to modify the pitch of tone; FING'ERING, act or manner of touching with the fingers, esp. a musical instrument: a thick woollen yarn for stockings; FING'ERLING, a very diminutive being: the parr; FING'ER-MARK, a mark, esp. a soil made by the finger; FING'ER-PLATE, a thin plate of metal or porcelain laid along the edge of a door at the handle, to prevent soiling by the hand; FING'ER-POST, a post with a finger pointing, for directing passengers to the road; FING'ER-STALL, a covering of leather for protecting the finger.--FINGER-AND-TOE (see ANBURY).--A FINGER IN THE PIE, a share in the doing of anything, often of vexatious meddling; HAVE AT ONE'S FINGER-ENDS, to be perfect master of a subject; HAVE ONE'S FINGERS ALL THUMBS, to have awkward fingers. [A.S. _finger_; Ger. _finger_.] [Illustration] FINIAL, fin'i-al, _n._ the bunch of foliage, &c., at the termination of the pinnacles, gables, spires, &c., in Gothic architecture. [From L. _fin[=i]re_--_finis_.] FINICAL, fin'i-kal, _adj._ affectedly fine or precise in trifles: nice: foppish.--_n._ FINICAL'ITY, state of being finical: something finical.--_adv._ FIN'ICALLY.--_ns._ FIN'ICALNESS, the quality of being finical: foppery; FIN'ICKING, fussiness and fastidiousness.--_adjs._ FIN'ICKING, FIN'IKIN, particular about trifles. FINING, f[=i]n'ing, _n._ process of refining or purifying.--_n._ FIN'ING-POT, a pot or vessel used in refining. FINIS, f[=i]'nis, _n._ the end: conclusion. [L.] FINISH, fin'ish, _v.t._ to end or complete the making of anything: to perfect: to give the last touches to: to put an end to, to destroy.--_n._ that which finishes or completes: the end of a race, hunt, &c.: last touch, careful elaboration, polish: the last coat of plaster to a wall.--_p.adj._ FIN'ISHED, brought to an end or to completion: complete: perfect.--_n._ FIN'ISHER, one who finishes, completes, or perfects: in bookbinding, the one who puts the last touches to the book in the way of gilding and decoration. [Fr. _finir_, _finissant_--L. _fin[=i]re_--_finis_, an end.] FINITE, f[=i]'n[=i]t, _adj._ having an end or limit: subject to limitations or conditions, as time, space--opp. to _Infinite_ (q.v.).--_adj._ F[=I]'N[=I]TELESS, without end or limit.--_adv._ F[=I]'N[=I]TELY.--_ns._ F[=I]'N[=I]TENESS, FIN'IT[=U]DE. [L. _fin[=i]tus_, pa.p. of _fin[=i]re_.] FINN, fin, _n._ a native of _Finland_ in the north-west of Russia.--_adjs._ FIN'NIC, FIN'NISH, pertaining to the Finns in the widest sense. FINNAN-HADDOCK, fin'an-had'uk, _n._ a kind of smoked haddock, esp. that prepared at _Findon_, near Aberdeen.--Also FIN'DON-HADD'OCK. FIORD, FJORD, fyord, _n._ name given in Scandinavia to a long, narrow, rock-bound inlet. [Norw.] FIORIN, f[=i]'o-rin, _n._ a species of creeping bent-grass. FIORITE, f[=i]-[=o]'r[=i]t, _n._ a kind of siliceous incrustation found in the vicinity of volcanoes and hot springs. [From Santa _Fiore_ in Tuscany.] FIR, f[.e]r, _n._ the name of several species of cone-bearing, resinous trees, valuable for their timber.--_adj._ FIR'RY, abounding in firs. [A.S. _furh_ (_wudu_); cf. Ger. _föhre_.] FIRE, f[=i]r, _n._ the heat and light caused by burning: flame: anything burning, as fuel in a grate, &c.: a conflagration: torture or death by burning: severe trial: anything inflaming or provoking: ardour of passion: vigour: brightness of fancy: enthusiasm: sexual passion.--_v.t._ to set on fire: to inflame: to irritate: to animate: to cause the explosion of: to discharge.--_v.i._ to take fire: to be or become irritated or inflamed: to discharge firearms.--_n._ FIRE'-ALARM', an alarm of fire, an apparatus for giving such.--_n.pl._ FIRE'ARMS, arms or weapons which are discharged by fire exploding gunpowder.--_ns._ FIRE'-AR'ROW, a small iron dart or arrow furnished with a combustible for setting fire to ships; FIRE'BALL, a ball filled with combustibles to be thrown among enemies: a meteor; FIRE'-BALLOON', a balloon carrying a fire placed in the lower part for rarefying the air to make itself buoyant: a balloon sent up arranged to ignite at a certain height; FIRE'-BAS'KET, a portable grate for a bedroom; FIRE'-BLAST, a blast or blight affecting plants, in which they appear as if scorched by the sun; FIRE'-BOAT, a steamboat fitted up to extinguish fires in docks; FIRE'BOX, the box or chamber (usually copper) of a steam-engine, in which the fire is placed; FIRE'BRAND, a brand or piece of wood on fire: one who inflames the passions of others; FIRE'BRICK, a brick so made as to resist the action of fire, used for lining furnaces, &c.; FIRE'-BRIGADE', a brigade or company of men for extinguishing fires or conflagrations; FIRE'-BUCK'ET, a bucket for carrying water to extinguish a fire; FIRE'CLAY, a kind of clay, capable of resisting fire, used in making firebricks; FIRE'COCK, a cock or spout to let out water for extinguishing fires; FIRE'DAMP, a gas, carburetted hydrogen, in coal-mines, apt to take fire and explode when mixed with atmospheric air; FIRE'-DOG (same as ANDIRON); FIRE'-DRAKE, a fiery meteor, a kind of firework; FIRE'-EAT'ER, a juggler who pretends to eat fire: one given to needless quarrelling, a professed duellist; FIRE'-EN'GINE, an engine or forcing-pump used to extinguish fires with water; FIRE'-ESCAPE', a machine used to enable people to escape from fires.--_adj._ FIRE'-EYED (_Shak._), having fiery eyes.--_ns._ FIRE'-FLAG (_Coleridge_), FIRE'FLAUGHT (_Swinburne_), a flash of lightning; FIRE'-FLY, a name applied to many phosphorescent insects, all included with the _Coleoptera_ or beetles, some giving forth a steady light, others flashing light intermittently (glow-worms, &c.); FIRE'-GUARD, a framework of wire placed in front of a fireplace.--_n.pl._ FIRE'-[=I]'RONS, the irons--poker, tongs, and shovel--used for a fire.--_ns._ FIRE'LIGHT'ER, a composition of pitch and sawdust, or the like, for kindling fires; FIRE'LOCK, a gun in which the fire is caused by a lock with steel and flint; FIRE'MAN, a man whose business it is to assist in extinguishing fires: a man who tends the fires, as of a steam-engine; FIRE'-MAS'TER, the chief of a fire-brigade.--_adj._ FIRE'-NEW, new from the fire: brand new: bright.--_ns._ FIRE'-PAN, a pan or metal vessel for holding fire; FIRE'PLACE, the place in a house appropriated to the fire: a hearth; FIRE'PLUG, a plug placed in a pipe which supplies water in case of fire; FIRE'-POL'ICY, a written instrument of insurance against fire up to a certain amount; FIRE'-POT, an earthen pot filled with combustibles, used in military operations.--_adj._ FIRE'PROOF, proof against fire.--_ns._ FIRE'-PROOFING, the act of rendering anything fireproof: the materials used; FIR'ER, an incendiary; FIRE'-RAIS'ING, the crime of arson.--_adj._ FIRE'-ROBED (_Shak._), robed in fire.--_ns._ FIRE'-SCREEN, a screen for intercepting the heat of the fire; FIRE'-SHIP, a ship filled with combustibles, to set an enemy's vessels on fire; FIRE'SIDE, the side of the fireplace: the hearth: home.--_adj._ homely, intimate.--_ns._ FIRE'-STICK, the implement used by many primitive peoples for obtaining fire by friction; FIRE'STONE, a kind of sandstone that bears a high degree of heat; FIRE'-WA'TER, ardent spirits; FIRE'WOOD, wood for burning.--_n.pl._ FIRE'WORKS, artificial works or preparations of gunpowder, sulphur, &c., to be fired chiefly for display or amusement.--_ns._ FIRE'-WOR'SHIP, the worship of fire, chiefly by the Parsees in Persia and India; FIRE'-WOR'SHIPPER; FIR'ING, a putting fire to: discharge of guns: firewood: fuel: cauterisation; FIR'ING-PAR'TY, a detachment told off to fire over the grave of one buried with military honours, or to shoot one sentenced to death; FIR'ING-POINT, the temperature at which an inflammable oil will take fire spontaneously.--FIRE OFF, to discharge a shot; FIRE OUT (_Shak._), to expel; FIRE UP, to start a fire: to fly into a passion.--SET THE THAMES ON FIRE, to do something striking; TAKE FIRE, to begin to burn: to become aroused about something. [A.S. _fýr_; Ger. _feuer_; Gr. _pyr_.] FIRK, f[.e]rk, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to whip or beat: to rouse. FIRKIN, f[.e]r'kin, _n._ a measure equal to the fourth part of a barrel: 9 gallons: 56 lb. of butter. [With dim. suff. _-kin_, from Old Dut. _vierde_, fourth.] FIRLOT, f[.e]r'lot, _n._ an old Scotch dry measure, the fourth part of a boll. FIRM, f[.e]rm, _adj._ fixed: compact: strong: not easily moved or disturbed: unshaken: resolute: decided.--_v.t._ (_obs._) to fix, establish, confirm.--_adj._ FIRM'LESS, wavering.--_adv._ FIRM'LY.--_n._ FIRM'NESS. [O. Fr. _ferme_--L. _firmus_.] FIRM, f[.e]rm, _n._ the title under which a company transacts business: a business house or partnership. [It. _firma_, from L. _firmus_. See FARM.] FIRMAMENT, f[.e]r'ma-ment, _n._ the solid sphere in which the stars were thought to be fixed: the sky.--_adj._ FIRMAMENT'AL, pertaining to the firmament: celestial. [Fr.,--L. _firmamentum_--_firmus_, firm.] FIRMAN, f[.e]r'man, or fer-män', _n._ any decree emanating from the Turkish government. [Pers. _fermán_; Sans. _pramâna_, command.] FIRN, firn, or fern, _n._ snow on high glaciers while still granular--the French _névé_. [Ger. _firn_, of last year; cf. obs. Eng. _fern_, former.] FIRST, f[.e]rst, _adj._ foremost: preceding all others in place, time, or degree: most eminent: chief.--_adv._ before anything else, in time, space, rank, &c.--_adjs._ FIRST'-BEGOT'TEN, begotten or born first: eldest; FIRST'-BORN, born first.--_n._ the first in the order of birth: the eldest child.--_adj._ FIRST'-CLASS, of the first class, rank, or quality.--_ns._ FIRST'-DAY, Sunday; FIRST'-FLOOR (see FLOOR); FIRST'-FOOT (_Scot._), the first person to enter a house after the beginning of the new year; FIRST'-FRUIT, FIRST'-FRUITS, the fruits first gathered in a season: the first profits or effects of anything, bishoprics, benefices, &c.--_adj._ FIRST'-HAND, obtained without the intervention of a second party.--_n._ FIRST'LING, the first produce or offspring, esp. of animals.--_adv._ FIRST'LY, in the first place.--_adjs._ FIRST'-RATE, of the first or highest rate or excellence: pre-eminent in quality, size, or estimation; FIRST'-WA'TER, the first or highest quality, purest lustre--of diamonds and pearls. [A.S. _fyrst_; the superl. of _fore_ by adding _-st_.] FIRTH, f[.e]rth. Same as FRITH. FISC, fisk, _n._ the state treasury: the public revenue: one's purse.--_adj._ FISC'AL, pertaining to the public treasury or revenue.--_n._ a treasurer: a public prosecutor, the chief law officer of the crown under the Holy Roman Empire: (_Scot._) an officer who prosecutes in petty criminal cases--fully, _Procurator-fiscal_. [O. Fr.,--L. _fiscus_, a purse.] FISGIG. See FIZGIG. [Illustration] FISH, fish, _n._ a vertebrate that lives in water, and breathes through gills: the flesh of fish: a piece of wood fixed alongside another for strengthening:--_pl._ FISH, or FISH'ES.--_v.t._ to search for fish: to search by sweeping: to draw out or up: (_naut._) to strengthen, as a weak spar: to hoist the flukes of: to seek to obtain by artifice.--_ns._ FISH'-BALL, -CAKE, a ball of chopped fish and mashed potatoes, fried.--_adj._ FISH'-BELL'IED, swelled out downward like the belly of a fish.--_ns._ FISH'-CARV'ER, a large flat implement for carving fish at table--also _Fish'-knife_, _Fish'-slice_, and _Fish'-trow'el_; FISH'-COOP, a square box with a hole in its bottom, used in fishing through a hole in the ice; FISH'-CREEL, an angler's basket, a wicker-basket used for carrying fish; FISH'-DAY, a day on which fish is eaten instead of meat; FISH'ER, one who fishes, or whose occupation is to catch fish: a North American carnivore--a kind of marten or sable, the pekan or wood-shock; FISH'ERMAN, a fisher; FISH'ERY, the business of catching fish: a place for catching fish; FISH'-FAG, a woman who sells fish; FISH'-GARTH, an enclosure on a river for the preserving or taking of fish--also FISH'-WEIR; FISH'-GOD, a deity in form wholly or partly like a fish, like the Philistine Dagon; FISH'-HOOK, a barbed hook for catching fish.--_v.t._ FISH'IFY (_Shak._), to turn to fish.--_n._ FISH'INESS.--_adj._ FISH'ING, used in fishery.--_n._ the art or practice of catching fish.--_ns._ FISH'ING-FROG, the angler-fish; FISH'ING-ROD, a long slender rod to which a line is fastened for angling; FISH'ING-TACK'LE, tackle--nets, lines, &c.--used in fishing; FISH'-JOINT, a joint or splice made with fish-plates; FISH'-KETT'LE, a long oval dish for boiling fish; FISH'-LADD'ER, FISH'-WAY, an arrangement for enabling a fish to ascend a fall, &c.; FISH'-LOUSE, a name widely applied to any of the Copepod crustaceans which occur as external parasites, both on fresh-water and marine fishes; FISH'-MEAL (_Shak._), a meal of fish: abstemious diet; FISH'MONGER, a dealer in fish; FISH'-PACK'ING, the process of packing or canning fish for the market; FISH'-PLATE, an iron plate fitted to the web of a rail, used in pairs, one on each side of the junction of two rails; FISH'-POND, a pond in which fish are kept; FISH'-SALES'MAN, one who receives consignments of fish for sale by auction to retail dealers; FISH'-SAUCE, sauce proper to be eaten with fish, as anchovy, &c.; FISH'-SCRAP, fish or fish-skins from which oil or glue has been extracted; FISH'-SPEAR, a spear or dart for striking fish; FISH'-STRAIN'ER, a metal colander for taking fish from a boiler.--_adj._ FISH'-TAIL, shaped like the tail of a fish.--_ns._ FISH'-TORP[=E]'DO, a self-propelling torpedo; FISH'-WIFE, FISH'-WOM'AN, a woman who sells fish about the streets.--_adj._ FISH'Y, consisting of fish: like a fish: abounding in fish: dubious, as a story: equivocal, unsafe.--_ns._ BAIT'-FISH, such fish as are used for bait, fish that may be caught with bait; BOTT'OM-FISH, those that feed on the bottom, as halibut, &c.--FISH FOR, to seek to gain by cunning or indirect means; FISHERMAN'S LUCK, getting wet and catching no fish; FISHERMAN'S RING, a signet-ring with the device of St Peter fishing, used in signing papal briefs.--A QUEER FISH, a person of odd habits; BE NEITHER FISH NOR FLESH, or NEITHER FISH, FLESH, NOR FOWL, to be neither one thing nor another, in principle, &c.; HAVE OTHER FISH TO FRY, to have something else to do, or to take up one's mind; MAKE FISH OF ONE AND FLESH (or FOWL) OF ANOTHER, to make invidious distinctions, show undue partiality. [A.S. _fisc_; Ger. _fisch_; Ice. _fiskr_; L. _piscis_; Gr. _ichthys_; Gael. _iasg_.] FISKERY, fisk'er-i, _n._ (_Carlyle_) friskiness.--_v.i._ FISK (_obs._), to jump about. [Prob. a freq. of A.S. _fýsan_, to hurry, or of _fésian_, to feeze; Sw. _fjäska_, to fidget.] FISSILE, fis'il, _adj._ that may be cleft or split in the direction of the grain.--_adjs._ FISSICOS'TATE, having the ribs divided; FISSILING'UAL, having the tongue cleft.--_ns._ FISSIL'ITY, cleavableness; FIS'SION, a cleaving or breaking up into two parts.--_adj._ FISS'IVE. [L. _fissilis_, from _find[)e]re_, _fissum_, to cleave.] FISSIPAROUS, fis-sip'a-rus, _adj._ propagated by spontaneous fission or self-division.--_ns._ FISSIP'ARISM, FISSIPA'RITY.--_adv._ FISSIP'AROUSLY. [L. _fissus_, pa.p. of _find[)e]re_, to cleave, _par[)e]re_, to bring forth.] FISSIPED, fis'i-ped, _adj._ cloven-footed--also _n._ FISSIROSTRAL, fis-i-ros'tral, _adj._ having a deeply cleft or gaping beak, as swallows, &c. [L. _fissus_, cleft, _rostrum_, a beak.] FISSLE, fis'l, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to rustle: to whistle. FISSURE, fish'[=u]r, _n._ a narrow opening or chasm: a cleft, slit, or furrow: any groove or sulcus, esp. one of the furrows on the surface of the brain, as the longitudinal fissure separating the hemispheres.--_adj._ FISS'[=U]RED, cleft, divided. [Fr.,--L. _fiss[=u]ra_, from _find[)e]re_, _fissum_, to cleave.] FIST, fist, _n._ the closed or clenched hand.--_v.t._ to strike or grip with the fist.--_n._ FISTI[=A]'NA, anecdotes about boxing and boxers.--_adj._ FIST'IC (_Dickens_), pugilistic.--_ns._ FIST'ICUFF, a blow with the fist: (_pl._) boxing, blows; FIST'-LAW, the law of brute force.--_adj._ FIST'Y. [A.S. _fýst_; Ger. _faust_.] FISTULA, fist'[=u]-la, _n._ a narrow passage or duct: the tube through which the wine of the eucharist was once sucked from the chalice--also _Calamus_.--_adjs._ FIST'ULAR, hollow like a pipe; FIST'ULATE, -D, hollowed like a fistula.--_v.i._ FIST'ULATE, to assume such a form.--_adjs._ FIST'ULIFORM; FIST'ULOSE, FIST'ULOUS, of the form of a fistula. [L. _fistula_, a pipe.] FIT, fit, _adj._ adapted to any particular end or standard, prepared for: qualified: convenient: proper: properly trained and ready, as for a race.--_v.t._ to make fit or suitable: to suit one thing to another: to be adapted to: to qualify.--_v.i._ to be suitable or becoming:--_pr.p._ fit'ting; _pa.p._ fit'ted.--_advs._ FIT'LIEST (_Milt._), most fitly; FIT'LY.--_ns._ FIT'MENT (_Shak._), something fitted to an end; FIT'NESS; FIT'TER, he who, or that which, makes fit.--_adj._ FIT'TING, fit: appropriate.--_n._ anything used in fitting up, esp. in _pl._--_adv._ FIT'TINGLY.--_ns._ FIT'TING-OUT, a supply of things, fit and necessary; FIT'TING-SHOP, a shop in which pieces of machinery are fitted together.--FIT OUT, to furnish, supply with stores, as a ship; FIT UP, to provide with things suitable.--NOT FIT TO HOLD A CANDLE TO (see CANDLE). [First recorded about 1440; app. cog. with FIT, _n._] FIT, fit, _n._ a sudden attack by convulsions, as apoplexy, epilepsy, &c.: convulsion or paroxysm: a temporary attack of anything, as laughter, &c.: a sudden effort or motion: a passing humour.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to wrench, as by a fit.--_adj._ FIT'FUL, marked by sudden impulses: spasmodic.--_adv._ FIT'FULLY.--_n._ FIT'FULNESS.--FIT OF THE FACE, a grimace; FITS AND STARTS, spasmodic and irregular bursts of activity; BY FITS, irregularly. [A.S. _fitt_, a struggle--prob. orig. 'juncture,' 'meeting;' cf. Ice. _fitja_, to knit, Dut. _vitten_, to accommodate.] FIT, fit, _n._ a song, or part of a song or ballad.--Also FITT, FITTE, FYTTE. [A.S. _fitt_, a song.] FITCH, fich, _n._ now _vetch_: (_B._) Isa. xxviii. 25, black cummin (_Nigella sativa_): in Ezek. iv. 9, a kind of bearded wheat, spelt. [See VETCH.] FITCHÉ, FITCHÉE, fich'[=a], _adj._ (_her._) cut to a point. [Fr. _ficher_, to fix.] FITCHEW, fich'[=oo], _n._ a polecat.--Also FITCH'ET. [O. Fr. _fissel_, from root of Dut. _visse_, nasty.] FITZ, fits, _n._ (a prefix) son of: used in England, esp. of the illegitimate sons of kings and princes, as _Fitzclarence_, &c. [Norman Fr. _fiz_ (Fr. _fils_)--L. _filius_.] FIVE, f[=i]v, _adj._ and _n._ four and one.--_n._ FIVE'-FING'ER, a name for various plants (cinque-foil, oxlip, &c.): a species of starfish.--_adj._ FIVE'FOLD, five times folded, or repeated in fives.--_ns._ FIV'ER (_coll._), a five-pound note; FIVE'-SQUARE (_B._), having five corners or angles.--FIVE ARTICLES, FIVE POINTS, statements of the distinctive doctrines of the Arminians and Calvinists respectively--the former promulgated in 1610, the latter sustained by the Synod of Dort in 1619 (see CALVINISM).--BUNCH OF FIVES, the fist. [A.S. _fíf_; Ger. _fünf_; Goth. _fimf_; W. _pump_; L. _quinque_; Gr. _pente_, _pempe_; Sans. _pancha_.] FIVES, f[=i]vz, _n._ (_Shak._) vives, a disease of horses. FIVES, f[=i]vz, _n.pl._ a game of handball played in a roomy court against a wall, chiefly at the great public schools of England. FIX, fiks, _v.t._ to make firm or fast: to establish: to drive into: to settle: to put into permanent form: to establish as a fact: to direct steadily: to regulate: to deprive of volatility.--_v.i._ to settle or remain permanently: to become firm: to congeal.--_n._ (_coll._) a difficulty: a dilemma.--_adj._ FIX'ABLE, capable of being fixed.--_ns._ FIX[=A]'TION, act of fixing, or state of being fixed: steadiness, firmness: state in which a body does not evaporate; FIX'ATIVE, that which fixes or sets colours; FIX'ATURE, a gummy preparation for fixing the hair.--_adj._ FIXED, settled: not apt to evaporate: steadily directed towards: fast, lasting, permanent: substantively for fixed stars (_Par. Lost_, III. 481).--_adv._ FIX'EDLY.--_ns._ FIX'EDNESS; FIX'ER; FIXID'ITY, FIX'ITY, fixedness.--_n.pl._ FIX'INGS, things needed for putting in order, arrangement.--_adj._ FIX'IVE.--_ns._ FIX'TURE, a movable that has become fastened to anything, as to land or to a house: a fixed article of furniture: a fixed or appointed time or event, as a horse-race; FIX'URE (_Shak._), stability, position, firmness.--FIXED AIR, the name given by Dr Joseph Black in 1756 to what in 1784 was named by Lavoisier carbonic acid; FIXED BODIES (_chem._), a term applied to those substances which remain fixed, and are not volatilised at moderately high temperatures; FIXED OILS, those which, on the application of heat, do not volatilise without decomposition; FIXED STARS, stars which appear always to occupy the same position in the heavens--opp. to _Planets_. [L., _fixus_, _fig[)e]re_, to fix, prob. through O. Fr. _fix_, or Low L. _fix[=a]re_.] FIZGIG, fiz'gig, _n._ a giddy girl: a firework of damp powder: a gimcrack: a crotchet.--Also FIS'GIG. FIZZ, fiz, _v.i._ to make a hissing or sputtering sound.--_n._ any frothy drink, as soda-water, or esp. champagne.--_adj._ FIZ'ZENLESS (_Scot._), pithless--also F[=U]'SIONLESS.--_v.i._ FIZ'ZLE, to hiss or sputter: to come to a sudden stop, to fail disgracefully.--_n._ a state of agitation or worry: an abortive effort.--_adj._ FIZ'ZY, given to fizz. [Formed from the sound.] FLABBERGAST, flab'[.e]rgast, _v.t._ (_coll._) to stun, confound. [Prob. conn. with _flabby_, and _gast_, to astonish.] FLABBY, flab'i, _adj._ easily moved: soft, yielding: hanging loose.--_n._ FLABB'INESS. [From _flap_.] FLABELLATE, flä-bel'[=a]t, _adj._ fan-shaped--also FLABELL'IFORM.--_ns._ FLABELL[=A]'TION, the action of fanning; FLAB'ELLUM (_eccles._), a fan, anciently used to drive away flies from the chalice during the celebration of the eucharist. [L., a fan.] FLACCID, flak'sid, _adj._ flabby: lax: easily yielding to pressure: soft and weak.--_adv._ FLAC'CIDLY.--_ns._ FLAC'CIDNESS, FLACCID'ITY, want of firmness. [Fr.,--L. _flaccidus_--_flaccus_, flabby.] FLACK, flak, _v.i._ (_prov._), to flap, flutter.--_v.t._ to flap or flick with something. FLACKER, flak'[.e]r, _v.i._ (_prov._) to flap, flutter. FLACKET, flak'et, _n._ a flask, bottle. FLACON, flak-ong', _n._ a scent-bottle, &c. [Fr.] FLAFF, flaf, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to flap: to pant.--_n._ a flutter of the wings: a puff.--_v.i._ FLAF'FER, to flutter. [Imit.] FLAG, flag, _v.i._ to grow languid or spiritless.--_pr.p._ flag'ging; _pa.p._ flagged.--_n._ FLAG'GINESS.--_adj._ FLAG'GY, limp, flabby. [Perh. O. Fr. _flac_--L. _flaccus_; prob. influenced by imit. forms as _flap_.] FLAG, flag, _n._ a popular name for many plants with sword-shaped leaves, mostly growing in moist situations, sometimes specially the species of iris or flower-de-luce--esp. the yellow flag: the acorus or sweet flag: (_B._) reed-grass.--_ns._ FLAG'-BAS'KET, a basket made of reeds for carrying tools; FLAG'GINESS.--_adj._ FLAG'GY, abounding in flags.--_n._ FLAG'-WORM, a worm or grub bred among flags or reeds. [Ety. obscure; cf. Dut. _flag_.] FLAG, flag, _n._ the ensign of a ship or of troops: a banner.--_v.t._ to decorate with flags: to inform by flag-signals.--_ns._ FLAG'-CAP'TAIN, in the navy, the captain of the ship which bears the admiral's flag; FLAG'-LIEUTEN'ANT, an officer in a flag-ship, corresponding to an aide-de-camp in the army; FLAG'-OFF'ICER, a naval officer privileged to carry a flag denoting his rank--admiral, vice-admiral, rear-admiral, or commodore; FLAG'-SHIP, the ship in which an admiral sails, and which carries his flag; FLAG'STAFF, a staff or pole on which a flag is displayed.--FLAG OF DISTRESS, a flag displayed as a signal of distress--usually upside down or at half-mast; FLAG OF TRUCE, a white flag displayed during war when some pacific communication is intended between the hostile parties; BLACK FLAG, a pirate's flag, pirates generally; DIP THE FLAG, to lower the flag and then hoist it--a token of respect; HANG OUT THE RED FLAG, to give a challenge to battle; STRIKE, or LOWER, THE FLAG, to pull it down as a token of respect, submission, or surrender; WHITE FLAG, an emblem of peace; YELLOW FLAG, hoisted to show pestilence on board, also over ships, &c., in quarantine, and hospitals, &c., in time of war. [Prob. Scand.; Dan. _flag_; Dut. _vlag_, Ger. _flagge_.] FLAG, flag, _n._ a stone that separates in flakes or layers: a flat stone used for paving--also FLAG'STONE.--_v.t._ to pave with flagstones.--_n._ FLAG'GING, flagstones: a pavement of flagstones. [A form of _flake_; Ice. _flaga_, a flag or slab.] FLAGELLATE, flaj'el-[=a]t, _v.t._ to whip or scourge.--_ns._ FLAGEL'LANTISM; FLAGELL[=A]'TION; FLAG'ELL[=A]TOR, FLAGEL'LANT (also flaj'-), one who scourges himself in religious discipline.--_adjs._ FLAG'ELLATORY; FLAGELLIF'EROUS; FLAGEL'LIFORM.--_n._ FLAGEL'LUM, a scourge: (_bot._) a runner: (_biol._) a large cilium or appendage to certain infusorians, &c. [L. _flagell[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_flagellum_, dim. of _flagrum_, a whip.] FLAGEOLET, flaj'o-let, _n._ the modern form of the old flute-à-bec, or straight flute, the simplest kind of which is the tin whistle with six holes. [Fr., dim. of O. Fr. _flageol_, _flajol_, a pipe; not through a supposed Low L. _flaut[=i]olus_--from _flauta_, a flute.] FLAGITATE, flaj'i-t[=a]t, _v.t._ (_Carlyle_) to entreat, importune.--_n._ FLAGIT[=A]'TION. FLAGITIOUS, fla-jish'us, _adj._ grossly wicked: guilty of enormous crimes.--_adv._ FLAGI'TIOUSLY.--_n._ FLAGI'TIOUSNESS. [L. _flagitiosus_--_flagitium_, a disgraceful act--_flagr[=a]re_, to burn.] FLAGON, flag'un, _n._ a vessel with a narrow neck for holding liquids. [Fr. _flacon_ for _flascon_--Low L. _flasco_. See FLASK.] FLAGRANT, fl[=a]'grant, _adj._ glaring: notorious: enormous.--_ns._ FL[=A]'GRANCE, FL[=A]'GRANCY.--_adv._ FL[=A]'GRANTLY. [L. _flagrans_, _pr.p._ of _flagr[=a]re_, to burn.] FLAIL, fl[=a]l, _n._ an implement for threshing corn, consisting of a wooden bar (the _swingle_) hinged or tied to a handle: a medieval weapon with spiked iron swingle.--_v.t._ to strike with, or as if with, a flail. [A.S. _fligel_, prob. from L. _flagellum_, a scourge.] FLAIR, fl[=a]r, _n._ perceptiveness, discernment. [Fr.] FLAKE, fl[=a]k, _n._ a small flat layer or film of anything: a very small loose mass, as of snow or wool.--_v.t._ to form into flakes.--_ns._ FLAKE'-WHITE, the purest white-lead for painting, in the form of scales or plates; FLAK'INESS.--_adj._ FLAK'Y. [Prob. Scand.; Ice. _flóke_, flock of wool; Old High Ger. _floccho_.] FLAKE, fl[=a]k, _n._ (_Scot._) a movable hurdle for fencing; (_naut._) a stage hung over a ship's side for caulking, &c. [Scand.; cf. Ice. _flake_; Dut. _vlaak_.] FLAM, flam, _n._ a whim: an idle fancy: a falsehood.--_v.t._ to impose upon with such. [Prob. from _flim-flam_ or _flamfew_, a trifle, a corr. of Fr. _fanfelue_.] FLAMBEAU, flam'b[=o], _n._ a flaming torch:--_pl._ FLAM'BEAUX ('b[=o]z). [Fr., _flambe_--L. _flamma_.] FLAMBOYANT, flam-boi'ant, _adj._ of the latest style of Gothic architecture which prevailed in France in the 15th and 16th centuries, corresponding to the Perpendicular in England--from the flame-like forms of the tracery of the windows, &c.: of wavy form: gorgeously coloured. [Fr. _flamboyer_, to blaze.] FLAME, fl[=a]m, _n._ gaseous matter undergoing combustion: the gleam or blaze of a fire: rage: ardour of temper: vigour of thought: warmth of affection: love: (_coll._) the object of love.--_v.i._ to burn as flame: to break out in passion.--_adjs._ FL[=A]ME'-COL'OURED (_Shak._), of the colour of flame, bright yellow; FL[=A]ME'LESS.--_n._ FL[=A]ME'LET, a small flame.--_adj._ FL[=A]M'ING, red: gaudy: violent.--_adv._ FL[=A]M'INGLY.--_n._ FLAMMABIL'ITY.--_adjs._ FLAMMIF'EROUS, producing flame; FLAMMIV'OMOUS, vomiting flames.--_n._ FLAM'MULE, the flames in pictures of Japanese deities.--_adj._ FL[=A]M'Y, pertaining to, or like, flame. [O. Fr. _flambe_--L. _flamma_--_flagr[=a]re_, to burn.] FLAMEN, fl[=a]'men, _n._ a priest in ancient Rome devoted to one particular god.--_adj._ FLAMIN'ICAL. [L., from same root as _fla-gr[=a]re_, to burn.] FLAMINGO, fla-ming'g[=o], _n._ a tropical bird of a flaming or bright-red colour, with long legs and neck. [Sp. _flamenco_--L. _flamma_, a flame.] FLANCH, flansh, _n._ a flange: (_her._) an ordinary formed on each side of a shield by the segment of a circle.--_adj._ FLANCHED, charged with a pair of flanches. [Prob. related to _flank_.] FLANCONADE, flang-ko-n[=a]d', _n._ (_fencing_) a thrust in the flank or side. [Fr., from _flanc_, the side.] FLÂNEUR, flä-nür', _n._ one who saunters about with gossip.--_n._ FLÂN'ERIE. [Fr. _flâner_, to lounge.] FLANGE, flanj, _n._ a projecting or raised edge or flank, as of a wheel or of a rail.--_adj._ FLANGED.--_n._ FLANGE'-RAIL, a rail having a flange on one side to prevent wheels running off. [Corr. of _flank_.] FLANK, flangk, _n._ the side of an animal from the ribs to the thigh: the side or wing of anything, esp. of an army or fleet: a body of soldiers on the right and left extremities.--_v.t._ to attack or pass round the side of: to protect the flanks of one's own army by detached bodies of troops, or field-works, or to threaten those of the enemy by directing troops against them.--_v.i._ to be posted on the side: to touch.--_n._ FLANK'ER, a fortification which commands the flank of an assailing force.--_v.t._ (_obs._) to defend by flankers: to attack sideways.--FLANK COMPANY, the company on the right or left when a battalion is in line; FLANK FILES, the soldiers marching on the extreme right and left of a company, &c. [Fr. _flanc_, perh. L. _flaccus_, flabby.] FLANNEL, flan'el, _n._ a soft woollen cloth of loose texture for undergarments, &c.: the garment itself: (_pl._) the garb of cricketers, &c.--_v.t._ to wrap in or rub with flannel.--_n._ FLANNELETTE', a cotton fabric, made in imitation of flannel.--_adjs._ FLANN'ELLED; FLANN'ELLY. [Orig. _flannen_, acc. to Skeat, from W. _gwlanen_--_gwlan_, wool; acc. to Diez, the equivalent Fr. _flanelle_ is from the O. Fr. _flaine_, a pillow-case.] FLAP, flap, _n._ the blow or motion of a broad loose object: anything broad and flexible hanging loose, as the tail of a coat: a portion of skin or flesh detached from the underlying part for covering and growing over the end of an amputated limb.--_v.t._ to beat or move with a flap.--_v.i._ to move, as wings: to hang like a flap:--_pr.p._ flap'ping; _pa.p._ flapped.--_ns._ FLAP'DOODLE, the food of fools: transparent nonsense, gross flattery, &c.; FLAP'-DRAG'ON, a play in which small edibles, as raisins, are snatched from burning brandy, and swallowed.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to swallow or devour, as in flap-dragon.--_adj._ FLAP'-EARED (_Shak._), having ears hanging like a flap.--_n._ FLAP'-JACK (_Shak._), a kind of broad, flat pancake.--_adj._ FLAP'-MOUTHED.--_n._ FLAP'PER. [Prob. imit.] FLARE, fl[=a]r, _v.i._ to burn with a glaring, unsteady light: to glitter or flash: to display glaringly.--_n._ an unsteady light.--_p.adj._ FL[=A]'RING, giving out an unsteady light: gaudy.--_adv._ FL[=A]'RINGLY.--_adj._ FL[=A]'RY. [Prob. Scand.; cf. Norw. _flara_, to blaze.] FLASH, flash, _n._ a momentary gleam of light: a sudden burst, as of merriment: a short transient state.--_v.i._ to break forth, as a sudden light: to break out into intellectual brilliancy: to burst out into violence.--_v.t._ to cause to flash: to expand, as blown glass, into a disc: to send by some startling or sudden means.--_n._ FLASH'-HOUSE, a brothel.--_adv._ FLASH'ILY.--_ns._ FLASH'INESS; FLASH'ING, the act of blazing: a sudden burst, as of water; FLASH'-POINT, the temperature at which an inflammable liquid takes fire--in the case of petroleum, &c., ascertained by placing oil in a vessel called a tester (used open and closed), and heating it up to a point at which sufficient vapour is generated as to give off a small flash when a light is applied to it.--_adj._ FLASH'Y, dazzling for a moment: showy but empty: (_Milt._) vapid: gay--also FLASH, vulgarly showy, gay but tawdry: pertaining to thieves, vagabonds, &c., as the '_flash_ language'=thieves' cant or slang: '_flash_ notes'=counterfeit notes.--FLASH IN THE PAN (see PAN). [Prob. imit.; cf. Sw. prov. _flasa_, to blaze.] FLASK, flask, _n._ a narrow-necked vessel for holding liquids: a bottle: a pocket-bottle: a horn or metal vessel for carrying powder.--_n._ FLASK'ET, a vessel in which viands are served: (_Spens._) a basket.--FLORENCE FLASK, a narrow-necked globular glass bottle of thin glass, as those in which olive-oil is brought from Italy. [A.S. _flasce_; Ger. _flasche_; prob. not Teut. acc. to Diez, but from Low L. _flasco_--L. _vasculum_, a flask.] FLAT, flat, _adj._ smooth: level: wanting points of prominence and interest: monotonous: vapid, insipid: dejected: unqualified, positive: (_mus._) opposite of sharp.--_n._ a level plain: a tract covered by shallow water: something broad: a story or floor of a house, esp. when fitted up as a separate residence for a family: a simpleton, a gull: (_mus._) a character (b) which lowers a note a semitone.--_ns._ FLAT'BOAT, a large flat-bottomed boat for floating goods down the Mississippi, &c.; FLAT'-FISH, a name applied to marine bony fishes that have a flat body, such as the flounder, turbot, &c.--_adj._ FLAT'-FOOT'ED, having flat feet: resolute.--_adj._ and _n._ FLAT'-HEAD, having an artificially flattened head, as some American Indians of the Chinooks--the name is officially but incorrectly applied to the Selish Indians in particular.--_n._ FLAT'-[=I]'RON, an iron for smoothing cloth.--_advs._ FLAT'LING, FLAT'LONG (_Spens._, _Shak._), with the flat side down: not edgewise; FLAT'LY.--_ns._ FLAT'NESS; FLAT'-RACE, a race over open or clear ground.--_v.t._ FLAT'TEN, to make flat.--_v.i._ to become flat.--_n._ FLAT'TING, a mode of house-painting in which the paint is left without gloss.--_adj._ FLAT'TISH, somewhat flat.--_adj._ or _adv._ FLAT'WISE, flatways, or with the flat side downward.--_n._ FLAT'-WORM, a tapeworm. [From a Teut. root found in Ice. _flatr_, flat, Sw. _flat_, Dan. _flad_, Old High Ger. _flaz_.] FLATTER, flat'[.e]r, _v.t._ to soothe with praise and servile attentions: to please with false hopes or undue praise.--_n._ FLATT'ERER.--_adj._ FLATT'ERING, uttering false praise: pleasing to pride or vanity.--_adv._ FLATT'ERINGLY.--_n._ FLATT'ERY, false praise. [O. Fr. _flater_ (Fr. _flatter_); Teut.; cf. Ice. _fladhra_.] FLATULENT, flat'[=u]-lent, _adj._ affected with air in the stomach: apt to generate such: empty: vain.--_ns._ FLAT'ULENCE, FLAT'ULENCY, distension of the stomach or bowels by gases formed during digestion: windiness, emptiness.--_adv._ FLAT'ULENTLY.--_n._ FL[=A]'TUS, a puff of wind: air generated in the stomach or intestines. [Fr.,--Low L. _flatulentus_--L. _fl[=a]re_, _flatum_, to blow.] FLAUGHT, flaht, _n._ (_Scot._) a flight, a flapping.--_n._ FLAUGH'TER, a fluttering motion.--_v.i._ to flutter, flicker. [See FLIGHT.] FLAUNT, flawnt, _v.i._ to fly or wave in the wind: to move or display ostentatiously: to carry a gaudy or saucy appearance.--_n._ (_Shak._) anything displayed for show.--_n._ FLAUNT'ER.--_adj._ FLAUNT'ING.--_adv._ FLAUNT'INGLY, in a flaunting or showy manner.--_adj._ FLAUNT'Y, showy. [Prob. imit.; Skeat suggests Sw. prov. _flanka_, to waver.] FLAUTIST. Same as FLUTIST. FLAVESCENT, fla-ves'ent, _adj._ yellowish or turning yellow. [L. _flavescens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _flavesc[)e]re_, to become yellow--_flavus_, yellow.] FLAVIAN, fl[=a]v'i-an, _adj._ of or pertaining to the Flavian emperors of Rome--_Flavius_ Vespasian and his sons Titus and Domitian (69-96 A.D.). FLAVINE, fl[=a]'vin, _n._ a concentrated preparation of quercitron bark, till recently an important yellow dye. [L. _flavus_, yellow.] FLAVOUR, fl[=a]'vur, _n._ that quality of anything which affects the smell or the palate: a smack or relish.--_v.t._ to impart flavour to.--_adj._ FL[=A]'VOROUS.--_n._ FL[=A]'VOURING, any substance used to give a flavour.--_adj._ FL[=A]'VOURLESS. [O. Fr. _flaur_; prob. related to L. _fragr[=a]re_ or to _fl[=a]re_.] FLAW, flaw, _n._ a gust of wind: a sudden rush, uproar. [Cf. Dut. _vlaag_, Sw. _flaga_.] FLAW, flaw, _n._ a break, a crack: a defect.--_v.t._ to crack or break.--_adjs._ FLAW'LESS; FLAW'Y. [Ice. _flaga_, a slab.] FLAWN, flawn, _n._ a custard, pancake. [O. Fr. _flaon_--Low L. _fladon-em_--Old High Ger. _flado_.] FLAX, flax, _n._ the fibres of the plant Linum, which are woven into linen cloth: the flax-plant.--_ns._ FLAX'-COMB, a toothed instrument or heckle for cleaning the fibres of flax; FLAX'-DRESS'ER, one who prepares flax for the spinner by the successive processes of rippling, retting, grassing, breaking, and scutching.--_adj._ FLAX'EN, made of or resembling flax: fair, long, and flowing.--_ns._ FLAX'-MILL, a mill for working flax into linen; FLAX'-SEED, linseed; FLAX'-WENCH, a female who spins flax.--_adj._ FLAX'Y, like flax: of a light colour.--NEW ZEALAND FLAX, a valuable fibre, quite different from common flax, obtained from the leaf of _Phormium tenax_, the flax lily or flax bush. [A.S. _fleax_; Ger. _flachs_.] FLAY, fl[=a], _v.t._ to strip off the skin:--_pr.p._ flay'ing; _pa.p._ flayed.--_ns._ FLAY'ER; FLAY'-FLINT, a skinflint. [A.S _fléan_; Ice. _flá_, to skin.] FLEA, fl[=e], _n._ a well-known wingless insect of great agility, ectoparasitic on warm-blooded animals.--_ns._ FLEA'-BANE, a genus of plants which emit a strong smell said to have the power of driving away fleas; FLEA'-BITE, the bite of a flea: a small mark caused by the bite: (_fig._) a trifle.--_adj._ FLEA'-BIT'TEN, bitten by fleas: (_fig._) mean: having small reddish spots on a lighter ground, of horses.--A FLEA IN ONE'S EAR, a caution, rebuff, anything specially irritating. [A.S. _fléah_; cf. Ger. _floh_, Dut. _vloo_.] FLEAM, fl[=e]m, _n._ an instrument for bleeding cattle. [Fr. _flamme_--Gr. _phlebotomon_, a lancet--_phleps_, _phlebos_, a vein, and _tem-nein_, to cut.] FLÈCHE, fl[=a]sh, _n._ a spire generally: the slender spire rising from the intersection of the nave and transepts in some large churches: (_fort._) a parapet with two faces forming a salient angle at the foot of a glacis. [Fr., 'an arrow.'] FLECK, flek, _n._ a spot or speckle: a little bit of a thing.--_vs.t._ FLECK, FLECK'ER, to spot: to streak.--_adjs._ FLECKED, spotted, dappled; FLECK'LESS, without spot. [Ice. _flekkr_, a spot; Ger. _fleck_, Dut. _vlek_.] FLECTION. Same as FLEXION. FLED, fled, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of FLEE. FLEDGE, flej, _v.t._ to furnish with feathers or wings.--_v.i._ to acquire feathers for flying.--_n._ FLEDG'LING, a little bird just fledged.--_adj._ FLEDG'Y (_Keats_), feathery. [M. E. _fligge_, _flegge_--A.S. _flycge_, fledged (cf. Ger. _flügge_)--_fléogan_, to fly (Ger. _fliegen_).] FLEE, fl[=e], _v.i._ to run away, as from danger: to disappear.--_v.t._ to keep at a distance from:--_pr.p._ flee'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ fled.--_n._ FL[=E]'ER. [A.S. _fléon_, akin to _fléogan_, to fly; Ger. _fliehen_, akin to _fliegen_, to fly.] FLEECE, fl[=e]s, _n._ the coat of wool shorn from a sheep at one time: anything like a fleece.--_v.t._ to clip wool from: to plunder: to cover, as with wool.--_adjs._ FLEECED, having a fleece; FLEECE'LESS.--_ns._ FLEE'CER, one who strips or plunders; FLEECE'-WOOL, that shorn from the living animal.--_adj._ FLEEC'Y, woolly. [A.S. _fléos_; Dut. _vlies_, Ger. _fliess_.] FLEECH, fl[=e]ch, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to flatter, coax, beg.--_ns._ FLEECH'ING, FLEECH'MENT. FLEER, fl[=e]r, _v.t._ or _v.i._ to make wry faces in contempt, to mock.--_n._ mockery.--_n._ FLEER'ING.--_adv._ FLEER'INGLY. [Cf. Norw. _flira_, Sw. _flissa_, to titter.] FLEET, fl[=e]t, _n._ a number of ships in company, esp. ships of war: a division of the navy, commanded by an admiral. [A.S. _fléot_, a ship--_fléotan_, to float; conn. with Dut. _vloot_, Ger. _flotte_.] FLEET, fl[=e]t, _adj._ swift: nimble: transient: (_prov._) shallow.--_adjs._ FLEET'-FOOT (_Shak._), fleet or swift of foot; FLEET'ING, passing quickly: temporary.--_advs._ FLEET'INGLY; FLEET'LY.--_n._ FLEET'NESS. [Prob. Ice. _fliótr_, swift; but ult. cog. with succeeding word.] FLEET, fl[=e]t, _v.i._ to flit, pass swiftly.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to make to pass quickly:--_pr.p._ fleet'ing; _pa.p._ fleet'ed. [A.S. _fléotan_, to float.] FLEET, fl[=e]t, _n._ a shallow creek or bay, as in North_fleet_, _Fleet_-ditch, &c.--THE FLEET, or FLEET PRISON, a London gaol down to 1842, long a place of confinement for debtors--clandestine marriages were solemnised here down to 1754 by broken-down clergymen confined for debt. [A.S. _fléot_, an inlet.] FLEMISH, flem'ish, _adj._ of or belonging to the _Flemings_ or people of Flanders, or their language.--_n._ FLEM'ING, a native of Flanders.--FLEMISH SCHOOL, a school of painting formed by the brothers Van Eyck, reaching its height in Rubens, Vandyck, and Teniers; FLEMISH STITCH, a stitch used in making certain kinds of point-lace. [Dut. _Vlaamsch_.] FLENCH, flensh, _v.t._ to cut up the blubber of, as a whale.--Also FLENSE, FLINCH. [Dan. _flense_.] FLESH, flesh, _n._ the soft substance which covers the bones of animals: animal food: the bodies of beasts and birds, not fish: the body, not the soul: animals or animal nature: mankind: kindred: bodily appetites: the present life: the soft substance of fruit: the part of a fruit fit to be eaten: (_B._) man's visible nature (as opposed to _Pneuma_ or _Spirit_), his human or bodily nature, the seat of sin, but not originally or necessarily evil.--_v.t._ to train to an appetite for flesh, as dogs for hunting: to accustom: to glut: to use upon flesh, as a sword, esp. for the first time.--_ns._ FLESH'-BROTH, broth made by boiling flesh; FLESH'-BRUSH, a brush used for rubbing the skin to excite circulation; FLESH'-COL'OUR, pale red, like the normal colour of the cheek of a child.--_adj._ FLESHED (flesht), having flesh: fat.--_ns._ FLESH'ER (_Scot._), a butcher; FLESH'-FLY, a fly that deposits its eggs in and feeds on flesh; FLESH'HOOD (_Mrs Browning_), the state of being in the flesh; FLESH'-HOOK, a hook for drawing flesh from a pot; FLESH'INESS.--_n.pl._ FLESH'INGS, thin flesh-coloured dress worn by dancers, actors, &c.--_adj._ FLESH'LESS, without flesh: lean.--_ns._ FLESH'LINESS; FLESH'LING (_Spens._), one wholly devoted to sensuality.--_adj._ FLESH'LY, corporeal: carnal: not spiritual--also _adv._ FLESH'LY-MIND'ED, given to sensual pleasures: carnally-minded.--_ns._ FLESH'-MEAT, flesh of animals used for food; FLESH'MENT (_Shak._), act of fleshing or initiating, excitement arising from success; FLESH'MONGER, one who deals in flesh: (_Shak._) a procurer, a pimp; FLESH'-POT, a pot or vessel in which flesh is cooked: (_fig._) abundance of flesh, high living; FLESH'-POTTERY, sumptuous living; FLESH'-TINT, the tint or colour that best represents the human body; FLESH'-WORM, a worm that feeds on flesh; FLESH'-WOUND, a wound not reaching beyond the flesh.--_adj._ FLESH'Y, fat: pulpy: plump.--AN ARM OF FLESH, human strength or help; IN THE FLESH, in life, alive: (_B._) under control of the lower nature. [A.S. _fl['æ]sc_; cog. forms in all Teut. languages; Ger. _fleisch_, &c.] FLETCH, flech, _v.i._ to feather.--_n._ FLETCH'ER, one who makes arrows. [Fr. _flèche_, an arrow.] [Illustration] FLEUR-DE-LIS, fl[=oo]r'-de-l[=e]', _n._ the flower of the lily: (_her._) a bearing explained as representing three flowers of the white lily joined together, or the white iris--commonly called _Flower-de-luce_:--_pl._ FLEURS'-DE-LIS'--the arms of the Bourbons and of France.--_ns._ FLEUR'ET, an ornament like a small flower: a fencing-foil; FLEUR'Y (_her._), decorated with a fleur-de-lis, or with the upper part only. [Fr., _lis_ being for L. _lilium_, a lily.] FLEW, fl[=oo], _pa.t._ of FLY. FLEWED, fl[=oo]d, _adj._ (_Shak._) having large chops (of dogs). [Ety. unknown.] FLEXIBLE, fleks'i-bl, FLEXILE, fleks'il, _adj._ easily bent: pliant: docile.--_v.t._ FLEX, to bend or make a flexure of.--_adjs._ FLEXAN'IMOUS, influencing the mind; FLEXED, bent.--_ns._ FLEX'IBLENESS, FLEXIBIL'ITY, pliancy: easiness to be persuaded.--_adv._ FLEX'IBLY.--_ns._ FLEX'ION, FLEC'TION, a bend: a fold: the action of a flexor muscle; FLEX'OR, a muscle which bends a joint, as opposed to _Extensor_.--_adjs._ FLEX'[=U]OUS, FLEX'[=U]OSE, of windings and turnings: variable.--_n._ FLEX'[=U]RE, a bend or turning: (_math._) the curving of a line or surface: the bending of loaded beams: (_Shak._) obsequious bowing. [L. _flexibilis_, _flexilis_--_flect[)e]re_, _flexum_, to bend.] FLEY, FLAY, fl[=a], _v.t._ to cause to fly: to frighten.--_v.i._ to be frightened. [M. E. _flayen_--A.S. _flégan_, _fléogan_, to fly; Ice. _fleyja_, Goth. _flaugjan_.] FLIBBERTIGIBBET, flib'er-ti-jib'et, _n._ a flighty person: an imp. [Most prob. jargon.] FLICK, flik, _v.t._ to strike lightly.--_n._ a flip. FLICKER, flik'[.e]r, _v.i._ to flutter and move the wings, as a bird: to burn unsteadily, as a flame.--_n._ an act of flickering, a flickering movement.--_v.i._ FLICHT'ER, (_Scot._), to flutter, quiver.--_adv._ FLICK'ERINGLY. [A.S. _flicorian_; imit.] FLIER, FLYER, fl[=i]'[.e]r, _n._ one who flies or flees: a part of a machine with rapid motion. FLIGHT, fl[=i]t, _n._ a passing through the air: a soaring: excursion: a sally: a series of steps: a flock of birds flying together: the birds produced in the same season: a volley or shower: act of fleeing: hasty removal.--_adj._ FLIGHT'ED (_Milt._), flying.--_adv._ FLIGHT'ILY.--_n._ FLIGHT'INESS.--_adj._ FLIGHT'Y, fanciful: changeable: giddy. [A.S. _flyht_--_fléogan_.] FLIM-FLAM, flim'-flam, _n._ a trick. [Formed like _skimble-skamble_, _whim-wham_, &c.] FLIMP, flimp, _v.t._ (_slang_) to snatch a watch while a confederate prods the victim in the back. FLIMSY, flim'zi, _adj._ thin: without solidity, strength, or reason: weak.--_n._ transfer-paper: (_slang_) a bank-note: reporters' copy written on thin paper.--_adv._ FLIM'SILY, in a flimsy manner.--_n._ FLIM'SINESS. [First in 18th century. Prob. an onomatopoeic formation suggested by _film_.] FLINCH, flinsh, _v.i._ to shrink back: to fail.--_ns._ FLINCH'ER; FLINCH'ING, the act of flinching or shrinking.--_adv._ FLINCH'INGLY. [M. E. _flecchen_--O. Fr. _fléchir_, prob. from L. _flect[)e]re_, to bend.] FLINDER, flin'der, _n._ a splinter or small fragment--usually in _pl._ [Norw. _flindra_, a splinter.] FLINDERSIA, flin-der'si-a, _n._ a genus of Australian and African trees, yielding African and Madeira mahogany, or Calcedra wood. [From the Australian explorer, Captain Matthew _Flinders_, 1774-1814.] FLING, fling, _v.t._ to strike or throw from the hand: to dart: to send forth: to scatter: to throw (of a horse).--_v.i._ to act in a violent and irregular manner: to kick out with the legs: to upbraid: to sneer:--_pr.p._ fling'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ flung.--_n._ a cast or throw: a taunt: complete freedom, full enjoyment of pleasure: a lively Scotch country-dance.--FLING OUT, to speak or act recklessly.--FULL FLING, at the utmost speed, recklessly. [Ice. _flengja_; Sw. _flänga_.] FLINT, flint, _n._ a hard mineral, a variety of quartz, from which fire is readily struck with steel: anything proverbially hard.--_adj._ made of flint, hard.--_n._ FLINT'-GLASS, a very fine and pure kind of glass, so called because originally made of calcined flints.--_adjs._ FLINT'-HEART, -ED (_Shak._), having a hard heart.--_v.t._ FLINT'IFY, to turn to flint.--_ns._ FLINT'INESS; FLINT'-LOCK, a gun-lock having a flint fixed in the hammer for striking fire and igniting the priming.--_adj._ FLINT'Y, consisting of or like flint: hard: cruel.--FLINT IMPLEMENTS, arrow, axe, and spear heads, &c. made by man before the use of metals, commonly found in prehistoric graves, &c. [A.S. _flint_; Dan. _flint_; Gr. _plinthos_, a brick.] FLIP, flip, _n._ a hot drink of beer and spirits sweetened. FLIP, flip, _v.t._ to fillip, to touch lightly: to toss up with a motion of the thumb.--_v.i._ to flap.--_n._ a fillip, a snap.--_adv._ FLIP'-FLAP, with a repeated flapping movement.--_n._ a coster's dance: a form of somersault: a cracker.--_ns._ FLIP'-FLOP, the sound of a regular footfall; FLIP'PER, a fin: (_slang_) hand.--_adj._ FLIP'PERTY-FLOP'PERTY, that goes flip-flap, loose, dangling. [Attenuated from _flap_.] FLIPE, fl[=i]p, _v.t._ to fold back, as a sleeve. [Prob. Scand.; cf. Dan. _flip_, a flap.] FLIPPANT, flip'ant, _adj._ quick and pert of speech: thoughtless.--_ns._ FLIPP'ANCY, FLIPP'ANTNESS, pert fluency of speech: pertness.--_adv._ FLIPP'ANTLY. [Skeat explains as for _flipp_ _-and_ (Old Northumbrian _pr.p._ ending)--Ice. _fleipa_, to prattle.] FLIRT, fl[.e]rt, _v.t._ to move about quickly like a fan, to flick, rap.--_v.i._ to trifle with love: to play at courtship: to move briskly about.--_n._ a pert, giddy girl: one who coquets for amusement, usually of a woman.--_n._ FLIRT[=A]'TION the act of flirting.--_adj._ FLIRT[=A]'TIOUS (_coll._), giving to flirting.--_ns._ FLIRT'-GILL (_Shak._), a pert or wanton woman; FLIRT'ING.--_adv._ FLIRT'INGLY, in a flirting manner.--_adj._ FLIRT'ISH, betokening a flirt. [Onomatopoeic, like _flick_, _flip_, _flirk_ (a jerk), _spurt_, _squirt_.] FLISK, flisk, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to skip or caper about: to fret at the yoke.--_n._ a whim: a large-tooth comb.--_adj._ FLISK'Y. [Onomatopoeic.] FLIT, flit, _v.i._ to flutter on the wing: to fly quickly: to be unsteady or easily moved: (_Scot._) to remove from place to place:--_pr.p._ flit'ting; _pa.p._ flit'ted.--_n._ FLIT'TING, a removal from one house to another: a wandering. [Ice. _flytja_; Sw. _flytta_.] FLITCH, flich, _n._ the side of a hog salted and cured. [A.S. _flicce_; Ice. _flikki_.] FLITTER, flit'[.e]r, _v.i._ to flutter.--_n._ FLITT'ER-MOUSE, a bat. FLITTERN, flit'ern, _n._ (_prov._) a young oak. FLITTERS, flit'ers, _n.pl._ fragments, tatters. FLIX, fliks, _n._ fur, beaver-down. FLOAT, fl[=o]t, _v.i._ to swim on a liquid: to be buoyed up: to move lightly and irregularly: to circulate, as a rumour: to drift about aimlessly.--_v.t._ to cause to swim: to cover with water: to set agoing.--_n._ anything swimming on water: a raft: the cork or quill on a fishing-line: a plasterer's trowel.--_adj._ FLOAT'ABLE.--_ns._ FLOAT'AGE, FLOT'AGE, the floating capacity of a thing: anything that floats; FLOAT'-BOARD, a board on the rim of an undershot water-wheel on which the water acts and moves the wheel; FLOAT'ER.--_adj._ FLOAT'ING, swimming: not fixed: circulating.--_n._ action of the verb _float_: the spreading of plaster on the surface of walls.--_ns._ FLOAT'ING-BATT'ERY, a vessel or hulk heavily armed, used in the defence of harbours or in attacks on marine fortresses; FLOAT'ING-BRIDGE, a bridge of rafts or beams of timber lying on the surface of the water; FLOAT'ING-DOCK (see DOCK); FLOAT'ING-IS'LAND, an aggregation of driftwood, roots, &c., capable of bearing soil, floated out from a river delta or the like; FLOAT'ING-LIGHT, a ship, bearing a light, moored on sunken rocks, to warn seamen of danger.--_adv._ FLOAT'INGLY.--_n._ FLOAT'-STONE, a porous, sponge-like variety of quartz, so light as to float for a while on water.--_adj._ FLOAT'Y. [A.S. _flotian_, to float; Ice. _flota_.] FLOCK, flok, _n._ a company of animals, as sheep, birds, &c.: a company generally: a Christian congregation.--_v.i._ to gather in flocks or in crowds.--_n._ FLOCK'-MAS'TER, an owner or overseer of a flock. [A.S. _flocc_, a flock, a company; Ice. _flokkr_.] FLOCK, flok, _n._ a lock of wool.--_n._ FLOCCILL[=A]'TION, a delirious picking of the bed-clothes by a patient.--_adjs._ FLOC'COSE, woolly; FLOC'C[=U]LAR; FLOC'C[=U]LATE.--_n._ FLOC'C[=U]LENCE.--_adj._ FLOC'C[=U]LENT, woolly, flaky.--_ns._ FLOC'C[=U]LUS, a small flock or tuft: a small lobe of the inferior surface of the cerebellum; FLOC'CUS, a flock or tuft of wool or wool-like hairs: the downy plumage of unfledged birds:--_pl._ FLOCCI (flok'si); FLOCK'-BED, a bed stuffed with flock or refuse wool; FLOCK'-P[=A]'PER, wall-paper covered with a rough surface formed of flock.--_adj._ FLOCK'Y. [O. Fr. _floc_--L. _floccus_, a lock of wool.] FLOE, fl[=o], _n._ a field of floating ice. [Prob. Norse _flo_, layer. The usual Danish word is _flage_.] FLOG, flog, _v.t._ to beat or strike: to lash: to chastise with blows:--_pr.p._ flog'ging; _pa.p._ flogged.--_n._ FLOG'GING. [Late; prob. an abbrev. of _flagellate_.] FLOOD, flud, _n._ a great flow of water: (_B._) a river: an inundation: a deluge: the rise or flow of the tide: any great quantity.--_v.t._ to overflow: to inundate: to bleed profusely, as after parturition:--_pr.p._ flood'ing; _pa.p._ flood'ed.--_ns._ FLOOD'-GATE, a gate for letting water flow through, or to prevent it: an opening or passage: an obstruction; FLOOD'ING, an extraordinary flow of blood from the uterus; FLOOD'MARK, the mark or line to which the tide rises; FLOOD'-TIDE, the rising or inflowing tide.--THE FLOOD, the deluge in the days of Noah. [A.S. _flód_; Dut. _vloed_, Ger. _fluth_. Cog. with _flow_.] FLOOR, fl[=o]r, _n._ the part of a room on which we stand: a platform: the rooms in a house on the same level, a story: any levelled area.--_v.t._ to furnish with a floor: (_coll._) to vanquish, stump.--_ns._ FLOOR'CLOTH, a covering for floors made of canvas oil-painted on both sides; FLOOR'ER, a knock-down blow; a decisive retort, &c.: an examination question one cannot answer; FLOOR'ING, material for floors: a platform.--_n.pl._ FLOOR'-TIM'BERS, the timbers placed immediately across a ship's keel, on which her bottom is framed.--_ns._ FIRST'-FLOOR, the floor in a house above the ground-floor--in United States mostly identical with GROUND-FLOOR, the floor of a house on a level with the ground. [A.S. _flór_; Dut. _vloer_, a flat surface, Ger. _flur_, flat land; W. _llawr_.] FLOP, flop, _v.t._ to cause to hang down.--_v.i._ to plump down suddenly: to break down.--_n._ a fall plump on the ground.--_adv._ FLOP'PILY.--_n._ FLOP'PINESS.--_adj._ FLOP'PY. [A form of _flap_.] FLORA, fl[=o]'ra, _n._ the collective plants or vegetable species of a region, country, or district: a work containing a descriptive enumeration of these.--_adj._ FL[=O]'RAL, pertaining to Flora or to flowers: (_bot._) containing the flower.--_adv._ FL[=O]'RALLY.--_n._ FLORÉAL (fl[=o]-r[=a]-al'), the 8th month of the French revolutionary calendar, April 20-May 20.--_adj._ FL[=O]'RE[=A]TED, decorated with floral ornament.--_n._ FLORES'CENCE, a bursting into flower: (_bot._) the time when plants flower.--_adj._ FLORES'CENT, bursting into flowers.--_n._ FL[=O]'RET (_bot._), the flowers of any small and closely crowded inflorescence which resembles at first sight a single flower--e.g. composites, teasels, grasses, &c.--_adj._ FL[=O]RICUL'TURAL.--_ns._ FL[=O]'RICULTURE, the culture of flowers or plants; FL[=O]RICUL'TURIST, a florist.--_adj._ FLOR'ID, bright in colour: flushed with red: containing flowers of rhetoric or lively figures: richly ornamental.--_adv._ FLOR'IDLY.--_n._ FLOR'IDNESS.--_adjs._ FL[=O]RIF'EROUS, bearing or producing flowers; FL[=O]'RIFORM, flower-shaped.--_ns._ FL[=O]RIL[=E]'GIUM, an anthology or collection of choice extracts; FLOR'IST, a cultivator of flowers: one who writes an account of plants. [L. _Flora_, the goddess of flowers.] FLORENTINE, flor'en-tin, _adj._ pertaining to _Florence_ in Tuscany.--_n._ a native or inhabitant thereof: a durable silk textile fabric--also FLOR'ENCE: a pie with no crust beneath the meat. FLORIN, flor'in, _n._ an English silver coin worth 2s., first minted in 1849: in Austria the unit of account, otherwise called _gulden_, with a value about 2s.: in Holland sometimes called _guilder_, and worth about 1s. 8d.: (_orig._) a Florentine gold coin with a lily stamped on one side, first struck in the 11th century. [Fr., from It. _fiorino_--_fiore_, a lily--L. _flos_.] FLORUIT, fl[=o]'r[=u]-it, _n._ the period during which a person flourished. [L., 3d pers. sing. perf. of _flor[=e]re_, to flourish.] FLOSCULE, flos'k[=u]l, _n._ a floret.--_adjs._ FLOS'CULAR, FLOS'CULOUS, composed of many floscules or tubular florets. [L. _flosculus_, dim. of _flos_, a flower.] FLOSS, flos, _n._ the loose downy or silky substance in the husks of certain plants, as the bean--also FLOSH.--_n._ FLOSS'-SILK, very fine silk fibre extremely soft and downy and with a high lustre, used chiefly for embroidery.--_adj._ FLOSS'Y. [Prob. O. Fr. _flosche_, down: or from some Teut. word cog. with _fleece_--cf. Ice. _flos_, nap.] FLOTA, fl[=o]'ta, _n._ a commercial fleet: formerly the fleet which annually conveyed the produce of America to Spain. [Sp., 'a fleet.'] FLOTAGE. See FLOATAGE. FLOTANT, fl[=o]t'ant, _adj._ (_her._) floating in air or in water. FLOTATION, flo-t[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of floating: the science of floating bodies: act of floating a company or commercial enterprise.--PLANE, or LINE, OF FLOTATION, the plane or line in which the horizontal surface of a fluid cuts a body floating in it. FLOTILLA, flo-til'a, _n._ a fleet of small ships. [Sp., dim. of _flota_, a fleet.] FLOTSAM, flot'sam, _n._ goods lost by shipwreck, and found floating on the sea (see JETSAM). [Anglo-Fr. _floteson_ (Fr. _flottaison_)--O. Fr. _floter_, to float.] FLOUNCE, flowns, _v.i._ to move abruptly or impatiently--_n._ an impatient gesture. [Prob. cog. with Norw. _flunsa_, to hurry, Sw. prov. _flunsa_, to souse.] FLOUNCE, flowns, _n._ a plaited strip sewed to the skirt of a dress.--_v.t._ to furnish with flounces.--_n._ FLOUN'CING, material for flounces. [Earlier form _frounce_--O. Fr. _fronce_, _fronche_, prob. from L. _frons_, forehead; or Old High Ger. _runza_, a wrinkle, Ger. _runze_.] FLOUNDER, flown'd[.e]r, _v.i._ to struggle with violent and awkward motion: to stumble helplessly in thinking or speaking. [Prob. an onomatopoeic blending of the sound and sense of earlier words like _founder_, _blunder_. Skeat compares Dut. _flodderen_, to splash.] FLOUNDER, flown'd[.e]r, _n._ a small flat-fish, generally found in the sea near the mouth of rivers. [Anglo-Fr., _floundre_, O. Fr. _flondre_, most prob. of Scand. origin; cf. Ice. _flyðra_, Sw. _flundra_.] FLOUR, flowr, _n._ the finely-ground meal of wheat or other grain: the fine soft powder of any substance.--_v.t._ to reduce into or sprinkle with flour.--_v.i._ to break up into fine globules of mercury in the amalgamation process.--_ns._ FLOUR'-BOLT, a machine for bolting flour; FLOUR'-MILL, a mill for making flour.--_adj._ FLOUR'Y, covered with flour. [Fr. _fleur_ (_de farine_, of meal), fine flour--L. _flos_, _floris_, a flower.] FLOURISH, flur'ish, _v.i._ to thrive luxuriantly: to be prosperous: to use copious and flowery language: to move in fantastic figures: to display ostentatiously: (_mus._) to play ostentatious passages, or ostentatiously: to play a trumpet-call: to make ornamental strokes with the pen: to boast or brag.--_v.t._ to adorn with flourishes or ornaments: to swing about by way of show or triumph: (_Shak._) to gloss over.--_n._ decoration: showy splendour: a figure made by a bold stroke of the pen: the waving of a weapon or other thing: a parade of words: a musical prelude: a trumpet-call.--_adjs._ FLOUR'ISHED, decorated with flourishes; FLOUR'ISHING, thriving: prosperous: making a show.--_adv._ FLOUR'ISHINGLY.--_adj._ FLOUR'ISHY, abounding in flourishes.--FLOURISH OF TRUMPETS, a trumpet-call sounded on the approach of great persons; any ostentatious introduction. [O. Fr. _florir_, L. _flos_, flower.] FLOUSE, flows, _v.t._ and _v.i._ (_prov._) to splash.--Also FLOUSH. FLOUT, flowt, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to jeer, mock, or insult: to treat with contempt.--_n._ a mock: an insult.--_adv._ FLOUT'INGLY, with flouting: insultingly.--_n._ FLOUT'ING-STOCK (_Shak._), an object for flouting. [Prob. a specialised use of _floute_, M. E. form of _flute_, to play on the flute. So with Dut. _fluiten_.] FLOW, fl[=o], _v.i._ to run, as water: to rise, as the tide: to move in a stream, as air: to glide smoothly: to circulate, as the blood: to abound: to hang loose and waving: (_B._) to melt.--_v.t._ to cover with water.--_n._ a stream or current: the setting in of the tide: abundance: copiousness: free expression.--_n._ FLOW'AGE, act of flowing: state of being flooded.--_adj._ FLOW'ING, moving, as a fluid: fluent or smooth: falling in folds or in waves.--_adv._ FLOW'INGLY.--_n._ FLOW'INGNESS. [A.S. _flówan_; Ger. _fliessen_.] FLOW, flow, _n._ a morass: (_Scot._) a flat, moist tract of land. [Ice. _floi_, a marsh--_flóa_, to flood.] FLOWER, flow'[.e]r, _n._ a growth comprising the reproductive organs of plants: the blossom of a plant: the best of anything: the prime of life: the person or thing most distinguished: a figure of speech: ornament of style: (_pl._) menstrual discharge (_B._).--_v.t._ to adorn with figures of flowers.--_v.i._ to blossom: to flourish.--_ns._ FLOW'ERAGE, a gathering of flowers; FLOW'ER-BELL, a blossom shaped like a bell; FLOW'ER-BUD, a bud with the unopened flower; FLOW'ER-CLOCK, a collection of flowers so arranged that the time of day is indicated by their times of opening and closing; FLOW'ER-DE-LUCE, the old name for the common species of iris (q.v.), or for the heraldic emblem conventionalised therefrom (see FLEUR-DE-LIS); FLOW'ERET, a little flower: a floret; FLOW'ER-HEAD, a compound flower in which all the florets are sessile on the receptacle; FLOW'ERINESS; FLOW'ERING-RUSH, a monocotyledonous plant usually reckoned under the order _Alismaceæ_, with large linear three-edged leaves and an umbel of rose-coloured flowers.--_adjs._ FLOW'ER-KIR'TLED, FLOW'ERY-KIR'TLED (_Milt._), dressed in robes or garlands of flowers; FLOW'ERLESS (_bot._) having no flowers.--_ns._ FLOW'ER-POT, a utensil in culture whereby plants are rendered portable;, FLOW'ER-SERV'ICE, a church service where offerings of flowers are made, to be afterwards sent to hospitals; FLOW'ER-SHOW, an exhibition of flowers; FLOW'ER-STALK, the stem that supports the flower.--_adj._ FLOW'ERY, full of, or adorned with, flowers: highly embellished, florid.--FLOWER OF JOVE, a caryophyllaceous plant, with heads of purple or scarlet flowers, and leaves silky-white with hairs. [O. Fr. _flour_ (Fr. _fleur_)--L. _flos_, _floris_, a flower.] FLOWN, fl[=o]n, _pa.p._ of _fly_. FLOWN, fl[=o]n, _adj._ inflated, flushed: (_Milt._) overflown. FLUATE, fl[=oo]'[=a]t, _n._ Same as FLUORIDE. FLUCTUATE, fluk't[=u]-[=a]t, _v.i._ to float backward and forward: to roll hither and thither: to be irresolute.--_v.t._ to cause to move hither and thither.--_adjs._ FLUC'TUANT; FLUC'TU[=A]TING.--_ns._ FLUCTU[=A]'TION, a rising and falling like a wave: motion hither and thither: agitation: unsteadiness; FLUCTUOS'ITY.--_adj._ FLUC'TUOUS. [L. _fluctu[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_fluctus_, a wave--_flu[)e]re_, to flow.] FLUE, fl[=oo], _n._ a smoke-pipe or small chimney. [Prob. related to _flue_, to expand, splay out.] FLUE, fl[=oo], _n._ light down: soft down or fur.--_adj._ FLU'EY. [Ety. unknown; conn. with _fluff_.] FLUE, fl[=oo], _adj._ (_prov._) shallow, flat.--Also FLEW. FLUENT, fl[=oo]'ent, _adj._ ready in the use of words: voluble: marked by copiousness.--_n._ the variable quantity in fluxions.--_ns._ FLU'ENCE (_Milt._), FLU'ENCY, FLU'ENTNESS, readiness or rapidity of utterance: volubility.--_adv._ FLU'ENTLY. [L. _fluens_, _fluentis_, pr.p. of _flu[)e]re_, to flow.] FLUFF, fluf, _n._ a soft down from cotton, &c.: anything downy.--_n._ FLUFF'INESS.--_adj._ FLUFF'Y. [Perh. conn. with _flue_, light down.] FLUGELMAN, fl[=oo]'gl-man', _n._ Same as FUGLEMAN.--_n._ FLÜ'GEL-HORN, a hunting-horn, a kind of keyed bugle. FLUID, fl[=oo]'id, _adj._ that flows, as water: liquid or gaseous.--_n._ a substance in which the particles can move about with greater or less freedom from one part of the body to another.--_adjs._ FLU'IDAL; FLUID'IC; FLUID'IFORM.--_vs.t._ FLUID'IFY, FLU'IDISE, to make fluid.--_ns._ FLU'IDISM; FLUID'ITY, FLU'IDNESS, a liquid or gaseous state.--_adv._ FLU'IDLY. [Fr.,--L. _fluidus_, fluid--_flu[)e]re_, to flow.] FLUKE, fl[=oo]k, _n._ a flounder: a parasitic trematoid worm which causes the liver-rot in sheep, so called because like a miniature flounder: a variety of kidney potato. [A.S. _flóc_, a plaice; cf. Ice. _flóke_.] FLUKE, fl[=oo]k, _n._ the part of an anchor which fastens in the ground.--_adj._ FLUK'Y. [Prob. a transferred use of the foregoing.] FLUKE, fl[=oo]k, _n._ a successful shot made by chance, as at billiards: any unexpected advantage. FLUME, fl[=oo]m, _n._ an artificial channel for water to be applied to some industrial purpose: (_U.S._) a narrow defile with upright walls, the bottom occupied by a torrent.--BE, or GO, UP THE FLUME, to come to grief, to be done for. [O. Fr. _flum_--L. _flumen_, a river--_flu[)e]re_, to flow.] FLUMMERY, flum'[.e]r-i, _n._ an acid jelly made from the husks of oats: the Scotch sowens: anything insipid: empty compliment. [W. _llymru_--_llymrig_, harsh, raw--_llym_, sharp, severe.] FLUMMOX, flum'oks, _v.t._ (_slang_) to perplex: defeat. FLUMP, flump, _v.t._ (_coll._) to throw down violently.--_v.i._ to throw one's self down heavily.--_n._ the dull sound so produced. [Imit.] FLUNG, flung, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _fling_. FLUNKEY, flung'ki, _n._ a livery servant: a footman: a mean, cringing fellow.--_n._ FLUN'KEYDOM.--_adj._ FLUN'KEYISH.--_n._ FLUN'KEYISM. [Perh. orig. _flanker_, one who runs along by the side of.] FLUOR, fl[=oo]'or, _n._ a mineral often described as chemically fluate of lime, but really calcium fluoride, found abundantly in Derbyshire--also FLU'OR-SPAR, FLU'ORITE.--_ns._ FLUORES'CEIN, a coal-tar product, little used in dyeing, the colour not being fast; FLUORES'CENCE, a peculiar blue appearance exhibited by certain substances exposed to sunlight, and especially observable in a dilute solution of sulphate of quinine.--_adjs._ FLUORES'CENT, having the property of fluorescence; FLUOR'IC.--_ns._ FLU'ORIDE, a binary compound of fluorine with another element; FLU'ORINE, an elementary substance allied to chlorine, obtained chiefly from fluor; FLU'OROTYPE, a photographic process in which salts of fluoric acid were employed for the purpose of producing images in the camera; FLUOSIL'ICATE, a compound of fluosilicic acid with some base.--_adj._ FLUOSILIC'IC, composed of silicon and fluorine. [A name given by the alchemists to all mineral acids because of their _fluidity_, from L. _flu[)e]re_, to flow.] FLURRY, flur'i, _n._ a sudden blast or gust: agitation: bustle: the death-agony of the whale: a fluttering assemblage of things, as snowflakes.--_v.t._ to agitate, to confuse:--_pr.p._ flurr'ying; _pa.p._ flurr'ied.--_v.t._ FLURR, to scatter.--_v.i._ to fly up. [Prob. onomatopoeic, suggested by _flaw_, _hurry_, &c.] FLUSH, flush, _n._ a flow of blood to the face causing redness: sudden impulse: bloom, freshness, vigour: abundance.--_v.i._ to become red in the face: to flow swiftly.--_v.t._ to make red in the face: to cleanse by a copious flow of water: to elate, excite the spirits of: mostly in the _pa.p._ flushed (with victory).--_adj._ (of weather) hot and heavy: abounding: well supplied, as with money: (_Shak._) in full bloom.--_n._ FLUSH'-BOX, a rectangular tank supplied with water for flushing the bowls of water-closets.--_adj._ FLUSHED, suffused with ruddy colour: excited.--_ns._ FLUSH'ER, one who flushes sewers; FLUSH'ING, action of the verb _flush_: sudden reddening; FLUSH'NESS, quality of being flush.--_adj._ FLUSH'Y, reddish. [Prob. orig. identical with succeeding word, but meaning influenced by phonetic association with _flash_, the senses relating to colour by _blush_.] FLUSH, flush, _v.i._ to start up like an alarmed bird.--_v.t._ to rouse and cause to start off.--_n._ the act of starting: (_Spens._) a bird, or a flock of birds so started. [Prob. onomatopoeic; suggested by _fly_, _flutter_, and _rush_.] FLUSH, flush, _v.t._ to make even: to fill up to the level of a surface (often with _up_).--_adj._ having the surface level with the adjacent surface. [Prob. related to _flush_ above.] FLUSH, flush, _n._ in card-playing, a hand in which all the cards or a specified number are of the same suit.--_adj._ in poker, consisting of cards all of the same suit.--STRAIGHT, or ROYAL, FLUSH, in poker, a sequence of five cards of the same suit. [Prob. Fr. _flux_--L. _fluxus_, flow.] FLUSTER, flus't[.e]r, _n._ hurrying: confusion: heat.--_v.t._ to make hot and confused: to fuddle.--_v.i._ to bustle: to be agitated or fuddled.--_v.t._ FLUS'TER[=A]TE, to fluster.--_n._ FLUSTER[=A]'TION.--_adj._ FLUS'TERED, fuddled: flurried.--_n._ FLUS'TERMENT.--_adj._ FLUS'TERY, confused. [Ice. _flaustr_, hurry.] FLUSTRA, flus'tra, _n._ one of the commonest genera of marine Polyzoa. FLUTE, fl[=oo]t, _n._ a musical pipe with finger-holes and keys sounded by blowing: in organ-building, a stop with stopped wooden pipes, having a flute-like tone: one of a series of curved furrows, as on a pillar, called also _Fluting_: a tall and narrow wine-glass: a shuttle in tapestry-weaving, &c.--_v.i._ to play the flute.--_v.t._ to play or sing in soft flute-like tones: to form flutes or grooves in.--_adj._ FLUT'ED, ornamented with flutes, channels, or grooves.--_ns._ FLUT'ER; FLUTI'NA (t[=e]'-), a kind of accordion; FLUT'ING-MACHINE', a machine for corrugating sheet-metal, also a wood-turning machine for forming twisted, spiral, and fluted balusters; FLUT'IST.--_adj._ FLUT'Y, in tone like a flute. [O. Fr. _fleüte_; ety. dub.] FLUTTER, flut'[.e]r, _v.i._ to move about with bustle: to vibrate: to be in agitation or in uncertainty: (_obs._) to be frivolous.--_v.t._ to throw into disorder: to move in quick motions.--_n._ quick, irregular motion: agitation: confusion: a hasty game at cards, &c. [A.S. _flotorian_, to float about, from _flot_, the sea, stem of _fléotan_, to float.] FLUVIAL, fl[=oo]'vi-al, _adj._ of or belonging to rivers.--_n._ FLU'VIALIST.--_adjs._ FLUVIAT'IC, FLU'VIATILE, belonging to or formed by rivers. [L. _fluvialis_--_fluvius_, a river, _flu[)e]re_, to flow.] FLUX, fluks, _n._ act of flowing: a flow of matter: quick succession: a discharge generally from a mucous membrane: matter discharged: excrement: the term given to the substances employed in the arts to assist the reduction of a metallic ore and the fusion of a metal.--_v.t._ to melt.--_v.i._ to flow.--_ns._ FLUX'[=A]TION, the act of flowing or passing away; FLUXIBIL'ITY, FLUX'IBLENESS.--_adjs._ FLUX'IBLE, FLUX'IDE, that may be melted.--_ns._ FLUXIL'ITY; FLUX'ION, a flowing or discharge: a difference or variation: (_math._) the rate of change of a continuously varying quantity: (_pl._) the name given after Newton to that branch of mathematics which with a different notation is known after Leibnitz as the differential and integral calculus.--_adjs._ FLUX'IONAL, FLUX'IONARY, variable: inconstant.--_n._ FLUX'IONIST, one skilled in fluxions.--_adj._ FLUX'IVE (_Shak._), flowing with tears. [O. Fr.,--L. _fluxus_--_flu[)e]re_, to flow.] FLY, fl[=i], _v.i._ to move through the air on wings: to move swiftly: to pass away: to flee: to burst quickly or suddenly: to flutter.--_v.t._ to avoid, flee from: to cause to fly, as a kite:--_pr.p._ fly'ing; _pa.t._ flew (fl[=oo]); _pa.p._ flown (fl[=o]n).--_n._ a popular name best restricted in its simplicity to the insects forming the order _Diptera_, but often so widely used with a prefix--e.g. _butterfly_, _dragon-fly_, _May-fly_--as to be virtually equivalent to insect: a fish-hook dressed with silk, &c., in imitation of a fly: a light double-seated carriage, a hackney-coach: (_mech._) a flywheel: (_pl._) the large space above the proscenium in a theatre, from which the scenes, &c., are controlled.--_adj._ wide-awake: (_slang_) knowing.--_adjs._ FLY'AWAY, flighty; FLY'-BIT'TEN, marked by the bite of flies.--_n._ FLY'BLOW, the egg of a fly.--_adj._ FLY'BLOWN, tainted with the eggs which produce maggots.--_ns._ FLY'BOAT, a long, narrow, swift boat used on canals; FLY'BOOK, a case like a book for holding fishing-flies; FLY'-CATCH'ER, a small bird, so called from its catching flies while on the wing; FLY'-FISH'ER, one who fishes with artificial flies as bait; FLY'-FISH'ING, the art of so fishing; FLY'-FLAP'PER, one who drives away flies with a fly-flap; FLY'ING-BRIDGE, a kind of ferry-boat which is moved across a river by the action of the combined forces of the stream and the resistance of a long rope or chain made fast to a fixed buoy in the middle of the river; FLY'ING-BUTT'RESS, an arch-formed prop which connects the walls of the upper and central portions of an aisled structure with the vertical buttresses of the outer walls; FLY'ING-CAMP, a body of troops for rapid motion from one place to another; FLY'ING-DUTCH'MAN, a Dutch black spectral ship, whose captain is condemned for his impieties to sweep the seas around the Cape of Storms unceasingly, without ever being able to reach a haven; FLY'ING-FISH, a fish which can leap from the water and sustain itself in the air for a short time, by its long pectoral fins, as if flying; FLY'ING-FOX, a large frugivorous bat; FLY'ING-L[=E]'MUR, a galeopithecoid insectivore whose fore and hind limbs are connected by a fold of skin, enabling it to make flying leaps from tree to tree; FLY'ING-PAR'TY, a small body of soldiers, equipped for rapid movements, used to harass an enemy; FLY'ING-PHALAN'GER, a general popular name for the petaurists; FLY'ING-SHOT, a shot fired at something in motion; FLY'ING-SQUID, a squid having broad lateral fins by means of which it can spring high out of the water; FLY'ING-SQUIRR'EL, a name given to two genera of squirrels, which have a fold of skin between the fore and hind legs, by means of which they can take great leaps in the air; FLY'LEAF, a blank leaf at the beginning and end of a book; FLY'-LINE, a line for angling with an artificial fly; FLY'-MAK'ER, one who ties artificial flies for angling; FLY'MAN, one who works the ropes in the flies of a theatre; FLY'P[=A]PER, a porous paper impregnated with poison for destroying flies; FLY'-POW'DER, a poisonous powder used for killing flies; FLY'-RAIL, that part of a table which turns out to support the leaf.--_adj._ (_Shak._) moving slow as a fly on its feet.--_ns._ FLY'-ROD, a light flexible rod used in fly-fishing, usually in three pieces--butt, second-joint, and tip; FLY'-TRAP, a trap to catch flies: (_bot._) the spreading dog-bane, also the Venus's fly-trap; FLY'WHEEL, a large wheel with a heavy rim applied to machinery to equalise the effect of the driving effort.--FLY AT, to attack suddenly; FLY IN THE FACE OF, to insult: to oppose; FLY OPEN, to open suddenly or violently; FLY OUT, to break out in a rage; FLY THE KITE, to obtain money as by accommodation bills, the endorser himself having no money; FLY UPON, to seize: to attack.--A FLY IN THE OINTMENT, some slight flaw which corrupts a thing of value (Eccles. x. i.); BREAK A FLY ON THE WHEEL, to subject to a punishment out of all proportion to the gravity of the offence; LET FLY, to attack: to throw or send off; MAKE THE FEATHERS FLY (see FEATHERS). [A.S. _fléogan_, pa.t. _fleáh_; Ger. _fliegen_.] FLYTE, FLITE, fl[=i]t, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to scold, to brawl.--_n._ FLYTE, FLYT'ING, a scolding, or heated dispute. [A.S. _flítan_, to strive; Ger. _be-fleissen_.] FOAL, f[=o]l, _n._ the young of a mare or of a she-ass.--_v.i._ and _v.t._ to bring forth a foal.--_ns._ FOAL'FOOT, colts-foot; FOAL'ING, bringing forth of a foal or young. [A.S. _fola_; Ger. _fohlen_, Gr. _p[=o]los_; L. _pullus_.] FOAM, f[=o]m, _n._ froth: the bubbles which rise on the surface of liquors: fury.--_v.i._ to gather foam: to be in a rage.--_v.t._ (_B._) to throw out with rage or violence (with _out_).--_adv._ FOAM'INGLY.--_adjs._ FOAM'LESS, without foam; FOAM'Y, frothy. [A.S. _fám_; Ger. _feim_, prob. akin to L. _spuma_.] FOB, fob, _n._ a trick.--_v.t._ to cheat. [Prob. a corr. of O. Fr. _forbe_, a rogue; or Ger. _foppen_, to jeer.] FOB, fob, _n._ a small pocket in the waistband of trousers for a watch: a chain with seals, &c., hanging from the fob. [If orig. a secret pocket, perh. connected with the above.] FOCUS, f[=o]'kus, _n._ (_opt._) a point in which several rays meet and are collected after being reflected or refracted, while a _virtual_ focus is a point from which rays tend after reflection or refraction--the _principal_ focus is the focus of parallel rays after reflection or refraction: any central point:--_pl._ F[=O]'CUSES, FOCI (f[=o]'s[=i]).--_v.t._ to bring to a focus: to concentrate:--_pa.p._ f[=o]'cussed.--_adj._ F[=O]'CAL, of or belonging to a focus.--_v.t._ F[=O]'CALISE, to bring to a focus: to concentrate.--_n._ FOCIMETER (f[=o]-sim'e-t[.e]r), an instrument for assisting in focussing an object in or before a photographic camera--usually a lens of small magnifying power.--FOCUSSING CLOTH, a cloth thrown over a photographic camera and the operator's head and shoulders to exclude all light save that coming through the lens.--CONJUGATE FOCI, two points so situated that if a light be placed at one, its rays will be reflected to the other; IN FOCUS, placed or adjusted so as to secure distinct vision, or a sharp, definite image. [L. _focus_, a hearth.] FODDER, fod'[.e]r, _n._ food for cattle, as hay and straw.--_v.t._ to supply with fodder.--_ns._ FODD'ERER; FODD'ERING. [A.S. _fódor_; Ger. _futter_.] FODIENT, f[=o]'di-ent, _adj._ and _n._ digging. FOE, f[=o], _n._ an enemy: one who, or that which, injures or hinders anything: an ill-wisher.--_ns._ FOE'MAN, an enemy in war:--_pl._ FOE'MEN; F[=O]'EN (_Spens._), pl. of foe. [M. E. _foo_--A.S. _fáh_, _fá_ (adj.), allied to the compound n. _gefá_; cf. _féogan_, to hate.] FOETUS, FETUS, f[=e]'tus, _n._ the young of animals in the egg or in the womb, after its parts are distinctly formed, until its birth.--_adjs._ FOE'TAL, F[=E]'TAL, pertaining to a foetus; FOE'TICIDAL.--_ns._ FOE'TICIDE, F[=E]'TICIDE, destruction of the foetus. [L., from obs. _feu[=e]re_, to bring forth, whence _femina_, _fecundus_, &c.] FOG, fog, _n._ a thick mist: watery vapour rising from either land or water.--_v.t._ to shroud in fog.--_v.i._ to become coated with a uniform coating.--_ns._ FOG'-BANK, a dense mass of fog sometimes seen at sea appearing like a bank of land; FOG'-BELL, a bell rung by the motion of the waves or wind to warn sailors from rocks, shoals, &c. in foggy weather.--_adj._ FOG'-BOUND, impeded by fog.--_ns._ FOG'-BOW, a whitish arch like a rainbow, seen in fogs.--_adv._ FOG'GILY.--_n._ FOG'GINESS.--_adj._ FOG'GY, misty: damp: clouded in mind: stupid.--_n._ FOG'-HORN, a horn used as a warning signal by ships in foggy weather: a sounding instrument for warning ships off the shore during a fog: a siren.--_adj._ FOG'LESS, without fog, clear.--_ns._ FOG'-RING, a bank of fog in the form of a ring; FOG'-SIG'NAL, an audible signal used on board ship, &c., during a fog, when visible signals cease to be of use; FOG'-SMOKE, fog. [The origin of the word is hopelessly misty; Mr Bradley connects with succeeding word; Prof. Skeat connects with Dan. _fog_, as in _snee-fog_, thick falling snow; cf. Ice. _fok_, a snowdrift.] FOG, fog, FOGGAGE, fog'[=a]j, _n._ grass which grows in autumn after the hay is cut: (_Scot._) moss.--_v.i._ to become covered with fog. [Origin unknown; W. _ffwg_, dry grass, is borrowed.] FOGY, FOGEY, f[=o]'gi, _n._ a dull old fellow; a person with antiquated notions.--_adjs._ F[=O]'GRAM, antiquated.--_n._ a fogy.--_ns._ F[=O]'GRAMITE; FOGRAM'ITY; F[=O]GYDOM.--_adj._ F[=O]'GYISH.--_n._ F[=O]'GYISM. [Prob. a substantive use of _foggy_ in sense of 'fat,' 'bloated,' 'moss-grown.'] FOH, f[=o], _interj._ an exclamation of abhorrence or contempt. FOIBLE, foi'bl, _n._ a weak point in one's character: a failing. [O. Fr. _foible_, weak.] FOIL, foil, _v.t._ to defeat: to puzzle: to disappoint: (_Spens._) to beat down or trample with the feet:--_pr.p._ foil'ing; _pa.p._ foiled.--_n._ failure after success seemed certain: defeat: a blunt sword used in fencing, having a button on the point.--PUT TO THE FOIL, to blemish. [O. Fr. _fuler_, to stamp or crush--Low L. _fullare_--_fullo_, a fuller of cloth.] FOIL, foil, _n._ a leaf or thin plate of metal, as tin-foil: a thin leaf of metal put under precious stones to increase their lustre or change their colour: anything that serves to set off something else: a small arc in the tracery of a window, &c. (_trefoiled_, _cinquefoiled_, _multifoiled_, &c.).--_adj._ FOILED.--_n._ FOIL'ING. [O. Fr. _foil_ (Fr. _feuille_)--L. _folium_, a leaf.] FOIN, foin, _v.i._ to thrust with a sword or spear.--_n._ a thrust with a sword or spear.--_adv._ FOIN'INGLY. [O. Fr. _foine_--L. _fuscina_, a trident.] FOISON, foi'zn, _n._ plenty: autumn.--_adj._ FOI'SONLESS, weak, feeble--(_Scot._) FIZZ'ENLESS. [O. Fr.,--L. _fusion-em_--_fund[)e]re_, _fusum_, to pour forth.] FOIST, foist, _v.t._ to bring in by stealth: to insert wrongfully: to pass off as genuine (with _in_ or _into_ before the thing affected, and _upon_ before the person).--_n._ FOIST'ER. [Prob. Dut. prov. _vuisten_, to take in the hand; _vuist_, fist.] FOLD, f[=o]ld, _n._ the doubling of any flexible substance: a part laid over on another: (_pl._) complex arrangements, intricacy.--_v.t._ to lay one part over another: to enclose in a fold or folds, to wrap up: to embrace.--FOLD, in composition with numerals=times, as in TEN'FOLD.--_n._ FOLD'ER, the person or thing that folds: a flat knife-like instrument used in folding paper.--_adj._ FOLD'ING, that folds, or that can be folded, as _folding-bed_, _-chair_, _-joint_, _-net_, _-table_, &c.--_ns._ FOLD'ING, a fold or plait; FOLD'ING-DOOR, a door consisting of two parts hung on opposite jambs, so that their edges come into contact when the door is closed; FOLD'ING-MACHINE', a mechanism that automatically folds printed sheets. [A.S. _fealdan_, to fold; pa.t. _feóld_; Ger. _falten_.] FOLD, f[=o]ld, _n._ an enclosure for protecting domestic animals, esp. sheep: a flock of sheep: (_fig._) a church: the Christian Church.--_v.t._ to confine in a fold.--_n._ FOLD'ING. [A.S. _fald_, a fold, stall.] FOLDEROL, fol'de-rol, _n._ mere nonsense: silly trifle: (_pl._) trivial ornaments. [Formed from meaningless syllables, the refrain of old songs.] FOLIACEOUS, f[=o]-li-[=a]'shus, _adj._ pertaining to or consisting of leaves or laminæ. [L. _foliaceus_--_folium_, a leaf.] FOLIAGE, f[=o]'l[=i]-[=a]j, _n._ leaves: a cluster of leaves: (_archit._) a representation of leaves, flowers, and branches used for ornamentation.--_adjs._ F[=O]'LIAGED, worked like foliage; F[=O]'LIAR, pertaining to leaves: resembling leaves.--_v.t._ F[=O]'LI[=A]TE (_orig._), to beat into a leaf: to cover with leaf-metal.--_adj._ F[=O]'LI[=A]TED, beaten into a thin leaf: decorated with leaf ornaments: (_mus._) having notes added above or below, as in a plain-song melody.--_ns._ F[=O]'LI[=A]TION, the leafing, esp. of plants: the act of beating a metal into a thin plate, or of spreading foil over a piece of glass to form a mirror: (_geol._) the alternating and more or less parallel layers or folia of different mineralogical nature, of which the crystalline schists are composed: (_archit._) decoration with cusps, lobes, or foliated tracery; F[=O]'LIATURE, foliation. [O. Fr. _fueillage_--L. _folium_, a leaf.] FOLIO, f[=o]'li-[=o], _n._ a sheet of paper once folded: a book of such sheets: the size of such a book: one of several sizes of paper adapted for folding once into well-proportioned leaves: (_book-k._) a page in an account-book, or two opposite pages numbered as one: (_law_) a certain number of words taken as a basis for computing the length of a document: a wrapper for loose papers.--_adj._ pertaining to or containing paper only once folded.--_v.t._ to number the pages of: to mark off the end of every folio in law copying.--IN FOLIO, in sheets folded but once: in the form of a folio. [Abl. of L. _folium_, the leaf of a tree, a leaf or sheet of paper.] FOLIOLE, f[=o]'li-[=o]l, _n._ (_bot._) a single leaflet of a compound leaf.--_adj._ F[=O]'LIOLATE, of or pertaining to leaflets. [Fr., dim. of L. _folium_, a leaf.] FOLK, f[=o]k, _n._ people, collectively or distributively: a nation or race (rarely in _pl._): (_arch._) the people, commons: (_pl._) those of one's own family, relations (_coll._):--generally used in _pl._ FOLK or FOLKS (f[=o]ks).--_ns._ FOLKE'THING, the lower house of the Danish parliament or Rigsdag; FOLK'LAND, among the Anglo-Saxons, public land as distinguished from _boc-land_ (bookland)--i.e. land granted to private persons by a written charter; FOLK'LORE, a department of the study of antiquities or archæology, embracing everything relating to ancient observances and customs, to the notions, beliefs, traditions, superstitions, and prejudices of the common people--the science which treats of the survivals of archaic beliefs and customs in modern ages (the name _Folklore_ was first suggested by W. J. Thoms--'Ambrose Merton'--in the _Athenæum_, August 22, 1846); FOLK'LORIST, one who studies folklore; FOLK'MOTE, an assembly of the people among the Anglo-Saxons; FOLK'-RIGHT, the common law or right of the people; FOLK'-SONG, any song or ballad originating among the people and traditionally handed down by them: a song written in imitation of such; FOLK'-SPEECH, the dialect of the common people of a country, in which ancient idioms are embedded; FOLK'-TALE, a popular story handed down by oral tradition from a more or less remote antiquity. [A.S. _folc_; Ice. _fólk_; Ger. _volk_.] FOLLICLE, fol'i-kl, _n._ (_anat._) a gland: (_bot._) a seed-vessel.--_adjs._ FOLLIC'ULAR, pertaining to or consisting of follicles; FOLLIC'ULATED; FOLLIC'ULOUS. [Fr.,--L. _folliculus_, dim. of _follis_, a wind-bag.] FOLLOW, fol'[=o], _v.t._ to go after or behind: to come after, succeed: to pursue: to attend: to imitate: to obey: to adopt, as an opinion: to keep the eye or mind fixed on: to pursue, as an object of desire: to result from, as an effect from a cause: (_B._) to strive to obtain.--_v.i._ to come after another: to result.--_n._ (_billiards_) a stroke which causes the ball to follow the one which it has struck.--_ns._ FOLL'OW-BOARD, in moulding, the board on which the pattern is laid; FOLL'OWER, one who comes after: a copier: a disciple: a servant-girl's sweetheart; FOLL'OWING, the whole body of supporters.--_adj._ coming next after.--FOLLOW HOME, to follow closely: to follow to the end; FOLLOW ON (_B._), to continue endeavours; FOLLOW SUIT, in card-playing, to play a card of the same suit as the one which was led: to do anything on the same lines as another; FOLLOW UP, to pursue an advantage closely. [A.S. _folgian_, _fylgian_, app. a compound, but obscure; Ger. _folgen_.] FOLLY, fol'i, _n._ silliness or weakness of mind: a foolish act: criminal weakness: (_B._) sin: a monument of folly, as a great structure left unfinished, having been begun without a reckoning of the cost.--_v.i._ to act with folly. [O. Fr. _folie_--_fol_, foolish.] FOMENT, fo-ment', _v.t._ to bathe with warm water: to encourage: to instigate (usually to evil).--_ns._ FOMENT[=A]'TION, a bathing or lotion with warm water: encouragement; FOMENT'ER. [Fr.,--L. _foment[=a]re_--_fomentum_ for _fovimentum_--_fov[=e]re_, to warm.] FOMES, f[=o]'miz, _n._ any porous substance capable of absorbing and retaining contagious effluvia:--_pl._ FOM[=I]'TES. [L., touchwood.] FON, fon, _n._ (_Spens._) a fool, an idiot.--_v.i._ to be foolish, play the fool.--_adv._ FON'LY, foolishly. FOND, fond, _adj._ foolishly tender and loving: weakly indulgent: prizing highly (with _of_): very affectionate: kindly disposed: (_obs._) foolish.--_v.i._ to dote.--_v.t._ FOND'LE, to treat with fondness: to caress.--_ns._ FOND'LER; FOND'LING, the person or thing fondled.--_adv._ FOND'LY, in a fond manner, foolishly.--_n._ FOND'NESS. [For _fonned_, pa.p. of M. E. _fonnen_, to act foolishly, _fon_, a fool; fondly conn. by some with Sw. _fåne_, fool, Ice. _fáni_, swaggerer.] FOND. See FAND (2). FONE, f[=o]n, _n._ (_Spens._) _pl._ of _foe_. FONT, font, _n._ the vessels used in churches as the repository of the baptismal water, usually a basin or cup hollowed out of a solid block of marble, &c.--_adj._ FONT'AL, pertaining to a font or origin.--_ns._ FONT'LET, a little font; FONT'-STONE, a baptismal font of stone. [L. _font-em_, _fons_, a fountain.] FONT, font, FOUNT, fownt, _n._ a complete assortment of types of one sort, with all that is necessary for printing in that kind of letter. [Fr. _fonte_--_fondre_--L. _fund[)e]re_, to cast.] FONTANELLE, fon-ta-nel', _n._ a gap between the bones of the skull of a young animal: an opening for the discharge of pus.--Also FONTANEL'. [Fr.] FONTANGE, fong-tanzh', _n._ a tall head-dress worn in the 17th and 18th centuries. [Fr., from _Fontanges_, the territorial title of one of Louis XIV.'s drabs.] FONTARABIAN, fon-ta-r[=a]'bi-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Fontarabia_ or Fuenterrabia on the Pyrenees, where Roland was overpowered and slain by the Saracens. FONTICULUS, fon-tik'[=u]-lus, _n._ a small ulcer produced by caustics, &c.: the depression just over the top of the breast-bone. [L., dim. of _fons_.] FONTINALIS, fon-tin-[=a]'lis, _n._ a genus of aquatic mosses allied to _Hypnum_, almost without stalk. [Formed from L. _fons_.] FOOD, f[=oo]d, _n._ what one feeds on: that which, being digested, nourishes the body: whatever sustains or promotes growth.--_adjs._ FOOD'FUL, able to supply food abundantly; FOOD'LESS, without food. [A.S. _fóda_; Goth. _fódeins_, Sw. _föda_.] FOOD, f[=oo]d, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as FEUD. FOOL, f[=oo]l, _n._ one who acts stupidly: a person of weak mind: a jester: a tool or victim, as of untoward circumstances: (_B._) a wicked person.--_v.t._ to deceive: to treat with contempt.--_v.i._ to play the fool: to trifle.--_adjs._ FOOL'-BEGGED (_Shak._), taken for a fool, idiotical, absurd; FOOL'-BORN (_Shak._), foolish from one's birth, arising from folly.--_n._ FOOL'ERY, an act of folly: habitual folly.--_adj._ FOOL'-HAPP'Y, happy or lucky without contrivance or judgment.--_n._ FOOL'-HARD'INESS--(_Spens._) FOOL'-HARD'ISE.--_adjs._ FOOL'-HARD'Y, foolishly bold: rash or incautious; FOOL'ISH, weak in intellect: wanting discretion: ridiculous: marked with folly: deserving ridicule: (_B._) sinful, disregarding God's laws.--_adv._ FOOL'ISHLY.--_ns._ FOOL'ISHNESS, FOOL'ING, foolery.--_adj._ FOOL'ISH-WIT'TY (_Shak._), wise in folly and foolish in wisdom.--_ns._ FOOL'S'-ERR'AND, a silly or fruitless enterprise: search for what cannot be found; FOOL'S'-PARS'LEY, an umbelliferous plant in Britain, not to be mistaken for parsley, being poisonous.--FOOL AWAY, to spend to no purpose or profit; FOOL'S CAP, a kind of head-dress worn by professional fools or jesters, usually having a cockscomb hood with bells; FOOL'S PARADISE, a state of happiness based on fictitious hopes or expectations; FOOL WITH, to meddle with officiously; MAKE A FOOL OF, to bring a person into ridicule: to disappoint; PLAY THE FOOL, to behave as a fool: to sport. [O. Fr. _fol_ (Fr. _fou_), It. _folle_--L. _follis_, a wind-bag.] FOOL, f[=oo]l, _n._ crushed fruit scalded or stewed, mixed with cream and sugar, as 'gooseberry fool.' [Prob. a use of preceding suggested by _trifle_.] FOOLSCAP, f[=oo]lz'kap, _n._ a long folio writing or printing paper, varying in size (17×13½ in., 16¾×13½ in., &c.), so called from having originally borne the water-mark of a fool's cap and bells. FOOT, foot, _n._ that part of its body on which an animal stands or walks (having in man 26 bones): the lower part or base: a measure=12 in., (_orig._) the length of a man's foot: foot-soldiers: a division of a line of poetry:--_pl._ FEET.--_v.i._ to dance: to walk:--_pr.p._ foot'ing; _pa.p._ foot'ed.--_ns._ FOOT'BALL, a large ball for kicking about in sport: play with this ball; FOOT'-BATH, act of bathing the feet: a vessel for this purpose; FOOT'-BOARD, a support for the foot in a carriage or elsewhere: the foot-plate of a locomotive engine; FOOT'BOY, an attendant in livery; FOOT'BREADTH, the breadth of a foot, an area of this size; FOOT'BRIDGE, a narrow bridge for foot-passengers; FOOT'CLOTH (_Shak._), a sumpter-cloth which reached to the feet of the horse.--_p.adj._ FOOT'ED, provided with a foot or feet: (_Shak._) having gained a foothold, established.--_ns._ FOOT'FALL, a setting the foot on the ground: a footstep; FOOT'GEAR, shoes and stockings.--_n.pl._ FOOT'GUARDS, guards that serve on foot, the élite of the British infantry.--_ns._ FOOT'HILL, a minor elevation distinct from the higher part of a mountain and separating it from the valley (usually in _pl._); FOOT'HOLD, space on which to plant the feet: that which sustains the feet; FOOT'ING, place for the foot to rest on: firm foundation: position: settlement: tread: dance: plain cotton lace.--_adj._ FOOT'LESS, having no feet.--_ns._ FOOT'-LICK'ER (_Shak._), a fawning, slavish flatterer; FOOT'LIGHT, one of a row of lights in front of and on a level with the stage in a theatre, &c.; FOOT'MAN, a servant or attendant in livery: (_B._) a soldier who serves on foot: a runner:--_pl._ FOOT'MEN; FOOT'MARK, FOOT'PRINT, the mark or print of a foot: a track; FOOT'NOTE, a note of reference at the foot of a page; FOOT'PAD, a highwayman or robber on foot, who frequents public paths or roads; FOOT'-PASS'ENGER, one who travels on foot; FOOT'PATH, a narrow way which will not admit carriages; FOOT'-PLATE, the platform on which the driver and stoker of a locomotive engine stand; FOOT'-POST, a post or messenger that travels on foot; FOOT'-POUND, the force needed to raise one pound weight the height of one foot--the usual unit in measuring mechanical force; FOOT'-RACE, a race on foot; FOOT'-ROPE, a rope stretching along under a ship's yard for the men standing on when furling the sails: the rope to which the lower edge of a sail is attached; FOOT'ROT, a name applied to certain inflammatory affections about the feet of sheep; FOOT'RULE, a rule or measure a foot in length; FOOT'-SOL'DIER, a soldier that serves on foot.--_adj._ FOOT'-SORE, having sore or tender feet, as by much walking.--_ns._ FOOT'-STALK (_bot._), the stalk or petiole of a leaf; FOOT'-STALL, a woman's stirrup; FOOT'STEP, the step or impression of the foot: a track: trace of a course pursued.--_n.pl._ FOOT'STEPS, course, example.--_ns._ FOOT'STOOL, a stool for placing one's feet on when sitting: anything trodden upon; FOOT'-WARM'ER, a contrivance for keeping the feet warm; FOOT'WAY, a path for passengers on foot.--_p.adj._ FOOT'WORN, worn by many feet, as a stone: foot-sore.--FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE (see MURRAIN).--FOOT IT, to walk: to dance.--COVER THE FEET (_B._), a euphemism for, to ease nature.--PUT ONE'S BEST FOOT FOREMOST, to appear at greatest advantage; PUT ONE'S FOOT IN IT, to spoil anything by some indiscretion; SET ON FOOT, to originate. [A.S. _fót_, pl. _fét_; Ger. _fuss_, L. _pes_, _pedis_, Gr. _pous_, _podos_, Sans. _p[=a]d_.] FOOTY, foot'i, _adj._ (_prov._) mean.--Also FOUGHT'Y. [Prob. an A.S. _fúhtig_; cog. with Dut. _vochtig_.] FOOZLE, f[=oo]z'l, _n._ (_coll._) a tedious fellow: a bungled stroke at golf, &c.--_v.i._ to fool away one's time.--_n._ FOOZ'LER.--_p.adj._ FOOZ'LING. [Cf. Ger. prov. _fuseln_, to work slowly.] FOP, fop, _n._ an affected dandy.--_ns._ FOP'LING, a vain affected person; FOP'PERY, vanity in dress or manners: affectation: folly.--_adj._ FOP'PISH, vain and showy in dress: affectedly refined in manners.--_adv._ FOP'PISHLY.--_n._ FOP'PISHNESS. [Cf. Ger. _foppen_, to hoax.] FOR, for, _prep._ in the place of: for the sake of: on account of: in the direction of: with respect to, by reason of: appropriate or adapted to, or in reference to: beneficial to: in quest of: notwithstanding, in spite of: in recompense of: during.--FOR ALL (_N.T._), notwithstanding; FOR IT, to be done for the case, usually preceded by a negative; FOR TO (_B._), in order to.--AS FOR, as far as concerns. [A.S. _for_; Ger. _für_, _vor_, akin to L. and Gr. _pro_, Sans. _pra_, before in place or time.] FOR, for, _conj._ the word by which a reason is introduced: because: on the account that.--FOR BECAUSE and FOR THAT=because; FOR WHY=why. FORAGE, for'aj, _n._ fodder, or food for horses and cattle: provisions: the act of foraging.--_v.i._ to go about and forcibly carry off food for horses and cattle, as soldiers.--_v.t._ to plunder.--_ns._ FOR'AGE-CAP, the undress cap worn by infantry soldiers; FOR'AGER. [Fr. _fourrage_, O. Fr. _feurre_, fodder, of Teut. origin.] FORAMEN, fo-r[=a]'men, _n._ a small opening:--_pl._ FORAM'INA.--_adjs._ FORAM'INATED, FORAM'INOUS, pierced with small holes: porous.--_n.pl._ FORAMINIF'ERA, an order of _Rhizopoda_, furnished with a shell or test, usually perforated by pores (_foramina_).--_n._ FORAMIN'IFER, one of such.--_adjs._ FORAMINIF'ERAL, FORAMINIF'EROUS.--FOR[=A]MEN MAGNUM, the great hole in the occipital bone for the passage of the medulla oblongata and its membranes. [L.,--_for[=a]re_, to pierce.] FORASMUCH, for'az-much, _conj._ because that. FORAY, for'[=a], _n._ a sudden incursion into an enemy's country.--_v.t._ to ravage.--_n._ FOR'AYER. [Ety. obscure, but ult. identical with _forage_ (q.v.).] FORBADE, for-bad', _pa.t._ of _forbid_. FORBEAR, for-b[=a]r', _v.i._ to keep one's self in check: to abstain.--_v.t._ to abstain from: to avoid voluntarily: to spare, to withhold.--_n._ FORBEAR'ANCE, exercise of patience: command of temper: clemency.--_adjs._ FORBEAR'ANT, FORBEAR'ING, long-suffering: patient.--_adv._ FORBEAR'INGLY. [A.S. _forberan_, pa.t. _forbær_, pa.p. _forboren_. See pfx. _for-_ and _bear_.] FORBID, for-bid', _v.t._ to prohibit: to command not to do: (_Shak._) to restrain.--_n._ FORBID'DANCE, prohibition: command or edict against a thing.--_adj._ FORBID'DEN, prohibited: unlawful.--_adv._ FORBID'DENLY (_Shak._), in a forbidden or unlawful manner.--_adj._ FORBID'DING, repulsive: raising dislike: unpleasant.--_adv._ FORBID'DINGLY.--_n._ FORBID'DINGNESS.--FORBIDDEN, or PROHIBITED, DEGREES, degrees of consanguinity within which marriage is not allowed; FORBIDDEN FRUIT, or _Adam's apple_, a name fancifully given to the fruit of various species of Citrus, esp. to one having tooth-marks on its rind. [A.S. _forbéodan_, pa.t. _forbéad_, pa.p. _forboden_. See pfx. _for-_, and _bid_; cf. Ger. _verbieten_.] FORBORE, for-b[=o]r', _pa.t._ of _forbear_.--_pa.p._ FORBORNE'. FORBY, for-b[=i]', _prep._ (_Spens._) near, past: (_Scot._) besides. FORÇAT, for-sä', _n._ in France, a convict condemned to hard labour. [Fr.] [Illustration] FORCE, f[=o]rs, _n._ strength, power, energy: efficacy: validity: influence: vehemence: violence: coercion or compulsion: military or naval strength (often in _pl._): an armament: (_mech._) any cause which changes the direction or speed of the motion of a portion of matter.--_v.t._ to draw or push by main strength: to compel: to constrain: to compel by strength of evidence: to take by violence: to ravish: (_hort._) to cause to grow or ripen rapidly: to compel one's partner at whist to trump a trick by leading a card of a suit of which he has none: to make a player play so as to reveal the strength of his hand.--_v.i._ to strive: to hesitate.--_p._ and _adj._ FORCED, accomplished by great effort, as a forced march: strained, excessive, unnatural.--_n._ FORC'EDNESS, the state of being forced: distortion.--_adj._ FORCE'FUL, full of force or might: driven or acting with power: impetuous.--_adv._ FORCE'FULLY.--_adj._ FORCE'LESS, weak.--_ns._ FORCE'-PUMP, FORC'ING-PUMP, a pump which delivers the water under pressure through a side-pipe; FORC'ER, the person or thing that forces, esp. the piston of a force-pump.--_adj._ FORC'IBLE, active: impetuous: done by force: efficacious: impressive.--_adj._ and _n._ FORC'IBLE-FEE'BLE, striving to look strong while really weak.--_n._ FORC'IBLENESS.--_adv._ FORC'IBLY.--_ns._ FORC'ING (_hort._), the art of hastening the growth of plants; FORC'ING-HOUSE, a hothouse for forcing plants; FORC'ING-PIT, a frame sunk in the ground over a hotbed for forcing plants.--FORCE AND FEAR (_Scot._), that amount of constraint or compulsion which is enough to annul an engagement or obligation entered into under its influence; FORCE THE PACE, to keep the speed up to a high pitch by emulation with one not competing for a place: to hasten unduly, or by any expedient; FORCIBLE DETAINER, and ENTRY, detaining property or forcing an entry into it by violence or intimidation. [Fr.,--Low L., _fortia_--L. _fortis_, strong.] FORCE, f[=o]rs, FOSS, fos, _n._ a waterfall. [Ice. _foss_, _fors_.] FORCE, f[=o]rs, _v.t._ (_cook._) to stuff, as a fowl.--_n._ FORCE'MEAT, meat chopped fine and highly seasoned, used as a stuffing or alone. [A corr. of _farce_.] FORCEPS, for'seps, _n._ a pair of tongs, pincers, or pliers for holding anything difficult to be held with the hand.--_adj._ FOR'CIP[=A]TED, formed and opening like a forceps.--_n._ FORCIP[=A]'TION, torture by pinching with forceps. [L., from _formus_, hot, and _cap[)e]re_, to hold.] FORD, f[=o]rd, _n._ a place where water may be crossed on foot: a stream where it may be crossed.--_v.t._ to cross water on foot.--_adj._ FORD'ABLE. [A.S. _ford_--_faran_, to go; Ger. _furt_--_fahren_, to go on foot; akin to Gr. _poros_, and to Eng. _fare_, _ferry_, and _far_.] FORDO, for-d[=oo]', _v.t._ (_arch._) to ruin: to overcome, to exhaust:--_pr.p._ fordo'ing; _pa.t._ fordid'; _pa.p._ fordone'. [A.S. _f[=o]rdón_; Ger. _verthun_, to consume.] FORE, f[=o]r, _adj._ in front of: advanced in position: coming first.--_adv._ at the front: in the first part: previously: (_golf_) a warning cry to any person in the way of the ball to be played.--FORE AND AFT, lengthwise of a ship.--AT THE FORE, displayed on the foremast (of a flag); TO THE FORE, forthcoming: (_Scot._) in being, alive. [A.S. _fore_, radically the same as _for_, prep.--to be distinguished from pfx. _for-_ (Ger. _ver-_ in _vergessen_, L. _per_).] FORE-ADMONISH, f[=o]r-ad-mon'ish, _v.t._ to admonish beforehand. FORE-ADVISE, f[=o]r-ad-v[=i]z', _v.t._ to advise beforehand. FOREANENT, f[=o]r-a-nent', _prep._ (_Scot._), opposite to. FOREARM, f[=o]r'ärm, _n._ the part of the arm between the elbow and the wrist. FOREARM, f[=o]r-ärm', _v.t._ to arm or prepare beforehand. FOREBEAR, f[=o]r-b[=a]r', _n._ (_Scot._) an ancestor, esp. in _pl._ FOREBODE, f[=o]r-b[=o]d', _v.t._ to feel a secret sense of something future, esp. of evil.--_ns._ FOREBODE'MENT, feeling of coming evil; FOREBOD'ER; FOREBOD'ING, a boding or perception beforehand; apprehension of coming evil.--_adv._ FOREBOD'INGLY. FORE-BODY, f[=o]r'-bod'i, _n._ the part of a ship in front of the mainmast. FORE-BRACE, f[=o]r'-br[=a]s, _n._ a rope attached to the fore yard-arm, for changing the position of the foresail. FORE-BY, f[=o]r-b[=i]' (_Spens._). Same as FORBY. FORECABIN, f[=o]r-kab'in, _n._ a cabin in the forepart of the vessel. FORECAST, f[=o]r-kast', _v.t._ to contrive or reckon beforehand: to foresee: to predict.--_v.i._ to form schemes beforehand.--_ns._ FORE'CAST, a previous contrivance: foresight: a prediction; FORECAST'ER. FORECASTLE, f[=o]r'kas-l, FO'C'SLE, f[=o]k'sl, _n._ a short raised deck at the fore-end of a vessel: the forepart of the ship under the maindeck, the quarters of the crew. FORECHOSEN, f[=o]r-ch[=o]z'n, _p.adj._ chosen beforehand. FORE-CITED, f[=o]r-s[=i]t'ed, _p.adj._ quoted before or above. FORECLOSE, f[=o]r-kl[=o]z', _v.t._ to preclude: to prevent: to stop.--_n._ FORECLOS'URE, a foreclosing: (_law_) the process by which a mortgager, failing to repay the money lent on the security of an estate, is compelled to forfeit his right to redeem the estate. [O. Fr. _forclos_, pa.p. of _forclore_, to exclude--L. _foris_, outside, and _claud[)e]re_, _clausum_, to shut.] FOREDAMNED, f[=o]r-damd', _p.adj._ (_Spens._) utterly damned. FOREDATE, f[=o]r-d[=a]t', _v.t._ to date before the true time. FOREDAY, f[=o]r'd[=a], _n._ (_Scot._) forenoon. FOREDECK, f[=o]r'dek, _n._ the forepart of a deck or ship. FOREDOOM, f[=o]r-d[=oo]m', _v.t._ to doom beforehand. FORE-END, f[=o]r'-end, _n._ the early or fore part of anything. FOREFATHER, f[=o]r'fä-th[.e]r, _n._ an ancestor. FOREFEEL, f[=o]r-f[=e]l', _v.t._ to feel beforehand.--_adv._ FOREFEEL'INGLY.--_adj._ FOREFELT'. FOREFINGER, f[=o]r'fing-g[.e]r, _n._ the finger next the thumb. FOREFOOT, f[=o]r'foot, _n._ one of the anterior feet of a quadruped. FOREFRONT, f[=o]r'frunt, _n._ the front or foremost part. FOREGLEAM, f[=o]r'gl[=e]m, _n._ a glimpse into the future. FOREGO, f[=o]r-g[=o]', _v.t._ to go before, precede: chiefly used in its _pr.p._ foreg[=o]'ing and _pa.p._ foregone'.--_ns._ FOREG[=O]'ER; FOREG[=O]'ING.--_p.adj_. FOREGONE'.--_n._ FOREGONE'NESS.--FOREGONE CONCLUSION, a conclusion come to before examination of the evidence. FOREGO, f[=o]r-g[=o]', _v.t._ to give up: to forbear the use of.--Better FORG[=O]'. FOREGROUND, f[=o]r'grownd, _n._ the part of a picture nearest the observer's eye, as opposed to the _background_ or _distance_. FOREHAMMER, f[=o]r'häm-[.e]r, _n._ a sledge-hammer. FOREHAND, f[=o]r'hand, _n._ the part of a horse which is in front of its rider.--_adj._ done beforehand.--_adj._ FORE'HANDED, forehand, as of payment for goods before delivery, or for services before rendered: seasonable: (_U.S._) well off: formed in the foreparts. FOREHEAD, f[=o]r'hed, _n._ the forepart of the head above the eyes, the brow: confidence, audacity. FORE-HORSE, f[=o]r'-hors, _n._ the foremost horse of a team. FOREIGN, for'in, _adj._ belonging to another country: from abroad: alien: not belonging to, unconnected: not appropriate.--_adj._ FOR'EIGN-BUILT, built in a foreign country.--_ns._ FOR'EIGNER, a native of another country; FOR'EIGNNESS, the quality of being foreign: want of relation to something: remoteness. [O. Fr. _forain_--Low L. _foraneus_--L. _foras_, out of doors.] FOREJUDGE, f[=o]r-juj', _v.t._ to judge before hearing the facts and proof.--_n._ FOREJUDG'MENT. FOREKING, f[=o]r'king, _n._ (_Tenn._) a preceding king. FOREKNOW, f[=o]r-n[=o]', _v.t._ to know beforehand: to foresee.--_adj._ FOREKNOW'ING.--_adv._ FOREKNOW'INGLY.--_n._ FOREKNOWL'EDGE, knowledge of a thing before it happens.--_adj._ FOREKNOWN'. FOREL, for'el, _n._ a kind of parchment for covering books. [O. Fr. _forrel_, a sheath, _forre_, _fuerre_.] FORELAND, f[=o]r'land, _n._ a point of land running forward into the sea, a headland. FORELAY, f[=o]r-l[=a]', _v.t._ to contrive antecedently: to lay wait for in ambush. FORELEG, f[=o]r'leg, _n._ one of the front legs of a quadruped, chair, &c. FORELIE, f[=o]r-l[=i], _v.t._ (_Spens._) to lie before. FORELIFT, f[=o]r-lift', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to raise any anterior part. FORELOCK, f[=o]r'lok, _n._ the lock of hair on the forehead.--TAKE TIME BY THE FORELOCK, to seize the occasion promptly, so as to anticipate opposition. FOREMAN, f[=o]r'man, _n._ the first or chief man, one appointed to preside over, or act as spokesman for, others: an overseer:--_pl._ FORE'MEN. FOREMAST, f[=o]r'mast, _n._ the mast that is forward, or next the bow of a ship.--_n._ FORE'MASTMAN, any sailor below the rank of petty officer. FOREMEAN, f[=o]r-m[=e]n', _v.t._ to intend beforehand.--_pa.p._ FORE'MEANT. FORE-MENTIONED, f[=o]r-men'shund, _adj._ mentioned before in a writing or discourse. FOREMOST, f[=o]r'm[=o]st, _adj._ first in place: most advanced: first in rank or dignity. [A.S. _forma_, first, superl. of _fore_, and superl. suffix _-st_. It is therefore a double superl.; the old and correct form was _formest_, which was wrongly divided _for-mest_ instead of _form-est_, and the final _-mest_ was mistaken for _-most_.] FORENAME, f[=o]r'n[=a]m, _n._ the first or Christian name. FORE-NAMED, f[=o]r'-n[=a]md, _adj._ mentioned before. FORENENST, f[=o]r-nenst', _prep._ (_Scot._) opposite. FORENIGHT, f[=o]r'n[=i]t, _n._ (_Scot._) the early part of the night before bedtime, the evening. FORENOON, f[=o]r'n[=oo]n, _n._ the part of the day before noon or midday.--_adj._ pertaining to this part of the day. FORENOTICE, f[=o]r-n[=o]'tis, _n._ notice of anything before it happens. FORENSIC, fo-ren'sik, _adj._ belonging to courts of law, held by the Romans in the forum: used in law pleading: appropriate to, or adapted to, argument.--FORENSIC MEDICINE, medical jurisprudence, the application of medical knowledge to the elucidation of doubtful questions in a court of justice. [L. _forensis_--_forum_, market-place, akin to _fores_.] FORE-ORDAIN, f[=o]r-or-d[=a]n', _v.t._ to arrange beforehand: to predestinate.--_n._ FORE-ORDIN[=A]'TION. FOREPART, f[=o]r'pärt, _n._ the part before the rest: the front: the beginning: (_B._) the bow of a ship. FOREPAST, f[=o]r'past, _p.adj._ (_Shak._) former. FOREPAYMENT, f[=o]r'p[=a]-ment, _n._ payment beforehand. FOREPEAK, f[=o]r'p[=e]k, _n._ the contracted part of a ship's hold, close to the bow. FOREPLAN, f[=o]r'plan, _v.t._ to plan beforehand. FOREPOINT, f[=o]r'point, _v.t._ to foreshadow. FORE-QUOTED, f[=o]r-kw[=o]t'ed, _p.adj._ quoted or cited before in the same writing. FORERAN, f[=o]r-ran', _pa.t._ of _forerun_. FORE-RANK, f[=o]r'-rangk, _n._ the rank which is before all the others: the front. FOREREACH, f[=o]r'r[=e]ch, _v.i._ (_naut._) to glide ahead, esp. when going in stays (with _on_).--_v.t._ to sail beyond. FORE-READ, f[=o]r'-r[=e]d, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to signify by tokens: to foretell:--_pa.p._ fore-read'.--_n._ FORE'-READ'ING. FORE-RECITED, f[=o]r'-re-s[=i]t'ed, _p.adj._ (_Shak._) recited or named before. FORE-RENT, f[=o]r'-rent, _n._ (_Scot._) rent due before the first crop is reaped. FORERUN, f[=o]r-run', _v.t._ to run or come before: to precede.--_n._ FORERUN'NER, a runner or messenger sent before: a sign that something is to follow. FORESAID, f[=o]r'sed, _adj._ described or spoken of before. FORESAIL, f[=o]r's[=a]l, _n._ a sail attached to the foreyard on the foremast. See SHIP. FORE-SAY, f[=o]r-s[=a]', _v.t._ to predict or foretell: (_Shak._) to prognosticate. FORESEE, f[=o]r-s[=e]', _v.t._ or _v.i._ to see or know beforehand.--_p.adj._ FORESEE'ING.--_adv._ FORESEE'INGLY. FORESHADOW, f[=o]r-shad'[=o], _v.t._ to shadow or typify beforehand.--_n._ FORESHAD'OWING. FORESHIP, f[=o]r'ship, _n._ (_B._) the forepart of a ship. FORESHORE, f[=o]r'sh[=o]r, _n._ the part immediately before the shore: the sloping part of a shore included between the high and low water marks. FORESHORTENING, f[=o]r-short'n-ing, _n._ a term in drawing signifying that a figure or portion of a figure projecting towards the spectator is so represented as to truly give the idea of such projection.--_v.t._ FORESHORT'EN. FORESHOW, f[=o]r-sh[=o]', _v.t._ to show or represent beforehand: to predict.--Also FORESHEW'. FORESIDE, f[=o]r's[=i]d, _n._ the front side. FORESIGHT, f[=o]r's[=i]t, _n._ act of foreseeing: wise forethought, prudence: the sight on the muzzle of a gun: a forward reading of a levelling staff.--_adjs._ FORE'SIGHTED, FORE'SIGHTFUL; FORE'SIGHTLESS. FORESIGNIFY, f[=o]r-sig'ni-f[=i], _v.t._ to betoken beforehand: to foreshow: to typify. FORESKIN, f[=o]r'skin, _n._ the skin that covers the glans penis: the prepuce. FORESKIRT, f[=o]r'sk[.e]rt, _n._ (_Shak._) the loose part of a coat before. FORESLACK. See FORSLACK. FORESLOW, f[=o]r-sl[=o]', _v.i._ (_Shak._) to delay.--_v.t._ (_Spens._) to hinder.--Better FORSLOW'. FORESPEAK, f[=o]r-sp[=e]k', _v.t._ to predict: (_Shak._) to gainsay: (_Scot._) to engage beforehand. FORESPEND. Same as FORSPEND. FORESPURRER, f[=o]r-spur'[.e]r, _n._ (_Shak._) one who rides before. FOREST, for'est, _n._ a large uncultivated tract of land covered with trees and underwood: woody ground and rude pasture: a preserve for large game, as a deer forest: a royal preserve for hunting, governed by a special code called the FOREST LAW.--_adj._ pertaining to a forest: silvan: rustic.--_v.t._ to cover with trees.--_n._ FOR'ESTAGE, an ancient service paid by foresters to the king: the right of foresters.--_adjs._ FOR'ESTAL; FOR'EST-BORN (_Shak._), born in a wild.--_ns._ FOR'ESTER, one who has charge of a forest: an inhabitant of a forest; FOR'EST-FLY, a dipterous insect sometimes called _Horse-fly_, from the annoyance it causes horses.--_adj._ FOR'ESTINE.--_ns._ FOR'EST-MAR'BLE, a fissile limestone belonging to the middle division of the Jurassic System, so called because the typical beds are found in Wychwood _Forest_, Oxfordshire; FOR'EST-OAK, the timber of the Australian beefwood trees; FOR'ESTRY, the art of cultivating forests; FOR'EST-TREE, a timber-tree. [O. Fr. _forest_ (Fr. _forêt_)--Low L. _forestis_ (_silva_), the outside wood, as opposed to the _parcus_ (park) or walled-in wood--L. _foris_, out of doors.] FORESTALL, f[=o]r-stawl', _v.t._ to buy up the whole stock of goods before they are brought to market, so as to sell again at higher prices: to anticipate.--_ns._ FORESTALL'ER, one who forestalls; FORESTALL'ING, the act of buying provisions before they come to the market, in order to raise the price: anticipation: prevention. FORESTAY, f[=o]r'st[=a], _n._ a rope reaching from the foremast-head to the bowsprit end to support the mast. FORETASTE, f[=o]r-t[=a]st', _v.t._ to taste before possession: to anticipate: to taste before another.--_n._ FORE'TASTE, a taste beforehand: anticipation. FORETEACH, f[=o]r-t[=e]ch', _v.t._ to teach beforehand. FORETELL, f[=o]r-tel', _v.t._ to tell before: to prophesy.--_v.i._ to utter prophecy.--_n._ FORETELL'ER. FORETHINK, f[=o]r-thingk', _v.t._ to anticipate in the mind: to have prescience of.--_n._ FORE'THOUGHT, thought or care for the future: provident care. FORETOKEN, f[=o]r't[=o]-kn, _n._ a token or sign beforehand.--_v.t._ FORET[=O]'KEN, to signify beforehand. FORETOOTH, f[=o]r't[=oo]th, _n._ a tooth in the forepart of the mouth:--_pl._ FORE'TEETH. FORETOP, f[=o]r'top, _n._ (_naut._) the platform at the head of the foremast: a lock of natural hair or in a wig, lying on the forehead, or brushed up straight.--_n._ FORETOP'MAST, in a ship, the mast erected at the head of the foremast, at the top of which is the FORE'TOP-GALL'ANT-MAST. FOREVER, for-ev'[.e]r, _adv._ for ever, for all time to come: to eternity.--_adv._ FOREV'ERMORE, for ever hereafter. FOREVOUCHED, f[=o]r-vowcht', _p.adj._ (_Shak._) affirmed or told before. FOREWARD, f[=o]r'wawrd, _n._ advance-guard: (_Shak._) the front. FOREWARN, f[=o]r-wawrn', _v.t._ to warn beforehand: to give previous notice.--_n._ FOREWARN'ING, warning beforehand. FOREWEIGH, f[=o]r-w[=a]', _v.t._ to estimate beforehand. FOREWIND, f[=o]r'wind, _n._ (_Shak._) a favourable wind. FOREWOMAN, f[=o]r'woom-an, _n._ a woman who oversees the employees in any shop or factory, a head-woman:--_pl._ FORE'WOMEN. FOREWORD, f[=o]r'wurd, _n._ a preface. FORFAIRN, f[=o]r-f[=a]rn', _adj._ (_Scot._) worn out: exhausted. FORFEIT, for'fit, _v.t._ to lose the right to by some fault or crime:--_pr.p._ for'feiting; _pa.p._ for'feited.--_n._ that which is forfeited: a penalty for a crime, or breach of some condition: a fine: something deposited and redeemable by a sportive fine or penalty, esp. in _pl._, a game of this kind.--_adj._ forfeited.--_adj._ FOR'FEITABLE.--_ns._ FOR'FEITER (_Shak._), one who incurs punishment by forfeiting his bond; FOR'FEITURE, act of forfeiting: state of being forfeited: the thing forfeited. [O. Fr. _forfait_--Low L. _forisfactum_--L. _forisfac[)e]re_, to transgress.] FORFEND, for-fend', _v.t._ (_arch._) to ward off, avert. FORFEX, f[=o]r'feks, _n._ a pair of scissors. FORFOUGHTEN, for'fäh-ten, _adj._ (_Scot._) exhausted, as by fighting. FORGAT, for-gat', old _pa.t._ of _forget_. FORGATHER, for-ga_th_'er, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to meet, to take up company with. FORGAVE, for-g[=a]v', _pa.t._ of _forgive_. FORGE, f[=o]rj, _n._ the workshop of a workman in iron, &c.: a furnace, esp. one in which iron is heated: a smithy: a place where anything is shaped or made.--_v.t._ to form by heating and hammering: to form: to make falsely: to fabricate: to counterfeit or imitate for purposes of fraud.--_v.i._ to commit forgery.--_ns._ FORGE'MAN; FORG'ER, one who forges or makes one guilty of forgery; FORG'ERY, fraudulently making or altering any writing: that which is forged or counterfeited.--_adj._ FORG'ETIVE (_Shak._), that may forge or produce.--_n._ FORG'ING, a piece of metal shaped by hammering: act of one who forges: a form of overreaching in which the horse strikes the fore shoe with the toe of the hind one, clicking. [O. Fr. _forge_--L. _fabrica_--_faber_, a workman.] FORGE, f[=o]rj, _v.t._ to move steadily on (with _ahead_). FORGET, for-get', _v.t._ to lose or put away from the memory: to neglect:--_pr.p._ forget'ting; _pa.t._ forgot'; _pa.p._ forgot', forgot'ten.--_adjs._ FORGET'ABLE, FORGET'TABLE; FORGET'FUL, apt to forget: inattentive.--_adv._ FORGET'FULLY.--_ns._ FORGET'FULNESS; FORGET'-ME-NOT, a small herb (_Myosotis palustris_) with beautiful blue flowers, regarded as the emblem of friendship: a keepsake [a word adapted by Coleridge from the German _Vergissmeinnicht_]; FORGET'TER, one who fails to bear in mind: a heedless person.--_adv._ FORGET'TINGLY.--FORGET ONE'S SELF, to lose one's self-control or dignity, to descend to words and deeds unworthy of one's self. [A.S. _forgietan_--pfx. _for-_, away, _gitan_, to get.] FORGIVE, for-giv', _v.t._ to pardon: to overlook an offence or debt: (_Spens._) to give up.--_v.i._ to be merciful or forgiving.--_adj._ FORGIV'ABLE, capable of being forgiven.--_n._ FORGIVE'NESS, pardon: remission: disposition to pardon.--_adj._ FORGIV'ING, ready to pardon: merciful: compassionate. [A.S. _forgiefan_--pfx. _for-_, away, _giefan_, to give; cf. Ger. _ver-geben_.] FORGO. See FOREGO. FORGOT, FORGOTTEN. See FORGET. FORHAIL, for-h[=a]l', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to overtake. FORHENT, for-hent', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to overtake. FORHOW, for-how', _v.t._ (_Scot._) to desert or abandon. [A.S. _forhogian_, pfx. _for-_, away, _hogian_, to care.] FORISFAMILIATE, f[=o]-ris-fa-mil'i-[=a]t, _v.t._ to put a son in possession of land which he accepts as his whole portion of his father's property, said of a father.--_v.i._ to renounce one's title to a further share of the paternal estate, said of a son:--_pr.p._ f[=o]risfamil'i[=a]ting; _pa.p._ f[=o]risfamil'i[=a]ted.--_n._ F[=O]RISFAMILI[=A]'TION. [Low L. _forisfamili[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--L. _foris_, out of doors, _familia_, a family.] FORJESKIT, for-jes'kit, _adj._ (_Scot._) tired out. FORK, fork, _n._ an instrument with two or more prongs at the end: one of the points or divisions of anything fork-like: the bottom of a sump into which the water of a mine drains--also FORCQUE: (_pl._) the branches into which a road or river divides, also the point of separation.--_v.i._ to divide into two branches: to shoot into blades, as corn.--_v.t._ to form as a fork: to pitch with a fork: to bale a shaft dry.--_n._ FORK'-CHUCK, a forked lathe-centre used in wood-turning.--_adjs._ FORKED, FORK'Y, shaped like a fork.--_adv._ FORK'EDLY.--_ns._ FORK'EDNESS, FORK'INESS; FORK'ER; FORK'HEAD, the forked end of a rod in a knuckle-joint or the like; FORK'-TAIL, a fish with forked tail: the kite.--FORK OUT, OVER (_slang_), to hand or pay over. [A.S. _forca_--L. _furca_.] FORLORN, for-lorn', _adj._ quite lost: forsaken; wretched.--_v.t._ FORLORE' (_Spens._).--_adv._ FORLORN'LY.--_n._ FORLORN'NESS. [A.S. _forloren_, pa.p. of _forléòsan_, to lose--pfx. _for-_, away, and _léòsan_, to lose; Ger. _verloren_, pa.p. of _verlieren_, to lose.] FORLORN-HOPE, for-lorn'-h[=o]p, _n._ a body of soldiers selected for some service of uncommon danger. [From the Dut. _verloren hoop_, the lost troop.] FORM, form, _n._ shape of a body: the boundary-line of an object: a model: a mould: mode of being: mode of arrangement: order: regularity: system, as of government: beauty or elegance: established practice: ceremony: fitness or efficiency for any undertaking: a blank schedule to be filled in with details: a specimen document to be copied or imitated: (_phil._) the inherent nature of an object, that which the mind itself contributes as the condition of knowing, that in which the essence of a thing consists: (_print._) the type from which an impression is to be taken arranged and secured in a chase--often FORME:--(_in the fol. senses pron._ f[=o]rm), a long seat, a bench: the pupils on a form, a class: the bed of a hare, which takes its shape from the animal's body.--_v.t._ to give form or shape to: to make: to contrive: to settle, as an opinion: to combine: to go to make up: to establish: (_gram._) to make by derivation.--_v.i._ to assume a form.--_adj._ FORM'AL, according to form or established mode: ceremonious, punctilious, methodical: having the form only: (_Shak._) embodied in a form: having the power of making a thing what it is: essential: proper.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ FORM'ALISE.--_ns._ FORM'ALISM, excessive observance of form or conventional usage, esp. in religion: stiffness of manner; FORM'ALIST, one having exaggerated regard to rules or established usages; FORMAL'ITY, the precise observance of forms or ceremonies: established order: sacrifice of substance to form.--_adv._ FORM'ALLY.--_n._ FORM[=A]'TION, a making or producing: structure: (_geol._) a group of strata of one period.--_adj._ FORM'ATIVE, giving form, determining, moulding: (_gram._) inflectional, serving to form, not radical.--_n._ a derivative.--_p.adj._ FORMED, trained, mature.--_n._ FORM'ER.--_adj._ FORM'LESS, shapeless.--FORMAL LOGIC (see LOGIC).--GOOD, or BAD, FORM, according to good social usage, or the opposite; TAKE FORM, to assume a definite appearance. [O. Fr. _forme_--L. _forma_, shape.] FORMALIN, for'ma-lin, _n._ a formic aldehyde used as an antiseptic, germicide, or preservative in foods. FORMAT, for'ma, _n._ of books, &c., the size, form, shape in which they are issued. [Fr.] FORMATE, form'[=a]t, _n._ a salt composed of formic acid and a base.--Also FOR'MIATE. FORMER, form'[.e]r, _adj._ (_comp._ of _fore_) before in time or order: past: first mentioned.--_adv._ FORM'ERLY, in former times: heretofore. [Formed late on analogy of M. E. _formest_ by adding comp. suff. _-er_ to base of A.S. _forma_, first, itself a superlative form.] FORMIC, for'mik, _adj._ pertaining to ants, as formic acid, originally obtained from ants.--_adj._ FOR'MICANT, crawling like an ant: very small and unequal, of a pulse.--_n._ FOR'MICARY, an ant-hill.--_adj._ FOR'MICATE, resembling an ant.--_n._ FORMIC[=A]'TION, a sensation like that of ants creeping on the skin. [L. _formic[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to creep like an ant--_formica_.] FORMIDABLE, for'mi-da-bl, _adj._ causing fear: adapted to excite fear.--_ns._ FORMIDABIL'ITY; FOR'MIDABLENESS.--_adv._ FOR'MIDABLY. [Fr.,--L. _formidabilis_--_formido_, fear.] FORMULA, form'[=u]-la, _n._ a prescribed form: a formal statement of doctrines: (_math._) a general expression for solving problems: (_chem._) a set of symbols expressing the components of a body:--_pl._ FORMULÆ (form'[=u]-l[=e]), FORM'ULAS.--_adjs._ FORM'ULAR, FORMULARIS'TIC.--_ns._ FORMULARIS[=A]'TION, FORMUL[=A]'TION; FORM'ULARY, a formula: a book of formulæ or precedents.--_adj._ prescribed: ritual.--_vs.t._ FORM'UL[=A]TE, FORM'ULISE, to reduce to or express in a formula: to state or express in a clear or definite form. [L., dim. of _forma_.] FORNENT, for-nent', _adv._ and _prep._ (_Scot._) right opposite to. FORNICATE, for'ni-k[=a]t, _adj._ arched: (_bot._) arching over.--_n._ FORNIC[=A]'TION. [L. _fornicatus_--_fornix_, an arch.] FORNICATE, for'ni-k[=a]t, _v.i._ to commit lewdness: to have unlawful sexual intercourse.--_ns._ FORNIC[=A]'TION, sexual intercourse between two unmarried persons, or an unmarried and married person: (_B._) adultery, and applied frequently by a figure to idolatry; FOR'NICATOR, an unmarried person guilty of lewdness:--_fem._ FOR'NICATRESS. [L. _fornix_, an arch, brothel.] FORNIX, for'niks, _n._ something resembling an arch: an arched formation of the brain. [L.] FORPINE, for-p[=i]n', _v.i._ (_Spens._) to waste away. FORPIT, for'pit, _n._ (_Scot._) the fourth part of some other measure, now of a peck.--Also FOR'PET. FORRIT, for'it, _adv._ (_Scot._) forward. FORSAKE, for-s[=a]k', _v.t._ to desert: to abandon:--_pr.p._ fors[=a]k'ing; _pa.t._ forsook'; _pa.p._ fors[=a]k'en.--_adj._ FORS[=A]K'EN.--_adv._ FORS[=A]K'ENLY.--_ns._ FORS[=A]K'ENNESS; FORS[=A]K'ING, abandonment. [A.S. _forsacan_--_for-_, away, _sacan_, to strive.] FORSAY, for-s[=a]', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to forbid, to renounce. [A.S. _forsecgan_--_for_, against, _secgan_, to say.] FORSLACK, for-slak', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to relax, delay. FORSLOW, for-sl[=o]', _v.t._ See FORESLOW. FORSOOTH, for-s[=oo]th', _adv._ in truth: certainly. FORSPEAK, for-sp[=e]k', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to forbid, to prohibit: (_Scot._) to bewitch. FORSPEND, for-spend', _v.t._ to spend completely:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ forspent'. FORSTALL, for-stawl', _v.t._ Same as FORESTALL. FORSWAT, for-swat', _adj._ (_Spens._) exhausted with heat. [Pfx. _for-_, inten., and _swat_, old _pa.t._ of sweat.] FORSWEAR, for-sw[=a]r', _v.t._ to deny upon oath:--_pa.t._ forswore'; _pa.p._ forsworn'.--_n._ FORSWORN'NESS.--FORSWEAR ONE'S SELF, to swear falsely. FORSWINK, for-swingk', _v.t._ to exhaust by labour.--_p.adj._ FORSWONK' (_Spens._), over-laboured. [Pfx. _for-_, inten., and obs. _swink_, labour.] FORT, f[=o]rt, _n._ a small fortress: an outlying trading-station, as in British North America.--_adj._ FORT'ED (_Shak._), guarded by forts. [Fr.,--L. _fortis_, strong.] FORTALICE, fort'al-is, _n._ a small outwork of a fortification. [Low L. _fortalitia_--L. _fortis_.] FORTE, f[=o]rt, _n._ that in which one excels. FORTE, f[=o]r'te, _adj._ (_mus._) strongly, loud:--_superl._ FORTIS'SIMO.--_n._ a loud passage in music. [It.] FORTH, f[=o]rth, _adv._ before or forward in place or order: in advance: onward in time: (_Shak._) completely, outright: abroad: (_B._) out.--_prep._ (_Shak._) out of, forth from.--_v.i._ FORTH'COME, to come forth.--_adj._ FORTH'COMING, just coming forth: about to appear.--_ns._ FORTH'GOING, a going forth: a proceeding out; FORTH'-ISS'UING, coming forth; FORTH'-PUT'TING, action of putting forth: (_U.S._) forwardness.--_adj._ forward.--_adv._ FORTH'RIGHT, straightforward.--_n._ (_Shak._) a straight path.--_adj._ straightforward: honest.--_adv._ FORTHWITH', immediately.--AND SO FORTH, and so on, and more besides. [A.S. _forth_--_fore_, before; Dut. _voort_, Ger. _fort_.] FORTHINK, for-thingk', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to be sorry for. FORTHY, for'thi, _adv._ (_Spens._) therefore. [A.S. _forthý_--_for_, and _thý_, instrumental case of _thaet_, that.] FORTIETH. See FORTY. FORTIFY, for'ti-f[=i], _v.t._ to strengthen against attack with forts, &c.: to invigorate: to confirm:--_pa.p._ for'tif[=i]ed.--_adj._ FORTIF[=I]'ABLE.--_ns._ FORTIFIC[=A]'TION, the art of strengthening a military position by means of defensive works: the work so constructed: that which fortifies; FOR'TIFIER. [Fr. _fortifier_--Low L. _fortific[=a]re_--_fortis_, strong, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] FORTILAGE, f[=o]r'ti-l[=a]j, _n._ (_Spens._) a fort. [_Fortalice_.] FORTISSIMO. See FORTE. FORTITION, for-tish'un, _n._ principle of trusting to chance. [L. _fors_, chance.] FORTITUDE, for'ti-t[=u]d, _n._ mental power of endurance: firmness in meeting danger: (_obs._) strength, power of resistance or attack.--_adj._ FORTIT[=U]'DINOUS. [L. _fortitudo_--_fortis_.] FORTLET, f[=o]rt'let, _n._ a little fort. FORTNIGHT, fort'n[=i]t, _n._ two weeks or fourteen days.--_adj._ and _adv._ FORT'NIGHTLY, once a fortnight. [Contr. of _A.S._ _féowertýne niht_, fourteen nights.] FORTRESS, for'tres, _n._ a fortified place: a defence.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to guard. [O. Fr. _forteresse_, another form of _fortelesce_ (q.v. under FORTALICE).] FORTUITOUS, for-t[=u]'i-tus, _adj._ happening by chance.--_ns._ FORT[=U]'ITISM; FORT[=U]'ITIST.--_adv._ FORT[=U]'ITOUSLY.--_ns._ FORT[=U]'ITOUSNESS, FORT[=U]'ITY. [L. _fortuitus_.] FORTUNE, for't[=u]n, _n._ whatever comes by lot or chance: luck: the arbitrary ordering of events: the lot that falls to one in life: success: wealth.--_v.i._ to befall.--_v.t._ to determine.--_adj._ FOR'TUN[=A]TE, happening by good fortune: lucky: auspicious: felicitous.--_adv._ FOR'TUN[=A]TELY.--_ns._ FOR'TUN[=A]TENESS; FOR'TUNE-BOOK, a book helpful in telling fortunes.--_adj._ FOR'TUNED, supplied by fortune.--_n._ FOR'TUNE-HUNT'ER, a man who hunts for marriage with a woman of fortune.--_adj._ FOR'TUNELESS, without a fortune: luckless.--_v.i._ FOR'TUNE-TELL, to reveal futurity: to tell one his fortune.--_ns._ FOR'TUNE-TELL'ER, one who pretends to foretell one's fortune; FOR'TUNE-TELL'ING.--_v.t._ FOR'TUN[=I]SE (_Spens._), to make fortunate or happy. [Fr.,--L. _fortuna_.] FORTY, for'ti, _adj._ and _n._ four times ten.--_adj._ FOR'TIETH.--_n._ a fortieth part.--FORTY WINKS, a short nap, esp. after dinner.--THE FORTY, the French Academy. [A.S. _féowertig_--_feower_, four, _tig_, ten.] FORUM, f[=o]'rum, _n._ a market-place, esp. the market-place in Rome, where public business was transacted and justice dispensed: the courts of law as opposed to the Parliament. [L., akin to _foras_, out of doors.] FORWANDER, for-won'd[.e]r, _v.i._ and _v.t._ (_Spens._) to wander till wearied, to weary with wandering. FORWARD, for'ward, _adj._ near or at the forepart: in advance of something else: ready: too ready: presumptuous: officious: earnest: early ripe.--_v.t._ to help on, to quicken: to send on.--_advs._ FOR'WARD, FOR'WARDS, towards what is before or in front: onward: progressively.--_ns._ FOR'WARDER; FOR'WARDING, the act of sending forward merchandise, &c., for others.--_adv._ FOR'WARDLY.--_n._ FOR'WARDNESS. [A.S. _foreweard_--_fore_, and _-weard_, sig. direction. _Forwards_--M. E. _forwardes_--was orig. the gen. form (cf. Ger. _vorwärts_).] FORWASTE, for-w[=a]st', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to lay waste utterly. FORWEARY, for-w[=e]'ri, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to weary out. FORWENT, for-went' (_Spens._), _pa.t_ of _forego_. FORWORN, for-w[=o]rn', _adj._ (_Spens._) much worn. FORZANDO. Same as SFORZANDO (q.v.). FOSS, FOSSE, fos, _n._ (_fort._) a ditch or moat, either with or without water, the excavation of which has contributed material for the walls of the fort it protects: an abyss.--_adj._ FOSSED.--_n._ FOSS'WAY, an ancient Roman road having a ditch on either side. [Fr. _fosse_--L. _fossa_--_fod[)e]re_, _fossum_, to dig.] FOSSA, fos'a, _n._ (_anat._) a pit or depression in a body, esp. that in an animal integument forming a point of attachment for an organ.--_n._ FOSSETTE', a dimple or small depression. [L., a ditch.] FOSSET-SELLER, fos'et-sel'[.e]r, _n._ (_Shak._) one who sells faucets. [_Fosset_, obs. form of _faucet_.] FOSSICK, fos'ik, _v.i._ to be troublesome: to undermine another's diggings, or work over waste-heaps for gold: to search about for any kind of profit.--_ns._ FOSS'ICKER, a mining gleaner who works over old diggings, and scratches about in the beds of creeks; FOSS'ICKING. [Ety. dub.] FOSSIL, fos'il, _n._ the petrified remains of an animal or vegetable found embedded in the strata of the earth's crust: anything antiquated.--_adj._ dug out of the earth: in the condition of a fossil: antiquated.--_adj._ FOSSILIF'EROUS, bearing or containing fossils.--_n._ FOSSILIFIC[=A]'TION, the act of becoming fossil.--_vs.t._ FOSSIL'IFY, FOSS'IL[=I]SE, to convert into a fossil.--_v.i._ to be changed into a stony or fossil state.--_ns._ FOSSILIS[=A]'TION, a changing into a fossil; FOSS'ILISM, the science of fossils; FOSS'ILIST, one skilled in fossils; FOSSILOL'OGY, FOSSIL'OGY, paleontology. [Fr. _fossile_--L. _fossilis_--_fod[)e]re_, to dig.] FOSSORIAL, fo-s[=o]'ri-al, _adj._ digging, burrowing.--_n._ FOSS'OR, a grave-digger. [L. _fossor_--_fod[)e]re_, to dig.] FOSSULATE, fos'[=u]-l[=a]t, _adj._ (_anat._) having one or more long narrow grooves or depressions. FOSTER, fos't[.e]r, _v.t._ to bring up or nurse: to encourage.--_ns._ FOS'TER[=A]GE, the act of fostering or nursing; FOS'TER-BROTH'ER, a male child, fostered or brought up with another of different parents; FOS'TER-CHILD, a child nursed or brought up by one who is not its parent; FOS'TER-DAUGH'TER; FOS'TERER; FOS'TER-FA'THER, one who brings up a child in place of its father; FOS'TERLING, a foster-child; FOS'TER-MOTH'ER, one who suckles a child not her own; FOS'TER-NURSE (_Shak._), a nurse; FOS'TER-PAR'ENT, one who rears a child in the place of its parent; FOS'TER-SIS'TER, one brought up as a sister by the same parents, but not a sister by birth; FOS'TER-SON, one brought up as a son, though not a son by birth. [A.S. _fóstrian_, to nourish, _fóstor_, food.] FOSTER, fos't[.e]r, _n._ (_Spens._) a forester. FOTHER, fo_th_'[.e]r, _v.t._ to stop or lessen a leak in a ship's bottom whilst afloat by means of a heavy sail closely thrummed with yarn and oakum. [Perh. from Dut. _voederen_ (mod. _voeren_) or Low Ger. _fodern_, to line.] FOTHER, fo_th_'[.e]r, _n._ a load, quantity: a definite weight--of lead, 19½ cwt. [A.S. _fóðer_; Ger. _fuder_.] FOU, f[=oo], _adj._ (_Scot._) full: drunk. FOU, f[=oo], _n._ (_Scot._) a bushel. FOUD, fowd, _n._ a bailiff or magistrate in Orkney and Shetland.--_n._ FOUD'RIE, his jurisdiction. [Ice. _fógeti_; Ger. _vogt_; from L. _vocatus_--_voc[=a]re_, to call.] FOUDROYANT, f[=oo]-droi'ant, _adj._ quick like lightning. [Fr. _foudroyer_--_foudre_, lightning.] FOUET, f[=oo]'et, _n._ (_Scot._) the house-leek.--Also FOU'AT. FOUGADE, foo-gäd', _n._ (_mil._) a small mine from six to twelve feet under ground, charged either with powder or loaded shells, and sometimes loaded with stones.--Also FOUGASSE'. [Fr.] FOUGHT, fawt, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._--FOUGHTEN (fawt'n), old _pa.p._ of _fight_. FOUL, fowl, _adj._ filthy: loathsome: obscene: impure: stormy: unfair: running against: distressing, pernicious: choked up, entangled: (_Shak._) homely, ugly.--_v.t._ to make foul: to soil: to effect a collision.--_v.i._ to come into collision:--_pr.p._ foul'ing; _pa.p._ fouled.--_n._ act of fouling: any breach of the rules in games or contests.--_adj._ FOUL'-FACED (_Shak._), having a hatefully ugly face.--_n._ FOUL'-FISH, fish during the spawning season.--_adv._ FOUL'LY.--_adjs._ FOUL'-MOUTHED, FOUL'-SPOK'EN, addicted to the use of foul or profane language.--_ns._ FOUL-MOUTHED'NESS; FOUL'NESS; FOUL'-PLAY, unfair action in any game or contest, dishonest dealing generally.--CLAIM A FOUL, to assert that the recognised rules have been broken, and that a victory is therefore invalid; FALL FOUL OF, to come against: to assault; MAKE FOUL WATER, used of a ship, to come into such shallow water that the keel raises the mud. [A.S. _fúl_; Ger. _faul_, Goth. _fûls_.] FOULARD, f[=oo]l'ard, _n._ a soft untwilled silk fabric: a silk handkerchief. [Fr.] FOULDER, fowl'd[.e]r, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to flame, to gleam. [O. Fr. _fouldre_--L. _fulgur_, lightning.] FOULÉ, f[=oo]-l[=a]', _n._ a light woollen dress material with a glossy surface. [Fr.] FOUMART, f[=oo]'märt, _n._ an old name for the polecat, from its offensive smell. [M. E. _fulmard_--A.S. _fúl_, foul, _mearð_, a marten.] FOUND, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _find_.--_n._ FOUND'LING, a little child found deserted.--FOUNDLING HOSPITAL, an institution where such are brought up. FOUND, fownd, _v.t._ to lay the bottom or foundation of: to establish on a basis: to originate: to endow.--_v.i._ to rely.--_ns._ FOUND[=A]'TION, the act of founding: the base of a building: the groundwork or basis: a permanent fund for a benevolent purpose or for some special object; FOUND[=A]'TIONER, one supported from the funds or foundation of an institution; FOUND[=A]'TION-MUS'LIN, -NET, gummed fabrics used for stiffening dresses and bonnets; FOUND[=A]TION-STONE, one of the stones forming the foundation of a building, esp. a stone laid with public ceremony; FOUND'ER, one who founds, establishes, or originates: an endower:--_fem._ FOUND'RESS. [Fr. _fonder_--L. _fund[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to found--_fundus_, the bottom.] FOUND, fownd, _v.t._ to form by melting and pouring into a mould: to cast.--_ns._ FOUND'ER, one who melts and casts metal, as a brassfounder; FOUND'ING, metal-casting; FOUND'RY, FOUND'ERY, the art of founding or casting: the house where founding is carried on. [Fr. _fondre_--L. _fund[)e]re_, _fusum_, to pour.] FOUNDER, fownd'[.e]r, _v.i._ to go to the bottom: to fill with water and sink.--_v.t._ to cause to sink: to disable by injuring the feet (of a horse).--_adj._ FOUND'EROUS, causing to founder. [O. Fr. _fondrer_, to fall in, _fond_, bottom--L. _fundus_, bottom.] FOUNT. See FONT (2). FOUNTAIN, fownt'[=a]n, _n._ a spring of water, natural or artificial: the structure for a jet of water: the source of anything: a reservoir for holding oil, &c., in a lamp.--_ns._ FOUNT, a spring of water: a source; FOUNT'AIN-HEAD, the head or source of a fountain: the beginning.--_adj._ FOUNT'AINLESS, wanting fountains or springs of water.--_n._ FOUNT'AIN-PEN, a pen having a reservoir for holding ink.--_adj._ FOUNT'FUL, full of springs. [Fr. _fontaine_--Low L. _font[=a]na_--L. _fons_, _fontis_, a spring---_fund[)e]re_, to pour.] FOUR, f[=o]r, _adj._ and _n._ two and two, a cardinal number.--_adjs._ FOUR'FOLD, folded four times: multiplied four times; FOUR'-FOOT'ED, having four feet; FOUR'-HAND'ED, having four hands: of a game, played by four people; FOUR'-INCHED (_Shak._), four inches broad.--_ns._ FOUR'-IN-HAND, a vehicle drawn by four horses, driven by one person: a team of four horses drawing a carriage--also _adj._; FOUR'PENNY, a small silver coin worth fourpence formerly coined in England.--_adj._ worth fourpence.--_n._ FOUR'-POST'ER, a large bed with four posts on which to hang curtains.--_adjs._ FOUR'SCORE, four times a score--80; FOUR'SOME, by fours: anything in which four act together--also _n._; FOUR'SQUARE, having four equal sides and angles: square.--_adjs._ and _ns._ FOUR'TEEN, four and ten; FOUR'TEENTH, four or the fourth after the tenth.--_adj._ FOURTH, next after the third.--_n._ one of four equal parts.--_adv._ FOURTH'LY.--_adj._ FOURTH'-RATE, of the fourth class or order.--_n._ FOUR'-WHEEL'ER, a carriage or cab with four wheels.--GO ON ALL FOURS, to go on hands and knees. [A.S. _féower_; Ger. _vier_, L. _quatuor_, Gr. _tessares_.] FOURCHETTE, f[=oo]r-shet', _n._ a small forked instrument used for supporting the tongue in the operation of cutting the frenum: a forked piece between glove fingers, uniting the front and back parts. [Fr.] FOURCROYA, f[=oo]r-kr[=o]'ya, _n._ a neotropical genus of _Amaryllidaceæ_, nearly allied to Agave (q.v.), and yielding a similar fibre. [Named from A. F. de _Fourcroy_, a French chemist (1755-1809).] FOURGON, f[=oo]r-gong', _n._ a baggage-wagon. [Fr.] FOURIERISM, f[=oo]'ri-[.e]r-izm, _n._ the socialistic system of F. M. Charles _Fourier_ (1772-1837), based on the harmony educed by the free-play of his twelve radical passions. FOUTRE, f[=oo]'t[.e]r, _n._ (_Shak._) a gross term of contempt, used interjectionally.--Also FOU'TER. [O. Fr. _foutre_--L. _futuere_, to lecher.] FOUTH, footh, _n._ (_Scot._) abundance.--Also FOWTH. FOVEA, f[=o]'v[=e]-a, _n._ (_anat._) a depression or pit.--_adjs._ F[=O]'VEAL; F[=O]'VEATE, pitted.--_n._ FOV[=E]'OLA, a small depression--also FOV[=E]'OLE. [L.] FOVILLA, f[=o]-vil'a, _n._ (_bot._) the contents of a pollen-grain. FOWL, fowl, _n._ a bird: a bird of the barn-door or poultry kind, a cock or hen: the flesh of fowl:--_pl._ FOWLS, FOWL.--_v.i._ to kill fowls by shooting or snaring.--_ns._ FOWL'ER, a sportsman who takes wild-fowl; FOWL'ING; FOWL'ING-NET, a net for catching birds; FOWL'ING-PIECE, a light gun for small-shot, used in fowling. [A.S. _fugol_; Ger. _vogel_.] FOX, foks, _n._ an animal of the family _Canidæ_, genus _Vulpes_, of proverbial cunning:--_fem._ VIX'EN: any one notorious for cunning.--_ns._ FOX'-BAT, a flying-fox, a fruit-bat; FOX'-BRUSH, the tail of a fox; FOX'-EARTH, a fox's burrow.--_adj._ FOXED, discoloured, spotted.--_ns._ FOX'-[=E]'VIL, alopecia; FOX'GLOVE, a plant with glove-like flowers, whose leaves are used as a soothing medicine; FOX'HOUND, a hound used for chasing foxes; FOX'-HUNT; FOX'-HUNT'ER; FOX'-HUNT'ING; FOX'INESS, decay: having a harsh, sour taste: state of being spotted, as books; FOX'-SHARK, a large shark of over 12 feet, occasionally seen off British coasts; FOX'SHIP (_Shak._), the character of a fox, craftiness; FOX'-TAIL, a genus of grasses, generally characterised by a bushy head; FOX'-TERR'IER, a kind of terrier trained to unearth foxes; FOX'-TRAP, a trap for catching foxes; FOX'-TROT, a pace with short steps, as in changing from trotting to walking.--_adj._ FOX'Y, of foxes: cunning, suspicious, causing suspicion: (_paint._) having too much of the reddish-brown or fox-colour.--FOX AND GEESE, a game played with pieces on a board, where the object is for certain pieces called the geese to surround or corner one called the fox. [A.S. _fox_; Ger. _fuchs_.] FOY, foi, _n._ (_Spens._) allegiance. [Fr. _foi_, faith.] FOY, foi, _n._ (_prov._) a parting entertainment. FOYER, fwo-y[=a]', _n._ in theatres, a public room opening on the lobby. [Fr.,--L. _focus_, hearth.] FOZY, f[=o]z'i, _adj._ (_Scot._) spongy.--_n._ FOZ'INESS, softness, want of spirit. [Cf. Dut. _voos_, spongy.] FRAB, frab, _v.t._ to worry.--_adj._ FRAB'BIT, peevish. FRACAS, fra-kä', _n._ uproar: a noisy quarrel. [Fr.,--It. _fracasso_--_fracassare_, to make an uproar.] FRACTION, frak'shun, _n._ a fragment or very small piece: (_arith._) any part of a unit: a technical term to indicate the breaking of the bread in the sacrifice of the Eucharist.--_v.t._ FRACT (_Shak._), to break, to violate.--_adjs._ FRACT'ED (_her._), having a part displaced, as if broken; FRAC'TIONAL, belonging to or containing a fraction or fractions; FRAC'TIONARY, fractional: unimportant.--_v.t._ FRAC'TIONATE, to separate the elements of a mixture by distillation or otherwise.--_n._ FRACTION[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ FRAC'TIONISE, to break up into fractions.--_n._ FRAC'TIONLET, a small fraction.--_adj._ FRAC'TIOUS, ready to quarrel: cross.--_adv._ FRAC'TIOUSLY.--_ns._ FRAC'TIOUSNESS; FRAC'TURE, the breaking of any hard body: the breach or part broken: the breaking of a bone.--_v.t._ to break through.--COMPOUND, COMMINUTED, COMPLICATED FRACTURE (see the respective adjectives); GREENSTICK FRACTURE, a fracture where the bone is partly broken, partly bent, occurring in the limbs of children; SIMPLE FRACTURE, a fracture when the bone only is divided. [O. Fr. _fraccion_--L. _fraction-em_--_frang[)e]re_, _fractum_, to break.] FRAGARIA, fr[=a]-g[=a]'ri-a, _n._ a genus of perennial plants with creeping stolons, the fruit the strawberry. [L. _fragum_, the strawberry.] FRAGILE, fraj'il, _adj._ easily broken: frail: delicate.--_n._ FRAGIL'ITY, the state of being fragile. [Fr.,--L. _fragilis_, _frang[)e]re_, to break.] FRAGMENT, frag'ment, _n._ a piece broken off: an unfinished portion.--_adj._ FRAG'MENTAL (also -ment').--_adv._ FRAG'MENTARILY.--_n._ FRAG'MENTARINESS.--_adjs._ FRAG'MENTARY, FRAG'MENTED, consisting of fragments or pieces: broken. [Fr.,--L. _fragmentum_, _frang[)e]re_, to break.] FRAGOR, fr[=a]'gor, _n._ a crash. [L.] FRAGRANT, fr[=a]'grant, _adj._ sweet-scented.--_ns._ FR[=A]'GRANCE, FR[=A]'GRANCY, pleasantness of smell or perfume: sweet or grateful influence.--_adv._ FR[=A]'GRANTLY.--_n._ FR[=A]'GRANTNESS. [Fr.,--L. _fragrans_, _-antis_, pr.p. of _fragr[=a]re_, to smell.] FRAIL, fr[=a]l, _adj._ wanting in strength or firmness: weak: unchaste.--_adj._ FRAIL'ISH, somewhat frail.--_adv._ FRAIL'LY.--_ns._ FRAIL'NESS, FRAIL'TY, weakness: infirmity. [O. Fr. _fraile_--L. _fragilis_, fragile.] FRAIL, fr[=a]l, _n._ a rush: a basket made of rushes. [O. Fr. _frayel_; of dubious origin.] FRAISE, fr[=a]z, _n._ (_fort._) a palisade of pointed stakes planted in the rampart horizontally or in an inclined position: a tool used for enlarging a drill-hole: a 16th-cent. ruff.--_v.t._ to fence with a fraise. [Fr.] FRAISE, fr[=a]z, _n._ (_prov._) commotion. FRAMBOESIA, fram-b[=e]'zi-a, _n._ the yaws (q.v.). [Fr. _framboise_, a raspberry.] FRAME, fr[=a]m, _v.t._ to form: to shape: to construct by fitting the parts to each other: to plan, adjust, or adapt to an end: to contrive or devise: to constitute: to put a frame or border round, as a picture: to put into a frame: (_Spens._) to support.--_v.i._ (_dial._) to move: (_B._) to contrive.--_n._ the form: a putting together of parts: a case made to enclose or support anything: the skeleton of anything: state of mind: in gardening, a movable structure used for the cultivation or the sheltering of plants, as a 'forcing-frame,' 'cucumber-frame,' &c.: (_Shak._) the act of devising.--_ns._ FRAME'-BRIDGE, a bridge constructed of pieces of timber framed together; FRAME'-HOUSE, a house consisting of a skeleton of timber, with boards or shingles laid on; FRAME'-MAK'ER, a maker of frames for pictures; FRAM'ER, he who forms or constructs: one who makes frames for pictures, &c.; FRAME'-SAW, a thin saw stretched in a frame for greater rigidity; FRAME'WORK, the work that forms the frame: the skeleton or outline of anything; FRAM'ING, the act of constructing: a frame or setting. [A.S. _framian_, to be helpful, _fram_, forward.] FRAMPOLD, fram'p[=o]ld, _adj._ (_Shak._) peevish, cross-grained: quarrelsome.--Also FRAM'PEL. [Prob. _fram_, from, _poll_, head.] FRANC, frangk, _n._ a French silver coin, forming since 1795 the unit of the French monetary system, and now also used in Belgium, Switzerland, equal to fully 9½d. sterling, the equivalent of the Italian _lira_, the Greek _drachma_. [O. Fr. _franc_, from the legend _Francorum rex_ on the first coins.] FRANCHISE, fran'chiz, or -ch[=i]z, _n._ liberty: a privilege or exemption belonging to a subject by prescription or conferred by grant: the right of voting for a member of Parliament.--_v.t._ to enfranchise: to give one the franchise.--_ns._ FRAN'CHISEMENT (_Spens._), freedom, release; FRAN'CHISER, one who has the franchise. [O. Fr., from _franc_, free.] FRANCISCAN, fran-sis'kan, _adj._ belonging to the order of mendicant friars in the R.C. Church founded by St _Francis_ of Assisi (1182-1226).--_n._ a monk of this order. [L. _Franciscus_, Francis.] FRANCO-, frangk'[=o], French, in combinations as _Franco-German_, _Franco-Russian_, &c. FRANCOLIN, frang'k[=o]-lin, _n._ a genus of birds of the grouse family, closely allied to partridges. [Fr.] FRANC-TIREUR, frang-t[=e]-r[.e]r', _n._ a French sharp-shooter, one of an armed band of French peasants and others prominent in the later stages of the Franco-Prussian war. [Fr. _franc_, free, _tireur_, a shooter.] FRANGIBLE, fran'ji-bl, _adj._ easily broken.--_n._ FRANGIBIL'ITY. [See FRACTION.] FRANGIPANE, fran'ji-p[=a]n, _n._ a kind of pastry-cake, filled with cream, almonds, and sugar: a perfume from the flower of the red jasmine, or in imitation of it.--Also FRAN'GIPANI. [Fr., from a personal name.] FRANION, fran'yun, _n._ (_Spens._) a paramour: a boon-companion. [Origin uncertain.] FRANK, frangk, _adj._ free, open: (_obs._) liberal: open or candid in expression: (_Spens._) unrestrained.--_v.t._ to send free of expense, as a letter.--_n._ the signature of a person who had the right to frank a letter.--_n._ FRANK'-FEE, a species of tenure in fee-simple, the opposite of copyhold.--_adv._ FRANK'LY, candidly: (_obs._) gratuitously.--_ns._ FRANK'NESS; FRANK'-PLEDGE, a system of mutual suretyship by which the members of a tithing were made responsible for one another; FRANK'-TEN'EMENT, freehold. [O. Fr. _franc_--Low L. _francus_--Old High Ger. _Franko_, one of the tribe called Franks, a free man.] FRANK, frangk, _n._ one of the German tribes from _Franconia_ who conquered Gaul in the 5th century, and founded France: the name given in the East to a native of Western Europe.--_adj._ FRANK'ISH. FRANK, frangk, _n._ (_Shak._) a pig-sty.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to shut up in a sty, to cram, to fatten. [O. Fr. _franc_.] FRANKALMOIGN, frangk'al-moin, _n._ (_Eng. law_) a form of land-tenure in which no obligations were enforced except religious ones, as praying, &c. [O. Fr. _franc_, free, _almoigne_, alms.] FRANKENSTEIN, frangk'en-st[=i]n, _n._ any creation which brings anxiety or disaster to its author--from the _Frankenstein_ in Mrs Shelley's romance so named, who by his skill forms an animate creature like a man, only to his own torment. FRANKINCENSE, frangk'in-sens, _n._ a sweet-smelling vegetable resin from Arabia, used in sacrifices. [O. Fr. _franc encens_, pure incense.] FRANKLIN, frangk'lin, _n._ an old English freeholder, free from feudal servitude to a subject-superior. [Low L. _francus_, frank.] FRANTIC, fran'tik, _adj._ mad, furious: wild.--_advs._ FRAN'TICALLY, FRAN'TICLY (_Shak._).--_adj._ FRAN'TIC-MAD, raving mad.--_n._ FRAN'TICNESS, the state of being frantic. [O. Fr. _frenetique_--L. _phreneticus_--Gr. _phren[=e]tikos_, mad, _phren[=i]tis_, inflammation of the brain--_phr[=e]n_, the mind; see FRENZY.] FRANZY, fran'zi, _adj._ (_prov._) cross: particular. FRAP, frap, _v.t._ to strike: (_naut._) to secure by many turns of a lashing. [Fr. _frapper_, to strike.] FRAPPÉ, fra-p[=a], _adj._ iced, cooled. [Fr.] FRATCH, frach, _n._ (_prov._) a quarrel or brawl.--_adjs._ FRATCH'ETY, FRATCH'Y; FRATCH'ING. [Imit.] FRATER, fr[=a]'ter, _n._ the refectory of a monastery. [O. Fr. _fraitur_ for _refreitor_.--Low L. _refect[=o]rium_.] FRATERNAL, fra-t[.e]r'nal, _adj._ belonging to a brother or brethren: becoming brothers.--_ns._ FRATE (frä'te), a friar:--_pl._ FRÄ'TI; FR[=A]'TER, a friar: comrade; FRATER'CULA, a genus of marine diving-birds, the puffins or masked auks.--_adv._ FRATER'NALLY.--_n._ FRATERNIS[=A]'TION, the associating as brethren.--_v.i._ FRAT'ERNISE, to associate as brothers: to seek brotherly fellowship.--_ns._ FRAT'ERNISER; FRATER'NITY, the state of being brethren: a society formed on a principle of brotherhood; FRAT'RY, the common-room of a monastic establishment, the chapter-house--also FRAT'ERY: a fraternity: a convent of friars. [Fr.,--Low L. _fraternalis_--_frater_, a brother, Eng. _brother_, Gr. _phrat[=e]r_, a clansman, Sans. _bhr[=a]ta_.] FRATRICIDE, frat'ri-s[=i]d, _n._ one who kills his brother: the murder of a brother.--_adj._ FRAT'RICIDAL. [Fr.,--L. _frater_, _fratris_, _cæd[)e]re_, to kill.] FRAU, frow, _n._ a married woman, a wife.--_n._ FRÄU'LEIN, a young lady, miss--often in England for a German governess. [Ger.] FRAUD, frawd, _n._ deceit: imposture: (_Milt._) a snare: a deceptive trick: (_coll._) a cheat: a fraudulent production.--_adj._ FRAUD'FUL, deceptive.--_adv._ FRAUD'FULLY.--_ns._ FRAUD'ULENCE, FRAUD'ULENCY.--_adj._ FRAUD'ULENT, using fraud: dishonest.--_adv._ FRAUD'ULENTLY.--FRAUDULENT BANKRUPTCY, a bankruptcy in which the insolvent is accessory, by concealment or otherwise, to the diminution of the funds divisible among his creditors.--PIOUS FRAUD, a deception practised with a good end in view: (_coll._) a religious humbug. [O. Fr.,--L. _fraus_, _fraudis_, fraud.] FRAUGHT, frawt, _n._ a load, cargo: the freight of a ship.--_v.t._ to fill, store.--_v.i._ (_Shak._) to form the freight of a vessel.--_p.adj._ freighted, laden: filled.--_n._ FRAUGHT'AGE (_Shak._), loading, cargo. [Prob. Old Dut. _vracht_. Cf. FREIGHT.] FRAXINELLA, frak-si-nel'a, _n._ a common name for cultivated species of dittany.--_n._ FRAX'INUS, the genus of _Oleaceæ_ containing the common ash. FRAY, fr[=a], _n._ an affray, a brawl.--_v.t._ (_B._) to frighten. [Abbrev. of _affray_.] FRAY, fr[=a], _v.t._ to wear off by rubbing: to ravel out the edge of a stuff.--_v.i._ to become frayed.--_n._ FRAY'ING, the action of the verb fray: ravellings. [Fr. _frayer_--L. _fric[=a]re_, to rub.] FRAZIL, fräz'il, _n._ anchor-ice. [Canadian Fr.; prob. Fr. _fraisil_, cinders.] FRAZZLE, fraz'l, _v.t._ (_U.S._) to fray, wear out.--_n._ state of being worn out. FREAK, fr[=e]k, _n._ a sudden caprice or fancy: sport: an abnormal production of nature, a monstrosity.--_ns._ FREAK'INESS, FREAK'ISHNESS.--_adjs._ FREAK'ISH, FREAK'FUL, apt to change the mind suddenly: capricious.--_adv._ FREAK'ISHLY. [A late word; cf. A.S. _frícian_, to dance.] FREAK, fr[=e]k, _v.t._ to spot or streak: to variegate.--_n._ a streak of colour. FRECK, frek, _adj._ (_Scot._) prompt, eager.--Also FRACK. FRECKLE, frek'l, _v.t._ to spot: to colour with spots.--_n._ a yellowish or brownish-yellow spot on the skin, esp. of fair-haired persons: any small spot.--_n._ FRECK'LING, a little spot.--_adjs._ FRECK'LY, FRECK'LED, full of freckles. [Ice. _freknur_ (pl.), Dan. _fregne_.] FREE, fr[=e], _adj._ not bound: at liberty: not under arbitrary government: unimpeded: set at liberty: guiltless: frank: lavish: not attached: exempt (with _from_): having a franchise (with _of_): gratuitous: bold, indecent: idiomatic, as a translation.--_v.t._ to set at liberty: to deliver from what confines: to rid (with _from_, of):--_pr.p._ free'ing; _pa.p._ freed.--_ns._ FREE'-AG'ENCY, state or power of acting freely, or without necessity or constraint upon the will; FREE'-AG'ENT; FREE'-AND-EAS'Y, a kind of public-house club where good fellows gather to smoke and sing; FREE'-BENCH, a widow's right to dower out of her husband's lands, so long as unmarried and chaste; FREE'-BOARD, the space between a vessel's line of flotation and the upper side of the deck; FREE'BOOTER (Dut. _vrijbuiter_), one who roves about freely in search of booty: a plunderer; FREE'BOOTERY.--_adj._ FREE'BOOTING, acting the part of a freebooter: robbing.--_n._ the practice of a freebooter: robbery, pillage.--_n._ FREE'BOOTY.--_adj._ FREE'BORN, born of free parents.--_ns._ FREE'-CIT'Y, a city having independent government; FREE'-COST, freedom from charges; FREED'MAN, a man who has been a slave, and has been freed or set free; FREE'DOM, liberty: frankness: separation: privileges connected with a city: improper familiarity: license; FREE'-FISH'ER, one who has a right to take fish in certain waters.--_adjs._ FREE-FOOT'ED (_Shak._) not restrained in movement; FREE'-HAND, applied to drawing by the unguided hand; FREE'-HAND'ED, open-handed: liberal; FREE'-HEART'ED, open-hearted: liberal.--_ns._ FREE'-HEART'EDNESS, liberality: frankness; FREE'HOLD, a property held free of duty except to the king; FREE'HOLDER, one who possesses a freehold; FREE'-L[=A]'BOUR, voluntary, not slave, labour; FREE'-LANCE, one of certain roving companies of knights and men-at-arms, who after the Crusades wandered about Europe, selling their services to any one; FREE'-LIV'ER, one who freely indulges his appetite for eating and drinking: a glutton; FREE'-LOVE, the claim to freedom in sexual relations, unshackled by marriage or obligation to aliment.--_adv._ FREE'LY.--_ns._ FREE'MAN, a man who is free or enjoys liberty: one who holds a particular franchise or privilege:--_pl._ FREE'MEN; FREE'M[=A]SON, one of a secret society of so-called speculative masons, united in lodges for social enjoyment and mutual assistance, and laying dubious claim to a connection with the medieval organisations of free operative masons.--_adj._ FREEMASON'IC.--_n._ FREEM[=A]'SONRY, the institutions, practices, &c. of Freemasons.--_adj._ FREE'-MIND'ED, with a mind free or unperplexed: without a load of care.--_ns._ FREE'NESS; FREE'-PORT, a port where no duties are levied on articles of commerce; FREE'-SCHOOL, a school where no tuition fees are exacted; FREE'-SHOT (Ger. _Freischütz_), the name given to a legendary hunter and marksman who gets a number of bullets (_Freikugeln_) from the devil, six of which always hit the mark, while the seventh is at the disposal of the devil himself.--_adjs._ FREE'-SOIL, in favour of free territory, opposed to slavery; FREE'-SP[=O]K'EN, accustomed to speak without reserve.--_ns._ FREE'-SP[=O]K'ENNESS; FREE'STONE, an easily quarried stone composed of sand or grit.--_adj._ having a stone from which the pulp easily separates, as a peach--opp. to _Clingstone_.--_adj._ FREE'-SWIM'MING, swimming freely, as an aquatic animal.--_ns._ FREE'THINKER, one who professes to be free from conventional authority in religion: a rationalist; FREE'THINKING, FREE'-THOUGHT, the habit of mind of a freethinker.--_adj._ FREE'-TONGUED, free-spoken.--_ns._ FREE'-TRADE, free or unrestricted trade: free interchange of commodities without protective duties; FREE'-TRAD'ER, one who practises or advocates this; FREE'-WILL, freedom of the will from restraint: liberty of choice: power of self-determination.--_adj._ spontaneous.--FREE-CELL FORMATION, the formation of several cells from and in the protoplasm of the mother-cell; FREE CHURCH, that branch of the Presbyterians in Scotland which left the Established Church in the Disruption of 1843, finding spiritual independence impossible within it: a church whose sittings are open to all: (_pl._) a term often applied to the Nonconformist churches generally; FREE LIST, the list of persons admitted without payment to a theatre, &c., or of those to whom a book, &c., is sent; FREE ON BOARD (F.O.B.), a phrase meaning that goods are to be delivered on the vessel or other conveyance without charge.--FREE STATES, in America, before the Civil War of 1861-65, those of the United States in which slavery did not exist, as opposed to _Slave States_.--MAKE FREE WITH, to take undue liberties with. [A.S. _freo_; Ger. _frei_, Ice. _frí_.] FREEMARTIN, fr[=e]'mar-tin, _n._ a cow-calf born as a twin with a bull-calf, usually barren. FREEZE, fr[=e]z, _v.i._ to become ice or like a solid body.--_v.t._ to harden into ice: to cause to shiver, as with terror:--_pr.p._ freez'ing; _pa.t._ fr[=o]ze; _pa.p._ froz'en.--_adj._ FREEZ'ABLE.--_ns._ FREEZ'ING-MIX'TURE, a mixture, as of pounded ice and salt, producing cold sufficient to freeze a liquid by the rapid absorption of heat; FREEZ'ING-POINT, the temperature at which water freezes, marked 32° on the Fahrenheit thermometer, and 0° on the centigrade. [A.S. _fréosan_, pa.p. _froren_; Dut. _vreizen_, Ger. _frieren_, to freeze.] FREIGHT, fr[=a]t, _n._ the lading or cargo, esp. of a ship; the charge for transporting goods by water.--_v.t._ to load a ship.--_ns._ FREIGHT'AGE, money paid for freight; FREIGHT'ER, one who freights a vessel. [Prob. Old Dut. _vrecht_, a form of _vracht_.] FREISCHÜTZ. See FREE-SHOT. FREIT, fr[=e]t, _n._ (_Scot._) any superstitious belief in things as good or bad omens--also FREET.--_adj._ FREIT'Y, FREET'Y, superstitious. [Scand.; Ice. _frétt_, news.] FREMD, fremd, _adj._ and _n._ (_Scot._) strange, a stranger--Spenser has FRENNE, a stranger.--THE FREMD, the world of strangers. [M. E. _fremd_, _fremed_--A.S. _fremde_; cf. Dut. _vreemd_, Ger. _fremd_.] FREMESCENT, frem-es'ent, _adj._ raging, riotous.--_n._ FREMES'CENCE. [L. _frem[)e]re_, to roar.] FREMITUS, frem'i-tus, _n._ a palpable vibration, as of the walls of the chest. [L.] FRENCH, frensh, _adj._ belonging to _France_ or its people.--_n._ the people or language of France.--_ns._ FRENCH'-BEAN, the common kidney bean, eaten, pods and all, as a table vegetable; FRENCH'-BERR'Y, a small berry, the fruit of certain species of buckthorn, used in dyeing yellow; FRENCH'-CHALK, an indurated clay, extremely dense, and of a smooth glossy surface and white colour; FRENCH'ERY, French fashions collectively; FRENCH'-HORN, a musical wind-instrument somewhat resembling a bugle; FRENCHIFIC[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ FRENCH'IFY, to make French or Frenchlike: to infect with the manner of the French.--_ns._ FRENCH'INESS; FRENCH'MAN, a native or naturalised inhabitant of France:--_fem._ FRENCH'WOMAN; FRENCH'-POL'ISH, a varnish for furniture, consisting chiefly of shellac dissolved in some spirit; FRENCH'-POL'ISHER; FRENCH'-POL'ISHING, the method of coating furniture with French-polish.--_adj._ FRENCH'Y, with an exaggerated French manner.--FRENCH MERINO, a fine twilled cloth of merino wool; FRENCH POX (_obs._), syphilis; FRENCH ROOF, a modified mansard-roof--really American; FRENCH WHITE, finely pulverised talc; FRENCH WINDOW, a long window opening like a folding-door, and serving for exit and entrance.--TAKE FRENCH LEAVE, to depart without notice or permission, to disappear suspiciously. FRENETIC, -AL, fre-net'ik, -al, _adj._ frenzied: mad: distracted.--Also PHRENET'IC, -AL. [See FRANTIC.] FRENUM, fr[=e]'num, _n._ a ligament restraining the motion of a part.--Also FRÆ'NUM. [L., a bridle.] FRENZY, fren'zi, _n._ a violent excitement: mania.--_v.t._ to render frenzied.--_adjs._ FREN'ZIED, FREN'ZICAL, partaking of frenzy. [Through O. Fr. and L.,--from Late Gr. _phren[=e]sis_=Gr. _phrenitis_, inflammation of the brain--_phr[=e]n_, the mind.] FREQUENT, fr[=e]'kwent, _adj._ coming or occurring often.--_ns._ FR[=E]'QUENCE (_Milt._), a crowd, an assembly; FR[=E]'QUENCY, repeated occurrence of anything.--_v.t._ FREQUENT', to visit often.--_ns._ FR[=E]'QUENTAGE, habit of frequenting; FREQUENT[=A]'TION, the act of visiting often.--_adj._ FREQUENT'ATIVE (_gram._), denoting the frequent repetition of an action.--_n._ (_gram._) a verb expressing this repetition.--_n._ FREQUENT'ER.--_adv._ FR[=E]'QUENTLY.--_n._ FR[=E]'QUENTNESS. [L. _frequens_, _frequentis_; cog. with _farc[=i]re_, to stuff.] FRESCADE, fres-k[=a]d', _n._ a cool walk. [Fr.,--It. _frescata_.] FRESCO, fres'k[=o], _n._ a painting executed with colours, consisting chiefly of natural earths, upon walls covered with damp freshly-laid plaster.--_v.t._ to paint in fresco:--_pr.p._ fres'c[=o]ing; _pa.p._ fres'c[=o]ed.--_adj._ FRES'COED.--_ns._ FRES'COER; FRES'COING; FRES'COIST. [It. _fresco_, fresh.] FRESH, fresh, _adj._ in a state of activity and health: new and strong, not stale or faded: recently produced or obtained: untried: having renewed vigour: healthy, refreshing, invigorating: brisk: (_slang_) tipsy: not salt.--_n._ (_Shak._) a small stream of fresh water: (_Scot._) a thaw, open weather.--_adj._ FRESH'-BLOWN, newly blown, as a flower.--_v.t._ FRESH'EN, to make fresh: to take the saltness from.--_v.i._ to grow fresh: to grow brisk or strong.--_ns._ FRESH'ENER; FRESH'ET, a pool or stream of fresh water: the sudden overflow of a river from rain or melted snow.--_adj._ FRESH'ISH.--_adv._ FRESH'LY.--_ns._ FRESH'MAN, one in the rudiments of knowledge, esp. a university student in his first year--also FRESH'ER; FRESH'MANSHIP, FRESH'ERDOM.--_adj._ FRESH'-NEW (_Shak._), unpractised, wholly unacquainted; FRESH'WA'TER, of or pertaining to water not salt: accustomed to sail only on fresh water--hence unskilled, raw. [A.S. _fersc_; cf. Dut. _versch_, Ger. _frisch_.] FRET, fret, _v.t._ to wear away by rubbing, to rub, chafe, ripple, disturb: to eat into: to vex, to irritate.--_v.i._ to wear away: to vex one's self: to be peevish:--_pr.p._ fret'ting; _pa.p._ fret'ted, (_B._) fret.--_n._ agitation of the surface of a liquid: irritation: the worn side of the banks of a river.--_adj._ FRET'FUL, peevish.--_adv._ FRET'FULLY.--_n._ FRET'FULNESS.--_p.adj._ FRET'TING, vexing.--_n._ peevishness. [A.S. _fretan_, to gnaw--pfx. _for-_, inten., and _etan_, to eat; Ger. _fressen_.] FRET, fret, _v.t._ to ornament with raised work: to variegate:--_pr.p._ fret'ting; _pa.p._ fret'ted. [O. Fr. _freter_.] FRET, fret, _n._ a piece of interlaced ornamental work: (_archit._) an ornament consisting of small fillets intersecting each other at right angles: (_her._) bars crossed and interlaced.--_ns._ FRET'-SAW, a saw with a narrow blade and fine teeth, used for fret-work, scroll-work, &c.; FRETTE, a hoop for strengthening a cannon shrunk on its breach.--_adjs._ FRET'TED, FRET'TY, ornamented with frets.--_n._ FRET'-WORK, ornamental work consisting of a combination of frets, perforated work. [O. Fr. _frete_, trellis-work.] FRET, fret, _n._ a short wire on the finger-board of a guitar or other instrument.--_v.t._ to furnish with frets. [Prob. same as the above.] FRIABLE, fr[=i]'a-bl, _adj._ apt to crumble: easily reduced to powder.--_ns._ FR[=I]'ABLENESS, FRIABIL'ITY. [Fr.,--L. _friabilis_--_fri[=a]re_, _fri[=a]tum_, to crumble.] FRIAR, fr[=i]'ar, _n._ a member of one of the mendicant monastic orders in the R.C. Church--the Franciscans (_Friars Minor_ or _Gray Friars_), Dominicans (_Friars Major_, _Friars Preachers_, or _Black Friars_), Carmelites (_White Friars_), and Augustinians (_Austin Friars_).--_adj._ FR[=I]'ARLY, like a friar.--_n._ FR[=I]'ARY, a monastery.--FRIARS' BALSAM (see BENZOIN); FRIAR'S CAP, the wolf's-bane; FRIAR'S COWL, the wake-robin; FRIAR'S LANTERN, the ignis-fatuus or Will-o'-the-wisp. [O. Fr. _frere_--L. _frater_, a brother.] FRIBBLE, frib'l, _v.i._ to trifle.--_n._ a trifler.--_ns._ FRIBB'LEDOM; FRIBB'LEISM; FRIBB'LER.--_adj._ FRIBB'LISH, trifling. [Onomatopoeic; prob. influenced by _frivol_.] FRICANDEAU, frik-an-d[=o]', _n._ a thick slice of veal, &c., larded. [Fr., perh. from _friand_, dainty, nice, and perh. ult. conn. with _fricassee_.] FRICASSEE, frik-as-s[=e]', _n._ a dish made of fowl, rabbit, &c. cut into pieces and cooked in sauce.--_v.t._ to dress as a fricassee:--_pr.p._ fricassee'ing; _pa.p._ fricasseed'. [Fr. _fricassée_; origin unknown.] FRICTION, frik'shun, _n._ the act of rubbing: (_statics_) a force acting in the tangent plane of two bodies, when one slides or rolls upon another, and always in a direction opposite to that in which the moving body tends: difficulty, unpleasantness.--_adjs._ FRIC'ATIVE, produced by friction, used of those consonants which are produced by the breath being forced through a narrow opening; FRIC'TIONAL, relating to, moved by, or produced by friction.--_n._ FRIC'TION-GEAR'ING, a method of imparting the motion of one wheel or pulley to another by mere contact.--_adj._ FRIC'TIONLESS, having no friction.--_n.pl._ FRIC'TION-WHEELS, wheels that lessen friction. [Fr.,--L. _frictionem_--_fric[=a]re_, _frictum_, to rub.] FRIDAY, fr[=i]'d[=a], _n._ the sixth day of the week.--BLACK FRIDAY, Good Friday, from the black vestments of the clergy and altar in the Western Church: any Friday marked by a great calamity; GOOD FRIDAY, the Friday before Easter, kept in commemoration of the Crucifixion; HOLY FRIDAY, Friday in an ember-week--also GOLDEN FRIDAY, sometimes put for Good Friday itself. [A.S. _Frígedæg_, day of (the goddess) _Fríg_--Latinised _Frigga_--wife of Odin.] FRIDGE, frij, _v.t._ (_Sterne_) to rub or fray. FRIED, fr[=i]d, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _fry_. FRIEND, frend, _n._ one loving or attached to another: an intimate acquaintance: a favourer: one of a society so called: (_Scot._) a relative.--_v.t._ (_obs._) to befriend.--_adj._ FRIEND'ED, supplied with friends.--_n._ FRIEND'ING (_Shak._), friendliness.--_adj._ FRIEND'LESS, without friends: destitute.--_n._ FRIEND'LESSNESS.--_adv._ FRIEND'LILY.--_n._ FRIEND'LINESS.--_adj._ FRIEND'LY, like a friend: having the disposition of a friend: favourable: pertaining to the Friends or Quakers.--_n._ FRIEND'SHIP, attachment from mutual esteem: friendly assistance.--FRIENDLY SOCIETIES, or _Benefit societies_, associations, chiefly among mechanics, &c., for relief during sickness, old age, widowhood, by provident insurance.--BE FRIENDS WITH, to be on intimate or friendly relations with; HAVE A FRIEND AT COURT, to have a friend in a position where his influence is likely to prove useful; SOCIETY OF FRIENDS, the designation proper of a sect of Christians better known as Quakers. [A.S. _fréond_, pr.p. of _fréon_, to love; Ger. _freund_.] FRIER, fr[=i]'[.e]r, _n._ (_Milt._) a friar. FRIEZE, fr[=e]z, _n._ a coarse woollen cloth with a nap on one side.--_adj._ FRIEZED, napped. [Fr. _frise_.] FRIEZE, fr[=e]z, _n._ (_archit._) the part of the entablature between the architrave and cornice, often ornamented with figures.--_v.t._ to put a frieze on. [O. Fr. _frize_; It. _fregio_; perh. L. _Phrygium_, Phrygian.] FRIGATE, frig'[=a]t, _n._ in the Royal Navy, formerly a vessel in the class next to ships of the line, carrying 28 to 60 guns on the maindeck and a raised quarter-deck and forecastle--not now denoting a distinct class of vessels.--_ns._ FRIG'ATE-BIRD, a large tropical sea-bird, with very long wings; FRIGATOON', a small Venetian vessel with square stern and two masts. [O. Fr. _fregate_--It. _fregata_; ety. dub.] FRIGHT, fr[=i]t, _n._ sudden fear: terror: anything inspiring terror or alarm, a figure of grotesque or ridiculous appearance.--_vs.t._ FRIGHT, FRIGHT'EN, to make afraid: to alarm.--_adjs._ FRIGHT'ABLE, FRIGHT'ENABLE, timid; FRIGHT'FUL, terrible: shocking.--_adv._ FRIGHT'FULLY.--_n._ FRIGHT'FULNESS.--_adj._ FRIGHT'SOME, frightful: feeling fright. [A.S. _fyrhto_; cf. Ger. _furcht_, fear.] FRIGID, frij'id, _adj._ frozen or stiffened with cold: cold: without spirit or feeling: unanimated.--_n._ FRIGID'ITY, coldness: coldness of affection: want of animation.--_adv._ FRIG'IDLY.--_n._ FRIG'IDNESS.--_adj._ FRIGORIF'IC, causing cold.--FRIGID ZONES, the parts of the earth's surface within the circle drawn with the poles as centre, and a radius of 23½ degrees. [L. _frigidus_--_frig[=e]re_, to be cold--_frigus_, cold.] FRIGOT, frig'ot, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as FRIGATE. FRIJOLE, fr[=e]-h[=o]l', _n._ the common Mexican bean. [Sp.] FRILL, fril, _v.i._ to ruffle, as a hawk its feathers, when shivering.--_v.t._ to furnish with a frill.--_n._ a ruffle: a ruffled or crimped edging of linen.--_ns._ FRILLED'-LIZ'ARD, a lizard with an extraordinary frilled membrane attached to the hinder part of the head, neck, and chest, and covering its shoulders; FRILL'ING, frilled edging. [Usually conn. with O. Fr. _friller_, to shiver; but prob. related to _furl_.] FRIMAIRE, fr[=e]-m[=a]r', _n._ the third month of the French revolutionary calendar, Nov. 21-Dec. 20. [Fr. _frimas_, frost.] FRINGE, frinj, _n._ loose threads forming an ornamental border: anything like a fringe, even a girl's hair cut in front and falling over the brow: the extremity.--_v.t._ to adorn with fringe: to border.--_adjs._ FRINGED; FRINGE'LESS; FRING'ENT, fringing.--_n._ FRINGE'-TREE, in the United States, a large shrub with very numerous snow-white flowers in panicled racemes.--_adj._ FRING'Y, ornamented with fringes. [O. Fr. _frenge_--L. _fimbria_, threads, fibres, akin to _fibra_, a fibre.] FRINGILLACEOUS, frin-ji-l[=a]'shi-us, _adj._ pertaining to the finches or _Fringillidæ_.--Also FRINGIL'LIFORM, FRINGIL'LINE. [L. _fringilla_.] FRIPPERY, frip'[.e]r-i, _n._ worn-out clothes: the place where old clothes are sold: useless trifles.--_adj._ useless: trifling.--_n._ FRIPP'ER, one who deals in old clothes. [O. Fr. _freperie_, _frepe_, a rag.] FRISETTE. See FRIZZLE. FRISEUR, fris-[.e]r', _n._ a hair-dresser.--_n._ FRIS'URE, mode of curling the hair. [Fr. _friser_, to curl.] FRISIAN, friz'i-an, _adj._ and _n._ pertaining to the people of _Friesland_, or to their language.--Also FRIES'IAN, FRIES'IC, FRIES'ISH. FRISK, frisk, _v.i._ to gambol: to leap playfully.--_n._ a frolic.--_n._ FRISK'ER.--_adj._ FRISK'FUL, brisk, lively.--_adv._ FRISK'ILY.--_n._ FRISK'INESS.--_adj._ FRISK'ING.--_adv._ FRISK'INGLY.--_adj._ FRISK'Y, lively: jumping with gaiety: frolicsome. [O. Fr. _frisque_; acc. to Skeat, from Ice. _frískr_, Sw. and Dan. _frisk_.] FRISKET, frisk'[.e]t, _n._ (_print._) the light frame between the tympan and the form, to hold in place the sheet to be printed. [Fr. _frisquette_.] FRIT, frit, _n._ the mixed materials of which glass is made, after being heated until they fuse partially without melting.--_v.t._ to fuse partially without melting:--_pr.p._ _frit'ting_; _pa.p._ frit'ted. [Fr. _fritte_--It. _fritta_.--L. _frig[)e]re_, _frictum_, to roast.] FRIT, frit, _n._ a small fly destructive to wheat. FRITH, frith, FIRTH, f[.e]rth, _n._ a narrow inlet of the sea, esp. at a river-mouth. [Ice. _fiörðr_; Norw. _fiord_.] FRITH, frith, _n._ peace.--_ns._ FRITH'BORG (_A.S. law_), one of the tithings or groups of ten men into which the hundred was divided, the members of each being accountable for a fellow-member's misdeeds; FRITH'GILD, a union of neighbours pledged to one another for the preservation of peace; FRITH'SOKEN, the jurisdiction to punish for breaches of the peace; FRITH'STOOL, a chair of sanctuary, placed near the altar in a church--as at Hexham and Beverley. [A.S. _frith_, peace; Ger. _friede_.] FRITH, frith, _n._ forest. [A.S. _(ge)fyrhðe_.] FRITILLARY, frit'il-lar-i, _n._ a genus of plants of the order _Liliaceæ_, with drooping purple flowers: a species of butterfly. [L. _fritillus_, a dice-box.] FRITTER, frit'[.e]r, _n._ a piece of meat fried: a kind of pancake, a slice of some fruit sweetened, fried, and served hot: a fragment.--_v.t._ to break into fragments.--_n._ FRITT'ERER, one who wastes time. [O. Fr. _friture_--L. _frig[)e]re_, _frictum_, to fry.] FRIVOLOUS, friv'ol-us, _adj._ trifling: silly.--_n._ FRIVOL'ITY, act or habit of trifling: levity.--_adv._ FRIV'OLOUSLY.--_n._ FRIV'OLOUSNESS. [Fr. _frivole_--L. _frivolus_.] FRIZZ, FRIZ, friz, _v.t._ to curl: to render rough and tangled.--_n._ a curl, a wig.--_adjs._ FRIZZED, having the hair curled or crisped into frizzes; FRIZZ'Y. [O. Fr. _friser_, to curl; perh. conn. with _frieze_, cloth.] FRIZZLE, friz'l, _v.t._ to form in small short curls.--_v.i._ to go into curls.--_n._ a curl.--_ns._ FRIZETTE', FRISETTE', a cluster of small curls worn over the forehead.--_adj._ FRIZZ'LY. [Related to _frizz_ and _frieze_.] FRO, fr[=o], _adv._ from: back or backward.--_prep._ (_obs._) from. [A shortened form of _from_; but perh. directly derived from Ice. _frá_, from.] FROCK, frok, _n._ a wide-sleeved garment worn by monks: a loose upper garment worn by men: a sailor's jersey: a gown worn by females: an undress regimental coat.--_v.t._ to furnish with a frock: to invest with priestly office.--_n._ FROCK'-COAT, a double-breasted full-skirted coat for men.--_adj._ FROCKED, clothed in a frock.--_n._ FROCK'ING, cloth suitable for frocks, coarse jean.--_adj._ FROCK'LESS, wanting a frock. [O. Fr. _froc_, a monk's frock--Low L. _frocus_--L. _floccus_, a flock of wool; or more prob. (acc. to Brachet and Littré) from Low L. _hrocus_--Old High Ger. _hroch_ (Ger. _rock_), a coat.] FROG, frog, _n._ a genus of tailless amphibians, with webbed feet, remarkable for its rapid swimming and leaping: a soft, horny substance in the middle of the sole of a horse's foot, forking towards the heel: a section of a rail or rails at a point where two lines cross, or of a switch from one line to another.--_ns._ FROG'-BIT, a small aquatic plant, allied to the water-soldier, but with floating leaves; FROG'-EAT'ER, one who eats frogs, a Frenchman; FROG'-FISH, a name for various fishes, esp. the angler; FROG'GERY, frogs collectively: a place where frogs abound.--_adj._ FROG'GY, having or abounding in frogs.--_ns._ FROG'-HOP'PER, FROG'-SPIT (see FROTH-FLY); FROG'LING, a little frog.--FROG MARCH, a method of carrying a refractory or drunken prisoner face downwards between four men, each holding a limb. [A.S. _frogga_, _frox_; cog. with Ice. _froskr_; Ger. _frosch_.] FROG, frog, _n._ an ornamental fastening or tasselled button for a frock or cloak.--_adj._ FROGGED, in uniforms, of ornamental stripes or workings of braid or lace, mostly on the breast of a coat. FROISE, froiz, _n._ a kind of pancake or omelette, often with slices of bacon.--Also _Fraise_. [Fr.] FROLIC, frol'ik, _adj._ merry: pranky.--_n._ gaiety: a wild prank: a merry-making.--_v.i._ to play wild pranks or merry tricks: to gambol:--_pr.p._ frol'icking; _pa.p._ frol'icked.--_adj._ FROL'ICSOME, gay: sportive.--_adv._ FROL'ICSOMELY.--_n._ FROL'ICSOMENESS. [Dut. _vrolijk_, merry; cf. Ger. _fröhlich_, joyful, gay.] FROM, from, _prep._ forth: out of, as from a source: away: at a distance: springing out of: by reason of. [A.S. _fram_, _from_; akin to Goth. _fram_, Ice. _frá_.] FROND, frond, _n._ (_bot._) a leaf-like expansion in many cryptogamous plants, organs in which the functions of stem and leaf are combined.--_adjs._ FROND'ED, having fronds; FROND'ENT, leafy.--_n._ FRONDES'CENCE, act of putting forth leaves: the season for putting forth leaves.--_adjs._ FRONDES'CENT, springing into leaf; FRONDIF'EROUS, bearing or producing fronds; FRONDOSE', covered with fronds. [L. _frons_, _frondis_, a leaf.] FRONDE, frond, _n._ the name given to certain factions in France during the minority of Louis XIV., hostile to the court and the minister Mazarin.--_n._ FROND'EUR, a member of the Fronde: an irreconcilable. [Fr., a sling--L. _funda_.] FRONT, frunt, _n._ the forehead: the whole face: the forepart of anything: a kind of wig worn by ladies: the most conspicuous part: boldness: impudence.--_adj._ of, relating to, or in the front.--_v.t._ to stand in front of or opposite: to oppose face to face.--_v.i._ to stand in front or foremost: to turn the front or face in any direction.--_n._ FRONT'AGE, the front part of a building.--_adj._ FRONT'AL, of or belonging to the front or forehead.--_n._ a front-piece: something worn on the forehead or face: (_archit._) a pediment over a door or window: a hanging of silk, satin, &c., embroidered for an altar--now usually covering only the top, the _superfrontal_--formerly covering the whole of the front, corresponding to the _antependium_.--_adjs._ FRONT'ATE, -D (_bot._), growing broader and broader: (_zool._) having a prominent frons or forehead; FRONT'ED, formed with a front; FRONT'LESS, void of shame or modesty.--_adv._ FRONT'LESSLY.--_n._ FRONT'LET, a band worn on the forehead.--_advs._ FRONT'WARD, -S, towards the front.--COME TO THE FRONT, to become conspicuous: to attain an important position; IN FRONT OF, before. [O. Fr.,--L. _frons_, _frontis_, the forehead.] FRONTIER, front'[=e]r, _n._ the boundary of a territory: (_Shak._) an outwork.--_adj._ lying on the frontier: bordering.--_v.t._ (_Spens._) to place on the frontier.--_n._ FRONT'IERSMAN, one settled on the borders of a country. [O. Fr. _frontier_--L. _frons_.] FRONTISPIECE, front'i-sp[=e]s, _n._ (_archit._) the principal face of a building: a figure or engraving in front of a book.--_v.t._ to put as a frontispiece, to furnish with such. [Fr.,--Low L. _frontispicium_--frons, forehead, _spec[)e]re_, to see; not conn. with _piece_.] FRONTON, fron'ton, _n._ (_archit._) a pediment.--Also FRON'TOON. [Fr.] FRORE, fr[=o]r, FROREN, fr[=o]'ren, _adj._ frozen, frosty.--_adj._ FR[=O]'RY (_Spens._), frozen. [A.S. _froren_, pa.p. of _fréosan_, to freeze.] FROST, frost, _n._ the state of the atmosphere in which water freezes: state of being frozen: frozen dew, also called _hoar-frost_: (_slang_) a disappointment, a cheat.--_v.t._ to cover with hoar-frost or with anything resembling hoar-frost: to sharpen (the points of a horse's shoe) that it may not slip on ice.--_n._ FROST'-BITE, the freezing or depression of vitality in a part of the body by exposure to cold.--_v.t._ to affect with frost.--_adjs._ FROST'-BIT'TEN, bitten or affected by frost; FROST'-BOUND, bound or confined by frost; FROST'ED, covered by frost or any fine powder: injured by frost.--_adv._ FROST'ILY.--_ns._ FROST'INESS; FROST'ING, the composition, resembling hoar-frost, used to cover cake, &c.--_adj._ FROST'LESS, free from frost.--_n._ FROST'-NAIL, a projecting nail in a horse-shoe serving as an ice-calk.--_v.t._ to put in such nails.--_ns._ FROST'-SMOKE, vapour frozen in the atmosphere, and having a smoke-like appearance; FROST'-WORK, work resembling hoar-frost on shrubs, &c.--_adj._ FROST'Y, producing or containing frost: chill in affection: frost-like. [A.S. _frost_, _forst_--_fréosan_; cf. Ger. _frost_.] FROTH, froth, _n._ the foam on liquids caused by boiling, or any agitation: (_fig._) an empty show in speech: any light matter.--_v.t._ to cause froth on.--_v.i._ to throw up froth.--_ns._ FROTH'ERY, mere froth; FROTH'-FLY, also FROTH'-HOP'PER, FROG'-HOP'PER, FROG'-SPIT, common names for numerous insects parasitic on plants, on which the larvæ and pupæ are found surrounded by a frothy spittle.--_adv._ FROTH'ILY.--_n._ FROTH'INESS.--_adjs._ FROTH'LESS, free from froth; FROTH'Y, full of froth or foam: empty: unsubstantial. [Scand., as in Ice. _froða_, Dan. _fraade_.] FROUNCE, frowns, _v.t._ to plait: to curl: to wrinkle up: to frown.--_n._ a plait or curl.--_v.i._ (_obs._) to frown or wrinkle the brow. [O. Fr. _froncier_. See FLOUNCE (2), of which it is an older form.] FROW, frow, _n._ a Dutchwoman. [Dut. _vrouw_.] FROWARD, fr[=o]'ward, _adj._ (_Spens._) turned from: self-willed: perverse: unreasonable--opp. to _Toward_.--_adv._ FR[=O]'WARDLY.--_n._ FR[=O]'WARDNESS. [A.S. _fra_, away, with affix _-ward_.] FROWN, frown, _v.i._ to wrinkle the brow as in anger: to look angry.--_v.t._ to repel by a frown.--_n._ a wrinkling or contraction of the brow in displeasure, &c.: a stern look.--_adj._ FROWN'ING, gloomy.--_adv._ FROWN'INGLY. [From O. Fr. _froignier_ (mod. _refrogner_), to knit the brow; origin unknown.] FROWY, frow'i, _adj._ (_Spens._) musty, rancid. FROWZY, frow'zi, _adj._ rough and tangled.--Also FROW'SY. [Perh. conn. with _frounce_.] FROZEN, fr[=o]z'n, _pa.p._ of _freeze_. FRUCTIDOR, fruk-ti-d[=o]r', _n._ the twelfth month in the French revolutionary calendar, Aug. 18-Sept. 16. [Fr.,--L. _fructus_, fruit; Gr. _d[=o]ron_, a gift.] FRUCTIFY, fruk'ti-f[=i], _v.t._ to make fruitful: to fertilise.--_v.i._ to bear fruit.--_adj._ FRUCT'ED (_her._), bearing fruit.--_n._ FRUCTES'CENCE, the time for the ripening of fruit.--_adj._ FRUCTIF'EROUS, bearing fruit.--_ns._ FRUCTIFIC[=A]'TION, act of fructifying, or producing fruit: (_bot._) a term denoting sometimes the whole reproductive system, sometimes the 'fruit' itself; FRUC'TOSE, fruit sugar or levulose; FRUC'TUARY, one enjoying the fruits of anything.--_adj._ FRUC'TUOUS, full of fruit. [Fr.,--L.,--_fructus_, fruit.] FRUGAL, fr[=oo]'gal, _adj._ economical in the use of means: thrifty.--_ns._ FRU'GALIST, one who is frugal; FRUGAL'ITY, economy: thrift.--_adv._ FRU'GALLY. [L. _frugalis_--_frugi_, fit for food--_frux_, _frugis_, fruit.] FRUGIFEROUS, fr[=oo]-jif'[.e]r-us, _adj._ fruit-bearing.--_adj._ FRUGIV'OROUS, feeding on fruits or seeds. [L. _frux_, _frugis_--_ferre_, to carry, _vor[=a]re_, to eat.] FRUIT, fr[=oo]t, _n._ the produce of the earth, which supplies the wants of men and animals: the part of a plant which contains the seed: the offspring of animals: product, consequence, effect, advantage--(_Spens._) FRUICT.--_v.i._ to produce fruit.--_ns._ FRUIT'AGE, fruit collectively: fruits; FRUIT'-BUD, a bud that produces fruit; FRUIT'-CAKE, a cake containing raisins, &c.; FRUIT'ERER, one who deals in fruit:--_fem._ FRUIT'ERESS; FRUIT'ERY, a place for storing fruit: fruitage.--_adj._ FRUIT'FUL, producing fruit abundantly: productive.--_adv._ FRUIT'FULLY.--_ns._ FRUIT'FULNESS; FRUIT'ING, process of bearing fruit; FRUIT'-KNIFE, a knife with a blade of silver, &c., for cutting fruit.--_adj._ FRUIT'LESS, barren: without profit: useless.--_adv._ FRUIT'LESSLY.--_ns._ FRUIT'LESSNESS; FRUIT'-TREE, a tree yielding edible fruit.--_adj._ FRUIT'Y, like, or tasting like, fruit.--SMALL FRUITS, strawberries, currants, &c. [O. Fr. _fruit_, _fruict_--L. _fructus_--_frui_, _fructus_, to enjoy.] FRUITION, fr[=oo]-ish'un, _n._ enjoyment: use or possession of anything, esp. accompanied with pleasure.--_adj._ FRU'ITIVE, of or pertaining to fruition. [O. Fr. _fruition_--L. _frui_, to enjoy.] FRUMENTATION, fr[=oo]-men-t[=a]'shun, _n._ a largess of grain bestowed on the starving or turbulent people in ancient Rome.--_adjs._ FRUMENT[=A]'CEOUS, made of or resembling wheat or other grain; FRUMENT[=A]'RIOUS, pertaining to corn. [L. _frumentation-em_--_frument[=a]ri_, to provide with corn--_frumentum_, corn.] FRUMENTY, fr[=oo]'men-ti, _n._ food made of hulled wheat boiled in milk.--Also FUR'METY. [O. Fr. _frumentee_, wheat boiled--_frument_--L. _frumentum_.] FRUMP, frump, _n._ a dowdy and cross-grained woman: (_obs._) a flout or snub.--_v.t._ (_obs._) to snub.--_adjs._ FRUMP'ISH, FRUMP'Y, sour-tempered: ill-dressed. FRUMPLE, frum'pl, _v.t._ (_prov._) to wrinkle. FRUSH, frush, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to break, bruise, or crush.--_adj._ broken or crushed: brittle.--_n._ an onset, attack. [O. Fr. _froissier_, to bruise--L. _frustum_, fragment.] FRUSH, frush, _n._ (_prov._) the frog of a horse's foot: a disease in that part of a horse's foot. FRUSTRATE, frus'tr[=a]t, _v.t._ to make vain or of no effect: to bring to nothing: to defeat.--_p.adj._ vain, ineffectual, defeated.--_adj._ FRUS'TRABLE, capable of being frustrated.--_n._ FRUSTR[=A]'TION, disappointment: defeat.--_adjs._ FRUS'TRATIVE, tending to frustrate; FRUS'TRATORY, disappointing. [L. _frustr[=a]ri_, _frustr[=a]tus_--_frustra_, in vain.] FRUSTULE, frus't[=u]l, _n._ the siliceous two-valved shell of a diatom, with its contents. FRUSTUM, frus'tum, _n._ a slice of a solid body: the part of a cone which remains when the top is cut off by a plane parallel to the base. [L. _frustum_, a bit.] FRUTESCENT, fr[=oo]-tes'ent, _adj._ becoming shrubby; FRU'TEX, a shrub.--_adjs._ FRU'TICOSE, FRU'TICOUS, shrub-like: shrubby; FRUTIC'ULOSE, like a small shrub. [L. _frutesc[)e]re_--_frutex_, _fruticis_, a shrub.] FRUTIFY, fr[=oo]'ti-f[=i], _v.t._ and _v.i._ (_Shak._)=FRUCTIFY. FRY, fr[=i], _v.t._ to dress food with oil or fat in a pan over the fire: to vex.--_v.i._ to undergo the action of heat in a frying-pan: to simmer: (_Spens._) to boil:--_pr.p._ fry'ing; _pa.p._ fried.--_n._ a dish of anything fried.--_n._ FRY'ING-PAN, a flat iron vessel or pan for frying with.--OUT OF THE FRYING-PAN INTO THE FIRE, out of one evil or danger merely to fall into a greater. [Fr. _frire_--L. _frig[)e]re_; cf. Gr. _phrygein_.] FRY, fr[=i], _n._ a swarm of fishes just spawned: a number of small things.--SMALL FRY, small things collectively, persons or things of little importance. [M. E. _fri_--Ice. _frió_; Dan. and Sw. _frö_.] FUAR. Same as FEUAR. FUB, fub, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to put off, to cheat: to steal.--_n._ FUB'BERY (_obs._), deception.--FUB OFF, to put off or evade by a trick or a lie. [See FOB.] FUBBY, fub'i, FUBSY, fub'zi, _adj._ chubby. [Ety. dub.] FUCHSIA, f[=u]'shi-a, a plant with long pendulous flowers, native to South America. [Named after Leonard _Fuchs_, a German botanist, 1501-66.] FUCUS, f[=u]'kus, _n._ a genus of seaweed containing the wrack and other species: a dye: a disguise.--_adj._ FUCIV'OROUS, eating seaweed.--_n._ F[=U]'COID, fossil seaweed.--_adj._ containing fucoids.--_adj._ F[=U]'CUSED, painted. [L. _fucus_, seaweed.] FUD, fud, _n._ (_Scot._) a hare's tail: the buttocks. FUDDLE, fud'l, _v.t._ to stupefy with drink.--_v.i._ to drink to excess or habitually:--_pr.p._ fudd'ling; _pa.p._ fudd'led.--_n._ intoxicating drink.--_ns._ FUDD'LE-CAP, a hard drinker; FUDD'LER, a drunkard.--_adj._ FUDD'LING, tippling. [Cf. Dut. _vod_, soft, Ger. prov. _fuddeln_, to swindle.] FUDGE, fuj, _n._ stuff: nonsense: an exclamation of contempt.--_v.i._ and _v.t._ to botch or bungle anything.--_adj._ FUD'GY, irritable: awkward. FUEL, f[=u]'el, _n._ anything that feeds a fire, supplies energy, &c.--_v.t._ (_arch._) to furnish with fuel.--_adj._ F[=U]'ELLED, furnished with fuel.--_n._ F[=U]'ELLER, one who, or that which, supplies fuel for fires. [O. Fr. _fowaille_--L. _focale_--L. _focus_, a fireplace.] FUERO, fw[=a]'r[=o], _n._ the constitution of certain practically autonomous states and communities in northern Spain and south-western France--the Basque provinces, Navarre, Bearn, &c.: modes and tenures of property, &c., nearly equivalent to the French customary law. [Sp.,--L. _forum_.] FUFF, fuf, _n._ (_Scot._) a puff: the spitting of a cat: a burst of anger.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to puff.--_adj._ FUFF'Y, light and soft. FUGACIOUS, f[=u]-g[=a]'shus, _adj._ apt to flee away: fleeting.--_ns._ FUG[=A]'CIOUSNESS, FUGAC'ITY. [L. _fugax_, _fugacis_, from _fug[)e]re_, to flee.] FUGITIVE, f[=u]j'i-tiv, _adj._ apt to flee away: uncertain: volatile: perishable: temporary: occasional, written for some passing occasion.--_n._ one who flees or has fled from his station or country: one hard to be caught.--_ns._ F[=U]'GIE (_Scot._), a cock that will not fight, a runaway; F[=U]'GIE-WARR'ANT, a warrant to apprehend a debtor about to abscond, prob. from the phrase _in meditatione fugæ_; FUGIT[=A]'TION (_Scots law_), absconding from justice: outlawry.--_adv._ FUG'ITIVELY.--_n._ FUG'ITIVENESS. [Fr.,--L. _fugitivus_, _fug[)e]re_, to flee.] FUGLEMAN, f[=u]'gl-man, _n._ a soldier who stands before a company at drill as an example: a ringleader, mouthpiece of others.--_v.i._ F[=U]'GLE (_Carlyle_), to act like a fugleman. [Ger. _flügelmann_, the leader of a file--_flügel_, a wing, _mann_, man.] FUGUE, f[=u]g, _n._ (_mus._) a form of composition in which the subject is given out by one part and immediately taken up by a second, its _answer_, during which the first part supplies an accompaniment or counter-subject, and so on.--_n._ FUG'UIST, one who writes or plays fugues. [Fr.,--It. _fuga_--L. _fuga_, flight.] FULCRUM, ful'krum, _n._ (_mech._) the prop or fixed point on which a lever moves: a prop:--_pl._ FUL'CRUMS, FUL'CRA.--_adj._ FUL'CRATE, supported with fulcrums. [L. _fulcrum_, a prop, _fulc[=i]re_, to prop.] FULFIL, fool-fil', _v.t._ to complete: to accomplish: to carry into effect:--_pr.p._ fulfil'ling; _pa.p._ fulfilled'.--_ns._ FULFIL'LER; FULFIL'LING, FULFIL'MENT, full performance: completion: accomplishment. [A.S. _fullfyllan_--_full_, full, _fyllan_, to fill.] FULGENT, ful'jent, _adj._ shining: bright.--_n._ FUL'GENCY.--_adv._ FUL'GENTLY.--_adj._ FUL'GID, flashing.--_ns._ FUL'GOR, FUL'GOUR, splendour.--_adj._ FUL'GOROUS, flashing. [L. _fulgent_, pr.p. of _fulg[=e]re_, to shine.] FULGURATE, ful'g[=u]-r[=a]t, _v.i._ to flash as lightning.--_adjs._ FUL'GURAL, pertaining to lightning; FUL'GURANT, flashing like lightning.--_ns._ FULGUR[=A]'TION, in assaying, the sudden and final brightening of the fused globule; FUL'GUR[=I]TE, a tube of vitrified sand frequent in loose sandhills--prob. due to lightning--_adj._ FUL'GUROUS, resembling lightning. FULHAM, ful'am, _n._ a die loaded at the corner.--Also FULL'AM, FULL'AN. [Prob. the place-name _Fulham_.] FULIGINOUS, f[=u]-lij'i-nus, _adj._ sooty: smoky.--_n._ FULIGINOS'ITY.--_adv._ FULIG'INOUSLY. [L., _fuligo_, soot.] FULL, fool, _adj._ having all it can contain: having no empty space: abundantly supplied or furnished: abounding: containing the whole matter: complete: perfect: strong: clear: (_coll._) drunk: at poker, consisting of three of a kind and a pair.--_n._ completest extent, as of the moon: highest degree: the whole: time of full-moon.--_v.t._ to draw up or pucker the cloth on one side more than on the other.--_adv._ quite: to the same degree: with the whole effect: completely.--_adjs._ FULL'-[=A]'CORNED (_Shak._), full-fed with acorns; FULL'-AGED, having reached one's majority.--_n._ FULL'-BLOOD, an individual of pure blood.--_adjs._ FULL'-BLOOD'ED; FULL'-BLOOMED, in perfect bloom; FULL'-BLOWN, blown or fully expanded, as a flower; FULL'-BOTT'OMED, having a full or large bottom, as a wig.--_n._ FULL'-DRESS, the dress worn on occasions of state or ceremony.--_adjs._ FULL'-EYED, with large prominent eyes; FULL'-FACED, having a full or broad face; FULL'-FED, fed to plumpness; FULL'-FRAUGHT (_Shak._), full-stored; FULL'-GROWN, grown to maturity; FULL'-HAND'ED, bearing something valuable, as a gift; FULL'-HEART'ED, full of heart or courage: elated; FULL'-HOT (_Shak._), heated to the utmost; FULL'-LENGTH, extending the whole length (_n._ a portrait showing such); FULL-MANNED (_Shak._), having a full crew.--_ns._ FULL'-MOON, the moon with its whole disc illuminated, when opposite the sun; FULL'NESS, FUL'NESS, the state of being filled so as to have no part vacant: the state of abounding in anything: completeness: satiety: largeness: force and volume, as of sound: (_Shak._) plenty, wealth.--_adjs._ FULL'-ORBED, having the orb or disc fully illuminated, as the full-moon: round; FULL'-SAILED, unbounded, absolute: moving onwards under full sail; FULL-SPLIT (_slang_), with all one's might or speed; FULL'-SUMMED, complete in all its parts.--_n._ FULL'-SWING, the full extent or utmost limit.--_adj._ FULL'-WINGED (_Shak._), having perfect or strong wings.--_adv._ FULL'Y, completely: entirely.--FULL BACK (_football_), see BACK.--AT THE FULL, at the height, as of one's good fortune, &c.; IN FULL, without reduction; IN THE FULLNESS OF TIME, at the proper or destined time.--TO THE FULL, in full measure, completely. [A.S. _full_; Goth. _fulls_, Ice. _fullr_, Ger. _voll_.] FULL, fool, _v.t._ to press or pound cloth in a mill: to scour and thicken in a mill.--_ns._ FULL'AGE, the charge for fulling cloth; FULL'ER, a bleacher or cleanser of cloth; FULLER'S-EARTH, a soft earth or clay, capable of absorbing grease, used in fulling or bleaching cloth; FULLER'S-THISTLE, -WEED, the teasel; FULL'ERY, the place or works where fulling of cloth is carried on; FULL'ING-MILL, a mill in which woollen cloth is fulled. [O. Fr. _fuler_--Low L. _full[=a]re_--L. _fullo_, a cloth-fuller.] FULLER, fool'er, _n._ a half-round set-hammer. FULMAR, ful'mar, _n._ a species of petrel inhabiting the Shetland Isles, &c., valuable for its down, feathers, and oil. [Perh. Norse _fúll_, foul.] FULMINATE, ful'min-[=a]t, _v.i._ to thunder or make a loud noise: to issue decrees with violence, or with menaces of grave censure.--_v.t._ to cause to explode: to send forth, as a denunciation--(_Milt._) FUL'MINE.--_n._ a compound of fulminic acid with mercury, &c.--_adj._ FUL'MINANT, fulminating: (_path._) developing suddenly.--_n._ a thunderbolt, explosive.--_adj._ FUL'MINATING, crackling, exploding, detonating.--_n._ FULMIN[=A]'TION, act of fulminating, thundering, or issuing forth: a chemical explosion: a denunciation.--_adjs._ FUL'MINATORY; FULMIN'EOUS, FUL'MINOUS, pertaining to thunder and lightning; FULMIN'IC, pertaining to an acid used in preparing explosive compounds. [L. _fulmin[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_fulmen_ (for _fulgimen_), lightning--_fulg[=e]re_, to shine.] FULSOME, fool'sum, _adj._ cloying or causing surfeit: nauseous: offensive: gross: disgustingly fawning.--_adj._ FUL'SOMELY.--_n._ FUL'SOMENESS. [A.S. _full_, full, and affix _-some_.] FULVOUS, ful'vus, _adj._ deep or dull yellow: tawny.--Also FUL'VID. [L. _fulvus_, tawny.] FUM, fum, _n._ a fabulous Chinese bird, one of the symbols of imperial dignity.--Also FUNG. FUMACIOUS, f[=u]-m[=a]'shi-us, _adj._ smoky: fond of smoking. FUMADO, f[=u]-m[=a]'do, _n._ a smoked fish, esp. a pilchard. [Sp.,--L. _fum[=a]re_, to smoke.] FUMAGE, f[=u]m'[=a]j, _n._ hearth-money. FUMAROLE, f[=u]m'a-r[=o]l, _n._ a smoke-hole in a volcano or sulphur-mine. [Fr. _fumerole_--L. _fumus_, smoke.] FUMBLE, fum'bl, _v.i._ to grope about awkwardly: to handle awkwardly: to stammer in speech: to find by groping.--_v.t._ to manage awkwardly.--_n._ FUM'BLER.--_adv._ FUM'BLINGLY. [Dut. _fommelen_, to fumble; cf. Dan. _famle_, Ice. _fâlma_, to grope about.] FUME, f[=u]m, _n._ smoke or vapour: any volatile matter: heat of mind, rage, a passionate person: anything unsubstantial, vain conceit.--_v.i._ to smoke: to throw off vapour: to be in a rage: to offer incense to.--_n._ FUM'ATORY, a place for smoking or fumigation.--_adjs._ F[=U]'MID, smoky; FUMIF'EROUS, producing fumes.--_n._ FUMOS'ITY, quality of being fumous: (_pl._) the fumes arising from over eating or drinking.--_adjs._ FUM'OUS, FUMOSE', FUM'Y, producing fumes. [O. Fr. _fum_--L. _fumus_, smoke.] FUMET, f[=u]'met, _n._ the dung of deer, hares, &c. [O. Fr. _fumets_, _fumer_--L. _fim[=a]re_, to dung.] FUMETTE, f[=u]-met', _n._ the scent of game when high.--Also FUMET'. [Fr.] FUMIGATE, f[=u]m'i-g[=a]t, _v.t._ to expose to smoke or gas, to expose to fumes, as of sulphur, for purposes of disinfecting: to perfume.--_ns._ FUMIG[=A]'TION, act of fumigating or of applying purifying smoke, &c., to; FUM'IGATOR, a brazier for burning disinfectants, &c.--_adj._ FUM'IGATORY. [L. _fumig[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_.] FUMITORY, f[=u]m'i-to-ri, _n._ a plant of a disagreeable smell.--_n._ FUM'ITER (_Shak._). [O. Fr. _fume-terre_, earth-smoke--L. _fumus_, smoke, _terra_, earth.] FUMMEL. Same as FUNNEL. FUN, fun, _n._ merriment: sport.--BE GREAT FUN, to be very amusing; IN FUN, in joke, not seriously; LIKE FUN (_coll._), in a rapid manner; NOT TO SEE THE FUN OF, not to take as a joke. [Prob. a form of obs. _fon_, to befool. Skeat refers to Ir. _fonn_, delight.] FUNAMBULATE, f[=u]-nam'b[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.i._ to walk on a rope.--_ns._ FUNAMBUL[=A]'TION; FUNAM'BULATOR, FUNAM'BULUS, FUNAM'BULIST, a rope-walker.--_adj._ FUNAM'BULATORY. [L. _funis_, a rope, _ambul[=a]re_, to walk.] FUNCTION, fungk'shun, _n._ the doing of a thing: duty peculiar to any office: faculty, exercise of faculty: the peculiar office of any part of the body or mind: power: a solemn service: (_math._) a quantity so connected with another that any change in the one produces a corresponding change in the other: the technical term in physiology for the vital activity of organ, tissue, or cell.--_adj._ FUNC'TIONAL, pertaining to or performed by functions--opp. to _Organic_ or _Structural_.--_vs.t._ FUNC'TIONALISE, FUNC'TIONATE.--_adv._ FUNC'TIONALLY.--_n._ FUNC'TIONARY, one who discharges any duty: one who holds an office.--_adj._ FUNC'TIONLESS, having no function. [O. Fr.,--L. _function-em_--_fungi_, _functus_, to perform.] FUND, fund, _n._ a sum of money on which some enterprise is founded or expense supported: a supply or source of money: a store laid up: supply: (_pl._) permanent debts due by a government and paying interest.--_v.t._ to form a debt into a stock charged with interest: to place money in a fund.--_adj._ FUND'ABLE, capable of being converted into a fund or into bonds.--_p.adj._ FUND'ED, invested in public funds: existing in the form of bonds.--_n._ FUND'HOLD'ER, one who has money in the public funds.--_adj._ FUND'LESS, destitute of supplies or money. [Fr. _fond_--L. _fundus_, the bottom.] FUNDAMENTAL, fun-da-ment'al, _adj._ essential, basal, primary: important.--_n._ that which serves as a groundwork: an essential.--_ns._ FUND'AMENT, the lower part or seat of the body; FUNDAMENTAL'ITY.--_adv._ FUNDAMENT'ALLY. [Fr.,--L. _fundamentum_, _fund[=a]re_, to found.] FUNDUS, fun'dus, _n._ the bottom of anything: (_anat._) the rounded base of a hollow organ. [L.] FUNERAL, f[=u]'n[.e]r-al, _n._ burial: the ceremony, &c., connected with burial.--_adj._ pertaining to or used at a burial.--_adjs._ FUN[=E]B'RIAL, FUN[=E]B'RAL, FUN[=E]B'RIOUS; F[=U]'NERARY, FUN[=E]R'EAL, pertaining to or suiting a funeral: dismal: mournful. [O. Fr.,--Low L. _funeralis_--L. _funus_, _fun[)e]ris_, a funeral procession.] FUNEST, f[=u]-nest', _adj._ causing or portending death, lamentable. [Fr.,--L. _funestus_, destructive.] FUNGIBLES, fun'ji-blz, _n.pl._ (_law_) movable effects which perish by being used, and which are estimated by weight, number, and measure. [Low L. _fungibilis_--L. _fungi_, to perform. See FUNCTION.] FUNGUS, fung'gus, _n._ one of the lowest of the great groups of cellular cryptogams, including mushrooms, toadstools, mould, &c.: proud-flesh formed on wounds:--_pl._ FUNGI (fun'j[=i]), or FUNGUSES (fung'gus-ez).--_adjs._ FUNG'AL, FUNG[=A]'CEOUS, like a fungus; FUN'GIC ('jik), FUN'GIFORM, having the form of a fungus; FUNGIV'OROUS, feeding on mushrooms; FUNG'OID, resembling a mushroom.--_ns._ FUNGOL'OGIST, a student of fungi; FUNGOL'OGY, the science of fungi; FUNGOS'ITY, quality of being fungous.--_adj._ FUNG'OUS, of or like fungus: soft: spongy: growing suddenly: ephemeral. [L. _fungus_, a mushroom--Gr. _sphonggos_, _sponggos_, a sponge.] FUNICLE, f[=u]'ni-kl, _n._ a small cord or ligature: a fibre.--_adj._ F[=U]NIC'[=U]LAR.--_n._ F[=U]NIC'[=U]LUS, the umbilical cord.--FUNICULAR RAILWAY, a cable-railway, esp. one ascending a hill. [L. _funiculus_, dim. of _funis_, a cord.] FUNK, fungk, _n._ (_coll._) abject terror or fright.--_v.i._ and _v.t._ to shrink through fear: to shirk.--_adj._ FUNK'Y. FUNK, fungk, _n._ touchwood: a spark. [Cf. Dut. _vonk_.] FUNK, fungk, _v.t._ to stifle with smoke. [Ety. dub.] FUNKIA, funk'i-a, _n._ a genus of _Liliaceæ_ allied to the day lilies, native to China. [From the German botanist, H. C. _Funck_, 1771-1839.] FUNNEL, fun'el, _n._ a tube or passage for the escape of smoke, &c.: an instrument (smaller at one end than the other) for pouring fluids into bottles, &c.--_adj._ FUNN'ELLED, provided with a funnel.--_n._ FUNN'EL-NET, a net shaped like a funnel. [Prob. through Fr. from L. _infundibulum_--_fund[)e]re_, to pour.] FUNNEL, fun'el, _n._ (_prov._) the offspring of a stallion and a she-ass.--Also FUMM'EL. FUNNY, fun'i, _adj._ full of fun: droll: perplexing, odd.--_adv._ FUNN'ILY.--_ns._ FUNN'INESS, FUNN'IMENT.--FUNNY BONE, a popular name given to what is really the comparatively unprotected ulnar nerve, which, when struck by a blow, shoots a singular tingling sensation down the forearm to the fingers; FUNNY MAN, the clown in a circus. FUNNY, fun'i, _n._ a light clinker-built pleasure-boat, with a pair of sculls. FUR, fur, _n._ the short, fine hair of certain animals: their skins with the fur prepared for garments: rabbits, hares, as opposed to partridges, pheasants (feathers): (_Milt._) kind or class, from the idea of particular furs being worn by way of distinction: a fur-like coating on the tongue, the interior of boilers, &c.--_v.t._ to line with fur: to cover with morbid fur-like matter:--_pr.p._ fur'ring; _pa.p._ furred.--_adj._ FURRED, made of fur, provided with fur.--_ns._ FUR'RIER, a dealer in furs and fur goods; FUR'RIERY, furs in general: trade in furs; FUR'RING, fur trimmings: a coating on the tongue: strips of wood fastened on joists, &c., to make a level surface or provide an air-space: strips of wood nailed on a wall to carry lath.--_adj._ FUR'RY, consisting of, covered with, or dressed in fur. [O. Fr. _forre_, _fuerre_, sheath.] FURACIOUS, f[=u]-r[=a]'shus, _adj._ thievish.--_ns._ FUR[=A]'CIOUSNESS, FURAC'ITY. FURBELOW, fur'be-l[=o], _n._ the plaited border of a gown or petticoat, a flounce. [Fr., It., and Sp. _falbala_; of unknown origin. The word simulates an English form--_fur-below_.] FURBISH, fur'bish, _v.t._ to purify or polish: to rub up until bright: to renovate. [O. Fr. _fourbiss-_, _fourbir_, from Old High Ger. _furban_, to purify.] FURCATE, fur'k[=a]t, _adj._ forked: branching like the prongs of a fork--also FUR'CATED.--_ns._ FURC[=A]'TION, a forking or branching out; FUR'CIFER, a genus of South American deer with furcate antlers.--_adjs._ FURCIF'EROUS, of insects bearing a forked appendage; FUR'CIFORM, fork-shaped.--_n._ FUR'C[=U]LA, the united pair of clavicles of a bird, forming a single forked bone--the merry-thought.--_adj._ FUR'CULAR, furcate: shaped like a fork. [L., from _furca_, a fork.] FURFUR, fur'fur, _n._ dandruff, scurf--also FUR'FAIR.--_adj._ FURF[=U]R[=A]'CEOUS, branny: scaly--also FUR'F[=U]ROUS.--_n._ FURF[=U]R[=A]'TION, the falling of scurf. [L.] FURFUROL, fur'fur-ol, _n._ a volatile oil obtained when wheat-bran, sugar, or starch is acted on by dilute sulphuric acid. [L. _furfur_, bran.] FURIOUS, f[=u]'ri-us, _adj._ full of fury: violent.--_adj._ F[=U]'RIBUND, raging.--_ns._ FURIOS'ITY, madness; FURI[=O]'SO, a furious person.--_adv._ F[=U]'RIOUSLY.--_n._ F[=U]'RIOUSNESS. [O. Fr. _furieus_--L. _furi[=o]sus_--_furia_, rage.] FURL, furl, _v.t._ to draw or roll up, as a sail. [Contr. of obs. _furdle_, from _fardel_.] FURLONG, fur'long, _n._ 40 poles: one-eighth of a mile. [A.S. _furlang_--_furh_, furrow, _lang_, long.] FURLOUGH, fur'l[=o], _n._ leave of absence.--_v.t._ to grant leave of absence. [Dut. _verlof_; cf. Ger. _verlaub_.] FURMENTY. See FRUMENTY. FURNACE, fur'n[=a]s, _n._ an oven or enclosed fireplace for melting ores and other purposes: a time or place of grievous affliction or torment.--_v.t._ to exhale like a furnace: to subject to the heat of a furnace. [O. Fr. _fornais_--L. _fornax_--_fornus_, an oven.] FURNIMENT, fur'ni-ment, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as FURNITURE. FURNISH, fur'nish, _v.t._ to fit up or supply completely, or with what is necessary: to equip (_with_).--_adj._ FUR'NISHED, stocked with furniture.--_n._ FUR'NISHER.--_n.pl._ FUR'NISHINGS, fittings of any kind, esp. articles of furniture, &c., within a house: (_Shak._) any incidental part.--_n._ FUR'NISHMENT. [O. Fr. _furniss-_, _furnir_--Old High Ger. _frummjan_, to do.] FURNITURE, fur'ni-t[=u]r, _n._ movables, either for use or ornament, with which a house is equipped: equipage, the trappings of a horse, &c.: decorations: the necessary appendages in some arts, &c.: (_print._) the pieces of wood or metal put round pages of type to make proper margins and fill the spaces between the pages and the chase. [Fr. _fourniture_.] FUROR, f[=u]'ror, _n._ fury: excitement, enthusiasm.--Also FUR[=O]'RE. [L.] FURROW, fur'[=o], _n._ the trench made by a plough: any groove: a wrinkle on the face.--_v.t._ to form furrows in: to groove: to wrinkle.--_n._ FURR'OW-WEED (_Shak._), a weed on ploughed land.---_adj._ FURR'OWY. [A.S. _furh_; cf. Ger. _furche_, L. _porca_.] FURTHER, fur'th[.e]r, _adv._ to a greater distance or degree: in addition.--_adj._ more distant: additional.--_adv._ FUR'THERMORE, in addition to what has been said, moreover, besides.--_adjs._ FUR'THERMOST, most remote; FUR'THERSOME, tending to further or promote.--_adv._ FUR'THEST, at the greatest distance.--_adj._ most distant.--WISH ONE FURTHER, to wish one somewhere else than here and now. [A.S. _furðor_, a comp. of _fore_, with comp. suff.] FURTHER, fur'_th_[.e]r, _v.t._ to help forward, promote.--_ns._ FUR'THERANCE, a helping forward; FUR'THERER, a promoter, advancer.--_adj._ FUR'THERSOME, helpful. [A.S. _fyrðran_.] FURTIVE, fur'tiv, _adj._ stealthy: secret.--_adv._ FUR'TIVELY. [Fr.,--L. _furtivus_--_fur_, a thief.] FURUNCLE, f[=u]'rung-kl, _n._ an inflammatory tumour.--_adjs._ FURUN'CULAR, FURUN'CULOUS. [L. _furunculus_.] FURY, f[=u]'ri, _n._ rage: violent passion: madness: (_myth._) one of the three goddesses of fate and vengeance, the Erinyes, or euphemistically Eumenides--Tisiphone, Alecto, and Megæra--hence a passionate, violent woman. [Fr. _furie_--L. _furia_--_fur[)e]re_, to be angry.] FURZE, furz, _n._ the whin or gorse, a prickly evergreen bush with beautiful yellow flowers.--_adjs._ FURZ'Y, FURZ'EN, overgrown with furze. [A.S. _fyrs_.] FUSAROLE, f[=u]'sa-r[=o]l, _n._ (_archit._) an astragal.--Also F[=U]'SAROL. [Fr.,--L. _fusus_, spindle.] FUSCOUS, fus'kus, _adj._ brown: dingy--(_Charles Lamb_) FUSC. [L. _fuscus_, akin to _furvus_.] FUSE, f[=u]z, _v.t._ to melt: to liquefy by heat.--_v.i._ to be melted: to be reduced to a liquid.--_n._ FUSIBIL'ITY.--adjs. F[=U]'SIBLE, that may be fused or melted--(_Milt._) F[=U]'SILE, F[=U]'SIL.--_ns._ F[=U]'SING-POINT, the temperature at which any solid substance becomes liquid; F[=U]'SION, act of melting: the state of fluidity from heat: a close union of things, as if melted together.--AQUEOUS FUSION, the melting of certain crystals by heat in their own water of crystallisation; DRY FUSION, the liquefaction produced in salts by heat after the water of crystallisation has been expelled; IGNEOUS FUSION, the melting of anhydrous salts by heat without decomposition. [L. _fund[)e]re_, _fusum_, to melt.] FUSE, f[=u]z, _n._ a tube filled with combustible matter for firing mines, discharging shells, &c. [It. _fuso_--L. _fusus_, a spindle.] FUSEE, FUZEE, f[=u]-z[=e]', _n._ the spindle in a watch or clock on which the chain is wound: a match used for lighting a pipe or cigar in the open air: a fuse: a fusil.--_adj._ F[=U]'SIFORM, spindle-shaped: tapering at each end. [O. Fr. _fusée_, a spindleful--Low L. _fusata_--L. _fusus_, a spindle.] FUSEL-OIL, f[=u]'zel-oil, _n._ a nauseous oil in spirits distilled from potatoes, barley, &c. [Ger. _fusel_, bad spirits.] FUSIL, f[=u]'zil, _n._ a flint-lock musket. [O. Fr. _fuisil_, a flint-musket, same as It. _focile_--Low L. _focile_, steel (to strike fire with), dim. of L. _focus_, a fireplace.] FUSIL, f[=u]'zil, _n._ (_her._) an elongated rhomboidal figure. [O. Fr. _fusel_--L. _fusus_, a spindle.] FUSILIER, FUSILEER, f[=u]-zil-[=e]r', _n._ formerly a soldier armed with a fusil, now simply a historical title borne by a few regiments of the British army (Northumberland, Royal Scots, &c.). FUSILLADE, f[=u]z'il-[=a]d, _n._ a simultaneous or continuous discharge of firearms.--_v.t._ to shoot down by a simultaneous discharge of firearms.--_n._ FUSILL[=A]'TION, death by shooting. [Fr.,--_fusil_, a musket.] FUSS, fus, _n._ a bustle or tumult: haste, flurry.--_v.i._ to be in a bustle.--_adv._ FUSS'ILY.--_n._ FUSS'INESS, a needless state of bustle.--adj. FUSS'Y. [Imit.] FUST, fust, _n._ the shaft of a column. [O. Fr. _fust_ (Fr. _fût_)--L. _fustis_, a stick.] FUST, _v.i._ See FUSTY. FUSTANELLE, fus-ta-nel', _n._ a white kilt worn by Greek men. [Mod. Gr. _phoustani_, Albanian _fustan_--It. _fustagno_, fustian.] FUSTET, fus'tet, _n._ the smoke-tree or Venetian sumach, or its wood. [Fr.,--L. _fustis_, a stick.] FUSTIAN, fust'yan, _n._ a kind of coarse, twilled cotton fabric, including moleskin, velveteen, corduroy, &c.: a pompous and unnatural style of writing or speaking: bombast: a liquor made of white wine with yolk of eggs, lemon, spices, &c.--adj. made of fustian: bombastic.--_v.i._ FUST'IANISE (_Holmes_), to write bombastically.--_n._ FUST'IANIST, one who writes bombast. [O. Fr. _fustaigne_ (Fr. _futaine_)--It. _fustagno_--Low L. _fustaneum_, from Ar. _Fostat_ (a suburb of Cairo) in Egypt, where first made.] FUSTIC, fus'tik, _n._ the wood of a West Indian tree, formerly much used as a dye.--Also FUS'TOC. [Fr. _fustoc_, yellow--Sp. _fustoc_--L. _fustis_.] FUSTIGATION, fus-ti-g[=a]'shun, _n._ a beating with a stick.--_v.t._ FUS'TIGATE, to thrash with a stick. [L. _fustig[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to beat with a stick--_fustis_, a stick.] FUSTILARIAN, fus-ti-l[=a]'ri-an, _n._ (_Shak._) a low fellow, a scoundrel.--_n._ FUS'TILUGS (_prov._), a frowzy woman. FUSTY, fust'i, _adj._ smelling of the wood of the cask, as wine: ill-smelling.--_v.i._ Fust (_Shak._) to grow or smell mouldy.--_adj._ Fust'ed, mouldy.--_n._ Fust'iness. [O. Fr. _fust_, wood of a cask--L. _fustis_.] FUSUS, f[=u]'sus, _n._ a genus of Gasteropods, usually referred to the Murex family. [L.] FUTCHEL, fuch'el, _n._ a piece of timber lengthwise of a carriage, supporting the splinter-bar and the pole. FUTHORC, f[=u]'thork, _n._ the Runic alphabet. [From the first six letters, _f_, _u_, _þ_, _o_ or _a_, _r_, _k_.] FUTILE, f[=u]'t[=i]l, _adj._ useless: unavailing: trifling.--_adv._ F[=U]'TILELY.--_ns._ FUTILIT[=A]'RIAN, one who gives himself to profitless pursuits; FUTIL'ITY, uselessness. [Fr.,--L. _futilis_--_fund[)e]re_, to pour.] FUTTOCK, fut'uk, _n._ one of the separate pieces of timber composing the frame of a ship.--_ns. pl._ FUTT'OCK-PLATES, iron plates with dead-eyes, crossing the sides of the top-rim perpendicularly; FUTT'OCK-SHROUDS, short pieces of rope or chain which secure the lower dead-eyes and futtock-plates of topmast rigging to a band round a lower mast. [Perh. corrupted from _foot-hooks_.] FUTURE, f[=u]t'[=u]r, _adj._ about to be: that is to come: (_gram._) expressing what will be.--_n._ time to come.--_n._ FUT'URE-PER'FECT (_gram._), a tense expressing action viewed as past in reference to an assumed future time (L. _amavero_=I shall have loved).--_v.i._ FUT'URISE, to form the future tense.--_ns._ FUT'URIST, one whose chief interests are in what is to come; FUTURITION (-ish'un), future existence: accomplishment; FUTUR'ITY, time to come: an event or state of being yet to come. [Fr.,--L. _futurus_, fut.p. of _esse_, to be.] FUZE, f[=u]z, _n._ Same as FUSE. FUZZ, fuz, _v.i._ to fly off in minute particles with a fizzing sound like water from hot iron.--_n._ fine light particles, as dust, down, &c.--_n._ FUZZ'BALL, a kind of fungus, whose head is full of a fine dust. [Ety. dub.] FUZZLE, fuz'l, _v.t._ (_prov._) to intoxicate. FUZZY, fuz'i, _adj._ covered with fuzz, fluffy.--_adv._ FUZZ'ILY.--_n._ FUZZ'INESS. FY, f[=i], _interj._ Same as FIE. FYKE, f[=i]k, _n._ a bag-net for catching fish. [Dut. _fuik_.] FYLFOT, FILFOT, fil'fot, _n._ an ancient symbol in the form of a Greek cross, with each arm continued at right angles, called also _Gammadion_, _Gammation_, and _Svastika_. [Prob. _fill-foot_, meaning a device for filling the foot of a painted window.] FYRD, fird, _n._ the military force of the whole nation, all males capable of bearing arms, in Anglo-Saxon times. [A.S. _fyrd_, army.] FYTTE. See FIT (3). * * * * * G the seventh letter of our alphabet, and in the Roman not originally differentiated from C, but substituted there for the disused Z: (_mus._) the fifth note of the diatonic scale of C minor--also _sol_, the scale or key having that note for its tonic: (_nat. phil._) a symbol for acceleration of gravity, which is about 32 feet per second: in the medieval system of Roman numerals=400, or [=G]=400,000. GAB, gab, _v.i._ (_coll._) to chatter, prate.--_n._ idle talk, prattling: a jest, a witticism: (_Scot._) the mouth.--_n._ GAB'BER, jabber.--_adj._ GAB'BY, garrulous.--GIFT OF THE GAB, a talent for talking. GAB, gab, _v.i._ to brag. [O. Fr. _gabber_, to mock.] GABBART, gab'ärt, _n._ a flat river vessel with a long hatchway.--Also GABB'ARD. [Fr. _gabare_--Prov. and It. _gabarra_.] GABBATHA, gab'a-thä, _n._ the place where Pilate sat at the trial of Jesus, a tessellated pavement outside the prætorium. [Heb., 'platform.'] GABBLE, gab'l, _v.i._ to talk inarticulately: to chatter: to cackle like geese.--_ns._ GABB'LE; GABB'LER; GABB'LING, GABB'LEMENT. [Freq. of _gab_.] GABBRO, gab'ro, _n._ a rock composed of feldspar and diallage--also _Euphotide_.--_n._ GABB'RONITE, a compact variety of scapolite, resembling gabbro. [It.] GABELLE, gab-el', _n._ a tax, impost duty, formerly in France, esp. the tax on salt.--_n._ G[=A]'BELER. [Fr. _gabelle_--Low L. _gabella_, _gablum_--Teut.] GABERDINE, gab-er-d[=e]n', _n._ a loose upper garment, formerly worn by Jews. [O. Fr. _gauvardine_; per. Mid. High Ger. _wallevart_, pilgrimage, whence also Sp. _gabardina_, &c.] GABERLUNZIE, gab-er-lun'zi, -yi, _n._ (_Scot._) a pouch carried by Scottish beggars: a strolling beggar. GABION, g[=a]'bi-un, _n._ (_fort._) a bottomless basket of wicker-work filled with earth, used for shelter from the enemy's fire while digging trenches, or in forming the foundation of a jetty.--_ns._ G[=A]'BIONADE, a work formed of gabions; G[=A]'BIONAGE, gabions collectively.--_adj._ G[=A]'BIONED, furnished with gabions. [Fr.,--It. _gabbione_, a large cage--_gabbia_--L. _cavea_, a cage.] GABLE, g[=a]'bl, _n._ (_archit._) the triangular part of an exterior wall of a building between the top of the side-walls and the slopes on the roof--(_Scot._) G[=A]'VEL.--_adj._ G[=A]'BLED.--ns. G[=A]'BLE-END, the end-wall of a building on the side where there is a gable; G[=A]'BLET (_dim._), a small gable, as an ornament on buttresses, &c.; G[=A]'BLE-WIN'DOW, a window in the gable-end of a building, or a window with its upper part shaped like a gable. [The northern form _gavel_ is prob. Ice. _gafl_; Sw. _gafvel_, Dan. _gavl_. The southern form gable is prob. through O. Fr. _gable_, _jable_ from Ice. _gafl_.] GABRIEL'S HOUNDS. See HOUND. GABY, g[=a]'bi, _n._ a simpleton. [Hardly related to _gape_.] GAD, gad, _n._ a pointed bar of steel: a tool used in mining: a graver: a rod or stick, a goad: the bar across a Scotch condemned cell, on which the iron ring ran which fastened the shackles--also GADE, GAID.--_n._ GAD'LING, one of the spikes on the knuckles of a gauntlet.--UPON THE GAD (_Shak._), upon the spur of the moment. [Ice. _gadd-r_, a spike.] GAD, gad, _interj._ a minced form of God.--_interjs._ GAD'SO, an exclamation of surprise; GAD'ZOOKS, an obsolete minced oath. GAD, gad, _v.i._ to rove about restlessly: to wander or ramble in speech, &c., to straggle in growth:--_pr.p._ gad'ding; _pa.p._ gad'ded.--_ns._ GAD, GAD'ABOUT, one who walks idly about; GAD'DER.--_adv._ GAD'DINGLY--_n._ GAD'DISHNESS. [Prob. conn. with _gad_ in _gadfly_; or obsolete _gadling_, vagabond.] GADFLY, gad'fl[=i], _n._ a fly which pierces the skin of cattle in order to deposit its eggs: a mischievous gadabout. [From _gad_, n., _fly_.] GADGE, gaj, _n._ an instrument of torture (_Browning_). GADHELIC, gad-el'ik, _adj._ of or belonging to that branch of the Celtic race which comprises the Erse of Ireland, the Gaels of Scotland, and the Manx of the Isle of Man, as distinguished from the _Cymric_. [Ir. _Gaedheal_ (pl. _Gaedhil_), a Gael.] GADOID, g[=a]'doid, _adj._ pertaining to the _Gadidæ_, or cod-fishes.--_n._ a fish of this family.--_n._ G[=A]'DEAN, a fish of this family.--_adj._ G[=A]'DINE.--_n._ G[=A]'DUS, the typical genus of the same. [Gr. _gados_.] GADOLINITE, gad'[=o]-lin-[=i]t, _n._ a silicate of the yttrium and cerium metals, containing also beryllium and iron. [From the Finnish chemist _Gadolin_ (1760-1852).] GADROON, gad-r[=oo]n', _n._ one of a set of convex curves or arcs joined at their extremities to form a decorative pattern--in plate, &c.--_adj._ GADROONED'.--_n._ GADROON'ING. [Fr. _godron_.] GADSMAN, gadz'man, _n._ (_Scot._) one who drives horses at the plough. [_Gad_ and _man_.] GADWALL, gad'wawl, _n._ a northern fresh-water duck. GAE, g[=a], a Scotch form of _go_. GAEL, g[=a]l, _n._ a Scotch Highlander.--_adj._ GAELIC (g[=a]l'ik), pertaining to the Gaels.--_n._ the Scottish-Highland dialect.--_v.t._ GAEL'ICISE.--_n._ GAEL'ICISM. [Gael. _Gaidheal_.] GAFF, gaf, _n._ a hook used esp. for landing large fish after they have been hooked on the line and spent by the skill of the angler: (_naut._) the spar to which the head of a fore-and-aft sail is bent.--_v.t._ to hook or bind by means of a gaff.--_n._ GAFF'-TOP-SAIL, a small sail, the head of which is extended on a small gaff which hoists on the top-mast, and the foot on the lower gaff. [Fr. _gaffe_.] GAFF, gaf, _n._ (_slang_) a low theatre: a fair. GAFF, gaf, _v.i._ (_slang_) to gamble.--_ns._ GAFF'ER; GAFF'ING. GAFFER, gaf'[.e]r, _n._ originally a word of respect applied to an old man, now familiar: the foreman of a squad of workmen. [Corr. of _godfather_, as _gammer_ of _godmother_.] GAG, gag, _v.t._ to forcibly stop the mouth: to silence: to choke up: to introduce gag into a piece:--_pr.p._ gag'ging; _pa.p._ gagged.--_n._ something thrust into the mouth or put over it to enforce silence, or distend the jaws during an operation: the closure applied in a debate: a mouthful which produces nausea, the fat of fresh beef boiled: (_slang_) an actor's interpolation: a joke or hoax.--_n._ GAG'GER, one who gags. [Prob. imitative of sound made in choking.] GAG, gag, _v.t._ (_slang_) to deceive.--v.i. to practise imposture.--n. a made-up story, lie: (_U.S._) a laughing-stock. GAGE, g[=a]j, _n._ a pledge: something thrown down as a challenge, as a glove.--_v.t._ to bind by pledge or security: offer as a guarantee: to stake, wager. [O. Fr. _guage_, from Teut. See WED.] GAGE. See GAUGE. GAGE, g[=a]j, _n._ name applied to several varieties of plum. [See GREENGAGE.] GAGGLE, gag'l, _n._ a flock of geese, or of women.--_v.i._ to cackle.--_n._ GAGG'LING, cackling.--_adj._ garrulous. GAG-TOOTH, gag'-t[=oo]th, _n._ a projecting tooth.--_adj._ GAG'-TOOTHED. GAIETY, GAILY. See GAY. GAIKWAR, g[=i]k'war, _n._ name of the ruler of Baroda in India. [Marathi _g[=a]e_--Sans. _go_, a cow, bull.] GAIN, g[=a]n, _v.t._ to obtain by effort: to earn: to be successful in: to draw to one's own party, bribe: to reach: to make advance: (_N. T._) to escape.--_n._ that which is gained: profit.--_adj._ GAIN'ABLE.--_n._ GAIN'ER.--_adj._ GAIN'FUL.--_adv._ GAIN'FULLY.--_n._ GAIN'FULNESS.--_n.pl._ GAIN'INGS.--_adj._ GAIN'LESS.--_n._ GAIN'LESSNESS.--GAIN GROUND (see GROUND); GAIN UPON, to overtake by degrees. [O. Fr. _gain_, _gaain_, _gaigner_, _gaaignier_, from Teut., as in _weidenen_, to graze, to seek forage, _weida_, pasture.] GAIN, g[=a]n, _adj._ (_prov._) near, straight. [Ice. _gegn_.] GAINGIVING, g[=a]n'giv-ing, _n._ (_Shak._) misgiving. GAINLY, g[=a]n'li, _adj._ agile, handsome. See UNGAINLY. GAINSAY, g[=a]n's[=a], _v.t._ to contradict: to deny: to dispute.--_ns._ GAIN'SAYER (_B._), an opposer; GAIN'SAYING.--_v.t._ GAIN'STRIVE (_Spens._), to strive against. [A.S. _gegn_, against, and _say_.] GAINST, a poetic abbreviation of _against_. GAIR, g[=a]r, _n._ (_Scot._) gore. GAIRFOWL. See GAREFOWL. GAIRISH. See GARISH. GAIT, g[=a]t, _n._ way or manner of walking, step, pace.--_adj._ GAIT'ED, having a particular gait. [A special use of _gate_.] GAIT, g[=a]t, _n._ (_prov._) a sheaf of corn: charge for pasturage. GAITER, g[=a]t'[.e]r, _n._ a covering of cloth, &c., for the ankle, fitting down upon the shoe. [Fr. _guêtre_, _guietre_.] GAL, gal, _n._ (_prov._) a girl. GALA, g[=a]'la, _n._ festivity.--_n._ G[=A]'LA-DRESS, gay costume for a gala-day. [Fr. _gala_, show--It. _gala_, finery.] GALACTIC, ga-lak'tik, _adj._ pertaining to or obtained from milk: (_astron._) pertaining to the Milky-Way.--_ns._ GALAC'TAGOGUE, a medicine which promotes the secretion of milk; GALAC'TIA, a morbid flow or deficiency of milk; GALAC'TIN, lactose; GALACTOM'ETER, an instrument for finding the quality of milk by indicating its specific gravity; GALACTOPH'AGIST, one who lives on milk.--_adjs._ GALACTOPH'AGOUS, living on milk; GALACTOPH'OROUS, milk-carrying; GALACTOPOIET'IC, milk-producing.--_n._ GALACTORRHOE'A, a too abundant flow of milk. [Gr. _gala_, _galaktos_, milk.] GALAGE, an obs. form of _galosh_. GALAGO, ga-l[=a]'go, _n._ a genus of large-eared, long-tailed African lemurs, arboreal and nocturnal in habit, living on fruit and insects. GALANGAL. See GALINGALE. GALANTINE, gal'an-t[=i]n, _n._ a dish of poultry or veal, boned, tied up tight, cooked, and served cold. [Fr.,--Low L. _galatina_ for _gelatina_, jelly. See GELATINE.] GALANTY SHOW, gal-an'ti sh[=o], _n._ a shadow pantomime produced by throwing shadows of miniature figures on a wall or screen. [Prob. It. _galanti_, pl. of _galante_. See GALLANT.] GALATIAN, ga-l[=a]'shi-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Galatia_ in Asia Minor--colonised by Gauls in the 3d century B.C.--_n._ a native of Galatia. GALAXY, gal'ak-si, _n._ the Milky-Way, or the luminous band of stars stretching across the heavens: any splendid assemblage. [Through Fr. and L., from Gr. _galaxias_--_gala_, milk.] GALBANUM, gal'ban-um, _n._ a resinous juice obtained from an Eastern plant, used in medicine and in the arts, and by the Jews in the preparation of the sacred incense.--Also GAL'BAN. [L.,--Gr. _chalban[=e]_, prob. an Eastern word.] GALE, g[=a]l, _n._ a strong wind between a stiff breeze and a hurricane: (_coll._) a state of noisy excitement. [Prob. elliptical for _gale_ (or _gall_) _wind_. Mr Bradley disfavours the Scand. ety., which connects with Dan. _gal_, mad, Norw. _galen_, raging.] GALE, g[=a]l, _n._ a shrub growing in marshy spots, usually called SWEET-GALE. [Prob. A.S. _gagel_; cf. Ger. _gagel_, a myrtle-bush.] GALE, g[=a]l, _n._ a periodic payment of rent. [_Gavel._] GALEATE, -D, g[=a]'le-[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ (_bot._, _ornith._, and _anat._) helmeted. [L. _gale[=a]tus_--_galea_, a helmet.] GALENA, g[=a]-l[=e]'na, _n._ a mineral which is essentially a sulphide of lead--also GAL[=E]'NITE.--_adjs._ GAL[=E]'NIC, -AL, GAL[=E]'NOID. [L. _galena_, lead-ore.] GALENIC, -AL, g[=a]-len'ik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to _Galen_, the 2d-cent. Greek physician, or to his methods and theories.--_ns._ G[=A]'LENISM; G[=A]'LENIST. GALEOPITHECUS, g[=a]-li-o-pi-th[=e]'kus, _n._ a flying lemur.--_adjs._ GALEOPITH[=E]'CINE, GALEOPITH[=E]'COID. GALILEAN, gal-i-l[=e]'an, _adj._ of or pertaining to _Galileo_, a great Italian mathematician (1564-1642).--GALILEAN LAW, the law of the uniform acceleration of falling bodies; GALILEAN TELESCOPE, a telescope with a concave lens for its eye-piece. GALILEAN, gal-i-l[=e]'an, _adj._ of or pertaining to _Galilee_, one of the Roman divisions of Palestine.--_n._ a native of Galilee: a Christian. GALILEE, gal'i-l[=e], _n._ (_archit._) a porch or chapel at the west end of some abbey churches, in which penitents were placed, and where ecclesiastics met women who had business with them.--GALILEE PORCH, a galilee which has direct communication with the exterior. [Prob. suggested from Mark, xvi. 7, 'He goeth before you into _Galilee_.'] GALIMATIAS, gal-i-m[=a]'shi-as, _n._ nonsense, gibberish: any confused mixture of unlike things. [Fr.] GALINGALE, gal'in-g[=a]l, _n._ the aromatic root of certain E. Indian plants of genera _Alpinia_ and _Kæmpferia_, formerly much used in medicine and cookery: the tuber of _Cyperus longus_, of ancient medicinal repute: also the whole plant.--Also GALAN'GAL. [O. Fr. _galingal_--Ar. _khalanj[=a]n_--Chin. _ko-liang-kiang_--_Ko_, a Chinese province, _liang_, mild, and _kiang_, ginger.] GALIONGEE, gal-yon-j[=e]', _n._ a Turkish sailor. [Turk. _q[=a]ly[=u]nj[=i]_, deriv. of _q[=a]ly[=u]n_--It. _galeone_, galleon.] GALIPOT, gal'i-pot, _n._ the white resin which exudes from pine, yielding, when refined, white, yellow, or Burgundy pitch. [Fr.] GALL, gawl, _n._ the greenish-yellow fluid secreted from the liver, called bile: bitterness: malignity.--_ns._ GALL-BLADD'ER, a pear-shaped bag lying on the under side of the liver, a reservoir for the bile; GALL'-STONE, a hard concretion in the gall-bladder or biliary ducts.--GALL AND WORMWOOD, anything extremely disagreeable and annoying.--IN THE GALL OF BITTERNESS, in a state of extreme hostility to God (Acts, viii. 23). [A.S. _gealla_, gall; cf. Ger. _galle_, Gr. _chol[=e]_, L. _fel_.] GALL, gawl, _n._ a light nut-like ball which certain insects produce on the oak-tree, used in dyeing--also GALL'-NUT.--_v.t._ to fret or hurt the skin by rubbing: to annoy: to enrage.--_v.i._ (_Shak._) to act in a galling manner.--_ns._ GALL'ATE, a salt of gallic acid; GALL'FLY, an insect which occasions gall on plants by puncturing.--_adj._ GALL'ING, irritating.--_adv._ GALL'INGLY.--GALLIC ACID, a crystalline substance obtained from gall-nuts, and used in making ink. [Fr. _galle_--L. _galla_, oak-apple.] GALLANT, gal'ant, _adj._ brave: noble: (rare) gay, splendid, magnificent: courteous or attentive to ladies: amorous, erotic (sometimes gal-ant').--_n._ a gay, dashing person: a man of fashion: suitor, seducer.--_adv._ GALL'ANTLY.--_ns._ GALL'ANTNESS; GALL'ANTRY, bravery: intrepidity: attention or devotion to ladies, often in a bad sense, amorous intrigue: (_Shak._) gallants collectively. [Fr. _galant_--O. Fr. _gale_, a merrymaking; prob. Teut.] GALLEASS, gal'e-as, _n._ (_Shak._) a vessel of the same construction as a galley, but larger and heavier.--Also GALL'IASS. [O. Fr. _galeace_--It. _galeaza_, augmented from, _galea_, galley.] GALLEON, gal'i-un, _n._ a large Spanish vessel with lofty stem and stern, mostly used formerly for carrying treasure. [Sp. _galeon_. Cf. GALLEY.] GALLERY, gal'[.e]r-i, _n._ a balcony surrounded by rails: a long passage: the upper floor of seats in a church or theatre: the persons occupying the gallery at a theatre: a room for the exhibition of works of art: (_fort._) a covered passage cut through the earth or masonry: a level or drive in a mine.--_adj._ GALL'ERIED, furnished with, or arranged like, a gallery.--PLAY TO THE GALLERY, to play so as to win the applause of the least intelligent amongst the spectators. [O. Fr. _galerie_ (It. _galleria_).] GALLEY, gal'i, _n._ a long, low-built ship with one deck, propelled by oars: a state barge: the captain's boat on a war-ship: the place where the cooking is done on board ship: a kind of boat attached to a ship-of-war: (_print._) a flat oblong tray in which the compositor places the type he has set up.--_ns._ GALL'EY-PROOF, an impression taken from type on a galley; GALL'EY-SLAVE, one condemned for crime to work like a slave at the oar of a galley. [O. Fr. _galie_--Low L. _galea_.] GALLIAMBIC, gal-i-am'bik, _adj._ constituting a _galliambus_, a verse consisting of four Ionics a minore ([uu--]), with variations and substitutions. [Used by the _Galli_, priests of the Phrygian goddess Cybele.] GALLIARD, gal'yard, _adj._ (_arch._) brisk, lively.--_n._ a spirited dance for two, common in the 16th and 17th centuries: a gay fellow.--_n._ GALL'IARDISE, gaiety: a merry trick. [O. Fr. _gaillard_; cf. Sp. _gallardo_.] GALLIC, gal'ik, _adj._ pertaining to _Gaul_ or France.--_adj._ GALL'ICAN, of or pertaining to France: esp. pertaining to the Roman Catholic Church in France.--_n._ one holding Gallican doctrines.--_n._ GALL'ICANISM, the spirit of nationalism within the French Church--as opposed to _Ultramontanism_, or the absolute subjection of everything to the personal authority of the pope.--_adv._ GALLICE (gal'i-s[=e]), in French.--_n._ GALL'ICISM, the use in English or any other language of a word or idiom peculiar to the French.--_vs.t._ GALL'IC[=I]ZE, GALL'IC[=I]SE, to make French in opinions, habits, &c. [L. _Gallicus_--_Gallia_, Gaul.] GALLIGASKINS, gal-i-gas'kinz, _n.pl._ large open hose or trousers: leggings worn by sportsmen. [A corr. of O. Fr. _garguesque_--It. _Grechesco_, Greekish--L. _Græcus_, Greek.] GALLIMAUFRY, gal-i-maw'fri, _n._ (_Shak._) any inconsistent or absurd medley: a medley of persons. [O. Fr. _galimafrée_, a ragout, hash.] GALLINACEOUS, gal-in-[=a]'shus, _adj._ pertaining to the order of birds to which the domestic fowl, pheasant, &c. belong. [L. _gallina_, a hen--_gallus_, a cock.] GALLINULE, gal'i-n[=u]l, _n._ a genus of aquatic birds closely allied to the coots, of which the common water-hen is a species. [L. _gallinula_, dim. of _gallina_, a hen.] GALLIO, gal'i-o, _n._ a careless, easy-going man who keeps himself free from trouble and responsibility. [From the proconsul of Achaia in 53 A.D., Junius Annæus _Gallio_, who refused to listen to the Jewish clamour against Paul (Acts, xviii. 12-17).] GALLIOT, GALIOT, gal'i-ot, _n._ a small galley: an old Dutch cargo-boat, also a bomb-ketch. [Fr. _galiote_--Low L. _galea_, galley.] GALLIPOT, gal'i-pot, _n._ a small glazed pot for containing medicine. [Prob. _pottery_ such as was brought in _galleys_; not likely to be the Old Dut. _gleipot_, a glazed pot.] GALLIUM, gal'i-um, _n._ a rare malleable metal, grayish-white, brilliant in lustre. GALLIVANT, gal-i-vant', _v.i._ to spend time frivolously, esp. in flirting. [Perh. a variation of _gallant_.] GALLIVAT, gal'i-vat, _n._ a large two-masted Malay boat. GALLIWASP, gal'i-wasp, _n._ a West Indian lizard. GALLIZE, gal'[=i]z, _v.t._ to treat unfermented grape-juice with water and sugar, so as to increase the quantity of wine produced. [From Dr L. _Gall_ of Treves.] GALLOGLASS, gal'lo-glas, _n._ a soldier or armed retainer of a chief in ancient Ireland and other Celtic countries.--Also GAL'LOWGLASS. [Ir. _gallóglách_--Ir. _gall_, foreign, _óglách_, youth.] GALLOMANIA, gal-o-m[=a]'ni-a, _n._ a mania for French ways. GALLON, gal'un, _n._ the standard measure of capacity=4 quarts. [O. Fr. _galun_, _galon_, _jalon_; app. cog. with Fr. _jale_, a bowl.] GALLOON, ga-l[=oo]n', _n._ a kind of lace: a narrow ribbon made of silk or worsted, or of both.--_adj._ GALLOONED', adorned with galloon. [Fr. _galon_, _galonner_; prob. cog. with _gallant_.] GALLOP, gal'up, _v.i._ to move by leaps, as a horse: to ride a galloping horse: to move very fast.--_v.t._ to cause to gallop.--_n._ the pace at which a horse runs when the forefeet are lifted together and the hindfeet together: a ride at a gallop.--_n._ GALL'OPER, one who, or that which, gallops.--_part._ and _adj._ GALL'OPING, proceeding at a gallop: (_fig._) advancing rapidly, as in the phrase, 'a galloping consumption.'--CANTERBURY GALLOP, a moderate gallop of a horse (see CANTER). [O. Fr. _galop_, _galoper_; prob. Teut., related to _leap_. There is a Flemish and a Middle High Ger. _walop_ (n.). The root is seen in Old Fries. _walla_, to boil; cf. WELL (1).] GALLOPADE, gal-up-[=a]d', _n._ a quick kind of dance--then, the music appropriate to it: a sidewise gallop.--_v.i._ to move briskly: to perform a gallopade. [Fr.] GALLOVIDIAN, gal-o-vid'yan, _adj._ belonging to Galloway.--_n._ a native thereof. GALLOW, gal'l[=o], _v.t._ (_Shak._) to frighten or terrify. [A.S. _a-g['æ]lwian_, to astonish.] GALLOWAY, gal'o-w[=a], _n._ a small strong horse, 13-15 hands high, originally from _Galloway_ in Scotland: a breed of large black hornless cattle. GALLOWS, gal'us, _n._ a wooden frame on which criminals are executed by hanging--a _pl._ used as a _sing._, and having (_Shak._) the double _pl._ 'gallowses' (used also _coll._ originally for a pair of braces for supporting the trousers): (_Shak._) a wretch who deserves the gallows: any contrivance with posts and cross-beam for suspending objects: a rest for the tympan of a hand printing-press: the main frame of a beam-engine.--_ns._ GALL'OWS-BIRD, a person who deserves hanging; GALL'OWS-BITTS, a frame fixed in a ship's deck to support spare spars.--_adj._ GALL'OWS-FREE, free from danger of hanging.--_n._ GALL'OWSNESS (_slang_), recklessness.--_adj._ GALL'OWS-RIPE, ready for the gallows.--_n._ GALL'OWS-TREE, a tree used as a gallows.--CHEAT THE GALLOWS, to escape hanging though deserving it. [M. E. _galwes_ (pl.)--A.S. _galga_; Ger. _galgen_.] GALLY, gal'i, _v.i._ (_prov._) to scare, daze.--_ns._ GALL'Y-BEG'GAR, GALL'ICROW, GALL'YCROW, a scarecrow. GALOOT, ga-l[=oo]t', _n._ (_U.S._) a recruit, a clumsy fellow. GALOP, gal'op, _n._ a lively round dance of German origin: music for such a dance. [Fr.; cf. GALLOP.] GALOPIN, gal'o-pin, _n._ (_Scot._) a kitchen boy. [O. Fr.,--_galoper_, to gallop.] GALORE, ga-l[=o]r', _adv._ in abundance, plentifully.--_n._ abundance. [Ir. _go leór_, sufficiently--_go_, an adverbialising particle, _leór_, sufficient.] GALOSH, ga-losh', _n._ a shoe or slipper worn over another in wet weather--also GALOCHE', GOLOSH'. [Fr. _galoche_--Gr. _kalopodion_, dim. of _kalopous_, a shoemaker's last--_k[=a]lon_, wood, _pous_, the foot.] GALRAVAGE. See GILRAVAGE. GALT. See GAULT. GALUMPH, gal-umf', _v.i._ to march along boundingly and exultingly. [A coinage of Lewis Carroll.] GALVANISM, gal'van-izm, _n._ a branch of the science of electricity which treats of electric currents produced by chemical agents.--_adj._ GALVAN'IC, belonging to or exhibiting galvanism.--_n._ GALVANIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ GAL'VAN[=I]SE, to subject to the action of a galvanic current: to confer a false vitality upon.--_ns._ GAL'VANIST, GAL'VAN[=I]SER; GALVAN'OGRAPH, a printing-surface resembling an engraved copper-plate, produced by an electrotype process from a drawing made with viscid ink on a silvered plate: an impression taken from such a plate; GALVANOG'RAPHY; GALVANOL'OGIST, a student of galvanology; GALVANOL'OGY, the science of galvanic phenomena; GALVANOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the strength of galvanic currents; GALVANOM'ETRY.--_adj._ GALVANOPLAS'TIC.--_ns._ GALVANOPLAS'TY, electrotypy; GALVAN'OSCOPE, an instrument for detecting the existence and direction of an electric current.--GALVANIC BATTERY, a series of zinc or copper plates susceptible of galvanic action; GALVANISED IRON, the name given to iron coated with zinc to prevent rusting. [From Luigi _Galvani_, of Bologna, the discoverer (1737-98).] GALWEGIAN, gal-w[=e]'ji-an, _adj._ belonging to Galloway.--_n._ a native thereof.--Also GALLOW[=E]'GIAN. GAM, gam, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to make a call on, to exchange courtesies with: to gather in a flock, as whales.--_n._ a school or herd of whales. [Prob. a corr. of _jam_.] GAM, gam, _n._ (_Scot._) the mouth:--_pl._ tusks. GAM, gam, _n._ (_slang_) a leg. GAMA-GRASS, gä'ma-gräs, _n._ a grass with very large culms, 4 to 7 feet high, grown in Mexico. GAMASH, gam-ash', _n._ a kind of leggings or gaiters. GAMB, gamb, _n._ a leg or shank: (_her._) a beast's whole foreleg=GAMB'A (_anat._), the metacarpus or metatarsus of ruminants, &c.: short for _viol da gamba_. [Low L. _gamba_, a leg. See GAMBOL.] GAMBADO, gam-b[=a]'do, _n._ a leather covering for the legs to defend them from mud in riding: boots affixed to the saddle in place of stirrups. [It. _gamba_, the leg.] GAMBADO, gam-b[=a]'do, _n._ a bound or spring of a horse: a fantastic movement, a caper. [Sp. _gambada_; cf. GAMBOL.] GAMBESON, gam'be-son, _n._ an ancient coat for defence, worn under the habergeon, of leather, or of cloth stuffed and quilted.--Also GAM'BISON. [O. Fr.--Low L. _gambes[=o]n-em_; prob. Teut., as in _wambâ_, the belly.] GAMBET, gam'bet, _n._ the redshank. GAMBIER, gam'b[=e]r, _n._ an astringent substance prepared from the leaves of a shrub of the East Indies, and largely used in tanning and dyeing.--Also GAM'BIR. [Malayan.] GAMBIST, gam'bist, _n._ a player on the gamba or _viol da gamba_. GAMBIT, gam'bit, _n._ a mode of opening a game of chess by sacrificing a pawn early in the game for the purpose of making a powerful attack. [It. _gambetto_, a tripping up--_gamba_, leg.] GAMBLE, gam'bl, _v.i._ to play for money in games of chance or skill: to engage in wild financial speculations.--_v.t._ to squander away.--_n._ a gambling transaction.--_ns._ GAM'BLER, one who gambles, esp. who makes it his business; GAM'BLING-HOUSE, a house kept for the accommodation of people who play at games of hazard for money. [For _gamm-le_ or _gam-le_, a freq. which has ousted M. E. _gamenen_--A.S. _gamenian_, to play at games--_gamen_, a game.] GAMBOGE, gam-b[=o]j', or gam-b[=oo]j', _n._ a yellow gum-resin used as a pigment and in medicine.--_adjs._ GAMBOG'IAN, GAMBOG'IC. [From _Cambodia_, in Asia, whence brought about 1600.] GAMBOL, gam'bol, _v.i._ to leap, skip: to frisk in sport:--_pr.p._ gam'bolling; _pa.p._ gam'bolled.--_n._ a skipping: playfulness. [Formerly _gambold_--O. Fr. _gambade_--It. _gambata_, a kick--Low L. _gamba_, leg.] GAMBREL, gam'brel, _n._ the hock of a horse: a crooked stick used by butchers for suspending a carcass while dressing it.--GAMBREL ROOF, a curved or hipped roof. [O. Fr. _gamberel_; cf. Fr. _gambier_, a hooked stick; prob. Celt. _cam_, crooked.] GAMBROON, gam-br[=oo]n', _n._ a twilled cloth of worsted and cotton, or linen. [Prob. _Gambroon_ in Persia.] GAME, g[=a]m, _n._ sport of any kind: an exercise or contest for recreation or amusement, esp. athletic contests: the stake in a game: the manner of playing a game: the requisite number of points to be gained to win a game: jest, sport, trick, artifice: any object of pursuit or desire: (_Shak._) gallantry: the spoil of the chase: wild animals protected by law and hunted by sportsmen, the flesh of such--hares, pheasants, partridges, grouse, blackcock.--_adj._ of or belonging to such animals as are hunted as game: plucky, courageous: (_slang_) having the spirit to do something.--_v.i._ to gamble.--_ns._ GAME'-BAG, a bag for holding a sportsman's game, also the whole amount of game taken at one time; GAME'COCK, a cock trained to fight; GAME'KEEPER, one who has the care of game.--_n.pl._ GAME'-LAWS, laws relating to the protection of certain animals called game.--_adv._ GAMELY.--_ns._ GAME'NESS; GAME'-PRESERV'ER, one who preserves game on his property for his own sport or profit.--_adj._ GAME'SOME, playful.--_ns._ GAME'SOMENESS, sportiveness: merriment; GAME'STER, one viciously addicted to gambling: a gambler; GAME'-TEN'ANT, one who rents the privilege of shooting or fishing over a particular estate or district; GAM'ING, gambling; GAM'ING-HOUSE, a gambling-house, a hell; GAM'ING-T[=A]'BLE, a table used for gambling.--_adj._ GAM'Y, having the flavour of dead game kept till tainted: (_coll._) spirited, plucky.--BIG GAME, the larger animals hunted; DIE GAME, to keep up courage to the last; MAKE A GAME OF, to play with real energy or skill; MAKE GAME OF, to make sport of, to ridicule; RED GAME, the Scotch ptarmigan; ROUND GAME, a game, as at cards, in which the number of players is not fixed; THE GAME IS NOT WORTH THE CANDLE (see CANDLE); THE GAME IS UP, the game is started: the scheme has failed. [A.S. _gamen_, play; Ice. _gaman_, Dan. _gammen_.] GAME, g[=a]m, _adj._ (_slang_) crooked, lame. [Most prob. not the Celt. _cam_, crooked.] GAMIC, gam'ik, _adj._ having a sexual character, of an ovum--opp. to _Agamic_.--_ns._ GAMETE (gam-[=e]t'), a sexual protoplasmic body; GAMOGEN'ESIS, sexual reproduction.--_adjs._ GAMOPET'ALOUS (_bot._), having the petals united at the base; GAMOPHYL'LOUS, having cohering perianth leaves; GAMOSEP'ALOUS, having the sepals united. [Gr. _gamos_, marriage.] GAMIN, gam'in, _n._ a street Arab, a precocious and mischievous imp of the pavement. [Fr.] GAMMA, gam'a, _n._ the third letter of the Greek alphabet.--_ns._ GAMM[=A]D'ION, GAMM[=A]'TION (see FYLFOT). GAMMER, gam'[.e]r, _n._ an old woman--the correlative of _gaffer_ (q.v.). GAMMERSTANG, gam'er-stang, _n._ (_prov._) a tall, awkward person, esp. a woman: a wanton girl. GAMMOCK, gam'ok, _n._ (_prov._) a frolic, fun.--_v.i._ to frolic, to lark. GAMMON, gam'un, _n._ (mostly _coll._) a hoax: nonsense, humbug.--_v.t._ to hoax, impose upon.--_ns._ GAMM'ONER; GAMM'ONING. [A.S. _gamen_, a game.] GAMMON, gam'un, _n._ the preserved thigh of a hog. [O. Fr. _gambon_--_gambe_, a leg.] GAMMON, gam'un, _n._ (_naut._) the lashing of the bowsprit.--_v.t._ to lash the bowsprit with ropes. GAMP, gamp, _n._ (_slang_) a large, clumsy, or untidily tied up umbrella.--_adj._ GAMP'ISH, bulging. [So called from Mrs Sarah _Gamp_, a tippling monthly nurse in Dickens's _Martin Chuzzlewit_.] GAMUT, gam'ut, _n._ the musical scale: the whole extent of a thing. [So called from the Gr. _gamma_, which marked the last of the series of notes in the musical notation of Guido Aretinus, and L. _ut_, the beginning of an old hymn to St John ('Ut queant laxis') used in singing the scale.] GANCH, ganch, _v.t._ to impale.--Also GAUNCH. [O. Fr. _gancher_--It. _gancio_, a hook.] GANDER, gan'd[.e]r, _n._ the male of the goose: a simpleton: (_U.S._) a man living apart from his wife.--_ns._ GAN'DERCLEUGH, the place of abode of the hypothetical Jedediah Cleishbotham, editor of the _Tales of my Landlord_; GAN'DERISM; GAN'DER-PAR'TY, a social gathering of men only. [A.S. _gandra_, from ganra, with inserted _d_; Dut. and Low Ger. _gander_.] GANESA, ga-n[=e]'sa, _n._ the elephant-headed Hindu god of foresight and prudence. GANG, gang, _n._ a number of persons or animals associated for a certain purpose, usually in a bad sense: a number of labourers working together during the same hours: the range of pasture allowed to cattle: a set of tools, &c., used together for any kind of work.--_ns._ GANG'ER, GANGS'MAN, the foreman of a squad, as of plate-layers. [A.S. _gang_ (Dan. _gang_, Ger. _gang_, a going), _gangan_, to go.] GANG, gang, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to go.--_n.pl._ GANG'-DAYS, the three days preceding Ascension Day or Holy Thursday.--_n._ GANG'ER, a walker: a fast-going horse. [A.S. _gangan_, to go.] GANGLION, gang'gli-on, _n._ a tumour in the sheath of a tendon: an enlargement in the course of a nerve: any special centre of nervous action:--_pl._ GANG'LIA, GANG'LIONS.--_adjs._ GANG'LIAC, GANG'LIAL, GANGLION'IC, pertaining to a ganglion; GANG'LIATE, -D, provided with a ganglion or ganglia; GANG'LIFORM, GANG'LIOFORM, having the form of a ganglion; GANG'LIONARY, composed of ganglia.--_n._ GANG'LION-CELL (_anat._), a nerve-cell with nucleus and nucleones.--BASAL GANGLIA, ganglia situated at the bottom of the cerebrum. [Gr.] GANGREL, gang'rel, _n._ and _adj._ a vagrant. [From _gang_--A.S. _gangan_, to go, walk.] GANGRENE, gang'gr[=e]n, _n._ loss of vitality in some part of the body: the first stage in mortification.--_v.t._ to mortify.--_v.i._ to become putrid.--_v.i._ GANG'RENATE, to become mortified.--_adjs._ GANGRENES'CENT, becoming mortified; GANG'RENOUS, mortified. [L. _gangræna_--Gr. _gangraina_, _grainein_, to gnaw.] GANG-SAW, gang-saw, _n._ an arrangement of saws set in one frame. GANGUE, GANG, gang, _n._ in mining, the stony matrix in which metallic ores occur. [Fr.,--Ger. _gang_, a vein.] GANGWAY, gang'w[=a], _n._ a passage or way by which to go into or out of any place, esp. a ship: a way between rows of seats, esp. the cross-passage in the House of Commons, about half-way down the House, giving access to the rear-benches. The members 'above the gangway' are the ministers and ex-ministers, with their more immediate supporters. [A.S. _gangweg_; cf. _gang_ and way.] GANISTER, GANNISTER, gan'is-ter, _n._ a hard, close-grained siliceous stone, which often forms the stratum that underlies a coal-seam. GANJA, gan'ja, _n._ an intoxicating preparation of Indian hemp. GANNET, gan'et, _n._ a web-footed fowl found in the northern seas, the best-known of which is the solan goose. [A.S. _ganot_, a sea-fowl; Dut. _gent_.] GANOID, gän'oid, _adj._ belonging to an order of fishes once very large, but now decadent, including only seven genera (sturgeons, &c.).--_adj_. GANOI'DIAN. [Gr. _ganos_, brightness, _eidos_, appearance.] GANT, gänt, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to yawn--also GAUNT.--_n._ a yawn. GANTLET, gant'let, _n._ a glove. [Same as GAUNTLET.] GANTLET, gant'let, GANTLOPE, gant'l[=o]p, _n._ a punishment consisting of driving a criminal through a lane formed by two files of men, who each strike him as he passes.--RUN THE GANTLET, to undergo the punishment of the gantlet: to be exposed to unpleasant remarks or treatment. [Confused with _gauntlet_, but from Sw. _gatlopp_--_gata_ (Eng. _gate_), a street, line of soldiers, _lopp_ (Eng. _leap_), course.] GANTRY, gan'tri, _n._ a stand for barrels: a platform for a travelling-crane, &c.--Also GAUN'TRY. GANYMEDE, gan'i-m[=e]d, _n._ a cup-bearer, pot-boy, from the beautiful youth who succeeded Hebe as cup-bearer to Zeus, being carried off to Olympus by the eagle of Zeus: a catamite. GAOL, GAOLER, old spellings of JAIL, JAILER. GAP, gap, _n._ an opening made by rupture or parting: a cleft: a passage: a deep ravine in a mountain-ridge: any breach of continuity.--_v.t._ to notch: to make a gap in.--_adjs._ GAP'PY, full of gaps; GAP-TOOTHED, lacking some of the teeth.--STAND IN THE GAP, to stand forward in active defence of something; STOP A GAP, to repair a defect, close a breach. [M. E. _gappe_--Ice. _gap_, an opening.] GAPE, g[=a]p, _v.i._ to open the mouth wide: to yawn: to stare with open mouth: to be open, like a gap.--_n._ act of gaping: width of the mouth when opened.--_ns._ GAP'ER; GAPES, a disease of birds, owing to the presence of trematode worms in the windpipe, shown by their uneasy gaping.--_adj._ GAP'ING, with mouth open in admiration.--_adv._ GAP'INGLY. [Ice. _gapa_, to open the mouth; Ger. _gaffen_, to stare.] GAR, gär, GARFISH, gär'fish, _n._ a long slender fish of the pike family, with a pointed head. [A.S. _gár_, a dart.] GAR, gär, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to cause, to compel. [Norse _ger(v)a_, to make (A.S. _gierwan_, _giarwian_), Sw. _göra_, Dan. _gjöre_; cf. YARE.] GARANCINE, gar'an-sin, _n._ a manufactured product of madder, used as a dye. [Fr.,--_garance_, madder.] GARB, gärb, _n._ fashion of dress: external appearance.--_v.t._ to clothe, array. [O. Fr. _garbe_--It. _garbo_, grace; of Teut. origin.] GARB, gärb, _n._ a sheaf of grain, frequently used in heraldry. [O. Fr. _garbe_--Teut., as in Old High Ger. _garba_, a handful (Ger. _garbe_, Dut. _garf_).] GARBAGE, gär'b[=a]j, _n._ refuse, as the bowels of an animal: any worthless matter. [Of doubtful origin; prob. O. Fr. _garbe_, a sheaf; not conn. with _garble_.] GARBLE, gär'bl, _v.t._ to select what may serve our own purpose, in a bad sense: to mutilate, corrupt, or falsify.--_n._ GAR'BLER, one who selects. [Most prob. It. _garbellare_--Ar. _ghirbál_, a sieve.] GARBOARD-STRAKE, gär'b[=o]rd-str[=a]k, _n._ the first range of planks laid on a ship's bottom next the keel. [Dut. _gaarboord_.] GARBOIL, gär'boil, _n._ (_Shak._) disorder, uproar. [O. Fr. _garbouil_--It. _garbuglio_, conn. with L. _bull[=i]re_, to boil.] GARÇON, gär-song', _n._ a boy: a waiter. [Fr.] GARDANT, gärd'ant, _adj._ (_her._) said of an animal represented as full-faced and looking forward. [Fr., pr.p. of _garder_, to look.] GARDEN, gär'dn, _n._ a piece of ground on which flowers, &c., are cultivated: a pleasant spot.--_ns._ GAR'DENER; GAR'DEN-GLASS, a bell-glass for covering plants; GAR'DENING, the act of laying out and cultivating gardens; GAR'DEN-PAR'TY, a party held on the lawn or in the garden of a private house.--GARDEN OF EDEN (see EDEN); HANGING GARDEN, a garden formed in terraces rising one above another--e.g. those of Nebuchadnezzar at Babylon; MARKET GARDENER, a gardener who raises vegetables, fruits, &c. for sale; PHILOSOPHERS OF THE GARDEN, followers of Epicurus who taught in a garden. [O. Fr. _gardin_ (Fr. _jardin_); from Teut.] GARDENIA, gär-d[=e]'ni-a, _n._ a genus of _Cinchonaceæ_, tropical and subtropical trees and shrubs, with beautiful and fragrant flowers. [Named from the American botanist, Dr Alex. _Garden_ (died 1791).] GARDYLOO, gär'di-l[=oo], _n._ the old warning cry of housewives in Edinburgh before throwing their slops out of the window into the street. [Pseudo-Fr. _gare de l'eau_--should be _gare l'eau_, 'beware of the water.'] GARE, g[=a]r, _adj._ (_Scot._) greedy, miserly. GAREFOWL, g[=a]r'fowl, _n._ the great auk, razor-billed auk. [Ice. _geir-fugl_.] GARFISH. See GAR (1). GARGANTUAN, gär-gan't[=u]-an, _adj._ like Gargantua--i.e. enormous, prodigious.--_ns._ GARGAN'TUISM; GARGAN'TUIST. [From _Gargantua_, the hero of Rabelais, described as a giant of vast appetite.] GARGARISM, gär'ga-rizm, _n._ a gargle.--_v.t._ GAR'GARISE. GARGET, gar'get, _n._ a swelling in the throat of cattle and pigs: inflammation of a cow's udder.--Also GAR'GIL. GARGLE, gär'gl, _v.t._ to wash the throat, preventing the liquid from going down by expelling air against it.--_n._ a preparation for washing the throat. [O. Fr. _gargouiller_--_gargouille_, the throat.] [Illustration] GARGOYLE, gär'goil, _n._ a projecting spout, conveying the water from the roof-gutters of buildings, often representing human or other figures. [O. Fr. _gargouille_--L. _gurgulio_, throat.] GARIBALDI, gar-i-bal'di, _n._ a woman's loose blouse, an imitation of the red shirts worn by the followers of the Italian patriot _Garibaldi_ (1807-1882). GARISH, GAIRISH, g[=a]r'ish, _adj._ showy: gaudy.--_adv._ GAR'ISHLY.--_n._ GAR'ISHNESS. [Earlier _gaurish_, _gawrish_--_gaure_, to stare, perh. a freq. of _gaw_, to stare, cf. Ice. _gá_, to heed.] GARLAND, gär'land, _n._ a wreath of flowers or leaves: a name for a book of extracts in prose or poetry: (_Shak._) the thing most prized.--_v.t._ to deck with a garland.--_n._ GAR'LAND[=A]GE, a decoration of garlands.--_adj._ GAR'LANDLESS.--_n._ GAR'LANDRY, garlands collectively.--CIVIC GARLAND, a crown of oak-leaves bestowed on a Roman soldier who saved a fellow-citizen's life in battle. [O. Fr. _garlande_; prob. Old High Ger. _wiara_, fine ornament.] GARLICK, gär'lik, _n._ a bulbous-rooted plant of genus Allium, having a pungent taste and very strong smell.--_adj._ GAR'LICKY, like garlick. [A.S. _gárléac_--_gár_, a spear, _léac_, a leek.] GARMENT, gär'ment, _n._ any article of clothing, as a coat or gown.--_v.t._ to clothe with a garment.--_adjs._ GAR'MENTED; GAR'MENTLESS.--_n._ GAR'MENTURE, clothing. [O. Fr. _garniment_--_garnir_, to furnish.] GARNER, gär'n[.e]r, _n._ a granary or place where grain is stored up: a store of anything--e.g. experience.--_v.t._ to store as in a garner.--_v.i._ (_rare_) to accumulate.--_n._ GAR'NERAGE, a storehouse. [O. Fr. _gernier_ (Fr. _grenier_)--L. _granarium_, -_ia_, a granary.] GARNET, gär'net, _n._ a precious stone belonging to a group of minerals crystallising in the cubical system. [O. Fr. _grenat_--Low L. _granatum_, pomegranate; or Low L. _granum_, grain, cochineal, red dye.] GARNISH, gär'nish, _v.t._ to adorn: to furnish: to surround with ornaments, as a dish.--_n._ entrance-money: something placed round a principal dish at table, whether for embellishment or relish: a gift of money, esp. that formerly paid by a prisoner to his fellow-prisoners on his first admission.--_ns._ GAR'NISHEE, a person warned not to pay money owed to another, because the latter is indebted to the garnisher who gives the warning (_v.t._ to attach a debtor's money in this way); GARNISHEE'MENT; GAR'NISHER, one who garnishes; GAR'NISHING, GAR'NISHMENT, GAR'NITURE, that which garnishes or embellishes: ornament: apparel: trimming; GAR'NISHRY, adornment. [O. Fr. _garniss_-, stem of _garnir_, to furnish, old form _warnir_, from a Teut. root seen in A.S. _warnian_, Ger. _warnen_, Eng. _warn_.] GARRET, gar'et, _n._ (_Shak._) a watch-tower: a room next the roof of a house.--_p.adj._ GARR'ETED, provided with garrets: lodged in a garret.--_ns._ GARRETEER', one who lives in a garret: a poor author; GARR'ET-MAS'TER, a cabinet-maker, locksmith, &c., working on his own account for the dealers. [O. Fr. _garite_, a place of safety, _guarir_, _warir_, to preserve (Fr. _guérir_)--Teut., Old High Ger. _warjan_, to defend.] GARRISON, gar'i-sn, _n._ a supply of soldiers for guarding a fortress: a fortified place.--_v.t._ to furnish a fortress with troops: to defend by fortresses manned with troops.--GARRISON TOWN, a town in which a garrison is stationed. [O. Fr. _garison_--_garir_, _guerir_, to furnish--Teut., Old High Ger. _warjan_, to defend.] GARRON, gar'on, _n._ a small horse.--Also GARR'AN. [Ir.] GARROT, gar'ot, _n._ a name applied to various ducks. [Fr.] GARROT, gar'ot, _n._ (_surg._) a tourniquet. [Fr.] GARROTTE, GAROTTE, gar-rot', _n._ a Spanish mode of strangling criminals.--_v.t._ to strangle by a brass collar tightened by a screw, whose point enters the spinal marrow: to suddenly render insensible by semi-strangulation, and then to rob:--_pr.p._ garrott'ing, garott'ing; _pa.p._ garrott'ed, garott'ed.--_ns._ GARROTT'ER, GAROTT'ER, one who garrottes; GARROTT'ING, GAROTT'ING. [Sp. _garrote_; cf. Fr. _garrot_, a stick.] GARRULOUS, gar'[=u]-lus, _adj._ talkative.--_ns._ GARRUL'ITY, GARR'ULOUSNESS, talkativeness: loquacity.--_adv._ GARR'ULOUSLY. [L. _garrulus_--_garr[=i]re_, to chatter.] GARTER, gär't[.e]r, _n._ a band used to tie the stocking to the leg: the badge of the highest order of knighthood in Great Britain, called the _Order of the Garter_.--_v.t._ to bind with a garter.--GARTER KING-OF-ARMS, the chief herald of the Order of the Garter. [O. Fr. _gartier_ (Fr. _jarretière_)--O. Fr. _garet_ (Fr. _jarret_), the ham of the leg, prob. Celt. as Bret. _gar_, the shank of the leg.] GARTH, gärth, _n._ an enclosure or yard: a garden: a weir in a river for catching fish. [Ice. _garðr_, a court; cf. A.S. _geard_; Ger. _garten_, yard.] GARUDA, gär'[=oo]-da, _n._ a Hindu demigod, with the body and legs of a man, the head and wings of a bird, emblem of strength and speed. [Sans.] GARVIE, gär'vi, _n._ (_Scot._) a sprat.--Also GAR'VOCK. [Gael. _garbhag_.] GAS, gas, _n._ a vaporous substance not condensed into a liquid at ordinary terrestrial temperatures and pressures--esp. that obtained from coal, used in lighting houses: (_coll._) frothy talk:--_pl._ GAS'ES.--_v.t._ to supply with gas: (_U.S._) to impose on by talking gas.--_v.i._ to vapour, talk boastfully.--_ns._ GASALIER', GASELIER', a hanging frame with branches for gas-jets, formed on false analogy from _chandelier_; GAS'-BAG, a bag for holding gas: a boastful, talkative person; GAS'-BRACK'ET, a pipe, mostly curved, projecting from the wall of a room, used for illuminating purposes; GAS'-BURN'ER, a piece of metal fitted to the end of a gas-pipe, with one or more small holes so arranged as to spread out the flame; GAS'-COAL, any coal suitable for making illuminating gas; GAS'-CONDENS'ER, an apparatus for freeing coal-gas from tar; GAS[=E]'ITY, G[=A]'SEOUSNESS.--_adj._ GASEOUS (g[=a]'se-us).--_ns._ GAS'-EN'GINE, an engine in which motion is communicated to the piston by the alternate admission and condensation of gas in a closed cylinder; GAS'-FIT'TER, one who fits up the pipes and brackets for gas-lighting; GAS'-FIX'TURE, a bracket or chandelier for gas; GAS'-FUR'NACE, a furnace of which the fuel is gas; GAS'HOLDER, a large vessel for storing gas; GASIFIC[=A]'TION, the process of converting into gas.--_v.t._ GAS'IFY, to convert into gas.--_ns._ GAS'-JET, a gas-burner; GAS'-LAMP, a lamp lighted by gas; GAS'-MAIN, one of the principal underground pipes conveying gas from the works to the places where it is consumed; GAS'-MAN, a man employed in the manufacture of gas: the man who controls the lights of the stage; GAS'-M[=E]'TER, an instrument for measuring the quantity of gas consumed at a particular place in a given time; GAS'OGENE (same as GAZOGENE); GAS'OLENE, rectified petroleum; GASOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring gas: a place for holding gas.--_adjs._ GASOMET'RIC, -AL.--_ns._ GAS'-PIPE, a pipe for conveying gas; GAS'SING, idle talking; GAS'-STOVE, an apparatus in which coal-gas is used for heating and cooking purposes.--_adj._ GAS'SY, full of gas, gaseous: (_slang_) given to vain and boastful talk.--_ns._ GAS'-TANK, a reservoir for coal-gas; GAS'-TAR, coal-tar.--_adj._ GAS'-TIGHT, sufficiently close to prevent the escape of gas.--_ns._ GAS'-WA'TER, water through which coal-gas has been passed; GAS'-WORKS, an establishment where illuminating gas is manufactured. [A word invented by the Dutch chemist J. B. Van Helmont (1577-1644)--the form suggested by Gr. _chaos_.] GASCONADE, gas-ko-n[=a]d', _n._ boasting talk.--_ns._ GAS'CON, a native of Gascony; GAS'CONISM. [Fr.,--_Gascon_, from their proverbial boastfulness.] GASH, gash, _v.t._ to make a deep cut into anything, esp. into flesh.--_n._ a deep, open wound. [Formerly _garse_--O. Fr. _garser_, pierce with a lancet--Low L. _garsa_. Perh. corrupted from Gr. _charassein_, to cut.] GASH, gash, _adj._ (_Scot._) shrewd: talkative: trim.--_v.i._ to tattle. [Prob. a corr. of _sagacious_.] GASH, gash, _adj._ (_Scot._) ghastly, hideous--also GASH'FUL, GASH'LY.--_n._ GASH'LINESS.--_adv._ GASH'LY. [From _ghastful_, through association with _gash_.] GASKET, gas'ket, _n._ (_naut._) a canvas band used to bind the sails to the yards when furled: a strip of tow, &c., for packing a piston, &c.--Also GAS'KIN. [Cf. Fr. _garcette_, It. _gaschetta_; ety. dub.] GASKINS, gas'kinz, _n._ (_Shak._). See GALLIGASKINS. GASP, gasp, _v.i._ to gape in order to catch breath: to desire eagerly.--_n._ the act of opening the mouth to catch the breath.--_pr.p._ and _adj._ GASP'ING, convulsive, spasmodic.--_adv._ GASP'INGLY.--THE LAST GASP, the utmost extremity. [Ice. _geispa_, to yawn, by metathesis from _geipsa_, cf. _geip_, idle talk.] GAST, gast, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to make aghast, to frighten or terrify. [A.S. _g['æ]stan_; cf. AGHAST.] GASTEROPOD, gas'ter-o-pod, _n._ one of a class of molluscs, embracing whelks, limpets, snails, &c., having in general a muscular disc under the belly, which serves them as feet--also GAS'TROPOD:--_pl._ GASTEROP'ODA.--_adj._ GASTEROP'ODOUS. [Formed from Gr. _gast[=e]r_, the stomach, _pous_, _podos_, a foot.] GASTRÆA, gas-tr[=e]'a, _n._ (_biol._) a hypothetic animal form assumed by Hæckel as the ancestor of all metazoic animals:--_pl._ GASTRÆ'Æ.--_n._ GAS'TRULA, that embryonic form of metazoic animals which consists of a two-layered sac enclosing a central cavity and having an opening at one end:--_pl._ GRAS'TRULÆ.--_adj._ GAS'TRULAR. GASTRALGIA, gas-tral'ji-a, _n._ pain in the stomach or bowels. [Gr. _gast[=e]r_, the stomach, _algos_, pain.] GASTRIC, gas'trik, _adj._ belonging to the stomach--also GAS'TRAL.--_ns._ GASTR[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the stomach; GASTROL'OGER.--_adj._ GASTROLOG'ICAL.--_n._ GASTROL'OGY, cookery, good eating.--GASTRIC FEVER, a bilious remittent fever; GASTRIC JUICE, the digestive liquid secreted by the glands of the stomach. [Gr. _gast[=e]r_, the belly.] GASTROCNEMIUS, gas-trok-n[=e]'mi-us, _n._ a superficial muscle of the posterior tibial region helping to extend the foot. [Gr. _gast[=e]r_, stomach, _kn[=e]m[=e]_, the leg.] GASTROMANCY, gas'tro-man-si, _n._ a means of divination by ventriloquism: divination by large-bellied glasses. [Gr. _gast[=e]r_, belly, _manteia_, soothsaying.] GASTRONOME, gas'tro-n[=o]m, _n._ one who pays great attention to his diet, an epicure--also GASTRON'OMER, GASTRON'OMIST.--_adjs._ GASTRONOM'IC, -AL, pertaining to gastronomy.--_ns._ GASTRON'OMY, the art or science of good eating; GAS'TROPHILE, GAS'TROPHILIST, GAS'TROPHILITE; GAS'TROPHILISM, love of good eating; GAS'TROSOPH, one skilled in matters of eating; GASTROS'OPHER; GASTROS'OPHY. [Gr. _gast[=e]r_, belly, _nomos_, law--_nemein_, to distribute.] GASTROSTOMY, gas-tros'to-mi, _n._ an operation performed in a case of stricture of the gullet, to introduce food into the stomach through an external opening. [Gr. _gast[=e]r_, belly, _stoma_, mouth.] GASTROTOMY, gas-trot'o-mi, _n._ the operation of cutting open the belly. [Gr. _gast[=e]r_, belly, _tom[=e]_, a cutting--_temnein_, to cut.] GASTRO-VASCULAR, gas-tr[=o]-vas'k[=u]-lar, _adj._ common to the functions of digestion and circulation. GAT, gat (_B._) _pa.t._ of _get_. GAT, gat, _n._ an opening between sandbanks, a strait. [Ice.] GATE, g[=a]t, _n._ a passage into a city, enclosure, or any large building: a narrow opening or defile: a frame in the entrance into any enclosure: an entrance.--_v.t._ to supply with a gate: at Oxford and Cambridge, to punish by requiring the offender to be within the college gates by a certain hour.--_adj._ G[=A]'TED, punished with such restriction.--_ns._ GATE'-FINE, the fine imposed for disobedience to such orders; GATE'-HOUSE (_archit._), a building over or near the gate giving entrance to a city, abbey, college, &c.; GATE'-KEEP'ER, GATE'MAN, one who watches over the opening and shutting of a gate.--_adj._ GATE'LESS, not having a gate.--_ns._ GATE'-MON'EY, the money taken for entrance to an athletic or other exhibition, sometimes simply 'gate;' GATE'-TOW'ER, a tower built beside or over a gate; GATE'-VEIN, the great abdominal vein; GATE'WAY, the way through a gate: the gate itself: any entrance.--GATE OF JUSTICE, a gate as of a city, temple, &c., where a sovereign or judge sat to dispense justice; GATES OF DEATH, a phrase expressing the near approach of death.--BREAK GATES, at Oxford and Cambridge, to enter college after the prescribed hour; IVORY GATE, in poetical imagery, the semi-transparent gate of the house of sleep, through which dreams appear distorted into pleasant and delusive shapes; STAND IN THE GATE (_B._), to occupy a position of defence. [A.S. _geat_, a way; Dut. _gat_, Ice. _gat_; not in Goth. and High Ger.; prob. related to _get_ or _gate_.] GATE, g[=a]t, _n._ (_Scot._) a way, path: manner of doing, esp. in adverbial phrases like 'this gate,' 'any gate,' 'some gate.' [Ice. _gata_; Da. _gade_, Ger. _gasse_.] GATE, g[=a]t, _n._ (_Spens._) a goat. [A.S. _gat._] GÂTEAU, gat-[=o]', _n._ cake.--VEAL GATEAU, minced veal made up like a pudding, and boiled in a shape or mould. [Fr.] GATHER, ga_th_'[.e]r, _v.t._ to collect: to acquire: in sewing, to plait: to learn by inference.--_v.i._ to assemble or muster: to increase: to suppurate.--_n._ a plait or fold in cloth, made by drawing the thread through (_pl._ that part of the dress which is gathered or drawn in).--_ns._ GATH'ERER, one who collects: a gleaner: in glass manufacturing, a workman who collects molten glass on the end of a rod preparatory to blowing; GATH'ERING, a crowd or assembly: a tumour or collection of matter; GATH'ERING-COAL, -PEAT, a coal, peat, put into a fire at night, with the hot embers gathered about it, to keep the fire alive till morning; GATH'ERING-CRY, a summons to assemble for war.--GATHER BREATH, to recover wind; GATHER GROUND, to gain ground; GATHER ONE'S SELF TOGETHER, to collect all one's powers, like one about to leap; GATHER TO A HEAD, to ripen: to come into a state of preparation for action or effect; GATHER WAY, to get headway by sail or steam so as to answer the helm. [A.S. _gaderian_, _gæderian_, _(tó)gædere_, together; cf. _geador_, together, _g['æ]d_, company.] GATLING-GUN. See GUN. GAUCHE, g[=o]sh, _adj._ left-handed: clumsy.--_n._ GAUCHE'RIE (-r[=e]), clumsiness: awkwardness. [Fr.] GAUCHO, gow'ch[=o], _n._ a native of the La Plata pampas of Spanish descent, noted for marvellous horsemanship.--Less correctly GUA'CHO. GAUCIE, GAUCY, GAWCY, GAWSY, gä'si, _adj._ _(Scot.)_ portly, jolly. GAUD, gawd, _n._ an ornament: a piece of finery:--_pl._ showy ceremonies, gaieties.--_v.i._ (_Shak._) make merry.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to adorn with gauds: to paint, as the cheeks.--_ns._ GAUDE[=A]'MUS, a rejoicing, students' merrymaking; GAUD'ERY, finery.--_adv._ GAUD'ILY.--_ns._ GAUD'INESS, showiness; GAUD'Y, an English university feast or festival.--_adj._ showy: gay.--_n._ GAUD'Y-DAY. [L. _gaudium_, delight--_gaud[=e]re_, to rejoice.] GAUGE, GAGE, g[=a]j, _n._ a measuring-rod: a standard of measure: estimate.--_v.t._ to measure the contents of any vessel: to estimate ability.--_adj._ GAUGE'ABLE, capable of being gauged.--_ns._ GAUG'ER, an excise officer whose business is to gauge or measure the contents of casks; GAUG'ING, the art of measuring casks containing excisable liquors; GAUG'ING-ROD, an instrument for measuring the contents of casks; BROAD'-, NARR'OW-GAUGE, in railroad construction, a distance between the rails greater or less than 56½ inches, called _standard gauge_. [O. Fr. _gauge_ (Fr. _jauge_), _gauger_; prob. related to _jale_, bowl, to _galon_, gallon, or to _jalon_, measuring stake.] GAUL, gawl, _n._ a name of ancient France: an inhabitant of Gaul.--_adj._ GAUL'ISH. [Fr.,--L. _Gallus_; perh. conn. with A.S. _wealh_, foreign.] GAULT, gawlt, _n._ a series of beds of clay and marl, between the Upper and the Lower Greensand: brick earth--also GALT.--_n._ GAULT'ER, one who digs gault. GAULTHERIA, gal-t[=e]'ri-a, _n._ a genus of evergreen aromatic plants--one species, the U.S. _winter-green_, yielding a valued volatile oil. [From the Canadian botanist M. _Gaultier_.] GAUM, gawm, _v.t._ to smear: (_obs._) to handle clumsily.--_adj._ GAUM'Y, dauby. GAUN, gän, Scotch for going. GAUNT, gänt, _adj._ thin: of a pinched appearance: causing emaciation.--_adv._ GAUNT'LY.--_n._ GAUNT'NESS. [Skeat compares Norw. _gand_, pointed stick, and Sw. prov. _gank_, a lean horse.] GAUNTLET, gänt'let, _n._ the iron glove of armour, formerly thrown down in challenge: a long glove covering the wrist.--_p.adj._ GAUNT'LETED, wearing a gauntlet or gauntlets.--_n._ GAUNT'LET-GUARD, a guard of a sword or dagger, protecting the hand very thoroughly.--RUN THE GAUNTLET (see GANTLET).--THROW DOWN, TAKE UP, THE GAUNTLET, to give, to accept a challenge. [Fr. _gantelet_, double dim. of _gant_, a glove, of Scand. origin; cf. Old Sw. _vante_, a glove, Ice. _vöttr_, a glove, Dan. _vante_.] GAUNTRY. See GANTRY. GAUP, GAWP, gawp, _v.i._ (prov.) to gape in astonishment.--_ns._ GAUP'US, GAWP'US, a silly person. GAUR, gowr, _n._ a species of ox inhabiting some of the mountain jungles of India. [Hindustani.] GAUZE, gawz, _n._ a thin, transparent fabric, originally of silk, now of any fine hard-spun fibre: material slight and open like gauze.--_adj._ GAUZE'-WINGED, having gauzy wings.--_n._ GAUZ'INESS.--_adj._ GAUZ'Y.--_n._ WIRE'-GAUZE (see WIRE). [Fr. _gaze_, dubiously referred to _Gaza_ in Palestine.] GAVAGE, ga-väzh', _n._ a process of fattening poultry by forcing them to swallow food at fixed intervals: (_med._) a similar method of forced feeding. [Fr. _gaver_--_gave_, the crop of a bird.] GAVE, g[=a]v, _pa.t._ of _give_. GAVEL, g[=a]'vel, a prov. form of _gable_. GAVEL, gav'el, _n._ an old Saxon and Welsh form of tenure by which an estate passed, on the holder's death, to all the sons equally.--_v.t._ to divide or distribute in this way.--_ns._ GAV'ELKIND, a tenure now peculiar to Kent by which the tenant at fifteen can sell the estate or devise it by will, the estate cannot escheat, and on an intestacy the lands descend from the father to all sons in equal portions; GAV'ELMAN, a tenant holding land in gavelkind. [A.S. _gafol_, tribute; cog. with _giefan_, to give.] GAVIAL, g[=a]'vi-al, _n._ the East Indian species of crocodile, with very long slender muzzle. [Adapted from Hindustani _ghariy[=a]l_, a crocodile.] GAVOTTE, ga-vot', n. a lively kind of dance, somewhat like a country-dance, originally a dance of the _Gavotes_, the people of Gap, in the Upper Alps: the music for such a dance. GAWD, gawd, _n._ (_Shak._). Same as GAUD. GAWK, gawk, _adj._ left, as in _gawk-handed_.--_ns._ GAWK'IHOOD, GAWK'INESS, quality of being gawky.--_adj._ GAWK'Y, awkward, stupid, ungainly.--_n._ a lout. [Prob. a contr. of _gaulick_-, _galloc_-, _gallish_-(_handed_); most prob. not related to Fr. _gauche_.] GAY, g[=a], _adj._ lively: bright: sportive, merry: wanton, dissipated, of loose life: showy: (_prov._) spotted.--adv. (_Scot._) fairly, considerably.--_ns._ GAI'ETY, GAY'ETY, GAY'NESS.--_advs._ GAI'LY, GAY'LY; GAY'SOME, gladsome.--GAY SCIENCE, a rendering of _gai saber_, the Provençal name for the art of poetry. [O. Fr. _gai_--Old High Ger. _wâhi_, pretty, not _gâhi_, swift (Diez).] GAYAL, GYAL, g[=i]'al, _n._ a kind of East Indian ox, long domesticated, dark brown in colour, with short curved horns. [Hindi.] GAY-YOU, g[=i]'-[=u], _n._ a narrow, flat-bottomed fishing-boat, of two or three masts, used in Annam. GAZE, g[=a]z, _v.i_, to look fixedly.--_n._ a fixed look: the object gazed at--(_Spens._) GAZE'MENT.--_adj._ GAZE'FUL (_Spens._), looking intently.--_ns._ GAZE'-HOUND, a hound that pursues by sight rather than scent; GAZ'ER, one who gazes; GAZ'ING-STOCK, a person exposed to public view, generally in a bad sense.--AT GAZE, in the attitude of gazing. [Prob. cog. with obs. _gaw_, to stare, Ice. _gá_, to heed. Some compare the Sw. _gasa_, to stare.] GAZEBO, g[=a]-z[=e]'b[=o], _n._ a summer-house with a wide prospect. [Humorously formed from _gaze_.] GAZEL, gaz'el, _n._ a form of GHAZAL (q.v.). GAZELLE, GAZEL, ga-zel', _n._ a small species of antelope with beautiful dark eyes, found in Arabia and North Africa. [Fr.,--Ar. _ghaz[=a]l_, a wild-goat.] GAZETTE, ga-zet', _n._ a newspaper: one of the three official newspapers of the United Kingdom, published in Edinburgh, London, and Dublin, with record of every appointment in the public service.--_v.t._ to publish in a gazette:--_pr.p._ gazett'ing; _pa.p._ gazett'ed.--_n._ GAZETTEER', a geographical dictionary: (_orig._) a writer for a gazette, official journalist.--_v.t._ to describe in gazetteers.--_adj._ GAZETTEE'RISH, like a gazetteer in style.--APPEAR, HAVE ONE'S NAME, IN THE GAZETTE, to be mentioned in one of the three official newspapers, esp. of bankrupts. [Fr.,--It. _gazzetta_, a small coin; or from It. _gazzetta_, in the sense of a magpie=a chatterer.] GAZOGENE, gaz'o-j[=e]n, _n._ an instrument for manufacturing aerated waters, usually for domestic use, by the action of an acid on an alkali carbonate. [Fr., _gaz_, gas, Gr. _gen[=e]s_--_gignesthai_, to become.] GAZON, ga-zon', _n._ a sod or piece of turf, used in fortification.--_n._ GAZOON', used erroneously by Hogg for a compact body of men. [Fr., _grass_.] GAZY, g[=a]'zi, _adj._ affording a wide prospect: given to gazing. GEACH, g[=e]ch, _n._ (_slang_) a thief.--_v.t._ to steal. GEAL, j[=e]'al, adj. pertaining to the earth regarded as a planet. [Gr. _g[=e]_, earth.] GEAL, j[=e]l, _v.i._ to congeal. GEAN, g[=e]n, _n._ the European wild cherry. [O. Fr. _guigne_.] GEAR, g[=e]r, _n._ a state of preparation: dress: harness: tackle: (_mech._) connection by means of toothed wheels: (_obs._) a matter, affair.--_v.t._ to put in gear, as machinery.--_p.adj._ GEARED, connected with the motor by gearing.--_ns._ GEAR'ING, harness: working implements: (_mech._) a train of toothed wheels and pinions; GEAR'-WHEEL, a wheel with teeth or cogs which impart or transmit motion by acting on those of another wheel; DRIV'ING-GEAR, those parts in a machine most nearly concerned in imparting motion.--MULTIPLYING GEARING, a combination of cog-wheels for imparting motion from wheels of larger to wheels of smaller diameter, by which the rate of revolution is increased; OUT OF GEAR, out of running order, unprepared; STRAIGHT GEARING, the name given when the planes of motion are parallel--opposed to _Bevelled gearing_, when the direction is changed (see BEVEL). [M. E. _gere_, prob. Ice. _gervi_; cf. A.S. _gearwe_, Old High Ger. _garawi_, Eng. _yare_ and _gar_, v.] GEASON, g[=e]'zn, _adj._ (_Spens._) rare: wonderful. [A.S. _g['æ]sne_, _gésne_, wanting, barren.] GEAT, j[=e]t, _n._ the hole in a mould through which the metal is poured in casting. GEBBIE, geb'i, _n._ (_Scot._) the stomach. GEBUR, ge-b[=oo]r', _n._ a tenant-farmer in the early English community. GECK, gek, _n._ a dupe: scorn, object of scorn.--_v.t._ to mock.--_v.i._ to scoff at. [Prob. Low Ger. _geck_; Dut. _gek_, Ger. _geck_.] GECKO, gek'[=o], _n._ one of a family of small dull-coloured lizards called _Geckotidæ_. [Malay _g[=e]koq_.] GED, ged, _n._ (_prov._) the pike or luce. [Ice. _gedda_.] GEE, g[=e], _n._ (_prov._) a fit of ill-temper, usually in phrase 'to take the gee.' GEE, j[=e], _v.i._ of horses, to move to the offside--the right, the driver standing on the left.--_v.t._ to cause so to move.--_v.i._ to go, to suit, get on well.--_n._ GEE-GEE, a horse.--GEE UP, to proceed faster. GEESE, _pl._ of _goose_. GEËZ, g[=e]-ez', GIZ, g[=e]z, _n._ the ancient language of Ethiopia, a Semitic tongue closely related to Arabic. GEGG, geg, _n._ (_Scot._) a hoax, trick.--_v.t._ to hoax.--_n._ GEG'GERY, trickery. GEHENNA, ge-hen'a, _n._ the valley of Hinnom, near Jerusalem, in which the Israelites sacrificed their children to Moloch, and to which, at a later time, the refuse of the city was conveyed to be slowly burned--hence (_N.T._) hell. [L.,--Heb. _Ge_, valley of, and _Hinnom_.] GEISHA, g[=a]'sha, _n._ a Japanese dancing-girl. GEIST, g[=i]st, _n._ spirit, any inspiring or dominating principle. [Ger.] GELASTIC, jel-as'tik, _adj._ risible. GELATINE, GELATIN, jel'a-tin, _n._ an animal substance which dissolves in hot water and forms a jelly when cold.--_adj._ GELATIG'ENOUS, producing gelatine.--_vs.t._ GELAT'IN[=A]TE, GELAT'IN[=I]SE, to make into gelatine or jelly.--_vs.i._ to be converted into gelatine or jelly.--_ns._ GELATIN[=A]'TION, GELATINIS[=A]'TION.--_adjs._ GELATIN'IFORM, having the form of gelatine; GELA'TINOID, like gelatine; GELAT'INOUS, resembling or formed into jelly.--_n._ GEL[=A]'TION, solidification by cold.--EXPLOSIVE GELATINE, a powerful explosive made by gently heating nitro-glycerine in a water-bath, then dissolving gun-cotton in it. [Fr.,--It. _gelatina_, _gelata_, jelly.] GELD, geld, _n._ a historical term meaning money: tribute. [A.S. _geld_, _gyld_, payment; Ice. _giald_, money.] GELD, geld, _v.t._ to emasculate, castrate: to spay: to deprive of anything essential, to enfeeble: to deprive of anything objectionable.--_ns._ GELD'ER; GELD'ING, act of castrating: a castrated animal, esp. a horse. [Ice. _gelda_; Dan. _gilde_.] GELDER(S)-ROSE. See GUELDER-ROSE. GELID, jel'id, _adj._ icy cold: cold.--_adv._ GEL'IDLY.--_ns._ GEL'IDNESS, GELID'ITY. [L. _gelidus_--_gelu_, frost.] GELOTOMETER, jel-ot-om'e-ter, _n._ (_Landor_) a gauge for measuring laughter. GELSEMIUM, jel-s[=e]'mi-um, _n._ the yellow or Cardina jasmine, a climbing plant of the Atlantic Southern United States, having large fragrant blossoms and perennial dark-green leaves. [It. _gelsomino_, jasmine.] GELT, gelt, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _geld_. GELT, gelt, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as GILT. GEM, jem, _n._ any precious stone, esp. when cut: anything extremely valuable or attractive, a treasure.--_v.t._ (_obs._) to bud: to adorn with gems: to bespangle:--_pr.p._ gem'ming; _pa.p._ gemmed.--_ns._ GEM'-CUT'TING, the art of cutting and polishing precious stones; GEM'-ENGRAV'ING, the art of engraving figures on gems.--_adj._ GEM'MEOUS, pertaining to gems.--_n._ GEM'MERY, gems generally.--_adj._ GEM'MY, full of gems, brilliant. [A.S. _gim_; Old High Ger. _gimma_--L. _gemma_, a bud.] GEMARA, ge-mär'a, _n._ the second part of the Talmud, consisting of commentary and complement to the first part, the Mishna. [Aramaic, 'completion.'] GEMATRIA, ge-m[=a]'tri-a, _n._ a cabbalistic method of interpreting the Hebrew Scriptures by interchanging words whose letters have the same numerical value when added. [Rabbinical Heb.,--Gr. _ge[=o]metria_, geometry.] GEMEL-RING, jem'el-ring, _n._ a ring with two or more links.--_n._ GEM'EL, a twin.--_adj._ GEMELLIP'AROUS, producing twins. [O. Fr. _gemel_ (Fr. _jumeau_)--L. _gemellus_, dim. of _geminus_, twin, and _ring_.] GEMINATE, jem'in-[=a]t, _adj._ (_bot._) in pairs.--_v.t._ (_rare_) to double.--_n._ GEMIN[=A]'TION, a doubling: repetition of a word to add emphasis: (_philol._) the doubling of a consonant originally single. [L. _gemin[=a]re_, _[=a]tum_--_geminus_, twin.] GEMINI, jem'i-n[=i], _n.pl._ the twins, a constellation containing the two bright stars Castor and Pollux.--_adj._ GEM'INOUS (_bot._), double, in pairs.--_n._ GEM'INY (_Shak._), twins, a pair: used as a mild oath or interjection, from the common Latin oath _O Gemini_, or simply _Gemini_--spelt also _geminy_, _gemony_, _jiminy_. [L., pl. of _geminus_, twin-born.] GEMMAN, jem'an, _n._ gentleman.--Also GEM'MAN. GEMMATION, jem-m[=a]'shun, _n._ (_bot._) act or time of budding: arrangement of buds on the stalk.--_n._ GEM'MA, a bud:--_pl._ GEM'MÆ.--_adjs._ GEMM[=A]'CEOUS, pertaining to leaf-buds; GEM'M[=A]TE, having buds; GEM'MATIVE; GEMMIF'EROUS, producing buds.--_n._ GEMMIPAR'ITY.--_adj._ GEMMIP'AROUS (_zool._), reproducing by buds growing on the body.--_n._ GEM'M[=U]LE, a little gem or leaf-bud.--_adj._ GEMMULIF'EROUS, bearing gemmules. [Fr.,--L. _gemm[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_.] GEMOT, GEMOTE, ge-m[=o]t', _n._ a meeting or assembly. [A.S. _gemót_. Cf. MOOT.] GEMSBOK, jemz'bok, _n._ a species of antelope, found in South Africa, about the size of a stag, with long straight horns. [Dut.] GENAPPE, je-nap', _n._ a smooth worsted yarn used with silk in fringes, braid, &c. [_Genappe_ in Belgium.] GENDARME, jang-darm', _n._ originally a mounted lancer, but since the Revolution one of a corps of military police, divided into legions and companies:--_pl._ GENDARMES', GENSDARMES'.--_n._ GENDAR'MERIE, the armed police of France. [Fr. _gendarme_, sing. from pl. _gens d'armes_, men-at-arms--_gens_, people, _de_, of, _armes_, arms.] GENDER, jen'd[.e]r, _v.t._ to beget.--_v.i._ (_B._) to copulate. [An abbrev. of _engender_.] GENDER, jen'd[.e]r, _n._ kind, esp. with regard to sex: (_gram._) the distinction of nouns according to sex. [Fr. _genre_--L. _genus_, _generis_, a kind, kin.] GENEALOGY, jen-e-al'o-ji, _n._ history of the descent of families: the pedigree of a particular person or family.--_adj._ GENEALOG'ICAL.--_adv._ GENEALOG'ICALLY.--_v.i._ GENEAL'OGISE, to investigate or treat of genealogy.--_n._ GENEAL'OGIST, one who studies or traces genealogies or descents.--GENEALOGICAL TREE, the lineage of a family or person under the form of a tree with roots, branches, &c. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _genealogia_--_genea_, birth, _legein_, to speak of.] GENERA. See GENUS. GENERAL, jen'[.e]r-al, _adj._ relating to a genus or whole class: including many species: not special: not restricted: common: prevalent: public: loose: vague.--_n._ a class embracing many species: an officer who is head over a whole department: a military officer who commands a body of men not less than a brigade (often _general officer_): the chief commander of an army in service: (_R.C. Church_) the head of a religious order, responsible only to the Pope: (_Shak._) the public, the vulgar.--_n._ GENERAL'[=E], esp. in _pl._ GENERALIA, general principles.--_adj._ GENERAL[=I]'SABLE.--_n._ GENERALIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ GENERAL[=I]SE', to include under a general term: to infer (the nature of a class) from one or a few instances.--_v.i._ to reason inductively.--_n._ GENERAL'ITY.--_advs._ GEN'ERALLY, GEN'ERAL (_obs._), in a general or collective manner or sense: in most cases: upon the whole.--_n._ GEN'ERALSHIP, the position of a military commander: military tactics.--GENERAL ASSEMBLY (see ASSEMBLY); GENERAL EPISTLE, one addressed to the whole Church (same as CATHOLIC EPISTLE); GENERAL PRACTITIONER, a physician who devotes himself to general practice rather than to special diseases; GENERAL PRINCIPLE, a principle to which there are no exceptions within its range of application; GENERAL SERVANT, a servant whose duties are not special, but embrace domestic work of every kind.--IN GENERAL, mostly, as a general rule. [O. Fr.,--L. _generalis_--_genus_.] GENERALISSIMO, jen-[.e]r-al-is'i-mo, _n._ the chief general or commander of an army of two or more divisions, or of separate armies. [It.] GENERATE, jen'[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.t._ to produce: to bring into life: to originate.--_adj._ GEN'ERABLE, that may be generated or produced.--_ns._ GEN'ERANT (_math._), a line, point, or figure that produces another figure by its motion; GENER[=A]'TION, a producing or originating: a single stage in natural descent: the people of the same age or period: offspring, progeny, race: (_pl._) genealogy, history (_B._); GENER[=A]'TIONISM, traducianism.--_adj._ GEN'ER[=A]TIVE, having the power of generating or producing.--_ns._ GEN'ER[=A]TOR, begetter or producer: the principal sound in music; GEN'ER[=A]TRIX (_geom._), the point, line, or surface which, by its motion, generates another magnitude.--_adjs._ GENET'IC, -AL, pertaining to genesis or production.--_adv._ GENET'ICALLY.--_ns._ GEN'ETRIX, GEN'ITRIX, a female parent; GEN'ITOR, a progenitor; GEN'ITURE, birth.--ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS, a complication in the life-history of plants, when the organism produces offspring unlike itself, but giving rise in turn to forms like the original parents; SPONTANEOUS GENERATION, the origination of living from non-living matter: abiogenesis. [L. _gener[=a]re_, -_[=a]tum_--_genus_, a kind.] GENERIC, -AL, GENERICALLY. See GENUS. GENEROUS, jen'[.e]r-us, _adj._ of a noble nature: courageous: liberal: bountiful: invigorating in its nature, as wine: (_obs._) nobly born.--_adv._ GEN'EROUSLY.--_ns._ GEN'EROUSNESS, GENEROS'ITY, nobleness or liberality of nature: (_arch._) nobility of birth. [Fr. _généreux_--L. _generosus_, of noble birth--_genus_, birth.] GENESIS, jen'e-sis, _n._ generation, creation, or production: the first book of the Bible, so called from its containing an account of the Creation:--_pl._ GEN'ES[=E]S.--_adjs._ GENES'IAC, -AL, GENESIT'IC, pertaining to Genesis. [L.,--Gr.,--_gignesthai_, to beget.] GENET, GENNET. Same as JENNET. GENET, jen'et, _n._ a carnivorous animal, allied to the civet, of a gray colour, marked with black or brown, a native of Africa, Asia, and Southern Europe: its fur, made into muffs and tippets.--Also GEN'ETTE. [Fr. _genette_--Sp. _gineta_--Ar. _jarnait_, a genet.] GENETHLIAC, -AL, j[=e]-neth'li-ak, -al, _adj._ pertaining to a birthday or nativity.--_n._ a birthday poem.--_n._ GENETHL[=I]'ACON, a birthday ode.--_adjs._ GENETHLIALOG'IC, -AL.--_n._ GENETHLIAL'OGY, the art of casting nativities. GENEVA, je-n[=e]'va, _n._ a spirit distilled from grain and flavoured with juniper-berries, also called _Hollands_.--_n._ GENEVETTE', a wine made from wild fruits flavoured with juniper-berries. [Dut. _genever_, _jenever_, O. Fr. _genevre_ (Fr. _genièvre_)--L. _juniperus_, the juniper; corrupted to _Geneva_ by confusion with the town of that name. See GIN.] GENEVAN, j[=e]-n[=e]'van, _adj._ pertaining to _Geneva_.--_n._ an inhabitant of Geneva: an adherent of Genevan or Calvinistic theology.--_adjs._ and _ns._ GEN[=E]'VAN, GENEV[=E]SE'.--_n._ GEN[=E]'VANISM, Calvinism.--GENEVA BIBLE, a version of the Bible with racy notes produced by English exiles at Geneva in 1560; GENEVA CONVENTION, an international agreement of 1865 providing for the neutrality of hospitals, and the security of sanitary officers, naval and military chaplains; GENEVA CROSS, a red cross on a white ground displayed for protection in war of persons serving in hospitals, &c.; GENEVA GOWN, the dark, loose preaching gown affected by the early Geneva reformers, and still the common form of pulpit-gown among Presbyterians; GENEVAN THEOLOGY, so called from Calvin's residence in Geneva and the establishment of his doctrines there. GENIAL, j[=e]'ni-al, _adj._ pertaining to generation, producing: cheering: kindly: sympathetic: healthful.--_v.t._ G[=E]'NIALISE, to impart geniality to.--_ns._ GENIAL'ITY, G[=E]'NIALNESS.--_adv._ G[=E]'NIALLY. [Fr.--L. _genialis_, from _genius_, the spirit of social enjoyment.] GENIAL, jen'i-al, _adj._ of or pertaining to the chin. [Gr. _geneion_--_genys_, the jaw.] GENICULATE, -D, je-nik'[=u]-l[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ (_bot._) bent abruptly like the knee: jointed: knotted.--_v.t._ GENIC'ULATE, to form joints in.--_n._ GENICUL[=A]'TION. [L. _genicul[=a]re_, -[=a]tum--_geniculum_, a little knee--_genu_, the knee.] GENIE, j[=e]'ni, _n._ a jinnee. [Fr. _génie_--L. _genius_.] GENIPAP, jen'i-pap, _n._ a large West Indian tree with excellent fruit. [Native.] GENISTA, j[=e]-nis'ta, _n._ a large genus of shrubby, leguminous plants, with simple leaves and yellow flowers. [L. _genista_, broom.] GENITAL, jen'i-tal, _adj._ belonging to generation or the act of producing.--_n.pl._ GEN'ITALS (also GENIT[=A]'LIA), the exterior organs of generation. [L. _genitalis_--_gign[)e]re_, _genitum_, to beget.] GENITIVE, jen'i-tiv, _adj._ (_gram._) applied to a case properly denoting the class or kind to which a thing belongs, represented in modern English by the possessive case.--_adj._ GENIT[=I]'VAL. [L. _genitivus_ (_gign[)e]re_, _genitum_, to beget), as if indicating origin, a mistranslation of Gr. _genikos_--_genos_, a class.] GENIUS, j[=e]n'yus, or j[=e]'ni-us, _n._ the special inborn faculty of any individual: special taste or disposition qualifying for a particular employment: a man having such power of mind: a good or evil spirit, supposed by the ancients to preside over every person, place, and thing, and esp. to preside over a man's destiny from his birth: prevailing spirit or tendency: type or generic exemplification--(_obs._) G[=E]N'IO:--_pl._ GENIUSES (j[=e]n'yus-ez).--GENIUS LOCI (L.), the presiding divinity of a place:--_pl._ GENII (j[=e]'ni-[=i]). [L. _genius_--_gign[)e]re_, _genitum_, to beget.] GENOESE, je-n[=o]-[=e]z', _adj._ relating to _Genoa_--also GENOVESE'.--_n._ an inhabitant of Genoa. GENOUILLÈRE, zhe-n[=oo]-y[=a]r, _n._ the knee-piece in armour. GENRE, zhangr, _n._ kind, style: a style of painting scenes from familiar or rustic life. [Fr. _genre_, kind--L. _genus_.] GENS, jenz, _n._ in ancient Rome, a clan including several families descended from a common ancestor: a tribe:--_pl._ GEN'TES. [L.] GENT, jent, _adj._ (_Spens._) noble. [O. Fr.,--L. _gentilis_, gentle.] GENT, jent, _n._ familiar abbrev. of _gentleman_: one who apes the gentleman. GENTEEL, jen-t[=e]l', _adj._ well-bred: graceful in manners or in form: fashionable.--_adj._ GENTEEL'ISH, somewhat genteel.--_adv._ GENTEEL'LY.--_n._ GENTEEL'NESS (same as GENTILITY).--THE GENTEEL, the manners and usages of genteel or well-bred society. [Fr. _gentil_--L. _gentilis_, belonging to the same _gens_, or clan--later, well-bred.] GENTIAN, jen'shan, _n._ a plant the root of which is used in medicine, said by Pliny to have been brought into use by _Gentius_, king of Illyria, conquered by the Romans in 167 B.C.--_ns._ GENTIANEL'LA, a name for several species of gentian, esp. _Gentiana acaulis_, with deep-blue flowers; GEN'TIANINE, a yellow crystalline bitter compound obtained from the yellow gentian. GENTILE, jen't[=i]l, _n._ (_B._) any one not a Jew: any one not a Christian.--_adj._ of or belonging to a _gens_ or clan: belonging to any nation but the Jews: (_gram._) denoting a race or country.--_adjs._ GENTIL'IC, tribal; GEN'TILISH, heathenish.--_n._ GEN'TILISM, paganism.--_adjs._ GENTILI'TIAL, GENTILI'TIAN, GENTILI'TIOUS, pertaining to a gens. [L. _gentilis_--_gens_, a nation.] GENTLE, jen'tl, _adj._ well-born: mild and refined in manners: mild in disposition: amiable: soothing: moderate: gradual.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to make gentle.--_n._ (_obs._) a person of good family: (_Shak._) a trained falcon: the larva of the flesh-fly, used as a bait in angling.--_n._ GENTILESSE', the quality of being gentle, courtesy.--_v.t._ GEN'TILISE, to raise to the class of gentleman.--_n._ GENTIL'ITY, good birth or extraction: good breeding: politeness of manners: genteel people: marks of gentility.--_n.pl._ GEN'TLEFOLK, people of good family.--_adj._ GEN'TLE-HEART'ED, having a gentle or kind disposition.--_n._ GEN'TLEHOOD, position or character attaching to gentle birth.--_n._ GEN'TLENESS.--_adv._ GENT'LY.--_n._ GEN'TRICE, gentle birth, courtesy.--GENTLE READER, courteous reader, an old-fashioned phrase common in the prefaces of books.--THE GENTLE CRAFT, a phrase used to specify shoe-making, also angling; THE GENTLE (or GENTLER) SEX, women in general as opposed to the _stern_ or _sterner sex_. [Fr.,--L. _gentilis_. See GENTEEL.] GENTLEMAN, jen'tl-man, _n._ a man of good birth: one who without a title wears a coat of arms: more generally every man above the rank of yeoman, including the nobility: one above the trading classes: a man of refined manners: a polite term used for man in general: (_Shak._) a body-servant:--_pl._ GEN'TLEMEN--also a word of address:--_fem._ GEN'TLEWOMAN.--_ns._ GEN'TLEMAN-AT-ARMS, a member of the royal bodyguard, instituted in 1509, and now composed of military officers of service and distinction only; GEN'TLEMAN-COMM'ONER, a member of the higher class of commoners at Oxford University; GEN'TLEMANHOOD, GEN'TLEMANSHIP, the condition or character of a gentleman.--_adjs._ GEN'TLEMANLIKE, GEN'TLEMANLY, well-bred, refined, generous; GEN'TLEMANLINESS.--_adj._ GEN'TLEWOMANLY, like a refined and well-bred woman.--_n._ GEN'TLEWOMANLINESS.--GENTLEMAN FARMER, a landowner who resides on his estate and superintends the cultivation of his own soil; GENTLEMAN OF THE CHAPEL-ROYAL, a lay-singer who assists the priests in the choral service of the royal chapel; GENTLEMAN'S GENTLEMAN, a valet, or gentleman's body-servant; GENTLEMAN USHER, a gentleman who serves as an usher at court, or as an attendant on a person of rank. GENTOO, jen-t[=oo]', _n._ a Hindu. [Port. _gentio_, a Gentile.] GENTRY, jen'tri, _n._ the class of people below the rank of nobility: (_coll._) people of a particular, esp. an inferior, stamp: (_Shak._) noble birth. [Apparently an altered form of _gentrice_, from O. Fr. _genterise_, _gentelise_, formed from adj. _gentil_, gentle.] GENTY, jen'ti, _adj._ (_Scot._) neat, pretty, graceful. GENUFLECT, jen-[=u]-flekt', _v.i._ to bend the knee in worship or respect.--_ns._ GENUFLEC'TION, GENUFLEX'ION. [L. _genu_, the knee, _flect[)e]re_, to bend.] GENUINE, jen'[=u]-in, _adj._ natural, not spurious or adulterated: real: pure: (_zool._) conformable to type.--_adv._ GEN'UINELY.--_n._ GEN'UINENESS. [L. _genuinus_--_gign[)e]re_, to beget.] GENUS, j[=e]'nus, _n._ (_zool._) a group consisting of a number of species closely connected by common characters or natural affinity: (_log._) a class of objects comprehending several subordinate species:--_pl._ GENERA (jen'[.e]ra).--_adjs._ GENER'IC, -AL, pertaining to a genus: relating to gender: of a general nature, not special: distinctly characteristic.--_adv._ GENER'ICALLY. [L. _genus_, _generis_, birth; cog. with Gr. _genos_--_gignesthai_.] GEO, GIO, gy[=o], _n._ (_prov._) a gully, creek. [Ice. _gjá_.] GEOCENTRIC, -AL, j[=e]-o-sen'trik, -al, _adj._ having the earth for its centre: (_astron._) as seen or measured from the earth.--_adv._ GEOCEN'TRICALLY.--_n._ GEOCEN'TRICISM. [Gr. _g[=e]_, the earth, _kentron_, a centre.] GEOCYCLIC, j[=e]-[=o]-sik'lik, _adj._ pertaining to the revolutions of the earth. GEODE, j[=e]'[=o]d, _n._ (_min._) a rounded nodule of stone with a hollow interior.--_adj._ GEODIF'EROUS, bearing or producing geodes. [Fr.,--Gr. _ge[=o]d[=e]s_, earth-like, earthen--_g[=e]_, earth, _eidos_, form.] GEODESY, je-od'e-si, _n._ a science whose object is to measure the earth and its parts on a large scale.--_ns._ GEOD[=E]'SIAN, GEOD'ESIST, one skilled in geodesy.--_adjs._ GEODES'IC, -AL, GEODET'IC, -AL, pertaining to or determined by geodesy. [Fr. _géodésie_--Gr. _ge[=o]daisia_--_g[=e]_, the earth, _daiein_, to divide.] GEOGNOSY, je-og'no-si, _n._ the study of the materials of the earth's substance, now frequently called _Petrography_--also GEOGN[=O]'SIS.--_n._ G[=E]'OGNOST.--_adjs._ GEOGNOST'IC, -AL.--_adv._ GEOGNOST'ICALLY. [Fr. _géognosie_--Gr. _g[=e]_, the earth, _gn[=o]sis_, knowledge.] GEOGONY, je-og'o-ni, _n._ the doctrine of the production or formation of the earth--also GEOG'ENY.--_adj._ GEOGON'IC. [Gr., _g[=e]_, the earth, _gon[=e]_, generation.] GEOGRAPHY, je-og'ra-fi, _n._ the science which describes the surface of the earth and its inhabitants: a book containing a description of the earth.--_n._ GEOG'RAPHER.--_adjs._ GEOGRAPH'IC, -AL, relating to geography.--_adv._ GEOGRAPH'ICALLY.--GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION (see DISTRIBUTION).--DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY, that part of geography which consists in a statement of facts; HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY, that part of geography which investigates the changes which have occurred in the governmental control of territory; PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY (see PHYSICAL); POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY, geography that gives an account of the different communities of mankind. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _ge[=o]graphia_--_g[=e]_, the earth, _graph[=e]_, a description--_graphein_, to write.] GEOLATRY, j[=e]-ol'a-tri, _n._ earth-worship. [Gr. _g[=e]_, the earth, _latreia_, worship.] GEOLOGY, je-ol'o-ji, _n._ the science relating to the history and development of the earth's crust, together with the several floras and faunas which have successively clothed and peopled its surface.--_ns._ GEOLO'GIAN, GEOL'OGIST.--_adjs._ GEOLOG'IC, -AL, pertaining to geology.--_adv._ GEOLOG'ICALLY.--_v.i._ GEOL'OGISE.--DYNAMICAL GEOLOGY, the study of natural operations based on the belief that the effects of Nature's agents in the present will further interpret the records of such actions in the past; STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY, that geology which treats of the mode in which rocks are built up in the earth's crust. [Fr. _géologie_--Gr. _g[=e]_, the earth, _logia_, a discourse.] GEOMANCY, j[=e]'o-man-si, _n._ divination by figures or lines drawn on the earth.--_n._ G[=E]'OMANCER.--_adj._ GE'OMANTIC, pertaining to geomancy. [Fr. _géomancie_--Gr. _g[=e]_, the earth, _manteia_, divination.] GEOMETRY, je-om'e-tri, _n._ that branch of mathematics which treats of magnitude and its relations: a text-book of geometry.--_ns._ GEOM'ETER, GEOMETRI'CIAN, one skilled in geometry.--_adjs._ GEOMET'RIC, -AL.--_adv._ GEOMET'RICALLY.--_v.i._ GEOM'ETRISE, to study geometry.--_n._ GEOM'ETRIST. [Fr. _géométrie_--L., Gr. _geometria_--_g[=e]_, the earth, _metron_, a measure.] GEOMYS, j[=e]'[=o]-mis, _n._ the typical genus of _Geomyidæ_, the pouched rats or pocket-gophers. [Gr. _g[=e]_, the earth, _mys_, mouse.] GEONOMY, j[=e]-on'o-mi, _n._ the science of the physical laws relating to the earth.--_adj._ GEONOM'IC. [Gr. _g[=e]_, earth, _nomos_, law.] GEOPHAGY, j[=e]-of'a-ji, _n._ the act or practice of eating earth--also GEOPH'AGISM.--_n._ GEOPH'AGIST.--_adj._ GEOPH'AGOUS. [Gr. _g[=e]_, the earth, _phagein_, to eat.] GEOPONIC, -AL, j[=e]-o-pon'ik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to tilling the earth or to agriculture.--_n.pl._ GEOPON'ICS, the science of agriculture. [Fr. _géoponique_--Gr. _ge[=o]ponikos_--_g[=e]_, the earth, _ponos_, labour.] GEORAMA, j[=e]-o-rä'ma, _n._ an apparatus for exhibiting the seas, lakes, rivers, and mountains on the earth's surface. [Gr. _g[=e]_, the earth, _horama_, a view--_horaein_, to see.] GEORDIE, j[=o]r'di, _n._ a guinea, from the figure of St _George_ upon the back: a safety-lamp for miners invented by _George_ Stephenson: a coal-pitman, a collier-boat. GEORGE, jorj, _n._ a jewelled figure of St _George_ slaying the dragon, worn by Knights of the Garter. GEORGIAN, jorj'i-an, _adj._ relating to the reigns of the four _Georges_, kings of Great Britain: belonging to _Georgia_ in the Caucasus, its people, language, &c.: pertaining to the American State of _Georgia_.--Also _n._ GEORGIC, jorj'ik, _adj._ relating to agriculture or rustic affairs.--_n._ a poem on husbandry. [L. _georgicus_--Gr. _ge[=o]rgikos_--_ge[=o]rgia_, agriculture--_g[=e]_, the earth, _ergon_, a work.] GEOSCOPY, j[=e]-os'k[=o]-pi, _n._ knowledge of the earth or its soil gained from observation. [Gr. _g[=e]_, the earth, _skopein_, to view.] GEOSELENIC, j[=e]-o-se-len'ik, _adj._ relating to the earth and the moon in their mutual relations. [Gr. _g[=e]_, the earth, _sel[=e]n[=e]_, the moon.] GEOSTATIC, j[=e]-o-stat'ik, _adj._ capable of sustaining the pressure of earth from all sides.--_n.pl._ GEOSTAT'ICS, the statics of rigid bodies. [Gr. _g[=e]_, the earth, _statikos_, causing to stand.] GEOTECTONIC, j[=e]-o-tek-ton'ik, _adj._ relating to the structure of the earth. [Gr. _g[=e]_, the earth, _tekt[=o]n_, a builder.] GEOTHERMIC, j[=e]-o-ther'mik, _adj._ pertaining to the internal heat of the earth.--_n._ GEOTHERMOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring subterranean temperatures. [Gr. _g[=e]_, the earth, _thermos_, heat.] GEOTROPISM, j[=e]-ot'ro-pizm, _n._ (_bot._) tendency to growth downward.--_adj._ GEOTROP'IC. [Gr. _g[=e]_, the earth, _tropos_, a turning.] GERAH, g[=e]'ra, _n._ (_B._) the smallest Hebrew weight and coin, 1/20th of a shekel, worth about 1½d. [Heb. _g[=e]r[=a]h_.] GERANIUM, je-r[=a]'ni-um, _n._ a genus of plants with seed-vessels like a crane's bill. [L.,--Gr. _geranion_--_geranos_, a crane.] GERATOLOGY, jer-at-ol'o-ji, _n._ the science of the phenomena of decadence. [Gr. _g[=e]ras_, old age, _logia_, discourse.] GERBE, jerb, _n._ something resembling a sheaf of wheat: a kind of firework. [Fr.] GERENT, j[=e]'rent, _n._ one who holds an office, a manager, ruler.--_adj._ GERFALCON, GYRFALCON, j[.e]r'fawl-kon, -fawk'n, _n._ a large falcon, found in the northern regions of both the Old and New Worlds. [O. Fr. _gerfaucon_--Low L. _gyrofalco_, most prob. Old High Ger. _gîr_, a vulture (Ger. _geier_). See FALCON.] GERM, j[.e]rm, _n._ a rudimentary form of a living thing, whether a plant or animal: (_bot._) the seed-bud of a plant: a shoot: that from which anything springs, the origin: a first principle.--_v.i._ to put forth buds, sprout.--_n._ GERM'ICIDE, that which destroys germs. [Fr. _germe_--L. _germen_, a bud.] GERMAN, j[.e]r'man, _adj._ of the first degree, as _cousins_ _german_: closely allied.--_n._ one from the same stock or closely allied.--_adj._ GERMANE', nearly related: relevant, appropriate. [O. Fr. _germain_--L. _germanus_, prob. for _germinanus_--_germen_, _-inis_, origin.] GERMAN, j[.e]r'man, _n._ a native of Germany; the German language:--_pl._ GER'MANS.--_adj._ of or from Germany.--_adjs._ GERMANESQUE', marked by German characteristics; GERMAN'IC, pertaining to Germany.--_adv._ GERMAN'ICALLY.--_v.i._ GER'MANISE, to show German qualities.--_adj._ GER'MANISH, somewhat German in qualities.--_ns._ GER'MANISM, an idiom of the German language; GER'MANIST.--_adj._ GERMANIS'TIC, pertaining to the study of German.--_n._ GER'MAN-SIL'VER, an alloy of copper, nickel, and zinc, white like silver, and first made in Germany.--HIGH GERMAN, the variety of Teutonic speech, originally confined to 'High' or Southern Germany, but now accepted as the literary language throughout the whole of Germany; LOW GERMAN, properly _Plattdeutsch_, the general name for the dialects of Germany which are not High German, but also applied by philologists to all the West Germanic dialects except High German (including English, Dutch, Frisian), and formerly in a still wider sense including also Gothic and Scandinavian. [L. _Germani_, 'shouters,' from Celt. _gairm_, a loud cry; or 'neighbours'--i.e. to the Gauls, from Celt. (Old Ir.) _gair_, a neighbour.] GERMANDER, j[.e]r'man-d[.e]r, _n._ a large genus of labiate herbs with aromatic, bitter, and stomachic properties. [Low L. _germandra_--Gr. _chamandrya_, _chamaidrys_--_chamai_, on the ground, _drys_, oak.] GERMANIUM, j[.e]r-m[=a]'ni-um, _n._ an element discovered in 1885 in argyrodite. GERMEN, j[.e]rm'en, _n._ a disused botanical synonym for Ovary (q.v.)--(_Shak._) GERM'IN.--_adj._ GERM'INAL, pertaining to a germ. [See GERM.] GERMINAL, zh[=a]r-m[=e]-nal', _n._ the seventh month of the French revolutionary calendar, March 21-April 19. GERMINATE, j[.e]rm'in-[=a]t, _v.i._ to spring from a germ: to begin to grow.--_v.t._ to produce.--_adj._ GERM'INANT, sprouting: sending forth germs or buds.--_n._ GERMIN[=A]'TION.--_adj._ GERM'INATIVE. [L. _germin[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_germen_, a bud.] GERN, j[.e]rn, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to grind or yawn. GERONTOCRACY, jer-on-tok'ra-si, _n._ government by old men. [Gr. _ger[=o]n_, an old man, _kratos_, power.] GEROPIGIA, jer-o-pij'i-a, _n._ a mixture of grape-juice, brandy, &c., used to sophisticate port-wine. [Port.] GERRYMANDER, jer-i-man'der, _v.t._ (_Amer._) to rearrange the voting districts in the interests of a particular party or candidate: to manipulate facts, arguments, &c. so as to reach undue conclusions.--_n._ an arrangement of the above nature. [Formed from the name of Governor Elbridge _Gerry_ (1744-1814) and _Salamander_, from the likeness to that animal of the gerrymandered map of Massachusetts in 1811.] GERUND, jer'und, _n._ a part of the Latin verb which has the value of a verbal noun--e.g. _amandum_, loving.--_ns._ GER'UND-GRIND'ER, a teacher, tutor; GER'UND-GRIND'ING.--_adj._ GERUND'IAL.--_n._ GERUND'IVE, the future passive participle of a Latin verb. [L. _gerundium_--_ger[)e]re_, to bear.] GERVAO, ger-vä'o _n._ a small medicinal verbenaceous shrub of the West Indies, &c. [Braz.] GESSO, jes'[=o], _n._ a plaster surface, prepared as a ground for painting. [It.] GEST, jest, _n._ (_Shak._). Same as GIST. GEST, jest, _n._ an exploit: demeanour, bearing: a tale of adventure, a romance.--GESTA ROMANORUM ('deeds of the Romans'), the title of a collection of short stories and legends in Latin, with moralisations appended, which probably took its present form in England about the beginning of the 14th century. [L. _gesta_, things done--_ger[)e]re_, _gestum_, to bear.] GESTATION, jes-t[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of carrying the young in the womb, pregnancy.--_adjs._ GES'TANT, laden; GES'TATORY, pertaining to gestation. [Fr.,--L. _gestation-em_--_gest[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to carry--_ger[)e]re_, to bear.] GESTICULATE, jes-tik'[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.i._ to make gestures when speaking: to play antic tricks.--_adj._ GES'TIC, pertaining to motion, esp. dancing.--_ns._ GESTICUL[=A]'TION, act of making gestures in speaking: a gesture; GESTIC'UL[=A]TOR, one who makes gestures.--_adj._ GESTIC'UL[=A]TORY, representing or abounding in gesticulations. [L. _gesticul[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_--_gesticulus_, dim. of _gestus_, gesture--_ger[)e]re_, to carry.] GESTURE, jes't[=u]r, _n._ a posture, or movement of the body: an action expressive of sentiment or passion: (_Shak._) behaviour.--_adj._ GES'TURAL. [Low L. _gestura_--L. _gestus_, from L. _ger[)e]re_, to carry.] GET, get, _v.t._ to obtain: to seize: to procure or cause to be: to beget offspring: to learn: to persuade: (_B._) to betake, to carry.--_v.i._ to arrive or put one's self in any place, state, or condition: to become:--_pr.p._ get'ting; _pa.t._ got; _pa.p._ got, (_obs._) got'ten.--_ns._ GET'TER, one who gets or obtains: one who begets; GET'TING, a gaining: anything gained: procreation; GET'-UP, equipment: general appearance.--GET AHEAD, ALONG, to make progress, advance; GET AT, to reach, attain; GET OFF, to escape; GET ON, to proceed, advance; GET OUT, to produce: to go away; GET OVER, to surmount; GET ROUND, to circumvent: to persuade, talk over; GET THROUGH, to finish; GET UP, to arise, to ascend: to arrange, prepare. [A.S. _gitan_, to get.] GEUM, j[=e]'um, _n._ a genus of perennial herbs, of order _Rosaceæ_, contains the avens or herb-bennet, &c. [L.] GEWGAW, g[=u]'gaw, _n._ a toy: a bauble.--_adj._ showy without value. [Acc. to Skeat, a reduplicated form of A.S. _gifan_, to give; preserved also in Northern Eng., as _giff-gaff_, interchange of intercourse.] GEY (_Scot._). See GAY. GEYSER, g[=i]s[.e]r, _n._ a hot spring, as in Iceland, which spouts water into the air. [Ice., _geysa_, to gush.] GHAST, gast, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to strike aghast: to affright.--_adj._ GHAST'FUL (_Spens._), dreary, dismal.--_adv._ GHAST'FULLY, frightfully.--_ns._ GHAST'LINESS, GHAST'NESS (_Shak._).--_adj._ GHAST'LY, death-like: hideous. [A.S. _g['æ]stlic_, terrible. See AGHAST.] GHAT, GHAUT, gawt, _n._ in India, a mountain-pass: a chain of mountains: landing-stairs for bathers on the sides of a river or tank. [Hind. _gh[=a]t_.] GHAZAL, gaz'al, _n._ a form of Persian verse in which the first two lines rhyme, and for this rhyme a new one must be found in the second line of each succeeding couplet: a piece of music in which a simple theme is constantly recurring.--Also GAZ'EL, GHAZ'EL. [Pers. _arghazel_, a love-poem.] GHAZEL. Same as GAZELLE. GHAZI, gä'z[=e], _n._ a veteran Mohammedan soldier, one who has fought for the faith. [Ar., 'a warrior.'] GHEBER, GHEBRE, g[=e]'b[.e]r, _n._ Same as GUEBRE. GHEE, g[=e], _n._ an Indian clarified butter, generally prepared from buffaloes' milk. [Hind. _gh[=i]_.] GHERKIN, g[.e]r'kin, _n._ a small cucumber used for pickling. [Dut. _agurkje_, a gherkin; a word of Eastern origin, as in Pers. _khiyár_, a cucumber, Byzantine _angourion_, a water-melon.] GHETTO, get'[=o], _n._ the Jews' quarter in Italian cities, to which they used to be strictly confined. [It.] GHIBELLINE, gib'e-lin, _n._ one of a party in Italy in the Middle Ages which supported the imperial authority, as opposed to the Guelfs. [See GUELF.] GHOST, g[=o]st, _n._ the soul of man: a spirit appearing after death: (_Shak._) a dead body: (_slang_) one who writes a statesman's speeches for him, &c.--_v.i._ to appear to.--_adj._ GHOST'-LIKE.--_n._ GHOST'LINESS.--_adj._ GHOST'LY, spiritual, religious: pertaining to apparitions.--_ns._ GHOST'-MOTH, a species of moth very common in Britain, its caterpillar destructive to hop-gardens; GHOST'-ST[=O]'RY, a story in which ghosts figure; GHOST'-WORD, a fictitious word that has originated in the blunder of a scribe or printer--common in dictionaries.--GIVE UP THE GHOST (_B._), to die.--HOLY GHOST, the Holy Spirit, the third person in the Trinity. [A.S. _gást_; Ger._ geist_.] GHOUL, g[=oo]l, _n._ an Eastern demon which devours the dead.--_adj._ GHOUL'ISH. [Pers.] GHYLL, an unnecessary variant of gill, a ravine. GIAMBEAUX, zham'b[=o], _n.pl._ (_Spens._) armour for the legs. [Fr.,--_jambe_, leg.] GIANT, j[=i]'ant, _n._ an individual whose stature and bulk exceed those of his species or race generally: a person of extraordinary powers:--_fem._ G[=i]'antess.--_adj._ gigantic.--_ns._ G[=I]'ANTISM, G[=i]'antship, the quality or character of a giant.--_adj._ G[=I]'ANTLY, giant-like.--_n._ G[=I]'ANT-POW'DER, a kind of dynamite.--_adj._ G[=I]'ANT-RUDE (_Shak._), enormously rude or uncivil.--_n._ G[=I]'ANTRY, giants collectively. [O. Fr. _geant_ (Fr. _géant_)--L.,--Gr. _gigas_, _gigantos_.] GIAOUR, jowr, _n._ infidel, a term applied by the Turks to all who are not of their own religion. [Turk. _jawr_--Ar. _káfir_, an infidel.] GIB, jib, _n._ the projecting arm of a crane: a wedge-shaped piece of metal holding another in place, &c.--_v.t._ to fasten with such. GIB, jib, _n._ a cat--Also GIB'-CAT (_Shak._). [A corr. of _Gilbert_, as '_Tom-cat_,' hardly for _glib_=_lib_.] GIBBE, jib, _n._ (_Shak._) an old worn-out animal. GIBBERISH, gib'[.e]r-ish, _n._ rapid, gabbling talk: unmeaning words.--_adj._ unmeaning.--_v.i._ GIBB'ER, to speak senselessly or inarticulately.--_n._ GIBB'LE-GABBLE, gabble. [See GABBLE.] GIBBET, jib'et, _n._ a gallows on which criminals were suspended after execution: the projecting beam of a crane.--_v.t._ to expose on a gibbet. [O. Fr. _gibet_, a stick; origin unknown.] GIBBON, gib'un, _n._ a genus of tailless anthropoid apes, with very long arms, natives of the East Indies. GIBBOUS, gib'us, _adj._ hump-backed: swelling, convex, as the moon when nearly full--also GIBB'OSE.--_ns._ GIBBOS'ITY, GIBB'OUSNESS.--_adv._ GIBB'OUSLY. [L. _gibbosus_=_gibberosus_--_gibber_, a hump.] GIBE, JIBE, j[=i]b, _v.t._ to sneer at: to taunt.--_n._ a taunt: contempt.--_n._ GIB'ER, one who gibes.--_adv._ GIB'INGLY. [Ice. _geipa_, to talk nonsense.] GIBEL, gib'el, _n._ the Prussian carp, without barbules. GIBEONITE, gib'[=e]-on-[=i]t, _n._ a slave's slave--from Josh., ix. GIBLETS, jib'lets, _n.pl._ the internal eatable parts of fowl, taken out before cooking it.--_adj._ GIB'LET, made of giblets. [O. Fr. _gibelet_; origin unknown; not a dim. of _gibier_, game.] GIBUS, zh[=e]'bus, _n._ a crush-hat, opera-hat. [Fr.] GID, gid, _n._ staggers in sheep.--Also STUR'DY (q.v.). GIDDY, gid'i, _adj._ unsteady, dizzy: that causes giddiness: whirling: inconstant: thoughtless.--_adv._ GIDD'ILY.--_n._ GIDD'INESS.--_adjs._ GIDD'Y-HEAD'ED, thoughtless, wanting reflection; GIDD'Y-PACED (_Shak._), moving irregularly. [From A.S. _giddian_, to sing, be merry, _gid_, a song.] GIE, g[=e], _v._ a Scotch form of _give_. GIER-EAGLE, j[=e]r'-[=e]'gl, _n._ (_B._) a species of eagle. [See GYRFALCON.] GIF, gif, _conj._ an obsolete form of _if_. GIFT, gift, _n._ a thing given: a bribe: a quality bestowed by nature: the act of giving.--_v.t._ to endow with any power or faculty.--_adj._ GIFT'ED, endowed by nature: intellectual.--_ns._ GIFT'-HORSE, a horse given as a gift; GIFT'LING, a little gift.--LOOK A GIFT HORSE IN THE MOUTH, to criticise a gift. [_Give._] GIG, gig, _n._ a light, two-wheeled carriage: a long, light boat: (_U.S._) sport, fun.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ GIG'GIT (_U.S._), to convey or move rapidly.--_ns._ GIG'MAN, one who drives or keeps a gig--a favourite term of Carlyle's for a narrow philistinism based on the possession of a little more money than others, whence GIG'MANESS, GIGMAN'ITY, GIG'M[=A]NIA. [M. E. _gigge_, a whirling thing (cf. WHIRLIGIG); prob. related to Ice. _geiga_, to turn in a wrong direction. Cf. JIG.] GIGANTIC, j[=i]-gan'tik, _adj._ suitable to a giant: enormous--also GIGANT[=E]'AN.--_adj._ GIGANTESQUE', befitting a giant.--_adv._ GIGAN'TICALLY.--_ns._ GIGAN'TICIDE, the act of killing a giant; GIGANTOL'OGY, description of giants; GIGANTOM'ACHY, a war of giants. [L. _gigas_, _gigantis_, a giant, _cæd[)e]re_, to kill.] GIGGLE, gig'l, _v.i._ to laugh with short catches of the breath, or in a silly manner.--_n._ a laugh of this kind.--_ns._ GIGG'LER; GIGG'LING. [M. E. _gagelen_, to cackle; cf. Ice. _gagl_, a goose.] GIGLET, gig'let, _n._ a giddy girl: a wanton--also GIG'LOT.--_adj._ (_Shak._) inconstant. [Prob. Ice. _gikkr_, a pert person; perh. related to _gig_. See JIG.] GIGOT, jig'ut, _n._ a leg of mutton. [Fr.,--O. Fr. _gigue_, a leg: a fiddle; a word of unknown origin.] GILA MONSTER. See MONSTER. GILD, gild, _v.t._ to cover or overlay with gold: to cover with any gold-like substance: to gloss over: to adorn with lustre:--_pr.p._ gild'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ gild'ed or gilt.--_ns._ GILD'ER, one who coats articles with gold; GILD'ING, act or trade of a gilder: gold laid on any surface for ornament.--GILDED CHAMBER, the House of Lords; GILD THE PILL, to do something to make a disagreeable thing seem less so. [A.S. _gyldan_--gold. See GOLD.] GILL, gil, _n._ one of the breathing organs in fishes and certain other aquatic animals: the flap below the bill of a fowl. [Cf. Dan. _giælle_, a gill; Ice. _gjölnar_ (pl.), gills; Sw. _gäl_.] GILL, jil, _n._ a measure=¼ pint.--_n._ GILL'-HOUSE, a dram-shop. [O. Fr. _gelle_; cf. Low L. _gillo_, a flask; allied to Fr. _jale_, a large bowl, Eng. _gallon_.] GILL, jil, _n._ a girl, because of the commonness of the name _Gillian_, cf. 'Jack and Jill:' ground-ivy: beer flavoured with ground-ivy.--_n._ GILL'-FLIRT, a wanton girl. [From _Gillian_ or _Juliana_ (from _Julius_), a female name, contracted _Gill_, _Jill_.] GILL, gil, _n._ a small ravine, a wooded glen.--Also GHYLL. [Ice.] GILLIE, GILLY, gil'i, _n._ a youth, a man-servant, esp. to one hunting. [Gael. _gille_, a lad, Ir. _giolla_.] GILLYFLOWER, jil'i-flow-[.e]r, _n._ popular English name for stock, wallflower, &c., from its clove-like smell. [O. Fr. _giroflée_--Gr. _karyophyllon_, the clove-tree--_karyon_, a nut, _phyllon_, a leaf.] GILPY, GILPEY, gil'pi, _n._ (_Scot._) a boisterous boy or girl. GILRAVAGE, gil-rav'[=a]j, _n._ (_Scot._) a noisy frolic, disorder.--_v.i._ to plunder, spoil. GILT, gilt, _pa.t._ and _pa.p_ of _gild_.--_n._ that which is used for gilding.--_adjs._ GILD'ED; GILT'-EDGED, having the edges gilt: of the highest quality, as 'gilt-edged securities'=those stocks whose interest is considered perfectly safe.--_n._ GILT'-HEAD, a popular name for several fishes, esp. a sparoid fish with a half-moon-shaped gold spot between the eyes. GILT, gilt, _n._ (_Shak._) money. GIMBAL, gim'bal, _n._ a contrivance for suspending the mariner's compass, so as to keep it always horizontal. [Through Fr. from L. _gemelli_, twins.] GIMBLET. Same as GIMLET. GIMCRACK, jim'krak, _n._ a toy: a gewgaw: a trivial mechanism--also JIM'CRACK.--_n._ GIM'CRACKERY. [Prov. _gim_ or _jim_, neat, and _crack_, a lively boy.] GIMLET, gim'let, _n._ a small tool for boring holes by turning it with the hand.--_v.t._ to pierce with a gimlet: (_naut._) to turn round (an anchor) as if turning a gimlet.--_adj._ GIM'LET-EYED, very sharp-sighted. [O. Fr. _gimbelet_, from Teut.; cf. Eng. _wimble_.] GIMMAL, gim'al, _n._ a gimbal: (_Shak._) anything consisting of parts moving within each other or interlocked--a quaint piece of mechanism--also GIMM'ER.--_adj._ (_Shak._) made or consisting of double rings. GIMMER, gim'[.e]r, _n._ a two-year-old ewe. [Ice. _gymbr_; cf. Sw. _gimmer_, Dan. _gimmer_.] GIMP, gimp, _n._ a kind of trimming, &c., of silk, woollen, or cotton twist.--_v.t._ to make or furnish with gimp. [Fr. _guimpe_, from Old High Ger. _wimpal_, a light robe; Eng. _wimple_.] GIN, jin, _n._ Same as _Geneva_, of which it is a contraction.--_ns._ GIN'-FIZZ, a drink of gin, lemon-juice, effervescing water, &c.; GIN-PAL'ACE, GIN'-SHOP, a shop where gin is sold; GIN'-SLING, a cold beverage of gin and water, sweetened and flavoured. GIN, jin, _n._ the name of a variety of machines, esp. one with pulleys for raising weights, &c.: a pump worked by rotary sails: (_B._) a trap or snare.--_v.t._ to trap or snare: to clear cotton of its seeds by a machine:--_pr.p._ gin'ning; _pa.p._ ginned.--_ns._ GIN'-HORSE, a mill-horse; GIN'-HOUSE, a place where cotton is ginned. [Contr. from _engine_.] GIN, jin, _n._ an Australian native woman. GIN, gin, _v.i._ to begin.--_n._ GIN'NING, beginning. GIN, gin, a prov. form of _against_. GIN, gin, a Scotch form of _gif_=_if_. GINETE, ch[=e]-n[=a]'t[=a], _n._ a trooper, horse-soldier. [Sp.] GING, ging, _n._ a gang or company. [A.S. _genge_, a troop, _gangan_, to go. See GANG.] GINGELLY-OIL, jin-jel'i-oil, _n._ the oil of Indian sesame. GINGER, jin'j[.e]r, _n._ the root of a plant in the East and West Indies, with a hot and spicy taste, useful as a condiment or stomachic.--_ns._ GINGERADE', an aerated drink flavoured with ginger; GIN'GERBEER, an effervescent drink flavoured with ginger; GIN'GERBREAD, sweet bread flavoured with ginger; GIN'GER-COR'DIAL, a cordial made of ginger, lemon-peel, raisins, water, and sometimes spirits; GIN'GERNUT, a small cake flavoured with ginger and sweetened with molasses.--_adj._ GIN'GEROUS, like ginger.--_ns._ GIN'GERPOP, weak gingerbeer; GIN'GERSNAP, a thin brittle cake spiced with ginger; GIN'GER-WINE, a liquor made by the fermentation of sugar and water, and flavoured with various spices, chiefly ginger.--GINGERBREAD WARE, or WORK, cheap and tawdry ornamental work.--TAKE THE GILT OFF THE GINGERBREAD, to destroy the illusion. [M. E. _gingivere_--O. Fr. _gengibre_--L. _zingiber_--Gr. _zingiberis_--Sans. _çriñga-vera_--_çriñga_, horn, _vera_, shape.] GINGERLY, jin'j[.e]r-li, _adv._ with soft steps: cautiously. [From a Scand. root, seen in Sw. _gingla_, to totter.] GINGHAM, ging'ham, _n._ a kind of cotton cloth, woven from coloured yarns into stripes or checks, manufactured chiefly for dresses. [Fr. _guingan_, acc. to Littré, a corr. of _Guingamp_, in Brittany.] GINGING, gin'jing, _n._ (_prov._) the lining of a shaft. GINGIVAL, jin-j[=i]'val, _adj._ pertaining to the gums.--_n._ GINGIV[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the gums. [L. _gingivæ_.] GINGKO, ging'k[=o], _n._ a Chinese tree, allied to the yew, with edible fruit--the Maiden-hair-tree. [Jap. _gingk[=o]_--Chin. _yin-hing_--_yin_, silver, _hing_, apricot.] GINGLE, jing'l. Same as JINGLE. GINGLYMUS, jing'gli-mus (or ging'-), _n._ a joint that permits flexion and extension in a single plane, as at the elbow and ankle:--_pl._ GING'LYM[=I]. [Gr.] GINNET, jin'net, _n._ obsolete form of _jennet_. GINNING. See GIN (2). GINNY-CARRIAGE, jin'i-kar'[=a]j, _n._ a small strong carriage used for conveying materials on a railway. GINSENG, jin'seng, _n._ a plant of genus _Aralia_, and its root, a Chinese panacea for exhaustion of body or mind. [Chin. _jin-tsan_.] GIP, jip, _n._ Same as GYP. GIPSY, GYPSEY, GYPSY, jip'si, _n._ one of a wandering race, originally from India, now scattered over Europe: one with a dark complexion: a sly, roguish woman.--_adj._ unconventional, outdoor.--_ns._ GIP'SYDOM; GIP'SYISM.--GIPSY HAT, a hat for women, with large flaps at the sides; GIPSY TABLE, a form of light fancy table; GIPSY WAGON, a wagon or van like a dwelling on wheels, used by gipsies and travelling photographers. [_Egyptian_, because once supposed to come from Egypt.] GIRAFFE, ji-raf', _n._ the camelopard, an African quadruped with remarkably long neck and legs. [Fr.,--Sp. _girafa_--Ar. _zar[=a]f_.] GIRANDOLE, jir'an-d[=o]l, _n._ a branched chandelier, generally projecting from a wall, and used as a stand for candles or lamps, or for flowers: a rotating firework. [Fr.,--It. _girandola_--_girare_--L. _gyr[=a]re_, to turn round--_gyrus_--Gr. _gyros_, a circle.] GIRASOL, jir'a-sol, _n._ a bluish-white translucent opal with reddish reflections. [It.,--_girare_, and _sole_--L. _sol_, the sun.] GIRD, g[.e]rd, _v.i._ to gibe, jeer (with _at_).--_v.t._ (_obs._) to taunt.--_n._ (_obs._) a sneer. [A.S. _gyrd_, _gierd_, rod.] GIRD, g[.e]rd, _v.t._ to bind round: to make fast by binding: to surround: to clothe, furnish:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ gird'ed or girt.--_n._ GIRD'ER, one of the principal pieces of timber in a floor binding the others together: in engineering, any simple or compound beam of wood, iron, or steel used to support joisting, walls, arches, &c., in various kinds of bridges.--GIRD ONE'S SELF, to tuck up loose garments under the girdle: to brace the mind for any trial or effort. [A.S. _gyrdan_; cf. Ger. _gürten_, _garden_, Eng. _yard_.] GIRDING, g[.e]rd'ing, _n._ (_B._) a covering. GIRDLE, g[.e]rd'l, _n._ that which encircles, esp. a band or belt for the waist: an enclosure, compass, limit: in jewellery, a horizontal line surrounding a stone.--_v.t._ to bind, as with a girdle: to enclose: to make a circular incision, as through the bark of a tree to kill it.--_n._ GIRD'LE-BELT, a belt for girding the waist.--_p.adj._ GIRD'LED (_Shak._), surrounded with, or as with, a girdle.--_n._ GIRD'LER, one who girdles: a maker of girdles. [A.S. _gyrdel_--_gyrdan_, to gird.] GIRDLE, g[.e]rd'l, _n._ a Scotch form of _griddle_. GIRKIN, g[.e]r'kin, _n._ Same as GHERKIN. GIRL, g[.e]rl, _n._ a female child: a young unmarried woman: a maid-servant.--_n._ GIRL'HOOD, the state or time of being a girl.--_adj._ GIRL'ISH, of or like a girl.--_adv._ GIRL'ISHLY--_n._ GIRL'ISHNESS. [Prob. from Old Low Ger. _gör_, a child, with dim. suffix _-l_.] GIRLOND, obsolete form of _garland_. GIRN, g[.e]rn, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to grin, snarl. [_Grin._] GIRNEL, g[.e]r'nel, _n._ (_Scot._) a granary, meal-chest. [Variant of _garner_.] GIRONDIST, ji-rond'ist, _n._ a member of the moderate republican party during the French Revolution, so called because its earliest leaders, Vergniaud, Guadet, &c., were sent up to the Legislative Assembly (Oct. 1791) by the _Gironde_ department.--Also GIRON'DIN. GIRR, gir, _n._ (_Scot._) a hoop. GIRT, g[.e]rt, _v.t._ to gird.--_pa.p._ of a ship moored so taut by her cables to two oppositely placed anchors as to be prevented from swinging to the wind or tide. GIRTH, g[.e]rth, _n._ belly-band of a saddle: measure round the waist.--Also GIRT. GIST, jist, _n._ the main point or pith of a matter. [From an old French proverb, 'I know where the hare _lies_'--_i.e._ I know the main point--O. Fr. _gist_ (Fr. _gît_)--O. Fr. _gesir_ (Fr. _gésir_), to lie--L. _jac[=e]re_.] GITTERN, git'ern, _n._ a kind of guitar, a cithern.--_v.i._ to play on the gittern. [Most prob. Old Dut. _ghiterne_--L. _cithara_--Gr. _kithara_. See GUITAR.] GIUST, j[=oo]st, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as JOUST. GIUSTO, j[=u]s't[=o], _adj._ (_mus._) suitable, regular. [It.,--L. _justus_, just.] GIVE, giv, _v.t._ to bestow: to impart: to yield: to grant: to permit: to afford: to furnish: to pay or render, as thanks: to pronounce, as a decision: to show, as a result: to apply, as one's self: to allow or admit.--_v.i._ to yield to pressure: to begin to melt: to grow soft: to open, or give an opening or view, to lead (with _upon_, _on_, _into_):--_pr.p._ giv'ing; _pa.t._ g[=a]ve; _pa.p._ given (giv'n).--_p.adj._ GIV'EN, bestowed: specified: addicted, disposed to: admitted, supposed.--_ns._ GIV'ER, one who gives or bestows; GIV'ING, the act of bestowing: (_Shak._) an alleging of what is not real.--GIVE AND TAKE, to give and get fairly, fair measure on both sides; GIVE BIRTH TO, to bring forth: to originate; GIVE CHASE, to pursue; GIVE EAR, to listen; GIVE FORTH, to emit, to publish; GIVE GROUND, place, to give way, to yield; GIVE IN TO, to yield assent or obedience to; GIVE IT TO ONE (_coll._), to scold or beat anybody severely; GIVE LINE, HEAD, REIN, &c., to give more liberty or scope--the metaphor from angling and driving; GIVE ONE'S SELF AWAY, to betray one's secret by a slip of the tongue, &c.; GIVE OUT, to report, to emit; GIVE OVER, to cease; GIVE THE LIE TO, to charge openly with falsehood; GIVE TONGUE, to bark; GIVE UP, to abandon; GIVE WAY, to fall back, to yield, to withdraw: to begin rowing--usually as a command to a crew. [A.S. _giefan_; Goth. _giban_, Ger. _geben_.] GIVES, j[=i]vz, _n._ Same as GYVES. GIZZ, giz, _n._ (_Scot._) the face. GIZZARD, giz'ard, _n._ the muscular stomach of a bird. [M. E. _giser_--O. Fr. _gezier_--L. _gigerium_, only in pl. _gigeria_, cooked entrails of poultry.] GIZZEN, giz'n, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to shrink from dryness so as to leak: to wither.--_adj._ leaky. GLABROUS, gl[=a]'brus, _adj._ smooth: having no hairs or any unevenness.--_adj._ GL[=A]'BR[=A]TE, smooth, glabrous. [L. _glaber_, smooth.] GLACÉ, gla-s[=a]', _adj._ iced: glossy, lustrous, esp. of a thin silk material. [Fr.] GLACIAL, gl[=a]'shi-al, _adj._ icy: frozen: pertaining to ice or its action, esp. to glaciers.--_ns._ GL[=A]'CIALIST, one who attributes the phenomena of the drift in geology to the action of glaciers; GL[=A]CI[=A]'TION, the act of freezing: ice: the process of becoming covered with glaciers. [Fr.,--L. _glacialis_--_glacies_, ice.] GLACIER, gl[=a]'sh[=e]r, or glas'i-[.e]r, _n._ a field or, more properly, a slowly moving river of ice, such as is found in the hollows and on the slopes of lofty mountains. [Fr.,--_glace_, ice--L. _glacies_, ice.] GLACIS, gl[=a]'sis, or gla-s[=e]', _n._ a gentle slope: (_fort._) a smooth sloping bank. [Fr.,--O. Fr. _glacer_, to freeze--_glace_, ice.] GLAD, glad, _adj._ pleased: cheerful: bright: giving pleasure.--_v.t._ to make glad:--_pr.p._ glad'ding; _pa.p._ glad'ded.--_v.t._ GLAD'DEN, to make glad: to cheer: to animate.--_adj._ GLAD'FUL (_Spens._).--_n._ GLAD'FULNESS.--_adv._ GLAD'LY.--_n._ GLAD'NESS.--_adj._ GLAD'SOME, glad: joyous: gay.--_adv._ GLAD'SOMELY.--_n._ GLAD'SOMENESS. [A.S. _glæd_; Ger. _glatt_, smooth, Ice. _glaðr_, bright, Dan. _glad_.] GLADE, gl[=a]d, _n._ an open space in a wood.--_adj._ GL[=A]'DY, having glades. [Scand.; Ice. _glaðr_, bright, Norw. _glette_, a clear spot among clouds.] GLADIATOR, glad'i-[=a]-tor, _n._ in ancient Rome, a professional combatant with men or beasts in the arena.--_adjs._ GLAD'I[=A]TE, sword-shaped; GLADIAT[=O]'RIAL, GLADI[=A]'TORY, GLADIAT[=O]'RIAN.--_ns._ GLAD'IATORSHIP; GL[=A]'DIUS, the cuttle-bone or pen of a cuttle-fish. [L., a swordsman--_gladius_, a sword.] GLADIOLE, glad'i-[=o]l, GLADIOLUS, gla-d[=i]'o-lus, glad-i-[=o]'lus, _n._ the plant sword-lily:--_pl._ GLAD[=I]'OL[=I]. [L. _gladiolus_, dim. of _gladius_.] GLADSTONE, glad'ston, _n._ a four-wheeled two-seated carriage with driver's seat and dickey: a kind of light travelling-bag, opening wide. [From the great statesman, W. E. _Gladstone_ (1809-98).] GLAGOLITIC, glag-o-lit'ik, _adj._ of or pertaining to _Glagol_, an ancient Slavonic alphabet, apparently derived from the cursive Greek of the 9th century, only used in the liturgical books of the Dalmatian Slavs. [Old Bulgarian _glagolu_, a word.] GLAIKIT, gl[=a]k'it, _adj._ (_Scot._) giddy, foolish.--_ns._ GLAIK, a deception, a quick glance; GLAIK'ITNESS, levity.--FLING THE GLAIKS IN FOLK'S EEN (_Scot._), to throw dust in people's eyes. [See GLEEK.] GLAIR, gl[=a]r, _n._ the clear part of an egg used as varnish: any viscous, transparent substance: mud.--_v.t._ to varnish with white of eggs.--_adjs._ GLAIR'Y, GLAIR'EOUS, GL[=A]R'EOUS. [Fr. _glaire_--Low L. _clara ovi_, white of egg--L. _clarus_, clear.] GLAIVE, gl[=a]v, _n._ a weapon like a halberd, fixed on a long shaft, its edge on the outer curve.--Also GLAVE. [O. Fr. _glaive_--L. _gladius_, a sword.] GLAMOUR, glam'[.e]r, _n._ the supposed influence of a charm on the eyes, making them see things as fairer than they are: fascination: enchantment. [Merely a corruption of _gramarye_ or _grammar_, meaning grammar, then magic.] GLANCE, glans, _n._ a sudden shoot of light: a darting of the eye: a momentary view: a term applied to minerals exhibiting a pseudo-metallic lustre.--_v.i._ to dart a ray of light or splendour: to snatch a momentary view: to fly off obliquely: to make a passing allusion.--_v.t._ to dart suddenly or obliquely: to hint.--_n._ GLANCE'-COAL, any hard coal, like anthracite, so called from its metallic lustre.--_adv._ GLANC'INGLY. [From a Teut. root seen in Sw. _glans_, Dut. _glans_, Ger. _glanz_, lustre, and allied to Eng. _glint_.] GLAND, gland, _n._ a secreting structure, which in various ways alters the material brought to it by the blood, extracting and excreting waste products as in the kidneys, or manufacturing valuable by-products, such as the glycogen and bile of the liver: (_bot._) a small cellular spot which secretes oil or aroma.--_adjs._ GLANDIF'EROUS, bearing acorns or nuts; GLAND'IFORM, resembling a gland: nut-shaped; GLAND'[=U]LAR, GLAND'[=U]LOUS, containing, consisting of, or pertaining to glands.--_n._ GLAND'[=U]LE, a small gland.--_adj._ GLAND[=U]LIF'EROUS. [F. _glande_--L. _glans_, _glandis_, an acorn.] GLANDERS, gland'[.e]rz, _n._ a malignant, contagious, and fatal disease of the horse or ass, showing itself esp. on the mucous membrane of the nose, upon the lungs, and on the lymphatic system.--_adj._ GLAND'ERED, affected with glanders. GLARE, gl[=a]r, _n._ a clear, dazzling light: overpowering lustre: a piercing look.--_v.i._ to shine with a clear, dazzling light: to be ostentatiously splendid: to look with piercing eyes.--_adj._ GLAR'ING, bright and dazzling: barefaced: notorious.--_adv._ GLAR'INGLY.--_n._ GLAR'INGNESS. [Perh. from A.S. _glær_, a pellucid substance, amber.] GLAREOUS. See GLAIR. GLASS, glas, _n._ a combination of silica with some alkali or alkaline earth, such as lime, &c., used for window panes, mirrors, lenses, &c.: anything made of glass, esp. a drinking-vessel, a mirror, &c.: the quantity of liquid a glass holds: any fused substance like glass, with a vitreous fracture: (_pl._) spectacles.--_adj._ made of glass.--_v.t._ to case in glass.--_ns._ GLASS'-BLOW'ER, one who blows and fashions glass; GLASS'-BLOW'ING, the process of making glass, by taking a mass of glass reduced by heat to a viscid state, and inflating it; GLASS'-COACH, a coach for hire having glazed windows; GLASS'-CRAB, the larval form of rock lobsters, &c., but formerly regarded as adults, and made into a genus or even family; GLASS'-CUT'TER; GLASS'-CUT'TING, the act or process of cutting, shaping, and ornamenting the surface of glass.--_adj._ GLASS'-FACED (_Shak._), reflecting the sentiments of another, as in a mirror.--_n._ GLASS'FUL, the contents of a glass.--_adj._ GLASS'-GAZ'ING (_Shak._), addicted to viewing one's self in a mirror.--_ns._ GLASS'-GRIND'ING, the ornamenting of glass by rubbing with sand, emery, &c.; GLASS'-HOUSE, a glass manufactory: a house made of glass.--_adv._ GLASS'ILY.--_n._ GLASS'INESS.--_adj._ GLASS'-LIKE.--_ns._ GLASS'-PAINT'ING, the art of producing pictures on glass by means of staining it chemically; GLASS'-P[=A]'PER, paper coated with finely pounded glass, and used like sand-paper; GLASS'-SOAP, an oxide of manganese and other substances used by glass-blowers to remove colouring from glass; GLASS'WARE, articles made of glass; GLASS'-WORK, articles made of glass; GLASS'WORT, a plant so called from its yielding soda, used in making glass.--_adjs._ GLASS'Y, made of or like glass; GLASS'Y-HEAD'ED (_Tenn._), having a bald, shining head.--_ns._ CUT'-GLASS, flint-glass shaped or ornamented by cutting or grinding on a wheel; GROUND'-GLASS, any glass that has been depolished by a sand-blast, grinding, or etching with acids, so as to destroy its transparency; PLATE'-GLASS, glass cast in large thick plates.--LIVE IN A GLASS HOUSE=to be open to attack or retort.--MUSICAL GLASSES (see HARMONICA).--WATER, or SOLUBLE, GLASS, the soluble silicate of soda or of potash formed when silica is fused with an excess of alkali, used for hardening artificial stone, as a cement, and for rendering calico, &c., uninflammable. [A.S. _glæs_; Dut., Ger., and Sw. _glas_; cog. with _glow_, _gleam_, _glance_, _glare_.] GLASSITE, glas'[=i]t, _n._ one of a religious sect founded by John _Glas_ (1695-1773), a minister of the Church of Scotland, who was deposed in 1730 for maintaining that a congregation with its eldership is, in its discipline, subject to no jurisdiction but that of Jesus Christ. The sect is now better known as the Sandemanians, from the name of Glas's son-in-law. GLASWEGIAN, glas-w[=e]j'i-an, _n._ and _adj._ a native or citizen of _Glasgow_. GLAUBERITE, glaw'ber-[=i]t, _n._ a grayish-white mineral, a compound of the sulphates of sodium and calcium, found chiefly in rock-salt. [From the German Johann Rudolf _Glauber_, 1604-68.] GLAUBER-SALT. See SALT. GLAUCOMA, glawk-[=o]'ma, _n._ an insidious disease of the eye, marked by increased tension within the eyeball, growing dimness of vision, and an excavation of the papilla of the optic nerve--also GLAUC[=O]'SIS.--_adj._ GLAUCOM'ATOUS. [See GLAUCOUS.] GLAUCONITE, glaw'k[=o]-n[=i]t, _n._ the mineral, a silicate of iron, which gives a green colour to some of the beds of the greensand strata, whence their name.--_adj._ GLAUCONIT'IC. [Fr.,--Gr. _glaukos_, bluish-green.] GLAUCOUS, glaw'kus, _adj._ sea-green: grayish-blue: (_bot._) covered with a fine green bloom.--_n._ GLAUCES'CENCE.--_adj._ GLAUCES'CENT, somewhat glaucous. [L. _glaucus_, bluish--Gr. _glaukos_, blue or gray.] GLAUCUS, glaw'kus, _n._ a genus of Gasteropods, in the warmer parts of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. [Gr. _glaukos_, a fish--_glaukos_, bluish-green.] GLAUM, gläm, _v.i._ and _v.t._ (_Scot._) to grasp eagerly (with _at_). GLAUR, glär, a Scotch form of _glair_. GLAUX, gläks, _n._ a genus of _Primulaceæ_, called also _Sea milkwort_ and _Black saltwort_, common along sea-coasts of northern Europe--formerly used in soda-making. [L.,--Gr. _glaux_, milk-vetch.] GLAVE. See GLAIVE. GLAZE, gl[=a]z, _v.t._ to furnish or set with glass: to cover with a thin surface of glass or something glassy: to give a glassy surface to.--_n._ the glassy coating put upon pottery: any shining exterior.--_ns._ GL[=A]Z'ER, a workman who glazes pottery, paper, &c.; GL[=A]'ZIER, one who sets glass in window-frames, &c. (for _glazer_; like _law-y-er_ for _law-er_); GL[=A]Z'ING, the act or art of setting glass: the art of covering with a vitreous substance: (_paint._) semi-transparent colours put thinly over others to modify the effect. [M. E. _glasen_--_glas_, glass.] GLEAM, gl[=e]m, _v.i._ to glow or shine: to flash.--_n._ a small stream of light: a beam: brightness.--_n._ GLEAM'ING, a sudden shoot of light.--_adj._ GLEAM'Y, casting beams or rays of light. [A.S. _gl['æ]m_, gleam, brightness (see GLIMMER); akin to _glass_, _glow_.] GLEAN, gl[=e]n, _v.t._ to gather in handfuls after the reapers: to collect (what is thinly scattered).--_v.i._ to gather the corn left by a reaper.--_n._ that which is gleaned: the act of gleaning.--_ns._ GLEAN'ER; GLEAN'ING. [O. Fr. _glener_ (Fr. _glaner_), through Low L. _glen[=a]re_, _glena_, from Teut.] GLEBE, gl[=e]b, _n._ the land belonging to a parish church or ecclesiastical benefice: (_mining_) a piece of earth containing ore: (_arch._) turf.--ADJS. GLEB'OUS, GLEB'Y, cloddy, turfy. [Fr.,--L. _gleba_, a clod.] GLEDE, gl[=e]d, _n._ (_B._) the common kite, a rapacious bird. [A.S. _glida_, from, _glídan_, to glide.] GLEDGE, glej, _v.i._ to squint: to look cunningly.--_n._ a knowing look. [See GLEY.] GLEE, gl[=e], _n._ joy: mirth and gaiety: (_mus._) a song or catch in parts.--_adj._ GLEE'FUL, merry.--_ns._ GLEE'MAID'EN, a female minstrel; GLEE'MAN, a minstrel.--_adj._ GLEE'SOME, merry. [A.S. _gleó_, mirth; Ice. _glý_.] GLEED, gl[=e]d, _n._ a hot coal or burning ember. [A.S. _gléd_; cf. Dut. _gloed_, Ger. _glut_, Sw. _glöd_.] GLEEK, gl[=e]k, _n._ (_Shak._) a jest or scoff, a trick: an old game at cards for three, each having twelve, and eight being left for the stock.--_v.i._ (_Shak._) to gibe or sneer, to spend time in sport or fun. [Prob. cog. with A.S. _gelác_, play, Ice. _leik_.] GLEET, gl[=e]t, _n._ a glairy discharge from a mucous surface.--_adj._ GLEET'Y. [O. Fr. _glete_, _glecte_, a flux.] GLEG, gleg, _adj._ clever: apt: (_Scot._) sharp. [Ice. _glöggr_, clever; cf. A.S. _gleáw_, wise, Ger. _glau_, clear.] GLEN, glen, _n._ a narrow valley worn by a river: a depression between hills. [Celt., as in Gael. and Ir. _gleann_, W. _glyn_.] GLENE, gl[=e]'n[=e], _n._ the pupil, eyeball: a socket.--_adjs._ GL[=E]'NOID, -AL, slightly cupped. [Gr.] GLENGARRY, glen-gar'i, _n._ a cap of thick-milled woollen, generally rising to a point in front, with ribbons hanging down behind--worn by the Highlanders of Scotland. [_Glengarry_, a glen in West Inverness-shire.] GLENLIVET, glen-l[=e]v'et, _n._ a good Scotch whisky. [_Glenlivet_, a valley in Banffshire.] GLEY, gl[=i], gl[=e], _v.i._ to squint.--_p.adj._ GLEYED (_Scot._), squint-eyed. [Ice. _gljá_, to glitter; Dan. _glo_.] GLIADIN. See GLUTIN. GLIB, glib, _adj._ moving easily: voluble.--_v.i._ to move freely.--_adv._ GLIB'LY.--_n._ GLIB'NESS. [A contr. of Dut. _glibberig_, slippery.] GLIB, glib, _n._ (_Spens._) a bush of hair hanging over the eyes. [Gael., a lock of hair.] GLIB, glib, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to emasculate, to castrate. [Perh. an error for _lib_, to castrate.] GLIDE, gl[=i]d, _v.i._ to slide smoothly and easily: to flow gently: to pass rapidly.--_n._ act of gliding: the joining of two sounds without a break: a smooth and sliding kind of waltz-step.--_adj._ GLID'DERY, slippery.--_n._ GL[=I]D'ER, one who, or that which, glides.--_adv._ GL[=I]D'INGLY. [A.S. _glídan_, to slip; Ger. _gleiten_.] GLIFF, glif, _n._ a fright, a scare: (_Scot._) a moment.--Also GLIFT. [M. E. _gliffen_, to be terrified.] GLIM, glim, _n._ (_coll._) a light: (_slang_) an eye. [A.S. _gleomu_; cf. Ger. _glimm_, a spark.] GLIMMER, glim'[.e]r, _v.i._ to burn or appear faintly.--_n._ a faint light: feeble rays of light: (_min._) mica.--_ns._ GLIMM'ER-GOWK (_Tenn._), an owl; GLIMM'ERING, a glimmer: an inkling.--_adv._ GLIMM'ERINGLY. [M. E. _glimeren_; most prob. directly Scand.; Dan. _glimre_, to glimmer, Sw. prov. _glim_, a glance.] GLIMPSE, glimps, _n._ a short gleam: a weak light: transient lustre: a hurried view: fleeting enjoyment: the exhibition of a faint resemblance.--_v.i._ to appear by glimpses.--_v.t._ to get a glimpse of. [M. E. _glimsen_, to glimpse, a variant of _glimmer_.] GLINT, glint, _v.i._ to shine, gleam: (_Burns_) to move quickly.--_v.t._ to reflect.--_n._ a gleam. [From Scand.; Old Dan. _glinte_, to shine.] GLISK, glisk, _n._ (_Scot._) a glimpse. [M. E. _glissen_--A.S. _glisian_, to glance.] GLISSADE, glis-[=a]d', _v.i._ to slide or glide down.--_n._ act of sliding down a slope. GLIST, glist, _n._ a dark ferruginous mineral found in lodes, micaceous iron ore. GLISTEN, glis'n, _v.i._ to glitter or sparkle with light: to shine.--_n._ glitter. [M. E. _glis-ien_, to shine--A.S. _glisnian_, to shine; cf. Dut. _glinsteren_.] GLISTER, glis't[.e]r, _v.i._ to sparkle, glitter.--_adj._ GLIS'TERING (_Shak._), glittering. [M. E. _glistren_; see above.] GLIT, a Scotch form of _gleet_. GLITTER, glit'[.e]r, _v.i._ to glisten, to sparkle with light: to be splendid: to be showy.--_n._ lustre: brilliancy.--_adjs._ GLITT'ERAND (_Spens._), sparkling, glittering; GLITT'ERING, shining: splendid: brilliant.--_adv._ GLITT'ERINGLY. [M. E. _gliteren_; cf. Ice. _glitra_, Mid. High Ger. _glitzern_.] GLOAMING, gl[=o]m'ing, _n._ twilight, dusk--(_Scot._) GLOAMIN. [A.S. _glómung_; akin to _gloom_.] GLOAT, gl[=o]t, _v.i._ to look eagerly, in a bad sense: to view with a wicked joy. [Ice. _glotta_, to grin.] GLOBATE, -D, gl[=o]b'[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ like a globe: circular. [L. _glob[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to form into a ball--_globus_.] GLOBE, gl[=o]b, _n._ a ball: a round body, a sphere: the earth: a sphere representing the earth (terrestrial globe) or the heavens (celestial globe): (_obs._) a group.--_v.t._ to form in a circle.--_ns._ GLOBE'-FISH, one of a genus of fishes found in warm seas, remarkable for its power of swelling out its body to a globular form; GLOBE'-FLOW'ER, a small palæarctic genus of plants of the order _Ranunculaceæ_, with a globe of large showy sepals enclosing the small inconspicuous linear petals; GLOBE'-TROT'TER, one who travels for pleasure around the world; GLOBE'-TROT'TING; GL[=O]'BIN, a proteid constituent of red blood corpuscles.--_adjs._ GL[=O]BOSE', GL[=O]B'OUS, resembling a globe.--_n._ (_Milt._) a globe.--_n._ GL[=O]BOS'ITY.--_adjs._ GLOB'[=U]LAR, GLOB'[=U]LOUS, GLOB'[=U]LOSE, like a globe: spherical.--_n._ GLOB[=U]LAR'ITY.--_adv._ GLOB'[=U]LARLY.--_ns._ GLOB'[=U]LE, a little globe or round particle--also GLOB'[=U]LET; GLOB'[=U]LIN, GLOB'[=U]LINE, a substance closely allied to albumen, which forms the main ingredient of the blood globules, and also occurs in the crystalline lens of the eye; GLOB'[=U]LITE, the name given by Vogelsang to minute crystallites of spherical, drop-like form.--_adj._ GL[=O]B'Y (_Milt._), round. [O. Fr.,--L. _globus_; _gleba_, a clod.] GLOBIGERINA, glob-i-je-r[=i]'na, _n._ a genus typical of _Globigerinidæ_, a pelagic family of foraminifers. GLODE, gl[=o]d (_Spens._), _pa.t._ of _glide_. GLOME, gl[=o]m, _n._ (_bot._) a globular head of flowers.--_adj._ GLOM'EROUS. [L. _glomus_=_globus_.] GLOMERATE, glom'[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.t._ to gather into a ball: to collect into a spherical mass.--_adj._ growing in rounded or massive forms: conglomerate.--_n._ GLOMER[=A]'TION, act of gathering into a ball: a body formed into a ball. [L. g_lomer[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_glomus_, _glomeris_, a clew of yarn.] GLOOM, gl[=oo]m, _n._ partial darkness: cloudiness: heaviness of mind, sadness: hopelessness: sullenness.--_v.i._ to be sullen or dejected: to be cloudy or obscure.--_v.t._ to fill with gloom.--_adv._ GLOOM'ILY.--_n._ GLOOM'INESS.--_p.adj._ GLOOM'ING (_Shak._), shining obscurely.--_n._ twilight: gloaming.--_adj._ GLOOM'Y, dim or obscure: dimly lighted: sad, melancholy. [A.S. _glóm_, gloom; prov. Ger. _glumm_, gloomy.] GLORIA, gl[=o]'ri-a, _n._ a doxology.--GLORIA IN EXCELSIS, the 'Greater Doxology'--'Glory be to God on high;' GLORIA PATRI, the 'Lesser Doxology'--'Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost, as it was,' &c. [L. _gloria_, glory.] GLORIFY, gl[=o]'ri-f[=i], _v.t._ to make glorious: to honour: to exalt to glory or happiness: to ascribe honour to, to worship:--_pa.p._ gl[=o]'rified.--_n._ GLORIFIC[=A]'TION. [L. _gloria_, glory, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] GLORY, gl[=o]'ri, _n._ renown: honour: the occasion of praise: an object of pride: excellency: splendour: brightness: in religious symbolism, a combination of the nimbus and the aureola, but often erroneously used for the nimbus: a burst of sunlight: a luminous glow of reflected light upon clouds: vain-glory: (_B._) the presence of God: the manifestation of God to the blessed in heaven: heaven.--_v.i._ to boast: to be proud of anything: to exult:--_pa.p._ gl[=o]'ried.--_adj._ GL[=O]'RIED (_Milt._), illustrious, honourable.--_ns._ GL[=O]'RIOLE, a halo or glory; GLORI[=O]'SA, a genus of _Liliaceæ_, of which the best-known species, a native of India, is a herbaceous perennial, with beautiful red and yellow flowers.--_adj._ GL[=O]'RIOUS, noble, splendid: conferring renown: (_coll._) elated, tipsy.--_adv._ GL[=O]'RIOUSLY.--_ns._ GL[=O]'RIOUSNESS; GL[=O]'RY-HOLE, an opening through which to see the inside of a furnace: a place for concealing articles of value; GL[=O]'RYING, boasting; GL[=O]'RY-PEA, a leguminous Australian plant with red flowers. [O. Fr. _glorie_--L. _gloria_ (for _cloria_), akin to _clarus_, from root of L. _clu[=e]re_, Gr. _klu-ein_, to be famed; Eng. _loud_.] GLOSS, glos, _n._ brightness or lustre, as from a polished surface: external show.--_v.t._ to give a superficial lustre to: to render plausible: to palliate. [Ice. _glossi_, brightness, _glóa_, to glow. See GLASS.] GLOSS, glos, _n._ a remark to explain a subject: a comment.--_v.i._ to comment or make explanatory remarks.--_adj._ GLOSS[=A]'RIAL, relating to a glossary: containing explanation.--_ns._ GLOSS'ARIST, a writer of a glossary; GLOSS'ARY, a vocabulary of words requiring special explanation: a dictionary; GLOSS[=A]'TOR, GLOSS'ER, a writer of glosses or comments, a commentator; GLOSS'IC, a phonetic alphabet devised by Mr A. J. Ellis (1814-90) for the scientific expression of speech-sounds--to be used concurrently with the _Nomic_ or existing English orthography; GLOSS[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the tongue; GLOSS'OCELE, swelled tongue; GLOSSOG'RAPHER.--_adj._ GLOSSOGRAPH'ICAL.--_n._ GLOSSOG'RAPHY, the writing of glossaries or comments.--_adj._ GLOSSOLOG'ICAL.--_ns._ GLOSSOL'OGIST; GLOSSOL'OGY, the science of language, comparative philology: the knowledge of the definition of technical terms--also GLOTTOL'OGY; GLOSSOT'OMY, dissection of the tongue. [L. _glossa_, a word requiring explanation--Gr. _gl[=o]ssa_, the tongue.] GLOSSY, glos'i, _adj._ smooth and shining: highly polished.--_adv._ GLOSS'ILY.--_n._ GLOSS'INESS. GLOTTIS, glot'is, _n._ the opening of the larynx or entrance to the windpipe.--_adj._ GLOTT'AL; GLOTT'IC, pertaining to the tongue or to glottology. [Gr. _gl[=o]ttis_--_gl[=o]tta_, the tongue.] GLOTTOLOGY. See GLOSSOLOGY. GLOUT, glowt, _v.i._ to be sulky.--_n._ a sulky look, the sulks. [See GLOAT.] GLOVE, gluv, _n._ a covering for the hand, with a sheath for each finger: a boxing-glove.--_v.t._ to cover with, or as with, a glove.--_adj._ GLOVED, covered with a glove.--_ns._ GLOVE'-FIGHT, a boxing-match in which the hands are gloved; GLOVE'-MON'EY, a gratuity given to servants, officers of a court, &c.; GLOV'ER, one who makes or sells gloves; GLOVE'-SHIELD, a shield worn by a knight on the left-hand gauntlet to parry blows; GLOVE'-STRETCH'ER, a scissors-shaped instrument for inserting into the fingers of gloves to stretch them.--HANDLE WITHOUT GLOVES, to treat with vigour or with scant ceremony; THROW DOWN, TAKE UP, THE GLOVE, to offer, or to accept, a challenge. [A.S. _glóf_; cf. Scot. _loof_, Ice. _lôfi_, palm.] GLOW, gl[=o], _v.i._ to shine with an intense heat: to feel great heat of body: to be flushed: to feel the heat of passion: to be ardent.--_n._ shining or white heat: unusual warmth: brightness of colour: vehemence of passion.--_p.adj._ GLOW'ING, shining with intense light, white with heat: ardent, fervent, fiery.--_adv._ GLOW'INGLY.--_ns._ GLOW'-LAMP, an incandescent lamp, usually electric; GLOW'-WORM, a name given to many beetles in the sub-family _Lampyrides_, having phosphorescent structures on the abdomen. [A.S. _glówan_, to glow; Ger. _glühen_, Ice. _glóa_, to glow.] GLOWER, glow'[.e]r, _v.i._ to stare frowningly: to scowl.--_n._ a fierce or threatening stare. GLOXINIA, glok-sin'i-a, _n._ a genus of plants of the order _Gesneraceæ_, almost stemless, with bright bell-shaped flowers. [From _Gloxin_, a German botanist.] GLOZE, gl[=o]z, _v.i._ to give a false meaning to: to flatter: to wheedle: (_obs._) to comment.--_v.t._ to palliate by specious explanation.--_n._ (_obs._) an explanation.--_n._ GL[=O]'ZING, flattery, deceit. [See GLOSS (2).] GLUCINUM, gl[=oo]-s[=i]'num, _n._ a white metal prepared from beryl--its oxide, GLUC[=I]'NA, white, tasteless, insoluble in water.--_adj._ GL[=U]'CIC, pertaining to sugar.--_ns._ GLUCIDE'--Saccharin (q.v.); GLUCOHÆ'MIA, the presence of an excessive quantity of glucose in the blood; GLUC[=O]SE', the peculiar kind of sugar in the juice of fruits: the sugar-syrup obtained by the conversion of starch into sugar by sulphuric acid--grape-sugar, &c.; GLU'COSIDE, any of those vegetable products which, on treatment with acids or alkalies, yield a sugar or some closely allied carbohydrate; GLUCOS[=U]R'IA, the presence of glucose in the urine. [Gr. _glykys_, sweet.] GLUE, gl[=oo], _n._ an adhesive substance obtained by boiling the skins, hoofs, &c. of animals.--_v.t._ to join with glue:--_pr.p._ glu'ing; _pa.p._ glued.--_ns._ GLUE'-POT, a vessel for melting glue; GLU'ER, one who cements with glue.--_adj._ GLU'EY, containing glue: sticky: viscous.--_n._ GLU'EYNESS.--_adj._ GLU'ISH, having the nature of glue.--_n._ MARINE'-GLUE, not a glue, but a cementing composition, used in shipbuilding, for paying seams in ships' decks after being caulked. [Fr. _glu_--Low L. _glus_, _glutis_--_glu[)e]re_, to draw together.] GLUM, glum, _adj._ frowning: sullen: gloomy.--_adv._ GLUM'LY.--_n._ GLUM'NESS.--_adj._ GLUMP'ISH, glum.--_n.pl._ GLUMPS, the sulks.--_adj._ GLUMP'Y, sulky. [M. E. _glomben_, _glommen_, to frown: prob. related to Sw. _glomma_, Low Ger. _glummen_.] GLUME, gl[=oo]m, _n._ a term applied to certain bracts in grasses and sedges.--_adjs._ GLUM[=A]'CEOUS, GLU'MAL, GLUMIF'EROUS, GLU'MOSE, GLU'MOUS. [L. _gluma_, husk--_glub[)e]re_, to peel off bark.] GLUT, glut, _v.t._ to swallow greedily: to feast to satiety: to supply in excess:--_pr.p._ glut'ting; _pa.p._ glut'ted.--_n._ an over-supply: anything that obstructs the passage. [L. _glut[=i]re_, to swallow.] GLUTÆUS, GLUTEUS, gl[=oo]-t[=e]'us, _n._ one of the natal or buttock muscles.--_adjs._ GLUT[=E]'AL, GLUT[=E]'AN. [Gr. _gloutos_, the rump.] GLUTEN, gl[=oo]'ten, _n._ the nitrogenous part of the flour of wheat and other grains, insoluble in water.--_ns._ GLU'TIN, GL[=I]'ADIN, the separable viscid constituent of wheat-gluten, soluble in alcohol. [L. _gluten_, the same as _glus_. See GLUE.] GLUTINATE, gl[=oo]'tin-[=a]t, _v.t._ to unite, as with glue.--_n._ GLUTIN[=A]'TION.--_adj._ GLU'TINATIVE, having the quality of cementing: tenacious.--_ns._ GLUTINOS'ITY, GLU'TINOUSNESS.--_adj._ GLU'TINOUS, gluey: tenacious: (_bot._) covered, as a leaf, with slimy moisture. [L. _glutin[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_.] GLUTTON, glut'n, _n._ one who eats to excess: a popular name of the wolverine, a carnivorous quadruped of the weasel family.--_v.i._ GLUTT'ONISE, to eat to excess, like a glutton.--_adjs._ GLUTT'ONOUS, GLUTT'ONISH, given to, or consisting in, gluttony.--_adv._ GLUTT'ONOUSLY.--_n._ GLUTT'ONY, excess in eating. [Fr. _glouton_--L. _gluton-em_--_glutt[=i]re_, to devour.] GLYCERINE, glis'[.e]r-in, _n._ a colourless, viscid, neutral, inodorous fluid, of a sweet taste, soluble in water and alcohol. [Fr.,--Gr. _glykeros_--_glykys_, sweet.] GLYCOCOLL, gl[=i]'k[=o]-kol, _n._ amido-acetic acid, a crystalline solid of sweetish taste, very soluble in water, a product of various processes of decomposition of animal matters.--Also GLY'CIN. [Formed from Gr. _glykys_, sweet, _kolla_, glue.] GLYCOGEN, gl[=i]'k[=o]-jen, _n._ animal starch, a substance first discovered by Claude Bernard in the human liver--when pure, a white, amorphous, tasteless powder, insoluble in alcohol. [Formed from Gr. _glykys_, sweet, _gen[=e]s_, producing.] GLYCOL, gl[=i]'kol, _n._ the type of a class of artificial compounds forming chemically a link between alcohol and glycerine. [Formed from _glyc_(erine) and (alcoh)_ol_.] GLYCONIC, gl[=i]-kon'ik, _adj._ and _n._ of or pertaining to the ancient Greek poet _Glycon_, or the verse attributed to him, consisting of four feet--one a dactyl, the others trochees. GLYPH, glif, _n._ (_archit._) an ornamental channel or fluting, usually vertical.--_adjs._ GLYPH'IC; GLYPHOGRAPH'IC.--_ns._ GLYPHOG'RAPHY, a process of taking a raised copy of a drawing by electrotype; GLYPH'OGRAPH, a plate formed by this process.--_adj._ GLYP'TIC, pertaining to carving on stone, &c.: (_min._) figured.--_n.pl._ GLYP'TICS, the art of engraving, esp. on precious stones.--_adj._ GLYPTOGRAPH'IC.--_ns._ GLYPTOG'RAPHY, the art of engraving on precious stones; GLYPTOTH[=E]'CA, a place for keeping sculpture. [Gr. _glyph[=e]_--_glyphein_, to carve.] GLYPTODON, glip'to-don, _n._ a gigantic fossil armadillo of South America with fluted teeth. [Gr. _glyptos_, carved, _odous_, _odontos_, tooth.] GMELINA, mel'i-na, _n._ a genus of verbenaceous trees. [From Samuel Gottlieb _Gmelin_ (1744-74).] GNAPHALIUM, na-f[=a]'li-um, _n._ a genus of composite herbs of the aster family, the cudweed or everlasting. [L.,--Gr. _gnaphalion_, a downy plant.] GNAR, när, _v.i._ to snarl or growl.--Also GNARR, KNAR, GNARL. [From a Teut. root found in Ger. _knurren_, Dan. _knurre_, to growl; formed from the sound.] GNARL, närl, _n._ a twisted knot in wood.--_adj._ GNARLED, knotty, twisted. [From a Teut. root, as in Ger. _knurren_, Dan. _knort_, a knot, gnarl, and prob. akin to _gnarl_ in the sense of pressing close together.] GNASH, nash, _v.t._ to strike the teeth together in rage or pain.--_v.i._ to grind the teeth.--_n._ a sudden snap.--_adv._ GNASH'INGLY. [M. E. _gnasten_--Sw. _knastra_, to crash; cf. Ger. _knastern_, Dan. _knaske_.] GNAT, nat, _n._ a genus of dipterous insects of numerous species, esp. abundant in marshy districts--the female lives on the blood of animals.--_n._ GNAT'LING. [A.S. _gnæt_; Ice. _gnata_, to clash.] GNATHIC, nath'ik, _adj._ of the jaws--also GN[=A]'THAL.--_ns._ GNATH'ISM, the classification of mankind based on measurements of the jaw; GNATH[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the cheek or upper jaw; GNATHOPLAST'Y, the formation of a cheek by plastic surgery; GNATHOP'ODA, the xiphosura: the arthropoda. [Gr. _gnathos_, the jaw.] GNATHONIC, -AL, nä-thon'ik, -al, _adj._ flattering. [From _Gnatho_, a character in Terence's _Eunuchus_--Gr. _gnathos_, the jaw.] GNAW, naw, _v.t._ to bite so as to make a noise with the teeth: to bite off by degrees: to corrode or wear away: to bite in agony or rage: (_fig._) to torment.--_v.i._ to use the teeth in biting.--_n._ GNAW'ER, a rodent. [A.S. _gnagan_; cf. Dut. _knagen_, Ice. _naga_, prov. Eng. _nag_, to tease.] GNEISS, n[=i]s, _n._ (_geol._) a species of stratified rock composed of quartz, feldspar, and mica.--_adjs._ GNEISS'OID, having some of the characters of gneiss; GNEISS'OSE, having the structure of gneiss. [Ger. _gneiss_, a miners' word of unknown origin.] GNOME, n[=o]m, _n._ a pithy and sententious saying, generally in verse, embodying some moral sentiment or precept.--GNOMIC POETS, a class of writers of this form in Greek literature. [Gr. _gn[=o]m[=e]_, an opinion--_gn[=o]nai_, _gign[=o]skein_, to know.] GNOME, n[=o]m, _n._ a sprite guarding the inner parts of the earth and its treasures: a dwarf or goblin. [Fr.,--a word traced by Littré to Paracelsus, and perh. formed from Gr. _gn[=o]m[=e]_, intelligence.] GNOMON, n[=o]'mon, _n._ the pin of a dial, whose shadow points to the hour: the index of the hour-circle of a globe: (_geom._) the name given to the sum of any three of the parts of a rectangle when divided into four parts by cross-lines parallel to its sides: interpreter, as in Bengel's _Gnomon Novi Testamenti_.--_adjs._ GNOMON'IC, -AL, pertaining to the art of dialling.--_adv._ GNOMON'ICALLY.--_ns._ GNOMON'ICS, the art of dialling; GNOMONOL'OGY, a treatise on dialling. [Gr. _gn[=o]m[=o]n_, an interpreter--_gn[=o]nai_, to know.] GNOSTIC, nos'tik, _n._ (_theol._) one of a sect in the beginning of the Christian era which maintained that knowledge (_gn[=o]sis_) and not faith (_pistis_) was the way of salvation, allegorised away the great facts of Christ's person and work, and represented individual life as the result of a process of emanation from the original essence.--_adj._ having knowledge: knowing, cunning: pertaining to the Gnostics.--_ns._ GN[=O]'SIS, knowledge: mystical knowledge; GNOS'TICISM, the eclectic doctrines of the Gnostics. [Gr. _gn[=o]stikos_, good at knowing--_gign[=o]skein_, to know.] GNU, n[=u], _n._ a genus of antelopes native to South Africa, of which the best-known species has characters of the ox, buffalo, and horse. [Hottentot.] GO, g[=o], _v.i._ to pass from one place to another: to be in motion: to proceed: to walk: to depart from: to lead in any direction: to extend: to tend: to be about to do: to pass in report: to pass, as in payment: to be accounted in value: to happen in a particular way: to turn out: to fare: to give way:--_pr.p._ g[=o]'ing; _pa.t._ went; _pa.p._ gone (gon).--_n._ affair, matter, as in 'a pretty go:' fashion, as in 'all the go:' energy, activity.--_adj._ GO'-AHEAD', dashing, energetic.--_ns._ GO'-BETWEEN', G[=O]'ER-BETWEEN' (_Shak._), one who is agent between two parties; GO'-BY, escape by artifice: evasion: any intentional disregard: in coursing, the act of passing by or ahead in motion.--_adj._ GO-TO-MEET'ING (_coll._), used of clothes, good and fit for public use.--GO ABOUT (_B._), to set one's self about: to seek: to endeavour; GO ABOUT ONE'S BUSINESS, to attend to one's duties: to be off; GO ABROAD, to go to a foreign country: to leave one's house; GO AGAINST, to invade: to be repugnant to; GO ASIDE, to err: to withdraw, retire; GO AT, to attack; GO BEYOND (_B._), to overreach; GO DOWN, to sink, decline: to be believed or accepted; GO FAR, to last long; GO FOR, to pass for: to attack: to take up a line of policy; GO FOR NOTHING, to have no value; GO HARD WITH, to be in real difficulty or danger; GO IN AND OUT, to come and go freely; GO IN FOR, to be in favour of: to aim after; GO IN UNTO, to have sexual intercourse with; GO IT, to act in a striking or dashing manner--often in _imperative_ by way of encouragement; GO OFF, to leave: to die: to explode: to fade; GO ON, to proceed; GO ONE BETTER, to take a bet and add another more to it: to excel another in fitness for some purpose; GO ONE'S WAY, to depart; GO OUT, to become extinct or expire; GO OVER, to study, to examine; GO THE WHOLE HOG, to go to the fullest extent; GO THROUGH, to perform thoroughly, to accomplish; GO THROUGH FIRE AND WATER, to undertake any trouble or risks for one's end (from the usage in ancient ordeals); GO TO, come now (a kind of interjection, like the L. _agedum_, the Gr. [Greek: age nun]); GO TO PIECES, to break up entirely, to be dismembered; GO TO THE WALL, to be pushed aside, passed by; GO UNDER, to be called by some title or character: to be overwhelmed or ruined, to die; GO WELL, to prosper; GO WITH, to accompany: to agree, accord; GO WITHOUT SAYING, to be plainly self-evident (Fr. _Cela va sans dire_).--GREAT GO, a degree examination, compared with LITTLE GO, a preliminary examination in the university of Cambridge; LET GO, to release, to quit hold of; NO GO, not possible: of no use. [A.S. _gán_, contr. for _gangan_, to go; cf. Ger. _gehen_, Dut. _gaan_.] GOAD, g[=o]d, _n._ a sharp-pointed stick, often shod with iron, for driving oxen: a stimulus.--_v.t._ to drive with a goad: to urge forward. [A.S. _gád_, a goad; cf. Ice. _gaddr_, a goad.] GOAF, g[=o]f, _n._ a rick: the coal-waste left in old workings. GOAL, g[=o]l, _n._ a mark set up to bound a race: the winning-post--also the starting-post: the end aimed at: the two upright posts between which the ball is kicked in the game of football: the act of sending the ball between or over the goal-posts: an end or aim. [Fr. _gaule_, a pole; prob. of Teut. origin, as Old Fris. _walu_, a staff, Goth. _walus_; but acc. to Littré from L. _vallus_, a stake.] GOAT, g[=o]t, _n._ the well-known quadruped, allied to the sheep.--_ns._ GOAT'CH[=A]FER, the dor or dung-beetle; GOAT[=EE]', a beard left on the chin, while the rest of the face is shaven; GOAT'-HERD, one who tends goats.--_adj._ GOAT'ISH, resembling a goat, esp. in smell: lustful: wanton.--_ns._ GOAT'ISHNESS; GOAT'-MOTH, a large moth common throughout Europe and Asia, having a thick heavy body, and measuring three inches or more across the wings; GOAT'S'-BEARD, GOAT'S'-RUE, GOAT'S'-THORN, names of plants; GOAT'SKIN, the skin of the goat, leather made from it; GOAT'SUCKER, a kind of swallow erroneously thought to suck goats. [A.S. _gát_; Ger. _geiss_, Dut. _geit_.] GOB, gob, _n._ the mouth: a mouthful, lump: refuse coal.--_v.i._ to pack away such as a support to the walls.--_ns._ GOB'BING, GOB'BIN, coal refuse. GO-BANG, g[=o]-bang', _n._ a game played on a checker-board of 256 squares, with fifty coloured counters, the object being to get five counters in a row. [Jap. _goban_.] GOBBET, gob'et, _n._ a mouthful: (_obs._) a little lump.--GOBE MOUCHE, a silly credulous fellow. [O. Fr. _gobet_, from Celt.; Gael. _gob_, the mouth.] GOBBLE, gob'l, _v.t._ to swallow in lumps: to swallow hastily.--_v.i._ to make a noise in the throat, as a turkey.--_n._ (_golf_) a rapid straight _putt_ so strongly played that if the ball had not gone into the hole, it would have gone a long way past.--_n._ GOBB'LER, a turkey-cock. [O. Fr. _gober_, to devour; Celt.] GOBELIN, gob'e-lin, _n._ a rich French tapestry. [From the _Gobelins_, a famous family of French dyers settled in Paris as early as the 15th century.] GOBLET, gob'let, _n._ a large drinking-cup without a handle. [O. Fr. _gobelet_, dim. of _gobel_--Low L. _cupellus_, a dim. of L. _cupa_, a cask. See Cup.] GOBLIN, gob'lin, _n._ a frightful phantom: a fairy: a mischievous sprite. [O. Fr. _gobelin_--Low L. _gobelinus_--Gr. _kobalos_, a mischievous spirit.] GOBY, g[=o]'bi, _n._ a genus of small carnivorous sea-fishes, with nests of seaweed. [L. _gobius_--Gr. _k[=o]bios_.] GO-CART, g[=o]'-kärt, _n._ a wheeled apparatus for teaching children to walk. GOD, god, _n._ the Supreme Being: the Creator and Preserver of the world: an object of worship, an idol: (_B._) a ruler:--_fem._ GOD'DESS: (_pl._) the occupants of the gallery of a theatre.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to deify.--_interj._ GOD'-A-MER'CY (_Shak._), probably a corruption of 'God have mercy!'--_ns._ GOD'CHILD; GOD'DAUGHTER; GOD'DESS-SHIP (_Byron_), state or quality of a goddess; GOD'FATHER, GOD'MOTHER, the persons who, at baptism, guarantee a child's religious education.--_adjs._ GOD'-FORSAK'EN, miserable, as if forsaken by God; GOD'-FEAR'ING, reverencing God.--_n._ GOD'HEAD, state of being a god: deity: divine nature--also rarely GOD'HOOD.--_adj._ GOD'LESS, living without God: impious: atheistical.--_adv._ GOD'LESSLY.--_n._ GOD'LESSNESS.--_adj._ GOD'LIKE, like God: divine.--_ns._ GODLI'NESS; GOD'LING (_Dryden_), a little god.--_adj._ GOD'LY, like God in character: pious: according to God's law.--_advs._ GOD'LY, GOD'LILY.--_ns._ GOD'LY-HEAD (_Spens._), goodness; GOD'SEND, an unexpected piece of good fortune; GOD'SHIP, the rank or character of a god: a divinity; GOD'-SMITH (_Dryden_), a maker of idols; GOD'SON; GOD'SPEED, a wish for good speed or success.--_adv._ GOD'WARD, toward God.--GOD'S ACRE, a burial-ground (imitated from Ger. _Gottesacker_); GOD'S TRUTH, an absolute truth--an emphatic asseveration.--HOUSEHOLD GODS, among the Romans, the special gods presiding over the family: anything bound up with home interests. [A.S. _god_; Ger. _gott_, Goth. _guth_, Dut. _god_; all from a Teut. root _gutha_, God, and quite distinct from _good_.] GOD-DEN, a variant of _good-den_. GODROON, go-dr[=oo]n', _n._ (_archit._) an inverted fluting or beading. [Fr. _godron_, a plait.] GODWIT, god'wit, _n._ a genus of birds of the snipe family, with long bill and long slender legs, with a great part of the tibia bare. [Perh. from A.S. _gód_, good, _wiht_, creature.] GOËL, g[=o]'[=a]l, _n._ the avenger of blood among the Hebrews, the nearest relative whose duty it was to hunt down the murderer. [Heb.] GOER, g[=o]'[.e]r, _n._ one who, or that which, goes: a horse, considered in reference to his gait. GOETY, g[=o]'[=e]-ti, _n._ black magic.--_adj._ GOET'IC. [Gr., _go[=e]s_, a sorcerer.] GOFF, a variant of _golf_. GOFFER, gof'[.e]r, _v.t._ to plait or crimp.--_n._ GOFF'ERING, plaits or ruffles, or the process of making them; indented tooling on the edge of a book. [O. Fr. _gauffrer_--_goffre_, a wafer.] GOGGLE, gog'l, _v.i._ to strain or roll the eyes.--_adj._ rolling: staring: prominent.--_n._ a stare or affected rolling of the eye: (_pl._) spectacles with projecting eye-tubes: blinds for shying horses.--_adj._ GOGG'LE-EYED, having prominent, distorted, or rolling eyes. [Prob. related to Ir. and Gael. _gog_, to nod.] GOGLET, gog'let, _n._ a water-cooler. GOING, g[=o]'ing, _n._ the act of moving: departure: (_B._) course of life.--GOING FORTH (_B._), an outlet; GOINGS, or GOINGS OUT (_B._), utmost extremity: departures or journeys; GOINGS ON, behaviour. GOITRE, GOITER, goi't[.e]r, _n._ a tumour on the forepart of the throat, being an enlargement of one of the glands (see CRETINISM).--_adjs._ GOI'TRED, GOI'TERED, affected with goitre; GOI'TROUS, pertaining to goitre. [Fr. _goître_--L. _guttur_, the throat.] GOLD, g[=o]ld, _n._ one of the precious metals much used for coin: money: riches: anything very precious: yellow, gold colour.--_adj._ made of or like gold.--_ns._ GOLD'-BEAT'ER, one whose trade is to beat gold into gold-leaf; GOLD'-BEAT'ERS'-SKIN, the outer coat of the cæcum of the ox; GOLD'-BEAT'ING.--_adj._ GOLD'-BOUND (_Shak._), encompassed with gold.--_ns._ GOLD'-CLOTH, cloth woven with threads of gold; GOLD'-CREST, a golden-crested bird of genus _Regulus_; GOLD'-DIG'GER, one who digs for or mines gold, esp. a placer-miner; GOLD'-DUST, gold in dust or very fine particles, as it is sometimes found in rivers.--_adj._ GOLD'EN, made of gold: of the colour of gold: bright: most valuable: happy: highly favourable.--_v.t._ to become golden.--_ns._ GOLD'EN-AGE, an early period in history, a time of innocence and happiness; GOLD'EN-EYE, a species of oceanic ducks which breed in the Arctic regions, and are winter visitants of Britain.--_adj._ GOLD'EN-HILT'ED (_Tenn._), having a hilt made of, or mounted with, gold.--_adv._ GOLD'ENLY (_Tenn._), splendidly, delightfully.--_ns._ GOLD'EN-ROD, any herb of the genus _Solidago_, of the aster family; GOLD'-F[=E]'VER, a mania for seeking gold; GOLD'-FIELD, a region where gold is found; GOLD'FINCH, the most beautiful of English finches, with very handsome plumage, in which black, crimson-red, yellow, and white are, in the adult male, exquisitely mingled; GOLD'FISH, a Chinese and Japanese fresh-water fish, nearly allied to the carp--in its native waters it is brownish, but when domesticated becomes golden-yellow; GOLD'-FOIL, gold beaten into thin sheets, used by dentists; GOLD'ILOCKS, GOLD'YLOCKS, a common name for Ranunculus (q.v.); GOLD'-LACE, lace made of gold-thread; GOLD'-LEAF, gold beaten extremely thin, or into leaves; GOLD'-LIL'Y, the yellow lily; GOLD'-MINE, a mine from which gold is dug; GOLD'-PLATE, vessels and utensils of gold collectively; GOLD'SMITH, a worker in gold and silver; GOLD'SPINK (_Scot._), the goldfinch; GOLD'STICK, the colonel of a regiment of life-guards who attends the sovereign on state occasions--he receives a gold rod with his commission; GOLD'-THREAD, a ranunculaceous plant found from Denmark to Siberia, with evergreen leaves, resembling those of the strawberry: a thread formed of a strip of gold-leaf laid over a thread of silk; GOLD'-WASH'ER, one who obtains gold by washing it from sand and GRAVEL: a cradle or other implement for washing gold from auriferous dirt; GOLD'-WIRE, wire made of or covered with gold.--Golden beetle, the name popularly given to many members of the _Chrysomela_ genus of coleopterous insects, marked by their metallic splendour of colour; GOLDEN BULL (L. _bulla_ _aurea_), an edict issued by the Emperor Charles IV. in 1356, mainly for the purpose of settling the law of imperial elections; GOLDEN FLEECE, in Greek mythology, the fleece of the ram Chrysomallus, the recovery of which was the object of the famous expedition of the Argonauts--it gave its name to a celebrated order of knighthood in Austria and Spain, founded in 1429; GOLDEN HORDE, the Kipchaks, a Turkic people, whose empire was founded in central and southern Russia by Batu in the 13th century; GOLDEN LEGEND (L. _aurea legenda_), a celebrated medieval collection of lives of the greater saints, the work of Jacobus de Voragine (1230-98); GOLDEN NUMBER for any year, the number of that year in the Metonic Cycle, and as this cycle embraces nineteen years, the golden numbers range from one to nineteen; GOLDEN ROSE, a rose formed of wrought gold, and blessed by the Pope in person on the fourth Sunday in Lent, usually presented to some Catholic prince. [A.S. _gold_; Ice. _gull_, Ger. _gold_, Goth. _gulth_, Russ. _zlato_, Gr. _chrysos_.] GOLF, golf, _n._ a game played with a club and ball, in which he who drives the ball into a series of small holes in the ground with fewest strokes is the winner.--_ns._ GOLF'ER; GOLF'ING. [Dut. _kolf_, a club; cf. Ger. _kolbe_, Ice. _kólfr_.] GOLGOTHA, gol'go-tha, _n._ the scene of our Lord's crucifixion, near Jerusalem: a charnel-house. [Heb.] GOLIARD, gol'yard, _n._ a medieval monk who amused his superiors at table by merry jests.--_n._ GOL'IARDERY.--_adj._ GOLIAR'DIC.--_n._ GOL'IAS, the title assumed by the authors of several medieval satirical poems--Walter Map makes 'Bishop Golias' the type of the ribald priest. [O. Fr.] GOLIATH, g[=o]-l[=i]'ath, _n._ a giant.--_v.i._ to exaggerate extravagantly.--_n._ GOL[=I]'ATH-BEE'TLE, a genus of tropical beetles of very large size, the male sometimes measuring about four inches. [From _Goliath_, the Philistine giant in 1 Sam. xvii.] GOLLAR, gol'ar, _v.i._ (prov.) to scold or speak loudly. GOLOE-SHOES. See GALOSH. GOLOMYNKA, g[=o]-l[=o]-ming'ka, _n._ a fish found only in Lake Baikal, resembling the gobies. GOLOSH, go-losh', _n._ Same as GALOSH. GOMARIST, g[=o]'mar-ist, _n._ a follower of Francis _Gomarus_ (1563-1641), a vehement opponent of the Arminians, who mainly through his influence were expelled from the Reformed Church at the Synod of Dort in 1618. GOMBEENISM, gom-b[=e]n'izm, _n._ the practice of depending on money-lenders.--_n._ GOMBEEN'MAN, a grasping and usurious money-lender in Ireland. GOMERIL, gom'[.e]r-il, _n._ (_Scot._) a stupid fellow. GOMPHIASIS, gom-f[=i]'a-sis, _n._ looseness of the teeth, esp. the molars.--_n._ GOMPH[=O]'SIS, a kind of synarthrosis or immovable articulation, as of the teeth in the jaw. [Gr., _gomphios_, a tooth.] GOMUTI, g[=o]-m[=oo]'ti, _n._ the sago-palm: the black fibre it yields.--Also GOMU'TO. [Malay.] GONAD, gon'ad, _n._ (_biol._) a mass of undifferentiated generative tissue. GONAGRA, gon'a-gra, _n._ gout in the knee.--_ns._ GONAL'GIA, any painful affection of the knee; GONARTHR[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the knee-joint. [Gr. _gony_, knee, _agra_, a taking, _algos_, pain.] GONDOLA, gon'do-la, _n._ a long, narrow boat (averaging 30 feet by 4) used chiefly on the canals of Venice--(_Spens._) GON'DELAY.--_n._ GONDOLIER (gon'dol-[=e]r), one who rows a gondola. [It., a dim. of _gonda_--Gr. _kondy_--a drinking-vessel, said to be a Pers. word.] GONE, gon, _pa.p._ of go, lost, passed beyond help: weak, faint, feeling a sinking sensation: wide of the mark, of an arrow: (_slang_) entirely given up to (with on).--_ns._ GONE'NESS, a sinking sensation; GON'ER (_slang_), one ruined beyond recovery. GONFALON, gon'fa-lon, _n._ an ensign or standard with streamers--also GON'FANON.--_n._ GONFALONIER', one who bears a gonfalon: the chief magistrate in many Italian cities because of his bearing this flag. [O. Fr. _gonfanon_--Mid. High Ger. _gundfano_--_gund_, battle, _fano_ (Ger. _fahne_), a flag.] GONG, gong, _n._ a Chinese instrument of percussion, made of a mixture of metals, and shaped into a basin-like form, flat and large, with a rim a few inches deep. [Malay.] GONGORISM, gong'gor-izm, _n._ a florid, inverted, and pedantic style of writing, introduced by the Spanish poet Luis de _Góngora_ y Argote (1561-1627), some of whose distinctive features reappeared in Euphuism. GONGYLUS, gon'ji-lus, _n._ a round deciduous body connected with the reproduction of certain seaweeds. [Gr., 'round.'] GONIATITES, g[=o]-ni-a-t[=i]'t[=e]z, _n._ a genus of fossil cephalopodous mollusca, kindred to the Ammonites. [Gr. _gonia_, an angle, _lithos_, a stone.] GONIDIA, g[=o]-nid'i-a, _n.pl._ an old term in lichenology for the green cells (algal constituents) of the thallus:--_sing._ GONID'IUM, a naked or membranous-coated propagative cell produced asexually. [Formed from Gr. _gon[=e]_, generation, seed.] GONIOMETER, g[=o]-ni-om'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring solid angles, indispensable to the crystallographer. [_G[=o]nia_, an angle, _metron_, measure.] GONOPHORE, gon'o-f[=o]r, _n._ the ultimate generative zooid of a hydrozoan, originating directly the generative elements. [Gr. _gonos_, seed, _pherein_, to bear.] GONORRHEA, gon-or-r[=e]'a, _n._ a specific contagious inflammatory discharge of mucus from the membrane of the urethra or vagina. [Gr. _gonorrhoia_--_gonos_, seed, _rheein_, to flow.] GOOD, good, _adj._ having qualities, whether physical or moral, desirable or suitable to the end proposed: promoting success, welfare, or happiness: virtuous: pious: kind: benevolent: proper: fit: competent: satisfactory: sufficient: valid: sound: serviceable: beneficial: real: serious, as in 'good earnest:' not small, considerable, as in 'good deal:' full, complete, as in 'good measure:' unblemished, honourable, as in 'good name:'--_comp._ bett'er; _superl._ best.--_n._ that which promotes happiness, success, &c.--opp. to _Evil_: prosperity: welfare: advantage, temporal or spiritual: moral qualities: virtue: (_B._) possessions: (_pl._) household furniture: movable property: merchandise (in composition, the equivalent of U.S. _freight_).--_interj._ well! right!--_adv._ well.--_ns._ GOOD'-BREED'ING, polite manners formed by a good breeding or education; GOOD'-BROTH'ER (_Scot._), a brother-in-law.--_n._ or _interj._ GOOD'-BYE, contracted from 'God be with you:' farewell, a form of address at parting.--_adj._ GOOD'-CONDI'TIONED, being in a good state.--_ns._ or _interjs._ GOOD'-DAY, a common salutation, a contraction of 'I wish you a good day;' GOOD'-DEN, a corruption of _good-e'en_; GOOD'-E'EN, GOOD'-[=E]V'EN, GOOD'-[=E]VE'NING, a salutation on meeting or parting in the evening.--_adj._ GOOD'-FACED (_Shak._), having a handsome face.--_ns._ GOOD'-FELL'OW, a jolly or boon companion: a reveller; GOOD'-FELL'OWSHIP, merry or pleasant company: conviviality.--_n.pl._ GOOD'-FOLK, a euphemism for the fairies, of whom it is best to speak respectfully.--_adj._ GOOD'-FOR-NOTH'ING, worthless, useless.--_n._ an idle person.--_ns._ GOOD'-FR[=I]'DAY, a fast in memory of our Lord's crucifixion, held on the Friday of Passion-week; GOOD'-H[=U]'MOUR, a cheerful temper, from the old idea that temper depended on the humours of the body.--_adj._ GOOD'-H[=U]'MOURED.--_adv._ GOOD'-H[=U]'MOUREDLY.--_n._ GOOD'INESS, weak, priggish, or canting goodness.--_adj._ GOOD'ISH, pretty good, of fair quality or quantity.--_interj._ GOOD'-LACK, an expression of surprise or pity--a variation of 'Good Lord,' under the influence of _alack_.--_n._ GOOD'LINESS.--_adv._ GOOD'LY (_Spens._), excellently, kindly.--_adj._ good-like: good-looking: fine: excellent:--_comp._ GOOD'LIER; _superl._ GOOD'LIEST.--_ns._ GOOD'LYHEAD (_Spens._), goodness; GOOD'LYHOOD, grace; GOODMAN' (_B._), the man or master of the house--the correlative to it is GOODWIFE'.--_ns._ and _interjs._ GOOD'-MORN'ING, GOOD'-MORR'OW, a salutation at meeting in the morning.--_n._ GOOD'-N[=A]'TURE, natural goodness and mildness of disposition.--_adj._ GOOD'-N[=A]'TURED.--_adv._ GOOD'-N[=A]'TUREDLY.--_n._ GOOD'NESS, virtue: excellence: benevolence: a term of emphasis, as in 'For goodness' sake;' 'Oh, goodness!'--_n._ and _interj._ GOOD'-NIGHT, a common salutation, a contraction of 'I wish you a good night.'--_interj._ GOOD'-NOW, an exclamation of wonder, surprise, or entreaty.--_ns._ GOODS'-EN'GINE, an engine used for drawing goods-trains; GOOD'-SENSE, sound judgment; GOOD'-SPEED, a contraction of 'I wish you good speed;' GOODS'-TRAIN, a train of goods wagons.--_adj._ GOOD'-TEM'PERED, possessing a good temper.--_ns._ GOOD'-WIFE, the mistress of a family; GOOD'-WILL, benevolence; well-wishing: the established custom or popularity of any business or trade--often appearing as one of its assets, with a marketable money value; GOOD'Y, good-wife: good-woman: probably formed from _good-wife_.--_adj._ GOOD'Y, mawkishly good: weakly benevolent or pious--also GOOD'Y-GOOD'Y.--_n._ a sweetmeat.--GOOD FOR ANYTHING, ready for any kind of work; GOODMAN'S CROFT, a strip of ground, or corner of a field, once left untilled in Scotland, to avert the malice of the devil from the crop.--GOOD TEMPLAR, a member of a temperance society founded in the United States in 1852, and introduced into England in 1868, its organisation modelled on that of the Freemasons, with lodges, passwords and grips, and insignia.--AS GOOD AS, the same as, no less than; BE AS GOOD AS ONE'S WORD, to be depended on; FOR GOOD, FOR GOOD AND ALL, finally, in conclusion, to end the whole matter; Make good, to fulfil, perform; STAND GOOD, to be lastingly good: to remain; THINK GOOD, to be disposed, to be willing. [A.S. _gód_; closely akin to Dut. _goed_, Ger. _gut_, Ice. _góðr_, Goth. _gods_.] GOORKHA, g[=oo]r'kä, _n._ one of the dominant race in Nepal, descended from Hindu immigrants, and claiming a Rajput origin, short, thick-set men, making excellent soldiers. GOOROO. See GURU. GOOSANDER, g[=oo]s-an'd[.e]r, _n._ a web-footed bird in the duck family, in the same genus as the Mergansers, a native of the Arctic regions. [Formed from _goose_ and _gander_.] GOOSE, g[=oo]s, _n._ (_pl._ GEESE) a web-footed animal like a duck, but larger and stronger: a tailor's smoothing-iron, from the likeness of the handle to the neck of a goose: a stupid, silly person: a game of chance once common in England, in which the players moved counters forward from one compartment on a board to another, the right to a double move being secured when the card bearing the picture of a goose was reached.--_v.t._ (_slang_) to hiss off the stage.--_ns._ GOOSE'-CAP, a silly person; GOOSE'-CORN, a coarse rush; GOOSE'-EGG, a zero, denoting a miss or failure to score at an athletic or other contest; GOOSE'-FISH, a common name in America for the angler-fish (see ANGLER); GOOSE'-FLESH, a puckered condition of the skin, like that of a plucked goose, through cold, fear, &c.; GOOSE'-FOOT, pigweed; GOOSE'-GRASS, a species of Bedstraw (q.v.), a common weed in hedges and bushy places in Britain, Europe, and America; GOOSE'-NECK, an iron swivel forming the fastening between a boom and a mast: a bent pipe or tube with a swivel-joint; GOOSE'-QUILL, one of the quills or large wing-feathers of a goose, used as pens; GOOS'ERY, a place for keeping geese: stupidity; GOOSE'-SKIN, a kind of thin soft leather; GOOSE'-STEP (_mil._), the marking of time by raising the feet alternately without making progress; GOOSE'-WING, one of the clews or lower corners of a ship's mainsail or foresail when the middle part is furled or tied up to the yard.--_adj._ GOOSE'-WINGED, having only one clew set: in fore-and-aft rigged vessels, having the mainsail on one side and the foresail on the other, so as to sail wing-and-wing.--_n._ GOOS'EY, a goose: a blockhead. [A.S. _gós_; Ice. _gás_, Ger. _gans_, L. _anser_, Gr. _ch[=e]n_, Sans. _hamsa_.] GOOSEBERRY, g[=oo]z'ber-i, _n._ the berry or fruit of a shrub of the same name.--PLAY GOOSEBERRY, to accompany lovers, &c., for propriety. [Prof. Skeat says _goose-_ is for _grose-_ or _groise-_, which appears in O. Fr. _groisele_, _grosele_, gooseberry, Scot. _grossart_, from the Mid. High Ger. _krus_ (Ger. _kraus_), crisp, curled.] GOOSEBERRY-FOOL, _n._ See FOOL (2). GOPHER, g[=o]'f[.e]r, _n._ a name in America applied to the prairie dog, the pouched rat, and to the land tortoise of the southern states.--_v.i._ to burrow, to mine in a small way. [Fr. _gaufre_.] GOPHER, g[=o]'f[.e]r, _n._ (_B._) a kind of wood, generally supposed identical with cypress. [Heb.] GOPURA, g[=o]'p[=oo]-ra, _n._ in Southern India, a pyramidal tower over the gateway of a temple. GORAL, g[=o]'ral, _n._ a Himalayan goat-antelope. GORAMY, g[=o]'ra-mi, _n._ a fish found in the Eastern Archipelago, highly esteemed for the table, and used in Mauritius, the West Indies, &c.--Also GOU'RAMI. GOR-BELLIED, gor'-bel-id, _adj._ (_Shak._) big-bellied, gluttonous. [Obs. _gore_--A.S. _gor_, filth, and _belly_.] GORCOCK, gor'kok, _n._ the moorcock or red grouse:--_fem._ GOR'HEN. [_Gor-_, from _gorse_, furze; or imit.] GORCROW, gor'kr[=o], _n._ the carrion-crow. [A.S. _gor_, filth, carrion, and _crow_.] GORDIAN, gord'yan, _adj._ intricate: difficult.--_v.t._ (_Keats_) to tie up, knot.--CUT THE GORDIAN KNOT, to overcome a difficulty by violent measures--Alexander, unable to untie the fateful knot tied by _Gordius_, king of Phrygia, having cut it through with his sword. GORDIUS, gor'di-us, _n._ a genus typical of _Gordiidæ_, a family of nematode worms with a hair-like body. GORE, g[=o]r, _n._ clotted blood: blood.--_adv._ GOR'ILY (_Tenn._), in a gory or bloody manner or state.--_adj._ GOR'Y, covered with gore: bloody.--GORY DEW, a dark-red slimy film sometimes seen on damp walls and in shady places. [A.S. _gor_, blood, dung; Sw. _gorr_, Ice. _gor_, gore.] GORE, g[=o]r, _n._ a triangular piece let into a garment to widen it: a triangular piece of land.--_v.t._ to shape like or furnish with gores: to pierce with anything pointed, as a spear or horns.--_n._ GOR'ING, a piece of cloth cut diagonally to increase its apparent width.--_adj._ cut gradually sloping, so as to be broader at the clew than at the earing--of a sail. [A.S. _gára_, a pointed triangular piece of land--_gár_, a spear with triangular blade.] GORGE, gorj, _n._ the throat: a narrow pass among hills: (_fort._) the entrance to an outwork.--_v.t._ to swallow greedily: to glut.--_v.i._ to feed.--_adj._ GORGED, having a gorge or throat: glutted: (_her._) having a crown or coronet about the neck.--_n._ GORG'ET, a piece of armour for the throat: a military ornament round the neck (see ARMOUR).--HAVE ONE'S GORGE RISE, to be disgusted or irritated; HEAVE THE GORGE, to retch. [O. Fr.,--L. _gurges_, a whirlpool.] GORGEOUS, gor'jus, _adj._ showy: splendid: magnificent.--_adv._ GOR'GEOUSLY.--_n._ GOR'GEOUSNESS. [O. Fr. _gorgias_, gaudy--_gorgias_, a ruff--_gorge_, the throat.] GORGON, gor'gun, _n._ one of three fabled female monsters (Stheno, Euryale, and Medusa), of horrible aspect, winged, with hissing serpents for hair--every one who looked on Medusa was turned to stone: anything very ugly.--_adjs._ GOR'GON, GORG[=O]'NEAN, GORGONESQUE', GORG[=O]'NIAN, like a gorgon: very ugly or terrific.--_n._ GORGONEI'ON, a mask of the gorgon.--_v.t._ GOR'GONISE (_Tenn._), to turn to stone. [L. _gorgon_--Gr. _gorg[=o]_--_gorgos_, grim.] GORGONZOLA, gor-gon-z[=o]'la, _n._ a highly esteemed cheese. GORILLA, gor-il'a, _n._ a great African ape, the largest known anthropoid, generally referred to the same genus with the chimpanzee. [African.] GORMAND, older form of _gourmand_.--_v.i._ GOR'MAND[=I]SE, to eat hastily or voraciously.--_ns._ GOR'MAND[=I]SER; GOR'MAND[=I]SING, the act or habit of eating voraciously; GOR'MANDISM, gluttony. GORSE, gors, _n._ a prickly shrub growing on waste places, the furze or whin.--_adj._ GORS'Y. [A.S. _gorst_.] GOSHAWK, gos'hawk, _n._ a short-winged hawk, once used for hunting wild-geese and other fowl, not having a toothed bill, like the falcons proper. [A.S. _góshafoc_--_gós_, goose, _hafoc_, hawk.] GOSLING, goz'ling, _n._ a young goose. [A.S. _gós_, goose, double dim. _-l-ing_.] GOSPEL, gos'pel, _n._ the Christian revelation: the narrative of the life of Christ, as related by Matthew, Mark, Luke, or John: the stated portion of these read at service: the teaching of Christ: a system of religious truth: absolute truth.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to instruct in the gospel.--_n._ GOS'PELLER, a preacher: an evangelist.--_v.t._ GOS'PELLISE, to square with the gospel. [A.S. _godspell_; commonly derived from A.S. _gód_, good, and _spell_, story, and so a translation of Gr. _eu-anggelion_, good news; but more prob. from _god_, God, and _spell_, a narrative, God-story; so also the Ice. is _guðspjall_, God-story, and not _góðspjall_, good-story; and the Old High Ger. was _gotspell_, _got_ (God) _-spel_, not _guot_ (good) _-spel_.] GOSS, gos, _n._ (_Shak._). See GORSE. GOSSAMER, gos'a-m[.e]r, _n._ very fine spider-threads which float in the air or form webs on bushes in fine weather: any thin material.--_adj._ light, flimsy.--_adj._ GOSS'AMERY, like gossamer: flimsy. [M. E. _gossomer_; Prof Skeat thinks it is a corr. of 'goose-summer' or 'summer-goose,' from the downy appearance of the film. Ger. _sommer-fäden_, summer-threads, also _mädchen-sommer_, maiden-summer.] GOSSAN, gos'an, _n._ (_prov._) decomposed rock, usually ferruginous, forming the upper part of a metallic vein.--Also GOZZ'AN. GOSSIP, gos'ip, _n._ one who runs about telling and hearing news: idle talk: a familiar acquaintance: a boon-companion.--_v.i._ to run about telling idle tales: to talk much: to chat: (_Shak._) to stand godfather to.--_n._ GOSS'IPING, the act or practice of one who gossips or tattles.--_p.adj._ having the character of one who gossips: tattling.--_n._ GOSS'IPRY.--_adj._ GOSS'IPY. [Orig. a sponsor in baptism, or one related in the service of _God_; M. E. _gossib_ (earlier form, _godsib_)--_God_, and _sib_, related; cf. Ger. _sippe_, Ice. _sif_, affinity, Scot. _sib_, related.] GOSSOON, go-s[=oo]n', _n._ a boy-servant in Ireland. [From Fr. _garçon_, a boy.] GOSSYPIUM, go-sip'i-um, _n._ a malvaceous genus of herbs and shrubs, native to the tropics, yielding the cotton of commerce. [L. _gossypion_.] GOT, GOTTEN. See under GET. GOTH, goth, _n._ one of an ancient Teutonic nation, originally settled on the southern coasts of the Baltic, which migrated to Dacia in the 3d century, and later founded kingdoms in Italy, southern France, and Spain: a rude or uncivilised person, a barbarian.--_adj._ GOTH'IC, belonging to the Goths or their language: barbarous: romantic: denoting a style of architecture with high-pointed arches, clustered columns, &c. (applied in reproach at the time of the Renaissance).--_v.t._ GOTH'ICISE, to make Gothic: to bring back to barbarism.--_n._ GOTH'ICISM, a Gothic idiom or style of building: rudeness of manners. [The native names _Gutans_ (sing. _Guta_) and _Gutôs_ (sing. _Guts_), _Gutthiuda_, 'people of the Goths;' Latinised as _Gothi_, _Gotthi_.] GOTHAMITE, goth'a-m[=i]t, GOTHAMIST, goth'a-mist, _n._ a simpleton: a wiseacre. [From _Gotham_, a village of Nottinghamshire, with which name are connected many of the simpleton stories of immemorial antiquity. So of Gordon in Scotland, Kampan in Holland, the Schildburgers in Germany, &c.] GOUACHE, gwash, _n._ a method of water-colour painting with opaque colours, mixed with water, honey, and gum, presenting a dead surface: work painted according to this method. [Fr.] GOUDA, gow'da, _n._ a kind of cheese from _Gouda_. GOUGE, gowj, or g[=oo]j, _n._ a chisel, with a hollow blade, for cutting grooves or holes.--_v.t._ to scoop out, as with a gouge: to force out, as the eye with the thumb. [O. Fr.,--Low L. _guvia_, a kind of chisel.] GOUJEERS, g[=oo]'j[=e]rz, _n._ (_Shak._) venereal disease.--_Goujere_, often GOOD YEAR, used as a slight imprecation, as pox; cf. 2 _Henry IV._, II. iv. 64. [Perh. Fr. _gouge_, a prostitute, _goujat_, a blackguard.] GOURA, gow'ra, _n._ a genus of beautifully crested, ground-loving pigeons, native to New Guinea. GOURAMI. See GORAMY. GOURD, g[=o]rd, or g[=oo]rd, _n._ a large fleshy fruit: rind of a gourd used as a drinking-cup: the gourd plant: (_pl._) hollow dice used by cheating gamblers.--_ns._ GOURD'INESS; GOURD'-WORM, a fluke or trematode worm, esp. the liver-fluke.--_adj._ GOURD'Y, having the legs swollen--of a horse. [O. Fr. _gourde_, contr. from _cougourde_--L. _cucurbita_, a gourd.] GOURMAND, g[=oo]r'mand, _n._ one who eats greedily: a glutton.--_adj._ voracious: gluttonous--also GOR'MAND.--_n._ GOURMET (goor-m[=a]', or -met'), an epicure, originally one with a delicate taste in wines. [Fr. _gourmand_, a glutton; origin unknown.] GOUSTY, gows'ti, _adj._ dreary.--_adj._ GOUS'TROUS, stormy: (_Scot._) rude. [Same as GUSTY.] GOUT, gowt, _n._ an acute inflammation of the smaller joints, and esp. of the great toe, in persons of luxurious habits and past middle life: (_obs._) a drop.--_adv._ GOUT'ILY.--_ns._ GOUT'INESS; GOUT'WORT, GOUT'WEED, an umbelliferous European plant, long supposed to be good for gout.--_adj._ GOUT'Y, relating to gout: diseased with or subject to gout. [O. Fr. _goutte_--L. _gutta_, a drop, the disease supposed to be caused by a defluxion of humours.] GOUT, g[=oo], _n._ taste: relish. [Fr.,--L. _gustus_, taste.] GOVERN, guv'[.e]rn, _v.t._ to direct: to control: to rule with authority: (_gram._) to determine the mood, tense, or case of.--_v.i._ to exercise authority: to administer the laws.--_adj._ GOV'ERNABLE.--_ns._ GOV'ERNALL (_Spens._), government; GOV'ERNANCE, government: control: direction: behaviour; GOVERNANTE (guv-[.e]r-nant', or guv'-), a governess (_obs._); GOV'ERNESS, a lady who has charge of the instruction of young ladies: a tutoress (_Daily-governess_, one who goes every day to her pupils' house; _Nursery_-, having charge of young children only, tending as well as teaching them; _Resident_-, living in the family of her pupils).--_v.i._ to act as governess.--_n._ GOV'ERNESS-CART, a light two-wheeled vehicle with two face-to-face seats at the sides only.--_adj._ GOV'ERNING, having control.--_n._ GOV'ERNMENT, a ruling or managing: control: system of governing: the body of persons authorised to administer the laws, or to govern a state: the territory over which sovereign power extends: (_gram._) the power of one word in determining the form of another: (_Shak._) conduct.--_adj._ of or pursued by government.--_adj._ GOVERNMENT'AL, pertaining to or sanctioned by government.--_ns._ GOV'ERNOR, a ruler: one invested with supreme authority: a tutor: (_slang_) a father or master: (_mach._) a regulator, or contrivance for maintaining uniform velocity with a varying resistance: (_B._) a pilot; GOV'ERNOR-GEN'ERAL, the supreme governor in a country: a viceroy; GOV'ERNORSHIP.--GOVERNMENTAL THEORY (see GROTIAN). [O. Fr. _governer_--L. _gubern[=a]re_--Gr. _kybernan_.] GOWAN, gow'an, _n._ (_Scot._) the wild daisy. [Ir. and Gael. _gugan_, bud, daisy.] GOWD, Scotch for _gold_. GOWF, gowf, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to strike, cuff. [A modification of _golf_.] GOWK, GOUK, gowk, _n._ a stupid fellow, a fool. GOWL, gowl, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to cry or howl. [M. E. _goulen_--Scand., Ice. _gaula_, to bellow.] GOWN, gown, _n._ a woman's upper garment: a long loose robe worn officially by clergymen, lawyers, college lecturers, &c.--_v.t._ to invest with the gown.--_adj._ GOWNED, dressed in a gown.--_ns._ GOWN'MAN, GOWNS'MAN, one whose professional habit is a gown, as a divine or lawyer, and esp. a member of an English university. [M. E. _goune_--W. _gwn_, akin to _gwnio_, to stitch; Ir. _gunn_, Gael. _gun_.] GOWPEN, gowp'en, _n._ (_Scot._) the hollow of the hand or of the two hands held together: a handful. [Scand.; Ice. _gaupn_, Sw. _göpen_, Dan. _gövn_; Low Ger. _göpse_, _göpsch_, Ger. dial. _gauf_, _gaufel_.] GRAAFIAN, grä'fi-an, _adj._ pertaining to the follicle or little sac in the ovary in which an ovum matures--in mammals. [Named from the discoverer of these, Regnier de _Graaf_, 1641-73.] GRAAL. Same as GRAIL, a dish. GRAB, grab, _n._ a vessel on the Malabar coast, having two or three masts. GRAB, grab, _v.t._ (_coll._) to seize or grasp suddenly: to lay hands on:--_pr.p._ grab'bing; _pa.p._ grabbed.--_n._ a sudden grasp or catch, acquisition by violent or unjust means: that which is seized: a simple card game.--_ns._ GRAB'-BAG, a bag containing a variety of articles to be obtained by putting in the hand and seizing one, as at charity bazaars, &c.: any dishonest means of seizing such profit or spoil as comes handiest; GRAB'BER. [Scand.; Sw. _grabba_, to grasp; Ger. _greifen_, to seize.] GRABBLE, grab'l, _v.i._ to grope. [Freq. of _grab_.] GRACE, gr[=a]s, _n._ easy elegance in form or manner: what adorns and commends to favour: embellishment: favour: pardon: the undeserved mercy of God: divine influence: eternal life or salvation: a short prayer at meat: an act or decree of the governing body of an English university: a ceremonious title in addressing a duke or an archbishop: (_pl._) favour, friendship (with _good_): (_myth._) the three sister goddesses in whom beauty was deified (the Greek Charites), Euphrosyne, Aglaia, Thalia.--_v.t._ to mark with favour: to adorn.--_n._ GRACE'-CUP, a cup or health drunk at the last of the feast.--_adjs._ GRACED (_Shak._), virtuous, chaste; GRACE'FUL, elegant and easy: marked by propriety or fitness, becoming.--_adv._ GRACE'FULLY.--_n._ GRACE'FULNESS.--_adjs._ GRACE'LESS, wanting grace or excellence: depraved: wicked.--_adv._ GRACE'LESSLY.--_n._ GRACE'LESSNESS.--_ns._ GRACE'-NOTE (_mus._), a note introduced as an embellishment, not being essential to the harmony or melody; GRACE'-STROKE, a finishing stroke, _coup de_ _grâce_; GRACI[=O]'SO, a clown in Spanish comedy, a favourite.--_adj._ GR[=A]'CIOUS, abounding in grace or kindness: benevolent: proceeding from divine favour: acceptable.--_adv._ GR[=A]'CIOUSLY.--_ns._ GR[=A]'CIOUSNESS, state or quality of being gracious, affability; GR[=A]CIOUS'ITY, the same, but usually in a bad sense, as implying duplicity.--DAYS OF GRACE, three days allowed for the payment of a note or bill of exchange, after being due according to its date; FALL FROM GRACE, to backslide, to lapse from the state of grace and salvation--an impossibility according to Calvinists.--GOOD GRACIOUS, an exclamation of surprise.--IN THE GOOD GRACES OF, in the friendship of; SAVING GRACE, divine grace so bestowed as to lead to salvation; TAKE HEART OF GRACE, to take courage from favour shown. [Fr.,--L. _gratia_, favour--_gratus_, agreeable; Gr. _charis_, grace.] GRACILE, gras'il, _adj._ slender, gracefully slight in form.--_n._ GRACIL'ITY. [L. _gracilis_, slender.] GRACKLE, grak'l, _n._ the common name of many birds of the starling family, all tropical or subtropical.--Also GRAK'LE. [L. _graculus_, a jackdaw.] GRADE, gr[=a]d, _n._ a degree or step in rank or dignity: the degree of slope on a road as compared with the horizontal: a class of animals produced by crossing a common breed with one purer--also _adj._: a group of animals branching off from a common stem.--_v.t._ GR[=A]'DATE, to cause to blend gradually from one tint of colour to another.--_v.i._ to effect gradation.--_adv._ GRAD[=A]'TIM, gradually.--_n._ GRAD[=A]'TION, a rising step by step: progress from one degree or state to another: position attained: state of being arranged in ranks: (_mus._) a diatonic succession of chords: (_paint._) the gradual blending of tints.--_adjs._ GRAD[=A]'TIONAL; GRAD[=A]'TIONED, formed by gradations or stages; GRAD'ATORY, proceeding step by step, adapted for walking or forward movement; GR[=A]'DIENT, gradually rising: rising with a regular slope.--_n._ the degree of slope on a road or railway: the difference in the height of the barometer between one place and another place at some distance: an incline.--_ns._ GR[=A]D'IENTER, a surveyor's instrument for determining grades; GR[=A]D'IN, GRADINE', one of a series of rising seats, as in an amphitheatre: a raised step or ledge behind an altar; GRADIN'O, a decoration for the gradin.--_adj._ GRAD'[=U]AL, advancing by grades or degrees: regular and slow.--_n._ in the Roman Church, the portion of the mass between the epistle and the gospel, formerly always sung from the steps of the altar: the book containing such anthems--also GRAIL.--_ns._ GRAD'[=U]ALISM, GRAD[=U]AL'ITY.--_adv._ GRAD'[=U]ALLY.--_v.t._ GRAD'[=U][=A]TE, to divide into regular intervals: to mark with degrees: to proportion.--_v.i._ to pass by grades or degrees: to pass through a university course and receive a degree.--_n._ one admitted to a degree in a college, university, or society.--_p.adj._ GRAD'[=U][=A]TED, marked with degrees, as a thermometer.--_ns._ GRAD'UATESHIP; GRAD[=U][=A]'TION; GRAD'[=U][=A]TOR, a mathematical instrument for graduating or dividing lines into regular intervals; GRADUC'TION (_astron._), the division of circular arcs into degrees, minutes, &c.; GR[=A]'DUS, a dictionary of Greek or Latin prosody--contraction of _gradus ad Parnassum_, a step or stair to Parnassus, the abode of the Muses.--DOWN, and UP, GRADE, a descending or ascending part, as of a road. [Fr.,--L. _gradus_, a step--_gradi_, to step.] GRADELY, gr[=a]d'li, _adv._ (_prov._) readily, speedily.--Also GRAITH'LY. GRADGRIND, gräd'gr[=i]nd, _n._ one who regulates all human things by rule and compass and the mechanical application of statistics, allowing nothing for sentiment, emotion, and individuality. [From Thomas _Gradgrind_ in Dickens's _Hard Times_.] GRAF, gräf, _n._ a German title of dignity equivalent to Count:--_fem._ GRÄFIN. GRAFF, graf, _n._ (_Scot._) a grave. A variant of grave. GRAFF, _n._ and _v._ (_B._). Same as GRAFT. GRAFFITO, graf-f[=e]'to, _n._ the name given to certain classes of mural inscriptions, such as the scribblings of schoolboys and idlers, found at Pompeii, Rome, and other ancient cities:--_pl._ GRAFFITI (-f[=e]'t[=e]). [It.--_graffiare_, to scratch--Low L. _graphium_, a style.] GRAFT, graft, _v.t._ to make an incision in a tree or plant, and insert in it a small branch of another, so as to make a union of the two: to insert in something anything not belonging to it: to incorporate one thing with another: to transplant, as a piece of tissue, from one part to another.--_v.i._ to insert cuttings into a tree.--_n._ a small branch used in grafting.--_ns._ GRAFT'ER; GRAFT'ING. [O. Fr. _graffe_ (Fr. _greffe_)--L. _graphium_--a style or pencil (which the inserted slip resembled)--Gr. _graphein_, to write.] GRAIL, gr[=a]l, _n._ (_Spens._) small particles of any kind, as sand. [O. Fr. _graile_ (Fr. _grêle_), hail--L. _gracilis_, slender.] GRAIL, See GRADUAL. GRAIL, gr[=a]l, _n._ in medieval legend, the Holy Cup used by Christ at the Last Supper. [Orig. the _San Greal_, 'Holy Dish' (not _Sang Real_, 'Holy Blood'), in which it is said Joseph of Arimathea collected our Lord's blood; from O. Fr. _graal_ or _greal_, a flat dish--Low L. _gradale_, a flat dish, app. a corr. of Low L. _cratella_, a dim. of _crater_, a bowl. Diez suggests as the origin a lost _cratalis_, from _cratus_, Low L. form of _crater_.] GRAIN, gr[=a]n, _n._ a single small hard seed: (_coll._) the seeds of certain plants which form the chief food of man: corn, in general: a minute particle: a very small quantity: the smallest British weight, supposed to be the average weight of a seed or well-ripened ear of corn: the arrangement of the particles or fibres of anything, as stone or wood: texture, as of leather: the crimson dye made from cochineal insects, which, in the prepared state, resemble grains of seed--hence to _dye in grain_ is to dye deeply, also to dye in the wool: innate quality or character of anything.--_v.t._ to form into grains, cause to granulate: to paint in imitation of wood, marble, &c.: in tanning, to take the hair off.--_n._ GRAIN'AGE, duties on grain.--_adj._ GRAINED, rough: furrowed.--_ns._ GRAIN'ER, one who paints in imitation of the grain of wood; GRAIN'ING, painting so as to imitate the grain of wood: a process in tanning in which the grain of the leather is raised.--_adj._ GRAIN'Y, having grains or kernels.--GRAINS OF PARADISE, an aromatic and pungent seed imported from Guinea.--AGAINST THE GRAIN, against the fibre of the wood--hence against the natural temper or inclination; WITH A GRAIN OF SALT, with reservation, as of a story that cannot be admitted (L. _cum grano salis_). [Fr.,--L. _granum_, seed, akin to _corn_.] GRAIN, gr[=a]n, _n._ a prong, fork: a kind of harpoon. GRAINING, gr[=a]n'ing, _n._ a kind of dace found in the Mersey and in Swiss lakes: a small fish of the same genus, resembling the dace. GRAIP, gr[=a]p, _n._ (_Scot._) a three or four pronged fork used for lifting dung or digging potatoes. [A form of _grope_. Cf. Sw. _grepe_, Dan. _greb_.] GRAITH, gr[=a]th, _n._ apparatus for work, travelling, &c., equipment.--_v.t._ (_Scot._) to make ready, to dress.--_adjs._ GRAITH, GR[=A]DE, ready, free.--LIFT ONE'S GRAITH, to collect one's tools and leave the mine. [Ice. _greidhr_, ready; cf. A.S. _ger['æ]de_, ready.] GRAKLE. See GRACKLE. GRALLÆ, gral'[=e], GRALLATORES, gral-a-t[=o]'r[=e]z, _n.pl._ an old order of wading and running birds, including rails, snipes and curlews, cranes, herons and bitterns, storks, and numerous other families.--_adjs._ GRALLAT[=O]'RIAL, GRALL'ATORY, GRALL'IC, GRALL'INE. [L. _grallator_--_grallæ_, stilts, contr. of _gradulæ_, dim. of _gradus_, a step--_gradi_, to step.] GRALLOCH, GRALLOCK, gral'ok, _v.t._ to disembowel. GRAM, gram, _n._ (_Rossetti_) misery.--Also GRAME. [A.S. _grama_, anger.] GRAM, gram, _n._ a word used in commerce for chick peas exported from British India. [Anglo-Ind., perh. from Port, _grão_--L. _granum_, a grain.] GRAM, GRAMME, gram, _n._ the unit of mass in the metric system, equal to 15.432 troy grains. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _gramma_, a letter, a small weight.] GRAMARY, gram'a-ri, _n._ magic: enchantment.--Also GRAM'ARYE. [M. E. _gramery_, skill in grammar, hence magic--O. Fr. _gramaire_, grammar.] GRAMERCY, gra-m[.e]r'si, _interj._ great thanks--an obsolete expression of obligation, with surprise. [O. Fr. _grammerci_, _grantmerci_, great thanks.] GRAMINEÆ, gr[=a]-min'[=e]-[=e], _n.pl._ the order of grasses.--_adjs._ GRAMIN[=A]'CEOUS, GRAMIN'EAL, GRAMIN[=E]'OUS, like or pertaining to grass: grassy; GRAMINIF[=O]'LIOUS, bearing leaves; GRAMINIV'OROUS, feeding or subsisting on grass and herbs. [L. _gramen_, _graminis_, grass, _folium_, a leaf, _vor[=a]re_, to eat greedily.] GRAMMAR, gram'ar, _n._ the science of the right use of language: a book which teaches grammar: any elementary work.--_ns._ GRAMM[=A]'RIAN, one versed in, or who teaches, grammar; GRAMM'AR-SCHOOL, a school in which grammar, esp. Latin grammar, is taught: a higher school, in which Latin and Greek are taught.--_adjs._ GRAMMAT'IC, -AL, belonging to, or according to, the rules of grammar.--_adv._ GRAMMAT'ICALLY.--_n._ GRAMMAT'ICASTER, a piddling grammarian.--_v.t._ GRAMMAT'IC[=I]SE, to make grammatical.--_v.i._ to act the grammarian.--_ns._ GRAMMAT'ICISM, a point of grammar; GRAMM'ATIST, a grammarian. [O. Fr. _gramaire_; from Low L. _gramma_, a letter, with the termination _-arius_--Gr. _gramma_, a letter--_graphein_, to write.] GRAMME. See GRAM. GRAMOPHONE, gram'o-f[=o]n, _n._ an instrument of the phonograph type for recording and reproducing articulate speech--invented by E. Berliner. [Gr. _gramma_, a letter, _ph[=o]n[=e]_, sound.] GRAMPUS, gram'pus, _n._ a large voracious fish of the dolphin family, common in almost all seas. [A sailor's corr. of It. _gran pesce_, or Sp. _gran pez_, great fish--L. _grandis piscis_, great fish.] GRANADILLA, gran-a-dil'a, _n._ the edible fruit of a species of passion-flower. [Sp.] GRANARY, gran'ar-i, _n._ a storehouse for grain or threshed corn. [L. _granaria_--_granum_.] GRAND, grand, _adj._ of great size, extent, power, or dignity: splendid: illustrious: noble: sublime: chief: covering the whole field, or including all details: (_mus._) containing all the parts proper to a given form of composition: of the second degree of parentage or descent, as _Grand'father_, a father or mother's father; _Grand'child_, a son or daughter's child; so _Grand'mother_, _Grand'son_, _Grand'daughter_, &c.--_ns._ GRAN'DAM, an old dame or woman: a grandmother; GRAND'-DUKE, a title of sovereignty over a grand-duchy, first created by the Pope in 1569 for the rulers of Florence and Tuscany, assumed by certain German reigning princes and by the princes of the imperial family of Russia; GRANDEE', since the 13th century the most highly privileged class of nobility in the kingdom of Castile, in which the members of the royal family were included: a man of high rank or station; GRANDEE'SHIP; GRANDEUR (grand'[=u]r), vastness: splendour of appearance: loftiness of thought or deportment; GRANDIL'OQUENCE.--_adj._ GRANDIL'OQUENT, speaking grandly or bombastically: pompous--(_rare_) GRANDIL'OQUOUS.--_adv._ GRANDIL'OQUENTLY.--_adj._ GRAN'DIOSE, grand or imposing: bombastic.--_adv._ GRAN'DIOSELY.--_ns._ GRANDIOS'ITY; GRAND'-JU'ROR, member of a GRAND'-JU'RY, a special jury which decides whether there is sufficient evidence to put an accused person on trial.--_adv._ GRAND'LY.--_ns._ GRAND'MAMMA, GRAND'MA, a grandmother; GRAND'-MAS'TER, title of the head of the religious orders of knighthood (Hospitallers, Templars, and Teutonic Knights): the head, for the time being, of the Freemasons, &c.--_adj._ GRAND'MOTHERLY, like a grandmother, over-anxious to direct the whole life of another.--_ns._ GRAND'-NEPH'EW, the grandson of a brother or sister; GRAND'NESS; GRAND'-NIECE, the granddaughter of a brother or sister; GRAND'PAPA, GRAND'PA, a grandfather; GRAND'-PAR'ENT, a grandfather or grandmother; GRAND'-PIÄ'NO, a large kind of piano, of great compass and power; GRAND'SIRE, a grandfather: any ancestor; GRAND'STAND, an elevated erection on a race-course, &c., affording a good view; GRAND'-UN'CLE, the brother of a grandfather or grandmother--also GREAT'-UN'CLE.--GRAND SEIGNIOR (see SEIGNIOR); GRAND VIZIR (see VIZIR). [Fr. _grand_--L. _grandis_, great.] GRANDISONIAN, gran-di-s[=o]'ni-an, _adj._ like the novelist Richardson's hero, Sir Charles _Grandison_, polite and chivalrous to an extreme and tedious degree. GRANGE, gr[=a]nj, _n._ a farm-house with its stables and other buildings: (_Milt._) a granary: (_U.S._) a lodge of the order of 'Patrons of Husbandry.'--_n._ GRAN'GER, a member of a farmer's grange.--_adj._ pertaining to such. [O. Fr. _grange_, barn--Low L. _granea_--L. _granum_, grain.] GRANGERISM, gr[=a]n'jer-izm, _n._ the practice of cutting plates and title-pages out of many books to illustrate one book.--_v.t._ GRAN'GERISE, to practise grangerism. [From James _Granger_ (1716-76), whose _Biographical History of England_ (1769) gave an impetus to this.] GRANIFEROUS, gran-if'[.e]r-us, _adj._ bearing seeds like grain.--_adjs._ GRAN'IFORM, formed or shaped like a grain or seed; GRANIV'OROUS, eating grain: feeding on seeds. [L. _granum_, grain, _ferre_, to carry, _forma_, form, _vor[=a]re_, to devour.] GRANITE, gran'it, _n._ an igneous crystalline rock, composed of grains of quartz, feldspar, and mica, and of a whitish, grayish, or reddish colour.--_adj._ GRANIT'IC, pertaining to, consisting of, or like granite.--_n._ GRANITIFIC[=A]'TION.--_adjs._ GRANIT'IFORM, GRAN'ITOID, of the form of or resembling granite; GRANOLITH'IC, composed of cement formed of pounded granite. [It. _granito_, granite, lit. grained--L. _granum_, grain.] GRANNY, gran'i, _n._ a grandmother: an old woman--also GRAND'AM.--_n._ GRANN'Y-KNOT, a knot like a reef-knot, but having the second tie across, difficult to untie when jammed. GRANT, grant, _v.t._ to bestow or give over: to give possession of: to admit as true what is not yet proved: to concede.--_v.i._ (_Shak._) to consent.--_n._ a bestowing: something bestowed, an allowance: a gift: (_Eng. law_) conveyance of property by deed.--_adj._ GRANT'ABLE.--_ns._ GRANT[=EE]' (_law_), the person to whom a grant, gift, or conveyance is made; GRANT'ER, GRANT'OR (_law_), the person by whom a grant or conveyance is made.--TAKE FOR GRANTED, to presuppose as certainly true. [O. Fr. _graanter_,_ craanter_, _creanter_, to promise, as if from a Low L. _credent[=a]re_--L. _cred[)e]re_, to believe.] GRANULE, gran'[=u]l, _n._ a little grain: a fine particle.--_adjs._ GRAN'[=U]LAR, GRAN'[=U]LARY, GRAN'[=U]LOSE, GRAN'[=U]LOUS, consisting of or like grains or granules.--_adv._ GRAN'[=U]LARLY.--_v.t._ GRAN'[=U]L[=A]TE, to form or break into grains or small masses: to make rough on the surface.--_v.i._ to be formed into grains.--_adj._ granular: having the surface covered with small elevations.--_n._ GRAN[=U]L[=A]'TION, act of forming into grains, esp. of metals by pouring them through a sieve into water while hot: (_pl._) the materials of new texture as first formed in a wound or on an ulcerated surface.--_adjs._ GRAN[=U]LIF'EROUS; GRAN'[=U]LIFORM.--_n._ GRAN'[=U]L[=I]TE, a schistose but sometimes massive aggregate of quartz and orthoclase with garnets. [L. _granulum_, dim. of _granum_, grain.] GRAPE, gr[=a]p, _v.i._ a Scotch form of _grope_. GRAPE, gr[=a]p, _n._ the fruit of the grape-vine, or of any of the many species of the genus _Vitis_: a mangy tumour on the legs of horses: grapeshot.--_n._ GRAPE'-HY'ACINTH, a genus of bulbous-rooted plants, nearly allied to the hyacinths.--_adj._ GRAPE'LESS, without the flavour of the grape, said of wine.--_ns._ GRAP'ERY, a place where grapes are grown; GRAPE'SHOT, shot or small iron balls clustered or piled on circular plates round an iron pin, which scatter on being fired; GRAPE'-STONE, the stone or seed of the grape; GRAPE'-SU'GAR, dextrose; GRAPE'-VINE, the vine that bears grapes.--_adj._ GRAP'Y, made of or like grapes.--SOUR GRAPES, things despised because they cannot be attained (from Æsop's fable of the fox and the grapes). [O. Fr. _grappe_, a cluster of grapes; from Old High Ger. _chrapho_, a hook. It properly meant a hook, then clustered fruit, hooked on, attached to, a stem (Brachet).] GRAPH, graf, _n._ a representation by means of lines, exhibiting the nature of the law according to which some phenomena vary: _-graph_ is used as a terminal in many Greek compounds to denote an agent which writes, &c., as _telegraph_, _seismograph_, or the thing written, as in _autograph_, &c.--_adjs._ GRAPH'IC, -AL, pertaining to writing, describing, or delineating: picturesquely described: vivid.--_adv._ GRAPH'ICALLY.--_ns._ GRAPH'ICNESS; GRAPHIOL'OGY, the science or art of writing or delineating, or a treatise thereon; GRAPH'IS, a genus of lichens, remarkable for the resemblance which the fructification assumes to the forms of the letters of Oriental alphabets; GRAPH'[=I]TE, a mineral, commonly called blacklead or plumbago (though containing no lead), largely used in making pencils.--_adj._ GRAPHIT'IC.--_ns._ GRAPH'IUM, a stylus; GRAPHOL'OGY, the science of estimating character, &c., from handwriting.--GRAPHIC ARTS, painting, drawing, engraving, as opposed to music, sculpture, &c.; GRAPHIC GRANITE, a variety of granite with markings like Hebrew characters. [Gr. _graph[=e]_, a writing--_graphein_, to write.] GRAPHOLITE, graf'o-l[=i]t, _n._ a kind of slate for writing on.--_n._ GRAPHOM'ETER, an instrument used by surveyors for measuring angles.--_adjs._ GRAPHOMET'RIC, -AL, pertaining to or determined by a graphometer.--_ns._ GRAPH'OPHONE, an instrument for recording sounds, based on the principle of the phonograph; GRAPH'OTYPE, a process intended to supersede wood-engraving, but superseded by zincotype. [Gr. _graphein_, to write, _lithos_, a stone, _metron_, a measure, _phon[=e]_, a sound, _typos_, an impression.] GRAPNEL, grap'nel, _n._ a small anchor with several claws or arms: a grappling-iron. [Fr. _grappin_--_grappe_, a hook, with dim. suff. _-el_.] GRAPPLE, grap'l, _v.t._ to seize: to lay fast hold of.--_v.i._ to contend in close fight.--_ns._ GRAPP'LEMENT (_Spens._), a grappling, close fight; GRAPP'LING-[=I]'RON, a large grapnel for seizing hostile ships in naval engagements. [O. Fr. _grappil_--_grappe_, a hook.] GRAPTOLITE, grap'to-l[=i]t, _n._ one of a group of fossil hydrozoa, having simple or branched polyparies, usually strengthened by a horny-like rod--the 'solid axis.' [Gr. _graptos_--_graphein_, to write, _lithos_, a stone.] GRASP, grasp, _v.t._ to seize and hold by clasping with the fingers or arms: to catch at: to comprehend.--_v.i._ to endeavour to seize: to catch (with _at_).--_n._ gripe of the hand: reach of the arms: power of seizing: mental power of apprehension.--_adj._ GRASP'ABLE.--_n._ GRASP'ER.--_p.adj._ GRASP'ING, seizing: avaricious: encroaching.--_adv._ GRASP'INGLY.--_n._ GRASP'INGNESS.--_adj._ GRASP'LESS, feeble, relaxed. [M. E. _graspen_--_grapsen_, as clasp--M. E. _claspen_; allied to _grope_, _grapple_.] GRASS, gras, _n._ common herbage: an order of plants (_Gramineæ_), the most important in the whole vegetable kingdom, with long, narrow leaves and tubular stem, including wheat, rye, oats, rice, millet, and all those which supply food for nearly all graminivorous animals: short for asparagus--sparrow-grass: time of grass, spring or summer: the surface of a mine.--_v.t._ to cover with grass: to feed with grass: to bring to the grass or ground, as a bird or a fish--(various perennial fodder grasses are _timothy_, _fox-tail_, _cock's-foot_, and the _fescue grasses_, _Italian rye-grass_, &c.).--_ns._ GRASS'-CLOTH, a name applied to different kinds of coarse cloth, the fibre of which is rarely that of a grass, esp. to the Chinese summer-cloth made from _Boehmeria nivea_, which is really a nettle; GRASS'-CUT'TER, one of the attendants on an Indian army, whose work is to provide provender for the baggage-cattle; GRASS'ER, an extra or temporary worker in a printing-office.--_adjs._ GRASS'-GREEN, green with grass: green as grass; GRASS'-GROWN, grown over with grass.--_ns._ GRASS'HOPPER, a saltatorial, orthopterous insect, nearly allied to locusts and crickets, keeping quiet during the day among vegetation, but noisy at night; GRASS'INESS; GRASS'ING, the exposing of linen in fields to air and light for bleaching purposes; GRASS'-LAND, permanent pasture; GRASS'-OIL, a name under which several volatile oils derived from widely different plants are grouped; GRASS'-PLOT, a plot of grassy ground; GRASS'-TREE, a genus of Australian plants, with shrubby stems, tufts of long wiry foliage at the summit, and a tall flower-stalk, with a dense cylindrical spike of small flowers; GRASS'-WID'OW, a wife temporarily separated from her husband, often also a divorced woman, or one deserted by her husband; GRASS'-WRACK, the eel-grass growing abundantly on the sea-coast.--_adj._ GRASS'Y, covered with or resembling grass, green.--GO TO GRASS, to be turned out to pasture, esp. of a horse too old to work: to go into retirement, to rusticate: to fall violently (of a pugilist); LET THE GRASS GROW UNDER ONE'S FEET, to loiter, linger.--SPANISH GRASS (see ESPARTO). [A.S. _gærs_, _græs_; Ice., Ger., Dut., and Goth. _gras_; prob. allied to _green_ and _grow_.] GRASSUM, gräs'um, _n._ (_Scots law_) a lump sum paid by persons who take a lease of landed property--in England, 'premium' and 'fine.' GRATE, gr[=a]t, _n._ a framework composed of bars with interstices, esp. one of iron bars for holding coals while burning.--_adj._ GRAT'ED, having a grating.--_ns._ GRATICUL[=A]'TION, the division of a design into squares for convenience in making an enlarged or diminished copy; GRAT'ING, the bars of a grate: a partition or frame of bars. [Low L. _grata_, a grate--L. _crates_, a hurdle. See CRATE.] GRATE, gr[=a]t, _v.t._ to rub hard or wear away with anything rough: to make a harsh sound: to irritate or offend.--_n._ GRAT'ER, an instrument with a rough surface for grating down a body.--_adj._ GRAT'ING, rubbing hard on the feelings: harsh: irritating.--_adv._ GRAT'INGLY. [O. Fr. _grater_, through Low L., from Old High Ger. _chraz[=o]n_ (Ger. _kratzen_), to scratch, akin to Sw. _kratta_.] GRATEFUL, gr[=a]t'f[=oo]l, _adj._ causing pleasure: acceptable: delightful: thankful: having a due sense of benefits.--_adv._ GRATE'FULLY.--_ns._ GRATE'FULNESS; GRATIFIC[=A]'TION, a pleasing or indulging: that which gratifies: delight; GRAT'IFIER.--_v.t._ GRAT'IFY, to do what is agreeable to: to please: to soothe; to indulge:--_pa.p._ grat'ified.--_p.adj._ GRAT'IFYING. [O. Fr. _grat_--L. _gratus_, pleasing, thankful, and suff. _-ful_.] GRATILLITY, gra-til'i-ti, _n._ (_Shak._) gratuity. GRATIS, gr[=a]'tis, _adv._ for nothing: without payment or recompense. [L., contr. of _gratiis_, abl. pl. of _gratia_, favour--_gratus_.] GRATITUDE, grat'i-t[=u]d, _n._ warm and friendly feeling towards a benefactor: thankfulness. [Fr.,--Low L. _gratitudo_---L. _gratus_.] GRATUITY, gra-t[=u]'i-ti, _n._ a present: an acknowledgment of service, generally pecuniary.--_adj._ GRAT[=U]'ITOUS, done or given for nothing: voluntary: without reason, ground, or proof.--_adv._ GRAT[=U]'ITOUSLY. [Fr.,--Low L. _gratuitatem_--L. _gratus_.] GRATULATORY, grat'[=u]-la-tor-i, _adj._ congratulatory.--_adj._ GRAT'ULANT, congratulatory.--_v.t._ GRAT'UL[=A]TE, to congratulate.--_n._ GRATUL[=A]'TION, congratulation. GRAVAMEN, grav-[=a]'men, _n._ grievance: the substantial or chief ground of complaint or accusation: the name for the statement of abuses, grievances, &c. sent by the Lower to the Upper House of Convocation. [L.,--_gravis_, heavy.] GRAVE, gr[=a]v, _v.t._ to carve or cut on a hard substance: to engrave.--_v.i._ to engrave:--_pa.p._ graved or gr[=a]v'en.--_n._ a pit graved or dug out, esp. one in which to bury the dead: any place of burial: the abode of the dead: (_fig._) death: destruction.--_n.pl._ GRAVE'-CLOTHES, the clothes in which the dead are buried.--_n._ GRAVE'-DIG'GER, one who digs graves.--_adj._ GRAVE'LESS (_Shak._), without a grave, unburied.--_ns._ GRAVE'-MAK'ER (_Shak._), a grave-digger; GRAVE'-STONE, a stone laid over, or placed at the head of, a grave as a memorial; GRAVE'YARD, a yard or enclosure used as a burial-ground.--WITH ONE FOOT IN THE GRAVE, on the very borders of death. [A.S. _grafan_; Dut. _graven_, Ger. _graben_; Gr. _graphein_, to scratch, L. _scrib[)e]re_, to write.] GRAVE, gr[=a]v, _v.t._ to smear with graves or greaves, a mixture of tallow, rosin, &c. boiled together.--_ns.pl._ GRAVES, GREAVES, tallow-drippings. [See GREAVES.] GRAVE, gr[=a]v, _adj._ of importance: serious: not gay or showy: sober: solemn; weighty: (_mus._) not acute: low.--_n._ the grave accent, or its sign (`).--_adv._ GRAVE'LY.--_n._ GRAVE'NESS. [Fr.,--L. _gravis_.] GRAVE, gr[=a]v, _n._ a count, prefect, a person holding office, as in landgrave, margrave, burgrave, &c. [Dut. _graaf_, Ger. _graf_.] GRAVEL, grav'el, _n._ small stones often intermixed with sand: small collections of gravelly matter in the kidneys or bladder.--_v.t._ to cover with gravel: to puzzle, perplex:--_pr.p._ grav'elling; _pa.p._ grav'elled.--_adj._ GRAV'ELLY.--_ns._ GRAV'EL-PIT, a pit from which gravel is dug; GRAV'EL-WALK, a footpath covered with gravel. [O. Fr. _gravele_ (Fr. _gravier_); prob. Celt., as in Bret. _grouan_, sand, W. _gro_, pebbles.] GRAVEN, gr[=a]v'n, _pa.p._ of _grave_, to carve, engrave. GRAVEOLENT, grav'[=e]-o-lent, _adj._ giving forth an offensive smell.--_n._ GRAV'EOLENCE. GRAVER, gr[=a]v'[.e]r, _n._ an engraver: a tool for engraving on hard substances, a burin. GRAVID, grav'id, _adj._ heavy, esp. as being with child: pregnant. [L. _gravidus_--_gravis_, heavy.] GRAVIGRADE, grav'i-gr[=a]d, _adj._ walking heavily.--_n._ an animal like the megatherium, &c. GRAVING, gr[=a]v'ing, _n._ an act of graving or cutting out on hard substances: that which is graved or cut out: carved-work: act of cleaning a ship's bottom.--_n._ GRAV'ING-DOCK, a dock into which ships are taken to have their bottoms cleaned. GRAVITY, grav'i-ti, _n._ weightiness: that attraction between bodies, or acceleration of one toward another, of which the fall of a body to the ground is an example: state of being grave or sober: relative importance: (_mus._) lowness of a note.--_n._ GRAVIM'ETER, an instrument for determining specific gravities.--_v.i._ GRAV'IT[=A]TE, to be acted on by gravity: to tend towards the earth: to be strongly attracted towards anything.--_n._ GRAVIT[=A]'TION, act of gravitating: the tendency of all bodies to attract each other.--_adj._ GRAV'IT[=A]TIVE.--SPECIFIC GRAVITY (see SPECIFIC). [Fr. _gravité_--L. _gravitat-em_--_gravis_, heavy.] GRAVY, gr[=a]v'i, _n._ the juices from meat while cooking.--_n._ GRAV'Y-BOAT, a vessel for gravy or sauce. [Earlier _greavy_; prob. originally an adj. formed _greaves_, the dregs of tallow.] GRAY, GREY, gr[=a], _adj._ of a white colour mixed with black: ash-coloured: (_fig._) aged, gray-haired, mature.--_n._ a gray colour: an animal of a grayish colour, as a horse, &c.--_v.t._ to cause to become gray: to give a soft effect to a photograph by covering the negative while printing with a ground-glass plate: to depolish.--_v.i._ to grow or become gray.--_n._ GRAY'BEARD, one with a gray beard--hence an old man: a coarse earthenware vessel for holding liquors, a bellarmine.--_adjs._ GRAY'-COAT'ED (_Shak._), having a gray coat; GRAY'-EYED (_Shak._), having gray eyes.--_n._ GRAY'-FLY (_Milt._), the trumpet or gad fly.--_adjs._ GRAY'-HAIRED, GRAY'-HEAD'ED, having gray hair.--_n._ GRAY'HOUND (same as GREYHOUND).--_adj._ GRAY'ISH, somewhat gray.--_ns._ GRAY'-LAG, the common gray or wild goose; GRAY'LING, a silvery gray fish of the salmon family, but with a smaller mouth and teeth, and larger scales.--_adv._ GRAY'LY.--_ns._ GRAY'NESS; GRAY'-OWL, the common tawny owl; GRAY'STONE, a grayish or greenish volcanic rock allied to basalt; GRAYWETH'ER (see GREYWETHER).--GRAY MARE (see MARE). [A.S. _gr['æ]g_; allied to Ger. _grau_, and L. _ravus_, tawny.] GRAYWACKE, GREYWACKE, grä'wak-e, _n._ a kind of sandstone, consisting of rounded pebbles and sand firmly united together. [Ger. _grauwacke_--_grau_, gray, _wacke_, a flint.] GRAZE, gr[=a]z, _v.t._ to eat or feed on grass: to feed or supply with grass: (_obs._) to tend while grazing.--_v.i._ to eat grass: to supply grass.--_ns._ GRAZ'ER, an animal which grazes; GRAZIER (gr[=a]'zh[.e]r), one who grazes or pastures cattle and rears them for the market; GRAZ'ING, the act of feeding on grass: the feeding or raising of cattle. [From _grass_.] GRAZE, gr[=a]z, _v.t._ to pass lightly along the surface. [Ety. dub.; perh. only a special use of _graze_ above; perh. coined from _rase_ (Fr. _raser_), the initial _g_ due to the analogy of _grate_.] GREASE, gr[=e]s, _n._ soft thick animal fat: oily matter of any kind: an inflammation in the heels of a horse, marked by swelling, &c.--_v.t._ (sometimes pron. gr[=e]z) to smear with grease, to lubricate--also used figuratively, to cause to go easily: (_obs._) to bribe--as in to 'grease the palm.'--_adv._ GREAS'ILY.--_n._ GREAS'INESS.--_adj._ GREAS'Y, of or like grease or oil: smeared with grease: smooth: fat. [O. Fr. _gresse_, fatness, _gras_, fat--L. _crassus_, gross.] GREAT, gr[=a]t, _adj._ large: long continued: superior: distinguished: highly gifted: noble: mighty: sublime: of high rank: chief: proud, arrogant: weighty: difficult: important: pregnant, teeming: indicating one degree more remote in the direct line of descent, as GREAT'-GRAND'FATHER, GREAT'-GRAND'SON.--_adj._ GREAT'-BEL'LIED (_Shak._), pregnant.--_n._ GREAT'COAT, an overcoat.--_v.t._ GREAT'EN (_Browning_), to make great.--_v.i._ to become great.--_ns._ GREAT'-GRAND'CHILD, the child of a grandchild; GREAT'-GRAND'MOTHER, the mother of a grand-parent.--_adj._ GREAT'-HEART'ED, having a great or noble heart: high-spirited: noble.--_adv._ GREAT'LY.--_ns._ GREAT'NESS; GREAT'-PRIM'ER (see PRIMER); GREATS, the final examination in the Honours Schools at Oxford, &c.; GREAT'-UN'CLE, usually grand-uncle, a grandfather's or grandmother's brother.--GREAT DANE, one of a breed of large close-haired dogs from Denmark, a boar-hound; GREAT POWERS, the chief countries of Europe--France, Germany, Russia, Great Britain, Austro-Hungary; GREAT SCHISM, the division between the Latin and Greek Churches, begun in the 9th century, and culminating in 1054; GREAT SEA, the Mediterranean; GREAT UNWASHED, an absurd term sometimes applied to the working classes generally.--GREATER BRITAIN, the whole colonial empire of Great Britain.--THE GREAT, people of rank. [A.S. _greát_; Dut. _groot_, Ger. _gross_; perh. allied to _grand_, _gross_, _grow_.] GREAVE, gr[=e]v, _n._ (_Spens._) a groove, a grove. GREAVE. See GREEVE. GREAVES, gr[=e]vz, _n.pl._ the sediment of melted tallow pressed into cakes for dogs' food.--Also GRAVES. [Prov. Sw. _grevar_, tallow-leavings; cf. Ger. _griebe_.] GREAVES, gr[=e]vz, _n.pl._ ancient armour for the legs, of leather, &c. [O. Fr. _greves_--_greve_, shin-bone.] GREBE, gr[=e]b, _n._ an aquatic bird, having a long conical beak, short wings, and no tail. [Fr. _grèbe_; from Celt., as in Bret. _krib_, a comb, W. _crib_, crest.] GRECIAN, gr[=e]'shan, _adj._ pertaining to Greece.--_n._ a native of Greece: one well versed in the Greek language and literature: (_B._) a Hellenising Jew, or Jew who spoke Greek: one of the senior boys of Christ's Hospital: (_slang_) an Irish labourer newly over.--_v.t._ GR[=E]'CISE, to make Grecian: to translate into Greek.--_v.i._ to speak Greek.--_n._ GR[=E]'CISM, an idiom of the Greek language.--_adj._ GR[=E]'CO-R[=O]'MAN, of or pertaining to both Greece and Rome, esp. to the art cultivated by Greeks under Roman domination (see also WRESTLING).--GRECIAN BEND, a foolish mode of walking with a slight bend forward, at one time affected by a few women who fondly thought to imitate the pose of a figure like the Venus of Milo. [Fr. _Grec_--L. _Græcus_--Gr. _Graikos_.] GRECQUE, grek, _n._ a vessel with a perforated bottom for making coffee without grounds: a Greek fret. GREE, gr[=e], _n._ (_Spens._) good-will, favour: the prize of the day.--_v.i._ (_Shak._) to agree. [O. Fr. _gre_--L. _gratus_, pleasing. See AGREE.] GREE, gr[=e], _n._ degree, rank: a step:--_pl._ GREES, GRECE, GRESE, steps--in turn used as a sing. and spelt GREECE, GREESE, GRIECE, GRIZE, a flight of steps, a staircase, a degree (GREES'ING, GRES'SING, and even GR[=E]'CIAN are obs. forms).--_adj._ GRIECED, having steps. [O. Fr. _gre_--L. _gradus_. See GRADE.] GREEDY, gr[=e]d'i, _adj._ having a voracious appetite: covetous: eagerly desirous.--_n._ GREED, an eager desire or longing: covetousness.--_adv._ GREED'ILY.--_n._ GREED'INESS. [A.S. _gr['æ]dig_; Dut. _gretig_.] GREEK, gr[=e]k, _adj._ Grecian.--_n._ a Grecian: the language of Greece: (_B._) a Greek by race, or more frequently a Gentile as opposed to a Jew, a Hellenising Jew, a Jew naturalised in foreign countries: a cunning rogue, a merry fellow: any language of which one is ignorant, jargon, anything unintelligible.--_adj._ GREEK'ISH.--GREEK ARCHITECTURE, the orders developed in ancient Greece (Corinthian, Doric, Ionic); GREEK CHURCH, the church of those Christians who follow the ancient rite of the East and accept the first seven councils, rejecting all later innovations and papal supremacy--it is called Orthodox by reason of its vindications of dogma, and Eastern from its geographical distribution; GREEK CROSS (see CROSS); GREEK FIRE, a composition, burning either in or under water, supposed to have been made of asphalt, nitre, and sulphur, long kept secret by the Greeks of the Byzantine empire for their exclusive use in war; GREEK GIFT, a treacherous gift (from Virgil's _Æneid_, ii. 49).--AT THE GREEK CALENDS, never, the Greeks having no calends. GREEN, gr[=e]n, _adj._ of the colour of growing plants: growing: vigorous: new: unripe: inexperienced, simple, raw, easily imposed on: young.--_n._ the colour of growing plants: a small green or grassy plat, esp. that common to a village or town for public or merely ornamental purposes: the plot of grass belonging to a house or group of houses, usually at the back: (_golf_) the whole links on which the game is played, the putting-ground round the individual holes, generally counted as 20 yards from the hole all round: (_pl._) fresh leaves: wreaths: the leaves and stems of green vegetables for food, esp. plants of the cabbage kind, spinach, &c.: a political party at Constantinople, under Justinian, opposed to the Blues.--_ns._ GREEN'BACK, popular name for the paper money first issued by the United States in 1862; GREEN'-CLOTH, a gaming-table: a department of the royal household, chiefly concerned with the commissariat--from the green cloth on the table round which its officials sat; GREEN'-CROP, a crop of green vegetables, as grasses, turnips, &c.; GREEN'-EARTH, a mineral of a green colour and earthy character, used as a pigment by painters in water-colours; GREEN'ERY, green plants: verdure.--_adj._ GREEN'-EYED, having green eyes: (_fig._) jealous--GREEN-EYED MONSTER, jealousy.--_ns._ GREEN'FINCH, GREEN LINNET, a native bird of the finch family, of a green colour, slightly mixed with gray and brown; GREEN'GROCER, a grocer or dealer who retails greens, or fresh vegetables and fruits; GREEN'-HAND, an inferior sailor; GREEN'-HEART, or _Bebeeru_, a very hard variety of wood found in the West Indies and South America; GREEN'HORN, a raw, inexperienced youth; GREEN'HOUSE, a building, chiefly covered with glass and artificially heated, for the protection of exotic plants, or to quicken the cultivation of other plants or fruit; GREEN'ING (_Keats_), a becoming green: a kind of apple green when ripe.--_adj._ GREEN'ISH, somewhat green.--_n._ GREEN'ISHNESS.--_adv._ GREEN'LY, immaturely, unskilfully.--_ns._ GREEN'NESS; GREEN'ROOM, the retiring-room of actors in a theatre, which originally had the walls coloured green; GREEN'SAND, a sandstone in which green specks of iron occur; GREEN'SHANK, a bird of the snipe family, in the same genus as the redshank and some of the sandpipers; GREEN'-SICK'NESS, chlorosis (see under CHLORINE); GREEN'-SNAKE, a harmless colubrine snake common in the southern United States; GREEN'STONE, a rock term, now disused, for any dark-green basic crystalline (trap-rock); GREEN'SWARD, sward or turf green with grass; GREEN'-TEA (see TEA); GREENTH, greenness, verdure; GREEN'-TUR'TLE (see TURTLE); GREEN'-VIT'RIOL (see VIT'RIOL); GREEN'-WEED, a name given to certain half-shrubby species of genista; GREEN'WOOD, a wood or collection of trees covered with leaves: wood newly cut--also used as an _adj._, as in 'the greenwood shade.'--_adj._ GREEN'Y.--GREEN IN MY EYE, in a colloquial question=Do I look credulous or easily imposed on?--GREEN, or EMERALD, ISLE, IRELAND.--GREENSTICK FRACTURE (see FRACTURE). [A.S. _gréne_; Ger. _grün_, Dut. _groen_, green, Ice. _grænn_, allied to _grow_.] GREENGAGE, gr[=e]n'g[=a]j, _n._ a green and very sweet variety of plum. [Said to be named from Sir W. _Gage_ of Hengrave Hall, near Bury, before 1725.] GREESE, GREESING. See GREE (2). GREET, gr[=e]t, _v.t._ to salute or address with kind wishes: to send kind wishes to: to congratulate.--_v.i._ to meet and salute:--_pr.p._ greet'ing; _pa.p._ greet'ed.--_n._ GREET'ING, expression of kindness or joy: salutation. [A.S. _grétan_, to go to meet; Dut. _groeten_, Ger. _grüssen_, to salute.] GREET, gr[=e]t, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to cry, weep.--_adj._ GREET'ING, mournful.--_n._ weeping. [A.S. _gr['æ]tan_; Goth. _gretan_.] GREEVE, gr[=e]v, _n._ (_Scot._) a reeve, a steward.--Also GREAVE, GRIEVE. [Not like _reeve_ from A.S. _geréfa_; but from Ice. _greifi_; cf. Ger. _graf_.] GREFFIER, gref'ier, _n._ a registrar, a prothonotary. [Fr.] GREGARIOUS, gre-g[=a]'ri-us, _adj._ associating or living in flocks and herds.--_adj._ GREG[=A]'RIAN.--_n._ GREG[=A]-RIANISM.--_adv._ GREG[=A]'RIOUSLY.--_n._ GREG[=A]'RIOUSNESS. [L. _gregarius_--_grex_, _gregis_, a flock.] GREGORIAN, gre-g[=o]'ri-an, _adj._ belonging to or established by Pope _Gregory_; as the Gregorian chant or tones, introduced by Gregory I. (6th century), and the calendar, reformed by Gregory XIII. (1582): one of an 18th-century English brotherhood. GREIT, gr[=e]t. Same as GREET (2). GREMIAL, gr[=e]'mi-al, _n._ a piece of cloth laid on a bishop's knees to keep his vestments clean from oil at ordinations. [Fr.,--L. _gremium_, the lap.] GRENADE, gre-n[=a]d', _n._ a small shell of iron or annealed glass, filled with powder and bits of iron, and thrown from the hand, or with a shovel over a parapet. [Fr.,--Sp. _granada_--L. _granatus_, full of seeds--_granum_, a grain, seed.] GRENADIER, gren-a-d[=e]r', _n._ (_orig._) a soldier who threw grenades: then, a member of the first company of every battalion of foot: now only used as the title of the first three battalions of the foot-guards. GRENADINE, gren-a-d[=e]n', _n._ a thin kind of silk used for ladies' dresses, shawls, &c. [Fr.] GRESSORIAL, gres-[=o]'ri-al, _adj._ adapted for walking, belonging to the _Gressoria_, a sub-order of orthopterous insects with slender bodies and long legs. [L. _gressus_, pa.p. of _gradi_, to walk.] GRETNA, gret'na.--GRETNA-GREEN MARRIAGE, a runaway marriage across the Border to _Gretna_ in Dumfriesshire. GRÈVE, gr[=a]v, _n._ the Tyburn of ancient Paris. GREVES, gr[=e]vz, _n.pl._ (_Milt._) armour for the legs--a form of _greaves_. GREW, gr[=oo], _pa.t._ of _grow_. GREY, gr[=a]. Same as GRAY.--GREY FRIARS (see FRIAR); GREY HEN, a stone bottle for holding liquor; GREYS=_Scots Greys_ (see SCOT). GREYHOUND, gr[=a]'hownd, _n._ a tall and slender dog, kept for the chase, with great powers of speed and great keenness of sight. [M. E. _greihund_; Ice. _greyhundr_--Ice. _grey_, a dog, _hundr_, a hound.] GREYWETHER, gr[=a]-we_th_'er, _n._ a large block of hard sandstone found sporadically over south and south-east England.--Also GRAYWETH'ER, but not _Grayweather_. [_Gray_ and _wether_--i.e. 'gray ram.'] GRICE, gr[=i]s, _n._ a little pig.--Also GRISE. [Ice.] GRIDDLE, grid'l, _n._ a flat iron plate for baking cakes. [O. Fr. _gredil_, _grëil_--Low L. _craticulum_, dim. of _cratis_, a hurdle.] GRIDE, gr[=i]d, _v.t._ to cut with a grating sound, to pierce harshly: to grate, jar upon:--_pr.p._ gr[=i]d'ing; _pa.p._ gr[=i]d'ed.--_n._ a harsh grating sound. [_Gird._] GRIDELIN, grid'e-lin, _n._ a kind of violet-gray colour. [Fr. _gris de lin_, gray of flax.] GRIDIRON, grid'[=i]-urn, _n._ a frame of iron bars for broiling flesh or fish over the fire: a frame of wood or iron cross-beams to support a ship during repairs.--_v.t._ to cover with parallel bars or lines.--_n._ GRID, a grating of parallel bars: a gridiron: (_elect._) a battery-plate somewhat like a grating, esp. a zinc plate in a primary battery, or a lead plate in a secondary or storage battery. [M. E. _gredire_, a griddle. From the same source as _griddle_; but the term. -_ire_ became confused with M. E. _ire_, iron.] GRIECE. See GREE (2). GRIEF, gr[=e]f, _n._ heaviness of heart: sorrow: regret: mourning: cause of sorrow: affliction: (_B._) bodily as well as mental pain.--_adjs._ GRIEF'FUL (_Spens._), full of grief; GRIEF'LESS, sorrowless; GRIEF'SHOT (_Shak._), pierced with grief. [Fr.,--L. _gravis_, heavy.] GRIEVE. See GREEVE. GRIEVE, gr[=e]v, _v.t._ to cause grief or pain of mind to: to make sorrowful: to vex: (_B._) also to inflict bodily pain.--_v.i._ to feel grief: to mourn.--_n._ GRIEV'ANCE, cause of grief: burden: hardship: injury: grief.--_adv._ GRIEV'INGLY (_Shak._), in sorrow, sorrowfully.--_adj._ GRIEV'OUS, causing grief: burdensome: painful: atrocious: hurtful.--_adv._ GRIEV'OUSLY, in a grievous manner: (_B._) severely.--_n._ GRIEV'OUSNESS. [O. Fr. _grever_--L. _grav[=a]re_, _gravis_, heavy.] GRIFFIN, grif'in, GRIFFON, grif'un, _n._ an imaginary animal, with the body and legs of a lion, and the crooked beak and wings of an eagle: a new-comer in India, a novice: a watchful guardian, esp. over a young woman: a duenna.--_adj._ GRIFF'INISH.--_n._ GRIFF'INISM. [Fr. _griffon_--L. _gryphus_--Gr. _gryps_--_grypos_, hook-nosed.] GRIG, grig, _n._ a cricket, grasshopper: a small lively eel, the sand-eel. [Prob. a form of _crick_, in _cricket_.] GRILL, gril, _v.t._ to broil on a gridiron: to torment.--_v.i._ to undergo torment, to be in a broil.--_n._ a grated appliance for broiling meat, &c., a gridiron.--_ns._ GRILL'[=A]DE, anything grilled or broiled on a gridiron; GRILL'[=A]GE, a construction of cross-beams supporting an erection on marshy grounds.--_adj._ GRILLED, embossed with small rectangular indentations.--_n._ GRILL'-ROOM, a restaurant, where beefsteaks, &c., are grilled to one's order. [Fr. _griller_--_gril_, a gridiron--L. _craticula_, dim. of _cratis_, a grate.] GRILLE, gril, _n._ a lattice, or grating, or screen, or open-work of metal, generally used to enclose or protect a window, shrine, &c.: a grating in a convent or jail door. [Fr. See GRILL.] GRILSE, grils, _n._ a young salmon on its first return from salt water. [Skeat suggests a corr. of Dan. _graalax_, Sw. _grålax_, 'gray salmon,' from Dan. _graa_, Sw. _grå_, gray; and Dan., Sw., Ice. _lax_, Ger. _lachs_, a salmon. Others suggest Ir. _greal sach_.] GRIM, grim, _adj._ of forbidding aspect: ferocious: ghastly: sullen: stern, unyielding.--_adv._ GRIM'LY.--_n._ GRIM'NESS. [A.S. _grim_; Ger. _grimmig_--_grimm_, fury, Dut. _grimmig_, Ice. _grimmr_.] GRIMACE, gri-m[=a]s', _n._ a distortion of the face, in jest, &c.: a smirk.--_v.i._ to make grimaces.--_adj._ GRIMACED', with a grimace: distorted. [Fr.; of uncertain origin, perh. from Ice. _gríma_, a mask.] GRIMALKIN, gri-mal'kin, _n._ an old cat, a cat generally. [_Gray_, and _malkin_, a dim. of _Moll_=Mary.] GRIME, gr[=i]m, _n._ ingrained dirt.--_v.t._ to soil deeply.--_adv._ GRIM'ILY.--_n._ GRIM'INESS.--_adjs._ GRIM'-LOOKED (_Shak._), having a grim or dismal aspect; GRIM'Y, foul, dirty. [From a Teut. root seen in Dan. _grim_, soot, Fris. _grime_, a dark spot on the face.] GRIMM'S LAW. See LAW. GRIN, grin, _v.i._ to set the teeth together and withdraw the lips: to smile with some accompanying distortion of the features, expressive of derision, stupid admiration, &c.--_v.t._ to express by grinning:--_pr.p._ grin'ning; _pa.p._ grinned.--_n._ act of grinning: a forced or sardonic smile.--_p.adj._ GRIN'NING, making grins. [A.S. _grennian_; Ice. _grenja_, Ger. _greinen_, Dut. _grijnen_, to grumble, Scot. _girn_; allied to Eng. _groan_, Fr. _grogner_.] GRIN, grin, _n._ a snare or trap. [A.S. _grín_.] GRIND, gr[=i]nd, _v.t._ to reduce to powder by friction: to wear down or sharpen by rubbing: to rub together: to oppress or harass: to set in motion by a crank.--_v.i._ to be moved or rubbed together: to drudge at any tedious task: to read hard:--_pr.p._ gr[=i]nd'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ ground.--_n._ hard or distasteful work: laborious study for a special examination, &c.--_ns._ GRIND'ER, he who, or that which, grinds: a double or jaw tooth that grinds food: a coach or crammer of students for examination: a hard student; GRIND'ERY, a place where knives, &c., are ground, or where they are sold: shoemakers' materials; GRIND'ING, act or process of reducing to powder.--_p.adj._ harassing.--_n._ GRIND'STONE, a circular revolving stone for grinding or sharpening tools.--KEEP ONE'S NOSE TO THE GRINDSTONE, to subject one to severe continuous toil or punishment.--TAKE A GRINDER (_Dickens_), to put the left thumb to the nose, and to work a visionary coffee-mill round it with the right--a gesture of contempt. [A.S. _grindan_.] GRINGO, gring'g[=o], _n._ an Englishman or American among Spanish-speaking Americans. [Sp. 'gibberish,' prob. _Griego_, Greek.] GRIP, grip, _n._ a small ditch or trench, a drain.--Also GRIPE. [M. E. _grip_, _grippe_; cf. Low Ger. _gruppe_.] GRIP, grip, _n._ grasp or firm hold with the hand, &c.: the handle or part by which anything is grasped: a mode of grasping, a particular mode of grasping hands for mutual recognition, as by Freemasons: a clutching device connecting a car with a moving traction-cable: oppression: pinching distress.--_v.t._ to take fast hold of, to grasp or gripe:--_pr.p._ grip'ping; _pa.p._ gripped, gript.--_v.t._ GR[=I]PE, to grasp with the hand: to seize and hold fast: to squeeze: to give pain to the bowels.--_n._ fast hold, grasp: forcible retention: a griffin: a usurer: (_pl._) severe spasmodic pain in the intestines.--_n._ GR[=I]P'ER.--_p.adj._ GR[=I]P'ING, avaricious: of a pain that catches or seizes acutely.--_adv._ GR[=I]P'INGLY, in a griping or oppressive manner.--_ns._ GRIPPE, influenza or epidemic catarrh; GRIP'PER, one who, or that which, grips.--_adj._ GRIP'PLE (_Spens._), griping, grasping: greedy.--_n._ a gripe.--_n._ GRIP'-SACK, a hand-satchel.--LOSE ONE'S GRIP, to lose hold or control. [A.S. _grípan_, _grap_, _gripen_; Ice. _grípa_, Ger. _grei'fen_, Dut. _grijpen_; allied to grab.] GRIQUA, grek'wa, _n._ one of a mixed race in South Africa, descended from Boer fathers and Hottentot or Bush women. GRISAILLE, gr[=e]-z[=a]l', _n._ a style of decorative painting in grayish tints in imitation of bas-reliefs: a stained-glass window in this style. [Fr.,--_gris_, gray.] GRIS-AMBER, gris'-am'b[.e]r, _n._ (_Milt._)--ambergris. GRISE, GRIZE. See GREE (_2_). GRISELDA, gris-el'da, _n._ a woman of exemplary gentleness and patience, from the name of the heroine of a tale retold by Boccaccio, Petrarch, and Chaucer (_Clerkes Tale_). GRISEOUS, gris'[=e]-us, _adj._ bluish-gray. GRISETTE, gri-zet', _n._ a gay young Frenchwoman of the lower class. [Fr. _grisette_, a gray gown, which used to be worn by that class--_gris_, gray.] GRISKIN, gris'kin, _n._ (_prov._) the spine of a hog. [Obs. _gris_, _grice_, a pig--Ice. _griss_, a young pig.] GRISLED, griz'ld. Same as GRIZZLED. GRISLY, griz'li, _adj._ frightful: hideous.--_n._ GRIS'LINESS. [A.S. _gryslíc_, _ágrísan_, to dread; Ger. _grässlich_.] GRIST, grist, _n._ corn for grinding at one time: supply: profit.--_n._ GRIST'-MILL, a mill for grinding grain.--Bring grist to the mill, to be a source of profit. [A.S. _grist_, _gerst_, a grinding; from root of _grind_.] GRISTLE, gris'l, _n._ a soft elastic substance in animal bodies--also called _Cartilage_.--_n._ GRIST'LINESS.--_adj._ GRIST'LY. [A.S. _gristle_--_grist_, grinding.] GRIT, grit, _n._ the coarse part of meal: gravel: a kind of hard sandstone: firmness of character, spirit: (_pl._) oats coarsely ground, groats.--_ns._ GRIT'STONE; GRIT'TINESS.--_adj._ GRIT'TY, having hard particles: sandy: determined, plucky. [A.S. _greót_; Dut. _grut_, groats, Ger. _gries_, gravel.] GRIT, grit, a Scotch form of _great_. GRIZE. See GREE (2). GRIZZLE, griz'l, _n._ a gray colour.--_adjs._ GRIZZ'LED, gray, or mixed with gray; GRIZZ'LY, of a gray colour.--_n._ the grizzly bear (_Ursus horribilis_) of the Rocky Mountains. [M. E. _grisel_--Fr. _gris_, gray--Mid. High Ger. _grís_, gray, Ger. _greis_.] GROAN, gr[=o]n, _v.i._ to utter a moaning sound in distress: (_fig._) to be afflicted: to express disapprobation of a speaker by means of audible groans or similar sounds.--_n._ a deep moaning sound as of distress: a sound of disapprobation.--_adj._ GROAN'FUL (_Spens._), sad, agonising.--_n._ GROAN'ING, a deep moan as of pain: any low rumbling sound. [A.S. _gránian_.] GROAT, grawt, or gr[=o]t, _n._ an English silver coin, worth fourpence--only coined after 1662 as Maundy money--the silver fourpenny-piece, coined from 1836-56, was not called a groat: a very small sum, proverbially. [Old Low Ger. _grote_, a coin of Bremen--orig. _grote sware_, 'great pennies,' as compared with the smaller copper coins, five to the groat.] GROATS, gr[=o]ts, _n.pl._ the grain of oats deprived of the husks. [M. E. _grotes_, prob. Ice. _grautr_, barley; cog. with A.S. _grút_, coarse meal.] GROBIAN, gr[=o]'bi-an, _n._ a boorish rude fellow. [Ger. _grob_, coarse; cf. _gruff_--Dut. _grof_.] GROCER, gr[=o]s'[.e]r, _n._ a dealer in tea, sugar, &c.--_n._ GROC'ERY (generally used in _pl._), articles sold by grocers. [Earlier _grosser_ or _engrosser_, a wholesale dealer; O. Fr. _grossier_--_gros_, great.] GROG, grog, _n._ a mixture of spirits and cold water, without sugar.--_ns._ GROG'-BLOSS'OM, a redness of the nose due to drinking; GROG'GERY (_U.S._), a low public-house; GROG'GINESS, state of being groggy; GROG'GING, extracting the spirit from the wood of empty spirit-casks with water.--_adj._ GROG'GY, affected by grog, partially intoxicated: (_boxing_) weak and staggering from blows: applied to a horse that bears wholly on his heels in trotting.--_n._ GROG'-SHOP, a dram-shop. [From 'Old Grog,' the nickname of Admiral Vernon, who introduced it about 1745--from his _grogram_ breeches.] GROGRAM, grog'ram, _n._ a kind of coarse cloth of silk and mohair. [O. Fr. _grosgrain_.] GROIN, groin, _n._ the part of the body on either side of the belly where the thigh joins the trunk: (_archit._) the angular curve formed by the crossing of two arches.--_v.t._ to form into groins, to build in groins.--_n._ GROIN'-CEN'TRING, the centring of timber during construction.--_adj._ GROINED, having angular curves made by the intersection of two arches.--_n._ GROIN'ING.--UNDERPITCH GROINING, a kind of vaulting used when the main vault of a groined roof is higher than the transverse intersecting vault, as in St George's Chapel, Windsor--sometimes called _Welsh groining_. [Ice. _grein_, division, branch--greina, to divide; Sw. _gren_, branch, space between the legs; Scot. _graine_, _grane_, the branch of a tree or river.] GROIN, groin, _v.i._ (_obs._) to grunt, to growl. [O. Fr. _grogner_--L. _grunn[=i]re_, to grunt.] GROLIER, gr[=o]'lye, _n._ a book or a binding from the library of the French bibliophile, Jean _Grolier_ (1479-1565).--_adj._ GROLIERESQUE', after the style of Grolier's bindings, with geometrical or arabesque figures and leaf-sprays in gold lines. GROMMET, grom'et, _n._ a ring formed of a single strand of rope, laid in three times round, fastening the upper edge of a sail to its stay: a ship-boy. [O. Fr.] GROMWELL, grom'wel, _n._ a herb of the borage family. [O. Fr. _grumel_--L. _grumulus_, a hillock.] GROOM, gr[=oo]m, _n._ one who has the charge of horses: a title of several officers of the royal household: a bridegroom.--_v.t._ to tend, as a horse.--_n._ GROOMS'MAN, the attendant on a bridegroom at his marriage. [Prob. from A.S. _guma_ (in bride_groom_), a man, Goth. _guma_, Ice. _gumi_, L. _homo_.] GROOVE, gr[=oo]v, _n._ a furrow, or long hollow, such as is cut with a tool.--_v.t._ to grave or cut a groove or furrow in. [Prob. Dut. _groef_, _groeve_, a furrow; cog. with Ger. _grube_, a pit, Ice. _gróf_, Eng. _grave_.] GROPE, gr[=o]p, _v.i._ to search for something, as if blind or in the dark.--_v.t._ to search by feeling.--_adv._ GROP'INGLY, in a groping manner. [A.S. _grápian_, to seize; allied to _grab_, _gripe_.] GROSBEAK, gr[=o]s'b[=e]k, _n._ a name applied to not a few highly specialised finches (_Fringillidæ_), with thick, heavy, seed-crushing bills--also to many other birds, as the cardinal grosbeaks and the rose-breasted grosbeak. [_Gross_ and _beak_.] GROSCHEN, gr[=o]'shen, _n._ a small silver coin till 1873-76 current in the north of Germany, in value 1/30th of a thaler. [Ger.,--L. _grossus_, thick.] GROSER, gr[=o]'ser, _n._ (_prov._) a gooseberry--(_Scot._) GROS'SART.--_adj._ GROSSUL[=A]'CEOUS, pertaining to the gooseberry. [See GOOSEBERRY.] GROSS, gr[=o]s, _adj._ coarse: rough: dense: palpable, glaring, shameful: whole: coarse in mind: stupid: sensual: obscene.--_n._ the main bulk: the whole taken together: a great hundred--i.e. twelve dozen.--_adv._ GROSS'LY.--_n._ GROSS'NESS.--IN GROSS, in bulk, wholesale. [Fr. _gros_--L. _grossus_, thick.] GROTESQUE, gr[=o]-tesk', _adj._ extravagantly formed: ludicrous.--_n._ (_art_) extravagant ornament, containing animals, plants, &c. not really existing.--_adv._ GROTESQUE'LY.--_ns._ GROTESQUE'NESS; GROTESQU'ERY. [Fr. _grotesque_--It. _grotesca_--_grotta_, a grotto.] GROTIAN, gr[=o]'shi-an, _adj._ of or pertaining to Hugo _Grotius_ (1583-1645), the Latinised form of Huig van _Groot_, founder of the science of international law.--GROTIAN THEORY, the theory that man is essentially a social being, and that the principles of justice are of perpetual obligation and in harmony with his nature; GROTIAN, or GOVERNMENTAL, THEORY OF THE ATONEMENT, a divine acquittal for Christ's sake, rather than a real satisfaction on the part of Christ. GROTTO, grot'[=o], _n._ a cave: a place of shade, for pleasure--also GROT:--_pl._ GROTT'OS--_n._ GROTT'O-WORK, a grotto-like structure. [It. _grotta_ (Fr. _grotte_)--L. _crypta_--Gr. _krypt[=e]_, a crypt.] GROUND, grownd, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _grind_. GROUND, grownd, _n._ the surface of the earth: a portion of the earth's surface: land, field, soil: the floor, &c.: position: field or place of action: (_lit._ or _fig._) that on which something is raised: foundation: sufficient reason: (_art_) the surface on which the figures are represented.--_v.t._ to fix on a foundation or principle: to instruct in first principles: to cover with a layer of plaster, &c., as a basis for painting: to coat with a composition, as a surface to be etched.--_v.i._ to strike the bottom and remain fixed.--_ns._ GROUND'AGE, the tax paid by a ship for the space occupied while in port; GROUND'-ANG'LING, fishing without a float, with a weight placed a few inches from the hook--called also _Bottom-fishing_; GROUND'-ASH, a sapling of ash; GROUND'-BAIT, bait dropped to the bottom of the water.--_adv._ GROUND'EDLY (_Browning_), on good grounds.--_ns._ GROUND'ER, at baseball, &c., a ball thrown low rather than rising into the air; GROUND'-FLOOR, the floor of a house on a level with the street or exterior ground; GROUND'-GAME, hares, rabbits, as distinguished from winged game; GROUND'-HOG, the American marmot, or woodchuck: the aardvark of Africa; GROUND'-HOLD (_Spens._), ground-tackle; GROUND-ICE, the ice formed at the bottom of a water first--also AN'CHOR-ICE; GROUND'ING, the background of embroidery, &c.; GROUND'-[=I]'VY, a common British creeping-plant whose leaves were once used for flavouring ale (_gill-ale_ or _gell-ale_).--_adj._ GROUND'LESS, without ground, foundation, or reason.--_adv._ GROUND'LESSLY.--_ns._ GROUND'LESSNESS; GROUND'LING, a fish which keeps near the bottom of the water, esp. the spinous loach: a spectator in the pit of a theatre---hence one of the common herd: (_pl._) the vulgar.--_adj._ (_Lamb_) base.--_ns._ GROUND'-NUT, ground-bean, or pea-nut, the fruit of the annual leguminous plant _Arachis hypogæa_; GROUND'-OAK, a sapling of oak; GROUND'-PLAN, plan of the horizontal section of the lowest or ground story of a building: GROUND'-PLOT, the plot of ground on which a building stands; GROUND'-RENT, rent paid to a landlord for the use of the ground for a specified term, usually in England ninety-nine years.--_n.pl._ GROUNDS, dregs of drink: sediment at the bottom of liquors (explained by Skeat as Celtic--Gael. _grunndas_, lees, _grunnd_, bottom, Ir. _gruntas_, _grunnt_, bottom).--_ns._ GROUND'SELL, GROUND'SILL, the timber of a building which lies next to the ground; GROUND-SQUIRR'EL, the chipmuck or hackee; GROUND'-SWELL, a broad, deep undulation of the ocean, proceeding from a distant storm; GROUND'-TACK'LE, the tackle necessary for securing a vessel at anchor; GROUND'WORK, that which forms the ground or foundation of anything: the basis: the essential part: the first principle.--GROUND ANNUAL, in the law of Scotland, an annual payment, sometimes called a rent-charge, made for land--a substitute for feu-duty.--BE ON ONE'S OWN GROUND, to be dealing with a matter in which one is specially versed; BREAK GROUND, to take the first step in any project; FALL TO THE GROUND, to come to nothing; GAIN GROUND, to advance, to obtain an advantage; GIVE GROUND, to yield advantage; LOSE GROUND, to retire, to lose advantage; SLIPPERY GROUND, an insecure footing; STAND, or HOLD, ONE'S GROUND, to stand firm. [A.S. _grund_; most prob. _grund-en_, pa.p. of _grindan_, and orig. meaning 'earth ground small;' cog. with Ger. _grund_, Ice. _grunnr_.] GROUNDSEL, grownd'sel, _n._ an annual plant, about a foot high, with small yellow flowers. [A.S. _grundeswelge_--_grund_, ground, _swelgan_, to swallow.] GROUP, gr[=oo]p, _n._ a number of persons or things together: a number of individual things related, in some definite way differentiating them from others: (_art_) a combination of figures forming a harmonious whole.--_v.t._ to form into a group or groups.--_v.i._ to fall into harmonious combination.--_n._ GROUP'ING (_art_), the act of disposing and arranging figures or objects in a group. [Fr. _groupe_--It. _groppo_, a bunch, knot--Teut.; cf. Ger. _kropf_, protuberance.] GROUSE, grows, _n._ the heathcock or moorfowl, a plump bird with a short curved bill, short legs, and feathered feet, which frequents Scotch moors and hills--the _Scotch ptarmigan_, _red-grouse_: any bird of the family _Tetraonidæ_, and sub-family _Tetraoninæ_. [Prob. from the older _grice_ (on the analogy of _mouse_, _mice_)--O. Fr. _griesche_, gray.] GROUT, growt, _n._ coarse meal: the sediment of liquor: lees: a thin coarse mortar: a fine plaster for finishing ceilings.--_n._ GROUT'ING, the filling up or finishing with grout: the stuff so used.--_adj._ GROUT'Y, thick, muddy: sulky. [A.S. _grút_, coarse meal; cog. with Dut. _grut_, Ice. _grautr_, porridge, Ger. _grütze_, groats.] GROVE, gr[=o]v, _n._ a wood of small size, generally of a pleasant or ornamental character: an avenue of trees: (_B._) an erroneous translation of _Asherah_, the wooden upright image of the lewdly worshipped goddess Ashtoreth; also of Heb. _eshel_ in Gen. xxi. 33.--GROVES OF ACADEME, the shady walks of the Academy at Athens, any place of learned pursuits. [A.S. _gráf_, a grove--_grafan_, pa.t. _gróf_, to dig.] GROVEL, grov'el, _v.i._ to crawl on the earth, esp. in abject fear, &c.: to be base or mean:--_pr.p._ grov'elling; _pa.p._ grov'elled.--_n._ GROV'ELLER.--_adj._ GROV'ELLING, mean. [Explained by Skeat as due to M. E. _groveling_, flat on the ground, properly an _adv._, also _grofling_--Ice. _grûfa_.] GROW, gr[=o], _v.i._ to become enlarged by a natural process: to advance towards maturity: to increase in size: to develop: to become greater in any way: to extend: to improve: to pass from one state to another: to become.--_v.t._ to cause to grow: to cultivate:--_pa.t._ grew (gr[=oo]); _pa.p._ grown.--_ns._ GROW'ER; GROW'ING; GROWTH, a growing: gradual increase: progress: development: that which has grown: product.--GROW ON, to gain in the estimation of; GROW OUT OF, to issue from, result from: to pass beyond in development, to give up; GROW TO, to advance to; GROW TOGETHER, to become united by growth; GROW UP, to advance in growth, become full-grown; to take root, spring up. [A.S. _grówan_; Ice. _gróa_; conn. with _green_.] GROWL, growl, _v.i._ to utter a deep, murmuring sound like a dog: to grumble surlily.--_v.t._ to express by growling.--_n._ a murmuring, snarling sound, as of an angry dog.--_ns._ GROWL'ER, one who growls: a fish of the Perch family, abundant in North American rivers, so named from the sound it emits: (_slang_) a four-wheeled cab: (_Amer._) a jug or pitcher used for carrying beer; GROWL'ING, grumbling, snarling: a rumbling sound.--_adv._ GROWL'INGLY. [Dut. _grollen_, to grumble; allied to Gr. _gryllizein_, to grunt.] GROYNE, groin, _n._ a wooden breakwater. [GROIN.] GRUB, grub, _v.i._ to dig in the dirt: to be occupied meanly: (_slang_) to eat.--_v.t._ to dig or root out of the ground (generally followed by up): (_slang_) to supply with victuals:--_pr.p._ grub'bing; _pa.p._ grubbed.--_n._ the larva of the beetle, moth, &c.: (_slang_) something to eat.--_n._ GRUB'BER, he who, or that which, grubs: an agricultural implement for grubbing out weeds, &c., or for clearing and stirring up the soil, with obliquely placed _tines_ or teeth set in a frame and moved forward on wheels.--_v.i._ and _v.t._ GRUB'BLE, to grope.--_n._ GRUB'-STREET, a street in London inhabited by booksellers' hacks and shabby writers generally.--_adj._ applied to any mean literary production. [Prob. A.S. _grápian_, to grope.] GRUDGE, gruj, _v.t._ to murmur at: to look upon with envy: to give or take unwillingly.--_v.i._ to show discontent.--_n._ secret enmity or envy: an old cause of quarrel.--_adjs._ GRUDGE'FUL (_Spens._), full of grudge, envious; GRUDG'ING, given to grudge.--_adv._ GRUDG'INGLY, unwillingly. [M. E. _grochen_, _grucchen_--O. Fr. _grocer_, _groucer_, from an imitative root seen in Gr. _gry_, the grunt of a pig; also in _growl_, _grunt_.] GRUEL, gr[=oo]'el, _n._ a thin food made by boiling oatmeal in water. [O. Fr. _gruel_ (Fr. _gruau_), groats--Low L. _grutellum_, dim. of _grutum_, meal--Old Low Ger. _grut_, groats, A.S. _grút_.] GRUESOME, gr[=oo]'sum, _adj._ horrible: fearful: dismal, depressing.--_vs.i._ GRUE, GREW, to shudder: to feel horror or repulsiveness. [Scand.; Dan. _gru_, horror, with suff. _-som_; cf. Dut. _gruwzaam_, Ger. _grausam_.] GRUFF, gruf, _adj._ rough, stern, or abrupt in manner: churlish.--_adv._ GRUFF'LY.--_n._ GRUFF'NESS. [Dut. _grof_; cog. with Sw. _grof_, Ger. _grob_, coarse.] GRUM, grum, _adj._ morose: surly: deep in the throat, as a sound.--_adv._ GRUM'LY.--_n._ GRUM'NESS. [A.S. _grom_; cf. Dan. _grum_.] GRUMBLE, grum'bl, _v.i._ to murmur with discontent: to growl: to rumble.--_n._ the act of grumbling.--_ns._ GRUM'BLER; GRUMBLET[=O]'NIAN, one of the country party as opposed to the court party, after 1689.--_adv._ GRUM'BLINGLY. [Old Dut. _grommelen_, freq. of _grommen_ to mutter.] GRUME, gr[=oo]m, _n._ a thick consistence of fluid: a clot, as of blood.--_adjs._ GRUM'OUS, GRUM'OSE, thick: clotted. [O. Fr. _grume_, a bunch (Fr. _grumeau_, a clot)--L. _grumus_, a little heap.] GRUMPH, grumf, _n._ (_Scot._) a grunt.--_v.i._ to grunt.--_n._ GRUMPH'IE, a sow. GRUMPY, grum'pi, _adj._ surly: dissatisfied: melancholic.--_adv._ GRUM'PILY. [_Grumble_.] GRUNDY, grund'i, MRS, the invisible _censor morum_ who is frequently appealed to in the phrase, 'But what will Mrs Grundy say?' in Thomas Morton's play, _Speed the Plough_ (1800). GRUNT, grunt, _v.i._ to make a sound like a pig: to utter guttural sounds.--_n._ a short, guttural sound, as of a hog.--_ns._ GRUNT'ER; GRUNT'ING.--_adv._ GRUNT'INGLY. [M. E. _grunten_--A.S. _grunian_; cf. Ger. _grunzen_, L._ grunn[=i]re_; all imit.] GRUTCH, gruch, _v.t._ or _v.i._ (_Spens._) to grudge. GRUYÈRE, gr[=oo]-y[=a]r', _n._ a famous whole-milk cheese, made at _Gruyère_ and many other places in the canton of Freiburg, Switzerland. GRYDE, gr[=i]d, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to gride. GRYFON, GRYPHON, grif'on, _n._ obsolete forms of _griffin_.--Also GRYPE. GRYPOSIS, gri-p[=o]'sis, _n._ a curvature, esp. of the nails. GRYSIE, gr[=i]z'i, _adj._ (_Spens._) grisly: squalid: moist. GUACHARO, gwä'chä-r[=o], _n._ the oil-bird, a South American nocturnal frugivorous goatsucker. [Sp.] GUACHO, gwä'k[=o], _n._ a tropical American climbing composite: the medicinal substance in the leaves. GUAIACUM, gw[=a]'ya-kum, _n._ a genus of trees in the West Indies, that yield a greenish resin used in medicine. [Sp. _guayaco_, from a Haytian word.] GUAN, gwän, _n._ the yacou, a South American genus of large arboreal game-birds, giving loud cries. GUANACO, gwä-nä'ko, _n._ a cameloid ruminant widely spread in South America. GUANO, gwä'n[=o], _n._ the long-accumulated excrement of certain sea-fowl, found on certain coasts and islands, esp. about South America, much used for manure.--_adj._ GUANIF'EROUS.--_n._ GUÄ'NIN, a yellowish-white, amorphous substance, a constituent of guano, also of the liver and pancreas of mammals. [Sp. _guano_, or _huano_, from Peruv. _huanu_, dung.] GUARANA, gwä-rä'na, _n._ a paste prepared from the pounded seeds of _Paullinia sorbilis_, a climbing Brazilian shrub, made in round or oblong cakes--_Guarana Bread_. GUARANTEE, gar-an-t[=e]', GUARANTY, gar'an-ti, _n._ a warrant or surety: a contract to see performed what another has undertaken: the person who makes such a contract, one responsible for the performance of some action, the truth of some statement, &c.--_v.t._ to undertake that another shall perform certain engagements: to make sure:--_pr.p._ guarantee'ing; _pa.p._ guaranteed'.--_n._ GUAR'ANTOR, one who makes a guaranty.--GUARANTEE ASSOCIATIONS, joint-stock companies on the insurance principle, which become security for the integrity of cashiers, &c. [O. Fr. _garantie_, pa.p. of _garantir_, to warrant--_garant_, warrant. See WARRANT.] GUARD, gärd, _v.t._ to ward, watch, or take care of: to protect from danger or attack: to protect the edge of, as by an ornamental border.--_v.i._ to watch: to be wary.--_n._ that which guards from danger: a man or body of men stationed to protect: one who has charge of a coach or railway-train: state of caution: posture of defence: part of the hilt of a sword: a watch-chain: (_pl._) troops attached to the person of a sovereign: (_cricket_) the pads which protect the legs from swift balls.--_adj._ GUARD'ABLE.--_n._ GUARD'AGE (_Shak._), wardship.--_adjs._ GUARD'ANT (_her._), having the face turned towards the beholder; GUARD'ED, wary: cautious: uttered with caution.--_adv._ GUARD'EDLY.--_ns._ GUARD'EDNESS; GUARD'HOUSE, GUARD'ROOM, a house or room for the accommodation of a guard of soldiers, where defaulters are confined; GUARD'IAN, one who guards or takes care of: (_law_) one who has the care of an orphan minor.--_adj._ protecting.--_n._ GUARD'IANSHIP.--_adj._ GUARD'LESS, without a guard: defenceless.--_ns._ GUARD'SHIP, a ship of war that superintends marine affairs in a harbour and protects it: (_Swift_) guardianship; GUARDS'MAN, a soldier of the guards.--GUARDIAN ANGEL, an angel supposed to watch over a particular person: a person specially devoted to the interests of another.--MOUNT GUARD, to go on guard-duty; ON, or OFF, ONE'S GUARD, on the watch, or the opposite; RUN THE GUARD, to get past a guard or sentinel without detection. [O. Fr. _garder_--Old High Ger. _warten_; A.S. _weardian_, Eng. _ward_.] GUARISH, g[=a]r'ish, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to heal. [O. Fr. _guarir_ (Fr. _guérir_), to heal.] GUAVA, gwä'va, _n._ a genus of trees and shrubs of tropical America, with yellow, pear-shaped fruit made into jelly. [Sp. _guayaba_--Braz.] GUBBINS, gub'ins, _n.pl._ a half-savage race in Devonshire, described by the pastoral poet William Browne and by Fuller in his _Worthies_. GUBERNATION, g[=u]-b[.e]r-n[=a]'shun, _n._ government, rule.--_adj._ GUBERNAT[=O]'RIAL. [L. _gubern[=a]re_, govern.] GUDDLE, gud'l _v.t._ (_Scot._) to catch fish with the hands by groping under the stones or banks of a stream. GUDGEON, guj'un, _n._ a genus of small, carp-like fishes common in the fresh waters of Europe--easily caught: a person easily cheated.--_adj._ foolish.--_v.t._ to impose on, cheat. [O. Fr. _goujon_--L. _gobion-em_--Gr. _k[=o]bios_. See GOBY.] GUDGEON, guj'un, _n._ the bearing of a shaft, esp. when made of a separate piece: a metallic journal-piece let into the end of a wooden shaft: a pin. [O. Fr. _goujon_, the pin of a pulley.] GUE, g[=u], _n._ a rude kind of violin used in Shetland. GUEBRE, GUEBER, g[=e]'b[.e]r, _n._ a follower of the ancient Persian religion as reformed by Zoroaster. [Pers. _gabr_; see GIAOUR; cf. Ar. _kafir_, unbeliever.] GUELDER-ROSE, gel'd[.e]r-r[=o]z, _n._ a species of _Viburnum_ with large white ball-shaped flowers--also called _Snowball-tree_. [From _Gueldres_ in Holland.] GUELF, GUELPH, gwelf, _n._ one of a papal and popular party in Italy in the Middle Ages which was opposed to the emperors.--_adj._ GUELF'IC, belonging to the Guelfs, in modern times the royal family of Hanover and England. [The party names _Guelf_ and _Ghibelline_ are from _Welf_ and _Waiblingen_, two families which in the 12th century were at the head of two rival parties in the German Empire.] GUERDON, g[.e]r'dun, _n._ a reward or recompense.--_v.t._ to reward. [O. Fr. _guerdon_, _guerredon_ (It. _guidardone_)--Low L. _widerdonum_, corr. from Old High Ger. _widarlón_ (A.S. _wiðerleán_)--_wider_ (A.S. _wiðer_), against, and _lón_ (A.S. _leán_), reward; or more prob. the latter part of the word is from L. _donum_, a gift.] GUEREZA, ger'e-za, _n._ a large, long-haired, black-and-white African monkey, with a bushy tail. GUERILLA, GUERRILLA, g[.e]r-ril'a, _n._ a mode of harassing an army by small bands adopted by the Spaniards against the French in the Peninsular war: a member of such a band.--_adj._ conducted by or conducting petty warfare. [Sp. _guerrilla_, dim. of _guerra_ (Fr. _guerre_)--Old High Ger. _werra_.] GUERNSEY, g[.e]rn'zi, _n._ a sailor's closely-fitting knitted woollen shirt: one of a breed of dairy cattle from the island: the red-legged partridge. [From _Guernsey_ in the Channel Islands.] GUESS, ges, _v.t._ to form an opinion on uncertain knowledge: to conjecture, to think.--_v.i._ to judge on uncertain knowledge: to conjecture rightly.--_n._ judgment or opinion without sufficient evidence or grounds.--_adj._ GUESS'ABLE, that may be guessed.--_n._ GUESS'ER, one who guesses or conjectures.--_adv._ GUESS'INGLY, by way of conjecture.--_n._ GUESS'WORK, work done by guess: random action. [M. E. _gessen_; cog. with Dut. _gissen_; Dan. _gisse_, Ice. _giska_, for _gitska_--_geta_, to get, think, A.S. _gitan_, whence Eng. _get_. See FORGET.] GUEST, gest, _n._ a visitor received and entertained.--_n._ GUEST'-CHAM'BER (_B._), a chamber or room for the accommodation of guests.--_v.i._ GUEST'EN (_Scot._), to stay as a guest.--_adv._ GUEST'WISE, in the manner or capacity of a guest. [A.S. _gest_, _gæst_; allied to Dut. and Ger. _gast_, L. _hostis_, stranger, enemy.] GUEUX, g[=u], _n.pl._ the name assumed by the confederation (1565) of nobles and others to resist the introduction of the Inquisition into the Low Countries by Philip II. of Spain. [Fr., 'beggars.'] GUFFAW, guf-faw', _v.i._ to laugh loudly.--_n._ a loud laugh. [From the sound.] GUGGLE, gug'l, _v.i._ to make a noise with the mouth or throat, to gurgle. [Formed from _gurgle_.] GUICOWAR. Same as GAIKWAR. GUIDE, g[=i]d, _v.t._ to lead or direct: to regulate: to influence.--_n._ he who, or that which, guides: one who directs another in his course of life: a soldier or other person employed to obtain information for an army: a guide-book: anything calculated to maintain in a certain direction or position.--_adj._ GUID'ABLE.--_ns._ GUID'AGE, guidance; GUID'ANCE, direction: government; GUIDE'-BOOK, a book of information for tourists.--_adj._ GUIDE'LESS, having no guide.--_ns._ GUIDE'POST, a post erected at a roadside to guide the traveller; GUID'ER, one who guides, a director; GUID'ON, a forked guide-flag carried by a cavalry company or mounted battery, also the officer bearing it. [O. Fr. _guider_; prob. from a Teut. root, as in A.S. _witan_, to know, _wís_, wise, Ger. _weisen_, to show, conn. with _wit_, _wise_.] GUILD, GILD, gild, _n._ an association of men for mutual aid: a corporation: (_orig._) an association in a town where payment was made for mutual support and protection.--_ns._ GUILD'-BROTH'ER, a fellow-member of a guild; GUILD'HALL, the hall of a guild, esp. in London; GUILD'RY (_Scot._), a guild, the members of such. [A.S. _gild_, money--_gildan_, to pay.] GUILDER, GILDER, gild'[.e]r, _n._ an old Dutch and German gold coin: now a silver coin=1s. 8d.: (_Shak._) money generally. [Dut. _gulden_--Ger. _gulden_, gold.] GUILE, g[=i]l, _n._ wile, jugglery: cunning: deceit.--_v.t._ (_Spens._) to beguile.--_p.adj._ GUILED, armed with deceit: treacherous.--_adj._ GUILE'FUL, crafty: deceitful.--_adv._ GUILE'FULLY.--_n._ GUILE'FULNESS.--_adj._ GUILE'LESS, without deceit: artless.--_adv._ GUILE'LESSLY.--_ns._ GUILE'LESSNESS; GUIL'ER (_Spens._), a deceiver. [O. Fr. _guile_, deceit; from a Teut. root, as in A.S. _wíl_, Ice. _vel_, a trick.] GUILLEMOT, gil'e-mot, _n._ a genus of diving birds of the Auk family, with long, straight, feathered bill and very short tail. [Fr., prob. Celt.; Bret. _gwelan_, gull, and O. Fr. _moette_, a sea-mew, from Teut.] GUILLOCHE, gil-losh', _n._ an ornament formed of two or more bands intertwining in a continued series.--_v.t._ to decorate with intersecting curved lines. [Fr.; said to be from the name of its inventor, _Guillot_.] GUILLOTINE, gil'[=o]-t[=e]n, _n._ an instrument for beheading--consisting of an upright frame down which a sharp heavy axe descends on the neck of the victim--adopted during the French Revolution, and named after Joseph Ignace _Guillotin_ (1738-1814), a physician, who first proposed its adoption: a machine for cutting paper, straw, &c.: a surgical instrument for cutting the tonsils.--_v.t._ to behead with the guillotine.--_n._ GUILL'OTINEMENT, death by the guillotine. GUILT, gilt, _n._ punishable conduct: the state of having broken a law: crime: wickedness.--_adv._ GUILT'ILY.--_n._ GUILT'INESS.--_adj._ GUILT'LESS, free from crime: innocent.--_adv._ GUILT'LESSLY.--_n._ GUILT'LESSNESS.--_adj._ GUILT'Y, justly chargeable with a crime: wicked: pertaining to guilt.--_adv._ GUILT'Y-LIKE (_Shak._), guiltily.--GUILTY OF (sometimes in _B._), deserving. [Orig. a payment or fine for an offence; A.S. _gylt_, guilt--_gildan_, to pay, to atone.] GUILT, gilt, _p.adj._ (_Spens._) gilded. GUINEA, gin'i, _n._ an English gold coin, no longer used=21s., so called because first made of gold brought from _Guinea_, in Africa.--_ns._ GUIN'EA-CORN, a cereal extensively cultivated in Central Africa and India--also _Indian millet_; GUIN'EA-FOWL, a genus of African birds in the pheasant family, having dark-gray plumage with round spots of white, generally larger on the back and under surface; GUIN'EA-GRASS, a grass of the same genus with millet, a native of _Guinea_ and Senegal; GUIN'EA-HEN (_Shak._), a courtesan; GUIN'EA-PEPP'ER (see PEPPER); GUIN'EA-PIG, a small South American rodent, somewhat resembling a small pig, the cavy: (_slang_) a professional company director, without time or real qualifications for the duties; GUIN'EA-WORM, a very slender thread-like nematode worm common in tropical Africa. GUIPURE, g[=e]-p[=oo]r', _n._ a kind of lace having no ground or mesh, the pattern fixed by interlacing threads: a species of gimp. [Fr. _guipure_--O. Fr. _guiper_, prob. Teut.; cf. Goth. _veipan_, to weave.] GUISE, g[=i]z, _n._ manner, behaviour: external appearance: dress.--_v.t._ (_arch._) to dress.--_v.i._ to act as a guiser.--_ns._ GUIS'ER (_Scot._), GUIS'ARD, a person in disguise: a Christmas mummer. [O. Fr. _guise_; from Old High Ger. _wísa_ (Ger. _weise_), a way, guise, which is cog. with A.S. _wíse_, way, _wís_, wise.] GUITAR, gi-tär', _n._ a six-stringed musical instrument, somewhat like the lute, well adapted for accompanying the voice. [Fr. _guitare_--L. _cithara_--Gr. _kithara_, a lyre or lute. See CITHERN.] GULA, g[=u]'la, _n._ a piece in some insects, esp. in the beetles, &c., forming the lower surface of the head, behind the mentum, bounded laterally by the genæ or cheeks: the upper part of a bird's throat, between mentum and jugulum.--_adj._ G[=U]'LAR. [L., 'throat.'] GULCH, gulch, _n._ (_U.S._) a ravine or narrow rocky valley, a gully.--_v.t._ (_prov._) to swallow greedily. [Prob. the _n._ and _v._ are connected.] GULDEN, g[=oo]l'den, _n._ a certain gold or silver coin in Germany in the Middle Ages: the unit of account in Austria, having the value of about 2s. [Ger.] GULES, g[=u]lz, _n._ (_her._) a red colour, marked in engraved figures by perpendicular lines.--_adj._ G[=U]'LY. [O. Fr. _gueules_; acc. to Brachet, from Pers. _ghul_, a rose; acc. to others, from L. _gula_, the throat.] GULF, gulf, _n._ a hollow or indentation in the sea-coast: a deep place in the earth: an abyss: a whirlpool: anything insatiable: in Oxford and Cambridge examinations, the place of those next to the pass, but not bad enough to fail.--_v.t._ to engulf.--_n._ GULF'-WEED, a large olive-brown sea-weed with stalked air-bladders.--_adj._ GULF'Y, full of gulfs or whirlpools.--GULF STREAM, a great current of warm water flowing out of the Gulf of Mexico through the Strait of Florida, along the eastern coast of the United States of America, then deflected near the banks of Newfoundland diagonally across the Atlantic. [O. Fr. _golfe_--Late Gr. _kolphos_--Gr. _kolpos_, the bosom.] GULL, gul, _n._ a web-footed sea-fowl belonging to the family _Laridæ_. [Celt.; Corn. _gullan_, W. _gwylan_, Bret. _gwelan_--_gwela_, to weep, to cry.] GULL, gul, _v.t._ to beguile: to deceive.--_n._ a trick: one easily cheated: (_Shak._) a nestling.--_ns._ GULL'-CATCH'ER (_Shak._), a cheat; GULL'ER; GULL'ERY, imposture; GULLIBIL'ITY.--_adj._ GULL'IBLE, easily deceived.--_n._ GULLOS'ITY. [Same word as _gull_, a seafowl, the bird being thought stupid.] GULLET, gul'et, _n._ the throat: the passage in the neck by which food is taken into the stomach.--_n._ GULOS'ITY, gluttony. [O. Fr. _goulet_, dim. of O. Fr. _goule_ (Fr. _gueule_)--L. _gula_, the throat.] GULLY, gul'i, _n._ (_Scot._) a big knife.--Also GULL'EY. GULLY, gul'i, _n._ a channel worn by running water: a ditch: a ravine.--_v.t._ to wear a gully or channel in.--_p.adj._ GULL'IED.--_ns._ GULL'Y-HOLE, a manhole into a drain, &c.; GULL'Y-HUNT'ER, one who picks up things from gutters. [Prob. _gullet_.] GULP, gulp, _v.t._ to swallow eagerly or in large draughts.--_n._ a swallow: as much as is swallowed at once. [Dut. _gulpen_--_gulp_, a great draught.] GUM, gum, _n._ the firm fleshy tissue which surrounds the teeth: (_slang_) insolence.--_n._ GUM'BOIL, a boil or small abscess on the gum. [A.S. _góma_, jaws; Ice. _gómr_, Ger. _gaumen_, palate.] GUM, gum, _n._ a substance which exudes from certain trees and plants, and hardens on the surface, including those containing arabin, bassorin, and gum-resins.--_v.t._ to smear or unite with gum:--_pr.p._ gum'ming; _pa.p._ gummed.--_ns._ GUM'-AR'ABIC, a gum obtained from various species of acacia; GUM'-DRAG'ON, tragacanth; GUM'-ELAS'TIC, india-rubber or caoutchouc; GUM'-JU'NIPER, sandarac.--_adj._ GUMMIF'EROUS, producing gum.--_ns._ GUM'MINESS; GUM'MING, act of fastening with gum, esp. the application of gum-water to a lithographic stone: a disease, marked by a discharge of gum, affecting stone-fruit; GUMMOS'ITY, gumminess.--_adjs._ GUM'MOUS, GUM'MY, consisting of or resembling gum: producing or covered with gum.--_ns._ GUM'-RASH, red-gum; GUM'-RES'IN, a vegetable secretion formed of resin mixed with more or less gum or mucilage; GUM'-TREE, a name applied to various American and Australian trees; CHEW'ING-GUM (see CHEW). [O. Fr. _gomme_--L. _gummi_--Gr. _kommi_; prob. Coptic _kom[=e]_, gum.] GUMBO, gum'b[=o], _n._ the okra or its mucilaginous pods: a soup of which okra is an ingredient, also a dish of okra-pods seasoned: Creole patois in Louisiana. GUMPTION, gump'shun, _n._ sense: shrewdness: common-sense.--_adj._ GUMP'TIOUS. [Doubtless conn. with A.S. _gýman_, to observe; cf. Goth. _gaumjan_.] GUN, gun, _n._ a firearm or weapon, from which balls or other projectiles are discharged, usually by means of gunpowder--now generally applied to cannon: one who carries a gun, a member of a shooting-party.--_v.i._ (_Amer._) to shoot with a gun.--_ns._ GUN'-BARR'EL, the barrel or tube of a gun; GUN'BOAT, a boat or small vessel of light draught, fitted to carry one or more guns; GUN'-CARR'IAGE, a carriage on which a gun or cannon is supported; GUN'-COTT'ON, an explosive prepared by saturating cotton with nitric acid; GUN'-FIRE (_mil._), the hour at which the morning or evening gun is fired; GUN'-FLINT, a piece of flint fitted to the hammer of a flint-lock musket; GUN'-MET'AL, an alloy of copper and tin in the proportion of 9 to 1, used in making guns; GUN'NAGE, the number of guns carried by a ship of war; GUN'NER, one who works a gun or cannon: (_naut._) a petty officer who has charge of the ordnance on board ship; GUN'NERY, the art of managing guns, or the science of artillery; GUN'NING, shooting game; GUN'-PORT, a port-hole; GUN'POWDER, an explosive powder used for guns and firearms; GUN'-ROOM, the apartment on board ship occupied by the gunner, or by the lieutenants as a mess-room; GUN'SHOT, the distance to which shot can be thrown from a gun.--_adj._ caused by the shot of a gun.--_adj._ GUN'-SHY, frightened by guns (of a sporting dog).--_ns._ GUN'SMITH, a smith or workman who makes or repairs guns or small-arms; GUN'STICK, a ramrod; GUN'STOCK, the stock or piece of wood on which the barrel of a gun is fixed; GUN'STONE (_Shak._), a stone, formerly used as shot for a gun; GUN'-TACK'LE (_naut._), the tackle used on board ship by which the guns are run to and from the port-holes; GUN'-WAD, a wad for a gun; GAT'LING-GUN, a revolving battery-gun, invented by R. J. _Gatling_ about 1861, usually having ten parallel barrels, capable of firing 1200 shots a minute; MACHINE'-GUN (see MACHINE).--AS SURE AS A GUN, quite sure, certainly; BLOW GREAT GUNS, to blow tempestuously--of wind; GREAT GUN, a cannon: (_coll._) a person of great importance; SON OF A GUN, a rogue, rascal. [M. E. _gonne_, from W. _gwn_, a bowl, a gun, acc. to Skeat.] GUNNEL, gun'l, _n._ Same as GUNWALE. GUNNY, gun'i, _n._ a strong coarse cloth manufactured in India from jute, and used as sacking. [Hind. _gon_, _goní_, sacking--Sans. _goní_, a sack.] GUNTER'S SCALE. See SCALE. GUNWALE, GUNNEL, gun'el, _n._ the wale or upper edge of a ship's side next to the bulwarks, so called because the upper guns are pointed from it. GURGE, gurj, _n._ (_Milt._) a whirlpool. [L. _gurges_.] GURGLE, gur'gl, _v.i._ to flow in an irregular noisy current: to make a bubbling sound. [Through an It. _gorgogliare_, from _gorgo_--L. _gurges_.] GURGOYLE. Same as GARGOYLE. GURLY, gur'li, _adj._ (_obs._) fierce, stormy. GURNARD, gur'nard, _n._ a genus of fishes having the body rounded, tapering, and covered with small scales, an angular head, the eyes near the summit, and the teeth small and very numerous--(_obs._) GUR'NET. [From O. Fr. _grongnard_--_grogner_, to grunt--L. _grunn[=i]re_, to grunt.] GURRAH, gur'a, _n._ a coarse Indian muslin. GURRY, gur'i, _n._ fish-offal. GURU, g[=oo]'r[=oo], _n._ a spiritual teacher, any venerable person.--Also GOO'ROO. [Hind.--Sans.] GUSH, gush, _v.i._ to flow out with violence or copiously: to be effusive, or highly sentimental.--_n._ that which flows out: a violent issue of a fluid.--_n._ GUSH'ER, an oil-well not needing to be pumped.--_adj._ GUSH'ING, rushing forth with violence, as a liquid: flowing copiously: effusive.--_adv._ GUSH'INGLY.--_adj._ GUSH'Y, effusively sentimental. [Scand.; Ice. _gusa_, _gjósa_; Dut. _gudsen_. See GEYSER.] GUSSET, gus'et, _n._ the piece of cloth in a shirt which covers the armpit: an angular piece of cloth inserted in a garment to strengthen some part of it.--_v.t._ to make with a gusset: to insert a gusset into. [O. Fr. _gousset_--_gousse_--It. _guscio_, a pod, husk.] GUST, gust, _n._ a sudden blast of wind: a violent burst of passion.--_adjs._ GUST'FUL, GUST'Y, stormy: irritable.--_n._ GUST'INESS. [Ice. _gustr_, blast.] GUST, gust, _n._ sense of pleasure of tasting: relish: gratification.--_n._ GUST[=A]'TION, the act of tasting: the sense of taste.--_adjs._ GUST'[=A]TIVE, GUS'T[=A]TORY, of or pertaining to gustation.--_n._ GUST'O, taste: zest. [L. _gustus_, taste; cf. Gr. _geuein_, to make to taste.] GUT, gut, _n._ the alimentary canal: intestines prepared for violin-strings, &c. (gut for angling, see SILKWORM-GUT): (_pl._) the bowels.--_v.t._ to take out the bowels of: to plunder:--_pr.p._ gut'ting; _pa.p._ gut'ted.--_n._ GUT'-SCRAP'ER, a fiddler.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ GUT'TLE, to eat greedily. [A.S. _gut_, _geótan_, to pour; prov. Eng. _gut_, Ger. _gosse_, a drain.] GUTTA, gut'a, _n._ a drop: one of the small drop-like ornaments on the under side of the mutules and regulæ of the Doric entablature: a small round colour-spot:--_pl._ GUTT'Æ.--_adjs._ GUTT'ATE, -D, containing drops: spotted. [L.] GUTTA-PERCHA, gut'a-p[.e]rch'a, _n._ the solidified juice of various trees in the Malayan Islands. [Malay _gatah_, _guttah_, gum, _percha_, the tree producing it.] GUTTER, gut'[.e]r, _n._ a channel at the eaves of a roof for conveying away water: a channel for water: (_print._) one of a number of pieces of wood or metal, grooved in the centre, used to separate the pages of type in a form: (_pl._) mud, dirt (_Scot._).--_v.t._ to cut or form into small hollows.--_v.i._ to become hollowed: to run down in drops, as a candle.--_ns._ GUTT'ER-BLOOD, a low-born person; GUTT'ER-SNIPE, a neglected child, a street Arab.--_adj._ GUTTIF'EROUS, exuding gum or resin. [O. Fr. _goutiere_--_goute_--L. _gutta_, a drop.] GUTTURAL, gut'ur-al, _adj._ pertaining to the throat: formed in the throat: harsh or rasping in sound.--_n._ (_gram._) a letter pronounced in the throat or the back part of the mouth (_k_, _c_ hard, _q_, _g_, _ng_).--_v.t._ GUTT'URALISE, GUTT'URISE, to form (a sound) in the throat.--_adv._ GUTT'URALLY.--_n._ GUTT'URALNESS. [Fr.,--L. _guttur_, the throat.] GUY, g[=i], _n._ (_naut._) a rope to steady any suspended weight.--_v.t._ to keep in position by a guy. [Sp. _guia_, a guide.] GUY, g[=i], _n._ an effigy of _Guy_ Fawkes, dressed up grotesquely on the anniversary of the Gunpowder Plot (5th Nov.): an odd figure. GUZZLE, guz'l, _v.i._ to eat and drink with haste and greediness.--_v.t._ to swallow with exceeding relish.--_n._ GUZZ'LER. [O. Fr. (_des-_) _gouziller_, to swallow down; _gosier_, the throat.] GWINIAD, gwin'i-ad, _n._ a fresh-water fish of about 10 or 12 inches in length, found in some of the lakes of Wales and Cumberland--the _Fresh-water Herring_. [W.,--_gwyn_, white.] GYGIS, j[=i]'jis, _n._ a genus of small terns, white, with black bill, long-pointed wings, and a slightly forked tail. [Gr. _gyg[=e]s_, a water-bird.] GYMKHANA, jim-kä'na, _n._ a place of public resort for athletic games, &c., also a meeting for such sports. [A factitious word, according to Yule-Burnell, prob. based on _gend-kh[=a]na_ ('ball-house'), the usual Hind. name for an English racket-court.] GYMNASIUM, jim-n[=a]'zi-um, _n._ a school for gymnastics: a school for the higher branches of literature and science: (_orig._) a public place or building where the Greek youths exercised themselves, with running and wrestling grounds, baths, and halls for conversation:--_pl._ GYMN[=A]'SIA.--_adj._ GYMN[=A]'SIAL.--_n._ GYMN[=A]'SIAST.--_adj._ GYMN[=A]'SIC.--_n._ GYM'NAST, one who teaches or practises gymnastics.--_adjs._ GYMNAS'TIC, -AL, pertaining to athletic exercises: athletic, vigorous.--_adv._ GYMNAS'TICALLY.--_n.pl._ used as _sing_. GYMNAS'TICS, athletic exercises, devised to strengthen the muscles and bones, esp. those of the upper half of the body: the art of performing athletic exercises.--_adj._ GYM'NIC (_Milt._). [L.,--Gr. _gymnasion_--_gymnazein_, _gymnos_, naked.] GYMNOCARPOUS, jim-no-kär'pus, _adj._ (_bot._) having the fruit naked, or not invested with a receptacle. [Gr. _gymnos_, naked, _karpos_, fruit.] GYMNOCITTA, jim-no-sit'a, _n._ a genus of crow-like American jays with naked nostrils. [Gr. _gymnos_, naked, _kitta_, _kissa_, a jay.] GYMNOCLADUS, jim-nok'lad-us, _n._ a genus of North American trees, the pods slightly aperient. [Gr. _gymnos_, naked, _klados_, a branch.] GYMNOGYNOUS, jim-noj'i-nus, _adj._ (_bot._) having a naked ovary. [Gr. _gymnos_, naked, _gyn[=e]_, female.] GYMNORHINAL, jim-n[=o]-r[=i]'nal, _adj._ having the nostrils bare or unfeathered, as certain jays and auks. [Gr. _gymnos_, naked, _hris_, _hrin-os_, the nose.] GYMNOSOPHIST, jim-nos'of-ist, _n._ the name given by the Greeks to those ancient Hindu philosophers who wore little or no clothing, and lived solitarily in mystical contemplation.--_n._ GYMNOS'OPHY. [Gr. _gymnos_, naked, _sophos_, wise.] GYMNOSPERM, jim'n[=o]-sp[.e]rm, _n._ one of the lower or more primitive group of seed plants--also GYM'NOGEN.--_adj._ GYMNOSPER'MOUS (_bot._), having the seeds unenclosed in a capsule.--_n._ GYM'NOSPORE, a naked spore. [Gr. _gymnos_, naked, _sperma_, seed.] GYMNOTUS, jim-n[=o]'tus, _n._ the most powerful of the electric fishes, occurring in the fresh waters of Brazil and Guiana.--Also _Electric eel_. [Formed from Gr. _gymnos_, naked, _n[=o]tos_, the back.] GYNÆCEUM, GYNECIUM, jin-[=e]-s[=e]'um, _n._ an apartment in a large house exclusively appropriated to women. [Gr. _gyn[=e]_, a woman, _oikos_, a house.] GYNANDRIA, ji-nan'dri-a, _n._ a Linnæan class of plants, in which the stamens are united with the pistil.--_n._ GYNAN'DER, a plant of the gynandria: a masculine woman.--_adjs._ GYNAN'DRIAN, GYNAN'DROUS. [Gr. _gyn[=e]_, a female, _an[=e]r_, _andros_, a man.] GYNARCHY, jin'är-ki, _n._ government by a female. [Gr. _gyn[=e]_, a woman, _arch[=e]_, rule.] GYNECIAN, GYNÆCIAN, ji-n[=e]'shi-an, _adj._ relating to women.--_adjs._ GYN[=E]'CIC, GYNÆ'CIC, pertaining to women's diseases.--_n._ GYNOE'CIUM, the collective pistils of a flower. GYNECOCRACY, jin-[=e]-kok'ra-si, _n._ government by women--also GYNOC'RACY.--_adj._ GYNECRAT'IC. [Gr. _gyn[=e]_, a woman, _kratein_, to rule.] GYNECOLOGY, GYNÆCOLOGY, jin-[=e]-kol'-o-ji, _n._ that branch of medicine which treats of the diseases and affections peculiar to woman and her physical organism.--_adj._ GYNECOLOG'ICAL.--_n._ GYNECOL'OGIST. [Gr. _gyn[=e]_, a woman, _legein_, to speak.] GYNEOLATRY, j[=i]n[=e]-ol'at-ri, _n._ excessive worship of woman. [Gr. _gyn[=e]_, a woman, _latreia_, worship.] GYNOPHORE, jin'o-f[=o]r, _n._ (_bot._) an elongation or internode of the receptacle of a flower. GYP, jip, _n._ a male servant who attends to college rooms at Cambridge. [Perh. a contr. from _gypsy_; hardly from Gr. _gyps_, a vulture.] GYPSUM, jip'sum, _n._ a valuable mineral of a comparatively soft kind, burned in kilns, and afterwards ground to a fine powder, called _plaster of Paris_.--_adjs._ GYP'SEOUS, of or resembling gypsum; GYPSIF'EROUS, producing or containing gypsum. [L.,--Gr. _gypsos_, chalk.] GYPSY, GYPSYISM. See GIPSY. GYRATE, j[=i]'r[=a]t, _v.i._ to whirl round a central point: to move round.--_adj._ (_bot._) winding round.--_n._ GYR[=A]'TION, act of whirling round a central point: a spiral motion.--_adjs._ GY'RATORY, GYR[=A]'TIONAL, moving in a circle. [L. _gyr[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to move in a circle.] GYRE, j[=i]r, _n._ a circular motion.--_n._ GY'RA, the richly embroidered border of a robe:--_pl._ GY'RÆ.--_adjs._ GY'RAL, whirling, rotating; GYROID'AL, spiral in arrangement or movement. [L. _gyrus_--Gr. _gyros_, a ring, round.] GYRE-CARLIN, g[=i]r-kar'lin, _n._ (_Scot._) a witch. [Ice. _gýgr_, a witch, _karlinna_, a carline.] GYRFALCON. See GERFALCON. GYROMANCY, j[=i]'ro-man-si, _n._ divination by walking in a circle till dizziness caused a fall towards one direction or another. [Gr. _gyros_, a circle, _manteia_, divination.] GYRON, GIRON, j[=i]'ron, _n._ (_her._) a bearing consisting of two straight lines drawn from any given part of the field and meeting in an acute angle in the fesse-point.--_adjs._ GYRONNET'TY, GYRON'NY, GIRON'NY. [Fr., acc. to Skeat, from the Old High Ger. _gérun_, accus. of _géro_, a spear, _gér_; cf. A.S. _gár_, a spear.] GYROSCOPE, j[=i]'ro-sk[=o]p, _n._ an instrument for the exhibition of various properties of rotation, and the composition of rotations.--_adj._ GYROSCOP'IC. [Gr. _gyros_, a circle, _skopein_, to see.] GYROSE, j[=i]'r[=o]s, _adj._ (_bot._) turned round like a crook. GYROSTAT, j[=i]'r[=o]-stat, _n._ an instrument contrived for illustrating the dynamics of rotating rigid bodies.--_adj._ GYROSTAT'IC. [Gr. _gyros_, round, _statikos_, static.] GYRUS, j[=i]'rus, _n._ one of the rounded edges into which the surface of the cerebral hemisphere is divided by the fissures or sulci. [Gr. _gyros_, a circle.] GYTE, g[=i]t, _adj._ (_Scot._) crazy, mad. GYTE, g[=i]t, _n._ (_Scot._) a child: a first year's boy at Edinburgh High School. [Prob. a corr. of _get_, offspring.] GYTRASH, g[=i]'trash, _n._ (_prov._) a ghost. GYVE, j[=i]v, _v.t._ to fetter.--_n.pl._ GYVES, shackles, fetters. [M. E. _gives_, _gyves._ Of Celt. origin; cf. W. _gefyn_, Ir. _geimheal._] * * * * * H the eighth letter in our alphabet, its sound that of a strongly-marked continuous guttural, produced at the back of the palate, not existing in English, but heard in the Scotch _loch_ and the German _lachen_. In Old English _h_ was a guttural, or throat sound, but it gradually softened down to a spirant, and has now become almost a vowel: (_chem._) a symbol denoting hydrogen: in medieval Roman notation=200, [=H]=200,000. HA, hä, _interj._ denoting surprise, joy, or grief; and, when repeated, laughter: in continued speech, often an involuntary sound expressive of hesitation. [Imit.] HA', haw, _n._ (_Scot._) hall. HAAF, häf, _n._ a deep-sea fishing-ground off the coast of Shetland.--_n._ HAAF'-FISH'ING, deep-sea fishing, as for cod. [Ice. _haf_, sea.] HAAR, här, _n._ (_Scot._) a fog. HABBLE, häb'l, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to perplex.--_v.i._ to stutter or stammer.--_n._ a perplexity, a squabble. [_Hobble_.] HABEAS-CORPUS (_ad subjiciendum_), h[=a]'be-as-kor'pus, _n._ a writ to a jailer to produce the body of one detained in prison, and to state the reasons of such detention.--_n._ HABEN'DUM, the clause in a deed beginning 'habendum et tenendum' ('to have and to hold'), which determines the interest or estate granted by the deed. [L., lit. 'have the body,' from L. _hab[=e]re_, to have, and _corpus_, the body.] HABENARIA, hab-[=e]-n[=a]'ri-a, _n._ a genus of tuberous orchidaceous plants. [L. _habena_, a thong.] HABERDASHER, hab'[.e]r-dash-[.e]r, _n._ a seller of small-wares, as ribbons, tape, &c.--_n._ HAB'ERDASHERY, goods sold by a haberdasher. [O. Fr. _hapertas_; ety. dub.; not Ice.] HABERDINE, ha-ber-d[=i]n', _n._ (_obs._) dried salt cod. [Old Dut. _abberdaan_, also _labberdaen_; prob. from Le _Labourd_, or _Lapurdum_ (Bayonne).] HABERGEON, ha-b[.e]r'je-un, _n._ a piece of armour to defend the neck and breast. [Fr. _haubergeon_, dim. of O. Fr. _hauberc_.] HABILE, hab'il, _adj._ (_obs._) able, capable. [Fr.,--L. _habilis._ See ABLE.] HABILIMENT, ha-bil'i-ment, _n._ a garment: (_pl._) clothing, dress.--_adjs._ HAB'ILABLE (_Carlyle_), capable of being clothed; HABIL'ATORY, having reference to dressing. [Fr. _habillement_--_habiller_, to dress--L. _habilis_, fit, ready--_hab[=e]re_.] HABILITATION, ha-bil-i-t[=a]'shun, _n._ (_Bacon_) qualification: (_U.S._) the act of supplying money to work a mine.--_n._ HABILIT[=A]'TOR, one who does so.--_v.i._ HABIL'ITATE, to acquire certain necessary qualifications, esp. for the office of teacher in a German university (Ger. _habilitiren_). [Low L. _habilitation -em_--L. _habilis_, able.] HABILITY, ha-bil'i-ti, _n._ an obsolete form of _ability_. HABIT, hab'it, _n._ ordinary course of conduct: tendency to perform certain actions: general condition or tendency, as of the body: practice: custom: outward appearance: dress, esp. any official or customary costume: a garment, esp. a tight-fitting dress, with a skirt, worn by ladies on horseback.--_v.t._ to dress:--_pr.p._ hab'iting; _pa.p._ hab'ited.--_adj._ HAB'ITED, clothed, dressed.--_ns._ HAB'IT-MAK'ER, one who makes women's riding-habits; HAB'IT-SHIRT, a thin muslin or lace under-garment worn by women on the neck and shoulders, under the dress.--_adj._ HABIT'[=U]AL, formed or acquired by frequent use: customary.--_adv._ HABIT'[=U]ALLY.--_v.t._ HABIT'[=U][=A]TE, to cause to acquire a habit: to accustom.--_ns._ HABIT[=U][=A]'TION; HAB'IT[=U]DE, tendency from acquiring a habit: usual manner; HABITUÉ (hab-it'[=u]-[=a]), a habitual frequenter of any place of entertainment, &c.--HABIT AND REPUTE, a phrase in Scotch law to denote something so notorious that it affords strong and generally conclusive evidence of the facts to which it refers; HABIT OF BODY, the general condition of the body as outwardly apparent: any constitutional tendency or weakness. [Fr.,--L. _habitus_, state, dress--_hab[=e]re_, to have.] HABITABLE, hab'it-a-bl, _adj._ that may be dwelt in.--_ns._ HABITABIL'ITY, HAB'ITABLENESS.--_adv._ HAB'ITABLY.--_ns._ HAB'ITANT, an inhabitant; HAB'ITAT, the natural abode or locality of an animal or plant: place of abode generally; HABIT[=A]'TION, act of inhabiting: a dwelling or residence: a group, lodge, company, as of the so-called 'Primrose League.' [Fr.,--L. _habitabilis_--_habit[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to inhabit, freq. of _hab[=e]re_, to have.] HABLE, h[=a]'bl, _adj._ (_Spens._). Same as HABILE. HACHEL, hach'el, _n._ (_Scot._) a sloven. HACHURE, hash'[=u]r, _n._ Same as HATCHING. HACIENDA, as-i-en'da, _n._ an estate or establishment. [Sp.,--L. _facienda_, things to be done, _fac[)e]re_, to do.] HACK, hak, _v.t._ to cut: to chop or mangle: to notch: to kick (another) at football.--_n._ a cut made by hacking: a kick on the shin.--_n._ HACK'ING, the operation of picking a worn grindstone, &c., with a hack-hammer.--_adj._ short and interrupted, as a broken, troublesome cough.--_n._ HACK'-LOG, a chopping-block. [A.S. _haccian_, in composition _tó-haccian_; cf. Dut. _hakken_, Ger. _hacken._] HACK, hak, _n._ a horse kept for hire, esp. a poor one: any person overworked on hire: a literary drudge.--_adj._ hired, mercenary: used up.--_v.t._ to offer for hire: to use roughly.--_n._ HACK'-WORK, literary drudgery for which a person is hired by a publisher, as making dictionaries, &c. [Contr. of _hackney_.] HACK, hak, _n._ a grated frame, as a rack for feeding cattle, a place for drying bricks, &c. [_Hatch_.] HACKBERRY, hak'ber-i, _n._ an American tree, allied to the elm. [See HAGBERRY.] HACKBUT, hak'but, _n._ an arquebuse--also HAG'BUT.--_n._ HACKBUTEER'. [O. Fr. _haquebute_, from Dut. _haakbus._ See ARQUEBUSE.] HACKEE, hak'[=e], _n._ the United States chipmuck or ground-squirrel. [Imit.] HACKERY, hak'er-i, _n._ a native bullock-cart. [Hind. _chhakr[=a]_, a cart.] HACKLE, hak'l, _n._ an instrument with iron teeth for sorting hemp or flax: any flimsy substance unspun: a feather in a cock's neck: part of the dressing of a fly-hook used by anglers.--_v.t._ to dress with a hackle, as flax: to tear rudely asunder.--_n._ HACK'LER, a flax-dresser, heckler.--_adj._ HACK'LY, rough and broken, as if hacked or chopped: (_min._) covered with sharp points. [Cf. Dut. _hekel_, Ger. _hechel_.] HACKLET, hak'let, _n._ a kind of sea-bird, prob. the shear-water--also HAG'LET.--The HAGDEN is the Greater Shear-water (_Puffinus major_). HACKNEY, hak'ni, _n._ a horse for general use, esp. for hire: (_obs._) a person hired for any mean work.--_v.t._ to carry in a hackney-coach: to use much: to make commonplace.--_adjs._ HACK'NEY, HACK'NEYED, let out for hire: devoted to common use: much used.--_ns._ HACK'NEY-COACH, a coach let out for hire; HACK'NEY-COACH'MAN; HACK'NEYMAN, one who keeps hackney horses. [O. Fr. _haquenee_, an ambling nag; further history unknown.] HACQUETON (_Spens._). A form of _acton_. HAD, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _have_: (_B._) held.--_ns._ HAD'DING, HAD'DIN (_Scot._), a holding, residence. HADDOCK, had'uk, _n._ a sea-fish of the cod family--(_Scot._) HADD'IE. [M. E. _haddoke_; ety. unknown.] HADE, h[=a]d, _n._ (_min._) the dip or underlie of a lode or fault.--_v.i._ to underlay or incline from the vertical. HADES, h[=a]'d[=e]z, _n._ the unseen world: the abode of the dead indefinitely, hell. [Gr. _haid[=e]s_, _had[=e]s_, dubiously derived from _a_, neg., and _idein_, to see.] HADITH, had'ith, _n._ the body of traditions about Mohammed, supplementary to the Koran. [Ar.] HADJ, HAJJ, haj, _n._ a Mohammedan pilgrimage to Mecca or Medina.--_ns._ HADJI, HAJJI (haj'i), one who has performed a Hadj. [Ar., 'a pilgrimage.'] HADROSAURUS, had-r[=o]-sä'rus, _n._ a very large Dinosaurian of the Cretaceous epoch--abundant in New Jersey. [Gr. _hadros_, thick, _sauros_, a lizard.] HAE, h[=a], a Scotch form of _have._ HÆCCEITY, hek-s[=e]'i-ti, h[=e]k-, _n._ Duns Scotus's word for that element of existence on which individuality depends, hereness-and-nowness. [Lit. 'thisness,' L. _hæc_.] HÆMACYTE, HEM-, h[=e]'ma-s[=i]t, _n._ a blood-corpuscle.--_n._ HÆMACYTOM'ETER, an instrument for determining the number of such in a given quantity of blood. HÆMADYNAMICS, HEM-, h[=e]-ma-di-nam'iks, _n._ the dynamics or theory of the circulation of the blood. HÆMAL, HEMAL, h[=e]'mal, _adj._ relating to the blood or blood-vessels: ventral, the opposite of _Neural_.--_n._ HÆ'MACHROME, the colouring matter of the blood.--_adj._ HÆ'MATOID, resembling blood.--HÆMAL ARCH, the position of a vertebra enclosing and protecting the heart and other viscera; HÆMAL CAVITY, the thoracic-abdominal cavity, containing the heart, &c. [Gr. _haima_, blood.] HÆMANTHUS, h[=e]-man'thus, _n._ a genus of bulbous plants native to Africa, including the Cape tulip. [Gr. _haima_, blood, _anthos_, a flower.] HÆMASTATIC, HEM-, -AL, h[=e]-ma-stat'ik, -al, _adj._ serving to stop the flow of blood.--_n.pl._ HÆMASTAT'ICS, the statics of the blood and blood-vessels. [Gr. _haima_, blood, _statikos_, static.] HÆMATEIN, HEM-, h[=e]-ma-t[=e]'in, _n._ an organic principle derived from the colouring matter of logwood. HÆMATEMESIS, h[=e]-ma-tem'e-sis, _n._ a vomiting of blood from the stomach. [Gr. _haima_, _haimat-os_, blood, _emein_, to vomit.] HÆMATIN, HEM-, h[=e]'ma-tin, hem'a-tin, _n._ a brown substance associated with hemoglobin in the blood.--_adjs._ HÆMAT'IC, HÆ'MIC--_n.pl._ HÆMAT'ICS, that branch of medical science concerned with the blood. HÆMATITE, HEM-, hem'a-t[=i]t, h[=e]'ma-t[=i]t, _n._ (_min._) a valuable ore of iron, consisting chiefly of peroxide of iron--its two chief varieties, Red Hæmatite and Brown Hæmatite.--_adj._ HÆMATIT'IC. HÆMATOBLAST, h[=e]'ma-to-blast, hem'-, _n._ one of the minute colourless discs, smaller than either the red or white corpuscles, found in the blood. [Gr. _haima_, _haimat-os_, blood, _blastos_, a germ.] HÆMATOCELE, HEM-, h[=e]'ma-to-s[=e]l, _n._ a tumour containing blood. [Gr. _haima_, blood, _k[=e]l[=e]_, a tumour.] HÆMATOLOGY, h[=e]-ma-tol'o-ji, _n._ the branch of biology which relates to the blood. HÆMATOSIS, h[=e]-ma-t[=o]'sis, _n._ the formation of blood, the conversion of venous into arterial blood.--_n._ HÆMAT[=O]'SIN, hæmatin. HÆMATOXYLIN, HEM-, h[=e]-ma-tok'si-lin, _n._ a dye obtained from the logwood-tree. [Gr. _haima_, blood, _xylon_, wood.] HÆMATOZOA, h[=e]-ma-to-z[=o]'a, _n._ parasites occurring in the blood. [Gr. _haima_, _haimat-os_, blood, _z[=o]on_, an animal.] HÆMATURIA, h[=e]-ma-t[=u]'ri-a, _n._ the discharge of blood with the urine, usually from disease of the kidneys or bladder. [Gr. _haima_, blood, _ouron_, urine.] HÆMOGLOBIN, HEM-, h[=e]-mo-gl[=o]'bin, _n._ the red substance in the red blood-corpuscles. [Gr. _haima_, blood, L. _globus_, a ball.] HÆMONY, h[=e]'mo-ni, _n._ a plant with sovereign properties against magic, &c., in Milton's _Comus_. [Prob. formed from Gr. _haim[=o]nios_, blood-red.] HÆMOPHILIA, h[=e]-mo-fil'i-a, hem-o-, _n._ a constitutional tendency to excessive bleeding when any blood-vessel is even slightly injured. HÆMOPHTHALMIA, h[=e]-mof-thal'mi-a, _n._ effusion of blood into the eye. [Gr. _haima_, blood, _ophthalmos_, the eye.] HÆMOPTYSIS, h[=e]-mop'ti-sis, _n._ expectoration of blood. [Gr. _haima_, blood, _ptysis_, a spitting.] HÆMORRHAGE, HEM-, hem'or-[=a]j, _n._ a discharge of blood from the blood-vessels.--_adj._ HÆMORRHAG'IC. [Gr. _haimorrhagia_--_haima_, blood, _rh[=e]gnynai_, to burst.] HÆMORRHOIDS, HEM-, hem'or-oidz, _n.pl._ dilated veins liable to discharge blood, esp. piles.--_adj._ HÆMORRHOID'AL. [Gr. _haimorrhoides_--_haima_, blood, _rhein_, to flow.] HÆMOSTASIA, h[=e]-mo-st[=a]'si-a, _n._ stagnation of blood in any part: any operation for arresting the flow of blood, as the ligation of an artery.--_adj._ HÆMOSTAT'IC, stopping or preventing hæmorrhage, styptic. [Gr. _haima_, blood, _stasis_, a standing.] HAET, HAIT, h[=a]t, _n._ (_Scot._) a whit. HAFFET, haf'et, _n._ (_Scot._) the side of the head, the temples. [Prob. _half-head_--A.S. _healf-héafod_.] HAFFLIN, haf'lin, _adj._ (_Scot._) half-grown.--_n._ a fool. HAFT, haft, _n._ a handle.--_v.t._ to set in a haft: to establish firmly. [A.S. _hæft_; Ger. _heft_.] HAG, hag, _n._ an ugly old woman, originally a witch: one of the Round Mouths, allied to the lamprey.--_adj._ HAG'GISH, hag-like.--_adv._ HAG'GISHLY.--_adj._ HAG'-RID'DEN, ridden by witches, as a horse: troubled by nightmare.--_ns._ HAG'-SEED, a witch's offspring; HAG'SHIP, the personality of a hag; HAG'WEED, the common broom, a broomstick being usually bestridden by a witch in her flight through the air. [A.S. _hægtesse_, a witch; Ger. _hexe_.] HAG, hag, _n._ (_Scot._) any broken ground in a moss or bog: brushwood to be cut down. HAGBERRY, hag'ber-i, _n._ the bird-cherry--sometimes HACK'BERRY. [Prob. Scand.; Ice. _heggr_.] HAGBUT. See HACKBUT. HAGDEN. See HACKLET. HAGGADA, ha-gä'da, _n._ a free Rabbinical homiletical commentary on the whole Old Testament, forming, together with the _Halacha_, the Midrash, but from its especial popularity often itself styled the Midrash--also HAGGÄ'DAH, AGÄ'DAH.--_adjs._ HAGGAD'IC, HAGGADIST'IC, pertaining to the Haggada, said of free interpretation, opposed to _Halachic_ or legal.--_n._ HAGG'ADIST. [Heb.] HAGGARD, hag'ard, _adj._ lean: hollow-eyed: wild, applied to an untrained hawk--(_arch._) HAGG'ED.--_n._ HAGG'ARD, a hawk.--_adv._ HAGG'ARDLY. [O. Fr. _hagard_, prob. related to _haie_, hedge.] HAGGARD, hag'ard, _n._ a stackyard. [_Hay-yard_.] HAGGIS, hag'is, _n._ a Scotch dish made of the heart, lungs, and liver of a sheep, calf, &c., chopped up with suet, onions, oatmeal, &c., seasoned and boiled in a sheep's stomach-bag. [Ety. unknown; not Fr. _hachis_, hash, assimilated with _hag_, _hack._] HAGGLE, hag'l, _v.t._ to cut unskilfully: to mangle.--_v.i._ to be slow and hard in making a bargain: to stick at trifles, to cavil.--_n._ HAGG'LER. [A variant of _hackle_, itself a freq. of _hack_, to cut.] HAGIARCHY, h[=a]'ji-ar-ki, _n._ government by priests.--Also HAGIOC'RACY. [Gr. _hagios_, sacred, _arch[=e]_, rule.] HAGIOGRAPHA, hag-i-og'ra-fa, _n.pl._ the last of the three Jewish divisions of the Old Testament, comprehending the books of Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, Ruth, Esther, Chronicles, Canticles, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes.--_adj._ HAGIOG'RAPHAL.--_n._ HAGIOG'RAPHER, one of the writers of the Hagiographa: a sacred writer.--_adjs._ HAGIOGRAPH'IC, -AL, pertaining to the Hagiographa. [Gr. _hagiographa_ (_biblia_)--_hagios_, holy, _graphein_, to write.] HAGIOLOGY, hag-i-ol'o-ji, _n._ history of saints.--_n._ HAGIOG'RAPHER, a writer of saints' lives.--_adjs._ HAGIOGRAPH'IC, -AL, pertaining to the writing of saints' lives.--_ns._ HAGIOG'RAPHY, the lives of saints as a branch of literature; HAGIOL'ATER, one who worships saints; HAGIOL'ATRY, the worship of saints.--_adjs._ HAGIOLOG'IC, -AL.--_n._ HAGIOL'OGIST, one versed in the legends of saints. [Gr. _hagios_, holy, _logia_, discourse.] HAGIOSCOPE, hag'-, or h[=a]'ji-o-sk[=o]p, _n._ an oblique opening in the screen or chancel wall of a church to afford a view of the chief altar to those in a side chapel or aisle, a squint.--_adj._ HAGIOSCOP'IC. [Gr. _hagios_, holy, _skopein_, to look.] HAH, hä, _interj._ Same as HA. HA-HA, imitation of the sound of laughter. HA-HA, HAWHAW, haw-haw', _n._ a sunk fence, or a ditch not seen till close upon it. HAHNEMANNIAN, hä-ne-man'i-an, _adj._ of or relating to C. F. S. _Hahnemann_ (1755-1843), founder of the homeopathic method of treatment. HAIDUK, h[=i]'duk, _n._ one of those, from the forests of eastern Hungary, who in the 16th century maintained a guerilla warfare against the Turks. [Hung. _hajduk_, pl. of _hajdu_, a cowherd.] HAIK, haik, _n._ an oblong piece of cloth which Arabs wrap round the head and body.--Also HAICK, HAIQUE, HYKE. HAIKH, haih, _n._ a branch of the Iranic group of Aryan languages, including Armenian and Ossetian: the native name of Armenia.--_adj._ Armenian. HAIL, h[=a]l, _v.t._ to greet: to call to, at a distance: to address one passing.--_n._ a call: greeting.--_interj._ or _imper._ (_lit._) may you be in health.--_n._ HAIL'-FELL'OW, a familiar friend.--_adj._ on hearty and intimate terms--'Hail, fellow! well met,' often used as a kind of descriptive adjective.--HAIL FROM, to come from. [Ice. _heill_, health.] HAIL, h[=a]l, _n._ frozen rain or particles of ice falling from the clouds.--_v.i._ to rain hail.--_v.t._ to pour down in rapid succession.--_ns._ HAIL'SHOT, small shot which scatters like hail; HAIL'STONE, a single stone or ball of hail; HAIL'-STORM, a storm accompanied with hail.--_adj._ HAIL'Y. [A.S. _hagol_; Ger. _hagel_.] HAIN, h[=a]n, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to save, preserve: to spare.--_adj._ HAINED, saved, kept carefully.--_n._ HAIN'ING, an enclosure. [Ice. _hegna_, to protect; cf. Sw. _hägna_; Dan. _hegne_.] HAIN'T, HAINT=have not, has not. HAIR, h[=a]r, _n._ a filament growing from the skin of an animal: the whole mass of hairs which forms a covering for the head or the whole body: (_bot._) minute hair-like processes on the cuticle of plants: anything very small and fine: particular course, quality, or character: (_mech._) a locking spring or other safety contrivance in the lock of a rifle, &c., capable of being released by a slight pressure on a hair-trigger.--_ns._ HAIR'BREADTH, HAIR'S'-BREADTH, the breadth of a hair (HAIRBREADTH 'SCAPE, a very narrow escape): a very small distance; HAIR'-BRUSH, a brush for the hair; HAIR'CLOTH, cloth made partly or entirely of hair; HAIR'DRESSER, one who dresses or cuts hair: a barber.--_adj._ HAIRED, having hair--as _black-haired_, _fair-haired_, &c.--_ns._ HAIR'-GRASS, a kind of grass found generally on poor soil, the bracts of whose florets are generally awned near the base; HAIR'INESS.--_adj._ HAIR'LESS, without hair.--_ns._ HAIR'-LINE, a line made of hair, used in fishing: a slender line made in writing or drawing: (_print._) a very thin line on a type; HAIR'-OIL, perfumed oil used in dressing the hair; HAIR'-PEN'CIL, an artist's brush made of a few fine hairs; HAIR'-PIN, a pin used in hairdressing; HAIR'-POW'DER, a white powder for dusting the hair; HAIR'-SHIRT, a penitent's shirt of haircloth; HAIR'-SPACE, the thinnest metal space used by compositors; HAIR'-SPLIT'TER, one who makes too nice distinctions; HAIR'-SPLIT'TING, the art of making minute and over-nice distinctions; HAIR'SPRING, a very fine hair-like spring coiled up within the balance-wheel of a watch; HAIR'-STROKE, in writing, a fine stroke with the pen: a hair-line; HAIR'-TRIGG'ER, a trigger which discharges a gun or pistol by a hair-like spring; HAIR'-WORK, work done or something made with hair, esp. human; HAIR'WORM, a worm, like a horse-hair, which lives in the bodies of certain insects.--_adj._ HAIR'Y, of or resembling hair: covered with hair.--AGAINST THE HAIR, against the grain: contrary to what is natural; A HAIR OF THE DOG THAT BIT HIM, a smaller dose of that which caused the trouble, esp. used of the morning glass after a night's debauch--a homeopathic dose; COMB A PERSON'S HAIR THE WRONG WAY, to irritate or provoke him; KEEP ONE'S HAIR ON (_slang_) to keep cool; MAKE THE HAIR STAND ON END, to give the greatest astonishment or fright to another; NOT TO TURN A HAIR, not to be ruffled or disturbed; PUT UP THE HAIR, to dress the hair up on the head instead of wearing it hanging; SPLIT HAIRS, to make superfine distinctions; TO A HAIR, TO THE TURN OF A HAIR, exactly, with perfect nicety. [A.S. _h['æ]r_, Ger., Dut., and Dan. _haar_, &c.] HAIRST, h[=a]rst, a Scotch form of _harvest_. HAITH, h[=a]th, _interj._ (_Scot._) by my faith! HAJJ. See HADJ. HAKE, h[=a]k, _n._ a gadoid fish resembling the cod--varieties are the _Silver Hake_, the _Merluccio_, the _Squirrel-hake_, &c.--_ns._ H[=A]'KED, HAC'OT (_prov._), the pike (A.S. _hacod_; Ger. _hecht_). [Prob. Scand.; cf. Norw. _hake-fisk_, lit. 'hook-fish.'] HAKE, h[=a]k, _n._ (_prov._) a hook, esp. a pot-hook: a pike. [Prob. Ice. _haki_; cf. Dut. _haak_.] HAKE, h[=a]k, _v.i._ to idle or loiter about. [Cf. Dut. _haken_, to hanker.] HAKEEM, HAKIM, ha-k[=e]m', _n._ a physician. [Ar.] HAKIM, h[=a]'kim, _n._ a judge or governor in Mohammedan India. HALACHAH, HALAKAH, HALACHA, ha-lak'ä, _n._ an amplification of points not explicitly set forth in the Mosaic law, deduced from it by analogy, and arranged in the collection of legal precepts designated _Halachoth_.--_adj._ HALACH'IC, pertaining to halachoth, legal as opposed to homiletic or haggadic. [Heb.,--_h[=a]lak_, to walk.] HALATION, ha-l[=a]'shun, _n._ a _halo_-like appearance in a photograph, caused by reflection of light. HALBERD, hal'b[.e]rd, _n._ a weapon consisting of a wooden shaft some six feet long, surmounted by an axe-like instrument balanced on the opposite side by a hook or pick.--_n._ HALBERDIER', one armed with a halberd. [O. Fr. _halebard_--Mid. High Ger. _helmbarde_ (Ger. _hellebarde_)--_halm_, handle, or _helm_, helmet; Old High Ger. _barta_ (Ger. _barte_), an axe.] HALCYON, hal'si-un, _n._ the kingfisher, once believed to make a floating nest on the sea, which remained calm while it was hatching.--_adj._ calm: peaceful: happy--hence HALCYON-DAYS, a time of peace and happiness. [L.,--Gr., _alky[=o]n_; as if _hals_, the sea, _kyein_, to conceive.] HALD, a Scotch form of _hold_. HALE, h[=a]l, _adj._ healthy: robust: sound of body.--_n._ (_Spens._) welfare.--_n._ HALE'NESS. [Northern A.S. _hál_; the S. forms _hôl_, _hool_, produce _whole_. There is a parallel N. form from Norse _heill_.] HALE, h[=a]l, _v.t._ to drag. [A variant of _haul_.] HALF, häf, _n._ one of two equal parts: a contraction of half-year, as in a school session:--_pl._ HALVES (hävz).--_adj._ having or consisting of one of two equal parts: being in part: incomplete, as measures.--_adv._ in an equal part or degree: in part: imperfectly.--_v.i._ to divide into two equal parts.--_ns._ HALF'-AND-HALF, a mixture of beer or porter and ale; HALF'-BACK, in football, a position on the right or left side of the field, between the quarter-back and full-back, or directly behind the forwards: a player occupying this position.--_adj._ HALF'-BAKED, underdone: incomplete: half-witted.--_v.t._ HALF'-BAPTISE', to baptise privately and hastily.--_ns._ HALF'-BIND'ING, a style of bookbinding in which the backs and corners are of leather, and the sides of paper or cloth; HALF'-BLOOD, relation between those who are of the same father or mother, but not of both.--_adj._ HALF'-BLOOD'ED.--_ns._ HALF'-BOARD (_naut._), a manoeuvre by which a sailing-ship gains distance to windward by luffing up into the wind; HALF'-BOOT, a boot reaching half-way to the knee.--_adj._ HALF'-BOUND, bound only partly in leather, as a book.--_n._ HALF'-BREED, one that is half-blooded.--_adj._ HALF'-BRED, half or not well bred or trained: wanting in refinement.--_ns._ HALF'-BROTH'ER, HALF'-SIS'TER, a brother or sister by one parent only; HALF'-CAP (_Shak._), a cap only partly taken off: a slight salute; HALF'-CASTE, a person one of whose parents belongs to a Hindu caste, and the other is a European: any half-breed; HALF'-CHEEK (_Shak._), a face in profile; HALF'-COCK, the position of the cock of a gun when retained by the first notch (see COCK); HALF'-CROWN, a silver coin in England, of the value of two shillings and sixpence.--_adj._ HALF'-DEAD, almost dead, nearly exhausted.--_n._ HALF'-DOLL'AR, a silver coin of the United States, worth 50 cents.--_adj._ HALF'-DONE, not fully cooked, roasted, &c.--_n._ HALF'-DOZ'EN, six.--_adjs._ HALF'-ED'UCATED, imperfectly educated; HALF'EN (_Spens._), half.--_adv._ HALF'ENDEAL (_Spens._), half.--_adjs._ HALF'-FACED (_Shak._), showing only part of the face: wretched-looking; HALF'-HEART'ED, cold, ungenerous: lukewarm: indifferent.--_adv._ HALF'-HEART'EDLY.--_ns._ HALF'-HEART'EDNESS; HALF'-HOLIDAY, half of a working day for recreation; HALF'-KIR'TLE, a kind of jacket worn by women in the 16th and 17th centuries; HALF'-LENGTH, a portrait or photograph showing the upper part of the body.--_adj._ of half-length.--_ns._ HALF'LING, a half-grown person, between a boy and a man; HALF'-MAST, the position of a flag lowered half-way down, in respect for the dead or in signal of distress; HALF'-MEAS'URE, any means inadequate for the end proposed; HALF'-MOON, the moon at the quarters when but half of it is illuminated: anything semicircular; HALF'-MOURN'ING, a mourning costume less than deep or full mournings.--_adj._ HALF'-N[=A]'KED, as nearly naked as clothed.--_ns._ HALF'-NOTE (_mus._), a minim, being one-half of a semibreve or whole note; HALF'-ONE (_golf_), a handicap of one stroke every second hole; HALF'-PAY, reduced pay, as of naval or military officers when not in active service.--_adj._ receiving half-pay.--_ns._ HALFPENNY (h[=a]'pen-i), a copper coin worth half a penny: the value of half a penny: (_Shak._) anything very small:--_pl._ HALFPENCE (h[=a]'pens); HALF'PENNYWORTH, the worth or value of a halfpenny; HALF'-PIKE, a pike with a shaft only half the length of the ordinary; HALF'-PRICE, a reduced charge of admission, &c.--_adj._ at half the usual prices.--_adj._ HALF'-ROUND (_Milt._), semicircular.--_ns._ HALF'-ROY'AL, a special kind of millboard or pasteboard; HALF'-SHELL, one-half of a bivalve, as in oysters 'on the half-shell.'--_adj._ HALF'-SIGHT'ED, short-sighted.--_n._ HALF'-SOV'EREIGN, an English gold coin, worth ten shillings.--_adj._ HALF'-STARVED, having insufficient food.--_ns._ HALF'-SUIT, the body armour of the 17th century; HALF'-SWORD (_Shak._), fight within half a sword's length: close fight; HALF'-TIDE, the tide half-way between flood and ebb.--_adj._ left dry at half-tide.--_ns._ HALF'-TIM'ER, one who works only half the usual time, esp. a pupil in an elementary school allowed to be absent half the school-day at some employment; HALF'-TINT, an intermediate tint; HALF'-T[=I]'TLE, a short title of a book at the head of the first page of the text, or a title of any subdivision of a book when printed in a full page; HALF'-TRUTH, a statement conveying only part of the truth.--_adv._ HALF'-WAY, at half the way or distance: imperfectly.--_adj._ equally distant from two points.--_adjs._ HALF'-WIT'TED, weak in intellect; HALF'-YEAR'LY, occurring at every half-year or twice in a year.--_adv._ twice in a year.--_n._ BETT'ER-HALF, a wife.--HALF-SEAS-OVER, half-drunk.--NOT HALF, to a very slight extent: (_slang_) not at all.--CRY HALVES, to claim a half-share; GO HALVES, to share equally with a person. [A.S. _healf_ (Ger. _halb_, Dan. _halv_); original meaning 'side.'] HALIBUT, hal'i-but, _n._ the largest kind of flat-fishes, in form more elongated than the flounder or the turbot.--Also HOL'IBUT. [M. E. _hali_, holy, and _butte_, a flounder, plaice, the fish being much eaten on fast or holy days; cf. Dut. _heilbot_, Ger. _heilbutt_.] HALICORE, hal-ik'o-ri, _n._ a dugong. HALIDOM, hal'i-dom, _n._ (_Spens._) holiness--used chiefly as an oath. [A.S. _hálig_, holy, and affix _-dom_.] HALIEUTICS, hal-i-[=u]'tiks, _n._ a treatise on fishes or fishing. [L.,--Gr.,_--hals_, the sea.] HALIOTIS, hal-i-[=o]'tis, _n._ a genus of univalve shells, the ear-shells, supplying mother-of-pearl.--_adj._ HAL'IOTOID. [Gr. _hals_, sea, _ous_, _[=o]tis_, ear.] HALITUS, hal'i-tus, _n._ a vapour.--_adj._ HALIT'UOUS. [L.] HALL, hawl, _n._ a large room or passage at the entrance of a house: a large chamber for public business--for meetings, or for the sale of particular goods: an edifice in which courts of justice are held: a manor-house: the main building of a college, and in some cases, as at Oxford and Cambridge, the specific name of a college itself: an unendowed college: a licensed residence for students: the great room in which the students dine together--hence also the dinner itself: a place for special professional education, or for conferring professional degrees or licenses, as a Divinity Hall, Apothecaries' Hall.--_ns._ HALL'AGE, toll paid for goods sold in a hall; HALL'-DOOR, the front door of a house.--A HALL! A HALL! a cry at a mask or the like for room for the dance, &c.; BACHELOR'S HALL, a place free from the restraining presence of a wife; LIBERTY HALL, a place where every one can do as he pleases. [A.S. _heall_; Dut. _hal_, Ice. _holl_, &c.] HALLAN, hal'an, _n._ (_Scot._) a partition to keep out the cold between the door of a cottage and the fireplace.--_n._ HALLANSH[=A]K'ER, a sturdy beggar. HALLELUJAH, HALLELUIAH, hal-e-l[=oo]'ya, _n._ the exclamation 'Praise (ye) the Lord' (Jah or Jehovah), which occurs in many songs and anthems: a song of praise to God, a musical composition based on the word, as the Hallelujah (chorus) in Handel's _Messiah_.--_n._ HALLEL (hal-el', hal'el), the hymn of praise chanted during the Passover supper, consisting of Psalms cxiii.-cxviii. inclusive. [Heb., 'Praise ye Jehovah,' _halelu_, praise ye, and _J[=a]h_, Jehovah.] HALLIARD. See HALYARD. HALLION, hal'yon, _n._ a lazy rascal.--Also HALL'IAN, HALL'YON. HALL-MARK, hawl'-märk, _n._ the authorised impression of certain symbols made on articles of gold and silver at the various assay offices in the United Kingdom to indicate their true value and the fineness of the metal: any mark of genuineness or good quality.--_v.t._ to assay and mark authoritatively. HALLOO, hal-l[=oo]', _n._ a hunting cry: a cry to draw attention.--_v.i._ to cry after dogs: to raise an outcry.--_v.t._ to encourage or chase with shouts.--_interjs._ HALLO'! HALLOA'! used to call attention.--HALLOO BEFORE ONE IS OUT OF THE WOOD, to count on safety before one is out of danger. [Imit., A.S. _éalá_.] HALLOW, hal'[=o], _v.t._ to make holy: to set apart for religious use: to reverence.--_n._ a saint.--_ns._ HALL'OWE'EN, the evening before All-Hallows or All-Saints' Day; HALL'OWMAS, the Feast of All-Saints, 1st November. [A.S. _hálgian_--_hálig_, holy.] HALLUCINATION, hal-l[=u]-sin-[=a]'shun, _n._ error: delusion: the perception of things that do not externally exist.--_v.i._ HALL[=U]'CINATE, to suffer illusion.--_adjs._ HALL[=U]'CINATIVE, HALL[=U]'CINATORY, partaking of or tending to produce hallucination. [L. _hallucinationem_--_alucin[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_, to wander in mind.] HALLUX, hal'uks, _n._ the first or innermost digit of the foot, the great toe. [L. _allex_.] HALM, HAULM, hawm, _n._ the stalk of any kind of grain. [A.S. _healm_; Ger. _halm_.] HALMA, hal'ma, _n._ a game played on a checkered board of 256 squares, by two or four persons, with thirteen to nineteen men each--also _Hoppity_: in the Greek pentathlon the long jump with weights in the hands. [Gr.,--_hallesthai_, to leap.] HALMATURUS, hal-ma-t[=u]'rus, _n._ a genus of kangaroos. HALO, h[=a]'l[=o], _n._ a luminous circle round the sun or moon, due to the presence of ice-crystals in the air: (_paint._) the bright ring round the heads of saints, hence any ideal or sentimental glory attaching to a thing:--_pl._ HALOS (h[=a]'l[=o]z).--_v.t._ to surround with a halo.--_n._ HAL'OSCOPE, an instrument exhibiting the phenomena connected with halos, parhelia, &c. [L. _halos_--Gr. _hal[=o]s_, threshing-floor.] HALOGEN, hal'o-jen, _n._ a substance which by combination with a metal forms a saline compound.--_adjs._ HALOG'ENOUS; HA'LOID, like sea-salt.--_ns._ HAL'OMANCY, divination by means of salt; HAL'OPHYTE, the salt-wort, found in salt-marshes, &c. [Gr. _hals_, salt, _gen[=e]s_, producing.] HALSE, hawls, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to clasp round the neck, to embrace.--_n._ (_obs._) the neck, throat--(_Scot._) HAWSE. [A.S. _heals_, neck; Ger. _hals_.] HALSER, hawz'[.e]r, _n._ See HAWSER. HALT, hawlt, _v.i._ to stop from going on: (_mil._) to stop in a march.--_v.t._ to stop.--_n._ (_mil._) a stop in marching. [Orig. a Ger. military term, _halt_, stoppage.] HALT, hawlt, _n._ a halting or limping.--_adj._ lame, crippled, limping.--_v.i._ to be lame, to limp: to walk unsteadily: to vacillate: to proceed lamely or imperfectly, to be at fault, as in logic, rhythm, &c.--_ns._ HALT'ING; HALT'ING-PLACE. [A.S. _halt_, _healt_; Dan. and Sw. _halt_.] HALTER, hawlt'[.e]r, _n._ a head-rope for holding and leading a horse: a rope for hanging criminals: a strong strap or cord.--_v.t._ to catch or bind with a rope. [A.S. _hælftre_; Ger. _halfter_.] HALVE, häv, _v.t._ to divide into halves or two equal parts: to join two pieces of timber by notching or lapping.--_adj._ HALVED, divided into halves: (_bot._) appearing as if one side were cut away.--_n.pl._ HALVES (see HALF). HALYARD, HALLIARD, hal'yard, _n._ (_naut._) a rope or purchase for hoisting or lowering a sail, yard, or flag, named from their use or position, as 'peak-halyards,' 'signal-halyards,' &c. [Skeat explains it as _hale_ and _yard_; more prob. merely _hale-ier_.] HAM, ham, _n._ the back of the thigh: the thigh of an animal, esp. of a hog salted and dried. [A.S. _hamm_; cf. dial. Ger. _hamme_.] HAMADRYAD, ham'a-dr[=i]-ad, _n._ (_myth._) a wood-nymph who lived and died with the tree in which she dwelt:--_pl._ HAM'ADRYADS, HAMADRY'ADES (-[=e]z). [Gr. _hamadryas_--_hama_, together, _drys_, a tree.] HAMARTHRITIS, ham-ar-thr[=i]'tis, _n._ gout in all the joints. [Gr. _hama_, together, _arthritis_, gout.] HAMARTIALOGY, ham-ar-ti-al'o-ji, _n._ that section of theology which treats of the nature and effects of sin. [Gr. _hamartia_, sin, _logia_, discourse.] HAMATE, h[=a]'m[=a]t, _adj._ hooked, uncinate.--_adj._ HAM'IFORM, hamate. HAMBLE, ham'bl, _v.t._ to mutilate, to cut out the balls of a dog's feet, making him useless for hunting.--_v.i._ to walk lame, to limp. [A.S. _hamelian_.] HAMBURG, ham'burg, _n._ a black variety of grape--often _Black Hamburg_: a small-sized variety of the domestic fowl, with blue legs, including the _Black_, _Gold-_ and _Silver-pencilled_, and _Gold-_ and _Silver-spangled Hamburgs_. HAME, h[=a]m, _n._ one of the two curved bars to which the traces are attached in the harness of a draught-horse. [Cf. Dut. _haam_, Low Ger. _ham_.] HAMESUCKEN, h[=a]m'suk-n, _n._ (_Scots law_) the assaulting of a man in his own house. [A.S. _hám-sócn_, lit. 'home seeking,' an attack upon a house, also the fine exacted for such; cf. Ger. _heimsuchung_.] HAMILTONIAN, ham-il-t[=o]'ni-an, _adj._ pertaining to James _Hamilton_ (1769-1831), or his method of teaching languages without grammar, by a literal interlinear word-for-word translation: pertaining to the philosophy of Sir W. _Hamilton_ (1788-1856). HAMITIC, ham-it'ik, _adj._ pertaining to _Ham_, a son of Noah, or the races that used to be called his descendants, or their languages.--_n.pl._ HAM'ITES, a physical and linguistic group, stretching across the north of Africa--the African branch of the Caucasic family--comprising Berbers, the Fellahin, &c. HAMLET, ham'let, _n._ a cluster of houses in the country: a small village.--_adj._ HAM'LETED, located in a hamlet. [O. Fr. _hamel_ (Fr. _hameau_), and dim. affix _-et_--from Teut., Old Fris. _ham_, a home, Ger. _heim_, A.S. _hám_, a dwelling.] HAMMAL, ham'al, _n._ a Turkish porter. HAMMAM, ham'am, _n._ an Oriental bathing establishment, a Turkish bath.--Also HUM'MAUM, HUM'MUM. [Ar.] [Illustration] HAMMER, ham'[.e]r, _n._ a tool for beating metal or driving nails: a striking-piece in the mechanism of a clock or piano: that part of the lock of a firearm which falls with a sharp blow and causes the discharge of the piece: the baton of an auctioneer, a knock from which signifies that an article is sold: a small bone of the ear, the malleus.--_v.t._ to drive, shape, or fashion with a hammer: to contrive by intellectual labour, to excogitate (with _out_): to declare (a person) a defaulter on the Stock Exchange: to beat down the price of (a stock), to depress (a market).--_ns._ HAMM'ER-BEAM, a horizontal piece of timber in place of a tie-beam at or near the feet of a pair of rafters; HAMM'ERHEAD, HAMM'ER-FISH, a rapacious fish of the shark family--from the shape of its head.--_adj._ HAMM'ERHEADED, with a head shaped like a hammer: dull in intellect, stupid.--_n._ HAMM'ERING, a dented, appearance on silverware effected by successive blows of a hammer.--_adj._ HAMM'ERLESS, without a hammer--of a gun.--_n._ HAMM'ERMAN, a man who hammers, as a blacksmith, goldsmith, &c.--HAMMER-AND-TONGS, with great noise and vigour, violently.--BRING TO THE HAMMER, to sell, or cause to sell, by auction; UP TO THE HAMMER, first-rate. [A.S. _hamor_; Ger. _hammer_, Ice. _hamarr_.] HAMMERCLOTH, ham'[.e]r-kloth, _n._ the cloth which covers a coach-box. [Skeat thinks it an adaptation of Dut. _hemal_, heaven, a covering, with the addition of _cloth_, by way of giving a sort of sense.] HAMMOCHRYSOS, ham-o-kr[=i]'sos, _n._ a sparkling stone of the ancients, perhaps yellow micaceous schist. [Gr., _hammos_, sand, _chrysos_, gold.] HAMMOCK, ham'uk, _n._ a piece of strong cloth or netting suspended by the corners, and used as a bed by sailors. [Sp. _hamaca_, of Carib origin.] HAMOSE, h[=a]'mos, _adj._ hooked--also H[=A]'MOUS.--_adjs._ HAM'ULAR, like a small hook; HAM'ULATE, having a small hook at the tip.--_n._ HAM'ULUS, a small hook or hook-like process. [L. _hamus_, hook.] HAMPER, ham'p[.e]r, _v.t._ to impede or perplex: to shackle.--_n._ a chain or fetter.--_p.adj._ HAM'PERED, fettered, impeded.--_adv._ HAM'PEREDLY.--_n._ HAM'PEREDNESS. [First about 1350, in Northern writers, prob. rel. to Ice. _hemja_ (pt.t. _hamdi_), to restrain; Ger. _hemmen_.] HAMPER, ham'p[.e]r, _n._ a large basket for conveying goods.--_v.t._ to put in a hamper.--_ns._ HAN'AP, a large drinking-cup; HAN'APER, an old name for a receptacle for treasure, paper, &c., long the name of an office in the Court of Chancery. [For _hanaper_--O. Fr. _hanapier_--_hanap_, a drinking-cup--Old High Ger. _hnapf_; A.S. _hnæp_, a bowl.] HAMSHACKLE, ham'shak-l, _v.t._ to shackle a cow or horse by a rope joined to the head and fore-leg: to fetter, restrain. [_Hamper_ and _shackle_.] HAMSTER, ham'st[.e]r, _n._ a genus of rodent mammals of the family _Muridæ_, having cheek-pouches reaching back almost to the shoulders. [Ger.] HAMSTRING, ham'string, _n._ the great tendon at the back of the knee or hock of the hind-leg of a quadruped.--_v.t._ to lame by cutting the hamstring. HAN, han (_Spens._), _pl._ of _have_. HANAPER. See HAMPER, _n._ HANASTER, HANSTER. See under HANSE. HANCE, hans, _n._ (_naut._) a curved rise from a lower to a higher part--sometimes HANCH, HAUNCH: (_archit._) the arc of smaller radius at the springing of an elliptical or many-centred arch--also HAUNCH. [O. Fr. _hauce_, _haulce_, rise.] HANCH, hansh, _v.i._ and _v.t._ to snap at with the jaws. HAND, hand, _n._ the extremity of the arm below the wrist: that which does the duty of a hand by pointing, as the hand of a clock: the fore-foot of a horse: a measure of four inches: an agent or workman: (_pl._) work-people in a factory: performance, agency, co-operation: power or manner of performing: skill: possession: style of handwriting, sign-manual: side: direction: the set of cards held by a single player at whist, &c.: a single round at a game.--_v.t._ to give with the hand: to lead or conduct: (_naut._) to furl, as sails.--_ns._ HAND'-BAG, a bag for small articles, carried in the hand; HAND'-BALL, the sport of throwing and catching a ball; HAND'-BARR'OW, a barrow without a wheel, carried by men: HAND'-BAS'KET, a small portable basket; HAND'-BELL, a small bell held by the hand when rung, a table-bell; HAND'BILL, a pruning-hook used in the hand: a bill or loose sheet with some announcement; HAND'BOOK, a manual or book of reference: a guide-book for travellers; HAND'BREADTH, the breadth of a hand: a palm; HAND'-CART, a small cart drawn by hand.--_adj._ HAND'ED (_Milt._), with hands joined: (_Shak._) having a hand of a certain sort.--_ns._ HAND'ER; HAND'FAST, a firm grip, handle: a contract, esp. a betrothal.--_adj._ bound, espoused: tight-fisted.--_adj._ HAND'FASTED, betrothed.--_n._ HAND'FASTING, betrothal: a private or even probationary form of marriage.--_adj._ Hand'-foot'ed, having feet like hands, chiropod.--_ns._ HAND'FUL, as much as fills the hand: a small number or quantity:--_pl._ HAND'FULS; HAND'-GALL'OP, an easy gallop, in which the speed of the horse is restrained by the bridle-hand; HAND'-GLASS, a glass or small glazed frame used to protect plants: a small mirror; HAND'-GRENADE', a grenade to be thrown by the hand; HAND'GRIP, grasp, grip, close struggle; HAND'ICUFFS, HAND'YCUFFS, fighting hand to hand.--_adj._ HAND'LESS, awkward.--_ns._ HAND-LINE, a fishing-line worked by hand without a rod; HAND'-LIST, a list for easy reference; HAND'-LOOM, a weaver's loom worked by hand, as distinguished from a power-loom.--_adj._ HAND'-MADE, manufactured by hand, not by a machine.--_ns._ HAND'MAID, HAND'MAIDEN, a female servant; HAND'-MILL, a mill worked by hand for coffee, pepper, &c., a quern; HAND'-OR'GAN, a portable organ, played by means of a crank turned by the hand; HAND'-P[=A]'PER, a particular make of paper, early in use at the Record Office, with the water-mark of a hand pointing; HAND'-POST, a finger-post, guide; HAND'-PROM'ISE, a form of betrothal amongst the Irish peasantry; HAND'RAIL, a rail supported by balusters, as in staircases, to hold by.--_adv. phrase_, HAND'-RUN'NING, straight on, continuously.--_ns._ HAND'-SAW, a saw manageable by the hand--also the same as HERN'SHAW, in the proverb, 'not to know a hawk from a handsaw;' HAND'-SCREEN, a small screen used to protect the face from the heat of the fire or sun; HAND'-SCREW, an appliance for raising heavy weights, a jack; HAND'SPIKE, a bar used with the hand as a lever.--_n.pl._ HAND'STAVES (_B._), probably javelins.--_ns._ HANDS'-TURN, a helping hand, aid; HAND'WORK, work done by hand, as distinguished from machinery; HAND'WRITING, the style of writing peculiar to each person: writing.--_adj._ HAND'-WROUGHT, made with the hands, not by machinery.--HAND AND [IN] GLOVE (_with_), on very intimate terms; HAND DOWN, to transmit in succession; HAND IN HAND, in union, conjointly; HAND OF GOD, a term used for unforeseen unpreventable accidents, as lightning, tempest, &c.; HAND OVER HAND, by passing the hands alternately one before or above the other; HAND OVER HEAD, rashly; HANDS DOWN, with ease; HANDS OFF! keep off! refrain from blows! HANDS UP, a bushranger's call to surrender; HAND TO HAND, at close quarters; HAND TO MOUTH, without thought for the future, precariously.--A BIRD IN THE HAND, any advantage at present held; A COOL HAND, a person not easily abashed; AT ANY HAND, IN ANY HAND (_Shak._), at any rate, in any case; AT FIRST HAND, from the producer or seller, or from the first source direct; AT HAND, near in place or time; AT SECOND HAND, from an intermediate purchaser or source; BEAR A HAND, make haste to help; BEAR IN HAND (_Shak._), to keep in expectation; BE HAND AND GLOVE, to be very intimate and familiar; BELIEVED ON ALL HANDS, generally believed; BLOODY, or RED, HAND, granted to baronets of Great Britain and Ireland in 1611; BY THE STRONG HAND, by force; CAP IN HAND, humbly; CHANGE HANDS, to pass from one owner to another; COME TO ONE'S HAND, to be easy to do; DEAD MAN'S HAND, HAND-OF-GLORY, a charm to discover hidden treasure, &c., made from a mandrake root, or the hand of a man who has been executed, holding a candle; FOR ONE'S OWN HAND, on one's own account; FROM GOOD HANDS, from a reliable source; GAIN THE UPPER HAND, to obtain the mastery; GET ONE'S HAND IN, to become familiar with.--HANDWRITING ON THE WALL, any sign foreshadowing disaster (from Dan. v. 5).--HAVE A HAND IN, to be concerned in; HAVE CLEAN HANDS, to be honest and incorruptible; HAVE FULL HANDS, to be fully occupied; HOLD HAND (_Shak._), to compete successfully; HOLD IN HAND, to restrain; IN HAND, as present payment: in preparation: under control; KISS THE HAND, in token of submission; LAY HANDS ON, to seize; LAYING ON OF HANDS, the laying on of the hands of a bishop or presbyters in ordination; LEND A HAND, to give assistance; OFF-HAND, OUT OF HAND, at once, immediately, without premeditation; OFF ONE'S HANDS, no longer under one's responsible charge; OLD HAND, one experienced, as opposed to _Young hand_; ON ALL HANDS, on all sides; ON HAND, ready, available: in one's possession; ON ONE'S HANDS, under one's care or responsibility; POOR HAND, an unskilful one; SECOND-HAND, inferior, not new; SET THE HAND TO, to engage in, undertake; SHOW ONE'S HAND, to expose one's purpose to any one; STAND ONE'S HAND (_slang_), to pay for a drink to another; STRIKE HANDS, to make a contract; TAKE IN HAND, to undertake; TAKE OFF ONE'S HANDS, to relieve of something troublesome; TO ONE'S HAND, in readiness; UNDER ONE'S HAND, with one's proper signature attached; WASH ONE'S HANDS (_of_), to disclaim the responsibility for anything (Matt. xxvii. 24); WITH A HEAVY HAND, oppressively; WITH A HIGH HAND, without taking other people into consideration, audaciously. [A.S. _hand_; in all Teut. tongues, perh. rel. to Goth. _hinthan_, to seize.] HANDCUFF, hand'kuf, _n._ esp. in _pl._ HAND'CUFFS, shackles for the hand locked upon the wrists of a prisoner.--_v.t._ to put handcuffs on:--_pr.p._ hand'cuffing; _pa.p._ hand'cuffed (-kuft). [_Hand_ and _cuff_.] HANDICAP, hand'i-kap, _v.t._ to impose special disadvantages or impediments upon in order to offset advantages, and make a better contest--in a horse-race the superior horse carries a heavier weight, while foot-runners are placed at different distances, or start at different times: (_fig._) to place at a disadvantage by some burden or disability.--_n._ any contest so adjusted, or the condition imposed.--_n._ HAND'ICAPPER, one who handicaps. [_Hand_ in the _cap_, from the usage in an ancient kind of sport and method of settling a bargain by arbitration.] HANDICRAFT, hand'i-kraft, _n._ a manual craft or trade.--_n._ HAND'ICRAFTSMAN, a man skilled in a manual art:--_fem._ HAND'ICRAFTSWOMAN. HANDIWORK, HANDYWORK, hand'i-wurk, _n._ work done by the hands, performance generally: work of skill or wisdom: creation. HANDJAR, HANJAR, hand'jar, _n._ a Persian dagger. HANDKERCHIEF, hang'k[.e]r-chif, _n._ a piece of linen, silk, or cotton cloth for wiping the nose, &c.: a neckerchief.--THROW THE HANDKERCHIEF, to call upon next--from the usage in a common game. HANDLE, hand'l, _v.t._ to touch, hold, or use with the hand: to make familiar by frequent touching: to manage: to discuss: to practise: to trade or do business in.--_v.i._ to use the hands.--_n._ that part of anything held in the hand: (_fig._) that of which use is made: a tool: occasion, opportunity, pretext.--_ns._ HAND'LER, a person skilful in any special kind of manipulation; HAND'LING, the touching or managing with the hand: action: manner of touch.--A HANDLE TO THE NAME, an adjunct of honour, as 'Dr,' 'Col.,' &c.; GIVE A HANDLE, to furnish an occasion to. [A.S. _handlian_--_hand_, a hand.] HANDSEL, HANSEL, hand'sel, han'sel, _n._ the first sale or using of anything: earnest-money or part-payment by way of binding a bargain: (_Scot._) a gift made on the first Monday of the year to a child or servant: a New-year's gift.--_v.t._ to give a handsel: to use or do anything the first time. [A.S. _handselen_, a giving into the hands of another; or Ice. _handsal_.] HANDSOME, han'sum, _adj._ good-looking, well-proportioned, graceful: with dignity: liberal or noble: generous: ample.--_adv._ HAND'SOMELY.--_n._ HAND'SOMENESS. [_Hand_ and -_some_; cf. Dut. _handzaam_.] HANDY, han'di, _adj._ dexterous: ready to the hand: convenient: near.--_adv._ HAND'ILY.--_ns._ HANDI'NESS; HAND'Y-MAN, a man for doing odd jobs. HANDY-DANDY, hand'i-dand'i, _n._ (_Shak._) an old game among children, in which something is rapidly changed from one hand into the other, while another guesses in which hand it is. [A jingle on _hand_.] HANG, hang, _v.t._ to hook or fix to some high point: to suspend: to decorate with pictures, &c., as a wall: to put to death by suspending and choking.--_v.i._ to be hanging, so as to allow of free motion: to lean, or rest for support: to drag: to hover or impend: to be in suspense: to linger:--_pr.p._ hang'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ hanged or hung.--_n._ action of hanging, bending down, &c.: a declivity: mode in which anything hangs: a slackening of motion: a hanging mass (NOT A HANG, not a bit, not in the least).--_n._ HANGABIL'ITY.--_adj._ HANG'ABLE, liable to be hanged: punishable by hanging.--_n._ HANG'-DOG, a low fellow.--_adj._ like such a fellow, esp. in his sneaking look.--_ns._ HANG'ER, that on which anything is hung: a short sword, curved near the point; HANG'ER-ON, one who hangs on or sticks to a person or place: an importunate acquaintance: a dependent.--_adj._ HANG'ING, deserving death by hanging.--_n._ death by the halter: that which is hung, as drapery, &c.:--used chiefly in _pl._--_ns._ HANG'ING-BUTT'RESS, a buttress not standing solid on a foundation, but hanging or supported on a corbel; HANG'MAN, a public executioner; HANG'NAIL (see AGNAIL).--_n.pl._ HANG'-NESTS, a family of finch-like perching birds peculiar to America--often called _American orioles_, many weaving curious purse-like nests.--HANG BACK, to hesitate; HANG BY A THREAD, to be in a very precarious position--from the sword of Damocles; HANG, DRAW, AND QUARTER, to execute by hanging, cutting down while still alive, disembowelling, and cutting the body in pieces for exposure at different places; HANG FIRE, to be long in exploding or discharging, as a gun: to hesitate; HANG IN DOUBT, to remain in a state of uncertainty; HANG IN THE BALANCE, to be in doubt or suspense; HANG OFF, to let go, to hold off; HANG ON, to cling to, to regard with admiration: to depend upon: to weigh down or oppress: to be importunate; HANG OUT (_slang_), to lodge or reside; HANG OVER, to project over; HANG TOGETHER, to keep united; HANG UP ONE'S HAT, to make one's self completely at home in a house. [A.S. _hangian_, causal form of _hón_, pa.t. _heng_, pa.p. _hangen_; Dut. and Ger. _hangen_, Goth. _hahan_.] HANGAR, hang'ar, _n._ a covered shed for carriages. HANK, hangk, _n._ two or more skeins of thread tied together: a string, clasp, or other means of fastening. [Ice. _hanki_, a hasp.] HANKER, hangk'[.e]r, _v.i._ to long for with eagerness: to linger about (with _after_, _for_).--_n._ HANK'ERING, a lingering craving for something. [A freq. of _hang_, in sense to hang on; cf. Dut. _hunkeren_.] HANKY-PANKY, hangk'i-pangk'i, _n._ jugglery, trickery. [A meaningless jingle, like _hocus-pocus_, &c.] HANOVERIAN, han-o-v[=e]'ri-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Hanover_, as of the brown rat, and the dynasty that came to the throne of England in 1714.--_n._ a supporter of the house of Hanover, as opposed to a Jacobite. HANSARD, han'sard, _n._ a name applied to the printed reports of the debates in parliament, from Luke _Hansard_ (1752-1828), whose descendants continued to print these down to the beginning of 1889.--_v.t._ HAN'SARDISE, to confront a member with his former opinions as recorded in his speeches in _Hansard_. HANSE, hans, _n._ a league.--_adjs._ HANSE, HANSEAT'IC, applied to certain commercial cities in Germany whose famous league for mutual defence and commercial association began in a compact between Hamburg and Lübeck in 1241.--_ns._ HAN'ASTER, HAN'STER, the ancient Oxford name for persons paying the entrance-fee of the guild-merchant, and admitted as freemen of the city. [O. Fr. _hanse_--Old High Ger. _hansa_, a band of men (Ger. _hanse_).] HANSOM-CAB, han'sum-kab, _n._ a light two-wheeled cab or hackney-carriage with the driver's seat raised behind. [From the name of the inventor, Joseph Aloysius _Hansom_, 1803-82.] HA'N'T, h[=a]nt, a coll. contr. for _have not_ or _has not_. HANTLE, han'tl, _n._ (_Scot._) a considerable number. [Cf. Dan. _antal_, Dut. _aantal_, Ger. _anzahl_. Some explain as _hand_ and _tale_, number.] HAP, hap, _n._ chance: fortune: accident.--_v.i._ to befall.--_n._ HAP-HAZ'ARD, that which happens by hazard: chance, accident.--_adj._ chance, accidental.--_adv._ at random.--_adv._ HAP-HAZ'ARDLY.--_n._ HAP-HAZ'ARDNESS.--_adj._ HAP'LESS, unlucky: unhappy.--_adv._ HAP'LESSLY.--_n._ HAP'LESSNESS.--_adv._ HAP'LY, by hap, chance, or accident: perhaps: it may be.--_v.i._ HAPP'EN, to fall out: to take place: to chance to be.--_n._ HAPP'ENING. [Ice. _happ_, good luck.] HAP, hap, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to wrap up from the cold or rain.--_n._ a cloak or other covering. HAPLODON, hap'l[=o]-don, _n._ a peculiar terrestrial rodent regarded as a connecting-link between beavers and squirrels, its single species (_H. rufus_) popularly known as the _Sewellel_, _Boomer_, and _Mountain Beaver_. [Gr. _haploos_, single, _odous_, _odontos_, tooth.] HAPLOGRAPHY, hap-log'raf-i, _n._ the inadvertent writing of a letter or word, or series of letters or words, once, when it should be written twice. [Gr. _haploos_, single, _graphia_, _graphein_, to write.] HAP'ORTH, h[=a]'p[.e]rth, for _halfpennyworth_. HAPPY, hap'i, _adj._ lucky, successful: possessing or enjoying pleasure or good: secure of good: furnishing enjoyment: dexterous, apt, felicitous.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to make happy.--_v.t._ HAPP'IFY, to make happy.--_adv._ HAPP'ILY.--_n._ HAPP'INESS.--_adj._ HAPP'Y-GO-LUCK'Y, easy-going: taking things as they come.--_adv._ in any way one pleases.--HAPPY DESPATCH, a euphemism for the _Hara-kiri_ (q.v.). [_Hap_.] HAQUETON, hak'ton, _n._ a stuffed jacket worn under the mail--same as Acton (q.v.). HARA-KIRI, har'a-kir'e, _n._ involuntary suicide by disembowelment, formerly practised in Japan by daimios and members of the military class, unable to outlive disgrace, or in order to anticipate execution. [Japanese _hara_, belly, _kiri_, cut.] HARANGUE, ha-rang', _n._ a loud speech addressed to a multitude: a popular, pompous address.--_v.i._ to deliver a harangue.--_v.t._ to address by a harangue:--_pr.p._ haranguing (-rang'ing); _pa.p._ harangued (-rangd').--_n._ HARANG'UER. [O. Fr. _arenge_, _harangue_, from Old High Ger. _hring_ (Ger. _ring_), a ring of auditors.] HARASS, har'as, _v.t._ to fatigue: to annoy or torment.--_p.adj._ HAR'ASSED.--_adv._ HAR'ASSEDLY.--_n._ HAR'ASSER.--_p.adj._ HAR'ASSING.--_adv._ HAR'ASSINGLY.--_n._ HAR'ASSMENT. [O. Fr. _harasser_; prob. from _harer_, to incite a dog.] HARBINGER, här'bin-j[.e]r, _n._ a forerunner, pioneer, originally one who goes forward to provide lodging.--_v.t._ to precede, as a harbinger. [M. E. _herbergeour_. See HARBOUR.] HARBOUR, här'bur, _n._ any refuge or shelter: a port for ships--obs. form _Har'borough_.--_v.t._ to lodge or entertain: to protect: to possess or indulge, as thoughts.--_v.i._ to take shelter.--_n._ HAR'BOURAGE, place of shelter: entertainment.--_n.pl._ HAR'BOUR-DUES, charges for the use of a harbour.--_n._ HAR'BOURER, one who harbours or entertains.--_adj._ HAR'BOURLESS.--_n._ HAR'BOUR-MAS'TER, the public officer who has charge of a harbour.--HARBOUR OF REFUGE, a harbour constructed to give shelter to ships on some exposed coast: any protection for one in distress. [M. E. _herberwe_--an assumed A.S. _herebeorg_--_here_, army, _beorg_, protection; cf. Ger. _herberge_, Ice. _herbergi_.] HARD, härd, _adj._ not easily penetrated, firm, solid: difficult to understand or accomplish: violent, vehement: rigorous: close, earnest, industrious: coarse, scanty: stingy, niggardly: difficult to bear, painful: unjust: difficult to please: unfeeling: severe: stiff: constrained: intractable, resistant in some use, as water, &c.: strong, spirituous: (of silk) without having the natural gum boiled off: surd or breathed, as opposed to sonant or voiced.--_n._ a firm beach or foreshore: hard labour.--_adv._ with urgency, vigour, &c.: earnestly, forcibly: with difficulty: close, near, as in HARD BY.--_adv._ HARD-A-LEE, close to the lee-side, &c.--_adj._ HARD'-AND-FAST', rigidly laid down and adhered to.--_adv._ HARD APORT! a command instructing the helmsman to turn the tiller to the left or port side of the ship, thus causing the ship to swerve to the right or starboard.--_ns._ HARD'-BAKE, a sweetmeat made of boiled sugar and almonds; HARD'BEAM, the hornbeam.--_adjs._ HARD'-BILLED, having a hard bill or beak--of birds; HARD'-BITT'EN, given to hard biting, tough in fight; HARD'-CURED, cured thoroughly, as fish, by drying in the sun.--_n._ HARD'-DRINK'ER, a constant drunkard.--_adj._ HARD'-EARNED, earned with toil or difficulty.--_v.t._ HARD'EN, to make hard or harder: to make firm: to strengthen: to confirm in wickedness: to make insensible.--_v.i._ to become hard or harder, either lit. or fig.--_adj._ HARD'ENED, made hard, unfeeling.--_n._ HARD'ENER.--_adj._ HARD'-FAV'OURED, having coarse features.--_n._ HARD'-FAV'OUREDNESS.--_adj._ HARD'-FEAT'URED, of hard, coarse, or forbidding features.--_n._ HARD'-FEAT'UREDNESS.--_adjs._ HARD'-FIST'ED, having hard or strong fists or hands: close-fisted: niggardly; HARD'-FOUGHT, sorely contested; HARD'-GOTT'EN, obtained with difficulty; HARD'-GRAINED, having a close firm grain: uninviting.--_n._ HARD'-HACK, the steeple-bush, an erect shrub of the rose family, with rose-coloured or white flowers.--_adjs._ HARD'-HAND'ED, having hard hands: rough: severe; HARD'-HEAD'ED, shrewd, intelligent; HARD'-HEART'ED, having a hard or unfeeling heart: cruel.--_adv._ HARD'-HEART'EDLY.--_n._ HARD'-HEART'EDNESS.--_adj._ HARD'ISH, somewhat hard.--_n._ HARD'-L[=A]'BOUR, labour imposed on certain classes of criminals during their imprisonment.--_adv._ HARD'LY, with difficulty: scarcely, not quite: severely, harshly.--_adj._ HARD'-MOUTHED, having a mouth hard or insensible to the bit: not easily managed.--_n._ HARD'-PAN, the hard detritus often underlying the superficial soil: the lowest level.--_adjs._ HARD'-RULED (_Shak._), ruled with difficulty; HARD'-RUN, greatly pressed; HARD'-SET, beset by difficulty: rigid; HARD'-SHELL, having a hard shell: rigidly orthodox.--_ns._ HARD'SHIP, a hard state, or that which is hard to bear, as toil, injury, &c.; HARD'-TACK, ship-biscuit.--_adj._ HARD'-VIS'AGED, of a hard, coarse, or forbidding visage.--_ns._ HARD'WARE, trade name for all sorts of articles made of the baser metals, such as iron or copper; HARD'WAREMAN.--_adj._ HARD'-WON, won with toil and difficulty.--_n.pl._ HARD'WOOD-TREES, forest trees of comparatively slow growth, producing compact hard timber, as oak, ash, elm, walnut, beech, birch, &c.--HARD HIT, seriously hurt, as by a loss of money: deeply smitten with love; HARD LINES, a hard lot; HARD METAL, an alloy of two parts of copper with one of tin for gun metal; HARD MONEY, money emphatically, prop. coin; HARD OF HEARING, pretty deaf; HARD SWEARING, swearing (as a witness) persistently to what is false, perjury; HARD UP, short of money.--BE HARD PUT TO IT, to be in great straits or difficulty; DIE HARD, to die only after a desperate struggle for life. [A.S. _heard_; Dut. _hard_, Ger. _hart_, Goth. _hardus_; allied to Gr. _kratys_, strong.] HARDOCK. See HARLOCK. HARDS, härdz, _n.pl._ also HURDS, coarse or refuse flax or hemp from which is made the coarse fabric HARD'EN, HERD'EN, HURD'EN. HARDY, härd'i, _adj._ daring, brave, resolute: confident: impudent: able to bear cold, exposure, or fatigue.--_ns._ HARD'IHOOD, HARD'INESS, HARD'IMENT (_arch._).--_adv._ HARD'ILY. [O. Fr. _hardi_--Old High Ger. _hartjan_, to make hard.] HARE, h[=a]r, _n._ a common and very timid animal, with a divided upper lip and long hind-legs, which runs swiftly by leaps.--_ns._ HARE-AND-HOUNDS, a boys' game in which some set off on a long run across country, dropping pieces of paper (the scent) as they go, and others try to overtake, following their trail; HARE'BELL, a plant with blue bell-shaped flowers.--_adjs._ HARE'-BRAINED, giddy: heedless; HARE'-FOOT, swift of foot like a hare; HAR'ISH, somewhat like a hare.--_n._ HARE'-LIP, a fissure in the upper human lip like that of a hare.--_adj._ HARE'-LIPPED.--_n._ HARE'S'-EAR, a genus of umbelliferous plants having yellow flowers.--FIRST CATCH YOUR HARE, make sure you have a thing first before you think what to do with it--from a direction in Mrs Glasse's cookery-book, where catch, however, was a misprint for 'case'=skin; HOLD WITH THE HARE AND RUN WITH THE HOUNDS, to play a double and deceitful game, to be with both sides at once; JUGGED HARE, hare cut into pieces and stewed with wine and other seasoning; MAD AS A MARCH HARE, from the gambols of the hare during the breeding season. [A.S. _hara_; Dut. _haas_, Dan. _hare_, Ger. _hase_.] HARELD, har'eld, _n._ a genus of northern sea-ducks. [Norw. _havella_--_hav_, sea.] HAREM, h[=a]'rem, _n._ the portion of a Mohammedan house allotted to females: the collection of wives and concubines belonging to one Mussulman. [Ar. _haram_, anything forbidden--_harama_, to forbid.] HARICOT, har'i-ko, -kot, _n._ a kind of ragout or stew of mutton and beans or other vegetables: the kidney-bean or French bean. [Fr. _haricot_.] HARI-KARI, an incorrect form of _hara-kiri_. HARK, härk, _interj._ or _imper._ listen.--_n._ a whisper.--_n._ HARK'-BACK, a backward move.--HARK BACK, to revert to the original point. [_Hearken_.] HARL, härl, _n._ the skin of flax: any filamentous substance. HARL, härl, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to drag along the ground: to rough-cast a wall with lime.--_v.i._ to drag one's self: to troll for fish.--_n._ act of dragging: a small quantity, a scraping of anything. HARLEIAN, har-l[=e]'an, här'li-an, _adj._ pertaining to Robert _Harley_, Earl of Oxford (1661-1724), and his son, Edward Harley, esp. in reference to the library of books and MSS. collected by them--the latter in the British Museum since 1753. HARLEQUIN, här'le-kwin, or -kin, _n._ the leading character in a pantomime, the lover of Columbine, in a tight spangled dress, with a wand, by means of which he is supposed to be invisible and to play tricks: a buffoon.--_v.i._ to play the harlequin.--_n._ HARLEQUIN[=A]DE', the portion of a pantomime in which the harlequin plays a chief part.--HARLEQUIN DUCK, a species of northern sea-duck, so called from its variegated markings. [Fr. _harlequin_, _arlequin_ (It. _arlecchino_), prob. the same as O. Fr. _Hellequin_, a devil in medieval legend, perh. of Teut. origin.] HARLOCK, här'lok, _n._ (_Shak._) a flower not identified, not charlock=wild mustard, or _hardock_=burdock. HARLOT, här'lot, _n._ a woman who prostitutes her body for hire, a whore.--_adj._ wanton: lewd.--_n._ HAR'LOTRY, prostitution, unchastity: (_obs._) a woman given to such: meretriciousness. [O. Fr. _herlot_, _arlot_, a base fellow; origin dub., perh. from Old High Ger. _karl_ (A.S. _ceorl_).] HARM, härm, _n._ injury: moral wrong.--_v.t._ to injure.--_adj._ HARM'FUL, hurtful.--_adv._ HARM'FULLY.--_n._ HARM'FULNESS.--_adj._ HARM'LESS, not injurious, innocent: unharmed.--_adv._ HARM'LESSLY.--_n._ HARM'LESSNESS. [A.S. _hearm_; Ger. _harm_.] HARMALA, här'ma-la, _n._ wild rue--also HAR'MEL.--_ns._ HAR'MALINE, a white crystalline alkaloid obtained from the seeds of wild rue; HAR'MALOL, HAR'MINE, other alkaloids from the same source. [Gr., from Semitic; cf. Ar. _harmil_.] HARMAN, här'man, _n._ (_slang_) a policeman--also HAR'MAN-BECK: (_pl._) the stocks. HARMATTAN, har-mat'an, _n._ a hot, dry, noxious wind which blows periodically from the interior of Africa to the Atlantic along the Guinea coast during December, January, and February. [Fanti.] HARMONIC, -AL, har-mon'ik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to harmony: musical: concordant: recurring periodically.--_n._ a secondary tone, overtone; a note on a stringed instrument produced by lightly stopping a string: (_math._) one of a class of functions that enter into the development of the potential of a nearly spherical mass due to its attraction.--_adv._ HARMON'ICALLY.--_n.pl._ HARMON'ICS, used as _sing._ the science of harmony or of musical sounds--as _pl._ consonances, the component sounds included in what appears to the ear to be a single sound.--_adj._ HARM[=O]'NIOUS, having harmony: symmetrical, congruous: concordant.--_adv._ HARM[=O]'NIOUSLY.--_ns._ HARM[=O]'NIOUSNESS; HARMONIS[=A]'TION.--_v.i._ HAR'MON[=I]SE, to be in harmony: to agree.--_v.t._ to make in harmony: to cause to agree: (_mus._) to provide parts to.--_ns._ HARMON[=I]S'ER; HAR'MONIST, one skilled in harmony: a musical composer.--HARMONIC ENGINE, an invention of Edison's, in which the energy of an electric current is used, by means of two small electro-magnets, to keep up the vibrations of a large and heavily-weighted tuning-fork whose arms are connected with two pistons working a miniature pump; HARMONIC PROGRESSION, a series of numbers the reciprocals of which are in arithmetical progression; HARMONIC PROPORTION, the relation of three quantities in harmonic progression--the 2d a _harmonic mean_ between the 1st and 3d, as in the three numbers 2, 3, and 6; HARMONIC TRIAD, the common chord. HARMONIUM, har-m[=o]'ni-um, _n._ a reed-organ, esp. one in which the air is compressed in the bellows and driven thence through the reeds.--_ns._ HARMON'ICA, the musical glasses--an instrument invented by Franklin, the sounds of which were produced from bell-shaped glasses placed on a framework that revolved on its centre, while the rims were touched by the moistened finger: a musical instrument consisting of a series of glass or metal plates played by striking with a small mallet: a mouth-organ or harmonicon; HARMON'ICON, a mouth-organ: an acoustic apparatus by which a musical note is evolved when a long dry tube, open at both ends, is held over a jet of burning hydrogen; HARMON'IPHONE, a musical instrument played with a keyboard, in which the sounds are produced by reeds set in a tube, and vibrating under pressure from the breath; HARM[=O]'NIUMIST, one who plays the harmonium; HARMON'OGRAPH, an instrument for tracing curves representing sonorous vibrations; HARMONOM'ETER, one for measuring the harmonic relations of sounds. HARMONY, här'mo-ni, _n._ a fitting together of parts so as to form a connected whole, agreement in relation: in art, a normal state of completeness and order in the relations of things to each other: (_mus._) a simultaneous combination of accordant sounds: the whole chordal structure of a piece, as distinguished from its melody or its rhythm: concord, music in general: a collation of parallel passages regarding the same event arranged to demonstrate the substantial unity--as of the Gospels.--HARMONY, or MUSIC, OF THE SPHERES, a harmony formed by the regular movements of the heavenly bodies throughout space, determined by the relation to each other of the intervals of separation; PRE-ESTABLISHED HARMONY, the designation of Leibnitz for his theory of the divinely established relation between body and mind--the movements of monads and the succession of ideas, as it were a constant agreement between two clocks. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _harmonia_--_harmos_, a fitting--_arein_, to fit.] HARMOST, här'most, _n._ a Spartan governor of a subject city or province.--_n._ HAR'MOSTY; the office of such. HARMOTOME, här'm[=o]-t[=o]m, _n._ a hydrous silicate of aluminium and barium.--Also _Cross-stone_. HARNESS, här'nes, _n._ the equipments of a horse: formerly, the armour of a man or horse: equipment for any kind of labour.--_v.t._ to equip with armour: to put the harness on a horse.--_n._ HAR'NESS-CASK, a tub, a cask with rimmed cover on a ship's deck holding the salt meat for daily use.--DIE IN HARNESS, to die at one's work. [O. Fr. _harneis_, armour; dubiously referred to Celt., as in Bret. _harnez_, old iron, also armour.] HARNS, härnz, _n.pl._ (_Scot._) the brains. [A.S. _hærnes_, most prob. Norse _hjarne_; cf. Ger. _hirn_.] HARO, hä'ro, _n._ an old term for a form of appeal in the Channel Islands, a demand for protection against harm, or for assistance to arrest an adversary.--Also HA'ROW, HAR'ROW (_Spens._), a mere exclamation of distress. [O. Fr. _haro_, _harou_, of unknown origin; not _ha Rou!_ an appeal to Rolf, Rollo, or Rou, the first Duke of Normandy.] HARP, härp, _n._ a musical stringed instrument much esteemed by the ancients.--_v.i._ to play on the harp: to dwell tediously upon anything.--_v.t._ to give voice to.--_ns._ HARP'ER, HARP'IST, a player on the harp.--_n.pl._ HARP'INGS (_naut._), the fore-parts of the wales surrounding the bow extensions of the rib-bands.--_n._ HARP'-SHELL, a genus of gasteropodous molluscs with inflated shell.--HARP ON ONE STRING, to dwell constantly on one topic. [A.S. _hearpe_; Ger. _harfe_.] HARPOON, här-p[=oo]n', _n._ a dart for striking and killing whales.--_v.t._ to strike with the harpoon.--_ns._ HARPOON'ER, HARPOONEER', one who uses a harpoon; HARPOON'-GUN, a gun from which a harpoon or toggle-iron may be discharged. [Fr. _harpon_--_harpe_, a clamp--L. _harpa_, Gr. _harp[=e]_, sickle.] HARPSICHORD, härp'si-kord, _n._ an old-fashioned keyed musical instrument, where the sound is produced by the twitching of the strings by a piece of crow-quill or hard leather. [O. Fr. _harpechorde_.] HARPY, här'pi, _n._ (_myth._) a rapacious and filthy monster, with the body of a woman and the wings, feet, and claws of a bird of prey, considered as a minister of the vengeance of the gods: (_her._) a vulture with the head and breast of a woman: a South American eagle, larger than the golden eagle, and of great strength and rapacity: a rapacious person. [L. _harp[=y]ia_--Gr., pl. _harpyiai_, 'snatchers,' symbols of the storm-wind--_harpazein_, to seize.] HARQUEBUS, HARQUEBUSE, HARQUEBUSS, här'kwi-bus, _n._ Same as ARQUEBUSE. HARRIDAN, har'i-dan, _n._ a vixenish old woman. [Prob. O. Fr. _haridelle_, a lean horse, a jade.] HARRIER, har'i-[.e]r, _n._ a small kind of dog with a keen smell, for hunting hares: (_pl._) a name taken by some clubs of cross-country runners (see HARE-AND-HOUNDS). [Formed from _hare_, like _graz-i-er_.] HARROVIAN, har-[=o]'vi-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Harrow_.--_n._ one educated at the public school there. HARROW, har'[=o], _n._ a frame of wood or iron toothed with spikes for smoothing and pulverising ploughed land, and for covering seeds sown.--_v.t._ to draw a harrow over: to harass: to tear.--_adj._ HARR'OWING, acutely distressing to the mind.--_adv._ HARR'OWINGLY.--_n._ CHAIN'-HARR'OW, a harrow composed of rings for breaking clods of earth.--UNDER THE HARROW, in distress or anxiety. [A.S. _hearge_; cf. Ice. _herfi_, Dan. _harv_.] HARROW. See HARO. HARRY, har'i, _v.t._ to plunder: to ravage: to destroy: to harass:--_pr.p._ harr'ying; _pa.p._ harr'ied.--_n._ HARR'IER, one who, or that which, harries: a kind of hawk so named from its harrying or destroying small animals.--HARRYING, or HARROWING, OF HELL, the spoiling of hell, the delivery by Christ, upon His descent into hell after the crucifixion, of the souls of patriarchs and prophets there held in bondage by Satan (1 Pet. iii. 19)--a favourite subject of Christian art, and of our own medieval writers of Mysteries. [A.S. _hergian_, from A.S. _here_, gen. _herg-es_, an army; Ger. _heer_.] HARSH, härsh, _adj._ rough: bitter: jarring: abusive: severe: unkind.--_v.t._ HARSH'EN, to render harsh.--_adv._ HARSH'LY.--_n._ HARSH'NESS. [M. E. _harsk_, a northern word; cf. Sw. _härsk_ and Dan. _harsk_, rancid, Ger. _harsch_, hard.] HART, härt, _n._ the stag or male deer from the age of six years, when the crown or sur-royal antler begins to appear:--_fem._ HIND.--_ns._ HART'EBEEST, HART'BEEST, a South African antelope; HARTS'HORN, the antlers of the red deer: a solution of ammonia, orig. a decoction of the shavings of a hart's horn; HARTS'TONGUE, a genus of widely distributed ferns, one species native to Britain, common in moist woods.--HART OF GREASE, a hart of the season when fat. [A.S. _heort_; Dut. _hert_, Ger. _hirsch_.] HARUM-SCARUM, h[=a]'rum-sk[=a]'rum, _adj._ flighty: rash.--_n._ a giddy, rash person. [Prob. compounded of _hare_, from the sense of haste and fright, and _scare_.] HARUSPEX, ha-rus'peks, _n._ (_pl._ HARUS'PICES) a soothsayer or diviner among the Etruscans, and from them adopted by the Romans, who foretold future events from the inspection of the entrails of animals offered in sacrifice--also HARUS'PICE.--_ns._ HARUSPIC[=A]'TION, HARUS'PICY, divination as by a haruspex. [L., from an assumed _haru_, cog. with Sans. _hirâ_, entrails, and L. _spec[)e]re_, to view.] HARVEST, här'vest, _n._ the time of gathering in the ripened crops: the crops gathered in: fruits: the product of any labour: consequences.--_v.t._ to reap and gather in.--_ns._ HAR'VEST-BUG, -LOUSE, -TICK, a mite or tick of minute size, abundant late in summer, and very troublesome to people with delicate skins; HAR'VESTER, a reaper in harvests; HAR'VEST-FEAST, the feast made at the ingathering of harvest; HAR'VEST-FIELD, a field where a harvest is or has been; HAR'VEST-FLY, in U.S. the popular name for a species of cicada; HAR'VEST-HOME, the bringing home of the harvest: the feast held at the bringing home of the harvest; HAR'VEST-LORD, the head-reaper at the harvest; HAR'VEST-MAN (_B._), a labourer in harvest; HAR'VEST-MOON, the full moon nearest the autumnal equinox, rising nearly at the same hour for several days; HAR'VEST-MOUSE, a very small species of mouse, building its nest in the stalks of growing corn; HAR'VEST-QUEEN, an image of Ceres, the queen or goddess of fruits, in ancient times carried about on the last day of harvest. [A.S. _hærfest_; Ger. _herbs_t, Dut. _herfst_.] HAS, haz, 3d pers. sing. pres. ind. of _have_. HASH, hash, _v.t._ to hack: to mince: to chop small.--_n._ that which is hashed: a mixed dish of meat and vegetables in small pieces: a mixture and preparation of old matter: (_Scot._) a stupid fellow.--_adj._ HASH'Y.--MAKE A HASH OF, to spoil or ruin completely; SETTLE A PERSON'S HASH (_slang_), to silence him: to make an end of him. [O. Fr.,--Fr. _hacher_--_hache_, hatchet.] HASHISH, hash'ish, -[=e]sh, _n._ name given to the leaves of the Indian hemp, from which an intoxicating preparation is made. See BHANG and ASSASSIN. [Ar.] HASK, hask, _n._ (_Spens._) a fish-basket made of rushes. [Prob. from root of _hassock_.] HASLET, has'let, _n._ the edible entrails of an animal, esp. the hog.--Also HARS'LET. [O. Fr. _hastelet_, _haste_, a spit--L. _hasta_, a spear.] HASP, hasp, _n._ a clasp: the clasp of a padlock: a spindle: a skein of yarn.--_v.t._ to fasten with a hasp. [A.S. _hæpse_; Dan. and Ger. _haspe_.] HASSOCK, has'uk, _n._ a thick cushion used as a footstool or for kneeling on in church: Kentish rag-stone. [A.S. _hassuc_; prob. W. _hesg_, sedge.] HAST, hast, 2d pers. sing. pres. ind. of _have_. HASTATE, -D, hast'[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ (_bot._) spear-shaped.--Also HAST'IFORM. [L. _hast[=a]tus_--_hasta_, spear.] HASTE, h[=a]st, _n._ speed, quickness, a hurry: rashness: vehemence.--_vs.t._ HASTE, HASTEN (h[=a]s'n), to put to speed: to hurry on: to drive forward.--_vs.i._ to move with speed: to be in a hurry:--_pr.p._ h[=a]st'ing, hastening (h[=a]s'ning); _pa.p._ h[=a]st'ed, hastened (h[=a]s'nd).--_n._ HAST'ENER.--_adv._ HAST'ILY.--_n._ HAST'INESS, hurry: rashness: irritability.--_adj._ HAST'Y, speedy: quick: rash: eager: passionate.--_n._ HAST'Y-PUDD'ING, flour, milk, or oatmeal and water porridge.--_adj._ HAST'Y-WIT'TED, rash.--MAKE HASTE, to hasten. [O. Fr. _haste_ (Fr. _hâte_), from Teut.; cf. A.S. _h['æ]st_, Dut. _haast_, Ger. _hast_.] HAT, hat, _n._ a covering for the head, generally with crown and brim: the dignity of a cardinal, so named from his red hat.--_v.t._ to provide with, or cover with, a hat.--_ns._ HAT'BAND, the ribbon round a hat, often a mourning-band; HAT'-BOX, a box in which a hat is carried; HAT'-PEG, -RACK, -RAIL, -STAND, &c., a contrivance on which hats are hung.--_adj._ HAT'TED, covered with a hat.--_ns._ HAT'TER, one who makes or sells hats: a miner who works by himself; HAT'TING, giving a hat; HAT'-TRICK, any conjurer's trick with a hat: a House of Commons mode of securing a seat by placing one's hat on it: in cricket, the feat of a bowler who takes three wickets by three successive balls--deserving a new hat.--CHIMNEY-POT, COCKED, and CRUSHED HAT (see CHIMNEY, COCK, CRUSH).--HANG UP ONE'S HAT (see HANG); MAD AS A HATTER, completely insane: very angry; PASS ROUND THE HAT, to beg for contributions, to take up a collection. [A.S. _hæt_, Dan. _hat_.] HATCH, hach, _n._ a door with an opening over it, a wicket or door made of cross-bars; the covering of a hatchway.--_v.t._ to close as with a hatch.--_ns._ HATCH'-BOAT, a kind of half-decked fishing-boat; HATCH'WAY, the opening in a ship's deck into the hold, or from one deck to another.--UNDER HATCHES, below deck, off duty, under arrest. [A.S. _hæc_, a gate; Dut. _hek_, a gate.] HATCH, hach, _v.t._ to produce, especially from eggs, by incubation: to originate: to plot.--_v.i._ to produce young: to be advancing towards maturity.--_n._ act of hatching: brood hatched.--_ns._ HATCH'ER, one who, or that which, hatches; HATCH'ERY, a place for hatching eggs, esp. those of fish, by artificial means.--COUNT THE CHICKENS BEFORE THEY ARE HATCHED, to depend too securely on some future and uncertain event. [Early M. E. _hacchen_, from an assumed A.S. _hæccean_; cf. Mid. High Ger. _hecken_, Sw. _häcka_.] HATCH, hach, _v.t._ to shade by minute lines crossing each other in drawing and engraving.--_n._ HATCH'ING, the mode of so shading. [O. Fr. _hacher_, to chop.] HATCHEL, hach'el, _n._ and _v._ Same as HACKLE. HATCHET, hach'et, _n._ a small axe used by one hand.--_adjs._ HATCH'ET-FACED, having a thin, sharp-featured face; HATCH'ETY, like a hatchet.--BURY THE HATCHET, to put an end to war, from the habit of the North American Indians. [Fr. _hachette_, _hacher_, to chop.] [Illustration] HATCHMENT, hach'ment, _n._ the arms of a deceased person within a black lozenge-shaped frame, meant to be placed on the front of his house. [Corrupted from _achievement_.] HATE, h[=a]t, _v.t._ to dislike intensely: to dislike: to despise relatively to something else.--_n._ extreme dislike: hatred.--_adjs._ HATE'ABLE, deserving to be hated; HATE'FUL, exciting hate: odious: detestable: feeling or manifesting hate.--_adv._ HATE'FULLY.--_ns._ HATE'FULNESS; HAT'ER; HAT'RED, extreme dislike: enmity: malignity. [A.S. _hete_, hate, _hatian_, to hate; Ger. _hasz_.] HATE, HAET, h[=a]t, _n._ (_Scot._) a whit. HATHOR, hath'or, _n._ name of an Egyptian goddess, ranked among the second class of deities, who was the daughter of Ra, the sun. HATTER, hat'[.e]r, _v.t._ to trouble, annoy: to batter. HATTI, hat'i, _n._ a Turkish decree of the highest authority, differing from a firman in being signed by the Sultan himself--in full, HATTI-SHERIF (sher-[=e]f'). HAUBERK, haw'b[.e]rk, _n._ a tunic, worn by the Norman soldiers, covered with rings or mascles, reaching to the knees, slit at the sides or in the front and back for convenience in riding, though sometimes ending in short trousers, originally a piece of armour for the neck. [O. Fr. _hauberc_--Old High Ger. _halsberg_--_hals_, neck, _bergan_, to protect.] HAUGH, häh, _n._ (_Scot._) a level plain, generally near a river. [A.S. _healh_, _halh_, a corner.] HAUGHTY, haw'ti, _adj._ proud: arrogant: contemptuous: (_arch._) bold: (_Spens._) high--Shakespeare has HAUGHT.--_adv._ HAUGHT'ILY.--_n._ HAUGHT'INESS. [O. Fr. _halt_, _haut_, high--L. _altus_, high.] HAUL, hawl, _v.t._ to drag: to pull with violence.--_v.i._ to tug, to try to draw something: to alter a ship's course, to sail generally.--_n._ a pulling: a draught, as of fishes: a source of interest or profit.--_ns._ HAUL'AGE, act of hauling: charge for hauling or pulling a ship or boat; HAUL'ER, HAUL'IER.--HAUL OVER THE COALS (see COAL); HAUL OFF, or ROUND, to turn a ship's course away from an object; HAUL UP, to come or bring to rest after hauling. [_Hale_.] HAULD, häld, a Scotch form of _hold_, as in the prov. phrase, 'out of house and hauld'=homeless and completely destitute. HAULM. See HALM. HAULT, hawlt, _adj._ (_Spens._). HAUGHTY. HAUNCH, hawnsh, _n._ the fleshy part of the hip and buttock: (_Shak._) the hip, the hind-part, the rear: (_archit._) the middle part between the vertex or crown and the springing of an arch.--_adjs._ HAUNCH'LESS; HAUNCH'Y. [O. Fr. _hanche_; prob. Ger., Old High Ger. _anchâ_, leg.] HAUNCH, hawnsh, _v.t._ (_prov._) to throw with an underhand movement.--_n._ a jerked underhand throw. HAUNT, hawnt, _v.t._ to frequent: to follow importunately: to intrude upon continually: to inhabit or visit as a ghost.--_v.i._ to be much about: to appear or visit frequently.--_n._ a place much resorted to: (_Shak._) habit of frequenting.--_p.adj_ HAUNT'ED, frequented, infested, esp. by ghosts or apparitions.--_n._ HAUNT'ER.--_adv._ HAUNT'INGLY. [O. Fr. _hanter_; acc. to Littré, a corr. of L. _habit[=a]re_.] HAUSTELLUM, haws-tel'um, _n._ the sucking organ or proboscis of an insect or a crustacean:--_pl._ HAUSTELLA.--_adj._ HAUS'TELLATE, provided with such. HAUSSMANNIZE, hows'man-[=i]z, _v.t._ to open out, widen, and straighten streets, and generally rebuild, as Baron _Haussmann_ did to Paris when prefect of the Seine (1853-70).--_n._ HAUSSMANNIZ[=A]'TION. HAUSTORIUM, haws-t[=o]'ri-um, _n._ a small sucker of a parasitic plant, penetrating the tissues of the host:--_pl._ HAUST[=O]'RIA. HAUTBOY, h[=o]'boi, _n._ an older form of Oboe (q.v.): a large kind of strawberry. [Fr. _hautbois_--_haut_, high, _bois_, wood.] HAUTEUR, h[=o]-t[=a]r', _n._ haughtiness: arrogance.--_adj._ HAUT (_Milt._), haughty.--_ns._ HAUT-GOÛT, flavour, spice, a taint: a highly seasoned dish; HAUT-PAS, a dais; HAUT'-RELIEF', high relief.--HAUT TON, high fashion, people of high fashion. [Fr.] HAÜYNE, hä'win, _n._ a rock-forming mineral, a silicate of alumina and soda or lime, with sodium and calcium sulphate. [Named from René Just _Haüy_, a French mineralogist (1743-1822).] HAVANA, ha-van'a, _n._ a fine quality of cigar, named from _Havana_, the capital of Cuba, fondly supposed to be made there.--Also HAVANN'A(H). HAVE, hav, _v.t._ to own or possess: to hold, contain: to hold control of: to grasp the meaning of: to allow to be done, to cause: to regard, hold in opinion, esteem: to obtain: to enjoy: to bear or beget: to effect: to be affected by: to get the better of, outwit, to have hold upon:--_pr.p._ hav'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ had.--_ns._ HAV'ER, one who has or possesses, a holder: (_Scots law_) a term to denote the person in whose custody a document is; HAV'ING, act of possessing: possession, estate: behaviour: (_Scot._ esp. in _pl._) good manners.--_adj._ greedy.--Have as good, lief, to be as willing; HAVE AT, attack, thrust; HAVE DONE (_with_), to come to the end of one's dealings; HAVE IT OUT, to have something finally settled; HAVE ON, to wear; HAVE RATHER, to prefer; HAVE UP, to call to account before a court of justice, &c. [A.S. _habban_, pa.t. _hæfde,_ pa.p. _gehæfd_; Ger. _haben_, Dan. _have_.] HAVELOCK, hav'lok, _n._ a white cover for a military cap, with a long rear flap as a protection from the sun. [From Gen. Henry _Havelock_, 1795-1857.] HAVEN, h[=a]'vn, an inlet of the sea, or mouth of a river, where ships can get good and safe anchorage: any place of safety: an asylum.--_v.t._ to shelter.--_p.adj._ H[=A]'VENED, sheltered, as in a haven. [A.S. _hæfen_; Dut. _haven_, Ger. _hafen_.] HAVER, h[=a]v'[.e]r, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to talk nonsense, or foolishly.--_n._ HAV'EREL, a foolish person.--_n.pl._ HAV'ERS, foolish talk. HAVERSACK, hav'[.e]r-sak, _n._ a bag of strong linen for a soldier carrying his rations in.--_n._ HAV'ER (_prov._), oats. [Fr. _havresac_--Ger. _habersack_, oat-sack--_haber_, _hafer_, oats.] HAVERSIAN, hav-er'si-an, _adj._ pertaining to or named after Clopton _Havers_, a 17th-cent. English anatomist who investigated the blood-vascular system of bone. HAVILDAR, hav'il-dar, _n._ the highest rank of non-commissioned officer among native troops in India and Ceylon. [Pers.] HAVIOUR, h[=a]v'[=u]r, _n._ (_obs._) behaviour. HAVOC, hav'ok, _n._ general waste or destruction: devastation.--_v.t._ to lay waste.--_interj._ an ancient hunting or war cry. [O. Fr. _havot_, plunder, of Teut. origin.] HAW, haw, _n._ a hedge or enclosure: a field: the berry of the hawthorn.--_ns._ HAW'-BUCK, a clown; HAW'FINCH, the common grosbeak; HAW'THORN, a shrub or small tree, much planted both for hedges and for ornament: the white flower of the hawthorn. [A.S. _haga_, a yard or enclosure; Dut. _haag_, a hedge, Ger. _hag_, a hedge, Ice. _hagi_, a field.] HAW, haw, _v.i._ to speak with hesitation or a drawling manner, real or affected--hence _adj._ HAW-HAW, in an affected tone of voice.--_n._ a hesitation in speech: loud vulgar laughter.--_v.i._ to guffaw, to laugh boisterously. [Imit.] HAW, haw, _n._ the nictitating membrane or third eyelid, as of a horse; also a disease of this membrane. HAWK, hawk, _n._ the name of several birds of prey allied to the falcons: a rapacious person.--_v.i._ to hunt birds with hawks trained for the purpose: to attack on the wing.--_ns._ HAWK'-BELL, a small bell attached to a hawk's leg; HAWK'BIT, a genus of plants of order _Compositæ_, closely related to the dandelion; HAWK'ER.--_adj._ HAWK'-EYED.--_n._ HAWK'ING.--_adj._ HAWK'ISH.--_n._ HAWK'-MOTH, a very large kind of moth, so called from its hovering motion.--_adj._ HAWK'-NOSED, having a nose like a hawk's beak.--_ns._ HAWKS'BEARD, a genus of annual and biennial plants of order _Compositæ_, closely related to hawkweed; HAWK'WEED, a genus of perennial plants of order _Compositæ_.--KNOW A HAWK FROM A HANDSAW (prob. for _hernshaw_), to be able to judge between things pretty well. [A.S. _hafoc_; Dut. _havik_, Ger. _habicht_, Ice. _haukr_.] HAWK, hawk, _v.i._ to force up matter from the throat.--_n._ the effort to do this. [_Imit._] HAWK, hawk, _n._ a plasterer's tool. HAWKED, hawkt, _adj._ (_Scot._) spotted, streaked.--_ns._ HAW'KEY, HAW'KIE, a dark cow with white-striped face. HAWKER, hawk'[.e]r, _n._ one who carries about goods for sale on his back, a pedlar.--_v.t._ HAWK, to carry about for sale: to cry for sale. [Cf. Low Ger. and Ger. _höker_, Dut. _heuker_.] HAWM, hawm, _v.i._ (_prov._) to lounge about. HAWSE, hawz, _n._ the part of a vessel's bow in which the hawse-holes are cut.--_n.pl._ HAWSE'-HOLES, the holes in a ship's bow through which the cables pass.--_ns._ HAWSE'-PIPE, an iron pipe fitted into a hawse-hole, to save the wood; HAWSE'-TIM'BER, one of the upright timbers in the bow in which the hawse-holes are cut. [Ice. _háls_, the neck.] HAWSER, häz'[.e]r, _n._ a small cable, a large rope used in warping.--_adj._ HAWS'ER-LAID, made of three small ropes laid up into one. [O. Fr. _haucier_, _haulser_, to raise--Low L. _altiare_--L. _altus_, high.] HAWTHORN. See HAW. HAY, h[=a], _n._ grass cut down and dried for fodder.--_ns._ HAY'COCK, a conical pile of hay in the field; HAY'-F[=E]'VER, an ailment mostly met with in early summer, marked by excessive irritation of the nose, throat, &c., and accompanied with violent sneezing and intense headache--also called HAY'-ASTH'MA; HAY'FIELD, a field where hay is made; HAY'-FORK, a long-handled fork used in turning over hay to dry, or in lifting it; HAY'-KNIFE, a broad knife, with a handle set cross-wise at one end, used for cutting hay from a stack; HAY'-LOFT, a loft in which hay is kept; HAY'-MAK'ER, one employed in cutting and drying grass for hay: (_pl._) a kind of country-dance; HAY'-MAK'ING; HAY'-MOW, a rick of hay: a mass of hay stored in a barn; HAY'-RICK, a pile of hay; HAY'-STACK, a stack of hay; HAY'-TED'DER, a machine for scattering hay and exposing it to the sun and air.--LOOK FOR A NEEDLE IN A HAY-STACK, to look for something where it is barely possible to be found; MAKE HAY, to throw things into confusion; MAKE HAY WHILE THE SUN SHINES, to seize a favourable opportunity. [A.S. _híeg_, _híg_, _hég_; Ger. _heu_, Dut. _hooï_, Ice. _hey_.] HAY, h[=a], _n._ a hedge, fence.--_n._ HAY'-WARD, one who herded the common cattle of a town. [A.S. _hege_--_haga_, a hedge.] HAY, h[=a], _n._ (_Shak._) a home-thrust in fencing. [It. _hai_, _avere_--L. _hab[=e]re_, to have.] HAY, h[=a], _n._ a country-dance with winding movement. HAZARD, haz'ard, _n._ a game played with a dice-box and two dice by any number of players: chance: accident: risk: (_billiards_) the pocketing of the object ball (_winning_ hazard), of the player's own ball after contact (_losing_ hazard): (_tennis_) the side of the court into which the ball is served: (_golf_) a general term for all difficulties on a golf-links--bunkers, long grass, roads, water, whins, &c.--_v.t._ to expose to chance: to risk: to venture.--_v.i._ to run a risk.--_adj._ HAZ'ARDABLE.--_n._ HAZ'ARDISE (_Spens._), hazard.--_adj._ HAZ'ARDOUS, dangerous: perilous: uncertain.--_adv_. HAZ'ARDOUSLY.--_ns._ HAZ'ARDOUSNESS; HAZ'ARDRY (_Spens._), playing at games of hazard or chance: rashness; CHICK'EN-HAZ'ARD, a game of chance with very small stakes. [O. Fr. _hasard_; prob. through the Sp. from Arab. _al z[=a]r_, the die; but Littré favours William of Tyre's derivation from _Hasart_, a castle in Syria, where the game was discovered during the Crusades.] HAZE, h[=a]z, _n._ vapour which renders the air thick: obscurity.--_v.i._ to form a haze.--_adv._ HAZ'ILY.--_n._ HAZ'INESS.--_adj._ HAZ'Y, thick with haze: obscure: confused (of the mind). [App. not the A.S. _hasu_, _haswe_, gray; prob. Ice. _höss_, gray.] HAZE, h[=a]z, _v.t._ to vex with needless tasks: to play tricks upon, to bully.--_ns._ HAZ'ER, a player of boorish pranks and practical jokes; HAZ'ING, brutal horse-play. [O. Fr. _haser_, to annoy.] HAZEL, h[=a]'zl, _n._ a bush or small tree of genus _Corylus_, of the oak family (_Cupuliferæ_), yielding an ovoid bony nut enclosed in a leafy involucre.--_adj._ pertaining to the hazel: of a light-brown colour, like a hazel-nut.--_n._ H[=A]'ZELINE, an alcoholic distillate from the Witch Hazel.--_adj._ H[=A]'ZELLY, light brown like the hazel-nut.--_n._ H[=A]'ZEL-NUT, the nut of the hazel-tree. [A.S. _hæsel_; Ger. _hasel_, Ice. _hasl_, L. _corulus_.] HE, h[=e], _pron._ of the third person: the male person named before: a male person or animal.--_adj._ male. [A.S. _hé_; Dut. _hij_, Ice. _hann_.] HEAD, hed, _n._ the uppermost or foremost part of an animal's body: the brain: the understanding: a chief or leader: the place of honour or command: the front or top of anything: an individual animal or person: a topic or chief point of a discourse: a title, heading: the source or spring: height of the source of water: highest point of anything: culmination: a cape: strength: a froth on beer, porter, &c., when poured into a glass.--_v.t._ to act as a head to, to lead or govern: to go in front of: to commence: to check: (_naut._) to be contrary: (_obs._) to behead.--_v.i._ to grow to a head: to originate: to go head foremost.--_n._ HEAD'ACHE, an internal pain in the head.--_adj._ HEAD'ACHY, afflicted with headaches.--_ns._ HEAD'BAND, a band or fillet for the head: the band at each end of a book: a thin slip of iron on the tympan of a printing-press; HEAD'-BLOCK, in a sawmill carriage, a cross-block on which the head of the log rests: a piece of wood in a carriage, connected with the spring and the perches, and joining the fore-gear and the hind-gear; HEAD'-BOARD, a board placed at the head of anything, esp. a bedstead; HEAD'-BOOM, a jib-boom or a flying jib-boom; HEAD'BOR'OUGH, an old term for the head of a borough, the chief of a frank pledge, tithing, or decennary; HEAD'-BOY, the senior boy in a public school; HEAD'CHAIR, a high-backed chair with a rest for the head; HEAD'-CHEESE, pork-cheese, brawn; HEAD'-CHUTE, a canvas tube used to convey refuse matter from a ship's bows down to the water; HEAD'-CLOTH, a piece of cloth covering the head, wound round a turban, &c.; HEAD'-DRESS, an ornamental dress or covering for the head, worn by women.--_p.adj._ HEAD'ED, having a head: (_Shak._) come to a head.--_ns._ HEAD'ER, one who puts a head on something: a dive, head foremost, into water: a brick laid lengthwise along the thickness of a wall, serving as a bond: a heavy stone extending through the thickness of a wall; HEAD'-FAST, a rope at the bows of a ship used to fasten it to a wharf, &c.; HEAD'-FRAME, the structure over a mine-shaft supporting the head-gear or winding machinery; HEAD'-GEAR, gear, covering, or ornament of the head; HEAD'-HUNT'ING, the practice among the Dyaks of Borneo, &c., of making raids to procure human heads for trophies, &c.--_adv._ HEAD'ILY.--_ns._ HEAD'INESS; HEAD'ING, the act of furnishing with a head; that which stands at the head: material forming a head; HEAD'LAND, a point of land running out into the sea: a cape.--_adj._ HEAD'LESS, without a head.--_ns._ HEAD'-LIGHT, a light carried in front of a vessel, locomotive, or vehicle, as a signal, or for light; HEAD'-LINE, the line at the head or top of a page containing the folio or number of the page: (_pl._) the sails and ropes next the yards (_naut._).--_adv._ HEAD'LONG, with the head foremost or first: without thought, rashly: precipitately.--_adj._ rash: precipitous, steep.--_adj._ HEAD'-LUGGED (_Shak._), lugged or dragged along by the head.--_ns._ HEAD'-MAN, a chief, a leader; HEAD'MARK, a characteristic peculiar to a certain class; HEAD'-MAS'TER, the principal master of a school; HEAD'-MOLD, the skull proper: (_archit._) a moulding round or over the head of a door, &c.; HEAD'-MONEY, a tax counted per head: a reward by the head for persons captured at sea, &c.: a reward for a proscribed outlaw's head.--_adj._ HEAD'MOST, most advanced, or forward.--_ns._ HEAD'-NOTE, a note placed at the head of a chapter or page, esp. a condensed statement of points of law involved introductory to the report of a legal decision; HEAD'PIECE, a helmet: a hat: head, intelligence: (_print._) a decorative engraving placed at the top of the first page of a volume, and at the beginning of books, chapters, &c.; HEAD'-PUMP, a small pump at a ship's bows to pump up sea-water for washing decks.--_n.pl._ HEAD'QUARTERS, the quarters or residence of a commander-in-chief or general.--_ns._ HEAD'-RACE, the race which brings the water to a water-wheel; HEAD'-REACH, the distance to windward made by a vessel while tacking.--_v.i._ to shoot ahead, in tacking.--_ns._ HEAD'-REST, a support for the head, esp. the adjustable apparatus of the barber's chair, and that used by the photographer to steady the sitter's head; HEAD'-RING, a palm-leaf ornament worn by Kaffir men in their hair after marriage; HEAD'-SHAKE, a significant shake or motion of the head; HEAD'-SHIP, the office of a head or chief authority: dignity; HEADS'MAN, a man who cuts off heads: an executioner; HEAD'STALL, the part of a bridle round the head; HEAD'-ST[=A]'TION, the dwelling-house, &c., on an Australian sheep or cattle station; HEAD'-STICK (_print._), a straight piece of furniture placed at the head of a form, between the chase and the type; HEAD'STONE, the principal stone of a building: the corner-stone: the stone at the head of a grave; HEAD'-STREAM, the highest of the streams which combine to form a river.--_adj._ HEAD'STRONG, self-willed: obstinate.--_ns._ HEAD'-TIRE, a head-dress; HEAD'-WA'TER, the highest part of a stream, before receiving affluents; HEAD'WAY, motion ahead, esp. of a ship; HEAD'-WIND, a wind blowing right against a ship's head; HEAD'-WORD, a title word or heading usually in distinctive type; HEAD'-WORK, intellectual labour.--_adj._ HEAD'Y, affecting the head or the brain: intoxicating: inflamed: rash: violent.--HEAD AND EARS, with the whole person: completely; HEAD AND SHOULDERS, very much, as if taller by a head and shoulders: violently; HEAD FOREMOST, with the head first, esp. of falling from a height; HEAD OR TAIL, the side of a coin with the sovereign's head, or the reverse: a phrase used in tossing up a coin to decide a point ('to make neither head nor tail of anything'--to be unable to understand it); HEAD OVER HEELS, in a somersault.--COME TO A HEAD, to reach a climax; EAT ONE'S HEAD OFF, to be consumed with mortification; GO BY THE HEAD, to sink head foremost; HAVE A HEAD ON ONE'S SHOULDERS, to have brains or ability; HEAD OFF, to prevent by some counteraction; LOSE ONE'S HEAD, to become very much excited: to lose presence of mind; MAKE HEAD AGAINST, to resist successfully: to advance; OFF ONE'S HEAD, demented, crazy; OUT OF ONE'S OWN HEAD, spontaneously; OVER HEAD AND EARS, deeply engrossed; TURN A PERSON'S HEAD (see TURN). [A.S. _héafod_, Dut. _hoofd_, Ger. _haupt_.] HEAL, h[=e]l, _v.t._ to make whole and healthy: to cure: to remove or subdue what is evil: to restore to soundness, to remedy, repair.--_v.i._ to grow sound:--_pr.p._ heal'ing; _pa.p._ healed.--_adj._ HEAL'ABLE.--_ns._ HEAL'ER; HEAL'ING, the act or process by which anything is healed or cured: the power to heal.--_adj._ tending to cure, mild.--_adv._ HEAL'INGLY.--_adj._ HEAL'SOME (_Scot._), wholesome. [A.S. _h['æ]lan_, _hál_, whole; cf. Ger. _heil_, Dut. _heel_, Ice. _heill_; also Eng. _hail_, _hale_, _whole_.] HEALD, h[=e]ld, _n._ the same as Heddle (q.v.). HEALTH, helth, _n._ wholeness or soundness of body: general state of the body, as in 'ill health,' 'good health,' soundness and vigour of mind: a toast, as 'to drink one's health'--to drink to the health of: (_B._) salvation, or divine favour.--_adj._ HEALTH'FUL, full of or enjoying health: indicating health: wholesome: salutary.--_adv._ HEALTH'FULLY.--_n._ HEALTH'FULNESS.--_adv._ HEALTH'ILY.--_n._ HEALTH'INESS.--_adj._ HEALTH'LESS, sickly, ailing.--_ns._ HEALTH'LESSNESS; HEALTH'-RESORT', a place to which people go for the good of their health.--_adjs._ HEALTH'SOME (_Shak._), healthy, wholesome; HEALTH'Y, in a state of good health: conducive to health: sound in body or mind: vigorous. [A.S. _hælth_--_hál_, whole.] HEAP, h[=e]p, _n._ a pile or mass heaved or thrown together: a great number of things, a great deal, a collection: (_B._) a ruin.--_v.t._ to throw in a heap or pile: to amass: to pile above the top:--_pr.p._ heap'ing; _pa.p._ heaped.--_adj._ HEAP'Y, full of heaps.--A HEAP, a good many; KNOCK ALL OF A HEAP, to confound utterly. [A.S. _héap_: Ice. _hópr_, Ger. _haufe_, Dut. _hoop_.] HEAR, h[=e]r, _v.t._ to perceive by the ear: to comprehend: to listen to: to grant or obey: to answer favourably: to attend to: to try judicially: to be a hearer of: (_Milt._) to be called.--_v.i._ to have the sense of hearing: to listen: to be told:--_pr.p._ hear'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ heard (h[.e]rd).--_ns._ HEAR'ER; HEAR'ING, act of perceiving by the ear: the sense of perceiving sound: opportunity to be heard: audience: judicial investigation and hearing of arguments, esp. of trial without a jury: reach of the ear: (_coll._) a scolding; HEAR'SAY, common talk: rumour: report.--_adj._ of or pertaining to a report given by others.--_v.i._ to repeat rumours.--HEAR, HEAR! an exclamation of approval, uttered by the hearers of a speech; HEARSAY EVIDENCE, evidence at second hand; HEAR TELL OF, to hear some one speak of; I WILL NOT HEAR OF, I will not listen to the notion or proposal. [A.S. _hýran_; Dut. _hooren_, Ice. _heyra_, Ger. _hören_, Goth. _hausjan_.] HEARKEN, härk'n, _v.i._ to hear attentively: to listen. [A.S. _hýrcnian_, from _hýran_, to hear; Ger. _horchen_.] HEARSAL, h[.e]r'sal, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as REHEARSAL. HEARSE, h[.e]rs, _n._ a carriage in which the dead are conveyed to the grave: (_orig._) a triangular framework for holding candles at a church service, and esp. at a funeral service.--_v.t._ to put on or in a hearse.--_n._ HEARSE'-CLOTH, a pall for a corpse laid on a bier.--_adj._ HEARSE'-LIKE, suitable to a funeral, mournful. [O. Fr. _herse_ (It. _erpice_)--L. _hirpicem_, accus. of _hirpex_, a harrow.] HEART, härt, _n._ the organ in animal systems that circulates the blood: the vital, inner, or chief part of anything: the seat of the affections, &c., esp. love: the affections: courage: vigour: secret meaning or design: that which resembles a heart: a person, esp. as implying courage or affectionateness--a term of endearment or encouragement: anything heart-shaped, esp. that one of the four suits in a pack of cards bearing a heart in red.--_v.t._ to encourage, hearten.--_v.i._ to form a compact head, as a plant.--_ns._ HEART'ACHE, sorrow: anguish; HEART'-BEAT, a pulsation of the heart: a throb of emotion, a thought; HEART'-BLOOD, blood of the heart: life, essence; HEART'-BOND, in masonry, a bond in which one header overlaps two others; HEART'-BREAK, a sorrow or grief.--_v.t._ to break the heart of.--_n._ HEART'-BREAK'ER, a flirt: a curl, love-lock.--_adjs._ HEART'-BREAK'ING, crushing with grief or sorrow; HEART'-BROK'EN, intensely afflicted or grieved.--_ns._ HEART'BURN, a burning, acrid feeling, said to be due to the irritation of the upper end of the stomach by the fumes of its acrid contents: cardialgia: HEART'BURNING, discontent: secret enmity.--_adj._ HEART'-DEAR (_Shak._), dear to the heart, sincerely beloved.--_n._ HEART'-DISEASE', any morbid condition of the heart, whether of the various tissues composing it, or of the nervous arrangements governing it.--_adjs._ HEART'-EAS'ING, giving peace to the mind; HEART'ED, having a heart of a specified kind (hard-hearted, &c.): seated or fixed in the heart, laid up in the heart.--_v.t._ HEART'EN, to encourage, stimulate: to add strength to.--_adjs._ HEART'-FELT, felt deeply: sincere; HEART'FREE, having the affections free or disengaged.--_ns._ HEART'-GRIEF, grief or affliction of the heart; HEART'-HEAV'INESS, depression of spirits.--_adv._ HEART'ILY, in a hearty manner: cordially: eagerly.--_n._ HEART'INESS, the state or quality of being hearty.--_adj._ HEART'LESS, without heart, courage, or feeling.--_adv._ HEART'LESSLY.--_ns._ HEART'LESSNESS; HEART'LET, a little heart.--_interj._ HEART'LING (_Shak._), little heart, used in a minced oath.--_n._ HEART'-QUAKE, trembling, fear.--_adjs._ HEART'-REND'ING, deeply afflictive: agonising; HEART'-ROB'BING (_Spens._), stealing the affections: blissful.--_ns._ HEART'-ROT, a disease producing decay in the hearts of trees, caused by the mycelia of various fungi; HEART'S'-EASE, a common name for the pansy, a species of violet, an infusion of which was once thought to ease the love-sick heart; HEART'-SEED, a general name of plants of genus _Cardiospermum_, esp. the U.S. balloon-vine; HEART'-SERV'ICE, sincere devotion, as opposed to _Eye-service_.--_adjs._ HEART'-SHAPED, shaped like the human heart; HEART'-SICK, pained in mind: depressed.--_n._ HEART'-SICK'NESS.--_adjs._ HEART'SOME, exhilarating: merry; HEART'-SORE, caused by pain at the heart.--_n._ (_Spens._) grief.--_n._ HEART'-SPOON, the depression in the breastbone: the breastbone.--_adj._ HEART'-STIR'RING, arousing the heart, exhilarating.--_n._ HEART'-STRING, a nerve or tendon supposed to brace and sustain the heart: (_pl._) affections.--_adjs._ HEART'-STRUCK (_Shak._), driven to the heart, deeply fixed in the mind: (_Milt._) shocked, dismayed; HEART'-SWELL'ING (_Spens._), rankling in the heart or mind.--_ns._ HEART'-WHEEL, HEART'-CAM, a form of cam-wheel used for converting uniform rotary motion into uniform reciprocating motion.--_adj._ HEART'-WHOLE, whole at heart: unmoved in the affections or spirits.--_n._ HEART'-WOOD, the hard inner wood of a tree--also called _Duramen_.--_adjs._ HEART'Y, full of, or proceeding from, the heart: warm: genuine: strong: healthy; HEART'Y-HALE (_Spens._), wholesome or good for the heart.--HEART-AND-HAND, HEART-AND-SOUL, with complete heartiness, with complete devotion to a cause; HEART OF HEARTS, the inmost heart: deepest affections; HEART OF OAK, a brave, resolute heart.--AFTER MY OWN HEART, to my own liking; AT HEART, in real character: substantially; BREAK THE HEART, to die of grief or disappointment: to cause deep grief to any one; BY HEART, by rote: in the memory; EAT ONE'S HEART (see EAT); FIND IN ONE'S HEART, to be willing or ready to do something; FOR ONE'S HEART, for one's life; GET, HAVE, BY HEART, to commit to memory, or to hold in one's memory; HAVE AT HEART, to wish earnestly for: to hold in dear esteem; HAVE ONE'S HEART IN ONE'S BOOTS, MOUTH, to be in a state of terror; LAY, TAKE, TO HEART, to set one's mind strongly upon: to be deeply moved by something; OUT OF HEART, in low spirits; SET THE HEART AT REST, to become easy in mind; SET THE HEART UPON, to desire earnestly; SPEAK TO THE HEART (_B._), to comfort, encourage; TAKE HEART, to be encouraged; TAKE HEART OF GRACE (see GRACE); TAKE TO HEART, to be deeply pained at anything; WEAR THE HEART UPON THE SLEEVE, to show the feelings, &c., openly; WITH ALL MY HEART, most willingly. [A.S. _heorte_; Dut. _hart_, Ger. _herz_; cog. with L. _cor_, _cordis_, Gr. _kardia_.] HEARTH, härth, _n._ the part of the floor on which the fire is made: the fireside: the house itself: the home-circle: the lowest part of a blast-furnace: a brazier, chafing-dish, or fire-box.--_ns._ HEARTH'-MON'EY, HEARTH'-PENN'Y, HEARTH'-TAX, a tax in England, formerly laid upon hearths; HEARTH'-RUG, a rug used for covering the hearth-stone; HEARTH'-STONE, a stone forming a hearth, the fireside: a soft stone used for whitening hearths, doorsteps, &c. [A.S. _heorð_; Dut. _haard_, Ger. _herd_.] HEAST, h[=e]st, _n._ (_Spens._) command--same as Hest (q.v.). HEAT, h[=e]t, _n._ that which excites the sensation of warmth: sensation of warmth: a heating: exposure to intense heat: a warm temperature: the warmest period, as the heat of the day: indication of warmth, flush, redness: vehemence, passion; sexual excitement, or its period, esp. of the female, corresponding to _rut_ in the male: a single course in a race: animation.--_v.t._ to make hot: to agitate.--_v.i._ to become hot:--_pr.p._ heat'ing; _pa.p._ heat'ed.--_n._ HEAT'-AP'OPLEXY, sunstroke.--_p.adj._ HEAT'ED.--_ns._ HEAT'-EN'GINE, an engine which transforms heat into mechanical work; HEAT'ER, one who, or that which, heats: a piece of cast-iron heated and then placed in a hollow flat-iron, &c.--_adjs_. HEAT'ER-SHAPED, triangular, like the common heater; HEAT'ING, causing or imparting heat.--_ns._ HEAT'-SPOT, a spot on the surface of the body where a sensation of heat is felt; HEAT'-[=U]'NIT, amount of heat required to raise a pound of water one degree.--LATENT HEAT, the quantity of heat absorbed when bodies pass from the solid into the liquid, or from the liquid into the gaseous, state; MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT OF HEAT, the relation between heat and work--viz. the amount of molecular energy required to produce one heat-unit; SPECIFIC HEAT, the number of heat-units necessary to raise the unit of mass of a given substance one degree in temperature. [A.S. _h['æ]to_, heat, _hát_, hot; Ger. _hitze_.] HEATH, h[=e]th, _n._ a barren open country: any shrub of genus _Erica_, or its congener _Calluna_, of the heath family (_Ericaceæ_), a hardy evergreen under-shrub.--_ns._ HEATH'-BELL, same as HEATHER-BELL; HEATH'-COCK, a large bird which frequents heaths: the black grouse:--_fem._ HEATH'-HEN; HEATH'-POULT, the heath-bird, esp. the female or young.--_adj._ HEATH'Y, abounding with heath. [A.S. _h['æ]ð_; Ger. _heide_, Goth. _haithi_, a waste.] HEATHEN, h[=e]'_th_n, _n._ an inhabitant of an unchristian country, one neither Christian, Jewish, nor Mohammedan: (_B._) the Gentiles: a pagan: an irreligious person.--_adj._ pagan, irreligious.--_n._ HEA'THENDOM, the condition of a heathen: those regions of the world where heathenism prevails.--_v.t._ HEA'THENISE, to make heathen or heathenish.--_adj._ HEA'THENISH, relating to the heathen: rude: uncivilised: cruel.--_adv._ HEA'THENISHLY.--_ns._ HEA'THENISHNESS; HEA'THENISM, the religious system of the heathens: paganism: barbarism; HEA'THENRY, heathenism: heathendom. [A.S. _h['æ]ðen_, a heathen; Dut. _heiden_.] HEATHER, he_th_'[.e]r, _n._ the Scotch name for the native species of the Linnæan genus _Erica_, called in the north of England Ling, esp. _Erica_ (now _Calluna_) _vulgaris_, Common Heather, and _Erica cinerea_, Fine-leaved Heath or Lesser Bell-heather.--_adj._ of the colour of heather.--_ns._ HEATH'ER-ALE, a famous liquor traditionally brewed in Scotland from the bells of heather; HEATH'ER-BELL, a name given to _Erica tetralix_ (or specially to its blossom), and sometimes also to _Erica cinerea_.--_adj._ HEATH'ERY, of or pertaining to heather.--SET THE HEATHER ON FIRE, to create a disturbance; TAKE TO THE HEATHER, to become an outlaw. [Usually derived from _heath_.] HEAUME, h[=o]m, _n._ (_arch._) a massive helmet. HEAVE, h[=e]v, _v.t._ to lift up: to throw upward: to draw in any direction, as by a windlass: to cause to swell: to force from the breast: (_geol._) to move away or displace (a vein or stratum).--_v.i._ to be raised: to rise and fall: to try to vomit:--_pr.p._ heav'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ heaved or (_naut._) h[=o]ve.--_n._ an effort upward: a throw: a swelling: an effort to vomit: broken wind in horses.--_ns._ HEAVE'-OFF'ERING, a voluntary Jewish offering lifted up before the Lord by the priest; HEAV'ER, one who, or that which, heaves; HEAVES, a disease in horses; HEAVE'-SHOUL'DER, the shoulder of an animal elevated in sacrifice; HEAV'ING, a rising: swell: (_Shak._) panting.--HEAVE HO! an exclamation used by sailors in putting forth exertion, as in heaving the anchor; HEAVE IN SIGHT, to come into view; HEAVE TO, to bring a vessel to a stand-still, to make her lie to. [A.S. _hebban_, pa.t. _hóf_, pa.p. _hafen_; Ger. _heben_.] HEAVEN, hev'n, _n._ the arch of sky overhanging the earth: the air: a zone or region: a very great and indefinite height: the dwelling-place of the Deity and the blessed: the Deity as inhabiting heaven: supreme happiness.--_adjs._ HEAV'EN-BORN, descended from heaven; HEAV'EN-BRED (_Shak._), bred or produced in heaven; HEAV'EN-DIRECT'ED, pointing to the sky: divinely guided; HEAV'EN-FALL'EN (_Milt._), fallen from heaven, having rebelled against God; HEAV'EN-GIFT'ED, granted by heaven; HEAV'EN-KISS'ING (_Shak._), kissing or touching, as it were, the sky.--_n._ HEAV'ENLINESS.--_adj._ HEAV'ENLY, of or inhabiting heaven: celestial: pure: supremely blessed: very excellent.--_adv._ in a manner like that of heaven: by the influence of heaven.--_adj._ HEAV'ENLY-MIND'ED, having the mind placed upon heavenly things: pure.--_n._ HEAV'ENLY-MIND'EDNESS.--_advs._ HEAV'ENWARD, HEAV'ENWARDS, toward or in the direction of heaven.--HEAVEN OF HEAVENS (_B._), the highest of the heavens, the abode and seat of God; IN THE SEVENTH HEAVEN, in a state of the most exalted happiness--from the system of the Cabbalists, who divided the heavens into seven in an ascending scale of happiness up to the abode of God. [A.S. _heofon_; not to be conn. with _heave_.] HEAVY, hev'i, _adj_. weighty: not easy to bear: oppressive: afflicted: inactive: dull, lacking brightness and interest: inclined to slumber: violent: loud: not easily digested, as food: miry, as soil: having strength, as liquor: dark with clouds: gloomy: expensive: (_B._) sad: (_theat._) pertaining to the representation of grave or serious parts.--_adv._ HEAV'ILY.--_n._ HEAV'INESS.--_adjs._ HEAV'Y-ARMED, bearing heavy armour or arms; HEAV'Y-HAND'ED, clumsy, awkward: oppressive; HEAV'Y-HEAD'ED, having a heavy or large head: dull, stupid, drowsy; HEAV'Y-HEART'ED, weighed down with grief; HEAV'Y-L[=A]D'EN, laden with a heavy burden.--_n._ HEAV'Y-SPAR, native sulphate of barium, barytes.--HEAVY MARCHING ORDER, the condition of troops fully equipped for field service; HEAVY METAL, guns or shot of large size: great influence or power; HEAVY-WEIGHT, one beyond the average weight, esp. in sporting phrase, one placed highest in the ascending scale, _feather-weight_, _light-weight_, _middle-weight_, _heavy-weight_; HEAVY WET, a drink of strong ale or ale and porter mixed.--THE HEAVIES (_mil._), the heavy cavalry: those who play heavy parts. [A.S. _hefig_--_hebban_, to heave; Old High Ger. _hebîg_.] HEBDOMADAL, heb-dom'a-dal, _adj._ occurring every seven days: weekly--also HEBDOM'ADARY.--_n._ HEB'DOMAD, the number seven, a group of seven things, a week: in some Gnostic systems, a group of superhuman beings, angels, or divine emanations, the sphere of the Demiurge lower than the ogdoad--from the idea of the seven planets.--_adv._ HEBDOM'ADALLY, from week to week.--_n._ HEBDOM'ADARY, a member of a chapter or convent who officiates in the choir, &c., on a certain week.--HEBDOMADAL COUNCIL, a board which practically manages the business of the university of Oxford, usually meeting weekly. [L. _hebdomadalis_--Gr. _hebdomas_, a period of seven days--_hepta_, seven.] HEBE, h[=e]'b[=e], _n._ a personification of youth and spring, from the name of the daughter of Zeus and Hera, who was cup-bearer of Olympus. HEBEN, heb'n, _n._ and _adj._ (_Spens._) ebony. HEBENON, heb'e-non, _n._ (_Shak._) a poisonous juice. [Perh. _ebony_, or a corr. of _henbane_.] HEBETATE, heb'e-t[=a]t, _v.t._ to make dull or blunt.--_adj._ HEB'ETANT, making dull.--_ns._ HEBET[=A]'TION, HEB'ET[=U]DE; HEBETUDINOS'ITY.--_adj._ HEBET[=U]'DINOUS. [L. _hebet[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_hebes_, blunt.] HEBREW, h[=e]'br[=oo], _n._ one of the descendants of Abraham, who emigrated from beyond the Euphrates into Palestine: an Israelite, a Jew: the language of the Hebrews (_fem._ H[=E]'BREWESS, _B._): (_coll._) unintelligible speech.--_adj._ relating to the Hebrews.--_adjs._ HEBR[=A]'IC, -AL, relating to the Hebrews or to their language.--_adv._ HEBR[=A]'ICALLY, after the manner of the Hebrew language: from right to left.--_n._ HEBR[=A]'ICISM.--_v.t._ H[=E]'BRAISE, to express as in Hebrew: to conform or incline to Hebrew ideals.--_ns._ H[=E]'BRAISER; H[=E]'BRAISM, a Hebrew idiom; H[=E]'BRAIST, one skilled in HEBREW.--_adjs._ HEBRAIST'IC, -AL, of or like Hebrew.--_adv._ HEBRAIST'ICALLY.--_n._ H[=E]'BREWISM. [O. Fr. _Ebreu_--L. _Hebræus_--Gr. _Hebraios_--Heb. _`ibrî_, lit. 'one from the other side (of the river).'] HEBRIDEAN, h[=e]-brid'[=e]-an, -i-an, _adj._ pertaining to the _Hebrides_--also HEBRID'IAN.--_n._ a native thereof. HECATE, hek'a-t[=e], _n._ a mysterious goddess, in Hesiod having power over earth, heaven, and sea--afterwards identified with many other goddesses, her power above all displayed in the matter of ghosts and bogies. [L.,--Gr. _Hekat[=e]_--_hekas_, far.] HECATOMB, hek'a-tom, _n._ among the Greeks and Romans, a sacrifice of a hundred oxen: a great public sacrifice: any large number of victims. [Gr. _hekatomb[=e]_--_hekaton_, a hundred, _bous_, an ox.] HECATONTOME, hek'a-ton-t[=o]m, _n._ (_Milt._) a very large number of books. [Gr. _hekaton_, a hundred, _tomos_, a volume.] HECH, heh, _interj._ (_Scot._) an exclamation of surprise. HECHT, heht, Scotch form of _hight_, v. HECK, hek, _n._ (_Scot._) a rack in a stable for hay, &c.: a grated contrivance for catching fish: a contrivance in a spinning-wheel, and also in a warping-mill, by which the yarn or thread is guided to the reels.--LIVE AT HECK AND MANGER, to be in very comfortable quarters. [A.S. _hec_, _hæc_; Dut. _hek_.] HECKLE, hek'l, _v.i._ to comb: to put a parliamentary candidate, or the like, through a series of embarrassing questions.--_n._ the same as HACK'LE, HATCH'EL.--_ns._ HECK'LE, the long shining feathers on a cock's neck, a feather ornament in the full-dress bonnets of Highland regiments; HECK'LER, one who torments a candidate with catching questions. HECTARE, hek'tär, _n._ a superficial measure=100 ares, 10,000 sq. metres, or nearly 2½ acres (2.471). [Fr.,--Gr. _hekaton_, 100, L. _area_, area.] HECTIC, -AL, hek'tik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to the constitution or habit of body: affected with hectic fever.--_n._ HEC'TIC, a habitual or remittent fever, usually associated with consumption.--_adj._ HEC'TOID, of a hectic appearance.--HECTIC FEVER, the name given to the fever which occurs in connection with certain wasting diseases of long duration. [Fr.,--Gr. _hektikos_, habitual--_hexis_, habit.] HECTOGRAMME, hek'to-gram, _n._ a weight of 100 grammes, or nearly ¼ lb. (3.527 ounces). [Fr.,--Gr. _hekaton_, 100, and _gramme_.] HECTOGRAPH, hek'to-graf, _n._ a gelatine pad for receiving a copy and therefrom multiplying a writing or drawing.--_v.t._ to reproduce by means of this.--_adj._ HECTOGRAPH'IC. [Gr. _hekaton_, a hundred, _graph_--_graphein_, to write.] HECTOLITRE, hek'to-lit'r, _n._ a unit of capacity of 100 litres, 22.01 imperial gallons. HECTOMETRE, hek'to-m[=e]t-[.e]r, _n._ a unit of length equal to 100 metres, or about 1/16th (.0621) of a mile. HECTOR, hek'tor, _n._ a bully, a street brawler: one who annoys.--_v.t._ to treat insolently: to annoy.--_v.i._ to play the bully.--_ns._ HEC'TORER; HEC'TORISM.--_adv._ HEC'TORLY.--_n._ HEC'TORSHIP. [_Hector_, the Trojan.] HECTOSTERE, hek'to-st[=e]r, _n._ a measure of solidity of 100 cubic metres, 3531.56 Eng. cubic feet. HEDDLE, hed'l, _n._ a series of vertical cords or wires, each having in the middle a loop (HEDD'LE-EYE) to receive a warp-thread, and passing round and between parallel bars.--_v.t._ to draw warp-threads through heddle-eyes. [An assumed A.S. _hefedl_, earlier form of _hefeld_.] HEDEOMA, h[=e]-d[=e]-[=o]'ma, _n._ a genus of herbaceous aromatic plants, the best-known species being the American Pennyroyal. [Gr. _h[=e]dys_, sweet.] HEDERA, hed'er-a, _n._ a genus of climbing plants, best represented by the common ivy.--_adjs._ HEDER[=A]'CEOUS; HED'ERAL; HED'ERATED; HEDER'IC; HEDERIF'EROUS. [L.] HEDGE, hej, _n._ a thicket of bushes: a fence round a field, &c.: any means of protection.--_v.t._ to enclose with a hedge: to obstruct: to surround: to guard: to protect one's self from loss by betting on both sides.--_v.i._ to shuffle: to be shifty: to skulk.--_ns._ HEDGE'BILL, HEDG'ING-BILL, a bill or hatchet for dressing hedges.--_adj._ HEDGE'-BORN, of low birth, as if born under a hedge or in the woods: low: obscure.--_ns._ HEDGE'BOTE, an old word for the right of a tenant to cut wood on the farm or land for repairing the hedges or fences; HEDGE'-CREEP'ER, a sneaking rogue; HEDGE'HOG, a small prickly-backed quadruped, so called from living in hedges and bushes, and its resemblance to a hog or pig; HEDGE'HOG-PLANT, a species of medick, having the pods spirally twisted and rolled up into a ball beset with spines; HEDGE'HOG-THIS'TLE, hedgehog-cactus; HEDGE'-HYSS'OP, a European perennial plant of the figwort family, with emetic and purgative qualities; HEDGE'-KNIFE, an instrument for trimming hedges; HEDGE'-MAR'RIAGE, a clandestine marriage; HEDGE'-MUS'TARD, a genus of plants of order _Cruciferæ_, annual or rarely perennial, with small yellow or white flowers; HEDGE'-NOTE, a valueless literary attempt; HEDGE'-PAR'SON, a mean parson, generally illiterate; HEDGE'PIG (_Shak._), a young hedgehog; HEDGE'-PRIEST, an ignorant itinerant priest; HEDG'ER, one who dresses hedges; HEDGE'ROW, a row of trees or shrubs for hedging fields; HEDGE'-SCHOOL, an open-air school kept by the side of a hedge in Ireland; HEDGE'-SHREW, the field-mouse; HEDGE'-SPARR'OW, HEDGE'-WAR'BLER, a little singing bird, like a sparrow, which frequents hedges; HEDGE'-WRIT'ER, a Grub-street author; HEDG'ING, the work of a hedger.--_adj._ HEDG'Y. [A.S. _hecg_, _hegg_; Dut. _hegge_, Ger. _hecke_.] HEDONISM, h[=e]d'[=o]-nizm, _n._ in ethics, the doctrine that happiness is the highest good.--_adjs._ HEDON'IC, HEDONIST'IC.--_n.pl._ HEDON'ICS, the doctrine of pleasure.--_n._ H[=E]'DONIST, one who advocates hedonism. [Gr. _h[=e]don[=e]_, pleasure.] HEDYPHANE, hed'i-f[=a]n, _n._ a colourless mimetite, containing calcium: a variety of green lead ore. [Gr. _h[=e]dys_, sweet, _-phan[=e]s_, appearing.] HEED, h[=e]d, _v.t._ to observe: to look after: to attend to.--_n._ notice: caution: attention.--_adj._ HEED'FUL, attentive, cautious.--_adv._ HEED'FULLY.--_ns._ HEED'FULNESS; HEED'INESS (_Spens._).--_adj._ HEED'LESS, inattentive: careless.--_n._ HEED'LESSHOOD (_Spens._).--_adv._ HEED'LESSLY.--_n._ HEED'LESSNESS.--_adj._ HEED'Y (_Spens._), heedful, careful. [A.S. _hédan_; Dut. _hoeden_, Ger. _hüten_.] HEEHAW, h[=e]'hä, _v.i._ to bray, like an ass. [_Imit._] HEEL, h[=e]l, _n._ the part of the foot projecting behind: the whole foot (esp. of beasts): the covering of the heel, as on a boot: a spur: the hinder part of anything.--_v.t._ to use the heel: to furnish with heels: to arm with a steel spur, as a fighting cock: to seize by the heels: (_U.S._) to supply with money.--_v.i._ to follow well (of a dog).--_n._ HEEL'-BALL, a black waxy composition for blacking the heels and soles of boots, for taking impressions of coins, &c., by rubbing: a shoemaker's last.--_p.adj._ HEELED, provided with a heel, shod: (_U.S._) comfortably supplied with money.--_n._ HEEL'ER (_U.S._), an unscrupulous hanger-on of a political party; HEEL'PIECE, a piece or cover for the heel; HEEL'-TAP, a small quantity of beer or spirits left in the glass after drinking.--HEEL AND TOE, with proper walking, as opposed to running; HEELS O'ER GOWDY (_Scot._), heels over head; HEELS OVER HEAD, upside down.--AT, ON, UPON, A PERSON'S HEELS, close behind; DOWN AT HEEL, having the heels of one's shoes trodden down: slovenly: in poor circumstances; KICK ONE'S HEELS, to be kept waiting for some time; LAY, SET, CLAP, BY THE HEELS, to fetter: to put in confinement; OUT AT HEELS, having the stockings or shoes worn out at the heels; SHOW A CLEAN PAIR OF HEELS, TAKE TO ONE'S HEELS, to run off with haste: to flee; TRIP UP (ONE'S) HEELS, to trip up or overthrow him; TURN ON (UPON) ONE'S HEEL, to turn sharply round, to turn back or away. [A.S. _héla_; Dut. _hiel_.] HEEL, h[=e]l, _v.i._ to incline: to lean on one side, as a ship.--_v.t._ to tilt. [Earlier _heeld_, A.S. _hieldan_, to slope; cf. Dut. _hellen_.] HEEZE, h[=e]z, _v.t._ (_Scot._) a form of hoise.--_n._ a lift. HEFT, heft, _n._ heaving: (_Shak._) retching: (_U.S._) weight: the bulk of.--_v.t._ to try the weight of.--_adj._ HEFT'Y, rather heavy: easy to lift. [_Heave_.] HEFT (_Spens._), obsolete form of _heaved_. HEFT, heft, _v.t._ to accustom to a thing or place: (_Scot._) to attach. [Cf. Ice. _hefdha_, Sw. _häfda_, Dan. _hævde_.] HEFT, heft, _n._ a notebook, a number of sheets sewed together. [_Ger._] HEGELIANISM, h[=e]-g[=e]'li-an-izm, _n._ the philosophical principles of Wilhelm Friedrich _Hegel_ (1770-1831).--_adj._ H[=e]g[=e]'lian, of or pertaining to Hegel.--_n._ a follower of Hegel. HEGEMONY, h[=e]'jem-o-ni, _n._ leadership: control, esp. of one state over others.--_adjs._ HEGEMON'IC, -AL.--_ns._ HEG[=U]'MEN, HEG[=U]'MENOS, the head of a monastery:--_fem._ HEG[=U]'MENE, HEG[=U]'MENESS. [Gr. _h[=e]gemonia_--_h[=e]gem[=o]n_, leader--_h[=e]geisthai_, to go before.] HEGIRA, HEJIRA, hej'i-ra, _n._ the flight of Mohammed from Mecca, 15th July 622 A.D., from which is dated the Mohammedan era: any flight. [Ar. _hijrah_, flight, _hajara_, to leave.] HEIFER, hef'[.e]r, _n._ a young cow. [A.S. _héahfore_, _héahfru_, _-fre_; prob. 'high-goer,' _faran_, to go.] HEIGH, h[=i], _interj._ a cry of encouragement or exultation--also HEY, HA.--_interj._ HEIGH'-HO, an exclamation expressive of weariness. [Imit.] HEIGHT, h[=i]t, _n._ the condition of being high: distance upwards: that which is elevated: a hill: elevation in rank or excellence: utmost degree.--_v.t._ HEIGHT'EN, to make higher, to advance or improve: to make brighter or more prominent. [Corr. of _highth_--A.S. _híehtho_, _héahthu_--_héah_, high.] HEINOUS, h[=a]'nus, _adj._ wicked in a high degree, enormous: atrocious.--_adv._ HEI'NOUSLY.--_n._ HEI'NOUSNESS. [O. Fr. _haïnos_ (Fr. _haineux_)--_haïr_, to hate.] HEIR, [=a]r, _n._ one who inherits anything after the death of the owner: one entitled to anything after the present possessor: a child, offspring:--_fem._ HEIRESS ([=a]r'es).--_v.t._ HEIR, to inherit.--_ns._ HEIR'-APP[=A]'RENT, the one by law acknowledged to be heir; HEIR'-AT-LAW, an heir by legal right; HEIR'DOM, HEIR'SHIP.--_adj._ HEIR'LESS, without an heir.--_ns._ HEIR'LOOM, any piece of furniture or personal property which descends to the heir-at-law by special custom; HEIR'-PRESUMP'TIVE, one who will be heir if no nearer relative should be born.--HEIR BY CUSTOM, one whose right as heir is determined by customary modes of descent, as gavelkind, &c. [O. Fr. _heir_--L. _h[=e]res_, an heir.] HEJIRA. See HEGIRA. HEL, hel, _n._ in Northern mythology, the goddess of the dead, the sister of the wolf Fenrir, and daughter of the evil-hearted Loki. HELCOID, hel'koid, _adj._ ulcerous.--_ns._ HELCOL'OGY, the branch of pathology concerned with ulcers; HEL'COPLASTY, the operation of grafting on an ulcer a piece of healthy skin; HELC[=O]'SIS, ulceration.--_adj._ HELCOT'IC. [Gr. _helkos_, an ulcer.] HELD, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _hold_. HELE, h[=e]l, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to hide, conceal. [A.S. _helian_, _helan_, to hide; Ger. _hehlen_.] HELIAC, h[=e]'li-ak, HELIACAL, he-l[=i]'ak-al, _adj._ (_astron._) emerging from the light of the sun or passing into it.--_adv._ HEL[=I]'ACALLY. [Gr. _h[=e]liakos_--_h[=e]lios_, the sun.] HELIANTHUS, h[=e]-li-an'thus, _n._ a genus of order _Compositae_, including the common sunflower. [Gr. _h[=e]lios_, the sun, _anthos_, a flower.] HELICAL, HELICIDÆ, HELICOGRAPH, HELICOID. See HELIX. HELICONIAN, hel-i-k[=o]'ni-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Helicon_, a mountain-range in Boeotia, in ancient Greece, the favourite seat of the Muses. HELIOCENTRIC, -AL, h[=e]-li-o-sen'trik, -al, _adj._ (_astron._) referred to the sun as centre.--_adv._ HELIOCEN'TRICALLY. [Gr. _h[=e]lios_, the sun, _kentron_, the centre.] HELIOCHROMY, h[=e]'li-ok-r[=o]-mi, _n._ the art of producing photographs in the natural colours.--_ns._ H[=E]'LIOCHROME, HELIOCHR[=O]'MOTYPE, a photograph in the natural colours.--_adj._ HELIOCHR[=O]'MIC. HELIOGRAPH, h[=e]'li-o-graf, _n._ an apparatus for signalling by means of the sun's rays: an engraving obtained by a process in which a specially prepared plate is acted on chemically by exposure to light: an apparatus for taking photographs of the sun.--_v.t._ to signal to by means of the sun's rays.--_n._ HELIOG'RAPHER.--_adjs_. HELIOGRAPH'IC, -AL.--_adv._ HELIOGRAPH'ICALLY.--_ns._ HELIOG'RAPHY, a method of communicating swiftly between distant points by means of the sun's rays reflected from mirrors: photography; HELIOGR[=A]'VURE (or h[=a]-li-[=o]-gra-vür'), photo-engraving, or a print obtained by this process. [Gr. _h[=e]lios_, the sun, _graph[=e]_, a painting--_graphein_, to write.] HELIOLATRY, h[=e]-li-ol'a-tri, _n._ worship of the sun.--_n._ HELIOL'ATER, a worshipper of the sun.--_adj._ HELIOL'ATROUS. [Gr. _h[=e]lios_, the sun, _latreia_, worship.] HELIOLOGY, h[=e]-li-ol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the science of the sun. HELIOMETER, h[=e]-li-om'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument by which the diameters of the heavenly bodies can be measured with great accuracy.--_adjs._ HELIOMET'RIC, -AL. [Gr. _h[=e]lios_, sun, _metron_, a measure.] HELIOPHILOUS, h[=e]-li-of'i-lus, _adj._ fond of the sun--opp. to HELIOPH[=O]'BIC, fearing or shunning sunlight. HELIOSCOPE, h[=e]'li-o-sk[=o]p, _n._ a telescope for viewing the sun without injury to the eyes, by means of blackened glass or mirrors that reflect only a part of the light.--_adj._ HELIOSCOP'IC. [Fr. _hélioscope_--Gr. _h[=e]lios_, the sun, _skopein_, to look, to spy.] HELIOSTAT, h[=e]'li-o-stat, _n._ an instrument by means of which a beam of sunlight is reflected in an invariable direction. [Gr. _h[=e]lios_, sun, _statos_, fixed--_histanai_, to stand.] HELIOTROPE, h[=e]'li-o-tr[=o]p, _n._ a genus of plants of the natural order _Boraginaceæ_, many species with fragrant flowers, esp. the _Peruvian heliotrope_, with small lilac-blue flowers and a fragrance resembling vanilla or cherry-pie: (_min._) a bloodstone, a variety of chalcedony of a dark-green colour variegated with red: a mirror placed at a distant station and adjusted by clockwork, so that at a particular hour of the day (arranged beforehand) the light of the sun shall be reflected from the mirror directly to the surveyor's station.--_adjs._ HELIOTROP'IC, -AL.--_adv._ HELIOTROP'ICALLY.--_ns._ HELIOT'ROPISM, HELIOT'ROPY, the tendency that the stem and leaves of a seedling plant have to bend towards, and the roots from, the light when placed in a transparent vessel of water within reach of the light of a window. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _h[=e]liotropion_--_h[=e]lios_, the sun, _tropos_, a turn.] HELIOTYPY, h[=e]'li-[=o]-t[=i]-pi, _n._ a photo-mechanical process in which the gelatine relief is itself used to print from in some form of printing-press, instead of being covered with tinfoil as in the stannotype process.--_n._ H[=E]'LIOTYPE, a photograph.--_v.t._ to produce a heliotype picture of.--_v.i._ to practise heliotypy.--_adj._ HELIOTYP'IC. [Gr. _h[=e]lios_, sun, _typos_, impression.] HELIOZOA, h[=e]'li-[=o]-z[=o]'a, _n._ a class of Protozoa of the Rhizopod type, with protruding processes of living matter. [Gr. _h[=e]lios_, the sun, _z[=o]on_, an animal.] HELIUM, h[=e]'li-um, _n._ a substance discovered by Lockyer in the sun's atmosphere, found by Ramsay in the rare Norwegian mineral cleveite. HELIX, h[=e]'liks, _n._ a spiral, as of wire in a coil: (_zool._) a genus of molluscs including the land-snails: the external part of the ear: a small volute or twist in the capital of a Corinthian column:--_pl._ HELICES (hel'i-s[=e]z).--_adj._ HEL'ICAL, spiral.--_adv._ HEL'ICALLY.--_n.pl._ HELIC'IDÆ, a large family of terrestrial, air-breathing gasteropods, of which snails are familiar examples.--_n._ HEL'ICOGRAPH, a drawing instrument for describing a spiral line.--_adjs._ HEL'ICOID, -AL, like a helix, screw-shaped; HELISPHER'IC, -AL, spiral. [L.,--Gr. _helix_, _helissein_, to turn round.] HELL, hel, _n._ the place or state of punishment of the wicked after death: the place of the dead indefinitely: the abode of evil spirits: the powers of hell: any place of vice or misery: a gambling-house.--_adjs._ HELL'-BLACK (_Shak._), black as hell; HELL'-BORN, born in hell: of hellish origin; HELL'-BRED.--_ns._ HELL'-BROTH (_Shak._), a composition boiled up for malignant purposes; HELL'-CAT, a malignant hag; HELL'-FIRE, the fire of hell: punishment in hell; HELL'-GATE, the entrance into hell.--_adj._ HELL'-HAT'ED (_Shak._), hated or abhorred as hell.--_n._ HELL'HOUND, a hound of hell: an agent of hell.--_adj._ HELL'ISH, pertaining to or like hell: very wicked.--_adv._ HELL'ISHLY.--_ns._ HELL'ISHNESS; HELL'-KITE (_Shak._), a kite of infernal breed.--_adv._ HELL'WARD, towards hell. [A.S. _hel_; Ice. _hel_, Ger. _hölle_.] HELL, hel, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to hide. HE'LL, contraction for _he will_. HELLEBORE, hel'e-b[=o]r, _n._ a plant of the genus Helleborus (_Ranunculaceæ_), whose root possesses drastic purgative properties, anciently used as a cure for insanity--varieties are the _Black Hellebore_ or _Christmas Rose_, the _Stinking_ and the _Green Hellebore_; similar plants of other genera are the _Winter Hellebore_ and the _American False_ or _White Hellebore_, known also as _Indian Poke_ or _Itch Weed_. [Fr. _hellébore_--L. _helleborus_--Gr. _helleboros_.] HELLENIC, hel-len'ik, or hel-l[=e]'nik, HELLENIAN, hel-l[=e]'ni-an, _adj._ pertaining to the Hellenes or Greeks: Grecian, in art, esp. of the period from the primitive epoch to the Roman supremacy in Greece (beginning 146 B.C.), sometimes only from the time of Alexander the Great (c. 330 B.C.)--the term _Hellenistic_ applying to later times.--_n._ HELL'[=E]NE, an ancient Greek: a subject of the modern kingdom of Greece or Hellas:--_pl._ HELL[=E]'NES, the name of the modern Greeks for themselves.--_v.i._ HELL'ENISE, to conform, or show a tendency to conform, to Greek usages.--_ns._ HELL'ENISM, a Greek idiom: the spirit of the Greek race; HELL'ENIST, one skilled in the Greek language: a Jew who used the Greek language and adopted Greek usages, in opposition to the Hebrews properly so called, whether of Palestine or of the Dispersion, and to the Hellenes or Greeks proper--they are called _Grecians_ in the Authorised, _Grecian Jews_ in the Revised Version.--_adjs._ HELLENIST'IC, -AL, pertaining to the Hellenists: pertaining to Greek with foreign, esp. Aramaic and Hebrew, idioms--a popular dialect which grew up at Alexandria and perpetuated itself in the Septuagint, and to a less marked degree in the New Testament.--_adv._ HELLENIST'ICALLY. [Gr. _Hell[=e]nios_, _Hel[=e]nikos_--_Hell[=e]nes_, a name ultimately given to all the Greeks--_Hell[=e]n_, the son of Deucalion, the Greek Noah.] HELLICAT, hel'i-kat, _adj._ giddy-headed: flighty.--_n._ (_Scot._) a wicked creature. HELM, helm, _n._ the instrument by which a ship is steered: the station of management or government.--_v.t._ to direct.--_n._ HELM'AGE, guidance.--_adj._ HELM'LESS, of a ship, without a helm.--_n._ HELMS'MAN, the one who steers. [A.S. _helma_; Ice. _hjálm_, a rudder, Gr. _helm_, a handle.] HELM, helm, HELMET, hel'met, _n._ a covering of armour for the head: (_bot._) the hooded upper lip of certain flowers.--_adjs._ HELMED, HEL'METED, furnished with a helmet.--_n._ HEL'MET-SHELL, a genus of gasteropods having thick heavy shells with bold ridges: a cameo-shell. [A.S. _helm_--_helan_, to cover; Ger. _helm_.] HELMINTH, hel'minth, _n._ a worm.--_n._ HELMINTH'AGOGUE, a remedy against worms.--_adj._ HELMIN'THIC, pertaining to worms: (_med._) expelling worms.--_n._ a medicine for expelling worms.--_n._ HELMIN'THITE, a long sinuous mark common on the surfaces of sandstone, and supposed to be the tracks of worms.--_adjs._ HELMIN'THOID, worm-shaped; HELMINTHOLOG'IC, -AL.--_ns._ HELMINTHOL'OGIST; HELMINTHOL'OGY, that branch of natural history which treats of worms, or more particularly of the parasitic forms.--_adj._ HELMINTH'OUS. [Gr. _helmins_, -_inthos_, a worm.] HELOT, h[=e]'lot, or hel'ot, _n._ one of a class of slaves among the ancient Spartans.--_ns._ H[=E]'LOTAGE, the state of a Helot; H[=E]'LOTISM, the condition of the Helots in ancient Sparta: slavery; H[=E]'LOTRY, the whole body of the Helots: any class of slaves. [Gr.; said to be derived from _Helos_, a town in Greece, reduced to slavery by the Spartans.] HELP, help, _v.t._ to support: to assist: to mitigate: to give means for doing anything: to provide or supply with: to remedy: to prevent, to keep from.--_v.i._ to give assistance: to contribute:--_pa.p._ helped, (_B._) h[=o]lp'en.--_n._ means or strength given to another for a purpose: assistance: relief: one who assists: (_Amer._) a hired servant, esp. a domestic.--_n._ HELP'ER, one who helps: an assistant.--_adj._ HELP'FUL, giving help: useful.--_n._ HELP'FULNESS.--_adj._ HELP'LESS, without help or power in one's self: wanting assistance.--_adv._ HELP'LESSLY.--_ns._ HELP'LESSNESS; HELP'MATE, an assistant: a partner: a wife--also written HELP'MEET, from Gen. ii. 18.--HELP FORWARD, to assist in making progress; HELP OFF, to aid in disposing or getting rid of; HELP ON, to forward, to lift up; HELP OUT, to aid in finishing a task, eking out a supply, &c.; HELP OVER, to enable to surmount; HELP TO, to aid in obtaining for some one; HELP UP, to raise.--GOD HELP HIM, a phrase implying extreme pity or commiseration.--SO HELP ME GOD, a very strong asseveration, implying the willingness of the speaker to let his chance of salvation depend upon his truthfulness. [A.S. _helpan_, pa.t. _healp_, pa.p. _holpen_; Ice. _hjálpa_, Ger. _helfen_, to aid.] HELTER-SKELTER, hel'ter-skel'ter, _adv._ in a confused hurry: tumultuously.--_n._ a confused medley: disorderly motion.--_adj._ confused.--_n._ HEL'TER-SKEL'TERINESS. [Imit.] HELVE, helv, _n._ the handle of an axe or hatchet: the handle of a forehammer.--_v.t._ to furnish with a handle, as an axe.--_n._ HELVE'-HAMM'ER, a trip-hammer. [A.S. _hielfe_, _helfe_, a handle.] HELVETIC, hel-vet'ik, _adj._ pertaining to Switzerland--also HELV[=E]'TIAN.--HELVETIC CONFESSIONS, two confessions of faith drawn up by the Swiss theologians in 1536 and 1566, in substance Protestant, Evangelical, moderately Calvinistic, and Zwinglian. [L.,--_Helvetia_, Latin name of Switzerland.] HEM, hem, _n._ the border of a garment doubled down and sewed.--_v.t._ to form a hem on: to edge:--_pr.p._ hem'ming; _pa.p._ hemmed.--_n._ HEM'-STITCH, the ornamental finishing of the inner side of a hem, made by pulling out several threads adjoining it and drawing together in groups the cross-threads by successive stitches.--_v.t._ to embroider with such.--HEM IN, to surround. [A.S. _hemm_, a border; Ger. _hamm_, a fence.] HEM, hem, _n._ and _interj._ a sort of half-cough to draw attention.--_v.i._ to utter the sound _hem!_--_pr.p._ hem'ming; _pa.p._ hemmed. [Imit.] HEM, hem, (_Spens._) them. HEMERALOPIA, hem'e-ra-l[=o]'pi-a, _n._ day-blindness, a defect of vision except in artificial or dim light; also applied to night-blindness. [Gr. _h[=e]mera_, a day, _alaos_, blind, _[=o]ps_, the eye.] HEMIANOPSIA, hem'i-an-op'si-a, _n._ complete or partial blindness as to half the field of vision--also HEMIAN[=O]P'IA, HEMI[=O]'PIA, HEMIOP'SIA, HEM'OPSY.--_adjs._ HEMIANOP'TIC, HEMIOP'IC. [Gr. _h[=e]mi_-, half, _an_-, neg., _opsis_, sight.] HEMICRANIA, hem-i-kr[=a]'ni-a, _n._ headache confined to one side of the head.--_adj._ HEMICRAN'IC. HEMICYCLE, hem'i-s[=i]-kl, _n._ a semicircle, a room with seats so arranged. [Fr.,--Gr.] HEMIHEDRISM, hem-i-h[=e]'drizm, _n._ a property of crystals of being HEMIH[=E]'DRAL, or having half the number of symmetrically arranged planes occurring on a holohedron.--_n._ HEMIH[=E]'DRON. [Gr. _h[=e]mi-_, half, _hedra_, a seat.] HEMIOLIC, hem-i-ol'ik, _adj._ constituting the proportion of 1½ to 1, or of 3 to 2. [Gr. _h[=e]mi-_, half, _holos_, whole.] HEMIONUS, h[=e]-m[=i]'o-nus, HEMIONE, hem'i-[=o]n, _n._ the half-ass, or dziggetai. [Gr. _h[=e]mi-_, half, _onos_, an ass.] HEMIPLEGIA, hem-i-pl[=e]'ji-a, _n._ paralysis of one side of the face or body--also HEM'IPLEGY.--_adj._ HEMIPLEG'IC. [Gr. _h[=e]mi-_, half, _pl[=e]g[=e]_, a blow.] HEMIPTERA, hem-ip't[.e]r-a, _n._ an order of _Insecta_, in the classification of Linnæus: in later systems, the same as _Rhyncota_, including aphides, coccus insects, cicadas, bugs, water-scorpions, lice (_Ametabola_).--_n._ HEMIP'TER.--_adjs._ HEMIP'TERAL, HEMIP'TERAN, HEMIP'TEROUS. [Gr. _h[=e]mi-_, half, _pteron_, a wing.] HEMISPHERE, hem'i-sf[=e]r, _n._ a half-sphere: half of the globe or a map of it.--_adjs._ HEMISPHER'IC, -AL.--_n._ HEMISPH[=E]'ROID, the half of a spheroid.--_adj._ HEMISPHEROI'DAL.--EASTERN and WESTERN HEMISPHERES, the eastern and western halves of the terrestrial globe, the former including Europe, Asia, and Africa; the latter, the Americas. [Gr. _h[=e]misphairion_--_h[=e]mi-_, half, _sphaira_, a sphere.] HEMISTICH, hem'i-stik, _n._ one of the two parts of a line of poetry as divided by the cesura: half a line, an incomplete or unfinished line: an epodic line or refrain.--_adj._ HEM'ISTICHAL. [L. _hemistichium_--Gr. _h[=e]mistichion_--_h[=e]mi-_, half, _stichos_, a line.] HEMITROPE, hem'i-tr[=o]p, _n._ a form in which one part of a crystal is in reverse position with reference to the other part, a twin-crystal.--_adjs._ HEM'ITROPE, HEMIT'ROPAL, HEMITROP'IC, HEMIT'ROPOUS. HEMLOCK, hem'lok, _n._ a genus of umbelliferous plants, the most common species being the poisonous spotted hemlock, used in medicine. [A.S. _hemlic_, the second syllable a weakened form of _leác_, a plant. Cf. CHARLOCK, GARLIC.] HEMP, hemp, _n._ a plant with a fibrous bark used for cordage, coarse cloth, &c.: the fibrous rind prepared for spinning.--_adj._ HEMP'EN, made of hemp.--_ns._ HEMP'-NETT'LE, a coarse bristly annual weed of the labiate family; HEMP'-PALM, a palm of China and Japan, the fibre of the leaves of which is much employed for making cordage--hats, cloaks, and other garments are also made from it; HEMP'-SEED, Mrs Quickly's word for homicide (_Shak._, _2 Henry IV._, II. i. 64).--_adj._ HEMP'Y, like hemp: roguish: romping.--_n._ (_Scot._) a rogue.--HEMPEN COLLAR, and CAUDLE (_Shak._), the hangman's noose; HEMPEN WIDOW, the widow of a man who has been hanged. [A.S. _henep_, _hænep_--L. _cannabis_--Gr. _kannabis_.] HEN, hen, _n._ the female of any bird, esp. of the domestic fowl.--_ns._ HEN'BANE, a coarse annual or biennial herb of the nightshade family, poisonous, esp. to domestic fowls; HEN'COOP, a coop or large cage for domestic fowls; HEN'-DRIV'ER, HEN'-HARR'IER, a species of falcon, the common harrier.--_adj._ HEN'-HEART'ED, timid as a hen: cowardly.--_ns._ HEN'-HOUSE, a house, coop, or shelter for fowls; HEN'-HUSS'Y, a man who meddles with women's affairs; HEN'-MOULD, a black, spongy soil; HEN'NERY, a place where fowls are kept.--_adj._ HEN'NY, like a hen, feathered.--_v.t._ HEN'PECK, of a wife, to domineer over her husband.--_n._ the subjection of a husband to his wife.--_adj._ HEN'PECKED, weakly subject to his wife.--_ns._ HENPECK'ERY, the state of being henpecked; HEN'-ROOST, a place where poultry roost at night; HEN'WIFE, HEN'-WOM'AN, a woman who has the charge of poultry. [A.S. _henn_--_hana_, a cock; Ger. _hahn_, fem. _henne_.] HENCE, hens, _adv._ from this place or time: in the future: from this cause or reason: from this origin.--_interj._ away! begone!--_advs._ HENCE'FORTH, HENCEFOR'WARD, from this time forth or forward. [M. E. _hennes_, _henne_--A.S. _heonan_, from the base of he; Ger. _hinnen_,_hin_, hence; so L. _hinc_, hence--_hic_, this.] HENCHMAN, hensh'man, _n._ a servant: a page. [Not from _haunch-man_, but from A.S. _hengest_, a horse (Ger. _hengst_), and man.] HEND, hend, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to seize, to grasp. [_Hand._] HENDECAGON, hen-dek'a-gon, _n._ a plane figure of eleven angles and eleven sides.--_adj._ HENDECAG'ONAL. [Gr. _hendeka_, eleven, _g[=o]nia_, an angle.] HENDECASYLLABLE, hen'dek-a-sil-a-bl, _n._ a metrical line of eleven syllables.--_adj._ HENDECASYLLAB'IC. [Gr. _hendeka_, eleven, _syllab[=e]_, a syllable.] HENDIADYS, hen-d[=i]'a-dis, _n._ a rhetorical figure in which one and the same notion is presented in two expressions, as 'with might and main'=by main strength. [Gr. _hen dia dyoin_, lit. 'one by two.'] HENEQUEN, hen'[=e]-ken, _n._ a fibre known as sisal-hemp, used for ships' cables, obtained chiefly from _Agave Ixtli_ of Yucatan, also the plant itself.--Also HEN'EQUIN, HEN'IQUIN. [Sp. _jeniquen_.] HENNA, hen'a, _n._ a small Oriental shrub of the loosestrife family, with fragrant white flowers: a pigment made from the shrub for dyeing the nails and hair. [Ar. _henna_.] HENOTHEISM, hen'[=o]-th[=e]-izm, _n._ the ascribing of supreme power to some one of several gods in turn: the belief in a special supreme god over a particular people--a national or relative monotheism.--_adj._ HENOTHEIST'IC. [Gr. _heis_ (_hen-_), one, _theos_, god, and suff. _-ism_.] HENOTIC, hen-ot'ik, _adj._ tending to unify or reconcile. [Gr. _hen[=o]tikos_--_heis_, one.] HENRY, hen'ri, _n._ (_electr._) the practical unit of self-induction--from Joseph _Henry_, American physicist (1797-1878). HENT, hent (_Spens._), _pa.t._ of _hend_.--_n._ hold. HENT, hent, _v.t._ to clear, go beyond. [A.S. _hentan_, to seize.] HEP, hep, _n._ See _Hip_, the fruit of the dog-rose. HEP, hep, _interj._ a cry said to come down from the Crusaders' time, often the cry of the mob in an outrage on the Jews--more probably an abbreviation of _Hebrew_ than formed from the initials of _Hierosolyma est perdita_=Jerusalem is destroyed. HEPAR, h[=e]'par, _n._ the name given by the older chemists to various compounds of sulphur, from their brown, liver-like colour.--_adj._ HEPAT'IC, belonging to the liver.--_ns.pl._ HEPAT'ICA, medicines which affect the liver and its appendages; HEPAT'ICÆ, the liver-worts, a sub-class of bryophytic or moss-like plants.--_n._ HEPATIS[=A]'TION, consolidation of tissue, as of the lungs in pneumonia, resulting in a liver-like solidification.--_v.t._ HEP'ATISE, to convert into a substance resembling liver.--_ns._ HEP'AT[=I]TE, a variety of barium sulphate or barite, with a characteristic stink; HEPAT[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the liver; HEP'ATOCELE, hernia of the liver; HEPATOL'OGIST, a specialist in diseases of the liver; HEPATOL'OGY, the science of, or a treatise on, the liver; HEPATORRHOE'A, a morbid flow of bile; HEPATOS'COPY, divination by inspection of the livers of animals. [Gr. _h[=e]par_, _h[=e]p[)a]tos_, the liver.] HEPTACHORD, hep'ta-kord, _n._ in Greek music, a diatonic series of seven tones, containing five whole steps and one half-step: an instrument with seven strings. HEPTADE, hep'tad, _n._ the sum or number of seven: (_chem._) an atom, radical, or element having a combining power of seven. [Fr.,--Gr. _heptas_, _heptados_--_hepta_, seven.] HEPTAGLOT, hep'ta-glot, _adj._ in seven languages.--_n._ a book in seven languages. [Gr. _heptagl[=o]ttos_--_hepta_, seven, _gl[=o]tta_, _gl[=o]ssa_, tongue.] HEPTAGON, hep'ta-gon, _n._ a plane figure with seven angles and seven sides.--_adj._ HEPTAG'ONAL. [Gr. _heptag[=o]nos_, seven-cornered--_hepta_, seven, _g[=o]nia_, an angle.] HEPTAGYNIA, hept-a-jin'i-a, _n._ an order of plants having seven styles.--_adj._ HEPTAG'YNOUS. [Gr. _hepta_, seven, _gyn[=e]_, a woman.] HEPTAHEDRON, hep-ta-h[=e]'dron, _n._ a solid figure with seven faces or sides.--_adjs._ HEPTAH[=E]'DRAL, HEPTAHED'RICAL; HEPTAHEXAH[=E]'DRAL, having seven ranges of faces one above another, each range containing six faces. [Gr. _hepta_, seven, _hedr[=a]_, a seat, a base.] HEPTAMERIDE, hep-tam'e-rid, _n._ anything consisting of seven parts.--_adj._ HEPTAM'EROUS (_bot._), consisting of seven members or parts. HEPTAMERON, hep'tam-e-ron, _n._ a book containing the transactions of seven days, esp. the 72 stories supposed to be told in seven days, bearing the name of Queen Margaret of Navarre (1492-1549). [Gr. _hepta_, seven, _h[=e]mera_, a day.] HEPTAMETER, hep'tam-e-t[.e]r, _n._ a verse of seven measures. [Gr. _hepta_, seven, _metron_, measure.] HEPTANDRIA, hept-an'dri-a, _n._ a class of plants having seven stamens.--_adj._ HEPTAN'DROUS. [Gr. _hepta_, seven, an[=e]r, _andros_, a man.] HEPTANGULAR, hept-ang'g[=u]-lar, _adj._ having seven angles. [Gr. _hepta_, seven, and _angular_.] HEPTAPHYLLOUS, hep-ta-fil'us, _adj._ having seven leaves. HEPTAPODY, hep-tap'o-di, _n._ a verse of seven feet.--_adj._ HEPTAPOD'IC. HEPTARCHY, hep'tär-ki, _n._ a government by seven persons: the country governed by seven: a period in the Saxon history of England--a misleading term in any other meaning than merely this, that the chief kingdoms at various periods from the 5th to the 9th century were seven--Wessex, Sussex, Kent, Essex, East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria.--_ns._ HEP'TARCH, HEP'TARCHIST.--_adj._ HEPTAR'CHIC. [Gr. _hepta_, seven, _arch[=e]_, sovereignty.] HEPTASPERMOUS, hep-ta-sper'mus, _adj._ having seven seeds. HEPTASYLLABIC, hep-ta-si-lab'ik, _adj._ seven-syllabled, like the second half of the elegiac pentameter. HEPTATEUCH, hep'ta-t[=u]k, _n._ a word sometimes used for the first seven books of the Old Testament--formed on the analogy of Pentateuch and Hexateuch. [Gr. _hepta_, seven, _teuchos_, an instrument, a volume.] HER, h[.e]r, _pron._ objective and possessive case of _she_.--_adj._ belonging to a female. [M. E. _here_--A.S. _hire_, gen. and dat. sing. of _heó_, she.] HERACLEAN, HERACLEIAN, her-a-kl[=e]'an, _adj._ pertaining to Hercules.--_adj._ HERACL[=I]'DAN, HERACLEI'DAN, pertaining to the Heracleidæ or descendants of Heracles (Hercules), the aristocracy of Sparta.--_n._ HERACLID', one claiming such descent. HERALD, her'ald, _n._ in ancient times, an officer who made public proclamations and arranged ceremonies: in medieval times, an officer who had charge of all the etiquette of chivalry, keeping a register of the genealogies and armorial bearings of the nobles: an officer whose duty is to read proclamations, to blazon the arms of the nobility, &c.: a proclaimer: a forerunner: the red-breasted merganser, usually HER'ALD-DUCK.--_v.t._ to introduce, as by a herald: to proclaim.--_adj._ HERAL'DIC, of or relating to heralds or heraldry.--_adv._ HERAL'DICALLY.--_ns._ HER'ALDRY, the art or office of a herald: the science of recording genealogies and blazoning coats of arms; HER'ALDSHIP.--HERALDS' COLLEGE (see COLLEGE). [O. Fr. _herault_; of Teut. origin, Old High Ger. _hari_ (A.S. _here_, Ger. _heer_), an army, and _wald_=_walt_, strength, sway.] HERB, h[.e]rb, _n._ a plant the stem of which dies every year, as distinguished from a tree or shrub which has a permanent stem.--_adj._ HERB[=A]'CEOUS, pertaining to, or of the nature of, herbs: (_bot._) having a soft stem that dies to the root annually.--_n._ HERBAGE (h[.e]rb'[=a]j, or [.e]rb'[=a]j), green food for cattle: pasture: herbs collectively.--_adjs._ HERB'AGED, covered with grass; HERB'AL, pertaining to herbs.--_n._ a book containing descriptions of plants with medicinal properties, orig. of all plants.--_ns._ HERB'ALIST, one who makes collections of herbs or plants: one skilled in plants; HERB'AR (_Spens._), an herb; HERB[=A]'RIAN, a herbalist; HERB[=A]'RIUM, a classified collection of preserved herbs or plants:--_pl._ HERB[=A]'RIUMS, HERB[=A]'RIA; HERB'ARY, a garden of herbs; HERB'-BENN'ET (see AVENS).--_adjs._ HERBES'CENT, growing into herbs, becoming herbaceous; HERBIF'EROUS, bearing herbs.--_n._ HERB'IST, a herbalist.--_n.pl._ HERBIV'ORA, a name loosely applied to hoofed quadrupeds.--_n.sing._ HERB'IVORE.--_adjs._ HERBIV'OROUS, eating or living on herbaceous plants; HERB'LESS.--_ns._ HERB'LET (_Shak._), a small herb; HERB'-OF-GRACE', or -REPENT'ANCE, the common rue, the vervain; HERBORIS[=A]'TION, the seeking for plants: (_min._) the figure of plants.--_v.i._ HERB'ORISE, to search for plants: to botanise.--V.T. to form plant-like figures in, as in minerals.--_n._ HERB'ORIST, a herbalist.--_adjs._ HERB'OUS, HERB'OSE, abounding with herbs.--_ns._ HERB'-PAR'IS, Paris quadrifolia, related to wake-robin; HERB'-P[=E]'TER, the cowslip or primrose; HERB'-ROB'ERT, a common kind of geranium; HERB'-TRIN'ITY, the pansy.--_adj._ HERB'Y, of or pertaining to herbs. [Fr. _herbe_--L. _herba_, akin to Gr. _phorb[=e]_, pasture--_pherbein_, to feed.] HERCULANEAN, her-k[=u]-l[=a]'n[=e]-an, _adj._ of or pertaining to _Herculaneum_, the ancient Roman city buried with Pompeii by the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 A.D. HERCULEAN, h[.e]r-k[=u]'l[=e]-an, _adj._ of or pertaining to _Hercules_: extremely difficult or dangerous, as the twelve labours of the Greek hero Hercules: of extraordinary strength and size.--HERCULES BEETLE, a gigantic Brazilian lamellicorn beetle, 6 in. long, with a long horn on the head of the male and a smaller one on the thorax; HERCULES' CHOICE, toil and duty chosen in preference to ease and pleasure--from a famous story in Xenophon's _Memorabilia_; HERCULES CLUB, a stick of great size and weight; PILLARS OF HERCULES, the name given by the ancients to two rocks flanking the entrance to the Mediterranean at the Strait of Gibraltar. HERCYNIAN, her-sin'i-an, _adj._ of or pertaining to the forest-covered mountain region of northern Germany--apart the Harz Mountains. HERD, h[.e]rd, _n._ a number of beasts feeding together, and watched or tended: any collection of beasts, as distinguished from a flock: a company of people, the rabble.--_v.i._ to run in herds.--_v.t._ to tend, as a herdsman.--_ns._ HERD, one who tends a herd; HERD'GROOM (_Spens._), a shepherd-lad; HERDS'-GRASS, timothy-grass; HERDS'MAN, a man employed to herd or tend cattle--(_B._) HERD'MAN. [A.S. _hirde_, _hierde_; Ger. _heerde_, Sw. _hjord_.] HERDIC, her'dik, _n._ a low-hung two or four wheeled carriage with back entrance and side seats. [From the inventor, Peter _Herdic_ of Pennsylvania.] HERE, h[=e]r, _adv._ in this place: in the present life or state.--_advs._ HERE'ABOUT, also -ABOUTS, about this place; HEREAF'TER, after this, in some future time or state.--_n._ a future state.--_advs._ HERE'AT, at or by reason of this; HERE'AWAY (_coll._), hereabout; HEREBY', not far off: by this; HEREIN', in this: in regard to this; HEREINAF'TER, afterward in this (document, &c.):--opp. to HEREINBEFORE'; HEREOF', of this: as a result of this; HEREON', on or upon this; HERETO', till this time: for this object; HERETOFORE', before this time: formerly; HEREUNTO' (also -UN'-), to this point or time; HEREUPON', on this: in consequence of this; HEREWITH', with this.--HERE AND THERE, in this place, and then in that: thinly: irregularly; HERE GOES! an exclamation indicating that the speaker is about to do something; HERE YOU ARE (_coll._), this is what you want; NEITHER HERE NOR THERE, of no special importance. [A.S. _hér_, from base of _hé_, he; Dut. and Ger. _hier_, Sw. _här_.] HEREDITY, he-red'i-ti, _n._ the organic relation between generations, esp. between parents and offspring: the transmission of qualities from the parents or ancestors to their offspring.--_adj._ HERED'ITABLE, that may be inherited.--_ns._ HEREDIT'AMENT, all property of whatever kind that may pass to an heir.--_adv._ HERED'ITARILY.--_n._ HERED'ITARINESS, the quality of being hereditary.--_adj._ HERED'ITARY, descending by inheritance: transmitted from parents to their offspring. [L. _hereditas_, the state of an heir--_heres_, _her[=e]dis_, an heir.] HERESY, her'e-si, _n._ the adoption and maintaining opinions contrary to the authorised teaching of the religious community to which one naturally belongs: an opinion adopted for one's self in opposition to the usual belief: heterodoxy.--_ns._ HERESIARCH (her'e-si-ärk, or he-r[=e]'zi-ärk), a leader in heresy, a chief among heretics; HERESIOG'RAPHER, one who writes about heresies; HERESIOG'RAPHY, a treatise on heresies; HERESIOL'OGIST, a student of, or writer on, heresies; HERESIOL'OGY, the study or the history of heresies; HER'ETIC, the upholder of a heresy.--_adj._ HERET'ICAL.--_adv._ HERET'ICALLY.--_v.t._ HERET'ICATE, to denounce as heretical. [O. Fr. _heresie_--L. _hæresis_--Gr. _hairesis_--_hairein_, to take.] HERIOT, her'i-ot, _n._ (_Eng. law_) a kind of fine due to the lord of a manor on the death of a person holding land of the manor, and consisting of the best beast, jewel, or chattel that belonged to the deceased.--_adj._ HER'IOTABLE. [A.S. _heregeatu_, a military preparation--_here_, an army, _geatwe_, apparatus.] HERISSON, her'i-son, _n._ a beam turning on a pivot and supplied with sharp spikes, for the defence of a gate, &c.: (_her._) a hedgehog.--_adj._ HÉRISSÉ, bristled. [A doublet of _urchin_.] HERITABLE, her'i-ta-bl, _adj._ that may be inherited.--_n._ HERITABIL'ITY.--_adv._ HER'ITABLY.--_n._ HER'ITOR, in Scotland, a landholder in a parish.--HERITABLE PROPERTY (_Scots law_), real property, as opposed to movable property or chattels; HERITABLE SECURITY, same as English mortgage. [O. Fr. _heritable_, _hereditable_---Low L. _hereditabilis_--L. _hereditas_.] HERITAGE, her'it-[=a]j, _n._ that which is inherited: inherited lot, condition of one's birth: (_B._) the children (of God). [O. Fr. _heritage_, _heriter_--Late L. _heredit[=a]re_, to inherit.] HERLING, her'ling, _n._ the young of the sea-trout. HERMÆ. See HERMES. HERMANDAD, [.e]r-man-dad', _n._ a confederation of the entire burgher class of Spain for police and judicial purposes, formed in 1282, and formally legalised in 1485. [Sp., 'brotherhood,' _hermano_--L. _germanus_, kindred.] HERMAPHRODITE, h[.e]r-maf'rod-[=i]t, _n._ an animal or a plant in which the two sexual characteristics are united: an abnormal individual in whom are united the properties of both sexes.--_adj._ uniting the distinctions of both sexes.--_ns._ HERMAPH'RODISM, HERMAPH'RODITISM, the union of the two sexes in one body.--_adjs._ HERMAPHRODIT'IC, -AL, pertaining to a hermaphrodite: partaking of both sexes.--HERMAPHRODITE BRIG, a brig square-rigged forward and schooner-rigged aft. [L.,--Gr. _Hermaphrod[=i]tos_, the son of _Herm[=e]s_ and _Aphrodit[=e]_, who, when bathing, grew together with the nymph Salmacis into one person.] HERMENEUTIC, -AL, h[.e]r-me-n[=u]'tik, -al, _adj._ interpreting: explanatory: exigetical.--_adv._ HERMENEU'TICALLY.--_n.sing._ HERMENEU'TICS, the science of interpretation or exegesis, esp. of the Scriptures.--_n._ HERMENEU'TIST, one versed in hermeneutics. [Gr. _herm[=e]neu'tikos_--_herm[=e]neus_, an interpreter, from _Herm[=e]s_, Mercury, the god of art and eloquence.] HERMES, h[.e]r'm[=e]z, _n._ the herald and messenger of the gods of Greek mythology, patron of herdsmen, arts, and thieves: a head or bust on a square base, often double-faced:--_pl._ HERMÆ (her'm[=e]): the Egyptian Thoth, identified with the Greek Hermes. HERMETIC, -AL, h[.e]r-met'ik, -al, _adj._ belonging in any way to the the beliefs current in the Middle Ages under the name of _Hermes_, the Thrice Great: belonging to magic or alchemy, magical: perfectly close.--_adv._ HERMET'ICALLY.--_n.pl._ HERMET'ICS, the philosophy wrapped up in the Hermetic books, esoteric science: alchemy.--HERMETICALLY SEALED, closed completely, said of a glass vessel, the opening of which is closed by melting the glass. [From _Herm[=e]s Trismegistos_, Hermes 'the thrice-greatest,' the Greek name for the Egyptian god Thoth, who was god of science, esp. alchemy.] HERMIT, h[.e]r'mit, _n._ one who retires from society and lives in solitude or in the desert for purposes of devotion: one of certain animals of solitary habit.--_ns._ HER'MIT[=A]GE, HER'MITARY, the dwelling of a hermit: a retired abode: a wine produced near Valence, in Drôme; HER'MIT-CRAB, the name of a family of crustaceans notable for their habit of sheltering themselves in gasteropod shells.--_adj._ HERMIT'ICAL, relating to a hermit. [M. E. _eremite_, through Fr. and L. from Gr. _er[=e]mit[=e]s_--_er[=e]mos_, solitary.] HERN. Same as HERON. HERN, a provincial form for _hers_. HERNIA, h[.e]r'ni-a, _n._ a protrusion, through an abnormal or accidental opening, of the abdominal viscera, the condition popularly called _rupture_.--_adjs._ HER'NIAL; HER'NIATED; HER'NIOID.--_ns._ HERNIOL'OGY, the branch of surgery which treats of ruptures; HERNIOT'OMY, the operation of cutting for hernia. [L.] HERNSHAW, h[.e]rn'shaw, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as HERONSHAW. HERO, h[=e]'r[=o], _n._ a man of distinguished bravery: any illustrious person: the principal figure in any history or work of fiction: (_orig._) a demigod:--_fem._ HEROINE (her'[=o]-in).--_adj._ HER[=O]'IC, becoming a hero: courageous: illustrious: daring, rash.--_n._ a heroic verse: (_pl._) extravagant phrases, bombast.--_adj._ HER[=O]'ICAL.--_adv._ HER[=O]'ICALLY--(_Milt._) HER[=O]'ICLY.--_ns._ HER[=O]'ICALNESS, HER[=O]'ICNESS.--_adjs._ HER[=O]'ICOMIC, -AL, consisting of a mixture of heroic and comic: designating the high burlesque.--_ns._ HER'OISM, the qualities of a hero: courage: boldness; H[=E]'ROSHIP, the state of being a hero; H[=E]'RO-WOR'SHIP, the worship of heroes: excessive admiration of great men.--HEROIC AGE, the semi-mythical period of Greek history, when the heroes or demigods were represented to have lived among men; HEROIC MEDICINES, such as either kill or cure; HEROIC SIZE, in sculpture, larger than life, but less than colossal; HEROIC VERSE, the style of verse in which the exploits of heroes are celebrated (in classical poetry, the hexameter; in English and German, the iambic of ten syllables; in French, the alexandrine). [Through O. Fr. and L. from Gr. _h[=e]r[=o]s_; akin to L. _vir_, A.S. _wer_, a man, Sans. _víra_, a hero.] HERODIANS, he-r[=o]'di-ans, _n.pl._ a political rather than religious party among the Jews of the apostolic age, adherents of the family of _Herod_. Herod was represented as a swaggering tyrant in the old dramatic performances--hence 'to out-herod Herod' (_Shak._)--to exceed in bombast and passionate grandiloquence. HERON, her'un, _n._ a large screaming water-fowl, with long legs and neck.--_n._ HER'ONRY, a place where herons breed. [O. Fr. _hairon_--Old High Ger. _heigir_.] HERONSHAW, her'un-shaw, _n._ a young heron. [Properly _heronswewe_ (O. Fr. _herounçel_), which was confounded with the old form _hernshaw_, a heronry, from _heron_, and _shaw_, a wood.] HERPES, h[.e]r'p[=e]z, _n._ the name of a group of diseases of the skin, characterised by the presence of clusters of vesicles on an inflamed base--_Catarrhal herpes_ and _Herpes zoster_ or _Shingles_.--_adj._ HERPET'IC, relating to or resembling herpes: creeping. [Gr. _herp[=e]s_--_herpein_, to creep.] HERPESTES, her-pes'tez, _n._ the typical genus of ichneumons or mongooses of the sub-family _Herpestinæ_, viverroid carnivores, having straight toes, claws not retractile. [Gr.] HERPETOLOGY, her-pet-ol'oj-i, _n._ the branch of natural history which treats of reptiles.--_adjs._ HER'PETOID, serpent-like; HERPETOLOG'IC, -AL, pertaining to herpetology.--_adv._ HERPETOLOG'ICALLY.--_n._ HERPETOL'OGIST, one versed in herpetology. HERR, her, _n._ lord, master, the German term of address equivalent to Mr. [Ger.] HERRING, her'ing, _n._ a common small sea-fish of great commercial value, found moving in great shoals or multitudes.--_adj._ HERR'ING-BONE, like the spine of a herring, applied to a kind of masonry in which the stones slope in different directions in alternate rows.--_ns._ HERR'INGER, one whose employment is to catch herring; HERR'ING-FISH'ERY; HERR'ING-POND, the ocean, esp. the Atlantic or the English Channel.--HERRING-BONE STITCH, a kind of cross-stitch used in embroidery, in mending sails, &c.--KIPPERED HERRING, herring smoked and preserved; RED HERRING, herring cured and dried, and having as the result a red appearance. [A.S. _h['æ]ring_, _héring_; cf. Ger. _häring_, _heer_.] HERRNHUTER, hern'hut-[.e]r, _n._ one of the Moravians or United Brethren, so called from their settlement in 1722 at _Herrnhut_ in Saxony. HERRY, a Scotch form of _harry_.--_n._ HERR'YMENT, harassment. HERS, h[.e]rz, _pron._ possessive of _she_. HERSAL, h[.e]r'sal, _n._ (_Spens._) rehearsal. HERSE, h[.e]rs, _n._ (_fort._) a portcullis: a species of cheval-de-frise.--_adj._ HERSED, arranged in harrow form. [_Hearse_.] HERSELF, h[.e]r-self', _pron._ the emphatic form of _she_ in the nominative or objective case: in her real character: having the command of her facilities, sane. HERSHIP, h[.e]r'ship, _n._ the carrying off of cattle: (_Scot._) foray. [_Here_, army, or stem of A.S. _herjan_, to harry; cf. Ice. _herskapr_, warfare--_herr_, army, and _-skapr_, -ship.] HERY, h[=e]'ri, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to praise, to regard as holy. [A.S. _herian_, to praise.] HESITATE, hez'i-t[=a]t, _v.i._ to stop in making a decision: to be in doubt: to stammer.--_v.t._ (_rare_) to express with hesitation.--_ns._ HES'ITANCY, HESIT[=A]'TION, wavering: doubt: stammering.--_adj._ HES'ITAN'T, hesitating.--_adv._ HES'IT[=A]TINGLY.--_adj._ HES'IT[=A]TIVE, showing hesitation.--_n._ HES'IT[=A]TOR, one who hesitates.--_adj._ HES'IT[=A]TORY, hesitating. [L. _hæsit[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, freq. of _hær[=e]re_, _hæsum_, to stick.] HESPER, hes'p[.e]r, HESPERUS, hes'p[.e]r-us, _n._ the Greek name for Venus as the evening-star.--_adj._ HESP[=E]'RIAN, of Hesperus or the west. [L.,--Gr. _hesperos_, evening.] HESPERIDES, hes-per'[=i]-d[=e]z, _n.pl._ the name of the three sisters who guarded in their delightful gardens the golden apples which Hera, on her marriage with Zeus, had received from Gæa. HESPERORNIS, hes-per-[=o]r'nis, _n._ an extinct form of bird, the remains of which have been met with in the American cretaceous deposits. [Gr. _hesperos_, western, _ornis_, a bird.] HESSIAN, hesh'i-an, _adj._ of or pertaining to Hesse.--_n._ a native of Hesse: (_pl._) short for HESSIAN BOOTS, a kind of long boots first worn by Hessian troops.--HESSIAN FLY, a dipterous insect, in its larval state attacking stems of barley, wheat, and rye. [From _Hesse_, a grand-duchy of the German Empire.] HEST, hest, _n._ (_Shak._) behest, command. [A.S. _h['æ]s_, a command--_hátan_, to command.] HESTERNAL, hes-ter'nal, _adj._ of yesterday. HESVAN, hes'van, _n._ the second month of the Jewish civil year.--Also HESH'VAN. [Heb.] HESYCHAST, hes'i-kast, _n._ one of a mystic and contemplative sect of the Greek Church in the 14th century, whose members may be described as the Quietists of the East.--_n._ HES'YCHASM, their doctrines and practice. [Gr. _h[=e]sychast[=e]s_--_h[=e]sychos_, quiet.] HETÆRA, he-t[=e]'ra, HETAIRA, he-t[=i]'ra, _n._ in Greece, a woman employed in public or private entertainment, as flute-playing, dancing, &c.: a paramour or courtesan.--_ns._ HETÆ'RISM, HETAIRISM (-t[=i]'), concubinage, open commerce between the sexes; HETÆROC'RACY, the rule of courtesans.--_n._ HETAI'RIST, one who practises hetærism.--adj. HETAIRIST'IC. [Gr. _hetaira_, fem. of _hetairos_, a companion.] HETERARCHY, het'e-rär-ki, _n._ foreign rule. HETERAUXESIS, het-e-rawk-s[=e]'sis, _n._ (_bot._) irregular or unsymmetrical growth. HETEROBLASTIC, het-er-o-blas'tik, _adj._ derived from different cells:--opposed to _Homoblastic_. [Gr. _heteros_, other, _blastos_, bud, germ.] HETEROCARPOUS, het-e-ro-kar'pus, _adj._ (_bot._) bearing fruit of two sorts. HETEROCERCAL, het-er-o-s[.e]r'kal, _adj._ having the upper fork of the tail different from or longer than the lower, as the shark:--opposed to _Homocercal_.--_n._ HET'EROCERCY. [Gr. _heteros_, different from, _kerkos_, the tail.] HETEROCHROMOUS, het-e-ro-kr[=o]'mus, _adj._ (_bot._) having different members unlike in colour. HETEROCHRONY, het-e-rok'ro-ni, _n._ (_biol._) a divergence in ontogenetic sequence affecting the time of formation of parts or organs--also HETEROCHR[=O]'NIA.--_adj._ HETEROCHRON'IC.--_n._ HETEROCH'RONISM.--_adjs._ HETEROCHRONIST'IC; HETEROCH'RONOUS. HETEROCLITE, het'er-o-kl[=i]t, _adj._ irregularly inflected: irregular--also HETEROCLIT'IC, -AL.--_n._ HET'EROCL[=I]TE, a word irregularly inflected: anything irregular.--_adj._ HETEROC'LITOUS. [Gr. _heteroklitos_--_heteros_, other, _klitos_, inflected--_klinein_, to inflect.] HETERODACTYL, het-e-ro-dak'til, _adj._ having the digits irregular or peculiar in size, form, or position.--Also HETERODAC'TYLOUS. HETERODONT, het'er-o-dont, _adj._ having different kinds of teeth:--opposed to _Homodont_.--_n.pl._ HETERODONT'A, an order of bivalves with hinge-teeth (cardinal and lateral) fitting into corresponding cavities in the opposite valve. [Gr. _heteros_, other, _odous_, _odont-_, a tooth.] HETERODOX, het'er-o-doks, _adj._ holding an opinion other or different from the one generally received, esp. in theology: heretical.--_n._ HET'ERODOXY, heresy. [Gr. _heterodoxos_--_heteros_, other, _doxa_, an opinion--_dokein_, to think.] HETEROECISM, het-e-r[=e]'sizm, _n._ the development, as of some parasitic fungi, of different stages of existence on different host-plants.--_adjs._ HETEROE'CIOUS, HETEROECIS'MAL. [Gr. _heteros_, other, _oikos_, a house.] HETEROGAMOUS, het-e-rog'a-mus, _adj._ (_bot._) bearing two kinds of flowers which differ sexually, as in most Compositæ, &c.--_n._ HETEROG'AMY. [Gr. _heteros_, other, _gamos_, marriage.] HETEROGENEOUS, het-er-o-j[=e]'ne-us, _adj._ of another race or kind: dissimilar: composed of different kinds or parts--also HETEROG[=E]N'EAL (_rare_):--opposed to _Homogeneous_.--_ns._ HETEROGEN[=E]'ITY, HETEROG[=E]N'EOUSNESS.--_adv._ HETEROG[=E]N'EOUSLY. [Gr. _heterogen[=e]s_--_heteros_, other, _genos_, a kind.] HETEROGENESIS, het-er-[=o]-gen'e-sis, _n._ (_biol._) spontaneous generation, abiogenesis: generation in which the offspring differs in structure and habit from the parent animal or plant, the ancestral characteristics, however, ultimately reappearing--_Xenogenesis_ and _Alternate generation_ are other names--also HETEROG'ENY.--_adj._ HETEROGENET'IC. [Gr. _heteros_, other, _genesis_, generation.] HETEROGONOUS, het-e-rog'[=o]-nus, _adj._ (_bot._) having flowers dimorphous or trimorphous as to the relative length of stamens and styles, an adaptation for cross-fertilisation. [Gr. _heteros_, other, _gonos_, generation.] HETEROGRAPHY, het-e-rog'ra-fi, _n._ heterogeneous spelling.--_adj._ HETEROGRAPH'IC. HETEROLOGY, het-er-ol'oj-i, _n._ abnormality, want of true morphological affinity.--_adj._ HETEROL'OGOUS. [Gr. _heteros_, other, _logia_, relation.] HETEROMEROUS, het-e-rom'e-rus, _adj._ diversiform. [Gr. _heteros_, other, _meros_, a part.] HETEROMORPHIC, het-e-ro-mor'fik, _adj._ deviating in form from a given type--also HETEROMOR'PHOUS.--_ns._ HETEROMOR'PHISM; HETEROMOR'PHY. [Gr. _heteros_, other, _morph[=e]_, form.] HETERONOMOUS, het-er-on'o-mus, _adj._ differentiated from a common type: subject to the rule of another.--_n._ HETERON'OMY, subordination to law imposed by another:--opposed to _Autonomy_. [Gr. _heteros_, other, _nomos_, law.] HETERONYM, het'er-o-nim, _n._ a word spelled like another, but with a different sound and meaning, as _lead_, to guide; _lead_, the metal.--_adj._ HETERON'YMOUS.--_n._ HETERON'YMY. [Gr. _heteros_, other, _onoma_, a name.] HETEROÖUSIAN. See HETEROUSIAN. HETEROPATHY, het-e-rop'a-thi, _n._ allopathy.--_adj._ HETEROPATH'IC. HETEROPHEMY, het-e-ro-f[=e]'mi, _n._ the saying of one thing when another is meant.--_v.i._ HETEROPH[=E]'MISE.--_ns._ HETEROPH[=E]'MISM; HETEROPH[=E]'MIST.--_adj._ HETEROPHEMIS'TIC. [Gr. _heteros_, other, _ph[=e]m[=e]_, a saying.] HETEROPHYLLOUS, het'er-o-fil'us, _adj._ (_bot._) having two different kinds of leaves on the same stem. [Gr. _heteros_, other, _phyllon_, a leaf.] HETEROPLASIA, het-e-ro-pl[=a]'si-a, _n._ the development of abnormal tissue by diseased action.--_adj._ HETEROPLAS'TIC.--_n._ HETEROPLAS'TY. [Gr. _heteros_, other, _plasis_, a forming.] HETEROPODA, het-er-op'o-da, _n.pl._ pelagic gasteropods in which the 'foot' has become a swimming organ.--n. HET'EROPOD, one of the Heteropoda. [Gr. _heteros_, other, _pous_, _podos_, a foot.] HETEROPTERA, het-e-rop'te-ra, _n.pl._ a sub-order of _Hemiptera_.--_adj._ HETEROP'TEROUS. [Gr. _heteros_, other, _pteron_, a wing.] HETEROPTICS, het-e-rop'tiks, _n._ perverted vision. [Gr. _heteros_, other, _optikos_, optic] HETEROSCIAN, het-e-rosh'i-an, _adj._ and _n._ pertaining to a person living on one side of the equator, as contrasted with one living on the other side. [Gr. _heteros_, other, _skia_, a shadow.] HETEROSOMATA, het-e-ro-s[=o]'ma-ta, _n.pl._ the flat-fishes.--_adj._ HETEROS[=O]'MATOUS. [Gr. _heteros_, different, _s[=o]ma_, pl. _s[=o]mata_, a body.] HETEROSPOROUS, het-e-ro-sp[=o]'rus, _adj._ having more than one kind of asexually produced spores. [Gr. _heteros_, other, _sporos_, seed.] HETEROSTROPHIC, het-e-r[=o]-strof'ik, _adj._ reversed in direction.--_n._ HETEROS'TROPHY. [Gr. _heteros_, other, _stroph[=e]_, a turning.] HETEROSTYLED, het'e-r[=o]-st[=i]ld, _adj._ same as HETEROGONOUS (q.v.).--_n._ HETEROSTYL'ISM. [Gr. _heteros_, other, _stylos_, a pillar.] HETEROTAXIS, het-er-o-tak'sis, _n._ anomalous arrangement of organs.--_adj._ HETEROTAX'IC. [Gr. _heteros_, other, _taxis_, arrangement.] HETEROTOMOUS, het-er-ot'o-mus, _adj._ (_min._) having a cleavage different from the common variety. [Gr. _heteros_, other, _tom[=e]_, a cutting.] HETEROTOPY, het-e-rot'o-pi, _n._ misplacement.--_adj._ HETEROT'OPOUS. [Gr. _heteros_, other, _topos_, place.] HETEROTROPHY, het-e-rot'rof-i, _n._ (_bot._) an abnormal mode of obtaining nutrition. [Gr. _heteros_, other, _troph[=e]_, food.] HETEROUSIAN, het'e-r[=oo]-zi-an, _n._ and _adj._ one who believes the Father and Son to be unlike in substance or essence:--opposed to _Homoöusian_: an Arian.--Also HETEROÖU'SIAN. [Gr. _heteros_, other, _ousia_, substance, _einai_, to be.] HETMAN, het'man, _n._ the title of the head or general of the Cossacks. [Russ.] HEUGH, HEUCH, h[=u]h, _n._ (_Scot._) a crag, a glen with steep sides. [See HOW, a hill.] HEULANDITE, h[=u]'lan-d[=i]t, _n._ a mineral of the zeolite group--from H. _Heuland_, an English mineralogist. HEURISTIC, h[=u]-ris'tik, _adj._ serving to find out.--_n._ the art of discovery in logic: the method in education by which the pupil is set to find out things for himself. [From the root of Gr. _heuriskein_, to find; also spelt _euriskein_. See EUREKA.] HEW, h[=u], _v.t._ to cut with any sharp instrument: to cut in pieces: to shape.--_v.i._ to deal blows with a cutting instrument:--_pa.p._ hewed, or hewn.--_n._ (_Spens._) hacking.--_n._ HEW'ER, one who hews. [A.S. _héawan_; Ger. _hauen_.] HEXACHORD, hek'sa-kord, _n._ a diatonic series of six notes, having a semitone between the third and fourth. [Gr. _hex_, six, _chord[=e]_, a string.] HEXAD, hek'sad, _n._ a series of six numbers: (_chem._) an element or radical with the combining power of six units--i.e. of six atoms of hydrogen. HEXADACTYLOUS, hek-sa-dak'ti-lus, _adj._ having six fingers or toes.--_n._ HEXADAC'TYLISM. HEXAËMERON, hek-sa-[=e]'me-ron, _n._ a period of six days, esp. that of the creation, according to Genesis: a history of the six days of creation. [Late Gr. _hexa[=e]meros_--_hex_, six, _h[=e]mera_, a day.] HEXAGON, heks'a-gon, _n._ a figure with six sides and six angles.--_adj._ HEXAG'ONAL.--_adv._ HEXAG'ONALLY.--_v.t._ HEX'AGONISE. [Gr. _hexag[=o]non_--_hex_, six, _g[=o]nia_, an angle.] HEXAGYNIA, hek-sa-jin'i-a, _n._ in the Linnæan system an order of plants having six styles.--_adjs._ HEXAGYN'IAN, HEXAG'YNOUS. HEXAHEDRON, heks-a-h[=e]'dron, _n._ a cube, a regular solid with six sides or faces, each of these being a square.--_adj._ HEXAH[=E]'DRAL. [Gr. _hex_, six, _hedra_, a base.] HEXAMETER, hek-sam'et-[.e]r, _n._ a verse of six measures or feet, the first four dactyls or spondees, the fifth a dactyl (sometimes a spondee), the sixth a spondee or trochee.--_adj._ having six metrical feet.--_adjs._ HEXAMET'RIC, -AL.--_n._ HEXAM'ETRIST, a writer of hexameters. [L.,--Gr. _hex_, six, _metron_, a measure.] HEXANDRIA, heks-an'dri-a, _n._ a Linnæan class of plants having six stamens.--_adj._ HEXAN'DRIAN. [Gr. _hex_, six, _an[=e]r_, _andros_, a man, male.] HEXANGULAR, hek-sang'g[=u]-lar, _adj._ having six angles. HEXAPETALOUS, hek-sa-pet'a-lus, _adj._ having six petals. HEXAPHYLLOUS, hek-sa-fil'us, _adj._ having six leaves or leaflets. [Gr. _hex_, six, _phyllon_, a leaf.] HEXAPLA, heks'a-pla, _n._ an edition of the Bible in six versions, as that made by Origen of the Old Testament.--_adj._ HEX'APLAR. [Gr. _hexapla_, pl. neut. of _hexaplous_, sixfold.] HEXAPOD, heks'a-pod, _n._ an animal with six feet.--_n._ HEXAP'ODY, a line or verse of six feet. [Gr. _hexapous_, _-podos_--_hex_, six, _pous_, a foot.] HEXASTICH, heks'a-stik, _n._ a poem or stanza of six lines. [Gr. _hexastichos_--_hex_, six, _stichos_, a line.] HEXASTYLE, heks'a-st[=i]l, _adj._ having six columns, of a portico or temple having six columns in front. [Gr. _hexastylos_--_hex_, six, _stylos_, a pillar.] HEXATEUCH, heks'a-t[=u]k, _n._ the first six books of the Old Testament.--_adj._ HEX'ATEUCHAL. [From Gr. _hex_, six, and _teuchos_, a book.] HEY, h[=a], _interj._ expressive of joy or interrogation.--_interj._ HEY'DAY, expressive of frolic, exultation, or wonder.--_n._ exaltation of the spirits: the wild gaiety of youth: period of fullest vigour.--_n._ HEY'DEGUY (_Spens._), a country dance or round.--_interjs._ HEY'-GO-MAD, expressing a high degree of excitement; HEY'-PASS (_Milt._), an expression used by jugglers during their performance. [Imit.] HEYDUCK. See HAIDUK. HI! h[=i], _interj._ expressing wonder or derision, or calling attention. HIATUS, h[=i]-[=a]'tus, _n._ a gap: an opening: a chasm: a break in continuity, a defect: (_gram._) a concurrence of vowel sounds in two successive syllables. [L.,--_hi[=a]re_, _hi[=a]tum_, to gape.] HIBERNATE, h[=i]'b[.e]r-n[=a]t, _v.i._ to winter: to pass the winter in torpor: to live in seclusion.--_ns._ HIBER'NACLE, a winter covering; HIBERNAC'ULUM, any part of a plant protecting an embryonic organ during the winter.--_adj._ HIBER'NAL, belonging to winter: wintry.--_n._ HIBERN[=A]'TION, the state of torpor in which many animals pass the winter. [L. _hibern[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_hibernus_, wintry--_hiems_, winter.] HIBERNIAN, h[=i]-b[.e]r'ni-an, _adj._ relating to Hibernia or Ireland.--_n._ an Irishman.--_ns._ HIBER'NIANISM, HIBER'NICISM, an Irish idiom or peculiarity.--_adv._ HIBER'NICALLY.--_v.t._ HIBER'NIC[=I]SE, to render Irish.--_n._ HIBERNIS[=A]'TION, a making Irish. [L. _Hibernia_, Ireland.] HIBISCUS, h[=i]-bis'kus, _n._ a genus of malvaceous plants, mostly tropical. [L.,--Gr. _hibiscos_, mallow.] HIC, hik, _interj._ a syllable expressing the sound made by one affected with a drunken hiccup. HICCATEE, HICATEE, hik-a-t[=e]', _n._ a fresh-water tortoise of Central America. HICCUP, hik'up, _n._ the involuntary contraction of the diaphragm, while the glottis is spasmodically closed: the sound caused by this--also, but erroneously, HIC'COUGH.--_v.i._ to be affected with hiccup.--_v.t._ to say with a hiccup:--_pr.p._ hicc'upping; _pa.p._ hicc'upped.--_adj._ HICC'UPY, marked by hiccups. [Imit.; cf. Dut. _hik_, Dan. _hikke_, Bret. _hik_. The spelling _hiccough_ is due to a confusion with _cough_.] HICKORY, hik'or-i, _n._ a genus (_Carva_) of North American nut-bearing trees, with heavy strong tenacious wood, used for shafts of carriages, handles of axes, &c. [_Pohickery_; of Indian origin.] HICKWALL, hik'-wal, _n._ (_prov._) the green woodpecker. HID, HIDDEN. See HIDE. HIDALGO, hi-dal'g[=o], _n._ a Spanish nobleman of the lowest class.--_adj._ HIDAL'GOISH.--_n._ HIDAL'GOISM. [Sp., _hijo de algo_, 'the son of something.'] HIDE, h[=i]d, _v.t._ to conceal: to keep in safety.--_v.i._ to lie concealed:--_pa.t._ hid; _pa.p._ hid'den, hid.--_adj._ HID'DEN, concealed: unknown.--_adv._ HID'DENLY, in a hidden or secret manner: privily--(_Scot._) HID'LINS.--_adj._ HID'DENMOST, most hidden.--_n._ HID'DENNESS.--_ns._ HIDE'-AND-SEEK', a children's game, where one seeks the others who have hid themselves; HIDE'AWAY, a fugitive.--_adj._ that hides away.--_n._ HID'ING, a place of concealment [A.S. _hýdan_, to hide; cf. Low Ger. _hûden_, Gr. _keuthein_.] HIDE, h[=i]d, _n._ the skin of an animal, esp. the larger animals, sometimes used derogatorily for human skin.--_v.t._ to flog or whip.--_adj._ HIDE'-BOUND, having the hide closely bound to the body, as in animals: in trees, having the bark so close that it impedes the growth: stubborn, bigoted, obstinate.--_n._ HID'ING, a thrashing. [A.S. _hýd_; Ger. _haut_, L. _cutis_.] HIDE, h[=i]d, _n._ in old English law, a certain area of land, from 60 to 100 acres.--_n._ HID'AGE, a tax once assessed on every hide of land. [A.S. _híd_, contracted from _hígid_--_híw-_, _híg-_, household.] HIDEOUS, hid'e-us, _adj._ frightful: horrible: ghastly.--_ns._ HIDEOS'ITY, HID'EOUSNESS.--_adv._ HID'EOUSLY. [O. Fr. _hideus_, _hisdos_--_hide_, _hisde_, dread, prob.--L. _hispidus_, rough, rude.] HIDROTIC, hid-rot'ik, _adj._ sudorific.--_n._ a sudorific. HIE, h[=i], _v.i._ to hasten.--_v.t._ to urge on: pass quickly over:--_pr.p._ hie'ing; _pa.p._ hied. [A.S. _hígian_.] HIE, HIGH, h[=i], _n._ (_prov._) the call to a horse to turn to the left:--opposite of HUP. HIELAMAN, h[=i]'la-man, _n._ the native Australian narrow shield of bark or wood. HIEMS, h[=i]'emz, _n._ (_Shak._) winter.--_adj._ H[=I]'EMAL.--_v.t._ H[=I]'EMATE.--_n._ HIEM[=A]'TION, hibernation. [L.] HIERACOSPHINX, h[=i]-er-[=a]'ko-sfingks, _n._ See SPHINX. HIERA-PICRA, h[=i]'e-ra-pik'ra, _n._ a purgative drug from aloes and canella bark.--Also _Hickery-pickery_, _Higry-pigry_. [Gr. _hiera_, fem. of _hieros_, sacred, _pikra_, fem. of _pikros_, bitter.] HIERARCH, h[=i]'[.e]r-ärk, _n._ a ruler in sacred matters.--_adjs._ HI'ERARCHAL, HIERARCH'ICAL.--_adv._ HIERARCH'ICALLY.--_ns._ H[=I]'ERARCHISM; H[=I]'ERARCHY, rule in sacred matters: persons that so rule: the body of the clergy: a government by priests: a series of successive terms of different rank; HIEROC'RACY, government by priests.--CELESTIAL HIERARCHY, the collective body of angels, grouped in three divisions and nine orders of different power and glory: (1) seraphim, cherubim, thrones; (2) dominations or dominions, virtues, powers; (3) principalities, archangels, angels. [Gr. _hierarch[=e]s_--_hieros_, sacred, _archein_, to rule.] HIERATIC, h[=i]-[.e]r-at'ik, _adj._ sacred: relating to priests, applying to a certain kind of ancient Egyptian writing, which consisted of abridged forms of hieroglyphics; also to certain styles in art. [L. _hieraticus_--Gr. _hieratikos_--_hieros_, sacred.] [Illustration] HIEROGLYPHIC, h[=i]-[.e]r-o-glif'ik, also H[=I]'EROGLYPH, _n._ the sacred characters of the ancient Egyptian language: picture-writing, or writing in which figures of objects are employed instead of conventional signs, like the alphabet--hieroglyphics are either _phonetic_ or _ideographic_, the former comprising signs which represent sounds, the latter those which represent ideas: any symbolical or enigmatical figure.--_v.t._ H[=I]'EROGLYPH, to represent by hieroglyphs.--_adjs._ HIEROGLYPH'IC, -AL.--_adv._ HIEROGLYPH'ICALLY.--_n._ HIEROG'LYPHIST, one skilled in hieroglyphics. [Gr. _hieroglyphikon_--_hieros_, sacred, _glyphein_, to carve.] HIEROGRAM, h[=i]'er-o-gram, _n._ a hieroglyphic symbol.--_adjs._ HIEROGRAMMAT'IC, -AL.--_ns._ HIEROGRAM'MATIST, HIEROGRAM'MATE, a writer of sacred records; H[=I]'EROGRAPH, a sacred symbol; HIEROG'RAPHER, a sacred scribe.--_adjs._ HIEROGRAPH'IC, -AL, pertaining to sacred writing.--_n._ HIEROG'RAPHY, a description of sacred things. [Gr. _hieros_, sacred, _gramma_, a writing.] HIEROLATRY, h[=i]-er-ol'a-tri, _n._ the worship of saints or sacred things. HIEROLOGY, h[=i]-[.e]r-ol'o-ji, _n._ the science of sacred matters, esp. ancient writing and Egyptian inscriptions.--_adj._ HIEROLOG'IC.--_n._ HIEROL'OGIST. [Gr. _hierologia_--_hieros_, sacred, _legein_, to speak.] HIEROMANCY, h[=i]-er-o-man'si, _n._ divination by observing the objects offered in sacrifice. HIERONYMIC, h[=i]-e-r[=o]-nim'ik, _adj._ of or pertaining to St Jerome--also HIERONYM'IAN.--_n._ HIERON'YMITE, one of the many hermit orders established in the course of the 13th and 14th centuries. [L. _Hieronymus_, Jerome.] HIEROPATHIC, h[=i]-er-o-path'ik, _adj._ consisting in love of the clergy. HIEROPHANT, h[=i]'[.e]r-o-fant, _n._ one who shows or reveals sacred things: a priest.--_adj._ HIEROPHANT'IC, belonging to or relating to hierophants. [Gr. _hierophant[=e]s_--_hieros_, sacred, _phainein_, to show.] HIEROSCOPY, h[=i]-er-os'ko-pi, _n._ the same as hieromancy. HIEROSOLYMITAN, h[=i]-e-r[=o]-sol'i-m[=i]-tan, _adj._ of or pertaining to Jerusalem. [L. _Hierosolyma_, Jerusalem.] HIERURGY, h[=i]'er-ur'ji, _n._ a sacred performance.--_adj._ HIERUR'GICAL. HIGGLE, hig'l, _v.i._ to make difficulty in bargaining: to chaffer.--_v.i._ HIGG'LE-HAGG'LE, a reduplicated variant of _higgle_.--_ns._ HIGG'LER; HIGG'LING. [Prob. a form of _haggle_.] HIGGLEDY-PIGGLEDY, hig'l-di-pig'l-di, _adv._ and _adj._ topsy-turvy: (_coll._) upside down. [A word coined to express a meaningless jumble.] HIGH, h[=i], _adj._ elevated: lofty: tall: elevated relatively to something, as upward from a base, in position from the mouth of a river, &c.: eminent in anything: exalted in rank: dignified: chief: noble: ostentatious: arrogant: proud: strong, intensified: extreme in opinion: powerful: angry: loud: violent: tempestuous: shrill: excellent: far advanced: difficult: dear: remote in time: slightly tainted (of game, &c.).--_adv._ aloft: eminently: powerfully: profoundly: of flesh, on the point of beginning to decay.--_ns._ HIGH'-AD'MIRAL, a high or chief admiral of a fleet; HIGH'-AL'TAR, the principal altar in a church; HIGH'-BAIL'IFF, an officer who serves writs, &c., in certain franchises, exempt from the ordinary supervision of the sheriff; HIGH'-BIND'ER (_U.S._), a rowdy, ruffian, blackmailer.--_adjs._ HIGH'-BLEST (_Milt._), supremely blest or happy; HIGH'-BLOOD'ED, of noble lineage; HIGH'-BLOWN, swelled with wind: (_Shak._) inflated, as with pride; HIGH'-BORN, of high or noble birth; HIGH'-BRED, of high or noble breed, training, or family.--_ns._ HIGH'-CHURCH, applied to a party within the Church of England, which exalts the authority of the Episcopate and the priesthood, the saving grace of sacraments, &c. (also _adj._); HIGH'-CHURCH'ISM; HIGH'-CHURCH'MAN.--_adj._ HIGH'-COL'OURED, having a strong or glaring colour.--_ns._ HIGH'-COURT, a supreme court; HIGH'-CROSS, a market cross; HIGH'-DAY, a holiday or festival: (_B._) broad daylight.--_adj._ befitting a festival.--_v.t._ HIGH'ER, to raise higher: to lift.--_v.i._ to ascend.--_n._ HIGH'-FAL[=U]'TIN, bombastic discourse.--_adj._ bombastic: pompous.--_adj._ HIGH'-FED, fed highly or luxuriously: pampered.--_ns._ HIGH'-FEED'ING; HIGH'-FLIER, a bird that flies high: one who runs into extravagance of opinion or action.--_adjs._ HIGH'-FLOWN, extravagant: elevated: turgid; HIGH'-FLY'ING, extravagant in conduct or opinion; HIGH'-GROWN (_Shak._), covered with a high growth; HIGH'-HAND'ED, overbearing: violent: arbitrary.--_n._ HIGH'-HAND'EDNESS.--_adjs._ HIGH'-HEART'ED, with the heart full of courage; HIGH'-HEELED, wearing high heels--of shoes.--_n._ HIGH'-JINKS, boisterous play or jollity: an old Scotch pastime in which persons played various parts under penalty of a forfeit.--_adj._ HIGH'-KILT'ED, wearing the kilt or petticoat high: indecorous.--_n._ and _adj._ HIGH'LAND, a mountainous district, esp. in _pl._ that portion of Scotland lying north and west of a line drawn diagonally from Nairn to Dumbarton.--_ns._ HIGH'LANDER, HIGH'LANDMAN, an inhabitant of a mountainous region; HIGH'-LOW, a high shoe fastened with a leather thong in front.--_adv._ HIGH'LY.--_n._ HIGH'-MASS (see MASS).--_adjs._ HIGH'-METT'LED, high-spirited, courageous; HIGH'-MIND'ED, having a high, proud, or arrogant mind: having honourable pride: magnanimous.--_n._ HIGH'-MIND'EDNESS.--_adjs._ HIGH'MOST, highest; HIGH'-NECKED, of a dress, cut so as to cover the shoulders and neck.--_n._ HIGH'NESS, the state of being high: dignity of rank: a title of honour given to princes.--_adj._ HIGH'-PITCHED, high-strung: haughty.--_n._ HIGH'-PLACE (_B._), an eminence on which idolatrous rites were performed by the Jews--hence the idols, &c., themselves.--_adjs._ HIGH'-PRESS'URE, applied to a steam-engine in which the steam is raised to a high temperature, so that the pressure may exceed that of the atmosphere; HIGH'-PRICED, costly.--_ns._ HIGH'-PRIEST (see PRIEST); HIGH'-PRIEST'ESS; HIGH'-PRIEST'HOOD.--_adjs._ HIGH'-PRIN'CIPLED, of high, noble, or strict principle; HIGH'-PROOF, proved to contain much alcohol: highly rectified; HIGH'-RAISED, raised aloft: elevated; HIGH'-REACH'ING, reaching upwards: ambitious.--_n._ HIGH'-ROAD, one of the public or chief roads: a road for general traffic.--_adjs._ HIGH'-SEA'SONED, made rich or piquant with spices or other seasoning; HIGH'-SIGHT'ED (_Shak._), always looking upwards; HIGH'-SOULED, having a high or lofty soul or spirit; HIGH'-SOUND'ING, pompous: ostentatious; HIGH'-SPIR'ITED, having a high spirit or natural fire: bold: daring: irascible.--_n._ HIGH'-STEP'PER, a horse that lifts its feet high from the ground.--_adjs._ HIGH'-STEP'PING, having a proud or conceited carriage or walk; HIGH'-STOM'ACHED (_Shak._), proud-spirited, lofty, obstinate; HIGH'-STRUNG, high-spirited: sensitive.--_n._ HIGHT (_Milt._), obsolete form of height.--_adj._ HIGH'-TAST'ED, having a strong, piquant taste or relish.--_n._ HIGH'-TIDE (_rare_), a great festival.--_adj._ HIGH'-TONED, high in pitch: dignified.--_ns._ HIGH'-TOP (_Shak._), a mast-head; HIGH'-TREA'SON, treason against the sovereign or state.--_adj._ HIGH'-VICED (_Shak._), enormously wicked.--_ns._ HIGH'-WA'TER, the time at which the tide is highest: the greatest elevation of the tide; HIGH'-WA'TER-MARK, the highest line so reached; HIGH'WAY, a public road on which all have right to go: the main or usual way or course; HIGH'WAYMAN, a robber who attacks people on the public way.--_adj._ HIGH'-WROUGHT, wrought with exquisite skill: highly finished: agitated.--HIGH AND DRY, of a ship, up out of the water: disabled; HIGH AND LOW, rich and poor, people of every condition; HIGH AND MIGHTY, exalted: arrogant; HIGH CELEBRATION (see CELEBRATION); HIGH LIFE, the life of fashionable society: the people of this society; HIGH LIVING, over-indulgence in the pleasures of the table; HIGH SEAS, the open sea, including the whole extent of sea so far as it is not the exclusive property of any particular country; HIGH TABLE, the table in the dining-hall of a college where the dons sit; HIGH TEA, a tea with hot meat, &c., as opposed to a plain tea.--A HIGH HAND, OR ARM, might: power: audacity; A HIGH TIME, A HIGH OLD TIME (_coll._), a time of special jollity or enthusiasm; BE HIGH TIME, to be fully time something was done that should have been done well before; BE ON ONE'S HIGH HORSE, to assume an attitude of fancied superiority: to be arrogant.--HIGHLAND COSTUME, the fillibeg or kilt, shoulder-plaid, sporran, &c.; HIGHLAND REGIMENTS, a number of regiments in the British army, wearing the Highland dress and feather-bonnet, or tartan trews and shakos.--IN HIGH FEATHER, in high spirits: happy; ON HIGH, in or to a height; ON THE HIGH ROPES (_coll._), in an elated or highly excited mood; WITH A HIGH HAND, arrogantly. [A.S. _héah_; Goth. _hauhs_, Ice. _hár_, Ger. _hoch_.] HIGHT, h[=i]t, _v.t._ to command: (_Spens._) to call, name.--_v.i._ (orig. _pass._) to be called or named, to have as a name; therefore third pers. sing., HIGHT=he was or is called. [M. E. _highte_--A.S. _hátte_, I was called, _pa.t._ of _hátan_, to call, to be called. Cf. Ger. _ich heisse_, I am named, from _heissen_, to call.] HIGHTY-TIGHTY, h[=i]'ti-t[=i]'ti, _adj._ the same as HOITY-TOITY (q.v.). HIJRA, HIJRAH. Same as HEGIRA. HILAR, h[=i]'lar, _adj._ pertaining to a hilum. HILARIOUS, hi-l[=a]'ri-us, _adj._ gay: very merry.--_adv._ HIL[=A]'RIOUSLY.--_n._ HILAR'ITY, gaiety: pleasurable excitement. [L. _hilaris_--Gr. _hilaros_, cheerful.] HILARY, hil'ar-i, _adj._ a term or session of the High Court of Justice in England; also one of the university terms at Oxford and Dublin--from St _Hilary_ of Poitiers (died 367), festival, Jan. 13. HILCH, hilch, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to hobble.--_n._ a limp. HILDEBRANDISM, hil'de-brand-izm, _n._ the spirit and policy of _Hildebrand_ (Pope Gregory VII., 1073-85), unbending assertion of the power of the Church, &c.--_adj._ HILDEBRAND'IC. HILDING, hild'ing, _n._ a mean, cowardly person, a dastard.--_adj._ cowardly, spiritless. [Prob. _hield_, to bend down.] HILL, hil, _n._ a high mass of land, less than a mountain.--_n._ HILL'-DIG'GER, one who digs into barrows, &c., for buried treasure.--_adj._ HILLED, having hills.--_ns.pl._ HILL'-FOLK, HILL'MEN, people living or hiding among the hills: the Scotch sect of Cameronians, the Covenanters generally.--_ns._ HILL'-FORT, a prehistoric stronghold; HILL'INESS; HILL'OCK, a small hill.--_adj._ HILL'OCKY.--_ns._ HILL'-SIDE, the slope of a hill; HILL'-TOP, the summit of a hill.--_adj._ HILL'Y, full of hills.--UP HILL AND DOWN DALE, vigorously and persistently. [A.S. _hyll_; cf. L. _collis_, a hill, _celsus_, high.] HILLO, hil'[=o], _interj._ Same as HALLO. HILT, hilt, _n._ the handle, esp. of a sword.--_adj._ HILT'ED, having a hilt.--UP TO THE HILT, completely, thoroughly, to the full. [A.S. _hilt_; Dut. _hilte_, Old High Ger. _helza_; not conn. with _hold_.] HILUM, h[=i]'lum, _n._ the scar on a seed at the point of union with the placenta: (_anat._) the depression at the place where ducts, vessels, and nerves enter an organ.--_adj._ H[=I]'LAR. [L.] HIM, him, _pron._ the objective case of _he_.--_pron._ HIM'SELF, the emphatic and reflective form of _he_ and _him_: the proper character of a person. [A.S. _him_, dat. sing. masc. and neut. of _he_, _it_.] HIMATION, hi-mat'i-on, _n._ the ancient Greek outer garment, oblong, thrown over the left shoulder, and fastened either over or under the right. [Gr.] HIMYARITIC, him-ya-rit'ik, _adj._ a name formerly applied to the language of the ancient Sabæan inscriptions in the south-west of Arabia. [_Himyar_, a traditional king of Yemen.] HIN, hin, _n._ a Hebrew liquid measure containing about six English quarts. [Heb.] HIND, h[=i]nd, _n._ the female of the stag or red-deer.--_n._ HIND'BERRY, the raspberry. [A.S. _hind_; Dut. and Ger. _hinde_.] HIND, h[=i]nd, _n._ a farm-servant, esp. one having charge of a pair of horses, with cottage on the farm, formerly bound to supply a female field-worker (_bondager_). [A.S. _hína_=_híwna_, gen. pl. of _híwan_, domestics.] HIND, h[=i]nd, _adj._ placed in the rear: pertaining to the part behind: backward:--opp. to _Fore_.--_adj._ HIND'ER, the older form of _hind_, but used in the same significations.--_n._ HIND'ER-END, the latter end: (_Scot._) buttocks.--_n.pl._ HIND'ERLINS (_Scot._), the buttocks.--_adjs._ HIND'ERMOST, HIND'MOST, superlative of _hind_, farthest behind; HIND'-FORE'MOST, the back part in the front place. [A.S. _hindan_ (adv.), back, _hinder_, backwards; Goth. _hindar_, Ger. _hinter_, behind.] HINDER, hin'd[.e]r, _v.t._ to put or keep behind: to stop, or prevent progress: to embarrass.--_v.i._ to be an obstacle.--_ns._ HIN'DERANCE, HIN'DRANCE, act of hindering: that which hinders: obstacle. [A.S. _hindrian_; Ger. _hindern_.] HINDI, hin'd[=e], _n._ and _adj._ one of the languages of Aryan stock now spoken in Northern India.--Also HIN'DEE. [Urd[=u], _Hind_, 'India.'] HINDU, HINDOO, hin'd[=oo], _n._ a native of Hindustan: now more properly applied to native Indian believers in Brahmanism, as opposed to Mohammedans, &c.--_ns._ HIN'DUISM, HIN'DOOISM, the religion and customs of the Hindus. [_Sindhu_, Sans. for Indus.] HINDUSTANI, HINDOOSTANEE, hin-d[=oo]-stan'[=e], _n._ a dialect of Hindi, also called _Urd[=u]_, the chief official and commercial language of India.--Also _adj._ HINGE, hinj, _n._ the hook or joint on which a door or lid hangs: that on which anything depends or turns.--_v.t._ to furnish with hinges: to bend.--_v.i._ to hang or turn as on a hinge: to depend on:--_pr.p._ hing'ing; _pa.p._ hinged.--_n._ HINGE'-JOINT (_anat._), a joint in which the bones move.--OFF THE HINGES, in a state of confusion. [Related to _hang_.] HINNY, hin'i, _n._ the offspring of a stallion and she-ass. [L. _hinnus_--Gr. _ginnos_, later _hinnos_, a mule.] HINNY, hin'i, _n._ a Scotch variant of _honey_. HINNY, hin'i, _v.i._ to neigh, whinny. HINT, hint, _n._ a distant or indirect allusion: slight mention: insinuation.--_v.t._ to bring to mind by a slight mention or remote allusion: to allude to.--_v.i._ to make an indirect or remote allusion: to allude.--_adv._ HINT'INGLY.--HINT AT, to allude to obscurely. [A.S. _hentan_, to seize.] HINTERLAND, hint'[.e]r-land, _n._ the district behind that lying along the coast, or along a river. [Ger.] HIP, hip, _n._ the haunch or fleshy part of the thigh: (_archit._) the external angle formed by the sides of a roof when the end slopes backward instead of terminating in a gable.--_v.t._ to sprain the hip:--_pr.p._ hip'ping; _pa.p._ hipped, hipt.--_ns._ HIP'-BATH, a bath to sit in--also _Sitz-bath_; HIP'-GIR'DLE, -BELT, the 14th-century sword-belt, passing diagonally from waist to hip; HIP'-GOUT, sciatica; HIP'-JOINT, the articulation of the head of the thigh-bone with the ilium; HIP'-KNOB, an ornament placed on the apex of the hips of a roof or on a gable; HIP'-LOCK, a trick in wrestling by which one throws a leg and hip before the other to throw him; HIP'PING, a napkin wrapped about an infant's hips.--_adj._ HIP'-SHOT, having the hip out of joint.--HIP-AND-THIGH, in phrase, 'smitten hip-and-thigh'=smitten both before and behind, completely overpowered.--HAVE, CATCH, ON THE HIP, to get an advantage over some one--a metaphor from the wrestling-ring. [A.S. _hype_; Goth. _hups_, Ger. _hüfte_.] HIP, hip, HEP, hep, _n._ the fruit of the wild brier or dog-rose. [A.S. _héope_, a hip.] HIP, HYP, hip, _n._ hypochondria.--_v.t._ to render melancholy.--_adjs._ HIPPED, rendered melancholy; HIP'PISH, somewhat hypochondriac. [A corr. of _hypochondria_.] HIP, hip, _interj._ an exclamation to invoke a united cheer--_Hip'-hip'-hurr'ah_. HIPPARION, hi-p[=a]'ri-on, _n._ a fossil genus of _Equidæ_. [Gr. _hipparion_, dim. of _hippos_, a horse.] HIPPETY-HOPPETY, hip'e-ti-hop'e-ti, _adv._ hopping and skipping.--_n._ HIPP'ETY-HOP. HIPPIATRIC, hip-i-at'rik, _adj._ relating to the treatment of the diseases of horses.--_n.pl._ HIPPIAT'RICS.--_ns._ HIPPIAT'RIST; HIPPIAT'RY.--_adj._ HIPP'IC, relating to horses. HIPPOCAMPUS, hip'o-kam-pus, _n._ a genus of small fishes with head and neck somewhat like those of a horse, the _sea-horse_: (_anat._) a raised curved trace on the floor of the lateral ventricle of the brain. [Gr. _hippokampos_--_hippos_, a horse, _kampos_, a sea-monster.] HIPPOCENTAUR, hip-o-sent'awr, _n._ Same as CENTAUR. [Gr. _hippos_, a horse, and _centaur_.] HIPPOCRAS, hip'o-kras, _n._ an aromatic medicated wine, formerly much used as a cordial.--_adj._ HIPPOCRAT'IC, pertaining to the Greek physician _Hippocrates_ (born 460 B.C.).--_v.t._ HIPPOC'RATISE.--_n._ HIPPOC'RATISM. HIPPOCRENE, hip'o-kr[=e]n, _n._ a fountain on the northern slopes of Mount Helicon, in Greece, sacred to the Muses and Apollo. [L.,--Gr. _hippokr[=e]n[=e]_--_hippos_, a horse, _kr[=e]n[=e]_, a fountain.] HIPPOCREPIAN, hip-o-kr[=e]'pi-an, _adj._ horse-shoe shaped. [Gr. _hippos_, a horse, _kr[=e]pis_, a shoe.] HIPPODAME, hip'o-d[=a]m, _n._ (_Spens._) the sea-horse.--_n._ HIPPOD'AMIST, a horse-tamer.--_adj._ HIPPOD'AMOUS, horse-taming. HIPPODROME, hip'o-dr[=o]m, _n._ the Greek name for a racecourse for horses and chariots: an equestrian circus: (_U.S._) a fraudulent athletic game or contest in which the result is prearranged.--_v.t._ to conduct races in such a way.--_adj._ HIPPODROM'IC.--_n._ HIPPOD'ROMIST, a circus trainer or rider. [Fr.,--Gr. _hippodromos_--_hippos_, a horse, _dromos_, a course.] HIPPOGRIFF, HIPPOGRYPH, hip'o-grif, _n._ a fabulous animal represented as a winged horse with the head of a griffin. [Fr. _hippogriffe_--Gr. _hippos_, a horse, _gryps_, a griffin.] HIPPOLOGY, hip-ol'o-ji, _n._ the study of horses.--_adj._ HIPPOLOG'ICAL.--_n._ HIPPOL'OGIST. HIPPOMANES, hip-om'an-[=e]z, _n._ an ancient love-philtre obtained from a mare or foal.--_n._ HIPP'OMANE, a genus of plants of the natural order _Euphorbiaceæ_, the manchineel-tree. [Gr.] HIPPOPATHOLOGY, hip-o-pa-thol'o-ji, _n._ the pathology of the horse: the science of veterinary medicine. [Gr. _hippos_, a horse, and _pathology_.] HIPPOPHAGY, hip-pof'a-ji, _n._ the act or practice of feeding on horse-flesh.--_n.pl._ HIPPOPH'AGI, eaters of horse-flesh.--_n._ _Hippoph'agist_, an eater of horseflesh.--_adj._ HIPPOPH'AGOUS, horse-eating. [Gr. _hippos_, a horse, _phagein_, to eat.] HIPPOPHILE, hip'o-f[=i]l, _n._ a lover of horses. HIPPOPOTAMUS, hip-o-pot'a-mus, _n._ the river-horse--an African quadruped, of aquatic habits, having a very thick skin, short legs, and a large head and muzzle.--_adj._ HIPPOPOTAM'IC (also -pot'-), like a hippopotamus, clumsy. [L.,--Gr. _hippopotamos_--_hippos_, a horse, _potamos_, a river.] HIPPOTOMY, hip-ot'o-mi, _n._ the dissection of the horse.--_adj._ HIPPOTOM'ICAL.--_n._ HIPPOT'OMIST. HIPPURIC, hip-[=u]'rik, _adj._ denoting an acid first obtained from the urine of horses. [Gr. _hippos_, a horse, _ouron_, urine.] HIPPURID, hi-p[=u]'rid, _n._ a plant of natural order _Hippurideæ_ or _Haloragaceæ_, the typical genus the common mare's tail. HIPPURITE, hip'[=u]-r[=i]t, _n._ a fossil bivalve mollusc peculiar to the cretaceous strata.--_adj._ HIPPURIT'IC. [Gr. _hippos_, a horse, _oura_, a tail.] HIPPUS, hip'us, _n._ clonic spasm of the iris. HIRCINE, h[.e]r's[=i]n, _adj._ goat-like: having a strong goatish smell.--_ns._ HIRCOCER'VUS, a fabulous creature, half-goat, half-stag; HIRCOS'ITY, goatishness. [Fr.,--L. _hircinus_--_hircus_, a he-goat.] HIRDY-GIRDY, h[.e]r'di-g[.e]r'di, _adv._ (_Scot._) in confusion. HIRE, h[=i]r, _n._ wages for service: the price paid for the use of anything.--_v.t._ to procure the use or service of, at a price: to engage for wages: to grant temporary use of for compensation: to bribe.--_adj._ HIRE'ABLE.--_ns._ HIRE'LING, a hired servant: a mercenary: a prostitute (also _adj._); HIR'ER; HIRE'-SYS'TEM, a system by which a hired article becomes the property of the hirer after a stipulated number of payments; HIR'ING, the contract of hiring--_bailment for hire_ (in Scotland, _location_): a fair or market where servants are engaged.--ON HIRE, for hiring. [A.S. _hýr_, wages, _hýrian_, to hire; Ger. _heuer_, Dut. _huur_.] HIRMOS, hir'mos, _n._ in the usage of the Greek Church, a standard troparion, forming the first stanza of a canon of odes, and serving as a model for the other stanzas:--_pl._ HIR'MOI.--_n._ HIRMOL[=O]'GION, an office-book containing the hirmoi. [Gr. _eirmos_, a series.] HIRPLE, h[.e]r'pl, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to walk or run as if lame.--_n._ a limping gait. HIRRIENT, hir'i-ent, _n._ a trilled sound. HIRSEL, hir'sel, _n._ (_Scot._) a multitude, a throng, a flock of sheep.--_v.t._ to put in different groups. HIRSLE, hir'sl, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to slide or move, resting on the hams: to move forward with a rustling sound. HIRSUTE, hir-s[=u]t', _adj._ hairy: rough: shaggy: (_bot._) having long, stiffish hairs. [L. _hirsutus_--_hirsus_, _hirtus_, shaggy.] HIRUNDINE, hi-run'din, _adj._ of or pertaining to the swallow. [L. _hirundo_, a swallow.] HIS, hiz, _pron._ possessive form of _he_: (_B._) used for _its_.--HISN, a contracted form of his own. [A.S. _his_, possessive of _he_, and originally of _it_.] HISH, hish, _v.i._ to hiss. [A by-form of _hiss_.] HISPANIC, his-pan'ik, _adj._ Spanish.--_adv._ HISPAN'ICALLY.--_vs.t._ HISPAN'ICISE, HISPAN'IOLISE, to render Spanish.--_n._ HISPAN'ICISM, a Spanish phrase. [L. _Hispania_, Spain.] HISPID, his'pid, _adj._ (_bot._) rough with or having strong hairs or bristles.--_n._ HISPID'ITY. [L. _hispidus_.] HISS, his, _v.i._ to make a sibilant sound like that of the letter s, as the goose, serpent, &c.: to express contempt, &c., by hissing.--_v.t._ to condemn by hissing.--_n._ the sound of the letter _s_, an expression of disapprobation, contempt, &c.--_n._ HISS'ING, the noise of a hiss: object of hissing: object or occasion of contempt. [Imit.] HIST, hist, _interj._ demanding silence and attention: hush! silence!--_v.t._ to urge (a dog, &c.) by making the sound of this word. [Imit.] HISTIE, his'ti, _adj._ (_Scot._) dry: barren. HISTIOID, his'ti-oid, _adj._ resembling tissue.--_adj._ HISTOGENET'IC.--_adv._ HISTOGENET'ICALLY.--_ns._ HISTOG'ENY, the formation and development of tissues--also HISTOGEN'ESIS; HISTOG'RAPHY, a description of the tissues.--_adjs._ HISTOLOG'IC, -AL, pertaining to histology.--_ns._ HISTOL'OGIST, one skilled in histology; HISTOL'OGY, the science which classifies and describes the structural or morphological elements which exist in the solids and fluids of organised bodies; HISTOL'YSIS, degeneration and decay of organic tissue.--_adj._ HISTOLYT'IC. [Gr. _histos_, web.] HISTORY, his'to-ri, _n._ an account of an event: a systematic account of the origin and progress of a nation: the knowledge of facts, events, &c.: an eventful life, a past of more than common interest, as a 'woman with a history:' a drama representing historical events.--_v.t._ (_rare_) to record.--_n._ HIS'T[=O]RIAN, a writer of history.--_adjs._ HIST[=O]'RI[=A]TED, adorned with figures, esp. of men or animals, as the medieval illuminated manuscripts, capital letters, initials &c.; HISTOR'IC, -AL, pertaining to history: containing history: derived from history: famous in history: authentic.--_adv._ HISTOR'ICALLY.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ HISTOR'ICISE, to make, or represent as, historic.--_ns._ HISTORIC'ITY, historical character; HISTORIETTE', a short history or story.--_v.t._ HISTOR'IFY, to record in history.--_n._ HISTORIOG'RAPHER, a writer of history: a professed or official historian.--_adjs._ HISTORIOGRAPH'IC, -AL, pertaining to the writing of history.--_adv._ HISTORIOGRAPH'ICALLY.--_ns._ HISTORIOG'RAPHY, the art or employment of writing history; HISTORIOL'OGY, the knowledge or study of history.--HISTORICAL METHOD, the study of a subject in its historical development; HISTORICAL PAINTING, the painting of historic scenes, or scenes in which historic figures are introduced; HISTORICAL PRESENT, the present tense used for the past, to add life and reality to the narrative, as in 'cometh' in Mark, v. 22.--ANCIENT HISTORY, the history of the world down to the fall of Rome, 476 A.D.; MEDIEVAL HISTORY, the history of the period between the fall of Rome and the beginning of the 16th century; MODERN HISTORY, history since the beginning of the 16th century; NATURAL HISTORY, originally an expression including all the concrete sciences, now the science of living things: (in frequent use) zoology, esp. in so far as that is concerned with the life and habits of animals; PROFANE, SECULAR, HISTORY, the history of secular affairs as opposed to _Sacred history_, which deals with the events in the Bible narrative. [L.,--Gr. _historia_--_hist[=o]r_, knowing; cf. _eidenai_, to know, L. _vid[=e]re_, Sans. _vid_, Eng. _wit_.] HISTRIONIC, -AL, his-tri-on'ik, -al, _adj._ relating to the stage or stage-players: befitting a theatre: feigned.--_ns._ HIS'TRIO, HIS'TRION, a stage-player.--_adv._ HISTRION'ICALLY.--_ns._ HISTRION'ICISM, HIS'TRIONISM, the acts or practice of stage-playing or of pantomime.--_n.pl._ HISTRION'ICS, play-acting.--_v.i._ HIS'TRIONISE, to act, play a part. [L. _histrionicus_--_histrio_, an actor, primary form _hister_, a player.] HIT, hit, _v.t._ to touch or strike: to reach: to suit: fit: conform to.--_v.i._ to come in contact: to chance luckily: to succeed:--_pr.p._ hit'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ hit.--_n._ a lucky chance, a surprising success: a stroke: a happy turn of thought or expression: at backgammon, a move that throws one of the opponent's men back to the entering point, a game won after one or two men are removed from the board.--_n._ HIT'TER.--_adj._ HIT'TY-MISS'Y, random, hap-hazard.--HIT BELOW THE BELT, to deal a blow disallowable in the rules of the ring: to do an injury to another unfairly; HIT IT OFF(_with_), to agree with some one; HIT OFF, to imitate, to describe; HIT-OR-MISS, reckless, hap-hazard; HIT OUT, to strike out with the fist; HIT THE NAIL ON THE HEAD (see NAIL); HIT UPON, to come upon, discover.--HARD HIT, one gravely affected by some trouble, or by love. [A.S. _hyttan_, app. Ice. _hitta_, to light on, to find; Sw. _hitta_, to find, Dan. _hitte_, to hit upon.] [Illustration] HITCH, hich, _v.i._ to move by jerks, as if caught by a hook: to be caught by a hook: to be caught or fall into.--_v.t._ to hook: to catch: to fasten, tether, esp. to make fast a rope.--_n._ a jerk: a catch or anything that holds: an obstacle: a sudden halt: (_naut._) a species of knot by which one rope is connected with another, or to some object--various knots are the _Clove-hitch_, _Timber-hitch_, _Blackwall-hitch_, &c.--_n._ HITCH'ER.--_adv._ HITCH'ILY.--_adj._ HITCH'Y.--HITCH UP, to harness a horse to a vehicle. [Ety. dub.; prob. the same as _itch_.] HITHE, h[=i]_th_, _n._ a small haven. [A.S. _hýð_.] HITHER, hi_th_'[.e]r, _adv._ to this place.--_adj._ toward the speaker: nearer.--_v.i._ to come--chiefly in phrase, 'to hither and thither'=to go to and fro.--_adj._ HITH'ERMOST, nearest on this side.--_n._ and _adj._ HITH'ERSIDE, the nearer side.--_advs._ HITH'ERTO, to this place or time: as yet; HITH'ERWARD, towards this place.--HITHER AND THITHER, back and forward: to and from. [A.S. _hider_; Goth. _hidrê_, Ice. _hêðra_.] HITOPADESA, hit-[=o]-pa-d[=e]'sa, _n._ a famous collection of fables and stories in Sanskrit literature, a popular summary in four books of the _Panchatantra_. HITTITE, hit'[=i]t, _adj._ pertaining to the Hittites, a powerful and civilised people, probably not Semitic, of northern Syria. [Heb. _Khitt[=i]m_.] HIVE, h[=i]v, _n._ a place where bees live and store up honey, whether artificial or natural: a swarm of bees in a box or basket: any busy company.--_v.t._ to collect into a hive: to lay up in store.--_v.i._ to take shelter together: to reside in a body.--_ns._ HIVE'-BEE, the common honey-bee; HIV'ER; HIVE'-NEST, a large nest built and occupied by several pairs of birds in common. [A.S. _hýf_.] HIVES, h[=i]vz, _n._ a popular term for nettle-rash and other similar skin diseases: laryngitis. HIZZ, hiz, _v.i._ to hiss. HO, HOA, h[=o], _interj._ a call to excite attention: hold! stop!--repeated it expresses derision. HOAR, h[=o]r, _adj._ white or grayish-white, esp. with age or frost: mouldy.--_n._ hoariness: age.--_v.i._ (_Shak._) to become mouldy.--_n._ HOAR'-FROST, white frost: the white particles formed by the freezing of dew.--_adjs._ HOAR'-HEAD'ED, HOAR'Y, white or gray with age: (_bot._) covered with short, dense, whitish hairs.--_adv._ HOAR'ILY.--_ns._ HOAR'INESS; HOAR'-STONE, an ancient boundary stone. [A.S. _hár_, hoary, gray; Ice. _hárr_.] HOARD, h[=o]rd, _n._ a store: a hidden stock: a treasure: a place for hiding anything.--_v.t._ to store: to amass and deposit in secret.--_v.i._ to store up: to collect and form a hoard.--_n._ HOARD'ER. [A.S. _hord_; Ice. _hodd_, Ger. _hort_.] HOARD, h[=o]rd, HOARDING, h[=o]rd'ing, _n._ a hurdle or fence enclosing a house and materials while builders are at work: any boarding on which bills are posted. [From O. Fr. _hurdis_--_hurt_, _hourt_, _hourd_, a palisade.] HOARHOUND, HOREHOUND, h[=o]r'hownd, _n._ a plant of a whitish or downy appearance, used as a tonic. [M. E. _horehune_--A.S. _hárhúne_, from _hár_, hoar or white, and _húne_ (acc. to Skeat, meaning 'strong-scented'); cf. L. _cunila_, Gr. _konil[=e]_, wild marjoram.] HOARSE, h[=o]rs, _adj._ having a harsh, grating voice, as from a cold: harsh: discordant.--_adv._ HOARSE'LY.--_n._ HOARSE'NESS. [A.S. _hás_; Ice. _háss_, this prob. for _hárs_, throwing light on the M. E. _hôrs_, _hoors_, Scot. _hairsh_, &c.] HOAST, h[=o]st, _n._ (_prov._) a cough.--_v.i._ to cough. [Ice. _hóste_; Dut. _hoest_.] HOASTMAN, h[=o]st'man, _n._ a member of an old merchant guild in Newcastle, with charge of coal-shipping, &c. [_Host_, stranger, guest.] HOATZIN, h[=o]-at'sin, _n._ a remarkable South American bird, the same as the Touraco (q.v.).--Also HOACT'ZIN, HOA'ZIN. [S. Amer.] HOAX, h[=o]ks, _n._ a deceptive trick: a practical joke.--_v.t._ to deceive: to play a trick upon for sport, or without malice.--_ns._ HOAXEE'; HOAX'ER; HOAX'ING. [Corr. of _hocus_. See HOCUS-POCUS.] HOB, hob, _n._ the projecting nave of a wheel: a projection on the side of a fireplace, on which anything may be laid to keep hot: a game in which coins are placed on the end of a short stick at which stones are thrown, those that fall head up going to the thrower--also the round stick used in this game: a hardened threaded steel mandrel used in forming the cutting ends of screw-chasing tools, &c.--_n._ HOB'NAIL, a nail with a thick, strong head, used in horse-shoes, &c.: a clownish fellow.--_v.t._ to furnish with hobnails: to trample upon with hobnailed shoes.--_adj._ HOB'NAILED. [Cf. HUB.] HOB, hob, _n._ a clownish fellow: a rustic: a fairy.--_n._ HOB'BINOLL, a rustic.--_adj._ HOB'BISH, clownish.--_n._ HOBGOB'LIN, a mischievous fairy: a frightful apparition.--PLAY HOB, to make confusion. [A corr. of _Rob_ for _Robin_, _Robert_.] HOB-A-NOB, HOB-AND-NOB. Same as HOBNOB. HOBBISM, hob'izm, _n._ the doctrine of Thomas _Hobbes_ (1588-1679), that morality is an institution of society.--_n._ HOBB'IST, a follower of Hobbes. HOBBLE, hob'l, _v.i._ to walk with a limp: to walk awkwardly: to move irregularly.--_v.t._ to fasten loosely the legs of: to hamper: to perplex.--_n._ an awkward limping gait: a difficulty, a scrape: anything used to hamper the feet of an animal, a clog or fetter.--_ns._ HOBB'LER, one who hobbles: an unlicensed pilot, casual labourer in docks, &c.: a man who tows a canal-boat with a rope; HOBB'LING.--_adv._ HOBB'LINGLY. [Cf. Dut. _hobbelen_, _hobben_, to toss.] HOBBLEDEHOY, hob'l-de-hoi', _n._ an awkward youth, a stripling, neither man nor boy.--_adj._ HOBBLEDEHOY'ISH.--_n._ HOBBLEDEHOY'ISM. [Prob. conn. with _hobble_, referring to awkward gait.] HOBBLER, hob'l[.e]r, _n._ a horseman employed for light work, as reconnoitring, &c.: a horse. [O. Fr. _hobeler_--_hobin_, a small horse.] HOBBY, hob'i, _n._ a strong, active horse: a pacing horse: a subject on which one is constantly setting off, as in 'to ride' or 'to mount a hobby:' a favourite pursuit.--_n._ HOBB'Y-HORSE, a stick or figure of a horse on which boys ride: one of the chief parts played in the ancient morris-dance: (_Shak._) a term of contempt for a loose and frivolous person, male or female.--_adj._ HOBB'Y-HOR'SICAL, having a hobby: eccentric.--_ns._ HOBB'YISM; HOBB'YIST, one who rides a hobby.--_adj._ HOBB'YLESS. [M. E. _hobyn_, _hoby_, prob. _Hob_, a by-form of _Rob_. Hence also O. Fr. _hobin_, _hobi_ (Fr. _aubin_).] HOBBY, hob'i, _n._ a small species of falcon. [O. Fr. _hobé_, _hobet_--Low L. _hobetus_; prob. O. Fr. _hober_, to move.] HOBGOBLIN. See HOB (2).--_ns._ HOBGOB'LINISM; HOBGOB'LINRY. HOBJOB, hob'job, _n._ (_prov._) an odd job.--_v.i._ to work at such.--_ns._ HOB'JOBBER; HOB'JOBBING. HOBNAIL. See HOB (1). HOBNOB, hob'nob, _adv._ have or not have, a familiar invitation to drink.--_v.i._ to associate or drink together familiarly.--_pr.p._ HOBNOB'BING.--_adj._ HOB'NOBBY. [_Hab_, _nab_.] HOBSON-JOBSON, hob'son-job'son, _n._ a native festal excitement, esp. the Moharram ceremonies. [A corr. of the wailing 'Y[=a] Hasan! Y[=a] Hosain!' a typical phrase of Anglo-Indian argot, hence adopted as a concise alternative title for Yule and Burnell's admirable _Glossary of Anglo-Indian Colloquial Words and Phrases_ (Lond. 1886).] HOCK, hok, _n._ and _v._ See HOUGH. HOCK, hok, _n._ properly, the wine made at _Hochheim_, Germany; now applied to all white Rhine wines. HOCK-DAY, hok'-d[=a], _n._ an old English festival held on the second Monday and Tuesday after Easter Sunday, one of the chief customs being the seizing and binding of passengers until they gave money for their liberty, Monday the men by the women, Tuesday the women by the men.--Also HOCK'-TIDE. HOCKEY, hok'i, _n._ a game at ball played with a club or stick curved at one end, shinty.--Also HOOK'EY. [Prob. O. Fr. _hoquet_, a crook.] HOCKEY, hok'i, _n._ (prov.) harvest-home, the harvest-supper.--Also HAWK'EY, HORK'EY. HOCKLE, hok'l, _v.t._ to hamstring. [See HOUGH.] HOCUS-POCUS, h[=o]'kus-p[=o]'kus, _n._ a juggler: a juggler's trick.--_v.t._ H[=O]'CUS, to cheat: to stupefy with drink: to drug:--_pr.p._ h[=o]'cussing; _pa.p._ h[=o]'cussed. [The meaningless gibberish of a juggler--no reference to '_hoc est corpus_.'] HOD, hod, _n._ a kind of trough borne on the shoulder, for carrying bricks and mortar: a coal-scuttle: a pewterer's blowpipe.--_n._ HOD'MAN, a man who carries a hod: a mason's labourer. [A variant of prov. _hot_; cf. Fr. _hotte_, a basket.] HODDENGRAY, hod'n-gr[=a], _n._ coarse cloth made of undyed wool.--_adj._ HODD'EN, wearing hoddengray: rustic.--_n._ hoddengray. [Prob. a form of _holden_, kept, reserved, and _gray_.] HODDLE, hod'l, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to waddle. HODGE, hoj, _n._ a countryman, rustic. [_Hodge_, corr. from _Roger_.] HODGEPODGE, hoj'poj, _n._ (see HOTCHPOTCH).--_n._ HODGE'-PUDD'ING (_Shak._), a pudding made of a mass of ingredients mixed together. HODIERNAL, h[=o]-di-[.e]rn'al, _adj._ of or pertaining to the present day. [L. _hodiernus_--_hodie_, to-day--_hoc die_, on this day.] HODMANDOD, hod'man-dod, _n._ a snail, dodman. HODOGRAPH, hod'o-graf, _n._ a curve the radius vector of which represents in direction and magnitude the velocity of a moving particle--a term suggested by Sir W. R. Hamilton. [Gr. _hodos_, a way, _graphein_, to write.] HODOMETER, ho-dom'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument attached to the axle of a vehicle to register the revolutions of the wheels. [Gr. _hodos_, a way, _metron_, a measure.] HOE, h[=o], _n._ an instrument for hewing or digging up weeds and loosening the earth.--_v.t._ to cut or clean with a hoe: to weed.--_v.i._ to use a hoe:--_pr.p._ hoe'ing; _pa.p._ hoed.--_ns._ HOE'-CAKE (U.S.), a thin cake of Indian meal; H[=O]'ER.--A HARD, or LONG, ROW TO HOE, a hard or wearisome task to perform. [O. Fr. _houe_--Old High Ger. _houwa_ (Ger. _haue_), a hoe.] HOG, hog, _n._ a general name for swine: a castrated boar: a pig: formerly slang for a shilling: a low filthy fellow.--_v.t._ to cut short the hair of:--_pr.p._ hog'ging; _pa.p._ hogged.--_ns._ HOG'-BACK, HOG'S'-BACK, a back rising in the middle: a ridge of a hill of such shape--also _Horseback_; HOG'GERY, hoggishness of character: coarseness; HOG'GET, a boar of the second year: a sheep or colt after it has passed its first year.--_adj._ HOG'GISH, resembling a hog: brutish: filthy: selfish.--_adv._ HOG'GISHLY.--_ns._ HOG'GISHNESS; HOG'HOOD, the nature of a hog; HOG'-MANE, a horse's mane clipped short; HOG'-PEN, a pig-sty; HOG'-PLUM, a West Indian tree of the cashew family, the fruit given to hogs; HOG'-REEVE, -CON'STABLE, an officer charged with the care of stray swine; HOG'-RING'ER, one who puts rings into the snouts of hogs; HOG'S'-BEAN, the henbane.--_v.t._ HOG'-SHOU'THER (_Scot._), to jostle with the shoulder.--_ns._ HOG'-SKIN, leather made of the skin of swine; HOG'S'-LARD, the melted fat of the hog; HOG'-WASH, the refuse of a kitchen, brewery, &c.--BRING ONE'S HOGS TO A FINE MARKET, to make a complete mess of something; GO THE WHOLE HOG, to do a thing thoroughly or completely, to commit one's self to anything unreservedly. [M. E. _hogge_, a gelded hog, prob. from _hack_, to cut; others derive from W. _hwch_, a sow, Bret. _houch_, _hoch_.] HOG, hog, _v.i._ to droop at both ends.--_n._ HOG'-FRAME, a fore-and-aft frame serving to resist vertical flexure in a ship.--_adj._ HOGGED, of a ship, having a droop at the ends. HOG, hog, _n._ in curling, a stone which does not pass the hog-score.--_v.t._ to play such a shot with a curling-stone.--_n._ HOG'-SCORE, a line drawn across the rink at a certain distance from the tees--to be cleared, else the shot does not count. [Prob. conn. with _hog_, a swine.] HOG, HOGG, hog, _n._ a young sheep of the second year.--Also HOG'GEREL. HOGAN, hog'an, _n._ a kind of strong liquor. [Corr. of _hogen-mogen_--Dut. _hoog en mogend_, high and mighty.] HOGGER, hog'er, _n._ (_prov._) a coal-miner's footless stocking.--_n._ HOGG'ER-PIPE, the terminal section of the discharge-pipe of a mining-pump. HOGMANAY, hog-ma-n[=a]', _n._ (_Scot._) the old name for the last day of the year. [Prob. a corr., through Norman French forms, of O. Fr. _aguilanneuf_=_au-gui-l'an-neuf_, 'to the mistletoe! the New Year!' Fr. _gui_, mistletoe, is from L. _viscum_.] HOGSHEAD, hogz'hed, _n._ (_Shak._) a large cask: a measure of capacity=52½ imperial gallons, or 63 old wine gallons; _of beer_=54 gallons; _of claret_=46 gallons; _of tobacco_ (_U.S._), varying from 750 to 1200 lb. [Corr. of Old Dut. _okshoofd_, ox-head; from the brand on the cask.] HOIDEN. See HOYDEN. HOISE, hoiz, _v.t._ to hoist. HOIST, hoist, _v.t._ to lift: to raise with tackle: to heave.--_n._ act of lifting: the height of a sail: an apparatus for lifting heavy bodies to the upper stories of a building.--HOIST WITH ONE'S OWN PETARD, beaten with one's own weapons, caught in one's own trap. [Formerly _hoise_, or _hoyse_--Old Dut. _hyssen_, Dut. _hijsschen_, to hoist.] HOITY-TOITY, hoi'ti-toi'ti, _interj._ an exclamation of surprise or disapprobation.--_adj._ giddy, gay, noisy. HOKY-POKY, h[=o]'ki-p[=o]'ki, _n._ a kind of ice-cream sold on the streets. [From _hocus-pocus_.] HOLARCTIC, hol-ärk'tik, _adj._ entirely arctic. HOLD, h[=o]ld, _v.t._ to keep possession of or authority over: to sustain: to defend: to maintain, support: to occupy: to derive title to: to bind: to confine: to restrain: to stop, as in 'to cry hold:' to continue: to persist in: to contain: to celebrate: to esteem: (_Shak._) to endure: (_arch._) to bet.--_v.i._ to remain fixed: to be true or unfailing: to continue unbroken or unsubdued: to adhere: to derive right:--_pr.p._ h[=o]ld'ing; _pa.t._ held; _pa.p._ held (_obs._ h[=o]ld'en).--_n._ act or manner of holding: seizure: power of seizing: something for support: a place of confinement: custody: a fortified place: (_mus._) a mark over a rest or note, indicating that it is to be prolonged.--_ns._ HOLD'-ALL, a general receptacle, esp. a big carpet-bag; HOLD'-BACK, a check: a strap joining the breeching to the shaft of a vehicle; HOLD'-BEAM, one of the beams crossing a ship's hold and strengthening the framework.--HOLD'EN (_B._), old _pa.p._ of _hold_.--_ns._ HOLD'ER; HOLD'-FAST, that which holds fast: a long nail: a catch; HOLD'ING, anything held: a farm held of a superior: hold: influence: (_Scots law_) tenure.--HOLD FORTH, to put forward: show: to speak in public, to declaim; HOLD HARD! stop! HOLD IN, to restrain, check: to restrain one's self; HOLD OF (_Pr. Bk._), to regard; HOLD OFF, to keep at a distance; HOLD ON, to persist in something: to continue: to cling; HOLD ONE IN HAND, to amuse in order to gain some advantage; HOLD ONE'S OWN, to maintain one's position; HOLD ONE'S PEACE, HOLD ONE'S TONGUE, to keep silence; HOLD OUT, to endure, last; HOLD OVER, to postpone, to keep possession of land or a house beyond the term of agreement; HOLD THE MARKET (see MARKET); HOLD TOGETHER, to remain united: to cohere; HOLD UP, to raise: to continue to go at the same rate; HOLD WATER, to be sound and firm, to endure trial; HOLD WITH, to take sides with. [A.S. _healdan_; Old High Ger. _haltan_, Goth. _haldan_.] HOLD, h[=o]ld, _n._ the interior cavity of a ship between the floor and the lower deck, used for the cargo. [Dut. _hol_, a cavity or hole, with excrescent d.] HOLE, h[=o]l, _n._ a hollow place: a cavity: an opening in a solid body: a pit: a subterfuge: a means of escape: a difficult situation: a scrape: a place of hiding, a mean lodging, a secret room for some disreputable business: (_golf_) one of the holes, 4 in. in diameter, into which the ball is played, also the distance between any two holes.--_v.t._ to form holes in: to drive into a hole.--_v.i._ to go into a hole.--_adj._ HOLE'-AND-COR'NER, secret: underhand.--_ns._ H[=O]LING-AXE, a narrow axe for cutting holes in posts; H[=O]LING-PICK, a pick used in under-cutting coal.--A HOLE IN ONE'S COAT, a stain on a person's reputation; PUT A PERSON IN A HOLE, to put him in a position from which he cannot easily extricate himself; TOAD IN THE HOLE, meat baked in batter, &c. [A.S. _hol_, a hole, cavern; Dut. _hol_, Dan. _hul_, Ger. _hohl_, hollow; conn. with Gr. _koilos_, hollow.] HOLE, _adj._ (_Spens._) whole. HOLIBUT. See HALIBUT. HOLIDAY, hol'i-d[=a], _n._ a consecrated day: a religious festival: a day for the commemoration of some event: a day of idleness and amusement.--_adj._ befitting a holiday: cheerful.--HOLIDAY SPEECHES, fine but empty phrases. [Formerly _holy day_.] HOLLA, hol'a, HOLLO, HOLLOA, hol'[=o], or hol-l[=o]', _interj._ ho, there! attend! (_naut._) the usual response to 'Ahoy!'--_n._ a loud shout.--_v.i._ to cry loudly to one at a distance. [Fr. _holà_--_ho_ and _là_--L. _illac_, there; the other forms are due to confusion with _halloo_.] HOLLAND, hol'and, _n._ a coarse linen fabric, unbleached or dyed brown, which is used for covering furniture, &c.: (_orig._) a fine kind of linen first made in _Holland_. HOLLANDER, hol'and-[.e]r, _n._ a native of _Holland_.--_adj._ HOLL'ANDISH.--_n._ HOLL'ANDS, gin made in Holland. HOLLOW, hol'[=o], _adj._ vacant: not solid: containing an empty space: sunken: unsound: insincere.--_n._ a hole: a cavity: any depression in a body: any vacuity: a groove: a channel.--_v.t._ to make a hole in: to make hollow by digging: to excavate.--_adv._ completely: clean.--_adjs._ HOLL'OW-EYED, having sunken eyes; HOLL'OW-HEART'ED, having a hollow or untrue heart: faithless: treacherous.--_adv._ HOLL'OWLY (_Shak._), in a hollow or insincere manner.--_ns._ HOLL'OWNESS, the state of being hollow: cavity: insincerity: treachery; HOLL'OW-WARE, trade name for hollow articles of iron, as pots and kettles.--BEAT HOLLOW, to beat wholly. [A.S. _holh_, a hollow place--_hol_. See HOLE.] HOLLY, hol'i, _n._ an evergreen shrub having leathery, shining, and spinous leaves and scarlet or yellow berries, much used for Christmas decorations. [A.S. _holegn_; cf. W. _celyn_, Ir. _cuileann_.] HOLLYHOCK, hol'i-hok, _n._ a kind of mallow, brought into Europe from the Holy Land--(_Bacon_) HOLL'Y-OAK. [M. E. _holihoc_--_holi_, holy, and A.S. _hoc_, mallows--Celtic, cf. W. _hocys_.] HOLM, h[=o]lm, or h[=o]m, _n._ a river-islet: rich flat land beside a river. [A.S. _holm_, orig. a mound; Ger. _holm_, &c.] HOLM, h[=o]lm, or h[=o]m, _n._ (_Spens._) holly.--_n._ HOLM'-OAK, the ilex or evergreen oak, so called from some resemblance to the holly. [_Holm-_ is a corr. of _holin_, the M. E. form of _holly_, which see.] HOLOBLASTIC, hol-o-blas'tik, _adj._ undergoing segmentation throughout the entire mass, as the ova of mammals. HOLOCAUST, hol'o-kawst, _n._ a burnt sacrifice, in which the whole of the victim was consumed. [L.,--Gr. _holokauston_--_holos_, whole, _kaustos_, burnt.] HOLOCRYPTIC, hol-o-krip'tik, _adj._ concealing completely, undecipherable. HOLOGRAPH, hol'o-graf, _n._ a document wholly written by the person from whom it proceeds (also used as _adj._).--_adj._ HOLOGRAPH'IC. [Gr. _holos_, whole, _graphein_, to write.] HOLOHEDRISM, hol-o-h[=e]'drizm, _n._ (_math._) the property of having the full number of symmetrically arranged planes crystallographically possible.--_adj._ HOLOH[=E]'DRAL.--_n._ HOLOH[=E]'DRON, a form possessing this property. [Gr. _holos_, whole, _hedra_, base.] HOLOMETABOLIC, hol-o-met-a-bol'ik, _adj._ undergoing complete metamorphosis, as an insect--opp. of _Ametabolic_. HOLOMETER, hol-om'et-[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for taking all kinds of measures. [Gr. _holos_, whole, _metron_, measure.] HOLOMORPHIC, hol-o-mor'fik, _adj._ (_math._) having the properties of an entire function, being finite, continuous, and one-valued for all finite values of the variable: showing holohedral symmetry. [Gr. _holos_, whole, _morph[=e]_, form.] HOLOPHOTE, hol'o-f[=o]t, _n._ an improved optical apparatus now used in lighthouses, by which all the light from the lamp is thrown in the required direction, in the _catoptric_ holophote by reflectors, in the _dioptric_ by refracting lenses, in the _catadioptric_ by both combined.--_adj._ HOLOPH[=O]T'AL. [Gr. _holos_, whole, _ph[=o]s_, _ph[=o]tos_, light.] HOLOPHRASTIC, hol-o-fras'tik, _adj._ bearing the force of a whole phrase, expressive of a sentence or an idea.--_n._ HOLOPHR[=A]'SIS. [Gr. _holos_, whole, _phrastikos_, _phrazein_, to indicate.] HOLORHINAL, hol-o-r[=i]'nal, _adj._ having the nasal bones slightly cleft or not at all. [Gr. _holos_, whole, _hris_, _hrinos_, the nose.] HOLOTHURIAN, hol-o-th[=oo]'ri-an, _n._ a sea-cucumber or similar echinoderm. [L.,--Gr. _holothourion_, from _holos_, whole, and perh. _thouros_, impetuous.] HOLP, h[=o]lp, HOLPEN, h[=o]lp'n, old _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _help_. HOLSTER, h[=o]l'st[.e]r, _n._ the leathern case carried by a horseman at the forepart of the saddle for covering a pistol.--_adj._ HOL'STERED. [Acc. to Skeat, from Dut. _holster_, a pistol-case--_hullen_, to cover, which is cog. with A.S. _helan_, to cover.] HOLT, h[=o]lt, _n._ a wood or woody hill: an orchard. [A.S. _holt_, a wood; Ice. _holt_, a copse, Ger. _holz_.] HOLUS-BOLUS, h[=o]l'us-b[=o]l'us, _adv._ all at a gulp: altogether.--_n._ the whole. [A vulgarism, formed from whole, most likely on the analogy of _hocus-pocus_; hardly conn. with _bolus_, a pill.] HOLY, h[=o]'li, _adj._ perfect in a moral sense: pure in heart: religious: set apart to a sacred use.--_adv._ H[=O]'LILY, in a holy manner: piously.--_n._ H[=O]'LINESS, state of being holy: religious goodness: sanctity: a title of the pope.--_adj._ H[=O]'LY-CRU'EL (_Shak._), cruel through excess of holiness.--_ns._ H[=O]'LY-DAY, a formal spelling of holiday (q.v.); H[=O]'LY-OFF'ICE, the Inquisition; H[=O]'LY-ROOD, the holy cross in R.C. churches over the entrance to the chancel; H[=O]'LYSTONE, a sandstone used by seamen for cleansing the decks, said to be named from cleaning the decks for Sunday.--_v.t._ to scrub with a holystone.--_ns._ H[=O]'LY-THURS'DAY, the day on which the ascension of our Saviour is commemorated, ten days before Whitsuntide; H[=O]'LY-WA'TER, water blessed by the priest or bishop for certain religious uses; H[=O]'LY-WEEK, the week before Easter, kept holy to commemorate our Lord's passion; H[=O]'LY-WRIT, the holy writings: the Scriptures.--HOLY ALLIANCE, a league formed after the fall of Napoleon (1815) by the sovereigns of Austria Russia, and Prussia, professedly to regulate all national and international relations in accordance with the principles of Christian charity; HOLY CITY, Jerusalem: also specially applied to Rome, Mecca, Benares, Allahabad, &c.; HOLY COAT, the seamless coat of Jesus, claimed to be kept at Trèves; HOLY COMMUNION (see COMMUNION); HOLY FAMILY, the infant Saviour with Joseph, Mary, &c.; HOLY GHOST, SPIRIT, the third person of the Trinity, proceeding from the Father and the Son; HOLY GRAIL (see GRAIL); HOLY GRASS, a sweet-smelling grass about a foot high, with a brownish glossy lax panicle--sometimes strewed on the floors of churches on festival days, whence its name; HOLY LAND, Palestine; HOLY OF HOLIES, THE MOST HOLY PLACE, the inner chamber of the Jewish tabernacle, which the high-priest alone might enter, and but once a year; HOLY ONE, God: Christ: the one who is holy, by way of emphasis: one separated to the service of God; HOLY ORDERS, ordination to the rank of minister in holy things: the Christian ministry; HOLY PLACES, scenes of the Saviour's life, the sepulchre, &c.; HOLY QUEST, the search for the Holy grail; HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE, the official denomination of the German Empire from 962 down to 1806, when Francis II. of Hapsburg resigned the imperial title; HOLY WAR, a name impiously given to a war for the extirpation of heresy, as that against the Albigenses, &c.: one of the Crusades. [A.S. _hálig_, lit. whole, perfect, healthy--_hál_, sound, whole; conn. with _hail_, _heal_, _whole_.] HOLYWELL, hol'i-wel, in phrase, 'Holywell Street literature,' i.e. such books as used to be much sold in _Holywell_ Street, London--viz. filthy books. HOMAGE, hom'[=a]j, _n._ the service due from a knight or vassal to his lord in feudal times, the vassal preferring to become his lord's man: the act of fealty: respect paid by external action: reverence directed to the Supreme Being: devout affection.--_n._ HOM'AGER, one who does homage. [O. Fr. _homage_--Low L. _homaticum_--L. _homo_, a man.] HOME, h[=o]m, _n._ one's house or country: place of constant residence: the residence of a family: the seat, as of war: a charitable institution where domestic comforts are given to the destitute.--_adj._ pertaining to one's dwelling or country: domestic: close: severe.--_adv._ pertaining to one's habitation or country: close: closely: to the point: effectively.--_adjs._ HOME'-BORN, native, not foreign; HOME'BOUND, homeward-bound; HOME'-BRED, bred at home: native: domestic: plain: unpolished; HOME'-BREWED, brewed at home or for home use.--_n._ HOME'-FARM, the farm near the home or mansion of a gentleman.--_adjs._ HOME'FELT, felt in one's own breast: inward: private; HOME'-GROWN, produced in one's own country, not imported; HOME'-KEEP'ING, staying at home; HOME'LESS, without a home.--_n._ HOME'LESSNESS,--_adv._ HOME'LILY.--_n._ HOME'LINESS.--_adjs._ HOME'LY, pertaining to home: familiar: plain; HOME'-MADE, made at home: made in one's own country: plain.--_n._ HOM'ER, a pigeon trained to fly home from a distance.--_adj._ HOME'SICK, sick or grieved at separation from home.--_n._ HOME'SICKNESS.--_adj._ HOME'SPUN, spun or wrought at home: not made in foreign countries: plain: inelegant.--_n._ cloth made at home.--_ns._ HOME'STALL, HOME'STEAD, the place of a mansion-house: the enclosures immediately connected with it: original station.--_advs._ HOME'WARD, HOME'WARDS, towards home: towards one's habitation or country.--_adj._ in the direction of home.--_adj._ HOME'WARD-BOUND, bound homeward or to one's native land.--_adjs._ HOM'ING, having a tendency to return home; HOM'Y, home-like.--HOME CIRCUIT, the south-eastern circuit of Assize, including the home counties (except Middlesex), also Cambridgeshire, Norfolk, and Suffolk; HOME COUNTIES, the counties over and into which London has extended--Middlesex, Hertfordshire, Essex, Kent, Surrey; HOME DEPARTMENT, that part of government which is concerned with the maintenance of the internal peace of the United Kingdom--its headquarters the HOME OFFICE, its official head the HOME SECRETARY; HOME RULE, a form of self-government claimed by Ireland, with a separate parliament for the management of internal affairs.--AT HOME, in one's own house: at ease: familiar: a phrase signifying that a family will be at home at a fixed date, and ready to receive visitors--as a _n._--a reception; BRING HOME TO, to prove to, in such a way that there is no way of escaping the conclusion: to impress upon; EAT OUT OF HOUSE AND HOME, to live at the expense of another so as to ruin him; LONG HOME, the grave; MAKE ONE'S SELF AT HOME, to be as free and unrestrained as when in one's own house; PAY HOME, to strike to the quick: to retaliate. [A.S. _hám_; Dut. and Ger. _heim_, Goth. _haims_.] HOMELYN, hom'el-in, _n._ a species of ray, found on the south coast of England. HOMEOPATHY, h[=o]-me-op'a-thi, _n._ the system of curing diseases by small quantities of those drugs which excite symptoms similar to those of the disease.--_ns._ H[=O]'MEOPATH, HOMEOP'ATHIST, one who believes in or practises homeopathy.--_adj._ HOMEOPATH'IC, of or pertaining to homeopathy.--_adv._ HOMEOPATH'ICALLY. [Gr. _homoiopatheia_--_homoios_, like, _pathos_, feeling.] HOMEOPLASY, h[=o]-m[=e]-[=o]-pl[=a]s'i, _n._ the taking on by one tissue of the form of another under plastic conditions, as in skin-grafting.--_adj._ HOMEOPLAST'IC [Gr. _homoios_, like, _plastos_--_plassein_, to form.] HOMER, h[=o]'m[.e]r, _n._ a Hebrew measure of capacity, amounting to about 10 bushels and 3 gallons. [Heb. _kh[=o]mer_, a heap--_kh[=a]mar_, to swell up.] HOMERIC, h[=o]-mer'ik, _adj._ pertaining to _Homer_, the great poet of Greece (c. 850 B.C.): pertaining to or resembling the poetry of Homer.--HOMERIC VERSE, hexameter verse, the metre of the Iliad and Odyssey. HOMICIDE, hom'i-s[=i]d, _n._ manslaughter: one who kills another.--_adj._ HOM'ICIDAL, pertaining to homicide: murderous: bloody. [Fr.,--L. _homicidium_--_homo_, a man, _cæd[)e]re_, to kill.] HOMILY, hom'i-li, _n._ a plain expository sermon, interpreting a passage of Scripture rather than working out a doctrine in detail: a hortatory discourse, essentially simple, practical, and scriptural.--_adjs._ HOMILET'IC, -AL.--_n._ HOMILET'ICS, the science which treats of homilies, and the best mode of preparing and delivering them.--_n._ HOM'ILIST, one who exhorts a congregation, or who composes homilies. [Gr. _homilia_, an assembly, a sermon--_homos_, the same, _il[=e]_, a crowd.] HOMINY, hom'i-ni, _n._ maize hulled, or hulled and crushed, boiled with water: a kind of Indian-corn porridge. [American Indian _auhuminea_.] HOMMOCK, hom'uk, _n._ a hillock or small conical eminence.--Also HUMM'OCK. [A dim. of _hump_, like _hillock_ from _hill_.] HOMO, h[=o]'m[=o], _n._ generic man. [L.] HOMOBARIC, h[=o]-m[=o]-bar'ik, _adj._ of uniform weight. [Gr. _homos_, the same, _baros_, weight.] HOMOBLASTIC, h[=o]-m[=o]-blas'tik, _adj._ of the same germinal origin:--opp. of _Heteroblastic_. [Gr. _homos_, the same, _blastos_, a germ.] HOMOCENTRIC, h[=o]-m[=o]-sen'trik, _adj._ having the same centre. [Fr. _homocentrique_--Gr. _homokentros_--_homos_, the same, _kentron_, centre.] HOMOCERCAL, h[=o]-m[=o]-s[.e]r'kal, _adj._ having the upper fork of the tail similar to the lower one, as the herring:--opposed to _Heterocercal_. [Gr. _homos_, the same, _kerkos_, tail.] HOMODERMIC, h[=o]-m[=o]-derm'ik, _adj._ homological in respect of derivation from one of the three primary blastoderms (_endoderm_, _mesoderm_, and _ectoderm_). [Gr. _homos_, the same, _derma_, skin.] HOMODONT, h[=o]-m[=o]-dont, _adj._ having teeth all alike:--opp. of _Heterodont_. HOMODROMOUS, h[=o]-mod'r[=o]-mus, _adj._ (_bot._) following the same direction, as the leaf-spirals on certain branches: (_obs._) having the power and the weight on the same side of the fulcrum, of a lever. [Gr. _homos_, the same, _dromos_, a course.] HOMOEOMORPHOUS, h[=o]-m[=e]-[=o]-mor'fus, _adj._ having a like crystalline form, but not necessarily analogous composition.--_n._ HOMOEOMOR'PHISM. [Gr. _homoios_, like, _morph[=e]_, form.] HOMOEOPATHY, &c. See HOMEOPATHY. HOMOEOZOIC, h[=o]-m[=e]-[=o]-z[=o]'ik, _adj._ containing similar forms of life. [Gr. _homos_, the same, _z[=o][=e]_, life.] HOMOGAMOUS, ho-mog'a-mus, _adj._ (_bot._) having all the florets hermaphrodite.--_n._ HOMOG'AMY. [Gr. _homos_, the same, _gamos_, marriage.] HOMOGENEAL, h[=o]-m[=o]-j[=e]'ni-al, HOMOGENEOUS, h[=o]-m[=o]j[=e]'ni-us, _adj._ of the same kind or nature: having the constituent elements all similar.--_ns._ HOMOGE'NEOUSNESS, HOMOGEN[=E]'ITY, HOM[=O]'GENY, sameness of nature or kind. [Gr. _homogen[=e]s_--_homos_, one, same, _genos_, kind.] HOMOGENESIS, h[=o]-m[=o]-jen'e-sis, _n._ (_biol._) a mode of reproduction in which the offspring is like the parent, and passes through the same cycle of existence.--_adj._ HOMOGENET'IC. [Gr. _homos_, the same, _genesis_, birth.] HOMOGRAPH, hom'[=o]-graf, _n._ a word of the same form as another, but different meaning and origin.--Also _Homonym_. HOMOIOUSIAN, h[=o]-moi-[=oo]'si-an, _adj._ similar in essence (as distinct from the Nicene _homo-ousion_ and the strictly Arian _hetero-ousion_), the semi-Arian position in the great Christological controversy of the 4th century (see ARIAN). [Gr. _homoios_, like, _ousia_, being--_einai_, to be.] HOMOLOGATE, h[=o]-mol'o-g[=a]t, _v.t._ to say the same: to agree: to approve: to allow.--_n._ HOMOLOG[=A]'TION. [Low L. _homolog[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--Gr. _homologein_--_homos_, the same, _legein_, to say.] HOMOLOGOUS, h[=o]-mol'o-gus, _adj._ agreeing: corresponding in relative position, proportion, value, or structure.--_adj._ HOMOLOG'ICAL.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ HOMOL'OGISE.--_ns._ HOM'OLOGUE, that which is homologous to something else, as the same organ in different animals under its various forms and functions; HOMOL'OGY, the quality of being homologous: affinity of structure, and not of form or use. [Gr. _homologos_--_homos_, the same, _legein_, to say.] HOMOLOGUMENA, h[=o]-m[=o]-l[=o]-g[=oo]'me-na, _n.pl._ the books of the New Testament, whose authenticity was universally acknowledged in the early Church--opp. of _Antilegumena_. [Gr.,--_homologein_, to agree.] HOMOMORPHOUS, h[=o]-m[=o]-mor'fus, _adj._ analogous, not homologous, superficially alike--also HOMOMOR'PHIC.--_n._ HOMOMOR'PHISM. [Gr. _homos_, the same, _morph[=e]_, form.] HOMONYM, hom'o-nim, _n._ a word having the same sound as another, but a different meaning.--_adj._ HOMON'YMOUS, having the same name: having different significations: ambiguous: equivocal.--_adv._ HOMON'YMOUSLY.--_n._ HOMON'YMY, sameness of name, with difference of meaning: ambiguity: equivocation. [Fr. _homonyme_--Gr. _hom[=o]nymos_--_homos_, the same, _onoma_, name.] HOMOOUSIAN, h[=o]-m[=o]-[=oo]'si-an, _adj._ of or belonging to identity or sameness of substance--the co-equality of the Son with the Father--the orthodox position which triumphed in the great Christological controversy of the 4th century (see ARIAN). [Gr. _homos_, same, _ousia_, being--_einai_, to be.] HOMOPHONE, hom'o-f[=o]n, _n._ a letter or character having the same sound as another.--_adj._ HOMOPH'ONOUS, having the same sound.--_n._ HOMOPH'ONY. [Gr. _homos_, the same, _ph[=o]n[=e]_, sound.] HOMOPLASTIC, h[=o]-m[=o]-plas'tik, _adj._ analogical or adaptive, and not homological in structure.--_ns._ HOM'[=O]PLASMY, HOM'[=O]PLASY. [Gr. _homos_, the same, _plastos_, _plassein_, to form.] HOMOPTERA, hom-op't[.e]r-a, _n._ an order of insects having two pair of wings uniform throughout.--_adj._ HOMOP'TEROUS. [Gr. _homos_, the same, _pteron_, a wing.] HOMOTAXIS, hom'o-tak'sis; _n._ (_geol._) similarity of order in organic succession, a term suggested by Huxley as a substitute for _contemporaneity_ (q.v.).--_adjs._ HOMOTAX'IAL, HOMOTAX'IC.--_adv._ HOMOTAX'ICALLY. [Gr. _homos_, the same, _taxis_, arrangement.] HOMOTONOUS, h[=o]-mot'[=o]-nus, _adj._ of the same tenor or tone.--_n._ HOMOT'ONY. HOMOTROPOUS, h[=o]-mot'r[=o]-pus, _adj._ turned or directed in the same way as something else: (_bot._) curved or turned in one direction.--Also HOMOT'ROPAL. [Gr. _homos_, the same, _tropos_, a turn.] HOMOTYPE, hom'o-t[=i]p, _n._ that which has the same fundamental type of structure with something else.--_n._ HOM'OTYPY. [Gr. _homos_, the same, _typos_, type.] HOMUNCULUS, h[=o]-mung'k[=u]-lus, _n._ a tiny man capable of being produced artificially, according to Paracelsus, endowed with magical insight and power: a dwarf, mannikin. [L., dim. of _homo_.] HONE, h[=o]n, _n._ a stone of a fine grit for sharpening instruments.--_v.t._ to sharpen as on a hone. [A.S. _hán_; Ice. _hein_; allied to Gr. _k[=o]nos_, a cone.] HONE, h[=o]n, _v.i._ to pine, moan, grieve. [Perh. Fr. _hogner_, to grumble.] HONEST, on'est, _adj._ full of honour: just: the opposite of thievish, free from fraud: frank, fair-seeming, openly shown: chaste: (_B._) honourable.--_adv._ HON'ESTLY.--_n._ HON'ESTY, the state of being honest: integrity: candour: a small flowering plant, so called from its transparent seed-pouch: (_B._) becoming deportment: (_Shak._) chastity.--MAKE AN HONEST WOMAN OF, to marry, where the woman has been dishonoured first. [Fr.,--L. _honestus_--_honor_.] HONEY, hun'i, _n._ a sweet, thick fluid collected by bees from the flowers of plants: anything sweet like honey.--_v.t._ to sweeten: to make agreeable:--_pr.p._ hon'eying; _pa.p._ hon'eyed (-'id).--_adj._ (_Shak._) sweet.--_ns._ HON'EY-BAG, an enlargement of the alimentary canal of the bee in which it carries its load of honey; HON'EYBEAR, a South American carnivorous mammal about the size of a cat, with a long protrusive tongue, which it uses to rob the nests of wild bees; HON'EY-BEE, the hive-bee; HON'EY-BUZZ'ARD, a genus of buzzards or falcons, so called from their feeding on bees, wasps, &c.; HON'EYCOMB, a comb or mass of waxy cells formed by bees, in which they store their honey: anything like a honeycomb.--_v.t._ to fill with cells: to perforate.--_adj._ HON'EYCOMBED (-k[=o]md), formed like a honeycomb.--_ns._ HON'EY-CROCK (_Spens._), a crock or pot of honey; HON'EYDEW, a sugary secretion from the leaves of plants in hot weather: a fine sort of tobacco moistened with molasses.--_adjs._ HON'EYED, HON'IED, covered with honey: sweet: flattering; HON'EYLESS, destitute of honey.--_ns._ HON'EY-GUIDE, -INDICATOR, a genus of African birds supposed to guide men to honey by hopping from tree to tree with a peculiar cry; HON'EY-L[=O]'CUST, an ornamental North American tree; HON'EYMOON, HON'EYMONTH, the first month after marriage, commonly spent in travelling, before settling down to the business of life.--_v.i._ to keep one's honeymoon.--_adj._ HON'EY-MOUTHED, having a honeyed mouth or speech: soft or smooth in speech.--_ns._ HON'EY-STALK, prob. the flower of the clover; HON'EY-SUCK'ER, a large family of Australian birds; HON'EYSUCKLE, a climbing shrub with beautiful cream-coloured flowers, so named because honey is readily sucked from the flower.--_adjs._ HON'EY-SWEET, sweet as honey; HON'EY-TONGUED, having a honeyed tongue or speech: soft or pleasing in speech.--VIRGIN HONEY, honey that flows of itself from the comb; WILD HONEY, honey made by wild bees. [A.S. _hunig_; Ger. _honig_, Ice. _hunang_.] HONG, hong, _n._ a Chinese warehouse: a foreign mercantile establishment in China. [Chin.] HONITON LACE. See LACE. HONK, hongk, _n._ the cry of the wild goose.--_v.t._ to give the cry of the wild goose. [Imit.] HONORARIUM, hon'or-[=a]'ri-um, _n._ a voluntary fee paid, esp. to a professional man for his services. [L. _honorarium_ (_donum_), honorary (gift).] HONORARY, on'or-ar-i, _adj._ conferring honour: holding a title or office without performing services or receiving a reward.--_n._ a fee. [L. _honorarius_--_honor_.] HONOUR, on'or, _n._ the esteem due or paid to worth: respect: high estimation: veneration, said of God: that which rightfully attracts esteem: exalted rank: distinction: excellence of character: nobleness of mind: any special virtue much esteemed: any mark of esteem: a title of respect: (_pl._) privileges of rank or birth: civilities paid: at whist, one of the four highest trump cards (if one pair of partners hold four honours they score four points; if three, two points; if only two, none--'Honours easy'): (_golf_) the right to play first from the tee: academic prizes or distinctions.--_v.t._ to hold in high esteem: to respect: to adore: to exalt: to accept and pay when due.--_adj._ HON'OURABLE, worthy of honour: illustrious: actuated by principles of honour: conferring honour: becoming men of exalted station: a title of distinction.--_n._ HON'OURABLENESS, eminence: conformity to the principles of honour: fairness.--_adv._ HON'OURABLY.--_adjs._ HON'OURED; HON'OURLESS.--_n._ HON'OUR-POINT (_her._), the point just above the fesse-point.--HONOUR BRIGHT! a kind of interjectional minor oath or appeal to honour; HONOURS OF WAR, the privileges granted to a capitulating force to march out with their arms, flags, &c.--AFFAIR OF HONOUR, a duel; DEBT OF HONOUR (see DEBT); LAST HONOURS, funeral rites: obsequies; LAWS OF HONOUR, the conventional rules of honourable conduct, esp. in the causes and conduct of duels; MAID OF HONOUR, a lady in the service of a queen or princess; POINT OF HONOUR, any scruple caused by a sense of duty: the obligation to demand and to receive satisfaction for an insult, esp. in the duel; UPON MY HONOUR, an appeal to one's honour or reputation in support of a certain statement; WORD OF HONOUR, a verbal promise which cannot be broken without disgrace. [Fr.,--L. _honor_.] HOOD, hood, _n._ a covering for the head: anything resembling such: a folding roof for a carriage: an ornamental fold at the back of an academic gown, and worn over it.--_v.t._ to cover with a hood: to blind.--_adj._ HOOD'ED.--_n._ HOOD'IE-CROW, the hooded crow (_Corvus cornix_).--_adj._ HOOD'LESS, having no hood.--_ns._ HOOD'MAN, the person blindfolded in blindman's buff; HOOD'MAN-BLIND (_Shak._), blindman's buff. [A.S. _hód_; Dut. _hoed_, Ger. _hut_.] HOODLUM, h[=oo]d'lum, _n._ (_U.S._) a rowdy, street bully. HOODOCK, hood'ok, _adj._ (_Scot._) miserly. HOODWINK, hood'wingk, _v.t._ to blindfold: (_Shak._) to cover: to deceive, impose on. [_Hood_, _wink_.] HOOF, h[=oo]f, _n._ the horny substance on the feet of certain animals, as horses, &c.: a hoofed animal:--_pl._ HOOFS, HOOVES.--_v.i._ (of a hoofed animal) to walk.--_adjs._ HOOF'-BOUND, having a contraction of the hoof causing lameness; HOOFED; HOOF'LESS, without hoofs,--_n._ HOOF-MARK, the mark of an animal's hoof on the ground, &c.--_adj._ HOOF'-SHAPED.--CLOVEN HOOF (see CLOVEN). [A.S. _hóf_; Ger. _huf_, Ice. _hófr_.] HOOK, hook, _n._ a piece of metal bent into a curve, so as to catch or hold anything: a snare: an advantageous hold: a curved instrument for cutting grain: a spit of land projecting into the sea, ending in a hook-shaped form.--_v.t._ to catch or hold with a hook: to draw as with a hook: to ensnare: (_golf_) to drive a ball widely to the left--also _Draw_.--_v.i._ to bend: to be curved.--_adj._ HOOKED.--_ns._ HOOK'EDNESS, the state of being bent like a hook; HOOK'ER, he who, or that which, hooks.--_adj._ HOOK'-NOSED, having a hooked or curved nose.--_n._ HOOK'-PIN, an iron pin with hooked head used for pinning the frame of a floor or roof together.--_adj._ HOOK'Y, full of, or pertaining to, hooks.--HOOK AND EYE, a contrivance for fastening dresses by means of a hook made to fasten on a ring or eye on another part of the dress; HOOK IT (_slang_), to decamp, make off.--BY HOOK OR BY CROOK, one way or the other; OFF THE HOOKS, out of gear: superseded: dead; ON ONE'S OWN HOOK, on one's own responsibility. [A.S. _hóc_; Dut. _haak_, Ger. _haken_.] HOOKAH, HOOKA, h[=oo]'ka, _n._ the water tobacco-pipe of Arabs, Turks, &c. [Ar. _huqqa_.] HOOKER, hook'[.e]r, _n._ a two-masted Dutch vessel, a small fishing-smack. [Dut. _hoeker_.] HOOLIGAN, hoo'li-gan, _n._ one of a gang of street roughs, addicted to crimes of violence--HOO'LIGANISM. [From the name of a leader of such a gang.] HOOLY, h[=oo]l'i, _adv._ (_Scot._) softly, carefully--also _adj._ HOOP, h[=oo]p, _n._ a pliant strip of wood or metal formed into a ring or band, for holding together the staves of casks, &c.: something resembling such: a large ring of wood or metal for a child to trundle: a ring: (_pl._) elastic materials used to expand the skirt of a lady's dress.--_v.t._ to bind with hoops: to encircle.--_ns._ HOOP'-ASH, a kind of ash much used for making hoops (same as _Nettle-tree_); HOOPED'-POT, a drinking-pot with hoops to mark the amount each man should drink; HOOP'ER, one who hoops casks: a cooper. [A.S. _hóp_; Dut. _hoep_.] HOOP, h[=oo]p, _v.i._ to call out.--_n._ HOOP'ER, the wild swan. [_Whoop_.] HOOPING-COUGH. See under WHOOP. HOOPOE, h[=oo]p'[=o], HOOPOO, h[=oo]p'[=oo], _n._ a genus of crested birds allied to the hornbills. [L. _upupa_; Gr. _epops_.] HOOT, h[=oo]t, _v.i._ to shout in contempt: to cry like an owl.--_v.t._ to drive with cries of contempt.--_n._ a scornful cry: the owl's cry. [Imit.; cf. Sw. _hut_, begone; W. _hwt_.] HOOVE, h[=oo]v, _n._ a disease of cattle and sheep, marked by distention of the abdomen by gas--also _Wind-dropsy_, DRUM-BELLY.--_adjs._ HOOV'EN, H[=O]'VEN. HOP, hop, _v.i._ to leap on one leg: to spring: to walk lame: to limp:--_pr.p._ hop'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ hopped.--_n._ a leap on one leg: a jump: a spring: a dance, dancing-party.--_ns._ HOP'-O'-MY-THUMB, the diminutive hero of one of Madame D'Aulnoy's famous nursery tales--'_le petit pouce_,' not to be confounded with the English Tom Thumb; HOP'PER, one who hops: a shaking or conveying receiver, funnel, or trough in which something is placed to be passed or fed, as to a mill: a boat having a movable part in its bottom for emptying a dredging-machine: a vessel in which seed-corn is carried for sowing; HOP'PING, the act of one who hops or leaps on one leg; HOP'-SCOTCH, a game in which children hop over lines scotched or traced on the ground.--HOP, SKIP, AND JUMP, a leap on one leg, a skip, and a jump with both legs; HOP THE TWIG (_slang_), to escape one's creditors: to die. [A.S. _hoppian_, to dance; Ger. _hüpfen_.] HOP, hop, _n._ a plant with a long twining stalk, the bitter cones of which are much used in brewing and in medicine.--_v.t._ to mix with hops.--_v.i._ to gather hops:--_pr.p._ hop'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ hopped.--_ns._ HOP'BIND (corrupted into _Hopbine_), the stalk of the hop; HOP'-FLEA, a small coleopterous insect, very destructive to hop plantations in spring; HOP'-FLY, a species of Aphis, or plant-louse, injurious to hop plantations; HOP'-OAST, a kiln for drying hops.--_adj._ HOPPED, impregnated with hops.--_ns._ HOP'PER, HOP'-PICK'ER, one who picks hops; a mechanical contrivance for stripping hops from the vines; HOP'PING, the act of gathering hops: the time of the hop harvest; HOP'-POCK'ET, a coarse sack for hops--as a measure, about 1½ cwt. of hops; HOP'-POLE, a slender pole supporting a hop-vine.--_adj._ HOP'PY, tasting of hops.--_ns._ HOP'-TREE, an American shrub, with bitter fruit, a poor substitute for hops; HOP'-VINE, the stock or stem of the hop; HOP'-YARD, a field where hops are grown. [Dut. _hop_; Ger. _hopfen_.] HOPE, h[=o]p, _v.i._ to cherish a desire of good with expectation of obtaining it: to have confidence.--_v.t._ to desire with expectation or with belief in the prospect of obtaining.--_n._ a desire of some good, with expectation of obtaining it: confidence: anticipation: he who, or that which, furnishes ground of expectation: that which is hoped for.--_adj._ HOPE'FUL, full of hope: having qualities which excite hope: promising good or success.--_adv._ HOPE'FULLY.--_n._ HOPE'FULNESS.--_adj._ HOPE'LESS, without hope: giving no ground to expect good or success: desperate.--_adv._ HOPE'LESSLY.--_n._ HOPE'LESSNESS.--_adv._ H[=O]P'INGLY.--HOPE AGAINST HOPE, to continue to hope when there is no sufficient reason. [A.S. _hopian_--_hopa_, hope; Dut. _hopen_, Ger. _hoffen_.] HOPE, h[=o]p, _n._ a hollow, a mound: the upper end of a narrow mountain-valley: a comb--common in north country place-names. HOPLITE, hop'l[=i]t, _n._ a heavy-armed Greek foot-soldier. [Gr. _hoplit[=e]s_.] HOPPLE, hop'l, _v.t._ to tie the feet close together to prevent hopping or running.--_n._ (chiefly in _pl._) a fetter for horses, &c., when left to graze. [A parallel form to _hobble_, a freq. of _hop_.] HORAL, h[=o]r'al, _adj._ relating to an hour.--_adj._ HOR'ARY, pertaining to an hour: noting the hours: hourly: continuing an hour. [L. _hora_, an hour.] HORATIAN, h[=o]-r[=a]'shan, _adj._ pertaining to _Horace_, the Latin poet (65-8 B.C.), or to his style. HORDE, h[=o]rd, _n._ a migratory or wandering tribe or clan.--_v.i._ to live together as a horde.--GOLDEN HORDE (see GOLDEN). [Fr.,--Turk. _ord[=u]_, camp--Pers. _[=o]rd[=u]_, court, camp, horde of Tatars.] HORDEUM, hor'd[=e]-um, _n._ a genus of plants of order _Gramineæ_, with twelve species.--_adj._ HORDE[=A]'CEOUS, barley-like.--_n._ HORD[=E]'OLUM, a sty on the edge of the eyelid. [L., barley.] HOREHOUND. See HOARHOUND. HORIZON, ho-r[=i]'zun, _n._ the circular line formed by the apparent meeting of the earth and sky--in astronomical phrase, the _sensible_, _apparent_, or _visible horizon_, as opposed to the _astronomical_, _true_, or _rational_ horizon, the circle formed by a plane passing through the centre of the earth, parallel to the sensible horizon, and produced to meet the heavens: (_geol._) a stratum marked by the presence of a particular fossil not found in the overlying or underlying beds: any level line or surface: the limit of one's experience or apprehension.--_adj._ HORIZON'TAL, pertaining to the horizon: parallel to the horizon: level: near the horizon: measured in a plane of the horizon.--_n._ HORIZONTAL'ITY.--_adv._ HORIZON'TALLY.--ARTIFICIAL HORIZON, a small trough containing quicksilver, the surface of which affords a reflection of the celestial bodies. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _horiz[=o]n_ (_kyklos_), bounding (circle), _horizein_, to bound--_horos_, a limit.] HORN, horn, _n._ the hard substance projecting from the heads of certain animals, as oxen, &c.: something made of or like a horn, as a powder-horn, a drinking-horn: a symbol of strength: (_mus._) a hunting-horn: an orchestral wind-instrument of the trumpet class, with a slender twisted brass tube and bell mouth--also distinctively _French horn_.--_v.t._ to furnish with horns.--_adj._ HORNED.--_ns._ HORN'BEAK, the garfish; HORN'BEAM, a tree of Europe and America, the hard white wood of which is used by joiners, &c.; HORN'BILL, a bird about the size of the turkey, having a horny excrescence on its bill; HORN'BOOK, a first book for children, which formerly consisted of a single leaf set in a frame, with a thin plate of transparent horn in front to preserve it; HORN'-BUG, a common North American beetle; HORNED'-HORSE, the gnu; HORNED'-OWL, HORN'OWL, a species of owl, so called from two tufts of feathers on its head, like horns; HORN'ER, one who works or deals in horns: a trumpeter.--_adj._ HORN'-FOOT'ED, having a hoof or horn on the foot.--_ns._ HORN'-GATE, one of the two gates of Dreams, through which pass those visions that come true, while out of the ivory-gate pass the unreal; HORN'IE, the devil, usually represented with horns; HORN'ING, appearance of the moon when in its crescent form: (_U.S._) a mock serenade with tin horns and any discordant instruments by way of showing public disapproval.--_adjs._ HORN'ISH, like horn: hard; HORN'LESS, without horns.--_n._ HORN'LET, a little horn.--_adj._ HORN'-MAD, mad with rage, as the cuckold at the moment of discovery.--_ns._ HORNMAD'NESS (_Browning_); HORN'-MAK'ER (_Shak._), a cuckold-maker; HORN'-MER'CURY, mercurous chloride or calomel; HORN'-SIL'VER, silver chloride; HORN'STONE, a stone much like flint, but more brittle [_horn_ and _stone_]; HORN'WORK (_fort._), an outwork having angular points or horns, and composed of two demi-bastions joined by a curtain; HORN'WRACK, the sea-mat or lemon-weed.--_adjs._ HORN'Y, like horn: hard: callous; HORN'Y-HAND'ED, with hands hardened by toil.--HORN OF PLENTY, the symbol of plenty, carried by Ceres in her left arm, filled to overflowing with fruits and flowers (see CORNUCOPIA); HORNS OF A DILEMMA (see DILEMMA); HORNS OF THE ALTAR, the projections at the four corners of the Hebrew altar, to which the victim was bound when about to be sacrificed.--LETTERS OF HORNING (_Scots law_), letters running in the sovereign's name, and passing the signet, instructing messengers-at-arms to charge the debtor to pay, on his failure a caption or warrant for his apprehension being granted; PULL, or DRAW, IN ONE'S HORNS, to restrain one's ardour or one's pretensions; PUT TO THE HORN (_old Scots law_), to outlaw by three blasts of the horn at the Cross of Edinburgh; WEAR HORNS, to be a cuckold. [A.S. _horn_; Scand. and Ger. _horn_, Gael. and W. _corn_, L. _cornu_, Gr. _keras_.] HORNBLENDE, horn'blend, _n._ a mineral of various colours, found in granite and other igneous rocks that contain quartz. [Ger. _horn_, horn, and _-blende_--_blenden_, to dazzle.] HORNET, horn'et, _n._ a species of wasp, so called from its antennæ or horns: a person who pesters with petty but ceaseless attacks.--BRING A HORNET'S NEST ABOUT ONE'S EARS, to stir up enemies and enmities against one's self. [A.S. _hyrnet_, dim. of _horn_.] HORNITO, hor-n[=e]'t[=o], _n._ a low oven-shaped fumarole, common in South American volcanic regions. [Sp., dim. of _horno_, an oven.] HORNPIPE, horn'p[=i]p, _n._ an old Welsh musical instrument resembling the clarinet: a lively air: a lively English dance, usually by one person, popular amongst sailors. HOROGRAPHY, hor-og'ra-fi, _n._ the art of constructing dials or instruments for indicating the hours.--_n._ HOROG'RAPHER. [Gr. _h[=o]ra_, an hour, _graphein_, to describe.] HOROLOGE, hor'o-l[=o]j, _n._ any instrument for telling the hours.--_ns._ HOROL'OGER, HOROLOGIOG'RAPHER, HOROL'OGIST, a maker of clocks, &c.--_adjs._ HOROLOG'IC, -AL.--_ns._ HOROLOGIOG'RAPHY, the art of constructing timepieces; HOROL'OGY, the science which treats of the construction of machines for telling the hours: the office-book of the Greek Church for the canonical hours. [O. Fr. _horologe_ (Fr. _horloge_)--L. _horologium_--Gr. _h[=o]rologion_--_h[=o]ra_, an hour, _legein_, to tell.] HOROMETRY, hor-om'et-ri, _n._ the art or practice of measuring time.--_adj._ HOROMET'RICAL. [Gr. _h[=o]ra_, an hour, _metron_, a measure.] HOROSCOPE, hor'o-sk[=o]p, _n._ an observation of the heavens at the hour of a person's birth, by which the astrologer predicted the events of his life: a representation of the heavens for this purpose.--_adj._ HOROSCOP'IC.--_ns._ HOROS'COPIST, an astrologer; HOROS'COPY, the art of predicting the events of a person's life from his horoscope: aspect of the stars at the time of birth. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _h[=o]roskopos_--_h[=o]ra_, an hour, _skopein_, to observe.] HORRENT, hor'ent, _adj._ standing on end, as bristles. [L. _horrens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _horr[=e]re_, to bristle.] HORRIBLE, hor'i-bl, _adj._ causing or tending to cause horror: dreadful: awful: terrific.--_n._ HORR'IBLENESS.--_adv._ HORR'IBLY. [L. _horribilis_--_horr[=e]re_.] HORRID, hor'id, _adj._ fitted to produce horror: shocking: offensive.--_adv._ HORR'IDLY.--_n._ HORR'IDNESS. [L. _horridus_--_horr[=e]re_, to bristle.] HORRIFY, hor'-i-f[=i], _v.t._ to strike with horror:--_pa.p._ horr'ified.--_adj._ HORRIF'IC, exciting horror: frightful. [L. _horrificus_--_horror_, horror, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] HORRIPILATION, hor-i-pi-l[=a]'shun, _n._ a contraction of the cutaneous muscles causing the erection of the hairs and the condition known as goose-flesh.--_v.t._ HORRIP'ILATE. HORRISONOUS, hor-is'[=o]-nus, _adj._ sounding dreadfully.--Also HORRIS'ONANT. HORROR, hor'ur, _n._ a shuddering: excessive fear: that which excites horror.--_adjs._ HORR'OR-STRICK'EN, -STRUCK, struck with horror.--THE HORRORS, extreme depression: delirium tremens. [L.--_horr[=e]re_, to bristle.] HORS-D'OEUVRE, or-düvr', a preliminary snack that does not form part of the regular _menu_. [Illustration] HORSE, hors, _n._ a well-known quadruped: (_collectively_) cavalry: that by which something is supported, as 'clothes-horse,' &c.: a wooden frame on which soldiers were formerly made to ride as a punishment--also _Timber-mare_: a boy's crib, a translation.--_v.t._ to mount on a horse: to provide with a horse: to sit astride: to carry on the back: to urge at work tyrannically: to construe by means of a crib.--_v.i._ to get on horseback: to charge for work before it is done.--_ns._ HORSE'-ARTILL'ERY, field artillery with comparatively light guns and the gunners mounted; HORSE'BACK, the back of a horse; HORSE'-BEAN, a large bean given to horses; HORSE'-BLOCK, a block or stage by which to mount or dismount from a horse; HORSE'-BOAT, a boat for carrying horses, or one towed by a horse; HORSE'-BOX, a railway car for transporting horses in, or a stall on shipboard; HORSE'-BOY, a stable-boy; HORSE'-BREAK'ER, HORSE'-TAM'ER, one whose business is to break or tame horses, or to teach them to draw or carry (PRETTY HORSE-BREAKER, a woman with little virtue to lose); HORSE'-CAR, a car drawn by horses; HORSE'-CHEST'NUT, a large variety of chestnut, prob. so called from its coarseness contrasted with the edible chestnut: the tree that produces it (see CHESTNUT); HORSE'-CLOTH, a cloth for covering a horse; HORSE'-COUP'ER (_Scot._), a horse-dealer; HORSE'-DEAL'ER, one who deals in horses; HORSE'-DOC'TOR, a veterinary surgeon; HORSE'-DRENCH, a dose of physic for a horse.--_adj._ HORSE'-FACED, having a long face.--_ns._ HORSE'-FLESH, the flesh of a horse: horses collectively: a Bahama mahogany.--_adj._ of reddish-bronze colour.--_ns._ HORSE'-FLY, a large fly that stings horses; HORSE'-FOOT, the colt's foot; HORSE'-GOD'MOTHER, a fat clumsy woman.--_n.pl._ HORSE'-GUARDS, horse-soldiers employed as guards: the 3d heavy cavalry regiment of the British army, forming part of the household troops: the War Office, or public office in Whitehall, London, appropriated to the departments of the commander-in-chief of the British army.--_ns._ HORSE'-HAIR, the hair of horses: haircloth; HORSE'-HOE, a hoe drawn by horses; HORSE'-KNACK'ER, one who buys worn-out horses for slaughtering; HORSE'-LAT'ITUDES, a part of the North Atlantic Ocean noted for long calms, so called from the frequent necessity of throwing part of a cargo of horses overboard from want of water when becalmed; HORSE'-LAUGH, a harsh, boisterous laugh; HORSE'-LEECH, a large species of leech, so named from its fastening on horses when wading in the water: a bloodsucker (Prov. xxx. 15); HORSE'-LITT'ER, a litter or bed borne between two horses; HORSE'-MACK'EREL, one of various fishes--the scad (q.v.), &c.; HORSE'MAN, a rider on horseback: a mounted soldier; HORSE'MANSHIP, the art of riding, and of training and managing horses; HORSE'-MA'RINE, a person quite out of his element: an imaginary being for whom wild flights of imagination had best be reserved ('Tell it to the horse-marines'); HORSE-MILL, a mill turned by horses; HORSE'-MILL'INER, one who provides the trappings for horses; HORSE'-MINT, a common European wild-mint: the American _Monarda punctata_--SWEET HORSE-MINT, the common dittany; HORSE'-NAIL, a nail for fastening a horse-shoe to the hoof; HORSE'-PIS'TOL, a large pistol carried in a holster; HORSE'-PLAY, rough, boisterous play; HORSE'-POND, a pond for watering horses at; HORSE'-POW'ER, the power a horse can exert, or its equivalent=that required to raise 33,000 lb. avoirdupois one foot per minute: a standard for estimating the power of steam-engines; HORSE'-RACE, a race by horses; HORSE'-RAC'ING, the practice of racing or running horses in matches; HORSE'-RAD'ISH, a plant with a pungent root, used in medicine and as a condiment; HORSE'-RAKE, a rake drawn by horses; HORSE'-RID'ING, a circus; HORSE'-SENSE, plain robust sense; HORSE'-SHOE, a shoe for horses, consisting of a curved piece of iron.--_adj._ shaped like a horse-shoe.--_ns._ HORSE'-SOL'DIER, a cavalry soldier; HORSE'-TAIL, a genus of leafless plants with hollow rush-like stems, so called from their likeness to a horse's tail; HORSE'-TRAIN'ER, one who trains horses for racing, &c.; HORSE'-WAY, a road by which a horse may pass; HORSE'-WHIP, a whip for driving horses.--_v.t._ to strike with a horse-whip: to lash.--_ns._ HORSE'WOMAN, a woman who rides on horseback; HORS'INESS; HORS'ING, birching a schoolboy mounted on another's back.--_adj._ HORS'Y, of or pertaining to horses: devoted to horse racing or breeding.--A DARK HORSE (see DARK); FLOG A DEAD HORSE, to try to work up excitement about a threadbare subject; GET ON, MOUNT, THE HIGH HORSE, to assume consequential airs; PUT THE CART BEFORE THE HORSE (see CART); RIDE THE WOODEN HORSE (see above); TAKE HORSE, to mount on horseback. [A.S. _hors_; Ice. _horss_, Old High Ger. _hros_ (Ger. _ross_).] HORTATIVE, hort'a-tiv, _adj._ inciting: encouraging: giving advice--also HORT'ATORY.--_n._ HORT[=A]'TION. [L. _hort[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_, to incite.] HORTICULTURE, hor'ti-kul-t[=u]r, _n._ the art of cultivating gardens.--_adj._ HORTICUL'TURAL, pertaining to the culture of gardens.--_n._ HORTICUL'TURIST, one versed in the art of cultivating gardens.--HORTUS SICCUS, a collection of dried plants arranged in a book. [L. _hortus_, a garden, _cultura_--_col[)e]re_, to cultivate.] HOSANNNA, h[=o]-zan'a, _n._ an exclamation of praise to God, or a prayer for blessings. [Gr. _h[=o]sanna_--Heb. _h[=o]sh[=i]`[=a]h nn[=a]_, _h[=o]sh[=i][=a]`_, save, _n[=a]_, I pray.] HOSE, h[=o]z, _n._ a covering for the legs or feet: stockings: socks: a flexible pipe for conveying water, so called from its shape:--_pl._ HOSE; (_B._) HOS'EN.--_ns._ HOSE'MAN, one who directs the stream of water from the hose of a fire-engine; HOSE'PIPE; HOSE'-REEL, a large revolving drum or reel for carrying hose for fire-engines, &c.; H[=O]'SIER, one who deals in hose, or stockings and socks, &c.; H[=O]'SIERY, hose in general. [A.S. _hosa_, pl. _hosan_; Dut. _hoos_, Ger. _hose_.] HOSPICE, hos'p[=e]s, _n._ a house of entertainment for strangers, esp. such kept by monks on some Alpine passes for travelers.--Also HOSPIT'IUM. [Fr.,--L. _hospitium_--_hospes_, a stranger treated as a guest.] HOSPITABLE, hos'pit-a-bl, _adj._ entertaining strangers and guests kindly and without reward: showing kindness: generous: bountiful.--_n._ HOS'PITABLENESS.--_adv._ HOS'PITABLY.--_n._ HOSPITAL'ITY, the practice of one who is hospitable; friendly welcome and entertainment of guests--(_Spens._) HOS'PIT[=A]GE. HOSPITAL, hos-'pit-al, _n._ a building for the reception and treatment of the old, the sick, and hurt, &c., or for the support and education of the young.--_n._ HOS'PITALLER, one of a charitable brotherhood for the care of the sick in hospitals: one of an order of knights, commonly called Knights of St John (otherwise called Knights of Rhodes, and afterwards of Malta), who about 1048 built a hospital for the care and cure of pilgrims at Jerusalem.--HOSPITAL SATURDAY, or SUNDAY, days set apart for the collection of funds on behalf of hospitals.--CONVALESCENT HOSPITAL, one intermediate between the ordinary hospital and the patient's own home; COTTAGE HOSPITAL, a small establishment where hospital treatment is carried on at little expense and with simple arrangements; LOCK HOSPITAL, one for the treatment of venereal diseases; MAGDALEN HOSPITAL, an institution for the reclamation of fallen women; MARINE, or NAVAL, HOSPITAL, a special hospital for sick sailors, or for men in the naval service; MATERNITY HOSPITAL, one for women in labour. [O. Fr. _hospital_--Low L. _hospitale_--_hospes_, a guest.] HOSPODAR, hos'po-där, _n._ formerly the title of the princes of Moldavia and Wallachia. [Slav.] HOSS, a vulgarism for _horse_. HOST, h[=o]st, _n._ one who entertains a stranger or guest at his house without reward: an innkeeper: an organism on which another lives as a parasite:--_fem._ HOST'ESS.--_n._ HOST'ESS-SHIP (_Shak._), the character or office of a hostess.--_adj._ HOST'LESS (_Spens._), destitute of a host, inhospitable.--RECKON, or COUNT, WITHOUT ONE'S HOST, to misjudge, the original idea being that of totting up one's bill without reference to the landlord. [O. Fr. _hoste_--L. _hospes_, _hospitis_.] HOST, h[=o]st, _n._ an army, a large multitude.--_n._ HOST'ING, (_Milt._) an encounter of hosts, a battle: (_Spens._) an assemblage of hosts, a muster.--A HOST IN HIMSELF, one of great strength, skill, or resources, within himself; HEAVENLY HOST, the angels and archangels; LORD OF HOSTS, a favourite Hebrew term for Jehovah, considered as head of the hosts of angels, the hosts of stars, &c. [O. Fr. _host_--L. _hostis_, an enemy.] HOST, h[=o]st, _n._ in the R.C. Church, the consecrated bread of the Eucharist--a thin circular wafer of unleavened bread. [L. _hostia_, a victim.] HOSTAGE, hos't[=a]j, _n._ one remaining with the enemy as a pledge for the fulfilment of the conditions of a treaty.--HOSTAGES TO FORTUNE, a man's wife, children, &c. [O. Fr. _hostage_ (Fr. _ôtage_)--Low L. _obsidaticus_--L. _obses_, _obsidis_, a hostage.] HOSTEL, hos'tel, HOSTELRY, hos'tel-ri, _n._ an inn: in some universities an extra-collegiate hall for students.--_ns._ HOS'TELER, HOS'TELLER, one living in a hostel. [O. Fr. _hostel_, _hostellerie_.] HOSTILE, hos'til, _adj._ belonging to an enemy: showing enmity: warlike: adverse.--_adv._ HOS'TILELY.--_n._ HOSTIL'ITY, enmity:--_pl._ HOSTIL'ITIES, acts of warfare. [L. _hostilis_--_hostis_.] HOSTLER, OSTLER, hos'l[.e]r, or os'-, _n._ he who has the care of horses at an inn. [_Hostler_=_hosteleer_.] HOT, hot, _adj._ having heat: very warm: fiery: pungent: animated: ardent in temper: fervent: vehement: violent: passionate: lustful.--_adj._ HOT'-AND-HOT', of food cooked and served up at once in hot dishes.--_ns._ HOT'BED, a glass-covered bed heated for bringing forward plants rapidly: any place favourable to rapid growth or development, as 'a hotbed of vice,' &c.; HOT'BLAST, a blast of heated air blown into a furnace to raise the heat.--_adjs._ HOT'-BLOOD'ED, having hot blood: high-spirited: irritable; HOT'-BRAINED, hot-headed, rash and violent.--_n._ HOT'-COCK'LES, an old game in which a person is blindfolded, and being struck, guesses who strikes him; HOT'-FLUE, a drying-room.--_adj._ HOT'-HEAD'ED, hot in the head: having warm passions: violent: impetuous.--_n._ HOT'-HOUSE, a house kept hot for the rearing of tender plants: any heated chamber or drying-room, esp. that where pottery is placed before going into the kiln: (_Shak._) a brothel.--_adv._ HOT'LY.--_adj._ HOT'-MOUTHED, headstrong.--_n._ HOT'NESS; HOT'-POT, a dish of chopped mutton seasoned and stewed with sliced potatoes.--_v.t._ HOT'PRESS, to press paper, &c., between hot plates to produce a glossy surface.--_adjs._ HOT'-SHORT, brittle when heated; HOT'-SPIR'ITED, having a fiery spirit.--_n._, one pressing his steed with spurs as in hot haste: a violent, rash man.--_adj._ HOT'-TEM'PERED, having a quick temper.--_ns._ HOT'-TROD, the hot pursuit in old Border forays; HOT'-WALL, a wall enclosing passages for hot air, affording warmth to fruit-trees trained against it, when needed; HOT'-WELL, in a condensing engine, a reservoir for the warm water drawn off from the condenser.--HOT COPPERS (see COPPER); HOT CROSS-BUNS (see CROSS); HOT FOOT, with speed, fast; IN HOT WATER, in a state of trouble or anxiety; MAKE A PLACE TOO HOT TO HOLD A PERSON, to make it impossible for him to stay there. [A.S. _hát_; Ger. _heiss_, Sw. _het_.] HOT, hot, HOTE, h[=o]t (_Spens._) named, called. [_Pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _hight_.] HOTCHPOTCH, hoch'poch, HOTCHPOT, hoch'pot, HODGEPODGE, hoj'poj, _n._ a confused mass of ingredients shaken or mixed together in the same pot: a kind of mutton-broth in which green peas take the place of barley or rice.--HOTCHPOT, a commixture of property in order to secure an equable division amongst children. [Fr. _hochepot_--_hocher_, to shake, and pot, a pot--Old Dut. _hutsen_, to shake, Dut. _pot_, a pot.] HOTEL, h[=o]-tel', _n._ a superior house for the accommodation of strangers: an inn: in France, also a public office, a private town-house, a palace.--_ns._ HÔTEL'-DE-VILLE (Fr.), a town-hall; HÔTEL'-DIEU, a hospital. [M. E. _hostel_--O. Fr. _hostel_ (Fr. _hôtel_)--L. _hospitalia_, guest-chambers--_hospes_.] HOTTENTOT, hot'n-tot, _n._ a native of the Cape of Good Hope: a brutish individual. [Dut., because the language of the South Africans seemed to the first Dutch settlers to sound like a repetition of the syllables _hot_ and _tot_; Dut. _en_--and.] HOTTERING, hot'er-ing, _adj._ (_prov._) raging. HOUDAH. See HOWDAH. HOUDAN, h[=oo]'dang, _n._ a valued breed of domestic fowls, orig. from _Houdan_ in Seine-et-Oise. HOUGH, hok, HOCK, hok, _n._ the joint on the hind-leg of a quadruped, between the knee and fetlock, corresponding to the ankle-joint in man: in man, the back part of the knee-joint: the ham.--_v.t._ to hamstring:--_pr.p._ hough'ing; _pa.p._ houghed (hokt). [A.S. _hóh_, the heel.] HOUND, hownd, _n._ a dog used in hunting: a cur: a caitiff.--_v.t._ to set on in chase: to hunt: to urge, pursue, harass (with _on_).--_ns._ HOUND'FISH, same as DOGFISH; HOUNDS'-BERR'Y, the common dogwood; HOUND'S'-TONGUE, a plant, so called from the shape of its leaves.--GABRIEL HOUNDS, a popular name for the noise made by distant curlews, ascribed to damned souls whipped on by the angel Gabriel; MASTER OF HOUNDS, the master of a pack of hounds. [A.S. _hund_; Gr. ky[=o]n, _kynos_, L. _canis_, Sans. _çvan_.] HOUR, owr, _n._ 60 min., or the 24th part of a day: the time indicated by a clock, &c.: an hour's journey, or three miles: a time or occasion; (_pl., myth._) the goddesses of the seasons and the hours: set times of prayer, the _canonical hours_, the offices or services prescribed for these, or a book containing them.--_ns._ HOUR'-CIR'CLE, a circle passing through the celestial poles and fixed relatively to the earth: the circle of an equatorial which shows the hour-angle of the point to which the telescope is directed; HOUR'-GLASS, an instrument for measuring the hours by the running of sand from one glass vessel into another; HOUR'-HAND, the hand which shows the hour on a clock, &c.--_adj._ HOUR'LY, happening or done every hour: frequent.--_adv._ every hour: frequently.--_n._ HOUR'PLATE, the plate of a timepiece on which the hours are marked: the dial.--AT THE ELEVENTH HOUR, at the last moment possible (Matt. xx. 6, 9); IN A GOOD, OR EVIL, HOUR, acting under a fortunate, or an unfortunate, impulse--from the old belief in astrological influences; KEEP GOOD HOURS, to go to bed and to rise early: to lead a quiet and regular life; THE HOUR IS COME, the destined day of fate has come (John, xiii. 1); THE SMALL HOURS, the early hours of the morning; THREE HOURS SERVICE, a service held continuously on Good Friday, from noon to 3 P.M., in commemoration of the time of Christ's agony on the cross. [O. Fr. _hore_ (Fr. _heure_)--L. _hora_--Gr. _h[=o]ra_.] HOURI, how'ri, h[=oo]'ri, _n._ a nymph of the Mohammedan paradise. [Pers. _huri_--Ar. _h[=u]riya_, a black-eyed girl.] HOUSE, hows, _n._ a building for dwelling in: a dwelling-place: an inn: household affairs: a family: kindred: a trading establishment: one of the twelve divisions of the heavens in astrology: one of the estates of the legislature (House of Lords or Upper House, House of Commons or Lower House; also Upper and Lower Houses of Convocation, House of Representatives, &c.): at Oxford, 'The House,' Christ Church College: the audience at a place of entertainment, a theatre, &c. (a full house, a thin house): (_coll._) the workhouse:--_pl._ HOUSES (howz'ez).--_v.t._ HOUSE (howz), to protect by covering: to shelter: to store: to provide houses for.--_v.i._ to take shelter: to reside.--_ns._ HOUSE'-[=A]'GENT, one who has the letting of houses; HOUSE'-BOAT, a barge with a deck-cabin that may serve as a dwelling-place; HOUSE'-BOTE, wood that a tenant may take to repair his house, or for fuel; HOUSE'-BREAK'ER, one who breaks open and enters a house by day for the purpose of stealing; HOUSE'-BREAK'ING; HOUSE'-CARL, a member of a king or noble's bodyguard, in Danish and early English history; HOUSE'-D[=U]'TY, -TAX, a tax laid on inhabited houses; HOUSE'-FAC'TOR (_Scot._), a house-agent; HOUSE'-FA'THER, the male head of a household or community; HOUSE'-FLAG, the distinguishing flag of a shipowner or company of such; HOUSE'-FLY, the common fly universally distributed; HOUSE'HOLD, those who are held together in the same house, and compose a family.--_adj._ pertaining to the house and family.--_ns._ HOUSE'HOLDER, the holder or tenant of a house; HOUSE'KEEPER, a female servant who keeps or has the chief care of the house: one who stays much at home; HOUSE'KEEPING, the keeping or management of a house or of domestic affairs: hospitality.--_adj._ domestic.--_n._ HOUSE'-LEEK, a plant with red star-like flowers and succulent leaves that grows on the roofs of houses.--_adj._ HOUSE'LESS, without a house or home: having no shelter.--_ns._ HOUSE'-LINE (_naut._), a small line of three strands, for seizings, &c.; HOUSE'MAID, a maid employed to keep a house clean, &c.; HOUSE'-MATE, one sharing a house with another; HOUSE'-MOTH'ER, the mother of a family, the female head of a family; HOUSE'-ROOM, room or place in a house; HOUSE'-STEW'ARD, a steward who manages the household affairs of a great family; HOUSE'-SUR'GEON, the surgeon or medical officer in a hospital who resides in the house--so also HOUSE'-PHYSI'CIAN; HOUSE'-WARM'ING, an entertainment given when a family enters a new house, as if to warm it; HOUSEWIFE (hows'w[=i]f, huz'wif, or huz'if), the mistress of a house: a female domestic manager: a small case for articles of female work.--_adj._ HOUSE'WIFELY.--_n._ HOUSE'WIFERY--(_Scot._) HOUSE'WIFESKEP.--HOUSE OF CALL, a house where the journeymen of a particular trade call when out of work; HOUSE OF CORRECTION, a jail; HOUSE OF GOD, PRAYER, or WORSHIP, a place of worship; HOUSE OF ILL FAME, a bawdy-house.--A HOUSEHOLD WORD, a familiar saying; BRING DOWN THE HOUSE, to evoke very loud applause in a place of entertainment; CRY FROM THE HOUSE-TOP, to announce in the most public manner possible; HOUSEHOLD GODS, one's favourite domestic things--a playful use of the Roman _penates_ (q.v.); HOUSEHOLD SUFFRAGE, or FRANCHISE, the right of householders to vote for members of parliament; HOUSEHOLD TROOPS, six regiments whose peculiar duty is to attend the sovereign and defend the metropolis; HOUSEMAID'S KNEE, an inflammation of the sac between the knee-pan and the skin, to which housemaids are specially liable through kneeling on damp floors.--INNER HOUSE, the higher branch of the Scotch Court of Session, its jurisdiction chiefly appellate; OUTER HOUSE, the lower branch of the Court of Session.--KEEP A GOOD HOUSE, to keep up a plentifully supplied table; KEEP HOUSE, to maintain or manage an establishment; KEEP OPEN HOUSE, to give entertainments to all comers; KEEP THE HOUSE, to be confined to the house; LIKE A HOUSE AFIRE, with astonishing rapidity; THE HOUSEHOLD, the royal domestic establishment. [A.S. _hús_; Goth. _hus_, Ger. _haus_.] HOUSEL, howz'el, _n._ the Eucharist: the act of taking the same.--_n._ HOUS'ELING-CLOTH, a linen cloth held or stretched beneath the communicants.--_adj._ HOUS'LING (_Spens._), sacramental. [A.S. _húsel_, sacrifice.] HOUSING, howz'ing, _n._ an ornamental covering for a horse: a saddle-cloth: (_pl._) the trappings of a horse. [O. Fr. _housse_, a mantle, of Teut. origin.] HOUSTY, hows'ti, _n._ (_prov._) a sore throat. HOUT-TOUT, hoot-toot, _interj._ Same as HOOT. HOUYHNHNM, whin'im, _n._ one of the noble rational horse race in _Gulliver's Travels_. [From _whinny_.] HOVA, h[=o]'va, _n._ one of the dominant race in Madagascar:--_pl._ H[=O]'VAS. HOVE, h[=o]v, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to heave, to raise. HOVE, h[=o]v, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to hover, to loiter. HOVE, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _heave_. HOVEL, hov'el, _n._ a small or mean dwelling: a shed.--_v.t._ to put in a hovel: to shelter: to construct a chimney so as to prevent smoking, by making two of the more exposed walls higher than the others, or making an opening on one side near the top:--_pr.p._ hov'elling; _pa.p._ hov'elled.--_n._ HOV'ELLER, a boatman acting as a non-certificated pilot or doing any kind of occasional work on the coast: a small coasting-vessel. [Dim. of A.S. _hof_, a dwelling.] HOVER, hov'[.e]r, _v.i._ to remain aloft flapping the wings: to wait in suspense: to move about near.--_adv._ HOV'ERINGLY, in a hovering manner. [Formed from A.S. _hof_, house.] HOW, how, _adv._ in what manner: to what extent: for what reason: by what means: from what cause: in what condition: (_N.T._) sometimes=that.--THE HOW AND THE WHY, the manner and the cause. [A.S. _hú_ is prob. a form of _hwí_, in what way, why, the instrumental case of _hwá_, who.] HOW, Howe, how, _n._ (_Scot._) a hollow, glen, dell, or narrow plain. [Prob. related to _hole_.] HOW, how, _n._ (_prov._) a low hill. [Akin to high, A.S. _heáh_.] HOWBEIT, how-b[=e]'it, _conj._ be it how it may: notwithstanding: yet: however--(_Spens._) HOW'BE. HOWDAH, HOUDAH, how'da, _n._ a seat fixed on an elephant's back. [Ar. _hawdaj_.] HOWDIE, HOWDY, how'di, _n._ (_Scot._) a midwife. [Webster ingeniously at least suggests a derivation in 'How d'ye?' the midwife's first question.] HOWDY, how'di, _interj._ a colloquial form of the common greeting, 'How do you [do]?'--_n._ HOW'DY-DO, a troublesome state of matters. HOWEVER, how-ev'[.e]r, _adv._ and _conj._ in whatever manner or degree: nevertheless: at all events. HOWFF, HOUFF, howf, _n._ (_Scot._) a haunt, resort.--_v.i._ to resort to a place. [A.S. _hof_, a house.] HOWITZER, how'its-[.e]r, _n._ a short, light cannon, used for throwing shells. [Ger. _haubitze_, orig. _hauffnitz_--Bohem. _haufnice_, a sling.] HOWK, howk, _v.t._ and _v.i._ (_Scot._) to dig, burrow. HOWKER, how'k[.e]r, _n._ Same as HOOKER. HOWL, howl, _v.i._ to yell or cry, as a wolf or dog: to utter a long, loud, whining sound: to wail: to roar.--_v.t._ to utter with outcry:--_pr.p._ howl'ing; _pa.p._ howled.--_n._ a loud, prolonged cry of distress: a mournful cry.--_n._ HOWL'ER, a South American monkey, with prodigious power of voice: (_slang_) a glaring or very stupid error.--_adj._ HOWL'ING, filled with howlings, as of the wind, or of wild beasts: (_slang_) tremendous.--_n._ a howl. [O. Fr. _huller_--L. _ulul[=a]re_, to shriek or howl--_ulula_, an owl; cf. Ger. _heulen_, Eng. _owl_.] HOWLET, how'let. Same as OWLET. HOWSO, how'so, _adv._ howsoever. HOWSOEVER, how-so-ev'[.e]r, _adv._ in what way soever: although: however.--Provincial forms are HOWSOMEV'ER and HOWSOMDEV'ER. HOX, hoks, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to hough or hamstring. HOY, hoi, _n._ a large one-decked boat, commonly rigged as a sloop. [Dut. _heu_, Flem. _hui_.] HOY, hoi, _interj._ ho! stop!--_v.t._ to incite, drive on. [Imit.] HOYDEN, HOIDEN, hoi'den, _n._ a tomboy, a romp. [Old Dut. _heyden_, a heathen, a gipsy, _heyde_, heath.] HUB, hub, _n._ the projecting nave of a wheel; a projection on a wheel for the insertion of a pin: the hilt of a weapon: a mark at which quoits, &c., are cast.--HUB (i.e. centre) OF THE UNIVERSE, Boston, U.S. [A form of _hob_.] HUBBLE, hub'l, _n._ (_Scot._) an uproar: a heap, as of work: (_U.S._) a lump.--_adj._ HUB'BLY. HUBBLE-BUBBLE, hub'l-bub'l, _n._ an East Indian tobacco-pipe, in which the smoke is drawn through water with a bubbling sound. [Reduplic. from _bubble_.] HUBBUB, hub'ub, _n._ a confused sound of many voices: riot: uproar. [Prob. a repetition of _hoop_, _whoop_.] HUBBY, hub'bi, _n._ (_coll._) a diminutive of husband. HUCKABACK, huk'a-bak, _n._ a coarse variety of linen for towels, &c., having raised figures on it. [Skeat suggests as the original meaning 'pedlar's ware,' Low Ger. _hukkebak_; cf. _hawker_.] HUCKLE, huk'l, _n._ a hunch: the hip--also HUCK.--_adjs._ HUCK'LE-BACKED, -SHOUL'DERED, having the back or shoulders round.--_n._ HUCK'LE-BONE, the hip-bone, or ankle-bone. [Dim. of _huck_, a prov. form of _hook_.] HUCKLEBERRY, huk'l-ber'ri, _n._ a North American shrub (_Gaylussacia_) with blue berries. [Prob. a corr. of _hurtleberry_.] HUCKSTER, huk'st[.e]r, _n._ a retailer of smallwares, a hawker or pedlar: a mean, trickish fellow:--_fem._ HUCK'STRESS.--_v.i._ to deal in small articles, to higgle meanly.--_n._ HUCK'STERAGE, business of a huckster. [With fem. suff. _-ster_, from Dut. _heuker_, a retailer, Old Dut. _hucken_, to stoop or bow; cf. Ice. _húka_, to sit on one's hams, and Eng. _hawker_.] HUDDLE, hud'l, _v.i._ to put up things confusedly: to hurry in disorder: to crowd.--_v.t._ to throw or crowd together in confusion: to put on hastily.--_n._ a crowd: tumult: confusion. [M. E. _hodren_; prob. a freq. of M. E. _huden_, to hide.] HUDDUP, hud-up', _interj._ get up! (to a horse). HUDIBRASTIC, h[=u]-di-bras'tik, _adj._ similar in style to _Hudibras_, a metrical burlesque on the Puritans by Samuel Butler (1612-80): doggerel. HUE, h[=u], _n._ appearance: colour: tint: dye.---_adjs._ HUED, having a hue; HUE'LESS. [A.S. _hiw_, _heow_; Sw. _hy_, complexion.] HUE, h[=u], _n._ a shouting.--HUE AND CRY, a loud clamour about something: name of a police gazette, established in 1710. [Fr. _huer_, imit.] HUFF, huf, _n._ sudden anger or arrogance: a fit of disappointment or anger: a boaster.--_v.t._ to swell: to bully: to remove a 'man' from the board for not capturing pieces open to him, as in draughts.--_v.i._ to swell: to bluster.--_adjs._ HUFF'ISH, HUFF'Y, given to huff: insolent: arrogant.--_adv._ HUFF'ISHLY.--_ns._ HUFF'ISHNESS, HUFF'INESS. [Imit., like _puff_; cf. Ger. _hauchen_, to breathe.] HUG, hug, _v.t._ to embrace closely and fondly: to cherish: to congratulate (one's self): (_naut._) to keep close to.--_v.i._ to crowd together:--_pr.p._ hug'ging; _pa.p._ hugged.--_n._ a close and fond embrace: a particular grip in wrestling.--HUG ONE'S SELF, to congratulate one's self. [Scand., Ice. _húka_, to sit on one's hams. See HUCKSTER.] HUGE, h[=u]j, _adj._ having great dimensions, especially height: enormous: monstrous: (_B._) large in number.--_adv._ HUGE'LY.--_n._ HUGE'NESS. [M. E. _huge_; formed by dropping _a_ from O. Fr. _ahuge_, of Teut. origin, cog. with Ger. _hoch_.] HUGGER-MUGGER, hug'[.e]r-mug'[.e]r, _n._ secrecy: confusion. [Perh. a rhyming extension of _hug_.] HUGUENOT, h[=u]'ge-not, or -n[=o], _n._ the name formerly given in France to an adherent of the Reformation. [Prob. a dim. of the personal name _Hugo_, _Hugon_, _Hugues_, Hugh, name of some French Calvinist, later a general nickname. Not the Swiss _eidguenot_, Ger. _eidgenossen_, confederates.] HUIA-BIRD, hw[=e]'ä-b[.e]rd, _n._ a New Zealand starling. HULK, hulk, _n._ the body of a ship: an old ship unfit for service: a big lubberly fellow: anything unwieldy--often confounded in meaning with _hull_, the body of a ship:--_pl._ THE HULKS, old ships formerly used as prisons.--_adjs._ HULK'ING, HULK'Y, clumsy. [Low L. _hulka_--Gr. _holkas_--_helkein_, to draw.] HULL, hul, _n._ the husk or outer covering of anything.--_v.t._ to strip off the hull: to husk. [A.S. _hulu_, a husk, as of corn--_helan_, to cover; Ger. _hülle_, a covering, _hehlen_, to cover.] HULL, hul, _n._ the frame or body of a ship.--_v.t._ to pierce the hull (as with a cannon-ball).--_v.i._ to float or drive on the water, as a mere hull. [Same word as above, perh. modified in meaning by confusion with Dut. _hol_, a ship's hold, or with _hulk_.] HULLABALOO, hul'la-ba-loo', _n._ an uproar. HULLO, hul-l[=o]', _v._, _n._, and _interj._ Same as HALLOO. HULLY, hul'i, _adj._ having husks or pods. HULSEAN, hul's[=e]-an, _adj._ of or pertaining to John _Hulse_ (1708-89), founder of the Hulsean divinity lectures at Cambridge. HUM, hum, _v.i._ to make a buzzing sound like bees: to utter a low, droning sound: to supply an interval in speaking by an audible sound.--_v.t._ to sing in a low tone: to applaud anything by humming:--_pr.p._ hum'ming; _pa.p._ hummed.--_n._ the noise of bees and some other insects: any low, dull noise.--_interj._ a sound with a pause implying doubt.--_n._ HUM'MER, something that hums.--HUM AND HAW, to hesitate in giving a direct answer; HUMMING ALE, ale that froths up well, or that makes the head hum; MAKE THINGS HUM, to set things agoing briskly. [Imit.; cf. Ger. _hummen_, _humsen_.] HUM, hum, _v.t._ to impose on.--_n._ an imposition. [Contr. of _humbug_.] HUMAN, h[=u]'man, _adj._ belonging or pertaining to man or mankind: having the qualities of a man.--_n._ (_coll._) a human being.--_n._ H[=U]'MANKIND, the human species.--_adv._ H[=U]'MANLY. [Fr.,--L. _humanus_--_homo_, a human being.] HUMANE, h[=u]-m[=a]n', _adj._ having the feelings proper to man: kind: tender: merciful.--_adv._ HUMANE'LY.--_n._ HUMANE'NESS, kindness: tenderness. HUMANISE, h[=u]'man-[=i]z, _v.t._ to render human or humane: to soften.--_v.i._ to become humane or civilised.--_n._ HUMANIS[=A]'TION. HUMANIST, h[=u]'man-ist, _n._ a student of polite literature: at the Renaissance, a student of Greek and Roman literature: a student of human nature.--_n._ H[=U]'MANISM, polite learning, literary culture: any system which puts human interests paramount.--_adj._ HUMANIST'IC. HUMANITARIAN, h[=u]-man'i-t[=a]'ri-an, _n._ one who denies Christ's divinity, and holds Him to be a mere man: a philanthropist.--_adj._ of or belonging to humanity, benevolent.--_n._ HUMANIT[=A]'RIANISM. HUMANITY, h[=u]-man'it-i, _n._ the nature peculiar to a human being: the kind feelings of man: benevolence: tenderness: mankind collectively:--_pl._ HUMAN'ITIES, in Scotland, grammar, rhetoric, Latin, Greek, and poetry, so called from their humanising effects.--PROFESSOR OF HUMANITY, in Scotch universities, the professor of Latin. [Fr.,--L. _humanitas_--_humanus_--_homo_, a man.] HUMBLE, hum'bl, or um'bl, _adj._ low: meek: modest.--_v.t._ to bring down to the ground: to lower: to abase: to mortify: to degrade.--_adj._ HUM'BLE-MOUTHED, humble in speech.--_n._ HUM'BLENESS--(_Spens._) HUM'BLESS.--_adj._ HUM'BLING, making humble.--_n._ a humiliation.--_advs._ HUM'BLINGLY, in a humiliating manner; HUM'BLY. [Fr.,--L. _humilis_, low--_humus_, the ground.] HUMBLE, hum'bl, _adj._ having no horns. HUMBLE-BEE, hum'bl-b[=e], _n._ the humming-bee: a genus of social bees which construct their hives under ground. [_Humble_ is a freq. of _hum_.] HUMBLE-PIE, hum'bl-p[=i], _n._ a pie made of the umbles or numbles (liver, heart, &c.) of a deer.--EAT HUMBLE-PIE, to humiliate one's self, eat one's own words. HUMBUG, hum'bug, _n._ an imposition under fair pretences: hollowness, pretence: one who so imposes: a kind of candy.--_v.t._ to deceive: to hoax:--_pr.p._ hum'bugging; _pa.p._ hum'bugged.--_adj._ HUMBUG'ABLE, capable of being humbugged.--_ns._ HUM'BUGGER, one who humbugs; HUM'BUGGERY, the practice of humbugging. [Orig. 'a false alarm,' 'a bugbear,' from _hum_ and _bug_, a frightful object.] HUMBUZZ, the same as the Bull-roarer (q.v.). HUMDRUM, hum'drum, _adj._ dull: droning: monotonous: commonplace.--_n._ a stupid fellow: monotony, tedious talk. [_Hum_ and _drum_.] HUMDUDGEON, hum'duj-on, _n._ (_Scot._) an unnecessary outcry. HUMECTANT, h[=u]-mek'tant, _adj._ pertaining to remedies supposed to increase the fluidity of the blood.--_vs.t._ HUMECT', HUMEC'TATE, to moisten.--_n._ HUMECT[=A]'TION.--_adj._ HUMEC'TIVE, having the power to moisten.--_v.t._ H[=U]'MEFY, to make moist. [L. _humectans_--_hum[=e]re_, to be moist.] HUMERAL, h[=u]'m[.e]r-al, _adj._ belonging to the shoulder.--_n._ an oblong scarf worn round the priest's shoulders at certain parts of the Mass and of Benediction.--_n._ H[=U]'MERUS, the arm from the shoulder to the elbow: the bone of the upper arm:--_pl._ H[=U]'MERI (-r[=i]).--_adjs._ H[=U]'MERO-C[=U]'BITAL; H[=U]'MERO-DIG'ITAL; H[=U]'MERO-DOR'SAL; H[=U]'MERO-METACAR'PAL; H[=U]'MERO-R[=A]'DIAL. [Fr.,--L. _humerus_, the shoulder.] HUMET, HUMETTE, h[=u]-met', _n._ (_her._) a fesse or bar cut off short at each end.--_adj._ HUMETÉ. HUMGRUFFIN, hum'gruf-in, _n._ a terrible person. HUMIAN, h[=u]m'i-an, _adj._ of or pertaining to David _Hume_ (1711-76), or his philosophy. HUMHUM, hum'hum, _n._ a kind of plain, coarse cotton cloth used in the East Indies. HUMIC, h[=u]'mik, _adj._ denoting an acid formed by the action of alkalies on humus or mould. HUMID, h[=u]'mid, _adj._ moist: damp: rather wet.--_adv._ H[=U]'MIDLY.--_ns._ H[=U]'MIDNESS, HUMID'ITY, moisture: a moderate degree of wetness. [L. _humidus_--_hum[=e]re_, to be moist.] HUMILIATE, h[=u]-mil'i-[=a]t, _v.t._ to make humble: to depress: to lower in condition.--_adjs._ HUMIL'IANT, humiliating; HUMIL'I[=A]TING, humbling, mortifying.--_n._ HUMILI[=A]'TION, the act of humiliating: abasement: mortification. [L. _humili[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_.] HUMILITY, h[=u]-mil'i-ti, _n._ the state or quality of being humble: lowliness of mind: modesty. [O. Fr. _humilite_--L. _humilitat-em_--_humilis_, low.] HUMINE, h[=u]m'in, _n._ Same as HUMUS. HUMMEL, hum'el, _adj._--hornless.--_n._ HUMM'ELLER, a machine for separating awns of barley from seed. HUMMING, hum'ing, _n._ a low, murmuring sound, like that made by bees.--_ns._ HUMM'ING-BIRD, a tropical bird, of brilliant plumage and rapid flight, from the humming sound of its wings; HUMM'ING-TOP, a top which when spun gives a humming sound. [_Hum_.] HUMMOCK, hum'uk, _n._ a hillock: pile or ridge (of ice): (_Scot._) a fistful.--_n._ HUMM'IE, a small protuberance.--_adjs._ HUMM'OCKED, HUMM'OCKY. [Dim. of _hump_.] HUMMUM, the same as Hammam (q.v.). HUMOUR, h[=u]'mur, or [=u]'mur, _n._ the moisture or fluids of animal bodies: an animal fluid in an unhealthy state: state of mind (because once thought to depend on the humours of the body), as 'good' and 'ill humour:' disposition: caprice: a mental quality which delights in ludicrous and mirthful ideas: playful fancy.--_v.t._ to go in with the humour of: to gratify by compliance.--_adj._ H[=U]'MORAL, pertaining to or proceeding from the humours.--_ns._ H[=U]'MORALISM, the state of being humoral: the doctrine that diseases have their seat in the humours; H[=U]'MORALIST, one who favours the doctrine of humoralism; HUMORESQUE', a musical caprice; H[=U]'MORIST, one whose conduct and conversation are regulated by humour or caprice: one who studies or portrays the humours of people: one possessed of humour: a writer of comic stories.--_adjs._ HUMORIS'TIC, humorous; H[=U]'MORLESS, without humour; H[=U]'MOROUS, governed by humour: capricious: irregular: full of humour: exciting laughter.--_adv._ H[=U]'MOROUSLY.--_n._ H[=U]'MOROUSNESS.--_adj._ H[=U]'MOURSOME, capricious, petulant.--_n._ H[=U]'MOURSOMENESS.--Out of humour, out of temper, displeased; THE NEW HUMOUR, a so-called modern literary product in which there is even less humour than novelty. [O. Fr. _humor_ (Fr. _humeur_)--L. _humor_--_hum[=e]re_, to be moist.] HUMP, hump, _n._ a lump or hunch upon the back.--_v.t._ to bend in a hump: (_U.S. slang_) to prepare for a great exertion: (_slang_) to vex or annoy.--_v.i._ to put forth effort.--_n._ HUMP'BACK, a back with a hump or hunch: a person with a humpback.--_adjs._ HUMP'BACKED, having a humpback; HUMPED, having a hump on the back; HUMP'Y, full of humps or protuberances. [Prob. a nasalised form of _heap_.] HUMPH, humf, _interj._ an exclamation expressive of dissatisfaction or incredulity. HUMPHREY, TO DINE WITH. See DINE. HUMPTY-DUMPTY, hum'ti-dum'ti, _n._ a short, squat, egg-like being of nursery folklore: a gipsy drink, ale boiled with brandy.--_adj._ short and broad. HUMSTRUM, hum'strum, _n._ a hurdy-gurdy. HUMUS, h[=u]m'us, HUMINE, h[=u]m'in, _n._ a brown or black powder in rich soils, formed by the action of air on animal or vegetable matter.--_adj._ H[=U]'MOUS. [L., 'the ground,' akin to Gr. _chamai_, on the ground.] HUN, hun, _n._ one of a powerful, squat, swarthy, and savage nomad race of Asia, probably of Mongolian or Tartar stock, who began to move westwards in Europe about 372 A.D., pushing the Goths before them across the Danube, and under Attila (433-453) overrunning Europe: a shortened form of Hungarian.--_adjs._ HUN'NIC, HUN'NISH. HUNCH, hunsh, _n._ a hump, esp. on the back: a lump.--_n._ HUNCH'BACK, one with a hunch or lump on his back.--_adj._ HUNCH'BACKED, having a humpback. [The nasalised form of _hook_; cog. with Ger. _hucke_, the bent back; cf. Scot. to _hunker_ down, to sit on one's heels with the knees bent up towards the chin.] HUNDRED, hun'dred, _n._ the number of ten times ten: a division of a county in England, orig. supposed to contain a hundred families.--_adjs._ HUN'DREDFOLD, folded a hundred times, multiplied by a hundred; HUN'DREDTH, coming last or forming one of a hundred.--_n._ one of a hundred.--_n._ HUN'DREDWEIGHT, a weight the twentieth part of a ton, or 112 lb. avoirdupois; orig. a hundred lb., abbreviated _cwt._ (c. standing for L. _centum_, _wt._ for weight).--HUNDRED DAYS, the period between Napoleon's return from Elba and his final downfall after Waterloo (the reign lasted exactly 95 days, March 20-June 22, 1815); HUNDRED YEARS' WAR, the struggle between England and France, from 1337 down to 1453; CHILTERN HUNDREDS, a district of Bucks, whose stewardship is a nominal office under the Crown, the temporary acceptance of which by a member of parliament enables him technically to vacate his seat; GREAT, or LONG, HUNDRED, six score; NOT A HUNDRED MILES OFF, an indirect phrase for 'here,' 'in this very place;' OLD HUNDRED, or HUNDREDTH, a well-known long-metre setting of the hundredth psalm, 'All people that on earth do dwell.' [A.S. _hundred_--old form _hund_, a hundred, with the superfluous addition of _réd_ or _r['æ]d_ (Eng. _rate_), a reckoning.] HUNG, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of hang.--_n._ HUNG'-BEEF, beef cured and dried. HUNGARIAN, hung-g[=a]'ri-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Hungary_ or its inhabitants.--_n._ a native of Hungary: the Magyar or Hungarian language. HUNGER, hung'g[.e]r, _n._ desire for food: strong desire for anything.--_v.i._ to crave food: to long for.--_adjs._ HUNG'ER-BIT'TEN, bitten, pained, or weakened by hunger; HUNG'ERFUL, hungry; HUNG'ERLY (_Shak._), hungry.--_adv._ (_Shak._) hungrily.--_adv._ HUNG'RILY.--_adj._ HUNG'RY, having eager desire: greedy: lean: poor. [A.S. _hungor_ (n.), _hyngran_ (v.); cf. Ger. _hunger_, Dut. _honger_, &c.] HUNK, the same as HUNCH. HUNK, hungk, _n._ (_U.S._) goal or base in boys' games.--_n._ HUNK'ER, a conservative.--_adj._ HUNK'Y, in good position. [Dut. _honk_.] HUNKER, hungk'er, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to squat down.--_n.pl._ HUNK'ERS, the hams. [See HUNCH.] HUNKS, hungks, _n.sing._ a covetous man: a miser. HUNT, hunt, _v.t._ to chase wild animals for prey or sport: to chase such over a country: to search for: to pursue.--_v.i._ to go out in pursuit of game: to search.--_n._ a chase of wild animals: search: a pack of hunting hounds: an association of huntsmen.--_ns._ HUNT'-COUNT'ER, a dog that runs back or counter on the scent, a worthless dog--hence (_Shak._), a blunderer, and _v.t._ to retrace one's steps; HUNT'ER (_fem._ HUNT'RESS), one who hunts: a horse used in the chase: a watch whose face is protected, like the reverse, with a metal case; HALF'-HUNT'ER, such a watch where that metal case has a small circle of glass let in, so that one can see the time without opening it; HUNT'ING, the pursuit of wild game, the chase; HUNT'ING-BOX, HUNT'ING-LODGE, HUNT'ING-SEAT, a temporary residence for hunting; HUNT'ING-CAP, a form of cap much worn in the hunting-field; HUNT'ING-COG, an extra cog in one of two geared wheels, by means of which the order of contact of cogs is changed at every revolution; HUNT'ING-CROP, -WHIP, a short whip with a crooked handle and a loop of leather at the end, used in the hunting-field; HUNT'ING-GROUND, a place or region for hunting; HUNTING-HORN, a horn used in hunting, a bugle; HUNT'ING-KNIFE, -SWORD, a knife or short sword used to despatch the game when caught, or to skin and cut it up; HUNT'ING-SONG, a song about hunting; HUNT'ING-TIDE, the season of hunting; HUNTS'MAN, one who hunts: a servant who manages the hounds during the chase; HUNTS'MANSHIP, the qualifications of a huntsman; HUNT'S-UP (_Shak._), a tune or song intended to arouse huntsmen in the morning--hence, anything calculated to arouse.--HUNT DOWN, to destroy by persecution or violence; HUNT OUT, up, after, to search for, seek; HUNT-THE-GOWK, to make an April fool (see APRIL); HUNT-THE-SLIPPER, an old-fashioned game in which one in the middle of a ring tries to catch a shoe which those forming the ring upon the ground shove about under their hams from one to another.--HAPPY HUNTING-GROUNDS, the paradise of the Red Indian; MRS LEO HUNTER, of 'The Den, Eatanswill,' a social lion-hunter in the _Pickwick Papers_ whose husband hunts up all the newest celebrities to grace her breakfast parties. [A.S. _huntian_; A.S. _hentan_, to seize.] HUNTERIAN, hun-t[=e]'ri-an, _adj._ of or pertaining to the great surgeon John _Hunter_ (1728-93), to his collection of anatomical specimens and preparations, the nucleus of the great Hunterian Museum in London, or to the Hunterian Oration delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons on the anniversary of his birth, 14th February: of or pertaining to his elder brother, William _Hunter_ (1718-83), or his museum at Glasgow. HUNTINGDONIAN, hun-ting-d[=o]'ni-an, _n._ a member of the Countess of Huntingdon's Connection, a denomination of Calvinistic Methodists founded by Whitefield in conjunction with Selina, Countess of _Huntingdon_ (1707-91). HUON-PINE, h[=u]'on-p[=i]n', _n._ a Tasmanian yew, with light-yellow wood, used in boat-building. HURDIES, hur'diz, _n.pl._ (_Scot._) the buttocks. HURDLE, hur'dl, _n._ a frame of twigs or sticks interlaced: (_agri._) a movable frame of timber or iron for gates, &c.: a rude sledge on which criminals were drawn to the gallows.--_v.t._ to enclose with hurdles.--_n._ HUR'DLE-RACE, a race where the runners, whether men or horses, have to clear a succession of hurdles. [A.S. _hyrdel_; Ger. _hürde_.] HURDS. Same as HARDS. HURDY-GURDY, hur'di-gur'di, _n._ a musical stringed instrument, like a rude violin, whose strings are sounded by the turning of a wheel: a hand-organ: an impact-wheel. [Imit.] HURL, hurl, _v.i._ to make a noise by throwing: to move rapidly: to dash with force: to whirl: (_Scot._) to convey in a wheeled vehicle.--_v.t._ to throw with violence: to utter with vehemence.--_n._ act of hurling, tumult, confusion: (_Scot._) conveyance in a wheeled vehicle.--_ns._ HURL'ER; HURL'EY, the game of hockey, or the stick used in playing it; HURL'ING, a game in which a ball is forced through the opponent's goal, hockey; HURL'Y (_Scot._), a wheelbarrow; HURL'Y-HACK'ET, an ill-hung carriage. [_Hurtle_.] HURLY-BURLY, hur'li-bur'li, _n._ tumult: confusion.--_n._ HUR'LY (_Shak._). [_Hurly_ is from O. Fr. _hurler_, to yell, orig. _huller_, whence Eng. _howl_. _Burly_ is simply a rhyming addition.] HURRAH, HURRA, hoor-rä', _interj._ an exclamation of excitement or joy.--Also _n._ and _v.i._ [Ger. _hurra_; Dan. and Sw. _hurra_.] HURRICANE, hur'ri-k[=a]n, _n._ a storm with extreme violence and sudden changes of the wind: a social party, a rout--(_Shak._) HUR'RICANO.--HURRICANE DECK, a cross-deck about amidships, a bridge-deck or bridge: the upper light deck of a passenger-steamer. [Sp. _huracan_, from Caribbean.] HURRY, hur'i, _v.t._ to urge forward: to hasten.--_v.i_ to move or act with haste:--_pa.p._ hurr'ied.--_n._ a driving forward: haste: tumult: a tremolando passage for violins, &c., in connection with an exciting situation.--_adj._ HURR'IED.--_adv._ HURR'IEDLY.--_n._ HURR'IEDNESS.--_adv._ HURR'YINGLY.--_n._ HURR'Y-SKURR'Y, confusion and bustle.--_adv._ confusedly. [Imit. Cf. Old Sw. _hurra_, to whirl round.] HURST, hurst, _n._ a wood, a grove. [A.S. _hyrst_.] HURT, hurt, _v.t._ to cause bodily pain to: to damage: to wound, as the feelings.--_v.i._ to give pain, &c.:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ hurt.--_n._ a wound: injury.--_n._ HURT'ER, that which hurts: a beam at the lower end of a gun-platform to save the parapet: a piece of iron or wood fixed to the top-rails of a gun-carriage to check its motion: the shoulder of an axle against which the hub strikes.--_adj._ HURT'FUL, causing hurt or loss: mischievous.--_adv._ HURT'FULLY.--_n._ HURT'FULNESS.--_adj._ HURT'LESS, without hurt or injury, harmless.--_adv._ HURT'LESSLY.--_n._ HURT'LESSNESS. [O. Fr. _hurter_ (Fr. _heurter_), to knock, to run against; prob. from the Celtic, as in W. _hwrdd_, a thrust, the butt of a ram, Corn. _hordh_, a ram.] HURTLE, hurt'l, _v.t._ to dash against: to move violently: to clash: to rattle.--_v.i._ to move rapidly with a whirring sound. [Freq. of _hurt_ in its original sense.] HURTLEBERRY, a form of _whortleberry_. HUSBAND, huz'band, _n._ a married man: (_B._) a man to whom a woman is betrothed: one who manages affairs with prudence: (_naut._) the owner of a ship who manages its concerns in person.--_v.t._ to supply with a husband: to manage with economy.--_n._ HUS'BANDAGE, allowance or commission of a ship's husband.--_adjs._ HUS'BANDLESS (_Shak._), without a husband; HUS'BANDLY, frugal, thrifty.--_ns._ HUS'BANDMAN, a working farmer: one who labours in tillage; HUS'BANDRY, the business of a farmer: tillage: economical management: thrift. [M. E. _husbonde_--A.S. _húsbonda_, Ice. _húsbóndi_--_hús_, a house, _búandi_, inhabiting, pr.p. of Ice. _búa_, to dwell. Cf. Ger. _bauen_, to till.] HUSH, hush, _interj._ or _imper._ silence! be still!--_adj._ silent: quiet.--_v.t._ to make quiet: (_min._) to clear off soil, &c., overlying the bed-rock.--_ns._ HUSH'ABY, a lullaby used to soothe babies to sleep; HUSH'-MON'EY, money given as a bribe to hush or make one keep silent.--HUSH UP, to stifle, suppress: to be silent. [Imit. Cf. _hist_ and _whist_.] HUSK, husk, _n._ the dry, thin covering of certain fruits and seeds: (_pl._) refuse, waste.--_v.t._ to remove the husk or outer integument from.--_adj._ HUSKED, covered with a husk: stripped of husks.--_ns._ HUSK'ER, one who husks Indian corn, esp. at a husking-bee; HUSK'ING, the stripping of husks: a festive gathering to assist in husking Indian corn (maize)--also HUSK'ING-BEE. [M. E. _huske_, orig. with _l_, as in cog. Ger. _hülse_, Dut. _hulse_, &c.] HUSKY, husk'i, _adj._ hoarse, as the voice: rough in sound.--_adv._ HUSK'ILY.--_n._ HUSK'INESS. [A corr. of _husty_, from M. E. _host_ (Scot. _hoast_, _host_, a cough)--A.S. _hwósta_, a cough; cf. Ger. _husten_.] HUSO, h[=u]'so, _n._ the great sturgeon. HUSSAR, hooz-zär', _n._ a light-armed cavalry soldier: (_orig._) a soldier of the national cavalry of Hungary. [Not Hung. _huszar_--_husz_, twenty, because at one time in Hungary one cavalry soldier used to be levied from every twenty families; but Slav. _hussar_, gooseherd, the sobriquet of the raiding horse of Matthias Corvinus (1443-90).] HUSSIF. See HOUSEWIFE. [Contr. of _housewife_.] HUSSITE, hus's[=i]t, _n._ a follower of the Bohemian reformer, John _Hus_, martyred in 1415. HUSSY, huz'i, _n._ a pert girl: a worthless wench. HUSTINGS, hus'tingz, _n.sing._ the principal court of the city of London: formerly the booths where the votes were taken at an election of an M.P., or the platform from which the candidates gave their addresses. [A.S. _hústing_, a council, but a Scand. word, and used in speaking of the Danes--Ice. _hústhing_--_hús_, a house, _thing_, an assembly.] HUSTLE, hus'l, _v.t._ to shake or push together: to crowd with violence.--_n._ HUS'TLER, an energetic fellow. [Old Dut. _hutsen_, _hutselen_, to shake to and fro; cf. _hotchpotch_.] HUSWIFE. See HOUSEWIFE. HUT, hut, _n._ a small or mean house: (_mil._) a small temporary dwelling.--_v.t._ (_mil._) to place in huts, as quarters:--_pr.p._ hut'ting; _pa.p._ hut'ted. [Fr. _hutte_--Old High Ger. _hutta_ (Ger. _hütte_).] HUTCH, huch, _n._ a box, a chest: a coop for rabbits: a baker's kneading-trough: a trough used with some ore-dressing machines: a low wagon in which coal is drawn up out of the pit.--_v.i._ (_Milt._) to hoard up. [Fr. _huche_, a chest--Low L. _hutica_, a box; prob. Teut.] HUTCHINSONIAN, huch-in-s[=o]n'i-an, _n._ a follower of John _Hutchinson_ (1674-1737), who held that the Hebrew Scriptures contain typically the elements of all rational philosophy, natural history, and true religion. HUTTONIAN, hut-[=o]'ni-an, _adj._ relating to the views of James _Hutton_ (1726-97), who emphasised natural agencies in the formation of the earth's crust. HUZZA, hooz-zä', _interj._ and _n._ hurrah! a shout of joy or approbation.--_v.t._ to attend with shouts of joy.--_v.i._ to utter shouts of joy or acclamation:--_pr.p._ huzza'ing; _pa.p._ huzzaed (-zäd'). [Ger. _hussa_; the same as _hurrah_.] HYACINE, h[=i]'a-sin, _n._ (_Spens._) the hyacinth. HYACINTH, h[=i]'a-sinth, _n._ a bulbous-rooted flower of a great variety of colours: (_myth._) a flower which sprang from the blood of Hyacinthus, a youth killed by Apollo with a quoit: a precious stone, the jacinth.--_adj._ HYACIN'THINE, consisting of or resembling hyacinth: very beautiful, like Hyacinthus: curling like the hyacinth. [Doublet of _jacinth_.] HYADES, h[=i]'a-d[=e]z, HYADS, h[=i]'adz, _n._ a cluster of five stars in the constellation of the Bull, supposed by the ancients to bring rain when they rose with the sun. [Gr. _hyades_, explained by the ancients as from _hyein_, to rain; more prob.=little pigs, _hys_, a pig.] HYÆNA, HYENA, h[=i]-[=e]'na, _n._ a bristly-maned quadruped of the dog kind, so named from its likeness to the sow.--LAUGHING HYÆNA, the tiger-wolf or spotted hyæna of South Africa, emitting at times a sound somewhat like hysterical laughter. [L.,--Gr. _hyaina_--_hys_, a sow.] HYALINE, h[=i]'a-lin, _adj._ glassy: consisting of or like glass.--_n._ a glassy transparent surface.--_n._ HYALES'CENCE, the process of becoming glassy.--_adj._ HYALES'CENT.--_ns._ HY'ALITE, a variety of opal like colourless gum; HYAL[=I]T'IS, inflammation of the vitreous humour; HYALOG'RAPHY, the art of engraving on glass.--_adj._ HY'ALOID, hyaline, transparent. [Gr. _hyalinos_--_hyalos_, glass, prob. Egyptian.] HYBERNATE, &c. See HIBERNATE, &c. HYBLÆAN, hi-bl[=e]'an, _adj._ pertaining to ancient _Hybla_ in Sicily, noted for its honey. HYBRID, h[=i]'brid, or hib'-, _n._ an animal or plant produced from two different species: a mongrel: a mule: a word formed of elements from different languages.--_adjs._ HY'BRID, HYB'RIDOUS, produced from different species: mongrel.--_adj._ HY'BRIDISABLE.--_n._ HYBRIDIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ HY'BRIDISE, to cause to interbreed, and to interbreed.---_ns._ HYBRIDIS'ER; HY'BRIDISM, HYBRID'ITY, state of being hybrid. [Fr.,--L. _hibrida_, a mongrel.] HYDATID, h[=i]'d[=a]-tid, _n._ a watery cyst or vesicle sometimes found in animal bodies.--_n._ HY'DATISM, the sound caused by the fluctuation of pus in an abscess.--_adj._ HYD'ATOID, watery, aqueous. [Gr. _hydatis_, a watery vesicle--_hyd[=o]r_, _hydatos_, water.] HYDRA, h[=i]'dra, _n._ (_myth._) a water-serpent with many heads, which when cut off were succeeded by others: any manifold evil: a genus of fresh-water polyps remarkable for their power of multiplication by being cut or divided.--_adjs._ HY'DRA-HEAD'ED, difficulty to root out, springing up vigorously again and again; HY'DROID, like the hydra. [L.,--Gr. _hydra_--_hyd[=o]r_, water, akin to Sans. _udras_, an otter.] HYDRAGOGUE, h[=i]'dra-g[=o]g, _n._ a very active purgative, such as jalap. [Gr. _hyd[=o]r_, water, _ag[=o]gos_, leading, _agein_, to lead.] HYDRANGEA, h[=i]-dran'je-a, _n._ a genus of shrubby plants with large heads of showy flowers, natives of China and Japan. [Gr. _hyd[=o]r_, water, _anggeion_, vessel.] HYDRANT, h[=i]'drant, _n._ a machine for discharging water: a water-plug. [Gr. _hyd[=o]r_, water.] HYDRATE, h[=i]'dr[=a]t, _n._ a compound formed by the union of water with an oxide.--_n._ HYDR[=A]'TION. [Gr. _hyd[=o]r_, water.] HYDRAULIC, -AL, h[=i]-drawl'ik, -al, _adj._ relating to hydraulics: conveying water: worked by water.--_adv._ HYDRAUL'ICALLY.--_n.pl._ HYDRAUL'ICS, used as _sing._, the science of hydrodynamics in its practical application to water-pipes, &c.--HYDRAULIC BELT, an arrangement for lifting water, consisting of an endless belt fitted with buckets which discharge as they turn over an upper wheel; HYDRAULIC CEMENT, lime, a cement that sets or hardens under water; HYDRAULIC JACK, a jack or lifting apparatus, by means of oil, &c., pressed by a force-pump against a piston or plunger; HYDRAULIC MINING, a method of mining by which the auriferous detritus is washed down by a powerful jet of water into a sluice where the gold is easily separated; HYDRAULIC PRESS, a press operated by the differential pressure of water on pistons of different dimensions; HYDRAULIC RAM, an automatic pump worked by the pressure of a column of water in a pipe, and the force acquired by intermittent motion of the column. [From Gr. _hyd[=o]r_, water, _aulos_, a pipe.] HYDRIA, h[=i]'dri-a, _n._ a large Greek water-vase.--_n._ HY'DRIAD, a water-nymph. HYDRID, h[=i]'drid, _n._ (_chem._) a substance consisting of hydrogen combined with an element or some compound radical.--_n._ HY'DRIODATE, a salt of hydriodic acid.--_adj._ HYDRIOD'IC, produced by the combination of hydrogen and iodine. HYDROBAROMETER, h[=i]-dro-ba-rom'e-ter, _n._ an instrument for determining the depth of the sea by the pressure of the superincumbent water. HYDROBROMIC, h[=i]-dro-br[=o]'mik, _adj._ compounded of bromine and hydrogen.--_n._ HYDROBR[=O]'MATE, a salt of hydrobromic acid--same as _bromide_; also _Bromhydrate_. HYDROCARBON, h[=i]-dro-kär'bon, _n._ a compound of hydrogen and carbon.--HYDROCARBON FURNACE, a furnace in which liquid fuel, as petroleum, is used. HYDROCELE, h[=i]'dro-s[=e]l, _n._ (_med._) a swelling consisting of a collection of serous fluid in the scrotum or in some of the coverings of the testicle or spermatic cord. [Gr. _hyd[=o]r_, water, _k[=e]l[=e]_, a swelling.] HYDROCEPHALUS, h[=i]-dro-sef'a-lus, _n._ an accumulation of serous fluid within the cranial cavity, either in the sub-dural space or the ventricles: water in the head: dropsy of the brain.--_adjs._ HYDROCEPHAL'IC, HYDROCEPH'ALOID, HYDROCEPH'ALOUS. [Gr. _hyd[=o]r_, water, _kephal[=e]_, the head.] HYDROCHLORIC, h[=i]-dro-kl[=o]'rik, _adj._ compounded of hydrogen and chlorine.--_n._ HYDROCHL[=O]'RATE, a salt of hydrochloric acid. HYDROCYANIC, h[=i]-dro-s[=i]-an'ik, _adj._ noting an acid formed by the combination of hydrogen and cyanogen--also _Prussic acid_.--_ns._ HYDROCY'ANIDE, HYDROCY'ANITE. HYDRODYNAMICS, h[=i]-dro-di-nam'iks, _n.pl._ used as _sing._, the science that treats of the motions and equilibrium of a material system partly or wholly fluid, called _Hydrostatics_ when the system is in equilibrium, _Hydrokinetics_ when it is not.--_adjs._ HYDRODYNAM'IC, -AL.--_n._ HYDRODYNAMOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the velocity of fluid in motion by its pressure.--_adj._ HYDROELEC'TRIC, pertaining to electricity generated by the escape of steam under high pressure.--_n._ HY'DRO-EXTRACT'OR, an apparatus for removing moisture from yarns, cloths, &c., in process of manufacture. [Gr. _hyd[=o]r_, water, and _dynamics_.] HYDROFLUORIC, h[=i]-dro-fl[=oo]-or'ik, _adj._ consisting of fluorine and hydrogen. HYDROGEN, h[=i]'dro-jen, _n._ a gas which in combination with oxygen produces water, an elementary gaseous substance, the lightest of all known substances, and very inflammable.--_adjs._ HY'DRIC, containing hydrogen; HYDROG'ENOUS, containing hydrogen: produced by the action of water, as applied to rocks in opposition to those that are _pyrogenous_, formed by the action of fire. [A word coined by Cavendish (1766) from Gr. _hyd[=o]r_, water, and _gen[=e]s_, producing.] HYDROGRAPHY, h[=i]-drog'ra-fi, _n._ the art of measuring and describing the size and position of waters or seas: the art of making sea-charts.--_n._ HYDROG'RAPHER, a maker of sea-charts.--_adjs._ HYDROGRAPH'IC, -AL.--_adv._ HYDROGRAPH'ICALLY. [Gr. _hyd[=o]r_, water, _graphein_, to write.] HYDROKINETICS, h[=i]-dro-ki-net'iks, _n.pl._ used as _sing._, a branch of _Hydrodynamics_ (q.v.). HYDROLOGY, h[=i]-drol'o-ji, _n._ the science which treats of water.--_adjs._ HYDROLOG'IC, -AL.--_n._ HYDROL'OGIST. [Gr. _hyd[=o]r_, water, _logia_, a discourse.] HYDROLYSIS, h[=i]-drol'i-sis, _n._ a kind of chemical decomposition by which a compound is resolved into other compounds by taking up the elements of water.--_adj._ HYDROLYT'IC. [Gr. _hyd[=o]r_, water, _lysis_--_lyein_, to loose.] HYDROMANCY, h[=i]'dro-man-si, _n._ divination by water.--_adj._ HYDROMANT'IC. [Gr. _hyd[=o]r_, water, _manteia_, divination.] HYDROMANIA, h[=i]-dro-m[=a]'ni-a, _n._ an insatiable craving for water, as in diabetes: a morbid propensity to suicide by drowning. HYDROMECHANICS, h[=i]-dro-me-kan'iks, _n._ the mechanics of fluids. HYDROMEL, h[=i]'dro-mel, _n._ a beverage made of honey and water. [Gr. _hyd[=o]r_, water, _meli_, honey.] HYDROMETAMORPHISM, h[=i]-dro-met-a-mor'fizm, _n._ a kind of metamorphism of igneous rocks brought about by water, in opposition to _Pyrometamorphism_, that brought about by means of heat. HYDROMETEOROLOGY, h[=i]-dro-m[=e]-te-or-ol'o-ji, _n._ the branch of meteorology which treats of water in the atmosphere, as rain, clouds, snow, &c.--_n._ HYDROM[=E]'TEOR, any one of the aqueous phenomena of the atmosphere. [Gr. _hyd[=o]r_, water, _mete[=o]ron_, a meteor.] HYDROMETER, h[=i]-drom'et-[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring the density or specific gravity of solids and liquids by flotation, consisting of a weighted glass bulb or hollow metal cylinder with a long stem: a current-gauge.--_adjs._ HYDROMET'RIC, -AL.--_n._ HYDROM'ETRY. [Gr. _hyd[=o]r_, water, _metron_, a measure.] HYDROMOTOR, h[=i]-dro-m[=o]'tor, _n._ a form of motor for propelling vessels by means of jets of water ejected from the sides or stern. HYDROMYS, h[=i]'dro-mis, _n._ an Australasian genus of rodents, known as water-rats and beaver-rats. [Gr. _hyd[=o]r_, water, _mys_, mouse.] HYDRONETTE, h[=i]'dro-net, _n._ a syringe: a garden force-pump. HYDROPATHY, h[=i]-drop'a-thi, _n._ the treatment of disease by cold water.--_adjs._ HYDROPATH'IC, -AL.--_adv._ HYDROPATH'ICALLY.--_n._ HYDROP'ATHIST, one who practises hydropathy.--HYDROPATHIC ESTABLISHMENT or (_coll._) simply HYDROPATH'IC, a temperance hotel where the guests can have hydropathic treatment if desired. [Gr. _hyd[=o]r_, water, _pathos_, suffering, _pathein_, to suffer.] HYDROPHANE, h[=i]'dro-f[=a]n, _n._ a partly translucent variety of opal which becomes transparent when wetted.--_adj._ HYDROPH'ANOUS. [Gr. HYD[=O]R, water, _phainein_, to shine.] HYDROPHIDÆ, h[=i]-drof'i-d[=e], _n.pl._ a family of venomous sea-snakes. [Gr. _hyd[=o]r_, water, _ophis_, snake.] HYDROPHOBIA, h[=i]-dro-f[=o]'bi-a, _n._ an unnatural dread of water, a symptom of a disease known as Rabies, usually resulting from the bite of a mad dog--hence the disease itself.--_adj._ HYDROPHOB'IC. [Gr. _hyd[=o]r_, water, _phobos_, fear.] HYDROPHONE, h[=i]'dro-f[=o]n, _n._ a marine electric apparatus for detecting the approach of a torpedo-boat, &c. HYDROPHORE, h[=i]'dro-f[=o]r, _n._ an apparatus for obtaining specimens of water from any required depth. HYDROPHTHALMIA, h[=i]-drof-thal'mi-a, _n._ an increase in quantity of the aqueous or the vitreous humour. HYDROPHYTE, h[=i]'dro-f[=i]t, _n._ a plant living in water.--_n._ HYDROPHYTOG'RAPHY, the branch of botany which describes such--also HYDROPHYTOL'OGY. [Gr. _hyd[=o]r_, water, _phyton_, a plant, _logia_, discourse.] HYDROPSY, h[=i]'drop-si, _n._ dropsy.--_adjs._ HYDROP'IC, HYDROP'TIC, dropsical: thirsty. HYDROPULT, h[=i]'dro-pult, _n._ a hand force-pump. HYDROSAURUS, h[=i]-dro-saw'rus, _n._ a genus of monitor-lizards, of aquatic habit, found in the Malay Peninsula, &c. [Gr. _hyd[=o]r_, water, _sauros_, a lizard.] HYDROSCOPE, h[=i]'dro-sk[=o]p, _n._ a kind of water-clock, consisting of a cylindrical graduated tube, from which the water escaped through a hole in the bottom. [Gr. _hyd[=o]r_, water, _skopein_, to view.] HYDROSOMA, h[=i]-dro-s[=o]'ma, _n._ the entire organism of any hydrozoon:--_pl._ HYDROS[=O]'MATA.--_adjs._ HYDROS[=O]'MAL, HYDROS[=O]'MATOUS. HYDROSTATICS, h[=i]-dro-stat'iks, _n.pl._ used as _sing._, a branch of HYDRODYNAMICS (which see).--_n._ HY'DROSTAT, an electrical contrivance for detecting a leakage or overflow of water: an apparatus devised to guard against the explosion of steam boilers.--_adjs._ HYDROSTAT'IC, -AL.--_adv._ HYDROSTAT'ICALLY.--HYDROSTATIC BALANCE, a balance for weighing bodies in water to determine their specific gravity; HYDROSTATIC BELLOWS, a device for illustrating the law that fluid pressure is proportional to area; HYDROSTATIC PARADOX, the principle that (disregarding molecular forces) any quantity of fluid, however small, may balance any weight, however great, as in the hydrostatic bellows; HYDROSTATIC PRESS, the same as Hydraulic Press. HYDROSULPHURIC, h[=i]-dro-sul-f[=u]'rik, _adj._ formed by a combination of hydrogen and sulphur. HYDROTELLURIC, h[=i]-dro-tel-l[=u]'rik, _adj._ pertaining to hydrogen and tellurium. HYDRO-THERAPEUTICS, h[=i]-dro-ther-a-p[=u]'tiks, _n.pl._ remedial treatment of disease by water in various modes and forms--also HYDROTHER'APY.--_adj._ HYDROTHERAPEU'TIC. HYDROTHERMAL, h[=i]-dro-ther'mal, _adj._ pertaining to, or produced by, action of heated or super-heated water, esp. in dissolving, transporting, and redepositing mineral matter. HYDROTHORAX, h[=i]-dro-th[=o]'raks, _n._ a term applied to dropsical collections in the pleura. [Gr. _hyd[=o]r_, water, _th[=o]rax_, chest.] HYDROTROPISM, h[=i]-dro-trop'izm, _n._ the habit induced in a growing organ by the influence of moisture, of turning toward, or away from, the moisture.--_adj._ HYDROTROP'IC. [Gr. _hyd[=o]r_, water, _tropos_, a turn.] HYDROUS, h[=i]'drus, _adj._ watery, containing hydrogen. HYDROXIDE, h[=i]-droks'[=i]d, _n._ a metallic or basic radical combined with one or more hydroxyl groups.--_n._ HYDROX'YL, a compound radical not yet isolated, but found in many chemical compounds. HYDROZOA, h[=i]-dro-z[=o]'a, _n.pl._ (_sing._ HYDROZ[=O]'ON) one of the main divisions of the sub-kingdom _Coelenterata_, the other two being _Ctenophora_ and _Anthozoa_ or _Actinozoa_; they are chiefly marine organisms, soft and gelatinous, free or fixed, existing everywhere, endlessly varied in form and complexity of structure, including such great groups as _hydroids_, _acalephs_, _medusans_, jelly-fish, sea-blubbers, &c.--_adjs._ HYDROZ[=O]'AN, HYDROZ[=O]'IC. [Gr. _hyd[=o]r_, water, _z[=o]on_, an animal.] HYDRURET. Same as HYDRID. HYENA, h[=i]-[=e]'na, HYEN, h[=i]'en, _n._ (_Shak._) a hyæna. HYETAL, h[=i]'e-tal, _adj._ rainy.--_n._ HY'ETOGRAPH, a chart showing the average rainfall of the earth or any of its divisions.--_adjs._ HYETOGRAPH'IC, -AL.--_ns._ HYETOG'RAPHY; HYETOL'OGY; HYETOM'ETER; HYETOMET'ROGRAPH. [Gr. _hyetos_, rain.] HYGEIAN, h[=i]-j[=e]'an, _adj._ relating to health and its preservation.--_ns._ HYGEIA (h[=i]-j[=e]'a), goddess of health, daughter of Æsculapius; HY'GI[=E]NE, HYGIEN'ICS, HY'GIENISM, the science which treats of the preservation of health.--_adj._ HYGIEN'IC.--_adv._ HYGIEN'ICALLY.--_n._ HY'GIENIST, one skilled in hygiene; HYGIOL'OGY, art of the preservation of health. [Gr. _hygieia_--_hygi[=e]s_, healthy.] HYGRODEIK, h[=i]'gro-d[=i]k, _n._ a form of hygrometer in which the atmospheric humidity is indicated by an index controlled by the heights of a wet-bulb and a dry-bulb thermometer, supported on each side of a frame on which is described a scale. [Gr. _hygros_, wet, _deik-nynai_, to show.] HYGROMETER, h[=i]-grom'et-[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring the moisture in the atmosphere, or its relative humidity.--_n._ HYGROM'ETRY, the art of measuring the moisture in the atmosphere, and of bodies generally.--_adjs._ HYGROMET'RIC, -AL. [Gr. _hygros_, wet, _metron_, a measure.] HYGROSCOPE, h[=i]'gro-sk[=o]p, _n._ an instrument for indicating the humidity of the atmosphere.--_adjs._ HYGROSCOP'IC, -AL.--_ns._ HYGROSCOPIC'ITY; HYGROSTAT'ICS, the art of measuring degrees of moisture. [Gr. _hygros_, wet, _skopein_, to view.] HYKSOS, hik'sos, _n._ the shepherd kings, apparently a Tartar race who overthrew the reigning dynasty of Lower Egypt about 2000 B.C., and reigned until overturned by the Egyptian rulers of Upper Egypt about 1700 B.C. HYLEG, h[=i]'leg, _n._ the planet which rules at the hour of one's birth, in that sign of the zodiac immediately above the eastern horizon. [Ar.] HYLISM, h[=i]'lizm, _n._ materialism--also HY'LICISM.--_ns._ HY'LICIST; HYLOGEN'ESIS, the origin of matter; HY'LOTHEISM, the doctrine that there is no God but matter and the universe.--_adjs._ HYLOZ[=O]'ICAL, HYLOZOIS'TIC.--_ns._ HYLOZ[=O]'ISM, the doctrine that all matter is endowed with life; HYLOZ[=O]'IST. HYLOPATHISM, h[=i]-lop'a-thizm, _n._ the doctrine that matter is sentient.--_n._ HYLOP'ATHIST, one who maintains this. [Gr. _hyl[=e]_, matter, _pathos_, suffering.] HYMEN, h[=i]'men, _n._ (_myth._) the god of marriage: marriage: a thin membrane partially closing the virginal vagina.--_adjs._ HYMEN[=E]'AL, HYMEN[=E]'AN.--_n._ HYM[=E]'NIUM, the fructifying surface in fungi. [L.,--Gr. _hym[=e]n_; cf. Gr. _hymnos_, a festive song.] HYMENOPTERAL, h[=i]-men-op't[.e]r-al, _adj._ pertaining to the HYMENOP'TERA, an order of insects having four membranous wings.--Also HYMENOP'TEROUS. [Gr. _hym[=e]n_, a membrane, _pteron_, a wing.] HYMENOTOMY, h[=i]-men-ot'o-mi, _n._ the cutting or dissection of membranes. HYMN, him, _n._ a song of praise, a metrical formula of public worship.--_v.t._ to celebrate in song: to worship by hymns.--_v.i._ to sing in adoration.--_ns._ HYM'NAL, HYM'NARY, a hymn-book.--_adj._ HYM'NIC, relating to hymns.--_ns._ HYM'NODY, hymns collectively: hymnology; HYMNOG'RAPHER; HYMNOG'RAPHY, the art of writing hymns; HYMNOL'OGIST; HYMNOL'OGY, the study or composition of hymns. [Gr. _hymnos_.] HYOID, h[=i]'oid, _adj._ having the form of the Greek letter upsilon ([Greek: u]), applied to a bone at the base of the tongue. [Gr. _hyoeid[=e]s_--the letter [Greek: u], and _eidos_, form.] HYOSCYAMINE, h[=i]-[=o]-sk[=i]'a-m[=i]n, _n._ a very poisonous alkaloid found in the seeds of _Hyoscyamus niger_, or henbane. [Gr. _hyoskyamos_, henbane.] HYP. See HIP (3). HYPÆTHRAL, hip-[=e]'thral, _adj._ roofless, open to the sky.--_n._ HYPÆ'THRON, an open court. [Gr. _hypo_, beneath, _aith[=e]r_, air.] HYPALGESIA, hip-al-j[=e]'si-a, _n._ diminished susceptibility to painful impressions--also HYPERAL'GIA.--_adj._ HYPERALG[=E]'SIC. [Gr. _hypo_, under, _algos_, pain.] HYPALLAGE, hi-pal'a-j[=e], _n._ (_rhet._) a figure in which the relations of things in a sentence are mutually interchanged, but without obscuring the sense. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _hypallassein_, to interchange--_hypo_, under, _alassein_, to change.] HYPERACUTE, h[=i]-per-a-k[=u]t', _adj._ excessively acute.--_n._ HYPERACUTE'NESS. HYPERÆSTHESIA, h[=i]-per-es-th[=e]'si-a, _n._ (_path._) excessive sensibility.--_adj._ HYPERÆSTHET'IC. HYPERBATON, h[=i]-per'ba-ton, _n._ (_rhet._) a figure by which words are transposed from their natural order.--_adj._ HYPERBAT'IC.--_adv._ HYPERBAT'ICALLY. [Gr.,--_hyperbainein_--_hyper_, beyond, _bainein_, to go.] HYPERBOLA, h[=i]-per'bo-la, _n._ (_geom._) one of the conic sections or curves formed when the intersecting plane makes a greater angle with the base than the side of the cone makes.--_adjs._ HYPERBOL'IC, -AL.--_adv._ HYPERBOL'ICALLY.--_adjs._ HYPERBOL'IFORM; HYPER'BOLOID. [L.,--Gr. _hyperbol[=e]_, from _hyperballein_--_hyper_, beyond, _ballein_, to throw.] HYPERBOLE, h[=i]-per'bo-le, _n._ a rhetorical figure which produces a vivid impression by representing things as much greater or less than they really are--not expecting to be taken literally: an obvious exaggeration.--_adjs._ HYPERBOL'IC, -AL.--_adv._ HYPERBOL'ICALLY.--_v.t._ HYPER'BOLISE, to represent hyperbolically.--_v.i._ to speak hyperbolically or with exaggeration.--_n._ HYPER'BOLISM. [A doublet of the above.] HYPERBOREAN, h[=i]-per-b[=o]'r[=e]-an, _adj._ belonging to the extreme north.--_n._ an inhabitant of the extreme north. [Gr. _hyperboreos_--_hyper_, beyond, _Boreas_, the north wind.] HYPERCATALECTIC, h[=i]-per-kat-a-lek'tik, _adj._ (_pros._) having an additional syllable or half-foot after the last complete dipody.--_n._ HYPERCATALEX'IS. HYPERCRITIC, h[=i]-per-krit'ik, _n._ one who is over-critical.--_adjs._ HYPERCRIT'IC, -AL, over-critical.--_adv._ HYPERCRIT'ICALLY.--_v.t._ HYPERCRIT'ICISE, to criticise with too much nicety.--_n._ HYPERCRIT'ICISM. HYPERDULIA, h[=i]-per-d[=u]-l[=i]'a, _n._ the special kind of worship paid by Roman Catholics to the Virgin Mary, being higher than that paid to other saints (_dulia_), and distinct from that paid to God alone (_latria_). [Gr. _hyper_, beyond, _douleia_, service.] HYPEREMESIS, h[=i]-per-em'e-sis, _n._ excessive vomiting.--_adj._ HYPEREMET'IC. [Gr. _hyper_, over, _emesis_, vomiting.] HYPEREMIA, HYPERÆMIA, h[=i]-per-[=e]'mi-a, _n._ an excessive accumulation of blood in any part of the body.--_adjs._ HYPEREM'IC, HYPERÆ'MIC. [Gr. _hyper_, over, _haima_, blood.] HYPERESTHETIC, h[=i]-per-es-thet'ik, _adj._ morbidly sensitive.--Also HYPERESTH[=E]'SIC. HYPERICUM, h[=i]-per'i-kum, _n._ a large genus of plants, of which St John's wort is a typical species. [Gr. _hypo_, under, _ereik[=e]_, heath.] HYPERINOSIS, h[=i]-per-i-n[=o]'sis, _n._ excess of fibrin in the blood:--_opp._ to HYPINOSIS.--_adj._ HYPERINOT'IC. HYPERION, h[=i]-p[=e]r'i-on, _n._ a Titan, son of Uranus and Ge, and father of Helios, Selene, and Eos: Helios himself, the incarnation of light and beauty. HYPERMETRICAL, h[=i]-per-met'rik-al, _adj._ beyond or exceeding the ordinary metre of a line: having a syllable too much.--_n._ HYPER'METER. HYPERMETROPIA, h[=i]-per-me-tr[=o]'pi-a, _n._ long-sightedness, the opposite of _Myopia_---also HYPEROP'IA.--_adj._ HYPERMETROP'IC. [Gr. _hyper_, beyond, _metron_, measure, _[=o]ps_, eye.] HYPERORTHODOX, h[=i]-per-or'th[=o]-doks, _adj._ extremely orthodox--_n._ HYPEROR'THODOXY. HYPERPHASIA, h[=i]-per-f[=a]'zi-a, _n._ (_path._) lack of control of the organs of speech.--_adj._ HYPERPH[=A]'SIC. HYPERPHYSICAL, h[=i]-per-fiz'ik-al, _adj._ beyond physical laws: supernatural. HYPERPLASIA, h[=i]-per-pl[=a]'si-a, _n._ (_path._) overgrowth of a part due to excessive multiplication of its cells.--_adjs._ HYPERPLAS'IC, HYPERPLAS'TIC. [Gr. _hyper_, over, _plasis_, a forming--_plassein_, to form.] HYPERSARCOSIS, h[=i]-per-sar-k[=o]'sis, _n._ (_path._) proud or fungous flesh.--Also HYPERSARC[=O]'MA. HYPERSENSITIVE, h[=i]-per-sen'si-tiv, _adj._ excessively sensitive.--_n._ HYPERSEN'SITIVENESS. HYPERSTHENE, h[=i]-per-sth[=e]n', _n._ a rock-forming mineral which crystallises in orthorhombic forms, an anhydrous magnesian silicate, generally dark green or raven-black in colour.--_adj._ HYPERSTH[=E]'NIC.--_n._ HYPERSTH[=E]'NITE, a more or less coarsely crystalline igneous rock, allied to gabbro--an aggregate of labradorite (feldspar) and hypersthene, of plutonic origin. [Gr. _hyper_; above, _sthenos_, strength.] HYPERSTHENIA, h[=i]-per-sth[=e]'ni-a, _n._ (_path._) a morbid condition marked by excessive excitement of all the vital phenomena.--_adj._ HYPERSTH[=E]'NIC. [Gr. _hyper_, above, _sthenos_, strength.] HYPERTHESIS, h[=i]-per'the-sis, _n._ a transfer of a letter from its own to the syllable immediately before or after.--_adj._ HYPERTHET'IC. [Gr. _hyper_, over, _thesis_--_tithenai_, to put.] HYPERTROPHY, h[=i]-per'tro-fi, _n._ over-nourishment: the state of an organ or part of the body when it grows too large from over-nourishment.--_adjs._ HYPERTROPH'IC, -AL, HYPER'TROPHIED, HYPER'TROPHOUS. [Gr. _hyper_, above, _troph[=e]_, nourishment.] HYPHEN, h[=i]'fen, _n._ a short stroke (-) joining two syllables or words.--_adj._ HYPHEN'IC. [Gr. _hypo_, under, _hen_, one.] HYPNOTISM, hip'no-tizm, _n._ a sleep-like condition induced by artificial means: a nervous sleep like the condition under mesmerism.--_n._ HYPNOGEN'ESIS, production of hypnotism--also HYPNOG'ENY.--_adj._ HYPNOGENET'IC.--_adv._ HYPNOGENET'ICALLY.--_adjs._ HYPNOGEN'IC, HYPNOT'IC, having the property of producing sleep; HYPNOG'ENOUS.--_ns._ HYPNOL'OGY, the sum of knowledge about sleep; HYPN[=O]'SIS, the production of sleep: the hypnotic state; HYPNOT'IC, a medicine that induces sleep; HYPNOTISABIL'ITY.--_adj._ HYP'NOTISABLE.--_n._ HYPNOTIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ HYP'NOT[=I]SE, to subject to hypnotism, to produce hypnotic sleep in any one.--_n._ HYP'NOT[=I]SER.--_adjs._ HYPNOTIS'TIC; HYP'NOTOID, like hypnotism. [Coined in 1843 from Gr. _hypnos_, sleep.] HYPNUM, hip'num, _n._ the largest genus of mosses, order _Bryineæ_, having archegonia and capsules borne on special lateral branches. HYPOBOLE, hip-pob'o-l[=e], _n._ (_rhet._) the mention in argument of things apparently damaging to one's side, with the successive refutation of each. [Gr.] HYPOCAUST, hip'o-kawst, _n._ among the ancients, a vaulted chamber from which the heat of stoves was distributed to baths or rooms above: now applied to the fireplace of a stove or hothouse. [Gr. _hypokauston_--_hypo_, under, _kaiein_, to burn.] HYPOCHONDRIA, hip-o-kon'dri-a, _n._ a nervous malady, often arising from indigestion, and tormenting the patient with imaginary fears--more correctly, HYPOCHONDR[=I]'ASIS--also HYPOCHONR[=I]'ACISM, HYPOCHONDR[=I]'ASIS, HYPOCHON'DRIASM.--_n._ HYPOCHON'DRIAC, one suffering from hypochondria--also HYPOCHON'DRIAST.--_adjs._ HYPOCHON'DRIAC, -AL, relating to or affected with hypochondria: melancholy.--_n._ HYPOCHON'DRIUM (_anat._), that region of the abdomen situated on either side, under the costal cartilages and short ribs. [L.,--Gr., from _hypo_, under, _chrondos_, a cartilage.] HYPOCIST, h[=i]'po-sist, _n._ an inspissated juice from a parasitic plant of the cytinus family. HYPOCRISY, hi-pok'ri-si, _n._ a feigning to be what one is not: concealment of true character. [Gr. _hypokrisis_--_hypokrinesthai_, to play on the stage, from _hypo_, under, _krinein_, to decide.] HYPOCRITE, hip'o-krit, _n._ one who practises hypocrisy.--_adj._ HYPOCRIT'ICAL, practising hypocrisy.--_adv._ HYPOCRIT'ICALLY. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _hypokrit[=e]s_.] HYPOCYCLOID, h[=i]-po-s[=i]'kloid, _n._ a curve generated by a point on the circumference of a circle which rolls on the inside of another circle.--_adj._ HYPOCYOLOID'AL. HYPODERMIC, h[=i]-po-der'mik, _adj._ relating to the parts under the skin, subcutaneous, esp. of a method of injecting a drug in solution under the skin by means of a fine hollow needle to which a small syringe is attached--also HYPODER'MAL.--_n._ HYPODER'MA, the layer of colourless cells immediately beneath the epidermis of a leaf. [Gr. _hypo_, under, _derma_, the skin.] HYPOGASTRIC, hip-o-gas'trik, _adj._ belonging to the lower part of the abdomen.--_ns._ HYPOGAS'TRIUM, the lower part of the belly; HYPOGAS'TROCELE, a hernia through the walls of the lower belly. [Gr. _hypo_, under, _gast[=e]r_, the belly.] HYPOGENE, h[=i]'po-j[=e]n, _adj._ (_geol._) of or pertaining to rocks which have assumed their present structure under the surface, plutonic:--opp. to _Epigene_.--_adj._ HYPOG'ENOUS (_bot._), produced below the surface, of fungi growing on the under side of leaves:--opp. to _Epigenous_ and _Epiphyllous_. [Gr. _hypo_, under, _gen[=e]s_, produced.] HYPOGEUM, h[=i]-po-j[=e]'um, _n._ the part of a building below the ground, any underground chamber.--_adjs._ HYPOG[=E]'AL, HYPOGÆ'AN, HYPOG[=E]'AN, subterranean. [Gr. _hypo_, under, _g[=e]_, the ground.] HYPOGLOSSAL, h[=i]-po-glos'al, _adj._ situated under the tongue. [Gr. _hypo_, under, _gl[=o]ssa_, the tongue.] HYPOGNATHOUS, h[=i]-pog'n[=a]-thus, _adj._ (_ornith._) having the under mandible longer than the upper, as the black skimmer.--_n._ HYPOG'NATHISM. HYPOGYNOUS, h[=i]-poj'i-nus, _adj._ (_bot._) growing from beneath the ovary, said of certain parts of plants. [Gr. _hypo_, under, _gyn[=e]_, a woman.] HYPONASTY, h[=i]'po-nas-ti, _n._ (_bot._) increased growth along the lower surface of an organ or part of a plant, causing the part to bend upward:--opp. to _Epinasty_. HYPOPHOSPHITE, h[=i]-po-fos'f[=i]t, _n._ (_chem._) a salt obtained by the union of hypophosphorous acid with a salifiable base--also HYPOPHOS'PHATE.--_adjs._ HYPOPHOSPHOR'IC, HYPOPHOS'PHOROUS, containing less oxygen than phosphorous acid contains. HYPOPHYSIS, h[=i]-pof'i-sis, _n._ the pituitary body of the brain: (_bot._) an inflated part of the pedicel under the capsule, in mosses; in flowering plants, a cell of the embryo producing the primary root and root-cap. [Gr. _hypo_, under, _phyein_, to grow.] HYPOSTASIS, h[=i]-pos'ta-sis, _n._ a substance: the essence or real personal subsistence or substance of each of the three divisions of the Godhead.--_adjs._ HYPOSTAT'IC, -AL.--_adv._ HYPOSTAT'ICALLY.--_v.t._ HYPOS'TAT[=I]SE. [L.,--Gr. _hypostasis_--_hyphist[=e]mi_--_hypo_, under, _hist[=e]mi_, I make to stand.] HYPOSTROPHE, h[=i]-pos'tro-fe, _n._ return of a disease, relapse: (_rhet._) use of insertion or parenthesis. HYPOSTYLE, h[=i]'po-st[=i]l, _adj._ (_archit._) having the roof supported by pillars. [Gr. _hypo_, under, _stylos_, a pillar.] HYPOSULPHUROUS, h[=i]-po-sul'fer-us, _adj._ next in a series below sulphurous.--Also HYPOSULPH[=U]'RIC. HYPOTAXIS, h[=i]-po-tak'sis, _n._ (_gram._) dependent construction--opp. to _Parataxis_.--_adj._ HYPOTAC'TIC. HYPOTENUSE, h[=i]-pot'en-[=u]s, or hip-, HYPOTHENUSE, h[=i]-poth'en-[=u]s, _n._ the side of a right-angled triangle opposite to the right angle. [Fr.,--Gr. _hypoteinousa_ (_gramm[=e]_), lit. (a line) 'which stretches under'--_hypo_, under, _teinein_, to stretch.] HYPOTHEC, h[=i]-poth'ek, _n._ in Scotch law, a lien or security over goods in respect of a debt due by the owner of the goods.--ADJ. _Hypoth'ecary_, pertaining to hypothecation or mortgage.--_v.t._ HYPOTH'EC[=A]TE, to place or assign anything as security under an arrangement: to mortgage.--_ns._ HYPOTHEC[=A]'TION; HYPOTH'ECATOR. [Fr.,--L. _hypotheca_--Gr. _hypoth[=e]k[=e]_, a pledge.] HYPOTHESIS, h[=i]-poth'e-sis, _n._ a supposition: a proposition assumed for the sake of argument: a theory to be proved or disproved by reference to facts: a provisional explanation of anything.--_v.i._ HYPOTH'ESIZE, to form hypotheses.--_adjs._ HYPOTHET'IC, -AL, belonging to a hypothesis: conditional.--_adv._ HYPOTHET'ICALLY. [Gr., _hypo_, under, _tithenai_, to place.] HYPOTYPOSIS, h[=i]-po-ti-p[=o]'sis, _n._ (_rhet._) vivid description of a scene. HYPOZOIC, h[=i]-po-z[=o]'ik, _adj._ (_geol._) below the limit of life: belonging to the HYPOZ[=O]'A.--_adj._ and _n._ HYPOZ[=O]'AN. HYPSOMETRY, hip-som'e-tri, _n._ the art of measuring the heights of places on the earth's surface by means of the HYPSOM'ETER.--_adj._ HYPSOMET'RIC. [Gr. _hypsi_, on high, _metron_, a measure.] HYPURAL, h[=i]-p[=u]'ral, _adj._ situated beneath the tail. HYRAX, h[=i]'raks, _n._ a genus of mammals of obscure affinities, like rabbits in size and marmots in appearance, living among rocks in Africa and Syria--the _Cape Daman_, _Klippdass_, or _Rock-badger_; the _Shaphan_ (_Hyrax syriacus_) mistranslated 'cony' of Scripture; and the Abyssinian _Ashtok_. HYSON, h[=i]'son, _n._ a very fine sort of green tea.--_n._ HY'SON-SKIN, the refuse of hyson tea. [Chinese.] HYSSOP, his'up, _n._ an aromatic plant. [Fr.,--L. _hyssopum_--Gr. _hyss[=o]pos_--Heb. _[=e]z[=o]ph_.] HYSTERANTHOUS, his-ter-an'thus, _adj._ (_bot._) having the leaves appearing after the flowers. HYSTERESIS, his-te-r[=e]'sis, _n._ magnetic friction in dynamos, by which every reversal of magnetism in the iron causes dissipation of energy. [Gr. _hyster[=e]sis_, a deficiency--_hysteros_, later.] HYSTERIC, -AL, his-ter'ik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to, of the nature of, or affected with hysterics or hysteria: like hysterics, fitfully and violently emotional.--_adv._ HYSTER'ICALLY.--_ns._ HYSTER'ICS, HYST[=E]R'IA, a nervous affection occurring typically in paroxysms of laughing and crying alternately, with a choking sensation in the throat, but often as a counterfeit of some organic disease.--_adjs._ HYS'TEROID, -AL, like hysteria.--_ns._ HYSTEROM[=A]N'IA, hysterical mania, often marked by erotic delusions and an excessive desire to attract attention; HYSTEROT'OMY, the operation of cutting into the uterus. [L. _hystericus_--Gr. _hysterikos_--_hystera_, the womb.] HYSTERON-PROTERON, his'ter-on-prot'er-on, _n._ a figure of speech in which what should follow comes first: an inversion. [Gr., lit. 'the last first.'] HYTHE, h[=i]th, _n._ Same as HITHE. * * * * * I the ninth letter in the alphabet of western Europe, called _iota_ by the Greeks, from its Semitic name _yod_, in most European languages the sound that of the Latin long _i_, which we have in the words _machine_ and _marine._ The normal sound of _i_ in English is that heard in _bit_, _dip_, _sit_, which is the short Latin _i_. I, [=i], _pron._ the nominative case singular of the first personal pronoun: the word used by a speaker or writer in mentioning himself: the object of self-consciousness, the ego. [M. E. _ich_--A.S. _ic_; Ger. _ich_, Ice. _ek_, L. _ego_, Gr. _eg[=o]_, Sans. _aham_.] I, [=i], _adv._ same as AY.--I', a form of _in_. IAMBUS, [=i]-am'bus, _n._ a metrical foot of two syllables, the first short and the second long, as in L. _f[)i]d[=e]s_; or the first unaccented and the second accented, as in _deduce_--also IAMB'.--_adj._ IAM'BIC, consisting of iambics.--_n._ iambus.--_adv._ IAM'BICALLY, in the manner of an iambic.--_v.i._ IAM'BISE, to satirise in iambic verse.--_n._ IAMBOG'RAPHER, a writer of iambics. [L.,--Gr. _iambos_, from _iaptein_, to assail, this metre being first used by writers of satire.] IANTHINA, [=i]-an-th[=i]'na, _n._ a genus of gregarious, pelagic gasteropods, having a snail-like shell, but delicate, translucent, and blue in colour. [Gr. _ianthinos_--_ion_, a violet, _anthos_, a flower.] IATRIC, -AL, [=i]-at'rik, -al, _adj._ relating to medicine or physicians.--_adj._ IATROCHEM'ICAL, pertaining to IATROCHEM'ISTRY, a system of applying chemistry to medicine introduced by Francis de la Boë of Leyden (1614-72).--_n._ IATROL'OGY, a treatise on medicine. IBERIAN, [=i]-b[=e]'ri-an, _adj._ Spanish.--_n._ one of the primitive inhabitants of Spain, of whom some think the Basques a remnant. [L. _Iberia_, Spain.] IBEX, [=i]'beks, _n._ a genus of goats, inhabiting the Alps and other mountainous regions. [L.] IBIDEM, ib-[=i]'dem, _adv._ in the same place. [L.] IBIS, [=i]'bis, _n._ a genus of wading birds related to the stork, one species of which was worshipped by the ancient Egyptians. [L.,--Gr.; an Egyptian word.] ICARIAN, [=i]-k[=a]'ri-an, _adj._ belonging to, or like, Icarus. [L. _Icarius_--Gr. _Ikarios_--_Ikaros_, who fell into the sea on his flight from Crete, his waxen wings being melted by the sun.] ICE, [=i]s, _n._ water congealed by freezing: concreted sugar, a frozen confection of sweetened cream or the juice of various fruits.--_v.t._ to cover with ice: to freeze: to cover with concreted sugar:--_pr.p._ ic'ing; _pa.p._ iced.--_ns._ ICE'-AGE (_geol._), the glacial epoch, its records included in the Pleistocene system, the chief relics morainic materials, boulder-clay or till, believed to have been formed under glacial ice; ICE'-AN'CHOR, an anchor with one arm for securing a vessel to an ice-floe; ICE'-BIRD, the little auk or sea-dove; ICE'BLINK, the peculiar appearance in the air reflected from distant masses of ice; ICE'BOAT, a boat used for forcing a passage through or being dragged over ice.--_adj._ ICE'-BOUND, bound, surrounded, or fixed in with ice.--_ns._ ICE'-BROOK, a frozen brook; ICE'-CREAM, ICED'-CREAM, cream sweetened or flavoured, and artificially frozen.--_adj._ ICED, covered with ice: encrusted with sugar.--_n._ ICE'-FALL, a glacier.--_n.pl._ ICE'-FEATH'ERS, peculiar feather-like forms assumed by ice at the summits of mountains.--_ns._ ICE'-FERN, the fern-like encrustation which is found on windows during frost; ICE'FIELD, a large field or sheet of ice; ICE'FLOAT, ICE'FLOE, a large mass of floating ice; ICE'FOOT, a belt of ice forming round the shores in Arctic regions--also ICE'-BELT, ICE'-LEDGE, ICE'-WALL; ICE'HOUSE, a house for preserving ice; ICE'-[=I]'SLAND, an island of floating ice; ICE'MAN, a man skilled in travelling upon ice: a dealer in ice: a man in attendance at any frozen pond where skating, &c., are going on; ICE'PACK, drifting ice packed together; ICE'-PAIL, a pail filled with ice for cooling bottles of wine; ICE'-PLANT, a plant whose leaves glisten in the sun as if covered with ice; ICE'-PLOUGH, an instrument for cutting grooves in ice to facilitate its removal; ICE'-SAW, a large saw for cutting through ice to free ships, &c.; ICE'-SPAR, a variety of feldspar remarkable for its transparent ice-like crystals; ICE'-WA'TER, water from melted ice: iced water.--_adv._ IC'ILY.--_ns._ IC'INESS; IC'ING, a covering of ice or concreted sugar.--_adjs._ IC'Y, composed of, abounding in, or like ice: frosty: cold: chilling: without warmth of affection; IC'Y-PEARLED (_Milt._), studded with pearls or spangles of ice.--BREAK THE ICE (see BREAK). [A.S. _is_; Ger. _eis_, Ice., Dan. _is_.] ICEBERG, [=i]s'b[.e]rg, _n._ a mountain or huge mass of floating ice. [From Scand., Norw., and Sw. _isberg_. See _ice_ and _berg_=mountain.] ICELANDER, [=i]s'land-[.e]r, _n._ a native of _Iceland_.--_n._ ICE'LAND-DOG, a shaggy white dog, sharp-eared, imported from Iceland.--_adj._ ICELAND'IC, relating to Iceland.--_n._ the language of the Icelanders.--_ns._ ICE'LAND-MOSS, a lichen found in Iceland, Norway, &c., valuable as a medicine and for food; ICE'LAND-SPAR, a transparent variety of calcite or calcium carbonate. ICHNEUMON, ik-n[=u]'mun, _n._ a small carnivorous animal in Egypt, destroying crocodiles' eggs: an insect which lays its eggs on the larva of other insects. [L.,--Gr., _ichneuein_, to hunt after--_ichnos_, a track.] ICHNITE, ik'n[=i]t, _n._ a fossil footprint. [Gr. _ichnos_.] ICHNOGRAPHY, ik-nog'raf-i, _n._ a tracing out: (_archit._) a ground-plan of a work or building.--_adjs._ ICHNOGRAPH'IC, -AL.--_adv._ ICHNOGRAPH'ICALLY. [Gr. _ichnographia_--_ichnos_, a track, _graphein_, to grave.] ICHNOLITE, ik'no-l[=i]t, _n._ a stone retaining the impression of an extinct animal's footprint. [Gr. _ichnos_, a footprint, _lithos_, a stone.] ICHNOLOGY, ik-nol'o-ji, _n._ footprint lore: the science of fossil footprints.--Also ICHNOLITHOL'OGY. [Gr. _ichnos_, a track, a footprint, _logia_, discourse.] ICHOR, [=i]'kor, _n._ (_myth._) the ethereal juice in the veins of the gods: a watery humour: colourless matter from an ulcer.--_adj._ I'CHOROUS. [Gr. _ich[=o]r_.] ICHTHINE, ik'thin, _n._ an albuminous substance found in fishes' eggs. [Gr. _ichthys_, a fish.] ICHTHYODORULITE, ik'thi-[=o]-dor'[=oo]-l[=i]t, _n._ the name given to fossil fish-spines in stratified rocks. [Gr. _ichthys_, a fish, _doru_, a spear, _lithos_, a stone.] ICHTHYOGRAPHY, ik-thi-og'ra-fi, _n._ a description of fishes. [Gr. _ickthys_, a fish, _graphein_, to write.] ICHTHYOID, -AL, ik'thi-oid, -al, _adj._ having the form or characteristics of a fish--also ICH'THYIC.--_n._ ICHTHYOCOL'LA, fish-glue, isinglass. [Gr. _ichthys_, a fish, _eidos_, form.] ICHTHYOLATRY, ik-thi-ol'a-tri, _n._ fish-worship.--_adj._ ICHTHYOL'ATROUS. ICHTHYOLITE, ik'thi-[=o]-l[=i]t, _n._ a fossil fish. [Gr. _ichthys_, a fish, _lithos_, a stone.] ICHTHYOLOGY, ik-thi-ol'o-ji, _n._ the branch of natural history that treats of fishes.--_adj._ ICHTHYOLOG'ICAL.--_n._ ICHTHYOL'OGIST, one skilled in ichthyology. [Gr. _ichthys_, a fish, _logia_, discourse.] ICHTHYOPHAGY, ik-thi-of'a-ji, _n._ the practice of eating fish.--_n._ ICHTHYOPH'AGIST.--_adj._ ICHTHYOPH'AGOUS. [Gr. _ichthys_, a fish, _phagein_, to eat.] ICHTHYOPSIDA, ik-thi-op'si-da, _n.pl._ one of three primary groups of vertebrates in Huxley's classification (the other two, _Sauropsida_ and _Mammalia_), comprising the amphibians or batrachians and the fish and fish-like vertebrates. [Gr. _ichthys_, fish, _opsis_, appearance.] ICHTHYORNIS, ik-thi-or'nis, _n._ a fossil bird with vertebræ like those of fishes, and with teeth set in sockets. [Gr. _ichthys_, a fish, _ornis_, a bird.] ICHTHYOSAURIA, ik-thi-o-sawr'i-a, _n._ an order of gigantic extinct marine reptiles, uniting some of the characteristics of the Saurians with those of fishes.--_adj._ ICHTHYOSAUR'IAN.--_n._ ICH'THYOSAURUS. [Gr. _ichthys_, a fish, _sauros_, a lizard.] ICHTHYOSIS, ik-thi-[=o]'sis, _n._ a disease in which the skin becomes hardened, thickened, rough, and almost horny in severe cases.--_adj._ ICHTHYOT'IC. [Gr. _ichthys_, a fish.] ICTHYOTOMY, ik-thi-ot'o-mi, _n._ the anatomy of fishes.--_n._ ICHTHYOT'OMIST. ICHTHYS, ik'this, _n._ an emblem or motto ([Greek: ICHTHYS]) supposed to have a mystical connection with Jesus Christ, being the first letters of the Greek words meaning 'Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour.' ICICLE, [=i]s'i-kl, _n._ a hanging point of ice formed by the freezing of dropping water. [A.S. _ísgicel_, for _isesgicel_; _ises_ being the gen. of _ís_, ice, and _gicel_, an icicle; cf. Ice. _jökull_.] ICON, [=i]'kon, _n._ a figure, esp. in the Greek Church, representing Christ, or a saint, in painting, mosaic, &c.--_adj._ ICON'IC.--_n._ ICONOG'RAPHY, the art of illustration.--_adj._ ICONOMAT'IC, expressing ideas by means of pictured objects.--_ns._ ICONOMAT'ICISM; ICONOPH'ILISM, a taste for pictures, &c.; ICONOPH'ILIST, a connoisseur of pictures, &c.; ICONOS'TASIS, a wooden wall which in Byzantine churches separates the choir from the nave--the icons are placed on it. [L.,--Gr. _eik[=o]n_, an image.] ICONOCLASM, [=i]-kon'o-klazm, _n._ act of breaking images.--_n._ ICON'OCLAST, a breaker of images, one opposed to idol-worship, esp. those at the commencement in the Eastern Church, who from the 8th century downwards opposed the use of sacred images, or at least the paying of religious honour to such: any hot antagonist of the beliefs of others.--_adj._ ICONOCLAST'IC, pertaining to iconoclasm. [Gr. _eik[=o]n_, an image, _klast[=e]s_, a breaker--_klan_, to break.] ICONOLOGY, [=i]-kon-ol'o-ji, _n._ the doctrine of images, especially with reference to worship.--_ns._ ICONOL'ATER, an image-worshipper; ICONOL'ATRY, the worship of images; ICONOL'OGIST; ICONOM'ACHIST, one opposed to the cultus of icons; ICONOM'ACHY, opposition to the same. [Gr. _eik[=o]n_, an image, _logia_, discourse.] ICOSAHEDRON, [=i]-kos-a-h[=e]'dron, _n._ (_geom._) a solid having twenty equal sides or faces.--_adj._ ICOSAH[=E]'DRAL. [Gr. _eikosi_, twenty, _hedra_, base.] ICOSANDRIA, [=i]-ko-san'dri-a, _n._ a class of plants having not less than twenty stamens in the calyx.--_adjs._ ICOSAN'DRIAN, ICOSAN'DROUS. [Gr. _eikosi_, twenty, an[=e]r, _andros_, a male.] ICTERUS, ik'te-rus, _n._ the jaundice: a yellowish appearance in plants.--_adjs._ ICTER'IC, -AL, affected with jaundice; IC'TERINE, yellow, or marked with yellow, as a bird; ICTERIT'IOUS, yellow. [Gr. _ikteros_, jaundice.] ICTUS, ik'tus, _n._ a stroke: rhythmical or metrical stress.--_adj._ IC'TIC, abrupt. [L., 'a blow.'] I'D, [=i]d, contracted from _I would_, or _I had_. IDALIAN, [=i]-d[=a]'li-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Idalia_, in Cyprus, or to Venus, to whom it was sacred. IDEA, [=i]-d[=e]'a, _n._ an image of an external object formed by the mind: a notion, thought, any product of intellectual action--of memory and imagination: an archetype of the manifold varieties of existence in the universe, belonging to the supersensible world, where reality is found and where God is (_Platonic_); one of the three products of the reason (the Soul, the Universe, and God) transcending the conceptions of the understanding--_transcendental ideas_, in the functions of mind concerned with the unification of existence (_Kantian_); the ideal realised, the absolute truth of which everything that exists is the expression (_Hegelian_).--_adjs._ ID[=E]'AED, ID[=E]'A'D, provided with an idea or ideas; ID[=E]'AL, existing in idea: mental: existing in imagination only: the highest and best conceivable, the perfect, as opposed to the real, the imperfect.--_n._ the highest conception of anything.--_adj._ ID[=E]'ALESS.--_n._ IDEALIS[=A]'TION, act of forming an idea, or of raising to the highest conception.--_v.t._ ID[=E]'ALISE, to form an idea: to raise to the highest conception.--_v.i._ to form ideas.--_ns._ ID[=E]'AL[=I]SER; ID[=E]'ALISM, the doctrine that in external perceptions the objects immediately known are ideas, that all reality is in its nature psychical: any system that considers thought or the idea as the ground either of knowledge or existence: tendency towards the highest conceivable perfection, love for or search after the best and highest: the imaginative treatment of subjects; ID[=E]'ALIST, one who holds the doctrine of idealism, one who strives after the ideal: an unpractical person.--_adj._ IDEALIST'IC, pertaining to idealists or to idealism.--_n._ IDEAL'ITY, ideal state: ability and disposition to form ideals of beauty and perfection.--_adv._ ID[=E]'ALLY, in an ideal manner: mentally.--_n._ ID[=E]'ALOGUE, one given to ideas: a theorist.--_v.i._ ID[=E]'ATE, to form ideas.--_adj._ produced by an idea.--_n._ the correlative or object of an idea.--_n._ IDE[=A]'TION, the power of the mind for forming ideas: the exercise of such power.--_adjs._ IDE[=A]'TIONAL, ID[=E]'ATIVE. [L.,--Gr. _idea_--_idein_, to see.] IDENTIFY, [=i]-den'ti-f[=i], _v.t._ to make to be the same: to ascertain or prove to be the same:--_pa.p._ iden'tified.--_adj._ IDEN'TIFIABLE.--_n._ IDENTIFIC[=A]'TION.--IDENTIFY ONE'S SELF WITH, to take an active part in the promotion of. [Fr. _identifier_--L., as if _identicus_--_idem_, the same, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] IDENTITY, [=i]-den'ti-ti, _n._ state of being the same: sameness.--_adj._ IDEN'TICAL, the very same: not different.--_adv._ IDEN'TICALLY.--_n._ IDEN'TICALNESS, identity. [Fr.,--Low L. _identitat-em_--L. _idem_, the same.] IDEOGRAPHY, [=i]-de-og'ra-fi, _n._ the representation of things by pictures, and not by sound-symbols or letters.--_ns._ I'DEOGRAPH, such a character or symbol as represents an idea without expressing its name--also I'DEOGRAM.--_adjs._ IDEOGRAPH'IC, -AL, representing ideas by pictures, or directly instead of words.--_adv._ IDEOGRAPH'ICALLY, in an ideographic manner. [Gr. _idea_, idea, _graphein_, to write.] IDEOLOGY, [=i]-de-ol'o-ji, _n._ the science of ideas, metaphysics.--_adjs._ IDEOLOG'IC, -AL.--_n._ IDEOL'OGIST, one occupied with ideas having no significance: a mere theorist--also ID[=E]'OLOGUE. [Gr. _idea_, idea, _logia_, discourse.] IDEOPRAXIST, [=i]-de-[=o]-prak'sist, _n._ one who is impelled to carry out an idea. [Gr. _idea_, idea, _praxis_, doing.] IDES, [=i]dz, _n.sing._ in ancient Rome, the 15th day of March, May, July, October, and the 13th of the other months. [Fr.,--L. _idus_, prob. Etruscan.] IDIOCRASY, id-i-ok'ra-si, _n._ same as IDIOSYNCRASY.--_adj._ IDIOCRAT'IC. IDIOCY. See IDIOT. IDIOELECTRIC, id-i-o-e-lek'trik, _adj._ electric by virtue of its own peculiar properties. IDIOGRAPH, id'i-o-graf, _n._ a private mark or trademark.--_adj._ IDIOGRAPH'IC. IDIOM, id'i-um, _n._ a mode of expression peculiar to a language, a peculiar variation of any language, a dialect.--_n._ ID'IASM, a peculiarity.--_adjs._ IDIOMAT'IC, -AL, conformed or pertaining to the idioms of a language.--_adv._ IDIOMAT'ICALLY.--_n._ IDIOT'ICON, a vocabulary of a particular dialect or district. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _idi[=o]ma_, peculiarity--_idios_, one's own.] IDIOMORPHIC, id-i-o-mor'fik, _adj._ having a peculiar or distinctive form. IDIOPATHY, id-i-op'a-thi, _n._ a peculiar affection or state: (_med._) a primary disease, one not occasioned by another.--_adj._ IDIOPATH'IC (_med._), primary, not depending on or preceded by another disease.--_adv._ IDIOPATH'ICALLY. [Gr. _idios_, peculiar, _pathos_, suffering--_pathein_ to suffer.] IDIOSYNCRASY, id-i-o-sin'kra-si, _n._ peculiarity of temperament or constitution; crotchet or peculiar view, any characteristic of a person.--_adj._ IDIOSYNCRAT'IC. [Gr. _idios_, one's own, _syncrasis_, a mixing together--_syn_, together, _krasis_, a mixing.] IDIOT, id'i-ut, _n._ one deficient in intellect: a foolish or unwise person.--_adj._ afflicted with idiocy: idiotic.--_v.t._ to make idiotic--_ns._ ID'IOCY, ID'IOTCY, state of being an idiot: imbecility: folly.--_adjs._ IDIOT'IC, -AL, pertaining to or like an idiot: foolish.--_adv._ IDIOT'ICALLY.--_adj._ IDIOT'ISH, idiotic.--_n._ ID'IOTISM, the state of being an idiot. [Fr.,--L. _idiota_--_idi[=o]t[=e]s_, orig. a 'private man,' then a rude person--_idios_, one's own.] IDLE, [=i]'dl, _adj._ vain: trifling: unemployed: averse to labour: not occupied: useless: unimportant: unedifying.--_v.t._ to spend in idleness.--_v.i._ to be idle or unoccupied.--_adj._ I'DLE-HEAD'ED, foolish.--_ns._ I'DLEHOOD, I'DLENESS; I'DLER; ID'LESSE, idleness; I'DLE-WHEEL, a wheel placed between two others simply for transferring the motion from one to the other without changing the direction.--_n.pl._ I'DLE-WORMS, once jocularly supposed to be bred in the fingers of lazy maid-servants.--_adv._ I'DLY. [A.S. _idel_; Dut. _ijdel_, Ger. _eitel_.] IDOCRASE, id'o-kr[=a]z, _n._ the mineral vesuvianite. [Gr. _eidos_, form, _krasis_, mixture.] IDOL, [=i]'dul, _n._ a figure: an image of some object of worship: a person or thing too much loved or honoured: any phantom of the brain, or any false appearance by which men are led into error or prejudice which prevents impartial observation, a fallacy--also ID[=O]'LON, ID[=O]'LUM:--_pl._ ID[=O]'LA--Bacon (_Novum Organum_, i. § 38) makes these four in number--_Idols of the nation or tribe_; _Idols of the den or cave_ (fallacies due to personal causes); _Idols of the forum_ (those due to the influence of words or phrases); _Idols of the theatre_ (those due to misconceptions of philosophic system or demonstration).--_v.t._ I'DOL[=I]SE, to make an idol of, for worship: to love to excess.--_ns._ IDOL[=I]S'ER; I'DOLISM (_Milt._), idolatrous worship; I'DOLIST (_Milt._), an idolater; IDOL'OCLAST, a breaker of images.--_adj._ IDOLOGRAPH'ICAL, treating of idols. [O. Fr. _idole_--L. _idolum_--Gr. _eid[=o]lon_--_eidos_, what is seen--_idein_, to see.] IDOLATER, [=i]-dol'a-t[.e]r, _n._ a worshipper of idols: a great admirer:--_fem._ IDOL'ATRESS.--_v.t._ IDOL'ATR[=I]SE, to worship as an idol: to adore.--_adj._ IDOL'ATROUS, pertaining to idolatry.--_adv._ IDOL'ATROUSLY.--_n._ IDOL'ATRY, the worship of an image held to be the abode of a superhuman personality: excessive love. [Fr. _idolâtre_, corr. of L.,--Gr. _eid[=o]lolatr[=e]s_--_eid[=o]lon_, idol, _latreuein_, to worship.] IDOLON, [=i]-d[=o]'lon, _n._ same as IDOL, an image: a mistaken notion. [Gr. _eid[=o]lon_, an image.] IDRIS, [=i]'dris, _n._ a mythical figure in Welsh tradition, giant, prince, and astronomer. IDYL, IDYLL, [=i]'dil, _n._ a short pictorial poem, chiefly on pastoral subjects: a narrative poem.--_n._ IDYL'IST, a writer of idyls.--_adj._ IDYLL'IC, of or belonging to idyls: pastoral. [L. _idyllium_--Gr. _idyllion_, dim. of _eidos_, image.] IF, if, _conj._ an expression of doubt; whether: in case that: supposing that.--AS IF, as it would be if. [A.S. _gif_; Dut. _of_, Ice. _ef_, if, _efa_, to doubt.] IGNARO, ig-n[=a]'r[=o], _n._ (_Spens._) an ignorant person. [It.,--L. IGNARUS. See IGNORE.] IGNATIAN, ig-n[=a]'shan, _adj._ of or pertaining to St _Ignatius_, Bishop of Antioch, martyred at Rome under Trajan about 110 A.D.--The famous IGNATIAN EPISTLES exist in 3 different forms or recensions--the _Short_ (3 only, in Syriac); the _Middle_ (7, the Greek text first published in 1646--considered by Zahn and Lightfoot to be the original form); the _Long_ (these 7, together with 6 others). IGNEOUS, ig'ne-us, _adj._ pertaining to, consisting of, or like fire: (_geol._) produced by the action of fire.--_adjs._ IGNESC'ENT, emitting sparks of fire; IGNIF'EROUS, bearing fire; IGNIG'ENOUS, engendered in fire.--IGNEOUS rocks, those which have been erupted from the heated interior of the earth--hence also termed _Eruptive rocks_. [L. _igneus_--_ignis_, fire.] IGNIPOTENT, ig-nip'o-tent, _adj._ (_Pope_) presiding over fire. [L. _ignis_, fire, _potens_, _-entis_, powerful.] IGNIS-FATUUS, ig'nis-fat'[=u]-us, _n._ a light which misleads travellers, often seen over marshy places, also called 'Will-o'-the-Wisp:'--_pl._ IGNES-FATUI (ig'n[=e]z-fat'[=u]-[=i]). [L. _ignis_, fire, _fatuus_, foolish.] IGNITE, ig-n[=i]t', _v.t._ to set on fire, to kindle: to render luminous with heat.--_v.i._ to take fire: to burn.--_n._ IGNITIBIL'ITY.--_adj._ IGN[=I]T'IBLE, that may be ignited.--_n._ IGNI'TION, act of setting on fire: state of being kindled, and esp. of being made red hot. [L. _ign[=i]re_, _ign[=i]tum_, to set on fire--_ignis_, fire.] IGNOBLE, ig-n[=o]'bl, _adj._ of low birth: mean or worthless: dishonourable.--_v.i._ to degrade.--_ns._ IGNOBIL'ITY, IGN[=O]'BLENESS.--_adv._ IGN[=O]'BLY. [Fr.,--L. _ignobilis_--_in_, not, _gnobilis_, _nobilis_, noble.] IGNOMINY, ig'n[=o]-min-i, _n._ the loss of one's good name: public disgrace: infamy--formerly also IG'NOMY.--_adj._ IGNOMIN'IOUS, dishonourable: marked with ignominy: contemptible: mean.--_adv._ IGNOMIN'IOUSLY.--_n._ IGNOMIN'IOUSNESS. [Fr.,--L. _ignominia_--_in_, not, _gnomen_, _nomen_, name.] IGNORAMUS, ig-n[=o]-r[=a]'mus, _n._ the word formerly written by a grand-jury on the back of an indictment, meaning that they rejected it: an ignorant person, esp. one making a pretence to knowledge:--_pl._ IGNOR[=A]'MUSES. [L., 'We are ignorant,' 1st pers. pl. pres. indic. of _ignor[=a]re_.] IGNORANT, ig'n[=o]-rant, _adj._ without knowledge: uninstructed: unacquainted with: resulting from want of knowledge: (_Shak._) unconscious: (_Shak._) undiscovered.--_n._ IG'NORANCE, state of being ignorant: want of knowledge--in R.C. theol. _vincible_ or _wilful_ ignorance is such as one might be fairly expected to overcome, hence it can never be an excuse for sin, whether of omission or of commission; while _invincible_ ignorance, which a man could not help or abate, altogether excuses from guilt: (_pl._) in Litany, sins committed through ignorance.--_adv._ IG'NORANTLY.--_n._ IGNOR[=A]'TION. [Fr.,--L. _ignorans_, _-antis_, _pr.p._ of _ignor[=a]re_. See IGNORE.] IGNORANTINES, ig-n[=o]-ran't[=i]nz, _n.pl._ (_R.C._) name of a religious congregation of men devoted to the instruction of poor children--now better known as the _Brothers of Christian Schools_. IGNORE, ig-n[=o]r', _v.t._ wilfully to disregard: to set aside. [Fr.,--L. _ignor[=a]re_, not to know--_in_, not, and _gno-_, root of _(g)nosc[)e]re_, to know.] IGUANA, i-gwä'na, _n._ a genus of thick-tongued arboreal lizards in tropical America. [Sp., prob. Haytian.] IGUANODON, i-gwä'no-don, _n._ a large extinct herbivorous reptile, with teeth like those of the iguana. [_Iguana_, and Gr. _odous_, _odontos_, a tooth.] ILEAC, il'e-ak, _adj._, ILEUM, il'e-um, _n._ See ILIAC. ILEX, [=i]'leks, _n._ the scientific name for Holly (which see): the evergreen or holm oak. [L.] ILIAC, il'i-ak, _adj._ pertaining to the lower intestines.--_ns._ IL'EUM, the lower part of the smaller intestine in man; IL'IUM, the upper part of the hip-bone:--_pl._ IL'IA.--ILEUS, ILEAC, or ILIAC PASSION, a severe colic with vomiting, &c. [Fr., through a Low L. _iliacus_--_ilia_, the flanks, the groin.] ILIAD, il'i-ad, _n._ an epic poem by Homer, giving an account of the destruction of _Ilium_ or ancient Troy. [L. _Ilias_, _Iliadis_--Gr. _Ilias_, _Iliados_, a poem relating to _Ilium_, the city of _Ilos_, its founder.] ILK, ilk, _adj._ the same.--OF THAT ILK, of that same, used in connection with a man whose name is the same as that of his ancestral estate--often used erroneously for 'of that kind.' [A.S. _ilc_, _ylc_, from _y-_ or _i-_ (base of _he_), and _líc_=like.] ILKA, il'ka, _adj._ (_Scot._) each. [A.S. _['æ]lc_, each.] ILL, il, _adj._ (comp. _worse_; superl. _worst_) evil, bad: contrary to good: wicked: producing evil: unfortunate: unfavourable: sick: diseased: improper: incorrect: cross, as temper.--_adv._ not well: not rightly: with difficulty--(_rare_) ILL'Y.--_n._ evil: wickedness: misfortune.--_Ill_, when compounded with other words, expresses badness of quality or condition, as 'ill-advised,' 'ill-affected,' 'ill-disposed,' &c.--_adj._ ILL'-BESEEM'ING (_Shak._), unbecoming.--_n._ ILL'-BLOOD, ill-feeling: resentment.--_adjs._ ILL'-BOD'ING, inauspicious; ILL'-BRED, badly bred or educated: uncivil.--_n._ ILL'-BREED'ING.--_adjs._ ILL'-CONDIT'IONED, in bad condition: churlish; ILL'-FAT'ED, bringing ill-fortune; ILL'-FAURD (_Scot._), ILL'-F[=A]'VOURED, ill-looking: deformed: ugly.--_n._ ILL'-F[=A]'VOUREDNESS, state of being ill-favoured: deformity.--_adjs._ ILL'-GOT, -TEN, procured by bad means; ILL'-HAIRED (_Scot._) cross-grained; ILL'-JUDGED, not well judged; ILL'-LOOK'ING, having a bad look; ILL'-MANNED', insufficiently provided with men; ILL'-N[=A]'TURED, of an ill nature or temper: cross: peevish.--_adv._ ILL'-N[=A]'TUREDLY.--_ns._ ILL'-N[=A]'TUREDNESS, the quality of being ill-natured; ILL'NESS, sickness: disease.--_adjs._ ILL'-OFF, in bad circumstances; ILL'-[=O]'MENED, having bad omens: unfortunate; ILL'-STARRED, born under the influence of an unlucky star: unlucky; ILL'-TEM'PERED, having a bad temper: morose: fretful: (_Shak._) disordered; ILL'-TIMED, said or done at an unsuitable time.--_v.t._ ILL'-TREAT, to treat ill: to abuse.--_n._ ILL'-TURN, an act of unkindness or enmity.--_adj._ ILL'-USED, badly used or treated.--_ns._ ILL'-WILL, unkind feeling: enmity; ILL'-WISH'ER, one who wishes harm to another.--_adj._ ILL'-WREST'ING, misinterpreting to disadvantage.--GO ILL WITH, to result in danger or misfortune; TAKE IT ILL, to be offended. [From Ice. _illr_, a contraction of the word which appears in A.S. _yfel_, evil.] ILLAPSE, il-laps', _n._ a sliding in: the entrance of one thing into another.--_v.i._ to glide. [L. _illapsus_--_illabi_--_in_, into, _labi_, to slip, to slide.] ILLAQUEATE, i-lak'w[=e]-[=a]t, _v.t._ to ensnare.--_adj._ ILLAQ'UEABLE.--_n._ ILLAQUE[=A]'TION. ILLATION, il-l[=a]'shun, _n._ act of inferring from premises or reasons: inference: conclusion.--_adj._ IL'LATIVE, denoting an inference: that may be inferred.--_adv._ IL'LATIVELY. [Fr.,--L. _illation-em_--_inferre_, _ill[=a]tum_--_in_, in, into, _ferre_, to bear.] ILLAUDABLE, il-law'da-bl, _adj._ not laudable or praiseworthy.--_adv._ ILLAU'DABLY. ILLEGAL, il-l[=e]'gal, _adj._ contrary to law.--_v.t._ ILL[=E]'GAL[=I]SE, to render unlawful.--_n._ ILLEGAL'ITY, the quality or condition of being illegal.--_adv._ ILL[=E]'GALLY. ILLEGIBLE, il-lej'i-bl, _adj._ that cannot be read: indistinct.--_ns._ ILLEG'IBLENESS, ILLEGIBIL'ITY.--_adv._ ILLEG'IBLY. ILLEGITIMATE, il-le-jit'i-m[=a]t, _adj._ not according to law: not born in wedlock: not properly inferred or reasoned: not genuine.--_n._ ILLEGIT'IMACY.--_adv._ ILLEGIT'IM[=A]TELY.--_n._ ILLEGITIM[=A]'TION, the act of rendering, or state of being, illegitimate. ILLIBERAL, il-lib'[.e]r-al, _adj._ niggardly: mean, narrow in opinion.--_v.t._ ILLIB'ERALISE.--_n._ ILLIBERAL'ITY.--_adv._ ILLIB'ERALLY. ILLICIT, il-lis'it, _adj._ not allowable: unlawful: unlicensed.--_adv._ ILLIC'ITLY.--_n._ ILLIC'ITNESS. [L. _illicitus_--_in_, not, _licitus_, pa.p. of _lic[=e]re_, to be allowable.] ILLIMITABLE, il-lim'it-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be bounded: infinite.--_n._ ILLIM'ITABLENESS.--_adv._ ILLIM'ITABLY.--_n._ ILLIMIT[=A]'TION.--_adj._ ILLIM'ITED. ILLIQUATION, il-li-kw[=a]'shun, _n._ the melting of one thing into another. [L. _in_, into, _liqu[=a]re_, -_[=a]tum_, to melt.] ILLISION, il-lizh'un, _n._ the act of striking against. [L. _illision-em_--_illid[)e]re_--_in_, in, _læd[)e]re_, to strike.] ILLITERAL, il-lit'[.e]r-al, _adj._ not literal. ILLITERATE, il-lit'[.e]r-[=a]t, _adj._ not learned: uninstructed: ignorant.--_n.pl._ a term used to designate those persons who are unable to read or write or both.--_adv._ ILLIT'ERATELY.--_ns._ ILLIT'ERATENESS, ILLIT'ERACY, state of being illiterate: want of learning. ILLOGICAL, il-loj'i-kal, _adj._ contrary to the rules of logic.--_adv._ ILLOG'ICALLY.--_n._ ILLOG'ICALNESS. ILLUDE, il-l[=u]d', _v.t._ to play upon by artifice: to deceive. [O. Fr.,--L. _illud[)e]re_--_in_, upon, _lud[)e]re_, to play.] ILLUME. See ILLUMINE. ILLUMINATE, il-l[=u]'min-[=a]t, _v.t._ to light up: to enlighten: to illustrate: to adorn with ornamental lettering or illustrations.--_adj._ enlightened.--_adj._ ILL[=U]'MINABLE, that may be illuminated.--_adj._ and _n._ ILL[=U]'MINANT.--_n.pl._ ILLUMIN[=A]'T[=I], the enlightened, a name given to various sects, and especially to a society of German Freethinkers at the end of the 18th century.--_n._ ILLUMIN[=A]'TION, act of giving light: that which gives light: splendour: brightness: a display of lights: adorning of books with coloured lettering or illustrations: (_B_.) enlightening influence, inspiration.--_adj._ ILL[=U]'MINATIVE, tending to give light: illustrative or explanatory.--_n._ ILL[=U]'MINATOR, one who illuminates, esp. one who is employed in adorning books with coloured letters and illustrations.--_vs.t._ ILL[=U]'MINE, ILL[=U]'ME, to make luminous or bright: to enlighten: to adorn.--_ns._ ILL[=U]'MINER, an illuminator; ILL[=U]'MINISM.--_adj._ ILLUM'INOUS, bright. [L. _illumin[=a]re_, -_[=a]tum_--_in_, in, upon, _lumin[=a]re_, to cast light--_lumen_ (=_lucimen_)--_luc[=e]re_, to shine, light.] ILLUSION, il-l[=u]'zhun, _n._ a playing upon: a mocking: deceptive appearance: false show: error.--_n._ ILL[=U]'SIONIST, one who is subject to illusions: one who produces illusions, as sleight-of-hand tricks, for entertainment.--_adjs._ ILL[=U]'SIVE, ILL[=U]'SORY, deceiving by false appearances: false.--_adv._ ILL[=U]'SIVELY.--_n._ ILL[=U]'SIVENESS. [See ILLUDE.] ILLUSTRATE, il-lus'tr[=a]t, or il'us-tr[=a]t, _v.t._ to make distinguished: to make clear to the mind: to explain: to explain and adorn by pictures.--_adj._ (_Shak._) renowned.--_n._ ILLUSTR[=A]'TION, act of making lustrous or clear: act of explaining: that which illustrates: a picture or diagram.--_adjs._ ILLUS'TRATIVE, ILLUS'TRATORY, having the quality of making clear or explaining.--_adv._ ILLUS'TRATIVELY.--_n._ ILLUS'TRATOR.--_adj._ ILLUS'TRIOUS, morally bright, distinguished: noble: conspicuous: conferring honour.--_adv._ ILLUS'TRIOUSLY.--_n._ ILLUS'TRIOUSNESS. [L. _illustr[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to light up--_illustris_, prob. _in_, in, _lux_, _lucis_, light.] I'M, [=i]m, a contraction of _I am_. IMAGE, im'[=a]j, _n._ likeness: a statue: an idol: a representation in the mind, an idea: a picture in the imagination: (_optics_) the figure of any object formed by rays of light.--_v.t._ to form an image of: to form a likeness of in the mind.--_adj._ IM'AGELESS, having no image.--_ns._ IMAGERY (im'[=a]j-ri, or im'[=a]j-er-i), the work of the imagination: mental pictures: figures of speech: (_orig._) images in general; IM'AGE-WOR'SHIP, honour paid in worship to graven or painted representations of sacred persons or things. [O. Fr.,--L. _imago_, image; cf. _imit[=a]ri_, to imitate.] IMAGINE, im-aj'in, _v.t._ to form an image of in the mind: to conceive: to think: (_B._) to contrive or devise.--_v.i._ to form mental images: to conceive.--_adj._ IMAG'INABLE, that may be imagined.--_n._ IMAG'INABLENESS.--_adv._ IMAG'INABLY.--_adj._ IMAG'INARY, existing only in the imagination: not real: (_alg._) impossible.--_n._ IMAGIN[=A]'TION, act of imagining: the faculty of forming images in the mind: that which is imagined: contrivance.--_adj._ IMAG'IN[=A]TIVE, full of imagination: proceeding from the imagination.--_ns._ IMAG'IN[=A]TIVENESS; IMAG'INER; IMAG'INING, that which is imagined. [O. Fr. _imaginer_--L. _imagin[=a]ri_--_imago_, an image.] IMAGO, i-m[=a]'g[=o], _n._ the last or perfect state of insect life: an image or optical counterpart of a thing. [L.] IMÂM, i-mam', IMAUM, i-mawm', _n._ the officer who in Mohammedan mosques recites the prayers and leads the devotions of the faithful--in Turkey also superintending circumcisions, marriages, and funerals. [Ar. _im[=a]m_, chief.] IMBANK, im-bangk'. Same as EMBANK. IMBAR, im-bär', _v.t._ to exclude. IMBARK, im-bärk', _v.i._ Same as EMBARK. IMBATHE, im-b[=a]th', _v.t._ (_Milt._) to bathe. IMBECILE, im'be-s[=e]l, _adj._ without strength either of body or mind: feeble: fatuous.--_n._ one destitute of strength, either of mind or body.--_n._ IMBECIL'ITY, state of being imbecile: weakness of body or mind. [O. Fr. _imbecile_--L. _imbecillis_; origin unknown.] IMBED, im-bed', _v.t._ See EMBED. IMBELLISHING, _n._ (_Milt._). Same as EMBELLISHMENT. IMBIBE, im-b[=i]b', _v.t._ to drink in: to absorb: to receive into the mind.--_v.i._ to drink, absorb.--_ns._ IMBIB'ER; IMBIBI'TION. [L. _imbib[)e]re_--_in_, in, into, _bib[)e]re_, to drink.] IMBITTER, im-bit'[.e]r, _v.t._ See EMBITTER. IMBLAZE, im-bl[=a]z', _v.t._ obsolete form of _emblaze_. IMBODY, im-bod'i. See EMBODY. IMBOIL, im-boil', _v.i._ Same as EMBOIL. IMBORDER, im-bor'd[.e]r, _v.t._ Same as EMBORDER. IMBOSOM, im-b[=oo]z'um. See EMBOSOM. IMBOUND, im-bownd', _v.t._ Same as EMBOUND. IMBOW, im-b[=o]', _v.t._ Same as EMBOW. IMBRANGLE. See EMBRANGLE. IMBRICATE, im'bri-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to lay one over another, as tiles on a roof.--_adj._ bent like a gutter-tile: (_bot._) overlapping each other.--_n._ IMBRIC[=A]'TION, a concave indenture, as of a tile: an overlapping of the edges: ornamental masonry. [L. _imbric[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_imbrex_, a gutter-tile--_imber_; a shower.] IMBROCATA, im-bro-kä'tä, _n._ in fencing, a thrust in tierce. [It.] IMBROGLIO, im-br[=o]l'y[=o], _n._ an intricate plot in a romance or drama: a perplexing state of matters: a complicated misunderstanding. [It., 'confusion'--_imbrogliare_, to confuse, embroil.] IMBROWN. See EMBROWN. IMBRUE, im-br[=oo]', _v.t._ to wet or moisten: to soak: to drench.--_n._ IMBRUE'MENT. [O. Fr. _embruer_--_bevre_ (Fr. _boire_)--L. _bib[)e]re_, to drink.] IMBRUTE, im-br[=oo]t', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to reduce, or sink, to the state of a brute:--_pr.p._ imbrut'ing; _pa.p._ imbrut'ed. IMBUE, im-b[=u]', _v.t._ to moisten: to tinge deeply: to cause to imbibe, as the mind. [O. Fr. _imbuer_--L. _imbu[)e]re_--_in_, and root of _bib[)e]re_, to drink.] IMITATE, im'i-t[=a]t, _v.t._ to copy, to strive to be the same as: to produce a likeness of.--_n._ IMITABIL'ITY.--_adj._ IM'ITABLE, that may be imitated or copied: worthy of imitation.--_n._ IM'ITANCY, the tendency to imitate.--_adj._ IM'ITANT.--_n._ IMIT[=A]'TION, act of imitating: that which is produced as a copy, a likeness: (_mus._) the repeating of the same passage, or the following of a passage with a similar one in one or more of the other parts or voices.--_adj._ IM'IT[=A]TIVE, inclined to imitate: formed after a model.--_adv._ IM'IT[=A]TIVELY.--_ns._ IM'IT[=A]TIVENESS, the quality of being imitative; IM'IT[=A]TOR, one who imitates or copies. [L. _imit[=a]ri_, _imit[=a]tus_, ety. unknown.] IMMACULATE, im-mak'[=u]-l[=a]t, _adj._ spotless: unstained: pure.--_adv._ IMMAC'ULATELY.--_n._ IMMAC'ULATENESS.--IMMACULATE CONCEPTION, the R.C. dogma that the Virgin Mary was conceived without original sin--first proclaimed in 1854. [L. _immacul[=a]tus_--_in_, not, _macul[=a]re_, to stain--_macula_, a spot.] IMMALLEABLE, im-mal'le-a-bl, _adj._ not malleable. IMMANACLE, im-man'a-kl, _v.t._ (_Milt._) to put in manacles, to fetter or confine. IMMANATION, im-[=a]-n[=a]'shun, _n._ an easy flow.--_v.t._ IMM'ANATE, to flow or issue in. [L. _in_, in, _man[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to flow.] IMMANE, i-m[=a]n', _adj._ huge: cruel, savage.--_adv._ IMMANE'LY.--_n._ IMMAN'ITY (_Shak._), inhumanity, cruelty. [L. _immanis_, huge.] IMMANENT, im'[=a]-nent, _adj._ remaining within: inherent.--_ns._ IMM'[=A]NENCE, IMM'[=A]NENCY, the notion that the intelligent and creative principle of the universe pervades the universe itself, a fundamental conception of Pantheism. [L. _immanens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _imman[=e]re_--_in_, in, _man[=e]re_, to remain.] IMMANTLE, im-man'tl, _v.t._ to envelop in a mantle. IMMANUEL, EMMANUEL, i-man'[=u]-el, e-, _n._ a name given to Jesus (Matt. i. 23) as the son of a virgin (Is. vii. 14). [Heb., lit. 'God-with-us.'] IMMARGINATE, im-ar-jin'[=a]t, _adj._ having no margin. IMMASK, im-mask', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to mask, disguise. IMMATERIAL, im-a-t[=e]'ri-al, _adj._ not consisting of matter: incorporeal: unimportant.--_v.t._ IMMAT[=E]'RIALISE, to separate from matter.--_ns._ IMMATE'RIALISM, the doctrine that there is no material substance; IMMAT[=E]'RIALIST, one who believes in this; IMMATERIAL'ITY, the quality of being immaterial or of not consisting of matter.--_adv._ IMMAT[=E]'RIALLY. IMMATURE, im-a-t[=u]r', IMMATURED, im-a-t[=u]rd', _adj._ not ripe: not perfect: come before the natural time.--_adv._ IMMATURE'LY.--_ns._ IMMATURE'NESS, IMMATUR'ITY. IMMEASURABLE, im-mezh'[=u]r-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be measured: very great.--_n._ IMMEAS'URABLENESS.--_adv._ IMMEAS'URABLY.--_adj._ IMMEAS'URED (_Spens._), beyond the common measure, immeasurable. IMMEDIATE, im-m[=e]'di-[=a]t, _adj._ with nothing between two objects: not acting by second causes: direct: present: without delay.--_n._ IMM[=E]'DIACY (_Shak._), immediate or independent power.--_adv._ IMM[=E]'DI[=A]TELY.--_ns._ IMM[=E]'DI[=A]TENESS; IMM[=E]'DIATISM. IMMEDICABLE, im-med'i-ka-bl, _adj._ incurable. IMMEMORIAL, im-me-m[=o]r'i-al, _adj._ beyond the reach of memory.--_adj._ IMMEM'ORABLE.--_adv._ IMMEM[=O]'RIALLY. IMMENSE, im-mens', _adj._ that cannot be measured: vast in extent: very large.--_adv._ IMMENSE'LY.--_ns._ IMMENSE'NESS; IMMENS'ITY, an extent not to be measured: infinity: greatness. [Fr.,--L. _immensus_--_in_, not, _mensus_, pa.p,. of _met[=i]ri_, to measure.] IMMENSURABLE, im-mens'[=u]r-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be measured.--_n._ IMMENSURABIL'ITY. IMMERGE, im-m[.e]rj', _v.t._ to plunge into. [L. _in_, into, _merg[)e]re_, _mersum_, to plunge.] IMMERITOUS, im-mer'it-us, _adj._ (_Milt._) undeserving. [L. _immeritus_--_in_, not, _meritus_, deserving.] IMMERSE, im-m[.e]rs', _v.t._ to plunge into: to dip: to baptise by dipping the whole body: to engage deeply: to overwhelm.--_adjs._ IMMERS'ABLE, IMMERS'IBLE.--_ns._ IMMER'SION, act of immersing or plunging into: state of being dipped into: state of being deeply engaged; IMMER'SIONIST. [See IMMERGE.] IMMESH. See ENMESH. IMMETHODICAL, im-me-thod'ik-al, _adj._ without method or order: irregular.--_adv._ IMMETHOD'ICALLY. IMMIGRATE, im'i-gr[=a]t, _v.i._ to migrate or remove into a country.--_ns._ IMM'IGRANT, one who immigrates; IMMIGR[=A]'TION, act of immigrating. [L. _immigr[=a]re_--_in_, into, _migrare_, _-[=a]tum_, to remove.] IMMINENT, im'i-nent, _adj._ near at hand: threatening: impending.--_n._ IMM'INENCE.--_adv._ IMM'INENTLY. [L. _imminens_, _-entis_--_in_, upon, _min[=e]re_, to project.] IMMINGLE, im-ming'gl, _v.t._ to mingle together, to mix. IMMISCIBLE, im-is'i-bl, _adj._ not capable of being mixed. IMMIT, im-mit', _v.t._ to send into: to inject:--_pr.p._ immit'ting; _pa.p._ immit'ted.--_n._ IMMISS'ION, act of immitting: injection. [L. _immit[)e]re_--_in_, into, _mitt[)e]re_, _missum_, to send.] IMMITIGABLE, im-it'i-ga-bl, _adj._ incapable of being mitigated.--_adv._ IMMIT'IGABLY. IMMIX, im-miks', _v.t._ (_Milt._) to mix.--_adj._ IMMIX'ABLE, incapable of being mixed. IMMOBILITY, im-mo-bil'i-ti, _n._ the character of being immovable.--_adj._ IMMOB'ILE. IMMODERATE, im-mod'[.e]r-[=a]t, _adj._ exceeding proper bounds: extravagant.--_ns._ IMMOD'ERACY, IMMOD'ERATENESS, the quality of being immoderate: extravagance.--_adv._ IMMOD'ERATELY.--_n._ IMMODER[=A]'TION, want of moderation: excess. IMMODEST, im-mod'est, _adj._ wanting restraint: impudent: forward: wanting shame or delicacy.--_adv._ IMMOD'ESTLY.--_n._ IMMOD'ESTY, want of modesty. IMMOLATE, im'[=o]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to offer in sacrifice.--_ns._ IMMOL[=A]'TION, act of immolating: a sacrifice; IMM'OLATOR, one who immolates or offers sacrifice. [L. _immol[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to sprinkle meal on a victim, hence to sacrifice--_in_, upon, _mola_, meal.] IMMOMENT, im-m[=o]'ment, _adj._ (_Shak._) of no value. IMMORAL, im-mor'al, _adj._ inconsistent with what is right: wicked: licentious.--_n._ IMMORAL'ITY, quality of being immoral: an immoral act or practice.--_adv._ IMMOR'ALLY. IMMORTAL, im-mor'tal, _adj._ exempt from death: imperishable: never to be forgotten (as a name, poem, &c.).--_n._ one who will never cease to exist: one of the forty members of the French Academy.--_n._ IMMORTALIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ IMMOR'TALISE, to make immortal.--_n._ IMMORTAL'ITY, condition or quality of being immortal: exemption from death or oblivion.--_adv._ IMMOR'TALLY. IMMORTELLE, im-mor-tel', _n._ any one of the flowers commonly called everlasting. [Fr. (_fleur_) _immortelle_, immortal (flower).] IMMOVABLE, im-m[=oo]v'a-bl, _adj._ steadfast: unalterable: that cannot be impressed or made to fall: (_pl._) fixtures, &c., not movable by a tenant.--_ns._ IMMOV'ABLENESS, IMMOVABIL'ITY.--_adv._ IMMOV'ABLY. IMMUNE, im-m[=u]n', _adj._ free from obligation: not liable to infection.--_n._ IMMUN'ITY, state of being immune: exemption: privilege. [Fr.,--L. _in_, not, _munis_, serving, obliging.] IMMURE, im-m[=u]r', _v.t._ to wall in: to shut up: to imprison.--_n._ (_Shak._) a wall.--_n._ IMMURE'MENT, imprisonment. [Fr.,--L. _in_, in, _murus_, a wall.] IMMUTABLE, im-m[=u]t'a-bl, _adj._ unchangeable.--_ns._ IMMUTABIL'ITY, IMM[=U]T'ABLENESS, unchangeableness.--_adv._ IMM[=U]T'ABLY. IMP, imp, _n._ a little devil or wicked spirit: a son, offspring, a pert child.--_v.t._ (falconry) to mend a broken or defective wing by inserting a feather: to qualify for flight.--_adj._ IMP'ISH, like an imp: fiendish. [A.S. _impe_--Low L. _impotus_, a graft--Gr. _emphytos_, engrafted.] IMPACABLE, im-p[=a]k'a-bl, _adj._ (_Spens._) not to be quieted or appeased. [L. _in_, not, _pac[=a]re_, to quiet.] IMPACT, im-pakt', _v.t._ to press firmly together: to drive close.--_n._ IM'PACT, a striking against: collision: the blow of a body in motion impinging on another body: the impulse resulting from collision.--IMPACTED FRACTURE (_surg._), when one part of the bone is forcibly driven into the other. [O. Fr. _impacter_--L. _impactus_, pa.p. of _imping[=e]re_. See IMPINGE.] IMPAINT, im-p[=a]nt', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to paint. IMPAIR, im-p[=a]r', _v.t._ to diminish in quantity, value, or strength: to injure: to weaken.--_v.i._ (_obs._) to become worse.--_n._ IMPAIR'MENT. [O. Fr. _empeirer_ (Fr. _empirer_), from L. _im_ (=in), inten., and L. _pejor[=a]re_, to make worse--L. _pejor_, worse.] IMPAIR, im-p[=a]r', _adj._ (_Shak._) unsuitable. [Fr.,--L. _impar_--_in_, not, _par_, equal.] IMPALE, im-p[=a]l', _v.t._ to fence in with stakes: to shut in: to put to death by spitting on a stake.--_n._ IMPALE'MENT, an enclosed space: (_her._) the marshalling side by side of two escutcheons combined in one. [Fr. _empaler_--L. _in_, in, _palus_, a stake.] IMPALPABLE, im-pal'pa-bl, _adj._ not perceivable by touch: not coarse: not easily understood.--_n._ IMPALPABIL'ITY.--_adv._ IMPAL'PABLY. IMPANATION, im-p[=a]-n[=a]'shun, _n._ a term used to express the local union of the body of Christ with the consecrated bread in the Eucharist; but later specially used of Luther's doctrine of Consubstantiation (q.v.).--_adj._ IMP[=A]'NATE, embodied in bread. [From Low L. _impan[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_in_, in, _panis_, bread.] IMPANEL. See EMPANEL. IMPARADISE, im-par'a-d[=i]s, _v.t._ (_Milt._) to put in a paradise or state of extreme felicity, to make perfectly happy:--_pr.p._ impar'ad[=i]sing; _pa.p._ impar'ad[=i]sed. IMPARITY, im-par'i-ti, _n._ want of parity or equality: indivisibility into equal parts.--_adjs._ IMPARIDIG'ITATE, having an uneven number of digits; IMPARIPIN'NATE, unequally pinnate; IMPARISYLLAB'IC, not consisting of an equal number of syllables. [L. _impar_--_in_, not, _par_, equal.] IMPARK, im-pärk', _v.t._ to enclose in a park. IMPARLANCE, im-pärl'ans, _n._ (_Spens._) parley.--_v.i._ IMPARL', to hold a consultation. [O. Fr. _emparlance_--_emparler_, to talk.] IMPART, im-pärt', _v.t._ to bestow a part of: to give: to communicate: to make known.--_v.i._ to give a part.--_ns._ IMPART[=A]'TION, the act of imparting; IMPART'MENT (_Shak._), the act of imparting: that which is imparted, disclosure. [O. Fr. _empartir_--L. _impart[=i]re_--_in_, on, _pars_, _partis_, a part.] IMPARTIAL, im-pär'shal, _adj._ not favouring one more than another: just: (_Shak._) partial.--_ns._ IMPARTIAL'ITY, IMPAR'TIALNESS, quality of being impartial: freedom from bias.--_adv._ IMPAR'TIALLY. IMPARTIBLE, im-pärt'i-bl, _adj._ capable of being imparted.--_n._ IMPARTIBIL'ITY. IMPARTIBLE, im-pärt'i-bl, _adj._ not partible: indivisible.--_n._ IMPARTIBIL'ITY. IMPASSABLE, im-pas'a-bl, _adj._ not capable of being passed.--_ns._ IMPASSABIL'ITY, IMPASS'ABLENESS.--_adv._ IMPASS'ABLY. IMPASSIBLE, im-pas'i-bl, _adj._ incapable of passion or feeling.--_ns._ IMPASSIBIL'ITY, IMPASS'IBLENESS, quality of being impassible. [Fr.,--L. _impassibilis_,--_in_, not, _pati_, _passus_, to suffer.] IMPASSION, im-pash'un, _v.t._ to move with passion.--_adjs._ IMPASS'IONABLE, IMPASS'ION[=A]TE, IMPASS'IONED, moved by strong passion or feeling: animated: excited; IMPASS'IVE, not susceptible of pain or feeling.--_adv._ IMPASS'IVELY.--_ns._ IMPASS'IVENESS, IMPASSIV'ITY. [Through Low L.--L. _in_, in, _passion-em_, passion.] IMPASTE, im-p[=a]st', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to knead into a paste: to lay colours on thick.--_ns._ IMPAST[=A]'TION, act of impasting: that which is made into paste; IMPAS'TO, in painting, the thick laying on of pigments. [Low L. _impast[=a]re_--_in_, into, _pasta_, paste.] IMPATIENT, im-p[=a]'shent, _adj._ not able to endure or to wait: fretful: restless.--_n._ IMP[=A]'TIENCE, want of patience.--_adv._ IMP[=A]'TIENTLY. IMPAVE, im-p[=a]v', _v.t._ (_Wordsworth_) to pave. IMPAVID, im-pav'id, _adj._ fearless.--_adv._ IMPAV'IDLY, fearlessly: dauntlessly. [L. _impavidus_--_in_, not, _pavidus_, fearing.] IMPAWN, im-pawn', _v.t._ to pawn or deposit as security. IMPEACH, im-p[=e]ch', _v._t to charge with a crime: to cite before a court for official misconduct: to call in question: (_Spens._) to impede.--_adj._ IMPEACH'ABLE, liable to impeachment: chargeable with a crime.--_ns._ IMPEACH'ER, one who impeaches; IMPEACH'MENT, an exceptional form of process whereby the House of Commons may obtain redress for any high crimes and misdemeanours committed by peers and ministers of the Crown: (_Shak._) hinderance, obstruction. [O. Fr. _empescher_, to hinder (Fr. _empêcher_, It. _impacciare_); either from L. _imping[)e]re_, to strike against, or _impedic[=a]re_, to fetter--thus cognate either with _impinge_ or _impede_.] IMPEARL, im-p[.e]rl', _v.t._ to adorn with or as with pearls: to make like pearls. IMPECCABLE, im-pek'a-bl, _adj._ not liable to error or to sin.--_ns._ IMPECCABIL'ITY, IMPECC'ANCY.--_adj._ IMPECC'ANT, doing no sin. IMPECUNIOUS, im-pe-k[=u]ni-us, _adj._ having no money: poor.--_n._ IMPECUNIOS'ITY. IMPEDE, im-p[=e]d', _v.t._ to hinder or obstruct.--_n._ IMP[=E]'DANCE, hinderance, esp. in electricity an apparent increase of resistance due to induction in a circuit.--_adj._ IMPED'IBLE, capable of being impeded.--_n._ IMPED'IMENT, that which impedes: hinderance: a defect preventing fluent speech.--_n.pl._ IMPEDIMENT'A, military baggage, baggage generally.--_adjs._ IMPEDIMEN'TAL, IMPED'ITIVE, causing hinderance. [L. _imped[=i]re_--_in_, in, _pes_, _pedis_, a foot.] IMPEL, im-pel', _v.t._ to urge forward: to excite to action: to instigate:--_pr.p._ impel'ling; _pa.p._ impelled'.--_adj._ IMPEL'LENT, impelling or driving on.--_n._ a power that impels.--_n._ IMPEL'LER. [L. _impell[)e]re_, _impulsum_--_in_, on, _pell[)e]re_, to drive.] IMPEND, im-pend', _v.i._ to threaten: to be about to happen.--_ns._ IMPEND'ENCE, IMPEND'ENCY, the state of impending: near approach.--_adj._ IMPEND'ENT, imminent: ready to act or happen. [L. _impend[=e]re_--_in_, on, _pend[=e]re_, to hang.] IMPENETRABLE, im-pen'e-tra-bl, _adj._ incapable of being pierced: preventing another body from occupying the same space at the same time: not to be impressed in mind or heart.--_n._ IMPENETRABIL'ITY, one of the essential properties of matter, implying that no two bodies can at the same time occupy the same space.--_adv._ IMPEN'ETRABLY. IMPENITENT, im-pen'i-tent, _adj._ not repenting of sin.--_n._ one who does not repent: a hardened sinner.--_n._ IMPEN'ITENCE.--_adv._ IMPEN'ITENTLY. IMPENNATE, im-pen'[=a]t, IMPENNOUS, im-pen'us, _adj._ wingless: having very short wings useless for flight. [L. _in_, not, _penna_, a wing.] IMPERATIVE, im-per'a-tiv, _adj._ expressive of command: authoritative: peremptory: obligatory.--_adv._ IMPER'ATIVELY.--IMPERATIVE MOOD, the form of a verb expressing command or advice; CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE (see under CATEGORY). [L. _imperativus_--_imper[=a]re_, to command--_in_, in, _par[=a]re_, to prepare.] IMPERATOR, im'p[=e]-r[=a]-tor, _n._ a commander: a ruler: an emperor.--_adj._ IMPERAT[=O]'RIAL. [L.,--_imper[=a]re_, to command.] IMPERCEPTIBLE, im-p[.e]r-sep'ti-bl, _adj._ not discernible: insensible: minute.--_ns._ IMPERCEP'TIBLENESS, IMPERCEPTIBIL'ITY.--_adv._ IMPERCEP'TIBLY.--_adjs._ IMPERCEP'TIVE, not perceiving; IMPERCIP'IENT, having no power to perceive. IMPERFECT, im-p[.e]r'fekt, _adj._ incomplete: defective: not fulfilling its design: liable to err.--_adv._ IMPER'FECTLY.--_ns._ IMPER'FECTNESS, IMPERFEC'TION. IMPERFORATE, -d, im-p[.e]r'fo-r[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ not pierced through: having no opening.--_adj._ IMPER'FORABLE, that cannot be perforated or bored through.--_n._ IMPERFOR[=A]'TION. IMPERIAL, im-p[=e]'ri-al, _adj._ pertaining to an empire or to an emperor: sovereign, supreme: commanding, of superior size or excellence.--_n._ a tuft of hair on the lower lip (from its use by Napoleon III.): a kind of dome, as in Moorish buildings: an outside seat on a diligence: a size of writing-paper, 22 × 30 in.; also of printing-paper, 22 × 32 in.--_v.t._ IMP[=E]'RIALISE, to make imperial.--_ns._ IMP[=E]'RIALISM, the power or authority of an emperor: the spirit of empire; IMP[=E]'RIALIST, one who belongs to an emperor: a soldier or partisan of an emperor; IMPERIAL'ITY, imperial power, right, or privilege.--_adv._ IMP[=E]'RIALLY.--_n._ IMP[=E]'RIUM, a military chief command: empire.--IMPERIAL CITY, Rome: one of those cities in the German Empire which owed allegiance to none but the emperor, which exercised suzerain rights within their own territories, and had the right of sitting and voting in the imperial diet; IMPERIAL INSTITUTE of the United Kingdom, the Colonies, and India, an institution designed to commemorate the Jubilee of Queen Victoria (1887). [Fr.,--L. _imperialis_--_imperium_, sovereignty.] IMPERIL, im-per'il, _v.t._ to put in peril: to endanger.--_n._ IMPER'ILMENT. IMPERIOUS, im-p[=e]'ri-us, _adj._ assuming command: haughty: tyrannical: authoritative: (_obs._) imperial.--_adv._ IMP[=E]'RIOUSLY.--_n._ IMP[=E]'RIOUSNESS. [L. _imperiosus_.] IMPERISHABLE, im-per'ish-a-bl, _adj._ indestructible: everlasting.--_ns._ IMPER'ISHABLENESS, IMPERISHABIL'ITY.--_adv._ IMPER'ISHABLY. IMPERMANENCE, im-per'man-ens, _n._ want of permanence.--_adj._ IMPER'MANENT. IMPERMEABLE, im-p[.e]r'm[=e]-a-bl, _adj._ not permitting passage: impenetrable.--_ns._ IMPERMEABIL'ITY, IMPER'MEABLENESS.--_adv._ IMPER'MEABLY.--_n._ IMPER'ME[=A]TOR, a device in a steam-engine for forcing lubricating oil uniformly into the cylinder. IMPERSEVERANT, im-per-sev'[.e]r-ant, _adj._ (_Shak._) strongly persevering. IMPERSONAL, im-p[.e]r'sun-al, _adj._ not having personality: (_gram._) not varied according to the persons.--_n._ IMPERSONAL'ITY.--_adv._ IMPER'SONALLY.--_v.t._ IMPER'SON[=A]TE, to invest with personality or the bodily substance of a person: to ascribe the qualities of a person to: to personify: to assume the person or character of, esp. on the stage.--_adj._ personified.--_ns._ IMPERSON[=A]'TION; IMPER'SON[=A]TOR. IMPERTINENT, im-p[.e]r'ti-nent, _adj._ not pertaining to the matter in hand: trifling: intrusive: saucy: impudent.--_n._ IMPER'TINENCE, that which is impertinent: intrusion: impudence, over-forwardness: (_law_) matter introduced into an affidavit, &c., not pertinent to the matter.--_adv._ IMPER'TINENTLY. IMPERTURBABLE, im-p[.e]r-tur'ba-bl, _adj._ that cannot be disturbed or agitated: permanently quiet.--_n._ IMPERTURBABIL'ITY.--_adv._ IMPERTUR'BABLY.--_n._ IMPERTURB[=A]'TION. [L. _imperturbabilis_--_in_, not, _perturbare_, to disturb.] IMPERVIABLE, im-p[.e]r'vi-a-bl, IMPERVIOUS, im-p[.e]r'vi-us, _adj._ not to be penetrated.--_ns._ IMPER'VIABLENESS, IMPERVIABIL'ITY, IMPER'VIOUSNESS.--_adv._ IMPER'VIOUSLY. IMPETICOS, im-pet'i-kos, (_Shak._) a word coined by the fool in _Twelfth Night_, perhaps meaning _impocket_. IMPETIGO, im-pe-t[=i]'go, _n._ a skin disease characterised by thickly-set clusters of pustules.--_adj._ IMPETIG'INOUS. [L.--_impet[)e]re_, to rush upon, attack.] IMPETRATE, im'p[=e]-tr[=a]t, _v.t._ to obtain by entreaty or petition.--_n._ IMPETR[=A]'TION.--_adjs._ IM'PETRATIVE, IM'PETR[=A]TORY. IMPETUOUS, im-pet'[=u]-us, _adj._ rushing upon with impetus or violence: vehement in feeling: passionate.--adv. IMPET'UOUSLY.--_ns._ IMPET'UOUSNESS, IMPETUOS'ITY. IMPETUS, im'pe-tus, _n._ an attack: force or quantity of motion: violent tendency to any point. [L.,--_in_, in, _pet[)e]re_, to fall upon.] IMPI, IM'PI, _n._ a body of Kaffir warriors. [S. Afr.] IMPICTURED, im-pik't[=u]rd, _adj._ (_Spens._) painted. IMPIERCEABLE, im-p[=e]rs'a-bl, _adj._ (_Spens._) incapable of being pierced. IMPIGNORATE, im-pig'n[=o]-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to pledge or pawn.--_n._ IMPIGNOR[=A]'TION. IMPINGE, im-pinj', _v.i_ (with _on_, _upon_, _against_) to strike or fall against: to touch upon.--_n._ IMPINGE'MENT.--_adj._ IMPING'ENT, striking against. [L. _imping[)e]re_--_in_, against, _ping[)e]re_, to strike.] IMPIOUS, im'pi-us, _adj._ irreverent; wanting in veneration for God: profane.--_adv._ IM'PIOUSLY.--_ns._ IM'PIOUSNESS, IMP[=I]'ETY. IMPLACABLE, im-pl[=a]k'a-bl, _adj._ not to be appeased: inexorable: irreconcilable.--_ns._ IMPLAC'ABLENESS, IMPLACABIL'ITY.--_adv._ IMPLAC'ABLY. IMPLACENTAL, im-pla-sen'tal, _adj._ having no placenta, as certain marsupial animals. IMPLANT, im-plant', _v.t._ to fix into: to insert: to infuse.--_n._ IMPLANT[=A]'TION, the act of infixing. IMPLATE, im-pl[=a]t', _v.t._ to put a plate or covering upon: to sheathe. IMPLAUSIBLE, im-plawz'i-bl, _adj._ not plausible, incredible.--_n._ IMPLAUSIBIL'ITY. IMPLEACH, im-pl[=e]ch',_ v.t._ (_Shak._) to intertwine. IMPLEAD, im-pl[=e]d', _v.t._ to prosecute a suit at law.--_n._ IMPLEAD'ER. IMPLEDGE, im-plej', _v.t._ to pledge. IMPLEMENT, im'ple-ment, _n._ a tool or instrument of labour.--_v.t._ to give effect to: to fulfil or perform.--_adj._ IMPLEMEN'TAL, acting as an implement.--_n._ IMPL[=E]'TION, a filling: the state of being full. [Low L. _implementum_--L. _im-pl[=e]re_, to fill.] IMPLEX, im'pleks, _adj._ not simple: complicated.--_n._ IMPLEX'ION.--_adj._ IMPLEX'UOUS. [L. _implexus_--_in_, into, _plect[)e]re_, to twine.] IMPLICATE, im'pli-k[=a]t, _v.t._ (with _by_, _in_, _with_) to enfold: to involve: to entangle.--_ns._ IM'PLICATE, the thing implied; IMPLIC[=A]'TION, the act of implicating: entanglement: that which is implied.--_adj._ IM'PLICATIVE, tending to implicate.--_adv._ IM'PLICATIVELY.--_adj._ IMPLIC'IT, implied: relying entirely, unquestioning: (_rare_) entangled, involved.--_adv._ IMPLIC'ITLY.--_n._ IMPLIC'ITNESS. [L. _implic[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_in_, in, _plic[=a]re_, to fold.] IMPLORE, im-pl[=o]r', _v.t._ to ask earnestly: to beg.--_ns._ IMPLOR[=A]'TION; IMPLOR'[=A]TOR (_Shak._), one who implores or entreats.--_adj._ IMPLOR'ATORY.--_n._ IMPLOR'ER (_Spens._), one who implores.--_adv._ IMPLOR'INGLY, in an imploring manner. [Fr.,--L. _implor[=a]re_--_in_, in, _plor[=a]re_, to weep aloud.] IMPLUVIUM, im-pl[=oo]'vi-um, _n._ in ancient Roman houses, the square basin in the _atrium_ or hall into which the rain-water was received. [L.,--_implu[)e]re_--_in_, in, _plu[)e]re_, to rain.] IMPLY, im-pl[=i]', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to enfold: to include in reality, to express indirectly: to mean: to signify:--_pr.p._ imply'ing; _pa.p._ implied'.--_adv._ IMPL[=I]'EDLY. [O. Fr. _empleier_--L. _implic[=a]re_.] IMPOCKET, im-pok'et, _v.t._ to put in the pocket. IMPOLITE, im-po-l[=i]t', _adj._ of unpolished manners: uncivil.--_adv._ IMPOLITE'LY.--_n._ IMPOLITE'NESS. IMPOLITIC, im-pol'i-tik, _adj._ imprudent: unwise: inexpedient.--_n._ IMPOL'ICY.--_adv._ IMPOL'ITICLY. IMPONDERABLE, im-pon'd[.e]r-a-bl, _adj._ not able to be weighed: without sensible weight.--_ns._ IMPON'DERABLENESS, IMPONDERABIL'ITY.--_n.pl._ IMPON'DERABLES, fluids without sensible weight, as heat, light, electricity, and magnetism, considered as material--still used of ether. IMPONE, im-p[=o]n', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to place or put on, to stake, as a wager.--_adj._ IMPON'ENT, competent to impose an obligation.--_n._ one who imposes. [L. _impon[)e]re_--in, on, _pon[)e]re_, to place.] IMPORT, im-p[=o]rt', _v.t._ to carry into: to bring from abroad: to convey, as a word: to signify: to be of consequence to: to interest.--_n._ IM'PORT, that which is brought from abroad: meaning: importance: tendency.--_adj._ IMPORT'ABLE, that may be imported or brought into a country.--_ns._ IMPORT'ANCE; IMPORT'ANCY (_Shak._).--_adj._ IMPORT'ANT, of great import or consequence: momentous: pompous.--_adv._ IMPORT'ANTLY.--_ns._ IMPORT[=A]'TION, the act of importing: the commodities imported; IMPORT'ER, one who brings in goods from abroad.--_adj._ IMPORT'LESS (_Shak._), without consequence. [Fr.,--L. _import[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_in_, in, _port[=a]re_, to carry.] IMPORTUNE, im-p[=o]r-t[=u]n', _v.t._ to urge with troublesome application: to press urgently: (_Spens._) to import, signify (a false use): to molest, as a beggar, prostitute, &c.--_ns._ IMPOR'TUNACY, IMPORT'UN[=A]TENESS.--_adj._ IMPORT'UN[=A]TE, troublesomely urgent.--_adv._ IMPORT'UN[=A]TELY.--_adj._ IMPORT'UNE, untimely: importunate.--_adv._ IMPORTUNE'LY.--_ns._ IMPORTUN'ER; IMPORTUN'ITY. [Fr.,--L. _importunus_--_in_, not, _portus_, a harbour.] IMPOSE, im-p[=o]z', _v.t._ to place upon: to lay on: to enjoin or command: to put over by authority or force: to obtrude unfairly: to pass off: (_print._) to arrange or place in a chase, as pages of type.--_v.i._ (with _upon_) to mislead or deceive: act with constraining effect.--_n._ (_Shak._) command, injunction.--_adjs._ IMPOS'ABLE, capable of being imposed or laid on; IMPOS'ING, commanding: adapted to impress forcibly.--_adv._ IMPOS'INGLY.--_ns._ IMPOS'INGNESS; IMPOSI'TION, a laying on: laying on of hands in ordination: a tax, a burden: a deception. [Fr. _imposer_--L. _in_, on, _pon[)e]re_, to place.] IMPOSSIBLE, im-pos'i-bl, _adj._ that which cannot be done: that cannot exist: absurd, or excessively odd.--_n._ IMPOSSIBIL'ITY. [Illustration] IMPOST, im'p[=o]st, _n._ a tax, esp. on imports: (_archit._) that part of a pillar in vaults and arches on which the weight of the building is laid. [O. Fr. _impost_ (Fr. _impôt_)--L. _impon[)e]re_, to lay on.] IMPOSTHUME, impos't[=u]m, _n._ an abscess.--_v.i._ IMPOS'THUM[=A]TE, to form an imposthume or abscess.--_v.t._ to affect with an imposthume.--_adj._ affected with such.--_n._ one swelled or bloated.--_n._ IMPOSTHUM[=A]'TION, the act of forming an abscess: an abscess. [A corr. of _apostume_, itself a corr. of _aposteme_--Gr. _apost[=e]ma_, a separation of corrupt matter--_apo_, away, and the root of _hist[=e]mi_, I set up.] IMPOSTOR, im-pos'tur, _n._ one who practises imposition or fraud.--_n._ IMPOS'T[=U]RE.--_adj._ IMPOS'T[=U]ROUS. IMPOTENT, im'po-tent, _adj._ powerless: without sexual power: wanting the power of self-restraint.--_ns._ IM'POTENCE, IM'POTENCY.--_adv._ IM'POTENTLY. IMPOUND, im-pownd', _v.t._ to confine, as in a pound: to restrain within limits: to take possession of.--_n._ IMPOUND'AGE, the act of impounding cattle. IMPOVERISH, im-pov'[.e]r-ish, _v.t._ to make poor: to exhaust the resources (as of a nation), or fertility (as of the soil).--_n._ IMPOV'ERISHMENT. [From O. Fr. _empovrir_ (Fr. _appauvrir_)--L. _in_, in, _pauper_, poor.] IMPRACTICABLE, im-prak'tik-a-bl, _adj._ not able to be done: unmanageable: stubborn.--_ns._ IMPRAC'TICABILITY, IMPRAC'TICABLENESS.--_adv._ IMPRAC'TICABLY. IMPRECATE, im'pre-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to pray for good or evil upon: to curse.--_n._ IMPREC[=A]'TION, the act of imprecating: a curse.--_adj._ IM'PRECATORY. [L. _imprec[=a]ri_--_in_, upon, _prec[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_, to pray.] IMPREGN, im-pr[=e]n', _v.t._ (_Milt._) to impregnate. IMPREGNABLE, im-preg'na-bl, _adj._ that cannot be seized: that cannot be moved.--_n._ IMPREGNABIL'ITY.--_adv._ IMPREG'NABLY. [Fr. _imprenable_--L. _in_, not, _prend[)e]re_, _prehend[)e]re_, to take.] IMPREGNATE, im-preg'n[=a]t, _v.t._ to make pregnant: to impart the particles or qualities of one thing to another: saturate.--_n._ IMPREGN[=A]'TION, the act of impregnating: that with which anything is impregnated. [Low L. _imprægn[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_in_, in, _prægnans_, pregnant.] IMPRESARIO, im-pre-sä'ri-[=o], _n._ a manager or conductor of a troupe of concert or operatic singers. [It.,--_impresa_, enterprise.] IMPRESCRIPTIBLE, im-pre-skrip'ti-bl, _adj._ not founded on external authority.--_n._ IMPRESCRIPTIBIL'ITY. IMPRESE, im-pr[=e]s', IMPRESS, im-pres', _n._ (_Milt._) a device worn by a noble or his retainers. [O. Fr.] IMPRESS, im-pres', _v.t._ to press upon: to mark by pressure: to produce by pressure: to stamp: to fix deeply in the mind.--_ns._ IM'PRESS, that which is made by pressure: stamp: likeness; IMPRESSIBIL'ITY.--_adj._ IMPRESS'IBLE, susceptible.--_n._ IMPRESS'IBLENESS.--_adv._ IMPRESS'IBLY.--_ns._ IMPRESS'ION, the act or result of impressing: a single edition of a book: the effect of any object on the mind: idea: slight remembrance; IMPRESSIONABIL'ITY.--_adj._ IMPRESS'IONABLE, able to receive an impression.--_ns._ IMPRESS'IONISM, a modern movement in art and literature, originating in France, its aim being to cast off the trammels of artistic tradition, and to look at nature in a fresh and original manner--it employs general effects, vigorous touches, and deals in masses of form and colour; IMPRESS'IONIST.--_adv._ IMPRESSIONIS'TIC.--_adj._ IMPRESS'IVE, capable of making an impression on the mind: solemn.--_adv._ IMPRESS'IVELY--_ns._ IMPRESS'IVENESS; IMPRESS'URE (_Shak._), impression. IMPRESS, im-pres', _v.t._ to force into service, esp. the public service.--_n._ IM'PRESS. [An altered spelling of _imprest_.] IMPRESSMENT, im-pres'ment, _n._ the act of impressing or seizing for service, esp. in the navy. [A word coined from _press_, in _pressgang_.] IMPREST, im'prest, _n._ earnest-money: money advanced.--_v.t._ IMPREST', to advance on loan. IMPRIMATUR, im-pri-m[=a]'tur, _n._ a license to print a book, &c. [Lit. 'let it be printed;' from L. _imprim[)e]re_--_in_, on, _prem[)e]re_, to press.] IMPRIMIS, im-pr[=i]'mis, _adv._ in the first place. [L., _in_, in, _primus_, first.] IMPRINT, im-print', _v.t._ to print: to stamp: to impress: to fix in the mind.--_n._ IM'PRINT, that which is imprinted: the name of the publisher, time and place of publication of a book, &c., printed on the title-page: also the printer's name on the back of the title-page and at the end of the book. IMPRISON, im-priz'n, _v.t._ to put in prison: to shut up: to confine or restrain.--_n._ IMPRIS'ONMENT, the act of imprisoning or state of being imprisoned: confinement or restraint. IMPROBABLE, im-prob'a-bl, _adj._ unlikely.--_n._ IMPROBABIL'ITY.--_adv._ IMPROB'ABLY. IMPROBATION, im-pro-b[=a]'shun, _n._ in Scots law, an action for the purpose of declaring some instrument false or forged.--_adj._ IMPROB'ATIVE, disapproving--also IMPROB'ATORY. IMPROBITY, im-prob'i-ti, _n._ want of probity. IMPROMPTU, im-promp't[=u], _adj._ prompt, ready: off-hand.--_adv._ readily.--_n._ a short witty saying expressed at the moment: any composition produced at the moment. [L., 'in readiness'--_in_, in, _promptus_, readiness.] IMPROPER, im-prop'[.e]r, _adj._ not suitable: unfit: unbecoming: incorrect: wrong.--_adv._ IMPROP'ERLY.--_n._ IMPROPR[=I]'ETY. IMPROPRIATE, im-pr[=o]'pri-[=a]t, _v.t._ to appropriate to private use: to place ecclesiastical property in the hands of a layman.--_adj._ IMPR[=O]'PRIATE, devolved into the hands of a layman.--_ns._ IMPROPRI[=A]'TION, act of appropriating: property impropriated; IMPR[=O]'PRIATOR, a layman who holds possession of the lands of the Church or an ecclesiastical living. [Low L. _impropri[=a]tus_--L. _in_, in, _proprius_, one's own.] IMPROVE, im-pr[=oo]v', _v.t._ to make better: to advance in value or excellence: to correct: to employ to good purpose.--_v.i._ to grow better: to make progress: to increase: to rise (as prices).--_ns._ IMPROVABIL'ITY, IMPROV'ABLENESS.--_adj._ IMPROV'ABLE, able to be improved.--_adv._ IMPROV'ABLY.--_ns._ IMPROVE'MENT, the act of improving: advancement or progress: increase, addition; IMPROV'ER, one who improves: a pad worn by women to make the dress hang properly.--_pr.p._ and _adj._ IMPROV'ING, tending to cause improvement.--_adv._ IMPROV'INGLY.--IMPROVE ON, or UPON, to bring to a better state by addition or amendment; IMPROVE THE OCCASION, to point out a moral from some event that has just occurred. [A variant of _approve_.] IMPROVIDENT, im-prov'i-dent, _adj._ not provident or prudent: wanting foresight: thoughtless.--_adj._ IMPROVIDE' (_Spens._), not provided against.--_n._ IMPROV'IDENCE.--_adv._ IMPROV'IDENTLY. IMPROVISATE, im-prov'i-s[=a]t, IMPROVISE, im-pro-v[=i]z', _v.t._ to compose and recite, esp. in verse, without preparation: to bring about on a sudden: to do anything off-hand.--_ns._ IMPROVIS[=A]'TION, act of improvising: that which is improvised; IMPROVIS[=A]'TOR, IMPROVISAT[=O]'RE (-r[=a]), sometimes _fem._ IMPROVIS[=A]'TRIX, IMPROVISATRI'CE, one who improvises: one who composes and recites verses without preparation:--_pl._ IMPROVISAT[=O]'RI (-r[=e]).--_adjs._ IMPROVISAT[=O]'RIAL, IMPROVIS'ATORY.--_n._ IMPROV[=I]S'ER.--_adj._ IMPROV[=I]'SO, not studied beforehand. [Fr. _improviser_--L. _in_, not, _provisus_, foreseen.] IMPRUDENT, im-pr[=oo]'dent, _adj._ wanting foresight or discretion: incautious: inconsiderate.--_n._ IMPRU'DENCE.--_adv._ IMPRU'DENTLY. IMPUDENT, im'p[=u]-dent, _adj._ wanting shame or modesty: brazen-faced: bold: rude: insolent.--_n._ IM'PUDENCE.--_adv._ IM'PUDENTLY.--_n._ IMPUDIC'ITY. [L. _in_, not, _pudens_, _-entis_--_pud[=e]re_, to be ashamed.] IMPUGN, im-p[=u]n', _v.t._ to oppose: to attack by words or arguments: to call in question.--_adj._ IMPUGN'ABLE.--_ns._ IMPUGN'ER; IMPUGN'MENT. [L. _impugn[=a]re_--_in_, against, _pugn[=a]re_, to fight.] IMPUISSANT, im-p[=u]'i-sant, _adj._ powerless.--_n._ IMP[=U]'ISSANCE. IMPULSE, im'puls, _n._ the act of impelling: effect of an impelling force: force suddenly communicated: influence on the mind.--_n._ IMPUL'SION, impelling force: instigation.--_adj._ IMPULS'IVE, having the power of impelling: actuated by mental impulse: (_mech._) acting by impulse: not continuous.--_adv._ IMPULS'IVELY.--_n._ IMPULS'IVENESS. [L. _impulsus_, pressure--_impell[)e]re_.] IMPUNITY, im-p[=u]n'i-ti, _n._ freedom or safety from punishment: exemption from injury or loss. [Fr.,--L. _impunitat-em_--_in_, not, _poena_, punishment.] IMPURE, im-p[=u]r', _adj._ mixed with other substances: defiled by sin: unholy: unchaste: unclean.--_adv._ IMPURE'LY.--_ns._ IMPUR'ITY, IMPURE'NESS, quality of being impure. IMPURPLE, im-pur'pl. Same as EMPURPLE. IMPUTE, im-p[=u]t', _v.t._ to reckon as belonging to (in a bad sense): to charge: (_theol._) to attribute vicariously: (_rare_) to take account of.--_adj._ IMPUT'ABLE, capable of being imputed or charged: attributable.--_ns._ IMPUT'ABLENESS, IMPUTABIL'ITY.--_adv._ IMPUT'ABLY.--_n._ IMPUT[=A]'TION, act of imputing or charging: censure: reproach: the reckoning as belonging to.--_adjs._ IMPUT'ATIVE, imputed; IMPUT'ATIVELY.--_n._ IMPUT'ER. [Fr. _imputer_--L. _imput[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_in_, in, _put[=a]re_, to reckon.] IN, in, _prep._ denotes presence or situation in place, time, or circumstances--within, during: consisting of: because of: by or through.--_adv._ within: not out: in addition to, thrown in.--_n._ in politics, a member of the party in office: a corner.--_adj._ IN'-AND-IN', from animals of the same parentage: with constant and close interaction.--_n._ a game with four dice.--IN AS FAR AS, to the extent that; IN AS MUCH AS, INASMUCH AS, considering that; IN ITSELF, intrinsically, apart from relations; IN THAT, for the reason that.--INS AND OUTS, nooks and corners: the whole details of any matter.--BE IN FOR A THING, to be destined to receive a thing; BE IN IT (_slang_), to be getting on successfully, esp. in a game; BE IN WITH, to have intimacy or familiarity with. [A.S. _in_; Dut., Ger. _in_, Ice. _í_; W. _yn_, L. _in_, Gr. _en_. A.S. also had _innan_, within; cf. Old High Ger. _innana_, Sw. _innan._ In A.S. the prep. _in_ was often interchangeable with the related _on_.] INABILITY, in-a-bil'i-ti, _n._ want of sufficient power: incapacity. INABSTINENCE, in-ab'sti-nens, _n._ want of abstinence. INACCESSIBLE, in-ak-ses'i-bl, _adj._ not to be reached, obtained, or approached.--_ns._ INACCESS'IBILITY, INACCESS'IBLENESS.--_adv._ INACCESS'IBLY. INACCURATE, in-ak'k[=u]r-[=a]t, _adj._ not exact or correct: erroneous.--_n._ INAC'CURACY, want of exactness: mistake.--_adv._ INAC'CURATELY. INACTIVE, in-akt'iv, _adj._ having no power to move: idle: lazy: (_chem._) not showing any action.--_n._ INAC'TION, idleness: rest.--_adv._ INACT'IVELY.--_n._ INACTIV'ITY, idleness. INADAPTABLE, in-a-dap'ta-bl, _adj._ that cannot be adapted.--_n._ INADAPT[=A]'TION.--_adj._ INADAP'TIVE. INADEQUATE, in-ad'e-kw[=a]t, _adj._ insufficient.--_ns._ INAD'EQUACY, INAD'EQUATENESS, insufficiency.--_adv._ INAD'EQUATELY. INADMISSIBLE, in-ad-mis'i-bl, _adj._ not allowable.--_n._ INADMISSIBIL'ITY.--_adv._ INADMISS'IBLY. INADVERTENT, in-ad-v[.e]rt'ent, _adj._ inattentive.--_ns._ INADVERT'ENCE, INADVERT'ENCY, negligence: oversight.--_adv._ INADVERT'ENTLY. INAIDABLE, in-[=a]d'a-bl, _adj._ (_Shak._) that cannot be aided. INALIENABLE, in-[=a]l'yen-a-bl, _adj._ not capable of being transferred.--_ns._ INALIENABIL'ITY, INAL'IENABLENESS.--_adv._ INAL'IENABLY. INALTERABLE, in-awl'ter-a-bl, _adj._ unalterable.--_n._ INALTERABIL'ITY. INAMORATA, in-am-o-rä'ta, _n.fem._ a woman with whom one is in love:--_masc._ INAMORA'TO. [It. _innamorata_--Low L. _inamor[=a]re_, to cause to love--L. _in_, in, _amor_, love.] INANE, in-[=a]n', _adj._ empty, void: void of intelligence: useless.--_ns._ INANI'TION, exhaustion from want of food; INAN'ITY, senselessness: worthlessness: any kind of vain frivolity. [L. _inanis_.] INANIMATE, -D, in-an'im-[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ without animation or life: dead: spiritless: dull.--_ns._ INAN'IMATENESS, INANIM[=A]'TION. INAPPEASABLE, in-ap-p[=e]z'a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be appeased. INAPPLICABLE, in-ap'plik-a-bl, _adj._ not applicable or suitable.--_ns._ INAPPLICABIL'ITY, INAP'PLICABLENESS. INAPPOSITE, in-ap'poz-it, _adj._ not apposite, suitable, or pertinent.--_adv._ INAP'POSITELY. INAPPRECIABLE, in-ap-pr[=e]'shi-a-bl, _adj._ not appreciable or able to be valued.--_adj._ INAPPR[=E]'CI[=A]TIVE, not valuing justly or at all. INAPPREHENSIBLE, in-ap-pre-hen'si-bl, _adj._ not apprehensible or intelligible.--_n._ INAPPREHEN'SION.--_adj._ INAPPREHEN'SIVE. INAPPROACHABLE, in-ap-pr[=o]ch'a-bl, _adj._ inaccessible.--_adv._ INAPPROACH'ABLY. INAPPROPRIATE, in-ap-pr[=o]'pri-[=a]t, _adj._ not suitable.--_adv._ INAPPR[=O]'PRIATELY.--_n._ INAPPR[=O]'PRIATENESS. INAPT, in-apt', _adj._ not apt: unfit, or unqualified.--_ns._ INAPT'ITUDE, INAPT'NESS, unfitness, awkwardness.--_adv._ INAPT'LY. INARABLE, in-ar'a-bl, _adj._ not arable. INARCHING, in-ärch'ing, _n._ a method of grafting by uniting, without separating from the original stem.--Also ENARCH'ING. INARM, in-ärm', _v.t._ to encircle. INARTICULATE, in-är-tik'[=u]l-[=a]t, _adj._ not distinct, incapable of speaking distinctly: (_zool._) not jointed.--_adv._ INARTIC'ULATELY.--_ns._ INARTIC'ULATENESS, INARTICUL[=A]'TION, indistinctness of sounds in speaking. INARTIFICIAL, in-ärt-i-fish'yal, _adj._ not done by art: simple.--_adv._ INARTIFIC'IALLY. INARTISTIC, -AL, in-ar-tis'tik, -al, _adj._ not artistic: deficient in appreciation of works of art.--_adv._ INARTIS'TICALLY. INASMUCH, in-az-much'. See IN. INATTENTIVE, in-at-tent'iv, _adj._ careless, not fixing the mind to attention.--_ns._ INATTEN'TION, INATTENT'IVENESS.--_adv._ INATTENT'IVELY. INAUDIBLE, in-awd'i-bl, _adj._ not able to be heard.--_ns._ INAUDIBIL'ITY, INAUD'IBLENESS.--_adv._ INAUD'IBLY. INAUGURATE, in-aw'g[=u]r-[=a]t, _v.t._ to induct formally into an office: to cause to begin: to make a public exhibition of for the first time.--_adjs._ INAU'GURAL, INAU'GUR[=A]TORY, pertaining to, or done at, an inauguration.--_ns._ INAUGUR[=A]'TION, act of inaugurating; INAU'GUR[=A]TOR, one who inaugurates.--_adj._ INAU'GURATORY. [L. _inaugur[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_.] INAURATE, in-aw'r[=a]t, _adj._ having a golden lustre: covered with gold. INAUSPICIOUS, in-aw-spish'us, _adj._ not auspicious: ill-omened: unlucky.--_adv._ INAUSPIC'IOUSLY.--_n._ INAUSPIC'IOUSNESS. INBEING, in'b[=e]-ing, _n._ inherent existence. INBOARD, in'b[=o]rd, _adv._ within the hull or interior of a ship: toward or nearer to the centre. INBOND, in'bond, _adj._ laid with its length across the thickness of a wall:--opp. to _Outbond_, where the brick or stone is laid with its length parallel to the face of the wall. INBORN, in'bawrn, _adj._ born in or with: implanted by nature. INBREAK, in'br[=a]k, _n._ a violent rush in: irruption:--opp. to _Outbreak_. INBREATHE, in'br[=e]th, _v.t._ to breathe into. INBREED, in-br[=e]d', _v.t._ to breed or generate within: to breed in-and-in.--_pa.p._ IN'BRED, bred within, inherent, intrinsic. INBURNING, in'burn-ing, _adj._ (_Spens._) burning within. INBURST, in'burst, _n._ an irruption:--opp. to _Outburst_. INBY, INBYE, in-b[=i]', _adv._ (_Scot._) toward the interior, as of a house from the door, or a mine from the shaft. [_In_ and _by_.] INCA, ing'ka, _n._ the name of the ancient kings and princes of Peru:--_pl._ INCAS (ing'kaz). [Sp. _inca_--Peruvian _inca_.] INCAGE, in-k[=a]j'. Same as ENCAGE. INCALCULABLE, in-kal'k[=u]-la-bl, _adj._ not calculable or able to be reckoned.--_ns._ INCALCULABIL'ITY, INCAL'CULABLENESS.--_adv._ INCAL'CULABLY. INCALESCENT, in-kal-es'ent, _adj._ growing warm.--_n._ INCALESC'ENCE. [L. _incalescens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _incalesc[)e]re_--_in_, in, _calesc[)e]re_, inceptive of _cal[=e]re_, to be warm.] INCAMERATION, in-kam-[.e]r-[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of making over to a government a fund as a source of revenue, esp. an annexation to the papal exchequer. [L. _in_, in, _camera_, a chamber.] INCANDESCENT, in-kan-des'ent, _adj._ white or glowing with heat: rendered luminous by heat.--_v.i._ and _v.t._ to glow with heat, to cause to glow.--_n._ INCANDESC'ENCE, a white heat.--INCANDESCENT LIGHT, a brilliant white light produced by a resisting conductor under an electric current, or by coal-gas burnt under a mantle or hood of the oxide of didymium and others of the alkaline earths. [L.,--_in_, in, _candesc[)e]re_--_cand[=e]re_, to glow.] INCANTATION, in-kan-t[=a]'shun, _n._ a formula of words said or sung in connection with certain ceremonies for purposes of enchantment.--_n._ IN'CANT[=A]TOR.--_adj._ INCAN'TATORY. [L. _incantation-em_--_incant[=a]re_, to sing a magical formula over.] INCAPABLE, in-k[=a]p'a-bl, _adj._ not capable: insufficient, unable: lacking mental capacity: unconscious of: helplessly drunk: disqualified.--_n._ one lacking capacity.--_n._ INCAPABIL'ITY.--_adv._ INCAP'ABLY. INCAPACIOUS, in-kap-[=a]'shus, _adj._ not large, narrow.--_n._ INCAP[=A]'CIOUSNESS. INCAPACITATE, in-kap-as'i-t[=a]t, _v.t._ to deprive of capacity: to make incapable: to disqualify.--_ns._ INCAPACIT[=A]'TION, the act of disqualifying; INCAPAC'ITY, want of capacity or power of mind: inability: legal disqualification. INCARCERATE, in-kär's[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.t._ to imprison: to confine.--_n._ INCARCER[=A]'TION, imprisonment: (_surg._) obstinate constriction or strangulation. [L. _in_, in, _carcer_, a prison.] INCARDINATE, in-kar'di-n[=a]t, _v.t._ to attach as a cardinal part, as a priest to his church.--_adj._ a perversion of _incarnate_. INCARNADINE, in-kär'na-din, _v.t._ to dye of a red colour.--_adj._ carnation-coloured. INCARNATE, in-kär'n[=a]t, _v.t._ to embody in flesh.--_v.i._ to form flesh, heal.--_adj._ invested with flesh.--_n._ INCARN[=A]'TION, act of embodying in flesh: (_theol._) the union of the divine nature with the human in the divine person of Christ: an incarnate form: manifestation, visible embodiment: (_surg._) the process of healing, or forming new flesh. [Low. L. _incarn[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--L. _in_, in, _caro_, _carnis_, flesh.] INCASE, INCASEMENT. See ENCASE, ENCASEMENT. INCAST, in'käst, _n._ something thrown in in addition by way of giving good measure. INCATENATION, in-ka-te-n[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of chaining and linking together. INCAUTIOUS, in-kaw'shus, _adj._ not cautious or careful.--_ns._ INCAU'TION, INCAU'TIOUSNESS, want of caution.--_adv._ INCAU'TIOUSLY. INCAVO, in-kä'v[=o], _n._ the incised part in an intaglio. [It.,--L. _in_, in, _cavus_, hollow.] INCEDINGLY, in-s[=e]d'ing-li, _adv._ (_rare_) triumphantly. [L. _inced[)e]re_, to march along.] INCELEBRITY, in-sel-eb'ri-ti, _n._ lack of celebrity. INCENDIARY, in-sen'di-ar-i, _n._ one that sets fire to a building, &c., maliciously: one who promotes quarrels:--_pl._ INCEN'DIARIES.--_adj._ wilfully setting fire to: relating to incendiarism: tending to excite quarrels.--_n._ INCEN'DIARISM.--_adj._ INCEND'IOUS (_obs._), promoting faction. [L. _incendiarius_--_incendium_--_incend[)e]re_, _incensum_, to kindle.] INCENSE, in-sens', _v.t._ to inflame with anger: to incite, urge: to perfume with incense.--_n._ IN'CENSE, odour of spices burned in religious rites: the materials so burned: pleasing perfume: (_fig._) homage, adulation.--_adj._ IN'CENSE-BREATH'ING, exhaling incense or fragrance.--_ns._ INCENSE'MENT (_Shak._), state of being inflamed with anger; INCENS'OR (_obs._), a censer. INCENTIVE, in-sent'iv, _adj._ inciting, encouraging: (_Milt._) igniting.--_n._ that which incites to action or moves the mind: motive. [L. _incentivus_, striking up a tune--_incin[)e]re_--_in_, in, _can[)e]re_, to sing.] INCEPTION, in-sep'shun, _n._ a beginning.--_v.i._ INCEPT', to commence, esp. the period of candidature for the degree of master of arts, or a period of licensed teaching.--_adj._ INCEP'TIVE, beginning or marking the beginning.--_adv._ INCEP'TIVELY, in a manner denoting beginning.--_n._ INCEP'TOR. [L. _inceptionem_--_incip[)e]re_, _inceptum_, to begin--_in_, on, _cap[)e]re_, to take.] INCERTAIN, in-ser't[=a]n, _adj._ uncertain.--_ns._ INCER'TAINTY, INCER'TITUDE, want of certainty. INCESSANT, in-ses'ant, _adj._ uninterrupted: continual.--_adv._ INCESS'ANTLY, unceasingly: (_obs._) immediately. [L. _incessans_, _-antis_--_in_, not, _cess[=a]re_, to cease.] INCEST, in'sest, _n._ sexual intercourse within the prohibited degrees of kindred.--_adj._ INCEST'[=U]OUS, guilty of incest.--_adv._ INCEST'UOUSLY.--_n._ INCEST'UOUSNESS. [Fr.,--L. _incestus_--_in_, not, _castus_, chaste.] INCH, insh, _n._ the twelfth part of a foot: proverbially, a small distance or degree: (_Shak._) a critical moment.--_v.i._ to move by slow degrees.--_adj._ INCHED, containing inches: marked with inches.--_adv._ INCH'MEAL, by inches or small degrees: gradually.--INCH BY INCH, BY INCHES, by small degrees; EVERY INCH, entirely, thoroughly. [A.S. _ynce_, an inch--L. _uncia_, the twelfth part of anything, an inch, also an ounce (twelfth of a pound).] INCH, insh, _n._ an island. [Gael, _innis_, an island.] INCHASE, in-ch[=a]s'. See ENCHASE. INCHOATE, in'k[=o]-[=a]t, _adj._ only begun: unfinished, rudimentary: not established.--_v.t._ (_Browning_) to begin.--_adv._ IN'CHOATELY.--_n._ INCHO[=A]'TION, beginning: rudimentary state.--_adj._ INCH[=O]'ATIVE, incipient. [L. _incho[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to begin.] INCIDENT, in'si-dent, _adj._ falling upon: liable to occur: naturally belonging to anything, or following therefrom.--_n._ that which happens: an event: a subordinate action: an episode.--_n._ IN'CIDENCE, the manner of falling: bearing or _onus_, as of a tax that falls unequally: the falling of a ray of heat, light, &c. on a body: (_geom._) the falling of a point on a line, or a line on a plane.--_adj._ INCIDENT'AL, occurring as a result, concomitant: occasional, casual.--_adv._ INCIDENT'ALLY.--_n._ INCIDENT'ALNESS.--ANGLE OF INCIDENCE, the angle at which a ray of light or radiant heat falls upon a surface. [Fr.,--L. _inc[)i]dens_--_in_, on, _cad[)e]re_, to fall.] INCINERATION, in-sin-[.e]r-[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of reducing to ashes by combustion.--_v.t._ INCIN'ERATE, to burn to ashes.--_n._ INCIN'ERATOR, a furnace for consuming anything. [L. _inciner[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_in_, in, _cinis_, _cineris_, ashes.] INCIPIENT, in-sip'i-ent, _adj._ beginning.--_ns._ INCIP'IENCE, INCIP'IENCY.--_adv._ INCIP'IENTLY. [Pr.p. of L. _incip[)e]re_.] INCISE, in-siz', _v.t._ to cut into: to cut or gash: to engrave.--_adj._ INCIS'IFORM, shaped like an incisor-tooth.--_n._ INCIS'ION, the act of cutting into a substance: a cut: a gash.--_adj._ INC[=I]'SIVE, having the quality of cutting into: trenchant: acute: sarcastic.--_adv._ INC[=I]'SIVELY.--_ns._ INC[=I]'SIVENESS; INC[=I]'SOR, a cutting or fore tooth.--_adjs._ INCIS[=O]'RIAL, INC[=I]'SORY.--_n._ INCIS'URE, a cut, incision. [Fr. _inciser_--L. _inc[=i]d[)e]re_, _incisum_--_in_, into, _cæd[)e]re_, to cut.] INCITE, in-s[=i]t', _v.t._ to rouse: to move the mind to action: to encourage: to goad.--_ns._ INCIT'ANT, that which incites: a stimulant; INCIT[=A]'TION, the act of inciting or rousing: an incentive.--_adj._ and _n._ INCIT'ATIVE.--_ns._ INCITE'MENT; INCIT'ER.--_adv._ INCIT'INGLY. [Fr.,--L. _incit[=a]re_--_in_, in, _cit[=a]re_, to rouse--_ci[=e]re_, to put in motion.] INCIVIL, in-siv'il, _adj._ (_Shak._) uncivil.--_n._ INCIVIL'ITY, want of civility or courtesy: impoliteness: an act of discourtesy (in this sense has a _pl._, INCIVIL'ITIES). INCIVISM, in'si-vizm, _n._ neglect of one's duty as a citizen, conduct unbecoming a good citizen. [Fr.] INCLASP, in-klasp', _v.t._ to clasp to: to enclasp. INCLAVE, in-kl[=a]v', _adj._ (_her._) shaped, or cut at the edge, like a series of dovetails, as the border of an ordinary.--_adj._ INCLAV[=A]T'ED, made fast, nailed. [L. _in_, in, _clavus_, a nail.] INCLEARING, in'kl[=e]r-ing, _n._ the total amount in cheques and bills of exchange chargeable to a bank by the Clearing-house:--opp. to _Outclearing_. INCLEMENT, in-klem'ent, _adj._ unmerciful: stormy: very cold: harsh: unpropitious.--_n._ INCLEM'ENCY.--_adv._ INCLEM'ENTLY. INCLINE, in-kl[=i]n', _v.i._ to lean towards: to deviate from a line towards an object: to be disposed: to have some desire.--_v.t._ to cause to bend towards: to give a leaning to: to dispose: to bend.--_n._ an inclined plane: a regular ascent or descent.--_adj._ INCLIN'ABLE, leaning: tending: somewhat disposed.--_ns._ INCLIN'ABLENESS; INCLIN[=A]'TION, the act of bending towards: tendency, disposition of mind: natural aptness: favourable disposition, preference, affection: act of bowing: angle between two lines or planes: the angle a line or plane makes with the horizon.--_p.adj._ INCLINED', bent.--_pr.p._ and _n._ INCLIN'ING, inclination: (_Shak._) side, party.--_n._ INCLINOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the vertical element of the magnetic force.--INCLINED PLANE, one of the so-called mechanical powers, a slope or plane up which may be rolled a weight one could not lift. [Fr.,--L. _inclin[=a]re_--_in_, towards, _clin[=a]re_, to lean.] INCLIP, in-klip', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to embrace, surround. INCLOSE, INCLOSURE. See ENCLOSE. INCLOUD. See ENCLOUD. INCLUDE, in-kl[=oo]d', _v.t._ to close or shut in: to embrace within limits: to contain: to comprise: (_Shak._) to conclude.--_adj._ INCLUD'IBLE.--_n._ INCL[=U]'SION, act of including: that which is included: restriction, limitation.--_adj._ INCLU'SIVE, shutting in: enclosing: (with _of_) comprehending the stated limit or extremes.--_adv._ INCLU'SIVELY. [L. _includ[)e]re_, _inclusum_--_in_, in, _claud[)e]re_, to shut.] INCOERCIBLE, in-ko-[.e]rs'i-bl, _adj._ that cannot be liquefied by pressure, said of certain gases. INCOG, in-kog', _adv._ an abbreviation of incognito. INCOGITABLE, in-koj'i-ta-bl, _adj._ unthinkable.--_ns._ INCOGITABIL'ITY, INCOG'ITANCY.--_adjs._ INCOG'ITANT, INCOG'IT[=A]TIVE. [L. _in_, not, _cogit[=a]re_, to think.] INCOGNISABLE, INCOGNIZABLE, in-kog'niz-a-bl, or in-kon'iz-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be known or distinguished.--_adjs._ INCOG'NISANT, INCOG'NIZANT, not cognisant.--_n._ INCOG'NIZANCE, failure to recognise.--_n._ INCOGNOSCIBIL'ITY.--_adj._ INCOGNOS'CIBLE. INCOGNITO, in-kog'ni-t[=o], _adj._ unknown: disguised: under an assumed title.--_n._ a man unknown (_fem._ INCOG'NITA): concealment. [It.,--L. _incognitus_--_in_, not, _cognitus_, known--_cognosc[)e]re_, to know.] INCOHERENT, in-k[=o]-h[=e]r'ent, _adj._ not connected: loose: incongruous.--_n._ INCOHER'ENCE, want of coherence or connection: incongruity.--_adv._ INCOHER'ENTLY.--_n._ INCOH[=E]'SION. INCOMBUSTIBLE, in-kom-bust'i-bl, _adj._ incapable of being consumed by fire.--_ns._ INCOMBUSTIBIL'ITY, INCOMBUST'IBLENESS.--_adv._ INCOMBUST'IBLY. INCOME, in'kum, _n._ the gain, profit, or interest resulting from anything: revenue: (_Shak._) arrival: (_Scot._) a disease coming without known cause.--_n.pl._ IN'COME-BONDS, a term applied to a bastard kind of security which has no mortgage rights, and is really only a sort of preference share.--_ns._ IN'COMER, one who comes in: one who takes possession of a farm, house, &c., or who comes to live in a place, not having been born there; IN'COME-TAX, a tax directly levied on all persons having incomes above a certain amount.--_adj._ IN'COMING, coming in, as an occupant: accruing: (_Scot._) ensuing, next to follow.--_n._ the act of coming in: revenue. [Eng. _in_ and _come_.] INCOMMENSURABLE, in-kom-en's[=u]-ra-bl, _adj._ having no common measure.--_ns._ INCOMMENSURABIL'ITY, INCOMMEN'SURABLENESS.--_adv._ INCOMMEN'SURABLY.--_adj._ INCOMMEN'SUR[=A]TE, not admitting of a common measure: not adequate: unequal.--_adv._ INCOMMEN'SUR[=A]TELY.--_n._ INCOMMEN'SUR[=A]TENESS, the state of being incommensurate. INCOMMISCIBLE, in-kom-is'i-bl, _adj._ that cannot be mixed together. [L. _in_, not, _commisc[=e]re_, to mix.] INCOMMODE, in-kom-[=o]d', _v.t._ to cause trouble or inconvenience to: to annoy: to molest.--_adj._ INCOMM[=O]'DIOUS, inconvenient: annoying.--_adv._ INCOMM[=O]'DIOUSLY.--_ns._ INCOMM[=O]'DIOUSNESS, the quality of being incommodious; INCOMMOD'ITY, anything which causes inconvenience. [Fr.,--L. _incommod[=a]re_--_incommodus_, inconvenient--_in_, not, _commodus_, commodious.] INCOMMUNICABLE, in-kom-[=u]n'i-ka-bl, _adj._ that cannot be communicated or imparted to others.--_ns._ INCOMMUNICABIL'ITY, INCOMMUN'ICABLENESS.--_adv._ INCOMMUN'ICABLY.--_adj._ INCOMMUN'ICATIVE, not disposed to hold communion with, or to give information: unsocial.--_adv._ INCOMMUN'ICATIVELY.--_n._ INCOMMUN'ICATIVENESS. INCOMMUTABLE, in-kom-[=u]t'a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be commuted or exchanged.--_ns._ INCOMMUTABIL'ITY, INCOMMUT'ABLENESS.--_adv._ INCOMMUT'ABLY. INCOMPARABLE, in-kom'par-a-bl, _adj._ matchless.--_ns._ INCOMPARABIL'ITY, INCOM'PARABLENESS.--_adv._ INCOM'PARABLY.--_adj._ INCOMPARED' (_Spens._), peerless. INCOMPATIBLE, in-kom-pat'i-bl, _adj._ not consistent: contradictory: incapable of existing together in harmony: (_pl._) things which cannot coexist.--_ns._ INCOMPATIBIL'ITY, INCOMPAT'IBLENESS.--_adv._ INCOMPAT'IBLY. INCOMPETENT, in-kom'pe-tent, _adj._ wanting adequate powers: wanting the proper legal qualifications: insufficient.--_ns._ INCOM'PETENCE, INCOM'PETENCY.--_adv._ INCOM'PETENTLY. INCOMPLETE, in-kom-pl[=e]t', _adj._ imperfect.--_adv._ INCOMPLETE'LY.--_ns._ INCOMPLETE'NESS, INCOMPL[=E]'TION. INCOMPLIANCE, in-kom-pl[=i]'ans, _n._ refusal to comply: an unaccommodating disposition.--_adj._ INCOMPL[=I]'ANT. INCOMPOSED, in-kom-p[=o]zd', _adj._ (_Milt._) discomposed. INCOMPOSITE, in-kom'poz-it, _adj._ simple.--INCOMPOSITE NUMBERS, same as _prime numbers_ (see PRIME). INCOMPOSSIBLE, in-kom-pos'i-bl, _adj._ incapable of coexisting.--_n._ INCOMPOSSIBIL'ITY. INCOMPREHENSIBLE, in-kom-pre-hen'si-bl, _adj._ not capable of being understood: not to be contained within limits.--_ns._ INCOMPREHENSIBIL'ITY, INCOMPREHEN'SIBLENESS, INCOMPREHEN'SION.--_adv._ INCOMPREHEN'SIBLY.--_adj._ INCOMPREHEN'SIVE, limited.--_n._ INCOMPREHEN'SIVENESS. INCOMPRESSIBLE, in-kom-pres'i-bl, _adj._ not to be compressed into smaller bulk.--_ns._ INCOMPRESSIBIL'ITY, INCOMPRESS'IBLENESS. INCOMPUTABLE, in-kom-p[=u]t'a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be computed or reckoned. INCONCEIVABLE, in-kon-s[=e]v'a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be conceived by the mind: incomprehensible: involving a contradiction in terms: physically impossible.--_ns._ INCONCEIVABIL'ITY, INCONCEIV'ABLENESS.--_adv._ INCONCEIV'ABLY. INCONCINNITY, in-kon-sin'i-ti, _n._ want of congruousness or proportion.--_adj._ INCONCINN'OUS. [L.] INCONCLUSIVE, in-kon-kl[=oo]s'iv, _adj._ not settling a point in debate, indeterminate, indecisive.--_adv._ INCONCLUS'IVELY.--_ns._ INCONCLUS'IVENESS, INCONCLU'SION. INCONDENSABLE, in-kon-den'sa-bl, _adj._ not condensable. INCONDITE, in-kon'd[=i]t, _adj._ not well put together, irregular, unfinished. [L. _inconditus_--_in_, not, _cond[)e]re_, _conditum_, to build.] INCONGRUOUS, in-kong'gr[=oo]-us, _adj._ inconsistent: not fitting well together, disjointed: unsuitable--also INCON'GRUENT.--_ns._ INCONGRU'ITY, INCON'GRUOUSNESS.--_adv._ INCON'GRUOUSLY. INCONSCIENT, in-kon'shi-ent, _adj._ unconscious.--_adj._ INCON'SCIOUS, unconscious. INCONSECUTIVE, in-kon-sek'[=u]-tiv, _adj._ not succeeding in regular order.--_n._ INCONSEC'UTIVENESS. INCONSEQUENT, in-kon'se-kwent, _adj._ not following from the premises: illogical: irrelevant: unreasonable, inconsistent.--_n._ INCON'SEQUENCE.--_adj._ INCONSEQUEN'TIAL, not following from the premises: of no consequence or value.--_advs._ INCONSEQUEN'TIALLY, INCON'SEQUENTLY. INCONSIDERABLE, in-kon-sid'[.e]r-a-bl, _adj._ not worthy of notice: unimportant.--_n._ INCONSID'ERABLENESS.--_adv._ INCONSID'ERABLY. INCONSIDERATE, in-kon-sid'[.e]r-[=a]t, _adj._ not considerate: thoughtless: inattentive.--_adv._ INCONSID'ERATELY.--_ns._ INCONSID'ERATENESS, INCONSIDER[=A]'TION. INCONSISTENT, in-kon-sist'ent, _adj._ not consistent: not suitable or agreeing with: intrinsically incompatible: self-contradictory: changeable, fickle.--_ns._ INCONSIST'ENCE, INCONSIST'ENCY.--_adv._ INCONSIST'ENTLY. INCONSOLABLE, in-kon-s[=o]l'a-bl, _adj._ not to be comforted.--_n._ INCONSOL'ABLENESS.--_adv._ INCONSOL'ABLY. INCONSONANT, in-kon's[=o]-nant, _adj._ not consonant.--_n._ INCON'SONANCE.--_adv._ INCON'SONANTLY. INCONSPICUOUS, in-kon-spik'[=u]-us, _adj._ not conspicuous: scarcely discernible.--_adv._ INCONSPIC'UOUSLY.--_n._ INCONSPIC'UOUSNESS. INCONSTANT, in-kon'stant, _adj._ subject to change: fickle.--_n._ INCON'STANCY.--_adv._ INCON'STANTLY. INCONSUMABLE, in-kon-s[=u]m'a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be consumed or wasted.--_adv._ INCONSUM'ABLY. INCONTESTABLE, in-kon-test'a-bl, _adj._ too clear to be called in question: undeniable.--_n._ INCONTESTABIL'ITY.--_adv._ INCONTEST'ABLY. INCONTIGUOUS, in-kon-tig'[=u]-us, _adj._ not adjoining or touching.--_adv._ INCONTIG'UOUSLY.--_n._ INCONTIG'UOUSNESS. INCONTINENT, in-kon'ti-nent, _adj._ not restraining the passions or appetites: unchaste: (_med._) unable to restrain natural discharges or evacuations: (_coll._) immediate, off-hand.--_adv._ without delay: at once.--_ns._ INCON'TINENCE, INCON'TINENCY.--_adv._ INCON'TINENTLY, without restraint: forthwith, immediately. INCONTROLLABLE, in-kon-tr[=o]'la-bl, _adj._ uncontrollable.--_adv._ INCONTROL'LABLY. INCONTROVERTIBLE, in-kon-tro-v[.e]rt'i-bl, _adj._ too clear to be called in question.--_n._ INCONTROVERTIBIL'ITY.--_adv._ INCONTROVERT'IBLY. INCONVENIENT, in-kon-v[=e]n'yent, _adj._ unsuitable: causing trouble or uneasiness: increasing difficulty: incommodious.--_v.t._ INCONVEN'IENCE, to trouble or incommode.--_ns._ INCONVEN'IENCE, INCONVEN'IENCY.--_adv._ INCONVEN'IENTLY. INCONVERSABLE, in-kon-vers'a-bl, _adj._ indisposed to conversation, unsocial. INCONVERSANT, in-kon'ver-sant, _adj._ not versed in. INCONVERTIBLE, in-kon-v[.e]rt'i-bl, _adj._ that cannot be changed or exchanged.--_n._ INCONVERTIBIL'ITY.--_adv._ INCONVERT'IBLY. INCONVINCIBLE, in-kon-vin'si-bl, _adj._ not capable of being convinced. INCONY, in'kon-i, _adj._ (_Shak._) fine, delicate, pretty. [Prob. from Fr. _inconnu_, unknown--L. _incognitus_ (see INCOG). Cf. _unco_, in the sense of _strange_, _rare_, _fine_, abbreviated from _uncouth_.] INCO-ORDINATE, in-ko-or'di-n[=a]t, _adj._ not in co-ordinate relation.--_n._ INCO-ORDIN[=A]'TION. INCORONATE, -D, in-kor'o-n[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ crowned. INCORPORATE, in-kor'po-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to form into a body: to combine into one mass, or embody: to unite: to form into a corporation.--_v.i._ to unite into one mass: to become part of another body.--_adj._ united in one body: (_rare_) not having a material body.--_n._ INCORPOR[=A]'TION, act of incorporating: state of being incorporated: formation of a legal or political body: an association: (_gram._) polysynthesis.--_adjs._ INCOR'PORATIVE, characterised by grammatical incorporation--also _Polysynthetic_; INCORP[=O]'REAL, INCOR'PORAL (_Shak._), not having a body: spiritual: intangible.--_ns._ INCORP[=O]'REALISM, INCORPOR[=E]'ITY, INCORPOREAL'ITY.--_adv._ INCORP[=O]'REALLY. INCORPSE, in-korps', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to incorporate. INCORRECT, in-kor-ekt, _adj._ containing faults: not accurate: not correct in manner or character: (_Shak._) not regulated.--_adv._ INCORRECT'LY.--_n._ INCORRECT'NESS. INCORRIGIBLE, in-kor'i-ji-bl, _adj._ and _n._ bad beyond correction or reform.--_ns._ INCORR'IGIBLENESS, INCORRIGIBIL'ITY.--_adv._ INCORR'IGIBLY. INCORRODIBLE, in-ko-r[=o]'di-bl, _adj._ incapable of being corroded. INCORRUPT, in-kor-upt', _adj._ sound: pure: not depraved: not to be tempted by bribes.--_adj._ INCORRUPT'IBLE, not capable of decay: that cannot be bribed: inflexibly just.--_ns._ INCORRUPT'IBLENESS, INCORRUPTIBIL'ITY.--_adv._ INCORRUPT'IBLY.--_ns._ INCORRUP'TION, INCORRUPT'NESS.--_adj._ INCORRUPT'IVE.--_adv._ INCORRUPT'LY. INCRASSATE, in-kras'[=a]t, _v.t._ to make thick.--_v.i._ (_med._) to become thicker.--_adj._ made thick or fat: (_bot._) becoming thick by degrees.--_n._ INCRASS[=A]'TION.--_adj._ INCRASS'ATIVE. [Low L. _incrass[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--L. _in_, in, _crass[=a]re_, to make thick.] INCREASE, in-kr[=e]s', _v.i._ to grow in size: to become greater: to advance.--_v.t._ to make greater: to advance: to extend: to aggravate.--_adj._ INCREAS'ABLE.--_ns._ INCREAS'ABLENESS; IN'CREASE, growth: addition to the original stock: profit: produce: progeny.--_adj._ INCREASE'FUL (_Shak._), abundant of produce.--_adv._ INCREAS'INGLY, in the way of increase. [M. E. _incresen_--_en_ (L. _in_), and O. Fr. _creisser_, _croistre_--L. _cresc[)e]re_, to grow.] INCREATE, in'kre-[=a]t, _adj._ (_arch._) uncreated. INCREDIBLE, in-kred'i-bl, _adj._ surpassing belief.--_ns._ INCREDIBIL'ITY, quality of being incredible, an incredible thing; INCRED'IBLENESS, incredibility.--_adv._ INCRED'IBLY. INCREDULOUS, in-kred'[=u]-lus, _adj._ hard of belief.--_ns._ INCRED[=U]'LITY, INCRED'ULOUSNESS.--_adv._ INCRED'ULOUSLY. INCREMATION, in-kre-m[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of burning a dead body.--_v.t._ INCR[=E]'MATE, to burn. [L. _in_, in, _crem[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to burn.] INCREMENT, in'kre-ment, _n._ act of increasing or becoming greater: growth: that by which anything is increased: (_math._) the finite increase of a variable quantity: (_rhet._) an adding of particulars without climax (see 2 Peter, i. 5-7): (_gram._) a syllable in excess of the number of the nominative singular or the second pers. sing. present indicative.--_adj._ INCREMENT'AL.--UNEARNED INCREMENT, any exceptional increase in the value of land, houses, &c., not due to the owner's labour or outlay. [L. _incrementum_--_incresc[)e]re_, to increase.] INCRESCENT, in-kres'ent, _adj._ increasing, growing (of the moon). INCRIMINATE, in-krim'in-[=a]t, _v.t._ to charge with a crime or fault, to criminate: to characterise as criminal or as accessory to crime.--_adj._ INCRIM'IN[=A]TORY. INCRUST. See ENCRUST. INCUBATE, in'k[=u]-b[=a]t, _v.i._ to sit on eggs to hatch them.--_v.t._ to produce by hatching: (_fig._) to turn over in the mind, ponder over.--_n._ INCUB[=A]'TION, the act of sitting on eggs to hatch them: (_fig._) meditation on schemes: (_med._) the period between the implanting of a disease and its development.--_adjs._ IN'CUB[=A]TIVE, INCUB[=A]'TORY.--_n._ IN'CUB[=A]TOR, a machine for hatching eggs by artificial heat. [L. _incub[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_in_, upon, _cub[=a]re_, to lie.] INCUBUS, in'k[=u]-bus, _n._ the nightmare: a male demon formerly supposed to consort with women in their sleep: any oppressive or stupefying influence:--_pl._ IN'CUBUSES, INCUBI (in'k[=u]-b[=i]). [L. _incub[=a]re_--_in_, upon, _cub[=a]re_, to lie.] INCULCATE, in-kul'k[=a]t, _v.t._ to enforce by frequent admonitions or repetitions.--_ns._ INCULC[=A]'TION; INCUL'C[=A]TOR. [L. _inculc[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_in_, into, _calc[=a]re_, to tread--_calx_, the heel.] INCULPABLE, in-kul'pa-bl, _adj._ blameless.--_adv._ INCUL'PABLY.--_v.t._ INCUL'PATE, to bring into blame: to censure.--_n._ INCULP[=A]'TION.--_adj._ INCUL'PATORY. [Low L. _inculp[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--L. _in_, in, _culpa_, a fault.] INCULT, in-kult', _adj._ (_rare_) uncultivated. INCUMBENT, in-kum'bent, _adj._ lying or resting on: lying on as a duty.--_n._ one who holds an ecclesiastical benefice.--_n._ INCUM'BENCY, a lying or resting on: the holding of an office: an ecclesiastical benefice.--_adv._ INCUM'BENTLY. [L. _incumbens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _incumb[)e]re_, to lie upon.] INCUNABULA, in-k[=u]-nab'[=u]-la, _n.pl._ books printed in the early period of the art, before the year 1500: the cradle, birthplace, origin of a thing. [L. _in_, in, _cunabula_, a cradle, dim. of _cunæ_, a cradle.] INCUR, in-kur', _v.t._ to become liable to: to bring on:--_pr.p._ incur'ring; _pa.p._ incurred'. [L. _incurr[)e]re_, _incursum_--_in_, into, _curr[)e]re_, to run.] INCURABLE, in-k[=u]r'a-bl, _adj._ not admitting of cure or correction.--_n._ one beyond cure.--_ns._ INCUR'ABLENESS, INCURABIL'ITY.--_adv._ INCUR'ABLY. INCURIOUS, in-k[=u]'ri-us, _adj._ not curious or inquisitive: inattentive: deficient in interest.--_adv._ INC[=U]'RIOUSLY.--_ns. Inc[=u]'riousness_, _Incurios'ity_. INCURSION, in-kur'shun, _n._ a hostile inroad.--_adj._ INCUR'SIVE, making an incursion or inroad. [Fr.,--L. _incursion-em_--_incurr[)e]re_.] INCURVE, in-kurv', _v.t._ to cause to curve inward.--_v.i._ to curve inward.--_v.t_. INCUR'V[=A]TE, to turn from a straight course.--_adj._ curved inward or upward.--_ns._ INCURV[=A]'TION, act of bending, bowing, kneeling, &c.: the growing inward of the nails; INCUR'VATURE, any curving.--_adj._ INCURVED' (_bot._), curving toward the axis of growth.--_n._ INCUR'VITY, the state of being bent inward. INCUS, in'kus, _n._ one of the bones in the tympanum or middle ear, so called from its fancied resemblance to an anvil:--_pl._ IN'C[=U]DES. [L., an anvil.] INCUSE, in-k[=u]z', _v.t._ to impress by stamping, as a coin.--_adj._ hammered.--_n._ an impression, a stamp. [L. _incusus_, pa.p. of _incud[)e]re_--_in_, on, _cud[)e]re_, to strike.] INCUT, in'kut, _adj._ set in by, or as if by, cutting, esp. in printing, inserted in spaces left in the text. INDAGATE, in'da-g[=a]t, _v.t._ to search out.--_n._ INDAG[=A]'TION.--_adj._ IN'DAG[=A]TIVE.--_n._ IN'DAG[=A]TOR.--_adj._ IN'DAG[=A]TORY. [L. _indag[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to trace.] INDART, in-därt', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to dart or strike in. INDEBTED, in-det'ed, _adj._ being in debt: obliged by something received.--_ns._ INDEBT'EDNESS, INDEBT'MENT. INDECENT, in-d[=e]'sent, _adj._ offensive to common modesty: unbecoming: gross, obscene.--_n._ IND[=E]'CENCY, quality of being indecent: anything violating modesty or seemliness.--_adv._ IND[=E]'CENTLY. INDECIDUOUS, in-de-sid'[=u]-us, _adj._ not deciduous, as leaves.--Also INDECID'UATE. INDECIPHERABLE, in-de-s[=i]'fer-a-bl, _adj._ incapable of being deciphered. INDECISION, in-de-sizh'un, _n._ want of decision or resolution: hesitation.--_adj._ INDEC[=I]'SIVE, unsettled: inconclusive.--_adv._ INDEC[=I]'SIVELY.--_n._ INDEC[=I]'SIVENESS. INDECLINABLE, in-de-kl[=i]n'a-bl, _adj._ (_gram._) not varied by inflection.--_adv._ INDECLIN'ABLY. INDECOMPOSABLE, in-de-kom-p[=o]z'a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be decomposed. INDECOROUS, in-de-k[=o]'rus (sometimes in-dek'[=o]-rus), _adj._ not becoming; violating good manners.--_adv._ INDEC[=O]'ROUSLY.--_ns_. INDEC[=O]'ROUSNESS, INDEC[=O]'RUM, want of propriety of conduct: a breach of decorum. INDEED, in-d[=e]d', _adv._ in fact: in truth: in reality. It emphasises an affirmation, marks a qualifying word or clause, a concession or admission, or, used as an interj., it expresses surprise or interrogation. INDEFATIGABLE, in-de-fat'i-ga-bl, _adj._ that cannot be fatigued or wearied out: unremitting in effort.--_n._ INDEFAT'IGABLENESS.--_adv._ INDEFAT'IGABLY. [Fr.,--L. _indefatigabilis_--_in_, not, _de_, _fatig[=a]re_, to tire.] INDEFEASIBLE, in-de-f[=e]z'i-bl, _adj._ not to be defeated or made void.--_n._ INDEFEASIBIL'ITY.--_adv._ INDEFEAS'IBLY. INDEFECTIBLE, in-de-fekt'i-bl, _adj._ incapable of defect: unfailing. INDEFENSIBLE, in-de-fens'i-bl, _adj._ untenable, that cannot be maintained or justified.--_adv._ INDEFENS'IBLY. INDEFINABLE, in-de-f[=i]n'a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be defined.--_adv._ INDEFIN'ABLY. INDEFINITE, in-def'i-nit, _adj._ not limited: not precise or certain: (_logic_) indeterminate in logical quantity.--_adv._ INDEF'INITELY.--_n._ INDEF'INITENESS. INDELIBLE, in-del'i-bl, _adj._ that cannot be blotted out or effaced.--_ns._ INDELIBIL'ITY, INDEL'IBLENESS.--_adv._ INDEL'IBLY. [Fr.,--L. _in_, not, _delebilis_--_del[=e]re_, to destroy.] INDELICATE, in-del'i-k[=a]t, _adj._ offensive to good manners or purity of mind: coarse.-_-n._ INDEL'ICACY.--_adv._ INDEL'ICATELY. INDEMNIFY, in-dem'ni-f[=i], _v.t._ (with against) to secure against loss: to make good for damage done: to give security against:--_pa.p._ indem'nified.--_ns._ INDEMNIFIC[=A]'TION, act of indemnifying: that which indemnifies; INDEM'NITOR, one who indemnifies; INDEM'NITY, security from damage, loss, or punishment: compensation for loss or injury.--ACT OF INDEMNITY, an act or decree for the protection of public officers from any technical or legal penalties or liabilities they may have been compelled to incur. [Fr.,--L. _indemnis_, unharmed--_in_, not, _damnum_, loss, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] INDEMONSTRABLE, in-de-mon'stra-bl, _adj._ that cannot be demonstrated or proved.--_n._ INDEMONSTRABIL'ITY. INDENT, in-dent', _v.t._ to cut into points like teeth: to notch: to indenture, apprentice: (_print._) to begin farther in from the margin than the rest of a paragraph.--_v.i._ (_Shak._) to move in a zigzag course: to bargain: to make a compact.--_n._ a cut or notch in the margin: a recess like a notch.--_n._ INDENT[=A]'TION, a hollow or depression: act of indenting or notching: notch: recess.--_pa.p._ and _adj._ INDENT'ED, having indentations: serrated: zigzag.--_ns._ INDEN'TION (_print._), any space left before the beginning of lines, as in poetry; INDENT'URE, the act of indenting, indentation: (_law_) a deed under seal, with mutual covenants, where the edge is indented for future identification: a written agreement between two or more parties: a contract.--_v.t._ to bind by indentures: to indent. [Low L. _indent[=a]re_--L. _in_, in, _dens_, _dentis_, a tooth.] INDEPENDENT, in-de-pend'ent, _adj._ (with _of_) not dependent or relying on others: not subordinate: not subject to bias: affording a comfortable livelihood: belonging to the Independents: (_gram._) of some parts of speech (noun, pronoun, verb), capable of forming sentences without the others.--_n._ one who in ecclesiastical affairs holds that every congregation should be independent of every other and subject to no superior authority--a Congregationalist: (_math._) not depending on another for its value, said of a quantity or function.--_ns._ INDEPEND'ENCE, INDEPEND'ENCY.--_adv._ INDEPEND'ENTLY.--DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, the document embodying the reasons for the secession of the thirteen colonies of America from England, reported to the Continental Congress, July 4, 1776--observed in the United States as a legal holiday--INDEPENDENCE DAY. INDESCRIBABLE, in-de-skr[=i]b'a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be described: (_pl._) applied facetiously to trousers.--_adv._ INDESCRIB'ABLY. INDESIGNATE, in-des'ig-n[=a]t, _adj._ (_logic_) without any indication of quantity. INDESTRUCTIBLE, in-de-struk'ti-bl, _adj._ that cannot be destroyed.--_ns._ INDESTRUCTIBIL'ITY, INDESTRUC'TIBLENESS.--_adv._ INDESTRUC'TIBLY. INDETERMINABLE, in-de-t[.e]r'min-a-bl, _adj._ not to be ascertained or fixed: (_nat. hist._) not to be classified or fixed.--_n._ INDETER'MINABLENESS.--_adv._ INDETER'MINABLY.--_adj._ INDETER'MIN[=A]TE, not determinate or fixed: uncertain: having no defined or fixed value.--_adv._ INDETER'MIN[=A]TELY.--_ns._ INDETER'MIN[=A]TENESS, INDETERMIN[=A]'TION, want of determination: want of fixed direction.--_adj._ INDETER'MINED, not determined: unsettled. INDEX, in'deks, _n._ anything that indicates or points out: a hand that directs to anything, as the hour of the day, &c.: the forefinger: alphabetical list of subjects treated of in a book: (_math._) the exponent of a power:--_pl._ INDEXES (in'deks-ez), and in _math._, INDICES (in'di-s[=e]z).--_v.t._ to provide with or place in an index.--_ns._ IN'DEX-DIG'IT, IN'DEX-FING'ER, the forefinger, or in other animals that digit representing the human index.--_adjs._ INDEX'ICAL; IN'DEXLESS, without an index.--INDEX EXPURGATORIUS, in the R.C. Church, an authoritative list of books only to be read in expurgated editions; INDEX LIBRORUM EXPURGANDORUM, or INDEX LIBRORUM PROHIBITORUM, an official list of books which the faithful are absolutely forbidden to read at all under pain of instant excommunication; INDEX RERUM, an index of subjects; INDEX VERBORUM, an index of words. [L. _index_, _indicis_--_indic[=a]re_, to show.] INDEXTERITY, in-deks-ter'i-ti, _n._ want of dexterity. INDIAN, in'di-an, _adj._ belonging to the Indies, East or West, or to the aborigines of America.--_n._ a native of the Indies: a European who lives or has lived in India: an aboriginal of America.--_ns._ IN'DIAMAN, a large ship employed in trade, with India; IN'DIA-RUB'BER, an elastic gummy substance, the inspissated juice of various tropical plants, extensively used in the arts: caoutchouc.--_adj._ IN'DIC, originating or existing in India, a term comprehensively applied to all the Aryan languages of India.--INDIAN BERRY, a climbing Indian shrub, its fruit _Cocculus Indicus_; INDIAN CLUB, a bottle-shaped block of wood, swung in various motions by the arms with the view of developing the muscles of these and of the chest, &c.; INDIAN CORN, maize, so called because brought from the West Indies; INDIAN CRESS, an ornamental garden shrub from Peru, with orange flowers; INDIAN FILE (see FILE); INDIAN FIRE, a pyrotechnic composition, used as a signal-light, consisting of sulphur, realgar, and nitre; INDIAN RED (see RED); INDIAN SUMMER, in America, a period of warm, dry, calm weather in late autumn, with hazy atmosphere.--INDIA DOCKS, extensive docks in London for the accommodation of vessels engaged in the West and East India trade; INDIA INK (see INK); INDIA OFFICE, a government office in London, where are managed the affairs of the Indian government; INDIA PAPER, a thin yellowish printing-paper made in China and Japan from vegetable fibre, and used in taking the finest proofs from engraved plates--hence called INDIA PROOFS; INDIA SHAWL, a Cashmere shawl.--EAST INDIA COMPANY, a great chartered company formed for trading with India and the East Indies, more especially applied to the English Company, incorporated in 1600 and abolished in 1858; EAST INDIAN, an inhabitant or a native of the East Indies; RED INDIAN, one of the aborigines of America, so called from the colour of the skin--(_coll._) in U.S. _Injen_, _Injun_; WEST INDIAN, a native or an inhabitant of the West Indies. [L. _India_--_Indus_ (Gr. _Indos_), the Indus (Pers. Hind. _Hind_; Zend _Hindu_)--Sans. _sindhu_, a river.] INDICATE, in'di-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to point out: to show: to give as a ground for inferring.--_adj._ IN'DICANT, indicating.--_n._ that which indicates.--_n._ INDIC[=A]'TION, act of indicating: mark: token: symptom.--_adj._ INDIC'ATIVE, pointing out: giving intimation of: (_gram._) applied to the mood of the verb which affirms or denies.--_adv._ INDIC'ATIVELY.--_n._ IN'DIC[=A]TOR, one who indicates: an instrument on a steam-engine to show the pressure.--_adj._ IN'DIC[=A]TORY, showing. [L. _indic[=a]re_, -_[=a]tum_--_in_, in, _dic[=a]re_, to proclaim.] INDICT, in-d[=i]t', _v.t._ to charge with a crime formally or in writing, esp. by a grand-jury.--_adj._ INDICT'ABLE.--_ns._ INDICTEE', one who is indicted; INDICT'MENT, formal accusation: the written accusation against one who is to be tried by jury: (_Scots law_) the form under which a criminal is put to trial at the instance of the Lord Advocate.--FIND AN INDICTMENT, said of the grand-jury when they are satisfied of the truth of the accusation, and endorse the bill, _A true bill_. [L. _indict[=a]re_, freq. of _indic[)e]re_, _indictum_, to declare--_in_, in, _dic[)e]re_, to say.] INDICTION, in-dik'shun, _n._ a proclamation: a cycle of fifteen years, instituted by Constantine the Great for fiscal purposes, and adopted by the popes as part of their chronological system: a year bearing a number showing its place in a fifteen years' cycle, dating from 313 A.D. INDIFFERENT, in-dif'[.e]r-ent, _adj._ without importance: uninteresting: of a middle quality: neutral: unconcerned.--_n._ one who is indifferent or apathetic: that which is indifferent.--_ns._ INDIFF'ERENCE, INDIFF'ERENCY, INDIFF'ERENTISM, indifference: (_theol._) the doctrine that religious differences are of no moment: (_metaph._) the doctrine of absolute identity--i.e. that to be in thought and to exist are one and the same thing; INDIFF'ERENTIST.--_adv._ INDIFF'ERENTLY, in an indifferent manner: tolerably: passably: without distinction, impartially. INDIGENOUS, in-dij'en-us, _adj._ native born or originating in: produced naturally in a country.--_adj._ and _n._ IN'DIGENE.--_adv._ INDIG'ENOUSLY. [L. _indigena_, a native--_indu_, or _in_, and _gen_-, root of _gign[)e]re_, to produce.] INDIGENT, in'di-jent, _adj._ in need of anything: destitute of means of subsistence: poor.--_n._ IN'DIGENCE.--_adv._ IN'DIGENTLY. [Fr.,--L. _indigens_, -_entis_, pr.p. of _indig[)e]re_--_indu_, or _in_, in, _eg[=e]re_, to need.] INDIGEST, in-di-jest', _adj._ not digested, shapeless.--_n._ a crude mass, disordered state of affairs.--_adj._ INDIGEST'ED, not digested: unarranged: not methodised.--_ns._ INDIGESTIBIL'ITY, INDIGEST'ION, want of digestion: painful digestion.--_adj._ INDIGEST'IBLE, not digestible: not easily digested: not to be received or patiently endured.--_adv._ INDIGEST'IBLY.--_adj._ INDIGEST'IVE, dyspeptic. [L. _indigestus_, unarranged--_in_, not, _diger[)e]re_, to arrange, digest.] INDIGN, in-d[=i]n', _adj._ not worthy: disgraceful. [L. _in_, not, _dignus_, worthy.] INDIGNANT, in-dig'nant, _adj._ affected with anger and disdain.--_n._ INDIG'NANCE (_Spens._).--_adv._ INDIG'NANTLY.--_n._ INDIGN[=A]'TION, the feeling caused by what is unworthy or base: anger mixed with contempt: effect of indignant feeling.--_v.t._ INDIG'NIFY (_Spens._), to treat indignantly or disdainfully.--_n._ INDIG'NITY, unmerited contemptuous treatment: incivility with contempt or insult: (_Spens._) unworthiness, base conduct. [L. _indignans_, -_antis_, pr.p. of _indign[=a]ri_, to consider as unworthy--_in_, not, _dignus_, worthy.] INDIGO, in'di-go, _n._ a blue dye obtained from the stalks of the indigo plant.--INDIGO BLUE, the blue colouring matter of indigo, a crystalline solid, colourless and tasteless; INDIGO PLANT, a plant of the genus _Indigofera_, from which indigo is obtained. [Sp. _indico_--L. _indicum_, from _Indicus_, Indian.] INDIRECT, in-di-rekt', _adj._ not direct or straight: not lineal or in direct succession: not related in the natural way, oblique: not straightforward or honest.--_adv._ INDIRECT'LY.--_ns._ INDIRECT'NESS, INDIREC'TION (_Shak._), indirect course or means, dishonest practice.--INDIRECT EVIDENCE, or TESTIMONY, circumstantial or inferential evidence; INDIRECT OBJECT (_gram._), a substantive word dependent on a verb less immediately than an accusative governed by it; INDIRECT SYLLOGISM (_logic_), a syllogism which can be made more cogent and useful by the process called reduction. INDISCERNIBLE, in-diz-[.e]rn'i-bl, _adj._ not discernible.--_adv._ INDISCERN'IBLY. INDISCIPLINE, in-dis'i-plin, _n._ want of discipline, disorder.--_adj._ INDIS'CIPLINABLE. INDISCOVERABLE, in-dis-kuv'[.e]r-a-bl, _adj._ not discoverable. INDISCREET, in-dis-kr[=e]t', _adj._ not discreet: imprudent: injudicious.--_adv._ INDISCREET'LY.--_ns._ INDISCREET'NESS, INDISCRETION (-kresh'-), want of discretion: rashness: an indiscreet act. INDISCRIMINATE, in-dis-krim'i-n[=a]t, _adj._ not distinguishing: promiscuous.--_adv._ INDISCRIM'INATELY.--_adjs._ INDISCRIM'INATING, INDISCRIM'INATIVE, not discriminative.--_n._ INDISCRIMIN[=A]'TION. INDISPENSABLE, in-dis-pens'a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be dispensed with: absolutely necessary.--_ns._ INDISPENSABIL'ITY, INDISPENS'ABLENESS.--_adv._ INDISPENS'ABLY. INDISPOSE, in-dis-p[=o]z', _v.t._ to render indisposed, averse, or unfit.--_pa.p._ and _adj._ INDISPOSED', averse: slightly disordered in health.--_ns._ INDISPOS'EDNESS, INDISPOSI'TION, state of being indisposed: disinclination: slight illness. INDISPUTABLE, in-dis'p[=u]-ta-bl, _adj._ certainly true: certain.--_n._ INDIS'PUTABLENESS.--_adv._ INDIS'PUTABLY. INDISSOCIABLE, in-dis-[=o]'shi-a-bl, _adj._ incapable of being separated. INDISSOLUBLE, in-dis'ol-[=u]-bl, _adj._ that cannot be broken or violated: inseparable: binding for ever.--_ns._ INDISS'OLUBLENESS, INDISSOLUBIL'ITY.--_adv._ INDISS'OLUBLY. INDISSOLVABLE, in-dis-ol'va-bl, _adj._ that cannot be dissolved. INDISTINCT, in-dis-tingkt', _adj._ not plainly marked: confused: not clear to the mind: dim, imperfect, as of the senses.--_adj._ INDISTINCT'IVE, not capable of making distinctions.--_n._ INDISTINCT'IVENESS.--_adv._ INDISTINCT'LY.--_ns._ INDISTINCT'NESS, INDISTINC'TION, confusion: absence of distinction, sameness. INDISTINGUISHABLE, in-dis-ting'gwish-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be distinguished.--_n._ INDISTIN'GUISHABLENESS.--_adv._ INDISTIN'GUISHABLY. INDITE, in-d[=i]t', _v.t._ to compose or write: (_B._) to arrange for utterance or writing: (_Shak._) to invite.--_v.i._ to compose.--_ns._ INDITE'MENT; INDIT'ER. [O. Fr. _enditer_, a doublet of indict.] INDIUM, in'di-um, _n._ a soft malleable silver-white metallic element. INDIVERTIBLE, in-di-vert'i-bl, _adj._ not capable of being turned aside out of a course. INDIVIDABLE, in-di-v[=i]d'a-bl, _adj._ (_Shak._) that cannot be divided. INDIVIDUAL, in-di-vid'[=u]-al, _adj._ not divisible without loss of identity: subsisting as one: pertaining to one only, of a group where each constituent is different from the others: (_Milt._) inseparable.--_n._ a single person, animal, plant, or thing.--_n._ INDIVIDUALIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ INDIVID'UAL[=I]SE, to stamp with individual character: to particularise.--_ns._ INDIVID'UALISM, individual character: independent action as opposed to co-operation: that theory which opposes interference of the State in the affairs of individuals, opposed to _Socialism_ or _Collectivism_: (_logic_) the doctrine that individual things alone are real: the doctrine that nothing exists but the individual self; INDIVID'UALIST.--_adj._ INDIVIDUALIST'IC.--_n._ INDIVIDUAL'ITY, separate and distinct existence: oneness: distinctive character.--_adv._ INDIVID'UALLY.--_v.t._ INDIVID'U[=A]TE, to individualise: to make single.--_n._ INDIVIDU[=A]'TION, the question as to what it is that distinguishes one organised or living being, or one thinking being, from all others. [L. _individuus_--_in_, not, _dividuus_, divisible--_divid[)e]re_, to divide.] INDIVISIBLE, in-di-viz'i-bl, _adj._ not divisible.--_n._ (_math._) an indefinitely small quantity.--_ns._ INDIVISIBIL'ITY, INDIVIS'IBLENESS.--_adv._ INDIVIS'IBLY. INDO-CHINESE, in'd[=o]-ch[=i]-n[=e]z', _adj._ of or pertaining to Indo-China, the south-eastern peninsula of Asia. INDOCILE, in-d[=o]'s[=i]l, or in-dos'il, _adj._ not docile: not disposed to be instructed--also IND[=O]'CIBLE.--_n._ INDOCIL'ITY. INDOCTRINATE, in-dok'trin-[=a]t, _v.t._ to instruct in any doctrine: to imbue with any opinion.--_ns._ INDOCTRIN[=A]'TION; INDOC'TRINATOR. INDO-EUROPEAN, in'd[=o]-[=u]-r[=o]-p[=e]'an, _adj._ a term applied to the family of languages variously called Aryan, Japhetic, Sanscritic, Indo-Germanic, generally classified into seven great branches--viz. Indic, Iranian or Persic, Celtic, Greek, Italic, Slavo-Lettic, Teutonic. INDOLENT, in'd[=o]-lent, _adj._ indisposed to activity.--_ns._ IN'DOLENCE, IN'DOLENCY.--_adv._ IN'DOLENTLY. [L. _in_, not, _dolens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _dol[=e]re_, to suffer pain.] INDOMITABLE, in-dom'it-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be tamed: not to be subdued.--_adv._ INDOM'ITABLY. INDOOR, in'd[=o]r, _adj._ performed indoors.--_adv._ IN'DOORS, within doors.--INDOOR RELIEF, support given to paupers in public buildings, as opposed to _Outdoor relief_, or help given them at their own homes. INDORSE. See ENDORSE. INDRA, in'dra, _n._ the god of the firmament and of rain. [Sans.] INDRAUGHT, in'dräft, _n._ a drawing of something, as air, into a place. INDRAWN, in'drawn, _adj._ drawn in: manifesting mental abstraction. INDRENCH, in-drensh', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to overwhelm with water. INDUBIOUS, in-d[=u]'bi-us, _adj._ not dubious: certain. INDUBITABLE, in-d[=u]'bit-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be doubted: certain.--_n._ IND[=U]'BITABLENESS.--_adv._ IND[=U]'BITABLY. INDUCE, in-d[=u]s', _v.t._ to prevail on: to cause or produce in any way: (_obs._) to place upon: (_physics_) to cause, as an electric state, by mere proximity of surfaces.--_ns._ INDUCE'MENT, that which induces or causes: incentive, motive: (_law_) a statement of facts introducing other important facts; INDUC'ER.--_adj._ IND[=U]'CIBLE.--INDUCED CURRENT (_elect._), a current set in action by the influence of the surrounding magnetic field, or by the variation of an adjacent current. [L. _induc[)e]re_, _inductum_--_in_, into, _duc[)e]re_, to lead.] INDUCT, in-dukt', _v.t._ to introduce: to put in possession, as of a benefice.--_adj._ INDUC'TILE, that cannot be drawn out into wire or threads.--_ns._ INDUCTIL'ITY; INDUC'TION, introduction to an office, especially of a clergyman: an introduction, a prelude independent of the main work, but giving some notion of its aim and meaning: the act or process of reasoning from particular cases to general conclusions: (_physics_) the production by one body of an opposite electric state in another by proximity.--_adjs._ INDUC'TIONAL, INDUC'TIVE.--_n._ INDUC'TION-COIL, an electrical machine consisting of two coils of wire, in which every variation of the primary or inner current induces a current in the outer or secondary circuit.--_adv._ INDUC'TIVELY.--_n._ INDUC'TOR.--INDUCTION BY SIMPLE ENUMERATION, logical induction by enumeration of all the cases singly; INDUCTIVE PHILOSOPHY, Bacon's name for science founded on induction or observation; INDUCTIVE REASONING, opp. to _Deductive reasoning_ (see DEDUCTIVE); INDUCTIVE SCIENCE, any special branch of science founded on positive and observable fact. [See INDUCE.] INDUE. See ENDUE. INDULGE, in-dulj', _v.t._ to yield to the wishes of: not to restrain, as the will, &c.--_v.i._ (with _in_) to gratify one's appetites freely.--_ns._ INDUL'GENCE, gratification: forbearance of present payment: in the R.C. Church, a remission, to a repentant sinner, of the temporal punishment which remains due after the sin and its eternal punishment have been remitted (_Plenary_ indulgences, such as remit all; _Partial_, a portion of the temporal punishment due to sin; _Temporal_, those granted only for a time; _Perpetual_ or _Indefinite_, those which last till revoked; _Personal_, those granted to a particular person or confraternity; _Local_, those gained only in a particular place): exemption of an individual from an ecclesiastical law.--_adjs._ INDUL'GENT, yielding to the wishes of others: compliant: not severe; INDULGEN'TIAL.--_adv._ INDUL'GENTLY.--_ns._ INDUL'GER; INDULT', a license granted by the Pope, authorising something to be done which the common law of the Church does not sanction.--DECLARATION OF INDULGENCE, a proclamation of James II. in 1687, by which he promised to suspend all laws tending to force the conscience of his subjects. [L. _indulg[=e]re_, to be kind to--_in_, in, and prob. L. _dulcis_, sweet.] INDULINE, in'd[=u]-lin, _n._ a name of various coal-tar colours used in dyeing cotton wool and silk dark-blue colours resembling indigo. INDUMENTUM, in-d[=u]-men'tum, _n._ (_bot._) any hairy covering: plumage, of birds. [L.] INDUPLICATE, in-d[=u]'pli-k[=a]t, _adj._ having the margins doubled inwards, said of the calyx or corolla in æstivation.--_n._ INDUPLIC[=A]'TION. INDURATE, in'd[=u]-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to harden, as the feelings.--_v.i._ to grow hard: to harden.--_n._ INDUR[=A]'TION.--_adj._ IN'DURATIVE. [L. _indur[=a]re_, -_[=a]tum_--_in_, in, _dur[=a]re_, to harden.] INDUSIUM, in-d[=u]'zi-um, _n._ (_bot._) a sort of hairy cup enclosing the stigma of a flower: the scale covering the fruit-spot of ferns.--_adj._ IND[=U]'SIAL (_geol._), composed of IND[=U]'SIA, or the petrified larva-cases of insects. [L.,--_indu[)e]re_, to put on.] INDUSTRY, in'dus-tri, _n._ quality of being diligent: assiduity: steady application to labour: habitual diligence: manufacture: trade.--_adj._ INDUS'TRIAL, relating to or consisting in industry.--_n._ INDUS'TRIALISM, devotion to labour or industrial pursuits: that system or condition of society in which industrial labour is the chief and most characteristic feature, opposed to feudalism and the military spirit.--_adv._ INDUS'TRIALLY.--_adj._ INDUS'TRIOUS, diligent or active in one's labour: laborious: diligent in a particular pursuit.--_adv._ INDUS'TRIOUSLY.--INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION, MUSEUM, an exhibition, museum, of industrial products or manufactures; INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, a school in which agricultural or some other industrial art is taught: a school where neglected children are taught mechanical arts. [Fr.,--L.; perh. from _indo_, old form of _in_, within, and _stru[)e]re_, to build up.] INDUVIÆ, in-d[=u]'vi-[=e], _n.pl._ (_bot._) the withered leaves which remain persistent on the stems of some plants.--_adjs._ IND[=U]'VIAL; IND[=U]'VIATE. [L.] INDWELL, in'dwel, _v.i._ to dwell or abide in.--_n._ IN'DWELLER, an inhabitant.--_adj._ IN'DWELLING, dwelling within, abiding permanently in the mind or soul.--_n._ residence within, or in the heart or soul. INEARTH, in-[.e]rth', _v.t._ to inter. INEBRIATE, in-[=e]'bri-[=a]t, _v.t._ to make drunk, to intoxicate: to exhilarate greatly.--_adj._ drunk: intoxicated.--_n._ a habitual drunkard.--_adj._ IN[=E]'BRIANT, intoxicating--also _n._--_ns._ INEBRI[=A]'TION, INEBR[=I]'ETY, drunkenness: intoxication.--_adj._ IN[=E]'BRIOUS, drunk: causing intoxication. [L. _inebri[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_in_, inten., _ebri[=a]re_, to make drunk--_ebrius_, drunk.] INEDIBLE, in-ed'i-bl, _adj._ unfit to be eaten. INEDITED, in-ed'it-ed, _adj._ not edited: unpublished. INEFFABLE, in-ef'a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be described, inexpressible.--_n._ INEFF'ABLENESS.--_adv._ INEFF'ABLY. [Fr.,--L. _ineffabilis_--_in_, not, _effabilis_, effable.] INEFFACEABLE, in-ef-f[=a]s'a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be rubbed out.--_adv._ INEFFACE'ABLY. INEFFECTIVE, in-ef-fek'tiv, _adj._ not effective: useless.--_adv._ INEFFEC'TIVELY.--_adj._ INEFFEC'TUAL, fruitless.--_ns._ INEFFECTUAL'ITY, INEFFEC'TUALNESS.--_adv._ INEFFEC'TUALLY.--_adj._ INEFFIC[=A]'CIOUS, not having power to produce an effect.--_adv._ INEFFIC[=A]'CIOUSLY.--_n._ INEF'FICACY, want of efficacy.--_n._ INEFFIC'IENCY.--_adj._ INEFFIC'IENT, effecting, or capable of effecting, nothing.--_adv._ INEFFIC'IENTLY. INELASTIC, in-[=e]-las'tik, _adj._ not elastic: incompressible.--_n._ INELASTIC'ITY. INELEGANCE, in-el'e-gans, _n._ want of elegance: want of beauty or polish--also INEL'EGANCY.--_adj._ INEL'EGANT, wanting in beauty, refinement, or ornament.--_adv._ INEL'EGANTLY. INELIGIBLE, in-el'i-ji-bl, _adj._ not capable, or worthy, of being chosen: unsuitable.--_n._ INELIGIBIL'ITY.--_adv._ INEL'IGIBLY. INELOQUENT, in-el'o-kwent, _adj._ not fluent or persuasive.--_n._ INEL'OQUENCE. INELUCTABLE, in-e-luk'ta-bl, _adj._ not to be overcome or escaped from. INENARRABLE, in-e-nar'a-bl, _adj._ incapable of being narrated or told. INEPT, in-ept', _adj._ not apt or fit: unsuitable: foolish: inexpert.--_ns._ INEPT'IT[=U]DE, INEPT'NESS.--_adv._ INEPT'LY. [Fr.,--L. _ineptus_--_in_, not, _aptus_, apt.] INEQUABLE, in-[=e]'kwa-bl, _adj._ not equable, changeable. INEQUALITY, in-e-kwol'i-ti, _n._ want of equality: difference: inadequacy: incompetency: unevenness: dissimilarity. INEQUITABLE, in-ek'wi-ta-bl, _adj._ unfair, unjust.--_adv._ INEQ'UITABLY.--_n._ INEQ'UITY, lack of equity: an unjust action. INERADICABLE, in-e-rad'i-ka-bl, _adj._ not able to be eradicated or rooted out.--_adv._ INERAD'ICABLY. INERRABLE, in-er'a-bl, _adj._ incapable of erring.--_adv._ INERR'ABLY.--_n._ INERR'ANCY, freedom from error.--_adj._ INERR'ANT, unerring. INERT, in-[.e]rt', _adj._ dull: senseless: inactive: slow: without the power of moving itself, or of active resistance to motion: powerless.--_n._ INER'TIA, inertness: the inherent property of matter by which it tends to remain for ever at rest when still, and in motion when moving.--_adv._ INERT'LY.--_n._ INERT'NESS. [Fr.,--L. _iners_--_in_, not, _ars_, art.] INERUDITE, in-er'[=u]-d[=i]t, _adj._ not erudite: unlearned. INESCAPABLE, in-es-k[=a]'pa-bl, _adj._ not to be escaped: inevitable. INESCUTCHEON, in-es-kuch'un, _n._ (_her._) a single shield borne as a charge. INESSENTIAL, in-es-sen'shal, _adj._ not essential or necessary: immaterial. INESTIMABLE, in-es'tim-a-bl, _adj._ not able to be estimated or valued: priceless.--_adv._ INES'TIMABLY. INEUNT, in'[=e]-unt, _n._ (_math._) a point of a curve. [_Iniens_, _ineunt-is_, pr.p. of _in[=i]re_, to go in.] INEVITABLE, in-ev'it-a-bl, _adj._ not able to be evaded or avoided: that cannot be escaped: irresistible.--_n._ INEV'ITABLENESS.--_adv._ INEV'ITABLY.--THE INEVITABLE, that which is sure to happen. [Fr.,--L. _inevitabilis_--_in_, not, _evitabilis_, avoidable--_evit[=a]re_, to avoid--_e_, out of, _vit[=a]re_, to avoid.] INEXACT, in-egz-akt', _adj._ not precisely correct or true.--_ns._ INEXACT'ITUDE, INEXACT'NESS. INEXCUSABLE, in-eks-k[=u]z'a-bl, _adj._ not justifiable: unpardonable.--_ns._ INEXCUSABIL'ITY, INEXCUS'ABLENESS.--_adv._ INEXCUS'ABLY. INEXECRABLE, in-ek'se-krä-bl, _adj._ prob. for _inexorable_ in Shak., _Merchant of Venice_, IV. i. 128. INEXECUTABLE, in-ek-se-k[=u]t'a-bl, _adj._ incapable of being executed.--_n._ INEXEC[=U]'TION. INEXHAUSTED, in-egz-hawst'ed, _adj._ not exhausted or spent.--_n._ INEXHAUSTIBIL'ITY.--_adj._ INEXHAUST'IBLE, not able to be exhausted or spent: unfailing.--_adv._ INEXHAUST'IBLY.--_adj._ INEXHAUST'IVE, not to be exhausted: unfailing: not exhaustive. INEXISTENCE, in-eg-zist'ens, _n._ non-existence.--_adj._ INEXIST'ENT. INEXORABLE, in-egz'or-a-bl, _adj._ not to be moved by entreaty: unrelenting: unalterable.--_ns._ INEX'ORABLENESS, INEXORABIL'ITY.--_adv._ INEX'ORABLY.--INEXORABLE logic of facts, Mazzini's phrase for the inexorable force of circumstances, whose conclusions are beyond the reach of argument. [L.,--_in_, not, _exorabilis_--_exor[=a]re_--_ex_, out of, _or[=a]re_, to entreat.] INEXPANSIBLE, in-eks-pan'si-bl, _adj._ incapable of being expanded. INEXPECTANT, in-eks-pek'tant, _adj._ not expecting. INEXPEDIENT, in-eks-p[=e]'di-ent, _adj._ not tending to promote any end: unfit: inconvenient.--_ns._ INEXP[=E]'DIENCE, INEXP[=E]'DIENCY.--_adv._ INEXP[=E]'DIENTLY. INEXPENSIVE, in-eks-pens'iv, _adj._ of slight expense. INEXPERIENCE, in-eks-p[=e]'ri-ens, _n._ want of experience.--_adj._ INEXP[=E]'RIENCED, not having experience: unskilled or unpractised. INEXPERT, in-eks-p[.e]rt', _adj._ unskilled.--_n._ INEXPERT'NESS. INEXPIABLE, in-eks'pi-a-bl, _adj._ not able to be expiated or atoned for, implacable.--_n._ INEX'PIABLENESS.--_adv._ INEX'PIABLY. INEXPLICABLE, in-eks'pli-ka-bl, _adj._ that cannot be explained: unintelligible.--_ns._ INEXPLICABIL'ITY, INEX'PLICABLENESS.--_adv._ INEX'PLICABLY. INEXPLICIT, in-eks-plis'it, _adj._ not clear. INEXPLORABLE, in-eks-pl[=o]r'a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be explored or discovered. INEXPLOSIVE, in-eks-pl[=o]'siv, _adj._ not explosive. INEXPRESSIBLE, in-eks-pres'i-bl, _adj._ that cannot be expressed: unutterable: indescribable.--_n.pl._ (_coll._ and supposed to be _humorous_) trousers.--_adv._ INEXPRESS'IBLY.--_adj._ INEXPRESS'IVE, not expressive or significant.--_n._ INEXPRESS'IVENESS. INEXPUGNABLE, in-eks-pug'na-bl (or -p[=u]'-), _adj._ not to be overcome by force.--_adv._ INEXPUG'NABLY. INEXTENDED, in-eks-tend'ed, _adj._ not extended, without extension.--_n._ INEXTENSIBIL'ITY.--_adj._ INEXTEN'SIBLE.--_n._ INEXTEN'SION. INEXTINGUISHABLE, in-eks-ting'gwish-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be extinguished, quenched, or destroyed.--_adv._ INEXTIN'GUISHABLY. INEXTRICABLE, in-eks'tri-ka-bl, _adj._ not able to be extricated or disentangled.--_adv._ INEX'TRICABLY. INFALL, in'fal, _n._ (_Carlyle_) an inroad. INFALLIBLE, in-fal'i-bl, _adj._ incapable of error: trustworthy: certain.--_ns._ INFALL'IBILISM; INFALL'IBILIST; INFALLIBIL'ITY.--_adv._ INFALL'IBLY.--THE DOCTRINE OF INFALLIBILITY in the R.C. Church, since 1870, is that the Pope, when speaking _ex cathedrâ_, is kept from error in all that regards faith and morals. INFAMOUS, in'fa-mus, _adj._ having a reputation of the worst kind: publicly branded with guilt: notoriously vile: disgraceful.--_vs.t._ INFAME', to defame; IN'FAMISE, INFAM'ONISE (_Shak._), to defame, to brand with infamy.--_adv._ IN'FAMOUSLY.--_n._ IN'FAMY, ill fame or repute: public disgrace: extreme vileness: (_law_) a stigma attaching to the character of a person so as to disqualify him from being a witness. [Fr.,--L. _in_, not, _fama_, fame.] INFANT, in'fant, _n._ a babe: (_Eng. law_) a person under twenty-one years of age.--_adj._ belonging to infants or to infancy: tender: intended for infants.--_v.t._ (_obs._) to have as an infant: to give rise to.--_n._ IN'FANCY, the state or time of being an infant: childhood: the beginning of anything: (_Milt._) want of distinct utterance.--_adjs._ INFANTILE (in'fant-[=i]l, or -il), INFANTINE (in'fant-[=i]n, or -in), pertaining to infancy or to an infant. [L. _infans_, _-antis_--_in_, not, _fans_, _pr.p._ of _f[=a]ri_, to speak; Gr. _ph[=e]mi_.] INFANTA, in-fan'ta, _n._ a title given to any one of the legitimate daughters of the kings of Spain and Portugal, except the heiress-apparent, or to any one married to an Infante.--_n._ INFANTE (in-fan't[=a]), a title given to any one of the legitimate sons of the kings of Spain and Portugal, except the heir-apparent. [Sp. from root of _infant_.] INFANTICIDE, in-fant'i-s[=i]d, _n._ child murder; the murderer of an infant.--_adj._ INFANT'ICIDAL. [Fr.,--L. _infanticidium_--_infans_, an infant, _cæd[)e]re_, to kill.] INFANTRY, in'fant-ri, _n._ foot-soldiers. [Fr. _infanterie_--It. _infanteria_--_infante_, _fante_, a child, a servant, a foot-soldier--L. _infantem_, _infans_.] INFATUATE, in-fat'[=u]-[=a]t, _v.t._ to make foolish: to affect with folly: to deprive of judgment: to inspire with foolish passion: to stupefy.--_adj._ infatuated or foolish.--_n._ INFATU[=A]'TION. [L. _infatu[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_in_, in, _fatuus_, foolish.] INFAUST, in-fawst', _adj._ unlucky: unfortunate. [L. _infaustus_--_in_, not, _faustus_, propitious.] INFEASIBLE, in-f[=e]z'i-bl, _adj._ not feasible: that cannot be done or accomplished.--_n._ INFEASIBIL'ITY, the state of being infeasible or impracticable. INFECT, in-fekt', _v.t._ to taint, especially with disease: to corrupt: to poison.--_adj._ (_Shak._) tainted.--_n._ INFEC'TION, act of infecting: that which infects or taints.--_adjs._ INFEC'TIOUS, INFECT'IVE, having the quality of infecting: corrupting: apt to spread.--_adv._ INFEC'TIOUSLY.--_n._ INFEC'TIOUSNESS. [Fr.,--L. _infic[)e]re_, _infectum_--_in_, into _fac[)e]re_, to make.] INFECUNDITY, in-fe-kun'di-ti, _n._ want of fecundity or fertility: unfruitfulness.--_adj._ INFEC'UND. INFEFTMENT, in-feft'ment, _n._ a Scotch law term, used to denote the symbolical giving possession of land, which was the completion of the title.--INFEFF'=ENFEOFF. INFELICITOUS, in-fe-lis'i-tus, _adj._ not felicitous or happy: inappropriate, inapt.--_n._ INFELIC'ITY, want of felicity or happiness, misery, misfortune: unsuitableness: anything unsuitable or improper. INFELONIOUS, in-fe-l[=o]'ni-us, _adj._ not felonious. INFELT, in'felt, _adj._ felt deeply, heart-felt. INFER, in-f[.e]r', _v.t._ to deduce, to derive, as a consequence: to prove or imply.--_v.i._ to conclude:--_pr.p._ infer'ring; _pa.p._ inferred'.--_adjs._ INFER'ABLE, INFER'RIBLE, that may be inferred or deduced.--_n._ IN'FERENCE, that which is inferred or deduced: the act of drawing a conclusion from premises, conclusion, consequence.--_adj._ INFEREN'TIAL, deducible or deduced by inference.--_adv._ INFEREN'TIALLY. [Fr.,--L. _inferre_--_in_, into, _ferre_, to bring.] INFERIÆ, in-f[=e]'ri-[=e], _n.pl._ offerings to the manes of the dead. [L.] INFERIOR, in-f[=e]'ri-ur, _adj._ lower in any respect: subordinate: secondary.--_n._ one lower in rank or station: one younger than another.--_n._ INFERIOR'ITY, the state of being inferior: a lower position in any respect.--_adv._ INF[=E]'RIORLY, in an inferior manner. [L. _inferior_, comp. of _inferus_, low.] INFERNAL, in-f[.e]r'nal, _adj._ belonging to the lower regions: resembling or suitable to hell, devilish: outrageous.--_n._ INFERNAL'ITY.--_adv._ INFER'NALLY.--_n._ INFER'NO (_It._), hell, the title and the subject of one of the divisions of Dante's great poem, _La Divina Commedia_.--INFERNAL MACHINE, a contrivance made to resemble some ordinary harmless object, but charged with a dangerous explosive. [Fr.,--L. _infernus_--_inferus_.] INFERTILE, in-f[.e]r-til, _adj._ not productive: barren.--_n._ INFERTIL'ITY. INFEST, in-fest', _v.t._ to disturb: to harass.--_adj._ (_Spens._) hostile: troublesome.--_n._ INFEST[=A]'TION (_Milt._), molestation. [Fr.,--L. _infest[=a]re_, from _infestus_, hostile, from _in_ and an old verb _fendere_, to strike, found in _of-fend[)e]re_, _de-fend[)e]re_.] INFEUDATION, in-f[=u]-d[=a]'shun, _n._ the putting of an estate in fee: the granting of tithes to laymen. INFIBULATE, in-fib'[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to clasp with a padlock.--_n._ INFIBUL[=A]'TION, act of confining, esp. the sexual organs. INFIDEL, in'fi-del, _adj._ unbelieving: sceptical: disbelieving Christianity.--_n._ one who rejects Christianity as a divine revelation, but the word is not used of heathens.--_n._ INFIDEL'ITY, want of faith or belief: disbelief in Christianity: unfaithfulness, esp. to the marriage contract: treachery. [Fr.,--L. _infidelis_--_in_, not, _fidelis_, faithful--_fides_, faith.] INFIELD, in'f[=e]ld, _n._ in base-ball, the space enclosed within the base-lines: (_Scot._) land under tillage:--opp. to _Outfield_.--_v.t._ to enclose. INFIGHTING, in'f[=i]t-ing, _n._ boxing at close quarters when blows from the shoulder cannot be given. INFILTRATE, in-fil'tr[=a]t, _v.t._ to enter a substance by filtration, or through its pores.--_v.t._ INFIL'TER, to filter or sift in.--_n._ INFILTR[=A]'TION, the process of infiltrating, or the substance infiltrated. INFINITE, in'fin-it, _adj._ without end or limit: without bounds: (_math._) either greater or smaller than any quantity that can be assigned.--_n._ that which is not only without determinate bounds, but which cannot possibly admit of bound or limit: the Absolute, the Infinite Being or God.--_adjs._ INFIN'ITANT, denoting merely negative attribution; INFIN'ITARY, pertaining to infinity.--_v.t._ INFIN'IT[=A]TE, to make infinite.--_adv._ IN'FINITELY.--_n._ IN'FINITENESS, the state of being infinite: immensity.--_adj._ INFINITES'IMAL, infinitely small.--_n._ an infinitely small quantity.--_adv._ INFINITES'IMALLY.--_adj._ INFINI'TO (_mus._), perpetual.--_ns._ INFIN'IT[=U]DE, INFIN'ITY, boundlessness: immensity: countless or indefinite number. INFINITIVE, in-fin'it-iv, _adj._ (_lit._) unlimited, unrestricted: (_gram._) the mood of the verb which expresses the idea without person or number.--_adj._ INFINIT[=I]'VAL.--_adv._ INFIN'ITIVELY. [Fr.,--L. _infinitivus_.] INFIRM, in-f[.e]rm', _adj._ feeble: sickly: weak: not solid: irresolute: imbecile.--_ns._ INFIRM[=A]'RIAN, an officer in a monastery having charge of the quarters for the sick; INFIRM'ARY, a hospital or place for the treatment of the sick; INFIRM'ITY, disease: failing: defect: imbecility.--_adv._ INFIRM'LY. [O. Fr.,--L. _infirmus_--_in_, not, _firmus_, strong.] INFIX, in-fiks', _v.t._ to fix in: to drive or fasten in: to set in by piercing. [O. Fr.,--L. _infixus_--_in_, in, _fig[)e]re_, _fixum_, to fix.] INFLAME, in-fl[=a]m', _v.t._ to cause to flame: to cause to burn: to excite: to increase: to exasperate.--_v.i._ to become hot, painful, or angry.--_ns._ INFLAMMABIL'ITY, INFLAM'MABLENESS, the quality of being inflammable.--_adj._ INFLAM'MABLE, that may be burned: combustible: easily kindled or excited.--_adv._ INFLAM'MABLY.--_n._ INFLAMM[=A]'TION, state of being in flame: heat of a part of the body, with pain, redness, and swelling: violent excitement: heat.--_adj._ INFLAM'MATORY, tending to inflame: inflaming: exciting. [O. Fr.,--L. _inflamm[=a]re_--_in_, into, _flamma_, a flame.] INFLATE, in-fl[=a]t', _v.t._ to swell with air: to puff up, elate.--_adj._ INFLAT'ED, swollen or blown out: turgid.--_adv._ INFLAT'INGLY.--_ns._ INFL[=A]'TION, state of being puffed up; INFL[=A]'TUS, a breathing into: inspiration. [L. _infl[=a]re_, -_[=a]tum_--_in_, into, _fl[=a]re_, to blow.] INFLECT, in-flekt', _v.t._ to bend in: to turn from a direct line or course: to modulate, as the voice: (_gram._) to vary in the terminations.--_ns._ INFLEC'TION, INFLEX'ION, a bending or deviation: modulation of the voice: (_gram._) the varying in termination to express the relations of case, number, gender, person, tense, &c.--_adjs._ INFLEC'TIONAL, INFLEX'IONAL; INFLEC'TIONLESS, INFLEX'IONLESS; INFLECT'IVE, subject to inflection; INFLEXED', bent inward: bent: turned.--_ns._ INFLEXIBIL'ITY, INFLEX'IBLENESS.--_adj._ INFLEX'IBLE, that cannot be bent: unyielding: unbending.--_adv._ INFLEX'IBLY.--_n._ INFLEX'URE, a bend or fold. [L. _inflect[)e]re_--_in_, in, _flect[)e]re_, _flexum_, to bend.] INFLICT, in-flikt', _v.t._ to lay on: to impose, as punishment.--_n._ INFLIC'TION, act of inflicting or imposing: punishment applied.--_adj._ INFLICT'IVE, tending or able to inflict. [L. _inflictus_, _inflig[)e]re_--_in_, against, _flig[)e]re_, to strike.] INFLORESCENCE, in-flor-es'ens, _n._ character or mode of flowering of a plant. [Fr.,--L. _inflorescens_--_infloresc[)e]re_, to begin to blossom.] INFLOW, in'fl[=o], _n._ the act of flowing in or into, influx. INFLUENCE, in'fl[=oo]-ens, _n._ power exerted on men or things: power in operation: authority.--_v.t._ to affect: to move: to direct.--_adj._ INFLUEN'TIAL, having or exerting influence or power over.--_adv._ INFLUEN'TIALLY. [Orig. a term in astrology, the power or virtue supposed to flow from planets upon men and things; O. Fr.,--Low L. _influentia_--L. _in_, into, _flu[)e]re_, to flow.] INFLUENT, in'fl[=oo]-ent, _adj._ flowing in. INFLUENZA, in-fl[=oo]-en'za, _n._ a severe epidemic catarrh, accompanied with weakening fever. [It.,--L., a by-form of _influence_.] INFLUX, in'fluks, _n._ a flowing in: infusion: abundant accession.--_n._ INFLUX'ION, infusion. [L. _influxus_--_influ[)e]re_.] INFOLD. See ENFOLD. INFORM, in-form', _v.t._ to give form to: to animate or give life to: to impart knowledge to: to tell: (_Milt._) to direct.--_v.i._ (_Shak._) to take shape or form: to give information (with _against_ or _on_).--_adj._ INFORM'AL, not in proper form: irregular.--_n._ INFORMAL'ITY.--_adv._ INFORM'ALLY.--_ns._ INFORM'ANT, one who informs or gives intelligence; INFORM[=A]'TION, intelligence given: knowledge: an accusation given to a magistrate or court.--_adjs._ INFORM'ATIVE, having power to form: instructive; INFORM'ATORY, instructive; INFORMED' (_Spens._), unformed: (_astron._) of stars not included within the figures of any of the ancient constellations.--_n._ INFORM'ER, one who informs against another. [O. Fr.,--L. _inform[=a]re_--_in_, into, _form[=a]re_, to form.] INFORMIDABLE, in-for'mi-da-bl, _adj._ (_Milt._) not formidable. INFORTUNE, in-for't[=u]n, _n._ misfortune. INFRACOSTAL, in-fra-kos'tal, _adj._ situated beneath the ribs. INFRACTION, in-frak'shun, _n._ violation, esp. of law: breach.--_v.t._ INFRACT', to break off.--_n._ INFRAC'TOR, one who infracts. [L.,--_in_, in, _frang[)e]re_, _fractum_, to break.] INFRAGRANT, in-fr[=a]'grant, _adj._ not fragrant. INFRAHUMAN, in-fra-h[=u]'man, _adj._ having qualities lower than human. INFRALAPSARIANISM, in-frä-lap-s[=a]'ri-an-izm, _n._ (_theol._) the common Augustinian and Calvinist doctrine, that God for His own glory determined to create the world, to permit the fall of men, to elect from the mass of fallen men an innumerable multitude as 'vessels of mercy,' to send His Son for their redemption, to leave the residue of mankind to suffer the just punishment of their sins--distinct both from the _Supralapsarianism_ of the strictest Calvinists and the _Sublapsarianism_ held by moderate Calvinists.--_n._ INFRALAPS[=A]'RIAN, one who holds the foregoing. [L. _infra_, below, after, _lapsus_, the fall.] INFRAMAXILLARY, in-fra-mak'si-la-ri, _adj._ situated under the jaw: belonging to the lower jaw. INFRAMUNDANE, in-fra-mun'd[=a]n, _adj._ lying or being beneath the world. [L. _infra_, beneath, _mundus_, the world.] INFRANGIBLE, in-fran'ji-bl, _adj._ that cannot be broken: not to be violated.--_ns._ INFRANGIBIL'ITY, INFRAN'GIBLENESS. INFRAORBITAL, in-fra-or'bi-tal, _adj._ situated below the orbit of the eye. INFRASCAPULAR, in-fra-skap'[=u]-lar, _adj._ situated below the scapula. INFREQUENT, in-fr[=e]'kwent, _adj._ seldom occurring: rare: uncommon.--_ns._ INFR[=E]'QUENCE, INFR[=E]'QUENCY.--_adv._ INFR[=E]'QUENTLY. INFRINGE, in-frinj', _v.t._ to violate, esp. law: to neglect to obey.--_n._ INFRINGE'MENT, breach: violation: non-fulfilment. [L. _infring[)e]re_--_in_, in, _frang[)e]re_.] INFRUCTUOUS, in-fruk't[=u]-us, _adj._ not fruitful.--_adv._ INFRUC'TUOUSLY. INFULA, in'f[=u]-la, _n._ a white-and-red fillet or band of woollen stuff, worn upon the forehead, as a sign of religious consecration and of inviolability: a lappet in a mitre:--_pl._ IN'FULÆ ([=e]). [L.] INFUMATION, in-f[=u]m-[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of drying in smoke.--_v.t._ IN'FUMATE. [L. _infum[=a]re_, -_[=a]tum_--_in_, in, _fum[=a]re_, to smoke--_fumus_, smoke.] INFUNDIBULAR, in-fun-dib'[=u]-lar, _adj._ having the form of a funnel.--Also INFUNDIB'ULATE, INFUNDIB'ULIFORM. [L. _in_, in, _fund[)e]re_, to pour.] INFURIATE, in-f[=u]'ri-[=a]t, _v.t._ to enrage: to madden.--_adj._ enraged: mad. [L. _in_, in, _furi[=a]re_, -_[=a]tum_, to madden--_fur[)e]re_, to rave.] INFUSCATE, in-fus'k[=a]t, _adj._ clouded with brown. INFUSE, in-f[=u]z', _v.t._ to pour into: to inspire with: to introduce: to steep in liquor without boiling: (_Shak._) to shed, pour.--_n._ (_Spens._) infusion.--_adj._ INFUS'IBLE.--_n._ INF[=U]'SION, the pouring of water over any substance, in order to extract its active qualities: a solution in water of an organic, esp. a vegetable, substance: the liquor so obtained: inspiration: instilling.--_adj._ INFUS'IVE, having the power of infusion, or of being infused. [L. _infund[)e]re_, _infusum_--_in_, into, _fund[)e]re_, _fusum_, to pour.] INFUSIBLE, in-f[=u]z'i-bl, _adj._ that cannot be dissolved or melted. INFUSORIA, in-f[=u]-s[=o]'ri-a, _n.pl._ a name given to several classes of active Protozoa, some of which appear in great numbers in stagnant infusions of animal or vegetable material.--_adjs._ INFUS[=O]'RIAL, INF[=U]'SORY, composed of or containing infusoria.--_n._ and _adj._ INFUS[=O]'RIAN.--INFUSORIAL EARTH, a siliceous deposit formed chiefly of the frustates of Diatoms--used as _Tripoli powder_ for polishing purposes. [L.] INGATE, in'g[=a]t, _n._ (_Spens._) a way in, entrance. INGATHERING, in'gä_th_-[.e]r-ing, _n._ the collecting and securing of the fruits of the earth: harvest.--FEAST OF INGATHERING (see TABERNACLES, FEAST OF). INGEMINATE, in-jem'in-[=a]t, _v.t._ to repeat.--_n._ INGEMIN[=A]'TION. [L. _ingemin[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_in_, in, _geminus_, twin.] INGENER, in-j[=e]'n[.e]r, _n._ (_Shak._) an ingenious person: a contriver: a designer. INGENERATE, in-jen'[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.t._ to generate or produce within.--_adj._ inborn: innate. INGENIOUS, in-j[=e]'ni-us, _adj._ of good natural abilities: skilful in inventing: witty.--_adv._ ING[=E]'NIOUSLY.--_ns._ ING[=E]'NIOUSNESS, INGEN[=U]'ITY, power of ready invention: facility in combining ideas: curiousness in design; ING[=E]'NIUM, bent of mind. [L. _ingeniosus_--_ingenium_, mother-wit, from _in_, and _gen_, root of _gign[)e]re_, to beget.] INGENUOUS, in-jen'[=u]-us, _adj._ frank: honourable: free from deception.--_adv._ INGEN'UOUSLY--_n._ INGEN'UOUSNESS. [L. _ingenuus_.] INGEST, in-jest', _v.t._ to throw into the stomach.--_n.pl._ INGEST'A, substances introduced into an organic body.--_n._ INGEST'ION:--opp. to _Egestion_. INGLE, ing'gl, _n._ (_Scot._) a fire: fireplace.--_ns._ ING'LE-CHEEK, ING'LESIDE (_Scot._), a fireside. [Gael. _aingeal_; but prob. L.--_igniculus_, dim. of _ignis_, fire.] INGLE, ing'gl, _n._ a familiar friend. [Origin obscure.] INGLOBE, in-gl[=o]b', _v.t._ (_Milt._) to encircle: involve.--_adj._ INGLOB'[=A]TE, in the form of a globe or sphere. INGLORIOUS, in-gl[=o]'ri-us, _adj._ not glorious: without honour: shameful.--_adv._ INGL[=O]'RIOUSLY.--_n._ INGL[=O]'RIOUSNESS. INGLUVIES, in-gl[=oo]'vi-[=e]z, _n._ the crop or craw of birds.--_adj._ INGLU'VIAL. [L.] INGOING, in'-g[=o]-ing, _n._ a going in: entrance.--_adj._ going in: entering as an occupant. INGOT, in'got, _n._ a mass of unwrought metal, esp. gold or silver, cast in a mould. [A.S. _in_, in, and _goten_, pa.p. of _geótan_, to pour; Ger. _giessen_, Goth. _giutan._ The Ger. _einguss_ is an exact parallel to _ingot_.] INGRAFT. See ENGRAFT. INGRAIN, in'gr[=a]n', _v.t._ the same as ENGRAIN.--_adj._ dyed in the yarn or thread before manufacture. INGRATE, in'gr[=a]t, _n._ (_Milt._) one who is ungrateful.--_adj._ INGRATE'FUL, unthankful. INGRATIATE, in-gr[=a]'shi-[=a]t, _v.t._ to commend to grace or favour (used reflexively, and followed by with): to secure the good-will of another. [L. _in_, into, _gratia_, favour.] INGRATITUDE, in-grat'i-t[=u]d, _n._ unthankfulness: the return of evil for good. [Low L. _ingratitudo_--L. _ingratus_, unthankful.] INGREDIENT, in-gr[=e]'di-ent, _n._ that which enters into compound: a component part of anything. [Fr.,--L. _ingrediens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _ingredi_--_in_, into, _gradi_, to enter.] INGRESS, in'gres, _n._ entrance: power, right, or means of entrance.--_n._ INGRESS'ION. [L. _ingressus_--_ingredi_.] INGROOVE. See ENGROOVE. INGROSS, in-gr[=o]s', _v.t._ (_Shak._). Same as ENGROSS. INGROWING, in'gr[=o]-ing, _adj._ growing inward.--_n._ IN'GROWTH. INGUILTY, in-gilt'i, _adj._ (_Shak._) not guilty. INGUINAL, ing'gwin-al, _adj._ relating to the groin. [L. _inguinalis_--_inguen_, _inguinus_, the groin.] INGULF. See ENGULF. INGURGITATE, in-gur'ji-t[=a]t, _v.t._ to swallow up greedily, as in a gulf.--_n._ INGURGIT[=A]'TION. [L. _ingurgit[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_in_, into, _gurges_, a whirlpool.] INHABIT, in-hab'it, _v.t._ to dwell in: to occupy.--_v.i._ (_Shak._) to dwell.--_adj._ INHAB'ITABLE, that may be inhabited.--_ns._ INHAB'ITANCE, INHAB'ITANCY, the act of inhabiting: actual residence; INHAB'ITANT, one who inhabits: a resident.--_adj._ resident.--_ns._ INHABIT[=A]'TION, the act of inhabiting: dwelling-place: (_Milt._) population; INHAB'ITER (_B._), an inhabitant; INHAB'ITIVENESS, love of locality and home; INHAB'ITRESS, a female inhabitant. [Fr.,--L., from _in_, in, _habit[=a]re_, to dwell.] INHALE, in-h[=a]l', _v.t._ to draw in the breath, to draw into the lungs, as air.--_adjs._ INH[=A]'LANT, INH[=A]'LENT.--_ns._ INHAL[=A]'TION, the drawing into the lungs, as air, or fumes; INHAL'ER. [L. _inhal[=a]re_, to breathe upon--_in_, upon, _hal[=a]re_, to breathe.] INHARMONIOUS, in-har-m[=o]'ni-us, _adj._ discordant, unmusical.--_adjs._ INHARMON'IC, -AL, wanting harmony: inharmonious.--_adv._ INHARM[=O]'NIOUSLY.--_ns._ INHARM[=O]'NIOUSNESS; INHAR'MONY, want of harmony. INHAUST, in'häst, _v.t._ (_humorous_) to drink in. [L. _in_, in, _haur[=i]re_, _haustum_, to draw.] INHEARSE, in-h[.e]rs'; _v.t._ (_Shak._) to enclose in a hearse, to bury. INHERE, in-h[=e]r', _v.i._ to stick fast: to remain firm in.--_ns._ INHER'ENCE, INHER'ENCY, a sticking fast: existence in something else: a fixed state of being in another body or substance.--_adj._ INHER'ENT, sticking fast: existing in and inseparable from something else: innate: natural.--_adv._ INHER'ENTLY. [L. _inhær[=e]re_--_in_, in, _hær[=e]re_, to stick.] INHERIT, in-her'it, _v.t._ to take as heir or by descent from an ancestor: to possess.--_v.i._ to enjoy, as property.--_adj._ INHER'ITABLE, same as HERITABLE.--_ns._ INHER'ITANCE, that which is or may be inherited: an estate derived from an ancestor: hereditary descent: natural gift: possession; INHER'ITOR, one who inherits or may inherit: an heir:--_fem._ INHER'ITRESS, INHER'ITRIX. [O. Fr. _enhériter_--Low L. _heredit[=a]re_, to inherit--L. _in_, in, _heres_, an heir.] INHESION, in-h[=e]'zhun. Same as INHERENCE. INHIBIT, in-hib'it, _v.t._ to hold in or back: to keep back: to check.--_n._ INHIBI'TION, the act of inhibiting or restraining: the state of being inhibited: prohibition: a writ from a higher court to an inferior judge to stay proceedings.--_adj._ INHIB'ITORY, prohibitory. [L. _inhib[=e]re_, _-hibitum_--_in_, in, _hab[=e]re_, to have.] INHOLDER, in-h[=o]ld'[.e]r, _n._ (_Spens._) an inhabitant. INHOOP, in-h[=oo]p', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to confine, as in a hoop or enclosure. INHOSPITABLE, in-hos'pit-a-bl, _adj._ affording no kindness to strangers.--_ns._ INHOS'PITABLENESS, INHOSPITAL'ITY, want of hospitality or courtesy to strangers.--_adv._ INHOS'PITABLY. INHUMAN, in-h[=u]'man, _adj._ barbarous: cruel: unfeeling.--_n._ INHUMAN'ITY, the state of being inhuman: barbarity: cruelty.--_adv._ INH[=U]'MANLY. INHUME, in-h[=u]m', _v.t._ to inter.--_n._ INHUM[=A]'TION, the act of depositing in the ground: burial. [L. _inhum[=a]re_--_in_, in, _humus_, the ground.] INIMICAL, in-im'i-kal, _adj._ like an enemy, not friendly: contrary: repugnant.--_adv._ INIM'ICALLY. [L. _inimicalis_--_inimicus_--_in_, not, _amicus_, friendly.] INIMITABLE, in-im'it-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be imitated: surpassingly excellent.--_ns._ INIMITABIL'ITY, INIM'ITABLENESS, the quality of being inimitable.--_adv._ INIM'ITABLY. INION, in'i-on, _n._ the external occipital protuberance:--_pl._ IN'IA. [Gr.] INIQUITY, in-ik'wi-ti, _n._ want of equity or fairness: injustice: wickedness: a crime: one of the names of the Vice, the established buffoon of the old Moralities.--_adj._ INIQ'UITOUS, unjust: unreasonable: wicked.--_adv._ INIQ'UITOUSLY. [Fr.,--L. _iniquitatem_--_iniquus_, unequal--_in_, not, _æquus_, equal.] INITIAL, in-ish'al, _adj._ commencing: placed at the beginning.--_n._ the letter beginning a word, esp. a name.--_v.t._ to put the initials of one's name to:--_pr.p._ init'ialing (-alling); _pa.p._ init'ialed (-alled).--_v.t._ INIT'I[=A]TE, to make a beginning: to instruct in principles: to acquaint with: to introduce into a new state or society.--_v.i._ to perform the first act or rite.--_n._ one who is initiated.--_adj._ fresh: unpractised.--_n._ INITI[=A]'TION, act or process of initiating: act of admitting to any society, by instructing in its rules and ceremonies.--_adj._ INIT'I[=A]TIVE, serving to initiate: introductory.--_n._ an introductory step: the power or right of commencing.--_adj._ INIT'I[=A]TORY, tending to initiate: introductory.--_n._ introductory rite. [L. _initialis_--_initium_, a beginning, _in[=i]re_, _in[=i]tum_--_in_, into, _[=i]re_, _[=i]tum_, to go.] INJECT, in-jekt', _v.t._ to throw into: to cast on: to make to pass in or into.--_ns._ INJEC'TION, act of injecting or throwing in or into: the act of filling the vessels of an animal body with any liquid: a liquid to be injected into any part of the body; INJEC'TOR, one who injects: something used for injecting, especially an apparatus by which a stream of water is forced into a steam-boiler. [L. _injic[)e]re_, _injectum_--_in_, into, _jac[)e]re_, to throw.] INJELLY, in-jel'i, _v.t._ (_Tenn._) to place, as if in jelly. INJOINT, in-joint', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to join. INJUDICIOUS, in-j[=oo]-dish'us, _adj._ void of or wanting in judgment: imprudent: inconsiderate.--_adj._ INJUDIC'IAL, not according to law-forms.--_adv._ INJUDIC'IOUSLY.--_n._ INJUDIC'IOUSNESS. INJUNCTION, in-jungk'shun, _n._ act of enjoining or commanding: an order: a precept: exhortation: an introductory writ by which a superior court stops or prevents some inequitable or illegal act being done--called in Scotland an _interdict_: (_Milt._) conjunction. [Low L. _injunction-em_--_in_, in, _jung[)e]re_, _junctum_, to join.] INJURE, in'j[=oo]r, _v.t._ to wrong, harm: to damage: to annoy.--_n._ IN'JURER, one who injures.--_adj._ INJU'RIOUS, tending to injure: unjust: wrongful: mischievous: damaging reputation.--_adv._ INJU'RIOUSLY.--_ns._ INJU'RIOUSNESS; IN'JURY, that which injures: wrong: mischief: annoyance: (_Pr. Bk._) insult, offence. [Fr. _injurier_--L. _injuri[=a]ri_--_injuria_, injury--_in_, not, _jus_, _juris_, law.] INJUSTICE, in-jus'tis, _n._ violation or withholding of another's rights or dues: wrong: iniquity. INK, ingk, _n._ a coloured fluid used in writing, printing, &c.--_v.t._ to daub with ink.--_ns._ INK'-BAG, -SAC, a sac in some cuttle-fishes, containing a black viscid fluid; INK'-BOTT'LE, an inkstand: a bottle for holding ink placed in an inkstand; INK'HOLDER, INK'STAND, a vessel for holding ink; INK'HORN (_obs._), an inkholder, formerly of horn: a portable case for ink, &c.; INK'HORN-MATE (_Shak._), a bookish man; INK'INESS; INK'-POT, an inkholder.--_adj._ pedantic.--_ns._ INK'ING-TA'BLE, a table or flat surface used for supplying the inking-roller with ink during the process of printing; INK'ING-ROLL'ER, a roller covered with a composition for inking printing types; INK'-STONE, a kind of stone containing sulphate of iron, used in making ink.--_adj._ INK'Y, consisting of or resembling ink: blackened with ink.--_n._ PRINT'ING-INK (see PRINT).--CHINA INK, INDIAN INK, a mechanical mixture of the purest and densest lampblack, with a solution of gum or gelatine; INVISIBLE or SYMPATHETIC INK, a kind of ink which remains invisible on the paper until it is heated.--SLING INK (_slang_), to write: to earn one's bread by writing. [O. Fr. _enque_ (Fr. _encre_)--Low L. _encaustum_, the purple-red ink used by the later Roman emperors--Gr. _engkauston_--_engkaiein_, to burn in. See ENCAUSTIC.] INKLE, ingk'l, _n._ (_Shak._) a kind of broad linen tape. [M. E. _liniolf_, _inniolf_, allied to O. Fr. _lignel_, shoemakers' thread, _ligne_, thread--L. _linea_, _linum_, flax.] INKLING, ingk'ling, _n._ a hint or whisper: intimation.--_v.i._ INK'LE, to have a hint of. [M. E. _inclen_, to hint at, which Skeat suspects to be corrupted from Dan. _ymte_, to mutter; cf. Ice. _ym-ta_, to mutter; ultimately imitative.] IN-KNEED, in'-n[=e]d, _adj._ knock-kneed. INLACE, in-l[=a]s', _v.t._ to embellish, as with lace: to lace. INLAND, in'land, _n._ the interior part of a country.--_adj._ remote from the sea: carried on or produced within a country: confined to a country: (_Shak._) refined, polished.--_n._ IN'LANDER, one who lives inland.--INLAND NAVIGATION, passage of boats or vessels on rivers, lakes, or canals within a country; INLAND REVENUE, internal revenue, derived from excise, stamps, income-tax, &c. [A.S. _inland_, a domain--_in_ and _land_.] INLAY, in-l[=a]', _v.t._ to ornament by laying in or inserting pieces of metal, ivory, &c.--_pa.p._ INLAID'.--_n._ pieces of metal, ivory, &c. for inlaying.--_ns._ INLAY'ER; INLAY'ING. INLET, in'let, _n._ a passage by which one is let in: place of ingress: a small bay. INLOCK, in-lok', _v.t._ Same as ENLOCK. INLY, in'li, _adj._ inward: secret.--_adv._ inwardly: in the heart. INMATE, in'm[=a]t, _n._ one who lodges in the same house with another: a lodger: one received into a hospital, &c.--_adj._ dwelling in the same place. INMEATS, in'm[=e]ts, _n.pl._ the entrails. INMOST. See INNERMOST. INN, in, _n._ a public house for the lodging and entertainment of travellers: a hotel, tavern: (_obs._) a lodging, a place of abode.--_ns._ INN'-HOLD'ER (_Bacon_), one who keeps an inn; INN'KEEPER, one who keeps an inn.--INNS OF COURT, the name given to the four voluntary societies which have the exclusive right of calling persons to the English bar (Inner Temple, Middle Temple, Lincoln's Inn, and Gray's Inn). [A.S. _in_, _inn_, an inn, house--_in_, _inn_, within (_adv._), from the prep. _in_, in.] INNATE, in'[=a]t, or in-n[=a]t', _adj._ inborn: natural to the mind, instinctive, inherent.--_adv._ INN'ATELY.--_n._ INN'ATENESS.--_adj._ INN[=A]'TIVE, native.--INNATE IDEAS, _a priori_ principles of knowledge and of action, the word 'innate' implying that the power of recognising such principles is provided for in the constitution of the mind. [L. _inn[=a]tus_--_innasci_--_in_, in, _nasci_, to be born.] INNAVIGABLE, in-nav'i-ga-bl, _adj._ impassable by ships.--_adv._ INNAV'IGABLY. INNER, in'[.e]r, _adj._ (comp. of _in_) farther in: interior.--_adjs._ INN'ERMOST, IN'MOST (superl. of _in_), farthest in: most remote from the outward part.--_adv._ INN'ERMOSTLY. [A.S. _in_, comp. _innera_, superl. _innemest_--_inne-m-est_--thus a double superlative.] INNERVATE, in-[.e]rv'[=a]t, _v.t._ to supply with force or nervous energy--also INNERVE'.--_n._ INNERV[=A]'TION, special mode of activity inherent in the nervous structure: nervous activity. INNING, in'ing, _n._ the ingathering of grain: turn for using the bat in cricket (in this sense used only in the plural): the time during which a person or party is in possession of anything: (_pl._) lands recovered from the sea.--GOOD INNINGS, or LONG INNINGS, good luck, or a long run of such. [A verbal noun from old verb to _inn_--i.e. to house corn, from noun _inn_.] INNOCENT, in'o-sent, _adj._ not hurtful: inoffensive: blameless: pure: lawful: simple, imbecile.--_n._ one free from fault: an idiot.--_ns._ INN'OCENCE, harmlessness: blamelessness: purity: artlessness: integrity: imbecility: absence of legal guilt; INN'OCENCY, the quality of being innocent.--_adv._ INN'OCENTLY.--INNOCENTS' DAY (see CHILDERMAS). [O. Fr.,--L. _innocens_, _-entis_--_in_, not, _noc[=e]re_, to hurt.] INNOCUOUS, in-nok'[=u]-us, _adj._ not hurtful: harmless in effects.--_adv._ INNOC'UOUSLY.--_ns._ INNOC'UOUSNESS, INNOC[=U]'ITY, the state of being innocuous. [L. _innocuus_--_in_, not, _nocuus_, hurtful--_noc[=e]re_, to hurt.] INNOMINATE, i-nom'i-n[=a]t, _adj._ having no name.--_adj._ INNOM'INABLE, unnamable.--_n.pl._ trousers.--INNOMINATE ARTERY, the first large branch given off from the arch of the Aorta (q.v.); INNOMINATE BONE (_os innominatum_), the haunch-bone, hip-bone. [L. _in_, not, _nomin[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to name.] INNOVATE, in'o-v[=a]t, _v.t._ to introduce something new.--_v.i._ to introduce novelties: to make changes.--_ns._ INNOV[=A]'TION; INNOV[=A]'TIONIST; INN'OVATOR. [L. _innov[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_in_, in, _novus_, new.] INNOXIOUS, in-nok'shus, _adj._ same as INNOCUOUS.--_adv._ INNOX'IOUSLY.--_n._ INNOX'IOUSNESS, the quality of being innocuous. INNUENDO, in-[=u]-en'd[=o], _n._ a side-hint: an indirect reference or intimation: a part of a pleading in cases of libel and slander, pointing out what and who was meant by the libellous matter or description, [L., the ablative gerund of _innu[)e]re_--_in_, in, _nu[)e]re_, to nod.] INNUMERABLE, in-n[=u]'m[.e]r-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be numbered: countless.--_ns._ INN[=U]MERABIL'ITY, the state or quality of being innumerable; INN[=U]'MERABLENESS.--_adv._ INN[=U]'MERABLY.--_adj._ INN[=U]'MEROUS, without number: innumerable. INNUTRITION, in-n[=u]-trish'un, _n._ want of nutrition: failure of nourishment.--_adj._ INNUTRIT'IOUS, not nutritious: without nourishment. INOBSERVANT, in-ob-z[.e]r'vant, _adj._ not observant: heedless.--_adj._ INOBSER'VABLE, incapable of being observed.--_ns._ INOBSER'VANCE, lack of observance; INOBSERV[=A]'TION. INOBTRUSIVE, in-ob-tr[=oo]'siv, _adj._ unobtrusive.--_adv._ INOBTRU'SIVELY.--_n._ INOBTRU'SIVENESS. INOCULATE, in-ok'[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to insert a bud for propagation: to engraft: to communicate disease by inserting matter in the skin.--_v.i._ to propagate by budding: to practise inoculation.--_adj._ INOC'ULABLE.--_n._ INOCUL[=A]'TION, act or practice of inoculating: insertion of the buds of one plant into another: the communication of disease to a healthy subject by the introduction of a specific germ or animal poison into his system by puncture or otherwise.--_adjs._ INOCUL[=A]'TIVE, INOCUL[=A]'TORY.--_n._ INOC'ULATOR. [L. _inocul[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_in_, into, _oculus_, an eye.] INODOROUS, in-[=o]'dur-us, _adj._ without smell. INOFFENSIVE, in-of-fen'siv, _adj._ giving no offence: harmless: not unpleasing.--_adv._ INOFFEN'SIVELY.--_n._ INOFFEN'SIVENESS. INOFFICIAL, in-of-fish'al, _adj._ not proceeding from the proper officer: without the usual forms of authority.--_adv._ INOFFIC'IALLY.--_adj._ INOFFIC'IOUS (_rare_), regardless of duty. INOPERATIVE, in-op'[.e]r-a-tiv, _adj._ not in action: producing no effect. INOPPORTUNE, in-op-por-t[=u]n', _adj._ unseasonable in time.--_adv._ INOPPORTUNE'LY.--_n._ INOPPORT[=U]N'ITY. INORB, in-orb', _v.t._ to form as an orb. INORDINATE, in-or'di-n[=a]t, _adj._ beyond usual bounds: irregular: immoderate.--_ns._ INOR'DINACY, INOR'DINATENESS.--_adv._ INOR'DINATELY.--_n._ INORDIN[=A]'TION, deviation from rule: irregularity. [L. _inordinatus_--_in_, not, _ordin[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to arrange.] INORGANIC, in-or-gan'ik, _adj._ without life or organisation, as minerals, &c.: of accidental origin, not normally developed.--_adv._ INORGAN'ICALLY.--_n._ INORGANIS[=A]'TION, want of organisation.--_adj._ INOR'GANISED, same as INORGANIC.--INORGANIC CHEMISTRY, a subdivision of chemistry made originally to designate the chemistry of purely mineral substances, and retained still mainly as a matter of convenience. INOSCULATE, in-os'k[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to unite by mouths or ducts, as two vessels in an animal body: to blend.--_n._ INOSCUL[=A]'TION. [L. _in_, and _oscul[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_, to kiss.] IN-PATIENT, in'p[=a]-shent, _n._ a patient lodged and fed as well as treated in a hospital:--_opp._ to _Out-patient_. INPOURING, in'p[=o]r-ing, _n._ a pouring in: addition. INPUT, in'p[=oo]t, _n._ (_Scot._) contribution. INQUEST, in'kwest, _n._ act of inquiring: search: judicial inquiry before a jury into any matter, esp. any case of violent or sudden death. [O. Fr. _enqueste_--L. _inquisita_ (_res_)--_inquir[)e]re_, to inquire.] INQUIETUDE, in-kw[=i]'et-[=u]d, _n._ disturbance or uneasiness of body or mind.--_adj._ INQU[=I]'ET, unquiet.--_v.t._ to disturb. INQUILINE, in'kwi-lin, _adj._ living in the abode of another, as a pea-crab in an oyster-shell.--_n._ an animal so living.--_adj._ INQUIL[=I]'NOUS. [L. _inquilinus_--_incola_, inhabitant--_in_, in, _col[)e]re_, to inhabit.] INQUIRE, in-kw[=i]r', _v.i._ to ask a question: to make an investigation.--_v.t._ to ask about: to make an examination regarding: (_Spens._) to call.--_n._ (_Shak._) a seeking for information.--_ns._ INQUIR[=A]'TION (_Dickens_), inquiry; INQUIREN'DO (_law_), an authority to inquire; INQUIR'ER.--_adj._ INQUIR'ING, given to inquiry.--_adv._ INQUIR'INGLY.--_n._ INQUIR'Y, act of inquiring: search for knowledge: investigation; a question.--WRIT OF INQUIRY, a writ appointing an inquest. [Fr.,--L. _inquir[)e]re_--_in_, in, _quær[)e]re_, _quæsitum_, to seek.] INQUISITION, in-kwi-zish'un, _n._ an inquiring or searching for: investigation: judicial inquiry: a tribunal in the R.C. Church, called also 'the Holy Office,' for the discovery, repression and punishment of heresy, unbelief, and other offences against religion.--_v.t._ (_Milt._), to investigate.--_adjs._ INQUISIT'IONAL, making inquiry: relating to the Inquisition: INQUIS'ITIVE, searching into: apt to ask questions: curious.--_adv._ INQUIS'ITIVELY.--_ns._ INQUIS'ITIVENESS; INQUIS'ITOR, one who inquires: an official inquirer: a member of the Court of Inquisition.--_adj._ INQUISIT[=O]'RIAL.--_adv._ INQUISIT[=O]'RIALLY.--_n._ INQUIS'ITRESS, an inquisitive woman.--_adj._ INQUISIT[=U]'RIENT (_Milt._), inquisitorial.--GRAND INQUISITOR, the chief in a Court of Inquisition. [L. _inquisition-em_. See INQUIRE.] INROAD, in'r[=o]d, _n._ an incursion into an enemy's country: a sudden invasion: attack: encroachment. INRUSH, in'rush, _n._ an invasion: an irruption. INSALIVATION, in-sal-i-v[=a]'shun, _n._ the process of mixing the food with the saliva. INSALUBRIOUS, in-sa-l[=u]'bri-us, _adj._ not healthful; unwholesome.--_n._ INSAL[=U]'BRITY. INSALUTARY, in-sal'[=u]-tar-i, _adj._ not salutary or favourable to health: unwholesome. INSANABLE, in-san'a-bl, _adj._ incurable.--_n._ INSAN'ABLENESS.--_adv._ INSAN'ABLY. INSANE, in-s[=a]n', _adj._ not sane or of sound mind: crazy: mad: utterly unwise: senseless: causing insanity--(_Shak._) 'insane root,' prob. hemlock or henbane.--_adv._ INSANE'LY.--_ns._ INSANE'NESS, insanity: madness; INSA'NIE (_Shak._) insanity; INSAN'ITY, want of sanity: an alteration in all or any of the functions of the brain, unfitting a man for affairs, and rendering him dangerous to himself and others: madness. INSANITARY, in-san'i-ta-ri, _adj._ not sanitary.--_n._ INSANIT[=A]'TION, want of proper sanitary arrangements. INSATIABLE, in-s[=a]'shi-a-bl, INSATIATE, in-s[=a]'shi-[=a]t, _adj._ that cannot be satiated or satisfied.--_ns._ INS[=A]'TIABLENESS, INSATIABIL'ITY, INSAT[=I]'ETY.--_adv._ INS[=A]'TIABLY. INSCIENT, in'shi-ent, _adj._ not knowing, ignorant: knowing. [Fr.,--L. _in_, not, _sciens_, _sc[=i]re_, to know; in the sense of knowing, prefix _in-_ is intens.] INSCRIBE, in-skr[=i]b', _v.t._ to write upon: to engrave, as on a monument: to put (a person's name) in a book, by way of compliment: to imprint deeply: (_geom._) to draw one figure within another.--_adj._ INSCR[=I]B'ABLE.--_ns._ INSCR[=I]B'ER; INSCRIP'TION, a writing upon: that which is inscribed: title: dedication of a book to a person: the name given to records inscribed on stone, metal, clay, &c.--_adjs._ INSCRIP'TIONAL, INSCRIP'TIVE, bearing an inscription: of the character of an inscription. [Fr.,--L. _inscrib[)e]re_, _inscriptum_--_in_, upon, _scrib[)e]re_, to write.] INSCROLL, in-skr[=o]l', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to write on a scroll. INSCRUTABLE, in-skr[=oo]t'a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be scrutinised or searched into and understood: inexplicable.--_ns._ INSCRUTABIL'ITY, INSCRUT'ABLENESS.--_adv._ INSCRUT'ABLY. [L. _inscrutabilis_--_in_, not, _scrut[=a]ri_, to search into.] INSCULP, in-skulp', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to engrave, to cut or carve upon.--_n._ INSCULP'TURE (_Shak._), anything engraved. [L. _insculp[)e]re_--_in_, in, _sculp[)e]re_, to carve.] INSECT, in'sekt, _n._ a word loosely used for a small creature, as a wasp or fly, with a body as if cut in the middle, or divided into sections: (_zool._) an arthropod, usually winged in adult life, breathing air by means of tracheæ, and having frequently a metamorphosis in the life-history.--_adj._ like an insect: small: mean.--_ns._ INSECT[=A]R'IUM, a place where a collection of living insects is kept; INSEC'TICIDE, act of killing insects.--_adjs._ INSEC'TIFORM, INSEC'TILE, having the nature of an insect.--_ns._ INSEC'TIFUGE, a substance which protects against insects; INSEC'TION, an incision; IN'SECT-NET, a light hand-net for catching insects; IN'SECT-POW'DER, a dry powder used for stupefying and killing fleas and other insects, an insecticide or insectifuge. [Fr.,--L. _insectum_, pa.p. of _insec[=a]re_--_in_, into, _sec[=a]re_, to cut.] INSECTIVORA, in-sek-tiv'or-a, _n._ an order of mammals, mostly terrestrial, nocturnal in habit, and small in size--shrews, moles, hedgehogs, &c.--_adj._ INSECTIV'OROUS, living on insects. [L. _insectum_, an insect, _vor[=a]re_, to devour.] INSECURE, in-se-k[=u]r', _adj._ apprehensive of danger or loss: exposed to danger or loss: uncertain.--_adv._ INSECURE'LY.--_n._ INSECUR'ITY. INSENSATE, in-sen's[=a]t, _adj._ void of sense: wanting sensibility: stupid.--_n._ INSEN'SATENESS, the state of being insensate or destitute of sense: insensibility. [L. _insens[=a]tus_--_in_, not, _sensatus_--_sensus_, feeling.] INSENSIBLE, in-sen'si-bl, _adj._ not having feeling: not susceptible of emotion: callous: dull: unconscious: imperceptible by the senses.--_ns._ INSENSIBIL'ITY, INSEN'SIBLENESS; INSEN'SIBLIST, an unfeeling person.--_adv._ INSEN'SIBLY.--_adj._ INSEN'SUOUS, not sensuous: without the power of perception. INSENSITIVE, in-sen'si-tiv, _adj._ not sensitive. INSENSUOUS, in-sen's[=u]-us, _adj._ not sensuous. INSENTIENT, in-sen'shi-ent, _adj._ not having perception. INSEPARABLE, in-sep'ar-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be separated.--_ns._ INSEP'ARABLENESS, INSEPARABIL'ITY.--_adv._ INSEP'ARABLY.--_adj._ INSEP'ARATE (_Shak._), not separate, united. INSERT, in-s[.e]rt', _v.t._ to introduce into: to put in or among.--_n._ (in's[.e]rt) something additional inserted into a proof, &c.; a circular, or the like, placed for posting within the folds of a paper or leaves of a book.--_adj._ INSERT'ED (_bot._), attached to or growing out of some part.--_n._ INSER'TION, act of inserting: condition of being inserted: that which is inserted. [L. _in_, in, _ser[)e]re_, _sertum_, to join.] INSESSORES, in-se-s[=o]'r[=e]z, _n.pl._ an order of birds called by Cuvier _Passerine_ (sparrow-like)--the title is now replaced by that of _Passeres_ (q.v.).--_adj._ INSESS[=O]'RIAL, having feet (as birds) formed for perching or climbing on trees. [L. _insessor_, from _insid[=e]re_, _insessum_--_in_, on, _sed[=e]re_, to sit.] INSET, in'set, _n._ something set in, an insertion, esp. a leaf or leaves inserted in other leaves already folded.--_v.t._ to set in, to infix or implant. INSEVERABLE, in-sev'[.e]r-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be severed or separated. INSHEATHE, in-sh[=e]_th_', _v.t._ to put in a sheath. INSHELL, in-shel', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to hide, as in a shell. INSHELTER, in-shel't[.e]r, _v.t._ to place in shelter. INSHIP, in-ship', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to ship, to embark. INSHORE, in-sh[=o]r', _adv._ on or near the shore.--_adj._ situated near the shore, as fishings. INSHRINE, in-shr[=i]n'. Same as ENSHRINE. INSICCATION, in-sik-k[=a]'shun, _n._ act of drying in. [L. _in_, in, _sicc[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to dry.] INSIDE, in's[=i]d, _n._ the side or part within: things within, as the entrails, personal feelings, &c.: a passenger in the interior part of a bus or carriage.--_adj._ being within: interior.--_adv._ and _prep._ within the sides of: in the interior of: (_Amer._) within the limit of time or space (with _of_).--_n._ INS[=I]'DER, one who is inside: one within a certain organisation, &c.: one possessing some particular advantage.--INSIDE EDGE, a stroke in skating made on the inner edge of the skate, the right foot making a curve to the left, the left foot one to the right.--HAVE THE INSIDE TRACK, to have the inner side in a race-course: to have the advantage in position. INSIDIOUS, in-sid'i-us, _adj._ watching an opportunity to ensnare: intended to entrap: deceptive: advancing imperceptibly: treacherous.--_adv._ INSID'IOUSLY.--_n._ INSID'IOUSNESS. [L. _insidiosus_--_insidiæ_, an ambush--_insid[=e]re_--_in_, _sed[=e]re_, to sit.] INSIGHT, in's[=i]t, _n._ sight into: thorough knowledge or skill: power of acute observation. INSIGNIA, in-sig'ni-a, _n.pl._ signs or badges of office or honour: marks by which anything is known. [L., pl. of _insigne_--_in_, in, _signum_, a mark.] INSIGNIFICANT, in-sig-nif'i-kant, _adj._ destitute of meaning: without effect: unimportant: petty.--_ns._ INSIGNIF'ICANCE, INSIGNIF'ICANCY.--_adv._ INSIGNIF'ICANTLY.--_adj._ INSIGNIF'IC[=A]TIVE, not significative or expressing by external signs. INSINCERE, in-sin-s[=e]r', _adj._ deceitful: dissembling: not to be trusted: unsound.--_adv._ INSINCERE'LY.--_n._ INSINCER'ITY. INSINEW, in-sin'[=u], _v.t._ (_Shak._) to impart vigour to. INSINUATE, in-sin'[=u]-[=a]t, _v.t._ to introduce gently or artfully: to hint, esp. a fault: to work into favour.--_v.i._ to creep or flow in: to enter gently: to obtain access by flattery or stealth.--_adj._ INSIN'UATING, tending to insinuate or enter gently: insensibly winning confidence.--_adv._ INSIN'UATINGLY.--_n._ INSINU[=A]'TION, act of insinuating: power of insinuating: that which is insinuated: a hint, esp. conveying an indirect imputation.--_adj._ INSIN'UATIVE, insinuating or stealing on the confidence: using insinuation.--_n._ INSIN'UATOR.--_adj._ INSIN'UATORY. [L. _insinu[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_in_, in, _sinus_, a curve.] INSIPID, in-sip'id, _adj._ tasteless: wanting spirit or animation: dull.--_adv._ INSIP'IDLY.--_ns._ INSIP'IDNESS, INSIPID'ITY, want of taste. [Fr.,--Low L.,--L. _in_, not, _sapidus_, well-tasted--_sap[)e]re_, to taste.] INSIPIENCE, in-sip'i-ens, _adj._ lack of wisdom.--_adj._ INSIP'IENT. [Fr.,--L.,--_in_, not, _sapiens_, wise] INSIST, in-sist', _v.i._ to dwell on emphatically in discourse: to persist in pressing: (_Milt._) to persevere.--_n._ INSIST'ENCE, perseverance in pressing any claim, grievance, &c.: pertinacity.--_adj._ INSIST'ENT, urgent: prominent: upright on end.--_adv._ INSIST'ENTLY.--_n._ INSIST'URE, persistence: (_Shak._) constancy. [Fr.,--L. _insist[)e]re_, _in_, upon, _sist[)e]re_, to stand.] INSNARE. See ENSNARE. INSOBRIETY, in-so-br[=i]'e-ti, _n._ want of sobriety. INSOCIABLE, in-s[=o]'sha-bl, _adj._ not sociable: that cannot be associated or joined. INSOLATE, in'so-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to expose to the sun's rays.--_n._ INSOL[=A]'TION, exposure to the sun's rays: an injury to plants caused by too much of the sun. [L. _insol[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_in_, in, _sol_, the sun.] INSOLE, in's[=o]l, _n._ the inner sole of a boot or shoe:--opp. to _Outsole_: a sole of some material placed inside a shoe for warmth or dryness. INSOLENT, in'so-lent, _adj._ overbearing: insulting: rude.--_n._ IN'SOLENCE.--_adv._ IN'SOLENTLY. [O. Fr.,--L. _insolens_--_in_, not, _solens_, pa.p. of _sol[=e]re_, to be wont.] INSOLIDITY, in-so-lid'i-ti, _n._ want of solidity. INSOLUBLE, in-sol'[=u]-bl, _adj._ not capable of being dissolved: not to be solved or explained.--_ns._ INSOLUBIL'ITY, INSOL'UBLENESS. INSOLVABLE, in-solv'a-bl, _adj._ not solvable. INSOLVENT, in-solv'ent, _adj._ not able to pay one's debts: bankrupt: pertaining to insolvent persons.--_n._ one unable to pay his debts.--_n._ INSOLV'ENCY, bankruptcy. INSOMNIA, in-som'ni-a, _n._ sleeplessness.--_adj._ INSOM'NIOUS.--_n._ INSOM'N[=O]LENCE. [L. _insomnis_, sleepless.] INSOMUCH, in-so-much', _adv._ to such a degree: so. INSOOTH, in-s[=oo]th', _adv._ (_Shak._) in truth, indeed. INSOUCIANT, in-s[=oo]'si-ant, _adj._ indifferent: careless.--_n._ INSOU'CIANCE. [Fr. _in_, not, _souciant_--_souci_, care.] INSPAN, in'span, _v.t._ to yoke (draught-oxen or horses) to a vehicle. [Dut. _inspannen_, to yoke--_in_, in, _spannen_, to tie.] INSPECT, in-spekt', _v.t._ to look into: to examine: to look at narrowly: to superintend.--_adv._ INSPECT'INGLY.--_n._ INSPEC'TION, the act of inspecting or looking into: careful or official examination.--_adjs._ INSPEC'TIONAL; INSPEC'TIVE.--_ns._ INSPEC'TOR, one who looks into or oversees: an examining officer: a superintendent; INSPEC'TOR[=A]TE, a district under charge of an inspector: a body of inspectors collectively.--_adj._ INSPECT[=O]'RIAL.--_ns._ INSPEC'TORSHIP, the office of an inspector; INSPEC'TRESS, a female inspector. [L. _inspect[=a]re_, freq. of _inspic[)e]re_, _inspectum_--_in_, into, _spec[)e]re_, to look.] INSPHERE. See ENSPHERE. INSPIRE, in-sp[=i]r', _v.t._ to breathe into: to draw or inhale into the lungs: to infuse by breathing, or as if by breathing: to infuse into the mind: to instruct by divine influence: to instruct or affect with a superior influence.--_v.i._ to draw in the breath.--_adj._ INSPIR'ABLE, able to be inhaled.--_n._ INSPIR[=A]'TION, the act of inspiring or breathing into: a breath: the divine influence by which the sacred writers of the Bible were instructed: superior elevating or exciting influence.--_adjs._ INSPIR[=A]'TIONAL, INSPIRATORY (in-spir'a-tor-i, or in'spir-a-tor-i), belonging to or aiding inspiration or inhalation.--_n._ INSPIR[=A]'TIONIST, one who maintains the direct inspiration of the Scriptures.--_adj._ INSPIRED', actuated or directed by divine influence: influenced by elevated feeling: prompted by superior, but not openly declared, knowledge or authority: actually authoritative.--_n._ INSPIR'ER.--_adv._ INSPIR'INGLY. [Fr.,--L. _inspir[=a]re_--_in_, into, _spir[=a]re_, to breathe.] INSPIRIT, in-spir'it, _v.t._ to infuse spirit into. INSPISSATE, in-spis'[=a]t, _v.t._ to thicken by the evaporation of moisture, as the juices of plants.--_n._ INSPISS[=A]'TION. [L. _in_, in, _spiss[=a]re_--_spissus_, thick.] INSTABILITY, in-sta-bil'i-ti, _n._ want of steadiness or firmness: inconstancy, fickleness: mutability.--_adj._ INST[=A]'BLE, not stable: inconstant. INSTALL, INSTAL, in-stawl', _v.t._ to place in a seat: to place in an office or order: to invest with any charge or office with the customary ceremonies.--_ns._ INSTALL[=A]'TION, the act of installing or placing in an office with ceremonies: a placing in position for use, also a general term for the complete mechanical apparatus for electric lighting, &c.; INSTAL'MENT, the act of installing: one of the parts of a sum paid at various times: that which is produced at stated periods. [Fr.,--Low L. _installare_--_in_, in, _stallum_, a stall--Old High Ger. _stal_ (Ger. _stall_), Eng. _stall_.] INSTANCE, in'stans, _n._ quality of being urgent: solicitation: occurrence: occasion: example: (_Shak._) evidence, proof.--_v.t._ to mention as an example.--_n._ IN'STANCY, insistency.--_adj._ INSTAN'TIAL (_rare_).--AT THE INSTANCE OF, at the motion or solicitation of; FOR INSTANCE, to take as an example. [O. Fr.,--L. _instantia_--_instans_.] INSTANT, in'stant, _adj._ pressing, urgent: immediate: quick: without delay: present, current, as the passing month.--_n._ the present moment of time: any moment or point of time.--_n._ INSTANTAN[=E]'ITY.--_adj._ INSTANT[=A]N'EOUS, done in an instant: momentary: occurring or acting at once: very quickly.--_adv._ INSTANT[=A]N'EOUSLY.--_n._ INSTANT[=A]N'EOUSNESS.--_advs._ INSTAN'TER, immediately; IN'STANTLY, on the instant or moment: immediately: (_Shak._) at the same time: (_B._) importunately, zealously. [L. _instans_, _-antis_, pr.p. of _inst[=a]re_--_in_, upon, _st[=a]re_, to stand.] INSTAR, in-stär', _v.t._ to adorn with stars. INSTATE, in-st[=a]t', _v.t._ to put in possession: to install. INSTAURATION, in-stawr-[=a]'shun, _n._ restoration: renewal. [L. _instaur[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to restore.] INSTEAD, in-sted', _adv._ in the stead, place, or room of. [M. E. _in stede_--A.S. _on stede_, in the place.] INSTELLATION, in-stel-[=a]'shun, _n._ (_rare_) a placing among the stars. INSTEP, in'step, _n._ the prominent upper part of the human foot near its junction with the leg: in horses, the hind-leg from the ham to the pastern joint. INSTIGATE, in'sti-g[=a]t, _v.t._ to urge on: to set on: to foment.--_ns._ INSTIG[=A]'TION, the act of inciting: impulse, esp. to evil; IN'STIGATOR, an inciter, generally in a bad sense. [L. _instig[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_.] INSTIL, in-stil', _v.t._ to drop into: to infuse slowly into the mind:--_pr.p._ instil'ling; _pa.p._ instilled'.--_ns._ INSTILL[=A]'TION, INSTIL'MENT, the act of instilling or pouring in by drops: the act of infusing slowly into the mind: that which is instilled or infused. [Fr.,--L. _instill[=a]re_--_in_, in, _still[=a]re_, to drop.] INSTINCT, in'stingkt, _n._ impulse: an involuntary prompting to action: intuition: the mental aspect of those actions which take rank between unconscious reflex activities and intelligent conduct: the natural impulse by which animals are guided apparently independent of reason or experience.--_adj._ (in-stingkt') instigated or incited: moved: animated.--_adj._ INSTINC'TIVE, prompted by instinct: involuntary: acting according to or determined by natural impulse.--_adv._ INSTINC'TIVELY.--_n._ INSTINCTIV'ITY (_rare_). [L. _instinctus_--_instingu[)e]re_, to instigate.] INSTIPULATE, in-stip'[=u]-l[=a]t, _adj._ (_bot._) having no stipules. INSTITORIAL, in-sti-t[=o]'ri-al, _adj._ (_law_) pertaining to an agent or factor. [L. _institorius_--_institor_, an agent, broker.] INSTITUTE, in'sti-t[=u]t, _v.t._ to set up in: to erect: to originate: to establish: to appoint: to commence: to educate.--_n._ anything instituted or formally established: established law: precept or principle: (_pl._) a book of precepts, principles, or rules, esp. in jurisprudence: an institution: a literary and philosophical society or association, as the 'Institute of France' (embracing _L'Académie Française_, _L'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres_, _L'Académie des Sciences_, _L'Académie des Beaux Arts_, and _L'Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques_).--_n._ INSTIT[=U]'TION, the act of instituting or establishing: that which is instituted or established: foundation: established order: enactment: a society established for some object: that which institutes or instructs: a system of principles or rules: the origination of the Eucharist and the formula of institution: the act by which a bishop commits a cure of souls to a priest.--_adjs._ INSTIT[=U]'TIONAL, INSTIT[=U]'TIONARY, belonging to an institution: instituted by authority: elementary.--_n._ IN'STITUTIST, a writer of institutes or elementary rules.--_adj._ IN'STITUTIVE, able or tending to establish: depending on an institution.--_n._ IN'STITUTOR, one who institutes: an instructor. [L. _institu[)e]re_, _-[=u]tum_--_in_, in, _statu[)e]re_, to cause to stand--_st[=a]re_, to stand.] INSTREAMING, in-str[=e]m'ing, _n._ an influx. INSTRUCT, in-strukt', _v.t._ to prepare: to inform: to teach: to order or command.--_adj._ (_Milt._) instructed.--_adj._ INSTRUCT'IBLE, able to be instructed.--_n._ INSTRUC'TION, the act of instructing or teaching: information: command: (_pl._) special directions, commands--in parliamentary sense, 'Instructions to the Committee' are supplementary and auxiliary to the Bill under consideration, but falling broadly within its general scope.--_adjs._ INSTRUC'TIONAL, relating to instruction: educational; INSTRUC'TIVE, containing instruction or information: conveying knowledge.--_adv._ INSTRUC'TIVELY.--_ns._ INSTRUC'TIVENESS; INSTRUC'TOR:--_fem._ INSTRUC'TRESS. [L. _instru[)e]re_, _instructum_--_in_, in, _stru[)e]re_, to pile up.] INSTRUMENT, in'str[=oo]-ment, _n._ a tool or utensil: a machine producing musical sounds: a writing containing a contract: one who, or that which, is made a means.--_adj._ INSTRUMENT'AL, acting as an instrument or means: serving to promote an object: helpful: belonging to or produced by musical instruments: (_gram._) serving to indicate the instrument or means--of a case in Sanskrit, involving the notion of _by_ or _with_.--_ns._ INSTRUMENT'ALIST, one who plays on a musical instrument; INSTRUMENTAL'ITY, agency.--_adv._ INSTRUMENT'ALLY.--_n._ INSTRUMENT[=A]'TION (_mus._), the arrangement of a composition for performance by different instruments: the playing upon musical instruments. [O. Fr.,--L. _instrumentum_--_instru[)e]re_, to instruct.] INSUBJECTION, in-sub-jek'shun, _n._ want of subjection. INSUBORDINATE, in-sub-or'din-[=a]t, _adj._ not subordinate or submissive: disobedient.--_n._ INSUBORDIN[=A]'TION. INSUBSTANTIAL, in-sub-stan'shal, _adj._ (_Shak._) not substantial: not real.--_n._ INSUBSTANTIAL'ITY. INSUCKEN, in'suk-n, _adj._ in Scots law, pertaining to a district astricted to a certain mill. INSUFFERABLE, in-suf'[.e]r-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be endured: detestable.--_adv._ INSUFF'ERABLY. INSUFFICIENT, in-suf-fish'ent, _adj._ not sufficient: deficient: unfit: incapable.--_ns._ INSUFFIC'IENCY, INSUFFIC'IENCE (_rare_).--_adv._ INSUFFIC'IENTLY. INSUFFLATE, in-suf'l[=a]t, _v.t._ to breathe on.--_ns._ INSUFFL[=A]'TION, the art of breathing on anything, or of blowing air to induce respiration, as into the mouth of a newborn child, esp. as a symbol of the outpouring of the Holy Ghost; IN'SUFFL[=A]TOR, a form of injector for forcing air into a furnace. [Through Low L., from L. _in_, in, _suffl[=a]re_, to blow.] INSULAR, in's[=u]-lar, _adj._ belonging to an island: surrounded by water: standing or situated alone: narrow, prejudiced.--_ns._ IN'SULARISM, INSULAR'ITY, the state of being insular.--_adv._ IN'SULARLY.--_v.t._ IN'SULATE, to place in a detached situation: to prevent connection or communication: (_electricity_) to separate, esp. from the earth, by a non-conductor.--_ns._ INSUL[=A]'TION; IN'SULATOR, one who, or that which, insulates: a non-conductor of electricity. [Fr.,--L. _insularis_--_insula_, an island.] INSULSE, in-suls', _adj._ stupid.--_n._ INSUL'SITY (_Milt._), stupidity. [L. _insulsus_--_in_, not, _sal[=i]re_, to salt.] INSULT, in-sult', _v.t._ to treat with indignity or contempt: to abuse: to affront.--_n._ (in'sult) abuse: affront: contumely.--_adjs._ INSULT'ABLE, capable of being insulted; INSULT'ANT (_rare_), insulting.--_n._ INSULT'ER (_obs._), one who makes an attack.--_adj._ INSULT'ING, conveying insult: insolent: contemptuous.--_adv._ INSULT'INGLY, in an insulting or insolent manner.--_n._ INSULT'MENT (_Shak._), insult. [Fr.,--L. _insult[=a]re_--_insil[=i]re_, to spring at--_in_, upon, _sal[=i]re_, to leap.] INSUPERABLE, in-s[=u]'p[.e]r-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be passed over: unconquerable.--_n._ INSUPERABIL'ITY.--_adv._ INS[=U]'PERABLY. [O. Fr.,--L.,--_in_, not, _superabilis_--_super[=a]re_, to pass over--_super_, above.] INSUPPORTABLE, in-sup-p[=o]rt'a-bl, _adj._ not supportable or able to be endured: unbearable: insufferable: (_Spens._) irresistible.--_n._ INSUPPORT'ABLENESS.--_adv._ INSUPPORT'ABLY. INSUPPRESSIBLE, in-sup-pres'i-bl, _adj._ not to be suppressed or concealed.--_adj._ INSUPPRESS'IVE (_Shak._), that cannot be suppressed or concealed. INSURE, in-sh[=oo]r', _v.t._ to make sure or secure: to contract for a premium to make good a loss, as from fire, &c., or to pay a certain sum on a certain event, as death.--_v.i._ to practise making insurance.--_adj._ INSUR'ABLE, that may be insured.--_ns._ INSUR'ANCE, the act of insuring, or a contract by which one party undertakes for a payment or premium to guarantee another against risk or loss--the written contract called the INSUR'ANCE-POL'ICY: the premium so paid; INSUR'ANCER (_obs._); INSUR'ER, one who agrees to pay money to another party on the happening of a certain event. [O. Fr. _enseurer_--_en_, and _seur_, sure.] INSURGENT, in-sur'jent. _adj._ rising up or against: rising in opposition to authority: rebellious.--_n._ one who rises in opposition to established authority: a rebel.--_n._ INSUR'GENCY, a rising up or against: insurrection: rebellion--also INSUR'GENCE. [L. _insurgens_, _-entis_--_in_, upon, _surg[)e]re_, to rise.] INSURMOUNTABLE, in-sur-mownt'a-bl, _adj._ not surmountable: that cannot be overcome.--_n._ INSURMOUNTABIL'ITY.--_adv._ INSURMOUNT'ABLY. INSURRECTION, in-sur-rek'shun, _n._ a rising up or against: open and active opposition to the execution of the law: a rebellion.--_adjs._ INSURREC'TIONAL, INSURREC'TIONARY.--_n._ INSURREC'TIONIST, one who favours or takes part in an insurrection. [L. _insurrection-em_--_insurg[)e]re_. See INSURGENT.] INSUSCEPTIBLE, in-sus-sep'ti-bl, _adj._ not susceptible: not capable of feeling or of being affected--also INSUSCEP'TIVE.--_n._ INSUSCEPTIBIL'ITY. INSWATHE, in-sw[=a]th', _v.t._ See ENSWATHE. INTACT, in-takt', _adj._ untouched, uninjured.--_adj._ INTACT'ABLE, not perceptible to touch.--_n._ INTACT'NESS. [L. _intactus_--_in_, not, _tang[)e]re_, _tactum_, to touch.] INTAGLIO, in-tal'y[=o], _n._ a figure cut into any substance: a stone or gem in which the design is hollowed out, the opposite of a cameo.--_adj._ INTAGL'IATED, formed in intaglio: engraved. [It.,--_intagliare_--_in_, into, _tagliare_, to cut (twigs)--L. _talea_, a twig.] INTAKE, in't[=a]k, _n._ that which is taken in: a tract of land enclosed: the point at which contraction begins: (_prov._) any kind of cheat or imposition. INTANGIBLE, in-tan'ji-bl, _adj._ not tangible or perceptible to touch.--_ns._ INTAN'GIBLENESS, INTANGIBIL'ITY.--_adv._ INTAN'GIBLY. [See INTACT.] INTEGER, in'te-j[.e]r, _n._ that which is left untouched or undiminished, a whole: (_arith._) a whole number, as opposed to a fraction.--_adj._ IN'TEGRAL, entire or whole: not fractional: unimpaired: intrinsic, belonging as a part to the whole.--_n._ a whole: the whole as made up of its parts.--_adv._ IN'TEGRALLY.--_adj._ IN'TEGRANT, making part of a whole: necessary to form an integer or an entire thing.--_v.t._ IN'TEGR[=A]TE, to make up as a whole: to make entire: to renew.--_n._ INTEGR[=A]'TION.--INTEGRAL FUNCTION (_algebra_), a function which does not include the operation of division in any of its terms (see FUNCTION). [L.,--_in_, not, root of _tang[)e]re_, to touch.] INTEGRITY, in-teg'ri-ti, _n._ entireness, wholeness: the unimpaired state of anything: uprightness: honesty: purity. [See INTEGER.] INTEGUMENT, in-teg'[=u]-ment, _n._ the external protective covering of a plant or animal.--_adj._ INTEGUMENT'ARY. [L.,--_integ[)e]re_--_in_, upon, _teg[)e]re_, to cover.] INTELLECT, in'tel-lekt, _n._ the mind, in reference to its rational powers: the thinking principle: (_pl._, _coll._) senses.--_adj._ IN'TELLECTED (_Cowper_), endowed with intellect.--_n._ INTELLEC'TION, the act of understanding: (_philos._) apprehension or perception.--_adjs._ INTELLECT'IVE, able to understand: produced or perceived by the understanding; INTELLECT'UAL, of or relating to the intellect: perceived or performed by the intellect: having the power of understanding.--_n._ mental power.--_v.t._ INTELLECT'UALISE, to reason intellectually: to endow with intellect: to give an intellectual character to.--_ns._ INTELLECT'UALISM, the doctrine which derives all knowledge from pure reason: the culture of the intellect; INTELLECT'UALIST; INTELLECTUAL'ITY, intellectual power.--_adv._ INTELLECT'UALLY. [Fr.,--L.,--_intellig[)e]re_, to understand--_inter_, between, _leg[)e]re_, to choose.] INTELLIGENT, in-tel'-i-jent, _adj._ having intellect: endowed with the faculty of reason: well informed: bringing intelligence. (_Shak._) communicative.--_ns._ INTELL'IGENCE, intellectual skill or knowledge: information communicated: news: a spiritual being; INTELL'IGENCER, one going between parties: a spy.--_adjs._ INTELLIGEN'TIAL, pertaining to the intelligence: consisting of spiritual being.--_adv._ INTELL'IGENTLY.--_adj._ INTELL'IGIBLE, that maybe understood: clear: (_philos._) capable of being apprehended by the understanding only.--_ns._ INTELL'IGIBLENESS, INTELLIGIBIL'ITY.--_adv._ INTELL'IGIBLY. [L. _intelligens_, -_entis_, pr.p. of _intellig[)e]re_.] INTEMPERANCE, in-tem'p[.e]r-ans, _n._ want of due restraint: excess of any kind: habitual indulgence in intoxicating liquor.--_n._ INTEM'PERANT, one who is intemperate.--_adj._ INTEM'PERATE, indulging to excess any appetite or passion: given to an immoderate use of intoxicating liquors: passionate: exceeding the usual degree: immoderate.--_adv._ INTEM'PERATELY.--_n._ INTEM'PERATENESS. INTENABLE, in-ten'a-bl, _adj._ not tenable. INTEND, in-tend', _v.t._ to fix the mind upon: to design: to purpose: (_Milt._) to extend: (_Shak._) to direct.--_v.i._ to have a design: to purpose.--_ns._ INTEND'ANT, an officer who superintends some public business, a title of many public officers in France and other countries; INTEND'ANCY, his office.--_adj._ INTEND'ED, purposed: betrothed.--_n._ an affianced lover.--_adv._ INTEND'EDLY, with intention or design.--_ns._ INTEND'IMENT (_Spens._), attention, knowledge, intention; INTEND'MENT (_Shak._), intention, design. [O. Fr. _entendre_--L. _intend[)e]re_, _intentum_ and _intensum_--_in_, towards, _tend[)e]re_, to stretch.] INTENERATE, in-ten'e-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to make tender.--_n._ INTENER[=A]'TION. INTENSE, in-tens', _adj._ closely strained: extreme in degree: very severe: emotional.--_v.t._ INTEN'SATE (_Carlyle_), to intensify.--_adv._ INTENSE'LY.--_ns._ INTENSE'NESS, INTENS'ITY; INTENSIFIC[=A]'TION, the act of intensifying.--_v.t._ INTEN'SIFY, to make more intense.--_v.i._ to become intense:--_pa.p._ intens'ified.--_n._ INTEN'SION, a straining or bending: increase of intensity: (_logic_) the sum of the qualities implied by a general name.--_adj._ INTEN'SIVE, stretched: admitting of increase of degree: unremitted: serving to intensify: (_gram._) giving force or emphasis.--_adv._ INTEN'SIVELY.--_n._ INTEN'SIVENESS. [See INTEND.] INTENT, in-tent', _adj._ having the mind bent on: fixed with close attention: diligently applied.--_n._ the thing aimed at or intended: a design: meaning.--_n._ INTEN'TION, a fixing of the mind on any object: fixed direction of mind: the object aimed at: design: purpose.--_adjs._ INTEN'TIONAL, INTEN'TIONED, with intention: intended: designed.--_advs._ INTEN'TIONALLY, with intention; INTENT'LY, in an intent manner.--_adj._ INTEN'TIVE (_Bacon_), attentive.--_n._ INTENT'NESS.--TO ALL INTENTS AND PURPOSES, in every respect.--WELL- (or ILL-) INTENTIONED, having good (or ill) designs. [See INTEND.] INTER, in-t[.e]r', _v.t._ to bury:--_pr.p._ inter'ring; _pa.p._ interred'.--_n._ INTER'MENT. [Fr. _enterrer_--Low L. _interr[=a]re_--L. _in_, into, _terra_, the earth.] INTERACT, in-t[.e]r-akt', _n._ a short piece in a play acted between the principal pieces: the interval between the acts of a drama.--_v.i._ to act on one another.--_n._ INTERAC'TION, action between bodies, mutual action.--_adj._ INTERAC'TIVE. INTERAULIC, in-t[.e]r-aw'lik, _adj._ existing between royal courts. INTERBREED, in-t[.e]r-br[=e]d, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to breed by crossing one species of animals or plants with another.--_n._ INTERBREED'ING. INTERCALATE, in-t[.e]r'kal-[=a]t, _v.t._ to insert between, as a day in a calendar.--_adjs._ INTER'CALARY, INTER'CALAR, inserted between others.--_n._ INTERCAL[=A]'TION.--_adj._ INTER'CALATIVE. [L. _intercal[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_inter_, between, _cal[=a]re_, to call. See CALENDS.] INTERCEDE, in-t[.e]r-s[=e]d', _v.i._ and _v.t._ to act as peacemaker between two: to plead for one.--_adj._ INTERCED'ENT.--_n._ INTERCED'ER. [Fr.,--L. _interced[)e]re_, _-cessum_--_inter_, between, _ced[)e]re_, to go.] INTERCELLULAR, in-t[.e]r-sel'[=u]-lar, _adj._ lying between cells. INTERCEPT, in-t[.e]r-sept', _v.t._ to stop and seize on its passage: to obstruct, check: to interrupt communication with: to cut off: (_math._) to take or comprehend between.--_ns._ INTERCEP'TER, INTERCEP'TOR; INTERCEP'TION.--_adj._ INTERCEP'TIVE. [Fr.,--L. _intercip[)e]re_, _-ceptum_--_inter_, between, _cap[)e]re_, to seize.] INTERCEREBRAL, in-t[.e]r-ser'e-bral, _adj._ connecting two parts of the brain. INTERCESSION, in-t[.e]r-sesh'un, _n._ act of interceding or pleading for another.--_adj._ INTERCESS'IONAL, containing intercession or pleading for others.--_n._ INTERCESS'OR, one who goes between: one who reconciles two enemies: one who pleads for another: a bishop who acts during a vacancy in a see.--_adjs._ INTERCESS[=O]'RIAL, INTERCESS'ORY, interceding.--INTERCESSION OF SAINTS, prayer offered in behalf of Christians on earth by saints. [See INTERCEDE.] INTERCHAIN, in-t[.e]r-ch[=a]n', _v.t._ to chain together. INTERCHANGE, in-t[.e]r-ch[=a]nj', _v.t._ to give and take mutually: to exchange.--_v.i._ to succeed alternately.--_n._ mutual exchange: alternate succession.--_adj._ INTERCHANGE'ABLE, that may be interchanged: following each other in alternate succession.--_ns._ INTERCHANGE'ABLENESS, INTERCHANGEABIL'ITY.--_adv._ INTERCHANGE'ABLY.--_ns._ INTERCHANGE'MENT (_Shak._), exchange, mutual transfer; INTERCHANG'ER. INTERCILIUM, in-t[.e]r-sil'i-um, _n._ the space between the eyebrows. INTERCIPIENT, in-t[.e]r-sip'i-ent, _adj._ intercepting.--_n._ the person or thing that intercepts. [L. _intercipiens_, -_entis_, pr.p. of _intercip[)e]re_.] INTERCLAVICULAR, in-t[.e]r-kl[=a]-vik'[=u]-lar, _adj._ situated between clavicles. INTERCLUDE, in-t[.e]r-kl[=oo]d', _v.t._ to shut out from anything by something coming between: to intercept: to cut off.--_n._ INTERCLU'SION. [L. _interclud[)e]re_--_inter_, between, _claud[)e]re_, to shut.] INTERCOLLEGIATE, in-ter-ko-l[=e]'ji-[=a]t, _adj._ between colleges. INTERCOLLINE, in-ter-kol'in, _adj._ lying between hills. INTERCOLONIAL, in-t[.e]r-kol-[=o]'ni-al, _adj._ pertaining to the relation existing between colonies.--_adv._ INTERCOL[=O]'NIALLY. INTERCOLUMNIATION, in-t[.e]r-ko-lum-ni-[=a]'shun, _n._ (_archit._) the distance between columns, measured from the lower part of their shafts.--_adj._ INTERCOLUM'NAR, placed between columns. INTERCOMMUNE, in-t[.e]r-kom-[=u]n', _v.i._ to commune between or together: to hold intercourse.--_adj._ INTERCOMMUN'ICABLE, that may be communicated between or mutually.--_v.t._ INTERCOMMUN'IC[=A]TE, to communicate between or mutually.--_ns._ INTERCOMMUNIC[=A]'TION; INTERCOMMUN'ION, communion between, or mutual communion; INTERCOMMUN'ITY, mutual communication: reciprocal intercourse.--LETTERS OF INTERCOMMUNING, an ancient writ issued by the Scotch Privy Council warning persons not to harbour or have any communication with persons therein denounced, under pain of being held accessory to their crimes--a special form of _boycott_. INTERCOMPARISON, in-t[.e]r-kom-par'i-son, _n._ mutual comparison. INTERCONNECT, in-t[.e]r-ko-nekt', _v.t._ to connect or enjoin mutually and intimately.--_n._ INTERCONNEC'TION. INTERCONTINENTAL, in-t[.e]r-kon-ti-nen'tal, _adj._ subsisting between different continents. INTERCOSTAL, in-t[.e]r-kost'al, _adj._ (_anat._) lying between the ribs. INTERCOURSE, in't[.e]r-k[=o]rs, _n._ connection by dealings: communication: commerce: communion: coition. [O. Fr. _entrecours_--L. _intercursus_, a running between--_inter_, between, _curr[)e]re_, _cursum_, to run.] INTERCROSS, in-t[.e]r-kros', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to cross mutually: interbreed. INTERCURRENT, in-t[.e]r-kur'ent, _adj._ running between: intervening.--_n._ INTERCURR'ENCE. [O. Fr.,--L. _inter_, between, _curr[)e]re_, to run.] INTERDASH, in-t[.e]r-dash', _v.t._ to intersperse. INTERDEAL, in't[.e]r-d[=e]l, _n._ (_Spens._) intercourse, traffic. INTERDEPENDENCE, in-t[.e]r-de-pend-ens, _n._ mutual dependence: dependence of parts one on another.--_adj._ INTERDEPEND'ENT. INTERDICT, in-t[.e]r-dikt', _v.t._ to. prohibit: to forbid: to forbid communion.--_n._ (in't[.e]r-dikt) prohibition: a prohibitory decree: a prohibition of the Pope restraining the clergy from performing divine service.--_n._ INTERDIC'TION.--_adjs._ INTERDIC'TIVE, INTERDIC'TORY, containing interdiction: prohibitory. [L. _interdic[)e]re_, -_dictum_--_inter_, between, _dic[)e]re_, to say.] INTERDIGITAL, in-t[.e]r-dij'i-tal, _adj._ situated between digits.--_v.t._ INTERDIG'ITATE, to insert between the fingers.--_v.i._ to be interwoven, to interlock by finger-like processes.--_n._ INTERDIGIT[=A]'TION. INTEREST, in't[.e]r-est, _n._ advantage: premium paid for the use of money (in COMPOUND INTEREST, the interest of each period is added to its principal, and the amount forms a new principal for the next period): any increase: concern: special attention: influence over others: share: participation.--_n._ (_Spens._) IN'TERESS, interest, concern.--_v.t._ to concern deeply.--EQUITABLE INTEREST, such interest as is protected by courts of equity, although it might not be at common law; LANDED INTEREST (see LANDED); VESTED INTEREST, an interest thoroughly secure and inalienable, except for public use and upon compensation.--MAKE INTEREST FOR, to secure interest on behalf of. [O. Fr. _interest_ (Fr. _intérêt_)--L. _interest_, it is profitable, it concerns--_inter_, between, _esse_, to be.] INTEREST, in't[.e]r-est, _v.t._ to engage the attention: to awaken concern in: to excite (in behalf of another).--_adj._ IN'TERESTED, having an interest or concern: affected or biassed by personal considerations, self-interest, &c.--_adv._ IN'TERESTEDLY.--_n._ IN'TERESTEDNESS.--_adj._ IN'TERESTING, engaging the attention or regard: exciting emotion or passion.--_adv._ IN'TERESTINGLY.--_n._ IN'TERESTINGNESS.--In an interesting condition, in the family way. [From obs. _interess_--O. Fr. _interesser_, to concern--L. _interesse_.] INTERFACIAL, in-t[.e]r-f[=a]'shal, _adj._ (_geom._) included between two plane faces or surfaces.--_n._ INTERFACE', a plane surface regarded as the common boundary of two bodies. INTERFEMORAL, in-t[.e]r-fem'o-ral, _adj._ situated between the thighs, connecting the hind limbs. INTERFERE, in-t[.e]r-f[=e]r', _v.i._ to come in collision: to intermeddle: to interpose: to act reciprocally--said of waves, rays of light, &c.--_ns._ INTERFER'ENCE; INTERFER'ER.--_adv._ INTERFER'INGLY. [Through O. Fr., from L. _inter_, between, _fer[=i]re_, to strike.] INTERFLUENT, in-t[.e]r'fl[=oo]-ent, _adj._ flowing between or together--also INTER'FLUOUS. [L. _interfluens_--_inter_, between, _flu[)e]re_, to flow.] INTERFOLD, in-t[.e]r-fold', _v.t._ to fold one into the other. INTERFOLIACEOUS, in-t[.e]r-f[=o]-li-[=a]'shus, _adj._ placed between leaves.--_v.t._ INTERF[=O]'LIATE, to interleave. INTERFRETTED, in-t[.e]r-fret'ed, _adj._ fretted between, or interlaced. INTERFRONTAL, in-t[.e]r-fron'tal, _adj._ situated between the right and left frontal bones. INTERFUSED, in-t[.e]r-f[=u]zd', _adj._ poured between: fused together: associated.--_n._ INTERF[=U]'SION. INTERGLACIAL, in-t[.e]r-gl[=a]'shi-al, _adj._ (_geol._) occurring between two periods of glacial action. INTERGLANDULAR, in-t[.e]r-glan'd[=u]-lar, _adj._ situated between glands. INTERGLOBULAR, in-t[.e]r-glob'[=u]-lar, _adj._ situated between globules. INTERGRADE, in-t[.e]r-gr[=a]d', _v.i._ to become alike gradually.--_n._ IN'TERGRADE, an intermediate grade. INTERGROWTH, in't[.e]r-gr[=o]th, _n._ a growing together. INTERHEMAL, in-t[.e]r-h[=e]'mal, _adj._ between the hemal processes or spines. INTERIM, in't[.e]r-im, _n._ time between or intervening: the meantime: in the history of the Reformation, the name given to certain edicts of the German emperor for the regulation of religious and ecclesiastical matters, till they could be decided by a general council--as the Augsburg Interim (1548), &c. [L.,--_inter_, between.] INTERIOR, in-t[=e]'ri-ur, _adj._ inner: remote from the frontier or coast: inland.--_n._ the inside of anything: the inland part of a country.--_n._ INTERIOR'ITY.--_adv._ INT[=E]'RIORLY. [L.,--comp. of _interus_, inward.] INTERJACENT, in-t[.e]r-j[=a]'sent, _adj._ lying between: intervening.--_n._ INTERJ[=A]'CENCY, a lying between: a space or region between others. [L. _inter_, between, _jac[=e]re_, to lie.] INTERJACULATE, in-t[.e]r-jak'[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.i._ to interrupt conversation with an ejaculation. INTERJECT, in-t[.e]r-jekt', _v.t._ to throw between: to insert.--_v.i._ to throw one's self between.--_n._ INTERJEC'TION, a throwing between: (_gram._) a word thrown in to express emotion.--_adjs._ INTERJEC'TIONAL, INTERJEC'TIONARY, INTERJEC'TURAL.--_adv._ INTERJEC'TIONALLY. [L. _inter_, between, _jac[)e]re_, to throw.] INTERJOIN, in-t[.e]r-join', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to join mutually, to intermarry. INTERKNIT, in-t[.e]r-nit', _v.t._ to unite closely. INTERLACE, in-t[.e]r-l[=a]s', _v.t._ to lace together: to unite: to insert one thing within another.--_v.i._ to intermix.--_n._ INTERLACE'MENT.--INTERLACING ARCHES (_archit._), an arcature in which the arches intersect. INTERLARD, in-t[.e]r-lärd', _v.t._ to mix in, as fat with lean: to diversify by mixture. INTERLEAVE, in-t[.e]r-l[=e]v', _v.t._ to put a leaf between: to insert blank leaves in a book. INTERLINE, in-t[.e]r-l[=i]n', _v.t._ to write in alternate lines: to write between lines.--_adj._ INTERLIN'EAR, written between lines.--_ns._ INTERLINE[=A]'TION, INTERL[=I]N'ING, act of interlining: that which is interlined: correction or alteration made by writing between lines. INTERLINK, in-t[.e]r-lingk', _v.t._ to connect by uniting links. INTERLOBULAR, in-t[.e]r-lob'[=u]-lar, _adj._ being between lobes. INTERLOCATION, in-t[.e]r-lo-k[=a]'shun, _n._ a placing between. INTERLOCK, in-t[.e]r-lok', _v.t._ to lock or clasp together.--_v.i._ to be locked together. INTERLOCUTION, in-t[.e]r-lo-k[=u]'shun, _n._ conference: an intermediate decree before final decision.--_n._ INTERLOC'UTOR, one who speaks between or in dialogue (_fem._ INTERLOC'UTRESS, INTERLOC'UTRICE): (_Scots law_) an intermediate decree before final decision.--_adj._ INTERLOC'UTORY. [Fr.,--L. _interlocutio_, from _interloqui_--_inter_, between, _loqui_, _locutus_, to speak.] INTERLOPER, in-t[.e]r-l[=o]p'[.e]r, _n._ one who trades without license: an intruder.--_v.i._ and _v.t._ INTERLOPE', to intrude into any matter in which one has no fair concern. [Dut. _enterlooper_, a smuggling vessel, as running in and out along the coast--L. _inter_, between, Dut. _loopen_, to run. See LEAP.] INTERLUDE, in't[.e]r-l[=oo]d, _n._ a short dramatic performance or play between the play and afterpiece, or between the acts of a play: a short piece of music played between the parts of a drama, opera, hymn, &c.--_adj._ INTERLUD'ED, inserted as an interlude: having interludes. [From L. _inter_, between, _ludus_, play.] INTERLUNAR, in-t[.e]r-l[=oo]'nar, _adj._ belonging to the moon's monthly period of invisibility.--Also INTERLU'NARY. INTERMARRY, in-t[.e]r-mar'i, _v.i._ to marry between or among: to marry reciprocally, or take one and give another in marriage.--_n._ INTERMARR'IAGE. INTERMAXILLARY, in-t[.e]r-maks'il-ar-i, _adj._ situated between the jawbones. INTERMEDDLE, in-t[.e]r-med'l, _v.i._ to meddle with: to interfere improperly.--_n._ INTERMEDD'LER. INTERMEDIATE, in-t[.e]r-m[=e]'di-[=a]t, _adj._ in the middle between: intervening--also INTERM[=E]'DIARY, INTERM[=E]'DIAL.--_ns._ INTERM[=E]'DIACY, state of being intermediate; INTERM[=E]'DIARY, an intermediate agent.--_adv._ INTERM[=E]'DIATELY.--_n._ INTERMEDI[=A]'TION, act of intermediating; INTERM[=E]'DIUM, a medium between: an intervening agent or instrument. INTERMENT, in-t[.e]r'ment, _n._ burial. INTERMEZZO, in-t[.e]r-med'z[=o], _n._ a light dramatic entertainment between the acts of a tragedy, grand opera, &c.: a short musical burlesque, &c. [It.] INTERMIGRATION, in-t[.e]r-m[=i]-gr[=a]'shun, _n._ reciprocal migration. INTERMINABLE, in-t[.e]r'min-a-bl, INTERMINATE, in-t[.e]r'min-[=a]t, _adj._ without termination or limit: boundless: endless.--_n._ INTER'MINABLENESS.--_adv._ INTER'MINABLY.--INTERMINATE DECIMAL, a decimal conceived as carried to an infinity of places. INTERMINGLE, in-t[.e]r-ming'gl, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to mingle or mix together. INTERMIT, in-t[.e]r-mit', _v.t._ to cause to cease for a time: to interrupt.--_n._ INTERMISS'ION, act of intermitting: interval: pause.--_adj._ INTERMISS'IVE, coming at intervals.--_ns._ INTERMIT'TENCE, INTERMIT'TENCY, state of being intermittent.--_adj._ INTERMIT'TENT, intermitting or ceasing at intervals, as a fever.--_adv._ INTERMIT'TINGLY.--INTERMITTENT, or INTERMITTING, SPRING, a spring flowing for a time and then ceasing, beginning again, &c. [L. _intermitt[)e]re_, _-missum_--_inter_, between, _mitt[)e]re_, to cause to go.] INTERMIX, in-t[.e]r-miks', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to mix among or together.--_n._ INTERMIX'TURE, a mass formed by mixture: something intermixed. INTERMOBILITY, in-t[.e]r-mo-bil'i-ti, _n._ capacity of things to move among themselves. INTERMUNDANE, in-t[.e]r-mun'd[=a]n, _adj._ between worlds. INTERMURAL, in-t[.e]r-m[=u]'ral, _adj._ lying between walls. INTERMUSCULAR, in-t[.e]r-mus'k[=u]-lar, _adj._ between the muscles. INTERMUTATION, in-t[.e]r-m[=u]-t[=a]'shun, _n._ mutual change. INTERN, in-t[.e]rn', _adj._ internal.--_n._ an inmate of a school, an assistant surgeon or physician in a hospital.--Also INTERNE'. INTERN, in-t[.e]rn', _v.t._ to send into the interior of a country: to immure in an interior locality without permission to leave the district.--_n._ INTERN'MENT, state of being confined in the interior of a country. [Fr. _interner_. See INTERNAL.] INTERNAL, in-t[.e]r'nal, _adj._ being in the interior: domestic, as opposed to foreign: intrinsic: pertaining to the heart:--opp. to _External_.--_n._ INTERNAL'ITY.--_adv._ INTER'NALLY.--INTERNAL EVIDENCE, evidence with regard to a thing, subject, book, &c. afforded by its intrinsic qualities. [L. _internus_---_inter_, within.] INTERNATIONAL, in-t[.e]r-nash'un-al, _adj._ pertaining to the relations between nations.--_n._ a short-lived association formed in London in 1864 to unite the working classes of all countries in efforts for their economic emancipation.--_adv._ INTERNAT'IONALLY. INTERNECINE, in-t[.e]r-n[=e]'s[=i]n, _adj._ mutually destructive: deadly.--Also INTERN[=E]'CIVE. [L. _internec[=a]re_--_inter_, between, _nec[=a]re_, to kill.] INTERNEURAL, in-t[.e]r-n[=u]'ral, _adj._ (_anat._) situated between the neural spines or spinous processes of successive vertebræ. INTERNODE, in't[.e]r-n[=o]d, _n._ (_bot._) the space between two nodes or points of the stem from which the leaves arise.--_adj._ INTERN[=O]'DIAL. [L. _internodium_--_inter_, between, _nodus_, a knot.] INTERNUNCIO, in-t[.e]r-nun'shi-[=o], _n._ a messenger between two parties: the Pope's representative at minor courts.--_adj._ INTERNUN'CIAL. [Sp.,--L. _internuntius_--_inter_, between, _nuntius_, a messenger.] INTEROCEANIC, in-t[.e]r-[=o]-she-an'ik, _adj._ between oceans. INTEROCULAR, in-t[.e]r-ok'[=u]-lar, _adj._ between the eyes. INTERORBITAL, in-t[.e]r-or'bi-tal, _adj._ situated between the orbits of the eyes. INTEROSCULATION, in-t[.e]r-os'k[=u]-l[=a]-shun, _n._ interconnection by, or as if by, osculation.--_adj._ INTEROS'CULANT.--_v.t._ INTEROS'CUL[=A]TE. INTEROSSEOUS, in-t[.e]r-os'e-us, _adj._ situated between bones.--Also INTEROSS'EAL. INTERPAGE, in-t[.e]r-p[=a]j', _v.t._ to insert on intermediate pages. INTERPARIETAL, in-t[.e]r-pa-r[=i]'e-tal, _adj._ situated between the right and left parietal bones of the skull. INTERPELLATION, in-t[.e]r-pel-[=a]'shun, _n._ a question raised during the course of a debate: interruption: intercession: a summons: an earnest address.--_v.t._ INTER'PELLATE, to question. [Fr.,--L.,--_interpell[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to disturb by speaking--_inter_, between, _pell[)e]re_, to drive.] INTERPENETRATE, in-t[.e]r-pen'e-tr[=a]t, _v.t._ to penetrate between or within.--_n._ INTERPENETR[=A]'TION. INTERPETIOLAR, in-t[.e]r-pet'i-[=o]-lar, _adj._ (_bot._) between the petioles. INTERPHALANGEAL, in-t[.e]r-fa-lan'j[=e]-al, _adj._ situated between any successive phalanges of a finger or toe: nodal, of a digit. INTERPILASTER, in-t[.e]r-pi-las't[.e]r, _n._ (_archit._) space between two pilasters. INTERPLANETARY, in-t[.e]r-plan'et-ar-i, _adj._ between the planets. INTERPLAY, in't[.e]r-pl[=a], _n._ mutual action: interchange of action and reaction. INTERPLEAD, in-t[.e]r-pl[=e]d', _v.i._ (_law_) to discuss adverse claims to property by bill of interpleader.--_n._ INTERPLEAD'ER, one who interpleads: a form of process in the English courts, by a bill in equity, intended to protect a defendant who claims no interest in the subject-matter of a suit, while at the same time he has reason to know that the plaintiff's title is disputed by some other claimant. INTERPLEDGE, in-t[.e]r-plej', _v.t._ to pledge mutually: to give and take a pledge. INTREPLEURAL, in-t[.e]r-pl[=oo]'ral, _adj._ situated between the right and left pleural cavities. INTERPOLAR, in-t[.e]r-p[=o]'lar, _adj._ situated between or connecting the poles, as of a galvanic battery. INTERPOLATE, in-t[.e]r'po-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to insert unfairly, as a spurious word or passage in a book or manuscript, to foist in: to corrupt: (_math._) to fill up the intermediate terms of a series.--_adj._ INTER'POLABLE.--_ns._ INTERPOL[=A]'TION; INTER'POLATOR. [L. _interpol[=a]re_, -_[=a]tum_--_inter_, between, _pol[=i]re_, to polish.] INTERPOLITY, in-t[.e]r-pol'i-ti, _n._ (_rare_) interchange between countries. INTERPOSE, in-t[.e]r-p[=o]z', _v.t._ to place between: to thrust in: to offer, as aid or services.--_v.i._ to come between: to mediate: to put in by way of interruption: to interfere.--_ns._ INTERPOS'AL, same as INTERPOSITION; INTERPOS'ER; INTERPOS'IT, a place of deposit between two cities or countries; INTERPOSI'TION, act of interposing: intervention: anything interposed. [Fr.,--L. _inter_, between, Fr. _poser_, to place.] INTERPRET, in-t[.e]r'pret, _v.t._ to explain the meaning of, to elucidate, unfold, show the purport of: to translate into intelligible or familiar terms.--_v.i._ to practise interpretation.--_adj._ INTER'PRETABLE, capable of being explained.--_n._ INTERPRET[=A]'TION, act of interpreting: the sense given by an interpreter: the power of explaining: the representation of a dramatic part according to one's conception of it.--_adj._ INTERPRET[=A]'TIVE, collected by or containing interpretation.--_adv._ INTER'PRET[=A]TIVELY.--_n._ INTER'PRETER, one who explains between two parties: an expounder: a translator. [Fr.,--L. _interprer[=a]ri_, -_[=a]tus_--_interpres_, _inter_, between, -_pres_, prob. conn. with Gr. _phrasis_, speech.] INTERPROVINCIAL, in-t[.e]r-pr[=o]-vin'shal, _adj._ existing between provinces. INTERPUBIC, in-t[.e]r-p[=u]'bik, _adj._ situated between the right and left pubic bones. INTERPUNCTION, in-t[.e]r-pungk'shun, _n._ the places of points or stops in writing, intermediate punctuation.--Also INTERPUNCTU[=A]'TION. INTERRACIAL, in-t[.e]r-r[=a]'si-al, _adj._ existing or taking place between races. INTERRRADIAL, in-t[.e]r-r[=a]'di-al, _adj._ situated between the radii or rays.--_adv._ INTERR[=A]'DIALLY.--_n._ INTERR[=A]'DIUS, an interradial part, esp. of a hydrozoan. INTERRAMAL, in-t[.e]r-r[=a]'mal, _adj._ situated between the rami or forks of the lower jaw. INTERREGAL, in-t[.e]r-r[=e]'gal, _adj._ existing between kings. INTERREGNUM, in-t[.e]r-reg'num, _n._ the time between two reigns: the time between the cessation of one and the establishment of another government: any breach of continuity in order, &c.--_n._ IN'TERREIGN (_Bacon_). [L. _inter_, between, _regnum_, rule.] INTERRELATION, in-t[.e]r-r[=e]-l[=a]'shun, _n._ reciprocal relation, interconnection.---_n._ INTERREL[=A]'TIONSHIP. INTERREX, in't[.e]r-reks, _n._ one who rules during an interregnum: a regent. [L. _inter_, between, rex, a king.] INTERROGATE, in-t[.e]r'o-g[=a]t, _v.t._ to question: to examine by asking questions.--_v.i._ to ask questions: to inquire.--_n._ INTERROG[=A]'TION, act of interrogating: a question put: the mark placed after a question (?).--_adj._ INTERROG'ATIVE, denoting a question: expressed as a question.--_n._ a word used in asking a question.--_adv._ INTERROG'ATIVELY.--_ns._ INTERR'OGATOR; INTERROG'ATORY, a question or inquiry.--_adj._ expressing a question. [L. _interrog[=a]re_, -_[=a]tum_--_inter_, between, _rog[=a]re_, to ask.] INTERRUPT, in-t[.e]r-rupt', _v.t._ to break in between: to stop or hinder by breaking in upon: to divide: to break continuity.--_adj._ (_Milt._) gaping apart.--_adv._ INTERRUP'TEDLY, with interruptions.--_ns._ INTERRUP'TER, INTERRUP'TOR; INTERRUP'TION, act of interrupting: hinderance: cessation.--_adj._ INTERRUP'TIVE, tending to interrupt.--_adv._ INTERRUP'TIVELY. [L. _interrump[)e]re_--_inter_, between, _rump[)e]re_, _ruptum_, to break.] INTERSCAPULAR, in-t[.e]r-ska'p[=u]-lar, _adj._ (_anat._) between the shoulder-blades. INTERSCRIBE, in-t[.e]r-skr[=i]b', _v.t._ to write between. [L. _interscrib[)e]re_--_inter_, between, _scrib[)e]re_, to write.] INTERSECANT, in-t[.e]r-s[=e]'kant, _adj._ dividing into parts: crossing. INTERSECT, in-t[.e]r-sekt', _v.t._ to cut between or asunder: to cut or cross mutually: to divide into parts.--_v.i._ to cross each other.--_n._ INTERSEC'TION, intersecting: (_geom._) the point or line in which two lines or two planes cut each other.--_adj._ INTERSEC'TIONAL. [L. _inter_, between, _sec[=a]re_, _sectum_, to cut.] INTERSEGMENTAL, in-t[.e]r-seg'men-tal, _adj._ pertaining to two or more segments, situated between segments. INTERSEPTAL, in-t[.e]r-sep'tal, _adj._ situated between septa. INTERSIDEREAL, in-t[.e]r-s[=i]-d[=e]'re-al, _adj._ situated between or among the stars. INTERSOCIAL, in-t[.e]r-s[=o]'shal, _adj._ having mutual social relations. INTERSONANT, in-t[.e]r's[=o]-nant, _adj._ sounding between. INTERSPACE, in't[.e]r-sp[=a]s, _n._ a space between objects, an interval.--_v.t._ to occupy the space between.--_adj._ INTERSP[=A]'TIAL.--_adv._ INTERSP[=A]'TIALLY. INTERSPECIFIC, in-t[.e]r-sp[=e]-sif'ik, _adj._ existing between species. INTERSPERSE, in-t[.e]r-sp[.e]rs', _v.t._ to scatter or set here and there.--_n._ INTERSPER'SION. [L. _intersperg[)e]re_, _-spersum_--_inter_, among, _sparg[)e]re_, to scatter.] INTERSPINOUS, in-t[.e]r-sp[=i]'nus, _adj._ situated between spines.--Also INTERSP[=I]'NAL. INTERSTATE, in't[.e]r-st[=a]t, _adj._ existing between different states or persons therein. INTERSTELLAR, in-t[.e]r-stel'ar, _adj._ situated beyond the solar system or among the stars: in the intervals between the stars.--Also INTERSTELL'ARY. [L. _inter_, between, _stella_, a star.] INTERSTICE, in't[.e]r-stis, or in-t[.e]r'stis, _n._ a small space between things closely set, or between the parts which compose a body.--_adj._ INTERSTIT'IAL. [Fr.,--L.,--_inter_, between, _sist[)e]re_, _stitum_, to stand.] INTERSTRATIFICATION, in-t[.e]r-strat-i-fi-k[=a]'shun, _n._ the state of lying between other strata.--_adj._ INTERSTRAT'IFIED, stratified between other bodies.--_v.i._ INTERSTRAT'IFY. INTERSTRIAL, in-t[.e]r-str[=i]'al, _adj._ situated between striæ. INTERTANGLE, in-t[.e]r-tang'gl, _v.t,_ to intertwist. INTERTARSAL, in-t[.e]r-tär'sal, _adj._ between tarsal bones. INTERTENTACULAR, in-t[.e]r-ten-tak'[=u]-lar, _adj._ situated between tentacles. INTERTERGAL, in-t[.e]r-t[.e]r'gal, _adj._ situated between the terga or tergites of an arthropod. INTERTERRITORIAL, in-t[.e]r-ter-ri-t[=o]'ri-al, _adj._ between territories or their inhabitants. INTERTEXTURE, in-t[.e]r-teks't[=u]r, _n._ a being interwoven. INTERTIDAL, in-t[.e]r-t[=i]'dal, _adj._ living between low-water and high-water mark. INTERTIE, in't[.e]r-t[=i], _n._ (_archit._) in roofing, &c., a short timber binding together upright posts. INTERTISSUE, in-t[.e]r-tish'[=u], _v.t._ (_Shak._) to interweave. INTERTRAFFIC, in-t[.e]r-traf'ik, _n._ traffic between two or more persons or places. INTERTRANSVERSE, in-t[.e]r-trans'v[.e]rs, _adj._ between the transverse processes of successive vertebræ. INTERTRIBAL, in-t[.e]r-tr[=i]'bal, _adj._ existing or taking place between tribes. INTERTRIGO, in-t[.e]r-tr[=i]'g[=o], _n._ an inflammation of the skin from chafing or rubbing. [L. _inter_, between, _ter[)e]re_, _tritum_, to rub.] INTERTROPICAL, in-t[.e]r-trop'ik-al, _adj._ between the tropics. INTERTWINE, in-t[.e]r-tw[=i]n', _v.t._ to twine or twist together.--_v.i._ to be twisted together: to become mutually involved.--_adv._ INTERTW[=I]N'INGLY. INTERTWIST, in-t[.e]r-twist', _v.t._ to twist together.--_adv._ INTERTWIST'INGLY. INTERUNION, in-t[.e]r-[=u]n'yun, _n._ an interblending. INTERVAL, in't[.e]r-val, _n._ time or space between: any dividing tract in space or time: (_mus._) the difference of pitch between any two musical tones.--_n._ IN'TERV[=A]LE (_U.S._), a level tract along a river.--_adj._ INTERVAL'LIC--_n._ INTERVAL'LUM, an interval. [Fr.,--L. _intervallum_--_inter_, between, _vallum_, a rampart.] INTERVEINED, in-t[.e]r-v[=a]nd', _adj._ (_Milt._) intersected, as with veins. INTERVENE, in-t[.e]r-v[=e]n', _v.i._ to come or be between: to occur between points of time: to happen so as to interrupt: to interpose.--_v.t._ (_rare_) to separate.--_adj._ INTERVEN'IENT, being or passing between: intervening.--_ns._ INTERVEN'TION, intervening: interference: mediation: interposition; INTERVEN'TIONIST, one who advocates interference with the course of disease rather than leaving it to nature; INTERVEN'TOR, a mediator in ecclesiastical controversies: (_U.S._) a mine-inspector. [Fr.,--L. _inter_, between, _ven[=i]re_, to come.] INTERVENTRICULAR, in-t[.e]r-ven-trik'[=u]-lar, _adj._ situated between ventricles, as those of the heart or brain. INTERVERTEBRAL, in-t[.e]r-v[.e]r'te-bral, _adj._ situated between two successive vertebræ. INTERVIEW, in't[.e]r-v[=u], _n._ a mutual view or sight: a meeting: a conference: a visit to a notable or notorious person with a view to publishing a report of his conversation--_v.t._ to visit with this purpose.--_n._ IN'TERVIEWER, one who visits another for this purpose. [O. Fr. _entrevue_--_entre_, between, _voir_, to see.] INTERVISIBLE, in-t[.e]r-viz'i-bl, _adj._ mutually visible. INTERVITAL, in-t[.e]r-v[=i]'tal, _adj._ between lives, between death and resurrection. INTERVOCALIC, in-t[.e]r-v[=o]-kal'ik, _adj._ between vowels. INTERVOLVE, in-t[.e]r-volv', _v.t._ to involve or comprise one within another. [L. _inter_, within, _volv[)e]re_, to roll.] INTERWEAVE, in-t[.e]r-w[=e]v', _v.t._ to weave together: to intermingle. INTERWORK, in-t[.e]r-wurk', _v.i._ to work together: to work intermediately.--_p.adj._ INTERWROUGHT'. INTESTATE, in-tes't[=a]t, _adj._ dying without having made a valid will: not disposed of by will.--_n._ a person who dies without making a valid will.--_adj._ INTES'TABLE, legally unqualified to make a will.--_n._ INTES'TACY, the state of one dying without having made a valid will. [L. _intest[=a]tus_--_in_, not, _test[=a]ri_, _-atus_, to make a will.] INTESTINE, in-tes'tin, _adj._ internal: contained in the animal body: domestic: not foreign.--_n.pl._ a part of the digestive system, divided into the smaller intestine (comprising duodenum, jejunum, and ileum) and the greater intestine.--_adj._ INTES'TINAL, pertaining to the intestines of an animal body. [Fr.,--L. _intestinus_--_intus_, within.] INTHRAL. See ENTHRAL. INTIL, in-til', _prep._ (_Shak._) into, in, unto. INTIMATE, in'ti-m[=a]t, _adj._ innermost: internal: close: closely acquainted: familiar.--_n._ a familiar friend: an associate.--_v.t._ to hint: to announce.--_n._ IN'TIMACY, state of being intimate: close familiarity.--_adv._ IN'TIMATELY.--_n._ INTIM[=A]'TION, obscure notice: hint: announcement. [L. _intim[=a]re_, _[=a]tum_--_intimus_, _innermost_--_intus_, within.] INTIMIDATE, in-tim'i-d[=a]t, _v.t._ to make timid or fearful: to dispirit.--_n._ INTIMID[=A]'TION, act of intimidating: use of violence or threats to influence the conduct or compel the consent of another: state of being intimidated.--_adj._ INTIM'IDATORY. INTINCTION, in-tingk'shun, _n._ an Eastern mode of administering both elements of communion at once by dipping the bread into the wine, usually by the cochlear or eucharistic spoon. [Low L.,--L. _inting[)e]re_, _intinctum_, to dip in.] INTITULE, in-tit'[=u]l, same as ENTITLE.--INTITULED, intit'[=u]ld, same as ENTITLED. INTO, in't[=oo], _prep._ noting passage inwards: noting the passage of a thing from one state to another: (_B._) often used for _unto_. INTOED, in-t[=o]d', _adj._ having the toes more or less turned inwards. INTOLERABLE, in-tol'[.e]r-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be endured.--_n._ INTOL'ERABLENESS.--_adv._ INTOL'ERABLY.--_ns._ INTOL'ERANCE, INTOLER[=A]'TION.--_adj._ INTOL'ERANT, not able or willing to endure: not enduring difference of opinion: persecuting.--_n._ one opposed to toleration.--_adv._ INTOL'ERANTLY. INTOMB, in-t[=oo]m'. Same as ENTOMB. INTONATE, in'ton-[=a]t, _v.i._ to sound forth: to sound the notes of a musical scale: to modulate the voice.--_n._ INTON[=A]'TION, act or manner of sounding musical notes: modulation of the voice: the opening phrase of any plain-song melody, sung usually either by the officiating priest alone, or by one or more selected choristers. [Low L. _inton[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--L. _in tonum_, according to tone.] INTONE, in-t[=o]n', _v.i._ to utter in tones: to give forth a low protracted sound.--_v.t._ to chant: to read (the church service) in a singing, recitative manner.--_n._ INT[=O]N'ING, a modern popular term for the utterance in musical recitative of the versicles, responses, collects, &c. of the Anglican liturgy. INTORSION, INTORTION, in-tor'shun, _n._ a twisting, winding, or bending.--_v.t._ INTORT', to twist. INTOXICATE, in-toks'i-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to make drunk: to excite to enthusiasm or madness.--_n._ INTOX'ICANT, an intoxicating liquor.--_p.adj._ INTOX'IC[=A]TING, producing intoxication: inebriating.--_n._ INTOXIC'[=A]TION, state of being drunk: high excitement or elation. [Low L. _intoxic[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_toxicum_--Gr. _toxikon_, a poison in which arrows were dipped--_toxon_, an arrow.] INTRA, in'tra, _adv. prefix_, within, as in IN'TRA-ABDOM'INAL, situated within the cavity of the abdomen; IN'TRA-ART[=E]'RIAL, existing within an artery; IN'TRA-CAP'SULAR, lying within a capsule; IN'TRA-CAR'DIAC, within the heart; IN'TRA-CELL'ULAR, inside a cell; IN'TRA-PARI[=E]'TAL, within walls, private: situated in the parietal lobe of the brain; IN'TRA-TERRIT[=O]'RIAL, existing within a territory; IN'TRA-TROP'ICAL, situated within the tropics; IN'TRA-UR'BAN, within a city. INTRACTABLE, in-trakt'a-bl, _adj._ unmanageable: obstinate.--_ns._ INTRACTABIL'ITY, INTRACT'ABLENESS.--_adv._ INTRACT'ABLY. INTRADOS, in-tr[=a]'dos, _n._ (_archit._) the interior or lower line or surface of an arch or vault:--opp. to _Extrados_, the exterior or upper curve. [Fr.,--L. _intra_, within, _dorsum_, the back.] INTRAMUNDANE, in-tra-mun'd[=a]n, _adj._ within the world. INTRAMURAL, in-tra-m[=u]'ral, _adj._ within the walls. INTRANSIGENT, in-tran'si-jent, _adj._ refusing to come to any understanding, irreconcilable.--_ns._ INTRAN'SIGENTISM, the political practice or principles of such; INTRAN'SIGENTIST, one who practises such a method of opposition, esp. a member of a revolutionary party in Spain about 1873, and of a socialistic party in France. [Fr. _intransigeant_--Sp. _intransigente_--L. _in_, not, _transigens_, pr.p. of _transig[)e]re_, to transact.] INTRANSITIVE, in-tran'si-tiv, _adj._ not passing over or indicating passing over: (_gram._) representing action confined to the agent.--_adv._ INTRAN'SITIVELY. INTRANSMISSIBLE, in-trans-mis'i-bl, _adj._ that cannot be transmitted. INTRANSMUTABLE, in-trans-m[=u]t'a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be changed into another substance.--_n._ INTRANSMUTABIL'ITY. INTRANT, in'trant, _adj._ entering: penetrating.--_n._ one who enters, esp. on some public duty. [L. _intrans_, _-antis_--_intr[=a]re_, to enter.] INTREASURE, in-trezh'[=u]r, _v.t._ to lay up securely. INTREAT, in-tr[=e]t', _v.t._ (_Spens._) same as ENTREAT.--_adj._ INTREAT'FUL (_Spens._), full of entreaty. INTRENCH, INTRENCHMENT. See ENTRENCH. INTRENCHANT, in-trensh'ant, _adj._ (_Shak._) not to be cut or wounded, indivisible. INTREPID, in-trep'id, _adj._ without trepidation or fear: undaunted: brave.--_n._ INTREPID'ITY, firm, unshaken courage.--_adv._ INTREP'IDLY. [L. _intrepidus_--_in_, not, _trepidus_, alarmed.] INTRICATE, in'tri-k[=a]t, _adj._ involved: entangled: perplexed.--_ns._ IN'TRICACY, IN'TRICATENESS.--_adv._ IN'TRICATELY. [L. _intric[=a]tus_--_in_, in, _tric[=a]re_, to make difficulties--_tricæ_, hinderances.] INTRIGUE, in-tr[=e]g', _n._ a complex plot: a private or party scheme: the plot of a play or romance: secret illicit love.--_v.i._ to form a plot or scheme: to carry on illicit love:--_pr.p._ intrigu'ing; _pa.p._ intrigued'.--_ns._ IN'TRIGANT, INTRIG'UER, one who intrigues, or pursues an object by secret artifices. [Fr. _intriguer_--_intric[=a]re_. See INTRICATE.] INTRINSE, in-trins', _adj._ (_Shak._) intricate. INTRINSIC, -AL, in-trin'sik, -al, _p.adj._ inward: genuine: inherent: essential, belonging to the point at issue: (_anat._) applied to those muscles of the limbs entirely contained within the anatomical limits of the limb.--_n._ INTRINSICAL'ITY.--_adv._ INTRIN'SICALLY.--_n._ INTRIN'SICALNESS, the quality of being intrinsical: genuineness. [Fr.,--L. _intrinsecus_--_intra_, within, _secus_, following.] INTRINSICATE, in-trins'i-k[=a]t, _adj._ (_Shak._) intricate. INTROCESSION, in-tro-sesh'un, _n._ (_med._) a sinking of any part inwards: depression. [L. _intro_, inwardly, _ced[)e]re_, _cessum_, to go.] INTRODUCE, in-tro-d[=u]s', _v.t._ to lead or bring in: to conduct into a place: formally to make known or acquainted: to bring into notice or practice: to commence: to preface.--_n._ INTRODUC'TION, act of conducting into: act of making persons known to each other: act of bringing into notice or practice: preliminary matter to the main thoughts of a book: (_mus._) a kind of preface or prelude to a following movement: a treatise introductory to a science or course of study.--_adjs._ INTRODUC'TORY, INTRODUC'TIVE, serving to introduce: preliminary: prefatory.--_adv._ INTRODUC'TORILY. [L. _introduc[)e]re_, _-ductum_--_intro_, within, _duc[)e]re_, to lead.] INTROIT, in-tr[=o]'it, _n._ an anthem sung at the beginning of the mass, immediately after the _Confiteor_, and when the priest has ascended to the altar. [L. _introitus_--_intro[=i]re_--_intro_, within, _[=i]re_, _itum_, to go.] INTROMIT, in-tro-mit', _v.t._ to send within: to admit: to permit to enter.--_v.i._ to interfere with the effects of another:--_pr.p._ intromit'ting; _pa.p._ intromit'ted.--_ns._ INTROMISS'ION, sending within or into: (_Scots law_) the assumption of authority to deal with another's property--_legal_, where the party is expressly or impliedly authorised, either by judgment or deed, to interfere, as by drawing the rents or getting in debts--_vicious_, where an heir or next of kin, without any authority, interferes with a deceased person's estate; INTROMIT'TER, one who intromits. [L. _intro_, within, _mitt[)e]re_, _missum_, to send.] INTRORSE, in-trors', _adj._ turned or facing inward.--_adv._ INTRORSE'LY. [L. _introrsus_, toward the middle.] INTROSPECT, in-tro-spekt', _v.t._ to look into anything.--_v.i._ to practise introspection.--_ns._ INTROSPEC'TION, a sight of the inside or interior: the act of directly observing the processes of one's own mind, self-examination; INTROSPEC'TIONIST.--_adj._ INTROSPEC'TIVE. [L. _intro_, within, _spec[)e]re_, to see.] INTROSUSCEPTION, in-tro-su-sep'shun, _n._ the act of taking in, as nourishment. [L. _intro_, within, _susception-em_, _suscip[)e]re_.] INTROVERT, in-tro-v[.e]rt', _v.t._ to turn inward.--_n._ anything introverted.--_n._ INTROVER'SION.--_adj._ INTROVER'SIVE. [L. _intro_, within, _vert[)e]re_, to turn.] INTRUDE, in-tr[=oo]d', _v.i._ to thrust one's self in: to enter uninvited or unwelcome.--_v.t._ to force in.--_ns._ INTRUD'ER; INTRU'SION, act of intruding or of entering into a place without welcome or invitation: encroachment: a pushing in, an abnormal irruption, esp. in geology, of such rocks as have come up from below into another rock or series of beds; INTRU'SIONIST, one who intrudes, esp. one of those who, before the Scotch Disruption of 1843, refused a parish the right of objecting to the settlement of an obnoxious minister by a patron:--opp. to _Non-intrusionist_.--_adj._ INTRU'SIVE, tending or apt to intrude: entering without welcome or right.--_adv._ INTRU'SIVELY.--_n._ INTRU'SIVENESS. [L. _in_, in, _trud[)e]re_, _trusum_, to thrust.] INTRUST. See ENTRUST. INTUITION, in-t[=u]-ish'un, _n._ the power of the mind by which it immediately perceives the truth of things without reasoning or analysis: a truth so perceived, immediate knowledge in contrast with mediate.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ IN'TUIT, to know intuitively.--_adj._ INTUIT'IONAL.--_ns._ INTUIT'IONALISM, the doctrine that the perception of truth is by intuition; INTUIT'IONALIST.--_adj._ INT[=U]'ITIVE, perceived or perceiving by intuition: received or known by simple inspection.--_adv._ INT[=U]'ITIVELY.--_n._ INT[=U]'ITIVISM. [L. _in_, into or upon, _tu[=e]ri_, _tuitus_, to look.] INTUMESCENCE, in-t[=u]-mes'ens, _n._ the action of swelling: a swelling: a tumid state.--_v.i._ INTUMESCE', to swell up. [Fr.,--L. _in_, in, _tum[=e]re_, to swell.] INTURBIDATE, in-tur'bi-d[=a]t, _v.t._ to render turbid. [L. _in_, in, _turbid[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to trouble.] INTUSE, in't[=u]s, _n._ (_Spens._) a bruise. [L. _in_, in, _tund[)e]re_, _tusum_, to bruise.] INTUSSUSCEPTION, in-tus-su-sep'shun, _n._ the partial displacement of the bowel in which one portion of it passes into the portion immediately adjacent to it--also called _Invagination_.--_v.t._ IN'TUSSUSCEPT, to take into the interior.--_adjs._ INTUSSUSCEP'TED; INTUSSUSCEP'TIVE. [L. _intus_, within, _susception-em_--_suscip[)e]re_, to take up.] INTWINE, in-tw[=i]n'. Same as ENTWINE. INTWIST, in-twist'. Same as ENTWIST. INULIN, in'[=u]-lin, _n._ a starch-like product used in medicine, obtained principally from the roots of the plant _Inula_ or _Elecampane._ [Prob. Gr. _helenion_.] INUMBRATE, in-um'br[=a]t, _v.t._ to cast a shadow upon: to shade. [L. _inumbr[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_in_, in, _umbr[=a]re_, to shade--_umbra_, a shadow.] INUNCTION, in-ungk'shun, _n._ the act of anointing, the process of rubbing into the skin, as an ointment or liniment.--_n._ INUNCTUOS'ITY, absence of oiliness. INUNDATE, in-un'd[=a]t, or in'-, _v.t._ to flow upon or over in waves (said of water): to flood: to fill with an overflowing abundance.--_adj._ INUN'DANT, overflowing.--_n._ INUND[=A]'TION, act of inundating: a flood: an overflowing. [L.,--_inund[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_in_, in, _und[=a]re_, to rise in waves--_unda_, a wave.] INURBANE, in-ur-b[=a]n', _adj._ not urbane, unpolished.--_adv._ INURBANE'LY.--_n._ INURBAN'ITY. INURE, in-[=u]r', _v.t._ to use or practise habitually: to accustom: to harden.--_v.i._ (_law_) to come into use or effect: to serve to the use or benefit of.--_n._ INURE'MENT, act of inuring: practice. [From in and _ure_--O. Fr. _eure_ (Fr. _oeuvre_, work)--L. _opera_, work; the same word _ure_ is found in _manure_ (q.v.).] INURN, in-urn', _v.t._ to place in an urn: to entomb. INUSITATION, in-[=u]-zi-t[=a]'shun, _n._ (_obs._) disuse. INUTILITY, in-[=u]-til'i-ti, _n._ want of utility: uselessness: unprofitableness: something useless. INUTTERABLE, in-ut'[.e]r-a-bl, _adj._ not to be uttered. INVADE, in-v[=a]d', _v.t._ to enter a country as an enemy: to attack: to encroach upon: to violate: to seize or fall upon.--_ns._ INVAD'ER; INV[=A]'SION, the act of invading: an attack: an incursion: an attack on the rights of another: an encroachment: a violation.--_adj._ INV[=A]'SIVE, making invasion: aggressive: infringing another's rights. [Fr.,--L. _invad[)e]re_, _invasum_--_in_, in, _vad[)e]re_, to go.] INVAGINATION, in-vaj-i-n[=a]'shun, _n._ intussusception. [L. _in_, not, _vagina_, a sheath.] INVALID, in-val'id, _adj._ without value, weight, or cogency: having no effect: void: null.--_adj._ IN'VALID, deficient in health, sick, weak.--_n._ one who is weak: a sickly person: one disabled for active service, esp. a soldier or sailor.--_v.t._ to make invalid or affect with disease: to enrol on the list of invalids.--_v.t._ INVAL'ID[=A]TE, to render invalid: to weaken or destroy the force of.--_ns._ INVALID[=A]'TION; IN'VALIDHOOD, IN'VALIDISM; IN'VALIDING, the return home, or to a more healthy climate, of soldiers or sailors who have been rendered incapable of active duty by wounds or the severity of foreign service; INVALID'ITY, INVAL'IDNESS, want of cogency: want of force. INVALUABLE, in-val'[=u]-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be valued: priceless.--_adv._ INVAL'UABLY. INVARIABLE, in-v[=a]'ri-a-bl, _adj._ not variable: without variation or change: unalterable: constantly in the same state.--_ns._ INV[=A]'RIABLENESS, INVARIABIL'ITY, the quality of being invariable or unchangeable.--_adv._ INV[=A]'RIABLY. INVASION. See INVADE. INVECKED, in-vekt', _adj._ invected. INVECTED, in-vek'ted, _adj._ (_her._) having a border-line of small convex or outer curves:--opp. to _Engrailed_, of a line, or the edge of a bearing. [L. _invectus_, _inveh[)e]re_, to enter.] INVECTIVE, in-vek'tiv, _n._ a severe or reproachful accusation brought against any one: an attack with words: a violent utterance of censure: sarcasm, or satire.--_adj._ railing: abusive: satirical.--_adv._ INVEC'TIVELY, by invective: satirically: sarcastically. [See INVEIGH.] INVEIGH, in-v[=a]', _v.i._ to attack with words: to rail against: to revile. [L. _inveh[)e]re_, _invectum_--_in_, in, _veh[)e]re_, to carry.] INVEIGLE, in-v[=e]'gl, _v.t._ to entice: to seduce: to wheedle.--_ns._ INVEI'GLEMENT, an enticing: an enticement--older forms INVEA'GLE, ENVEI'GLE; INVEI'GLER. [Ety. dub.; prob. a corr. of O. Fr. _enveogler_ (Fr. _aveugle_, blind)--L. _ab_, without, _oculus_, the eye.] INVENDIBLE, in-ven'di-bl, _adj._ not vendible.--_n._ INVENDIBIL'ITY. INVENT, in-vent', _v.t._ to devise or contrive: to make: to frame: to fabricate: to forge.--_adj._ INVEN'TIBLE.--_n._ INVEN'TION, that which is invented: contrivance: a deceit: power or faculty of inventing: ability displayed by any invention or effort of the imagination.--_adj._ INVEN'TIVE, able to invent: ready in contrivance.--_adv._ INVEN'TIVELY.--_ns._ INVEN'TIVENESS; INVEN'TOR, INVEN'TER, one who invents or finds out something new:--_fem._ INVEN'TRESS.--INVENTION OF THE CROSS, a festival observed on May 3, in commemoration of the alleged discovery of the true cross at Jerusalem in 326 by Helena, mother of Constantine the Great. [Fr.,--L. _inven[=i]re_, _inventum_--_in_, upon, _ven[=i]re_, to come.] INVENTORY, in'ven-tor-i, _n._ a list or schedule of articles comprised in an estate, describing each article separately and precisely so as to show of what the estate consists.--_v.t._ to make an inventory of.--_adj._ INVENT[=O]'RIAL.--_adv._ INVENT[=O]'RIALLY. [Fr. _inventaire_--L. _inventarium_, a list of things found.] INVERNESS-CAPE, in-v[.e]r-nes'-k[=a]p, _n._ a form of overcoat with cape or tippet--named from _Inverness_. INVERSE, in-v[.e]rs', _adj._ inverted: in the reverse or contrary order: opposite, inverted--opp. to _Direct_: (_math._) opposite in effect, of one operation that annuls the effect of another, as subtraction to addition, &c.--_n._ an inverted state, a direct opposite.--_adv._ INVERSE'LY.--_n._ INVER'SION, the act of inverting: the state of being inverted: a change of order or position.--_adj._ INVER'SIVE. INVERT, in-v[.e]rt', _v.t._ to turn in or about: to turn upside down: to reverse: to change the customary order or position.--_n._ (_archit._) an inverted arch or vault, as the floor of a sewer, &c.--_adj._ INVER'TED, turned upside down: reversed: (_geol._) denoting strata that appear to have been reversed or folded back by upheaval.--_adv._ INVER'TEDLY, in an inverted or contrary manner.--INVERTED ARCH, an arch with its curve turned downwards, as in a sewer. [L. _invert[)e]re_, _inversum_--_in_, in, _vert[)e]re_, to turn.] INVERTEBRAL, in-v[.e]rt'e-bral, INVERTEBRATE, in-v[.e]rt'ebr[=a]t, _adj._ without a vertebral column or backbone: weak, irresolute.--_n.pl._ INVERTEBR[=A]'TA, a collective name for those animals which agree in not exhibiting the characteristics of vertebrates.--_n._ INVER'TEBRATE, an animal destitute of a skull and vertebral column. INVEST, in-vest', _v.t._ to put vesture on, to dress: to confer or give: to place in office or authority: to adorn: to surround: to block up: to lay siege to: to place: as property in business: to lay out money on.--_adj._ INVES'TITIVE.--_ns._ INVES'TITURE, in feudal and ecclesiastical history, the act of giving corporal possession of a manor, office, or benefice, accompanied by a certain ceremonial, such as the delivery of a branch, a banner, &c., to signify the authority which it is supposed to convey; INVEST'MENT, the act of investing: a blockade: the act of surrounding or besieging: laying out money on: any placing of money to secure income or profit: that in which anything is invested: (_Shak._) clothing; INVES'TOR, one who invests. [L. _invest[=i]re_, _-[=i]tum_--_in_, on, _vest[=i]re_, to clothe.] INVESTIGATE, in-vest'i-g[=a]t, _v.t._ to search into: to inquire into with care and accuracy.--_adj._ INVEST'IGABLE, able to be investigated.--_n._ INVESTIG[=A]'TION, act of examining into: research: study.--_adjs._ INVEST'IG[=A]TIVE, INVEST'IG[=A]TORY, promoting or given to investigation.--_n._ INVEST'IG[=A]TOR, one who investigates. [L. _investig[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_in_, in, _vestig[=a]re_, to track.] INVETERATE, in-vet'[.e]r-[=a]t, _adj._ firmly established by long continuance: deep-rooted, confirmed in any habit: violent.--_adv._ INVET'ERATELY.--_ns._ INVET'ERATENESS, INVET'ERACY, firmness produced by long use or continuance. [L. _inveter[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to grow old--_in_, in, _vetus_, _veteris_, old.] INVEXED, in-vekst', _adj._ (_her._) shaped in a curve. INVIDIOUS, in-vid'i-us, _adj._ likely to incur or provoke ill-will: likely to excite envy, enviable: offensively discriminating.--_adv._ INVID'IOUSLY.--_n._ INVID'IOUSNESS. [L. _invidiosus_--_invidia_, envy.] INVIGORATE, in-vig'or-[=a]t, _v.t._ to give vigour to: to strengthen: to animate.--_ns._ INVIGOR[=A]'TION, the act or state of being invigorated; INVIG'ORATOR, something that invigorates. INVINCIBLE, in-vin'si-bl, _adj._ that cannot be overcome: insuperable.--_ns._ INVIN'CIBLENESS, INVINCIBIL'ITY.--_adv._ INVIN'CIBLY.--INVINCIBLE IGNORANCE (see IGNORANCE).--THE INVINCIBLE DOCTOR, William of Occam (c. 1280-1349). INVIOLABLE, in-v[=i]'[=o]l-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be profaned: that cannot be injured.--_ns._ INVIOLABIL'ITY, INV[=I]'OLABLENESS, the quality of being inviolable.--_adv._ INV[=I]'OLABLY.--_adjs._ INV[=I]'OL[=A]TE, -D, not violated: unprofaned: uninjured.--_adv._ INV[=I]'OL[=A]TELY, without violation.--_n._ INV[=I]'OL[=A]TENESS, the quality of being inviolate. INVIOUS, in'vi-us, _adj._ (_rare_) impassable. [L.] INVISIBLE, in-viz'i-bl, _adj._ not visible or capable of being seen--(_Shak._) INVISED'.--_ns._ INVISIBIL'ITY, INVIS'IBLENESS.--_adv._ INVIS'IBLY.--INVISIBLE CHURCH (see VISIBLE); INVISIBLE GREEN, a shade of green so dark as to be almost black; INVISIBLE INK (see INK). INVITE, in-v[=i]t', _v.t._ to ask: to summon: to allure: to attract.--_v.i._ to ask in invitation.--_n._ INVIT[=A]'TION, the act of inviting: an asking or solicitation, the written or verbal form with which a person is invited: the brief exhortation introducing the confession in the Anglican communion-office.--_adj._ INVIT'[=A]TORY, using or containing invitation.--_n._ a form of invitation in worship, esp. the antiphon to the Venite or 95th Psalm.--_ns._ INVITE'MENT (_Lamb_), allurement, temptation; INVIT'ER.--_p.adj._ INVIT'ING, alluring: attractive.--_n._ (_Shak._) invitation.--_adv._ INVIT'INGLY, in an inviting manner.--_n._ INVIT'INGNESS, attractiveness. [Fr.,--L. _invit[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_.] INVITRIFIABLE, in-vit'ri-f[=i]-a-bl, _adj._ not vitrifiable. INVOCATE, in'vo-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to invoke or call on solemnly or with prayer; to implore.--_n._ INVOC[=A]'TION, the act or the form of invocating or addressing in prayer or supplication: a call or summons, especially a judicial order: any formal invoking of the blessing of God, esp. an opening prayer in a public religious service, and the petitions in the Litany addressed to God in each person and in the Trinity.--_adj._ INVOC'ATORY, that invokes: making invocation. [See INVOKE.] INVOICE, in'vois, _n._ a letter of advice of the despatch of goods, with particulars of their price and quantity.--_v.t._ to make an invoice of. [Prob. a corr. of _envois_, pl. of Fr. _envoi_.] INVOKE, in-v[=o]k', _v.t._ to call upon earnestly or solemnly: to implore assistance: to address in prayer. [Fr.,--L. _invoc[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_in_, on, _voc[=a]re_, to call.] INVOLUCRE, in-vol-[=u]'k[.e]r, _n._ (_bot._) a group of bracts in the form of a whorl around an expanded flower or umbel--also INVOL[=U]'CRUM.--_ns._ INVOL'UCEL, INVOLUCEL'LUM, a secondary involucre.--_adjs._ IN'VOLUCRAL, INVOL[=U]'CRATE, having an involucre.--_n._ INVOL[=U]'CRET. [L. _involucrum_--_involv[)e]re_, to involve.] INVOLUNTARY, in-vol'un-tar-i, _adj._ not voluntary: not having the power of will or choice: not done willingly: not chosen.--_adv._ INVOL'UNTARILY.--_n._ INVOL'UNTARINESS. INVOLUTE, in'vo-l[=u]t, _n._ that which is involved or rolled inward: a curve traced by the end of a string unwinding itself from another curve.--_adjs._ IN'VOLUTE, -D (_bot._), rolled spirally inward: turned inward, of shells.--_n._ INVOL[=U]'TION, the action of involving: state of being involved or entangled: complicated grammatical construction: (_arith._) act or process of raising a quantity to any given power. [See INVOLVE.] INVOLVE, in-volv', _v.t._ to wrap up: to envelop: to implicate: to include: to complicate: to overwhelm: to catch: (_arith._) to multiply a quantity into itself any given number of times.--_n._ INVOLVE'MENT, act of involving: state of being involved or entangled. [Fr.--L. _involv[)e]re_--_in_, upon, _volv[)e]re_, _vol[=u]tum_, to roll.] INVULNERABLE, in-vul'n[.e]r-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be wounded.--_ns._ INVULNERABIL'ITY, INVUL'NERABLENESS.--_adv._ INVUL'NERABLY. INVULTUATION, in-vul-t[=u]-[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of piercing a wax or clay image of a person that he may suffer torture and die--one of the commonest methods of witchcraft. [Low L. _invultuation-em_--_invultare_, to stab the face of--L. _in_, in, _vultus_, the face.] INWALL. See ENWALL. INWARD, in'ward, _adj._ placed or being within: internal: seated in the mind or soul, not perceptible to the senses, as the 'inward part' of a sacrament: (_B._) intimate.--_n.pl._ (_B._) the intestines.--_adv._ toward the inside: toward the interior: into the mind or thoughts.--_adv._ IN'WARDLY, in the parts within: in the heart: privately: toward the centre.--_n._ IN'WARDNESS, internal state: inner meaning or significance: (_Shak._) intimacy, familiarity.--_adv._ IN'WARDS, same as INWARD. [A.S. _inneweard_ (adv.).] INWEAVE, in-w[=e]v', _v.t._ to weave into: to complicate. INWICK, in'wik, _n._ in curling, a stroke in which the stone rebounds from the inside edge of another stone, and then slides close to the tee. INWIT, in'wit, _n._ inward knowledge, conscience. INWORK, in-wurk', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to work in or into.--_n._ IN'WORKING, energy exerted inwardly.--_p.adj._ IN'WROUGHT, wrought in or among other things: adorned with figures. INWORN, in-w[=o]rn', _adj._ worn or worked into, inwrought. INWRAP=ENWRAP. INWREATHE=ENWREATHE. IO, [=i]'[=o], _n._ an exclamation of joy or triumph. [L.] IODAL, [=i]'[=o]-dal, _adj._ _n._ an oily liquid compound with properties like chloral, obtained by treating iodine with alcohol and nitric acid. IODINE, [=i]'o-din, _n._ one of the four non-metallic elements, so named from the violet colour of its vapour.--_n._ I'OD[=A]TE, a combination of iodic acid with a salifiable base.--_adj._ IOD'IC, containing iodine.--_n._ I'OD[=I]DE, a binary compound of iodine.--_adj._ IODIF'EROUS, yielding iodine.--_n._ I'ODISM, a morbid condition due to iodine.--_v.t._ I'OD[=I]ZE, to treat with iodine: to impregnate with iodine, as collodion.--_n._ IOD'OFORM, a lemon-yellow crystalline substance, having a saffron-like odour and an unpleasant iodine-like taste.--_adj._ IODOMET'RIC (_chem._), measured by iodine.--_ns._ I'ODURE, IOD'[=U]RET, a compound of iodine with a simple base; IOD'YRITE, a yellowish mineral composed of iodine and silver. [Gr. _ioeid[=e]s_, violet-coloured--_ion_, a violet, _eidos_, form.] IOLITE, [=i]'o-l[=i]t, _n._ a transparent gem which presents a violet-blue colour when looked at in a certain direction. [Gr. _ion_, violet, _lithos_, stone.] ION, [=i]'on, _n._ one of the components into which an electrolyte is broken up on electrolysis--the _Anion_, the electro-negative component, chemically attacking the anode, and the _Cation_, the electro-positive component, the cathode. [Gr. _i[=o]n_, pr.p. of _ienai_, to go.] IONIC, [=i]-on'ik, _adj._ relating to _Ionia_ in Greece: denoting an order in architecture distinguished by the ram's-horn volute of its capital--also I[=O]'NIAN.--_vs.t._ ION'ICIZE, I'ONIZE.--_ns._ I'ONISM; I'ONIST.--IONIC DIALECT, the most important of the three main branches of the ancient Greek language (Ionic, Doric, Æolic), marked by greater softness and smoothness, the effect of its rich vowel system. Homer's _Iliad_ is written in _Old_, the history of Herodotus in _New_ Ionic: the Attic of Thucydides and Sophocles is its later form; IONIC MODE (see MODE); IONIC SCHOOL, a name given to the representative philosophers of the Ionian Greeks, such as Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Heraclitus, Anaxagoras, who debated the question what was the primordial constitutive principle of the cosmical universe. IOTA, [=i]-[=o]'ta, _n._ a jot: a very small quantity or degree.--_ns._ IOT'ACISM, IT'ACISM, the conversion of other vowel sounds into that of iota (Eng. _[=e]_), as in modern Gr. of [Greek: ê], [Greek: u], [Greek: ei], [Greek: ê], [Greek: oi], [Greek: ui]; IT'ACIST. [Gr., the smallest letter in the alphabet, corresponding to the English _i_.] I O U, [=i]'[=o]'[=u]', _n._ a memorandum of debt given by a borrower to a lender, requiring no stamp, but to be holograph, dated, and addressed to some person. IPECACUANHA, ip-e-kak-[=u]-an'a, _n._ the name both of a very valuable medicine and of the plant whose root produces it--used as an emetic. [Brazilian, 'smaller roadside sick-making plant.'] IPOMÆA, ip-[=o]-m[=e]'a, _n._ a genus of nat. ord. _Convolvulaceæ_. [Gr. _ips_, a worm, _homoios_, like.] IRACUND, [=i]'ra-kund, _adj._ (_Carlyle_) angry. [L.] IRADE, i-rä'de, _n._ a written decree of the Sultan of Turkey. IRANIAN, [=i]-r[=a]n'i-an, _adj._ and _n._ of or pertaining to _Iran_, Persia: a branch of the Indo-European or Aryan tongues, including Persian, Zend, Pehlevi, and Parsi: an inhabitant of Iran.--Also IRAN'IC. IRASCIBLE, [=i]-ras'i-bl, _adj._ susceptible of ire or anger: easily provoked: irritable.--_n._ IRASCIBIL'ITY.--_adv._ IRAS'CIBLY. [Fr.,--L. _irascibilis_--_irasci_, to be angry--_ira_, anger.] IRE, [=i]r, _n._ anger: rage: keen resentment.--_adjs._ IRATE ([=i]-r[=a]t' or i-r[=a]t'), enraged: angry; IRE'FUL, full of ire or wrath: resentful.--_adv._ IRE'FULLY.--_n._ IRE'FULNESS. [L. _ira_, anger, _irasci_, _ir[=a]tus_, to be angry.] IRENIC, [=i]-ren'ik, _adj._ tending to create peace: pacific--also IREN'ICAL.--_n._ IREN'ICON, a proposition or scheme for peace: the deacon's litany at the beginning of the Greek liturgy--from its opening petitions for peace.--_n.pl._ _Iren'ics_, irenical theology:--opp. to _Polemics_. [See EIRENICON.] IRICISM. See IRISH. IRIDEÆ, [=i]-rid'e-[=e], _n.pl._ a natural order of endogenous plants, with fleshy root-stocks and showy flowers.--Also IRID[=A]'CEÆ. [Gr. _iris_, a rainbow.] IRIDIUM, [=i]-rid'i-um, _n._ the most infusible, and one of the heaviest, of the metals, found associated with the ore of platinum, so called from the iridescence of some of its solutions.--_n._ IRIDOS'MIUM, a native compound of iridium and osmium, used for pointing gold pens. [Gr. _iris_, _iridos_, the rainbow.] IRIS, [=i]'ris, _n._ the rainbow: an appearance resembling the rainbow: the contractile curtain perforated by the pupil, and forming the coloured part of the eye (also I'RID): the fleur-de-lis, or flagflower:--_pl._ I'RISES.--_adjs._ I'RIDAL, IRID'IAN, exhibiting the colours of the iris or rainbow: prismatic.--_ns._ IRIDES'CENCE, IRIDIS[=A]'TION.--_adjs._ IRIDES'CENT, coloured like the iris or rainbow; I'RIDINE, iridescent.--_v.t._ IR'IDISE.--_adjs._ I'RIS[=A]TED, rainbow-coloured; IR'ISED, showing colours like the rainbow.--_ns._ IR[=I]'TIS, IRID[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the iris of the eye. [L. _iris_, _iridis_--Gr. _iris_, _iridos_, the rainbow.] IRISCOPE, [=i]'ri-sk[=o]p, _n._ an instrument for exhibiting the prismatic colours. [Gr. _iris_, the rainbow, _skopein_, to see.] IRISH, [=i]'rish, _adj._ relating to or produced in Ireland.--_n._ language of the Irish, a form of Celtic: (_pl._) the natives or inhabitants of Ireland.--_ns._ I'RICISM, I'RISHISM, a phrase or idiom peculiar to the Irish.--_n.pl._ I'RISHRY, the people of Ireland.--IRISH MOSS, carrageen; IRISH STEW, a palatable dish of mutton, onions, and potatoes, seasoned, and stewed in water mixed with flour. IRK, [.e]rk, _v.t._ to weary: to trouble: to distress (now used only impersonally).--_adj._ IRK'SOME, causing uneasiness: tedious: unpleasant.--_adv._ IRK'SOMELY.--_n._ IRK'SOMENESS. [M. E. _irken_--Scand., Sw. _yrka_, to urge; prob. cog. with L. _urg[=e]re_.] IRON, [=i]'urn, _n._ the most common and useful of the metals: an instrument or utensil made of iron, as a hand-harpoon, &c.: a golf-club with an iron head, more set back than the cleek: strength: (_pl._) fetters: chains.--_adj._ formed of iron: resembling iron: rude: stern: fast-binding: not to be broken: robust: dull of understanding.--_v.t._ to smooth with a smoothing-iron: to arm with iron: to fetter.--_adjs._ I'RON-BOUND, bound with iron: rugged, as a coast; I'RON-CASED; I'RONCLAD, clad in iron: covered or protected with iron.--_n._ a vessel defended by iron plates.--_ns._ I'RON-CLAY, a yellowish clay containing a large quantity of iron ore; I'RONER, one who irons; I'RON-FLINT, ferruginous quartz; I'RON-FOUND'ER, one who founds or makes castings in iron; I'RON-FOUND'RY, a place where iron is founded or cast.--_adj._ I'RON-GRAY, of a gray colour, like that of iron freshly cut or broken.--_n._ this colour.--_adjs._ I'RON-HAND'ED, having hands hard as iron; I'RON-HEART'ED, having a heart hard as iron: cruel.--_ns._ I'RON-HEAT'ER, the piece of metal heated in the fire for a laundress's box-iron; I'RONING, the act of smoothing with hot irons; I'RONING-BOARD, a smooth board covered with cloth, on which clothes are laid for ironing; I'RONING-MACHINE', a machine for hotpressing cloth, hats, &c.; I'RON-LIQ'UOR, iron acetate, a dyers' mordant; I'RONMASTER, a master or proprietor of ironworks; I'RONMONGER, a dealer in articles made of iron; I'RONMONGERY, a general name for articles made of iron: hardware; I'RON-MOULD, the spot left on wet cloth after touching rusty iron; I'RON-SAND, sand containing particles of iron ore: steel filings used in fireworks.--_adj._ I'RON-SICK (_naut._), having the iron bolts and spikes much corroded.--_n._ I'RONSIDE, a man of iron resolution: (_pl._) a name given to Cromwell's irresistible horse.--_adj._ I'RON-SID'ED, having a side of, or as hard as, iron: rough: hardy.--_ns._ I'RONSMITH, a worker in iron; I'RON-STONE, a term usually applied to any ore yielding iron; I'RONWARE, wares or goods of iron.--_adj._ I'RON-WIT'TED (_Shak._), unfeeling, insensible.--_n._ I'RONWOOD, applied to the timber of various trees on account of their hardness.--_adj._ I'RON-WORD'ED (_Tenn._), in words as strong as iron.--_n._ I'RONWORK, the parts of a building, &c., made of iron: anything of iron: a furnace where iron is smelted, or a foundry, &c., where it is made into heavy work.--_adj._ I'RONY, made, consisting, or partaking of iron: like iron: hard.--_ns._ CAST'-[=I]'RON, a compound of iron and carbon, obtained directly from iron ore by smelting; ITAL'IAN-[=I]'RON, an instrument for fluting linen or lace.--IRON AGE, an archæological term indicating the condition as to civilisation and culture of a people using iron as the material for their cutting tools and weapons: a period of cruel tyranny; IRON BARK TREE, a name given in Australia to certain species of Eucalyptus (q.v.); IRON CROWN, the ancient crown of Lombardy, so named from a thin band of iron said to be made from one of the nails of the Cross; IRON ENTERED INTO HIS SOUL, the bitterest pang of grief has touched his heart.--BESSEMER IRON, pig-iron suitable for making Bessemer steel.--HAVE TOO MANY IRONS IN THE FIRE, to be trying to do too many things at once; IN IRONS, having fetters on; RULE WITH A ROD OF IRON, to rule with stern severity. [A.S. _iren_; Ger. _eisen_.] IRONY, [=i]'run-i, _n._ a mode of speech which enables the speaker to convey his meaning with greater force by means of a contrast between the thought which he evidently designs to express and that which his words properly signify: satire.--_adj._ IRON'ICAL, meaning the opposite of what is expressed: satirical.--_adv._ IRON'ICALLY.--THE IRONY OF FATE, the perverse malignity of fate. [Fr.,--L. _ironia_, Gr. _eir[=o]neia_, dissimulation--_eir[=o]n_, a dissembler--_eirein_, to talk.] IRRADIATE, ir-r[=a]'di-[=a]t, _v.t._ to dart rays of light upon or into: to adorn with lustre: to decorate with shining ornaments: to animate with light or heat: to illuminate the understanding.--_v.i._ to emit rays: to shine.--_adj._ adorned with rays of light or with lustre.--_ns._ IRR[=A]'DIANCE, IRR[=A]'DIANCY, the throwing of rays of light on (any object): that which irradiates or is irradiated: beams of light emitted: splendour.--_adj._ IRR[=A]'DIANT, irradiating or shedding beams of light.--_n._ IRRADI[=A]'TION, act of irradiating or emitting beams of light: that which is irradiated: brightness: intellectual light.--_adj._ IRR[=A]'DI[=A]TIVE. IRRADICATE, i-rad'i-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to fix firmly. IRRATIONAL, ir-rash'un-al, _adj._ void of reason or understanding: absurd.--_n._ IRRATIONAL'ITY.--_adv._ IRRA'TIONALLY.--IRRATIONAL NUMBERS, a term applied to those roots of numbers which cannot be accurately expressed by a finite number of figures--e.g. [sqrt]2 is an irrational number. IRREALISABLE, ir-r[=e]'a-l[=i]-za-bl, _adj._ not realisable. IRREBUTTABLE, ir-re-but'a-bl, _adj._ not to be rebutted. IRRECEPTIVE, ir-re-sep'tiv, _adj._ not receptive. IRRECIPROCAL, ir-re-sip'ro-kal, _adj._ not reciprocal. IRRECLAIMABLE, ir-re-kl[=a]m'a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be reclaimed or reformed: incorrigible.--_n._ IRRECLAIM'ABLENESS.--_adv._ IRRECLAIM'ABLY. IRRECOGNISABLE, ir-rek'og-n[=i]z-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be recognised.--_n._ IRRECOGNI'TION, lack of recognition. IRRECONCILABLE, ir-rek-on-s[=i]l'a-bl, _adj._ incapable of being brought back to a state of friendship: inconsistent.--_ns._ IRRECONCIL'ABLENESS, IRRECONCILABIL'ITY, incapability of being reconciled.--_adv._ IRRECONCIL'ABLY.--_adj._ IRREC'ONCILED, not reconciled or brought into harmony.--_n._ IRREC'ONCILEMENT. IRRECOVERABLE, ir-re-kuv'[.e]r-a-bl, _adj._ irretrievable.--_n._ IRRECOV'ERABLENESS.--_adv._ IRRECOV'ERABLY. IRREDEEMABLE, ir-re-d[=e]m'a-bl, _adj._ not redeemable: not subject to be paid at the nominal value.--_ns._ IRREDEEM'ABLENESS, IRREDEEMABIL'ITY.--_adv._ IRREDEEM'ABLY. IRREDENTIST, ir-e-den'tist, _n._ one of an Italian party formed in 1878, its aim to incorporate into Italy all Italian people politically belonging to other countries, as in the Tyrol, Nice, &c.--_n._ IRREDEN'TISM, the programme of the Irredentist party. [It. _irredentista_--_irredenta_ (_Italia_), 'unredeemed'--L. _in_, not, _redemptus_, _redim[)e]re_, to redeem.] IRREDUCIBLE, ir-re-d[=u]s'i-bl, _adj._ that cannot be reduced or brought from one degree, form, or state to another: not to be reduced by manipulation, as a hernia, &c.--_n._ IRREDUC'IBLENESS.--_adv._ IRREDUC'IBLY.--_ns._ IRREDUCTIBIL'ITY, IRREDUC'TION. IRREFLECTIVE, ir-re-flekt'iv, _adj._ not reflective.--_n._ IRREFLEC'TION. IRREFORMABLE, ir-re-for'ma-bl, _adj._ not reformable, not subject to revision or improvement. IRREFRAGABLE, ir-ref'ra-ga-bl, _adj._ that cannot be refuted: unanswerable.--_ns._ IRREFRAGABIL'ITY, IRREF'RAGABLENESS.--_adv._ IRREF'RAGABLY.--_n._ IRREFRANGIBIL'ITY.--_adj._ IRREFRANGIBLE (ir-e-fran'-ji-bl), not to be broken.--_adv._ IRREFRAN'GIBLY.--THE IRREFRAGABLE DOCTOR, Alexander Hales (died 1245). [Fr.,--L. _in_, not, _re_, backwards, _frang[)e]re_, to break.] IRREFUTABLE, ir-re-f[=u]t'a-bl, or ir-ref'[=u]-ta-bl, _adj._ that cannot be refuted.--_adv._ IRREF[=U]T'ABLY (also -ref'-). IRREGULAR, ir-reg'[=u]-lar, _adj._ not according to rule: unnatural: unsystematic: vicious: (_gram._) departing from the ordinary rules in its inflection: variable: not symmetrical, without regular form--(_Shak._) IRREG'ULOUS.--_n._ a soldier not in regular service.--_n._ IRREGULAR'ITY, state of being irregular: deviation from a straight line, or from rule: departure from method or order: vice.--_adv._ IRREG'ULARLY. IRRELATIVE, ir-rel'a-tiv, _adj._ not relative.--_adj._ IRREL[=A]T'ED.--_n._ IRREL[=A]'TION.--_adv._ IRREL'ATIVELY. IRRELEVANT, ir-rel'e-vant, _adj._ not relevant.--_n._ IRREL'EVANCY.--_adv._ IRREL'EVANTLY. IRRELIGIOUS, ir-re-lij'us, _adj._ destitute of religion: ungodly.--_adv._ IRRELIG'IOUSLY.--_ns._ IRRELIG'IOUSNESS, IRRELIG'ION, want of religion. IRREMEABLE, ir-r[=e]'me-a-bl, _adj._ (_Pope_) not admitting of return. [L. _in_, not, _remeabilis_, _reme[=a]re_--_re_, back, _me[=a]re_, to go, come.] IRREMEDIABLE, ir-re-m[=e]'di-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be remedied or redressed.--_n._ IRREM[=E]'DIABLENESS.--_adv._ IRREM[=E]'DIABLY. IRREMISSIBLE, ir-re-mis'i-bl, _adj._ not to be remitted or forgiven.--_ns._ IRREMISS'IBLENESS, IRREMISS'ION.--_adj._ IRREMISS'IVE. IRREMOVABLE, ir-re-m[=oo]v'a-bl, _adj._ not removable: steadfast.--_ns._ IRREMOVABIL'ITY, IRREMOV'ABLENESS.--_adv._ IRREMOV'ABLY. IRRENOWNED, ir-re-nownd', _adj._ (_Spens._) not renowned. IRREPARABLE, ir-rep'ar-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be repaired or rectified.--_ns._ IRREPARABIL'ITY, IRREP'ARABLENESS.--_adv._ IRREP'ARABLY. IRREPEALABLE, ir-re-p[=e]l'a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be repealed or annulled.--_adv._ IRREPEAL'ABLY. IRREPLACEABLE, ir-re-pl[=a]s'a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be replaced. IRREPREHENSIBLE, ir-rep-re-hens'i-bl, _adj._ that cannot be blamed.--_n._ IRREPREHENS'IBLENESS.--_adv._ IRREPREHENS'IBLY. IRREPRESSIBLE, ir-re-pres'i-bl, _adj._ not to be restrained.--_adv._ IRREPRESS'IBLY. IRREPROACHABLE, ir-re-pr[=o]ch'a-bl, _adj._ free from blame: upright: innocent.--_n._ IRREPROACH'ABLENESS, freedom from blame.--_adv._ IRREPROACH'ABLY. IRREPRODUCIBLE, ir-re-pro-d[=u]s'i-bl, _adj._ that cannot be reproduced. IRREPROVABLE, ir-re-pr[=oo]v'a-bl, _adj._ blameless.--_n._ IRREPROV'ABLENESS.--_adv._ IRREPROV'ABLY. IRRESISTANCE, ir-re-zist'ans, _n._ want of resistance: passive submission.--_adj._ IRRESIST'IBLE, not to be opposed with success.--_ns._ IRRESIST'IBLENESS, IRRESISTIBIL'ITY.--_adv._ IRRESIST'IBLY. IRRESOLUBLE, ir-rez'ol-[=u]-bl, _adj._ that cannot be resolved into parts: indissoluble: that cannot be released. IRRESOLUTE, ir-rez'o-l[=u]t, _adj._ not firm in purpose.--_adv._ IRRES'OLUTELY.--_ns._ IRRES'OLUTENESS, IRRESOL[=U]'TION, want of resolution. IRRESOLVABLE, ir-re-zolv'-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be resolved.--_ns._ IRRESOLVABIL'ITY, IRRESOLV'ABLENESS. IRRESPECTIVE, ir-re-spek'tiv, _adj._ not having regard to (with _of_).--_adv._ IRRESPEC'TIVELY. IRRESPONSIBLE, ir-re-spons'i-bl, _adj._ not responsible (with _for_).--_n._ IRRESPONSIBIL'ITY.--_adv._ IRRESPONS'IBLY.--_adj._ IRRESPONS'IVE.--_n._ IRRESPONS'IVENESS. IRRESTRAINABLE, ir-re-str[=a]n'a-bl, _adj._ not restrainable. IRRESUSCITABLE, ir-re-sus'i-ta-bl, _adj._ incapable of being resuscitated or revived.--_adv._ IRRESUS'CITABLY. IRRETENTION, ir-re-ten'shun, _n._ absence of retention or power to retain.--_adj._ IRRETEN'TIVE. IRRETRIEVABLE, ir-re-tr[=e]v'a-bl, _adj._ not to be recovered.--_n._ IRRETRIEV'ABLENESS.--_adv._ IRRETRIEV'ABLY. IRREVERENT, ir-rev'[.e]r-ent, _adj._ not reverent: proceeding from irreverence.--_n._ IRREV'ERENCE, want of reverence or veneration: want of due regard for the character and authority of the Supreme Being.--_adj._ IRREVEREN'TIAL.--_adv._ IRREV'ERENTLY. IRREVERSIBLE, ir-re-v[.e]rs'i-bl, _adj._ not reversible: that cannot be recalled or annulled.--_ns._ IRREVERSIBIL'ITY, IRREVERS'IBLENESS.--_adv._ IRREVERS'IBLY. IRREVOCABLE, ir-rev'o-ka-bl, _adj._ that cannot be recalled.--_n._ IRREV'OCABLENESS.--_adv._ IRREV'OCABLY. IRRIGATE, ir'i-g[=a]t, _v.t._ to water: to wet or moisten: to cause water to flow upon.--_adj._ IRR'IGABLE, capable of being irrigated.--_ns._ IRRIG[=A]'TION, a method of producing or increasing fertility in soils by an artificial supply of water, or by inundating them at stated periods: act of watering, esp. of watering lands artificially; IRRIGAT'OR, one who, or that which, irrigates: an appliance for washing a wound, &c.--_adj._ IRRIG'UOUS, watered: wet. [L. _irrig[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_in_, upon, _rig[=a]re_, to wet; cf. Ger. _regen_, Eng. _rain_.] IRRISION, ir-rizh'un, _n._ act of laughing at another. [Fr.,--L. _irrision-em_--_in_, against, _rid[=e]re_, _risum_, to laugh.] IRRITATE, ir'i-t[=a]t, _v.t._ to make angry: to provoke: to excite heat and redness in: (_Scots law_) to render null and void.--_n._ IRRITABIL'ITY, the quality of being easily irritated: the peculiar susceptibility to stimuli possessed by the living tissues.--_adj._ IRR'ITABLE, that may be irritated: easily provoked: (_med._) susceptible of excitement or irritation.--_n._ IRR'ITABLENESS.--_adv._ IRR'ITABLY.--_n._ IRR'ITANCY, the state of being irritant: a becoming null and void.--_adj._ IRR'ITANT, irritating.--_n._ that which causes irritation.--_n._ IRRIT[=A]'TION, act of irritating or exciting: excitement: (_med._) the term applied to any morbid excitement of the vital actions not amounting to inflammation, often, but not always, leading to that condition.--_adjs._ IRR'IT[=A]TIVE, IRR'IT[=A]TORY, tending to irritate or excite: accompanied with or caused by irritation. [L. _irrit[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, prob. freq. of _irr[=i]re_, to snarl, as a dog.] IRRUPTION, ir-rup'shun, _n._ a breaking or bursting in: a sudden invasion or incursion.--_adjs._ IRRUP'TED, broken through with violence; IRRUP'TIVE, rushing suddenly in or upon.--_adv._ IRRUP'TIVELY. [Fr.,--L. _irruption-em_--_in_, in, _rump[)e]re_, _ruptum_, to break.] IRVINGITE, [.e]r'ving-[=i]t, _n._ a popular name for a member of the so-called Catholic Apostolic Church.--_n._ IR'VINGISM, the doctrine and practice of the Irvingites. [From Edward _Irving_ (1792-1834).] IS, iz, third pers. sing. pres. of _be_. [A.S. _is_; Ger. _ist_, L. _est_, Gr. _esti_, Sans. _asti_--_as_, to be.] ISABEL, ISABELLE, iz'a-bel, _n._ a yellowish-gray or drab colour. [From _Isabella_, daughter of Philip II., wife of the Archduke Albert, who did not change her linen for three years till Ostend was taken.] ISAGOGICS, [=i]-sa-goj'iks, _n._ that part of theological science introductory to exegesis or interpretation of the Scriptures.--_adj._ ISAGOG'IC. [Gr. _eisag[=o]g[=e]_, an introduction--_eis_, into, _agein_, to lead.] ISANDROUS, [=i]-san'drus, _adj._ (_bot._) having the stamens similar and equal in number to the divisions of the corolla. ISANTHEROUS, [=i]-san'ther-us, _adj._ (_bot._) having the anthers equal. ISANTHOUS, [=i]-san'thus, _adj._ (_bot._) having regular flowers. ISAPOSTOLIC, [=i]-sap-os-tol'ik, _adj._ equal to the apostles, as bishops of apostolic creation, the first preachers of Christ in a country, &c. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _apostolikos_, apostolic.] ISATINE, [=i]'sa-tin, _n._ a substance capable of being crystallised, obtained by oxidising indigo.--_adj._ ISAT'IC.--_n._ I'S[=A]TIS, a genus of _Cruciferæ_.--_Isatis tinctoria_, woad. [Gr. _isatis_, woad.] ISCHIADIC, is-ki-ad'ik, _adj._ relating to the region of the hip--also ISCHIAT'IC and IS'CHIAL.--_ns._ ISCHIAG'RA, gout in the hip; ISCHIAL'GIA, sciatica; IS'CHIUM, the posterior part of the pelvic arch in vertebrates. [L.,--Gr., from _is-chion_, the hip-joint.] ISCHURIA, is-k[=u]'ri-a, _n._ a stoppage of urine.--_adj._ and _n._ ISCHURET'IC. [Gr. _ischein_, to hold, _ouron_, urine.] ISENERGIC, [=i]-se-n[.e]r'jik, _adj._ in physics, denoting equal energy. [Gr. ISOS, equal, _energy_.] ISENGRIM, [=i]'sen-grim, _n._ the name of the wolf in the famous beast-epic of _Reynard the Fox_. ISENTROPIC, [=i]-sen-trop'ik, _adj._ (_phys._) of equal entropy. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _entrope_, a turning about--_en_, in, _trepein_, to turn.] ISH, ish, _n._ (_Scot._) issue, liberty of going out. ISHMAELITE, ish'm[=a]-el-[=i]t, _n._ a descendant of _Ishmael_: one like Ishmael (Gen. xvi. 12), at war with society.--_adj._ ISHMAEL[=I]'TISH. ISIAC, [=i]-si-ak. See ISIS. ISIDIUM, [=i]-sid'i-um, _n._ (_bot._) a wart-like excrescence on the thalli of some lichens:--_pl._ ISID'IA. ISIDORIAN, is-i-d[=o]'ri-an, _adj._ of or pertaining to St _Isidore_ of Seville (c. 560-636), or the collection of canons and decretals adopted by him; but esp. applying to the interpolated collection, now called the _Pseudo-Isidorian_ or _False Decretals_, possibly fabricated in Western Gaul, but published in Spain about 845 by _Isidore_ Mercator, and naturally fathered upon the great Isidore of Seville. ISINGLASS, [=i]'zing-glas, _n._ a glutinous substance, chiefly prepared from the air-bladders of the sturgeon. [A corr. of Dut. _huizenblas_--_huizen_, a kind of sturgeon, _blas_, a bladder; Ger. _hausenblase_.] ISIS, [=i]'sis, _n._ an Egyptian goddess, wife and sister of Osiris.--_adj._ I'SIAC. ISLAM, iz'lam, ISLAMISM, iz'lam-izm, _n._ the proper name of the Mohammedan religion: the whole Mohammedan world.--_adjs._ ISLAM'IC, ISLAMIT'IC.--_n._ IS'LAMITE.--_v.t._ ISLAM[=I]ZE', to conform to Mohammedanism. [Ar. _isl[=a]m_--_salama_, to submit to God.] ISLAND, [=i]'land, _n._ the smaller masses of land surrounded with water: a large floating mass.--_v.t._ to cause to appear like an island: to dot as with islands.--_n._ ISLANDER ([=i]'land-[.e]r), an inhabitant of an island. [M. E. _iland_--A.S. _ígland_--_íg_, an island, and _land_, land; Dut. and Ger. _eiland_, Ice. _eyland_, Sw. and Dan. _öland_. A.S. _íg_ is from a root which appears in Angles-_ea_, Aldern-_ey_, &c., A.S. _eá_, L. _aqua_, water, so that it originally means water-land. The _s_ in island is due to a confusion with _isle_, from L. _insula_.] ISLE, [=i]l, _n._ an island.--_ns._ ISLES'MAN, an islander, esp. an inhabitant of the Hebrides; ISLET ([=i]'let), a little isle. [M. E. _ile_, _yle_--O. Fr. _isle_ (Fr. _île_)--L. _insula_, considered to be so called because lying _in salo_, in the main sea, L. _salum_ being akin to Gr. _salos_, the main sea.] ISM, izm, _n._ any distinctive doctrine, theory, or practice--usually in disparagement.--_adjs._ ISMAT'IC, -AL, addicted to isms or faddish theories.--_n._ ISMAT'ICALNESS. [From the suffix _-ism_.] ISMAILIAN, is-m[=a]-il'i-an, _n._ one of a sect of Shiite Mohammedans, who claim that _Ismail_ (_c._ 770) was the seventh and last of the Imâms.--_n._ IS'MAILISM.--_adj._ ISMAILIT'IC. ISOBAR, [=i]'so-bär, _n._ an imaginary line connecting places on the earth where the mean height of the barometer at sea-level is the same.--_adj._ ISOBAROMET'RIC, applied to lines denoting equal barometric pressure. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _baros_, weight.] ISOBATHYTHERM, [=i]-so-bath'i-therm, _n._ a line connecting points of the same temperature in a vertical section of any portion of the ocean.--_adjs._ ISOBATHYTHER'MAL, ISOBATHYTHER'MIC. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _bathys_, deep, _therm[=e]_, heat.] ISOBILATERAL, [=i]-so-b[=i]-lat'e-ral, _adj._ (_bot._) having the flanks of the organ flattened surfaces. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _bilateral_.] ISOBRIOUS, [=i]-sob'ri-us, _adj._ growing equally in both lobes, of a dicotyledonous embryo.--Also ISODYN'AMOUS. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _brian_, to be strong.] ISOBRONT, [=i]'so-bront, _n._ a line on a map connecting points at which a peal of thunder is heard simultaneously. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _bront[=e]_, thunder.] ISOCHASMIC, [=i]-so-kaz'mik, _adj._ denoting equality as regards frequency of auroral displays. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _chasma_, a gap.] ISOCHEIMAL, [=i]-so-k[=i]'mal, _adj._ having the same mean winter temperature--also ISOCHEI'MENAL.--_n._ I'SOCHEIM, an imaginary line connecting together those places where the mean winter temperature is the same. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _cheima_, winter.] ISOCHORIC, [=i]-so-kor'ik, _adj._ pertaining to equal volume or density. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _ch[=o]ra_, space.] ISOCHROMATIC, [=i]-so-kr[=o]-mat'ik, _adj._ (_optics_) having the same colour. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _chr[=o]ma_, colour.] ISOCHRONAL, [=i]-sok'ron-al, _adj._ of equal time: performed in equal times--also ISOCH'RONOUS.--_n._ ISOCH'RONISM, the quality of being isochronous or done in equal times.--_adv._ ISOCH'RONOUSLY. [Gr. _isochronos_--_isos_, equal, _chronos_, time.] ISOCHROOUS, [=i]-sok'r[=o]-us, _adj._ of uniform colour. ISOCLINAL, [=i]-so-kl[=i]'nal (or ISOCLIN'IC), ISODYNAM'IC, and ISOGON'IC LINES, three systems of lines which being laid on maps represent the magnetism of the globe as exhibited at the earth's surface in three classes of phenomena, the varying dip or inclination of the needle, the varying intensity of the force, and its varying declination from the true meridian. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _dynamis_, force, _klinein_, to bend, _g[=o]nia_, an angle.] ISOCRYME, [=i]'s[=o]-kr[=i]m, _n._ a line on maps connecting points of the same mean winter temperature.--Also I'SOCRYMAL. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _krymos_, cold.] ISODIA, [=i]-s[=o]'di-a, _n.pl._ the feast of the presentation of Jesus in the Temple. [Gr. _eisodos_, entrance.] ISODIAMETRIC, [=i]-so-d[=i]-a-met'rik, _adj._ being of equal diameters. ISODICON, [=i]-sod'i-kon, _n._ (_Gr. Church_) a troparion or short anthem sung while the Gospel is being carried through the church. [Gr. _eisodos_, an entrance.] ISODIMORPHOUS, [=i]-so-d[=i]-mor'fus, _adj._ in crystallography, having the quality of isodimorphism or isomorphism between the members of two dimorphous groups. ISODOMON, [=i]-sod'[=o]-mon, _n._ masonry having courses of uniform thickness and length, the vertical joints placed over the middle of the courses below--also ISOD'OMUM:--_pl._ ISOD'OMA.--_adj._ ISOD'OMOUS. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _demein_, to build.] ISODONT, [=i]'so-dont, _adj._ having the teeth all alike, as in the _Isodontia_--cetacea, &c. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _odous_, _odontos_, a tooth.] ISOËTES, [=i]-s[=o]'e-t[=e]z, _n._ a widely distributed genus of vascular cryptogamous plants, the quillworts--Merlin's Grass, &c. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _etos_, a year.] ISOGAMY, [=i]-sog'a-mi, _n._ (_bot._) the conjugation of two protoplasmic masses not clearly differentiated into a male and female element.--_adj._ ISOG'AMOUS. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _gamos_, marriage.] ISOGENY, [=i]-soj'e-ni, _n._ likeness of origin, a general homology.--_adj._ ISOG'ENOUS. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _genos_, kind.] ISOGEOTHERMAL, [=i]-so-j[=e]-o-th[.e]r'mal, _adj._ of imaginary lines beneath the earth's surface through points having the same degree of heat. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _g[=e]_, the earth, _therm[=e]_, heat--_thermos_, hot.] ISOGNATHOUS, [=i]-sog'na-thus, _adj._ having the molar teeth alike in both jaws. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _gnathos_, the jaw.] ISOGON, [=i]'so-gon, _n._ a figure having equal angles. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _gonia_, an angle.] ISOGONIC, [=i]-so-gon'ik, _adj._ exhibiting ISOG'ONISM, or the production of like generative individuals from differing stocks, as in certain hydroids. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _gonos_, offspring.] ISOHYETAL, [=i]-so-h[=i]'e-tal, _n._ an imaginary line connecting places which have an equal annual rainfall. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _hyetos_, rain.] ISOLATE, [=i]'so-l[=a]t, or is'o-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to place in a detached situation, like an island.--_adj._ IS'OLABLE (_chem._), capable of being separated from any other substance: capable of being obtained pure.--_n._ ISOL[=A]'TION. [It. _isolare_--_isola_--L. _insula_, an island.] ISOMERISM, [=i]-som'er-izm, _n._ the relation between chemical compounds which are identical in their ultimate or percentage composition, but present difficulties in their chemical properties.--_adjs._ ISOMER'IC, ISOM'EROUS. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _meros_, part.] ISOMETRIC, -AL, [=i]-so-met'rik, -al, _adj._ having equality of measure. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _metron_, measure.] ISOMORPHISM, [=i]-so-morf'izm, _n._ a term applied by chemists to those substances which are not only similar in their crystalline form, but are also analogous in their chemical composition.--_adj._ ISOMORPH'OUS. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _morph[=e]_, form.] ISONOMY, [=i]-son'o-mi, _n._ equal law, rights, or privileges. [Gr. _isonomia_--_isos_, equal, _nomos_, law.] ISONYM, [=i]'so-nim, _n._ a paronym.--_adj._ ISONYM'IC.--_n._ ISON'YMY. ISOPATHY, [=i]-sop'a-thi, _n._ the cure of diseases by the same disease or by its virus. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _pathos_, disease.] ISOPERIMETRICAL, [=i]-so-per-i-met'rik-al, _adj._ denoting figures having equal perimeters or circumferences.--_n._ ISOPERIM'ETRY. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _perimetron_, circumference.] ISOPOD, [=i]'so-pod, _n._ a crustacean whose legs are all alike, any one of the ISOP'ODA, an order of higher Crustaceans in the division with unstalked eyes.--_adjs._ I'SOPOD, ISOP'ODOUS. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _pous_, _podos_, a foot.] ISOPOLITY, [=i]-so-pol'i-ti, _n._ equal rights of citizenship in different communities. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _polit[=e]s_, a citizen.] ISOPTEROUS, [=i]-sop'te-rus, _adj._ having the wings equal. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _pteron_, a wing.] ISORRHYTHMIC, [=i]-s[=o]-rith'mik, _adj._ in ancient prosody, equal in the number of times for thesis and arsis, as a dactyl and anapæst. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _hrythmos_, rhythm.] ISOSCELES, [=i]-sos'e-l[=e]z, _adj._ (_geom._) having two equal sides, as a triangle. [Gr. _isoskel[=e]s_--_isos_, equal, _skelos_, a leg.] ISOSEISMAL, [=i]-s[=o]-s[=i]s'mal, _n._ a curve or line connecting points at which an earthquake shock is felt with equal intensity.--_adjs._ ISOSEIS'MAL, ISOSEIS'MIC. [Gr. _isos_, equal, SEISMOS, a shaking.] ISOSTATIC, [=i]-so-stat'ik, _adj._ in hydrostatic equilibrium from equality of pressure. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _statikos_, stable.] ISOTHERAL, [=i]'so-th[=e]r-al, _adj._ having the same mean summer temperature.--_n._ I'SOTH[=E]RE, an imaginary line connecting places on the earth which have the same mean summer temperature. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _theros_, summer--_therein_, to be warm.] ISOTHERMAL, [=i]-so-th[.e]r'mal, _adj._ having an equal degree of heat.--_n._ I'SOTHERM, an imaginary line connecting places on the earth which have the same mean annual temperature. [Fr. _isotherme_--Gr. _isos_, equal, _therm[=e]_, heat--_thermos_, hot.] ISOTONIC, [=i]-so-ton'ik, _adj._ having equal tones. [Gr. _isos_, equal, _tonos_, tone.] ISOTROPISM, [=i]-sot'rop-izm, _n._ physical homogeneity or amorphism: identity of elastic forces of propagation of vibration (light, heat, sound), or identity of susceptibility to magnetisation, in all directions.--_adjs._ ISOTROP'IC, ISOT'ROPOUS. I-SPY, [=i]'-sp[=i]', _n._ a children's game of hide-and-seek, so called from the cry when one is found. ISRAELITE, iz'ra-el-[=i]t, _n._ a descendant of Israel or Jacob: a Jew.--_adjs._ ISRAELIT'IC, ISRAEL[=I]T'ISH, pertaining to the Israelites or Jews. [Gr. _Isra[=e]lit[=e]s_--_Isra[=e]l_, Heb. _Isra[=e]l_, contender, soldier of God--_sara_, to fight, _El_, God.] ISSUE, ish'[=u], _v.i._ to go, flow, or come out: to proceed, as from a source: to spring: to be produced: (_law_) to come to a point in fact or law: to terminate.--_v.t._ to send out: to put into circulation: to give out for use.--_n._ a going or flowing out: act of sending out: that which flows or passes out: fruit of the body, children: produce, profits: circulation, as of bank-notes: publication, as of a book: a giving out for use: ultimate result, consequence: (_law_) the point of fact in dispute which is submitted to a jury: (_med._) an ulcer produced artificially.--_adj._ ISS'UABLE, capable of issuing, admitting of an issue.--_n._ ISS'UANCE, act of giving out, promulgation.--_adjs._ ISS'UANT (_her._), issuing or coming up from another, as a charge or bearing; ISS'UELESS, without issue: childless.--_n._ ISS'UER, one who issues or emits.--AT ISSUE, in quarrel or controversy; FEIGNED ISSUE (_law_), an issue made up for trial by agreement of the parties or by an order of court, instead of by the ordinary legal procedure; GENERAL ISSUE, a simple denial of the whole charge, as 'Not guilty,' instead of a SPECIAL ISSUE, an issue taken by denying a particular part of the allegations; IMMATERIAL ISSUE, an issue which is not decisive of any part of the litigation, as opp. to a MATERIAL ISSUE, one which necessarily involves some part of the rights in controversy.--JOIN, or TAKE, ISSUE, of the two parties taking up the affirmative and the negative on the point in debate. [O. Fr. _issuë_, _issir_, to go or flow out--L. _ex[=i]re_--_ex_, out, _[=i]re_, to go.] ISTHMUS, ist'mus, _n._ a narrow neck of land connecting two larger portions.--_adj._ ISTH'MIAN, pertaining to an isthmus, esp. the Isthmus of Corinth.--The ISTHMIAN GAMES were celebrated in the ISTHMIAN SANCTUARY on the north-east shore of the isthmus. [L.,--Gr. _isthmos_, a passage, an isthmus, allied to _ithma_, a step, from root of _ienai_, to go.] ISTLE, is'tl, _n._ a valuable fibre obtained from a tropical American plant, also from several Mexican species of _Agave_.--Also IX'TLE. IT, it, _pron._ the thing spoken of. [M. E. and A.S. _hit_, neut. of _he_; Ice. _hit_, Dut. _het_, Goth. _ita_; akin to L. _id_, Sans. _i_, pronominal root=here. The _t_ is an old neuter suffix, as in _tha-t_, _wha-t_, and cognate with d in L. _illu-d_, _istu-d_, _quo-d_.] ITACISM, ITACIST. See IOTA. ITACOLUMITE, it-a-kol'[=u]m-[=i]t, _n._ a schistose quartzite, containing scales of mica, talc, and chlorite, often having a certain flexibility. ITALIAN, i-tal'yan, Italic, i-tal'ik, _adj._ of or relating to Italy or its people.--_n._ a native of Italy: the language of Italy.--_vs.t._ ITAL'IANATE, ITAL'IANISE, to make Italian.--_vs.i._ to play the Italian: to speak Italian.--_n._ ITAL'IANISM.--ITALIAN ARCHITECTURE, the style practised by the Italian architects of the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries, which originated in a revival of the ancient architecture of Rome; ITALIAN WAREHOUSEMAN, a dealer in the finer kinds of groceries, as macaroni, vermicelli, dried fruits, &c.--ITALIC VERSION, or IT'ALA, a translation of the Bible into Latin, based on a still older version, called Old Latin, and made probably in the time of Augustine. [It. _Italiano_, _Italico_--L. _Italia_--Gr. _italos_, a bull.] ITALICS, i-tal'iks, _n.pl._ a kind of types which _slope to the right_ (as in the last four words), so called because first used by an _Italian_ printer, Aldo Manuzio, about 1500, employed for emphasis and other distinctive purposes.--_n._ ITALICIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ ITAL'IC[=I]SE, to print in Italics. ITCH, ich, _n._ an uneasy, irritating sensation in the skin: an eruptive disease in the skin, caused by a parasitic animal: a constant teasing desire.--_v.i._ to have an uneasy, irritating sensation in the skin: to have a constant, teasing desire.--_ns._ ITCH'INESS; ITCH'-MITE, a mite which burrows in the skin, causing itch or scabies.--_adj._ ITCH'Y, pertaining to or affected with itch.--ITCHING PALM, a greed for gain. [A.S. _giccan_, to itch; Scot. _youk_, _yuck_, Ger. _jucken_, to itch.] ITEM, [=i]'tem, _adv._ likewise: also.--_n._ a separate article or particular.--_v.t._ to make a note of.--_v.t._ I'TEMISE, to give by items. [L.,--_id_, that.] ITERATE, it'[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.t._ to do again: to repeat, in modern usage replaced by the verb reiterate.--_ns._ IT'ERANCE, ITER[=A]'TION, repetition.--_adjs._ IT'ERANT, IT'ER[=A]TIVE, repeating. [L. _iter[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_iterum_, again.] ITHYPHALLIC, ith-i-fal'ik, _adj._ pertaining to certain rites: obscene.--_n._ ITHYPHALL'US, an erect phallus. ITINERANT, [=i]-tin'er-ant, _adj._ making journeys from place to place: travelling.--_n._ one who travels from place to place, esp. a Methodist preacher: a wanderer.--_ns._ ITIN'ERACY, ITIN'ERANCY.--_adv._ ITIN'ERANTLY.--_adj._ ITIN'ERARY, travelling: done on a journey.--_n._ a book of travels: a guide-book for travellers: a rough sketch and description of the country through which troops are to march.--_v.i._ ITIN'ER[=A]TE, to travel from place to place, esp. for the purpose of preaching or lecturing. [L. _itinerans_, _-antis_, part. of _itiner[=a]ri_-, _-atus_, to travel--L. _iter_, _itineris_, a journey--_[=i]re_, _[=i]tum_, to go.] ITS, its, _poss. pron._ the possessive of _it._ [The old form was _his_, _its_ not being older than the end of the 16th century. _Its_ does not occur in the English Bible of 1611, or in Spenser, rarely in Shakespeare, and is not common until the time of Dryden.] ITSELF, it-self', _pron._ the neuter reciprocal pronoun, applied to things.--BY ITSELF, alone, apart; IN AND BY ITSELF, separately considered. ITTNERITE, it'n[.e]r-[=i]t, _n._ a dark blue or gray mineral, consisting chiefly of silica, alumina, potash, and soda. IVORY, [=i]'vo-ri, _n._ the hard, white substance composing the tusks of the elephant and of the sea-horse.--_adj._ made of, or resembling, ivory.--_adj._ I'VORIED, made like ivory: furnished with teeth.--_ns._ I'VORY-BLACK, a black powder, originally made from burnt ivory, but now from bone; I'VORY-NUT, the nut of a species of palm, containing a substance like ivory; I'VORY-PALM, the tree which bears the ivory-nut; I'VORY-POR'CELAIN, a fine ware with an ivory-white glaze.--SHOW ONE'S IVORIES, to show the teeth. [O. Fr. _ivurie_ (Fr. _ivoire_)--L. _ebur_, _eboris_, ivory; Coptic _ebu_; Sans. _ibhas_, an elephant.] IVY, [=i]'vi, _n._ a creeping evergreen plant on trees and walls.--_adjs._ I'VIED, I'VYED, I'VY-MAN'TLED, overgrown or mantled with ivy.--_n._ I'VY-BUSH, a plant of ivy formerly hung over tavern-doors, the ivy being sacred to Bacchus. [A.S. _ifig_; Old High Ger. _ebah_; prob. conn. with L. _apium_, parsley.] IWIS, YWIS, i-wis', _adv._ certainly--sometimes ignorantly written _I wis_, as if 'I know.' [M. E. _ywis_, _iwis_--A.S. _gewis_, certain; Ger. _gewiss_ (adv.).] IXION, ik-s[=i]'on, _n._ (_Gr. myth._) a king of the Lapithæ, bound, for an impious attempt on Hera, hand and foot to a fiery wheel which rolled for ever in the sky. IXOLITE, iks'o-l[=i]t, _n._ a fossil resin, found in bituminous coal, which becomes soft and sticky when heated. [Gr. _ixos_, birdlime, _lithos_, a stone.] IXTLE. See ISTLE. * * * * * J the tenth letter in our alphabet, developed from I, the initial form _j_ being specialised to denote the consonantal sound, the medial _i_ being retained for the vowel-sound--not universal in English books before the middle of the 17th century. As a numeral, a variant of I, used in medical prescriptions, as _vj_, six: representing the mechanical equivalent of heat--from Joule. JABBER, jab'[.e]r, _v.i._ to gabble or talk rapidly and indistinctly: to chatter.--_v.t._ to utter indistinctly:--_pr.p._ jabb'ering; _pa.p._ jabb'ered.--_n._ rapid indistinct speaking.--_n._ JABB'ERER.--_adv._ JABB'ERINGLY. [From root of _gabble_.] JABBLE, jab'l, _n._ (_Scot._) an agitation on the surface of water.--_v.t._ to splash. [Cf. _jaup_.] JABIRU, jab'i-r[=u], _n._ a kind of large stork. [Brazilian.] JABORANDI, jab'o-ran'di, _n._ a Brazilian shrub with sialogogue and diaphoretic properties. [Brazilian.] JABOT, zha-b[=o]', _n._ a frill of lace, &c., worn by women on the bodice. JACAMAR, jak'a-mar, _n._ a South American bird something like a kingfisher. [Fr.,--Brazilian.] JACANA, ja-k[=a]'na, _n._ a tropical bird, allied to the rails, and frequenting swamps. [Brazilian.] JACARANDA, jak-a-ran'da, _n._ a South American tree with hard, heavy, brown wood. [Brazilian.] JACCHUS, jak'us, _n._ a South American marmoset. JACENT, j[=a]'sent, _adj._ lying at length. JACINTH, j[=a]'sinth, _n._ (_B._) a precious stone, a red variety of zircon, now called hyacinth: a reddish-orange colour. [Contr. of _hyacinth_.] JACK, jak, _n._ used as a familiar name or diminutive of John: a saucy or paltry fellow: a sailor: any instrument serving to supply the place of a boy or helper, as a bootjack for taking off boots, a contrivance for turning a spit (smoke-jack, roasting-jack), a screw for raising heavy weights, a figure which strikes the bell in clocks: the male of some animals: a young pike: a support to saw wood on: a miner's wedge: a flag displayed from the bowsprit of a ship: a leather pitcher or bottle: a coat of mail: (_coll._) a knave in cards: the small white ball that forms the aim in bowls.--_ns._ JACK'-A-DAN'DY, a dandy or fop, esp. if diminutive; JACK'-A-LAN'TERN, the _ignis fatuus_ or Will-o'-the-Wisp; JACK'-A-LENT' (_Shak._), a boy (for JACK OF LENT, a kind of puppet formerly thrown at in sport at Lent); JACK'-BLOCK, a block of pulleys used for raising and lowering topgallant-masts.--_n.pl._ JACK'BOOTS, large boots reaching above the knee, to protect the leg, formerly worn by cavalry, and covered with plates of iron.--_ns._ JACK'-CROSS'-TREE, the cross-tree at the head of a topgallant-mast; JACK'-FLAG, a flag which is hoisted at the spritsail topmast-head; JACK'-FOOL, an absolute ass; JACK'-IN-OFF'ICE, a conceited and impertinent official; JACK'-IN-THE-BOX', a box with a figure in it that springs up when the lid is lifted; JACK'-IN-THE-GREEN', a May-day chimney-sweep almost covered up with green shrubs; JACK'-KNIFE, a large clasp-knife; JACK'-MAN, a soldier armed with a jack or coat of mail: a retainer; JACK'-NAS'TY, a sneak, a sloven; JACK'-OF-ALL'-TRADES, one who can turn his hand to anything; JACK'-PLANE, a large, strong plane used by joiners; JACK'-PUDD'ING, a merry-andrew, buffoon; JACK'-RABB'IT, one of several species of prairie-hares, with very long ears and legs; JACK'-RAFT'ER, a rafter, shorter than the rest, used in hip-roofs; JACK'-SAUCE (_Shak._), a saucy fellow; JACK'-SCREW, a screw for raising heavy weights; JACK'-SLAVE (_Shak._), a low servant, a vulgar fellow; JACK'-SMITH, a smith who makes jacks for the kitchen; JACK'-SNIPE, a small species of snipe; JACK'-STAFF, the staff on which the jack is hoisted.--_n.pl._ JACK'-STAYS, ropes or strips of wood or iron stretched along the yards of a ship to bind the sails to.--_ns._ JACK'-STRAW, a straw effigy, a low servile fellow; JACK'-TAR, a sailor; JACK'-TOWEL, a long endless towel passing over a roller.--JACK FROST, frost personified as a mischievous fellow; JACK KETCH, a public hangman--from one so named under James II.; JACK SPRAT, a diminutive fellow.--CHEAP JACK (see CHEAP); EVERY MAN JACK, one and all; YELLOW JACK (_slang_), yellow fever. [Fr. _Jacques_, the most common name in France, hence used as a substitute for _John_, the most common name in England; but it is really=_James_ or _Jacob_--L. _Jacobus_.] JACK, JAK, jak, _n._ a tree of the East Indies of the same genus as the bread-fruit tree. [Port. _jaka_--Malay _tsjaka_.] JACKAL, jak'awl, _n._ a wild, gregarious animal closely allied to the dog--erroneously supposed to act as a lion's provider or hunting scout, hence a tool, a Parasite. [Pers. _shagh[=a]l_.] JACKANAPES, jak'a-n[=a]ps, _n._ an impudent fellow: a coxcomb. [_Jack o' apes_, one who exhibited monkeys, with _n_ inserted to avoid the hiatus.] JACKASS, jak'as, _n._ the male of the ass: a blockhead. [_Jack_--the male, and _ass_.] JACKDAW, jak'daw, _n._ a species of crow. [_Jack_ and _daw_.] JACKET, jak'et, _n._ a short coat.--_adj._ Jack'eted, wearing a jacket. [O. Fr. _jaquette_, a jacket, or sleeveless coat, a dim. of O. Fr. _jaque_, a coat of mail, prob. ultimately conn. with _Jacques_.] JACOBEAN, jak-o-b[=e]'an, _adj._ of the period of James I. of England (1603-25). JACOBIN, jak'o-bin, _n._ a French Dominican monk, so named from their original establishment being that of St _Jacques_, Paris: one of a society of revolutionists in France, so called from their meeting in the hall of the Jacobin convent: a demagogue: a hooded pigeon.--_adjs._ JACOBIN'IC, -AL.--_v.t._ JAC'OBINISE.--_n._ JAC'OBINISM, the principles of the Jacobins or French revolutionists. [Fr.,--L. _Jacobus_, James--Gr. _Jacobos_--Heb. _Ya`aq[=o]b_.] JACOBITE, jak'o-b[=i]t, _n._ an adherent of James II. and his descendants: in Church history, a Syrian monophysite, named after the 6th-century monk, _Jacobus_ Baradæus.--_adjs._ JAC'OBITE, JACOBIT'IC, -AL.--_n._ JAC'OBITISM. JACOB'S-LADDER, j[=a]'kobz-lad'[.e]r, _n._ (_naut._) a ladder made of ropes with wooden steps: a garden plant with large blue flowers. [From the ladder which _Jacob_ saw in his dream, Gen. xxviii. 12.] JACOB'S-STAFF, j[=a]'kobz-staf, _n._ a pilgrim's staff: a staff with a cross-head used in surveying: a sword-cane. [Prob. an allusion to the staff of the patriarch _Jacob_, Gen. xxxii. 10.] JACOBUS, ja-k[=o]'bus, _n._ a gold coin of James I. worth 20s. JACONET, jak'o-net, _n._ a cotton fabric, rather stouter than muslin. [Fr. _jaconas_.] JACQUARD LOOM. See LOOM. JACQUEMINOT, jak'mi-n[=o], _n._ a deep-red hybrid perpetual rose.--Also JACQUE and JACK. [From General _Jacqueminot_ of Paris.] JACQUERIE, zhak'e-r[=e], _n._ name given to the revolt of the French peasants in 1358. [From _Jacques_ Bonhomme, Goodman Jack, a name applied in derision to the peasants.] JACTATION, jak-t[=a]'shun, _n._ act of throwing: extreme restlessness in disease: agitation of the body: boasting. JACTITATION (of marriage), jak-ti-t[=a]'shun, _n._ a false pretence of being married to another. [L. _jactit[=a]re_, -_[=a]tum_, to brag, freq. of _jact[=a]re_, to throw.] JACULATION, jak-[=u]-l[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of throwing or hurling, as a dart.--_v.t._ JAC'ULATE, to dart, throw.--_n._ JAC'UL[=A]TOR.--_adj._ JAC'UL[=A]TORY, darting or throwing out suddenly: ejaculatory. [L. _jacul[=a]ri_, -_[=a]tus_, to throw as a dart--_jaculum_, a dart--_jac[)e]re_, to throw.] JADE, j[=a]d, _n._ a mare, esp. an old and sorry one: a worthless nag: a woman--in contempt or irony.--_v.t._ to tire: to harass:--_pr.p._ jad'ing; _pa.p._ jad'ed.--_adv._ JAD'EDLY.--_n._ JAD'ERY, the tricks of a jade.--_adj._ JAD'ISH, worn out: vicious: unchaste--applied to a woman. [Scot. _yad_, _yaud_; Ice. _jalda_, a mare.] JADE, j[=a]d, _n._ a dark-green stone used for ornamental purposes--applied both to _jadeite_ and _nephrite_. [Fr.,--Sp. _ijada_, the flank--L. _ilia_. It was believed to cure pain of the side.] JAG, jag, _n._ a notch: a ragged protuberance: (_bot._) a cleft or division: (_Scot._) a stab.--_v.t._ to cut into notches: to stab or pierce:--_pr.p._ jag'ging; _pa.p._ jagged.--_adjs._ JAG'GED, JAG'GY, notched, rough-edged, uneven.--_adv._ JAG'GEDLY.--_ns._ JAG'GEDNESS; JAG'GER, a brass wheel with a notched edge for cutting cakes, &c., into ornamental forms--also JAG'GING-[=I]'RON. [Celt.; W., Gael., Ir. _gag_, a cleft.] JAG, jag, _n._ a load: a saddle-bag: a quantity: (_U.S._) as much liquor as one can carry.--_n._ JAG'GER, a peddler. JAGGERY, jag'[.e]r-i, _n._ a kind of coarse, dark-coloured sugar made in the East Indies from the sap of the coco-nut palm. [Hind. _shakkar_, Sans. _çarkara_.] JAGHIR, JAGHIRE, ja-g[=e]r', _n._ the government revenues of a tract of land assigned with power to administer.--_n._ JAGHIR'DAR, the holder of such. [Hind.] JAGUAR, jag'[=u]-är, or jag-wär', _n._ a powerful beast of prey, allied to the leopard, found in South America. [Brazilian, _jaguara_.] JAH, jä, _n._ Jehovah. [Heb.] JAIL, j[=a]l, _n._ a prison.--_ns._ JAIL'-BIRD, GAOL'-BIRD, a humorous name for one who is or has been confined in jail; JAIL'ER, GAOL'ER, one who has charge of a jail or of prisoners, called also a turnkey; JAIL'-F[=E]'VER, GAOL'-F[=E]'VER, typhus fever, so called because once common in jails.--BREAK JAIL, to force one's way out of prison; COMMISSION OF JAIL DELIVERY, one of the commissions issued to judges of assize and judges of the Central Criminal Court in England. [O. Fr. _gaole_ (Fr. _geôle_)--Low L. _gabiola_, a cage, dim. of Low L. _gabia_, a cage, a corr. of _cavea_, a cage--L. _cavus_, hollow.] JAIN, j[=a]n, _n._ an adherent of JAIN'ISM, or a member of a heterodox Hindu sect, allied to ancient Buddhism: a style of architecture developed about 450 A.D., with pseudo-arch and dome, built in horizontal courses and of pointed section. [Hind. _jina_, a deified saint.] JAKES, j[=a]ks, _n._ (_Shak._) a privy.--Also _Mrs Jones_. JALAP, jal'ap, _n._ the purgative root of a plant first brought from _Jalapa_ or Xalapa, in Mexico.--_adj._ JALAP'IC--_n._ JAL'APIN, a glucoside resin, one of the purgative principles of jalap. JALOUSE, jal-[=oo]z', _v.i._ (_Scot._) to suspect. See JEALOUS. JALOUSIE, zhal-oo-z[=e]', _n._ a Venetian blind. [Fr.,--_jalousie_, jealousy.] JAM, jam, _n._ a conserve of fruit boiled with sugar. [Ety. dub.; perh. from _jam_, to squeeze.] JAM, jam, _v.t._ to press or squeeze tight:--_pr.p._ jam'ming; _pa.p._ jammed.--_n._ a crush, squeeze. [Cf. _cham_p.] JAMAICA-PEPPER, ja-m[=a]'ka-pep'[.e]r, _n._ Allspice (q.v.). JAMB, jam, _n._ the sidepiece or post of a door, fireplace, &c. [Fr. _jambe_, perh. Celt. _cam_, bent.] JAMBE, jäm, _n._ armour for the leg.--_ns.pl._ JAM'BEAUS, leggings; JAMBIERES', leg-pieces of leather, &c. [Fr. _jambe_, leg.] JAMBEE, jam-b[=e]', _n._ an 18th-century light cane. JAMBOK, jam'bok, _n._ a long lash made of hippopotamus hide, &c. [S. Afr.] JAMBONE, jam'b[=o]n, _n._ a lone hand in euchre, played only by agreement, in which the player lays his cards on the table and must lead one chosen by his opponent, scoring 8 points if he takes all the tricks. JAMBOREE, jam-b[=o]-r[=e], _n._ in euchre, a lone hand of the 5 highest cards, by agreement scoring 16 points for the holder: (_slang_) a boisterous frolic, a spree. JAMBU, jam'b[=oo], _n._ the rose-apple tree. JAMBUL, jam'bul, _n._ a small Indian evergreen tree. JAMDANI, jam-dä'ni, _n._ a variety of Dacca muslin woven in designs of flowers. JAMEWAR, jam'e-war, _n._ a Cashmere shawl with coloured patterns: the goat's-hair cloth of Cashmere. JAMPAN, jam'pan, _n._ a sedan-chair borne on bamboo poles by four bearers.--_n._ JAMPANEE', its bearer. JAMRACH, jam'rak, _n._ a place where wild animals are kept for sale--from a London dealer's name. JANE, j[=a]n, _n._ (_Spens._) a small silver Genoese coin: jean. [Low L. _Janua_, L. _Genua_, Genoa.] JANGLE, jang'l, _v.i._ to sound discordantly as in wrangling: to wrangle or quarrel.--_v.t._ to cause to sound harshly.--_n._ discordant sound: contention.--_ns._ JANG'LER; JANG'LING. [O. Fr. _jangler_; imit., like _jingle_ and _chink_.] JANITOR, jan'i-tor, _n._ a doorkeeper: a porter:--_fem._ JAN'ITRIX. [L., from _janua_, a door.] JANIZARY, jan'i-zar-i, _n._ a soldier of the old Turkish foot-guards (c. 1330-1826), formed originally of renegade prisoners and of a tribute of children taken from Christian subjects--also JAN'ISSARY, JAN'IZAR.--_adj._ JANIZ[=A]'RIAN. [Fr. _Janissaire_--Turk, _yeñi_, new, _`asker_, army.] JANKER, jang'ker, _n._ (_Scot._) a long pole on two wheels used for transporting logs. JANN, jan,_ n._ one of the lowest of the five orders of Mohammedan genii. JANNOCK, jan'ok, _adj._ (_prov._) straightforward. JANNOCK, jan'ok, _n._ oaten bread, a cake. JANSENISM, jan'sen-izm, _n._ a system of evangelical doctrine deduced from Augustine by Cornelius _Jansen_ (1585-1638), Roman Catholic Bishop of Ypres, essentially a reaction against the ordinary Catholic dogma of the freedom of the will and that of merely sufficient grace, maintaining that interior grace is irresistible, and that Christ died for all.--_n._ JAN'SENIST, a believer in Jansenism. JANTILY, JANTINESS, JANTY. See JAUNTY, &c. JANUARY, jan'[=u]-ar-i, _n._ the first month of the year, dedicated by the Romans to JAN'US, the god of opening, with a double head that looked both ways.--_adjs._ JAN'UFORM, two-faced; JAN'US-FACED, double-dealing: deceitful. [L. _Januarius_--_Junus_.] JAP, jap, _n._ and _adj._ (_coll._) for JAPANESE', of or belonging to _Japan:_ the language of Japan: a native of Japan. JAPAN, ja-pan', _v.t._ to varnish after the manner of the JAPANESE', or people of _Japan:_ to make black and glossy:--_pr.p._ japan'ning; _pa.p._ japanned'.--_n._ work japanned: the varnish or lacquer used in japanning.--_ns._ JAPAN'-EARTH, or _Terra japonica_, gambier; JAPAN'NER.--JAPAN LACQUER, or BLACK JAPAN, a hard jet-black lacquer, for sheet-metal, made of asphaltum, linseed-oil, and varnish; JAPANNED LEATHER, same as patent leather (see PATENT). JAPE, j[=a]p, _v.i._ to jest, joke.--_v.t._ to mock.--_n._ a jest, joke, trick. [O. Fr. _japer_.] JAPHETIC, ja-fet'ik, _adj._ a term formerly applied in ethnology to European peoples, the supposed descendants of _Japhet_, as opposed to Hamitic and Semitic. JAPONICA, jap-on'i-ka, _n._ an abbreviation for _Pyrus japonica_, the Japanese quince. JAR, jär, _v.i._ to make a harsh discordant sound: to dash: to quarrel: to be inconsistent.--_v.t._ to shake:--_pr.p._ jar'ring; _pa.p._ jarred.--_n._ a harsh rattling sound: clash of interests or opinions: discord.--_adv._ JAR'RINGLY. [Imit.; cf. _jargon_.] JAR, jär, _n._ an earthen or glass bottle with a wide mouth: a measure. [O. Fr. _jare_--Pers. _jarrah_.] JAR, jär, _n._ a turn, used only in the phrase, 'on the jar,' ajar. [See AJAR.] JARDINIÈRE, zhar-d[=e]-ny[=a]r', _n._ a vessel for the display of flowers, growing or cut: a lappet forming part of an old head-dress. [Fr., 'a flower-stand,' _jardinier_, a gardener.] JARGON, jär'gon, _n._ confused talk: slang.--_n._ JAR'GONIST, one who uses jargon. [Fr. _jargon_, prob. conn. with L. _garr[=i]re_, to prattle.] JARGON, jär'gon, _n._ a variety of zircon found in Ceylon, transparent, colourless.--Also JAR'GOON. JARGONELLE, jär-go-nel', _n._ a kind of pear. [Fr.] JARKMAN, järk'man, _n._ (_slang_) a swindling beggar, a begging-letter writer. JARL, järl, _n._ a noble, chief, earl. [Scand.] JAROOL, ja-r[=oo]l', _n._ the Indian bloodwood. JARRAH, jar'a, _n._ the mahogany gum-tree of Australia. JARVEY, jär'vi, _n._ (_slang_) a hackney-coach driver. JASEY, j[=a]'zi, _n._ a kind of wig, originally made of worsted. [Corr. of _Jersey_.] JASHER, jäsh'[.e]r, _n._ one of the lost books of the ancient Hebrews, quoted twice (Josh. x. 13; 2 Sam. i. 18), most probably a collection of heroic ballads. JASMINE, jas'min, JESSAMINE, jes'a-min, _n._ a genus of plants, many species of which have very fragrant flowers. [Fr. _jasmin_--Ar.,--Pers. _y[=a]sm[=i]n_.] JASPER, jas'p[.e]r, _n._ a precious stone, being a hard siliceous mineral of various colours.--_adjs_. JAS'PÉ, having the surface ornamented with veins; JAS'PERATED, mixed with jasper; JAS'PERY, like jasper; JASPID'EAN, JASPID'EOUS, JAS'POID. [Fr. _jaspe_--L. and Gr. _iaspis_--Ar. _yasb_.] JATAKA, jä'ta-kä, _n._ a nativity, the birth-story of Buddha. [Sans.,--_j[=a]ta_, born.] JAUNCE, jäns, _v.i._ (_Shak._) to jolt or shake: to ride hard.--_n._ a jaunt. [O. Fr. _jancer_, to stir.] JAUNDER, jän'der, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to talk idly.--_n._ gossip. JAUNDICE, jän'dis, _n._ a disease, characterised by a yellowness of the eyes, skin, &c., caused by bile.--_adj._ JAUN'DICED, affected with jaundice: prejudiced. [Fr. _jaunisse_, from _jaune_, yellow--L. _galbinus_, yellowish, _galbus_, yellow.] JAUNT, jänt, _v.i._ to go from place to place: to make an excursion.--_n._ an excursion: a ramble.--_adj._ JAUNT'ING, strolling: making an excursion.--_n._ JAUNT'ING-CAR, a low-set, two-wheeled, open vehicle used in Ireland, with side-seats back to back. [O. Fr. _jancer_, to stir (a horse); but more prob. Scand.] JAUNTY, JANTY, jänt'i, _adj._ airy: showy: finical.--_adv._ JAUNT'ILY.--_n._ JAUNT'INESS. [Fr. _gentil_.] JAUP, jäp, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to spatter.--_v.i._ to make a sound like water shaken in a vessel.--_n._ water or mud splashed up. JAVEL, jav'el, _n._ (_Spens._) a worthless fellow. JAVELIN, jav'lin, _n._ a spear meant to be hurled, anciently used by both infantry and cavalry. [O. Fr. _javelin_; prob. Celt.] JAW, jaw, _n._ the bones of the mouth in which the teeth are set: the mouth: anything like a jaw: (_slang_) talkativeness, scolding.--_v.i._ (_slang_) to scold.--_ns._ JAW'BONE, the bone of the jaw, in which the teeth are set; JAW'-BREAK'ER (_slang_), a word hard to pronounce.--_adj._ JAWED, having jaws: denoting the appearance of the jaws, as _lantern-jawed_.--_n._ JAW'FALL, a falling of the jaw: (_fig._) depression of spirits.--_adj._ JAW'-FALL'EN, depressed in spirits: dejected.--_ns._ JAW'-FOOT, a foot-jaw, maxilliped; JAW'-L[=E]'VER, an instrument for opening the mouth of a horse or cow to admit medicine; JAW'-TOOTH, one of the double teeth, a grinder or molar.--BREAK-JAW WORD, a very long word, or one hard to pronounce; HOLD ONE'S JAW, to cease from talking or scolding. [Old spelling _chaw_, akin to _chew_.] JAW, jaw, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to pour out, throw out: splash.--_ns._ JAW'-BOX, JAW'-HOLE, a sink. JAY, j[=a], _n._ a bird of the crow family with gay plumage: a wanton woman: an indifferent actor, a stupid chattering fellow. [O. Fr. _jay_ (mod. Fr. _geai_); from root of _gay_.] JAZERANT. See JESSERANT. JEALOUS, jel'us, _adj._ suspicious of or incensed at rivalry: anxious to defend the honour of.--_adv._ JEAL'OUSLY.--_ns._ JEAL'OUSY, JEAL'OUSHOOD (_Shak._), JEAL'OUSNESS. [O. Fr. _jalous_ (mod. Fr. _jaloux_)--L. _zelus_--Gr. _z[=e]los_, emulation.] JEAMES, j[=e]mz, _n._ a flunkey. [From Thackeray's '_Jeames_ de la Pluche.'] JEAN, j[=a]n, _n._ a twilled cotton cloth.--_n._ JEANETTE', coarse jean, for lining.--SATIN JEAN, a smooth, glossy, hard-twilled cotton goods. [_Jane_.] JEBUSITE, jeb'[=u]-z[=i]t, _n._ one of a Canaanitish race who long defied the Israelites from their stronghold on Mount Zion.--_adj._ JEBUSIT'IC. JEDDART, jed'dart, _n._ an old name for _Jedburgh_.--JEDDART AXE, a stout steel-headed pole, four feet long; JEDDART, or JEDWOOD, JUSTICE, hanging first and trying afterwards. JEDGE, jej, _n._ (_Scot._) a gauge or standard. JEER, j[=e]r, _v.t._ to make sport of: to treat with derision.--_v.i._ to scoff: to deride: to make a mock of.--_n._ a railing remark: biting jest: mockery.--_n._ JEER'ER, a scoffer or mocker.--_adv._ JEER'INGLY. [Acc. to Skeat, from the Dut. phrase _den gek scheeren_, lit. 'to shear the fool,' to mock, the words _gek scheeren_ (now _scheren_) being corr. into _jeer_.] JEFF, jef, _v.i._ to gamble with printers' quadrats thrown like dice. JEFF, jef, _n._ a rope, in circus slang. JEFFERSONITE, jef'er-son-[=i]t, _n._ a greenish-black variety of pyroxene. [Thomas _Jefferson_, 1743-1826.] JEHOIADA-BOX, j[=e]-hoi'a-da-boks, _n._ a child's savings-bank--from 2 Chron. xxiv. 6-11. JEHOVAH, je-h[=o]'va, _n._ the eternal or self-existent Being, the chief Hebrew name of the Deity.--_n._ JEH[=O]'VIST, one who holds that the vowel-points annexed to the word _Jehovah_ in Hebrew are the proper vowels of the word, some maintaining that they are those of the word _Adonai_ or of _Elohim_: the supposed writer of the passages in the Pentateuch, in which the name applied to God is Jehovah.--_adj._ JEHOVIST'IC. [Heb. _Yah[=o]w[=a]h_, hardly from _h[=a]w[=a]h_, to be.] JEHU, j[=e]'h[=u], _n._ (_coll._) a driver, esp. a furious whip. [A reference to 2 Kings, ix. 20.] JEJUNE, je-j[=oo]n', _adj._ empty: void of interest: barren.--_adv._ JEJUNE'LY.--_ns._ JEJUNE'NESS; JEJU'NUM, the second division of the small intestine between the duodenum and the ileum. [L. _jejunus_, hungry.] JELLY, jel'i, _n._ anything gelatinous: the juice of fruit boiled with sugar.--_v.i._ JELL, to jelly.--_adj._ JELL'IED, in the state of jelly.--_v.t._ JELL'IFY, to make into a jelly.--_v.i._ to become gelatinous.--_ns._ JELL'Y-BAG, a bag through which jelly is strained; JELL'Y-FISH, marine radiate animals like jelly. [Fr. _gelée_, from _geler_--L. _gel[=a]re_, to freeze.] JELLYBY, jel'i-bi, _n._ a philanthropist who cares only for distant people--from Mrs _Jellyby_ in _Bleak House_, who busies herself about Borrioboola Gha, while her own household is going to ruin. JEMIDAR, jem'i-där, _n._ a native officer in the Indian army of the rank of lieutenant: an officer of police, customs, &c.--Also JAM'ADAR. [Hind.] JEMMY, jem'i, _n._ a burglar's short crowbar: (_slang_) a baked sheep's head: a greatcoat. JEMMY, jem'i, _adj._ neat, smart, handy--also GEMM'Y.--_n._ JEMM'INESS, neatness. JENKINS, jengk'ins, _n._ (_coll._) a society reporter, toady. JENNET, jen'et, _n._ a small Spanish horse.--Also GENN'ET, GEN'ET. [O. Fr. _genette_--Sp. _ginete_; Moorish.] JENNETING, jen'et-ing, _n._ a kind of early apple. [Prob. apple of St _Jean_ or John; not from _June-eating_.] JENNY, jen'i, _n._ a female bird, a wren--usually JENN'Y-WREN: a female ass: a spinning-jenny. [From the name _Jenny_; prob. the last sense from _gin_.] JEOFAIL, jef'[=a]l, _n._ an error in pleadings, or the acknowledgment of a mistake. [O. Fr. _je faille_, I fail.] JEOPARDY, jep'ard-i, _n._ hazard, danger.--_vs.t._ JEOP'ARD, JEOP'ARDISE, to put in jeopardy.--_n._ JEOP'ARDER.--_adj._ JEOP'ARDOUS, exposed to danger or loss.--_adv._ JEOP'ARDOUSLY. [Fr. _jeu parti_, a divided game--Low L. _jocus partitus_--L. _jocus_, a game, _partitus_, divided--_part[=i]ri_, to divide.] JERBOA, j[.e]r-b[=o]'a, _n._ a genus of small rodent quadrupeds, remarkable for the length of their hind-legs and their power of jumping. [Ar. _yarb[=u]`_.] JEREED, je-r[=e]d', _n._ a kind of blunt javelin used by the Turks in mock-fights. [Ar. _jar[=i]d_.] JEREMIAD, jer-e-m[=i]'ad, _n._ a lamentation: a tale of grief: a doleful story. [From _Jeremiah_ the prophet, author of the book of Lamentations.] JERFALCON. Same as GYRFALCON. JERICHO, jer'i-k[=o], _n._ a remote place, to which one is humorously consigned--from _Jericho_ in Palestine and the story in 2 Sam. x. 4, 5. JERK, j[.e]rk, _v.t._ to throw with a quick effort: to give a sudden movement.--_n._ a short, sudden movement: a striking against with a sudden motion: an involuntary spasmodic contraction of a muscle.--_ns._ JERK'ER; JERK'INESS.--_adj._ JERK'Y, moving or coming by jerks or starts, spasmodic; capricious, impatient. [A variant of _jert_ and _gird_, and conn. with _yard_, a rod.] JERK, j[.e]rk, _v.t._ to search, as a vessel for concealed or smuggled goods--also JERQUE.--_ns._ JERK'ER, JERQU'ER; JERQU'ING. JERK, j[.e]rk, _n._ meat cut into thin pieces and dried in the sun.--Also JERK'Y. [Chilian _charqui_.] JERKIN, j[.e]r'kin, _n._ a young salmon.--Also GIN'KIN. JERKIN, j[.e]r'kin, _n._ a jacket, a short coat or close waistcoat.--_n._ JER'KIN-HEAD (_archit._) the combination of a truncated gable with a hipped roof. [Dut., dim. of _jurk_, a frock.] JERKINET, j[.e]r'ki-net, _n._ a woman's outer jacket. JEROBOAM, jer-o-b[=o]'am, _n._ a large metal bowl: eight bottles. [Allusion to 1 Kings, xi. 28.] JERQUER, JERQUING. See JERK (2). JERRY-BUILDER, jer'i-bild'[.e]r, _n._ one who builds flimsy houses cheaply and hastily, a speculative builder.--_n._ JERR'Y-BUILD'ING.--_adj._ JERR'Y-BUILT.--_n._ JERR'Y-SHOP, a low dram-shop. [Prob. the personal name.] JERSEY, j[.e]r'zi, _n._ the finest part of wool: combed wool: a close-fitting woollen shirt, or kind of under-vest, worn in rowing, &c. [From the island _Jersey_.] JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE, PONY. See ARTICHOKE, PONY. JESS, jes, _n._ a short strap round the legs of a hawk.--_adj._ JESSED, having jesses on. [O. Fr. _ject_--L. _jact[=a]re_, to fling, freq. of _jac[)e]re_, to throw.] JESSAMINE, jes'a-min. See JASMINE. JESSAMY, jes'sa-mi, _n._ jasmine: a dandy. JESSANT, jes'ant, _adj._ (_her._) rising from the bottom line of a field or an upper line of an ordinary. [Perhaps a corr. of _issuant_. Cf. _issue_.] JESSE, jes'i, _n._ a large branched candlestick used in churches, formerly hung up in churches. [From its likeness to the genealogical tree of Christ's descent from _Jesse_ (Is. xi. 1), the father of David, often in medieval churches carried out in stained glass (a _jesse window_), sculpture, mural decoration, &c.] JESSERANT, jes'e-rant, _n._ splint armour.--Also JAZ'ERANT. [O. Fr. _gesseron_, _jazeran_--Sp. _jacerina_.] JEST, jest, _n._ something ludicrous: joke: fun: something uttered in sport: object of laughter.--_v.i._ to make a jest: to joust.--_ns._ JEST'-BOOK, a collection of funny stories; JEST'ER, one who jests: a buffoon: a court-fool.--_adj._ JEST'FUL, given to jesting.--_adv._ JEST'INGLY.--_n._ JEST'ING-STOCK, a butt for jests. [Orig. 'a deed, a story,' M. E. _geste_--O. Fr. _geste_--L. _gesta_--_ger[)e]re_, to do.] JESUIT, jez'[=u]-it, _n._ a member of the famous religious order, the Society of _Jesus_, founded in 1534 by Ignatius Loyola: a crafty or insidious person, an intriguer.--_v.t._ to make a Jesuit of.--_adjs._ JESUIT'IC, -AL.--_adv._ Jesuit'ically.--_ns._ JES'UITISM, Jesuitry: the principles and practices of the Jesuits: cunning: deceit; JESUITOC'RACY, government by Jesuits; JES'UITRY, Jesuitism.--JESUITS' BARK, cinchona, because introduced to Rome by Jesuit missionaries. JESUS, j[=e]'zus, _n._ the Saviour of mankind.--_n._ JÉSUS, a size of paper, super-royal.--COMPANY, or SOCIETY, OF JESUS, the Jesuit order.--GRAND JÉSUS, imperial. [Gr. _I[=e]sous_--Heb. _Y[=e]sh[=u]`a_, contr. of _Yeh[=o]sh[=u]`a_, help of Jehovah, the Saviour--_y[=a]sha`_, to save.] JET, jet, _n._ a rich black variety of mineral coal, very hard and compact, taking a brilliant polish, used for ornaments.--_adj._ JET'-BLACK.--_n._ JET'TINESS.--_adj._ JET'TY, made of jet, or black as jet. [O. Fr. _jaet_--L.--Gr. _gagat[=e]s_, from _Gagas_, a town and river in Lycia, in Asia Minor, where it was obtained.] JET, jet, _n._ a spouting stream: a spout at the end of a gas-pipe emitting the flame.--_v.t._ to throw out, shoot forth.--_v.i._ to strut, to encroach arrogantly upon.--_n._ JETTATU'RA, the Evil-eye. [O. Fr. _jetter_--L. _jact[=a]re_, to fling, freq. of _jac[)e]re_, to throw.] JETSAM, jet'sam, _n._ the throwing of goods overboard to lighten a vessel: the goods so thrown away which remain under water (see FLOTSAM)--also JET'SOM, JET'SON, JET'TISON.--_v.t._ JET'TISON, to throw overboard, as goods, in time of danger. [Anglo-Fr. _jetteson_--L. _jactation-em_, a casting.] JETTON, jet'on, _n._ a piece of stamped metal used as a counter in card-playing, &c. JETTY, jet'i, _n._ a projection: a kind of pier. [O. Fr. _jettée_, thrown out. See Jet (2).] JEW, j[=oo], _n._ an inhabitant of Judea: a Hebrew or Israelite: opprobriously used for a usurer, miser, &c.:--_fem._ JEW'ESS.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ (_coll._) to overreach: cheat.--_n._ JEW'-BAIT'ING, the persecuting of Jews.--_adj._ JEW'ISH, belonging to the Jews.--_adv._ JEW'ISHLY.--_ns._ JEW'ISHNESS; JEW'S'-EAR, a fungus that grows on the elder, and bears some resemblance to the human ear; JEW'S' FRANK'INCENSE, the balsam known as benzoin or gum storax, often used as an incense; JEW'S'-HARP, a small harp-shaped musical instrument played between the teeth by striking a spring with the finger; JEW'S'-MALL'OW, a plant much cultivated as a pot-herb by the Jews in Syria; JEW'S'-MYR'TLE, the prickly-leaved plant Ruscus aculeatus; JEW'S'-PITCH, asphaltum; JEW'S'-STONE, the fossil spine of a large echinus or sea hedgehog.--JEW'S EYE, in proverb 'Worth a Jew's eye,' something of high value--from the custom of torturing Jews for money; JEWS' HOUSES, in Cornwall, the name given to prehistoric miners' dwellings.--WANDERING JEW (see WANDER). [O. Fr. _Juis_--L. _Judæus_--Gr. _Ioudaios_--Heb. _Yeh[=u]d[=a]h_, Judah.] JEWEL, j[=oo]'el, _n._ a precious stone: an ornament of precious stones, worn as a decoration: anything or any one highly valued.--_v.t._ to dress or adorn with jewels: to fit with a jewel:--_pr.p._ jew'elling; _pa.p._ jew'elled, in a watch, having pivot-holes of garnets or any other jewels.--_ns._ JEW'EL-CASE, a casket for holding jewels; JEW'ELLER, one who makes or deals in jewels; JEW'ELLERY, JEW'ELRY, jewels in general. [O. Fr. _jouel_ (Fr. _joyau_); either a dim. of Fr. _joie_, joy, from L. _gaudium_, joy--_gaud[=e]re_, to rejoice--or derived through Low L. _jocale_, from L. _joc[=a]ri_, to jest.] JEWRY, j[=oo]'ri, _n._ Judea: a district inhabited by _Jews_. JEZEBEL, jez'e-bel, _n._ a bold and vicious woman, a virago. [From Ahab's wicked wife.] JIB, jib, _n._ a triangular sail borne in front of the foremast in a ship, so called from its shifting of itself.--_v.t._ to shift a boom sail from one tack to the other.--_v.i._ to move restively.--_ns._ JIB'-BOOM, a boom or extension of the bowsprit, on which the jib is spread; JIB'-DOOR, a door flush with the outside wall, intended to be concealed.--THE CUT OF ONE'S JIB, appearance. [Dan. _gibbe_, to jib; cf. Dut. _gijpen_, to turn suddenly.] JIBBINGS, jib'ingz, _n.pl._ the last milk drawn from a cow. JIBE. Same as GIBE. JIFFY, jif'fi, _n._ (_coll._) an instant. JIG, jig, _n._ a quick, lively tune: a quick dance suited to the tune.--_v.i._ to dance a jig:--_pr.p._ jig'ging; _pa.p._ jigged.--_adj._ JIG'GISH. [O. Fr. _gige_, _gigue_, a stringed instrument--Teut.; Ger. _geige_; cf. _gig_.] JIGAMAREE, jig-a-ma-r[=e]', _n._ anything the name of which one forgets, a thingumbob.--Also JIG'GUMBOB. JIGGER, jig'g[.e]r, _n._ a corruption of _chigoe_. JIGGER, jig'g[.e]r, _n._ anything that jigs: one of many kinds of subsidiary appliances, as an apparatus for separating ores by jolting in sieves in water, a simple potter's wheel or a template or profile used with it, a warehouse crane, the bridge or rest for the cue in billiards: an old-fashioned sloop-rigged boat: a one-horse street car: a machine for exhibiting on a dial at once the prices at which sales are made, controlled by electric mechanism with a key-board: (_slang_) a drink of whisky.--_v.t._ to jerk or shake. JIGGERED, jig'[.e]rd, _p.adj._ a meaningless and needless substitute for a profane oath. JIGGING, jig'ing, _n._ in mining, the process of separating ore by means of a wire-bottomed sieve moved up and down in water. JIGJOG, jig'jog, _n._ a jolting motion, a jog.--Also JICK'AJOG, JIG'AJOG. [Reduplicated form of jog.] JIGOT, jig'ot, _n._ a leg of mutton. See GIGOT. JILL, jil, _n._ Same as GILL. JILL, jil, _n._ a young woman, often associated with Jack. [Short for _Gillian_--i.e. _Juliana_.] JILT, jilt, _n._ a woman who encourages a lover and then rejects him.--_v.t._ to encourage and then discard a lover. [Formerly _jillet_, dim. of _Jill_.] JIMCRACK. See GIMCRACK. JIM CROW, jim kr[=o], _n._ one of the earliest negro-minstrel songs: a kind of generic name for the negro. JIM-CROW, jim'-kr[=o], _n._ a tool for bending or straightening iron rails or bars. JIMMY, jim'i, _n._ (_U.S._) a coal-car. JIMP, jimp, _adj._ (_Scot._) slender, elegant.--_adv._ JIMP, JIMP'LY, neatly, hardly.--_adj._ JIMP'Y, neat. JIMSON-WEED. See STRAMONIUM. JINGAL, jing'gal, _n._ a large Chinese swivel-musket. JINGLE, jing'l, _n._ a clinking sound: that which makes a rattling sound: a correspondence of sounds: a covered two-wheeled car.--_v.i._ to sound with a jingle.--_ns._ JING'LE-JANG'LE, a jingling sound; JING'LET, a ball serving as the clapper of a sleigh-bell; J[=I]NG'LING, a game in which blindfolded players within a ring try to catch a player with a bell tied to him. [Imit.] JINGO, jing'g[=o], _n._ a name used in the expletives, 'By Jingo!' 'By the living Jingo!' From its occurrence in a music-hall song of 1878 that conveyed a threat against Russia, Jingo has come to mean a British Chauvinist.--_adjs._ JING'O, JING'OISH.--_n._ JING'OISM. [Often fearlessly derived from Basque _Jinkoa_, _Jainko_, God; no doubt conn. somehow with St _Gengulphus_ (died May 11, 760).] JINK, jingk, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to move nimbly, to dodge.--_v.t._ to elude: to cheat.--_n._ a quick, illusory turn. JINN, jin, _n.pl._ (sing. JIN'NEE) a class of spirits in Mohammedan mythology, formed of fire, living chiefly on the mountains of Káf which encircle the world, assuming various shapes, sometimes as men of enormous size and portentous hideousness.--Also DJINN, GINN. The _jinn_ are often called _genii_ by a confusion. A plural JINNS is sometimes erroneously used. [Ar. _jinn_, pl. _jinn[=i]y_.] JINRIKISHA, jin-rik'i-shä, _n._ a small, two-wheeled hooded carriage drawn by men. [Jap. _jin_, man, _riki_, power, _sha_, carriage.] JOB, job, _n._ a sudden stroke or stab with a pointed instrument like a beak.--_v.t._ to strike or stab suddenly:--_pr.p._ job'bing; _pa.p._ jobbed. [Gael. _gob_, W. _gwp_, a bird's beak; conn. with _gobble_, _job_.] JOB, job, _n._ any piece of work, esp. of a trifling or temporary nature: miscellaneous printing-work: any undertaking with a view to profit: a mean transaction, in which private gain is sought under pretence of public service.--_adj._ of a particular job or transaction, assigned to a special use: bought or sold lumped together.--_v.i._ to work at jobs: to buy and sell as a broker: to hire or let out by the week or month, esp. horses.--_ns._ JOB'BER, one who jobs: one who buys and sells, as a broker or middleman: one who turns official actions to private advantage: one who engages in a mean lucrative affair; JOB'BERY, jobbing: unfair means employed to procure some private end; JOB'-MAS'TER, a livery-stable keeper who jobs out horses and carriages.--A BAD JOB, an unfortunate affair; ODD JOBS, occasional pieces of work. [Formerly _gob_--O. Fr. _gob_, a mouthful; from the same Celtic root as _gobble_.] JOB, j[=o]b, _n._ a monument of patience--from _Job_ in Scripture.--_n._ JOB[=A]'TION, a tedious scolding.--JOB'S COMFORTER, one who aggravates the distress of an unfortunate man he has come to comfort; JOB'S NEWS, bad news; JOB'S POST, the bearer of bad news. JOCKEY, jok'i, _n._ a man (orig. a boy) who rides horses in a race: a horse-dealer: one who takes undue advantage in business.--_v.t._ to jostle by riding against: to cheat.--_ns._ JOCK'EYISM, JOCK'EYSHIP, the art or practice of a jockey.--JOCKEY CLUB, an association for the promotion and ordering of horse-racing. [Dim. of _Jock_, northern Eng. for _Jack_.] JOCKTELEG, jok'te-leg, _n._ (_Scot._) a large clasp-knife. [Cf. _jack-knife_.] JOCOSE, jo-k[=o]s', _adj._ full of jokes: humorous: merry.--_adv._ JOCOSE'LY.--_ns._ JOCOSE'NESS, JOCOS'ITY, the quality of being jocose.--_adj._ JOCO-S[=E]'RIOUS, half in jest, half in earnest. [L. _jocosus_--_jocus_, a joke.] JOCULAR, jok'[=u]-lar, _adj._ given to jokes: humorous: droll: laughable.--_n._ JOCULAR'ITY.--_adv._ JOC'ULARLY.--_n._ JOCUL[=A]'TOR, a professional jester or minstrel.--_adj._ JOC'UL[=A]TORY. [L. _jocularis_--_jocus_.] JOCUND, jok'und, _adj._ in a jocose humour: merry: cheerful: pleasant.--_ns._ JOCUND'ITY, JOCUND'NESS.--_adv._ JOC'UNDLY. [Fr.,--L. _jocundus_--_jocus_.] JODEL, j[=o]'del, _v.i._ to sing with the falsetto voice in harmonic progressions.--Also _n._ [Swiss.] JOE, j[=o], JOEY, j[=o]'i, _n._ (_slang_) a fourpenny-bit--from _Joseph_ Hume, M.P., their author, 1836.--JOE MILLER, an old or stale jest, a jest-book; JOE MILLERISM, the habit of retailing stale jests--from _Joe Miller_ (1684-1738), a comedian but notoriously dull fellow, whose name was attached to a collection in 1739. JOE, or JO, j[=o], _n._ (_Scot._) a sweetheart. JOG, jog, _v.t._ to shake: to push with the elbow or hand, to stimulate, stir up, as the memory.--_v.i._ to move by jogs: to travel slowly:--_pr.p._ jog'ging; _pa.p._ jogged.--_n._ a slight shake: a push.--_ns._ JOG'GER (_Dryden_), one who moves slowly and heavily; JOG'TROT, a slow jogging trot.--BE JOGGING, to move on, to depart. [A weakened form of _shock_.] JOGGLE, jog'l, _n._ a notch in joints adapted in fitting stones or pieces of timber together to keep them from sliding. [Dim. of _jog_, to push.] JOGGLE, jog'l, _v.t._ to jog or shake slightly: to jostle.--_v.i._ to shake:--_pr.p._ jogg'ling; _pa.p._ jogg'led. [Dim. of _jog_.] JOHANNES, j[=o]-han'[=e]z, _n._ an old Portuguese gold coin.--Also JOANN'ES. JOHANNINE, j[=o]-an'n[=i]n, _adj._ pertaining to St John.--Also JOHAN'N[=E]AN. [L. _Joannes_.] JOHANNISBERGER, j[=o]-hän'nis-b[.e]r-g[.e]r, _n._ a white Rhenish wine grown at _Johannisberg_ ('St John's Mountain'), near Wiesbaden. JOHN, jon, _n._ a proper name, one of whose diminutives, JOHN'NY, is sometimes used in slang for a simpleton or a fellow generally.--_ns._ JOHN'-A-DREAMS' (_Shak._), a dreamy fellow; JOHN'IAN, a member of St John's College, Cambridge; JOHN'NY-CAKE, a cake of Indian meal toasted; JOHN'NY-RAW, a beginner.--JOHN BULL, a generic name for an Englishman from Arbuthnott's _History of John Bull_, 1712; JOHN BULLISM, the typical English character, or any act or word expressive of it; JOHN CHINAMAN, a Chinaman, the Chinese collectively; JOHN COMPANY, an old colloquial name for the Honourable East India Company; JOHN DORY (see DORY); JOHN THOMAS, a generic name for a flunkey. JOHNSONIANISM, jon-s[=o]'ni-an-izm, _n._ a peculiarity of Dr _Johnson_, the lexicographer (1709-83)--also JOHN'SONISM.--_n._ JOHN'SONESE, the Johnsonian style, or an imitation of it--ponderous English, full of words of classical origin. JOIN, join, _v.t._ to connect: to unite: to associate: to add or annex.--_v.i._ to be connected with: to grow together: to be in close contact: to unite (_with_).--_ns._ JOIND'ER, joining; JOIN'ER, one who joins or unites: a carpenter; JOIN'ERY, the art of the joiner; JOIN'-HAND, running hand; JOIN'ING, the act of joining: a seam: a joint; JOINT, a joining: the place where, or mode in which, two or more things join, as two rails, two pieces of timber connected by mortises and tenons, &c.: the flexible hinge of cloth or leather connecting the back of a book with its sides: (_geol._) a crack intersecting a mass of rock: a knot: a hinge: a seam: a place of resort for tramps: (_U.S._) an opium-den: the place where two bones are joined: (_cook._) the part of the limb of an animal cut off at the joint.--_adj._ joined, united, or combined: shared among more than one.--_v.t._ to unite by joints: to fit closely: to provide with joints: to cut into joints, as an animal.--_v.i._ to fit like joints.--_adj._ JOINT'ED, having joints.--_ns._ JOINT'ER, the largest kind of plane used by a joiner: a bent piece of iron for riveting two stones together; JOINT'ING-RULE, a long, straight-edged rule used by bricklayers for keeping their work even.--_adv._ JOINT'LY, in a joint manner: unitedly or in combination: together.--_ns._ JOINT'-OIL, the synovia, a viscid secretion for lubricating the articular surfaces; JOINT'-STOCK, stock held jointly or in company; JOINT'-STOOL (_Shak._), a stool made of parts inserted in each other; JOINT'-TEN'ANCY, the ownership of land or goods along with one or more persons; JOINT'-TEN'ANT, one who is owner of land or goods along with others; JOINT'URE, property joined to or settled on a woman at marriage to be enjoyed after her husband's death.--_v.t._ to settle a jointure upon.--_ns._ JOINT'[=U]RESS, JOIN'TRESS, a woman on whom a jointure is settled.--JOIN BATTLE, to engage in battle.--OUT OF JOINT, dislocated, (_fig._) disordered; PUT ONE'S NOSE OUT OF JOINT, to supplant in another's love or confidence; SECOND JOINT, the middle piece of a fly fishing-rod: the thigh of a fowl--opp. to the leg or drumstick, the first joint; UNIVERSAL JOINT, a contrivance by which one part of a machine is able to move freely in all directions, as in the ball-and-socket joint. [O. Fr. _joindre_--L. _jung[)e]re_, _junctum_.] JOIST, joist, _n._ the timbers to which the boards of a floor or the laths of a ceiling are nailed.--_v.t._ to fit with joists. [O. Fr. _giste_--_gesir_--L. _jac[=e]re_, to lie.] JOKE, j[=o]k, _n._ a jest: a witticism: something witty or sportive: anything said or done to excite a laugh.--_v.t._ to cast jokes at: to banter: to make merry with.--_v.i._ to jest: to be merry: to make sport.--_n._ JOK'ER, one who jokes or jests: a card, generally the highest trump, at euchre.--_adv._ JOK'INGLY, in a joking manner. [L. _jocus_.] JOLE, another form of _jowl_. JOLE, JOLL, j[=o]l, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to beat against anything, to clash with violence. JOLLY, jol'i, _adj._ merry: expressing or exciting mirth, jovial: comely, robust.--_n._ JOLLIFIC[=A]'TION, a making jolly: noisy festivity and merriment.--_adv._ JOLL'ILY.--_ns._ JOLL'IMENT (_Spens._), merriment; JOLL'ITY, JOLL'INESS.--_adv._ JOLL'Y (_coll._), uncommonly. [O. Fr. _jolif_, _joli_--Ice. _jol_, Yule.] JOLLYBOAT, jol'i-b[=o]t, _n._ a small boat belonging to a ship. [Dan. _jolle_, a boat, and Eng. _boat_.] JOLT, j[=o]lt, _v.i._ to shake with sudden jerks.--_v.t._ to shake with a sudden shock.--_n._ a sudden jerk.--_ns._ JOLT'ER; JOLT'-HEAD, JOLT'ERHEAD, a blockhead.--_adv._ JOLT'INGLY, in a jolting manner. [Old form _joll_, prob. conn. with _jowl_.] JONAH, j[=o]'nä, _n._ an unlucky passenger on shipboard or elsewhere--from the prophet _Jonah_. JONATHAN, jon'a-than, _n._ the people of the United States, collectively, or a typical specimen, BROTHER JONATHAN. [Perh. from the sagacious Governor _Jonathan_ Trumbull, 1710-85.] JONGLEUR, zhong'gler, _n._ a minstrel: a mountebank. [O. Fr. _jogleor_--L. _joculator_; cf. _Juggler_.] JONQUIL, jon'kwil, _n._ a name given to certain species of narcissus with rush-like leaves.--Also JON'QUILL. [Fr. _jonquille_--L. _juncus_, a rush.] JORDAN, jor'dan, _n._ (_Shak._) a chamber-pot. [_Jordan_-bottle, a pilgrim's bottle containing _Jordan_ water.] JORUM, j[=o]'rum, _n._ a drinking bowl or vessel, also its contents.--Also J[=O]'RAM. [Ety. unknown.] JOSEPH, j[=o]'zef, _n._ one whose chastity is above temptation--from the story of _Joseph_ and Potiphar's wife in Gen. xxxix.: a caped overcoat worn by women in the 18th century for riding--in allusion to _Joseph's_ coat, Gen. xxxvii. 3. JOSKIN, jos'kin, _n._ a clown, yokel. [Thieves' cant.] JOSS, jos, _n._ a Chinese idol.--_ns._ JOSS'-HOUSE, a temple; JOSS'-STICK, a stick of gum burned as incense to their gods. [Pidgin-English corr. of the Port. _deos_, god.] JOSS-BLOCK, jos'-blok, _n._ (_prov._) a horse-block. JOSTLE, jos'l, _v.t._ to joust or strike against: to drive against. [Freq. of _joust_.] JOT, jot, _n._ the least quantity assignable.--_v.t._ to set down briefly: to make a memorandum of:--_pr.p._ jot'ting; _pa.p._ jot'ted.--_ns._ JOT'TER, one who jots: a book for memoranda; JOT'TING, a memorandum. [L.,--Gr. _i[=o]ta_--Heb. _y[=o]dh_, the smallest letter in the alphabet, Eng. _i_.] JOTUN, y[=o]'tun, _n._ a giant. [Ice. _jötunn_.] [Illustration] JOUGS, joogz, _n._ an iron neck-ring that constituted the old Scottish pillory. [O. Fr. _joug_, a yoke--L. _jugum_.] JOUISANCE, j[=oo]'is-ans, _n._ (_Spens._) joyousness. [Fr.,--_jouir_, to enjoy--L. _gaud[=e]re_, to rejoice.] JOUK, JOOK, j[=oo]k, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to duck or dodge: to bow.--_ns._ JOUK'ERY, JOOK'ERY, trickery; JOUK'ERY-PAWK'ERY, low cunning, trickery. JOULE, j[=oo]l, _n._ the practical unit of electrical energy. [After James Prescott _Joule_ (1818-89).] JOUNCE, jowns, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to jolt, shake. JOURNAL, jur'nal, _n._ a daily register or diary: a book containing an account of each day's transactions: a newspaper published daily or otherwise: a magazine: the transactions of any society.--_n._ JOURNALESE', the language of journalism.--_v.i._ JOUR'NAL[=I]SE, to write articles for a journal.--_v.t._ to enter in a journal:--_pr.p._ jour'nal[=i]sing; _pa.p._ jour'nal[=i]sed.--_ns._ JOUR'NALISM, the keeping of a journal: the profession of conducting or writing for public journals; JOUR'NALIST, one who writes for or conducts a newspaper.--_adj._ JOURNALIST'IC, pertaining to journalism. [Fr.,--L. _diurnalis_.] JOURNAL, jur'nal, _n._ (_mech._) that part of a shaft or axle which rests in the bearings.--_v.t._ to insert, as a shaft, in a journal-bearing. JOURNEY, jur'ni, _n._ any travel: tour: excursion: the weight of finished coins delivered at one time to the Master of the Mint--also JOUR'NEY-WEIGHT.--_v.i._ JOUR'NEY, to travel:--_pr.p._ jour'neying; _pa.p._ jour'neyed (-nid).--_adj._ JOUR'NEY-BAT'ED (_Shak._), wayworn.--_ns._ JOUR'NEYMAN, one who works by the day: any hired workman: one whose apprenticeship is completed; JOUR'NEY-WORK, work done by a journeyman or for hire. [Fr. _journée_--_jour_, a day--L. _diurnus_.] JOUST, j[=oo]st, JUST, just, _n._ the encounter of two knights on horseback at a tournament.--_v.i._ to run in the tilt. [O. Fr. _jouste_, _joste_--L. _juxta_, nigh to.] JOVIAL, j[=o]'vi-al, _adj._ joyous: full of mirth and happiness.--_ns._ JOVE, Jupiter; JOVIAL'ITY, J[=O]'VIALNESS, quality of being jovial.--_adv._ J[=O]'VIALLY. [L.,--_Jupiter_, _Jovis_, Jupiter, an auspicious star.] JOW, jow, _v.t._ and _v.i._ (_Scot._) to ring, toll.--_n._ a stroke of a bell. JOWL, jowl, _n._ the jaw or cheek.--_n._ JOWL'ER, a heavy-jawed hound. [M. E. forms are _chol_, _chaul_, corr. from _chavel_, and this again from A.S. _ceafl_, the jaw.] JOWL, j[=o]l, _v.t._ (_Shak._). Same as JOLE, to beat. JOWTER, jow't[.e]r, _n._ a fish-hawker.--Also JOW'DER. [Prob. a form of _jolter_.] JOY, joi, _n._ gladness: rapture, mirth: the cause of joy.--_v.i._ to rejoice: to be glad: to exult:--_pr.p._ joy'ing; _pa.p._ joyed.--_v.t._ JOY (_Milt._), to enjoy.--_n._ JOY'ANCE (_Spens._), gaiety, festivity.--_adj._ JOY'FUL, full of joy: very glad, happy, or merry.--_adv._ JOY'FULLY.--_n._ JOY'FULNESS.--_adj._ JOY'LESS, without joy: not giving joy.--_adv._ JOY'LESSLY.--_n._ JOY'LESSNESS.--_adj._ JOY'OUS, full of joy, happiness, or merriment.--_adv._ JOY'OUSLY.--_n._ JOY'OUSNESS.--THE SEVEN JOYS OF THE VIRGIN:--the Annunciation, the Visitation, the Nativity, the Adoration of the three wise men, the Presentation in the Temple, the Discovery of the child in the Temple amidst the doctors, her Assumption and Coronation. [Fr. _joie_ (It. _gioja_)--L. _gaudium_--_gaud[=e]re_, to rejoice.] JUBA, j[=oo]'ba, _n._ a negro breakdown or rustic dance, in which the spectators clap hands, slap their thighs, and sing verses with _juba_ as a refrain. JUBATE, j[=oo]'b[=a]t, _adj._ having a mane. JUBBAH, jub'a, _n._ a long loose outer garment worn by Mohammedans in India, &c. JUBE, j[=oo]'b[=e], _n._ the rood-loft or gallery over the entrance to the choir of a church. [L., imperat. of _jub[=e]re_, to command.] JUBILANT, j[=oo]'bi-lant, _adj._ shouting for joy: rejoicing: uttering songs of triumph.--_n._ JU'BILANCE, exultation.--_adv._ JUBILANTLY.--_v.i._ JU'BILATE, to exult, rejoice.--_ns._ JUBIL[=A]'T[=E], the third Sunday after Easter, so called because the Church Service began on that day with the 66th Psalm, 'Jubilate Deo,' &c.: also the 100th Psalm, which in the English Prayer-Book is a canticle used as an alternative for the Benedictus; JUBIL[=A]'TION, a shouting for joy: the declaration of triumph. [L. _jubil[=a]re_, to shout for joy. Not conn. with _Jubilee_.] JUBILEE, j[=oo]'bi-l[=e], _n._ the year of release among the Jews every fiftieth year, proclaimed by the sound of a trumpet: the celebration of a fiftieth anniversary--e.g. of a king's accession, a bishop's consecration, &c.: in the R.C. Church, a year (every twenty-fifth--_Ordinary jubilee_) of indulgence for pilgrims and others, an _Extraordinary jubilee_ being specially appointed by the Pope: any season of great public joy and festivity. [Fr. _jubilé_--L. _jubilæus_--Heb. _y[=o]bel_, a trumpet, the blast of a trumpet.] JUD, jud, _n._ a mass of coal holed or undercut so as to be thrown down by wedges. JUDAIC, -AL, j[=oo]-d[=a]'ik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to the Jews.--_adv._ JUD[=A]'ICALLY.--_n._ JUDAIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ JU'DA[=I]SE, to conform to or practise Judaism.--_ns._ JUDA[=I]'SER; JU'DAISM, the doctrines and rites of the Jews: conformity to the Jewish rites; JU'DAIST, one who holds the doctrines of Judaism.--_adj._ JUDAIST'IC, pertaining to Judaism.--_adv._ JUDAIST'ICALLY. [L. _Judaicus_--_Juda_, Judah, a son of Israel.] JUDAS, j[=oo]'das, _n._ a traitor: an opening in a jail-door, &c.--_adj._ JU'DAS-COL'OURED, red of hair--_Judas_ traditionally being red-haired.--_ns._ JU'DAS-HOLE, a small hole in a door for watching; JU'DAS-KISS, any act of treachery under the guise of kindness (Matt. xxvi. 48, 49); JU'DAS-TREE, a tree with rose-coloured flowers that appear before the leaves--_Judas_ having hanged himself on one. JUDEAN, j[=oo]-d[=e]'an, _adj._ belonging to _Judea_.--_n._ a native of Judea. JUDGE, juj, _v.i._ to point out or declare what is just or law: to hear and decide: to pass sentence: to compare facts to determine the truth: to form or pass an opinion: to distinguish.--_v.t._ to hear and determine authoritatively: to sentence: to decide the merits of: to be censorious towards: to consider: (_B._) to condemn.--_n._ one who judges: a civil officer who hears and settles any cause: an arbitrator: one who can decide upon the merit of anything: in Jewish history, a supreme magistrate having civil and military powers: (_pl._) title of 7th book of the Old Testament.--_ns._ JUDGE'SHIP, the office of a judge; JUDG'MENT, act of judging: the comparing of ideas to elicit truth: faculty by which this is done, the reason: opinion formed: taste: sentence: condemnation: doom; JUDG'MENT-DAY, the day on which God will pronounce final judgment on mankind; JUDG'MENT-DEBT, a debt evidenced by legal record; JUDG'MENT-HALL, a hall where a court of justice meets; JUDG'MENT-SEAT, seat or bench in a court from which judgment is pronounced. [Fr. _juger_--L. _judic[=a]re_--_jus_, law, _dic[)e]re_, to declare.] JUDICA, j[=oo]'di-ka, _n._ Passion Sunday--from the opening words of the introit, '_Judica_ me, Deus' (43d Ps.). JUDICATURE, j[=oo]'di-k[=a]-t[=u]r, _n._ power of dispensing justice by legal trial: jurisdiction: a tribunal.--_adjs._ JU'DICABLE, that may be judged or tried; JU'DIC[=A]TIVE, having power to judge; JU'DIC[=A]TORY, pertaining to a judge: distributing justice.--_n._ distribution of justice: a tribunal. JUDICIAL, j[=oo]-dish'al, _adj._ pertaining to a judge or court of justice: established by statute.--_adv._ JUDIC'IALLY.--JUDICIAL COMMITTEE, an offshoot of the Privy Council, forming a court of appeal; JUDICIAL FACTOR, in Scotland, an administrator appointed by the courts to manage the estate of some one under some imperfection; JUDICIAL SEPARATION, the separation of two married persons by order of the Divorce Court. [L. _judicialis_--_judicium_.] JUDICIARY, j[=oo]-dish'i-ar-i, _n._ the judges taken collectively.--_adj._ pertaining to the courts of law: passing judgment. [L. _judiciarius_.] JUDICIOUS, j[=oo]-dish'us, _adj._ according to sound judgment: possessing sound judgment: discreet.--_adv._ JUDIC'IOUSLY.--_n._ JUDIC'IOUSNESS. [Fr. _judicieux_--Low L. _judiciosus_--L. _judicium_.] JUDY, j[=oo]'di, _n._ Punch's wife in the puppet-show: a native Chinese strumpet. [Corr. of _Judith_.] JUG, jug, _n._ a large vessel with a swelling body and narrow mouth for liquors.--_v.t._ to boil or stew as in a jug:--_pr.p._ jug'ging; _pa.p._ jugged.--JUGGED HARE (see HARE); STONE JUG (_slang_), jail. [Prob. _Judy_, jocularly applied to a drinking-vessel; cf. _Jack_ and _Jill_ in a like sense.] JUG, jug, _v.i._ to utter the sound _jug_, as certain birds, esp. the nightingale.--_n._ JUG-JUG. [Imit.] JUGAL, j[=oo]'gal, _adj._ malar: joining, uniting.--_n._ a bone of the zygomatic arch, malar bone. JUGATE, -D, j[=oo]'g[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ (_bot._) having the leaflets in pairs: joined as jugata on a coin, &c.--_n.pl._ JU'GATA, heads shown side by side or overlapping. JUGGERNAUT, jug'er-nawt, _n._ an idol of the Hindu god Vishnu, beneath whose car devotees were supposed to immolate themselves; hence the 'car of Juggernaut' stands metaphorically for any Moloch of self-sacrifice. [Sans. _Jagann[=a]tha_, lord of the world.] JUGGINS, jug'ginz, _n._ (_slang_) a simpleton. JUGGLE, jug'l, _v.i._ to joke or jest: to amuse by sleight-of-hand: to conjure: to practise artifice or imposture.--_n._ a trick by sleight-of-hand: an imposture.--_ns._ JUGG'LER, one who performs tricks by sleight-of-hand: a trickish fellow; JUGG'LERY, art or tricks of a juggler: legerdemain: trickery.--_adv._ JUGG'LINGLY, in a deceptive manner. [O. Fr. _jogler_--L. _jocul[=a]ri_, to jest--_jocus_, a jest.] JUGLANS, j[=oo]'glanz, _n._ a genus of the walnut family. JUGULAR, jug'[=u]-lar, _adj._ pertaining to the collar-bone, which joins the neck and shoulders.--_n._ one of the large veins on each side of the neck. [L. _jugulum_, the collar-bone--_jung[)e]re_, to join.] JUICE, j[=oo]s, _n._ the sap of vegetables: the fluid part of animal bodies.--_adj._ JUICE'LESS.--_n._ JUIC'INESS.--_adj._ JUIC'Y. [Fr.,--L. _jus_, broth, lit. mixture.] JUJUBE, j[=oo]'j[=oo]b, _n._ a genus of spiny shrubs or small trees, the fruit of which is dried as a sweetmeat: a lozenge made of sugar and gum. [Fr.,--L. _zizyphum_--Gr. _zizyphon_--Pers. _z[=i]zfun_, the jujube-tree.] JULEP, j[=oo]'lep, _n._ a pleasant liquid medicine in which other nauseous medicines are taken.--Also JU'LAP. [Fr.,--Sp. _julepe_--Ar. _j[=u]l[=a]b_--Pers. _j[=u]l[=a]b_.] JULIAN, j[=oo]l'yan, _adj._ pertaining to C. _Julius_ Cæsar (B.C. 100-44).--JULIAN YEAR (see YEAR). JULIENNE, zhü-li-en', _n._ a clear soup, with shredded herbs. [_Julien_, a French cook in Boston.] JULY, j[=oo]'l[=i], _n._ the seventh month of the year--from Caius _Julius_ Cæsar, who was born in it. JUMART, j[=oo]'mart, _n._ the offspring of a bull and a mare, or horse and cow. [Fr.,--L. _jumentum_.] JUMBLE, jum'bl, _v.t._ to mix confusedly: to throw together without order.--_v.i._ to be mixed together confusedly: to be agitated: to jump at, to accept eagerly.--_n._ a confused mixture.--_n._ JUM'BLE-SALE, a charity bazaar of cast-off clothing, rubbish, &c.--_adv._ JUM'BLINGLY, in a jumbled or confused manner. [Prob. a freq. of _jump_.] JUMBO, jum'b[=o], _n._ a colossus.--_adj._ huge, colossal. [Name of a huge elephant sold in 1882 from the London Zoological Gardens to P. T. Barnum.] JUMP, jump, _v.i._ to spring upward, or forward, or both: to bound: to pass to as by a leap: to agree, coincide (_with_).--_v.t._ to pass by a leap: to skip over: to cause to start, as game:--_pr.p._ jump'ing; _pa.p._ jumped.--_n._ act of jumping: a bound, a hazard.--_adv._ (_Shak._) exactly.--_ns._ JUMP'ER, one who jumps: a long iron drill or borer used in quarries and mines: (_pl._) a term applied to certain Welsh Methodists (c. 1760), who jumped about in worship: JUMP'ING-DEER, the black-tailed American deer; JUMP'ING-HARE, a South African rodent, akin to the jerboas; JUMP'-SEAT, a carriage-seat which may be moved backwards or forwards, so as to be used as single or double: a carriage with a movable seat; COUNT'ER-JUMP'ER, a draper's shopman.--JUMP A CLAIM (_U.S._), to take land to which another already holds a claim; JUMP AT, to embrace with eagerness; JUMP ONE'S BAIL, to abscond, forfeiting one's bail; JUMP OVER, to disregard, omit; JUMP OVER THE BROOMSTICK, to make an irregular marriage. [From a Teut. root seen in Sw. dial. _gumpa_, Middle High Ger. _gumpen_, to jump.] JUMP, jump, JUMPER, jump'er, _n._ a loose garment: overall. [More prob. a thing to be _jumped_ or slipped on, than from Fr. _jupe_, a petticoat, skirt.] JUNCACEOUS, jun-k[=a]'shus, _adj._ of or pertaining to the _Juncaceæ_, a natural order of plants, of which the JUN'CUS, or rush, is the type. JUNCATE, jungk'[=a]t, _n._ Same as JUNKET. JUNCO, jung'k[=o], _n._ a North American snow-bird. JUNCTION, jungk'shun, _n._ a joining, a union or combination: place or point of union. [_Join_.] JUNCTURE, jungk't[=u]r, _n._ a joining, a union: a critical or important point of time. [L. _junctura_.] JUNE, j[=oo]n, _n._ the sixth month, originally of 26 days, but since Julius Cæsar's time of 30. [L. _Junius_, the sixth month, prob. from root of L. _juvenis_, junior.] JUNEATING, an erroneous form of _jenneting_. JUNGERMANNIA, joong-ger-man'i-ä, _n._ (_bot._) a suborder of _Hepaticæ_. [From a German botanist, _Jungermann_ (1572-1653).] JUNGLE, jung'gl, _n._ land covered with thick brushwood, &c.--_ns._ JUNGLE-F[=E]'VER, a severe malarial or remittent fever; JUNG'LE-FOWL, a wild species of genus _Gallus_, the parent of our barn-door fowl.--_adj._ JUNG'LY. [Sans. _jañgala_, desert.] JUNIOR, j[=oo]n'yur, _adj._ younger: less advanced.--_n._ one younger or less advanced.--_ns._ JUNIOR'ITY, JUN'IORSHIP; JUN'IOR-RIGHT, borough-English (q.v.).--JUNIOR OPTIME, a third-class honours man at Cambridge, next to Wranglers and Senior Optimes; JUNIOR SOPH, an undergraduate of the second year at Cambridge. [Contr. of L. _juvenior_, younger--_juvenis_, young.] JUNIPER, j[=oo]'ni-p[.e]r, _n._ an evergreen shrub, the berries of which are used in making gin. [L. _juniperus_--_juvenis_, young, _par[)e]re_, to bring forth.] JUNK, jungk, _n._ a Chinese vessel, with high forecastle and poop, sometimes large and three-masted. [Port. _junco_--Chinese _chw`an_, a boat.] JUNK, jungk, _n._ pieces of old cordage, used for making mats, &c., and when picked to pieces, forming oakum for the seams of ships: salt meat supplied to vessels for long voyages, so called because it becomes as hard as old rope.--_ns._ JUNK'-DEAL'ER, JUNK'MAN, a dealer in junk; JUNK'-RING, a metal ring confining a fibrous piston-packing; JUNK'-SHOP, a place where junk is bought and sold. [L. _juncus_, a rush.] JUNK, jungk, _n._ a thick piece, chunk. [_Chunk_.] JUNK-BOTTLE, junk'bot-l, _n._ a thick, strong bottle, of green or black glass. JUNKER, y[=oo]ng'k[.e]r, _n._ a young German noble or squire.--_n._ JUNK'ERISM, the narrow political and social ideas of the aristocratic party in Prussia called _Junkers_. JUNKET, jung'ket, _n._ any sweetmeat or delicacy: curds mixed with cream, sweetened and flavoured: a feast or merrymaking, a picnic, a spree.--_v.i._ to feast, banquet, take part in a convivial entertainment or spree.--_v.t._ to feast, regale, entertain:--_pr.p._ junketing; _pa.p._ jun'keted.--_n._ JUNK'ETING, a merry feast or entertainment, picnicking. [It. _guincata_--L. _juncus_, a rush.] JUNO, j[=oo]'n[=o], _n._ in Roman mythology, the wife of Jupiter, parallel with the Greek Hera, regarded as the special protectress of marriage and the guardian of woman from birth to death: a queenly woman.--_adj._ JUN[=O]'NIAN. JUNTA, jun'ta, _n._ a meeting, council: a Spanish grand council of state. [Sp.,--L. _jung[)e]re_, to join.] JUNTO, jun't[=o], _n._ a body of men joined or united for some secret intrigue: a confederacy: a cabal or faction:--_pl._ JUN'TOS. [Sp. _junta_.] JUPATI-PALM, j[=oo]'pa-t[=e]-päm, _n._ a South American palm yielding the raphia-fibre. JUPITER, j[=oo]'pi-t[.e]r, _n._ the chief god among the Romans, the parallel of the Greek Zeus--also JOVE: the largest and, next to Venus, the brightest of the planets.--JUPITER'S BEARD, the house-leek. [L., Gr. _Zeus pat[=e]r_, Sans. _Dyaus pitar_, lit. 'Jove (Zeus) father.'] JUPON, j[=oo]'-pon, _n._ a sleeveless jacket or close-fitting coat, extending down over the hips: a petticoat.--_n._ JUPETTE', a jupon with very short skirt. [Fr. _jupon_, _jupe_, a petticoat.] JURAL, j[=oo]'ral, _adj._ pertaining to natural or positive right.--_adv._ JU'RALLY. JURASSIC, j[=oo]-ras'sik, _adj._ (_geol._) one of the three divisions of the Mesozoic rocks, including the Lias and Oolites, and so called from its well-developed strata in the _Jura_ Mountains. JURAT, j[=oo]'rat, _n._ the official memorandum at the end of an affidavit, showing the time when and the person before whom it was sworn. JURAT, j[=oo]'rat, _n._ a sworn officer, as a magistrate. JURANT, j[=oo]'rant, _adj._ taking an oath.--_n._ one who takes an oath.--_adj._ JU'RATORY, pertaining to an oath. JURIDICAL, j[=oo]-rid'ik-al, _adj._ relating to the distribution of justice: pertaining to a judge: used in courts of law.--_adv._ JURID'ICALLY. [L. _juridicus_--_jus_, _juris_, law, _dicere_[typo: _dic[)e]re_], to declare.] JURISCONSULT, j[=oo]-ris-kon'sult, _n._ one who is consulted on the law: a lawyer who gives opinions on cases put to him: a jurist. [L. _jus_, _juris_, law, _consultus_--_consultere_, to consult.] JURISDICTION, j[=oo]-ris-dik'shun, _n._ the distribution of justice: legal authority: extent of power: district over which any authority extends.--_adjs._ JURISDIC'TIONAL, JURISDIC'TIVE. [Fr.,--L. _jurisdictio_.] JURISPRUDENCE, j[=oo]-ris-pr[=oo]'dens, _n._ the science or knowledge of law.--_adj._ JURISPRU'DENT, learned in law.--_n._ one who is learned in law.--_adj._ JURISPRUDEN'TIAL.--MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE, forensic medicine (see FORENSIC). [Fr.--L., _jurisprudentia_--_jus_, _juris_, law, _prudentia_, knowledge.] JURIST, j[=oo]'rist, _n._ one who is versed in the science of law, esp. Roman or civil law: a civilian.--_adjs._ JURIST'IC, -AL.--_adv._ JURIST'ICALLY. [Fr. _juriste_.] JURY, j[=oo]'ri, _n._ a body of not less than twelve men, selected and sworn, as prescribed by law, to declare the truth on evidence before them: a committee for deciding prizes at a public exhibition.--_ns._ JU'ROR, one who serves on a jury--also JU'RYMAN; JU'RY-BOX, the place in which the jury sit during a trial.--JURY OF MATRONS, a jury of 'discreet' women impanelled to try a question of pregnancy, as where a widow alleges herself to be with child by her late husband, or a woman sentenced to death, to stay execution, pleads that she is with child. [Fr. _juré_, sworn--_jurer_--L. _jur[=a]re_, to swear.] JURYMAST, j[=oo]'ri-mäst, _n._ a temporary mast raised instead of one lost.--_adj._ JU'RY-RIGGED, rigged in a temporary way.--_n._ JU'RY-RUDD'ER, a temporary rudder for one lost. [Not _injury-mast_, but O. Fr. _ajurie_, aid--L. _adjut[=a]re_, to aid.] JUS, jus, _n._ law right.--JUS CIVILE, the civil law; JUS DIVINUM, the divine right of kings; JUS GENTIUM, law of nations; JUS MARITI, the right of a husband; JUS NATURALE, the law of nature, the common sense of justice; JUS PRIMÆ NOCTIS, the alleged right of a feudal superior to deflower a young bride. JUSSIVE, jus'iv, _adj._ expressing command.--_n._ a grammatical form or construction expressing commands. JUST, just, _n._ a tilt. Same as JOUST. JUST, just, _adv._ lawful: upright: exact: regular: true: righteous.--_adv._ precisely, almost exactly, very lately, (_coll._) quite, barely.--_adv._ JUST'LY, in a just manner: equitably: uprightly: accurately: by right.--_n._ JUST'NESS, equity: propriety: exactness. [Fr.,--L. _justus_--_jus_, law.] JUSTICE, jus'tis, _n._ quality of being just: integrity: impartiality: desert: retribution: a judge: a magistrate.--_ns._ JUS'TICESHIP, office or dignity of a justice or judge; JUSTIC'IARY, JUSTIC'IAR, an administrator of justice: a chief-justice.--JUSTICE OF THE PEACE (abb. J.P.), an inferior magistrate; JUSTICES' JUSTICE, a term sarcastically applied to the kind of justice sometimes administered by the unpaid and amateur magistracy of England.--LORD CHIEF-JUSTICE, the chief judge of the King's (or Queen's) Bench Division of the High Court of Justice; LORD JUSTICE-CLERK, the Scottish judge ranking next to the Lord-Justice-general, presiding over the Outer House or Second Division of the Court of Session, vice-president of the High Court of Justiciary; LORD JUSTICE-GENERAL, the highest judge in Scotland, called also the Lord President of the Court of Session.--HIGH COURT OF JUSTICIARY, the supreme criminal court of justice in Scotland. [Fr.,--L. _justitia_.] JUSTIFY, jus'ti-f[=i], _v.t._ to make just: to prove or show to be just or right: to vindicate: to absolve:--_pr.p._ jus'tifying; _pa.p._ jus'tified.--_adj._ JUSTIF[=I]'ABLE, that may be justified or defended.--_n._ JUSTIF[=I]'ABLENESS.--_adv._ JUSTIF[=I]'ABLY.--_n._ JUSTIFIC[=A]'TION, vindication: absolution: a plea of sufficient reason for.--_adjs._ JUS'TIFIC[=A]TIVE, JUS'TIFIC[=A]TORY, having power to justify.--_n._ JUS'TIFIER, one who defends, or vindicates: he who pardons and absolves from guilt and punishment.--JUSTIFICATION BY FAITH, the doctrine that men are justified by faith in Christ. [Fr.,--L. _justific[=a]re_--_justus_, just, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] JUSTLE, jus'l, _v.t._ Same as JOSTLE. JUT, jut, _v.i._ to project:--_pr.p._ jut'ting; _pa.p._ jut'ted.--_adv._ JUT'TINGLY, projectingly.--_n._ JUT'-WIN'DOW, a projecting window. [A form of _jet_.] JUTE, j[=oo]t, _n._ the fibre of an Indian plant resembling hemp, used in the manufacture of coarse bags, mats, &c. [Orissa _jhot_, Sans. _jhat_.] JUTTY, jut'i, _n._ a projecting part of a building: a pier, a jetty.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ (_Shak._) to jut. [_Jut_.] JUVENAL, j[=oo]'ve-nal, _n._ (_Shak._) a youth. [L.] JUVENESCENT, j[=oo]-ven-es'ent, _adj._ becoming young.--_n._ JUVENESC'ENCE. [L. _juvenesc[)e]re_, to grow young.] JUVENILE, j[=oo]'ve-n[=i]l, or -nil, _adj._ young: pertaining or suited to youth: puerile.--_n._ a young person: a book written for such: an actor who plays youthful parts.--_ns._ JU'VENILENESS, JUVENIL'ITY. [Fr.,--L. _juvenilis_--_juvenis_, young.] JUXTAPOSITION, juks-ta-p[=o]-zish'un, _n._ a placing or being placed near: contiguity.--_v.t_. JUXTAPOSE', to place side by side. [L. _juxta_, near, and _position_.] JYMOLD, j[=i]'mold, _adj._ (_Shak._). Same as GIMMAL. * * * * * K the eleventh letter in our alphabet, its sound that of the sharp guttural mute, formed by raising the tongue to the back of the palate: (_chem._) the symbol for potassium: (_math._) generally a constant coefficient: also a unit vector perpendicular to _i_ and _j_: as a medieval numeral, 250. KAABA, kä'bä, or k[=a]'a-bä, _n._ Same as CAABA (q.v.). KABALA, kab'a-la, _n._ Same as CABALA. KABYLE, ka-b[=i]l', _n._ one of a branch of the great Berber race of North Africa: a dialect of Berber spoken by many of the Kabyles. [Fr.,--Ar. _Qab[=a]il_, pl. of _qab[=i]la_, a tribe.] KADDISH, kad'ish, _n._ a Jewish form of thanksgiving and prayer, used at funerals, &c. [Heb.] KADI, k[=a]'di, _n._ Same as CADI. KAE, k[=a], _n._ (_Scot._) a jackdaw.--Also KA. KAFFIYEH, kaf'i-ye, _n._ a small shawl worn about the head in Syria. KAFILA, kaf'i-la, _n._ a camel train, caravan. KAFIR, kaf'ir, _n._ one of a native race of SE. Africa.--KAFIR BREAD, the pith of a South African plant; KAFIR CORN, Indian millet. [Ar., unbeliever.] KAFTAN. Same as CAFTAN. KAGO, kag'[=o], _n._ a Japanese basket with palanquin slung from a pole and carried by men. KAIAK. Same as KAYAK. KAIF, k[=i]f, _n._ undisturbed quiescence. [Ar.] KAIL, k[=a]l, _n._ a ninepin. [Cf. Dut. and Ger. _kegel_.] KAIL. See KALE. KAIMAKAM, k[=i]-ma-kam', _n._ a lieutenant-colonel in the Turkish army: the administrator of a subdivision of a vilayet. KAIN, k[=a]n, _n._ in old Scots law, rent paid in kind, e.g. in poultry, to a landlord. KAINITE, k[=i]'n[=i]t, _n._ a hydrated compound of the chlorides and sulphates of magnesium and potassium, used as a fertiliser. [Gr. _kainos_, new.] KAINOZOIC. Same as CAINOZOIC. KAISER, k[=i]'z[.e]r, _n._ an emperor, esp. of Germany and Austria.--_n._ KAI'SERSHIP. [Ger.,--L. _Cæsar_.] KAKA, kä'ka, _n._ a New Zealand parrot.--_n._ KA'KAPO, a nocturnal flightless New Zealand parrot. KAKEMONO, kak-e-m[=o]'n[=o], _n._ a Japanese wall-picture or decoration, painted on silk, gauze, or paper, and mounted on cylindrical rods. KAKI, kä'k[=e], _n._ the persimmon of Japan, or Chinese date. KAKISTOCRACY, kak-is-tok'r[=a]-si, _n._ government by the worst men in the state. [Gr. _kakistos_, superl. of _kakos_, bad, _kratia_, rule.] KAKODYL. See CACODYL. KALA, kä'la, _n._ time: destiny.--KÂLA CHAKRA, the wheel of time. [Sans.] KALAMDAN, kal'am-dan, _n._ a Persian writing-case, with compartments for ink, reed-pens, knife, &c. KALAMKARI, kal-am-kar'i, _n._ a method of colouring and decorating by several dyeings or printings, also a chintz so treated. [Pers.] KALE, KAIL, k[=a]l, _n._ a cabbage with open curled leaves, cabbage generally: broth of which kale is a chief ingredient.--_ns._ KAIL'YARD, a kitchen-garden; KALE'-RUNT, a cabbage-stem.--KAILYARD-SCHOOL, a group of writers of stories of humble Scotch country life--S. R. Crockett, Ian Maclaren, &c. [_Cole._] KALEIDOPHONE, ka-l[=i]'do-f[=o]n, _n._ an instrument consisting of a rod or thin plate with a knob at the end, for showing the curves corresponding with the musical notes produced by the vibrations. [Gr. _kalos_, beautiful, _eidos_, form, _ph[=o]n[=e]_, sound.] KALEIDOSCOPE, ka-l[=i]'do-sk[=o]p, _n._ an optical toy in which we see an endless variety of beautiful colours and forms.--_adj._ KALEIDOSCOP'IC. [Gr. _kalos_, beautiful, _eidos_, form, _skopein_, to see.] KALENDAR, KALENDS=CALENDAR, CALENDS. KALEVALA, kal-e-vä'lä, _n._ the great Finnish epic, written in eight-syllabled trochaic verse (from which Longfellow's _Hiawatha_ is imitated), taken down from the lips of the peasantry and pieced together by Dr. Lönnrot of Helsingfors in 1835, in extended form (22,793 verses) in 1849. [Finnish, _kaleva_, a hero, _-la_, denoting place.] KALI, kal'i, or k[=a]'l[=i], _n._ the prickly saltwort or glasswort.--_adj._ KALIG'ENOUS, producing alkalies.--_n._ K[=A]'LIUM, potassium. KALI, kä'l[=e], _n._ a carpet with long nap, also the large carpet covering the centre of a Persian room. KALI, kä'l[=e], _n._ a Hindu goddess, wife of Siva, the dark goddess of destruction--called also _Durga_. KALIF, k[=a]'lif, _n._ Same as CALIF. KALIYUGA, kal-i-y[=oo]'ga, _n._ in Hindu mythology, the present age of the world, the fourth, characterised by universal degeneracy. KALMIA, kal'mi-ä, _n._ a genus of North American evergreen shrubs, including the American mountain laurel. [From Peter _Kalm_, pupil of Linnæus.] KALMUCK, kal'muk, _n._ a member of a Mongolian race.--Also CAL'MUCK. [Russ.] KALOLOGY, kal-ol'o-ji, _n._ the science of beauty in itself considered. [Gr. _kalos_, beautiful, _logia_, discourse.] KALONG, ka-long', _n._ a general name of the large fruit-bats, flying foxes, &c. KALOTYPE. Same as CALOTYPE. KALPA, kal'pa, _n._ a day of Brahma, a period of 4320 million years.--Also CAL'PA. [Sans., 'formation.'] KALPIS, kal'pis, _n._ a three-handled water-vase. [Gr.] KALSOMINE, an incorrect form of _calcimine_, which see under CALCIUM. KALYPTRA, ka-lip'tra, _n._ a thin veil worn by Greek women over the hair. KAM, käm, _adj._ (_Shak._) crooked. KAMA, kä'ma, _n._ the god of love in the Purânas: impure desire.--Also CAMA, KA'MADEVA. KAMERA, kam'[.e]-ra, _n._ a room. See CAMERA. KAMES, k[=a]mz, _n.pl._ (_geol._) banks and ridges of gravel, sand, &c., associated with the glacial deposits of Scotland--the same as _åsar_ (q.v.) and _eskar_. KAMI, kä'mi, _n._ a Japanese term for a lord, for any of the national gods, demi-gods, or deified heroes, or any of their supposed descendants, as the mikados and the imperial family. [Japanese, 'superior.'] KAMICHI, kam'i-chi, _n._ the horned screamer. KAMILA, KAMELA, ka-m[=e]'la, _n._ an East Indian orange dye-stuff yielded by a common Madras tree of the spurge family. KAMIS, KAMEES, ka-m[=e]s', _n._ the long loose sleeved shirt worn by men in Mohammedan countries. KAMPONG, kam-pong', _n._ an enclosed space. [Malay.] KAMPTULICON, kamp-t[=u]'li-kon, _n._ a ground cork and caoutchouc floorcloth. [Gr. _kamptein_, to bend.] KAMSIN. See KHAMSIN. KANA, kä'na, _n._ Japanese writing, as distinguished from Japanese written in Chinese characters. KANAKA, ka-nak'a, _n._ a Hawaiian or Sandwich Islander: one of the native labourers brought from the Pacific islands, on engagement for a certain fixed number of years, to Australia, &c. [Hawaiian, 'a man.'] KANEH, kä'ne, _n._ a Hebrew measure of 6 cubits length.--Also C[=A]'NEH. KANG, kang, _n._ a large Chinese water-jar: an oven-like brick structure in northern China, for sleeping on at night, a fire being lighted underneath. KANGAROO, kang-gar-[=oo]', _n._ a large marsupial mammal of Australia, with very long hind-legs and great power of leaping.--_n._ KANGAROO'-GRASS, a valuable Australian fodder grass. KANS, kanz, _n._ a common Indian grass, allied to the sugar-cane. KANTEN, kan'ten, _n._ a gelatinous substance extracted from seaweeds, used for soups and for sizing. [Jap.] KANTIAN, kan'shi-an, _adj._ pertaining to the doctrines of, or belonging to, the great German philosopher, Immanuel _Kant_ (1724-1804).--_ns._ KAN'TIANISM, KANT'ISM, the doctrines or philosophy of Kant; KANT'IST, a disciple or follower of Kant. KANTIKOY, CANTICOY, kan'ti-koi, _n._ a religious dance among American Indians, a dancing-match.--_v.i._ to dance as an act of worship. KANUCK, ka-nuk', _n._ (_U.S._) a Canadian.--Also CANUCK'. [Ind.] KAOLIN, kä'o-lin, _n._ same as CHINA CLAY. [From the mountain _Kao-ling_ ('high ridge') in China.] KAPELLMEISTER, kä-pel'm[=i]s-ter, _n._ the director of an orchestra or choir, esp. the band of a ruling prince in Germany. [Ger. _kapelle_, chapel, orchestra, _meister_, master.] KAPNOGRAPHY, kap-nog'ra-fi, _n._ the art of producing decorative designs on a smoked surface with a fine point, shading by successive deposits of carbon from a flame, fixed by varnish.--_adj._ KAPNOGRAPH'IC. [Gr. _kapnos_, smoke, _graphia_--_graphein_, to write.] KAPOK, ka-pok', _n._ a cottony or silky fibre covering the seeds of a species of silk-cotton tree, used for stuffing pillows, &c. KARAITE, k[=a]'rä-[=i]t, _n._ one of a stricter sect of Jews who cling to the literal interpretation of Scripture as against oral tradition. [Heb. _kara[=i]m_, readers.] KARMA, kär'mä, _n._ the Buddhist conception of the quality of actions, including both merit and demerit, determining the future condition of all sentient beings by a sort of virtue inherent in the nature of things--by the blind and unconscious but inevitable concatenation of cause and effect: the theory of inevitable consequence generally: the result of the actions of a life.--_adj._ KAR'MIC. [Sans. _karma_, work.] KARMATHIAN, kär-m[=a]'thi-an, _n._ a member of a pantheistic socialistic Mohammedan sect which arose in Turkey about the close of the 9th century. [_Karmat_, its founder.] KAROB, kar'ob, _n._ among goldsmiths, the twenty-fourth part of a grain. KARROO, ka-r[=oo]', _n._ a generic name given to the high barren plains of Cape Colony.--Also KAROO'. [Hottentot, _karusa_, hard.] KASSU, kas'[=oo], _n._ a kind of catechu made from the fruit of the betel-nut palm. KAT, kat, _n._ the chief ancient Egyptian unit of weight, 1/50 lb. avoirdupois. KATABOLISM, kat-ab'ol-izm, _n._ (_biol._) the discharging or disruptive process to which protoplasm is constantly subject--the opposite of _Anabolism_, the up-building, constructive process.--Also CATAB'OLISM. [Gr. _katabol[=e]_, _kataballein_, to throw down.] KATAKANA, kat-a-kä'na, _n._ one of the two styles of writing the syllabary of 48 letters in use among the Japanese (the other being _Hiragana_), used chiefly for proper names and foreign words. KATYDID, k[=a]-ti-did', _n._ an American insect akin to the grasshopper. [Imit. of its note.] KAURI-PINE, kow'ri-p[=i]n, _n._ a splendid forest-tree of New Zealand, yielding the well-known KAU'RI-GUM, a resin used in making varnish. KAVA, kä'va, _n._ _Piper methysticum_, also the narcotic drink prepared from it.--Also A'VA. KAVASS, ka-vas', _n._ an armed man attendant on a person of distinction in Turkey.--Also CAVASS'. [Turk. _qawas_.] KAW. Same as CAW. KAY. Same as CAY. KAYAK, ka'yak, _n._ a canoe used in Greenland, made of seal-skins stretched on a frame. KEA, k[=e]'ä, _n._ a New Zealand parrot that kills sheep. KEB, keb, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to cast a lamb prematurely.--_n._ a ewe which has cast its lamb: a sheep louse or tick. KEBBIE, keb'i, _n._ (_Scot._) a cudgel. KEBBOCK, keb'uk. _n._ (_Scot._) a cheese.--Also KEBB'UCK. [Gael. _cabag_, a cheese.] KEBLAH. See KIBLAH. KECK, kek, _v.i._ to retch, feel loathing.--_n._ a retching. KECK, KECKSY. See KEX. KECKLE, kek'l, _v.t._ to preserve or protect by binding with old rope or chains, as a cable:--_pr.p._ keck'ling; _pa.p._ keck'led.--_n._ KECK'LING, rope, chains, &c. used to keckle cables or hawsers. KEDGE, kej, _n._ a small anchor for keeping a ship steady, and for warping the ship.--_v.t._ to move by means of a kedge, to warp.--_n._ KEDG'ER, a kedge. [Scand.; cf. Sw. prov. _keka_, to drive slowly.] KEDGE, kej, _adj._ (_prov._) brisk, lively: pot-bellied.--Also KEDG'Y, KIDGE. KEDJEREE, kej'e-r[=e], _n._ a mess of rice, cooked with butter and the dholl pea, flavoured with spice, shred onion, &c., common all over India, and often served at Anglo-Indian breakfast-tables. [Hind. _khichr[=i]_.] KEECH, k[=e]ch, _n._ (_Shak._) a lump of fat. [_Cake_.] KEEK, k[=e]k, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to peep.--_n._ a peep.--_ns._ KEEK'ER, an inspector of mining; KEEK'ING-GLASS, a mirror. [M. E. _kyken_; cf. Dut. _kijken_, Ger. _kucken_.] KEEL, k[=e]l, _n._ the part of a ship extending along the bottom from stem to stern, and supporting the whole frame: a low flat-bottomed boat: a Tyne coal-barge: a ship generally: (_bot._) the lowest petals of the corolla of a papilionaceous flower.--_v.t._ or _v.i._ to plough with a keel, to navigate: to turn keel upwards.--_n._ KEEL'AGE, dues for a keel or ship in port.--_adj._ KEELED (_bot._) keel-shaped: having a prominence on the back.--_ns._ KEEL'ER, KEEL'MAN, one who works on a barge.--_v.t._ KEEL'HAUL, to punish by hauling under the keel of a ship by ropes from the one side to the other: to treat a subordinate in a galling manner. [A.S. _ceól_, a ship; Ger. and Dut. _kiel_; prob. confused with Ice. _kiölr_, a keel.] KEEL, k[=e]l, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to cool. [A.S. _célan_, to chill.] KEEL, k[=e]l, _n._ (_Scot._) red chalk, ruddle.--_v.t._ to mark with ruddle. [Prob. Gael. _cil_, ruddle.] KEELIE, k[=e]'li, _n._ (_Scot._) the kestrel: a street Arab or young rough. [Imit.] KEELING, k[=e]'ling, _n._ (_Scot._) a codfish. KEELIVINE, k[=e]'li-v[=i]n, _n._ (_Scot._) a lead pencil.--Also KEE'LYVINE. [See _keel_, ruddle; ety. dub.] [Illustration] KEELSON, KELSON, kel'sun, _n._ an inner keel placed right over the outer keel of a ship, and securely fastened thereto. [Sw. _kölsvin_, Norw. _kjölsvill_, the latter syllable=Ger. _schwelle_, Eng. _sill_.] KEEN, k[=e]n, _adj._ eager: sharp, having a fine edge: piercing: acute of mind: penetrating: intense.--_adv._ KEEN'LY.--_n._ KEEN'NESS. [A.S. _céne_; Ger. _kühn_, bold; Ice. _kænn_, wise. Cog. with _ken_ and _can_.] KEEN, k[=e]n, _n._ a lamentation over the dead.--_v.i._ to wail over the dead.--_n._ KEEN'ER, a professional mourner. [Ir. _caoine_.] KEEP, k[=e]p, _v.t._ to have the care of: to guard: to maintain: to manage: to have in one's service: to hold for one's own use or enjoyment: to remain in: to adhere to: to practise: not to lose: to maintain hold upon: to restrain from departure: to preserve in a certain state: to maintain: to fulfill.--_v.i._ to remain in any position or state: to remain fresh: to last or endure: to continue: to adhere: to have rooms at college (Cambridge):---_pr.p._ keep'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ kept.--_n._ that which keeps or protects: subsistence: food: the innermost and strongest part of a castle, the donjon: a stronghold.--_ns._ KEEP'ER, an attendant, manager, owner: a gamekeeper: socket, guard-ring; KEEP'ERSHIP, office of a keeper; KEEP'ING, care: custody: charge: (_Shak._) maintenance, support: just proportion, harmony: (_paint._) due proportion of light and shade; KEEP'ING-ROOM, a sitting-room, parlour; KEEP'SAKE, something given to be kept for the sake of the giver--the name used often to be applied to the annuals or sumptuous gift-books so much in vogue about 1830.--KEEP AN ACT, to hold an academical disputation; KEEP AN EYE ON, KEEP COMPANY, CHAPEL, COUNSEL, DISTANCE, HOURS, HOUSE, THE PEACE, &c. (see the nouns); KEEP A TERM (see TERM); KEEP AT IT, to persist in anything; KEEP BACK, to withhold: keep down, to repress (see also DARK); KEEP BODY AND SOUL TOGETHER, to maintain life; KEEP DOWN, to restrain; KEEP FROM, to abstain from: to remain away from; KEEP GOING IN a thing, to keep one supplied with it; KEEP IN, to prevent from escaping: to confine a pupil in the schoolroom after school hours: to conceal: to restrain; KEEP IN WITH, to maintain the confidence or friendship of some one; KEEP OFF, to hinder from approaching or making an attack; KEEP ONE'S COUNTENANCE, to preserve a calm appearance, hiding one's emotions; KEEP ONE'S HAND IN, to retain one's skill by means of constant practice; KEEP THE BREATH TO COOL ONE'S PORRIDGE, to confine attention to one's own affairs; KEEP THE POWDER DRY, to keep one's energies ready for action; KEEP TO, to stick closely to: to confine one's self to; KEEP UNDER, to hold down in restraint; KEEP UP, to retain one's strength or spirit: to support, prevent from falling: to continue, to prevent from ceasing: to maintain in good condition. [A.S. _cépan_, orig. to traffic, hence to store up, keep--_ceáp_, price.] KEEVE, k[=e]v, _n._ a large tub. [A.S. _cýfe_, vat.] KEG, keg, _n._ a small cask or barrel. [Ice. _kaggi_.] KEIR, k[=e]r, _n._ a bleaching-vat. KELK, kelk, _v.t._ (_prov._) to beat.--_n._ a blow. KELL, kel, _n._ (_prov._) a film, network. KELP, kelp, _n._ the calcined ashes of seaweed, once used in making glass.--Also KILP. [Ety. unknown.] KELPIE, KELPY, kel'pi, _n._ (_Scot._) a malignant water-sprite haunting fords in the form of a horse. KELSON. Same as KEELSON. KELT, kelt, _n._ a salmon that has just spawned. KELT, kelt, _n._ (_Scot._) cloth made of black and white wool mixed and not dyed.--_adj._ KEL'TER, made of such. KELT, KELTIC. Same as CELT, CELTIC. KELTIE, KELTY, kel'ti, _n._ (_Scot._) a bumper imposed as a penalty on one who does not drink fair. KEMB, kem, _v.t._ to comb. [A.S. _cemban_, to comb.] KEMP, kemp, _n._ the coarse rough hairs of wool: (_pl._) knotty hair which will not felt. KEMP, kemp, _n._ (_arch._) a champion: (_Scot._) a contest in work, &c.--_v.i._ to strive for mastery.--_ns._ KEM'PER, KEM'PERY-MAN, a champion, a knight-errant. [A.S. _cempa_, a warrior. Cf. _champion_.] KEN, ken, _v.t._ to know: (_arch._) to see and recognise at a distance.--_n._ range of knowledge or sight.--_n._ KEN'NING (_Bacon_), range of vision: (_Scot._) a small portion.--_adj._ KEN'SPECKLE (_Scot._), conspicuous--also KEN'SPECK. [Ice. _kenna_, orig. to cause to know. Cf. _can_ and _know_.] KEN, ken, _n._ (_slang_) a house. [Perh. Pers. _kh[=a]n_, a caravansary; not conn. with _kennel_.] KENDAL-GREEN, ken'dal-gr[=e]n, _n._ green cloth for foresters made at _Kendal_ in Westmorland. KENNEL, ken'el, _n._ a house for dogs: a pack of hounds: the hole of a fox, &c.: a haunt.--_v.t._ to keep in a kennel.--_v.i._ to live in a kennel:--_pr.p._ kenn'elling; _pa.p._ kenn'elled. [Norm. Fr. _kenil_ (Fr. _chenil_)--L. _can[=i]le_--_canis_, a dog.] KENNEL, ken'el, _n._ the water-course of a street: a gutter. [A form of _canal_.] KENNEL-COAL. Same as CANNEL-COAL. KENNICK, ken'ik, _n._ the jargon of tramping tinkers. KENOSIS, ken-[=o]'sis, _n._ the self-limitation on the part of the Logos in the act of incarnation, his emptying of himself, or his laying aside not only his divine attributes, but even his divine self-consciousness, only to be fully recovered at the ascension.--_adj._ KENOT'IC.--_n._ KENOT'ICIST. [Gr., from the phrase in Phil. ii. 6, 7, 'who, being in the form of God ... _emptied himself_ ([Greek: heauton ekenôse]), taking the form of a servant.'] KENT, kent, _n._ (_Scot._) a pole, pike.--_v.i._ to propel a boat by a pole. [Prob. a variant of the verb _cant_.] KENTISH, kent'ish, _adj._ pertaining to _Kent_.--_ns._ KENT'ISH-FIRE, rounds of noisy applause at political meetings--from the anti-Catholic demonstrations in _Kent_, 1828-29; KENT'ISH-RAG, a rough fossiliferous limestone found in _Kent_. KENTLEDGE, kent'lej, _n._ pig-iron laid in a ship's hold for ballast.--Also KINT'LEDGE. KEP, kep, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to catch. [_Keep_.] KEPHALIC. Same as CEPHALIC. KEPI, kep'i, _n._ a flat-topped forage-cap with a straight peak. [Fr. _képi_.] KEPLERIAN, kep-l[=e]'ri-an, _adj._ pertaining to the great German astronomer, Johann _Kepler_ (1571-1630).--For KEPLER'S LAWS, see LAW. KEPT, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _keep_. KERAMIC. Same as CERAMIC. KERASINE, ker'a-sin, _adj._ like or made of horn.--_ns._ KERAT[=I]'ASIS, a morbid condition characterised by warty or horny growths; KER'ATIN, a nitrogenous compound, the essential ingredient of horny tissue, as of horns, nails, &c. [Gr. _keras_, a horn.] KERATITIS, ker-a-t[=i]'tis, _n._ inflammation of the cornea, either acute or chronic.--_n._ KERATAL'GIA, pain in the cornea. KERBSTONE, k[.e]rb'st[=o]n, _n._ a form of curbstone. KERCHIEF, k[.e]r'chif, _n._ any loose cloth used in dress: (_orig._) a square piece of cloth worn by women to cover the head.--_v.t._ to cover or dress with a kerchief.--_adjs._ KER'CHIEFED, KER'CHIEFT. [M. E. _couerchef_--O. Fr. _covrechef_ (Fr. _couvrechef_)--_covrir_, to cover, _chef_, the head.] KERF, kerf, _n._ the groove made by a saw: wool cut off at once by a wool-shearing machine: a single layer of hay, turf, &c., cut. KERION, k[=e]'ri-on, _n._ a suppurative inflammation of the hair-follicles of the scalp. [Gr.] KERITE, k[=e]'r[=i]t, _n._ a kind of artificial vulcanite of india-rubber and animal or vegetable oil. [Gr. _k[=e]ros_, wax.] KERMES, k[.e]r'm[=e]z, _n._ a dye-stuff which consists of the bodies of the females of a species of coccus. [Pers.] KERMESS, k[.e]r'mes, _n._ a wake or fair in the Low Countries. [Dut. _kermis_--_kerk_, church, _mis_, mass.] KERN. See QUERN. KERN, k[.e]rn _n._ (_Scot._) the last sheaf of the harvest: a harvest-home--also KIRN.--_n._ KERN'-B[=A]'BY, an image decorated with blades of corn, &c., carried before reapers at their harvest-home. [A variant of _corn_.] KERN, KERNE, k[.e]rn, _n._ an Irish foot-soldier: a boor.--_adj._ KERN'ISH, clownish. [Ir. _ceatharnach_.] KERN, k[.e]rn, _v.i._ to granulate. KERN, k[.e]rn, _n._ (_print._) that part of a type which overhangs the stem or shank. KERNEL, k[.e]r'nel, _n._ anything in a husk or shell: the substance in the shell of a nut: the seed of a pulpy fruit: the important part of anything.--_adj._ KER'NELLY, full of, or resembling, kernels. [A.S. _cyrnel_--_corn_, grain, and dim. suffix _-el_; Ger. _kern_, a grain.] KEROSENE, ker'o-s[=e]n, _n._ an oil obtained from bituminous coal, used for lamps, &c. [Gr. _k[=e]ros_, wax.] KERSEY, k[.e]r'zi, _n._ a coarse woollen cloth. [Perh. from _Kersey_ in Suffolk.] KERSEYMERE, k[.e]r'zi-m[=e]r or k[.e]r-zi-m[.e]r', _n._ twilled cloth of the finest wools. [A corr. of _cassimere_, _cashmere_.] KERVE, k[.e]rv, _v.t._ (_Spens._) a form of carve. KESAR, k[=e]'zar, _n._ Same as KAISER. KESTREL, kes'trel, _n._ a small species of falcon. [O. Fr. _quercerelle_--L. _querquedula_.] KET, ket, _n._ (_Scot._) carrion. [Ice. _kjöt_.] KET, ket, _n._ matted wool. [Scot.] KETCH, kech, _n._ a small two-masted vessel, generally used as a yacht or a bomb-vessel. [Corr. from Turk. _qaíq_, a boat, whence Fr. _caïque_.] KETCHUP, kech'up, _n._ a sauce for flavouring soups, meats, &c., flavoured with mushrooms, tomatoes, &c.--Also CATCH'UP, CAT'SUP. [East Ind. _kitjap_.] KETTLE, ket'l, _n._ a vessel of metal, for heating or boiling liquids: a cavity like a kettle in rock, sand, &c.: (_Shak._) kettle-drum.--_ns._ KETT'LE-DRUM, a musical instrument now used chiefly in orchestras and in cavalry bands, consisting of a hollow brass hemisphere with a parchment head, sounded by soft-headed elastic drumsticks: a tea-party; KETT'LE-DRUM'MER; KETT'LE-HOLD'ER, a little mat, &c., for holding a kettle when hot.--_n.pl._ KETT'LE-PINS, skittle-pins.--A KETTLE OF FISH, or A PRETTY KETTLE OF FISH, a task of great difficulty, an awkward mess--most probably in this sense connected with _kiddle_. [A.S. _cetel_; Ger. _kessel_, Goth. _katils_; all perh. from L. _catillus_, dim. of _catinus_, a deep cooking-vessel.] KEX, keks, _n._ the dry stalk of the hemlock or other umbelliferous plants.--Also KECKS, KECK'SY (prop. _adj._), and KECK. KEY, k[=e], _n._ an instrument for shutting or opening a lock: that by which something is screwed or turned: the middle stone of an arch: a piece of wood let into another piece crosswise to prevent warping: (_mus._) one of the small levers in musical instruments for producing notes: the fundamental note of a piece of music: that which explains a mystery: a book containing answers to exercises, &c.--_ns._ KEY'BOARD, the keys or levers in a piano or organ arranged along a flat board; KEY'-B[=U]'GLE, a bugle with keys, having a compass of two octaves including semitones.--_adjs._ KEY'-COLD (_Shak._), cold as a key, lifeless; KEYED, furnished with keys, as a musical instrument: set to a particular key, as a tune.--_ns._ KEY'HOLE, the hole in which a key of a door, &c., is inserted; KEY'NOTE, the key or fundamental note of a piece of music; any central principle or controlling thought; KEY'-PIN, the pivot on which a pipe-key turns: a pin serving as fulcrum for a key of an organ, &c.; KEY'-PLATE, the escutcheon around a keyhole; KEY'RING, a ring for holding a bunch of keys; KEY'-SEAT, a groove for receiving a key, to prevent one piece of machinery from turning on another; KEY'STONE, the stone at the apex of an arch: the chief element in any system.--HAVE THE KEY OF THE STREET (_coll._), to be locked out: to be homeless; POWER OF THE KEYS, the power to loose and bind, to administer ecclesiastical discipline--a special authority conferred by Christ on Peter (Matt. xvi. 19), or Peter in conjunction with the other apostles, and claimed by the popes as the alleged successors to St Peter. Others explain it as belonging only to the apostles themselves, as descending to the bishops and clergy of the Christian Church, or as belonging to all Christ's disciples alike. [A.S. _cæg_, a key.] KEY, k[=e], _n._ (_Dryden_). Same as QUAY. KEY, k[=e], _n._ a low island near the coast.--Also CAY. KEYS, k[=e]z, _n.pl._ a contraction of HOUSE OF KEYS, a house of 24 representatives constituting the lower branch of the Legislature (Court of Tynwald) of the Isle of Man, self-elective down to 1866. [Manx _kiare-as-feed_, four-and-twenty.] KHAKI, kä'ki, _adj._ dust-coloured.--_n._ a light drab cloth used for some East Indian and other uniforms. KHALIF. See CALIF. KHAMSIN, kam'sin, _n._ a hot south-west wind in Egypt, blowing for about fifty days from about the middle of March. [Ar.] KHAN, kan, _n._ an Eastern inn, a caravansary. [Turk.,--Pers. _kh[=a]na_, a house, a tent.] KHAN, kan, _n._ in North Asia, a prince or chief: in Persia, a governor.--_n._ KHAN'ATE, the dominion or jurisdiction of a khan. [Pers. _kh[=a]n_, lord or prince, a Tartar word.] KHEDIVE, ked-[=e]v', _n._ the title since 1867 of the viceroy or ruler of Egypt.--_n._ KHEDI'VIATE, the office of the khedive, or his territory. [Fr.,--Pers. _khad[=i]w_, prince.] KHEL, kel, _n._ in Afghanistan, a clan or family connection--a sociological group between the tribe and the family. KHITMUTGAR, kit'mut-gar, _n._ a table-servant, under-butler. [Hind.] KHUTBAH, kut'ba, _n._ a Mohammedan prayer and sermon delivered in the mosques on Fridays.--Also KHOT'BAH. KIAUGH, ky[=o]h, _n._ (_Scot._) care, trouble. KIBBLE, kib'l, _n._ the bucket of a draw-well.--_n._ KIBB'LE-CHAIN, the chain for drawing up a bucket. KIBE, k[=i]b, _n._ a chilblain. [W. _cibwst_, from _cib_, a cup, _gwst_, a disease.] KIBITKA, ki-bit'ka, _n._ a Russian wagon. [Russ.] KIBLAH, kib'la, _n._ the point toward which Mohammedans turn in prayer.--Also KEB'LAH. KICK, kik, _v.t._ to hit with the foot.--_v.i._ to thrust out the foot with violence: to show opposition or resistance: (of a gun) to recoil violently (see also BULLET): (_print._) to work a press by impact of the foot on a treadle.--_n._ a blow with the foot: the turn of kicking the ball at football, the person who kicks or kicks off: the recoil of a gun: (_slang_) fashion.--_adj._ KICK'ABLE.--_ns._ KICK'ER, one who kicks, esp. a horse; KICK'-OFF, the first kick in a game of football; KICK'-UP, a disturbance.--KICK OVER THE TRACES, to throw off control; KICK, or STRIKE, THE BEAM, to rise, as the lighter scale of a balance, so as to strike against the beam--hence to be of little weight or importance; KICK THE BUCKET (see BUCKET); KICK UP A DUST or ROW, to create a disturbance.--DROP KICK, a kick made as the ball, dropped from the hand, rebounds from the ground; PLACE KICK, a kick made when the ball is lying on the ground. [M. E. _kiken_--W. _cicio_, to kick, Gael. _ceig_.] KICKSHAWS, kik'shawz, _n._ something uncommon or fantastical that has no name: (_cook._) a fantastical dish. [Corr. of Fr. _quelque chose_, something.] KICKSY-WICKSY, kik'si-wik'si, _adj._ flickering, uncertain.--_n._ (_Shak._) a wife. KID, kid, _n._ a young goat: (_slang_) a child, esp. a boy: (_pl._) gloves of kid leather.--_adj._ made of kid leather or imitation kid leather.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to bring forth a goat:--_pr.p._ kid'ding; _pa.p._ kid'ded.--_ns._ KID'-FOX (_Shak._), a young fox; KID'LING, a young kid. [Dan. _kid_; cf. Ice. _kidh_; Ger. _kitze_, a young goat.] KID, kid, _n._ a small tub.--Also KIT. KID, kid, _n._ a fagot, a bundle of sticks. [Prob. W. _cidys_, fagots.] KID, kid, _v.t._ and _v.i._ (_slang_) to hoax--also KID'DY.--_n._ a deception. [Perh. conn. with _kid_, a child.] KIDDER, kid'er, _n._ a forestaller, huckster. KIDDERMINSTER, kid'[.e]r-min-st[.e]r, _n._ a kind of carpet (_two-ply_ or _ingrain carpet_), from the town. KIDDLE, kid'l, _n._ a stake-fence set in a stream for catching fish.--Also KID'EL, KETT'LE. [O. Fr. _quidel_; prob. Bret. _kidel_.] KIDNAP, kid'nap, _v.t._ to steal, as a human being:--_pr.p._ kid'napping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ kid'napped.--_n._ KID'NAPPER. [Vulgar _kid_ (old thieves' cant, _kinchin_--Ger. _kindchen_), a child, and vulgar _nab_, to steal.] KIDNEY, kid'ni, _n._ one of two flattened glands, on each side of the loins, which secrete the urine: temperament, humour, disposition--hence, sort or kind, as in 'of the same kidney,' &c.--_ns._ KID'NEY-BEAN, a kind of bean shaped like a kidney; KID'NEY-POT[=A]'TO, one of various kidney-shaped varieties of the common potato; KID'NEY-VETCH, a genus of leguminous plants, the only British species being called Lady's Fingers; KID'NEY-WORT, a plant of the genus Saxifrage. [M. E. _kidnere_--Ice. _kviðr_, the womb, the belly, Ice. _nýra_ (Ger. _niere_, a kidney).] KIE-KIE, k[=i]'k[=i], _n._ a New Zealand high-climbing shrub. KIESELGUHR, k[=e]'zl-g[=u]r, _n._ the mineral remains of a species of algæ, used in the manufacture of dynamite. [Ger.,--_kiesel_, flint, _guhr_, fermentation.] KIKUMON, kik'[=oo]-mon, _n._ a badge or crest of the imperial family of Japan, consisting of an open chrysanthemum flower. KILDERKIN, kil'd[.e]r-kin, _n._ a small barrel: a liquid measure of 18 gallons. [Old Dut. _kindeken_, _kinneken_ (Scot. _kinken_), dim. of Dut. _kind_, a child.] KILERG, kil'erg, _n._ a thousand ergs. KILEY, k[=i]'le, _n._ a boomerang.--Also KY'LEY. KILL, kil, _v.t._ to put to death, to slay: to nullify or neutralise, to weaken or dilute, to render inactive: to reject, discard: to fascinate, overcome.--_n._ the act of killing, as game.--_ns._ KILL'-COURT'ESY (_Shak._), a discourteous, boorish person; KILL'-CROP, a changeling; KILL'ER, one who kills, a slaughterer or butcher: a club for killing fish: a ferocious delphinid which sometimes attacks the whale.--_p.adj._ KILL'ING, depriving of life: destructive: deadly, irresistible: completely fascinating.--_n._ and _adj._ KILL'JOY, a mar-sport, austere.--KILL BY INCHES, by gradual means, as by torture; KILL OFF, to exterminate; KILL TIME, to consume spare time, as with amusements, &c.; KILL TWO BIRDS WITH ONE STONE, to effect one thing by the way, or by the same means with which another thing is done; KILL UP (_Shak._), to exterminate.--KILLING TIMES, the days of the persecution of the Covenanters.--DO A THING TO KILL, in an irresistible manner. [M. E. _killen_ or _cullen_--Ice. _kolla_, to hit on the head--_kollr_, the head; not a doublet of _quell_.] KILLADAR, kil'a-dar, _n._ the commandant of a fort or garrison. [Hind.] KILLAS, kil'as, _n._ clay slate, in Cornwall. KILLDEE, kil'd[=e], _n._ the largest variety of North American ring-plover. [Imit.] KILLOCK, kil'ok, _n._ a small anchor, the fluke of such. KILLOGIE, ki-l[=o]'gi, _n._ (_Scot._) the furnace of a kiln. KILLUT, kil'ut, _n._ in India, a robe of honour given: any ceremonial present.--Also KELL'AUT. KILMARNOCK, kil-mar'nok, _n._ a kind of closely woven broad bonnet, having a peak of the same material at the top, originally made at _Kilmarnock_.--KILMARNOCK COWL, a kind of nightcap. KILN, kil, _n._ a large oven in which corn, bricks, hops, &c. are dried: bricks placed for burning.--_v.t._ KILN'-DRY, to dry in a kiln.--_n._ KILN'-HOLE, the mouth of a kiln. [A.S. _cyln_ (Ice. _kylna_, a drying-house for corn)--L. _culina_, a kitchen.] KILOGRAMME, kil'o-gram, _n._ a French measure of weight, equal to 1000 grammes, or 2-1/5 lb. avoirdupois. [Gr. _chilioi_, 1000, _gramma_, a weight.] KILOLITRE, kil'o-l[=e]-tr, _n._ 1000 litres. KILOMETRE, kil'o-m[=e]-tr, _n._ a French measure, being 1000 metres, or nearly 5/8 of a mile. [Fr.,--Gr. _chilioi_, 1000, _metron_, a measure.] KILT, kilt, _n._ a kind of short petticoat or plaited skirt, forming part of the Highland dress.--_v.t._ (_Scot._) to truss up.--_adj._ KILT'ED, dressed in a kilt.--_n._ KILT'IE, one wearing a kilt, a soldier in a Highland regiment. [Northern Eng. _kilt_, to tuck up, from Dan. _kilte_, to tuck up: cf. Ice. _kilting_, a skirt.] KILT, kilt, (_Spens._) _pa.p._ of kill. KILTER, kil't[.e]r, _n._ order, proper condition--in phrase, 'out of kilter.'--Also KEL'TER. KIMBO, kim'bo, _n._ Same as AKIMBO. KIMONO, ki-m[=o]'n[=o], _n._ a loose robe, fastening with a sash, the principal outer garment in Japan. KIN, kin, _n._ persons of the same family: relatives: relationship: affinity.--_adj._ related.--_adj._ KIN'LESS, without relations.--NEXT OF KIN, the relatives (lineal or collateral) of a deceased person, among whom his personal property is distributed if he dies intestate; Of kin, of the same kin. [A.S. _cynn_; Ice. _kyn_, Goth. _kuni_, family, race; cog. with L. _genus_, Gr. _genos_.] KINCHIN, kin'chin, _n._ a child in thieves' slang.--_n._ KIN'CHIN-MORT, a child, generally a girl.--KINCHIN LAY, the robbing of children. [Cf. _kidnap_.] KINCOB, kin'kob, _n._ a rich silk-stuff made in India. KIND, k[=i]nd, _n._ those of kin, a race: sort or species, a particular variety: nature: style, method of action, character: produce, as distinguished from money.--_adj._ having the feelings natural for those of the same family: disposed to do good to others: benevolent.--_adj._ KIND'-HEART'ED.--_n._ KIND'-HEART'EDNESS.--_adj._ KIND'LESS (_Shak._), destitute of kindness, unnatural.--_n._ KIND'NESS.--_adj._ KIND'-SPOK'EN, spoken kindly: given to speaking kindly.--KIND OF (_coll._), somewhat, to some extent--used adverbially with adjectives and even verbs.--DO ONE'S KIND (_Shak._), to act according to one's nature; IN A KIND, in a way, to some extent; IN KIND, payment in goods instead of money. [A.S. _cynde_--_cynn_, kin.] KIND, kind, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to beget. [From _kin_.] KINDERGARTEN, kin'd[.e]r-gär'tn, _n._ an infant school on Froebel's principle (1826), in which object-lessons and games figure largely.--_n._ KINDERGART'NER, a teacher in a kindergarten. [Ger. _kinder_, children, _garten_, garden.] KINDLE, kin'dl, _v.t._ to set fire to: to light: to inflame, as the passions: to provoke: to excite to action.--_v.i._ to take fire: to begin to be excited: to be roused.--_ns._ KIN'DLER; KIN'DLING, the act of causing to burn: the materials for commencing a fire. [Ice. _kyndyll_, a torch--L. _candela_, candle.] KINDLE, kin'dl, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to bring forth (young). [M. E. _kindlen_--_kinde_, kind.] KINDLY, k[=i]nd'li, _adj._ natural: benevolent: (_orig._) belonging to the kind or race.--_n._ KIND'LINESS.--_adv._ KIND'LY.--_adj._ KIND'LY-N[=A]'TURED.--KINDLY TENANT (_Scot._), a tenant of the same stock as his landlord, or who held his lands in succession, from father to son, for several generations. KINDRED, kin'dred, _n._ relationship by blood, less properly, by marriage: relatives: (_pl._, _B._) families.--_adj._ related: congenial. [M. E. _kinrede_--A.S. _cynn_, kin, and the suffix _-ræden_, expressing mode or state.] KINE, k[=i]n, _n.pl._ (_B._) cows. [M. E. _ky-en_, a doubled plural of A.S. _cú_, a cow, the plural of which is _cý_; cf. Scotch _kye_.] KINEMATICS, kin-e-mat'iks, _n._ the science which treats of motion without reference to force.--_adjs._ KINEMAT'IC, -AL. [Gr. _kin[=e]ma_, _-atos_, motion--_kinein_, to move.] KINEMATOGRAPH, kin-e-mat'o-graf, _n._ an arrangement by which a numerous series of photographs, taken at rapid intervals, and representing some moving scene, is shown on a screen at the same rapid rate at which they were taken, giving a moving representation of the original scene--less correct but more common form, CINEMAT'OGRAPH (sin-). [Gr. _kin[=e]ma_, _kin[=e]matos_, motion, _graphein_, to write.] KINESIPATHY, kin-[=e]-sip'a-thi, _n._ a mode of treating disease by muscular movements, movement-cure---also KINESITHER'APY.--_adjs._ KINESIAT'RIC, KINESIPATH'IC.--_n._ KINESIP'ATHIST. KINETICS, ki-net'iks, _n._ the science which treats of the action of force in producing or changing motion.--_adjs._ KINET'IC, -AL.--_ns._ KINET'OGRAPH, a device by which a series of photographs of a moving object can be thrown on a screen so as to imitate the motion of the original; KINET'OSCOPE, an instrument for illustrating the production of kinematic curves by the combination of circular movements of different radii. [Gr. _kin[=e]tikos_--_kinein_, to move.] KING, king, _n._ the chief ruler of a nation: a monarch: a playing-card having the picture of a king: the most important piece in chess: a crowned man in draughts: one who is pre-eminent among his fellows:--_fem._ QUEEN.--_v.t._ to play king.--_ns._ KING'-AT-ARMS, or KING'-OF-ARMS, a chief officer of the Heralds' Colleges, whose designations are, for England, Norroy, Clarencieux, and Garter; for Scotland, Lyon; and for Ireland, Ulster; KING'-BIRD, an American tyrant fly-catcher; KING'CRAB, the chief or largest of the crab genus, most common in the Molucca Islands; KING'CRAFT, the art of governing, mostly in a bad sense; KING'CUP, the buttercup or upright meadow crowfoot; KING'DOM, the state or attributes of a king: the territory of a king: government: a region: one of the three grand divisions of Natural History, as the animal, vegetable, or mineral.--_adj._ KING'DOMED (_Shak._), endowed with kingly power, proud.--_ns._ KING'FISHER, a bird with very brilliant plumage, feeding on fish, the halcyon; KING'HOOD, kingship: kingliness.--_adj._ KING'LESS.--_ns._ KING'LET, KING'LING, a little or petty king: the golden-crested wren.--_ns._ KING'LIHOOD, KING'LINESS.--_adj._ KING'-LIKE.--_adj._ KING'LY, belonging or suitable to a king: royal: noble--also _adv._--_ns._ KING'-MAK'ER, one who has the creating of kings in his power; KING'POST, a perpendicular beam in the frame of a roof rising from the tie-beam to the ridge; KING'S'-CUSH'ION, a seat formed by two people's hands; KING'S'-[=E]'VIL, a scrofulous disease or evil formerly supposed to be healed by the touch of the king; KING'SHIP, the state, office, or dignity of a king; KING'S'-HOOD, the second stomach of a ruminant, sometimes humorously for the human stomach; KING'S'-SPEAR, a plant of the genus Asphodel; KING'S'-YELL'OW, arsenic trisulphide or orpiment; KING'-VUL'TURE, a large tropical brilliantly-coloured American vulture; KING'WOOD, a beautiful Brazilian wood--also _Violet-wood_.--KING CHARLES SPANIEL (see SPANIEL); KING LOG, a do-nothing king, as opp. to KING STORK, one who devours his frog-subjects--from Æsop's fable; KING MOB, the vulgar multitude; KING OF BEASTS, the lion; KING OF METALS, gold; KING OF TERRORS, death; KING OF THE FOREST, the oak; KING'S BENCH, the bench or seat of the king: one of the high courts of law, so called because the king used to sit there, called _Queen's_ Bench during a queen's reign; KING'S COUNSEL an honorary rank of barristers; KING'S EVIDENCE, a criminal allowed to become a witness against an accomplice.--KINGDOM COME (_slang_), the state after death.--THREE KINGS OF COLOGNE, the three Wise Men of the East, Gaspar, Melchior, and Balthazar. [A.S. _cyning_--_cyn_, a tribe, with suffix _-kin_; cog. with _kin_.] KINIC, kin'ik, _adj._ pertaining to cinchona, cinchonic. KINK, kingk, _n._ a twist in a string, rope, &c.--also KINK'LE.--_v.i._ and _v.t._ to twist.--_adj._ KINK'Y, full of kinks: woolly: crotchety. [Scand.; Sw. and Norw. _kink_.] KINK, kingk, _v.i._ to cough loudly, gasp for breath.--_n._ a convulsive cough or gasp.--_n._ KINK'COUGH, whooping-cough, chincough (q.v.). KINKAJOU, kin'ka-j[=oo], _n._ a South American quadruped allied to the raccoon. KINO, k[=e]'no, _n._ an astringent vegetable exudation resembling catechu. [East Indian.] KINSFOLK, kinz'f[=o]k, _n._ folk or people kindred or related to one another.--_ns._ KIN'SHIP, relationship; KINS'MAN, a man of the same kin or race with another:--_fem._ KINS'WOMAN. KIOSK, ki-osk', _n._ an Eastern garden pavilion: a small shop like a sentry-box for the sale of papers, &c. [Turk.,--Pers. _kushk_.] KIP, kip, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to play truant. KIP, kip, _n._ the skin of a young animal.--_n._ KIP'SKIN, leather made from the skin of young cattle, intermediate between calf-skin and cow-hide. KIP, kip, _n._ a level or slight incline at the end of an underground way, on which the tubs of coal stand till hoisted up the shaft. KIP, kip, _n._ a house of ill-fame.--Also KIP'SHOP. KIPE, k[=i]p, _n._ (_prov._) an osier basket for catching pike. KIPPAGE, kip'[=a]j, _n._ (_Scot._) a fit of temper, a rage. KIPPER, kip'[.e]r, _n._ a male salmon after the spawning season: a salmon split open, seasoned, and dried.--_v.t._ to cure or preserve, as a salmon or haddock. [Dut. _kippen_, to seize; Norw. _kippa_.] KIRBEH, kir'be, _n._ a skin for holding water. [Ar.] KIRIMON, k[=e]'ri-mon, _n._ one of the two imperial crests of Japan, bearing three leaves and three flowers of paulownia. KIRK, k[.e]rk, _n._ in Scotland, a church--sometimes 'the Kirk' means the Established Church specially.--_ns._ KIRK'IN, the first attendance of a pair after marriage, of a magistrate after election; KIRK'-SESS'ION, the lowest court in Presbyterian churches, being the governing body of a particular congregation; KIRK'TON (_Scot._), the village in which the parish church stands; KIRK'YARD, a graveyard.--AULD KIRK, the Established Church in Scotland--by association of ideas, (_coll._) the whisky bottle, whisky. [A Northern Eng. form of _church_.] KIRSCHWASSER, k[=e]rsh'väs-ser, _n._ a liqueur made from the wild cherry. [Ger., 'cherry water.'] KIRTLE, k[.e]r'tl, _n._ a sort of gown or outer petticoat: a mantle.--_adj._ KIR'TLED. [A.S. _cyrtel_; Dan. _kiortel_; Ice. _kyrtill_: perh. conn. with _skirt_ and _shirt_.] KISMET, kis'met, _n._ fate, destiny. [Turk. _qismet_.] KISS, kis, _v.t._ to press one's lips to in affection or reverence: to treat with fondness: to touch gently: to collide (of two billiard-balls).--_v.i._ to salute with the lips.--_n._ a salute with the lips.--_ns._ KISS'-CURL, a small curl at the side of the forehead; KISS'ER; KISS'ING-COM'FIT, a perfumed comfit for sweetening the breath; KISS'ING-CRUST, that part of the upper crust of the loaf which, while baking, overhangs the edge and touches another.--_n.pl._ KISS'ING-STRINGS, cap or bonnet strings tied under the chin.--_n._ KISS'-ME, the wild form of _Viola tricolor_, the pansy: a short veil: a small bonnet--also KISS'-ME-QUICK.--KISS HANDS, to kiss the sovereign's hands on a minister's acceptance of office; KISS OF PEACE, a kiss of greeting exchanged between the members of the early Church, a shadow of which survives in the kissing of the pax at high mass; KISS THE BOOK, to kiss a copy of the New Testament, in England, after taking a legal oath; KISS THE DUST, to be felled to the ground, to be slain or vanquished; KISS THE GUNNER'S DAUGHTER, to get a flogging, tied to the breech of a cannon; KISS THE ROD, to submit to punishment. [A.S. _cyssan_, to kiss--_coss_, a kiss; Ger. _küssen_, Dan. _kys_; allied to _choose_ and _gust_.] KIST, kist, _n._ (_Scot._) a chest.--KIST O' WHISTLES, an organ. [A.S. _cist_.] KISTVAEN, kist'v[=a]-en, _n._ a burial-chamber made of flat stones, and shaped like a chest. [W. _cist_, chest, _maen_, stone.] KIT, kit, _n._ a small wooden tub: the outfit of necessaries of a soldier, sailor, or mechanic. [Old Dut. _kitte_, a hooped beer-can.] KIT, kit, a small pocket violin. [Contracted from A.S. _cytere_--L. _cythara_, a _guitar_.] KIT, kit, _n._ a contraction of kitten.--_n._ KIT'-CAT, a game played with sticks and a small piece of wood called a cat. KIT, kit, _n._ a family, in phrase 'the whole kit.' [_Kith_.] KITCAT, kit'kat, _n._ the name of a Whig London literary club, which existed from 1700 to about 1720, meeting for some time in the house of a pastry-cook named Christopher _Katt_: a portrait 36 by 28 inches in size, so called from the portraits of the _Kitcat_ Club painted by Sir G. Kneller. KITCHEN, kich'en, _n._ a room where food is cooked: a utensil with a stove for dressing food, &c.: anything eaten as a relish with bread, potatoes, &c.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to regale in the cook-room: to serve as relish to food, to make palatable, to use sparingly, as one would a relish--to make it last.--_ns._ KITCH'ENDOM, the domain of the kitchen; KITCH'ENER, a person employed in the kitchen: a cooking-stove; KITCH'EN-FEE, the fat which falls from meat in roasting; KITCH'EN-GAR'DEN, a garden where vegetables are cultivated for the kitchen; KITCH'EN-KNAVE, a scullion; KITCH'EN-MAID, a maid or servant whose work is in the kitchen; KITCH'EN-MID'DEN (Dan. _kjökkenmödding_), a prehistoric rubbish-heap in Denmark, the north of Scotland, &c.; KITCH'EN-PHYS'IC, substantial fare (_Milt._); KITCH'EN-RANGE, a kitchen grate with oven, boiler, &c. attached, for cooking; KITCH'EN-STUFF, material used in kitchens: kitchen refuse, esp. fat from pots, &c.; KITCH'EN-WENCH, a kitchen-maid. [A.S. _cicen_; Ger. _küche_, Fr. _cuisine_, all from L. _coquina_--_coqu[)e]re_, to cook.] KITE, k[=i]t, _n._ a rapacious bird of the hawk kind: a rapacious person: a light frame covered with paper for flying in the air, attached to a long cord, by means of which it is steered: a light and lofty sail: an accommodation bill, esp. a mere paper credit.--_n._ KITE'-FLY'ING, the dealing in fictitious accommodation paper to raise money. [A.S. _cýta_; cf. W. _cud_, Bret. _kidel_, a hawk.] KITE, k[=i]t, _n._ (_Scot._) the belly.--Also KYTE. [A.S. _cwith_, the womb.] KITH, kith, _n._ kindred, acquaintance, obsolete except in the phrase KITH AND KIN, acquaintances and relatives. [A.S. _cúð_--_cunnan_, to know.] KITTEN, kit'n, _n._ a young cat.--_v.i._ to bring forth young cats.--_n._ (_Scot._) KIT'LING.--_adj._ KITT'ENISH, frolicsome.--_v.i._ KITT'LE (_Scot._), to bring forth kittens. [M. E. _kitoun_, dim. of _cat_.] KITTIWAKE, kit'i-w[=a]k, _n._ a species of gull with long wings and rudimentary hind-toe. [Imit.] KITTLE, kit'l, _adj._ (_Scot._) ticklish, intractable.--_v.t._ (_Scot._) to tickle.--_adj._ KITT'LY, easily tickled, sensitive.--_n._ KITT'LY-BEND'ERS (_Amer._), running on thin bending ice. KIWI, k[=e]'wi, _n._ a bird of the genus Apteryx found in New Zealand. KLANG, klang, _n._ (_mus._) a complex tone, composed of fundamental and harmonics, as opposed to a simple tone. [Ger.] KLEPHT, kleft, _n._ a Greek or Albanian brigand. [Gr., from _kleptein_, to steal.] KLEPTOMANIA, klep-to-m[=a]'ni-a, _n._ a mania for stealing: a morbid impulse to secrete things.--_n._ KLEPTOM[=A]'NIAC. [Gr. _kleptein_ to steal, _mania_, madness.] KLICK. Same as CLICK. KLIPDAS, klip'das, _n._ the rock badger. KLIPSPRINGER, klip'spring-[.e]r, _n._ a small South African antelope. KLOOF, kl[=oo]f, _n._ a mountain cleft. [S. African Dutch.] KNACK, nak, _n._ a petty contrivance: a toy: a nice trick: dexterity, adroitness.--_n._ KNACK'INESS.--_adjs._ KNACK'ISH, KNACK'Y, cunning, crafty. [Orig. imit.; cf. Gael. _cnac_, Dut. _knak_, a crack, Ger. _knacken_, to crack.] KNACKER, nak'[.e]r, _n._ anything that knocks: (_pl._) castanets or clappers, bones. KNACKER, nak'[.e]r, _n._ a dealer in old horses and dog's-meat: (_prov._) a collier's horse. [From Ice. _knakkr_, a saddle.] KNAG, nag, _n._ a knot in wood: a peg.--_n._ KNAG'GINESS, state of being knaggy.--_adj._ KNAG'GY, knotty: rugged. [From a root found in Ir. and Gael. _cnag_, a knob; cf. Dan. _knag_, Ger. _knagge_.] KNAP, nap, _v.t._ to snap or break with a snapping noise: to break in pieces with blows, as stones: to bite off, nibble:--_pr.p._ knap'ping; _pa.p._ knapped.--_ns._ KNAP'BOTTLE, the bladder-campion; KNAP'PER, one who breaks stones, esp. one who breaks up flint-flakes for gun-flints; KNAP'PING-HAMM'ER (_Scot._), a hammer for breaking stones.--_v.i._ KNAP'PLE, to nibble. [Dut. _knappen_, to crack or crush.] KNAP, nap, _n._ (_Bacon_) a protuberance, a hillock.--_n._ KNAP'WEED, a general name for plants of the genus _Centaurea_ of the composite family--star-thistle, bachelor's buttons. [Conn. with _knob_, _knop_.] KNAPSACK, nap'sak, _n._ a provision-sack: a case for necessaries borne by soldiers and travellers. [Dut. _knappen_, to crack, eat, _zak_, a sack.] KNAPSKULL, nap'skul, _n._ a helmet. [From _knap_ (n.) and _skull_.] KNAR, när, _n._ a knot on a tree.--_n._ KNARL=GNARL.--_adj._ KNARRED, gnarled, knotty. KNAVE, n[=a]v, _n._ a false, deceitful fellow: a villain: a card bearing the picture of a servant or soldier: (_Shak._) a boy.--_ns._ KNAVE'-BAIRN, a male child; KNAV'ERY, dishonesty; KNAVE'SHIP (_Scot._), a certain quantity of grain, the due of the miller.--_adj._ KNAV'ISH, fraudulent: villainous.--_adv._ KNAV'ISHLY.--_n._ KNAV'ISHNESS. [A.S. _cnafa_, _cnapa_, a boy, a youth; Ger. _knabe_, _knappe_.] KNEAD, n[=e]d, _v.t._ to work and press together into a mass, as flour into dough: to operate upon in massage: to mix.--_ns._ KNEAD'ER; KNEAD'ING-TROUGH, a trough for kneading. [A.S. _cnedan_; Ice. _knoða_, Ger. _kneten_, to knead.] KNEE, n[=e], _n._ the joint between the thigh and shin bones: a piece of timber or metal like a bent knee: (_Shak._) a genuflection.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to kneel to, to go over on one's knees.--_n.pl._ KNEE'-BREECH'ES, breeches extending to just below the knee, as in court-dress.--_n._ KNEE'-CAP, the bone above the protuberance of the knee: a cap or strong covering for the knees, used chiefly for horses, to save their knees in case of a fall.--_n.pl._ KNEE'-CORDS, knee-breeches of corduroy.--_adjs._ KNEE'-CROOK'ING, obsequious: fawning; KNEED, having knees: (_bot._) having angular joints like the knee; KNEE'-DEEP, rising to the knees: sunk to the knees; KNEE'-HIGH, rising or reaching to the knees.--_ns._ KNEE'-HOLL'Y, butcher's broom: KNEE'-JOINT, a joint with two pieces at an angle, so as to be very tight when pressed into a straight line; KNEE'-PAN, a flat, round bone on the front of the knee-joint; KNEE'-PIECE, or -RAFT'ER, an angular piece of timber strengthening a joint where two roof-timbers meet: any defensive appliance covering the knee; KNEE'-STOP, -SWELL, a lever worked by the performer's knee, for regulating the wind-supply of a reed-organ, &c.; KNEE'-TIM'BER, timber bent into a shape suitable for a knee in shipbuilding, &c.; KNEE'-TRIB'UTE (_Milt._), the homage of kneeling.--GIVE, or OFFER, A KNEE, to act as second or bottle-holder in a fight, the principal resting on the second's knee during the pauses between the rounds. [A.S. _cneów_, _cneó_; Ger. _knie_, L. _genu_, Gr. _gonu_.] KNEEL, n[=e]l, _v.i._ to bend the knee: to rest or fall on the knee:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ kneeled, knelt.--_n._ KNEEL'ER, one who kneels. [_Knee_.] KNELL, nel, _n._ the stroke of a bell: the sound of a bell at a death or funeral.--_v.i._ to sound as a bell: toll.--_v.t._ to summon as by a tolling bell. [A.S. _cnyllan_, to beat noisily; Dut. and Ger. _knallen_.] KNELT, nelt, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _kneel_. KNEW, n[=u], _pa.t._ of know. KNICKERBOCKERS, nik-[.e]r-bok'[.e]rz, _n.pl._ loose breeches gathered in at the knee.--Also KNICK'ERS. [From the wide-breeched Dutchmen in 'Knickerbocker's' (Washington Irving's) humorous _History of New York_, whence _Knickerbocker_ has come to mean the descendant of one of the original Dutch settlers of New York.] KNICK-KNACK, nik'-nak, _n._ a trifle or toy.--_n._ KNICK'-KNACK'ERY, knick-knacks collectively. [A doubling of _knack_.] KNIFE, n[=i]f, _n._ an instrument for cutting: a sword or dagger:--_pl._ KNIVES (n[=i]vz).--_v.t._ to stab with a knife: (_Amer._) to try to destroy a political candidate's chances by a treacherous attack.--_ns._ KNIFE'-AND-FORK', a trencherman; KNIFE'-BOARD, a board on which knives are cleaned: (_coll._) the seat running along the top of an omnibus; KNIFE'-BOY, a boy employed in cleaning knives; KNIFE'-EDGE (_mech._), a sharp piece of steel like a knife's edge serving as the axis of a balance, &c.; KNIFE'-GRIND'ER, one who grinds or sharpens knives; KNIFE'-MON'EY, a knife-shaped bronze currency formerly used in China; KNIFE'-REST, a glass or metal utensil on which to rest a carving-knife or fork; KNIFE'-TRAY, a tray for holding knives.--WAR TO THE KNIFE, mortal combat. [A.S. _cníf_: Ger. _kneif_, knife, _kneifen_, to nip.] KNIGHT, n[=i]t, _n._ one of gentle birth and bred to arms, admitted in feudal times to a certain honourable military rank: (_Shak._) an attendant: a champion: the rank, with the title 'Sir,' next below baronets: a piece used in the game of chess.--_v.t._ to create a knight.--_ns._ KNIGHT'AGE, the collective body of knights; KNIGHT'-BACH'ELOR, one who has been knighted merely, not made a member of any titular order; KNIGHT'-BANN'ERET, a knight who carried a banner, and who was superior in rank to the knight-bachelor; KNIGHT'-ERR'ANT, a knight who travelled in search of adventures; KNIGHT'-ERR'ANTRY; KNIGHT'HOOD, the character or privilege of a knight: the order or fraternity of knights; KNIGHT'HOOD-ERR'ANT (_Tenn._), the body of knights-errant.--_adj._ KNIGHT'LESS (_Spens._), unbecoming a knight.--_n._ KNIGHT'LINESS, the bearing or duties of a knight.--_adj._ and _adv._ KNIGHT'LY.--_ns._ KNIGHT'-MAR'SHAL, formerly an officer of the royal household; KNIGHT'-SERV'ICE, tenure by a knight on condition of military service.--KNIGHT OF INDUSTRY, a footpad, thief, or sharper; KNIGHT OF THE CARPET, a civil knight, as opposed to a military, so called because created kneeling on a carpet, not the field; KNIGHT OF THE PESTLE, an apothecary; KNIGHT OF THE POST, one familiar with the whipping-post or pillory; KNIGHT OF THE ROAD, a highwayman; KNIGHT OF THE SHIRE, a member of parliament for a county; KNIGHT'S FEE, the amount of land with which a knight was invested on his creation; KNIGHTS OF LABOUR, in the United States, a national labour organisation; KNIGHTS OF MALTA (see Hospitaller); KNIGHTS OF ST CRISPIN, shoemakers; KNIGHTS OF THE RAINBOW, flunkeys from their liveries; KNIGHTS OF THE SHEARS, tailors; KNIGHTS OF THE SPIGOT, tapsters, publicans; KNIGHTS OF THE STICK, compositors; KNIGHTS OF THE WHIP, coachmen; KNIGHTS TEMPLARS (see TEMPLAR). [A.S. _cniht_ Ger. and Dut. _knecht_, Dan. _knegt_.] KNIT, nit, _v.t._ to form into a knot: to tie together: to unite into network by needles: to unite closely, to draw together: to contract.--_v.i._ to interweave with needles: to grow together:--_pr.p._ knit'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ knit'ted or knit.--_n._ (_Shak._) a style of knitting.--_ns._ KNIT'TER; KNIT'TING, the work of a knitter: union, junction: the network formed by knitting; KNIT'TING-MACHINE', a machine for knitting; KNIT'TING-NEED'LE, a long needle or wire used for knitting thread into stockings, &c. [A.S. _cnyttan_--_cnotta_, a knot.] KNITCH, nich, _n._ (_prov._) a faggot. KNITTLE, nit'l, _n._ (_naut._) a small line made of two or three yarns twisted with the fingers: (_pl._) the halves of two yarns in a rope, twisted for pointing. KNIVES, _pl._ of _knife_. KNOB, nob, _n._ a hard protuberance: a hard swelling: a round ball.--_adj._ KNOBBED, containing or set with knobs.--_n._ KNOB'BINESS.--_adj._ KNOB'BY, full of knobs: knotty.--_n._ KNOB'STICK (_slang_), a synonym for a blackleg or scab in trades-union slang. [_Knop_.] KNOBKERRIE, nob'ker-i, _n._ a round-headed stick used as a club and a missile by the Kafirs. KNOCK, nok, _v.i._ to strike with something hard or heavy: to drive or be driven against: to strike for admittance: to rap.--_v.t._ to strike: to drive against.--_n._ a sudden stroke: a rap.--_adj._ KNOCK'-DOWN, such as to overthrow.--_ns._ KNOCK'ER, the hammer suspended to a door for making a knock: a goblin inhabiting a mine who points out the presence of ore by knocks; KNOCK'ING, a beating on a door: a rap.--_adj._ KNOCK'-KNEED, having knees that knock or touch in walking.--KNOCK ABOUT (_slang_), to saunter, loaf about; KNOCK DOWN, to fell with a blow: assign to a bidder with a tap of the auctioneer's hammer; KNOCK INTO A COCKED HAT (see COCK); KNOCK OFF, to desist, cease: to accomplish hastily; KNOCK ON THE HEAD, to bring to a sudden stop; KNOCK OUT, to beat in a boxing match, to overcome generally: to lose the scent--of hounds in fox-hunting; KNOCK-OUT AUCTION, an auction where the bidders are largely swindling confederates; KNOCK TOGETHER, to get together or construct hastily; KNOCK UNDER, to give in, yield; KNOCK UP, to rouse by knocking: weary out, or be worn out: to construct hastily: (_U.S._) to get with child. [A.S. _cnucian_, _cnocian_; imit. like _knack_; cf. Gael. _cnac_, _cnag_, &c.] KNOLL, n[=o]l, _n._ a round hillock: the top of a hill. [A.S. _cnol_; Ger. _knollen_, a knob, lump.] KNOLL, n[=o]l. Same as KNELL. KNOP, nop, _n._ (_B._) a knob, a bud. [A.S. _cnoep_; Dut. _knop_, Ger. _knopf_.] KNOSP, nosp, _n._ the unopened bud of a flower: an architectural ornament resembling such. [Ger. _knospe_.] KNOT, not, _n._ a wading-bird much resembling a snipe, sometimes said, but without evidence, to be named from King _Cnut_ or _Canute_. KNOT, not, _n._ a bunch of threads or the like entangled or twisted: an interlacement of parts of a cord, &c., by twisting the ends about each other, and then drawing tight the loops thus formed: a piece of ribbon, lace, &c., folded or tied upon itself in some particular form, as _shoulder-knot_, _breast-knot_, &c.: anything like a knot in form: a bond of union: a difficulty: the gist of a matter: a cluster: the part of a tree where a branch shoots out: an epaulet: (_naut._) a division of the knot-marked log-line: a nautical mile.--_v.t._ to tie in a knot: to unite closely.--_v.i._ to form knots or joints: to knit knots for a fringe:--_pr.p._ knot'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ knot'ted.--_n._ KNOT'-GRASS, a common weed or grass, so called from the numerous joints or knots of its stem.--_adjs._ KNOT'LESS, without knots; KNOT'TED, full of, or having, knots: having intersecting lines or figures.--_n._ KNOT'TINESS.--_adj._ KNOT'TY, containing knots: hard, rugged: difficult: intricate.--_n._ KNOT'WORK, ornamental work made with knots.--BOWLINE KNOT (see BOW); GRANNY KNOT (see GRANNY); PORTERS' KNOT, a pad for supporting burdens on the head; SQUARE KNOT, a knot used in tying reef-points so that the ends come out alongside the standing parts; SURGEONS' KNOT, a square or reef knot used in tying a ligature round a cut artery; TRUE LOVERS' KNOT, a kind of double knot with two bows and two ends, an emblem of interwoven affections.--CUT THE KNOT, to solve a problem slap-dash (cf. GORDIAN). [A.S. _cnotta_; Ger. _knoten_, Dan. _knude_, L. _nodus_.] KNOUT, nowt, _n._ a whip formerly used as an instrument of punishment in Russia: punishment inflicted by the knout. [Russ. _knute_.] KNOW, n[=o], _v.t._ to be informed of: to be assured of: to be acquainted with: to recognise: (_B._) to approve: to have sexual commerce with.--_v.i._ to possess knowledge:--_pr.p._ kn[=o]w'ing; _pa.t._ knew (n[=u]); _pa.p._ known (n[=o]n).--_n._ (_Shak._) knowledge.--_adj._ KNOW'ABLE, capable of being known, discovered, or understood.--_ns._ KNOW'ABLENESS; KNOW'-ALL, one who thinks he knows everything; KNOW'ER.--_adj._ KNOW'ING, intelligent: skilful: cunning.--_adv._ KNOW'INGLY.--_ns._ KNOW'INGNESS, the quality of being knowing or intelligent: shrewdness; KNOW'-NOTH'ING, one who is quite ignorant: a member of the native American party (1854-56).--_adj._ completely ignorant.--KNOW A MOVE OR TWO, to be forearmed against trickery by a knowledge of the tricks; KNOW ON WHICH SIDE ONE'S BREAD IS BUTTERED, to be fully alive to one's own interest; KNOW THE ROPES, to understand the detail of any matter, as a sailor does his rigging; KNOW WHAT'S O'CLOCK, KNOW WHAT'S WHAT, to be thoroughly acquainted with something: to be wide awake. [A.S. _cnáwan_; Ice. _kná_, L. _nosc[)e]re_ for _gnoscere_, Gr. _gign[=o]skein_.] KNOWLEDGE, nol'ej, _n._ assured belief: that which is known: information, instruction: enlightenment, learning: practical skill.--_adj._ KNOWL'EDGEABLE (_coll._), possessing knowledge: intelligent.--_n._ KNOWL'EDGE-BOX (_slang_), the head.--TO ONE'S KNOWLEDGE, so far as one knows. [M. E. _knowleche_, where _-leche_ is the Northern form of the suffix in _wed-lock_, being A.S. _lác_, gift, sport.] KNUB, nub, _n._ a knob, a small lump: the waste or refuse of silk-cocoons.--Also KNUBS. KNUCKLE, nuk'l, _n._ projecting joint of the fingers; (_cook._) the knee-joint of a calf or pig.--_v.i._ to bend the fingers: to touch the forehead as a mark of respect: to yield.--_v.t._ (_rare_) to touch with the knuckle.--_ns._ KNUCK'LE-BONES, a game (called also _Dibs_); KNUCK'LE-BOW, the curved part of a sword-guard that covers the fingers; KNUCK'LE-DUST'ER, a kind of modern cestus, devised as a protection against garrotters; KNUCK'LE-JOINT, a joint where the forked end of a connecting-rod is joined by a bolt to another piece of the machinery.--KNUCKLE DOWN, to apply one's self with vigour to a task: to submit--in this sense, also KNUCKLE UNDER. [M. E. _knokil_; cf. Dut. _knokkel_; prob. Celt., W. _cnwc_.] KNURL, n[.e]rl, _n._ (_Burns_) a humpback. KNURL. Same as GNARL, KNARL. KNURR, KNUR, nur, _n._ a knot in wood: a wooden ball.--KNUR AND SPELL, a game played with a ball (_knur_), trap (_spell_), and tripstick, in vogue chiefly in the north of England. [Old Dut. _knorre_.] KOA, k[=o]'a, _n._ a forest-tree of the Sandwich Islands. KOALA, k[=o]-ä'lä, _n._ an Australian marsupial, called also 'Native Bear.' KOB, kob, _n._ an African water-antelope. KOBALT, _n._ Same as COBALT. KOBANG, k[=o]'bang, _n._ an oblong gold coin, rounded at the corners, once current in Japan.--Also K[=O]'BAN. KOBOLD, k[=o]'bold, _n._ in German folklore, a spirit of the mines. [Akin to _goblin_.] KODAK, k[=o]'dak, _n._ a small portable photographic camera with a continuous roll of sensitised film, on which successive instantaneous negatives are made.--_v.t._ to take an instantaneous picture of. [The trademark name of the Eastman _Kodak_ Company.] KOFF, kof, _n._ a small Dutch sailing-vessel. KOFTGAR, koft'gär, _n._ one who inlays steel with gold.--_n._ KOFT'GARI, such work--sometimes KOFT'WORK. [Hind.] KOHELETH, k[=o]-hel'eth, _n._ the Preacher, supposed to be applied to Solomon in Eccles. i. 12. KOHL, k[=o]l, _n._ a fine powder of antimony used in the East for staining the eyes. [Ar.] KOHLRABI, k[=o]l'r[=a]-bi, _n._ the turnip-cabbage. [Ger.,--It. _cavolo rapa_, cole-turnip.] KOKRA, kok'ra, _n._ an Indian wood used for making flutes, &c.--Also _Cocus-wood_. KOLA, k[=o]'lä, _n._ an African tree whose nuts or seeds have stimulant properties: a name given to an aerated non-alcoholic beverage. KOLINSKY, ko-lin'ski, _n._ the Siberian polecat or mink. KONISCOPE, kon'i-sk[=o]p, _n._ an instrument for indicating the quantity of dust in the atmosphere. [Gr. _konis_, dust, _skopein_, to look.] KONISTRA, k[=o]-nis'tra, _n._ the orchestra or dancing-place in the ancient Greek theatre, a circular area between the stage and the auditorium. KOODOO, k[=oo]'d[=oo], _n._ an African antelope with long spiral horns. KOORBASH, k[=oo]r'bash, _n._ a whip of hippopotamus or rhinoceros hide, used in Egypt and elsewhere.--Also KOURBASH. [Ar. _kurb[=a]j_.] KOORD, k[=oo]rd, _n._ Same as KURD. KOPECK, k[=o]'pek, _n._ Same as COPECK. KOPJE, kop'ye, _n._ a flat-topped hill. [Dut. _kop_, a top.] KORAN, k[=o]'rän, _n._ the Mohammedan Scriptures: Alcoran.--_adj._ KORAN'IC. [Ar. _qur[=a]n_, reading.] KOSHER, k[=o]'sh[.e]r, _adj._ pure, clean, according to the Jewish ordinances--as of meat killed and prepared by Jews. [Heb., from _y[=a]shar_, to be right.] KOSMOS. Same as COSMOS. KOTO, k[=o]'t[=o], _n._ a Japanese musical instrument consisting of an oblong box over which thirteen silk strings are stretched. KOTOW, k[=o]-tow', _n._ the Chinese ceremony of prostration.--_v.i._ to perform that ceremony, to abase one's self.--Also KOWTOW'. [Chin.] KOTYLISKOS, kot-i-lis'kos, _n._ a small Greek toilet-vase with a small foot. KOUMISS, k[=oo]'mis, _n._ a Kalmuck intoxicating beverage made from the soured and fermented milk of mares--supposed to be good for pulmonary phthisis. [Russ.,--Tartar.] KRAAL, kräl, _n._ a Hottentot village or hut [Dut. _kraal_--Port. _curral_--L. _curr[)e]re_.] KRAKEN, krä'ken, _n._ a fabled sea-animal of enormous size. [Scand.] KRANG, krang, _n._ the carcass of a whale after the blubber has been removed.--Also KRENG. [Dut.] KRASIS, kr[=a]'sis, _n._ the act of adding a little water to the wine used for the Eucharist.--Also called _Mixture_. [Gr.] KREATIN. Same as CREATIN. KREESE. Same as CREESE. KREMLIN, krem'lin, _n._ a citadel, specially that of Moscow. [Russ. _kremli_.] KREOSOTE, kr[=e]'o-s[=o]t, _n._ Same as CREOSOTE. KREUTZER, kroit'z[.e]r, _n._ a small copper coin of Austria, 100 to the florin or gulden--formerly also in South Germany. [Ger. _kreuzer_--_kreuz_, a cross, because formerly stamped with a cross.] K'RI, kr[=e], _n._ a marginal reading in the Hebrew Bible, proposed in substitution for a k'thibh, or reading in the text. The word signifies _read_, and was originally a marginal direction. [Heb.] KRIEGSPIEL, kr[=e]g'sp[=e]l, _n._ the 'war-game' played with metal blocks on a map, to train officers in military manoeuvres. [Ger. _krieg_, war, _spiel_, game.] KRIS. Same as CREESE. KRISHNA, krish'na, _n._ a deity in later Hindu mythology. KRUMMHORN, krum'horn, _n._ a medieval clarinet-like instrument: a reed-stop in the organ. [Ger. _krumm_.] KRUPSIS, kr[=oo]p'sis, _n._ (_theol._) the doctrine that Christ, during His state of humiliation, continued to possess in a veiled way the divine attributes of omnipotence, omniscience, &c. [Gr., _kryptein_, to conceal.] KRYOMETER, kr[=i]-om'e-t[.e]r, _n._ a thermometer for measuring very low temperatures. [Gr. _kryos_, cold, _metron_, a measure.] KSAR (_Milt._), a former spelling of _Czar_. KSHATRIYA, kshat'ri-ya, _n._ the second or military caste among the Brahmanic Hindus. K'THIBH, kth[=e]v, _n._ a textual reading in the Hebrew Scriptures:--opp. to _K'ri_. The word signifies _written_, and was originally a marginal note calling attention to the textual form in distinction from the k'ri. [Heb.] KUDOS, k[=u]'dos, _n._ credit, fame, generally used jocularly. [Gr.] KUDU. Same as KOODOO. KUFIC. Same as CUFIC. KUKLUX, k[=u]'kluks, or KUKLUX KLAN, a secret organisation in several Southern states after the Civil War of 1861-65, to oppose Northern influence in the South, and to prevent the negroes from enjoying their rights as freemen--crushed by United States forces in 1869. [Gr. _kuklos_, a circle.] KUMISS. Same as KOUMISS. KÜMMEL, küm'el, _n._ a liqueur flavoured with cumin and caraway seeds. [Ger.] KURD, k[=oo]rd, _n._ an inhabitant of _Kurdistan_, a region on the east of the upper course of the Tigris. KURSAAL, k[=oo]r'säl, _n._ the reception-room of a German spa. [Ger., lit. 'cure-saloon.'] KVASS, kvas, _n._ rye-beer. [Russ. _kvas[)u]_.] KYANISE, k[=i]'an-[=i]z, _v.t._ to preserve from dry-rot by injecting corrosive sublimate into the pores of the wood. [From John H. _Kyan_ (1774-1830).] KYANITE, k[=i]'a-n[=i]t, _n._ Same as CYANITE. KYE, Ky, k[=i], _n.pl._ Scotch form of the plural of _cow_. [See KINE.] KYLIX, k[=i]'liks, _n._ a broad and shallow Greek drinking-vase. KYLLOSIS, kil-l[=o]'sis, _n._ club-foot. KYLOE, k[=i]'l[=o], _n._ one of the cattle of the Hebrides. KYMOGRAPH, k[=i]'m[=o]-graf, _n._ an instrument for measuring the pressure of fluids, esp. of blood in a blood-vessel.--_adj._ KYMOGRAPH'IC. [Gr. _kyma_, a wave, _graphein_, to write.] KYRIE, kir'i-[=e], _n._ the _Kyrie eleïson_='Lord have mercy,' including both the words and the music to which they are sung: one of the responses to the commandments in the Anglican ante-communion service.--KYRIE ELEÏSON, a form of prayer which occurs in all the ancient Greek liturgies, and retained in the R.C. mass, following immediately after the introit. [Voc. case of Gr. _kyrios_, lord.] KYRIOLOGIC, -al, kir-i-o-loj'ik, -al, _adj._ denoting objects by alphabetical characters or conventional signs. [Gr. _kyrios_, literal, proper, _logos_, discourse.] KYTHE, k[=i]_th_, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to make known.--_v.i._ to show one's self, to appear. [A.S. _cyðan_, to make known. See UNCOUTH.] * * * * * L the twelfth letter in our alphabet, usually termed a liquid, but more correctly designated as a front palatal: (_chem._) the symbol for lithium: in Roman numerals, for 50, but [=L]=50,000. LA, lä, _interj._ lo! see! behold! ah! indeed!--_n._ (_mus._) in solmisation, the syllable used for the sixth tone of the scale. [A.S. _lá_.] LAAGER, lä'g[.e]r, _n._ in South African campaigning, a camp made by a ring of ox-wagons set close together, the spaces beneath being filled up with the baggage of the company.--_v.t._ to arrange in such a defensive enclosure. [Dut., a variant of _leger_, a camp.] [Illustration] LABARUM, lab'a-rum, _n._ a Roman military standard adopted as the imperial standard after Constantine's conversion. It bore the Greek letters XP (Chr), joined in a monogram, to signify the name of Christ: a similar ecclesiastical banner borne in processions: any moral standard or guide. [Late Gr. _labaron_, origin unknown. Some make bold to derive from Basque _labaria_, a standard.] LABDANUM. See LADANUM. LABEFACTION, lab-e-fak'shun, _n._ a weakening decay--also LABEFACT[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ LAB'EFY, to impair. [L. _labefac[)e]re_, to shake.] LABEL, l[=a]'bel, _n._ a small slip of writing affixed to anything to denote its contents, ownership, &c.: (_law_) a paper annexed to a will, as a codicil: (_her._) a fillet with pendants: (_archit._) the dripstone over a Gothic window or doorway arch.--_v.t._ to affix a label to: to describe by or on a label:--_pr.p._ l[=a]'belling; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ l[=a]'belled. [O. Fr. _label_ (Fr. _lambeau_); perh. from Old High Ger. _lappa_ (Ger. _lappen_).] LABELLUM, la-bel'um, _n._ the lower petal of a flower, esp. an orchis. [L., dim. of _labium_, a lip.] LABIAL, l[=a]'bi-al, _adj._ pertaining to the lips: formed by the lips.--_n._ a sound formed by the lips: a letter representing a sound formed either by both the lips, or by the upper lip and under teeth--_p_, _b_, _m_, _f_, _v_.--_v.t._ L[=A]'BIALISE.--_adv._ L[=A]'BIALLY.--_n.pl._ LABI[=A]'TÆ, a natural order of gamopetalous plants, the mint family having four-cornered stems and opposite branches.--_adjs._ L[=A]'BIATE, -D (_bot._), having two unequal divisions, as in the monopetalous corolla of the mints.--_adj._ and _n._ LABIODEN'TAL, of a sound pronounced both by the lips and teeth: a letter representing such (_f_, _v_.).--_n._ L[=A]'BIUM, a lip or lip-like part:--_pl._ L[=A]'BIA. [Fr.,--L. _labium_, _labrum_, a lip.] LABIS, l[=a]'bis, _n._ the cochlear or eucharistic spoon. [Late Gr. from _lambanein_, to take.] LABORATORY, lab'or-a-tor-i, _n._ a chemist's workroom: a place where scientific experiments are systematically carried on: a place for the manufacture of arms and war material: a place where anything is prepared for use. [L. _labor[=a]re_--_labor_, work.] LABOUR, l[=a]'bur, _n._ toil or exertion, esp. when fatiguing: work: pains: duties: a task requiring hard work: the pangs of childbirth.--_v.i._ to undergo labour: to work: to take pains: to be oppressed: to move slowly: to be in travail: (_naut._) to pitch and roll heavily.--_adj._ LAB[=O]'RIOUS, full of labour: toilsome: wearisome: devoted to labour: industrious.--_adv._ LAB[=O]'RIOUSLY.--_n._ LAB[=O]'RIOUSNESS.--_adj._ L[=A]'BOURED, bearing marks of labour or effort in the execution.--_ns._ L[=A]'BOURER, one who labours: one who does work requiring little skill; L[=A]'BOURIST, one who contends for the interests of workmen.--_adjs._ L[=A]'BOUR-SAV'ING, intended to supersede or lessen the labour of men; L[=A]'BOURSOME (_Shak._), made with labour and diligence.--LABOUR DAY, a legal holiday in some parts of the United States, as in New York (the first Monday in September); LABOUR MARKET, the supply of unemployed labour in relation to the demand for it; LABOUR OF LOVE, work undertaken merely as an act of friendliness, and without hope of emolument; LABOUR WITH, to take pains to convince.--HARD LABOUR, compulsory work imposed on certain criminals in addition to imprisonment. [O. Fr. _labour_, _labeur_--L. _labor_.] LABRADORITE, lab'ra-d[=o]r-[=i]t, _n._ one of the group of the Feldspars, and a very important rock-forming mineral. [_Labrador_.] LABRET, l[=a]'bret, _n._ a piece of bone, shell, &c. inserted into the lip by savages for ornament.--_adj._ L[=A]'BROSE, having thick lips.--_n._ L[=a]'brum, a lip or lip-like part:--_pl._ L[=A]'BRA. [L. _labrum_, _labium_, a lip.] LABURNUM, la-bur'num, _n._ a small tree with large pendulous racemes of beautiful yellow flowers, a native of the Alps. [L.] LABYRINTH, lab'i-rinth, _n._ a place full of inextricable windings: (_orig._) a building consisting of halls connected by intricate passages: an arrangement of tortuous passages in which it is difficult to find the way out: an inexplicable difficulty, a perplexity: (_anat._) the cavities of the internal ear.--_adjs._ LABYRINTH'AL, LABYRINTH'IAN, LABYRINTH'INE, pertaining to or like a labyrinth: winding: intricate: perplexing; LABYRINTH'IFORM, having the form of a labyrinth: intricate.--_n._ LABYRINTH'ODON, a race of extinct gigantic amphibians found in the Permian, Carboniferous, and Triassic strata, so called from the mazy pattern exhibited on a transverse section of the teeth of some genera. [Fr. _labyrinthe_--L. _labyrinthus_--Gr. _labyrinthos_; akin to _laura_, a passage.] LAC, lak, _n._ the term used in India for 100,000 rupees, the nominal value of which is £10,000.--Also LAKH. [Hind. _lak_--Sans. _laksha_, 100,000, a mark.] LAC, lak, _n._ a dark-red transparent resin produced on the twigs of trees in the East by the lac insect, used in dyeing.--_adj._ LACCIC (lak'sik).--_ns._ LACCINE (lak'sin), a brittle, translucent, yellow substance, obtained from shell-lac; LAC'-DYE, LAC'-LAKE, scarlet colouring matters obtained from STICK'-LAC, the twigs, with attached resin, enclosed insects, and ova; SEED'-LAC, the granular portion remaining after removing the resin, triturating with water, and drying; SHELL'-LAC, SHEL'LAC, thin plates of resin prepared by melting the seed-lac in cotton-cloth bags, straining, and allowing it to drop on to sticks or leaves. [Pers. _lak_--Sans. _lákshá_, the lac insect--_rañj_, to dye.] LACE, l[=a]s, _n._ a plaited string for fastening: an ornamental fabric of linen, cotton, silk, or gold and silver threads, made by looping, knotting, plaiting, or twisting the thread into definite patterns, of contrasted open and close structure; three distinct varieties are made, two by handiwork, known respectively as _Needle_ or _Point lace_ and _Pillow_ or _Bobbin Lace_, and one by machinery.--_v.t._ to fasten with a lace: to adorn with lace: to streak: to mark with the lash: to intermix, as coffee with brandy, &c.: to intertwine.--_v.i._ to be fastened with a lace.--_ns._ LACE'-BARK TREE, a lofty West Indies tree, the inner bark like coarse lace; LACE'-BOOT, a boot fastened by a lace.--_p.adj._ LACED, fastened or adorned with lace.--_ns._ LACE'-FRAME, a machine used in lace-making; LACE'-LEAF (see LATTICE-LEAF); LACE'-MAN, one who deals in lace; LACE'-MEND'ER, one who repairs lace; LACE'-P[=A]'PER, paper stamped or cut by hand with an open-work pattern like lace; LACE'-PILL'OW, a cushion on which many various kinds of lace are made, held on the knees.--_adj._ L[=A]'CY, like lace.--ALENÇON LACE, a very fine point-lace, the most important made in France; APPLIQUÉ LACE, lace having sprigs or flowers sewed on net; BALLOON-NET LACE, a form of woven lace in which the freeing threads are peculiarly twisted about the warps; BRUSSELS LACE, an extremely fine lace with sprigs applied on a net ground; DUCHESSE LACE, a Belgian pillow-lace having beautiful designs with cord outlines, often in relief; GUIPURE LACE, any lace without a net ground, the pattern being held together by bars or brides; HONITON LACE, a lace made at _Honiton_ in Devonshire, remarkable for the beauty of its figures and sprigs; IMITATION LACE, any lace made by machinery; MECHLIN LACE, a lace with bobbin ground and designs outlined by thread or flat cord; SPANISH LACE, needle-point lace brought from Spanish convents since their dissolution--but probably of Flemish origin: cut and drawn work made in convents in Spain, of patterns usually confined to simple sprigs and flowers: a modern black-silk lace with large flower-patterns, mostly of Flemish make: a modern needle-point lace with large square designs; TAMBOUR LACE, a modern kind of lace made with needle-embroidery on machine-made net; TORCHON LACE, peasants' bobbin laces of loose texture and geometrical designs, much imitated by machinery; VALENCIENNES LACE, a fine bobbin lace having the design made with the ground and of the same thread. [O. Fr. _las_, a noose--L. _laqueus_, a noose.] LACERATE, las'[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.t._ to tear: to rend: to wound: to afflict.--_adjs._ LAC'ERABLE, that may be lacerated; LAC'ERANT, harrowing; LAC'ERATE, -D, rent, torn: (_bot._) having the edges cut into irregular segments.--_n._ LACER[=A]'TION, act of lacerating: the rent made by tearing.--_adj._ LAC'ERATIVE, tearing: having power to tear. [L. _lacer[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to tear--_lacer_, torn.] LACERTA, la-s[.e]r'ta, _n._ a genus of saurian reptiles, the name properly restricted to slender, active lizards.--_n._ and _adj._ LACER'TIAN, an animal belonging to the genus Lacerta.--_n._ LACERTIL'IA, an order of reptiles, including the lizards proper, &c.--_adjs._ LACERTIL'IAN; LACERTIL'IOID; LACER'TINE. [L.] LACHES, läsh'[=e]z, _n._ (_law_) negligence or undue delay, such as to disentitle a person to a certain remedy, any negligence. [O. Fr. _lachesse_.] LACHESIS, lak'e-sis, _n._ the one of the three Fates who assigned to each mortal his destiny--she spun the thread of life from the distaff held by Clotho. [Gr.] LACHRYMAL, LACRYMAL, lak'ri-mal, _adj._ of or pertaining to tears, secreting tears, as in 'lachrymal duct,' the nasal duct, conveying tears from the eye to the nose.--_n._ one of the bones of the face, the _os unguis_, or nail-bone, in man.--_adj._ LACH'RYMARY, containing tears.--_n._ LACH'RYM[=A]TORY, a small slender glass vessel found in ancient sepulchres, apparently filled with the tears of mourners.--_adj._ LACH'RYMOSE, LAC'RYMOSE, shedding tears, or given to do so: lugubrious, mournful.--_adv._ LACH'RYMOSELY.--LACHRYMA CHRISTI, a wine of a sweet but piquant taste, produced from grapes grown on Mount Vesuvius, the best light red. [L. _lacryma_ (properly _lacrima_), a tear; Gr. _dakru_, Eng. _tear_.] LACING, l[=a]s'ing, _n._ a fastening with a lace or cord through eyelet-holes: a cord used in fastening: in bookbinding, the cords by which the boards of a book are fastened to the back: in shipbuilding, the _knee of the head_, or _lace-piece_, a piece of compass or knee timber secured to the back of the figure-head: in mining, _lagging_, or cross-pieces of timber or iron placed to prevent ore from falling into a passage. LACINIA, l[=a]-sin'i-a, _n._ a long incision in a leaf, &c.--also a narrow lobe resulting from such: in entomology, the apex of the maxilla.--_adjs._ LACIN'I[=A]TE, -D, cut into narrow lobes, fringed; LACIN'IFORM, fringe-like; LACIN'IOL[=A]TE, finely fringed. [L., a flap.] LACK, lak, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to want: to be in want: to be destitute of: to miss.--_n._ want: destitution.--_ns._ LACK'-ALL, one who is destitute; LACK'-BRAIN (_Shak._), a fool.--_adjs._ LACK'-LIN'EN (_Shak._), wanting linen; LACK'-LUS'TRE, wanting brightness.--_n._ a want of brightness. [From an old Low Ger. root found in Dut. _lak_, blemish; cf. Ice. _lakr_, defective.] LACKADAISICAL, lak-a-d[=a]'zi-kal, _adj._ affectedly pensive, sentimental.--_interj._ LACK'ADAISY=LACK-A-DAY. [_Alack-a-day_. See ALACK.] LACK-A-DAY, lak-a-d[=a]', _interj._ See ALACK-A-DAY. LACKER. See LACQUER. LACKEY, lak'i, _n._ a menial attendant: a footman or footboy.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to pay servile attendance: to act as a footman. [O. Fr. _laquay_ (Fr. _laquais_)--Sp. _lacayo_, a lackey; perh. Ar. _luka`_, servile.] LACMUS, lak'mus, _n._ the same as LITMUS (q.v.). LACONIC, -AL, la-kon'ik, -al, _adj._ expressing in few words after the manner of the _Laconians_, _Lacedæmonians_, or _Spartans_: concise: pithy.--_adv._ LACON'ICALLY.--_ns._ LAC'ONISM, LACON'ICISM, a concise style: a short, pithy phrase. [L.,--Gr.] LACQUER, LACKER, lak'[.e]r, _n._ a varnish made of lac and alcohol.--_v.t._ to cover with lacquer: to varnish.--_ns._ LAC'QUERER, one who varnishes or covers with lacquer; LAC'QUERING, the act of varnishing with lacquer: a coat of lacquer varnish. [Fr. _lacre_--Port. _lacre_, _laca_--Pers. _lac_, lac.] LACROSSE, la-kros', _n._ a Canadian game of ball, played by two sets of eleven, the ball driven through the opponents' goal by means of the CROSSE, a bent stick, 5-6 ft. long, with a shallow net at one end. [Fr.] LACTEAL, lak'te-al, _adj._ pertaining to or resembling milk: conveying chyle.--_n._ one of the absorbent vessels of the intestines which convey the chyle to the thoracic ducts.--_ns._ LAC'TARENE, LAC'TARINE, a preparation of the caseine of milk, used by calico-printers; LAC'T[=A]TE, a salt of lactic acid, and a base; LACT[=A]'TION, the act of giving milk: the period of suckling.--_adj._ LAC'TEOUS, milky, milk-like.--_n._ LACTESC'ENCE.--_adjs._ LACTESC'ENT, turning to milk: producing milk or white juice: milky; LAC'TIC, pertaining to milk; LACTIF'EROUS, LACTIF'IC, producing milk or white juice.--_ns._ LAC'TIFUGE, a medicine which checks the flow of milk; LAC'TOCRITE, an apparatus for testing the quantity of fatty substance in a sample of milk; LACTOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the quality of milk; LAC'TOSCOPE, an instrument for testing the purity or richness of milk by its degree of translucency; LAC'TOSE, a kind of sugar, only moderately sweet, obtained from milk by evaporating whey--also LAC'TINE; LACTUCA (lak-t[=u]'ka), a genus of herbs of the aster family, with milky juice.--_adj._ LACTUCIC (lak-t[=u]'sik).--LACTIC ACID, an acid obtained from milk. [L. _lacteus_, milky--_lac_, _lactis_, milk; Gr. _gala_, _galaktos_, milk.] LACUNA, la-k[=u]'na, _n._ a gap or hiatus:--_pl._ LAC[=U]'NÆ.--_n._ LAC[=U]'NAR, a sunken panel or coffer in a ceiling or a soffit: a ceiling containing such.--_adjs._ LAC[=U]'NOSE, furrowed: pitted; LAC[=U]'NOUS. [L. _lacuna_, anything hollow--_lacus_, a lake.] LACUSTRINE, la-kus'trin, _adj._ pertaining to lakes.--Also LACUS'TRAL, LACUS'TRIAN. [From L. _lacus_, a lake.] LAD, lad, _n._ a boy: a youth: (_Scot._) a lover:--_fem._ LASS.--_n._ LAD'DIE, a little lad: a boy.--LAD'S LOVE, a provincial name of the southernwood. [M. E. _ladde_--Ir. _lath_, a youth, champion (W. _llawd_). Mr H. Bradley suggests that M. E. _ladde_, a servant, coincides with the adjectival form of the past participle of the verb to _lead_, the original meaning thus being 'one _led_ in the train of a lord.'] LADANUM, lad'a-num, _n._ a resinous exudation from the leaves of a shrub growing round the Mediterranean.--Also LAB'DANUM. [L.,--Gr. _l[=e]danon_--Pers. _l[=a]dan_. See LAUDANUM.] LADDER, lad'[.e]r, _n._ a frame made with steps placed between two upright pieces, by which one may ascend a building, &c.: anything by which one ascends: a gradual rise. [A.S. _hl['æ]der_; Ger. _leiter_.] LADE, l[=a]d, _v.t._ to burden: to throw in or out, as a fluid, with a ladle or dipper.--_n._ (_Scot._) a load: a water-course: the mouth of a river.--_n._ LAD'ING, the act of loading: that which is loaded: cargo: freight. [A.S. _hladan_, pt. _hlód_, _hladen_, to load, to draw out water; Dut. _laden_; Ger. _be-laden_.] LADIN, la-d[=e]n', _n._ a Romance tongue spoken in the Engadine valley in Switzerland and the upper Inn valley in Tyrol. [L. _Latinus_, Latin.] LADINO, la-d[=e]'n[=o], _n._ the old Castilian tongue: the Spanish jargon of some Turkish Jews: a Central American of mixed white and Indian blood. LADLE, l[=a]d'l, _n._ a large spoon for lifting out liquid from a vessel: the float-board of a mill-wheel: an instrument for drawing the charge from a cannon.--_v.t._ to lift with a ladle.--_ns._ LAD'LEFUL, the quantity in a ladle:--_pl._ LAD'LEFULS.--LADLE FURNACE, a small gas furnace heated by a Bunsen burner, for melting metals, &c. [A.S. _hlædel_--_hladan_, to lade.] LADRONE, la-dr[=o]n', _n._ a robber. [Sp.,--L. _latro_.] LADY, l[=a]'di, _n._ the mistress of a house: a wife: a title of the wives of knights, and all degrees above them, and of the daughters of earls and all higher ranks: a title of complaisance to any woman of refined manners:--_pl._ LADIES (l[=a]'diz).--_ns._ L[=A]'DYBIRD, a genus of little beetles, usually brilliant red or yellow--also L[=A]'DYBUG, L[=A]'DYCOW; L[=A]'DY-CHAP'EL, a chapel dedicated to 'Our Lady,' the Virgin Mary, usually behind the high altar, at the extremity of the apse; L[=A]'DYDAY, the 25th March, the day of the Annunciation of the Virgin; L[=A]'DYFERN, one of the prettiest varieties of British ferns, common in moist woods, with bipinnate fronds sometimes two feet long; L[=A]'DY-FLY (same as LADYBIRD); L[=A]'DYHOOD, condition, character of a lady.--_adj._ L[=A]'DYISH, having the airs of a fine lady.--_ns._ L[=A]'DYISM, affectation of the airs of a fine lady; L[=A]'DY-KILL'ER, a man who fancies his fascinations irresistible to women: a general lover.--_adj._ L[=A]'DY-LIKE, like a lady in manners: refined: soft, delicate.--_ns._ L[=A]DY-LOVE, a lady or woman loved: a sweetheart; L[=A]DY'S-BED'STRAW, the plant _Galium verum_; L[=A]'DY'S-BOW'ER, the only British species of clematis--also _Traveller's joy_; L[=A]'DY'S-FING'ER, a name for many plants: a piece of confectionery; L[=A]'DYSHIP, the title of a lady; L[=A]'DY'S-MAID, a female attendant on a lady, esp. in matters relating to the toilet; L[=A]DY'S-MAN'TLE, a genus of herbaceous plants having small, yellowish-green flowers; L[=A]'DY'S-SLIPP'ER, a genus of orchidaceous plants, remarkable for the large inflated lip of the corolla; L[=A]'DY'S-SMOCK, the Bitter Cress, a meadow-plant, with whitish, blush-coloured flowers.--LADIES' COMPANION, a small bag used for carrying women's work; LADIES' MAN, one fond of women's society.--MY LADYSHIP, YOUR LADYSHIP, a form of expression used in speaking to, or of, one who has the rank of a lady. [A.S. _hláf-dige_--_hláf_, a loaf, _d['æ]gee_, a kneader, or=_hláfweardige_ (i.e. loaf-keeper, see _ward_), and thus a contr. fem. of _Lord_.] LÆTARE, l[=e]-t[=a]'r[=e], _n._ the fourth Sunday in Lent, named from the first word in the service for the festival. [L. _læt[=a]re_, to rejoice--_lætus_, joyful.] LAG, lag, _adj._ slack: sluggish: coming behind.--_n._ he who, or that which, comes behind: the fag-end: (_slang_) an old convict.--_v.i._ to move or walk slowly: to loiter.--_v.t._ (_slang_) to commit to justice:--_pr.p._ lag'ging; _pa.p._ lagged.--_adj._ LAG'-BELL'IED, having a drooping belly.--_n._ LAG'-END (_Shak._), the last or long-delayed end.--_adj._ LAG'GARD, lagging: slow: backward.--_ns._ LAG'GARD, LAG'GER, one who lags behind: a loiterer: an idler.--_adv._ LAG'GINGLY, in a lagging manner. [Celt., as W. _llag_, loose, Gael. _lag_, feeble; cf. L. _laxus_, loose.] LAGENA, la-j[=e]'na, _n._ a wine-vase, amphora: the terminal part of the cochlea in birds and reptiles:--_pl._ LAG[=E]'NÆ. [L.] LAGER-BEER, lä'ger-b[=e]r, _n._ a kind of light beer very much used in Germany.--Also LA'GER. [Ger. _lagerbier_--_lager_, a store-house, _bier_, beer.] LAGGEN, lag'en, _n._ (_Burns_) the angle between the side and bottom of a wooden dish. LAGOMYS, l[=a]-g[=o]'mis, _n._ a genus of rodents, much resembling hares or rabbits. [Gr. _lag[=o]s_, a hare, _mys_, a mouse.] LAGOON, LAGUNE, la-g[=oo]n', _n._ a shallow pond into which the sea flows. [It. _laguna_--L. _lacuna_.] LAGOPHTHALMIA, lag-of-thal'mi-a, _n._ inability to close the eye.--_adj._ LAGOPHTHAL'MIC. LAGOPUS, la-g[=o]'pus, _n._ a genus of grouse, the ptarmigans.--_adj._ LAGOP'ODOUS, having furry feet.--_n._ LAGOS'TOMA, hare-lip.--_adj._ LAG[=O]'TIC, rabbit-eared. LAGRIMOSO, lag-ri-m[=o]'s[=o], _adj._ (_mus._) plaintive. [It.] LAGTHING, läg'ting, _n._ the upper house of the Norwegian parliament. [Norw. _lag_, law, _thing_, parliament.] LAIC, LAICAL, LAICISE. See LAY, _adj._ LAID, l[=a]d, _adj._ put down, prostrate: pressed down.--LAID PAPER, such as shows in its fabric the marks of the close parallel wires on which the paper-pulp was laid in the process of its manufacture:--opp. to _Wove-paper_, that laid on woven flannels or on felts. [Pa.t. and pa.p. of LAY.] LAIDLY, l[=a]d'li, _adj._ (_prov._) loathly. LAIN, _pa.p._ of LIE, to rest. LAIR, l[=a]r, _n._ a lying-place, esp. the den or retreat of a wild beast: (_Scot._) the ground for one grave in a burying-place. [A.S. _leger_, a couch--_licgan_, to lie down; Dut. _leger_, Ger. _lager_.] LAIR, l[=a]r, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to sink in mud.--_n._ mire, a bog, a quagmire. [Ice. _leir_, mud.] LAIRD, l[=a]rd, _n._ (_Scot._) a landed proprietor, a landlord.--_n._ LAIRD'SHIP, an estate. [_Lord._] LAISSEZ-FAIRE, l[=a]s'[=a]-f[=a]r', _n._ a letting alone, a general principle of non-interference with the free action of the individual: the let-alone principle in government, business, &c.--Also LAISS'ER-FAIRE'. [Fr. _laisser_--L. _lax[=a]re_, to relax, _faire_--L. _fac[)e]re_, to do.] LAITY, l[=a]-'i-ti, _n._ the people as distinct from the clergy. [See LAY, _adj._] LAKE, l[=a]k, _n._ a pigment or colour formed by precipitating animal or vegetable colouring matters from their solutions, chiefly with alumina or oxide of tin. [Fr. _laque_. See LAC (2).] LAKE, l[=a]k, _n._ a large body of water within land.--_ns._ LAKE'-B[=A]'SIN, the whole area drained by a lake; LAKE'-LAW'YER (_U.S._), the bowfin: burbot; LAKE'LET, a little lake; L[=A]'KER, L[=A]'KIST, one of the Lake school of poetry.--_adj._ L[=A]'KY, pertaining to a lake or lakes.--LAKE DISTRICT, the name applied to the picturesque and mountainous region within the counties of Cumberland, Westmorland, and a small portion of Lancashire, containing as many as sixteen lakes or meres; LAKE DWELLINGS, settlements in prehistoric times, built on piles driven into a lake; LAKE SCHOOL OF POETRY, a name applied to the group of illustrious poets who made the Lake District--_Wordsworthshire_--their home about the beginning of the 19th century. [A.S. _lac_--L. _lacus_.] LAKH, _n._ See LAC, term used for 100,000. LAKIN, l[=a]'kin, _n._ (_Shak._) a corruption of _ladykin_, dim. of _lady_. LAKSHMI, laksh'm[=e], _n._ in Hindu mythology, the name of the consort of the god Vishnu (q.v.), considered as his female or creative energy. LALLAN, lal'an, _n._ the Scotch dialect. [_Lowland_.] LALLATION, la-l[=a]'shon, _n._ lambdacism (q.v.). LAM, lam, _v.t._ to beat. [Ice. _lemja_, to beat.] LAMA, _n._ an animal. [See LLAMA.] LAMA, lä'ma, _n._ a Buddhist priest in Tibet.--_ns._ LÄ'MAISM, the religion prevailing in Tibet and Mongolia, being Buddhism corrupted by Sivaism, and by Shamanism or spirit-worship; LÄ'MAIST; LÄ'MASERY, a Tibetan monastery. [Tib.] LAMANTIN, la-man'tin, _n._ the manatee. [Fr.] LAMARCKISM, la-mär'kizm, _n._ the theory of the French naturalist, J. B. P. A. de Monet de _Lamarck_ (1744-1829), that species have developed by the efforts of organisms to adapt themselves to new conditions--also LAMARCK'IANISM.---_adj._ LAMARCK'IAN. LAMB, lam, _n._ the young of a sheep: the flesh of the young sheep: one innocent and gentle as a lamb: the Saviour of the world.--_v.i._ to bring forth young, as sheep.--_ns._ LAMB'-ALE, a feast at the time of lamb-shearing; LAMB'KIN, LAMB'LING, LAMB'IE (_Scot._), a little lamb.--_adj._ LAMB'-LIKE, like a lamb: gentle.--_ns._ LAMB'SKIN, the skin of a lamb dressed with the wool on, for mats, &c.: the skin of a lamb dressed for gloves: a kind of woollen cloth resembling this; LAMB'S'-LETT'UCE (same as CORN-SALAD); LAMB'S'-WOOL, fine wool: a wholesome old English beverage composed of ale and the pulp of roasted apples, with sugar and spices.--THE LAMB, LAMB OF GOD, the Saviour, typified by the paschal lamb. [A.S. _lamb_; Ger. _lamm_, Dut. _lam_.] LAMBATIVE, lam'ba-tiv, _adj._ to be taken by licking.--_n._ a medicine of such a kind. LAMBDA, lam'da, _n._ the Greek letter corresponding to Roman _l_.--_n._ LAMB'DACISM, a too frequent use of words containing _l_: a defective pronunciation of _r_, making it like _l_.--_adjs._ LAMB'DOID, -AL, shaped like the Greek capital [GREEK: L]--applied in anatomy to the suture between the occipital and the two parietal bones of the skull. [Gr.,--Heb. _lamedh_.] LAMBENT, lam'bent, _adj._ moving about as if touching lightly: gliding over: flickering.--_n._ LAM'BENCY, the quality of being lambent: that which is lambent. [L. _lambens_--_lamb[)e]re_, to lick.] LAMBOYS, lam'boiz, _n.pl._ kilted flexible steel-plates worn skirt-like from the waist. [O. Fr.] LAMBREQUIN, lam'bre-kin, _n._ a strip of cloth, leather, &c., hanging from a window, doorway, or mantelpiece, as a drapery: an ornamental covering, as of cloth, attached to a helmet. [Fr.] LAME, l[=a]m, _adj._ disabled in the limbs: hobbling: unsatisfactory: imperfect.--_v.t._ to make lame: to cripple: to render imperfect.--_n._ LAME'-DUCK (_slang_), a bankrupt.--_adv._ LAME'LY.--_n._ LAME'NESS.--_adj._ LAM'ISH, a little lame: hobbling. [A.S. _lama_, lame; Dut. _lam_, Ger. _lahm_.] LAMELLA, lä-mel'a, _n._ a thin plate or scale:--_pl._ LAMELL'Æ.--_adjs._ LAM'ELLAR, LAM'ELLATE.--_n.pl._ LAMELLIBRANCHI[=A]'TA, a class of shell-fishes or molluscs in which the shell consists of two limy plates, lying one on each side of the body.--_adjs._ LAMELLIBRANCH'IATE; LAMELL'ICORN.--_n.pl._ LAMELLICOR'NES, a very numerous family of beetles--the cockchafer, &c.--_adjs._ LAMELLIF'EROUS, producing lamellæ; LAMELL'IFORM, lamellar in form; LAMELLIROS'TRAL, having a lamellose bill; LAM'ELLOSE, full of lamellæ, lamellated in structure. [L.] LAMENT, la-ment', _v.i._ to utter grief in outcries: to wail: to mourn.--_v.t._ to mourn for: to deplore.--_n._ sorrow expressed in cries: an elegy or mournful ballad.--_adj._ LAM'ENTABLE, deserving or expressing sorrow: sad: pitiful, despicable.--_adv._ LAM'ENTABLY.--_n._ LAMENT[=A]'TION, act of lamenting: audible expression of grief: wailing: (_pl._, _B._) a book of Jeremiah.--_p.adj._ LAMENT'ED, bewailed: mourned.--_adv._ LAMENT'INGLY, with lamentation. [Fr. _lamenter_--L. _lament[=a]ri_.] LAMETER, LAMITER, l[=a]'met-[.e]r, _n._ a cripple. LAMETTA, la-met'a, _n._ foil of gold, silver, &c. [It.] LAMIA, l[=a]'mi-a, _n._ in Greek and Roman mythology, a female phantom, a serpent witch who charmed children and youths in order to suck their blood. LAMIGER, lam'i-j[.e]r, _n._ (_prov._) a cripple. LAMINA, lam'i-na, _n._ a thin plate: a thin layer or coat lying over another:--_pl._ LAM'INÆ.--_adjs._ LAM'INABLE; LAM'INAR, LAM'INARY, in laminæ or thin plates: consisting of, or resembling, thin plates.--_n._ LAMIN[=A]'RIA, a genus of dark-spored seaweeds, with large expanded leathery-stalked fronds.--_adjs._ LAM'IN[=A]TE, -D, in laminæ or thin plates: consisting of scales or layers, over one another.--_ns._ LAMIN[=A]'TION, the arrangement of stratified rocks in thin laminæ or layers.--_adjs._ LAMINIF'EROUS, consisting of laminæ or layers; LAM'INIFORM, laminar.--_n._ LAMIN[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the laminæ of a horse's hoof. [L. _lamina_, a thin plate, a leaf.] LAMMAS, lam'as, _n._ the feast of first-fruits on 1st August.--_n._ LAMM'AS-TIDE, Lammas-day, 1st August. [A.S. _hláf-mæsse_ and _hlammæsse_--_hláf_, loaf, _mæsse_, feast.] LAMMER, lam'[.e]r, _n._ (_Scot._) amber. [Fr. _l'ambre_.] LAMMERGEIER, lam'm[.e]r-g[=i]-[.e]r, _n._ the great bearded vulture of the mountains of southern Europe, Asia, and northern Africa. [Ger. _lämmergeier_--_lämmer_, lambs, _geier_, vulture.] LAMMY, lam'i, _n._ a thick quilted outside jumper worn in cold weather by sailors.--Also LAMM'IE. LAMP, lamp, _n._ a vessel for burning oil with a wick, and so giving light: a light of any kind.--_v.i._ (_Spens._) to shine.--_ns._ LAMP'AD (_rare_), a lamp or candlestick, a torch; LAMP'ADARY, in the Greek Church, one who looks after the lamps and carries a lighted taper before the patriarch; LAMPADED'ROMY, an ancient Greek torch-race in honour of Prometheus, &c.; LAMP'ADIST, one who ran in a torch-race; LAMPAD'OMANCY, the art of divining by the flame of a lamp or torch; LAMP'BLACK, the black substance formed by the smoke of a lamp: the soot or amorphous carbon obtained by burning bodies rich in that element, such as resin, petroleum, and tar, or some of the cheap oily products obtained from it; LAMP'-BURN'ER, that part of a lamp in which the wick is held; LAMP'-CHIM'NEY, LAMP'-GLASS, a glass funnel placed round the flame of a lamp; LAMP'-FLY (_Browning_), a firefly.--_adj._ LAMP'IC, pertaining to, or derived from, a lamp or flame.--_ns._ LAMP'ION, a kind of small lamp; LAMP'-LIGHT, the light shed by a lamp or lamps; LAMP'-LIGHT'ER, a person employed to light street-lamps: that by which a lamp is lighted, as a spill or torch; LAMP'-POST, the pillar supporting a street-lamp; LAMP'-SHELL, a terebratuloid or related brachiopod having a shell like an antique lamp.--SMELL OF THE LAMP, to show signs of great elaboration or study. [Fr. _lampe_--Gr. _lampas_, _-ados_--_lampein_, to shine.] LAMP, lamp, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to run wild, to scamper: to go jauntily. LAMPAS, lam'pas, _n._ a material of silk and wool used in upholstery. [Fr.] LAMPASS, lam'pas, _n._ (_Shak._) a swelling of the roof of the mouth in horses. [Fr. _lampas_.] LAMPERN, lam'p[.e]rn, _n._ a river lamprey. LAMPOON, lam-p[=oo]n', _n._ a personal satire in writing: low censure.--_v.t._ to assail with personal satire: to satirise:--_pr.p._ lamp[=oo]n'ing; _pa.p._ lamp[=oo]ned'.--_ns._ LAMPOON'ER, one who writes a lampoon; LAMPOON'RY, practice of lampooning: written personal abuse or satire. [O. Fr. _lampon_, orig. a drinking-song, with the refrain _lampons_=let us drink--_lamper_ (or _lapper_, to lap), to drink.] LAMPREY, lam'pre, _n._ a genus of cartilaginous fishes resembling the eel, so called from their attaching themselves to rocks or stones by their mouths. [O. Fr. _lamproie_--Low L. _lampreda_, _lampetra_--L. _lamb[)e]re_, to lick, _petra_, rock.] LANA, lä'na, _n._ the tough, close-grained wood of a Guiana tree. LANATE, -D, l[=a]'n[=a]t, -ed, _adjs._ woolly: (_bot._) covered with a substance resembling wool.--_n._ L[=A]'NARY, a wool-store. [L. _lanatus_--_lana_, wool.] LANCASTERIAN, lang-kas-t[=e]'ri-an, _adj._ pertaining to Joseph _Lancaster_ (1778-1838), or the method of teaching younger pupils by those more advanced (_monitors_) in primary schools. LANCASTRIAN, lang-kas'tri-an, _adj._ pertaining to the dukes or the royal house of _Lancaster_.--_n._ an adherent of the house of Lancaster, as against the Yorkists, in the Wars of the Roses (1455-85). LANCE, lans, _n._ (_Spens._) balance, poise. [L. _lanx_, _lancis_, a dish or scale.] LANCE, lans, _n._ a long shaft of wood, with a spear-head, and bearing a small flag: the bearer of a lance.--_v.t._ to pierce with a lance: to open with a lancet.--_ns._ LANCE'-COR'PORAL, a private soldier doing the duties of a corporal; LANCE'LET (see AMPHIOXUS); LAN'CER, a light cavalry soldier armed with a lance: (_pl._) a popular set of quadrilles, first in England about 1820: the music for such; LANCE'-WOOD, a wood valuable for its strength and elasticity, brought chiefly from Jamaica, Guiana, &c.--_adjs._ LANCIF'EROUS, bearing a lance; LAN'CIFORM, lance-shaped. [Fr.,--L. _lancea_; Gr. _longch[=e]_, a lance.] LANCEGAY, lans'g[=a], _n._ (_obs._) a kind of spear. [O. Fr.,--_lance_, a lance, _zagaye_, a pike. See ASSAGAI.] LANCEOLATE, -D, lan'se-o-l[=a]t, -ed, _adjs._ (_bot._) having the form of a lance-head: tapering toward both ends--also LAN'CEOLAR.--_adv._ LAN'CEOLATELY. [L. _lanceolatus_--_lanceola_, dim. of _lancea_.] [Illustration] LANCET, lan'set, _n._ a surgical instrument used for opening veins, abscesses, &c.: a high and narrow window, terminating in an arch acutely pointed, often double or triple, common in the first half of the 13th century. [O. Fr. _lancette_, dim. of _lance_.] LANCH. Same as LAUNCH. LANCINATE, lan'sin-[=a]t, _v.t._ to lacerate.--_n._ LANCIN[=A]'TION, sharp, shooting pain. [L. _lancin[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to tear.] LAND, land, _n._ earth, the solid portion of the surface of the globe: a country: a district: soil: real estate: a nation or people: (_Scot._) a group of dwellings or tenements under one roof and having a common entry.--_v.t._ to set on land or on shore.--_v.i._ to come on land or on shore.--_ns._ LAND'-[=A]'GENT, a person employed by the owner of an estate to let farms, collect rents, &c.; LAND'-BREEZE, a breeze setting from the land towards the sea; LAND'-CRAB, a family of crabs which live much or chiefly on land.--_v.t._ LAND'DAMN (_Shak._), to banish from the land.--_adj._ LAND'ED, possessing land or estates: consisting in land or real estate.--_ns._ LAND'ER, one who lands; LAND'FALL, a landslip: an approach to land after a voyage, also the land so approached; LAND'-FISH (_Shak._), a fish on land, any one acting contrary to his usual character; LAND'-FLOOD, a flooding or overflowing of land by water: inundation; LAND'FORCE, a military force serving on land, as distinguished from a naval force; LAND'-GRAB'BER, one who acquires land by harsh and grasping means: one who is eager to occupy land from which others have been evicted; LAND'-GRAB'BING, the act of the land-grabber; LAND'-HERD, a herd of animals which feed on land; LAND'-HOLD'ER, a holder or proprietor of land; LAND'-HUNG'ER, greed for the acquisition of land; LAND'ING, act of going on land from a vessel: a place for getting on shore: the level part of a staircase between the flights of steps.--_adj._ relating to the unloading of a vessel's cargo.--_ns._ LAND'ING-NET, a kind of scoop-net for landing a fish that has been caught; LAND'ING-PLACE, a place for landing, as from a vessel; LAND'ING-STAGE, a platform for landing passengers or goods carried by water, often rising and falling with the tide; LAND'-JOB'BER, a speculator in land; LAND'-JOB'BING; LAND'LADY, a woman who has property in land or houses: the mistress of an inn or lodging-house.--_adj._ LAND'LESS (_Shak._), without land or property.--_v.t._ LAND'LOCK, to enclose by land.---_adj._ LAND'-LOCKED, almost shut in by land, protected by surrounding masses of land from the force of wind and waves.--_ns._ LAND'LORD, the owner of land or houses: the master of an inn or lodging-house; LAND'LORDISM, the authority or united action of the landholding class; LAND'-LUBB'ER, a landsman (a term used by sailors); LAND'MARK, anything serving to mark the boundaries of land: any object on land that serves as a guide to seamen: any distinguishing characteristic; LAND'-MEAS'URE, a system of square measure used in the measurement of land; LAND'-MEAS'URING, the art of estimating the superficial content of portions of land; LAND'-OWN'ER, one who owns land; LAND'-OWN'ERSHIP.--_adj._ LAND'-OWN'ING.--_ns._ LAND'-P[=I]'LOT, (_Milt._), a guide on land; LAND'-P[=I]'RATE, a highway robber: a fellow who makes a practice of swindling sailors in port; LAND'RAIL, the crake or corncrake, so named from its cry; LAND'-RAK'ER (_Shak._), a vagabond; LAND'-REEVE, the assistant to the land-steward of a great estate; LAND'-ROLL, a clod-crusher; LAND'-SCRIP (_U.S._), negotiable government certificate entitling to possession of certain public land by individuals or corporate bodies; LAND'-SHARK, a land-grabber: one who plunders sailors on shore; LAND'SKIP (same as LANDSCAPE); LAND'SLIDE, LAND'SLIP, a portion of land that falls down, generally from the side of a hill, usually due to the undermining effect of water; LANDS'MAN, LAND'MAN, one who lives or serves on land: one inexperienced in seafaring; LAND'-SPRING, water lying near the surface, easily drawn upon by shallow wells; LAND'-STEW'ARD, a person who manages a landed estate; LAND'-SURVEY'ING (see SURVEYING); LAND'-TAX, a tax upon land; LAND'-TURN, a land-breeze; LAND'-WAIT'ER, a custom-house officer who attends on the landing of goods from ships.--_adv._ LAND'WARD, toward the land.--_adj._ lying toward the land, away from the sea-coast: situated in or forming part of the country, as opposed to the town: rural.--_n._ LAND'WIND, a wind blowing off the land.--LAND LEAGUE, an association founded in Ireland by Michael Davitt in 1879, and organised by C. S. Parnell, to procure reduction and rearrangement of rents, and to promote the substitution of peasant-proprietors for landlords--condemned as an illegal conspiracy in 1881; LANDED INTEREST, the combined interest of the land-holding class in a community.--MAKE THE LAND, to discover the land as the ship approaches it; SET THE LAND, to observe by the compass how the shore bears from the ship. [A.S. _land_; Dut., Ger. _land_.] LANDAMMAN, lan'dam-man, _n._ the president of the Swiss Diet: the head official in some Swiss cantons. LANDAU, lan'daw, _n._ a coach or carriage with a top which may be opened and thrown back. [Ger. _landauer_, from Landau.] LANDE, land, _n._ an uncultivated healthy plain, esp. a sandy track along the sea-shore in south-western France. [Fr.] LANDGRAVE, land'gr[=a]v, _n._ a German graf, count, or earl:--_fem._ LANDGRAVINE (land'gra-v[=e]n).--_n._ LANDGR[=A]'VI[=A]TE, the territory of a landgrave. [Dut. _landgraaf_--_land_, land, _graaf_, count.] LAND-LOUPER, land'-lowp'[.e]r, _n._ a vagabond or vagrant.--Also LAND'-LOP'ER. [Dut. _landloopen_--_land_, land, _loopen_, to ramble; cf. Ger. _landläufer_.] LANDSCAPE, land'-sk[=a]p, _n._ the appearance of that portion of land which the eye can at once view; the aspect of a country, or a picture representing it.--_ns._ LAND'SCAPE-GAR'DENING, the art of laying out grounds and so disposing water, buildings, trees, and other plants as to produce the effect of a picturesque landscape; LAND'SCAPE-PAINT'ER, one who practises this form of art; LAND'SCAPE-PAINT'ING, the art of representing natural scenery by painting. [Dut. _landschap_, from _land_ and _-schap_, a suffix=_-ship_.] LANDSTHING, läns'ting, _n._ the upper house of the Danish Rigsdag or parliament. [Dan., _land_, land, _thing_, parliament.] LANDSTURM, lant'st[=oo]rm, _n._ in Germany and Switzerland, a general levy in time of national emergency--in the former including all males between seventeen and forty-five: the force so called out. [Ger., _land_, land, _sturm_, alarm.] LANDTAG, lant'tahh, _n._ the legislative assembly of one of the states forming the modern German empire, as Saxony, Bavaria, &c.: the provincial assembly of Bohemia or Moravia. [Ger., _land_, country, _tag_, diet, day.] LANDWEHR, länt'v[=a]r, _n._ a military force in Germany and Austria forming an army reserve. [Ger., _land_, land, _wehr_, defence.] LANE, l[=a]n, _n._ an open space between corn-fields, hedges, &c.: a narrow passage or road: a narrow street: a fixed route kept by a line of vessels across the ocean.--A BLIND LANE, a cul-de-sac. [A.S. _lane_; Scot, _loan_, _lonnin_.] LANE, l[=a]n, a Scotch form of _lone_, _alone_, LANG, a Scotch form of _long_.--_n._ LANG'SYNE, time long past.--THINK LANG, to weary. LANGAHA, lan-gä'hä, _n._ a Madagascar wood-snake, with a flexible scaly extension on the snout. LANGET, lang'get, _n._ a strong lace used in women's dress in Holland. LANGSHAN, lang'shan, _n._ a small black Chinese hen. LANGSPIEL, lang'sp[=e]l, _n._ a Shetland form of harp. LANGUAGE, lang'gw[=a]j, _n._ that which is spoken by the tongue: human speech: speech peculiar to a nation: style or expression peculiar to an individual: diction: any manner of expressing thought.--_v.t._ to express in language.--_adjs._ LANG'UAGED, skilled in language; LANG'UAGELESS (_Shak._), speechless, silent; LANG'UED (_her._), furnished with a tongue.--DEAD LANGUAGE, one no longer spoken, as opp. to LIVING LANGUAGE, one still spoken; FLASH LANGUAGE (see FLASH). [Fr. _langage_--_langue_--L. _lingua_ (old form _dingua_), the tongue, akin to L. _ling[=e]re_, Gr. _leichein_.] LANGUE D'OC, long dok, _n._ collective name for the Romance dialects spoken in the Middle Ages from the Alps to the Pyrenees--the tongue of the troubadours, often used as synonymous with Provençal, one of its chief branches. The name itself survived in the province LANGUEDOC, giving name to a class of wines.--LANGUE D'OUI (long dw[=e]), also LANGUE D'OIL, the Romance dialect of northern France, the language of the trouvères, the dominant factor in the formation of modern French. [O. Fr. _langue_--L. _lingua_, tongue; _de_, of; Prov. _oc_, yes--L. _hoc_, this; O. Fr. _oui_, _oïl_, yes--L. _hoc illud_, this (is) that, yes.] LANGUETTE, lang'get, _n._ a 16th-century hood worn by women: the tongue of a reed of a harmonium or reed-organ: a key of a wind-instrument. [Fr.] LANGUID, lang'gwid, _adj._ slack or feeble: flagging: exhausted: sluggish: spiritless.--_adj._ LANGUESC'ENT, growing languid.--_adv._ LANG'UIDLY.--_n._ LANG'UIDNESS. [Fr.,--L. _languidus_--_langu[=e]re_, to be weak.] LANGUISH, lang'gwish, _v.i._ to become languid or enfeebled: to lose strength and animation: to pine: to become dull, as of trade.--_n._ (_Shak._) languishment.--_adjs._ LANG'UISHED, sunken in languor; LANG'UISHING, expressive of languor, or merely sentimental emotion.--_adv._ LANG'UISHINGLY.--_n._ LANG'UISHMENT, the act or state of languishing: tenderness of look. [Fr. _languir_, _languiss-_,--L. _languesc[)e]re_--_langu[=e]re_, to be faint.] LANGUOR, lang'gwur, _n._ state of being languid or faint: dullness: listlessness: softness.--_adj._ LANG'UOROUS, full of languor: tedious: melancholy.--_v.t._ LANG'URE (_Spens._), to languish. LANIARD. Same as LANYARD. LANIARY, l[=a]'ni-a-ri, _n._ a place of slaughter: shambles.--_adj._ fitted for lacerating or tearing. [L. _laniarium_--_lanius_, a butcher.] LANIFEROUS, lan-if'[.e]r-us, _adj._ wool-bearing.--Also LANIG'EROUS. [L. _lanifer_, _laniger_--_lana_, wool, _ferre_, _ger[)e]re_, to bear.] LANK, langk, _adj._ languid or drooping: soft or loose: thin: shrunken: straight and flat.--_v.i._ (_Shak._) to become lank.--_adv._ LANK'LY.--_n._ LANK'NESS.--_adj._ LANK'Y, lank and tall. [A.S. _hlanc_; Dut. _slank_, Ger. _schlank_, slender.] LANNER, lan'[.e]r, _n._ a kind of falcon.--_n._ LANN'ARET, the male bird. [Fr. _lanier_--L. _laniarius_.] LANOLIN, lan'[=o]-lin, _n._ an unctuous substance, a mixture of the ethers of cholesterin with fatty acids, used as a basis for ointments, extracted from wool. [L. _lana_, wool, _oleum_, oil.] LANSQUENET, lans'ke-net, _n._ a 16th-17th cent. mercenary pikeman: a game at cards. [Fr.,--Ger. _landsknecht_--_land_, country, _knecht_, a soldier.] LANT, lant, _n._ stale urine, used in wool-scouring. LANTERLOO, lant'[.e]r-l[=oo], _n._ a game at cards, commonly _Loo_. [Dut. _lanterlu_.] LANTERN, lant'[.e]rn, _n._ a case for holding or carrying a light, the light chamber of a lighthouse: an ornamental structure surmounting a dome to give light and to crown the fabric: the upper square cage which illuminates a corridor or gallery--obs. form, LANT'HORN, from the use of horn for the sides of lanterns.--_v.t._ to furnish with a lantern.--_n._ LANT'ERN-FLY, any insect of family _Fulgoridæ_, supposed to emit a strong light in the dark.--_adj._ LANT'ERN-JAWED, thin-faced.--_n.pl._ LANT'ERN-JAWS, thin long jaws.--LANTERN OF THE DEAD, a tower having a small lighted chamber at the top, once common in French cemeteries; LANTERN WHEEL, a kind of cog-wheel, in which a circle of bars or spindles between two heads engages with the cogs of a spur-wheel.--CHINESE LANTERN, a collapsible paper lantern, generally decorated with flowers; DARK LANTERN, a lantern having an opaque slide, capable of being partly or wholly shut at pleasure; MAGIC LANTERN, an optical instrument by means of which magnified images of small pictures are thrown upon a wall or screen. [Fr. _lanterne_--L. _lanterna_--Gr. _lampt[=e]r_--_lampein_, to give light.] LANTHANUM, lan'tha-num, _n._ a metal discovered in 1839 in cerite, a hydrated silicate of cerium.--Also LAN'TH[=A]NIUM. [Gr. _lanthanein_, to conceal.] LANUGINOUS, la-n[=u]'jin-us, _adj._ downy: covered with fine soft hair.--_n._ LAN[=U]'GO. [Fr.,--L. _lanuginosus_--_lanugo_, down, _lana_, wool.] LANX, lanks, _n._ a platter or dish for serving meat at a Roman table:--_pl._ LAN'CES. [L.] LANYARD, LANIARD, lan'yard, _n._ a short rope used on board ship for fastening or stretching, or for convenience in handling articles. [Fr. _lanière_, perh. from L. _lanarius_, made of wool--_lana_, wool.] LAOCOÖN, l[=a]-ok'-o-on, _n._ a famous antique group in marble in the Vatican, representing the Trojan priest _Laocoön_ and his two sons being crushed in the folds of two enormous serpents. LAODICEAN, l[=a]-od-i-s[=e]'an, _adj._ lukewarm in religion, like the Christians of _Laodicea_ (Rev. iii. 14-16).--_n._ LAODIC[=E]'ANISM, lukewarmness in religion. LAP, lap, _v.t._ to lick up with the tongue: to wash or flow against.--_v.i._ to drink by licking up a liquid: to make a sound of such a kind:--_pr.p._ lap'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ lapped.--_n._ a motion or sound like lapping. [A.S. _lapian_; Low Ger. _lappen_; L. _lamb[)e]re_, Gr. _laptein_.] LAP, lap, _n._ the loose or overhanging flap of anything: the part of a substance extending over or partly over the rear of another, or the extent of such extension: the part of the clothes lying on the knees when a person sits down: the part of the body thus covered, esp. with reference to nursing, &c.: a fold: a course or round of the track, as in foot-racing, &c.: at euchre, &c., a carrying over to the next game of a surplus of points from the last: the space over which a steam-engine slide-valve travels after the closing of the steam-passage to or from the cylinder: a rotating disc of lead, copper, leather, &c., charged with an abrasive powder, used in cutting gems, &c.--_v.t._ to lay over or on.--_v.i._ to be spread on or over: to be turned over or upon.--_ns._ LAP'-BOARD, a flat wide board resting on the lap, used by tailors and seamstresses; LAP'-DOG, a small dog fondled in the lap: a pet dog; LAP'FUL, as much as fills a lap.--_adj._ LAP'-JOINT'ED, having joints formed by overlapping edges.--_ns._ LAP'-STONE, a stone which shoemakers hold in the lap to hammer leather on; LAP'-STREAK, a clinker-built boat--also _adj._; LAP'WORK, work containing lap-joints. [A.S. _læppa_, a loosely hanging part; Ice. _lapa_, to hang loose, Ger. _lappen_, a rag.] LAP, lap, _v.t._ to wrap, fold, involve.--_ns._ LAP'PER, one who wraps or folds: in cotton manufacturing, a machine which compacts the scutched cotton into a fleece upon the surface of a roller called a lap-roller; LAP'PING, the process of forming a lap or fleece of fibrous material for the carding-machine: the rubbing or polishing of a metal surface: the process of rubbing away the _lands_, or metal between the grooves of a rifled gun, to increase the bore. [M. E. _wlappen_, being a form of _wrap_.] LAPEL, LAPPEL, LAPELLE, la-pel', _n._ the part of the breast of a coat which laps over and is folded back.--_adj._ LAPELLED'. [Dim. of _lap_.] LAPIDARY, lap'i-dar-i, _adj._ pertaining to stones and the cutting of stones: pertaining to inscriptions and monuments.--_n._ a cutter of stones, esp. precious stones: a dealer in precious stones--also LAPID[=A]'RIAN, LAP'IDARIST, LAP'IDIST.--_v.t._ LAP'IDATE (_rare_), to pelt with stones.--_n._ LAPID[=A]'TION, punishment by stoning.--_adj._ LAPID'EOUS, stony.--_n._ LAPIDESC'ENCE.--_adj._ LAPIDESC'ENT, becoming stone: petrifying.--_adj._ LAPIDIF'IC.--_n._ LAPIDIFIC[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ LAPID'IFY, to make into stone.--_v.i._ to turn into stone:--_pr.p._ lapid'ifying; _pa.p._ lapid'ified.--_adj._ LAPIL'LIFORM, having the form of small stones.--_ns._ LAPIL'LUS, a fragment of lava ejected from a volcano:--_pl._ LAPIL'LI; L[=A]'PIS, a kind of calico-printing with indigo, the resists acting as methods for other dyes, as madder or quercitron; L[=A]'PIS-LAZ'ULI, a mineral of beautiful ultramarine colour, used largely in ornamental and mosaic work, and for sumptuous altars and shrines.--LAPIS-LAZULI BLUE, a deep blue, sometimes veined with gold, used in decoration, and in the manufacture of Sèvres and Oriental porcelain; LAPIS-LAZULI WARE, the name given by Josiah Wedgwood to a particular pebble ware veined with gold upon blue. [L. _lapidarius_--_lapis_, _lapidis_, a stone.] LAPP, lap, _n._ a Laplander.--_n._ LAP'LANDER, a native or inhabitant of _Lapland_.--_adjs._ LAP'LANDISH; LAPP'ISH.--_n._ the language of the Lapps. LAPPER-MILK, lap'[.e]r-milk, _n._ (_Scot._) loppered or curdled milk. [Same word as _lopper_ (_obs._)--M. E. _loper_, curdled, prob. conn. with A.S. _hléapan_, to leap, run. Cf. _rennet_, _runnet_, from _run_.] LAPPET, lap'et, _n._ a little lap or flap.--_adj._ LAPP'ETED.--_n._ LAPP'ET-HEAD, a head-dress made with lappets for lace pendants. [Dim. of _lap_.] LAPSE, laps, _v.i._ to slip or glide: to pass by degrees: to fall from the faith or from virtue: to fail in duty: to pass to another proprietor, &c., by the negligence of a patron, to become void: to lose certain privileges by neglect of the necessary conditions.--_n._ a slipping or falling: a failing in duty: a fault.--_adj._ LAP'SABLE.--THE LAPSED, the name applied in the early Christian Church to those who, overcome by heathen persecution, fell away from the faith. [L. _labi_, _lapsus_, to slip or fall, _lapsus_, a fall, akin to _lap_.] LAPUTAN, la-p[=u]'tan, _adj._ pertaining to _Laputa_, a flying island described in Swift's _Gulliver's Travels_ as inhabited by all sorts of ridiculous projectors: absurd: chimerical. LAPWING, lap'wing, _n._ the name of a bird of the plover family, also called _peewit_, from its peculiar cry. [M. E. _lappewinke_--A.S. _hleápewince_--_hleápan_, to leap or run, and root of _wink_, to turn.] LAR, lär, _n._ one of a class of local deities, originally Etruscan, but in Roman usage usually regarded as the tutelary deities of a house:--_pl._ LARES (l[=a]'r[=e]z). [L.] LAR, lär, _n._ an Etruscan title, really peculiar to the eldest son, but often mistaken for an integral part of the name.--Also LARS. [L.,--Etruscan _larth_, lord.] LARBOARD, lär'b[=o]rd (by sailors, lab'erd), _n._ an obsolete naval term for the left side of a ship looking from the stern, now, by command of the Admiralty, replaced by the term _port_, to prevent the mistakes caused by its resemblance in sound to starboard.--_adj._ pertaining to the port or left side. [Perh. for a conjectural _lade-bord_, the lading-side--_lade_, a load, _bord_, board, side.] LARCENY, lär'sen-i, _n._ the legal term in England and Ireland for stealing: theft.--_n._ LAR'CENIST, one who commits larceny: a thief.--_adj._ LAR'CENOUS.--_adv._ LAR'CENOUSLY.--GRAND LARCENY, in England, larceny of property of the value of one shilling or more; PETTY LARCENY, larceny of property less in value than one shilling; SIMPLE LARCENY, as opposed to _Compound larceny_, is larceny uncombined with aggravating circumstances. [O. Fr. _larrecin_ (Fr. _larcin_)--L. _latrocinium_--_latro_, a robber.] LARCH, lärch, _n._ a genus (_Larix_) of coniferous trees, distinct from firs (_Abies_), with perfectly erect and regularly tapering stem, small branches, numerous small leaves deciduous and clustered, growing rapidly, and yielding good timber. [L.,--Gr. _larix_.] LARD, lärd, _n._ the melted fat of the hog.--_v.t._ to smear with lard: to stuff with bacon or pork: to fatten: to mix with anything.--_adj._ LARD[=A]'CEOUS.--_ns._ LARD'-OIL, a lubricating and illuminating oil expressed from lard; LAR'DON, LAR'DOON, a strip of bacon used for larding.--_adj._ LAR'DY. [O. Fr.,--L. _laridum_, _lardum_; cf. Gr. _larinos_, fat, _laros_, sweet.] LARDER, lärd'[.e]r, _n._ a room or place where meat, &c., is kept: stock of provisions.--_n._ LARD'ERER, one who has charge of a larder. [O. Fr. _lardier_, a bacon-tub--L. _lardum_.] LARE, l[=a]r, _n._ obsolete form of _lore_, and of _lair_. LARGE, larj, _adj._ great in size: extensive: bulky: wide: long: abundant: liberal: diffuse: (_Shak._, of language) free, licentious.--_adv._ (_naut._) before the wind.--_adjs._ LARGE'-[=A]'CRED, possessing much land; LARGE'-HAND'ED, having large hands: grasping, greedy: profuse; LARGE'-HEART'ED, having a large heart or liberal disposition: generous.--_adv._ LARGE'LY.--_adj._ LARGE'-MIND'ED, characterised by breadth of view.--_ns._ LARGE'NESS; LAR'GET, a length of iron cut from a bar and of proper size to roll into a sheet.--AT LARGE, without restraint or confinement: fully: as a whole, altogether. [Fr.,--L. _largus_.] LARGESS, LARGESSE, lärj'es, _n._ a present or donation: (_arch._) liberality.--_n._ LARGIT'ION, giving of largess. [Fr.,--L. _largitio_--_larg[=i]ri_, to give freely--_largus_.] LARGO, lär'g[=o], _adj._ (_mus._) slow in time.--_n._ a movement to be performed in such style.--_adj._ LARGHET'TO, somewhat slow: not so slow as largo.--_n._ a movement in somewhat slow time.--_adj._ LARGHIS'SIMO, extremely slow. [It.,--L. _largus_.] LARIAT, lär'i-at, _n._ a rope for picketing horses while grazing: a lasso. [Sp. _la reata_--_la_, the, _reata_, a rope for tying animals together.] LARK, lärk, _n._ a well-known singing-bird.--_v.i._ to catch larks.--_ns._ LARK'S'-HEEL, the Indian cress; LARK'SPUR, a plant with showy flowers, so called from the spur-shaped formation of calyx and petals. [M. E. _laverock_--A.S. _láwerce_; Ger. _lerche_.] LARK, lärk, _n._ a game, frolic.--_v.i._ to frolic, make sport.--_adj._ LAR'KY (_coll._), frolicsome, sportive. [A.S. _lác_, play--_lácan_, to swing, wave, play.] LARMIER, lar'mi-[.e]r, _n._ (_archit._) another name for the corona (q.v.): a horizontal string-course for preventing rain from trickling down the wall: (_zool._) a tear-bag. [Fr. _larme_, a tear--L. _lacrima_, a tear.] LARRIKIN, lar'i-kin, _adj._ (_Australian_) rowdy, disorderly.--_n._ a rough or rowdy.--_n._ LARR'IKINISM. LARRUP, lar'up, _v.t._ (_coll._) to flog, thrash. [Prob. from Dut. _larpen_, thresh with flails.] LARRY, lar'i, _n._ Same as LORRY. LARUM, lar'um, _n._ alarm: a noise giving notice of danger.--_v.t._ (_obs._) to alarm. [_Alarm_.] LARUS, l[=a]'rus, _n._ a genus of _Laridæ_, the gulls proper. LARVA, lär'va, _n._ an insect in its first stage after issuing from the egg--i.e. in the caterpillar state: a ghost, spectre:--_pl._ LARVÆ (lär'v[=e]).--_adjs._ LAR'VAL; LAR'VATE, -D, clothed as with a mask; LAR'VIFORM; LARVIP'AROUS, producing young in a larva-form. [L. _larva_, a spectre, a mask.] LARYNX, l[=a]r'ingks, _n._ the upper part of the windpipe: the throat:--_pl._ LAR'YNGES, LAR'YNXES (_rare_).--_adjs._ LARYN'GEAL, LARYN'GEAN.--_n._ LARYNGIS'MUS, spasm of the glottis.--_adj._ LARYNGIT'IC.--_n._ LARYNG[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the larynx.--_adj._ LARYNGOLOG'ICAL.--_ns._ LARYNGOL'OGIST; LARYNGOL'OGY, the science of the larynx; LARYNGOPH'ONY, the sound of the voice as heard through the stethoscope applied over the larynx; LARYNG'OSCOPE, a mirror for examining the larynx and trachea.--_adj._ LARYNGOSCOP'IC.--_ns._ LARYNGOS'COPIST; LARYNGOS'COPY; LARYNGOT'OMY, the operation of cutting into the windpipe to remove obstructions and assist respiration; LARYNGOTRACHEOT'OMY, the operation of cutting into the windpipe through the cricoid cartilage, the cricothyroid membrane, and the upper rings of the trachea. [L.,--Gr. _larynx_, _laryngos_.] LASCAR, las'kar, _n._ a native East Indian sailor or camp-follower. [Hind.,--Pers. _lashkari_, a soldier.] LASCIVIOUS, las-siv'i-us, _adj._ lustful: tending to produce lustful emotions.--_adv._ LASCIV'IOUSLY.--_n._ LASCIV'IOUSNESS. [L. _lascivus_; perh. from the same root as _laxus_, loose.] LASER, l[=a]'ser, _n._ a gum-resin from North Africa, esteemed by the ancients as a deobstruent and diuretic. [L. _laser_, juice of laserpitium.] LASERPITIUM, las-er-pish'i-um, _n._ a genus of perennial herbs of the parsley family--LAS'ERWORT or herb frankincense.--Also _Silphium_. [L. _laserpicium_, a plant yielding laser.] LASH, lash, _n._ a thong or cord: the flexible part of a whip: a stroke with a whip or anything pliant: a stroke of satire, a sharp retort: a beating or dashing: an eyelash.--_v.t._ to strike with a lash: to dash against: to fasten or secure with a rope or cord: to censure severely: to scourge with sarcasm or satire.--_v.i._ to use the whip.--_n._ LASH'ER, one who lashes or whips: a rope for binding one thing to another; LASH'ING, act of whipping: a rope for making things fast: a great plenty of anything--esp. in _pl._--LASH OUT, to kick out, as a horse: to break out recklessly. [M. E. _lasshe_; Dut. _lasch_, Ger. _lasche_, a joint.] LASH, lash, _adj._ (_obs._) slow, slack: soft: insipid.--_n._ LASH'ER, the slack water collected above a weir in a river. [M. E. _lasche_, slack--O. Fr. _lasche_ (Fr. _lâche_, cowardly)--L. _laxus_, lax.] LASKET, las'ket, _n._ a loop of line at the foot of a sail, to which to fasten an extra sail. LASS, las, _n._ (_fem._ of LAD) a girl, esp. a country girl: a sweetheart: (_Scot._) a maid-servant.--(Diminutives) LASS'IE, LASS'OCK.--_adj._ LASS'LORN (_Shak._), forsaken by one's mistress. [Prob. a contr. of _laddess_, formed from _lad_; or directly from W. _llodes_, fem. of _llawd_, a lad. Mr H. Bradley thinks the association with _lad_ merely accidental, the word first appearing about 1300 in northern writings as _lasce_, evidently representing a Scand. _laskw_, the fem. of an adj. meaning unmarried; cf. Middle Sw. _lösk kona_, unmarried woman.] LASSITUDE, las'i-t[=u]d, _n._ faintness: weakness: weariness: languor. [Fr.,--L. _lassitudo_--_lassus_, faint.] LASSO, las'[=o], _n._ a long rope with a running noose for catching wild horses, &c.:--_pl._ LASS'OS, LASS'OES.--_v.t._ to catch with the lasso:--_pr.p._ lass'[=o]ing; _pa.p._ lass'[=o]ed. [Port. _laço_, Sp. _lazo_--L. _laqueus_, a noose.] LAST, last, _n._ a wooden mould of the foot on which boots and shoes are made.--_v.t._ to fit with a last.--_n._ LAST'ER, one who fits the parts of shoes to lasts: a tool for doing so. [A.S. _lást_, a trace.] LAST, last, _v.i._ to continue, endure: to escape failure: remain fresh, unimpaired.--_adj._ LAST'ING, permanent, durable.--_n._ endurance.--_adv._ LAST'INGLY.--_n._ LAST'INGNESS. [A.S. _l['æ]stan_, to keep a track. See foregoing word.] LAST, last, _n._ a load, cargo, a weight generally estimated at 4000 lb., but varying in different articles.--_n._ LAST'AGE, the lading of a ship: room for stowing goods in a ship: a duty formerly paid for the right of carrying goods, &c. [A.S. _hlæst_--_hladan_, to load; Ger. _last_, Ice. _hlass_.] LAST, last, _adj._ latest: coming after all the others: final: next before the present: utmost: meanest: most improbable or unlikely--also _adv._--_n._ LAST'-COURT, a court held by the jurats in the marshes of Kent to fix rates chargeable for the preservation of these--also LAST.--_adv._ LAST'LY.--LAST DAY (_Scot._), yesterday; LAST HEIR (_Eng. law_), he to whom lands come by escheat for want of lawful heirs.--AT LAST, in conclusion (this from A.S. _on lást_, therefore not from _late_ at all, but from _last_ (1), which is the A.S. _lást_, a trace); BREATHE ONE'S LAST, to die; DIE IN THE LAST DITCH, to fight to the bitter end; FIRST AND LAST, altogether; ON ONE'S LAST LEGS, on the verge of utter failure or exhaustion; PUT THE LAST HAND TO, to finish, put the finishing touch to; THE LAST CAST (see CAST); THE LAST DAY, the Day of Judgment; THE LAST DAYS, TIMES (_B._), the period when the end of the world draws near; TO THE LAST, to the end: till death. [A contr. of _latest_.] LASTERY, last'[.e]r-i, _n._ (_Spens._) a red colour. LAT, lät, _n._ in Indian architecture, an isolated pillar. LATAKIA, lat-a-k[=e]'a, _n._ a fine kind of tobacco produced at _Latakia_ (_Laodicea ad Mare_) in Syria. LATCH, lach, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to moisten. [_Leach_.] LATCH, lach, _n._ a small piece of wood or iron to fasten a door.--_v.t._ to fasten with a latch: to hold, retain: (_obs._) to seize.--_ns._ LATCH'ET, a strap or buckle for fastening a shoe; LATCH'KEY, a key to raise the latch of a door.--ON THE LATCH, not locked, but opened by a latch. [A.S. _læccan_, to catch.] LATE, l[=a]t, _adj._ (_comp._ LAT'ER; _superl._ LAT'EST) slow, tardy; behindhand: coming after the expected time: long delayed: far advanced towards the close: last in any place or character: deceased: departed: out of office: not long past--also _adv._--_adj._ LAT'ED (_Shak._), belated, being too late.--_adv._ LATE'LY.--_n._ LATE'NESS, state of being late.--_adv._ LAT'ER.--_adj._ LAT'ISH, somewhat late. [A.S. _læt_, slow; Dut. _laat_, Ice. _latr_, Ger. _lass_, weary; L. _lassus_, tired.] LATEBRA, lat'eb-ra, _n._ the cavity in the food-yolk of a meroblastic ovum.--_adj._ LAT'EBROUS. [L.--_lat[=e]re_.] LATEEN, la-t[=e]n', _adj._ applied to a triangular sail, common in the Mediterranean, the Lake of Geneva, &c. [Fr.,--L. _Latinus_, Latin.] LATENT, l[=a]'tent, _adj._ hid: concealed: not visible or apparent: dormant, undeveloped.--_ns._ L[=A]'TENCE, L[=A]'TENCY.--_adv._ L[=A]'TENTLY.--LATENT HEAT (see HEAT); LATENT LIFE, a phrase describing the physiological condition of organisms in which the functions are for a time suspended without losing the power of future activity; LATENT PERIOD OF A DISEASE, the time that elapses before symptoms show the presence of the disease. [L. _latens_, pr.p. of _lat[=e]re_, to lie hid; Gr. _lanthanein_, to be hidden.] LATERAL, lat'[.e]r-al, _adj._ belonging to the side: proceeding from or in the direction of the side: (_anat._ and _zool._) situated on one of the sides of the median vertical longitudinal plane of the body: (_physics_) at right angles to a line of motion or strain.--_n._ LATERAL'ITY.--_adv._ LAT'ERALLY.--_adj._ LATERIF[=O]'LIOUS (_bot._), growing by the side of a leaf at its base.--LATERAL FIN, one of the paired side fins of a fish:--opp. to _Vertical fin_. [L. _lateralis_--_latus_, _lat[)e]ris_, a side.] LATERAN, lat'[.e]r-an, _adj._ pertaining to the Church of St John _Lateran_ at Rome, the Pope's cathedral church, on the site of the splendid palace or basilica of Plautius Lateranus (executed 66 A.D.).--LATERAN COUNCILS, five general councils of the Western Church, held in the Lateran basilica (1123, 1139, 1179, 1215, and 1512-17), regarded by Roman Catholics as oecumenical: also an important synod against the Monothelites in 649. LATERICEOUS, lat-[.e]r-ish'us, _adj._ of brick, or brick-coloured.--Also LATERIT'IOUS. [L. _latericius_--_later_, _lateris_, a brick.] LATERITE, lat'[.e]r-[=i]t, _n._ an argillaceous sandstone of a reddish or brick colour found in India, esp. in Ceylon. [L. _later_, _lateris_, a brick.] LATESCENT, l[=a]-tes'ent, _adj._ becoming hidden.--_n._ LATESC'ENCE. [L. _latesc[)e]re_--_lat[=e]re_, to lie hid.] LATEST, l[=a]t'est, _adj._ superl. of _late_. LATEX, l[=a]'teks, _n._ (_bot._) the sap of plants after it has been elaborated in the leaves.--_adj._ LATICIF'EROUS, containing or conveying latex. [L.] LATH, läth, _n._ a thin cleft slip of wood used in slating, plastering, &c.:--_pl._ LATHS (lä_th_z).--_v.t._ to cover with laths.--_adj._ LATH'EN.--_ns._ LATH'ING, the act or process of covering with laths: a covering of laths; LATH'-SPLIT'TER, one who splits wood into laths.--_adj._ LATH'Y, like a lath.--DAGGER OF LATH, any insufficient means of attack or defence. [A.S. _lættu_; Dut. _lat_, Ger. _latte_, a lath.] LATHE, l[=a]_th_, _n._ a machine for turning and shaping articles of wood, metal, &c.: the movable swing-frame of a loom carrying the reed for separating the warp threads and beating up the weft. [Ice. _löð_.] LATHE, lä_th_, _n._ a part or division of a county, now existing only in Kent, and consisting of four or five hundreds. [A.S. _l['æ]th_, a district.] LATHER, la_th_'[.e]r, _n._ a foam or froth made with water and soap: froth from sweat.--_v.t._ to spread over with lather.--_v.i._ to form a lather: to become frothy. [A.S. _leáðor_, lather; Ice. _lauðr_, foam.] LATIBULUM, l[=a]-tib'[=u]-lum, _n._ a hiding-place, burrow:--_pl._ LATIB'ULA.--_v.i._ LATIB'ULISE, to hibernate. [L.] LATICLAVE, lat'i-kl[=a]v, _n._ a broad vertical purple stripe running down the front of a Roman senator's tunic. [L. _latus_, broad, _clavus_, a stripe.] LATICOSTATE, lat-i-kos't[=a]t, _adj._ broad-ribbed. LATIDENTATE, lat-i-den't[=a]t, _adj._ broad-toothed. LATIFOLIATE, lat-i-f[=o]'li-[=a]t, _adj._ broad-leafed.--Also LATIF[=O]'LIOUS. LATIN, lat'in, _adj._ pertaining to ancient Latium (esp. Rome) or its inhabitants, also to all races claiming affinity with the Latins by language, race, or civilisation: written or spoken in Latin.--_n._ an inhabitant of ancient Latium: a member of a modern race ethnically or linguistically related to the ancient Romans or Italians: the language of ancient Rome--the foundation of the modern Romance tongues: a member of the Latin or Roman Catholic Church.--_adj._ L[=A]'TIAN.--_n._ LAT'INER, one who knows Latin: (_obs._) an interpreter.--_v.t._ LAT'IN[=I]SE, to give Latin forms to: to render into Latin.--_ns._ LAT'INISM, a Latin idiom; LAT'INIST, one skilled in Latin; LATIN'ITY, the Latin tongue, style, or idiom.--LATIN CHURCH, the Western Church as distinguished from the Greek or Oriental Church, so named as having employed Latin as its official language: the Roman Catholic Church; LATIN EMPIRE, that portion of the Byzantine Empire seized in 1204 by the Crusaders, and overthrown by the Greeks in 1261; LATIN KINGDOM, the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem ruled by French or Latin kings, and lasting from 1099 to 1187.--CLASSICAL LATIN, the Latin of the writers who flourished from about 75 B.C. to 200 A.D.; DOG LATIN, barbarous Latin; LATE LATIN, the LATIN written by authors between 200 and (_circ._) 600 A.D.; MIDDLE, MEDIEVAL, or LOW LATIN, the Latin of the middle age between 600 and 1500 A.D.; NEW, MODERN, LATIN, Latin as written between 1500 and the present time, mostly used as a scientific medium; THIEVES' LATIN, thieves' cant. [L. _Latinus_, belonging to _Latium_, the district round Rome.] LATIPENNATE, lat-i-pen'[=a]t, _adj._ broad-winged. LATIROSTRAL, lat-i-ros'tral, _adj._ broad-billed.--Also LATIROS'TRATE. LATISSIMUS, l[=a]-tis'i-mus, _n._ the broadest muscle which lies upon the back. LATITUDE, lat'i-t[=u]d, _n._ the distance of a place north or south from the equator, measured in degrees of the meridian: a place as indicated by latitude: the angular distance of a celestial body above the plane of the ecliptic (_apparent_ when the point of view is on the earth's surface, _geocentric_ when at the earth's centre, _heliocentric_ when at the centre of the sun): (_fig._) extent of signification: freedom from restraint: scope: (_obs._) width.--_adjs._ LATITUD'INAL, pertaining to latitude: in the direction of latitude; LATITUDIN[=A]'RIAN, broad or liberal, esp. in religious belief: lax.--_n._ a name applied by contemporaries to a member of a school of liberal and philosophical theologians within the English Church in the later half of the 17th century: one who affects to regard specific creeds, methods of church government, &c. with indifference.--_n._ LATITUDIN[=A]'RIANISM.--_adj._ LATITUD'INOUS, having latitude or large extent.--LATITUDE BY ACCOUNT, in navigation, the latitude calculated from the course and distance sailed since last observation; LATITUDE BY OBSERVATION, the latitude determined from an observation of a heavenly body; MIDDLE LATITUDE, the latitude of the parallel midway between two places situated in the same hemisphere. [Fr.,--L. _latitudo_, _-inis_--_latus_, broad.] LATRIA, l[=a]-tr[=i]'a, _n._ the kind of supreme worship lawfully offered to God alone--opposed to _Dulia_, that given to saints and angels, and to _Hyperdulia_, that given to the Virgin. [Gr. _latreuein_, to serve.] LATRINE, lat'rin, _n._ a privy or water-closet in barracks, factories, hospitals, &c. [Fr.,--L. _lavatrina_, _latrina_--_lav[=a]re_, to wash.] LATROBE, la-tr[=o]b', _n._ a form of stove set into a fireplace, heating the room by radiation, and the rooms above by hot air--from I. _Latrobe_ of Baltimore. LATROCINIUM, lat-r[=o]-sin'i-um, _n._ the Robber-Council, that held at Ephesus in 449, in which the doctrines of the heretic Eutyches were upheld by means of intimidation--its acts revoked at the oecumenical council of Chalcedon in 451: larceny: right of adjudging and executing thieves. [L., robbery.] LATTEN, lat'en, _n._ brass or bronze used for crosses: sheet tin, tinned iron-plate. [O. Fr. _laton_ (Fr. _laiton_)--Ger. _latte_, a lath, thin plate.] LATTER, lat'[.e]r, _adj._ later: coming or existing after: mentioned the last of two: modern: recent: (_Shak._) last.--_adjs._ LATT'ER-BORN (_Shak._), younger; LATT'ER-DAY, belonging to recent times.--_adv._ LATT'ERLY, in latter time: of late.--LATTER-DAY SAINTS (see Mormon); LATTER END (see END); LATTER-MINT, a late kind of mint.--THE FORMER AND THE LATTER RAIN (see RAIN). [A variant of _later_.] LATTICE, lat'is, _n._ a network of crossed laths or bars, called also LATT'ICE-WORK: anything of lattice-work, as a window: (_her._) a bearing of vertical and horizontal bars crossing each other.--_v.t._ to form into open work: to furnish with a lattice.--_ns._ LATT'ICE-BRIDGE, a bridge with its sides consisting of cross-framing like lattice-work; LATT'ICE-GIRD'ER, a girder of which the web consists of diagonal pieces arranged like lattice-work; LATT'ICE-LEAF, an aquatic plant, native to Madagascar, so called from the singular resemblance of the leaves to open lattice-work--otherwise _Lattice-plant_, _Lace-leaf_, _Water-yam_, or _Ouvirandrano_.--RED LATTICE (_Shak._), a frame of lattice-work painted red, formerly used to fill the windows of an ale-house. [Fr. _lattis_--_latte_, a lath.] LAUD, lawd, _v.t._ to praise in words or with singing: to celebrate.--_n._ commendation: praise in divine worship: (_pl._) in the R.C. Church, the prayers immediately following matins, constituting with the latter the first of the seven canonical hours.--_adj._ LAUD'ABLE, worthy of being praised.--_n._ LAUD'ABLENESS.--_adv._ LAUD'ABLY.--_ns._ LAUD[=A]'TION, praise: honour paid; LAUD'ATIVE, a panegyric, a eulogium.--_adj._ LAUD'ATORY, containing praise: expressing praise.--_n._ that which contains praise.--_n._ LAUD'ER. [L. _laud[=a]re_--_laus_, _laudis_, praise.] LAUDANUM, lawd'a-num, _n._ a preparation of opium: tincture of opium. [Same word as _ladanum_, transferred to a different drug.] LAUGH, läf, _v.i._ to express mirth or joy by an explosive inarticulate sound of the voice and peculiar facial distortion: to be gay or lively: make merry (with _at_), to flout.--_v.t._ to express with a laugh: to affect in some way by laughter.--_n._ the sound caused by merriment.--_adj._ LAUGH'ABLE, ludicrous.--_n._ LAUGH'ABLENESS.--_adv._ LAUGH'ABLY.--_ns._ LAUGH'ER; LAUGH'ING-GAS, a gas which excites laughter, called nitrous oxide, used as an anæsthetic in minor surgical operations, as in dentistry; LAUGH'ING-JACK'ASS, the great kingfisher of Australia.--_adv._ LAUGH'INGLY, in a laughing manner.--_ns._ LAUGH'ING-STOCK, an object of ridicule, like something stuck up to be laughed at; LAUGH'TER, act or noise of laughing.--LAUGH A THING OFF, to treat as if worthy only of a laugh; LAUGH IN ONE'S SLEEVE, to laugh inwardly; LAUGH ONE OUT OF, to make a person abandon a habit, &c., by laughing at him for it; LAUGH ON THE WRONG SIDE OF THE MOUTH, to be made feel disappointment or sorrow, esp. after boasting, &c.; LAUGH TO SCORN, to deride or jeer at.--HAVE THE LAUGH ON ONE'S SIDE, to be able to laugh at another through getting the better of him by superior dexterity, &c. [A.S. _hlihan_; Ger. _lachen_, Goth. _hlahjan_; prob. imit.] LAUNCE, läns, _n._ Same as LANCE. LAUNCE, läns, _n._ (_Spens._) a balance. [L. _lanx_, _lancis_, a plate, a scale of a balance.] LAUNCH, LANCH, länsh, _v.t._ to throw as a lance or spear: (_Shak._) to pierce or cut with a lance: to send forth: to cause to slide into the water.--_v.i._ to go forth, as a ship into the water: to come into new relations, make a transition.--_n._ act of launching or moving a newly-built ship from the stocks into the water: the largest boat carried by a man-of-war: (_Spens._) a lancing.--_n.pl._ LAUNCH'ING-WAYS, the timbers on which a ship is launched.--_n._ STEAM'-LAUNCH, a large passenger-boat propelled by steam-power, and used largely on rivers. [O. Fr. _lanchier_, _lancier_ (Fr. _lancer_). See LANCE.] LAUND, lawnd, _n._ (_Shak._) a park. [O. Fr. _lande_; prob. Celt. See LAWN.] LAUNDRESS, lawn'dres, _n._ a woman who washes and irons clothes.--_n._ LAUN'DER, a washerwoman or washerman: a trough for conveying water.--_v.t._ to wash and iron, as clothes: (_Shak._) to wet, wash.--_ns._ LAUN'DRY, a place where clothes are washed and dressed; LAUN'DRY-MAN, -MAID, a male, female, worker in a laundry. [M. E. _lavander_--O. Fr. _lavandier_--L., gerundive of _lav[=a]re_ to wash.] LAURA, law'ra, _n._ an early kind of monastic community, its cells separate structures, the inmates living in solitude, meeting only for common services in the chapel--found only in Egypt, Syria, and Palestine. [Most prob. Gr. _laura_, an alley, lane.] LAUREATE, law're-[=a]t, _adj._ crowned with laurel.--_n._ one crowned with laurel: a poet-laureate.--_v.t._ to crown with laurel, in token of literary merit: to confer a degree upon.--_ns._ LAU'REATESHIP, office of a laureate; LAURE[=A]'TION, act of laureating or conferring a degree; P[=O]'ET-LAU'REATE, formerly one who received a degree in grammar (i.e. poetry and rhetoric) at the English universities: a poet bearing that honorary title, a salaried officer in the royal household, appointed to compose annually an ode for the king's birthday and other suitable occasions. LAUREL, law'rel, _n._ the bay-tree, used by the ancients for making honorary wreaths: a crown of laurel, honours gained (freq. in _pl._): any species of the genus _Laurus_.--_adjs._ LAU'REL; LAU'RELLED, crowned with laurel.--_n._ LAU'REL-WA'TER, a sedative and narcotic water distilled from the leaves of the cherry-laurel.--_adjs._ LAURIF'EROUS, producing laurel; LAU'RIGER, laurel-wearing.--_n_ LAURUST[=I]'NUS, an evergreen shrub. [Fr. _laurier_--L. _laurus_.] LAURENTIAN, law-ren'shi-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Lorenzo_ or LAURENTIUS dei Medici, or to the Laurentian library founded by him at Florence: of or pertaining to the river St _Lawrence_: applied to a series of rocks covering a large area in the region of the Upper Lakes of North America. LAUWINE, law'vin, _n._ (_Byron_) an avalanche. [Ger., from Low L. _lavina_, prob. L. _labi_, to fall.] LAV, lav, _n._ word--in _lavengro_, word-master. [Gypsy.] LAVA, lä'va, _n._ the melted matter discharged from a burning mountain, that flows down its sides. [It. _lava_, a stream--L. _lav[=a]re_, to wash.] LAVE, l[=a]v, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to wash: to bathe.--_ns._ L[=A]'VABO, the ritual act of washing the celebrant's fingers after the offertory, before proceeding with the eucharistic service--from _Lavabo manus meas in innocentia_ (Ps. xxvi. 6): a stone basin in monasteries for washing in before meals or religious exercises: a modern convenience or lavatory of similar kind; L[=A]'VAGE, a washing out; LAV[=A]'TION, a washing or cleansing; LAV'ATORY, a place for washing: a medieval stone table in monasteries, &c., on which bodies were washed before burial: (_med._) a lotion for a diseased part; L[=A]'VER, a large vessel for laving or washing. [Fr. _laver_--L. _lav[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_; Gr. _louein_, to wash.] LAVE, l[=a]v, _n._ (_Scot._) what is left, the remainder. [A.S. _láf_; Ice. _leif_. See LEAVE.] LAVE, l[=a]v, _v.t._ to lade or throw out (as water from a boat). [A.S. _lafian_, pour out water; Ger. _laben_, refresh. Conn. with L. _lav[=a]re_, to wash, dub.] LAVENDER, lav'en-d[.e]r, _n._ an odoriferous plant, probably so called from its being laid with newly washed clothes: a pale-lilac colour, the colour of lavender blossoms.--_v.t._ to sprinkle with lavender.--_n._ LAV'ENDER-WA'TER, a perfume composed of spirits of wine, essential oil of lavender, and ambergris.--LAY IN LAVENDER, to lay by carefully, as clothes, with sprigs of lavender in them; OIL OF LAVENDER, an aromatic oil distilled from lavender flowers and stems, used as a stimulant and tonic. [M. E. _lavendre_--Fr. _lavande_--L. _lav[=a]re_, to wash.] LAVER. See LAVE (1). LAVER, l[=a]v'[.e]r, _n._ the fronds of certain marine plants, sometimes used as food. [L. _laver_.] LAVEROCK, lav'[.e]r-ock, _n._ (_prov._) a lark. [Cf. _Lark_.] LAVISH, lav'ish, _v.t._ to expend profusely: to waste.--_adj._ bestowing profusely: prodigal: extravagant: unrestrained.--_adv._ LAV'ISHLY.--_ns._ LAV'ISHMENT, LAV'ISHNESS. [From LAVE (3).] LAVOLT, la-volt', LAVOLTA, la-vol'ta, _n._ (_Shak._) an old dance in which there were much turning and high leaping. [It. _la volta_, the turn.] LAW, law, _n._ a rule of action established by authority: statute: the rules of a community or state: a rule or principle of science or art: the whole jurisprudence or the science of law: established usage: that which is lawful: the whole body of persons connected professionally with the law: litigation: a theoretical principle educed from practice or observation: a statement or formula expressing the constant order of certain phenomena: (_theol._) the Mosaic code or the books containing it.--_v.t._ (_coll._) to give law to, determine.--_v.i._ (_obs._) to go to law.--_adj._ LAW'-ABID'ING, obedient to the law.--_ns._ LAW-BIND'ING; LAW'-BOOK, a book treating of law or law cases; LAW'-BREAK'ER, one who violates a law; LAW'-BURR'OWS (_Scots law_), a writ requiring a person to give security against doing violence to another; LAW'-CALF, a book-binding in smooth, pale-brown calf; LAW'-DAY, a day of open court.--_adj._ LAW'FUL, allowed by law: rightful.--_adv._ LAW'FULLY.--_ns._ LAW'FULNESS; LAW'GIVER, one who enacts laws: a legislator.--_adj._ LAW'GIVING, legislating.--_n._ LAW'ING, going to law: litigation: (_obs._) the practice of cutting off the claws and balls of a dog's forefeet to hinder it from hunting: (_Scot._) a reckoning at a public-house, a tavern bill.--_adj._ LAW'LESS.--_adv._ LAW'LESSLY.--_ns._ LAW'LESSNESS; LAW'-LIST, an annual publication containing all information regarding the administration of law and the legal profession; LAW'-LORD, a peer in parliament who holds or has held high legal office: in Scotland, a judge of the Court of Session; LAW'-MAK'ER, a lawgiver; LAW'-MAN, one of a select body with magisterial powers in some of the Danish towns of early England; LAW'-MER'CHANT, a term applied to the customs which have grown up among merchants in reference to mercantile documents and business; LAW'-MONG'ER, a low pettifogging lawyer; LAW'-ST[=A]'TIONER, a stationer who sells parchment and other articles needed by lawyers; LAW'SUIT, a suit or process in law; LAW'-WRIT'ER, a writer on law: a copier or engrosser of legal papers; LAW'YER, a practitioner in the law: (_N.T._) an interpreter of the Mosaic Law: the stem of a brier.--LAW LATIN, Latin as used in law and legal documents, being a mixture of Latin with Old French and Latinised English words; LAW OF NATIONS, now international law, originally applied to those ethical principles regarded as obligatory on all communities; LAW OF NATURE (see NATURE); LAW OF THE LAND, the established law of a country; LAWS OF ASSOCIATION (see ASSOCIATION); LAWS OF MOTION (see MOTION); LAWFUL DAY, one on which business may be legally done--not a Sunday or a public holiday.--BOYLE'S (erroneously called MARIOTTE'S) LAW (_physics_), in gases, the law that, for a given quantity at a given temperature, the pressure varies inversely as the volume--discovered by Robert _Boyle_ in 1662, and treated in a book by Mariotte in 1679; BREHON LAW (see BREHON); CANON LAW (see CANON); CASE LAW, law established by judicial decision in particular cases, in contradistinction to _statute law_; COMMON LAW (see COMMON); CRIMINAL LAW, the law which relates to crimes and their punishment; CROWN LAW, that part of the common law of England which is applicable to criminal matters; CUSTOMARY LAW (see CONSUETUDINARY); EMPIRICAL LAW, a law induced from observation or experiment, and though valid for the particular instances observed, not to be relied on beyond the conditions on which it rests; FEDERAL LAW, law prescribed by the supreme power of the United States, as opposed to _state_ law; FOREST LAW, the code of law which was drawn up to preserve the forests, &c., forming the special property of the English kings; GRESHAM'S LAW (_polit. econ._), the law that of two forms of currency the inferior or more depreciated tends to drive the other from circulation, owing to the hoarding and exportation of the better form; GRIMM'S LAW (_philol._), the law formulating certain changes or differences which the mute consonants exhibit in corresponding words in the Teutonic branches of the Aryan family of languages--stated by Jacob _Grimm_ (1785-1863); INTERNATIONAL LAW (see INTERNATIONAL); JUDICIARY LAW, that part of the law which has its source in the decisions and adjudications of the courts; KEPLER'S LAWS, three laws of planetary motion discovered by Johann _Kepler_ (1571-1630)--viz. (1) the orbits of the planets are ellipses with the sun at one focus; (2) the areas described by their _radii vectores_ in equal times are equal; (3) the squares of their periodic times vary as the cubes of their mean distances from the sun; LYNCH LAW (see LYNCH); MAINE LAW, a prohibitory liquor law passed by the legislature of _Maine_ State, U.S.A., in 1851; MARITIME, MARTIAL, MERCANTILE, MILITARY LAW (see the _adjs._); MAY LAWS, several Prussian enactments (1873-74) directed to control the action of the Church, and limit its interference in civil matters, largely modified in 1887--often called FALK LAWS, from the introducer; MORAL LAW, that portion of the Old Testament which relates to moral principles, especially the ten commandments; MOSAIC, MUNICIPAL, NATURAL LAW (see the _adjs._); OHM'S LAW, the basis of electrical measurements, established in 1827 by _Ohm_ (1787-1854), that the resistance of a conductor is measured by the ratio of the electromotive force between its two ends to the current flowing through it; POOR-LAW, -LAWS, laws providing for the support of paupers at the public expense; POSITIVE LAW, law owing its force to human sanction as opposed to divine law; PRIVATE LAW (see PRIVATE); ROMAN LAW, the system of law developed by the ancient Romans, and often termed the _civil law_ (q.v.); SALIC LAW (see SALIAN); STATUTE LAW (see STATUTE); SUMPTUARY LAW (see SUMPTUARY); VERNER'S LAW (_philol._), a law stated by Karl _Verner_ in 1875, showing the effect of the position of accent in the shifting of the original Aryan mute consonants, and _s_, into Low German, and explaining the most important anomalies in the application of Grimm's law; WRITTEN LAW, statute law as distinguished from the common law.--HAVE THE LAW OF (_coll._), to enforce the law against; LAY DOWN THE LAW, to state authoritatively or dictatorially. [M. E. _lawe_--A.S. _lagu_, from _licgan_, to lie; Ice. _l[=o]g_.] LAWK, lawk, _interj._ implying surprise. [For _Lord!_] LAWN, lawn, _n._ a sort of fine linen or cambric.--_adj._ made of lawn.--_adj._ LAWN'Y.--LAWN SLEEVES, wide sleeves of lawn worn by Anglican bishops. [Prob. from Fr. _Laon_, a town near Rheims.] LAWN, lawn, _n._ an open space between woods: a space of ground covered with grass, generally in front of or around a house or mansion.--_ns._ LAWN'-MOW'ER, a machine for cutting the grass on a lawn; LAWN'-SPRINK'LER, a machine for watering a lawn by sprinkling from a hose with perforated swivel-collar; LAWN'-TENN'IS, a game played with a ball and rackets on an open lawn or other smooth surface by two, three, or four persons.--_adj._ LAWN'Y. [A corr. of _laund_, _lawnd_.] LAX, laks, _adj._ slack: loose: soft, flabby: not strict in discipline or morals: loose in the bowels.--_adj._ LAX'ATIVE, having the power of loosening the bowels.--_n._ a purgative or aperient medicine.--_ns._ LAX'ATIVENESS, LAX'ITY, LAX'NESS, state or quality of being lax; LAX[=A]'TOR, a muscle that relaxes an organ or part; LAX'IST, one holding loose notions of moral laws, or of their application.--_adv._ LAX'LY. [L. _laxus_, loose.] LAY, _pa.t._ of _lie_, to lay one's self down. LAY, l[=a], _v.t._ to cause to lie down: to place or set down: to beat down: to spread on a surface: to conjoin: to spread the proper thing on: to calm: to appease: to wager: to bring forth: to impose: to charge: to present.--_v.i._ to produce eggs: to wager, bet:--_pr.p._ lay'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ laid.--_n._ situation: (_Shak._) a bet: a share of profit, esp. in whaling enterprises: (_slang_) a field or method of operations, esp. of thieves: a measure in thread manufacture, about 800 yards.--_ns._ LAY'ER, that which lays--e.g. a hen, a bricklayer: a bed or stratum: a shoot laid for propagation; LAY'ERING, the propagation of plants by layers; LAY'ING, the first coat of plaster: the act or time of laying eggs: the eggs laid; LAY'-OUT, that which is laid out, a spread, for dining, gaming, &c.; LAY'-STALL, a place for laying dung, rubbish, &c.--LAY ABOUT ONE, to deal blows vigorously or on all sides; LAY ASIDE, AWAY, to discard: to put apart for future use; LAY AT, to endeavour to strike; LAY BARE, to make bare, disclose; LAY BEFORE, to submit to, as of plans; LAY BY, to keep for future use, to dismiss, to put off; LAY BY THE HEELS (see HEEL); LAY DOWN, to give up: to deposit, as a pledge: to apply, as embroidery: to delineate, describe: to affirm, assert: (_rare_) to store for future use; LAY HEADS TOGETHER, to consult together, to deliberate; LAY HOLD OF, or ON, to seize, apprehend; LAY IN, to get in a supply of; LAY INTO, to chastise thoroughly; LAY IT ON, to charge exorbitantly, to do anything with profuseness; LAY OFF, to cast aside: to mark off; LAY ON, to apply with force, to strike, to act with vigour; LAY ONE'S SELF OUT TO, to put forth one's best efforts for anything; LAY ON LOAD (_Spens._), to belabour; LAY ON THE TABLE (see TABLE); LAY OPEN, to make bare, to show, expose; LAY OUT, to expand, to display: to expend, to plan, to exert: to dress in grave-clothes: to take measures, seek; LAY SIEGE TO, to besiege: to importune; LAY THE LAND, to cause the land to disappear below the horizon by sailing away from it; LAY TO, to apply with vigour: to bring a ship to rest; LAY TO HEART (see HEART); LAY UNDER, to subject to; LAY UP, to store up, preserve: to confine to one's bed or room for a time: to put a ship in dock after dismantling; LAY UPON, to wager upon; LAY WAIT, to lie in wait, or in ambush; LAY WASTE, to devastate, to destroy.--LAYING ON OF HANDS (see HAND).--LAID EMBROIDERY, gimped or raised embroidery.--ON A LAY, on shares, as when a crew is shipped 'on a lay' instead of receiving wages. [_Lay_ is the causal to _lie_, from A.S. _lecgan_; Ice. _leggja_, Ger. _legen_.] LAY, l[=a], _n._ a song: a lyric or narrative poem. [O. Fr. _lai_, from Celt.; cf. Gael. _laoidh_, a hymn.] LAY, l[=a], LAIC, -AL, l[=a]'ik, -al, _adjs._ pertaining to the people: not clerical: unprofessional: (_cards_) not trumps.--_v.t._ L[=A]'ICISE, to deprive of a clerical character.--_ns._ L[=A]'ITY, the people as distinguished from any particular profession, esp. the clerical; LAY'-BAP'TISM, baptism administered by a layman; LAY'-BROTH'ER, a layman: a man under vows of celibacy and obedience, who serves a monastery, but is exempt from the studies and religious services required of the monks; LAY'-COMMUN'ION, the state of being in the communion of the church as a layman; LAY'-IMPR[=O]'PRIATOR, an impropriator who is a layman (see IMPROPRIATOR); LAY'-LORD, a civil lord of the Admiralty; LAY'MAN, one of the laity: a non-professional man; LAY'-READ'ER, in the Anglican Church, a layman who receives authority to read the lessons or a part of the service, and who may in certain cases preach or read the sermons of others. [O. Fr. _lai_--L. _laicus_--Gr. _laikos_--_laos_, the people.] LAY-DAY, l[=a]'-d[=a], _n._ one of a number of days allowed a charter-party for shipping or unshipping cargo. LAYER, l[=a]'[.e]r, _n._ a stratum--better LAIR (q.v.). See LAY. LAYETTE, l[=a]-yet', _n._ a baby's complete outfit: a tray for carrying powder in powder-mills. [Fr.] LAY-FIGURE, l[=a]'-fig'[=u]r, _n._ a jointed figure used by painters in imitation of the human body, as a model for drapery: a living person or a fictitious character wanting in individuality.--Also LAY'-MAN. LAZAR, l[=a]'zar, _n._ one afflicted with a loathsome and pestilential disease like Lazarus, the beggar.--_ns._ L[=A]'ZAR-HOUSE, a lazaretto; LAZ'ARIST, a member of a R.C. order, the Congregation of the Priests of the Mission, founded by St Vincent de Paul in 1624.--_adj._ L[=A]'ZAR-LIKE, like a lazar: full of sores: leprous. [Fr. _lazare_--L.,--Gr. _Lazaros_, in the parable in Luke xvi.--Heb. _El`[=a]z[=a]r_, 'he whom God helps.'] LAZARETTO, laz-a-ret'[=o], _n._ a public hospital for diseased persons, esp. for such as have infectious disorders: a prison hospital: a place where persons are kept during quarantine.--Also LAZ'ARET. [It. _lazzeretto_.] LAZARONI, laz-a-r[=o]'ni, _n._ Same as LAZZARONI. LAZULI, laz'[=u]-l[=i]. See LAPIS-LAZULI, under LAPIDARY. LAZULITE, laz'[=u]-l[=i]t, _n._ a mineral of a light, indigo-blue colour, occurring in quartz and in clay-slate. LAZY, l[=a]'zi, _adj._ disinclined to exertion: averse to labour: sluggish: tedious.--_v.i._ LAZE, to be lazy.--_adv._ L[=A]'ZILY.--_ns._ L[=A]'ZINESS, state or quality of being lazy; L[=A]'ZY-BED, a bed for growing potatoes, the seed being laid on the surface and covered with earth dug out of trenches along both sides; L[=A]'ZYBONES (_coll._), a lazy person, an idler; L[=A]'ZY-JACK, a jack constructed of compound levers pivoted together; L[=A]'ZY-PIN'ION (see IDLE-WHEEL).--_n.pl._ L[=A]'ZY-TONGS, tongs consisting of a series of diagonal levers pivoted together at the middle and ends, capable of being extended by a movement of the scissors-like handles so as to pick up objects at a distance. [M. E. _lasche_--O. Fr. _lasche_ (Fr. _lâche_), slack, weak, base--L. _laxus_, loose.] LAZZARONI, laz-a-r[=o]'ni, _n._ name given to the lowest classes in Naples, idle beggars, with no fixed habitation or regular occupation:--_sing._ LAZZARONE. [It.] LEA, l[=e], _n._ a meadow: grass-land, pasturage.--Older forms, LAY, LEE, LEY. [A.S. _leáh_; cf. prov. Ger. _lohe_, _loh_, found also in place-names, as Water_loo_.] LEACH, l[=e]ch, _v.t._ to wash or drain away by percolation of water, esp. to make lye by leaching ashes--also LETCH.--_ns._ LEACH'-TROUGH, -TUB, a trough or tub in which ashes are leached.--_adj._ LEACH'Y, liable to be leached, letting water percolate through. [A.S. _leccan_, to moisten.] LEACH, l[=e]ch, _n._ Same as LEECH. LEAD, l[=e]d, _v.t._ to show the way by going first: to guide by the hand: to direct: to precede: to transport or carry: to allure.--_v.i._ to go before and show the way: to have a tendency: to exercise dominion:--_pr.p._ lead'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ led.--_n._ first place: precedence: direction: (_naut._) the course of a running rope from end to end: the right of playing the first card in a round or trick: a main conductor in electrical distribution.--_ns._ LEAD'ER, one who leads or goes first: a chief: the leading editorial article in a newspaper (also LEADING ARTICLE): principal wheel in any machinery; LEADERETTE', a brief newspaper leader; LEAD'ERSHIP, state or condition of a leader or conductor; LEAD'ING-BUS'INESS, the acting of the principal parts or rôles in plays; LEAD'ING-M[=O]'TIVE (Ger. _leit-motif_), in dramatic music, a principal theme: a theme, usually of but few tones, by which any personage or particular emotion is indicated by suggestion as often as it occurs; LEAD'ING-QUES'TION, a legal term for a question so put to a witness as to suggest the answer that is wished or expected.--_n.pl._ LEAD'ING-STRINGS, strings used to lead children when beginning to walk: vexatious care or custody.--LEAD APES IN HELL (see APE); LEAD ASTRAY, to draw into a wrong course, to seduce from right conduct; LEAD BY THE NOSE, to make one follow submissively; LEAD IN PRAYER, to offer up prayer in an assembly, uniting the prayers of others; LEAD OFF, to begin or take the start in anything; LEAD ON, to persuade to go on, to draw on; LEAD ONE A DANCE (see DANCE); LEAD UP TO, to bring about by degrees, to prepare for anything by steps or stages. [A.S. _l['æ]dan_, to lead, _lád_, a way; Ger. _leiten_, to lead.] LEAD, led, _n._ a well-known metal of a bluish-white colour: the plummet for sounding at sea: a thin plate of lead separating lines of type: (_pl._) sheets of lead for covering roofs, a flat roof so covered.--_v.t._ to cover or fit with lead: (_print._) to separate lines with leads.--_n._ LEAD'-ARM'ING, tallow, &c., placed in the hollow of a sounding-lead, to ascertain the nature of the bottom.--_adjs._ LEAD'ED, fitted with or set in lead: (_print._) separated by leads, as the lines of a book, &c.; LEAD'EN, made of lead: heavy: dull; LEAD'EN-HEART'ED, having an unfeeling heart; LEAD'EN-STEP'PING (_Milt._), moving slowly.--_ns._ LEAD'-GLANCE, lead ore, galena; LEAD'-MILL, a mill for grinding white-lead: a leaden disc charged with emery for grinding gems; LEAD'-PEN'CIL, a pencil or instrument for drawing, &c., made of blacklead; LEAD'-POI'SONING, or _Plumbism_, poisoning by the absorption and diffusion of lead in the system, its commonest form, _Lead_ or _Painter's Colic_; LEADS'MAN, a seaman who heaves the lead.--_adj._ LEAD'Y, like lead. [A.S. _leád_; Ger. _loth_.] LEAF, l[=e]f, _n._ one of the lateral organs developed from the stem or axis of the plant below its growing-point: anything beaten thin like a leaf: two pages of a book: one side of a window-shutter, &c.:--_pl._ LEAVES (l[=e]vz).--_v.i._ to shoot out or produce leaves:--_pr.p._ leaf'ing; _pa.p._ leafed.--_ns._ LEAF'AGE, leaves collectively: abundance of leaves: season of leaves or leafing; LEAF'-BRIDGE, a form of drawbridge in which the rising leaf or leaves swing vertically on hinges; LEAF'-BUD, a bud producing a stem with leaves only; LEAF'INESS; LEAF'-IN'SECT, an orthopterous insect of family _Phasmidæ_, the wing-covers like leaves.--_adj._ LEAF'LESS, destitute of leaves.--_ns._ LEAF'LET, a little leaf, a tract; LEAF'-MET'AL, metal, especially alloys imitating gold and silver, in very thin leaves, for decoration; LEAF'-MOULD, earth formed from decayed leaves, used as a soil for plants; LEAF'-STALK, the petiole supporting the leaf.--_adj._ LEAF'Y, full of leaves.--TAKE A LEAF OUT OF ONE'S BOOK (see BOOK); TURN OVER A NEW LEAF, to take up a new and better course of conduct. [A.S. _leáf_; Ger. _laub_, Dut. _loof_, a leaf.] LEAGUE, l[=e]g, _n._ a nautical measure, 1/20th of a degree, 3 geographical miles, 3.456 statute miles: an old measure of length, varying from the Roman league, 1.376 mod. Eng. miles, to the French, 2.764 miles, and the Spanish, 4.214 miles. [O. Fr. _legue_ (Fr. _lieue_)--L. _leuca_, a Gallic mile of 1500 Roman paces; from the Celt., as in Bret. _leó_.] LEAGUE, l[=e]g, _n._ a bond or alliance: union for mutual advantage.--_v.i._ to form a league: to unite for mutual interest:--_pr.p._ leag'uing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ leagued.--_n._ LEAG'UER, one connected with a league. [Fr. _ligue_--Low L. _liga_--L. _lig[=a]re_, to bind.] LEAGUER, l[=e]g'[.e]r, _n._ a camp, esp. of a besieging army: siege or besiegement. [Dut. _leger_, a lair.] LEAK, l[=e]k, _n._ a crack or hole in a vessel through which liquid may pass: the oozing of any fluid through an opening.--_v.i._ to let any fluid into or out of a vessel through a leak.--_ns._ LEAK'AGE, a leaking: that which enters or escapes by leaking: an allowance for leaking; LEAK'INESS.--_adj._ LEAK'Y, having leaks: letting any liquid in or out.--LEAK OUT, to find vent, to get to the public ears; SPRING A LEAK, to begin to let in water. [Ice. _leka_; Dut. _lekken_, to drip.] LEAL, l[=e]l, _adj._ true-hearted, faithful.--LAND O' THE LEAL, the home of the blessed after death--Paradise, not Scotland. [Norm. Fr. _leal_, same as _loyal_.] LEAM, l[=e]m, _n._ (_obs._) a gleam of light, a glow.--_v.i._ to shine. [A.S. _leóma_.] LEAN, l[=e]n, _v.i._ to incline or bend: to turn from a straight line: to rest against: to incline towards:--_pr.p._ lean'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ leaned or leant (lent).--_n._ LEAN'-TO, a shed or penthouse whose supports lean upon another building or wall. [A.S. _hlinian_, and causal form _hl['æ]nan_; Dut. _leunen_.] LEAN, l[=e]n, _adj._ thin, wanting flesh: not fat: unprofitable, taking extra time--a printer's phrase.--_n._ flesh without fat.--_adj._ LEAN'-FACED, having a thin face: (_print._) slender and narrow, as letters.--_adv._ LEAN'LY.--_n._ LEAN'NESS.--_adj._ LEAN'-WIT'TED, of little sense. [A.S. _hl['æ]ne_; Low Ger. _leen_; according to Skeat, from _hl['æ]nan_, to lean (above).] LEAP, l[=e]p, _v.i._ to move with bounds: to spring upward or forward: to jump: to rush with vehemence.--_v.t._ to bound over: to cause to take a leap: to cover or copulate (of some beasts):--_pr.p._ leap'ing; _pa.t._ leaped or leapt (lept); _pa.p._ leaped, rarely leapt.--_n._ act of leaping: bound: space passed by leaping: sudden transition.--_ns._ LEAP'-FROG, a play in which one boy places his hands on the back of another stooping in front of him, and vaults over his head; LEAP'ING-HOUSE (_Shak._), a brothel; LEAP'ING-TIME (_Shak._), youth; LEAP'-YEAR, every fourth year--of 366 days, adding one day in February.--LEAP IN THE DARK, an act of which we cannot foresee the consequences. [A.S. _hleápan_, pa.t. _hleóp_; Ger. _laufen_, to run.] LEAP, l[=e]p, _n._ a basket: a wicker net. [A.S. _leáp_.] LEAR, l[=e]r, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to learn.--_n._ that which is learned, a lesson: (_Scot._) learning. LEARN, l[.e]rn, _v.t._ to acquire knowledge of, to get to know: to gain power of performing: (_prov._) to teach.--_v.i._ to gain knowledge: to improve by example.--_adjs._ LEARN'ABLE, that may be learned; LEARN'ED, having learning: versed in literature, &c.: skilful.--_adv._ LEARN'EDLY.--_ns._ LEARN'EDNESS; LEARN'ER, one who learns: one who is yet in the rudiments of any subject; LEARN'ING, what is learned: knowledge: scholarship: skill in languages or science.--NEW LEARNING, the awakening to classical learning in England in the 16th century, led by Colet, Erasmus, Warham, More, &c. [A.S. _leornian_; Ger. _lernen_; cf. A.S. _l['æ]ran_ (Ger. _lehren_), to teach.] LEASE, l[=e]s, _n._ a contract letting a house, farm, &c. for a term of years: the duration or term of tenure: any tenure.--_v.t._ to let for a term of years:--_pr.p._ leas'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ leased.--_adjs._ LEAS'ABLE; LEASE'HOLD, held by lease or contract.--_n._ a tenure held by lease.--_ns._ LEASE'HOLDER; LEAS'ER, one who leases. [Fr. _laisser_, to leave--L. _lax[=a]re_, to loose, _laxus_, loose.] LEASE, l[=e]z, _v.i._ (_prov._) to glean.--_n._ LEAS'ING, gleaning. [A.S. _lesan_, to gather.] LEASE, l[=e]s, _n._ in weaving, the plane in which the warp-threads cross: this system of crossing. LEASH, l[=e]sh, _n._ a lash or line by which a hawk or hound is held: a brace and a half, three.--_v.t._ to hold by a leash: to bind. [O. Fr. _lesse_ (Fr. _laisse_), a thong to hold a dog by--L. _laxus_, loose.] LEASING, l[=e]z'ing, _n._ falsehood, lies: lying. [A.S. _lásung_--_leás_, false, loose; Goth. _laus_, Ice. _los_.] LEASOWE, l[=e]'s[=o], _n._ a pasture.--_v.t._ to feed or pasture. [A.S. _l['æ]s_, a meadow.] LEAST, l[=e]st, _adj._ (serves as superl. of LITTLE) little beyond all others: smallest.--_adv._ in the smallest or lowest degree.--_advs._ LEAST'WAYS, LEAST'WISE, at least: however.--AT LEAST, or AT THE LEAST, at the lowest estimate: at any rate. [A.S. _læst_, contr. from _læsast_, from _læssa_ (adj.), less, _læs_ (adv.).] LEAST, l[=e]st, _conj._ (_Spens._). Same as LEST. LEAT, LEET, l[=e]t, _n._ (_prov._) a trench for bringing water to a mill-wheel. LEATHER, leth'[.e]r, _n._ the prepared skin of an animal, tanned, tawed, or otherwise dressed.--_adj._ consisting of leather.--_ns._ LEATH'ER-CLOTH, a textile fabric coated on one face with certain mixtures of a flexible nature when dry, so as to resemble leather--called also _American leather-cloth_, or simply _American cloth_; LEATH'ER-COAT (_Shak._), an apple with a rough coat or rind, the golden russet; LEATHERETTE', cloth or paper made to look like leather; LEATH'ER-HEAD, a blockhead: an Australian bird with a bare head--called also _Monk_ and _Friar_: LEATH'ERING, a thrashing; LEATH'ER-JACK'ET, one of various fishes; LEATH'ER-KNIFE, a knife of curved form for cutting leather.--_adj._ LEATH'ERN, made or consisting of leather.--_p.adj._ LEATH'ER-WINGED (_Spens._), having wings like leather.--_adj._ LEATH'ERY, resembling leather: tough.--FAIR LEATHER, leather not artificially coloured; MOROCCO LEATHER (see MOROCCO); PATENT LEATHER, leather with a finely varnished surface--also JAPANNED or LACQUERED LEATHER; RUSSIA LEATHER, a fine brownish-red leather with a characteristic odour; SPLIT LEATHER, leather split by a machine, for trunk-covers, &c.; WHITE LEATHER, tawed leather, having its natural colour. [A.S. _leðer_, leather; Dut. and Ger. _leder_.] LEAVE, l[=e]v, _n._ permission: liberty granted: formal parting of friends: farewell. [A.S. _leáf_, permission, cog. with _leóf_, dear. See LIEF.] LEAVE, l[=e]v, _v.t._ to allow to remain: to abandon, resign: to quit or depart from: to have remaining at death: to bequeath: to refer for decision.--_v.i._ to desist: to cease: to depart:--_pr.p._ leav'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ left.--LEAVE ALONE, to let remain undisturbed; LEAVE IN THE DARK, to conceal information from; LEAVE OFF, to desist, to terminate: to give up using; LEAVE OUT, to omit.--GET LEFT (_coll._), to be beaten or left behind; TAKE FRENCH LEAVE (see FRENCH); TAKE LEAVE, to assume permission: to part, say farewell. [A.S. _l['æ]fan_, to leave a heritage (_láf_), _lifian_, to be remaining.] LEAVE, l[=e]v, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to levy, to raise. LEAVE, l[=e]v, _v.i._ to put out leaves.--_adj._ LEAVED, furnished with leaves: made with folds. LEAVEN, lev'n, _n._ the ferment which makes dough rise in a spongy form: anything that makes a general change, whether good or bad.--_v.t._ to raise with leaven: to taint.--_n._ LEAV'ENING.--_adj._ LEAV'ENOUS, containing leaven. [Fr. _levain_--L. _levamen_--_lev[=a]re_, to raise--_levis_, light.] LEAVES, l[=e]vz, _pl._ of _leaf_. LEAVINGS, l[=e]v'ingz, _n.pl._ things left: relics: refuse.--_n._ LEAV'ING-SHOP, an unlicensed pawnshop. LEAVY, l[=e]v'i, _adj._ (_Shak._). Same as LEAFY. LECHER, lech'[.e]r, _n._ a man addicted to lewdness.--_v.i._ to practise lewdness.--_adj._ LECH'EROUS, lustful: provoking lust.--_adv._ LECH'EROUSLY.--_ns._ LECH'EROUSNESS, LECH'ERY. [O. Fr. _lecheor_--_lecher_, to lick; from Old High Ger. _lechón_, Ger. _lecken_, Eng. _lick_.] LECTERN, lek't[.e]rn, _n._ a reading-desk in churches from which the Scripture lessons are read.--_ns._ (_obs._) LEC'TURN, LET'TERN. [Low L. _lectrinum_--Low L. _lectrum_, a pulpit--Gr. _lektron_, a couch.] LECTION, lek'shun, _n._ a reading: a variety in a manuscript or book: a portion of Scripture read in divine service.--_ns._ LEC'TIONARY, a book for use in worship, containing lessons for particular days; LEC'TOR, a reader: a reader of Scripture in the ancient churches; LEC'TRESS, a female reader. [L. _lection-em_--_leg[)e]re_, _lectum_, to read.] LECTUAL, lek't[=u]-al, _adj._ confining to the bed. LECTURE, lek't[=u]r, _n._ a discourse on any subject, esp. a professional or tutorial discourse: an expository and discursive religious discourse, usually based on an extended passage of Scripture rather than a single text: an endowed lectureship, as the Bampton, Hulsean, &c.: a formal reproof.--_v.t._ to instruct by discourses: to instruct authoritatively: to reprove.--_v.i._ to give a lecture or lectures.--_ns._ LEC'TURER, one who lectures: one of a class of preachers in the Church of England, chosen by the vestry and supported by voluntary contributions; LEC'TURESHIP, the office of a lecturer. [See LECTION.] LED, led, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of lead, to show the way.--_adj._ under leading or control, esp. of a farm or place managed by a deputy instead of the owner or tenant in person.--LED CAPTAIN, an obsequious attendant, a henchman; LED HORSE, a spare horse led by a servant, a sumpter-horse or pack-horse. LEDEN, led'n, _n._ (_Spens._) language, dialect, speech. [A.S. _l['æ]den_, Latin speech--L. _Latinum_, Latin.] LEDGE, lej, _n._ a shelf on which articles may be laid: that which resembles such a shelf: a ridge or shelf of rocks: a layer: a small moulding: a lode in mining.--_adj._ LEDG'Y, abounding in ledges. [Skeat explains as Scand., allied to Sw. _lagg_, Ice. _lögg_, Norw. _logg_ (pl. _legger_); cf. also Norw. _lega_, a couch; all from Ice. _liggja_; Sw. _ligga_, Dan. _ligge_, to lie.] LEDGER, lej'[.e]r, _n._ the principal book of accounts among merchants, in which the entries in all the other books are entered: (_Shak._) a resident, esp. an ambassador: a bar, stone, &c., made to lie flat, a piece of timber used in making a scaffolding, a horizontal slab, as over a tomb.--_adj._ lying in a certain place, stationary. [Skeat explains _ledger-book_ as one that lies always ready, from Dut. _legger_, one that lies down, _leggen_, to lie, a common corr. of _liggen_, to lie (like _lay_ for _lie_ in English).] LEDUM, l[=e]'dum, _n._ a genus of ericaceous plants. [Gr. _l[=e]don_, ladanum.] [Illustration] LEE, l[=e], _n._ the quarter toward which the wind blows.--_adj._ as in LEE'-SIDE, the sheltered side of a ship.--_ns._ LEE'-BOARD, a board lowered on the lee-side of a vessel, and acting like a keel or centre-board to prevent her from drifting to leeward; LEE'-GAGE, the sheltered or safe side:--opp. to _Weather-gage_; LEE'-SHORE, the shore opposite to the lee-side of a ship; LEE'-TIDE, a tide running in the same direction as the wind is blowing.--_adj._ LEE'WARD, pertaining to, or in, the direction toward which the wind blows.--_adv._ toward the lee.--_n._ LEE'WAY, the distance a ship is driven to leeward of her true course: a falling behind.--MAKE UP LEEWAY, to make up for time lost; UNDER THE LEE, on the side sheltered from the wind, under shelter from the wind. [A.S. _hleów_, shelter; Ice. _hlé_, Low Ger. _lee_; prov. Eng. _lew_.] LEE, l[=e], _n._ (_Spens._) a river: also the same as LEA. LEECH, l[=e]ch, _n._ the edge of a sail at the sides. [Ice. _lík_, a leech-line; Dan. _lig_; Sw. _lik_, a bolt-rope.] LEECH, l[=e]ch, _n._ a blood-sucking worm: a physician.--_v.t._ to apply leeches to.--_ns._ LEECH'CRAFT, LEECH'DOM. [A.S. _l['æ]ce_, one who heals; cf. Goth. _leikeis_.] LEEF, l[=e]f, _adj._ an obsolete form of _lief_. LEEFANG, l[=e]'fang, _n._ a rope through the clew of a jib, holding it amidships while lacing on the bonnet. LEEK, l[=e]k, _n._ a well-known biennial species of the onion family, esteemed for cooking--national emblem of Wales.--EAT THE LEEK, to be compelled to take back one's words or put up with insulting treatment--from the scene between Fluellen and Pistol in _Henry V_. [A.S. _leác_, a leek, a plant, present also in _Char-lock_, _Gar-lic_, _Hem-lock_.] LEER, l[=e]r, _n._ a sly, sidelong look: (_Shak._) complexion, colour.--_v.i._ to look askance: to look archly or obliquely.--_adv._ LEER'INGLY, with a leering look. [A.S. _hleór_, face, cheek; Ice. _hlýr_.] LEES, l[=e]z, _n.pl._ sediment or dregs that settle at the bottom of liquor. [Fr. _lie_--Low L. _lia_.] LEESE, l[=e]z, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to lose. [A.S. _leósan_, to lose.] LEET, l[=e]t, _n._ (_Scot._) a selected list of candidates for an office.--SHORT LEET, a small list of selected candidates--for the final choice. [Ice. _leiti_, a share; cf. A.S. _hlét_, _hlýt_, forms of _hlot_, lot.] LEET, l[=e]t, _n._ an ancient English court, esp. the assembly of the men of a township: the district subject to such: the right to hold such a court.--_n._ COURT'-LEET (see COURT). [A.S. _l['æ]th_.] LEETLE, l[=e]'tl, a vulgarism for _little_. LEEZE, l[=e]z (_Scot._), in phrase LEEZE ME, it is pleasing to me. [Prob. a corr. of _Lief is me_.] LEFT, left, _pa.p._ (_Spens._) lifted. LEFT, left, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of leave.--_adj._ LEFT'-OFF, laid aside. LEFT, left, _adj._ being on the left side--also LEFT'-HAND.--_n._ the side opposite to the right: the part of an assembly sitting on the president's left hand, generally the more liberal or democratic section.--_adv._ toward the left.--_adj._ LEFT'-HAND'ED, having the left hand stronger and readier than the right: awkward: unlucky.--_ns._ LEFT'-HAND'EDNESS; LEFT'-HAND'ER, a blow with the left hand, a sudden and unexpected attack; LEFT'-HAND'INESS, awkwardness.--_adv._ LEFT'WARD, towards the left: on the left side. [M. E. _lift_, _left_--A.S. _left_ for _lyft_, weak; prob. allied to _lop_.] LEG, leg, _n._ one of the limbs by which animals walk: a long, slender support of anything, as of a table: (_fig._) something that supports: in cricket, that part of the field, or that fielder, to the left of and behind the batsman as he faces the bowler.--_v.i._ to pass on briskly, often with indef. _it._--_ns._ LEG'-BAIL (see BAIL); LEG'-BUS'INESS, ballet-dancing; LEG'-BYE, in cricket, a run made when the ball touches any part of the batsman's person except his hand.--_adj._ LEGGED, having legs.--_ns._ LEG'GING, an outer and extra gaiter-like covering for the legs; LEG'GISM, character of a blackleg.--_adj._ LEG'GY, having disproportionately long and lank legs.--_n._ LEG'-[=I]'RON, a fetter for the leg.--_adj._ LEG'LESS, without legs.--CHANGE THE LEG (of a horse), to change the gait; FEEL ONE'S LEGS (of an infant), to begin to support one's self on the legs; FIND ONE'S LEGS, to become habituated to, to attain ease in; GIVE A LEG TO, to assist by supporting the leg; IN HIGH LEG, in great excitement; MAKE A LEG (_Shak._), to make a bow; ON ONE'S LAST LEGS (see LAST); ON ONE'S LEGS, standing, esp. to speak; UPON ITS LEGS, in an independent position. [Ice. _leggr_, a leg; Dan. _læg_, Sw. _lägg_.] LEGACY, leg'a-si, _n._ that which is left to one by will: a bequest of personal property.--_ns._ LEG'ACY-HUNT'ER, one who hunts after legacies by courting those likely to leave them; LEG'ATARY, a legatee; LEGATEE', one to whom a legacy is bequeathed.--LEGACY DUTY, a duty levied on legacies, varying according to degree of relationship, and reaching its maximum where the legatee is not related to the testator.--CUMULATIVE, or SUBSTITUTIONAL, LEGACY, a second legacy given to the same person, either in addition to or in place of the first; DEMONSTRATIVE LEGACY, a general legacy, but with a particular fund named from which it is to be satisfied; GENERAL LEGACY, a sum of money payable out of the assets generally; RESIDUARY LEGATEE, the person to whom the remainder of the property is left after all claims are discharged; SPECIFIC LEGACY, a legacy of a definite thing, as jewels, pictures, a sum of stock in the Funds, &c. [L. _legatum_--_leg[=a]re_, to leave by will.] LEGAL, l[=e]'gal, _adj._ pertaining to, or according to, law: lawful: created by law: (_theol._) according to the Mosaic law or dispensation.--_n._ L[=E]'GALIS[=A]TION.--_v.t._ L[=E]'GALISE, to make legal or lawful: to authorise: to sanction.--_ns._ L[=E]'GALISM, strict adherence to law: (_theol._) the doctrine that salvation depends on strict adherence to the law, as distinguished from the doctrine of salvation by grace: the tendency to observe the letter rather than the spirit of religious law; L[=E]'GALIST; LEGAL'ITY.--_adv._ L[=E]'GALLY.--LEGAL TENDER, that which can be lawfully used in paying a debt. [Fr.,--L. _legalis_--_lex_, _legis_, law.] LEGATE, leg'[=a]t, _n._ an ambassador, esp. from the Pope: a delegate, deputy, esp. a foreign envoy chosen by the senate of ancient Rome, or a general or consul's lieutenant.--_n._ LEG'ATESHIP.--_adj._ Leg'at[=i]ne, of or relating to a legate.--_n._ LEG[=A]'TION, the person or persons sent as legates or ambassadors: the official abode of a legation. [Fr. _légat_, It. _legato_--L. _legatus_--_leg[=a]re_, to send with a commission.] LEGATEE. See LEGACY. LEGATO, l[=a]-gä'to, _adj._ (_mus._) in a smooth manner, the notes being played as if bound together.--_n._ a smooth manner of performance, or a tune so played.--_adv._ (_sup._) LEGATISS'IMO. [It.,--L. _lig[=a]re_, to tie.] LEGEND, lej'end, or l[=e]'-, _n._ a marvellous story from early times: the motto on a coat of arms, medal, or coin: an inscription of any kind: a musical composition set to a poetical story.--_n._ LEG'ENDARY, a book of legends: one who relates legends: (_pl._) a chronicle of the lives of saints.--_adj._ consisting of legends: romantic: fabulous.--_n._ LEG'ENDIST, a writer of legends.--GOLDEN LEGEND (see GOLDEN). [Fr.,--Low L. _legenda_, a book of chronicles of the saints read at matins--L. _legendus_--_leg[)e]re_, to read.] LEGER, lej'[.e]r, _adj._ light: small.--_ns._ LEGER'ITY (_Shak._), lightness; LEG'ER'-LINE (_mus._), one of the short lines added above or below the staff to extend its compass. [O. Fr.,--L. _l[)e]vis_, light.] LEGERDEMAIN, lej-[.e]r-d[=e]-m[=a]n', _n._ sleight-of-hand: jugglery. [Fr. _léger de main_--L. as if _leviarius_--_levis_, light, Fr. _de_, of, _main_--L. _manus_, hand.] LEGHORN, leg'horn, _n._ fine plait for bonnets and hats made in Tuscany: a bonnet of this material: a small breed of the common domestic fowl. [_Leghorn_ (It. _Livorno_), a seaport of Tuscany, Italy.] LEGIBLE, lej'i-bl, _adj._ that may be read: that may be understood.--_ns._ LEG'IBLENESS, LEGIBIL'ITY.--_adv._ LEG'IBLY. [L. _legibilis_--_leg[)e]re_, to read.] LEGION, l[=e]'jun, _n._ in ancient Rome, a body of soldiers of from three to six thousand: a military force: a great number: in French history, the name of several military bodies, more esp. one which distinguished itself in Algeria and in the Crimea.--_v.t._ to form into legions.--_adj._ L[=E]'GIONARY, relating to, or consisting of, a legion or legions: containing a great number.--_n._ a soldier of a legion.--LEGION OF HONOUR, an order of merit instituted in France in 1802 by Napoleon I.; THUNDERING LEGION, the name in Christian tradition for a body of soldiers under Marcus Aurelius, whose prayers for rain once brought down a thunderstorm and destroyed the enemy. [Fr.,--L. _legion-em_--_leg[)e]re_, to levy.] LEGISLATE, lej'is-l[=a]t, _v.i._ to bring forward, propose, or make laws.--_n._ LEGISL[=A]'TION.--_adj._ LEG'ISLATIVE, giving or enacting laws: pertaining to legislation, or a legislature.--_n._ a body of persons, or a single person, with powers to enact laws.--_adv._ LEG'ISLATIVELY.--_n._ LEG'ISLATOR, one who makes laws: a lawgiver:--_fem._ LEG'ISLATRESS.--_adj._ LEGISLAT[=O]'RIAL, of or pertaining to a legislature.--_ns._ LEG'ISLATORSHIP; LEG'ISLATURE, the body of men in a state who have the power of making laws.--LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY (see ASSEMBLY); LEGISLATIVE POWER, the power to make laws.--CLASS LEGISLATION, legislation affecting the interests of a particular class. [L. _lex_, _legis_, law, _ferre_, _latum_, to bear.] LEGIST, l[=e]'jist, _n._ one skilled in the laws. [Fr.] LEGITIM, lej'i-tim, _n._ (_Scots law_) the legal provision which a child is entitled to out of the movable or personal estate of the deceased father.--Also _Bairn's Part_. [Fr.,--L. _legitimus_--_lex_, law.] LEGITIMATE, le-jit'i-m[=a]t, _adj._ lawful: lawfully begotten, born in wedlock: fairly deduced: following by natural sequence: authorised by usage.--_v.t._ to make lawful: to give the rights of a legitimate child to an illegitimate one.--_n._ LEGIT'IMACY, state of being legitimate: lawfulness of birth: regular deduction: directness of descent as affecting the royal succession.--_adv._ LEGIT'IMATELY.--_ns._ LEGIT'IMATENESS, lawfulness; LEGITIM[=A]'TION, act of rendering legitimate, esp. of conferring the privileges of lawful birth.--_v.t._ LEGIT'IMISE (same as LEGITIMATE).--_n._ LEGIT'IMIST, one who supports legitimate authority: in France, a follower of the elder Bourbon line (descendants of Louis XIV.), as opposed to the Orleanists or supporters of the descendants of the Duke of Orleans, Louis XIV.'s brother.--LEGITIMATE DRAMA, a designation frequently applied to the representation of Shakespeare's plays--often employed as vaguely indicating approval of the drama of some former time. [Low L. _legitim[=a]re_. _-[=a]tum_--L. _legitimus_, lawful--_lex_, law.] LEGUME, leg'[=u]m, _n._ a seed-vessel which splits into two valves, having the seeds attached to the ventral suture only: a pod, as of the pea, bean, &c.--also LEG[=U]'MEN:--_pl._ LEG[=U]'MENS, LEG[=U]'MINA.--_adj._ LEG[=U]'MINAR.--_n._ LEG[=U]'MINE, a nitrogenous proteid substance in the seeds of most leguminous plants, corresponding with the casein of milk.--_adj._ LEG[=U]'MINOUS, pertaining to pulse: bearing legumes. [Fr.,--L. _legumen_--_leg[)e]re_, to gather.] LEIBNITZIAN, l[=i]b-nit'zi-an, _adj._ pertaining to the great German philosopher and mathematician, Gottfried Wilhelm _Leibnitz_ (1646-1716).--_n._ LEIBNIT'ZIANISM, the philosophy of Leibnitz--the doctrine of primordial monads, pre-established harmony, fundamental optimism on the principle of sufficient reason. LEIGER, lej'[.e]r, _n._ (_Shak._) a resident ambassador.--Also LEIDG'ER. [See LEDGER.] LEIOTRICHOUS, l[=i]-ot'ri-kus, _adj._ of the smooth-haired races. [Gr. _leios_, smooth, _thrix_, _trichos_, hair.] LEIPOA, l[=i]-p[=o]'a, _n._ a genus of Australian mound-birds. LEISTER, l[=e]s't[.e]r, _n._ (_Scot._) a salmon-spear. [Cf. Ice. _ljóstr_; Dan. _lyster_, a salmon-spear.] LEISURE, l[=e]'zh[=oo]r, or lezh'-, _n._ time free from employment: freedom from occupation, convenient opportunity, ease.--_adj._ unoccupied.--_adj._ LEI'SURED, not occupied with business.--_adj._ and _adv._ LEI'SURELY, not hasty or hastily.--AT LEISURE, AT ONE'S LEISURE, free from occupation, at one's ease or convenience. [O. Fr. _leisir_--L. _lic[=e]re_, to be permitted.] LEMAN, l[=e]'man, or lem'-, _n._ a sweetheart; paramour. [A.S. _leóf_, loved, _mann_, man.] LEMMA, lem'a, _n._ (_math._) a preliminary proposition demonstrated for the purpose of being used in a subsequent proposition: sometimes in logic a premise taken for granted: a theme:--_pl._ LEMM'AS, LEMM'ATA. [L.,--Gr. _l[=e]mma_--_lambanein_, to take.] LEMMING, lem'ing, _n._ a genus of rodents, nearly allied to voles, migrating southward in great numbers. [Norw. _lemende_, _lemming_--_lemja_, to beat. Perh. Lapp, _loumek_, a lemming.] LEMNIAN, lem'ni-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Lemnos_ in the Ægean Sea.--LEMNIAN EARTH, cimolite; LEMNIAN RUDDLE, a red chalk found in Lemnos. LEMNISCATE, lem-nis'k[=a]t, _n._ a curve in general form like the figure 8--also _adj._--_n._ LEMNIS'CUS, a woollen fillet attached to the back of crowns, diadems, &c. [Gr. _l[=e]mniskos_.] LEMON, lem'un, _n._ an oval fruit resembling the orange, with an acid pulp: the tree that bears lemons.--_n._ LEMONADE', a drink made of lemon-juice, water, and sugar.--_adj._ LEM'ON-COL'OURED, having the colour of a ripe lemon.--_ns._ LEM'ON-GRASS, a fragrant perennial grass, in India, Arabia, &c., yielding an essential oil used in perfumery; LEM'ON-SQUASH, unfervescent lemonade; LEM'ON-SQUEEZ'ER, a small hand-press for extracting the juice of lemons; LEM'ON-YELL'OW, a clear, pale yellow colour. [Fr. _limon_--Ar. _l[=i]m[=u]n_.] LEMUR, l[=e]'mur, _n._ a genus of mammals appearing to stand between the Insectivora and the monkeys, forest dwellers, mainly nocturnal in habits, common in Madagascar. [L. _lemur_, a ghost.] LEMURES, lem'[=u]-r[=e]z, _n.pl._ (_Milt._) spirits of the departed: spectres. [L.] LEND, lend, _v.t._ to give for a short time something to be returned: to afford, grant, or furnish, in general: to let for hire.--_v.i._ to make a loan:--_pr.p_ lend'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ lent.--_ns._ LEND'ER; LEND'ING, the act of giving in loan: (_Shak._) that which is lent or supplied. [A.S. _l['æ]nan_--_l['æ]n_, _lán_, a loan.] LENGTH, length, _n._ quality of being long: extent from end to end: the longest measure of anything: long continuance: detail: (_prosody_) time occupied in uttering a vowel or syllable: the quality of a vowel as long or short: any definite portion of a known extent.--_v.t._ LENGTH'EN, to increase in length: to draw out.--_v.i._ to grow longer.--_adv._ LENGTH'ILY.--_n._ LENGTH'INESS.--_adv._ LENGTH'WISE, in the direction of the length.--_adj._ LENGTH'Y, of great length: rather long--(_obs._) LENGTH'FUL.--LENGTH OF DAYS, prolonged life.--AT LENGTH, in the full extent: at last; GO GREAT LENGTHS, GO TO ALL LENGTHS, to use extreme efforts; GO TO THE LENGTH OF, to proceed as far as. [A.S.,--_lang_, long.] LENIENT, l[=e]'ni-ent, _adj._ softening: mild: merciful.--_n._ (_med._) that which softens: an emollient.--_ns._ L[=E]'NIENCE, L[=E]'NIENCY.--_adv._ L[=E]'NIENTLY.--_v.t._ L[=E]'NIFY (_rare_), to assuage.--_adj._ LEN'ITIVE, mitigating: laxative.--_n._ any palliative: (_med._) an application for easing pain: a mild purgative.--_n._ LEN'ITY, mildness: clemency. [L. _leniens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _len[=i]re_, to soften--_lenis_, soft.] LENO, l[=e]'n[=o], _n._ a thin linen like muslin. LENOCINIUM, l[=e]-n[=o]-sin'i-um, _n._ (_Scots law_) a husband's connivance at his wife's adultery. [L.] [Illustration] LENS, lenz, _n._ (_optics_) a piece of transparent substance with one or both sides convex or concave, the object to refract rays of light really or apparently radiating from a point, and make them deviate so as to pass, or travel on as if they had passed, through another point: the crystalline humour of the eye: a genus of leguminous plants:--_pl._ LENS'ES. [L. _lens_, _lentis_, the lentil.] LENT, lent, _n._ an annual fast of forty days in commemoration of the fast of our Saviour (Matt. iv. 2), from Ash-Wednesday to Easter.--_adj._ LENT'EN, relating to, or used in, Lent: sparing.--_n._ LENT'-LIL'Y, the daffodil, as flowering in Lent. [A.S. _lencten_, the spring; Dut. _lente_, Ger. _lenz_.] LENTAMENTE, len-ta-men'te, _adv._ (_mus._) slowly, in slow time.--_advs._ LENTAN'DO, becoming slower by degrees; LEN'TO, slow, slowly. [It.] LENTICULAR, len-tik'[=u]-lar, _adj._ resembling a lens or lentil seed: double-convex--also LEN'TIFORM.--_n._ LEN'TICEL (_bot._), a loose, lens-shaped mass of cells belonging to the corky layer or periderm of plants.--_adj._ LENTICEL'LATE.--_n._ LENTIC'ULA, a small lens: a lenticel: a freckle--also LEN'TICULE.--_adv._ LENTIC'ULARLY.--_adjs._ LENTIG'EROUS, having a crystalline lens; LEN'TOID, lens-shaped. [L. _lenticularis_--_lenticula_, dim. of _lens_, a lentil.] LENTIGO, len-t[=i]'g[=o], _n._ a freckle.--_adjs._ LENTIG'INOSE, LENTIG'INOUS (_bot._), covered with minute dots as if dusted. [L.] LENTIL, len'til, _n._ an annual plant, common near the Mediterranean, bearing pulse used for food. [O. Fr. _lentille_--L. _lens_, _lentis_, the lentil.] LENTISK, len'tisk, _n._ the mastic-tree. [L. _lentiscus_.] LENTOR, len'tor, _n._ tenacity, viscidity.--_adj._ LEN'TOUS. [L. _lentus_, slow.] LENVOY, len-voi', _n._ a kind of postscript appended to a literary composition: an envoy. [O. Fr. _l'envoi_.] LEO, l[=e]'[=o], _n._ the Lion, the 5th sign of the zodiac. LEONINE, l[=e]'o-n[=i]n, _adj._ of or like a lion. LEONINE, l[=e]'o-n[=i]n, _adj._ a kind of Latin verse, generally alternate hexameter and pentameter, rhyming at the middle and end. [From _Leoninus_, a 12th-cent. canon in Paris; or from Pope _Leo_ II.] LEOPARD, lep'ard, _n._ an animal of the cat kind, with a spotted skin, now generally supposed to be identical with the panther:--_fem._ LEOP'ARDESS: (_her._) a lion passant gardant. [O. Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _leopardos_--_le[=o]n_, lion, _pardos_, pard.] LEPER, lep'[.e]r, _n._ one affected with leprosy.--_adjs._ LEP'EROUS (_Shak._), LEP'ROUS. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _lepra_--_lepros_, scaly--_lepos_, a scale--_lepein_, to peel off.] LEPID, lep'id, _adj._ pleasant, jocose. [L. _lepidus_.] LEPIDODENDRON, lep-i-do-den'dron, _n._ a common fossil plant of the Carboniferous strata, the stem covered with ovate leaf-scars arranged spirally. [Gr. _lepis_, -_idos_, a scale, _dendron_, a tree.] LEPIDOPTERA, lep-i-dop't[.e]r-a, _n.pl._ an order of insects, with four wings covered with fine scales--butterfly, moth, &c.--_adjs._ LEPIDOP'TERAL, LEPIDOP'TEROUS. [Gr. _lepis_, -_idos_, a scale, _pteron_, a wing.] LEPIDOSAURIA, lep-i-do-sawr'i-a, _n._ a sub-class or sub-order of Reptilia, with scales and plates--the ophidians and lacertilians, not crocodilians and chelonians. [Gr. _lepis_, a scale, _sauros_, a lizard.] LEPIDOSIREN, lep-i-do-s[=i]'ren, _n._ one of the Amazon mud-fishes or Dipnoi. [Gr. _lepis_, a scale, Eng. _siren_.] LEPIDOSTEUS, lep-i-dos'te-us, _n._ a genus of fishes with rhomboid scales hard like bone. [Gr. _lepis_, -_idos_, a scale, _osteon_, a bone.] LEPORINE, lep'o-r[=i]n, _adj._ pertaining to or resembling the hare. [L. _leporinus_--_lepus_, _lep[)o]ris_, the hare.] LEPPED, lep'd, _pa.t._ (_Spens._) leaped. LEPRECHAUN, LEPRECHAWN, lep'r[=e]-kawn, _n._ a small-sized brownie who helps Irish housewives, mends shoes, grinds meal, &c. [Ir. _luchorpan_, _lu_, small, _corpan_, _corp_, a body--L. _corpus_.] LEPROSY, lep'ro-si, _n._ a name applied to several different cutaneous diseases of contagious character, now confined to _lepra cutanea_, _elephantiasis_, _Græcorum_, or _Leontiasis_.--_n._ LEP'RA, leprosy: a scurfy, mealy substance on the surface of some plants.--_adjs._ LEP'ROSE, scale-like or scurf-like; LEP'ROUS, affected with leprosy.--_adv._ LEP'ROUSLY.--_ns._ LEP'ROUSNESS, LEPROS'ITY. [See LEPER.] LEPTOCARDIAN, lep-to-kär'di-an, _adj._ pertaining to the _Leptocardii_, the lowest group of true vertebrates, the lancelets.--_n._ a lancelet, branchiostome, or amphioxus. [Gr. _leptos_, thin, _kardia_, heart.] LEPTOCEPHALIC, lep-to-se-fal'ik, _adj._ having a narrow skull, as in certain flat-fishes. [Gr. _leptos_, thin, _kephal[=e]_, the head.] LEPTODACTYL, lep-to-dak'til, _adj._ having small or slender toes. [Gr. _leptos_, thin, _daktylos_, a finger.] LEPTOLOGY, lep-tol'o-ji, _n._ minute description. [Gr. _leptos_, thin, _logia_--_legein_, to speak.] LEPTON, lep'ton, _n._ the smallest of modern Greek coins, 100 to the drachma. [Gr.,--_leptos_, small.] LEPTORRHINE, lep't[=o]-rin, _adj._ with small nose or slender snout. [Gr. _leptos_, thin, _hris_, _hrinos_, nose.] LEPTOSPERMUM, lep-to-sper'mum, _n._ a genus of Australian trees and shrubs, evergreens, with leaves like those of myrtles--the tea-tree, &c. [Gr. _leptos_, thin, _sperma_, seed.] LERE, l[=e]r, _n._ (_Spens._) learning a lesson.--_v.t._ to learn: to teach. [_Learn._] LESBIAN, les'bi-an, _adj._ pertaining to the island of _Lesbos_ in the Ægean Sea, and the adjoining part of the coast of Asia Minor, together forming Æolis, the home of a famous school of lyric poets, including Alcæus and Sappho: amatory, erotic. LESE-MAJESTIE, l[=e]z'-maj'es-ti, _n._ any crime committed against the sovereign power in a state, treason.--Also LEZE'-MAJ'ESTY. [O. Fr.,--Low L. _læsa majestas_--L. _læsa_--_læd[)e]re_, to hurt, _majestas_, majesty.] LESION, l[=e]'zhun, _n._ a hurt: (_med._) an injury or wound. [Fr.,--L. _læsion-em_--_læd[)e]re_, _læsum_, to hurt.] LESS, les, _adj._ (serves as comp. of _little_) diminished: smaller.--_adv._ not so much: in a lower degree.--_n._ a smaller portion: (_B._) the inferior or younger. [A.S. _l['æ]ssa_, less, _l['æ]s_ (adv.); comparative form from a root _lasinn_, feeble, found also in Goth. _lasiws_, weak, Ice. _las_, weakness, not conn. with _little_.] LESSEE, les-s[=e]', _n._ one to whom a lease is granted. LESSEN, les'n, _v.t._ to make less, in any sense: to weaken: to degrade.--_v.i._ to become less, shrink. LESSER, les'[.e]r, _adj._ (_B._) less: smaller: inferior. [A double comp. formed from _less_.] LESSON, les'n, _n._ a portion of Scripture appointed to be read in divine service: that which a pupil learns at a time: a precept or doctrine inculcated: instruction derived from experience: severe lecture.--_v.t._ to give a lesson to. [Fr. _leçon_--L. _lection-em_--_leg[)e]re_, to read.] LESSOR, les'or, _n._ one who grants a lease. LEST, lest, _conj._ that not: for fear that. [From the A.S. phrase _ðý læs ðe_ (for the reason less that=L. _quominus_), the first word being dropped, while the others coalesced into _lest_.] LEST, lest, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to listen. LET, let, _v.t._ to slacken or loose restraint upon: to give leave or power to: to allow, permit, suffer: to grant to a tenant or hirer: to cause (with infin. without _to_):--_pr.p._ let'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ let.--_n._ a letting for hire.--_ns._ LET'TER; LET'TING.--LET ALONE, to leave out, not to mention.--_adj._ passive, inactive--also _n._ (_Shak._) forbearance.--LET BLOOD, to open a vein and let the blood run out; LET DOWN, to allow to fall: to bring down; LET GO, to cease holding: to pass by or disregard; LET IN, to allow to enter: to take in or swindle; LET INTO, to admit to the knowledge of; LET OFF, to allow to go free without punishment, to excuse from payment, &c.; LET ON, to allow a thing to be believed, to pretend; LET ONE'S SELF LOOSE, to let go restraint on words or actions, to indulge in extravagant talk or conduct; LET OUT, to allow to get free, to let some secret become known; LET SLIP, to allow to escape: to lose sight of; LET WELL ALONE, to let things remain as they are from fear of making them worse. [A.S. _l['æ]tan_, to permit, pt.t. _lét_, _leót_, pp. _læten_; Ger. _lassen_, Fr. _laisser_, to permit.] LET, let, _v.t._ (_B._) to prevent.--_n._ (_law_) hinderance, obstruction: delay.--_n._ LET'TER. [A.S. _lettan_, to hinder--_læt_, slow.] LETCH, lech, _n._ strong desire: a crotchet. LETHAL, l[=e]'thal, _adj._ death-dealing: deadly: mortal.--_n._ LETHE (_Shak._), death.--_adj._ LETHIF'EROUS, carrying death. [L. _lethalis_--_lethum_, _letum_, death.] LETHARGY, leth'ar-ji, _n._ heavy unnatural slumber: dullness.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to make lethargic.--_adjs._ LETHAR'GIC, -AL, pertaining to lethargy: unnaturally sleepy: dull.--_adv._ LETHAR'GICALLY.--_n._ LETHAR'GICNESS, the state of being lethargic: morbid sleepiness.--_v.t._ LETH'ARGISE. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _l[=e]thargia_, drowsy forgetfulness--_l[=e]th[=e]_, forgetfulness.] LETHE, l[=e]'th[=e], _n._ one of the rivers of hell causing forgetfulness of the past to all who drank of it: oblivion.--_adj._ LETH[=E]'AN, of Lethe: oblivious. [Gr.,--_l[=e]th[=o]_, old form of _lanthanein_, to forget.] LETTER, let'[.e]r, _n._ a conventional mark to express a sound: a written or printed message: literal meaning: a printing-type: (_pl._) learning, literary culture.--_v.t._ to stamp letters upon.--_ns._ LETT'ER-BAL'ANCE, a balance for testing the weight of a letter for post; LETT'ER-BOARD (_print._), board on which matter in type is placed for keeping or convenience in handling; LETT'ER-BOOK, a book in which letters or copies of letters are kept; LETT'ER-BOX, a box in a post-office, at the door of a house, &c., for receiving letters; LETT'ER-CARR'IER, a postman; LETT'ER-CASE, a portable writing-desk.--_adj._ LETT'ERED, marked with letters: educated: versed in literature: belonging to learning (LETTERED PROOF and PROOF BEFORE LETTERS; see PROOF).--_ns._ LETT'ERER; LETT'ER-FOUND'ER, one who founds or casts letters or types; LETT'ERING, the act of impressing letters: the letters impressed.--_adj._ LETT'ERLESS, illiterate.--_ns._ LETT'ER-MISS'IVE, an official letter on matters of common interest, sent to members of a church: a letter from the sovereign addressed to a dean and chapter, naming the person they are to elect bishop--also _Royal letter_; LETT'ERN (same as LECTERN); LETT'ER-OF-CRED'IT, a letter authorising credit or cash to a certain sum to be paid to the bearer; LETT'ER-OF-MARQUE (märk), a commission given to a private ship by a government to make reprisals on the vessels of another state.--_adj._ LETT'ER-PER'FECT, kept in the memory exactly (of an actor's part, &c.).--_ns._ LETT'ERPRESS, letters impressed or matter printed from type, as distinguished from engraving: a copying-press; LETT'ERS-P[=A]'TENT, a writing conferring a patent or authorising a person to enjoy some privilege, so called because written on open sheets of parchment; LETT'ER-STAMP, a post-office implement for defacing a postage-stamp: a stamp for imprinting dates, &c., on letters or papers; LETT'ER-WOOD, the heart-wood of a tree found in British Guiana, dark brown, with darker spots somewhat resembling hieroglyphics; LETT'ER-WRIT'ER, one who writes letters, esp. for hire: a book containing forms for imitation in writing letters.--LETTER OF INDICATION (see CIRCULAR); LETTERS OF ADMINISTRATION, a document issued by court appointing an administrator of an intestate estate; LETTERS REQUISITORY, or ROGATORY, an instrument by which a court of one country asks that of another to take certain evidence on its behalf; LETTRE DE CACHET (see CACHET). [Fr. _lettre_--L. _littera_.] LETTIC, let'ik, _adj._ of or pertaining to the _Letts_ or Lithuanians, or to their language.--Also LETT'ISH. LETTING, let'ing, _n._ the act of granting to a tenant: the act of giving to a contractor. LETTUCE, let'is, _n._ a plant containing a milky juice, its leaves used as a salad. [O. Fr. _laictuce_ (Fr. _laitue_)--L. _lactuca_--_lac_, milk.] LEUCÆMIA, l[=u]-s[=e]'mi-a, _n._ a disease in which the number of white corpuscles in the blood is greatly increased, with changes in the lymphatic tissues, enlargement of the spleen, &c.--Also LEUCOCYTHÆ'MIA. [Gr. _leukos_, white, _haima_, blood.] LEUCINE, l[=u]'sin, _n._ a product of the decomposition of albuminous materials occurring in many of the juices of the animal body. [Gr. _leukos_, white.] LEUCISCUS, l[=u]-sis'kus, _n._ a genus of fresh-water fishes of the Cyprinoid family, including the roach, dace, chub, minnow, &c. [Gr. _leukos_, white.] LEUCITE, l[=u]'s[=i]t, _n._ a whitish mineral occurring only in volcanic rocks.--_adj._ LEUCIT'IC. [Gr. _leukos_, white.] LEUCOCYTE, l[=u]'k[=o]-s[=i]t, _n._ a white corpuscle of the blood or lymph (see PHAGOCYTE).--_adj._ LEUCOCYT'IC.--_ns._ LEUCOCYTOG'ENESIS, the production of leucocytes; LEUCOCYT[=O]'SIS, the presence of an excessive number of white corpuscles in the blood. LEUCOCYTHÆMIA. See LEUCÆMIA. LEUCOL, l[=u]'kol, _n._ an organic base obtained by the distillation of coal-tar. [Gr. _leukos_, white.] LEUCOMA, l[=u]-k[=o]'ma, _n._ a white opacity of the cornea, the result of acute inflammation. [Gr. _leukos_, white.] LEUCOMAINE, l[=u]'k[=o]-m[=a]n, _n._ an alkaloid found in living animal tissue:--opp. to _Ptomaine_ (q.v.). LEUCORRHOEA, l[=u]-k[=o]-r[=e]'a, _n._ an abnormal mucous or muco-purulent discharge from the vagina, the whites. [Gr. _leukos_, white, _hroia_--_hrein_, to flow.] LEUCOSIS, l[=u]-k[=o]'sis, _n._ whiteness of skin, pallor.--_ns._ LEUCISM (l[=u]'sizm), whiteness resulting from lack of colour, albinism; LEUCOP'ATHY, albinism.--_adj._ LEU'COUS, white, albinotic. [Gr. _leukos_, white.] LEVANT, le-vant', _n._ the point where the sun rises: the East: the coasts of the Mediterranean east of Italy.--_adj._ LEV'ANT, or L[=E]'VANT, eastern.--_n._ LEVANT'ER, a strong easterly wind in the Levant.--_adj._ LEVANT'INE, belonging to the Levant. [Fr. _levant_--L. _lev[=a]re_, to raise.] LEVANT, le-vant', _v.i._ to decamp.--_n._ LEVANT'ER, one who runs away dishonourably, who dodges paying his bets, &c. [Sp. _levantar_, to move--L. _lev[=a]re_, to raise.] LEVATOR, le-v[=a]'tor, _n._ that which raises (of a muscle):--opp. to _Depressor_. [L. _lev[=a]re_, to raise.] LEVEE, lev'[=a], lev'[=e], le-v[=e]', _n._ a morning assembly of visitors: an assembly received by a sovereign or other great personage.--_v.t._ to attend the levee of. [Fr. _lever_, to rise.] LEVEE, le-v[=e]', _n._ an artificial bank, as that of the Lower Mississippi: a quay. [Fr.] LEVEL, lev'el, _n._ a horizontal line or surface: a surface without inequalities: proper position: usual elevation: state of equality: the line of direction: an instrument for showing the horizontal.--_adj._ horizontal: even, smooth: even with anything else: uniform: well-balanced, sound of judgment: in the same line or plane: equal in position or dignity.--_v.t._ to make horizontal: to make flat or smooth: to make equal: to take aim:--_pr.p._ lev'elling; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ lev'elled.--_ns._ LEV'EL-CROSS'ING, or GRADE'-CROSS'ING, a place at which a common road crosses a railway at the same level; LEV'ELLER, one who levels or makes equal, esp. one of an ultra-republican and revolutionary sect or party which grew up in the parliamentary army in 1647, crushed by Cromwell in 1649; LEV'ELLING, the act of making uneven surfaces level: the process of finding the differences in level between different points on the surface of the earth by means of a LEVELLING INSTRUMENT, consisting of a telescope carrying a parallel and sensitive spirit-level, adjustable by means of screws; LEV'ELLING-ROD, -STAFF, an instrument used in levelling, in conjunction with a levelling instrument, or with a spirit-level and a telescope.--_adv._ LEV'ELLY, evenly.--_n._ LEV'ELNESS, state of being level, even, or equal.--LEVEL DOWN or UP, to lower or raise to the same level or status; DO ONE'S LEVEL BEST (_coll._) to do one's utmost. [O. Fr. _livel_, _liveau_ (Fr. _niveau_)--L. _libella_, a plummet, dim. of _libra_, a balance.] [Illustration] LEVER, l[=e]'v[.e]r, _n._ a bar of metal or other substance turning on a support called the fulcrum or prop, for imparting pressure or motion from a source of power to a resistance--of three kinds, according to the relative positions of the power, weight, and fulcrum: (_fig._) anything which exerts influence: any one of various tools on the principle defined above--in surgery, dentistry, &c.: a removable rod or bar inserted in a machine, to be operated by hand leverage.--_ns._ L[=E]'VERAGE, the mechanical power gained by the use of the lever: advantage gained for any purpose; L[=E]'VER-WATCH, a watch having a vibrating lever in the mechanism of the escapement. [Fr. _levier_--_lever_--L. _lev[=a]re_, to raise.] LEVER, l[=e]'v[.e]r, _adv._ an obsolete comp. of _lief_. LEVERET, lev'[.e]r-et, _n._ a hare in its first year. [O. Fr. _levret_ (Fr. _lièvre_)--L. _lepus_, _lep[)o]ris_, a hare.] LEVIABLE, lev'i-a-bl, _adj._ able to be levied or assessed. LEVIATHAN, le-v[=i]'a-than, _n._ (_B._) a huge aquatic animal in Job xli., here a crocodile; in Isa. xxvii. 1, apparently the great python of Egyptian monuments: anything of huge size: any huge sea-monster, as in Ps. civ. 26. [Heb. _livy[=a]th[=a]n_--_l[=a]v[=a]h_, to cleave.] LEVIGATE, lev'i-g[=a]t, _v.t._ to make smooth: to grind to a fine, impalpable powder.--_adj._ made smooth, polished.--_adj._ LEV'IGABLE, capable of being ground down to fine powder.--_n._ LEVIG[=A]'TION. [L. _l[=e]vig[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_l[=e]vis_, smooth; Gr. _leios_, akin to _level_.] LEVIGATE, lev'i-g[=a]t, _v.t._ to lighten, belittle. [L. _l[)e]vig[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_l[)e]vis_, light.] LEVIN, lev'n, _n._ (_Spens._) lightning.--Also LEV'EN. LEVIRATE, lev'i-r[=a]t, _n._ marriage between a man and a childless brother's widow--an obligation amongst the ancient Hebrews.--_adj._ LEVIRAT'ICAL.--_n._ LEVIR[=A]'TION. [L. _levir_, a brother-in-law.] LEVITATION, lev-i-t[=a]'shun, _n._ act of rendering light: the floating in the air of heavy bodies believed in by spiritualists.--_v.t._ LEV'ITATE, to cause to float. LEVITE, l[=e]'v[=i]t, _n._ a descendant of _Levi_: an inferior priest of the ancient Jewish Church.--_adjs._ LEVIT'IC, -AL.--_adv._ LEVIT'ICALLY.--_n._ LEVIT'ICUS, the third book of the Old Testament.--LEVITICAL DEGREES, the degrees of kindred within which marriage was forbidden in Lev. xviii. 6-18. LEVITY, lev'it-i, _n._ lightness of weight: lightness of temper or conduct: thoughtlessness: disposition to trifle: vanity. [L. _levitat-em_--_l[)e]vis_, light.] LEVOGYRATE (LÆV-), l[=e]-v[=o]-j[=i]'r[=a]t, _adj._ causing to turn toward the left hand.--_n._ LEVOGYR[=A]'TION.--_adj._ LEVOGY'ROUS. LEVULOSE, lev'[=u]-l[=o]s, _n._ a sugar isomeric with dextrose, but turning the plane of polarisation to the left. [L. _lævus_, left.] LEVY, lev'i, _v.t._ to raise: to collect by authority, as an army or a tax:--_pr.p._ lev'ying; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ lev'ied.--_n._ the act of collecting by authority: the troops so collected. [L. _lev[=a]re_, to raise.] LEW, l[=u], _adj._ tepid, lukewarm. [Cf. Ger. _lau_.] LEWD, l[=u]d, or l[=oo]d, _adj._ lustful: unchaste: debauched: ignorant, vicious, or bad, so in _B._--_adv._ LEWD'LY.--_ns._ LEWD'NESS; LEWD'STER, one addicted to lewdness. [A.S. _l['æ]wede_, ignorant, belonging to the laity, the pa.p. of the verb _l['æ]wan_, to weaken.] LEWIS, l[=u]'is, _n._ a contrivance for securing a hold on a block of stone to allow of its being raised by a derrick.--Also LEW'ISSON. [Ety. dub.] LEXICON, leks'i-kon, _n._ a word-book or dictionary.--_adj._ LEX'ICAL, belonging to a lexicon.--_adv._ LEX'ICALLY.--_n._ LEXICOG'RAPHER, one skilled in lexicography.--_adjs._ LEXICOGRAPH'IC, -AL.--_ns._ LEXICOG'RAPHIST, LEXICOL'OGIST, one skilled in lexicology; LEXICOG'RAPHY, the art of compiling a dictionary; LEXICOL'OGY, that branch of philology which treats of the proper signification and use of words.--_adjs._ LEXIGRAPH'IC, -AL, pertaining to lexigraphy.--_n._ LEXIG'RAPHY, the art of defining words. [Gr.,--_lexis_, a word, _legein_, to speak.] LEY, l[=e], _n._ Same as LEA. LEYDEN JAR, l[=i]'den jär, _n._ a form of condenser for statical electricity, a glass jar coated inside and outside with tinfoil for two-thirds of its height, the inner coating connected with a metallic knob at the top of the jar, usually by means of a loose chain. LHERZOLITE, ler'z[=o]-l[=i]t, _n._ an igneous rock, consisting of a granular aggregate of olivine, pyroxene, enstatite, and picotite. [From Lake _Lherz_.] LI, l[=e], _n._ a Chinese weight, equal to the one-thousandth of a liang or ounce, and nominally to the Japanese _rin_: a Chinese mile, equal to rather more than one-third of an English mile. [Chinese.] LIABLE, l[=i]'a-bl, _adj._ able to be bound or obliged: responsible: tending to: subject: (_Shak._) exposed: suitable.--_ns._ LIABIL'ITY, state of being liable: that for which one is liable, an obligation, debt, &c.; L[=I]'ABLENESS, state of being liable.--EMPLOYERS' LIABILITY ACT, an enactment (1880) making employers answerable to their servants for the negligence of those to whom they have delegated their authority; LIMITED LIABILITY, a principle of modern statute law which attempts to limit the responsibilities of shareholders in a partnership, joint-stock company, &c., by the extent of their personal interest therein. [Fr. _lier_--L. _lig[=a]re_, to bind.] LIAISON, l[=e]-[=a]-zong', _n._ union, or bond of union: connection, esp. if illicit between the sexes: in French, the linking in pronunciation of a final consonant to the succeeding word, when that begins with a vowel. [Fr.--L. _ligation-em_--_lig[=a]re_, to bind.] LIANA, li-an'a, _n._ a general name for the woody, climbing, and twining plants in tropical forests. [Fr. _liane_--_lier_, to bind--L. _lig[=a]re_, to bind.] LIANG, lyang, _n._ a Chinese ounce or tael, reckoned as one-third heavier than the ounce avoirdupois. LIAR, l[=i]'ar, _n._ one who lies. [_Lie_.] LIARD, l[=i]'ard, _adj._ gray, dapple-gray--(_Scot._) L[=I]'ART, LY'ART. [M. E. _liard_--O. Fr. _liard_, _liart_.] LIARD, liär, _n._ an old French coin, worth 3 deniers. LIAS, l[=i]'as, _n._ (_geol._) a formation of argillaceous limestone, &c., underlying the oolitic system.--_adj._ LIAS'SIC, pertaining to the lias formation. [Fr., perh. Bret. _liach_, a stone, Gael. _leac_, a stone.] LIB, lib, _v.t._ (_prov._) to geld, castrate. LIBATION, l[=i]-b[=a]'shun, _n._ the pouring forth wine or other liquid in honour of a deity: the liquid poured.--_adj._ L[=I]'BANT, sipping.--_v.t._ L[=I]'BATE (_rare_), to make a libation to.--_adj._ L[=I]'BATORY, pertaining to libation. [L. _libation-em_--_lib[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_; Gr. _leibein_, to pour.] LIBBARD, lib'bard, _n._ (_Spens._) a leopard. LIBECCIO, li-bech'[=o], _n._ the south-west wind. [It.] LIBEL, l[=i]'bel, _n._ a written accusation: any malicious defamatory publication or statement: (_law_) the statement of a plaintiff's grounds of complaint against a defendant.--_v.t._ to defame by a libel: to satirise unfairly: (_law_) to proceed against by producing a written complaint:--_pr.p._ l[=i]'belling; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ l[=i]'belled.--_ns._ L[=I]'BELLANT, one who brings a libel; L[=I]'BELLER; L[=I]'BELLING, defaming.--_adj._ L[=I]'BELLOUS, containing a libel: defamatory.--_adv._ L[=I]'BELLOUSLY. [L. _libellus_, dim. of _liber_, a book.] LIBER, l[=i]'ber, _n._ the bast or inner bark of exogenous plants: a book. [L.] LIBERAL, lib'[.e]r-al, _adj._ becoming a gentleman: generous: noble-minded: candid: free: free from restraint: general, extensive.--_n._ one who advocates greater freedom in political institutions.--_n._ LIBERALIS[=A]'TION, the process of making liberal.--_v.t._ LIB'ERALISE, to make liberal, or enlightened: to enlarge.--_ns._ LIB'ERALISM, the principles of a Liberal in politics or religion; LIBERAL'ITY, the quality of being liberal: generosity: largeness or nobleness of mind: candour: impartiality.--_adv._ LIB'ERALLY.--_v.t._ LIB'ER[=A]TE, to set free: to release from restraint, confinement, or bondage.--_ns._ LIBER[=A]'TION; LIBER[=A]'TIONIST, one who is in favour of church disestablishment; LIB'ER[=A]TOR, one who liberates or frees.--_adj._ LIB'ER[=A]TORY, tending to liberate.--LIBERAL PARTY, the name adopted by the Whigs (1830) to denote the body formed by their union with the Radicals; LIBERAL UNIONIST, one of that section of the Liberal Party which joined the Conservatives from inability to accede to Mr Gladstone's policy of giving Home Rule to Ireland (1886); GERMAN LIBERALS, a party in German politics, formed by the amalgamation of the Progressist party and the Liberal union, and advocating moderate liberalism in opposition to the policy of Prince Bismarck; NATIONAL LIBERALS, a party in German politics which before 1871 advocated the completion of governmental unity in Germany, as well as supported progressive measures of reform. [Fr.,--L. _liberalis_, befitting a freeman--_liber_, free, akin to _libet_, _lubet_, it pleases.] LIBERTY, lib'[.e]r-ti, _n._ freedom to do as one pleases: the unrestrained enjoyment of natural rights: power of free choice: privilege: exemption: relaxation of restraint: the bounds within which certain privileges are enjoyed: freedom of speech or action beyond ordinary civility.--_ns._ LIBERT[=A]'RIAN, one who believes in free-will as opposed to necessity; LIBERT[=A]'RIANISM, the doctrine of the freedom of the will, as opposed to necessitarianism; LIBER'TICIDE, a destroyer of liberty; LIBER'TINAGE, debauchery; LIB'ERTINE, formerly one who professed free opinions, esp. in religion: one who leads a licentious life, a rake or debauchee.--_adj._ belonging to a freedman: unrestrained: licentious.--_n._ LIB'ERTINISM, licentiousness of opinion or practice: lewdness or debauchery.--LIBERTY OF INDIFFERENCE, freedom of the will--because before action the will is undetermined as to acting or not acting; LIBERTY OF THE PRESS, liberty to print and publish without previous permission from government.--CAP OF LIBERTY (see BONNET ROUGE, under BONNET); RELIGIOUS LIBERTY, the right of thinking about religion or of worshipping as one likes. [Fr.,--L. _libertas_.] LIBIDINOUS, li-bid'in-us, _adj._ lustful, lascivious, lewd.--_ns._ LIBID'INIST, a lewd person; LIBIDINOS'ITY, LIBID'INOUSNESS.--_adv._ LIBID'INOUSLY. [Fr.,--L. _libidinosus_--_libido_, desire--_libet_, _lubet_, it pleases.] LIBKEN, lib'ken, _n._ (_slang_) a place of abode. LIBRA, l[=i]'bra, _n._ the balance, the seventh sign of the zodiac. [L.] LIBRARY, l[=i]'brar-i, _n._ a building or room containing a collection of books: a collection of books.--_ns._ LIBR[=A]'RIAN, the keeper of a library; LIBR[=A]'RIANSHIP. [L. _librarium_--_liber_, a book.] LIBRATE, l[=i]'br[=a]t, _v.t._ to poise: to balance.--_v.i._ to move slightly: to be poised.--_n._ LIBR[=A]'TION, balancing: a state of equipoise: a slight swinging motion.--_adj._ L[=I]'BRATORY.--LIBRATION OF THE MOON, an apparent irregularity in the moon's motion, whereby its globe seems to turn slightly round to each side alternately. [L. _libr[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_libra_, balance.] LIBRETTO, li-bret'[=o], _n._ a book of the words of an opera or other musical composition: the text itself.--_n._ LIBRETT'IST, a writer of librettos. [It., dim. of _libro_--L. _liber_, a book.] LIBYAN, lib'yan, _adj._ of _Libya_, northern Africa from Egypt to the Atlantic.--_n._ a native thereof. LICE, l[=i]s, _pl._ of _louse_. LICENSE, LICENCE, l[=i]'sens, _n._ a being allowed: leave: grant of permission, as for manufacturing a patented article or for the sale of intoxicants: the document by which authority is conferred: excess or abuse of freedom: a departure from rules or standards in art or literature.--_v.t._ L[=I]'CENSE, to grant license to: to authorise or permit.--_adj._ L[=I]'CENSABLE.--_ns._ LICENSEE', one to whom license is granted; L[=I]'CENSER, one who grants license or permission: one authorised to license; L[=I]'CENSURE, act of licensing; LICEN'TIATE, among Presbyterians, a person authorised by a Presbytery to preach: on the Continent, an academical dignity, forming the step from the baccalaureate to the doctorate.--_adj._ LICEN'TIOUS, indulging in excessive freedom: given to the indulgence of the animal passions: dissolute.--_adv._ LICEN'TIOUSLY.--_n._ LICEN'TIOUSNESS.--HIGH LICENSE, a mode of regulating the traffic in alcoholic drinks by exacting a comparatively large sum for the privilege of selling such; SPECIAL LICENSE, license given by the Archbishop of Canterbury permitting the marriage of two specified persons without banns, and at a place and time other than those prescribed by law. [Fr.,--L. _licentia_--_licet_.] LICHEN, l[=i]'ken, lich'en, _n._ one of an order of cellular flowerless plants: an eruption on the skin.--_adjs._ L[=I]'CHENED, covered with lichens; LICHEN'IC, pertaining to lichens; L[=I]'CHENIFORM.--_ns._ L[=I]'CHENINE, a starch-like substance, found in Iceland moss and other lichens; L[=I]'CHENIST, LICHENOG'RAPHER, one versed in LICHENOG'RAPHY, the description of lichens.--_adjs._ LICHENOGRAPH'IC, -AL.--_n._ LICHENOL'OGY, the department of botany relating to lichens.--_adj._ L[=I]'CHENOUS, abounding in, or pertaining to, lichens. [L.,--Gr. _leich[=e]n_--_leichein_, to lick.] [Illustration] LICHGATE, lich'g[=a]t, _n._ a churchyard gate with a porch to rest the bier under.--_ns._ LICH'WAKE, the wake or watch held over a dead body--also _Likewake_, _Lykewake_, and even _Latewake_; LICH'WAY, the path by which the dead are carried to the grave. [M. E. _lich_--A.S. _líc_ (Ger. _leiche_), _geat_, a gate.] LICIT, lis'it, _adj._ lawful, allowable.--_adv._ LIC'ITLY. [L.] LICK, lik, _v.t._ to pass the tongue over: to take in by the tongue: to lap: to beat by repeated blows: (_coll._) to triumph over, overcome.--_n._ a passing the tongue over: a slight smear: (_Scot._) a tiny amount: a blow: (_coll._) an attempt, trial: (_pl._, _Scot._) a thrashing.--_ns._ LICK'ER; LICK'ING, a thrashing; LICK'PENNY (_Scot._), a miserly person; LICK'-PLAT'TER, LICK'-TRENCH'ER, LICK'SPITTLE, a mean, servile dependent.--LICK INTO SHAPE, to give form and method to--from the notion that the she-bear gives form to her shapeless young by licking them; LICK THE DUST, to be slain: to be abjectly servile. [A.S. _liccian_; Ger. _lecken_, L. _ling[)e]re_, Gr. _leichein_.] LICKERISH, lik'[.e]r-ish, _adj._ dainty: eager to taste or enjoy: tempting.--_adv._ LICK'ERISHLY.--_n._ LICK'ERISHNESS. [Formerly also _liquorish_; a corr. of obsolete _lickerous_, lecherous.] LICORICE. Same as LIQUORICE. LICTOR, lik'tor, _n._ an officer who attended the Roman magistrates, bearing an axe and bundle of rods. [L.] LID, lid, _n._ a cover: that which shuts a vessel: the cover of the eye.--_adjs._ LID'DED, having a lid or lids; LID'LESS, without lid or lids. [A.S. _hlid_ (Dut. _lid_)--_hlídan_, to cover.] LIE, l[=i], _n._ anything meant to deceive: an intentional violation of truth: anything that misleads.--_v.i._ to utter falsehood with an intention to deceive: to make a false representation:--_pr.p._ ly'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ lied.--LIE IN ONE'S THROAT, to lie shamelessly; LIE OUT OF WHOLE CLOTH, to lie without any foundation whatever; GIVE THE LIE TO, to charge with falsehood; WHITE LIE, a conventional phrase not strictly true: a well-meant falsehood. [A.S. _leógan_ (_lyge_, a falsehood), prov. Eng. _lig_; Dut. _liegen_, Goth. _liugan_, Ger. _lügen_, to lie.] LIE, l[=i], _v.i._ to rest in a reclining posture: to lean: to press upon: to be situated: to abide: to consist: (_law_) to be sustainable: (_Shak._) to be imprisoned: to lodge, pass the night:--_pr.p._ ly'ing; _pa.t._ lay; _pa.p._ lain, (_B._) l[=i]'en.--_n._ manner of lying: relative position: an animal's lair: (_golf_) position of the ball for striking.--_ns._ L[=I]'ER, LIE'-ABED', one who lies late--also _adj._--LIE ALONG, to be extended at full length; LIE AT ONE'S DOOR, to be directly imputable to one; LIE AT ONE'S HEART, to be an object of interest or affection to one; LIE BY, to take rest from labour: (_Shak._) to be under the charge of; LIE HARD OR HEAVY ON, UPON, (_Shak._) to, to oppress, burden; LIE IN, to be in childbed; LIE IN ONE, to be in one's power; LIE IN THE WAY, to be ready, at hand: to be an obstacle; LIE IN WAIT, to lie in ambush; LIE LOW, to conceal one's actions or intentions; LIE ON, UPON, to be incumbent on; LIE ON THE HANDS, to remain unused or unoccupied; LIE OVER, to be deferred to a future occasion; LIE TO, to be checked in sailing; LIE UNDER, to be subject to or oppressed by; LIE UP, to abstain from work; LIE WITH, to lodge or sleep with: to have carnal knowledge of; LYING-IN HOSPITAL, a hospital for those about to become mothers. [A.S. _licgan_; Ger. _liegen_; Goth. _ligan_.] LIEBIG, l[=e]'big, _n._ a nutritious extract of beef first prepared by the great German chemist, Baron von _Liebig_ (1803-1873). LIED, l[=e]t, _n._ a German ballad, secular or sacred, fitted for singing and often set to music. [Ger.; cf. A.S. _leóth_, a song.] LIEF, l[=e]f, _adj._ (_arch._) loved, dear.--_adv._ willingly--now chiefly used in the phrases, 'I had as lief,' 'to have liefer.' [A.S. _leóf_; Ger. _lieb_, loved.] LIEGE, l[=e]j, _adj._ free, except as within the relations of vassal and feudal lord: under a feudal tenure.--_n._ one under a feudal tenure: a vassal: a lord or superior, or one who has lieges.--_n._ LIEGE'DOM, allegiance.--_adj._ LIEGE'LESS, not subject to a superior.--_n._ LIEGE'MAN, a vassal: a subject. [O. Fr. _lige_, prob. from Old High Ger. _ledic_, free (Ger. _ledig_, free, unfettered), _l[=i]dan_, to depart.] LIEN, l[=i]'en, or l[=e]'en, _n._ (_law_) a right in one to retain the property of another to pay a claim. [Fr., tie, band--L. _ligamen_--_lig[=a]re_, to bind.] LIEN, l[=i]'en (_B._), _pa.p._ of _lie_, to lie down. LIENTERY, l[=i]'en-ter-i, _n._ a form of diarrhoea, with frequent liquid evacuations in which the food is discharged undigested.--_adj._ LIENTER'IC. [Gr. _leios_, smooth, _enteron_, an intestine.] LIERNE, li-ern', _n._ (_archit._) a cross-rib or branch-rib in vaulting. [Fr.] LIEU, l[=u], _n._ place, stead, chiefly in the phrase 'in lieu of.' [Fr.,--L. _locus_, place.] LIEUTENANT, lef-ten'ant, _n._ one representing or performing the work of another: an officer holding the place of another in his absence: a commissioned officer in the army next below a captain, or in the navy next below a commander and ranking with captain in the army: one holding a place next in rank to a superior, as in the compounds LIEUTEN'ANT-COL'ONEL, LIEUTEN'ANT-GEN'ERAL.--_ns._ LIEUTEN'ANCY, LIEUTEN'ANTSHIP, office or commission of a lieutenant: the body of lieutenants; LIEUTEN'ANT-GOV'ERNOR, in India, the name of the chief official in the provinces of Bengal, Behar, and Orissa, the North-western Provinces, and Oudh, Punjab, and Delhi; LIEUTEN'ANT-GOV'ERNORSHIP; LIEUTEN'ANTRY (_Shak._), lieutenancy; LORD'-LIEUTEN'ANT, the title of the viceroy of Ireland: in the British Isles, a permanent governor of a county appointed by the sovereign, usually a peer or other large land-owner, at the head of the magistracy and the chief executive authority; SUB'-LIEUTEN'ANT, formerly mate or passed midshipman, now the intermediate rank in the navy between midshipman and lieutenant.--FIELD-MARSHAL LIEUTENANT (see FIELD-MARSHAL). [Fr.; cf. _Lieu_ and _Tenant_.] [Illustration] LIFE, l[=i]f, _n._ state of living: animate existence: union of soul and body: the period between birth and death: present state of existence: manner of living: moral conduct: animation: a living being: system of animal nature: social state: human affairs: narrative of a life: eternal happiness, also He who bestows it: a quickening principle in a moral sense: the living form and expression, living semblance: (_cricket_) an escape, as by a missed or dropped catch:--_pl._ LIVES (l[=i]vz).--_interj._ used as an oath, abbreviated from God's life.--_adj._ LIFE'-AND-DEATH', critical: desperate.--_ns._ LIFE'-ANN[=U]'ITY, a sum paid to a person yearly during life; LIFE'-ASSUR'ANCE, LIFE'-INSUR'ANCE (see INSURANCE); LIFE'-BELT, a belt either inflated with air, or with cork attached, for sustaining a person in the water; LIFE'-BLOOD, the blood of an animal in the body: that which gives strength or life; LIFE'BOAT, a boat for saving shipwrecked persons, having air-chambers or the like, by which it is rendered specially buoyant and sometimes self-righting; LIFE'-BUOY, a buoy intended to support a person in the water till he can be rescued; LIFE'-ESTATE', an estate held during the life of the possessor.--_adjs._ LIFE'FUL (_Spens._), full of vital energy; LIFE'-GIV'ING, imparting life: invigorating.--_ns._ LIFE'-GUARD, a guard of the life or person: a guard of a prince or other dignitary; LIFE'-HIS'TORY, LIFE'-CY'CLE, the series of vital phenomena exhibited by an organism in its passage from the ovum to full development; LIFE'HOLD, land held by lease for life; LIFE'-IN'TEREST, an interest lasting during one's life.--_adj._ LIFE'LESS, dead: without vigour: insipid: sluggish.--_adv._ LIFE'LESSLY.--_n._ LIFE'LESSNESS.--_adj._ LIFE'-LIKE, like a living person.--_n._ LIFE'-LINE, a rope stretched anywhere on board a vessel for support of the sailors in difficult operations or during wild weather: a line attached to a life-buoy or lifeboat for an immersed person to seize hold of.--_adj._ LIFE'LONG, during the length of a life.--_ns._ LIFE'-MOR'TAR, a mortar for throwing a shot of some kind to carry a rope from the shore to a ship in distress; LIFE'-PEER, a peer whose title is not hereditary; LIFE'-PEER'AGE; LIFE'-PRESERV'ER, an invention, as a buoyant belt or jacket, for the preservation of life in cases of shipwreck: a cane with a loaded head; LIFE'-RAFT, a raft-like structure for use in case of shipwreck; LIFE'-RATE, rate of payment on a policy of life-insurance.--_adj._ LIFE'-REN'DERING (_Shak._), yielding up life.--_ns._ LIFE'RENT, a rent that continues for life; LIFE'RENTER, one who enjoys a liferent:--_fem._ LIFE'RENTRIX; LIFE'-ROCK'ET, a rocket for carrying a line from the shore to a ship in distress.--_adjs._ LIFE'-SAV'ING, designed to save life, esp. from drowning.--_n._ LIFE'-SCHOOL, a school where artists work from living models.--_adjs._ LIFE'-SIZE, similar in size to the object represented; LIFE'SOME, full of life: gay, lively.--_ns._ LIFE'-T[=A]'BLE, a table of statistics as to the probability of life at different ages; LIFE'-TEN'ANT, the owner of a life-estate: one who holds lands, &c., for the term of his own or another's life; LIFE'-TIME, continuation or duration of life.--_adj._ LIFE'-WEA'RY (_Shak._), weary of life: wretched.--_n._ LIFE'-WORK, the work to which one's life is or is to be devoted.--LIFE-SAVING APPARATUS, all materials, appliances, &c. available for preserving life in cases of shipwreck or fire.--BRING TO LIFE, to restore to life one apparently dead; COME TO LIFE, to be reanimated; FOR LIFE, for the whole period of one's existence: so as to save life: very fast or strenuously; HIGH LIFE, the manner of living of those in high or fashionable society: the upper classes of society; LINE OF LIFE (see LINE); TO THE LIFE, very closely resembling the original: exactly drawn. [A.S. _líf_; Ice. _líf_, Sw. _lif_, Dut. _lijf_, body, life; Ger. _leben_, to live.] LIFT, lift, _n._ (_Scot._) the air, heavens, sky. [A.S. _lyft_; Ger. _luft_, Ice. _lopt_, Goth. _luftus_, the air.] LIFT, lift, _v.t._ to bring to a higher position: to elevate or keep elevated: to elate: to take and carry away: (_obs._) to bear, support: (_slang_) to arrest: to steal.--_v.i._ to rise: to try to rise.--_n._ act of lifting: that which is to be raised: that which assists to lift: a hoisting-machine: advancement.--_adj._ LIFT'ABLE.--_ns._ LIFT'ER, one who, or that which, lifts: (_Shak._) a thief; LIFT'ING-BRIDGE, a drawbridge raised so as to allow ships to pass; LIFT'-PUMP, any pump which is not a force-pump.--LIFT THE HAND, to raise it in hostility; LIFT UP THE EYES, to look, direct one's eyes, or thoughts, to; LIFT UP THE FACE, to look upward, as in supplication; LIFT UP THE HAND, to make oath, swear: to pray; LIFT UP THE HEAD, to rejoice, exult; LIFT UP THE VOICE, to cry loudly.--DEAD LIFT (see DEAD). [Ice. _lypta_--_lopt_, the air.] LIG, lig, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to lie. [See LIE.] LIGAMENT, lig'a-ment, _n._ anything that binds: (_anat._) the membrane connecting the movable bones: a bond of union.--_adjs._ LIGAMENT'AL, LIGAMENT'OUS, composing or resembling a ligament.--_ns._ LIG[=A]'TION, act of binding: state of being bound; LIG'ATURE, anything that binds: a bandage: (_mus._) a line connecting notes: (_print._) a type of two letters: (_med._) a cord for tying the blood-vessels, &c.: impotence produced by magic.--_adj._ LIG'ATURED, bound by a ligature. [Fr.,--L. _ligamentum_--_lig[=a]re_, to bind.] LIGAN, l[=i]'gan, _n._ goods sunk at sea, with a float attached for recovery. [L. _ligamen_, a band.] LIGGER, lig'[.e]r, _n._ the horizontal timber of a scaffolding: a nether millstone: a board-pathway over a ditch: a coverlet for a bed: a kelt or spent salmon: a night-line with float and bait for pike-fishing. LIGHT, l[=i]t, _n._ that which shines or is brilliant: the agent by which objects are rendered visible: the power of vision: day: dawn of day: that which gives light, as the sun, a candle: the illuminated part of a picture: means of communicating fire or light: a lighthouse: (_fig._) mental or spiritual illumination: enlightenment: knowledge: public view: point of view: a conspicuous person: an aperture for admitting light: (_B._) prosperity, favour.--_adj._ not dark: bright: whitish.--_v.t._ to give light to: to set fire to: to attend with a light.--_v.i._ to become light or bright:--_pr.p._ light'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ light'ed or lit.--_adj._ LIGHT'ABLE.--_n._ LIGHT'-BALL, a composition of saltpetre, sulphur, resin, and linseed-oil formed into a ball, and used by soldiers to give light during military operations.--_n.pl._ LIGHT'-DUES, tolls taken from ships in certain waters, for the maintenance of lighthouses.--_ns._ LIGHT'ER; LIGHT'HOUSE, a tower-like construction exhibiting a light for indicating to vessels, when nearing a port or coasting along shore, the proximity of rocks, shoals, and other dangers; LIGHT'HOUSE-MAN, LIGHT'-KEEP'ER, the keeper of a lighthouse.--_adj._ LIGHT'LESS.--_ns._ LIGHT'NESS; LIGHT'-ROOM, in a man-of-war, a small room separated from the magazine by thick glass windows, and used to illuminate it: the room in a lighthouse containing the lighting apparatus; LIGHT'-SHIP, a stationary ship carrying a light and serving the purpose of a lighthouse in very deep waters.--_adj._ LIGHT'SOME, full of light.--_n._ LIGHT'WAVE, a wave of the luminous ether.--LIGHT OF NATURE, intellectual perception or intuition: (_theol._) man's capacity of discovering truth unaided by revelation.--BETWEEN THE LIGHTS, in the twilight; BETWEEN TWO LIGHTS, under cover of darkness; BRING TO LIGHT, to reveal; CHILDREN OF LIGHT, Christians as under the illumination of the Divine light, that illumination which comes directly from God; COME TO LIGHT, to be revealed; FIXED LIGHT, in lighthouses, a light which is maintained steadily without change, as opposed to a revolving light; FLOATING LIGHT, a light displayed at the mast-head of a lightship to show dangers to navigation; FOOT, GROUND, LIGHTS, a row of lights used on a stage to light up the base of a scene; INNER LIGHT, spiritual illumination, light divinely imparted; NORTHERN LIGHTS, aurora borealis; SEE THE LIGHT, to come into view; STAND IN ONE'S OWN LIGHT, to hinder one's own advantage. [A.S. _leóht_; Ger. _licht_.] LIGHT, l[=i]t, _adj._ not heavy: of short weight: easily suffered or performed: easily digested: not heavily armed: active: not heavily burdened: unimportant: not dense or copious or intense: gentle: gay, lively: amusing: unchaste: loose, sandy: giddy, delirious: idle, worthless.--_vs.t._ LIGHT, LIGHT'EN, to make less heavy: to alleviate, cheer.--_advs._ LIGHT, LIGHT'LY (_Shak._), commonly, usually.--_adj._ LIGHT'-ARMED, armed in a manner suitable for active service.--_ns._ LIGHT'ER, a large open boat used in unloading and loading ships; LIGHT'ERAGE, price paid for unloading ships by lighters: the act of thus unloading; LIGHT'ERMAN.--_adjs._ LIGHT'-FING'ERED, light or active with one's fingers: thievish; LIGHT'-FOOT, -ED, nimble, active; LIGHT'FUL (_rare_), cheery, happy; LIGHT'-HAND'ED, with light or dexterous touch: having little in the hand: empty-handed: insufficiently manned; LIGHT'-HEAD'ED, giddy in the head: delirious: thoughtless: unsteady.--_n._ LIGHT'-HEAD'EDNESS.--_adj._ LIGHT'-HEART'ED, light or merry of heart: free from anxiety: cheerful.--_adv._ LIGHT'-HEART'EDLY.--_n._ LIGHT'-HEART'EDNESS.--_adj._ LIGHT'-HEELED, swift of foot.--_ns._ LIGHT'-HORSE, light-armed cavalry; LIGHT'-HORSE'MAN; LIGHT'-IN'FANTRY, infantry lightly or not heavily armed.--_adjs._ LIGHT'-LEGGED, swift of foot; LIGHT'-MIND'ED, having a light or unsteady mind: not considerate.--_ns._ Light'-MIND'EDNESS; LIGHT'NESS (_Shak._), light-headedness; LIGHT'NING (_Shak._), an exhilaration of the spirits; LIGHT'-O'-LOVE, a capricious and wanton woman: an old dance tune.--_n.pl._ LIGHTS, the lungs.--_adj._ LIGHT'SOME, light, gay, lively, cheering.--_n._ LIGHT'SOMENESS.--_adj._ LIGHT'-SPIR'ITED, having a cheerful spirit.--_n._ LIGHT'-WEIGHT, in sporting and especially boxing, a man or animal of a certain weight prescribed by the rules, intermediate between the middle-weight and the feather-weight: a person of little importance.--_adj._ LIGHT'-WINGED, having light wings: volatile.--MAKE LIGHT OF, to treat as of little consequence. [A.S. _leóht_; Ger. _leicht_, Ice. _léttr_; L. _l[)e]vis_.] LIGHT, l[=i]t, _v.i._ (with _on_, _upon_) to stoop from flight: to settle: to rest: to come by chance: (with _down_, _from_) to descend, to alight:--_pr.p._ light'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ light'ed or lit.--_v.i._ LIGHT'EN UPON' (_Pr. Bk._), to alight or descend upon. [A.S. _líhtan_, to dismount, lit. 'make light,' relieve of a burden.] LIGHTEN, l[=i]t'n, _v.t._ to make light or clear: (_fig._) to illuminate with knowledge.--_v.i._ to shine like lightning: to flash: to become less dark.--_ns._ LIGHT'NING, the electric flash usually followed by thunder: (_Shak._) a becoming bright; LIGHT'NING-ARREST'ER, an apparatus used for protecting telegraph or telephone lines, &c., from lightning-discharges; LIGHT'NING-BUG, a sort of phosphorescent beetle or firefly; LIGHT'NING-CONDUC'TOR, LIGHT'NING-ROD, a metallic rod for protecting buildings from lightning. LIGNAGE, l[=i]n'[=a]j, _n._ (_Spens._) lineage. LIGN-ALOES, l[=i]n-al'[=o]z, LIGNALOES, lig-nal'[=o]z, _n._ (_B._) aloes-wood. [L. _lignum_, wood, and _aloes_, aloes.] LIGNUM, lig'num, _n._ wood as contrasted with soft tissues or with bark.--_adjs._ LIG'NEOUS, wooden: woody: made of wood; LIGNIF'EROUS. producing wood.--_n._ LIGNIFIC[=A]'TION.--_adj._ LIG'NIFORM, resembling wood.--_v.t._ LIG'NIFY, to turn into wood.--_v.i._ to become wood or woody:--_pr.p._ lig'nifying; _pa.p._ lig'nif[=i]ed.--_n._ LIG'N[=I]NE, pure woody fibre.--_adj._ LIGNIPER'DOUS, destructive of wood.--_n._ LIG'N[=I]TE, brown coal, coal retaining the texture of wood.--_adj._ LIGNIT'IC.--_ns._ LIG'NUM-CRU'CIS, wood of the cross: a relic asserted to be a piece of the true cross; LIG'NUM-V[=I]'TÆ, popular name of a South American tree with very hard wood. [L. _lignum_, wood.] LIGULE, lig'[=u]l, _n._ (_bot._) the flat part of the leaf of a grass: a strap-shaped petal in certain flowers.--_n._ LIG'ULA, a tongue-like part or organ: in entomology, a fleshy membranaceous or horny anterior part of the labium.--_adjs._ LIG'ULAR, pertaining to a ligula; LIG'ULATE (_bot._), like a bandage or strap: composed of ligules. [L. _ligula_, dim. of _lingua_, a tongue.] LIGURE, l[=i]'g[=u]r, or lig'[=u]r, _n._ (_B._) a precious stone.--_n._ LIG'URITE, a variety of sphene or titanite. [Gr.] LIKE, l[=i]k, _adj._ equal in quantity, quality, or degree: similar: likely, probable.--_n._ the like thing or person: an exact resemblance: a liking.--_adv._ in the same manner: probably.--_conj._ as, as if.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to compare, liken.--_ns._ LIKE'LINESS, LIKE'LIHOOD.--_adj._ LIKE'LY, like the thing required: credible: probable: having reason to expect.--_adv._ probably.--_adj._ LIKE'-MIND'ED, having a similar disposition or purpose.--_v.t._ LIK'EN, to represent as like or similar: to compare.--_n._ LIKE'NESS, resemblance: one who resembles another: that which resembles: a portrait or picture: effigy.--_adv._ LIKE'WISE, in like wise or manner: also: moreover: too.--FEEL LIKE, to be disposed to do anything; HAD LIKE, was likely, came near to do something; LOOK LIKE, to show a likelihood of: to appear similar to; SUCH LIKE, of that kind. [A.S. _líc_, seen in _ge-líc_; Ice. _líkr_, Dut. _ge-lijk_, Ger. _gleich_ (=_ge-leich_).] LIKE, l[=i]k, _v.t._ to be pleased with: to approve: to enjoy: (_obs._) to please.--_n._ a liking, chiefly in phrase 'likes and dislikes.'--_adjs._ LIKE'ABLE, lovable: amiable; LIKE'LY, that may be liked: pleasing.--_n._ LIK'ING, state of being pleased with: inclination: satisfaction in: (_B._) condition, plight.--_adj._ (_B._) as in GOOD'-LIK'ING, WELL'-LIK'ING, in good condition.--ON LIKING, on approval. [Orig. the verb meant 'to be pleasing,' and was used impersonally, as it 'likes me'--i.e. it pleases me, A.S. _lícian_--_líc_, like.] LILAC, l[=i]'lak, _n._ a pretty flowering shrub, with a flower of a light-purple colour.--_adj._ having the colour of the lilac flower. [Sp.,--the Pers. _lilaj_.] LILL, lil, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to loll. LILLIBULLERO, lil-i-bu-l[=e]'r[=o], _n._ the famous ballad in mockery of the Irish Catholics, which 'sung James II. out of three kingdoms.'--Also LILLIBURL[=E]'RO. [From the refrain.] LILLIPUTIAN, lil-i-p[=u]'shi-an, _n._ an inhabitant of the island of _Lilliput_, described by Swift in his _Gulliver's Travels_: a person of small size, a dwarf.--_adj._ of small size: dwarfish. LILT, lilt, _v.i._ to do anything cleverly or quickly, as to hop about: to sing, dance, or play merrily.--_v.t._ to sing a song easily or gaily.--_n._ a cheerful song or air. [M. E. _lilten_, _lulten_; ety. dub.] LILY, lil'i, _n._ a bulbous plant, with showy and fragrant flowers.--_adj._ resembling a lily: pure.--_adjs._ LILI[=A]'CEOUS, pertaining to lilies; LIL'IED, adorned with lilies: resembling lilies.--_n._ LIL'Y-EN'CRINITE, same as _Stone-lily_ (see ENCRINITE).--_adj._ LIL'Y-HAND'ED, having hands white as the lily.--_n._ LIL'Y-HY'ACINTH, a bulbous perennial plant with blue flowers.--_adjs._ LIL'Y-LIV'ERED, white-livered: cowardly; LIL'Y-WHITE, white as the lily.--LILY OF THE VALLEY, a very beautiful flower of the lily genus. [A.S. _lilie_--L. _lilium_--Gr. _leirion_, lily.] LIMACEOUS, l[=i]-m[=a]'shi-us, _adj._ like a slug.--_adjs._ LIM'ACOID (also _n._); LIMAC'IFORM.--_n._ L[=i]'max, a slug. LIMATION, l[=i]-m[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of filing or polishing.--_n._ L[=I]'MATURE, act of filing: filings. LIMB, lim, _n._ a jointed part in animals, the leg: a projecting part: a branch of a tree: a part of something else, as 'a limb of the law:' an imp, scapegrace, as 'a limb of Satan.'--_v.t._ to supply with limbs: to tear off the limbs of.--_adjs._ LIMBED, having limbs: formed in regard to limbs; LIMB'MEAL (_Shak._), limb from limb. [A.S. _lim_; Ice. _limr_, Sw. _lem_.] LIMB, lim, _n._ an edge or border, as of the sun, &c.: the edge of a sextant, &c.--_adj._ LIM'BATE (_bot._), bordered. [Fr. _limbe_--L. _limbus_.] LIMBEC, lim'bek, _n._ (_Spens._) an alembic. [Illustration] LIMBER, lim'b[.e]r, _n._ the part of a gun-carriage consisting of two wheels and a shaft to which the horses are attached.--_v.t._ to attach to the limber, as a gun. [Prov. Eng. _limbers_, shafts--Ice. _limar_, boughs; cf. _limb_, a branch.] LIMBER, lim'b[.e]r, _adj._ pliant, flexible.--_n._ LIM'BERNESS, flexibleness, pliancy. [See _limp_ (adj.).] LIMBO, lim'b[=o], _n._ an indefinite region in the intermediate state, the abode of those who have had no opportunity to accept Christ, of the souls of the pious who died before the time of Christ, and of the souls of unbaptised infants: a place of confinement, or where things are thrown aside.--Also LIM'BUS. [L. _limbus_, border.] LIME, l[=i]m, _n._ any slimy or gluey material: bird-lime: the white caustic earth from limestone, and used for cement.--_v.t._ to cover with lime: to cement: to manure with lime: to ensnare.--_ns._ LIME'-BURN'ER, one who burns limestone to form lime; LIME'KILN, a kiln or furnace in which limestone is burned to lime; LIME'-LIGHT, or _Calcium-light_, light produced by a blowpipe-flame directed against a block of pure, compressed quicklime; LIME'STONE, stone from which lime is procured by burning; LIME'TWIG, a twig smeared with bird-lime: a snare; LIME'WASH, a coating given with a solution of lime; LIME'WA'TER, a saturated aqueous solution of lime.--_adjs._ LIM'OUS, gluey: slimy: muddy; LIM'Y, glutinous: sticky: containing, resembling, or having the qualities of lime. [A.S. _lím_; Ger. _leim_, glue, L. _limus_, slime.] LIME, l[=i]m, _n._ a kind of citron or lemon tree and its fruit.--_n._ LIME'-JUICE, the acid juice of the lime, used at sea as a specific against scurvy. [Fr.] LIME-HOUND, l[=i]m'-hownd, _n._ (_Spens._) a boar-hound. LIME-TREE, l[=i]m'-tr[=e], _n._ the linden-tree. [_Lime_ is a corr. of _line_, for _lind_=linden-tree.] LIMIT, lim'it, _n._ boundary: utmost extent: restriction: (_Shak._) a limb, as the limit of the body.--_v.t._ to confine within bounds: to restrain: to fix within limits.--_adjs._ LIM'ITABLE, that may be limited, bounded, or restrained; LIMIT[=A]'RIAN, tending to limit.--_n._ one who limits.--_adjs._ LIM'ITARY, placed at the boundary as a guard, &c.: confined within limits; LIM'ITATE (_bot._), bounded by a distinct line.--_n._ LIMIT[=A]'TION, the act of limiting, bounding, or restraining: the state of being limited, bounded, or restrained: restriction.--_adjs._ LIMIT[=A]'TIVE, LIM'ITED, within limits: narrow: restricted.--_adv._ LIM'ITEDLY.--_ns._ LIM'ITEDNESS; LIM'ITER, the person or thing that limits or confines: a friar who had a license to beg within certain bounds.--_adj._ LIM'ITLESS, having no limits: boundless: immense: infinite.--LIMITED LIABILITY (see LIABILITY); LIMITED MONARCHY, a monarchy in which the supreme power is shared with a body of nobles, a representative body, or both. [Fr.,--L. _limes_, _limitis_, a boundary.] LIMMA, lim'a, _n._ in prosody, a monosemic empty time or pause: in Pythagorean music, the smaller half-step or semi-tone. [Gr. _leimma_, a remnant.] LIMMER, lim'[.e]r, _n._ a mongrel-hound: a base person, esp. a jade. [O. Fr. _liemier_--_liem_, a leash.] LIMN, lim, _v.t._ to draw or paint, esp. in water-colours: (_orig._) to illuminate with ornamental letters, &c.--_n._ LIM'NER, one who limns or paints on paper or parchment: a portrait-painter. [Contr. of O. Fr. _enluminer_--L. _illumin[=a]re_.] LIMONITE, l[=i]'m[=o]-n[=i]t, _n._ an iron ore--also _Brown hematite_ and _Brown iron ore_.--_adj._ LIMONIT'IC. [Gr. _leim[=o]n_, a meadow.] LIMOSIS, l[=i]-m[=o]'sis, _n._ a morbidly ravenous appetite. [Gr. _limos_, hunger.] LIMP, limp, _adj._ wanting stiffness, flexible: weak, flaccid. [According to Skeat, a nasalised form of _lip_, a weakened form of _lap_, as seen in Eng. _lap_, a flap; cf. prov. Ger. _lampen_, to hang loosely down.] LIMP, limp, _v.i._ to halt: to walk lamely--fig. as 'limping verses.'--_n._ act of limping: a halt.--_p.adj._ LIMP'ING, having the imperfect movement of one who limps.--_adv._ LIMP'INGLY. [Prob. conn. with preceding. There is an A.S. adj. _lemp-healt_, halting.] LIMPET, lim'pet, _n._ a small shellfish which clings to intertidal rocks. [A.S. _lempedu_, _lamprede_, lamprey.] LIMPID, lim'pid, _adj._ clear: shining: transparent: pure.--_ns._ LIMPID'ITY, LIM'PIDNESS.--_adv._ LIM'PIDLY. [Fr.,--L. _limpidus_, _liquidus_, liquid.] LIN, lin, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to cease, to give over.--_v.t._ to cease from. [A.S. _linnan_, to cease.] LINAMENT, lin'a-ment, _n._ lint: a tent for a wound. [L.] LINCH, linsh, _n._ a ridge of land, a boundary, a cliff.--_n._ LINCH'ET, a terrace seen on the slopes of the chalk, oolitic, and liassic escarpments in Bedfordshire, Somerset, &c. [A.S. _hlinc_, a ridge of land.] LINCHPIN, linsh'pin, _n._ a pin used to keep the wheel of a carriage on the axle-tree. [Properly _linspin_, 'axle-pin'--obs. _linse_, axle, and _pin_.] LINCOLN-GREEN, lingk'un-gr[=e]n, _n._ the colour of cloth made formerly at _Lincoln_: the cloth itself. LINCTURE, lingk't[=u]r, _n._ medicine to be sucked up.--Also LINC'TUS. [L. _ling[)e]re_, _linctum_, to lick.] LINDEN, lin'den, _n._ the lime-tree. [A.S. _linden_--_lind_; cf. Ice. _lind_, Ger. _linde_.] LINE, l[=i]n, _v.t._ to cover on the inside: to pad: to impregnate: (_Shak._) to aid.--_n._ LIN'ING. [M. E. _linen_, to cover, perh. orig. with linen--obs. _line_, linen--A.S. _lín_--L. _linum_.] LINE, l[=i]n, _n._ a thread of linen or flax: a slender cord: (_math._) that which has length without breadth or thickness: an extended stroke: a straight row: a cord extended to direct any operations: outline: a series or succession, as of progeny: a series of steamers, &c., plying continuously between places: a railroad: a telegraph wire between stations: an order given to an agent for goods, such goods received, the stock on hand of any particular goods: a mark or lineament, hence a characteristic: a rank: a verse: a short letter or note: a trench: limit: method: the equator: lineage: direction: occupation: the regular infantry of an army: the twelfth part of an inch: (_pl._) marriage-lines, a marriage certificate: a certificate of church membership: military works of defence.--_v.t._ to mark out with lines: to cover with lines: to place along by the side of for guarding: to give out for public singing, as a hymn, line by line: (_rare_) to delineate, paint: to measure.--_n._ LIN'E[=A]GE, descendants in a line from a common progenitor: race: family.--_adj._ LIN'EAL, of or belonging to a line: composed of lines: in the direction of a line: descended in a direct line from an ancestor.--_n._ LINEAL'ITY.--_adv._ LIN'EALLY.--_n._ LIN'EAMENT, feature: distinguishing mark in the form, esp. of the face.--_adj._ LIN'EAR, of or belonging to a line: consisting of, or having the form of, lines: straight.--_adv._ LIN'EARLY.--_adjs._ LIN'E[=A]TE, -D, marked longitudinally with depressed lines.--_ns._ LINE'[=A]TION (same as DELINEATION); LINE'-ENGRAV'ING, the process of engraving in lines, steel or copperplate engraving.--_n.pl._ LINE'-FISH, those taken with the line, as cod, halibut, &c.--_adj._ LIN'EOLATE, marked with fine or obscure lines.--_ns._ LIN'ER, a vessel belonging to a regular line or series of packets; LINES'MAN (_mil._), a private in the line; LINE'-STORM, an equinoctial storm.--LINEAR PERSPECTIVE, that part of perspective which regards only the positions, magnitudes, and forms of the objects delineated.--EQUINOCTIAL LINE, the celestial equator: the terrestrial equator; FRAUNHOFER'S LINES, the dark lines observed crossing the sun's spectrum at right angles to its length--from the Bavarian optician, Joseph von _Fraunhofer_ (1787-1826); GIVE LINE, from angling, to allow a person apparent freedom, so as to gain him at last; SHIP OF THE LINE (see SHIP). [A.S. _líne_--L. _linea_--_linum_, flax.] LINEN, lin'en, _n._ cloth made of lint or flax: underclothing, particularly that made of linen: articles of linen, or of linen and cotton--table-linen, bed-linen, body-linen.--_adj._ made of flax: resembling linen cloth.--_n._ LIN'EN-DRAP'ER, a merchant who deals in linens. [Properly an adj. with suffix _-en_--A.S. _lín_--L. _linum_, flax; Gr. _linon_.] LING, ling, _n._ a fish resembling the cod, so called from its lengthened form. [A.S. _lang_, long.] LING, ling, _n._ heather.--_adj._ LING'Y. [Ice. _lyng_.] LINGAM, ling'gam, _n._ the phallus in Hindu mythology, representative of Siva and the generative power of nature, its female counterpart the _Yoni_.--Also LING'A. [Sans.] LINGEL, ling'l, _n._ a shoemaker's thread rubbed with beeswax. [M. E. _lingel_, through O. Fr.,--L. _lineola_, dim. of _linea_, a line.] LINGER, ling'g[.e]r, _v.i._ to remain long in any state: to loiter.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to prolong, protract: (with _out_) to pass in a tedious manner.--_n._ LING'ERER.--_adj._ LING'ERING, protracted.--_n._ a remaining long.--_advs._ LING'ERINGLY; LING'ERLY (_rare_). [A.S. _lengan_, to protract--_lang_, long.] LINGERIE, lang-zhe-r[=e]', _n._ linen goods, esp. women's underclothing. [Fr.,--_linge_, flax--L. _linum_.] LINGET, LINGOT, _n._ Same as INGOT. LINGISM, ling'izm, _n._ the Swedish movement-cure, kinesitherapy. [From Peter Henrik _Ling_, 1776-1839.] LINGO, ling'g[=o], _n._ language, speech: esp. applied to dialects. [Corrupted from L. _lingua_, language.] LINGUA FRANCA, ling'gwa frank'a, _n._ a mixed jargon used by Frenchmen and other Western people in intercourse with Arabs, Moors, and other Eastern peoples: an international dialect. LINGUAL, ling'gwal, _adj._ pertaining to the tongue or utterance.--_n._ a letter pronounced mainly by the tongue, as _t_, _d_ (also called _Dental_).--_adj._ LINGUADEN'TAL--_Dentilingual_.--_adv._ LING'UALLY.--_adj._ LING'UIFORM, tongue-shaped.--_ns._ LING'UIST, one skilled in tongues or languages; LING'UISTER, a dabbler in philology.--_adjs._ LINGUIST'IC, -AL, pertaining to languages and the affinities of languages.--_adv._ LINGUIST'ICALLY.--_n.pl._ LINGUIST'ICS, the general or comparative science, or study, of languages.--_n._ LING'ULA, a tongue-like part or process.--_adjs._ LING'ULAR, LING'ULATE, tongue-shaped. [L. _lingua_ (old form _dingua_), the tongue.] LINHAY, lin'h[=a], _n._ a donkey-stable.--Also LIN'NY. LINIMENT, lin'i-ment, _n._ a kind of thin ointment. [L. _linimentum_--_lin[)e]re_, to besmear.] LINING, l[=i]'ning, _n._ the cover of the inner surface of anything, contents. LINK, lingk, _n._ a ring of a chain: anything connecting: a single part of a series: the 1/100th part of the chain, a measure used in surveying, &c. (see CHAIN).--_v.t._ to connect as by a link: to join in confederacy.--_v.i._ to be connected.--_n._ LINK'-M[=O]'TION, a system of pieces pivoted together, describing definite curves in the same plane or in parallel planes.--MISSING LINK, any point or fact needed to complete a series or a chain of argument: (_zool._) a conjectural form of animal life, supposed necessary to complete the chain of evolution from some simian to the human animal: (_coll._) an ape, monkey, or apish-looking man. [A.S. _hlence_; Ice. _hlekkr_, Ger. _gelenk_, a joint.] LINK, lingk, _n._ a light or torch of pitch and tow.--_ns._ LINK'BOY, LINK'MAN, a boy or man who carries such to light travellers. [Prob. corr. from Dut. _lont_, a match; cf. Scot. _lunt_, Dan. _lunte_.] LINK, lingk, _n._ a crook or winding of a river.--_n.pl._ LINKS, a stretch of flat or gently undulating ground along a sea-shore, on which the game of golf is played. [A.S. _hlinc_, a ridge of land, a bank.] LINK, lingk, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to go quickly. LINN, LIN, lin, _n._ a waterfall: a precipice. LINNÆAN, LINNEAN, lin-n[=e]'an, _adj._ pertaining to _Linnæus_, the Latinised form of the name of _Linné_, the celebrated Swedish botanist (1707-78), or to his artificial system of classification. LINNET, lin'et, _n._ a small singing-bird--from feeding on flax-seed. [Fr. _linot_--_lin_, flax--L. _linum_.] LINOLEUM, lin-[=o]'le-um, _n._ a preparation used as a floor-cloth, linseed-oil being greatly used in the making of it. [L. _linum_, flax, _oleum_, oil.] LINOTYPE, lin'[=o]-t[=i]p, _n._ a machine for producing stereotyped lines or bars of words, &c., as a substitute for type-setting: a line of printing-type cast in one piece. [L. _linea_, a line, and _type_.] LINSEED, lin's[=e]d, _n._ lint or flax seed--also LINT'SEED.--_ns._ LIN'SEED-CAKE, the cake remaining when the oil is pressed out of lint or flax seed, used as a food for sheep and cattle; LIN'SEED-MEAL, the meal of linseed, used for poultices and as a cattle-food; LIN'SEED-OIL, oil from flax-seed. LINSEY, lin'si, _n._ cloth made of linen and wool: a peculiar kind of clayey rock.--_adj._ LIN'SEY-WOOL'SEY, made of linen and wool mixed: mean: of unsuitable parts.--_n._ a thin coarse stuff of linen and wool mixed: inferior stuffs of doubtful composition: (_Shak._) a mixture of nonsense, gibberish. [Obs. _linsel_, and _wool_.] LINSTOCK, lin'stok, _n._ a staff to hold a lighted match for firing cannon.--Also LINT'STOCK. [Dut. _lontstok_--_lont_, a match, _stok_, a stick.] LINT, lint, _n._ linen scraped into a soft woolly substance for dressing wounds: raw cotton ready for baling. [L. _linteus_--_linum_, linen.] LINTEL, lin'tel, _n._ the piece of timber or stone over a doorway: the headpiece of a door or casement. [O. Fr. _lintel_ (Fr. _linteau_)--Low L. _lintellus_ for _limitellus_, dim. of L. _limes_, border.] LINTIE, lin'ti, LINTWHITE, lint'hw[=i]t=LINNET. LION, l[=i]'un, _n._ a fierce quadruped of immense strength, the largest of all carnivorous animals, tawny-coloured, the male with a shaggy mane, springing on his prey with a terrific roar: a man of unusual courage: (_astron._) Leo, a sign of the zodiac: any object of interest, esp. a famous or conspicuous person much sought after: an old Scotch coin, with a lion on the obverse, worth 74 shillings Scotch (James VI.): (_her._) representation of a lion used as a bearing:--_fem._ L[=I]'ONESS.--_ns._ L[=I]'ONCEL, L[=I]'ONCELLE (_her._), a small lion used as a bearing; L[=I]'ONEL, L[=I]'ONET, a young lion; L[=I]'ON-HEART, one with great courage.--_adj._ L[=I]ON-HEART'ED.--_n._ L[=I]'ON-HUNT'ER, a hunter of lions: one who runs after celebrities with foolish adulation, or to get reflected glory from their company.--_v.t._ L[=I]'ONISE, to treat as a lion or object of interest.--_n._ L[=I]'ONISM.--_adj._ L[=I]'ON-LIKE.--LION'S PROVIDER, a popular name for the jackal, supposed to attend upon the lion: any humble friend or follower; LION'S SHARE, the largest share.--A LION IN THE WAY, a danger to be met and overcome; BRITISH LION, the lion as the British national emblem; PUT ONE'S HEAD INTO THE LION'S MOUTH, to get into a position of great danger. [O. Fr. _lion_--L. _leon-em_--Gr. _le[=o]n_; Ger. _löwe_.] LIP, lip, _n._ the muscular border in front of the teeth by which things are taken into the mouth; the edge of anything: (_slang_) impudent talk, insolence: (_pl._) speech as passing through the lips.--_v.t._ to touch with the lips: to utter with the lips.--_v.i._ to apply the lips to the mouthpiece of an instrument.--_adj._ LIP'BORN, from the lips only: not genuine.--_ns._ LIP'-DEV[=O]'TION, prayer of the lips without devotion in the heart; LIP'-HOM'AGE, insincere homage; LIP'-L[=A]'BOUR, empty speech; LIP'-LANG'UAGE, oral or articulate language, communicated by motions of the lips, as opposed to the fingers, in teaching or conversing with the deaf and dumb; LIP'LET, a little lip; LIP'-OR'NAMENT, an object inserted as an ornament in the lip, common among savage tribes.--_adj._ LIPPED, having lips, or edges like lips, labiate.--_ns._ LIP'-READ'ING, reading what a person says from the movement of the lips, in the instruction of the deaf and dumb; LIP'-SERV'ICE, service with the lips only: insincere devotion or worship; LIP'-WIS'DOM, wisdom in words only, not in deeds.--BITE THE LIP, to press the lips between the teeth to keep one's self from betraying vexation, anger, &c.; CURL OF THE LIP, the causing the lip to curl as an indication of scorn; HANG THE LIP, to be sullen or sulky; MAKE A LIP (_Shak._), to pout in sullenness or contempt. [A.S. _lippa_; Dut. _lip_, Ger. _lippe_, L. _labium_, not conn. with L. _lamb[)e]re_, Eng. _lap_.] LIPÆMIA, li-p[=e]'mi-a, _n._ excessive fat in the blood. LIPHÆMIA, li-f[=e]'mi-a, _n._ deficiency or poverty of blood. LIPOGRAM, l[=i]'p[=o]-gram, _n._ the name given to a writing, esp. a poem from which all words are omitted which contain a particular letter.--_adj._ LIPOGRAMMAT'IC.--_ns._ LIPOGRAM'MATISM; LIPOGRAM'MATIST. [Gr. _leipein_, to leave, _gramma_, a letter.] LIPOMA, li-p[=o]'ma, _n._ a tumour formed of fatty tissue--also LIP'AROCELE.--_n._ LIPOMAT[=O]'SIS, the excessive growth of fatty tissue.--_adj._ LIPOM'ATOUS. LIPPEN, lip'n, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to trust, rely, depend (with _to_, _on_).--_adj._ LIPPE'NING, occasional, accidental. LIPPITUDE, lip'i-t[=u]d, _n._ soreness of the eyes. [L.,--_lippus_, blear-eyed.] LIPPY, LIPPIE, lip'i, _n._ an old Scottish dry measure, the fourth of a peck. [Dim. from. A.S. _leáp_, a basket; Ice. _laupr_.] LIQUATE, lik'w[=a]t, _v.t._ to melt: to separate one metal from another which is less fusible, by applying sufficient heat.--_adj._ LIQ'UABLE.--_n._ LIQU[=A]'TION. [L. _liqu[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_liqu[=e]re_, to be fluid.] LIQUEFY, lik'we-f[=i], _v.t._ to make liquid: to dissolve.--_v.i._ to become liquid:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ liq'uef[=i]ed.--_adj._ LIQUEF[=A]'CIENT.--_n._ LIQUEFAC'TION, the act or process of making liquid: the state of being melted.--_adj._ LIQ'UEFIABLE.--_ns._ LIQ'UEFIER; LIQUESC'ENCY.--_adj._ LIQUESC'ENT, melting. [L. _liquefac[)e]re_--_liqu[=e]re_, to be fluid or liquid, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] LIQUEUR, li-k[.e]r', _n._ the name given to the many alcoholic preparations which are flavoured or perfumed and sweetened to be more agreeable to the taste--chartreuse, cherry brandy, curaçao, benedictine, kümmel, maraschino, &c.--_ns._ LIQUEUR'-GLASS, a very small drinking-glass intended for liqueurs or cordials; LIQUEUR'ING, the process of qualifying wine by means of liqueur. [Fr.] LIQUID, lik'wid, _adj._ flowing: fluid: soft: smooth: clear.--_n._ a flowing substance: a letter of a smooth flowing sound, coalescing easily with a preceding mute, _l_, _m_, _n_, _r_.--_adj._ LIQ'UIDABLE.--_v.t._ LIQ'UIDATE, to make clear, esp. to clear or settle an account: to arrange or wind up the affairs of a bankrupt estate.--_ns._ LIQUID[=A]'TION, the clearing up of the money affairs, esp. the adjustment of the affairs of a bankrupt estate; LIQUID[=A]T'OR, one engaged in a liquidation.--_v.t._ LIQ'UIDISE, to render liquid.--_n._ LIQUID'ITY.--_adv._ LIQ'UIDLY.--_n._ LIQ'UIDNESS. [Fr.,--L. _liquidus_, fluid--_liqu[=e]re_, to be fluid.] LIQUIDAMBAR, lik'wid-am-bar, _n._ a genus of balsamiferous trees of the witch-hazel family (_Hamamelidaceæ_), native to Mexico and the United States. [L. _liquidus_, liquid, Low L. _ambar_, amber.] LIQUOR, lik'ur, _n._ anything liquid: strong drink: a strong solution of a particular substance: any prepared solution.--_v.t._ to apply liquor or a solution to: (_Shak._) to rub with oil or grease.--_v.i._ (_slang_) to drink (esp. with _up_).--_n._ LIQ'UOR-GAUGE, a rod used by excisemen for measuring the depth of liquid in a cask.--LIQUOR LAWS, restrictive legislation with regard to the sale of intoxicating drink.--IN LIQUOR, drunk; MALT LIQUORS, liquors brewed from malt. [O. Fr. _liqeur_--L. _liquor-em_--_liqu[=e]re_.] LIQUORICE, lik'ur-is, _n._ a plant with a sweet root which is used for medicinal purposes. [Through an O. Fr. form, from Low L. _liquiritia_, a corr. of Gr. _glykyrrhiza_--_glykys_, sweet, _rhiza_, root.] LIQUORISH, lik'ur-ish, _adj._ obsolete spelling of _lickerish_. LIRA, l[=e]'ra, _n._ an Italian coin, worth a franc, and divisible into 100 centesimi:--_pl._ LIRE (l[=e]'r[=a]). [It.] LIRIODENDRON, lir-i-[=o]-den'dron, _n._ a North American tree, sometimes above 100 feet in height, having close bark, large four-lobed leaves, and greenish-yellow flowers, something like a tulip.--Also TULIP-TREE. [Gr. _leirion_, a lily, _dendron_, a tree.] LIRIPOOP, lir'i-poop, _n._ (_obs._) a graduate's hood: smartness: a silly person.--Also LIRIPIP'IUM. LIRK, lirk, _n._ (_Scot._) a fold.--_v.i._ to hang in creases. LIS, lis, _n._ a controversy, litigation. [L.] LIS, l[=e]s, _n._ (_her._) same as _Fleur-de-lis_:--_pl._ LISSES. LISBON, liz'bon, _n._ a light-coloured wine from Estremadura in Portugal. LISLE THREAD. See THREAD. LISP, lisp, _v.i._ to speak with the tongue against the upper teeth or gums, as in pronouncing _th_ for _s_ or _z_: to articulate as a child: to utter imperfectly.--_v.t._ to pronounce with a lisp.--_n._ the act or habit of lisping.--_n._ LISP'ER.--_adj._ LISP'ING, pronouncing with a lisp.--_n._ the act of speaking with a lisp.--_adv._ LISP'INGLY. [A.S. _wlispian_ (a conjectural form)--_wlisp_, stammering; Dut. _lispen_, Ger. _lispeln_; from the sound.] LISSE, l[=e]s, _n._ in tapestry, the threads of the warp taken together. [Fr., also _lice_--L. _licium_.] LISSENCEPHALOUS, lis-en-sef'a-lus, _adj._ having a brain smooth or slightly convoluted. LISSOME, LISSOM, lis'um, _adj._ lithesome, nimble, flexible.--_n._ LISS'OMENESS. LISSOTRICHOUS, li-sot'ri-kus, _adj._ smooth-haired. LIST, list, _n._ the selvage on woven textile fabrics: a stripe of any kind: (_Shak._) a border.--_adj._ made of strips of woollen selvage. [A.S. _líst_; Ger. _leiste_.] LIST, list, _n._ a catalogue, roll, or enumeration: a book, &c., containing a series of names of persons or things.--_v.t._ to place in a list or catalogue: to engage for the public service, as soldiers.--_v.i._ to enter the public service by enrolling one's name, to enlist.--ACTIVE LIST, the roll of soldiers on active service; CIVIL LIST (see CIVIL); FREE LIST (see FREE). [O. Fr. _liste_--Mid. High Ger. _liste_ (Ger. _leiste_), border; A.S. _líst_, orig. same word as above.] LIST, list, _n._ a line enclosing a piece of ground, esp. for combat: (_pl._) the ground enclosed for a contest.--_v.t._ to enclose for a tournament.--ENTER THE LISTS, to engage in contest. [O. Fr. _lisse_ (Fr. _lice_, It. _lizza_)--Low L. _liciæ_, barrier, perh. from L. _licium_, a thrum.] LIST, list, _v.i._ to have pleasure in: to desire: to like or please: to choose: (_naut._) to incline or heel over to one side.--_v.t._ to cause to careen or heel over.--_n._ such an inclination. [A.S. _lystan_, impers., please--_lust_, pleasure.] LIST, list, _v.t._ and _v.i._ original form of listen: now poetical.--_v.t._ LISTEN (lis'n), to hear or attend to.--_v.i._ to give ear or hearken: to follow advice.--_n._ LIST'ENER, one who listens or hearkens.--_adjs._ LIST'FUL, attentive; LIST'LESS, having no desire or wish: careless: uninterested: weary: indolent.--_adv._ LIST'LESSLY.--_n._ LIST'LESSNESS. [A.S. _hlystan_--_hlyst_, hearing; Ice. _hlusta_.] LISTEL, lis'tel, _n._ (_archit._) a narrow fillet. LISTER, lis't[.e]r, _n._ a form of plough for throwing up ridges.--_n._ LIST'ING. LISTERISM, lis't[.e]r-izm, _n._ an antiseptic method of operating introduced by the English surgeon, Lord _Lister_, born 1827.--_v.t._ LIS'TERISE, to treat by Listerism. LIT, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of light, lighten, light, to alight. LITANY, lit'a-ni, _n._ a prayer of supplication, esp. in processions: an appointed form of responsive prayer in public worship in which the same thing is repeated several times at no long intervals.--_ns._ LIT'ANY-DESK, -STOOL, in the English Church, a movable desk at which a minister kneels, facing the altar, while he recites the litany.--LESSER LITANY, the common formula, 'Kyrie eleison, Christe eleison, Kyrie eleison.' [O. Fr.,--Low L. _litania_--Gr. _litaneia_--_litesthai_, to pray.] LITERAL, lit'[.e]r-al, _adj._ according to the letter: plain: not figurative or metaphorical: following the letter or exact meaning, word for word.--_v.t._ LIT'ERALISE.--_ns._ LIT'ERALISER; LIT'ERALISM, strict adherence to the letter: interpretation that is merely verbal: (_art_) exact and unimaginative rendering of objects; LIT'ERALIST; LITERAL'ITY.--_adv._ LIT'ERALLY.--_n._ LIT'ERALNESS. [Fr.,--L. _literalis_--_litera_, a letter.] LITERARY, lit'[.e]r-ar-i, _adj._ belonging to letters or learning: skilled in learning.--_n._ LIT'ERACY, state of being literate:--opp. to _Illiteracy_.--_adj._ LIT'ER[=A]TE, acquainted with letters of learning: learned.--_n._ one educated, but not having taken a university degree, esp. a candidate for holy orders who has not been at a university.--_n.pl._ LITER[=A]'T[=I], men of letters, the learned (sing. forms, LITER[=A]'TUS, LITERÄ'TO).--_adv._ LITER[=A]'TIM, letter for letter: without the change of a letter.--_n._ LITER[=A]'TOR, a dabbler in learning: a man of letters, a literary man--sometimes in the French form _Littérateur_.--_adj._ LIT'EROSE, distinctively literary.--_n._ LITEROS'ITY. [L. _literarius_.] LITERATURE, lit'[.e]r-a-t[=u]r, _n._ the science of letters or what is written: the whole body of literary compositions in any language, or on a given subject: all literary productions except those relating to positive science and art, usually confined, however, to the belles-lettres.--_adj._ LIT'ERATURED (_Shak._), learned, having literary knowledge.--LIGHT LITERATURE, books which can be read and understood without mental exertion: fiction; POLITE LITERATURE, belles-lettres. [Fr.,--L. _literatura_--_litera_, a letter.] LITH, lith, _n._ (_prov._) a joint, segment, or portion of anything. [A.S. _lið_, a member; Ger. _glied_.] LITHAGOGUE, lith'a-gog, _adj._ expelling stone from the bladder or kidneys.--_n._ a medicine with this quality. LITHANTHRAX, li-than'thraks, _n._ stone-coal, mineral coal. LITHARGE, lith'ärj, _n._ the semi-vitrified oxide of lead separated from silver in refining. [Fr.,--Gr. _lithargyros_--_lithos_, a stone, _argyros_, silver.] LITHE, l[=i]th, _adj._ easily bent, flexible, active.--_adv._ LITHE'LY.--_n._ LITHE'NESS.--_adj._ LITHE'SOME.--_n._ LITHE'SOMENESS. [A.S. _líðe_; Ger. _lind_ and _gelinde_.] LITHE, l[=i]th, _v.i._ (_obs._) to listen. [Ice. _hlydha_, to listen--_hljódh_, hearing.] LITHEMIA, LITHÆMIA, li-th[=e]'mi-a, _n._ an excess of uric acid in the blood.--_adj._ LITH[=E]'MIC. LITHER, l[=i]th'[.e]r, _adj._ (_Shak._) soft, yielding: (_obs._) bad, lazy.--_adj._ LITH'ERLY, mischievous.--_adv._ slowly: lazily. [A.S. _lýthre_, bad.] LITHIA, lith'i-a, _n._ an alkali, the oxide of lithium, discovered in 1817 by Arfvedson: a mineral water good against the stone. [Low L.,--Gr. _lithos_, stone.] LITHIASIS, li-th[=i]'a-sis, _n._ a bodily condition in which uric acid is deposited as stone or gravel in the urinary canals. [Gr. _lithos_, a stone.] LITHIC, lith'ik, _adj._ pertaining to, or obtained from, stone, specially from urinary calculi.--_ns._ LITH'ATE, a salt of lithic acid; LITHIFIC[=A]'TION, a hardening into stone. [Gr. _lithikos_--_lithos_, a stone.] LITHIUM, lith'i-um, _n._ one of the alkaline metals, of a silvery appearance, found in several minerals combined with silica.--_adj._ LITH'IC. [Gr. _lithos_, a stone.] LITHOCARP, lith'o-karp, _n._ a fossil fruit. LITHOCHROMATIC, lith-o-kr[=o]-mat'ik, _adj._ pertaining to painting in oils on stone.--_n.pl._ LITHOCHROMAT'ICS, this art. [Gr. _lithos_, stone, _chr[=o]ma_, colour.] LITHOCLAST, lith'o-klast, _n._ an instrument for crushing bladder-stones. [Gr. _lithos_, stone, _kl[=a]n_, to crush.] LITHODOME, lith'[=o]-d[=o]m, _n._ a shellfish living in a hole in a rock.--_adj._ LITHOD'OMOUS. LITHOFRACTEUR, lith-[=o]-frak't[.e]r, _n._ a blasting explosive. LITHOGENOUS, li-thoj'e-nus, _adj._ stone-producing.--_n._ LITHOGEN'ESY, the science of the origin of minerals. LITHOGLYPH, lith'o-glif, _n._ any engraving on stone, esp. a precious stone.--_adj._ LITHOGLYPH'IC.--_ns._ LITH'OGLYPHICS, LITHOGLYPT'ICS, the art of engraving on precious stones; LITHOG'LYPHITE, a fossil as if engraved by art. [Gr. _lithos_, stone, _glyphein_, to carve.] LITHOGRAPH, lith'o-graf, _v.t._ to write or engrave on stone and transfer to paper by printing.--_n._ a print from stone.--_n._ LITHOG'RAPHER.--_adjs._ LITHOGRAPH'IC, -AL, belonging to lithography.--_adv._ LITHOGRAPH'ICALLY.--_n._ LITHOG'RAPHY, the art of writing or engraving on stone and printing therefrom.--LITHOGRAPHIC STONE, SLATE, a yellowish, compact, fine-grained, slaty limestone used in lithography. [Gr. _lithos_, a stone, _graphein_, to write.] LITHOID, -AL, lith'oid, -al, _adj._ resembling a stone. LITHOLABE, lith'[=o]-l[=a]b, _n._ an instrument for grasping a calculus and holding it while being crushed. LITHOLATRY, li-thol'a-tri, _n._ the worship of stones.--_adj._ LITHOL'ATROUS. LITHOLOGY, lith-ol'o-ji, _n._ the science that treats of rocks as mineral masses: that part of medical science concerned with the calculi found in the human body.--_adjs._ LITHOLOG'IC, -AL.--_n._ LITHOL'OGIST, one skilled in lithology. [Gr. _lithos_, a stone, _logos_, discourse.] LITHOLOPAXY, lith'ol-o-pak-si, _n._ the operation of crushing stone in the bladder, and of at once removing the fragments by suction. [Gr. _lithos_, stone, _hapax_, once only.] LITHOMANCY, lith'o-man-si, _n._ divination by stones. [Gr. _lithos_, a stone, _manteia_, divination.] LITHOMARGE, lith'o-märj, _n._ a clay-like mineral substance, sometimes called _Mountain marrow_, soft, greasy to the touch, white, yellow, or red. [Gr. _lithos_, stone, L. _marga_, marl.] LITHOPHAGOUS, lith-of'a-gus, _adj._ eating stones: perforating stones, as certain molluscs. [Gr. _lithos_, stone, _phagein_, to eat.] LITHOPHANE, lith'o-f[=a]n, _n._ ornamental porcelain with pictures which show through the transparency. [Gr. _lithos_, stone, _phainesthai_, to appear.] LITHOPHOTOGRAPHY, lith-o-fo-tog'ra-fi, _n._ the art of printing from lithographic stones photographic pictures developed upon them. LITHOPHYL, lith'[=o]-f[=i]l, _n._ a fossil leaf. LITHOPHYTE, lith'o-f[=i]t, _n._ any one of the polyps whose substance is stony or hard, as corals. [Gr. _lithos_, stone, _phyton_, plant.] LITHOTINT, lith'o-tint, _n._ the process of producing coloured pictures from lithographic stones: a picture so produced. [Gr. _lithos_, stone, and _tint_.] LITHOTOMY, lith-ot'o-mi, _n._ cutting for stone in the bladder.--_n._ LITH'OTOME, a mineral resembling a cut gem: a cystotome.--_adjs._ LITHOTOM'IC, -AL, pertaining to, or performed by, lithotomy.--_n._ LITHOT'OMIST, one who practises lithotomy. [Gr. _lithos_, a stone, _tom[=e]_, a cutting--_temnein_, to cut.] LITHOTRITY, lith'[=o]-tr[=i]-ti, _n._ the operation of crushing a stone in the bladder, so that its fragments may be removed through the urethra--also LITH'OTRIPSY.--_ns._ LITHOTHRYP'TIST, LITH'OTHRYPTOR, LITHOTRIP'TIST, LITH'OTRIPTOR, LITH'OTRITIST, one who practises lithotrity; LITH'OTHRYPTY; LITH'OTRITE, LITH'OTRITOR, an apparatus for crushing a stone in the bladder.--_adjs._ LITHOTRIT'IC, LITHOTRIP'TIC--also LITHOTHRYP'TIC. [Gr. _lithos_, stone, _tribein_, to rub.] LITHOTYPY, lith'[=o]-t[=i]-pi, _n._ the process of making a kind of stereotype plates by filling a mould with a composition which, when cooled, becomes hard.--_n._ LITH'OTYPE, a stereotype plate, produced by lithotypy.--_v.t._ to prepare for printing by lithotypy. [Gr. _lithos_, stone, _typos_, type.] LITIGATE, lit'i-g[=a]t, _v.t._ to contest in law.--_v.i._ to carry on a lawsuit.--_adjs._ LIT'IGABLE, that may be contested in law; LIT'IGANT, contending at law: engaged in a lawsuit.--_n._ a person engaged in a lawsuit.--_ns._ LITIG[=A]'TION; LIT'IG[=A]TOR, one who litigates; LITIGIOS'ITY, LITIG'IOUSNESS.--_adj._ LITIG'IOUS, inclined to engage in lawsuits: subject to contention.--_adv._ LITIG'IOUSLY. [L. _litig[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_lis_, _litis_, a strife, _ag[)e]re_, to do.] LITMUS, lit'mus, _n._ a dye obtained from certain lichens, originally red, but becoming blue on the addition of alkalies or of lime.--LITMUS PAPER, paper used in chemical testing, tinged blue by litmus, reddened by an acid, made blue again by an alkali. [For _lakmose_--Dut. _lakmoes_--_lak_, lac, _moes_, pulp.] LITOTES, lit'[=o]-t[=e]z, _n._ (_rhet._) an affirmation made indirectly by the negation of its contrary, as 'a citizen of no mean city'='of an illustrious city.' [Gr. _litot[=e]s_, simplicity--_litos_, plain.] LITRAMETER, lit-ram'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring the specific gravity of liquids by the height to which they rise in vertical tubes under a definite air-pressure. [Gr. _litra_, a pound, _metron_, measure.] LITRE, l[=e]'t[.e]r, _n._ (_her._) a hatchment consisting of a black belt, charged with the arms of the deceased. [Fr.; prob. orig. _listre_=_liste_, border.] LITRE, l[=e]'tr, _n._ the unit of the French measures of capacity, both dry and liquid. It is the volume of a cubic decimètre, and contains a kilogramme of water at 4° C. in a vacuum, equal to .2200967 British imperial gallon, therefore less than a quart--4½ litres being roughly equal to a gallon. LITTER, lit'[.e]r, _n._ a heap of straw, &c., for animals to lie upon: materials for a bed: any scattered collection of objects, esp. of little value: a vehicle containing a bed for carrying about, a hospital stretcher: a brood of small quadrupeds.--_v.t._ to cover or supply with litter: to scatter carelessly about: to give birth to (said of small animals).--_v.i._ to produce a litter or brood.--_p.adj._ LITT'ERED. [O. Fr. _litiere_--Low L. _lectaria_--L. _lectus_, a bed.] LITTÉRATEUR, lit-[.e]r-a-t[.e]r', _n._ a literary man. [Fr.] LITTLE, lit'l, _adj._ (_comp._ LESS; _superl._ LEAST) small in quantity or extent: weak, poor: brief.--_n._ that which is small in quantity or extent: a small space.--_adv._ in a small quantity or degree: not much.--_ns._ LITT'LE-EASE, discomfort, misery: a form of punishment, as the stocks; LITT'LE-END'IAN, one of the Lilliputian party who opposed the _Big-endians_, maintaining that boiled eggs should be cracked at the little end; LITT'LE-GO (see GO); LITT'LENESS; LITT'LE-OFF'ICE, a short service of psalms, hymns, collects, &c.--_adj._ LITT'LEWORTH, worthless.--BY LITTLE AND LITTLE, by degrees; IN LITTLE, on a small scale; NOT A LITTLE, considerably. [A.S. _lýtel_.] LITTORAL, lit'or-al, _adj._ belonging to the sea-shore.--_n._ the strip of land along it.--LITTORAL ZONE, the interval on a sea-coast between high and low water mark. [L.,--_litus_, _lit[)o]ris_, shore.] LITURATE, lit'[=u]-r[=a]t, _adj._ (_bot._) having spots formed by the abrasion of the surface: in entomology, marked with spots (_Lituræ_) growing paler at one end. LITURGY, lit'ur-ji, _n._ the form of service or regular ritual of a church--strictly, that used in the celebration of the Eucharist: in ancient Greece, a form of personal service to the state.--_n._ LITURGE', a leader in public worship.--_adjs._ LITUR'GIC, -AL.--_adv._ LITUR'GICALLY.--_ns._ LITUR'GICS, the doctrine of liturgies; LITURGIOL'OGIST, a student of liturgies; LITURGIOL'OGY, the study of liturgical forms; LIT'URGIST, a leader in public worship: one who adheres to, or who studies, liturgies. [Fr.,--Gr. _leitourgia_--_laos_, the people, _ergon_, work.] LITUUS, li-t[=u]'us, _n._ an augur's staff with recurved top: a spiral of similar form.--_adjs._ LIT'U[=A]TE, forked with the points turned outward; LIT'UIFORM. [L.] LIVE, liv, _v.i._ to have, or continue in, life, temporal or spiritual: to last, subsist: to enjoy life: to direct one's course of life: to be nourished or supported: to dwell.--_v.t._ to spend: to act in conformity to:--_pr.p._ liv'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ lived.--_adj._ LIV'ABLE, capable of being lived: habitable.--_n._ LIV'ER.--LIVE DOWN, live so as to cause a slander, a grief, &c. to be forgotten by one's self or others; LIVE OUT, to continue alive until the end of anything: (_U.S._) to be from home in domestic service; LIVE UNDER, to be tenant to; LIVE UP TO, to rule one's life according to some standard. [A.S. _lifian_; Ger. _leben_.] LIVE, l[=i]v, _adj._ having life: alive, not dead: active: containing fire: burning: vivid.--LIVED (l[=i]vd), used in compounds, as _long-lived_.--_ns._ LIVE'-AXLE, driving-axle; LIVE'-BAIT, a living worm or minnow used in fishing: LIVE'-CIR'CUIT, a circuit through which an electric current is flowing.--_n.pl._ LIVE'-FEATH'ERS, those plucked from the living fowl.--_n._ LIVE'-L[=E]'VER, that one of a pair of brake-levers to which the power is first applied:--opp. to _Dead-lever_.--_adj._ LIVE'-LONG, that lives or lasts long.--_ns._ LIVE'-OAK, an American oak, with durable wood; LIVE'-SHELL, a shell loaded and fused for firing, or fired and not yet exploded; LIVE'-STOCK, domestic animals, esp. horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs; LIVE'-WELL, the well in a fishing-boat where fish are kept alive. LIVELIHOOD, l[=i]v'li-hood, _n._ means of living: support--(_obs._) LIVE'LIHED. [A.S. _líf_. life, _lád_, a way.] LIVELY, l[=i]v'li, _adj._ showing life: vigorous, active: sprightly: spirited: vivid.--_adv._ vivaciously, vigorously.--_adv._ L[=I]VE'LILY.--_n._ L[=I]VE'LINESS. LIVER, liv'[.e]r, _n._ the largest gland in the body, which secretes the bile.--_adjs._ LIV'ER-COL'OUR, of the colour of the liver: dark-red; LIV'ERED, in compounds, as _white-livered_, _lily-livered_=cowardly.--_n._ LIVER-FLUKE, a trematoid worm (_Distoma hepatica_).--_adj._ LIV'ER-GROWN, having a swelled liver.--_n._ LIVERWORT, any plant of the cryptogamic family _Hepaticæ_, allied to mosses.--_adj._ LIV'ERY, resembling the liver. [A.S. _lifer_; Ger. _leber_, Ice. _lifr_.] LIVERY, liv'[.e]r-i, _n._ the dress or uniform worn by servants, esp. men-servants: a dress peculiar to certain persons or things, as in the trade-guilds of London: any characteristic dress: the being kept and fed at a certain rate, as horses at livery: the whole body of liverymen in London: (_orig._) the distinctive dress worn by the household of a king or nobleman, so called because delivered or given at regular periods.--_adj._ LIV'ERIED, clothed in livery.--_ns._ LIV'ERY-COM'PANY, a guild of the city of London; LIV'ERYMAN, a man who wears a livery: a freeman of the city of London entitled to wear the livery and enjoy other privileges of his company; LIV'ERY-SER'VANT, a servant who wears a livery; LIV'ERY-ST[=A]'BLE, a stable where horses and vehicles are kept for hire.--SUE ONE'S LIVERY (_Shak._), to ask for the writ delivering a freehold into the possession of its heir. [Fr. _livrée_--_livrer_--L. _liber[=a]re_, to free.] LIVES, l[=i]vz, _n._ plural of _life_. LIVID, liv'id, _adj._ black and blue: of a lead colour: discoloured.--_ns._ LIVID'ITY, LIV'IDNESS. [Fr.,--L. _lividus_--_liv[=e]re_, to be of a lead colour.] LIVING, liv'ing, _adj._ having life: active, lively: producing action or vigour: running or flowing, as opposed to stagnant.--_n._ means of subsistence: manner of life: a property: the benefice of a clergyman.--LIVING ROCK, rock in its native state or location; LIVING ROOM, a sitting-room for general family use; LIVING WAGE, a wage on which it is possible for a workman and his family to live fairly.--THE LIVING, those alive. LIVRAISON, l[=e]-vr[=a]-zon', _n._ a number of a book published in parts. [Fr.] LIVRE, l[=e]'vr, _n._ an old French coin, about the value of a franc, by which it was superseded in 1795: the ancient French unit of weight, equal to about 1 lb. avoirdupois. [Fr.,--L. _libra_, a pound.] LIXIVIATION, liks-iv-i-[=a]'shun, _n._ the process of washing or steeping certain substances in a fluid, for the purpose of dissolving a portion of their ingredients, and so separating them from the insoluble residue.--_adjs._ LIXIV'IAL, LIXIV'IOUS.--_v.t._ LIXIV'IATE.--_n._ LIXIV'IUM, lye. [L. _lixivium_, lye.] LIZARD, liz'ard, _n._ a family of four-footed scaly reptiles, a saurian or lacertilian.--_n._ LIZ'ARD-STONE, a Cornish serpentine. [Fr. _lézard_--L. _lacerta_.] LLAMA, lä'ma, or l[=a]'ma, _n._ a South American ruminant of the camel family, used for transport in the Andes. LLANO, lä'n[=o], or lyä'n[=o], _n._ one of the vast steppes or plains in the northern part of South America:--_pl._ LLA'NOS.--_n._ LLANERO (lya-n[=a]'r[=o]), an inhabitant of the llanos. [Sp.,--L. _planus_, plain.] LLOYD'S, loidz, _n._ a part of the London Royal Exchange frequented by ship-owners, underwriters, &c. to obtain shipping intelligence and transact marine insurance.--LLOYD'S REGISTER, a list of sea-going vessels classified according to seaworthiness (as A1, &c.), annually prepared by an association of members of Lloyd's. [From their originally meeting in the coffee-house in Tower Street kept by Edward _Lloyd_ in the 17th century.] LO, l[=o], _interj._ look! see! behold! [A.S. _lá_; imit.] LOACH, LOCHE, l[=o]ch, _n._ a small river-fish.--Also _Beardie_. [Fr. _loche_, Sp. _loja_.] LOAD, l[=o]d, _v.t._ to lade or burden: to put on as much as can be carried: to heap on: to put on overmuch: to confer or give in great abundance: to weigh down, to oppress: to weight by something specially added: to charge, as a gun: to make heavy, as a thin wine: to mix with white: to lay on colour in masses.--_v.i._ to put or take on a load: to charge a gun: to become loaded or burdened.--_n._ a lading or burden: as much as can be carried at once: freight or cargo: a measure: any large quantity borne: a quantity sustained with difficulty: that which burdens or grieves: a weight or encumbrance.--LOAD'EN, old _pa.p._ of load.--_ns._ LOAD'ER, one who, or that which, loads; LOAD'ING, the act of lading: a charge, cargo, or lading; LOAD'ING-MACHINE', a contrivance for loading cartridge-shells; LOAD'ING-TRAY, an iron frame on which a shot or shell is placed and brought forward into the opening in the breech of a gun; LOAD'-LINE, a line along the ship's side to mark the depth to which her proper cargo causes her to sink--also _Plimsoll's mark_.--LOAD A CANE, WHIP, to weight it with lead, &c.; LOAD DICE, to make one side heavier than the other, for purposes of cheating; LOAD WINE, to falsify by mixing it with distilled liquor, sugar, &c. [A.S. _hladan_, pa.t. _hlód_, to load.] LOADSTAR. Same as LODESTAR. LOADSTONE. Same as LODESTONE. LOAF, l[=o]f, _n._ a regularly shaped mass of bread: a mass of sugar: any lump:--_pl._ LOAVES (l[=o]vz).--_n._ LOAF'-SUG'AR, refined sugar in the form of a cone.--LOAVES AND FISHES, temporal benefits, the main chance for one's self--from John, vi. 26. [A.S. _hláf_.] LOAF, l[=o]f, _v.i._ to loiter, pass time idly.--_n._ LOAF'ER.--_adj._ LOAF'ERISH. [Prob. directly Ger. _läufer_, a runner, _laufen_, to run about.] LOAM, l[=o]m, _n._ a muddy soil, of clay, sand, and animal and vegetable matter.--_v.t._ to cover with loam.--_adj._ LOAM'Y. [A.S. _lám_; Ger. _lehm_; cf. _lime_.] LOAN, l[=o]n, _n._ a lane: an open space for passage left between fields of corn: a place for milking cows.--Also LOAN'ING. [_Lane_.] LOAN, l[=o]n, _n._ anything lent: the act of lending: permission to use: money lent for interest.--_v.t._ to lend.--_adj._ LOAN'ABLE.--_ns._ LOAN'-OFF'ICE, a public office at which loans are negotiated, a pawnbroker's shop; LOAN'-SOC[=I]'ETY, a society organised to lend money to be repaid with interest by instalments; LOAN'-WORD, one taken into one language from another--like _Loafer_ above. [A.S. _l['æ]n_; Ice. _lán_, Dan. _laan_, cf. Ger. _lehen_, a fief.] LOATH, LOTH, l[=o]th, _adj._ disliking: reluctant, unwilling.--_adv._ LOATH'LY.--_n._ LOATH'NESS. [A.S. _láð_, hateful--_líðan_, to travel; Ger. _leiden_, suffer.] LOATHE, l[=o]_th_, _v.t._ to dislike greatly, to feel disgust at.--_adj._ LOATH'FUL, full of loathing, hate, or abhorrence: exciting loathing or disgust.--_n._ LOATH'ING, extreme hate or disgust: abhorrence.--_adj._ hating.--_adv._ LOATH'INGLY.--_adjs._ LOATH'LY, LOATH'Y (_obs._), loathsome; LOATH'SOME, exciting loathing or abhorrence: detestable.--_adv._ LOATH'SOMELY.--_n._ LOATH'SOMENESS. [A.S. _láðian_--_láð_; cf. _loath_.] LOB, lob, _n._ a clumsy person, the last in a race: a lobworm: the coal-fish: at cricket, a long slow ball: something thick and heavy.--_v.t._ to throw gently, slowly, or with underhand delivery: at lawn-tennis, to strike the ball high over an opponent's head into the end of the court: to hang wearily down.--_n._ LOBS'POUND, a prison.--LOB LIE BY THE FIRE, Milton's _lubber-fiend_, a brownie who works by night for his bowl of cream. [W. _llob_; cf. _Lubber_.] LOBBY, lob'i, _n._ a small hall or waiting-room: a passage serving as a common entrance to several apartments: the ante-chamber of a legislative hall, frequented by outsiders for the purpose of influencing votes.--_ns._ LOBB'YING, frequenting the lobby to collect political intelligence, &c.; LOBB'YIST, LOBB'Y-MEM'BER, a journalist, &c., who frequents a lobby in the interest of some cause or of a newspaper. [Low L. _lobia_--Middle High Ger. _loube_ (Ger. _laube_), a portico, arbour--_laub_, a leaf.] LOBE, l[=o]b, _n._ the lower part of the ear: (_anat._) a division of the lungs, brain, &c.: (_bot._) a division of a leaf.--_adjs._ LOB'AR, LOB'[=A]TE, LOBED, LOB'OSE; LOBE'-FOOT'ED, L[=O]'BIPED, having lobate feet, as a coot, grebe, or phalarope.--_ns._ LOBE'LET, LOB'ULE, a small lobe.--_adjs._ LOB'ULAR, LOB'UL[=A]TED.--_ns._ LOB'ULUS, any small lobe or lobe-like structure:--_pl._ LOB'UL[=I]; L[=O]'BUS, a lobe:--_pl._ L[=O]'B[=I].--LOBAR PNEUMONIA, inflammation of a whole lobe of the lungs, as distinguished from LOBULAR PNEUMONIA, which attacks the lungs in patches. [Fr., prob. through Low L. from Gr. _lobos_, lobe; cf. _lap_, to fold.] LOBELIA, lob-[=e]'li-a, _n._ an ornamental flower, its roots medicinal. [_Lobel_, a Flemish botanist.] LOBLOLLY, lob'lol-i, _n._ a loutish person: medicine.--_n._ LOB'LOLLY-BOY, a ship-surgeon's attendant. LOBSCOUSE, lob'skows, _n._ a stew or hash with vegetables, a dish used at sea. [Origin dub.] LOBSTER, lob'st[.e]r, _n._ a shellfish with large claws, used for food: (_slang_) a British soldier. [A.S. _loppestre_, _lopust_--L. _locusta_, a lobster.] LOBWORM, lob'wurm, _n._ a large worm used as bait. [Perh. _lob_--W. _llob_, a dull fellow, and worm.] LOCAL, l[=o]'kal, _adj._ of or belonging to a place: confined to a spot or district.--_ns._ LOCALE (l[=o]-käl'), a locality: the scene of some event; LOCALIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ L[=O]'CALISE, to assign to a place: to refer a sensation in perception to some part of the body.--_ns._ L[=O]'CALISM, the state of being local: affection for a place: provincialism; LOCAL'ITY, existence in a place: position: district.--_adv._ L[=O]'CALLY.--_v.t._ LOC[=A]TE', to place: to set in a particular position: to designate the place of.--_n._ LOC[=A]'TION, act of locating or placing: situation: (_law_) a leasing on rent.--_adj._ L[=O]'C[=A]TIVE (_gram._), indicating place.--LOCAL GOVERNMENT ACTS, a series of enactments instituting local self-government of the various counties of Great Britain and of a large number of boroughs; LOCAL OPTION, a phrase first used by Mr Gladstone in a letter in 1868 for the determination by vote of the people of a town or district as to whether licenses to sell intoxicating liquors shall be granted or not. [Fr.,--Low L. _localis_--_locus_, a place.] LOCH, loh, _n._ a lake or arm of the sea.--_ns._ LOCHABER AXE (loh-ä'b[.e]r aks), a battle-axe used by the Scottish Highlanders, having a narrow blade, but very long towards the shaft, and generally with a hook at the end of the staff; LOCH'AN (_Scot._), a pond. [Gael. _loch_; cf. _Lake_.] LOCHE, _n._ See LOACH. LOCHIA, l[=o]'ki-a, _n.pl._ the evacuations from the womb after childbirth.--_adj._ L[=O]'CHIAL. [Gr.] LOCK, lok, _n._ a device to fasten doors, &c.: an enclosure in a canal for raising or lowering boats: the part of a firearm by which it is discharged: a grapple in wrestling: a state of being immovable: any narrow, confined place.--_v.t._ to fasten with a lock: to fasten so as to impede motion: to shut up: to close fast: to embrace closely: to furnish with locks.--_v.i._ to become fast: to unite closely.--_ns._ LOCK'AGE, the locks of a canal: the difference in their levels, the materials used for them, and the tolls paid for passing through them; LOCK'-CHAIN, a chain for fastening the wheels of a vehicle by tying the rims to some part which does not rotate; LOCK'ER, any closed place that may be locked; LOCK'ET, a little ornamental case of gold or silver, usually containing a miniature.--_adj._ LOCK'FAST, firmly fastened by locks.--_ns._ LOCK'GATE, a gate for opening or closing a lock in a canal or river; LOCK'-HOS'PITAL (see HOSPITAL); LOCK'HOUSE, the lock-keeper's house; LOCK'-JAW, LOCKED'-JAW, a contraction of the muscles of the jaw by which its motion is suspended; LOCK'-KEEP'ER, one who keeps or attends the locks of a canal; LOCK'OUT, the act of locking out, esp. used of the locking out of a teacher by the pupils or _vice versâ_, or of the refusal of an employer to admit his workmen within the works as a means of coercion; LOCKS'MAN, a turnkey; LOCK'SMITH, a smith who makes and mends locks; LOCK'STITCH, a stitch formed by the locking of two threads together; LOCK'UP, a place for locking up or confining persons for a short time.--NOT A SHOT IN THE LOCKER (_naut._), not a penny in the pocket. [A.S. _loca_, a lock; Ice. _loka_, a bolt, Ger. _loch_, a dungeon.] LOCK, lok, _n._ a tuft or ringlet of hair: a small quantity, as of hay: (_Scots law_) a quantity of meal, the perquisite of a mill-servant: (_Shak._) a love-lock--_n._ LOCK'MAN, an officer in the Isle of Man who acts as a kind of under-sheriff to the governor. [A.S. _locc_; Ice. _lokkr_, Ger. _locke_, a lock.] LOCKIAN, lok'i-an, _adj._ pertaining to the philosophy of John _Locke_ (1632-1704).--_ns._ LOCK'IAN, LOCK'IST. LOCKRAM, lok'ram, _n._ a kind of coarse linen--from _Locrenan_, in Brittany, where made. LOCOFOCO, l[=o]-k[=o]-f[=o]'k[=o], _n._ (_U.S._) a friction match: the extreme section of the Democratic party of 1835, known as the Equal Rights Party, or any adherent of it. [L. _locus_, a place, _focus_, a hearth.] LOCOMOTIVE, l[=o]-ko-m[=o]'tiv, _adj._ moving from place to place: capable of, or assisting in, locomotion.--_n._ a locomotive machine: a railway engine.--_ns._ LOCOM[=O]'TION; LOCOMOTIV'ITY; LOCOM[=O]'TOR.--_adj._ LOCOM[=O]'TORY.--LOCOMOTOR ATAXY (see ATAXIA). [L. _locus_, a place, _mov[=e]re_, _motum_, to move.] LOCORESTIVE, l[=o]-k[=o]-res'tiv, _adj._ staying in one place. LOCULUS, lok'[=u]-lus, _n._ (_bot._, _anat._, _zool._) a small compartment or cell: in ancient catacombs, a small recess for holding an urn:--_pl._ LOC'UL[=I].--_n._ LOC'ULAMENT (_bot._), loculus.--_adjs._ LOC'ULAR, LOC'UL[=A]TE, LOC'ULOSE, LOC'ULOUS. [Dim. of L. _locus_, a place.] LOCUM-TENENS, l[=o]'kum-t[=e]n'enz, _n._ a deputy or substitute.--_n._ L[=O]'CUM-T[=E]N'ENCY, the holding by a temporary substitute of a post. [L. _locus_, a place, _ten[=e]re_, to hold.] LOCUS, l[=o]'kus, _n._ (_math._) the curve described by a point, or the surface generated by a line, moving in a given manner: a passage in a writing:--_pl._ LOCI (l[=o]'s[=i]), a collection of passages, esp. from sacred and ancient writings, arranged with special reference to some particular theme.--LOCUS CLASSICUS (_pl._ LOCI CLASSICI), a standard passage, esp. in an ancient author: that passage which is the accepted authority for some particular subject or for the use of some special or disputed word; LOCUS STANDI (_law_), right of place in court: recognised place or position. [L.] LOCUST, l[=o]'kust, _n._ a migratory winged insect, in shape like the grasshopper, highly destructive to vegetation.--_v.i._ (_rare_) to lay waste like locusts. [L. _locusta_.] LOCUST, l[=o]'kust, _n._ a tree with thorny branches and dense clusters of white, heavily-scented flowers, found in the U.S.: the carob-tree.--_ns._ LOCUS'TA, the spikelet of grasses:--_pl._ LOCUS'TÆ; L[=O]'CUST-BEAN, the sweet pod of the carob-tree. LOCUTION, l[=o]-k[=u]'shun, _n._ the act of speaking: form of speaking, phraseology, a phrase.--_n._ LOC'UTORY, a room for conversation, esp. in monastic establishments. [L. _locution-em_--_loqui_, _locutus_, to speak.] LODE, l[=o]d, _n._ a vein containing metallic ore: a reach of water: an open ditch.--_ns._ LODES'MAN, a pilot; LODE'STAR, the star that guides, the pole-star--often used figuratively; LODE'STONE, a stone or ore of iron that attracts other pieces of iron. [A.S. _lád_, a course--_líðan_, to travel.] LODGE, loj, _n._ a small house in a park: a hut: the cottage of a gatekeeper: a retreat: a secret association, also the place of meeting.--_v.t._ to furnish with a temporary dwelling: place, deposit: to infix, to settle: to drive to covert: to lay flat, as grain.--_v.i._ to reside: to rest: to dwell for a time: to pass the night: to lie flat, as grain.--_ns._ LODG'ER, one who lodges or lives at board or in a hired room; LODG'ING, temporary habitation: a room or rooms hired in the house of another (often in _pl._): harbour; LODG'ING-HOUSE, a house where lodgings are let, a house other than a hotel where travellers lodge; LODG'MENT, act of lodging, or state of being lodged: accumulation of something that remains at rest: (_mil._) the occupation of a position by a besieging party, and the works thrown up to maintain it.--LODGER FRANCHISE, a right to vote conferred on persons occupying lodgings.--GRAND LODGE, the principal lodge of Freemasons, presided over by the Grand-master. [O. Fr. _loge_--Old High Ger. _loub[=a]_, an arbour.] LOESS, l[.e]s, or l[=o]'es, _n._ a loamy deposit of Pleistocene age, in the valleys of the Rhine, Danube, and Rhone.--Also LÖSS. [Ger. _löss_.] LOFT, loft, _n._ the room or space immediately under a roof: a gallery in a hall or church: an upper room.--_v.t._ to furnish with a loft: (_golf_) to strike the ball up by means of a club called the LOFT'ER.--_adv._ LOFT'ILY.--_n._ LOFT'INESS.--_adj._ LOFT'Y, high in position, character, sentiment, or diction: stately: haughty.--LOFTED HOUSE (_Scot._), a house of more than one story.--COCK OF THE LOFT, the head or chief of a set. [Ice. _lopt_ (loft), the sky, an upper room; A.S. _lyft_, Ger. _luft_, the air.] LOG, log, _n._ a Hebrew liquid measure, believed to be very nearly an English pint. [Heb. _l[=o]gh_.] LOG, log, _n._ a bulky piece of wood: a heavy, stupid, or sluggish person.--_adj._ consisting of logs.--_ns._ LOG'-CAB'IN, -HOUSE, -HUT, a cabin or hut built of hewn or unhewn logs, common in new American settlements; LOG'GAT, a small log or piece of wood: an old game somewhat like nine-pins; LOG'GERHEAD, a blockhead: a dunce: (_naut._) a round piece of timber, in a whale-boat, over which the line is passed: a species of sea-turtle: a round mass of iron with a long handle, heated for various purposes.--_adj._ LOG'GERHEADED.--_ns._ LOG'-HEAD, a blockhead; LOG'-MAN (_Shak._), a man who carries logs: (_U.S._) one whose occupation is to cut and remove logs--also LOG'GER.--_v.t._ LOG'-ROLL, to engage in log-rolling.--_ns._ LOG'-ROLL'ER; LOG'-ROLL'ING, a combination for facilitating the collection of logs after the clearing of a piece of land, or for rolling logs into a stream: mutual aid given by politicians for carrying out individual schemes: a system of literary criticism conducted on the lines of mutual admiration or adulation; LOG'WOOD, the dark-red heart-wood of _Hæmatoxylon campechianum_, a native of Mexico and Central America, whence it is exported in logs.--AT LOGGERHEADS, at issue, quarrelling about differences of opinion, &c. [Ice. _lág_, a felled tree, _liggja_, to lie. Cf. _Lie_ and _Log_.] LOG, log, _n._ a piece of wood with a line for measuring the speed of a ship: the record of a ship's progress.--_v.t._ to exhibit by the indication of the log: to enter in the logbook.--_ns._ LOG'BOARD; LOG'BOOK, the official record of the proceedings on board ship: a book kept by the head-master of a board-school for recording attendances and other matters connected with the school; LOG'-CHIP, the board, in the form of a quadrant, attached to a logline; LOG'-GLASS, a 14- or 28-second sand-glass, used with the logline to ascertain the speed of a ship; LOG'LINE, the line fastened to the log, and marked for finding the speed of a vessel; LOG'-REEL, a reel on which the logline is wound; LOG'-SLATE, a double slate, marked and ruled in the inside, for recording the log.--HEAVE THE LOG, to learn the speed of a ship by logline and glass. [Sw. _logg_, a ship's log, a piece of wood that lies in the water.] LOGAN, log'an, _n._ a rocking-stone.--Also LOG'GING-ROCK. [Prob. cog. with Dan. _logre_, to wag the tail.] LOGAOEDIC, log-a-[=e]'dik, _adj._ (_ancient prosody_) pertaining to a variety of trochaic or iambic verse, where dactyls are combined with trochees or anapæsts with iambi. [Gr. _logos_, prose, _aoid[=e]_, song.] LOGARITHM, log'a-rithm, _n._ (of a number) the power to which another given number must be raised in order that it may equal the former number: one of a series of numbers having a certain relation to the series of natural numbers by means of which many arithmetical operations are simplified.--_adjs._ LOGARITH'MIC, -AL, pertaining to, or consisting of, logarithms.--_adv._ LOGARITH'MICALLY. [Gr. _logos_, ratio, _arithmos_, number.] LOGGIA, loj'a, _n._ an open arcade enclosing a passage or open apartment, common in Italy:--_pl._ LOGG'IE (-e). [It.; cf. _Lodge_.] LOGIA, log'i-a, _n.pl._ oracles, sayings, a supposed primitive collection of the sayings and discourses of Jesus, largely drawn upon by the writers of the first and third gospels for much of what they have in common with each other apart from Mark. [Gr.] LOGIC, loj'ik, _n._ the science and art of reasoning correctly: the science of the necessary laws of thought.--_adj._ LOG'ICAL, according to the rules of logic: skilled in logic: discriminating.--_ns._ LOGICAL'ITY, LOG'ICALNESS.--_adv._ LOG'ICALLY.--_n._ LOGIC'IAN, one skilled in logic.--_v.i._ LOG'ICISE, to argue.--CHOP LOGIC (see CHOP); DEDUCTIVE LOGIC, logic independent of probability or quantitative considerations; FORMAL LOGIC, logic regarded as a distinct science, independent of matters of fact; INDUCTIVE LOGIC, the logic of scientific reasoning; MATERIAL LOGIC, logic which takes into account natural fact or phenomena, as distinct from _formal logic_; NATURAL LOGIC, the natural faculty of distinguishing the true from the false: the logical doctrine applicable to natural things as opposed to the _logic of faith_; PURE LOGIC, the general laws of thought. [Gr. _logik[=e]_, from _logos_, speech.] LOGISTIC, -AL, loj-is'tik, -al, _adj._ skilled in calculating: proportional.--_n._ LOGIS'TIC, the art of calculation, sexagesimal arithmetic: (_pl._) that branch of military science relating to the movement and supplying of armies. [Gr. _logist[=e]s_, a calculator--_logizesthai_, to compute.] LOGODÆDALY, log-o-d[=e]'da-li, _n._ verbal legerdemain. LOGOGRAM, log'o-gram, _n._ a sign which represents a word: a puzzle in which from an original word, by combinations of all or some of its letters, other words are formed, which again are concealed under synonymous expressions in a series of verses. [Gr. _logos_, word, _gramma_, letter.] LOGOGRAPHER, lo-gog'ra-f[.e]r, _n._ in Greek literature, one of the earliest annalists, esp. those before Herodotus.--_adjs._ LOGOGRAPH'IC, -AL.--_adv._ LOGOGRAPH'ICALLY.--_ns._ LOGOG'RAPHY, a method of printing with whole words cast in a single type; LOG'OTYPE, a type containing two or more letters. [Gr.,--_logos_, word, _graphein_, to write.] LOGOGRIPH, log'[=o]-grif, _n._ a riddle. [Gr. _logos_, word, _griphos_, a riddle.] LOGOMACHY, lo-gom'a-ki, _n._ contention about words or in words merely.--_n._ LOGOM'ACHIST. [Gr. _logomachia_--_logos_, word, _mach[=e]_, fight.] LOGOMANIA, log-o-m[=a]'ni-a, _n._ disease of the faculty of language. [Gr. _logos_, speech, and _mania_.] LOGOMETER, l[=o]-gom'e-t[.e]r, _n._ a logarithmic scale: a scale for measuring chemical equivalents. LOGOS, log'os, _n._ in the Stoic philosophy, the active principle living in and determining the world: (_theol._) the Word of God incarnate. [Gr.] LOIMIC, loi'mik, _adj._ relating to the plague.--_ns._ LOIMOG'RAPHY; LOIMOL'OGY. LOIN, loin, _n._ the back of a beast cut for food: (_pl._) the reins, or the lower part of the back.--_n._ LOIN'-CLOTH, a piece of cloth for wearing round the loins.--GIRD UP THE LOINS, to prepare for energetic action--the clothes tucked up before running, &c. [O. Fr. _logne_--L. _lumbus_, loin.] LOITER, loi't[.e]r, _v.i._ to delay: to be slow in moving: to linger.--_n._ LOI'TERER.--_adv._ LOI'TERINGLY. [Dut. _leuteren_, to trifle; Ger. prov. _lottern_, to waver.] LOKI, l[=o]'ki, _n._ an evil giant-god in Norse mythology. LOLIGO, l[=o]-l[=i]'go, _n._ the typical genus of _Loliginidæ_, embracing the common European squid. [L.] LOLIUM, l[=o]'li-um, _n._ a genus of grasses of the tribe Hordeeæ. [L., darnel, 'tares.'] LOLL, lol, _v.i._ to lie lazily about, to lounge: to hang out from the mouth.--_v.t._ to thrust out (the tongue).--_n._ LOLL'ER.--_adv._ LOLL'INGLY.--_v.i._ LOLL'OP, to lounge, idle: (_coll._) to be moved heavily about. [Old Dut. _lollen_, to sit over the fire; cf. _Lull_.] LOLLARDS, lol'ards, _n.pl._ the followers of Wycliffe in England: a society founded in Antwerp (1300 A.D.) for the burial of the dead and the care of the sick.--_ns._ LOLL'ARDY, LOLL'ARDISM, the doctrines of the Lollards. [Old Dut. _Lollaerd_, from their peculiar hum in singing--_lollen_, to sing softly; but confused with M. E. _loller_, an idler; cf. _Loll_.] LOLLY, lol'i, _n._ a lump.--_n._ LOLL'YPOP, a sweetmeat made with sugar and treacle: (_pl._) sweets. LOMA, l[=o]'ma, _n._ a lobe, flap, or fringe bordering the toe of a bird. LOMBARD, lom'bard, _n._ an inhabitant of _Lombardy_ in Italy: one of the Lombards or Langobardi, a Germanic tribe, which founded a kingdom in Lombardy (568), overthrown by Charlemagne (774): (_obs._) a banker or money-lender, so called from the number of Lombard bankers in London.--_adjs._ LOM'BARD, LOMBAR'DIC.--LOMBARD ARCHITECTURE, the style used by the Lombards, derived from the base Roman style they found in the country, superseded by the Pointed Style imported from France (13th century); LOMBARD STREET, the chief centre of the banking interest in London. [O. Fr.,--L. _Langobardus_, from Old Teut. _lang_, long, _bart_, beard.] LOMENT, l[=o]'ment, _n._ (_bot._) an indehiscent legume, with constrictions or transverse articulations between the seeds--also LOMEN'TUM.--_adj._ LOMENT[=A]'CEOUS. LONDONER, lun'dun-[.e]r, _n._ a native or citizen of London.--_adj._ LONDONESE', pertaining to London: cockney.--_n._ English as spoken in London: cockney speech.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ LON'DONISE.--_n._ LON'DONISM, a mode of speech, &c., peculiar to London.--LONDON CLAY, a geological formation in south-eastern England, belonging to the lower division of the Eocene Tertiary; LONDON PRIDE, a hardy perennial cultivated in cottage-gardens--also _None-so-pretty_ and _St Patrick's cabbage_. LONE, l[=o]n, LONELY, l[=o]n'li, _adj._ alone: solitary: retired: standing by itself.--_ns._ LONE'LINESS, LONE'NESS.--_adj._ LONE'SOME, solitary: dismal.--_adv._ LONE'SOMELY.--_n._ LONE'SOMENESS. [_Alone_.] LONG, long, _conj._ by means (of), owing (to). [_Along_.] LONG, long, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to belong. LONG, long, _adj._ (_comp._ LONG'ER; _superl._ LONG'EST) extended: not short: extended in time: slow in coming: tedious: far-reaching.--_n._ (_prosody_) a long time or syllable: (_coll._) the long summer vacation at the English universities, termed 'the Long.'--_adv._ to a great extent in space or time: through the whole: all along.--_v.i._ to desire earnestly.--_adv._ LONG'-AG[=O]', in the far past.--_n._ the far past.--_n._ LONGANIM'ITY, long-suffering, endurance.--_adj._ LONGAN'IMOUS.--_ns._ LONG'BOAT, the largest and strongest boat of a ship; LONG'-BOW, a bow bent by the hand in shooting, called long as distinguished from the cross-bow.--_adj._ LONG'-BREATHED, able to continue violent exercise of the lungs for a long time.--_n.pl._ LONG'-COATS, long clothes, worn by infants.--_adj._ LONG'-DESCEND'ED, of ancient lineage.--_n._ LONG'-DOZ'EN, thirteen.--_adjs._ LONG'-DRAWN, prolonged; LONGEVAL, LONGEVOUS (-j[=e]'-), of long or great age.--_ns._ LONGEVITY (-jev'-); LONG'-FIELD (_cricket_), a fielder placed near the boundary on the bowler's side; LONG'-FIRM, the name given to a company of swindlers who obtain goods on pretence of being established in business, and then decamp without payment to do the like elsewhere; LONG'HAND, writing of the ordinary kind.--_adj._ LONG'-HEAD'ED, having good intellectual powers: sagacious.--_ns._ LONG'-HEAD'EDNESS; LONG'-HUN'DRED, a hundred and twenty.--_adjs._ LON'GICORN (-ji-), having long antennæ; LONGIMANOUS (-jim'-), long-handed; LONGIMET'RIC.--_ns._ LONGIMETRY (-jim'-), the art of measuring distances; LONG'ING, an eager desire, craving, esp. of the whimsical desires sometimes felt in pregnancy.--_adv._ LONG'INGLY.--_n._ LONGINQUITY (-jinq'-), greatness of distance.--_adj._ LONGIPEN'NATE (-ji-), long-winged, as gulls.--_n._ LONGIROS'TER (-ji-), one of a family of birds having a long, slender bill, as the snipe.--_adjs._ LONGIROS'TRAL, LONGIROS'TRATE (-ji-), having a long bill or beak; LONG'ISH.--_n._ LON'GITUDE (-ji-), distance of a place east or west of a given meridian: distance in degrees from the vernal equinox, on the ecliptic--_adj._ LONGITUD'INAL, pertaining to longitude or length: extending lengthwise.--_adv._ LONGITUD'INALLY.--_n._ LONG'-LEG (_cricket_), see LEG.--_adj._ LONG'-LEGGED, having long legs.--_n._ LONG'LEGS, an insect with long legs, as the common crane-fly.--_adj._ LONG'-LIVED, having a long life.--_adv._ LONG'LY (_Shak._), longingly.--_ns._ LONG'-MEAS'URE, lineal measure; LONG'-OFF, LONG'-ON (_cricket_), the fielders in the long-field to the left and right of the bowler respectively; LONG'-PRIM'ER, a size of type intermediate between small pica and bourgeois; LONG'-PUR'PLES, the manorchis.--_adj._ LONG'-RANGE, able to reach or hit from a considerable distance.--_n.pl._ LONGS'-AND-SHORTS', verses.--_adj._ LONG'SHORE, existing or employed along the shore.--_n._ LONG'SHOREMAN, a stevedore: one who makes a living along shores by oyster-fishing, &c.--_adj._ LONG'-SIGHT'ED, able to see far but not close at hand: sagacious.--_ns._ LONG'-SIGHT'EDNESS; LONG'-SLIP (_cricket_), a fielder some distance behind on the right of the batsman.--_adjs._ LONG'SOME, long and tedious; LONG'-SPUN, long-drawn, tedious; LONG'-ST[=A]'PLE, having a long fibre.--_n._ LONG'-STOP (_cricket_), one who stands behind the wicket-keeper and stops balls missed by him.--_v.i._ to field at long-stop.--_adj._ LONG'-SUFF'ERING, enduring long.--_n._ long endurance or patience.--_n._ LONG'-TAIL, an animal, esp. a dog, with uncut tail--also _adj._--_adjs._ LONG'-TONGUED, talkative, babbling; LONG'-VIS'AGED, having a long face, of rueful countenance; LONG'-WAIST'ED, having a long waist, long from the armpits to the hips; LONG'-WIND'ED, long-breathed: tedious.--_n._ LONG'-WIND'EDNESS.--_adv._ LONG'WISE, lengthwise.--LONG HOME, the grave; LONG TOM (see TOM).--A LONG FIGURE (_slang_), a high price or rate; BEFORE LONG, ERE LONG, soon; DRAW THE LONG-BOW, to exaggerate, to tell incredible stories; FOR LONG, for a considerable period of time; IN THE LONG-RUN (see RUN); MAKE A LONG ARM (_prov._), to help one's self liberally at table; THE LONG AND THE SHORT, the sum of the matter in a few words. [A.S. _lang_; Ger. _lang_, Ice. _langr_.] LOO, l[=oo], _n._ a game at cards.--_v.t._ to beat in the game of loo:--_pr.p._ l[=oo]'ing; _pa.p._ l[=oo]ed.--_n._ LOO'-T[=A]'BLE, a table for loo. [Formerly _lanterloo_--Dut. _lanterlu_. Cf. Dut. _lanterfant_, an idler.] LOOBY, l[=oo]b'i, _n._ a clumsy, clownish fellow.--_adv._ LOOB'ILY. [From root of _lob_.] LOOF, l[=oo]f, _n._ the after-part of a ship's bow where the planks begin to curve in towards the cut-water. [Dut. _loef_, the weather-gauge, luff, orig. a paddle for steering; perh. conn. with _loof_, palm.] LOOF, l[=oo]f, _n._ (Scot) the palm of the hand. [Ice. _lófi_.] LOOFA. See LUFFA. LOOK, l[=oo]k, _v.i._ to turn the eye toward so as to see; to direct the attention to: to watch: to seem: to face, as a house: (_B._) to expect.--_v.t._ to express by a look: to influence by look.--_n._ the act of looking or seeing: sight: air of the face: appearance.--_imp._ or _interj._ see: behold.--_ns._ LOOK'ER, one who looks; LOOK'ER-ON, one that looks on, a mere spectator; LOOK'ING, seeing: search or searching; LOOK'ING-FOR (_B._), expectation; LOOK'ING-GLASS, a glass which reflects the image of the person looking into it, a mirror; LOOK'OUT, a careful watching for: an elevated place from which to observe: one engaged in watching.--LOOK ABOUT, to be on the watch; LOOK AFTER, to attend to or take care of: (_B._) to expect; LOOK ALIVE (_coll._), to bestir one's self; LOOK DOWN ON, to treat with indifference, to despise; LOOK FOR, to search for, to expect; LOOK INTO, to inspect closely; LOOK ON, to regard, view, think; LOOK OUT, to watch: to select; LOOK OVER, to examine cursorily: to overlook or pass over anything; LOOK THROUGH, to penetrate with the eye or the understanding; LOOK TO, to take care of: to depend on; LOOK UP, to search for: (_coll._) to call upon, visit.--HAVE A LOOK IN (_slang_), to have a chance. [A.S. _lócian_, to look.] LOOM, l[=oo]m, _n._ a machine in which yarn or thread is woven into a fabric, by the crossing of threads called _chain_ or _warp_, running lengthwise, with others called _weft_, _woof_, or _filling_; the handle of an oar, or the part within the rowlock.--_n._ JAC'QUARD-LOOM, a famous apparatus devised by Joseph Marie _Jacquard_ (1752-1834), invaluable in weaving the finer kinds of figured silk fabrics. [A.S. _gelóma_, a tool.] LOOM, l[=oo]m, _v.i._ to appear above the horizon, or larger than the real size: to show large in darkness, &c.: to stand out prominently in the future.--_n._ LOOM'ING, a mirage. [O. Fr. _lumer_--L. _lumin[=a]re_.] LOON, l[=oo]n, _n._ a low fellow: a rascal: (_Scot._) a lad. [Old Dut. _loen_, a stupid fellow, _lome_, slow.] LOON, l[=oo]n, _n._ a genus of web-footed aquatic birds, the Divers, with short wings, and legs placed very far back--also LOOM.--_n._ LOON'ING, the cry of a loon, like the howl of a wolf, ominous of evil. [Ice. _lómr_, prob. influenced by _loon_, as above, from their awkward walk on land.] LOOP, l[=oo]p, _n._ a doubling of a cord, chain, &c., through which another may pass: an ornamental doubling in fringes.--_v.t._ to fasten or ornament with loops.--_n.pl._ LOOP'ERS, the caterpillars of certain moths, which move by drawing up the hindpart of their body to the head.--_n._ LOOP'-LINE, a branch from a main line of railway, returning to it after making a detour. [Prob. Celt.; Gael. _lub_, a bend.] LOOP, l[=oo]p, LOOPHOLE, l[=oo]p'h[=o]l, _n._ a small hole in a wall, &c., through which small-arms may be fired: a means of escape.--_adjs._ LOOPED (_Shak._), full of small openings; LOOP'HOLED.--_n._ LOOP'-LIGHT, a small narrow window. [O. Fr. _loup_.] LOORD, l[=oo]rd, _n._ (_Spens._) a lout. [Fr. _lourd_, heavy.] LOOS, l[=oo]s, _n._ (_Spens._) praise. [L. _laus_, praise.] LOOSE, l[=oo]s, _adj._ slack, free: unbound: not confined: not compact: indefinite: vague: not strict: unrestrained: lax in principle: licentious: inattentive.--_adj._ LOOSE'-BOD'IED, flowing.--_n._ LOOSE'-KIR'TLE, a wanton.--_adv._ LOOSE'LY.--_ns._ LOOS'ENER, a laxative; LOOSE'NESS, the state of being loose: diarrhoea.--LOOSE BOX, a part of a stable where horses are kept untied.--BREAK LOOSE, to escape from confinement; GIVE A LOOSE TO, to give free vent to; LET LOOSE, to set at liberty. [A.S. _leás_, loose; from the same root as _loose_ (_v.t._) and _lose_, seen also in Goth. _laus_, Ger. _los_; more prob. due to Ice. _lauss_.] LOOSE, l[=oo]s, _v.t._ to free from any fastening: to release: to relax: (_Spens._) to solve.--_v.i._ (_B._) to set sail.--_v.t._ LOOS'EN, to make loose: to relax anything tied or rigid: to make less dense; to open, as the bowels.--_v.i._ to become loose: to become less tight. [A.S. _lósian_; Ger. _lösen_, Goth. _lausjan_, to loose.] LOOSESTRIFE, l[=oo]s'str[=i]f, _n._ the popular name for a plant of the natural order _Lythraceæ_ (q.v.). LOOT, l[=oo]t, _n._ act of plundering, esp. in a conquered city: plunder.--_v.t._ or _v.i._ to plunder, ransack. [Hindi _l[=u]t_--Sans. _lotra_, _loptra_, stolen goods.] LOP, lop, _v.i._ to hang down loosely.--_adjs._ LOP'-EARED, having ears which hang downwards; LOP'SIDED, heavier on one side than the other, as a ship. LOP, lop, _v.t._ to cut off the top or ends of, esp. of a tree: to curtail by cutting away superfluous parts:--_pr.p._ lop'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ lopped.--_n._ twigs of trees cut off--_ns._ LOP'PER; LOP'PING, a cutting off: that which is cut off. [Cf. Dut. _lubben_, to cut; perh. conn. with _leaf_.] LOPE, l[=o]p, _v.i._ to leap: to run with a long stride. LOPHOBRANCH, l[=o]'f[=o]-brangk, _adj._ having tufted gills.--Also LOPHOBRAN'CHIATE. [Gr. _lophos_, a crest, _brachia_, gills.] LOQUACIOUS, lo-kw[=a]'shus, _adj._ talkative.--_adv._ LOQU[=A]'CIOUSLY.--_ns._ LOQU[=A]'CIOUSNESS, LOQUAC'ITY, talkativeness. [L. _loquax_, _-acis_--_loqui_, to speak.] LOQUAT, l[=o]'kwat, _n._ an esteemed Chinese and Japanese fruit, yellowish, flavouring tarts. [Chinese.] LORATE, l[=o]r'[=a]t, _adj._ (_bot._) resembling a thong or strap. [L. _loratus_--_lorum_, a thong.] LORCHA, lor'cha, _n._ a light vessel of European build, but rigged like a Chinese junk. LORD, lawrd, _n._ a master: a superior: a husband: a ruler: the proprietor of a manor: a baron: a peer of the realm: the son of a duke or marquis, or the eldest son of an earl: a bishop, esp. if a member of parliament: (_B._) the Supreme Being, Jehovah (when printed in capitals): a name also applied to Christ.--_v.t._ to raise to the peerage.--_v.i._ to act the lord: to tyrannise.--_ns._ LORD'LINESS; LORD'LING, a little lord: a would-be lord--also LORD'ING, LORD'KIN.--_adj._ LORD'LY, like, becoming, or pertaining to a lord: dignified: haughty: tyrannical--also _adv._--_ns._ LORDOL'ATRY, excessive worship of nobility; LORDS'-AND-L[=A]'DIES, a popular name for the common arum (q.v.); LORD'S'-DAY, the first day of the week; LORD'SHIP, state or condition of being a lord: the territory belonging to a lord: dominion: authority; LORD'S'-SUP'PER, the sacrament of the communion, instituted at our Lord's last supper.--LORD-LIEUTENANT OF A COUNTY (see LIEUTENANT); LORD-LIEUTENANT OF IRELAND, a viceroy or deputy of the sovereign to whom the government of Ireland is nominally committed; LORD OF MISRULE (see MISRULE); LORDS OF SESSION, the judges of the Scotch Court of Session; LORDS ORDINARY, the five judges forming the outer house of the Court of Session; LORDS SPIRITUAL, the archbishops and bishops in the House of Lords--opp. to LORDS TEMPORAL, the peers proper.--HOUSE OF LORDS, the upper house in the two branches of the British parliament, consisting of the lords spiritual and temporal. [M. E. _loverd_, _laverd_--A.S. _hláford_--_hláf_, a loaf, bread, _weard_, warder.] LORDOSIS, lor-d[=o]'sis, _n._ abnormal curvature of the spinal column, the convexity towards the front. LORE, l[=o]r, _n._ that which is learned: doctrine: learning.--_n._ LOR'ING (_Spens._), learning. [A.S. _lár_.] LORE, l[=o]r, _n._ (_Spens._) something like a thong: (_ornith._) the side of the head between the eye and the base of the upper mandible. LOREL, lor'el, _n._ (_Spens._) an idle fellow. [_Losel_.] LORETTE, l[=o]-ret', _n._ a showy strumpet. [Fr.] LORGNETTE, l[=o]r-nyet', _n._ an opera-glass.--_n._ LOR'GNON, an eye-glass with a handle. [Fr.] LORICA, lo-r[=i]'ka, _n._ in ancient Rome, a cuirass made of thongs--also LOR'IC (_Browning_).--_v.t._ LOR'IC[=A]TE, to furnish with a coat-of-mail: to plate or coat over.--_adj._ covered with defensive armour: imbricated.--_n._ LORIC[=A]'TION, a coating or crusting over, as with plates of mail. [L.,--_lorum_, a thong.] LORIKEET, lor-i-k[=e]t', _n._ a small parrot, a kind of lory. LORIMER, lor'i-m[.e]r, _n._ a maker of horse-furniture.--Also LOR'INER. [Fr. _lormier_--L. _lorum_, a thong.] LORIOT, l[=o]'ri-ut, _n._ the oriole. [Fr. _le_, the, _oriol_--L. _aureolus_, dim. of _aureus_, golden--_aurum_, gold.] LORIS, l[=o]'ris, _n._ the slender lemur of Ceylon. LORN, lorn, _adj._ (_Spens._) lost, forsaken. [A.S. _loren_, pa.p. of _leósan_, to lose.] LORRY, lor'i, _n._ a four-wheeled wagon without sides. [Perh. from prov. Eng. _lurry_, to pull.] LORY, l[=o]'ri, _n._ a common name for the members of a family of Australian parrots. [Malay.] LOSE, l[=oo]z, _v.t._ to be deprived of: to cease to have: to mislay: to waste, as time: to miss: to bewilder: to cause to perish: to ruin.--_v.i._ to fail, to be unsuccessful: to suffer waste:--_pr.p._ los'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ lost.--_adj._ LOS'ABLE.--_n._ LOS'ER.--_adj._ LOS'ING, causing loss.--_adv._ LOS'INGLY.--_n._ LOSS, the act of losing: injury: destruction: defeat: that which is lost: waste.--_adj._ LOST, parted with: no longer possessed: missing: thrown away: squandered: ruined.--LOSE ONE'S SELF, to lose one's way, to become bewildered; LOST TO, insensible to; LOST TRIBES, the tribes of Israel which never returned from captivity.--AT A LOSS, in uncertainty. [A.S. _losian_--_leósan_; cog. with Ger. _ver-lieren_, to lose.] LOSEL, l[=o]'zel, _n._ a sorry, worthless fellow: a scamp.--_adj._ slothful: wasteful--_n._ L[=O]'SELISM, worthlessness, worthless fellows collectively. [Prob. _lose_.] LÖSS. See LOESS. LOT, lot, _n._ one's fate in the future: destiny: that which falls to any one as his fortune: that which decides by chance: a separate portion.--_v.t._ to allot: to separate into lots: to catalogue:--_pr.p._ lot'ting; _pa.p._ lot'ted.--CAST, or DRAW, lots, to determine an event by some arrangement of chances. [A.S. _hlot_, _hlýt_, a lot--_hleótan_, to cast lots.] LOTAH, l[=o]'ta, _n._ a Hindu small brass or copper pot. LOTE. See LOTUS. LOTH, l[=o]th, _adj._ Same as LOATHFUL, LOATHLY. LOTHARIO, l[=o]-th[=a]'ri-[=o], _n._ a libertine, rake. [From _Lothario_, in Rowe's play, _The Fair Penitent_.] LOTION, l[=o]'shun, _n._ a liquid preparation for healing or cleansing any diseased or bruised part. [Fr.,--L.,--_lav[=a]re lotum_, to wash.] LOTTERY, lot'[.e]r-i, _n._ a distribution of prizes by lot or chance: a game of chance. LOTTO, lot'[=o], _n._ a game played with numbered discs and cards.--Also LOT'O. [It.] LOTUS, l[=o]'tus, _n._ the water-lily of Egypt: a tree in North Africa, whose fruit made strangers forget their home: a genus of leguminous plants--also LOTE, L[=O]'TOS.--_ns.pl._ LOT[=O]'PHAGI, L[=O]'TUS-EAT'ERS, a people who ate the fruit of the lotus, among whom Ulysses lived for a time.--_ns._ L[=O]'TUS-EAT'ER, an eater of the lotus: one given up to sloth; L[=O]'TUS-LAND, the country of the lotus-eaters. [Gr.] LOUD, lowd, _adj._ making a great sound: noisy: showy.--_advs._ LOUD, LOUD'LY.--_adj._ LOUD'-LUNGED, vociferous.--_n._ LOUD'NESS.--_adj._ LOUD'-VOICED, stentorian. [A.S, _hlúd_; Ger. _laut_, sound; L. _inclytus_, renowned, Gr. _klytos_, heard.] LOUGH, loh, _n._ the Irish form of _loch_. LOUIS, l[=oo]'i, _n._ a French gold coin superseded in 1795 by the 20-franc piece--also LOU'IS-D'OR.--_adjs._ LOU'IS-QUATORZE', characteristic of the reign of LOUIS XIV. (1643-1715), in architecture and decoration; LOU'IS-QUINZE, of that of Louis XV. (1715-74); LOU'IS-SEIZE, of that of Louis XVI. (1774-92); LOU'IS-TREIZE, of that of Louis XIII. (1610-43). LOUNDER, lown'd[.e]r, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to beat.--_n._ a heavy blow.--_n._ LOUN'DERING, a beating. LOUNGE, lownj, _v.i._ to recline at one's ease: to move about listlessly.--_n._ the act or state of lounging: an idle stroll: a place for lounging: a kind of sofa.--_n._ LOUNG'ER. [Fr. _longis_, one that is long in doing anything, formed (but with a pun on L. _longus_, long) from L. _Longius_ or _Longinus_, the legendary name of the centurion who pierced the body of Christ.] LOUP, l[=oo]p, _n._ (_Spens._) loop. LOUP, lowp, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to leap.--_ns._ LOUP'ING-ILL, a disease causing sheep to spring up in walking; LOUP'ING-ON'-STANE, a stone from which to mount a horse; LOUP'-THE-DYKE', runaway. LOUR, lowr, _v.i._ Same as _lower_, to frown. LOUSE, lows, _n._ a common wingless parasitic insect, with a flat body, and short legs furnished with claws:--_pl._ LICE (l[=i]s).--_v.t._ (_obs._) to remove lice from.--_n._ LOUS'INESS.--_adj._ LOUS'Y, swarming with lice. [A.S. _lús_, pl. _lýs_; Ger. _laus_; from the root of Goth. _liusan_, to destroy.] LOUT, lowt, _n._ a clown, awkward fellow.--_v.t._ to treat as a lout.--_v.i._ to bend.--_adj._ LOUT'ISH, clownish: awkward and clumsy.--_adv._ LOUT'ISHLY.--_n._ LOUT'ISHNESS. [A.S. _lútan_, to stoop.] [Illustration] LOUVRE, LOUVER, l[=oo]'v[.e]r, _n._ an opening of a turret shape on roofs, to allow the smoke or foul air to escape from halls, kitchens, &c.--_n._ LOU'VRE-WIN'DOW, an open window in a church tower, crossed by a series of sloping boards. [O. Fr. _louvert_ for _l'ouvert_, the open space.] LOVAGE, luv'[=a]j, _n._ a genus of plants of the natural order _Umbelliferæ_, allied to Angelica, used as a salad plant: a liquor made from the above. [O. Fr. _luvesche_--L. _ligusticum_, belonging to Liguria.] LOVE, luv, _n._ fondness: an affection of the mind caused by that which delights: pre-eminent kindness: benevolence: reverential regard: devoted attachment to one of the opposite sex: the object of affection: the god of love, Cupid: (_Shak._) a kindness, a favour done: nothing, in billiards, tennis, and some other games.--_v.t._ to be fond of: to regard with affection: to delight in with exclusive affection: to regard with benevolence.--_v.i._ to have the feeling of love.--_adj._ LOV'ABLE, worthy of love: amiable.--_ns._ LOVE'-APP'LE, the fruit of the tomato; LOVE'BIRD, a genus of small birds of the parrot tribe, so called from their attachment to each other; LOVE'-BROK'ER (_Shak._), a third person who carries messages and makes assignations between lovers; LOVE'-CHARM, a philtre; LOVE'-CHILD, a bastard; LOVE'-DAY (_Shak._), a day for settling disputes; LOVE'-F[=A]'VOUR, something given to be worn in token of love; LOVE'-FEAST, a religious feast held periodically by certain sects of Christians in imitation of the love-feasts celebrated by the early Christians in connection with the Lord's-supper; LOVE'-FEAT, the gallant act of a lover; LOVE'-IN-[=I]'DLENESS, the heart's-ease; LOVE'-JUICE, a concoction used to excite love; LOVE'-KNOT, an intricate knot, used as a token of love.--_adj._ LOVE'LESS, without love, tenderness, or kindness.--_ns._ LOVE'-LETT'ER, a letter of courtship; LOVE'-LIES-BLEED'ING, a species of the plant Amaranthus; LOVE'LINESS; LOVE'LOCK, a lock of hair hanging at the ear, worn by men of fashion in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I.--_adj._ LOVE'LORN, forsaken by one's love.--_n._ LOVE'LORNNESS.--_adj._ LOVE'LY, exciting love or admiration: amiable: pleasing: delightful.--_adv._ beautifully, delightfully.--_ns._ LOVE'-MATCH, a marriage for love, not money; LOVE'-MONG'[.E]R, one who deals in affairs of love; LOVE'-P[=O]'TION, a philtre; LOV'ER, one who loves, esp. one in love with person of the opposite sex, in the singular almost exclusively of the man: one who is fond of anything: (_B._) a friend.--_adjs._ LOV'ERED (_Shak._), having a lover; LOV'ERLY, like a lover.--_n._ LOVE'-SHAFT, a dart of love from Cupid's bow.--_adjs._ LOVE'-SICK, languishing with amorous desire; LOVE'SOME, lovely.--_ns._ LOVE'-SUIT (_Shak._), courtship; LOVE'-T[=O]'KEN, a gift in evidence of love.--_adj._ LOV'ING, having love or kindness: affectionate: fond: expressing love.--_ns._ LOV'ING-CUP (see under CUP); LOV'ING-KIND'NESS, kindness full of love: tender regard: mercy: favour.--_adv._ LOV'INGLY.--_n._ LOV'INGNESS.--FOR LOVE OR MONEY, in some way or another; IN LOVE, enamoured; MAKE LOVE TO, to try to gain the affections of; PLAY FOR LOVE, to play without stakes; THERE'S NO LOVE LOST BETWEEN THEM, they have no regard for each other. [A.S. _lufu_, love; Ger. _liebe_; cf. L. _libet_, _lubet_.] LOVELACE, luv'l[=a]s, _n._ a well-mannered libertine. [From _Lovelace_, the hero of _Clarissa Harlowe_.] LOVER, an obsolete form of _louvre_. LOW, l[=o], _v.i._ to make the loud noise of oxen: to bellow.--_n._ the bellow of oxen.--_n._ LOW'ING, the bellowing of cattle. [A.S. _hlówan_; Dut. _loeijen_; imit.] LOW, l[=o], _adj._ (_comp._ LOW'ER; _superl._ LOW'EST) lying in an inferior place or position: not high: deep: shallow: small: moderate: cheap: dejected: mean: plain: in poor circumstances: humble.--_adv._ not aloft: cheaply: meanly: in subjection, poverty, or disgrace: in times near our own: not loudly: (_astron._) near the equator.--_adj._ LOW'-BORN, of mean birth.--_ns._ LOW'-CHURCH, a party within the Church of England minimising sacerdotal claims, ecclesiastical constitutions, ordinances, and forms, holding evangelical views of theology:--opp. to _High-church_; LOW'-CHURCH'ISM; LOW'-CHURCH'MAN.--_v.t._ LOW'ER, to bring low: to depress: to degrade: to diminish.--_v.i._ to fall: to sink: to grow less.--_adjs._ LOW'ER-CASE (_print._), kept in a lower case, denoting small letters as distinguished from capitals; LOW'ER-CLASS, pertaining to persons of the humbler ranks.--_n._ LOW'ERING, the act of bringing low or reducing.--_adj._ letting down: sinking: degrading.--_adj._ LOW'ERMOST, lowest.--_ns._ LOW'LAND, land low with respect to higher land; LOW'LANDER, a native of lowlands; LOW'-LIFE, humble life; LOW'LIHEAD, LOW'LIHOOD, a lowly or humble state; LOW'LINESS.--_adjs._ LOW'-LIVED, vulgar: shabby; LOW'LY, of a low or humble mind: not high: meek: modest; LOW'-MIND'ED, moved by base or gross motives: vulgar; LOW'-NECKED, cut low in the neck and away from the shoulders, décolleté.--_n._ LOW'NESS.--_adjs._ LOW'-PRESS'URE, employing or exerting a low degree of pressure (viz. less than 50 lb. to the sq. inch), said of steam and steam-engines; LOW'-SPIR'ITED, having the spirits low or cast down: not lively: sad.--_n._ LOW'-SPIR'ITEDNESS.--_adj._ LOW'-THOUGHT'ED, having the thoughts directed to low pursuits.--_n._ LOW'-WA'TER, the lowest point of the tide at ebb.--LOW LATIN, a term often applied loosely to the Latin spoken and written after the fall of the Roman Empire, as well as during the Middle Ages; LOW SUNDAY, the first Sunday after Easter, so called in contrast to the great festival whose octave it ends; LOW WINES, the weak spirit produced from the first distillation of substances containing alcohol.--LIE LOW, to keep quiet or hidden. [Ice. _lágr_, Dut. _laag_, low; allied to A.S. _licgan_, to lie.] LOW, low, _n._ (_Scot._) a flame.--_v.i._ to blaze.--_n._ LOW'-BELL, a bell used in fowling by night, in connection with a light, to frighten birds into a net. [Ice. _logi_; cf. Dan. _lue_, Ger. _lohe_.] LOWER, low'[.e]r, _v.i._ to appear gloomy, as the clouds: to threaten a storm: to frown.--_adjs._ LOU'RY, LOW'ERY, cloudy; LOW'ERING, looking sullen: appearing dark and threatening.--_adv._ LOW'ERINGLY. [M. E. _louren_, from M. E. _lure_, _lere_, the cheek, allied to A.S. _hleór_, and thus a variant of _leer_.] LOWN, lown, _n._ a variant of _loon_. LOWN, lown, _adj._ (_Scot._) sheltered, tranquil. LOXIA, lok'si-a, _n._ wryneck. [Gr.] LOXODROMIC, lok-so-drom'ik, _adj._ pertaining to certain lines on the surface of a sphere which cut all meridians at the same angle, and indicate the course held by ships in rhumb sailing.--LOXODROMIC CURVE, line, or spiral, the course of a ship oblique to the equator and cutting all the meridians at the same angle, sailing constantly toward the same point of the compass.--LOXODROMICS, the art of such oblique sailing. [Gr. _loxos_, oblique, _dromos_, a course.] LOYAL, loi'al, _adj._ faithful to one's sovereign: obedient: true to a lover.--_n._ LOY'ALIST, a loyal adherent of his sovereign, esp. in English history, a partisan of the Stuarts: in the American war, one that sided with the British troops.--_adv._ LOY'ALLY.--_n._ LOY'ALTY. [Fr.,--L. _legalis_--_lex_, _legis_, law.] LOZENGE, loz'enj, _n._ an oblique-angled parallelogram or a rhombus: a small cake of flavoured sugar, originally lozenge or diamond shaped: (_her._) the rhomb-shaped figure in which the arms of maids, widows, and deceased persons are borne.--_adjs._ LOZ'ENGED, formed in the shape of a lozenge; LOZ'ENGE-SHAPED, shaped like a lozenge or rhomb; LOZ'ENGY (_her._), divided into lozenge-shaped compartments. [O. Fr. _losange_, flattery, whence its use for an epitaph, square slab, window-pane.] LUBBER, lub'[.e]r, LUBBARD, lub'ard, _n._ an awkward, clumsy fellow: a lazy, sturdy fellow.--_adj._ LUBB'ARD, lubberly.--_adj._ and _adv._ LUBB'ERLY.--_n._ LUBB'ER'S-HOLE (_naut._), a hole between the head of the lower mast and the edge of the top through which 'lubbers' may climb, instead of going round the futtock shroud. [W. _llob_, a dolt, _llabbi_, a stripling.] LUBRICATE, l[=u]'bri-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to make smooth or slippery: to supply with oil to overcome friction.--_adjs._ L[=U]'BRIC, -AL, L[=U]'BRICOUS, slippery: lewd.--_ns._ L[=U]'BRICANT; LUBRIC[=A]'TION.--_adj._ L[=U]'BRICATIVE.--_ns._ L[=U]'BRICATOR; LUBRICITY (l[=u]-bris'i-ti), slipperiness: smoothness: instability: lewdness; LUBRIFAC'TION. [L. _lubric[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_lubricus_, slippery.] LUCARNE, l[=u]'kärn, _n._ a dormer-window, esp. in a church spire. [Fr.,--L. _lucerna_, a lamp.] LUCE, l[=u]s, _n._ a fresh-water fish, the pike. [O. Fr. _lus_--Low L. _lucius_.] LUCENT, l[=u]'sent, _adj._ shining: bright.--_n._ L[=U]'CENCY, brightness.--_adj._ LUCER'NAL, pertaining to a lamp. [L. _lucens_--_luc[=e]re_, to shine--_lux_, _lucis_, light.] LUCERNE, l[=u]'s[.e]rn, _n._ a species of Medick, a valuable forage-plant. [Fr. _luzerne_.] LUCID, l[=u]'sid, _adj._ shining: transparent: easily understood: intellectually bright: not darkened with madness.--_ns._ LUCID'ITY, L[=U]'CIDNESS.--_adv._ L[=U]'CIDLY.--_ns._ LUC'IFER, the planet Venus when it appears as the morning-star: Satan: a match of wood tipped with a combustible substance ignited by friction.--_adjs._ LUCIF[=E]'RIAN, LUCIF'EROUS, of or pertaining to _Lucifer_: bearing light: affording means of discovery; LUCIF'UGAL, LUCIF'UGOUS, shunning light.--_n._ LUCIM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the intensity and duration of sunshine in promoting evaporation. [L.,--_lux_, _lucis_, light.] LUCIGEN, l[=u]'si-jen, _n._ one of the most powerful artificial lamps, and specially adapted for lighting large spaces, whether open or covered. [L. _lux_, _lucis_, light, and root of _gign[)e]re_, to beget.] LUCINA, l[=u]'s[=i]-na, _n._ a name applied both to Diana and to Juno--to the latter as the especial divinity that presides over childbirth. [L.,--_lux_, light.] LUCK, luk, _n._ fortune, good or bad: chance: lot: good fortune.--_adv._ LUCK'ILY.--_n._ LUCK'INESS.--_adj._ LUCK'LESS, without good luck: unhappy.--_adv._ LUCK'LESSLY.--_ns._ LUCK'LESSNESS; LUCK'-PENN'Y, a trifle returned for luck by a seller to a buyer: a coin carried for luck.--_adj._ LUCK'Y, having good luck: auspicious.--_n._ LUCK'Y-BAG, a receptacle for lost property on board a man-of-war.--BE DOWN ON ONE'S LUCK, to be unfortunate. [From a Low Ger. root, seen in Dut. _luk_; cf. Ger. _glück_, prosperity.] LUCKY, LUCKIE, luk'i, _n._ (_Scot._) an elderly woman. LUCKY, luk'i, _n._ (_slang_) departure.--CUT ONE'S LUCKY, to bolt. LUCRE, l[=u]'k[.e]r, _n._ gain (esp. sordid gain): profit: advantage.--_adj._ L[=U]'CRATIVE, bringing lucre or gain: profitable.--_adv._ L[=U]'CRATIVELY. [Fr.,--L. _lucrum_, gain.] LUCTATION, luk-t[=a]'shun, _n._ struggle. [L.,--_luct[=a]ri_.] LUCUBRATE, l[=u]'k[=u]-br[=a]t, _v.i._ to study by lamplight or at night.--_n._ LUCUBR[=A]'TION, a product of close study or thought, any composition produced in retirement.--_adj._ L[=U]'CUBR[=A]TORY, composed by candle-light. [L. _lucubr[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_lux._] LUCULENT, l[=u]'k[=u]-lent, _adj._ lucid: clear: transparent: evident.--_adv._ L[=U]'CULENTLY. [L. _luculentus_--_lux_.] LUCUMO, l[=u]'k[=u]-m[=o], _n._ an appellation of the Etruscan princes and priests. [L.] LUD, _n._ a minced form of _lord_. LUDICROUS, l[=u]'di-krus, _adj._ that serves for sport: adapted to excite laughter: laughable: comic.--_adv._ L[=U]'DICROUSLY.--_n._ L[=U]'DICROUSNESS. [L. _ludicrus_--_lud[)e]re_, to play.] LUE, l[=u], _v.t._ to sift. LUES, l[=u]'[=e]z, _n._ a plague.--_adj._ LUET'IC. [L.] LUFF, luf, _n._ the windward side of a ship: the act of sailing a ship close to the wind: the loof.--_v.t._ to turn a ship towards the wind. [M. E. _lof_, a paddle; cf. Scot. _loof_, Dut. _loef_.] LUFFA, luf'a, _n._ a genus of climbing herbs of the gourd family, whose seeds are contained in a fibrous network removed entire by soaking, &c., and used as a flesh-brush.--Also LOOF'A, &c. [Ar.] LUG, lug, _v.t._ to pull along: to drag: to pull with difficulty:--_pr.p._ lug'ging; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ lugged.--_ns._ LUG'GAGE, the trunks and other baggage of a traveller; LUG'GAGE-VAN, a wagon for baggage; LUG'GER, a small vessel with two or three masts, a running bowsprit, and long or lug sails; LUG'SAIL, LUG, a square sail bent upon a yard that hangs obliquely to the mast.--LUG IN, to introduce without any apparent connection. [Scand., Sw. _lugga_, to pull by the hair--_lugg_, the forelock; from a base _luk_, to pull, present in Scot. _lug_, the ear.] LUG, lug, _n._ (_Spens._) a perch or rod of land. LUG, lug, _n._ (_Scot._) the ear.--_adj._ LUGGED, having ears.--_n._ LUG'GIE, a small vessel with ears. LUGUBRIOUS, l[=u]-g[=u]'bri-us, _adj._ mournful: dismal.--_adv._ LUG[=U]'BRIOUSLY. [L. _lugubris_--_lug[=e]re_, to mourn.] LUGWORM, lug'wurm, _n._ a sluggish worm found in the sand on the sea-shore, much used for bait by fishermen.--Also _Lobworm_. LUKEWARM, l[=u]k'wawrm, _adj._ partially or moderately warm: indifferent--also LUKE.--_adv._ LUKE'WARMLY.--_ns._ LUKE'WARMNESS, LUKE'WARMTH. [M. E. _leuk_, _luke_, an extension of _lew_, cog. with the A.S. _hleó_, the source of _lee_; prob. confused with A.S. _wlæc_, _wlacu_, tepid; cf. Dut. _leuk_, Ger. _lau_.] LULL, lul, _v.t._ to soothe: to compose: to quiet.--_v.i._ to become calm: to subside.--_n._ a season of calm.--_n._ LULL'ABY, a song to lull children to sleep, a cradle-song.--_v.t._ to lull to sleep. [Scand., as in Sw. _lulla_; imit. like Ger. _lallen_, Gr. _lalein_.] LUM, lum, _n._ (_Scot._) a chimney. [W. _llumon_.] LUMBAGO, lum-b[=a]'g[=o], _n._ a rheumatic affection of the muscles or fibrous tissues in the lumbar region.--_adjs._ LUMBAG'INOUS; LUM'BAR, LUM'BAL, pertaining to, or near, the loins. [L.,--_lumbus_, loin.] LUMBER, lum'b[.e]r, _n._ anything cumbersome or useless: timber sawed or split for use.--_v.t._ to fill with lumber: to heap together in confusion.--_n._ LUM'BERER, one employed in felling timber and bringing it from the forest.--_adj._ LUM'BERING, filling with lumber: putting in confusion.--_n._ LUM'BER-ROOM, a room for holding things not in use. [Fr. _Lombard_--Ger. _Langbart_; the _lumber_-room being orig. the _Lombard_-room or place where the Lombards, the medieval bankers and pawnbrokers, stored their pledges.] LUMBER, lum'b[.e]r, _v.i._ to move heavily. [Scand.; prov. Sw. _lomra_, to resound, Ice. _hljómr_, a sound.] LUMBRICAL, lum'brik-al, _adj._ (_anat._) worm-like.--_adj._ LUMBRIC'IFORM. [L. _lumbricus_, a worm.] LUMINARY, l[=u]'min-ar-i, _n._ any body which gives light, esp. one of the heavenly bodies: one who illustrates any subject or instructs mankind.--_adj._ L[=U]'MINANT, emitting light.--_n._ an illuminating agent.--_n._ LUMIN[=A]'TION, a lighting up.--_v.t._ L[=U]'MINE (_Spens._), to illumine.--_adjs._ LUMINIF'EROUS, transmitting light; L[=U]'MINOUS, giving light: shining: illuminated: clear: lucid.--_adv._ L[=U]'MINOUSLY.--_ns._ L[=U]'MINOUSNESS, LUMINOS'ITY.--LUMINOUS PAINT, a phosphorescent powder, such as sulphide or oxysulphide of calcium, ground up with a colourless varnish or other medium, and used as a paint. [L. _lumen_, _luminis_, light--_luc[=e]re_, to shine.] LUMMY, lum'i, _adj._ (_slang_) knowing, cute. LUMP, lump, _n._ a small shapeless mass: a protuberance: swelling: the whole together: the gross.--_v.t._ to throw into a confused mass: to take in the gross.--_ns._ LUMP'ER, a labourer employed in the lading or unlading of ships: (_prov._) a militiaman; LUMP'FISH, a clumsy sea-fish with a short, deep, and thick body and head, and a ridge on its back, also called LUMP'SUCKER, from the power of its sucker.--_adjs._ LUMP'ING, in a lump: heavy: bulky; LUMP'ISH, like a lump: heavy: gross: dull.--_adv._ LUMP'ISHLY.--_ns._ LUMP'ISHNESS; LUMP'-SUG'AR, loaf-sugar in small pieces.--_adj._ LUMP'Y, full of lumps.--IN THE LUMP, in gross. [Scand., Norw. _lump_, a block; Dut. _lomp_.] LUNAR, l[=u]'nar, _adj._ belonging to the moon: measured by the revolutions of the moon: caused by the moon: like the moon--also L[=U]'NARY.--_ns._ L[=U]'NACY, a kind of madness formerly supposed to be affected by the moon: insanity; LUN[=A]'RIAN, L[=U]'NARIST, a student of lunar phenomena; L[=U]'NARY, the moonwort fern.--_adjs._ L[=U]'N[=A]TE, -D, formed like a half-moon: crescent-shaped; L[=U]'NATIC, affected with lunacy.--_n._ a person so affected: a madman (_De lunatico inquirendo_, the title of the writ or commission for inquiry into the mental state of an alleged lunatic).--_n._ LUN[=A]'TION, the time between two revolutions of the moon: a lunar month.--_adjs._ L[=U]'NIFORM, moon-shaped; L[=U]'NISOLAR, resulting from the united action of the sun and moon: compounded of the revolution of the sun and the moon.--_n._ L[=U]'NULA, a crescent-like appearance, esp. the whitish area at the base of the nails.--_adjs._ L[=U]'NULATE, -D (_bot._), shaped like a small crescent.--_ns._ L[=U]'NULE, L[=U]'NULET, anything in form like a small crescent; L[=U]'NULITE, a small circular fossil coral.--LUNAR CAUSTIC, fused crystals of nitrate of silver, applied to ulcers, &c.; LUNAR CYCLE=METONIC CYCLE (q.v.); LUNAR MONTH (see MONTH); LUNAR OBSERVATION, an observation of the moon's distance from a star for the purpose of finding the longitude; LUNAR RAINBOW (see RAINBOW, under RAIN); LUNAR THEORY, a term employed to denote the _a priori_ deduction of the moon's motions from the principles of gravitation; LUNAR YEAR (see YEAR). [L. _lunaris_--_luna_, the moon--_luc[=e]re_, to shine.] LUNCH, lunsh, _n._ a slight repast between breakfast and dinner--also LUNCH'EON.--_v.i._ to take lunch.--_n._ LUNCH'EON-BAR, a counter at a restaurant where luncheons are served. [_Lunch_, a contr. of _luncheon_, itself extended from _lunch_, a lump.] LUNE, l[=u]n, _n._ anything in the shape of a half-moon: (_Shak._) a fit of lunacy.--_n._ LUNETTE', a little moon: (_fort._) a detached bastion: a hole in a concave ceiling to admit light: a watch-glass flattened more than usual in the centre: in the R.C. Church, a moon-shaped case of crystal used for receiving the consecrated host. [Fr. _lune_--L. _luna_.] LUNG, lung, _n._ one of the organs of breathing--from its spongy texture.--_adjs._ LUNGED; LUNG'-GROWN, having an adhesion of the lung to the pleura.--_n._ LUNG'WORT, an herb with purple flowers and spotted leaves: a lichen on tree-trunks, used as a remedy for pulmonary diseases. [A.S. _lunge_, pl. _lungan_, the lungs; cog. with _light_ (adj.).] LUNGE, lunj, _n._ a sudden thrust in fencing.--_v.i._ to give such.--_v.t._ to cause to plunge. [Fr. _allonger_, to lengthen--L. _ad_, to, _longus_, long.] LUNIFORM, LUNISOLAR, LUNULATE. See LUNAR. LUNT, lunt, _n._ a light, blaze.--_v.i._ (_Scot._) to burn, to smoke. [Dut. _lont_, a match; cf. Ger. _lunte_.] LUPINE, l[=u]'p[=i]n, _adj._ like a wolf: wolfish.--_n._ a genus of leguminous plants.--_adj._ LUPAN[=A]'RIAN, bawdy.--_n._ LUPERC[=A]'LIA, a festival among the ancient Romans, held on the 15th of February, in honour of _Lupercus_ (Pan), god of fertility and patron of shepherds--(_Shak._) L[=U]'PERCAL. [L. _lupinus_--_lupus_, a wolf, _lupa_, a whore.] LUPPA, lup'a, _n._ cloth having so much gold and silver thread as to look as if made entirely of metal. LUPULUS, l[=u]'pu-lus, _n._ the common hop.--_n._ L[=U]'PULIN, the peculiar bitter aromatic principle of the hop. LUPUS, l[=u]'pus, _n._ a chronic tuberculosis of the skin, often affecting the nose. [L. _lupus_, a wolf.] LURCH, lurch, _n._ an ancient card-game: in cribbage, the position of the party who has gained every point before the other makes one.--_v.t._ to overreach: (_arch._) to steal.--LEAVE IN THE LURCH, to leave in a difficult situation without help. [O. Fr. _lourche_.] LURCH, lurch, _v.i._ to evade by stooping, to lurk: to roll or pitch suddenly to one side (as a ship).--_n._ a sudden roll of a ship.--_n._ LURCH'ER, a name applied to any dog with a distinct cross of greyhound: one who lies in wait: a glutton. [_Lurk_.] LURDAN, lur'dan, _adj._ (_arch._) stupid.--_n._ a stupid person.--Also LUR'DANE, LUR'DEN. [O. Fr. _lourdein_, dull--_lourd_, heavy.] LURE, l[=u]r, _n._ any enticement: bait: decoy: (_Shak._) a stuffed bird used in falconry for training the hawk.--_v.t._ to entice: decoy. [O. Fr. _loerre_ (Fr. _leurre_)--Mid. High Ger. _luoder_ (Ger. _luder_), bait.] LURE, l[=u]r, _n._ a trumpet with long curved tube, used for calling cattle, &c. [Ice. _lúdhr_.] LURID, l[=u]'rid, _adj._ ghastly pale, wan: ghastly and sensational: gloomy.--_adv._ L[=U]'RIDLY. [L. _luridus_.] LURK, lurk, _v.i._ to lie in wait: to be concealed.--_n._ a swindle.--_n._ LURK'ER.--_adj._ LURK'ING, lying hid: keeping out of sight.--_n._ LURK'ING-PLACE, a hiding-place. [Scand., Sw. prov. _luska_.] LURRY, lur'i, _n._ (_Milt._) confusion. LUSCIOUS, lush'us, _adj._ sweet in a great degree: delightful: fulsome, as flattery.--_adv._ LUSC'IOUSLY.--_n._ LUSC'IOUSNESS. [Old form lushious, from lusty.] LUSH, lush, _adj._ rich and juicy, of grass. [A contr. of _lushious_, old form of _luscious_.] LUSH, lush, _v.t._ to swill.--_n._ plentiful liquor.--_adj._ LUSH'Y, tipsy. LUSIAD, l[=u]'si-ad, _n._ a Portuguese epic by Camoens, celebrating the chief events in the history of Portugal.--_adj._ LUSIT[=A]'NIAN, Portuguese. [Port. _Os Lusiadas_, the Lusitanians.] LUSK, lusk, _adj._ (_obs._) lazy.--_v.i._ to lie about lazily.--_adj._ LUSK'ISH (_obs._).--_n._ LUSK'ISHNESS (_Spens._). LUST, lust, _n._ longing desire: eagerness to possess: carnal appetite: (_B._) any violent or depraved desire.--_v.i._ to desire eagerly (with _after_, _for_): to have carnal desire: to have depraved desires.--_adjs._ LUST'-BREATHED (_Shak._), animated by lust; LUST'-D[=I]'ETED (_Shak._), pampered by lust.--_n._ LUST'ER.--_adj._ LUST'FUL, having lust: inciting to lust: sensual.--_adv._ LUST'FULLY.--_n._ LUST'FULNESS.--_adj._ LUST'IC (_Shak._), lusty, healthy, vigorous.--_ns._ LUST'IHEAD, LUST'IHOOD, LUST'INESS.--_adv._ LUST'ILY.--_adj._ LUST'LESS (_Spens._), listless, feeble.--_n._ LUST'WORT, the sundew.--_adj._ LUST'Y, vigorous: healthful: stout: bulky: (_Milt._) lustful. [A.S. _lust_, pleasure.] LUSTRE, lus't[.e]r, _n._ brightness, gloss, splendour: (_fig._) renown: a candlestick ornamented with pendants of cut-glass: the characteristic appearance of a bright metallic surface, or of air within glass under water as seen under certain angles of total reflection: a dress material having a highly finished surface: a glaze applied to porcelain.--_adjs._ LUS'TRELESS, destitute of lustre; LUS'TROUS, bright: shining: luminous.--_adv._ LUS'TROUSLY. [Fr.,--Low L. _lustrum_, a window--L. _luc[=e]re_, to shine.] LUSTRE, lus't[.e]r, LUSTRUM, lus'trum, _n._ a period of five years: (_orig._) the solemn offering for the purification of the Roman people made by one of the censors at the conclusion of the census, taken every five years.--_adj._ LUS'TRAL, relating to or used in lustration: of or pertaining to a lustre.--_n._ LUSTR[=A]'TION, a purification by sacrifice: act of purifying.--_adj._ LUS'TRICAL, pertaining to purification by lustration. [L. _lustrum_--_lu[)e]re_, to wash, to purify.] LUSTRING, lus'tring, _n._ a glossy silk cloth.--Also LUS'TRINE, LUTE'STRING. [Fr. _lustrine_--It. _lustrino_.] LUSTY. See LUST. LUTE, l[=u]t, _n._ a medieval stringed instrument of music like the guitar.--_v.i._ to play on the lute.--_ns._ LUT'ANIST, LUT'ER, LUT'IST, a player on a lute; LUTE'STRING, the string of a lute. [O. Fr. _lut_ (Fr. _luth_); like Ger. _laute_, from Ar. _al_, the, _`úd_, wood, the lute.] LUTE, l[=u]t, _n._ a composition used to exclude air, as round pipe-joints: a brickmaker's straight-edge scraper: a rubber packing-ring for a jar.--_v.t._ to close or coat with lute.--_adjs._ LUT[=A]'RIOUS, L[=U]'TEOUS, of or like mud.--_n._ LUT[=A]'TION.--_adj._ L[=U]'TOSE, miry. [L. _lutum_, from _lu[)e]re_, to wash.] LUTEOLIN, l[=u]'t[=e]-[=o]-lin, _n._ the yellow colouring matter of weld or dyer's weed.--_adjs._ LUT[=E]'OLOUS, yellowish; L[=U]'TEOUS, golden-yellowish. [L. _lutum_, weld.] LUTETIAN, l[=u]-t[=e]'shan, _adj._ Parisian. [L.] LUTHERAN, l[=u]'th[.e]r-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Luther_, the great German Protestant reformer (1483-1546), or to his doctrines: a follower of Luther.--_ns._ LU'THERANISM, L[=U]'THERISM; L[=U]'THERIST. LUXATE, luks'[=a]t, _v.t._ to put out of joint: to displace.--_n._ LUX[=A]'TION, a dislocation. [L. _lux[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_luxus_--Gr. _loxos_, slanting.] LUXURY, luk's[=u]-ri, _n._ free indulgence in rich diet or costly dress or equipage: anything delightful: a dainty: (_Shak._) wantonness.--_ns._ LUX[=U]'RIANCE, LUX[=U]'RIANCY, LUXUR[=I]'ETY.--_adj._ LUX[=U]'RIANT, exuberant in growth: overabundant.--_adv._ LUX[=U]'RIANTLY.--_v.i._ LUX[=U]'RIATE, to be luxuriant: to grow exuberantly: to live luxuriously: to expatiate with delight.--_n._ LUXURI[=A]'TION, the act of luxuriating.--_adj._ LUX[=U]'RIOUS, given to luxury: administering to luxury: furnished with luxuries: softening by pleasure: (_Milt._) luxuriant: (_Shak._) lustful.--_adv._ LUX[=U]'RIOUSLY.--_ns._ LUX[=U]'RIOUSNESS; LUX'URIST, one given to luxury. [O. Fr. _luxurie_--L. _luxuria_, luxury--_luxus_, excess.] LUZ, luz, _n._ a bone supposed by Rabbinical writers to be indestructible, probably the sacrum. LUZULA, l[=u]'z[=u]-lä, _n._ a genus of plants of the rush family, having plain leaves, covered with thinly scattered, longish hairs. [Old It. _luzziola_, a firefly.] LYAM, l[=i]'am, _n._ a leash.--Also LIME. LYART. See LIARD. LYCANTHROPY, l[=i]-kan'thro-pi, _n._ the power possessed by a person of changing himself into a wolf: a kind of madness, in which the patient fancies himself to be a wolf.--_ns._ LYCAN'THROPE, LYCAN'THROPIST, a wolf-man or were-wolf, one affected with lycanthropy.--_adjs._ LYCANTHROP'IC, LYCAN'THROPOUS. [Gr. _lykos_, a wolf, _anthr[=o]pos_, a man.] LYCEUM, l[=i]-s[=e]'um, _n._ a place devoted to instruction by lectures: an association for literary improvement. [Orig. the name of a place in the immediate neighbourhood of Athens, consecrated to _Apollo Lyceios_, where Aristotle, the Greek philosopher, taught.] LYCHGATE. Same as LICHGATE. LYCHNIC, lik'nik, _n._ a part of the vespers of the Greek Church on the occasion of a vigil.--_n._ LYCHNAP'SIA, a series of seven prayers in the vespers of the Greek Church.--_adj._ LYCHNID'IATE, emitting light, phosphorescent.--_ns._ LYCH'NOBITE, one who works by night and sleeps by day; LYCH'NOMANCY, divination by means of lamps; LYCH'NOSCOPE, a small window-like opening in the south wall of a church. [Gr. _lychnos_, a light.] LYCHNIS, lik'nis, _n._ a genus of erect ornamental herbs of the pink family--campions or wall-flowers. [L.] LYCOPODIACEÆ, l[=i]-ko-p[=o]-di-[=a]'se-[=e], _n.pl._ a class of isoporous vascular cryptogams, having mostly a dichotomous form of branching--its typical genus LYCOP[=O]'DIUM.--_n._ LY'COPODE, a highly inflammable yellow powder made up of the spores of Lycopodium. [Gr. _lykos_, a wolf, _pous_, the foot.] LYDDITE, lid'[=i]t, _n._ a powerful explosive made (at _Lydd_ in Kent) from picrate of potash. LYDIAN, lid'i-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Lydia_ in Asia Minor: of an ancient Greek mode of music: (_mus._) soft and slow: luxurious and effeminate. LYE, l[=i], _n._ a short side-branch of railway. LYE, l[=i], _n._ a solution leached from ashes: a solution of the fixed alkalies, potash and soda, in water. [A.S. _leáh_; Ger. _lauge_; allied to _lav[=a]re_, to wash.] LYENCEPHALOUS, l[=i]-en-sef'a-lus, _adj._ having the corpus callosum absent or rudimentary. LYING, l[=i]'ing, _adj._ addicted to telling lies.--_n._ the habit of telling lies.--_adv._ LY'INGLY. LYING, l[=i]'ing, _adj._ being in a horizontal position.--_n._ LY'ING-IN, the confinement of women during child-bearing--also _adj._ LYKE-WAKE, l[=i]k'-w[=a]k, _n._ Same as LICH-WAKE. LYM, lim, _n._ (_Shak._) a lime-hound.--Also LYM'-HOUND. LYME-GRASS, l[=i]m'-gras, _n._ any one of various coarse grasses of genus _Elymus_. LYMPH, limf, _n._ water: a colourless or faintly-yellowish fluid in animal bodies, of a rather saltish taste, and with an alkaline reaction.--_n._ LYMPHANG[=I]'TIS (see WEED, 3).--_adj._ LYMPHAT'IC, pertaining to lymph.--_n._ a vessel which conveys the lymph.--_adjs._ LYMPH'Y, LYMPH'OID. [L. _lympha_.] LYMPHAD, lim'fad, _n._ (_Scot._) a kind of sailing-vessel. LYNCH, linsh, _v.t._ to judge and punish without the usual forms of law.--_n._ LYNCH'-LAW (_Amer._), a kind of summary justice exercised by the people. [From Charles _Lynch_ (1736-96) of Virginia.] LYNX, lingks, _n._ a genus of _Felidæ_, with the body elevated at the haunches, long fur, a short tail, the ears tipped with tufts of hair.--_adjs._ LYNC[=E]'AN, LYNX'-EYED, sharp-sighted. [L.,--Gr.] LYON COURT, l[=i]'un k[=o]rt, _n._ the court in Scotland with jurisdiction in questions of coat-armour and precedency--presided over by the LYON KING-OF-ARMS. [From the heraldic lion of Scotland.] [Illustration] LYRE, l[=i]r, _n._ a musical instrument like the harp, anciently used as an accompaniment to poetry.--_n._ LY'RA, one of the northern constellations.--_adjs._ LY'RATE, -D (_bot._), lyre-shaped.--_ns._ LYRE'BIRD, an Australian bird about the size of a pheasant, having the 16 tail-feathers of the male arranged in the form of a lyre; LYRIC (lir'-), a lyric poem: (_obs._) a composer of lyric poetry.--_adjs._ LYRIC, -AL (lir'-), pertaining to the lyre: fitted to be sung to the lyre: written in stanzas: said of poetry which expresses the individual emotions of the poet: that composes lyrics.--_ns._ LYRICISM (lir'-), a lyrical expression or composition; LYR'ISM, the art of playing on the lyre; LYR'IST, a player on the lyre or harp. [Fr.,--L. _lyra_--Gr.] LYSIMETER, l[=i]-sim'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring the rate of percolation of rain through a soil. LYSIS, l[=i]'sis, _n._ the gradual abatement of a disease, as distinguished from crisis: (_archit._) a plinth or step above the cornice of the podium in an ancient temple. [Gr.] LYSSA, lis'a, _n._ hydrophobia. [Gr.] LYTERIAN, l[=i]-t[=e]'ri-an, _adj._ terminating a disease. [Gr.] LYTHE, l[=i]_th_, _adj._ (_Spens._) pliant, flexible. [_Lithe_.] LYTTA, lit'a, _n._ a longitudinal vermiform cartilaginous or fibrous band on the under surface of the tongue in carnivores--the 'worm' of a dog's tongue. [Gr.] * * * * * [Illustration] M the thirteenth letter of the alphabet, belonging to the labio-nasal class of consonants. M=1000; [=M]=1,000,000.--M-ROOF, a roof formed by the junction of two common roofs, so that its end is like the letter M. MA, mä, _n._ a childish contraction for _mamma_. MA'AM, mäm, _n._ a colloquial contraction of madam--vulgarly MARM, MUM. MAB, mab, _n._ the name of a female fairy: the queen of the fairies--hence any fairy. [W. _mab_, child.] MAB, mab, _v.t._ and _v.i._ (_prov._) to dress untidily. MABINOGION, mab-i-n[=o]'ji-on, _n._ a collection of four Arthurian romances, embodied in the 12th century, embraced with seven other prose tales in the _Red Book_, or _Hergest_, a Welsh MS. of the 14th century--the whole published and translated by Lady Charlotte Guest in 1838. [W., 'children's tales.'] MAC, mak, a prefix in Scotch names, meaning _son_ (of). [Gael. and Ir. _mac_, son; W. _map_, _mab_, also _ap_, _ab_.] MACABERESQUE, ma-k[=a]-b[.e]r-esk', _adj._ pertaining to, or like, the Dance of Death. [Fr. _La Danse Macabre_, Low L. _Machabæorum chorea_, the dance of the Maccabees, prob. because the seven brothers whose martyrdom is recorded in the 7th chapter of the 2d Book of Maccabees played an important part in the earliest form of the 14th-cent. drama on the subject.] MACADAMISE, mak-ad'am-[=i]z, _v.t._ to cover, as a road, with small broken stones, so as to form a smooth, hard surface.--_ns._ MACAD'AM, macadamised pavement; MACADAMIS[=A]'TION. [From John Loudon _Macadam_ (1756-1836).] MACAQUE, ma-kak', _n._ a monkey of genus _Macacus_, between baboons and the African mangabeys. MACARISE, mak'a-r[=i]z, _v.t._ to bless, pronounce happy.--_adj._ MAC[=A]'RIAN, blessed.--_n._ MAC'ARISM, a beatitude. [Gr. _makar_, happy.] MACARONI, mak-a-r[=o]'ni, _n._ a kind of paste or dough prepared from the glutinous granular flour of hard varieties of wheat, pressed out through a perforated vessel into long tubes, and then dried: a medley: something fanciful and extravagant: a fool: a fop:--_pl._ MACAR[=O]'NIS, MACAR[=O]'NIES.--_n._ MACARON'IC, a confused heap, a medley: a macaronic poem.--_adjs._ MACARON'IC, MACAR[=O]'NIAN, like a macaroni, trifling, affected: of a kind of burlesque verse, consisting of modern words Latinised, or Latin words modernised, intermixed with genuine Latin words. [Old It. _maccaroni_--_maccare_, to crush.] MACAROON, mak-a-r[=oo]n', _n._ a sweet biscuit made chiefly of almonds and sugar. [Fr.,--It. _maccaroni_ above.] MACASSAR-OIL, ma-kas'ar-oil, _n._ an oil much used for the hair, imported from India and other Eastern countries. [From _Macassar_ in Celebes.] MACAW, ma-kaw', _n._ a genus of large and beautiful birds with a long tail, found in tropical America, closely allied to the parrots. [Brazil. _macao._] MACCABEAN, mak-a-b[=e]'an, _adj._ pertaining to Judas _Maccabeus_, or to the _Maccabees_, an ancient Jewish family who rescued Judea from the persecutions of Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria, about 166 B.C.--as related in two historical books of the Apocrypha. MACE, m[=a]s, _n._ a staff used as a mark of authority: a light, flat-headed stick in use at billiards before the introduction of the bridge or cue-rest: formerly, a weapon of war, consisting of a staff headed with a heavy spiked ball of iron: a mallet used by a currier in dressing leather.--_n._ MACE'-BEAR'ER, one who carries the mace in a procession, or before men in authority--also MAC'ER. [O. Fr. _mace_ (Fr. _masse_)--obs. L. _matea_, whence L. dim. _mateola_, a mallet.] MACE, m[=a]s, _n._ a kind of spice: the second coat of the nutmeg. [O. Fr. _macis_--L. _macer_--Gr. _maker_.] MACERATE, mas'[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.t._ to steep: to soften by steeping: to make lean: to mortify.--_n._ MACER[=A]'TION, act of softening by steeping: mortification of the flesh by fasting and other severe modes of living. [L. _macer[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to steep.] MACHETE, ma-ch[=a]'t[=a], _n._ a heavy knife or cutlass used by the Cubans, &c. [Sp.] MACHIAVELLIAN, mak-i-a-v[=e]l'yan, _adj._ destitute of political morality, following expediency rather than right: cunning, crafty, perfidious.--_n._ one who imitates Machiavel--more correctly, Niccolo _Machiavelli_--of Florence (1469-1527): any cunning and unprincipled statesman.--_n._ MACHIAVELL'IANISM, the principles taught by Machiavel, or conduct regulated by them: cunning statesmanship. MACHICOLATION, mach-i-ko-l[=a]'shun, _n._ (_archit._) a projecting parapet or gallery with openings for pouring molten substances upon an attacking force below: the construction or use of such means of defence.--_adj._ MACHIC'OLATED. [Fr. _mâchicoulis_, from _mâche_, mash, _coulis_, a flowing--L. _col[=a]re_, to filter.] MACHINATE, mak'i-n[=a]t, _v.t._ to contrive skilfully: to form a plot or scheme, esp. for doing harm.--_ns._ MACHIN[=A]'TION, act of machinating or contriving a scheme for carrying out some purpose, esp. an evil one: an artful design or plot: MACH'INATOR, one who machinates. [L. _machin[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_--_mach[)i]na_.] MACHINE, ma-sh[=e]n', _n._ any artificial means or contrivance: any instrument for the conversion of motion: an engine: a coach or conveyance of any kind: one who can do only what he is told: a contrivance in the ancient Greek theatre for indicating a change of scene, by means of which a god might cross the stage or deliver a divine message--whence the expression _Deus ex mach[)i]na_ for a sudden interposition of Providence: any literary contrivance for the development of a plot: supernatural agency in a poem.--_v.t._ to use machinery for, esp. to print or sew by such: to make by means of machinery.--_ns._ MACHINE'-GUN, a gun firing a great many shots one after the other, sometimes as many as 1000 per minute; MACHINE'-MAN, a man who manages the working of a machine, esp. in a printing-office; MACHIN'ERY, machines in general: the working parts of a machine: combined means for keeping anything in action, or for producing a desired result; MACHINE'-SHOP, a workshop where machines are made; MACHINE'-TOOL, an adjustable machine for doing work with cutting-tools, or one utilising minor tools, as a planing-, drilling-machine, &c.; MACHINE'-WORK, work done by a machine; MACHIN'IST, a constructor of machines: one well versed in machinery: one who works a machine. [Fr.,--L. _mach[)i]na_--Gr. _m[=e]chan[=e]_, akin to _m[=e]ch-os_, contrivance.] MACK'EREL, mak'[.e]r-el, _n._ a food fish, dark blue, with wavy cross-streaks above, and silvery below.--_n._ MACK'EREL-SKY, a sky with clouds broken into long, thin, white, parallel masses. [O. Fr. _makerel_ (Fr. _maquereau_), prob. from L. _macula_, a spot.] MACKINTOSH, mak'in-tosh, _n._ a waterproof overcoat. [From Charles _Mackintosh_ (1766-1843), the inventor.] MACKLE, mak'l, _n._ a spot or blemish in printing, by a double impression, wrinkling, &c.--_v.t._ to spot, blur. MACLE, mak'l, _n._ a kind of twin crystal: a kind of _cross-stone_ or _hollow-spar_, called also _Chiastolite_, having the axis and angles of its crystals coloured differently from the rest.--_adj._ MAC'LED, spotted. [Through Fr., from L. _macula_, spot.] MACMILLANITE, mak-mil'an-[=i]t, _n._ an old name for a member of the Scottish sect of Cameronians or Reformed Presbyterians. [From John _Macmillan_, (1670-1753), the first ordained minister who associated himself with the 'suffering remnant.'] MACRAMÉ, mak-ra-m[=a]', _n._ a fringe or trimming of knotted thread--also knotted bar-work. [It.] MACROBIOTIC, mak-r[=o]-bi-ot'ik, _adj._ long-lived.--_ns._ MACROBI[=O]'SIS, long life; MACR[=O]'BIOTE, one who lives long; MACROBIOT'ICS, the study of longevity. MACROCEPHALOUS, mak-ro-sef'a-lus, _adj._ having a large or long head.--Also MACROCEPHAL'IC. [Gr. _makros_, long or great, _kephal[=e]_, a head.] MACROCOSM, mak'ro-kozm, _n._ the great world: the whole universe:--opp. to _Microcosm_.--_adj._ MACROCOS'MIC. [Gr. _makros_, long, _kosmos_, world.] MACRODACTYL, mak-ro-dak'til, _adj._ having long toes.--_n._ a wading-bird having such:--_pl._ MACRODAC'TYL[=I], and -A. [Gr. _makros_, long, _daktylos_, finger.] MACROLOGY, mak-rol'o-ji, _n._ much talk with little to say. [Gr. _makros_, long, _logos_, a word.] MACRON, mak'ron, _n._ a straight line placed over a vowel to show that it is long:--opp. to _Breve_, the mark of a short vowel. [Gr., 'long.'] MACROPOD, mak'ro-pod, _adj._ having long feet.--_n._ a long-legged or long-footed animal: one of the spider-crabs.--_adjs._ MACROP'ODAL, MACROP'ODAN, MACROP[=O]'DIAN, MACROP'ODOUS (_bot._). [Gr. _makros_, long, _pous_, _podos_, a foot.] MACROPTEROUS, mak-rop'te-rus, _adj._ long-winged. [Gr. _makros_, long, _pteron_, a wing.] MACROSCIAN, mak-ros'i-an, _adj._ casting a long shadow.--_n._ an inhabitant of the Arctic or Antarctic zones. [Gr. _makros_, long, _skia_, shadow.] MACROSCOPIC, mak-ro-skop'ik, _adj._ visible to the naked eye:--opp. to _Microscopic_.--_adv._ MACROSCOP'ICALLY. [Gr. _makros_, long, _skopein_, to see.] MACROSPORE, mak'ro-sp[=o]r, _n._ a more than usually large spore of a flowerless plant, as in club-mosses, &c.--_n._ MACROSPORAN'GIUM, a sporangium containing macrospores. [Gr. _makros_, long, _spora_, a seed.] MACRUROUS, mak-r[=oo]'rus, _adj._ long-tailed.--Also MACRU'RAL. [Gr. _makros_, long, _oura_, tail.] MACULA, mak'[=u]-la, _n._ a spot, as on the skin, or on the surface of the sun, moon, or planets:--_pl._ MACULÆ (mak'[=u]-l[=e]).--_v.t._ MAC'UL[=A]TE, to spot, to defile.--_n._ MACUL[=A]'TION, act of spotting, a spot.--_adj._ MACULOSE (mak'[=u]-l[=o]z), spotted. [L. _macul[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_macula_, a spot.] MAD, mad, _adj._ (_comp._ MAD'DER; _superl._ MAD'DEST) disordered in intellect: insane: proceeding from madness, rabid: troubled in mind: excited with any violent passion or appetite: furious with anger.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to drive mad.--_adjs._ MAD'BRAIN, MAD'BRAINED (_Shak._), disordered in brain or mind: rash: hot-headed; MAD'-BRED (_Shak._), bred in madness or heat of passion.--_n._ MAD'CAP, a person who acts madly: a wild, rash, hot-headed person.--_adj._ fond of wild and reckless action.--_v.t._ MAD'DEN, to make mad: to enrage.--_v.i._ to become mad: to act as one mad.--_adj._ MAD'DING, distracted, acting madly.--_advs._ MAD'DINGLY, MAD'LY.--_ns._ MAD'-DOC'TOR, a doctor who studies and treats the diseases of mad people; MAD'HOUSE, a house for mad persons: a lunatic asylum; MAD'LING, a mad person; MAD'MAN, a man who is mad: a maniac; MAD'NESS; MAD'WORT, a plant believed to cure canine madness.--GO MAD, to become demented; LIKE MAD, madly, furiously. [A.S. _ge-m['æ]d_; Old Sax. _ge-méd_, foolish, Ice. _meidd-r_, hurt.] MADAM, mad'am, _n._ a courteous form of address to a lady, esp. an elderly or a married one: a woman of fashion:--_pl._ MAD'AMS, or MESDAMES (m[=a]-dam'). [Fr.,--_ma_, my, _dame_, lady--L. _mea domina_.] MAD-APPLE, mad'-ap-l, _n._ the egg-plant. MADAROSIS, mad-a-r[=o]'sis, _n._ loss of the hair, esp. of the eyelashes. [Gr.,--_madaros_, bald, _madan_, to fall off.] MADDER, mad'[.e]r, _n._ a plant whose root affords a red dye.--_ns._ MADD'ER-LAKE, a colour mixed either with oil or water, made from madder; MADD'ER-WORT, any plant of the _Rubiaceæ_ or madder family. [A.S. _mæderu_; Ice. _maðra_, Dut. _meed_.] MADE, m[=a]d, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _make_.--MADE CONTINUALLY (_Pr. Bk._), established for ever; MADE DISH, a dish of meat, &c., recooked: an entrée; MADE UP, put together, finished: dressed for a part, disguised: perfect: artificial, invented. MADEIRA, ma-d[=e]'ra, _n._ a rich wine of the sherry class produced in _Madeira_. MADEMOISELLE, mad-mwa-zel', _n._ a courteous form of address to a young lady: Miss. [Fr., _ma_, my, and _demoiselle_.] MADGE, maj, _n._ a leaden hammer. MADGE, maj, _n._ the magpie. MADIA, m[=a]'di-a, _n._ a genus of American herbs of the aster family, the tarweeds--a Chilian species yielding a valuable oil. MADID, mad'id, _adj._ wet, dank. [L. _madidus_--_mad[=e]re_, to be wet; akin to Gr. _madaein_.] MADONNA, MADONA, ma-don'a, _n._ a name given to the Virgin, esp. as seen in works of art: (_Shak._) my lady.--_adv._ MADONN'A-WISE, after the fashion of the Madonna, esp. in the arrangement of a woman's hair. [It., lit. 'my lady'--L. _mea domina_.] MADRAS, ma-dras', _n._ a large handkerchief of silk and cotton, usually in bright colours, worn on the head by West Indian negroes. MADREPORE, mad're-p[=o]r, _n._ the common coral. [Fr.,--It., from _madre_, mother--L. _mater_, and _-pora_--Gr. _p[=o]ros_, a soft stone.] MADRIGAL, mad'ri-gal, _n._ (_mus._) a piece of music for the voice in five or six parts: a short poem expressing a graceful and tender thought.--_adj._ MADRIG[=A]'LIAN.--_n._ MAD'RIGALIST. [It., from _mandra_, a sheep-fold--L. _mandra_.] MADROÑO, ma-dr[=o]'ny[=o], _n._ a handsome evergreen tree of North California.--Also MADR[=O]'ÑA. MÆCENAS, m[=a]-s[=e]'nas, _n._ a Roman knight who befriended the poets Virgil and Horace: any rich patron of art or literature. MAELSTROM, m[=a]l'strom, _n._ a celebrated whirlpool off the coast of Norway: any resistless overpowering influence for destruction. [Norw., 'grinding stream.'] MÆNAD, m[=e]'nad, _n._ a female follower of Bacchus, a woman beside herself with frenzy.--_adj._ MÆNAD'IC, bacchanalian: furious. [Gr. _mainas_, _-ados_, raving--_mainesthai_, to be mad.] MAESTOSO, m[=a]-es-t[=o]'zo, _adj._ and _adv._ (_mus._) with dignity or majesty. [It.] MAESTRO, ma-es'tr[=o], _n._ a master, esp. an eminent musical composer or conductor. [It.] MAFFLED, maf'ld, _adj._ (_prov._) confused in the intellect.--_n._ MAFF'LING, a simpleton. MAG, mag, _n._ a halfpenny.--Also MAIK, MAKE. MAG, mag, _v.i._ (_prov._) to chatter.--_v.t._ to tease.--_n._ chatter: the magpie: the long-tailed titmouse. MAG, mag, _v.t._ (_slang_) to steal.--_n._ MAGS'MAN, a street swindler. MAGAZINE, mag-a-z[=e]n', _n._ a storehouse: a place for military stores: the gunpowder-room in a ship: a pamphlet or small book published from time to time, containing compositions on various subjects.--_ns._ MAGAZINE'-GUN, or -R[=I]'FLE, a gun or rifle from which many shots can be fired one after another without reloading. [Fr. _magasin_--It. _magazzino_--Ar. _makhzan_, a storehouse.] MAGDALEN, mag'da-len, _n._ a repentant prostitute.--Also MAG'DALENE. [From Mary _Magdalene_ (Luke, viii. 2), confused with the woman of Luke vii. 37-50.] MAGDEBURG HEMISPHERES, mag'de-b[=oo]rg hem'i-sf[=e]rz, _n.pl._ two hemispherical cups from within which, when placed together, the air can be removed by an air-pump to show the pressure of the air on the outside. [Invented at _Magdeburg_ in Germany.] MAGE, m[=a]j, _n._ a magician, enchanter (see MAGI). MAGENTA, ma-jen'ta, _n._ a colour between pink and red. [From the battle of _Magenta_ in North Italy, 1859.] MAGGOT, mag'ut, _n._ a worm or grub: a whim.--_adj._ MAGG'OTY, full of maggots. [W. _maceiad_, akin to _magiaid_, worms, _magu_, to breed.] MAGI, m[=a]'j[=i], _n.pl._ priests of the ancient Persians: the Wise Men of the East.--_adj._ M[=A]'GIAN, pertaining to the Magi.--_n._ one of the Magi.--_ns._ M[=A]'GIANISM, or M[=A]'GISM, the philosophy or doctrines of the Magi. [L.,--Gr. _magos_, orig. a title given to the wise men of Chaldea, astrologers and wizards.] MAGIC, maj'ik, _n._ the pretended art of producing marvellous results by the aid of spirits, or of the secret forces of nature: enchantment: sorcery.--_adjs._ MAG'IC, -AL, pertaining to, used in, or done by magic: causing wonderful or startling results.--_adv._ MAG'ICALLY.--_ns._ MAGIC'IAN, one skilled in magic: a wizard: an enchanter; MAG'IC-LAN'TERN (see LANTERN).--MAGIC SQUARE, a square filled with rows of figures so arranged that the sums of all the rows will be the same, perpendicularly or horizontally--as 2, 7, 6; 9, 5, 1; 4, 3, 8, &c.; there are also MAGIC CIRCLES, CUBES, CYLINDERS, and SPHERES similarly arranged.--BLACK MAGIC, the black art, magic by means of union with evil spirits; NATURAL MAGIC, the art of working wonders by a superior knowledge of the powers of nature; WHITE MAGIC, magic without the aid of the devil. [O. Fr. _magique_--L.,--Gr. See MAGI.] MAGILP, ma-gilp', _n._ a vehicle used by oil-painters, consisting of linseed-oil and mastic varnish--written also MEGILP'. [Prob. from a proper name.] MAGISTERIAL, maj-is-t[=e]'ri-al, _adj._ pertaining or suitable to a master: in the manner of a master: of the rank of a magistrate: authoritative: proud: dignified.--_n._ MAGIS'TER, master.--_adv._ MAGIST[=E]'RIALLY.--_ns._ MAGIST[=E]'RIALNESS; MAGIST[=E]'RIUM, an authoritative statement; MAG'ISTERY, a term in alchemy for various preparations, esp. a precipitate of bismuth: any sovereign remedy: a mandate. [L. _magisterius_--_magister_, a master--_mag_, root of L. _magnus_, great.] MAGISTRATE, maj'is-tr[=a]t, _n._ a person entrusted with the power of putting the laws in force: a justice of the peace.--_n._ MAG'ISTRACY, the office or dignity of a magistrate: the body of magistrates.--_adj._ MAG'ISTRAL, magisterial: specially prescribed or made up, as a medicine: effectual.--_n._ (_fort._) the guiding line determining the other positions: a special preacher in Spanish cathedrals, &c.--_n._ MAGISTRAND', an arts student ready to proceed to graduation, at Aberdeen.--_adj._ MAGISTRAT'IC. [O. Fr.,--L. _magistratus_, _magister_.] MAGMA, mag'ma, _n._ any soft doughy mass: the molten mass within the earth's crust: the residuum after expressing the juice from fruits. [Gr.] MAGNA CHARTA, mag'na kär'ta, _n._ the Great Charter obtained from King John, 1215 A.D. [L.] MAGNANERIE, man-yan'e-r[=e], _n._ a place for rearing silkworms. [Fr.] MAGNANIMITY, mag-na-nim'i-ti, _n._ greatness of soul: elevation of dignity, of mind: that quality of mind which raises a person above all that is mean of unjust: generosity.--_adj._ MAGNAN'IMOUS, elevated in sentiment, noble: brave: unselfish.--_adv._ MAGNAN'IMOUSLY. [L. _magnanimitas_--_magnus_, great, _animus_, the mind.] MAGNATE, mag'n[=a]t, _n._ a noble: a man of rank or wealth. [Fr. _magnat_, a title of Hungarian and Polish nobles--L. _magnas_, _magnatis_, a prince--_magnus_, great.] MAGNES, mag'n[=e]z, _n._ (_Spens._) the magnet. [L.] MAGNESIUM, mag-n[=e]'shi-um, or -si-um, _n._ a metal of a bright, silver-white colour, which while burning gives a dazzling white light, and forms magnesia.--_n._ MAGN[=E]'SIA, a light white powder, got by burning magnesium, used as a medicine.--_adj._ MAGN[=E]'SIAN, belonging to, containing, or resembling magnesia.--_n._ MAG'NESITE, native magnesium carbonate. MAGNET, mag'net, _n._ the lodestone, an iron ore which attracts iron, and, when hung so that it can move freely, points to the poles: a bar or piece of steel to which the properties of the lodestone have been imparted.--_adjs._ MAGNET'IC, -AL, pertaining to the magnet: having the properties of the magnet: attractive.--_adv._ MAGNET'ICALLY.--_ns._ MAGNETIC'IAN, MAG'NETIST, one versed in magnetism.--_adj._ MAGNETIS'ABLE.--_n._ MAGNETIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ MAG'NETISE, to render magnetic: to attract as if by a magnet.--_v.i._ to become magnetic.--_ns._ MAG'NETISER, one who, or that which, imparts magnetism; MAG'NETISM, the cause of the attractive power of the magnet: attraction: the science which treats of the properties of the magnet--(ANIMAL MAGNETISM, Mesmer's name for the phenomena of mesmerism; TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM, the magnetic properties possessed by the earth as a whole); MAG'NETIST, one skilled in magnetism.--_adjs._ MAG'NETO-ELEC'TRIC, -AL, pertaining to magneto-electricity.--_ns._ MAG'NETO-ELECTRIC'ITY, electricity produced by the action of magnets: the science which treats of electricity produced by magnetism; BAR'-MAG'NET, a magnet in the form of a bar.--MAGNETIC BATTERY, several magnets placed with their like poles together, so as to act with great force; MAGNETIC CURVES, the curves formed by iron-filings around the poles of a magnet; MAGNETIC EQUATOR, the line round the earth where the magnetic needle remains horizontal; MAGNETIC FIELD, the space over which magnetic force is felt; MAGNETIC FLUID, a hypothetical fluid assumed to explain the phenomena of magnetism; MAGNETIC MERIDIAN, the meridian lying in the direction in which the magnetic needle points; MAGNETIC NEEDLE, the light bar in the mariner's compass which, because it is magnetised, points always to the north; MAGNETIC NORTH, that point of the horizon which is indicated by the direction of the magnetic needle; MAGNETIC POLES, two nearly opposite points on the earth's surface, where the dip of the needle is 90°; MAGNETIC STORM, a disturbance in the magnetism of the earth or air, which causes the magnetic needle to move rapidly backwards and forwards.--ARTIFICIAL MAGNET, a magnet made by rubbing with other magnets; HORSE-SHOE MAGNET, a magnet bent like a horse-shoe; PERMANENT MAGNET, a magnet that keeps its magnetism after the force which magnetised it has been removed. [Through O. Fr., from L. _magnes_, a magnet--Gr. _magn[=e]s_=Magnesian stone, from _Magn[=e]sia_, in Lydia or Thessaly.] MAGNIFICAT, mag-nif'i-kat, _n._ the song of the Virgin Mary, Luke, i. 46-55, beginning in the Vulgate with this word. [L. '(my soul) doth magnify,' 3d pers. sing. pres. ind. of _magnific[=a]re_.] MAGNIFICENT, mag-nif'i-sent, _adj._ great in deeds or in appearance: grand: noble: pompous: displaying greatness of size or extent.--_n._ MAGNIF'ICENCE.--_adv._ MAGNIF'ICENTLY.--_n._ MAGNIF'ICO (_Shak._), a title for a Venetian nobleman: a grandee. MAGNIFY, mag'ni-f[=i], _v.t._ to make great or greater: to enlarge: to cause to appear greater: to exaggerate: to praise highly:--_pa.p._ mag'nified.--_adjs._ MAG'NIFIABLE, that may be magnified; MAGNIF'IC, -AL, great: splendid: noble.--_adv._ MAGNIF'ICALLY, in a magnificent manner.--_ns._ MAGNIFIC[=A]'TION, act of magnifying: increase of visual power in penetration as well as enlargement; MAG'NIFIER, one who, or that which, magnifies or enlarges: one who extols.--MAGNIFY ONE'S SELF, show great pride--AGAINST, oppose with pride; MAGNIFYING GLASS, in optics, a convex lens, objects seen through it having their apparent dimensions increased. [Fr.,--L. _magnific[=a]re_--_magnus_, great, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] MAGNILOQUENT, mag-nil'o-kwent, _adj._ speaking in a grand or pompous style: bombastic.--_n._ MAGNIL'OQUENCE.--_adv._ MAGNIL'OQUENTLY. [L., from _magnus_, great, _loqui_, to speak.] MAGNITUDE, mag'ni-t[=u]d, _n._ greatness: size: extent: importance. [L. _magnitudo_--_magnus_.] MAGNOLIA, mag-n[=o]l'i-a, or -ya, _n._ a North American tree with beautiful foliage, and large, white or purplish, sweet-scented flowers. [From Pierre _Magnol_ (1638-1715), a Montpellier botanist.] MAGNUM, mag'num, _n._ a bottle holding two quarts: the quantity of wine filling such. [L.] MAGOT, mag'ot, _n._ the Barbary ape, the only species of monkey existing in Europe: a small grotesque figure, crouching on the covers of vases; &c. MAGPIE, mag'p[=i], _n._ a chattering bird, of a genus allied to the crow, with pied or coloured feathers: (_slang_) a halfpenny--(_Shak._) MAG'OT-PIE, MAGG'OT-PIE. [_Mag_, a familiar contr. of _Margaret_ (cf. _Robin-Redbreast_, _Jenny Wren_), _pie_, from L. _pica_, a magpie--_ping[)e]re_, _pictum_, to paint.] MAGYAR, ma-jär', or mag'yär, _n._ one of the prevailing race in Hungary: the native speech of Hungary. MAHABHARATA, ma-hä-bä'ra-tä, _n._ the name of one of the two great epic poems of ancient India, the other being the _Ramayana_. [Sans.; prob. 'the great history of the descendants of _Bharata_.'] MAHADEVA, ma-ha-d[=a]'va, _n._ one of the names of the Hindu god Siva. [Sans. _mah[=a]_, great, _deva_, god.] MAHARAJAH, ma-ha-rä'jä, _n._ the title given to a great Indian prince:--_fem._ MAHARA'NI, MAHARA'NEE. [Sans. _mah[=a]_, great, _r[=a]ja_, prince or king.] MAHATMA, ma-hat'ma, _n._ one skilled in mysteries or religious secrets: an adept. [Sans., 'high-souled.'] MAHDI, mä'd[=e], _n._ the great leader of the faithful Mohammedans, who is to appear in the last days--one pretended Mahdi overthrew the Egyptian power in the Soudan in 1884-85.--_ns._ MAH'DISM; MAH'DIST. MAHL-STICK, mäl'-stik, _n._ a tapering staff used by painters as a rest for the right hand.--Also MAL'STICK, MAUL'STICK. [Ger. _mahlstock_.] MAHOGANY, ma-hog'a-ni, _n._ a tree of tropical America: its wood, which is of great value for making furniture.--_n._ MAHOG'ANY-TREE, same as mahogany: (_hum._) the dinner-table. [_Mahogoni_, the native South American name.] MAHOMEDAN, MAHOMETAN. See MOHAMMEDAN. MAHOUN, MAHOUND, ma-hown', ma-hownd', or mä'-, _n._ an old form of the name of _Mohammed_: an evil spirit: the devil. MAHOUT, ma-h[=oo]t', _n._ the keeper and driver of an elephant. [Hind. _mah[=a]ut_, _mah[=a]wat_.] MAHRATTA, ma-rat'a, _n._ one of a once powerful race of Hindus in Western and Central India. MAID, m[=a]d, _n._ an unmarried woman, esp. one young: a virgin: a female servant.--_ns._ MAID'-CHILD (_B._), a female child; MAID'-M[=A]'RIAN, the May-queen; a character in the old Morris-dance, usually represented by a man in woman's clothes (_Marian_, relating to Mary or to the Virgin Mary).--_adj._ MAID'-PALE (_Shak._), pale, like a sick girl.--_n._ MAID'SERVANT, a female servant.--MAID OF ALL WORK, a domestic who does general housework; OLD MAID, a woman left unmarried: a card game. [A.S. _mægden_--_mægeð_, a maid; cf. _magu_, son, _m['æ]g_, may.] MAIDAN, m[=i]'dan, _n._ an esplanade or parade-ground near a town in Persia and India. [Pers.] MAIDEN, m[=a]d'n, _n._ a maid: in Scotland, a machine like the guillotine, formerly used for beheading criminals.--_adj._ pertaining to a virgin or young woman: consisting of maidens: (_fig._) unpolluted: fresh: new: unused: first: that has never been captured, said of a fortress.--_ns._ MAID'ENHAIR, a name given to a fern from the fine hair-like stalks of its fronds; MAID'ENHOOD, MAID'ENHEAD, the state of being a maid: virginity: purity: freshness; MAID'ENLINESS.--_adjs._ MAID'ENLY, maiden-like: becoming a maiden: gentle: modest; MAID'EN-MEEK (_Tenn._), meek as a maiden; MAID'EN-TONGUED, gentle in voice like a girl; MAID'EN-WID'OWED, widowed while still a virgin.--_n._ MAID'HOOD (_Shak._).--MAIDEN ASSIZE, an assize at which there are no criminal cases; MAIDEN BATTLE, a first contest; MAIDEN FORTRESS, a fortress that has never been captured; MAIDEN NAME, the family name of a married woman before her marriage; MAIDEN OVER, in cricket, an over in which no runs are made; MAIDEN SPEECH, the first public speech made by a person, esp. in Parliament; MAIDEN STAKES, in horse-racing, the money contended for in a race between horses that have never run before. MAIEUTIC, m[=a]-[=u]'tik, _adj._ helping childbirth.--_n._ midwifery. [Gr.] MAIGRE, m[=a]'g[.e]r, _adj._ made neither from flesh-meat nor from gravy: belonging to a fast-day or to a fast.--MAIGRE FOOD, food allowed to be eaten on fast-days. [Fr. _maigre_, lean--L. _macer_.] MAIL, m[=a]l, _n._ defensive armour for the body formed of steel rings or network: armour generally.--_v.t._ to clothe in mail: (_Scot._) to stain.--_adjs._ MAIL'-CLAD, clad with a coat of mail; MAILED, protected by mail. [Fr. _maille_--L. _macula_, a spot or a mesh.] MAIL, m[=a]l, _n._ a bag for the conveyance of letters, &c.: the contents of such a bag: the person or the carriage by which the mail is conveyed.--_v.t._ to put into the mail: to send by mail.--_adj._ MAIL'ABLE, capable of being sent by mail.--_ns._ MAIL'-BAG, a bag in which letters are carried; MAIL'-BOAT, a boat which carries the public mails; MAIL'-CART, a cart in which mails are carried: a small cart, with long handles, for the amusement of children; MAIL'-CATCH'ER, an apparatus attached to a mail-carriage to catch up mail-bags while the train is in motion; MAIL'-COACH, -CAR, or -DRAG, the conveyance which carries the public mails; MAIL'-GUARD, an officer who guards the public mails; MAIL'ING-T[=A]'BLE, a table used in a post-office in sorting letters; MAIL'-TRAIN, a railway train which carries the public mails. [O. Fr. _male_, a trunk, a mail--Old High Ger. _malaha_, a sack; Gael. _mala_, a sack.] MAIL, m[=a]l, _n._ an old French coin--half a denier: rent.--_n._ MAIL'ING, a farm. [See BLACKMAIL.] MAIM, m[=a]m, _n._ a bruise: an injury: a lameness: the loss of any essential part.--_v.t._ to bruise: to disfigure: to injure: to lame or cripple: to render defective.--_n._ MAIM'EDNESS, the state of being maimed or injured. [O. Fr. _mehaing_, a bruise.] MAIN, m[=a]n, _n._ might: strength. [A.S. _mægen_.] MAIN, m[=a]n, _adj._ chief, principal: first in importance: leading.--_n._ the chief or principal part: the ocean or main sea: a continent or a larger island as compared with a smaller: a principal gas or water pipe in a street, or the largest conductor in a system of electric lights.--_ns._ MAIN'BOOM, the spar which extends the foot of a fore-and-aft mainsail; MAIN'DECK, the principal deck of a ship--so in MAIN'BRACE, the brace attached to the mainyard (see SPLICE); MAIN'LAND, the principal or larger land, as opposed to a smaller portion.--_adv._ MAIN'LY, chiefly, principally.--_ns._ MAIN'MAST, the principal mast of a ship, second from the prow; MAIN'SAIL, the principal sail generally attached to the mainmast; MAIN'SHEET, the sheet or rope attached to the lower corner of the mainsail; MAIN'SPRING, the spring which gives motion to any piece of machinery, esp. that of a watch or a clock; MAIN'STAY, the rope which stretches forward from the top of the mainmast: chief support; MAIN'TOP, a platform on the top of the mainmast; MAIN'TOPMAST, the mast next above the lower mainmast; MAIN'TOPSAIL, the sail above the mainsail, in square-rigged vessels; MAIN'YARD, the lower yard on the mainmast. [O. Fr. _maine_ or _magne_, great--L. _magnus_, great.] MAIN, m[=a]n, _n._ a hand at dice: a match at cockfighting: a banker's shovel for coin. [O. Fr. _main_--L. _manus_, hand.] MAINOR, m[=a]'nor, _n._ act or fact, esp. of theft: that which is stolen. MAINS, m[=a]nz, _n._ (_Scot._) the principal or home farm. [Illustration] MAINTAIN, men-t[=a]n', _v.t._ to keep in any state: to keep possession of: to preserve from capture or loss: to carry on: to keep up: to support: to make good: to support by argument: to affirm: to defend.--_v.i._ to affirm, as a position: to assert.--_adj._ MAINTAIN'ABLE, that can be supported or defended.--_ns._ MAINTAIN'ER, one who maintains; MAIN'TENANCE, the act of maintaining, supporting, or defending: continuance: the means of support: defence, protection: (_law_) an interference in a lawsuit, &c., in favour of one of the parties, by one who has no right or interest.--CAP OF MAINTENANCE, a cap of dignity borne by or before nobles and other persons of rank. [Fr. _maintenir_--L. _manu ten[=e]re_, to hold in the hand--_manus_, a hand, _ten[=e]re_, to hold.] MAISTER, m[=a]s't[.e]r, _n._ an obsolete form of MASTER.--MAISTERY=MASTERY; MAISTRING=MASTERING; MAÎTRE=MASTER. MAIZE, m[=a]z, _n._ a plant, and its fruit, called also _Indian corn_ or _wheat._ [Sp.,--Haitian.] MAJESTY, maj'es-ti, _n._ greatness: grandeur: dignity: elevation of manner or style: royal state: a title of kings and other sovereigns, esp. with possessive pronouns, as _His_ or _Her Majesty_, &c.: a symbolic representation of the first person of the Trinity enthroned: the canopy of a hearse: (_her._) an eagle crowned and sceptred.--_adjs._ MAJES'TIC, -AL, having or exhibiting majesty: stately: sublime.--_adv._ MAJES'TICALLY, in a majestic manner.--_n._ MAJES'TICALNESS, MAJES'TICNESS, majesty. [Fr. _majesté_--L. _majestas_--_majus_, comp. of _magnus_, great.] MAJOLICA, ma-jol'i-ka, _n._ name applied to decorative enamelled pottery, esp. that of Italy from the 15th to the 17th cent.: a modern ware in imitation, used for vases, &c. [From _Majorca_, where first made.] MAJOR, m[=a]'jur, _adj._ greater in number, quantity, or size: more important: (_mus._) greater by a semitone.--_n._ a person of full age (21 years): an officer in rank between a captain and lieutenant-colonel.--_v.i._ to play the major, to talk big.--_ns._ MAJORAT (ma-zh[=o]-rä'), primogeniture; M[=A]'JORATE, M[=A]'JORSHIP, the office or rank of major: majority; M[=A]'JOR-D[=O]'MO, an official who has the general management in a large household: a general steward: a chief minister (Sp. _mayor-domo_, a house-steward--L. _major_, greater, _domus_, a house); M[=A]'JOR-GEN'ERAL, an officer in the army next in rank below a lieutenant-general; MAJOR'ITY, the greater number: the amount between the greater and the less number: full age (at 21): the office or rank of major.--MAJOR KEY (_mus._), a key in which the semitones lie between the third and fourth, and seventh and eighth; MAJOR PREMISE (_logic_), the principal or major statement in a syllogism; MAJOR SCALE (see MAJOR KEY).--GO OVER TO, or JOIN, THE MAJORITY, to die; THE MAJORITY, the GREAT MAJORITY, the dead. [L., comp. of _magnus_.] MAJUSCULE, m[=a]-jus'k[=u]l, _n._ in paleography, a capital or uncial letter:--opp. to _Minuscule_. [L. _majuscula_ (_litera_), a somewhat larger letter.] MAKE, m[=a]k, _v.t._ to fashion, frame, or form: to produce: to bring about: to perform: to force: to render: to represent, or cause to appear to be: to turn: to occasion: to bring into any state or condition: to establish: to prepare: to obtain: to ascertain: to arrive in sight of: to reach: (_B._) to be occupied with: to do.--_v.i._ to tend or move: to contribute: (_B._) to feign or pretend:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ m[=a]de.--_n._ form or shape: structure, texture.--_v.i._ MAKE'-BELIEVE', to pretend, feign.--_n._ a mere pretence.--_ns._ MAKE'-PEACE (_Shak._), a peace-maker; MAK'ER, one who makes: the Creator: a poet; MAKE'SHIFT, something done or used to serve a shift or turn: something used only for a time.--_adj._ having the character of a temporary resource.--_ns._ MAKE'-UP, the way anything is arranged: an actor's materials for personating a part: (_print._) the arrangement of composed types into columns or pages, as in imposition; MAKE'-WEIGHT, that which is thrown into a scale to make up the weight: something of little value added to supply a deficiency; MAK'ING, the act of forming: structure: form.--MAKE ACCOUNT OF (see ACCOUNT); MAKE A FIGURE, to be conspicuous; MAKE AFTER, to follow or pursue; MAKE AMENDS, to render compensation or satisfaction; MAKE AS IF, to act as if, to pretend that; MAKE AT, to make a hostile movement against; MAKE AWAY, to put out of the way, to destroy; MAKE AWAY WITH, to squander; MAKE BELIEVE (see BELIEVE); MAKE BOLD (see BOLD); MAKE FOR, to move toward, to tend to the advantage of--so in _B._; MAKE FREE WITH, to treat freely or without ceremony; MAKE GOOD, to maintain, to justify, to fulfil; MAKE HEAD AGAINST, to oppose successfully; MAKE LIGHT of (see LIGHT); MAKE LITTLE OF, to treat as insignificant; MAKE LOVE TO (see LOVE); MAKE MUCH OF, to treat with fondness, to cherish, to foster; MAKE NO DOUBT, to have no doubt, to be confident; MAKE OF, to understand by, to effect: to esteem; MAKE OFF WITH, to run away with; MAKE ONE'S WAY, to proceed: to succeed; MAKE OUT, to discover: to prove: to furnish: to succeed; MAKE OVER, to remake, reconstruct: to transfer; MAKE PACE, to increase the speed; MAKE SAIL, to increase the quantity of sail: to set sail; MAKE SURE, to be certain of; MAKE SURE OF, to consider as certain, to secure to one's self; MAKE THE MOST OF, to use to the best advantage; MAKE UP, to fabricate: to feign: to collect into one: to complete, supplement: to assume a particular form of features: to determine: to reckon: to make good: to repair: to harmonise, adjust; MAKE UP FOR, to compensate; MAKE UP TO, to approach: to become friendly. [A.S. _macian_; Ger. _machen_.] MAKE, m[=a]k, _n._ (_Spens._) a mate, consort, equal.--_adj._ MAKE'LESS (_Shak._), without a make or mate. [A.S. _ge-maca_; Ice. _maki_, a mate.] MAKETH, m[=a]k'eth, old 3d pers. sing. pres. ind. of _make_. MAKIMONO, mak-i-m[=o]'n[=o], _n._ a roll, as of silk, esp. a long picture or writing rolled up and not hung. [Jap.] MAKWA, mak'wa, _n._ a Chinese short outer jacket. MALACHITE, mal'a-k[=i]t, _n._ a green-coloured mineral, composed essentially of carbonate of copper, much used for inlaid-work. [Gr. _malach[=e]_, a mallow, a plant of a green colour.] MALACOLITE, mal'a-k[=o]-l[=i]t, _n._ a greenish lime-magnesia variety of pyroxene. MALACOLOGY, mal-a-kol'o-ji, _n._ the branch of natural history which treats of the structure and habits of molluscs.--_adj._ MAL'ACOID, soft-bodied.--_n._ MALACOL'OGIST. [Gr. _malakos_, soft, _logia_, a discourse.] MALACOPTERYGIAN, mal-a-kop-t[.e]r-ij'i-an, _adj._ having the rays of the fins soft, excepting the first ray of the dorsal and pectoral fins, as in the pike, salmon, &c.--Also MALACOPTERYG'IOUS. [Gr. _malakos_, soft, _pteryx_, _pterygos_, a wing.] MALACOSTRACAN, mal-a-kos'tra-kan, _n._ an individual belonging to a sub-class of crustaceans, including the shrimps, lobsters, &c.--_adj._ belonging to this class--also MALACOS'TRACOUS.--_adj._ MALACOSTRACOLOG'ICAL.--_ns._ MALACOSTRACOL'OGIST; MALACOSTRACOL'OGY. [Gr. _malakos_, soft, _ostrakon_, a shell.] MALACOZOA, mal-a-ko-z[=o]'a, _n.pl._ soft-bodied animals, the Mollusca generally.--_adj._ MALACOZ[=O]'IC, possessing the common features of molluscan life. MALADAPTATION, mal-ad-ap-t[=a]'shun, _n._ faulty adaptation. MALADDRESS, mal-a-dres', _n._ awkwardness: clumsiness. MALADJUSTMENT, mal-ad-just'ment, _n._ a wrong adjustment. MALADMINISTRATION, mal-ad-min-is-tr[=a]'shun, _n._ bad management, esp. of public affairs. MALADROIT, mal-a-droit', _adj._ not dexterous: unskilful: clumsy.--_adv._ MALADROIT'LY.--_n._ MALADROIT'NESS, want of adroitness: awkwardness. MALADY, mal'a-di, _n._ illness: disease, either of the body or of the mind. [Fr. _maladie_--_malade_, sick--L. _male habitus_, in ill condition--_male_, badly, _habitus_, pa.p. of _hab[=e]re_, have, hold.] MALAGA, mal'a-ga, _n._ a wine imported from _Malaga_ in Spain. MALAGASY, mal-a-gas'i, _adj._ of or pertaining to Madagascar or its inhabitants.--_n._ a native of Madagascar.--Also MALAGASH'. MALAGUETTA PEPPER. See PEPPER. MALAISE, ma-l[=a]z', _n._ uneasiness: a feeling of discomfort or of sickness. [O. Fr. _malaise_.] MALAPERT, mal'a-p[.e]rt, _adj._ bold: forward: saucy: impudent.--_adv._ MAL'APERTLY.--_n._ MAL'APERTNESS. [O. Fr., _mal_--L. _malus_, bad, _apert_, well-bred--L. _apertus_, open.] MALAPPROPRIATE, mal-a-pr[=o]'pri-[=a]t, _v.t._ to misuse.--_adj._ MALAPROPOS (mal-ap-ro-p[=o]'), out of place: unsuitable: inapt.--_adv._ badly apropos: not suited to the purpose: unseasonably. MALAPROPISM, mal'a-prop-izm, _n._ the act of misapplying words, in the attempt to use fine language, from Mrs _Malaprop_ in Sheridan's play, _The Rivals_. MALAR, m[=a]'lar, _adj._ pertaining to the cheek.--_n._ the bone which forms the prominence of the cheek. [L. _mala_, the cheek--_mand[)e]re_, to chew.] MALARIA, ma-l[=a]'ri-a, _n._ the poisonous air arising from marshy districts, producing fever, &c.: miasma: the fever so caused.--_adjs._ MAL[=A]'RIOUS, MAL[=A]'RIAL, MAL[=A]'RIAN. [It. _mal' aria_--L. _malus_, bad, _aër_, air.] MALASSIMILATION, mal-a-sim-i-l[=a]'shun, _n._ imperfect assimilation or nutrition. MALAY, -AN, ma-l[=a]', -an, _n._ a native or inhabitant of _Malacca_, or of the _Malay_ Archipelago.--_adj._ of or pertaining to the Malays.--_n._ MALAYÄ'LAM, the language of Malabar, a Dravidian dialect.--_adj._ MALAY'SIAN, relating to the Malay Peninsula, or to the Malays. MALCONFORMATION, mal-kon-for-m[=a]'shun, _n._ bad conformation or form: imperfection or disproportion of parts. MALCONTENT, mal'kon-tent, _adj._ discontented, dissatisfied, esp. in political matters.--_n._ one discontented--also MALCONTENT'ED.--_adv._ MALCONTENT'EDLY.--_n._ MALCONTENT'EDNESS.--_adv._ MALCONTENT'LY. MALE, m[=a]l, _n._ (_Spens._) mail, armour. MALE, m[=a]l, _adj._ masculine: pertaining to the sex that begets (not bears) young: (_bot._) bearing stamens.--_n._ one of the male sex: a he-animal: a stamen-bearing plant.--_n._ MALE'-FERN, an elegant fern, with the fronds growing in a crown.--MALE ORDER, in architecture, the Doric order; MALE RHYMES, those in which only the final syllables correspond; MALE SCREW, a screw whose threads correspond to and enter the spiral grooves of the female screw. [O. Fr. _male_--L. _masculus_, male--_mas_, a male.] MALEDICTION, mal-e-dik'shun, _n._ evil-speaking: a calling down of evil: curse: execration or imprecation.--_adjs._ MALEDICT'ORY, imprecatory; MALEDIKT', accursed. [O. Fr.,--L. _malediction-em_--_male_, badly, _dic[)e]re_, _dictum_, to speak.] MALEFACTOR, mal'e-fak-tur, or mal-e-fak'tur, _n._ an evil-doer: a criminal.--_n._ MALEFAC'TION (_Shak._), a crime, an offence.--_adj._ MALEF'IC, doing mischief: producing evil.--_adv._ MALEF'ICALLY.--_v.t._ MALEF'ICATE, to bewitch.--_ns._ MAL'EFICE (_obs._), an evil deed: enchantment; MALEF'ICENCE, the character of being maleficent.--_adjs._ MALEF'ICENT, MALEFIC'IENT. [L., _male_, badly, _fac[)e]re_, to do.] MALEIC, ma-l[=e]'ik, _adj._ obtained from malic acid. MALENGINE, ma-len'jin, _n._ (_Spens._) evil device, deceit. [L. _malus_, bad, _ingenium_, ingenuity.] MALETOTE, mal'e-t[=o]t, _n._ an illegal exaction.--Also MAL'ETOLT. [O. Fr.] MALEVOLENT, mal-ev'o-lent, _adj._ wishing evil: ill-disposed towards others: rejoicing in another's misfortune: envious: malicious--also MALEV'OLOUS.--_n._ MALEV'OLENCE.--_adv._ MALEV'OLENTLY. [L. _male_, badly, _volens_, pr.p. of _velle_, to wish.] MALFEASANCE, mal-f[=e]'zans, _n._ evil-doing: the doing of what one ought not to do: an illegal deed. [Fr. _malfaisance_--L. _male_, evil, _fac[)e]re_, to do.] MALFORMATION, mal-for-m[=a]'shun, _n._ bad or wrong formation: irregular or anomalous structure.--_adj._ MALFORMED'. MALGRADO, mal-grä'do, _adv._ in spite of. [It.] MALGRE. Same as MAUGRE. MALIC, m[=a]'lik, _adj._ obtained from the juice of several fruits, esp. the apple. [L. _malum_, an apple.] MALICE, mal'is, _n._ ill-will: spite: disposition to harm others: deliberate mischief: intention to harm another.--_adj._ MALIC'IOUS, bearing ill-will or spite: moved by hatred or ill-will: having mischievous intentions.--_adv._ MALIC'IOUSLY.--_n._ MALIC'IOUSNESS. [Fr.,--L. _malitia_--_malus_, bad.] MALIGN, ma-l[=i]n', _adj._ of an evil disposition towards others: malicious: unfavourable.--_v.t._ to speak evil of: (_obs._) to treat with malice.--_ns._ MALIGN'ER; MALIG'NITY, state or quality of being malign: great hatred, virulence: deadly quality.--_adv._ MALIGN'LY.--_n._ MALIGN'MENT. [Fr. _malin_, fem. _maligne_--L. _malignus_ for _maligenus_, of evil disposition--_malus_, bad, and _gen_, root of _genus_.] MALIGNANT, ma-lig'nant, _adj._ disposed to do harm or to cause suffering: malign: acting maliciously: actuated by great hatred: tending to cause death.--_n._ a name applied by the Puritan party to one who had fought for Charles I. in the Civil War.--_n._ MALIG'NANCY, MALIG'NANCE, state or quality of being malignant.--_adv._ MALIG'NANTLY. [L. _malignans_, pr.p. of _malign[=a]re_, to act maliciously.] MALINES LACE. Same as MECHLIN LACE. See LACE. MALINFLUENCE, mal-in'fl[=oo]-ens, _n._ evil influence. MALINGER, ma-ling'g[.e]r, _v.i._ to feign sickness in order to avoid duty.--_ns._ MALING'ERER; MALING'ERY, feigned sickness. [Fr. _malingre_--_mal_--L. _malus_, bad, O. Fr. _heingre_, ailing--L. _æger_, sick.] MALISON, mal'i-zn, _n._ a curse:--opp. to _Benison_. [O. Fr.; a doublet of _malediction_; cf. _benison_ and _benediction_.] MALKIN, maw'kin, _n._ (_Shak._) a term used in contempt for a dirty woman: a mop: (_Scot._) a hare.--Also MAW'KIN. [Dim. of _Mal_ or _Moll_, Mary.] MALL, mawl, or mal, _n._ a large wooden beetle or hammer.--_v.t._ to beat with a mall or something heavy: to bruise. [O. Fr. _mail_--L. _malleus_.] MALL, mel, or mal, _n._ a level shaded walk: a public walk. [Contr. through O. Fr. of Old It. _palamaglio_--It. _palla_, a ball, _maglio_, a mace.] MALLARD, mal'ard, _n._ a drake: the common duck in its wild state. [O. Fr. _malard_ (Fr. _malart_)--_male_, male, and suffix _-ard_.] MALLEATE, mal'e-[=a]t, _v.t._ to hammer: to form into a plate or leaf by hammering.--_adj._ MALL'EABLE, that may be malleated or beaten out by hammering.--_ns._ MALL'EABLENESS, MALLEABIL'ITY, quality of being malleable; MALLE[=A]'TION.--_adj._ MALL'EIFORM, hammer-shaped.--_n._ MALL'EUS, one of the small bones of the middle ear in mammals. [L. _malleus_, a hammer.] MALLECHO, mal'[=e]-ch[=o], _n._ (_Shak._) villainy--probably a corruption of Spanish _malhecho_, mischief.--Also MAL'ICHO. MALLEE, mal'[=e], _n._ two dwarf species of Eucalyptus in Australia.--_ns._ MALL'EE-BIRD, MALL'EE-HEN, an Australian mound-bird or megapode. MALLEMAROKING, mal'[=e]-ma-r[=o]'king, _n._ the visiting and carousing of seamen in the Greenland ships. [Prob. to act like the _mallemuck_.] MALLEMUCK, mal'e-muk, _n._ the fulmar petrel. [Ger.] MALLEOLUS, ma-l[=e]'[=o]-lus, _n._ a bony protuberance on either side of the ankle.--_adj._ MAL'L[=E]OLAR. [L.] MALLET, mal'et, _n._ a small wooden hammer: the long-handled hammer for driving the balls in croquet. [Fr. _maillet_, dim. of _mail_, a mall.] MALLOW, mal'[=o], _n._ any plant of genus _Malva_--from its emollient properties or its soft downy leaves. [A.S. _malwe_--L. _malva_; Gr. _malach[=e]_--_malassein_, to make soft.] MALM, MAUM, mäm, _n._ calcareous loam, earth specially good for brick. [A.S. _mealm_, sand.] MALMSEY, mäm'ze, _n._ a sort of grape: a strong and sweet wine, first made in Greece, but now also in the Canary Islands and the Azores. [O. Fr. _malvoisie_, from _Malvasia_ in the Morea.] MALODOUR, mal-[=o]'dor, _n._ an offensive odour.--_adj._ MAL[=O]'DOROUS.--_n._ MAL[=O]'DOROUSNESS. MALPIGHIAN, mal-pig'i-an, _adj._ applied in anatomy to several structures in the kidney and spleen investigated by Marcello _Malpighi_ (1628-94). MALPOSITION, mal-p[=o]-zish'un, _n._ a wrong position, misplacement. MALPRACTICE, mal-prak'tis, _n._ evil practice or conduct: practice contrary to established rules.--_n._ MALPRACTIT'IONER, a physician guilty of malpractice. MALPRESENTATION, mal-pr[=e]-zen-t[=a]'shun, _n._ abnormal presentation in childbirth. MALSTICK. See MAHL-STICK. MALT, mawlt, _n._ barley or other grain steeped in water, allowed to sprout, and dried in a kiln, used in brewing ale, &c.--_v.t._ to make into malt.--_v.i._ to become malt: (_hum._) to drink malt liquor.--_adj._ containing or made with malt.--_ns._ MALT'-DUST, grain-sprouts produced and 'screened off' in malt-making; MALT'-FLOOR, a perforated floor in the chamber of a malt-kiln, through which heat rises; MALT'-HORSE, a heavy horse, such as used by brewers--hence (_Shak._) used in reproach for a dull, stupid person; MALT'ING; MALT'-KILN; MALT'-MILL, a mill for grinding malt; MALT'OSE, a hard, white, crystalline sugar, formed by the action of malt or diastase on starch; MALT'STER, MALT'MAN, one whose trade or occupation it is to make malt (_-ster_ was up to the end of the 13th century a feminine affix); MALT'WORM (_Shak._), a lover of malted liquors, a tippler.--_adj._ MALT'Y.--MALT LIQUOR, a liquor, as beer, ale, or porter, formed from malt; MALT TEA, the liquid infusion of the mash in brewing. [A.S. _mealt_, pa.t. of _meltan_, to soften; cf. Ger. _malz_.] MALTALENT, mal'tal-ent, _n._ (_Spens._) bad inclination, ill-humour. MALTESE, mal-t[=e]z', _n._ a native, or the natives, of _Malta_: the dialect, a corrupt Arabic mixed with Italian.--_adj._ belonging to Malta, or to its inhabitants.--MALTESE CROSS (see CROSS); MALTESE DOG, a very small spaniel with long silky hair. MALTHA, mal'tha, _n._ a thick mineral pitch: any similar preparation used by the ancients as a cement, stucco, or mortar. [L.] MALTHUSIAN, mal-th[=u]'zhan, _adj._ relating to _Malthus_ or to the principles he taught regarding the necessity of preventing population from increasing faster than the means of living.--_n._ a disciple of Thomas Robert _Malthus_ (1766-1834). MALTREAT, mal-tr[=e]t', _v.t._ to abuse: to use roughly or unkindly.--_n._ MALTREAT'MENT. [Fr. _maltraiter_--L. _male_, ill, TRACT[=A]RE, to treat.] MALVACEOUS, mal-v[=a]'shus, _adj._ (_bot._) pertaining to plants of the mallow family. MALVERSATION, mal-v[.e]r-s[=a]'shun, _n._ evil conduct: misbehaviour in office: corruption: extortion. [Fr.--L. _male_, badly, _vers[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_, to occupy one's self.] MALVOISIE, mal'vwä-z[=e], _n._ Same as MALMSEY. MAMBRINO, mam-br[=e]'no, _n._ a medieval iron hat, from its likeness to the barber's basin in _Don Quixote_. MAMELUKE, mam'e-l[=oo]k, _n._ one of a force of light horse in Egypt formed of Circassian slaves--dispersed in 1811. [Fr.,--Ar. _mamlûk_, a purchased slave--_malaka_, to possess.] MAMMA, MAMA, mam-mä', _n._ mother--used chiefly by young children.--_n._ MAMM'Y, mother. [_Mama_, a repetition of _ma_, the first syllable a child naturally utters.] MAMMALIA, mam-m[=a]'li-a, _n.pl._ (_zool._) the whole class of animals that suckle their young.--_ns._ MAM'ELON, a small hillock with a rounded top; MAM'MA, the mammary gland:--_pl._ MAM'MÆ; MAM'MAL, (_zool._), one of the mammalia:--_pl._ MAMMALS (mam'alz).--_adjs._ MAMM[=A]'LIAN; MAMMALIF'EROUS (_geol._), bearing mammals; MAMMALOG'ICAL.--_ns._ MAMMAL'OGIST; MAMMAL'OGY, the scientific knowledge of mammals.--_adjs._ MAM'MARY, relating to the mammæ or breasts; MAM'MATE, having breasts.--_n._ MAM'MIFER, an animal having mammæ.--_adjs._ MAMMIF'EROUS, having mammaæ; MAM'MIFORM, having the form of a breast or pap--also MAMMIL'IFORM.--_n._ MAMMIL'LA, the nipple of the mammary gland:--_pl._ MAMMIL'LÆ.--_adjs._ MAM'MILLARY, pertaining to, or resembling, the breasts: studded with rounded projections; MAM'MILLATE, having a mammilla; MAM'MILLATED, having small nipples, or little globes like nipples: nipple-shaped.--_n._ MAMMILL[=A]'TION--_adj._ MAMMOSE' (_bot._), breast-shaped. [L.] MAMMEE, mam-m[=e]', _n._ a highly esteemed fruit of the West Indies and tropical America, having a sweet taste and aromatic odour: the tree producing the fruit, the _Mammea_. [Haitian.] MAMMER, mam'[.e]r, _v.i._ (_Shak._) to hesitate, to stand muttering and in doubt. [Prob. imit.] MAMMET, mam'et, _n._ (_Shak._) a puppet, a figure dressed up. [Cf. _mawmet_, an idol.] MAMMOCK, mam'uk, _n._ a shapeless piece.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to tear to pieces, to mangle. MAMMON, mam'un, _n._ riches: the god of riches.--_adj._ MAMM'ONISH, devoted to money-getting.--_ns._ MAMM'ONISM, devotion to gain; MAMM'ONIST, MAMM'ONITE, a person devoted to riches: a worldling.--_adj._ MAMMONIST'IC. [Low L. _mammona_--Gr. _mam[=o]nas_--Syriac _mamônâ_, riches.] MAMMOTH, mam'uth, _n._ an extinct species of elephant.--_adj._ resembling the mammoth in size: very large. [Russ. _mamant[)u]_--Tartar _mamma_, the earth.] MAN, man, _n._ a human being: mankind: a grown-up male: a male attendant: one possessing a distinctively masculine character: a husband: a piece used in playing chess or draughts: a ship, as in man-of-war: a word of familiar address:--_pl._ MEN.--_v.t._ to supply with men: to strengthen or fortify:--_pr.p._ man'ning; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ manned.--_ns._ MAN'-AT-ARMS, a soldier; MAN-CHILD, a male child: a boy; MAN'DOM (_rare_), humanity, men collectively; MAN'-EAT'ER, a cannibal: a tiger; MAN'-EN'GINE, an elevator for raising and lowering men in some deep mines.--_adj._ MAN'FUL, having the qualities of a man: full of manliness: bold: courageous: noble-minded.--_adv._ MAN'FULLY.--_ns._ MAN'FULNESS; MAN'-HOLE, a hole in a drain, cesspool, &c., large enough to admit a man, for the purpose of cleaning or repairing it; MAN'HOOD, state of being a man: manly quality: human nature; MAN'KIND, the kind or race of man: the mass of human beings.--_adj._ MAN'-LIKE, having the appearance, characteristics, or qualities of a man.--_n._ MAN'LINESS.--_adj._ MAN'LY, becoming a man: brave: dignified: noble: pertaining to manhood: not childish or womanish.--_n._ MAN'-MILL'INER, a man engaged in millinery--often in contempt.--_adjs._ MAN'-MIND'ED (_Tenn._), having the mind or qualities of a man; MAN'NISH, like a man: masculine: bold.--_ns._ MAN'-OF-WAR, a war-ship: (_B._) a soldier; MAN'-OF-WAR'S-MAN, a man who serves on board a war-ship; MAN'-QUELL'ER (_Shak._), a man-killer, a murderer; MAN'SLAUGHTER, the slaying of a man: (_law_) the killing of any one unlawfully, but without malice or forethought; MAN'SLAYER, one who kills a man; MAN'STEALER, one who steals human beings, esp. to make slaves of them; MAN'TRAP, a trap or machine for catching people who trespass.--MAN ABOUT TOWN, a fashionable idler, dangling about clubs, theatres, &c.; MAN ALIVE! an exclamation of surprise; MAN FRIDAY, a servile attendant, factotum--from Robinson Crusoe's man; MAN IN THE MOON, a fancied semblance of a man walking in the moon, with a bush near, and his dog behind him; MAN OF BUSINESS, an agent or a lawyer; MAN OF (HIS) HANDS, a handy, clever fellow; MAN OF LETTERS, a scholar and writer; MAN OF SIN, the devil: Antichrist; MAN OF STRAW, a person put in the front of some business, but who is not really responsible; MAN OF THE WORLD, a person well accustomed to the ways and dealings of men. [A.S. _mann_; Ger. _mann_, Dut. _man_, L. _mas_--_mans_, a male, Sans. _manu_, a man.] MANACLE, man'a-kl, _n._ a handcuff.--_v.t._ to put manacles on: to restrain the use of the limbs or any of the natural powers. [Through O. Fr., from L. _manicula_, dim. of _manica_, sleeve--_manus_, hand.] MANAGE, man'[=a]j, _v.t._ to guide by use of the hands: to have under command or control: to bring round to one's plans: to conduct with great carefulness: to wield: to handle: to contrive: to train by exercise, as a horse.--_v.i._ to conduct affairs.--_n._ MANAGEABIL'ITY, the quality of being manageable.--_adj._ MAN'AGEABLE, that can be managed: governable.--_n._ MAN'AGEABLENESS.--_adv._ MAN'AGEABLY.--_ns._ MAN'AGEMENT, art or act of managing: manner of directing or of using anything: administration: skilful treatment: a body of managers; MAN'AGER, one who manages: a person who controls a business or other concern.--_adj._ MANAG[=E]'RIAL, of or pertaining to a manager, or to management. [Fr. _manége_, the managing of a horse--It. _maneggio_--L. _manus_, the hand.] MANAKIN, man'a-kin, _n._ a small tropical American piproid bird: a variant form of _manikin_. MANATEE, man-a-t[=e]', _n._ an aquatic animal--also called the _Sea-cow_ or _Dugong_ (q.v.). MANCHE, manch, _n._ (_her._) a sleeve: the neck of a violin, &c. [Fr.] MANCHESTER GOODS, man'ches-t[.e]r goods, _n.pl._ goods or articles made in _Manchester_, esp. cotton and woollen cloths: similar goods made elsewhere. MANCHET, man'chet, _n._ (_Tenn._) a small loaf or cake of fine white bread. [Ety. dub.] MANCHETTE, man-shet', _n._ an ornamental cuff. MANCHINEEL, manch-i-n[=e]l', _n._ a West Indian tree, remarkable for the poisonous qualities of its juice, and having a fruit resembling a small apple. [Sp. _manzanillo_, a small apple.] MANCHU, MANCHOO, man-ch[=oo]', _n._ one of the race from which Manchuria took its name, and which governed China in the 17th century.--_adj._ of or pertaining to Manchuria or to its inhabitants. [Chin., meaning 'pure.'] MANCIPATION, man-si-p[=a]'shun, _n._ in ancient Rome, a legal formality for acquiring title to property by actual or by simulated purchase.--_v.t._ MAN'CIPATE.--_adj._ MAN'CIPATORY. MANCIPLE, man'si-pl, _n._ a steward: a purveyor, particularly of a college or an inn of court. [O. Fr.,--L. _manceps_, a purchaser--_manus_, hand, _cap[)e]re_, take.] MANDÆAN, man-d[=e]'an, _n._ and _adj._ one of an ancient and still surviving sect in southern Babylonia, their religion a corrupt Gnosticism, with many Jewish and Parsee elements.--Also _Mendaites_, _Nasoreans_, and _Sabians_, and also _Christians of St John_. [Mandæan _mand[=a]_, knowledge, gnosis.] MANDAMUS, man-d[=a]'mus, _n._ a writ or command issued by a higher court to a lower. [L., 'we command'--_mand[=a]re_, to command.] MANDARIN, man-da-r[=e]n', _n._ a European name for a Chinese official, civil or military: a small kind of orange, thought to be of Chinese origin.---_n._ MANDAR[=I]'NATE. [Port, _mandarim_--Malayan _mantrí_, counsellor--Sans. _mantra_, counsel.] MANDATE, man'd[=a]t, _n._ a charge: a command from a superior official or judge to an inferior, ordering him how to act, esp. from the Pope to a legate, &c.: a right given to a person to act in name of another: a rescript of the Pope.--_ns._ MAN'DATARY, MAN'DATORY, one to whom a mandate is given by a Man'dator.--_adj._ MAN'DATORY, containing a mandate or command; preceptive: directory. [Fr. _mandat_--L. _mand[=a]tum_, _mand[=a]re_--_manus_, hand, _d[)a]re_, give.] MANDIBLE, man'di-bl, _n._ a jaw-bone, esp. that of the lower jaw.--_adjs._ MANDIB'ULAR, relating to the jaw; MANDIB'UL[=A]TE, -D, having mandibles for biting, like many insects. [L. _mandibula_--_mand[)e]re_, chew.] MANDOLINE, MANDOLIN, man'do-lin, _n._ a musical instrument somewhat like a lute, having strings, finger-board, and neck like a guitar.--_n._ MAND[=O]'LA, a large mandoline. [Fr.,--It. _mandola_, _mandora_, a lute.] MANDORLA, man-dor'la, _n._ an oval panel, or a work of art filling such: the _vesica piscis_. [It.] MANDRAKE, man'dr[=a]k, _n._ a plant of the genus _Mandragora_, with narcotic properties, once regarded as an aphrodisiac, shrieking when pulled out of the ground.--MANDRAG'ORA (_Shak._). [L.,--Gr. _mandragoras_.] MANDREL, man'drel, _n._ a bar of iron fitted to a turning-lathe on which articles to be turned are fixed: the axle of a circular saw.--Also MAN'DRIL. [Fr. _mandrin_; prob. through Low L. from Gr. _mandra_.] MANDRILL, man'dril, _n._ a large kind of baboon, a native of Western Africa. [Fr.] MANDUCATE, man'd[=u]-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to chew or eat.--_adj._ MAN'DUCABLE.--_n._ MANDUC[=A]'TION.--_adj._ MAN'DUCATORY. [L. _manduc[=a]re_--_mand[)e]re_, to chew.] MANE, m[=a]n, _n._ the long hair flowing from the neck of some quadrupeds, as the horse and the lion.--_adjs._ MANED, having a mane; MANE'LESS, without a mane; MANE'-LIKE (_Tenn._), like a mane: hanging in the form of a mane.--_n._ MANE'-SHEET, a covering for the upper part of a horse's head. [A.S. _manu_; Ice. _mön_; Ger. _mähne_.] MANÈGE, man-[=a]zh', _n._ the managing of horses: the art of horsemanship or of training horses: a riding-school.--_v.t._ to train, as a horse. [Fr.; cf. _manage_.] MANEH, m[=a]'ne, _n._ a Hebrew weight of uncertain value. See MINA. [Heb.] MANEQUIN. Same as MANIKIN. MANES, m[=a]'n[=e]z, _n._ (_Roman myth._) the benevolent or tutelary spirits of departed persons: the lower world, as being the abode of the manes. [L.] MANET, m[=a]'net, he remains, a stage direction. [L. 3d sing. pres. ind. of _man[=e]re_, to remain.] MANGA, man'ga, _n._ a covering for a cross. MANGABEY, mang'ga-b[=a], _n._ a slender and agile African monkey. MANGAL, man'gal, _n._ a Turkish brazier for charcoal. MANGANESE, mang-ga-n[=e]z', or mang'ga-n[=e]z, _n._ a hard and brittle metal of a grayish-white colour, somewhat like iron.--_adjs._ MANGAN[=E]'SIAN, MANGAN[=E]'SIC, MANGAN'IC, MANG'ANOUS; MANGANIF'EROUS.--_n._ MANG'ANITE, gray ore of manganese, used in glass manufacture. [O. Fr. _manganese_, a material used in making glass, prob. from It. and cog. with _magnesia_.] MANGE, m[=a]nj, _n._ the scab or itch which eats the skin of domestic animals. [From adj. _mangy_.] MANGEL-WURZEL, mang'gl-wur'zl, _n._ a plant of the beet kind cultivated as food for cattle.--Also MANG'OLD-WUR'ZEL. [Ger. _mangold_, beet, _wurzel_, root.] MANGER, m[=a]nj'[.e]r, _n._ a trough in which food is laid for horses and cattle.--DOG IN THE MANGER, one who will neither enjoy something himself nor let others do so--also adjectively. [O. Fr. _mangeoire_--_mangier_, to eat--L. _manducus_, a glutton--_mand[)e]re_, to chew.] MANGLE, mang'gl, _v.t._ to cut and bruise: to tear in cutting: to mutilate: to take by piecemeal.--_n._ MANG'LER. [Skeat suggests a freq. form of O. Fr. _mahaigner_, to maim--_mehaing_, a hurt.] MANGLE, mang'gl, _n._ a rolling-press for smoothing linen.--_v.t._ to smooth with a mangle: to calender.--_n._ MANG'LER. [Dut. _mangelen_, to roll with a rolling-pin, through Low L., from Gr. _manganon_, the axis of a pulley.] MANGO, mang'g[=o], _n._ the fruit of the mango-tree of the East Indies: a green musk-melon pickled. [Malay _mañgg[=a]_.] MANGONEL, mang'go-nel, _n._ an engine used before the invention of cannon for throwing stones, &c. [O. Fr.,--Low L. _mangonellus_--Gr. _manganon_, a machine for throwing stones.] MANGOSTAN, mang'go-stan, MANGOSTEEN, mang'go-st[=e]n, _n._ an East Indian tree, and its fruit, which is of a most delicious taste. [Malay.] MANGROVE, man'gr[=o]v, _n._ a tree which grows on muddy shores and river-banks in the East and West Indies. [Malayan.] MANGY, m[=a]nj'i, _adj._ scabby.--_n._ MANG'INESS. [Anglicised form of Fr. _mangé_, eaten, pa.p. of _manger_, to eat--L. _manduc[=a]re_, to chew.] MANIA, m[=a]'ni-a, _n._ violent madness: insanity: excessive or unreasonable desire.--_n._ M[=A]'NIAC, a person affected with mania: a madman.--_adj._ raving mad.--_adj._ MANIACAL (ma-n[=i]'a-kal).--_adv._ MAN[=I]'ACALLY. [L.,--Gr. _mania_; cf. _menos_, mind.] MANICATE, man'i-k[=a]t, _adj._ (_bot._) covered with hairs so matted or interwoven as to be easily stripped off. [L. _manic[=a]tus_, sleeved--_manicæ_, long sleeves.] MANICHÆAN, MANICHEAN, man-i-k[=e]'an, _adj._ pertaining to the _Manichees_ or followers of _Mani_, a native of Ecbatana (215-276 A.D.), who taught that everything sprang from two chief principles, light and darkness, or good and evil.--_n._ a believer in Manichæanism--also MAN'ICHEE.--_ns._ MANICHÆ'ANISM, MANICH[=E]'ISM, the doctrines of the Manichæans. MANICURE, man'i-k[=u]r, _n._ the care of hands and nails: one who practises this.--_v.t._ to treat the hands and nails. [L. _manus_, hand, _cura_, care.] MANIFEST, man'i-fest, _adj._ that may be easily seen by the eye or perceived by the mind: clear: apparent: evident.--_v.t._ to make clear or easily seen: to show plainly: to put beyond doubt: to reveal or declare.--_n._ an open or public statement: a list or invoice of a ship's cargo to be exhibited at the custom-house.--_adjs._ MANIFEST'ABLE, MANIFEST'IBLE, that can be manifested or clearly shown.--_n._ MANIFEST[=A]'TION, act of disclosing what is dark or secret: that by which something is manifested or shown: display: revelation.--_adv._ MAN'IFESTLY.--_n._ MAN'IFESTNESS, state of being manifest. [Fr.,--L. _manifestus_--_manus_, the hand, _-festus_, _pa.p._ of obs. _fend[)e]re_, to dash against.] MANIFESTO, man-i-fest'[=o], _n._ a public written declaration of the intentions, opinions, or motives of a sovereign or of a leader of a party.--_v.i._ (_rare_) to issue a manifesto. [It.,--L.; see MANIFEST.] MANIFOLD, man'i-f[=o]ld, _adj._ various in kind or quality: many in number: multiplied.--_adj._ MAN'IFOLDED (_Spens._), having many folds or complications.--_adv._ MAN'IFOLDLY.--_n._ MAN'IFOLDNESS. MANIFORM, man'i-form, _adj._ having the shape or form of a hand. [L. _manus_, the hand, _forma_, a shape.] MANIGRAPH, man'i-graf, _n._ a device for multiplying copies of writings or drawings. MANIHOT, man'i-hot, _n._ a genus of tropical American, mainly Brazilian, herbs of the spurge family--two species yielding the bitter and the sweet cassava respectively. MANIKIN, man'i-kin, _n._ a dwarf: a pasteboard model exhibiting the different parts and organs of the human body. [Old Dut. _mann-ek-en_, a double dim. of _man_, Eng. _man_.] MANILA, MANILLA, ma-nil'a, _n._ a cheroot manufactured in _Manila_, in the Philippine Islands. MANILLA, ma-nil'a, _n._ a ring worn as an ornament on the arm or leg, or used as money among the tribes of West Africa.--Also M[=A]'NILIO, MANILLE'. [Low L. _manilia_, a bracelet--L. _manus_, the hand.] MANILLE, ma-nil', _n._ in ombre and quadrille, the highest card but one. [Fr.] MANIOC, m[=a]'ni-ok, _n._ a tropical plant from which cassava and tapioca are obtained.--Also written MAN'DIOC, M[=A]'NIHOC, M[=A]'NIHOT. [Sp. _mandioca_--Brazilian.] MANIPLE, man'i-pl, _n._ a company of foot-soldiers in the Roman army: in the Western Church, a eucharistic vestment, a narrow strip worn on the left arm.--_adj._ MANIP'ULAR, of or pertaining to a maniple: pertaining to handling or manipulation. [L. _manipulus_--_manus_, the hand, _pl[=e]re_, to fill.] MANIPULATE, ma-nip'[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to work with the hands.--_v.i._ to use the hands, esp. in scientific experiments: to handle or manage: to give a false appearance to: to turn to one's own purpose or advantage.--_n._ MANIPUL[=A]'TION, act of manipulating or working by hand: use of the hands in a skilful manner in science or in art.--_adjs._ MANIP'ULATIVE, MANIP'ULATORY, done by manipulation.--_n._ MANIP'ULATOR, one who manipulates or works with the hand. [Low L. _manipul[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_. See MANIPLE.] MANIS, m[=a]'nis, _n._ the pangolin or scaly ant-eater. MANITO, man'i-t[=o], _n._ a spirit or other object of reverence among some of the American Indians.--Also MANITOU. [Algonkin.] MANNA, man'a, _n._ the food supplied to the Israelites in the wilderness of Arabia: delicious food for body or mind: a sweet juice or gum got from many trees, as the ash of Sicily.--_adj._ MANNIF'EROUS. [Heb. _m[=a]n h[=u]_, what is it? or from _man_, a gift.] MANNER, man'[.e]r, _n._ the way in which anything is done: method: fashion: personal style of acting or bearing one's self: habit: custom: style of writing or of thought: sort: style: (_pl._) morals: good behaviour: character: respectful deportment.--_adj._ MANN'ERED, having manners (esp. in compounds, as well- or ill-mannered): affected with mannerism: artificial: stilted.--_ns._ MANN'ERISM, a constant sameness of manner: a marked peculiarity of style or manner, esp. in literary composition: manner or style becoming wearisome by its sameness; MANN'ERIST, one addicted to mannerism.--_adj._ MANNERIS'TIC.--_adv._ MANNERIS'TICALLY.--_n._ MANN'ERLINESS.--_adj._ MANN'ERLY, showing good manners: well-behaved: complaisant: not rude.--_adv._ with good manners: civilly: respectfully: without rudeness.--BY NO MANNER OF MEANS, under no circumstances whatever; IN A MANNER, to a certain degree; IN, or WITH, THE MANNER (_B._), in the very act; MAKE ONE'S MANNERS, to salute a person on meeting by a bow, courtesy, &c.; SHARK'S MANNERS, rapacity; TO THE MANNER BORN, accustomed to something from birth. [Fr. _manière_--_main_--L. _manus_, the hand.] MANNING, man'ing, _n._ the act of supplying with men. MANNITE, man'[=i]t, _n._ a sweetish crystalline compound found in celery, sea-grasses, the dried sap of the flowering ash, &c. MANOEUVRE, ma-n[=oo]'v[.e]r, or ma-n[=u]'-, _n._ a piece of dexterous management: stratagem: a skilful and clever movement in military or naval tactics.--_v.i._ and _v.t._ to perform a manoeuvre: to manage with art: to change the position of troops or of ships: to affect or to gain by manoeuvres.--_n._ MANOEU'VRER. [Fr.,--Low L. _manuopera_--L. _manu_, by hand, _opera_, work. Cf. _manure_.] MANOMETER, man-om'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring the rarity or density of gases from their elastic force--also MAN'OSCOPE.--_adjs._ MANOMET'RIC, -AL.--_n._ MANOS'COPY. [Gr. _manos_, rare, _metron_, measure.] MANOR, man'or, _n._ the land belonging to a nobleman, or so much as he formerly kept for his own use: the district over which the court of the lord of the manor had authority: a tract of land in America for which a fee-farm rent was paid.--_ns._ MAN'OR-HOUSE, -SEAT, the house or seat belonging to a manor.--_adj._ MAN[=O]'RIAL, pertaining to a manor. [O. Fr. _manoir_--L. _man[=e]re_, _mansum_, to stay.] MANQUÉ, mang'k[=a], _adj._ spoiled: defective: off: lost: missed. [Fr.] MANSARD-ROOF, man'sard-r[=oo]f, _n._ a form of roof having a break in the slope, the lower part being steeper than the upper, so called from the architect, François _Mansart_ (1598-1666). MANSE, mans, _n._ the residence of a clergyman, esp. of Presbyterians in Scotland. [O. Fr.,--Low L. _mansa_, a farm--_man[=e]re_, _mansus_, to remain.] MANSION, man'shun, _n._ a house, esp. one of some size: a manor-house: the dwelling of a nobleman or a landholder: (_B._) a resting-place.--_ns._ MAN'SION-HOUSE, a mansion: the official residence of the Lord Mayor of London; MAN'SIONRY (_Shak._), a mansion, place of residence. [O. Fr.,--L. _mansion-em_--_man[=e]re_, _mansus_, to remain.] MANSUETUDE, man'swe-t[=u]d, _n._ gentleness: tameness: mildness.--_adj._ MAN'SUETE (_rare_), mild. [Fr.,--L. _mansuetudo_, mildness.] MANSWORN, man'sworn, _p.adj._ (_obs._) perjured. [A.S. _manswérian_, to swear falsely.] MANTEL, man'tl, _n._ the ornamental shelf over a fireplace.--Also MAN'TEL-PIECE, MAN'TEL-SHELF. MANTIC, man'tik, _adj._ relating to divination: prophetic. [Gr. _mantikos_--_mantis_, a prophet.] MANTICORE, man'ti-k[=o]r, _n._ a fabulous beast of prey with a human head. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _mantich[=o]ras_.] MANTILLA, man-til'a, _n._ a small mantle: a kind of veil covering the head and falling down upon the shoulders. [Sp.; cf. _mantle_.] MANTIS, man'tis, _n._ a genus of orthopterous insects somewhat like locusts, carrying their large spinous forelegs in the attitude of prayer. [Gr. _mantis_.] MANTLE, man'tl, _n._ a covering: a cloak or loose outer garment: spirit: (_zool._) the thin fleshy membrane lining a mollusc's shell: a conical wire-network covered with some highly refractory earth that becomes luminous under a flame.--_v.t._ to cover: to disguise.--_v.i._ to spread like a mantle: to revel: to joy: to froth: to rush to the face and impart a crimson glow, as blood.--_ns._ MAN'TLET, MAN'TELET, a small cloak for women: (_fort._) a movable shield or screen to protect an attacking force, or gunners while serving their guns; MAN'TLING, cloth suitable for mantles: (_her._) the representation of a mantle, or the drapery of a coat-of-arms. [O. Fr. _mantel_ (Fr. _manteau_)--L. _mantellum_, a napkin.] MANTOLOGY, man-tol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the act or art of divination.--n. MANTOL'OGIST. MANTON, man'tun, _n._ a shawl or wrap. [Sp.,--_manta_, a cloak. Same root as _mantle_.] MANTRA, man'tra, _n._ a Vedic hymn of praise: the matter of the Sanhita or first division of the Veda: a sacred text used as an incantation. [Sans., 'thought.'] MANTUA, man't[=u]-a, _n._ a lady's cloak or mantle: a lady's gown--(_Scot._) MANT'Y.--_n._ MAN'TUA-MAK'ER, a maker of ladies' gowns and dresses. [Prob. arose through confusion of _manteau_ (It. _manto_) with _Mantua_, in Italy.] MANTUAN, man't[=u]-an, _adj._ of or pertaining to _Mantua_ in Italy, or to the poet Virgil or his works.--_n._ a native of Mantua, esp. Virgil. MANUAL, man'[=u]-al, _adj._ pertaining to the hand: done, made, or used by the hand.--_n._ drill in the use of weapons, &c.: a handbook: a handy compendium of a large subject or treatise: the key-board of an organ, &c.: an old office-book like the modern R.C. _ritual_.--_adv._ MAN'UALLY.--MANUAL ALPHABET, the letters made by the deaf and dumb with the hand in conversation; MANUAL EXERCISE, the exercise by which soldiers are made to handle their arms. [L. _manualis_--_manus_, the hand.] MANUBRIUM, m[=a]-n[=u]'bri-um, _n._ the presternum of most mammals: in organ-building, a stop-knob or handle.--_adj._ MAN[=U]'BRI[=A]TED. [L., 'a handle.'] MANUFACTURE, man-[=u]-fakt'[=u]r, _v.t._ to make from raw materials by any means into a form suitable for use.--_v.i._ to be occupied in manufactures.--_n._ the process of manufacturing: anything manufactured.--_n._ MANUFACT'ORY, a factory or place where goods are manufactured.--_adj._ MANUFACT'URAL.--_n._ MANUFACT'URER, one who manufactures.--_p.adj._ MANUFACT'URING, pertaining to manufactures. [Fr.,--L. _manus_, the hand, _factura_, a making, from _fac[)e]re_, _factum_, to make.] MANUMIT, man-[=u]-mit', _v.t._ to release from slavery: to set free, as a slave:--_pr.p._ man[=u]mit'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ man[=u]mit'ted.--_n._ MANUMISS'ION, act of manumitting or setting free from slavery. [L. _manumitt[)e]re_--_manus_, the hand, _mitt[)e]re_, _missum_, to send.] MANUMOTOR, man-[=u]-m[=o]'tor, _n._ a small wheel-carriage moved by the hand of the person in it.--_adj._ MANUM[=O]'TIVE. [L. _manus_, hand, _motor_, a mover.] MANURE, man-[=u]r', _v.t._ to enrich land with any fertilising substance.--_n._ any substance applied to land to make it more fruitful.--_ns._ MANUR'ANCE (_Spens._), cultivation; MANUR'ER.--_adj._ MAN[=U]'RIAL.--_n._ MANUR'ING, a dressing or spreading of manure on land. [Contr. of Fr. _manoeuvrer_. See MANOEUVRE.] MANUS, m[=a]'nus, _n._ the hand, the corresponding part of an animal's fore-limb. MANUSCRIPT, man'[=u]-skript, _adj._ written by the hand: not printed.--_n._ a book or paper written by the hand.--_adj._ MANUSCRIPT'AL. [L. _manus_, the hand, _scrib[)e]re_, _scriptum_, to write.] MANX, mangks, _n._ the language of the Isle of _Man_, belonging to the Gadhelic branch of Celtic.--_adj._ pertaining to the Isle of Man or to its inhabitants. MANY, men'i, _adj._ consisting of a great number of individuals: not few: numerous:--_comp._ MORE (m[=o]r); _superl._ MOST (m[=o]st).--_n._ many persons: a great number: (with def. art.) the people.--_adj._ MAN'Y-SID'ED, having many qualities or aspects: not narrow-minded.--_n._ MAN'Y-SID'EDNESS.--THE MANY, the crowd. [A.S. _manig_.] MANYPLIES, men'i-pl[=i]z, _n.sing._ and _pl._ the third stomach of a ruminant--the _omasum_ or _psalterium_.--Also MAN'IPLIES and MON'YPLIES. MANZANILLA, man-za-nil'a, _n._ a very dry and light kind of sherry, esp. that produced in the district of San Lucar de Barrameda in Spain. [Prob. from the town near Seville.] MAORI, mow'ri, or mä'[=o]-ri, _n._ a native of New Zealand:--_pl._ MAO'RIS. [A New Zealand word signifying native or indigenous.] MAORMOR, mär'm[=o]r, _n._ a royal steward in ancient Scotland. [Gael., _maor_, _maer_, steward, _mor_, great.] MAP, map, _n._ a representation of the surface of the earth, or of part of it on a plane surface: a similar drawing of the stars in the sky.--_v.t._ to draw in the form of a map, as the figure of any portion of land: to describe clearly:--_pr.p._ map'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ mapped.--_ns._ MAP'-MEAS'URER, an instrument for measuring distances other than in straight lines on a map; MAP'-MOUNT'ER, one who mounts maps, or backs them with canvas and fixes them on rollers, &c.; MAP'PERY (_Shak_.), the art of planning and designing maps; MAP'PIST.--MAP OUT, to mark down the chief points clearly. [L. _mappa_, a napkin, a painted cloth, orig. Punic.] MAPLE, m[=a]'pl, _n._ a tree of several species, from one of which, the rock-maple, sugar is made.--_adj._ of or pertaining to maple. [A.S. _mapul_, maple.] MAQUI, m[=a]'kwi, _n._ an evergreen shrub, native of Chili, producing a berry yielding wine. MAR, mär, _v.t._ to injure by wounding or by cutting off a part: to damage: to interrupt: to disfigure:--_pr.p._ mar'ring; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ marred. [A.S. _merran_, _mirran_; cf. Dut. _marren_, to retard.] MARABOU, mar'a-b[=oo], _n._ a species of Indian stork, the feathers of which are much used as ornaments by ladies: a very white raw silk. MARABOUT, mar'a-b[=oo]t, _n._ one of a priestly race of Mohammedans in Northern Africa. [Ar.] MARAH, m[=a]'ra, _n._ bitterness: something bitter. [Heb.] MARANATHA, mar-a-n[=a]'tha, or mar-a-nath'a, _n._ See Anathema. MARASCHINO, mar-as-k[=e]'no, _n._ a liqueur distilled from a species of cherry grown in Dalmatia. [It.,--_marasca_, _amarasca_, a sour cherry--L. _am[=a]rus_, bitter.] MARASMUS, ma-raz'mus, _n._ a wasting of flesh without apparent disease, a kind of consumption. [Gr. _marasmos_--_marainein_, to decay.] MARATHI, ma-ra'thi, _n._ the language of the _Mahrattas_.--Also _Mahrat'ti_. MARAUD, ma-rawd', _v.i._ to rove in quest of plunder.--_n._ MARAUD'ER, one who roves in quest of booty or plunder. [Fr. _maraud_, rogue; prob. O. Fr. _mar-ir_, to wander--Old High Ger. _marrjan_, to hinder.] MARAVEDI, mar-a-v[=a]'d[=i], _n._ the smallest copper coin of Spain, less than a farthing. [Sp.,--Ar. _Mur[=a]bit[=i]n_, the dynasty of the Almoravides (1086-1147 A.D.).] MARBLE, mär'bl, _n._ any species of limestone taking a high polish: that which is made of marble, as a work of art: a little ball used by boys in play.--_adj._ made of marble: veined like marble: hard: insensible.--_v.t._ to stain or vein like marble.--_adjs._ MAR'BLE-BREAST'ED, hard-hearted, cruel; MAR'BLE-CON'STANT, constant or firm as marble, immovable.--_n._ MAR'BLE-CUT'TER, one who hews marble: a machine for cutting marble.--_adjs._ MAR'BLE-EDGED, having the edges marbled, as a book; MAR'BLE-HEART'ED, hard-hearted, insensible.--_ns._ MAR'BLE-P[=A]'PER, paper coloured in imitation of variegated marble; MAR'BLER; MAR'BLING, the act of veining or painting in imitation of marble.--_adv._ MAR'BLY, resembling marble, in the manner of marble.--ELGIN MARBLES, a collection of marbles obtained chiefly from the Parthenon by Lord _Elgin_ in 1811, now in the British Museum. [O. Fr. _marbre_--L. _marmor_; cf. Gr. _marmaros_, _marmairein_, to sparkle.] MARCANDO, mar-kän'do, _adj._ and _adv._ (_mus._) with distinctness or precision.--Also MARCA'TO. [It., _marcare_, to mark.] MARCASITE, mär'ka-s[=i]t, _n._ an iron ore, a variety of pyrites (q.v.). [Fr.; prob. of Ar. origin.] MARCESCENT, mar-ses'ent, _adj._ withering, decaying.--_adj._ MARCESC'IBLE, that may wither. [L. _marcescens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _marcesc[)e]re_--_marc[=e]re_, to fade.] MARCH, märch, _n._ the third month of the year, named from Mars, the god of war. [L. _Martius_ (_mensis_), (the month) of Mars.] MARCH, märch, _n._ a border: boundary of a territory:--used chiefly in _pl._ MARCH'ES.--_v.i._ to border: to be adjacent.--_ns._ MARCH'MAN, a borderer; MARCH'-TREA'SON, the betrayal of a border or march to an enemy.--RIDING THE MARCHES, a ceremony in which the magistrates and chief men of a city ride on horseback round the bounds of the property of the city, so as to mark plainly what are its limits. [A.S. _mearc_; doublet of _mark_.] MARCH, märch, _v.i._ to move in order, as soldiers: to walk in a grave or stately manner.--_v.t._ to cause to march.--_n._ the movement of troops: regular advance: a piece of music fitted for marching to: the distance passed over.--MARCH PAST, the march of a body of soldiers in front of one remaining stationary to review them; FORCED MARCH, a march in which the men are vigorously pressed forward for combative or strategic purposes; ROGUE'S MARCH, music played in derision of a person when he is expelled as a soldier, &c. [Fr. _marcher_. Ety. dub.; acc. to Scheler, prob. from L. _marcus_, a hammer (cf. 'to _beat_ time'); others suggest root of _march_, a frontier.] MÄRCHEN, MÄHRCHEN, märh'hen, _n.sing._ and _pl._ a story or fable, a folk-tale. [Ger.] MARCHIONESS, mär'shun-es, MARCHESA, mar-ch[=e]'za, _n._ feminine of MARQUIS. MARCHPANE, märch'p[=a]n, _n._ (_Shak._) a kind of sweet bread or biscuit composed of sugar, almonds, and a small quantity of flour. [Fr. _massepain_, the latter part of the word being from L. _panis_, bread.] MARCID, mär'sid, _adj._ withered, wasted. MARCIONITE, mar'shun-[=i]t, _n._ and _adj._ a follower of _Marcion_ of Sinope (died 165 A.D.), who, partly under Gnostic influences, constructed an ethico-dualistic philosophy of religion, with rigorously ascetic practices. He claimed alone to have understood Paul aright, and accepted as authoritative his own version of Luke and ten of Paul's epistles.--_ns._ MAR'CIONIST; MAR'CIONITISM. MARCOBRUNNER, mär'ko-br[=oo]n-[.e]r, _n._ a remarkably fine white wine, produced in Erbach, near Wiesbaden--from the _Markbrunnen_ fountain hard by. MARE, m[=a]r, _n._ the female of the horse.--_ns._ MARE'S'-NEST, a supposed discovery which turns out to be a hoax; MARE'S-TAIL, a tall, erect marsh plant of the genus _Hippuris_: (_pl._) long straight fibres of gray cirrus cloud; SHANK'S'-MARE, a person's own legs, as a means of travelling.--THE GRAY MARE IS THE BETTER HORSE, the wife rules her husband. [A.S. _mere_, fem. of _mearh_, a horse; cog. with Ger. _mähre_, Ice. _marr_, W. _march_, a horse.] MARESCHAL, mär'shal. Same as MARSHAL. MARGARINE, mär'gar-in, _n._ the solid ingredient of human fat, olive-oil, &c.--so called from its pearly lustre: oleo-margarine or imitation butter (see under OLEIN).--_adj._ MARGAR'IC.--_n._ MAR'GARITE, one of the brittle micas. [L. _margarita_--Gr. _margarit[=e]s_, a pearl.] MARGAY, mär'g[=a], _n._ a spotted S. American tiger-cat. MARGIN, mär'jin, _n._ an edge, border: the blank edge on the page of a book: something allowed more than is needed, in case of unforeseen things happening: a sum of money, or its value in securities, deposited with a broker to protect him against loss on transactions made on account: a deposit made by each of two brokers, parties to a contract, when one is 'called up' by the other.--_v.t._ to furnish with margins, enter on the margin.--_ns._ MARGE, MARG'ENT (_poet._), edge, brink.--_adjs._ MARGED; MAR'GINAL, pertaining to a margin: placed in the margin.--_n._ MARGIN[=A]'LIA, notes written on the margin.--_v.t._ MAR'GINALISE, to furnish with notes.--_adv._ MAR'GINALLY.--_adjs._ MAR'GINATE, -D, having a margin; MAR'GINED.--MARGINAL CREDIT, a method by which a merchant at home can render bills drawn upon him abroad saleable there, by associating a well-known banker's name on their margin with his own; MARGINAL NOTES, notes written or printed on the margin of a book or writing. [L. _margo_, _marginis_; cf. _mark_.] MARGRAVE, mär'gr[=a]v, _n._ a German nobleman of rank equivalent to an English marquis:--_fem._ MARGRAVINE (mär'gra-v[=e]n).--_ns._ MAR'GRAVATE, MARGR[=A]'VIATE, the jurisdiction or dignity of a margrave. [Dut. _markgraaf_ (Ger. _markgraf_)--_mark_, a border, _graaf_, a count; cf. Ger. _graf_, A.S. _geréfa_, Eng. _reeve_ and _she-riff_.] MARGUERITE, mär'ge-r[=e]t, _n._ the common garden daisy: the ox-eye daisy: the China aster. MARIAN, m[=a]'ri-an, _adj._ relating to the Virgin _Mary_: to the great Roman general Caius _Marius_: to Queen _Mary_ of England. MARIGOLD, mar'i-g[=o]ld, _n._ a name applied to several composite plants bearing yellow flowers. [From the Virgin _Mary_ and _gold_.] MARINE, ma-r[=e]n', _adj._ of or belonging to the sea: done at sea: representing the sea: near the sea.--_n._ a soldier serving on shipboard: the whole navy of a country or state: naval affairs: a sea-piece in painting.--_ns._ MAR'IGRAPH, a self-registering tide-gauge; MARINADE', a liquor or pickle in which fish or meat is steeped before cooking, to improve the flavour.--_v.t._ MAR'INATE, to salt or pickle.--_n._ MAR'INER, a seaman or sailor: one who assists in navigating ships.--MARINE ACID, hydrochloric acid; MARINE BOILER, a boiler fitted for use in steamships; MARINE ENGINE, an engine fitted for use in a steamship; MARINE INSURANCE, insurance of ships or their cargoes when at sea; MARINE SOAP, a kind of coconut-oil soap, adapted for washing with sea-water; MARINE STORE, a place where old ships' materials are bought and sold.--TELL THAT TO THE MARINES, a phrase expressive of disbelief and ridicule, from the sailor's contempt for the marine's ignorance of seamanship. [Fr.,--L. _marinus_--_mare_, sea.] MARIOLATRY, m[=a]-ri-ol'a-tri, _n._ the undue worship of the Virgin _Mary_--the veneration paid to her is strictly _Hyperdulia_.--_n._ MARIOL'ATER, one who practises mariolatry. [L. _Maria_, Mary, Gr. _latreia_, worship.] MARIONETTE, mar-i-o-net', _n._ a puppet moved by strings, a puppet-show. [Fr.] MARIOTTE'S LAW. See LAW. MARIPUT, mar'i-put, _n._ the African zoril. MARISCHAL, a Scotch form of _marshal_. MARISH, mar'ish, _n._ and _adj._ Same as MARSH. MARIST, m[=a]'rist, _n._ a member of a modern R.C. congregation for teaching.--_adj._ devoted to the service of the Virgin. MARITAL, mar'i-tal, _adj._ pertaining to a husband: of the nature of a marriage.--_n._ MARIT[=A]'GIUM, in the feudal system, the right of the lord of the fee to dispose of the heiress, later also of the male heir, in marriage. [Fr.,--L. _maritalis_--_maritus_, a husband--_mas_, _maris_, a male.] MARITIME, mar'i-tim, _adj._ pertaining to the sea: relating to navigation or to naval affairs: situated near the sea: living on the shore, littoral--opp. to _Marine_: having a navy and a naval commerce. [L. _maritimus_--_mare_, sea.] MARJORAM, mär'jo-ram, _n._ an aromatic plant used as a seasoning in cookery. [Fr. _marjolaine_--Low L. _majoraca_--L. _amaracus_--Gr. _amarakos_.] MARK, märk, _n._ a visible sign: any object serving as a guide: that by which anything is known: a badge: a trace, impression, proof: any visible effect: symptom: a thing aimed at or striven for: an attainable point: a character made by one who cannot write: any impressed sign or stamp: a physical peculiarity: distinction: a boundary, limit: in medieval times, a tract of common land belonging to a community.--_v.t._ to make a mark on anything: to impress with a sign: to take notice of: to regard.--_v.i._ to take particular notice.--_adj._ MARKED, distinguished: prominent: notorious.--_adv._ MARK'EDLY, noticeably.--_ns._ MARK'ER, one who marks the score at games, as at billiards: a counter used at card-playing, &c.: the soldier who forms the pivot round which a body of soldiers wheels; MARK'ING, act of making a mark: a mark made upon anything; MARK'ING-INK, indelible ink, used for marking clothes; MARK'ING-NUT, the fruit of an East Indian tree of the cashew family, yielding a black juice used in marking cloths; MARK'MAN, one of the community owning a mark; MARKS'MAN, one good at hitting a mark: one who shoots well.--MARK DOWN, set down in writing, put a note of; MARK OUT, to lay out the plan or outlines of anything; MARK TIME, to move the feet alternately in the same manner as in marching, but without changing ground.--A MAN OF MARK, a well-known or famous man; BESIDE THE MARK, not properly referring to the matter in hand; GOD BLESS, or SAVE, THE MARK, or SAVE THE MARK, a phrase expressing ironical astonishment or scorn, from the usage of archery; MAKE ONE'S MARK, to leave a lasting impression: to gain great influence; TOE THE MARK, to stand to one's obligations, facing the consequences; TRADE MARK, a distinctive mark put on goods, &c., to show by whom they were made; UP TO THE MARK, good enough, measured by a certain standard. [A.S. _mearc_, a boundary; Ger. _mark_, Goth. _marka_.] MARK, märk, _n._ an obsolete English coin=13s. 4d.: a coin of the present German Empire=about one shilling: a silver coin of Hamburg=about 1s. 4d. [A.S. _marc_, another form of the above word.] MARKET, mär'ket, _n._ a public place for the purposes of buying and selling: the time for the market: sale: rate of sale: value.--_v.i._ to deal at a market: to buy and sell.--_ns._ MARKETABIL'ITY, MAR'KETABLENESS.--_adj._ MAR'KETABLE, fit for the market: saleable.--_ns._ MAR'KET-BELL (_Shak._), a bell to give notice of the time; MAR'KET-CROSS, a cross anciently set up where a market was held; MAR'KET-DAY, the fixed day on which a market is usually held; MAR'KETER; MAR'KET-GAR'DEN, a garden in which fruit and vegetables are grown for market; MAR'KET-GAR'DENER; MAR'KET-HOUSE, a building in which a market is held; MAR'KETING, the act or practice of buying and selling in market; MAR'KET-PLACE, the open space in a town where markets are held; MAR'KET-PRICE, the price at which anything is sold in the market: the current price; MAR'KET-TOWN, a town having the privilege of holding a public market. [Through the O. Fr. (Fr. _marché_, It. _mercato_), from L. _mercatus_, trade, a market--_merx_, merchandise.] MARL, märl, _n._ a fat earth or clay often used as manure.--_v.t._ to cover with marl.--_adj._ MARL[=A]'CEOUS, having the qualities of marl: like marl.--_n._ MAR'LITE, a variety of marl.--_adjs._ MARLIT'IC; MAR'LY, like marl: abounding in marl.--_n._ MARL'STONE, argillaceous limestone. [O. Fr. _marle_ (Fr. _marne_)--Low L. _margila_, a dim. of L. _marga_, marl.] MARLINE, mär'lin, _n._ a small rope for winding round a larger one to keep it from being worn by rubbing.--_v.t._ MAR'LINE, MARL, to bind or wind round with marline.--_n._ MAR'LINESPIKE, an iron tool, like a spike, for separating the strands of a rope in splicing. [Dut. _marlijn_, _marling_--_marren_, to bind, _lijn_, a rope--Fr. _ligne_; cf. _moor_ and _line_.] MARMALADE, mär'ma-l[=a]d, _n._ a jam or preserve generally made of the pulp of oranges, originally of quinces. [Fr., from Port. _marmelada_--_marmelo_, a quince--L. _melim[=e]lum_--Gr. _melim[=e]lon_, a sweet apple--_meli_, honey, _m[=e]lon_, an apple.] MARMORACEOUS, mar-mo-r[=a]'shus, _adj._ belonging to, or like, marble.--_adjs._ MAR'MORATE, -D, covered with marble: variegated like marble.--_n._ MARMOR[=A]'TION.--_adjs._ MARM[=O]'REAL, MARM[=O]'REAN, belonging to, or like, marble. [L. _marmor_, marble.] MARMOSE, mar'm[=o]s, _n._ one of several small South American opossums. MARMOSET, mär'mo-zet, _n._ a small variety of American monkey. [Fr. _marmouset_, a little grotesque figure beside a fountain--L. _marmor_, marble.] MARMOT, mär'mot, _n._ a rodent animal, about the size of a rabbit, which inhabits the higher parts of the Alps and Pyrenees. [It. _marmotto_--Romansch _murmont_--L. _mus montanus_, mountain-mouse.] MARONITE, mar'[=o]-n[=i]t, _n._ one of a sect of Christians who live on or around the mountains of Lebanon. [St _Maron_, about 400 A.D., or John _Maron_, a patriarch of the sect in the 7th century.] MAROON, ma-r[=oo]n', _n._ a brownish crimson. [Fr. _marron_, a chestnut--It. _marrone_, a chestnut.] MAROON, ma-r[=oo]n', _n._ a fugitive slave living on the mountains, in the West Indies.--_v.t._ to put on shore on a desolate island.--_ns._ MAROON'ER; MAROON'ING. [Fr. _marron_--Sp. _cimarron_, wild--_cima_, a mountain-summit--L. _cyma_--Gr. _kyma_.] MAROQUIN, mar'o-kwin, _n._ leather prepared from goatskin: morocco leather. [Fr.] MARPLOT, mär'plot, _n._ one who mars or defeats a plot or design by interference where he has no right. MARPRELATE, mär-prel'[=a]t, _adj._ pertaining to the series of vigorous pamphlets against prelacy issued in England in 1588-9, in spite of severe repression. MARQUE, märk, _n._ a license to pass the marches or limits of a country for the purpose of making reprisals: a ship commissioned for making captures.--LETTER-OF-MARQUE (see LETTER). [Fr.] MARQUEE, mär-k[=e]', _n._ a large field-tent. [For _marquees_, the s being dropped as if a plural, from Fr. _marquise_, acc. to Littré, orig. a marchioness's tent.] MARQUETRY, märk'et-ri, _n._ work inlaid with pieces of various-coloured wood. [Fr. _marqueterie_--_marqueter_, to inlay--_marque_, a mark.] [Illustration] MARQUIS, mär'kwis, MARQUESS, mär'kwes, _n._ a title of nobility next below that of a duke, first given in England in 1386:--fem. _Mar'chioness_.--_ns._ MAR'QUIS[=A]TE, the dignity or lordship of a marquis; MARQUISE (mär-k[=e]z'), in France, a marchioness: a style of parasol about 1850. [O. Fr. _markis_ (Fr. _marquis_, It. _marchese_)--Low L. _marchensis_, a prefect of the marches.] MARRIAGE, mar'ij, _n._ the ceremony by which a man and woman become husband and wife: the union of a man and woman as husband and wife.--_adj._ MARR'IAGEABLE, suitable, or at a proper age, for marriage.--_ns._ MARR'IAGEABLENESS; MARR'IAGE-CON'TRACT, an agreement to be married: an agreement respecting property by persons about to marry.--_n.pl._ MARR'IAGE-F[=A]'VOURS, knots or decorations worn at a marriage.--_n._ MARR'IAGE-SETT'LEMENT, an arrangement of property, &c., before marriage, by which something is secured to the wife or her children, in case of her husband's death. [O. Fr. _mariage_. See MARRY.] MARROW, mar'[=o], _n._ the soft, fatty matter in the hollow parts of the bones: the pith of certain plants: the essence or best part of anything: the inner meaning or purpose.--_ns._ MARR'OW-BONE, a bone containing marrow: (_pl._) the knees or the bones of the knees; MARR'OWFAT, a rich kind of pea, called also Dutch Admiral pea.--_adjs._ MARR'OWISH, of the nature of, or resembling, marrow; MARR'OWLESS, having no marrow.--_n._ MARR'OW-SQUASH (_U.S._), vegetable marrow.--_adj._ MARR'OWY, full of marrow: strong: forcible: pithy. [A.S. _mearg_; Ger. _mark_.] MARRY, mar'i, _v.t._ to take for husband or wife: to give in marriage: to unite in matrimony.--_v.i._ to enter into the married state: to take a husband or a wife:--_pr.p._ marr'ying; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ marr'ied. [Fr. _marier_--L. _marit[=a]re_, to marry, _maritus_, a husband--_mas_, _maris_, a male.] MARRY, mar'i, _interj._ indeed! forsooth! [By _Mary_.] MARS, märz, _n._ the Roman god of war: the planet next to the earth in the order of distance from the sun. [L. _Mars_, _Martis_.] MARSALA, mar'sä-la, _n._ a light wine resembling sherry, from _Marsala_ in Sicily. MARSEILLAISE, mär-se-ly[=a]z', or mär-se-l[=a]z', _n._ the French revolutionary hymn composed by Rouget de Lisle in 1792, sung by the volunteers of _Marseilles_ as they entered Paris, 30th July, and when they marched to the storming of the Tuileries. MARSH, märsh, _n._ a tract of low wet land: a morass, swamp, or fen.--_adj._ pertaining to wet or boggy places.--_ns._ MARSH'-GAS, fire-damp; MARSH'-HARR'IER, a harrier of genus _Circus_ frequenting marshes; MARSH'INESS; MARSH'-MALL'OW, a species of mallow common in meadows and marshes; MARSH'-MAR'IGOLD, a genus of plants of the _Ranunculus_ order, having large yellow flowers like those of a buttercup.--_adj._ MARSH'Y, pertaining to, or produced in, marshes: abounding in marshes. [A.S. _mersc_, for _mer-isc_, as if 'mere-ish,' full of _meres_. Cf. _mere_, a pool.] MARSHAL, mär'shal, _n._ an officer charged with the regulation of ceremonies, preservation of order, points of etiquette, &c.: the chief officer who regulated combats in the lists: a pursuivant or harbinger: a herald: in France, an officer of the highest military rank: (_U.S._) the civil officer of a district, corresponding to the sheriff of a county in England.--_v.t._ to arrange in order: to lead, as a herald:--_pr.p._ mar'shalling; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ mar'shalled.--_ns._ MAR'SHALLER, one who marshals; MAR'SHALLING, act of arranging in due order; MAR'SHALSEA, till 1842 a prison in Southwark, under the marshal of the royal household; MAR'SHALSHIP, office of marshal. [O. Fr. _mareschal_ (Fr. _maréchal_); from Old High Ger. _marah_, a horse, _schalh_ (Ger. _schalk_), a servant.] MARSIPOBRANCHIATE, mar-si-po-brang'ki-[=a]t, _adj._ having pursed gills, as lampreys, hags, &c.--Also MAR'SIPOBRANCH. MARSUPIAL, mär-s[=u]'pi-al, _adj._ carrying young in a pouch.--_n._ a marsupial animal, as the opossum or the kangaroo.--_n._ MARS[=U]'PIUM, a brood-pouch. [L. _marsupium_--Gr. _marsipion_, a pouch.] MART, märt, _n._ a place of trade. [Contr. of _market_.] MARTAGON, mär'ta-gon, _n._ the Turk's-cap lily. MARTEL, mär'tel, _v.t._ (_Spens_.) to hammer, to strike. [Fr. _marteler_, It. _martello_. See MARTELLO.] MARTELLO, mar-tel'o, _n._ a circular fort erected to protect a coast. [It. _martello_, a hammer--L. _martulus_, _marculus_, dim. of _marcus_, a hammer; or from _Mortella_ Point in Corsica, where a tower of this kind withstood an English cannonade in 1794.] MARTEN, mär'ten, _n._ a destructive kind of weasel valued for its fur. [Fr. _martre_, also _marte_--Low L. _marturis_, from a Teut. root seen in Ger. _marder_, and A.S. _mearð_, a marten.] MAR-TEXT, mär'-tekst, _n._ an ignorant preacher. MARTIAL, mär'shal, _adj._ belonging to Mars, the god of war, or to the planet Mars: of or belonging to war, or to the army and navy: warlike: brave.--_ns._ MAR'TIALISM; MAR'TIALIST.--_adv._ MAR'TIALLY.--MARTIAL LAW, law enforced during a state of war for the proper government of armies, and for the punishment of those who break the laws of war. [Fr.,--L. _martialis_--_Mars_, _Martis_.] MARTIN, mär'tin, _n._ a bird of the swallow kind.--Also MAR'TINET. [The name _Martin_; cf. _robin_, &c.] MARTINET, mär'tin-et, _n._ a strict disciplinarian.--_n._ MARTINET'ISM. [From _Martinet_, a very strict officer in the army of Louis XIV. of France.] MARTINGALE, mär'tin-g[=a]l, _n._ a strap passing between a horse's forelegs, fastened to the girth and to the bit, to keep his head down: in ships, a short spar under the bowsprit.--Also MAR'TINGAL. [Fr., from a kind of breeches worn at _Martigues_ in Provence.] MARTINMAS, mär'tin-mas, _n._ the mass or feast of St _Martin_: 11th Nov., a term-day in Scotland. MARTLET, märt'let, _n._ the martin, the name of a bird: (_her._) a martin or swallow without feet, used as a bearing, a crest, or a mark of cadency to designate the fourth son. [From Fr. _martinet_, dim. of _martin_.] MARTYR, mär't[.e]r, _n._ one who by his death bears witness to the truth: one who suffers for his belief: one who suffers greatly from any cause.--_v.t._ to put to death for one's belief.--_n._ MAR'TYRDOM, state of being a martyr: the sufferings or death of a martyr: torment generally.--_v.t._ MAR'TYRISE (_Browning_), to offer as a sacrifice: to cause to suffer martyrdom.--_adj._ MARTYROLOG'ICAL.--_ns._ MARTYROL'OGIST; MARTYROL'OGY, a history of martyrs: a discourse on martyrdom. [A.S.,--L.,--Gr., a witness.] MARVEL, mär'vel, _n._ a wonder: anything astonishing or wonderful: astonishment.--_v.i._ to wonder: to feel astonishment:--_pr.p._ mar'velling; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ mar'velled.--_adj._ MAR'VELLOUS, astonishing: almost or altogether beyond belief: improbable.--_adv._ MAR'VELLOUSLY.--_n._ MAR'VELLOUSNESS. [Fr. _merveille_--L. _mirabilis_, wonderful--_mir[=a]ri_, to wonder.] MARYBUD, m[=a]'ri-bud, _n._ the marigold. MASCLE, mas'kl, _n._ (_her._) a bearing, lozenge-shaped and perforated: a plate of steel in the form of a lozenge, used in making scale-armour.--_adjs._ MAS'CLED, MASCULE', MAS'CULY. [Fr. _macle_--L. _macula_, the mesh of a net.] MASCOT, mas'kot, _n._ a luck-penny or talisman: a person whose presence brings good luck. [Fr. _mascotte_.] MASCULINE, mas'k[=u]-lin, _adj._ of the male sex: having the qualities of a man: resembling a man, or suitable to a man: robust: of a woman, bold, forward, unwomanly: denoting nouns which are names of males.--_n._ (_gram._) the masculine gender.--_adv._ MAS'CULINELY.--_ns._ MAS'CULINENESS, MASCULIN'ITY. [Fr.,--L. _masculinus_--_masculus_, male--_mas_, a male.] MASH, mash, _v.t._ to beat into a mixed mass: to bruise: in brewing, to mix malt and hot water together.--_v.i._ to act violently.--_n._ a mixture of ingredients beaten or stirred together, as of bran, meal, &c., or bran and boiled turnips, &c., for feeding cattle or horses: in brewing, a mixture of crushed malt and hot water.--_ns._ MASH'ING; MASH'-TUB, MASH'ING-TUB, a tub in which the mash in breweries is mixed.--_adj._ MASH'Y, produced by mashing; of the nature of a mash. [The noun is older than the verb, and seems to be connected with _mix_ (A.S. _miscian_); cf. _Mish-mash_.] MASHER, mash'[.e]r, _n._ a fellow who dresses showily to attract the attention of silly young women, a fop.--_v.t._ MASH, to gain the affections of one of the opposite sex, to treat as a sweetheart.--BE MASHED ON (_slang_), to be struck with love for another. MASHIE, MASHY, mash'i, _n._ a kind of golf-club. MASJID, mas'jid, _n._ a Mohammedan mosque. MASK, MASQUE, mask, _n._ anything disguising or concealing the face: anything that disguises: a pretence: a masquerade: a former kind of dramatic spectacle, in which actors personified mythological deities, shepherdesses, &c.: a representation or impression of a face in any material, as in marble, plaster, &c.: a fox's head.--_v.t._ to cover the face with a mask: to hide.--_v.i._ to join in a mask or masquerade: to be disguised in any way: to revel.--_n._ MAS'CARON (_archit._), a grotesque face on door-knockers, spouts, &c.--_adj._ MASKED, wearing a mask, concealed.--_ns._ MASKED'-BALL, a ball in which the dancers wear masks; MASK'ER, one who wears a mask.--MASKED BATTERY (see BATTERY). [Fr. _masque_--Sp. _mascara_--Ar. _maskharat_, a jester, man in masquerade.] MASK, mask, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to steep, infuse.--_v.i._ to be infusing. [A form of _mash_.] MASLIN, mas'lin, _n._ mixed grain, esp. rye and wheat.--Also MASH'LIN, MASH'LIM, MASH'LUM. MASON, m[=a]'sn, _n._ one who cuts, prepares, and lays stones: a builder in stone: a member of the society of freemasons.--_v.t._ to build.--_adjs._ MASON'IC, relating to freemasonry; M[=A]'SONRIED, constructed of masonry.--_n._ M[=A]'SONRY, the skill or practice of a mason: the work of a mason: the art of building in stone: freemasonry.--_adj._ consisting of mason-work.--_n._ MAS'TER-M[=A]'SON (see under MASTER). [O. Fr. _masson_ (Fr. _maçon_)--Low L. _macion-em_; prob. Teut.; cf. Mid. High Ger. _mezzo_, a mason, whence _steinmetz_, a stone-mason, cog. with Old High Ger. _meizan_, to hew, whence Ger. _meissel_, a chisel.] MASOOLAH-BOAT, ma-s[=oo]'la-b[=o]t, _n._ a high many-oared East Indian surf-boat.--Also MASU'LA-BOAT. MASQUE. See MASK. MASQUERADE, mask-[.e]r-[=a]d', _n._ an assembly of persons wearing masks, generally at a ball: disguise.--_v.i._ to wear a mask: to join in a masquerade: to go in disguise.--_n._ MASQUERAD'ER, a person wearing a mask: a person or thing disguised in any manner. [Fr. _mascarade_. See MASK.] MASS, mas, _n._ a lump of matter: a quantity: a collected body: the main body: magnitude: the principal part or main body: quantity of matter in any body, weight being proportional to mass: (_pl._) the lower classes of the people.--_v.t._ to form into a mass: to bring together in masses.--_v.i._ to assemble in masses.--_adj._ MASS'IVE, bulky: weighty: not separated into parts or elements: without crystalline form, geologically homogeneous.--_adv._ MASS'IVELY.--_ns._ MASS'IVENESS, MASS'INESS; MASS'-MEETING, a public meeting of persons of all classes to discuss some matter of general interest.--_adj._ MASS'Y, massive, made up of masses. [Fr. _masse_--L. _massa_--Gr. _maza_--_massein_, to squeeze together.] MASS, mas, _n._ the celebration of the Lord's Supper or Eucharist in R.C. churches, also the office for the same: a musical setting of certain parts of the R.C. liturgy: a church festival or feast-day, as in _Candlemas_, _Christmas_, _Martinmas_, &c.--_ns._ MASS'-BELL, or _Sacring-bell_, a bell rung during the celebration of mass, at the elevation of the host; MASS'-BOOK, the R.C. missal or service-book; MASS'-PRIEST, formerly a R.C. secular priest, as distinct from those living under a rule--later, a priest retained in chantries, &c., to say masses for the dead: a R.C. priest generally.--MASS FOR THE DEAD, a funeral mass for the faithful in Christ, to hasten their release from purgatory; CONVENTUAL MASS, a mass for the general community of a religious house: a mass at which special remembrance is made of pious founders and benefactors; DRY MASS, or SERVICE, a rite in which there is neither consecration nor communion; HIGH MASS, a mass celebrated with music, ritual, ceremonies, and incense; LOW MASS, the ordinary mass celebrated without music and incense; MIDNIGHT MASS, that mass which is said at midnight on Christmas-eve; PRIVATE MASS, any mass where only the priest communicates, esp. in a private oratory; SOLEMN MASS, a mass resembling a high mass, but without some of its special ceremonies; VOTIVE MASS, a special mass over and above those ordinarily said for the day, for some particular grace or purpose, and provided by some individual. [A.S. _mæsse_--Low L. _missa_--L. _missus_, _mitt[)e]re_, to send away, from the phrase at the close of service, _Ite, missa est (ecclesia)_, 'Go, the congregation is dismissed.'] MASSA, mas'ä, _n._ a negro corruption of _master_. MASSACRE, mas'a-k[.e]r, _n._ indiscriminate slaughter, esp. with cruelty: carnage.--_v.t._ to kill with violence and cruelty: to slaughter. [Fr.; from the Teut., as in Low Ger. _matsken_, to cut; cf. Ger. _metz-ger_, a butcher.] MASSAGE, ma-säzh', _n._ in medicine, a system of treatment in which the manipulation and exercise of parts (_passive movement_) are employed for the relief of morbid conditions--by stroking, pressing, tapping, kneading, friction with kneading, &c.--_v.t._ to subject to massage.--_ns._ MASSA'GIST, MASSEUR':--_fem._ MASSEUSE'. [Fr., from Gr. _massein_, to knead.] MASSE, ma-s[=a]', _n._ in billiards, a sharp stroke made with the cue perpendicular or nearly so. [Fr.] MASSETER, mas-[=e]'t[.e]r, _n._ a muscle which raises the under jaw, and thus closes the mouth. [Gr. _mas[=e]t[=e]r_--_masasthai_, to chew.] MASSICOT, mas'i-kot, _n._ protoxide of lead or yellow oxide of lead. [Fr.] MASSIF, ma-s[=e]f, _n._ a central mountain-mass; an orographic fault-block. [Fr.] MASSORAH, MASORA, mas'[=o]-rä, _n._ the tradition by which Jewish scholars tried to preserve the text of the Old Testament--a collection of critical notes on the text of the Old Testament, first committed to writing in Tiberias between the 6th and 9th cent. A.D.--the _Great Massorah_ was finally arranged about the 11th century; the _Small Massorah_ is an extract therefrom.--_ns._ MASS'ORETE, MASS'ORITE.--_adjs._ MASSORET'IC, MASORET'IC.--MASSORETIC POINTS and ACCENTS, the vowel-points in Hebrew furnished by the Massorah. [Heb., 'tradition.'] MAST, mast, _n._ a long upright pole for bearing the yards, rigging, &c. in a ship.--_v.t._ to supply with a mast or masts.--_adj._ MAST'ED.--_n._ MAST'-HEAD, the head or top of the mast of a ship.--_v.t._ to raise to the mast-head: to punish by sending a sailor to the mast-head for a certain time.--_n._ MAST'-HOUSE, the place in dockyards where masts are made.--_adj._ MAST'LESS, having no mast. [A.S. _mæst_, the stem of a tree; Ger. _mast_.] MAST, mast, _n._ the fruit of the oak, beech, chestnut, and other forest trees, on which swine feed: nuts, acorns.--_adjs._ MAST'FUL; MAST'LESS; MAST'Y. [A.S. _mæst_; Ger. _mast_, whence _mästen_, to feed.] MASTER, mas't[.e]r, _n._ one who commands: a lord or owner: a leader or ruler: a teacher: an employer: the commander of a merchant-ship: formerly the navigator or sailing-master of a ship-of-war: one eminently skilled in anything: the common title of address to a young gentleman, &c.: a title of dignity or office--a degree conferred by universities, as _Master of Arts_, &c., the title of the eldest son of a Scotch viscount or baron, the head of some corporations, as Balliol College, &c., of a lodge of freemasons, &c.: a husband.--_adj._ the chief, predominant: belonging to a master, chief, principal, as in _Master-builder_, &c.--_v.t._ to become master of: to overcome: to become skilful in: to execute with skill.--_ns._ MAS'TER-BUILD'ER, a chief builder, one who directs or employs others; MAS'TERDOM, power of control.--_adj._ MAS'TERFUL, exercising the authority or power of a master: imperious: having the skill of a master.--_adv._ MAS'TERFULLY, in a masterful or imperious manner.--_ns._ MAS'TERFULNESS; MAS'TER-HAND, the hand of a master: a person highly skilled; MAS'TERHOOD; MAS'TER-JOINT, the most marked system of joints or divisional planes by which a rock is intersected; MAS'TERKEY, a key that opens many locks: a clue fitted to guide one out of many difficulties.--_adj._ MAS'TERLESS, without a master or owner: ungoverned: unsubdued: beyond control.--_n._ MAS'TERLINESS, quality of being masterly: masterly skill.--_adj._ MAS'TERLY, like a master: with the skill of a master: skilful: excellent: overbearing.--_adv._ with the skill of a master.--_ns._ MAS'TER-MAR'INER, the captain of a merchant-vessel or fishing-vessel; MAS'TER-M[=A]'SON, a freemason who has attained the third degree; MAS'TER-MIND; MAS'TER-PASS'ION; MAS'TERPIECE, a piece of work worthy of a master: a work of superior skill: chief excellence; MAS'TERSHIP, the office of master: rule or dominion: superiority; MAS'TERSTROKE, a stroke or performance worthy of a master: superior performance; MAS'TER-WHEEL, the wheel in a machine which imparts motion to other parts; MAS'TER-WORK, work worthy of a master: masterpiece; MAS'TERWORT, a perennial umbelliferous herb, native to northern Europe, its root reputed as a stomachic, sudorific, diuretic, &c.; MAS'TERY, the power or authority of a master: dominion: victory: superiority: the attainment of superior power or skill.--MASTER OF CEREMONIES, OF THE ROLLS, &c. (see CEREMONIES, ROLLS, &c.); MASTER OF THE HORSE, the Roman _Magister Equitum_, an official appointed by the dictator to act next under himself: an equerry, esp. the exalted official bearing this name at the British court; MASTER OF THE TEMPLE, the preacher of the Temple Church in London; MASTERS OF THE SCHOOLS, at Oxford, the conductors of the first examination (_Responsions_) for the degree of B.A.--MASTERLY INACTIVITY, the position or part of a neutral or a Fabian combatant, carried out with diplomatic skill, so as to preserve a predominant influence without risking anything.--PASSED, or PAST, MASTER, one who has occupied the office of master, esp. among freemasons--hence any one known to possess ample knowledge of some subject; THE LITTLE MASTERS, a 16th-17th cent. group of followers of Dürer, notable for fine work on wood and copper; THE OLD MASTERS, a term applied collectively to the great painters about the time of the Renaissance, esp. the Italians.--BE MASTER OF ONE'S SELF, to have one's passions or emotions under control. [O. Fr. _maistre_ (Fr. _maître_)--L. _magister_, from root of _magnus_, great.] MASTIC, MASTICH, mas'tik, _n._ a species of gum-resin from the lentisk-tree: a cement from mastic: the tree producing mastic. [Fr.,--L. _mastiche_--Gr. _mastich[=e]_--_mas-tizein_, to chew.] MASTICATE, mas'ti-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to chew: to grind with the teeth.--_adj._ MAS'TICABLE, that may be chewed.--_ns._ MASTIC[=A]'TION, act or process of chewing; MASTIC[=A]'TOR, a machine for cutting up meat for people unable to chew: a machine used in purifying india-rubber.--_adj._ MAS'TICATORY, chewing: adapted for chewing.--_n._ a substance chewed to increase the saliva. [L. _mastic[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_mastiche_, mastic.] MASTICOT. Same as MASSICOT. MASTIFF, mas'tif, _n._ a thick-set and powerful variety of dog much used as a watch-dog. [Skeat follows Scheler and Diez in explaining _mastiff_ as 'house-dog,' from an assumed O. Fr. _mastif_, prob. a variant of O. Fr. _mastin_ (Fr. _mâtin_)--Low L. _masnata_, a family--L. _mansion-em_, a house. Others explain as O. Fr. _mestif_ (Fr. _métif_), of mixed breed, mongrel, or O. Fr. _mestis_ (_métis_), mongrel, or even as the above O. Fr. mastin (Fr. mâtin), all, through Low L. forms, from L. _mixtus_, _mistus_, _misc[=e]re_, to mix.] MASTITIS, mas-t[=i]'tis, _n._ inflammation of the mammary gland.--_n._ MASTODYN'IA, pain in the breast.--_adj._ MAS'TOID, like a nipple or teat: denoting a part or process of the temporal bone.--_n._ MASTOL'OGY, mammology. [Gr. _mastos_, a nipple.] MASTODON, mas'to-don, _n._ a genus of extinct elephants, so named from the mamillary cusps or teat-like prominences on the molar teeth. [Gr. _mastos_, the breast, _odous_, _odontos_, a tooth.] MASTURBATION, mas-tur-b[=a]'shun, _n._ self-defilement, onanism.--_v.i._ MAS'TURBATE, to commit self-abuse.--_n._ MAS'TURBATOR, one guilty of this. [L. _masturb[=a]ri_.] MAT, mat, _n._ a texture of sedge, rushes, straw, &c. for cleaning the feet on: a web of rope-yarn: an ornamental border for a picture: a piece of cloth, &c. put below dishes on a table: anything like a mat in appearance, thick and closely set: any interwoven structure used as a revetment on river-banks, &c.: a sack of matting used to cover tea and coffee chests, such a sack containing a certain quantity of coffee: the closely-worked portion of lace: any annular pad to protect the head in bearing burdens.--_v.t._ to cover with mats: to interweave: to entangle:--_pr.p._ mat'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ mat'ted. [A.S. _meatta_--L. _matta_, a mat.] MAT, mat, _adj._ and _n._ having a dull or dead surface, without lustre: an instrument by means of which such is produced.--_v.t._ to produce such a surface on metal. [Ger. _matt_, dull.] MATADOR, MATADORE, mat-a-d[=o]r', _n._ the man who kills the bull in bull-fights: one of the three chief cards at ombre and quadrille. [Sp. _matador_--_matar_, to kill--L. _mact[=a]re_, to kill, to honour by sacrifice--_mactus_, honoured.] MATAFUNDA, mat-a-fun'da, _n._ an old military engine which slung stones. [Low L., prob. Sp. _matar_, to kill, L. _funda_, a sling.] [Illustration] MATCH, mach, _n._ a piece of inflammable material which easily takes or carries fire: a prepared rope for firing a gun, &c.: a lucifer.--_ns._ MATCH'-BOX, a box for holding matches; MATCH'LOCK, the lock of a musket containing a match for firing it: a musket so fired; MATCH'WOOD, wood cut down to a size suitable for making matches: wood broken into small pieces; QUICK'-MATCH, a match made of threads of cotton, and steeped in various inflammable substances so as to burn a yard in thirteen seconds; SAFE'TY-MATCH, a match which will only light when rubbed on a specially prepared surface; SLOW'-MATCH, a match made to burn at the rate of from four to five inches in an hour, for blasting, &c. [O. Fr. _mesche_ (Fr. _mèche_)--Low L. _myxus_--Gr. _myxa_, the snuff or wick of a lamp.] MATCH, mach, _n._ anything which agrees with or suits another thing: an equal: one able to cope with another: a contest or game: a pairing, a marriage: one to be gained in marriage.--_v.i._ to be of the same make, size, &c., to correspond: to form a union with.--_v.t._ to be equal to, to set a counterpart to anything: to be able to compete with: to find an equal to: to set against as equal: to suit: to give in marriage.--_adj._ MATCH'ABLE.--_ns._ MATCH'BOARD, a board with a tongue cut along one edge and a groove in the opposite edge, their joining being called a MATCH'-JOINT; MATCH'ER.--_adj._ MATCH'LESS, having no match or equal: superior to all: peerless: unpaired.--_adv._ MATCH'LESSLY.--_ns._ MATCH'LESSNESS; MATCH'-MAK'ER, one who makes matches: one who plans to bring about marriages. [A.S. _gemæca_, _gemaca_, a mate, a wife.] MATE, m[=a]t, _n._ a companion: an equal: one of a pair, the male or female of animals that go in pairs: in a merchant-ship the first-mate is the second in command--in the navy the term is now confined to petty-officers, such as _boatswain's mate_, _gunner's mate_, &c.: an assistant, deputy.--_v.t._ to be equal to: to become a companion to: to marry.--_adj._ MATE'LESS, without a mate or companion. [A.S. _ge-maca_; Ice. _maki_, an equal, from the same root as _make_. Cf. _match_. Prob. _mate_ in its naut. sense is Dutch--Old Dut. _maet_, mod. _maat_.] MATE, m[=a]t, _n._ and _v.t._ in chess=_Checkmate_. MATE, MATÉ, mä't[=a], _n._ a South American species of holly, the leaves and green shoots of which, dried and roughly ground, furnish the _yerba de mate_ of Paraguay and Brazil. [Sp. _mate_, orig. the vessel in which it was infused for drinking.] MATE, m[=a]t, _v.t._ (_Bacon_) to weaken, to confound, to crush. [O. Fr. _mater_; cf. Sp. _matar_, to weaken.] MATELASSE, mat-las'[=a], _adj._ and _n._ having a raised pattern on the surface as if quilted, of silks. [Fr. _matelas_, a mattress.] MATELOTE, mat'e-l[=o]t, _n._ fish stewed with wine-sauce, onions, &c. [Fr. _matelot_, a sailor.] MATEOLOGY, mat-[=e]-ol'o-ji, _n._ a foolish inquiry. [Gr. _mataios_, vain, _mat[=e]_, folly, _logia_, discourse.] MATER, m[=a]'t[.e]r, _n._ a mother: one of the two membranes of the brain, outer and inner, separated by the arachnoid--the _dura mater_, or _dura_, and _pia mater_, or _pia_.--M[=A]'TER DOLOR[=O]'SA, the Virgin Mary represented as the sorrowing mother; M[=A]TERFAMIL'IAS, the mother of a family. [L.,--Gr. _m[=e]t[=e]r_.] MATERIAL, ma-t[=e]'ri-al, _adj._ consisting of matter: corporeal, not spiritual: substantial: essential: important, esp. of legal importance: (_phil._) pertaining to matter and not to form, relating to the object as it exists.--_n._, esp. in _pl._, that out of which anything is to be made.--_n._ MATERIALIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ MAT[=E]'RIAL[=I]SE, to render material: to reduce to or regard as matter: to occupy with material interests.--_ns._ MAT[=E]'RIALISM, the doctrine that denies the independent existence of spirit, and maintains that there is but one substance--viz. matter--thus professing to find in matter (_monistic_ or _philosophical materialism_), or in material entities (_atomistic materialism_), or in material qualities and forces (scientific or physical materialism), a complete explanation of all life and existence whatsoever; MAT[=E]'RIALIST, one who holds the doctrine of materialism: one absorbed in material interests, who takes a low view of life and its responsibilities.--_adjs._ MATERIALIST'IC, -AL, pertaining to materialism.--_adv._ MAT[=E]'RIALLY.--_ns._ MAT[=E]'RIALNESS, MATERIAL'ITY.--MATERIAL BEING, existence in the form of matter; MATERIAL CAUSE, that which gives being to the thing; MATERIAL DISTINCTION, a distinction between individuals of the same species; MATERIAL EVIDENCE, evidence tending to prove or to disprove the matter under judgment; MATERIAL FALLACY, a fallacy in the matter or thought, rather than in the logical form; MATERIAL FORM, a form depending on matter; MATERIAL ISSUE (see ISSUE).--RAW MATERIAL, stuff as yet unworked into anything useful. [Fr.,--L. _materialis_--_materia_.] MATERIA MEDICA, ma-t[=e]'ri-a med'i-ka, _n._ the various substances used in making up medicines: the science of the nature and use of substances used as medicines. [L. _materia_, material, _medicus_, medical.] MATÉRIEL, ma-t[=a]-re-el', _n._ the totality of materials or instruments employed (as in an army), as distinguished from the _personnel_ or men--applied esp. to military stores, arms, baggage, horses, &c. [Fr.] MATERNAL, ma-t[.e]r'nal, _adj._ belonging to a mother: motherly.--_adv._ MATER'NALLY.--_n._ MATER'NITY, the state, character, or relation of a mother: motherhood: a lying-in hospital. [Fr. _maternel_ (It. _maternale_)--L. _maternus_--_mater_, mother.] MATH, math, _n._ a mowing. MATHEMATIC, -AL, math-e-mat'ik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to, or done by, mathematics: very accurate.--_adv._ MATHEMAT'ICALLY.--_ns._ MATHEMATIC'IAN, one versed in mathematics; MATHEMAT'ICS, the science of magnitude and number, and of all their relations--usually divided into _Pure_, and _Mixed_ or _Applied_, the first including all deductions from the abstract, self-evident relations of magnitude and number--the second, the results arrived at by applying the principles so established to certain relations found by observation to exist among the phenomena of nature.--HIGHER MATHEMATICS, a term applied generally to all the scientifically treated branches of mathematics. [Fr. _mathématique_--L. _mathematica_--Gr. _math[=e]matik[=e]_ (_epist[=e]m[=e]_, skill, knowledge), relating to learning--_math[=e]ma_--_manthanein_, to learn.] MATHESIS, ma-th[=e]'sis, _n._ mental discipline. [Gr.] MATICO, ma-t[=e]'ko, _n._ a Peruvian shrub, used in medicine as a styptic and astringent. MATIN, mat'in, _adj._ morning: used in the morning.--_n._ in _pl._ the daily morning service of the Church of England: one of the seven canonical hours, usually sung between midnight and daybreak.--_adj._ MAT'INAL.--_n._ MATINÉE (mat-i-n[=a]'), a musical entertainment or reception held in the day-time, usually in the afternoon: a woman's dress for wear in the forenoon or before dinner. [Fr.,--L. _matutinus_, belonging to the morning--_Matuta_, goddess of morning, prob. akin to _maturus_, early.] MATRASS, mat'ras, _n._ a chemical vessel with a tapering neck, a cucurbit. MATRIARCHY, m[=a]'tri-är-ki, _n._ government by a mother or by mothers, esp. a primitive order of society existing in many Indian tribes, in which the mother takes precedence of the father in tracing line of descent and in inheritance: descent in the female line.--_ns._ M[=A]'TRIARCH, a woman in whom matriarchy rests: a patriarch's wife.--_adj._ MATRIAR'CHAL.--_ns._ MATRIAR'CHALISM, the character of possessing matriarchal customs; MATRIAR'CHATE, the position of a matriarch. [Gr. _m[=e]t[=e]r_, mother, _archos_, a ruler.] MATRICE, m[=a]'tris, _n._ Same as MATRIX. MATRICIDE, mat'ri-s[=i]d, _n._ a murderer of one's own mother: the murder of one's own mother.--_adj._ MAT'RICIDAL [Fr.,--L. _matricida_, _matricidium_--_mater_, mother, _cæd[)e]re_, to kill.] MATRICULATE, ma-trik'[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to admit to membership by entering one's name in a register, esp. in a college.--_v.i._ to become a member of a college, university, &c., by being enrolled.--_n._ one admitted to membership in a society.--_n._ MATRICUL[=A]'TION, act of matriculating: state of being matriculated. [Late L. _matricula_, a register, dim. of _matrix_.] MATRIMONY, mat'ri-mun-i, _n._ union of husband and wife, marriage: state of marriage.--_adj._ MATRIM[=O]'NIAL, relating to, derived from, marriage.--_adj._ MATRIM[=O]'NIALLY. [O. Fr.,--L. _matrimonium_--_mater_.] MATRIX, m[=a]'triks, or mat'riks, _n._ (_anat._) the cavity in which an animal is formed before its birth, the womb: the cavity in which anything is formed, a mould: (_mining_) earthy or stony substances in which minerals are found embedded: (_dyeing_) the five simple colours (black, white, blue, red, and yellow) from which all the others are formed: (_math._) a rectangular array of quantities, usually square--a multiple quantity having as many dimensions as it has spaces:--_pl._ MATRICES (m[=a]'tri-sez or mat'ri-sez). [L. _matrix_, _-icis_--_mater_, mother.] MATRON, m[=a]'trun, _n._ an elderly married woman: an elderly lady of staid and sober habits: a head-nurse in a hospital, or a female superintendent in a school.--_ns._ M[=A]'TRONAGE, M[=A]'TRONHOOD, state of being a matron: a body of matrons.--_adj._ M[=A]'TRONAL, pertaining or suitable to a matron: motherly: grave.--_v.t._ M[=A]'TRONISE, to render matronly: to attend a lady to public places, as protector: to chaperon.--_adjs._ M[=A]'TRON-LIKE, M[=A]'TRONLY, like, becoming, or belonging to a matron: elderly: sedate.--_n._ MATRONYM'IC, a name derived from a mother or maternal ancestor--also _adj._ [Fr.,--L. _matrona_, a married lady--_mater_, mother.] MATROSS, ma-tros', _n._ formerly a soldier set to help the gunners in an artillery train. [Dut. _matroos_--Fr. _matelot_, a sailor.] MATTE, mat, _n._ a product of the smelting of sulphuretted ores.--Also _Regulus_ and _Coarse metal_. [Fr.,--Ger.] MATTER, mat'[.e]r, _n._ that which occupies space, and with which we become acquainted by our bodily senses: that out of which anything is made: that which receiving a form becomes a substance: the subject or thing treated of: anything engaging the attention: that with which one has to do: cause of a thing: thing of consequence: something requiring remedy or explanation: any special allegation in law: importance: a measure, &c., of indefinite amount: (_print._) material for work, type set up: mere dead substance, that which is thrown off by a living body, esp. pus, or the fluid in boils, tumours, and festering sores.--_v.i._ to be of importance: to signify: to form or discharge matter in a sore:--_pr.p._ matt'ering; _pa.p._ matt'ered.--_adjs._ MATT'ERFUL, full of matter, pithy; MATT'ERLESS; MATT'ER-OF-FACT, adhering to the matter of fact: not fanciful: dry; MATT'ERY, significant: purulent.--MATTER OF COURSE, occurring in natural time and order, as a thing to be expected; MATTER OF FACT, really happening and not fanciful or supposed: not wandering beyond realities. [O. Fr. _matiere_--L. _materia_, matter.] MATTING, mat'ing, _n._ a covering with mats: a texture like a mat, but larger: material for mats. MATTINS. Same as MATINS, _pl._ of MATIN. MATTOCK, mat'uk, _n._ a kind of pickaxe for loosening the soil, having the iron ends broad instead of pointed. [A.S. _mattuc_--W. _matog_.] MATTRESS, mat'res, _n._ a bed made of a bag stuffed with wool, horse-hair, &c.: a mass of brushwood, &c., used to form a foundation for roads, &c., or for the walls of embankments, &c.--SPRING MATTRESS, a mattress in which springs of twisted wire are used to support the stuffed part; WIRE MATTRESS, one whose elasticity is produced by a sheet of tightly-stretched wire. [O. Fr. _materas_ (Fr. _matelas_)--Ar. _matrah_, a place where anything is thrown.] MATURATE, mat'[=u]-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to make mature: (_med._) to promote the suppuration of.--_v.i._ (_med._) to suppurate perfectly.--_ns._ MAT'URANT, a maturative; MATUR[=A]'TION, a bringing or a coming to maturity: the process of suppurating fully.--_adj._ MAT[=U]'RATIVE, maturing or ripening: (_med._) promoting suppuration.--_n._ a medicine promoting suppuration. [L. _matur[=a]re_--_maturus_, ripe.] MATURE, ma-t[=u]r', _adj._ grown to its full size: perfected: ripe: (_med._) come to suppuration: fully digested, as a plan.--_v.t._ to ripen: to bring to perfection: to prepare for use.--_v.i._ to become ripe: to become payable, as a bill.--_adj._ MATUR'ABLE, capable of being matured.--_adv._ MATURE'LY.--_ns._ MATURE'NESS, state or quality of being ripe or ready for use; MATUR'ITY, ripeness: a state of completeness or readiness for use. [L. _maturus_, ripe.] MATURESCENT, mat-[=u]-res'ent, _adj._ becoming ripe: approaching maturity. [L. _maturesc[)e]re_, to become ripe--_maturus_.] MATUTINAL, mat-[=u]-t[=i]'nal, _adj._ pertaining to the morning: happening early in the day.--Also MAT'UTINE. [L. _matutinalis_, _matutinus_. See MATIN.] MAUD, mawd, _n._ a Scotch shepherd's woollen plaid. MAUDLIN, mawd'lin, _adj._ silly: sickly-sentimental: fuddled, half-drunk: (_obs._) tearful.--_n._ MAUD'LINISM, the tearful stage of drink. [Contr. from M. E. _Maudelein_, which comes through O. Fr. and L. from Gr. _Magdal[=e]n[=e]_, the orig. sense being 'tearful from penitence,' hence 'with eyes red and swollen with weeping,' like Mary Magdalene, erroneously identified with the penitent woman of Luke vii. 37.] MAUGRE, maw'g[.e]r, _prep._ in spite of.--_n._ (_obs._) ill-will: spite. [O. Fr. _malgré_--L._ male gratum_--_male,_ badly, _gratum_, agreeable.] MAUL, mawl, _v.t._ to beat with a mall or a heavy stick: to injure greatly by beating.--_n._ a heavy wooden hammer: a struggle for the ball in football, when it has been carried across the goal-line, but has not yet been touched down. [_Mall_.] MAULSTICK. See MAHL-STICK. MAUMET, MAMMET. Same as MAWMET. MAUND, mawnd, _n._ (_Shak_.) a basket. [A.S. _mand_.] MAUND, mawnd, _n._ a measure of weight in India, its value varying in different places from about 25 to about 85 pounds avoirdupois. [Hind. _m[=a]n_.] MAUNDER, mawn'd[.e]r, _v.i._ to beg: to whine like a beggar, to grumble: to mutter, to talk foolishly, to drivel.--_ns._ MAUN'DERER; MAUN'DERING, drivelling talk. [O. Fr. _mendier_, to beg--L. _mendic[=a]re_.] MAUNDRIL, mawn'dril, _n._ a pick with two prongs. MAUNDY, mawn'di, _n._ the religious ceremony of washing the feet of others, esp. of inferiors, in commemoration of Christ's washing His disciples' feet at the Last Supper--still practised in Austria by the emperor.--MAUNDY MONEY, the money given away on MAUNDY THURSDAY, the Thursday in Passion week, by the royal almoner, usually a penny for each year of the sovereign's reign--the small silver coins specially coined since 1662. [O. Fr. _mande_ (Fr. _mandé_)--L. _mand[=a]tum_, command, i.e. the 'new Commandment' of John, xiii. 34.] MAURIST, maw'rist, _n._ a member of the reformed Benedictine Congregation of St _Maur_, settled from 1618 at the abbey of St _Maur_-sur-Loire, near Saumur, notable for its great services to learning. MAUSER, mow'z[.e]r, _n._ a German magazine rifle, invented by Wilhelm _Mauser_ (1834-82). MAUSOLEUM, maw-so-l[=e]'um, _n._ a magnificent tomb or monument.--_adj._ MAUSOL[=E]'AN, pertaining to a mausoleum: monumental. [L.,--Gr., _Maus[=o]leion_, from _Mausolus_, king of Caria, to whom his widow, Artemisia, erected a splendid tomb about 350 B.C.] MAUTHER, mä'th[.e]r, _n._ an Eng. prov. form of mother. MAUVE, mawv, _n._ a beautiful purple dye extracted from coal-tar, so called from its likeness in colour to the flowers of the common mallow.--_adj._ of the colour of mauve. [Fr.,--L. _malva_, the mallow.] MAVERICK, mav'[.e]r-ik, _n._ (_U.S._) an animal found straying without an owner's brand, esp. a strayed calf: anything dishonestly obtained.--_v.t._ to seize without legal claim. [From Samuel _Maverick_, a Texas cattle-raiser.] MAVIS, m[=a]'vis, _n._ the song-thrush. [Fr. _mauvis_; prob. from Bret. _milfid_, a mavis.] MAVOURNEEN, ma-v[=oo]r'n[=e]n, _n._ and _interj._ a term of endearment=my dear one. [Ir.] MAW, maw, _n._ the stomach, esp. in the lower animals: the craw, in birds.--_ns._ MAW'-SEED, poppy-seed, so called when used as food for cage birds; MAW'-WORM, the thread-worm infesting the stomach. [A.S. _maga_; Ger. _magen_.] MAWKIN. Same as MALKIN (q.v.). MAWKISH, mawk'ish, _adj._ loathsome, disgusting, as anything beginning to breed mawks or maggots.--_n._ MAWK, a maggot.--_adv._ MAWK'ISHLY.--_n._ MAWK'ISHNESS. [Explained by Skeat as formed, with suffix _-ish_, from M. E. _mawk_, _mauk_, a contr. form of M. E. _maðek_, a maggot--Ice. _maðkr_, a maggot.] MAWMET, maw'met, _n_. a puppet: an idol--_Mohammed_. MAX, maks, _n_. a kind of gin. [L. _maximus_, greatest.] MAXILLARY, maks'il-ar-i, _adj_. pertaining to the jawbone or jaw.--_n_. a maxillary bone, or maxilla.--_n_. MAXILL'A, a jawbone.--_adjs_. MAXILLIF'EROUS; MAXILL'IFORM.--_n_. MAXILL'IPEDE, in crustacea, one of those limbs serving both for mastication and locomotion. [L. _maxilla_, jawbone.] MAXIM, maks'im, _n_. a general principle, serving as a rule or guide: a pithy saying: a proverb.--_adjs_. MAX'IMAL; MAX'IMED, reduced to a maxim.--_ns_. MAX'IMIST, MAX'IM-MONG'ER. [Fr.,--L. _maxima_ (_sententia_, an opinion), superl. of _magnus_, great.] MAXIM, maks'im, _n_. often put for MAX'IM-GUN, an automatic machine-gun capable of firing as many as 620 rounds per minute, and of accurate shooting up to 3000 yards. [From Hiram _Maxim_, the inventor.] MAXIMUM, maks'i-mum, _adj_. the greatest.--_n_. the greatest number, quantity, or degree: the highest point reached: (_math_.) the value of a variable when it ceases to increase and begins to decrease:--_pl_. MAX'IMA:--opp. to _Minimum_.--_adj_. MAX'IMAL, of the highest or maximum value.--_adv_. MAX'IMALLY.--_v.t._ MAX'IMISE, to raise to the highest degree. [L., superl. of _magnus_, great.] MAY, m[=a], _v.i._ to be able: to be allowed: to be free to act: to be possible: to be by chance: to be competent:--_pa.t._ might (m[=i]t).--_adv_. MAY'BE, perhaps, possibly.--_n_. a possibility.--_adv_. MAY'HAP, perhaps. [A.S. _mæg_, pr.t. of _mugan_, to be able, pa.t. _mihte_; cog. with Goth. _magan_, Ger. _mögen_.] MAY, m[=a], _n_. the fifth month of the year: the early or gay part of life.--_v.i._ to gather _May_ (prov. Eng. the blossom of the hawthorn, which blooms in May):--_pr.p._ May'ing.--_ns_. MAY'-BEE'TLE, MAY'-BUG, the cockchafer; MAY'-BLOOM, the hawthorn flower; MAY'DAY, the first day of May; MAY'-DEW, the dew of May, esp. that of the morning of the first day of May, which is said to whiten linen, and to enable a face washed with it to keep its beauty; MAY'-DUKE, a variety of sour cherry; MAY'-FLOW'ER, the hawthorn, which blooms in May; MAY'FLY, a short-lived fly which appears in May; MAY'-GAME, sport such as is usual on 1st May, frolic generally; MAY'ING, the observance of Mayday sports and games; MAY'-L[=A]'DY, the queen of the May; MAY'-LIL'Y, the lily of the valley, so called because it blooms in May; MAY'-MORN (_Shak_.), freshness, like that of a morning in May, vigour; MAY'POLE, a pole erected for dancing round on Mayday; MAY'-QUEEN, a young woman crowned with flowers as queen on Mayday; MAY'TIME, May, the season of May. [O. Fr. _Mai_--L. _Maius_ (_mensis_, a month), sacred to _Maia_, the mother of Mercury.] MAY, m[=a], _n_. a maid. [A.S. _m['æ]g_, a kinswoman.] MAYA, mä'ya, _n_. an illusive appearance, esp. of a celestial maiden personifying the active will of the creator of the universe. [Hind.] MAYHEM, m[=a]'hem, _n_. the offence of depriving a person by violence of any limb, member, or organ, or causing any mutilation of the body. [_Maim_.] MAYONNAISE, m[=a]-on-[=a]z', _n_. a sauce composed of the yoke of eggs, salad-oil, and vinegar or lemon-juice, seasoned: any cold dish of which the foregoing is an ingredient, as lobster. [Fr.] MAYOR, m[=a]'ur, _n_. the chief magistrate of a city or borough:--_fem_. MAY'ORESS.--_adj_. MAY'ORAL.--_ns_. MAY'ORALTY, MAY'ORSHIP, the office of a mayor. [Fr. _maire_--L. _major_, comp. of _magnus_, great.] MAZARD, MAZZARD, maz'ard, _n_. (_Shak_.) a head or skull: a wild European cherry. [Prob. from _mazer_, from the likeness of the skull to a goblet.] MAZARINADE, maz-a-rin-[=a]d', _n_. a pamphlet or satire against the French minister, Cardinal _Mazarin_ (1602-61).--_n_. MAZARINE', a rich blue colour: a blue gown.--MAZARIN BIBLE, the first printed Bible, printed by Gutenberg and Fust about 1450, so called because Cardinal _Mazarin_ possessed twenty-five copies. MAZDA, maz'da, _n_. or AHURA MAZDÂH, the supreme deity and creator of the Zend-Avesta.--_adj_. MAZ'D[=E]AN.--_n_. MAZ'D[=E]ISM, the religious system of the Zend-Avesta, the ancient sacred writings of the Parsees, Zoroastrianism. [Zend _ahu_=the living, life, or spirit, root _ah_=to be; _Mazdâh_, the great Creator, _maz_+_dâ_=Sans. _mahâ_+_dhâ_.] MAZE, m[=a]z, _n_. a place full of intricate windings: confusion of thought: perplexity.--_v.t._ to bewilder: to confuse.--_adjs_. MAZE'FUL (_Spens_.), MAZ'Y, full of mazes or windings: intricate.--_adv_. MAZ'ILY.--_n_. MAZ'INESS, state or quality of being mazy. [Scand., as in Ice. _masa_, to jabber.] MAZER, maz'[.e]r, _n_. (_Spens_.) a kind of hard wood, probably maple: a cup or goblet made of maple, and usually highly ornamented. [Skeat explains as Ice. _mösurr_, a maple-tree, lit. 'spot-wood.'] MAZOURKA, MAZURKA, ma-z[=oo]r'ka, _n_. a lively Polish round dance for four or eight couples: the music such as is played to it. ME, m[=e], _personal pron_. the objective case of I, including both the old English accusative and dative of the first personal pronoun. [A.S. _mé_.] MEACOCK, m[=e]'kok, _adj_. (_Shak_.) timorous, effeminate, cowardly. [Perh. dim. of _meek_.] MEAD, m[=e]d, _n_. honey and water fermented and flavoured. [A.S. _medu_; Ger. _meth_, W. _medd_.] MEADOW, med'[=o], _n_. a level tract producing grass to be mown down: a rich pasture-ground--(_poet_.) MEAD.--_ns_. MEAD'OW-FOX'TAIL (see FOXTAIL); MEAD'OW-GRASS, the larger and more useful kinds of grass, grown in meadows for hay and pasture; MEAD'OW-HAY, a coarse grass or sedge growing in moist places, used as fodder or bedding; MEAD'OW-LARK, the American field-lark; MEAD'OW-SAFF'RON, the colchicum--also _Autumn-crocus_, or _Naked lady;_ MEAD'OW-SWEET, MEAD'OW-WORT, an ornamental shrub or plant with white flowers, called also _Queen of the meadow.--adj_. MEAD'OWY. [A.S. _m['æ]d_--_máwan_, to mow; Ger. _mahd_, a mowing, Swiss _matt_, a meadow, as in Zer_matt_, &c.] MEAGRE, m[=e]'g[.e]r, _adj_. having little flesh: lean: poor: without richness or fertility: barren: scanty: without strength.--_adv_. MEA'GRELY.--_n_. MEA'GRENESS, state or quality of being meagre. [Fr. _maigre_--L. _macer_, lean; cf. Ger. _mager_.] MEAL, m[=e]l, _n_. the food taken at one time: the act or the time of taking food: a breakfast, dinner, or supper.--_ns_. MEAL'ER, one who takes his meals at a boarding-house, lodging elsewhere; MEAL'-TIME, the time for meals.--SQUARE MEAL, a full meal. [A.S. _m['æ]l_, time, portion of time; Dut. _maal_, Ger. _mahl_.] MEAL, m[=e]l, _n_. grain ground to powder.--_v.i._ to yield or be plentiful in meal.--_ns_. MEAL'-ARK (_Scot_.), a large chest for holding meal; MEAL'INESS; MEAL'-MAN, or MEAL'-MONG'ER, one who deals in meal; MEAL'-POCK, or -POKE, a beggar's meal-bag; MEAL'WORM, the larva of an insect abounding in granaries and flour-stores.--_adj_. MEAL'Y, resembling meal: covered with meal or with something like meal: whitish.--_n_. MEAL'Y-BUG, a small species of cochineal insect covered with a while powdery substance resembling meal or flour.--_adj_. MEAL'Y-MOUTHED, smooth-tongued.--_n_. MEAL'Y-MOUTHEDNESS. [A.S. _melu, melo;_ Ger. _mehl_, Dut. _meel_, meal.] MEALIE, m[=e]l'i, _n_. an ear of maize or Indian corn, esp. in _pl_., maize. MEAN, m[=e]n, _adj_. low in rank or birth: base: sordid: low in worth or estimation: of little value or importance: poor, humble: despicable.--_adj_. MEAN'-BORN, of humble origin.--_adv_. MEAN'LY.--_n._ MEAN'NESS, state or quality of being mean: want of nobility or excellence: a low action.--_adj_. MEAN'-SPIR'ITED, having a mean spirit, base.--_n_. MEAN'-SPIR'ITEDNESS. [A.S. _m['æ]ne_, wicked, from _mán_, wickedness; perh. conn. with A.S. _gem['æ]ne_, Ger. _gemein_, common.] MEAN, m[=e]n, _adj_. middle: coming between two others in size, degree, quantity, time, &c.: average: moderate.--_n_. the middle point, quantity, value, or degree: (_math_.) a term interpolated between two terms of a series, and consequently intermediate in magnitude: (_mus_.) a middle voice or voice-part, as the tenor or alto, the second or third string in a viol: instrument or medium: (_pl_.) that by which anything is caused or brought to pass: income: estate: instrument.--_n_. MEAN'-TIME, the interval between two given times.--_advs_. MEAN'TIME, MEAN'WHILE, in the intervening time.--MEANS OF GRACE, divine ordinances, by which divine grace reaches the hearts of men--word and sacraments.--ARITHMETICAL MEAN, the average obtained by adding several quantities together and dividing the sum by their number; HARMONIC MEAN, the reciprocal of the arithmetical mean of the reciprocals of the quantities concerned; GEOMETRIC MEAN, the mean obtained by multiplying two quantities together and extracting the square root of the product; GOLDEN MEAN, the middle course between two extremes: a wise moderation; QUADRATIC MEAN, the square root of the arithmetical mean of the squares of the given quantities.--BY ALL MEANS, certainly; BY ANY MEANS, in any way; BY NO MEANS, certainly not.--IN THE MEAN (_Spens_.), in the meantime. [O. Fr. _meien_ (Fr. _moyen_)--L. _medianus_, enlarged form of _medius_.] MEAN, m[=e]n, _v.t._ to have in the mind or thoughts: to intend, to purpose: to signify.--_v.i._ to have in the mind: to have meaning or disposition:--_pr.p._ mean'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ meant (ment).--_n_. MEAN'ING, that which is in the mind or thoughts: signification: the sense intended: purpose.--_adj_. significant.--_adj_. MEAN'INGLESS, without meaning.--_adv_. MEAN'INGLY. [A.S. _m['æ]nan_; Ger. _meinen_, to think.] MEAN, m[=e]n, _v.i._ (_Shak_.) to lament, to moan. MEANDER, m[=e]-an'd[.e]r, _n_. a winding course: a maze: an intricate variety of fretwork: perplexity.--_v.i._ to flow, run, or proceed in a winding course: to be intricate.--_v.t._ to wind or flow round.--_adjs._ MEAN'DERED, formed into mazy passages or patterns; MEAN'DERING, winding in a course; MEAN'DRIAN, MEAN'DROUS, winding.--_n_. a winding course. [L.,--Gr. _Maiandros_, a winding river in Asia Minor.] MEANT, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of mean (_v.t._). MEAR, m[=e]r, _n_. (_Spens_.) a boundary. [See MERE.] MEASE, m[=e]s, or m[=e]z, _n_. a tale of 500 herrings. MEASLES, m[=e]'zlz, _n.sing._ a contagious fever accompanied with eruptions of small red spots upon the skin: a disease of swine and cattle, caused by larval tapeworms: a disease of trees, the leaves being covered with spots.--_adjs_. MEA'SLED, MEA'SLY, infected with measles: good for nothing, miserable.--_n_. MEAS'LINESS.--GERMAN MEASLES, a name somewhat loosely used of a disease, resembling measles, but mostly less prolonged and severe. [Dut. _maselen_, measles, from Old Dut. _masche_, a spot, cog. with Old High Ger. _m[=a]s[=a]_, a spot; Ger. _masern_, measles.] MEASURE, mezh'[=u]r, _n_. that by which extent is ascertained or expressed: the size of anything: a rule or standard by which anything is adjusted (_Apothecaries'_, _Cubic_, _Decimal_, _Dry_, _Liquid_, &c.): (_politics_) a proposal or plan by which some end can be brought about: proportion: a stated quantity: degree: extent: moderation: means to an end: metre: (_mus_.) that division of time, containing a specified number of beats, by which the air and motion of music are regulated: rate of movement, time, rhythm, metre, arrangement of syllables in poetry: a slow and stately dance, as the minuet: (_print_.) the width of a page or column, usually in _ems_: (_pl_., _geol_.) a series of beds or strata.--_v.t._ to ascertain the dimensions of: to adjust by a rule or standard: to mark out: to allot: to show a certain measurement.--_v.i._ to be of a certain size: to be equal or uniform.--_adj_. MEAS'URABLE, that may be measured or computed: moderate: in small quantity or extent.--_n._ MEAS'URABLENESS, the quality of being measurable.--_adv._ MEAS'URABLY.--_adjs._ MEAS'URED, of a certain measure: equal: uniform: steady: restricted; MEAS'URELESS, boundless: immense.--_ns._ MEAS'UREMENT, the act of measuring: quantity found by measuring--(MEASUREMENT GOODS, light goods carried for charges according to bulk, not weight); MEAS'URER, one who, or that which, measures.--_adj._ MEAS'URING, that measures, or fitted for measuring.--MEASURE ONE'S LENGTH, to fall or be thrown down at full length; MEASURE STRENGTH, to engage in a contest; MEASURE SWORDS, to fight with swords: to try one's skill against.--ABOVE, or BEYOND, MEASURE, to an exceedingly great degree; IN A MEASURE, to some degree.--TAKE MEASURES, to adopt means (to gain an end); TAKE ONE'S MEASURE, to find out what one is, and what he can or cannot do; TREAD A MEASURE, to dance; USE HARD MEASURES, to apply harsh treatment to; WITHIN MEASURE, moderately; WITHOUT MEASURE, immoderately. [O. Fr. _mesure_--L. _mensura_, a measure--_met[=i]ri_, to measure.] MEAT, m[=e]t, _n._ anything eaten as food, the edible part of anything: act of taking meat: (_obs._) meal, flour: the flesh of animals used as food--sometimes beef, mutton, pork, veal, &c., as opposed to poultry, fish, &c.--_ns._ MEAT'-BIS'CUIT, a preparation of meat, made with meal into a biscuit; MEAT'INESS, quality of being meaty; MEAT'-OFF'ERING, a Jewish sacrificial offering of fine flour or first-fruits with oil and frankincense; MEAT'-PIE, a pie mainly made up of meat; MEAT'-SAFE, a receptacle for storing meat, walled with perforated zinc or gauze; MEAT'-SALES'MAN, one who sells meat, esp. to the retail butchers; MEAT'-TEA, a high tea, at which meat is served; MEAT'-TUB, a pickling-tub.--_adj._ MEAT'Y, full of meat: fleshy: pithy.--HANG MEAT, to hang up meat before cooking; SIT AT MEAT, to sit at table. [A.S. _mete_; Dut. _met_.] MEATH, MEATHE, m[=e]th, _n._ a form of _mead_, liquor. MEATUS, m[=e]-[=a]'tus, _n._ a passage or canal, as the urethral meatus.--_adj._ ME[=A]'TAL.--_n._ MEAT'OSCOPE, an instrument for examining the urethral or other meatus. [L. _me[=a]tus_--_me[=a]re_, to go.] MEAZEL, m[=e]'zl, _n._ (_Shak._) a leper. [_Measles_.] MECHANIC, -AL, me-kan'ik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to machines or mechanics: constructed according to the laws of mechanics: possessing mechanical talent: acting by physical power: done by a machine: pertaining to artisans: done simply by force of habit, slavish, artificial: vulgar.--_n._ MECHAN'IC, one engaged in a mechanical trade: an artisan--(_Shak._) MECHAN'ICAL.--_adv._ MECHAN'ICALLY.--_ns._ MECHANIC'IAN, MECH'ANIST, a machine-maker: one skilled in mechanics; MECHAN'ICS, the science which treats of machines: the science which treats of the nature of forces and of their action on bodies, either directly or by the agency of machinery.--_v.t._ MECH'ANISE, to make mechanical: to work out the details of a machine.--_ns._ MECH'ANISM, the construction of a machine: the arrangement and action of its parts, by which it produces a given result; MECH'ANOGRAPH, a copy, esp. of a work of art produced by a mechanical process on a machine.--_adj._ MECH'ANOGRAPHIC.--_ns._ MECHANOG'RAPHIST; MECHANOG'RAPHY, the art of multiplying copies of a writing or work of art by means of a machine; MECHANOL'OGY, a treatise on mechanics: the knowledge of such.--MECHANICAL EFFECT, work produced by the use of mechanical power; MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY, the principles of mechanics applied to solve questions or phenomena involving force; MECHANICAL POWERS, the elementary forms or parts of machines--three _primary_, the lever, inclined plane, and pulley; and three _secondary_, the wheel-and-axle, the wedge, and the screw.--MECHANICS' INSTITUTE, an institution for mechanics, with lectures, library, museum, &c. [O. Fr.,--L. _mechanicus_; Gr. _m[=e]chanikos_--_m[=e]chane_, a contrivance.] MECHLIN, meh'lin, _adj._ and _n._ produced at _Mechlin_ or Malines: lace made at Mechlin. MECONIC, me-kon'ik, _adj._ denoting an acid obtained from poppies.--_ns._ MEC'ONATE, a salt of meconic acid; MEC'ONINE, a white, fusible, neutral substance existing in opium; MEC[=O]'NIUM, the first fæces of a new-born child: opium. [Gr. _m[=e]k[=o]n_, the poppy.] MEDAL, med'al, _n._ a piece of metal in the form of a coin bearing some device or inscription, struck or cast: a reward of merit.--_v.t._ to decorate with a medal.--_n._ MED'ALET, a small medal, esp. the representation of saints, worn by Roman Catholics.--_adj._ MEDALL'IC, pertaining to medals.--_ns._ MEDALL'ION, a large medal: a bas-relief of a round (sometimes a square) form: a round ornament enclosing a portrait or lock of hair; MED'ALLIST, MED'ALIST, one skilled in medals: an engraver of medals: one who has gained a medal; MED'ALLURGY, the art of producing medals and coins. [O. Fr. _medaille_--It. _medaglia_; through a Low L. form _medalla_ or _medalia_, a small coin, from L. _metallum_, a metal.] MEDDLE, med'l, _v.i._ to interfere unnecessarily (_with_ or _in_): to take part in a matter with which one has nothing to do: to have to do (_with_).--_n._ MEDD'LER, one who interferes with matters in which he has no concern.--_adj._ MEDD'LESOME, given to meddling.--_n._ MEDD'LESOMENESS.--_adj._ MEDD'LING, interfering in the concerns of others: officious--also _n._ [O. Fr. _medler_, a corr. of _mesler_ (Fr. _mêler_)--Low L. _misculare_--L. _misc[=e]re_, to mix.] MEDIA. See MEDIUM. MEDIÆVAL, MEDIÆVALIST. See MEDIEVAL. MEDIAL, m[=e]'di-al, _adj._ lying between two extremes, median: of or pertaining to a mean or average.--_n._ one of the sonant-mute group, _g_, _d_, _b_, intermediate between the surd or smooth group (_c_, _t_, _p_) and the rough or aspirate group (_gh_, _dh_, _bh_, _kh_, _th_, _ph_). [Low L. _medialis_--L. _medius_, middle.] MEDIAN, m[=e]'di-an, _adj._ being in the middle, running through the middle: situated in the median plane, that dividing the body longitudinally into symmetrical halves.--_adv._ MED'IANLY.--_n._ MED'IANT (_mus._), the third tone of a diatonic scale. [L. _medianus_--_medius_, middle.] MEDIAN, m[=e]'di-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Media_ or the _Medes_, an ancient Aryan race which became fused with the Persians under the victorious Cyrus about 550 B.C.--_n._ MEDE, a member of this race. MEDIASTINUM, m[=e]-di-as-t[=i]'num, _n._ a membranous septum or cavity between two principal portions of an organ, esp. the folds of the pleura and the space between the right and left lungs.--_adj._ MEDIAST[=I]'NAL. [L., _medius_.] MEDIATE, m[=e]'di-[=a]t, _adj._ middle: between two extremes: acting by or as a means: not direct and independent: dependent on some intervening thing.--_v.i._ to interpose between parties as a friend of each: to intercede: to hold a mediate position: to act as a spiritualistic medium.--_v.t._ to bring about by mediation: to effect a relation between two things.--_n._ M[=E]'DIACY.--_adv._ M[=E]'DIATELY.--_ns._ M[=E]'DIATENESS, state of being mediate; MEDI[=A]'TION, the act of mediating or coming between: entreaty for another; MEDIATIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ M[=E]'DIAT[=I]SE, to cause to act in a subordinate position or through an agent: to annex, or to subordinate, as a smaller state to a larger neighbouring one.--_adj._ M[=E]'DIATIVE.--_n._ M[=E]'DIATOR, one who mediates between parties at strife:--_fem._ MEDIAT'RESS, M[=E]'DIATRIX.--_adj._ MEDIAT[=O]'RIAL, belonging to a mediator or intercessor.--_adv._ MEDIAT[=O]'RIALLY.--_n._ MEDIAT'ORSHIP, the office of a mediator.--_adj._ M[=E]'DIATORY. [Low L. _medi[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--L. _medius_.] MEDIC, med'ik, _n._ one of several plants of the genus _Medicago_, esp. the purple medic or lucerne--leguminous plants, with leaves like those of clover.--Also MED'ICK. [L. _medica_--Gr. _m[=e]dik[=e]_ (_poa_), 'median' (grass).] MEDICAL, med'i-kal, _adj._ relating to the art of healing diseases: containing that which heals: intended to promote the study of medicine.--_adv._ MED'ICALLY.--MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE (see JURISPRUDENCE). [Fr.,--Low L. _medicalis_--L. _medicus_, pertaining to healing, a physician--_med[=e]ri_, to heal.] MEDICATE, med'i-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to treat with medicine: to impregnate with anything medicinal.--_adj._ MED'ICABLE, that may be healed.--_n._ MED'ICAMENT, anything used for healing: a medicine: healing power.--_adj._ MEDICAMEN'TAL.--_n._ MED'ICASTER, an ignorant physician.--_adj._ MED'ICATED, mixed with medicine: made medicinal: treated with medicine.--_n._ MEDIC[=A]'TION, the act or process of medicating or of mixing with medicinal substances: the use of medicine.--_adj._ MED'ICATIVE, having the power of healing: tending to heal.--_n._ MEDIC[=A]'TOR, any medical appliance. [L. _medic[=a]re_, to heal--_medicus_.] MEDICEAN, med-i-s[=e]'an, _adj._ relating to the _Medici_, a distinguished Florentine family which attained to sovereign power in the 15th century, and became extinct in 1737. MEDICINE, med'i-sin, or med'sin, _n._ anything applied for the cure or lessening of disease or pain, whether simple or compound (made up of more than one ingredient): the science which treats of the prevention or cure of disease: a charm.--_v.t._ to treat or cure by medicine.--_adj._ MEDIC'INAL, relating to medicine: fitted to cure or to lessen disease or pain.--_adv._ MEDIC'INALLY.--_ns._ MED'ICINE-BAG, a Red Indian's receptacle for charms; MED'ICINE-CHEST, a chest for keeping medicines in a ship, &c.; MED'ICINE-MAN, among savages, a witch-doctor or exorciser.--_adjs._ MED'ICO-CHIRUR'GICAL, relating to both medicine and surgery; MED'ICO-L[=E]'GAL, relating to the application of medicine to questions of law. [Fr.,--L. _medicina_--_medicus_.] MEDIEVAL, MEDIÆVAL, m[=e]-di-[=e]'val, _adj._ relating to the Middle Ages.--_ns._ MEDI[=E]'VALISM, the spirit of the Middle Ages, devotion to medieval ideals; MEDI[=E]'VALIST, MEDIÆ'VALIST, one versed in the history of the Middle Ages.--MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE, MEDIEVAL ART, the style of architecture and art used in public buildings in Europe from the 4th to the 16th century. [L. _medius_, middle, _ævum_, age.] MEDIO-, MEDI-, middle, in compounds like _mediocarpal_, _mediodorsal_, _mediotarsal_, _medioventral_. [L. _medius_, middle.] MEDIOCRE, m[=e]'di-[=o]-k[.e]r, _adj._ of middling extent or quality: moderate.--_n._ MEDIOC'RITY, a middle state or condition: a moderate degree: a person of little power or importance. [Fr.,--L. _mediocris_--_medius_, middle.] MEDISM, m[=e]d'izm, _n._ the adoption of Persian interests--to a Greek, a treachery to his country. MEDITATE, med'i-t[=a]t, _v.i._ to consider thoughtfully: to purpose (with on, upon).--_v.t._ to think on: to revolve in the mind: to intend.--_adj._ MED'ITATED, thought of: planned.--_n._ MEDIT[=A]'TION, the act of meditating: deep thought: serious contemplation: the direction of the thoughts of others, in a discourse, &c.: a literary or musical theme treated in a meditative manner.--_adj._ MED'ITATIVE, given to meditation: expressing design.--_adv._ MED'ITATIVELY.--_n._ MED'ITATIVENESS. [L. _medit[=a]ri_, prob. cog. with L. _med[=e]ri_, to heal.] MEDITERRANEAN, med-i-t[.e]r-r[=a]'ne-an, _adj._ situated in the middle of earth or land: inland--also MEDITERR[=A]'NEOUS.--MEDITERRANEAN SEA, so called from being, as it were, in the middle of the land of the Old World. [L., _medius_, middle, _terra_, earth.] MEDIUM, m[=e]'di-um, _n._ the middle: the middle place or degree: any intervening means, instrument, or agency: the substance in which bodies exist, or through which they move: in spiritualism, the person through whom spirits are said to make themselves seen or heard:--_pl._ M[=E]'DIUMS, or M[=E]'DIA.--_adjs._ M[=E]'DIUM, mediocre; MEDIUMIS'TIC, of or pertaining to spiritualistic mediums.--CIRCULATING MEDIUM, money passing from hand to hand, as coin, bank-notes, &c. [L.] MEDIUS, m[=e]'di-us, _n._ the middle finger of the hand. MEDJIDIE, me-jid'i-e, _n._ a Turkish order of knighthood instituted in 1852, having five classes. [Turk. _mej[=i]d_, glorious.] MEDLAR, med'lar, _n._ a small tree of the rose family, or its fruit. [O. Fr. _meslier_, a medlar-tree--L. _mespilum_--Gr. _mespilon_.] MEDLEY, med'li, _n._ a mingled and confused mass: a miscellany: a song or piece of music made up of bits from various sources continuously: a cloth woven from yarn of different colours: (_obs._) a mêlée, fight. [O. Fr. _medler_, _mesler_, to mix.] MÉDOC, me-dok', _n._ a French wine produced in the district of _Médoc_, department of Gironde. MEDORRHEA, m[=e]-dor-[=e]'a, _n._ mucous discharge from the genitals. [Gr. _m[=e]dos_, bladder, _rhoia_, a flowing.] MEDULLA, me-dul'a, _n._ the inner portion of an organ or part, as the pith of a hair, spinal cord, or its continuation within the cranium, (_medulla oblongata_): the pith of a plant, the thallus in lichens, &c.--_adjs._ MEDULL'AR, -Y, consisting of, or resembling, marrow or pith; MED'ULLATED, provided with a medullary sheath.--_n._ MEDULL'IN, the cellulose in the medulla of plants like the lilac.--_adj._ MED'ULLOSE, like pith.--MEDULLARY RAYS, the bands of cells in various trees extending across the wood from the pith to the bark; MEDULLARY SHEATH (_bot._), a thin layer surrounding the pith. [L. _medulla_, marrow.] MEDUSA, me-d[=u]'sa, _n._ one of the three Gorgons, whose head, cut off by Perseus, and placed in the ægis of Minerva, had the power of turning those who looked on it into stone: the name given to the common kinds of jelly-fishes, prob. from the likeness of their tentacles to the snakes on Medusa's head:--_pl._ MED[=U]'SÆ, a division of hydrozoans.--_adjs._ MED[=U]'SIFORM, MED[=U]'SOID--also _ns._ [Gr., 'ruler,' fem.] MEED, m[=e]d, _n._ wages: reward: what is bestowed for merit. [A.S. _méd_, _meord_; Ger. _miethe_.] MEEK, m[=e]k, _adj._ mild and gentle of temper: submissive.--_adv._ MEEK'LY.--_n._ MEEK'NESS, state or quality of being meek. [Ice. _mjúkr_; Dut. _muik_.] MEER, m[=e]r, _n._ a form of _mere_. MEERSCHAUM, m[=e]r'shawm, _n._ a fine light whitish clay making excellent tobacco-pipes--once supposed to be a petrified sea-scum: a pipe made of this material. [Ger. _meer_, sea, _schaum_, foam.] MEET, m[=e]t, _adj._ fitting: qualified.--_adv._ MEET'LY.--_n._ MEET'NESS. [A.S. _ge-met_--_metan_, to measure.] MEET, m[=e]t, _v.t._ to come face to face: to encounter in conflict: to find or experience; to refute: be suitable to: satisfy, as by payment: to receive as a welcome.--_v.i._ to come together from different points: to assemble: to have an encounter: to balance or come out correct:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ met.--_n._ a meeting, as of huntsmen.--_ns._ MEET'ING, a coming face to face for friendly or hostile ends: an interview: an assembly: a crossing of two roads: a junction of two rivers; MEET'ING-HOUSE, a house or building where people, esp. Dissenters, meet for public worship; RACE'-MEET'ING, a stated occasion for horse-racing.--MEET HALF-WAY, to make mutual concessions; MEET THE EAR, or EYE, to be told, or shown, anything distinctly: to be readily apparent; MEET WITH, to come to or upon, esp. unexpectedly: (_Bacon_) to obviate (as an objection).--WELL MET, an old complimentary greeting. [A.S. _métan_, to meet--_mót_, _ge-mót_, a meeting.] MEGACEPHALOUS, meg-a-sef'a-lus, _adj._ large-headed. MEGAFARAD, meg'a-far-ad, _n._ in electrometry, a unit equal to a million farads. MEGALICHTHYS, meg-a-lik'this, _n._ a genus of extinct ganoid fishes. [Gr. _megas_, _megal[=e]_, great, _ichthys_, a fish.] MEGALITH, meg'a-lith, _n._ a huge stone.--_adj._ MEGALITH'IC. [Gr. _megas_, great, _lithos_, a stone.] MEGALOMANIA, meg-a-l[=o]-m[=a]'ni-a, _n._ the delusion that one is great or powerful. [Gr. _megas_, great, _mania_.] MEGALOSAURUS, meg-a-l[=o]-saw'rus, _n._ a gigantic extinct reptile of carnivorous habits.--_adj._ MEGALOSAU'RIAN. [Gr. _megas_, _megal[=e]_, great, _sauros_, a lizard.] MEGAPHONE, meg'a-f[=o]n, _n._ an appliance for making words audible--a form of speaking-trumpet. MEGAPODIDÆ, meg-a-pod'i-d[=e], _n._ mound-birds (q.v.). MEGASCOPE, meg'a-sk[=o]p, _n._ a form of solar microscope for throwing enlarged images on a screen: (_phot._) an enlarging camera. MEGATHERIUM, meg-a-th[=e]'ri-um, _n._ a gigantic extinct quadruped of the order _Edentata_, found in the pampas of South America. [Gr. _megas_, great, _th[=e]rion_, wild beast.] MEGILP, me-gilp'. See MAGILP. MEGOHM, meg'[=o]m, _n._ a unit of electrical resistance, equal to one million ohms. [Gr. _megas_, great, and _ohm_.] MEGRIM, m[=e]'grim, _n._ a pain affecting only one half of the head or face: lowness of spirits: a sudden sickness of a horse at work. [Fr. _migraine_--Gr. _h[=e]micrania_--_h[=e]mi_, half, _kranion_, skull.] MEINY, m[=e]'ni, _n._ (_Shak._) a retinue or company of servants attending upon a person of high rank. [O. Fr. _mesnie_, a company, through Low L. forms, from L. _mansio_, a dwelling.] MEIOCENE. Same as MIOCENE. MEIOSIS, m[=i]-[=o]'sis, _n._ (_rhet._) a figure of speech representing a thing as less than it is. [Gr.] MEISTERSINGER, m[=i]s't[.e]r-sing'[.e]r, _n._ one of the burgher poets and musicians of Germany in the 14th-16th centuries, the successors of the Minnesingers. [Ger.] MELAMPODE, mel-am'p[=o]d, _n._ (_Spens._) the black hellebore. [Gr.] MELANÆMIA, mel-a-n[=e]'mi-a, _n._ a morbid condition of the blood in which the vessels contain an unusual quantity of dark colouring matter. MELANCHOLY, mel'an-kol-i, _n._ continued depression of spirits: dejection: a gloomy state of mind causing groundless fears: (_Milt._) pensiveness.--_adj._ gloomy: producing grief.--_n._ MELANCH[=O]'LIA, a form of insanity, in which there is continued depression or pain of mind.--_adjs._ MELANCHOL'IC, MELANCH[=O]'LIOUS, affected with, or caused by, melancholy: dejected: mournful. [Through Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _melancholia_--_melan_, black, _chol[=e]_, bile.] MELANGE, m[=a]-longzh', _n._ a mixture: a medley. [Fr.] MELANIC, me-lan'ik, _adj._ black.--_n._ MEL'ANISM, an undue development of colouring matter in the skin and its appendages.--_adj._ MELANIS'TIC.--_n._ MEL'ANITE, a deep-black variety of garnet.--_adjs._ MELANOCHR[=O]'IC, MELANOCH'R[=O]OUS, dark-coloured; MEL'ANOID, dark-looking.--_n._ MELAN[=O]'SIS, an abnormal deposition of pigmentary matter in such organs as the spleen, liver, &c.: the condition of the system associated with such, black degeneration.--_adjs._ MELANOT'IC; MEL'ANOUS, dark-complexioned.--_n._ MELAN[=U]'RIA, the presence of a dark pigment in the urine.--_adj._ MELAN[=U]'RIC.--_ns._ MEL'APHYRE, a pre-Tertiary basalt, usually altered; MELAS'MA, a skin disease showing dark discolouration in spots. MÊLÉE, m[=a]-l[=a]', _n._ a fight in which the combatants are mingled together: a confused conflict: an affray. [Fr.,--_mêler_, to mix.] MELIBEAN, MELIBOEAN, mel-i-b[=e]'an, _adj._ in poetry, alternately responsive--from the name of a shepherd in Virgil's first eclogue. MELIC, mel'ik, _adj._ pertaining to song. MELILOT, mel'i-lot, _n._ a genus of clover-like plants with white or yellow flowers and a peculiar sweet odour. [Gr. _melil[=o]tos_--_meli_, honey, _l[=o]tos_, lotus.] MELINITE, m[=a]'lin-[=i]t, _n._ an explosive of great force obtained from picric acid. [Fr.] MELIORATE, m[=e]'lyo-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to make better.--_v.i._ to grow better.--_ns._ MELIOR[=A]'TION, the act of making or becoming better; MELIOR[=A]'TOR, an improver; M[=E]'LIORISM, the doctrine that the world is capable of improvement, as opposed to _Optimism_ and _Pessimism_; M[=E]'LIORIST, one who holds this doctrine; MELIOR'ITY, the state of being better: betterness. [L. _melior[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to make better.] MELIPHAGOUS, mel-if'a-gus, _adj._ feeding upon honey. [Gr. _meli_, honey, _phagein_, to eat.] MELL, mel, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to mingle: to be concerned with: to meddle. [_Meddle_.] MELLAY, mel'[=a], _n._ another form of _mêlée_. MELLIFEROUS, mel-if'[.e]r-us, _adj._ honey-producing.--_adj._ MELLIF'IC, honey-making.--_ns._ MELLIFIC[=A]'TION, the production of honey; MELLIF'LUENCE, a flow of sweetness: a smooth sweet flow.--_adjs._ MELLIF'LUENT, MELLIF'LUOUS, flowing with honey or sweetness: smooth.--_advs._ MELLIF'LUENTLY, MELLIF'LUOUSLY.--_adj._ MELLIG'ENOUS, producing honey.--_n._ MELL'ITE, honey stone.--_adjs._ MELLIT'IC; MELLIV'OROUS, eating honey. [L. _mellifer_--_mel_, honey, _ferre_, to bear.] MELLOW, mel'[=o], _adj._ soft and ripe: well matured: soft to the touch, palate, ear, &c.: genial: half-tipsy.--_v.t._ to soften by ripeness or age: to mature.--_v.i._ to become soft: to be matured.--_adv._ MELL'OWLY.--_n._ MELL'OWNESS, softness: maturity.--_adj._ MELL'OWY, soft: friable. [A.S. _mearu_, soft; Dut. _murw_, _mollig_, L. _mollis_, Gr. _malakos_.] MELOCOTON, mel'[=o]-kot-on, _n._ (_Bacon_) a quince: a large kind of peach.--Also MEL'OCOTOON. [Late L. _melum cotoneum_ (a corr. of _Cydonium_), a quince, lit. apple of _Cydonia_, in Crete.] MELODRAMA, mel-o-dram'a, _n._ a kind of romantic and sensational drama, formerly largely intermixed with songs--also MEL'ODRAME.--_adj._ MELODRAMAT'IC, of the nature of melodrama: overstrained: sensational.--_n._ MELODRAM'ATIST, a writer of melodramas. [Gr. _melos_, a song, _drama_, a play.] MELODY, mel'o-di, _n._ an air or tune: music: an agreeable succession of single musical sounds, as distinguished from _harmony_ or the concord of a succession of simultaneous sounds.--_n._ MEL[=O]'DEON, a small reed organ: an improved variety of the accordeon.--_adj._ MELOD'IC--_n.pl._ MELOD'ICS, the branch of music concerned with melody.--_adj._ MEL[=O]'DIOUS, full of melody: agreeable to the ear.--_adv._ MEL[=O]'DIOUSLY.--_n._ MEL[=O]'DIOUSNESS.--_v.t._ MEL'ODISE, to make melodious: to reduce to the form of a melody.--_v.i._ to compose or sing melodies.--_n._ MEL'ODIST. [Fr.,--Late L.--Gr. _mel[=o]dia_--_melos_, a song, _[=o]d[=e]_, a lay.] MELON, mel'un, _n._ a kind of cucumber and its fruit, which in shape resembles an apple. [Fr.,--L. _melo_, _-onis_--Gr. _m[=e]lon_, an apple.] MELPOMENE, mel-pom'e-ne, _n._ the Muse of tragedy. [Gr. _melpom[)e]n[=e]_, songstress.] MELROSE, mel'r[=o]z, _n._ honey of roses. MELT, melt, _v.t._ to make liquid, to dissolve: to soften: to waste away.--_v.i._ to become liquid: to dissolve: to become tender or mild: to lose distinct form: to be discouraged:--_pa.p._ melted, or molten.--_n._ MELT'ING, the act of making liquid or of dissolving: the act of softening or rendering tender.--_adv._ MELT'INGLY.--_n._ MELT'ING-POT, a crucible. [A.S. _meltan_; Ice. _melta_, Gr. _meldein_.] MELTON, mel'ton, _n._ a strong cloth for men's wear, the surface without nap, neither pressed nor finished. MEMBER, mem'b[.e]r, _n._ an integral part of a whole, esp. a limb of an animal: a clause: one of a society: a representative in a legislative body.--_adj._ MEM'BERED, having limbs.--_n._ MEM'BERSHIP, the state of being a member or one of a society: the members of a body regarded as a whole.--_adj._ MEM'BRAL, pertaining to the limbs rather than the trunk. MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT, a member of the House of Commons, M.P. [Fr. _membre_--L. _membrum_.] MEMBRANE, mem'br[=a]n, _n._ (_anat._) one of the thin textures which cover the organs or line the cavities or canals of the body: the film containing the seeds of a plant.--_adjs._ MEMBRAN'EOUS, MEM'BRANOUS, MEMBRAN[=A]'CEOUS, relating to, consisting of, or like a membrane; MEMBRANIF'EROUS; MEM'BRANIFORM.--MUCOUS MEMBRANE, the membrane lining the various channels of the body which communicate with the outside. [Fr.,--L. _membrana_--_membrum_.] MEMENTO, me-men't[=o], _n._ something to awaken memory: a reminder of what is past or of what is yet to come:--_pl._ MEMEN'TOS.--MEMENTO MORI, remember death: an ornament by its form reminding one of death. [L., imper. of _meminisse_, to remember.] MEMNON, mem'non, _n._ a hero who fought for Troy against the Greeks: a statue at Thebes in Egypt which gave out a musical sound at sunrise. [Gr.] MEMOIR, mem'wor, or me-moir', _n._ a sketch or description of something as remembered by the writer: a short biographical sketch of some one now dead: a record of facts personally found out on any subject: the transactions of a society.--_ns._ MEM'OIRISM, the act or art of writing memoirs; MEM'OIRIST, a writer of memoirs. [Fr. _mémoire_--L. _memoria_, memory--_memor_, mindful.] MEMORY, mem'o-ri, _n._ the power of retaining and reproducing mental or sensory impressions: a having or keeping in the mind: time within which past things can be remembered: that which is remembered: commemoration: remembrance.--_n.pl._ MEMORABIL'IA, things worth remembering: noteworthy points.--_adj._ MEM'ORABLE, deserving to be remembered: remarkable.--_adv._ MEM'ORABLY.--_n._ MEMORAN'DUM, something to be remembered: a note to assist the memory: (_law_) a brief note of some transaction: (_diplomacy_) a summary of the state of a _question_:--_pl._ MEMORAN'DUMS, MEMORAN'DA.--_adjs._ MEM'OR[=A]TIVE, pertaining to memory: aiding the memory; MEM[=O]'RIAL, bringing to memory: contained in memory.--_n._ that which serves to keep in remembrance: a monument: a note to help the memory: a written statement forming the ground of a petition, laid before a legislative or other body: (_B._) memory.--_v.t._ MEM[=O]'RIALISE, to present a memorial to: to petition by a memorial.--_n._ MEM[=O]'RIALIST, one who writes, signs, or presents a memorial.--_v.t._ MEM'ORISE, to commit to memory: (_Shak._) to cause to be remembered.--_adv._ MEMOR'ITER, from memory: by heart. MEMPHIAN, mem'fi-an, _adj._ relating to _Memphis_, an ancient capital of Egypt.--Also MEM'PHITE, MEMPHIT'IC. MEN, plural of _man_. MENACE, men'[=a]s, _v.t._ to threaten.--_v.i._ to act in a threatening manner.--_n._ a threat or threatening: a show of an intention to do harm.--_adj._ MEN'ACING, overhanging: threatening.--_adv._ MEN'ACINGLY. [Fr.,--L. _minaciæ_, threats--_minæ_, the overhanging points of a wall.] MENAGE, obsolete form of _manage_. MENAGE, me-nazh', _n._ a household: the management of a house: a club of working-men. [Fr. through Late L.,--L. _mansio_, _-onis_, a dwelling.] MENAGERIE, men-aj'[.e]r-i, _n._ a place for keeping wild animals for exhibition: a collection of such animals.--Also MENAG'ERY. [Fr., from _ménage_.] MENAGOGUE, men'a-gog, _n._ a medicine that promotes the menstrual flux. MEND, mend, _v.t._ to remove a fault: to repair, as something broken or worn: to make better: to correct, improve.--_v.i._ to grow better.--_ns._ MEND'ER, one who mends; MEND'ING, the act of repairing: things requiring to be mended. [Short for _amend_.] MENDACIOUS, men-d[=a]'shus, _adj._ given to lying: speaking falsely: of the nature of a lie.--_adv._ MEND[=A]'CIOUSLY.--_n._ MENDAC'ITY, a tendency to lying: a habit of lying: falsehood. [L. _mendax_, _-acis_, conn. with _ment[=i]ri_, to lie.] MENDICANT, men'di-kant, _adj._ in the condition of a beggar: practising beggary.--_n._ one who is in extreme want: a beggar: a member of one of the R.C. orders who live by begging: a begging friar.--_ns._ MEN'DICANCY, MENDIC'ITY, the state of being a mendicant or beggar: the life of a beggar.--MENDICANT ORDERS, religious bodies who depended on begging for their support. [L. _mendicans_, _-antis_, pr.p. of _mendic[=a]re_, to beg--_mendicus_, a beggar.] MENDS, mendz, for _amends_. MENHADEN, men-h[=a]'dn, _n._ a species of herring or shad, found off the east coast of the United States. MENHIR, men'h[=e]r, _n._ a tall, often massive, stone, set up on end as a monument in ancient times, either singly or in groups, circles, &c. [W. _maen_, a stone, _hir_, long.] MENIAL, m[=e]'ni-al, _adj._ of or pertaining to a train of servants: doing servile work: low.--_n._ a domestic servant: one performing servile work: a person of servile disposition. [O. Fr., _mesnee_, a household. See MANSION.] MENINX, m[=e]'ningks, _n._ one of three membranes that envelop the brain:--_pl._ MENINIGES (men-in'j[=e]z).--_adj._ MENING'EAL.--_ns._ MENINGITIS (-j[=i]'-), inflammation of the membranes investing the brain or spinal cord; MENING'OCELE, hernia of those membranes. [Gr. _meninx_, _meningos_, a membrane.] MENISCUS, m[=e]-nis'kus, _n._ a crescent or a new moon: a lens hollow on one side and bulging on the other.--_adjs._ MENIS'CAL; MENIS'CATE; MENIS'CIFORM; MENIS'COID. [Gr. _m[=e]n[=e]_, the moon, _-iskos_, small.] MENNONITE, men'on-[=i]t, _n._ one of a Protestant sect, combining some of the distinctive characteristics of the Baptists and Friends. [From _Menno_ Simons (died 1559), their chief founder.] MENOLOGY, m[=e]-nol'o-ji, _n._ a register of months: a list or calendar of martyrs, with festivals celebrated, &c. MENOPOME, men'o-p[=o]m, _n._ a large North American amphibian--from its persistent gill-aperture. [Gr. _menein_, to remain, _p[=o]ma_, lid.] MENSAL, men'sal, _adj._ occurring once in a month: monthly.--Also MEN'SUAL. MENSAL, men'sal, _adj._ belonging to the table. [L.] MENSE, mens, _n._ (_Scot._) propriety: ornament: credit.--_v.t._ to grace or set off something.--_adjs._ MENSE'FUL, decorous: respectable; MENSE'LESS, graceless, uncivil. [M. E. _mensk_--A.S. _mennisc_, mannish.] MENSES, men's[=e]z, _n.pl._ the monthly discharge from the uterus.--_ns._ MEN'OPAUSE, the final cessation of the menses; MENORRH[=A]'GIA (_phys._), the ordinary flow of the menses: (_path._) an immoderate menstrual discharge.--_adj._ MENORRHAG'IC.--_n._ MENOS'TASIS, the retention of the menses.--_n.pl._ MEN'STRUA, the menses.--_adjs._ MEN'STRUAL, monthly; MEN'STRUANT, subject to menses.--_v.i._ MEN'STRU[=A]TE, to discharge the menses.--_n._ MENSTRU[=A]'TION.--_adj._ MEN'STRUOUS, having or belonging to menses. [Pl. of L. _mensis_, a month.] MENSTRUUM, men'str[=oo]-um, _n._ any fluid substance which dissolves a solid body. MENSURABLE, mens'[=u]-ra-bl, _adj._ that can be measured: measurable.--_n._ MENSURABIL'ITY, quality of being mensurable.--_adj._ MENS'URAL, pertaining to measure.--_n._ MENSUR[=A]'TION, the act or art of finding by measurement and calculation the length, area, volume, &c. of bodies.--_adj._ MENSUR[=A]'TIVE. [L. _mensur[=a]re_, to measure.] MENT, ment (_obs._), _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _ming_, to mix. MENTAL, men'tal, _adj._ pertaining to the mind: done in the mind.--_ns._ MENTAL'ITY, MENT[=A]'TION.--_adv._ MEN'TALLY.--_adjs._ MENTICUL'TURAL, improving the mind; MENTIF'EROUS, conveying thought, telepathic.--MENTAL ALIENATION, insanity; MENTAL ARITHMETIC, arithmetic performed without the help of written figures. [Fr.,--L. _mens_, _mentis_, the mind.] MENTHOL, men'thol, _n._ a camphor obtained from oil of peppermint by cooling, which gives relief in neuralgia, &c. [L. _mentha_, mint.] MENTION, men'shun, _n._ a brief notice: a hint.--_v.t._ to notice briefly: to remark: to name.--_adj._ MEN'TIONABLE, fit to be mentioned. [L. _mentio_, _-onis_.] MENTONNIÈRE, men-ton-ny[=a]r', _n._ a piece of armour attached to the helmet, worn to protect the chin and throat. [Fr., _menton_, the chin--L. _mentum_.] MENTOR, men'tor, _n._ a wise counsellor.--_adj._ MENTOR'IAL. [Gr. _Ment[=o]r_, the tutor of Telemachus.] MENTUM, men'tum, _n._ the chin: the central part of the labium in insects: (_bot._) a projection in front of the flower in some orchids.--_n._ MENTAG'RA, an eruption about the chin forming a crust.--_adj._ MEN'TAL (_anat._), pertaining to the chin. [L., the chin.] MENU, men'ü, _n._ a bill of fare. [Fr.,--L. _minutus_, small.] MEPHISTOPHELES, mef-is-tof'e-l[=e]z, _n._ the name of the devil in Marlowe's _Doctor Faustus_ and Goethe's _Faust_.--_adj._ MEPHISTOPH[=E]'LEAN, cynical, scoffing, malicious. [Ety. unknown; prob. formed from Gr. _m[=e]_, not, _ph[=o]s_ (_phot-_), light, _philos_, loving.] MEPHITIS, me-f[=i]'tis, _n._ a poisonous exhalation from the ground or from decaying substances--also MEPH[=I]'TISM.--_adjs._ MEPHIT'IC, -AL. [L. _mephitis_.] MERCANTILE, m[.e]r'kan-t[=i]l, _adj._ pertaining to merchants: having to do with trade: commercial.--_ns._ MER'CANTILISM; MER'CANTILIST.--MERCANTILE AGENCY, a means of getting information about the circumstances of merchants all over the country, for the use of those who sell to them; MERCANTILE LAW, the points of law referring to the dealings of merchants with each other; MERCANTILE MARINE, the ships and their crews which in any country are employed in commerce; MERCANTILE SYSTEM (_polit. econ._), the system of encouraging exportation and restricting importation, so that more may be received than is paid away. [Fr.,--Low L.--L. _mercans_, _-antis_, pr.p. of _merc[=a]ri_, to trade--_merx_, _mercis_, merchandise--_mer[=e]re_, to gain.] MERCATOR'S PROJECTION. See under PROJECT. MERCENARY, m[.e]r'se-nar-i, _adj._ hired for money: actuated by the hope of reward: greedy of gain: sold or done for money.--_n._ one who is hired: a soldier hired into foreign service.--_adv._ MER'CENARILY. [Fr.,--L., _mercenarius_--_merces_, hire.] MERCER, m[.e]r's[.e]r, _n._ a merchant in silks and woollen cloths, or in small wares.--_n._ MER'CERY, the trade of a mercer: the goods of a mercer. [Fr. _mercier_.] MERCHANT, m[.e]r'chant, _n._ one who carries on trade, esp. on a large scale: one who buys and sells goods: a trader: (_obs._) a supercargo: a merchant-vessel.--_adj._ pertaining to trade or merchandise.--_v.i._ MERCH'AND (_Bacon_), to trade or traffic.--_n._ MER'CHAND[=I]SE, goods bought and sold for gain: (_B._ and _Shak._) trade: dealing.--_adjs._ MER'CHANTABLE, suitable for sale: inferior to the very best, but suitable for ordinary purposes; MER'CHANT-LIKE (_Shak._), like a merchant.--_ns._ MER'CHANTMAN, a trading-ship: (_B._) a merchant:--_pl._ MER'CHANTMEN; MER'CHANTRY, the business of a merchant; merchants collectively.--MERCHANT PRINCE, one who has made a great fortune as a merchant; MERCHANT SERVICE, the ships, &c., engaged in commerce: the commerce which is carried on by sea; MERCHANT SHIP or VESSEL, a ship used for carrying goods; MERCHANT TAILOR, a tailor who supplies the cloth for the clothes which he makes. [Fr. _marchand_.] MERCURY, m[.e]r'k[=u]-ri, _n._ the god of merchandise and eloquence, and the messenger of the gods: the planet nearest the sun: a white, liquid metal, also called _quicksilver_: the column of mercury in a thermometer or barometer: a messenger: a newspaper.--_adj._ MERC[=U]'RIAL, having the qualities said to belong to the god Mercury: active: sprightly: often changing: of or pertaining to trade: containing, or consisting of, mercury--also MERC[=U]'RIC.--_v.t._ MERC[=U]'RIALISE (_med._), to affect with mercury: to expose to the vapour of mercury.--_n._ MERC[=U]'RIALIST.--_adv._ MERC[=U]'RIALLY.--_n._ MERCURIFIC[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ MERC[=U]'RIFY.--_adj._ MER'C[=U]ROUS. [Fr.,--L. _Mercurius_--_merx_, _mercis_, merchandise.] MERCY, m[.e]r'si, _n._ tenderness and forbearance shown in sparing an offender in one's power: a forgiving disposition: clemency: an act of mercy: an undeserved blessing: compassion or benevolence.--_adjs._ MER'CIABLE (_Spens._), merciful; MER'CIFUL, full of, or exercising, mercy.--_adv._ MER'CIFULLY.--_n._ MER'CIFULNESS.--_v.t._ MER'CIFY (_Spens._), to deal mercifully with, to pity.--_adj._ MER'CILESS, without mercy: unfeeling: cruel.--_adv._ MER'CILESSLY.--_ns._ MER'CILESSNESS, want of mercy; MER'CY-SEAT, the seat or place of mercy; the covering of the Jewish Ark of the Covenant: the throne of God.--AT THE MERCY OF (another), wholly in the power of; FOR MERCY! or FOR MERCY'S SAKE! an exclamatory appeal to pity; GREAT MERCY=_Gramercy_; SISTERS OF MERCY, members of female religious communities who tend the sick, &c. [Fr. _merci_, grace--L. _merces_, _mercedis_, pay, in later L. also 'favour.'] MERE, m[=e]r, _n._ a pool or lake.--Also MEER. [A.S. _mere_; Ger. and Dut. _meer_, L. _mare_, the sea.] MERE, m[=e]r, _adj._ unmixed: pure: only this and nothing else: alone: absolute.--_adj._ MERED (_Shak._), only, entire.--_adv._ MERE'LY, purely, simply: only: thus and no other way: solely. [L. _merus_, unmixed (of wine).] MERE, m[=e]r, _n._ a boundary.--_v.t._ to limit or bound.--_ns._ MERE'STEAD, the land within the boundaries of a farm: MERE'STONE, a stone which marks a boundary. [A.S. _ge-m['æ]re_.] MERETRICIOUS, mer-e-trish'us, _adj._ of or pertaining to harlots: alluring by false show: gaudy and deceitful: false.--_adv._ MERETRIC'IOUSLY.--_ns._ MERETRIC'IOUSNESS; MER'ETRIX, a harlot. [L. _meretricius_--_meretrix_, a harlot, _mer[=e]re_, to earn.] MERGANSER, m[.e]r-gan's[.e]r, _n._ a diving bird, sea-duck. [L. _mergus_, a diving bird, _anser_, a goose.] MERGE, m[.e]rj, _v.t._ to dip or plunge in: to sink: to cause to be swallowed up.--_v.i._ to be swallowed up, or lost.--_n._ MER'GER (_law_), a sinking of an estate or a security in one of larger extent or of higher value. [L. _merg[)e]re_, _mersum_.] MERICARP, mer'i-karp, _n._ one carpel or part of the fruit of an umbelliferous plant. [Gr. _meros_, a part, _karpos_, fruit.] MERIDIAN, me-rid'i-an, _adj._ pertaining to midday: being on the meridian or at midday: raised to the highest point.--_n._ midday: a midday dram: the highest point, as of success: an imaginary circle on the earth's surface passing through the poles and any given place: (_astron._) an imaginary circle, passing through the poles of the heavens, and the zenith of the spectator, which the sun crosses at midday.--_adj._ MERID'IONAL, pertaining to the meridian: southern: having a southern aspect.--_n._ MERIDIONAL'ITY.--_adv._ MERID'IONALLY.--MERIDIAN SPLENDOUR, fullest point of brightness; MERIDIAN SUN, the sun at its full height, as at midday.--FIRST MERIDIAN, the meridian passing through Greenwich, from which longitudes are measured east or west; MAGNETIC MERIDIAN (see MAGNETIC). [Fr.,--L. _meridianus_, from _meridies_ (orig. _medidies_), midday--_medius_, middle, _dies_, day.] MERINGUE, me-rang', _n._ a mixture of sugar and white of eggs slightly browned for garnishing other confections: a pudding or tart covered with this.--MERINGUE GLACÉ, ice-cream with a casing of meringue. [Fr., prob. from _Mehringen_.] MERINO, me-r[=e]'_no_, _n._ a variety of sheep having very fine wool, originally from Spain: a fine French all-wool dress fabric for women, originally of merino wool.--_adj._ belonging to the merino sheep or their wool. [Sp.,--_merino_, inspector of sheep-walks--Low L. _majorinus_, a head-man--L. _major_, greater.] MERISTEM, mer'is-tem, _n._ the formative tissue of plants, distinguished from the permanent tissues by the power its cells have of dividing and forming new cells.--_adj._ MERISTEMAT'IC. [Gr. _meristos_, verbal adj. of _merizein_, to divide--_meros_, a part.] MERIT, mer'it, _n._ excellence that deserves honour or reward: worth: value: that which one has earned.--_v.t._ to earn: to have a right to claim as a reward: to deserve: (_pl._, _in law_) the right or wrong of a case, apart from questions of procedure.--_adj._ MERIT[=O]'RIOUS, possessing merit or desert: deserving of reward, honour, or praise.--_adv._ MERIT[=O]'RIOUSLY.--_n._ MERIT[=O]'RIOUSNESS.--ORDER FOR MERIT, a Prussian order, the military class founded by Frederick the Great in 1740--the civil class, by Frederick William IV. in 1842 for eminence in science and art; ORDER OF MERIT, place in a class or list in which the best is placed first, the next best second, and so on. [Fr.,--L. _meritum_--_mer[=e]re_, _-[)i]tum_, to obtain as a lot, to deserve.] MERK, m[.e]rk, _n._ an old Scotch silver coin, worth 13s. 4d. Scots, or 13-1/3d. sterling. [_Mark_.] MERLE, m[.e]rl, _n._ the blackbird. [Fr.,--L. _merula_.] MERLIN, m[.e]r'lin, _n._ a species of small hawk. [Fr. _émerillon_, prob. from L. _merula_.] MERLING, mer'ling, _n._ a small gadoid fish, the whiting. MERLON, m[.e]r'lon, _n._ (_fort._) the part of a wall with battlements which lies between two openings. [Fr., prob. through Low L. forms from L. _murus_, a wall.] MERMAID, m[.e]r'm[=a]d, _n._ a sea-woman, having the head and body of a lovely woman to the waist, ending in the tail of a fish.--_ns._ MER'MAIDEN (_Tenn._):--_masc._ MER'MAN; MER'MAID'S-GLOVE, the largest kind of British sponge. [A.S. _mere_, a lake (influenced by Fr. _mer_, the sea), _mægden_, maid.] MEROBLAST, mer'[=o]-blast, _n._ a meroblastic ovum.--_adj._ MEROBLAST'IC, undergoing segmentation only in the germinal disc, as the eggs of birds. MEROGNOSTIC, mer-og-nos'tik, _n._ one who claims to know in part.--_n._ MEROGNOS'TICISM. MEROPIDAN, me-rop'i-dan, _n._ a bird of the family of bee-eaters. [L. _merops_, the bee-eater--Gr.] MEROSOME, mer'[=o]-s[=o]m, _n._ one of the serial segments of which a body is composed, as the ring of a worm, a metamere, a somite. MEROVINGIAN, mer-o-vin'ji-an, _adj._ pertaining to the first dynasty of Frankish kings in Gaul, named from _Merwig_, king of the western or Salian Franks (448-457), grandfather of Clovis. MERRY, mer'i, _adj._ sportive: cheerful: noisily gay: causing laughter: lively.--_adv._ MERR'ILY.--_ns._ MERR'IMAKE, MERR'Y-MAKE (_Spens._), a meeting for making merry, a festival, mirth.--_v.i._ to make merry, to feast.--_ns._ MERR'IMENT, MERR'INESS, gaiety with laughter and noise: mirth: hilarity; MERR'Y-AN'DREW, one who makes sport for others: a buffoon: one who goes round with a mountebank or a quack doctor--also MERR'YMAN; MERR'Y-GO-ROUND, a revolving ring of hobby-horses, &c., on which children ride round at fairs, &c.; MERR'Y-MAK'ING, a merry entertainment, a festival; MERR'Y-THOUGHT, the forked bone of a fowl's breast, which two persons pull at in play, the one who breaks off the longer part being thought likely to be first married. [A.S. _merg_, from the Celtic, as in Gael. and Ir. _mear_, _merry_, Gael. _mir_, to sport.] MERRY, mer'i, _n._ an English wild-cherry. [Fr. _merise_.] MERSION, m[.e]r'shun, _n._ Same as IMMERSION. MERULIDAN, me-r[=oo]'li-dan, _n._ a bird of the thrush family (_Turdidæ_), the typical genus of which is the MER'ULA. [_Merle_.] MERYCISM, mer'i-sizm, _n._ rumination in the human species. [Gr., _m[=e]rykizein_, to chew the cud.] MESAIL, mes'[=a]l, _n._ the vizor of a helmet, esp. when made in two parts. MESAL, mes'al, _adj._ See MESIAL. MÉSALLIANCE, m[=a]-zal-l[=e]-an(g)s', _n._ a marriage with a person of lower rank or social condition. [Fr.] MESARAIC, mes-a-r[=a]'ik, _adj._ mesenteric. [Gr. _mesos_, middle, _araia_, the belly.] MESEEMS, me-s[=e]mz', _v.impers._ it seems to me (used only in poetry). [_Me_, the dative of _I_, and _seems_ used impersonally.] MESEMBRYANTHEMUM, me-zem-bri-an'the-mum, _n._ a genus of succulent plants, mostly belonging to South Africa. [Gr. _mes[=e]mbria_, midday--_mesos_, middle, _h[=e]mera_, day, _anthemon_, a flower.] MESENCEPHALON, mes-en-sef'a-lon, _n._ the mid-brain.--_adj._ MESENCEPHAL'IC. MESENTERY, mes'en-t[.e]r-i, or mez'-, _n._ a membrane in the cavity of the abdomen, attached to the backbone, and serving to keep the intestines in their place.--_adj._ MESENTER'IC.--_n._ MESENTER[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the mesentery. [L.,--Gr. _mesenterion_--_mesos_, middle, _enteron_, intestines.] MESFAITH, mes'f[=a]th, _n._ (_Tenn._) wrong faith, error of belief. [Fr. _mes_--L. _mis_, wrong, and _faith_.] MESH, mesh, _n._ the opening between the threads of a net: the threads and knots which bound the opening: network.--_v.t._ to catch in a net: to engage or interlock, as gear-teeth.--_v.i._ to become engaged thus.--_n._ MESH'-WORK, a network, web.--_adj._ MESH'Y, formed like network. [A.S. _max_, a net; Ger. _masche_.] MESIAL, m[=e]'zi-al, _adj._ pertaining to the middle: median--also MES'AL, MES'IAN.--_advs._ MES'ALLY, MES'IALLY. [Gr. _mesos_, middle.] MESMERISE, mez'm[.e]r-[=i]z, _v.t._ to induce an extraordinary state of the nervous system, in which the operator is supposed to control the actions and thoughts of the subject.--_n._ MESMEREE', one mesmerised.--_adjs._ MESMER'IC, -AL, of or relating to mesmerism.--_ns._ MESMERIS[=A]'TION; MES'MERISER, MES'MERIST, one who mesmerises: MES'MERISM, act of mesmerising. [From Friedrich Anton or Franz _Mesmer_, a German physician (1733-1815), who first published his discovery in 1775.] MESNE, m[=e]n, _adj._ intermediate: applied to a writ issued between the beginning and end of a suit.--MESNE LORD, one who held land of a superior, but had granted part of it to another person. [Norm. Fr. _mesne_, middle.] MESOBLAST, mes'o-blast, _n._ the middle one of the three germinal layers of any metazoic embryo between the epiblast and the hypoblast: the mesoderm.--_adj._ MESOBLAS'TIC. MESOCARP, mes'o-kärp, _n._ (_bot._) the middle one of the three layers of a seed-vessel. MESOCEPHALIC, mes-[=o]-s[=e]-fal'ik, _adj._ of medium breadth or capacity--of the skull--also MESOCEPH'ALOUS.--_ns._ MESOCEPH'ALISM, MESOCEPH'ALY. MESODERM, mes'o-derm, _n._ Same as MESOBLAST. MESODIC, me-sod'ik, _adj._ (_pros._) pertaining to a system of different form intervening between a strophe and its antistrophe. MESOGASTRIC, mes-o-gas'trik, _adj._ of or belonging to the middle of the stomach: denoting the membrane which sustains the stomach. MESOPHLOEUM, mes-[=o]-fl[=e]'um, _n._ (_bot._) the middle or green layer of bark. MESOTHORAX, mes-o-th[=o]'raks, _n._ the middle one of the three segments of an insect's thorax.--_adj._ MESOTHORAC'IC. MESOZOIC, mes-o-z[=o]'ik, _adj._ of the _Secondary_ geological period, including the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous systems. [Gr. _mesos_, middle, _z[=o][=e]_, life.] MESPRISE, mes-pr[=i]z', _n._ (_Spens._) contempt, scorn. [O. Fr. _mespriser_, to despise--L. _minus_, less, _preti[=a]re_, to prize.] MESQUITE, mes'k[=e]t, mes-k[=e]t', _n._ a leguminous tree or shrub of America, with nutritious pods. [Sp.] MESS, mes, _n._ a mixture disagreeable to the sight or taste: a medley: disorder: confusion.--_v.t._ to make a mess of: to muddle.--_adj._ MESS'Y, confused, untidy. [A form of _mash_.] MESS, mes, _n._ a dish or quantity of food served up at one time: a number of persons who take their meals together at the same table, esp. in the army and navy: the take of fish at one time.--_v.t._ to supply with a mess.--_v.i._ to eat of a mess: to eat at a common table. [O. Fr. _mes_ (Fr. _mets_), a dish--L. _mitt[)e]re_, _missum_, to send, in Low L. to place.] MESS, mes, _n._=mass.--MESS JOHN, a domestic chaplain. MESSAGE, mes'[=a]j, _n._ any communication sent from one person to another: an errand: an official communication, of advice, &c., as a President's Message in the United States.--_n._ MESS'ENGER, the bearer of a message: a forerunner: a light scudding cloud preceding a storm: a piece of paper, &c., blown up the string to the kite: the secretary-bird: a rope or chain by which cables were formerly connected to the capstan when heaving up the anchor: (_Scots law_) an officer who executes the summonses of the Court of Session, called a MESS'ENGER-AT-ARMS.--QUEEN'S, or KING'S, MESSENGER, an officer who carries official despatches whether at home or abroad. [Fr.,--Low L. _missaticum_--L. _mitt[)e]re_, _missum_, to send.] MESSIAH, mes-s[=i]'a, _n._ the anointed One, the Christ--also MESS[=I]'AS.--_n._ MESS[=I]'AHSHIP, the character and work of Christ as the Saviour of the world.--_adj._ MESSIAN'IC, relating to the Messiah. [Heb. _m[=a]sh[=i]ach_, anointed--_m[=a]shach_, to anoint.] MESSIDOR, mes-si-d[=o]r', _n._ the tenth month of the French revolutionary calendar, June 19th-July 18th. [Fr.,--L. _messis_, harvest, Gr. _d[=o]ron_, a gift.] MESSIEURS, plural of _Monsieur_ (q.v.). MESSIN, mes'in, _n._ (_Scot._) a mongrel dog, a cur.--_adj._ mongrel. [Cf. _Mastiff_.] MESSMATE, mes'm[=a]t, _n._ one who eats at the same table. [_Mess_ and _mate_.] MESSUAGE, mes'w[=a]j, _n._ (_law_) a dwelling and offices with the adjoining lands appropriated to the household: a mansion-house and grounds. [O. Fr.,--Low L. _messuagium_--L. _mansa_, pa.p. of _man[=e]re_, to remain.] MESTEE, mes-t[=e]', _n._ the offspring of a white person and a quadroon. [Cf. Fr. _métis_, mongrel.] MESTIZO, mes-t[=e]'z[=o], _n._ the offspring of a person of mixed Spanish and American Indian parentage, &c. [Sp.,--L. _mixtus_--_misc[=e]re_, to mix.] MET, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _meet_. METABASIS, me-tab'a-sis, _n._ a change, as in treatment or remedies: a transition.--_adj._ METABAT'IC. [Gr., _meta_, beyond, _bainein_, to go.] METABOLISM, me-tab'o-lizm, _n._ a general term for the chemical changes of living matter: retrograde metamorphosis, catabolism: complete metamorphosis, as in _Diptera_, &c.--_adj._ METABOL'IC, undergoing complete metamorphosis: polymorphic: exhibiting metabolism.--_v.t._ METAB'OLISE. [Gr. _metabol[=e]_, change.] METACARPAL, met-a-kär'pal, _adj._ pertaining to the part of the hand between the wrist and the fingers, the METACAR'PUS: denoting the foreleg of a horse between knee and fetlock joint. METACENTRE, met-a-sen't[.e]r, _n._ that point in a floating body slightly displaced from equilibrium through which the resultant upward pressure of the fluid always passes. METACHRONISM, me-tak'ron-izm, _n._ an error made by placing an event after its real time. [Fr.,--Gr. _metachronos_--_meta_, beyond, _chronos_, time.] METACHROSIS, met-a-kr[=o]'sis, _n._ colour-change, as of a chameleon. METACISM. See MYTACISM. METAGE, m[=e]t'[=a]j, _n._ measurement of coal: price of measurement. [_Mete_.] METAGENESIS, met-a-jen'e-sis, _n._ (_biol._) a kind of alteration of generations in which a series of generations of unlike forms come between the egg and the parent type.--_adj._ METAGENET'IC. METAGNOSTIC, met-ag-nos'tik, _adj._ transcending present knowledge.--_n._ one who holds that there is a supreme being, but that he transcends knowledge.--_n._ METAGNOS'TICISM. METAIRIE, m[=e]-t[=a]'r[=e], _n._ a piece of land cultivated for a share of the produce. [Fr. See METAYER.] METAL, met'al, _n._ an opaque substance, possessing a peculiar lustre, fusibility, conductivity for heat and electricity, &c., such as gold, &c.: courage or spirit (now spelt _mettle_): intrinsic quality: the number and power of guns carried by a ship-of-war: broken stones used for macadamised roads: (_pl._) the rails of a railroad.--_v.t._ to put metal on, as a road.--_n._ METALIC'ITY.--_adjs._ MET'ALLED, covered with metal, as a road; METAL'LIC, pertaining to, or like, a metal: consisting of metal.--_adv._ METAL'LICALLY.--_adjs._ METALLIF'EROUS, producing or yielding metals; METAL'LIFORM, having the form of metals: like metal; MET'ALLINE, pertaining to a metal: consisting of, or mixed with, metal.--_ns._ MET'ALLING, road-metal, broken stones; METALLIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ MET'ALLISE, to form into metal: to give to a substance its metallic properties.--_ns._ MET'ALLIST, a worker in metals: one who is skilled in metals: an advocate of the use of metal as currency; METAL'LOGRAPH, a print produced by metallographic process.--_adj._ METALLOGRAPH'IC--_ns._ METALLOG'RAPHIST; METALLOG'RAPHY, an account or description of metals: a process for utilising metal plates in a manner similar to lithographic stones: a process of imitating the grain of wood on metals; MET'ALLOID, one of the metallic bases of the fixed alkalies and alkaline earths: any of the elements which are non-metallic in the chemical sense of being able to replace hydrogen in an acid, and thus forming a salt: one of the inflammable non-metallic elements (sulphur, phosphorus, &c.).--_adjs._ MET'ALLOID, METALLOID'AL, pertaining to, or of the nature of, the metalloids.--_ns._ METAL'LOPHONE, a kind of piano, having graduated metal bars in place of strings: a musical instrument, differing from the xylophone in having metal instead of wooden bars; MET'ALLOTHERAPY, the treatment of disease by the external application of metals.--METALLIC OXIDE, a compound of metal and oxygen; METALLIC SALTS, salts having a metal or metallic oxide for base.--BASE METALS, lead, zinc, copper, iron; FUSIBLE METAL, a metallic alloy that fuses at a very low temperature--usually of lead, tin, and bismuth; LIGHT METALS, those whose specific gravity is less than 5; NOBLE, or PERFECT, METALS, gold, silver, platinum, so called because they keep their lustre when exposed to the air. [Fr.,--L. _metallum_--Gr. _metallon_, a mine, a metal.] METALEPSIS, met-a-lep'sis, _n._ (_rhet._) a compound figure that consists in uniting two or more different tropes in the same word, or in so using a word as to suggest two or three different figures by it.--_adjs._ METALEP'TIC, -AL. [Gr.] METALLURGY, met'al-ur-ji, _n._ the art of working metals: the art of separating metals from their ores.--_adj._ METALLUR'GIC, pertaining to metallurgy.--_n._ MET'ALLURGIST, one who works metals: one skilled in metallurgy. [Gr. _metallon_, a metal, _ergon_, work.] METAMERISM, met'a-me-rizm, _n._ (_chem._) a particular form of isomerism, seen in substances having the same molecular formula, but in which _all_ the atoms in the molecule are not directly united: (_zool._) segmentation of the body of an animal along the primary axis, producing a series of homologous parts.--_adjs._ MET'AM[=E]RAL, METAMER'IC.--_n._ MET'AMERE. [Gr. _meta_, after, _meros_, a part.] METAMORPHIC, met-a-mor'fik, _adj._ subject to change of form: (_geol._) applied to the alteration undergone by rocks under heat, pressure, &c., so that they assume a crystalline or semi-crystalline structure.--_ns._ METAMOR'PHISM, state or quality of being metamorphic; METAMOR'PHIST, one who believes that the body of Christ merged into the Deity when He ascended.--_v.t._ METAMOR'PHOSE, to transform.--_n._ METAMOR'PHOSIS, change of shape, transformation: the frequent transformation of human beings to beasts, stones, trees, &c.--an essential part of folklore everywhere: the marked change which some living beings undergo in the course of their growth, as caterpillar to insect, tadpole to frog, &c.:--_pl._ METAMOR'PHOSES. [Gr. _metamorph[=o]sis_--_meta_, expressing change, _morph[=e]_, form.] METAPHERY, me-taf'e-ri, _n._ (_bot._) the transposition of various floral organs. [Gr.: see METAPHOR.] METAPHOR, met'a-fur, _n._ a transference of meaning, the putting of one thing for another which it only resembles, as when words are said to be bitter: an implicit simile.--_adjs._ METAPHOR'IC, -AL, pertaining to, or containing, metaphor: figurative.--_adv._ METAPHOR'ICALLY.--_ns._ METAPHOR'ICALNESS; MET'APHORIST.--MIXED METAPHOR, an expression in which two or more metaphors are confused, where one only is capable of being intelligibly evolved or conceived objectively, as Cromwell's 'God has kindled a seed in this nation.' [Fr.,--Gr. _metaphora_--_metapherein_--_meta_, over, _pherein_, to carry.] METAPHRASE, met'a-fr[=a]z, _n._ a translation from one language into another word for word--opp. to _Paraphrase_: a repartee--also METAPH'RASIS.--_n._ MET'APHRAST, one who translates word for word.--_adj._ METAPHRAS'TIC, literal in translation. [Gr. _metaphrasis_--_meta_, over, _phrasis_, a speaking.] METAPHYSICS, met-a-fiz'iks, _n.sing._ the science which investigates the first principles of nature and thought: ontology or the science of being.--_adj._ METAPHYS'ICAL, pertaining to metaphysics; abstract.--_adv._ METAPHYS'ICALLY.--_n._ METAPHYSIC'IAN, one versed in metaphysics. [From certain works of Aristotle to be studied after his physics--Gr. _meta_, after, _physika_, physics--_physis_, nature.] METAPHYTA, met-a-f[=i]'ta, _n.pl._ many-celled plants, in contrast to the single-celled _Protophytes_. METAPLASIA, met-a-pl[=a]'si-a, _n._ the direct conversion of one form of an adult tissue into another--also METAP'LASIS.--_n._ MET'APLASM, a grammatical change in a word by adding or dropping a letter. [Gr. _meta_, over, _plasis_--_plassein_, to form.] METAPOPHYSIS, met-a-pof'i-sis, _n._ (_anat._) a dorsolateral apophysis on the anterior articular process of a vertebra. [Gr. _meta_, after, _apophysis_, a process.] METASTASIS, me-tas'ta-zis, _n._ a change in nature, form, or quality; a change from one part to another, as a disease: (_bot._) metabolism.--_adj._ METASTAT'IC. [Gr.,--_methist[=e]mi_, I change place.] METATARSAL, met-a-tär'sal, _adj._ belonging to the front part of the foot, behind the toes, nearly the same as the instep in man.--_n._ METATAR'SUS. [Gr. _meta_, beyond, _tarsos_, the flat of the foot.] METATHESIS, me-tath'es-is, _n._ (_gram._) a change of place of the letters or syllables of a word.--_adjs._ METATHET'IC, -AL. [Gr.,--_metatithenai_, to transpose--_meta_, over, _tithenai_, to place.] METATHORAX, met-a-th[=o]'raks, _n._ the third segment of an insect's thorax.--_adj._ METATHORAC'IC. METATOME, met'a-t[=o]m, _n._ (_archit._) the space between two dentils. METAYER, me-t[=a]'y[.e]r, _n._ a farmer who pays, instead of money rent, a fixed proportion of the crops.--_n._ MET[=A]'YAGE, this system. [Fr.,--Low L. _medietarius_--L. _medietas_, the half--_medius_, middle.] METAZOA, met-a-z[=o]'a, _n.pl._ many-celled animals possessing cellular differentiation:--opp. to single-celled _Protozoa_.--_adjs._ METAZ[=O]'AN, METAZ[=O]'IC.--_n.sing._ MET'AZ[=O]ON. [Gr. _meta_, after, _z[=o]on_, animal.] METE, m[=e]t, _v.t._ to measure.--_ns._ METE'WAND, a measuring-stick; METE'YARD (_B._), a yard or rod for meting or measuring. [A.S. _metan_; Ger. _messen_.] METEMPIRIC, -AL, met-em-pir'ik, -al, _adj._ beyond or outside of experience:--opp. to _Empirical_ or _Experiential_.--_ns._ METEMPIR'ICISM; METEMPIR'ICIST. METEMPSYCHOSIS, me-temp-si-k[=o]'sis, _n._ the passing of the soul after death into some other body, whether that of a human being or of an animal:--_pl._ METEMPSYCH[=O]'SES. [Gr.,--_meta_, expressing change, _empsych[=o]sis_, an animating--_en_, in, _psych[=e]_, soul.] METENSOMATOSIS, met-en-s[=o]-ma-t[=o]'sis, _n._ transference of the elements of one body into another. METEOR, m[=e]'te-or, _n._ one of numberless small bodies travelling through space, continually being encountered by the earth on its orbital path, and then revealed to our observation as aerolites, fire-balls, or shooting-stars: formerly used of any appearance in the atmosphere, as clouds, rain: (_fig._) anything that for a time dazzles or strikes with wonder.--_adj._ METEOR'IC, pertaining to, or consisting of, meteors: proceeding from a meteor: flashing like a meteor: influenced by the weather.--_ns._ M[=E]'TEOROGRAPH, an instrument by which several meteorological elements are recorded in combination; METEOR'OLITE, M[=E]'TEORITE, a meteoric stone.--_adjs._ METEOROLOG'IC, -AL.--_ns._ METEOROL'OGIST; one skilled in meteorology; METEOROL'OGY, that department of physics which treats of the phenomena of the atmosphere as regards weather and climate.--_adj._ M[=E]'T[=E]OROUS (_Milt._), having the nature of a meteor.--METEORIC IRON, iron as found in meteoric stones; METEORIC SHOWERS, showers of meteors or shooting-stars; METEORIC STONES, aerolites. [Gr. _mete[=o]ron_--_meta_, beyond, _e[=o]ra_, anything suspended--_aeirein_, to lift.] METER, a form of _metre_. METER, m[=e]'t[.e]r, _n._ one who, or that which, measures, esp. an apparatus for recording automatically the quantity of a fluid passing through it, as in _gas-meter_, _water-meter_, &c.--_v.t._ to measure by a meter.--_n._ M[=E]'TERAGE.--DRY METER, a gas-meter with bellows-like apparatus and no liquid. [_Metre_.] METHANE, meth'[=a]n, _n._ marsh-gas, the simplest hydrocarbon, found wherever the decomposition of vegetable matter is taking place under water, also in coal-mines, forming when mixed with air the deadly fire-damp.--_n._ METHANOM'ETER. METHEGLIN, meth-eg'lin, _n._ mead, a fermented liquor made from honey.--_n._ METHER (-th'-) a vessel for mead. [W. _meddyglyn_--_medd_, mead, _llyn_, liquor.] METHINKS, me-thingks', (_B._) METHINK'ETH, _v.impers._ it seems to me: I think:--_pa.t._ methought (me-thawt'). [A.S. _mé thyncth_, it seems to me. _Þyncan_, to seem, is often confused with _Þencan_, to think. Cf. Ger. _dünken_, to seem, _denken_, to think.] METHOD, meth'ud, _n._ the mode or rule of accomplishing an end: orderly procedure: manner: orderly arrangement: system, rule, classification: manner of performance: an instruction-book systematically arranged.--_adjs._ METHOD'IC, -AL, arranged with method: disposed in a just and natural manner: formal.--_adv._ METHOD'ICALLY.--_v.t._ METH'ODISE, to reduce to method: to dispose in due order.--_ns._ METH'ODISM, the principles and practice of the Methodists; METH'ODIST, one who observes method: one of a sect of Christians founded by John Wesley (1703-91), noted for the strictness of its discipline: one who is very strict in religion.--_adjs._ METHODIST'IC, -AL, resembling the Methodists: strict in religious matters.--_adv._ METHODIST'ICALLY.--_n._ METHODOL'OGY, the science of method in scientific procedure. [Fr.,--L. _methodus_--Gr. _methodos_--_meta_, after, _hodos_, a way.] METHOMANIA, meth-o-m[=a]'ni-a, _n._ morbid craving for alcohol. [Gr. _methy_, drink, _mania_, madness.] METHOUGHT. See METHINKS. METHUSELAH, me-th[=u]'ze-la, _n._ a patriarch said to have lived 969 years (Gen. v. 27): any very aged person. METHYL, meth'il, _n._ (_chem._) the name given to the hypothetical radical of methylic alcohol or wood spirit.--_n._ METH'YLENE, a highly inflammable and volatile liquid, obtained by the destructive distillation of wood.--_adj._ METHYL'IC, denoting alcohol obtained by the destructive distillation of wood.--METHYLATED SPIRIT, a mixture of nine parts of alcohol with one of pyroxylic or wood spirit (to prevent people drinking it), used for spirit-lamps, varnishes, &c. [Gr. _meta_, after, with, _hyl[=e]_, wood.] METHYSIS, meth'i-sis, _n._ (_path._) drunkenness.--_adj._ METHYS'TIC, intoxicating. [Gr.] METIC, met'ik, _n._ an immigrant, a resident alien. [Gr. _meta_, over, _oikos_, a house.] METICULOUS, m[=e]-tik'[=u]-lus, _adj._ (_arch._) timid, over careful.--_adv._ METIC'ULOUSLY. [L. _metus_, fear.] MÉTIER, met'y[=a]r, _n._ one's calling or business. [Fr.] METIF, m[=e]'tif, _n._ the offspring of a white and a quadroon.--_n._ M[=E]'TIS, a half-breed of French and Indian parentage in Canada. [Cf. _Mastiff_.] METIS, m[=e]'tis, _n._ a Greek personification of prudence. METONIC, me-ton'ik, _adj._ pertaining to the lunar cycle of nineteen years, after which the new and full moon happen again on the same day of the year as at its beginning. [From _Meton_, c. 430.] METONYMY, me-ton'i-mi, _n._ (_rhet._) a trope in which the name of one thing is put for that of another related to it, the effect for the cause, &c., as 'the heart' for 'the affections,' 'the bottle' for 'drink,' &c.--_adjs._ METONYM'IC, -AL, used by way of metonymy.--_adv._ METONYM'ICALLY. [L.,--Gr. _met[=o]nymia_--_meta_, expressing change, _onoma_, a name.] METOPE, met'o-p[=e], _n._ (_archit._) the space between the triglyphs in the frieze of the Doric order, generally ornamented with carved work: the face, forehead, frontal surface generally.--_adj._ METOP'IC.--_ns._ MET'OPISM, the condition of having a persistent metopic or frontal suture. [Gr.,--_meta_, between, and _op[=e]_, the hole in the frieze receiving one of the beam-ends.] METOPOSCOPY, met-[=o]-pos'k[=o]-pi, _n._ the study of character from the physiognomy.--_adjs._ METOPOSCOP'IC, -AL.--_n._ METOPOS'COPIST. METRA, met'ra, _n._ a pocket-instrument, combining the uses of thermometer, level, plummet, and lens. [Gr., pl. of _metron_, measure.] METRE, m[=e]'t[.e]r, _n._ that regulated succession of certain groups of syllables in which poetry is usually written--these groups of long and short (_classical_) or accented (_English_) syllables being called _feet_: rhythm: verse, or poetry generally: a plan of versification, the character of a stanza as consisting of a given number of lines composed of feet of a given number, construction, and accent: musical time.--_adjs._ MET'RIC, -AL, pertaining to metre or to metrology: consisting of verses.--_adv._ MET'RICALLY.--_ns._ METRIC'IAN, MET'RICIST, one skilled in metres, one who writes in metre; MET'RICS, the art or science of versification; METRIFIC[=A]'TION. (_Tenn._), the act of making verses; MET'RIFIER, a versifier; MET'RIST, one skilled in metres, a skilful versifier; METROM[=A]'NIA, a mania for writing verses.--COMMON METRE, the stanza forming a quatrain in eights and sixes, of four and of three iambic feet alternately--also SERVICE METRE, from its use in the metrical psalms, &c., and BALLAD METRE, from its use in old romances and ballads; LONG METRE, an octosyllabic quatrain, the four lines with four feet each; SHORT METRE, the quatrain in sixes, with the third line octosyllabic. [Fr.,--L. _metrum_--Gr. _metron_.] MÈTRE, m[=a]'tr, _n._ the fundamental unit of length in the metric system--one ten-millionth of a quadrant of the Meridian--39.3707904 English inches.--_adj._ MET'RIC.--METRIC SYSTEM, the French system of weights and measures, founded on the French mètre--dividing or multiplying by ten, and therefore a decimal system. METRE. Same as METER. METRIC, met'rik, _adj._ quantitative.--_adj._ MET'RICAL, pertaining to measurement.--_n.pl._ MET'RICS, the theory of measurement.--_ns._ MET'ROGRAPH, an apparatus for registering the speed of a railway-train and the places and duration of stops; METROL'OGY, the science of weights and measures; MET'RONOME, an instrument like an inverted pendulum which measures musical time.--_adj._ METRONOM'IC.--_n._ METRON'OMY, measurement of time by a metronome. METRONYMIC, met-ro-nim'ik, _adj._ derived from the name of one's mother, or other female ancestor.--_n._ an appellation so derived; cf. _Patronymic_. [Gr. _m[=e]t[=e]r_, a mother, _onoma_, name.] METROPOLIS, me-trop'o-lis, _n._ the capital of a country; the chief cathedral city, as Canterbury of England: the mother-city of an ancient Greek colony: a generic focus in the distribution of plants or animals:--_pl._ METROP'OLISES.--_adj._ METROPOL'ITAN, belonging to a metropolis: pertaining to the mother-church.--_n._ the bishop of a metropolis, presiding over the other bishops of a province: an archbishop.--_n._ METROPOL'ITANATE.--_adjs._ METROPOL'ITIC, -AL. [L.,--Gr. _m[=e]t[=e]r_, mother, _polis_, a city.] METTLE, met'l, _n._ ardent temperament: spirit: sprightliness: courage.--_adjs._ METT'LED, METT'LESOME, high-spirited: ardent.--_n._ METT'LESOMENESS, quality or state of being mettlesome.--PUT ONE ON HIS METTLE, to rouse a person up to putting forth his best efforts. [From the _metal_ of a blade.] MEUM, m[=a]'um, _n._ mine--in the phrase MEUM AND TUUM, mine and thine. [L.] MEUTE, m[=u]t, _n._ a mew, a place where hawks are mewed or confined. [_Mew_, a cage for hawks.] MEW, m[=u], _n._ a sea-fowl: a gull. [A.S. _m['æ]w_; Dut. _meeuw_, Ice. _mâr_, Ger. _möwe_; all imit.] MEW, m[=u], _v.i._ to cry as a cat.--_n._ the cry of a cat. MEW, m[=u], _v.t._ to change, as the covering or dress: to shed or cast: to confine, as in a cage.--_v.i._ to change: to cast the feathers: to moult.--_n._ a place for confining: a cage for hawks while mewing: generally in _pl._ a stable, because the royal stables were built where the king's falcons were kept. [O. Fr. _mue_, a changing, esp. of the coat or skin--_muer_, to mew--L. _mut[=a]re_, to change.] MEWL, m[=u]l, _v.i._ (_Shak._) to cry as an infant. [Imit.] MEXICAN, meks'i-kan, _n._ a native or inhabitant of _Mexico_.--_adj._ pertaining to Mexico or Mexicans. MEZEREON, me-z[=e]'re-on, _n._ a deciduous shrub with pink flowers, and having an extremely acrid bark used in medicine. [Fr.,--Pers.] MEZZANINE, mez'a-n[=i]n, _n._ (_archit._) a low story introduced between two higher ones: a small window used to light such apartments. [Fr.,--It. _mezzanino_--_mezzo_--L. _medius_, middle.] MEZZO-RILIEVO, med'zo-r[=e]-ly[=a]'v[=o], _n._ a degree of relief in figures, half-way between high and low relief. [It.] MEZZO-SOPRANO, med'zo-so-prä'n[=o], _n._ a quality of voice between soprano and alto: low soprano. MEZZOTINT, mez'[=o]-tint, or med'z[=o]-tint, _n._ a method of copperplate engraving, producing an even gradation of tones, resembling those of a photograph: an impression from a plate so produced.--Also MEZZOTINT'O. [It.,--_mezzo_, middle, half, _tinto_, tint--L. _ting[)e]re_, _tinctum_, to dye.] MI, m[=e], _n._ the third note in the diatonic scale. MIASMA, m[=i]-az'ma, _n._ unwholesome exhalations arising from putrescent matter--also M[=I]'ASM:--_pl._ M[=I]'ASMS, MIAS'MATA.--_adjs._ MIAS'MAL, MIASMAT'IC, MIAS'MATOUS, pertaining to, or containing, miasma.--_ns._ MIAS'MATIST; MIASMOL'OGY.--_adj._ MIAS'MOUS. [Gr. _miasma_--_miainein_, to stain.] MIAUL, mi-awl', _v.i._ to cry as a cat. MICA, m[=i]'ka, _n._ a group of rock-forming minerals, with perfect cleavage in one direction, the laminæ flexible and elastic, and generally transparent.--_adj._ MIC[=A]'CEOUS.--_ns._ M[=I]'CA-SCHIST, M[=I]'CA-SLATE, a metamorphic rock consisting of alternate layers of mica and quartz. [L. _mica_, a crumb.] MICE, m[=i]s, plural of _mouse_. MICHAELMAS, mik'el-mas, _n._ the festival of St _Michael_, celebrated Sept. 29: a quarterly rent-day in England. MICHE, mich, _v.i._ (_obs._) to lie hid, to skulk, to act by stealth: to pilfer meanly--also MICH.--_ns._ MICH'ER; MICH'ING--also _adj._ MICKLE, mik'l, _adj._ (_arch._) much. [A.S. _micel_, _mycel_; Scot. _muckle_.] MICKY, mik'i, _n._ an Irish boy: a wild young bull. MICROBE, m[=i]'kr[=o]b, mik'r[=o]b, _n._ a microscopic organism, esp. a bacterium, found wherever organic matter is in process of decomposition.--_adjs._ MICR[=O]'BIAL, MICR[=O]'BIAN, MICR[=O]'BIC.--_n._ MICROBIOL'OGY, the science of micro-organisms. [Fr.,--Gr. _mikros_, small, _bios_, life.] MICROCEPHALOUS, m[=i]-kr[=o]-sef'a-lus, _adj._ having a small or imperfectly formed head.--Also MICROCEPHAL'IC. [Gr. _mikros_, small, _kephal[=e]_, the head.] MICROCHRONOMETER, m[=i]-kr[=o]-kr[=o]-nom'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for registering very small periods of time. MICROCOCCUS, m[=i]-kr[=o]-kok'us, _n._ a microscopic organism of a round form. MICROCOSM, m[=i]'kr[=o]-kozm, _n._ a little universe or world: (often applied to) man, who was regarded by ancient philosophers as a model or epitome of the universe.--_adjs._ MICROCOS'MIC, -AL, pertaining to the microcosm.--_n._ MICROCOSMOG'RAPHY. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr.--_mikros_, little, _kosmos_, world.] MICROCOUSTIC, m[=i]-kr[=o]-k[=oo]s'tik, _adj._ serving to augment weak sounds.--_n._ an instrument for such purpose. MICROCRITH, m[=i]'kr[=o]-krith, _n._ (_chem._) the unit of molecular weight, that of the half-molecule of hydrogen. MICROCYTE, m[=i]'kr[=o]-s[=i]t, _n._ a small cell or corpuscle: a small blood corpuscle found in anæmia.--_ns._ MICROCYTH[=E]'MIA, MICROCYT[=O]'SIS, a condition of the blood with many very small corpuscles. MICRODENTISM, m[=i]-kr[=o]-den'tizm, _n._ smallness of the teeth. MICRODONT, m[=i]'kr[=o]-dont, _adj._ having short or small teeth. MICROFARAD, m[=i]-kr[=o]-far'ad, _n._ one-millionth of a farad, the practical unit of electrical capacity. MICROGEOLOGY, m[=i]-kr[=o]-j[=e]-ol'o-ji, _n._ the department of geology concerned with the study of microscopic structures. MICROGRAPH, m[=i]'kr[=o]-graf, _n._ a pantograph instrument for minute writing or drawing: a microscopic picture.--_n._ MICROG'RAPHER.--_adj._ MICROGRAPH'IC.--_n._ MICROG'RAPHY, the description of microscopic objects. [Gr. _mikros_, little, _graphein_, write.] MICROHM, mik'r[=o]m, _n._ an electric unit equal to the millionth part of an ohm. MICROLITE, m[=i]'kr[=o]-l[=i]t, _n._ a mineral related to pyrochlore.--_n._ M[=I]'CROLITH, a name suggested by Vogelsang in 1867 for the microscopic acicular components of rocks.--_adj._ MICROLITH'IC. [Gr. _mikros_, small, _lithos_, a stone.] MICROLOGY, m[=i]-krol'o-ji, _n._ the branch of science which treats of microscopic objects.--_adjs._ MICROLOG'IC, -AL.--_adv._ MICROLOG'ICALLY. MICROMETER, m[=i]-krom'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring minute distances or angles.--_adjs._ MICROMET'RIC, -AL.--_ns._ MICROM'ETRY, measuring with a micrometer; M[=I]'CRON, the millionth part of a metre, or 1/25400 of an inch; M[=I]'CRO-OR'GANISM, a microscopic organism. [Gr. _mikros_, little, _metron_, measure.] MICROPHONE, m[=i]'kr[=o]-f[=o]n, _n._ an instrument which renders the faintest sounds distinctly audible.--_adjs._ MICROPHON'IC, MICROPH'ONOUS.--_n._ M[=I]'CROPHONY. [Gr. _mikros_, little, _ph[=o]n[=e]_, sound.] MICROPHOTOGRAPHY, m[=i]-kr[=o]-f[=o]-tog'ra-fi, _n._ the photographing of objects on a microscopic scale. MICROPHYLLOUS, m[=i]-krof'il-us, _adj._ (_bot._) having small leaves. [Gr. _mikros_, little, _phyllon_, leaf.] MICROPHYTE, m[=i]'kr[=o]-f[=i]t, _n._ a microscopic plant, esp. one parasitic.--_adjs._ M[=I]'CROPHYTAL, MICROPHYT'IC. MICROPODA, m[=i]-krop'o-da, _n.pl._ in some systems a division of monomyarian bivalves, with rudimentary feet, including oysters, &c. [Gr. _mikros_, small, _pous_, _podos_, foot.] MICROPSIA, m[=i]-krop'si-a, _n._ an affection of the eye in which objects appear in less than actual size. MICROPTEROUS, m[=i]-krop'te-rus, _adj._ having short wings or fins. MICROPYLE, m[=i]'kr[=o]-p[=i]l, _n._ (_bot._) the orifice in the coats of the ovule leading to the apex of the nucleus, through which the pollen-tube penetrates: (_zool._) the hilum of an ovum at the point of attachment to the ovary: any opening in the coverings of an ovum by which spermatozoa may find entrance. [Gr. _mikros_, small, _pyl[=e]_, a gate.] MICROSCOPE, m[=i]'kr[=o]-sk[=o]p, _n._ an instrument which magnifies to the eye objects so minute as to be almost or quite undiscernible without its aid.--_adjs._ MICROSCOP'IC, -AL, pertaining to a microscope: made by, or as if by, a microscope: visible only by the aid of a microscope: working with, or as if with, a microscope.--_adv._ MICROSCOP'ICALLY.--_ns._ M[=I]'CROSCOPIST, one skilled in the use of the microscope; M[=I]'CROSCOPY.--BINOCULAR MICROSCOPE, a microscope with two eye-pieces, for viewing an object with both eyes at once; COMPOUND MICROSCOPE, a microscope with two sets of lenses so arranged that the image formed by the lower or object glass is again magnified by the upper or eye-piece. [Gr. _mikros_, little, _skopein_, to look at.] MICROSEISM, m[=i]'kr[=o]-sizm, _n._ a slight earthquake tremor.--_adjs._ MICROSEIS'MIC, -AL.--_ns._ MICROSEIS'MOGRAPH; MICROSEISMOM'ETRY. MICROSOMA, m[=i]-kr[=o]-s[=o]'ma, _n._ one of the minute granules embedded in the hyaline plasm of the protoplasm of vegetable cells:--_pl._ MICROS[=O]'MATA. [Gr. _mikros_, small, _s[=o]ma_, body.] MICROSPECTROSCOPE, m[=i]-kr[=o]-spek'tr[=o]-sk[=o]p, _n._ a combination of the spectroscope with the microscope. MICROSPORE, m[=i]'kr[=o]-sp[=o]r, _n._ (_bot._) a small asexually produced spore: (_zool._) one of the numerous very small spore-like elements produced through the encystment and subdivision of many monads.--_n._ MICROSPORAN'GIUM.--_adj._ M[=I]'CROSPOROUS. [Gr. _mikros_, small, _sporos_, a seed.] MICROTOME, m[=i]'kr[=o]-t[=o]m, _n._ an instrument for cutting thin sections of objects for microscopic examination.--_adj._ MICROTOM'IC.--_ns._ MICROT'OMIST; MICROT'OMY. [Gr. _mikros_, little, _temnein_, to cut.] MICROZOA, m[=i]-kr[=o]-z[=o]'ä, _n.pl._ microscopic animals.--_n._ and _adj._ MICROZ[=O]'AN.--_n._ MICROZO[=A]'RIA, a name sometimes used for infusorians, &c.--_adj._ MICROZO[=A]'RIAN.--_n._ and _adj._ MICROZ[=O]'ÖID, a very minute free-swimming zoöid, which buries itself in the body of a sedentary animalcule.--_ns._ MICROZ[=O]'ÖN, any micro-organism of animal nature; MICROZ[=O]'ÖSPORE, a zoöspore of abnormally small size; M[=I]'CROZYME, a member of a class of extremely minute living organisms floating in the atmosphere, supposed to be the means of communicating certain epidemic and other zymotic diseases. [Gr. _mikros_, small, _z[=o]on_, an animal, _sporos_, seed, _zym[=e]_, leaven.] MICTURITION, mik-t[=u]-rish'un, _n._ the act of passing, or the frequent desire to pass, urine.--_n._ MIC'TION, voiding urine.--_v.i._ MIC'TURATE. [L. _mictur[=i]re_, _-[=i]tum_, to pass urine.] MID, mid, _adj._ middle: situated between extremes.--_prep._ amid.--_n._ (_Shak._) middle.--_ns._ MID'-AGE (_Shak._), the middle time of life, a person in middle-life; MID'-AIR, MID'-HEAV'EN, the middle of the sky; MID'DAY, the middle of the day: noon.--_adj._ of or pertaining to noon.--_adj._ MID'DEST (_Spens._), most nearly in the middle: middlemost.--_n._ the midst, middle.--_n._ MID'-HOUR, the middle part of the day.--_adj._ MID'LAND, in the middle of, or surrounded by, land: distant from the coast: inland.--_n._ the interior of a country: (_pl._) esp. the central parts of England.--_n._ MID'-LENT, the middle or fourth Sunday in Lent.--_adj._ MID'MOST, middlemost.--_n._ MID'NIGHT, the middle of the night: twelve o'clock at night.--_adj._ being at midnight: dark as midnight.--_ns._ MID'NOON, noon; MID'-SEA, the open sea.--_adj._ MID'SHIP, being in the middle of a ship.--_n._ MID'SHIPMAN, in the British navy, an officer whose rank is next above that of a naval cadet: in the U.S. navy, the lowest grade of officers in the line of promotion, now called NAVAL CADET.--_adv._ MID'SHIPS.--_ns._ MID'SUMMER, the middle of summer: the summer solstice, about the 21st of June; MID'SUMMER-DAY, the 24th of June; MID'WAY, the middle of the way or distance.--_adj._ being in the middle of the way or distance.--_adv._ half-way.--_n._ MID'WINTER, the middle of winter: the winter solstice (21st or 22d December), or the time shortly before or after it. [A.S. (_mid-_), _middgen_; Ger. _mitte_ and _mittel_, L. _medius_, Gr. _mesos_.] MIDAS, m[=i]'das, _n._ a fabulously rich man, from the king of Phrygia who got the power of turning everything he touched into gold, till he was like to be starved. His ears were changed by Apollo to those of an ass for deciding a musical contest in favour of Pan. MIDDEN, mid'en, _n._ a heap of ashes or dung (see also KITCHEN-MIDDEN).--_n._ MIDD'ENSTEAD, a place where dung is heaped up. [Scand., as Dan. _mödding_--_mög_, dung; cf. _Muck_.] MIDDLE, mid'l, _adj._ equally distant from the extremes: intermediate: intervening: (_gram._) intermediate between active and passive, reflexive.--_n._ the middle point or part: midst: central portion, waist.--_adjs._ MIDD'LE-AGED, of or about the middle period of life (from about 35 to 50); MIDD'LE-CLASS, pertaining to, or included in, the middle class.--_ns._ MIDD'LE-EARTH (_Shak._), the earth, considered as placed between the upper and lower regions; MIDD'LEMAN, one who stands in the middle between two persons: an agent who does business between two parties: in Ireland, one who rents land in large tracts, and lets it in small portions to the peasantry.--_adjs._ MIDD'LEMOST, MID'MOST (_B._), nearest the middle; MIDD'LE-SIZED, of middle or average size.--_ns._ MIDD'LE-WATCH, the period between midnight and 4 A.M.; MIDD'LE-WEIGHT, a boxer or jockey of intermediate weight, between light and heavy weight.--_adj._ MIDD'LING, of middle rate, state, size, or quality: about equally distant from the extremes: moderate: (_Scot._) not in very good health: fairly well or prosperous.--_adv._ moderately.--_n._ MIDD'LINGNESS, mediocrity.--_n.pl._ MIDD'LINGS, the coarser part of ground wheat.--MIDDLE AGES, the time between the downfall of the western Roman empire, about 476 A.D., and the Reformation in the first quarter of the 16th century, or even earlier--in the later half of the preceding century, when printing was invented, America discovered, and the revival of learning took place; MIDDLE CLASS, that part of the people which comes between the nobility and the working-class; MIDDLE DISTANCE (same as MIDDLE GROUND); MIDDLE ENGLISH, English as spoken and written from 1350 to 1500 or 1550; MIDDLE GROUND, the central portion of a picture--that is, between the foreground and background; MIDDLE KINGDOM, China; MIDDLE PASSAGE, the voyage across the Atlantic from Africa to the West Indies, which was a time of horror on board a slave-ship; MIDDLE STATES, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware; MIDDLE TERM (_logic_), that term of a syllogism which appears both in the major premise and the minor, but not in the conclusion.--MIDDLE-CLASS SCHOOLS, schools for the higher education of the middle class, intermediate between the primary schools and the large public schools or the universities. [A.S. _middel_--_mid_; Dut. _middel_, Ger. _mittel_.] MIDDY, mid'i, _n._ for midshipman. MIDGARD, mid'g[=a]rd, _n._ (_Scand. myth._) the abode of men, midway between heaven and hell. [Ice. _midhgardhr_=mid-yard.] MIDGE, mij, _n._ the common name of several species of small two-winged insects, like gnats, but with a shorter proboscis.--_n._ MIDG'ET, a little midge: something very small of its kind: a very small person. [A.S. _micge_; Ger. _mücke_, a gnat.] MIDRASH, mid'rash, _n._ the Hebrew exposition of the Old Testament--its two divisions, _Haggada_ and _Halakha_:--_pl._ MIDRASHIM (mid-rä'sh[=e]m), commentaries to individual books or sections of the Old Testament. [Heb., 'exposition.'] MIDRIB, mid'rib, _n._ (_bot._) the continuation of the leaf-stalk to the point of a leaf. MIDRIFF, mid'rif, _n._ the diaphragm. [A.S. _mid_, middle, _hrif_, the belly.] MIDST, midst, _n._ the middle.--_adv._ in the middle.--_prep._ amidst. [From the M. E. phrase _in middle-s_, in the midst, with excrescent _t_ (cf. _whil-s-t_).] MIDWIFE, mid'w[=i]f, _n._ a woman who assists others in childbirth:--_pl._ MIDWIVES (mid'w[=i]vz).--_n._ MID'WIFERY, art or practice of a midwife or accoucheuse: assistance at childbirth. [A.S. _mid_, together with (Ger. _mit_, Gr. _met-a_), _wíf_, woman.] MIEN, m[=e]n, _n._ the look or appearance of a person: the expression of the face: manner: bearing. [Fr. _mine_--It. _mina_, deportment--Low L. _min[=a]re_, to conduct--L. _min[=a]ri_, to threaten.] MIFF, mif, _n._ (_coll._) a slight feeling of resentment. [Akin to Ger. _muffen_, to sulk.] MIGHT, m[=i]t, _pa.t._ of may. MIGHT, m[=i]t, _n._ power: ability: strength: energy or intensity of purpose or feeling.--_adj._ MIGHT'FUL (_Shak._), mighty: powerful.--_adv._ MIGHT'ILY.--_n._ MIGHT'INESS, state of being mighty: power: greatness: great amount: a title of dignity: excellency.--_adj._ MIGHT'Y, having greater power: strong: valiant: very great: important: exhibiting might: wonderful.--MIGHT AND MAIN, utmost strength. [A.S. _meaht_, _miht_; Ger. _macht_; cf. _May_.] MIGNONETTE, min-yo-net', _n._ an annual with sweet-scented flowers. [Fr.,--_mignon_, darling.] MIGRAINE, mi-gr[=a]n', _n._ Same as MEGRIM. MIGRATE, m[=i]'gr[=a]t, _v.i._ to pass from one place to another: to remove for residence from one country, college, &c. to another.--_adjs._ M[=I]'GRANT, M[=I]'GR[=A]TORY, migrating or accustomed to migrate: wandering.--_ns._ MIGR[=A]'TION, a change of abode: a removal from one country or climate to another: a number removing together; MIGR[=A]'TIONIST, MIGR[=A]'TOR.--MIGRATORY ANIMALS, animals that remove from one region to another as the seasons change. [L. _migr[=a]re_, -_[=a]tum_; cf. _me[=a]re_, to go.] MIKADO, mi-kä'd[=o], _n._ a title of the Emperor of Japan. [Jap., 'exalted gate.'] MIL, mil, _n._ a unit of length in measuring the diameter of wire. [L. _mille_, a thousand.] MILADI, mi-l[=a]'di, _n._ my lady. [It.] MILCH, milch, _adj._ giving milk: yielding liquid, tender. [_Milk_.] MILD, m[=i]ld, _adj._ gentle in temper and disposition: not sharp or bitter: acting gently: gently and pleasantly affecting the senses: soft: calm.--_v.t._ MILD'EN, to render mild.--_v.i._ to become mild.--_adv._ MILD'LY.--_n._ MILD'NESS.--_adj._ MILD'-SPOK'EN, having a mild manner of speech.--MILD ALE, ale newly brewed, which has not got the taste that comes from keeping. [A.S. _milde_, mild; cf. Ger. _mild_, Ice. _mildr_, gracious, &c.] MILDEW, mil'd[=u], _n._ a disease on plants, caused by the growth of minute fungi.--_v.t._ to taint with mildew.--_v.i._ to become so tainted. [A.S. _meledeáw_, _mele_, honey, _deáw_, dew.] MILE, m[=i]l, _n._ 1760 yards.--_ns._ MILE'AGE, length in miles: (_U.S._) compensation for expense of travel reckoned by the mile; MIL'ER, something the length of a mile; MILE'STONE, a stone set up to mark the distance of a mile. [A.S. _mil_; Fr. _mille_; both a contr. of L. _mille passuum_, a thousand paces.] MILESIAN, mi-l[=e]'zhan, _adj._ of or pertaining to Ireland or to the Irish race.--_n._ an Irishman. [_Milesius_, a fabulous king of Spain, whose sons seized Ireland.] MILFOIL, mil'foil, _n._ the herb yarrow, remarkable for the numerous divisions of its leaf. [L. _millefolium_--_mille_, thousand, _folium_, a leaf.] MILIARY, mil'yar-i, _adj._ like a millet-seed: having formations of the size of millet-seeds, as miliary glands. [L. _milium_, millet.] MILITANT, mil'i-tant, _adj._ fighting: engaged in warfare.--_n._ MIL'ITANCY, the state of being militant.--_adv._ MIL'ITANTLY.--_ns._ MIL'ITARISM, an excess of the military spirit; MIL'ITARIST (_Shak._), a military man.--_adj._ MIL'ITARY, pertaining to soldiers or to warfare: warlike: becoming a soldier: engaged in the profession of arms: derived from service as a soldier--(_obs._) MIL'ITAR.--_n._ soldiery: the army.--_v.i._ MIL'ITATE, to contend: to stand opposed: to have force for or against.--CHURCH MILITANT (see Church). [L. _militans_, -_antis_, pr.p. of _milit[=a]re_.] MILITIA, mi-lish'a, _n._ a body of men enrolled and drilled as soldiers, but only liable to home service: (_U.S._) the whole body of citizens capable of bearing arms.--_n._ MILIT'IAMAN, a man or soldier in the militia force. [L. _militia_--_miles_, _militis_.] MILK, milk, _v.t._ to squeeze or draw milk from: to supply with milk.--_n._ a white liquid secreted by female mammals for the nourishment of their young: a milk-like juice of certain plants.--_adj._ MILK'EN, consisting of milk, or like milk.--_ns._ MILK'EN-WAY (_Bacon_), the milky-way, the galaxy; MILK'ER, one who milks: a machine for milking cows: a cow that gives milk; MILK'-F[=E]'VER, a fever accompanying the secretion of milk shortly after childbirth.--_adv._ MILK'ILY.--_ns._ MILK'INESS; MILK'ING, the amount of milk drawn at one time; MILK'ING-STOOL, a stool on which the milker sits while milking; MILK'ING-TIME; MILK'ING-TUBE, a perforated tube inserted in a cow's teat to let the milk flow without pressing the udder; MILK'-KIN'SHIP, the kinship arising from fostering.--_adj._ MILK'-LIV'ERED (_Shak._), white-livered: cowardly.--_ns._ MILK'MAID, a woman who milks: a dairymaid; MILK'MAN, a man who sells milk, esp. from door to door; MILK'-M[=O]'LAR, one of the grinders or back teeth in young animals, early shed and replaced by another; MILK'-PORR'IDGE, porridge made with milk instead of water; MILK'-PUNCH, an excellent but very heady drink made of milk, rum or whisky, sugar, and nutmeg; MILK'-SICK'NESS (_U.S._), a kind of malignant fever affecting cattle, also men; MILK'SOP, a piece of bread sopped or soaked in milk: an effeminate, silly fellow; MILK'-THIS'TLE, the lady's thistle; MILK'-TOOTH, one of the first fore-teeth of a foal: one of the first teeth of a child; MILK'-TREE, a tree yielding a milk-like, nourishing juice, as the cow-tree of South America; MILK'-VETCH, a plant sometimes cultivated as food for cattle; MILK'-WALK, a milkman's route.--_adj._ MILK'-WARM, warm as new milk.--_ns._ MILK'-WEED, a general name for plants of the genus Asclepias, from their milky juice; MILK'-WORT, a genus of handsome flowering plants, containing a milk-like juice.--_adj._ MILK'Y, made of, full of, like, or yielding milk: soft: gentle.--_n._ MILK'Y-WAY (_astron._), the galaxy, a broad, luminous zone in the sky, caused by the light of innumerable fixed stars. [A.S. _meolc_, milk; Ger. _milch_, milk.] MILL, mil, _n._ a machine for grinding any substance, as grain, by crushing it between two hard, rough surfaces: a place where corn is ground, or manufacture of some kind is carried on: a contest at boxing.--_v.t._ to grind: to press or stamp in a mill: to stamp or turn up the edge of coin, and put ridges and furrows on the rim: to put furrows and ridges on any edge: to clean, as cloth: to beat severely with the fists.--_ns._ MILL'-BOARD, stout pasteboard, used esp. in binding books; MILL'COG, a cog of a mill-wheel; MILL'DAM, MILL'POND, a dam or pond to hold water for driving a mill.--_adj._ MILLED, prepared by a grinding-mill or a coining-press: transversely grooved: treated by machinery, esp. smoothed by calendering rollers in a paper-mill.--_ns._ MILL'-HORSE, a horse that turns a mill; MILL'ING, the act of passing anything through a mill: the act of fulling cloth: the process of turning up the edge of coin and of putting the rows of ridges and furrows on it: indenting coin on the edge; MILL'RACE, the current of water that turns a mill-wheel, or the channel in which it runs; MILL-SIX'PENCE (_Shak._), a milled sixpence; MILL'STONE, one of the two stones used in a mill for grinding corn; MILL'STONE-GRIT (_geol._), a hard gritty variety of sandstone suitable for millstones; MILL'-TOOTH, a molar; MILL'-WHEEL, the water-wheel used for driving a mill; MILL'-WORK, the machinery of a mill: the planning and putting up of machinery in mills; MILL'WRIGHT, a wright or mechanic who builds and repairs mills.--GO THROUGH THE MILL, to undergo suffering or experience sufficient to fit one for certain duties or privileges; SEE THROUGH A MILLSTONE, to see far into or through difficult questions. [A.S. _miln_--L. _mola_, a mill--_mol[=a]re_, to grind.] MILL, mil, _n._ (_U.S._) the thousandth part of a dollar. [L. _mille_, a thousand.] MILLENNIUM, mil-len'i-um, _n._ a thousand years: the thousand years during which, as some believe, Christ will personally reign on the earth.--_adj._ MILLEN[=A]'RIAN, lasting a thousand years: pertaining to the millennium.--_n._ one believing in the millennium.--_ns._ MILLEN[=A]'RIANISM, MIL'LENARISM, the doctrine of millenarians.--_adj._ MILL'ENARY, consisting of a thousand.--_n._ a thousand years.--_adj._ MILLENN'IAL, pertaining to a thousand years, or to the millennium.--_ns._ MILLENN'IALIST, a believer in the millennium; MILLENN'IANISM, MILLENN'IARISM, belief in the millennium. [L. _mille_, 1000, _annus_, a year.] MILLEPED. See MILLIPED. MILLEPORE, mil'e-p[=o]r, _n._ a species of branching coral, having a smooth surface with numerous minute, distinct pores or cells.--_n._ MILL'EPORITE, a fossil millepore. [Fr.; L. _mille_, 1000, _porus_, a pore.] MILLER, mil'[.e]r, _n._ one who has, or who attends to, a corn-mill.--_ns._ MILL'ER'S-THUMB, a small fresh-water fish with a large, broad, and rounded head like a miller's thumb, the river bull-head. MILLESIMAL, mil-les'im-al, _adj._ thousandth: consisting of thousandth parts.--_adv._ MILLES'IMALLY. [L. _millesimus_--_mille_, a thousand.] MILLET, mil'et, _n._ a grass yielding grain which is used for food. [Fr. _millet_--L. _milium_.] MILLIARD, mil'yard, _n._ a thousand millions. [Fr.,--L. _mille_, a thousand.] MILLIARE, mil'yar, _n._ the one-thousandth part of an are. MILLIARY, mil'i-[=a]-ri, _adj._ pertaining to a Roman mile.--_n._ a Roman milestone. MILLIER, m[=e]l-y[=a]', _n._ a weight of 1000 kilogrammes. MILLIGRAM, mil'i-gram, _n._ the 1/1000th part of a gramme. MILLILITRE, mil'i-l[=e]-t[.e]r, _n._ the thousandth part of a litre. MILLIMETER, MILLIMETRE, mil'i-m[=e]-t[.e]r, _n._ the thousandth part of a metre. MILLINER, mil'in-[.e]r, _n._ one who makes head-dresses, bonnets, &c. for women.--_n._ MILL'INERY, the articles made or sold by milliners: the industry of making these. [Prob. orig. _Milaner_, a trader in Milan wares, esp. silks and ribbons.] MILLION, mil'yun, _n._ a thousand thousands (1,000,000): a very great number.--_n._ MILL'IONAIRE, a man worth a million of money or more.--_adj._ MILL'IONARY, pertaining to, or consisting of, millions.--_adj._ and _n._ MILL'IONTH, the ten hundred thousandth.--THE MILLION, the great body of the people generally. [Fr.,--Low L. _millio_--L. _mille_, 1000.] MILLIPED, MILLEPED, mil'e-ped, _n._ a small worm-like animal, with a great number of legs.--Also MILL'IPEDE, MILL'EPEDE. [L. _millepeda_--_mille_, a thousand, _pes, pedis_, a foot.] MILLOCRAT, mil'[=o]-krat, _n._ a wealthy mill-owner.--_n._ MILL'OCRATISM. MILORD, mi-lord', _n._ my lord: a rich Englishman on the Continent. MILREIS, mil'r[=e]s, _n._ a thousand reals: a Portuguese coin worth about 4s. 5d. MILSEY, mil'si, _n._ (_prov._) a milk-strainer. MILT, milt, _n._ the soft roe of male fishes: (_anat._) the spleen.--_v.t._ to impregnate, as the spawn of the female fish.--_n._ MILT'ER, a male fish. [A corr. of _milk_, as in Sw. _mjölke_, milt of fishes.] MILTONIC, mil-ton'ik, _adj._ relating to _Milton_ (1608-74), or to his poetry. MILVINE, mil'vin, _adj._ pertaining to, or like, birds of the kite family. [L. _milvinus_--_milvus_, a kite.] MIM, mim, _adj._ (_prov._) demure, precise. MIMBAR, mim'bar, _n._ the pulpit in a mosque. MIME, m[=i]m, _n._ a farce in which scenes from actual life were represented by gesture: an actor in such a farce.--_n._ MIM'ESIS, a mimicking of the speech, gestures, &c. of a person or a people: (_biol._) mimicry.--_adjs._ MIMET'IC, -AL, apt to imitate.--_v.t._ MIM'IC, to imitate: simulate:--_pr.p._ mim'icking; _pa.p._ mim'icked.--_n._ one who mimics: a buffoon: a servile imitator.--_adjs._ MIM'IC, -AL, imitative: mock: miniature.--_ns._ MIM'ICKER; MIM'ICRY, act of mimicking: an imitative resemblance in one animal to another or to some inanimate object. [Gr. _mimos_.] MIMEOGRAPH, mim'[=e]-[=o]-graf, _n._ an apparatus in which a thin fibrous paper coated with paraffin is used as a stencil for reproducing copies of written or printed matter.--_v.t._ to reproduce such by this means. [Gr. _mimeisthai_, to imitate, _graphein_, to write.] MIMOGRAPHY, mim-og'ra-fi, _n._ the art of writing gesture-languages by means of pictorial symbols constituting ideographs.--_n._ MIMOG'RAPHER. MIMOSA, m[=i]-m[=o]'za, _n._ a genus of leguminous plants, including the sensitive plant. [Gr. _mimos_.] MIMULUS, mim'[=u]-lus, _n._ a genus of figworts. MINA, m[=i]'na, _n._ a weight in silver at Athens=100 drachmas: (_B._) a weight of money valued at fifty shekels. [L. _mina_--Gr. _mna_.] MINA, m[=i]'na, _n._ one of several different sturnoid passerine birds of India. MINARET, min'a-ret, _n._ a turret on a Mohammedan mosque, from which the people are summoned to prayers. [Sp. _minarete_--Ar. _manarat_, lighthouse--_nar_, fire.] MINATORY, min'a-tor-i, _adj._ threatening, menacing.--Also MIN[=A]'CIOUS. [L. _min[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_, to threaten.] MINAUDERIE, min-[=o]'de-r[=e], _n._ a display of affectation. [Fr.] MINCE, mins, _v.t._ to cut into small pieces: to chop fine: to diminish or suppress a part in speaking: to pronounce affectedly.--_v.i._ to walk with affected nicety: to speak affectedly:--_pr.p._ minc'ing; _pa.p._ minced (minst).--_ns._ MINCE'-MEAT, meat chopped small--hence anything thoroughly broken or cut to pieces; MINCE'-PIE, a pie made with minced meat, &c.--_adj._ MINC'ING, not speaking fully out: speaking or walking with affected nicety.--_adv._ MINC'INGLY.--MINCE MATTERS, to speak of things with affected delicacy, or to soften an account unduly.--MINCED COLLOPS (see COLLOPS). [A.S. _minsian_--_min_, small; prob. cog. with Fr. _mince_, thin, also Teut.] MIND, m[=i]nd, _n._ the faculty by which we think, &c.: the understanding: the whole spiritual nature: memory: choice: intention: thoughts or sentiments: belief: cast of thought and feeling: (_B._) disposition.--_v.t._ to attend to: to obey: (_orig._) to remind: (_Scot._) to remember.--_v.i._ (_B._) to intend.--_adj._ MIND'ED, having a mind: disposed: determined.--_ns._ MIND'EDNESS, inclination toward anything; MIND'ER, a care-taker: one taken care of, as a pauper child by a private person.--_adj._ MIND'FUL, bearing in mind: taking thought or care: attentive: observant.--_adv._ MIND'FULLY.--_n._ MIND'FULNESS.--_adj._ MIND'LESS, without mind: stupid.--_n._ MIND'-TRANS'FERENCE, thought-transference.--MIND ONE'S P'S AND Q'S, to be accurate and precise; MIND YOUR EYE (_slang_), take care what you are about.--ABSENCE OF MIND, inattention to what is going on at the time; BEAR IN MIND, to remember; BE OUT OF ONE'S MIND, to be forgotten: to be insane; HAVE A MIND, to wish or to be inclined strongly; HAVE HALF A MIND, to be somewhat inclined; LOSE, or BE OUT OF, ONE'S MIND, to become insane; MAKE UP ONE'S MIND, to determine; MONTH'S MIND, continual prayer on a dead person's behalf for a month after death, with masses esp. on 3d, 7th, and 30th days (also A MONTHLY MIND): any very strong desire or inclination; NEVER MIND, do not concern yourself; OF ONE MIND, agreed; Of two minds, uncertain what to think or do; PRESENCE OF MIND, a state of calmness in which all the powers of the mind are on the alert and ready for action; PUT IN MIND, to warn or remind; YEAR'S MIND, a commemorative service of a similar kind to the month's mind, on the anniversary of a death. [A.S. _ge-mynd_--_munan_, to think; Ger. _meinen_, to think, L. _mens_, the mind.] MINDERERUS SPIRIT, min-der-[=e]'rus spir'it, _n._ acetate of ammonia, much used in cases of fever. MINE, m[=i]n, _adj. pron._ belonging to me: my. [A.S. _mín;_ Ger. _mein._] MINE, m[=i]n, _v.i._ and _v.t._ to dig for metals: to excavate: to dig under a wall or building in order to overturn it: to ruin or destroy by secret means.--_n._ a place from which metals are dug: an excavation dug under a fortification to blow it up with gunpowder: a rich source of wealth.--_ns._ MINE'-CAP'TAIN, the overseer of a mine; M[=I]'NER, one who digs in a mine.--_adj._ M[=I]'NY, rich in mines: like a mine.--See also SUBMARINE MINE. [Low L. _min[=a]re,_ to lead, open a mine.] MINERAL, min'[.e]r-al, _n._ an inorganic substance found in the earth or at its surface: any substance containing a metal.--_adj._ relating to minerals: having the nature of minerals: impregnated with minerals, as water: denoting inorganic substances.--_n._ MINERALIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ MIN'ERALISE, to make into a mineral: to give the properties of a mineral to: to impregnate with mineral matter.--_v.i._ to collect minerals.--_ns._ MIN'ERALISER, an element that combines with a metal to form an ore, as sulphur: a volatile or other substance, as water, which facilitates the recrystallisation of rocks; MIN'ERALIST, one versed in or employed about minerals.--_adj._ MINERALOG'ICAL, pertaining to mineralogy.--_adv._ MINERALOG'ICALLY.--_v.i._ MINERAL'OGISE, to collect or study minerals.--_ns._ MINERAL'OGIST, one versed in mineralogy; MINERAL'OGY, the science which treats of minerals: the art of describing and classifying minerals.--MINERAL ACIDS, a name applied to sulphuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acids; MINERAL BLACK, an impure carbon used as a pigment; MINERAL CAOUTCHOUC, a variety of bitumen--also _Elaterite_; MINERAL KINGDOM, that department of nature which comprises substances that are neither animal nor vegetable; MINERAL OIL, oil which is forced up or pumped from the earth, as petroleum, naphtha, &c.; MINERAL SALT, a salt of a mineral acid; MINERAL WATER, the water of certain springs having the taste of various kinds of minerals, and used as medicines. [Fr.,--_miner_, to mine--Low L. _min[=a]re;_ cf. _Mine._] MINERVA, mi-n[.e]r'va, _n._ the Roman goddess of wisdom, of the arts and sciences, and of war--identified with the Greek Athena.--MINERVA PRESS, a printing-office in Leadenhall Street, London, whence were issued about the close of the 18th century a long series of highly sentimental novels. [L., prob. from root of _mens_, _mentis_, the mind.] MINEVER, min'e-v[.e]r, _n._ Same as MINIVER. MING, ming, _v.t._ to mix:--old _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ meint, ment. [A.S. _mengan;_ Ger. _mengen_.] MINGLE, ming'gl, _v.t._ to mix: to unite into one mass: to confuse: to join in mutual intercourse.--_v.i._ to become mixed or confused.--_n._ a medley.--_n._ MING'LE-MANG'LE, a medley, jumble.--_v.t._ to confuse, jumble together.--_ns._ MING'LEMENT; MING'LER; MING'LING, mixture: a mixing or blending together.--_adv._ MING'LINGLY. [Freq. of _ming_.] MINIATURE, min'i-a-t[=u]r, or min'i-t[=u]r, _n._ a painting on a very small scale, on ivory, vellum, or thick paper: a small or reduced copy of anything.--_adj._ on a small scale: minute.--_v.t._ to represent on a small scale.--_n._ MIN'IATURIST, one who paints miniatures. [It. _miniatura_--_miniare_, to write with red lead--L. _minium_, vermilion.] MINIBUS, min'i-bus, _n._ a small four-wheeled carriage. MINIÉ RIFLE. See Rifle. MINIFY, min'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to make little or less: to depreciate. MINIKIN, min'i-kin, _n._ a little darling: a small sort of pin: the treble string of a lute.--_adj._ small. [Old Dut., dim. of _minne_, love, cog. with Old High Ger. _minna_, memory, love.] MINIM, min'im, _n._ (_med._) the smallest liquid measure, a drop, 1/60 drachm: (_mus._) a note (formerly the shortest) equal to two crotchets: (_Milt._) a diminutive creature: one of an austere order of mendicant friars founded about the middle of the 15th century by St Francis of Paola in Calabria (1416-1507)--called Minims (L. _minimi_, the least) to humble them even below the Franciscans (_Friars minor_).--_adj._ MIN'IMAL.--_v.t._ MIN'IMISE, to reduce to the smallest possible proportions: to treat slightingly.--_ns._ MINIM'ITUDE, MINIMIS[=A]'TION; MIN'IMUM, the least quantity or degree possible--opp. of _Maximum_: a trifle:--_pl._ MIN'IMA; MIN'IMUS (_Shak._), a being of the smallest size.--MINIMUM and MAXIMUM THERMOMETER (see THERMOMETER). [Fr. _minime_--L. _minimus_, _minima_, the smallest.] MINIMENT, min'i-ment, _n._ obsolete form of _muniment_. MINING, m[=i]'ning, _n._ the art of forming or of working mines: the work of a miner.--_adj._ of or pertaining to mines: of burrowing habits. MINION, min'yun, _n._ a darling, a favourite, esp. of a prince: a flatterer: a fawning favourite: (_print._) a small kind of type, about 10½ lines to the inch, between nonpareil and brevier. [Fr. _mignon_, a darling--Old High Ger. _minna_, _minne_, love.] MINISH, min'ish, _v.t._ (_B._) to make little or less: to diminish. [Fr. _menuiser_, to cut small, said of a carpenter--L. _minutia_, smallness.] MINISTER, min'is-t[.e]r, _n._ a servant: one who serves at the altar: a clergyman: one transacting business for another: the responsible head of a department of state affairs: the representative of a government at a foreign court.--_v.i._ to act as a servant: to perform duties: to supply or do things needful.--_v.t._ to furnish:--_pr.p._ min'istering; _pa.p._ min'istered.--_adj._ MINIST[=E]'RIAL, pertaining to the work of a servant: acting under superior authority: pertaining to the office of a minister: clerical: executive.--_n._ MINIST[=E]'RIALIST, one who supports ministers or the government in office.--_adv._ MINIST[=E]'RIALLY.--_adj._ MIN'ISTERING, attending and serving.--_n._ MINIST[=E]'RIUM, the body of the ordained ministers in a district.--_adj._ MIN'ISTRANT, administering: attendant.--_n._ MINISTR[=A]'TION, the act of ministering or performing service: office or service of a minister.--_adj._ MIN'ISTR[=A]TIVE, serving to aid or assist: ministering.--_ns._ MIN'ISTRESS, a female minister; MIN'ISTRY, act of ministering: service: office or duties of a minister: the clergy: the clerical profession: the body of ministers who manage the business of the country. [L.,--_minor_, less.] MINIUM, min'i-um, _n._ red oxide of lead.--_adj._ MIN'IATE, minium coloured.--_v.t._ to paint with minium. [Fr.,--L., _minium_, red lead.] MINIVER, min'i-v[.e]r, _n._ a mixed or variegated fur. [O. Fr. _menu ver_--_menu_, small--L. _minutus_, _vair_, fur--L. _varius_, changing, mottled.] MINK, mingk, _n._ a small quadruped of the weasel kind, valued for its fur. [Perh. from Sw. _mänk_.] MINNESINGER, min'e-sing'[.e]r, _n._ one of a school of German amatory lyric poets in the 12th and 13th centuries, mostly of noble birth. [Ger. _minne_, love, _singer_, singer.] MINNIE, min'i, _n._ (_Scot._) mother. [Dim. of _min_.] MINNOW, min'[=o], _n._ a very small fresh-water fish of the same genus as the roach, chub, &c.: the young of larger fish. [A.S. _myne_, prob. _min_, less.] MINO, m[=e]'n[=o], _n._ a Japanese rain-coat of hemp, &c. MINOR, m[=i]'nor, _adj._ smaller: less: inferior in importance, degree, bulk, &c.: inconsiderable: lower: (_mus._) smaller by a semitone.--_n._ a person under age (21 years): (_logic_) the term of a syllogism which forms the subject of the conclusion.--_n._ M[=I]'NORITE, a Franciscan friar.--_adj._ belonging to the Franciscans.--_n._ MINOR'ITY, the state of being under age (also M[=I]'NORSHIP): the smaller of two parts of a number: a number less than half:--opp. to _Majority_.--MINOR CANON, a canon of inferior grade who assists in performing the daily choral service in a cathedral; MINOR MODE or SCALE, the mode or scale in music which has the third note only three semitones above the key; MINOR PREMISE, the premise which contains the minor term; MINOR PROPHETS, the name given to the twelve prophets from Hosea to Malachi inclusive. [L., neut. _minus_.] MINOTAUR, min'o-tawr, _n._ the bull of Minos, a fabulous monster, half-man, half-bull. [L.,--Gr., prob. from _Minos_, king of Crete, _taurus_, a bull.] MINSTER, min'st[.e]r, _n._ the church of an abbey or priory, but often applied to a cathedral church without any monastic connection. [A.S. _mynster_--L. _monasterium_, a monastery.] MINSTREL, min'strel, _n._ one of an order of men who sang to the harp verses composed by themselves or others: a musician: one of a class of performers, with blackened faces, of negro songs.--_n._ MIN'STRELSY, the art or occupation of a minstrel: a company or body of minstrels: a collection of songs: (_Chaucer_) instrumental music. [O. Fr. _menestrel_--Low L. _ministralis_--L. _minister_.] MINT, mint, _n._ the place where money is coined by government: a place where anything is invented or made: any source of abundant supply.--_v.t._ to coin: to invent.--_ns._ MINT'AGE, the money which is minted or coined: the duty paid for coining; MINT'ER, one who mints or coins: an inventor; MINT'-MAN, one skilled in coining or coinage; MINT'-MARK, a private mark put by the mint on coins for purposes of identification; MINT'-MAS'TER, the master of a mint: one who invents. [A.S. _mynet_, money--L. _mon[=e]ta_, a surname of Juno--_mon[=e]re_ to remind.] MINT, mint, _n._ an aromatic plant producing a highly odoriferous oil.--_ns._ MINT'-JU'LEP, a spirituous drink flavoured with mint, and sucked through a straw or small tube; MINT'-SAUCE, chopped mint mixed with vinegar and sugar, used as a sauce for roast lamb. [A.S. _minte_--L. _mentha_--Gr. _mintha_.] MINT, mint, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to purpose, try: to hint. [A.S. _myntan_, to mean--_munan_, to think.] MINUEND, min'[=u]-end, _n._ the number from which another is to be subtracted. [L. _minuendum_--_minu[)e]re_, to lessen.] MINUET, min'[=u]-et, _n._ a slow, graceful dance in triple measure, invented in Poitou about the middle of the 17th century: the music for such a dance. [Fr. _menuet_--_menu_, small--L. _minutus_, small.] MINUS, m[=i]'nus, _adj._ less: less than nothing or less than zero: deficient in respect of, deprived of, without.--_n._ an amount less than nothing: the sign (-) before quantities requiring to be subtracted.--_n._ MINUS'C[=U]LE, a semi-uncial cursive script, originated by the monks in the 7th-9th centuries: any small or lower-case letter as distinguished from a capital or _Majuscule_.--_adj._ small, of a letter: written in minuscule. [L., neuter of _minor_, less.] MINUTE, min-[=u]t', _adj._ very small or slender: of small consequence: slight: attentive to small things: particular, exact.--_adv._ MINUTE'LY.--_n._ MINUTE'NESS. [L. _min[=u]tus_, pa.p. of _minu[)e]re_, to lessen.] MINUTE, min'it, _n._ the sixtieth part of an hour: the sixtieth part of a degree: an indefinitely small space of time: a brief jotting or note: (_pl._) a brief summary of the proceedings of a meeting.--_v.t._ to make a brief jotting or note of anything.--_adj._ (_Shak._) happening every minute.--_ns._ MIN'UTE-BELL, a bell sounded at regular intervals of one minute, in morning; MIN'UTE-BOOK, a book containing minutes or short notes; MIN'UTE-GLASS, a glass the sand of which measures a minute in running out; MIN'UTE-GUN, a gun discharged every minute, as a signal of distress or mourning; MIN'UTE-HAND, the hand that indicates the minutes on a clock or watch; MIN'UTE-JACK (_Shak._), a little figure that strikes the bell of the clock: a flighty, unstable person; MIN'UTE-MAN, a man ready to turn out at a minute's warning--the name taken by a body of militia in the American war of independence; MIN'UTE-WATCH, a watch that marks minutes; MIN'UTE-WHILE (_Shak._), a minute's time. [Same word as above.] MINUTIÆ, mi-n[=u]'shi-[=e], _n.pl._ minute or small things: the smallest particulars or details.--_adj._ MIN[=U]'TI[=O]SE. [L., pl. of _minutia_, smallness.] MINX, mingks, _n._ a pert young girl: a jade: a she-puppy. [Contr. of _minikin_, with added _s_.] MIOCENE, m[=i]'o-s[=e]n, _adj._ (_geol._) less recent, applied by Lyell to the middle division of the Tertiary strata. [Gr. _mei[=o]n_, less, _kainos_, recent.] MIOSIS, m[=i]-[=o]'sis, _n._ diminution: litotes. [Gr.] MIR, m[=e]r, _n._ a Russian commune or local community holding land which is redistributed from time to time. [Russ. _mir[)u]_, union.] MIRABLE, m[=i]r'a-bl, _adj._ (_Shak._) wonderful. MIRACLE, mir'a-kl, _n._ anything wonderful: a prodigy: anything beyond human power, and away from the common action of the laws of nature: a supernatural _event._--_ns._ MIR'ACLE-MONG'ER, one who pretends to work miracles; MIR'ACLE-PLAY, a medieval form of drama founded on Old or New Testament history, or the legends of the saints.--_adj._ MIRAC'ULOUS, of the nature of a miracle: done by supernatural power: very wonderful: able to perform miracles.--_adv._ MIRAC'ULOUSLY.--_n._ MIRAC'ULOUSNESS. [Fr.,--L. _miraculum_--_mir[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_, to wonder.] MIRADOR, mir-a-d[=o]r', _n._ a belvedere or gallery. [Sp.] MIRAGE, mi-räzh', _n._ an optical illusion by which objects are seen double, or as if suspended in the air. [Fr.--_mirer_--L. _mir[=a]ri_.] MIRBANE, m[.e]r'b[=a]n, _n._ nitro-benzol. [See NITRE.] MIRE, m[=i]r, _n._ deep mud.--_v.t._ to plunge and fix in mire: to soil with mud.--_v.i._ to sink in mud.--_n._ M[=I]'RINESS.--_adj._ M[=I]'RY, consisting of mire: covered with mire. [Ice. _mýri_, marsh.] MIRK, m[.e]rk, _adj._ dark.--_adj._ MIRK'SOME, murky. MIRROR, mir'ur, _n._ a looking-glass: a reflecting surface, usually made of glass lined at the back with a brilliant metal: a pattern.--_v.t._ to reflect as in a mirror:--_pr.p._ mirr'oring; _pa.p._ mirr'ored.--_n._ MAG'IC-MIRR'OR, a mirror in which, by means of divination, a person sees scenes in his future life: a Japanese convex mirror, engraved on the back, by which bright light reflected from the polished surface on to a screen gives bright-lined images corresponding to the figures on the back. [O. Fr. _mireor_, _miroir_--L. _mir[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_, to wonder at.] MIRTH, m[.e]rth, _n._ merriness: pleasure: delight: noisy gaiety: jollity: laughter.--_adj._ MIRTH'FUL, full of mirth: causing mirth: merry: jovial.--_adv._ MIRTH'FULLY.--_n._ MIRTH'FULNESS.--_adj._ MIRTH'LESS, joyless: cheerless.--_n._ MIRTH'LESSNESS, absence of mirth. [A.S. _myrgð_--_merg_, merry.] MIRZA, mir'za, _n._ a Persian title, equivalent to 'Prince' when following the surname--a common title of respect, like 'Mr,' when preceding it. MISACCEPTATION, mis-ak-sep-t[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of accepting or understanding in a wrong sense. MISADVENTURE, mis-ad-vent'[=u]r, _n._ an unfortunate adventure: ill-luck: disaster.--_adjs._ MISADVENT'URED (_Shak._), unfortunate; MISADVENT'UROUS. MISADVERTENCE, mis-ad-vert'ens, _n._ want of proper care or attention: inadvertence. MISADVISE, mis-ad-v[=i]z', _v.t._ to give bad advice to: to deceive.--_adj._ MISADVISED', ill-advised, ill-directed.--_adv._ MISADV[=I]'SEDLY.--_n._ MISADV[=I]'SEDNESS. MISAIMED, mis-[=a]md', _adj._ not rightly aimed. MISALLEGE, mis-al-lej', _v.t._ to allege wrongly. MISALLIANCE, mis-al-l[=i]'ans, _n._ a bad alliance, esp. marriage with one of a lower rank--the Fr. _Mésalliance_.--_adj._ MISALLIED'. MISALLOTMENT, mis-al-lot'ment, _n._ a wrong allotment. MISANTHROPE, mis'an-thr[=o]p, _n._ a hater of mankind: one who distrusts every one else--also MISAN'THROPIST.--_adjs._ MISANTHROP'IC, -AL, hating or distrusting mankind.--_adv._ MISANTHROP'ICALLY.--_ns._ MISAN'THROPOS (_Shak._), a misanthrope; MISAN'THROPY, hatred or distrust of mankind. [Fr.,--Gr. _misanthr[=o]pos_--_misein_, to hate, _anthr[=o]pos_, a man.] MISAPPLY, mis-ap-pl[=i]', _v.t._ to apply wrongly: to use for a wrong purpose.--_n._ MISAPPLIC[=A]'TION. MISAPPRECIATED, mis-ap-pr[=e]'shi-[=a]t-ed, _adj._ not rightly or fully appreciated.--_n._ MISAPPRECI[=A]'TION.--_adj._ MISAPPR[=E]'CI[=A]TIVE. MISAPPREHEND, mis-ap-pre-hend', _v.t._ to apprehend wrongly: to take or understand in a wrong sense.--_n._ MISAPPREHEN'SION.--_adv._ MISAPPREHEN'SIVELY, by or with misapprehension or mistake. MISAPPROPRIATE, mis-ap-pr[=o]'pri-[=a]t, _v.t._ to put to a wrong use.--_n._ MISAPPROPRI[=A]'TION. MISARRANGE, mis-ar-r[=a]nj', _v.t._ to arrange wrongly: to put in wrong order.--_n._ MISARRANGE'MENT. MISARRAY, mis-ar-r[=a]', _n._ want of proper order. MISASSIGN, mis-as-s[=i]n', _v.t._ to assign wrongly. MISBECOME, mis-be-kum', _v.t._ not to suit or befit: to be unfitting.--_adj._ MISBECOM'ING, unbecoming.--_n._ an impropriety.--_n._ MISBECOM'INGNESS. MISBEGOT, MISBEGOTTEN, mis-be-got', -got'n, _p.adj._ (_Shak._) unlawfully begotten: shapeless. MISBEHAVE, mis-be-h[=a]v', _v.i._ to behave ill or improperly.--_adj._ MISBEHAVED' (_Shak._), badly behaved: ill-bred.--_n._ MISBEHAV'IOUR. MISBELIEVE, mis-be-l[=e]v', _v.t._ to believe wrongly or falsely.--_ns._ MISBELIEF', belief in false doctrine; MISBELIEV'ER.--_adj._ MISBELIEV'ING. MISBESEEM, mis-be-s[=e]m', _v.t._ to suit ill. MISBESTOW, mis-be-st[=o]', _v.t._ to bestow improperly, or on the wrong person.--_n._ MISBESTOW'AL. MISBORN, mis'bawrn, _adj._ (_Spens._) born to evil or misfortune--_n._ MISBIRTH', an abortion. MISCALCULATE, mis-kal'k[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to calculate wrongly.--_n._ MISCALCUL[=A]'TION. MISCALL, mis-kawl', _v.t._ to call by a wrong name: to abuse or revile. MISCARRIAGE, mis-kar'ij, _n._ the act of miscarrying: failure: ill-conduct: the act of bringing forth young prematurely.--_v.i._ MISCARR'Y, to be unsuccessful: to fail of the intended effect: to bring forth, as young, before the proper time. MISCAST, mis-kast', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to cast erroneously. MISCEGENATION, mis-s[=e]-jen-[=a]'shun, _n._ a mixture of races. [L. _misc[=e]re_, to mix, _genus_, race.] MISCELLANEOUS, mis-sel-l[=a]n'i-us, _adj._ mixed or mingled: consisting of several kinds.--_adj._ MISCELLAN[=A]'RIAN.--_n._ a writer of miscellanies.--_adv._ MISCELLAN'EOUSLY.--_ns._ MISCELLAN'EOUSNESS; MIS'CELL[=A]NIST, a writer of miscellanies; MIS'CELLANY, a mixture of various kinds: a collection of writings on different subjects--also _n.pl._ MISCELL[=A]'NEA. [L. _miscellaneus_--_misc[=e]re_, to mix.] MISCHALLENGE, mis-chal'enj, _n._ a false challenge. MISCHANCE, mis-chans', _n._ ill-luck: mishap, misfortune: calamity.--_v.i._ to chance wrongly, come to ill-luck.--_adj._ MISCHAN'CY (_Scot._), unlucky. MISCHARGE, mis-chärj', _v.t._ to charge wrongly: to make an error in an account.--_n._ a mistake in charging, as in an account. MISCHIEF, mis'chif, _n._ an ill consequence: evil: injury: damage, hurt: (_coll._) the devil, as in 'What the mischief,' &c.--_n._ MIS'CHIEF-MAK'ER, one who incites to mischief.--_adjs._ MIS'CHIEF-MAK'ING, causing mischief; MIS'CHIEVOUS, causing mischief: injurious: prone to mischief.--_adv._ MIS'CHIEVOUSLY.--_n._ MIS'CHIEVOUSNESS.--PLAY THE MISCHIEF WITH, to disturb anything greatly. [O. Fr. _meschef_, from _mes-_, ill, _chef_--L. _caput_, the head.] MISCIBLE, mis'si-bl, _adj._ that may be mixed.--_n._ MISCIBIL'ITY. [Fr.,--L. _misc[=e]re_, to mix.] MISCOLLOCATION, mis-kol-lo-k[=a]'shun, _n._ wrong collocation. MISCOLOUR, mis-kul'ur, _v.t._ to misrepresent. MISCOMPREHEND, mis-kom-pre-hend', _v.t._ to misunderstand.--_n._ MISCOMPREHEN'SION. MISCOMPUTATION, mis-kom-p[=u]-t[=a]'shun, _n._ wrong computation: false reckoning. MISCONCEIT, mis-kon-s[=e]t', _n._ (_Spens._) misconception.--_v.i._ to form a wrong opinion about. MISCONCEIVE, mis-kon-s[=e]v', _v.t._ to conceive wrongly: to mistake.--_v.i._ to have a wrong conception of anything.--_n._ MISCONCEP'TION. MISCONDUCT, mis-kon'dukt, _n._ bad conduct: wrong management.--_v.t._ MISCONDUCT', to conduct badly. MISCONJECTURE, mis-kon-jek't[=u]r, _n._ a wrong conjecture or guess.--_v.t._ or _v.i._ to guess or conjecture wrongly. MISCONSTRUCT, mis-kon-strukt', _v.t._ to construct wrongly: to construe or interpret erroneously.--_n._ MISCONSTRUC'TION, a mistaking of the true meaning. MISCONSTRUE, mis-kon'str[=oo], _v.t._ to construe or to interpret wrongly. MISCONTENT, mis-kon-tent', _adj._ not content--also MISCONTENT'ED.--_n._ MISCONTENT'MENT. MISCOPY, mis-kop'i, _v.t._ to copy wrongly or imperfectly.--_n._ an error in copying. MISCOUNSEL, mis-kown'sel, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to counsel or advise wrongly. MISCOUNT, mis-kownt', _v.t._ to count wrongly: to misjudge.--_n._ a wrong counting. MISCREANT, mis'kr[=e]-ant, _n._ a vile wretch, a detestable scoundrel: a misbeliever, an infidel.--_adj._ unbelieving.--_n._ MIS'CREANCE (_Spens._), unbelief, belief in a false religion. [O. Fr. _mescreant_--_mes-_, L. _credens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _cred[)e]re_, to believe.] MISCREATE, -D, mis-kr[=e]-[=a]t', -ed, _adj._ wrongly created: deformed: (_Shak._) illegitimate.--_n._ MISCRE[=A]'TION.--_adj._ MISCRE[=A]'TIVE, inclining towards wrong creation. MISCREDIT, mis-kr[=e]d'it, _v.t._ to disbelieve. MISCREED, mis-kr[=e]d', _n._ a false creed. MISCUE, mis-k[=u]', _n._ at billiards, a stroke spoiled by the slipping off of the cue. MISDATE, mis-d[=a]t', _n._ a wrong date.--_v.t._ to date wrongly or erroneously. MISDEAL, mis-d[=e]l', _n._ a wrong deal, as at cards.--_v.t._ to deal wrongly: to divide improperly.--_v.i._ to make a wrong distribution. MISDECISION, mis-de-sizh'un, _n._ act of deciding wrongly: a wrong decision. MISDEED, mis-d[=e]d', _n._ a bad deed: fault: crime. MISDEEM, mis-d[=e]m', _v.t._ to deem or think wrongly: to make a mistake in judging. MISDEMEAN, mis-de-m[=e]n', _v.t._ to behave ill (with one's self).--_v.i._ to misbehave.--_ns._ MISDEMEAN'ANT, one who commits a misdemeanour or petty crime; MISDEMEAN'OUR, bad conduct: a legal offence of less gravity than a felony. MISDESCRIBE, mis-des-kr[=i]b', _v.t._ to describe falsely.--_n._ MISDESCRIP'TION. MISDESERT, mis-de-z[.e]rt', _n._ (_Spens._) ill-desert. MISDEVOTION, mis-de-v[=o]'shun, _n._ ill-directed devotion. MISDIET, mis-d[=i]'et, _n._ (_Spens._) improper diet or food. MISDIGHT, mis-d[=i]t, _adj._ (_Spens._) badly dressed. MISDIRECT, mis-di-rekt', _v.t._ to direct wrongly.--_n._ MISDIREC'TION, act of directing wrongly, or state of being wrongly directed. MISDISTINGUISH, mis-dis-ting'gwish, _v.t._ to make wrong distinctions concerning. MISDIVIDE, mis-di-v[=i]d', _v.t._ to divide wrongly.--_n._ MISDIVI'SION, wrong or unfair division. MISDO, mis-d[=oo]', _v.t._ to do wrongly.--_v.i._ to act amiss, err--_ns._ MISDO'ER; MISDO'ING. MISDOUBT, mis-dowt', _v.t._ to have a doubt or suspicion regarding: to suspect.--_n._ suspicion: hesitation.--_adj._ MISDOUBT'FUL (_Spens._), misgiving. MISDRAW, mis-draw', _v.t._ to draw or draft badly.--_v.i._ to fall apart.--_n._ MISDRAW'ING. MISDREAD, mis-dred', _n._ (_Shak._) dread of evil to come.--_v.t._ to regard with dread. MISE, m[=i]z, _n._ expenditure, outlay: a gift of money to a superior, prince, &c.: in a writ of right, a traverse by which both parties put the cause directly upon the question as to which had the better right: the adjustment of a dispute by arbitration and compromise, as the 'Mise of Lewes' in 1264. [Fr.,--L. _mitt[)e]re_, _missum_.] MISEDUCATION, mis-ed-[=u]-k[=a]'shun, _n._ improper or imperfect education. MISEMPLOY, mis-em-ploi', _v.t._ to employ wrongly or amiss: to misuse.--_n._ MISEMPLOY'MENT, ill-employment: improper application: misuse. MISENTRY, mis-en'tri, _n._ a wrong entry, as in an account.--_v.t._ MISEN'TER, to make such. MISER, m[=i]'z[.e]r, _n._ a miserable person: an extremely covetous person: a niggard: one whose chief pleasure is in hoarding wealth.--_adj._ like a miser.--_adj._ M[=I]'SERLY, excessively covetous: sordid: niggardly. [L. _miser_, wretched.] MISER, m[=i]z'[.e]r, _n._ a tubular well boring-bit, with valved opening for the earth passing up. MISERABLE, miz'[.e]r-a-bl, _adj._ wretched, exceedingly unhappy: causing misery: very poor or mean: worthless: despicable: barren.--_n._ MIS'ERABLENESS.--_adv._ MIS'ERABLY. [Fr.,--L. _miserabilis_--_miser_.] MISEREATUR, miz-[.e]r-[=e]-[=a]'tur, _n._ the first part of the absolution service in the R.C. liturgy, beginning 'Misereatur vestri omnipotens Deus.' [Illustration] MISERERE, miz-e-r[=e]'re, _n._ the name by which in Catholic usage the penitential 50th Psalm of the Vulgate (51st in A.V.) is commonly known, from its commencement, 'Miserere mei, Domine:' a musical composition adapted to this psalm: a hinged folding-seat in a church stall, which, when turned up, shows a bracket on which a person who is standing can lean. [L., 2d pers. sing, imperf. of _miser[=e]ri_, to have mercy, to pity--_miser_, wretched.] MISERICORDE, miz-e-ri-kord', _n._ mercy, forgiveness, pity: a folding-seat: a narrow-bladed dagger for putting a wounded foe out of pain by the _coup-de-grâce_. [Fr.,--L.,--_misericors_, _-dis_, tender-hearted.] MISERY, miz'[.e]r-i, _n._ wretchedness: great unhappiness: extreme pain of body or of mind: a cause of pain or sorrow: (_Shak._) avarice. [O. Fr.,--L. _miseria_.] MISESTEEM, mis-es-t[=e]m', _n._ want of esteem: disregard: disrespect.--_v.t._ MISES'TIM[=A]TE, to estimate wrongly. MISEXPRESSION, mis-eks-presh'un, _n._ a wrong expression. MISFAITH, mis'f[=a]th, _n._ (_Tenn._) distrust. MISFALL, mis'-fawl', _v.t._ (_obs._) to befall unluckily. MISFARE, mis-f[=a]r', _n._ (_Spens._) ill fare: misfortune.--_v.i._ to fare or succeed ill. MISFEASANCE, mis-f[=e]z'ans, _n._ (_law_) a wrong done, as distinguished from _Nonfeasance_, which means a mere omission: the doing of a lawful act in a wrongful manner, as distinguished from _Malfeasance_, which means the doing of an act which is positively unlawful.--_ns._ MISFEAS'ANT, MISFEAS'OR, one who commits a misfeasance. [O. Fr., _mes-_, wrong, _faisance_--_faire_--L. _fac[)e]re_, to do.] MISFEIGN, mis-f[=a]n', _v.i._ to feign with bad design. MISFIT, mis-fit', _n._ a bad fit, of clothes, &c.--_v.t._ to make of a wrong size: to supply with something that does not fit. MISFORM, mis-form', _v.t._ to form or shape badly or improperly.--_n._ MISFORM[=A]'TION. MISFORTUNE, mis-for't[=u]n, _n._ ill-fortune: an evil accident: calamity: (_coll._) a euphemism for a lapse from virtue resulting in the birth of a natural child.--_adj._ MISFOR'TUNED. (_Milt._), unfortunate. MISGET, mis-get', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to procure unlawfully.--_adj._ MISGOT'TEN, wrongly obtained. MISGIVE, mis-giv', _v.t._ to fill with doubt: to destroy confidence.--_v.i._ to fail, as the heart: to give way to doubt.--_n._ MISGIV'ING, mistrust. MISGO, mis-g[=o]', _v.i._ to go astray or amiss. MISGOVERN, mis-guv'[.e]rn, _v.t._ to govern badly: to use power unjustly.--_ns._ MISGOV'ERNANCE (_Spens._), ill government: irregularity; MISGOV'ERNMENT. MISGRAFF, mis-graf', MISGRAFT, mis-graft', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to graft wrongly or on a wrong stock. MISGROWTH, mis-gr[=o]th', _n._ an irregular growth, an excrescence. MISGUIDE, mis-g[=i]d', _v.t._ to guide wrongly: to lead into error.--_ns._ MISGUID'ANCE, MISGUIDE' (_obs._). MISHALLOWED, mis-hal'[=o]d, _adj._ devoted to evil ends. MISHANDLE, mis-han'dl, _v.t._ to maltreat. MISHANTER, MISCHANTER, mi-shan't[.e]r, _n._ (_Scot._) an unlucky chance, misfortune. MISHAP, mis-hap', _n._ ill chance: accident: misfortune.--_v.i._ MISHAP'PEN (_Spens._), to happen ill. MISHEAR, mis-h[=e]r', _v.t._ to hear incorrectly.--_v.i._ to mistake in hearing. MISHMASH, mish'mash, _n._ a hotch-potch, medley. MISHMEE, mish'm[=e], _n._ the bitter tonic root of a Chinese species of gold-thread. MISHNAH, MISHNA, mish'na, _n._ a great collection of _halachoth_, comprising the body of the 'Oral Law,' or the juridico-political, civil, and religious code of the Jews; it forms one of the divisions of the Talmud--the 'Gemara,' or commentary on the Mishna, being the other; and it was finally redacted at Tiberias in 220 A.D.:--_pl._ MISH'NOTH.--_adjs._ MISHN[=A]'IC, MISH'NIC. [Heb.,--_sh[=a]n[=a]h_, to repeat.] MISIMPROVE, mis-im-pr[=oo]v', _v.t._ to apply to a bad purpose: to misuse.--_n._ MISIMPROVE'MENT. MISINCLINE, mis-in-kl[=i]n', _v.t._ to cause to incline wrongly. MISINFER, mis-in-f[.e]r', _v.t._ to infer wrongly.--_v.i._ to draw a wrong inference. MISINFORM, mis-in-form', _v.t._ to tell incorrectly.--_ns._ MISINFORM'ANT; MISINFORM[=A]'TION; MISINFORM'ER. MISINSTRUCT, mis-in'strukt', _v.t._ to instruct improperly.--_n._ MISINSTRUC'TION, wrong instruction. MISINTELLIGENCE, mis-in-tel'e-jens, _n._ wrong or false information. MISINTEND, mis-in-tend', _v.t._ to misdirect. MISINTERPRET, mis-in-t[.e]r'pret, _v.t._ to interpret wrongly: to explain wrongly.--_ns._ MISINTERPRET[=A]'TION; MISINTER'PRETER. MISJOIN, mis-join', _v.t._ to join improperly or unfitly.--_n._ MISJOIN'DER (_law_), an incorrect union of parties or of causes of actions in a suit. MISJUDGE, mis-juj', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to judge wrongly.--_n._ MISJUDG'MENT. MISKEN, mis-ken', _v.t._ (_Scot._) to be, or to appear, ignorant of. MISKNOW, mis-n[=o]', _v.t._ to misapprehend.--_n._ MISKNOWL'EDGE. MISLABEL, mis-l[=a]'bel, _v.t._ to mark with a wrong descriptive label, &c. MISLAY, mis-l[=a]', _v.t._ to lay in a wrong place or in one not remembered: to lose:--_pa.p._ mislaid'. MISLE, miz'l. See MIZZLE. MISLEAD, mis-l[=e]d', _v.t._ to guide into error: to cause to mistake:--_pa.p._ misled'.--_n._ MISLEAD'ER.--_adj._ MISLEAD'ING, deceptive.--_adv._ MISLEAD'INGLY. MISLEARED, mis-l[=e]rd', _adj._ (_Scot._) mistaught: wrongly informed, imposed upon. MISLETOE. See MISTLETOE. MISLIGHT, mis-l[=i]t', _v.t._ to lead astray by a light. MISLIKE, mis-l[=i]k', _v.t._ to dislike: to disapprove of.--_n._ dislike: disapprobation.--_n._ MISLIKE'NESS, a misleading resemblance. MISLIPPEN, mis-lip'n, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to disappoint, deceive: to neglect to pay attention to anything. MISLIVE, mis-liv', _v.i._ to live a bad life. MISLUCK, mis-luk', _v.i._ to meet with bad luck, to fail.--_n._ ill-luck. MISMANAGE, mis-man'[=a]j, _v.t._ to conduct badly: to conduct carelessly.--_n._ MISMAN'AGEMENT. MISMANNERS, mis-man'[.e]rz, _n.pl._ bad manners. MISMATCH, mis-mach', _v.t._ to match unsuitably.--_n._ MISMATCH'MENT. MISMATED, mis-m[=a]t'ed, _adj._ (_Tenn._) ill-matched. MISMEASURE, mis-mezh'[=u]r, _v.t._ to measure wrongly.--_n._ MISMEAS'UREMENT. MISNAME, mis-n[=a]m', _v.t._ to call by the wrong name. MISNOMER, misn[=o]'m[.e]r, _n._ a misnaming: a wrong name. [O. Fr., from Fr. _mes-_ and _nommer_--L. _nomin[=a]re_, to name.] MISOBSERVE, mis-ob-z[.e]rv', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to observe incorrectly. MISOCAPNIC, mis-o-kap'nik, _adj._ hating smoke, esp. that of tobacco. MISOCLERE, mis'o-kl[=e]r, _adj._ (_Fuller_) hating the clergy. [Gr. _misein_, to hate, _kl[=e]ros_, clergy.] MISOGAMIST, mis-og'a-mist, _n._ a hater of marriage.--_n._ MISOG'AMY. [Gr. _misein_, to hate, _gamos_, marriage.] MISOGYNIST, mis-oj'i-nist, _n._ a woman-hater.--_adjs._ MISOGYNIST'ICAL, MISOG'YNOUS.--_n._ MISOG'YNY. [Gr. _misein_, to hate, _gyn[=e]_, a woman.] MISOLOGY, mi-sol'o-ji, _n._ hatred of reason.--_n._ MISOL'OGIST. [Gr., _misein_, to hate, _logos_, reason.] MISOTHEISM, mis'o-th[=e]-izm, _n._ hatred of God. [Gr. _misein_, to hate, _theos_, God.] MISPAINT, mis-p[=a]nt', _v.t._ to paint in false colours. MISPERSUASION, mis-p[.e]r-sw[=a]'zhun, _n._ a wrong persuasion or notion: a false opinion. MISPLACE, mis-pl[=a]s', _v.t._ to put in a wrong place: to set on an improper object.--_n._ MISPLACE'MENT. MISPLAY, mis-pl[=a]', _n._ a wrong play. MISPLEAD, mis-pl[=e]d', _v.i._ to plead wrongly.--_n._ MISPLEAD'ING, an error in pleading. MISPLEASE, mis-pl[=e]z', _v.t._ to displease. MISPOINT, mis-point', _v.t._ to punctuate wrongly. MISPOLICY, mis-pol'i-si, _n._ bad policy. MISPRACTICE, mis-prak'tis, _n._ misconduct. MISPRAISE, mis-pr[=a]z', _v.t._ to praise falsely. MISPRINT, mis-print', _v.t._ to print wrong.--_n._ a mistake in printing. MISPRISE, mis-pr[=i]z', _v.t._ to slight, undervalue. [O. Fr _mespriser_--pfx. _mes-_, amiss, Low L. _preti[=a]re_--L. _pretium_, price.] MISPRISION, mis-prizh'un, _n._ mistake: (_law_) criminal oversight or neglect in respect to the crime of another: any serious offence, failure of duty--_positive_ or _negative_, according as it is maladministration or mere neglect.--MISPRISION OF HERESY, TREASON, &c., knowledge of and failure to give information about heresy, treason, &c. [O. Fr., _mes-_, ill, Low L. _prension-em_--L. _prehend[)e]re_, to take.] MISPRIZE, mis-pr[=i]z', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to mistake. MISPRONOUNCE, mis-pro-nowns', _v.t._ to pronounce incorrectly.--_n._ MISPRONUNCI[=A]'TION, wrong or improper pronunciation. MISPROUD, mis-prowd', _adj._ unduly proud. MISPUNCTUATE, mis-pungk't[=u]-[=a]t, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to punctuate wrongly.--_n._ MISPUNCTU[=A]'TION. MISPURSUIT, mis-pur-s[=u]t', _n._ a mistaken pursuit. MISQUALIFY, mis-kwol'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to characterise erroneously. MISQUOTE, mis-kw[=o]t', _v.t._ to quote wrongly.--_n._ MISQUOT[=A]'TION, a wrong quotation. MISREAD, mis-r[=e]d', _v.t._ to read wrongly: to misinterpret.--_n._ MISREAD'ING, an erroneous reading. MISRECKON, mis,-rek'n, _v.t._ to reckon or compute wrongly.--_n._ MISRECK'ONING. MISREGARD, mis-re-gärd', _n._ (_Spens._) misconstruction. MISRELATE, mis-re-l[=a]t', _v.t._ to relate incorrectly.--_n._ MISREL[=A]'TION. MISREMEMBER, mis-re-mem'b[.e]r, _v.t._ to mistake in remembering.--_v.i._ to fail to remember correctly. MISREPORT, mis-re-p[=o]rt', _v.t._ to give an incorrect report or account of.--_n._ a false report. MISREPRESENT, mis-rep-re-zent', _v.t._ to represent incorrectly: to act unfaithfully on behalf of.--_v.i._ to give a false impression.--_n._ MISREPRESENT[=A]'TION. MISRESEMBLANCE, mis-re-zem'blans, _n._ an imperfect resemblance. MISRULE, mis-r[=oo]l', _n._ wrong or unjust rule: disorder: tumult.--_v.t._ and _v.i_. to govern badly.--ABBOT, or LORD, OF MISRULE, or UNREASON, ancient titles for the leader of the Christmas revels. MISS, mis, _n._ a title of address of an unmarried female: a young woman or girl: (_obs._) a kept mistress:--_pl._ MISS'ES--either the 'Miss Hepburns' or the 'Misses Hepburn' may be said, but the latter is preferable.--_n._ MISS'-NAN'CY, a very effeminate young man. [Contr. of _mistress_.] MISS, mis, _v.t._ to fail to hit, reach, find, or keep: to omit: to fail to have: to discover the absence of: to feel the want of: to fail to observe: to leave out.--_v.i._ to fail to hit or obtain: to go wrong.--_n._ a failure to hit the mark: loss.--MISS FIRE, to fail to go off or explode from some cause; MISS ONE'S TIP (_slang_), to fail in one's plan or attempt; MISS STAYS (_naut._), to fail in going about from one tack to another. [A.S. _missan_; Dut. _missen_, to miss.] MISSAL, mis'al, _n._ the book which contains the complete service for mass throughout the year. [Low L. _missale_, from _missa_, mass.] MISSAY, mis-s[=a]', _v.i._ to say or speak incorrectly or falsely.--_v.t._ to utter amiss: to slander. MISSEE, mis-s[=e]', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to see falsely or erroneously, to take a distorted view. MISSEEM, mis-s[=e]m', _v.i._ (_Spens._) to seem or appear falsely, to misbecome.--_p.adj._ MISSEEM'ING, unbecoming.--_n._ false appearance. MISSEL, mis'l, _n._ the largest of the European thrushes--supposed to be fond of the berries of the mistletoe.--Also MISS'EL-BIRD, MISS'EL-THRUSH. MISSELTOE. See MISTLETOE. MISSEL-TREE, mis'l-tr[=e], _n._ a tree of the Melastoma family in British Guiana. MISSET, mis-set', _v.t._ to set or place wrongly or unfitly.--_p.adj._ (_Scot._) out of humour. MISSHAPE, mis-sh[=a]p', _v.t._ to shape ill: to deform.--_n._ deformity.--_p.adj._ MISSHAP'EN, ill-shaped.--_n._ MISSHAP'ENNESS. MISSHEATHED, mis-sh[=e]thd', _adj._ (_Shak._) wrongly sheathed. MISSILE, mis'il, _adj._ that may be thrown from the hand or from any instrument.--_n._ a weapon thrown by the hand. [L. _missilis_--_mitt[)e]re_, _missum_, to throw.] MISSING, mis'ing, _adj._ absent from the place where it was expected to be found: lost: wanting.--_adv._ MISS'INGLY (_Shak._), with a sense of loss.--MISSING LINK (see LINK). [See MISS (_v._).] MISSION, mish'un, _n._ a sending of any agent, delegate, or messenger: the purpose for which one is sent: the sending out persons to spread a religion: a series of special religious services conducted by a _missioner_: any particular field of missionary enterprise: persons sent on a mission: an embassy: a station or association of missionaries: duty on which one is sent: purpose of life.--_v.t._ (_rare_) to commission.--_n._ MISS'IONARY, one sent upon a mission to spread the knowledge of religion.--_adj._ pertaining to missions.--_ns._ MISS'IONARY-BISH'OP, one having jurisdiction in a heathen country, or in districts not yet formed into dioceses; MISS'IONER, one who conducts a series of special mission services; MISS'ION-SCHOOL, a school for religious, and sometimes also secular, instruction for the poor, kept up by charity: a school conducted by a missionary abroad. [Fr.,--L. _mission-em_--_mitt[)e]re_, to send.] MISSIS, mis'iz, _n._ a colloquial form of mistress: a wife. MISSISH, mis'ish, _adj._ prim, affected.--_n._ MISS'ISHNESS.--_adj._ MISS'Y, namby-pamby, sentimental.--_n._ a diminutive of miss. [_Miss_.] MISSIVE, mis'iv, _adj._ that may be sent: intended to be thrown or hurled.--_n._ that which is sent, as a letter: (_Shak._) messenger: (_pl._, _Scots law_) letters sent between two parties in which one makes an offer and the other accepts it. [Fr.,--L. _missus_.] MISSPEAK, mis-sp[=e]k', _v.t._ to utter wrongly.--_v.i._ to mistake or err in speaking. MISSPELL, mis-spel', _v.t._ to spell wrongly.--_n._ MISSPELL'ING, a wrong spelling. MISSPEND, mis-spend', _v.t._ to spend ill: to waste or squander:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ misspent'. MISSTATE, mis-st[=a]t', _v.t._ to state wrongly or falsely.--_n._ MISSTATE'MENT. MISSTEP, mis-step', _v.i._ to make a false step; to make a mistake.--_n._ a mistake in conduct, &c. MISSUIT, mis-s[=u]t', _v.t._ to be unbecoming to. MISSUMMATION, mis-su-m[=a]'shun, _n._ wrong addition. MISSY. See MISSISH. MIST, mist, _n._ watery vapour seen in the atmosphere: rain in very fine drops: anything that dims or darkens the sight or the judgment.--_n._ MIST'FLOW'ER, a North American plant of the Aster family, with clusters of blue or violet flowers.--_adj._ MIST'FUL, misty.--_adv._ MIST'ILY.--_n._ MIST'INESS.--_adj._ MIST'Y, full of mist: dim: obscure, not perspicuous.--SCOTCH MIST, a very wetting rain. [A.S. _mist_, darkness; Ice. _mistr_, _mist_, Dut. _mist_.] MISTAKE, mis-t[=a]k', _v.t._ to understand wrongly: to take one thing or person for another.--_v.i._ to err in opinion or judgment.--_n._ a taking or understanding wrongly: an error.--_adjs._ MISTAK'ABLE; MISTAK'EN, understood wrongly: guilty of a mistake: erroneous: incorrect.--_adv._ MISTAK'ENLY.--_n._ MISTAK'ING (_Shak._), a mistake.--AND NO MISTAKE (_coll._), without any manner of doubt: without fail; BE MISTAKEN, to make or have made a mistake: to be misunderstood. [M. E. _mistaken_--Ice. _mistaka_, to take wrongly--_mis-_, wrongly, _taka_, to take.] MISTEACH, mis-t[=e]ch', _v.t._ to teach wrongly. MISTELL, mis-tel', _v.t._ to tell wrongly. MISTEMPER, mis-tem'p[.e]r, _v.t._ to temper ill: to disorder.--_adj._ MISTEM'PERED (_Shak._), angry. MISTER, mis't[.e]r, _n._ (_Spens._) manner, kind: (_Scot._) necessity.--_v.i._ (_Spens._) to need, require: to be poor: to be necessary. [O. Fr. _mestier_ (Fr. _métier_), trade--L. _ministerium_, service.] MISTER, mis't[.e]r, _n._ sir: a title of address to a man, written MR. [A corr. of _master_, through the influence of _mistress_.] MISTERM, mis-t[.e]rm', _v.t._ to term or name wrongly. MISTERY, mis't[.e]r-i, _n._ (_Shak._) an art or trade--often spelt _mystery_. [_Mister_, trade.] MISTHINK, mis-thingk', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to think ill of.--_v.i._ to think wrongly.--_n._ MISTHOUGHT', a wrong notion. MISTICO, mis'ti-k[=o], _n._ a small Mediterranean coaster, between a xebec and a felucca. [Sp.,--Ar.] MISTIGRIS, mis'ti-gris, _n._ a variation of poker in which a joker is used, to which the player holding it gives what value he chooses--also the joker when so used. MISTIME, mis-t[=i]m', _v.t._ to time wrongly.--_adj._ MISTIMED', unseasonable. MISTITLE, mis-t[=i]'tl, _v.t._ to call by a wrong title. MISTLE. Same as MIZZLE. MISTLETOE, miz'l-t[=o], _n._ a parasitic evergreen plant, with white viscous berries, found in southern England and elsewhere growing on the apple, apricot, &c. (very rarely on the oak). [A.S. _mistel-tán_ (Ice. _mistel-teinn_)--_mistel_, mistletoe, A.S. _tán_, twig; _mistel_ is a dim. of _mist_.] MISTRADITION, mis-tra-dish'un, _n._ a false tradition. MISTRAIN, mis-tr[=a]n', _v.t._ to train amiss. MISTRAL, mis'träl, _n._ a violent north-west wind which at certain seasons prevails on the south coast of France. [Fr. _mistral_, lit. a master (wind)--L. _magister_, master.] MISTRANSLATE, mis-trans-l[=a]t', _v.t._ to translate incorrectly.--_n._ MISTRANSL[=A]'TION. MISTREADING, mis-tred'ing, _n._ (_Shak._) a wrong treading or going, a false step. MISTREAT, mis-tr[=e]t', _v.t._ to treat ill: to abuse.--_n._ MISTREAT'MENT, ill-treatment: abuse. MISTRESS, mis'tres, _n._ (_fem._ of _Master_) a woman having power or ownership: the female head of a family, school, &c.: a woman well skilled in anything: a woman loved and courted: a concubine: (_fem._ of _Mister_) a form of address once applied to any woman or girl, now given to a married woman (usually written _Mrs_ and pronounced mis'ez): (_Shak._) the small ball at bowls, now called the Jack, at which the players aim.--_v.t._ to play the mistress. [O. Fr. _maistresse_ (Fr. _maîtresse_).] MISTRIAL, mis-tr[=i]'al, _n._ a trial void because of error, as by disqualification of a juror, &c.: a trial in which the jury fail to agree. MISTRUST, mis-trust', _n._ want of trust or confidence.--_v.t._ to regard with suspicion: to doubt.--_adj._ MISTRUST'FUL, full of mistrust.--_adv._ MISTRUST'FULLY.--_n._ MISTRUST'FULNESS.--_adv._ MISTRUST'INGLY, with mistrust: without confidence.--_adj._ MISTRUST'LESS, without mistrust or suspicion. MISTRYST, mis-tr[=i]st', _v.t._ (_Scot._) to disappoint by not keeping an engagement: to deceive. MISTUNE, mis-t[=u]n', _v.t._ to tune wrongly or falsely: to put out of tune. MISUNDERSTAND, mis-un-d[.e]r-stand', _v.t._ to take in a wrong sense.--_n._ MISUNDERSTAND'ING, a mistake as to meaning: a slight disagreement. MISUSE, mis-[=u]s', _n._ improper use: application to a bad purpose.--_v.t._ MISUSE (mis-[=u]z'), to use for a wrong purpose or in a wrong way: to treat ill: to abuse.--_n._ MISUS'AGE, ill-usage: abuse. MISVENTURE, mis-ven't[=u]r, _n._ a misadventure.--_adj._ MISVEN'TUROUS. MISWEEN, mis-w[=e]n', _v.i._ to judge wrongly. MISWEND, mis-wend', _v.i._ to wander. MISWORSHIP, mis-wur'ship, _v.t._ to worship wrongly.--_n._ worship of a wrong object. MISWRITE, mis-r[=i]t', _v.t._ to write incorrectly. MISWROUGHT, mis-rawt', _adj._ badly wrought. MITE, m[=i]t, _n._ an acaridan arachnid, esp. one of the smaller forms, as the cheese-mite, &c. [A.S. _míte_.] MITE, m[=i]t, _n._ the minutest or smallest of coins, about one-fourth of a farthing: anything very small, even a person: a very little quantity. [Old Dut. _mijt_.] MITHRAS, mith'ras, _n._ a Perso-Iranian divinity of light, worshipped with elaborate secret rites and mysteries, popular at Rome in the early Empire--representations of Mithras as a beautiful youth in Phrygian dress sacrificing a bull being common in Roman art--also MITH'RA.--_n._ MITHRÆ'UM, a grotto sacred to Mithras.--_adj._ MITHR[=A]'IC.--_ns._ MITHR[=A]'ICISM, MITH'RAISM.--_v.i._ MITH'RAISE.--_n._ MITH'RAIST. [L.,--Gr.,--Old Pers. _Mitra_.] MITHRIDATE, mith'ri-d[=a]t, _n._ an antidote to poison, _Mithridates_, king of Pontus (b.c. 120-63), having made himself proof against poisons.--_adj._ MITHRIDAT'IC. MITIGATE, mit'i-g[=a]t, _v.t._ to make more easily borne: to lessen the severity of: to temper: to reduce in amount (as evil).--_adjs._ MIT'IGABLE, that can be mitigated; MIT'IGANT, mitigating.--_n._ MITIG[=A]'TION, act of mitigating: alleviation: abatement.--_adjs._ MIT'IGATIVE, MIT'IGATORY, tending to mitigate: soothing.--_n._ MIT'IGATOR, one who mitigates. [L. _mitig[=a]re_, _-atum_--_mitis_, mild.] MITRAILLEUSE, m[=e]-tra-lyez', _n._ a breech-loading machine-gun, discharging a stream of bullets with great rapidity--first brought into use by the French in 1870-71.--_n._ MITRAILLE (m[=e]-traly'), grapeshot.--_v.t._ to fire mitraille at--_n._ MITRAILLEUR (m[=e]-tra-ly[.e]r'), a man in charge of a mitrailleuse. [Fr. _mitrailler_, to fire with grapeshot--_mitraille_, grapeshot.] [Illustration] MITRE, m[=i]'t[.e]r, _n._ a head-dress worn by archbishops and bishops, and sometimes by abbots: (_fig._) episcopal dignity: (_archit._) a junction of two pieces, as of moulding, at an angle of 45°: a cap or cowl for a chimney or ventilator-pipe: a gusset in sewing, &c.--_v.t._ to adorn with a mitre: to unite at an angle of 45°.--_adjs._ M[=I]'TRAL, MIT'RIFORM, having the form of a mitre: (_bot._) conical, and somewhat dilated at the base.--_ns._ M[=I]'TRE-JOINT, a joint between two pieces, each cut at an angle of 45°; M[=I]'TRE-WHEEL, a bevel-wheel having its face inclined 45° to its axis. [Fr.,--L. _mitra_--Gr. _mitra_, belt, fillet.] MITT, mit, short for _mitten_. MITTEN., mit'n, _n._ a kind of glove for winter use, without a separate cover for each finger: a glove for the hand and wrist, but not the fingers.--_v.t._ to put mittens on.--GET THE MITTEN, to be rejected as a lover. [O. Fr. _mitaine_, perh. from Middle High Ger. _mittemo_, 'half glove;' but perh. Celtic, cf. Gael. and Ir. _mutan_, a muff.] MITTIMUS, mit'i-mus, _n._ (_law_) a warrant granted for sending to prison a person charged with a crime: a writ by which a record is transferred out of one court to another: a formal dismissal from a situation. [L., 'we send'--_mitt[)e]re_, to send.] MITY, m[=i]t'i, _adj._ full of mites or insects. MIURUS, m[=i]-[=u]'rus, _n._ a dactylic hexameter with short penultimate syllable. [Gr. _meiouros_, curtailed, _mei[=o]n_, less, _oura_, a tail.] MIX, miks, _v.t._ to unite two or more things into one mass: to mingle: to associate.--_v.i._ to become mixed: to be joined: to associate.--_n._ a jumble, a mess.--_adjs._ MIX'ABLE, MIX'IBLE; MIXED, mingled: promiscuous: confused.--_adv._ MIX'EDLY.--_n._ MIX'ER.--_adjs._ MIX'O-BARBAR'IC, not purely barbarous; MIX'TIFORM, of a mixed character; MIXTIL[=I]'NEAL, consisting of a mixture of lines, right, curved, &c.--_ns._ MIX'TION, a mixture of amber, mastic, and asphaltum used as a mordant for fixing gold-leaf to distemper pictures or to wood; MIX'T[=U]RE, act of mixing or state of being mixed: a mass or compound formed by mixing: (_chem._) a composition in which the ingredients retain their properties--opp. to _Combination_: a compound-stop in organ-building: a preparation in which an insoluble compound is suspended in an aqueous solution: a cloth of variegated colouring.--_adj._ MIX'TY-MAX'TY (_Scot._), mixed confusedly together.--MIX UP, to confuse.--MIXED CHALICE, the chalice prepared for the eucharist, containing wine mixed with water; MIXED MARRIAGE, one in which the contracting persons are of different religions. [A.S. _miscan_; Ger. _mischen_.] MIXEN, miks'n, _n._ (_Tenn._) a dunghill. [A.S. _mixen_--_mix_, _meox_, dung.] MIZMAZE, miz'm[=a]z, _n._ a labyrinth: bewilderment. MIZZEN, MIZEN, miz'n, _n._ in a three-masted vessel, the hindmost of the fore-and-aft sails: the spanker or driver.--_adj._ belonging to the mizzen: nearest the stern.--_n._ MIZZ'EN-MAST, the mast that bears the mizzen. [Fr. _misaine_--It. _mezzana_--Low L. _medianus_--L. _medius_, the middle.] MIZZLE, miz'l, _v.i._ to rain in small drops.--_n._ fine rain.--_n._ MIZZ'LING, a thick mist.--_adj._ MIZZ'LY, misty. [For _mist-le_, freq. from _mist_.] MIZZLE, miz'l, _v.i._ to yield: (_slang_) to decamp.--_v.t._ to muddle, confuse. MJOLNIR, my[=o]l'nir, _n._ Thor's terrible hammer. MNEMONIC, -AL, n[=e]-mon'ik, -al, _adj._ assisting the memory.--_ns._ MNEMON'ICS, the art of assisting the memory: a mode of recalling to the mind any fact or number, or a series of disconnected terms or figures; MNEMOS'YNE, goddess of memory, mother of the Muses.--_adj._ MNEMOTECH'NIC, mnemonic.--_n._ MNEMOTECH'NICS, mnemonics. [Gr. _mn[=e]monikos_--_mn[=e]m[=o]n_, mindful--_mnasthai_, to remember.] MO, m[=o], _adj._ and _adv._ (_obs._) more.--Also MOE. [A.S. _má_, more, connected with _mára_.] MOA, m[=o]'a, _n._ an extinct large wingless ostrich-like bird of New Zealand. MOABITE, m[=o]'a-b[=i]t, _n._ one of the ancient people of _Moab_, living to the east of the lower part of Jordan and the Dead Sea.--_adj._ of or pertaining to Moab.--_n._ M[=O]'ABITE-STONE, slab of black, basalt found in 1868 among the ruins of Dhibân (_Dibon_) in Moab, bearing an inscription of 34 lines in Hebrew-Phoenician letters, about the revolt of Mesha, king of Moab, against the king of Israel (2 Kings, iii.) MOAN, m[=o]n, _v.i._ to make a low sound of grief or pain: to lament audibly.--_v.t._ to lament.--_n._ a low sound of grief or pain: audible expression of pain.--_adj._ MOAN'FUL, expressing sorrow: lamentable.--_adv._ MOAN'FULLY, with lamentation. [A.S. _m['æ]nan_.] MOAT, m[=o]t, _n._ a deep trench round a castle or fortified place, sometimes filled with water: (_obs._) a hill or mound.--_v.t._ to surround with a moat.--_adj._ MOAT'ED. [O. Fr, _mote_, a mound, trench.] MOB, mob, _n._ the mobile or fickle common people: the vulgar: the rabble: a disorderly crowd, a riotous assembly: a large herd or flock.--_v.t._ to attack in a disorderly crowd:--_pr.p._ mob'bing; _pa.p._ mobbed.--_adj._ MOB'BISH.--_ns._ MOB'-LAW, lynch-law; MOBOC'RACY, rule or ascendency exercised by the mob; MOB'OCRAT, a demagogue.--_adj._ MOBOCRAT'IC.--_n._ MOBS'MAN, a well-dressed thief or swindler--usually _Swell-mobsman_. [Contr. for L. _mobile_ (_vulgus_), the fickle (multitude); _mov[=e]re_ to move.] MOB, mob, or MOB'-CAP, _n._ a cap with puffy crown, a broad band, and frills--_v.t._ to cover, as the face, by a cap or hood. [Old Dut. _mop_; mod. Dut. _mopmuts_, a woman's nightcap; cf. Scotch _Mutch_.] MOBBY, mob'i, _n._ the juice of apples or peaches from which brandy is to be distilled. MOBILE, m[=o]'bil, or mob'il, _adj._ that can be moved or excited.--_n._ MOBILIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ M[=O]'BILISE, to put in readiness for service in war: to call into active service, as troops.--_n._ MOBIL'ITY, quality of being mobile: (_slang_) the mob.--CRÉDIT MOBILIER, the system in banking of advancing money to the owners of movable property--as opposed to CREDIT FONCIER, on the security of real or immovable property. [Fr. _mobiliser_--L. _mobilis_.] MOBLE, mob'l, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to muffle or cover the head, as in a mob or hood. [Freq. of _mob_, a cap.] [Illustration] MOCCASIN, mok'a-sin, _n._ a shoe of deerskin or other soft leather, worn by the North American Indians: a venomous North American serpent.--Also MOC'ASSIN. [Algonkin _mawcahsun_.] MOCHA, m[=o]'ka, _n._ a very fine kind of coffee produced in Arabia, and brought from _Mocha_, the port of Yemen. MOCHE, m[=o]sh, _n._ an imported package of spun silk. MOCK, mok, _v.t._ to laugh at: to make sport of: to mimic in ridicule: to disappoint the hopes of: to deceive: to set at nought, defy.--_n._ ridicule, a sneer: a bringing into ridicule.--_adj._ imitating reality, but not real: false.--_adj._ MOCK'ABLE, exposed to, or deserving, derision.--_ns._ MOCK'ER; MOCK'ERY, MOCK'ING, derision: ridicule: subject of laughter or sport: fruitless labour: vain imitation: false show.--_adj._ MOCK'-HER[=O]'IC, mocking the heroic style, or the actions or characters of heroes.--_n._ MOCK'ING-BIRD, a bird of North America, of the thrush family, which mocks or imitates the notes of birds and other sounds.--_adv._ MOCK'INGLY.--_n._ MOCK'-OR'ANGE, an ornamental shrub of the saxifrage family--also _Syringa_. MOCK SUN (see PARHELION); MOCK TURTLE SOUP, a dish made of calf's head, veal, &c., seasoned in imitation of turtle soup. [O. Fr. _moquer_; from a Teut. root seen in Ger. _mucken_, to mutter; prob. imit.] MOCUDDUM, mo-kud'um, _n._ a chief: a head-man. [Hind. from Ar., _mukaddam_, a head-man.] MOD, mod, _n._ an assembly, meeting, of a similar nature to the Welsh Eisteddfod. [Gael.] MODE, m[=o]d, _n._ manner of acting, doing, or existing: rule: custom: form: that which exists only as a quality of substance: a form of the verb, same as _mood_: in lace-making, a small decorative piece inserted in a pattern: the openwork between the solid parts of a pattern: a woman's mantle with a hood: (_mus._) the method of dividing the octave for melodic purposes according to the position of its steps and half-steps.--_adj._ M[=O]'DAL, relating to mode or form without reference to substance: consisting of mode only: (_logic_) indicating some mode of expression.--_ns._ M[=O]'DALISM, the doctrine first set forth by Sabellius that the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit are not three distinct personalities, but only three different modes of manifestation; M[=O]'DALIST, one who holds this theory.--_adj._ MODALIST'IC.--_n._ MODAL'ITY, mode in its logical sense: (_law_) the quality of being limited by a condition.--_adv._ M[=O]'DALLY.--GREEK MODES, consisting each of two tetra-chords and one whole step; GREGORIAN, MEDIEVAL, or ECCLESIASTICAL MODES, derived from the above by Ambrose, Gregory the Great, &c., each of the seven natural sounds of the diatonic scale forming the keynote or _final_ of a mode, which embraced that note and the seven above it. To each of these seven modes is attached another, in which the melody, while having the same final or keynote, instead of ascending to the octave above, ranges from the fourth below it to the fifth above. The former are called the _authentic modes_, the latter _plagal_; MAJOR MODE, a modern mode, consisting of two steps, a half-step, three steps, and a half-step; MINOR MODE, a modern mode, consisting of a step, a half-step, two steps, a half-step, and two steps. [Fr.,--L. _modus_.] MODEL, mod'el, _n._ something to show the mode or way: something to be copied: a pattern: a mould: an imitation of something on a smaller scale: a living person from whom an artist works: something worthy of imitation.--_adj._ serving as a model: fit for a model.--_v.t._ to form after a model: to shape: to make a model or copy of: to form in some soft material.--_v.i._ to practise modelling:--_pr.p._ mod'elling; _pa.p._ mod'elled.--_ns._ MOD'ELLER; MOD'ELLING, the act or art of making a model of something, a branch of sculpture. [Fr.,--L. _modulus_, dim. of _modus_, a measure.] MODENA, mod'e-na, _n._ a shade of crimson. MODERATE, mod'[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.t._ to keep within measure or bounds: to regulate: to reduce in intensity: to make temperate or reasonable: to pacify: to decide as a moderator.--_v.i._ to become less violent or intense: to preside or act as a moderator.--_adj._ kept within measure or bounds: not excessive or extreme: temperate: of middle rate.--_n._ one of a party in Scottish Church history dominant in the 18th century, lax in doctrine and discipline, but intolerant of Evangelicanism and popular rights--it caused the secessions of 1733 and 1761, and its final resultant was the Disruption of 1843.--_adv._ MOD'ERATELY.--_ns._ MOD'ERATENESS; MODER[=A]'TION, act of moderating: state of being moderated or moderate: freedom from excess: calmness of mind; MOD'ERATISM, moderate opinions in religion or politics.--_adv._ MODERÄ'TO (_mus._), with moderate quickness.--_ns._ MOD'ER[=A]TOR, one who, or that which, moderates or restrains: a president or chairman, esp. in Presbyterian Church courts: an officer at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge who superintends the examination for degrees: a kind of lamp in which the flow of the oil to the wick is regulated:--_fem._ MOD'ERATRIX; MOD'ERATORSHIP. [L. _moder[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_--_modus_, a measure.] MODERN, mod'[.e]rn, _adj._ limited to the present or recent time: not ancient: (_Shak._) commonplace.--_n._ one who lives in modern times: (_pl._) the nations of the present day, distinguished from the Greeks and Romans--the ancients.--_n._ MODERNIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ MOD'ERNISE, to adapt to the present time.--_ns._ MOD'ERNISER; MOD'ERNISM, modern practice or character: something of modern origin; MOD'ERNIST, an admirer of modern ideas or habits.--_adv._ MOD'ERNLY.--_ns._ MOD'ERNNESS, MOD'ERNITY, state or quality of being modern. [Fr.,--L. _modernus_--_modo_; just now, orig. abl. of _modus_.] MODEST, mod'est, _adj._ restrained by a sense of propriety: not forward: decent: chaste: pure and delicate, as thoughts or language: not excessive or extreme: moderate.--_adv._ MOD'ESTLY.--_n._ MOD'ESTY, humility: purity of thought and manners: becoming behaviour: chastity, purity: moderation. [Fr.,--L. _modestus_--_modus_; a measure.] MODICUM, mod'i-kum, _n._ a small quantity: something of a moderate size: anything very small. [L. neut. of _modicus_, moderate--_modus_.] MODIFY, mod'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to set bounds to: to moderate: to change the form or quality of: to alter slightly: to vary.--_adj._ MODIF[=I]'ABLE.--_n._ MODIFIC[=A]'TION, act of modifying or state of being modified: result of alteration or change: changed shape or condition.--_adjs._ MOD'IFIC[=A]TIVE, MOD'IFIC[=A]TORY, tending to modify: causing change of form or condition.--_n._ MOD'IF[=I]ER. [Fr. _modifier_--L. _modific[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_modus_, a measure, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] MODILLION, mod-il'yun, _n._ (_archit._) an ornamental bracket used in the cornices of the Corinthian and composite styles. [Fr.,--L. _modulus_--_modus_, a measure.] MODIOLUS, mo-d[=i]'o-lus, _n._ the central stem round which wind the passages of the cochlea of the internal ear.--_adjs._ MOD[=I]'OLAR, MOD[=I]'OLIFORM. MODISH, m[=o]'dish, _adj._ according to the fashion.--_adv._ M[=O]'DISHLY.--_ns._ M[=O]'DISHNESS; M[=O]'DIST, one who follows the fashion; MODISTE (m[=o]-d[=e]st'), a fashionable dressmaker. MODIUS, m[=o]'di-us, _n._ a Roman dry measure=2 gal.: a cylindrical head-dress:--_pl._ M[=O]'DII (-[=i]). [L.] MODULATE, mod'[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to measure, to regulate: to vary the tone of voice so as to give expression: (_mus._) to change the key or mode.--_v.i._ to pass from one key into another.--_adj._ MOD'ULAR, of or pertaining to mode or modulation, or to a module.--_ns._ MODUL[=A]'TION, the act of modulating: state of being modulated: (_mus._) the changing of the keynote and of the original scale by the introduction of a new sharp or flat; MOD'UL[=A]TOR, one who, or that which, modulates: a chart in the Tonic Sol-fa musical notation on which the modulations or changes from one scale to another are shown by the relative position of the notes; MOD'ULE, a small measure or quantity: (_archit._) a measure such as the diameter of the shaft for regulating the proportions of the other parts of columns: (_Shak._) a model, image; MOD'ULUS (_math._), a constant multiplier in a function of a variable, by which the function is adapted to a particular base:--_pl._ MODULI (mod'[=u]-l[=i]). [L. _modul[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_--_modulus_, dim. of _modus_, a measure.] MODUS, m[=o]'dus, _n._ the way or style of expressing anything: a fixed payment instead of tithes: (_law_) a departure from, or a modification of, some general rule or form:--_pl._ M[=O]'D[=I]. [L. _modus_, manner.] MODWALL, mod'wal, _n._ (_prov._) the bee-eater. MOE, m[=o], _adj._ and _adv._ (_Shak._). See MO. MOE, m[=o], _n._ (_Shak._) a wry mouth, grimace.--_v.i._ to make grimaces.--Better MOW (_q.v._). MOELLON, m[=o]'el-lon, _n._ rubble-stone with mortar, used as a filling in mason-work. [Fr.,--_moelle_, marrow--L. _medulla_, marrow--_medius_, middle.] MOEROLOGY, m[=e]-rol'o-ji, _n._ the practice of professional mourning. [Gr. _moira_, fate, _legein_, to speak.] MOESO-GOTHIC, m[=e]-s[=o]-goth'ik, _adj._ relating to the Goths who settled in _Moesia_, or to their language. MOFETTE, m[=o]-fet', _n._ a noxious gas escaping from the earth. [L. _mephitis_.] MOFF, mof, _n._ a thin silk fabric. MOFFLE, mof'l, _v.i._ (_prov._) to do anything clumsily. MOFUSSIL, m[=o]-fus'il, _n._ the country districts and stations in India, as distinguished from the towns and official residencies: rural: provincial. [Hind. _mufassal_, the country--Ar. _fasala_, separate.] MOG, mog, _v.i._ (_prov._) to move away. MOGUL, m[=o]-gul', _n._ a Mongol or Mongolian, esp. one of the followers of Baber, the conqueror of India (1483-1530): a name applied to the best quality of playing-cards.--_adj._ pertaining to the Mogul Empire, architecture, &c.--_adj._, the title by which Europeans knew the Emperors of Delhi. [Pers., properly 'a _Mongol_.'] MOHAIR, m[=o]'h[=a]r, _n._ the fine silken hair of the Angora goat of Asia Minor: cloth made of mohair. [O. Fr. _mouaire_ (Fr. _moire_)--Ar. _mukhayyar_.] MOHAMMEDAN, mo-ham'ed-an, _adj._ pertaining to Mohammed or to his religion.--_n._ a follower of Mohammed: one who professes Mohammedanism--also MAHOM'ETAN, MAHOM'EDAN.--_v.t._ MOHAMM'EDANISE, to convert to, or made conformable to, MOHAMMEDANISM.--_ns._ MOHAMM'EDANISM, MOHAMM'EDISM, the religion of Mohammed, contained in the Koran. [_Mohammed_, the great prophet of Arabia (570-632); lit. 'praised.'] MOHARRAM, mo-har'am, _n._ the first month of the Mohammedan year: the great fast held during the first ten days of this month.--Also MUHARR'AM. MOHAWK, m[=o]'hawk, _n._ the name of a tribe of North American Indians of the Huron-Iroquois family--hence one of a set of London street-ruffians about the beginning of the 18th century.--Also M[=O]'HOCK. MOHICAN, m[=o]-h[=e]'kan, _adj._ and _n._ relating to the _Mohicans_, a tribe of North American Indians of the Algonkin stock. MOHR, m[=o]r, _n._ a small African gazelle. MOHUR, m[=o]'hur, _n._ in British India, a gold coin=from twelve to fifteen rupees, or 30s. [Pers.] MOIDER, moi'd[.e]r, _v.t._ to confuse: to spend.--_v.i._ to work hard. MOIDORE, moi'd[=o]r, _n._ a disused gold coin of Portugal worth 27s. [Port. _moeda d'ouro_--L. _moneta de auro_, money of gold.] MOIETY, moi'e-ti, _n._ half: one of two equal parts: a small share. [Fr.,--L.,--_medius_, middle.] MOIL, moil, _v.t._ to daub with dirt.--_v.i._ to toil or labour: to drudge.--_n._ a spot: a defilement. [O. Fr. _moiler_ (Fr. _mouiller_), to wet--L. _mollis_, soft.] MOINEAU, moi'n[=o], _n._ a small flat bastion to protect a fortification while being erected. [Fr.] MOIRÆ, moi'r[=e], _n.pl._ the Fates, the Parcæ of the Romans--Clotho, the spinner of the thread of human life; Lach[)e]sis, who assigns to man his fate; and Atr[)o]pos, or the fate that cannot be avoided. MOIRE, mwor, _n._ watered silk: a watered appearance on metals or textile fabrics.--MOIRE ANTIQUE, silk watered so as to resemble the stuffs worn in ancient times. [Fr.; see MOHAIR.] MOIST, moist, _adj._ damp: humid: juicy: containing water or other liquid.--_vs.t._ MOIST'EN, MOIST (_obs._), to make moist: to wet slightly; MOIST'IFY, to make moist.--_ns._ MOIST'NESS; MOIST'URE, moistness: that which makes slightly wet: a small quantity of any liquid. [O. Fr. _moiste_ (Fr. _moite_)--L. _musteus_,--_mustum_, juice of grapes, new wine.] MOKE, m[=o]k, _n._ (_slang_) a donkey: a stupid fellow: a variety performer on several instruments: a negro. MOLAR, m[=o]'lar, _adj._ grinding, as a mill: used for grinding.--_n._ a grinding tooth: a back tooth. [L. _molaris_--_mola_, a mill--_mol[)e]re_, to grind.] MOLAR, m[=o]'lar, _adj._ of or pertaining to a mass: acting on or by means of whole masses. [L. _moles_, a mass.] MOLASSES, mo-las'ez, _n.sing._ a kind of syrup that drains from sugar during the process of manufacture: treacle. [Port. _melaço_ (Fr. _mélasse_)--L. _mell-aceus_, honey-like--_mel_, _mellis_, honey.] MOLD. See MOULD. MOLE, m[=o]l, _n._ a permanent dark-brown mark on the human skin, often hairy--a pigmentary _Nævus_ (q.v.). [A.S. _mál_; Ger. _maal_, L. _mac-ula_.] MOLE, m[=o]l, _n._ a small animal, with very small eyes and soft fur, which burrows in the ground and casts up little heaps of mould.--_v.t._ to burrow or form holes in.--_ns._ MOLE'CAST; MOLE'-CATCH'ER, one whose business it is to catch moles; MOLE'-CRICK'ET, a burrowing insect like a cricket, with forelegs like those of a mole.--_adj._ MOLE'-EYED, having eyes like those of a mole: seeing imperfectly.--_ns._ MOLE'HILL, a little hill or heap of earth cast up by a mole; MOLE'RAT, a rat-like animal, which burrows like a mole; MOLE'SKIN, the skin of a mole: a superior kind of fustian, double-twilled, cropped before dyeing; MOLE'-SPADE, a small spade used by mole-catchers; MOLE'-TRACK, the track made by a mole burrowing.--MAKE A MOUNTAIN OF A MOLEHILL, to magnify a trifling matter. [For _mold-warp_--A.S. _molde_, _mould_, _weorpan_, to warp.] MOLE, m[=o]l, _n._ a breakwater: any massive building: an ancient Roman mausoleum. [Fr.,--L. _moles_.] MOLECULE, mol'e-k[=u]l, _n._ one of the minute particles of which matter is composed: the smallest mass of any substance which retains the properties of that substance.--_adj._ MOLEC'ULAR, belonging to, or consisting of, molecules.--_n._ MOLECULAR'ITY.--MOLECULAR ATTRACTION, attraction acting on the atoms or molecules of a body, as distinguished from attraction of gravitation. [Fr.,--L. _moles_, a mass.] MOLENDINACEOUS, m[=o]-len-di-n[=a]'shi-us, _adj._ like a windmill.--_adj._ MOLEN'DINARY, relating to a mill. [Low L. _molendinum_, a mill--L. _mol[)e]re_, to grind.] MOLEST, m[=o]-lest', _v.t._ to trouble.--_ns._ MOLEST[=A]'TION, state of being molested: annoyance; MOLEST'ER.--_adj._ MOLEST'FUL. [Fr. _molester_--L. _molest[=a]re_--_molestus_--moles, mass, difficulty.] MOLIMEN, m[=o]-l[=i]'men, _n._ great effort, esp. of any periodic effort to discharge a natural function.--_adj._ MOLIM'INOUS. [L.,--_mol[=i]ri_, to toil--_moles_.] MOLINE, m[=o]'lin, _n._ and _adj._ the crossed iron in the upper millstone for receiving the spindle in the lower stone, a millstone rynd: (_her._) a moline cross. [L. _mola_, a mill.] MOLINISM, m[=o]'li-nizm, _n._ the doctrine of the Spanish Jesuit Luis _Molina_ (1535-1600), that predestination is consequent on God's fore-knowledge of the free determination of man's will, that God gives to all men sufficient grace whereby to live virtuously and merit happiness, its efficaciousness depending on the voluntary co-operation of the will with it.--_n._ M[=O]'LINIST, one who holds the foregoing views. MOLINIST, m[=o]'li-nist, _n._ a Quietist, or follower of Miguel de _Molinos_ (1640-97). [See QUIETISM.] MOLL, mol, _n._ a familiar form of Mary: a concubine. MOLLAH, MOLLA, mol'a, _n._ a Mohammedan title of respect for a learned or religious person: a judge of Moslem law. [Turk. and Pers., from Ar. _maul[=a]_.] MOLLIE, mol'i, _n._ a meeting and carousal on board one ship of the sailors belonging to several whaling-ships ice-bound in company--an abbreviation of _Mallemaroking_, [_Mallemuck_, the fulmar petrel.] MOLLIFY, mol'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to make soft or tender: to assuage: to calm or pacify:--_pa.p._ moll'ified.--_adjs._ MOLL'IENT, serving to soften: assuaging; MOLL'IFIABLE.--_ns._ MOLLIFIC[=A]'TION, act of mollifying: state of being mollified: mitigation; MOLL'IFIER; MOLL'INE, a base for ointments used in skin diseases, a soft soap mixed with excess of fat and glycerine.--_adj._ MOLLIP[=I]'LOSE, having soft plumage.--_n._ MOLLIPILOS'ITY, fleecines, fluffiness.--_adj._ MOLLIT'IOUS, luxurious.--_n._ MOLL'ITUDE. [Fr.,--L. _mollific[=a]re_--_mollis_, soft, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] MOLLUSC, MOLLUSK, mol'usk, _n._ one of the _Mollusca_, a large division of invertebrate animals--bivalves or Lamellibranchs, snails or Gasteropods, and cuttlefish or Cephalopods:--_pl._ MOLL'USCS, MOLL'USKS, or MOLLUS'CA.--_n._ MOLLUS'CAN, a mollusc.--_adjs._ MOLLUS'CAN, MOLLUS'COID, MOLLUS'COUS. [Fr.,--L. _molluscus_, softish--_mollis_, soft.] MOLLY, mol'i, _n._ dim. of Mary: the wagtail bird.--_n._ MOLL'YCODDLE, an effeminate fellow.--MOLLY MAGUIRE, one of the Ribbonmen of Ireland (1843), who perpetrated outrages by night in women's dress: one of a secret society which terrorised the coal regions of Pennsylvania (1867-77). MOLOCH, m[=o]'lok, _n._ a Phoenician god to which human sacrifices were offered: an exceedingly spiny Australian lizard--also M[=O]'LECH.--_v.t._ M[=O]'LOCHISE, to sacrifice as to Moloch. MOLOSSUS, mo-los'us, _n._ a metrical foot of three long syllables:--_pl._ MOLOSS'[=I]. [L.--Gr.] MOLTEN, m[=o]lt'n, _adj._ melted: made of melted metal.--_adv._ MOLT'ENLY. [Old pa.p. of _melt_.] MOLTO, mol'to, _adv._ (_mus._) very, much. [It.] MOLY, m[=o]'li, _n._ (_Milt._) a magic herb given by Hermes to Odysseus as a counter-charm against the spells of Circe. MOLYBDENUM, mol-ib-d[=e]'num, _n._ a rare metal of a silvery-white colour--also MOLYBD[=E]'NA.--_ns._ MOLYB'DATE, a compound of molybdic acid with a base; MOLYBD[=E]'NITE, sulphide of molybdenum.--_adjs._ MOLYBD[=E]'NOUS, MOLYB'DIC.--_n._ MOLYBD[=O]'SIS, lead-poisoning. [L.,--Gr.,--_molybdos_, lead.] MOME, m[=o]m, _n._ (_obs._) a buffoon: a stupid person. [O. Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _M[=o]mos_, god of mirth.] MOMENT, m[=o]'ment, _n._ moving cause or force: importance in effect: value, consequence: the smallest portion of time in which a movement can be made: an instant: the precise point of time, the right opportunity: (_math._) an increment or decrement, an infinitesimal change in a varying quantity: (_mech._) the moment of a force about a point is the product of the force and the perpendicular on its line of action from the point.--_adj._ M[=O]'MENTANY (_Shak._), momentary.--_adv._ M[=O]'MENTARILY.--_n._ M[=O]'MENTARINESS.--_adj._ M[=O]'MENTARY, lasting for a moment: done in a moment: short-lived.--_adv._ M[=O]'MENTLY, for a moment: in a moment: every moment.--_adj._ M[=O]MENT'OUS, of importance: of great consequence.--_adv._ MOMENT'OUSLY.--_ns._ MOMENT'OUSNESS; MOMENT'UM, the quantity of motion in a body, measured by the product of the mass and the velocity of the moving body:--_pl._ MOMENT'A. [Fr.,--L. _momentum_, for _movimentum_--_mov[=e]re_, to move.] MOMUS, m[=o]'mus, _n._ the god of raillery, &c.--SON, or DISCIPLE, OF MOMUS, a wag. [See MOME.] MONACHISM, mon'ak-izm, _n._ monastic life: state of religious seclusion under vows.--_adj._ MON'ACHAL, living alone: pertaining to monks or nuns, or to a monastic life.--_n._ MON'ACHUS, the monk-seal genus. [Fr.,--L. _monachus_, a monk.] MONAD, mon'ad, _n._ an ultimate atom or simple unextended point: a simple, primary element, assumed by Leibnitz and other philosophers: (_zool._) one of the simplest of animalcules.--_adj._ of or pertaining to monads.--_adjs._ MONAC'ID, capable of saturating a single molecule of a monobasic acid; MONAC'TINAL, single-rayed.--_n._ MON'ADELPH, a plant whose stamens are united by their filaments into one set, generally into a tube or ring.--_adjs._ MONADEL'PHIAN, MONADEL'PHOUS (_bot._), having the stamens united into one body by the filaments; MONAD'IC, -AL, relating to monads: single; MONAD'IFORM, like a monad.--_ns._ MON'ADISM, MONADOL'OGY, the theory of monads.--_adj._ MONAN'THOUS (_bot._), producing but one flower.--_n._ MON'AS, a monad: a monadiform infusorian.--_adj._ MONASCID'IAN, simple, not compound or composite--also _n._--_adj._ MONATOM'IC, consisting of a single atom, as a molecule: (_chem._) having a valence of one, as hydrogen. [L. _monas_, _-adis_--Gr. _monas_, _-ados_, a unit--_monos_, alone.] MONANDRIA, mon-an'dri-a. _n._ the first class in Linnæus's system of plants, including all genera having only one stamen.--_n._ MONAN'DER.--_adjs._ MONAN'DRIAN, MONAN'DROUS (_bot._), having only one stamen. [Gr. _monos_, single, _an[=e]r_, _andros_, a male.] MONANDRY, m[=o]-nan'dri, _n._ the practice of having only one husband. MONARCH, mon'ark, _n._ a sole or supreme ruler: sovereign: the chief of its kind.--_adj._ supreme: superior to others.--_adjs._ MONARCH'AL, pertaining to a monarch: regal; MONARCH'IAL, MONARCH'IC, -AL, relating to a monarch or to monarchy: vested in a single ruler.--_ns._ MONARCH'IAN, a Christian who denied the personal independent subsistence of Christ--_dynamic_, when regarding the divinity of Christ as only a power (_dynamis_) communicated to Him; _modalistic_, when regarding Christ as God Himself incarnate, the Father who had assumed flesh, a mere _modus_ of the Godhead; MONARCH'IANISM, the doctrine of the _Monarchians_, in opposition to _Subordinationalism_.--_adj._ MONARCHIANIS'TIC.--_v.t._ MON'ARCHISE, to rule over, as a monarch: to convert into a monarchy.--_ns._ MON'ARCHISM, the principles of monarchy: love of monarchy; MON'ARCHIST, an advocate of monarchy: a believer in monarchy; MONARCH'O (_Shak._), a fantastic Englishman who assumed Italian airs, any fantastic person; MON'ARCHY, a state or a people ruled over by one person: a kind of government of which the chief power is in the hands of a monarch: the territory of a monarch. [Fr. _monarque_, through L., from Gr. _monarch[=e]s_--_monos_, alone, _archein_, to rule.] MONASTERY, mon'as-t[.e]r-i, _n._ a house for monks: an abbey: a convent.--_adjs._ MONAST[=E]'RIAL, MONAS'TIC, -AL, pertaining to monasteries, monks, and nuns: recluse: solitary.--_n._ MONAS'TIC, a monk.--_adv._ MONAS'TICALLY.--_ns._ MONAS'TICISM, the corporate monastic life or system of living; MONAS'TICON, a book about monasteries and monks.--MONASTIC VOWS, the vows which a person takes when entering a monastery--of _poverty_, _chastity_, _obedience_. [L. _monasterium_--Gr. _monast[=e]rion_--_monast[=e]s_, a monk--_monos_, alone.] MONDAY, mun'd[=a], _n._ the second day of the week.--_adj._ MON'DAYISH, fagged--of preachers, after their Sunday exercitations.--BLACK MONDAY, Easter Monday, the 14th of April 1360: any Easter Monday; HANDSEL MONDAY, the first Monday of the year, when presents are given. [A.S. _mónandæg_, _mónan_, gen. of _móna_, moon, _dæg_, day.] MONDAYNE, mun'd[=a]n, _adj._ an old form of _mundane_. MONDE, mond, _n._ the world (of fashion).--BEAU MONDE, DEMI-MONDE (see BEAU and DEMI). [Fr.] MONERA, m[=o]-n[=e]'ra, _n.pl._ a class of Protozoans of the simplest characters.--_ns.sing._ M[=O]'NER, MON[=E]'RON.--_adjs._ MON[=E]'RAL, MON[=E]'RAN. MONERGISM, mon'[.e]r-jizm, _n._ (_theol._) the doctrine that regeneration is entirely the work of the Holy Spirit, the natural will being incapable of co-operation. [Gr. _monos_, alone, _ergon_, work.] MONETARY, mun'e-tar-i, _adj._ relating to money or moneyed affairs: consisting of money.--_n._ MONETIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ MON'ETISE, to give the character of money to, to coin as money.--MONETARY UNIT, the unit of currency--the pound sterling. MONEY, mun'i, _n._ coin: pieces of stamped metal used in commerce: any currency used as the equivalent of money: wealth:--_pl._ MON'EYS.--_ns._ MON'EY-BILL, a bill introduced into parliament or congress for raising revenue or otherwise dealing with money; MON'EY-BROK'ER, MON'EY-CHANG'ER, MON'EY-SCRIV'ENER, a broker who deals in money or exchanges.--_adj._ MON'EYED, having money: rich in money: consisting in money.--_ns._ MON'EYER, MON'IER, one who coins money: a master of a mint.--_adj._ MON'EYLESS, having no money.--_ns._ MON'EY-MAK'ER, a coiner of counterfeit money; MON'EY-MAK'ING, act of gaining wealth.--_adj._ lucrative, profitable.--_ns._ MON'EY-MAR'KET, the market or field for the investment of money; MON'EY-OR'DER, an order for money deposited at one post-office, and payable at another; MON'EY-SP[=I]'DER, or -SPIN'NER, a small spider of family _Attidæ_, supposed to bring luck; MON'EY'S-WORTH, something as good as money: full value; MON'EY-TAK'ER, one who receives payments of money, esp. at an entrance-door.--HARD MONEY, coin; POT OF MONEY, a large amount of money; READY MONEY, money paid for a thing at the time at which it is bought: money ready for immediate payment. [O. Fr. _moneie_ (Fr. _monnaie_)--L. _moneta_, a mint, _Moneta_ being a surname of Juno, in whose temple at Rome money was coined.] MONGER, mung'g[.e]r, _n._ a trader: a dealer, chiefly in composition, sometimes depreciatory.--_v.t._ to trade in. [A.S. _mangere_--_mang_, a mixture.] MONGOL, mong'gol, _n._ and _adj._ one of an Asiatic people belonging to the Ural-Altaic branch of the human family, mainly inhabiting _Mongolia_.--_adjs._ MONG[=O]'LIAN, MONGOL'IC. MONGOOSE, mong'g[=oo]s, _n._ a common ichneumon of India, often domesticated to destroy snakes.--Also Mung'oose. [Marathi _mangus_.] MONGREL, mung'grel, _adj._ of a mixed breed, impure.--_n._ an animal, esp. a dog, of a mixed breed.--_v.t._ MONG'RELISE.--_n._ MONG'RELISM. [A double dim. from A.S. _mang_, mixture.] MONIED, mun'id, _adj._ moneyed. MONILIFORM, m[=o]-nil'i-form, _adj._ like a string of beads. [L. _monile_, a necklace, _forma_, form.] MONIMENT, mon'i-ment, _n._ (_Spens._) a monument, memorial: superscription, image. [L. _monimentum_, _monumentum_, monument.] MONIPLIES, mon'i-pl[=i]z. See MANIPLIES. MONISM, mon'izm, _n._ a philosophical theory that all being may ultimately be referred to one category; thus _Idealism_, _Pantheism_, _Materialism_ are monisms--as opposed to the Dualism of matter and spirit.--_n._ MON'IST.--_adjs._ MON'ISTIC, -AL. [Gr. _monos_, alone, and _-ism_.] MONITION, mon-ish'un, _n._ a reminding or admonishing: warning: notice: (_law_) a summons to appear and answer.--_adj._ MON'ITIVE, conveying admonition.--_n._ MON'ITOR, one who admonishes: an adviser: an instructor: a senior pupil who assists a schoolmaster: an ironclad steamship armed with heavy guns in revolving turrets: a raised part of a roof, with openings for light and ventilation: a kind of lizard:--_fem._ MON'ITRESS, MON'ITRIX.--_adj._ MONIT[=O]'RIAL, relating to a monitor: performed or taught by a monitor.--_adv._ MONIT[=O]'RIALLY.--_n._ MON'ITORSHIP.--_adj._ MON'ITORY, giving admonition or warning. [L.,--_mon[=e]re_, _-itum_, to remind.] MONK, mungk, _n._ formerly, one who retired alone to the desert to lead a religious life: one of a religious community living in a monastery: an inky blotch in print: a fuse for firing mines.--_ns._ MONK'ERY, the life of monks: monasticism; MONK'-FISH, the angel-fish; MONK'HOOD, the state or character of a monk.--_adj._ MONK'ISH, pertaining to a monk: like a monk: monastic.--_ns._ MONK'S'-HOOD, the aconite, a poisonous plant with a flower like a monk's hood; MONK'S'-SEAM (_naut._), a strong seam formed by laying the selvage-edges of two pieces of canvas over each other and stitching on each side and down the middle--also _Middle-stitching_. [A.S. _munec_--L. _monachus_--Gr. _monachos_--_monos_, alone.] MONKEY, mungk'i, _n._ a quadrumanous mammal of the order Primates--the term is loose, and may be conveniently restricted only to all the Primates exclusive of the Anthropoid Apes, thus including the _Platyrrhini_, or New-World monkeys, and the _Catarrhiini_, or Old-World monkeys: an ape: a name of contempt, esp. for a mischievous person, also of playful endearment: a heavy weight for driving piles: a large hammer for driving bolts: in betting slang, a sum of 500 pounds, or dollars in U.S.: a fluid consisting of chlor-hydric acid and zinc--generally called _spirits of salt_--used in the process of soldering:--_pl._ MONK'EYS.--_v.i._ to meddle with anything.--_v.t._ to imitate as a monkey does.--_ns._ MONK'EY-BAG, a small money-bag, hung round the sailor's neck; MONK'EY-BLOCK, a small swivel-block used in guiding running rigging; MONK'EY-BOARD, the omnibus conductor's foot-board; MONK'EY-BOAT, a narrow, half-decked river-boat; MONK'EY-BREAD, the baobab-tree or its fruit; MONK'EY-EN'GINE, a kind of pile-driver having a ram or monkey working in a wooden frame; MONK'EY-FLOW'ER, a flower of the _mimulus_ kind; MONK'EY-GAFF, a small gaff above the spanker-gaff for the flag; MONK'EY-GRASS, a coarse fibre yielded by the leaf-stalks of _Attalea funifera_, used for brooms, street sweeping-machine brushes, &c.; MONK'EY-HAMM'ER, a drop-press with a ram, which is raised and let drop freely; MONK'EYISM, the qualities of the monkey; MONK'EY-JACK'ET, a close-fitting jacket, generally made of some stout, coarse material; MONK'EY-POT, the seed-vessel of several species of _Lecythis_, having a round lid; MONK'EY-PUMP, a straw let through a gimlet-hole into a cask for the purpose of sucking the liquor; MONK'EY-PUZZ'LE, the Chili pine, _Araucaria imbricata_; MONK'EY-RAIL, a light rail above the quarter-rail; MONK'EY-SHINE (_U.S._), a piece of tomfoolery; MONK'EY-TAIL, a short lever for training carronades: a piece of knotted rope by which to attach a hook, to save the hand from jamming; MONK'EY-WHEEL, a tackle-block over which runs a hoisting-rope; MONK'EY-WRENCH, a screw-key having a movable jaw.--HAVE, or GET, ONE'S MONKEY UP, to be angry; SUCK THE MONKEY, to drink liquor from a cask through an inserted tube: to drink from a coco-nut, filled surreptitiously with rum, &c. [Old It. _monicchio_, dim. of Old It. _monna_, nickname for an old woman, an ape, contr. of It. _madonna_, mistress.] MONOBASIC, mon-[=o]-b[=a]'sik, _adj._ having one base, of an acid combining with a univalent basic radical to form a neutral salt. MONOBLASTIC, mon-[=o]-blas'tik, _adj._ pertaining to that condition of the metazoic embryo in which a single germinal layer is alone represented. MONOBLEPSIS, mon-[=o]-blep'sis, _n._ a condition of vision more distinct when one eye only is used. [Gr. _monos_, single, _blepsis_, sight.] MONOCARBONATE, mon-[=o]-kar'b[=o]-n[=a]t, _n._ a carbonate in which both hydrogen atoms of the acid are replaced by basic elements. MONOCARDIAN, mon-[=o]-kär'di-an, _adj._ having a single heart, as fishes and reptiles. [Gr. _monos_, single, _kardia_, the heart.] MONOCARPOUS, mon-[=o]-kärp'us, _adj._ bearing fruit only once, as wheat, and all annual plants.--_n._ MON'OCARP. [Gr. _monos_, single, _karpos_, fruit.] MONOCENTRIC, mon-[=o]-sen'trik, _adj._ having a single centre only: unipolar. MONOCEPHALOUS, mon-[=o]-sef'al-us, _adj._ having but one head or capitulum. MONOCEROS, m[=o]-nos'[.e]r-os, _n._ a one-horned animal: the unicorn: (_Spens._) perhaps the sword-fish.--_adj._ MONOC'EROUS. [Gr. _monos_, single, _keras_, a horn.] MONOCHLAMYDEOUS, mon-[=o]-kla-mid'[=e]-us, _adj._ (_bot._) having a single instead of a double perianth. [Gr. _monos_, single, _chlamys_, a cloak.] MONOCHORD, mon'[=o]-kord, _n._ a musical instrument of one chord or string. MONOCHROMATIC, mon-[=o]-kro-mat'ik, _adj._ of one colour only--also MONOCHR[=O]'IC.--_ns._ MON'OCHROME, a painting in one colour only; MON'OCHROMY, this art. MONOCHRONIC, mon-[=o]-kron'ik, _adj._ contemporaneous.--_adj._ MONOCH'RONOUS, monosemic. MONOCLE, mon'o-kl, _n._ a one-eyed animal: a single eyeglass. MONOCLINAL, mon'[=o]-kl[=i]-nal, _adj._ (_geol._) dipping in one direction. MONOCLINIC, mon'[=o]-klin-ik, _adj._ (_mineral_) crystallising in three unequal axes, two intersecting each other at an oblique angle, and at right angles to the third.--Also MON'OCL[=I]NATE. [Gr. _monos_, single, _klinein_, to incline.] MONOCLINOUS, mon'[=o]-kl[=i]-nus, _adj._ (_bot._) hermaphrodite. MONO-COMPOUND, mon'[=o]-kom'pownd, _n._ (_chem._) a compound containing one atom of any particular element. MONOCOTYLEDON, mon-[=o]-kot-i-l[=e]'don, _n._ a plant with only one cotyledon.--_adj._ MONOCOTYL[=E]'DONOUS. MONOCRACY, mon-ok'ra-si, _n._ rule or government by a single person.--_n._ MON'OCRAT. [Gr. _monos_, single, _kratos_, strength.] MONOCULAR, mon-ok'[=u]-lar, _adj._ with one eye only: fitted only for one eye at a time.--Also MONOC'ULOUS. MONODACTYLOUS, mon-[=o]-dak'ti-lus, _adj._ having only one toe or finger. MONODELPHIA, mon-[=o]-del'fi-a, _n.pl._ one of the three primary divisions of mammals, the placental mammals.--_adj._ MONODEL'PHIAN. MONODON, mon'[=o]-don, _n._ a genus of delphinoid odontocete cetaceans, containing only the narwhal. MONODRAMA, mon'[=o]-drä-ma, _n._ a dramatic piece for a single performer.--_adj._ MONODRAMAT'IC. MONODY, mon'[=o]-di, _n._ a mournful ode or poem in which a single mourner bewails: a song for one voice: monotonous sound.--_adjs._ MONOD'IC, -AL.--_n._ MON'ODIST, one who writes monodies. MONOECIOUS, mon-[=e]'shus, _adj._ having the stamens and pistils in separate flowers on the same individual plant.--_n.pl._ MONOE'CIA, the 21st class of plants of Linnæus. [Gr. _monos_, single, _oikos_, a house.] MONOGAMY, mon-og'a-mi, _n._ marriage to one wife only: the state of such marriage.--_adjs._ MONOGAM'IC, MONOG'AMOUS.--_n._ MONOG'AMIST. [Gr. _monos_, one, _gamos_, marriage.] MONOGENESIS, mon-[=o]-jen'e-sis, _n._ development of the ovum from a parent like itself.--_adj._ MONOGENET'IC.--_ns._ MONOG'ENISM, the descent of the whole human family from a single pair--also MONOG'ENY; MONOG'ENIST, one who maintains this.--_adjs._ MONOGENIST'IC; MONOG'ENOUS, generating by fission, gemmation, &c.: pertaining to monogenism: (_math._) having a single differential coefficient considered as a rule of generation. MONOGONY, m[=o]-nog'o-ni, _n._ a sexual reproduction. MONOGRAM, mon'[=o]-gram, _n._ a figure consisting of several letters interwoven or written into one.--_adj._ MONOGRAMMAT'IC. [Gr. _monos_, alone, _gramma_, a letter.] MONOGRAPH, mon'[=o]-graf, _n._ a treatise written on one particular subject or any branch of it.--_v.t._ to write a monograph upon.--_ns._ MONOG'RAPHER, MONOG'RAPHIST, a writer of monographs.--_adjs._ MONOGRAPH'IC, -AL, pertaining to a monograph: drawn in lines without colours.--_n._ MONOG'RAPHY, a representation by one means only, as lines: an outline drawing. [Gr. _monos_, alone, _graphein_, to write.] MONOGYNIA, mon-[=o]-jin'i-a, _n._ an order of plants which have only one pistil or female organ.--_n._ MON'OGYN, a plant of this kind.--_adjs._ MONOGYN'IAN, MONOG'YNOUS (_bot._), having only one pistil or female organ.--_n._ MONOG'YNY, a mating with only one female. [Gr. _monos_, alone, _gyn[=e]_, a female.] MONOHYDRIC, mon-[=o]-h[=i]'drik, _adj._ containing one atom of hydrogen. MONOID, mon'oid, _adj._ and _n._ (_pros._) containing but one kind of foot. MONOLATRY, m[=o]-nol'a-tri, _n._ the actual worship of but one divinity, not necessarily a disbelief in others. MONOLITH, mon'[=o]-lith, _n._ a pillar, or column, of a single stone.--_adjs._ MONOLITH'AL, MONOLITH'IC. [Gr. _monos_, alone, _lithos_, a stone.] MONOLOGUE, mon'[=o]-log, _n._ a speech uttered by one person: soliloquy: a poem, &c. for a single performer.--_v.i._ MONOL'OGISE, to indulge in this.--_ns._ MONOL'OGIST, one who talks in monologue; MONOL'OGY, the habit of doing so. [Fr.,--Gr. _monos_, alone, _logos_, speech.] MONOMACHY, m[=o]-nom'a-ki, _n._ a single combat: a duel.--Also MONOM[=A]'CHIA. [Gr. _monos_, alone, _mach[=e]_, a fight.] MONOMANIA, mon-[=o]-m[=a]'ni-a, _n._ madness confined to one subject, or to one faculty of the mind: an unreasonable interest in any particular thing.--_n._ MONOM[=A]'NIAC, one affected with monomania.--_adjs._ MONOM[=A]'NIAC, -AL, affected with monomania. [Gr. _monos_, alone, _mania_, madness.] MONOMEROUS, m[=o]-nom'e-rus, _adj._ having the tarsi single-jointed: (_bot._) having but one member in each cycle. [Gr. _monos_, single, _meros_, part.] MONOMETALLIC, mon-[=o]-me-tal'ik, _adj._ consisting of but one metal.--_ns._ MONOMET'ALLISM, the use of but one metal as a standard of value; MONOMET'ALLIST, one who upholds this theory. MONOMETER, m[=o]-nom'e-t[.e]r, _adj._ and _n._ (_pros._) consisting of one measure.--_adjs._ MONOMET'RIC, -AL. MONOMIAL, mon-[=o]'mi-al, _n._ an algebraic expression of one term only: a series of factors of single terms--also MON'OME.--_adj._ MON[=O]'MIAL. [Gr. _monos_, alone, L. _nomen_, name.] MONOMORPHIC, mon-[=o]-mor'fik, _adj._ of the same type of structure, or morphological character.--_adj._ MONOMOR'PHOUS. [Gr. _monos_, single, _morph[=e]_, form.] MONOMYARIAN, mon-[=o]-m[=i]-[=a]'ri-an, _adj._ having but one adductor muscle, as an oyster. [Gr. _monos_, single, _mys_, muscle.] MONONYM, mon'[=o]-nim, _n._ a name consisting of a single term.--_adj._ MONONYM'IC. MONOÖUSIOUS, mon-[=o]-[=oo]'si-us, _adj._ having the same substance. [Gr. _monos_, single, _ousia_, essence.] MONOPATHY, m[=o]-nop'a-thi, _n._ (_pathol._) a disease affecting only one organ or function.--_adj._ MONOPATH'IC. [Gr. _monos_, single, _pathos_, suffering.] MONOPETALOUS, mon-[=o]-pet'a-lus, _adj._ (_bot._) having only one petal, or denoting a corolla, the petals of which so cohere as to form a tube. MONOPHOBIA, mon-[=o]-f[=o]'bi-a, _n._ morbid dread of being left alone. [Gr. _monos_, single, _phobia_, fear.] MONOPHONOUS, mon-of'o-nus, _adj._ producing one sound at one time. [Gr. _monos_, single, _ph[=o]n[=e]_, voice.] MONOPHOTE, mon'[=o]-f[=o]t, _n._ an electric arc-lamp regulator working in single series. [Gr. _monos_, single, _ph[=o]s_, _ph[=o]tos_, light.] MONOPHTHONG, mon'of-thong, _n._ a simple vowel-sound.--_adj._ MON'OPHTHONGAL. MONOPHYLETIC, mon-[=o]-fi-let'ik, _adj._ pertaining to a single phylum:--opp. to _Polyphyletic_. MONOPHYLLOUS, mon-[=o]-fil'us, _adj._ having a leaf of but one piece. [Gr. _monos_, alone, _phyllon_, a leaf.] MONOPHYODONT, mon-[=o]-f[=i]'[=o]-dont, _adj._ having only one set of teeth.--_n._ such an animal. MONOPHYSITE, m[=o]-nof'i-s[=i]t, _n._ one who holds that Christ had but one composite nature, instead of the orthodox doctrine that He united two complete natures without confusion or mutation in one person.--_adj._ MONOPHYSIT'ICAL.--_n._ MONOPHYSIT'ISM. [Gr. _monos_, alone, _physis_, nature.] MONOPLAST, mon'[=o]-plast, _n._ an organism consisting of a single cell. [Gr. _monos_, single, _plastos_, formed--_plassein_, to form.] MONOPLEGIA, mon-[=o]-pl[=e]'ji-a, _n._ paralysis limited to a single part. [Gr. _monos_, single, _pl[=e]g[=e]_, stroke.] MONOPNOA, mo-nop'n[=o]-a, _n.pl._ a class of reptiles breathing in one way only. [Gr. _monos_, single, _pnoos_, breathing--_pnein_, to breathe.] MONOPODE, mon'[=o]-p[=o]d, _adj._ and _n._ having but one foot.--_adj._ MONOPOD'IC--_n._ MON'OPODY. MONOPOLISE, mon-op'o-l[=i]z, _v.t._ to obtain possession of anything so as to be the only seller or sharer of it: in engross the whole of.--_ns._ MONOP'OLISER, MONOP'OLIST.--_adj._ MONOPOLIS'TIC.--_n._ MONOP'OLY, the sole power of dealing in anything: exclusive command or possession: (_law_) a grant from the crown to an individual for the sole right to deal in anything. [L. _monopolium_--Gr. _monos_, alone, _p[=o]lein_, to sell.] MONOPTERON, m[=o]-nop'te-ron, _n._ a kind of temple or portico of columns grouped in a circle, and supporting a cupola. [Gr. _monos_, single, _pteron_, a wing.] MONOPTOTE, mon'op-t[=o]t, _n._ a noun, &c., having but one case-form. [Gr. _monos_, alone, _pt[=o]sis_, case.] MONORCHID, mo-nork'id, _adj._ having only one testicle.--_n._ MONORCH'ISM. MONORGANIC, mon-or-gan'ik, _adj._ of one organ. MONORHINE, mon'[=o]-rin, _adj._ having but one nasal passage.--Also MON'ORH[=I]NAL. [Gr. _monos_, single, _hris_, _hrinos_, the nose.] MONORHYME, mon'[=o]-r[=i]m, _n._ a poem in which all the lines end with the same rhyme. MONOSEMIC, mon-[=o]-s[=e]'mik, _adj._ (_pros._) consisting in, or equal to, a single semeion (mora or unit of time). MONOSEPALOUS, mon-[=o]-sep'a-lus, _adj._ (_bot._) having the sepals all united: having a calyx of one piece. MONOSPERMOUS, mon-[=o]-sp[.e]rm'us, _adj._ (_bot._) having one seed only.--_n._ MON'OSPERM. [Gr. _monos_, alone, _sperma_, seed.] MONOSPOROUS, mon'[=o]-sp[=o]r-us, _adj._ of a single spore. MONOSTICH, mon'[=o]-stik, _n._ a poem complete in one verse.--_adj._ MONOS'TICHOUS. [Gr. _monos_, alone, _stichos_, verse.] MONOSTROPHIC, mon-[=o]-strof'ik, _adj._ having but one strophe: not varied in measure.--_n._ MONOS'TROPHE. [Gr. _monos_, alone, _stroph[=e]_, a strophe.] MONOSTYLE, mon'[=o]-st[=i]l, _adj._ (_archit._) consisting of a single shaft. [Gr. _monos_, alone, _stylos_, a pillar.] MONOSY, mon'[=o]-si, _n._ (_bot._) an abnormal condition in which organs usually entire or united are found disunited. [Gr. _mon[=o]sis_--_monos_, single.] MONOSYLLABLE, mon-[=o]-sil'la-bl, _n._ a word of one syllable.--_adj._ MONOSYLLAB'IC, consisting of one syllable, or of words of one syllable.--_n._ MONOSYL'LABISM, an exclusive use of monosyllables, as in Chinese. MONOSYMMETRIC, mon-[=o]-sim-et'rik, _adj._ having only one plane of symmetry in crystallisation.--_adj._ MONOSYMMET'RICAL (_bot._), of flowers capable of being bisected into similar halves in only one plane. MONOTESSARON, mon-[=o]-tes'a-ron, _n._ a harmony of the four gospels. MONOTHALAMOUS, mon-[=o]-thal'a-mus, _adj._ (_bot._) single-chambered: with but one cavity. [Gr. _monos_, single, _thalamos_, a chamber.] MONOTHEISM, mon'[=o]-th[=e]-izm, _n._ the belief in only one God.--_n._ MON'OTHEIST, one who believes that there is but one God.--_adj._ MONOTHEIST'IC. [Gr. _monos_, alone, _theos_, God.] MONOTHELITE, mon-oth'e-l[=i]t, _n._ one who holds that Christ had but one will and one operation or energy, as He had but one nature.--_ns._ MONOTH'ELISM, MONOTHELIT'ISM. [Gr. _monos_, alone, _thel[=e]t[=e]s_, one who wills--_thelein_, to will.] MONOTHETIC, mon-[=o]-thet'ik, _adj._ assuming a single essential element. [Gr. _monos_, single, _thetos_, verbal adj. of _tithenai_, to put.] MONOTINT, mon'[=o]-tint, _n._ drawing or painting in a single tint. MONOTOCOUS, m[=o]-not'o-kus, _adj._ having one only at a birth. [Gr. _monos_, single, _tiktein_, to bear.] MONOTONE, mon'[=o]-t[=o]n, _n._ a single, unvaried tone or sound: a succession of sounds having the same pitch: a piece of writing in one strain throughout.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to intone, chant.--_adjs._ MONOTON'IC, MONOT'ONOUS, uttered in one unvaried tone: marked by dull uniformity.--_adv._ MONOT'ONOUSLY.--_n._ MONOT'ONY, dull uniformity of tone or sound: want of modulation in speaking or reading: (_fig._) irksome sameness or want of variety. [Gr. _monos_, alone, _tonos_, a tone.] MONOTREMATA, mon-[=o]-trem'a-ta, _n.pl._ the lowest order of Mammalia, having a single opening for the genital and digestive organs.--_adj._ MONOTREM'ATOUS--also MON'OTREME.--_n._ MON'OTREME, a member of the Monotremata. [Gr. _monos_, alone, _tr[=e]ma_, a hole.] MONOTYPE, mon'[=o]-t[=i]p, _n._ and _adj._ having only one type or representative: a print transferred from a painting on a metal plate.--_adj._ MONOTYP'IC. MONOXIDE, mo-nok's[=i]d, _n._ an oxide containing a single oxygen atom in combination with two univalent atoms or one bivalent atom. MONOXYLON, mon-oks'i-lon, _n._ a canoe made from one log.--_adj._ MONOX'YLOUS, formed of a single piece of wood. [Gr. _monos_, single, _xylon_, wood.] MONROEISM, mon-r[=o]'izm, _n._ more generally MONROE DOCTRINE, the principle of the non-intervention of Europe in matters relating to the American continent--from President _Monroe's_ Message in Dec. 1823. MONSEIGNEUR, mon-s[=a]-nyer', _n._ my lord: a title in France given to a person of high birth or rank, esp. to bishops, &c. (written _Mgr._):--_pl._ MESSEIGNEURS (me-s[=a]-nyer'). The corresponding Italian title is MONSIGNOR (mon-s[=e]'nyor), conferred on prelates and on the dignitaries of the papal household--also MONSI'GNORE. [Fr., from L. _meus_, my, _senior_, older.] MONSIEUR, m[)o]-sye', _n._ sir: a title of courtesy in France=_Mr_ in English (written _M._ or _Mons._): the eldest brother of the king of France: a Frenchman generally--usually _mounseer_: a French gentleman:--_pl._ MESSIEURS (me-sye').--MONSIEUR DE PARIS, the public executioner. [Fr.,--L. _meus_, my, _senior_.] MONSOON, mon-s[=oo]n', _n._ a periodical wind of the Indian Ocean, which blows from the S.W. from April to October, and from the N.E. the rest of the year: similar winds elsewhere, returning periodically with the seasons.--_adj._ MONSOON'AL [It. _monsone_--Malay _m[=u]sim_--Ar. _mawsim_, a time, a season.] MONSTER, mon'st[.e]r, _n._ anything out of the usual course of nature: a prodigy, or fabulous animal: anything unusually large: anything horrible from ugliness or wickedness.--_adj._ unusually large, huge.--_n._ MONSTROS'ITY, an unnatural production.--_adj._ MON'STROUS, out of the common course of nature: enormous: wonderful: horrible.--_adv._ MON'STROUSLY.--_n._ MON'STROUSNESS, state or quality of being monstrous.--GILA MONSTER, a large poisonous lizard of Arizona, &c., having tubercular scales. [Fr.,--L. _monstrum_, an omen, a monster--_mon[=e]re_, to warn.] [Illustration] MONSTRANCE, mon'strans, _n._ the utensil employed in R.C. churches for presenting the consecrated host for the adoration of the people, consisting of a stand and a repository or case with small semicircular holder (_lunula_).--Also _Ostensory_. [Fr.,--L. _monstr[=a]re_, to show, _monstrum_, an omen.] MONTAGNARD, mong-ta-nyar', _n._ one of the 'Mountain' or the extreme democratic wing of the French Legislative Assembly (1st Oct. 1791-21st Sept. 1792), so called because sitting on the topmost benches. MONTANIC, mon-tan'ik, _adj._ pertaining to mountains: consisting in mountains. [L. _montanus_--_mons_, _montis_, a mountain.] MONTANISM, mon'tan-izm, _n._ a heresy which grew up in the Christian Church in the second half of the 2d century, founded by the prophet and 'Paraclete,' _Montanus_ of Phrygia--an ascetic reaction in favour of the old discipline and severity.--_n._ MON'TANIST, a supporter of Montanism.--_adj._ MONTANIST'IC. MONTANT, mont'ant, _adj._ rising: (_her._) increasing.--_n._ an upright rail or stile, as in a door, &c.: (_Shak._) a contraction of _montanto_, a term in fencing, apparently for an upward blow: a two-handed sword. [Fr.,--_monter_, to mount--L. _mons_, _montis_, a mountain.] MONT-DE-PIÉTÉ, mong'-de-p[=e]-[=a]-t[=a]', the Italian MONTE DI PIETÀ, _n._ a pawnbroking shop set up by public authority. [Fr. and It., 'fund, bank, of piety.'] MONTE, mon'te, _n._ a shrubby tract, a forest: a Spanish-American gambling game, played with a pack of forty cards.--THREE-CARD MONTE, a Mexican gambling game, played with three cards, one usually a court-card. [Sp., 'a hill'--L. _mons_, _montis_, a mountain.] MONTEITH, mon-t[=e]th', _n._ a large 18th-century punch-bowl, usually of silver, fluted and scalloped: a cotton handkerchief with white spots on a coloured ground. MONTEM, mon'tem, _n._ a former custom of Eton boys to go every third Whit-Tuesday to a hillock on the Bath road and exact 'salt-money' from passers-by, for the university expenses of the senior scholar or school captain. MONTONEGRINE, mon-te-neg'rin, _adj._ and _n._ relating to _Montenegro_, or a native thereof: a close-fitting outer garment for women, braided and embroidered. MONTEPULCIANO, mon-te-pul-chä'n[=o], _n._ a fine wine produced around _Montepulciano_, in central Italy. MONTERO, mon-t[=a]'ro, _n._ a huntsman: a horseman's cap. [Sp. _montero_, a huntsman--_monte_--L. _mons_, _montis_, a mountain.] MONTGOLFIER, mont-gol'fi-[.e]r, _n._ a balloon made by the brothers _Montgolfier_, Joseph Michel (1740-1810) and Jacques Etienne (1745-99), of Annonay, in 1783. MONTH, munth, _n._ the period from new moon to new moon--a _lunation_, _lunar_, or _synodic_ month (=29.5306 days): one of the twelve divisions of the year--a _calendar_ month: one-twelfth part of a tropical year, the time the sun takes to pass through 30°--a _solar_ month=30.4368 days.--_n._ MONTH'LING, that which is a month old or which lasts a month.--_adj._ MONTH'LY, performed in a month: happening or published once a month.--_n._ a monthly publication: (_pl._) the menses.--_adv._ once a month: in every month.--MONTH OF SUNDAYS, a period that seems very long; MONTH'S MIND (see MIND).--SIDEREAL, OR STELLAR, MONTH, the time in which the moon passes round the ecliptic to the same star=27.3217 days; TROPICAL, or PERIODIC, MONTH, from the moon's passing the equinox till she again reaches it=27.3216 days. [A.S. _mónð_--_móna_, the moon.] MONTICULUS, mon-tik'[=u]-lus, _n._ a little elevation--also MON'TICLE and MON'TICULE.--_adjs._ MONTIC'ULATE, MONTIC'ULOUS, having small projections. MONTOIR, mon-twar', _n._ a stone or block used in mounting a horse. [Fr., _monter_, to mount.] MONTON, mon'ton, _n._ a Mexican unit of weight for ore, varying from 1800 to 3200 Spanish pounds. MONTRE, mon't[.e]r, _n._ a flue-stop the pipes of which show from without, usually the open diapason of the great organ: an opening in a kiln wall. MONTURE, mon't[=u]r, _n._ a mounting, setting, frame. [Fr.] MONUMENT, mon'[=u]-ment, _n._ anything that preserves the memory of a person or an event, a building, pillar, tomb, &c.: a record or enduring example of anything: any distinctive mark.--_v.t._ to raise a monument in memory of.--_adj._ MONUMENT'AL, of or relating to a monument or tomb: memorial: impressive: amazing.--_adv._ MONUMENT'ALLY. [Fr.,--L. _monumentum_--_mon[=e]re_, to remind.] MOO, m[=oo], _v.i._ to low like a cow. [Imit.] MOOD, m[=oo]d, _n._ fashion, manner: (_gram._) a. form of the verb to express the mode or manner of an action or of a state of being: (_logic_) the form of the syllogism as determined by the quantity and quality of its three constituent propositions: (_mus._) the arrangement of the intervals in the scale, as major and minor (see MODE). [_Mode._] MOOD, m[=oo]d, _n._ disposition of mind: temporary state of the mind: anger, heat of temper.--_adv._ MOOD'ILY.--_n._ MOOD'INESS, gloominess, peevishness.--_adjs._ MOOD'Y, indulging in moods: out of humour: angry: sad: gloomy; MOOD'Y-MAD (_Shak._), mad with anger. [A.S. _mód_, mind; cf. Ger. _muth_, courage.] MOOKTAR, m[=oo]k'tar, _n._ a native lawyer in India. [Ar. _mukht[=a]r_, chosen.] MOOL. A Scotch form of _mould_. MOOLA(H). See MOLLA(H). MOON, m[=oo]n, _n._ the secondary planet or satellite which revolves round the earth monthly, shining with reflected light: a satellite revolving about any other planet; a month: anything in the shape of a moon or crescent: (_fort._) a crescent-shaped outwork.--_v.t._ to adorn with moons or crescents.--_v.i._ to wander about or gaze vacantly at anything.--_n._ MOON'BEAM, a beam of light from the moon.--_adj._ MOON'-BLIND, dim-sighted, purblind.--_ns._ MOON'CALF, a monster, a deformed creature: a dolt.--_n.pl._ MOON'-CULMIN[=A]'TIONS, times of culmination of the limb of the moon with certain neighbouring stars, formerly used in determining longitude.--_adj._ MOONED, of or like the moon: having the figure of the moon marked upon it.--_ns._ MOON'ER, one who moons about; MOON'EYE, a disease affecting horses' eyes: a name of several American fishes; MOON'FACE, a full, round face--a point of beauty in the East.--_adj._ MOON'FACED.--_ns._ MOON'-FISH, a name applied to various fishes; MOON'-FLOWER, the ox-eye daisy; MOON'-GLADE, the track of moonlight on water.--_adj._ MOON'ISH, like the moon: variable: inconstant.--_n._ MOON'-KNIFE, a crescent-shaped knife used by leather-workers in shaving off the fleshy parts of skins.--_adj._ MOON'LESS, destitute of moonlight.--_n._ MOON'LIGHT, the light of the moon--sunlight reflected from the moon's surface.--_adj._ lighted by the moon: occurring during moonlight.--_ns._ MOON'LIGHTER, one of a band of cowardly ruffians in Ireland who committed agrarian outrages by night about 1880: a moonshiner; MOON'LIGHTING.--_adjs._ MOON'LIT, lit or illumined by the moon; MOON'-LOVED, loved by the moon.--_ns._ MOON'-MAD'NESS, lunacy, supposed to be caused by sleeping in full moonlight; MOON'-RAK'ER, a silly person; MOON'-RAK'ING, the following of crazy fancies; MOON'-SAIL, a small sail, sometimes carried above the sky-scraper; MOON'-SET, the setting of the moon; MOON'SHINE, the shining of the moon: (_fig._) show without reality: poached eggs with sauce: a month: (_U.S._) smuggled spirits; MOON'SHINER, a smuggler or illicit distiller of spirits.--_adj._ MOON'SHINY, lighted by the moon: visionary, unreal.--_n._ MOON'-STONE, a variety of feldspar presenting a pearly reflection from within.--_adj._ MOON'STRUCK, affected by the moon, lunatic, crazed.--_n._ MOON'WORT, any fern of the genus _Botrychium_.--_adj._ MOON'Y, relating to, or like, the moon or a crescent, bearing a crescent: round, as a shield: like moonlight, lighted by the moon: silly: sickly: tipsy.--_n._ a noodle.--MOONLIGHT FLITTING, a removal of one's furniture, &c., during night, to prevent it being seized for rent or debt. [A.S. _móna_; cf. Ger. _mond_, L. _mensis_, Gr. _m[=e]n[=e]_.] MOONSHEE, m[=oo]n'sh[=e], _n._ in India, a secretary, interpreter, teacher of languages. [Ar. _munshi_.] MOOP, m[=oo]p, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to nibble, browse. MOOR, m[=oo]r, _n._ a large tract of untilled ground, often covered with heath, and having a poor, peaty soil: a heath.--_ns._ MOOR'COCK, MOOR'FOWL, the red grouse or heathcock found in moors; MOOR'HEN, the female moor-fowl: the water-hen; MOOR'-ILL (_Scot._), a kind of disease among cattle--also _Red-water_.--_adjs._ MOOR'ISH, MOOR'Y, resembling a moor: sterile: marshy: boggy.--_n._ MOOR'LAND, a tract of moor. [A.S. _mór_; Ice. _mór_, peat.] MOOR, m[=oo]r, _v.t._ to fasten a ship by cable and anchor: to fix firmly.--_v.i._ to be fastened by cables or chains.--_ns._ MOOR'AGE, a place for mooring; MOOR'ING, act of mooring: that which serves to moor or confine a ship: in _pl._ the place or condition of a ship thus moored. [Prob. Dut. _marren_, to tie, allied to A.S. _merran_ (in compound _ámierran_), Old High Ger. _marrjan_, to hinder.] MOOR, m[=oo]r, _n._ a member of the dark mixed Mauretanian and Arab race inhabiting Morocco and the Barbary coast: one of the Arab and Berber conquerors and occupants of Spain from 711 to 1492--same as _Arab_ or _Saracen_: a dark-coloured person generally, a negro.--_n._ MOOR'ERY, a quarter inhabited by MOORS.--_adj._ MOOR'ISH. [Fr. _more_, _maure_--L. _maurus_--Gr. _mauros_, black.] MOORVA, m[=oo]r'va, _n._ an East Indian silky fibre for cordage.--Also _Marool_, _Bowstring-hemp_. MOOSE, m[=oo]s, _n._ the largest deer of America, resembling the European elk. [Algonkin _musu_.] MOOT, m[=oo]t, _v.t._ to propose for discussion: to discuss: argue for practice.--_adj._ discussed or debated.--_n._ in early English history, the meeting of the assembled freemen, or their representatives, to regulate the affairs of the village or tun, the hundred, or the kingdom--_village-_ or _town-moot_, _hundred-moot_, folk-moot.--_adj._ MOOT'ABLE, that can be mooted or debated.--_ns._ MOOT'-CASE, MOOT'-POINT, a case, point, or question to be mooted or debated: an unsettled question; MOOT'-COURT, -HALL, a meeting or court for arguing supposed cases; MOOT'-HILL, a hill of meeting on which the moot was held. [A.S. _mótian_--_mót_, _gemót_, an assembly, akin to _métan_, to meet.] MOP, mop, _n._ a bunch of rags, &c., fixed, on a handle for washing floors, windows, or the like: anything at all like a mop: (_prov._) a hiring-fair.--_v.t._ to rub or wipe with a mop:--_pr.p._ mop'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ mopped.--_adj._ MOP'-HEAD'ED, having a shaggy, unkempt head of hair. [O. Fr. _mappe_--L. _mappa_, a napkin.] MOP, mop, _n._ a grimace.--_v.i._ to make such. MOPE, m[=o]p, _v.i._ to be silent and dispirited: to be dull or stupid.--_v.t._ to make spiritless.--_n._ a listless person, a drone--also MOP'US.--_adv._ MOP'INGLY.--_adj._ MOP'ISH, dull: spiritless.--_adv._ MOP'ISHLY, in a mopish manner.--_n._ MOP'ISHNESS. [Dut. _moppen_, to pout, sulk; Ger. _muffen_.] MOPPET, mop'et, _n._ a doll of rags: a young girl--also MOP'SY, an untidy woman.--_adj._ MOP'SICAL, short-sighted: stupid. MOPPY, mop'i, _adj._ (_slang_) tipsy. MOPS, mops, _n._ a pug-dog. MOPSTICK, mop'stik, _n._ in an old pianoforte movement, a rod which raises the damper as the key is depressed.--Also MAP'STICK. MOPUS, mop'us, _n._ (_slang_) money. MOQUETTE, m[=o]-ket', _n._ a material for carpets, with a loose velvety pile--the back thick canvas, &c. [Fr.] MORA, m[=o]'ra, _n._ (_law_) delay, esp. unjustifiable. [L.] MORA, m[=o]'ra, _n._ an ancient game played from China to Peru, the aim being to guess the number of fingers held out by a player. [It.] MORAINE, mo-r[=a]n', _n._ a continuous line of rocks and gravel along the edges of glaciers.--_adj._ MORAIN'IC. [Fr.--Ger. (Bavarian) _mur_.] MORAL, mor'al, _adj._ of or belonging to the manners or conduct of men: conformed to right, ethical, virtuous: capable of knowing right and wrong: subject to the moral law: instructing with regard to morals: supported by evidence of reason or probability--opp. to _Demonstrative_: belonging to the mind, or to the will: (_Shak._) moralising.--_n._ in _pl._ manners: the doctrine or practice of the duties of life: moral philosophy or ethics: conduct, esp. sexual conduct: in _sing._ the practical lesson given by anything: an emblem or allegory: (_slang_) a certainty, an exact counterpart.--_v.i._ to moralise.--_ns._ MOR'ALER (_Shak._), a moraliser; MORALIS[=A]'TION, act of moralising, explanation in a moral sense.--_v.t._ MOR'ALISE, to apply to a moral purpose: to explain in a moral sense.--_v.i._ to speak or write on moral subjects: to make moral reflections.--_ns._ MOR'ALISER; MOR'ALISM, a moral maxim; moral counsel: morality as distinct from religion; MOR'ALIST, one who teaches morals, or who practises moral duties: a merely moral as distinguished from a religious man: one who prides himself on his morality.--_adj._ MORALIST'IC.--_n._ MORAL'ITY, quality of being moral: that in an action which renders it right or wrong: the practice of moral duties apart from religion: virtue: the doctrine which treats of actions as being right or wrong: ethics: a kind of drama which grew out of mysteries and miracle-plays, and continued in fashion till Elizabeth's time, in which allegorical representations of the virtues and vices were introduced as _dramatis personæ_.--_adv._ MOR'ALLY, in a moral manner: uprightly: to all intents and purposes, practically.--MORAL AGENT, one who acts under a knowledge of right and wrong; MORAL CERTAINTY, a likelihood so great as to be safely acted on, although not capable of being certainly proved; MORAL DEFEAT (see MORAL VICTORY); MORAL FACULTY (see MORAL SENSE); MORAL LAW, a law or rules for life and conduct, founded on what is right and wrong: the law of conscience; MORAL PHILOSOPHY, the science which treats of the qualities of actions as being right or wrong, and the duty of mankind with regard to such actions; MORAL SENSE, that power of the mind which knows or judges actions to be right or wrong, and determines conduct accordingly; MORAL THEOLOGY, ethics treated with reference to a divine source; MORAL VICTORY, a defeat in appearance, but in some important sense a real victory. [Fr.,--L. _moralis_--_mos_, _moris_, custom.] MORALE, mo-räl', _n._ the state of a person's morals: mental state as regards spirit and confidence, esp. of a body of soldiers, &c. [Fr.] MORASS, mo-ras', _n._ a tract of soft, wet ground: a marsh.--_adj._ MORASS'Y.--MORASS ORE, bog-iron ore. [Dut. _moeras_, a marsh.] MORAT, m[=o]'rat, _n._ a drink made of honey and mulberry juice. [It. _morato_--_moro_--L. _morum_.] MORATORIUM, mo-ra-t[=o]'ri-um, _n._ an emergency act allowing a government bank to suspend payments in specie for a given time. MORAVIAN, mo-r[=a]'vi-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Moravia_ or the Moravians.--_n._ one of a Christian denomination entitled _Unitas Fratrum_ of _United Brethren_, a small body of Protestants of extraordinary missionary energy, founded in the 15th century.--_n._ MOR[=A]'VIANISM, the doctrines of the Moravians. MORAY, m[=o]'r[=a], _n._ an apodal eel-like fish of the Muræna family.--Also MA'RAY, MU'RAY, MUR'RY. MORBID, mor'bid, _adj._ diseased, sickly: not healthful.--_n._ MORBID'ITY, the quality of being morbid: disease: the ratio of sickness in a community.--_adv._ MOR'BIDLY.--_n._ MORBIDNESS, sickliness.--_adjs._ MORBIF'ERAL, MORBIF'EROUS; MORBIF'IC, causing disease.--_n._ MORBIL'L[=I], measles.--_adjs._ MORBIL'LIFORM, like measles; MORBIL'LOUS, pertaining to measles; MORBOSE', proceeding from disease: morbid: not healthy.--_n._ MOR'BUS, disease. [Fr.,--L. _morbidus_--_morbus_, disease.] MORBIDEZZA, mor-bi-det'za, _n._ that quality of flesh-painting which gives the impression of life. [It.] MORCEAU, mor's[=o], _n._ a small bit: a dainty morsel:--_pl._ MOR'CEAUX (-s[=o]z). [Fr.] MORDACIOUS, mor-d[=a]'shus, _adj._ given to biting: biting: (_fig._) sarcastic: severe.--_adv._ MORD[=A]'CIOUSLY.--_n._ MORDAC'ITY, quality of being mordacious: biting severity.--_adj._ MOR'DANT, biting, sarcastic, severe: serving to fix colours.--_n._ any substance, as alum, used to give permanency or brilliancy to dyes: a glutinous size as a ground for gilding, matter to make gold-leaf adhere: any corrosive liquid by which the biting in etching is effected.--_v.t._ to treat with a mordant.--_adv._ MOR'DANTLY.--_ns._ MOR'DICANCY, MORDIC[=A]'TION. [Fr.,--L. _mordax_, _mordacis_--_mord[=e]re_, to bite.] MORDENT, mor'dent, _n._ a kind of trill in music, or the character indicating it. [It. _mordente_.] MORE, m[=o]r, _adj._ (serves as _comp._ of MANY and MUCH) additional: other besides: greater (so in _B._).--_adv._ to a greater degree: again: longer.--_n._ a greater thing: something further or in addition:--_superl._ MOST (m[=o]st).--_adj._ M[=O]'RISH. insufficient: such that one wants more.--MORE AND MORE, continually increasing; MORE BY TOKEN, in proof of this, besides; MORE OR LESS, about: in round numbers.--ANY MORE, something additional: further; BE NO MORE, to have died; NO MORE, nothing in addition. [Including both M.E. _mo_, more in number--A.S. _má_, more in number, and M. E. _more_, larger--A.S. _mára_, greater.] MORE, m[=o]r, _n._ (_Spens._) a root. [A.S. _moru_, _more_, a carrot; Ger. _möhre_.] MORE, m[=o]'re, _adv._ after the manner of. [L., abl. of _mos_, a custom.] MOREEN, mo-r[=e]n', _n._ a stout woollen or cotton and woollen stuff, used for petticoats, curtains, &c. [Fr. _moire_, mohair.] MOREL, mor'el, or m[=o]-rel', _n._ any edible mushroom of the genus _Morchella_. [Fr. _morille_; prob. Old High Ger. _morhela_ (Ger. _morchel_), a mushroom.] MORELLO, m[=o]-rel'o, _n._ a dark-red variety of cherry, much used in cooking and for cherry brandy.--Also MOR'EL, or MOREL'. [It.,--Low L. _morellus_, blackish--L. _maurus_, a blackamoor, or perh. for _morulus_, blackish--_morum_, a mulberry.] MOREOVER, m[=o]r-[=o]'v[.e]r, _adv._ more over or beyond what has been said: further: besides: also. MORESQUE, mo-resk', _adj._ done after the manner of the Moors.--_n._ a kind of ornamentation, same as arabesque--(_obs._) MORES'CO. [Fr.,--It. _moresco_.] MORGANA (FATA). See FATA. MORGANATIC, mor-gan-at'ik, _adj._ noting a marriage of a man with a woman of inferior rank, in which neither the latter nor her children enjoy the rank or inherit the possessions of her husband, though the children are legitimate--also _Left-handed marriage_.--_adv._ MORGANAT'ICALLY. [Low L. _morganatica_, a gift from a bridegroom to his bride--Teut.; cf. Ger. _morgengabe_, A.S. _morgengifu_, a morning gift.] MORGAY, mor'g[=a], _n._ the small spotted dogfish or bounce. MORGLAY, mor'gl[=a], _n._ a claymore--esp. that of the Arthurian hero Sir Bevis. MORGUE, morg, _n._ a place where bodies found dead are laid out for identification. [Fr.] MORGUE, morg, _n._ hauteur. [Fr.] MORIAN, m[=o]'ri-an, _n._ a Moor--also MUR'RIAN (Pr. Bk.) MORIBUND, mo'ri-bund, _adj._ about to die: in a dying state. [L. _moribundus_--_mori_, to die.] [Illustration] MORION, MORRION, m[=o]'ri-un, _n._ a open helmet without visor or beaver. [Fr., prob. from Sp. _morrion_--_morra_, crown of the head. Diez suggests Basque _murua_, a hill.] MORISCO, mo-ris'ko, _n._ the Moorish language: a Moorish dance or dancer: Moorish architecture: one of the Moors who remained in Spain after the fall of Granada in 1492.--_adj._ MOORISH--(_obs._) MORISK'. MORISONIAN, mor-i-s[=o]'ni-an, _n._ a member of the Evangelical Union, formed in 1843 by the Rev. James _Morison_ (1816-93), after his separation from the United Secession Church.--_n._ MORIS[=O]'NIANISM, the religious views of Morison and others--essentially a reaction from the Calvinistic doctrine of the Westminster Confession on predestination and unconditional election and reprobation. MORKIN, mor'kin, _n._ a beast that has died by accident. MORLING, mor'ling, _n._ a sheep dead of disease or its wool. MORLOP, mor'lop, _n._ a New South Wales jasper. MORMO, mor'm[=o], _n._ a genus of noctuoid moths: a bugbear. MORMON, mor'mon, _n._ one of a religious sect in Utah, U.S., openly polygamous till 1890, calling itself 'The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints,' founded in 1830 by Joseph Smith, whose supplement to the Bible, the _Book of Mormon_, was given out as translated from the golden plates of one '_Mormon_,' but was really adapted from a MS. romance written about 1811 by Solomon Spaulding.--_ns._ MOR'MONISM; MOR'MONITE, MOR'MONIST. MORMOPS, mor'mops, _n._ a genus of American phyllostomine bats, so called from their repulsive physiognomy. [Gr. _morm[=o]_, a bugbear, _[=o]ps_, face.] MORN, morn, _n._ the first part of the day: morning.--THE MORN (_Scot._), to-morrow; THE MORN'S MORNING, to-morrow morning. [M. E. _morwen_--A.S. _morgen_; Ger. _morgen_.] MORNE, m[=o]rn, _n._ the blunt head of a jousting-lance: a small, rounded hill.--_adjs._ MORNÉ (m[=o]r-n[=a]'), denoting a lion rampant without teeth or claws; MORNED (_her._), blunted. [Fr.] MORNING, morn'ing, _n._ the first part of the day: the early part of anything: the first dram of the day.--_adj._ pertaining to the morning: taking place or being in the morning.--_ns._ MORN'ING-DRESS, dress such as is usually worn in the morning, as opposed to _Evening-dress_; MORN'ING-GIFT, a gift made by the husband to the wife on the morning after marriage; MORNING-GOWN, a gown for wearing in the morning; MORN'ING-LAND, the east; MORN'ING-ROOM, a woman's morning boudoir or sitting-room in English country houses; MORN'ING-SICK'NESS, nausea and vomiting in the morning, common in the early stages of pregnancy; MORN'ING-STAR, any of the planets, esp. Venus, when it rises before the sun: a kind of flail with a star-like ball of metal at the end of a chain, formerly used as a weapon of war; MORN'ING-TIDE, the morning time: early part; MORN'ING-WATCH, the watch between 4 and 8 A.M. [Contr. of _morwen-ing_. Cf. _Morn_.] MOROCCO, mo-rok'[=o], _n._ a fine goat-skin leather, tanned with sumac, first brought from _Morocco_, afterwards from the Levant and elsewhere: a sheep-skin leather in imitation of this: a very strong ale, anciently brewed in Cumberland.--_adj._ consisting of Morocco.--FRENCH MOROCCO, an inferior kind of Levant morocco, with small grain; LEVANT MOROCCO, a fine quality of morocco, with large grain; PERSIAN MOROCCO, a morocco finished on the grain side. MOROLOGY, m[=o]-rol'o-ji, _n._ foolish talk. [Gr., _m[=o]ros_, a fool, _logia_--_legein_, to speak.] MOROSE, m[=o]-r[=o]s', _adj._ of a sour temper: gloomy: severe.--_adv._ MOROSE'LY.--_ns._ MOROSE'NESS, quality of being morose--(_obs._) MOROS'ITY. [L. _morosus_, peevish--_mos_, _moris_, manner.] MORPHEUS, mor'f[=u]s, _n._ a god of dreams: sleep.--_adjs._ MORPH[=E]'AN, MORPHET'IC. [L.] MORPHIA, mor'fi-a, _n._ the chief narcotic principle of opium: a drug which causes sleep or deadens pain--also MOR'PHINE.--_ns._ MOR'PHINISM; MORPHIOM[=A]'NIA; MORPHIOM[=A]'NIAC. [Coined from Gr. _Morpheus_, god of dreams--_morph[=e]_, shape.] MORPHIC, mor'fik, _adj._ relating to form, morphological.--_n._ MORPHOGEN'ESIS, the production of morphological characters.--_adj._ MORPHOGENET'IC.--_ns._ MORPHOG'ENY, the genesis of form: morphology; MORPHOG'RAPHER; MORPHOG'RAPHY, descriptive morphology.--_adjs._ MORPHOLOG'IC, -AL.--_ns._ MORPHOL'OGIST, one who is versed in, or who writes upon, morphology; MORPHOL'OGY, the science of organic form, of the development of the forms of living organisms; MORPHON'OMY, the laws of morphology; MORPH[=O]'SIS, morphogenesis.--_adj._ MORPHOT'IC. [Gr. _morph[=e]_, form.] MORRHUA, mor'[=oo]-a, _n._ the chief genus of gadoid fishes, including the cod (_Gadus_). MORRIS, MORRICE, mor'is, MORR'IS-DANCE, _n._ a Moorish dance: a dance in which bells, rattles, tambours, &c. are introduced.--_v.i._ MORR'IS, to perform by dancing.--_ns._ MORR'IS-DANC'ER; MORR'IS-PIKE (_Shak._), a Moorish pike.--NINE MEN'S MORRIS, an old English game in which a figure of squares, one within another, was marked out on aboard or on the turf, and eighteen pieces or stones, nine for each side, were moved alternately as at draughts--also _Nine men's merils_. [Sp. _morisco_, Moorish--Sp. _moro_, a Moor.] MORROW, mor'[=o], _n._ the day following the present: to-morrow: the next following day: the time immediately after any event.--_n._ To-MORR'OW, next day--also _adv._ [M. E. _morwe_=_morwen_; cf. _Morn_.] MORSE, mors, _n._ the walrus or sea-horse. [Russ. _morj[)u]_, a morse, prob. from _more_, the sea.] MORSE, mors, _n._ the metal fastening of the cope, generally of precious metal, ornamented with jewels--also _Pectoral_. [L. _morsus_, a bite.] MORSE, mors, _n._ (_coll._) the Morse-code signalling of telegraph operators, from Sam. F. B. _Morse_ (1791-1872).--MORSE ALPHABET, a system of symbols to be used in telegraphic messages where Morse's indicator is used, consisting of dots and dashes combined in different ways to indicate the different letters. MORSEL, mor'sel, _n._ a bite or mouthful: a small piece of food: a small quantity of anything which is divided.--_ns._ MOR'S[=U]RE, the act of biting; MOR'SUS, a bite. [O. Fr. _morsel_ (Fr. _morceau_, It. _morsello_), dim. from L. _morsus_--_mord[=e]re_, _morsum_, to bite.] MORSING-HORN, mor'sing-horn, _n._ the small horn that used to hold the fine powder used for priming. [Fr. _amorcer_, to prime a gun.] MORT, mort, _n._ death: a flourish sounded at the death of a buck, & c., in hunting. MORT, mort, _n._ a great number or amount of anything. MORT, mort, _n._ (_slang_) a woman. MORTAL, mor'tal, _adj._ liable to die: causing death: deadly: fatal: punishable with death: involving the penalty of spiritual death, as opposed to _Venial_: extreme, violent, implacable: human: (_coll._) very great, very long, confounded, very drunk.--_n._ a human being.--_v.t._ MOR'TALISE, to make mortal.--_n._ MORTAL'ITY, condition of being mortal: death: frequency or number of deaths, esp. in proportion to population: the human race.--_adv._ MOR'TALLY--(_coll._) MOR'TAL.--_ns._ MORT'-CLOTH, a pall; MORT'-STONE, a stone by the wayside on which the bearers lay the bier for a rest during a funeral procession.--BILLS OF MORTALITY, lists of the numbers of those who have died in any place during any given time; LAW OF MORTALITY, rules founded on experience or calculation, showing what average proportion of those living at the beginning of a given time will be surviving at its close. [Fr.,--L. _mortalis_--_mori_, to die.] MORTAR, mor'tar, _n._ a vessel in which substances are pounded with a pestle: a short and very thick piece of artillery of large calibre, firing a heavy shell at a fixed angle of 45° or thereabouts, so as to strike vertically: a cement of lime, sand, and water, used to bind together stones or bricks in building.--_v.t._ to close up or in as with mortar: to pound in a mortar.--_n._ MOR'TAR-BOARD, a square board with a handle beneath for holding mortar which the workman is using: a square-crowned academic cap. [A.S. _mortere_--L. _mortarium_, a mortar.] MORTGAGE, mor'g[=a]j, _n._ a conditional conveyance of or lien upon land or other property as security for the performance of some condition, as the payment of money, becoming void on the performance of the condition: the act of conveying, or the deed effecting it.--_v.t._ to pledge as security for a debt.--_ns._ MORTGAGEE', one to whom a mortgage is made or given; MORT'GAGER. [O. Fr., _mort_, dead, _gage_, a pledge.] MORTIER, mor'tye, _n._ a cap of state worn by legal functionaries in France. MORTIFEROUS, mor-tif'[.e]r-us, _adj._ death-bringing: fatal. [L. _mors_, death, _ferre_, to bring.] MORTIFY, mor'ti-f[=i], _v.t._ to destroy the vital functions of: to subdue by severities and penance: to vex: to humble: (_Scots law_) to dispose of by mortification.--_v.i._ to lose vitality, to gangrene: to be subdued:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ mor'tified.--_ns._ MORTIFIC[=A]'TION, act of mortifying or state of being mortified: the death of one part of an animal body: a bringing under of the passions and appetites by a severe or strict manner of living: humiliation: vexation: that which mortifies or vexes: (_Scots law_) a bequest to some charitable institution; MOR'TIFIEDNESS, subjugation of the passions; MOR'TIFIER, one who mortifies.--_adj._ MOR'TIFYING, tending to mortify or humble: humiliating: vexing. [Fr.,--Low L. _mortific[=a]re_, to cause death to--_mors_ death, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] MORTISE, mor'tis, _n._ a cavity cut into a piece of timber to receive the tenon, a projection on another piece made to fit it: stability, power of adhesion--also MOR'TICE.--_v.t._ to cut a mortise in: to join by a mortise and tenon. [Fr. _mortaise_; ety. unknown.] MORTMAIN, mort'm[=a]n, _n._ the transfer of property to a corporation, which is said to be a dead hand, or one that can never part with it again.--STATUTES OF MORTMAIN, acts of parliament restricting or forbidding the giving of property to religious houses. [Fr. _mort_, dead, _main_--L. _manus_, the hand.] MORTUARY, mort'[=u]-ar-i, _n. adj._ belonging to the burial of the dead.--_n._ a burial-place, place for the temporary reception of the dead: a gift claimed by the minister of a parish on the death of a parishioner. [Low L.,--L. _mortuus_, dead, _mori_, to die.] MORULA, mor'[=u]-la, _n._ condition of an ovum after complete segmentation: button-scurvy. MORUS, m[=o]'rus, _n._ a genus of trees or shrubs of the nettle family--the mulberries. [L.] MOSAIC, mö-z[=a]'ik, _n._ a kind of work in which designs are formed by small pieces of coloured marble, glass, &c. cemented on a ground of stucco, or inlaid upon metal.--_adj._ relating to, or composed of, mosaic.--_adv._ MOS[=A]'ICALLY.--_n._ MOS[=A]'ICIST.--MOSAIC GOLD, an alloy of copper and zinc--also _Ormolu_. [Fr.,--L. _musæum_ or _musivum_ (_opus_), mosaic (work)--Gr. _mouseios_--_Mousa_, a muse.] MOSAIC, m[=o]-z[=a]'ik, _adj._ pertaining to _Moses_, the great Jewish lawgiver.--_n._ M[=O]'SAISM.--MOSAIC LAW, the law of the Jews given by Moses at Mount Sinai. MOSAUSAURUS, m[=o]-sa-saw'rus, _n._ the typical genus of a group of huge fossil marine reptiles, found in the Cretaceous strata of Europe and America. [L. _Mosa_, the river Meuse, Gr. _sauros_, a lizard.] MOSCHATEL, mos'ka-tel, _n._ a plant with pale-green flowers and a musky smell. [Fr. _moscatelline_--Low L. _moschatellina_--_muscus_, musk.] MOSCHIFEROUS, mos-kif'e-rus, _adj._ producing musk. MOSE, m[=o]z, _n._ (_Shak._) a disease of horses.--_v.i._ to have this. [Prob. Old High Ger. _m[=a]s[=a]_, a spot.] MOSELLE, mo-zel', _n._ light wines from the district of the river _Moselle_, with an aromatic flavour. MOSEY, m[=o]'zi, _v.i._ (_Amer. slang_) to go off quickly: to hurry up. MOSLEM, moz'lem, _n._ a Mussulman or Mohammedan.--_adj._ of or belonging to the Mohammedans.--_n._ MOS'LEMISM. [Ar. _muslim_, pl. _muslim[=i]n_--_salama_, to submit (to God). Doublet _Mussulman_.] MOSLINGS, moz'lingz, _n.pl._ the thin shavings taken off by the currier in dressing skins. [_Morsel_.] MOSQUE, mosk, _n._ a Mohammedan place of worship. [Fr.,--Sp. _mezquita_--Ar. _masjid_--_sajada_, to pray.] MOSQUITO, mos-k[=e]'to, _n._ a biting gnat, common in tropical countries:--_pl._ MOSQUI'TOES.--MOSQUITO CANOPY, curtain, net, an arrangement of netting set over a bed, in a window, &c., to keep out mosquitoes. [Sp., dim. of _mosca_, a fly--L. _musca_.] MOSS, mos, _n._ a family of flowerless plants with branching stems and narrow, simple leaves: popularly any small cryptogamic plant, esp. a lichen: a piece of ground covered with moss: a bog.--_v.t._ to cover with moss.--_ns._ MOSS'-BACK, an old fish: a person of antiquated views; MOSS'-CHEEP'ER (_Scot._), the titlark.--_adj._ MOSS'-GROWN, covered with moss.--_ns._ MOSS'-HAG (_Scot._), a pit or slough in a bog; MOSS'INESS; MOSS'-LAND, land abounding in peat-bogs; MOSS'-ROSE, a variety of rose having a moss-like growth on and below the calyx; MOSS'TROOP'ER, one of the robbers that used to infest the mosses of the Border.--_adj._ MOSS'Y, overgrown or abounding with moss.--ICELAND MOSS (see ICELAND). [A.S. _meós_; Dut. _mos_, Ger. _moos_.] MOSS-BUNKER, mos'-bung-k[.e]r, _n._ the menhaden. [Dut. _mars-banker_, the scad or horse-mackerel.] MOST, m[=o]st, _adj._ (_superl._ of MORE), greatest in age, position or rank, number, degree, &c.--_adv._ in the highest degree.--_n._ the greatest number or quantity.--_advs._ MOST'LY; MOST'WHAT (_Spens._), for the most part, mostly.--AT (THE) MOST, to the utmost extent; FOR THE MOST PART, chiefly; MAKE THE MOST OF (see MAKE). [A.S. _m['æ]st_; cog. with Ger. _meist_.] MOT, m[=o], _n._ a pithy or witty saying.--MOT D'ORDRE, word of command. [Fr.] MOT, mot, _n._ a note on the bugle, &c., or its mark in musical notation. [Fr.,--L. _muttum_, a murmur.] MOTATORIOUS, m[=o]-ta-t[=o]'ri-us, _adj._ vibratory, excessively mobile--of long-legged spiders and crane-flies, &c. [L. _mot[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_ to keep moving, freq. of _mov[=e]re_, to move.] MOTE, m[=o]t, _n._ an archaism for might or must. MOTE, m[=o]t, _n._ a particle of dust: a speck: a stain or blemish: anything very small.--_adjs._ M[=O]T'ED, MOT'TY, containing motes. [A.S. _mot_; Dut. _mot_.] MOTET, mo-tet', _n._ a sacred cantata of several unconnected movements, as a solo, trio, chorus, fugue, &c.: a choral composition having a biblical or similar prose text.--_n._ MOTET'TIST, a composer of such. [Fr.,--It. _mottetto_--_motto_, saying.] MOTH., moth, _n._ a family of insects like butterflies, seen mostly at night: the larva of this insect which gnaws cloth: that which eats away gradually and silently.--_v.t._ MOTH'-EAT, to prey upon, as a moth eats a garment.--_adj._ MOTH'-EAT'EN, eaten or cut by moths.--_n._ MOTH'-HUNT'ER, a little kind of swallow which hunts moths, &c., called also the _Goatsucker_.--_adj._ MOTH'Y, full of moths.--DEATH'S-HEAD MOTH, (see DEATH). [A.S. _moþþe_, _mohþe_; Ger. _motte_.] MOTHER, muth'[.e]r, _n._ a female parent, esp. one of the human race: a woman in relation to her child: a matron: that which has produced anything: the female head of a religious house: a familiar term of address to an old woman.--_adj._ received by birth, as it were from one's mother: natural: acting the part of a mother: originating.--_v.t._ to adopt as a son or daughter.--_ns._ MOTH'ER-CHURCH, the church from which others have sprung; MOTH'ER-COUN'TRY, -LAND, the country of one's birth: the country from which a colony has gone out; MOTH'ERHOOD, state of being a mother; MOTH'ERING, a rural English custom of visiting one's parents on Mid-Lent Sunday; MOTH'ER-IN-LAW, the mother of one's husband or wife.--_adj._ MOTH'ERLESS, without a mother.--_n._ MOTH'ERLINESS.--_adj._ MOTH'ERLY, pertaining to, or becoming, a mother: like a mother: parental: tender.--_ns._ MOTH'ER-OF-PEARL', the nacreous internal layer of the shells of several molluscs, esp. of the pearl-oyster, so called because producing the pearl; MOTH'ER'S-MARK, a birth-mark; MOTH'ER-TONGUE, a person's native language: a language from which another has its origin; MOTH'ER-WA'TER, the residual liquid remaining after the chemical substances it contained have been crystallised or precipitated; MOTH'ER-WIT, native wit: common-sense; MOTH'ER-WORT, a labiate plant growing in waste places; QUEEN'-MOTH'ER, the mother of a reigning sovereign.--MOTHER CAREY'S CHICKEN, the stormy petrel, or other bird of the same family; MOTHER-HUBBARD, a woman's loose flowing gown, like that proper to the nursery heroine.--EVERY MOTHER'S SON, all, without exception. [A.S. _móder_; Dut. _moeder_, Ice. _móðir_, Ger. _mutter_, Ir. and Gael. _mathair_, L. _mater_, Gr. _m[=e]t[=e]r_, Sans, _mátá_, _mátri_.] MOTHER, muth[.e]r, _n._ dregs or sediments, as of vinegar.--_v.i._ to become concreted.--_adj._ MOTH'ERY. [_Mud_.] MOTIF, m[=o]-t[=e]f', _n._ an old form of motive: a theme or ground for intellectual action, or a leading subject in a dramatic work: in a musical composition the principal subject on which the movement is constructed. [Fr.,--L. _motus_, moved.] MOTION, m[=o]'shun, _n._ the act or state of moving: a single movement: change of posture: gait: power of moving or of being moved: angular velocity--_direct_ when from west to east; _retrograde_ when from east to west: excitement of the mind: any natural impulse, instigation: proposal made, esp. in an assembly: an application to a court, during a case before it, for an order or rule that something be done, esp. something incidental to the progress of the cause rather than its issue: evacuation of the intestine: (_pl._, _B._) impulses.--_v.i._ to make a significant movement, to offer a proposal.--_v.t._ to guide by a gesture, &c.: to move.--_adj._ M[=O]'TILE, capable of spontaneous motion.--_n._ MOTIL'ITY.--_adj._ MO'TIONAL, characterised by motions.--_n._ M[=O]'TIONIST, one who makes a motion.--_adj._ M[=O]'TIONLESS, without motion.--ABSOLUTE MOTION, change of absolute place; ACCELERATED MOTION, motion of which the velocity is continually increasing; ANGULAR MOTION, motion regarded as measured by the increase of the angle made with some standard direction by a line drawn from the moving object to a fixed point; LAWS OF MOTION, Newton's three laws: (1) Every body continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a straight line, except so far as it may be compelled by force to change that state; (2) Change of motion is proportional to force applied, and takes place in the direction of the straight line in which the force acts; (3) To every action there is always an equal and contrary reaction; PARALLEL MOTION (see PARALLEL); PERPETUAL MOTION (see PERPETUAL); QUANTITY OF MOTION, momentum. [Fr.,--L.,--_mov[=e]re_, _m[=o]tum_, to move.] MOTIVE, m[=o]'tiv, _adj._ causing motion: having power to cause motion.--_n._ that which moves or excites to action: inducement: reason.--_v.t._ to act on as a motive, instigate.--_v.t._ M[=O]'TIV[=A]TE, to act on as a motive, induce.--_n._ MOTIV[=A]'TION.--_adj._ M[=O]TIVELESS.--_ns._ M[=O]'TIVELESSNESS; M[=O]'TIVE-POWER, or -FORCE, the force acting upon a body so as to cause it to move; MOTIV'ITY, power of producing motion: the quality of being influenced by motion. [Fr., through Low L., from _mov[=e]re_, _m[=o]tum_ to move.] MOTLEY, mot'li, _adj._ covered with spots of different colours: consisting of different colours: composed of various parts, heterogeneous.--_n._ clothes made of pieces of different colours: the dress of a jester: any mixture, esp. of colours.--_adj._ MOT'LEY-MIND'ED (_Shak._), having fickle and foolish thoughts and feelings.--MAN OF MOTLEY, a jester. [Skeat explains M. E. _mottelee_ as through O. Fr. _mattelé_, clotted, curdled--Bavarian _matte_, curds.] MOTMOT, mot'mot, _n._ a sawbill. MOTOGRAPH, m[=o]'to-graf, _n._ a device of Edison's, used as a telephone receiver, &c., by which the variation of the friction between two conductors in relative motion is diminished periodically by the passage of a current of electricity from one to the other across the surface of contact.--_adj._ MOTOGRAPH'IC. [L. _motus_, motion, Gr. _graphein_, to write.] MOTOPHONE, m[=o]'to-f[=o]n, _n._ a sound-engine of Edison's actuated by aerial sound-waves. [L. _motus_, motion, Gr. _ph[=o]n[=e]_, a voice.] MOTOR, m[=o]'tor, _n._ a mover: that which gives motion: a machine by means of which steam or other sources of force can be used to give motion or produce work.--_adj._ giving or transmitting motion.--_ns._ M[=O]'TOR-CAR, a vehicle for the road impelled by steam, electricity, or petrol (petroleum spirit); M[=O]'TOR-DY'NAMO, a dynamo used as a motor.--_adjs._ MOT[=O]'RIAL, M[=O]'TORY, giving motion.--_n._ MOT[=O]'RIUM, that part of the nervous organism instrumental in the exertion of motor influence:--opp. to _Sensorium_, that which feels or perceives.--_adj._ MOTORPATH'IC, belonging to MOTOR'PATHY or the movement cure.--MOTOR NERVE, any nerve which transmits impulse to the muscles.--AIR-MOTOR, a machine impelled by compressed air. [Cf. _Motive_.] MOTTLE, mot'l, _v.t._ to mark with spots as if stained.--_n._ the arrangement of spots on any mottled surface, in marble, &c.--_adjs._ MOTT'LED, marked with spots of various colours or shades; Mott'LE-FACED.--_n._ MOTT'LING. [_Motley_.] MOTTO, mot'[=o], _n._ a short sentence or phrase prefixed in anything intimating the subject of it: a phrase attached to a coat-of-arms: a paper packet containing a sweetmeat, cracker, &c., together with a scrap of paper bearing a motto--a motto-kiss:--_pl._ MOTTOES (mot'[=o]z).--_adj._ MOTT'OED. [Low L. _muttum_--_mutt[=i]re_, to mutter.] MOUCHARABY, m[=oo]-shar'a-bi, _n._ a balcony enclosed with lattice-work: an embattled balcony with parapet and machicolations. [Fr.] MOUCHARD, m[=oo]-shär', _n._ a police spy in France. [_Mouche_, a fly.] MOUCHER, mow'ch[.e]r, _n._ one who idles about, a loafer, a beggar--same as MICHER.--_v.i._ MOUCH, to skulk or sneak about; to live a vagabond life. [O. Fr. _muchier_ (Fr. _musser_), to hide.] MOUCHOIR, m[=oo]-shwor', _n._ a pocket-handkerchief. [Fr.] MOUFFLON, m[=oo]f'lon, _n._ a wild sheep in the mountains of Corsica, Greece, &c. [Fr.] MOUGHT, mowt (_Bacon_), obsolete _pa.t._ of _may_. MOUILLE, m[=oo]l-ly[=a]', _adj._ sounded in a liquid manner, as certain consonants in many French words. [Fr.] MOULD, m[=o]ld, _n._ dust: soil rich in decayed matter: the matter of which anything is composed: a minute fungus which grows on bodies in a damp atmosphere, so named from often growing on mould: the earth, the ground, the grave, esp. in _pl._ MOOLS (_Scot._).--_v.t._ to cover with mould or soil: to cause to become mouldy.--_v.i._ to become mouldy.--_n._ MOULD'-BOARD, the curved plate in a plough which turns over the furrow.--_v.i._ MOULD'ER, to crumble to mould: to turn to dust: to waste away gradually.--_v.t._ to turn to dust.--_ns._ MOULD'INESS; MOULD'WARP, the mole, which casts up little heaps of mould.--_adj._ MOULD'Y, overgrown with mould. [A.S. _molde_; Ger. _mull_, Goth. _mulda_.] MOULD, m[=o]ld, _n._ a hollow form in which anything is cast: a pattern; the form received from a mould, a former or matrix for jellies, &c., also a dish shaped in such: character.--_v.t._ to form in a mould: to knead, as dough.--_adj._ MOULD'ABLE, that may be moulded.--_ns._ MOULD'-BOX, a box in which molten steel is hydraulically compressed; MOULD'ER; MOULD'-FAC'ING, a fine powder or wash applied to the face of a mould to ensure a smooth casting; MOULD'ING, the process of shaping, esp. any soft substance: anything formed by or in a mould: an ornamental edging on a picture-frame, &c., or (_archit._) raised above or sunk below the surface of a wall, on cornices, jambs, lintels, &c.--the _fillet_ or _list_, _astragal_ or _bead_, _ogee_, _cyma_, &c.; MOULDING-T[=A]'BLE, a table on which a potter moulds his ware; MOULD'-LOFT, a large room in a shipbuilding yard in which the several parts of a ship's hull are laid off to full size from the construction drawings.--MOULDING MACHINE, a machine for making wood-mouldings; MOULDING PLANE, a plane used in forming mouldings, a match-plane; MOULDING SAND, a mixture of sand and loam used by founders in making sand-moulds. [Fr. _moule_--L. _modulus_, a measure.] MOULIN, m[=oo]-lang', _n._ a cavity formed in a glacier by the running down of surface water, sometimes allowing a cascade to be formed. [Fr.] MOULINAGE, m[=oo]'lin[=a]j, _n._ the operation of reeling-off, twisting, and doubling raw silk. MOULINET, m[=oo]'li-net, _n._ the drum of a windlass, &c., on which the rope is wound: a machine for bending a crossbow. [Fr., 'a little mill.'] MOULT, m[=o]lt, _v.i._ to change or cast the feathers, &c., as birds, &c.--_n._ MOULT'ING, the act or process of moulting or casting feathers, skin, &c. [L. _mut[=a]re_, to change, with intrusive _l_.] MOUND, mownd, _n._ an artificial mount: a natural hillock, appearing as if thrown up by man's work: (_fort._) a bank of earth or stone raised as a protection.--_v.t._ to fortify with a mound.--_n.pl._ MOUND'-BIRDS, a family of Australasian gallinaceous birds which build large mounds as incubators for their eggs.--_n._ MOUND'-BUILD'ER, one of the primitive race which built the vast so-called _Indian mounds_ found in the United States, esp. east of the Mississippi River. [A.S. _mund_, a defence; cf. Old High Ger. _munt_, defence, and perh. L. _mons_, a mount.] [Illustration] MOUND, mownd, _n._ (_her._) the representation of a globe encircled with bands, and surmounted by a cross.--Also MONDE. [Fr. _monde_--L. _mundus_, the world.] MOUNT, mownt, _n._ ground rising above the level of the surrounding country: a hill: an ornamental mound: that on which anything is mounted for more convenient use or exhibition: a saddle-horse for riding: a step, &c., to give aid in mounting a horse, also a signal for mounting: (_her._) a green hillock in the base of a shield: (_fort._) a cavalier or raised hillock commanding the surrounding country: one of the seven fleshy cushions in the palm of the hand: (_B._) a bulwark for offence or defence.--_v.i._ to project or rise up: to be of great elevation.--_v.t._ to raise aloft: to climb: to get upon, as a horse: to put on horseback: to put upon something: to arrange or set in fitting order.--_adjs._ MOUNT'ABLE, that may be mounted or ascended; MOUNT'ED, raised, esp. set on horseback: (_her._) raised on steps, generally three, as a cross: furnished, supplied.--_ns._ MOUNT'ER; MOUNT'ING, the act of rising or getting higher: the act of mounting or embellishing, as the setting of a gem, &c.: that which mounts; MOUNT'ING-BLOCK, a block or stone to enable one to mount a horse.--MOUNT GUARD (see GUARD). [A.S. _munt_--L. _mons_, _montis_, a mountain.] MOUNTAIN, mownt'[=a]n, or -'in, _n._ a high hill: anything very large: a wine made from mountain grapes: the extreme party in the French Revolution (see MONTAGNARD).--_adj._ of or relating to a mountain: growing or dwelling on a mountain.--_ns._ MOUNT'AIN-ASH, the rowan-tree, with bunches of red berries, common on mountains; MOUNT'AIN-BLUE, blue carbonate of copper; MOUNT'AIN-BRAM'BLE, the cloudberry; MOUNT'AIN-CAT, a catamount, a wild-cat; MOUNT'AIN-CHAIN, a number of mountains connected together in one line; MOUNT'AIN-CORK, MOUNT'AIN-LEATH'ER, a very light and whitish variety of asbestos; MOUNT'AIN-DEER, the chamois; MOUNT'AIN-DEW, whisky.--_adj._ MOUNT'AINED.--_ns._ MOUNTAINEER', an inhabitant of a mountain: a climber of mountains: a rustic; MOUNTAINEER'ING, the practice of climbing mountains; MOUNT'AIN-FLAX, a fibrous asbestos; MOUNT'AIN-LIME'STONE (_geol._), a series of limestone strata separating the Old Red Sandstone from the coal-measures; MOUNT'AIN-L[=I]ON, the cougar; MOUNT'AIN-MILK, a spongy carbonate of lime.--_adj._ MOUNT'AINOUS, full of mountains: large as a mountain: huge.--_ns._ MOUNT'AIN-RICE, an awnless rice grown without irrigation on the Himalayas, &c.; MOUNT'AIN-SHEEP, the bighorn of the Rocky Mountains; MOUNT'AIN-SOAP, a greasy clay-like mineral, a kind of halloysite--also _Rock-soap_; MOUNT'AIN-TALL'OW, a mineral substance, called also _Hatchettite_; MOUNT'AIN-TEA, the American evergreen, _Gaultheria procumbens_.--OLD MAN OF THE MOUNTAIN, a popular name for the chief of the 11th century _Hashsh[=a]sh[=i]n_ (see ASSASSIN). [O. Fr. _montaine_--Low L. _montana_, a mountain--L. _montanus_--_mons_, _montis_.] MOUNTANT, mownt'ant, _adj._ (_Shak._) rising on high. [Fr. _montant_, pr.p. of _monter_, to mount.] MOUNTEBANK, mown'te-bangk, _n._ a quack-doctor who boasts of his skill and his medicines: a boastful pretender.--_adj._ pertaining to such, sham.--_v.t._ to cheat by false pretences, to humbug.--_v.i._ to play the mountebank.--_ns._ MOUN'TEBANKERY, MOUN'TEBANKING, MOUN'TEBANKISM. [It. _montambanco_--_montare_, to mount, _in_, on, _banco_, a bench.] MOURN, m[=o]rn, _v.i._ to grieve: to be sorrowful: to wear mourning.--_v.t._ to grieve for: to utter in a sorrowful manner.--_n._ MOURN'ER, one who mourns, one who attends a funeral in mourning-dress, esp. one of those related to the deceased.--_adj._ MOURN'FUL, mourning: causing or expressing sorrow: feeling grief.--_adv._ MOURN'FULLY.--_n._ MOURN'FULNESS.--_adj._ MOURN'ING, grieving: lamenting.--_n._ the act of expressing grief: the dress of mourners, or other tokens of mourning.--_ns._ MOURN'ING-BRIDE, the sweet scabious; MOURN'ING-CLOAK, an undertaker's cloak, formerly worn at a funeral; MOURN'ING-COACH, a closed carriage for carrying mourners to a funeral; MOURN'ING-DOVE, the common American turtle-dove.--_adv._ MOURN'INGLY.--_ns._ MOURN'ING-PIECE, a picture intended to be a memorial of the dead; MOURN'ING-RING, a ring worn in memorial of a dead person; MOURN'ING-STUFF, a lustreless black dress fabric, as crape, cashmere, &c., for making mourning clothes. [A.S. _murnan_, _meornan_; Old High Ger. _morn[=e]n_, to grieve.] MOUSE, mows, _n._ a little rodent animal found in houses and in the fields:--_pl._ MICE (m[=i]s): one of various animals like the mouse, the _flitter_-mouse, _shrew_-mouse: part of a hind-leg of beef, next the round--also MOUSE'-BUTT'OCK and MOUSE'-PIECE: a match for firing a cannon or mine: a small cushion for a woman's hair: (_slang_) a black eye, or discoloured swelling: a term of endearment.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ (mowz), to hunt for mice: to pursue slyly: to prowl: to tear as a cat tears a mouse: (_naut._) to pass a turn or two of rope yarn round the point of a tackle-hook to prevent its unhooking.--_ns._ MOUSE'-EAR, a name of several plants with soft leaves shaped like a mouse's ear; MOUSE'-HOLE, a hole for mice: a small hole or opening; MOUSE'-HUNT (_Shak._), a mouser; MOUSE'KIN, MOUS'IE, a young mouse; MOUS'ER, a catcher of mice; MOUS'ERY, a resort of mice; MOUSE'-SIGHT, myopia; MOUSE'TAIL, a small plant with a spike of seed-vessels very like the tail of a mouse; MOUSE'-TRAP, a trap for catching mice; MOUS'ING, act of catching mice.--_adj._ given to catching mice.--_adj._ MOUS'Y, like a mouse in colour or smell: abounding with mice. [A.S. _mús_, pl. _mýs_; Ger. _maus_, L. and Gr. _mus_.] MOUSQUETAIRE, m[=oo]s-ke-t[=a]r', _n._ a musketeer: a woman's cloak trimmed with ribbons, with large buttons, fashionable about 1855: a broad turnover linen collar worn a few years earlier.--MOUSQUETAIRE GLOVE, a woman's glove, long-armed, loose at top, without slit lengthwise. [Fr.] MOUSSELINE, m[=oo]-se-l[=e]n', _n._ fine French muslin: a very thin glass for claret-glasses.--_n._ MOUSSELINE'-DE-LAINE, an untwilled woollen cloth, in many colours and varied patterns. [Fr.] MOUSTACHE, MUSTACHE, mus-tash', _n._ the hair upon the upper lip of men: a soldier--also MUSTACH'IO.--_n._ MOUSTACHE'-CUP, a cup for drinking tea, &c., having the top partly covered to keep the moustache from being wet.--_adjs._ MOUSTACHED', MUSTACH'IOED. [Fr. _moustache_--It. _mostaccio_--Gr. _mastax_, _mastakos_, the upper lip.] MOUTH, mowth, _n._ the opening in the head of an animal by which it eats and utters sound: opening or entrance, as of a bottle, river, &c.: the instrument of speaking: a speaker: cry, voice, utterance: taste or flavour in the mouth: a wry face, a grimace:--_pl._ MOUTHS (mowthz).--_ns._ MOUTH'-FRIEND (_Shak._), one who only professes friendship: MOUTH'FUL, as much as fills the mouth: a small quantity:--_pl._ MOUTH'FULS; MOUTH'-HON'OUR (_Shak._), honour or civility insincerely expressed.--_adjs._ MOUTH'LESS, without a mouth; MOUTH'-MADE (_Shak._), expressed by the mouth, insincere.--_n._ MOUTH'PIECE, the piece of a musical instrument, or tobacco-pipe, held in the mouth: one who speaks for others.--BY WORD OF MOUTH, by means of spoken words; DOWN IN THE MOUTH, out of spirits: despondent; FROM HAND TO MOUTH (see HAND); HAVE ONE'S HEART IN ONE'S MOUTH (see HEART); MAKE A MOUTH, or MOUTHS, to distort the face in mockery, to pout; MAKE THE MOUTH WATER (see WATER); STOP THE MOUTH, to cause to be silent. [A.S. _múth_; Ger. _mund_, Dut. _mond_.] MOUTH, mowth, _v.t._ to utter with a voice over loud or swelling.--_adjs._ MOUTH'ABLE, sounding well; MOUTHED, having a mouth.--_ns._ MOUTH'ER, an affected speaker; MOUTH'ING, rant.--_adj._ MOUTH'Y, ranting, affected. MOUTON, m[=oo]'ton, _n._ a sheep: a 14th-cent. French gold coin, weighing about 70 grains. [Fr.] MOVABLE, m[=oo]v'a-bl, _adj._ that may be moved, lifted, changed, &c.: not fixed: changing from one time to another.--_n._ an article of furniture.--_ns._ MOVABIL'ITY, MOV'ABLENESS.--_n.pl._ MO'VABLES (_law_), such articles of property as may be moved, as furniture, &c., in opposition to _lands_ and _houses_.--_adv._ MOV'ABLY. MOVE, m[=oo]v, _v.t._ to cause to change place or posture: to set in motion: to impel: to excite to action: to persuade: to instigate: to arouse: to provoke: to touch the feelings of: to propose or bring before an assembly: to recommend.--_v.i._ to go from one place to another: to change place or posture: to walk, to carry one's self: to change residence: to make a motion as in an assembly: to bow or salute on meeting.--_n._ the act of moving: a proceeding or step: a movement, esp. at chess.--_adj._ MOVE'LESS, immovable.--_ns._ MOVE'MENT, act or manner of moving: change of position: motion of the mind, emotion: a series of incidents moving continuously towards one end: particular arrangement of the moving parts in a mechanism, esp. the wheelwork of a clock or watch: (_mil._) a strategic change of position: (_mus._) melodic progression, accentual character, tempo or pace; MOV'ER.--_adj._ MOV'ING, causing motion: changing position: affecting the feelings: pathetic.--_adv._ MOV'INGLY.--KNOW A MOVE OR TWO, to be sharp or knowing; ON THE MOVE, changing or about to change one's place. [O. Fr. _movoir_ (Fr. _mouvoir_)--L. _mov[=e]re_, to move.] MOW, mow, _n._ a wry face.--_v.i._ to make grimaces. [Fr. _moue_, a grimace.] MOW, mow, _n._ a pile of hay or corn in sheaves laid up in a barn.--_v.t._ to lay hay or sheaves of grain in a heap:--_pr.p._ mow'ing; _pa.t._ mowed; _pa.p._ mowed or mown.--_v.i._ MOW'BURN, to heat and ferment in the mow. [A.S. _múga_, heap; Ice. _múga_, swath.] MOW, m[=o], _v.t._ to cut down with a scythe: to cut down in great numbers:--_pr.p._ mow'ing; _pa.t._ mowed; _pa.p._ mowed or mown.--_adjs._ MOWED, MOWN, cut down with a scythe: cleared of grass with a scythe, as land.--_ns._ MOW'ER, one who mows grass, &c.: a machine for mowing grass; MOW'ING, the act of cutting down with a scythe: land from which grass is cut; MOW'ING-MACHINE', a machine with revolving cutters for mowing lawns. [A.S. _máwan_; Ger. _mähen_; L. _met[)e]re_, to reap.] MOXA, mok'sa, _n._ a cottony material for cauterising, prepared in China and Japan from _Artemisia Moxa_, &c.: a cone of cotton-wool placed on the skin and fired at the top for cauterisation.--_n._ MOXIBUS'TION, cauterisation by this method. MOYA, moi'ya, _n._ volcanic mud. MOYENAGE, moi'en-äzh, _n._ the Middle Ages. [Fr.] MOZARABIC, m[=o]-zar'a-bik, _adj._ pertaining to the _Mozarabes_ or _Muzarabes_, the Christian Spaniards who lived in the parts of Spain under Moorish rule, retaining their ancient liturgy.--_n._ MOZAR'AB, one of these. MOZETTA, m[=o]-tset'ta, _n._ a short cape to which a hood may be attached, worn by popes, cardinals, bishops, abbots. [It., _mozzo_, cut short.] MOZING, m[=o]'zing, _n._ the raising of nap on cloth, as in a gig-mill. M ROOF. See under letter M. MUCEDINOUS, m[=u]-sed'i-nus, _adj._ like mould or mildew. MUCH, much, _adj._ great in size, quantity, or extent: long in duration.--_adv._ to a great degree: by far: often or long: almost.--_n._ a great quantity: a strange thing.--_adj._ MUCH'EL (_Spens._), much.--_n._ MUCH'NESS, state of being much.--MUCH ABOUT IT, something like what it usually is; MUCH OF A MUCHNESS=just about the same value or amount.--MAKE MUCH OF (see MAKE); NOT SO MUCH AS, not even; TOO MUCH FOR, more than a match for. [M. E. _muche_, _moche_, _muchel_, _mochel_--A.S. _mic-el_; cf. Ice. _mjök_.] MUCIC, m[=u]'sik, _adj._ derived from gums.--_n._ M[=U]'CATE, a salt of mucic acid and a base. MUCID, m[=u]'sid, _adj._ slimy, mouldy--also M[=U]'CIDOUS.--_ns._ M[=U]'CIDNESS, M[=U]'COR. MUCK, muk, _n._ dung: a mass of decayed vegetable matter: anything low and filthy.--_v.t._ to manure with muck.--_v.i._ MUCK'ER, to make a muddle of anything, to fail.--_n._ a heavy fall in the mire: a coarse, dirty fellow.--_ns._ MUCK'-HEAP, a dung-hill; MUCK'INESS; MUCK'-RAKE, a rake for scraping filth; MUCK'-SWEAT, profuse sweat; MUCK'-WORM, a worm that lives in muck: one who acquires money by mean devices: a miser.--_adj._ MUCK'Y, nasty, filthy. [Scand., Ice. _myki_, Dan. _mög_, dung.] MUCK, mistaken form of _amuck_. MUCKER, muk'[.e]r, _n._ a canting person, a hypocrite, esp. a follower of the sect of J. W. Ebel of Königsberg, suspected of dirty practices. [Ger.] MUCKLE, a Scotch form of _mickle_. MUCRONATE, -D, m[=u]'kro-n[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ (_bot._) terminating in a short and sharp point.--_n._ M[=U]'CRO, a spine-like process.--_adj._ MUCRON'[=U]LATE, very mucronate. [L. _mucron[=a]tus_--_mucro_, _mucronis_, a sharp point.] MUCUS, m[=u]'kus, _n._ the slimy fluid from the nose: the viscous fluid secreted by the mucous membrane of animals.--_adjs._ M[=U]CIF'EROUS; M[=U]CIF'IC; M[=U]'CIFORM.--_n._ M[=U]'CIGEN, a substance secreted by the cells of mucous membrane, converted into mucin.--_adjs._ M[=U]CIG'ENOUS, M[=U]CIP'AROUS, secreting mucus.--_n._ M[=U]'CILAGE, the solution of a gum in water: the gum extracted from plants.--_adj._ MUCILAG'INOUS, pertaining to, or secreting, mucilage: slimy.--_n._ M[=U]'CIN, an alkaline glutinous fluid forming the chief constituent of mucus.--_adjs._ M[=U]CIV'OROUS, feeding on the juices of plants; M[=U]'COID, like mucus; M[=U]COP[=U]'RULENT, pertaining to mucus and pus.--_n._ MUCOS'ITY.--_adjs._ MUCO'SO-SAC'CHARINE, partaking of the properties of mucilage and sugar; M[=U]'COUS, like mucus: slimy: viscous; M[=U]'CULENT, like mucus.--MUCOUS MEMBRANE (see MEMBRANE). [L., cf. L. _mung[)e]re_, wipe away.] MUD, mud, _n._ wet soft earth.--_v.t._ to bury in mud: to dirty: to stir the sediment in, as in liquors; to bury in mud.--_v.i._ to go under the mud like the eel.--_ns._ MUD'-BATH, a kind of mud connected with some mineral springs into which the patient plunges himself; MUD'-BOAT, -SCOW, a boat for carrying away the mud dredged from a river, &c.; MUD'-CONE, a mud-volcano.--_adv._ MUD'DILY.--_n._ MUD'DINESS.--_adj._ MUD'DY, foul with mud: containing mud: covered with mud: confused: stupid.--_v.t._ to dirty: to render dull:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ mud'died.--_adjs._ MUD'DY-HEAD'ED, having a muddy or dull head or understanding; MUD'DY-METT'LED (_Shak._), dull-spirited: spiritless.--_ns._ MUD'-FISH, a fish which burrows in the mud; MUD'-FLAT, a muddy strip of shore submerged at high tide; MUD'-GUARD, the dash-board of a carriage; MUD'-HOLE, a place full of mud: an orifice in the bottom of a boiler where the sediment is collected; MUD'-LARK, a man who cleans public sewers or who picks up a living along the banks of tidal rivers: a street-arab; MUD'-WALL, a wall composed of mud, or one in which mud is used in place of mortar: the bee-eater. [Old Low Ger. _mudde_, Dut. _modder_.] MUDDLE, mud'l, _v.t._ to render muddy or foul, as water: to confuse, esp. with liquor: to waste, squander, misuse.--_v.i._ to potter about.--_n._ confusion, mess: mental confusion, bewilderment.--_n._ MUDD'LEHEAD, a blockhead.--_adv._ MUDDLEHEAD'EDLY.--_n._ MUDDLEHEAD'EDNESS. [Freq. of _mud_.] MUDIR, m[=oo]'d[=e]r, _n._ governor of an Egyptian province. MUEZZIN, m[=u]-ez'in, _n._ the Mohammedan official attached to a mosque, whose duty it is to announce the hours of prayer.--Also MUED'DIN. [Ar.] MUFF, muf, _n._ a warm, soft cover for the hands in winter, usually of fur or dressed skins.--_n._ MUFFETTEE', a small muff worn over the wrist. [Prob. from Dut. _mof_; cf. Ger. _muff_, a muff.] MUFF, muf, _n._ a stupid fellow.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to perform awkwardly, spoil: to act clumsily, esp. in letting a ball slip out of the hands. [Prob. related to Dut. _muffen_, to dote; Ger. _muffen_, to sulk.] MUFFIN, muf'in, _n._ a soft, light, spongy cake, eaten hot with butter: a small plate: one who dangles after a young woman: a poor ball-player.--_ns._ MUFF'IN-CAP, a round flat cap for men; MUFFINEER', a dish for keeping muffins hot: a metal cruet for sprinkling salt or sugar on muffins. MUFFLE, muf'l, _n._ the thick naked upper lip and nose, as of a ruminant. [Ger.] MUFFLE, muf'l, _v.t._ to wrap up as with a muff: to blindfold: to cover up so as to render sound dull, as a bell or a drum: to cover from the weather.--_n._ something used for smothering sound: a boxing-glove: a clay oven, as for firing pottery.--_adj._ MUFF'LED, wrapped up closely: dulled or deadened--of sound.--_n._ MUFF'LER, a cover that muffles the face. [_Muff_.] MUFFLE, muf'l, _v.i._ to mumble. MUFTI, muf'ti, _n._ a doctor or official expounder of Mohammedan law in Turkey: the dress of an officer off duty. [Ar.] MUG, mug, _n._ a kind of earthen or metal cup for liquor, its contents.--_ns._ MUG'GER (_Scot._), a tramping tinker or vendor of earthenware; MUG'-HOUSE, an alehouse; MUG'-HUNT'ER, one who competes at games merely for the prizes. [Ir. _mugan_, a mug, _mucog_, a cup.] MUG, mug, _n._ the human face, the mouth. MUGGINS, mug'inz, _n._ a children's card-game played with a full pack divided equally, each in turn laying down a card face up, the first one who calls 'Muggins' when one matches another adding his card to the other's pile, the aim being to get out as soon as possible. [Ety. dub.] MUGGLETONIAN, mug-l-t[=o]'ni-an, _n._ a member of a sect founded in England by John Reeve and Lodowick _Muggleton_ (1607-97), which lingered till well into the 19th cent. They claimed to be the two witnesses of Rev. xi. 3-6, denied the Trinity, holding grotesque anthropomorphist opinions, with many strange doctrines over and above, as that the devil became incarnate in Eve, &c. MUGGY, mug'i, _adj._ foggy: close and damp, as weather: wet or mouldy, as straw.--Also MUG'GISH. [Ice. _mugga_, mist; cf. Gael. _mugach_, cloudy.] MUGWORT, mug'wurt, _n._ a common British species of wormwood. MUGWUMP, mug'wump, _n._ an Indian chief: a person of great importance, or who thinks himself so: a humorous political use of the above. [Algonkin _mugquomp_, a great man.] MULATTO, m[=u]-lat'[=o], _n._ the offspring of black and white parents:--_fem._ MULATT'RESS. [Sp. _mulato_.] MULBERRY, mul'ber-i, _n._ the tree the leaves of which form the food of the silkworm: the berry of this tree. [_Mul-_ is A.S. _mór-_ (as in A.S. _mórbeám_, a mulberry)--L. _morus_; Gr. _m[=o]ron_.] MULCH, the same as MULSH (q.v.). MULCT, mulkt, _n._ a fine: a penalty.--_v.t._ to fine.--_adjs._ MULC'TARY, MULC'T[=U]ARY, imposing a fine: paid as a fine. [L. _mulcta_, a fine.] MULE, m[=u]l, _n._ the offspring of the horse and ass: an instrument for cotton-spinning: an obstinate person.--_ns._ M[=U]LE'-DEER, the black-tail of North America; M[=U]LETEER', one who drives mules.--_adj._ M[=U]L'ISH, like a mule: obstinate.--_adv._ M[=U]L'ISHLY.--_n._ M[=U]L'ISHNESS. [A.S. _mul_--L. _mulus_, mule.] MULEY, m[=u]'li, _adj._ hornless.--_n._ any cow.--Also MOOL'Y, MUL'LEY. MULIEBRITY, m[=u]-li-eb'ri-ti, _n._ womanhood: effeminacy, softness.--_adj._ MUL'IER[=O]SE, fond of women.--_n._ MULIEROS'ITY. [L.,--_mulier_, a woman.] MULL, mul, _n._ a muddle or mess.--_v.t._ to break to pieces: to confuse, muddle. MULL, mul, _n._ a promontory: a horn snuff-box. [Prob. Gael. _maol_.] MULL, mul, _n._ a soft muslin.--Also MUL'MUL. [Hind.] MULL, mul, _v.t._ to warm, spice, and sweeten (wine, ale, &c.).--_v.i._ to toil on, moil: to bustle about.--_adj._ MULLED.--_n._ MULL'ER. [M. E. _molde-ale_, a funeral banquet, _molde_, grave earth, and _ale_=feast.] MULLEN, MULLEIN, mul'en, _n._ any plant of genus _Verbascum_.--Also _Hag-taper_, _Adam's flannel_, _Aaron's rod_, _Shepherd's club_. MULLER, mul'[.e]r, _n._ a glass pestle for mixing paints: a mechanical pulveriser. MULLET, mul'et, _n._ a genus of fishes nearly cylindrical in form, highly esteemed for the table. [Fr. _mulet_--L. _mullus_, the red mullet.] MULLET, mul'et, _n._ the rowel of a spur: (_her._) a five-pointed star--a mark of cadency, indicating the third son. [O. Fr. _molette_--L. _mola_, a mill.] MULLIGATAWNY, mul-i-ga-taw'ni, _n._ an East Indian curry-soup. [Tamil _milagu-tann[=i]r_, pepper-water.] MULLIGRUBS, mul'i-grubz, _n._ (_coll._) colic: sulkiness. [Illustration] MULLION, mul'yun, _n._ an upright division between the lights of windows, between panels, &c.--_v.t._ to shape into divisions by mullions.--_adj._ MULL'IONED. [Same as _munnion_, from Fr. _moignon_, a stump--L. _mancus_, maimed.] MULLOCK, mul'ok, _n._ rubbish, esp. mining refuse. MULSE, muls, _n._ sweetened wine. [L. _mulsum_--_mulc[=e]re_, to soothe.] MULSH, mulsh, _n._ loose material, strawy dung, &c., laid down to protect the roots of plants--also MULCH.--_v.t._ to cover with mulsh.--_adj._ soft. MULT. See MULTURE. MULTANGULAR, mult-ang'gul-ar, _adj._ having many angles or corners.--_adv._ MULTANG'ULARLY.--_n._ MULTANG'ULARNESS. MULTANIMOUS, mul-tan'i-mus, _adj._ having various faculties and powers of mind, many-sided. MULTARTICULATE, mul-tar-tik'[=u]-l[=a]t, _adj._ many-jointed.--Also MULTIARTIC'ULATE. MULTEITY, mul-t[=e]'i-ti, _n._ manifoldness, very great numerousness. MULTIAXIAL, mul-ti-ak'si-al, _adj._ having many axes or lines of growth. MULTICAMERATE, mul-ti-kam'e-r[=a]t, _adj._ having many chambers or cells. MULTICAPITATE, mul-ti-kap'i-t[=a]t, _adj._ having many heads.--Also MULTICIP'ITAL. MULTICAPSULAR, mul-ti-kap's[=u]-lar, _adj._ having many capsules. MULTICARINATE, mul-ti-kar'i-n[=a]t, _adj._ having many keel-like ridges, as the shells of certain molluscs. MULTICAULINE, mul-ti-kaw'lin, _adj._ having many stems. MULTICAVOUS, mul-tik'a-vus, _adj._ having many holes or cavities. MULTICELLULAR, mul-ti-sel'[=u]-lar, _adj._ having many cells. MULTICENTRAL, mul-ti-sen'tral, _adj._ having many centres, esp. of organic development. MULTICHARGE, mul'ti-charj, _adj._ having, or capable of containing, several charges. MULTICIPITAL, mul-ti-sip'i-tal, _adj._ having many heads, multicapitate. MULTICOLOUR, mul'ti-kul-ur, _adj._ having many colours--also MUL'TICOLOURED.--_adj._ MULTICOL'OUROUS, of many colours, parti-coloured. MULTICOSTATE, mul-ti-kos't[=a]t, _adj._ (_bot._) palmately nerved: (_zool._) having many ribs, ridges, or costæ. MULTICUSPID, mul-ti-kus'pid, _adj._ having more than two cusps--also MULTICUS'PID[=A]TE.--_n._ a multicuspid tooth. MULTICYCLE, mul'ti-s[=i]-kl, _n._ a velocipede with more than three wheels, intended to carry several men. MULTIDENTATE, mul-ti-den't[=a]t, _adj._ having many teeth or tooth-like processes.--_adj._ MULTIDENTIC'ULATE, having many denticulations or fine teeth. MULTIDIGITATE, mul-ti-dij'i-t[=a]t, _adj._ having many fingers, toes, or digitate processes. MULTIDIMENSIONAL, mul-ti-di-men'shun-al, _adj._ (_math._) of more than three dimensions. MULTIFACED, mul'ti-f[=a]st, _adj._ having many faces. MULTIFARIOUS, mul-ti-f[=a]'ri-us, _adj._ having great diversity: made up of many parts: manifold: (_bot._) in many rows or ranks.--_adv._ MULTIF[=A]'RIOUSLY.--_n._ MULTIF[=A]'RIOUSNESS, the state of being multifarious: multiplied variety: (_law_) the fault of improperly joining in one bill distinct and independent matters, and thereby confounding them. [L. _multus_, many, _varius_, diverse.] MULTIFID, mul'ti-fid, _adj._ having many fissions or divisions, cleft into many parts, lobes, or segments.--Also MULTIF'IDOUS. MULTIFLAGELLATE, mul-ti-flaj'e-l[=a]t, _adj._ having many flagella, or whip-like appendages. MULTIFLOROUS, mul-ti-fl[=o]'rus, _adj._ many-flowered. MULTIFLUE, mul'ti-fl[=oo], _adj._ having many flues. MULTIFOIL, mul'ti-foil, _adj._ having more than five foils or arcuate divisions.--_n._ multifoil ornament. MULTIFOLD, mul'ti-f[=o]ld, _adj._ many times doubled. MULTIFORM, mul'ti-form, _adj._ having many forms, polymorphic.--_n._ that which is multiform.--_n._ MULTIFORM'ITY. MULTIGANGLIONATE, mul-ti-gang'gli-on-[=a]t, _adj._ having many ganglia. MULTIGENERATE, mul-ti-jen'e-r[=a]t, _adj._ generated in many ways. MULTIGENEROUS, mul-ti-jen'e-rus, _adj._ of many kinds. MULTIGRANULATE, mul-ti-gran'[=u]-l[=a]t, _adj._ having or consisting of many grains. MULTIGYRATE, mul-ti-j[=i]'r[=a]t, _adj._ having many convolutions. MULTIJUGOUS, mul-ti-j[=oo]'gus, _adj._ (_bot._) consisting of many pairs of leaflets.--Also MULTIJU'GATE. MULTILAMINATE, mul-ti-lam'i-n[=a]t, _adj._ having many layers or laminæ. MULTILATERAL, mul-ti-lat'[.e]r-al, _adj._ having many sides. MULTILINEAL, mul-ti-lin'e-al, _adj._ having many lines.--Also MULTILIN'EAR. MULTILOBATE, mul-ti-l[=o]'b[=a]t, _adj._ having, or consisting of, many lobes.--_adjs._ MUL'TILOBED, having many lobes; MULTILOB'ULAR, having many lobules. MULTILOCULAR, mul-ti-lok'[=u]-lar, _adj._ having many cells, chambers, or compartments.--Also MULTILOC'ULATE. MULTILOQUENCE, mul-til'o-kwens, _n._ verbosity.--_adj._ MULTIL'OQUENT--also MULTILOQ'UOUS. MULTINODAL, mul-ti-n[=o]'dal, _adj._ having many nodes.--Also MULTIN[=O]'DATE, MULTIN[=O]'DOUS. MULTINOMIAL, mul-ti-n[=o]'mi-al, _adj._ same as _Polynomial_. MULTINOMINOUS, mul-ti-nom'i-nus, _adj._ having many names or terms.--Also MULTINOM'INAL. MULTINUCLEATE, mul-ti-n[=u]'kl[=e]-[=a]t, _adj._ having many or several nuclei, as a cell--also MULTIN[=U]'CLEAR, MULTIN[=U]'CLEATED.--_adj._ MULTIN[=U]'CLEOLATE, having many or several nucleoli. MULTIOVULATE, mul-ti-[=o]'v[=u]-l[=a]t, _adj._ (_bot._) containing, or bearing, many ovules. MULTIPARA, mul-tip'a-ra, _n._ a woman who has had two or more children:--opp. to _Primipara_. MULTIPAROUS, mul-tip'a-rus, _adj._ producing many at a birth.--_n._ MULTIPAR'ITY, plural birth. MULTIPARTITE, mul-ti-pär't[=i]t, _adj._ divided into many parts. MULTIPED, mul'ti-ped, _n._ an insect having many feet. [L. _multus_, many, _pes_, _pedis_, foot.] MULTIPINNATE, mul-ti-pin'[=a]t, _adj._ (_bot._) many times pinnate. MULTIPLE, mul'ti-pl, _adj._ having many folds or parts: repeated many times.--_n._ a number or quantity which contains another an exact number of times.--_n._ MUL'TIPLEPOINDING (_Scots law_), a process by which a person who has funds claimed by more than one, in order not to have to pay more than once, brings them all into court that one of them may establish his right.--COMMON MULTIPLE, a number or quantity that can be divided by each of several others without a remainder; LEAST COMMON MULTIPLE, the smallest number that forms a common multiple. [L. _multiplex_--_multus_, many, _plic[=a]re_, to fold.] MULTIPLY, mul'ti-pl[=i], _v.t._ to fold or increase many times: to make more numerous: to repeat any given number or quantity as often as there are units in another number.--_v.i._ to increase: to perform the arithmetical process of multiplication:--_pr.p._ mul'tiplying; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ mul'tiplied.--_adjs._ MUL'TIPLEX, having many folds: manifold: (_bot._) with petals lying in folds over each other; MULTIPL[=I]'ABLE, MUL'TIPLICABLE, that may be multiplied.--_n._ MUL'TIPLICAND, a number or quantity to be multiplied by another.--_adj._ MUL'TIPLIC[=A]TE, consisting of more than one: (_bot._) multifold.--_n._ MULTIPLIC[=A]'TION, the act of multiplying or increasing in number: the rule or operation by which any given number or quantity is multiplied.--_adj._ MUL'TIPLIC[=A]TIVE, tending to multiply: having the power to multiply.--_ns._ MULTIPLIC'ITY, the state of being multiplied or various: a great number: MUL'TIPLIER, MUL'TIPLIC[=A]TOR, one who, or that which, multiplies or increases the number or quantity by which another is multiplied.--MULTIPLICATION TABLE, a tabular arrangement giving the products of pairs of numbers from 1 to 12.--MULTIPLYING GLASS, lens, a glass, lens, with a number of facets, causing an object to appear multiplied many times. [Fr.,--L. _multiplex._ See MULTIPLE.] MULTIPOLAR, mul-ti-p[=o]'lar, _adj._ having many poles, as a nerve-cell or dynamo.--_n._ an electro-magnetic machine in which several magnetic poles exist. MULTIPOTENT, mul-tip'o-tent, _adj._ (_Shak._) having power to do many things. [L. _multus_, many, _potens_, _-entis_, powerful.] MULTIPRESENCE, mul-ti-prez'ens, _n._ the power of being present in many places at the same time.--_adj._ MULTIPRES'ENT. MULTIRADIATE, mul-ti-r[=a]'di-[=a]t, _adj._ having many rays, polyactinal. MULTIRADICATE, mul-ti-rad'i-k[=a]t, _adj._ having many roots. MULTIRAMIFIED, mul-ti-ram'i-f[=i]d, _adj._ having many branches.--Also MULTIR[=A]'MOUS, MULTIR[=A]'MOSE. MULTISACCATE, mul-ti-sak'[=a]t, _adj._ having many sacs. MULTISCIENT, mul-tish'ent, _adj._ knowing many things. MULTISECT, mul'ti-sekt, _adj._ having many segments. MULTISEPTATE, mul-ti-sep't[=a]t, _adj._ having many septa or partitions. MULTISERIAL, mul-ti-s[=e]'ri-al, _adj._ having many series or rows.--Also MULTIS[=E]'RIATE. MULTISILIQUOUS, mul-ti-sil'i-kwus, _adj._ having many pods or seed-vessels. MULTISONOUS, mul-tis'[=o]-nus, _adj._ having many sounds, sounding much. MULTISPIRAL, mul-ti-sp[=i]'ral, _adj._ having many turns or whorls. MULTISTAMINATE, mul-ti-stam'i-n[=a]t, _adj._ bearing many stamens. MULTISTRIATE, mul-ti-str[=i]'[=a]t, _adj._ having many striæ, streaks, or stripes. MULTISULCATE, mul-ti-sul'k[=a]t, _adj._ having many sulci or furrows. MULTISYLLABLE, mul-ti-sil'a-bl, _n._ a word of many syllables. MULTITENTACULATE, mul-ti-ten-tak'[=u]-l[=a]t, _adj._ having many tentacles. MULTITITULAR, mul-ti-tit'[=u]-lar, _adj._ having many titles. MULTITUBERCULATE, -D, mul-ti-t[=u]-ber'k[=u]-l[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ having many tubercles, as teeth. MULTITUBULAR, mul-ti-t[=u]'b[=u]-lar, _adj._ having many tubes. MULTITUDE, mul'ti-t[=u]d, _n._ the state of being many: a great number of individuals: a crowd: the vulgar or common people.--_adjs._ MULTITUD'INARY (_rare_); MULTITUD'INOUS, consisting of, or having the appearance of, a multitude.--_adv._ MULTITUD'INOUSLY.--_n._ MULTITUD'INOUSNESS, the state or quality of being multitudinous. [Fr.,--L. _multitudo_--_multus_, many.] MULTIVAGOUS, mul-tiv'a-gus, _adj._ wandering much.--Also MULTIV'AGANT. MULTIVALENT, mut-tiv'a-lent, _adj._ (_chem._) equivalent in combining or displacing power to a number of hydrogen or other monad atoms.--_n._ MULTIV'ALENCE. MULTIVALVE, mul'ti-valv, _n._ a mollusc having a shell of more than two valves.--_adj._ having many valves--also MULTIVAL'VULAR. MULTIVERSANT, mul-ti-ver'sant, _adj._ turning into many shapes. MULTIVIOUS, mul-tiv'i-us, _adj._ having many ways or roads. MULTIVOCAL, mul-tiv'o-kal, _adj._ ambiguous, equivocal. MULTIVOLTINE, mul-ti-vol'tin, _adj._ having more than two annual broods--of silkworm moths and their larvæ. [L. _multus_, much, It. _volta_, a turn, winding.] MULTOCULAR, mul-tok'[=u]-lar, _adj._ having more than two eyes. MULTUM, mul'tum, _n._ an adulterant compound in brewing of quassia and liquorice. MULTUNGULATE, mul-tung'g[=u]-l[=a]t, _adj._ having more than two functional hoofs.--_n._ a multungulate mammal. MULTURE, mul't[=u]r, _n._ a grinding of grain, or the grain ground: the toll paid to a miller for grinding, generally in kind: the percentage of ore paid to a pulverising-mill by those using it.--_v.t._ MULT, to take toll from for grinding corn.--_n._ MUL'TURER. [O. Fr.,--L. _molitura_, a grinding.] MUM, mum, _adj._ silent.--_n._ silence.--_interj._ be silent!--_interj._ MUM'-BUD'GET, an exclamation enjoining silence.--_n._ MUM'CHANCE, a silent game with cards or dice: a fool.--_adj._ silent. [Cf. L. and Gr. _mu_, the least possible sound made with the lips: imit.] MUM, mum, _n._ a peculiar kind of beer made of wheat-malt, to which some brewers add oat and bean meal. [Ger. _mumme_, from a personal name.] MUMBLE, mum'bl, _v.i._ to speak indistinctly: to chew softly: to eat with the lips close.--_v.t._ to utter indistinctly or imperfectly: to mouth gently.--_ns._ MUM'BLEMENT, mumbling speech; MUM'BLE-NEWS (_Shak._), a tale-bearer; MUM'BLER, one who mumbles or speaks with a low, indistinct voice.--_adj._ MUM'BLING, uttered with a low, indistinct voice: chewing softly.--_adv._ MUM'BLINGLY. [Cf. _Mum_.] MUMBO-JUMBO, mum'b[=o]-jum'b[=o], _n._ a god worshipped by certain negro tribes in Africa: any object of foolish worship or fear. MUMM, mum, _v.t._ to mask: to make diversion with a mask on.--_ns._ MUMM'ER, one who makes sport in disguise: a masker: a buffoon; MUMM'ERY, sport with a mask on or in disguise: great show without reality; MUMM'ING, the sports of mummers.--_adj._ pertaining to the sports of mummers.--_n._ MUMM'OCK, an old ragged coat. [O. Fr. _momer_--Old Dut. _mommen_, to mask, _mom_, a mask, prob. originating in the word _mum_, used to frighten children while covering the face.] MUMMY, mum'i, _n._ a human body preserved by the Egyptian art of embalming, in which wax, spices, &c. were employed: a kind of wax used in grafting: a brown pigment: (_obs._) a medicinal gum.--_v.t._ to embalm and dry as a mummy:--_pr.p._ mumm'ying; _pa.p._ mumm'ied.--_n._ MUMMIFIC[=A]'TION.--_adj._ MUMM'IFORM.--_v.t._ MUMM'IFY, to make into a mummy: to embalm and dry as a mummy:--_pr.p._ mumm'ifying; _pa.p._ mumm'ified.--_ns._ MUMM'Y-CASE, a case of wood or cartonnage for an Egyptian mummy; MUNNY-CLOTH, the linen cloth in which a mummy was wrapped: a modern fabric resembling it, used as a basis for embroidery: a fabric like crape for mourning-dress, having a cotton or silk warp and woollen weft; MUMM'Y-WHEAT, a variety of wheat with compound spikes--_Triticum compositum_. [O. Fr. _mumie_--It. _mummia_--Ar. and Pers. _múmáyin_, a mummy--Pers. _móm_, wax.] MUMP, mump, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to mumble, mutter, or move the lips with the mouth almost closed: to nibble: to cheat: to play the beggar.--_ns._ MUMP'ER, one who mumps: an old cant term for a beggar; MUMP'ING-DAY, St Thomas's Day, 21st Dec.--_adj._ MUMP'ISH, having mumps: dull: sullen.--_adv._ MUMP'ISHLY.--_n._ MUMP'ISHNESS.--_n._ MUMPS, a contagious non-suppurative inflammation of the parotid and sometimes of the other salivary glands: gloomy silence. [Form of _mum_.] MUMPSIMUS, mump'si-mus, _n._ an error to which one clings after it has been thoroughly exposed. [Corr. of L. _sumpsimus_, in the mass, by an ignorant priest who refused to correct it.] MUN, mun, _n._ a provincial form of _man_. MUNCH, munsh, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to chew with shut mouth.--_n._ MUNCH'ER, one who munches. MUNDANE, mun'd[=a]n, _adj._ belonging to the world: terrestrial.--_adv._ MUN'DANELY.--_n._ MUNDAN'ITY. [Fr.,--L. _mundanus_--_mundus_, the world.] MUNDIFY, mun'di-f[=i], _v.t._ to cleanse, purify.--_adjs._ MUN'DATORY, cleansing; MUNDIF'ICANT, cleansing.--_n._ a cleansing ointment or plaster.--_n._ MUNDIFIC[=A]'TION.--_adj._ MUN'DIFIC[=A]TIVE. [Fr. _mondifier_--Low L. _mundific[=a]re_--L. _mundus_, clean, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] MUNDIVAGANT, mun-div'a-gant, _adj._ wandering over the world. MUNERARY, m[=u]'ne-r[=a]-ri, _adj._ of the nature of a gift. MUNGO, mung'g[=o], _n._ the waste produced in a woollen-mill from hard spun or felted cloth, or from tearing up old clothes, used in making cheap cloth. MUNGOOSE, same as MONGOOSE. MUNICIPAL, m[=u]-nis'i-pal, _adj._ pertaining to a corporation or city.--_n._ MUNICIPALIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ MUNIC'IPALISE.--_ns._ MUNIC'IPALISM; MUNICIPAL'ITY, a town or city possessed of self-government: a district governed like a city: in France, a division of the country.--_adv._ MUNIC'IPALLY. [Fr.,--L. _municipalis_--_municipium_, a free town--_munia_, official duties, _cap[)e]re_, to take.] MUNIFICENCE, m[=u]-nif'i-sens, _n._ (_Spens._) fortification, means of defence. [L. _mun[=i]re_, to fortify.] MUNIFICENCE, m[=u]-nif'i-sens, _n._ quality of being munificent: bountifulness.--_adj._ MUNIF'ICENT, very liberal in giving: generous: bountiful.--_adv._ MUNIF'ICENTLY. [Fr.,--L. _munificentia_--_munus_, a present, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] MUNIMENT, m[=u]'ni-ment, _n._ that which fortifies: that which defends: a stronghold: place or means of defence: defence: (_law_) a record fortifying or making good a claim, title-deeds, or charters--preserved in _Muniment chests_, _rooms_, or _houses_: any article carefully preserved for its interest or value.--_p.adj._ MUN'ITING (_Bacon_), fortifying, strengthening.--_n._ MUNI'TION, materials used in war: military stores of all kinds: (_B._) stronghold, fortress. [Fr.,--L. _munimentum_, from _mun[=i]re_, _-itum_, to fortify--_mænia_, walls.] MUNNION, mun'yun. Same as MULLION. MURÆNA, m[=u]-r[=e]'na, _n._ the typical genus of _Murænidæ_, a family of eels, now limited to the European murry or moray (q.v.). [Gr. _muraina_, a lamprey.] MURAL, m[=u]'ral, _adj._ pertaining to, or like, a wall: steep: trained against a wall, as plants.--MURAL CIRCLE, a large circle marked with degrees, &c., fixed to a wall, for measuring arcs of the meridian; MURAL CROWN, a crown of gold to imitate a battlement, given among the ancient Romans to him who first mounted the wall of a besieged city; MURAL PAINTING, a painting executed, especially in distemper colours, upon the wall of a building. [Fr.,--L. _muralis_, from _murus_, a wall.] MURATORIAN, m[=u]-ra-t[=o]'ri-an, _adj._ pertaining to the Italian scholar Lodovico Antonio _Muratori_ (1672-1750).--MURATORIAN FRAGMENT or CANON, a list of the New Testament writings, apparently drawn up by a contemporary of Irenæus, about 170 A.D., edited by Muratori. It counts four Gospels, Acts, thirteen Pauline epistles (excluding Hebrews), 1 John, then Jude; 2 and 3 John are reckoned among catholic epistles. The Apocalypse is included. MURDER, mur'd[.e]r, _n._ the act of putting a person to death, intentionally and from malice.--_v.t._ to commit murder: to destroy: to put an end to.--_n._ MUR'DERER, one who murders, or is guilty of murder:--_fem._ MUR'DERESS.--_adj._ MUR'DEROUS, guilty of murder: consisting in, or fond of, murder: bloody: cruel.--_adv._ MUR'DEROUSLY.--_n._ MUR'DRESS, a battlement with interstices for firing through.--MURDER IN THE FIRST DEGREE, murder with deliberation and premeditation, or that committed in the furtherance of any arson, rape, robbery, or burglary--IN THE SECOND DEGREE, murder of all other kinds; MURDER WILL OUT, murder cannot remain hidden. [A.S. _morthor_--_morth_, death; Ger. _mord_, Goth. _maurthr_; cf. L. _mors_, _mortis_, death.] MURE, m[=u]r, _n._ (_Shak._) a wall.--_v.t._ to enclose in walls: to immure. [Fr. _mur_--L. _murus_, a wall.] MUREX, m[=u]'reks, _n._ a shellfish from which the Tyrian purple dye was obtained:--_pl._ M[=U]'REXES, M[=U]'RICES. [L.] MURGEON, mur'jon, _n._ (_Scot._) a grimace. [Cf. Fr. _morgue_, a wry face.] MURIATIC, m[=u]-ri-at'ik, _adj._ pertaining to, or obtained from, sea-salt.--_n._ M[=U]'RIATE, a salt composed of muriatic acid and a base.--_adj._ MURIATIF'EROUS. [L. _muriaticus_--_muria_, brine.] MURICATE, -D, m[=u]'ri-k[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ (_bot._) armed with sharp points or prickles. [L. _muricatus_, from _murex_, _muricis_, a pointed stone.] MURIFORM, m[=u]'riform, _adj._ (_bot._) resembling the bricks in a wall. [L. _murus_, a wall, _forma_, shape.] MURKY, murk'i, _adj._ dark: obscure: gloomy.--_adv._ MURK'ILY.--_n._ MURK'INESS--(_Shak._) MURK.--_adjs._ MURK'SOME, MIRK'SOME (_Spens._), darksome. [A.S. _murc_; Ice. _myrkr_, Dan. and Sw. _mörk_.] MURMUR, mur'mur, _n._ a low, indistinct sound, like that of running water: a complaint in a low, muttering voice.--_v.i._ to utter a murmur: to grumble:--_pr.p._ mur'muring; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ mur'mured.--_n._ MUR'MURER.--_adj._ MUR'MURING, making a low continuous noise.--_adv._ MUR'MURINGLY, with a low murmuring sound: in a murmuring manner.--_adj._ MUR'MUROUS, attended with murmurs: exciting murmur.--_adv._ MUR'MUROUSLY. [Fr.,--L.; imit.] MURPHY, mur'fi, _n._ (_coll._) a potato:--_pl._ MUR'PHIES (-fiz). [From the common Irish name _Murphy_.] MURRA, mur'a, _n._ an ornamental stone for vases, &c., described by Pliny, most probably fluor-spar; it was first brought to Rome by Pompey, 61 B.C.--_adjs._ MURR'HINE, MURR'INE, MYRR'HINE. MURRAIN, mur'r[=a]n, or -'rin, _n._ an infectious and fatal disease among cattle, esp. foot-and-mouth disease.--_n._ MUR'REN (_Milt._). [O. Fr. _morine_, a carcass--L. _mori_, to die. See MORTAL.] MURREY, mur'i, _adj._ dark red or reddish brown, of mulberry colour. MURRY, same as MORAY (q.v.). MURTHER, MURTHERER=MURDER, MURDERER. MUSACEOUS, m[=u]-z[=a]'shus, _adj._ relating to an order of plants, of which the genus M[=U]'SA is the type, the banana or plantain family. MUSANG, m[=u]-sang', _n._ a paradoxure, or a related civet, esp. the East Indian coffee-rat. [Malay.] MUSCA, mus'kä, _n._ a genus of insects, including the house-fly, &c.--_n._ MUSCAT[=O]'RIUM, a flabellum.--MUSCÆ VOLITANTES, ocular spectra like floating black spots before the eyes. [L. _musca_.] MUSCADEL, mus'ka-del, _n._ a rich, spicy wine: also the grape producing it: a fragrant and delicious pear--also MUS'CADINE, MUS'CAT, MUS'CATEL.--_n.pl._ MUS'CATELS, sun-dried raisins. [O. Fr.,--It. _moscadello_, dim. of _muscato_--L. _muscus_, musk.] MUSCADIN, müs-ka-dang', _n._ a fop or dandy. [Fr.] MUSCARDINE, mus'kar-din, _n._ a fungus destructive to silkworms, also the disease caused by it. [Fr.] MUSCARDINE, mus'kar-din, _n._ a dormouse. [Fr.] MUSCHELKALK, mush'el-kalk, _n._ the middle member of the Triassic system as developed in Germany, consisting chiefly of limestone--wanting in Britain. [Ger. _muschel_, shell, _kalk_, lime.] MUSCHETOR, mus'che-tor, _n._ (_her._) a black spot like an ermine spot, but without its three specks.--Also MUS'CHETOUR. [O. Fr.,--L. _musca_, a fly.] MUSCLE, mus'l, _n._ an animal tissue consisting of bundles of fibres through whose contractility bodily movement is effected, the fibres of the _voluntary_ muscles being striped, those of the _involuntary_ (of intestinal canal, blood-vessels, and of skin) unstriped.--_adj._ MUS'CLED, supplied with muscles.--_ns._ MUS'CLE-READ'ING, the interpretation of slight involuntary muscular movements; MUS'CLING, the delineation of muscles, as in a picture; MUSCUL[=A]'TION, the arrangement of muscles of a body; MUSCULOS'ITY.--_adj._ MUS'CULOUS, pertaining to muscle: full of muscles, strong. [Fr.,--L. _musculus_, dim. of _mus_, a mouse, a muscle.] MUSCOID, mus'koid, _adj._ (_bot._) moss-like.--_n._ a moss-like, flowerless plant.--_ns._ MUSCOL'OGIST, one skilled in muscology; MUSCOL'OGY, the part of botany which treats of mosses; MUSCOS'ITY, mossiness. [L. _muscus_, moss, Gr. _eidos_, form.] MUSCOVADO, mus-k[=o]-v[=a]'do, _n._ the moist, dark-coloured impure sugar left after evaporating the juice from the sugar-cane and draining off the molasses, unrefined sugar. [Sp. _moscabado_.] MUSCOVITE, mus'co-v[=i]t, _n._ a native or an inhabitant of _Moscow_, or of Russia: the desman or Muscovitic rat: (_min._) potash mica, a silicate of alumina and potash, yellowish, brownish, or greenish, with pearly or almost metallic lustre, its thin transparent plates still used as glass--also MUSCOVY GLASS.--_adj._ of or pertaining to Moscow or to Russia--also MUSCOVIT'IC.--_n._ MUS'COVY-DUCK (see MUSK). MUSCULAR, mus'k[=u]-lar, _adj._ pertaining to a muscle: consisting of muscles: having strong muscles: brawny: strong: vigorous.--_n._ MUSCULAR'ITY, state of being muscular.--_adv._ MUS'CULARLY.--_adjs._ MUSCULOCUT[=A]'NEOUS, muscular and cutaneous--of certain nerves; MUS'CULOUS, sinewy.--MUSCULAR CHRISTIANITY, a phrase humorously applied to that vigorous combination of Christian living with devotion to athletic enjoyments associated with Charles Kingsley and his admirers (the name was, however, repudiated by him); MUSCULAR EXCITABILITY, the contracting property of a muscle; MUSCULAR PILE, a voltaic battery employed in biological experiments; MUSCULAR SYSTEM, the whole of the muscular tissue of a body. MUSE, m[=u]z, _v.i._ to study in silence: to be absent-minded: to meditate.--_n._ deep thought: contemplation: absence of mind: the inspiring power, as of a poet.--_adj._ MUSED, bemused, muzzy, fuddled.--_n._ MUS'ER.--_adv._ MUS'INGLY. [Fr. _muser_, to loiter (It. _musare_); acc. to Diez and Skeat, from O. Fr. _muse_ (Fr. _museau_), the snout of an animal. Others explain Fr. _muser_ as from Low L. _muss[=a]re_--L. _muss[=a]re_, to murmur.] MUSE, m[=u]z, _n._ one of the nine goddesses of poetry, music, and the other liberal arts--daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne: an inspiring poetic inspiration: (_Milt._) an inspired poet.--Names of the Muses:--CALLIOPE, of epic poetry; CLIO, of history; ERATO, of amatory poetry; EUTERPE, of lyric poetry; MELPOMENE, of tragedy; POLYHYMNIA, of lyric poetry and eloquence; TERPSICHORE, of dancing; THALIA, of comedy; URANIA, of astronomy. [Fr.,--L. _musa_--Gr. _mousa_.] MUSET, m[=u]z'et, _n._ (_Shak._) a gap in a fence or thicket through which an animal passes. MUSETTE, m[=u]-zet', _n._ a small oboe: an old French bagpipe: a simple pastoral melody. MUSEUM, m[=u]-z[=e]'um, _n._ a collection of natural, scientific, or other curiosities, or of works of art.--_ns._ MUSEOL'OGY, the science of arranging--MUSEOG'RAPHY, of describing, museums. [L.,--Gr. _mouseion_; cf. _Muse_.] MUSH, mush, _n._ meal boiled in water, esp. Indian meal: anything pulpy.--_adj._ MUSH'Y, soft, pulpy. [Prob. _mash_.] MUSH, mush, _v.t._ to notch, a dress-fabric ornamentally at the side with a stamp. [Prob. a form of _mesh_.] MUSHED, musht, _adj._ (_prov._) worn out, exhausted. MUSHROOM, mush'r[=oo]m, _n._ the common name of certain fungi, esp. such as are edible: (_fig._) one who rises suddenly from a low condition: an upstart.--_n._ Mush'ROOM-SPAWN, the substance in which the reproductive mycelium of the mushroom is embodied. [O. Fr. _mousseron_, through _mousse_, moss--Old High Ger. _mos_ (Ger. _moos_, moss).] MUSIC, m[=u]'zik, _n._ a connected series of sweet sounds: melody or harmony: the science which treats of harmony: the art of combining sounds so as to please the ear: a musical composition: (_U.S._) heated argument, also amusement.--_adj._ M[=U]'SICAL, pertaining to, or producing, music: pleasing to the ear: melodious.--_adv._ M[=U]'SICALLLY.--_ns._ M[=U]'SICALNESS; M[=U]'SIC-CASE, -F[=O]'LIO, -HOLD'ER, &c., a roll, cabinet, &c. for carrying sheet music; M[=U]'SIC-DEMY', a size of writing-paper, 20¾ in. × 14-3/8 in.; M[=U]'SIC-HALL, a public hall for musical entertainments, esp. when varied by dancing, variety performances, &c., often with concomitant smoking and drinking; M[=U]'SIC-HOUSE, a place for public musical entertainments: a firm dealing in music or musical instruments; MUSI'CIAN, one skilled in music: a performer of music--(_obs._) MUSI'CIANER.--_adv._ MUSI'CIANLY.--_ns._ MUSI'CIANSHIP; M[=U]'SIC-MAS'TER, or -MIS'TRESS, a man or a woman who teaches music; M[=U]'SIC-OF-THE-SPHERES (see HARMONY); M[=U]'SIC-P[=A]'PER, paper ruled with staffs for writing music in; M[=U]'SIC-PEN, a pen marking at once a series of fine parallel lines for music; M[=U]'SIC-RACK, a rack attached to a musical instrument for holding the player's music; M[=U]'SIC-RECORD'ER, a device for recording music as played on an organ, pianoforte, &c.; M[=U]'SIC-SCHOOL, a place where music is regularly taught, a conservatory; M[=U]'SIC-SHELL, a Gasteropod of the Caribbean Sea, marked with figures like printed music; M[=U]'SIC-STAND, a music-rack: a raised platform for a musical band; M[=U]'SIC-STOOL, a stool or chair, generally adjustable in height, for the performer on the pianoforte, &c.; M[=U]'SIC-WIRE, wire such as the strings of musical instruments are made of.--MUSIC (-AL) BOX, a case containing a mechanism contrived, when the spring is wound up, to reproduce melodies; MUSIC CLUB, a meeting for practising music.--MUSICAL DIRECTOR, the conductor of an orchestra, &c.; MUSICAL GLASSES (see HARMONICA, under HARMONIUM). [Fr. _musique_--L. _musica_--Gr. _mousik[=e]_ (_techn[=e]_, art), _mousa_, a muse.] MUSIMON, m[=u]'si-mon, _n._ the moufflon.--Also MUS'MON. MUSING, m[=u]z'ing, _n._ the act of one who muses: contemplation: meditation.--_adj._ meditative, preoccupied.--_adv._ MUS'INGLY. MUSIVE, m[=u]'siv, _adj._ Same as MOSAIC. MUSK, musk, _n._ a strong perfume, obtained from the male musk-deer, or the odour thereof: a hornless deer, in Tibet and Nepaul, yielding musk.--_v.t._ to perfume with musk.--_ns._ MUSK (_bot._), a name given to a number of plants which smell more or less strongly of musk; MUSK'-BAG, -BALL, a bag, ball, containing musk as a perfuming sachet; MUSK'-CAT, a civet-cat: a scented effeminate dandy; MUSK'-C[=A]V'Y, a West Indian echimyine rat-like rodent; MUSK'-DEER, a hornless deer, native of Central Asia, which produces the perfume called musk; MUSK'-DUCK, the Muscovy-duck, so called from its musky odour; MUSK'-GLAND, a skin-pit in mammals producing a secretion with a musky odour, esp. in the male musk-deer and male beaver.--_adv._ MUSK'ILY.--_ns._ MUSK'INESS; MUSK'-MALL'OW, an ornamental species of mallow, with faint odour of musk; MUSK'-MELON, the juicy edible fruit of a trailing herb (_Cucumis melo_), or the plant; MUSK'-OX, a ruminant of arctic America, with long smooth hair, its horns meeting in a shield over the forehead, exhaling a strong musky smell; MUSK'-PEAR, a fragrant variety of pear; MUSK'-PLUM, a fragrant kind of plum; MUSK'-RAT, a North American aquatic, arvicoline, rat-like rodent, yielding a valuable fur, and secreting in its gland a substance with a musky smell--also MUS'QUASH; MUSK'-ROSE, a fragrant species of rose.--_adj._ MUSK'Y, having the odour of musk. [Fr. _musc_--L. _muscus_, Gr. _moschos_--Pers. _musk_--Sans. _mushka_, a testicle.] MUSKET, mus'ket, _n._ any kind of smooth-bore military hand-gun: a male sparrow-hawk.--_ns._ MUSKETEER', a soldier armed with a musket; MUSKETOON', MUSQUETOON', a short musket: one armed with a musketoon.--_adj._ MUS'KET-PROOF, capable of resisting the force of a musket-ball.--_ns._ MUS'KET-REST, a fork used as a support for the heavy 16th-century musket--also _Croc_; MUS'KETRY, muskets in general; practice with muskets: a body of troops armed with muskets; MUS'KET-SHOT, the discharge of a musket, the reach of a musket. [O. Fr. _mousquet_, a musket, formerly a hawk--It. _mosquetto_--L. _musca_, a fly.] MUSLIM, mus'lim, _n._ and _adj._ Same as MOSLEM. MUSLIN, muz'lin, _n._ a fine soft cotton fabric resembling gauze in appearance, but woven plain without any looping of the warp threads on the weft--generally uncoloured: a coarser fabric than Indian muslin, printed with coloured patterns, &c.: (_U.S._) cotton cloth for shirts, bedding, &c.: a collector's name for several different moths.--_adj._ made of muslin.--_adj._ MUS'LINED, clothed with muslin.--_ns._ MUS'LINET, a coarse kind of muslin; MUS'LIN-KALE (_Scot._), thin broth made without meat. [Fr. _mousseline_--It. _mussolino_, from _Mosul_ in Mesopotamia.] MUSQUASH, mus'kwosh, _n._ the musk-rat. [Am. Ind.] MUSROLE, muz'r[=o]l, _n._ the nose-band of a horse's bridle. MUSS, mus, _n._ (_Shak._) a scramble: confusion, disorder.--_v.t._ (_U.S._) to throw into confusion. [O. Fr. _mousche_, a fly--L. _musca_, a fly.] MUSSEL, MUSCLE, mus'l, _n._ a. marine bivalve shellfish, used for food.--_n._ MUS'C[=U]LITE, a petrified mussel or shell. [A.S. _muxle_; Ger. _muschel_, Fr. _moule_; all from L. _musculus_.] MUSSITATION, mus-i-t[=a]'shun, _n._ the movement of the tongue or lips as if in speech, without producing articulate sounds, muttering.--_v.t._ MUSS'ITATE, to mutter. MUSSULMAN, mus'ul-man, _n._ a Moslem or Mohammedan:--_pl._ MUSS'ULMANS (-manz). [Turk. _musulm[=a]n_--Ar. _muslim_, _moslim_, Moslem.] MUSSY, mus'i, _adj._ disordered.--_n._ MUSS'INESS. MUST, must, _v.i._ to be obliged physically or morally. [A.S. _mót_, _móste_; Ger. _müssen_.] MUST, must, _n._ wine pressed from the grape, but not fermented: potato-pulp prepared for fermentation. [A.S. _must_--L. _mustus_, new, fresh.] MUST, must, _n._ an occasional state of dangerous frenzy in adult male elephants. MUSTACHE. Same as MOUSTACHE. MUSTANG, mus'tang, _n._ the wild horse of the American prairies: (_U.S._) a naval officer from the merchant service in the Civil War. MUSTARD, mus'tard, _n._ a plant of the genus Brassica, formerly classed as Sinapis, having a pungent taste: the seed thereof ground and used as a seasoning for meat, as a plaster, &c.--FRENCH MUSTARD, mustard prepared for table by adding salt, sugar, vinegar, &c.; WILD MUSTARD, the charlock. [O. Fr. _mostarde_ (Fr. _moutarde_)--L. _mustum_, must.] MUSTELA, mus-t[=e]'la, _n._ the typical genus of _Mustelidæ_, the martens and sables.--_adj._ MUS'TELINE, like a marten or weasel: tawny in colour.--_n._ a musteline mammal.--_adj._ MUS'TELOID, like a weasel. [L.] MUSTER, mus't[.e]r, _v.t._ to assemble, as troops for duty or inspection: to gather, summon (with _up_).--_v.i._ to be gathered together, as troops.--_n._ an assembling of troops: a register of troops mustered: assemblage: collected show.--_ns._ MUS'TER-BOOK (_Shak._), a book in which military forces are registered; MUS'TER-FILE (_Shak._), a muster-roll; MUS'TER-MAS'TER, the master of the muster, or who takes an account of troops, their arms, &c.; MUS'TER-ROLL, a register of the officers and men in each company, troop, or regiment present at the time of muster.--PASS MUSTER, to pass inspection uncensured. [O. Fr. _mostre_, _monstre_--L. _monstrum_--_mon[=e]re_, to warn.] MUSTY, must'i, _adj._ mouldy: spoiled by damp: sour: foul.--_adv._ MUST'ILY.--_n._ MUST'INESS. [Doublet of _moisty_--L. _musteus_, new.] MUTABLE, m[=u]'ta-bl, _adj._ that may be changed: subject to change: inconstant.--_ns._ MUTABIL'ITY, M[=U]'TABLENESS, state or quality of being mutable.--_adv._ M[=U]'TABLY.--_n._ MUTAN'DUM, something to be altered:--_pl._ MUTAN'DA.--_v.t._ M[=U]'TATE, to change a vowel-sound by the influence of a vowel in the following syllable.--_n._ MUT[=A]'TION, act or process of changing a vowel through the influence of one in the next syllable--the German _umlaut_: change: succession.--_adjs._ M[=U]'TATIVE, M[=U]'T[=A]TORY, changing, mutable. [Fr.,--L. _mutabilis_--_mut[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to change--_mov[=e]re_, _motum_, to move.] MUTAGE, m[=u]'t[=a]j, _n._ a process for arresting fermentation in the must of grapes. [Fr.] MUTCH, much, _n._ (_Scot._) a woman's cap. [Old Dut. _mutse_; Dut. _muts_, Ger. _mütze_.] MUTCHKIN, much'kin, _n._ a Scottish liquid measure of four gills, or forming one-fourth of a Scottish pint. [Scot. _mutch_, a cap, _kin_, little.] MUTE, m[=u]t, _adj._ incapable of speaking: dumb: silent: unpronounced.--_n._ one dumb, or remaining silent: a person stationed by undertakers at the door of a house at a funeral: a stopped sound, formed by the shutting of the mouth-organs, esp. the surds _t_, _p_, _k_, but also applied to the sonant or voiced consonants _d_, _b_, _g_, and even the nasals _n_, _m_, _ng_: (_law_) one who refuses to plead.--_v.t._ to deaden sound.--_adv._ MUTE'LY.--_n._ MUTE'NESS. [Fr.,--L. _mutus_.] MUTE, m[=u]t, _v.i._ to dung, as birds. [O. Fr. _mutir_, _esmeutir_--Old Dut. _smelten_, to smelt.] MUTILATE, m[=u]'ti-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to maim: to cut off: to remove a material part of.--_ns._ MUTIL[=A]'TION, act of mutilating: deprivation of a limb or essential part; M[=U]'TILATOR, one who mutilates. [L. _mutil[=a]re_--_mutilus_--Gr. _mutilos_, _mitulos_, curtailed.] MUTINEER, m[=u]-ti-n[=e]r', _n._ one guilty of mutiny.--_v.i._ to mutiny.--_n._ and _v.i._ M[=U]'TINE (_Shak._). MUTINY, m[=u]'ti-ni, _v.i._ to rise against authority in military or naval service: to revolt against rightful authority:--_pr.p._ m[=u]'tinying; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ m[=u]'tinied.--_n._ insurrection against constituted authority, esp. naval or military: revolt, tumult, strife.--_adj._ M[=U]'TINOUS, disposed to mutiny: seditious.--_adv._ M[=U]'TINOUSLY.--_n._ M[=U]'TINOUSNESS.--MUTINY ACT, an act passed by the British parliament from year to year, to regulate the government of the army, from 1689 down to 1879, when it was superseded by the Army Discipline and Regulation Act, modified by the Army Act of 1881. [O. Fr. _mutiner_, _mutin_, riotous, _meute_, a sedition--L. _motus_, rising--_mov[=e]re_, _motum_, to move.] MUTISM, m[=u]t'izm, _n._ the state or habit of being mute. MUTTER, mut'[.e]r, _v.i._ to utter words in a low voice: to murmur: to sound with a low, rumbling noise.--_v.t._ to utter indistinctly.--_ns._ MUTT'ER (_Milt._), a murmuring; MUTTER[=A]'TION, act of muttering or complaining; MUTT'ERER; MUTT'ERING.--_adv._ MUTT'ERINGLY, in a muttering or grumbling manner: with indistinct articulation. [Prob. imit., like prov. Ger. _mustern_; L. _mutt[=i]re_.] MUTTON, mut'n, _n._ the flesh of sheep: an old Anglo-French gold coin impressed with a lamb: (_slang_) a loose woman, hence illicit commerce: a sheep.--_n._ MUTT'ON-CHOP, a rib of mutton chopped at the small end for broiling or frying.--_adj._ like a mutton-chop (of whiskers cut round at the ends).--_ns._ MUTT'ON-CUT'LET, a steak cut usually from a leg of mutton for broiling or frying; MUTT'ON-FIST, a coarse, big hand; MUTT'ON-HAM, a salted leg of mutton; MUTT'ON-HEAD, a heavy, stupid person.--_adj._ MUTT'ON-HEAD'ED, stupid.--_ns._ MUTT'ON-S[=U]'ET, the fat about the kidneys and loins of sheep; MUTT'ON-THUMP'ER, a clumsy bookbinder.--_adj._ MUTT'ONY.--Laced mutton (_Shak._), a loose woman; RETURN TO ONE'S MUTTONS (_coll._), to return to the subject of discussion--a humorous mistranslation of the Fr. proverb, 'Revenons à nos moutons.' [O. Fr. _moton_ (Fr. _mouton_), a sheep--Low L. _multo_, acc. to Diez, from L. _mutilus_, mutilated.] MUTUAL, m[=u]'t[=u]-al, _adj._ interchanged: in return: given and received, equally affecting two or more: common, conjoint, shared alike, as in 'mutual friend.'--_ns._ M[=U]'TUALISM, MUTUAL'ITY.--_adv._ M[=U]'TUALLY.--MUTUAL ACCOUNTS, accounts in which each of two have charges against the other; MUTUAL INSURANCE, a reciprocal contract among several persons to indemnify each other against certain designated losses, the system of a company in which policy-holders receive a certain share of the profits, &c.; MUTUAL WALL, a wall equally belonging to each of two houses. [Fr. _mutuel_--L. _mutuus_--_mut[=a]re_, to change.] MUTULE, m[=u]t'[=u]l, _n._ a kind of square, flat bracket used in the Doric order of architecture, above each triglyph and each metope, having round projections like nail-heads on the lower surface. MUTUUM, m[=u]'t[=u]-um, _n._ a bailment consisting of a loan of goods for consumption, as corn, coal, &c., to be returned in goods of the same amount. MUX, muks, _v.t._ to spoil, botch.--_n._ a mess. MUZHIK, m[=oo]-zhik', _n._ a Russian peasant. MUZZLE, muz'l, _n._ the projecting jaws and nose of an animal: a fastening for the mouth to prevent biting, by a strap or a cage: the extreme end of a gun, &c.--_v.t._ to put a muzzle on: to restrain from biting: to keep from hurting: to gag or silence.--_ns._ MUZZ'LE-BAG, a canvas bag fixed to the muzzle of a gun at sea, to keep out water; MUZZ'LE-LOAD'ER, a firearm loaded through the muzzle--opp. to _Breech-loader_.--_adj._ MUZZ'LE-LOAD'ING.--_n._ MUZZ'LE-VELOC'ITY, the velocity of a projectile the moment it leaves the muzzle of a gun. [O. Fr. _musel_ (Fr. _museau_), prob. from L. _morsus_--_mord[=e]re_, to bite.] MUZZY, muz'i, _adj._ dazed, bewildered, tipsy.--_n._ MUZZ'INESS. MY, (when emphatic or distinct) m[=i], (otherwise) me, _poss. adj._ belonging to me. [Contr. of _mine_, A.S. _mín_, of me.] MYA, m[=i]'a, _n._ a genus of bivalve shells: a clam of this genus.--_n._ MY[=A]'RIA, an old name for the _Myidæ_, a family of dimyarian bivalves.--_adj._ MY[=A]'RIAN. [Gr. _myax_, a sea-mussel.] MYALGIA, m[=i]-al'ji-a, _n._ a morbid state of a muscle.--_adj._ MYAL'GIC. [Gr. _mys_, muscle, _algos_, pain.] MYALL, m[=i]'al, _n._ a hard, scented wood yielded by several Australian acacias, esp. good for tobacco-pipes and whip-handles. MYCELIUM, m[=i]-s[=e]'li-um, _n._ the white thread-like parts from which a mushroom or a fungus is developed: mushroom spawn:--_pl._ MYC[=E]'LIA. [Gr. _myk[=e]s_, a fungus, _[=e]los_, a nail or wart.] MYCETES, m[=i]-s[=e]'t[=e]z, _n._ a kind of South American monkey, called also _Howlers._ [Gr. _myk[=e]t[=e]s_, bellower.] MYCETES, m[=i]-s[=e]'t[=e]z, _n.pl._ mushrooms or fungi.--_ns._ MYCETOL'OGY (same as MYCOLOGY); MYCET[=O]'MA, a chronic disease of the feet and hands in India.--_n.pl._ MYCETOZ[=O]'A, a group of fungus-like organisms, now mostly contained in the division Myxomycetes or slime-fungi.--_adjs._ MYCOLOG'IC, -AL.--_ns._ MYCOL'OGIST; MYCOL'OGY, the science treating of the fungi or mushrooms; MYCOPH'AGIST; MYCOPH'AGY, the eating of fungi; MY'COSE, a kind of sugar obtained from certain lichens and fungi, as ergot of rye--also _Trehalose_; MYC[=O]'SIS, the presence of fungus growth within the body.--_adj._ MYCOT'IC. [Gr. _myk[=e]t[=e]s_, pl. of _myk[=e]s_ a mushroom.] MYDRIASIS, mi-dr[=i]'a-sis, _n._ morbid dilatation of the pupil of the eye.--_adj._ MYDRIAT'IC.--_n._ a drug causing this. MYELITIS, m[=i]-e-l[=i]'tis, _n._ inflammation of the substance of the spinal cord.--_ns._ MYELASTHEN[=I]'A, spinal exhaustion; MYELATR[=O]'PHIA, atrophy of the spinal cord.--_adjs._ MYELIT'IC, MY'ELOID, medullary.--_ns._ MYELOMAL[=A]'CIA, softening of the spinal cord; MYELOMENING[=I]'TIS, spinal meningitis; MY'ELON, the spinal cord.--_adjs._ MY'ELONAL, MYELON'IC. [Gr. _myelos_, marrow.] MYGALE, mig'a-l[=e], _n._ an American tarantula or bird-catching spider. [Gr. _mygal[=e]_, a field-mouse.] MYLODON, m[=i]'l[=o]-don, _n._ a genus of large fossil sloths.--_adj._ MY'LODONT. [Gr. _myl[=e]_, a mill, _odous_, _odontos_, a tooth.] MYLOHYOID, m[=i]-l[=o]-h[=i]'oid, _adj._ pertaining to the molar teeth and to the hyoid bone.--_n._ the mylohyoid muscle. [Gr. _myl[=e]_, a mill.] MYNA, m[=i]'na, _n._ one of several sturnoid passerine birds of India.--Also M[=I]'NA. MYNHEER, m[=i]n-h[=a]r', _n._ my lord: Dutch form of _Mr_ or _Sir_: a Dutchman. [Dut. _mijn_, my, _heer_, lord.] MYOID, m[=i]'oid, _adj._ like muscle.--_n._ MY'OBLAST, a cell producing muscle-tissue.--_adj._ MYOBLAST'IC.--_ns._ MYOCARD[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the myocardium; MYOCAR'DIUM, the muscular substance of the heart; MYODYN[=A]'MIA, muscular force; MY'OGRAM, the tracing of a contracting and relaxing muscle by the myograph; MY'OGRAPH, an instrument for noting and recording muscular contractions.--_adjs._ MYOGRAPH'IC, -AL, relating to myography.--_ns._ MYOG'RAPHIST; MYOG'RAPHY, a description of the muscles of the body.--_adj._ MYOLOG'ICAL.--_ns._ MYOL'OGIST; MYOL'OGY, the part of anatomy which treats of the muscles; MY[=O]'MA, a tumour composed of muscular tissue; MYONIC'ITY, the contractile property of muscular tissue. [Gr. _mys_, _myos_, muscle.] MYOMANCY, m[=i]'o-man-si, _n._ divination from the movements of mice.--_adj._ MYOMAN'TIC. [Gr. _mys_, a mouse, _manteia_, divination.] MYOPIA, m[=i]-[=o]'pi-a, _n._ shortness or nearness of sight.--_adj._ MYOP'IC.--_ns._ MY'OPS, MY'OPE, a short-sighted person. [Gr.,--_myein_, to close, _[=o]ps_, the eye.] MYOSIN, m[=i]'[=o]-sin, _n._ an albuminous compound contained in the contractile muscular tissue. MYOSIS, m[=i]-[=o]'sis, _n._ abnormal contraction of the pupil of the eye.--_adjs._ MYOSIT'IC; MYOT'IC. [Gr. _myein_, to close.] MYOSITIS, m[=i]-o-s[=i]'tis, _n._ inflammation of a muscle--properly MY'ITIS. MYOSOTIS, m[=i]-[=o]-s[=o]'tis, _n._ a genus of annual or perennial herbs of the borage family, with alternate leaves and simple or branched racemes of bractless blue, pink, or white flowers: a flower of this genus, as the common blue forget-me-not. [Gr. _mys_, _myos_, a mouse, _ous_, _[=o]tos_, an ear.] MYOTOMY, m[=i]-ot'o-mi, _n._ the dissection of the muscles. [Gr. _mys_, _myos_, muscle, _temnein_, to cut.] MYRIAD, mir'i-ad, _n._ any immense number.--_adj._ numberless. [Gr. _myrias_, _myriados_, ten thousand.] MYRIAPOD, mir'i-a-pod, (more correctly) MYR'IOPOD, _n._ a worm-shaped animal with many-jointed legs.--_n._ MYRIAP'ODA, a class of jointed animals, of which some of the lower kinds have an immense number of legs. [Gr. _myrios_, numberless, _pous_, _podos_, a foot.] MYRICA, mi-r[=i]'ka, _n._ a genus of shrubs of the sweet-gale family, including the bay-berry or wax-myrtle, yielding a tallow used for candles. [Gr. _myrik[=e]_.] MYRIORAMA, mir-i-o-rä'ma, _n._ a picture composed of interchangeable parts which can be combined into a variety of pictures. [Gr. _myrios_, numberless, _horama_, a view.] MYRIOSCOPE, mir'i-o-sk[=o]p, _n._ a variety of kaleidoscope, esp. a form of it consisting of mirrors so arranged as by multiplied reflection from a small piece of carpet to show how it looks covering a whole floor. [Gr. _myrios_, numberless, _skopein_, to view.] MYRISTICA, m[=i]-ris'ti-ka, _n._ a genus of fragrant apetalous trees--the nutmegs: the kernel of the seed of _Myristica fragrans_, as used in cookery. [Gr. _myrizein_, to anoint.] MYRMIDON, m[.e]r'mi-don, _n._ one of a tribe of warriors who accompanied Achilles to Troy: one of a ruffianly band under a daring leader: one who carries out another's orders without fear or pity.--_adj._ MYRMID[=O]'NIAN.--MYRMIDONS OF THE LAW, policemen, bailiffs, &c. [L.,--Gr.] MYROBALAN, m[=i]-rob'a-lan, _n._ the astringent fruit of certain Indian mountain species of _Terminalia_. [Gr. _myron_, an unguent, _balanos_, a corn.] MYRRH, m[.e]r, _n._ a bitter, aromatic, transparent gum, exuded from the bark of a shrub in Arabia.--_adj._ MYR'RHIC.--_ns._ MYR'RHIN, the fixed resin of myrrh; MYR'RHOL, the volatile oil of myrrh. [O. Fr. _mirre_ (Fr. _myrrhe_)--L. and Gr. _myrrha_--Ar. _murr_.] MYRRHINE. Same as MURRINE. MYRTLE, m[.e]r'tl, _n._ an evergreen shrub with beautiful and fragrant leaves.--_n._ MYR'TLE-WAX, wax from the candle-berry. [O. Fr. _myrtil_, dim. of _myrte_--L. and Gr. _myrtus_.] MYSELF, m[=i]-self', or me-self', _pron._ I or me, in person--used for the sake of emphasis and also as the reciprocal of me. MYSTAGOGUE, mis'ta-g[=o]g, _n._ an initiator into religious mysteries, a teacher or catechist--also MYSTAG[=O]'GUS.--_adj._ MYSTAGOG'IC (-goj'-).--_n._ MYS'TAGOGY (-goj-), the practice of a mystagogue: the sacraments. [Gr. _myst[=e]s_, one initiated, _ag[=o]gos_, a leader.] MYSTERY, mis't[.e]r-i, _n._ a secret doctrine: anything very obscure: that which is beyond human knowledge to explain: anything artfully made difficult: (_pl._) secret rites, in ancient religions rites known only to and practised by initiated persons, as the Eleusinian mysteries in Greece, &c.: a sacrament: a rude medieval drama founded on the historical parts of the Bible and the lives of the saints--the Basque _pastorales_ are a survival.--_adj._ MYST[=E]'RIOUS, containing mystery: obscure: secret: incomprehensible.--_adv._ MYST[=E]'RIOUSLY.--_n._ MYST[=E]'RIOUSNESS. [M. E. _mysterie_--L. _mysterium_--Gr. _myst[=e]rion_--_myst[=e]s_, one initiated--_muein_, to close the eyes.] MYSTERY, mis't[.e]r-i, _n._ a trade, handicraft. [M. E. _mistere_--O. Fr. _mestier_ (Fr. _métier_)--L. _ministerium_--_minister_. Prop. _mistery_; the form _mystery_ is due to confusion with the above.] MYSTIC, -AL, mis'tik, -al, _adj._ relating to, or containing, mystery: sacredly obscure or secret: involving a sacred or a secret meaning hidden from the eyes of the ordinary reader, only revealed to a spiritually enlightened mind, allegorical: belonging to mysticism.--_n._ MYS'TIC, one who seeks for direct intercourse with God in elevated religious feeling or ecstasy.--_adv._ MYS'TICALLY.--_ns._ MYS'TICALNESS, the quality of being mystical; MYS'TICISM, the doctrine of the mystics, a tendency of religious feeling marked by an effort to attain to direct and immediate communion with God: obscurity of doctrine; MYSTIFIC[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ MYS'TIFY, to make mysterious, obscure, or secret: to involve in mystery:--_pr.p._ mys'tifying; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ mys'tified.--MYSTIC RECITATION, the recitation of parts of the Greek liturgy in an inaudible voice; MYSTICAL THEOLOGY, the knowledge of divine things attained by spiritual insight and experience only, without authority, the process of reason, &c. [L. _mysticus_--Gr. _mystikos_. Cf. _Mystery_, a secret doctrine.] MYTACISM, m[=i]'ta-sizm, _n._ a too recurrent use of the letter _m_ in speech or writing. MYTH, mith, _n._ a fable, a legend, a fabulous narrative founded on a remote event, esp. those made in the early period of a people's existence: an invented story: a falsehood.--_adjs._ MYTH'IC, -AL, relating to myths: fabulous: untrue.--_adv._ MYTH'ICALLY.--_ns._ MYTH'ICIST, MYTH'ICISER, an adherent of the mythical theory; MYTH'IST, a maker of myths; MYTHOGEN'ESIS, the production of, or the tendency to originate, myths; MYTHOG'RAPHER, a writer or narrator of myths; MYTHOG'RAPHY, representation of myths in graphic or plastic art, art-mythology; MYTHOL'OGER, MYTHOL[=O]'GIAN, a mythologist.--_adjs._ MYTHOLOG'IC, -AL, relating to mythology, fabulous.--_adv._ MYTHOLOG'ICALLY.--_v.t._ MYTHOL'OGISE, to interpret or explain myths: to render mythical.--_ns._ MYTHOL'OGISER, one who, or that which, mythologises; MYTHOL'OGIST, one versed in, or who writes on, mythology; MYTHOL'OGY, the myths or stories of a country: a treatise regarding myths: a collection of myths: the science which investigates myths; MYTHON'OMY, the deductive and predictive stage of mythology; MYTH'OPLASM, a narration of mere fable; MYTHOPOE'IST, a myth-maker.--_adjs._ MYTHOPOET'IC, MYTHOPOE'IC, myth-making, tending to generate myth.--_n._ MYTH'US, the same as _myth_:--_pl._ MYTH'[=I].--MYTHICAL THEORY, the theory of D. F. Strauss (1808-74) and his school, that the Gospels are mainly a collection of myths, developed during the first two centuries, from the imagination of the followers of Jesus; COMPARATIVE MYTHOLOGY, the science which investigates myths and seeks to relate those of different races. [Gr. _mythos_.] MYTILUS, mit'i-lus, _n._ a genus of bivalves, or an individual bivalve belonging to it.--_adjs._ MYTIL'IFORM, MYT'ILOID. MYXOEDEMA, mik-s[=e]-d[=e]'ma, _n._ a diseased condition occurring in adults, generally females, characterised by a thickening of the subcutaneous tissue, most noticeable in the face, with a simultaneous dulling of all the faculties and slowing of the movements of the body. A precisely similar condition occurs in many cases where the thyroid gland has been removed for disease. [Gr. _myxa_, mucus, and Eng. _edema_.] MYXOMA, mik-s[=o]'ma, _n._ a tumour consisting of mucous tissue--also _Collonema_. [Gr. _myxa_, mucus.] MYXOMYCETES, mik-s[=o]-m[=i]-s[=e]'t[=e]z, _n.pl._ a class of very simple organisms, often claimed by botanists as fungi, generally regarded by zoologists as primitive Protozoa, living on damp surfaces exposed to air, esp. on rotting wood, and feeding on organic débris forming composite masses or _plasmodia_. [Gr. _myxa_, mucus, _myk[=e]tes_, pl. of _myk[=e]s_, a mushroom.] MYXOPOD, mik'so-pod, _n._ and _adj._ a protozoan animal having pseudopodia, as distinguished from a _mastigopod_, which has cilia or flagella.--_n.pl._ MYXOP'ODA, protozoans whose locomotive appendages are pseudopodia--the same as _Rhizopoda_.--_adj._ MYXOP'ODOUS. [Gr. _myxa_, mucus, _pous_, _podos_, a foot.] MYXOSARCOMA, mik-s[=o]-sär-k[=o]'ma, _n._ a tumour composed of mucous and sarcomatous tissue:--_pl._ MYXOSARC[=O]'MATA. [Gr. _myxa_, mucus, _sarc[=o]ma_, a fleshy lump.] MYZONTES, m[=i]-zon't[=e]z, _n.pl._ a class of vertebrates with an incomplete cartilaginous skull, no lower jaw, and pouch-like gills--including the lampreys and hags.--_adj._ and _n._ suctorial as the lamprey, belonging to the Myzontes. [Gr. _myz[=o]n_, _myzontos_, pr.p. of _myzein_, to suck.] * * * * * Corrections made to printed original. Under "Egophony":--"Ægoph'ony", printed as "Ægoph'any" in original. Under "Empiric":--"empiricism", printed as "empericism" in original. Under "Enterprise" (before Enterprisingly):--"adv.", printed as "adj." in original. Under "Experiment":--"Experiment'al", printed as "Eperiment'al" in original. Under "Friend":--"acquaintance", printed as "acqaintance" in original. Under "Gabbatha":--"tessellated", printed as "tesselated" in original. Under "Heterochrony":--"ontogenetic", printed as "octogenetic" in original. Under "Hither":--"to come", printed as "to come thither" in original. Under "Hot" (before Hotspur):--"n.", printed as "ns." in original. Under "In":--"Gr.", printed as "Ger." in original. Under "Jowl" (etymology):--"the jaw", printed as "the law" in original. Under "Jungermannia":--"Jungermann", printed as "Junggermann" in original. Under "Kantian":--"philosophy", printed as "philosphy" in original. Under "Libken" (pronunciation):--"lib'ken", printed as "lik'ken" in original. 
38700	----	Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they are listed at the end of the text. * * * * * In this version [=e] signifies "e macron"; [)e] "e breve"; [.e] "e with dot above"; and so forth. CHAMBERS'S TWENTIETH CENTURY DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE PRONOUNCING, EXPLANATORY, ETYMOLOGICAL, WITH COMPOUND PHRASES, TECHNICAL TERMS IN USE IN THE ARTS AND SCIENCES, COLLOQUIALISMS, FULL APPENDICES, AND COPIOUSLY ILLUSTRATED EDITED BY REV. THOMAS DAVIDSON ASSISTANT-EDITOR OF 'CHAMBERS'S ENCYCLOPÆDIA' EDITOR OF 'CHAMBERS'S ENGLISH DICTIONARY' LONDON: 47 Paternoster Row W. & R. CHAMBERS, LIMITED EDINBURGH: 339 High Street 1908 EXPLANATIONS TO THE STUDENT. THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE WORDS.--Every word is given in its _alphabetical_ order, except in cases where, to save space, derivatives are given after and under the words from which they are derived. Each uncompounded verb has its participles, when irregular, placed after it. Exceptional plurals are also given. When a word stands after another, with no meaning given, its meanings can be at once formed from those of the latter, by adding the signification of the affix: thus the meanings of _Darkness_ are obtained by prefixing the meaning of _ness_, _state of being_, to those of _Dark_. Many words from French and other tongues, current in English usage, but not yet fairly Anglicised, are inserted in the list of Foreign Phrases, &c., at the end, rather than in the body of the Dictionary. THE PRONUNCIATION.--The Pronunciation is given immediately after each word, by the word being spelled anew. In this new spelling, every consonant used has its ordinary unvarying sound, _no consonant being employed that has more than one sound_. The same sounds are always represented by the same letters, no matter how varied their actual spelling in the language. No consonant used has any mark attached to it, with the one exception of _th_, which is printed in common letters when sounded as in _thick_, but in italics when sounded as in _th_en. _Unmarked vowels_ have always their short sounds, as in _lad_, _led_, _lid_, _lot_, _but_, _book_. The _marked vowels_ are shown in the following line, which is printed at the top of each page:-- f[=a]te, fär; m[=e], h[.e]r; m[=i]ne; m[=o]te; m[=u]te; m[=oo]n; _th_en. The vowel _u_ when marked thus, _ü_, has the sound heard in Scotch _bluid_, _gude_, the French _du_, almost that of the German _ü_ in _Müller_. Where more than one pronunciation of a word is given, that which is placed first is more accepted. THE SPELLING.--When more than one form of a word is given, that which is placed first is the spelling in current English use. Unfortunately our modern spelling does not represent the English we actually speak, but rather the language of the 16th century, up to which period, generally speaking, English spelling was mainly phonetic, like the present German. The fundamental principle of all rational spelling is no doubt the representation of every sound by an invariable symbol, but in modern English the usage of pronunciation has drifted far from the conventional forms established by a traditional orthography, with the result that the present spelling of our written speech is to a large extent a mere exercise of memory, full of confusing anomalies and imperfections, and involving an enormous and unnecessary strain on the faculties of learners. Spelling reform is indeed an imperative necessity, but it must proceed with a wise moderation, for, in the words of Mr Sweet, 'nothing can be done without unanimity, and until the majority of the community are convinced of the superiority of some one system unanimity is impossible.' The true path of progress should follow such wisely moderate counsels as those of Dr J. A. H. Murray:--the dropping of the final or inflexional silent _e_; the restoration of the historical _-t_ after breath consonants; uniformity in the employment of double consonants, as in _traveler_, &c.; the discarding of _ue_ in words like _demagogue_ and _catalogue_; the uniform levelling of the agent _-our_ into _-or_; the making of _ea = [)e]_ short into _e_ and the long _ie_ into _ee_; the restoration of _some_, _come_, _tongue_, to their old English forms, _sum_, _cum_, _tung_; a more extended use of _z_ in the body of words, as _chozen_, _praize_, _raize_; and the correction of the worst individual monstrosities, as _foreign_, _scent_, _scythe_, _ache_, _debt_, _people_, _parliament_, _court_, _would_, _sceptic_, _phthisis_, _queue_, _schedule_, _twopence-halfpenny_, _yeoman_, _sieve_, _gauge_, _barque_, _buoy_, _yacht_, &c. Already in America a moderate degree of spelling reform may be said to be established in good usage, by the adoption of _-or_ for _-our_, as _color_, _labor_, &c.; of _-er_ for _-re_, as _center_, _meter_, &c.; _-ize_ for _-ise_, as _civilize_, &c.; the use of a uniform single consonant after an unaccented vowel, as _traveler_ for _traveller_; the adoption of _e_ for _oe_ or _æ_ in _hemorrhage_, _diarrhea_, &c. THE MEANINGS.--The current and most important meaning of a word is usually given first. But in cases like _Clerk_, _Livery_, _Marshal_, where the force of the word can be made much clearer by tracing its history, the original meaning is also given, and the successive variations of its usage defined. THE ETYMOLOGY.--The Etymology of each word is given after the meanings, within brackets. Where further information regarding a word is given elsewhere, it is so indicated by a reference. It must be noted under the etymology that whenever a word is printed thus, BAN, BASE, the student is referred to it; also that here the sign--is always to be read as meaning 'derived from.' Examples are generally given of words that are cognate or correspond to the English words; but it must be remembered that they are inserted merely for illustration. Such words are usually separated from the rest by a semicolon. For instance, when an English word is traced to its Anglo-Saxon form, and then a German word is given, no one should suppose that our English word is derived from the German. German and Anglo-Saxon are alike branches from a common Teutonic stem, and have seldom borrowed from each other. Under each word the force of the prefix is usually given, though not the affix. For fuller explanation in such cases the student is referred to the list of Prefixes and Suffixes in the Appendix. * * * * * LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THIS DICTIONARY. _aor._ aorist. _abbrev._ abbreviation. _abl._ ablative. _acc._ according. _accus._ accusative. _adj._ adjective. _adv._ adverb. _agri._ agriculture. _alg._ algebra. _anat._ anatomy. _app._ apparently. _arch._ archaic. _archit._ architecture. _arith._ arithmetic. _astrol._ astrology. _astron._ astronomy. _attrib._ attributive. _augm._ augmentative. _B._ Bible. _biol._ biology. _book-k._ book-keeping. _bot._ botany. _c._ (_circa_) about. _c._, _cent._ century. _carp._ carpentry. _cf._ compare. _chem._ chemistry. _cog._ cognate. _coll._, _colloq._ colloquially. _comp._ comparative. _conch._ conchology. _conj._ conjunction. _conn._ connected. _contr._ contracted. _cook._ cookery. _corr._ corruption. _crystal._ crystallography. _dat._ dative. _demons._ demonstrative. _der._ derivation. _dial._ dialect, dialectal. _Dict._ Dictionary. _dim._ diminutive. _dub._ doubtful. _eccles._ ecclesiastical history. _e.g._ for example. _elect._ electricity. _entom._ entomology. _esp._ especially. _ety._ etymology. _fem._ feminine. _fig._ figuratively. _fol._ followed; following. _fort._ fortification. _freq._ frequentative. _fut._ future. _gen._ genitive. _gener._ generally. _geog._ geography. _geol._ geology. _geom._ geometry. _ger._ gerundive. _gram._ grammar. _gun._ gunnery. _her._ heraldry. _hist._ history. _hort._ horticulture. _hum._ humorous. _i.e._ that is. _imit._ imitative. _imper._ imperative. _impers._ impersonal. _indic._ indicative. _infin._ infinitive. _inten._ intensive. _interj._ interjection. _interrog._ interrogative. _jew._ jewellery. _lit._ literally. _mach._ machinery. _masc._ masculine. _math._ mathematics. _mech._ mechanics. _med._ medicine. _metaph._ metaphysics. _mil._ military. _Milt._ Milton. _min._ mineralogy. _mod._ modern. _Mt._ Mount. _mus._ music. _myth._ mythology. _n._, _ns._ noun, nouns. _nat. hist._ natural history. _naut._ nautical. _neg._ negative. _neut._ neuter. _n.pl._ noun plural. _n.sing._ noun singular. _N.T._ New Testament. _obs._ obsolete. _opp._ opposed. _opt._ optics. _orig._ originally. _ornith._ ornithology. _O.S._ old style. _O.T._ Old Testament. _p._, _part._ participle. _p.adj._ participial adjective. _paint._ painting. _paleog._ paleography. _paleon._ paleontology. _palm._ palmistry. _pa.p._ past participle. _pass._ passive. _pa.t._ past tense. _path._ pathology. _perf._ perfect. _perh._ perhaps. _pers._ person. _pfx._ prefix. _phil._, _philos._ philosophy. _philol._ philology. _phon._ phonetics. _phot._ photography. _phrenol._ phrenology. _phys._ physics. _physiol._ physiology. _pl._ plural. _poet._ poetical. _pol. econ._ political economy. _poss._ possessive. _Pr.Bk._ Book of Common Prayer. _pr.p._ present participle. _prep._ preposition. _pres._ present. _print._ printing. _priv._ privative. _prob._ probably. _Prof._ Professor. _pron._ pronoun; pronounced; pronunciation. _prop._ properly. _pros._ prosody. _prov._ provincial. _q.v._ which see. _R.C._ Roman Catholic. _recip._ reciprocal. _redup._ reduplication. _refl._ reflexive. _rel._ related; relative. _rhet._ rhetoric. _sculp._ sculpture. _Shak._ Shakespeare. _sig._ signifying. _sing._ singular. _spec._ specifically. _Spens_. Spenser. _subj._ subjunctive. _suff._ suffix. _superl._ superlative. _surg._ surgery. _term._ termination. _teleg._ telegraphy. _Tenn._ Tennyson. _Test._ Testament. _theat._ theatre; theatricals. _theol._ theology. _trig._ trigonometry. _ult._ ultimately. _v.i._ verb intransitive. _voc._ vocative. _v.t._ verb transitive. _vul._ vulgar. _zool._ zoology. * * * * * Amer. American. Ar. Arabic. A.S. Anglo-Saxon. Austr. Australian. Bav. Bavarian. Beng. Bengali. Bohem. Bohemian. Braz. Brazilian. Bret. Breton. Carib. Caribbean. Celt. Celtic. Chal. Chaldean. Chin. Chinese. Corn. Cornish. Dan. Danish. Dut. Dutch. Egypt. Egyptian. Eng. English. Finn. Finnish. Flem. Flemish. Fr. French. Fris. Frisian. Gael. Gaelic. Ger. German. Goth. Gothic. Gr. Greek. Heb. Hebrew. Hind. Hindustani. Hung. Hungarian. Ice. Icelandic. Ind. Indian. Ion. Ionic. Ir. Irish. It. Italian. Jap. Japanese. Jav. Javanese. L. Latin. Lith. Lithuanian. L. L. Low or Late Latin. M. E. Middle English. Mex. Mexican. Norm. Norman. Norw. Norwegian. O. Fr. Old French. Pers. Persian. Peruv. Peruvian. Pol. Polish. Port. Portuguese. Prov. Provençal. Rom. Romance. Russ. Russian Sans. Sanskrit. Scand. Scandinavian. Scot. Scottish. Singh. Singhalese. Slav. Slavonic. Sp. Spanish. Sw. Swedish. Teut. Teutonic. Turk. Turkish. U.S. United States. W. Welsh. * * * * * CHAMBERS'S TWENTIETH CENTURY DICTIONARY. * * * * * S the nineteenth letter in our alphabet, its sound that of the hard open sibilant: as a medieval Roman numeral--7--also 70; [=S]--70,000.--COLLAR OF SS, a collar composed of a series of the letter _s_ in gold, either linked together or set in close order. SAB, sab, _n._ (_Scot._) a form of _sob_. SABADILLA, sab-a-dil'a, _n._ a Mexican plant, whose seeds yield an officinal alkaloid, _veratrine_, employed chiefly in acute febrile diseases in strong healthy persons.--Also CEBADILL'A, CEVADILL'A. SABAISM, s[=a]'b[=a]-izm. Same as SABIANISM.--Also S[=A]'BÆISM, S[=A]'BEISM, S[=A]'BÆANISM. SA'BAL, s[=a]'bal, _n._ a genus of fan-palms. SABALO, sab'a-l[=o], _n._ the tarpon. [Sp.] SABAOTH, sa-b[=a]'oth, _n.pl._ armies, used only in the B. phrase, 'the Lord of Sabaoth': erroneously for Sabbath. [Heb. _tseb[=a][=o]th_, pl. of _ts[=a]b[=a]_, an army--_ts[=a]b[=a]_, to go forth.] SABBATH, sab'ath, _n._ among the Jews, the seventh day of the week, set apart for the rest from work: among Christians, the first day of the week, in memory of the resurrection of Christ, called also _Sunday_ and the _Lord's Day:_ among the ancient Jews, the seventh year, when the land was left fallow: a time of rest.--_adj_. pertaining to the Sabbath.--_n._ SABBAT[=A]'RIAN, a very strict observer of the Sabbath: one who observes the seventh day of the week as the Sabbath.--_adj_. pertaining to the Sabbath or to Sabbatarians.--_ns._ SABBAT[=A]'RIANISM; SABB'ATH-BREAK'ER, one who profanes the Sabbath; SABB'ATH-BREAK'ING, profanation of the Sabbath.--_adjs._ SABB'ATHLESS (_Bacon_), without Sabbath or interval of rest: without intermission of labour; SABBAT'IC, -AL, pertaining to, or resembling, the Sabbath: enjoying or bringing rest.--_n._ SABBAT'ICAL-YEAR, every seventh year, in which the Israelites allowed their fields and vineyards to lie fallow.--_adj._ SABB'ATINE, pertaining to the Sabbath.--_v.i._ and _v.t._ SABB'ATISE, to keep the Sabbath: to convert into a Sabbath.--_n._ SABB'ATISM, rest, as on the Sabbath: intermission of labour.--SABBATH-DAY'S JOURNEY, the distance of 2000 cubits, or about five furlongs, which a Jew was permitted to walk on the Sabbath, fixed by the space between the extreme end of the camp and the ark (Josh. iii. 4); SABBATH SCHOOL (see SUNDAY SCHOOL).--WITCHES' SABBATH, a midnight meeting of Satan with witches, devils, and sorcerers for unhallowed orgies and the travestying of divine rites. [L. _Sabbatum_, gener. in pl. _Sabbata_--Gr. _Sabbaton_--Heb. _Shabb[=a]th_, rest.] SABBATIA, sa-b[=a]'ti-a, _n._ a genus of small North American herbaceous plants of the gentian family. [From _Sabbati_, an 18th-cent. Italian botanist.] SABBATON, sab'a-ton, _n._ a strong, armed covering for the foot, worn in the 16th century. [_Sabot._] SABEAN, s[=a]-b[=e]'an, _n._ an Arabian, native of Yemen.--_adj._ pertaining to _Saba_ in Arabia. SABELINE, sab'e-lin, _adj._ pertaining to the sable.--_n._ the skin of the sable. SABELLA, s[=a]-bel'ä, _n._ a genus of tubiculous annelids or sea-worms.--_ns._ SABELL[=A]'RIA; SABELLAR[=I]'IDÆ. SABELLIAN, s[=a]-bel'i-an, _n._ a follower of _Sabellius_, a 3d-century heretic, banished from Rome by Callistus.--_adj._ pertaining to Sabellius or his heresy.--_n._ SABELL'IANISM, the heresy about the distinction of Persons in God held by Sabellius and his school--the Trinity resolved into a mere threefold manifestation of God to man, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit not distinct subsistences, but merely one and the same person in different aspects. SABER=_Sabre_ (q.v.). SABIAN, s[=a]'bi-an, _n._ a worshipper of the host of heaven--sun, moon, and stars--also TS[=A]'BIAN.--_ns._ S[=A]'BIANISM, S[=A]'BAISM, the worship of the host of heaven, an ancient religion in Persia and Chaldea: the doctrines of the Sabians or Mandæans (see MANDÆAN). [Heb. _ts[=a]b[=a]_, a host.] SABINE, s[=a]'b[=i]n, _n._ one of an ancient people of central Italy, ultimately subjected by Rome, 241 B.C. SABLE, s[=a]'bl, _n._ a Siberian species of Marten, with lustrous dark-brown or blackish fur: its fur: a fine paint-brush made of sable: the colour black: (_pl._) black clothes, mourning clothes.--_adj._ of the colour of the sable's fur: blackish, dark-brown: made of the fur of the sable.--_v.t._ to sadden.--_adjs._ S[=A]'BLE-STOLED; S[=A]'BLE-VEST'ED. [O. Fr. _sable_--Russ. _sabol[)i]._] SABLIÈRE, sab-li-[=a]r', _n._ a sand-pit. [Fr.] [Illustration] SABOT, sä-b[=o]', _n._ a wooden shoe, worn by the French peasantry: a piece of soft metal attached to a projectile to take the groove of the rifling.--_n._ SABOTIER', a wearer of wooden shoes: a Waldensian. [Fr. _sabot_--Low L. _sabbatum_, a shoe.] SABRE, s[=a]'b[.e]r, _n._ a heavy one-edged sword, slightly curved towards the point, used by cavalry.--_v.t._ to wound or kill with a sabre.--_ns._ S[=A]'BRE-BILL, a South American bird: a curlew; S[=A]'BRE-FISH, the hair-tail or silver eel.--_adj._ S[=A]'BRE-TOOTHED, having extremely long upper canine teeth.--_n._ S[=A]'BRE-WING, a humming-bird. [Fr. _sabre_--Ger. _säbel_, prob. from the Hung. _szablya_.] SABRE-TACHE, s[=a]'b[.e]r-tash, _n._ an ornamental leather case worn by cavalry officers at the left side, suspended from the sword-belt.--Also S[=A]'BRE-TASH. [Fr. _sabre-tache_--Ger. _säbeltasche_, _säbel_, a sabre, Ger. _tasche_, a pocket.] SABRINA-WORK, sa-br[=i]'na-wurk, _n._ a variety of appliqué embroidery-work. SABULOUS, sab'[=u]-lus, _adj._ sandy, gritty.--_n._ SABULOS'ITY, sandiness, grittiness. [L. _sabulum_, sand.] SABURRA, s[=a]-bur'ä, _n._ a foulness of the stomach.--_adj._ SABURR'AL.--_n._ SABURR[=A]'TION, sand-baking: the application of a hot sand-bath. SAC, sak, _n._ (_bot._, _zool._) a sack or bag for a liquid.--_adjs._ SAC'C[=A]TE, -D, pouched: pouch-like; SAC'CULAR, like a sac, sacciform; SAC'CULATE, -D, formed in a series of sac-like expansions: encysted.--_ns._ SACCUL[=A]'TION, the formation of a sac: a series of sacs; SAC'CULE, SAC'CULUS, a small sac:--_pl._ SAC'CULI. [Fr.,--L. _saccus_, a bag.] SAC, sak, _n._ (_law_) the privilege of a lord of manor of holding courts. [A.S. _sacu_, strife.] SACCADE, sa-k[=a]d', _n._ a violent twitch of a horse by one pull: a firm pressure of the bow on the violin-strings so that two are sounded at once. [Fr.] SACCATA, sa-k[=a]'tä, _n._ the molluscs as a branch of the animal kingdom. SACCHARILLA, sak-a-ril'a, _n._ a kind of muslin. SACCHARINE, sak'a-rin, _adj._ pertaining to, or having the qualities of, sugar.--_n._ SAC'CHAR[=A]TE, a salt of a saccharic acid.--_adjs._ SACCHAR'IC, pertaining to, or obtained from, sugar and allied substances; SACCHARIF'EROUS, producing sugar, as from starch.--_v.t._ SAC'CHARIFY, to convert into sugar.--_ns._ SACCHARIM'ETER, SACCHAROM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the quantity of saccharine matter in a liquid; SACCHARIM'ETRY, SACCHAROM'ETRY; SAC'CHARIN, a white crystalline solid slightly soluble in cold water, odourless, but intensely sweet; SACCHARIN'ITY.--_v.t._ SAC'CHARISE, to convert into sugar:--_pr.p._ sac'char[=i]sing; _pa.p._ sac'char[=i]sed.--_adjs._ SAC'CHAROID, -AL, having a texture resembling sugar, esp. loaf-sugar.--_n._ SAC'CHAROSE, the ordinary pure sugar of commerce.--_adj._ SAC'CHAROUS.--_n._ SAC'CHARUM, a genus of grasses, including the sugar-cane. [Fr. _saccharin_--L. _saccharum_, sugar.] SACCHARITE, sak'a-r[=i]t, _n._ a fine granular variety of feldspar. SACCHAROCOLLOID, sak-a-r[=o]-kol'oid, _n._ one of a large group of the carbohydrates. SACCHAROMYCES, sak-a-r[=o]-m[=i]'s[=e]z, _n._ a genus of the yeast fungi. [Low L. _saccharum_, sugar, Gr. _myk[=e]s_, a mushroom.] SACCIFORM, sak'si-form, _adj._ having the form of a sac: baggy.--_adj._ SACCIF'EROUS. SACCOBRANCHIA, sak-[=o]-brang'ki-a, _n.pl._ a division of tunicates with saccate gills.--_adj._ and _n._ SACCOBRANCH'I[=A]TE. [Gr. _sakkos_, a sack, _brangchia_, gills.] SACCOLABIUM, sak-[=o]-l[=a]'bi-um, _n._ a genus of orchids. [L. _saccus_, a sack, _labium_, a lip.] SACCOMYOID, sak-[=o]-m[=i]'oid, _adj._ having cheek-pouches. [Gr. _sakkos_, sack, _mys_, a mouse.] SACCOPHARYNGIDÆ, sak-o-f[=a]-rin'ji-d[=e], _n._ a family of lyomerous fishes, including the bottle-fish, noted for swallowing fishes larger than themselves. SACCOS, sak'os, _n._ a tight sleeveless vestment worn by Oriental patriarchs and metropolitans during divine service, corresponding to the Western dalmatic. [Gr. _sakkos_, a sack.] SACELLUM, s[=a]-sel'um, _n._ a little sanctuary, a small uncovered place consecrated to a divinity: a canopied altar-tomb:--_pl._ SACELL'A. [L., dim. of _sacrum_, neut. of _sacer_, consecrated.] SACERDOTAL, sas-[.e]r-d[=o]'tal, _adj._ priestly.--_v.t._ SACERD[=O]'TALISE, to render sacerdotal.--_ns._ SACERD[=O]'TALISM, the spirit of the priesthood: devotion to priestly interests, priestcraft: the belief that the presbyter is a priest in the sense of offering a sacrifice in the eucharist; SACERD[=O]'TALIST, a supporter of sacerdotalism.--_adv._ SACERD[=O]'TALLY. [L. _sacerdos_, a priest--_sacer_, sacred, _d[)a]re_, to give.] SACHEM, s[=a]'chem, _n._ a chief of a North American Indian tribe, a sagamore: one of the Tammany leaders.--_ns._ S[=A]'CHEMDOM, S[=A]'CHEMSHIP. SACHET, sa-sh[=a], _n._ a bag of perfume. [Fr.] SACK, sak, _n._ a large bag of coarse cloth for holding grain, flour, &c.: the contents of a sack: (also SACQUE) a woman's gown, loose at the back, a short coat rounded at the bottom: a measure of varying capacity.--_v.t._ to put into a sack: (_slang_) to dismiss.--_ns._ SACK'-BEAR'ER, any bombycid moth of the family _Psychidæ_; SACK'CLOTH, cloth for sacks: coarse cloth formerly worn in mourning or penance.--_adj._ SACK'CLOTHED.--_ns._ SACKED'-FR[=I]'AR, a monk who wore a coarse upper garment called a _saccus_; SACK'ER, a machine for filling sacks; SACK'-FIL'TER, a bag-filter; SACK'FUL, as much as a sack will hold; SACK'-HOIST, a continuous hoist for raising sacks in warehouses; SACK'ING, coarse cloth or canvas for sacks, bed-bottoms, &c.; SACK'-PACK'ER, in milling, a machine for automatically filling a flour-sack; SACK'-RACE, a race in which the legs of competitors are encased in sacks.--GET THE SACK, to be dismissed or rejected; GIVE THE SACK, to dismiss. [A.S. _sacc_--L. _saccus_--Gr. _sakkos_--Heb. _saq_, a coarse cloth or garment, prob. Egyptian.] SACK, sak, _v.t._ to plunder: to ravage.--_n._ the plunder or devastation of a town: pillage.--_ns._ SACK'AGE; SACK'ING, the storming and pillaging of a town.--_adj._ bent on pillaging.--SACK AND FORK (_Scot._), the power of drowning and hanging. [Fr. _sac_, a sack, plunder (_saccager_, to sack)--L. _saccus_, a sack.] SACK, sak, _n._ the old name of a dry Spanish wine of the sherry genus, the favourite drink of Falstaff.--_n._ SACK'-POSS'ET, posset made with sack.--BURNT SACK, mulled sack. [Fr. _sec_ (Sp. _seco_)--L. _siccus_, dry.] SACKBUT, sak'but, _n._ a kind of trumpet, the predecessor of the trombone: (_B._) a kind of stringed instrument resembling the guitar. [Fr. _saquebute_--Sp. _sacabuche_--_sacar_, to draw out, _buche_, the maw or stomach, prob. Old High Ger. _b[=u]h_ (Ger. _bauch_), the belly.] SACK-DOODLE, sak-d[=oo]d'l, _v.i._ to play on the bagpipe. SACKLESS, sak'les, _adj._ (_Scot._) guiltless: innocent: guileless. [A.S. _sacleás_, without strife, _sacu_, strife, _-leás_, -less.] SACODES, s[=a]-k[=o]'d[=e]z, _n._ a genus of beetles of the family _Cyphonidæ_. [Gr. _sakos_, a shield, _eidos_, form.] SACQUE, sak. See SACK (1). SACRA, s[=a]'kra, _n._ a sacral artery:--_pl._ S[=A]'CRÆ (-KR[=E]). SACRAL, s[=a]'kral, _adj._ See SACRUM. SACRAMENT, sak'ra-ment, _n._ an holy ordinance instituted by Christ as an outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace (_Baptism_ and the _Lord's Supper_--amongst Roman Catholics, also _Confirmation_, _Penance_, _Holy Orders_, _Matrimony_, and _Extreme Unction_): the Lord's Supper specially: an oath of obedience taken by Roman soldiers on enlistment: any solemn obligation: materials used in a sacrament.--_v.t._ to bind by an oath.--_adj._ SACRAMEN'TAL, belonging to or constituting a sacrament.--_ns._ SACRAMEN'TALISM, the attachment of excessive importance to the sacraments: the doctrine that there is in the sacraments themselves a special direct spiritual efficacy to confer grace; SACRAMEN'TALIST, one who holds this view.--_adv._ SACRAMEN'TALLY.--_ns._ SACRAMENT[=A]'RIAN, one who holds a high or extreme view of the efficacy of the sacraments: (_obs._) one who rejects the doctrine of the real presence in the sacrament of the Lord's Supper; SACRAMENT[=A]'RIANISM, the holding of extreme views with regard to the efficacy of sacraments.--_adj._ SACRAMEN'TARY, pertaining to the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, or to the sacramentarians.--_n._ a book containing all the prayers and ceremonies used at the celebration of the R.C. sacraments: a sacramentarian. [L. _sacramentum_, a sacred thing--_sacr[=a]re_, to consecrate--_sacer_, sacred.] SACRARIUM, s[=a]-kr[=a]'ri-um, _n._ the part of a church where the altar is, the sanctuary: in ancient Rome, any sacred place, the place where the Penates were stored.--_n._ SAC'RARY (_obs._), a holy place.--_v.t._ S[=A]'CRATE (_obs._), to consecrate. SACRARIUM, s[=a]-kr[=a]'ri-um, _n._ the complex sacrum of any bird. SACRE. Same as SAKER. SACRED, s[=a]'kred, _adj._ set apart or dedicated, esp. to God: made holy: proceeding from God: religious: entitled to respect or veneration: inviolable: devoted to destruction: opposed to _secular_, as sacred music or history: not liable to punishment.--_adv._ S[=A]'CREDLY.--_n._ S[=A]'CREDNESS.--SACRED APE, the hanuman of India; SACRED BEETLE, an Egyptian scarab; SACRED CAT, the house cat of Egypt, sacred to Pasht; SACRED FISH, one of the fresh-water fishes of the Nile; SACRED HEART (R.C.), the physical heart of Christ, adored with special devotion since the 18th century. [O. Fr. _sacrer_--L. _sacr[=a]re_--L. _sacer_, sacred.] SACRIFICATI, sak-ri-fi-k[=a]'t[=i], _n.pl._ in the early church, those who sacrificed to idols in persecution, but returned as penitents afterwards. SACRIFICE, sak'ri-f[=i]s, _v.t._ to offer up, esp. on the altar of a divinity: to destroy or give up for something else: to devote or destroy with loss or suffering: to kill.--_v.i._ to make offerings to God.--_n._ the fundamental institution of all natural religions, primarily a sacramental meal at which the communicants are a deity and his worshippers, and the elements the flesh and blood of a sacred victim: the act of sacrificing or offering to a deity, esp. a victim on an altar: that which is sacrificed or offered: destruction or loss of anything to gain some object: that which is given up, destroyed, or lost for some end: mere loss of profit.--_n._ SACRIF'ICANT, one who offers a sacrifice.--_adj._ SACRIF'IC[=A]TORY, offering sacrifice.--_n._ SAC'RIFICER, a priest.--_adj._ SACRIFI'CIAL, relating to, or consisting in, sacrifice: performing sacrifice.--_adv._ SACRIFI'CIALLY.--SACRIFICE HIT, in base-ball, a hit to enable another player to score or to gain a base.--EUCHARISTIC SACRIFICE, the supposed constant renewal of the sacrifice of Christ in the mass. [O. Fr.,--L. _sacrificium_--_sacer_, sacred, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] SACRILEGE, sak'ri-lej, _n._ profanation of a sacred place or thing: the breaking into a place of worship and stealing therefrom.--_n._ SAC'RILEGER (_obs._).--_adj._ SACRIL[=E]'GIOUS, polluted with sacrilege: profane: violating sacred things.--_adv._ SACRIL[=E]'GIOUSLY.--_ns._ SACRIL[=E]'GIOUSNESS; SAC'RIL[=E]GIST, one guilty of sacrilege. [Fr. _sacrilège_--L. _sacrilegium_--_sacer_, sacred, _leg[)e]re_, to gather.] SACRIST, s[=a]'krist, _n._ a sacristan: a person in a cathedral who copies out music for the choir and takes care of the books.--_ns._ S[=A]'CRING, consecration; S[=A]'CRING-BELL, in R.C. churches, a small bell rung to call attention to the more solemn parts of the service of the mass; SAC'RISTAN, an officer in a church who has charge of the sacred vessels and other movables: a sexton; SAC'RISTY, an apartment in a church where the sacred utensils, vestments, &c. are kept: vestry. [Low L. _sacristia_, a vestry, _sacristanus_, _sacrista_, a sacristan--L. _sacer_.] SACROSANCT, sak'r[=o]-sangkt, _adj._ very sacred or inviolable.--_n._ SACROSANC'TITY. [L. _sacrosanctus_--_sacer_, sacred, _sanctus_, pa.p. of _sanc[=i]re_, to hallow.] SACRUM, s[=a]'krum, _n._ a triangular bone situated at the lower part of the vertebral column (of which it is a natural continuation), and wedged between the two innominate bones, so as to form the keystone to the pelvic arch.--_adj._ S[=A]'CRAL.--_n._ S[=A]CRAL'GIA, pain in the region of the sacrum.--_adjs._ S[=A]CROCOS'TAL, connected with the sacrum and having the character of a rib (also _n._); S[=A]CROIL'IAC, pertaining to the sacrum and ilium; S[=A]CROLUM'BAR, pertaining to sacral and lumbar vertebræ; S[=A]CROP[=U]'BIC, pertaining to the sacrum and to the pubes; S[=A]CROREC'TAL, pertaining to the sacrum and the rectum; S[=A]CROSCIAT'IC, pertaining to the sacrum and the hip; S[=A]CROVER'TEBRAL, pertaining to the sacrum and that part of the vertebral column immediately anterior to it. [L. _sacrum_ (_os_, bone), sacred.] SAD, sad (comp. SAD'DER, superl. SAD'DEST), _adj._ sorrowful: serious: cast down: calamitous: weary: sombre: stiff: doughy: dejected: troublesome: sober, dark-coloured: (_obs._) ponderous, heavy.--_v.t._ to grieve.--_v.t._ SAD'DEN, to make sad: to render heavy: to grow hard.--_v.i._ to grow sad.--_adjs._ SAD'-EYED (_Shak._), having an expression of sadness in the eyes; SAD'-FACED (_Shak._), having an expression of sadness in the face; SAD'-HEART'ED (_Shak._), having the heart full of sadness.--_adv._ SAD'LY.--_n._ SAD'NESS. [A.S. _sæd_, sated, weary; cf. Dut. _zat_, Ger. _satt_; L. _sat_, _satis_.] SADDENING, sad'n-ing, _n._ a method of applying mordants in dyeing and printing cloths, so as to give duller shades to the colours employed. SADDLE, sad'l, _n._ a seat or pad, generally of leather, for a horse's back: anything like a saddle, as a saddle of mutton, veal, or venison--a butcher's cut, including a part of the backbone with the ribs on one side: a part of the harness used for drawing a vehicle: the seat on a bicycle: (_naut._) a block of wood fastened to some spar, and shaped to receive the end of another spar.--_v.t._ to put a saddle on, to load: to encumber.--_n._ SADD'LE-BACK, a hill or its summit when shaped like a saddle: a raccoon oyster: the great black-backed gull: the harp-seal: a variety of domestic geese: the larva of the bombycid moth: (_archit._) a coping thicker in the middle than at the edges.--_adj._ SADD'LE-BACKED, having a low back and an elevated head and neck.--_ns._ SADD'LE-BAG, one of two bags united by straps for carrying on horseback; SADD'LE-BAR, a bar for sustaining glass in a stained-glass window; SADD'LE-BLANK'ET, a small blanket folded under a saddle; SADD'LE-BOW, the arched front of a saddle from which the weapon often hung; SADD'LE-CLOTH, the housing or cloth placed under a saddle.--_n.pl._ SADD'LE-FEATH'ERS, the long slender feathers which droop from the saddle or rump of the domestic cock.--_ns._ SADD'LE-GIRTH, a band passing round the body of a horse to hold the saddle in its place; SADD'LE-HORSE, a horse suitable for riding; SADD'LE-JOINT, a joint made in plates of sheet-iron so that the margins interlock: (_anat._) a joint admitting movement in every direction except axial rotation; SADD'LE-LAP, the skirt of a saddle; SADD'LE-PLATE, the bent plate which forms the arch of the furnace in locomotive steam-boilers; SADD'LE-QUERN, an ancient quern for grinding grain; SADD'LER, a maker of saddles: the harp-seal; SADD'LE-ROCK, a variety of the oyster; SADD'LE-ROOF, a roof having two gables; SADD'LER-COR'PORAL, a non-commissioned officer in the household cavalry, with the charge of the saddles; SADD'LER-SER'GEANT, a sergeant in the cavalry who has charge of the saddlers: (_U.S._) a non-commissioned staff-officer of a cavalry regiment; SADD'LERY, occupation of a saddler: materials for saddles: articles sold by a saddler.--_adjs._ SADD'LE-SHAPED, shaped like a saddle: (_bot._) bent down at the sides: (_geol._) bent down at each side of a ridge; SADD'LE-SICK, galled with much riding.--_ns._ SADD'LE-TREE, the frame of a saddle.--PUT THE SADDLE ON THE RIGHT HORSE, to impute blame where it is deserved. [A.S. _sadol_, _sadel_; cf. Dut. _zadel_, Ger. _sattel_.] SADDUCEE, sad'[=u]-s[=e], _n._ one of a Jewish sceptical school or party of aristocratic traditionists in New Testament times.--adj. SADD[=U]C[=E]'AN, of or relating to the Sadducees.--_ns._ SADD[=U]CEE'ISM, SADD'[=U]CISM, scepticism. [Gr. _Saddoukaios_--Heb. _Tsed[=u]q[=i]m_, from their supposed founder _Zadok_, or from the race of the _Zadokites_, a family of priests at Jerusalem since the time of Solomon.] SADINA, sa-d[=e]'na, _n._ a clupeoid fish resembling a sardine. [Sp. _sardina_.] SAD-IRON, sad'-[=i]'urn, _n._ a smoothing-iron: a box-iron. SADR, sad'r, _n._ the lote-bush. SAD-TREE, sad'-tr[=e], _n._ the night jasmine. SAE, s[=a], _adv._ the Scotch form of _so_. SAFE, s[=a]f, _adj._ unharmed: free from danger or injury: secure: securing from danger or injury: no longer dangerous: clear: trusty: sound: certain.--_n._ a chest or closet for money, &c., safe against fire, thieves, &c., generally of iron: a chest or cupboard for meats: (_coll._) a safety-bicycle.--_v.t._ to safeguard.--_v.t._ SAFE'-CONDUCT' (_Spens._).--_ns._ SAFE'-CON'DUCT, a writing, passport, or guard granted to a person to enable him to travel with safety; SAFE'-DEPOS'IT, a safe storage for valuables; SAFE'GUARD, he who, or that which, guards or renders safe: protection: a guard, passport, or warrant to protect a traveller: a rail-guard at railway switches: (_zool._) a monitor lizard.--_v.t._ to protect.--_n._ SAFE'-KEEP'ING, preservation from injury or from escape.--_adv._ SAFE'LY, in a safe manner.--_ns._ SAFE'NESS; SAFE'-PLEDGE, a surety for one's appearance at a day assigned; SAFE'TY, freedom from danger or loss: close custody: a safeguard: SAFE'TY-ARCH (_archit._), an arch built in the body of a wall to relieve the pressure, as over a door or window; SAFE'TY-BELT, a belt made of some buoyant material, or capable of being inflated, for helping a person to float; SAFE'TY-B[=I]'CYCLE, a low-wheeled bicycle; SAFE'TY-BUOY, a buoy for helping a person to float: a life-preserver; SAFE'TY-CAGE (_mining_), a cage by which a fall would be prevented in case of the breakage of the rope by means of safety-catches; SAFE'TY-CHAIN, a check-chain of a car-truck: a safety-link; SAFE'TY-FUSE, a waterproof woven tube enclosing an inflammable substance which burns at a regular rate; SAFE'TY-HOIST, a hoisting-gear so arranged as to prevent its load being thrown precipitately down in case of accident; SAFE'TY-LAMP, a lamp surrounded by wire-gauze, used for safety in mines on account of the inflammable gases; SAFE'TY-LOCK, a lock that cannot be picked by ordinary means: in firearms, a lock with some device for preventing accidental discharge; SAFE'TY-MATCH, a match which can be ignited only on a surface specially prepared for the purpose; SAFE'TY-P[=A]'PER, a paper so prepared as to resist alteration by chemical or mechanical means; SAFE'TY-PIN, a pin in the form of a clasp with a guard covering its point; SAFE'TY-PLUG, a plug of soft metal in an opening in a steam-boiler, so as to melt when the temperature rises to its fusing-point, and allow of an escape of steam; SAFE'TY-REIN, a rein for preventing a horse from running away; SAFE'TY-STOP, a contrivance for preventing accidents in machinery; SAFE'TY-TUBE, a tube used in chemical operations to prevent the bursting of vessels by gas, and for other purposes; SAFE'TY-VALVE, a valve in the top of a steam-boiler, which lets out the steam when the pressure is too great for safety. [O. Fr. _sauf_--L. _salvus_; prob. allied to _solus_.] SAFFIAN, saf'i-an, _n._ a name applied to skins tanned with sumac and dyed in bright colours. [Russ.] SAFFLOWER, saf'flow-[.e]r, _n._ an annual herbaceous composite plant, cultivated all over India for its red dye--_Carthamine_. [O. Fr. _saflor_, through It. from Ar. _usf[=u]r_--_safr[=a]_, yellow.] SAFFO, saf'[=o], _n._ (_obs._) a bailiff: a catchpole. [It.] SAFFRON, saf'run, _n._ a bulbous plant of the crocus kind with deep-yellow flowers: a colouring substance prepared from its flowers.--_adj._ having the colour of saffron: deep yellow.--_adj._ SAFF'RONY.--_n._ SAF'RANINE, a coal-tar producing yellowish colour used in dyeing. [O. Fr. _safran_ (It. _zafferano_)--Ar. _za`far[=a]n_--_safr[=a]_, yellow.] SAG, sag, _v.i._ to bend, sink, or hang down: to yield or give way as from weight or pressure: to hang heavy: to make leeway.--_n._ a droop.--_adj._ loaded. [M. E. _saggen_, from Scand.; Sw. _sacka_, to sink down; cf. Ger. _sacken_, to sink.] SAGA, sä'ga, _n._ a tale, historical or fabulous, in the old prose literature of Iceland.--_n._ SÄ'GAMAN, a narrator of sagas. [Ice. _saga_, pl. _sögur_--_segja_, say.] SAGACIOUS, sa-g[=a]'shus, _adj._ keen or quick in perception or thought: acute: discerning and judicious: wise.--_adv._ SAG[=A]'CIOUSLY.--_ns._ SAG[=A]'CIOUSNESS, SAGAC'ITY, acuteness of perception or thought: acute practical judgment: shrewdness. [L. _sagax_, _sagacis_--_sag[=i]re_, to perceive quickly.] SAGAMORE, sag'a-m[=o]r, _n._ a chief among some tribes of American Indians--prob. conn. with _sachem_. SAGAPENUM, sag-a-p[=e]'num, _n._ a fetid gum-resin, the concrete juice of a Persian species of _Ferula_, formerly used in hysteria, &c. [Gr. _sagap[=e]non_.] SAGATHY, sag'a-thi, _n._ (_obs._) a woollen stuff. [Fr. _sagatis_--L. _saga_, a mantle.] SAGE, s[=a]j, _n._ any plant of genus _Salvia_, of the mint family, esp. Common or Garden Sage, used for flavouring meats.--_ns._ SAGE'-APP'LE, a gall formed on a species of sage; SAGE'-BREAD, bread baked from dough mixed with a strong infusion of sage in milk; SAGE'-BRUSH, a collective name of various shrubby species of Artemisia in the western United States; SAGE'-COCK, -GROUSE, a large North American grouse; SAGE'-GREEN, a gray slightly mixed with pure green; SAGE'-RABB'IT, a small hare or rabbit abounding in North America; SAGE'-ROSE, a plant of the genus Cistus: an evergreen shrub of tropical America; SAGE'-SPARR'OW, a fringilline bird characteristic of the sage-brush of North America; SAGE'-THRESH'ER, the mountain mocking-bird of west North America; SAGE'-WILL'OW, a dwarf American willow.--_adj._ S[=A]'GY, full of, or seasoned with, sage.--APPLE-BEARING SAGE, a native of southern Europe, with large reddish or purple bracts, and bearing on its branches large gall-nuts; MEADOW SAGE, or _Meadow clary_, a common ornament of meadows in the south of England, with bluish-purple flowers; OIL OF SAGE, an essential oil, yielded by the sage, once much used in liniments against rheumatism. [O. Fr. _sauge_ (It. _salvia_)--L. _salvia_--_salvus_, safe.] SAGE, s[=a]j, _adj._ discriminating, discerning, wise: well judged.--_n._ a wise man: a man of gravity and wisdom.--_adv._ SAGE'LY.--_n._ SAGE'NESS.--SEVEN SAGES, or WISE MEN (see SEVEN). [Fr. _sage_ (It. _saggio_, _savio_), from a L. _sapius_ (seen in _ne-sapius_), wise--_sap[)e]re_, to be wise.] SAGENE, s[=a]'j[=e]n, _n._ a fishing-net. [L.,--Gr. _sag[=e]n[=e]_.] SAGENE, s[=a]'j[=e]n, _n._ a Russian unit of long measure, of seven English feet. SAGENITE, s[=a]j'en-[=i]t, _n._ acicular crystals of rutile occurring in reticulated forms embedded in quartz.--_adj._ SAGENIT'IC. [Gr. _sag[=e]n[=e]_, a drag-net.] SAGERETIA, saj-e-r[=e]'ti-a, _n._ a genus of polypetalous plants belonging to the buckthorn order. [Named from Aug. _Sageret_, 1763-1852.] SAGESSE, sazh-es', _n._ wisdom. [Fr.] SAGGAR, SAGGER, sag'ar, -[.e]r, _n._ a box of hard pottery in which porcelain is enclosed for baking--also _v.t._--_ns._ SAGG'ARD; SAGG'AR-HOUSE, a house in which unbaked vessels are put into saggars. [_Safeguard_.] SAGINA, sa-j[=i]'na, _n._ a genus of polypetalous plants of the pink family.--_v.t._ SAG'INATE, to pamper: to fatten.--_n._ SAGIN[=A]'TION. [L. _sagin[=a]re_, to fatten.] SAGITTA, saj'it-a, _n._ a northern constellation--the Arrow: a genus of small pelagic worms.--_adj._ SAG'ITTAL, arrow-shaped: (_anat._) straight, pertaining to the sagittal suture.--_adv._ SAG'ITTALLY.--_ns._ SAGITT[=A]'RIA, a genus of aquatic plants, some species with sagittate leaves and white flowers; SAGITT[=A]'RIUS, the Archer, one of the signs of the zodiac; SAG'ITTARY, a centaur: a public building in Venice.--_adj._ of or like an arrow.--_adjs._ SAG'ITT[=A]TE, -D, Shaped like an arrow-head, as a leaf; SAGITTILING'UAL, having a long slender tongue, as a woodpecker. [L. _sagitta_, an arrow.] SAGO, s[=a]'go, _n._ a nutritive farinaceous substance produced from the pith of several East Indian palms.--_n._ S[=A]'GO-PALM. [Malay _s[=a]gu_.] SAGRA, s[=a]'gra, _n._ a genus of phytophagous beetles of brilliant colours. SAGUARO, sa-gwar'[=o], _n._ the giant cactus. SAGUIN, sag'win, _n._ a South American monkey.--Also SAG'OIN, SAG'OUIN. SAGUINUS, sag-[=u]-[=i]'nus, _n._ a genus of South American marmosets. SAGUM, s[=a]'gum, _n._ a military cloak worn by ancient Roman soldiers. [L., prob. of Celt. origin.] SAHIB, sä'ib, _n._ a term of respect given in India to persons of rank and to Europeans. [Hind. _s[=a]hib_--Ar. _s[=a]hib_.] SAHLITE, sä'l[=i]t, _n._ a variety of augite, from the silver-mines of _Sahla_ in Sweden. SAI, sä'i, _n._ a South American monkey. [Braz.] SAIBLING, s[=a]b'ling, _n._ the char. SAIC, sä'ik, _n._ a Turkish or Grecian vessel common in the Levant. [Fr. _saïque_--Turk. _sh[=a][=i]qa_.] SAID, sed, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _say_: the before-mentioned, as the said witness. SAIGA, s[=i]'gä, _n._ a west Asian antelope. [Russ.] SAIKLESS. Same as SACKLESS. SAIL, s[=a]l, _n._ a sheet of canvas, &c., spread to catch the wind, by which a ship is driven forward: a ship or ships: a trip in a vessel: a fleet: arm of a windmill: speed: a journey.--_v.i._ to be moved by sails: to go by water: to begin a voyage: to glide or float smoothly along.--_v.t._ to navigate: to pass in a ship: to fly through.--_adj._ SAIL'ABLE, navigable.--_n._ SAIL'-BOAT, a boat propelled by a sail.--_adjs._ SAIL'-BORNE; SAIL'-BROAD (_Milt._), broad or spreading like a sail.--_n._ SAIL'-CLOTH, a strong cloth for sails.--_adj._ SAILED, having sails set.--_ns._ SAIL'ER, a sailor: a boat or ship with respect to its mode of sailing, or its speed; SAIL'-FISH, the basking shark: the quill-back; SAIL'-FLUKE, the whiff; SAIL'-HOOP, a mast-hoop; SAIL'ING, act of sailing: motion of a vessel on water: act of directing a ship's course: the term applied to the different ways in which the path of a ship at sea, and the variations of its geographical position, are represented on paper, as _great circle sailing_, _Mercator's sailing_, _middle latitude sailing_, _oblique sailing_, _parallel sailing_, _plane sailing_; SAIL'ING-ICE, an ice-pack through which a sailing-vessel can force her way.--_n.pl._ SAIL'ING-INSTRUC'TIONS, written directions by the officer of a convoy to the masters of ships under his care.--_n._ SAIL'ING-MAS'TER, a former name for the navigating officer of a war-ship.--_adj._ SAIL'LESS, destitute of sails.--_ns._ SAIL'-LIZ'ARD, a large lizard having a crested tail; SAIL'-LOFT, a loft where sails are cut out and made; SAIL'-M[=A]K'ER, a maker of sails: in the United States navy, an officer who takes charge of the sails; SAIL'OR, one who sails in or navigates a ship: a seaman; SAIL'OR-FISH, a sword-fish; SAIL'OR-MAN, a seaman; SAIL'OR-PLANT, the strawberry geranium; SAIL'OR'S-CHOICE, the pin-fish: the pig-fish; SAIL'OR'S-PURSE, an egg-pouch of rays and sharks; SAIL'-ROOM, a room in a vessel where sails are stowed.--_adj._ SAIL'Y, like a sail.--_n._ SAIL'-YARD, the yard on which sails are extended.--_n.pl._ STAY'-SAILS, triangular sails, suspended on the ropes which stay the masts upon the foresides--from the jib-boom, bowsprit, and deck in the case of the foremast, and from the deck in the case of the mainmast.--SAIL CLOSE TO THE WIND, to run great risk; SAILORS' HOME, an institution where sailors may lodge, or aged and infirm sailors be permanently cared for.--AFTER SAIL, the sails carried on the mainmast and mizzen-mast; FORE-AND-AFT SAILS, those set parallel to the keel of a ship, as opp. to SQUARE SAILS, those set across the ship; FULL SAIL, with all sails set; MAKE SAIL, to spread more canvas, in sailing; SET SAIL, to spread the sails, to begin a voyage; SHORTEN SAIL, to reduce its extent; STRIKE SAIL, to lower the sail or sails: (_Shak._) to abate one's pretensions of pomp or superiority; TAKE THE WIND OUT OF ONE'S SAILS, to deprive one of an advantage; UNDER SAIL, having the sails spread. [A.S. _segel_, cf. Dut. _zeil_, Ger. _segel_.] SAIMIRI, s[=i]'mi-ri, _n._ a squirrel monkey. SAIN, s[=a]'in (_Shak._), _pa.p._ of _say_. SAIN, s[=a]n, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to bless so as to protect from evil. [A.S. _segnian_--L. _sign[=a]re_--_signum_, mark.] SAINFOIN, s[=a]n'foin, _n._ a leguminous fodder-plant.--Also SAINT'FOIN. [Fr., _sain_, wholesome, _foin_, hay--L. _sanum foenum_.] SAINT, s[=a]nt, _n._ a sanctified or holy person: one eminent for piety: one of the blessed dead: one canonised by the R.C. Church: an image of a saint: an angel: (_pl._) Israelites as a people: Christians generally.--_v.t._ to salute as a saint.--_adj._ SAINT'ED, made a saint: holy: sacred: gone to heaven: canonised.--_n._ SAINT'HOOD.--_adj._ SAINT'ISH, somewhat saintly, or affectedly so.--_n._ SAINT'ISM, the character or quality of a saint: sanctimoniousness.--_adjs._ SAINT'-LIKE, SAINT'LY, like or becoming a saint.--_adv._ SAINT'LILY.--_n._ SAINT'LINESS.--_adj._ SAINT'-SEEM'ING, appearing like a saint.--_n._ SAINT'SHIP, the character of a saint.--SAINT'S DAY, a day set apart for the commemoration of a particular saint; ST AGNES'S FLOWER, the snowflake; ST ANDREW'S CROSS, a North American shrub; ST ANDREW'S DAY, 30th November; ST ANTHONY'S FIRE, erysipelas; ST ANTHONY'S NUT, the pig-nut or hawk-nut; ST AUDREY'S NECKLACE, a string of holy stones; ST BARBARA'S CRESS, the yellow rocket; ST BARNABY'S THISTLE, the English star-thistle; ST BENNET'S HERB, the herb bennet; ST BERNARD, a kind of dog; ST BLASE'S DISEASE, quinsy; ST CASSIAN BEDS, a division of the Triassic series; ST CRISPIN'S DAY, 25th October; ST DAVID'S DAY, 1st March; ST DOMINGO DUCK, a West Indian duck; ST DOMINGO GREBE, the smallest grebe in America; ST ELMO'S FIRE (see ELMO'S FIRE); ST GEORGE'S DAY, 23d April; ST GEORGE'S ENSIGN, the distinguishing flag of the British navy, a red cross on a white field; ST HUBERT'S DISEASE, hydrophobia; ST JOHN'S BREAD, the carob bean: ergot of rye; ST JOHN'S DAY, 27th December; ST JOHN'S HAWK, a blackish variety of the rough-legged buzzard; ST JULIEN, an esteemed red Bordeaux wine from the Médoc region; ST LEGER, the name of a race run at Doncaster, so called since 1778 from Col. _St Leger_; ST LUKE'S SUMMER, a period of pleasant weather about the middle of October; ST MARTIN'S EVIL, drunkenness; ST MARTIN'S SUMMER, a season of mild, damp weather in late autumn; ST NICHOLAS'S DAY, 6th December; ST PATRICK'S DAY, 17th March; ST PETER'S FINGER, a belemnite; ST PETER'S FISH, the dory; ST PETER'S WORT, a name of several plants; ST PIERRE GROUP, a thick mass of shales in the upper Missouri region; ST SWITHIN'S DAY, 15th July; ST VALENTINE'S DAY, 14th February; ST VITUS'S DANCE, chorea.--ALL-SAINTS' DAY, a feast observed by the Latin Church on 1st November, in the Greek Church on the first Sunday after Pentecost; COMMUNION OF THE SAINTS, the spiritual fellowship of all true believers, the blessed dead as well as the faithful living, mystically united in each other in Christ; INTERCESSION, PERSEVERANCE, OF SAINTS (see INTERCESSION, PERSEVERANCE); LATTER-DAY SAINTS, the Mormons' name for themselves; PATRON SAINT, a saint who is regarded as a protector, as St George of England, St Andrew of Scotland, St Patrick of Ireland, St David of Wales, St Denis of France, St James of Spain, St Nicholas of Russia, St Stephen of Hungary, St Mark of Venice, &c. [Fr.,--L. _sanctus_, holy.] SAINT-SIMONISM, s[=a]nt-s[=i]'mon-izm, _n._ the socialistic system founded by the Comte de _Saint-Simon_ (1760-1825).--_ns._ SAINT-SIM[=O]'NIAN (also _adj._); SAINT-SIM[=O]'NIANISM; SAINT-S[=I]'MONIST. SAIR, s[=a]r, _adj._ (_Scot._) sore.--_adv._ SAIR'LY. SAIR, s[=a]r, _v.t._ to serve: to fit: to satisfy: to give alms.--_n._ SAIR'ING, as much as serves the turn: enough. SAITH, seth, _v.t._ and _v.i._ 3d pers. sing. pres. indic. of _say_. SAITH, s[=a]th, _n._ (_Scot._) the coalfish. [Gael. _savidhean._] SAIVA, s[=i]'va, _n._ a votary of _Siva_.--_n._ SAI'VISM. SAJOU, sa-j[=oo]', _n._ a South American monkey. SAKE, sak'e, _n._ a Japanese fermented liquor made from rice: a generic name for all spirituous liquors. SAKE, s[=a]k, _n._ cause: account: regard, as 'for my sake': contention: fault: purpose.--FOR OLD SAKE'S SAKE, for the sake of old times, for auld langsyne. [A.S. _sacu_, strife, a lawsuit; Dut. _zaak_, Ger. _sache;_ A.S. _sacan_, to strive, Goth. _sakan._ _Seek_ is a doublet.] SAKER, s[=a]'k[.e]r, _n._ a species of falcon: a species of cannon. [Fr.,--Low L. _falco sacer_, sacred falcon.] SAKI, sak'i, _n._ a genus of long-tailed South American monkeys. SAKIEH, sak'i-e, _n._ a Persian wheel used in Egypt for raising water.--Also SAK'IA, [Ar. _saqieh._] SAL, sal, _n._ a large gregarious timber tree of north India, with hard, dark-brown, coarse-grained, durable wood. [Hind. _s[=a]l._] SAL, sal, _n._ salt, used in chemistry and pharmacy with various adjectives, as SAL'-ALEM'BROTH, a solution of equal parts of corrosive sublimate and ammonium chloride--also _Salt of wisdom;_ SAL'-AMM[=O]'NIAC, chloride of ammonium, with a sharp, saline taste; SAL'-SEIGNETTE', Rochelle salt; SAL'-VOLAT'ILE, a solution of carbonate of ammonia in alcohol--a common remedy for faintness. [L.] SALAAM, SALAM, sa-läm', _n._ a word of salutation in the East, chiefly among Mohammedans: homage.--_v.i._ to perform the salaam. [Ar. _sal[=a]m,_ peace; Heb. _shal[=a]m,_ to be safe.] SALABLE, SALABLENESS, SALABLY. Same as SALEABLE, &c. See SALE. SALACIOUS, sal-[=a]'shi-us, _adj._ lustful: lecherous.--_adv._ SAL[=A]'CIOUSLY, lustfully: lecherously.--_ns._ SAL[=A]'CIOUSNESS, SALAC'ITY, lust, lecherousness. [L. _salax_--_sal[=i]re,_ to leap.] SALAD, sal'ad, _n._ a preparation of raw herbs (lettuce, endive, chicory, celery, mustard and cress, water-cress, onions, radishes, tomatoes, chervil, &c.) cut up and seasoned with salt, vinegar, &c.: a dish of some kind of meat, chopped, seasoned, and mixed with a salad.--_ns._ SALAD-BUR'NET, the common burnet, used as a salad; SAL'ADING, herbs for salads: the making of salads; SAL'AD-OIL, olive-oil, used in dressing salads; SAL'AD-PLATE, a small plate for salad; SAL'AD-ROCK'ET, the garden rocket; SAL'AD-SPOON, a large and long-handled spoon for stirring and mixing salads, made of wood or other material not affected by vinegar.--SALAD DAYS, days of youthful inexperience. [Fr. _salade_--Old It. _salata_--_salare,_ to salt--L. _sal,_ salt.] SALAGRAMMA, sä-lä-grä'mä, _n._ a stone sacred to Vishnu. SALAL-BERRY, sal'al-ber'i, _n._ a berry-like plant of California, about the size of a common grape. SALAM. See SALAAM. SALAMANDER, sal'a-man-d[.e]r, _n._ a genus of tailed Amphibians, nearly related to the newts, harmless, but long dreaded as poisonous, once supposed able to live in fire: (_her._) a four-legged creature with a long tail surrounded by flames: a poker used red-hot for kindling fires: a hot metal plate for browning meat, &c.--_adjs._ SALAMAN'DRIFORM; SALAMAN'DRINE, like a salamander: enduring fire; SALAMAN'DROID--also _n._ [Fr. _salamandre_--L.,--Gr. _salamandra;_ of Eastern origin.] SALAMBA, sa-lam'ba, _n._ a contrivance for fishing used at Manila and elsewhere in the East. SALAMIS, sal'a-mis, _n._ a genus of lepidopterous insects. SALANGANE, sal'ang-g[=a]n, _n._ a Chinese swift which constructs edible nests. SALARY, sal'a-ri, _n._ a recompense for services: wages.--_v.t._ to pay a salary.--_adj._ SAL'ARIED, receiving a salary. [O. Fr. _salarie_ (Fr. _salaire_, It. _salario_)--L. _salarium_, salt-money, _sal_, salt] SALDA, sal'da, _n._ a genus of true bugs. SALE, s[=a]l, _n._ act of selling: the exchange of anything for money: power or opportunity of selling: demand: public showing of goods to sell: auction.--_adj._ SALE'ABLE, that may be sold: in good demand.--_n._ SALE'ABLENESS.--_adv._ SALE'ABLY.--_ns._ SALE'ROOM, an auction-room; SALES'MAN, a man who sells goods:--_fem._ SALES'WOMAN.--_adj._ SALE'-TONGUED, mercenary.--_n.pl._ SALE'WARES, merchandise.--_n._ SALE'WORK, work or things made for sale, or merely for sale: work carelessly done.--FORCED SALE, a sale compelled by a creditor; TERMS OF SALE, the conditions imposed on a purchaser. [Scand., Ice. _sala_.] SALE, s[=a]l, _n._ (_Spens._) a kind of basket-like net, made of sallows or willows. [A.S. _sealh_, willow.] SALEBROUS, sal'[=e]-brus, _adj._ rough, rugged.--_n._ SALEBROS'ITY. [Fr.,--L. _salebrosus_, rough.] SALEP, sal'ep, _n._ the dried tubers of _Orchis mascula_: the food prepared from it.--Also SAL'OP. [Ar.] SALERATUS, sal-e-r[=a]'tus, _n._ sodium bicarbonate, used in baking-powders.--Also SALÆR[=A]'TUS. [L. _sal aeratus_, aerated salt.] SALEWE, sal-[=u]', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to salute. [_Salute_.] SALIAN, s[=a]'li-an, _adj._ pertaining to a tribe of Franks on the lower Rhine.--_n._ one of this tribe.--_adj._ SAL'IC, denoting a law among the Salian Franks limiting the succession of certain lands to males--extended in the 14th century to the succession to the crown of France. [Fr. _salique_--Low L. _Lex salica_.] SALIAN, s[=a]'li-an, _adj._ pertaining to the _Salii_ or priests of Mars in ancient Rome.--SALIAN HYMNS, songs sung by these, with dances, &c. SALIANT, s[=a]l'i-ant, _adj._ Same as SALIENT. SALIAUNCE, sal-i-äns', _n._ (_Spens._). See SALIENCE. SALICETUM, sal-i-s[=e]'tum, _n._ a thicket of willows:--_pl._ SALIC[=E]'TUMS, SALIC[=E]'TA. SALICIN, -E, sal'i-sin, _n._ a bitter crystalline glucoside, obtained from the bark of willows and poplars.--_n._ SAL'ICYL[=A]TE, a salt of salicylic acid.--_adjs._ SAL'ICYL[=A]TED, combined with salicylic acid; SALICY'LIC, obtained from the willow.--SALICYLATE OF SODIUM, a product occurring in small white crystals, used very largely in acute rheumatism. [L. _salix_, _salicis_, a willow.] SALICORNIA, sal-i-kor'ni-a, _n._ a genus of apetalous plants--the _glass-wort_, _marsh-samphire_. [Fr.,--L. _sal_, salt, _cornu_, a horn.] SALIENT, s[=a]'li-ent, _adj._ leaping or springing: (_fort._) projecting outwards, as an angle: prominent: striking: (_geom._) denoting any angle less than two right angles: (_her._) of a beast of prey nearly rampant.--_n._ S[=A]'LIENCE, the quality or condition of being salient: projection: (_Spens._) a leaping, assaulting, onslaught.--_adv._ S[=A]'LIENTLY. [Fr.,--L. _saliens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _sal[=i]re_, to leap.] SALIÈRE, sa-ly[=a]r', _n._ a saltcellar. [Fr.] SALIFEROUS, s[=a]-lif'[.e]r-us, _adj._ bearing salt.--SALIFEROUS SYSTEM, the Triassic, from its rich deposits. [L. _sal_, _salis_, salt, _ferre_, to bear.] SALIFY, sal'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to combine with an acid in order to make a salt:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ sal'ified.--_adj._ SALIF[=I]'ABLE.--_n._ SALIFIC[=A]'TION, the act of salifying. SALINE, s[=a]'l[=i]n, or s[=a]-l[=i]n', _adj._ consisting of, or containing, salt: partaking of the qualities of salt.--_n._ an effervescent powder used as a gentle aperient: a salt-spring.--_ns._ SAL[=I]'NA, salt-works; SALIN[=A]'TION, the act of washing in salt liquor; SAL'INE, SAL'IN, a salt, reddish substance obtained from the ashes of potato-leaves; SALINE'NESS.--_adjs._ SALINIF'EROUS; SALIN'IFORM.--_ns._ SALIN'ITY; SALINOM'ETER, SALIM'ETER, a hydrometer for measuring the amount of salt in any given solution.--_adj._ SAL[=I]'NO-TERRENE', composed of salt and earth.--_v.t._ SAL'ITE, to season with salt.--_n._ SAL'ITRAL, a place where saltpetre occurs. [Fr.,--L. _salinus_--_sal_, salt.] SALIQUE, sal'ik, or sa-l[=e]k'. Same as SALIC (see SALIAN). SALIVA, sa-l[=i]'va, _n._ the spittle, one of the digestive fluids, mainly the product of the salivary glands.--_adjs._ SAL[=I]'VAL, SAL'IVANT, producing salivation.--_n._ SAL[=I]'VA-PUMP, a device for carrying off the accumulating saliva.--_adj._ SA'LIVARY, pertaining to, secreting, or containing saliva.--_n._ that which produces salivation.--_v.t._ SAL'IV[=A]TE, to produce an unusual amount of saliva.--_n._ SALIV[=A]'TION, an unusual flow of saliva.--_adj._ SAL'IVOUS, like spittle. [Fr.,--L., allied to Gr. _sialon_, saliva.] SALIX, s[=a]'liks, _n._ a genus of apetalous trees and shrubs, the willows. [L.] SALLEE-MAN, sal'[=e]-man, _n._ a Moorish pirate.--Also SALL'EE-R[=O]'VER. [_Sallee_, on the coast of Morocco.] SALLET, sal'et, _n._ a light kind of helmet of the 15th century, with projection behind, used by foot-soldiers. [O. Fr. _salade_, through It. _celata_, a helmet, from L. _cælata_, figured--_cæl[=a]re_, to engrave.] SALLIE, sal'i, _n._ (_Scot._) a hired mourner at a funeral. SALLOW, sal'[=o], _n._ a tree or low shrub of the willow kind--(_Scot._) SAUCH.--_adj._ SALL'OWY, abounding in sallows. [A.S. _sealh_; Ger. _sahl_.] SALLOW, sal'[=o], _adj._ of a pale, yellowish colour.--_v.t._ to tinge with a sallow colour.--_adj._ SALL'OWISH, somewhat sallow.--_ns._ SALL'OW-KITT'EN, a kind of puss-moth; SALL'OW-MOTH, a British moth of a pale-yellow colour; SALL'OWNESS.--_adj._ SALL'OWY. [A.S. _salo_, _salu_; cf. Dut. _zaluw_, and Old High Ger. _salo_.] SALLY, sal'i, _n._ a leaping or bursting out: a sudden rushing forth of troops to attack besiegers: excursion: outburst of fancy, wit, &c.: levity: a projection.--_v.i._ to rush out suddenly: to mount:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ sall'ied.--_n._ SALL'Y-PORT, a passage by which a garrison may make a sally: a large port for the escape of a crew when a fire-ship is set on fire. [Fr. _saillie_--_saillir_ (It. _salire_)--L. _salire_, to leap.] SALLY, sal'i, _n._ a kind of stone-fly: a wren.--_n._ SALL'YPICK'ER, one of several different warblers. SALLY-LUNN, sal'i-lun, _n._ a sweet spongy tea-cake. [From the name of a girl who sold them in the streets of Bath about the close of the 18th century.] SALLY-WOOD, sal'i-w[=oo]d, _n._ willow-wood. SALMAGUNDI, sal-ma-gun'di, _n._ a dish of minced meat with eggs, anchovies, vinegar, pepper, &c.: a medley, miscellany.--Also SALMAGUN'DY. [Fr. _salmigondis_--It. _salami_, pl. of _salame_, salt meat--L. _sal_, salt, _conditi_, pl. of _condito_, seasoned--L. _cond[=i]re_, _-[=i]tum_, to pickle.] SALMI, SALMIS, sal'mi, _n._ a ragout of roasted woodcocks, &c., stewed with wine, morsels of bread, &c. [Fr. _salmis_--It. _salame_, salt meat.] SALMIAC, sal'mi-ak, _n._ sal-ammoniac. SALMON, sam'un, _n._ a large fish, brownish above, with silvery sides, the delicate flesh reddish-orange in colour--ascending rivers to spawn: the upper bricks in a kiln which receive the least heat.--_ns._ SAL'M[=O], the leading genus of _Salmonidæ_; SALM'ON-COL'OUR, an orange-pink; SALM'ONET, a young salmon; SALM'ON-FISH'ERY, a place where salmon-fishing is carried on; SALM'ON-FLY, any kind of artificial fly for taking salmon; SALM'ON-FRY, salmon under two years old; SALM'ONING, the salmon industry, as canning; SALM'ON-KILL'ER, a sort of stickleback; SALM'ON-LEAP, -LADD'ER, a series of steps to permit a salmon to pass up-stream.--_adj._ SALM'ONOID.--_ns._ SALM'ON-PEAL, -PEEL, a grilse under 2 lb.; SALM'ON-SPEAR, an instrument used in spearing salmon; SALM'ON-SPRING, a smolt or young salmon of the first year; SALM'ON-TACK'LE, the rod, line, and fly with which salmon are taken; SALM'ON-TROUT, a trout like the salmon, but smaller and thicker in proportion; SALM'ON-WEIR, a weir specially designed to take salmon.--BLACK SALMON, the great lake trout; BURNETT SALMON, a fish with reddish flesh like a salmon; CALVERED SALMON, pickled salmon; CORNISH SALMON, the pollack; KELP SALMON, a serranoid fish; KIPPERED SALMON, salmon salted and smoke-dried; QUODDY SALMON, the pollack; SEA SALMON, the pollack; WHITE SALMON, a carangoid Californian fish. [O. Fr. _saulmon_--L. _salmo_, from _sal[=i]re_, to leap.] SALNATRON, sal-n[=a]'tron, _n._ crude sodium carbonate. SALOMONIC. Same as SOLOMONIC. SALON, sa-long', _n._ a drawing-room: a fashionable reception, esp. a periodic gathering of notable persons, in the house of some social queen: the great annual exhibition of works by living artists at the Palais des Champs Elysées in Paris. [Fr.] SALOON, sa-l[=oo]n', _n._ a spacious and elegant hall or apartment for the reception of company, for works of art, &c.: a main cabin: a drawing-room car on a railroad: a liquor-shop.--_ns._ SALOON'IST, SALOON'-KEEP'ER, one who retails liquor. [Fr. _salon_--_salle_; Old High Ger. _sal_, a dwelling, Ger. _saal_.] SALOOP, sa-l[=oo]p', _n._ a drink composed of sassafras tea, with sugar and milk. [_Salep_.] SALOP. Same as SALEP. SALOPIAN, sal-[=o]'pi-an, _adj._ pertaining to Shropshire (L. _Salopia_), as the ware, a name given to Roman pottery found in Shropshire. SALPA, sal'pa, _n._ a remarkable genus of free-swimming Tunicates.--_adjs._ SAL'PIAN; SAL'PIFORM. SALPICON, sal'pi-kon, _n._ stuffing, chopped meat. [Fr.] SALPIGLOSSIS, sal-pi-glos'is, _n._ a genus of gamopetalous plants, native to Chili, with showy flowers resembling petunias, [Gr. _salpingx_, a trumpet, _gl[=o]ssa_, tongue.] SALPINCTES, sal-pingk'tes, _n._ the rock-wrens. [Gr. _salpingkt[=e]s_, a trumpeter.] SALPINGITIS, sal-pin-j[=i]'tis, _n._ inflammation of a Fallopian tube.--_adjs._ SALPINGIT'IC, SALPIN'GIAN, pertaining to a Fallopian or to a Eustachian tube.--_n._ SAL'PINX, a Eustachian tube or syrinx. [Gr. _salpingx_, a trumpet.] SALPORNIS, sal-por'nis, _n._ a genus of creepers inhabiting Asia and Africa. [Gr. _salpingx_, a trumpet, _ornis_, a bird.] SALSAGINOUS, sal-saj'i-nus, _adj._ saltish: growing in brackish places. SALSAMENTARIOUS, sal-sa-men-t[=a]'ri-us, _adj._ (_obs._) salted. SALSE, sals, _n._ a mud volcano: a conical hillock of mud. [Fr.,--L. _salsus_, _sal[=i]re_, to salt.] SALSIFY, sal'si-fi, _n._ a biennial plant growing in meadows throughout Europe, whose long and tapering root has a flavour resembling asparagus--also SAL'SAFY--often called _Oyster-plant_.--BLACK SALSIFY, the related scorzonera. [Fr.,--It. _sassefrica_, goat's-beard--L. _saxum_, a rock, _fric[=a]re_, to rub.] SALSILLA, sal-sil'a, _n._ one of several species of _Bomarea_, with edible tubers. [Sp., dim. of _salsa_, sauce.] SALSOLA, sal's[=o]-la, _n._ a genus of plants, including the _salt-wort_ and _prickly glass-wort_.--_adj._ SALSOL[=A]'CEOUS. [L. _salsus_--_sal[=i]re_, to salt.] SALT, sawlt, _n._ chloride of sodium, or common salt, a well-known substance used for seasoning, found either in the earth or obtained by evaporation from sea-water: anything like salt: seasoning: piquancy: abatement, modification, allowance: an experienced sailor: that which preserves from corruption: an antiseptic: (_chem._) a body composed of an acid and a base united in definite proportions, or of bromine, chlorine, fluorine, or iodine, with a metal or metalloid: (_obs._) lust.--_v.t._ to sprinkle or season with salt: to fill with salt between the timbers for preservation.--_adj._ containing salt: tasting of salt: overflowed with, or growing in, salt-water: pungent: lecherous: (_coll._) costly, expensive--_ns._ SALT'-BLOCK, a salt-evaporating apparatus; SALT'-BOTT'OM, a flat piece of ground covered with saline efflorescences: SALT'-BUSH, an Australian plant of the goose-foot family; SALT'-CAKE, the crude sodium sulphate occurring as a by-product in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid; SALT'-CAT, a mixture given as a digestive to pigeons; SALT'ER, one who salts, or who makes, sells, or deals in salt, as in _Drysalter_: a trout leaving salt-water to ascend a stream; SAL'TERN, salt-works; SALT'-FOOT, a large saltcellar marking the boundary between the superior and inferior guests; SALT'-GAUGE, an instrument for testing the strength of brine; SALT'-GLAZE, a glaze produced upon ceramic ware by putting common salt in the kilns after they have been fired.--_adj._ SALT'-GREEN (_Shak._), sea-green.--_ns._ SALT'-GROUP, a series of rocks containing salt, as the Onondaga salt-group; SALT'-HOLD'ER, a saltcellar; SALT'-HORSE, salted beef; SALT'IE, the salt-water fluke or dab; SALT'ING, the act of sprinkling with salt: the celebration of the Eton 'Montem.'--_adj._ SALT'ISH, somewhat salt.--_adv._ SALT'ISHLY, so as to be moderately salt.--_ns._ SALT'ISHNESS, a moderate degree of saltness; SALT'-JUNK, hard salt beef for use at sea.--_adj._ SALT'LESS, without salt: tasteless.--_n._ SALT'-LICK, a place to which animals resort for salt.--_adv._ SALT'LY.--_ns._ SALT'-MARSH, land liable to be overflowed by the sea or the waters of estuaries; SALT'-MARSH CAT'ERPILLAR, the hairy larva of an arctiid moth; SALT'-MARSH HEN, a clapper-rail; SALT'-MARSH TERR'APIN, the diamond-backed turtle; SALT'-MINE, a mine where rock-salt is obtained; SALT'NESS, impregnation with salt; SALT'-PAN, a pan, basin, or pit where salt is obtained or made; SALT'-PIT, a pit where salt is obtained; SALT'-RHEUM, a cutaneous eruption; SALTS, Epsom salt or other salt used as a medicine.--_adj._ SALT'-SLIV'ERED, slivered and salted, as fish for bait.--_ns._ SALT'-SPOON, a small spoon for serving salt at table; SALT'-SPRING, a brine-spring; SALT'-WA'TER, water impregnated with salt, sea-water; SALT'-WORKS, a place where salt is made; SALT'-WORT, a genus of plants of many species, mostly natives of salt-marshes and sea-shores, one only being found in Britain, the Prickly S., which was formerly burned for the soda it yielded.--_adj._ SALT'Y (same as SALTISH).--SALT A MINE, to deposit ore in it cunningly so as to deceive persons who inspect it regarding its value; SALT OF LEMON, or SORREL, acid potassium oxalate, a solvent for ink-stains; SALT OF SODA, sodium carbonate; SALT OF TARTAR, a commercial name for purified potassium carbonate; SALT OF VITRIOL, sulphate of zinc; SALT OF WORMWOOD, carbonate of potash.--ABOVE THE SALT, at the upper half of the table, among the guests of distinction; ATTIC SALT, wit; BELOW THE SALT, at the lower half of the table; BE NOT WORTH ONE'S SALT, not to deserve even the salt that gives relish to one's food; BRONZING SALT, used in burning gun-barrels; EPSOM SALTS, magnesium sulphate, a cathartic; ESSENTIAL SALTS, those produced from the juices of plants by crystallisation; GLAUBER'S SALT, or HORSE SALTS, a well-known cathartic, used in woollen dyeing; LAY SALT ON THE TAIL OF, to catch; NEUTRAL SALT, a salt in which the acid and the base neutralise each other; ROCHELLE SALT, sodium potassium tartrate, a laxative; SPIRITS OF SALT, the old name for muriatic or hydrochloric acid; TAKE WITH A GRAIN OF SALT, to believe with some reserve. [A.S. _sealt_; cf. Ger. _salz_, also L. _sal_, Gr. _hals_.] SALTANT, sal'tant, _adj._ leaping: dancing: (_her._) salient.--_v.i._ SAL'T[=A]TE, to dance.--_n._ SALT[=A]'TION, a leaping or jumping: beating or palpitation: (_biol._) an abrupt variation.--_n.pl._ SALTAT[=O]'RIA, a division of orthopterous insects including grass-hoppers, locusts, and crickets.--_adjs._ SALTAT[=O]'RIAL, SALTAT[=O]'RIOUS; SAL'TATORY, leaping: dancing: having the power of, or used in, leaping or dancing. [L. _saltans_, pr.p. of _salt[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, inten. of _sal[=i]re_, to leap.] SALTARELLO, sal-ta-rel'[=o], _n._ a lively Italian dance in triple time, diversified with skips, for a single couple--also the music for such: an old form of round dance. [It.,--L. _salt[=a]re_, to dance.] SALTCELLAR, sawlt'sel-ar, _n._ a small table vessel for holding salt. [For _salt-sellar_, the last part being O. Fr. _saliere_--L. _salarium_--_sal_, salt.] SALTIERRA, sal-tyer'a, _n._ a saline deposit in the inland lakes of Mexico. [Sp.,--L. _sal_, salt, _terra_, land.] SALTIGRADE, sal'ti-gr[=a]d, _adj._ formed for leaping, as certain insects.--_n._ one of a certain tribe of spiders which leap to seize their prey. [L. _saltus_, a leap, _gradi_, to go.] SALTIMBANCO, sal-tim-bangk'[=o], _n._ (_obs._) a mountebank: a quack. [It.] SALTIRE, SALTIER, sal't[=e]r, _n._ (_her._) an ordinary in the form of a St Andrew's Cross.--_adj._ SAL'TIERWISE. [O. Fr. _saultoir_, _sautoir_--Low L. _saltatorium_, a stirrup--L. _salt[=a]re_, to leap.] SALTPETRE, sawlt-p[=e]'t[.e]r, _n._ the commercial name for nitre.--_adj._ SALTP[=E]'TROUS. [O. Fr. _salpestre_--Low L. _salpetra_--L. _sal_, salt, _petra_, a rock.] SALTUS, sal'tus, _n._ a break of continuity in time: a leap from premises to conclusion. [L., a leap.] SALUBRIOUS, sa-l[=u]'bri-us, _adj._ healthful: wholesome.--_adv._ SAL[=U]'BRIOUSLY.--_ns._ SAL[=U]'BRIOUSNESS, SAL[=U]'BRITY, [L. _salubris_--_salus_, _salutis_, health.] SALUE, sal-[=u]', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to salute. SALUTARY, sal'[=u]-tar-i, _adj._ belonging to health: promoting health or safety: wholesome: beneficial.--_n._ SAL[=U]DADOR' (_obs._), a quack who cures by incantations.--_adv._ SAL'[=U]TARILY, in a salutary manner: favourably to health.--_n._ SAL'[=U]TARINESS.--_adj._ SAL[=U]TIF'EROUS, health-bearing.--_adv._ SAL[=U]TIF'EROUSLY. [L. _salutaris_--_salus_, health.] SALUTE, sal-[=u]t', _v.t._ to address with kind wishes: to greet with a kiss, a bow, &c.: to honour formally by a discharge of cannon, striking colours, &c.--_n._ act of saluting: the position of the hand, sword, &c. in saluting: greeting: a kiss: a complimentary discharge of cannon, dipping colours, presenting arms, &c., in honour of any one.--_ns._ SAL[=U]T[=A]'TION, act of saluting: that which is said in saluting, any customary or ceremonious form of address at meeting or at parting, or of ceremonial on religious or state occasions, including both forms of speech and gestures: (_obs._) quickening, excitement: the ANGELIC SALUTATION (see AVE); SAL[=U]TAT[=O]'RIAN, in American colleges, the member of a graduating class who pronounces the salutatory oration.--_adv._ SAL[=U]'TATORILY.--_adj._ SAL[=U]'TATORY, pertaining to salutation.--_n._ a sacristy in the early church in which the clergy received the greetings of the people: an oration in Latin delivered by the student who ranks second.--_n._ SAL[=U]'TER. [L. _salut[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_salus_, _salutis_.] SALVAGE, sal'v[=a]j, _adj._ (_Spens._). Same as SAVAGE. SALVAGE, sal'v[=a]j, _n._ compensation made by the owner of a ship or cargo in respect of services rendered by persons, other than the ship's company, in preserving the ship or cargo from shipwreck, fire, or capture: the goods and materials so saved.--_n._ SALVABIL'ITY, the possibility or condition of being saved.--_adj._ SAL'VABLE.--_n._ SAL'VABLENESS.--_adv._ SAL'VABLY. [Fr.,--L. _salv[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to save.] SALVATION, sal-v[=a]'shun, _n._ act of saving: means of preservation from any serious evil: (_theol._) the saving of man from the power and penalty of sin, the conferring of eternal happiness: (_B._) deliverance from enemies.--_v.t._ to heal, to cure: to remedy: to redeem: to gloss over.--_ns._ SALV[=A]'TIONISM; SALV[=A]'TIONIST.--SALVATION ARMY, an organisation for the revival of evangelical religion amongst the masses, founded by William Booth about 1865, reorganised on the model of a military force in 1878; SALVATION SALLY, a girl belonging to the Salvation Army. SALVATORY, sal'va-t[=o]-ri, _n._ (_obs._) a repository: a safe. SALVE, säv, _n._ (_B._) an ointment: anything to cure sores.--_v.t._ to heal, help.--_ns._ SALV'ER, a quacksalver, a pretender; SALV'ING, healing, restoration. [A.S. _sealf_; Ger. _salbe_, Dut. _zalf_.] SALVE, sal'v[=e], _v.t._ (_Spens._) to salute.--SALVE REGINA (_R.C._), an antiphonal hymn to the Blessed Virgin said after Lauds and Compline, from Trinity to Advent--from its opening words. [L. _salve_, God save you, hail! imper. of _salv[=e]re_, to be well.] SALVELINUS, sal-ve-l[=i]'nus, _n._ a genus of _Salmonidæ_, the chars. [Prob. Latinised from Ger. _salbling_, a small salmon.] SALVER, sal'v[.e]r, _n._ a plate on which anything is presented.--_adj._ SAL'VER-SHAPED, in the form of a salver or tray. [Sp. _salva_, a salver, _salvar_, to save--Low L. _salv[=a]re_, to save.] SALVIA, sal'vi-a, _n._ a large genus of gamopetalous Labiate plants, including the sage. SALVINIA, sal-vin'i-a, _n._ a genus of heterosporous ferns--formerly called _Rhizocarpeæ_ or _Pepperworts_. SALVO, sal'v[=o], _n._ an exception: a reservation. [L., in phrase, _salvo jure_, one's right being safe.] SALVO, sal'v[=o], _n._ a military or naval salute with guns: a simultaneous discharge of artillery: the combined cheers of a multitude:--_pl._ SALVOS (sal'v[=o]z). [It. _salva_, a salute--L. _salve_, hail!] SAL-VOLATILE, sal'-vo-lat'i-le. See SAL. SALVOR, sal'vor, _n._ one who saves a cargo from wreck, fire, &c. [See SALVAGE.] SAM, sam, _adv._ (_Spens._) together.--_v.t._ to collect, to curdle milk. [A.S. _samnian_--_samen_, together.] SAMARA, s[=a]-mar'a, or sam'-, _n._ a dry indehiscent, usually one-sided fruit, with a wing, as in the ash, elm, and maple--the last a double samara.--_adjs._ SAM'ARIFORM; SAM'AROID. [L.] SAMARE, sa-mär', _n._ an old form of women's long-skirted jacket. SAMARITAN, sa-mar'i-tan, _adj._ pertaining to _Samaria_ in Palestine.--_n._ an inhabitant of Samaria, esp. one of the despised mixed population planted therein after the deportation of the Israelites: the language of Samaria, an archaic Hebrew, or rather Hebrew Aramaic, dialect: a charitable person--from Luke, x. 30-37.--_n._ SAMAR'ITANISM, charity, benevolence.--SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH, a recension of the Hebrew Pentateuch, in use amongst the Samaritans, and accepted by them as alone canonical. SAMAVEDA, sä-ma-v[=a]'da, _n._ the name of one of the four Vedas. [Sans.] SAMBO, sam'b[=o], _n._ a negro: properly the child of a mulatto and a negro. [Sp. _zambo_--L. _scambus_, bow-legged.] SAMBUCUS, sam-b[=u]'kus, _n._ a genus of gamopetalous trees and shrubs of the honeysuckle family--the elders. [L.] SAMBUKE, sam'b[=u]k, _n._ an ancient musical instrument, probably a harp.--Also SAMB[=U]'CA. [Gr. _sambyk[=e]_--Heb. _sabeka_.] SAMBUR, sam'bur, _n._ the Indian elk.--Also SAM'BOO. [Hind. _sambre_.] SAME, s[=a]m, _adv._ (_Spens._). Same as SAM. SAME, s[=a]m, _adj._ identical: of the like kind or degree: similar: mentioned before.--_adj._ SAME'LY, unvaried.--_n._ SAME'NESS, the being the same: tedious monotony.--ALL THE SAME, for all that; AT THE SAME TIME, still, nevertheless. [A.S. _same_; Goth. _samana_; L. _similis_, like, Gr. _homos_.] SAMIA, s[=a]'mi-a, _n._ a genus of bombycid moths, belonging to North America. SAMIAN, s[=a]'mi-an, _adj._ pertaining to, or from, the island of _Samos_, in the Greek Archipelago.--_n._ (also S[=A]'MIOT, S[=A]'MIOTE) a native of Samos.--SAMIAN EARTH, an argillaceous astringent earth; SAMIAN STONE, a goldsmiths' polishing-stone; SAMIAN WARE, an ancient kind of pottery, brick-red or black, with lustrous glaze. SAMIEL, s[=a]'mi-el, _n._ the simoom. [Turk. _samyeli_--Ar. _samm_, poison, Turk. _yel_, wind.] SAMISEN, sam'i-sen, _n._ a Japanese guitar. SAMITE, sam'it, _n._ a kind of heavy silk stuff. [O. Fr. _samit_--Low L. _examitum_--Gr. _hexamiton_, _hex_, six, _mitos_, thread.] SAMLET, sam'let, _n._ a parr: a salmon of the first year. [Prob. _salmon-et_.] SAMMY, sam'i, _v.t._ to moisten skins with water.--_n._ a machine for doing this. SAMNITE, sam'n[=i]t, _adj._ and _n._ pertaining to an ancient Sabine people of central Italy, crushed by the Romans after a long struggle: a Roman gladiator armed with shield, sleeve on right arm, helmet, shoulder-piece, and greave. SAMOAN, sa-m[=o]'an, _adj._ and _n._ pertaining to _Samoa_ in the Pacific.--SAMOAN DOVE, the tooth-billed pigeon. SAMOLUS, sam'[=o]-lus, _n._ a genus of herbaceous plants of the primrose family. [L.] SAMOSATENIAN, sam-[=o]-sa-t[=e]'ni-an, _n._ a follower of Paul of _Samosata_, bishop of Antioch, the Socinus of the 3d century. SAMOTHRACIAN, sam-[=o]-thr[=a]'si-an, _adj._ belonging to the island of _Samothrace_ in the Ægean Sea. SAMOVAR, sam'[=o]-vär, _n._ a tea-urn used in Russia, commonly of copper, the water in it heated by charcoal in a tube extending from top to bottom. [Russ. _samovar[)u]_, prob. Tartar.] SAMOYED, sa-m[=o]'yed, _n._ one of a Ural-Altaic race between the Obi and the Yenisei.--_adj._ SAMOYED'IC. SAMP, samp, _n._ Indian corn coarsely ground: a kind of hominy, also porridge made from it. [Illustration] SAMPAN, sam'pan, _n._ a small boat used in China and Japan.--Also SAN'PAN. [Chin. _san_, _sam_, three, _pan_, a board.] SAMPHIRE, sam'f[=i]r, or sam'f[.e]r, _n._ an herb found chiefly on rocky cliffs near the sea, used in pickles and salads. [Corr. from Fr. _Saint Pierre_, Saint Peter.] SAMPI, sam'p[=i], _n._ a character, [sampi] representing a sibilant in early Greek use, later obsolete except as a numeral sign for 900. SAMPLE, sam'pl, _n._ a specimen: a part to show the quality of the whole: an example.--_v.t._ to make up samples of: to place side by side with: to match: to test by examination.--_ns._ SAM'PLER, one who makes up samples (in compounds, as _wool-sampler_); SAM'PLE-ROOM, a room where samples are shown: (_slang_) a grog-shop; SAM'PLE-SCALE, an accurately balanced lever-scale for weighing ten-thousandths of a pound. [Short for _esample_, from O. Fr. _essample_--L. _exemplum_, example.] SAMPLER, sam'pl[.e]r, _n._ a pattern of work: a piece of ornamental embroidery, worsted-work, &c., containing names, figures, texts, &c.--_n._ SAM'PLARY (_obs._), a pattern, an example. [Formed from L. _exemplar_.] SAMPSUCHINE, samp-s[=oo]'ch[=e]n, _n._ (_obs._) sweet marjoram. SAMSHOO, SAMSHU, sam'sh[=oo], _n._ an ardent spirit distilled by the Chinese from rice: any kind of spirits. [Chin. _san_, _sam_, three, _shao_, to fire.] SAMSON-POST, sam'son-p[=o]st, _n._ a strong upright stanchion or post for various uses on board ship. SAMURAI, sam'[=oo]-r[=i], _n. sing._ (also _pl._) a member of the military class in the old feudal system of Japan, including both daimios, or territorial nobles, and their military retainers: a military retainer, a two-sworded man. [Jap.] SAMYDA, sam'i-da, _n._ a genus of shrubs, native to the West Indies. [Gr. _s[=e]myda_, the birch.] SANABLE, san'a-bl, _adj._ able to be made sane or sound: curable.--_ns._ SANABIL'ITY, SAN'ABLENESS, capability of being cured; SAN[=A]'TION (_obs._), a healing or curing.--_adj._ SAN'ATIVE, tending, or able, to heal: healing.--_ns._ SAN'ATIVENESS; SANAT[=O]'RIUM (see SANITARY).--_adj._ SAN'ATORY, healing: conducive to health. [L. _sanabilis_--_san[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to heal.] SANBENITO, san-be-n[=e]'t[=o], _n._ a garment grotesquely decorated with flames, devils, &c., worn by the victims of the Inquisition--at an _auto-de-fe_--for public recantation or execution. [Sp., from its resemblance in shape to the garment of the order of _St Benedict_--Sp. _San Benito_.] SANCHO, sang'k[=o], _n._ a musical instrument like the guitar, used by negroes. SANCHO-PEDRO, sang'k[=o]-p[=e]'dr[=o], _n._ a game of cards--the nine of trumps called _Sancho_, the five _Pedro_. SANCTIFY, sangk'ti-f[=i], _v.t._ to make sacred or holy: to set apart to sacred use: to free from sin or evil: to consecrate: to invest with a sacred character: to make efficient as the means of holiness: to secure from violation:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ sanc'tif[=i]ed.--_n._ SANCTANIM'ITY, holiness of mind.--_v.t._ SANCTIF'IC[=A]TE.--_n._ SANCTIFIC[=A]'TION, act of sanctifying: state of being sanctified: that work or process of God's free grace whereby the new principle of spiritual life implanted in regeneration is developed until the whole man is renewed in the image of God: consecration.--_adj._ SANC'TIFIED, made holy: sanctimonious.--_adv._ SANCTIF[=I]'EDLY, sanctimoniously.--_n._ SANC'TIFIER, one who sanctifies: the Holy Spirit.--_adv._ SANC'TIFYINGLY.--_adj._ SANCTIM[=O]'NIOUS, having sanctity: holy, devout: affecting holiness.--_adv._ SANCTIM[=O]'NIOUSLY.--_ns._ SANCTIM[=O]'NIOUSNESS, SANC'TIMONY, affected devoutness, show of sanctity; SANC'TITUDE, holiness, goodness, saintliness: affected holiness; SANC'TITY, quality of being sacred or holy: purity: godliness: inviolability: a saint, any holy object.--_v.t._ SANC'TUARISE (_Shak._), to shelter by sacred privileges, as in a sanctuary.--_ns._ SANC'T[=U]ARY, a sacred place: a place for the worship of God: the most sacred part of the Temple of Jerusalem: the Temple itself: the part of a church round the altar: an inviolable asylum, refuge, a consecrated place which gives protection to a criminal taking refuge there: the privilege of taking refuge in such a consecrated place; SANC'TUM, a sacred place: a private room; SANC'TUS, the ascription, 'Holy, holy, holy, Lord God of Hosts,' from Isa. vi.: a musical setting of the same.--SANCTUM SANCTORUM, the Holy of Holies: any specially reserved retreat or room.--ODOUR OF SANCTITY, the aroma of goodness. [Fr.,--L. _sanctific[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_sanctus_, sacred, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] SANCTION, sangk'shun, _n._ act of ratifying, or giving authority to: confirmation: support: a decree, a law.--_v.t._ to give validity to: to authorise: to countenance.--_adjs._ SANC'TIONABLE; SANC'TIONARY. [Fr.,--L. _sanct[=i]re_.] SAND, sand, _n._ fine particles of crushed or worn rocks, used in founding: force of character: (_pl._) lands covered with sand: a sandy beach: moments of time, from the use of sand in the hour-glass.--_v.t._ to sprinkle with sand.--_ns._ SAND'-BAG (_fort._), a canvas bag filled with sand or earth, forming a ready means of giving cover against an enemy's fire, or of tamping the charge in a mine: an engraver's leather cushion, &c.; SAND'-BAG'GER, a robber who uses a sand-bag to stun his victims; SAND'-BALL, a ball of soap mixed with fine sand for the toilet; SAND'-BAND, a guard-ring to keep sand from working into the axle-box; SAND'-BANK, a bank of sand formed by tides and currents; SAND'-BATH, a vessel of hot sand for heating vessels without direct exposure to the fire: a bath in which the body is covered with warm sea-sand: saburration; SAND'-BEAR, the Indian badger; SAND'-BED, the bed into which the iron from the blast-furnace is run; SAND'-BIRD, a sandpiper: a shore bird; SAND'-BLAST, sand driven by a blast of air or steam for cutting and engraving figures on glass or metal.--_adj._ SAND'-BLIND, afflicted with partial blindness, in which particles of sand seem to float before the eyes.--_ns._ SAND'-BLIND'NESS; SAND'-BLOW'ER, a sand bellows; SAND'-BOX, a box with a perforated top for sprinkling sand on writing, a contrivance formerly used by way of blotting-paper: a box with sand to prevent the wheels of a rail from slipping; SAND'-BRAKE, a device for stopping trains automatically; SAND'-BUG, a burrowing crustacean: a digger-wasp; SAND'-BUR, a weed found in the plains of the western United States; SAND'-CANAL', the stone canal of an echinoderm; SAND'-CHERR'Y, the dwarf cherry; SAND'-COCK, the redshank; SAND'-CRAB, the lady-crab; SAND'-CRACK, a crack in a horse's hoof: a crack in a moulded brick before burning; SAND'-CRICK'ET, a name applied to certain large crickets in the western United States; SAND'-DAB, a kind of plaice; SAND'-DART, a British noctuid moth; SAND'-DART'ER, -DIV'ER, a small etheostomine fish of the Ohio valley; SAND'-DOLL'AR, a flat sea-urchin; SAND'-DRIFT, a mound of drifted sand; SAND'-DUNE, a ridge of loose sand drifted by the wind.--_adj._ SAND'ED (_Shak._), marked with yellow spots: sprinkled with sand: short-sighted.--_ns._ SAND'-EEL, a small eel-like fish, which buries itself in the sand when the tide retires; SAND'ERLING, a genus of birds of the snipe family, characterised by the absence of a hind-toe, common on the coast, eating marine worms, small crustaceans, and bivalve molluscs; SAND'-FENCE, a barrier in a stream of stakes and iron wire; SAND'-FISH, a fish of the genus Trichodon; SAND'-FLAG, sandstone which splits up into flagstones; SAND'-FLEA, the chigoe or jigger; SAND'-FLOOD, a moving mass of desert sand; SAND'-FLOUN'DER, a common North American flounder; SAND'-FLY, a small New England biting midge; SAND'-GLASS, a glass instrument for measuring time by the running out of sand; SAND'-GRASS, grass that grows by the sea-shore; SAND'-GROUSE, a small order of birds, quite distinct from the true grouse, having two genera, _Pterocles_ and _Syrrhaptes_, with beautiful plumage, heavy body, long and pointed wings, very short legs and toes; SAND'-HEAT, the heat of warm sand in chemical operations; SAND'-HILL, a hill of sand; SAND'-HILL CRANE, the brown crane of North America; SAND'-HILL'ER, one of the poor whites living in the sandy hills of Georgia; SAND'-HOP'PER, a small crustacean in the order _Amphipoda_, often seen on the sandy sea-shore, like swarms of dancing flies, leaping up by bending the body together, and throwing it out with a sudden jerk: a sand-flea; SAND'-HORN'ET, a sand-wasp; SAND'INESS, sandy quality, esp. as regards colour; SAND'ING, the process of testing the surface of gilding, after it has been fired, with fine sand and water: the process of burying oysters in sand.--_adj._ SAND'ISH (_obs._).--_ns._ SAND'-JET (see SAND'-BLAST); SAND'-LARK, a wading-bird that runs along the sand: a sandpiper; SAND'-LIZ'ARD, a common lizard; SAND'-LOB, the common British lug or lob worm; SAND'-MAR'TIN, the smallest of British swallows, which builds its nest in sandy river-banks and gravel-pits; SAND'-M[=A]'SON, a common British tube-worm; SAND'-MOLE, a South African rodent; SAND'-MOUSE, the dunlin: a sandpiper; SAND'-NATT'ER, a sand-snake; SAND'-P[=A]'PER, paper covered with a kind of sand for smoothing and polishing; SAND'-PEEP, the American stint: the peetweet; SAND'-PERCH, the grass-bass; SAND'PIPER, a wading-bird of the snipe family, which frequents sandy river-banks, distinguished by its clear piping note.--_n.pl._ SAND'-PIPES, perpendicular cylindrical hollows, tapering to a point, occurring in chalk deposits, and so called from being usually filled with sand, gravel, or clay.--_ns._ SAND'-PIT, a place from which sand is extracted; SAND'-PLOV'ER, a ring-necked plover; SAND'-PRIDE, a very small species of lamprey found in the rivers of Britain; SAND'-PUMP, a long cylinder with valved piston for use in drilling rocks--a SAND'-SLUDG'ER: a sand-ejector, modified from the jet-pump, used in caissons for sinking the foundations of bridges; SAND'-RAT, a geomyoid rodent, esp. the camass rat; SAND'-REED, a shore grass; SAND'-REEL, a windlass used in working a sand-pump; SAND'-RIDGE, a sand-bank; SAND'-ROLL, a metal roll cast in sand; SAND'-RUN'NER, a sandpiper; SAND'-SAU'CER, a round mass of agglutinated egg-capsules of a naticoid gasteropod, found on beaches; SAND'-SCOOP, a dredge for scooping up sand; SAND'-SCREEN, a sand-sifter; SAND'-SCREW, an amphipod which burrows in the sand; SAND'-SHARK, a small voracious shark; SAND'-SHOT, small cast-iron balls cast in sand; SAND'-SHRIMP, a shrimp; SAND'-SKINK, a European skink found in sandy places; SAND'-SKIP'PER, a beach flea; SAND'-SNAKE, a short-tailed boa-like serpent; SAND'-SNIPE, the sandpiper; SAND'-SPOUT, a moving pillar of sand; SAND'STAR, a starfish: a brittle star; SAND'-STONE, a rock formed of compacted and more or less indurated sand (OLD RED SANDSTONE, a name given to a series of strata--along with the parallel but nowhere coexisting _Devonian_--intermediate in age between the Silurian and Carboniferous systems); SAND'-STORM, a storm of wind carrying along clouds of sand; SAND'-SUCK'ER, the rough dab; SAND'-THROW'ER, a tool for throwing sand on newly sized or painted surfaces; SAND'-TRAP, a device for separating sand from running water; SAND'-V[=I]'PER, a hog-nosed snake; SAND'-WASHER, an apparatus for separating sand from earthy substances; SAND'-WASP, a digger-wasp.--_v.t._ SAND'-WELD, to weld iron with sand.--_ns._ SAND'-WORM, a worm that lives in the sand; SAND'-WORT, any plant of the genus _Arenaria_.--_adj._ SAND'Y, consisting of, or covered with, sand: loose: of the colour of sand.--_n._ a nick-name for a Scotsman (from _Alexander_).--_ns._ SAND'Y-CAR'PET, a geometrid moth; SAND'Y-LAV'EROCK (_Scot._), a sand-lark. [A.S. _sand_; Dut. _zand_, Ger. _sand_, Ice. _sand-r_.] SANDAL, san'dal, _n._ a kind of shoe consisting of a sole bound to the foot by straps: a loose slipper: a half-boot of white kid: a strap for fastening a slipper: an india-rubber shoe.--_adj._ SAN'DALLED, wearing sandals: fastened with such. [Fr.,--L. _sandalium_--Gr. _sandalon_, prob. from Pers.] SANDAL, san'dal, _n._ a long narrow boat used on the Barbary coast. [Ar.] SANDALWOOD, san'dal-w[=oo]d, _n._ a compact and fine-grained tropical wood, remarkable for its fragrance. [Fr. _sandal_--Low L. _santalum_--Late Gr. _santalon_.] SANDARAC, san'da-rak, _n._ a friable, dry, almost transparent, tasteless, yellowish-white resin, imported from Mogador, Morocco: red sulphuret of arsenic--also SAN'DARACH.--_n._ SAN'DARAC-TREE, a native of the mountains of Morocco. [Fr. _sandaraque_--L. _sandaraca_--Gr. _sandarak[=e]_--Sans. _sind[=u]ra_, realgar.] SANDEMANIAN, san-de-m[=a]'ni-an, _n._ a follower of Robert _Sandeman_ (1718-71), a Glassite (q.v.). SANDIVER, san'di-v[.e]r, _n._ the saline scum which forms on glass during its first fusion: glass-gall: product of glass-furnaces.--Also SAN'DEVER. [O. Fr. _suin de verre_, _suint de verre_--_suin_, grease, _de_, of, _verre_, glass--L. _vitrum_.] SANDIX, san'diks, _n._ red lead.--Also SAN'DYX. [L.,--Gr. _sandix_, vermilion.] SANDWICH, sand'wich, _n._ two slices of bread with ham, &c., between, said to be named from the fourth Earl of _Sandwich_ (1718-92), who had such brought to him at the gaming-table that he might play on without stopping.--_v.t._ to lay or place between two layers, to fit tight between two objects.--_n._ SAND'WICH-MAN, a man who perambulates the streets between two advertising boards. SANE, s[=a]n, _adj._ sound in mind or body: healthy: not disordered in intellect.--_adv._ SANE'LY.--_n._ SANE'-NESS. [L. _sanus_; akin to Gr. _saos_, _s[=o]s_, sound.] SANG, sang, _pa.t._ of _sing_.--_n._ a Scotch form of _song_. SANG, sang, _n._ blood, in heraldic use.--_adj._ SANG'LANT, bloody or dropping blood.--_n._ SANG-DE-BOEUF, a deep-red colour peculiar to Chinese porcelain. SANG, sang, _n._ a Chinese wind-instrument. SANGAR, sang'gar, _n._ a stone breastwork: a low wall of loose stones, used as cover for soldiers. [Hindi sangar, war, entrenchment; from the Sanskrit.] SANGAREE, sang-ga-r[=e]', _n._ a West Indian beverage, of wine, sugar or syrup, water, and nutmeg, drunk cold.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to make or drink such. [Sp. _Sangría_.] SANG-FROID, sang-frwo', _n._ coolness, indifference, calmness. [Fr., _sang_, blood, _froid_, cold.] SANGLIER, sang'li-[.e]r, _n._ (_her._) a wild boar used as a bearing. [Fr., orig. _porc sanglier_--Low L. _singularis_ (_porcus_), the wild boar.] SANGRAAL, san-gr[=a]l', _n._ in medieval legends, the holy cup supposed to have been used at the Last Supper.--Also SANG'REAL. [Cf. _Grail_.] SANGRADO, san-grä'do, _n._ one who lets blood--from the leech in _Gil Blas_. SANGUINE, sang'gwin, _adj._ abounding with blood, bloody: bloodthirsty: ruddy, red: ardent, hopeful, confident: characterised by a fullness of habit.--_n._ the colour of red.--_v.t._ (_obs._) to stain with blood.--_n._ SANG'SUE, a leech--also SANG'UISUGE.--_adjs._ SANGUIC'OLOUS, living in the blood, as a parasite; SANGUIF'EROUS, receiving and conveying blood, circulatory.--_ns._ SANGUIFIC[=A]'TION; SAN'GUIFIER.--_adj._ SANGUIF'LUOUS, flowing with blood.--_v.i._ SAN'GUIFY, to make blood.--_v.t._ to convert into blood.--_n._ SANGUIN[=A]'RIA, a genus of the poppy family, one species, the Blood-root or Puccoon of North America, much used by the Indians for staining.--_adv._ SAN'GUINARILY.--_n._ SAN'GUINARINESS.--_adj._ SAN'GUINARY, bloody: attended with much blood-shed: bloodthirsty.--_n._ the yarrow: the blood-root.--_adj._ SAN'GUINELESS, destitute of blood.--_adv._ SAN'GUINELY, hopefully, confidently.--_n._ SAN'GUINENESS, sanguine character, ardour: ruddiness: plethora.--_adj._ SANGUIN'EOUS, sanguine: resembling or constituting blood.--_ns._ SANGUIN'ITY, sanguineness; SANGUIN'OLENCE, SANGUIN'OLENCY.--_adj._ SANGUIN'OLENT, tinged with blood: sanguine.--_ns._ SANGUISORB[=A]'CEÆ, SANGUISOR'BEÆ, a sub-order of _Rosaceæ_, containing about 150 species; SANGUIS[=U]'GA, a genus of leeches.--_adjs._ SANGUIS[=U]'GENT, SANGUIS[=U]'GOUS, blood-sucking; SANGUIV'OLENT, bloodthirsty; SANGUIV'OROUS, feeding on blood, as a vampire--also SANGUINIV'OROUS. [Fr.,--L. _sanguineus_--_sanguis_, _sanguinis_, blood.] SANHEDRIM, SANHEDRIN, san'h[=e]-drim, -drin, _n._ the supreme ecclesiastical and judicial tribunal of the Jews down to 425 A.D.: any similar assembly, a parliament. [Heb. _sanhedrin_--Gr. _synedrion_--_syn_, together, _hedra_, a seat.] SANHITÂ, san'hi-ta, _n._ the name of that portion of the Vedas which contains the Mantras or hymns. SANICLE, san'ik'l, _n._ a plant of the genus _Sanicula_, the common wood-sanicle long supposed to have healing power. [Fr.,--L. _san[=a]re_, to heal.] SANIDINE, san'i-din, _n._ a clear glassy variety of orthoclase. [Gr. _sanis_, _sanidos_, a board.] SANIES, s[=a]'ni-[=e]z, _n._ a thin discharge from wounds or sores.--_adj._ S[=A]'NIOUS. [L.] SANIFY, san'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to make healthy. [L. _sanus_, sound, _fac[)e]re_ to make.] SANITARY, san'i-tar-i, _adj._ pertaining to, tending, or designed to promote health.--_n._ SANIT[=A]'RIAN, a promoter of sanitary reforms.--_adv._ SAN'ITARILY.--_ns._ SAN'ITARY-WARE, coarse-glazed earthenware for sewer-pipes; SANIT[=A]'TION, the science of sanitary conditions and of preserving health, synonymous with Hygiene--usually restricted, however, to the methods and apparatus for making and maintaining houses healthy; SANIT[=O]'RIUM (incorrectly, SANIT[=A]'RIUM), a health station, particularly for troops.--SANITARY SCIENCE, such science as conduces to the preservation of health. SANITY, san'i-ti, _n._ state of being sane: soundness of mind or body. [L. _sanitas_--_sanus_, sane.] SANJAK, san'jak, _n._ an administrative subdivision of a Turkish vilayet or eyalet.--Also SAN'JAK[=A]TE. [Turk.] SANK, sangk, _pa.t._ of sink. SANKHYA, san'kyä, _n._ one of the six great systems of orthodox Hindu philosophy. SANNUP, san'up, _n._ the husband of a squaw: a brave.--Also SANN'OP. [Amer. Ind.] SANS, sanz, _prep._ (_Shak._) without, wanting.--_n._ SANS'-APPEL', a person from whose decision there is no appeal.--SANS NOMBRE (_her._), repeated often, and covering the field; SANS SOUCI, without care: free and easy. [O. Fr. _sans_, _senz_--L. _sine_, without.] SANSA, san'sa, _n._ a musical instrument of percussion, a tambourine. SANSCULOTTE, sanz-k[=oo]-lot', _n._ a name given in scorn, at the beginning of the French Revolution, by the court party to the democratic party in Paris.--_n._ SANSCULOT'TERIE.--_adj._ SANSCULOT'TIC.--_ns._ SANSCULOT'TISM; SANSCULOT'TIST. [Fr. _sansculotte_, _sans_, without--L. _sine_, without, _culotte_, breeches, _cul_, breech--L. _culus_, the breech.] SANSEVIERIA, san-sev-i-[=e]'ri-a, _n._ a genus of monocotyledonous plants of the order _Hæmodoraceæ_, native to southern Africa and the East Indies, yielding _bowstring-hemp_. [Named after the Neapolitan Prince of _Sanseviero_ (1710-71).] SANSKRIT, sans'krit, _n._ the ancient literary language of India, the easternmost branch of the great Indo-Germanic (Indo-European, Aryan) stock of languages.--_n._ SANS'KRITIST, one skilled in Sanskrit. [Sans. _samskrita_, perfected, polished, from Sans. _sam_, together, _krita_, done, perfected, from _kri_, cog. with L. _cre[=a]re_, to create.] SANTA CLAUS, san'ta klawz, _n._ a famous nursery hero, a fat rosy old fellow who brings presents to good children on Christmas Eve. SANTALACEÆ, san-ta-l[=a]'s[=e]-[=e], _n._ an order of apetalous plants, the sandalwood family.--_adjs._ SANTAL[=A]'CEOUS; SANTAL'IC, pertaining to sandalwood.--_ns._ SAN'TALIN, the colouring matter of red sandalwood; SAN'TALUM, the type genus of the sandalwood family. SANTIR, san't[.e]r, _n._ a variety of dulcimer used in the East.--Also SAN'TUR. SANTOLINA, san-t[=o]-l[=i]'na, _n._ a genus of composite plants, of the Mediterranean region, of tribe _Anthemideæ_, including the common lavender-cotton. SANTON, san'ton, _n._ an Eastern dervish or saint. [Sp. _santon_--_santo_, holy--L. _sanctus_, holy.] SANTONINE, son'to-nin, _n._ a colourless crystalline poisonous compound contained in _Santonica_. [Gr. _santonicon_, a wormwood found in the country of the _Santones_ in Gaul.] SAP, sap, _n._ the vital juice of plants: (_bot._) the part of the wood next to the bark: the blood: a simpleton: a plodding student.--_v.i._ to play the part of a ninny: to be studious.--_ns._ SAP'-BEE'TLE a beetle which feeds on sap; SAP'-COL'OUR, a vegetable juice inspissated by slow evaporation, for the use of painters.--_adj._ SAP'FUL, full of sap.--_ns._ SAP'-GREEN, a green colouring matter from the juice of buckthorn berries; SAP'HEAD, a silly fellow.--_adj._ SAP'LESS, wanting sap: not juicy.--_ns._ SAP'LING, a young tree, so called from being full of sap: a young greyhound during the year of his birth until the end of the coursing season which commences in that year; SAP'LING-CUP, an open tankard for drinking new ale; SAP'PINESS.--_adj._ SAP'PY, abounding with sap: juicy: silly.--_ns._ SAP'-TUBE, a vessel that conveys sap; SAP'-WOOD, the outer part of the trunk of a tree, next the bark, in which the sap flows most freely: albumen.--CRUDE SAP, the ascending sap. [A.S. _sæp_; Low Ger. _sapp_, juice, Ger. _saft_.] SAP, sap, _v.t._ to destroy by digging underneath: to undermine: to impair the constitution.--_v.i._ to proceed by undermining:--_pr.p._ sap'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ sapped.--_n._ a narrow ditch or trench by which approach is made from the foremost parallel towards the glacis or covert-way of a besieged place.--_n._ SAP'PER, one who saps. [O. Fr. _sappe_--Low L. _sapa_, a pick, prob. from Gr. _skapan[=e]_, a hoe.] SAPAJOU, sap'a-zh[=oo], _n._ a name sometimes applied to all that division of American monkeys which have a prehensile tail, and sometimes limited to those of them which are of a slender form, as the genera _Ateles_ or spider-monkey, _Cebus_, &c.--Also SAJOU'. SAPERDA, s[=a]-p[.e]r'da, _n._ a genus of long-horned beetles, mostly wood-borers. [Gr. _saperd[=e]s_, a fish.] SAPHENOUS, sa-f[=e]'nus, _adj._ prominent, as a vein of the leg.--_n._ SAPH[=E]'NA, a prominent vein or nerve. [Gr. _saph[=e]n[=e]s_, plain.] SAPID, sap'id, _adj._ well-tasted: savoury: that affects the taste.--_n._ SAPID'ITY, savouriness.--_adj._ SAP'IDLESS, insipid.--_n._ SAP'IDNESS. [Fr.,--_L. sapidus_--_sap[)e]re_, to taste.] SAPIENCE, s[=a]'pi-ens, _n._ discernment: wisdom: knowledge: reason.--_adjs._ S[=A]'PIENT, wise: discerning: sagacious, sometimes used ironically; S[=A]PIEN'TIAL.--_adv._ S[=A]'PIENTLY. [L. _sapiens_, _sapientis_, pr.p. of _sap[)e]re_, to be wise.] SAPINDUS, s[=a]-pin'dus, _n._ a genus of polypetalous trees, as _Soapberry_. [L. _sapo Indicus_, Indian soap.] SAPIUM, s[=a]'pi-um, _n._ a genus of apetalous plants belonging to the _Euphorbiaceæ_, including the Jamaica milkwood or gum-tree, &c. SAPI-UTAN, sap'i-[=oo]'tan, _n._ the wild ox of Celebes.--Also SAP'I-OU'TAN. [Malay, _sapi_, cow, _[=u]t[=a]n_, woods.] SAPO, s[=a]'p[=o], _n._ the toad-fish. [Sp., a toad.] SAPODILLA, sap-[=o]-dil'a, _n._ a name given in the West Indies to the fruit of several species of Achras, the seeds aperient and diuretic, the pulp subacid and sweet. [Sp. _sapotilla_--_sapota_, the sapota-tree.] SAPONACEOUS, sap-o-n[=a]'shus, _adj._ soapy: soap-like.--_n._ SAP[=O]N[=A]'RIA, a genus of polypetalous plants, including the soapwort.--_adj._ SAPON'IF[=I]ABLE.--_n._ SAPONIFIC[=A]'TION, the act or operation of converting into soap.--_v.t._ SAPON'IFY, to convert into soap:--_pr.p._ sapon'ifying; _pa.p._ sapon'ified.--_n._ SAP'ONIN, a vegetable principle, the solution of which froths when shaken, obtained from soapwort, &c. [L. _sapo_, _saponis_, soap.] SAPORIFIC, sap-o-rif'ik, _adj._ giving a taste.--_ns._ S[=A]'POR; SAPOROS'ITY.--_adj._ SAP'[=O]ROUS. [L. _sapor_, _saporis_, taste, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] SAPOTACEÆ, sap-o-t[=a]'s[=e]-[=e], _n._ a natural order of trees and shrubs, often abounding in milky juice, including the gutta-percha tree--one species yields the star-apple, another the Mammee-Sapota or American marmalade. [_Sapodilla._] SAPPAN-WOOD, sa-pan'-w[=oo]d, _n._ the wood of Cæsalpinia sappan, used in dyeing. SAPPER, sap'[.e]r, _n._ a soldier employed in the building of fortifications, &c. SAPPHIC, saf'ik, _adj._ pertaining to _Sappho_, a passionate Greek lyric poetess of Lesbos (_c._ 600 B.C.): denoting a kind of verse said to have been invented by Sappho.--_ns._ SAPPH'IC-STAN'ZA, a metre of Horace, the stanzas of four verses each, three alike, made up of four trochees, with a dactyl in the third place; SAPPH'ISM, unnatural passion between women; SAPPH'[=O], a humming-bird. SAPPHIRE, saf'[=i]r, or saf'ir, _n._ a highly transparent and brilliant precious stone, a variety of Corundum, generally of a beautiful blue colour--the finest found in Ceylon: (_her._) a blue tincture.--_adj._ deep pure blue.--_n._ SAPPH'IRE-WING, a humming-bird.--_adj._ SAPPH'IRINE, made of, or like, sapphire.--GREEN SAPPHIRE, the Oriental emerald; RED SAPPHIRE, the Oriental ruby; VIOLET SAPPHIRE, the Oriental amethyst. [Fr.,--L. _sapphirus_--Gr. _sappheiros_--Heb. _sapp[=i]r_, sapphire.] SAPPING, sap'ing, _n._ the act of excavating trenches. SAPPLES, sap'lz, _n.pl._ (_Scot._) soapsuds. SAPREMIA, sap-r[=e]'mi-a, _n._ a condition of blood-poisoning.--_adjs._ SAPR[=E]'MIC, SAPRÆ'MIC. [Gr. _sapros_, rotten, _haima_, blood.] SAPROGENOUS, sap-roj'e-nus, _adj._ engendered in putridity.--Also SAPROGEN'IC. [Gr. _sapros_, rotten, _-gen[=e]s_, producing.] SAPROHARPAGES, sap-r[=o]-här'pa-j[=e]z, _n._ a group of vultures. [Gr. _sapros_, rotten, _harpax_, a vulture.] SAPROLEGNIA, sap-r[=o]-leg'ni-a, _n._ a genus of fungi, causing a destructive salmon-disease. [Gr. _sapros_, rotten, _legnon_, an edge.] SAP-ROLLER, sap'-r[=o]l'[.e]r, _n._ a gabion employed by sappers in the trenches. SAPROMYZA, sap-r[=o]-m[=i]'za, _n._ a large group of reddish-yellow flies. [Gr. _sapros_, rotten, _myzein_, to suck.] SAPROPHAGOUS, sap-rof'a-gus, _adj._ feeding on decaying matter.--_n._ SAPROPH'AGAN, one of the saprophagous beetles. [Gr. _sapros_, rotten, _phagein_, to eat.] SAPROPHYTE, sap'r[=o]-f[=i]t, _n._ a plant that feeds upon decaying vegetable matter.--_adjs._ SAPROPHYT'IC, SAPROPH'ILOUS.--_adv._ SAPROPHYT'ICALLY.--_n._ SAP'ROPHYTISM. [Gr. _sapros_, rotten, _phyton_, a plant.] SAPROSTOMOUS, sap-ros't[=o]-mus, _adj._ having a foul breath. [Gr. _sapros_, rotten, _stoma_, mouth.] SAP-ROT, sap'-rot, _n._ dry-rot in timber. SAPSAGO, sap's[=a]-g[=o], _n._ a greenish Swiss cheese. [Ger. _schabzieger._] SAP-SHIELD, sap'-sh[=e]ld, _n._ a steel plate for shelter to the sapper. SAP-SUCKER, sap'-suk'[.e]r, _n._ the name in the United States of all the small spotted woodpeckers.--_adj._ SAP'-SUCK'ING. SAPUCAIA, sap-[=oo]-k[=i]'a, _n._ a Brazilian tree, whose urn-shaped fruit contains a number of finely-flavoured oval seeds or nuts. SAPYGA, s[=a]-p[=i]'ga, _n._ a genus of digger-wasps. SARABAND, sar'a-band, _n._ a slow Spanish dance, or the music to which it is danced; a short piece of music, of deliberate character, and with a peculiar rhythm, in ¾-time, the accent being placed on the second crotchet of each measure. [Sp. _zarabanda;_ from Pers. _sarband_, a fillet for the hair.] SARACEN, sar'a-sen, _n._ a name variously employed by medieval writers to designate the Mohammedans of Syria and Palestine, the Arabs generally, or the Arab-Berber races of northern Africa, who conquered Spain and Sicily and invaded France.--_adjs._ SARACEN'IC, -AL.--_n._ SAR'ACENISM.--SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE, a general name for Mohammedan architecture. [O. Fr. _sarracin_, _sarrazin_--Low L. _Saracenus_--Late Gr. _Sarak[=e]nos_--Ar. _sharkeyn_, eastern people, as opposed to _maghribe_, 'western people'--i.e. the people of Morocco.] SARAFAN, sar'a-fan, _n._ a gala-dress. [Russ.] SARANGOUSTY, sar-an-g[=oo]s'ti, _n._ a material used as a preservative of walls, &c., from damp. SARBACAND, sar'ba-känd, _n._ a blow-gun.--Also SAR'BACANE. SARCASM, sär'kazm, _n._ a bitter sneer: a satirical remark in scorn or contempt: irony: a gibe.--_adjs._ SARCAS'TIC, -AL, containing sarcasm: bitterly satirical.--_adv._ SARCAS'TICALLY. [Fr.,--L. _sarcasmus_--Gr. _sarkasmos_--_sarkazein_, to tear flesh like dogs, to speak bitterly--_sarx_, _sarkos_, flesh.] SARCEL, sär'sel, _n._ the pinion of a hawk's wing.--_adjs._ SAR'CELLED (_her._), cut through the middle--also SAR'CELÉ, SAR'CELLÉE; DEM'I-SAR'CELED, -SAR'CELLED, partly cut through. [O. Fr. _cercel_--L. _circellus_, dim. of _circulus_, a circle.] SARCELLE, sar-sel', _n._ a long-tailed duck, a teal. SARCENCHYME, sar-seng'k[=i]m, _n._ one of the soft tissues of sponges.--_adj._ SARCENCHYM'ATOUS. [Gr. _sarx_, flesh, _enchyma_, an infusion.] SARCENET. See SARSENET. SARCINA, sar-s[=i]'na, _n._ a genus of schizomycetous fungi, in which the cocci divide in three planes forming cubical clumps:--_pl._ SARC[=I]'NÆ (-n[=e]).--_adjs._ SARC[=I]'NÆFORM, SARCIN'IC.--_n._ SARCIN'[=U]LA. [L. _sarcina_, a package.] SARCINE, sär'sin, _n._ a nitrogenous substance obtained from the muscular tissue of the horse, ox, hare, &c.--same as _Hypoxanthine_. [Gr. _sarx_, _sarkos_, flesh.] SARCIOPHORUS, sär-si-of'[=o]-rus, _n._ a genus of spur-winged plovers, including the crested wattled lapwings, &c. [Gr. _sarkion_, a piece of flesh, _sarx_, flesh, _pherein_, to bear.] SARCITIS, sar-s[=i]'tis, _n._ myositis. [Gr. _sarx_, flesh.] SARCOBASIS, sär-kob'a-sis, _n._ a fruit consisting of many dry indehiscent cells. [Gr. _sarx_, flesh, _basis_, a base.] SARCOBATUS, sär-kob'a-tus, _n._ an anomalous genus of North American shrubs of the goose-foot family--the only species the _greasewood_ of the western United States. [Gr. _sarx_, flesh, _batis_, samphire.] SARCOBLAST, sär'k[=o]-blast, _n._ the germ of sarcode.--_adj._ SARCOBLAS'TIC. [Gr. _sarx_, flesh, _blastos_, a germ.] SARCOCARP, sär'k[=o]-karp, _n._ (_bot._) the fleshy part of a drupaceous pericarp or a stone-fruit. [Gr. _sarx_, _sarkos_, flesh, _karpos_, fruit.] SARCOCELE, sär'k[=o]-s[=e]l, _n._ a fleshy tumour of the testicle. [Gr. _sarx_, _sarkos_, flesh, _k[=e]l[=e]_, tumour.] SARCOCEPHALUS, sär-k[=o]-sef'-a-lus, _n._ a genus of gamopetalous plants of the natural order _Rubiaceæ_, native to the tropics of Asia and Africa--including the _country-fig_, _Guinea peach_, _African cinchona_, &c. [Gr. _sarx_, _sarkos_, flesh, _kephal[=e]_, the head.] SARCOCOL, sär'k[=o]-kol, _n._ a semi-transparent resin or gum imported from Arabia.--_n._ SARC[=O]COL'LA, a genus of apetalous shrubs of the order _Penæaceæ_, native to South Africa. [Gr., a Persian gum.] SARCOCYSTIS, sär-k[=o]-sis'tis, _n._ a genus of parasitic sporozoa or _Gregarinida_, common but apparently harmless in butcher-meat.--_n._ SARCOCYSTID'IA, the division of sporozoa including the foregoing.--_adj._ SARCOCYSTID'IAN. [Gr. _sarx_, _sarkos_, flesh, _kystis_, the bladder.] SARCODE, sär'k[=o]d, _n._ another term for _protoplasm_.--_n._ SARC[=O]'DES, _n._ a genus of gamopetalous plants of the order _Monotropeæ_; including the Californian _snow-plant_.--_adjs._ SARCOD'IC, SAR'CODOUS; SAR'COID, resembling flesh. [Gr. _sarkod[=e]s_, from _sarx_, flesh, _eidos_, resemblance.] SARCOLEMMA, sär-k[=o]-lem'a, _n._ a membrane which invests striped muscular tissue.--_adj._ SARCOLEMM'IC. [Gr. _sarx_, _sarkos_, flesh, _lemma_, a skin.] SARCOLEMUR, sär'k[=o]-l[=e]-mur, _n._ a genus of extinct Eocene mammals found in North America. [Gr. _sarx_, _sarkos_, flesh, and _lemur_.] SARCOLOBE, sär'k[=o]-l[=o]b, _n._ a thick fleshy cotyledon, as of the bean. [Gr. _sarx_, flesh, _lobos_, a lobe.] SARCOLOGY, sär-kol'o-ji, _n._ the division of anatomy which treats of the soft parts of the body.--_adjs._ SARCOLOG'IC, -AL.--_n._ SARCOL'OGIST. [Gr. _sarx_, _sarkos_, flesh, _logos_, discourse.] SARCOMA, sär-k[=o]'ma, _n._ a tumour or group of tumours, often malignant: any fleshy excrescence: (_bot._) a fleshy disc:--_pl._ SARC[=O]'MATA.--_n._ SARCOMAT[=O]'SIS, sarcomatous degeneration.--_adj._ SARCOM'ATOUS. [Gr. _sark[=o]ma_--_sarx_, flesh.] SARCOPHAGA, sär-kof'a-ga, _n._ a genus of dipterous insects, the flesh-flies: a former division of marsupials.--_adjs._ SARCOPH'AGAL, flesh-devouring; SARCOPH'AGOUS, feeding on flesh.--_n._ SARCOPH'AGY. SARCOPHAGUS, sär-kof'a-gus, _n._ a kind of limestone used by the Greeks for coffins, and so called because it was thought to consume the flesh of corpses: any stone receptacle for a corpse: an 18th-century form of wine-cooler:--_pl._ SARCOPH'AG[=I], SARCOPH'AGUSES. [L.,--Gr. _sarkophagos_--_sarx_, flesh, _phagein_, eat.] SARCOPHILUS, sär-kof'i-lus, _n._ a genus of carnivorous marsupials containing the Tasmanian devil.--_n._ SAR'COPHILE, any animal of this genus.--_adj._ SARCOPH'ILOUS, fond of flesh. [Gr. _sarx_, _sarkos_, flesh, _philein_, to love.] SARCOPHYTE, sär-kof'i-t[=e], _n._ a monotypic genus of parasitic and apetalous plants native to South Africa. [Gr. _sarx_, _sarkos_, flesh, _phyton_, a plant.] SARCOPSYLLA, sär-kop-sil'a, _n._ a genus of American insects, including the jigger or chigoe. [Gr. _sarx_, _sarkos_, flesh, _psylla_, a flea.] SARCOPTES, sär-kop't[=e]z, _n._ the itch-mites.--_adj._ SARCOP'TIC. [Gr. _sarx_, _sarkos_, flesh, _koptein_, to cut.] SARCOSEPTUM, sär-k[=o]-sep'tum, _n._ a soft septum. [Gr. _sarx_, _sarkos_, flesh, and _septum_.] SARCOSIS, sär-k[=o]'sis, _n._ flesh formation: a fleshy tumour. [Gr. _sark[=o]sis_.] SARCOSTEMMA, sär-k[=o]-stem'a, _n._ a genus of gamopetalous plants of the order _Asclepiadeæ_, native to Africa, Asia, and Australia--including the _flesh crown-flower_. [Gr. _sarx_, flesh, _stemma_, wreath.] SARCOSTIGMA, sär-k[=o]-stig'ma, _n._ a genus of polypetalous plants of the order _Olacineæ_--including the _odal-oil plant_. [Gr. _sarx_, flesh, _stigma_, a point.] SARCOSTYLE, sär'k[=o]-st[=i]l, _n._ the mass of sarcode in the sarcotheca of a coelenterate. [Gr. _sarx_, _sarkos_, flesh, _stylos_, a pillar.] SARCOTHECA, sär-k[=o]-th[=e]'ka, _n._ the cup of a thread-cell: a cnida or nematophore. [Gr. _sarx_, _sarkos_, flesh, _th[=e]k[=e]_, a sheath.] SARCOTIC, sär-kot'ik, _adj._ causing flesh to grow.--_adj._ SAR'COUS, fleshy. [Gr. _sark[=o]tikos_--_sarkousthai_, to produce flesh--_sarx_, flesh.] SARD, särd, _n._ a variety of quartz, differing from cornelian only in its very deep-red colour, blood-red by transmitted light.--_n._ SAR'DACH[=A]TE, a kind of agate containing layers of sard. [Gr. _sardios_ (_lithos_), the Sardian (stone)--_Sardeis_, Sardis, in Lydia.] SARDA, sär'da, _n._ a genus of scombroid fishes, the bonitos. [Gr. _sard[=e]_, a fish.] SARDEL, SARDELLE, sär'del, _n._ a slender herring-like fish. [O. Fr. _sardelle_--L. _sarda_.] SARDINE, sär-d[=e]n', _n._ a small fish of the herring family, abundant about the island of _Sardinia_, potted with olive-oil for export, the pilchard: a petty character. [Fr., (It. _sardina_)--L. _sarda_, _sardina_--Gr. _sard[=e]n[=e]_.] SARDINE, sär'din, _n._ the same as SARD.--Also SAR'DIUS. [O. Fr. _sardine_.] SARDONIC, sär-don'ik, _adj._ forced, heartless, or bitter, said of a forced unmirthful laugh--(_obs._) SARD[=O]'NIAN.--_adv._ SARDON'ICALLY. [Fr. _sardonique_--L. _sardonius_, _sardonicus_--Gr. _sardanios_, referred to _sardonion_, a plant of Sardinia (Gr. _Sard[=o]_), which was said to screw up the face of the eater, but more prob. from Gr. _sairein_, to grin.] SARDONYX, sär'd[=o]-niks, _n._ a variety of onyx consisting of layers of light-coloured chalcedony alternating with reddish layers of cornelian or sard: (_her._) a tincture of sanguine colour when the blazoning is done by precious stones. [Gr. _sardonyx_--_Sardios_, Sardian, _onyx_, a nail.] SARGASSO, sär-gas'o, _n._ a genus of seaweeds, of which two species are found floating in immense quantities in some parts of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans--gulf-weed.--_n._ SARGASS'UM. [Sp.] SARGUS, sär'gus, _n._ a genus of sparoid fishes of the sub-family SARGI'NA. [Gr. _sargos_, a mullet.] SARI, sär'i, _n._ a Hindu woman's chief garment, consisting of a long piece of silk or cotton cloth wrapped round the middle: any long scarf. [Hind.] SARIGUE, sa-r[=e]g', _n._ a South American opossum. [Fr.,--Braz.] SARK, särk, _n._ a shirt or chemise: the body garment. [A.S. _syrce_; Ice. _serkr_.] SARKING, sär'king, _n._ (_Scot._) thin boards for lining, the boarding on which slates are laid. SARKINITE, sär'ki-n[=i]t, _n._ a hydrous arseniate of manganese. [Gr. _sarkinos_, fleshy, _sarx_, _sarkos_, flesh.] SARLAK, sär'lak, _n._ the yak.--Also SAR'LAC, SAR'LYK. SARMATIAN, sär-m[=a]'shi-an, _adj._ pertaining to the race who spoke the same language as the Scythians, and who are believed to have been of Median descent and so Iranian in stock, though some authorities think they belonged to the Ural-Altaic family: Polish, the term _Sarmatia_ being sometimes rhetorically applied to Poland. SARMATIER, sär-ma-ti-[=a]', _n._ a dark-coloured polecat of eastern Europe. SARMENT, sär'ment, _n._ (_bot._) a prostrate filiform stem or runner, as of a strawberry.--_adjs._ SARMEN'TOSE, SARMEN'TOUS, having sarmenta or runners.--_n._ SARMEN'TUM, a runner. [L. _sarmentum_, a twig--_sarp[)e]re_, to prune.] SARN, särn, _n._ a pavement. [W. _sarn_.] SAROH, sar'[=o], _n._ an Indian musical instrument with three metal strings. SARONG, sa-rong', _n._ a garment covering the lower half of the body. [Malay.] SAROS, s[=a]'ros, _n._ a Babylonian numeral=3600: an astronomical cycle of 6585 days and 8 hours. SAROTHRUM, sa-r[=o]'thrum, _n._ a brush of stiff hairs on the leg of a bee:--_pl._ SAR[=O]'THRA. [Gr. _sar[=o]tron_, a broom.] SARPLAR, sär'plär, _n._ (_obs._) packing-cloth: a large bale of wool containing 2240 pounds.--Also SAR'PLER, SAR'PLIER. [O. Fr. _serpilliere_--Low L. _serapellinus_--L. _xerampelinæ_ (_vestes_), of the colour of dead vine-leaves, dark-red (clothes)--Gr. _x[=e]rampelinos_, _x[=e]ros_, dry, _ampelinos_--_ampelos_, a vine.] SARRACENIA, sär-a-s[=e]'ni-a, _n._ a genus of polypetalous plants--the _side-saddle flower_, _pitcher-plant_. [Named from Dr _Sarrazin_, who first sent them to Europe from Quebec.] SARRASIN, sär'a-sin, _n._ a portcullis.--Also SAR'ASIN. SARRAZIN, sär'a-zin, _n._ buckwheat--_Saracen_ wheat. SARRUSOPHONE, sa-rus'[=o]-f[=o]n, _n._ a musical instrument of the oboe class. [From the inventor, a French bandmaster named _Sarrus_.] SARSAPARILLA, sär-sa-pa-ril'a, _n._ the dried root of several species of _Smilax_, native to tropical America, yielding a medicinal decoction.--Also SAR'SA. [Sp.,--_zarza_, bramble (prob. Basque, _sartzia_), _parilla_, a dim. of _parra_, a vine.] SARSEN, sär'sen, _n._ a local name for the old inhabitants who worked the tin-mines in Cornwall and Devonshire--(the piles of old mining refuse are called _attal-Sarsen_ and _Jews' leavings_).--Also SARS'DEN-STONE, SAR'ACEN'S-STONE, a name given to the Greywethers of Cornwall. SARSENET, särs'net, _n._ a thin tissue of fine silk, plain or twilled, used for ladies' dresses and for linings, said to have been introduced from the East in the 13th century.--Also SAR'CENET, SARS'NET. [O. Fr. _sarcenet_--Low L. _Saracenatus_, and _Saracenicus_ (_pannus_), Saracen (cloth)--_Saracenus_, _Saracen_.] SARSIA, sär'si-a, _n._ a genus of jelly-fishes. [Named from Professor _Sars_ of Christiania.] SARTAGE, sär't[=a]j, _n._ the clearing of woodland for agricultural purposes.--_n._ SART, a strip of such. SARTORIUS, sär-t[=o]'ri-us, _n._ the muscle of the thigh by which the one leg is thrown across the other.--_n._ SAR'TOR, a tailor.--_adj._ SART[=O]'RIAL, pertaining to a tailor or tailoring. [L. _sartor_, a tailor.] SASH, sash, _n._ a band, ribbon, or scarf, worn as a badge or ornament, or a badge of distinction worn by officers--also _v.t._--_n._ SASH'ERY, sashes collectively. [Pers. _shast_, a turban.] SASH, sash, _n._ a case or frame for panes of glass.--_v.t._ to furnish with sashes.--_ns._ SASH'-DOOR, a door having panes of glass; SASH'-FRAME, the frame in which the sash of a window is suspended; SASH'-WINDOW, a glazed window in which the glass is set in a sash.--FRENCH SASH, a casement swinging on hinges. [Fr. _châsse_--L. _capsa_, a case.] SASIA, s[=a]'si-a, _n._ a genus of Indian pigmy woodpeckers. SASIN, sas'in, _n._ the common Indian antelope. SASINE, s[=a]'sin, _n._ (_Scots law_) the act of giving legal possession of feudal property, infeftment: a form of seizin. [Fr. _saisine_--_saisir_, occupy.] SASS, sas, _n._ (_coll._) impudence: vegetables used in making sauces.--_v.i._ to be insolent in replies. SASSABY, sas'a-bi, _n._ the bastard hartebeest of South Africa. SASSAFRAS, sas'a-fras, _n._ a tree of the laurel family, common in North America; also the bark of its root, a powerful stimulant.--SASSAFRAS OIL, a volatile aromatic oil distilled from the sassafras. [Fr. _sassafras_--Sp. _sasafras_--L. _saxifraga_--_saxum_, a stone, _frang[)e]re_, to break.] SASSANID, sas'a-nid, _n._ one of the Sassanidæ, the dynasty which ruled Persia from 218 A.D. to 639.--_adj._ SASS[=A]'NIAN. SASSARARA. Same as SISERARY. SASSE, sas, _n._ a sluice on a navigable river. [Dut.] SASSENACH, sas'e-nah, _n._ a Saxon: an Englishman: a Lowlander. [Gael. _Sasunnach_.] SASSOLIN, sas'[=o]-lin, _n._ native boracic acid--first found near _Sasso_ in Florence.--Also SASS'OLITE. SASSOROL, sas'[=o]-rol, _n._ the rock-pigeon.--Also SASSOROL'LA. SAT, sat, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _sit_. SATAN, s[=a]'tan, _n._ the enemy of men: the devil: the chief of the fallen angels.--_adjs._ S[=A]TAN'IC, -AL, pertaining to, or like, Satan: devilish.--_adv._ S[=A]TAN'ICALLY, diabolically: with malice or wickedness suiting the devil.--_ns._ S[=A]TAN'ICALNESS, the quality of being fiendishly malicious or wicked; S[=A]'TANISM, the devilish disposition; S[=A]TANOPH'ANY, an appearance or incarnation of Satan; S[=A]TANOPH[=O]'BIA, fear of the devil; S[=A]TH'ANAS, Satan; S[=A]TAN'ITY. [O. Fr. _Sathan_, _Sathanas_--Low L. _Satan_, _Satanas_--Heb. _s[=a]t[=a]n_, enemy--_s[=a]tan_, to be adverse.] SATARA, sat'a-ra, _n._ a ribbed, hot-pressed, and lustred woollen cloth. SATCHEL, sach'el, _n._ a small sack or bag, esp. for papers, books, &c. [Older form _sachel_--O. Fr. _sachel_--L. _saccellus_, dim. of _saccus_.] SATE, s[=a]t, _v.t._ to satisfy or give enough: to glut.--_adj._ SATE'LESS, insatiable. [L. _sati[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_satis_, enough.] SATE, sat. Same as SAT, _pa.t._ of _sit_. SATEEN, sa-t[=e]n', _n._ a glossy worsted, cotton, or even woollen fabric.--Also SATTEEN'. SATELLITE, sat'el-l[=i]t, _n._ an obsequious follower: one of the small members of the solar system, attendant on the larger planets, by which their motions are controlled.--_ns._ SAT'ELLITE-SPHINX, a large hawk-moth; SAT'ELLITE-VEIN, a vein accompanying an artery; SATELLI'TIUM, an escort. [Fr.,--L. _satelles_, _satellitis_, an attendant.] SATIATE, s[=a]'shi-[=a]t, _v.t._ to satisfy or give enough: to gratify fully: to glut.--_adj._ glutted.--_n._ S[=A]TIABIL'ITY.--_adj._ S[=A]'TIABLE, that may be satiated.--_ns._ S[=A]TI[=A]'TION; S[=A]T[=I]'ETY, state of being satiated: surfeit. [L. _sati[=a]ra_, _-[=a]tum_--_satis_, enough.] SATIN, sat'in, _n._ a closely woven silk with a lustrous and unbroken surface, sometimes figured.--_adj._ made of satin: resembling satin.--_v.t._ to make smooth and glossy like satin.--_ns._ SAT'IN-BIRD, the satin bower-bird; SAT'IN-CAR'PET, a particular kind of moth; SAT'IN-DAM'ASK, a satin with an elaborate flower or arabesque pattern, sometimes raised in velvet pile; SAT'IN-DE-LAINE', a thin glossy woollen fabric, a variety of cassimere; SAT'INET, a thin species of satin: a cloth with a cotton warp and woollen weft; SAT'INET-LOOM, a loom used for heavy goods, as twills, satinets, &c.; SAT'IN-FIN'ISH, a finish resembling satin: a lustrous finish produced on silver by the scratch-brush, by the process called _Satining_; SAT'INING-MACHINE', a machine for giving a smooth surface to paper; SAT'IN-LEAF, the common alum-root; SAT'IN-LISSE, a cotton dress-fabric with satiny surface, usually printed with delicate patterns; SAT'IN-P[=A]'PER, a fine, glossy writing-paper; SAT'IN-SHEET'ING, twilled cotton fabric with a satin surface; SAT'IN-SPAR, a variety of calcite with a pearly lustre when polished; SAT'IN-SPARR'OW, an Australian fly-catcher; SAT'IN-STITCH, an embroidery stitch, flat or raised, repeated in parallel lines, giving a satiny appearance and making both sides alike; SAT'IN-STONE, a fibrous gypsum used by lapidaries; SAT'INWOOD, a beautiful ornamental wood from East and West Indies, having a smooth, satiny texture.--_adj._ SAT'INY, like, or composed of, satin. [Fr. _satin_ (It. _setino_)--Low. L. _setinus_, adj.--L. _seta_, hair.] SATINÉ, sat-i-n[=a]', _n._ a reddish hard wood of French Guiana. SATIRE, sat'[=i]r, or sat'ir, _n._ a literary composition, orig. in verse, essentially a criticism of man and his works, whom it holds up either to ridicule or scorn--its chief instruments, irony, sarcasm, invective, wit and humour: an invective poem: severity of remark, denunciation: ridicule.--_adjs._ SATIR'IC, -AL, pertaining to, or conveying, satire: sarcastic: abusive.--_adv._ SATIR'ICALLY.--_n._ SATIR'ICALNESS, the state or quality of being satirical.--_v.t._ SAT'IR[=I]SE, to make the object of satire: to censure severely.--_n._ SAT'IRIST, a writer of satire. [Fr.,--L. _satira_, _satura_ (_lanx_, a dish), a full dish, a medley.] SATISFY, sat'is-f[=i], _v.t._ to give enough to: to supply fully: to please fully: to discharge: to free from doubt: to convince.--_v.i._ to give content: to supply fully: to make payment:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ sat'isfied.--_n._ SATISFAC'TION, state of being satisfied: gratification: comfort: that which satisfies: amends: atonement: payment, quittance: conviction: repairing a wrong, as by a duel.--_adj._ SATISFAC'TIVE (_obs._).--_adv._ SATISFAC'TORILY.--_n._ SATISFAC'TORINESS.--_adjs._ SATISFAC'TORY, satisfying: giving contentment: making amends or payment: atoning: convincing; SATISF[=I]'ABLE, capable of being satisfied.--_n._ SAT'ISF[=I]ER.--_adj._ SAT'ISFYING, satisfactory.--_adv._ SAT'ISFYINGLY.--SATISFACTION THEORY (of the Atonement), the ordinary theory of Catholic orthodoxy that Christ made satisfaction to Divine justice for the guilt of human sin by suffering as the human representative, and that thus Divine forgiveness was made possible. [Fr. _satisfaire_--L. _satisfac[)e]re_, _satis_, enough, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] SATIVE, s[=a]'tiv, _adj._ sown as in a garden. [L. _sativus_--_ser[)e]re_, to sow.] SATRAP, s[=a]'trap, or sat'rap, _n._ a Persian viceroy or ruler of one of the greater provinces:--_fem._ S[=A]'TRAPESS.--_adjs._ SAT'RAPAL, relating to a satrap or to a satrapy; S[=A]'TRAP-CROWNED, crested, like the golden-crested wren of North America.--_n._ SAT'RAPY, the government of a satrap. [Gr. _satrap[=e]s_, from Old Pers. _khshatrap[=a]_ or Zend _sh[=o]ithra-paiti_--ruler of a region--_sh[=o]ithra_, a region, _paiti_, a chief.] SATURATE, sat'[=u]-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to fill: to unite with till no more can be received: to fill to excess: to soak: (_opt._) to render pure, or of a colour free from white light.--_adjs._ SAT'[=U]RABLE, that may be saturated; SAT'[=U]RANT, saturating; SAT'[=U]RATE, saturated: (_entom._) very intense, as 'saturate green.'--_ns._ SAT'[=U]R[=A]TER; SAT[=U]R[=A]'TION, act of saturating: state of being saturated: the state of a body when quite filled with another. [L. _satur[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_satur_, full, akin to _satis_, enough.] SATURDAY, sat'ur-d[=a], _n._ the seventh or last day of the week, dedicated by the Romans to Saturn: the Jewish Sabbath. [A.S. _Sæter-dæg_, _Sætern-dæg_, day of Saturn--L. _Saturnus_.] SATUREIA, sat-[=u]-r[=e]'i-a, _n._ a genus of gamopetalous plants of the order _Labiatæ_--savory. SATURN, sat'urn, or s[=a]'-, _n._ the ancient Roman god of agriculture: one of the planets: (_her._) a tincture, in colour black.--_n.pl._ SATURN[=A]'LIA, the annual festival in honour of Saturn, a time of unrestrained license and enjoyment.--_adjs._ SATURN[=A]'LIAN, pertaining to the Saturnalia: riotously merry: dissolute; SATUR'NIAN, pertaining to Saturn, whose fabulous reign was called 'the golden age:' happy: pure: simple: denoting the verse in which the oldest Latin poems were written; SAT'URNINE, grave: gloomy: phlegmatic--those born under the planet Saturn being so disposed: pertaining to lead.--_n._ SAT'URNIST (_obs._), a gloomy person.--SATURN'S RING, a ring round and near the planet; SATURN'S TREE, an arborescent deposit of lead from a solution of lead acetate. [_Saturnus_--_ser[)e]re_, _satum_, to sow.] SATURNIA, s[=a]-tur'ni-a, _n._ a genus of bombycid moths. SATURNIA, s[=a]-tur'ni-a, _n._ lead poisoning, plumbism. SATURNITE, sat'ur-n[=i]t, _n._ a mineral substance containing lead. SATYR, sat'[.e]r, or s[=a]'t[.e]r, _n._ a silvan deity, represented as part man and part goat, and extremely wanton: a very lecherous person: a species of butterfly.--_ns._ SAT'YRAL (_her._), a monster with a human head and the limbs of different animals; SATYR[=I]'ASIS, morbid lasciviousness in men, corresponding to nymphomania in women--also SATYROM[=A]'NIA.--_adjs._ SATYR'IC, -AL, pertaining to satyrs.--_ns._ SATYR[=I]'NÆ, the argus butterflies; SATYR'IUM, a genus of small flowered orchids; SAT'YRUS, the genus of orangs--simia. [L. _satyrus_--Gr. _satyros_.] SAUBA-ANT, saw'ba-ant, _n._ a South American leaf-carrying ant. SAUCE, saws, _n._ a liquid seasoning for food, consisting of salt, &c.: fruit stewed with sugar: a relish: impudence.--_v.t._ to put sauce in to relish: to make poignant: to gratify the palate: to treat with bitter or pert language: to make suffer.--_ns._ SAUCE'-ALONE', a cruciferous plant with a strong garlic smell, Jack-by-the-hedge; SAUCE'-BOAT, a vessel with a spout for holding sauce; SAUCE'-BOX, an impudent person; SAUCE'-CRAY'ON, a soft, black pastel used for backgrounds; SAUCE'PAN, a pan in which sauce or any small thing is boiled; SAUCE'PAN-FISH, the king-crab.--POOR MAN'S SAUCE, hunger; SERVE ONE WITH THE SAME SAUCE, to requite one injury with another, to make to suffer. [Fr. _sauce_--L. _salsa_, neut. pl. of _salsus_, pa.p. of _sal[=i]re_, _salsum_, to salt--_sal_, salt.] SAUCER, saw's[.e]r, _n._ the shallow platter for a tea or coffee cup: anything resembling a saucer, as a socket of iron for the pivot of a capstan: (_orig._) a small vessel to hold sauce.--_adj._ SAU'CER-EYED, having large round eyes. [O. Fr. _saussiere_--Low L. _salsarium_--L. _salsa_, sauce.] SAUCH, SAUGH, sawh, _n._ (_Scot._) the willow. [_Sallow_.] SAUCISSE, s[=o]-s[=e]s', _n._ a bag filled with powder for use in mines.--Also SAUCISSON'. [Fr.] SAUCY, saw'si, _adj._ (_comp._ SAU'CIER, _superl._ SAU'CIEST) sharp: pungent: insolent: overbearing: wanton: impudent, pert.--_adv._ SAU'CILY.--_n._ SAU'CINESS. [_Sauce_.] SAUER-KRAUT, sour'-krout, _n._ a German dish consisting of cabbage sliced fine and suffered to ferment in a cask with salt, juniper-berries, cumin-seed, caraway-seeds, &c. [Ger.] SAUFGARD, sawf'gärd, _n._ (_Spens._). _Safeguard_. SAUGER, saw'g[.e]r, _n._ the smaller American pike-fish. SAUL, a Scotch form of _soul_. SAULGE, sawlj, _adj._ (_Spens._) sage. SAULIE, saw'li, _n._ (_Scot._) a hired mourner.--Also SALL'IE. SAULT, sawlt, _n._ (_obs._) a leap: an assault. SAULT, s[=o], _n._ a rapid in some Canadian rivers. [Fr.] SAUNT, a Scotch form of _saint_. SAUNTER, sawn't[.e]r, _v.i._ to wander about idly: to loiter: to lounge: to stroll: to dawdle.--_n._ a sauntering: a place for sauntering: a leisurely ramble.--_ns._ SAUN'TERER; SAUN'TERING.--_adv._ SAUN'TERINGLY. [M. E. _saunteren_--Anglo-Fr. _sauntrer_, to adventure out. Cf. _Adventure_. Sometimes erroneously explained as from Fr. _sainte terre_, holy land, from pilgrimages.] SAURIAN, saw'ri-an, _n._ a reptile or animal covered with scales, as the lizard.--_adj._ pertaining to, or of the nature of, a saurian.--_n.pl._ SAU'RIA, a division of reptiles formerly including lizards, crocodiles, dinosaurians, pterodactyls, &c.: a scaly reptile with legs, a lacertilian: one of the sauropsida.--_n._ SAURAN'ODON, a genus of toothless reptiles, whose fossil remains are found in the Rocky Mountains.--_adj._ SAURAN'ODONT.--_ns._ SAURICH'NITE, the fossil track of a saurian; SAUR'[=O]DON, a genus of fossil fishes of the Cretaceous age.--_adj._ SAUR'OID, resembling the lizard: reptilian.--_n._ SAUROM'ALUS, a genus of plump lizards, including the alderman-lizard.--_n.pl._ SAUROP'ODA, an order of lizards containing gigantic dinosaurs.--_adj._ SAUROP'ODOUS.--_n.pl._ SAUROP'SIDA, the monocondyla, including birds and reptiles.--_adj._ SAUROP'SIDAN.--_n.pl._ SAUROPTERYG'IA, an order of fossil saurians, usually called _Plesiosauria_.--_adj._ SAUROPTERYG'IAN. [Gr. _saura_, _sauros_, the lizard.] SAURLESS, sawr'les, _adj._ (_Scot._) savourless: tasteless. SAUROGNATHÆ, saw-rog'n[=a]-th[=e], _n.pl._ a family of birds containing the woodpeckers and their allies.--_n._ SAUROG'N[=A]THISM, the peculiar arrangement of the bones of their palates.--_adj._ SAUROG'N[=A]THOUS. [Gr. _sauros_, a lizard, gnathos, the jaw.] SAUROPHAGOUS, saw-rof'a-gus, _adj._ feeding on reptiles. [Gr. _sauros_, a lizard, _phagein_, to eat.] SAUROTHERINÆ, saw-r[=o]-th[=e]-r[=i]'n[=e], _n.pl._ the ground-cuckoos, a sub-family of _Cuculidæ_, the typical genus SAUROTH[=E]'RA. [Gr. _sauros_, a lizard, _th[=e]r_, a beast.] SAURURÆ, saw-r[=oo]'r[=e], _n.pl._ a sub-class or order of Aves, of Jurassic age, based upon the genus _Archæopteryx_--also called SAUROR'NITHES.--_adj._ SAURU'ROUS, lizard-tailed, as the foregoing birds. SAURURUS, saw-r[=oo]'rus, _n._ a genus of apetalous plants of the order _Piperaceæ_.--_n.pl._ SAURU'R[=E]Æ, a family of these. [Gr. _sauros_, a lizard, _oura_, a tail.] SAURUS, saw'rus, _n._ the genus of lizard-fishes. SAURY, saw'ri, _n._ the skipper, a species of the family _Scomberesocidæ_, with elongated body and head, the jaws produced into a sharp beak. SAUSAGE, saw's[=a]j, _n._ a gut stuffed with chopped meat salted and seasoned.--_n._ SAU'SAGE-POI'SONING, poisoning by spoiled sausages. [Fr. _saucisse_--Low L. _salcitia_--L. _salsus_, salted.] SAUSSUREA, saw-s[=u]'r[=e]-a, _n._ a genus of composite plants of the order _Cynaroideæ_. [Named after the Swiss botanists, H. B. de _Saussure_ (1740-99), and his son, Nic. Théodore de _Saussure_ (1767-1845).] SAUSSURITE, saw-s[=u]'r[=i]t, _n._ a fine-grained compact mineral, of grayish colour.--_adj._ SAUSSURIT'IC. SAUT, sawt, a Scotch form of _salt_. SAUTER, s[=o]-t[=a]', _v.t._ to fry lightly and quickly. [Fr.] SAUTEREAU, s[=o]-te-r[=o]', _n._ the jack or hopper of a pianoforte, &c. [Fr.] SAUTERELLE, s[=o]-te-rel', _n._ an instrument for tracing angles. [Fr.] SAUTERNE, s[=o]-t[.e]rn', _n._ an esteemed white wine produced at Sauterne, in the Gironde, France. SAUTOIRE, SAUTOIR, s[=o]-twor', _n._ (_her._) a ribbon worn diagonally. [_Saltier_.] SAUVAGESIA, saw-v[=a]-j[=e]'si-a, _n._ a genus of polypetalous plants of the violet family. [Named from the French botanist P. A. Boissier de la Croix de _Sauvages_ (1710-95).] SAUVEGARDE, s[=o]v'gärd, _n._ a monitor-lizard: a safeguard. [Fr.] SAVAGE, sav'[=a]j, _adj._ wild: uncivilised: fierce: cruel: brutal: (_her._) nude: naked.--_n._ a human being in a wild state: a brutal, fierce, or cruel person: a barbarian.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to make savage, to play the savage.--_n._ SAV'AGEDOM, a savage state: savages collectively.--_adv._ SAV'AGELY.--_ns._ SAV'AGENESS; SAV'AGERY, fierceness: ferocity: wild growth of plants; SAV'AGISM. [O. Fr. _salvage_--L. _silvaticus_, pertaining to the woods--_silva_, a wood.] SAVANNA, SAVANNAH, sa-van'a, _n._ a tract of level land, covered with low vegetation: a treeless plain.--_ns._ SAVANN'A-FLOW'ER, a genus of the milk-weed family, West Indies; SAVANN'A-SPARR'OW, the sparrow common through North America; SAVANN'A-WATT'LE, a name of certain West Indian trees, also called _Fiddlewood_. [Sp. _savana_, _sabana_, a sheet, a meadow--Low L. _sabanum_--Gr. _sabanon_, a linen cloth.] SAVANT, sav-ang', _n._ a learned man. [Fr., pr.p. of _savoir_, to know.] SAVE, s[=a]v, _v.t._ to bring safe out of evil: to rescue: to reserve: to spare: to deliver from the power of sin and from its consequences: to husband: to hoard: to be in time for: to obviate, to prevent something worse.--_v.i._ to be economical.--_prep._ except.--_adjs._ SAV'ABLE, SAVE'ABLE.--_ns._ SAV'ABLENESS; SAVE'-ALL, a contrivance intended to save anything from being wasted.--_v.t._ SAVE'GUARD (_Spens._), to protect.--_ns._ S[=A]'VER, one who saves; SAVE'-REV'ERENCE, or _Sir-reverence_, an apologetic phrase in conversation to cover anything offensive.--_adj._ S[=A]'VING, disposed to save or be economical: incurring no loss: preserving from wrong: frugal: implying a condition, as a saving clause: exceptional: (_theol._) securing salvation.--_prep._ excepting.--_n._ that which is saved: (_pl._) earnings.--_adv._ S[=A]'VINGLY, so as to secure salvation.--_ns._ S[=A]'VINGNESS; S[=A]'VINGS-BANK, a bank for the receipt of small deposits by poor persons, and their accumulation at compound interest.--SAVE APPEARANCES, to keep up an appearance of wealth, comfort, or propriety. [Fr. _sauver_--L. _salv[=a]re_--_salvus_, safe.] SAVELOY, sav'e-loi, _n._ a kind of sausage made of meat chopped and seasoned, orig. of brains. [Fr. _cervelat_, _cervelas_, a saveloy--It. _cervelata_--_cervello_, brain--L. _cerebellum_, dim. of _cerebrum_, the brain.] SAVIGNY, sa-v[=e]'nyi, _n._ a red wine of Burgundy. SAVIN, SAVINE, sav'in, _n._ a low much-branched and widely-spreading shrub (_Juniperus Sabina_), with very small imbricated evergreen leaves, its fresh tops yielding an irritant volatile oil, anthelmintic and abortifacient: the American red cedar. [O. Fr. _sabine_--L. _sabina_ (_herba_), Sabine herb.] SAVIOUR, s[=a]'vyur, _n._ one who saves from evil: a deliverer, a title applied to Jesus Christ, who saves men from the power and penalty of sin. SAVOIR-FAIRE, sav-wor-f[=a]r', _n._ the faculty of knowing just what to do and how to do it: tact. [Fr.] SAVOIR-VIVRE, sav-wor-v[=e]'vr, _n._ good breeding: knowledge of polite usages. [Fr.] SAVONETTE, sav-[=o]-net', _n._ a kind of toilet soap: a West Indian tree whose bark serves as soap. SAVORY, s[=a]'vor-i, _n._ a genus of plants of the natural order _Labiatæ_, nearly allied to thyme. The Common Savory gives an aromatic pungent flavour to viands. [_Savour._] SAVOUR, SAVOR, s[=a]'vur, _n._ taste: odour: scent: (_B._) reputation: characteristic property: pleasure.--_v.i._ to have a particular taste or smell: to be like: to smack.--_v.t._ to smell: to relish: to season.--_adv._ S[=A]'VOURILY.--_n._ S[=A]'VOURINESS.--_adjs._ S[=A]'VOURLESS, wanting savour; S[=A]'VOURLY, well seasoned: of good taste; S[=A]'VOURY, having savour or relish: pleasant: with gusto: morally pleasant. [Fr. _saveur_--L. _sapor_--_sap[)e]re_, to taste.] SAVOY, sa-voi', _n._ a cultivated winter variety of cabbage, forming a large close head like the true cabbage, but having wrinkled leaves--originally from _Savoy_.--_ns._ SAVOY'ARD, a native of Savoy, since 1860 part of France; SAVOY'-MED'LAR, a tree related to the June-berry or shad-bush. SAVVY, SAVVEY, sav'i, _v.t._ to know: to understand.--_v.i._ to possess knowledge.--_n._ general ability. [Sp. _sabe_--_saber_, to know--L. _sap[)e]re_, to be wise.] SAW, saw, _pa.t._ of _see_. SAW, saw, _n._ an instrument for cutting, formed of a blade, band, or disc of thin steel, with a toothed edge.--_v.t._ to cut with a saw.--_v.i._ to use a saw: to be cut with a saw:--_pa.t._ sawed; _pa.p._ sawed or sawn.--_ns._ SAW'-BACK, the larva of an American bombycid moth; SAW'-BONES, a slang name for a surgeon; SAW'DUST, dust or small pieces of wood, &c., made in sawing; SAW'ER; SAW'-FILE, a three-cornered file used for sharpening the teeth of saws; SAW'-FISH, a genus of cartilaginous fishes distinguished by the prolongation of the snout into a formidable weapon bordered on each side by sharp teeth; SAW'-FLY, the common name of a number of hymenopterous insects, injurious to plants; SAW'-FRAME, the frame in which a saw is set; SAW'-GRASS, a marsh plant of the southern states of the American Union, with long slender leaves; SAW'-HORN, any insect with serrate antennæ; SAW'MILL, a mill for sawing timber; SAW'PIT, a pit where wood is sawed; SAW'-SET, an instrument for turning the teeth of saws alternately right and left; SAW'-SHARP'ENER, the greater titmouse; SAW'-T[=A]'BLE, the platform of a sawing-machine; SAW'-TEM'PERING, the process by which the requisite hardness and elasticity are given to a saw.--_adj._ SAW'-TOOTHED, having teeth like those of a saw: (_bot._) having tooth-like notches, as a leaf.--_ns._ SAW'-WHET, the Acadian owl; SAW'-WHET'TER, the marsh titmouse; SAW'YER, one who saws timber: a stranded tree in a river in America: any wood-boring larva: the bowfin fish. [A.S. _saga_; Ger. _säge_.] SAW, saw, _n._ a saying: a proverb: a degree: a joke. [A.S. _sagu_--_secgan_, to say.] SAW, saw, _n._ (_Scot._) salve. SAWDER, saw'd[.e]r, _n._ flattery, blarney. SAWNEY, SAWNY, saw'ni, _n._ a Scotchman. [For _Sandy_ from _Alexander_.] SAX, saks, _n._ a knife, a dagger: a slate-cutter's hammer. [A.S. _seax_, a knife.] SAX, a Scotch form of _six_. SAXATILE, sak'sa-til, _adj._ rock inhabiting. [L. _saxatilis_--_saxum_, a rock.] SAXE, saks, _n._ (_phot._) a German albuminised paper. SAXHORN, saks'horn, _n._ a brass wind-instrument having a long winding tube with bell opening, invented by Antoine or Adolphe _Sax_, of Paris, about 1840. SAXICAVA, sak-sik'a-va, _n._ a genus of bivalve molluscs.--_adj._ SAXIC'AVOUS. [L. _saxum_, a rock, _cavus_, hollow.] SAXICOLA, sak-sik'[=o]-la, _n._ the stone-chats: the wheat-ear.--_adjs._ SAXIC'[=O]LINE, SAXIC'[=O]LOUS, living among rocks. [L. _saxum_, a rock, _col[)e]re_, inhabit.] SAXIFRAGE, sak'si-fr[=a]j, _n._ a genus of plants of the natural order _Saxifrageæ_ or _Saxifragaceæ_, its species chiefly mountain and rock plants.--_adjs._ SAXIFRAG[=A]'CEOUS, SAXIF'R[=A]GAL, SAXIF'R[=A]GANT, SAXIF'R[=A]GOUS.--_n._ SAXIF'R[=A]GINE, a gunpowder in which barium nitrate takes the place of sulphur.--_adj._ SAXIG'ENOUS, growing on rocks.--BURNET SAXIFRAGE, the _Pimpinella Saxifraga_, whose leaves are eaten as a salad; GOLDEN SAXIFRAGE, a low half-succulent herb with yellow flowers. [Fr.,--L. _saxum_, a stone, _frang[)e]re_, to break.] SAXON, saks'un, _n._ one of the people of North Germany who conquered England in the 5th and 6th centuries: the language of the Saxons: one of the English race: a native or inhabitant of Saxony in its later German sense: a Lowlander of Scotland: modern English.--_adj._ pertaining to the Saxons, their language, country, or architecture.--_n._ SAX'ONDOM, the Anglo-Saxon world.--_adj._ SAXON'IC.--_v.t._ SAX'ONISE, to impregnate with Saxon ideas.--_ns._ SAX'ONISM, a Saxon idiom; SAX'ONIST, a Saxon scholar.--SAXON ARCHITECTURE, a style of building in England before the Norman Conquest, marked by the peculiar 'long and short' work of the quoins, the projecting fillets running up the face of the walls and interlacing like woodwork, and the baluster-like shafts between the openings of the upper windows resembling the turned woodwork of the period; SAXON BLUE, a deep liquid blue used in dyeing; SAXON GREEN, a green colour; SAXON SHORE (_Litus Saxonicum_), in Roman times, the coast districts of Britain from Brighton northwards to the Wash, peculiarly exposed to the attacks of the Saxons from across the North Sea, and therefore placed under the authority of a special officer, the 'Count of the Saxon Shore.' [A.S. _Seaxe_--_seax_, Old High Ger. _sahs_, a knife, a short sword.] SAXONY, sak'sni, _n._ a woollen material: flannel. SAXOPHONE, sak's[=o]-f[=o]n, _n._ a brass wind-instrument, with about twenty finger-keys, like the clarinet. [_Sax_, the inventor--Gr. _ph[=o]n[=e]_, the voice.] SAY, s[=a], _v.t._ to utter in words: to speak: to declare: to state: to answer: to rehearse: to recite: to take for granted.--_v.i._ to speak: to relate: to state:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ said (sed).--_n._ something said: a remark: a speech: a saw.--_ns._ SAY'ER, one who says: a speaker: one who assays; SAY'ING, something said: an expression: a maxim; SAY'-SO, an authoritative declaration: a rumour, a mere report.--SAY TO, to think of.--IT IS SAID, or THEY SAY, it is commonly reputed; IT SAYS, equivalent to 'it is said;' THAT IS TO SAY, in other words. [A.S. _secgan_ (sægde, gesægd); Ice. _segja_, Ger. _sagen_.] SAY, s[=a], _n._ (_Spens._) assay, proof, temper (of a sword): (_Shak._) taste, relish: a sample: trial by sample.--_v.t._ to assay, to try.--_n._ SAY'MASTER, one who makes proof. [A contr. of _assay_.] SAY, s[=a], _n._ a thin kind of silk: a kind of woollen stuff.--_adj._ (_Shak._) silken. [O. Fr. _saie_--Low L. _seta_, silk--L. _seta_, a bristle.] SAY, s[=a], _n._ (_Scot._) a strainer for milk. SAYETTE, s[=a]-et', _n._ a kind of serge: a woollen yarn. [Fr. _sayette_, dim. of _saye_, serge.] SAYNAY, s[=a]'n[=a], _n._ a lamprey. SAYON, s[=a]'on, _n._ a medieval peasant's sleeveless jacket. [O. Fr.,--_saye_, serge.] SAYORNIS, s[=a]-or'nis, _n._ the pewit fly-catchers. [Thomas _Say_, an American ornithologist.] SBIRRO, sbir'r[=o], _n._ an Italian police-officer:--_pl._ SBIRRI (sbir'r[=e]). [It.] 'SBLOOD, sblud, _interj._ an imprecation. [_God's blood_.] SCAB, skab, _n._ a crust formed over a sore: a disease of sheep resembling the mange: a disease of potatoes, or a fungous disease of apples, &c.: a mean fellow: a workman who refuses to join a trades-union or to take part in a strike, or who takes the place of a man out on strike.--_v.i._ to heal over, to cicatrise: to form a new surface by encrustation.--_n._ (_print._) a scale-board.--_adj._ SCAB'BED, affected or covered with scabs: diseased with the scab: vile, worthless.--_ns._ SCAB'BEDNESS; SCAB'BINESS.--_adj._ SCAB'BY, scabbed: injured by the attachment of barnacles to the carapace of a shell: (_print._) of matter that is blotched or uneven.--_n._ SCAB'-MITE, the itch-mite. [A.S _scæb_ (Dan. _scab_, Ger. _schabe_)--L. _scabies_--_scab[)e]re_, to scratch.] SCABBARD, skab'ard, _n._ the case in which the blade of a sword is kept: a sheath.--_v.t._ to provide with a sheath.--_n._ SCABB'ARD-FISH, a fish of the family _Lepidopodidæ_. [M. E. _scauberk_, prob. an assumed O. Fr. _escauberc_--Old High Ger. _scala_, a scale, _bergan_, to protect.] SCABBLE, skab'l, _v.t._ to hew a stone to a level surface without making it smooth.--Also SCAPP'LE. [Prob. A.S. _scafan_, to shave.] SCABELLUM, sk[=a]-bel'um, _n._ an ancient musical appliance, consisting of plates of metal, &c., fastened to the feet to be struck together. [L., also _scabillum_, dim. of _scamnum_, a bench.] SCABERULOUS, sk[=a]-ber'[=u]-lus, _adj._ (_bot._) slightly roughened. [_Scabrous_.] SCABIES, sk[=a]'bi-[=e]z, _n._ the itch. [L.,--_scab[)e]re_, to scratch.] SCABIOSA, sk[=a]-bi-[=o]'sa, _n._ a genus of herbaceous plants of the teasel family, as the _Devil's-bit scabious_, the _Sweet scabious_, &c.--the former long thought efficacious in scaly eruptions. SCABIOUS, sk[=a]'bi-us, _adj._ scabby: scurfy: itchy.--_n._ SCABRED'ITY, roughness: ruggedness.--_adj._ SC[=A]'BRID, rough.--_n._ SCABRIT'IES, a morbid roughness of the inner surface of the eyelid.--_adj._ SC[=A]'BROUS, rough to the touch, like a file: rugged: covered with little points: harsh: unmusical.--_n._ SC[=A]'BROUSNESS. [L. _scabiosus_--_scabies_, the itch.] SCAD, skad, _n._ a carangoid fish, also called _Horse-mackerel_: (_Scot._) the ray. [Prob. _shad_.] SCAD, a Scotch form of _scald_. SCADDLE, skad'l, _adj._ (_prov._) mischievous, hurtful.--_n._ hurt.--Also SCATH'EL, SKADD'LE. [_Scathe_.] SCÆAN, s[=e]'an, _adj._ western, from the _Scæan_ gate in Troy. [Gr. _skaios_, left.] SCAFF, skaf, _n._ (_Scot._) food of any kind. SCAFFOLD, skaf'old, _n._ a temporary platform for exhibiting or for supporting something, and esp. for the execution of a criminal: a framework.--_v.t._ to furnish with a scaffold: to sustain.--_ns._ SCAFF'OLDAGE (_Shak._), a scaffold, a stage, the gallery of a theatre; SCAFF'OLDER, a spectator in the gallery: one of the 'gods;' SCAFF'OLDING, a scaffold of wood for supporting workmen while building: materials for scaffolds: (_fig._) a frame, framework: disposing of the bodies of the dead on a scaffold or raised platform, as by the Sioux Indians, &c. [O. Fr. _escafaut_ (Fr. _échafaud_, It. _catafalco_); from a Romance word, found in Sp. _catar_, to view--L. _capt[=a]re_, to try to seize, _falco_ (It. _palco_), a scaffold--Ger. _balke_, a beam. Doublet _catafalque_.] SCAFF-RAFF, skaf'-raf, _n._ (_Scot._) refuse: riff-raff. SCAGLIA, skal'ya, _n._ an Italian calcareous rock, corresponding to the chalk of England. SCAGLIOLA, skal-y[=o]'la, _n._ a composition made to imitate the more costly kinds of marble and other ornamental stones.--Also SCAL'IOLA. [It. _scagliuola_, dim. of _scaglia_, a scale, a chip of marble or stone.] SCAITH, sk[=a]th, _n._ (_Scot._) damage.--_adj._ SCAITH'LESS. [_Scathe_.] SCALA, sk[=a]'la, _n._ (_surg._) an instrument for reducing dislocation: a term applied to any one of the three canals of the cochlea:--_pl._ SC[=A]'LÆ.--_adj._ SC[=A]'LABLE, that may be scaled or climbed.--_ns._ SC[=A]LADE', an assault, as an escalade--also SCALÄ'DO; SC[=A]'LAR (_math._), in the quaternion analysis, a quantity that has magnitude but not direction.--_adj._ of the nature of a scalar.--_n.pl._ SCAL[=A]'RIA, the ladder-shells or wentle-traps.--_adjs._ SC[=A]LAR'IFORM, shaped like a ladder; SC[=A]'LARY, formed with steps. [L., a ladder.] SCALAWAG, SCALLAWAG, skal'a-wag, _n._ an undersized animal of little value: a scamp: a native Southern Republican, as opposed to a carpet-bagger, during the period of reconstruction after the American Civil War. [From _Scalloway_ in the Shetland Islands, in allusion to its small cattle.] SCALD, skawld, _v.t._ to burn with hot liquid: to cook slightly, as fruit, in hot water or steam: to cleanse thoroughly by rinsing with very hot water.--_n._ a burn caused by hot liquid.--_ns._ SCALD'ER, one who scalds vessels: a pot for scalding; SCALD'-FISH, a marine flat fish; SCALD'ING, things scalded; SCALD'-RAG, a nickname for a dyer.--SCALDING HOT, so hot as to scald. [O. Fr. _escalder_ (Fr. _échauder_)--Low L. _excald[=a]re_, to bathe in warm water--_ex_, from, _calidus_, warm, hot.] SCALD, SKALD, skald, _n._ one of the ancient Scandinavian poets.--_adj._ SCALD'IC, relating to, or composed by, the Scalds. [Ice. _skáld_.] SCALD, skawld, _n._ scurf on the head.--_adj._ scurfy, paltry, poor.--_ns._ SCALD'BERRY, the blackberry; SCALD'-CROW, the hooded crow; SCALD'-HEAD, a fungous parasitic disease of the scalp, favus. [_Scall._] SCALDINO, skal-d[=e]'n[=o], _n._ an Italian earthenware brazier:--_pl._ SCALDI'NI. [It.] SCALE, sk[=a]l, _n._ a ladder: series of steps: a graduated measure: (_mus._) a series of all the tones ascending or descending from the keynote to its octave, called the gamut: the order of a numeral system: gradation: proportion: series.--_v.t._ to mount, as by a ladder: to ascend: to draw in true proportion: to measure logs: to decrease proportionally, as every part.--_v.i._ to lead up by steps: (_Scot._) to disperse, to spill, to spread as manure.--_ns._ SCALE'-BOARD (_print._), a thin slip of wood for extending a page to its true length, making types register, securing uniformity of margin, &c.; SCALE'-PIPETTE', a tubular pipette with a graduated scale for taking up definite quantities of liquid; SCAL'ING-LADD'ER, a ladder used for the escalade of an enemy's fortress: a fireman's ladder: (_her._) a bearing representing a ladder, with two hooks and two ferrules. [L. _scala_, a ladder--_scand[)e]re_, to mount.] SCALE, sk[=a]l, _n._ one of the small, thin plates on a fish or reptile: a thin layer: a husk: the covering of the leaf-buds of deciduous trees: a piece of cuticle that is squamous or horny: a flake: an encrustation on the side of a vessel in which water is heated.--_v.t._ to clear of scales: to peel off in thin layers.--_v.i._ to come off in thin layers.--_ns._ SCALE'-ARM'OUR, armour consisting of scales of metal overlapping each other: plate-mail; SCALE'-BACK, a marine worm covered with scales.--_adjs._ SCALE'-BEAR'ING, having scales, as the sea-mice; SCALED, having scales: covered with scales.--_ns._ SCALE'-DOVE, an American dove having the plumage marked as with scales; SCALE'-FISH, a dry cured fish, as the haddock; SCALE'-FOOT, the scabbard-fish; SCALE'-IN'SECT, any insect of the homopterous family _Coccidæ_.--_adj._ SCALE'LESS, without scales, as the scaleless amphibians.--_n._ SCALE'-MOSS, certain plants which resemble moss.--_adj._ SCALE'-PATT'ERN, having a pattern resembling scales.--_ns._ SCALE'-QUAIL, an American quail having scale-like markings of the plumage; SC[=A]'LER, one who makes a business of scaling fish: an instrument used by dentists in removing tartar.--_adjs._ SCALE'-TAILED, having scales on the under side of the tail; SCALE'-WINGED, having the wings covered with minute scales, as a butterfly.--_ns._ SCALE'-WORK, scales lapping over each other; SCALE'-WORM, a scale-back: SCAL'INESS, the state of being scaly: roughness; SCAL'ING, the process of removing scales from a fish, or encrustations from the interior of a boiler; SCAL'ING-FUR'NACE, a furnace in which plates of iron are heated for the purpose of scaling them, as in tinning.--_adj._ SCAL'Y, covered with scales: like scales: shabby: (_bot._) formed of scales. [A.S. _sceale_, _scale_, the scale of a fish; Ger. _schale_, shell.] SCALE, sk[=a]l, _n._ the dish of a balance: a balance, as to turn the scale--chiefly in _pl._: (_pl._) Libra, one of the signs of the zodiac.--_v.t._ to weigh, as in scales: to estimate.--_ns._ SCALE'-BEAM, the beam or lever of a balance; SCALE'-MICROM'ETER, in a telescope, a graduated scale for measuring distances; SC[=A]L'ING, the process of adjusting sights to a ship's guns.--BEAM AND SCALES, a balance; GUNTER'S SCALE, a scale for solving mechanically problems in navigation and surveying. [A.S. _scále_, a balance; Dut. _schaal_, Ger. _schale_; allied to preceding word.] SCALENE, sk[=a]-l[=e]n', _adj._ (_geom._) having three unequal sides; (_anat._) obliquely situated and unequal-sided.--_n._ a scalene triangle: one of several triangular muscles.--_ns._ SC[=A]LENOH[=E]'DRON, a pyramidal form under the rhombohedral system, enclosed by twelve faces, each a scalene triangle; SC[=A]L[=E]'NUM, a scalene triangle; SC[=A]L[=E]'NUS, a scalene muscle. [Fr.,--L. _scalenus_--Gr. _skal[=e]nos_, uneven.] SCALIOLA=_Scagliola_ (q.v.). SCALL, skawl, _n._ (_B._) a scab: scabbiness: in mining, loose ground.--_adj._ mean.--_adjs._ SCALLED, SCALD, scabby: mean. [Ice. _skalli_, bald head.] SCALLION, skal'yun, _n._ the shallot: the leek: the onion. [L. _Ascalonia_ (_cæpia_), Ascalon (onion).] SCALLOP, skol'up, _n._ a bivalve having a sub-circular shell with sinuous radiating ridges: one of a series of curves in the edge of anything: a shallow dish in which oysters, &c., are cooked, baked, and browned.--_v.t._ to cut the edge or border into scallops or curves: to cook in a scallop with crumbs of bread, &c.--_p.adj._ SCALL'OPED, having the edge or border cut into scallops or curves.--_ns._ SCALL'OP MOTH, a name applied to several geometrid moths; SCALL'OP-SHELL, a scallop, or the shell of one, the badge of a pilgrim. [O. Fr. _escalope_--Old Dut. _schelpe_, a shell; cf. Ger. _schelfe_, a husk.] SCALMA, skal'ma, _n._ a disease of horses. [Old High Ger. _scalmo_, pestilence; cf. _Schelm_.] SCALOPS, sk[=a]'lops, _n._ a genus of American shrew-moles. [Gr. _skalops_, a mole--_skallein_, to dig.] SCALP, skalp, _n._ the outer covering of the skull or brain-case, including the skin, the expanded tendon of the occipito-frontalis muscle, with intermediate cellular tissue and blood-vessels: the skin on which the hair grows: the skin of the top of the head, together with the hair, torn off as a token of victory by the North American Indians: the skin of the head of a noxious wild animal: (_her._) the skin of the head of a stag with the horns attached: a bed of oysters or mussels (Scot. _Scaup_).--_v.t._ to cut the scalp from: to flay: to lay bare: to deprive of grass: to sell at less than recognised rates: to destroy the political influence of.--_ns._ SCAL'PER, one who scalps; a machine for removing the ends of grain, as wheat or rye, or for separating the different grades of broken wheat, semolina, &c.: one who buys and sells railroad tickets, &c., at less than the official rates, a ticket-broker: an instrument used by surgeons for scraping carious bones (also SCAL'PING-[=I]'RON); SCAL'PING-KNIFE, a knife, formerly a sharp stone, used by the Indians of North America for scalping their enemies; SCAL'PING-TUFT, a scalp-lock.--_adj._ SCALP'LESS, having no scalp, bald.--_n._ SCALP'-LOCK, a long tuft of hair left by the North American Indians as a challenge. [Old Dut. _schelpe_, a shell; cf. Ger. _schelfe_, a husk; a doublet of _scallop_.] SCALPEL, skalp'el, _n._ a small surgical knife for dissecting and operating.--_n._ SCALPEL'LUM, one of the four filamentous organs in the proboscis of hemipterous insects:--_pl._ SCALPEL'LA.--_adj._ SCAL'PRIFORM, chisel-shaped, specifically said of the incisor teeth of rodents. [L. _scalpellum_, dim. of _scalprum_, a knife--_scalp[)e]re_, to cut.] SCAMBLE, skam'bl, _v.i._ (_obs._) to scramble: to sprawl.--_v.t._ to mangle: to squander.--_ns._ SCAM'BLER, a meal-time visitor; SCAM'BLING, a hasty meal.--_n.pl._ SCAM'BLING-DAYS, days in which meat is scarce.--_adv._ SCAM'BLINGLY, strugglingly. [Ety. dub.; prob. related to _shamble_.] SCAMEL, SCAMMEL, skam'el, _n._ a bar-tailed godwit. SCAMILLUS, sk[=a]-mil'us, _n._ a second plinth under a column:--_pl._ SCAMILL'I ([=i]). [L.] SCAMMONY, skam'o-ni, _n._ a cathartic gum-resin obtained from a species of convolvulus in Asia Minor.--_adj._ SCAMM[=O]'NIATE, made with scammony. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr. _skamm[=o]nia_; prob. Persian.] SCAMP, skamp, _n._ a vagabond: a mean fellow.--_v.i._ SCAM'PER, to run with speed and trepidation.--_n._ a rapid run.--_adj._ SCAM'PISH, rascally. [O. Fr. _escamper_, to flee--It. _scampare_, to escape--L. _ex_, out, campus, a battlefield.] SCAMP, skamp, _v.t._ to do work in a dishonest manner without thoroughness--also SKIMP.--_n._ SCAM'PER. [Prob. Ice. _skamta_, to dole out, to stint.] SCAN, skan, _v.t._ to count the feet in a verse: to examine carefully: to scrutinise.--_v.i._ to agree with the rules of metre:--_pr.p._ scan'ning; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ scanned.--_ns._ SCAN'NING; SCAN'SION, act of counting the measures in a verse. [Fr. _scander_, to scan--L. _scand[)e]re_, _scansum_, to climb.] SCAND, skand, _pa.t._ of _v.i._ (_Spens._) climbed. SCANDAL, skan'dal, _n._ something said which is false and injurious to reputation: disgrace: opprobrious censure.--_v.t._ to defame, to aspire.--_ns._ SCAN'DAL-BEAR'ER, a propagator of malicious gossip; SCANDALIS[=A]'TION, defamation.--_v.t._ SCAN'DALISE, to give scandal or offence to: to shock: to reproach: to disgrace: to libel.--_n._ SCAN'DAL-MONG'ER, one who deals in defamatory reports.--_adj._ SCAN'DALOUS, giving scandal or offence: calling forth condemnation: openly vile: defamatory.--_adv._ SCAN'DALOUSLY.--_ns._ SCAN'DALOUSNESS; SCAN'DALUM-MAGN[=A]'TUM, speaking slanderously of high personages, abbrev. _Scan. Mag._ [Fr. _scandale_--L. _scandalum_--Gr. _skandalon_, a stumbling-block.] SCANDALISE, skan'da-l[=i]z, _v.t._ to trice up the tack of the spanker in a square-rigged vessel, or the mainsail in a fore-and-aft rigged one. [_Scantle_.] SCANDENT, skan'dent, _adj._ climbing, as a tendril. SCANDINAVIAN, skan-di-n[=a]'vi-an, _adj._ of _Scandinavia_, the peninsula divided into Norway and Sweden, but, in a historical sense, applying also to Denmark and Iceland.--_n._ a native of Scandinavia. [L. _Scandinavia_, _Scandia_.] SCANDIUM, skan'di-um, _n._ an element discovered in 1879 in the Scandinavian mineral euxenite. SCANDIX, skan'diks, _n._ a genus of umbelliferous plants, including shepherd's purse, Venus's comb, &c. [L.,--Gr., chervil.] SCANSION. See SCAN. SCANSORES, skan-s[=o]'r[=e]z, _n.pl._ an old order of birds generally characterised by having two toes before opposed by two behind, by which they are enabled to climb.--_adj._ SCANS[=O]'RIAL, habitually climbing, as a bird: formed for climbing.--_n._ SCANS[=O]'RIUS, a muscle passing from the ilium to the femur in some vertebrata. [Low L., pl. of _scansor_, _scansoris_, a climber--L. _scand[)e]re_, _scansum_, to climb.] SCANT, skant, _adj._ not full or plentiful; scarcely sufficient: deficient.--_n._ scarcity: lack.--_adv._ scarcely: scantily.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to limit: to stint: to begrudge.--_adv._ SCAN'TILY.--_ns._ SCAN'TINESS; SCAN'-TITY (_obs._).--_adv._ SCANT'LY, not fully or sufficiently, scarcely: narrowly: penuriously: scantily.--_ns._ SCANT'NESS, the condition or quality of being scant: smallness: insufficiency; SCANT'-OF-GRACE, a good-for-nothing fellow: a scapegrace.--_adj._ SCANT'Y, scant, not copious or full: hardly sufficient: wanting extent: narrow: small. [Ice. _skamt_, short, narrow, neut. of _skammr_, short.] SCANTLE, skan'tl, _v.t._ to divide into pieces: to partition.--_ns._ SCANT'LET, a small pattern; SCANT'LING, a little piece: a piece or quantity cut for a particular purpose: a certain proportion.--SCANTLING NUMBER, a number computed from the known dimensions of a ship. [O. Fr. _eschantillon_, a small cantle, _escanteler_, to break into cantles--_es_--L. _ex_, out, _cantel_, _chantel_, a cantle.] SCANTLE, skan'tl, _v.i._ to fail: to be deficient.--_n._ a gauge by which slates are measured. [Prob. _scant_.] SCAPANUS, skap'a-nus, _n._ a genus of North American shrew-moles. [Gr. _skapan[=e]_, a mattock.] SCAPE, sk[=a]p, _n._ an escape: a freak or fault.--_v.t._ to escape from: to miss: to shun.--_ns._ SCAPE'GALLOWS, one who deserves hanging: a villain; SCAPE'GRACE, a graceless hare-brained fellow. [A contr. of _escape_.] SCAPE, sk[=a]p, _n._ (_bot._) a long, naked, radical peduncle: (_entom._) the basal joint of antennæ: (_ornith._) the stem of a feather: (_archit._) the shaft of a column.--_adjs._ SCAPE'LESS (_bot._), wanting a scape; SCAP'IFORM, scape-like; SCAPIG'EROUS, scape-bearing. [L., _scapus_, Gr. _skapos_, a shaft; cf. _sk[=e]ptron_, a staff.] SCAPE, sk[=a]p, _n._ the cry of the snipe when flushed: the snipe itself. [Prob. imit.] SCAPEGOAT, sk[=a]p'g[=o]t, _n._ a goat on which, once a year, the Jewish high-priest laid symbolically the sins of the people, and which was then allowed to escape into the wilderness (Levit. xvi.): one who is made to bear the misdeeds of another. [_Escape_ and _goat_.] SCAPEMENT, sk[=a]p'ment, _n._ the same as ESCAPEMENT.--_n._ SCAPE'-WHEEL, the wheel which drives the pendulum of a clock. [_Escapement_.] SCAPHA, sk[=a]'fa, _n._ the scaphoid fossa of the helix of the ear. [L., a skiff.] SCAPHANDER, sk[=a]-fan'd[.e]r, _n._ a diver's water-tight suit; a genus of gasteropods. [Gr. _skaph[=e]_, a boat, _an[=e]r_, _andros_, a man.] SCAPHARCA, sk[=a]-far'ka, _n._ a genus of bivalve molluscs. [L. _scapha_, a skiff.] SCAPHIDIUM, sk[=a]-fid'i-um, _n._ a genus of clavicorn beetles. [Gr. _skaphidion_, dim. of _skaph[=e]_, a skiff.] SCAPHIOPOD, skaf'i-[=o]-pod, _adj._ spade-footed.--_n._ a spade-footed toad. [Gr. _skaphion_, a spade, _pous_, _podos_, a foot.] SCAPHIRHYNCHUS, skaf-i-ring'kus, _n._ a genus of tyrant-flycatchers: the shovel-heads or shovel-nosed sturgeons. [Gr. _skaph[=e]_, a skiff, _rhyngchos_, snout.] SCAPHISM, skaf'izm, _n._ a Persian punishment by which the victim was fastened in a hollow tree, and smeared over with honey to attract wasps, &c. [Gr. _skaph[=e]_, anything hollowed out.] SCAPHITES, sk[=a]-f[=i]'tez, _n._ a genus of fossil cephalopods of the ammonite family. [Gr. _skaph[=e]_, a boat.] SCAPHIUM, sk[=a]'fi-um, _n._ the keel of papilionaceous flowers: a genus of coleopterous insects. [L.,--Gr. _skaphion_, a basin.] SCAPHOCEPHALIC, skaf-[=o]-se-fal'ik, _adj._ boat-shaped, a term applied to a certain kind of deformed skull. [Gr. _skaph[=e]_, a boat, _kephal[=e]_, a head.] SCAPHOID, skaf'oid, _adj._ boat-like in form, noting two bones, one in the wrist and the other in the foot. [Gr. _skaph[=e]_, a boat, _eidos_, form.] SCAPHOPOD, skaf'[=o]-pod, _adj._ having the foot fitted for burrowing, as a mollusc. [Gr. _skaph[=e]_, a boat, _pous_, _podos_, a foot.] SCAPINADE, skap-i-n[=a]d', _n._ a process of trickery--from the name of the tricky valet in Molière's comedy, _Les Fourberies de Scapin_. SCAP-NET, skap'-net, _n._ a net for catching minnows, &c. [Same as _scoop-net_.] SCAPOLITE, skap'[=o]-l[=i]t, _n._ a silicate of alumina and lime, occurring in long rod-like crystals. [Gr. _skapos_, a rod, _lithos_, a stone.] SCAPPLE, skap'l, _v.t._ to work without finishing, as stone before leaving the quarry. [_Scabble_.] SCAPULA, skap'[=u]-la, _n._ the shoulder-blade.--_adj._ SCAP'[=U]LAR, pertaining to the shoulder.--_n._ a bandage for the shoulder-blade: (_ornith._) the shoulder feathers: a long strip of cloth worn by some orders: two little pieces of cloth tied together by strings passing over the shoulders, worn by lay persons in token of devotion: a short cloak with a hood, a monastic working dress.--_adj._ SCAP'[=U]LARY, in form like a scapular.--_n._ a scapular.--_adj._ SCAP'[=U]LATED, having the scapular feathers notable in size or colour, as the scapulated crow.--_n._ SCAP'[=U]LIMANCY. divination by means of shoulder-blades.--_adj._ SCAPULIMAN'TIC. [L. _scapulæ_, the shoulder-blades, prob. cog. with _scapus_, a shaft.] SCAPUS, sk[=a]'pus, _n._ (_archit._) the shaft of a column: (_ornith._) the scape of a feather: a genus of Coelenterates:--_pl._ SC[=A]'PI ([=i]). [L., a shaft.] SCAR, skär, _n._ the mark left by a wound or sore: any mark or blemish: a cicatrice: (_fig._) any mark resulting from injury, material or moral: (_bot._) a mark on a stem after the fall of a leaf: in shells, an impression left by the insertion of a muscle: in founding, an imperfect place in a casting: a disfigurement.--_v.t._ to mark with a scar.--_v.i._ to become scarred:--_pr.p._ scar'ring; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ scarred.--_adjs._ SCAR'LESS, without scars: unwounded; SCARRED. [O. Fr. _escare_--L. _eschara_--Gr. _eschara_, a scar produced by burning.] SCAR, skär, _n._ a precipitous bank or rock: a bare rocky place on the side of a hill.--_n._ SCAR'-LIME'STONE, a mass of calcareous rock crowded with marine fossils. [Scand., Ice. _sker_--_skera_, to cut.] SCARAB, skar'ab, _n._ an insect with wing-sheaths, a beetle: a gem, usually emerald, cut in the form of a beetle--also SCARABÆ'US, SCAR'ABEE.--_n._ SCAR'ABOID, an imitation scarab.--_adj._ like a scarab. [L. _scarabæus_; Gr. _karabos_.] SCARAMOUCH, skar'a-mowch, _n._ a buffoon: a bragging, cowardly fellow. [Fr.,--It. _Scaramuccia_, a famous Italian zany of the 17th century.] SCARBROITE, skär'br[=o]-[=i]t, _n._ a hydrous silicate of aluminium--from _Scarborough_. SCARCE, sk[=a]rs, _adj._ not plentiful: not equal to the demand: rare: not common: parsimonious: deficient: short: scanty.--_adj._ SCARCE'-BEARD'ED (_Shak._), having a scanty beard.--_adv._ SCARCE'LY, SCARCE (_B._), hardly, barely.--_ns._ SCARCE'MENT (_archit._), a plain set-off or projection in a wall; SCARCE'NESS; SCARC'ITY, state of being scarce: deficiency: rareness: niggardliness: want: famine.--MAKE ONE'S SELF SCARCE, to decamp. [O. Fr. _escars_ (Fr. _échars_), niggardly--Low L. _scarpsus_=_ex-carpsus_, for L. _excerptus_, pa.p. of _excerp[=e]re_--_ex_, out of, _carp[=e]re_, to pick.] SCARD, skärd, _n._ a shard or fragment. SCARDAFELLA, skär-da-fel'a, _n._ an American genus containing the ground-doves. SCARE, sk[=a]r, _v.t._ to drive away by frightening: to strike with sudden terror: to startle, to affright.--_n._ an imaginary alarm: a sudden panic.--_adj._ lean, scanty.--_ns._ SCARE'-BABE, a bugbear; SCARE'-BUG; SCARE'CROW, anything set up to scare away crows or other birds: a vain cause of terror: a person meanly clad: the black tern; SCARE'-FIRE, a fire-alarm: a conflagration. [M. E. _skerren_--_skerre_, frightened--Ice. _skjarr_, timid.] SCARF, skärf, _n._ a light decorative piece of dress worn loosely on the shoulders or as a band about the neck: a light handkerchief for the neck: a cravat:--_pl._ SCARFS, SCARVES (_obs._).--_v.t._ to cover, as if with a scarf.--_adj._ SCARFED, decorated with pendants.--_ns._ SCARF'-PIN, an ornamental pin worn in a scarf; SCARF'-RING, an ornamental ring through which the ends or a scarf are drawn. [A.S. _scearfe_, a piece; Dut. _scherf_, a shred.] SCARF, skärf, _v.t._ to join two pieces of timber endwise, so that they may appear to be used as one: to flay the skin from a whale.--_n._ in carpentry, a joint whose ends are united so as to form a continuous piece.--_ns._ SCAR'FING; SCARF'ING-MACHINE', a machine for shaving the ends of leather belting to a feather edge; SCARF'-JOINT, a joint made by overlapping two pieces of timber that will fit each other; SCARF'-LOOM, a figure loom for weaving fabrics. [Scand., Sw. _skarf_, Norw. _skarv_, a joint; cf. Ger. _scherben_, to cut small; conn. with _shear_, v.] SCARF, skärf, _n._ the cormorant--(_Scot._) SCART, SKART. [Ice. _skarfr_.] SCARFSKIN, skärf'skin, _n._ the surface skin. [_Scurf_.] SCARIDÆ, skar'i-d[=e], _n.pl._ a family of fishes including the parrot-fish.--Also SC[=A]'RUS. [Gr. _skaros_.] SCARIFY, skar'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to scratch or slightly cut the skin, to make small cuts with a lancet, so as to draw blood: to loosen and stir together the soil: to harrow the feelings:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ scar'if[=i]ed.--_ns._ SCARIFIC[=A]'TION, act of scarifying; SCARIFIC[=A]'TOR, an instrument with several lancets for scarifying or making slight incisions in the operation of cupping; SCAR'IFIER, one who scarifies: an instrument used for scarifying the soil, esp. a grubber with prongs. [Fr. _scarifier_--L. _scarific[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--Gr. _skariphasthai_--skariphos, an etching tool.] SCARIOUS, sk[=a]'ri-us, _adj._ (_bot._) thin, dry, membranaceous: (_zool._) scaly, scurfy. SCARITID, skär'i-tid, _adj._ pertaining to carabid beetles of _Scarites_ or related genera. SCARLATINA, skär-la-t[=e]'na, _n._ a dangerous and highly-contagious fever, so named from the scarlet rash or eruption which accompanies it--also SCAR'LET-F[=E]VER.--_adjs._ SCARLATI'NAL, SCARLATI'NOUS. SCARLET, skär'let, _n._ a bright-red colour: scarlet cloth.--_adj._ of the colour called scarlet: dressed in scarlet.--_v.t._ to redden.--_ns._ SCAR'LET-AD'MIRAL, the red-admiral, a butterfly; SCAR'LET-BEAN, the scarlet-runner; SCAR'LET-F[=E]'VER, a contagious febrile disease (see SCARLATINA); SCAR'LET-HAT, a cardinal's hat; SCAR'LET-LIGHT'NING, the scarlet lychnis: the red valerian; SCAR'LET-RUN'NER, a bean with scarlet flowers which runs up any support; SCAR'LET-SNAKE, a bright-red harmless snake of the southern states of the American Union; SCAR'LET-T[=I]'GER, a British moth; SCAR'LET-WOM'AN, the woman referred to in Rev. xvii. 4, 5--Pagan Rome, Papal Rome, or a personification of the World in its anti-Christian sense. [O. Fr. _escarlate_ (Fr. _écarlate_), through Low L. _scarlatum_--Pers. _saqal[=a]t_, scarlet cloth.] SCARMAGE, skär'm[=a]j, _n._ (_Spens._) same as Skirmish.--Also SCAR'MOGE. SCARN-BEE, skärn'-b[=e], _n._ (prov.) a dung-beetle. [Sharn.] SCARP, skärp, _n._ (_her._) a diminutive of the bend sinister, half its width: (_obs._) a shoulder-belt. [O. Fr. _escarpe_, escharpe: cf. _Scarf_ (1).] SCARP, skärp, _n._ (_fort._) any steep slope (same as Escarp).--_v.t._ to cut down a slope so as to render it impassable.--_adj._ SCARPED. [O. Fr. _escarpe_--It. _scarpa_--Old High Ger. _scharf_; cf. _Sharp_.] SCARPINES, skär'pinz, _n.pl._ an instrument of torture resembling the boot. [Fr. _escarpins_, shoes.] SCARRED, skärd, _adj._ marked by scars.--_n._ SCAR'RING, a scar: a mark.--_adj._ SCAR'RY, bearing or pertaining to scars: having scars. SCART, skärt, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to scratch: to scrape.--_n._ a slight wound: a dash or stroke: a niggard: a poor-looking creature.--_adj._ SCART'-FREE. SCARUS, sk[=a]'rus, _n._ a genus of fishes including the parrot-wrasses. [_Scaridæ_.] SCARY, sk[=a]r'i, _adj._ causing fright: timid: fluttered. SCAT, SCATT, skat, _n._ a tax in the Shetland Islands.--_ns._ SCAT'HOLD, open ground for pasture; SCAT'LAND, land which paid duty for rights of pasture and peat. [A.S. _sceat_, a coin; Dut. _schat_, Ger. _schatz_.] SCAT, skat, _interj._ be off!--_v.t._ to scare away. SCAT, skat, _n._ (_prov._) a brisk shower of rain.--_adj._ SCAT'TY, showery. [Prob. conn. with _scud_.] SCATCH, skach, _n._ a bit for bridles. [Fr. _escache_.] SCATCHES, skach'ez, _n.pl._ stilts used for walking in dirty places. [O. Fr. _eschace_--Old Flem. _schætse_, a high shoe; Dut. _schaats_, pl. _schaatsen_, skates.] SCATE. Same as _Skate_, a fish. SCATH, SCATHE, sk[=a]th, _n._ damage, injury: waste.--_v.t._ to injure.--_adj._ SCATHE'FUL, destructive.--_n._ SCATHE'FULNESS, disadvantage: destructiveness.--_adj._ SC[=A]'THING, damaging; blasting: scorching.--_adv._ SC[=A]'THINGLY.--_adjs._ SC[=A]TH'LESS, without injury; SC[=A]'THY (_Scot._), mischievous: dangerous. [A.S. _sceathu_; Ger. _schade_, injury.] SCATOLOGY, sk[=a]-tol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the knowledge of fossil excrement or coprolites: knowledge of the usages of primitive peoples about excrements, human and other.--_adj._ SCATOLOG'ICAL.--_ns._ SCAT'OMANCY, SCATOS'COPY, divination of disease by inspection of excrement; SCATOPH'AGA, the dung-flies.--_n.pl._ SCATOPHAG'IDÆ, a family of acanthopterygian fishes.--_adj._ SCATOPH'AGOUS, feeding on excrement. [Gr. _sk[=o]r_, skatos, dung, logia--legein, to speak; manteia, divination; skopein, to view; phagein, to eat.] SCATTER, skat'[.e]r, _v.t._ to disperse in all directions: to throw loosely about: to strew: to sprinkle: to dispel: to put to flight: to drop: to throw shot too loosely.--_v.i._ to be dispersed or dissipated.--_n._ SCATT'ERBRAIN, a thoughtless, giddy person.--_adjs._ SCATT'ER-BRAINED, giddy; SCATT'ERED, widely separated: wandering: distracted: irregular.--_ns._ SCATT'ERER, one who or that which scatters; SCATT'ER-GOOD, a spendthrift; SCATT'ER-GUN, a shot-gun; SCATT'ERING, something scattered: dispersion: that which has been scattered: the irregular reflection of light from a surface not perfectly smooth.--_adj._ dispersing: rare, sporadic: diversified.--_adv._ SCATT'ERINGLY, in a dispersed manner: here and there.--_ns._ SCATT'ERLING (_Spens._), one who has no fixed abode: a vagabond; SCATT'ERMOUCH, any Latin or Levantine, in Pacific slang.--_adj._ SCATT'ERY, dispersed: sparse: few and far between. [A.S. _scateran_, scaterian; cf. _Shatter_.] SCATURIENT, sk[=a]-t[=u]'ri-ent, _adj._ gushing like water from a fountain. [L. _scatur[=i]re_, to gush out.] SCAUD, skäd, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to scald: to scold. SCAUP, skawp, _n._ a sea-duck of genus Aythya, of northern regions, related to the pochard. [Ice. _skálp_--in _skálp-hæna_.] SCAUPER, skaw'p[.e]r, _n._ a tool with semicircular face, used by engravers. [Prob. scalper.] SCAUR, skär, a Scotch form of scare. SCAUR, skawr, _n._ a precipitous bank or rock.--Also SCAR. [_Scar_.] SCAURY, skä'ri, _n._ a young gull in Shetland. [Scand., Sw. _skiura_.] SCAVAGE, skav'[=a]j, _n._ a duty or toll anciently exacted by mayors, &c., on goods exposed for sale. SCAVENGER, skav'en-j[.e]r, _n._ one who cleans the streets: an animal which feeds on carrion: a child employed to pick up loose cotton from the floor in a cotton-mill.--_ns._ SCAV'AGERY, street-cleansing; SCAV'AGING.--_v.t._ SCAV'ENGE, to cleanse.--_ns._ SCAV'ENGER-BEE'TLE, a beetle which acts as a scavenger; SCAV'ENGER-CRAB, any crab which feeds on decaying animal matter; SCAV'ENGERING; SCAV'ENGERISM; SCAV'ENGERY.--SCAVENGER'S DAUGHTER, an instrument of torture by pressure with an iron hoop, invented by Sir W. Skevington, Lieutenant of the Tower under Henry VIII. [Orig. _scavager_, an inspector of goods for sale, and also of the streets; from _scavage_, duty on goods for sale--A.S. _sceawian_, to inspect; cf. _Show_.] SCAVERNICK, skav'[.e]r-nik, _n._ (_Cornish_) a hare. SCAVILONES, skav'i-l[=o]nz, _n.pl._ men's drawers worn in the sixteenth century under the hose. SCAZON, sk[=a]'zon, _n._ in ancient prosody, a metre, the rhythm of which is imperfect toward the close of the line or period. [Gr. _skaz[=o]n_, limping.] SCELERATE, sel'e-r[=a]t, _adj._ (_obs._) wicked, villainous.--_n._ a villain--also SCEL'ERAT.--_adjs._ SCEL'EROUS, SCELES'TIC. [O. Fr.--L. _sceleratus_--_scelus_, crime.] SCELIDES, sel'i-d[=e]z, _n.pl._ the posterior limbs of a mammal.--_n._ SCEL'IDOSAUR, a dinosaur of the genus Scelidosaurus.--_adjs._ SCELIDOSAU'RIAN; SCELIDOSAU'ROID.--_n.pl._ SCELIDOSAU'RIDÆ, a family of mailed dinosaurs.--_ns._ SCELIDOSAU'RUS, the typical genus of Scelidosauridæ; SCELIO (s[=e]'li-[=o]), a genus of hymenopterous insects parasitic in the eggs of grasshoppers and locusts; SCELOP'ORUS (_U.S._), the common brown fence-lizard. [Gr. _skelis_, _skelidos_, a leg.] SCELP, skelp, _n._ long strips of iron used in forming a gun-barrel.--Also SKELP. SCENA, s[=e]'na, _n._ the stage of an ancient theatre (_pl._ SCENÆ, s[=e]'n[=e]): an elaborate dramatic solo (It., pron. sh[=a]'nä; pl. SCE'NE).--_n._ SCENARIO (she-nä'ri-[=o]), a skeleton libretto of a dramatic work. [L.] SCEND, send, _n._ the upward angular displacement of a vessel--opposed to _Pitch_, the correlative downward movement.--_v.i._ to heave upward. [A corr. of _send_, influenced by _ascend_.] SCENE, s[=e]n, _n._ a picture of the place of an action: a large painted view: place of action, occurrence, or exhibition: the part of a play acted without change of place: (_orig._) the stage of a theatre on which the actors perform: a series of landscape events connected and exhibited: a number of objects presented to the view at once: spectacle: view: any unseemly or ill-timed display of strong feeling between persons.--_v.t._ to exhibit: to display.--_ns._ SCENE'-DOCK, the space in a theatre adjoining the stage, where scenery is stored when not in use; SCENE'-MAN, one who manages the scenery in a theatre; SCENE'-PAINT'ER, one whose employment it is to paint scenery for theatres; SC[=E]'NERY, the painted representation on a stage: the appearance of anything presented to the eye: general aspect of a landscape; SCENE'-SHIFT'ER (same as SCENE-MAN).--_adjs._ SC[=E]'NIC, -AL, pertaining to scenery: dramatic: theatrical.--_adv._ SC[=E]'NICALLY.--_adjs._ SC[=E]NOGRAPH'IC, -AL, drawn in perspective.--_adv._ SC[=E]NOGRAPH'ICALLY.--_n._ SC[=E]NOG'RAPHY, the art of perspective: representation in perspective.--BEHIND THE SCENES, at the back of the visible stage; MAKE A SCENE, to make a noisy or otherwise unwelcome exhibition of feeling. [L. _scena_--Gr. _sk[=e]n[=e]_, a covered place, a stage.] SCENT, sent, _v.t._ to discern by the sense of smell: to perfume: to have some suspicion of.--_v.i._ to become odoriferous: to smell.--_n._ a perfume: odour: sense of smell: chase followed by the scent: course of pursuit: scraps of paper strewed on the ground by the pursued in the boys' game of hare and hounds.--_ns._ SCENT'-BAG, the pouch of an animal which secretes an odoriferous substance; SCENT'-BOTT'LE, a small bottle for holding perfume; SCENT'-BOX.--_adjs._ SCENT'ED, perfumed; SCENT'FUL, highly odoriferous: quick of scent: having a good nose, as a dog.--_n._ SCENT'-GLAND, a glandular organ which secretes such substances as musk or castoreum.--_adv._ SCENT'INGLY, allusively: not directly.--_adj._ SCENT'LESS, having no scent or smell: destructive of scent.--_ns._ SCENT'-OR'GAN, a scent-gland; SCENT'-VASE, a vessel with a pierced cover designed to contain perfumes. [Fr. _sentir_--L. _sent[=i]re_, to feel.] SCEPTIC, -AL, SKEPTIC, -AL, skep'tik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to the philosophical school in ancient Greece of Pyrrho and his successors: doubting: hesitating to admit the certainty of doctrines or principles: (_theol._) doubting or denying the truth of revelation.--_ns._ SCEP'SIS, SKEP'SIS, philosophic doubt; SCEP'TIC, one who is sceptical: (_theol._) one who doubts or denies the existence of God or the truths of revelation.--_adv._ SCEP'TICALLY.--_n._ SCEP'TICALNESS.--_v.i._ SCEP'TICISE, to act the sceptic.--_n._ SCEP'TICISM, that condition in which the mind is before it has arrived at conclusive opinions: doubt: the doctrine that no facts can be certainly known: agnosticism: (_theol._) doubt of the existence of God or the truth of revelation. [L. _scepticus_--Gr. _skeptikos_, thoughtful, _skeptesthai_, to consider.] SCEPTRE, sep't[.e]r, _n._ the staff or baton borne by kings as an emblem of authority: royal power.--_v.t._ to invest with royal power.--_adjs._ SCEP'TRAL, regal; SCEP'TRED, bearing a sceptre: regal.--_n._ SCEP'TREDOM, reign.--_adjs._ SCEP'TRELESS, powerless, as a sceptreless king; SCEP'TRY, bearing a sceptre, royal. [L. _sceptrum_--Gr. _sk[=e]ptron_--_sk[=e]ptein_, to lean.] SCERNE, s[.e]rn, _v.t._ (_obs._) to discern. [_Discern_.] SCEUOPHYLACIUM, sk[=u]-[=o]-fi-l[=a]'shi-um, _n._ (_Gr. Church_) the repository of the sacred vessels.--_n._ SCEUOPH'YLAX, a sacristan, church treasurer. [Gr. _skeuos_, a vessel, _phylax_, a watcher.] SCHÆFFERIA, shef-f[=e]'ri-a, _n._ a genus of polypetalous plants, the yellow-wood. [Named from _Schaeffer_, an 18th-cent. German botanist.] SCHALENBLENDE, shä'len-blend, _n._ a variety of native zinc-sulphide. [Ger., _schale_, shell, _blende_, blende.] SCHAPPE, shap'pe, _n._ a fabric woven from spun silk. SCHEDIASM, sk[=e]'di-azm, _n._ cursory writing on a loose sheet. [Gr. _schediasma_--_schedon_, near.] SCHEDULE, shed'[=u]l, _n._ a piece of paper containing some writing: a list, inventory, or table.--_v.t._ to place in a schedule or list. [O. Fr. _schedule_ (Fr. _cédule_)--L. _schedula_, dim. of _scheda_, a strip of papyrus--L. _scind[)e]re_, to cleave; or from Gr. _sched[=e]_, a leaf.] SCHEELITE, sh[=e]'l[=i]t, _n._ native calcium tungstate. [From the Swedish chemist, K. W. _Scheele_ (1742-86).] SCHEIK. Same as SHEIK. SCHELLY, shel'i, _n._ a white fish. SCHELM, skelm, _n._ (_Scot._) a rascal.--Also SCHEL'LUM, SHELM, SKEL'LUM. [O. Fr. _schelme_--Old High Ger. _scalmo_, plague; cf. Ger. _schelm_, a rogue.] SCHELTOPUSIK, shel'to-p[=u]-sik, _n._ a Russian lizard. SCHEMA, sk[=e]'ma, _n._ the image of the thing with which the imagination aids the understanding in its procedure: scheme, plan, outline generally: a diagrammatic outline or synopsis of anything: (_Gr. Church_) the monastic habit.--_adj._ SCHEMAT'IC.--_v.t._ SCH[=E]'MATISE, to arrange in outline.--_v.i._ to make a plan in outline.--_ns._ SCH[=E]'MATISM, form or outline of a thing: (_astrol._) the combination of the heavenly bodies; SCH[=E]'MATIST, a projector. SCHEME, sk[=e]m, _n._ plan: something contrived to be done: purpose: plot: a combination of things by design: a specific organisation for some end: an illustrative diagram: a system: a statement in tabular form: a representation of the aspect of the heavenly bodies at a given time.--_v.t._ to plan: to contrive.--_v.i._ to form a plan.--_n._ SCHEME'-ARCH, an arch less than a semicircle.--_adj._ SCHEME'FUL.--_n._ SCH[=E]'MER.--_adj._ SCH[=E]'MING, given to forming schemes: intriguing.--_adv._ SCH[=E]'MINGLY, by scheming.--_n._ SCH[=E]'MIST, a schemer: an astrologer.--_adj._ SCH[=E]'MY, cunning: intriguing. [L. _schema_--Gr. _sch[=e]ma_, form--_echein_, _sch[=e]sein_, to hold.] SCHEPEN, sk[=a]'pen, _n._ a Dutch magistrate. [Dut.] SCHEROMA, ske-r[=o]'ma, _n._ inflammation of the eye without discharge. [Gr. _x[=e]ros_, dry.] SCHERZO, sker'ts[=o], _n._ (_mus._) a passage or movement of a lively character, forming part of a musical composition of some length, as a symphony, quartette, or sonata.--_adj._ SCHERZAN'DO, playful. [It. _scherzo_, a jest, _scherzare_, to play--Teut.; Mid. High Ger. _scherz_ (Ger. _scherz_, Dut. _scherts_), jest.] SCHESIS, sk[=e]'sis, _n._ habitude.--_adj._ SCHET'IC, constitutional: habitual. [Gr.,--_echein_, to have.] SCHIAVONE, ski-a-v[=o]'ne, _n._ a backed, hilted broadsword of the 17th century. [It., the Doge's bodyguard, the _Schiavoni_ or Slavs being armed with it.] SCHIEDAM, sk[=e]-dam', _n._ Hollands gin, named from the town near Rotterdam where it is chiefly made. SCHILLER, shil'[.e]r, _n._ the peculiar bronze-like lustre observed in certain minerals, as hypersthene, &c., due to internal reflection.--_ns._ SCHILLERIS[=A]'TION, the process by which microscopic crystals have been developed in other minerals so as to give a submetallic sheen by internal reflection; SCHILL'ERITE, or SCHILL'ER-SPAR rock, enstatite schillerised. [Ger.] SCHINDYLESIS, skin-di-l[=e]'sis, _n._ an articulation formed by the fitting of one bone into a groove in another, as in the sphenoid bone and vomer.--_adj._ SCHINDYLET'IC. [Gr.,--_schindylein_; to cleave, _schizein_, to cleave.] SCHINUS, sk[=i]'nus, _n._ a genus of South American trees, of order _Anacardiaceæ_, the leaves yielding abundantly a fragrant, resinous, or turpentine-like fluid. [Gr. _schinos_, the mastic-tree.] SCHIPPERKE, ship'p[.e]r-ke, _n._ a breed of dogs of the same group as the Eskimo and Pomeranian dog, but with almost no tail, favourites of the Belgian bargees. [Flem., 'little skipper.'] S-CHISEL, es-chiz'el, _n._ a cutting tool in well-boring. SCHISIOPHONE, skiz'i-[=o]-f[=o]n, _n._ an induction balance for detecting flaws in iron rails. [Gr. _schisis_, a cleaving, _ph[=o]n[=e]_, sound.] SCHISM, sizm, _n._ a separation in a church, from diversity of opinion or discipline, breach of unity without justifiable cause, also the tendency towards such.--_ns._ SCHIS'MA (_mus._), the difference between a pure and an equally tempered fifth; SCHISMAT'IC, one who separates from a church on account of difference of opinion.--_adjs._ SCHISMAT'IC, -AL, tending to, or of the nature of, schism.--_adv._ SCHISMAT'ICALLY.--_n._ SCHISMAT'ICALNESS.--_v.i._ SCHIS'MATISE, to practise schism: to make a breach in the communion of the church:--_pr.p._ schis'mat[=i]sing; _pa.p._ schis'mat[=i]sed.--GREAT, or GREEK, SCHISM, the separation of the Greek Church from the Latin, finally completed in 1054; WESTERN SCHISM, the division in the Western Church on the appointment by the Romans of Urban VI. to the papal chair in 1378, while the French cardinals elected Clement VII.--healed on the election of Martin V. by the Council of Constance in 1417. [L. _schisma_--Gr. _schizein_, to split.] SCHIST, shist, _n._ a term properly applied to crystalline rocks with a foliated structure, as mica-schist, hornblende-schist, &c.--indurated clay-rocks with a fissile structure are sometimes erroneously described as schists.--_adjs._ SCHIST[=A]'CEOUS, slate-gray; SCHIST'IC, SCHIST'OUS, SCHIST'OSE, like schist: slaty.--_n._ SCHISTOS'ITY, quality of being schistose. [Fr. _schiste_--Gr. _schistos_--_schizein_, to split.] SCHIZÆA, sk[=i]-z[=e]'a, _n._ a genus of ferns, with sporangia ovate, sessile, and arranged in spikes or panicles. [Gr. _schizein_, to split.] SCHIZOCARP, skiz'[=o]-kärp, _n._ a dry fruit which splits at maturity into several closed one-seeded portions.--_adj._ SCHIZOCAR'POUS. [Gr. _schizein_, to cleave, _karpos_, fruit.] SCHIZOCEPHALY, skiz-[=o]-sef'a-li, _n._ the practice of preserving the heads of warriors among Maoris, &c. [Gr. _schizein_, to cleave, _kephal[=e]_, the head.] SCHIZOCOELE, skiz'[=o]-s[=e]l, _n._ a term applied to the perivisceral cavity of the _Invertebrata_, when formed by a splitting of the mesoblast.--_adj._ SCHIZOCOE'LOUS. [Gr, _schizein_, to cleave, _koilia_, a hollow.] SCHIZODON, skiz'[=o]-don, _n._ a genus of South American octodont rodents. [Gr. _schizein_, to cleave, _odous_, odontos, a tooth.] SCHIZOGENESIS, skiz-[=o]-jen'e-sis _n._ reproduction by fission.--_adjs._ SCHIZOGEN'IC, SCHIZOGENET'IC.--_n._ SCHIZOG'ONY. [Gr. _schizein_, to cleave, _genesis_, production.] SCHIZOGNATHOUS, sk[=i]-zog'n[=a]-thus, _adj._ having the maxillo-palatine bones separate from each other and from the vomer, as in the gulls, plovers, &c.--_n.pl._ SCHIZOG'N[=A]THÆ, a subdivision of the carinate birds.--_n._ SCHIZOG'N[=A]THISM. [Gr. _schizein_, to cleave, _gnathos_, the jaw.] SCHIZOMYCETES, skiz-[=o]-m[=i]-s[=e]'t[=e]z, _n._ a botanical term for Bacteria, in reference to their commonest mode of reproduction--by transverse division. [Gr. _schizein_, to cleave, _myk[=e]s_ (pl. _myk[=e]tes_), a mushroom.] SCHIZONEMERTEA, skiz-[=o]-n[=e]-mer't[=e]-a, _n.pl._ the sea-worms which have the head fissured.--_adjs._ SCHIZONEMER'TEAN, SCHIZONEMER'TINE. SCHIZONEURA, skiz-[=o]-n[=u]'ra, _n._ a genus of plant lice. [Gr. _schizein_, to cleave, _neuron_, a nerve.] SCIZOPHORA, sk[=i]-zof'[=o]-ra, _n.pl._ a division of dipterous insects. [Gr. _schizein_, cleave, _pherein_, bear.] SCHIZOPODA, sk[=i]-zop'[=o]-da, _n.pl._ a group of crustaceans, having the feet cleft or double, including the opossum-shrimps and their allies.--_adj._ and _n._ SCHIZ'OPOD. [Gr. _schizein_, to cleave, _pous_, _podos_, the foot.] SCHIZORHINAL, skiz-[=o]-r[=i]'nal, _adj._ having the nasal bones separate: having the anterior nostrils prolonged in the form of a slit. [Gr. _schizein_, to cleave, _rhis_, _rhinos_, the nose.] SCHIZOTHECAL, skiz-[=o]-th[=e]'kal, _adj._ having the tarsal envelope divided, as by scutella--opp. to _Holothecal_. [Gr. _schizein_, to cleave, _th[=e]k[=e]_, a case.] SCHIZOTROCHOUS, sk[=i]-zot'r[=o]-kus, _adj._ with a divided disc, as a rotifer.--_n.pl._ SCHIZOT'ROCHA. [Gr. _schizein_, to cleave, _trochos_, a wheel.] SCHLÄGER, shl[=a]'g[.e]r, _n._ the modern duelling-sword of German university students. [Ger.,--_schlagen_, to beat.] SCHEGALIA, shle-g[=a]'li-a, _n._ a genus of birds of Paradise. [Named from the Dutch ornithologist Hermann _Schlegel_ (1805-84).] SCHLICH, shlik, _n._ the finer portions of crushed ore, separated by water. [Ger.] SCHMELZE, schmel'tse, _n._ glass used in decorative work. [Ger. _schmelz_, enamel.] SCHNAPPS, SCHNAPS, shnaps, _n._ Holland gin, Hollands. [Ger. _schnapps_, a dram.] SCHNEIDERIAN, shn[=i]-d[=e]'ri-an, _adj._ pertaining to the mucous membrane of the nose--first described by the German anatomist C. V. _Schneider_ (1614-80). SCHOENUS, sk[=e]'nus, _n._ a genus of monocotyledonous plants of the sedge family. [Gr. _schoinos_, a rush.] SCHOLAR, skol'ar, _n._ a pupil: a disciple: a student: one who has received a learned education: a man of learning: a savant: in the English universities, an undergraduate partly supported from the revenues of a college.--_ns._ SCHOL'ARCH, the head of a school of philosophy; SCHOL'ARISM, the affectation of scholarship.--_adjs._ SCHOL'AR-LIKE, SCHOL'ARLY, like or becoming a scholar.--_n._ SCHOL'ARSHIP, the character of a scholar: learning: maintenance for a scholar, a benefaction, the annual proceeds of a bequest permanently invested for this purpose.--_adj._ SCHOLAS'TIC, pertaining to a scholar or to schools: scholar-like: pertaining to the schoolmen: excessively subtle: pedantic.--_n._ one who adheres to the method or subtleties of the schools of the middle ages.--_adv._ SCHOLAS'TICALLY, in a scholastic manner: according to the methods of the schools of philosophy.--_n._ SCHOLAS'TICISM, the aims, methods, and products of thought which constituted the main endeavour of the intellectual life of the middle ages: the method or subtleties of the schools of philosophy: the collected body of doctrines of the schoolmen. [Low L. _scholaris_--L. _schola_.] SCHOLIAST, sk[=o]'li-ast, _n._ one of a class of ancient grammarians, mostly anonymous, who wrote short notes on the margins of the MSS. of ancient Greek and Roman classics, a writer of scholia: an annotator: a commentator.--_adj._ SCHOLIAS'TIC, pertaining to a scholiast or to scholia.--_ns._ SCH[=O]'LION, SCH[=O]'LIUM, one of the marginal notes of the old critics on the ancient classics: (_math._) an explanation tion added to a problem:--_pl._ SCH[=O]'LIA, SCH[=O]'LIUMS. [Gr. _scholiast[=e]s_--_scholion_, a scholium.] SCHOOL, sk[=oo]l, _n._ a place for instruction: an institution of learning, esp. for children: the pupils of a school: exercises for instruction: the disciples of a particular teacher, or those who hold a common doctrine: a large number of fish migrating together, a shoal: a system of training: any means of knowledge, esp. (_mus._) a treatise teaching some particular branch of the art: a large hall in English universities, where the examinations for degrees, &c., are held--hence, one of these examinations (gen. _pl._) also the group of studies taken by a man competing for honours in these: a single department of a university: (_pl._) the body of masters and students in a college.--_v.t._ to educate in a school: to instruct: to admonish, to discipline.--_adj._ SCHOOL'ABLE, of school age.--_ns._ SCHOOL'-BOARD, a board of managers, elected by the ratepayers, whose duty it is to see that adequate means of education are provided for the children of a town or district; SCHOOL'-BOY, a boy attending a school: one learning the rudiments of a subject; SCHOOL'-CLERK, one versed in the learning of schools; SCHOOL'-CRAFT, learning; SCHOOL'-DAME, a schoolmistress.--_n.pl._ SCHOOL'-DAYS, the time of life during which one goes to school.--_ns._ SCHOOL'-DIVINE'; SCHOOL'-DIVIN'ITY, scholastic or seminary theology; SCHOOL'-DOC'TOR, a schoolman; SCHOOL'ERY (_Spens._), something taught, precepts; SCHOOL'-FELL'OW, one taught at the same school: an associate at school; SCHOOL'GIRL a girl attending school.--_n.pl._ SCHOOL'-HOURS, time spent at school in acquiring instruction.--_ns._ SCHOOL'-HOUSE, a house of discipline and instruction: a house used as a school: a schoolmaster's house; SCHOOL'ING, instruction in school: tuition: the price paid for instruction: reproof, reprimand; SCHOOL'-INSPEC'TOR, an official appointed to examine schools; SCHOOL'-MA'AM, a schoolmistress; SCHOOL'-MAID, a school-girl; SCHOOL'MAN, one of the philosophers and theologians of the second half of the middle ages; SCHOOL'MASTER, the master or teacher of a school, a pedagogue:--_fem._ SCHOOL'MISTRESS, a woman who teaches or who merely governs a school; SCHOOL'-MATE, one who attends the same school; SCHOOL'-NAME, an abstract term, an abstraction; SCHOOL'-PENCE, a small sum paid for school-teaching; SCHOOL'-POINT, a point for scholastic disputation; SCHOOL'-ROOM, a room for teaching in: school accommodation; SCHOOL'-SHIP, a vessel used for teaching practical navigation.--_adj._ SCHOOL'-TAUGHT, taught at school or in the schools.--_ns._ SCHOOL'-TEACH'ER, one who teaches in a school; SCHOOL'-TEACH'ING; SCHOOL'-TIME, the time at which a school opens; SCHOOL'-WHALE, one of a school of whales; BOARD'-SCHOOL, a school under the control of a school-board.--GRAMMAR SCHOOL, HIGH SCHOOL, a school of secondary instruction, standing between the primary school and the university; NATIONAL SCHOOLS, those schools in Ireland which are under the commissioners of national education; OXFORD SCHOOL, a name given to that party which adopted the principles contained in the _Tracts for the Times_ (cf. _Tractarianism_); PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS, in Scotland, schools in every parish for general education; PRIMARY SCHOOL, a school for elementary instruction; PUBLIC SCHOOL, an elementary or primary school: a school under the control of a school-board: an endowed classical school for providing a liberal education for such as can pay high for it--Eton, Harrow, Rugby, Winchester, Westminster, Shrewsbury, Charterhouse, St Paul's, and Merchant Taylors', &c.; RAGGED SCHOOL, a free school for destitute children's education and often maintenance, supported by voluntary efforts; SUNDAY SCHOOL, a school held on Sunday for religious instruction; TÜBINGEN SCHOOL, a rationalistic school of theologians founded by F. C. Baur (1792-1860), which explained the origin of the Catholic Church as due to the gradual fusion of an antagonistic Judaistic and Gentile party, the various stages of fusion being capable of being traced in the extant documents.--THE SCHOOLMASTER IS ABROAD, a phrase of Brougham's implying that education and intelligence are now widely spread. [L. _schola_--Gr. _schol[=e]_, leisure, a school.] [Illustration] SCHOONER, sk[=oo]n'[.e]r, _n._ a sharp-built, swift-sailing vessel, generally two-masted, rigged either with fore-and-aft sails on both masts, or with square top and topgallant sails on the foremast: an old form of covered emigrant-wagon: a large drinking-glass.--_n._ SCHOON'ER-SMACK, a sharp-bowed schooner. [Coined in New England from the prov. Eng. _scoon_ (Scot. _scon_), to make a flat stone skip along the surface of water; A.S. _scúnian_.] SCHORL, shorl, _n._ black tourmaline--also SHORL.--_adjs._ SCHORL[=A]'CEOUS, SCHOR'LOUS, SCHOR'LY. [Ger. _schörl_, prob. from Sw. _skör_, brittle.] SCHOTTISCHE, sho-t[=e]sh', _n._ a dance resembling a polka, danced by a couple: music adapted for the dance.--Also SCHOTTISH'. [Ger., 'Scottish.'] SCHOUT, skout, _n._ a municipal officer in the North American Dutch colonies. [Dut.] SCHRANKIA, shrang'ki-a, _n._ a genus of leguminous plants, whose six species are all American--including the _sensitive-briar_. [Named from the German naturalist F. von Paula _Schrank_ (1747-1835).] SCHUCHIN, skuch'in, _n._ an obsolete form of _escutcheon_. SCHWEINITZIA, shw[=i]-nit'zi-a, _n._ a genus of gamopetalous plants of the Indian-pipe family, including the sweet pine-sap or Carolina beech-drops. [The Amer. botanist L. D. von _Schweinitz_ (1780-1834).] SCHWENKFELDER, shwengk'fel-d[.e]r, _n._ a member of a religious sect, founded by Caspar von _Schwenkfeld_ (1490-1561), still found in Pennsylvania.--Also SCHWENK'FELDIAN. SCIADIACEÆ, s[=i]-ad-i-[=a]'s[=e]-[=e], _n._ a family of fresh-water algæ, its typical genus _Sciadium_. SCIAGRAPHY, s[=i]-ag'ra-fi, _n._ the art of casting and delineating shadows as they fall in nature: (_archit._) the vertical section of a building to show its interior structure: the art of dialling.--_ns._ SC[=I]'AGRAPH; SC[=I]AG'RAPHER.--_adjs._ SC[=I]AGRAPH'IC, -AL.--_adv._ SC[=I]AGRAPH'ICALLY. [Gr. _skiagraphia_--_skia_, a shadow, _graphein_, to write.] SCIAMACHY, s[=i]-am'a-ki, _n._ Same as SCIOMACHY. SCIAMETRY, s[=i]-am'e-tri, _n._ the doctrine of eclipses. [Gr. _skia_, shadow, _metrein_, to measure.] SCIARA, s[=i]'a-ra, _n._ a genus of gnats or midges. [Gr. _skiaros_, shady--_skia_, a shadow.] SCIATH, s[=i]'ath, _n._ an oblong shield of wicker-work formerly used in Ireland. [Ir. _sciath_.] SCIATHERIC, -AL, s[=i]-a-ther'ik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to a sundial. [Gr. _skiath[=e]ron_--_skia_, shadow, _theran_, catch.] SCIATICA, s[=i]-at'i-ka, _n._ a neuralgic affection of the great sciatic nerve.--_adjs._ SCIAT'IC, -AL, pertaining to, or affecting, the hip, ischiac.--_adv._ SCIAT'ICALLY. [Low L. _sciatica_--Gr. _ischion_.] SCIENCE, s[=i]'ens, _n._ knowledge systematised: truth ascertained: pursuit of knowledge or truth for its own sake: knowledge arranged under general truths and principles: that which refers to abstract principles, as distinguished from 'art:' pre-eminent skill: trade: a department of knowledge.--_n._ SCIB'ILE, something capable of being known.--_adjs._ SC[=I]'ENCED, versed, learned; SC[=I]'ENT, knowing; SCIEN'TIAL (_Milt._), producing science: skilful; SCIENTIF'IC, -AL (_obs._), producing or containing science: according to, or versed in, science: used in science: systematic: accurate.--_adv._ SCIENTIF'ICALLY.--_ns._ SC[=I]'ENTISM, the view of scientists; SC[=I]'ENTIST, one who studies science, esp. natural science.--_adjs._ SCIENTIS'TIC.--_adv._ SC[=I]'ENTLY, knowingly.--_n._ SCIENT'OLISM, false science, superficial knowledge.--SCIENTIFIC FRONTIER, a term used by Lord Beaconsfield in 1878 in speaking of the rectification of the boundaries between India and Afghanistan, meaning a frontier capable of being occupied and defended according to the requirements of the science of strategy, in opposition to 'a hap-hazard frontier.'--ABSOLUTE SCIENCE, knowledge of things in themselves; APPLIED SCIENCE, when its laws are exemplified in dealing with concrete phenomena; DISMAL SCIENCE, political economy; GAY SCIENCE, a medieval name for belles-lettres and poetry generally, esp. amatory poetry; INDUCTIVE SCIENCE (see INDUCT); LIBERAL SCIENCE, a science cultivated from love of knowledge, without view to profit; MENTAL SCIENCE, mental philosophy, psychology; MORAL SCIENCE, ethics, the science of right and wrong, moral responsibility; OCCULT SCIENCE, a name applied to the physical sciences of the middle ages, also to magic, sorcery, witchcraft, &c.; SANITARY SCIENCE (see SANITARY); THE EXACT SCIENCES, the mathematical sciences; THE SCIENCE, the art of boxing; THE SEVEN LIBERAL SCIENCES, grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy--these were the seven TERRESTRIAL SCIENCES, as opposed to the seven CELESTIAL SCIENCES, civil law, Christian law, practical theology, devotional theology, dogmatic theology, mystic theology, and polemical theology. [Fr.,--L. _scientia_--_sciens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _sc[=i]re_, to know.] SCIL, an abbreviation of _scilicet_. SCILICET, sil'i-set, _adv._ to wit, namely, videlicet. SCILLA, sil'a, _n._ a genus of liliaceous plants, as the squill. [L.,--Gr. _skilla_, a sea-onion.] SCILLOCEPHALUS, sil-[=o]-sef'a-lus, _n._ a person with a conical cranium.--_adjs._ SCILLOCEPH'ALOUS. [Gr. _skilla_, a squill, _kephal[=e]_, a head.] SCIMITAR, sim'i-tar, _n._ a short, single-edged curved sword, broadest at the point end, used by the Turks and Persians.--_n._ SCIM'ITAR-POD, a strong, shrubby climber of the tropics. [O. Fr. _cimeterre_--Old It. _cimitara_--Turk.,--Pers. _shimsh[=i]r_ (perh. 'lion's claw,' _sham_, a claw, _sh[=i]r_, _sher_, a lion); or perh. through Sp. _cimitarra_, from Basque _cimeterra_, something 'with a fine edge.'] SCINCOID, sing'koid, _n._ one of a family of saurian reptiles, the typical genus of which is the SCIN'CUS or skink.--_adjs._ like a skink. [L. _scincus_--Gr. _skingkos_, a kind of lizard, _eidos_, form.] SCINDAPSUS, sin-dap'sus, _n._ a genus of climbing plants. SCINTILLA, sin-til'a, _n._ a spark: a glimmer: the least particle: a trace: a genus of bivalve molluscs: a genus of lepidopterous insects.--_adjs._ SCIN'TILLANT; SCIN'TILLANTE (_mus._), brilliant.--_v.i._ SCIN'TILLATE, to throw out sparks: to sparkle.--_n._ SCINTILL[=A]'TION, act of throwing out sparks: shining with a twinkling light.--_adj._ SCINTILLES'CENT, scintillating feebly.--_n._ SCINTILLOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the intensity of scintillation of the stars. [L., a spark.] SCIOGRAPHY, s[=i]-og'ra-fi, _n._ Same as SCIAGRAPHY. SCIOLISM, s[=i]'[=o]-lizm, _n._ superficial knowledge.--_n._ SC[=I]'OLIST, one who knows anything superficially: a pretender to science.--_adjs._ SC[=I]OLIS'TIC, pertaining to, or partaking of, sciolism: pertaining to, or resembling, a sciolist; SC[=I]'OLOUS. [L. _sciolus_, dim. of _scius_, knowing--_sc[=i]re_, to know.] SCIOLTO, shi-ol't[=o], _adj._ (_mus._) free, unrestrained. [It.] SCIOMACHY, s[=i]-om'a-ki, _n._ a battle or fighting with shadows: imaginary or futile combat.--Also SCIAM'ACHY. [Gr. _skiamachia_, _skiomachia_--_skia_, shadow, _mach[=e]_, battle.] SCIOMANCY, s[=i]'[=o]-man-si, _n._ divination by means of the shades of the dead. SCION, s[=i]'on, _n._ a cutting or twig for grafting: a young member of a family: a descendant. [O. Fr. _sion_, _cion_--L. _section-em_, a cutting--_sec[=a]re_, to cut.] SCIOPTIC, s[=i]-op'tik, _adj._ noting a certain optical arrangement for forming images in a darkened room, consisting of a globe with a lens fitted to a camera, and made to turn like the eye--also SCIOP'TRIC.--_ns._ SCIOP'TICON; SCIOP'TICS. [Gr. _skia_, shadow, _optikos_, pertaining to sight.] SCIOTHEISM, s[=i]'[=o]-th[=e]-izm, _n._ ancestor-worship. SCIOTHERIC. Same as SCIATHERIC (q.v.). SCIOUS, sc[=i]'us, _adj._ (_obs._) knowing. SCIRE FACIAS, s[=i]'re f[=a]'shi-as, _n._ (_law_) a writ to enforce the execution of judgments, or to quash them. SCIRPUS, sir'pus, _n._ a genus of monocotyledonous plants, including the bulrushes. [L., a rush.] SCIRRHUS, skir'us, or sir'us, _n._ (_med._) a hardened gland forming a tumour: a hardening, esp. that preceding cancer.--_adjs._ SCIRR'HOID, resembling scirrhus; SCIRR'HOUS, hardened, proceeding from scirrhus. [L.,--Gr. _skirros_, _skiros_, a tumour.] SCIRTOPOD, sir't[=o]-pod, _adj._ having limbs fitted for leaping.--_n.pl._ SCIRTOP'ODA, an order of saltatorial rotifers. [Gr. _skirtan_, leap, _pous_, foot.] SCISCITATION, sis-i-t[=a]'shun, _n._ (_obs._) the act of inquiry: demand. [L.,--_sciscit[=a]ri_, to inquire--_scisc[)e]re_, to seek to know--_sc[=i]re_, to know.] SCISSEL, sis'el, _n._ the clippings of various metals: scrap--also SCISS'IL. [O. Fr. _cisaille_--_ciseler_--_cisel_, a chisel (q.v.). The spelling has been adapted in the interests of a fancied connection with L. _scind[)e]re_, _scissum_, to divide.] SCISSORS, siz'orz, _n.pl._ a cutting instrument consisting of two blades fastened at the middle: shears.--_v.i._ SCISE, s[=i]z (_obs._), to cut: to penetrate.--_adjs._ SCISS'IBLE, SCISS'ILE, capable of being cut.--_ns._ SCIS'SION, the act of cutting: division: splitting; SCISSIPAR'ITY, reproduction by fission.--_v.t._ SCISS'OR, to cut with scissors.--_ns._ SCISS'OR-BILL, a skimmer; SCISS'OR-TAIL, an American bird, the scissor-tailed fly-catcher; SCISS'OR-TOOTH, the sectorial tooth of a carnivore which cuts against its fellow; SCISS[=U]'RA (_anat._), a fissure, a cleft; SCIS'SURE, a cleft: a fissure: a rupture: a division; SCISSUREL'LA, a genus of gasteropods with a shell deeply cut. [Formerly written _cisors_--O. Fr. _cisoires_, conn. with Fr. _ciseaux_, scissors, from Late L. _cisorium_, a cutting instrument--L. _cæd[)e]re_, _cæsum_, to cut.] SCIURIDÆ, s[=i]-[=u]'ri-d[=e], _n._ a family of rodent mammals containing the squirrels and their allies.--_adjs._ SC[=I]'[=U]RINE, SC[=I]'[=U]ROID.--_ns._ SCI[=U]ROP'TERUS, one of two genera of flying squirrels; SCI[=U]'RUS, a genus of _Sciuridæ_, the arboreal squirrels. [Gr. _skiouros_.] SCLATE, skl[=a]t, _n._ an obs. or prov. form of _slate_. SCLAVE, SCLAVONIAN, &c. See SLAV, SLAVONIC. SCLERA, skl[=e]'ra, _n._ the sclerotic coat of the eye-ball.--_n._ SCL[=E]'RAGOGY, severe discipline.--_adj._ SCL[=E]'RAL.--_ns._ SCL[=E]RAN'THUS, a genus of apetalous plants, including the knawel or German knot-grass; SCLERE, in sponges, a skeletal element; SCL[=E]RENCH'YMA, the hard parts of corals or plants.--_adj._ SCLERENCHYM'ATOUS.--_ns._ SCL[=E]'RIA, a genus of monocotyledonous plants, of the sedge family; SCLER[=I]'ASIS, sclerodermia; SCL[=E]'RITE, any hard part of the integument of arthropods.--_adj._ SCLERIT'IC.--_n._ SCL[=E]'ROBASE, a dense corneous mass, as in red coral.--_adj._ SCLEROB[=A]'SIC.--_ns._ SCL[=E]ROBR[=A]'CHIA, an order of brachiopods; SCL[=E]'RODERM, hardened integument or exo-skeleton, esp. of a coral: a madrepore.--_n.pl._ SCLERODER'MATA, the scaly reptiles: the madrepores.--_n._ SCL[=E]RODER'MIA, a chronic non-inflammatory affection of the skin, which becomes thick and rigid.--_adjs._ SCLERODER'MIC, SCLERODER'MOUS, SCLERODERMIT'IC.--_ns._ SCLERODER'MITE; SCL[=E]'ROGEN, the thickening matter of woody cells, as in walnut-shells, &c.--_adjs._ SCLEROG'ENOUS, producing sclerous tissue: mail-cheeked, as a fish; SCL[=E]'ROID, hard, scleritic.--_ns._ SCL[=E]R[=O]'MA, sclerosis; SCL[=E]ROM[=E]'NINX, the dura mater; SCL[=E]ROM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the hardness of a mineral.--_adjs._ SCL[=E]R[=O]'SAL, SCL[=E]'ROSED.--_ns._ SCL[=E]R[=O]'SIS, a hardening: (_bot._) the induration of a tissue; SCL[=E]ROS'TOMA, a genus of nematode worms; SCL[=E]R[=O]'TAL, a bone of the eye-ball.--_adj._ relating to such.--_adj._ SCL[=E]ROT'IC, hard, firm, applied esp. to the outer membrane of the eye-ball: pertaining to sclerosis: relating to ergot.--_n._ the outermost membrane of the eye-ball.--_ns._ SCL[=E]ROT[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the sclerotic; SCL[=E]R[=O]'TIUM, a hard, multicellular tuber-like body formed towards the end of the vegetative season by the close union of the ordinary mycelial filaments of Fungi.--_adjs._ SCL[=E]'ROUS, hard or indurated: ossified or bony; SCL[=E]RUR'INE, having stiff, hard tail-feathers, as a bird of the genus _Sclerurus_. [Gr. _skl[=e]ros_, hard.] SCOAT, sk[=o]t, _v.t._ to prop, to block, to scotch, as a wheel.--Also SCOTE. [O. Fr. _ascouter_--_ascot_, a branch--Teut., Old High Ger. _scuz_, a shoot; Ger. _schuss_.] SCOBBY, skob'i, _n._ the chaffinch.--Also SC[=O]'BY. SCOBS, skobz, _n._ sawdust: shavings: dross of metals.--_adj._ SCOB'IFORM, resembling sawdust or raspings.--_n._ SCOB[=I]'NA, the pedicle of the spikelets of grasses. [L. _scobis_--_scab[)e]re_, to scrape.] SCOFF, skof, _v.t._ to mock: to treat with scorn.--_v.i._ to show contempt or scorn: to deride, taunt, gibe.--_n._ an expression of scorn or contempt: an object of scoffing.--_n._ SCOFF'ER.--_adv._ SCOFF'INGLY, in a scoffing manner: with mockery or contempt. [Old Fris. _schof_; Ice. _skaup_, cf. Old Dut. _schoppen_, to scoff.] SCOGANISM, sk[=o]'gan-izm, _n._ a scurrilous jesting. [From _Scogan_, the name of a famous jester.] SCOGIE, sk[=o]'ji, _n._ (_Scot._) a kitchen drudge. SCOLD, sk[=o]ld, _v.i._ to rail in a loud and violent manner: to find fault.--_v.t._ to chide rudely: to rebuke in words.--_n._ a rude, clamorous woman: a termagant.--_ns._ SCOLD'ER; SCOLD'ING, railing: a rating; SCOLD'ING-STOOL, a cucking-stool. [Old Dut. _scheldan_; Ger. _schelten_, to brawl, to scold.] SCOLECIDA, sk[=o]-les'i-da, _n._ a class of worms consisting of the wheel-animalcules, turbellarians, trematode worms, &c.--_adj._ SCOLEC'IFORM.--_ns._ SCOLEC[=I]'NA, a group of annelids typified by the earth-worm--also SCOLE[=I]'NA; SCOL'EC[=I]TE, a hydrous silicate of aluminium and calcium.--_adjs._ SCOL[=E]'COID, like a scolex; SCOL[=E]COPH'AGOUS, worm-eating, as a bird.--_n._ SCOLECOPH'AGUS, a genus of birds including the maggot-eaters or rusty grackles.--_n.pl._ SCOLECOPHID'IA, a division of angiostomous serpents.--_adj._ SCOLECOPHID'IAN, worm-like, as a snake.--_n._ SC[=O]'LEX, the embryo of an entozoic worm. [Gr. _sk[=o]l[=e]x_, a worm.] SCOLIA, sk[=o]-li-a, _n._ a genus of fossorial hymenopterous insects. [Gr. _sk[=o]los_, a prickle.] SCOLIODON, sk[=o]-l[=i]'[=o]-don, _n._ the genus containing the oblique-toothed sharks. [Gr. _skolios_, oblique, _odous_, _odontis_, a tooth.] SCOLISOIS, skol-i-[=o]'sis, _n._ lateral curvature of the spinal column.--_adj._ SCOLIOT'IC. [Gr.,--_skolios_, oblique.] SCOLITE, sk[=o]'l[=i]t, _n._ a fossil worm or its trace. [Gr. _skolios_, oblique.] SCOLLOP. Same as SCALLOP. SCOLOPACEOUS, skol-[=o]-p[=a]'shi-us, _adj._ resembling a snipe.--_n.pl._ SCOLOPAC'IDÆ, a family of wading-birds containing snipes, &c.--_adjs._ SCOL'OPACINE, SCOL'OPACOID.--_n._ SCOL'OPAX. [L. _scolopax_, a snipe.] SCOLOPENDRA, skol-[=o]-pen'dra, _n._ a genus of _Myriapoda_, having a long, slender, depressed body, protected by coriaceous plates, and having at least twenty-one pairs of legs: (_Spens._) an imaginary fish or sea-monster.--_adj._ SCOLOPEN'DRIFORM, SCOLOPEN'DRINE.--_n._ SCOLOPEN'DRIUM, a genus of asplenioid ferns, generally called _Hart's-tongue_. [L.,--Gr. _skolopendra_, a milliped.] SCOLYTUS, skol'i-tus, _n._ typical genus of SCOLYT'IDÆ, a family of bark beetles.--_adj._ SCOL'YTOID. [Gr. _skolyptein_, to strip.] SCOMBER, skom'b[.e]r, _n._ a genus of acanthopterygian fishes typical of the family _Scombridæ_, to which belong mackerel, tunnies, bonitos, &c.--_ns._ SCOMBER'ESOX, the mackerel pikes, saury pikes, or sauries; SCOMBEROM'ORUS, the Spanish mackerel and related species.--_adjs._ SCOM'BRIFORM, SCOM'BRID, -AL, SCOM'BROID. [L.,--Gr. _skombros_, a mackerel.] SCOMFISH, skom'fish, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to suffocate by bad air: to nauseate: to discomfit.--_v.i._ to be suffocated. [A corr. of obs. _scomfit_=_discomfit_.] SCOMM, skom, _n._ (_obs._) a flout: a buffoon. [L. _scomma_--Gr. _sk[=o]mma_, a jest.] SCONCE, skons, _n._ a bulwark: a small fort: a protective headpiece, hence the head, the skull, brains, wits: a covered stall: a fine: a seat in an old-fashioned open chimney-place, a chimney-seat: a fragment of an icefloe.--_v.t._ to fortify: to tax, to fine lightly, at Oxford and Cambridge, for some irregularity. [O. Fr. _esconcer_, to conceal--L. _abscond[)e]re_, _absconsum_.] SCONCE, skons, _n._ the part of a candlestick for the candle: a hanging candlestick with a mirror to reflect the light: a lantern. [O. Fr. _esconse_--Low L. _absconsa_, a dark-lantern--_abscond[)e]re_, to hide.] SCONCHEON. Same as SQUINCH. SCONE, sk[=o]n, _n._ (_Scot._) a soft cake fired on a griddle. [Perh. Gael. _sgonn_, a shapeless mass.] SCOON, sk[=oo]n, _v.t._ to skim along like a vessel: (_Scot._) to skip flat stones on the surface of water. [_Scun_.] SCOOP, sk[=oo]p, _v.t._ to lift up, as water, with something hollow: to empty with a ladle: to make hollow: to dig out: to dredge for grain: to get before a rival newspaper in publishing some important piece of news.--_n._ anything hollow for scooping: a large hollow shovel or ladle: a banker's shovel: a coal-scuttle: a haul of money made in speculation: a place hollowed out: a sweeping stroke: (_Scot._) the peak of a cap: the act of beating another newspaper in publishing some news.--_ns._ SCOOP'ER, an engraver's tool; SCOOP'ING, the action of the right whale in feeding; SCOOP'-NET, a hand-net; SCOOP'-WHEEL, a wheel having buckets attached to its circumference, used for raising water. [Prob. Scand., Sw. _skopa_, a scoop; or Old Dut. _schoepe_, a shovel, Ger. _schüppe_, a shovel.] SCOOT, sk[=oo]t, _v.i._ to make off with celerity.--_v.t._ (_Scot._) to squirt.--_n._ a sudden flow of water: a squirt. [A variant of _shoot_.] SCOPA, sk[=o]'pa, _n._ (_entom._) a mass of stiff hairs like a brush.--_n._ SCOP[=A]'RIA, a genus of pyralid moths: a genus of gamopetalous plants--the West Indian _sweet bromweed_.--_adjs._ SCOP[=A]'RIOUS, scopiform; SC[=O]'PATE, covered with stiff hairs; SC[=O]PIF'EROUS, brushy; SC[=O]'PIFORM, broom-shaped.--_ns._ SCOP'ULA (_entom._), a small brush-like organ; SCOPUL[=A]'RIA, in a sponge, the besom-shaped spicule.--_adjs._ SCOP'[=U]LATE, broom-shaped; SCOP'[=U]LIFORM, scopiform; SCOP'[=U]LIPED, SC[=O]'PIPED, having brushy feet, as solitary bees. [L. _scopa_, twigs.] SCOPE, sk[=o]p, _n._ that which one sees, space as far as one can see: room or opportunity for free outlook: space for action: the end before the mind: intention: length of cable at which a vessel rides at liberty: a target.--_adjs._ SCOPE'FUL, with a wide prospect; SCOPE'LESS, purposeless, useless. [It. _scopo_--Gr. _skopos_--_skopein_, to view.] SCOPE, sk[=o]p, _n._ (_obs._) a bundle, as of twigs. [L. _scopa_, twigs.] SCOPELIDÆ, sk[=o]-pel'i-d[=e], _n.pl._ a family of deep-water teleostean fishes, the typical genus SCOP'ELUS. [Gr. _skopelos_, a rock.] SCOPIDÆ, skop'i-d[=e], _n.pl._ an African family of wading-birds, as the shadow-birds, the typical genus SC[=O]'PUS. SCOPIOUS, sk[=o]'pi-us, _adj._ (_obs._) spacious. SCOPPERIL, skop'e-ril, _n._ a top: teetotum: the bone-foundation of a button. [Ice. _skoppa_, to spin.] SCOPS, skops, _n._ the screech-owl. [Gr. _sk[=o]ps_.] SCOPTIC, skop'tik, _adj._ mocking: jesting. [_Scomm_.] SCOPULOUS, skop'[=u]-lus, _adj._ full of rocks. [L. _scopulus_--Gr. _skopelos_, a high rock.] SCORBUTIC, -AL, skor-b[=u]'tik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to, resembling, or diseased with scurvy. [Low L. _scorbutus_, scurvy, prob. from Old Low Ger. _schorbock_, scurvy, Old Dut. _scheurbuyck_, scurvy. Prob. orig. meaning 'rupture of the belly,' for Old Dut. _scheuren_, to tear, _buyck_ (mod. Dut. _buik_), the belly.] SCORCH, skorch, _v.t._ to burn slightly: to roast highly: to affect painfully with heat: to singe: to attack with virulence.--_v.i._ to be burned on the surface: to be dried up: (_slang_) to ride a bicycle furiously on a public highway.--_ns._ SCORCHED'-CAR'PET, -WING, British geometrid moths; SCORCH'ER, anything that scorches, a very caustic rebuke, criticism, &c.: one who rides a bicycle furiously on a road; SCORCH'ING.--_p.adj._ burning superficially: bitterly sarcastic, scathing.--_adv._ SCORCH'INGLY.--_n._ SCORCH'INGNESS. [O. Fr. _escorcher_, from Low L. _excorticare_--L. _ex_, off, _cortex_, _corticis_, bark; or prob. Scand., Norw. _skrekka_, to shrink.] SCORDATO, sk[=o]r-dä't[=o], _adj._ (_mus._) put out of tune.--_n._ SCORDAT[=U]'RA, in stringed musical instruments, an intentional departure from the normal tuning. [It.] SCORE, sk[=o]r, _n._ a mark or notch for keeping count: a line drawn: the number twenty, once represented by a larger notch: a reckoning: a debt: the register of the various points of play in a game: account: reason: the original draught of a musical composition with all the parts, or its transcript.--_v.t._ to mark with notches or lines: to furrow: to set down: to charge: to engrave: to braid: to note: to enter: to make points, &c., in certain games.--_v.i._ to keep, or to run up, a score: to succeed in making points, &c., in a game.--_ns._ SC[=O]R'ER, one who keeps the marks in a game; SC[=O]R'ING, the act of one who, or that which, scores: a deep groove made by glacial action: the act of repeatedly bringing a racer and his rider to the starting-point, so as to get a fair start.--GO OFF AT SCORE, to make a spirited start; PAY OFF OLD SCORES, to repay old grudges; RUN UP A SCORE, to run up a debt. [A.S. _scor_--_sceran_ (pa.p. _scoren_), to shear.] SCORIA, sk[=o]'ri-a, _n._ dross or slag left from metal or ores after being under fire: a genus of geometrid moths:--_pl._ SC[=O]'RIÆ, volcanic ashes.--_adjs._ SC[=O]'RIAC, SCORI[=A]'CEOUS.--_ns._ SCORIFIC[=A]'TION, the act or operation of reducing a body to scoria: a method of assaying by fusing the ore with metallic lead and borax in a scorifier; SCOR'IF[=I]ER, a flat dish used in such a form of assaying.--_adj._ SC[=O]'RIFORM, like scoria.--_v.t._ SC[=O]'RIFY, to reduce to slag.--_adj._ SC[=O]'RIOUS. [L.,--Gr. _sk[=o]ria_.] SCORN, skorn, _n._ disdain caused by a mean opinion of anything: extreme contempt: object of contempt.--_v.t._ to hold in extreme contempt: to disdain: to make a mock of.--_v.i._ to scoff: to jeer.--_n._ SCOR'NER, one who scorns: (_B._) one who scoffs at religion: a scoffer.--_adj._ SCORN'FUL, full of scorn: contemptuous: disdainful.--_adv._ SCORN'FULLY.--_ns._ SCORN'FULNESS; SCOR'NING.--LAUGH TO SCORN (_B._), to deride; THINK SCORN, to disdain or despise. [O. Fr. _escarn_, mockery--Old High Ger. _skern_, mockery.] SCORODITE, skor'[=o]-d[=i]t, _n._ a hydrous arseniate of iron.--Also SKOR'ODITE. [Gr. _skorodon_, _skordon_, garlic.] SCORPÆNA, skor-p[=e]'na, _n._ a genus of fishes, the typical genus of SCORPÆ'NIDÆ, a family including the rose-fish, the Californian rock-fish, and their allies. [L.,--Gr. _skorpaina_, a fish.] SCORPER, skor'p[.e]r, _n._ a gouging-chisel [For _scauper_.] SCORPION, skor'pi-un, _n._ a name applicable to any member of the family _Scorpionidæ_, included along with spiders, mites, &c. in the heterogeneous class _Arachnida_--they have an elongated body, claws like the lobster, and a poisonous sting in the tail: one of the signs of the zodiac: (_B._) a whip with points like a scorpion's tail: an old military engine: any person of virulent hatred or animosity.--_n._ SCOR'PIO, a scorpion: (_astron._) a constellation and the eighth sign of the zodiac.--_adj._ SCOR'PIOID, curled like the tail of a scorpion.--_n._ SCOR'PION-BUG, a large predacious water-beetle.--_n.pl._ SCORPI[=O]'NES, true scorpions, a sub-order of _Arachnida_.--_ns._ SCOR'PION-FISH, a sea-scorpion; SCOR'PION-FLY, an insect having its abdomen curled like a scorpion; SCOR'PION-GRASS, the forget-me-not: the mouse-ear; SCORPION'IDA, an order of _Arachnida_, containing the Scorpiones or true scorpions; SCOR'PION-LOB'STER, a long-tailed crustacean; SCOR'PION-PLANT, a Javan orchid with large creamy flower supposed to resemble a spider; SCOR'PION-SHELL, a gasteropod distinguished by long, channelled spines; SCOR'PION-SP[=I]'DER, a whip-scorpion; SCOR'PION-WORT, a leguminous plant native of southern Europe; SCORPI[=U]'RUS, a genus of leguminous plants named scorpion's tail. [Fr.,--L. _scorpio_--Gr. _skorpios_.] SCORSE. Same as SCOURSE (2). SCORTATORY, skor'ta-t[=o]-ri, _adj._ pertaining to lewdness. [L. _scortator_, a fornicator--_scortum_, a whore.] SCORZA, skor'za, _n._ a variety of epidote. [It.] SCORZONERA, skor-z[=o]-n[=e]'ra, _n._ a genus of Old World herbs of the Aster family--_Viper's Grass_. [It., _scorza_, bark, _nera_, black, fem. of _nero_--L. _niger_, black.] SCOT, skot, _n._ a payment, esp. a customary tax--also SHOT.--_adj._ SCOT'-FREE, free from scot or payment: untaxed: unhurt, safe.--SCOT AND LOT, an old legal phrase embracing all parochial assessments for the poor, the church, lighting, cleansing, and watching. [A.S. _scot_, _sceot_--_scéotan_, to shoot.] SCOT, skot, _n._ a native of _Scotland_: one of the Scoti or Scots, a Celtic race who migrated from Ireland--the original _Scotia_--before the end of the 5th century.--_n._ SC[=O]'TIA, Scotland.--SCOTS GREYS, a famous regiment of dragoons, established in 1683; SCOTS GUARDS, the Scottish force which served the kings of France from 1418 down to the battle of Minden (1759), nominally retained, however, down to 1830: a well-known regiment of Guards in the British army, formerly Scots Fusiliers.--POUND SCOTS, 1s. 8d. [A.S. _Scottas_, the Scots. Further ety. quite uncertain, whether Gael. _sguit_, a wanderer, Gr. _Skyth[=e]s_, a Scythian, &c.] SCOTCH, skoch, _adj._ pertaining to _Scotland_, its people, language, customs, products, &c.--also SCOT'TISH, SCOTS.--_n._ the dialect of English spoken in Lowland Scotland: (_coll._) Scotch whisky.--_ns._ SCOTCH'-HOP, a child's game: hop-scotch; SCOTCH'MAN, SCOTS'MAN, a native of Scotland.--SCOTCH AMULET, a British geometrid moth; SCOTCH AND ENGLISH, the boys' game of prisoner's base; SCOTCH BARLEY, pot or hulled barley; SCOTCH BLUEBELL, the harebell; SCOTCH BONNETS, the fairy-ring mushroom; SCOTCH BROTH, broth made with pot-barley and plenty of various vegetables chopped small; SCOTCH CAP, the wild black raspberry; SCOTCH CATCH, or SNAP, the peculiarity in Scotch music of the first of two tones played to the same beat being the shorter; SCOTCH CURLIES, a variety of kale; SCOTCH FIR, or PINE, the only species of pine indigenous to Britain, valuable for its timber, turpentine, tar, &c.; SCOTCH KALE, a variety of kale; SCOTCH MIST, a mist like fine rain; SCOTCH PEBBLES, varieties of agate and jasper; SCOTCH THISTLE, the national emblem of Scotland. SCOTCH, skoch, _v.t._ to cut or wound slightly: to notch.--_n._ a notch, scratch.--_n._ SCOTCH'ING, a method of dressing stone with a pick.--SCOTCHED-COLLOPS, or (erroneously) SCOTCH-COLLOPS, beef-steaks fried with onions. [Related to _scutch_, _scratch_.] SCOTCH, skoch, _n._ a strut or drag for a wheel.--_v.t._ to prop or block with such.--_n._ SCOTE, a prop.--_v.t._ to stop or block. SCOTER, sk[=o]'t[.e]r, _n._ a genus of northern sea-ducks, with bill gibbous at the base. [Prob. Ice. _skoti_--_skjóta_, to shoot.] SCOTIA, sk[=o]'ti-a, _n._ a concave moulding, as the base of a pillar. [Gr. _skotia_,--_skotos_, darkness.] SCOTICE, skot'i-s[=e], _adv._ in the Scotch language or manner.--_n._ SCOT'ICISM=_Scotticism_. SCOTISM, sk[=o]'tizm, _n._ the metaphysical system of Johannes Duns _Scotus_, a native of Dunstane in Northumberland, Dun or Down in the north of Ireland, or Dunse in Berwickshire (1265 or 1274-1308), the great assailant of the method of Aquinas in seeking in speculation instead of in practice the foundation of Christian theology--his theological descendants were the Franciscans, in opposition to the Dominicans, who followed Aquinas.--_n._ SC[=O]'TIST, a follower of Duns Scotus.--_adj._ SCOTIS'TIC. SCOTOGRAPH, skot'[=o]-graf, _n._ an instrument for writing in the dark, or for the use of the blind.--_ns._ SCOT[=O]'MA, a defect in the vision (_obs._ SCOT'OMY); SCOT'OPHIS, a genus of carinated serpents of North America; SCOTOR'NIS, a genus of African birds with very long tails; SCOT'OSCOPE, a night-glass. [Gr. _skotos_, darkness, _graphein_, to write.] SCOTTICISM, skot'i-sizm, _n._ a Scotch idiom.--_v.t._ SCOTT'ICISE.--_n._ SCOTTIFIC[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ SCOTT'IFY (_coll._), to give Scotch character to. SCOUNDREL, skown'drel, _n._ a low worthless fellow: a rascal: a man without principle.--_ns._ SCOUN'DRELDOM, scoundrels collectively; SCOUN'DRELISM, baseness, rascality.--_adv._ SCOUN'DRELLY. [For _scunner-el_, one who scunners, or who causes scunnering--A.S. _scunian_, to shun.] SCOUP, skowp, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to run: to scamper. [Related to _skip_.] SCOUR, skowr, _v.t._ to clean by rubbing with something rough: to cleanse from grease or dirt: to remove by rubbing: to cleanse by a current: to search thoroughly by scrubbing: to cleanse by brushing: to purge drastically.--_n._ the action of a strong current in a narrow channel: violent purging.--_ns._ SCOUR'AGE, refuse water after scouring; SCOUR'ER, drastic cathartic; SCOUR'ING, in angling, the freshening of angle-worms for bait by putting them in clean sand; SCOUR'ING-BALL, a ball composed of soap, &c., for removing stains of grease.--_n.pl._ SCOUR'ING-DROPS, a mixture of oil of turpentine and oil of lemon used for removing stains.--_ns._ SCOUR'ING-RUSH, one of the horse-tails; SCOUR'ING-STOCK, in woollen manufacture, an apparatus in which cloths are treated to remove the oil and to cleanse them in the process of manufacture. [O. Fr. _escurer_--L. _excur[=a]re_, to take great care of.] SCOUR, skowr, _v.i._ to run with swiftness: to scurry along.--_v.t._ to run quickly over.--_n._ SCOUR'ER, a footpad. [O. Fr. _escourre_--L. _excurr[)e]re_, to run forth.] SCOURGE, skurj, _n._ a whip made of leather thongs: an instrument of punishment: a punishment: means of punishment.--_v.t._ to whip severely: to punish in order to correct.--_n._ SCOUR'GER, a flagellant. [O. Fr. _escorgie_ (Fr. _écourgée_)--L. (_scutia_) _excoriata_, (a whip) made of leather--_corium_, leather.] SCOURSE, sk[=o]rs, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to run: to hurry. [O. Fr. _escourser_--L. _excurr[)e]re_, _excursum_, to run out.] SCOURSE, sk[=o]rs, _v.t._ to barter, exchange.--_v.i._ to make an exchange.--_n._ (_Spens._) discourse.--Also SCORSE, SCOSS. [Prob. _discourse_.] SCOUT, skowt, _n._ one sent out to bring in tidings, observe the enemy, &c.: a spy: a sneak: in cricket, a fielder: the act of watching: a bird of the auk family: a college servant at Oxford, the same as _gyp_ in Cambridge and _skip_ in Dublin.--_v.t._ to watch closely.--_n._ SCOUT'-MAS'TER, an officer who has the direction of army scouts. [O. Fr. _escoute_--escouter (It. _ascoltare_)--L. _auscult[=a]re_, to listen--auris, the ear.] SCOUT, skowt, _v.t._ to sneer at: to reject with disdain.--_adv._ SCOUT'INGLY, sneeringly. [Scand.,--Ice. _skúta_, _skúti_, a taunt--_skjóta_, to shoot.] SCOUT, skowt, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to pour forth a liquid forcibly, esp. excrement.--_n._ the guillemot. SCOUTER, skowt'[.e]r, _n._ a workman who uses jump-drills, wedges, &c. to scale off large flakes of stone. SCOUTH, skowth, _n._ (_Scot._) room: scope, plenty. SCOUTHER, skow'th[.e]r, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to scorch: to fire hastily, as on a gridiron. SCOVAN, sk[=o]'van, _n._ a Cornish name for a vein of tin. SCOVE, sk[=o]v, _v.t._ to cover with clay so as to prevent the escape of heat in burning. SCOVED, sk[=o]vd, _adj._ (_prov._) smeared or blotched.--Also SC[=O]'VY. SCOVEL, skuv'l, _n._ (_prov._) a mop for sweeping ovens. SCOW, skow, _n._ a flat-bottomed boat: a ferry-boat. [Dut. _schouw_.] SCOWL, skowl, _v.i._ to wrinkle the brows in displeasure: to look sour or angry: to look gloomy.--_n._ the wrinkling of the brows when displeased.--_p.adj._ SCOW'LING.--_adv._ SCOW'LINGLY. [Scand., Dan. _skule_, to scowl; Low Ger. _schulen_, to look slyly.] SCOWL, skowl, _n._ (_prov._) old workings of iron ore. SCOWTHER, SCOUTHER, skow'th[.e]r, _n._ (_prov._) a flying shower. SCRAB, skrab, _n._ a crab-apple. SCRABBLE, skrab'l, _v.i._ to scrape or make unmeaning marks, to scrawl: to scramble or crawl along with difficulty.--_v.t._ to gather hastily.--_n._ a scramble.--_v.t._ SCRAB, to scratch, to scrape.--SCRABBED EGGS, a dish of hard-boiled eggs chopped up and seasoned. [A form of _scrapple_, freq. of _scrape_.] SCRAFFLE, skraf'l, _v.i._ to scramble: to wrangle: to be industrious: to shuffle. [A form of _scrabble_ or _scramble_.] SCRAG, skrag, _n._ anything thin or lean and rough: the bony part of the neck.--_v.t._ to put to death by hanging.--_adjs._ SCRAG'GED, SCRAG'GY, lean and rough: uneven, rugged.--_ns._ SCRAG'GEDNESS, SCRAG'GINESS.--_adv._ SCRAG'GILY.--_adjs._ SCRAG'GLY, rough-looking; SCRAG'-NECKED, having a long, thin neck.--_n._ SCRAG'-WHALE, a finner whale, having the back scragged. [Scand., Sw. prov. _shraka_, a tall tree or man, _shrokk_, anything shrivelled--Norw. _skrekka_, to shrink.] SCRAICH, SCRAIGH, skr[=a]h, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to scream hoarsely: to screech, to shriek.--_n._ SCRAICH. [Gael. _sgreach_.] SCRAMB, skramb, _v.t._ (_prov._) to scrape together with the hands. [A variant of _scramp_.] SCRAMBLE, skram'bl, _v.i._ to struggle to seize something before others: to catch at or strive for rudely: to wriggle along on all-fours.--_v.t._ to throw down to be scrambled for: to advance or push.--_n._ act of scrambling: a struggle for office.--_n._ SCRAM'BLER.--_adj._ SCRAM'BLING, confused and irregular.--_adv._ SCRAM'BLINGLY, in a scrambling manner: irregularly: unceremoniously. [Prov. Eng. _scramb_, to rake together with the hands, or _scramp_, to snatch at; nearly allied to _scrabble_ and _scrape_.] SCRAMP, skramp, _v.t._ to catch at, snatch. [_Scramble_.] SCRAN, skran, _n._ broken victuals: refuse--also SKRAN.--_n._ SCRAN'NING, the act of begging for food.--BAD SCRAN TO YOU! bad fare to you! an Irish imprecation. [Prob. Ice. _skran_, rubbish.] SCRANCH, skransh, _v.t._ to grind with the teeth: to crunch.--Also SCRAUNCH, SCRUNCH. [Prob. Dut. _schransen_, to eat heartily.] SCRANKY, skrank'i, _adj._ (_Scot._) scraggy: lank. SCRANNEL, skran'l, _adj._ (_Milt._) producing a weak, screeching noise: thin: squeaking. SCRANNY, skran'i, _adj._ (_prov._) lean and thin. SCRAP, skrap, _n._ a small piece: a remnant: a picture suited for preservation in a scrap-book: wrought-iron clippings: an unconnected extract.--_v.t._ to consign to the scrap-heap.--_ns._ SCRAP'-BOOK, a blank book for scraps or extracts, prints, &c.; SCRAP'-HEAP, a place where old iron is collected; SCRAP'-[=I]'RON, old iron accumulated for reworking; SCRAP'-MET'AL, scraps or fragments of any kind of metal, which are only of use for remelting.--_adv._ SCRAP'PILY, in fragments, desultorily.--_n._ SCRAP'PINESS, fragmentariness, disconnectedness.--_adj._ SCRAP'PY.--GO TO THE SCRAP-HEAP, to go to ruin. [Scand., Ice. _skrap_, scraps--_skrapa_, to scrape.] SCRAP, skrap, _n._ (_slang_) a fight, scrimmage. SCRAP, skrap, _n._ a snare for birds. SCRAPE, skr[=a]p, _v.t._ to make a harsh or grating noise on: to rub with something sharp: to remove by drawing a sharp edge over: to collect by laborious effort: to save penuriously: to erase.--_v.i._ to grub in the ground: to rub lightly: to draw back the foot in making obeisance: to play on a stringed instrument.--_n._ a perplexing situation: difficulty: a shave.--_adj._ SCRAPE'-GOOD, miserly, stingy.--_ns._ SCRAPE'-PENN'Y, a miser; SCRAP'ER, an instrument used for scraping, esp. the soles of shoes outside the door of a house: a hoe: a tool used by engravers and others: a fiddler; SCRAP'ING, that which is scraped off, as the scrapings of the street: shavings, hoardings; SCRAP'ING-PLANE, a plane used by workers in metal and wood.--SCRAPE ACQUAINTANCE WITH, to get on terms of acquaintance. [Scand., Ice. _skrapa_, to scrape; Dut. _schrapen_; A.S. _scearpian_.] SCRAPPLE, skrap'l, _v.i._ to grub about.--_n._ a mixture of meat-scraps, herbs, &c. stewed, pressed in cakes, sliced and fried. [Dim. of _scrap_.] SCRAT, skrat, _n._ a devil.--Also OLD SCRATCH, the devil. [Cf. Ger. _schratt_, Ice. _skratti_, a goblin.] SCRATCH, skrach, _v.t._ to mark the surface with something pointed, as the nails: to tear or to dig with the claws: to write hurriedly: to erase.--_v.i._ to use the claws in tearing or digging: to delete a name on a voting-paper.--_n._ a mark or tear made by scratching: a slight wound: the line in a prize-ring up to which boxers are led--hence test, trial, as in 'to come up to the scratch:' (_pl._) a disease in horses: the time of starting of a player: in billiards, a chance stroke which is successful: a kind of wig, a scratch-wig: a scrawl.--_adj._ taken at random, as a 'scratch crew:' without handicap, or allowance of time or distance.--_ns._ SCRATCH'-BACK, a kind of toy, which, when drawn over a person's back, makes a sound as if his coat was torn; SCRATCH'-BRUSH, a name given to various forms of brushes; SCRATCH'-COAT, the first coat of plaster; SCRATCH'ER, a bird which scratches for food.--_adv._ SCRATCH'INGLY.--_n.pl._ SCRATCH'INGS, refuse matter strained out of fat when melted.--_ns._ SCRATCH'-WEED, the goose-grass; SCRATCH'-WIG, a wig that covers only part of the head; SCRATCH'-WORK, a kind of wall decoration.--_adj._ SCRATCH'Y, ragged: scratching: of little depth.--SCRATCH OUT, to erase. [Explained by Skeat as due to the confusion of M. E. _skratten_, to scratch, with M. E. _cracchen_, to scratch: _skratten_ standing for _skarten_, an extended form from Ice. _sker-a_, to shear; _cracchen_, again, stands for _kratsen_--Sw. _kratsa_, to scrape.] SCRATTLE, skrat'l, _v.i._ (_prov._) to scuttle. SCRAW, skraw, _n._ a turf, a sod. [Gael. _scrath_.] SCRAWL, skrawl, _n._ (_U.S._) brushwood. SCRAWL, skrawl, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to scrape, mark, or write irregularly or hastily.--_n._ irregular or hasty writing: bad writing: a broken branch of a tree: the young of the dog-crab.--_n._ SCRAWL'ER.--_adj._ SCRAWL'Y, ill-formed. [A contr. of _scrabble_.] SCRAWM, skrawm, _v.t._ (_prov._) to tear, to scratch. [Prob. Dut. _schrammen_, _schram_, a rent.] SCRAWNY, skraw'ni, _adj._ wasted: raw-boned.--_n._ SCRAW'NINESS. [_Scranny_.] SCRAY, skr[=a], _n._ the sea-swallow. [W. _ysgräell_.] SCREAK, skr[=e]k, _v.t._ to scream: to creak.--_n._ a screech. SCREAM, skr[=e]m, _v.i._ to cry out with a shrill cry, as in fear or pain: to shriek.--_n._ a shrill, sudden cry, as in fear or pain: a shriek.--_n._ SCREAM'ER, one who screams: a genus of South American birds about the size of the turkey, with loud, harsh cry: (_U.S. slang_) a bouncer.--SCREAMING FARCE, one highly ludicrous. [Scand., Ice. _skræma_, Sw. _skrämma_, to fear; cf. _Screech_, _Shriek_.] SCREE, skr[=e], _n._ débris at the base of a cliff.--Also SCREES. [Ice. _skritha_, a landslip--_skrítha_, creep.] SCREE, skr[=e], _n._ (_Scot._) a coarse sieve. SCREECH, skr[=e]ch, _v.i._ to utter a harsh, shrill, and sudden cry.--_n._ a harsh, shrill, and sudden cry.--_ns._ SCREECH'ER, the swift; SCREECH'-HAWK, the night-jar; SCREECH'-MAR'TIN, the swift; SCREECH'-OWL, a kind of screeching owl: the missel-thrush: the barn-owl; SCREECH'-THRUSH, the missel-thrush.--_adj._ SCREECH'Y, shrill and harsh, like a screech: loud-mouthed. [M. E. _scriken_--Scand., Ice. _shrækja_, to shriek; cf. Gael. _sgreach_, to shriek.] SCREED, skr[=e]d, _n._ a piece torn off: a shred: a long tirade: (_Scot._) a strip of mortar: a rent, a tear.--_v.t._ to repeat glibly. [A.S. _screáde_, a shred.] SCREEN, skr[=e]n, _n._ that which shelters from danger or observation, that which protects from heat, cold, or the sun: (_Scot._) a large scarf: an enclosure or partition of wood, stone, or metal work, common in churches, shutting off chapels from the nave, separating the nave from the choir, &c.: a coarse riddle for sifting coal, &c.--_v.t._ to shelter or conceal: to pass through a coarse riddle.--_n._ SCREEN'ING-MACHINE', an apparatus for sifting coal.--_n.pl._ SCREEN'INGS, the refuse matter after sifting. [O. Fr. _escren_ (Fr. _écran_), from Old High Ger. _scranna_, a court; Ger. _schranne_, a bench.] SCREEVER, skr[=e]v'[.e]r, _n._ one who writes begging letters.--_v.t._ SCREEVE, to write such.--_n._ SCREEV'ING, the writing of begging letters: drawing with coloured chalks on the pavement for coppers. SCREW, skr[=oo], _n._ a cylinder with a spiral groove or ridge on either its outer or inner surface, used as a fastening and as a mechanical power: a screw-propeller: a turn or twist to one side: a penny packet of tobacco put up in a paper twisted at both ends: a stingy fellow, an extortioner, a skinflint: a broken-winded horse: pressure: (_U.S. slang_) a professor who requires students to work hard: salary, [Illustration] wages.--_v.t._ to apply a screw to: to press with a screw: to twist: to oppress by extortion: to force: to squeeze.--_ns._ SCREW'-BOLT, a bolt threaded at one end for a nut; SCREW'-CUT'TER, a hand-tool for cutting screws; SCREW'-DRIV'ER, an instrument for driving or turning screw-nails.--_adj._ SCREWED (_slang_), tipsy, tight.--_ns._ SCREW'-EL'EVATOR, a dentist's instrument: a surgeon's instrument for forcing open the jaws; SCREW'ER.--_adj._ SCREW'ING, exacting: close.--_ns._ SCREW'-JACK (same as JACKSCREW); SCREW'-KEY, a lever for turning the nut of a screw; SCREW'-MACHINE', a machine for making screws; SCREW'-NAIL, a nail made in the form of a screw; SCREW'-PILE, a pile forced into the ground, and held there by a peculiar kind of screw at the lower extremity; SCREW'-PINE, a plant of the tropical genus _Pandanus_, or of the screw-pine family--from the screw-like arrangement of the clustered leaves; SCREW'-PLATE, a plate of steel in which are a [Illustration] graduated series of holes, with internal screws used in forming external screws; SCREW'-POD, the screw-bean SCREW'-PRESS, a press in which the force is applied by means of a screw; SCREW'-PROPEL'LER, a screw or spiral-bladed wheel at the stern of steam-vessels for propelling them: a steamer so propelled; SCREW'-RUDD'ER, an application of the screw for the purpose of steering; SCREW'-STAIR, a spiral staircase: a hanging stair; SCREW'-STEAM'ER, a steamer propelled by a screw; SCREW'STONE, a wheelstone: a fossil screw; SCREW'-THREAD, the spiral ridge on the cylinder of a male screw, or on the inner surface of a female screw; SCREW'-VALVE, a stop-cock opened and shut by means of a screw instead of a spigot; SCREW'-VEN'TILATOR, a ventilating [Illustration] apparatus; SCREW'-WORM, the larva of a blow-fly; SCREW'-WRENCH, a tool for grasping the flat sides of the heads of large screws.--_adj._ SCREW'Y, exacting: close: worthless.--A SCREW LOOSE, something defective. [Earlier _scrue_. O. Fr. _escrou_, prob. L. _scrobem_, accus. of _scrobs_, a hole; or Low Ger. _schruve_, Dut. _schroef_, Ice. _skrufa_, Ger. _schraube_.] SCRIBBET, skrib'et, _n._ a painter's pencil. SCRIBBLE, skrib'l, _v.t._ to scratch or write carelessly: to fill with worthless writing.--_v.i._ to write carelessly: to scrawl.--_n._ careless writing: a scrawl.--_ns._ SCRIBB'LER, a petty author; SCRIBB'LING, the act of writing hastily or carelessly.--_adv._ SCRIBB'LINGLY.--_n.pl._ SCRIBB'LINGS. [A freq. of _scribe_.] SCRIBBLE, skrib'l, _v.t._ to card roughly, as wool.--_ns._ SCRIBB'LER, a machine for doing this, or a person who tends such; SCRIBB'LING, the first carding of wool or cotton; SCRIBB'LING-MACHINE', a coarse form of carding-machine. [Scand., Sw. _skrubbla_, to card.] SCRIBBLE-SCRABBLE, skrib'l-skrab'l, _n._ an ungainly fellow. [Reduplicated from _scrabble_.] SCRIBE, skr[=i]b, _n._ a writer: a public or official writer: a clerk, amanuensis, secretary: (_B._) an expounder and teacher of the Mosaic and traditional law: a pointed instrument to mark lines on wood, &c.--_v.t._ to write: to record: to mark.--_adjs._ SCR[=I]'BABLE, capable of being written upon; SCRIB[=A]'CIOUS, given to writing.--_n._ SCRIB[=A]'CIOUSNESS.--_adj._ SCR[=I]'BAL, pertaining to a scribe.--_ns._ SCR[=I]'BING; SCR[=I]'BING-COM'PASS, an instrument used in saddlery and cooper-work; SCR[=I]'BISM. [Fr.,--L. _scriba_--_scrib[)e]re_, to write.] SCRIEVE, skr[=e]v, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to glide swiftly along. [Scand., Ice. _skrefa_--_skref_, a stride.] SCRIGGLE, skrig'l, _v.i._ to writhe: to wriggle.--_n._ a wriggling. [Prob. Ice. _shrika_, to slip; Ger. _schrecken_, Dut. _schrikken_, to terrify.] SCRIKE, skr[=i]k, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to shriek. SCRIM, skrim, _n._ cloth used for linings. SCRIME, skr[=i]m, _v.i._ to fence.--_n._ SCR[=I]'MER (_Shak._), a fencer. [Fr. _escrimer_, to fence; cf. _Skirmish_.] SCRIMMAGE, skrim'[=a]j, _n._ a skirmish: a general fight: a tussle. [Prob. a corr. of _skirmish_.] SCRIMP, skrimp, _v.t._ to make too small or short: to limit or shorten: to straiten.--_adj._ short, scanty.--_adj._ SCRIMP'ED, pinched.--_adv._ SCRIMP'LY, hardly: scarcely.--_n._ SCRIMP'NESS.--_adj._ SCRIMP'Y, scanty. [A.S. _scrimpan_; allied to _scrimman_, to shrink, and _scrincan_, to shrivel up.] SCRIMSHAW, skrim'shaw, _v.t._ to engrave fanciful designs on shells, whales' teeth, &c.--_n._ any shell or the like fancifully engraved. SCRINE, skr[=i]n, _n._ (_Spens._) a cabinet for papers, a shrine. [O. Fr. _escrin_--L. _scrinium_, a shrine.] SCRINGE, skrinj, _v.i._ to cringe. [A form of _shrink_.] SCRIP, skrip, _n._ that which is written: a piece of paper containing writing: a certificate of stock or shares in any joint-stock company subscribed or allotted.--_ns._ SCRIP'-COM'PANY, a company having shares which pass by delivery; SCRIP'-HOLD'ER, one whose title to stock is a written certificate. [A variant of _script_--L. _scrib[)e]re_, _scriptum_, to write.] SCRIP, skrip, _n._ a small bag: a satchel: a pilgrim's pouch: (_her._) a bearing representing a pouch.--_n._ SCRIP'PAGE (_Shak._), contents of a scrip. [Ice. _skreppa_, a bag; Ger. _scherbe_, a shred.] SCRIPT, skript, _n._ (_print._) type like written letters: a writing: (_law_) an original document: handwriting.--_n._ SCRIP'TION, a handwriting. [O. Fr. _escript_--L. _scriptum_--_scrib[)e]re_, to write.] SCRIPTORIUM, skrip-t[=o]'ri-um, _n._ a writing-room, esp. that in a monastery.--_adj._ SCRIP'TORY, written. SCRIPTURE, skrip't[=u]r, _n._ sacred writing: the Bible: a writing: a deed: any sacred writing.--_adj._ SCRIP'TURAL, contained in Scripture: according to Scripture: biblical: written.--_ns._ SCRIP'TURALISM, literal adherence to the Scriptures; SCRIP'TURALIST, a literalist in his obedience to the letter of Scripture, a student of Scripture.--_adv._ SCRIP'TURALLY.--_ns._ SCRIP'TURALNESS; SCRIP'TURE-READ'ER, an evangelist who reads the Bible in cottages, barracks, &c.; SCRIP'TURIST, one versed in Scripture.--THE SCRIPTURES, the Bible. [L. _scriptura_--_scrib[)e]re_, to write.] SCRITCH, skrich, _n._ a screech or shrill cry: a thrush. [A variant of _screech_.] SCRIVANO, skriv-ä'n[=o], _n._ a writer: a clerk. [It.] SCRIVE, skr[=i]v, _v.t._ to describe: to draw a line with a pointed tool. [_Scribe_.] SCRIVENER, skriv'en-[.e]r, _n._ a scribe: a copyist: one who draws up contracts, &c.: one who receives the money of others to lay it out at interest.--_n._ SCRIV'ENERSHIP. [O. Fr. _escrivain_ (Fr. _écrivain_)--Low L. _scribanus_--L. _scriba_, a scribe.] SCROBE, skr[=o]b, _n._ a groove in the rostrum of weevils or curculios, or on the outer side of the mandible.--_adjs._ SCROBIC'ULATE, -D, having numerous shallow depressions.--_n._ SCROBIC'ULUS (_anat._), a pit or depression. [L. _scrobis_, a ditch.] SCROD, skrod, _v.t._ to shred.--_n._ a young codfish.--_n._ SCROD'GILL, an instrument for taking fish. [_Shred_.] SCRODDLE, skrod'l, _v.t._ to variegate, as pottery in different colours.--SCRODDLED WARE, mottled pottery. SCROFULA, skrof'[=u]-la, _n._ a disease with chronic swellings of the glands in various parts of the body, esp. the neck, tending to suppurate: the king's evil.--_adjs._ SCROFULIT'IC, SCROF'ULOUS, pertaining to, resembling, or affected with scrofula.--_adv._ SCROF'ULOUSLY.--_n._ SCROF'ULOUSNESS. [L. _scrofulæ_--_scrofula_, a little pig, dim. of _scrofa_, a sow.] SCROG, skrog, _n._ (_Scot._) a stunted bush: a thicket: brushwood: (_her._) a branch.--_adjs._ SCROG'GIE, SCROG'GY, covered with underwood. [_Scrag_.] SCROLL, skr[=o]l, _n._ a roll of paper or parchment: a writing in the form of a roll: a rough draft of anything: a schedule: a flourish added to a person's signature as a substitute for a seal: in hydraulics, a spiral water-way placed round a turbine to regulate the flow of water: (_anat._) a turbinate bone: (_archit._) a spiral ornament, the volute of the Ionic and Corinthian capitals.--_v.t._ to draft: to write in rough outline.--_adj._ SCROLLED, formed into a scroll: ornamented with scrolls.--_ns._ SCROLL'-HEAD, an ornamental piece at the bow of a vessel; SCROLL'-WHEEL, a cog-wheel in the form of a scroll; SCROLL'-WORK, ornamental work of scroll-like character. [O. Fr. _escroue_, acc. to Skeat from Old Dut. _schroode_, a shred.] SCROOP, skr[=oo]p, _v.i._ to emit a harsh sound: to creak.--_n._ any crisp sound like that made when a bundle of yarn is tightly twisted. [Imit.] SCROPHULARIA, skrof-[=u]-l[=a]'ri-a, _n._ the _figwort_ genus of herbs, type of the _Scrophulariaceæ_ or _Scrophularineæ_, a natural order containing almost 2000 known species, chiefly herbaceous and half-shrubby plants--_Digitalis_ or _Fox-glove_, _Calceolaria_, _Mimulus_, _Antirrhinum_ or _Snap-dragon_, _Veronica_ or _Speedwell_, and _Euphrasia_ or _Eye-bright_, &c. SCROTUM, skr[=o]'tum, _n._ the bag which contains the testicles.--_adjs._ SCR[=O]'TAL, relating to the scrotum; SCR[=O]'TIFORM, formed like a double bag.--_ns._ SCROT[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the scrotum; SCR[=O]'TOCELE, a scrotal hernia. [L.] SCROUGE, skrowj, _v.t.._ to squeeze: to crowd--also SCROOGE, SCRUDGE.--_n._ SCROU'GER, a whopper: something large. [Variant forms of _shrug_.] SCROW, skrow, _n._ a roll: a scroll: a writing: clippings from hides. [_Scroll_.] SCROYLE, skroil, _n._ (_Shak._) a scabby fellow: a mean fellow. [O. Fr. _escrouelles_, scrofula--L. _scrofulæ_.] SCRUB, skrub, _v.t.._ to rub hard, esp. with something rough.--_v.i._ to be laborious and penurious:--_pr.p._ scrub'bing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ scrubbed.--_n._ one who works hard and lives meanly: anything small or mean: a worn-out brush: low underwood: a bush: a stunted shrub: a worthless horse.--_p.adj._ SCRUBBED (_Shak._)=_Scrubby_.--_ns._ SCRUB'BER, in Australia, an animal which breaks away from the herd: a machine for washing leather after the tanpit; SCRUB'BING; SCRUB'BING-BOARD, a wash-board; SCRUB'BING-BRUSH, a brush with short, stiff bristles; SCRUB'-BIRD, an Australian bird.--_adj._ SCRUB'BY, laborious and penurious: mean: small: stunted in growth: covered with scrub.--_ns._ SCRUB'-GRASS, the scouring-rush; SCRUB'-OAK, a name of three low American oaks; SCRUB'-RID'ER, one who rides in search of cattle that stray from the herd into the scrub; SCRUB'-ROB'IN, a bird inhabiting the Australian scrub; SCRUB'STONE, a species of calciferous sandstone; SCRUB'-TUR'KEY, a mound-bird; SCRUB'-WOOD, a small tree. [A.S. _scrob_, a shrub.] SCRUFF, skruf, _n._ the nape of the neck.--Also SKRUFF. [A variant of _scuff_, _scuft_.] SCRUFFY, skruf'i, _adj._ Same as SCURFY. SCRUMPTIOUS, skrump'shus, _adj._ (_slang_) nice: fastidious: delightful. SCRUNCH, skrunsh, _v.t.._ to crunch: to crush.--_n._ a harsh, crunching sound. [A variant of _crunch_.] SCRUNT, skrunt, _n._ (_Scot._) a niggardly person. SCRUPLE, skr[=oo]'pl, _n._ a small weight--in apothecaries' weight, 20 troy grains, 1/3 drachm, 1/24 ounce, and 1/288 of a troy pound: a very small quantity: reluctance to decide or act, as from motives of conscience: difficulty.--_v.i._ to hesitate in deciding or acting.--_n._ SCRU'PLER.--_adj._ SCRU'PULOUS, having scruples, doubts, or objections: conscientious: cautious: exact: captious.--_adv._ SCRU'PULOUSLY.--_ns._ SCRU'PULOUSNESS, SCRUPULOS'ITY, state of being scrupulous: doubt: niceness: precision. [Fr. _scrupule_--L. _scrupulus_, dim. of _scrupus_, a sharp stone, anxiety.] SCRUTINY, skr[=oo]'ti-ni, _n._ careful or minute inquiry: critical examination: an examination of the votes given at an election for the purpose of correcting the poll: in the early Church, the examination in Lent of the Catechumens: (_R.C._) one of the methods of electing a pope, the others being _acclamation_ and _accession_.--_adj._ SCRU'TABLE.--_ns._ SCRUT[=A]'TION, scrutiny; SCRUT[=A]'TOR, a close examiner.--_v.t.._ SCRU'TINATE, to examine: to investigate.--_n._ SCRUTINEER', one who makes a scrutiny, or minute search or inquiry.--_v.t.._ SCRU'TINISE, to search minutely or closely: to examine carefully or critically: to investigate.--_n._ SCRU'TINISER.--_adj._ SCRU'TINOUS.--_adv._ SCRU'TINOUSLY.--SCRUTIN-DE-LISTE, a method of voting for the French Chamber of Deputies, in which the voter casts his ballot for the whole number of deputies allotted to his department, choosing the candidates in any combination he pleases--opp. to SCRUTIN D'ARRONDISSEMENT, in which method the voter votes only for his local candidate or candidates, the arrondissement being the basis of representation. [O. Fr. _scrutine_--L. _scrutinium_--_scrut[=a]ri_, to search even to the rags--_scruta_, rags, trash.] SCRUTO, skr[=oo]'t[=o], _n._ a movable trap in theatres. SCRUTOIRE=_Escritoire_ (q.v.). SCRUZE, skr[=oo]z, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to squeeze. [_Scrouge_.] SCRY, skr[=i], _v.t._ (_Spens._) to descry:--_pa.t._ scryde. [Formed by aphæresis from _descry_.] SCRY, skr[=i], _v.t._ (_Scot._) to proclaim.--_n._ a cry: a flock of wild-fowl. SCUD, skud, _v.i._ to run quickly: (_naut._) to run before the wind in a gale: (_Scot._) to throw flat stones so as to skip along the water.--_v.t._ to skelp: (_Scot._) to slap:--_pr.p._ scud'ding; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ scud'ded.--_n._ act of moving quickly: loose, vapoury clouds driven swiftly along: a swift runner: a beach flea: a form of garden hoe: a slap, a sharp stroke.--_n._ SCUD'DER, one who, or that which, scuds. [Scand., Dan. _skyde_, to shoot; cf. A.S. _scé[=o]tan_, to shoot.] SCUDDICK, skud'ik, _n._ (_slang_) anything of small value: a shilling.--Also SCUTT'OCK. SCUDDLE, skud'l, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to drudge.--_v.t._ to cleanse: to wash.--_n._ SCUD'LER, a scullion. SCUDO, sk[=oo]'d[=o], _n._ an Italian silver coin of different values, usually worth about 4s.: the space within the outer rim of the bezel of a ring:--_pl._ SCU'DI. [It.,--L. _scutum_, a shield.] SCUFF, skuf, _n._ (_prov._) a form of _scruff_ or _scuft_. SCUFF, skuf, _v.i._ to shuffle along the ground.--_v.t._ (_Scot._) to graze slightly. [Sw. _skuffa_, to shove.] SCUFF, skuf, _n._ a scurf: a scale. SCUFFLE, skuf'l, _v.i._ to struggle closely: to fight confusedly.--_n._ a struggle in which the combatants grapple closely: any confused contest.--_n._ SCUFF'LER, one who, or that which, scuffles. [A freq. of Sw. _skuffa_, to shove, _skuff_, a blow.] SCUFFY, skuf'i, _adj._ having lost the original freshness: shabby, out of elbows, seedy. SCUFT, skuft, _n._ (_prov._) the nape of the neck.--Also SCUFF, SCRUFF. [Ice. _skopt_, _skoft_, the hair.] SCULDUDDERY, skul-dud'e-ri, _n._ (_Scot._) grossness, obscenity, bawdry.--_adj._ bawdy. SCULK. Same as SKULK. SCULL, skul, _n._ a short, light, spoon-bladed oar: a small boat: a cock-boat.--_v.t._ to propel a boat with a pair of sculls or light oars by one man--in fresh water: to drive a boat onward with one oar, worked like a screw over the stern.--_ns._ SCULL'ER, one who sculls: a small boat rowed by two sculls pulled by one man; SCULL'ING. [Scand.; Ice. _scál_, a hollow, Sw. _skålig_, concave.] SCULL, skul, _n._ (_Milt._) a shoal of fish. [_Shoal_.] SCULLERY, skul'[.e]r-i, _n._ the place for dishes and other kitchen utensils. [Skeat explains as _sculler-y_, _sculler_ being a remarkable variant of _swiller_, due to Scand. influence. Others refer to O. Fr. _escuelier_--Low L. _scutellarius_--L. _scutella_, a tray.] SCULLION, skul'yun, _n._ a servant in the scullery: a servant for drudgery-work: a mean fellow.--_adj._ SCULL'IONLY (_Milt._), like a scullion: low, base. [Not allied to _scullery_. O. Fr. _escouillon_, a dish-clout--L. _scopa_, a broom.] SCULP, skulp, _v.t._ to carve: to engrave: to flay.--SCULP'SIT, he engraved or carved it--often abbreviated to SC. SCULPIN, skul'pin, _n._ (_slang_) a mischief-making fellow: a name given to the Dragonet, and also in the United States to various marine species of Cottus or Bull-head.--Also SKUL'PIN. SCULPTURE, skulp't[=u]r, _n._ the act of carving figures in wood, stone, &c.: carved-work: an engraving.--_v.t._ to carve: to form, as a piece of sculpture.--_n._ SCULP'TOR, one who carves figures:--_fem._ SCULP'TRESS.--_adj._ SCULP'T[=U]RAL, belonging to sculpture.--_adv._ SCULP'T[=U]RALLY.--_adjs._ SCULP'T[=U]RED, carved, engraved: (_bot._, _zool._) having elevated marks on the surface; SCULPT[=U]RESQUE', chiselled: clean cut: statue-like. [Fr.,--L. _sculptura_--_sculp[)e]re_, _sculptum_, to carve.] SCULSH, skulsh, _n._ rubbish: lollypops. SCUM, skum, _n._ foam or froth: the extraneous matter rising to the surface of liquids, esp. when boiled or fermented: refuse: offscourings, dregs.--_v.t._ to take the scum from: to skim:--_pr.p._ scum'ming; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ scummed.--_n._ SCUM'MER, an implement used in skimming.--_n.pl._ SCUM'MINGS, skimmings.--_adj._ SCUM'MY, covered with scum. [Scand., Dan. _skum_, froth; Ger. _schaum_, foam.] SCUMBER, skum'b[.e]r, _v.i._ to defecate, a hunting term applied to foxes.--_n._ fox-dung.--Also SCOM'BER. [Prob. O. Fr. _escumbrier_, to disencumber.] SCUMBLE, skum'bl, _v.t._ to apply opaque or semi-opaque colours very thinly over other colours, to modify the effect.--_n._ SCUM'BLING, a mode of obtaining a softened effect in painting by overlaying too bright colours with a very thin coating of a neutral tint. [Freq. of _scum_.] SCUN, skun, _v.i._ to skim, as a stone thrown aslant on the water.--_v.t._ to cause to skip.--Also SCON, SCOON. [Scand., prob. _skunna_; Dan. _skynde_, to hasten.] SCUNNER, skun'[.e]r, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to become nauseated: to feel loathing.--_n._ a loathing, any fantastic prejudice. [A.S. _scunian_, to shun.] SCUP, skup, _n._ (_Amer._) a swing.--_v.i._ to swing. [Dut. _schop_, a swing; Ger. _schupf_, a push.] SCUP, skup, _n._ a sparoid fish, the porgy. SCUPPER, skup'[.e]r, _n._ a hole in the side of a ship to carry off water from the deck (often _pl._).--_ns._ SCUPP'ER-HOLE, a scupper; SCUPP'ER-HOSE, a pipe of leather, &c., attached to the mouth of a scupper on the outside, to let the water run out and keep water from entering; SCUPP'ER-PLUG, a plug to stop a scupper. [O. Fr. _escopir_, to spit out--L. _exspu[)e]re_--_ex-_, out, _spu[)e]re_, to spit; or prob. from Dut. _schoppen_, to scoop away.] SCUPPERNONG, skup'[.e]r-nong, _n._ a cultivated variety of the muscadine, bullace, or southern fox-grape of the United States. [Amer. Ind.] SCUPPET, skup'et, _n._ a shovel.--Also SCOPP'ET. SCUR, skur, _v.t._ to graze, to jerk: to scour over.--_v.i._ to flit hurriedly.--Also SKIRR. [A variant of scour.] SCUR, skur, _n._ (_Scot._) a stunted horn. SCURF, skurf, _n._ the crust or flaky matter formed on the skin: anything adhering to the surface: scum: a gray bull trout.--_n._ SCURF'INESS.--_adj._ SCURF'Y, having scurf: like scurf. [A.S. _scurf_--_sceorfan_, to scrape; cf. Ger. _schorf_.] SCURRILOUS, skur'ril-us, _adj._ using scurrility or language befitting a vulgar buffoon: indecent: vile: vulgar: opprobrious: grossly abusive.--_adjs._ SCUR'RIL, SCUR'RILE, buffoon-like: jesting: foul-mouthed: low.--_n._ SCURRIL'ITY, buffoonery: low or obscene jesting: indecency of language: vulgar abuse.--_adv._ SCUR'RILOUSLY.--_n._ SCUR'RILOUSNESS. [L. _scurrilis_--_scurra_, a buffoon.] SCURRIT, skur'it, _n._ (_prov._) the lesser tern. SCURRY, skur'i, _v.i._ to hurry along: to scamper.--_n._ a flurry--also SKURR'Y.--_n._ HURR'Y-SCURR'Y, heedless haste. [An extended form of _scour_.] SCURVY, skur'vi, _adj._ scurfy: affected with scurvy: scorbutic: shabby: vile, vulgar, contemptible.--_n._ a disease marked by livid spots on the skin and general debility, due to an improper dietary, and particularly an insufficient supply of fresh vegetable food.--_adv._ SCUR'VILY, in a scurvy manner: meanly, basely.--_ns._ SCUR'VINESS, state of being scurvy: meanness; SCUR'VY-GRASS, a genus of cruciferous plants, efficacious in curing scurvy. [_Scurf_.] SCUSE, sk[=u]s, _n._ and _v._=_Excuse_. SCUT, skut, _adj._ having a short tail like a hare's. SCUTAGE, sk[=u]'t[=a]j, _n._ a tax, instead of personal service, which a vassal or tenant owed to his lord, sometimes levied by the crown in feudal times.--Also ES'CUAGE. [O. Fr. _escuage_--L. _scutum_, shield.] SCUTATE, sk[=u]t'[=a]t, _adj._ (_bot._) shaped like a round shield: (_zool._) having the surface protected by large scales. [L. _scut[=a]tus_--_scutum_, shield.] SCUTCH, skuch, _v.t._ to beat: to separate from the core, as flax.--_n._ a coarse tow that separates from flax in scutching.--_ns._ SCUTCH'ER, one who dresses hedges: an implement used in scutching, esp. a beater in a flax-scutching machine, &c.; SCUTCH'ING-SWORD, a beating instrument in scutching flax by hand. [Prob. O. Fr. _escousser_, to shake off--Low L. _excuss[=a]re_--L. _excut[)e]re_, to shake off.] SCUTCHEON, SCUTCHIN, skuch'un, -in, _n._ (_Spens._) escutcheon, shield, device on a shield. [_Escutcheon_.] SCUTE, sk[=u]t, _n._ a shield: (_zool._) a large scale, a plate, as the dermal scutes of a ganoid fish, a turtle, &c. [O. Fr. _escut_--L. _scutum_, a shield.] SCUTELLA, sk[=u]-tel'a, _n._ a genus of flat sea-urchins.--_adj._ SC[=U]'TELLAR.--_n._ SCUTELL[=A]'RIA, a genus of gamopetalous plants, known as skullcaps.--_adjs._ SC[=U]'TELLATE, -D, noting the foot of a bird when it is provided with the plates called scutella.--_ns._ SCUTELL[=A]'TION; SCUTELL'ERA, a group-name for the true bugs (_Scutelleridæ_).--_adjs._ SCUTELL'IFORM, scutellate; SCUTELLIG'EROUS, provided with a scutellum; SCUTELLIPLAN'TAR, having the back of the tarsus scutellate.--_n._ SCUTELL'UM (_bot._, _entom._), a little shield:--_pl._ SCUTELL'A.--_n.pl._ SCUTIBRANCHI[=A]'TA, an order of gasteropod mollusca.--_n._ SC[=U]'TIFER, a shield-bearer.--_adjs._ SCUTIF'EROUS, bearing a shield: (_zool._) scutigerous; SC[=U]'TIFORM, having the form of a shield.--_n._ SCUTIG'ERA, a common North American species of centipede.--_adjs._ SCUTIG'EROUS, provided with a scute or scuta; SC[=U]'TIPED, having the shanks scaly, of birds. [L., dim. of _scutra_, a platter.] SCUTTER, skut'[.e]r, _v.i._ to run hastily: to scurry.--_n._ a hasty run. [A variant of _Scuttle_ (3).] SCUTTLE, skut'l, _n._ a shallow basket: a vessel for holding coal. [A.S. _scutel_--L. _scutella_, a salver, dim. of _scutra_, a dish.] SCUTTLE, skut'l, _n._ the openings or hatchways of a ship: a hole through the hatches or in the side or bottom of a ship.--_v.t._ to cut holes through any part of a ship: to sink a ship by cutting holes in it.--_ns._ SCUTT'LE-BUTT, -CASK, a cask with a hole cut in it for the cup or dipper, for holding drinking-water in a ship; SCUTT'LE-FISH, a cuttle-fish. [O. Fr. _escoutille_, a hatchway (Sp. _escotilla_), from Dut. _schoot_, the lap; Ger. _schoss_, bosom, a lap.] SCUTTLE, skut'l, _v.i._ to scud or run with haste: to hurry.--_n._ a quick run: a mincing gait.--Also SCUDD'LE, SKUTT'LE. [_Scud_.] SCUTTLER, skut'l[.e]r, _n._ the striped lizard. SCUTTOCK. Same as SCUDDICK. SCUTULUM, sk[=u]'t[=u]-lum, _n._ one of the shield-shaped crusts of favus. [L., dim. of _scutum_, a shield.] SCUTUM, sk[=u]'tum, _n._ a shield belonging to the heavy-armed Roman legionaries: a penthouse: (_anat._) the knee-pan: (_zool._) a large scale. [L.] SCYE, s[=i], _n._ the armhole of a garment. [Prob. _sey_--O. Fr. _sier_, to cut--L. _sec[=a]re_, to cut.] SCYLLA, sil'a, _n._ a six-headed monster who sat over a dangerous rock on the Italian side of the Straits of Messina, over against the whirlpool of CHARYB'DIS on the Sicilian side.--_n._ SCYLLÆA (sil-[=e]'a), a genus of nudibranchiate gasteropods.--_n.pl._ SCYLLAR'IDÆ (-d[=e]), a family of long-tailed, ten-footed marine crustaceans. SCYLLIDÆ, sil'i-d[=e], _n.pl._ a family of selachians, the typical genus _Scyllium_, including the dog-fish. [Gr. _skylion_, a dog-fish.] SCYMNIDÆ, sim'ni-d[=e], _n.pl._ the sleeper-sharks.--_n._ SCYM'NUS, a genus of lady-birds: a genus of sharks. [Gr. _skymnos_, a whelp.] SCYPHIDIUM, sif-id'i-um, _n._ a genus of ciliate infusorians. [Gr. _skyphos_, a cup.] SCYPHOMEDUSÆ, sif-o-med'[=u]-s[=e], _n.pl._ a prime division of hydrozoans or a sub-class of Hydrozoa. SCYPHUS, s[=i]f'us, _n._ in Greek antiquities, a large drinking-cup: (_bot._) a cup-shaped appendage to a flower.--_adj._ SCYPH'IFORM. SCYTALE, sit'a-l[=e], _n._ in Greek antiquities, a strip of parchment used for secret messages: the name of a coral snake.--_n._ SCYTAL[=I]'NA, a remarkable genus of eel-like fishes. [Gr. _skytal[=e]_, a staff.] SCYTHE, s[=i]th, _n._ a kind of sickle: an instrument with a large curved blade for mowing grass, &c.--_v.t._ to cut with a scythe, to mow.--_adj._ SCYTHED, armed with scythes.--_ns._ SCYTHE'MAN, one who uses a scythe; SCYTHE'-STONE, a whet for scythes. [A.S. _síthe_; Ice. _sigdhr_. Low Ger. _seged_.] SCYTHIAN, sith'i-an, _adj._ pertaining to an ancient nomadic race in the northern parts of Asia.--_n._ one belonging to this race.--_adj._ SCYTH'IC. SCYTHROPS, s[=i]'throps, _n._ a genus of Australian horn-billed cuckoos. [Gr. _skythros_, angry, _[=o]ps_, face.] SCYTODEPSIC, sk[=i]-t[=o]-dep'sik, _adj._ pertaining to tanning. [Gr. _skytos_, skin, _depsein_, to soften.] SCYTODERMATOUS, sk[=i]-t[=o]-der'ma-tus, _adj._ having a tough, leathery integument. [Gr. _skytos_, hide, _derma_, skin.] SCYTODES, sk[=i]-t[=o]'dez, _n._ a genus of spiders.--_adj._ SCYT[=O]'DOID. [Gr. _skytos_, skin, _eidos_, form.] SCYTONEMA, s[=i]-t[=o]-n[=e]'ma, _n._ a genus of fresh-water algæ.--_adj._ SCYTONEM'ATOID. [Gr. _skytos_, skin, _n[=e]ma_, a thread.] SCYTOSIPHON, s[=i]-t[=o]-s[=i]f'n, _n._ a genus of marine algæ. [Gr. _skytos_, skin, _siph[=o]n_, a tube.] SDAIN, SDEIGN, sd[=a]n, _n._ and _v.t._ (_Spens._) same as DISDAIN.--_adj._ SDEIGN'FUL=_Disdainful_. 'SDEATH, sdeth, _interj._ an exclamation of impatience--for _God's death_. SEA, s[=e], _n._ the great mass of salt water covering the greater part of the earth's surface: any great expanse of water less than an ocean: the ocean: the swell of the sea in a tempest: a wave: any widely extended mass or quantity, a flood: any rough or agitated place or element.--_ns._ SEA'-[=A]'CORN, a barnacle; SEA'-ADD'ER, the fifteen-spined stickle-back; SEA'-AN'CHOR, a floating anchor used at sea in a gale; SEA'-ANEM'ONE, a kind of polyp, like an anemone, found on rocks on the seacoast; SEA'-APE, the sea-otter; SEA'-[=A]'PRON, a kind of kelp; SEA'-ARR'OW, a flying squid: an arrow-worm; SEA'-ASPAR'AGUS, a soft-shelled crab; SEA'-BANK, the seashore; an embankment to keep out the sea; SEA'-BAR, the sea-swallow or tern; SEA'-BARR'OW, the egg-case of a ray or skate; SEA'-BASS, a name applied to some perch-like marine fishes, many common food-fishes in America--black sea-bass, bluefish, &c.; SEA'-BAT, a genus of Teleostean fishes allied to the Pilot-fish, and included among the _Carangidæ_ or horse-mackerels--the name refers to the very long dorsal, anal, and ventral fins; SEA'-BEACH, the seashore; SEA'-BEAN, the seed of a leguminous climbing plant: a small univalve shell: the lid of the aperture of any shell of the family _Turbinidæ_, commonly worn as amulets; SEA'-BEAR, the polar bear: the North Pacific fur-seal; SEA'-BEAST (_Milt._), a monster of the sea.--_adjs._ SEA'-BEAT, -EN, lashed by the waves.--_n._ SEA'-BEAV'ER, the sea-otter.--_n.pl._ SEA'-BELLS, a species of bindweed.--_ns._ SEA'-BELT, the sweet fucus plant; SEA'-BIRD, any marine bird; SEA'-BIS'CUIT, ship-biscuit; SEA'-BLUBB'ER, a jelly-fish; SEA'-BOARD, the border or shore of the sea; SEA'-BOAT, a vessel considered with reference to her behaviour in bad weather.--_adjs._ SEA'-BORN, produced by the sea; SEA'-BORNE, carried on the sea.--_ns._ SEA'-BOTT'LE, a seaweed; SEA'-BOY (_Shak._), a boy employed on shipboard: a sailor-boy; SEA'-BRANT, the brent goose; SEA'-BREACH, the breaking of an embankment by the sea; SEA'-BREAM, one of several sparoid fishes: a fish related to the mackerel; SEA'-BREEZE, a breeze of wind blowing from the sea toward the land, esp. that from about 10 a.m. till sunset; SEA'-BUCKTHORN, or SALLOW-THORN, a genus of large shrubs or trees with gray silky foliage and entire leaves; SEA'-BUM'BLEBEE, the little auk; SEA'-BUN, a heart-urchin; SEA'-BUR'DOCK, clotbur; SEA'-CABB'AGE, sea-kale; SEA'-CALF, the common seal, so called from the supposed resemblance of its voice to that of a calf; SEA'-CAN[=A]'RY, the white whale; SEA'-CAP (_Shak._), a cap worn on shipboard: a basket-shaped sponge; SEA'-CAP'TAIN, the captain of a ship, as distinguished from a captain in the army; SEA'-CARD, the card of the mariners' compass: a map of the ocean; SEA'-CARN[=A]'TION, a sea-pink; SEA'-CAT, a name of various animals, as the wolf-fish, the chimæra, any sea-cat-fish; SEA'-CAT'ERPILLAR, a scale-back; SEA'-CAT'-FISH, a marine siluroid fish; SEA'-CAT'GUT, a common seaweed--sea-lace; SEA'-CAUL'IFLOWER, a polyp; SEA'-CEN'TIPED, one of several large marine annelids; SEA'-CHANGE (_Shak._), a change effected by the sea; SEA'-CHART, a chart or map of the sea, its islands, coasts, &c.; SEA'-CHEST'NUT, a sea-urchin; SEA'-CHICK'WEED, a seaside species of sandwort; SEA'-CLAM, the surf clam used for food: a clamp for deep-sea sounding-lines; SEA'-COAL, coal brought by sea, as distinguished from charcoal; SEA'COAST, the coast or shore of the sea: the land adjacent to the sea; SEA'-COB, a sea-gull; SEA'-COCK, a gurnard: the sea-plover: a valve communicating with the sea through a vessel's hull: a sea-rover or viking; SEA'-COL'ANDER, a large olive seaweed; SEA'-COLE'WORT, sea-kale; SEA'-COM'PASS, the mariners' compass; SEA'-COOK, a cook on shipboard; SEA'-COOT, a black sea-duck; SEA'-COR'MORANT, a sea-crow; SEA'-CORN, the string of egg-capsules of the whelk or similar gasteropod--also SEA'-RUFF'LE, SEA'-HON'EYCOMB, SEA'-NECK'LACE, &c.; SEA'-COW, the walrus: the rhytina: the dugong or manatee: the hippopotamus; SEA'-CRAB, a marine crab; SEA'-CRAFT, skill in navigation; SEA'-CRAW'FISH, a prawn or shrimp; SEA'-CROW, a name of various birds, as the common skua, the chough, the coot, &c.; SEA'-C[=U]'CUMBER, trepang or bêche-de-mer; SEA'-DACE, a sea-perch: the common English bass; SEA'-DAFF'ODIL, a plant producing showy, fragrant flowers; SEA'-DAI'SY, the lady's cushion; SEA'-DEV'IL, a name of various fishes, as the ox-ray, the angel-fish, &c.; SEA'-DOG, the harbour-seal: the dog-fish: an old sailor: a pirate: (_her._) a bearing representing a beast nearly like a talbot; SEA'-DOTT'EREL, the turnstone; SEA'-DOVE, the little auk; SEA'-DRAG'ON, a flying sea-horse; SEA'-DRAKE, a sea-crow; SEA'-DUCK a duck often found on salt waters, having the hind-toe lobate: the eider-duck; SEA'-EA'GLE, the white-tailed eagle: the bald eagle: the osprey: the eagle-ray; SEA'-EAR, a mollusc, an ormer or abalone; SEA'-EEL, a conger-eel; SEA'-EGG, a sea-urchin: a sea-hedgehog: a whore's egg; SEA'-EL'EPHANT, the largest of the seal family, the male about 20 feet long, an inhabitant of the southern seas; SEA'-FAN, an alcyonarian polyp with a beautiful much-branched fan-like skeleton; SEA'F[=A]RER, a traveller by sea, a sailor.--_adj._ SEA'F[=A]RING, faring or going to sea: belonging to a seaman.--_ns._ SEA'-FEATH'ER, a polyp, a sea-pen; SEA'-FENN'EL, samphire; SEA'-FIGHT, a battle between ships at sea; SEA'-FIR, a sertularian polyp; SEA'-FIRE, phosphorescence at sea; SEA'-FISH, any salt-water or marine fish; SEA'-FOAM, the froth of the sea: meerschaum; SEA'-FOG, a fog, occurring near the coast.--_n.pl._ SEA'-FOLK, seafaring people.--_ns._ SEA'-FOWL, a sea-bird; SEA'-FOX, or _Fox-shark_, the thresher, the commonest of the larger sharks occasionally seen off British coasts, over 12 feet long, following shoals of herrings, pilchards, &c.; SEA'FRONT, the side of the land, or of a building, which looks toward the sea; SEA'-FROTH, the foam of the sea, seaweeds; SEA'-GAGE, -GAUGE, the depth a vessel sinks in the water: an instrument for determining the depth of the sea.--_n.pl._ SEA'-GATES, a pair of gates in a tidal basin as a safeguard against a heavy sea.--_ns._ SEA'-GHER'KIN, a sea-cucumber; SEA'-GILL'IFLOWER, the common thrift; SEA'-GIN'GER, millipore coral.--_adj._ SEA'-GIRT, girt or surrounded by the sea.--_ns._ SEA'-GOD, one of the divinities ruling over or inhabiting the sea:--_fem._ SEA'-GOD'DESS.--_adj._ SEA'-G[=O]'ING, sailing on the deep sea, as opposed to coasting or river vessels.--_ns._ SEA'-GOOSE, a dolphin: a phalarope; SEA'-GOWN (_Shak._), a short-sleeved garment worn at sea; SEA'-GRAPE, a genus of shrubby plants of the natural order _Gnetaceæ_, closely allied to the Conifers, and sometimes called Joint-firs: a glasswort: the clustered egg-cases of sepia and some other cuttle-fish; SEA'-GRASS, the thrift: grasswrack: a variety of cirrus cloud.--_adj._ SEA'-GREEN, green like the sea.--_ns._ SEA'-GROVE, a grove in the bottom of the sea; SEA'-GULL (same as GULL); SEA'-HAAR (_Scot._), a chilling, piercing mist arising from the sea; SEA'-HALL, a hall in the bottom of the sea; SEA'-HARE, a name given to the genus _Aplysia_ of nudibranch gasteropods; SEA'-HAWK, a rapacious, gull-like bird: a skua; SEA-HEDGE'HOG, a sea-urchin: a globe-fish: a sea-egg: a porcupine-fish; SEA'-HEN (_Scot._), the common guillemot: the great skua: the piper gurnard; SEA'-HOG, a porpoise; SEA'-HOLL'Y, the eryngo; SEA'-HOLM, a small uninhabited island: sea-holly; SEA'HORSE, the walrus: the hippopotamus or river-horse: the hippocampus; SEA'-HOUND, the dog-fish; SEA'-ISLAND COTT'ON, a fine long-stapled variety grown on the islands off the coast of South Carolina and Georgia; SEA'-JELL'Y, a sea-blubber; SEA'KALE, a perennial plant with large, roundish, sinuated sea-green leaves, found on British seashores, the blanched sprouts forming a favourite esculent; SEA'-KID'NEY, a polyp of the genus Renilla, so called from its shape; SEA'-KING, a name sometimes given to the leaders of the early Scandinavian piratical expeditions; SEA'-KITT'IE, a kittiwake; SEA'-LACE, a species of algæ--sea-catgut; SEA'-LAM'PREY, a marine lamprey; SEA'-LARK, a sandpiper, as the dunlin: a ring-plover, as the ring-dotterel: the sea-titling; SEA'-LAV'ENDER, a salt-marsh plant: marsh rosemary; SEA'-LAW'YER, a captious sailor, an idle litigious 'long-shorer, more given to question orders than to obey them: the mangrove snapper: a tiger-shark; SEA'-LEECH, a marine suctorial annelid.--_n.pl._ SEA'-LEGS, ability to walk on a ship's deck when it is pitching or rolling.--_ns._ SEA'-LEM'ON, a doridoid; SEA'-LEN'TIL, the gulf-weed; SEA'-LEOP'ARD, a seal of the southern seas, with spotted fur; SEA'-LETT'ER, -BRIEF, a document of description that used to be given to a ship at the port where she was fitted out; SEA'-LEV'EL, the level or surface of the sea, generally the mean level between high and low water.--_adj._ SEA'-LIKE, like or resembling the sea.--_ns._ SEA'-LIL'Y, a lily-star: a living crinoid; SEA'-LINE, the line where sky and sea seem to meet: lines used for fishing in deep water; SEA'-LIN'TIE (_Scot._), the sea-titling: a sea-lark: the rock-lintie; SEA'-L[=I]'ON, a species of otary--from its barking-roar and the mane of the male: (_her._) a monster consisting of the upper part of a lion combined with the tail of a fish; SEA'-LIQ'UOR, brine; SEA'-LIZ'ARD, a nudibranchiate gasteropod: a fossil reptile; SEA'-LOACH, a gadoid fish, a Motella; SEA'-LONG'WORM, a nemertean worm; SEA'-LOUSE, a parasitic isopod crustacean: the horse-shoe crab; SEA'-LUCE, the hake; SEA'-LUNGS, a comb-jelly; SEA'-MAG'PIE, a sea-pie: the oyster-catcher; SEA'MAID (_Shak._), a mermaid: a sea-nymph; SEA'-MALL a sea-gull; SEA'MAN, a man below the rank of officer, employed in the navigation of a ship at sea: a sailor: a merman.--_adjs._ SEA'MAN-LIKE, showing good seamanship; SEA'MANLY, characteristic of a seaman.--_ns._ SEA'MANSHIP, the art of navigating ships at sea; SEA'-MAN'TIS, a squill; SEA'-MARGE, the marge or shore of the sea; SEA'MARK, any mark or object on land serving as a guide to those at sea: a beacon; SEA'-MAT, a very common genus of polyzoa; in the wrack of the seashore--also _Hornwrack_; SEA'-MEL'ON, a pedate holothurian; SEA'-MEW, the common gull, any gull--also SEA'-MAW (_Scot._); SEA'-MILE, a geographical mile, 6080 feet in length; SEA'-MINK, a kind of American whiting; SEA'-MONK, the monk-seal; SEA'-MON'STER, any huge marine animal; SEA'-MOSS, a kind of compound polyzoan: Irish moss, or carrageen; SEA'-MOUSE, a genus of Chætopod worms, covered with iridescent silky hairs; SEA'-MUD, a rich saline deposit from salt-marshes; SEA'-MUSS'EL, a marine bivalve; SEA'-NEED'LE, the garfish; SEA'-NETT'LE, any of the stinging species of acalephæ; SEA'-NURSE, a shark; SEA'-NYMPH, a goddess of the sea, esp. one of the Oceanids; SEA'-ON'ION, the officinal squill; SEA'-OOZE, sea-mud; SEA'-OR'ANGE, a large, globose, orange-coloured holothurian; SEA'-ORB, a globe-fish; SEA'-OTT'ER, a marine otter; SEA'-OWL, the lump-fish or lump-sucker; SEA'-OX, the walrus; SEA'-OX'EYE, a fleshy seashore plant; SEA'-PAD, a star-fish; SEA'-PAN'THER, a South African fish, brown with black spots; SEA'-PARR'OT, a puffin: an auk; SEA'-PARS'NIP, an umbelliferous plant; SEA'-PAR'TRIDGE, the English conner, a labroid fish; SEA'-PASS, a passport, or document carried by neutral merchant-vessels to secure them against molestation; SEA'-PEA, the beach-pea; SEA'-PEACH, a sea-squirt or ascidian; SEA'-PEAR, a sea-squirt; SEA'-PEN, one of the radiate zoophytes somewhat resembling a quill; SEA'-PERCH, a sea-dace: a bass: the red-fish or rose-fish; SEA'-PERT, the opah; SEA'-PHEAS'ANT, the pintail or sprigtail duck; SEA'-PIE, a sailor's dish made of salt-meat, vegetables, and dumplings baked: the oyster-catcher or sea-magpie: (_her._) a bearing representing such a bird; SEA'-PIECE, a picture representing a scene at sea; SEA'-PIG, a porpoise: the dugong; SEA'-PI'GEON, the black guillemot; SEA'-PIKE, an edible American fish found on the Florida and Texas coasts, allied to the perches: the garfish or belone: the hake; SEA'-PIN'CUSHION, the mermaid's purse: a star-fish; SEA'-PINK, a sea-carnation; SEA'-PLANT, an alga; SEA'-POACH'ER, the armed bull-head; SEA'-POR'CUPINE, any fish of the genus _Diodon_, whose body is covered with spines; SEA'-PORK, an American compound ascidian; SEA'PORT, a port or harbour on the seashore: a town near such a harbour; SEA'-PUDD'ING, a sea-cucumber; SEA'-PUMP'KIN, a sea-melon; SEA'-PURSE, a sea-barrow: a skate-barrow; SEA'-QUAIL, the turnstone; SEA'-RAT, the chimera: a pirate; SEA'-R[=A]'VEN, the cormorant: the North American bull-head; SEA'-REED, the mat grass; SEA'-REEVE, an officer in maritime towns; SEA'-RISK, hazard of injury by sea; SEA'-ROB'BER, a pirate; SEA'-ROB'IN, a common American name for fishes of the genus _Prionotus_, which represents in America the European gurnards: the red-breasted merganser; SEA'-ROCK'ET, a cruciferous plant of genus _Cakile_; SEA'-ROD, a kind of sea-pen, a polyp; SEA'-ROLL, a holothurian; SEA'-ROOM, room or space at sea for a ship to be navigated without running ashore; SEA'-ROSE, a sea-anemone; SEA'-ROSE'MARY, sea-lavender; SEA'-R[=O]'VER, a pirate: a vessel employed in cruising for plunder; SEA'-R[=O]'VING, piracy; SEA'-RUFF, a sea-bream; SEA'-SALT, common salt obtained from sea-water by evaporation; SEA'SCAPE, a sea-piece; SEA'-SCOR'PION, a scorpion-fish: a cottoid-fish; SEA'-SER'PENT, an enormous marine animal of serpent-like form, frequently seen and described by credulous sailors, imaginative landsmen, and common liars: a name applied to various marine venomous serpents; SEA'-SERV'ICE, service on board ship; SEA'-SHARK, the man-eater shark; SEA'-SHELL, a marine shell; SEA'SHORE, the land adjacent to the sea: (_law_) the ground between high-water mark and low-water mark; SEA'-SHRUB, a sea-fan.--_adj._ SEA'SICK, affected with sickness through the rolling of a vessel at sea.--_ns._ SEA'SICKNESS; SEA'SIDE, the land beside the sea; SEA'-SKIM'MER, the skimmer bird; SEA'-SL[=A]T'ER, the rock-slater; SEA'-SLEEVE, a cuttle-fish; SEA'-SLUG, a nudibranch, as a doridoid: a marine gasteropod with the shell absent or rudimentary; SEA'-SNAIL, a fish of the genus _Liparis_, the sucker, the periwinkle; SEA'-SNAKE, a sea-serpent; SEA'-SNIPE, a sandpiper: the snipe-fish; SEA'-SOL'DIER, a marine; SEA'-SP[=I]'DER, a spider-crab; SEA'-SPLEEN'WORT, a fern--_Asplenium marinum_; SEA'-SQUID, a cuttle-fish; SEA'-SQUIRT, any tunicate or ascidian--also SEA'-PERCH, SEA'-PEAR, SEA'-PORK; SEA'-STICK, a herring cured at sea at once; SEA'-STOCK, fresh provisions for use at sea; SEA'-STRAW'BERRY, a kind of polyp; SEA'-SUN'FLOWER, a sea-anemone; SEA'-SUR'GEON, one of a family of spiny-rayed Teleostean fishes living in tropical seas, esp. near coral-reefs--the name refers esp. to the members of the genus _Acanthurus_, characterised by a lancet-like spine ensheathed on each side of the tail; SEA'-SWALL'OW, a tern: the stormy petrel; SEA'-SWINE, a porpoise: the sea-hog: the ballan-wrasse; SEA'-TANG, sea-tangle; SEA'-TAN'GLE, one of several species of seaweeds, esp. of genus _Laminaria_; SEA'-TENCH, the black sea-bream; SEA'-TERM, a word used by sailors or peculiar to ships or sailing; SEA'-THONG, a cord-like seaweed; SEA'-TIT'LING, the shore-pipit or sea-lark; SEA'-TOAD, the sea-frog: the sculpin: the great spider-crab; SEA'-TOR'TOISE, a sea-turtle.--_adj._ SEA'-TOST (_Shak._), tossed upon or by the sea.--_ns._ SEA'-TROUT, a popular name for various species of the genus _Salmo_, but esp. for the common _Salmo trutta_; SEA'-TRUM'PET, a medieval musical instrument similar to the monochord: (_bot._) a large seaweed; SEA'-TURN, a gale from the sea; SEA'-TUR'TLE, the sea-pigeon: a tortoise; SEA'-UMBRELL'A, a pennatulaceous polyp; SEA'-[=U]'NICORN, the narwhal; SEA'-UR'CHIN, one of a class of Echinoderms, some with the body symmetrical and nearly globular (_Echinus_), others heart-shaped (_Spatangus_), others shield-shaped and flattened (_Clypeaster_)--in all cases the body walled in by continuous plates of lime; SEA'-VAM'PIRE, a devil-fish or manta; SEA'VIEW, a picture of a scene at sea; SEA'-WALL, a wall to keep out the sea.--_adj._ SEA'-WALLED, surrounded by the sea.--_n._ SEA'-WANE, wampum.--_adj._ SEA'WARD, towards the sea.--_adv._ towards or in the direction of the sea.--_adjs._ SEA'WARD-BOUND, outward-bound, as a vessel leaving harbour; SEA'WARD-GAZ'ING, gazing or looking towards the sea.--_n._ SEA'-WARE, that which is thrown up by the sea on the shore, as seaweed, &c.--_n.pl._ SEA'-WASH'BALLS, the egg-cases of the common whelk.--_ns._ SEA'-WA'TER, water from the sea; SEA'-WAY, progress made by a vessel through the waves; SEA'WEED, a general and popular name applied to a vast collection of lower plant-forms growing on the seacoast from high-water mark (or a little above that limit) to a depth of from 50 to 100 fathoms (rarely deeper), and all belonging to the sub-class of the _Thallophyta_, to which the name _Algæ_ has been given; SEA'-WHIP, any alcyonarian like black coral; SEA'-WHIP'CORD, a common form of seaweed, sea-thong; SEA'-WHIS'TLE, the seaweed whose bladders are used by children as whistles; SEA'-WIFE, a kind of wrasse; SEA'-WILL'OW, a polyp with slender branches like the osier; SEA'-WING, a wing-shell: a sail; SEA'-WITH'-WIND, a species of bindweed; SEA'-WOLD, an imaginary tract like a wold under the sea; SEA'-WOLF, the wolf-fish: the sea-elephant: a viking, a pirate; SEA'-WOOD'COCK, the bar-tailed godwit; SEA'-WOOD'LOUSE, a sea-slater: a chiton; SEA'-WORM, a marine annelid; SEA'-WORM'WOOD, a saline plant found on European shores.--_adj._ SEA'WORTHY, fit for sea, able to endure stormy weather.--_ns._ SEA'WORTHINESS; SEA'-WRACK, coarse seaweeds of any kind.--AT FULL SEA, at full tide; AT SEA, away from land: on the ocean: astray; GO TO SEA, to become a sailor; HALF-SEAS OVER, half-drunk; HEAVY SEA, a sea in which the waves run high; HIGH SEAS, the open ocean; IN A SEA-WAY, in the position of a vessel when a heavy sea is running; MAIN SEA, the ocean; MOLTEN SEA, the great brazen laver of 1 Kings, vii. 23-26; SHIP A SEA, to have a large wave washing in; SHORT SEA, a sea in which the waves are choppy, irregular, and interrupted; THE FOUR SEAS, those bounding Great Britain. [A.S. _s['æ]_; Dut. _zee_, Ger. _see_, Ice. _sær_, Dan. _sö_.] SEAH, s[=e]'a, _n._ a Jewish dry-measure containing nearly fourteen pints. [Heb.] SEAL, s[=e]l, _n._ an engraved stamp for impressing the wax which closes a letter, &c.: the wax or other substance so impressed: that which makes fast or secure: that which authenticates or ratifies: assurance: the water left standing in the trap of a drain or sewer, preventing the upward flow of gas: the sigil or signature of a plant, &c., in medieval medicine: the sign of the cross, baptism, confirmation, the ineffaceable character supposed to be left on the soul by some sacraments.--_v.t._ to fasten with a seal: to set a seal to: to mark with a stamp: to make fast: to confirm: to keep secure: to close the chinks of: to secure against an escape of air or gas by means of a dip-pipe: to accept: to sign with the cross, to baptise or confirm.--_adj._ SEALED, certified by a seal: inaccessible.--_ns._ SEAL'-ENGRAV'ING, the art of engraving seals; SEAL'ER, one who seals: an inspector of stamps; SEAL'ING, confirmation by a seal; SEAL'ING-DAY (_Shak._), a day for sealing anything; SEAL'ING-WAX, wax for sealing letters, &c.--also SEAL'-WAX; SEAL'-PIPE, a dip-pipe; SEAL'-PRESS, a stamp bearing dies for embossing any device upon paper or lead; SEAL'-RING (_Shak._), a signet-ring; SEAL'-WORT, Solomon's seal.--SEAL OF THE FISHERMAN, the papal privy seal impressed on wax, representing St Peter fishing.--GREAT SEAL, the state seal of the United Kingdom; LEADEN SEAL, a disc of lead pierced with two holes through which are passed the ends of a twisted wire; PRIVY SEAL, the seal appended to grants, and in Scotland authenticating royal grants of personal rights; SET ONE'S SEAL TO, to give one's authority or assent to; UNDER SEAL, authenticated. [O. Fr. _seel_--L. _sigillum_, dim. of _signum_, a mark.] SEAL, s[=e]l, _n._ the name commonly applied to all the _Pinnipedia_ except the morse or walrus--carnivorous mammals adapted to a marine existence; the two great families are _Phocidæ_ (without external ears) and _Otariidæ_ (having distinct though small external ears): (_her._) a bearing representing a creature something like a walrus.--_v.t._ to hunt seals.--_ns._ SEAL'-BIRD, the slender-billed shear-water; SEAL'ER, a man or a ship engaged in the seal-fishery; SEAL'ERY, a seal-fishing station: seal-fishery; SEAL'-FLOW'ER, the bleeding heart; SEAL'ING, SEAL'-FISH'ING, the act of catching seals; SEAL'-ROCK'ERY, a place where many seals breed; SEAL'SKIN, the prepared fur of the fur-seal used for women's jackets, a garment made of this.--SEALSKIN CLOTH, a cloth made of mohair with a nap, and dyed to resemble the fur of the seal. [A.S. _seolh_; Ice. _selr_, Sw. _själ_.] SEAM, s[=e]m, _n._ (_Shak._) grease, hog's lard.--_v.t._ to grease. [O. Fr. _sain_--L. _sagina_, grease.] SEAM, s[=e]m, _n._ that which is sewed: a piece of plain sewing: the line formed by the sewing together of two pieces: a line of union: a vein or stratum of metal, ore, coal, &c.: a suture: (_geol._) a thin layer between thicker strata.--_v.t._ to unite by a seam: to sew: to make a seam in.--_ns._ SEAM'ER, one who seams; SEAM'ING-LACE, a galloon, braiding, gold lace, &c. to sew upon seams in upholstery; SEAM'ING-MACHINE', a power-tool for bending sheet-metal as required: a machine used to join fabrics lengthwise preparatory to printing, &c.--_adj._ SEAM'LESS, without a seam: woven throughout.--_ns._ SEAM'-PRESS'ER, an implement used to press down the newly-ploughed furrow: a goose or iron used by tailors to flatten the seams of cloth; SEAM'-RENT, a rent along a seam; SEAM'-ROLL'ER, in leather-working, a rubber for flattening down the edges of seams; SEAM'-RUBB'ER; SEAM'-SET, a grooved punch used by tinmen; SEAM'STER, one who sews:--_fem._ SEAM'STRESS; SEAM'STRESSY (_Sterne_), sewing.--_adj._ SEAM'Y, having a seam or seams.--_n._ SEAM'Y-SIDE, the worst side or view of anything.--WHITE SEAM (_Scot._), underclothing in the process of making. [A.S. _séam_--_síwian_, to sew; Dut. _zoom_, Ger. _saum_.] SEAM, s[=e]m, _n._ a load for a pack-horse, eight bushels of grain. [A.S. _séam_, a burden--L. _sagma_--Gr. _sagma_, a pack-saddle.] SEAMED, s[=e]md, _adj._ in falconry, not in good condition. [Prob. related to _Seam_ (1).] SEAN, s[=e]n, _n._ a drag-net: a seine. [_Seine_.] SÉANCE, s[=a]'ängs, _n._ a sitting, as of some public body: a sitting for consideration or inquiry, esp. a meeting of spiritualists for the consultation of spirits. [Fr.,--L. _sed[=e]re_, to sit.] SEANNACHIE, sen'a-h[=e], _n._ a bard among the Scottish Highlanders who recited the traditions of a clan.--Also SEANN'ACHY, SENN'ACHIE. [Gael. _seanachaidh_.] SEAR, s[=e]r, _n._ the catch in a gun-lock by which it is held at cock or half-cock: a part of a gun-lock.--_n._ SEAR'-SPRING, a spring in a gun-lock. [O. Fr. _serre_--L. _sera_, a bar.] SEAR, s[=e]r, _v.t._ to dry up: to burn to dryness on the surface: to scorch: to cauterise: to render callous or insensible.--_adj._ dry, withered.--_adj._ SEARED, dried up: burned: hardened.--_ns._ SEARED'NESS, hardness, insensibility; SEAR'NESS, dryness; SEAR'WOOD, wood dry enough to burn. [A.S. _seár_, dry, _seárian_, to dry up; Low Ger. _soor_, Dut. _zoor_.] SEARCE, sers, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to sift through a sieve.--_n._ a sieve. SEARCH, s[.e]rch, _v.t._ to look round to find: to seek; to examine: to inspect: to explore: to put to the test: to probe.--_v.i._ to seek for: to make inquiry.--_n._ the act of seeking or looking for: examination: inquiry: investigation: pursuit.--_adj._ SEARCH'ABLE, capable of being searched.--_ns._ SEARCH'ABLENESS, the state or quality of being searchable; SEARCH'ER, a seeker: an inquirer or examiner: a custom-house officer: an officer who formerly apprehended idlers on the street during church hours in Scotland: a sieve or strainer.--_adj._ SEARCH'ING, looking over closely: penetrating: trying: severe.--_adv._ SEARCH'INGLY.--_n._ SEARCH'INGNESS, the quality of being searching, penetrating, or severe.--_adj._ SEARCH'LESS, unsearchable.--_ns._ SEARCH'-LIGHT, an electric arc-light used on board ship and in military operations; SEARCH'-WARR'ANT, a legal warrant authorising a search for stolen goods, &c.--RIGHT OF SEARCH, the right claimed by one nation to authorise the commanders of their cruisers to search private merchant-vessels for articles contraband of war. [O. Fr. _cercher_ (Fr. _chercher_)--L. _circ[=a]re_, to go about--_circus_, a circle.] SEASE, s[=e]z, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to seize. SEASON, s[=e]'zn, _n._ one of the four periods of the year: the usual or proper time for anything: any particular time: any period of time, esp. of some continuance, but not long: seasoning, relish.--_v.t._ to mature: to prepare for use: to accustom or fit for use by any process: to fit for the taste: to give relish to: to mingle: to moderate, temper, or qualify by admixture: to inure, imbue, tinge, or taint: to preserve from decay.--_v.i._ to become seasoned or matured: to grow fit for use: to become inured.--_adj._ SEA'SONABLE, happening in due season: occurring in good, suitable, or proper time: timely, opportune.--_n._ SEA'SONABLENESS.--_adv._ SEA'SONABLY.--_adj._ SEA'SONAL.--_adv._ SEA'SONALLY.--_n._ SEA'SONER, one who, or that which, seasons: a sailor, &c., who hires for the season: a loafer, a beach-comber.--SEASON TICKET (see TICKET).--CLOSE SEASON, close time; IN SEASON, ripe, fit and ready for use: allowed to be killed, fit to be eaten, edible; IN SEASON AND OUT OF SEASON, at all times; OUT OF SEASON, inopportune; THE FOUR SEASONS, the ember or fast days of the Church on days set apart in each of the four seasons. [O. Fr. _seson_ (Fr. _saison_)--L. _satio_, _-onis_, seedtime.] SEASONING, s[=e]'zn-ing, _n._ that which is added to food to give it greater relish: anything added to increase enjoyment: in diamond-cutting, the charging of the laps or wheels with diamond dust and oil.--_n._ SEA'SONING-TUB, a trough in which dough is set to rise.--_adj._ SEA'SONLESS, without relish: insipid. SEAT, s[=e]t, _n._ that on which one sits: a chair, bench, &c.: the place or room where one sits, as in church, at a theatre, &c.: site: a place where anything is settled or established: post of authority: station: abode: a mansion: that part of the body or of a garment on which one sits: posture or situation on horseback: a right to sit: membership: sitting-room: a sitting: a sitting of eggs.--_v.t._ to place on a seat: to cause to sit down: to place in any situation, site, &c.: to establish: to fix: to assign a seat to: to furnish with seats: to fit accurately: to repair by making a seat new.--_v.i._ to lie down.--_ns._ SEAT'-BACK, a loose ornamental covering for the back of a sofa or chair; SEAT'-EARTH, in coal-mining, the bed of clay by which many coal-seams are underlain.--_p.adj._ SEAT'ED, fixed, confirmed, located.--_ns._ SEAT'-FAS'TENER, in a wagon, the screw-clamp for securing the seat to the body; SEAT'ING, the act of furnishing with seats: haircloth: in shipbuilding, that part of the floor which rests on the keel; SEAT'-LOCK, the lock of a reversible seat in railroad cars; SEAT'-RAIL, a cross-piece between the legs, below the seat, of a chair, &c.; SEAT'-WORM, a pin-worm.--SEAT OF THE SOUL, the sensorium.--TAKE A SEAT, to sit down. [A.S. _s['æ]t_, an ambush--_sittan_, to seat; or more prob. Ice. _sæti_, a seat--_sat_, pa.t. of _sitja_, to sit.] SEAVE, s[=e]v, _n._ a wick made of rush.--_adj._ SEAV'Y, overgrown with rushes. SEAX, s[=e]'aks, _n._ a curved, one-edged sword, used by Germanic and Celtic peoples: (_her._) a bearing representing a weapon like the seax. [A.S. _seax_.] SEBACEOUS, s[=e]-b[=a]'shus, _adj._ pertaining to or secreting fat or fatty matter: (_bot._) like tallow or wax, as the secretions of certain plants.--_adj._ S[=E]BAC'IC, pertaining to or obtained from fat.--_n._ S[=E]'B[=A]TE, a salt formed by the combination of sebacic acid with a base.--_adj._ S[=E]BIF'EROUS, sebaceous.--_n._ S[=E]BORRH[=E]'A, a disease of the sebaceous glands with excessive secretion--also S[=E]BORRHOE'A.--_adj._ S[=E]BORRH[=E]'IC.--_n._ S[=E]'BUM, the secretion of the sebaceous glands. [Low L. _sebaceus_--_sebum_, tallow.] SE-BAPTIST, s[=e]-bap'tist, _n._ one who baptises himself. SEBASTOMANIA, s[=e]-bas-t[=o]-m[=a]'ni-a, _n._ religious insanity. [Gr. _sebastos_, reverenced, _mania_, madness.] SEBAT, s[=e]-bat', _n._ the fifth month of the Jewish civil year, and the eleventh of the ecclesiastical year, falling in part of January and February. SEBESTEN, s[=e]-bes'ten, _n._ a tree with plum-like fruit.--Also SEBES'TAN. [Fr.,--Ar.] SEBILLA, s[=e]-bil'a, _n._ in stone-cutting, a wooden bowl for holding the water used in sawing, &c. [Fr.] SEBUNDY, s[=e]-bun'di, _n._ a native soldier or local militiaman in India.--Also SEBUN'DEE. [Hind.] SEC, sek, _adj._ dry, of wines. [Fr.] SEC., sek, _n._ an abbreviation of _secretary_, _secant_, _second_; also of _secundum_, according to. SECABILITY, sek-a-bil'i-ti, _n._ capability of being divided. [L. _sec[=a]re_, to cut.] SECALE, s[=e]-k[=a]'l[=e], _n._ a genus of grasses including rye. SECAMONE, sek-a-m[=o]'n[=e], _n._ a genus of shrubby climbers. SECANT, s[=e]'kant, _adj._ cutting: dividing.--_n._ a line that cuts another: a straight line from the centre of a circle to one extremity of an arc, produced till it meets the tangent to the other extremity.--_n._ S[=E]'CANCY. [L. _secans_, _secantis_, pr.p. _of sec[=a]re_, to cut.] SECCO, sek'k[=o], _n._ (_mus._) unaccompanied: plain. [It.] SECEDE, s[=e]-s[=e]d', _v.i._ to go away: to separate one's self: to withdraw from fellowship or association.--_ns._ SEC[=E]'DER, one who secedes: one of a body of Presbyterians who seceded from the Church of Scotland about 1733; SECES'SION, the act of seceding: withdrawal: departure; SECES'SIONISM, the doctrine of secession; SECES'SIONIST, one who maintains the principle of secession.--WAR OF SECESSION, in United States history, the civil war (1860-65) which resulted from the attempted withdrawal of eleven Southern States from the United States. [L. _seced[)e]re_, _secessum_--_se-_, away, _ced[)e]re_, to go.] SECERN, s[=e]-sern', _v.i._ and _v.t._ to separate: to distinguish: to secrete.--_adj._ SECER'NENT.--_n._ SECERN'MENT. [L. _secern[)e]re_, _secretum_, to separate.] SECESH, s[=e]-sesh', _n._ and _adj._ (_U.S. slang_) secessionist.--_n._ SECESH'ER. SECESSIVE, s[=e]-ses'iv, _adj._ set apart: isolated. SECHIUM, s[=e]'ki-um, _n._ a genus of gourds. [Prob. Gr. _s[=e]kos_, an enclosure.] SECKEL, sek'el, _n._ a variety of pear. SECLUDE, s[=e]-kl[=oo]d', _v.i._ to shut apart: to keep apart.--_adj._ S[=E]CLUD'ED, retired: withdrawn from observation.--_adv._ S[=E]CLUD'EDLY.--_ns._ S[=E]CLU'SION, the act of secluding: a shutting out: the state of being secluded or apart: separation: retirement: privacy: solitude; S[=E]CLU'SIONIST.--_adj._ S[=E]CLU'SIVE. [L. _seclud[)e]re_, _seclusum_--_se-_, apart, _claud[)e]re_, to shut.] SECOHM, sek'[=o]m, _n._ the practical unit of electrical self-induction--now more commonly _Henry_.--_n._ SEC'OHMM[=E]TER, an instrument for measuring the coefficient, of electrical self-induction. [_Sec_ (_ond_) and _ohm_, the unit of resistance.] SECOND, sek'und, _adj._ immediately following the first: the ordinal of two: next in position: inferior: other: another: favourable.--_n._ one who, or that which, follows or is second: one who attends another in a duel or a prize-fight: a supporter: the 60th part of a minute of time, or of a degree.--_v.t._ to follow: to act as second: to assist: to encourage: to support the mover of a question or resolution: (_mus._) to sing second to: to put into temporary retirement in the army, as an officer when holding civil office (usually s[=e]cond').--_n._ SEC'OND-AD'VENTIST, one who lives in expectation of a second coming of Christ to establish a personal kingdom on earth, a premillenarian.--_adv._ SEC'ONDARILY, in a secondary manner or degree: (_B._) secondly.--_n._ SEC'ONDARINESS.--_adj._ SEC'ONDARY, following or coming after the first: second in position: inferior: subordinate: deputed.--_n._ a subordinate: a delegate or deputy.--_adjs._ SEC'OND-BEST, next to the best: best except one--(COME OFF SECOND-BEST, to get the worst of a contest); SEC'OND-CLASS, inferior to the first, as a second-class carriage.--_ns._ SEC'ONDER, one who seconds or supports; SEC'OND-FLOUR, flour of a coarser quality, seconds.--_adj._ SEC'OND-HAND, received as it were from the hand of a second person: not new: that has been used by another.--_n._ a hand for marking seconds on a clock or watch.--_adv._ SEC'ONDLY, in the second place.--_ns._ SEC'OND-MARK, the character " as the mark in mathematics for a second of arc, in architecture for inches, and as a sign for a second of time; SECON'DO, the lower part in a duet.--_adj._ SEC'OND-RATE, being second in power, size, rank, quality, or value.--_ns._ SEC'OND-SIGHT (see SIGHT); SEC'ONDS-PEN'DULUM, a pendulum which makes one oscillation per second of mean time.--SECONDARY EDUCATION, that which is higher than primary or elementary; SECONDARY FORMATION, ROCKS, STRATA, the Mesozoic strata; SECONDARY PLANET, a moon or satellite; SECONDARY SCHOOL, a school for higher education; SECOND CHILDHOOD, a condition of mental weakness often accompanying old age; SECOND COMING, the second coming of Christ, or Second Advent; SECOND COUSIN, the child of a cousin; SECOND ESTATE, the House of Lords; SECOND GUARD, an additional guard to a sword; SECOND STORY, in America, the second range of rooms from the first level, called in England the first floor; SECOND THOUGHTS, reconsideration. [Fr.,--L. _secundus_--_sequi_, _secutus_, to follow.] SECRET, s[=e]'kret, _adj._ concealed from notice: removed from sight: unrevealed: hidden: secluded: retired: private: keeping secrets: reserved.--_n._ that which is concealed: anything unrevealed or unknown: privacy: the key or principle by which something is made clear: a form of steel skull-cap: one of the prayers in the Mass, immediately following the 'Orate, fratres,' said inaudibly by the celebrant: (_pl._) any prayers said secretly and not aloud: the parts of the body which are concealed.--_ns._ S[=E]'CRECY, the state of being secret: separation: concealment: retirement: privacy: fidelity to a secret: the keeping of secrets; S[=E]'CRETAGE, a process in dressing furs.--_adj._ S[=E]'CRET-FALSE (_Shak._), secretly false, while apparently sincere.--_adv._ S[=E]'CRETLY, in a secret manner: privately: unknown to others: inwardly.--_n._ S[=E]'CRETNESS, the state of being secret.--SECRET SERVICE, a department of government service.--OPEN SECRET, a secret which all may inquire into. [Fr.,--L. _secretus_--_secern[)e]re_, _secretum_--_se-_, apart, _cern[)e]re_, to separate.] SECRETARY, sek'r[=e]-t[=a]-ri, _n._ one employed to write for another: a public officer entrusted with the affairs of a department of government, or of a company, &c.: a piece of furniture for writing, with drawers, pigeon-holes, &c. (also SECRETAIRE').--_adj._ SECRET[=A]'RIAL, pertaining to a secretary or his duties.--_ns._ SECRET[=A]'RIATE, the official position of secretary; SEC'RETARY-BIRD a raptorial serpent-eating bird resembling the crane, found in South Africa and the East--from the tufts of feathers at the back of its head like pens stuck behind the ear; SEC'RETARYSHIP. SECRETE, s[=e]-kr[=e]t', _v.t._ to make secret: to hide: to conceal: to produce from the circulating fluids, as the blood in animals, the sap in vegetables.--_adj._ separate, distinct.--_n.pl._ S[=E]CR[=E]'TA, the products of secretion.--_n._ S[=E]CR[=E]'TION, the act of secreting or separating from a circulating fluid: that which is so secreted.--_adj._ S[=E]CR[=E]'TIONAL.--_n._ S[=E]'CRETIST, a dealer in secrets.--_adjs._ S[=E]CRETI'TIOUS, produced by secretion; S[=E]CR[=E]'TIVE, tending to, or causing, secretion: given to secrecy or to keeping secrets.--_adv._ S[=E]CR[=E]'TIVELY.--_ns._ S[=E]CR[=E]'TIVENESS, a phrenological organ supposed to indicate a turn for secrecy and concealment; S[=E]CR[=E]'TOR, a secreting organ.--_adj._ S[=E]CR[=E]'TORY, performing the office of secretion.--SECRETING GLANDS, true glands; SECRETING ORGANS, certain specialised organs of plants. [L. _secern[)e]re_, _secretum_.] SECT, sekt, _n._ a body of men who unite in holding some particular views, esp. in religion and philosophy: those who dissent from an established church: a denomination: a school of philosophy: a party: faction: apparel: a part cut off.--_adj._ SECT[=A]'RIAN, pertaining to, or peculiar to, a sect: bigotedly devoted to the interests of a sect, narrow, exclusive (also SECT[=A]'RIAL).--_n._ one of a sect: one strongly imbued with the characteristics of a sect.--_v.t._ SECT[=A]'RIANISE.--_ns._ SECT[=A]'RIANISM, quality or character of a sectarian: excessive devotion to a sect; SEC'TARIST; SEC'TARY, one of a sect: a dissenter; SECT[=A]'TOR (_obs._), an adherent of a school or party; SEC'TIST; SECT'-MAS'TER, the leader of a sect.--SECTARIAL MARKS, emblems marked on the foreheads of the different sects in India. [Fr. _secte_--L. _secta_, a school of philosophy--_sec[=a]re_, _sectum_, to cut off.] SECTANT, sek'tant, _n._ a portion of space cut off from the rest by three planes, but extending to infinity. SECTION, sek'shun, _n._ act of cutting: a division: a portion: a distinct part of a book: the plan of any object cut through, as it were, to show its interior: the line formed by the intersection of two surfaces: the surface formed when a solid is cut by a plane: one of the squares, each containing 640 acres, into which the public lands of the United States are divided: (_zool._) a group: the sign §, as a mark of reference.--_v.t._ to divide into sections, as a ship; to reduce to the degree of thinness required for study with the microscope.--_adjs._ SEC'TILE, SEC'TIVE, capable of being cut.--_n._ SECTIL'ITY.--_adj._ SEC'TIONAL, pertaining to a section or distinct part: local.--_n._ SEC'TIONALISM, the spirit of a class, commercial or political.--_adv._ SEC'TIONALLY.--_ns._ SEC'TION-BEAM, in warping, a roller which receives the yarn from the spools; SEC'TION-CUT'TER, an instrument used for making sections for microscopic work.--_v.t._ SEC'TIONISE, to render sectional in scope or spirit.--_ns._ SEC'TION-LIN'ER, a draftsman's instrument for ruling parallel lines; SEC'TION-PLANE, a cut surface; SEC'TIOPLANOG'RAPHY, a method of laying down the sections of engineering work in railways; SEC'TIUNCLE, a petty sect. SECTOR, sek'tur, _n._ that which cuts: that which is cut off: a portion of the circle between two radii and the intercepted arc: a mathematical instrument for finding a fourth proportional: an astronomical instrument: (_mech._) a toothed gear, the face of which is the arc of a circle.--_adjs._ SEC'TORAL; SECT[=O]'RIAL, adapted or intended for cutting.--_n._ a scissor-tooth. [L. _sector_--_sec[=a]re_, to cut.] SECULAR, sek'[=u]-lar, _adj._ pertaining to an age or generation: coming or observed only once in a century: permanent: lay or civil, as opposed to clerical: (_geol._) gradually becoming appreciable in the course of ages: pertaining to the present world, or to things not spiritual: not bound by monastic rules.--_n._ a layman: an ecclesiastic, as a parish priest, not bound by monastic rules.--_n._ SECULARISA'TION, the state of being secularised.--_v.t._ SEC'ULARISE, to make secular: to convert from spiritual to common use.--_ns._ SEC'ULARISM; SEC'ULARIST, one who, discarding religious belief and worship, applies himself exclusively to the things of this life: one who holds that education should be apart from religion; SECULAR'ITY, state of being secular or worldly: worldliness.--_adv._ SEC'ULARLY.--_n._ SEC'ULARNESS. [L. _secularis_--_seculum_, an age, a generation.] SECUND, s[=e]'kund, _n._ (_bot._, _zool._) unilateral. SECUNDARIUS, sek-un-d[=a]'ri-us, _n._ a lay-vicar. SECUNDATE, s[=e]-kun'd[=a]t, _v.t._ to make prosperous.--_n._ SECUND[=A]'TION. SECUNDINE, sek'un-din, _n._ the afterbirth: (_bot._) inner coat of an ovule, within the primine. SECUNDOGENITURE, s[=e]-kun'do-jen'i-t[=u]r, _n._ the right of inheritance pertaining to a second son. SEOUNDUM, s[=e]-kun'dum, _prep._ according to.--SECUNDUM ARTEM, artificially: skilfully: professionally; SECUNDUM NATURAM, naturally; SECUNDUM QUID, in some respects only; SECUNDUM VERITATEM, universally valid. SECURE, s[=e]-k[=u]r', _adj._ without care or anxiety, careless (_B._): free from fear or danger: safe: confident: incautious: in safe keeping: of such strength as to ensure safety.--_v.t._ to make safe: to guard from danger: to seize and confine: to get hold of: to make one's self master of: (_obs._) to plight or pledge: to render certain: to guarantee: to fasten.--_adj._ SEC[=U]R'ABLE, that may be secured.--_n._ SECUR'ANCE, assurance, confirmation.--_adv._ SEC[=U]RE'LY.--_ns._ SEC[=U]RE'MENT; SEC[=U]RE'NESS; SEC[=U]R'ER, one who, or that which, secures or protects; SEC[=U]R'ITAN, one who dwells in fancied security; SEC[=U]R'ITY, state of being secure: freedom from fear: carelessness: protection: certainty: a pledge: (_pl._) bonds or certificates in evidence of debt or property.--SECURE ARMS, to guard the firearms from becoming wet. [L. _securus_--_se-_ (for _sine_), without, _cura_, care.] SECURICULA, sek-[=u]'-rik'[=u]-la, _n._ a little ax, a votive offering in this form. SECURIFER, s[=e]-k[=u]'ri-f[.e]r, _n._ a sawfly.--_adjs._ SEC[=U]RIF'EROUS; SEC[=U]'RIFORM, axe-shaped. SECURIGERA, sek-[=u]-rij'e-ra, _n._ a genus of leguminous plants--the _hatchet-vetch_, _axe-fitch_. SECURIPALPI, s[=e]-k[=u]r-i-pal'p[=i], _n._ a group of beetles. SECURITE, sek'[=u]r-[=i]t, _n._ a modern high explosive in the form of a yellowish powder. SED, sed, _n._ a line fastening a fish-hook: a snood. [Illustration] SEDAN, s[=e]-dan', _n._ a covered chair for one, carried on two poles, generally by two bearers: a hand-barrow for fish. [Invented at _Sedan_, in France.] SEDATE, s[=e]-d[=a]t', _adj._ quiet: serene: serious.--_adv._ SED[=A]TE'LY.--_n._ SED[=A]TE'NESS, composure: tranquillity.--_adj._ SED'ATIVE, tending to make sedate: moderating: allaying irritation or pain.--_n._ a medicine that allays irritation or pain. [L. _sed[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to seat, akin to _sed[=e]re_, to sit.] SE DEFENDENDO, s[=e] d[=e]-fen-den'd[=o], _n._ the plea of a person charged with slaying another, that it was in his own defence. SEDENTARIA, sed-en-t[=a]'ri-a, _n.pl._ the tubicolous worms: the sedentary spiders. SEDENTARY, sed'en-t[=a]-ri, _adj._ sitting much: passed chiefly in sitting: requiring much sitting: inactive: (_zool._) not migratory: not errant: lying in wait, as a spider: not free-swimming: motionless, as a protozoan.--_adj._ S[=E]'DENT, at rest.--_adv._ SED'ENTARILY.--_n._ SED'ENTARINESS. [L. _sedentarius_--_sed[=e]re_, to sit.] SEDERUNT, s[=e]-d[=e]'runt, _n._ in Scotland, the sitting of a court.--ACTS OF SEDERUNT, ordinances of the Scottish Court of Session. [L., 'they sat'--_sed[=e]re_, to sit.] SEDES IMPEDITA, s[=e]'dez im-p[=e]-d[=i]'ta, a term for a papal or episcopal see when there is a partial cessation by the incumbent of his episcopal duties.--SEDES VACANS (s[=e]-dez v[=a]'kanz), a term of canon law to designate a papal or episcopal see when vacant. SEDGE, sej, _n._ a kind of flag or coarse grass growing in swamps and rivers.--_adj._ SEDGED, composed of sedge or flags.--_ns._ SEDGE'-HEN, a marsh-hen; SEDGE'-WAR'BLER, a reed-warbler, the sedge-wren.--_adj._ SEDG'Y, overgrown with sedge. [Older form _seg_--A.S. _secg_; cf. Low Ger. _segge_.] SEDGE, sej, _n._ a flock of herons, bitterns, or cranes. [A variant of _siege_.] SEDIGITATED, s[=e]-dij'i-t[=a]-ted, _adj._ having six fingers on one hand. [Illustration] SEDILIUM, s[=e]-dil'i-um, _n._ one of a row of seats in a Roman amphitheatre: a seat in the chancel of a church near the altar for the officiating clergyman--sometimes S[=E]D[=I]'LE:--_pl._ S[=E]DIL'IA. [L.] SEDIMENT, sed'i-ment, _n._ what settles at the bottom of a liquid: dregs.--_adj._ SEDIMEN'TARY, pertaining to, consisting of, or formed by sediment.--_n._ SEDIMENT[=A]'TION. [L. _sedimentum_--_sed[=e]re_, to sit.] SEDITION, s[=e]-dish'un, _n._ insurrection: any offence against the State next to treason.--_n._ S[=E]DI'TIONARY, an inciter to sedition.--_adj._ SEDI'TIOUS, pertaining to, or exciting, sedition: turbulent.--_adv._ S[=E]DI'TIOUSLY.--_n._ SEDI'TIOUSNESS. [Fr.,--L. _seditio_--_se-_, away, _[=i]re_, _[=i]tum_, to go.] SEDUCE, s[=e]-d[=u]s', _v.t._ to draw aside from rectitude: to entice: to corrupt: to cause a woman to surrender her chastity through persuasion, entreaty, under promise of marriage, &c.--_ns._ S[=E]D[=U]CE'MENT, act of seducing or drawing aside: allurement; S[=E]D[=U]'CER.--_adj._ S[=E]D[=U]'CIBLE.--_adv._ S[=E]D[=U]'CINGLY.--_n._ S[=E]DUC'TION, act of seducing or enticing from virtue, any enticement to evil: the act of fraudulently depriving an unmarried woman of her chastity.--_adj._ S[=E]DUC'TIVE, tending to seduce or draw aside: assiduous.--_adv._ S[=E]DUC'TIVELY.--_ns._ S[=E]DUC'TIVENESS; S[=E]DUC'TOR, one who leads astray. [L. _seduc[)e]re_--_se-_, aside, _duc[)e]re_, _ductum_, to lead.] SEDULOUS, sed'[=u]-lus, _adj._ diligent: constant.--_ns._ S[=E]D[=U]'LITY, SED'ULOUSNESS.--_adv._ SED'ULOUSLY. [L. _sedulus_--_sed[=e]re_, to sit.] SEDUM, s[=e]'dum, _n._ a genus of polypetalous plants, as stone-crop. [L., a house-leek.] SEE, s[=e], _n._ the seat or jurisdiction of a bishop or archbishop: a throne.--HOLY SEE, the papal court. [O. Fr. _se_, _siet_--L. _sedes_--_sed[=e]re_, to sit.] SEE, s[=e], _v.t._ to perceive by the eye: to observe: to discover: to remark: to bring about as a result: to wait upon, escort: to receive: to consult for any particular purpose: to suffer, experience: to meet and accept by staking a similar sum: to visit: to discern: to understand.--_v.i._ to look or inquire: to be attentive: to apprehend: to consider:--_pa.t_. saw; _pa.p._ seen.--_interj._ look! behold!--_adj._ SEE'ABLE, capable of being seen.--_n._ S[=E]'ER, one who sees or who foresees, a prophet.--SEE ABOUT A THING, to consider it; SEE ONE THROUGH, to aid in accomplishing or doing, esp. something difficult or dangerous; SEE OUT, to see to the end: to outdo; SEE THROUGH ONE, to understand one thoroughly; SEE TO, to look after: (_B._) to behold; SEE TO IT, look well to it.--HAVE SOON ONE'S BEST DAYS, to be now on the decline; LET ME SEE, a phrase employed to express consideration. [A.S. _séon_; Ger. _sehen_, Dut. _zien_.] SEE-BRIGHT, s[=e]'-br[=i]t, _n._ the common clary. SEE-CATCHIE, s[=e]'-kach'i, _n._ the male fur-seal. SEE-CAWK, s[=e]'-kawk, _n._ the common American skunk. SEED, s[=e]d, _n._ the thing sown: the male fecundating fluid, semen, sperm, milt, spat, the substance produced by plants and animals from which new plants and animals are generated: first principle: original: descendants: children: race: red-seed: a small bubble formed in imperfectly fused glass.--_v.i._ to produce seed: to grow to maturity.--_v.t._ to sow: to plant: to graft.--_ns._ SEED'-BAG, a bag for seeds; SEED'-BED, a piece of ground for receiving seed; SEED'-BIRD, the water-wagtail; SEED'-BUD, the bud or germ of the seed; SEED'-CAKE, a sweet cake containing aromatic seeds; SEED'-COAT, the exterior coat of a seed; SEED'-COD, a basket for holding seed; SEED'-COR'AL, coral in small and irregular pieces; SEED'-CORN, corn to be used for sowing; SEED'-CRUSH'ER, an instrument for crushing seeds to express the oil; SEED'-DOWN, the down on cotton, &c.; SEED'-DRILL, a machine for sowing seed in rows; SEED'-EAT'ER, a granivorous bird.--_adj._ SEED'ED, bearing seed, full-grown: sown: (_her._) having the stamens indicated.--_ns._ SEED'-EMBROI'DERY, embroidery in which seeds form parts of the design; SEED'ER, a seed-drill: an apparatus for removing seeds from fruit: a seed-fish; SEED'-FIELD, a field in which seed is raised; SEED'-FINCH, a South American finch; SEED'-FISH, roe or spawn; SEED'-FOWL, a bird that feeds on grain.--_adj._ SEED'FUL, rich in promise.--_ns._ SEED'-GALL, a small gall; SEED'-GRAIN, corn for seed.--_adv._ SEED'ILY.--_ns._ SEED'INESS, the state of being seedy: shabbiness: exhaustion; SEED'ING; SEED'ING-MACHINE', an agricultural machine for sowing; SEED'ING-PLOUGH, a plough fitted with a hopper from which seed is automatically deposited; SEED'-LAC (see LAC, 2); SEED'-LEAF, a cotyledon; SEED'-LEAP, a seed-basket.--_adj._ SEED'LESS, having no seeds.--_ns._ SEED'LING a plant reared from the seed--also _adj._; SEED'-LOBE, a cotyledon or seed-leaf; SEED'NESS (_Shak._), seedtime; SEED'-OIL, oil expressed from seeds.--_ns.pl._ SEED'-OY'STERS, very young oysters; SEED'-PEARLS, very small or imperfect pearls strung together on horse-hair and attached to mother-of-pearl, &c., for ornament--used also in the composition of electuaries, &c.--_ns._ SEED'-PLANT'ER, a seeder for planting seed on hills; SEED'-PLOT, a piece of nursery-ground, a hot-bed; SEED'-SHEET, the sheet containing the seed of the sower; SEEDS'MAN, one who deals in seeds: a sower:--_pl._ SEEDS'MEN; SEED'-SOW'ER, a broadcast seeding-machine; SEED'-STALK, the funiculus; SEED'-TICK, a young tick; SEED'TIME, the time or season for sowing seed; SEED'-VESS'EL, the pericarp which contains the seeds; SEED'-WEEV'IL, a small weevil which infests seeds; SEED'-WOOL, cotton-wool from which the seeds have not been removed.--_adj._ SEED'Y, abounding with seed: run to seed: having the flavour of seeds: worn out: out of sorts, looking or feeling unwell: shabby.--_n._ SEED'Y-TOE, a diseased condition of a horse's foot. [A.S. _s['æ]d_--_sáwan_, to sow; Ice. _sádh_, Ger. _saat_.] SEEING, s[=e]'ing, _n._ sight: vision.--_conj._ since: because: taking into account.--_n._ SEE'ING-STONE (_obs._), a looking-glass, a divining crystal. SEEK, s[=e]k, _v.t._ to go in search of: to look for: to try to find or gain: to ask for: to solicit: to pursue: to consult.--_v.i._ to make search or inquiry: to try: to use solicitation: (_B._) to resort to:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ sought.--_ns._ SEEK'ER, an inquirer: one of a sect in the time of Cromwell: (_anat._) tracer; SEEK'-NO-FAR'THER, a reddish winter apple; SEEK'-SORR'OW (_obs._), a self-tormentor.--SOUGHT AFTER, in demand, desired; To seek, to be sought: at a loss, without knowledge or resources, helpless. [A.S. _sécan_; cf. Dut. _zoeken_, Ger. _suchen_.] SEEL, s[=e]l, _v.t._ to close the eyes of by sewing the eyelids together, as a hawk: to blind, hoodwink. [O. Fr. _siller_, _ciller_--_cil_--L. _cilium_, eyelash.] SEEL, s[=e]l, _n._ (_prov._) good fortune, happiness: opportunity, season.--_n._ SEEL'INESS.--_adj._ SEEL'Y (_Spens._), silly, innocent: fortunate, happy, good: simple: trifling.--_n._ good fortune: bliss: (_Scot._) opportunity. [A.S. _s['æ]l_, time--_s['æ]l_, propitious.] SEEL, s[=e]l, _v.i._ to lean to one side, to pitch or roll.--_n._ a roll of a ship. [Prob. related to _sail_.] SEELDE, s[=e]ld, _adv._ (_Spens._) seldom. SEEM, s[=e]m, _v.i._ to appear: to have a show: to look: to pretend, to assume an air: to appear to one's self.--_v.t._ (_B._) to befit: to become.--_n._ SEEM'ER.--_adj._ SEEM'ING, apparent: specious: ostensible.--_n._ appearance: semblance: a false appearance: way of thinking.--_adv._ SEEM'INGLY.--_n._ SEEM'INGNESS.--_adj._ SEEM'LESS (_Spens._), unseemly: indecorous.--_n._ SEEM'LINESS.--_adj._ SEEM'LY (_comp._ SEEM'LIER, superl. SEEM'LIEST), becoming: suitable: decent: handsome.--_adv._ in a decent or suitable manner.--_n._ SEEM'LYHED (_Spens._), decent comely appearance.--IT SEEMS, it appears: it seems to me. [A.S. _séman_, to satisfy, to suit; or prob. direct from Scand., Ice. _sæma_, to honour, conform to.] SEEN, s[=e]n, _pa.p._ of _see_. SEEN, s[=e]n, _adj._ skilled, experienced: manifest. SEEP, s[=e]p, _v.i._ to ooze gently: to trickle: to drain off.--_n._ SEEP'AGE.--_adj._ SEEP'Y. [_Sipe._] SEER, s[=e]r, _n._ one who foresees events: a prophet: a soothsayer.--_n._ SEER'SHIP. SEER-FISH, s[=e]r'-fish, _n._ a longish scombroid fish, valuable for food.--Also SEIR'-FISH. SEERSUCKER, s[=e]r-suk'[.e]r, _n._ a thin East Indian linen fabric. SEESAW, s[=e]'saw, _n._ motion to and fro, as in the act of sawing: a play among children, in which two seated at opposite ends of a board supported in the centre move alternately up and down.--_adj._ moving up and down, or to and fro: reciprocal.--_v.i._ to move backwards and forwards. [Prob. a redup. of _saw_.] SEETHE, s[=e]th, _v.t._ to boil: to cook in hot liquid: to soak.--_v.i._ to be boiling: to be hot:--_pa.t._ seethed or sod; _pa.p._ seethed or sodd'en.--_n._ SEETH'ER. [A.S. _seóthan_; Ice. _sjótha_, Ger. _sieden_.] SEETULPUTTY, s[=e]'tul-put-i, _n._ a Bengalese grass mat for sleeping on. [Hind.] SEG, seg, _n._ a castrated bull. SEG, seg, _n._ sedge: the yellow flower-de-luce.--_n._ SEG'GAN (_Scot._). SEGGAR, seg'ar, _n._ a case of clay in which fine pottery is enclosed while baking in the kiln. [_Saggar_.] SEGGROM, seg'rom, _n._ the ragwort. SEGHOL, se-g[=o]l', _n._ a vowel-point in Hebrew with sound of _e_ in _pen_, placed under a consonant, thus [seghol].--_n._ SEGH'[=O]L[=A]TE, a dissyllabic noun form with tone-long vowel in the first and a short seghol in the second syllable. SEGMENT, seg'ment, _n._ a part cut off: a portion: (_geom_.) the part of a circle cut off by a straight line: the part of a sphere cut off by a plane: a section: one of the parts into which a body naturally divides itself: (_her._) a bearing representing one part only of a rounded object.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to divide or become divided.--_adj._ SEGMEN'TAL, being a segment: in embryology, noting the rudimental venal organs.--_adv._ SEGMEN'TALLY.--_adjs._ SEG'MENTARY, SEG'MENTATE.--_n._ SEGMENT[=A]'TION, the act of cutting into segments.--_adj._ SEGMEN'TED.--_ns._ SEG'MENT-GEAR, a gear extending over an arc only of a circle, providing a reciprocating motion; SEG'MENT-RACK, a rack having a cogged surface; SEG'MENT-SAW, a circular saw used for cutting veneers; SEG'MENT-SHELL, a modern form of projectile for artillery. [L. _segmentum_--_sec[=a]re_, to cut.] SEGNITUDE, seg'ni-t[=u]d, _n._ sluggishness, inactivity, [L. _segnitia_, slowness, _segnis_, slow.] SEGNO, s[=a]'ny[=o], _n._ (_mus._) a sign to mark the beginning or end of repetitions--abbreviated [segno]. [It.,--L. _signum_, a mark.] SEGO, s[=e]'g[=o], _n._ a showy plant of the United States. SEGREANT, seg'r[=e]-ant, _adj._ an epithet of the griffin: (_her._) equivalent to rampant and salient. SEGREGATE, seg'r[=e]-g[=a]t, _v.t._ to separate from others.--_adj._ separate from others of the same kind: (_geol._) separate from a mass and collected together along lines of fraction.--_n._ SEGREG[=A]'TION. [L. _segreg[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_se-_, apart, _grex_, _gregis_, a flock.] SEGUIDILLA, seg-i-d[=e]l'yä, _n._ a lively Spanish dance for two: music for such a dance. SEICHE, s[=a]sh, _n._ a remarkable fluctuation of the level observed on the Lake of Geneva and other Swiss lakes, probably due to local variations in the barometric pressure. [Fr.] SEIDLITZ, s[=e]d'litz, _adj._ saline water of or from _Seidlitz_ in northern Bohemia, also a saline aperient powder. SEIGNIOR, SEIGNEUR, s[=e]'nyor, _n._ a title of honour and address in Europe to elders or superiors: the lord of a manor.--_ns._ SEIGN'IORAGE, SEIGN'ORAGE, a royalty: a share of profit: a percentage on minted bullion; SEIGNIORAL'TY, the authority or the territory of a seignior or lord.--_adjs._ SEIGNIORIAL (s[=e]-ny[=o]'ri-al), SEIGNEU'RIAL, SIGN[=O]'RIAL, manorial.--_v.t._ SEIGN'IORISE, to lord it over.--_ns._ SEIGN'IORY, SEIGN'ORY, the power or authority of a seignior or lord: a domain, a lordship without a manor, or that of manor whose lands were held by free tenants: the elders forming the municipal council in a medieval Italian republic.--GRAND SEIGNIOR, the Sultan of Turkey. [Fr. _seigneur_--L. _senior_--_senex_, old. In Late. L. _senior_ is sometimes equivalent to _dominus_, lord.] SEIL, s[=i]l, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to strain.--_n._ a strainer. [_Sile._] SEINE, s[=a]n, or s[=e]n, _n._ a large net for catching fish.--_v.t._ to catch with such.--_ns._ SEINE'-BOAT; SEINE'-EN'GINE, a steam-engine used in hauling seines; SEINE'-GANG, a body of men engaged in seining, with their boats and other gear; SEIN'ER, one who seines: a vessel engaged in purse-seining for mackerel; SEIN'ING, the art of using the seine. [Fr.,--L. _sagena_--Gr. _sag[=e]n[=e]_, a fishing-net.] SEIROSPORE, s[=i]'r[=o]-sp[=o]r, _n._ one of the non-sexual spores arranged in a chain in certain florideous algæ.--_adj._ SEIROSPOR'IC. SEISED, s[=e]zd, _adj._ (_Spens._) taken possession of.--_n._ SEIS'IN (_Spens._), possession. SEISMOGRAPH, s[=i]s'm[=o]-graf, _n._ an instrument for registering the shocks and concussions of earthquakes, a seismometer.--_adjs._ SEIS'MAL; SEIS'MIC, belonging to an earthquake.--_ns._ SEIS'MOGRAM, the record made by a seismometer; SEISMOG'RAPHER.--_adjs._ SEISMOGRAPH'IC, -AL, connected with the seismograph.--_n._ SEISMOG'RAPHY, the study of earthquake phenomena.--_adjs._ SEISMOLOG'IC, -AL.--_ns._ SEISMOL'OGIST, a student of earthquake phenomena; SEIS'MOLOGUE, a catalogue of earthquake observations; SEISMOL'OGY, the science of earthquakes and volcanoes; SEISMOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring shakings, tremors, and tiltings of the earth.--_adjs._ SEISMOM'ETRIC, -AL.--_ns._ SEISMOM'ETRY, the measuring the phenomena of earthquakes; SEIS'MOSCOPE, a name of the simpler form of seismometer.--_adj._ SEISMOSCOP'IC. [Gr. _seismos_, an earthquake, _graphein_, to write.] SEISON, s[=i]'son, _n._ a genus of parasitic leech-like rotifers. SEISURA, s[=i]-s[=u]'ra, _n._ a genus of Australian fly-catchers. SEITY, s[=e]'i-ti, _n._ something peculiar to one's self. SEIURUS, s[=i]-[=u]'rus, _n._ the genus of birds including the American wagtails. SEIZE, s[=e]z,--_v.t._ to take possession of forcibly: to take hold of: to grasp: to apprehend by legal authority: to come upon suddenly: to lash or make fast.--_v.i._ to lay hold of with the claws: in metallurgy, to cohere.--_adj._ SEIZ'ABLE.--_ns._ SEIZ'ER; SEIZ'ING, the act of taking hold: (_naut._) the operation of lashing with several turns of a cord. [O. Fr. _saisir_ (Prov. _sazir_, to take possession of)--Old High Ger. _sazzan_, to set, Ger. _setzen_, Eng. _set_.] SEIZIN, SEISIN, s[=e]'zin, _n._ the taking possession of an estate as of freehold: the thing possessed--the same as _Sasine_ (q.v.).--_n._ SEIZ'OR, one who takes legal possession. SEIZURE, s[=e]'zh[=u]r, _n._ act of seizing: capture: grasp: the thing seized: a sudden attack. SEJANT, SEJEANT, s[=e]'jant, _adj._ (_her._) sitting. [Fr. _séant_, pr.p. of _seoir_--L. _sed[=e]re_, to sit.] SEJOIN, s[=e]-join', _v.t._ (_obs._) to separate.--_n._ SEJUNC'TION, separation. SEJUGOUS, s[=e]'j[=oo]-gus, _adj._ (_bot._) having six pairs of leaflets. [L. _sejugis_--_sex_, six, _jugum_, a yoke.] SEKOS, s[=e]'kos, _n._ in Greek antiquities, any sacred enclosure, a sanctuary, cella of the temple. SEL, sel, _n._ (_Scot._) self. SELACHE, sel'a-k[=e], _n._ a genus of sharks.--_adjs._ SEL[=A]'CHIAN, SEL'ACHIOID. [Gr. _selachos_, a sea-fish.] SELAGINELLA, s[=e]-laj-i-nel'a, _n._ a genus of heterosporous cryptogams, allied to club-moss. SELAH, s[=e]'lä, _n._ in the Psalms, a transliterated Hebrew word (connected by Gesenius with _s[=a]l[=a]h_, rest), supposed to be a direction in the musical rendering of a passage, probably meaning 'pause.' SELANDRIA, s[=e]-lan'dri-a, _n._ a genus of saw-flies. SELASPHORUS, s[=e]-las'f[=o]-rus, _n._ the genus of lightning hummers. SELCOUTH, sel'k[=oo]th, _adj._ (_Spens._) rarely known, uncommon.--_adv._ SEL'COUTHLY. [A.S. _selcúth_ for _seldcúth_--_seld_, seldom, _cúth_--known, _cunnan_, to know.] SELD, seld, _adj._ (_Spens._) rare, uncommon.--_adv._ seldom, rarely.--_adjs._ SELD'SEEN, rarely seen; SELD'-SHOWN (_Shak._), rarely shown. [_Seldom_.] SELDOM, sel'dum, _adv._ rarely: not often.--_n._ SEL'DOMNESS.--_adv._ SEL'DOM-TIMES. [A.S. _seldum_, _seldan_--_seld_ (adj.), rare; Ger. _selten_.] SELECT, s[=e]-lekt', _v.t._ to pick out from a number by preference: to choose: to cull.--_adj._ picked out: nicely chosen: choice: exclusive.--_adj._ SELEC'TED.--_adv._ SELEC'TEDLY.--_ns._ SELEC'TEDNESS; SELEC'TION, act of selecting: things selected: a book containing select pieces.--_adj._ SELEC'TIVE.--_adv._ SELEC'TIVELY, by selection.--_ns._ SELECT'MAN, in New England towns, one of a board of officers chosen annually to manage various local concerns; SELECT'NESS; SELECT'OR.--SELECT MEETING, in the Society of Friends, a meeting of ministers and elders.--NATURAL SELECTION, the preservation of some forms of animal and vegetable life and the destruction of others by the ordinary operation of natural causes. [L. _selig[)e]re_, _selectum_--_se-_, aside, _leg[)e]re_, to choose.] SELENE, s[=e]-l[=e]'n[=e], _n._ (_Gr. myth._) the goddess of the moon, the Latin _Luna_--also _Phoebe_: a genus of carangoid fishes, the moon-fishes.--_n._ SEL[=E]'NISCOPE, an instrument for observing the moon.--_adj._ SEL[=E]NOCEN'TRIC, having relation to the centre of the moon.--_ns._ SEL[=E]'NOGRAPH, a delineation of the moon; SEL[=E]NOG'RAPHER, a student of selenography.--_adjs._ SEL[=E]NOGRAPH'IC, -AL.--_ns._ SEL[=E]NOG'RAPHIST, a selenographer; SEL[=E]NOG'RAPHY, description of the moon.--_adj._ SEL[=E]NOLOG'ICAL, pertaining to the physiography of the moon.--_ns._ SEL[=E]NOL'OGIST, a selenographer; SEL[=E]NOL'OGY, selenography.--_adj._ SEL[=E]N[=O]TROP'IC, turning to the moon.--_ns._ SEL[=E]NOT'ROPISM, SEL[=E]NOT'ROPY. [Gr. _sel[=e]n[=e]_.] SELENITE, sel'en-[=i]t, _n._ a transparent and beautiful variety of gypsum: a salt of selenium: a supposed inhabitant of the moon.--_adjs._ SELENIT'IC; SELENITIF'EROUS. [Gr. _sel[=e]nit[=e]s_ (_lithos_, stone), moon-like--_sel[=e]n[=e]_, the moon.] SELENITES, sel-[=e]-n[=i]'tez, _n.pl._ a genus of coleopterous insects. SELENIUM, s[=e]-l[=e]'ni-um, _n._ an element discovered by Berzelius in the refuse of a sulphuric-acid factory in 1817.--_n._ SEL'[=E]NATE, a compound of selenic acid with a base.--_adjs._ SELEN'IC, SEL[=E]'NIOUS.--_n._ SEL'ENIDE, a compound of selenium with one other element or radical--also SEL[=E]'NIURET.--_adjs._ SELENIF'EROUS; SEL[=E]'NIURETTED, containing selenium. [Gr. _s[=e]l[=e]ne_, the moon.] SELENODONT, s[=e]-l[=e]'n[=o]-dont, _adj._ having crescentic ridges on the crown, as molar teeth. SELEUCIDÆ, se-l[=u]'si-d[=e], _n.pl._ the descendants of _Seleucus_ I., surnamed Nicator, who governed Syria from 312 B.C. to 65 B.C. SELEUCIDES, se-l[=u]'si-d[=e]z, _n._ a genus containing the twelve-wired bird of Paradise. SELF, self, _n._ one's own person: one's personal interest: one's own personal interest, selfishness: a flower having its colour uniform as opposed to variegated:--_pl._ SELVES (selvz).--_adj._ very: particular: one's own: simple, plain, unmixed with any other.--_ns._ SELF'-ABAN'DONMENT, disregard of self; SELF'-ABASE'MENT, abasement through consciousness of unworthiness.--_adj._ SELF'-ABSORBED', absorbed in one's own thoughts.--_ns._ SELF'-ABUSE', the abuse of one's own person or powers: self-pollution; SELF'-ACCUS[=A]'TION, the act of accusing one's self.--_adjs._ SELF'-ACCUS'ATORY; SELF'-ACT'ING, acting of, or by, itself, specially denoting a machine or mechanism which does of itself something that is ordinarily done by manual labour.--_n._ SELF'-ACTIV'ITY, an inherent power of acting.--_adj._ SELF'-ADJUST'ING, requiring no external adjustment.--_n._ SELF'-ADMIS'SION (_Shak._), admission of one's self.--_n.pl._ SELF'-AFFAIRS' (_Shak._), one's own affairs.--_adjs._ SELF'-AFFECT'ED (_Shak._), affected well towards one's self; SELF'-AFFRIGHT'ED (_Shak._), frightened at one's self.--_n._ SELF'-APPLAUSE', applause of one's self.--_adjs._ SELF'-APPOINT'ED, nominated by one's self; SELF'-APPROV'ING, implying approval of one's own conduct; SELF'-ASSERT'ING, given to asserting one's opinion: putting one's self forward.--_n._ SELF'-ASSER'TION.--_adj._ SELF'-ASSUMED', assumed by one's own act.--_n._ SELF'-ASSUMP'TION, conceit.--_adj._ SELF'-BEGOT'TEN, generated or originated by one's own powers.--_n._ SELF'-BIND'ER, the automatic binding apparatus attached to some reaping-machines.--_adj._ SELF'-BLIND'ED, led astray by one's self.--_n._ SELF'-BLOOD' (_obs._), direct progeny: suicide.--_adj._ SELF'-BORN', born or produced by one's self.--_n._ SELF'-BOUN'TY (_Shak._), native goodness.--_adj._ SELF'-CEN'TRED, centred in self.--_n._ SELF'-CHAR'ITY (_Shak._), love of one's self.--_adjs._ SELF'-CL[=O]'SING, shutting automatically; SELF'-COLLECT'ED, self-possessed: self-contained; SELF'-COL'OURED, of the natural colour: dyed in the wool: coloured with a single tint: (_hort._) uniform in colour.--_ns._ SELF'-COMMAND', self-control; SELF'-COMPL[=A]'CENCY, satisfaction with one's self, or with one's own performances.--_adj._ SELF'-COMPL[=A]'CENT, pleased with one's self: self-satisfied.--_n._ SELF'-CONCEIT', an over-high opinion of one's self, one's own abilities, &c.: vanity.--_adj._ SELF'-CONCEIT'ED, having a high opinion of one's self, of one's own merits, abilities, &c.: vain.--_ns._ SELF'-CONCEIT'EDNESS; SELF'-CONDEMN[=A]'TION, condemnation by one's own conscience: a self-condemning.--_adjs._ SELF'-CONDEMNED'; SELF'-CONDEMN'ING.--_n._ SELF'-CON'FIDENCE, confidence in, or reliance on, one's own powers: self-reliance.--_adj._ SELF'-CON'FIDENT, confident of one's own powers: in the habit of relying on one's own powers.--_adv._ SELF'-CON'FIDENTLY.--_adj._ SELF'-CONF[=I]'DING, relying on one's own powers.--_n._ SELF'-CONGRATUL[=A]'TION, the act of felicitating one's self.--_adjs._ SELF'-CON'JUGATE, conjugate to itself; SELF'-CON'SCIOUS, conscious of one's acts or states as originating in one's self: conscious of being observed by others.--_n._ SELF'-CON'SCIOUSNESS, the act or state of being self-conscious: consciousness of being observed by others.--_adj._ SELF'-CONSID'ERING, considering in one's own mind, deliberating.--_n._ SELF'-CONSIST'ENCY, consistency with one's self, or principles.--_adjs._ SELF'-CONSIST'ENT; SELF'-CON'STITUTED, constituted by one's self; SELF'-CONS[=U]'MING, consuming one's self, or itself: SELF'-CONTAINED', wrapped up in one's self, reserved: of a house, not approached by an entrance common to others: complete in itself.--_ns._ SELF'-CONTEMPT', contempt for one's self; SELF'-CONTENT', self-complacency; SELF'-CONTRADIC'TION, the act or fact of contradicting one's self: a statement of which the terms are mutually contradictory.--_adj._ SELF'-CONTRADICT'ORY.--_n._ SELF'-CONTROL', control or restraint exercised over one's self: self-command.--_adj._ SELF'-CONVICT'ED, convicted by one's own inner consciousness, or avowal.--_n._ SELF'-CONVIC'TION.--_adjs._ SELF'-CORRESPOND'ING, corresponding to itself; SELF'-COV'ERED, clothed in one's native semblance.--_ns._ SELF'-CRE[=A]'TION, the act of coming into existence by the vitality of one's own nature; SELF'-CRIT'ICISM, criticism of one's self; SELF'-CULT'URE, culture or education of one's self without the aid of teachers; SELF'-D[=A]N'GER (_Shak._), danger from one's self; SELF'-DECEIT', deception respecting one's self; SELF'-DECEIV'ER, one who deceives himself; SELF'-DECEP'TION, the act of deceiving one's own self; SELF'-DEFENCE', the act of defending one's own person, property, &c. (ART OF SELF-DEFENCE, boxing, pugilism); SELF'-DEL[=A]'TION, accusation of one's self; SELF'-DEL[=U]'SION, delusion respecting one's self; SELF'-DEN[=I]'AL, the denial of one's self: the non-gratifying of one's own appetites or desires.--_adj._ SELF'-DENY'ING.--_adv._ SELF'-DENY'INGLY.--_n._ SELF'-DEPEND'ENCE, reliance on one's self.--_adj._ SELF'-DEPEND'ENT.--_n._ SELF'-DEPRECI[=A]'TION, depreciation of one's self.--_adj._ SELF'-DEPR[=E]'CI[=A]TIVE.--_ns._ SELF'-DESPAIR', a despairing view of one's prospects, &c.; SELF'-DESTRUC'TION, the destruction of one's self: suicide.--_adj._ SELF'-DESTRUC'TIVE.--_n._ SELF'-DETERMIN[=A]'TION, determination by one's self without extraneus impulse.--_adjs._ SELF'-DETER'MINED; SELF'-DETER'MINING.--_n._ SELF'-DEVEL'OPMENT, spontaneous development.--_adj._ SELF'-DEV[=O]'TED.--_n._ SELF'-DEV[=O]'TION, self-sacrifice.--_adj._ SELF'-DEVOUR'ING, devouring one's self.--_ns._ SELF'-DISPAR'AGEMENT, disparagement of one's self; SELF'-DISPRAISE', censure of one's self; SELF'-DISTRUST', want of confidence in one's own powers.--_adjs._ SELF'-ED'UCATED, educated by one's own efforts alone; SELF'-ELECT'IVE, having the right to elect one's self.--_n._ SELF-END' (_obs._), an end for one's self alone.--_adj._ SELF'-ENDEARED', self-loving.--_ns._ SELF'-ENJOY'MENT, internal satisfaction; SELF'-ESTEEM', the esteem or good opinion of one's self; SELF'-ESTIM[=A]'TION; SELF'-EV'IDENCE.--_adj._ SELF'-EV'IDENT, evident of itself or without proof: that commands assent.--_adv._ SELF'-EV'IDENTLY.--_ns._ SELF'-EVOL[=U]'TION, development by inherent power; SELF'-EXALT[=A]'TION, the exaltation of self; SELF'-EXAM'INANT, one who examines himself; SELF'-EXAMIN[=A]'TION, a scrutiny into one's own state, conduct, &c., esp. with regard to one's religious feelings and duties; SELF'-EXAM'PLE, one's own example.--_adj._ SELF'-EX'ECUTING, needing no legislation to enforce it.--_n._ SELF'-EXIST'ENCE.--_adjs._ SELF'-EXIST'ENT, existing of or by himself or itself, independent of any other cause; SELF'-EXPLAN'ATORY, obvious, bearing its meaning in its own face.--_n._ SELF'-EXPLIC[=A]'TION, the power of explaining one's self.--_adjs._ SELF-FACED', undressed or unhewn; SELF-FED', fed by one's self.--_n._ SELF'-FEED'ER, a self-feeding apparatus.--_adj._ SELF'-FEED'ING, feeding automatically.--_ns._ SELF'-FERTILIS[=A]'TION; SELF'-FERTIL'ITY, ability to fertilise itself.--_adjs._ SELF'-FIG'URED, figured or described by one's self; SELF'-FLATT'ERING, judging one's self too favourably.--_n._ SELF'-FLATT'ERY, indulgence in reflections too favourable to one's self.--_adjs._ SELF'-FOC'USING, focusing without artificial adjustment; SELF'-FORGET'FUL, devoted to others, and forgetful of one's own interests.--_adv._ SELF'-FORGET'FULLY.--_adjs._ SELF'-GATH'ERED, wrapped up in one's self; SELF-GLAZED', covered with glass of a single tint; SELF'-GL[=O]'RIOUS, springing from vainglory or vanity: boastful; SELF'-GOV'ERNING.--_ns._ SELF'-GOV'ERNMENT, self-control: government by the joint action of the mass of the people: democracy; SELF'-GRATUL[=A]'TION, congratulation of one's self.--_adj._ SELF'-HARM'ING, injuring one's self.--_n._ SELF-HEAL', prunella: the burnet saxifrage.--_adj._ SELF'-HEAL'ING, having the power of healing itself.--_ns._ SELF-HELP', working for one's self; SELF'HOOD, existence as a separate person: conscious personality.--_adj._ SELF'-[=I]'DOLISED, regarded with extreme complacency by one's self.--_n._ SELF'-IMPORT'ANCE, a high estimate of one's own importance: egotism: pomposity.--_adjs._ SELF'-IMPORT'ANT; SELF'-IMPOSED', taken voluntarily on one's self; SELF'-IM'POTENT (_bot._), unable to fertilise itself.--_n._ SELF'-INDUL'GENCE, undue gratification of one's appetites or desires.--_adj._ SELF'-INDUL'GENT.--_n._ SELF'-INFEC'TION, infection of the entire organism from a local lesion.--_adj._ SELF'-INFLICT'ED, inflicted by one's self.--_n._ SELF'-IN'TEREST, private interest: regard to one's self.--_adj._ SELF'-IN'TERESTED.--_n._ SELF'-INVOL[=U]'TION, mental abstraction.--_adjs._ SELF'-INVOLVED', wrapped up in one's self; SELF'ISH, chiefly or wholly regarding one's own self: void of regard to others (SELFISH THEORY OF MORALS, the theory that man acts from the consideration of what will give him the most pleasure).--_adv._ SELF'ISHLY.--_ns._ SELF'ISHNESS; SELF'ISM; SELF'IST; SELF'-JUSTIFIC[=A]'TION, justification of one's self.--_adjs._ SELF'-KIN'DLED, kindled of itself; SELF'-KNOW'ING, knowing of one's own self: possessed of self-consciousness.--_n._ SELF'-KNOWL'EDGE, the knowledge of one's own character, abilities, worth, &c.--_adjs._ SELF-LEFT', left to one's self; SELF'LESS, having no regard to self, unselfish.--_ns._ SELF'LESSNESS, freedom from selfishness; SELF-LIFE', a life only for one's own gratification.--_adjs._ SELF'-LIKE, exactly similar; SELF'-LIM'ITED (_path._), tending to spontaneous recovery after a certain course.--_n._ SELF-LOVE', the love of one's self: tendency to seek one's own welfare or advantage: desire of happiness.--_adjs._ SELF'-LOV'ING, full of self-love; SELF'-LUM'INOUS, possessing the property of emitting light; SELF-MADE', made by one's self; denoting a man who has risen to a high position from poverty or obscurity by his own exertions.--_ns._ SELF'-MAS'TERY, self-command: self-control; SELF'-MET'TLE (_Shak._), mettle or spirit which is natural to one, and not artificially inspired; SELF'-M[=O]'TION, spontaneous motion.--_adj._ SELF-MOVED', moved spontaneously from within.--_ns._ SELF'-MUR'DER, the killing of one's self: suicide; SELF'-MUR'DERER; SELF'-NEGLECT'ING (_Shak._), the neglecting of one's self; SELF'NESS, egotism: personality; SELF'-OFFENCE', one's own offence; SELF'-OPIN'ION, the tendency to form one's own opinion irrespective of that of others.--_adjs._ SELF'-OPIN'IONATED, obstinately adhering to one's own opinion; SELF'-ORIG'INATING, springing from one's self.--_ns._ SELF'-PARTIAL'ITY, overestimate of one's own worth; SELF'-PERCEP'TION, the faculty of immediate perception of the soul by itself.--_adjs._ SELF'-PERPLEXED', perplexed by one's own thoughts; SELF'-P[=I]'OUS, hypocritical.--_n._ SELF'-PIT'Y, pity for one's self.--_adjs._ SELF-PLEACHED' (_Tenn._), interwoven by natural growth; SELF'-PLEAS'ING, gratifying one's own wishes; SELF-POISED', kept well balanced by self-respect.--_n._ SELF'-POLL[=U]'TION, self-abuse, masturbation.--_adj._ SELF'-POSSESSED', calm or collected in mind or manner: undisturbed.--_ns._ SELF'-POSSES'SION, the possession of one's self or faculties in danger: calmness; SELF-PRAISE', the praise of one's self; SELF'-PRESERV[=A]'TION, the preservation of one's self from injury, &c.--_adjs._ SELF'-PRESER'VATIVE, SELF-PRESER'VING.--_ns._ SELF-PRIDE', self-esteem; SELF'-PROF'IT, self-interest.--_adj._ SELF'-PROP'AGATING, propagating one's self or itself.--_ns._ SELF'-PROTEC'TION, self-defence; SELF'-REALIS[=A]'TION, the attainment of such development as one's mental and moral nature is capable of.--_adjs._ SELF'-RECIP'ROCAL, self-conjugate; SELF'-RECORD'ING, making, as an instrument, a record of its own state.--_n._ SELF'-REGARD', regard for one's own self.--_adjs._ SELF'-REGARD'ING; SELF'-REG'ISTERING, registering itself: denoting an instrument or machine having a contrivance for recording its own operations; SELF'-REG'ULATED, regulated by one's self or itself; SELF'-REG'ULATING, regulating itself; SELF'-REG'ULATIVE.--_n._ SELF'-REL[=I]'ANCE, reliance on one's own abilities.--_adj._ SELF'-REL[=I]'ANT.--_n._ SELF'-RENUNCI[=A]'TION, self-abnegation.--_adj._ SELF'-REPEL'LING, repelling by its own inherent power.--_ns._ SELF'-REPRES'SION, the keeping of one's self in the background; SELF'-REPROACH', the act of reproaching or condemning one's self.--_adj._ SELF'-REPROACH'ING, reproaching one's self.--_adv._ SELF'-REPROACH'INGLY.--_n._ SELF'-REPROOF', the reproof of one's own conscience.--_adjs._ SELF'-REPROV'ING, reproving one's self, from conscious guilt; SELF'-REPUG'NANT, self-contradictory: inconsistent.--_n._ SELF'-RESPECT', respect for one's self or one's character.--_adjs._ SELF'-RESPECT'FUL; SELF'-RESPECT'ING; SELF'-RESTRAINED', restrained by one's own will.--_ns._ SELF'-RESTRAINT', a restraint over one's appetites or desires: self-control; SELF'-REV'ERENCE, great self-respect.--_adjs._ SELF'-REV'ERENT; SELF'-RIGHT'EOUS, righteous in one's own estimation: pharisaical.--_n._ SELF'-RIGHT'EOUSNESS, reliance on one's supposed righteousness: sense of one's own merit or goodness, esp. if overestimated.--_adjs._ SELF'-RIGHT'ING, that rights itself when capsized; SELF'-ROLLED', coiled on itself.--_n._ SELF'-SAC'RIFICE, the act of yielding up one's life, interests, &c. for others.--_adjs._ SELF'-SAC'RIFICING, yielding, or disposed to yield, up one's life, interests, &c.; SELF'-SAME, the very same.--_ns._ SELF'-SAME'NESS, sameness as regards self or identity; SELF'-SATISFAC'TION, satisfaction with one's self.--_adjs._ SELF'-SAT'ISFIED, satisfied with the abilities, performances, &c. of one's self; SELF'-SAT'ISFYING, giving satisfaction to one's self.--_ns._ SELF-SCORN', a mood in which one entertains scorn for a former mood of self; SELF'-SEEK'ER, one who looks only to his own interests.--_adj._ SELF'-SEEK'ING, seeking unduly one's own interest or happiness.--_n._ the act of doing so.--_adj._ SELF'-SHIN'ING, self-luminous.--_n._ SELF'-SLAUGH'TER (_Shak._), the slaughter of one's self: suicide.--_adjs._ SELF'-SLAUGH'TERED, killed by one's self; SELF'-STER'ILE (_bot._), unable to fertilise itself; SELF-STYLED', called by one's self: pretended; SELF'-SUBDUED' (_Shak._), subdued by one's own power; SELF'-SUBSTAN'TIAL (_Shak._), composed of one's own substance.--_n._ SELF'-SUFFI'CIENCY.--_adjs._ SELF'-SUFFI'CIENT, confident in one's own sufficiency: haughty: overbearing; SELF'-SUFFIC'ING.--_ns._ SELF'-SUGGES'TION, determination by causes inherent in the organism; SELF'-SUPPORT', the maintenance of one's self.--_adjs._ SELF'-SUPPORT'ED; SELF'-SUPPORT'ING.--_n._ SELF'-SURREN'DER, the yielding up of one's self to another.--_adj._ SELF'-SUSTAINED', sustained by one's own power.--_ns._ SELF'-SUS'TENANCE, self-support; SELF-SUSTENT[=A]'TION.--_adjs._ SELF'-TAUGHT, taught by one's self; SELF'-THINK'ING, forming one's own opinions: of independent judgment; SELF'-TOR'TURABLE (_Shak._), capable of being tortured by one's self.--_ns._ SELF'-TOR'TURE; SELF-TRUST', self-reliance; SELF-VIEW', regard for one's own interest; SELF'-V[=I]'OLENCE, violence inflicted upon one's self; SELF-WILL', obstinacy.--_adj._ SELF-WILLED', governed by one's own will.--_ns._ SELF'-WILLED'NESS; SELF'-WOR'SHIP, the idolising of one's self; SELF'-WOR'SHIPPER; SELF-WRONG' (_Shak._), wrong done by a person to himself.--BE BESIDE ONE'S SELF (see BESIDE); BE ONE'S SELF, to be in full possession of one's powers; BY ONE'S SELF, or ITSELF, apart, alone: without aid of another person or thing. [A.S. _self_, _seolf_, _sylf_; Dut. _zelf_, Ger. _selbe_, Goth. _silba_.] SELICTAR, s[=e]-lik'tär, _n._ the sword-bearer of a Turkish chief. [Turk. _silihd[=a]r_--Pers. _silahd[=a]r_--Ar. _sil[=a]h_, arms, pl. of _silh_, a weapon.] SELINUM, s[=e]-l[=i]'num, _n._ a genus of umbelliferous plants--_milk-parsley_. [Gr. _selinon_, parsley.] SELION, sel'yon, _n._ a ridge of land rising between two furrows. [O. Fr. _seillon_, Fr. _sillon_, a furrow.] SELJUK, sel-j[=oo]k', _n._ a member of a Turkish family which, under Togrul Beg, grandson of a chief named _Seljuk_, overthrew the Abbaside califs of Bagdad about 1050, and gave way before the Osmanli or Ottoman princes.--_adj._ SELJU'KIAN. SELL, sel, _n._ a seat, a throne: (_Spens._) a saddle: a saddler.--_adj._ SELL'IFORM, saddle-shaped. [O. Fr. _selle_--L. _sella_, for _sedula_, dim. of _sedes_, a seat.] SELL, sel, _v.t._ to deliver in exchange for something paid as equivalent: to betray for money: to impose upon, cheat.--_v.i._ to have commerce: to be sold, to be in demand for sale:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ s[=o]ld.--_n._ a deception.--_adj._ SELL'ABLE, that can be sold.--_n._ SELL'ER, a furnisher: a vender: a small vessel for holding salt.--SELL ONE'S LIFE DEARLY, to do great injury to the enemy before one is killed; SELL ONE UP, to sell a debtor's goods; SELL OUT, to dispose entirely of: to sell one's commission. [A.S. _sellan_, to hand over; cf. Ice. _selja_, Goth. _saljan_.] SELLANDERS, sel'an-d[.e]rs, _n._ an eruption in the tarsus of the horse. [Fr. _solandre_.] SELTZER, selt'z[.e]r, _n._ an effervescing alkaline mineral water brought from Nieder-Selters in Prussia.--_n._ SELT'ZOGENE, a gazogene (q.v.). SELVAGE, sel'v[=a]j, _n._ that part of cloth which forms an edge of itself without hemming: a border: in mining, that part of a lode adjacent to the walls on either side: the edge-plate of a lock--also SEL'VEDGE.--_adjs._ SEL'VAGED, SEL'VEDGED.--_n._ SELVAG[=EE]', an untwisted skein of rope-yarn marled together. [Old Dut. _selfegge_, self, _self_, _egge_, edge.] SELVES, selvz, _pl._ of _self_. SEMANTRON, s[=e]-man'tron, _n._ in the Greek Church, a long bar of wood struck with a mallet to summon worshippers. [Gr.,--_s[=e]mainein_, to give a signal.] SEMAPHORE, sem'a-f[=o]r, _n._ a contrivance for conveying signals, consisting of a mast with arms turned on pivots by means of cords or levers.--_adjs._ SEMAPHOR'IC, -AL, telegraphic--_adv._ SEMAPHOR'ICALLY. [Gr. _s[=e]ma_, a sign, _pherein_, to bear.] SEMASIOLOGY, s[=e]-m[=a]-si-ol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the science of the development of the meanings of words. [Gr. _s[=e]masia_--_s[=e]mainein_, to signify, _legein_, to speak.] SEMASPHERE, sem'a-sf[=e]r, _n._ an aerostatic signalling apparatus. [Gr. _s[=e]ma_, a sign, _sphaira_, a ball.] SEMATIC, s[=e]-mat'ik, _adj._ significant: indicative, as of danger: ominous.--_n._ SEMATOL'OGY, the science of verbal signs in the operations of thinking and reasoning. [Gr. _s[=e]ma_, a sign.] SEMATROPE, sem'a-tr[=o]p, _n._ an adaptation of the heliotrope for transmitting military signals. [Gr. _s[=e]ma_, a sign, _trepein_, to turn.] SEMBLABLE, sem'bla-bl, _adj._ (_Shak._) resembling, similar, like.--_n._ likeness, resemblance.--_adv._ SEM'BLABLY (_Shak._) in like manner.--_n._ SEM'BLANCE, likeness: appearance: figure.--_adj._ SEM'BLANT, resembling, like.--_n._ (_Spens._) resemblance, figure.--_adj._ SEM'BLATIVE (_Shak._), resembling, fit, suitable.--_v.i._ SEM'BLE (_obs._), to appear: to dissemble: to practise the art of imitation.--_adj._ like. [Fr.,--_sembler_, to seem, to resemble--L. _similis_, like.] SEMÉ, se-m[=a]', _adj._ (_her._) strewn or scattered over with small bearings, powdered. [Fr., sown, _semer_--L. _semin[=a]re_, to sow.] SEMEIOLOGY, SEMIOLOGY, s[=e]-m[=i]-ol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the sum of knowledge of the signs and symptoms of morbid conditions, symptomatology: the science of gesture or sign-language.--_n._ SEMEIOG'RAPHY, the description of the signs or symptoms of disease.--_adjs._ SEMEIOLOG'IC, -AL, pertaining to semeiology; SEMEIOT'IC, relating to signs, symptomatic.--_n._ SEMEIOT'ICS, the science of signs: semeiology or symptomatology. [Gr. _s[=e]meion_, a mark, _legein_, to say.] SEMEION, s[=e]-m[=i]'on, _n._ in ancient prosody, the unit of time: one of the two divisions of a foot: a mark in paleography indicating metrical or other divisions:--_pl._ SEMEI'A. [Gr. _s[=e]meion_, a mark.] SEMELE, sem'e-l[=e], _n._ a genus of bivalves. [Gr. _Semel[=e]_, the mother of Bacchus.] SEMEN, s[=e]'men, _n._ the impregnating fluid of male animals, usually whitish, viscid, containing innumerable spermatozoa. [L.] SEMENCINE, s[=e]'men-sin, _n._ santonica. SEMESE, se-m[=e]s', _adj._ half-eaten. [L. _semesus_, half-eaten, _semi-_, half, _esus_--_ed[)e]re_, to eat.] SEMESTER, s[=e]-mes't[.e]r, _n._ one of the half-year courses in German universities.--_adj._ SEMES'TRAL. [L. _semestris_--_sex_, six, _mensis_, a month.] SEMI-, sem'i, a prefix of Latin origin, meaning 'half,' and also less accurately 'partly,' 'incompletely.'--_n._ and _adj._ SEMIAC'ID, half-acid, sub-acid.--_n._ SEM'IANGLE, the half of a given angle.--_adj._ SEMI-AN'NUAL, half-yearly.--_adv._ SEM'I-AN'NUALLY, once every six months.--_adj._ SEMIAN'NULAR, semicircular.--_ns._ SEM'I-AN'THRACITE, coal intermediate between anthracite and semi-bituminous coal; SEM'I-APE, a lemur.--_adjs._ SEM'I-AQUAT'IC (_zool._, _bot._), entering the water, but not necessarily existing by it; SEM'I-[=A]'RIAN, relating to the Christology of the so-called Semi-Arians (Eusebius of Cæsarea, &c.) who held a middle ground between the Arian _hetero-ousia_ and the orthodox _homo-ousia_ or co-equality of the Son with the Father, asserting the _homoi-ousia_, or similarity of essence.--_n._ SEM'I-[=A]'RIANISM.--_adjs._ SEM'I-ARTIC'ULATE, loose-jointed; SEM'I-ATTACHED', partially bound by affection or interest; SEMIBARB[=A]'RIAN, half-barbarian or savage: partially civilised.--_n._ [Illustration] SEMIBAR'BARISM.--_adj._ SEM'I-BIT[=U]'MINOUS, partly bituminous, as coal.--_ns._ SEM'IBR[=E]VE, a musical note, half the length of a breve = 2 minims or 4 crotchets; SEM'IBULL, a bull issued by a pope between the time of his election and that of his coronation.--_adjs._ SEM'ICALC[=A]'REOUS, partly chalky; SEM'I-CAL'CINED, half-calcined; SEMICARTILAG'INOUS, gristly; SEMICENTENN'IAL, occurring at the completion of fifty years.--_n._ a celebration at the end of fifty years.--_adj._ SEMICH[=O]'RIC.--_ns._ SEMICH[=O]'RUS, a small number of selected singers; SEM'ICIRCLE, half a circle: the figure bounded by the diameter of a circle and half the circumference.--_adjs._ SEM'ICIRCLED; SEMICIR'CULAR.--_adv._ SEMICIR'CULARLY.--_ns._ SEMICIRCUM'FERENCE, half of the circumference of a circle; SEM'ICIRQUE, a semicircular hollow; SEMICL[=O]'SURE, half-closure; SEM'ICOLON, the point (;) marking a division greater than the comma; SEMIC[=O]'LON-BUTT'ERFLY, a butterfly with a silver mark on the under side; SEM'I-COL'UMN, a half-column.--_adjs._ SEM'I-COLUM'NAR, flat on one side and rounded on the other; SEM'I-COMPLETE' (_entom._), incomplete; SEM'I-CON'FLUENT (_path._), half-confluent; SEM'I-CON'JUGATE, conjugate and halved; SEM'I-CON'SCIOUS, half or imperfectly conscious; SEM'I-CONVER'GENT, convergent as a series, while the series of moduli is not convergent.--_n._ SEM'ICOPE, an outer garment worn by some of the monastic clergy in the Middle Ages.--_adjs._ SEM'ICOR'NEOUS, partly horny; SEMICOR'ONATE.--_n._ SEM'ICOR'ONET (_entom._), a line of spines half surrounding a part.--_adjs._ SEM'I-COSTIF'EROUS, half-bearing a rib; SEMICRIT'ICAL, related to a differential equation and its criticoids.--_n._ SEM'ICROME (_mus._), a sixteenth note.--_adjs._ SEM'ICRUST[=A]'CEOUS, half-hard; SEMICRYS'TALLINE, imperfectly crystallised.--_n._ SEMIC[=U]'BIUM, a half-bath.--_adjs._ SEMICYLIN'DRICAL, resembling a cylinder divided longitudinally; SEMIDEF'INITE, half-definite: SEM'I-DEPEND'ENT, half-dependent; SEM'IDES'ERT, half-desert; SEM'IDETACHED', partly separated: noting one of two houses joined by a party-wall, but detached from other buildings.--_ns._ SEM'I-DIAM'ETER, half the diameter of a circle: a radius; SEM'I-DIAP[=A]'SON, a diminished octave; SEM'I-DIAPHAN[=E]'ITY, half-transparency.--_adj._ SEMI'-DIAPH'ANOUS, half-transparent.--_n._ SEMIDIUR'NA, a group of lepidopterous insects including the hawk-moth.--_adj._ SEMIDIUR'NAL, accomplished in half a day: (_entom._) flying in twilight.--_n._ SEM'I-DOME', half a dome, esp. as formed by a vertical section.--_adj._ SEM'IDOUB'LE, having the outermost stamens converted into petals.--_n._ a festival on which half the antiphon is repeated before and the whole antiphon after the psalm.--_n._ SEM'I-EF'FIGY, a representation of a figure seen at half-length only.--_adj._ SEM'I-ELLIP'TICAL, having the form of an ellipse which is cut transversely.--_ns._ SEM'I-F[=A]'BLE, a mixture of truth and fable; SEM'I-FAIENCE', pottery having a transparent glaze instead of the opaque enamel of true faience; SEM'I-FIG'URE, a partial human figure in ornamental design.--_v.t._ SEM'I-FLEX, to half-bend.--_n._ SEM'I-FLEX'ION.--_adj._ SEM'I-FLOS'CULAR.--_n._ SEM'I-FLOS'CULE, a floret with a strap-shaped corolla.--_adjs._ SEM'I-FLOS'CUL[=O]SE, SEM'I-FLOS'CULOUS, having the corolla split, flattened out, and turned to one side, as in the ligular flowers of composites; SEMIFLU'ID, half or imperfectly fluid; SEM'I-FORMED, half-formed.--_n._ SEM'I-FR[=A]'TER, a secular benefactor of a religious house, having a share in its intercessory prayers and masses.--_adjs._ SEM'I-FUSED', half-melted; SEMIGL[=O]'B[=O]SE, SEMIGLOB'ULAR, having the shape of half a sphere.--_adv._ SEMIGLOB'ULARLY.--_ns._ SEM'I-GOD, a demi-god; SEM'I-INDEPEND'ENCE.--_adjs._ SEM'I-INDEPEND'ENT, not fully independent; SEM'I-IN'FINITE, limited at one end and extending to infinity; SEM'I-LIG'NEOUS, partially woody: (_bot._) having a stem woody at the base and herbaceous at the top; SEMI-LIQ'UID, half-liquid.--_n._ SEMI-LIQUID'ITY.--_adjs._ SEM'I-LOG'ICAL, half-logical, partly logical; SEM'I-L[=U]'CENT, half-transparent; SEMI-L[=U]'NAR, half-moon shaped, as the semi-lunar bone of the wrist; SEM'I-L[=U]'NATE, having the form of a half-moon; SEM'I-MALIG'NANT, not very malignant, said of tumours; SEM'I-MAT[=U]RE', half-ripe.--_n._ SEMIMEMBRAN[=O]'SUS, a long muscle of the back of the thigh.--_adjs._ SEMIMEM'BRANOUS (_anat._), partly membranous; SEM'I-MEN'STRUAL, half-monthly, esp. of an inequality of the tide.--_n._ SEM'I-MET'AL, in old chemistry, a metal that is not malleable, as zinc.--_adjs._ SEM'I-METAL'LIC; SEM'I-MONTH'LY, occurring twice a month.--_n._ SEMI-M[=U]TE', one who, having lost the faculty of hearing, has also lost the faculty of speech--also _adj._--_adj._ SEM'I-N[=U]DE', half-naked.--_n._ SEM'INYMPH, the pupa of an insect which undergoes only semi-metamorphosis.--_adjs._ SEM'I-OBSCURE', noting the wings of insects when deeply tinged with brownish-gray, but semi-transparent; SEM'I-OFFIC'IAL, partly official.--_adv._ SEM'I-OFFIC'IALLY.--_n._ SEM'I-[=O]'PAL, a variety of opal not possessing opalescence.--_adj._ SEM'I-OPAQUE', partly opaque.--_n._ SEM'I-OP'TERA, a genus of birds--the standard-wings.--_adj._ SEM'I-ORBIC'ULAR, having the shape of half a sphere.--_n._ SEM'I-OR'DINATE, half a chord bisected by the transverse diameter of a conic.--_adjs._ SEM'I-OSS'EOUS, partly bony; SEMI[=O]'VAL, having the form of an oval; SEMIOVIP'AROUS, imperfectly viviparous; SEMIPAL'MATE, half-webbed, as the toes of a bird.--_ns._ SEMIPALM[=A]'TION; SEMIPARAB'OLA, one branch of a parabola being terminated at the principal vortex of the curve; SEM'IPED, in prose, a half-foot.--_adjs._ SEM'IPEDAL; SEM'I-PEL[=A]'GIAN, relating to the theology of the Semi-Pelagians (John Cassianus, &c.), who tried to find a middle course between the Augustinian doctrine of predestination and the Pelagian doctrine of the free-will of man.--_n._ SEM'I-PEL[=A]'GIANISM.--_adjs._ SEM'I-PELL[=U]'CID, imperfectly transparent; SEM'IPEN'NIFORM, half-penniform; SEM'I-PER'FECT, nearly perfect; SEM'I-PIS'CINE, half-fish; SEM'I-PLANT'IGRADE, incompletely plantigrade: partly digitigrade; SEM'I-PLAS'TIC, imperfectly plastic.--_ns._ SEMIPLOT[=I]'NA, a group or sub-family of cyprinoid fishes; SEM'IPLUME, a feather of partly downy structure; [Illustration] SEMIQUAD'RATE, an aspect of two planets when distant from each other 45 degrees; SEM'IQU[=A]VER, a musical note, half the length of a quaver: something of short duration.--_adjs._ SEM'I-RECON'DITE, half-hidden; SEM'I-R[=E]'FLEX, involuntarily performed, but not entirely independent of the will; SEM'I-REG'ULAR, pertaining to a quadrilateral having four equal sides, but only pairs of equal angles; SEM'I-RETRAC'TILE, retractile to some extent.--_n._ SEM'I-RING, a bronchial half-ring.--_adjs._ SEM'I-SAG'ITTATE (_entom._), shaped like the barbed end of a fish-hook; SEM'I-SAV'AGE, semi-barbarian; SEM'I-SAX'ON, early Middle English (c. 1150-1250); SEM'I-SEP'TATE, half-partitioned.--_ns._ SEM'I-SEX'TILE, the position of planets when they are distant from each other the twelfth part of a circle, or 30°; SEM'I-SMILE, a faint smile.--_adjs._ SEM'I-SOLID, partially solid; SEMISPHER'ICAL, having the figure of a half-sphere.--_ns._ SEM'I-SPIN[=A]'LIS, a deep muscular layer of the back; SEM'I-SQUARE, an aspect of two planets when 45 degrees from each other; SEM'I-STEEL, puddled steel.--_adjs._ SEM'I-SUPERNAT'URAL, half-divine and half-human; SEM'I-S[=U]'PINATED, placed between supination and pronation.--_ns._ SEM'I-TAN'GENT, the tangent of half an arc; SEM'I-TENDIN[=O]'SUS, a fusiform muscle on the back of the thigh.--_adjs._ SEMITEN'DINOUS, tendinous for half its length; SEMIT[=E]R[=E]'TE, half-round; SEMITER'TIAN, partly tertian and partly quotidian.--_n._ SEM'ITONE, half a tone: one of the lesser intervals of the musical scale, as from B to C.--_adj._ SEMITON'IC.--_n._ SEM'I-TRANSP[=A]'RENCY.--_adjs._ SEM'I-TRANSP[=A]RENT, half or imperfectly transparent; SEM'I-TROP'ICAL, subtropical; SEM'I-T[=U]'BULAR, like the half of a tube divided longitudinally; SEM'I-TYCHON'IC, approximating to Tycho Brahe's astronomical system; SEM'I-UN'CIAL, intermediate between uncial and minuscule.--_n._ a method of writing Latin and Greek in use in the sixth and seventh centuries.--_adjs._ SEMIVIT'REOUS, partially vitreous; SEMIVIT'RIFIED, half-vitrified; SEM'IVIVE (_obs._) half-alive; SEM'I-V[=O]'CAL, pertaining to a semivowel: imperfectly sounding.--_n._ SEMIVOW'EL, a half-vowel, a letter possessing the character of both a vowel and a consonant, usually only _w_ and _y_, but sometimes including also the liquids _l_ and _r_ and the nasals _m_ and _n_.--_adj._ SEM'I-WEEK'LY, issued twice a week.--SEMICYLINDRICAL LEAF, a leaf elongated, flat on one side, round on the other. SEMINAL, sem'in-al, _adj._ pertaining to seed: radical: rudimentary.--_n._ (_obs._) a seed.--_n._ SEMINAL'ITY, the germinating principle.--_v.t._ SEM'IN[=A]TE, to sow: to propagate: to disseminate.--_n._ SEMIN[=A]'TION, act of sowing: natural dispersion of seed: propagation.--_adjs._ SEMINIF'EROUS, seed-bearing: producing seed; SEMINIF'IC, producing seed.--_ns._ SEMINIFIC[=A]'TION; SEM'INIST, one who holds that the admixture of the male and female seed originates the new individual. [L. _semen_, _seminis_, seed--_ser[)e]re_, to sow.] SEMINARY, sem'in-ar-i, _n._ the original place whence anything is derived, a nursery: a place of education, esp. in branches of knowledge to be afterwards applied in practice, as theology, &c.: a group of advanced students working in some specific subject of study under a teacher--also and more commonly SEMINÄR' (the German name): a seminary priest.--_n._ SEM'INARIST, a student at a seminary: a R.C. priest educated in a foreign seminary. SEMINOLE; sem'i-n[=o]l, _n._ one of a tribe of American Indians, originally a vagrant branch of the Creeks, now mostly confined to the Indian Territory. SEMIOGRAPHY, SEMIOLOGY, SEMIOTICS. See SEMEIOGRAPHY, SEMEIOLOGY, SEMEIOTICS. SEMIOTELLUS, s[=e]-mi-[=o]-tel'us, _n._ a widely distributed genus of hymenopterous parasites. SEMIS, s[=e]'mis, _n._ a bronze coin of the ancient Roman republic, half the value of an as. SEMISPATA, sem-i-sp[=a]'ta, _n._ a Frankish dagger. [L. _semi-_, half, _spatha_, a sword.] SEMITA, sem'i-ta, _n._ a fasciole of the spatangoid sea-urchins.--_adj._ SEM'ITAL. [L., a path.] SEMITAUR, sem'i-tawr, _n._ a fabulous animal, half-bull, half-man. [L. _semi-_, half, _taurus_, a bull.] SEMITIC, sem-it'ik, _adj._ pertaining to the _Semites_, or supposed descendants of Shem, or their language, customs, &c.--also SHEMIT'IC.--_ns._ SEM'ITE; SEMITIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ SEM'ITISE, to render Semitic in language or religion.--_ns._ SEM'ITISM, a Semitic idiom; SEM'ITIST, a Hebrew scholar.--SEMITIC LANGUAGES, Assyrian, Aramean, Hebrew, Phoenician, together with Arabic and Ethiopic. [Applied by J. G. Eichhorn in 1817 to the closely allied peoples represented in Gen. x. as descended from _Shem_.] SEMMIT, sem'it, _n._ (_Scot._) an undershirt. [_Samite_.] SEMNOPITHECINÆ, sem-n[=o]-pith-[=e]-s[=i]'n[=e], _n._ a sub-family of catarrhine monkeys.--_adjs._ SEMNOPITH'ECINE, SEMNOPITH'ECOID.--_n._ SEMNOPITH[=E]'CUS, the typical genus of the foregoing sub-family, the sacred monkeys of Asia. [Gr. _semnos_, honoured, _pith[=e]kos_, an ape.] SEMOLINA, sem-[=o]-l[=e]'na, _n._ the particles of fine, hard wheat which do not pass into flour in milling: an article of food consisting of granules of the floury part of wheat.--Also SEM'[=O]LA, SEM[=O]LI'N[=O]. [It. _semola_--L. _simila_, the finest wheat flour.] SEMOSTOMÆ, s[=e]-mos't[=o]-m[=e], _n.pl._ a sub-order of _Discomedusæ_, containing jelly-fishes.--_adj._ S[=E]MOS'TOMOUS, having long oral processes. [Gr. _s[=e]ma_, a mark, _stoma_, mouth.] SEMOTED, s[=e]-m[=o]'ted, _adj._ (_obs._) separated: remote. SEMOTILUS, s[=e]-mot'i-lus, _n._ an American genus of leuciscine fishes, including the chub and dace. [Gr. _s[=e]ma_, a mark, _ptilon_, a feather.] SEMPER IDEM, sem'p[.e]r [=i]'dem, always the same. [L.] SEMPERVIRENT, sem-p[.e]r-v[=i]'rent, _adj._ evergreen. [L. _semper_, always, _virens_--_vir[=e]re_, to be green.] SEMPER VIVUM, sem'p[.e]r v[=i]'vum, _n._ a genus of polypetalous plants, including the house-leek. [L.] SEMPITERNAL, sem-pi-t[.e]r'nal, _adj._ everlasting: endless--also SEMP'ITERN.--_v.t._ SEMPITER'NISE, to perpetuate.--_n._ SEMPITER'NITY.--_adj._ SEMPITER'NOUS.--_n._ SEMPITER'NUM, a durable twilled woollen material. [L. _sempiternus_--_semper_, ever, _æternus_, eternal.] SEMPLE, sem'pl, _adj._ a Scotch form of simple, esp. meaning of low birth, the opposite of _Gentle_. SEMPLICE, sem'pl[=e]-che, _adj._ (_mus._) simple, without embellishments. [It.] SEMPRE, sem'pre, _adv._ (_mus._) in the same style throughout. [It.,--L. _semper_, always.] SEMPSTER, sem'st[.e]r, SEMPSTRESS, sem'stres, _n._ a woman who sews. [_Seamstress_.] SEMUNCIA, s[=e]-mun'shi-a, _n._ a Roman coin of four drachmas weight, the twenty-fourth part of the Roman pound.--_adj._ SEMUN'CIAL. SEN., s[=e]n, an abbreviation of _Senior_. SEN, sen, _n._ a Japanese copper coin the hundredth part of a yen or dollar. SEÑAL, se-nyal', _n._ (_Amer._) a landmark. [Sp.] SENARY, sen'ar-i, _adj._ containing six: of or belonging to six.--_n._ SEN[=A]'RIUS, in Latin prosody, a verse of six feet. [L. _senarius_--_seni_, six each--_sex_, six.] SENATE, sen'[=a]t, _n._ a legislative or deliberative body, esp. the upper house of a national legislature, as of France, the United States, &c.: a body of venerable or distinguished persons: the governing body of the University of Cambridge.--_ns._ SEN'ATE-HOUSE, a house in which a senate meets; SEN'ATOR, a member of a senate: in Scotland, the lords of session are called SENATORS OF THE COLLEGE OF JUSTICE.--_adj._ SENAT[=O]'RIAL, pertaining to, or becoming, a senate or a senator.--_adv._ SENAT[=O]'RIALLY, with senatorial dignity.--_ns._ SEN'ATORSHIP; SEN[=A]'TUS, a governing body in certain universities.--SEN[=A]TUS ACADEMICUS, the governing body of a Scotch university, consisting of the principal and professors; SEN[=A]TUS CONSULT, a decree of the senate of ancient Rome. [L. _senatus_--_senex_, _senis_, an old man.] SENCE, sens, _n._ an obsolete form of sense. SENCH, sensh, _v.t._ to cause to sink. SENCION, sen'shi-on, N. (_obs._) groundsel. [L. _senecio_.] SEND, send, _v.t._ to cause to go: to cause to be conveyed: to despatch: to forward: to compel: to throw: to hurl: to authorise: to grant: to drive: to dismiss: to commission: to diffuse: to bestow.--_v.i._ to despatch a message or messenger: (_naut._) to pitch into the trough of the sea:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ sent.--_n._ (_Scot._) a messenger, esp. one sent for the bride: a present: the impulse of a wave on a ship.--_ns._ SEN'DER, one who sends: (_teleg._) the instrument by which a message is transmitted; SEN'DING, despatching: pitching bodily into the trough of the sea; SEND'-OFF, a start as on a journey.--SEND FOR, to require by message to come or be brought; SEND FORTH, or OUT, to give, put, or bring forth; SEND TO COVENTRY, to cut: to exclude from society. [A.S. _sendan_; Ice. _senda_, Goth. _sandjan_, Ger. _senden_.] SENDAL, sen'dal, _n._ a thin silk or linen. [O. Fr.,--Low L. _cendalum_--L. _sindon_--Gr. _sind[=o]n_.] SENECA-OIL, sen'[=e]-kä-oil, _n._ crude petroleum.--SENECA'S MICROSCOPE, a glass globe filled with water. SENECIO, s[=e]-n[=e]'si-o, _n._ a genus of composite plants--ragwort, &c.--_adj._ SEN[=E]'CIOID. SENEGA, sen'[=e]-ga, _n._ the seneca snakeroot, the dried root of _Polygala Senega_, good for snake-bites. SENEGAL, sen'[=e]-gal, _n._ a small African blood-finch, the fire-bird. SENESCENCE, s[=e]-nes'ens, _n._ the state of growing old or decaying: decay by time.--_n._ SENEC'TITUDE.--_adj._ SENES'CENT, growing old: decaying with the lapse of time. [L. _senescens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _senesc[)e]re_, to grow old--_senex_, old.] SENESCHAL, sen'e-shal, _n._ a steward: a major-domo.--_n._ SEN'ESCHALSHIP. [O. Fr., (Fr. _sénéchal_)--_sin-s_, old, _skalks_, a servant.] SENEX, s[=e]'neks, _n._ a South American hawk: a Brazilian swift. SENG-GUNG, seng'-gung, _n._ the teledu or Javan badger. SENGREEN, sen'gr[=e]n, _n._ the house-leek: (_her._) a figure resembling it. [A.S. _singrene_; Ger. _singrün_.] SENHOR, se-ny[=o]r', _n._ the Portuguese form corresponding to the Spanish _señor_ and Italian _signor_. SENILE, s[=e]'nil, _adj._ pertaining to old age or attendant on it: aged.--_n._ SENIL'ITY, old age: the imbecility of old age. [L. _senilis_--_senex_, _senis_, old.] SENIOR, s[=e]n'yor, _adj._ elder: older in office.--_n._ one older than another, the elder of two persons in one family bearing the same name: one older in office: an aged person: one of the older fellows of a college, a student in the fourth year of the curriculum.--_v.i._ S[=E]'NIORISE, to lord it over.--_n._ S[=E]NIOR'ITY, priority of birth, or of service: a body of seniors--also S[=E]'NIORY (_Shak._). [L., comp. of _senex_.] SENNA, sen'a, _n._ the purgative dried leaflets of several species of cassia. [Fr.,--Ar. _sena_.] SENNET, sen'et, _n._ (_Shak._) a particular set of notes on the trumpet or cornet. SENNIGHT, sen'n[=i]t, _n._ a week. [_Seven night_.] SENNIT, sen'it, _n._ a sort of flat, braided cordage.--Also SINN'ET. SENOCULAR, s[=e]-nok'[=u]-lar, _adj._ having six eyes. SENONIAN, s[=e]-n[=o]'ni-an, _n._ (_geol._) a division of the upper Cretaceous in France and Belgium. SEÑOR, se-ny[=o]r', _n._ a gentleman: in address, sir: as a title, Mr:--_fem._ SEÑORA (se-ny[=o]'ra), a lady: in address, madam: as a title, Mrs.--_n._ SEÑORITA (sen-y[=o]-r[=e]'ta), a young lady: in address, miss: as a title, Miss. [Sp.] SENS, sens, _adv._ (_Spens._) since. SENSATION, sen-s[=a]'shun, _n._ perception by the senses: the change in consciousness which results from the transmission of nervous impulses to the brain, feeling excited by external objects, by the state of the body, or by immaterial objects: a state of excited feeling.--_adjs._ SEN'S[=A]TE, -D, perceived by the senses; SENS[=A]'TIONAL, pertaining to sensation: having sensation: intended as a literary work to excite violent emotions: adhering to a philosophical sensationalism.--_ns._ SENS[=A]'TIONALISM, the doctrine that our ideas originate solely in sensation, and that there are no innate ideas: sensualism: sensational writing; SENS[=A]'TIONALIST, a believer in sensationalism: a sensational writer.--_adj._ SENS[=A]TIONALIST'IC.--_adv._ SENS[=A]'TIONALLY.--_adjs._ SEN'SATIVE; SENSAT[=O]'RIAL, pertaining to sensation.--SENSATION NOVELS, novels that deal in violent effects, strained emotion, and usually improbable situations. SENSE, sens, _n._ a faculty by which objects are perceived: perception: discernment: understanding: power or soundness of judgment: reason: opinion: conviction: import: immediate consciousness.--_ns._ SENSE'-BOD'Y, a sense-organ in acalephs supposed to have a visual or an auditory function; SENSE'-CAP'SULE, a receptive chamber for sensory perception, connected with the ear, eye, and nose; SENSE'-CEN'TRE, a centre of sensation.--_adj._ SENSED, chosen as to sense or meaning.--_ns._ SENSE'-EL'EMENT, an external sensation, as an element of perception; SENSE'-FIL'AMENT, a filament having the function of an organ of sense.--_adjs._ SENSE'FUL (_Spens._), full of sense or meaning, reasonable, judicious, perceptive; SENSE'LESS, without sense: incapable of feeling: wanting sympathy: foolish: unreasonable.--_adv._ SENSE'LESSLY.--_ns._ SENSE'LESSNESS; SENSE'-OR'GAN, any organ of sense, as the eye, ear, or nose; SENSE'-PERCEP'TION, perception by means of the senses; SENSE'-RHYTHM, Hebrew parallelism; SENSE'-SKEL'ETON, the framework of a sense-organ; SENSIBIL'ITY, state or quality of being sensible: actual feeling: capacity of feeling: susceptibility: acuteness of feeling: delicacy: mental receptivity.--_adj._ SEN'SIBLE, capable of being perceived by the senses or by the mind: capable of being affected: easily affected: delicate: intelligent, marked by sense, judicious: cognisant: aware: appreciable: sensitive: amenable to.--_n._ SEN'SIBLENESS.--_adv._ SEN'SIBLY.--_adjs_ SENSIF[=A]'CIENT, producing sensation; SENSIF'EROUS, SENSIF'IC, SENSIFIC[=A]'TORY; SENSIG'ENOUS, giving rise to sensation; SEN'SILE, capable of affecting the senses.--_ns_ SEN'SION, the becoming aware of being affected from without in sensation; SEN'SISM, sensualism in philosophy; SEN'SIST, a sensationalist.--_n._ SENSITIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ SEN'SITISE, to render sensitive, to render capable of being acted on by actinic rays of light.--_n._ SEN'SITISER.--_adj._ SEN'SITIVE, having sense or feeling: susceptible to sensations: easily affected: pertaining to, or depending on, sensation.--_adv._ SEN'SITIVELY.--_ns_ SEN'SITIVENESS, SEN'SITIVITY, the state of being sensitive: keen sensibility: the state of being delicately adjusted, as a balance: (_chem._) the state of being readily affected by the action of appropriate agents; SENSITOM'ETER, an apparatus for testing the degrees of sensitiveness of photographic films.--_adjs_ SENS[=O]'RIAL, pertaining to the sensorium, sensory; SENSORIDIGEST'IVE, partaking of digestive functions and those of touch, as the tongue of a vertebrate animal.--_ns_ SENS[=O]'RIUM, SEN'SORY, the organ which receives the impressions made on the senses: the nervous centre to which impressions must be conveyed before they are received: the whole sensory apparatus of the body, the nervous system, &c.--_adj._ SEN'SUAL, pertaining to, affecting, or derived from the senses, as distinct from the mind: not intellectual or spiritual: given to the pleasures of sense: voluptuous: lewd: carnal: worldly.--_n._ SENSUALIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ SEN'SUALISE, to make sensual: to debase by carnal gratification.--_ns_ SEN'SUALISM, sensual indulgence: the doctrine that all our knowledge is derived originally from sensation: the regarding of the gratification of the senses as the highest end; SEN'SUALIST, one given to sensualism or sensual indulgence: a debauchee: a believer in the doctrine of sensualism.--_adj._ SENSUALIST'IC, sensual: teaching the doctrines of sensualism.--_n._ SENSUAL'ITY, indulgence in sensual pleasures: lewdness.--_adv._ SEN'SUALLY, in a sensual manner.--_ns_ SEN'SUALNESS; SEN'SUISM; SEN'SUIST.--_adj._ SEN'SUOUS, pertaining to sense: connected with sensible objects: easily affected by the medium of the senses.--_adv._ SEN'SUOUSLY.--_n._ SEN'SUOUSNESS.--SENSITIVE FLAMES, flames easily affected by sounds; SENSITIVE PLANT, one of certain species of Mimosa--from the peculiar phenomena of irritability which their leaves exhibit when touched or shaken; SENSUOUS COGNITION, cognition through the senses.--A SENSITIVE PERSON, one sensitive to mesmeric influence; THE SENSES, or FIVE SENSES, sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. [Fr.,--L. _sensus_--_sent[=i]re_, to feel.] SENT, sent, _n._ (_Spens._) scent, perception. SENT, sent, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _send_. SENTENCE, sen'tens, _n._ opinion: a judgment pronounced on a criminal by a court or judge: a maxim: (_gram._) a number of words containing a complete thought: sense: meaning: matter.--_v.t._ to pronounce judgment on: to condemn.--_n._ SEN'TENCER, one who sentences.--_adj._ SENTEN'TIAL, pertaining to a sentence: comprising sentences.--_adv._ SENTEN'TIALLY.--_adj._ SENTEN'TIOUS, abounding with sentences or maxims: short and pithy in expression: bombastic, or affected in speech.--_adv._ SENTEN'TIOUSLY.--_n._ SENTEN'TIOUSNESS, brevity with strength.--MASTER OF THE SENTENCES, the great 12th-century schoolman, Peter Lombard (died 1160), from his work _Sententiarum Libri IV._, an arranged collection of sentences from Augustine, &c. [Fr.,--L. _sententia_--_sent[=i]re_, to feel.] SENTIENT, sen'shi-ent, _adj._ discerning by the senses: having the faculty of perception and sensation: (_phys._) noting those parts which on stimulation give rise to sensation.--_n._ the mind as capable of feeling.--_ns_ SEN'TIENCE, SEN'TIENCY.--_adv._ SEN'TIENTLY, in a sentient or perceptive manner. SENTIMENT, sen'ti-ment, _n._ a thought occasioned by feeling: opinion: judgment: sensibility: feeling: a thought expressed in words: a maxim: a toast: emotion: an exhibition of feeling, as in literature or art: (_pl., phren._) the second division of the moral faculties.--_adj._ SENTIMEN'TAL, having or abounding in sentiments or reflections: having an excess of sentiment or feeling: affectedly tender.--_v.t._ SENTIMEN'TALISE, to talk sentiment.--_ns_ SENTIMEN'TALISM, SENTIMENTAL'ITY, quality of being sentimental: affectation of fine feeling; SENTIMEN'TALIST, one who affects sentiment or fine feeling: one guided by mere sentiment: one who regards sentiment as more important than reason.--_adv._ SENTIMEN'TALLY. [Fr.,--Late L.,--L. _sent[=i]re_, to feel.] SENTINE, sen't[=e]n, _n._ (_obs._) a sink. [L. _sentina_.] SENTINEL, sen'ti-nel, _n._ a soldier or soldier-marine at a point with the duty of watching for the approach of an enemy, or guarding the gun-park, camp, magazine, or other locality: a sentry.--_adj._ acting as a sentinel.--_v.t._ to watch over, as a sentinel.--_adj._ SEN'TINELLED, furnished with a sentinel.--SENTINEL CRAB, a crab of the Indian Ocean with long eye-stalks. [Fr. _sentinelle_--It. _sentinella_, a watch, prob. the L. _sentinator_, one who pumps bilge-water out of a ship--_sentina_, the hold of a ship. Others explain Fr. _sentinelle_ as a dim. of _sentier_, a path--Low L. _semitarius_--L. _semita_, a footpath.] SENTISECTION, sen-ti-sek'shun, _n._ painful vivisection--opp. to _Callisection_. SENTRY, sen'tri, _n._ a sentinel: a soldier on guard to observe the approach of danger: a watch-tower.--_ns_ SEN'TRY-BOX, a box to shelter a sentry; SEN'TRY-GO, any active military duty. [Prob. a corr. of _sentinel_--Low L. _semitarius_--L. _semita_, a path.] SENVY, sen'vi, _n._ (_obs._) mustard-seed. [O. Fr. _seneve_--L. _sinapi_--Gr. _sinapi_, mustard.] SENZA, sen'tsa, _prep._ (_mus._) without. [It.] SEP, sep, an abbreviation for _sepal_. [Illustration] SEPAL, sep'al, or s[=e]'pal, _n._ a leaf or division of the calyx of a flower.--_adjs._ SEP'ALINE, SEP'ALOID, SEP'ALOUS.--_n._ SEPAL'ODY, change of petals into sepals. [Fr. _sépale_--L. _separ_, separate.] SEPARATE, sep'a-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to divide: to part: to withdraw: to set apart for a certain purpose: to sever.--_v.i._ to part: to withdraw from each other: to become disunited.--_adj._ separated: divided: apart from another: distinct.--_n._ SEPARABIL'ITY.--_adj._ SEP'ARABLE, that may be separated or disjointed.--_n._ SEP'ARABLENESS.--_advs._ SEP'ARABLY; SEP'ARATELY.--_ns_ SEP'ARATENESS; SEP'ARATING-DISC, an emery-wheel for cutting a space between teeth; SEPAR[=A]'TION, act of separating or disjoining: state of being separate: disunion: chemical analysis: divorce without a formal dissolution of the marriage-tie; SEPAR[=A]'TIONIST; SEP'ARATISM, act of separating or withdrawing, esp. from an established church; SEP'ARATIST, one who separates or withdraws, esp. from an established church, a dissenter: a name applied by the Unionists to those Liberals in favour of granting Home Rule to Ireland.--_adj._ SEP'AR[=A]TIVE, tending to separate.--_ns._ SEP'AR[=A]TOR, one who, or that which, separates: a divider; SEP'AR[=A]TORY, a chemical vessel for separating liquids of different specific gravities; SEP'AR[=A]TRIX, the line separating light from shade on any partly illuminated surface; SEPAR[=A]'TUM, a separate copy of a paper which has been published in the proceedings of a scientific society.--SEPARATE ESTATE, property of a married woman over which her husband has no right of control; SEPARATE MAINTENANCE, a provision made by a husband for the sustenance of his wife where they decide to live apart. [L. _separ[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_se-_, aside, _par[=a]re_, to put.] SEPAWN=_Supawn_ (q.v.). SEPHARDIM, se-fär'd[=e]m, _n.pl._ the Spanish-Portuguese Jews, descended from those expelled from Spain in 1492--as distinguished from _Ashkenazim_, or German-Polish Jews.--_adj._ SEPHAR'DIC. SEPHEN, sef'en, _n._ a sting-ray of the Indian Ocean, valued for shagreen. SEPHIROTH, sef'i-roth, _n._ in the cabbala, the first ten numerals identified with Scripture names of God. SEPIA, s[=e]'pi-a, _n._ a fine, brown pigment used as a water-colour--from the ink-bag of a few species of cuttle-fish: Indian or China ink: a genus of cuttle-fishes.--_n.pl._ S[=E]PI[=A]'CEA, a group of cephalopods, same as S[=E]PIIDÆ.--_n._ S[=E]PIAD[=A]'RIUM, a genus of cuttles.--_adjs._ S[=E]PI[=A]'RIAN, S[=E]'PI[=A]RY, S[=E]PID[=A]'CEOUS, S[=E]'PIOID; S[=E]'PIC, done in sepia, as a drawing.--_ns._ S[=E]'PIOST, SEPIOSTAIRE', S[=E]'PIUM, cuttle-bone. [L.,--Gr. _s[=e]pia_, the cuttle-fish.] SEPIMENT, sep'i-ment, _n._ a hedge, a fence. [L. _sæpimentum_, a hedge.] SEPOSE, s[=e]-p[=o]z', _v.t._ (_obs._) to set apart.--_v.i._ to go apart.--_n._ S[=E]POSI'TION. SEPOY, s[=e]'poi, _n._ a native soldier, whether Hindu or Mohammedan, in the British army in India. [Hind. _sip[=a]h[=i]_, a soldier--Pers. _sip[=a]h[=i]_, a horseman.] SEPPUKU, sep-puk'[=oo], _n._ the hara-kiri. [Jap.] SEPS, seps, _n._ a genus of scincoid lizards. [Gr.] SEPSIS, sep'sis, _n._ putridity, rot: a genus of dipterous insects. [Gr. _s[=e]psis_, putrefaction.] SEPT, sept, _n._ in Ireland, a subdivision of a tribe: an enclosure, a railing.--_adj._ SEP'TAL, belonging to a sept: partitional. [Probably a corr. of _sect_.] SEPT.=_Septuagint_; _September_. SEPTAN, sep'tan, _adj._ recurring every seventh day. SEPTANGLE, sep'tang-gl, _n._ a figure with seven angles and seven sides.--_adj._ SEPTANG'[=U]LAR, having seven angles. [L. _septem_, seven, _angulus_, angle.] SEPTARIA, sep-t[=a]'ri-a, _n._ a genus of shipworms--_Teredo_. SEPTARIUM, sep-t[=a]'ri-um, _n._ an ovate flattened nodule of argillaceous limestone or ironstone--turtle-stone:--_pl._ SEPT[=A]'RIA.--_adj._ SEPT[=A]'RIAN. SEPTATE, -D, sep't[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ divided into compartments. SEPTEMBER, sep-tem'b[.e]r, _n._ the ninth month of the year.--_adj._ SEPTEM'BRAL.--_n._ SEPTEM'BRIST, one of the perpetrators of the atrocious massacres in the prisons of Paris, Sept. 2-7, 1792.--SEPTEMBER THORN, a British geometrid moth. [L. _septem_, seven.] SEPTEMPARTITE, sep-tem-pär't[=i]t, _adj._ divided into seven parts. SEPTEMVIR, sep-tem'vir, _n._ one of a board of seven men associated for certain duties.--_n._ SEPTEM'VIRATE, the office of septemvir. SEPTENARIUS, sep-te-n[=a]'ri-us, _n._ in Latin prosody, a verse consisting of seven feet. SEPTENARY, sep'te-n[=a]-ri, _adj._ consisting of seven: lasting seven years: occurring once in seven years.--_n.pl._ SEP'TENARIES, the number seven, the heptad. [L. _septenarius_--_septem_, seven.] SEPTENATE, sep'te-n[=a]t, _adj._ (_bot._) having seven parts. SEPTENNIAL, sep-ten'i-al, _adj._ lasting seven years: happening every seven years.--_n._ SEPTENN'ATE, a period of seven years.--_adv._ SEPTENN'IALLY.--_n._ SEPTENN'IUM.--SEPTENNIAL ACT, a statute of 1716 fixing the existence of a parliament at seven years. [L. _septennis_--_septem_, seven, _annus_, a year.] SEPTENTRION, sep-ten'tri-on, _n._ (_Shak._) the north.--_adjs._ SEPTEN'TRION, -AL, northern.--_adv._ SEPTEN'TRIONALLY.--_n.pl._ SEPTENTRI[=O]'NES, the constellation of the Great Bear, or the seven stars near the north pole-star, called Charles's Wain. SEPTET, SEPTETTE, sep-tet', _n._ a work for seven voices or instruments: a company of seven musicians. SEPT-FOIL, sept'-foil, _n._ a plant, the roots of which are used in medicine, tanning, &c.: a figure of seven equal segments of a circle used in the R.C. Church as a symbol of her seven sacraments, the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit, &c. [Fr. _sept_--L. _septem_, seven, _foil_--L. _folium_, a leaf.] SEPTICEMIA, sep-ti-s[=e]'mi-a, _n._ sepsis, blood-poisoning--also SEPTICÆ'MIA.--_n._ SEP'TIC, a substance that promotes the putrefaction of bodies.--_adjs._ SEP'TIC, -AL, promoting putrefaction.--_adv._ SEP'TICALLY.--_adj._ SEPTIC[=E]'MIC.--_n._ SEPTIC'ITY, tendency to promote putrefaction.--_adj._ SEPTIF'EROUS, conveying putrid poison. [Formed from Gr. _s[=e]ptikos_, putrefying, _haima_, blood.] SEPTICIDAL, sep-ti-s[=i]'dal, _adj._ dividing the partitions, as when fruit splits asunder--also SEP'TICIDE.--_adv._ SEP'TICIDALLY. [L. _sæptum_, a fence, _cæd[)e]re_, to cut.] SEPTIFARIOUS, sep-ti-f[=a]'ri-us, _adj._ turned seven different ways. SEPTIFEROUS, sep-tif'e-rus, _adj._ having a septum or septa, septate. SEPTIFLUOUS, sep-tif'l[=oo]-us, _adj._ flowing in seven streams. SEPTIFOLIOUS, sep-ti-f[=o]'li-us, _adj._ seven-leaved. SEPTIFORM, sep'ti-form, _adj._ sevenfold, having seven parts: like a septum, septal. SEPTIFRAGAL, sep-tif'r[=a]-gal, _adj._ (_bot._) breaking away from the partitions, said of the valves of a pod. [L. _septum_, a partition, _frang[)e]re_, _fractum_, to break.] SEPTILATERAL, sep-ti-lat'[.e]r-al, _adj._ having seven sides. [L. _septem_, seven, _latus_, _lateris_, a side.] SEPTILLION, sep-til'yun, _n._ the product of a million raised to the seventh power, or a unit with forty-two ciphers affixed: in the United States, France, &c., the eighth power of a thousand. SEPTIMANARIAN, sep-ti-m[=a]-n[=a]'ri-an, _n._ a monk on duty for a week. [L. _septimanus_--_septem_, seven.] SEPTIME, sep't[=e]m, _n._ the seventh position assumed by a fencer after drawing his weapon from the scabbard. [L. _septimus_, seventh--_septem_, seven.] SEPTIMOLE, sep'ti-m[=o]l, _n._ a group of seven notes to be played in the time of four or six: sign [septimole].--Also SEP'T[=O]LE. SEPTINSULAR, sept-in's[=u]-lar, _adj._ consisting of seven islands. [L. _septem_, seven, _insula_, island.] SEPTISYLLABLE, sep'ti-sil-a-bl, _n._ a word of seven syllables. SEPTOMAXILLARY, sep-t[=o]-mak'si-l[=a]-ri, _adj._ combining characters of a nasal septum and a maxillary bone.--_n._ a bone in some birds uniting the maxillopalatines of opposite sides. SEPTONASAL, sep-t[=o]-n[=a]'zal, _adj._ forming a nasal septum.--_n._ a bone of this kind. SEPTUAGENARIAN, sep-t[=u]-aj-e-n[=a]'ri-an, _n._ a person seventy years old.--_adj._ SEPT[=U]AG'ENARY, consisting of seventy.--_n._ one seventy years old. [L. _septuagenarius_--_septuageni_, seventy each--_septem_, seven.] SEPTUAGESIMA, sep-t[=u]-a-jes'i-ma, _n._ the third Sunday before Lent--the seventieth day before Easter (the common but dubious explanation).--_adj._ SEPTUAGES'IMAL, consisting of seventy: counted by seventies. [L. _septuagesimus_--_septem_, seven. The name, like _Quinquagesima_ and _Sexagesima_, was most probably adopted on a false analogy with _Quadragesima_, the Latin name of Lent.] SEPTUAGINT, sep't[=u]-a-jint, _n._ the version in Hellenistic Greek of the Old Testament, said to have been made by 72 translators at Alexandria by command of Ptolemy Philadelphus (284-247 B.C.)--usually expressed by LXX.--_adj._ SEPTUAGIN'TAL. [L. _septuaginta_--_septem_, seven.] SEPTUARY, sep't[=u]-[=a]-ri, _n._ (_obs._) something composed of seven. [Illustration] SEPTUM, sep'tum, _n._ (_bot._, _anat._) a partition separating two cavities: one of the radial plates of a coral:--_pl._ SEP'TA.--_adj._ SEP'TULATE, having imperfect or spurious septa.--_n._ SEP'TULUM, a little septum or small partition. [L.,--_sæp[=i]re_, _sep[=i]re_, to enclose.] SEPTUPLE, sep't[=u]-pl, _adj._ sevenfold.--_v.t._ to make sevenfold: to multiply by seven.--_n._ SEP'T[=U]PLET, a septimole. [Low L. _septuplus_--_septem_, seven; on the analogy of quadruple.] SEPULCHRE, sep'ul-k[.e]r, _n._ a place of burial: tomb: a burial vault: a recess in some early churches in which the reserved sacrament, &c., were laid from Good Friday till Easter.--_v.t._ (_Milt._) to place in a sepulchre: to bury or entomb.--_adj._ SEPUL'CHRAL, pertaining to a sepulchre, or to monuments erected for the dead: (_fig._) deep, hollow in tone.--_n._ SEP'ULTURE, act of burying the dead: interment: burial.--_v.t._ to entomb. [Fr.,--L. _sepulchrum_--_sepel[=i]re_, _sepultum_, to bury.] SEPURTURE, sep'ur-t[=u]r, _adj._ (_her._) raised above the back and opened, of a bird's wings. SEQUACIOUS, s[=e]-kw[=a]'shus, _adj._ inclined to follow a leader: attendant: manageable: pliant: observing logical sequence or consistence.--_ns._ SEQU[=A]'CIOUSNESS, SEQUAC'ITY, disposition to follow. [L. _sequax_, _sequacis_--_sequi_, to follow.] SEQUEL, s[=e]'kwel, _n._ that which follows, the succeeding part: result, consequence: (_obs._) descendants: (_Scots law_) thirlage. [Fr.,--L. _sequela_--_sequi_; Gr. _hepesthai_, to follow.] SEQUELA, s[=e]-kw[=e]'la, _n._ that which follows: an inference, a corollary:--_pl._ S[=E]'QUELÆ. SEQUENCE, s[=e]'kwens, _n._ state of being sequent or following: order of succession: a series of things following in a certain order, as a set of three or more cards in order of value: that which follows: consequence: (_mus._) a regular succession of similar chords: in liturgics, a hymn in rhythmical prose, sung after the gradual and before the gospel.--_adjs._ S[=E]'QUENT, following, succeeding; S[=E]QUEN'TIAL.--_n._ S[=E]QUENTIAL'ITY.--_adv._ S[=E]QUEN'TIALLY. [Fr.,--L. _sequens_, pr.p. of _sequi_, to follow.] SEQUESTER, s[=e]-kwes't[.e]r, _v.t._ to separate: to withdraw from society: to seclude: to set apart: (_law_) to place anything contested into the hands of a third person till the dispute is settled: to hold the property of another till the profits pay the demands: to take possession of the estate of a bankrupt in order to distribute it among the creditors: to confiscate.--_v.i._ to renounce any interest in the estate of a husband.--_n._ (_Shak._) the act of sequestering: an umpire.--_adjs._ S[=E]QUES'TERED, retired, secluded; SEQUES'TRABLE.--_v.t._ S[=E]QUES'TRATE (_law_), to sequester.--_ns._ S[=E]QUESTR[=A]'TION, the Scotch legal term for bankruptcy: the act of sequestering, esp. the seizure of any one's property for the use of the state during dispute, or for the benefit of creditors: state of being separated: seclusion from society; S[=E]QUESTR[=A]'TOR, one who sequesters another's property: one to whom property is committed during dispute. [O. Fr. _sequestrer_--Low L. _sequestr[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--L. _sequester_, a depositary--_sequi_, to follow.] SEQUESTRUM, s[=e]-kwes'trum, _n._ a necrosed section of bone.--_n._ SEQUESTROT'OMY, the operation of removing such. SEQUIN, s[=e]'kwin, _n._ a gold Venetian coin of the 13th century=9s. 4d. [Fr.,--It. _zecchino_--_zecca_, the mint; of Ar. origin.] SEQUOIA, s[=e]-kwoi'a, _n._ a small genus of gigantic evergreen coniferous trees belonging to California--Wellingtonia. [A Latinised form of the name of the Cherokee chief _Sequoiah_.] SERA, s[=e]'ra, _n._ a lock of any kind:--_pl._ S[=E]'RÆ. [L.] SÉRAC, s[=a]-rak', _n._ a name for the cuboidal masses into which the névé breaks when passing down a steep incline. [Swiss Fr.] SERAGLIO, se-ral'y[=o], _n._ the ancient residence of the Sultan at Constantinople, enclosing within its walls a variety of mosques, gardens, and large edifices, the chief of which is the Harem: a place where women are kept, a place of licentious pleasure: an enclosure. [It. _serraglio_--Low L. _ser[=a]re_, to lock up, from L. _sera_, a door-bar. The word was confused with Pers. _serai_, a palace.] SERAI, se-rä'i, _n._ a khan, a caravansary: a seraglio for women. [Pers. _serai_, a palace.] SERALBUMIN, s[=e]r-al-b[=u]'min, _n._ albumin of the blood. SERANG, se-rang', _n._ the skipper of a small East Indian vessel, the boatswain of a lascar crew. [Pers. _sarhang_, a commander.] SERAPE, se-rä'pe, _n._ a Mexican shawl worn by men, often gay-coloured. SERAPEUM, SERAPEIUM, ser-a-p[=e]'um, _n._ a temple of _Serapis_, esp. that near Memphis. SERAPH, ser'af, _n._ an angel of the highest rank in the traditional angelology of the church, due to Dionysius the Areopagite, who places the seraphim at the head of the nine choirs of angels, the first rank being formed by the seraphim, cherubim, and _throni_:--_pl._ SERAPHS (ser'afs), SERAPHIM (ser'af-im), celestial beings on either side of the throne of Jehovah, seen in prophetic vision by Isaiah, and by him alone (vi. 2-6): a geometrid moth.--_adjs._ SERAPH'IC, -AL, pertaining to, or becoming, a seraph: angelic: pure: sublime: refined.--_adv._ SERAPH'ICALLY. [Heb. _Ser[=a]ph[=i]m_--_s[=a]raph_, to burn.] SERAPHINE, ser'a-f[=e]n, _n._ a coarse-toned musical reed-instrument, played with a key-board--the precursor of the harmonium. SERAPIAS, se-r[=a]'pi-as, _n._ a genus of orchids. SERAPIS, ser-[=a]'pis, _n._ Apis honoured by the Romans under the attributes of Osiris: a genus of gasteropods: a genus of hymenopterous insects. SERASKIER, ser-as'k[=e]r, _n._ a Turkish general, esp. the commander-in-chief or the minister of war.--_n._ SERAS'KIERATE, the office of a seraskier. [Turk.,--Pers. _sar_, _ser_, head, Ar. _`asker_, army.] SERB, serb, _adj._ Servian.--_n._ a Servian. SERBONIAN, ser-b[=o]'ni-an, _adj._ relating to a dangerous bog in Egypt, hence to any difficult situation. SERDAB, ser'dab, _n._ a secret chamber within the masonry of an ancient Egyptian tomb in which images of the deceased were stored. [Ar. _serd[=a]b_.] SERE. Same as SEAR. SERE, s[=e]r, _adj._ (_obs._) separate, several, many. SERE, s[=e]r, _n._ (_obs._) a claw. SEREIN, se-rang', _n._ a fine rain which falls from a cloudless sky. [Fr.] SERENA, s[=e]-r[=e]'na, _n._ the damp, unwholesome air of evening. SERENADE, ser-e-n[=a]d', _n._ evening music in the open air, esp. given by a lover to his mistress under her window at night: a piece of music suitable for such an occasion.--_v.t._ to entertain with a serenade.--_ns._ SEREN[=A]'DER, one who serenades; SERENÄ'TA, an instrumental work for performance in the open air; SER'EN[=A]TE (_Milt._), a serenade. [Fr.,--It. _serenata_, _sereno_, serene--L. _serenus_.] SERENE, s[=e]-r[=e]n', _adj._ calm: unclouded: unruffled: an adjunct to the titles of certain German princes--a translation of _Durchlaucht_.--_v.t._ to tranquillise.--_n._ the chilly damp of evening: blight.--_adv._ SER[=E]NE'LY, calmly, coolly.--_ns._ SER[=E]NE'NESS; SEREN'ITUDE; SEREN'ITY, state or quality of being serene, calmness, peace.--_v.t._ SERENISE', to make bright: to glorify. [L. _serenus_, clear.] SERENOA, s[=e]-r[=e]'n[=o]-a, _n._ a genus of dwarf palms in Florida. SERF, s[.e]rf, _n._ a slave attached to the soil and sold with it: a labourer rendering forced service in Russia: a menial.--_ns._ SERF'AGE, SERF'DOM, condition of a serf. [Fr.,--L. _servus_, a slave.] SERGE, s[.e]rj, _n._ a strong twilled fabric, once of silk, now usually of worsted.--_n._ SERGETTE', a thin serge. [Fr.,--L. _serica_, silk--_Seres_, the Chinese.] SERGEANT, SERJEANT, sär'jent, _n._ a non-commissioned officer of the army and marines next above a corporal, overlooking the soldiers in barracks, and assisting the officers in all ways in the field: a bailiff: a constable: a servant in monastic offices: a police-officer of superior rank.--_ns._ SER'GEANCY, SER'GEANTCY, SER'GEANTSHIP, office of a sergeant; SER'GEANT-AT-ARMS, an officer of a legislative body for keeping order, &c.; SER'GEANT-FISH, the cobra, so called from the lateral stripes; SER'GEANT-M[=A]'JOR, the highest non-commissioned officer, employed to assist the adjutant: the cow-pilot, a fish; SER'GEANTRY, SER'GEANTY, a kind of feudal tenure on condition of service due to the king only; SER'JEANT-AT-ARMS, an officer who attends upon the Lord Chancellor with the mace, and who executes various writs of process in the course of a Chancery suit: a similar officer who attends on each House of Parliament, and arrests any person ordered by the House to be arrested; SER'JEANT-AT-LAW, formerly in England the highest degree of barrister, once with exclusive audience in the Court of Common Pleas, their proper dress a violet-coloured robe with a scarlet hood, and a black coif, represented in modern times by a patch of silk at the top of the wig.--GRAND SERGEANTY, a tenure of lands by special honorary service to the king; PETIT SERGEANTY, a tenure of lands by a rent or tender. [Fr. _sergent_--L. _serviens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _serv[=i]re_, to serve.] SERIAL, s[=e]'ri-al, _adj._ pertaining to, or consisting of, a series: appearing periodically.--_n._ a tale or other composition appearing in successive parts, as in a periodical: a publication issued in successive numbers, a periodical.--_n._ S[=E]RIAL'ITY.--_advs._ S[=E]'RIALLY, S[=E]'RIATELY, in a series or regular order.--_adj._ S[=E]'RI[=A]TE, arranged in a series.--_adv._ S[=E]'RI[=A]TIM, one after another.--_n._ S[=E]RI[=A]'TION. SERIAN, s[=e]'ri-an, _adj._ Chinese--also SER'IC.--_ns._ SER'ICA, a genus of melolonthine beetles; SERIC[=A]'RIA, a genus of bombycid moths, containing the mulberry silkworm.--_adjs._ SER'ICATE, -D, silky, covered with silky down; SERICEOUS (s[=e]rish'i-us), pertaining to, or consisting of, silk: (_bot._) covered with soft silky hairs, as a leaf.--_n.pl._ SERIC'IDES, a section of melolonthine beetles.--_ns._ SER'ICIN, the gelatinous substance of silk; SER'ICITE, a variety of potash mica.--_adj._ SERICIT'IC.--_ns._ SERICOCAR'PUS, a genus of composite plants of the United States; SERICOS'T[=O]MA, the typical genus of caddis-flies; SERICT[=E]'RIUM, a spinning gland; SER'ICULTURE, the breeding of silkworms--also SER'ICICULTURE; SERICUL'TURIST. [Gr. _S[=e]res_, the Seres, an Asiatic people who supplied the Greeks and Romans with their silk.] SERICON, ser'i-kon, _n._ in the jargon of alchemy, a red tincture--opp. to _Bufo_, a black. SERIEMA, ser-i-[=e]'ma, _n._ a long-legged, crested Brazilian bird.--Also CARIA'MA. SERIES, s[=e]'ri-[=e]z, _n.sing._ and _pl._ a succession of things connected by some likeness: sequence: order: (_math._) a progression of numbers or quantities according to a certain law.--ARITHMETICAL SERIES, a series whose terms progress by the addition or subtraction of a constant difference; GEOMETRICAL SERIES, a series whose successive terms progress by a constant multiplier or divisor--the _common ratio_; RECIPROCAL SERIES, a series each of whose terms is the reciprocal of the corresponding term of another series. [L.,--_ser[)e]re, sertum_, to join.] SERIF, ser'if, _n._ the short cross-line at the ends of unconnected Roman types, as in H, l, d, y, &c.--Also CER'IPH and SER'IPH. SERIFORM, s[=e]'ri-form, _adj._ noting a section of the Altaic family of languages, comprising Chinese, &c. SERILOPHUS, s[=e]-ril'[=o]-fus, _n._ an Indian genus of broadbills. [Gr. _s[=e]rikos_, silky, _lophos_, a crest.] SERIN, ser'in, _n._ a small fringilline bird like the canary.--_n._ SERINETTE', a bird-organ. [Fr.,--L. _citrinus_, _citrine_, yellow.] SERINGA, se-ring'gä, _n._ a name of several Brazilian trees yielding india-rubber. [Port.] SERINGHI, ser-ing-g[=e]', _n._ a musical instrument of the viol class used in India. SERINUS, s[=e]-r[=i]'nus, _n._ a genus of birds of the fringilline family, including canaries. [Fr. _serin_.] SERIOLA, s[=e]-r[=i]'[=o]-la, _n._ a genus of carangoid fishes, the amber fishes. SERIOUS, s[=e]'ri-us, _adj._ solemn: in earnest: important: attended with danger: weighty: professedly religious.--_adjs._ S[=E]'RIO-COM'IC, -AL, partly serious and partly comical.--_adv._ S[=E]'RIOUSLY, gravely, deeply: without levity.--_n._ S[=E]'RIOUSNESS. [Fr. _serieux_--L. _serius_, akin to _severus_, severe.] SERIPH. See SERIF. SERJEANT. See SERGEANT. SERMOCINATION, ser-mos-i-n[=a]'shun, _n._ (_obs._) speech-making: (_rhet._) a form of prosopopoeia in which one answers a question he has himself asked. SERMON, s[.e]r'mon, _n._ a discourse on a text of Scripture delivered during divine service: any serious address, any serious counsel, admonition, or reproof.--_v.t._ to tutor, to lecture.--_ns._ SERMOL'OGUS, a volume containing sermons by the Church fathers; SERMONEER', a sermoniser; SER'MONER, a preacher; SER'MONET, a little sermon.--_adjs._ SERMON'IC, -AL, having the character of a sermon.--_n._ SER'MONING, the act of preaching: a homily.--_v.i._ SER'MONISE, to compose or preach sermons: to lecture: to lay down the law.--_v.t._ to preach a sermon to.--_ns._ SERMON[=I]'SER, one who preaches or writes sermons; SERM[=O]'NIUM, a historical play, formerly acted by the inferior orders of the Roman Catholic clergy; SERMUN'CLE, a little sermon. [L. _sermo_, _sermonis_--_ser[)e]re_, to join.] SEROON, se-r[=oo]n', _n._ a crate or hamper in which Spanish and Levantine figs, raisins, &c. are usually packed.--_n._ SER'ON, a bale of about 200 lb. of Paraguay tea wrapped in hide. [Sp. _seron_.] SEROPURULENT, s[=e]-r[=o]-p[=u]'r[=oo]-lent, _adj._ composed of serum mixed with pus.--_adj._ SEROSANGUIN'OLENT, pertaining to bloody serum. SEROTINE, ser'[=o]-tin, _n._ a small reddish vespertilionine bat. [L. _serotinus_--_sero_, late.] SEROTINOUS, s[=e]-rot'i-nus, _adj._ (_bot._) appearing late the season. [L. _serotinus_--sero, late.] SEROUS, s[=e]'rus, _adj._ resembling serum, thin, watery: secreting serum.--_n._ SEROS'ITY. [_Serum_.] SERPENT, s[.e]r'pent, _n._ any member of the genus _Ophidia_, more popularly known as snakes--any reptile without feet which moves by means of its ribs and scales: a snake: a person treacherous or malicious: one of the constellations in the northern hemisphere: (_mus._) a bass musical wind-instrument, entirely obsolete except in a few Continental churches, a tapered leather-covered wooden tube 8 feet long, twisted about like a serpent.--_v.i._ to wind along: to meander.--_v.t._ to girdle, as with the coils of a serpent.--_ns._ SERPENT[=A]'RIA, the Virginia snakeroot; SERPENT[=A]'RIUS, the secretary-birds: the constellation _Ophiuchus_; SER'PENT-CHARM'ER, one who charms or has power over serpents; SER'PENT-CHARM'ING, the art of charming or governing serpents; SER'PENT-C[=U]'CUMBER, a long-fruited variety of the musk-melon; SER'PENT-D[=E]'ITY, the god of the Ophites, Abraxas; SER'PENT-EAT'ER, the secretary-bird: a wild goat in India and Cashmere; SER'PENTEAU, an iron circle with spikes to which squibs are attached, used in a breach.--_n.pl._ SERPENT'ES, the second order of the third class of limbless reptiles.--_ns._ SER'PENT-FISH, the snake-fish; SER'PENT-GRASS, the alpine bistort.--_adjs._ SERPENT'IFORM, ophidian in structure: snake-like; SER'PENTINE, resembling a serpent: winding, tortuous: spiral: crooked.--_n._ a kind of firework: a 16th-cent. form of cannon: a mineral composed of silica and manganese, generally occurring massive, colour some shade of green, also red and brownish-yellow.--_v.i._ to wind or wriggle like a serpent.--_adv._ SER'PENTINELY.--_adjs._ SERPENTIN'IC, SER'PENTINOUS.--_adv._ SERPENT[=I]'NINGLY, with a serpentine motion.--_v.t._ SER'PENTINISE, to convert into serpentine.--_v.i._ SER'PENTISE, to wind: meander.--_adj._ SER'PENT-LIKE, like a serpent.--_ns._ SER'PENT-LIZ'ARD, a lizard of the genus _Seps_; SER'PENT-MOSS, a greenhouse plant from the West Indies; SER'PENTRY, serpentine motion: a place infested by serpents: serpents collectively; SER'PENT-STAR, a brittle star; SER'PENT-STONE, snake-stone, adder-stone; SER'PENT'S-TONGUE, the adder's-tongue fern; SER'PENT-TUR'TLE, an enaliosaur; SER'PENT-WITHE, a twining plant of tropical America; SER'PENT-WOOD, an East Indian shrub; SER'PENT-WOR'SHIP, one of the most ancient and widespread forms of primitive religion, and still existing amongst many savage peoples; SEA'-SER'PENT (see SEA).--SERPENTINE VERSE, a verse which begins and ends with the same word.--THE OLD SERPENT, Satan. [L. _serpens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _serp[)e]re_, to creep; akin to Gr. _herpein_.] SERPET, ser'pet, _n._ (_obs._) a basket. SERPETTE, s[.e]r-pet', _n._ a hooked pruning-knife. [Fr.] SERPIGO, s[.e]r-p[=i]'go, _n._ (_Shak._) a skin eruption, herpes.--_adj._ SERPIG'INOUS (-pij'-). [L. _serp[)e]re_, to creep.] SERPLATH, ser'plath, _n._ (_Scot._) 80 stone weight. SERPOLET, ser'p[=o]-let, _n._ the wild thyme. [Fr.] SERPULA, ser'p[=u]-la, _n._ a genus of sedentary Chætopod worms, living in twisted calcareous tubes fastened to shells and rocks in the sea, or even to other animals, such as crabs.--_adj._ SERP[=U]'LIAN.--_n._ SER'PULITE, a fossil of the family _Serpulidæ_.--_adjs._ SERPULIT'IC, SER'PULOID. [L. _serp[)e]re_, to creep.] SERR, ser, _v.t._ (_obs._) to crowd or press together. SERRA, ser'a, _n._ a saw, or saw-like part [L.] SERRADILLA, ser-a-dil'a, _n._ a Port. bird's-foot clover. SERRANUS, ser-r[=a]'nus, _n._ the genus containing sea-perches or sea-bass.--_n.pl._ SERRAN'IDÆ, the family of fishes containing among its genera Sea-bass, Rockfish, &c. [L. _serra_, a saw.] SERRASALMO, ser-a-sal'mo, _n._ a genus of characinoid fishes, with compressed belly fringed with projecting scales. [L. _serra_, a saw, _salmo_, a salmon.] SERRATE, -D, ser'r[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ notched or cut like a saw: (_bot._) having small sharp teeth along the margin.--_n._ SERR[=A]'TION, state of being serrated.--_adj._ SERRATIROS'TRAL, saw-billed, as a bird.--_ns._ SER'R[=A]TURE, a notching like that between the teeth of a saw; SERR[=A]'TUS, one of several muscles of the thorax.--_adj._ SER'RICORN, having separate antennæ.--_n.pl._ SERRIF'ERA, a group of insects, including the sawflies and horntails.--_adjs._ SERRIF'EROUS, having a serra or serrate organ; SER'RIFORM, toothed like a saw; SER'RIPED, having the feet serrate; SERRIROS'TRATE, having the bill serrated with tooth-like processes.--_n._ SER'RO-M[=O]'TOR, a steam reversing-gear, in marine engines.--_adj._ SER'ROUS, like the teeth of a saw: rough.--_n._ SER'RULA, one of the serrated appendages of the throat of the mudfish:--_pl._ SER'RULÆ.--_adjs._ SER'RULATE, -D, finely serrate.--_ns._ SERRUL[=A]'TION, the state of being serrulate; SERRURERIE', ornamental wrought-metal work. [L. _serratus_--_serra_, a saw.] SERRIED, ser'rid, _adj._ crowded: pressed together.--_v.t._ SER'RY, to crowd. [Fr. _serrer_, to crowd--L. _sera_, a door-bar.] SERTULARIA, ser-t[=u]-l[=a]'ri-a, _n._ a common genus of Hydroids in which the branched horny investment of the plant-like colony forms a sessile cup around each polyp.--_adj._ SERTUL[=A]'RIAN. [L. _ser[)e]re_, _sertum_, to plait.] SERUM, s[=e]'rum, _n._ the watery part of curdled milk, whey: the thin fluid which separates from the blood when it coagulates. [L.] SERVAL, s[.e]r'val, _n._ a South African animal of the cat tribe, yellowish with black spots, valued for its fur--the _Bush-cat_, _Tiger-cat_. [Ger.] SERVANT, s[.e]r'vant, _n._ one who is in the service of another: a labourer: a domestic: one dedicated to God: (_B._) a slave: one of low condition or spirit: a professed lover: a word of mere civility, as in 'your humble' or 'obedient servant' in letters, petitions, &c.--_v.t._ to subject.--_ns._ SER'VANT-GIRL, SER'VANT-MAID, a female domestic servant; SER'VANT-MAN, a male servant; SER'VANTRY, servants collectively; SER'VANTSHIP, position or relation of a servant.--SERVANT OUT OF LIVERY, a servant of a higher grade, as a major-domo or butler; SERVANTS' CALL, a whistle to call attendants; SERVANTS' HALL, the room in a house where the servants eat together. [Fr., pr.p. of _servir_, to serve--L. _serv[=i]re_, to serve.] SERVATORY, s[.e]r'va-tor-i, _n. (obs.)_ that which preserves. SERVE, s[.e]rv, _v.t._ to be a servant to, to work for and obey: to attend or wait upon: to work for: to obey: to be subservient or subordinate to: to wait upon at table, &c.: to do duty for: to treat, behave towards: to render worship to: to aid by good offices: to minister to a priest at mass: to comply with: to requite: to handle, manipulate: to furnish: (_naut._) to bind with small cord: (_law_) to deliver or present formally: to furnish: to cover, of stallions, &c.: to deliver the ball in tennis.--_v.i._ to be employed as a servant, to discharge any regular duty: to be in subjection: to suffice, to avail, to be suitable or favourable.--_n._ in tennis, the act of the first player in striking the ball, or the style in which this is done.--_ns._ SER'VAGE (_obs._), servitude: the service of a lover; SER'VER, one who serves: an attendant on the priest at the celebration of the Eucharist: the player who strikes the tennis-ball first: a salver, any utensil for distributing or helping at table.--SERVE AN OFFICE, to discharge the duties of an office; SERVE A PROCESS or WRIT, to formally communicate a process or writ to the person to whom it is addressed; SERVE AN ATTACHMENT, to levy such a writ on the person or goods by seizure; SERVE AN EXECUTION, to levy an execution on the person or goods by seizure; SERVE A SENTENCE, to undergo the punishment prescribed by a judicial sentence; SERVE ONE A TRICK, to play a trick on one; SERVE ONE OUT, to take revenge on some one; SERVE ONE RIGHT, to treat one as he deserves; SERVE ONE'S TIME, to complete one's apprenticeship; SERVE OUT, to deal or distribute; SERVE THE PURPOSE OF, to answer adequately an end for which something else is designed; SERVE THE TURN, to suffice for one's immediate purpose or need; SERVE TIME, to undergo a period of imprisonment, &c.; SERVE UP, to bring to table. [Fr. _servir_--L. _serv[=i]re_, to serve.] SERVIAN, ser'vi-an, _n._ a native of _Servia_: the language of Servia, belonging to the southern division of the Slav tongues, its nearest congeners Bulgarian, Slovenian, and Russian. SERVICE, s[.e]r'vis, _n._ condition or occupation of a servant: a working for another: duty required in any office: military or naval duty: any liturgical form or office, public religious worship, religious ceremonial: a musical composition for devotional purposes: labour, assistance, or kindness to another: benefit: profession of respect: order of dishes at table, or a set of them: official function, use, employment: that which is furnished: a tree of rarely more than 30 feet high, with leaves and flowers like the Rowan-tree, but the former downy beneath--also _Sorb_.--_ns._ SERVICEABIL'ITY, SER'VICEABLENESS.--_adj._ SER'VICEABLE, able or willing to serve: advantageous: useful: capable of rendering long service, durable.--_adv._ SER'VICEABLY.--_ns._ SER'VICE-BERR'Y, a berry of the service-tree: (_Scot._) the fruit of the white beam: a North American shrub, the shadbush; SER'VICE-BOOK, a book of forms of religious service: a prayer-book; SER'VICE-BOX, a form of expansion joint, used in street-mains of steam-heating systems; SER'VICE-CLEAN'ER, a portable air-compressing pump and receiver for service-pipes; SER'VICE-LINE, one of two lines drawn across the court twenty-one feet from the net, in lawn-tennis; SER'VICE-MAG'AZINE, a magazine for storing ammunition for immediate use; SER'VICE-PIPE, a smaller pipe from a main-pipe to a dwelling; SER'VICE-TREE, a tree of the pear family, with close-grained wood and an edible fruit; SER'VING-MALL'ET, a piece of wood having a groove on one side to fit the convexity of a rope; DIN'NER-SER'VICE, a full set of dishes for dinner; T[=A]'BLE-SER'VICE, a set of utensils for the table; WILD'-SER'VICE, a small species of service-tree, cultivated in England for its fruit and wood.--SERVICE OF AN HEIR (_Scots law_), a proceeding before a jury to determine the heir of a person deceased.--ACTIVE SERVICE, service of a soldier, &c., in the field, against an enemy; AT YOUR SERVICE, a phrase of civility; HAVE SEEN SERVICE, to have been in active military service: to have been put to hard use; PLAIN SERVICE, in Anglican usage, an office which is simply read. [Fr.,--L. _servitium_.] SERVIENT, ser'vi-ent, _adj._ subordinate. SERVIETTE, ser-vi-et', _n._ a table-napkin. [Fr.] SERVILE, s[.e]r'v[=i]l, _adj._ pertaining to a slave or servant: slavish: meanly submissive: cringing: obedient: (_gram._) secondary or subordinate.--_n._ a slave, a menial.--_adv._ SER'VILELY.--_ns._ SER'VILISM, the spirit of a servile class; SERVIL'ITY (_obs._ SER'VILENESS), state or quality of being servile: slavery: obsequiousness; SER'VING-MAID, a female domestic servant; SER'VING-MAN, a male servant: a professed lover.--_adj._ SER'VIOUS, obsequious.--_ns._ SER'V[=I]TE, one of a mendicant order of monks and nuns founded in Italy in the 13th century; SERVIT'IUM (_law_), service; SER'VITOR, one who serves: a servant: a follower or adherent: a male servant, a menial: soldier: formerly in Oxford, an undergraduate partly supported by the college, his duty to wait on the fellows and gentlemen commoners at table; SER'VITORSHIP, the office or condition of a servitor; SER'VIT[=U]DE, state of being a slave: slavery: state of slavish dependence: menial service: compulsory servitude: (_law_) a burden affecting land or other heritable subjects, by which the proprietor is either restrained from the full use of his property or is obliged to suffer another to do certain acts upon it: service rendered in the army or navy: (_obs._) servants collectively; SER'VIT[=U]RE (_Milt._), servants collectively.--_v.i._ SER'VULATE. SESAME, ses'a-m[=e], _n._ an annual herbaceous plant of Southern Asia, whose seed yields the valuable _gingili-oil_.--_adjs._ SES'AMOID, -AL, denoting certain small bones found in the substance of the tendons at the articulations of the great toes, and in other parts of the body.--_n._ SES'AMUM, the genus to which sesame belongs.--OPEN SESAME, the charm by which the door of the robbers' cave flew open in the tale of 'Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves' in the _Arabian Nights_. [Fr.,--L.,--Gr.] SESBAN, ses'ban, _n._ a shrub of the bean family, with yellow flowers, native to Egypt.--Also _Jyntee_. [Fr.,--Ar. _seiseb[=a]n_.] SESELI, ses'el-i, _n._ a genus of umbelliferous plants, usually perennial, with erect branching stems--including the mountain _meadow-saxifrage_. [Gr.] SESHA, s[=a]'sha, _n._ the king of the serpents in Hindu mythology, having a thousand heads, the buttresses of the world. SESIA, s[=e]'shi-a, _n._ a genus of clear-winged moths. [Gr. _s[=e]s_, _seos_, a moth.] SESQUIALTERAL, ses-kwi-al'te-ral, _adj._ one and a half more--also SESQUIAL'TERATE, SESQUIAL'TEROUS.--_n._ SESQUIAL'TERA (_mus._), the interval of a perfect fifth, having the ratio of 2 to 3: a rhythm in which three minims are made equal to a preceding two. [L. _sesquialter_.] SESQUIDUPLE, ses-kwi-d[=u]'pl, _adj._ of two and a half times.--_adj._ SESQUID[=U]'PLICATE, being in the ratio of 2½ to 1, or 5 to 2. SESQUIPEDALIAN, ses-kwi-p[=e]-d[=a]'li-an, _adj._ containing a foot and a half: often humorously said of a very long word--also SES'QUIPEDAL.--_ns._ SESQUIPED[=A]'LIANISM, SESQUIPEDAL'ITY. [L. _sesquipedalis_--_sesqui_, one-half more, _pes_, _ped-is_, a foot.] SESQUIPLICATE, ses-kwip'li-k[=a]t, _adj._ noting the ratio of a cube to a square. SESQUITERTIA, ses-kwi-ter'shi-a, _n._ (_mus_.) a perfect fourth, an interval having the ratio of 1 to 1-1/3, or 3 to 4.--_adjs._ SESQUITER'TIAL, SESQUITER'TIAN, -AL. SESQUITONE, ses'kwi-t[=o]n, _n._ (_mus_.) a minor third, an interval equal to a tone and a half. SESS, ses, _n._ Same as CESS. SESSA, ses'a, _interj._ (_Shak._) prob. a cry to urge to swiftness in running. [Illustration] SESSILE, ses'il, _adj._ (_bot._) growing directly from the stem, without a foot-stalk, as some leaves. [L. _sessilis_, low--_sed[=e]re_, _sessum_, to sit.] SESSION, sesh'un, _n._ the sitting of a court or public body: the time it sits: the period of time between the meeting and prorogation of Parliament: the act of sitting, esp. the enthronement of Christ at the right hand of God the Father: (_Scot._) the lowest Presbyterian church court, the kirk-session.--_adj._ SES'SIONAL, pertaining or belonging to a session or sessions.--_n._ SES'SION-CLERK, the official who officially records the transactions of a kirk-session.--COURT OF SESSION, the supreme civil court of Scotland. [Fr.,--L. _sessio_, _sessionis_--_sed[=e]re_, _sessum_, to sit.] SESSPOOL. Same as CESSPOOL. SESTERTIUS, ses-t[.e]r'shi-us, _n._ a Roman silver coin, a quarter denarius, worth 2½ asses: a brass coin under the Empire, worth 4 asses--also SES'TERCE:--_pl._ SESTER'TII.--_n._ SESTER'TIUM, a money of account equal to 1000 sestertii. [L., 'two-and-a-half'--_semis_, half, _tertius_, third.] SESTET, SESTETTE, ses'tet, _n._ the last six lines of a sonnet forming two stanzas of three lines each: (_mus_.) same as SEXTET. [It. _sestetto_--_sesto_--L. _sextus_, sixth.] SESTINA, ses-t[=e]'na, _n._ an old French form of verse, originally consisting of six stanzas of six unrhymed lines, with a final triplet, the same terminal words being used in each stanza, but arranged differently. Modern sestinas are written on two or three rhymes.--Also SES'TINE. [It.,--L. _sextus_, sixth.] SESTOLE, ses't[=o]l, _n._ (_mus_.) same as _Sextuplet_ (q.v.).--Also SES'TOLET. SET, set, _v.t._ to make to sit: to place: to fix: to put in a condition for use, to make ready, to arrange, prepare, furnish, draw up: to render motionless: to determine beforehand: to obstruct: to plant, place so as to promote growth: to place a brooding fowl on a nest containing eggs: to fix in metal: to put and fix in its proper place, as a broken limb, &c.: to assign, as a price: to sharpen: to spread, as sails: to pitch, as a tune: to adapt music to: to frame, mount, or adorn with something fixed: to stud: to point, as a dog: to accompany part or the whole of the way: (_Scot._) to let to a tenant: to compose, put into type: (_prov._) to become, as a dress, &c.--_v.i._ to sink below the horizon: to decline: to become fixed: to congeal: to begin the growth of fruit: to have a certain direction in motion: to acquire a set or bend: to point out game: to apply (one's self):--_pr.p._ set'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ set.--_n._ SET'-BACK, a check to progress: an overflow.--_adj._ SET-BY' (_Scot._), proud, reserved.--_ns._ SET'-DOWN, a rebuke, snubbing; SET'-OFF, a claim set up against another: a counterbalance: an ornament; SET'-OUT, preparations: a display of dishes, dress, &c.: a company, clique; SET'-TO, a conflict in boxing, argument, &c.; SET'-UP, bearing of a person.--_adj._ hilarious, tipsy.--SET ABOUT, to begin; SET ABROACH, to tap and leave running: to give publicity to; SET AGAINST, to oppose; SET AGOING, to make begin to move; SET APART, to separate from the rest, to reserve: (_B._) to promote; SET ASIDE, to put away, to omit or reject; SET AT EASE, to quiet, content; SET AT NAUGHT (see NAUGHT); SET AT WORK, to put to a task; SET BEFORE, to put in front of one; SET BY, to put aside: (_B._) to value or esteem; SET BY THE COMPASS, to note the bearing by the compass; SET DOWN, to lay on the ground: to put down in writing: to fix in one's mind: to attribute, charge: to lay down authoritatively: to give a severe rebuke to; SET EYES ON, to see, fix one's eyes on; SET FORTH, to exhibit, display: to praise, recommend: to publish: (_B._) to set off to advantage: to set out on a journey; SET FORWARD (_B._), to further, promote; SET FREE, to release, put at liberty; SET IN, to put in the way: to begin; SET IN ORDER, to adjust or arrange; SET LITTLE, MUCH, &c., BY, to regard, esteem little, much, &c.; SET OFF, to adorn: to place against as an equivalent; SET ON (_B._), to attack; SET ON, or upon, to instigate: to employ: to fix upon: (_B._) to attack; SET ONE'S FACE, to turn one's self resolutely towards; SET ONE'S HAND TO, to sign; SET ONE'S SELF, to bend one's energies toward anything; SET ONE'S SELF AGAINST, to discountenance, oppose; SET ONE'S TEETH, to set one's teeth together, as in a strong resolution; SET ON FIRE, to apply fire; SET ON FOOT, to set agoing, to start; SET OUT, to mark off, to assign: (_Bacon_) to publish, to adorn: to equip, to furnish: to recommend: to prove: to start; SET OVER, to appoint as ruler over; SET SAIL (see SAIL); SET THE FASHION, to lead or establish the fashion; SET THE TEETH ON EDGE (see EDGE); SET TO, to affix: to apply one's self; SET UP, to erect, to exalt: to begin: to enable to begin: to place in view: (_print._) to put in type: to begin a new course: to make pretensions. [A.S. _settan_; cog. with Ger. _setzen_, Ice. _setja_, Goth. _satjan_; _settan_ is the weak causative of _sittan_, to sit.] SET, set, _adj._ fixed: firm: determined: regular: established: having reached the full growth: (_B._) seated.--_n._ a number of things similar or suited to each other, set or used together: a group of games played together: the full number of eggs set under a hen: the couples that take part in a square dance, also the movements in a country-dance or quadrille: a number of persons associated: direction, drift, tendency: act of setting: a young plant ready for setting out, a cutting, slip: the appearance of young oysters in a district in any season: a mine or set of mines on lease, a distance set off for excavation, a system of pumps in a mine (also SETT): a tool for dressing forged iron: any permanent change of shape or bias of mind: fit, way in which a dress hangs: the pattern of a tartan, &c.: bearing, carriage, build.--_n._ SET'-SQUARE, a triangular piece of wood having one of its angles a right angle, used in mechanical drawing.--SET FAIR, a barometric indication of steady, fair weather; SET PIECE, a piece of theatrical scenery with a supporting framework, as distinguished from a side-scene or drop-scene; SET SPEECH, a speech carefully premeditated. SETA, s[=e]'tä, _n._ a bristle, stiff hair, a prickle.--_adj._ S[=E]T[=A]'CEOUS, consisting of bristles: bristle-shaped.--_n._ SET[=A]'RIA, a genus of grasses with flat leaves and tail-like bristly spikes.--_adjs._ S[=E]TIF'EROUS; S[=E]'TIFORM, having the form of a bristle; S[=E]TIG'EROUS (tij'), bearing bristles; S[=E]TIP'AROUS, producing bristles; S[=E]TOSE', S[=E]'TOUS, bristly. [L. _seta_, a bristle.] SETON, s[=e]'tn, _n._ (_surg._) an artificially produced _sinus_ or channel, through which some substance, as a skein of cotton or silk, or a long flat piece of india-rubber or gutta-percha, is passed so as to excite suppuration, and to keep the artificially formed openings patent: also the inserted material. [Fr. _séton_ (It. _setone_)--Low L. _seto_--L. _seta_, a bristle.] SETTEE, se-t[=e]', _n._ a long seat with a back, esp. a sofa for two. [Prob. a variant of _settle_ (3).] SETTEE, se-t[=e]', _n._ a single-decked Mediterranean vessel with long prow and lateen sails. [Prob. It. _saettia_.] SETTER, set'[.e]r, _n._ one who sets, as music to words: a dog which crouches when it scents the game: one who finds out the victims for thieves.--SETTER FORTH, one who proclaims or promotes anything; SETTER OFF, one who decorates; SETTER ON, an instigator; SETTER OUT, one who expounds; SETTER UP, one who establishes. SETTER, set'[.e]r, _v.t._ (_prov._) to cut an ox's dewlap, and treat with a seton.--_ns._ SETT'ERING, the foregoing process; SETT'ER-WORT, the fetid hellebore. SETTIMA, set'ti-ma, _n._ (_mus._) the interval of a seventh--(_obs._) SET'TIMO. [It.,--L. _septem_.] SETTING, set'ing, _n._ act of setting: direction of a current of wind: the hardening of plaster: that which holds, as the mounting of a jewel: the mounting of a play, &c., for the stage: act of adapting to music. SETTLE, set'l, _v.t._ to set or place in a fixed state: to fix: to establish in a situation or business: to render quiet, clear, &c.: to decide: to free from uncertainty: to quiet: to compose: to fix by gift or legal act: to adjust: to liquidate or pay: to colonise.--_v.i._ to become fixed or stationary: to fix one's residence or habits of life (often with _down_): to grow calm or clear: to sink by its own weight: to sink to the bottom: to cease from agitation.--_adj._ SETT'LED, fixed, firmly seated or decided: quiet, sober.--_ns._ SETT'LEDNESS; SETT'LEMENT, act of settling: state of being settled: payment: arrangement: a colony newly settled: a subsidence or sinking of a wall, &c.: a sum newly settled on a woman at her marriage; SETT'LER, one who settles: a colonist; SETT'LING, the act of making a settlement: the act of subsiding: the adjustment of differences: sediment: dregs; SETT'LING-DAY, a date fixed by the Stock Exchange for the completion of transactions--in consols, once a month; in all other stocks, twice a month, each settlement occupying three days (_contango-day_, _name-day_, and _pay-day_). [A.S. _setlan_, to fix--_setl_, a seat.] SETTLE, set'l, _v.t._ to decide, conclude: to fix, appoint: regulate: to pay, balance: to restore to good order.--_v.i._ to adjust differences or accounts: to meet one's pecuniary obligations fully. [A.S. _sahtlian_, to reconcile, _saht_, reconciliation--_sacan_, to contend. Confused in both form and meaning with the preceding.] SETTLE, set'l, _n._ a long high-backed bench for sitting on: (_B._) also, a platform lower than another part.--_n._ SETT'LE-BED, a bed which is folded or shut up so as to form a seat by day. [A.S. _setl_--_sittan_, to sit; Ger. _sessel_.] SETULE, set'[=u]l, _n._ a setula or little bristle.--_adjs._ SET'[=U]LIFORM, SET'[=U]LOSE. SETWALL, set'wawl, _n._ the common European valerian. [O. Fr. _citoual_--Low L. _zedoaria_--Pers. _zadwar_.] SETWORK, set'wurk, _n._ in plastering, two-coat work on lath: boat-building in which the strakes are placed edge to edge and secured by inside battens. SEVEN, sev'n, _adj._ and _n._ six and one.--_adj._ SEV'EN-FOLD, folded seven times: multiplied seven times.--_n._ SEV'EN-NIGHT, seven days and nights: a week, the time from one day of the week to the same again--also contr. SENNIGHT (sen'n[=i]t).--_adj._ SEV'ENTH, last of seven, next after the sixth.--_n._ one of seven equal parts.--_adv._ SEV'ENTHLY.--SEVEN CARDINAL, CHIEF, or PRINCIPAL VIRTUES (see CARDINAL); SEVEN CHAMPIONS OF CHRISTENDOM, St George for England, St Andrew for Scotland, St Patrick for Ireland, St David for Wales, St Denis for France, St James for Spain, St Anthony for Italy; SEVEN DEADLY SINS, pride, covetousness, lust, anger, gluttony, envy, and sloth; SEVEN DOLOURS OF THE BLESSED VIRGIN MARY (see DOLOUR); SEVEN FREE ARTS (see ARTS); SEVEN GIFTS OF THE HOLY GHOST, wisdom, understanding, counsel, ghostly strength or fortitude, knowledge, godliness, and the fear of the Lord; SEVEN SAGES, or wise men, Solon of Athens, Thales of Miletus, Pittacus of Mitylene, Bias of Priene in Caria, Chilon of Sparta, Cleobulus tyrant of Lindus in Rhodes, and Periander tyrant of Corinth; SEVEN SLEEPERS, seven Christian youths at Ephesus who took refuge in a cave about 250 A.D. in the persecution of Decius, were walled up by their pursuers, fell into a deep sleep, and only awoke in 447 under Theodosius II.; SEVEN STARS, the Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn: the constellation Ursa Major: the Pleiades; SEVEN WISE MASTERS, the most common title given to a famous medieval collection of stories grouped round a central story of the birth, education, and trials of a young prince. Accused like Joseph, he is sentenced to death, but each one of the seven viziers gains a day, out of the fated seven during which the prince may not open his mouth, by two tales against women. At the end of the seventh day the prince is free to speak, and quickly clears his character; SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD, the Pyramids of Egypt, the Hanging (i.e. terraced) Gardens of Babylon, the Temple of Diana at Ephesus, the Statue of Jupiter at Athens by Phidias, the Mausoleum, erected by Artemisia at Halicarnassus, the Colossus at Rhodes, and the Pharos of Alexandria; SEVEN YEARS' WAR (1756-63), the third and severest struggle for the possession of Silesia between Frederick the Great and the Empress Maria Theresa, together with the allies on both sides; it gave Silesia to Frederick, and to England the mastery of North America and India. [A.S. _seofon_; Dut. _zeven_, Ger. _sieben_, Goth. _sibun_, Gr. _hepta_, L. _septem_.] SEVENTEEN, sev'n-t[=e]n, _adj._ and _n._ seven and ten.--_adj._ and _n._ SEV'ENTEENTH, the seventh after the tenth. [A.S. _seofontíene_--_seofon_, _tíen_, ten.] SEVENTY, sev'n-ti, _adj._ and _n._ seven times ten.--_adj._ SEV'ENTIETH, last of seventy: the ordinal of 70.--_n._ a seventieth part.--THE SEVENTY, the Jewish sanhedrim: the disciples sent out in Luke x.: the authors of the Septuagint--often LXX. [A.S. _seofontig_--_seofon_, seven; Dut. _zeventig_, Ger. _siebenzig_.] SEVER, sev'[.e]r, _v.t._ to separate with violence: to cut apart: to divide: (_B._) to keep distinct.--_v.i._ to make a separation, to act independently: to be rent asunder.--_adj._ SEV'ERABLE.--_n._ SEV'ERANCE, act of severing: separation. [Fr. _sevrer_, to wean--L. _separ[=a]re_, to separate.] SEVERAL, sev'[.e]r-al, _adj._ distinct: particular: different: various: consisting of a number: sundry.--_n._ a woman's loose outer garment, capable of being worn as a shawl, or in other forms.--_adv._ SEV'ERALLY.--_n._ SEV'ERALTY, sole tenancy of property. [O. Fr.,--L. _separ[=a]re_, to separate.] SEVERE, s[=e]-v[=e]r', _adj._ serious: grave: austere: strict: not mild: strictly adhering to rule: free from florid ornamentation, simple: sharp: distressing: inclement: searching: difficult to be endured.--_adv._ S[=E]V[=E]RE'LY.--_ns._ S[=E]V[=E]RE'NESS; S[=E]VER'ITY, quality of being severe: gravity: harshness: exactness: inclemency. [Fr. _sévère_--L. _severus_.] SÈVRES, s[=a]'vr, _n._ Sèvres porcelain. SEW, s[=o], _v.t._ to join or fasten together with a needle and thread.--_v.i._ to practise sewing.--_ns._ SEW'ER; SEW'ING; SEW'ING-COTT'ON, cotton thread for sewing; SEW'ING-MACHINE', a machine for sewing and stitching upon cloth, leather, &c., operated by any power.--SEW UP ONE'S STOCKING, to put one to silence.--BE SEWED, or SEWED UP, to be stranded, of a ship: (_coll._) to be brought to a stand-still, to be ruined: to be tipsy. [A.S. _síwian_, _séowian_; Old High Ger. _siwan_, Goth. _siujan_.] SEW, s[=u], _v.t._ (_Spens._) to follow, to solicit. [_Sue_.] SEWEL, s[=u]'el, _n._ a scarecrow.--Also SHEW'EL. [Prob. related to _shy_.] SEWER, s[=u]'[.e]r, _n._ an officer who set down and removed the dishes at a feast. [O. Fr. _asseour_--_asseoir_, to set down--L. _ad_, to, _sed[=e]re_, to sit. Skeat makes it from M. E. _sewen_, to set meat, _sew_, pottage--A.S. _seaw_, juice.] SEWER, s[=u]'[.e]r, _n._ an underground passage for draining off water and filth.--_ns._ SEW'AGE, refuse carried off by sewers; SEW'ERAGE, the whole sewers of a city: drainage by sewers; SEW'ER-GAS, the contaminated air of sewers.--OPEN SEWER, a sewer of which the channel is exposed to the air. [O. Fr. _seuwiere_, a canal--L. _ex_, out, _aqua_, water.] SEX, seks, _n._ the distinction between male and female: the characteristics by which an animal or plant is male or female, gender: the female sex, women generally, usually with the definite article.--_adj._ SEX'LESS, having no sex.--_n._ SEX'LESSNESS.--_adj._ SEX'[=U]AL, pertaining to sex: distinguished or founded on the sex: relating to the distinct organs of the sexes.--_v.t._ SEX'[=U]ALISE, to distinguish as sexed.--_ns._ SEX'[=U]ALIST, one who classifies plants according to the differences of the sexes; SEX[=U]AL'ITY, state or quality of being sexual.--_adv._ SEX'[=U]ALLY.--SEXUAL AFFINITY, the instinctive attraction of one sex for another; SEXUAL ORGANS, the organs of generation; SEXUAL SELECTION, that province of natural selection in which sex comes into play. [Fr. _sexe_--L. _sexus_--_sec[=a]re_, to cut.] SEXAGENARIAN, sek-sa-je-n[=a]'ri-an, _n._ a person sixty years old.--_adj._ SEXAG'ENARY, designating the number sixty.--_n._ a sexagenarian: something containing sixty.--_ns._ SEX'AGENE, an arc or angle of 60°; SEXAGES'IMA, the second Sunday before Lent (see SEPTUAGESIMA).--_adj._ SEXAGES'IMAL, pertaining to the number sixty: proceeding by sixties.--_adv._ SEXAGES'IMALLY. [L. _sexagenarius_--_sexaginta_, sixty.] SEXANGLE, sek'sang-gl, _n._ a figure with six angles, a hexagon.--_adjs._ SEX'ANGLED, SEXANG'ULAR.--_adv._ SEXANG'ULARLY. SEXCENTENARY, sek-sen'te-n[=a]-ri, _n._ that which consists of 600: a 600th anniversary.--Also _adj._ SEXDIGITATE, seks-dij'i-t[=a]t, _adj._ having six fingers or toes.--_n._ SEXDIG'ITIST. SEXENNIAL, seks-en'yal, _adj._ lasting six years: happening once in six years--also SEXTENN'IAL.--_adv._ SEXENN'IALLY. [L. _sex_, six, _annus_, a year.] SEXFID, seks'fid, _adj._ (_bot._) six-cleft. SEXFOIL, seks'foil, _n._ a plant or flower with six leaves. SEXISYLLABIC, sek-si-si-lab'ik, _adj._ having six syllables.--_n._ SEX'ISYLLABLE, a word of six syllables. SEXIVALENT, sek-siv'a-lent, _adj._ (_chem._) having an equivalent of six. [L. _sex_, six, _valens_--_val[=e]re_, to have strength.] SEXLOCULAR, seks-lok'[=u]-lär, _adj._ six-celled. SEXPARTITE, seks'pär-t[=i]t, _adj._ divided into six parts. [L. _sex_, six, _partitus_, divided.] SEXT, SEXTE, sekst, _n._ (_eccles._) the office of the sixth hour, originally said at midday: (_mus._) the interval of a sixth.--_adj._ SEX'TAN, recurring every sixth day. [L. _sextus_, sixth--_sex_, six.] SEXTAIN, seks't[=a]n, _n._ a stanza of six lines. SEXTANS, seks'tanz, _n._ an ancient Roman bronze coin, worth one-sixth of the as.--_adjs._ SEX'TANTAL; SEX'TIC, of the sixth degree. [L.,--_sex_, six.] [Illustration] SEXTANT, seks'tant, _n._ (_math._) the sixth part of a circle: an optical instrument having an arc=the sixth part of a circle, and used for measuring angular distances. SEXTET, SEXTETTE, seks-tet', _n._ (_mus._) a work for six voices or instruments: a musical company of six. SEXTILE, seks'til, _n._ the position of two planets when at the distance of the sixth part of a circle (60°), marked thus *. [L.,--_sex_, six.] SEXTILLION, seks-til'yun, _n._ a million raised to the sixth power, expressed by a unit with 36 ciphers attached: 1000 raised to the seventh power. SEXTO, seks'to, _n._ a size of book made by folding a sheet of paper into six leaves.--_n._ SEX'TO-DEC'IMO, a size of book made by folding a sheet of paper into sixteen leaves: a book of this size. SEXTON, seks'tun, _n._ an officer who has charge of a church, attends the clergyman, digs graves, &c.: a burying-beetle.--_ns._ SEX'TON-BEE'TLE, a coleopterous insect of the genus _Necrophorus_; SEX'TONSHIP, the office of a sexton. [A corr. of _sacristan_.] SEXTUPLE, seks't[=u]-pl,--_adj._ sixfold: (_mus._) having six beats to the measure.--_v.t._ to multiply by six.--_n._ SEX'T[=U]PLET (_mus._), a note divided into six parts instead of four. 'SFOOT, sf[=oo]t, _interj._ (_Shak._) a minced imprecation. [Abbrev. from _God's foot_. Cf. _'sblood_.] SFORZANDO, sfor-tsän'd[=o], _adj._ (_mus._) forced, with sudden emphasis. Abbrev. _sf._ and _sfz._, or marked [horizontal sforzando], [vertical sforzando].--Also SFORZATO (sfor-tsä't[=o]). [It., pr.p. of _sforzare_, to force--L. _ex_, out, Low L. _fortia_, force.] SGRAFFITO, sgraf-f[=e]'t[=o], _n._ (same as _Graffito_, q.v.): a kind of decorative work in pottery and superimposed metals, in which clays, &c., of different colours are laid one upon another, and the pattern is produced by cutting away the outer layers:--_pl._ SGRAFFI'TI. SHABBY, shab'i,--_adj._ threadbare or worn, as clothes: having a look of poverty: mean in look or conduct: low: paltry.--_adv._ SHABB'ILY.--_n._ SHABB'INESS.--_adj._ SHABB'Y-GENTEEL', keeping up or affecting an appearance of gentility, though really shabby. [An adj. formed from _shab_, an old by-form of _scab_--thus a doublet of _scabby_.] SHABRACK, shab'rak, _n._ a trooper's housing or saddle-cloth. [Fr.,--Ger. _shabracke_--Pol. _czaprak_.] SHACK, shak, _v.i._ to tramp or wander about.--_n._ a tramp, a vagabond. SHACK, shak, _v.i._ to shed or fall out, as ripe grain from the ear: to feed on stubble: (_U.S._) to hibernate, to go into winter quarters.--_n._ grain, &c., fallen on the ground: liberty of winter pasturage: a hastily-built cabin, a rickety house.--_ns._ SHACK'-BAIT, such bait as may be picked up at sea; SHACK'LE, stubble. [_Shake_.] SHACKLE, shak'l, _n._ a curved bar, as of iron: a link or staple: a link securing two ankle-rings or two wrist-rings together, and so (_pl._) fetters, manacles: a hinderance.--_v.t._ to fetter: to tie the limbs of: to confine.--_ns._ SHACK'LE-BOLT, a bolt having a shackle on the end: (_her._) a bearing representing a fetlock for hobbling a horse; SHACK'LE-JOINT, a peculiar kind of articulation seen in the exoskeleton of some fishes. [A.S. _sceacul_, _scacul_, a shackle--_sceacan_, to shake; cog. with Old Dut. _schakel_, a link of a chain, Ice. _skökull_, the pole of a cart.] SHAD, shad, _n._ a fish of the herring kind, but having the upper jaw deeply notched, and ascending rivers to spawn.--_adj._ SHAD'-BELL'IED, flat-bellied--opp. to _Pot-bellied_: sloping away gradually in front, cut away.--_ns._ SHAD'-BIRD, the common American snipe: the sandpiper; SHAD'-BUSH, the June-berry or service-berry; SHAD'-FLY, a May-fly; SHAD'-FROG, a large and very agile American frog; SHAD'-WAIT'ER, the pilot-fish or round-fish. [A.S. _sceadda_.] SHADDOCK, shad'ok, _n._ a tree of the same genus as the orange, having larger leaves, flowers, and fruit. [Named from Captain _Shaddock_, who introduced it to the West Indies from China about 1810.] SHADE, sh[=a]d, _n._ partial darkness: interception of light: obscurity: a shady place: protection: shelter: a screen: degree of colour: a very minute change: (_paint._) the dark part of a picture: the soul separated from the body: a ghost: (_obs._, _poet._) a bodily shadow: (_pl._) the departed spirits, or their unseen abode, Hades.--_v.t._ to screen from light or heat: to shelter: to mark with gradations of colour: to darken: (_Spens._) to foreshadow, represent.--_adjs._ SH[=A]'DED, marked with gradations of colour: sheltered; SHADE'FUL, shady; SHADE'LESS, without shade.--_n._ SH[=A]'DER.--_adv._ SH[=A]'DILY.--_ns._ SH[=A]'DINESS; SH[=A]'DING, the act of making a shade: the effect of light and shade, as in a picture; SH[=A]'DING-PEN, a pen with a broad flat nib.--_adj._ SH[=A]'DY, having, or in, shade: sheltered from light or heat: (_coll._) not fit to bear the light, of dubious honesty or morality. [A.S. _sceadu_--_scead_, shade.] SHADINE, sha-d[=e]n', _n._ the menhaden, or American sardine. SHADOOF, sha-d[=oo]f', _n._ a contrivance for raising water by means of a long rod pivoted near one end, the shorter arm weighted to act as the counterpoise of a lever, the longer carrying a bucket which is lowered into the water--much used on the Nile for irrigation purposes.--Also SHADUF'. [Ar. _sh[=a]d[=u]f_.] SHADOW, shad'[=o], _n._ shade caused by an object: darkness: shelter: security: favour: the dark part of a picture: an inseparable companion: a mystical representation: faint appearance: a ghost, spirit: something only in appearance.--v.t to shade: to cloud or darken: to shade, as a painting: to represent faintly: to hide, conceal: (_coll._) to attend like a shadow, watch continuously and carefully.--_ns._ SHAD'OW-FIG'URE, a silhouette; SHAD'OWINESS, the state of being shadowy or unsubstantial; SHAD'OWING, shading: gradation of light and colour.--_adj._ SHAD'OWLESS.--_n._ SHAD'OW-STITCH, in lace-making, a very delicate kind of ladder-stitch used in fine open-work.--_adj._ SHAD'OWY, full of shadow: dark: obscure: typical: unsubstantial: (_rare_) indulging in fancies.--SHADOW OF DEATH, approach of death: terrible disaster. [A.S. _sceadu_; cog. with Old High Ger. _scato_, and perh. Gr. _skotos_, darkness, _skia_, shadow.] SHAFIITE, shaf'i-[=i]t, _n._ a member of one of the four principal sects of the Sunnites, or orthodox Muslims. [Ar. _Sh[=a]fi'[=i]_, the name of the founder.] SHAFT, shaft, _n._ anything long and straight, as the stem of an arrow, &c.: a long arrow, anything like an arrow in form or effect: the part of a column between the base and capital: the stem of a feather: the pole or thill of a carriage: the handle of a tool of any kind.--_adj._ SHAFT'ED, having a shaft or handle.--_ns._ SHAFT'-HORSE, the horse that is harnessed between the shafts of a carriage; SHAFT'ING (_mach._), the system of shafts connecting machinery with the prime mover.--MAKE A SHAFT OR A BOLT OF IT (_Shak._), to take the risk and make the best of it--the shaft and the bolt being the arrows of the long-bow and the cross-bow respectively. [A.S. _sceaft_; prob. orig. pa.p. of _scafan_, to shave.] SHAFT, shaft, _n._ a well-like excavation sunk into a mine for pumping, hoisting, &c.: the tunnel of a blast-furnace. [Prob. in this sense from Ger. _schacht_, a shaft; cog. with foregoing.] SHAG, shag, _n._ woolly hair: cloth with a rough nap: a kind of tobacco cut into shreds.--_adj._ rough, hairy.--_v.t._ to roughen, make shaggy.--_v.i._ (_Spens._) to hang in shaggy clusters.--_adjs._ SHAG'-EARED (_Shak._), having shaggy or rough ears; SHAG'GED, shaggy, rough.--_n._ SHAG'GEDNESS.--_adv._ SHAG'GILY.--_n._ SHAG'GINESS.--_adjs._ SHAG'GY, covered with rough hair or wool: rough: rugged; SHAG'-HAIRED, having long, rough hair. [A.S. _sceacga_, a head of hair; Ice. _skegg_, beard, _skagi_, cape (in Shetland, _skaw_).] SHAGREEN, sha-gr[=e]n', _n._ the skin of various sharks, rays, &c., covered with small nodules, used for covering small caskets, boxes, cigar and spectacle cases, &c.: a granular leather prepared by unhairing and scraping the skin of horses, asses, &c.--formerly CHAGRIN'.--_adj._ (also SHAGREENED') made of, or covered with, shagreen. [Fr. _chagrin_--Turk. _s[=a]ghr[=i]_, the back of a horse.] SHAH, shä, _n._ the monarch of Persia. [Pers.] SHAHEEN, sha-h[=e]n', _n._ a peregrine falcon. [Pers. _sh[=a]h[=i]n_.] SHAHI, shä'i, _n._ a Persian copper coin. [Pers. _sh[=a]h[=i]_, royal.] SHAIRL, sh[=a]rl, _n._ a fine cloth woven from the hair of a Tibetan variety of the Cashmere goat. SHAIRN, sh[=a]rn, _n._ (_Scot._) cow-dung. SHAITAN, sh[=i]'tan, _n._ the devil, any evil spirit or devilish person. [Ar.] SHAKAL, shak'al, _n._ the same as JACKAL. SHAKE, sh[=a]k, _v.t._ to move with quick, short motions: to agitate: to make to tremble: to threaten to overthrow: to cause to waver: to give a tremulous note to.--_v.i._ to be agitated: to tremble: to shiver: to lose firmness:--_pa.t._ shook, (_B._) sh[=a]ked; _pa.p._ sh[=a]k'en,--_n._ a rapid tremulous motion: a trembling or shivering: a concussion: a rent in timber, rock, &c.: (_mus._) a rapid repetition of two notes: (_slang_) a brief instant.--_n._ SHAKE'DOWN, a temporary bed, named from the original shaking down of straw for this purpose.--_adj._ SH[=A]K'EN, weakened, disordered.--_ns._ SH[=A]K'ER, one of a small communistic religious sect founded in Manchester about the middle of the 18th century, so nicknamed from a peculiar dance forming part of their religious service; SHAKE'-RAG (_obs._), a ragged fellow; SH[=A]K'ERISM.--_adv._ SH[=A]K'ILY.--_n._ SH[=A]K'INESS.--_adj._ SH[=A]K'Y, in a shaky condition: feeble: (_coll._) wavering, undecided: of questionable ability, solvency, or integrity: unsteady: full of cracks or clefts.--SHAKE DOWN, or TOGETHER, to make more compact by shaking; SHAKE HANDS, to salute by grasping the hand: (_with_) to bid farewell to; SHAKE OFF THE DUST FROM ONE'S FEET, to renounce all intercourse with; SHAKE THE HEAD, to move the head from side to side in token of reluctance, disapproval, &c.; SHAKE TOGETHER (_coll._), to get friendly with; SHAKE UP, to restore to shape by shaking: (_Shak._) to upbraid.--GREAT SHAKES (_coll._), a thing of great account, something of value (usually 'No great shakes'). [A.S. _sceacan_, _scacan_.] SHAKESPEARIAN, sh[=a]k-sp[=e]'ri-an, _adj._ pertaining to, or in the style of, _Shakespeare_, or his works--also SHAKESP[=E]'RIAN, SHAKSPEAR'EAN, SHAKSP[=E]'RIAN.--_n._ a student of Shakespeare (1564-1616).--_n.pl._ SHAKESPEARI[=A]'NA, details or learning connected with Shakespeare and his writings.--_n._ SHAKESPEA'RIANISM, anything peculiar to Shakespeare. SHAKO, shak'[=o], _n._ a military cap of cylindrical shape, worn mostly by infantry, and generally plumed. [Hung. _csako_.] SHALE, sh[=a]l, _n._ clay or argillaceous material, splitting readily into thin laminæ.--_adj._ SH[=A]'LY. [Ger. _schale_, a scale.] SHALE, sh[=a]l, _n._ a shell or husk. [A.S. _sceale_.] SHALL, shal, _v.t._ (_obs._) to be under obligation: now only auxiliary, used in the future tense of the verb, whether a _predictive_ or a _promissive_ future (in the first person implying mere futurity; in the second and third implying authority or control on the part of the speaker, and expressing promise, command, or determination, or a certainty about the future. In the _promissive_ future 'will' is used for the first person, and 'shall' for the second and third). [A.S. _sceal_, to be obliged; Ger. _soll_, Goth. _skal_, Ice. _skal_, to be in duty bound.] SHALLI, shal'i, _n._ a soft cotton stuff made in India, mostly red. SHALLOON, sha-l[=oo]n', _n._ a light kind of woollen stuff for coat-linings, &c., said to have been first made at _Châlons-sur-Marne_ in France. SHALLOP, shal'op, _n._ a light boat or vessel, with or without a mast. [O. Fr. _chaluppe_; Ger. _schaluppe_; prob. of East Ind. origin.] SHALLOT, sha-lot', _n._ a species of onion with a flavour like that of garlic.--Also SHALOT'. [O. Fr. _eschalote_, formed from _eschalone_, _escalone_, whence Eng. _scallion_ (q.v.).] SHALLOW, shal'[=o], _n._ a sandbank: a place over which the water is not deep: a shoal.--_adj._ not deep: not profound: not wise: trifling.--_v.t._ to make shallow.--_v.i._ to grow shallow.--_adjs._ SHALL'OW-BRAINED, -P[=A]'TED, weak in intellect; SHALL'OW-HEART'ED, not capable of deep feelings.--_adv._ SHALL'OWLY (_Shak._), simply, foolishly.--_n._ SHALL'OWNESS. [Scand., Ice. _skjálgr_, wry; cf. Ger. _scheel_.] SHALM. Same as _Shawm_ (q.v.). SHALT, shalt, 2d pers. sing. of _shall_. SHAM, sham, _n._ a pretence: that which deceives expectation: imposture.--_adj._ pretended: false.--_v.t._ to pretend: to feign: to impose upon.--_v.i._ to make false pretences:--_pr.p._ sham'ming; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ shammed.--_ns._ SHAM'-FIGHT, a fight in imitation of a real one; SHAM'MER, one who shams.--SHAM ABRAHAM (see ABRAHAM-MAN). [_Shame_.] SHAMANISM, sham'an-izm, _n._ a name applied loosely to the religion of the Turanian races of Siberia and north-eastern Asia, based essentially on magic and sorcery.--_n._ SHAM'AN, a wizard priest.--_adj._ SHAMAN'IC.--_n._ SHAM'ANIST.--_adj._ SHAMANIS'TIC. [Perh. Hind. _shaman_, idolater.] SHAMBLE, sham'bl, _v.i._ to walk with an awkward, unsteady gait.--_n._ a shambling gait.--_adj._ SHAM'BLING. [Skeat refers to Dut. _schampelen_--O. Fr. _s'escamper_, to decamp.] SHAMBLES, sham'blz, _n.pl._ stalls on which butchers exposed their meat for sale, hence a flesh-market: a slaughter-house. [A.S. _scamel_ (Ger. _schämel_), a stool--Low L. _scamellum_, for L. _scabellum_, dim. of _scamnum_, a bench.] SHAME, sh[=a]m, _n._ the feeling caused by the exposure of that which ought to be concealed, or by a consciousness of guilt: the cause of shame, a person or thing to be ashamed of: disgrace, dishonour: (_B._) the parts of the body which modesty requires to be concealed.--_v.t._ to make ashamed: to cause to blush: to cover with reproach: to drive or compel by shame.--_adj._ SHAME'FACED (properly SHAME'FAST, A.S. _sceam-fæst_), very modest or bashful.--_adv._ SHAME'FACEDLY.--_ns._ SHAME'FACEDNESS, SHAME'FASTNESS, modesty.--_adj._ SHAME'FUL, disgraceful.--_adv._ SHAME'FULLY.--_n._ SHAME'FULNESS.--_adj._ SHAME'LESS, immodest: done without shame: audacious.--_adv._ SHAME'LESSLY.--_n._ SHAME'LESSNESS.--_adj._ SHAME'-PROOF (_Shak._), insensible to shame.--_ns._ SH[=A]'MER, one who, or that which, makes ashamed; SHAME'-REEL, the first dance after the celebration of marriage, the bride being the best man's partner, the best maid the bridegroom's.--FOR SHAME, an interjectional phrase, signifying 'you should be ashamed!'--PUT TO SHAME, to cause to feel shame. [A.S. _sceamu_, _scamu_, modesty; Ice. _skömm_, a wound, Ger. _scham_.] SHAMMATHA, sha-mä'tha, _n._ the severest form of excommunication among the ancient Jews. [Heb.] SHAMMY, sham'i, same as CHAMOIS.--_v.t._ SHAM'OY, to prepare leather by working oil into the skin.--_n._ SHAM'OYING. SHAMPOO, sham-p[=oo]', _v.t._ to squeeze and rub the body, in connection with the hot bath: to wash thoroughly with soap and water.--_ns._ SHAMPOO'; SHAMPOO'ER. [Hind. _ch[=a]mpn[=a]_, squeeze.] SHAMROCK, sham'rok, _n._ the national emblem of Ireland, a leaf with three leaflets, or plant having such leaves, sometimes supposed to be the Wood-sorrel, but the name is more frequently applied to some species of Clover, or to some common plant of some of the nearly allied genera, as the Bird's Foot Trefoil or the Black Medick. The Lesser Yellow Trefoil is the plant usually sold in Dublin on St Patrick's Day. [Ir. _seamrog_, Gael. _seamrag_, trefoil, dim. of _seamar_, trefoil.] SHAN, shan, _adj._ pertaining to the _Shans_, a number of tribes of common origin, who live on the borders of Burma, Siam, and China. SHAND, shand, _n._ (_obs._) shame: (_Scot._) base coin.--_adj._ worthless. [A.S. _sceand_, scand.] SHANDRYDAN, shan'dri-dan, _n._ a light two-wheeled cart: any rickety conveyance.--Also SHAN'DRY. [Ir.] SHANDYGAFF, shan'di-gaf, _n._ a mixture of bitter ale or beer with ginger-beer. [Ety. dub.] SHANGHAI, shang-h[=i]', _n._ a long-legged hen with feathered shanks, said to have been introduced from _Shanghai_ in China: (_U.S._) a tall dandy.--_v.t._ (_naut._ ) to hocus a sailor and ship him while insensible: (_U.S._) to get a person by some artifice into a jurisdiction where he can lawfully be arrested. SHANGIE, shang'i, _n._ (_Scot._) a shackle. SHANGTI, shang't[=e]', _n._ a Christian name in China for God. [Chin. _shang_, high, _ti_, ruler.] SHANK, shangk, _n._ the leg below the knee to the foot: the long part of any instrument, as of an anchor between the arms and ring: the part of a tool connecting the handle with the acting part: the part of a shoe connecting the sole with the heel.--_v.i._ to be affected with disease of the footstalk: to take to one's legs (with it).--_v.t._ (_Scot._) to despatch unceremoniously.--_adj._ SHANKED, having a shank: affected with disease of the shank or footstalk.--_ns._ SHANK'-[=I]'RON, a shaping-tool for shoe-shanks: an iron plate inserted as a stiffening between the leather parts of a shank; SHANK'-PAINT'ER, a painter or small rope for fastening the shank of an anchor, when catted, to a ship's side. [A.S. _sceanca_, leg--_sceacan_, to shake; Dut. _schonk_, Low Ger. _schake_.] SHANKER, shangk'[.e]r, _n._ the same as CHANCRE. SHANNY, shan'i, _n._ the smooth blenny. SHA'N'T, shant (_coll._), a contraction of _shall not_. SHANTY, shant'i, _n._ a mean dwelling or hut, a temporary house: a grog-shop. [Perh. from Ir. _sean_, old, _tig_, a house; others derive through Fr. _chantier_, a timber-yard, from L. _cantherius_, a rafter.] SHANTY, shant'i, _n._ a song with boisterous drawling chorus, sung by sailors while heaving at the capstan, or the like--also CHANT'Y, CHANT'IE.--_n._ SHANT'YMAN, the leader of such a chorus. [Prob. from Fr. _chanter_, to sing.] SHAPE, sh[=a]p, _v.t._ to form: to fashion: to adapt to a purpose: to regulate: to direct: to conceive.--_v.i._ (_Shak._) to take shape, to become fit:--_pa.p._ sh[=a]ped, (_B._) sh[=a]p'en.--_n._ form or figure: external appearance: that which has form or figure: an appearance: particular nature: expression, as in words: a pattern: (_cook._) a dish of rice, jelly, or the like cast in a mould and turned out when it has grown firm.--_adjs._ SH[=A]'PABLE, SHAPE'ABLE; SHAPED, having a varied ornamental form; SHAPE'LESS, having no shape or regular form: (_Shak._) effecting nothing.--_ns._ SHAPE'LESSNESS; SHAPE'LINESS.--_adj._ SHAPE'LY, having shape or regular form: symmetrical.--_ns._ SH[=A]'PER, a metal planing machine, the tool with reciprocating motion; SH[=A]'PING, representation, imagination.--TAKE SHAPE, to assume a definite form or plan. [A.S. _sceapan_, _scapan_, to form, make; Ice. _skapa_, Ger. _schaffen_.] SHARD, shärd, _n._ dung. [Ety. dub.] SHARD, shärd, _n._ (_Spens._) a boundary, division: (_obs._) the leaves of the artichoke whitened. [Perh. from Ice. _skardh_ (Ger. _scharte_, a notch), and ult. conn. with A.S. _sceran_, to divide.] SHARD, shärd, _n._ a fragment, as of an earthen vessel: the wing-case of a beetle.--_adjs._ SHARD'-BORNE (_Shak._), borne on shards, as beetles; SHAR'DED (_Shak._), provided with elytra or wing-cases. [A.S. _sceard_, a fragment--_sceran_, to divide.] SHARE, sh[=a]r, _n._ a part cut off: a portion: dividend: one of a number of equal portions of anything: a fixed and indivisible section of the capital of a company.--_v.t._ to divide into parts: to partake with others.--_v.i._ to have a part: to receive a dividend.--_ns._ SHARE'-BROK'ER, a broker or dealer in shares of railways, &c.; SHARE'HOLDER, one who holds or owns a share in a joint fund or property; SHARE'-LIST, a list of the prices of shares of railways, banks, &c.; SH[=A]R'ER.--SHARE AND SHARE ALIKE, in equal shares.--DEFERRED SHARES (see DEFER); GO SHARES, to divide equally; ORDINARY SHARES, shares forming the common stock of a company. [A.S. _scearu_--_sceran_, to shear.] SHARE, sh[=a]r, _n._ the iron blade of a plough which cuts the ground.--_v.t._ to cut, cleave.--_n._ SHARE'-BEAM, the part of the plough to which the share is fixed. [A.S. _scear_--_sceran_, to shear.] SHARK, shärk, _n._ a common name for most of the Elasmobranch fishes included in the sub-order _Selachoidei_--voracious fishes, mostly carnivorous, with large sharp teeth on the jaws--most numerous in the tropics. [Perh. L. _carcharus_--Gr. _karcharos_, jagged.] SHARK, shärk, _n._ a sharper, a cheat or swindler: an extortionate rogue.--_v.i._ to live like a swindler.--_v.t._ to pick up (with _up_ or _out_).--_ns._ SHARK'ER; SHARK'ING. [Prob. from preceding word.] SHARN, shärn, _n._ (_Scot._) dung of cattle. [A.S. _scearn_; cf. Ice. _skarn_.] [Illustration] SHARP, shärp, _adj._ having a thin cutting edge or fine point: peaked or ridged: affecting the senses as if pointed or cutting: severe: keen, keenly contested: alive to one's interests, barely honest: of keen or quick perception: vigilant, attentive: pungent, biting, sarcastic: eager: fierce: impetuous: shrill: (_phon._) denoting a consonant pronounced with breath and not voice, surd--as the sharp mutes, _p_, _t_, _k_.--_n._ an acute or shrill sound: (_mus._) a note raised a semitone in the scale, also the character directing this: a long and slender sewing-needle--opp. to a _blunt_ and a _between_: a small sword or duelling sword: a sharper, cheat: (_pl._) the hard parts of wheat, middlings: an oysterman's boat--also SHARP'IE, SHARP'Y.--_v.t._ (_obs._) to sharpen.--_v.i._ to play the sharper, cheat.--_adj._ SHARP'-CUT, cut sharply or definitely: well-defined: clear.--_v.t._ SHARP'EN, to make sharp or keen, pungent or painful, active or acute.--_v.i._ to grow sharp.--_ns._ SHAR'PENER, one who sharpens; SHARP'ER, a trickster: a swindler: a cheat.--_adjs._ SHARP'-EYED, sharp-sighted; SHARP'-GROUND, ground to a sharp edge; SHARP'-LOOK'ING (_Shak._), hungry-looking.--_adv._ SHARP'LY, quickly: to the moment: (_mus._) above the true pitch.--_n._ SHARP'NESS.--_adjs._ SHARP'-NOSED, having a pointed nose: keen of scent, as a dog; SHARP'-SET, ravenous.--_ns._ SHARP'-SHOOT'ER, an old term applied in the army to riflemen when skirmishing or specially employed as marksmen; SHARP'-SHOOT'ING.--_adjs._ SHARP'-SIGHT'ED, having acute sight: shrewd; SHARP'-VIS'AGED, having a thin face; SHARP'-WIT'TED, having an acute wit.--LOOK SHARP, to show eagerness, to act quickly. [A.S. _scearp_; Ice. _skarpr_, Gr. _scharf_.] SHASTER, shas't[.e]r, _n._ a text-book, an authoritative religious and legal book among the Hindus.--Also SHAS'TRA. [Sans. _ç[=a]stra_--_ç[=a]s_, to teach.] SHATTER, shat'[.e]r, _v.t._ to break or dash to pieces: to crack: to disorder: to render unsound.--_v.i._ to break into fragments.--_n._ a fragment: impaired state.--_adjs._ SHATT'ER-BRAINED, -P[=A]'TED, disordered in intellect; SHATT'ERY, brittle. [_Scatter_.] SHAUCHLE, shawh'l, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to walk with shuffling, loose gait.--_v.t._ to distort, deform. [Perh. conn. with Ice. _skjálgr_, wry, squinting.] SHAVE, sh[=a]v, _v.t._ to cut off the hair with a razor: to pare closely: to make smooth by paring: to cut in thin slices: to skim along the surface: to strip, swindle.--_v.i._ to remove hair by a razor:--_pa.p._ sh[=a]ved or sh[=a]'ven.--_n._ the act of shaving: a paring: a narrow miss or escape: a piece of financial knavery.--_ns._ SHAVE'-GRASS, the scouring-rush; SHAVE'LING, a monk or friar, from his shaven crown; SH[=A]'VER, one who shaves: a barber: a sharp or extortionate dealer: (_coll._) a chap, youngster; SH[=A]'VING, the act of shaving: that which is shaved or pared off; SH[=A]'VING-B[=A]'SIN, -BOWL, -BRUSH, a basin, bowl, brush, used by persons shaving.--CLOSE, or NEAR, SHAVE, a very narrow escape. [A.S. _sceafan_, _scafan_; Dut. _schaven_, Ger. _schaben_, L. _scab[)e]re_, to scrape, Gr. _skaptein_, to dig.] SHAVIE, sh[=a]'vi, _n._ (_Scot._) a trick or prank.--Also SK[=A]'VIE. [Perh. Dan. _skæv_, crooked; cf. Ger. _schief_, oblique.] SHAW, shaw, _n._ a thicket, a small wood: (_Scot._) a stem with the leaves, as of a potato. [A.S. _scaga_; Ice. _skógr_, Dan. _skov_.] SHAWL, shawl, _n._ a wrap made of wool, cotton, silk, or hair, used particularly by women as a loose covering for the shoulders: a kind of mantle.--_v.t._ to wrap in a shawl.--_ns._ SHAWL'-DANCE, a graceful Oriental dance in which the dancer waves a scarf; SHAWL'-MAT[=E]'RIAL, a textile of silk and wool, soft and flexible, usually with Oriental designs, employed for dresses and parts of dresses for women; SHAWL'-PATT'ERN, a coloured pattern, supposed to resemble an Eastern shawl, and applied to material of plainer design; SHAWL'-PIN, a pin used for fastening a shawl; SHAWL'-STRAP, a pair of leather straps, fitted to a handle, used for carrying shawls, rugs, &c.; SHAWL'-WAIST'COAT, a vest or waistcoat with a large staring pattern like that of a shawl. [Pers. _sh[=a]l_.] SHAWM, SHALM, _shawm_, _n._ a musical instrument of the oboe class, having a double reed enclosed in a globular mouthpiece. [O. Fr. _chalemie_--L. _calamus_, a reed-pipe.] SHAY, _n._ See CHAY. SHAYAK, sha'yak, _n._ a coarse Tripoli woollen cloth. SHAYA-ROOT, sh[=a]'ä-r[=oo]t, _n._ the root of the so-called Indian madder, yielding a red dye.--Also CHÉ-ROOT, CHOY-ROOT. [Tamil _chaya_.] SHE, sh[=e], _pron. fem._ the female understood or previously mentioned: sometimes used as a noun for a woman or other female. [Orig. the fem. of the def. art. in A.S.--viz. _seó_, which in the 12th century began to replace _heó_, the old fem. pron.] SHEA, sh[=e]'ä, _n._ the tree yielding the Galam butter or shea-butter.--Also SH[=E]'A-TREE and _Karite_. SHEADING, sh[=e]'ding, _n._ one of the six divisions or districts of the Isle of Man. [_Shed_.] SHEAF, sh[=e]f, _n._ a quantity of things, esp. the stalks of grain, put together and bound: a bundle of arrows, usually 24 in number: any bundle or collection:--_pl._ SHEAVES (sh[=e]vz).--_v.t._ to bind in sheaves.--_v.i._ to make sheaves.--_adj._ SHEAF'Y. [A.S. _sceáf_--A.S. _scúfan_, to shove; Ger. _schaub_, Dut. _schoof_.] SHEAL, sh[=e]l, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to shell, as peas.--_n._ SHEAL'ING, the shell, pod, or husk, as of peas. [_Shell_.] SHEAL, SHIEL, sh[=e]l, _n._ (_Scot._) a hut used by shepherds, sportsmen, &c.: a shelter for sheep.--_ns._ SHEAL'ING, SHEEL'ING, SHIEL'ING. [Either Ice. _skáli_, a hut, or Ice. _skjól_, a shelter; both cog. with sky, _shade_.] SHEAR, sh[=e]r, _v.t._ to cut or clip: to clip with shears or any other instrument: (_Scot._) to reap with a sickle.--_v.i._ to separate, cut, penetrate: in mining, to make a vertical cut in the coal:--_pa.t._ sheared, (_obs._) shore; _pa.p._ sheared or shorn.--_n._ a shearing or clipping: a strain where compression is answered by elongation at right angles: curve, deviation.--_ns._ SHEAR'-BILL, the scissor-bill, cut-water, or black skimmer; SHEAR'ER; SHEAR'-HOG, a sheep after the first shearing; SHEAR'ING, the act or operation of cutting with shears: what is cut off with shears: (_Scot._) the time of reaping: the process of preparing shear-steel: (_geol._) the process by which shear-structure (q.v.) has been produced; SHEAR'LING, a sheep only once sheared; SHEAR'MAN, one whose occupation is to shear cloth; SHEARS (_pl._ and _sing._), an instrument for shearing or cutting, consisting of two blades that meet each other: a hoisting apparatus (see SHEERS): anything resembling shears, as even a pair of wings (_Spens._); SHEAR'-STEEL, steel suitable for the manufacture of shears and other edge-tools; SHEAR'-STRUC'TURE (_geol._), a structure often seen in volcanic rocks, due to the reciprocal compression and elongation of various parts under great crust movements; SHEAR'-WA'TER, a genus of oceanic birds allied to the petrels, and varying from 8½ to 14 inches in length. [A.S. _sceran_; Ice. _skera_, to clip, Ger. _scheren_, to shave.] SHEAT-FISH, sh[=e]t'-fish, _n._ a fish of the family _Siluridæ_, the great catfish of central Europe. SHEATH, sh[=e]th, _n._ a case for a sword or other long instrument: a scabbard: any thin defensive covering: a membrane covering a stem or branch: the wing-case of an insect.--_v.t._ SHEATHE (_th_), to put into a sheath: to cover with a sheath or case: to enclose in a lining.--_adj._ SHEATHED (_th_), provided with, or enclosed in, a sheath: (_bot._, _zool._, and _anat._) having a sheath, vaginate.--_ns._ SHEATH'ING (_th_), that which sheathes, esp. the covering of a ship's bottom; SHEATH'-KNIFE, a knife carried in a sheath from the waist.--_adjs._ SHEATH'LESS; SHEATH'-WINGED, having the wings encased in elytra: coleopterous; SHEATH'Y, sheath-like.--SHEATHE THE SWORD, to put an end to war. [A.S. _scéth_, _sc['æ]th_; Ger. _scheide_, Ice. _skeithir_.] SHEAVE, sh[=e]v, _n._ the wheel of a pulley over which the rope runs: a sliding scutcheon for covering a keyhole.--_n._ SHEAVE'-HOLE. [_Shive_.] SHEAVED, sh[=e]vd, _adj._ (_Shak._) made of straw. SHEBANG, sh[=e]-bang', _n._ (_Amer._) a place, a store, a saloon, a gaming-house: a brothel. SHEBEEN, she-b[=e]n', _n._ a place where intoxicating drinks are privately and unlawfully sold.--_ns._ SHEB[=EE]'NER, one who keeps a shebeen; SHEB[=EE]'NING. [Ir.] SHECHINAH, sh[=e]-k[=i]'na, _n._ Same as SHEKINAH. SHECKLATON, shek'la-ton, _n._ Same as CHECKLATON. SHED, shed, _v.t._ to part, separate: to scatter, cast off: to throw out: to pour: to spill.--_v.i._ to let fall, cast:--_pr.p._ shed'ding; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ shed.--_n._ a division, parting, as of the hair, and in watershed.--_ns._ SHED'DER; SHED'DING. [A.S. _sceádan_, to separate; Ger. _scheiden_.] SHED, shed, _n._ a slight erection, usually of wood, for shade or shelter: an outhouse: a large temporary open structure for reception of goods. [_Shade_.] SHEELING. See under SHEAL. SHEEN, sh[=e]n, _n._ brightness or splendour.--_adj._ (_obs._) bright, shining.--_v.i._ (_arch._) to shine, glitter.--_adj._ SHEEN'Y, shining, beautiful. [A.S. _scéne_, _scýne_, fair; Dut. _schoon_, Ger. _schön_, beautiful; prob. from the root of A.S. _sceáwian_, to look at.] SHEENY, sh[=e]n'i, _n._ (_slang_) a sharp fellow, a cheat, a Jewish dealer.--_adj._ cheating. [Illustration] SHEEP, sh[=e]p, _n.sing._ and _pl._ the well-known ruminant mammal covered with wool: leather made from sheep-skin: a silly and timid fellow.--_ns._ SHEEP'-B[=I]T'ER (_Shak._), one who practises petty thefts; SHEEP'-B[=I]T'ING, robbing those under one's care, like an ill-trained shepherd-dog; SHEEP'-COTE, an enclosure for sheep; SHEEP'-DOG, a dog trained to watch sheep: (_slang_) a chaperon.--_adj._ SHEEP'-FACED, sheepish, bashful.--_ns._ SHEEP'-FARM'ER, SHEEP'-FOLD, a fold or enclosure for sheep: a flock of sheep; SHEEP'-HEAD, SHEEP'S'-HEAD, a fool, a stupid and timid person: an American fish of the family _Sparidæ_, allied to the perches, so called from the shape and colour of the head; SHEEP'-HOOK, a shepherd's crook.--_adj._ SHEEP'ISH, like a sheep: bashful: foolishly diffident.--_adv._ SHEEP'ISHLY.--_ns._ SHEEP'ISHNESS; SHEEP'-LOUSE, a parasitic dipterous insect; SHEEP'-MAR'KET, a place where sheep are sold; SHEEP'-MAS'TER, a master or owner of sheep; SHEEP'-PEN, an enclosure for sheep; SHEEP'-PEST, the sheep-tick; SHEEP'-POX, a contagious eruptive disease of sheep, variola ovina; SHEEP'-RUN, a tract of grazing country for sheep; SHEEP'S'-EYE, a modest, diffident look: a loving, wishful glance; SHEEP'S'-FOOT, a printer's tool with a claw at one end for prizing up forms; SHEEP'-SHANK (_Scot._), the shank of a sheep--hence something slender and weak: a nautical knot for temporarily shortening a rope; SHEEP'-SHEARER, one who shears sheep; SHEEP'-SHEARING; SHEEP'-SHEARS, a kind of shears used for shearing sheep; SHEEP'-SIL'VER, money formerly paid by tenants for release from the service of washing the lord's sheep; SHEEP'-SKIN, the skin of a sheep: leather prepared from the skin of a sheep: a deed engrossed on sheep-skin parchment; SHEEP'-STEAL'ER; SHEEP'-STEAL'ING; SHEEP'S'-WOOL, a valuable Florida sponge; SHEEP'-TICK, an insect which attacks the sheep, sucking its blood and raising a tumour; SHEEP'WALK, the place where the sheep pasture; SHEEP'-WASH, a lotion for vermin on the sheep, or to preserve its wool--also SHEEP'-DIP; SHEEP'-WHIS'TLING, tending sheep.--BLACK SHEEP, the disreputable member of a family or group. [A.S. _sceáp_; Ger. _schaf_.] SHEER, sh[=e]r, _adj._ pure: unmingled: simple: without a break, perpendicular.--_adv._ clear: quite: at once. [Ice. _skærr_, bright; Ice. _skírr_, A.S. _scír_.] SHEER, sh[=e]r, _v.i._ to deviate from the line of the proper course, as a ship: to turn aside.--_n._ the deviation from the straight line, or the longitudinal curve or bend of a ship's deck or sides.--_ns._ SHEER'-HULK, an old dismasted ship with a pair of sheers mounted on it for masting ships; SHEER'-LEG, one of the spars.--_n.pl._ SHEERS, an apparatus for hoisting heavy weights, having usually two legs or spars spread apart at their lower ends, and bearing at their tops, where they are joined, hoisting-tackle. [Perh. Dut. _scheren_, to cut, withdraw.] SHEET, sh[=e]t, _n._ a large, thin piece of anything: a large, broad piece of cloth in a bed: a large, broad piece of paper: a sail: the rope fastened to the leeward corner of a sail to extend it to the wind.--_v.t._ to cover with, or as with, a sheet: to furnish with sheets: to form into sheets.--_ns._ SHEET'-COPP'ER, -[=I]'RON, -LEAD, -MET'AL, copper, iron, lead, metal in thin sheets.--_adj._ SHEET'ED, with a white band or belt.--_ns._ SHEET'-GLASS, a kind of crown-glass made at first in the form of a cylinder, cut longitudinally, and opened out into a sheet; SHEET'ING, cloth used for bed-sheets: the process of forming into sheets; SHEET'-LIGHT'NING, lightning appearing in sheets or having a broad appearance; SHEET'-WORK, press-work.--A SHEET (or THREE SHEETS) IN THE WIND, fuddled, tipsy; IN SHEETS (_print._), not folded, or folded but not bound. [A.S. _scéte_, _scýte_, a sheet--_sceótan_ (pa.t. _sceát_), to shoot, project.] SHEET-ANCHOR, sh[=e]t'-angk'ur, _n._ the largest anchor of a ship, shot or thrown out in extreme danger: chief support: last refuge. [_Shoot_ and _anchor_.] SHEIK, SHEIKH, sh[=e]k, _n._ a man of eminence, a lord, a chief: a title of learned or devout me _n._ [Ar. _sheikh_--_sh[=a]kha_, to be old.] SHEILING, sh[=e]l'ing, _n._ Same as SHEALING. SHEKEL, shek'l, _n._ a Jewish weight (about half-an-ounce avoirdupois) and coin (about 2s. 6d. sterling): (_pl._) money (_slang_). [Heb. from _sh[=a]qal_, to weigh.] SHEKINAH, SHECHINAH, sh[=e]-k[=i]'na, _n._ the Divine presence which rested like a cloud or visible light over the mercy-seat. [Heb.,--_sh[=a]khan_, to dwell.] SHELDRAKE, shel'dr[=a]k, _n._ a genus of birds of the Duck family _Anatidæ_, having the hind-toe free:--_fem._ SHEL'DUCK. [A.S. _scyld_, a shield, and _drake_.] SHELF, shelf, _n._ a board fixed on a wall, &c., for laying things on: a flat layer of rock: a ledge: a shoal: a sandbank:--_pl._ SHELVES (shelvz).--_adj._ SHELF'Y.--PUT, LAY, ON THE SHELF, to put aside from duty or service. [A.S. _scylfe_, a plank, Ice. _skjálf_, a bench.] SHELL, shel, _n._ a term applied to the hard outer covering or skeleton of many animals, to the internal skeleton of some invertebrates, and to the outer covering-of the eggs of various animals: any framework: the outer ear: a testaceous mollusc: any frail structure: a frail boat: a rough kind of coffin: an instrument of music: a bomb: a hollow projectile containing a bursting charge of gunpowder or other explosive ignited at the required instant by means of either time or percussion fuses: the thin coating of copper on an electrotype: an intermediate class in some schools.--_v.t._ to break off the shell: to remove the shell from: to take out of the shell: to throw shells or bombs upon, to bombard.--_v.i._ to fall off like a shell: to cast the shell.--_ns._ SHELLAC (she-lak', shel'ak), SHELL'-LAC, lac prepared in thin plates for making varnish, &c.--_v.t._ to coat with shellac.--_ns._ SHELL'-BACK, an old sailor, a barnacle; SHELL'-BARK, either of two North American hickories.--_adj._ SHELLED, having a shell, testaceous.--_ns._ SHELL'ER, one who shells or husks; SHELL'FISH, a popular term for many aquatic animals not fishes, esp. oysters, clams and all molluscs, and crustaceans such as crabs and lobsters; SHELL'-GUN, a cannon used for throwing shells, esp. horizontally: SHELL'-HEAP, a prehistoric accumulation of shells, &c., pointing back to a race that lived on shellfish; SHELL'-ICE, ice no longer supported by the water beneath; SHELL'-JACK'ET, an undress military jacket; SHELL'-LIME, lime procured from the shells of shellfish by burning; SHELL'-LIME'STONE, a limestone largely consisting of shells; SHELL'-MARL, a white earthy deposit, resulting from the accumulation of fragments of shells; SHELL'-MOUND, a shell-heap; SHELL'-OR'NAMENT, decoration in which any shell-form is prominent.--_adj._ SHELL'PROOF, proof against, or able to resist, shells or bombs.--_ns._ SHELL'-ROOM, a magazine on board ship where shells are stored; SHELL'-SAND, sand consisting in great part of fragments of shells, and often containing a small proportion of organic matter, a very useful manure for clay soils, heavy loams, and newly-reclaimed bogs; SHELL'WORK, work composed of or adorned with shells.--_adj._ SHELL'Y, consisting of a shell: testaceous.--SHELL OUT, (_slang_), to hand over, as money. [A.S. _scell_, _scyl_; Dut. _schel_, Ice. _skel_.] SHELTA, shel'ta, _n._ a secret jargon of great antiquity spoken by Irish tinkers, beggars, and pipers.--Also _Shelr[=u]_, _Cainnt cheard_, _Gam cant_, _Bog-latin_. [_Shelr[=u]_, a perversion of the Irish _béulra_, language.] SHELTER, shel't[.e]r, _n._ that which shields or protects: a refuge: a retreat, a harbour: protection.--_v.t._ to cover or shield: to defend: to conceal.--_v.i._ to take shelter.--_n._ SHEL'TERER.--_adjs._ SHEL'TERLESS; SHEL'TERY, affording shelter. [Orig. _sheltron_--A.S. _scyld-truma_, shield-troop--_scyld_, shield, _truma_, troop--_trum_, firm.] SHELTY, SHELTIE, shel'ti, _n._ a Shetland pony. [Perh. a dim. of _Shetland pony_.] SHELVE, shelv, _v.t._ to furnish with shelves: to place on a shelf; to put aside.--_n._ SHEL'VING, the furnishing with shelves: the act of placing on a shelf: shelves or materials for shelves. SHELVE, shelv, _v.i._ to slope, incline.--_n._ a ledge.--_n._ SHEL'VING, a shelving place: (_rare_) a bank.--_adj._ SHEL'VY, sloping, shallow. [Prob. ult. from Ice. _skelgja-sk_, to come askew--_skjálgr_, wry.] SHEMITIC. Same as SEMITIC. SHEND, shend, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to disgrace, to reproach, to blame, also to overpower, to surpass:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ shent. [A.S. _scendan_, to disgrace--A.S. _scand_, _sceand_ (Ger. _schande_), shame.] SHE-OAK, sh[=e]'-[=o]k, _n._ one of several shrubs of the Australian genus _Casuarina_. SHEOL, sh[=e]'[=o]l, _n._ the place of departed spirits. [Heb. _she'[=o]l_, a hollow place--_sh[=a]'al_, to dig out.] SHEPHERD, shep'[.e]rd, _n._ one who herds sheep: a swain: a pastor:--_fem._ SHEP'HERDESS.--_v.t._ to tend as a shepherd: to watch over, protect the interests of, or one's own interests in.--_ns._ SHEP'HERDISM, pastoral life; SHEP'HERDLING, a little shepherd; SHEP'HERD'S-CROOK, a long staff, its upper end curved into a hook; SHEP'HERD'S-DOG, a dog specially trained to help in tending sheep, the collie or Scotch sheep-dog, &c.; SHEP'HERD'S-FLUTE, a flageolet or the like; SHEP'HERD'S-NEE'DLE, an annual plant, called also Venus's comb; SHEP'HERD'S-PLAID, -TAR'TAN, a woollen cloth made with black and white checks: this form of pattern itself; SHEP'HERD'S-POUCH, -PURSE, an annual cruciferous plant, with compressed, somewhat heart-shaped seed-vessel; SHEP'HERD'S-ROD, -STAFF, a small kind of teasel.--SHEPHERD KINGS (see HYKSOS).--THE GOOD SHEPHERD, a title of Jesus Christ (John, x. 11); THE SHEPHERDS, a sect of fanatical shepherds in France about 1251 A.D., eager to deliver the imprisoned Louis IX. [A.S. _sceáp-hyrde_. _Sheep_ and _herd_.] SHEPPY, SHEPPEY, shep'i, _n._ (_prov_.) a sheep-cote. SHERBET, sh[.e]r'bet, _n._ a drink of water and fruit juices, sweetened and flavoured. [Through Turk. from Ar. _sharbat_, a drink--_shariba_, he drinks.] SHERD, sh[.e]rd, _n._ See SHARD. SHERIF, SHEREEF, she-r[=e]f', _n._ a descendant of Mohammed through his daughter Fatima: a prince or ruler: the chief magistrate of Mecca. [Ar. _shar[=i]f_, noble, lofty.] SHERIFF, sher'if, _n._ the governor of a shire: (_English law_) the chief officer of the crown in every county or shire, his duties being chiefly ministerial rather than judicial: (_Scots law_) the chief magistrate and judge of the county: in the United States the office of sheriff is mainly ministerial, his principal duties to maintain peace and order, attend courts, guard prisoners, serve processes, and execute judgments.--_ns._ SHER'IFFALTY, SHER'IFFDOM, SHER'IFFSHIP, the office or jurisdiction of a sheriff; SHER'IFF-CLERK, in Scotland the registrar of the sheriff's court, who has charge of the records of the court; SHER'IFF-DEP'UTE (_Scot._), the sheriff proper, so called since the abolition of the heritable jurisdictions in 1748 to distinguish him from the earlier heritable SHER'IFF-PRIN'CIPAL, whose title is now merged in that of the Lord-lieutenant; SHER'IFF-OFF'ICER, in Scotland, an officer connected with the sheriff's court, who is charged with arrests, the serving of processes, &c.; SHER'IFF-SUB'STITUTE, the acting sheriff in a Scotch county or city, like the sheriff-depute appointed by the crown, but unlike the sheriff-depute forced to reside within his judicial district, and forbidden to take other employment; UN'DER-SHER'IFF, the deputy of an English sheriff who performs the execution of writs. [A.S. _scir-geréfa_--_scir_ (Eng. _shire_), _geréfa_, a governor; cog. with Ger. _graf_, a count.] SHERRIS, sher'is, _n._ (_Shak._). Same as SHERRY. SHERRY, sher'i, _n._ a name derived from _Xeres_ or _Jerez_ de la Frontera, near Cadiz, and applied to the better kind of white wines grown in the neighbourhood of Xeres.--SHERRY COBBLER, a cobbler made with sherry.--NATURAL SHERRY, a sherry having from two to four per cent. of spirit added to make it keep. SHET, shet, _adj._ (_U.S._) freed from. SHETLANDER, shet'land-[.e]r, _n._ a native or inhabitant of _Shetland_.--SHETLAND LACE, an open-work ornamental trimming made with woollen yarn for shawls, &c.; SHETLAND PONY, a small sturdy and shaggy horse, usually nine to ten hands high, a shelty; SHETLAND WOOL, a thin but strong undyed worsted, spun from the wool of the sheep in the Shetland Islands, much used for knitting fine shawls, &c. SHEUCH, SHEUGH, sh[=oo]h, or shyuh, _n._ (_Scot._) a ditch. SHEVA, she-vä', _n._ a Hebrew point (:) written below its consonant, and indicating properly the absence of a vowel (_simple sheva_). It is either unsounded, as at the close of a syllable (_silent sheva_), or given a short breathing or neutral sound, as at the beginning of a syllable (_vocal sheva_). Sometimes it is compounded with the short vowels, forming _compound shevas_. SHEW, sh[=o]. Same as SHOW. SHEWBREAD, sh[=o]'bred. Same as SHOWBREAD. SHIAH, sh[=e]'ä, _n._ a member of that Mohammedan sect which maintains that Ali, first cousin of Mohammed and husband of his daughter Fatima, was the first legitimate successor of the Prophet, rejecting the three califs of their opponents the Sunnis, as usurpers.--_n._ SHIISM (sh[=e]'izm). [Ar. _sh[=i]'a_, sect.] SHIBBOLETH, shib'b[=o]-leth, _n._ (_B._) a test-word used by the Gileadites under Jephthah to detect the fleeing Ephraimites, who could not pronounce the _sh_ (Judges, xii. 4-6): the criterion or watchword of a party. [Heb., an ear of corn, or a stream.] [Illustration] SHIELD, sh[=e]ld, _n._ a broad plate worn for defence on the left arm: anything that protects: defence: a person who protects: the shield-shaped escutcheon used for displaying arms.--_v.t._ to defend: (_Shak._) to forfend, avert.--_v.i._ to be a shelter.--_ns._ SHIEL'DER; SHIELD'-FERN, a fern, so called from its shape.--_adj._ SHIELD'LESS, defenceless.--_adv._ SHIELD'LESSLY.--_n._ SHIELD'LESSNESS.--_adj._ SHIELD'-SHAPED, scutate. [A.S. _scyld_; Ger. _schild_, Ice. _skiöldr_, protection.] SHIELING. See under SHEAL. SHIFT, shift, _v.t._ to change in form or character: to put out of the way: to dress in fresh clothes.--_v.i._ to change about: to remove: to change one's clothes: to resort to expedients for some purpose: in violin-playing, to move the left hand from its original position next to the nut.--_n._ a change: in violin-playing, any position of the left hand except that nearest the nut: a squad or relay of men: a contrivance: an artifice: last resource: a chemise or woman's undermost garment (orig. signifying a change of body-linen).--_adj._ SHIFT'ABLE, capable of being shifted.--_ns._ SHIFT'ER, one who shifts: a trickster; SHIFT'INESS, the character of being shifty.--_adj._ SHIFT'ING, unstable: shifty.--_adv._ SHIFT'INGLY.--_adj._ SHIFT'LESS, destitute of shifts or expedients: unsuccessful, for want of proper means.--_adv._ SHIFT'LESSLY.--_n._ SHIFT'LESSNESS.--_adj._ SHIFT'Y, full of, or ready with, shifts, contrivances, or expedients.--SHIFT ABOUT, to vacillate: to turn quite round to the opposite point; SHIFT FOR ONE'S SELF, to provide for one's self; SHIFT OF CROPS, rotation of crops; SHIFT OFF, to defer: to put away.--MAKE SHIFT, to find ways and means of doing something, contrive. [A.S. _sciftan_, to divide, Ice. _skipta_.] SHIITE, sh[=e]'[=i]t, _n._ the same as SHIAH (q.v.).--_adj._ SHIIT'IC. SHIKAR, shi-kär', _n._ in India, hunting, sport.--_ns._ SHIKAR'EE, SHIKAR'I, a hunter. [Hind.] SHIKO, shik'[=o], _n._ a posture of prostration in Burma. SHILLALAH, shi-l[=a]'la, _n._ an oak sapling, the oak or blackthorn cudgel of the conventional Irishman.--Also SHILLE'LAH, SHILL[=A]'LY. [Prob. _Shillelagh_, an oak-wood in County Wicklow.] SHILLING, shil'ing, _n._ an English silver coin=12 pence.--TAKE THE SHILLING, to enlist as a soldier by accepting the recruiting-officer's shilling--discontinued since 1879. [A.S. _scilling_; Ger. _schilling_.] SHILLY-SHALLY, shil'i-shal'i, _adv._ in silly hesitation.--_n._ foolish trifling: irresolution.--_v.i._ to hesitate.--_n._ SHILL'Y-SHALL'IER, an irresolute person. [A reduplication of '_Shall I?_'] SHILPIT, shil'pit, _adj._ (_Scot._) weak, washy: feeble-looking. [Ety. dub.] SHILY, same as SHYLY. See SHY. SHIM, shim, _n._ (_mach._) a thin slip used to fill up space caused by wear.--_v.t._ to wedge up. [Ety. dub.] SHIMMER, shim'[.e]r, _v.i._ to gleam tremulously, to glisten.--_ns._ SHIMM'ER, SHIMM'ERING, a tremulous gleam. [A.S. _scimrian_--_scíman_, to shine; Ger. _schimmern_.] SHIN, shin, _n._ the large bone of the leg or the forepart of it: a bird's shank.--_v.i._ to climb a tree (with _up_): to tramp, trudge.--_v.t._ to climb a tree by swarming up it: to kick on the shins.--_ns._ SHIN'-BONE, the tibia; SHIN'-PIECE, a piece of armour defending the forepart of the leg; SHIN'-PLAS'TER (_U.S._), a patch of brown-paper steeped in vinegar, &c., laid on a sore: a small paper note or promise to pay. [A.S. _scina_, the shin (esp. in the compound _scin-bán_, shin-bone); Dut. _scheen_, Ger. _schiene_.] SHIN, shin, _n._ a god, or the gods: the term used by Protestant missionaries in Japan and China for the Supreme Being. SHINDY, shin'di, _n._ the game of shinty, shinny, bandy-ball, or hockey: (_slang_) a row, disturbance.--KICK UP A SHINDY, to make a disturbance. SHINE, sh[=i]n, _v.i._ to beam with steady radiance: to glitter: to be bright or beautiful: to be eminent.--_v.t._ to cause to shine:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ shone (shon), (_B._) sh[=i]ned.--_adj._ (_Spens._) bright.--_n._ brightness: splendour: fair weather: (_slang_) disturbance, row, a trick.--_n._ SH[=I]'NER, that which shines: (_slang_) a coin, esp. a sovereign: a small American fresh-water fish.--_adj._ SH[=I]'NING.--_adv._ SH[=I]'NINGLY.--_n._ SH[=I]'NINGNESS.--_adj._ SH[=I]'NY, clear, unclouded: glossy.--CAUSE, or MAKE, THE FACE TO SHINE (_B._), to be propitious; TAKE THE SHINE OUT OF (_slang_), to outshine, eclipse. [A.S. _scínan_; Ger. _scheinen_.] SHINGLE, shing'gl, _n._ wood sawed or split thin, used instead of slates or tiles, for roofing houses: (_U.S._) a small sign-board or plate.--_v.t._ to cover with shingles: to crop the hair very close.--_adjs._ SHING'LED, SHING'LE-ROOFED, having the roof covered with shingles.--_ns._ SHING'LER; SHING'LING. [Low L. _scindula_, a wooden tile--L. _scind[)e]re_, to split.] SHINGLE, shing'gl, _n._ the coarse gravel on the shores of rivers or of the sea.--_adj._ SHING'LY. [Orig. _single_--Norw. _singel_, _singling_, shingle--_singla_, freq. of _singa_, to ring.] SHINGLES, shing'glz, _n._ popular name for the disease _Herpes zoster_. [A corr. of L. _cingulum_, a belt or girdle--_cing[)e]re_, to gird.] SHINNY, shin'i, _n._ the game of bandy-ball or hockey. [Prob. Gael, _sinteag_, a bound.] SHINTI-YAN, shin'ti-yan, _n._ the loose drawers worn by Moslem women.--Also SHIN'TIGAN. SHINTO, shin't[=o], _n._ the system of nature and hero worship forming the indigenous religion of Japan.--_ns._ SHIN'T[=O]ISM; SHIN'T[=O]IST. [Jap.,=Chin. _shin tao_--_shin_, god, _tao_, way, doctrine.] SHINTY, shin'ti, _n._ Same as SHINNY. SHIP, ship, _n._ a vessel having three masts, with tops and yards to each: generally, any large sea-going vessel.--_v.t._ to put on board a ship: to engage for service on board a ship: to transport by ship: to fix in its place.--_v.i._ to engage for service on shipboard:--_pr.p._ ship'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ shipped.--_ns._ SHIP'-BIS'CUIT, hard biscuit for use on shipboard; SHIP'BOARD, the deck or side of a ship; SHIP'-BOY, a boy that serves on board a ship; SHIP'-BREAK'ER, one who breaks up vessels no longer fit for sea; SHIP'-BROK'ER, a broker who effects sales, insurance, &c. of ships; SHIP'BUILDER, one whose occupation is to construct ships; SHIP'BUILDING; SHIP'-CANAL', a canal large enough to admit the passage of sea-going vessels; SHIP'-CAP'TAIN, one who commands a ship; SHIP'-CAR'PENTER, a carpenter who works at shipbuilding; SHIP'-CHAND'LER, a dealer in cordage, canvas, and other ship furniture or stores; SHIP'-CHAND'LERY, the business wares of a ship-chandler; SHIP'-F[=E]'VER, typhus fever, as common on board crowded ships; SHIP'FUL, as much or as many as a ship will hold; SHIP'-HOLD'ER, a ship-owner; SHIP'-LETT'ER, a letter sent by a vessel which does not carry mails; SHIP'-LOAD, the load or cargo of a ship; SHIP'MAN, a sailor:--_pl._ SHIP'MEN; SHIP'MASTER, the captain of a ship; SHIP'MATE, a companion in the same ship; SHIP'MENT, act of putting on board ship: embarkation: that which is shipped; SHIP'-MON'EY, a tyrannical tax imposed by the king on seaports, revived without authorisation of parliament by Charles I. in 1634-37; SHIP'-OF-THE-LINE, before steam navigation, a man-of-war large enough to take a place in a line of battle; SHIP'-OWN'ER, the owner of a ship or ships.--_adj._ SHIPPED (_Shak._), furnished with a ship or ships.--_ns._ SHIP'PER; SHIP'PING, ships collectively: tonnage: (_Shak._) a voyage; SHIP'PING-[=A]G'ENT, the agent of a vessel or line of vessels to whom goods are consigned for shipment.--_n.pl._ SHIP'PING-ART'ICLES, articles of agreement, between the captain and his crew.--_ns._ SHIP'PING-BILL, invoice of goods embarked; SHIP'PING-MAS'TER, the official who witnesses signature by the sailors of the articles of agreement; SHIP'PING-OFF'ICE, the office of a shipping-agent, or of a shipping-master; SHIP'-POUND, a unit of weight in the Baltic ports; SHIP'-RAIL'WAY, a railway by means of which vessels can be carried overland from one body of water to another.--_adjs._ SHIP'-RIGGED (_naut._), rigged like a ship, having three masts with square sails and spreading yards; SHIP'SHAPE, in a seaman-like manner: trim, neat, proper.--_ns._ SHIP'S'-HUS'BAND, the owner's agent in the management of a ship; SHIP'-TIRE (_Shak._), a sort of head-dress, whether from its streamers or its general likeness to a ship; SHIP'-WAY, the supports forming a sliding-way for the building, repairing, and launching of vessels; SHIP'-WORM, a genus (_Teredo_) of worm-like molluscs which perforate and live in timber, lining the cavity or tube with a calcareous encrustation; SHIP'WRECK, the wreck or destruction of a ship: destruction.--_v.t._ to destroy on the sea: to make to suffer wreck.--_ns._ SHIP'WRIGHT, a wright or carpenter who constructs ships; SHIP'YARD, a yard where ships are built or repaired.--SHIP A SEA, to have a wave come aboard; SHIP'S PAPERS, documents required for the manifestation of the property of a ship and cargo; SHIP THE OARS (see OAR).--ABOUT SHIP! an exclamation to pull in the sheet preparatory to changing a ship's course during a tack; MAKE SHIPWRECK OF, to ruin, destroy; ON SHIPBOARD, upon or within a ship; TAKE SHIP, or SHIPPING, to embark. [A.S. _scip_--_scippan_, to make--_scapan_, to shape; Goth. _skip_, Ice. _skip_, Ger. _schiff_.] SHIPPEN, ship'n, _n._ (_prov._) a stable.--Also SHIP'PON. SHIPPO, ship-p[=o]', _n._ Japanese enamel, cloisonné. SHIPTON, ship'ton, _n._ usually 'Mother Shipton,' a famous prophetess of popular English tradition, born near Knaresborough in 1488. SHIRAZ, sh[=e]-räz', _n._ a Persian wine. [_Shiraz_.] SHIRE, sh[=i]r, shir (in county-names), _n._ a county, one of the larger divisions of England for political purposes--originally a division of the kingdom under a sheriff, the deputy of the ealdorman: a term also surviving as applied to certain smaller districts in England, as Richmondshire and Hallamshire.--_ns._ SHIRE'MAN, a sheriff; SHIRE'-MOOT, SHIRE'-MOTE, formerly in England a court of the county held periodically by the sheriff together with the bishop or the ealdorman. [A.S. _scir_, _scire_, a county, _sciran_, a secondary form of _sceran_, to cut off.] SHIRK, sh[.e]rk, _v.t._ to avoid, get off or slink away from.--_n._ SHIR'KER.--_adj._ SHIR'KY. [A form of _shark_.] SHIRL, sh[.e]rl, _v.i._ (_prov._) to slide. SHIRR, SHIR, sh[.e]r, _n._ a puckering made in a fabric by parallel gathering-threads.--_v.t._ to produce such.--_adj._ SHIRRED, having lines or cords inserted between the threads, as in certain elastic fabrics.--_ns._ SHIRR'ING, decorative-shirred needlework; SHIRR'ING-STRING, a cord used to gather the threads together in shirred-work. [Ety. dub.] SHIRT, sh[.e]rt, _n._ a short garment worn next the body by men: an interior lining in a blast-furnace.--_v.t._ to cover as with a shirt.--_ns._ SHIRT'-FRILL, a fine cambric frill worn in the early years of the 19th century on the breast of the shirt; SHIRT'-FRONT, that part of the shirt which is open and covers the breast, generally of finer material, starched stiffly; SHIRT'ING, cloth for shirts: shirts collectively.--_adj._ SHIRT'LESS, without a shirt.--_ns._ SHIRT'-SLEEVE, the sleeve of a shirt; SHIRT'-WAIST, a woman's overgarment or blouse, coming to the waist and belted there.--BLOODY SHIRT, a blood-stained shirt, as the symbol of murder; BOILED SHIRT, a white shirt clean washed; IN ONE'S SHIRT-SLEEVES, without the coat. [Scand.; Ice. _skyrta_--_skortr_, shortness.] SHIST, &c. See SCHIST, &c. SHITEPOKE, sh[=i]t'p[=o]k, _n._ the North American small green heron. SHITTAH, shit'a, _n._ a tree whose durable wood--SHITTIM WOOD--was used in the construction of the Jewish Tabernacle and its furniture--prob. the _Acacia seyal_. [Heb. _shittah_, pl. _shitt[=i]m_.] SHIVAREE, shiv'a-r[=e], _v.t._ (_U.S._) to give a mock serenade to.--Also _n._ [A corr. of _charivari_.] SHIVE, sh[=i]v, _n._ (_Shak._) a slice, as of bread: a small bung for closing a wide-mouthed bottle. [Scand., Ice. _skífa_, a slice; Dut. _schijf_, Ger. _scheibe_.] SHIVER, shiv'[.e]r, _n._ a splinter, or small piece into which a thing breaks by sudden violence.--_v.t._ to shatter.--_v.i._ to fall into shivers.--_n._ SHIV'ER-SPAR, a slaty calcite or calcium carbonate.--_adj._ SHIV'ERY, brittle.--SHIVER MY TIMBERS, a nautical imprecation. [Skeat explains _shiver_ as a dim. of the foregoing _shive_, a thin slice, the same as prov. Eng. _sheave_, a thin disc of wood, wheel of a pulley--Ice. _skífa_, a slice; Dut. _schijf_, Ger. _scheibe_.] SHIVER, shiv'[.e]r, _v.i._ to shake or tremble: to shudder.--_v.t._ to cause to shake in the wind, as sails.--_n._ SHIV'ERING.--_adv._ SHIV'ERINGLY, with shivering or trembling.--_adj._ SHIV'ERY, inclined to shiver.--THE SHIVERS (_coll._), the ague, chills. [M. E. _chiveren_, a softened form of _kiveren_, supposed by Skeat to be a Scand. form of _quiver_, and a freq. of Ice. _kippa_, to pull, the spelling with sh being due to confusion with _shiver_ (_n._).] SHIZOKU, sh[=e]-z[=o]'k[=oo], _n._ the two-sworded men of Japan, the gentry proper. SHOAL, sh[=o]l, _n._ a great multitude of fishes swimming together.--_v.i._ to crowd.--_adv._ SHOAL'WISE, in shoals. [A.S. _scólu_, company--L. _schola_, school.] SHOAL, sh[=o]l, _n._ a shallow: a place where the water of a river, sea, or lake is not deep: a sandbank.--_adj._ shallow.--_v.i._ to grow shallow: to come upon shallows.--_ns._ SHOAL'ER, a coasting vessel; SHOAL'INESS; SHOAL'ING, filling up with shoals; SHOAL'-MARK, a mark set up to indicate shoal-water; SHOAL'NESS, shallowness.--_adj._ SHOAL'Y, full of shoals or shallows: not deep. [Scand.; Ice. _skálgr_, oblique; cf. _Shallow_.] SHOCK, shok, _n._ a violent shake: a sudden dashing of one thing against another: violent onset: an offence: a condition of prostration of voluntary and involuntary functions caused by trauma, a surgical operation, or excessive sudden emotional disturbance: (_coll._) a sudden attack of paralysis, a stroke: an electrical stimulant to sensory nerves, &c.: any very strong emotion.--_v.t._ to shake by violence: to offend: to disgust: to dismay.--_v.i._ to collide with violence.--_n._ SHOCK'ER (_coll._), a very sensational tale.--_adj._ SHOCK'ING, offensive, repulsive.--_adv._ SHOCK'INGLY.--_n._ SHOCK'INGNESS. [Prof. Skeat explains M. E. _schokken_, to shock, as from O. Fr. _choc_, a shock, _choquer_, to give a shock--Old High Ger. _scoc_, a shock, shaking movement. Cf. A.S. _scóc_, pa.t. of _sceacan_, to shake.] SHOCK, shok, _n._ a heap or pile of sheaves of corn.--_v.t._ to make up into shocks or stooks.--_n._ SHOCK'ER. [M. E. _schokke_--Old Dut. _schocke_.] SHOCK, shok, _n._ a dog with long, shaggy hair: a mass of shaggy hair.--_n._ SHOCK'-DOG, a rough-haired dog, a poodle.--_adjs._ SHOCK'-HEAD, -ED, having a thick and bushy head of hair. [A variant of _shag_.] SHOD, shod, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _shoe_. SHODDY, shod'i, _n._ (_orig._) the waste arising from the manufacture of wool: now applied to the wool of old woven fabrics reduced to the state in which it was before being spun and woven, and thus fit for remanufacture: the inferior cloth made from this substance: worthless goods: (_coll._) pretence, sham, vulgar and baseless assumption.--_adj._ made of shoddy: inferior, trashy: pretentious, sham, counterfeit: ambitious by reason of newly-acquired wealth.--_n._ SHODD'YISM. [_Shed_, to part--A.S. _sceádan_, to part.] SHOE, sh[=oo], _n._ a covering for the foot, not coming above the ankle: a rim of iron nailed to the hoof of an animal to keep it from injury: anything in form or use like a shoe:--_pl._ SHOES (sh[=oo]z).--_v.t._ to furnish with shoes: to cover at the bottom:--_pr.p._ shoe'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ shod.--_ns._ SHOE'-BILL, the whalehead (_Balæniceps_); SHOE'BLACK, one who blacks and cleans shoes or boots; SHOE'-BLACK'ING, blacking for boots and shoes; SHOE'-BOY, a boy who cleans shoes; SHOE'-BRUSH, a brush for cleaning boots or shoes; SHOE'-BUCK'LE, a buckle for fastening the shoe on the foot, by means of a latchet passing over the instep; SHOE'-HAMM'ER, a broad-faced hammer for pounding leather and for driving pegs, &c.; SHOE'HORN, a curved piece of horn or metal used in putting on a shoe; SHOE'ING-HORN, a shoehorn: (_obs._) anything by which a transaction is facilitated; SHOE'-LACE, a shoe-string; SHOE'-LATCH'ET, a thong for holding a shoe, sandal, &c. on the foot; SHOE'-LEATH'ER, leather for shoes: shoes or shoeing generally.--_adj._ SHOE'LESS, destitute of shoes.--_ns._ SHOE'MAKER, one whose trade or occupation is to make shoes or boots; SHOE'MAKING; SHOE'-PEG, a small peg of wood or metal for fastening different parts of a shoe together; SHO'ER, one who furnishes shoes, a horse-shoer; SHOE'-STRETCH'ER, a last having a movable piece for distending the leather of the shoe in any part; SHOE'-STRING, a string used to draw the sides of the shoe or boot together; SHOE'-TIE, a cord or string for lacing a shoe: (_Shak._) a traveller; SHOE'-WORK'ER, one employed in a shoe-factory.--ANOTHER PAIR OF SHOES (_coll._), quite a different matter; BE IN ONE'S SHOES, or BOOTS, to be in one's place; DIE IN ONE'S SHOES, to die by violence, esp. by hanging; PUT THE SHOE ON THE RIGHT FOOT, to lay the blame where it rightly belongs. [A.S. _sceó_; Goth. _skohs_, Ger. _schuh_.] SHOG, shog, _v.i._ to shake, jog, move on, be gone.--_v.t._ to shake.--_n._ a jog, shock. [Celt., W. _ysgogi_, to wag, _ysgog_, a jolt.] SHOGUN, sh[=o]'g[=oo]n, _n._ the title of the commander-in-chief of the Japanese army during the continuance of the feudal system in Japan.--_adj._ SH[=O]'GUNAL.--_n._ SH[=O]'GUNATE. [Jap.,--_sho_, to hold, _gun_, army.] SHONE, shon, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _shine_. SHOO, sh[=oo], _interj._ off! away! to scare away fowls, &c.--_v.i._ to cry 'Shoo!'--_v.t._ to drive away by calling 'Shoo!' [Cf. Fr. _chou_, Gr. _sou_.] SHOOK, shook, _pa.t._ of _shake_. SHOOL, sh[=oo]l, _v.i._ to saunter about, to beg. SHOOLDARRY, sh[=oo]l-där'i, _n._ a small tent with steep sloping roof and low sides. [Hind.] SHOON, sh[=oo]n, an old _pl._ of _shoe_. SHOOT, sh[=oo]t, _v.t._ to dart: to let fly with force: to discharge from a bow or gun: to strike with a shot: to thrust forward: to pass rapidly through: to lay out, place in position: to hunt over, to kill game in or on: to send forth new parts, as a plant.--_v.i._ to perform the act of shooting: to variegate, to colour in spots or threads: to be driven along: to fly, as an arrow: to jut out: to germinate: to advance or grow rapidly: to hunt birds, &c., with a gun:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ shot.--_n._ act of shooting: a match at shooting, shooting-party: a young branch: (_Shak._) a sprouting horn: a passage-way in a mine for letting one down: a sloping trough used for discharging articles or goods from a height: a river-fall, rapid.--_adj._ SHOOT'ABLE, that may be shot, or shot over.--_ns._ SHOOT'ER, one who, or that which, shoots; SHOOT'ING, act of discharging firearms or an arrow: sensation of a quick pain: act or practice of killing game: right to kill game with firearms on a certain area: the district so limited; SHOOT'ING-BOX, a small house in the country for use in the shooting season; SHOOT'ING-GALL'ERY, a long room used for practice in the use of firearms; SHOOT'ING-[=I]'RON (_slang_), a revolver; SHOOT'ING-JACK'ET, a short kind of coat for shooting in; SHOOT'ING-RANGE, a place for practising shooting at targets at measured distances; SHOOT'ING-STAR, a meteor or falling star; SHOOT'ING-STICK, a printer's tool of wood or metal, to be struck with a mallet, for driving quoins.--SHOOT AHEAD, to get to the front among a set of competitors; SHOOT OVER, to go out shooting: to hunt upon.--I'LL BE SHOT (_slang_), a mild imprecation. [A.S. _sceótan_; Dut. _schieten_, Ger. _schiessen_, to dart.] SHOP, shop, _n._ a building in which goods are sold by retail: a place where mechanics work, or where any kind of industry is pursued: one's own business or profession, also talk about such.--_v.i._ to visit shops for the purpose of buying.--_v.t._ (_slang_) to imprison:--_pr.p._ shop'ping; _pa.p._ shopped.--_ns._ SHOP'-BELL, a small automatic bell hung to give notice of the opening of a shop-door; SHOP'-BOARD, a bench on which work, esp. that of tailors, is done; SHOP'-BOY, -GIRL, a boy or girl employed in a shop; SHOP'-KEEPER, one who keeps a shop for the sale of goods by retail; SHOP'KEEPING, the business of keeping a shop; SHOP'-LIFT'ER; SHOP'-LIFT'ING, lifting or stealing anything from a shop; SHOP'MAN, one who serves in a shop: a shopkeeper; SHOPOC'RACY, shopkeepers collectively; SHOP'PING, the act of visiting shops to see and buy goods.--_adj._ SHOP'PY, commercial: abounding in shops: given to talking shop: concerning one's own pursuit.--_ns._ SHOP'-WALK'ER, one who walks about in a shop and sees the customers attended to; SHOP'WOMAN, a woman employed in a shop.--_adj._ SHOP'-WORN, somewhat tarnished by being exposed in a shop.--FANCY SHOP, a shop where fancy goods are sold.--SHUT UP SHOP (_coll._), to abandon any enterprise; THE OTHER SHOP (_slang_), a rival institution or establishment; THE WHOLE SHOP (_slang_), entirely; TALK SHOP (_coll._), to converse unseasonably about one's own profession. [A.S. _sceoppa_, a treasury (influenced by O. Fr. _eschoppe_, a stall.)] SHORE, sh[=o]r, _pa.t._ of _shear_. SHORE, sh[=o]r, _n._ the coast or land adjacent to the sea, to a river, or lake.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to set on shore.--_ns._ SHOR'AGE, duty on goods when brought on shore from a ship; SHORE'-ANCH'OR, the anchor lying towards the shore; SHORE'-CLIFF, a cliff at the water's edge; SHORE'-LAND, land bordering on a shore.--_adj._ SHORE'LESS, having no coast: indefinite or unlimited.--_n._ SHORES'MAN, a fisherman along shore: a sole or part owner of a vessel: a longshoreman.--_adv._ SHORE'WARD, towards the shore.--_n._ SHORE'-WH[=A]L'ING, the pursuit of the whale near the shore. [A.S. _score_--_sceran_, to shear.] SHORE, sh[=o]r, _n._ a prop or support for the side of a building, or to keep a vessel in dock steady on the slips.--_v.t._ to prop (often with _up_).--_ns._ SH[=O]R'ER; SH[=O]R'ING, the act of supporting with props: a set of props. [Skeat refers to Ice. _skortha_, a prop, esp. under a boat--_skor-inn_, pa.p. of _skera_, to shear.] SHORE, sh[=o]r, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to warn, threaten: to offer. [Perh. a form of _score_, or another form of _sure_, equivalent to _assure_.] SHORL, SHORLACEOUS. See SCHORL. SHORN, shorn, _pa.p._ of shear.--_n._ SH[=O]R'LING, SH[=O]RE'LING, a newly-shorn sheep. SHORT, short, _adj._ (_comp._ SHORT'ER, _superl._ SHORT'EST) not long in time or space: not tall: near at hand, early in date: scanty, lacking, insufficient: in error, deficient in wisdom, grasp, memory, &c.: narrow: abrupt, curt, sharp, uncivil: brittle, crumbling away readily: not prolonged in utterance, unaccented: (_coll._) undiluted with water, neat: falling below a certain standard (with _of_): of stocks, &c., not having in possession when selling, not able to meet one's engagements, pertaining to short stocks or to those who have sold short.--_adv._ not long.--_n._ a summary account: a short time or syllable: whatever is deficient in number, quantity, &c.: a short sale, one who has made such: (_pl._) small clothes, knee-breeches: the bran and coarse part of meal, in mixture.--_ns._ SHORT'AGE, deficiency; SHORT'-ALLOW'ANCE, less than the regular allowance; SHORT'-AND, the character '&,' the ampersand.--_adj._ SHORT'-ARMED, having short arms, not reaching far.--_ns._ SHORT'-BILL, one having less than ten days to run; SHORT'-CAKE, a rich tea-cake made short and crisp with butter or lard and baked--also SHORT'-BREAD (_Scot._): (_U.S._) a light cake, prepared in layers with fruit between, served with cream; SHORT'-CIR'CUIT (_electr._), a path of comparatively low resistance between two points of a circuit.--_n.pl._ SHORT'-CLOTHES, small clothes, the dress of young children after the first long clothes.--_v.t._ SHORT'-COAT, to dress in short-coats.--_n.pl._ SHORT'-COATS, the shortened skirts of a child when the first long clothes are left off.--_n._ SHORT'COMING, act of coming or falling short of produce or result: neglect of, or failure in, duty.--_n.pl._ SHORT'-COMM'ONS (see COMMON).--_n._ SHORT'-CROSS, the short cross-bar of a printer's chase.--_adjs._ SHORT'-CUT, cut short instead of in long shreds--of tobacco, &c.--also _n._; SHORT'-D[=A]T'ED, having short or little time to run from its date, as a bill.--_n._ SHORT'-DIVI'SION, a method of division with a divisor not larger than 12--opp. to _Long-division_.--_v.t._ SHORT'EN, to make short: to deprive: to make friable.--_v.i._ to become short or shorter: to contract.--_n._ SHORT'-GOWN, a loose jacket with a skirt, worn by women, a bed-gown.--_adj._ SHORT'-GRASSED (_Shak._), provided or covered with short grass.--_n._ SHORT'HAND, an art by which writing is made shorter and easier, so as to keep pace with speaking.--_adj._ SHORT'-HAND'ED, not having the proper number of servants, work-people, &c.--_ns._ SHORT'HANDER, a stenographer; SHORT'-HORN, one of a breed of cattle having very short horns--_Durham_ and _Teeswater_.--_adj._ SHORT'-HORNED.--_n._ SHORT'-HOSE, the stockings of the Highland dress, reaching to the knee, as opposed to the long hose formerly worn by Englishmen.--_adjs._ SHORT'-JOINT'ED, short between the joints: having a short pastern; SHORT'-LEGGED (_Shak._), having short legs; SHORT'-LIVED, living or lasting only for a short time.--_adv._ SHORT'LY, in a short time: in a brief manner: quickly: soon.--_ns._ SHORT'-M[=E]'TRE (see METRE); SHORT'NESS; SHORT'-PULL, a light impression on a hand-press; SHORT'-RIB, one of the lower ribs, not reaching to the breast-bone, a false or floating rib.--_adj._ SHORT'-SIGHT'ED, having sight extending but a short distance: unable to see far: of weak intellect: heedless.--_adv._ SHORT'-SIGHT'EDLY.--_n._ SHORT'-SIGHT'EDNESS.--_adjs._ SHORT'-SP[=O]'KEN, sharp and curt in speech; SHORT'-ST[=A]'PLE, having the fibre short.--_n._ SHORT'-STOP, the player at base-ball between the second and third base.--_adjs._ SHORT'-TEM'PERED, easily put into a rage; SHORT'-WIND'ED, affected with shortness of wind or breath; SHORT'-WIT'TED, having little wit, judgment, or intellect.--AT SHORT SIGHT, meaning that a bill is payable soon after being presented; BE TAKEN SHORT (_coll_.), to be suddenly seized with a desire to evacuate fæces; COME, CUT, FALL, SHORT (see COME, CUT, FALL); IN SHORT, in a few words; MAKE SHORT WORK OF, to settle some difficulty or opposition promptly; TAKE UP SHORT, to check or to answer curtly; THE LONG AND SHORT, the whole. [A.S. _sceort_; Old High Ger. _scurz_; the Dut. and Sw. _kort_, Ger. _kurz_, are borrowed from L. _curtus_.] SHOT, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _shoot_. SHOT, shot, _adj._ (_Spens._) advanced in years.--_n._ a young pig. [Perh. pa.p. of _shoot_.] SHOT, shot, _n._ act of shooting: a marksman: a missile: flight of a missile, or the distance passed by it: small globules of lead: (_gun_.) solid projectiles generally: a small pellet, of which there are a number in one charge: range of shot, reach: one cast or set of fishing-nets: the act of shooting, one who shoots, a marksman: a plot of land, a square furlong: a stroke in billiards, &c.--_v.t._ to load with shot:--_pr.p._ shot'ting; _pa.p._ shot'ted.--_ns._ SHOT'-BELT, a belt with a pouch for carrying shot; SHOT'-CART'RIDGE, a cartridge containing small shot; SHOT'-GAUGE, an instrument for measuring the size of round-shot; SHOT'-GUN, a smooth-bore gun for small shot, a fowling-piece; SHOT'-HOLE, a hole made by a shot or bullet: a blasting-hole ready for a blast; SHOT'-OF-A-C[=A]'BLE, a length of rope as it comes from the rope-walk; SHOT'-POUCH, a pouch for small shot.--_adjs._ SHOT'-PROOF, proof against shot; SHOT'TED, loaded with ball and powder: having a shot or weight attached.--_ns._ SHOT'-TOW'ER, a place where small shot is made by dropping molten lead through a colander in rapid motion from a considerable height into water; SHOT'-WIN'DOW, a projecting window in the staircases of old Scotch wooden houses.--A BAD SHOT, a wrong guess; A SHOT IN THE LOCKER, a last reserve of money, food, &c. SHOT, shot, _adj._ having a changeable colour, chatoyant, as silk, alpaca, &c. SHOT, shot, _n._ a reckoning, a share of a tavern-bill, &c.--_adj._ SHOT'-FREE (_Shak._), exempted from paying one's share of the reckoning or of expense. [_Scot._] SHOTTEN, shot'n, _p.adj._ (_Shak._) having ejected the spawn: shooting out into angles: dislocated, as a bone. [From _shoot_.] SHOUGH, shok, _n._ (_Shak._). Same as _Shock_, a dog. SHOULD, shood, _pa.t._ of _shall_. [A.S. _sceolde_, _pa.t._ of _sceal_; cf. _Shall_.] [Illustration] SHOULDER, sh[=o]l'd[.e]r, _n._ the part of the trunk between the neck and the free portion of the arm or fore-limb, the region about the scapula: the upper joint of the foreleg of an animal cut for market: anything resembling the shoulder, a rising part, a prominence: that which sustains, support, the whole might or effort: the whole angle of a bastion between the face and flank.--_v.t._ to push with the shoulder or violently: to take upon the shoulder: to fashion with a shoulder or abutment.--_v.i._ to force one's way forward.--_ns._ SHOUL'DER-BELT, a belt that passes across the shoulder; SHOUL'DER-BLADE, the broad, flat, blade-like bone (_scapula_) of the shoulder; SHOUL'DER-BLOCK, a pulley-block left nearly square at the upper end and cut away towards the sheave; SHOUL'DER-BONE, the humerus, shoulder-blade; SHOUL'DER-CLAP'PER (_Shak._), one who claps another on the shoulder or uses great familiarity, a bailiff.--_adj._ SHOUL'DERED, having shoulders of a specified kind.--_ns._ SHOUL'DER-KNOT, a knot worn as an ornament on the shoulder, now confined to servants in livery; SHOUL'DER-PIECE, a strap passing over the shoulder and joining the front and back part of a garment; SHOUL'DER-SLIP, a sprain of the shoulder.--_adjs._ SHOUL'DER-SLIPPED, SHOUL'DER-SHOT'TEN (_Shak._), having the shoulder-joint dislocated.--_n._ SHOUL'DER-STRAP, a strap worn on or over the shoulder: (_U.S._) a narrow strap of cloth edged with gold-lace worn on the shoulder to indicate military and naval rank.--SHOULDER-OF-MUTTON SAIL, a kind of triangular sail of peculiar form, used mostly in boats, very handy and safe, particularly as a mizzen; SHOULDER TO SHOULDER, with hearty and united action or effort.--GIVE, SHOW, or TURN THE COLD SHOULDER (see COLD); PUT, or SET, ONE'S SHOULDER TO THE WHEEL, to give personal help heartily; WITH ONE SHOULDER, with one consent. [A.S. _sculder_, _sculdor_; Ger. _schulter_, Dut. _schouder_.] SHOUT, showt, _n._ a loud and sudden outcry expressing strong emotion, or to attract attention.--_v.i._ to utter a shout: (_slang_) to order drink for others by way of treat.--_v.t._ to utter with a shout.--_n._ SHOUT'ER.--_adv._ SHOUT'INGLY. [Ety. unknown.] SHOUT, showt, _n._ (_prov_.) a light flat-bottomed boat used in duck-shooting. SHOVE, shuv, _v.t._ to drive along by continuous pressure: to push before one.--_v.i._ to push forward: to push off.--_n._ act of shoving: a strong push, a forward movement of packed river-ice.--SHOVE OFF, to push off a boat with oar or boat-hook. [A.S. _scofian_; Dut. _schuiven_, Ger. _schieben_.] SHOVEL, shuv'l, _n._ an instrument consisting of a broad blade or scoop with a handle, used for lifting loose substances.--_v.t._ to lift up and throw with a shovel: to gather in large quantities.--_v.i._ to use a shovel:--_pr.p._ shov'elling; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ shov'elled.--_ns._ SHOV'EL-BOARD, SHOVE'-GROAT, SHUFF'LE-BOARD, a game in which a piece of money or metal is driven with the hand toward a mark on a board: the board used in the game; SHOV'ELFUL, as much as a shovel will hold:--_pl._ SHOV'ELFULS; SHOV'EL-HAT, a hat with a broad brim, turned up at the sides, and projecting in front--affected by Anglican clergy; SHOV'EL-HEAD, the bonnet-headed shark: the shovel-headed sturgeon; SHOV'ELLER, one who shovels: a genus of ducks, with mandibles very broad at the end; SHOV'EL-NOSE, a sturgeon with broad, depressed, shovel-shaped snout. [A.S. _scofl_, from _scúfan_, to shove; Ger. _schaufel_.] SHOW, sh[=o], _v.t._ to present to view: to enable to perceive or know: to inform: to teach: to guide: to prove: to explain: to bestow.--_v.i._ to appear, come into sight: to look:--_pa.p._ sh[=o]wn or sh[=o]wed.--_n._ act of showing: display: a sight or spectacle: parade: appearance: plausibility, pretence: a sign, indication.--_ns._ SHOW'-BILL, a bill for showing or advertising the price, merits, &c. of goods; SHOW'-BOX, a showman's box out of which he takes his materials; SHOW'BREAD, among the Jews, the twelve loaves of bread shown or presented before Jehovah in the sanctuary; SHOW'-CARD, a placard with an announcement: a card of patterns; SHOW'-CASE, a case with glass sides in which articles are exhibited in a museum, &c.; SHOW'-END, that end of a piece of cloth which is on the outside of the roll for exhibition to customers; SHOW'ER; SHOW'ING, appearance: a setting forth, representation; SHOW'MAN, one who exhibits shows; SHOW'-PLACE, a place for exhibition: a gymnasium: (_Shak._) a place where shows are exhibited; SHOW'-ROOM, a room where a show is exhibited: a room in a warehouse, &c., where goods are displayed to the best advantage, a room in a commercial hotel where travellers' samples are exhibited.--SHOW A LEG (_vul_.), to get out of bed; SHOW FIGHT, to show a readiness to resist; SHOW FORTH, to give out, proclaim; SHOW OFF, to display ostentatiously; SHOW OF HANDS, a raising of hands at a meeting to show approval of any proposal; SHOW ONE'S HAND (see HAND); SHOW ONE THE DOOR, to dismiss a person from one's house or presence; SHOW UP, to expose to blame or ridicule. [A.S. _scéawian_; Dut. _schouwen_, Ger. _schauen_, to behold.] SHOWER, show'[.e]r, _n._ a fall of rain or hail, of short duration: a copious and rapid fall: a liberal supply of anything.--_v.t._ to wet with rain: to bestow liberally.--_v.i._ to rain in showers.--_ns._ SHOW'ER-BATH, a bath in which water is showered upon one from above: the apparatus for giving a bath by showering water on the person; SHOW'ERINESS, the state of being showery.--_adjs._ SHOW'ERLESS, without showers; SHOW'ERY, abounding with showers. [A.S. _scúr_; Ice. _skúr_, Ger. _schauer_.] SHOWY, sh[=o]'i, _adj._ making a show: cutting a dash: ostentatious: gay.--_adv._ SHOW'ILY.--_n._ SHOW'INESS. SHRAB, shrab, _n._ sherbet, liquor generally, spirits. [Hind. _shar[=a]b_, wine.] SHRANK, shrangk, _pa.t._ of _shrink_. [Illustration] SHRAPNEL, shrap'nel, _n._ a shell filled with musket-balls--from General _Shrapnel_ (died 1842). SHRED, shred, _n._ a long, narrow piece cut or torn off: a strip, fragment, particle.--_v.t._ to cut or tear into shreds.--_n._ SHRED'DING, the act of cutting into shreds: a shred.--_adjs._ SHRED'DY, consisting of shreds, ragged; SHRED'LESS.--_n._ SHRED'-PIE, mince-pie. [A.S. _screáde_; Ger. _schrot_, Scot. _screed_.] SHREW, shr[=oo], _n._ a brawling, troublesome woman: a scold: a family of insectivorous mammals closely resembling, in general form and appearance, the true mice and dormice--the head long, muzzle long and pointed.--_adj._ SHREWD, of an acute judgment: biting, keen: sly, malicious, wicked, cunning, vixenish.--_adv._ SHREWD'LY.--_n._ SHREWD'NESS.--_adj._ SHREW'ISH, having the qualities of a shrew: peevish and troublesome: clamorous.--_adv._ SHREW'ISHLY.--_ns._ SHREW'ISHNESS; SHREW'-MOLE, a genus of insectivorous mammals of the family _Talpidæ_, very closely allied to the moles.--_adj._ SHREW'-STRUCK, poisoned or blasted by a shrew. [A.S. _screáwa_, a shrew-mouse, its bite having been supposed venomous; cf. Ger. _scher-maus_, a mole.] SHRIEK, shr[=e]k, _v.i._ to utter a shriek: to scream.--_v.t._ to utter shriekingly.--_n._ the shrill outcry caused by terror or anguish--(_Spens._) SCHRIECH, SHRIGHT, SHRIKE.--_ns._ SHRIEK'ER; SHRIEK'-OWL (same as SCREECH-OWL). [_Screech_.] SHRIEVE, shr[=e]v, _v.t._ (_Spens._) same as SHRIVE.--_n._ SHRIEV'ALTY (same as SHERIFFALTY). SHRIFT, shrift, _n._ a confession made to a priest: absolution--esp. of a dying man. [A.S. _scrift_--_scrífan_, to shrive.] SHRIKE, shr[=i]k, _n._ a genus of passerine birds which prey on insects and small birds, impaling its prey on thorns--hence called the _Butcher-bird_. [Ice. _skríkja_; cf. _Shriek_.] SHRILL, shril, _adj._ piercing: sharp: uttering an acute sound.--_adjs._ SHRILL'-GORGED (_Shak._), shrill-throated; SHRILL'ING (_Spens._), sounding shrill.--_n._ SHRILL'NESS.--_adjs._ SHRILL'-TONGUED, SHRILL'-VOICED (_Shak._), having a shrill voice; SHRILL'Y, somewhat shrill.--_adv._ SHRILL'Y. [Skeat explains M. E. _shril_ (Scotch _skirl_) as from Scand., Norw. _skryla_, _skräla_, to cry shrilly; cf. Low Ger. _schrell_.] SHRIMP, shrimp, _n._ a genus of edible crustaceans, of the order _Decapoda_, allied to lobsters, crayfish, and prawns: a little wizened or dwarfish person.--_v.i._ to catch shrimps.--_ns._ SHRIMP'ER, one who catches shrimps; SHRIMP'ING, the act of catching shrimps; SHRIMP'-NET, a small-meshed net, on a hoop and pole, for catching shrimps. [Parallel to _shrink_; cf. Scotch _scrimpit_, pinched.] SHRINE, shr[=i]n, _n._ a case or reliquary for relics: a sacred place: an altar: anything hallowed by its associations.--_v.t._ to enshrine.--_adj._ SHR[=I]'NAL. [A.S. _scrín_--L. _scrinium_--_scrib[)e]re_, to write.] SHRINK, shringk, _v.i._ to contract: to wither: to occupy less space: to become wrinkled by contraction: to recoil, as from fear, disgust, &c.--_v.t._ to cause to shrink or contract: to withdraw:--_pa.t._ shrank, shrunk; _pa.p._ shrunk.--_n._ act of shrinking: contraction: withdrawal or recoil.--_adj._ SHRINK'ABLE.--_ns._ SHRINK'AGE, a contraction into a less compass: the extent of the reduction of anything in bulk by shrinking, evaporation, &c.; SHRINK'ER.--_adv._ SHRINK'INGLY, in a shrinking manner: by shrinking. [A.S. _scrincan_; akin to Ger. _schränken_, to place obliquely.] SHRIVE, shr[=i]v, _v.t._ to hear a confession from and give absolution to.--_v.i._ to receive confession: to make such:--_pa.t._ shr[=o]ve or shr[=i]ved; _pa.p._ shriv'en.--_ns._ SHR[=I]'VER, one who shrives: a confessor; SHR[=I]'VING (_Spens._), shift, confession; SHR[=I]VING-TIME (_Shak._), time for confession. [A.S. _scrífan_, to write, to prescribe penance--L. _scrib[)e]re_.] SHRIVEL, shriv'l, _v.i._ and _v.t._ to contract into wrinkles: to blight:--_pr.p._ shriv'elling; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ shriv'elled. [Perh. conn. with Old Northumbrian _screpa_, to become dry; cf. Norw. _skrypa_, to waste.] SHROFF, shrof, _n._ a banker or money-changer in India.--_v.t._ to inspect the quality of coins.--_n._ SHROFF'AGE, such examination. [Hind. _sarr[=a]f_--Ar. _sarr[=a]f_.] SHROUD, shrowd, _n._ the dress of the dead, a winding-sheet: that which clothes or covers: any underground hole, a vault, burrow, &c.: (_pl._) a set of ropes from the mast-heads to a ship's sides, to support the masts.--_v.t._ to enclose in a shroud: to cover: to hide: to shelter.--_v.i._ to take shelter.--_adjs._ SHROUD'LESS, without a shroud; SHROUD'Y, giving shelter. [A.S. _scrúd_; Ice. _skrúdh_, clothing.] SHROUD, shrowd, _v.t._ (_prov._) to lop the branches from, as a tree.--_n._ a cutting, a bough or branch, the foliage of a tree. [A variant of _shred_.] SHROVE-TIDE, shr[=o]v'-t[=i]d, _n._ the name given to the days immediately preceding Ash-Wednesday, preparatory to Lent--given up to football, cock-fighting, bull-baiting, &c.--_ns._ SHROVE'-CAKE, a pancake for SHROVE-TIDE; SHROVE'-TUES'DAY, the day before Ash-Wednesday. [A.S. _scrífan_, to shrive.] SHROW, shr[=o], _n._ (_Shak._). Same as SHREW. SHRUB, shrub, _n._ a woody plant with several stems from the same root: a bush or dwarf tree.--_v.t._ (_prov._) to win all a man's money at play.--_adj._ SHRUB'BERIED, abounding in shrubbery.--_ns._ SHRUB'BERY, a plantation of shrubs; SHRUB'BINESS, the state or quality of being shrubby.--_adjs._ SHRUB'BY, full of shrubs: like a shrub: consisting of shrubs; SHRUB'LESS. [A.S. _scrob_; prov. Eng. _shruff_, light rubbish wood.] SHRUB, shrub, _n._ a drink prepared from the juice of lemons, currants, raspberries, with spirits, as rum. [A variant of _shrab_.] SHRUFF, shruf, _n._ (_prov._) refuse wood. [_Shrub_.] SHRUG, shrug, _v.t._ to draw up: to contract.--_v.i._ to draw up the shoulders, expressive of doubt, surprise, indifference, &c.:--_pr.p._ shrug'ging; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ shrugged.--_n._ an expressive drawing up of the shoulders. [Scand., Dan. _skrugge_, to stoop.] SHRUNK, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of shrink. SHUCK, shuk, _n._ a husk, shell, or pod.--_v.t._ to remove such, to strip off.--_ns._ SHUCK'ER, one who shucks; SHUCK'ING, the act of taking off the shuck: a shucking-bee.--_interj._ SHUCKS (_slang_), expressive of contempt or disappointment. SHUDDER, shud'[.e]r, _v.i._ to tremble from fear or horror.--_n._ a trembling from fear or horror.--_adj._ SHUDD'ERING, trembling, tremulous.--_adv._ SHUDD'ERINGLY. [Cf. Old Dut. _schudden_; Ger. _schaudern_, to shudder.] SHUFFLE, shuf'l, _v.t._ to change the positions of: to confuse: to remove or introduce by purposed confusion.--_v.i._ to change the order of cards in a pack: to shift ground: to evade fair questions: to move by shoving the feet along.--_n._ act of shuffling: an evasion or artifice.--_n._ SHUFF'LER.--_p.adj._ SHUFF'LING, evasive, as an excuse.--_adv._ SHUFF'LINGLY, in a shuffling manner: with an irregular gait: evasively.--TO SHUFFLE OFF, to thrust aside, put off. [A by-form of _scuffle_, thus conn. with _shove_ and _shovel_.] SHUG, shug, _v.i._ (_prov._) to crawl, to shrug. SHUN, shun, _v.t._ to avoid: to keep clear of: to neglect:--_pr.p._ shun'ning; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ shunned.--_adj._ SHUN'LESS (_Shak._), not able to be shunned: unavoidable.--_ns._ SHUN'NER; SHUN'PIKE, a byroad. [A.S. _scunian_; Ice. _skunda_, to speed.] SHUNT, shunt, _v.t._ to turn aside, to turn off upon a side-rail: to shove off, free one's self from.--_v.i._ to turn aside: to use a switch or shunt in railways and electrics.--_n._ a short side-rail for allowing the main-line to be kept free: (_electr._) a conductor joining two points of a circuit, through which a part of the current is diverted.--_ns._ SHUN'TER; SHUN'TING. [A.S. _scyndan_, to hasten. Skeat derives from Ice. _skunda_, to speed.] SHUT, shut, _v.t._ to close, as a door: to forbid entrance into: to contract, close, or bring together the parts of: to confine: to catch in the act of shutting something.--_v.i._ to close itself: to be closed.--_pr.p._ shut'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ shut.--_p.adj._ made fast, closed: not resonant, dull: formed by closing the mouth and nose passages completely, said of consonants, as _t_, _d_, _p_: having the sound cut off sharply by a succeeding consonant, as the _i_ in _pin_, &c.: freed from (with _of_).--_ns._ SHUT'DOWN, a discontinuance of work in a factory, &c.; SHUT'TER, one who, or that which, shuts: a close cover for a window or aperture: (_phot._) a device for opening and closing a lens.--_v.t._ to cover with shutters.--_n._ SHUT'TER-DAM, a form of movable dam having large gates opened and closed by a turbine.--SHUT DOWN, to stop working; SHUT IN, to enclose, to confine: to settle down, or fall (said, e.g., of evening); SHUT OFF, to exclude; SHUT OUT, to prevent from entering; SHUT UP, to close, to confine: (_coll._) to cease speaking, to make one do so, to make it impossible to answer. [A.S. _scyttan_, to bar--_sceótan_, to shoot.] SHUTTLE, shut'l, _n._ an instrument used for shooting the thread of the woof between the threads of the warp in weaving.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to move to and fro, like a shuttle.--_n._ SHUTT'LECOCK, a rounded cork stuck with feathers, driven with a battledore: the game itself.--_adv._ SHUTT'LEWISE, in the manner of a shuttle.--_adj._ SHUTT'LE-WIT'TED, flighty. [From base of A.S. _sceótan_, shoot; Dan. and Sw. _skyttel_.] SHWANPAN, shwän'pan, _n._ the Chinese abacus or reckoning board.--Also SWAN'PAN. SHY, sh[=i], _adj._ timid: reserved: cautious: suspicious: elusive, hard to find.--_v.i._ to start aside, as a horse from fear.--_v.t._ to avoid:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ sh[=i]ed.--_n._ a sudden swerving aside.--_advs._ SHY'LY, SHI'LY.--_ns._ SHY'NESS, SH[=I]'NESS (_obs._); SHY'STER, a tricky lawyer.--FIGHT SHY OF (see FIGHT); LOOK SHY AT, or on, to regard with distrust. [A.S. _sceóh_; Ger. _scheu_, Dan. _sky_.] SHY, sh[=i], _v.t._ to fling, throw, toss.--_v.i._ to jerk.--_n._ a throw, a fling: a gibe, sneer: a trial. SI, s[=e], _n._ the syllable used for the seventh tone of the scale, or the leading tone. SIALOGOGUE, s[=i]-al'o-gog, _n._ a drug which increases the secretion of saliva--also SIAL'AGOGUE.--_adjs._ SIALOGOG'IC (-goj'-); S[=I]'ALOID.--_n._ SIALORRH[=E]'A, excessive flow of saliva. [Gr. _sialon_, saliva, _ag[=o]gos_, leading--_agein_, to lead.] SIAMANG, s[=e]'a-mang, _n._ the largest of the gibbons, found in Sumatra and Malacca. [Malay.] SIAMESE, s[=i]-am-[=e]z', _adj._ pertaining or belonging to _Siam_, a country of Asia.--_n._ a native of Siam.--SIAMESE TWINS, two famous Siamese men (1811-74), joined from their birth by a cartilaginous band. SIB, SIBBE, sib, _adj._ (_Spens._) related by blood, akin.--_n._ a blood relation: a close ally. [A.S. _sibb_, relationship; Gr. _sippe_.] SIBERIAN, s[=i]-b[=e]'ri-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Siberia_, a country of Asia.--_n._ a native of Siberia.--_n._ SIB[=E]'RITE, rubellite from Siberia. SIBILANCE, sib'i-lans, _n._ a hissing sound--also SIB'ILANCY.--_adj._ SIB'ILANT, making a hissing sound.--_n._ a sibilant letter, as _s_ and _z_.--_v.t._ SIB'IL[=A]TE, to pronounce with a hissing sound.--_n._ SIBIL[=A]'TION, a hissing sound.--_adjs._ SIB'ILATORY, SIB'ILOUS, hissing, sibilant. [L. _sibil[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to hiss.] SIBYL, sib'il, _n._ in ancient mythology, one of certain women possessing powers of divination and prophecy: a prophetess, an old sorceress.--_adjs._ SIBYL'LIC, SIB'YLLINE, pertaining to, uttered, or written by sibyls: prophetical.--_n._ SIB'YLLIST, a believer in the so-called sibylline prophecies.--SIBYLLINE ORACLES, a series of pretended prophecies in Greek hexameters, written by Alexandrian Jews and Christians, and supposed to date from the 2d century B.C. down to the 3d century A.D., or, according to Ewald, even the 6th. [L.,--Gr. _sibylla_, not 'she who reveals the will of Zeus,' _Dios boul[=e]_. The root is _sib-_, as in L. _per-sibus_, acute, Gr. _sophos_, wise.] SIC, sik, _adv._ so, thus--printed within brackets in quoted matter to show that the original is being correctly reproduced, even though incorrect or wrong.--SIC PASSIM, so throughout. SIC, sik, SICCAN, sik'an, _adj._ Scotch forms of _such_.--_adj._ SIC'-LIKE, for _such-like_, of the same kind. SICAMBRIAN, si-kam'bri-an, _n._ one of a powerful ancient German tribe. SICANIAN, si-k[=a]'ni-an, _adj._ pertaining to the _Sicanians_, an aboriginal pre-Aryan race in Sicily. SICCA, sik'a, _adj._ newly coined. [Hind.] SICCATE, sik'[=a]t, _v.t._ to dry.--_n._ SICC[=A]'TION.--_adj._ SICC'ATIVE, drying: causing to dry.--_n._ SICCITY (sik'si-ti), dryness. [L. _sicc[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_siccus_, dry.] SICE, s[=i]s, _n._ the number six at dice. SICE, SYCE, s[=i]s, _n._ a groom, a mounted attendant.--Also SAICE. [Hind, _s[=a]is_--Ar. _s[=a]is_.] SICELIOT, si-sel'i-ot, _adj._ pertaining to the _Siceliots_, the colonies of immigrant Greeks in Sicily, who gradually became assimilated with the native _Siculi_--also SIKEL'IOT.--_n._ a Greek settler in Sicily: a Siculian. SICH, sich, _adj._ (_Spens._) such. SICILIAN, si-sil'yan, _adj._ of or pertaining to Sicily, an island south of Italy.--_n._ a native of Sicily.--_ns._ SICILIÄ'NO, a Sicilian popular dance in slow movement, also the music for such; SICILIENNE', a ribbed silk fabric.--SICILIAN VESPERS, the massacre of the French in Sicily on Easter Monday 1282--at the first stroke of the vesper-bell. SICK, sik, _adj._ affected with disease: ill: inclined to vomit: disgusted: infirm: disordered: pining: depressed: indicating sickness: poor in quality: out of repair.--_v.i._ (_Shak._) to grow sick.--_ns._ SICK'-BAY, -BERTH, a compartment on a troop-ship, &c., for sick and wounded; SICK'-BED, a bed on which a person lies sick.--_adj._ SICK'-BRAINED, mentally deranged.--_v.t._ SICK'EN, to make sick: to disgust: to make weary of anything.--_v.i._ to become sick: to be disgusted: to become disgusting or tedious: to become weakened.--_n._ SICK'ENER, any cause of disgust.--_adj._ SICK'ENING, causing sickness or disgust, loathsome.--_n._ a scum which forms on the surface of mercury from grease, sulphides, arsenides, &c.--_adv._ SICK'ENINGLY.--_adj._ SICK'-FALL'EN (_Shak._), struck down with sickness.--_ns._ SICK'-FLAG, a yellow flag indicating disease on board a ship; SICK'-HEAD'ACHE, headache accompanied with nausea.--_adj._ SICK'ISH, somewhat sick.--_adv._ SICK'ISHLY.--_ns._ SICK'ISHNESS; SICK'-LEAVE, leave of absence from duty owing to sickness.--_adj._ SICK'LIED (_Shak._), tainted with the hue of sickness or disease.--_adv._ SICK'LILY, in a sickly manner.--_ns._ SICK'LINESS, the state of being sickly, or of appearing so; SICK'-LIST, a list containing the names of the sick.--_adjs._ SICK'-LISTED, entered on the sick-list; SICK'LY, inclined to sickness: unhealthy: somewhat sick: weak: languid: producing disease: mawkish: feeble, mentally weak.--_adv._ in a sick manner: feebly.--_v.t._ (_obs._) to make sickly or sickly-looking.--_ns._ SICK'NESS, state of being sick, disease: disorder of the stomach: an enfeebled state of anything; SICK'-REPORT', a return regularly made of the state of the sick; SICK'-ROOM, a room to which a person is confined by sickness.--_adj._ SICK'-THOUGHT'ED (_Shak._), love-sick. [A.S. _seóc_; Ger. _siech_, Dut. _ziek_.] SICK, sik, _v.t._ to set upon, chase: to incite to attack. [A variant of _seek_.] SICKER, sik'[.e]r, _adj._ (_Scot._) sure, certain, firm.--_adv._ (_Spens._) surely, certainly--also SICC'AR.--_n._ SICK'ERNESS (_Spens._), the state of being sicker or certain. [A.S. _siker_--L. _securus_; Ger. _sicher_.] SICKLE, sik'l, _n._ a hooked instrument for cutting grain.--_n._ SIC'KLE-BILL, a name applied to various birds with sickle-shaped bill.--_adj._ SIC'KLED, bearing a sickle.--_ns._ SIC'KLE-FEATH'ER, one of the sickle-shaped middle feathers of the domestic cock; SIC'KLEMAN, one who uses a sickle, a reaper.--_adj._ SIC'KLE-SHAPED.--_n._ SIC'KLE-WORT, the self-heal. [A.S. _sicol_, _sicel_--L. _secula_, a sickle--_sec[=a]re_, to cut.] SICSAC, sik'sak, _n._ the Egyptian courser, crocodile-bird, or black-headed plover.--Also _Ziczac_. SICULIAN, si-k[=u]'li-an, _adj._ pertaining to the _Siculi_, an ancient and most probably Aryan race of southern Italy who colonised Sicily.--_adjs._ SIC'ULO-AR[=A]'BIAN; SIC'ULO-P[=U]'NIC. SICYOS, sis'i-os, _n._ a genus of plants of the order _Cucurbitaceæ_, the gourd family. SIDA, s[=i]'da, _n._ a large genus of downy herbs of the mallow family. [Gr.] SIDDHA, sid'da, _n._ one who has attained to SID'DHI, accomplishment or perfection.--_n._ SIDDHAR'TA, an epithet of Buddha. [Sans.] SIDDOW, sid'[=o], _adj._ (_prov._) soft, pulpy. SIDE, s[=i]d, _n._ the edge or border of anything: the surface of a solid: a part of a thing as seen by the eye: region, part: the part of an animal between the hip and shoulder: any party, interest, or opinion opposed to another: faction: line of descent: at billiards, a certain bias or kind of spinning motion given to a ball by striking it sidewise: (_slang_) a pretentious and supercilious manner, swagger.--_adj._ being on or toward the side: lateral: indirect.--_v.i._ to embrace the opinion or cause of one party against another.--_v.t._ (_Spens._) to be on the same side with, to support: to cut into sides: to push aside, to set aside.--_n.pl._ SIDE'ARMS, arms or weapons worn on the side, as a sword or bayonet.--_ns._ SIDE'-BEAM, either of the working-beams of a marine engine, placed below the crank-shaft, on each side of the cylinder, instead of a central beam above the crank-shaft; SIDE'BOARD, a piece of furniture on one side of a dining-room for holding dishes, &c.: (_pl._) side-whiskers, stiff standing collars (_slang_).--_n.pl._ SIDE'-BONES, enlargements situated above the quarters of a horse's feet, resulting from the conversion into bone of the elastic lateral cartilages.--_ns._ SIDE'BOX, a box or seat at the side of a theatre; SIDE'-CHAP'EL, a chapel in an aisle or at the side of a church; SIDE'-COMB, a small comb used to keep a lock of hair in place at the side of a woman's head; SIDE'-COUS'IN, a distant relative; SIDE'-CUT, a cut from the side, an indirect attack; SIDE'-CUT'TING, an excavation of earth along the side of a railway or canal to obtain material for an embankment.--_adj._ SID'ED, having a side: flattened on one or more sides.--_ns._ SIDE'-DISH, any supplementary dish at a dinner, &c., specially flavoured; SIDE'-DRUM, a small double-headed drum in military bands; SIDE'-GLANCE, a glance to one side; SIDE'-IS'SUE, a subordinate issue aside from the main business; SIDE'LIGHT, light coming from the side, any incidental illustration: a window, as opposed to a sky-light, a window above or at the side of a door: one of the red or green lights carried on the side of a vessel under way at night; SIDE'-LINE, a line attached to the side of anything: any additional or extra line of goods sold by a commercial traveller: (_pl._) the ropes binding the fore and hind feet on the same side of a horse.--_adj._ SIDE'LING, inclining to a side, sloping.--_adv._ sidewise, aslant.--_n._ SIDE'LOCK, a separate lock of hair worn at the side of the head.--_adj._ SIDE'LONG, oblique: not straight.--_adv._ in the direction of the side: obliquely.--_n._ the slope of a hill.--_ns._ SIDE'-NOTE, a marginal note on a page, as opposed to a foot-note; SIDE'-PART'NER (_U.S._), one who shares a duty or employment with another alongside or alternately; SID'ER, a partisan: one living in any particular quarter of a city; SIDE'-ROD, a coupling-rod of a locomotive: either of the rods of a side-beam engine connecting the cross-head on the piston-rod with the working-beam: either of the rods of a side-beam engine connecting the working-beams with the cross-head of the air-pump; SIDE'SADD'LE, a saddle for women sitting, not astride, but with both feet on one side; SIDE'SADDLE-FLOWER, a name sometimes given to a plant of the genus _Sarracenia_; SIDE'-SCREW, a screw on the front edge of a carpenter's bench to hold the work fast: one of the screws fastening the lockplate of a gun to the stock; SIDE'-SCRIP'TION (_Scots law_), an old method of authenticating deeds written on several sheets of paper pasted together, by signing the name across each junction; SIDE'-SEAT, a seat in a vehicle with the back against its side; SIDE'-SHOW, an exhibition subordinate to a larger one; SIDE'-SLEEVE (_Shak._), a loose hanging sleeve; SIDE'-SLIP, an oblique offshoot: a bastard; SIDES'MAN, a deputy churchwarden: (_Milt._) a partisan.--_adj._ SIDE'-SPLIT'TING, affecting the sides convulsively, as in boisterous laughter.--_ns._ SIDE'-STROKE, a stroke given sideways; SIDE'-T[=A]'BLE, a table placed usually against the wall; SIDE'-VIEW, a view on or from one side; SIDE'-WALK, a foot-walk beside a street or road.--_advs._ SIDE'WAYS, SIDE'WISE, toward or on one side.--_adj._ SIDE'-WHEEL, having side or paddle wheels.--_ns._ SIDE'-WIND, a wind blowing laterally: any indirect influence or means; S[=I]D'ING, a short line of rails on which wagons are shunted from the main-line.--_v.i._ S[=I]'DLE, to go or move side-foremost.--_v.t._ to cause to move sideways.--SIDE BY SIDE, placed with sides near each other.--CHOOSE SIDES, to pick out opposing parties to contend with each other; RIGHT, or WRONG, SIDE, the side of anything (cloth, leather, &c.) intended to be turned outward or inward respectively; TAKE A SIDE, to join one party in opposition to another; TAKE SIDES, to range one's self with one or other of contending parties; TO ONE SIDE, having a lateral inclination: out of sight. [A.S. _síde_; Ger. _seite_, Dut. _zijde_.] SIDE, s[=i]d, _adj._ (_Scot._) wide, large: far. [A.S. _síd_, spacious.] SIDEREAL, s[=i]-d[=e]'r[=e]-al, _adj._ relating to a star or stars: starry: (_astron._) measured by the apparent motion of the stars.--_adj._ SID'ERAL (_Milt._), relating to the stars: baleful, from astrology.--_n._ SIDER[=A]'TION, a sudden deprivation of sense, as a stroke of apoplexy: a blast of plants.--SIDEREAL DAY, the time between two successive upper culminations of a fixed star or of the vernal equinox, shorter than a solar day; SIDEREAL YEAR (see YEAR). [L. _sidus_, _sideris_, a star.] SIDERITE, sid'[.e]r-[=i]t, _n._ the lodestone: native iron protocarbonate--also _Chalybite_, _Spathic_ or _Sparry iron_, _Junckerite_. [L. _sideritis_, the lodestone--Gr. _sid[=e]rit[=e]s_, of iron--_sid[=e]ros_, iron.] SIDEROGRAPHY, sid-[.e]r-og'ra-fi, _n._ steel-engraving.--_adjs._ SIDEROGRAPH'IC, -AL.--_n._ SIDEROG'RAPHIST. [Gr. _sid[=e]ros_, iron, _graphein_, engrave.] SIDEROLITE, sid'e-r[=o]-l[=i]t, _n._ a meteorite composed chiefly of iron. [Gr. _sid[=e]ros_, iron, _lithos_, stone.] SIDEROMANCY, sid'[.e]r-[=o]-mans-i, _n._ divination by burning straws, &c., on a red-hot plate of iron. [Gr. _sid[=e]ros_, iron, _manteia_, divination.] SIDEROSCOPE, sid'[.e]r-o-sk[=o]p, _n._ an instrument for detecting minute degrees of magnetism by means of a combination of magnetic needles. [Gr. _sid[=e]ros_, iron, _skopein_, to view.] SIDEROSTAT, sid'e-r[=o]-stat, _n._ a heliostat adapted to sidereal time.--_adj._ SIDEROSTAT'IC. [L. _sidus_, _sideris_ a star, Gr. _statos_, standing.] SIEGE, s[=e]j, _n._ a sitting down with an army round or before a fortified place in order to take it by force: a continued endeavour to gain possession: (_Shak._) a seat, throne, station: (_Shak._) excrement: the floor of a glass-furnace: a workman's bench.--_v.t._ to lay siege to.--_ns._ SIEGE'-PIECE, a coin, generally of unusual shape and rude workmanship, issued in a besieged place during stress of siege; SIEGE'-TRAIN, the materials carried by an army for the purpose of laying siege to a place.--STATE OF SIEGE, a condition of things in which civil law is suspended or made subordinate to military law; MINOR STATE OF SIEGE, a modification of the more severe rule in cases of merely domestic trouble. [O. Fr. _sege_ (Fr. _siège_), seat--Low L. _assedium_=L. _obsidium_, a siege--_sed[=e]re_, to sit.] SIELD, s[=e]ld (_Spens._). Cieled. SIENESE, si-e-n[=e]z', _adj._ pertaining to _Siena_, or _Sienna_, in central Italy, or its school of painting in the 13th and 14th centuries. SIENITE, SIENITIC. Same as SYENITE, &c. SIENNA, si-en'a, _n._ a fine orange-red pigment used in oil and water-colour painting. [It. _terra di Siena_, Sienna earth.] SIERRA, s[=e]-er'ra, _n._ a ridge of mountains: a scombroid fish. [Sp., usually derived from L. _serra_, a saw. Some suggest Ar. _sehrah_, a desert place, whence also _Sahara_.] SIESTA, si-es'ta, _n._ a short sleep taken about midday or after dinner. [Sp.,--L. _sexta_ (_hora_), the _sixth_ (hour) after sunrise, the hour of noon.] SIEUR, sièr, _n._ a French title of respect, obsolete except in law-courts. [Fr.,--L. _senior_.] SIEVE, siv, _n._ a vessel with a bottom of woven hair or wire to separate the fine part of anything from the coarse: a person who cannot keep a secret.--_v.t._ to put through a sieve: to sift. [A.S. _sife_; Ger. _seib_.] SIFFLE, sif'l, _n._ a sibilant râle.--_v.i._ to whistle, hiss.--_ns._ SIFF'LET, a theatrical whistle; SIFF'LEUR, a whistler. [Fr. _siffler_--L. _sibil[=a]re_.] SIFT, sift, _v.t._ to separate with, or as with, a sieve: to examine closely.--_n._ SIFT'ER, one who, or that which, sifts. [A.S. _siftan_--_sife_, a sieve.] SIGH, s[=i], _v.i._ to inhale and respire with a long, deep, and audible breathing, as in love or grief: to sound like sighing.--_v.t._ to express by sighs.--_n._ a long, deep, audible respiration.--_n._ SIGH'ER.--_adj._ SIGH'FUL.--_adv._ SIGH'INGLY. [A.S. _sícan_; Sw. _sucka_.] SIGHT, s[=i]t, _n._ act of seeing: view: faculty of seeing: that which is seen: a spectacle: an object of especial interest: space within vision: examination: a small opening for looking through at objects: a metal pin on the top of a barrel of a gun to guide the eye in taking aim: (_slang_) a great many or a great deal.--_v.t._ to catch sight of: to present to sight or put under notice.--_adjs._ SIGHT'ED, having sight of some special character, as short-sighted: fitted with a sight, as a firearm; SIGHT'LESS, wanting sight: blind: (_Shak._) invisible: (_Shak._) unsightly, ugly.--_adv._ SIGHT'LESSLY.--_ns._ SIGHT'LESSNESS; SIGHT'LINESS.--_adjs._ SIGHT'LY, pleasing to the sight or eye: comely; SIGHT'-OUTRUN'NING (_Shak._), running faster than the eye can follow.--_ns._ SIGHT'-READ'ER, one who reads at sight, as musical notes, passages in a foreign tongue, &c.; SIGHT'-READING; SIGHT'-SEE'ING, the act of seeing sights: eagerness to see novelties or curiosities; SIGHT'-S[=E]'ER, one who is eager to see novelties or curiosities; SIGHTS'MAN, a local guide; SEC'OND-SIGHT, a gift of prophetic vision, long supposed in the Scottish Highlands and elsewhere to belong to particular persons.--AT SIGHT, without previous study or practice; AT SIGHT, AFTER SIGHT, terms applied to bills or notes payable on, or after, presentation; LOSE SIGHT OF, to cease to see: to overlook; OUT OF SIGHT, too far away to be seen: not in sight: (_coll._) beyond comparison; PUT OUT OF SIGHT, to remove from vision: (_slang_) to consume, as food. [A.S. _siht_, _ge-siht_--_ge-segen_, pa.p. of _seón_, to see; Ger. _sicht._] SIGHT, s[=i]t (_Spens._)=_Sighed._ SIGIL, sij'il, _n._ a seal: a signature: an occult or magical mark.--_adjs._ SIG'ILLARY, pertaining to a seal; SIG'ILLATE, decorated, as pottery, with impressed patterns: (_bot._) marked with seal-like scars.--_ns._ SIGILL[=A]'TION; SIGILLOG'RAPHY, knowledge of seals.--_n.pl._ SIG'LA, abbreviations of names, &c., on seals. [L. _sigillum_, dim. of _signum_, sign.] SIGILLARIA, sij-il-[=a]'ri-a, _n._ a family of fossil lycopods, abundant in Carboniferous strata, with pillar-like trunks, the columnar stems ribbed and fluted longitudinally, the fluting marked by rows or whorls of scars left by fallen leaves.--_adjs._ SIGILL[=A]'RIAN, SIG'ILLAROID, SIGILL[=A]'RIOID. [L. _sigillum_, a seal.] SIGMA, sig'ma, _n._ the Greek letter corresponding to our _s_--written [Sigma] (capital), [sigma] (small initial) or [sigmaf] (small final).--_adjs._ SIG'MATE, SIGMAT'IC.--_ns._ SIGM[=A]'TION, the adding of _s_ at the end of a word or syllable; SIG'MATISM, repetition of _s_ or the s-sound: defective pronunciation of this sound.--_adjs._ SIG'MOID, -AL, formed like _s_. SIGN, s[=i]n, _n._ mark, token: proof: that by which a thing is known or represented: a word, gesture, symbol, or mark, intended to signify something else: a remarkable event: an omen: a miraculous manifestation: a memorial: something set up as a notice in a public place: (_math._) a mark showing the relation of quantities or an operation to be performed: (_med._) a symptom: (_astron._) one of the twelve parts of the zodiac, each comprising 30 degrees of the ecliptic.--_v.t._ to represent or make known by a sign: to attach a signature to.--_v.i._ to give one's signature: to make a particular sign.--_adj._ SIGN'ABLE, capable of being, or requiring to be, signed.--_ns._ SIGN'BOARD, a board with a sign telling a man's occupation or articles for sale; SIGN'ER; SIG'NET, the privy-seal: (_B._) a seal.--_adj._ SIG'NETED, stamped or marked with a signet.--_n._ SIG'NET-RING, a ring with a signet or private seal.--_adj._ SIGN'LESS, making no sign.--_ns._ SIGN'-MAN'UAL, the royal signature, usually only the initial of the sovereign's name, with R. for _Rex_ or _Regina_; SIGN'-PAINT'ER, one who paints signs for shops, &c.; SIGN'POST, a post on which a sign is hung: a direction-post. [Fr. _signe_--L. _signum._] SIGNAL, sig'nal, _n._ a sign for giving notice, generally at a distance: token: the notice given: any initial impulse.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to make signals to: to convey by signals:--_pr.p._ sig'nalling; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ sig'nalled.--_adj._ having a sign: remarkable: notable: eminent.--_ns._ SIG'NAL-BOOK, a book containing a system of signals; SIG'NAL-BOX, -CAB'IN, &c., a small house in which railway-signals are worked: the alarm-box of a police or fire-alarm system; SIG'NAL-CODE, a code or system of arbitrary signals, esp. at sea, by flags or lights; SIG'NAL-FIRE, a fire used for a signal; SIG'NAL-FLAG, a flag used in signalling, its colour, shape, markings, and combinations indicating various significations; SIG'NAL-GUN, a gun fired as a signal.--_v.t._ SIG'NALISE, to make signal or eminent: to signal.--_ns._ SIG'NAL-LAMP, a lamp by which signals are made by glasses or slides of different colours, &c.; SIG'NALLING, the means of transmitting intelligence to a greater or less distance by the agency of sight or hearing.--_adv._ SIG'NALLY.--_ns._ SIG'NALMAN, one who makes signals and who interprets those made; SIG'NALMENT, the act of communicating by signals: description by means of marks; SIG'NAL-POST, a pole on which movable flags, arms, lights, are displayed as signals; SIG'NAL-SER'VICE, the department in the army occupied with signalling. [Fr.,--L. _signalis_, _signum_.] SIGNATURE, sig'na-t[=u]r, _n._ a sign or mark: the name of a person written by himself: (_mus._) the flats and sharps after the clef to show the key: a sheet after being folded, the figure or letter at the foot of the page indicating such.--_adj._ SIG'N[=A]TE, designate: bearing spots resembling letters.--_ns._ SIGN[=A]'TION, anything used as a sign, an emblem; SIG'NATORY, SIG'NATARY, SIG'NITARY, one bound by signature to some agreement.--_adj._ having signed, bound by signature.--DOCTRINE OF SIGNATURES, an inveterate belief in early medicine that plants and minerals bore certain symbolical marks which indicated the diseases for which nature had intended them as special remedies. [Fr.,--Low L. _signatura_--L. _sign[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to sign.] SIGNIEUR, _n._ (_Shak._). Same as SEIGNIOR. SIGNIFY, sig'ni-f[=i], _v.t._ to make known by a sign or by words: to mean: to indicate or declare: to have consequence.--_v.i._ to be of consequence:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ sig'nif[=i]ed.--_adj._ SIG'NIFIABLE, that may be signified or represented by symbols.--_n._ SIGNIF'ICANCE, that which is signified: meaning: importance: moment--also SIGNIF'ICANCY.--_adj._ SIGNIF'ICANT, signifying: expressive of something: standing as a sign.--_adv._ SIGNIF'ICANTLY.--_ns._ SIGNIF'ICATE, in logic, one of several things signified by a common term; SIGNIFIC[=A]'TION, act of signifying: that which is signified: meaning.--_adj._ SIGNIF'IC[=A]TIVE, signifying: denoting by a sign: having meaning: expressive.--_adv._ SIGNIF'IC[=A]TIVELY, in a significative manner: so as to betoken by an external sign.--_ns._ SIGNIF'IC[=A]TIVENESS, the quality of being significative; SIGNIF'IC[=A]TOR, one who signifies: (_astrol._) a planet ruling a house.--_adj._ SIGNIF'ICATORY. [L. _signific[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, _signum_, a sign, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] SIGNOR, s[=e]'nyor, _n._ an Italian word of address equivalent to Mr--also SIGNIOR.--_ns._ SIGNORA (s[=e]-ny[=o]'ra), feminine of signor; SIGNORINA (s[=e]-ny[=o]-r[=e]'na), the Italian equivalent of Miss; SIG'NORY, SIG'NIORY (same as SEIGNIORY). [It. _signore_.] SIKE, s[=i]k, _n._ (_Scot._) a small stream of water.--Also SYKE. [Ice. _sík_, _síki_, a ditch.] SIKH, s[=e]k, _n._ one of a religious sect of northern India, which became a great military confederacy--founded by Baba Nának (born 1469).--_n._ SIKH'ISM. [Hind. _Sikh_, lit. follower or disciple.] SIL, sil, _n._ a yellowish pigment of ancient painters. SILAGE, s[=i]'laj, _n._ the term applied to fodder which has been preserved by ensilage in a silo. SILE, s[=i]l, _v.t._ (_prov._) to strain.--_n._ a sieve, a strainer or colander. [Low Ger. _silen_; Ger. _sielen_, to filter.] SILENCE, s[=i]'lens, _n._ state of being silent: absence of sound or speech: muteness: cessation of agitation: calmness: oblivion.--_v.t._ to cause to be silent: to put to rest: to stop.--_interj._ be silent!--_adj._ S[=I]'LENT, free from noise: not speaking: habitually taciturn: still: not pronounced: of distilled spirit, without flavour or odour.--_n._ SILEN'TIARY, one who keeps order in an assembly.--_adv._ S[=I]'LENTLY.--_n._ S[=I]'LENTNESS=_Silence_. [L. _sil[=e]re_, to be silent.] SILENE, s[=i]-l[=e]'n[=e], _n._ a genus of plants of the natural order _Caryophyllaceæ_--the _Bladder Campion_, whose young shoots eat like asparagus--the _Catchfly_, a general name for many British species. SILENUS, s[=i]-l[=e]'nus, _n._ the foster-father of Bacchus, a little pot-bellied old man, bald-headed and snub-nosed, generally astride of an ass, drunk, and attended by a troop of satyrs. SILESIA, si-l[=e]'shi-a, _n._ a thin brown holland for window-blinds, &c.: a thin twilled cotton.--_adj._ SIL[=E]'SIAN, pertaining to _Silesia_. SILEX, s[=i]'leks, _n._ silica, as found in nature, occurring as flint, quartz, rock-crystal, &c. [L. _silex_, _silicis_, flint.] [Illustration] SILHOUETTE, sil-[=oo]-et', _n._ a shadow-outline of the human figure or profile filled in of a dark colour.--_v.t._ to represent in silhouette: to bring out a shaded profile or outline view of. [Étienne de _Silhouette_ (1709-67), French minister of finance for four months in 1759, after whom everything cheap was named, from his excessive economy. According to Littré, the making of such shadow-portraits was a favourite pastime of his; hence the name.] SILICA, sil'i-ka, _n._ silicon dioxide, or silicic anhydride, a white or colourless substance, the most abundant solid constituent of our globe, existing both in the crystalline and in the amorphous form, the best examples of the former being rock-crystal, quartz, chalcedony, flint, sandstone, and quartzose sand; of the latter, opal.--_n._ SIL'ICATE, a salt of silicic acid.--_adjs._ SIL'IC[=A]TED, combined or impregnated with silica; SILIC'IC, pertaining to, or obtained from, silica; SILICIF'EROUS, producing or containing silica.--_n._ SILICIFIC[=A]'TION, conversion into silica.--_v.t._ SILIC'IFY, to convert into silica: to render silicious.--_v.i._ to become silicious or flinty:--_pr.p._ silic'ifying; _pa.p._ silic'if[=i]ed.--_adjs._ SILIC'IOUS, SILIC'EOUS, pertaining to, containing, or resembling silica.--_n._ SIL'ICON, or SILIC'IUM, the base of silica, a non-metallic elementary substance, obtainable in three different forms, the amorphous, the graphitoid, and the crystalline. [L. _silex_, _silicis_, flint.] [Illustration] SILICLE, sil'i-kl, _n._ (_bot_.) a seed-vessel shorter and containing fewer seeds than a silique--also SIL'ICULE, SILIC'ULA.--_adj._ SILIC'UL[=O]SE (_bot_.), having, pertaining to, or resembling silicles: husky.--_ns._ (_bot_.) SILIQUE (si-l[=e]k'), SIL'IQUA, the two-valved elongated seed-vessel of the _Cruciferæ_.--_adjs._ SIL'IQUIFORM, SIL'IQUOSE, SIL'IQUOUS (_bot_.), pertaining to, resembling, or bearing siliques. [L. _silicula_, dim. of _siliqua_, a pod.] SILK, silk, _n._ the delicate, soft thread produced by the larvæ of certain bombycid moths which feed on the leaves of the mulberry, &c.: thread or cloth woven from it: anything resembling silk, the styles of maize, the silky lustre in the ruby, &c.--_adj._ pertaining to, or consisting of, silk.--_n._ SILK'-COTT'ON, the silky seed-covering of various species of _Bombax_.--_adjs._ SILK'EN, made of silk: dressed in silk: resembling silk: soft: delicate; SILK'-FIG'URED, having the ornamental pattern in silk.--_ns._ SILK'-GOWN, or THE SILK, the robe of a queen's or king's counsel, instead of the stuff-gown of the ordinary barrister--hence 'to take silk'=to be appointed Q.C.; SILK'-GRASS, Adam's needle, or bear-grass; SILK'INESS; SILK'-MAN (_Shak._), a dealer in silks; SILK'-MER'CER, a mercer or dealer in silks; SILK'-MILL, a mill for the manufacture of silks; SILK'-PA'PER, tissue-paper; SILK'-REEL, a machine in which raw silk is unwound from the cocoons, and wound into a thread; SILK'-THROW'ER, -THROW'STER, one who manufactures _thrown-silk_ or organzine, silk thread formed by twisting together two or more threads or singles; SILK'-WEAV'ER, a weaver of silk stuffs; SILK'WORM, the bombycid moth whose larva produces silk; SILK'WORM-GUT, a material used by anglers for dressing the hook-end of the fishing-line, consisting of the drawn-out glands of the silkworm when these are fully distended.--_adj._ SILK'Y, like silk in texture: soft: smooth: glossy. [A.S. _seolc_--L. _sericum_--Gr. _s[=e]rikon_, neut. of adj. _S[=e]rikos_, pertaining to the _S[=e]res_--_S[=e]r_, a native of China.] SILL, sil, _n._ the timber or stone at the foot of a door or window: the lowest piece in a window-frame: (_fort_.) the inner edge of the bottom of an embrasure: the floor of a mine-passage, also a miner's term for bed or stratum. [A.S. _syl_; Ice. _sylla_, Ger. _schwelle_.] SILLADAR, sil'a-där, _n._ a member of a troop of irregular cavalry. [Hind.] SILLAGO, sil'a-g[=o], _n._ a genus of acanthopterygian fishes. SILLERY, sil'e-ri, _n._ a celebrated still white wine produced near Rheims--one of the most esteemed champagnes. [_Sillery_ in Marne.] SILLIBUB, sil'i-bub, _n._ a dish made of wine or cider mixed with milk into a curd, flavoured, whipped into a froth, or made solid by gelatine and water, and boiling.--Also SILL'ABUB. SILLOGRAPH, sil'[=o]-graf, _n._ a satirist. [From the _Silloi_ of Timon of Phlius, _c._ 280 B.C.] SILLOMETER, si-lom'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring the speed of a ship without a log-line. [Fr. _siller_, to make way, Gr. _metron_, a measure.] SILLON, sil'on, _n._ (_fort_.) a. work raised in the middle of a very wide ditch, an envelope. [Fr.] SILLSALLAT, sil'sal-at, _n._ a salad of pickled herring, with morsels of meat, eggs, onion, and beet. [Sw.] SILLY, sil'i, _adj._ simple: harmless: foolish: witless: imprudent: absurd: stupid.--_n._ a silly person.--_adv._ SILL'ILY.--_ns._ SILL'INESS; SILL'Y-HOW, a caul. [Orig. 'blessed,' and so 'innocent,' 'simple,' A.S. _s['æ]lig_, _gesælig_, timely--_s['æ]l_, time; Ger. _selig_, blest, happy, Goth. _sels_, good.] SILO, s[=i]'l[=o], _n._ a pit for packing and storing green crops for fodder in the state known as ensilage.--_v.t._ to preserve in a silo. [Sp.,--L. _sirus_--Gr. _siros_, a pit.] SILPHA, sil'fa, _n._ a genus of clavicorn beetles, the carrion-beetles. [Gr. _silph[=e]_, a beetle.] SILPHIUM, sil'fi-um, _n._ a genus of American composites with resinous juice--_prairie-dock_, _cup-plant_, _rosin-weed_: an umbelliferous plant whose juice the ancient Greeks used--the Latin _laserpitium_. SILPHOLOGY, sil-fol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the science of larval forms. [Gr. _silph[=e]_, a beetle, _logia_--_legein_, to say.] SILT, silt, _n._ that which is left by straining: sediment: the sand, &c., left by water.--_v.t._ to fill with sediment (with _up_).--_v.i._ to percolate through pores: to become filled up.--_adj._ SILT'Y, full of, or resembling, silt. [Prov. Eng. _sile_, allied to Low Ger. _sielen_, Sw. _sila_, to let water off, to strain.] SILURIAN, si-l[=u]'ri-an, _adj._ belonging to Siluria, the country of the _Silures_, the ancient inhabitants of the south-eastern part of South Wales: applied by Murchison in 1835 to a series of rocks well developed in the country of the Silures, a subdivision of the Palæozoic, containing hardly any vertebrates and land plants.--_adjs._ SIL[=U]'RIDAN, SIL[=U]'RINE, SIL[=U]'ROID.--_ns._ SIL[=U]'RIST, a Silurian, a name applied to the poet Henry Vaughan (1621-95); SIL[=U]'RUS, SIL[=U]RE', the typical genus of _Siluridæ_, a family of physostomous fishes--the cat-fishes, &c. SILVAN, sil'van, _adj._ pertaining to woods, woody: inhabiting woods.--_ns._ SIL'VA, SYL'VA, the forest-trees collectively of any region. [Fr.,--L. _silva_.] SILVER, sil'v[.e]r, _n._ a soft white metal, capable of a high polish: money made of silver: anything having the appearance of silver.--_adj._ made of silver: resembling silver: white: bright: precious: gentle: having a soft and clear tone: of high rank, but still second to the highest.--_v.t._ to cover with silver: to make like silver: to make smooth and bright: to make silvery.--_v.i._ to become silvery.--_ns._ SIL'VER-BATH (_phot_.), a solution of silver-nitrate for sensitising collodion-plates for printing; SIL'VER-BEAT'ER, one who beats out silver into thin foil.--_adjs._ SIL'VER-BLACK, black silvered over with white; SIL'VER-BRIGHT (_Shak._), as bright as silver; SIL'VER-BUS'KINED, having buskins adorned with silver.--_ns._ SIL'VER-FIR, a coniferous tree of the genus _Abies_, whose leaves show two silvery lines on the under side; SIL'VER-FISH, a name given to the atherine, to artificially bred gold-fish, the sand-smelt, the tarpon: any species of _Lepisma_, a thysanurous insect--also _Bristletail_, _Walking-fish_, _Silver-moth_, _Shiner_, &c.; SIL'VER-FOX, a species of fox found in northern regions, having a rich and valuable fur; SIL'VER-GLANCE, native silver sulphide; SIL'VER-GRAIN, the medullary rays in timber.--_adjs._ SIL'VER-GRAY, having a gray or bluish-gray colour; SIL'VER-HAIRED, having white or lustrous gray hair; SIL'VER-HEAD'ED, having a silver head: with white hair.--_ns._ SIL'VERINESS, the state of being silvery; SIL'VERING, the operation of covering with silver: the silver so used.--_v.t._ SIL'VERISE, to coat or cover with silver:--_pr.p._ sil'ver[=i]sing; _pa.p._ sil'ver[=i]sed.--_ns._ SIL'VERITE, one who opposes the demonetisation of silver; SIL'VER-LEAF, silver beaten into thin leaves; SIL'VERLING (_B._), a small silver coin.--_adv._ SIL'VERLY (_Shak._), with the appearance of silver.--_adjs._ SIL'VERN, made of silver; SIL'VER-PL[=A]'TED, plated with silver.--_n._ SIL'VER-PRINT'ING, the production of photographic prints by the use of a sensitising salt of silver.--_adj._ SIL'VER-SHAFT'ED, carrying silver arrows, as Diana.--_ns._ SIL'VERSMITH, a smith who works in silver; SIL'VER-STICK, an officer of the royal palace--from his silvered wand.--_adjs._ SIL'VER-TONGUED, plausible, eloquent; SIL'VER-VOICED (_Shak._), having a clear, sweet voice like the sound of a silver musical instrument; SIL'VER-WHITE (_Shak._), white like silver; SIL'VERY, covered with silver: resembling silver: white: clear, soft, mellow. [A.S. _silfer_, _seolfor_; Ice. _silfr_, Ger. _silber_.] SIMAR, SIMARRE, si-mär', _n._ a woman's robe: a scarf. [Fr. _simarre_--O. Fr. _chamarre_--Sp. _chamarra_, a sheep-skin coat, prob. Basque.] SIMARUBACEÆ, sim-a-r[=oo]-b[=a]'s[=e]-[=e], _n.pl._ a natural order of tropical trees and shrubs--bitter, used in dysentery, &c.--including _quassia_, _bitterwood_, and _ailanto_.--_adj._ SIMARUB[=A]'CEOUS. SIMBIL, sim'bil, _n._ a shortish-legged African stork. SIMEONITE, sim'[=e]-on-[=i]t, _n._ a follower of the famous Cambridge evangelical preacher Charles _Simeon_ (1759-1836), whose influence is perpetuated by the _Simeon Trust_, established for purchasing advowsons: a low-churchman--often SIM. SIMIA, sim'i-a, _n._ an anthropoid ape: a monkey generally: the typical genus of _Simiidæ_, containing the orang-utans--the _Simiidæ_ includes the anthropoid apes; _Simiinæ_ is the higher of the two sub-families of Simiidæ, comprising the gorilla, chimpanzee, and orang.--_adjs._ SIM'IAL, SIM'IAN, SIM'IOUS, like an ape: anthropoid. [L.] SIMILAR, sim'i-lar, _adj._ like: resembling: uniform: (_geom._) exactly corresponding in shape, without regard to size.--_n._ SIMILAR'ITY.--_adv._ SIM'ILARLY.--_n._ SIMIL'ITUDE, the state of being similar or like: resemblance: comparison: simile: (_B._) a parable.--_adj._ SIMILIT[=U]'DINARY. [Fr.,--L. _similis_, like.] SIMILE, sim'i-le, _n._ something similar: similitude: (_rhet._) a comparison to illustrate anything.--_n.pl._ SIMIL'IA, things alike.--_v.t._ SIM'ILISE, to liken, compare.--_v.i._ to use similitudes.--_adv._ SIMIL'LITER, in like manner. [L., neut. of _similis_, like.] SIMILOR, sim'i-l[=o]r, _n._ a yellow alloy used for cheap jewellery. [Fr.,--L. _similis_, like, _aurum_, gold.] SIMITAR. Same as _Scimitar_ (q.v.). SIMKIN, sim'kin, _n._ the usual Anglo-Indian word for champagne.--Also SIMP'KIN. SIMMER, sim'[.e]r, _v.i._ to boil with a gentle, hissing sound: to be on the point of boiling out, as into anger.--_n._ a gentle heating. [Imit.; cf. Sw. dial. _summa_, to hum, Ger. _summen_.] SIMNEL, sim'nel, _n._ a sweet cake of fine flour for Christmas, Easter, or Mothering Sunday.--Also SIM'LIN. [O. Fr. _simenel_--L. _simila_, fine flour.] SIMON-PURE, s[=i]'mon-p[=u]r, _adj._ authentic, genuine. [From _Simon Pure_, a character in Mrs Centlivre's comedy, _A Bold Stroke for a Wife_, who is counterfeited by an impostor.] SIMONY, sim'on-i, _n._ the crime of buying or selling presentation to a benefice, so named from _Simon_ Magus, who thought to purchase the gift of the Holy Spirit with money (Acts, viii.).--_n._ SIM[=O]'NIAC, one guilty of simony.--_adjs._ SIMON[=I]'ACAL, SIM[=O]'NIOUS (_obs._), pertaining to, guilty of, or involving simony.--_adv._ SIMON[=I]'ACALLY.--_n._ S[=I]'MONIST, one who practises or defends simony. SIMOOM, si-m[=oo]m', _n._ a hot suffocating wind which blows in northern Africa and Arabia and the adjacent countries from the interior deserts.--Also SIMOON'. [Ar. _samûm_--_samm_, to poison.] SIMORHYNCHUS, sim-[=o]-ring'kus, _n._ a genus of small North Pacific birds, the snub-nosed auklets. [Gr. _simos_, flat-nosed, _hryngchos_, snout.] SIMOUS, s[=i]'mus, _adj._ flat or snub nosed: concave.--_n._ SIMOS'ITY. SIMPAI, sim'p[=i], _n._ the black-crested monkey of Sumatra. SIMPER, sim'p[.e]r, _v.i._ to smile in a silly, affected manner.--_n._ a silly or affected smile.--_n._ SIM'PERER, one who simpers.--_adj._ SIMP'ERING.--_adv._ SIM'PERINGLY, in a simpering manner: with a foolish smile. [Prob. Scand.; Norw. _semper_, smart.] SIMPLE, sim'pl, _adj._ single: undivided: resisting decomposition: elementary, undeveloped: plain, single, entire: homogeneous: open: unaffected: undesigning: true: clear: straightforward: artless: guileless: unsuspecting: credulous: not cunning: weak in intellect: silly: of mean birth--opposed to _Gentle_.--_n._ something not mixed or compounded: a medicinal herb: a simple feast--opposed to a _double_ or _semidouble_.--_v.i._ to gather simples or medicinal plants.--_adjs._ SIM'PLE-HEART'ED, having a simple heart: guileless; SIM'PLE-MIND'ED, having a simple mind: unsuspecting: undesigning.--_ns._ SIM'PLE-MIND'EDNESS, the state or quality of being simple-minded: artlessness; SIM'PLENESS, the state or quality of being simple: artlessness: simplicity: folly; SIM'PLER, a gatherer of simples; SIM'PLESS (_Spens._), simplicity; SIM'PLETON, a weak or foolish person.--_adv._ SIMPLIC'ITER, simply, not relatively.--_ns._ SIMPLIC'ITY, the state or quality of being simple: singleness: want of complication: openness: clearness: freedom from excessive adornment: plainness: sincerity: artlessness: credulity, silliness, folly; SIMPLIFIC[=A]'TION, the act of making simple.--_adj._ SIM'PLIFIC[=A]TIVE.--_n._ SIM'PLIFIC[=A]TOR, one who simplifies.--_v.t._ SIM'PLIFY, to make simple: to render less difficult: to make plain:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ sim'plified.--_ns._ SIM'PLISM, affected simplicity; SIM'PLIST, one skilled in simples.--_adj._ SIMPLIS'TIC.--_adv._ SIM'PLY, in a simple manner: artlessly: foolishly: weakly: plainly: considered by itself: alone: merely: solely. [Fr.,--L. _simplex_, the same--_sim-_ (L. _semel_), root of _plic[=a]re_, to fold.] SIMSON, SIMPSON, sim'son, _n._ (_prov._) groundsel. [Earlier _sencion_--O. Fr. _senecion_--L. _senecio_.] SIMULACRUM, sim-[=u]-l[=a]'krum, _n._ an image, unreal phantom: a formal sign:--_pl._ SIMUL[=A]'CRA. [L.] SIMULATE, sim'[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to imitate: to counterfeit: to pretend: to assume the appearance of without the reality.--_adjs._ SIM'ULANT, simulating: replacing, or having the form or appearance of, esp. in biology; SIM'ULAR, counterfeit, feigned.--_n._ one who pretends to be what he is not.--_ns._ SIMUL[=A]'TION, the act of simulating or putting on what is not true: imitation in form of one word by another: resemblance, similarity; SIM'UL[=A]TOR, one who simulates.--_adj._ SIM'UL[=A]TORY. [L. _simul[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to make (something) similar to (another thing)--_similis_, like.] SIMULTANEOUS, sim-ul-t[=a]'n[=e]-us, _adj._ acting, existing, or happening at the same time: (_math._) satisfied by the same values of the variables or unknown quantities--of a set of equations.--_ns._ SIMULTAN[=E]'ITY, SIMULT[=A]'NEOUSNESS.--_adv._ SIMULT[=A]'NEOUSLY. [Low L. _simultaneus_--L. _simul_, at the same time.] SIMURG, si-m[=oo]rg', _n._ a monstrous bird of Persian fable.--Also SIMORG', SIMURGH'. SIN, sin, _adv._ (_Spens._) since. [_Since_.] SIN, sin, _n._ wilful violation of law: neglect of duty: neglect of the laws of morality and religion, any want of conformity unto, or transgression of, the law of God: wickedness, iniquity.--_v.i._ to commit sin: to violate or neglect the laws of morality or religion: to do wrong:--pr.p sin'ning; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ sinned.--_adjs._ SIN'-BORN, born of sin; SIN'-BRED, produced by sin.--_ns._ SIN'-EAT'ER, one of a class of men formerly employed in Wales to eat a piece of bread and drink a cup of ale placed on a bier, and so symbolically take upon themselves the sins of the deceased--due to the notion of the Levitical _scapegoat_ (Levit. xvi. 21, 22); SIN'-EAT'ING.--_adj._ SIN'FUL, full of, or tainted with, sin: iniquitous: wicked: depraved: criminal: unholy.--_adv._ SIN'FULLY.--_n._ SIN'FULNESS.--_adj._ SIN'LESS, without sin: innocent: pure: perfect.--_adv._ SIN'LESSLY.--_ns._ SIN'LESSNESS; SIN'NER, one who sins: an offender or criminal: (_theol._) an unregenerate person.--_v.i._ (_Pope_) to act as a sinner (with indefinite _it_).--_n._ SIN'-OFF'ERING, an offering for, or sacrifice in expiation of, sin.--_adjs._ SIN'-SICK, morally sick from sin; SIN'-WORN, worn by sin.--LIKE SIN (_slang_), very much, very hard; MORTAL, or DEADLY, SIN, such as wilfully violates the divine law and separates the soul from God--seven deadly sins, _pride_, _covetousness_, _lust_, _anger_, _gluttony_, _envy_, and _sloth_; ORIGINAL SIN, the innate depravity and corruption of the whole nature due to the sin of Adam as federal representative of the human race, and transmitted by ordinary generation to all his posterity; VENIAL SIN, any transgression due to inadvertence, not alienating the friendship of God. [A.S. _syn_, _sinn_; Ice. _syn-d_, Ger. _sünde_, L. _sons_.] SINAITIC, s[=i]-na-it'ik, _adj._ pertaining to, made, or given at Mount Sinai.--Also SIN[=A]'IC. SINAPIS, si-n[=a]'pis, _n._ the officinal name of mustard.--_n._ SIN'APISM, a mustard-plaster. [L.,--Gr. _sinapi_.] SINCE, sins, _adv._ from the time that: past: ago.--_prep._ after: from the time of.--_conj._ seeing that: because: considering. [M. E. _sins_, _sithens_--A.S. _síth-thám_, lit. 'after that,' from _síth_, late (Ger. _seit_), and _thám_, dat. of _thæt_, that.] SINCERE, sin-s[=e]r', _adj._ clean: pure: (_B._) unadulterated: being in reality what it is in appearance: unfeigned: frank: honest: true, virtuous.--_adv._ SINC[=E]RE'LY.--_ns._ SINC[=E]RE'NESS, SINCER'ITY, state or quality of being sincere: honesty of mind: freedom from pretence. [Fr.,--L. _sincerus_, clean, generally derived from _sine_, without, _cera_, wax; better from _sin-_, single, _-cerus_ for an assumed _scerus_, bright.] SINCIPUT, sin'si-put, _n._ the forepart of the head from the forehead to the vertex.--_adj._ SINCIP'ITAL. [L., _semi-_; half, _caput_, the head.] SIND, s[=i]nd, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to rinse.--Also Synd. SINDON, sin'don, _n._ (_Bacon_) a wrapper. [L.,--Gr. _sind[=o]n_, fine Indian cloth, muslin, a garment, prob. from _India_, or _Sinde_ in India.] SINE, s[=i]n, _n._ a straight line drawn from one extremity of an arc perpendicular to the diameter that passes through the other extremity. [L. _sinus_, a curve.] SINE, SYNE, s[=i]n, _adv._ (_Scot._) after that: ago.--_conj._ since. SINE, s[=i]'ne, _prep._ without, as in SINE DIE, without day, of an adjournment; SINE QUÂ NON, an indispensable condition, &c. [L.] SINECURE, s[=i]'n[=e]-k[=u]r (or sin'-), _n._ an ecclesiastical benefice without the cure or care of souls: an office with salary but without work.--_adj._ pertaining to such an office.--_ns._ S[=I]'NECURISM, the state of having a sinecure; S[=I]'NECURIST, one who holds a sinecure. [L. _sine_, without, _cura_, care.] SINEW, sin'[=u], _n._ that which joins a muscle to a bone, a tendon: muscle, nerve: that which supplies vigour.--_v.t._ to bind as by sinews: to strengthen.--_adj._ SIN'EWED, furnished with sinews: (_Shak._) strong, vigorous.--_n._ SIN'EWINESS, the state or quality of being sinewy.--_adjs._ SIN'EWLESS, having no sinews: without strength or power; SIN'EW-SHRUNK, applied to a horse which has become gaunt-bellied from being overdriven; SIN'EWY, SIN'EWOUS, furnished with sinews: consisting of, belonging to, or resembling sinews: strong: vigorous.--SINEWS OF WAR, money. [A.S. _sinu_; Ice. _sin_, Ger. _sehne_.] SINFONIA, sin-f[=o]-n[=e]'a, _n._ symphony. [It.] SING, sing, _v.i._ to utter melodious sounds in musical succession: to make a small, shrill sound: to relate in verse: to squeal: to ring: to be capable of being sung.--_v.t._ to utter musically: to chant: to celebrate: to attend on: to effect by singing: to celebrate or relate in verse:--_pa.t._ sang or sung; _pa.p._ sung.--_adj._ SING'ABLE.--_ns._ SING'ABLENESS; SING'ER, one who sings: one whose occupation is to sing; SING'ING, the act or art of singing; SING'ING-BIRD, a bird that sings, a songster; SING'ING-BOOK, a song-book; SING'ING-GALL'ERY, a gallery occupied by singers; SING'ING-HINN'Y, a currant cake baked on a girdle.--_adv._ SING'INGLY.--_ns._ SING'ING-MAN (_Shak._), one employed to sing, as in a cathedral; SING'ING-MAS'TER, a master who teaches singing; SING'ING-SCHOOL, a place where singing is taught; SING'ING-VOICE, the voice as used in singing; SING'ING-WOM'AN, a woman employed to sing.--SING ANOTHER SONG, or TUNE, to change one's tone or attitude, esp. to a humbler manner; SING OUT, to call out distinctly, to shout; SING SMALL, to assume a humble tone: to play a minor part. [A.S. _singan_; Ger. _singen_, Goth. _siggwan_.] SINGE, sinj, _v.t._ to burn on the surface: to scorch:--_pr.p._ singe'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ singed.--_n._ a burning of the surface: a slight burn.--SINGED CAT, a person who is better than he looks. [A.S. _besengan_, the causative of _singan_, to sing, from the singing noise produced by scorching.] SINGHALESE. Same as CINGALESE. SINGLE, sing'gl, _adj._ consisting of one only: individual, unique: separate, private: alone: unmarried: not combined with others: unmixed: having one only on each side: straightforward: sincere: simple, normal: pure.--_v.t._ to separate: to choose one from others: to select from a number.--_adjs._ SING'LE-ACT'ING, acting effectively in one direction only--of any reciprocating machine or implement; SING'LE-BREAST'ED, with a single row of buttons or loops only, of a coat, corsage, &c.--_n._ SINGLE-EN'TRY, a system of book-keeping in which each entry appears only once on one side or other of an account.--_adj._ SING'LE-EYED, having but one eye: devoted, unselfish.--_ns._ SING'LE-FLOW'ER, a flower containing a single set of petals, as a wild rose; SING'LE-FOOT, a gait of horses, the amble.--_adjs._ SING'LE-HAND'ED, by one's self: unassisted: having only one workman; SING'LE-HEART'ED, having a single or sincere heart: without duplicity.--_adv._ SING'LE-HEART'EDLY.--_adj._ SING'LE-MIND'ED, having a single or sincere mind: upright.--_ns._ SING'LE-MIND'EDNESS; SING'LENESS, state of being single or alone: freedom from deceit: sincerity: simplicity.--_adj._ SING'LE-SOLED, having a single sole, as a shoe: poor.--_ns._ SING'LE-STICK, a stick or cudgel for one hand: a fight or game with singlesticks; SING'LET, an undershirt or waistcoat; SING'LETON, in whist, a hand containing one card only of some suit; SING'LETREE (the same as SWINGLETREE); SING'LE-WOM'AN, an unmarried woman: (_obs._) a whore.--_adv._ SING'LY, one by one: particularly: alone: by one's self: honestly: sincerely. [O. Fr.,--L. _sin-gulus_, one to each, separate, akin to _sem-el_, once, Gr. _ham-a_.] SINGSONG, sing'song, _n._ bad singing: drawling: a convivial meeting where every one must sing.--_adj._ monotonously rhythmical, drawling.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to make songs: to chant monotonously. SINGSPIEL, sing'sp[=e]l, _n._ a semi-dramatic representation in which a series of incidents are set forth in alternate dialogue and song, now a kind of opera in which the music is subordinated to the words. [Ger., _singen_, to sing, _spiel_, play.] SINGULAR, sing'g[=u]-lar, _adj._ alone: (_gram._) denoting one person or thing: single: not complex or compound: standing alone, rare, unusual, uncommon: of more than common value or importance: unique, extraordinary, strange, odd: (_B._) particular.--_n._ that which is singular: (_logic_) that which is not general, that which is here and now, that which is determinate in every respect.--_n._ SINGULARIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ SING'ULARISE, to make singular.--_ns._ SING'ULARIST, one who affects singularity; SINGULAR'ITY, the state of being singular: peculiarity: anything curious or remarkable: particular privilege or distinction: (_math._) an exceptional element or character of a continuum.--_adv._ SING'ULARLY, in a singular manner: peculiarly: strangely: so as to express one or the singular number. [Fr.,--L. _singularis_.] SINGULT, sin'gult, _n._ a sigh.--_adjs._ SINGUL'TIENT, SINGUL'TOUS, affected with hiccup.--_n._ SINGUL'TUS, a hiccup. [L. _singultus_, a sob.] SINHALESE, sin'ha-l[=e]z, _n._ and _adj._ the same as CINGALESE and SINGHALESE. SINIC, sin'ik, _adj._ Chinese.--_adj._ SIN'IAN, a widely spread series of rocks in China, containing many trilobites and brachiopods.--_ns._ SIN'ICISM, Chinese manners and customs; SIN'ISM, customs of China generally, esp. its ancient indigenous religion. [L. _Sina_, China, _Sinæ_, the Chinese, Gr. _Sinai_, the Chinese.] SINICAL, sin'ik-al, _adj._ pertaining to, employing, or founded upon sines. SINISTER, sin'is-t[.e]r, _adj._ left: on the left hand: evil: unfair: dishonest: unlucky: inauspicious, malign.--_adj._ SIN'ISTER-HAND'ED, left-handed.--_advs._ SIN'ISTERLY; SINIS'TRA (_mus._), with the left hand; SIN'ISTRAD, towards the left.--_adj._ SIN'ISTRAL, belonging or inclining to the left: reversed.--_n._ SINISTRAL'ITY.--_adv._ SIN'ISTRALLY.--_n._ SINISTR[=A]'TION, a turning to the left.--_adj._ SIN'ISTROUS, on the left side: wrong: absurd: perverse.--_adv._ SIN'ISTROUSLY. [L.] SINISTRORSE, sin'is-trors, _adj._ rising from left to right, as a spiral line.--Also SINISTRORS'AL. [L. _sinistrorsus_, _sinistroversus_, towards the left side--sinister, left, _vert[)e]re_, _versum_, to turn.] SINK, singk, _v.i._ to fall to the bottom: to fall down: to descend lower: to fall gradually: to fall below the surface: to enter deeply: to be impressed: to be overwhelmed: to fail in strength.--_v.t._ to cause to sink: to put under water: to keep out of sight: to suppress: to degrade: to cause to decline or fall: to plunge into destruction: to make by digging or delving: to pay absolutely: to lower in value or amount: to lessen:--_pa.t._ sank, sunk; _pa.p._ sunk, sunk'en.--_n._ a drain to carry off dirty water: a box or vessel connected with a drain for receiving dirty water: an abode of degraded persons: a general receptacle: an area in which a river sinks and disappears: a depression in a stereotype plate: a stage trap-door for shifting scenery: in mining, an excavation less than a shaft.--_ns._ SINK'ER, anything which causes a sinking, esp. a weight fixed to a fishing-line; SINK'-HOLE, a hole for dirty water to run through; SINK'ING, a subsidence: a depression.--_adj._ causing to sink.--_n._ SINK'ING-FUND, a fund formed by setting aside income every year to accumulate at interest for the purpose of paying off debt.--_adj._ SINK'ING-RIPE (_Shak._), dead-ripe, about to fall off.--_n._ SINK'ROOM, a scullery. [A.S. _sincan_; Ger. _sinken_, Dut. _zinken_.] SINK-A-PACE, singk'-a-p[=a]s, _n._ (_Shak._)=_Cinquepace_. SINOLOGUE, sin'[=o]-log, _n._ one versed in Chinese.--_adj._ SINOLOG'ICAL (-loj'-).--_ns._ SINOL'OGIST; SINOL'OGY. SINOPLE, sin'[=o]-pl, _n._ a ferruginous clay yielding the fine red pigment SIN[=O]'PIA or SIN[=O]'PIS. [Gr. _sin[=o]pis_, a red earth brought from _Sinope_.] SINSYNE, sin-s[=i]n', _adv._ (_Scot._) since, ago. SINTER, sin't[.e]r, _n._ a name given to rocks precipitated in a crystalline form from mineral waters. [Ger.] SINTO, SINTOISM=_Shinto_, _Shintoism_. SINTOC, sin'tok, _n._ a Malayan tree with aromatic bark.--Also SIN'DOC. SINUATE, -D, sin'[=u]-[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ curved: (_bot._) with a waved margin.--_v.t._ to bend in and out.--_ns._ SINU[=A]'TION; SINUOS'ITY, quality of being sinuous: a bend or series of bends and turns.--_adjs._ SIN'UOUS, SIN'U[=O]SE, bending in and out, winding, undulating: morally crooked.--_adv._ SIN'UOUSLY. [L. _sinuatus_, _pa.p._ of _sinu[=a]re_, to bend.] SINUPALLIATE, sin-[=u]-pal'i-[=a]t, _adj._ having a sinuous pallial margin on the shell along the line of attachment of the mantle.--Also SINUPALL'IAL. [L. _sinus_, a fold, pallium, a mantle.] SINUS, s[=i]'nus, _n._ a bending: a fold: an opening: a bay of the sea: a recess on the shore: (_anat._) a cavity or hollow of bone or other tissue, one of the air-cavities contained in the interior of certain bones: a channel for transmitting venous blood: a narrow opening leading to an abscess, &c.--_n._ S[=I]'NUSOID, the curve of sines in which the abscisses are proportional to an angle, and the ordinates to its sine.--_adj._ SINUSOI'DAL.--_adv._ SINUSOI'DALLY. [L. _sinus_, a curve.] SIOUX, s[=oo], _n._ (_pl._ SIOUX, s[=oo] or s[=oo]z) the principal tribe of the Dakota family of American Indians in South Dakota and Nebraska--also _adj._--Also SIOUAN (s[=oo]'an). SIP, sip, _v.t._ to sup or drink in small quantities: to draw into the mouth: to taste: to drink out of.--_v.i._ to drink in small quantities: to drink by the lips:--_pr.p._ sip'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ sipped.--_n._ the taking of a liquor with the lips: a small draught.--_n._ SIP'PER. [A.S. _syppan_ (assumed), _sipian_, to soak. Related to _súpan_, to sup, taste.] SIPE, s[=i]p, _v.i._ (_prov._) to soak through.--Also SEEP. [A.S. _sipian_, to soak; Dut. _zijpen_, to drop.] SIPHILIS. Same as SYPHILIS (q.v.). [Illustration] SIPHON, s[=i]'fun, _n._ a bent tube for drawing off liquids from one vessel into another.--_v.t._ to convey by means of a siphon.--_n._ S[=I]'PHONAGE.--_adjs._ S[=I]'PHONAL, S[=I]'PHONATE, S[=I]PHON'IC, pertaining to, or resembling, a siphon.--_n._ S[=I]'PHON-BOTT'LE, a glass bottle for containing aerated liquid, fitted with a glass tube reaching nearly to the bottom and bent like a siphon at the outlet.--_adjs._ SIPHONIF'EROUS; S[=I]'PHONIFORM; SIPHONOST[=O]'MATOUS, having a siphonate mouth.--_ns._ S[=I]'PHONOSTOME, a siphonostomatous animal, as a fish-louse; S[=I]'PHUNCLE, the siphon or funnel of tetrabranchiate cephalopods: a nectary.--_adjs._ S[=I]'PHUNCLED, SIPHUNC'ULAR, SIPHUNC'ULATE, -D.--_ns._ SIPHUNC'ULUS; SIPUNC'ULUS, a genus of worms belonging to the class _Gephyrea_. [Fr.,--Gr., _siph[=o]n_--_siphlos_, hollow.] SIPPET, sip'et, _n._ a small sop: (_pl._) morsels of bread served in broth, &c.--_v.i._ SIPP'LE, to sup in sips. SIPYLITE, sip'i-l[=i]t, _n._ a niobite of erbium. [From Gr. _Sipylos_, one of the children of Niobe.] SIR, s[.e]r, _n._ a word of respect used in addressing a man: a gentleman: the title of a knight or baronet, used along with the Christian name and surname, as 'Sir David Pole:' formerly a common title of address for the clergy as a translation of L. _dominus_, the term used for a bachelor of arts, originally in contradistinction from the _magister_, or master of arts--hence SIR JOHN=a priest.--_v.t._ to address as 'sir.' [O. Fr. _sire_, through O. Fr. _senre_, from L. _senior_, an elder, comp. of _senex_, old. Cf. the parallel forms _Sire_, _Senior_, _Seignior_, _Signor_.] SIRCAR, s[.e]r-kär', _n._ a Hindu clerk.--Also SIRKAR', CIRCAR'. [Hind. _sark[=a]r_, a superintendent--_sar_, head, _k[=a]r_, Sans. _kara_, work.] SIRDAR, s[.e]r-där', _n._ a chief or military officer. [Hind. _sard[=a]r_--_sar_, head, _-d[=a]r_, holding.] SIRE, s[=i]r, _n._ one in the place of a father, as a sovereign: an elder, a progenitor: the male parent of a beast, esp. of a horse: (_pl._) ancestors (_poetry_).--_v.t._ to beget, used of animals. [_Sir_.] SIREDON, s[=i]-r[=e]'don, _n._ a larval salamander:--_pl._ SIR[=E]'DONES. SIREN, s[=i]'ren, _n._ (_Gr. myth._) one of certain sea-nymphs who sat on the shores of an island between Circe's isle and Scylla, near the south-western coast of Italy, and sang with bewitching sweetness songs that allured the passing sailor to draw near, only to meet with death: a fascinating woman, any one insidious and deceptive: an instrument which produces musical sounds by introducing a regularly recurring discontinuity into an otherwise steady blast of air: an instrument for demonstrating the laws of beats and combination tones: an eel-like, amphibious animal, with only one pair of feet, inhabiting swamps in the southern states of North America.--_adj._ pertaining to, or like, a siren: fascinating.--_n._ SIR[=E]'NIA, an order of aquatic mammals now represented by the dugong (_Halicore_) and the manatee (_Manatus_).--_adj._ SIR[=E]'NIAN.--_v.i._ S[=I]'RENISE, to play the siren. [L. _siren_--Gr. _seir[=e]n_, prob. _seira_, a cord.] SIRGANG, s[.e]r'gang, _n._ the Asiatic green jackdaw. SIRIH, sir'i, _n._ the betel-leaf. [Malay.] SIRIUS, sir'i-us, _n._ the Dogstar or Canicula, the brightest star in the heavens, situated in the constellation of _Canis Major_, or the Great Dog.--_n._ SIR[=I]'ASIS, sunstroke. [L.,--Gr. _seirios_.] SIRLOIN, s[.e]r'loin, _n._ the loin or upper part of the loin of beef. [Fr. _surlonge_--_sur_ (--L. _super_, above) and _longe_ (cf. _Loin_). The first syllable has been modified by confusion with Eng. _sir_, and an absurd etymology constructed to suit.] SIRNAME, s[.e]r'n[=a]m, _n._ a corr. of _surname_. SIROCCO, si-rok'o, _n._ a name given in Italy to a dust-laden dry wind coming over sea from Africa; but also applied to any south wind, often moist and warm, as opposed to the _Tramontana_ or north wind, from the hills.--Also SIR'OC. [It. _sirocco_ (Sp. _siroco_)--_scharq_, the east.] SIROP, sir'op, _n._ a form of syrup: a kettle used in making sugar by the open-kettle process. SIRRAH, s[.e]r'a, _n._ sir, used in anger or contempt. [An extension of _sir_.] SIR-REVERENCE, s[.e]r-rev'e-rens, _n._ a corr. of _save-reverence_. SIRUP. See SYRUP. SIRVENTE, sir-vont', _n._ a satirical song of the 12th-13th century trouvères and troubadours. [Fr.] SIS, sis, _n._ a girl, a sweetheart.--Also SIS'SY. [From _Cicely_.] SISAL-GRASS, sis'al-gras, _n._ the prepared fibre of the agave or American aloe, supplying cordage.--Also SIS'AL-HEMP. SISCOWET, sis'k[=o]-et, _n._ a Lake Superior variety of the great lake trout.--Also SIS'KIWIT, SIS'KOWET. SISERARY, sis'e-r[=a]-ri, _n._ a stroke, blow, originally a legal writ transferring a cause to a higher court.--WITH A SISERARY, with suddenness or vehemence. [A corr. of _certiorari_.] SISKIN, sis'kin, _n._ a genus of perching birds belonging to the family _Fringillidæ_, the true finches. [Dan. _sisgen_, Sw. _siska_, Ger. _zeisig_.] SIST, sist, _v.t._ (_Scots law_) to present at the bar: cause to appear, summon: to delay, stop.--_n._ the act of staying diligence or execution on decrees for civil debts. [L. _sist[)e]re_, to make to stand.] [Illustration] SISTER, sis't[.e]r, _n._ a female born of the same parents: a female closely allied to or associated with another.--_adj._ closely related, akin.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to resemble closely: to be a sister to: to be allied.--_ns._ SIS'TERHOOD, state of being a sister, the duty of a sister: a society of females, a community of women living together under a religious rule, and with a common object for their united life; SIS'TER-HOOK, in a ship's rigging, one of a pair of hooks fitting closely together and working on the same axis--also _Clip-hook_ and _Clove-hook_; SIS'TER-IN-LAW, a husband's or wife's sister, or a brother's wife.--_adjs._ SIS'TERLESS, having no sister; SIS'TER-LIKE, SIS'TERLY, like or becoming a sister: kind: affectionate. [A.S. _sweostor_; Dut. _zuster_, Ger. _schwester_.] SISTINE, sis'tin, _adj._ pertaining to a pope of the name of _Sixtus_, esp. Sixtus IV. (1471-84) and Sixtus V. (1585-90)--also SIX'TINE.--SISTINE CHAPEL, the Pope's chapel in the Vatican, built in 1473 by Sixtus IV., covered with magnificent frescoes by Michael Angelo and the great Florentine masters; SISTINE MADONNA, or MADONNA OF SAN SISTO, a famous painting by Raphael Santi, now at Dresden, representing the Virgin and Child in glory, St Sixtus on the left, St Barbara on the right, and two cherubs below. SISTRUM, sis'trum, _n._ a form of rattle used in ancient Egypt in connection with the worship of Isis. SISYPHEAN, sis-i-f[=e]'an, _adj._ relating to Sisyphus: incessantly recurring. [From _Sisyphus_, a king of Corinth, who was condemned in Tartarus to roll to the top of a hill a huge stone, which constantly rolled down again, making his task incessant.] SIT, sit, _v.i._ to rest on the haunches: to perch, as birds: to rest: to remain, abide: to brood: to occupy a seat, esp. officially: to be officially engaged: to blow from a certain direction, as the wind: to be worn, to fit, to be becoming: to take an attitude of readiness, or for any special purpose: to hold a deliberative session.--_v.t._ to keep a seat, or good seat, upon: to seat, place on a seat:--_pr.p._ sit'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ sat.--_n._ a subsidence of the roof of a coal-mine: (_slang_) a situation.--_adj._ SIT'-FAST, fixed, stationary.--_n._ a callosity of the skin under the saddle, often leading to ulcer.--_ns._ SIT'TER; SIT'TING, state of resting on a seat: a seat, a special seat allotted to a seat-holder, at church, &c.; also the right to hold such: the part of the year in which judicial business is transacted: the act or time of resting in a posture for a painter to take a likeness: an official meeting to transact business: uninterrupted application to anything for a time: the time during which one continues at anything: a resting on eggs for hatching, the number hatched at one time; SIT'TING-ROOM, the parlour or most commonly used room in many houses.--SIT DOWN, to take a seat: to pause, rest: to begin a siege; SIT LOOSE, or LOOSELY, to be careless or indifferent; SIT ON, or UPON, to hold an official inquiry regarding: (_slang_) to repress, check; SIT OUT, to sit, or to sit apart, during: to await the close of; SIT UNDER, to be in the habit of hearing the preaching of; SIT UP, to raise the body from a recumbent to a sitting position: to keep watch during the night (_with_). [A.S. _sittan_; Ger. _sitzen_, L. _sed[=e]re_.] SITAR, sit'ar, _n._ an Oriental form of guitar. SITE, s[=i]t, _n._ the place where anything is set down or fixed: situation: a place chosen for any particular purpose: posture.--_adj._ S[=I]'TED (_Spens._), placed, situated. [Fr.,--L. _situs_--_situm_, pa.p. of _sin[)e]re_, to set down.] SITH, sith, _adv._, _prep._, and _conj._ since--(_obs._) SITH'ENCE, SITH'ENS. [M. E. _sithen_--A.S. _síth thám_, after that, also written _siththan_. Cf. _Since_.] SITHE, s[=i]th, _n._ (_Spens._) time. [A.S. _síth_, time.] SITHE, s[=i]th, _n._ (_Shak._) a scythe.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to cut with a scythe. SITHE, s[=i]th, _n._ (_Spens._) a sigh. SITOLOGY, s[=i]-tol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the science of the regulation of diet.--Also SITIOL'OGY. [Gr. _sitos_, food, _logia_--_legein_, to say.] SITOPHOBIA, s[=i]-t[=o]-f[=o]'bi-a, _n._ morbid aversion to food. [Gr. _sitos_, food, _phobia_, fear.] SITTA, sit'a, _n._ the genus of nut-hatches.--_adj._ SIT'TINE. [Gr. _sitt[=e]_, a woodpecker.] SITUATE, -D, sit'[=u]-[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ set or permanently fixed: placed with respect to other objects: residing.--_ns._ SITU[=A]'TION, the place where anything is situated: position: temporary state: condition: any group of circumstances, a juncture: a critical point in the action of a play or the development the plot of a novel: office, employment; S[=I]'TUS, site: the proper place of an organ, &c.: locality in law. [Low L. _situatus_--L. _situ[)e]re_, to place.] SITZ-BATH, sitz'-bäth, _n._ a hip-bath: a tub adapted for such. [Ger. _sitz-bad_.] SIUM, s[=i]'um, _n._ a genus of umbelliferous plants--the water-parsnips. [Gr. _sion_.] SIVA, s[=e]'va, _n._ the third god of the Hindu Trimúrti or triad, representing the principle of destruction and of reproduction.--_adj._ SIVAIST'IC.--_n._ SI'VAITE. [Sans. _çiva_, happy.] SIVAN, siv'an, _n._ the third month of the Jewish ecclesiastical year, answering to part of May and June. [Heb.] SIVATHERIUM, siv-a-th[=e]'ri-um, _n._ a very large fossil ruminant found in India. SIX, siks, _adj._ and _n._ five and one: a figure denoting six units (6, or vi.): a playing-card with six spots, the face of a die bearing six spots, or that die itself: beer sold at six shillings a barrel, small beer: (_pl._) in hymnology, a quatrain in trochaic measure, the lines of three feet or six syllables.--_adj._ SIX'FOLD, folded or multiplied six times.--_ns._ SIX'FOOTER, a person six feet high; SIX'PENCE, a silver coin=six pence.--_adj._ SIX'PENNY, worth sixpence: cheap, worthless.--_ns._ SIX'-SHOOT'ER, a six-chambered revolver; SIXTE, a parry in which the hand is on guard opposite the right breast, the point of the sword raised and moved a little to the right.--_adjs._ and _ns._ SIX'TEEN, six and ten; SIX'TEENTH, the sixth after the tenth.--_adj._ SIXTH, the last of six: the ordinal of six.--_n._ the sixth part: (_mus._) an interval of four tones and a semitone, or six intervals.--_adv._ SIXTH'LY, in the sixth place.--SIXTH HOUR, noon-tide.--BE AT SIXES AND SEVENS, to be in disorder; LONG SIXES, candles weighing six to the pound, about 8 inches long; SHORT SIXES, candles weighing six to the pound, about 4 inches long. [A.S. _siex_; Ger. _sechs_, Gael. _se_; also L. _sex_, Gr. _hex_, Sans. _shash_.] SIXTEENMO=_Sexto-decimo_ (q.v.). SIXTY, siks'ti, _adj._ and _n._ six times ten.--_adj._ and _n._ SIX'TIETH, the sixth tenth: the ordinal of sixty. [A.S. _sixtig_.] SIZAR, s[=i]'zar, _n._ the name of an order of students at Cambridge and Dublin--from the allowance of victuals made to them from the college buttery.--_n._ S[=I]'ZARSHIP. [_Size_, fixed quantity.] SIZE, s[=i]z, _n._ extent of volume or surface: magnitude: an allotted portion: (_pl._) allowances (_Shak._).--_v.t._ to arrange according to size: at Cambridge, to buy rations at a certain fixed rate: to measure.--_v.i._ to increase in size.--_adjs._ S[=I]'ZABLE, SIZE'ABLE, of suitable size: of considerable size or bulk; SIZED, having a particular size.--_ns._ S[=I]'ZER, one who, or that which, sizes or measures, a kind of gauge; S[=I]'ZING, act of sorting articles according to size, esp. crushed or stamped ores in mining: an order for extra food from a college buttery.--SIZE UP, to measure, consider carefully. [Contr. of _assize_ (q.v.).] SIZE, s[=i]z, SIZING, s[=i]'zing, _n._ a kind of weak glue, used as varnish: any gluey substance.--_v.t._ to cover with size.--_adj._ SIZED, having size in its composition.--_n._ S[=I]'ZINESS.--_adj._ S[=I]'ZY, size-like: glutinous. SIZEL=_Scissel_ (q.v.). SIZZLE, siz'l, _v.i._ to make a sound as if frying.--_n._ a hissing sound; extreme heat.--_n._ SIZZ'LING, a hissing. SKAIN=_Skein_ (q.v.). SKAINSMATE, sk[=a]nz'm[=a]t, _n._ (_Shak._) a companion, a scapegrace. SKALD, _n._=_Scald_, a poet. SKAT, skat, _n._ a game played with thirty-two cards as in Piquet, and said to have been invented in 1817 in Altenburg. Each of three players receives ten cards, the two others being laid aside (hence the name from O. Fr. _escart_, laying aside). SKATE, sk[=a]t, _n._ a kind of sandal or frame of wood on a steel blade for moving on ice.--_v.i._ to slide on, skates.--_ns._ SK[=A]'TER; SK[=A]'TING; SK[=A]'TING-RINK. [Dut. _schaats_; cf. also Dan. _sköite_.] SKATE, sk[=a]t, _n._ the popular name of several species of Ray, esp. those of the family _Raiidæ_ and genus _Raia_, with greatly extended pectoral fins. [Ice. _skata_--Low L. _squatus_--L. _squatina_; cf. _Shad_.] SKATHE. Same as SCATHE. SKAW, skä, _n._ a promontory.--Also SCAW. [Ice. _skagi_--_skaga_, to jut out.] SKEAN, sk[=e]n, _n._ a dagger.--_n._ SKEAN-DHU (sk[=e]n'-d[=oo]), the knife stuck in the stocking of the Highland dress. [Gael, _sgian_, a knife.] SKEARY, sk[=e]'ri, a dial. form of _scary_. SKEDADDLE, sk[=e]-dad'l, _v.t._ (_prov._) to spill, scatter.--_v.i._ (_coll._) to scamper off.--_n._ a scurrying off. [Ety. unknown. Prob. conn. somehow with _shed_--A.S. _sceádan_, to pour.] SKEE, sk[=e], _n._ a wooden runner for sliding down a declivity.--_v.i._ to slide on skees. [Dan. _ski_--Ice. _skídh_.] SKEEL, sk[=e]l, _n._ (_Scot._) a milking-pail, a washing-tub. [Scand., Ice. _skjóla_.] SKEELY, sk[=e]'li, _adj._ (_Scot._) skilful. SKEESICKS, sk[=e]'ziks, _n._ (_U.S._) a rascal. SKEETER, sk[=e]'t[.e]r, _n._ a mosquito. SKEG, skeg, _n._ a stump, branch: the after-part of a ship's keel. SKEG, skeg, _n._ a wild-plum. SKEIN, sk[=a]n, _n._ a knot or number of knots of thread or yarn. [O. Fr. _escagne_, from Celt.; cf. Ir. _sgainne_, a skein.] SKELDER, skel'd[.e]r, _v.i._ and _v.t._ to practise begging: to swindle. SKELETON, skel'e-tun, _n._ the bones of an animal separated from the flesh and preserved in their natural position: the framework or outline of anything: a very lean and emaciated person: a very thin form of light-faced type.--_adj._ pertaining to a skeleton--also SKEL'ETAL.--_ns._ SKELETOG'ENY (-toj'-); SKELETOG'RAPHY; SKELETOL'OGY.--_v.t._ SKEL'ETONISE, to reduce to a skeleton.--_n._ SKEL'ETON-KEY, a key for picking locks, without the inner bits.--SKELETON IN THE CUPBOARD, CLOSET, HOUSE, &c., some hidden domestic source of sorrow or shame. [Gr. _skeleton_ (_s[=o]ma_), a dried (body)--_skeletos_, dried--_skellein_, to dry, to parch.] SKELLOCH, skel'oh, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to cry out with a shrill voice.--_n._ a squeal. SKELLUM, skel'um, _n._ (_Scot._) a ne'er-do-well. [Dut. _schelm_, a rogue.] SKELLY, skel'i, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to squint. [Cf. Dan. _skele_, Sw. _skela_, Ger. _schielen_, to squint.] SKELP, skelp, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to slap.--_v.i._ to move briskly along, to bound along.--_n._ a slap: a heavy fall of pelting rain: a large portion.--_adj._ SKELP'ING, very big or full. [Gael. _sgealp_, a slap.] SKELTER, skel't[.e]r, _v.i._ to hurry or dash along. SKEP, skep, _n._ a grain-basket, or beehive made of straw or wicker-work.--_n._ SKEP'FUL, as much as a skep will hold. [A.S. _scep_--Scand., Ice. _skeppa_.] SKEPTIC=_Sceptic_; SKEPSIS=_Scepsis_. SKERRY, sker'i, _n._ a rocky isle. [Ice. _sker_.] SKETCH, skech, _n._ a first draft of any plan or painting: an outline, a short and slightly constructed play, essay, &c.: a short dramatic scene for representation by two persons: an artist's preliminary study of a work to be elaborated.--_v.t._ to make a rough draft of: to draw the outline: to give the principal points of.--_v.i._ to practise sketching.--_adj._ SKETCH'ABLE, capable of being sketched effectively.--_ns._ SKETCH'BOOK, a blank book used for sketching by an artist or writer: a printed volume of literary sketches; SKETCH'ER, one who sketches.--_adv._ SKETCH'ILY.--_n._ SKETCH'INESS.--_adj._ SKETCH'Y, containing a sketch or outline: incomplete, slight. [Dut. _schets_, It. _schizzo_--L. _schedium_--_schedius_, made off-hand--Gr. _schedios_, sudden.] SKEW, sk[=u], _adj._ oblique: intersecting a road, river, &c. not at right angles, as a bridge.--_adv._ awry: obliquely.--_v.t._ to turn aside.--_n._ a deviation, a mistake: a squint: (_archit._) the sloping top of a buttress slanting off against a wall.--_ns._ SKEW'-ARCH, an arch standing obliquely on its abutments; SKEW'-BACK (_archit._), the course of masonry on the top of an abutment with a slope for the base of the arch to rest against.--_adj._ SKEW'-BALD, spotted irregularly, piebald.--_n._ SKEW'-BRIDGE, a bridge having its arch or arches set obliquely on its abutments, as when a railway crosses a road, &c., at an oblique angle.--_adjs._ SKEWED, distorted; SKEW-GEE' (_coll._), crooked.--_n._ SKEW'-WHEEL, a bevel-wheel with teeth formed obliquely on the rim. [Old Dut. _sch[=u]wen_ (Dut. _schuwen_); Ger. _scheuen_, to shun; cf. _Shy_.] SKEWER, sk[=u]'[.e]r, _n._ a pin of wood or iron for keeping meat in form while roasting.--_v.t._ to fasten with skewers. [Prov. Eng. _skiver_, prob. the same as _shiver_, a splinter of wood.] SKIASCOPY, sk[=i]'a-sk[=o]-pi, _n._ the shadow-test for measuring the refraction of an eye.--Also SC[=I]'ASCOPY. [Gr. _skia_, a shadow, _skopein_, to view.] SKID, skid, _n._ a piece of timber hung against a ship's side to protect it from injury: a sliding wedge or drag to check the wheel of a wagon on a steep place: a slab put below a gun to keep it off the ground.--_v.t._ to check with a skid.--_v.i._ to slide along without revolving.--_n._ SKID'DER, one who uses a skid. [Scand., Ice. _skídh_; A.S. _scíd_, a piece split off.] SKIEY, sk[=i]'i, _adj._ Same as SKYEY. SKIFF, skif, _n._ a small light boat. [A doublet of _ship_.] SKIFF, skif, _adj._ (_prov._) distorted: awkward. SKILL, skil, _n._ knowledge of anything: dexterity in practice.--_v.i._ to understand, to be dexterous in: to make a difference, to signify.--_adj._ SKIL'FUL, having or displaying skill: dexterous.--_adv._ SKIL'FULLY.--_n._ SKIL'FULNESS.--_adjs._ SKILLED, having skill: skilful: expert; SKIL'LESS (_Shak._), wanting skill, artless. [Scand., as Ice. _skil_, a distinction, _skilja_, to separate.] SKILLET, skil'et, _n._ a small metal vessel with a long handle, used for boiling water, in cooking, &c. [Prob. from O. Fr. _escuellette_, dim of _escuelle_ (Fr. _écuelle_)--L. _scutella_, dim. of _scutra_, a dish.] SKILLIGALEE, skil-i-ga-l[=e]', _n._ thin watery soup.--Also SKILLIGOLEE', SKILL'Y. [Ety. dub.] SKILLING, skil'ing, _n._ a small coin formerly current in North Germany and Scandinavia, in value from ¼d. to 1d. [Dan.] SKILTS, skilts, _n.pl._ short loose trousers. SKILVINGS, skil'vingz, _n.pl._ (_prov._) the rails of a cart. SKIM, skim, _v.t._ to clear off scum: to take off by skimming: to brush the surface of lightly.--_v.i._ to pass over lightly: to glide along near the surface: to become coated over:--_pr.p._ skim'ming; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ skimmed.--_n._ the act of skimming: what is skimmed off.--_ns._ SKIM'MER, a utensil for skimming milk: a bird that skims the water; SKIM'-MILK, skimmed milk: milk from which the cream has been skimmed; SKIM'MING, the act of taking off that which floats on the surface of a liquid, as cream: that which is taken off, scum.--_adv._ SKIM'MINGLY, by skimming along the surface. [_Scum_.] SKIMBLE-SKAMBLE, skim'bl-skam'bl, _adj._ wandering, wild, rambling, incoherent.--_adv._ in a confused manner. [A reduplication of _scamble_.] SKIMMINGTON, skim'ing-ton, _n._ a burlesque procession intended to ridicule a henpecked husband: a riot generally.--Also SKIM'INGTON, SKIM'MERTON, SKIM'ITRY. [Ety. unknown.] SKIMP, skimp, _v.t._ to give scanty measure, to stint: to do a thing imperfectly.--_v.i._ to be parsimonious.--_adj._ scanty, spare.--_adj._ SKIM'PING, sparing: meagre: done inefficiently.--_adv._ SKIM'PINGLY.--_adj._ SKIM'PY. [A variant of _scamp_.] SKIN, skin, _n._ the natural outer covering of an animal body: a hide: the bark or rind of plants, &c.: the inside covering of the ribs of a ship: a drink of whisky hot.--_v.t._ to cover with skin: to cover the surface of: to strip the skin from, to peel: to plunder, cheat: to answer an examination paper, &c., by unfair means.--_v.i._ to become covered with skin: to sneak off:--_pr.p._ skin'ning; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ skinned.--_adj._ SKIN'-DEEP, as deep as the skin only: superficial.--_ns._ SKIN'FLINT, one who takes the smallest gains: a very niggardly person; SKIN'FUL, as much as one can hold, esp. of liquor.--_adj._ SKIN'LESS, having no skin, or a very thin one.--_ns._ SKIN'NER; SKIN'NINESS.--_adjs._ SKIN'NY, consisting of skin or of skin only: wanting flesh; SKIN'-TIGHT, fitting close to the skin.--_n._ SKIN'-WOOL, wool pulled from the skin of a dead sheep.--BY, or WITH, THE SKIN OF ONE'S TEETH, very narrowly; CLEAN SKINS, unbranded cattle; SAVE ONE'S SKIN, to escape without injury. [A.S. _scinn_; Ice. _skinn_, skin, Ger. _schinden_, to flay.] SKINK, skingk, _n._ drink.--_v.i._ and _v.t._ to serve drink.--_n._ SKINK'ER, one who serves drink, a tapster.--_adj._ SKINK'ING (_Scot._), thin, watery. [A.S. _scencan_, to pour out drink; Ger. _schenken_.] SKINK, skingk, _n._ an African lizard. [L. _scincus_--Gr. _skingkos_, the adda.] SKINK, skingk, _n._ (_Scot._) a shin-bone of beef, soup made from such. [Cf. Dut. _schonk_, a bone; cf. _Shank_.] SKIO, sky[=o], _n._ in Orkney, a fisherman's hut.--Also SKEO. [Norw. _skjaa_, a shed.] SKIP, skip, _v.i._ to leap: to bound lightly and joyfully: to pass over.--_v.t._ to leap over: to omit:--_pr.p._ skip'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ skipped.--_n._ a light leap: a bound: the omission of a part: the captain of a side at bowls and curling: a college servant.--_ns._ SKIP'JACK, an impudent fellow: the blue-fish, saurel, &c.; SKIP'-KEN'NEL, one who has to jump the gutters, a lackey; SKIP'PER, one who skips: a dancer: (_Shak._) a young thoughtless person: a hesperian butterfly.--_adj._ SKIP'PING, flighty, giddy.--_adv._ SKIP'PINGLY, in a skipping manner: by skips or leaps.--_n._ SKIP'PING-ROPE, a rope used in skipping. [Either Celt., according to Skeat, from Ir. _sgiob_, to snatch, Gael. _sgiab_, to move suddenly, W. _ysgipio_, to snatch away; or Teut., conn. with Ice. _skopa_, to run.] SKIP, skip, _n._ an iron box for raising ore running between guides, or in inclined shafts fitted with wheels to run on a track, a mine-truck. SKIPETAR, skip'e-tär, _n._ an Albanian: the Albanian language. [Albanian _skipetar_, a mountaineer.] SKIPPER, skip'[.e]r, _n._ the master of a merchant-ship.--SKIPPER'S DAUGHTERS, white-topped waves. [Dut. _schipper_; Dan. _skipper_.] SKIPPER, skip'[.e]r, _n._ a barn, a shed in which to shelter for the night.--_v.i._ to shelter in such a place.--_n._ SKIPP'ER-BIRD, a tramp. [Prob. W. _ysguber_, a barn.] SKIPPET, skip'et, _n._ (_Spens._) a small boat. [Dim. of A.S. _scip_, ship.] SKIPPET, skip'et, _n._ a round flat box for holding a seal, which used to be attached to the parchment by ribbons passing through the lid. SKIRL, skirl, _v.t._ and _v.i._ (_Scot._) to shriek shrilly.--_n._ a shrill cry.--_n._ SKIR'LING, a shrill sound. SKIRMISH, sk[.e]r'mish, _n._ an irregular fight between two small parties: a contest.--_v.i._ to fight slightly or irregularly.--_ns._ SKIR'MISHER, a soldier belonging to troops dispersed to cover front or flank, and prevent surprises; SKIR'MISHING. [O. Fr. _escarmouche_--Old High Ger. _skerman_, _scirman_, to fight.] SKIRR, sk[.e]r, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to ramble over, to scour.--_v.i._ to run in haste. [_Scurry_.] SKIRRET, skir'et, _n._ an edible water-parsnip: a perennial plant, native to China and Japan. [_Sugar-root_.] SKIRT, sk[.e]rt, _n._ the part of a garment below the waist: a woman's garment like a petticoat: the edge of any part of the dress: border: margin: extreme part.--_v.t._ to border: to form the edge of.--_v.i._ to be on the border: to live near the extremity.--_ns._ SKIRT'-DANC'ING, a form of ballet-dancing in which the flowing skirts are waved about in the hands; SKIR'TER, a huntsman who dodges his jumps by going round about; SKIR'TING, strong material made up in lengths for women's skirts: skirting-board; SKIR'TING-BOARD, the narrow board next the floor round the walls of a room.--DIVIDED SKIRT, a skirt in the form of loose trousers. [Scand., Ice. _skyrta_, a shirt. A doublet of _shirt_.] SKIT, skit, _n._ any sarcastic squib, lampoon, or pamphlet. [Ice. _skúti_, a taunt.] SKITE, sk[=i]t, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to glide or slip--also SKYTE.--_n._ a sudden blow: a trick.--_vs.i._ SKIT, to leap aside: to caper; SKIT'TER, to skim lightly over: to void thin excrement: to draw a baited hook along the surface of water. [Scand., Sw. _skutta_, to leap, _skjuta_, to shoot.] SKITTISH, skit'ish, _adj._ unsteady, light-headed, easily frightened: hasty, volatile, changeable: wanton.--_adv._ SKITT'ISHLY.--_n._ SKITT'ISHNESS. [_Skite_.] SKITTLES, skit'lz, _n.pl._ a game of ninepins in which a flattened ball or thick rounded disc is thrown to knock down the pins--played in a SKITT'LE-ALL'EY, or -GROUND. In American Bowls, the game is played with ten pins arranged in the form of a triangle, the missile being rolled along a carefully constructed wooden floor.--_v.t._ SKITT'LE, to knock down.--n SKITT'LE-BALL, the ball thrown in playing at skittles. [A variant of _shittle_ or _shuttle_.] SKIVER, sk[=i]'v[.e]r, _n._ a kind of leather made of split sheep-skins, used for bookbinding, &c.--_n._ a machine for skiving leather.--_v.t._ SKIVE, to cut, pare off.--_n._ SK[=I]'VING, the act of skiving: a piece skived off--of leather, usually on the flesh side. [From root of _shive_, _shiver_.] SKIVER, sk[=i]'v[.e]r, _v.t._ (_prov._) to run through, to skewer. SKIVIE, skiv'i, _adj._ (_Scot._) deranged: askew. SKLENT, a Scotch form of _slant_. SKOAL, sk[=o]l, _interj._ hail! a friendly exclamation of salutation before drinking, &c. [Ice. _skál_; Norw. _skaal_, a bowl, Sw. _skål_.] SKOLION, sk[=o]'li-on, _n._ a short drinking-song in ancient Greece, taken up by the guests in turn:--_pl._ SK[=O]'LIA. [Gr.] SKRIMMAGE. Same as SCRIMMAGE. SKRYER, skr[=i]'[.e]r, _n._ one who uses the divining-glass. SKUA, sk[=u]'a, _n._ a bird of the family _Laridæ_, esp. the Great Skua (_Stercorarius catarrhactes_), a rapacious bird about two feet long, the plumage predominantly brown, breeding in the Shetlands.--_n._ SK[=U]'A-GULL. [Norw.] SKUE, sk[=u], an obsolete form of _skew_. SKUG, SCUG, skug, _n._ (prov.) shelter.--_v.t._ to shelter: to expiate.--_n._ SKUG'GERY, SCUG'GERY, secrecy.--_adjs._ SKUG'GY, SCUG'GY, shady. [Ice. _skuggi_, a shade.] SKUG, skug, _n._ (_prov._) a squirrel. SKULDUDDERY. See SCULDUDDERY. SKULK, skulk, _v.i._ to sneak out of the way: to lurk.--_ns._ SKULK, SKULK'ER, one who skulks.--_adv._ SKULK'INGLY.--_n._ SKULK'ING-PLACE. [Scand., as in Dan. _skulke_, to sneak; conn. with Ice. _skjöl_, cover, hiding-place; also with Eng. _scowl_.] SKULL, skul, _n._ the bony case that encloses the brain: the head, the sconce, noddle: a crust formed on the ladle, &c., by the partial cooling of molten metal: in armour, the crown of the head-piece: (_Scot._) a shallow, bow-handled basket.--_n._ SKULL'CAP, a cap which fits closely to the head: the sinciput.--_adj._ SKULL'-LESS.--SKULL AND CROSS-BONES, a symbolic emblem of death and decay. [Ice. _skál_, a shell; conn. with _shell_ and _scale_, a thin plate.] SKULPIN=_Sculpin_. SKUNK, skungk, _n._ a small North American carnivorous quadruped allied to the otter and weasel, defending itself by emitting an offensive fluid: a low fellow: (_U.S._) a complete defeat.--_v.t._ to inflict such.--_ns._ SKUNK'-BIRD, -BLACK'BIRD, the male bobolink in full plumage. [Indian _seganku_.] SKUPSHTINA, skoopsh'ti-na, _n._ the national assembly of Servia, having one chamber and 178 deputies, three-fourths elected and one-fourth nominated by the crown.--GREAT SKUPSHTINA, specially elected for discussing graver questions. SKURRY=_Scurry_. SKY, sk[=i], _n._ the apparent canopy over our heads: the heavens: the weather: the upper rows of pictures in a gallery.--_v.t._ to raise aloft, esp. to hang pictures above the line of sight.--_adjs._ SKY'-BLUE, blue like the sky; SKY'-BORN, of heavenly birth.--_n._ SKY'-COL'OUR, the colour of the sky.--_adjs._ SKY'-COL'OURED, blue, azure; SKYED, surrounded by sky; SKY'EY, like the sky: ethereal; SKY'-HIGH, very high; SKY'ISH (_Shak._), like or approaching the sky, lofty.--_n._ SKY'LARK, a species of lark that mounts high towards the sky and sings on the wing.--_v.i._ to engage in any kind of boisterous frolic.--_ns._ SKY'LARKING, running about the rigging of a ship in sport: frolicking; SKY'-LIGHT, a window in a roof or ceiling towards the sky for the admission of light; SKY'LINE, the horizon; SKY'-PAR'LOUR, a lofty attic; SKY'-P[=I]'LOT, a clergyman.--_adj._ SKY'-PLANT'ED, placed in the sky.--_n._ SKY'-ROCK'ET, a rocket that ascends high towards the sky and burns as it flies.--_v.i._ to move like a sky-rocket, to rise and disappear as suddenly.--_ns._ SKY'SAIL, the sail above the royal; SKY'SCAPE, a view of a portion of the sky, or a picture of the same; SKY'-SCR[=A]P'ER, a sky-sail of a triangular shape: anything shooting high into the sky.--_adj._ SKY'-TINC'TURED, of the colour of the sky.--_adv._ SKY'WARD, toward the sky. [Ice. _ský_, a cloud; akin to A.S. _scúa_, Gr. _skia_, a shadow.] SKYE, sk[=i], _n._ for Skye terrier. [See _Terrier_.] SKYR, skir, _n._ curds. [Ice.] SKYRIN, sk[=i]'rin, _adj._ (_Scot._) shining, showy. SLAB, slab, _n._ a thin slip of anything, esp. of stone, having plane surfaces: a piece sawed from a log.--_v.t._ to cut slabs from, as a log.--_adj._ SLAB'-SID'ED, having long flat sides, tall and lank.--_n._ SLAB'STONE, flagstone. [Scand., Ice. _sleppa_, to slip, Norw. _sleip_, a slab of wood.] SLAB, slab, _adj._ thick.--_n._ mud.--_adj._ SLAB'BY, muddy. [Celt., Ir., and Gael. _slaib_, mud.] SLABBER, slab'[.e]r, _v.i._ to slaver: to let the saliva fall from the mouth: to drivel.--_v.t._ to wet with saliva.--_n._ SLABB'ERER.--_adj._ SLABB'ERY.--_n._ SLABB'INESS.--_adj._ SLABB'Y. [Allied to Low Ger. and Dut. _slabbern_; imit. Doublet _slaver_.] SLACK, slak, _adj._ lax or loose: not firmly extended or drawn out: not holding fast, weak: not eager or diligent, inattentive: not violent or rapid, slow.--_adv._ in a slack manner: partially: insufficiently.--_n._ that part of a rope, belt, &c. which is slack or loose: a period of inactivity: a slack-water haul of a net.--_vs.i._ SLACK, SLACK'EN, to become loose or less tight: to be remiss: to abate: to become slower: to fail or flag.--_v.t._ to make less tight: to loosen: to relax: to remit: to abate: to withhold: to use less liberally: to check: (_B._) to delay.--_v.t._ SLACK'-BAKE, to half-bake.--_adj._--SLACK'-HAND'ED, remiss.--_n._ SLACK'-JAW (_slang_), impudent talk.--_adv._ SLACK'LY.--_n._ SLACK'NESS.--_adj._--SLACK'-SALT'ED, insufficiently salted.--_n._ SLACK'-WA'TER, ebb-tide: slow-moving water, as that above a dam.--_adj._ pertaining to slack-water.--SLACK AWAY, to ease off freely; SLACK-IN-STAYS, slow in going about, of a ship; SLACK OFF, to ease off; SLACK UP, to ease off: to slow. [A.S. _sleac_; Sw. _slak_, Ice. _slakr_.] SLACK, slak, _n._ coal-dross. [Ger. _schlacke_.] SLACK, slak, _n._ (_Scot._) a cleft between hills: a common: a boggy place. [Scand., Ice. _slakki_, a hill-slope.] SLADE, sl[=a]d, _n._ a little valley or dell; a piece of low, moist ground. [A.S. _slæd_, a plain; prob. Celt., Ir. _slad_.] SLADE, sl[=a]d, _n._ a peat-spade. SLAE, a Scotch form of sloe. SLAG, slag, _n._ vitrified cinders from smelting-works, &c.: the scoriæ of a volcano.--_v.i._ to cohere into slag.--_adj._ SLAG'GY, pertaining to, or like, slag. [Sw. _slagg_; cf. Ger. _schlacke_, dross.] SLAIN, sl[=a]n, _pa.p._ of slay. SLAISTER, sl[=a]s't[.e]r, _n._ (_Scot._) a slobbery mess, slovenly work.--_v.t._ to bedaub.--_v.i._ to slabber: to move about in a dirty, slovenly manner.--_adj._ SLAIS'TERY. [Prob. Sw. _slaska_, to dabble, slask, wet.] SLAKE, sl[=a]k, _v.t._ to quench: to extinguish: to mix with water: to make slack or inactive.--_v.i._ to go out: to become extinct.--_adj._ SLAKE'LESS, that cannot be slaked: inextinguishable. [A.S. _sleacian_, to grow slack--_sleccan_, to make slack--_sleac_, slack.] SLAKE, sl[=a]k, _n._ a channel through a swamp or morass: slime. [Ice. _slakki_, a hill-slope.] SLAKE, sl[=a]k, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to besmear.--_n._ a slabbery daub. [Prob. conn. with Ice. _sleikja_, to lick; Ger. _schlecken_, to lick.] SLAM, slam, _v.t._ or _v.i._ to shut with violence and noise: to throw down with violence: to win all the tricks in a card-game:--_pr.p._ slam'ming; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ slammed.--_n._ the act of slamming: the sound so made: the winning of all the tricks at whist, &c. [Scand., Norw. _slemma_, Ice. _slamra_.] SLAM, slam, _n._ an old card-game. SLAM, slam, _n._ a shambling fellow. [Cf. Dut. _slomp_, Ger. _schlampe_.] SLAMKIN, slam'kin, _n._ a loose 18th-century women's morning-gown.--Also SLAM'MERKIN. SLANDER, slan'd[.e]r, _n._ a false or malicious report: malicious defamation by words spoken: calumny.--_v.t._ to defame: to calumniate.--_n._ SLAN'DERER.--_adj._ SLAN'DEROUS, given to, or containing, slander: calumnious.--_adv._ SLAN'DEROUSLY.--_n._ SLAN'DEROUSNESS, the state or quality of being slanderous. [O. Fr. _esclandre_--L. _scandalum_--Gr. _skandalon_.] SLANG, slang, _n._ a conventional tongue with many dialects, which are, as a rule, unintelligible to outsiders, such as Gypsy, Canting or Flash, Back-slang, and Shelta or Tinkers' Talk: any kind of colloquial and familiar language serving as a kind of class or professional shibboleth.--_adj._ pertaining to slang.--_v.i._ to use slang, and esp. abusive language.--_v.t._ to scold.--_adv._ SLANG'ILY.--_n._ SLANG'INESS.--_adj._ SLANG'ULAR, slangy.--_v.i._ SLANG'-WHANG, to talk slangily or boisterously.--_n._ SLANG'-WHANG'ER, an abusive and wordy fellow.--_adj._ SLANG'Y. [Explained by Skeat as Scand., Norw. _sleng_, a slinging, a device, a burthen of a song, _slengja_, to sling. Leland boldly makes it Romany, and orig. applied to everything relating to shows--in Hindustani, _Swangi_, also often _Slangi_.] SLANG, slang, _n._ a narrow strip of land.--Also SLANK'ET. SLANG, slang, _n._ (_slang_) a counterfeit weight or measure: a travelling show, or a performance of the same: a hawker's license: a watch-chain: (_pl._) convicts' leg-irons. SLANT, slant, _adj._ sloping: oblique: inclined from a direct line--also SLAN'TING.--_n._ a slope: a gibe: (_slang_) a chance.--_v.i._ to turn in a sloping direction.--_v.i._ to slope, to incline towards: (_Scot._) to exaggerate, to lie.--_adj._ SLANTENDIC'[=U]LAR, oblique: indirect.--_advs._ SLAN'TINGLY, in a slanting direction: with a slope or inclination; SLANT'LY, SLANT'WISE, in a sloping, oblique, or inclined manner.--SLANT-OF-WIND, a transitory breeze of favourable wind. [Scand., Sw. _slinta_, to slide.] SLAP, slap, _n._ a blow with the hand or anything flat.--_v.t._ to give a slap to:--_pr.p._ slap'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ slapped.--_adv._ with a slap: suddenly, violently.--_adj._ (_slang_) first-rate.--_adv._ SLAP'-BANG, violently, all at once.--_adj._ dashing, violent.--_n._ a cheap eating-house.--_adv._ SLAP'-DASH, in a bold, careless way.--_adj._ off-hand, rash.--_n._ rough-cast harling: carelessly done work.--_v.t._ to do anything in a hasty, imperfect manner: to rough-cast with mortar.--_n._ SLAP'PER (_slang_), anything big of its kind.--_adjs._ SLAP'PING, very large; SLAP'-UP, excellent, very grand. [Allied to Low Ger. _slapp_, Ger. _schlappe_; imit.] SLAP, slap, _n._ (_Scot._) a gap in a fence: a narrow cleft between hills.--_v.t._ to break an opening in. SLAPE, sl[=a]p, _adj._ (_prov._) slippery, crafty. [Ice. _sleipr_, sleppr, slippery--slípa, to be smooth.] SLAPJACK=_Flapjack_ (q.v.). SLASH, slash, _v.t._ to cut by striking with violence and at random: to make long cuts: to ornament by cutting slits in the cloth in order to show some fine material underneath.--_v.i._ to strike violently and at random with an edged instrument: to strike right and left: to move rapidly.--_n._ a long cut: a cut at random: a cut in cloth to show colours underneath: a stripe on a non-commissioned officer's sleeve: a clearing in a wood.--_adj._ SLASHED, cut with slashes: gashed.--_ns._ SLASH'ER, anything which slashes; SLASH'ING, a slash in a garment: the felling of trees as a military obstacle, also the trees so felled.--_adj._ cutting mercilessly, unsparing: dashing: very big, slapping. [O. Fr. _eslecher_, to dismember--Old High Ger. _sl[=i]zan_, to split.] SLASH, slash, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to work in wet.--_n._ a large quantity of watery food, as broth, &c.--_adj._ SLASH'Y, dirty, muddy. [Sw. _slaska_, dabble--_slask_, wet.] SLAT, slat, _v.t._ to strike, beat.--_v.i._ to flap violently.--_n._ a sudden sharp blow. [Scand., Ice. _sletta_, to slap, Norw. _sletta_, to cast.] SLAT, slat, _n._ a thin piece of stone, a slate: a strip of wood.--_adj._ made of slats.--_adj._ SLAT'TED, covered with slats. [O. Fr. _esclat_--Old High Ger. _sl[=i]zan_, to slit.] SLATCH, slach, _n._ the slack of a rope: an interval of fair weather: a short breeze. [SLACK.] SLATE, sl[=a]t, _n._ a highly metamorphosed argillaceous rock, fine-grained and fissile, and of a dull blue, gray, purple, or green colour--used in thin slabs of small size for ordinary roofs, and in larger slabs for dairy-fittings, wash-tubs, cisterns, tables, &c., and when polished for writing-slates and 'black-boards:' a piece of slate for roofing, or for writing upon: a preliminary list of candidates before a caucus.--_adj._ bluish-gray, slate-coloured.--_v.t._ to cover with slate: to enter on a slate.--_ns._ SLATE'-AXE, a slater's tool, a sax; SLATE'-CLAY, a fissile shale.--_adjs._ SL[=A]'TED, covered with slates; SLATE'-GRAY, of a light slate colour.--_ns._ SLATE'-PEN'CIL, a cut or turned stick of soft slate, or of compressed moistened slate-powder, for writing on slate; SL[=A]'TER; SL[=A]'TINESS, the quality of being slaty; SL[=A]'TING, the act of covering with slates: a covering of slates: materials for slating.--_adj._ SL[=A]'TY, resembling slate: having the nature or properties of slate. [O. Fr. _esclat_--Old High Ger. _sl[=i]zan_, Ger. _schleissen_, to split.] SLATE, sl[=a]t, _v.t._ to abuse, criticise severely: (_prov._) to set a dog at.--_n._ SL[=A]'TING, a severe criticism. [A.S. _slítan_, to slit.] SLATER, sl[=a]'t[.e]r, _n._ a terrestrial oniscid isopod, as the common _Porcellio scaber_. SLATHER, slath'[.e]r, _n._ (_slang_) a large quantity. SLATTERN, slat'[.e]rn, _n._ a woman negligent of her dress: an untidy woman.--_v.i._ SLATT'ER (_prov._), to be untidy or slovenly.--_n._ SLATT'ERNLINESS.--_adj._ SLATT'ERNLY, like a slattern: negligent of person: slovenly: dirty: sluttish.--_adv._ negligently: untidily.--_adj._ SLATT'ERY (_prov._) wet. [From _slatter_, a freq. of _slat_, to strike (q.v.).] SLAUGHTER, slaw't[.e]r, _n._ a killing: a great destruction of life: carnage: butchery.--_ns._ SLAUGH'TERER; SLAUGH'TERHOUSE, a place where beasts are killed for the market; SLAUGH'TERMAN, a man employed in killing or butchering animals.--_adj._ SLAUGH'TEROUS, given to slaughter: destructive: murderous.--_adv._ SLAUGH'TEROUSLY. [Prob. Ice. _slátr_, butchers' meat, whence _slátra_, to slaughter cattle. The A.S. is _sleaht_--_sleán_, to slay.] SLAV, SLAVE, släv, _n._ one belonging to any of the Slavonic groups of Aryans--Bulgarians, Czechs, Poles, Russians, Servians, Wends, &c.--_adj._ SLAV'IC. [_Slovene_ or _Slovane_, from Polish _slovo_, a word, thus meaning the people who spoke intelligibly, as distinguished from their neighbour, _Niemets_, the German, lit. the dumb man. Miklosich considers both to be tribal names.] SLAVE, sl[=a]v, _n._ a captive in servitude: any one in bondage: a serf: one who labours like a slave: a drudge: one wholly under the will of another: one who has lost all power of resistance.--_v.i._ to work like a slave: to drudge.--_adj._ SLAVE'-BORN, born in slavery.--_ns._ SLAVE'-DR[=I]'VER, one who superintends slaves at their work; SLAVE'-FORK, a long and heavy branch into the forked end of which a slave's neck is fixed to prevent his escaping from the slave-trader's gang.--_adj._ SLAVE'-GROWN, grown on land worked by slaves.--_ns._ SLAVE'-HOLD'ER, an owner of slaves; SLAVE'-HOLD'ING; SLAVE'-HUNT, a hunt after runaway slaves; SL[=A]'VER, a ship employed in the slave-trade; SL[=A]'VERY, the state of being a slave: serfdom: the state of being entirely under the will of another: bondage: drudgery; SLAVE'-SHIP, a ship used for transporting slaves.--_n.pl._ SLAVE'-STATES, those states of the American Union which maintained domestic slavery before the Civil War--Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, Missouri, Kentucky, and Tennessee.--_ns._ SLAVE'-TRADE, the trade of buying and selling slaves; SLAVE'-TR[=A]'DER, a trader in slaves; SL[=A]'VEY (_slang_), a domestic drudge, a maid-servant.--_adj._ SL[=A]'VISH, of or belonging to slaves: becoming slaves: servile: mean: base: laborious.--_adv._ SL[=A]'VISHLY.--_ns._ SL[=A]'VISHNESS; SL[=A]VOC'RACY, slave-owners collectively, or their interests, &c.; SL[=A]'VOCRAT, a member of the slavocracy. [O. Fr. _esclave_--Mid. High Ger. _slave_ (Ger. _sclave_), from _Slav_, above.] SLAVER, slav'[.e]r, _n._ spittle or saliva running from the mouth.--_v.i._ to let the saliva run out of the mouth.--_v.t._ to smear with saliva.--_n._ SLAV'ERER.--_adv._ SLAV'ERINGLY, in a slavering manner.--_adj._ SLAV'ERY, slabbery. [_Slabber_.] SLAVONIC, sla-von'ik, _adj._ of or belonging to the _Slavs_, or their language--also SCLAVON'IC, SLAV[=O]'NIAN, SCLAV[=O]'NIAN.--_vs.t._ SLAVON'ICISE, SLAV'ONISE, to render Slavonic in character, language, &c.--_ns._ SLAV'OPHIL, one devoted to promoting the interests of the Slavonic peoples; SLAV'OPHILISM, Slavophil feelings and aims; SLAV'OPH[=O]BIST, one who dreads the growth of Slav influence. SLAW, slaw, _n._ sliced cabbage eaten as a salad. [Dut. _slaa_.] SLAY, sl[=a], _v.t._ to strike: to kill: to put to death: to destroy:--_pa.t._ slew (sl[=oo]); _pa.p._ slain (sl[=a]n).--_n._ SLAY'ER. [A.S. _sleán_; Ice. _slá_, Goth. _slahan_, Ger. _schlagen_, to strike.] SLEAVE, sl[=e]v, _n._ the ravelled, knotty part of silk thread: (_Shak._) floss-silk.--_v.t._ to separate, as threads:--_pr.p._ sleav'ing; _pa.p._ sleaved. [Cf. Dan. _slöife_, a loose knot, Sw. _slejf_, a knot of ribbon, Ger. _schleife_, a loop.] SLEAZY, sl[=a]'zi, or sl[=e]'zi, _adj._ thin and flimsy.--_n._ SLEA'ZINESS. [Prob. Ger. _schleissig_, worn out, readily split--schleissen, to split.] SLED, sled, SLEDGE, slej, _n._ a carriage with runners made for sliding upon snow: a sleigh: anything dragged without wheels along the ground.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to convey, or to travel, in a sled.--_p.adj._ SLED'DED (_Shak._), sledged.--_ns._ SLED'DING, the act of transporting on a sled; SLEDGE'-CHAIR, a chair mounted on runners for ice. [Ice. _sledhi_; from a root seen in A.S. _slídan_, to slide.] SLEDGE, slej, _n._ an instrument for striking: a large heavy hammer used chiefly by ironsmiths. [A.S. _slecg_--_sleán_, to strike, slay (cf. Ger. _schlägel_, a beater--schlagen).] SLEEK, sl[=e]k, _adj._ smooth: glossy: soft, not rough: insinuating, plausible: dexterous.--_v.t._ to make smooth or glossy: to calm or soothe.--_v.i._ to glide.--_advs._ SLEEK, SLICK, neatly.--_v.t._ SLEEK'EN, to make smooth or sleek.--_ns._ SLEEK'ER, SLICK'ER, a tool for dressing the surface of leather.--_adj._ SLEEK'-HEAD'ED, having a smooth head.--_n._ SLEEK'ING, the act of making smooth.--_adj._ SLEEK'IT (_Scot._), having a smooth skin: sly, cunning, fair-spoken.--_adv._ SLEEK'LY.--_ns._ SLEEK'NESS; SLEEK'-STONE, a smooth stone used for polishing anything.--_adj._ SLEEK'Y, smooth: sly, untrustworthy. [Scand., Ice. _slíkr_, sleek; cf. Dut. _slijk_, Ger. _schlick_, grease.] SLEEP, sl[=e]p, _v.i._ to take rest by relaxation: to become unconscious: to slumber: to rest: to be motionless or inactive: to remain unnoticed: to live thoughtlessly: to be dead: to rest in the grave:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ slept.--_n._ the state of one who, or that which, sleeps: slumber: rest: the dormancy of some animals during winter: (_bot._) nyctitropism.--_n._ SLEEP'ER, one who sleeps: a horizontal timber supporting a weight, rails, &c.--_adv._ SLEEP'ILY.--_n._ SLEEP'INESS.--_p.adj._ SLEEP'ING, occupied with, or for, sleeping: dormant.--_n._ the state of resting in sleep: (_Shak._) the state of being at rest or in abeyance.--_ns._ SLEEP'ING-CAR, -CARRIAGE, a railway-carriage in which passengers have berths for sleeping in; SLEEP'ING-DRAUGHT, a drink given to bring on sleep; SLEEP'ING-PART'NER (see PARTNER).--_adj._ SLEEP'LESS, without sleep: unable to sleep.--_adv._ SLEEP'LESSLY.--_ns._ SLEEP'LESSNESS; SLEEP'-WALK'ER, one who walks while asleep: a somnambulist; SLEEP'-WALKING.--_adj._ SLEEP'Y, inclined to sleep: drowsy: dull: lazy.--_n._ SLEEP'YHEAD, a lazy person.--ON SLEEP (_B._), asleep. [A.S. _sl['æ]pan_--_sl['æ]p_; Ger. _schlaf_, Goth. _sleps_.] SLEET, sl[=e]t, _n._ rain mingled with snow or hail.--_v.i._ to hail or snow with rain mingled.--_n._ SLEET'INESS.--_adj._ SLEET'Y. [Scand., Norw. _sletta_, sleet.] SLEEVE, sl[=e]v, _n._ the part of a garment which covers the arm: a tube into which a rod or other tube is inserted.--_v.t._ to furnish with sleeves.--_ns._ SLEEVE'-BAND (_Shak._), the wristband; SLEEVE'-BUTT'ON, a button or stud for the wristband or cuff.--_adjs._ SLEEVED, furnished with sleeves; SLEEVE'LESS, without sleeves.--_ns._ SLEEVE'-LINK, two buttons, &c., joined by a link for holding together the two edges of the cuff or wristband; SLEEVE'-NUT, a double-nut for attaching the joint-ends of rods or tubes; SLEEVE'-WAIST'COAT, SLEEVED'-WAIST'COAT, a waistcoat with long sleeves, worn by porters, boots, &c.--HANG ON THE SLEEVE, to be dependent on some one; HAVE IN ONE'S SLEEVE, to have in readiness for any emergency; LAUGH IN ONE'S SLEEVE, to laugh behind one's sleeve, to laugh privately or unperceived; LEG-OF-MUTTON SLEEVE, a woman's sleeve full in the middle, tight at arm-hole and wrist. [A.S. _sléfe_, _sléf_, a sleeve--_slúpan_, to slip; cog. with Ger. _schlauf_.] SLEEZY=_Sleazy_ (q.v.). SLEIDED, sl[=a]d'ed, _adj._ (_Shak._) unwoven. [_Sley_.] SLEIGH, sl[=a], _n._ same as SLED.--_ns._ SLEIGH'-BELL, a small bell attached to a sleigh or its harness; SLEIGH'ING, the act of riding in a sleigh or sled. SLEIGHT, sl[=i]t, _n._ cunning: dexterity: an artful trick.--_n._ SLEIGHT'-OF-HAND, legerdemain. [Ice. _slægth_, cunning, _slægr_, sly.] SLENDER, slen'd[.e]r, _adj._ thin or narrow: feeble: inconsiderable: simple: meagre, inadequate, poorly furnished.--_adv._ SLEN'DERLY.--_n._ SLEN'DERNESS. [Old Dut. _slinder_, thin, _slinderen_, to drag; cf. Ger. _schlendern_, to saunter.] SLEPT, slept, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _sleep_. SLEUTH-HOUND, sl[=oo]th'-hownd, _n._ a dog that tracks game by the scent, a blood-hound. [_Slot_.] SLEW, sl[=oo], _pa.t._ of _slay_. SLEY, sl[=a], _n._ the reed of a weaver's loom. [A.S. _sl['æ]_--_sleán_, to strike.] SLICE, sl[=i]s, _v.t._ to slit or divide into thin pieces.--_n._ a thin broad piece: a broad knife for serving fish.--_n._ SL[=I]'CER, one who, or that which, slices: a broad, flat knife. [O. Fr. _esclice_--Old High Ger. _sl[=i]zan_, to split.] SLICK, slik, _adj._ smooth: smooth-tongued: dexterous in movement or action.--_adv._ in a smooth manner, deftly. [_Sleek_] SLICK, slik, _n._ ore finely powdered. [Ger. _schlich_.] SLICKENSIDES, slik'en-s[=i]dz, _n._ the smooth, polished, or striated, and generally glazed surfaces of joints and faults in rocks, considered to have been produced by the friction of the two surfaces during the movement of the rock.--_adj._ SLICK'ENSIDED. [_Sleek_.] SLID, slid, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _slide_. SLIDDEN, slid'n, _pa.p._ of _slide_. SLIDDER, slid'[.e]r, _v.i._ to slip, slide.--_adj._ SLIDD'ERY, slippery. [A.S. _sliderian_, to slip, _slidor_, slippery:--_slídan_, to slide.] [Illustration] SLIDE, sl[=i]d, _v.i._ to slip or glide: to pass along smoothly: to fall: to slip away quietly, to disappear: (_slang_) to slope, slip away from the police, &c.--_v.t._ to thrust along: to slip:--_pa.t._ slid; _pa.p._ slid or slidd'en.--_n._ a smooth passage: the fall of a mass of earth or rock: a smooth declivity: anything, as a lid, that slides, a glass that slides in a frame in front of a magic-lantern, bearing the picture to be thrown on the screen, that part of a photographic plate-holder which serves to cover and uncover the negative: (_mus._) a melodic embellishment, two notes sliding into each other: (_slang_) a biscuit covered with ice-cream.--_adj._ SL[=I]'DABLE, capable of sliding or of being slid.--_ns._ SL[=I]'DER, one who, or that which, slides: the part of an instrument or machine that slides; SLIDE'-REST, an apparatus adapted to a turning-lathe for carrying the cutting-tool; SLIDE'-VALVE, a valve in a steam-engine, made to slide backward and forward to cover and uncover the openings through which steam enters the cylinder; SL[=I]'DING, act of one who slides: falling: backsliding.--_p.adj._ slippery: movable, changing.--_ns._ SL[=I]'DING-KEEL, an oblong frame let down vertically through the bottom of a vessel in order to deepen the draught and sustain against a side-wind; SL[=I]'DING-RULE (see RULE); SL[=I]'DING-SCALE, a scale of duties which slide or vary according to the value or market prices: a sliding-rule; SL[=I]'DING-SEAT, a kind of seat for racing-boats, moving with the swing of the rower's body; SL[=I]DOM'ETER, an instrument indicating the strain put on a railway-carriage by sudden stoppage. [A.S. _slídan_, to slide; Dut. _slidderen_, to slip.] SLIGHT, sl[=i]t, _adj._ weak: slender: of little value: trifling: small: negligent: not decided, superficial, cursory: slighting, disdainful.--_v.t._ to disregard, as of little value: to neglect: (_obs._) to demolish, smooth.--_n._ neglect: disregard, an act of discourtesy.--_advs._ SLIGHT'INGLY; SLIGHT'LY.--_n._ SLIGHT'NESS. [Old Low Ger. _slicht_, plain; Dut. _slecht_, bad, Ger. _schlecht_, straight.] SLIGHT, sl[=i]t, _n._ (_Spens._), sleight, device, trick. SLILY, sl[=i]'li, _adv._ See under SLY. SLIM, slim, _adj._ (_comp._ SLIM'MER, _superl._ SLIM'MEST) very thin, weak, slender: slight, trivial, unsubstantial: delicate: crafty.--_adv._ SLIM'LY.--_adj._ SLIM'MISH, somewhat slim.--_n._ SLIM'NESS.--_adj._ SLIM'SY (_U.S._), frail, flimsy. [Old Low Ger. _slim_, crafty; Dan. _slem_, worthless, Ger. _schlimm_, bad.] SLIME, sl[=i]m, _n._ glutinous mud: (_B._) probably bitumen.--_n._ SLIME'-PIT, a pit of slime or viscous mire.--_adv._ SL[=I]M'ILY.--_n._ SL[=I]M'INESS.--_adj._ SL[=I]M'Y, abounding with, or consisting of, slime: glutinous. [A.S. _slím_; Ger. _schleim_.] SLINESS, sl[=i]'nes, _n._ Same as SLYNESS. SLING, sling, _n._ a strap or pocket with a string attached to each end, for hurling a stone: a throw: a hanging bandage for a wounded limb: a rope with hooks, used in hoisting and lowering weights: a sweep or swing: a stroke as from a missile thrown from a sling.--_v.t._ to throw with a sling: to hang so as to swing: to move or swing by means of a rope: to cast.--_v.i._ to bound along with swinging steps: (_slang_) to blow the nose with the fingers:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ slung.--_ns._ SLING'ER; SLING'STONE, a stone to be thrown from a sling. [A.S. _slingan_, to turn in a circle; Ger. _schlingen_, to move or twine round.] SLING, sling, _n._ toddy with grated nutmeg. SLINK, slingk, _v.i._ to creep or crawl away, as if ashamed: to sneak:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ slunk. [A.S. _slincan_, to creep; Low Ger. _sliken_, Ger. _schleichen_.] SLINK, slingk, _v.t._ to cast prematurely, as a calf.--_v.i._ to miscarry.--_n._ a calf prematurely born: the flesh of such: a bastard child.--_adj._ prematurely born: unfit for food: lean, starved: mean.--_ns._ SLINK'-BUTCH'ER, one who kills and dresses for sale the carcasses of diseased animals; SLINK'SKIN, the skin of a slink, or leather made from it.--_adj._ SLINK'Y, lean. SLIP, slip, _v.i._ to slide or glide along: to move out of place: to escape: to err: to slink: to enter by oversight.--_v.t._ to cause to slide: to convey secretly: to omit: to throw off: to let loose: to escape from: to part from the branch or stem:--_pr.p._ slip'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ slipped.--_n._ act of slipping: that on which anything may slip: an error, a fault, a slight transgression: an escape: a twig: a strip, a narrow piece of anything: a leash: a smooth inclined plane, sloping down to the water, on which a ship is built: anything easily slipped on: (_print._) a long galley-proof before being made up into pages.--_ns._ SLIP'-BOARD, a board sliding in grooves; SLIP'-DOCK, a dock having a floor that slopes so that the lower end is submerged; SLIP'-KNOT, a knot which slips along the rope or line round which it is made; SLIP'PER, a loose shoe easily slipped on.--_adj._ (_Spens._) slippery.--_adj._ SLIP'PERED, wearing slippers.--_adv._ SLIP'PERILY, in a slippery manner.--_ns._ SLIP'PERINESS, SLIP'PINESS.--_adjs._ SLIP'PERY, SLIP'PY, apt to slip away: smooth: not affording firm footing or confidence: unstable: uncertain; SLIP'SHOD, shod with slippers, or shoes down at the heel like slippers: careless.--_n._ SLIP'STITCH.--SLIP OFF, to take off noiselessly or hastily; SLIP ON, to put on loosely or in haste; SLIP ONE'S BREATH, or wind, to die; SLIP THE LEASH, to disengage one's self from a noose.--GIVE A PERSON THE SLIP, to escape stealthily from him. [A.S. _slípan_; Sw. _slippa_, Dut. _slippen_, to glide, Ger. _schliefen_.] SLIPE, sl[=i]p, _n._ in mining, a skip or sledge without wheels. SLIPSLOP, slip'slop, _adj._ slipshod, slovenly.--_n._ thin, watery food: a blunder.--_v.i._ to slip loosely about.--_adj._ SLIP'SLOPPY, slushy, sloppy. SLISH, slish, _n._ (_Shak._) a cut. [A corr. of _slash_.] SLIT, slit, _v.t._ to cut lengthwise: to split: to cut into strips:--_pr.p._ slit'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ slit.--_n._ a long cut: a narrow opening.--_n._ SLIT'TER, anything which slits, a slitting-shears for sheet-metal.--_adj._ SLIT'TERED, cut into strips with square ends.--_n._ SLIT'TING-MILL, an establishment in which metal plates are cut into strips for nail-making: a rotating disc used by gem-cutters for slitting: a gang-saw used for resawing lumber for blind-slats, fence-pickets, &c. [A.S. _slítan_; Ger. _schleissen_.] SLITHER, sli_th_'[.e]r, _v.i._ to slide.--_adj._ slippery.--_n._ a limestone rubble.--_adjs._ SLITH'ERING, slow, deceitful; SLITH'ERY, slippery. [A variant of _slidder_.] SLIVER, sliv'[.e]r, or sl[=i]'v[.e]r, _v.t._ to split, to tear off lengthwise, to slice.--_n._ a piece cut or rent off, a slice: a continuous strand of loose untwisted wool or other fibre.--_v.i._ SLIVE, to slide, skulk. [A.S. _slífan_, to cleave.] SLOAM, sl[=o]m, _n._ (_prov._) in coal-mining, the under-clay. SLOAT, sl[=o]t, _n._ Same as SLOT (1) and (2). SLOBBER, slob'[.e]r, same as SLABBER.--_n._ SLOB, mire, muddy land.--_adj._ SLOBB'ERY, moist, wet. SLOCKEN, slok'n, _v.t._ to quench, extinguish.--Also SLOK'EN. [Ice. _slokna_, to go out.] SLOE, sl[=o], _n._ the blackthorn, producing white flowers before the leaves, the shoots making excellent walking-sticks: the austere fruit, a good preserve. [A.S. _slá_; Dut. _slee_, a sloe.] SLOG, slog, _v.i._ to hit hard.--_n._ SLOG'GER, a hard hitter. SLOGAN, sl[=o]'gan, _n._ a war-cry among the ancient Highlanders of Scotland. [Gael., contracted from _sluagh-gairm_, an army-cry.] SLOID=_Sloyd_ (q.v.). SLOMBRY, slom'bri, _adj._ (_Spens._) sleepy.--_v.i._ SLOOM (_prov._), to slumber.--_adj._ SLOOM'Y, lazy, inactive. [Illustration] SLOOP, sl[=oo]p, _n._ a light boat: a one-masted cutter-rigged vessel, differing from a cutter, according to old authorities, in having a fixed bowsprit and somewhat smaller sails in proportion to the hull.--_n._ SLOOP'-OF-WAR, formerly a vessel, of whatever rig, between a corvette and a gun-vessel, constituting the command of a commander, carrying from ten to eighteen guns. [Dut. _sloep_, prob. O. Fr. _chaloupe_, shallop.] SLOP, slop, _n._ water carelessly spilled: a puddle: mean liquor or liquid food: (_pl._) dirty water.--_v.t._ to soil by letting a liquid fall upon:--_pr.p._ slop'ping; _pa.p._ slopped.--_ns._ SLOP'-B[=A]'SIN, -BOWL, a basin for slops, esp. for the dregs of tea and coffee cups at table; SLOP'-DASH, weak cold tea, &c.: SLOP'-PAIL, a pail for collecting slops; SLOP'PINESS.--_adj._ SLOP'PY, wet: muddy. [A.S. _sloppe_, _slyppe_, cow-droppings--_slúpan_, to slip.] SLOPE, sl[=o]p, _n._ any incline down which a thing may slip: a direction downward.--_v.t._ to form with a slope, or obliquely.--_v.i._ to be inclined, to slant: (_slang_) to decamp, disappear.--_adv._ in a sloping manner.--_adv._ SLOPE'WISE, obliquely.--_p.adj._ SL[=O]'PING, inclining from a horizontal or other right line.--_adv._ SL[=O]'PINGLY, in a sloping manner: with a slope.--_adj._ SL[=O]'PY, sloping, inclined: oblique. [A.S. _slípan_, pa.t. _sláp_, to slip.] SLOPS, slops, _n.pl._ any loose lower garment that slips on easily, esp. trousers: ready-made clothing, &c.--_ns._ SLOP'-SELL'ER, one who sells cheap ready-made clothes; SLOP'-SHOP, a shop where ready-made clothes are sold; SLOP'-WORK, the making of cheap cloth, any work superficially done; SLOP'-WORK'ER, one who does slop-work. [Scand., Ice. _sloppr_, a long robe--_sleppa_, to slip.] SLOSH, slosh, _n._ a watery mess.--_v.i._ to flounder in slush: to go about in an easy way.--_adj._ SLOSH'Y. [A form of _slush_.] SLOT, slot, _n._ a bar or bolt: a broad, flat, wooden bar which holds together larger pieces. [Allied to Low Ger. _slot_, Dut. _slot_, a lock.] SLOT, slot, _n._ a hollow, narrow depression, to receive some corresponding part in a mechanism: a ditch, the continuous opening between the rails in a cable tramway along which the shank of the grip moves.--_n._ SLOT'TING-MACHINE', a machine for cutting slots or square grooves in metal. [SLIT.] SLOT, slot, _n._ the track of a deer. [Ice. _slóth_, track, path; Scot. _sleuth_, track by the scent.] SLOTH, sl[=o]th, or sloth, _n._ laziness, sluggishness: a sluggish arboreal animal of tropical America, of two genera (_Choloepus_, the two-toed sloth, and _Bradypus_, the three-toed sloth).--_adj._ SLOTH'FUL, given to sloth: inactive: lazy.--_adv._ SLOTH'FULLY.--_n._ SLOTH'FULNESS. [A.S. _sl['æ]wth_--_sláw_, slow.] SLOTTER, slot'[.e]r, _n._ filth.--_v.t._ to foul.--_adj._ SLOTT'ERY, foul. SLOUCH, slowch, _n._ a hanging down loosely of the head or other part: clownish gait: a clown.--_v.i._ to hang down: to have a clownish look or gait.--_v.t._ to depress.--_n._ SLOUCH'-HAT, a soft broad-brimmed hat.--_p.adj._ SLOUCH'ING, walking with a downcast, awkward manner: hanging down.--_adj._ SLOUCH'Y, somewhat slouching. [Scand., Ice. _slókr_, a slouching fellow; _slakr_, slack.] SLOUGH, slow, _n._ a hollow filled with mud: a soft bog or marsh.--_adj._ SLOUGH'Y, full of sloughs: miry. [A.S. _slóh_, a hollow place; perh. from Ir. _sloc_--_slugaim_, to swallow up.] SLOUGH, sluf, _n._ the cast-off skin of a serpent: the dead part which separates from a sore.--_v.i._ to come away as a slough (with _off_): to be in the state of sloughing.--_v.t._ to cast off, as a slough.--_adj._ SLOUGH'Y, like, or containing, slough. [Scand.; Sw. dial. _slug_; cf. Ger. _slauch_, a skin.] SLOVAK, sl[=o]-vak', _adj._ pertaining to the _Slovaks_, a branch of the Slavs in the mountainous districts of N.W. Hungary, their language little more than a dialect of Czech.--_n._ one of this race, or his language.--_adjs._ SLOVAK'IAN, SLOVAK'ISH. SLOVEN, sluv'n, _n._ a man carelessly or dirtily dressed:--_fem._ SLUT.--_n._ SLOV'ENLINESS.--_adj._ SLOV'ENLY, like a sloven: negligent of neatness or cleanliness: disorderly: done in an untidy manner.--_adv._ negligently.--_n._ SLOV'ENRY (_Shak._), slovenliness. [Old Dut. _slof_, sloef, Low Ger. _sluf_, slow, indolent.] SLOVENIAN, sl[=o]-v[=e]'ni-an, _adj._ pertaining to the _Slovenes_, a branch of the South Slavonic stock to which the Serbs and Croats belong. SLOW, sl[=o], _adj._ not swift: late: behind in time: not hasty: not ready: not progressive.--_v.t._ to delay, retard, slacken the speed of.--_v.i._ to slacken in speed.--_n._ SLOW'BACK, a lazy lubber.--_p.adj._ SLOW'-GAIT'ED (_Shak._), accustomed to walk slowly.--_ns._ SLOW'-HOUND, sleuth-hound; SLOW'ING, a lessening of speed.--_adv._ SLOW'LY.--_ns._ SLOW'-MATCH, generally rope steeped in a solution of saltpetre and lime-water, used for firing guns before the introduction of friction tubes, and sometimes for firing military mines, now superseded by _Bickford's fuse_, a train of gunpowder enclosed in two coatings of jute thread waterproofed; SLOW'NESS.--_adj._ SLOW'-SIGHT'ED, slow to discern; SLOW'-WINGED, flying slowly.--_n._ SLOW'-WORM, a scincoid lizard, same as Blind-worm--by popular etymology '_slow-_worm,' but, according to Skeat, really '_slay-_worm,' A.S. _slá-wyrm_. [A.S. _sláw_; Dut. _slee_, Ice. _sljór_.] SLOYD, SLOID, sloid, _n._ the name given to a certain system of manual instruction which obtains in the schools of Finland and Sweden, the word properly denoting work of an artisan kind practised not as a trade or means of livelihood, but in the intervals of other employment. [Sw. _slöjd_, dexterity.] SLUB, slub, _v.t._ to twist after carding to prepare for spinning. SLUBBER, slub'[.e]r, _v.t._ to stain, to daub, slur over.--_n._ SLUBB'ER-DEGULL'ION, a wretch.--_adv._ SLUBB'ERINGLY. [Dut. _slobberen_, to lap, Low Ger. _slubbern_.] SLUDGE, sluj, _n._ soft mud or mire: half-melted snow.--_adj._ SLUDG'Y, miry: muddy. [A form of _slush_.] SLUE, SLEW, sl[=u], _v.t._ (_naut._) to turn anything about its axis without removing it from its place: to turn or twist about.--_v.i._ to turn round:--_pr.p._ sl[=u]'ing; _pa.p._ sl[=u]ed.--_n._ the turning of a body upon an axis within its figure.--_adj._ SLUED, tipsy. [Scand., Ice. _snua_, to turn.] SLUG, slug, _n._ a heavy, lazy fellow: a name for land-molluscs of order Pulmonata, with shell rudimentary or absent--they do great damage to garden crops: any hinderance.--_ns._ SLUG'-A-BED (_Shak._), one who is fond of lying in bed, a sluggard; SLUG'GARD, one habitually idle or inactive.--_v.t._ SLUG'GARDISE (_Shak._), to make lazy.--_adj._ SLUG'GISH, habitually lazy: slothful: having little motion: having little or no power.--_adv._ SLUG'GISHLY.--_n._ SLUG'GISHNESS. [Scand., Dan. _slug_, _sluk_, drooping, Norw. _sloka_, to slouch; Low Ger. _slukkern_, to be loose; allied to slack.] SLUG, slug, _n._ a cylindrical or oval piece of metal for firing from a gun: a piece of crude metal. [Prob. from slug above, or _slug_=_slog_, to hit hard.] SLUGGA, slug'a, _n._ a deep cavity formed by the action of subterranean streams common in some limestone districts of Ireland. [Ir. _slugaid_, a slough.] SLUGHORN, slug'horn, _n._ a word used to denote a kind of horn, but really a corruption of slogan. SLUICE, sl[=oo]s, _n._ a sliding gate in a frame for shutting off or regulating the flow of water: the stream which flows through it: that through which anything flows: a source of supply: in mining, a board trough for separating gold from placer-dirt carried through it by a current of water: the injection-valve in a steam-engine condenser.--_v.t._ to wet or drench copiously: to wash in or by a sluice: to flush or clean out with a strong flow of water.--_adj._ SLUIC'Y, falling in streams, as from a sluice. [O. Fr. _escluse_ (Fr. _écluse)_--Low L. _exclusa_ (_aqua_), a sluice (water) shut out, _pa.p._ of L. _ex-clud[)e]re_, to shut out.] SLUM, slum, _n._ a low street or neighbourhood.--_v.i._ to visit the slums of a city, esp. from motives of curiosity.--_ns._ SLUM'MER, one who slums; SLUM'MING, the practice of visiting slums. SLUMBER, slum'b[.e]r, _v.i._ to sleep lightly: to sleep: to be in a state of negligence or inactivity.--_n._ light sleep: repose.--_ns._ SLUM'BERER; SLUM'BERING.--_adv._ SLUM'BERINGLY, in a slumbering manner.--_n._ SLUM'BERLAND, the state of slumber.--_adjs._ SLUM'BERLESS, without slumber: sleepless; SLUM'BEROUS, SLUM'BROUS, inviting or causing slumber; sleepy; SLUM'BERY, sleepy: drowsy. [With intrusive _b_ from M. E. _slumeren_--A.S. _sluma_, slumber; cog. with Ger. _schlummern_.] SLUMP, slump, _v.i._ to fall or sink suddenly into water or mud: to fail or fall through helplessly.--_n._ a boggy place: the act of sinking into slush, &c., also the sound so made: a sudden fall or failure.--_adj._ SLUMP'Y, marshy. [Cf. Dan. _slumpe_, to stumble upon by chance; Ger. _schlumpen_, to trail.] SLUMP, slump, _v.t._ to throw into a lump or mass, to lump.--_n._ a gross amount, a lump.--_n._ SLUMP'-WORK, work in the lump. [Cf. Dan. _slump_, a lot, Dut. _slomp_, a mass.] SLUNG, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _sling_.--_n._ SLUNG'-SHOT, a weight attached to a cord, used as a weapon. SLUNK, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _slink_.--_adj._ SLUNK'EN (_prov._), shrivelled. SLUR, slur, _v.t._ to soil; to contaminate: to disgrace: to pass over lightly: to conceal: (_mus._) to sing or play in a gliding manner.--_v.i._ (_print._) to slip in making the impression, causing the printing to be blurred:--_pr.p._ slur'ring; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ slurred.--_n._ a stain: slight reproach or disparagement: (_mus._) a mark showing that notes are to be sung to the same syllable.--_p.adj._ SLURRED (_mus._), marked with a slur, performed in a gliding style like notes marked with a slur. [Old Dut. _slooren_, sleuren, Low Ger. _slüren_, to drag along the ground.] SLURRY, slur'i, _n._ any one of several semi-fluid mixtures, esp. of ganister, used to make repairs in converter-linings. SLUSH, slush, _n._ liquid mud: melting snow: a mixture of grease for lubrication: the refuse of the cook's galley in a ship.--_v.t._ to apply slush to, to grease: to wash by throwing water upon: to fill spaces in masonry with mortar (with up): to coat with a mixture of white-lead and lime the bright parts of machinery.--_adj._ SLUSH'Y. [Cf. _Slosh_.] SLUT, slut, _n._ (_fem._ of SLOVEN) a dirty, untidy woman: a wench, a jade: a bitch.--_adj._ SLUT'TISH, resembling a slut: dirty: careless.--_adv._ SLUT'TISHLY.--_ns._ SLUT'TISHNESS, SLUT'TERY. [Scand., Ice. _slöttr_, a dull fellow--_slota_, to droop.] SLY, sl[=i], _adj._ dexterous in doing anything so as to be unobserved: cunning: wily: secret: done with artful dexterity: illicit.--_n._ SLY'BOOTS, a sly or cunning person or animal.--_advs._ SLY'LY, SL[=I]'LY.--_ns._ SLY'NESS, SL[=I]'NESS.--ON THE SLY, slyly, secretly. [Prob. from Ice. _slæg-r_; cf. Ger. _schlau_.] SLYPE, sl[=i]p, _n._ a. covered passage from the transept of a cathedral to the chapter-house, &c. [_Slip_.] SMACK, smak, _n._ taste: flavour: a pleasing taste: a small quantity: a flavour of something.--_v.i._ to have a taste: to have a quality. [A.S. _smæc_.] SMACK, smak, _n._ a generic name for small decked or half-decked coasters and fishing-vessels, most rigged as cutters, sloops, or yawls. [Dut. _smak_; Ger. _schmacke_, Ice. _snekja_.] SMACK, smak, _v.t._ to strike smartly, to slap loudly: to kiss roughly and noisily.--_v.i._ to make a sharp noise with, as the lips by separation.--_n._ a sharp sound: a crack: a hearty kiss.--_adv._ sharply, straight.--_p.adj._ SMACK'ING, making a sharp, brisk sound, a sharp noise, a smack. [Prob. imit., Dut. _smakken_, to smite, Ger. _schmatzen_, to smack.] SMALL, smawl, _adj._ little in quantity or degree: minute: not great: unimportant: ungenerous, petty: of little worth or ability: short: having little strength: gentle: little in quality or quantity.--_adv._ in a low tone; gently.--_ns._ SMALL'-ALE, ale with little malt and unhopped; SMALL'-AND-EARL'Y (_coll._) an informal evening-party.--_n.pl._ SMALL'-ARMS, muskets, rifles, pistols, &c., including all weapons that can be actually carried by a man.--_n._ SMALL'-BEER, a kind of weak beer.--_adj._ inferior generally.--_n.pl._ SMALL'-CLOTHES, knee-breeches, esp. those of the close-fitting 18th-century form.--_ns._ SMALL'-COAL, coal not in lumps but small pieces; SMALL'-CRAFT, small vessels generally.--_n.pl._ SMALL'-DEBTS, a phrase current in Scotland to denote debts under £12, recoverable in the Sheriff Court.--_n._ SMALL'-HAND, writing such as is ordinarily used in correspondence.--_n.pl._ SMALL'-HOURS, the hours immediately following midnight.--_adj._ SMALL'ISH, somewhat small.--_ns._ SMALL'NESS; SMALL'-P[=I]'CA (see PICA); SMALL'POX, or _Variola_, a contagious, febrile disease, of the class known as _Exanthemata_, characterised by small pocks or eruptions on the skin; SMALLS, the 'little-go' or previous examination: small-clothes; SMALL'-TALK, light or trifling conversation.--_n.pl._ SMALL'-WARES (see WARE).--IN A SMALL WAY, with little capital or stock: unostentatiously. [A.S. _smæl_; Ger. _schmal_.] SMALLAGE, smawl'[=a]j, _n._ celery. [_Small_, Fr. _ache_--L. _apium_, parsley.] SMALT, smawlt, _n._ glass melted, tinged blue by cobalt, and pulverised when cold.--_n._ SMAL'TINE, an arsenide of cobalt, often containing nickel and iron. [Low L. _smaltum_--Old High Ger. _smalzjan_ (Ger. _schmelzen_), to melt.] SMARAGDINE, sma-rag'din, _adj._ of an emerald green.--_n._ SMARAG'DITE, a peculiar variety of Amphibole, light grass-green in colour, with a foliated, lamellar or fibrous structure--occurring as a constituent of the rock called _Eklogite_. [L. _smaragdinus_--smaragdus--Gr. _smaragdos_, the emerald.] SMART, smärt, _n._ quick, stinging pain of body or mind: smart-money: a dandy.--_v.i._ to feel a smart: to be punished.--_adj._ causing a smart: severe: sharp: vigorous, brisk: acute, witty, pert, vivacious: well-dressed, fine, fashionable: keen in business: creditable, up-to-the-mark.--_v.t._ SMART'EN, to make smart, to brighten (with _up_).--_adv._ SMART'LY.--_ns._ SMART'-MON'EY, money paid by a recruit for his release before being sworn in: money paid for escape from any unpleasant situation or engagement: excessive damages: money allowed to soldiers and sailors for wounds; SMART'NESS; SMART'-TICK'ET, a certificate granted to one entitled to smart-money; SMART'-WEED, a name given to some of the Milkworts from their acrid properties, esp. _Polygonum Hydropiper_, or Waterpepper; SMART'Y, a would-be smart fellow. [A.S. _smeortan_; Dut. _smarten_, Ger. _schmerzen_.] SMASH, smash, _v.t._ to break in pieces violently: to crush: to dash violently.--_v.i._ to act with crushing force: to be broken to pieces: to be ruined, to fail: to dash violently.--_n._ act of smashing, destruction, ruin, bankruptcy.--_ns._ SMASH'ER, one who smashes: (_slang_) one who passes bad money, bad money itself: anything great or extraordinary; SMASH'ING.--_adj._ crushing: dashing.--_n._ SMASH'-UP, a serious smash. [Prob. Sw. dial. _smaske_, to smack.] SMATCH, smach, _n._ (_Shak._) taste or tincture.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to have a taste. [_Smack_.] SMATTER, smat'[.e]r, _v.i._ to talk superficially: to have a superficial knowledge.--_ns._ SMATT'ERER; SMATT'ERING, a superficial knowledge.--_adv._ SMATT'ERINGLY, in a smattering manner. [M. E. _smateren_, to rattle, to chatter--Sw. _smattra_, to clatter; Ger. _schnattern_.] SMEAR, sm[=e]r, _v.t._ to overspread with anything sticky or oily, as grease: to daub.--_n._ SMEAR'INESS.--_adj._ SMEAR'Y, sticky: showing smears. [A.S. _smeru_, fat, grease; Ger. _schmeer_, grease, Ice. _smjör_, butter.] SMECTITE, smek't[=i]t, _n._ a greenish clay. [Gr. _sm[=e]ktis_--_sm[=e]chein_, to rub.] SMECTYMNUUS, smek-tim'n[=u]-us, _n._ a name compounded of the initials of the five Puritan divines--Stephen Marshall, Edmund Calamy, Thomas Young, Matthew Newcomen, and William Spurstow, joint authors of _An Answer_ (1641) to Bishop Hall's _Humble Remonstrance to the High Court of Parliament_ (1641) in defence of the liturgy and episcopal government. SMEDDUM, smed'um, _n._ fine powder: sagacity, spirit, mettle: ore small enough to go through the sieve. [A.S. _smedema_, fine flour.] SMEE, sm[=e], _n._ the pochard: widgeon: pintail-duck.--Also SMEATH. SMEGMA, smeg'ma, _n._ a sebaceous secretion, esp. that under the prepuce: an unguent.--_adj._ SMEGMAT'IC. [Gr. _sm[=e]gma_.] SMELL, smel, _v.i._ to affect the nose: to have odour: to use the sense of smell.--_v.t._ to perceive by the nose:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ smelled or smelt.--_n._ the quality of bodies which affects the nose: odour: perfume: the sense which perceives this quality.--_ns._ SMELL'ER; SMELL'-FEAST, a greedy fellow; SMELL'ING, the sense by which smells are perceived; SMELL'ING-BOTT'LE, a bottle containing smelling-salts, or the like; SMELL'ING-SALTS, a preparation of ammonium carbonate with lavender, &c., used as a stimulant in faintness, &c.; SMELL'-TRAP, a drain-trap.--_adj._ SMELL'Y, having a bad smell.--SMELL A RAT (see RAT); SMELL OUT, to find out by prying. [Allied to Low Ger. _smelen_, Dut. _smeulen_, to smoulder.] SMELT, smelt, _n._ a fish of the salmon or trout family, having a cucumber-like smell and a delicious flavour. [A.S. _smelt_.] SMELT, smelt, _v.t._ to melt ore in order to separate the metal.--_ns._ SMEL'TER; SMEL'TERY, a place for smelting; SMEL'TING; SMEL'TING-FUR'NACE, -HOUSE, -WORKS. [Scand., Sw. _smälta_, to smelt.] SMERKY, sm[.e]rk'i, _adj._ (_Spens._) neat. [_Smirk_.] SMEW, sm[=u], _n._ a bird of the family _Anatidæ_, in the same genus as the goosander and mergansers. SMICKER, smik'[.e]r, _v.i._ (_obs._) to look amorously.--_n._ SMICK'ERING, an inclination for a woman.--_adv._ SMICK'LY, amorously. SMICKET, smik'et, _n._ a smock. SMIDDY, smid'i, _n._ a smithy. SMIDGEN, smij'en, _n._ (_U.S._) a small quantity, a trifle. SMIFT, smift, _n._ a piece of touchwood, &c., formerly used to ignite the train in blasting.--Also SNUFF. SMIGHT, sm[=i]t, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to smite. SMILAX, sm[=i]'laks, _n._ a genus of liliaceous plants, type of the tribe _Smilaceæ_--the roots of several species yield sarsaparilla. SMILE, sm[=i]l, _v.i._ to express pleasure by the countenance: to express slight contempt: to look joyous: to be favourable.--_n._ act of smiling: the expression of the features in smiling: favour: (_slang_) a drink, a treat.--_ns._ SM[=I]'LER, one who smiles; SM[=I]'LET (_Shak._), a little smile.--_adj._ SM[=I]'LING, wearing a smile, joyous.--_adv._ SM[=I]'LINGLY, in a smiling manner: with a smile or look of pleasure.--_n._ SM[=I]'LINGNESS, the state of being smiling. [Scand., Sw. _smila_, to smile.] SMIRCH, smirch, _v.t._ to besmear, dirty: to degrade in fame, dignity, &c.--_n._ a stain. [A weakened form of _smer-k_, from M. E. _smeren_, to smear.] SMIRK, sm[.e]rk, _v.i._ to smile affectedly: to look affectedly soft.--_n._ an affected smile.--_adjs._ SMIRK (_obs._), SMIRK'Y, smart. [A.S. _smercian_; akin to smile.] SMIT, smit, obsolete _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _smite_. SMIT, smit, _v.t._ (_prov._) to infect.--_n._ a stain: infection.--_v.t._ SMIT'TLE, to infect.--_adj._ infectious.--_n._ infection. [A.S. _smittian_, to spot, _smitta_, a spot, an intens. of _smítan_, to smite.] SMITCH, smich, _n._ a particle: dust.--_n._ (_dim._) SMITCH'EL. SMITE, sm[=i]t, _v.t._ to strike with the fist, hand, or weapon: to beat: to kill: to overthrow in battle: to affect with feeling: (_B._) to blast: to afflict.--_v.i._ to strike:--_pa.t._ sm[=o]te; _pa.p._ smitt'en.--_n._ SM[=I]'TER.--SMITE OFF, to cut off; SMITE OUT, to knock out; SMITE WITH THE TONGUE (_B._), to reproach, to revile. [A.S. _smítan_; Dut. _smijten_, Ger. _schmeissen_.] SMITH, smith, _n._ one who forges with the hammer: a worker in metals: one who makes anything.--_ns._ SMITH'ERY, the workshop of a smith: work done by a smith--also SMITH'ING; SMITH'Y, the workshop of a smith; SMITH'Y-COAL, a kind of small coal much used by smiths. [A.S. _smith_; Ger. _schmied_.] SMITHEREENS, smith-[.e]r-[=e]nz', _n.pl._ (_coll._) small fragments. SMITHSONIAN, smith-s[=o]'ni-an, _adj._ pertaining to James Macie _Smithson_ (1765--1829), founder of a great institution at Washington for ethnological and scientific investigations, organised by Congress in 1846. SMITTEN, smit'n, _pa.p._ of _smite_. SMOCK, smok, _n._ a woman's shift: a smock-frock.--_v.t._ to clothe in a smock or smock-frock.--_adj._ SMOCK'-FACED, pale-faced.--_ns._ SMOCK'-FROCK, an outer garment of coarse white linen worn over the other clothes in the south of England; SMOCK'-RACE, a race for the prize of a smock. [A.S. _smoc_, perh. from A.S. _smeógan_, to creep into.] SMOKE, sm[=o]k, _n._ the vapour from a burning body--a common term for the volatile products of the imperfect combustion of such organic substances as wood or coal.--_v.i._ to emit smoke: to smoke out instead of upward, owing to imperfect draught: to draw in and puff out the smoke of tobacco: to raise smoke by moving rapidly: to burn, to rage: to suffer, as from punishment.--_v.t._ to apply smoke to: to dry, scent, or medicate by smoke: to inhale the smoke of: to use in smoking: to try to expel by smoking: to scent out, discover: to quiz, ridicule: to thrash.--_ns._ SMOKE'-BLACK, lampblack; SMOKE'-BOARD, a board suspended before the upper part of a fireplace to prevent the smoke coming out into the room; SMOKE'-BOX, part of a steam-boiler where the smoke is collected before passing out at the chimney; SMOKE'-CONS[=U]'MER, an apparatus for burning all the smoke from a fire.--_adj._ SMOKE'-DRIED.--_v.t._ SMOKE'-DRY, to cure or dry by means of smoke.--_ns._ SMOKE'-HOUSE, a building where meat or fish is cured by smoking, or where smoked meats are stored; SMOKE'-JACK, a contrivance for turning a jack by means of a wheel turned by the current of air ascending a chimney.--_adj._ SMOKE'LESS, destitute of smoke.--_adv._ SMOKEL'ESSLY.--_ns._ SMOKE'LESSNESS; SM[=O]'KER, one who smokes tobacco: a smoking-carriage: one who smoke-dries meat: an evening entertainment at which smoking is permitted; SMOKE'-SAIL, a small sail hoisted between the galley-funnel and the foremast when a vessel rides head to the wind; SMOKE'-SHADE, a scale of tints ranging from 0 to 10, for comparison of different varieties of coal, according to the amount of unburnt carbon in their smoke; SMOKE'-STACK, an upright pipe through which the combustion-gases from a steam-boiler pass into the open air.--_adj._ SMOKE'-TIGHT, impervious to smoke.--_ns._ SMOKE'-TREE, an ornamental shrub of the cashew family, with long light feathery or cloud-like fruit-stalks; SMOKE'-WASH'ER, an apparatus for removing soot and particles of unburnt carbon from smoke by making it pass through water; SMOKE'-WOOD, the virgin's bower (_Clematis Vitalba_), whose porous stems are smoked by boys.--_adv._ SM[=O]'KILY.--_ns._ SM[=O]'KINESS; SM[=O]'KING, the act of emitting smoke: the act or habit of drawing into the mouth and emitting the fumes of tobacco by means of a pipe or cigar--a habit of great sedative value: a bantering; SM[=O]'KING-CAP, -JACK'ET, a light ornamental cap or jacket often worn by smokers; SM[=O]'KING-CARR'IAGE, -ROOM, a railway-carriage, -room, supposed to be set apart for smokers.--_adj._ SM[=O]'KY, giving out smoke: like smoke: filled, or subject to be filled, with smoke: tarnished or noisome with smoke: (_obs._) suspicious.--ON A SMOKE (_B._), smoking, or on fire. [A.S. _smocian_, _smoca_; Ger. _schmauch_.] SMOLDER=_Smoulder_ (q.v.). SMOLT, sm[=o]lt, _n._ a name given to young river salmon when they are bluish along the upper half of the body and silvery along the sides. [_Smelt_.] SMOOTH, sm[=oo]th, _adj._ having an even surface: not tough: evenly spread: glossy: gently flowing: easy: regular: unobstructed: bland: mild, calm.--_v.t._ to make smooth: to palliate: to soften: to calm: to ease: (_Shak._) to exonerate.--_v.i._ to repeat flattering words.--_n._ (_B._) the smooth part.--_adj._ SMOOTH'-BORE, not rifled.--_n._ a gun with smooth-bored barrel.--_adjs._ SMOOTH'-BROWED, with unwrinkled brow; SMOOTH'-CHINNED, having a smooth chin: beardless; SMOOTH'-DIT'TIED, sweetly sung, with a flowing melody.--v.t SMOOTH'EN, to make smooth.--_n._ SMOOTH'ER, one who, or that which, smooths: in glass-cutting, an abrading-wheel for polishing the aces of the grooves cut by another wheel: (_obs._) a flatterer.--_adj._ SMOOTH'-FACED, having a smooth air, mild-looking.--_ns._ SMOOTH'ING-[=I]'RON, an instrument of iron for smoothing clothes; SMOOTH'ING-PLANE, a small fine plane used for finishing.--_adv._ SMOOTH'LY.--_n._ SMOOTH'NESS.--_adjs._ SMOOTH'-PACED, having a regular easy pace; SMOOTH'-SHOD, having shoes without spikes; SMOOTH'-SP[=O]'KEN, speaking pleasantly: plausible: flattering; SMOOTH'-TONGUED, having a smooth tongue: flattering. [A.S. _smóthe_, usually _sméthe_; Ger. _ge-schmeidig_, soft.] SMORE, sm[=o]r, a Scotch form of _smother_. SMOTE, sm[=o]t, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _smite_. SMOTHER, smuth'[.e]r, _v.t._ to suffocate by excluding the air: to conceal.--_v.i._ to be suffocated or suppressed: to smoulder.--_n._ smoke: thick floating dust: state of being smothered: confusion.--_ns._ SMOTHER[=A]'TION, suffocation: a sailor's dish of meat buried in potatoes; SMOTH'ERINESS.--_adv._ SMOTH'ERINGLY.--_adj._ SMOTH'ERY, tending to smother: stifling. [M. E. _smorther_--A.S. _smorian_, to smother; cf. Ger. _schmoren_, to stew.] SMOUCH, smowch, _n._ a smack, a hearty kiss.--_v.t._ to kiss, to buss. SMOUCH, smowch, _v.t._ to take advantage of, to chouse. SMOUCHED, smowcht, _adj._ blotted, dirtied, smutched. SMOULDER, sm[=o]l'd[.e]r, _v.i._ to burn slowly or without vent.--_adjs._ SMOUL'DRING, SMOUL'DRY. [M. E. _smolderen_--_smolder_=_smor-ther_, stifling smoke; cf. _Smother_.] SMOUSE, SMOUS, smows, _n._ a peddler, a German Jew. SMOUT, smowt, _n._ (_slang_) a printer who gets chance jobs in various offices.--_v.i._ to do occasional work. SMUDGE, smuj, _n._ a spot, a stain: a choking smoke--_v.t._ to stifle: to fumigate with smoke.--_n._ SMUD'GER, one who smudges: a plumber.--_adj._ SMUD'GY, stained with smoke. [Scand., Sw. _smuts_, dirt, Dan. _smuds_, smut; Ger. _schmutz_.] SMUG, smug, _adj._ neat, prim, spruce: affectedly smart: well satisfied with one's self.--_n._ a self-satisfied person.--_adj._ SMUG'-FACED, prim or precise-looking.--_adv._ SMUG'LY.--_n._ SMUG'NESS. [Dan. _smuk_, handsome; cf. Ger. _schmuck_, fine.] SMUG, smug, _v.t._ to seize without ceremony, to confiscate: (_slang_) to hush up. SMUGGLE, smug'l, _v.t._ to import or export without paying the legal duty: to convey secretly.--_ns._ SMUGG'LER, one who smuggles: a vessel used in smuggling; SMUGG'LING, defrauding the government of revenue by the evasion of custom-duties or excise-taxes. [Low Ger. _smuggeln_, cog. with Ger. _schmuggeln_; Dut. _smuigen_, to eat secretly.] SMUGGLE, smug'l, _v.t._ to fondle, cuddle. SMUR, smur, _n._ (_Scot._) fine misty rain.--_v.i._ to drizzle.--_adj._ SMUR'RY. SMUT, smut, _n._ a spot of dirt, soot, &c.: foul matter, as soot: _Bunt_, sometimes also _Dust-brand_, the popular name of certain small fungi which infest flowering land-plants, esp. the grasses, the name derived from the appearance of the spores, which are nearly black and very numerous: obscene language.--_v.t._ to soil with smut: to blacken or tarnish.--_v.i._ to gather smut: to be turned into smut:--_pr.p._ smut'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ smut'ted.--_n._ SMUT'-BALL, a fungus of genus _Tilletia_: a puff-ball.--_adj._ SMUT'TIED, made smutty.--_adv._ SMUT'TILY.--_n._ SMUT'TINESS.--_adj._ SMUT'TY, stained with smut: affected with smut or mildew: obscene, filthy. [Scand., Sw. _smuts_; Ger. _schmutz_, prob. from root of _smite_.] SMUTCH, smuch, _v.t._ to blacken, as with soot.--_n._ a dirty mark. [A form of _smut_.] SMYRNIOT, -E, sm[.e]r'niot, -[=o]t, _n._ a native or inhabitant, of _Smyrna_.--_adj._ of or pertaining to Smyrna. SMYTERIE, SMYTRIE, smit'ri, _n._ (_Scot._) a large number of individuals of small size. SNABBLE, snab'l, _v.t._ (_prov._) to plunder: to kill.--_v.i._ to gobble up. SNABBY, snab'i, _n._ (_Scot._) the chaffinch. SNACK, snak, _n._ a share: a slight, hasty meal.--_v.t._ to snatch, to bite: to share. [A form of _snatch_.] SNAFFLE, snaf'l, _n._ a bridle which crosses the nose and has a slender mouth-bit without branches.--_v.t._ to bridle: to clutch by the bridle.--_ns._ SNAFF'LE-BIT, a kind of slender bit; SNAFF'LING-LAY, the trade of highwayman. [Dut. _snavel_, the muzzle; cf. _Snap_.] SNAG, snag, _n._ a sharp protuberance: a short branch: a projecting tooth or stump: a tree lying in the water so as to impede navigation--hence any stumbling-block or obstacle.--_v.t._ to catch on a snag: to entangle: to fill with snags, or to clear from such.--_n._ SNAG'BOAT, a steamboat with appliances for removing snags.--_adjs._ SNAG'GED, SNAG'GY, full of snags. [Akin to Gael. and Ir. _snaigh_, to cut.] SNAG, snag, _v.t._ to lop superfluous branches from a tree.--_n._ SNAG'GER, the tool for this. SNAIL, sn[=a]l, _n._ a term for the species of terrestrial _Gasteropoda_ which have well-formed spiral shells--the more typical snails belonging to the genus _Helix_, of the family _Helicidæ_, having the shell of many whorls, globose, depressed, or conical.--_ns._ SNAIL'-CLOV'ER, -TR[=E]'FOIL, a species of medic; SNAIL'-FISH, a fish of genus _Liparis_, sticking to rocks; SNAIL'-FLOW'ER, a twining bean.--_adjs._ SNAIL'-LIKE (_Shak._), in the manner of a snail, slowly; SNAIL'-PACED (_Shak._), as slow-moving as a snail; SNAIL'-SLOW, as slow as a snail.--_n._ SNAIL'-WHEEL, in some striking time-pieces, a rotating piece with a spiral periphery having notches so arranged as to determine the number of strokes made on the bell.--SNAIL'S PACE, a very slow pace. [A.S. _snegl_, _snægl_; Ger. _schnecke_.] SNAKE, sn[=a]k, _n._ a serpent--SNAKES (_Ophidia_) form one of the classes of reptiles, in shape limbless and much elongated, embracing tree-snakes, the water-snakes, and the very venomous sea-snakes (_Hydrophidæ_), the burrowing-snakes (_Typhlopidæ_) and the majority, which may be called ground-snakes.--_ns._ SNAKE'-BIRD, a darter: the wryneck; SNAKE'-EEL, a long Mediterranean eel, its tail without a tail-fin.--_adj._ SNAKE'-LIKE (_Tenn._), like a snake.--_ns._ SNAKE'-ROOT, the popular name of various plants of different genera, whose roots are considered good for snake-bites; SNAKE'S'-HEAD, the guinea-hen flower; SNAKE'-STONE, a small rounded piece of stone or other hard substance, popularly believed to be efficacious in curing snake-bites; SNAKE'-WEED, the bistort; SNAKE'WOOD (same as LETTER-WOOD).--_adjs._ SNAK'ISH, having the qualities of a snake: cunning, deceitful; SNAK'Y (_Spens._), belonging to, or resembling, a serpent: (_Milt._) cunning, deceitful: covered with, or having, serpents. [A.S. _snaca_, prob. from _snícan_, to creep; Ice. _snák-r_.] SNAP, snap, _v.t._ to break short or at once: to bite, or catch at suddenly: to crack: to interrupt sharply (often with _up_): to shut with a sharp sound: to take an instantaneous photograph of, esp. with a hand camera.--_v.i._ to break short: to try to bite: to utter sharp words (with at): to flash:--_pr.p._ snap'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ snapped.--_n._ act of snapping, or the noise made by it: a small catch or lock: a hasty repast, a snack: a crack, the spring-catch of a bracelet, &c., an earring: a crisp kind of gingerbread nut or cake: crispness, pithiness, epigrammatic point or force: vigour, energy: (_slang_) a brief theatrical engagement, an easy and profitable place or task: a sharper, a cheat: a riveter's tool, also a glass-moulder's tool: the act of taking a snapshot.--_adj._ sudden, unpremeditated, without preparation.--_ns._ SNAP'DRAGON, a plant, so called because the lower lip of the corolla when parted shuts with a snap like a dragon's jaw: a Christmas pastime in which raisins are snatched out of a dish in which brandy is burning, in a room otherwise dark--also the raisins so taken; SNAP'PER; SNAP'PER-UP (_Shak._), one who snaps up; SNAP'PING-TUR'TLE, a large fresh-water tortoise of the United States--from its habit of snapping at things.--_adjs._ SNAP'PISH, SNAP'PY, inclined to snap: eager to bite: sharp in reply.--_adv._ SNAP'PISHLY, in a snappish manner: peevishly: tartly.--_ns._ SNAP'PISHNESS; SNAP'SHOT, an instantaneous photograph. [Dut. _snappen_, to snap; Ger. _schnappen_.] SNAPHANCE, snaf'ans, _n._ a term originally applied to the spring-lock of a gun or pistol, but afterwards applied to the gun itself, a Dutch firelock of the 17th century: a snappish retort.--Also SNAPH'AUNCE. [Dut. _snaphaan_--_snappen_, to snap, _haan_, a cock.] SNAR, snär, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to snarl. SNARE, sn[=a]r, _n._ a running noose of string or wire, &c., for catching an animal: a trap: that by which any one is entrapped: a cord, esp. that stretched across the lower head of a drum: a surgical instrument for removing tumours, &c., by an ever-tightening loop.--_v.t._ same as _Ensnare_ (q.v.).--_v.i._ to use snares.--_n._ SN[=A]R'ER.--_adj._ SN[=A]R'Y. [A.S. _snear_; Dut. _snaar_.] SNARL, snärl, _v.i._ to growl, as a surly dog: to speak in a surly manner.--_v.t._ to utter snarlingly.--_n._ a growl, a jealous quarrelsome utterance.--_n._ SNAR'LER.--_adjs._ SNAR'LING, growling, snappish; SNAR'LY. [Prob. imit.; Low Ger. _snarren_, Ger. _schnarren_; conn. with Eng. _snore_.] SNARL, snärl, _v.t._ to twist, entangle, confuse.--_v.i._ to become entangled.--_n._ a knot or any kind of complication: a squabble.--_adj._ SNARLED, twisted.--_ns._ SNAR'LING-[=I]'RON, -TOOL, a curved tool for snarling or fluting hollow metal-ware, &c. SNASH, shash, _n._ (_Scot._) insolence, abusive language.--_v.i._ to talk impudently. [Illustration] SNATCH, snach, _v.t._ to seize quickly: to take without permission: to seize and carry away.--_v.i._ to try to seize hastily.--_n._ a hasty catching or seizing: a short time of exertion: a small piece or fragment: a catching of the voice: a hasty snack of food: a quibble.--_ns._ SNATCH'-BLOCK, a kind of pulley-block, having an opening in the side to receive the bight of a rope; SNATCH'ER, one who snatches.--_adv._ SNATCH'INGLY.--_adj._ SNATCH'Y, irregular. [M. E. _snacchen_; cog. with Dut. _snakken_, Prov. Eng. _sneck_, a bolt; also conn. with _snap_.] SNATHE, sn[=a]th, _n._ the curved handle of a scythe. [A variant of _snead_.] SNEAD, sn[=e]d, _n._ the handle of a scythe, a snathe. [A.S. _sn['æ]d_--_sníthan_, to cut.] SNEAK, sn[=e]k, _v.i._ to creep or steal away privately or meanly: to behave meanly.--_v.t._ (_slang_) to steal.--_n._ a mean, servile fellow: a mean thief.--_ns._ SNEAK'-CUP (_Shak._), one who balks his glass: a cowardly, insidious scoundrel; SNEAK'ER.--_adj._ SNEAK'ING, mean, crouching: secret, underhand, not openly avowed.--_adv._ SNEAK'INGLY.--_ns._ SNEAK'INGNESS, SNEAK'INESS, the quality of being sneaking: meanness; SNEAKS'BY (_obs._), a sneak.--_adj._ SNEAK'Y, somewhat sneaking. [A.S. _snícan_, to creep; Dan. _snige_. Cf. _Snake_.] SNEAP, sn[=e]p, _v.t._ to check, to rebuke: to nip.--_n._ a check, a reprimand, taunt, sarcasm.--Also SNAPE. SNEB, a form of _snib_, _snub_. SNECK, snek, _n._ (_Scot._) the catch of a door or a lid.--_v.t._ to latch or shut a door.--_n._ SNECK'-DRAW'ER, one who lifts the latch for thievish ends, a mean thief.--_adjs._ SNECK'-DRAW'ING, SNECK'-DRAWN, crafty, cunning.--_interj._ SNECK-UP' (_Shak._), go hang! [Prob. _snack_, to catch.] SNECK, snek, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to cut [_Snick_.] SNEE, sn[=e], _n._ a large knife. [Dut. _snee_, _snede_, a slice; Ger. _schneide_, edge.] SNEER, sn[=e]r, _v.i._ to show contempt by the expression of the face, as by turning up the nose: to insinuate contempt.--_v.t._ to utter sneeringly.--_n._ an indirect expression of contempt.--_n._ SNEER'ER.--_adj._ SNEER'ING.--_adv._ SNEER'INGLY. [Scand., Dan. _snærre_, to grin like a dog; cf. _Snarl_.] SNEESHING, sn[=e]sh'ing, _n._ (_Scot._) snuff, or a pinch of snuff. SNEEZE, sn[=e]z, _v.i._ to make a sudden and involuntary violent expiration, preceded by one or more inspirations, the fauces being generally closed so that the current of air is directed through the nose.--_n._ a sneezing.--_ns._ SNEEZE'WEED, any species of _Helenium_; SNEEZE'WOOD, the durable wood of a small South African tree whose sawdust causes sneezing: SNEEZE'WORT, the white hellebore: the _Achillea Ptarmica_; SNEEZ'ING.--NOT TO BE SNEEZED AT, not to be despised, of very considerable value or importance. [M. E. _snesen_, _fnesen_--A.S. _fneósan_, to sneeze; Dut. _fniezen_.] SNELL, snel, _adj._ (_Scot._) keen, sharp, severe. [A.S. _snel_, _snell_, active; Ger. _schnell_, swift.] SNIB, snib, _n._ (_Spens._) a check or reprimand. [_Snub_.] SNIB, snib, _n._ (_Scot._) the bolt of a door.--_v.t._ to bolt. SNICK, snik, _v.t._ to cut, snip, nick.--_n._ a small cut: a knot in yarn when too tightly twisted.--_n._ SNICK'ERSNEE, a knife.--SNICK AND SNEE, a fight with knives, also a knife. [Ice. _snikka_, to nick, cut.] SNICKER, snik'[.e]r, _v.i._ to laugh, to giggle in a half-suppressed way.--_v.t._ to say gigglingly.--_n._ a giggle, a half-smothered laugh. [Low Ger. _snukken_, to sob, Dut. _snikken_, to gasp; cf. _Neigh_ and Scot. _nicker_; all imit.] SNIDE, sn[=i]d, _adj._ (_slang_) sharp, dishonest.--_n._ a sharper, a cheat. SNIFF, snif, _v.t._ to draw in with the breath through the nose.--_v.i._ to snuff or draw in air sharply through the nose: to snuff.--_n._ perception of smell: a short sharp inhalation, or the sound made by such.--_v.i._ SNIF'FLE, to snuffle.--_n._ SNIF'FLER, a slight breeze.--_adj._ SNIF'FY, inclined to be disdainful.--_vs.i._ SNIFT, to sniff, snivel; SNIFT'ER, to sniff.--_n._ a sniff: (_pl._) stoppage of the nasal passages in catarrh: (_slang_) a dram: (_U.S._) a severe storm.--_n._ SNIFT'ING-VALVE, an air-valve connecting with a steam-cylinder, as in a condensing engine--also _Tail-valve_, _Blow-valve_.--_adj._ SNIFT'Y (_slang_), having a tempting smell. [Scand.; Dan. _snive_, snuff; Ger. _schnieben_.] SNIG, snig, _v.t._ (_prov._) to cut. SNIGGER, snig'[.e]r, _v.i._ to laugh in a half-suppressed, broken manner.--_n._ a half-suppressed laugh. [Imit.] SNIGGLE, snig'l, _v.i._ to fish for eels by thrusting the bait into their hiding-places.--_v.t._ to catch by this means: to ensnare.--_n._ SNIG (_prov._), an eel. SNIP, snip, _v.t._ to cut off at once with scissors: to cut off the nib of: to cut off: to make signs with, as the fingers:--_pr.p._ snip'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ snipped.--_n._ a single cut with scissors: a clip or small shred: a share, snack: a tailor.--_ns._ SNIP'PER, one who snips, a tailor; SNIP'PER-SNAP'PER, a little trifling fellow; SNIP'PET, a little piece snipped off.--_adj._ SNIP'PETY, trivial, fragmentary.--_n._ SNIP'PING, a clipping.--_adj._ SNIP'PY, fragmentary: stingy.--_n.pl._ SNIPS, a pair of strong hand-shears for sheet-metal.--_n._ SNIP'-SNAP, tart dialogue with quick replies.--_adj._ (_Shak._) quick, short. [Dut. _snippen_; Ger. _schnippen_; closely conn. with _snap_.] SNIPE, sn[=i]p, _n._ the name of a genus (_Gallinago_) and of a family (_Scolopacidæ_) of birds, order _Grallæ_, having a long straight flexible bill, frequenting marshy places all over Europe: a fool: a simpleton: (_U.S._) a half-smoked cigar picked up on the street: a long bill or account. [Scand., Ice. _snípa_; Dut. _snip_, _snep_, Ger. _schnepfe_.] SNIPE, sn[=i]p, _v.i._ to pick off stealthily by a long rifle-shot, as from the surrounding hills into a camp, &c.--_n._ SN[=I]P'ING, the foregoing practice. SNIRT, snirt, _n._ a smothered laugh.--_v.i._ SNIRT'LE, to snicker. [A variant of _snortle_.] SNITCHER, snich'[.e]r, _n._ (_slang_) an informer: a handcuff. SNIVEL, sniv'l, _v.i._ to run at the nose: to cry, as a child:--_pr.p._ sniv'elling; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ sniv'elled.--_n._ snot: cant, an affected tearful state.--_n._ SNIV'ELLER, one prone to snivelling: one who cries for slight causes.--_adjs._ SNIV'ELLING, snotty: weakly tearful; SNIV'ELLY, snotty, whining. [A.S. _snofel_, mucus from the nose; akin to _sniff_, _snuff_.] SNOB, snob, _n._ a vulgar person, esp. one who apes gentility, a tuft-hunter: a shoemaker: a workman who works for lower wages than his fellows, a rat, one who will not join a strike: a townsman, as opposed to a gownsman, in Cambridge slang.--_n._ SNOB'BERY, the quality of being snobbish.--_adj._ SNOB'BISH.--_adv._ SNOB'BISHLY.--_ns._ SNOB'BISHNESS; SNOB'BISM.--_adj._ SNOB'BY.--_ns._ SNOB'LING, a little snob; SNOBOC'RACY, snobs as a powerful class; SNOBOG'RAPHER; SNOBOG'RAPHY, the description of snobs and snobbery. [Prob. prov. _snap_, a boy, from Ice. _snápr_, a dolt; Sw. dial. _snopp_, a boy.] SNOD, snod, _adj._ (_Scot._) neat, trim.--_v.t._ to trim, set in order (with up). [Conn. with A.S. _sn['æ]dan_, to cut, prune.] SNOOD, sn[=oo]d, _n._ the fillet which binds a maiden's hair: the hair-line, gut, &c. by which a fish-hook is fixed to the line.--_adj._ SNOOD'ED, having, or wearing, a snood. [A.S. _snód_; cf. Ice. _snúa_, Sw. _sno_, to twist.] SNOOK, sn[=oo]k, _v.i._ to lurk, prowl about: to smell out--(_Scot._) SNOUK. [Low Ger. _snoken_, to search for; Ice. _snaka_, to snuff about.] SNOOK, sn[=oo]k, _n._ one of several fishes--the cobia, a robalo, a garfish, a Cape carangoid fish. [Dut. _snoek_, a pike.] SNOOKER, sn[=oo]k'[.e]r, _n._ a variety of the game of 'pool.' SNOOL, sn[=oo]l, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to submit tamely to wrong or oppression.--_n._ one who does so. [Contr. of _snivel_.] SNOOP, sn[=oo]p, _v.i._ to go about sneakingly. [_Snook_.] SNOOZE, sn[=oo]z, _v.i._ to doze.--_n._ a nap.--_n._ SNOOZ'ER. [Prob. the same as snore, influenced by sneeze.] SNOOZE, sn[=oo]z, _v.i._ to doze: to slumber.--_n._ a quiet nap.--_n._ SNOOZ'ER. [Prob. the same as _snore_, influenced by _sneeze_.] SNORE, sn[=o]r, _v.i._ to breathe roughly and hoarsely in sleep.--_n._ a noisy breathing in sleep.--_ns._ SN[=O]R'ER; SN[=O]'RING, an abnormal and noisy mode of respiration produced by deep inspirations and expirations through the nose and open mouth, the noise being caused by the vibration of the soft palate and uvula. [A.S. _snora_, a snore; allied to _snarl_.] SNORT, snort, _v.i._ to force the air with violence and noise through the nostrils, as horses: to laugh boisterously.--_v.t._ to express by a snort: to force out, as by a snort.--_ns._ SNORT'ER; SNORT'ING.--_adv._ SNORT'INGLY. [Scand., Dan. _snorke_, to snort; Dut. _snorken_, Ger. _schnarchen_.] SNOT, snot, _n._ mucus of the nose: a mean fellow.--_v.i._ to blow the nose.--_v.i._ SNOT'TER, to breathe through an obstruction in the nostrils, to sob, cry.--_n._ the wattles of a turkey-cock: (_Scot._) snot.--_n._ SNOT'TERY, snot, filthiness.--_adv._ SNOT'TILY.--_n._ SNOT'TINESS.--_adjs._ SNOT'TY; SNOT'TY-NOSED. [M. E. _snotte_; cf. Dut. _snot_; allied to _snout_.] SNOTTER, snot'[.e]r, _n._ (_naut._) the lower support of the sprit. SNOUT, snowt, _n._ the projecting nose of a beast, as of a swine: any similar projecting proboscis, beak, &c.--_v.t._ to furnish with a snout.--_adjs._ SNOUT'ED; SNOUT'Y. [Scand., Sw. _snut_; Ger. _schnauze_, Dut. _snuit_.] SNOW, sn[=o], _n._ the crystalline form into which the excess of vapour in the atmosphere is condensed when the temperature is below freezing: a snowfall: a winter: (_her._) white argent.--_v.i._ and _v.t._ to fall in snow, to cover with snow.--_n._ SNOW'BALL, a ball made of snow pressed hard together: a shrub bearing a round white flower, the guelder-rose: a round pudding of rice with an apple in the centre, a mass of boiled rice shaped in a cup: white of egg beaten stiff and placed on the surface of a custard.--_v.t._ to throw snowballs at.--_v.i._ to throw snowballs.--_ns._ SNOW'-BER'RY, a bushy, deciduous shrub, bearing white berries; SNOW'-BIRD, a North American bird of the Finch family, the upper parts lead-colour, the lower parts white.--_adj._ SNOW'-BLIND, affected with snow-blindness.--_ns._ SNOW'-BLIND'NESS, amblyopia caused by the reflection of light from snow; SNOW'-BLINK, a peculiar reflection arising from fields of snow, like ice-blink; SNOW'-BOOT, a boot made to protect the feet while walking in snow; SNOW'-BOX, a theatrical apparatus for representing a snowfall; SNOW'-BREAK, a melting of snow; SNOW'-BROTH, snow and water mixed, any very cold liquid; SNOW'-BUNT'ING, SNOW'-FLICK, a bird of the Finch family, Bunting sub-family, abounding in the Arctic regions.--_adjs._ SNOW'-CAPPED, -CAPT, covered with snow; SNOW'-COLD, as cold as snow.--_ns._ SNOW'-DRIFT, a bank of snow drifted together by the wind; SNOW'DROP, a genus of plants of the natural order _Amaryllis_, with bell-shaped flower arising from a spathe, bulbous root, two leaves and one single-flowered leafless stem.--_ns.pl._ SNOW'-EYES, -GOGG'LES, an Eskimo contrivance to prevent snow-blindness.--_n._ SNOW'FALL, a quiet fall of snow: the amount falling in a given time.--_adj._ SNOW'-FED, begun or increased by melted snow, as a stream.--_ns._ SNOW'FIELD, a wide range of snow, esp. where permanent; SNOW'-FINCH, the stone- or mountain-finch; SNOW'FLAKE, a feathery flake of snow: the snow-bunting: a bulbous-rooted garden flower, resembling the snowdrop, but larger; SNOW'-FLY, a perlid insect or kind of stone-fly found leaping on the snow; SNOW'-ICE, ice formed from freezing slush.--_adv._ SNOW'ILY.--_n._ SNOW'INESS.--_adjs._ SNOW'ISH, resembling snow; SNOW'LESS; SNOW'-LIKE; SNOW'-LIMBED, with limbs white as snow.--_ns._ SNOW'LINE, the line upon a mountain that marks the limit of [Illustration] perpetual snow; SNOW'-OWL, the great white owl of northern regions; SNOW'-PLOUGH, a machine for clearing roads and railways from snow; SNOW'SHOE, a great flat shoe worn to prevent sinking in the snow.--_v.i._ to walk or travel on such.--_ns._ SNOW'-SLIP, a mass of snow which slips down a mountain's side; SNOW'STORM, a storm accompanied with falling snow.--_adj._ SNOW'-WHITE, as white as snow: very white.--_n._ SNOW'-WREATH (_Scot._), a snowdrift.--_adj._ SNOW'Y, abounding or covered with snow: white, like snow: pure. [A.S. _snáw_; Ger. _schnee_, L. _nix_, _nivis_.] SNOW, sn[=o], _n._ a vessel once much in use, differing only from a brig in having the boom-mainsail traversing on the trysail-mast, instead of hooped to the mainmast. [Dut. _snaauw_, a boat.] SNUB, snub, _v.t._ to check, to reprimand: to slight intentionally, to rebuff by a cutting remark or retort:--_pr.p._ snub'bing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ snubbed.--_n._ an act of snubbing, any deliberate slight.--_adjs._ SNUB, flat and broad, with the end slightly turned up; SNUB'BISH, inclined to snub or check; SNUB'BY, somewhat snub.--_n._ SNUB'-NOSE, a short or flat nose.--_adj._ SNUB'-NOSED.--_ns._ SNUB'-, SNUB'BING-POST, a post round which a rope is wound to check the motion of a horse or boat.--SNUB A CABLE, to check it suddenly in running out. [Scand., Dan. _snibbe_, to reprove, Sw. _snubba_.] SNUDGE, snuj, _v.i._ (_obs._) to be snug and quiet. SNUDGE, snuj, _v.i._ to save in a miserly way.--_n._ a mean stingy fellow. SNUFF, snuf, _v.i._ to draw in air violently and noisily through the nose: to sniff: to smell at anything doubtfully: to take snuff into the nose.--_v.t._ to draw into the nose: to smell, to examine by smelling.--_n._ a powdered preparation of tobacco or other substance for snuffing, a pinch of such: a sniff: resentment, huff.--_ns._ SNUFF'-BOX, a box for snuff; SNUFF'-DIP'PING, the habit of dipping a wetted stick into snuff and rubbing it on the gums; SNUFF'ER, one who snuffs; SNUFF'INESS, state of being snuffy.--_v.i._ SNUF'FLE, to breathe hard through the nose.--_n._ the sound made by such: a nasal twang: cant.--_n._ SNUF'FLER, one who snuffles or speaks through his nose when obstructed.--_n.pl._ SNUF'FLES, nasal catarrh and consequent stoppage of the nose.--_ns._ SNUFF'LING; SNUFF'-MILL, a machine for grinding tobacco into snuff; SNUFF'-MULL, a snuff-box; SNUFF'-SPOON, a spoon for taking snuff from a snuff-box; SNUFF'-T[=A]K'ER, one who snuffs habitually; SNUFF'-T[=A]KING.--_adj._ SNUFF'Y, soiled with, or smelling of, snuff.--TAKE A THING IN SNUFF (_Shak._), to take offence; UP TO SNUFF, knowing, not likely to be taken in. [Dut. _snuffen_, _snuf_; Ger. _schnaufen_, to snuff.] [Illustration] SNUFF, snuf, _v.t._ to crop or pinch the snuff from, as a burning candle.--_n._ the charred portion of a candle or lamp-wick: a candle almost burnt out.--_ns.pl._ SNUFF'-DISHES (_B._), dishes for the snuff of the lamps of the tabernacle; SNUFF'ERS, an instrument for taking the snuff off a candle.--SNUFF OUT, to extinguish by snuffing, to end by a sudden stroke. [M. E. _snuffen_, for _snuppen_--Scand., Sw. dial. _snóppa_, to snip off, Dan. _snubbe_, to nip off.] SNUG, snug, _adj._ lying close and warm: comfortable: not exposed to view or notice: being in good order: compact: fitting close.--_v.i._ to move so as to lie close.--_v.t._ to make smooth.--_n._ SNUG'GERY, a cosy little room.--_v.i._ SNUG'GLE, to cuddle, nestle.--_v.t._ SNUG'IFY (_Lamb_), to make snug.--_adv._ SNUG'LY.--_n._ SNUG'NESS. [Scand., Ice. _snögg-r_, smooth.] SNUZZLE, snuz'l, _v.i._ (_prov._) to rub the nose against and snuff. SNY, sn[=i], _n._ a gentle bend in timber, curving upwards. [Prob. Ice. _snúa_, to turn.] SO, s[=o], _adv._ in this manner or degree: thus: for like reason: in such manner or degree: in a high degree: as has been stated: on this account: an abbrev. for Is it so? be it so.--_conj._ provided that: in case that.--_interj._ stand as you are! steady! stop! by way of command.--_adj._ SO'-CALLED, generally styled thus--usually implying doubt.--SO AND SO, an undetermined or imaginary person; SO AS, in such a manner as, with such a purpose as: if only, on condition that; SO FAR, to that extent, degree, or point; SO FORTH, denoting more of the same or a like kind; SO MUCH, as much as is implied or mentioned: such an amount not determined or stated; SO MUCH AS, to whatever extent; SO ON, so forth; SO SO, only thus, only tolerably; SO THAT, with the purpose that: with the result that: if only; SO THEN, thus then it is, therefore; SO TO SAY, or SPEAK, to use that expression.--OR SO, or thereabouts; QUITE SO, just as you have said, exactly. [A.S. _swá_; Ice. _svá_, Goth. _swa_, Ger. _so_.] SOAK, s[=o]k, _v.t._ to steep in a fluid: to wet thoroughly: to drench: to draw in by the pores.--_v.i._ to be steeped in a liquid: to enter into pores: to drink to excess, to guzzle.--_n._ process or act of soaking: a hard drinker, a carouse.--_ns._ SOAK'AGE, act of soaking: the amount soaked in; SOAK'ER, a habitual drunkard.--_p.adj._ SOAK'ING, that wets thoroughly: drenching, as rain.--_adv._ SOAK'INGLY.--_adj._ SOAK'Y, steeped, wet. [A.S. _súcan_, to suck, pa.t. _seác_, pa.p. _socen_.] SOAP, s[=o]p, _n._ a compound of oils or fats with soda (_hard soaps_) or potash (_soft soaps_), used in washing: (_slang_) soft words, flattery: (_U.S. slang_) money used for bribery and other secret political purposes.--_v.t._ to rub or wash with soap: to flatter.--_ns._ SOAP'-BALL, soap made into a ball, often with starch, as an emollient; SOAP'BERRY, the fruit of several species of trees belonging to the genus _Sapindus_, containing a pulp useful as a substitute for soap in washing; SOAP'-BOIL'ER, one whose occupation is to make soap; SOAP'-BOIL'ING, the occupation of making soap; SOAP'-BUB'BLE, a bubble made from soap-suds by blowing through a pipe; SOAP'INESS; SOAP'-LOCK, a lock of hair brushed apart from the rest: a rowdy; SOAP'-PAN, a large tank for boiling the ingredients in soap-making; SOAP'-PLANT, a plant the bulb of which makes a thick lather when rubbed on clothes, and is used as soap; SOAP'-STONE, a soft kind of magnesian rock having a soapy feel, also called Steatite; SOAP'-SUDS (s. and _pl._), soapy water, esp. when worked into a foam; SOAP'-TEST, a test for determining the degree of hardness of water; SOAP'-WORKS, a place where soap is made; SOAP'WORT, a genus of plants, some of the species of which have very beautiful flowers, and the root and leaves of which contain saponin, and hence are sometimes used in washing.--_adj._ SOAP'Y, like soap: having the qualities of soap: covered with soap: flattering, or pertaining to flattery. [A.S. _sápe_; Dut. _zeep_, Ger. _seife_.] SOAR, s[=o]r, _v.i._ to mount into the air: to fly aloft: to rise to a height, also mentally or morally.--_n._ act of soaring: the height reached in soaring.--_adjs._ SOAR'ANT (_her._), flying aloft; SOAR'ING.--_adv._ SOAR'INGLY, having an upward direction. [O. Fr. _essorer_, to expose to air--L. _ex_, out of, aura, air.] SOB, sob, _v.i._ to sigh in a convulsive manner, with tears: to weep with convulsive catchings of the breath, due to contractions of the diaphragm, accompanied by a closure of the glottis, preventing the entrance of air into the lungs.--_v.t._ to utter with sobs:--_pr.p._ sob'bing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ sobbed.--_n._ a short, convulsive sigh, any similar sound.--_n._ SOB'BING.--_adv._ SOB'BINGLY. [Conn. with A.S. _seófian_, to sigh; Ger. _seufzen_.] SOBEIT, s[=o]-b[=e]'it, _conj._ if it be so. SOBER, s[=o]'b[.e]r, _adj._ not wild or passionate: self-possessed: sedate: grave: calm: regular: simple in colour, sombre: not drunk: temperate, esp. in the use of liquors: (_Scot._) poor, feeble.--_v.t._ to make sober: to free from intoxication.--_adj._ S[=O]'BER-BLOOD'ED, cool.--_v.t._ S[=O]'BERISE, to make sober.--_adv._ S[=O]'BERLY.--_adj._ S[=O]'BER-MIND'ED, habitually calm and temperate.--_ns._ S[=O]'BER-MIND'EDNESS, the state of being sober-minded: freedom from inordinate passion: calmness; S[=O]'BERNESS; S[=O]'BERSIDES, a sedate and solemn person.--_adj._ S[=O]'BER-SUIT'ED, dressed in a suit of sad-coloured clothes.--_n._ S[=O]BR[=I]'ETY, state or habit of being sober: calmness: gravity. [Fr. _sobre_--L. _sobrius_--_se_, apart, not, _ebrius_, drunk.] SOBOL, s[=o]'bol, _n._ the Russian sable. [Polish.] SOBOLES, sob'[=o]-l[=e]z, _n._ (_bot._) a shoot or sucker.--_adj._ SOBOLIF'EROUS. [L. _suboles_--_sub_, under, _ol[=e]re_, to grow.] SOBRANJE, s[=o]-brän'ye, _n._ the national assembly of Bulgaria.--Also SOBRAN'YE. [Bulg.] SOBRIQUET, s[=o]-br[=e]-k[=a]', _n._ a contemptuous nickname: an assumed name.--Also SOUBRIQUET'. [Fr.,--O. Fr. _soubzbriquet_, a chuck under the chin, _soubz_, _sous_--L. _sub_, under, _briquet_, breast; cf. _Brisket_.] SOCAGE, SOCCAGE, sok'[=a]j, _n._ the tenure of lands by service fixed and determinate in quality.--_ns._ SOC'AGER, SOC'MAN, a tenant by socage; SOC'MANRY, tenure by socage. [A.S. _sóc_, a right of holding a court--_sóc_, _pa.t._ of _sacan_, to contend.] SO-CALLED, s[=o]'-kawld, _adj._ See under SO. SOCIABLE, s[=o]'sha-bl, _adj._ inclined to society: fit for company: companionable: affording opportunities for intercourse.--_n._ a four-wheeled open carriage with seats facing: a tricycle for two persons side by side: a couch with a curved S-shaped back: (_U.S._) an informal party, a social church meeting.--_ns._ S[=O]CIABIL'ITY, S[=O]'CIABLENESS, quality of being sociable: good-fellowship.--_adv._ S[=O]'CIABLY.--_adj._ S[=O]'CIAL, pertaining to society or companionship: relating to men united in a society: inclined for friendly intercourse: consisting in mutual converse: convivial: associating together, gregarious: growing in patches.--_v.t._ S[=O]'CIALISE, to reduce to a social state: to render social.--_ns._ S[=O]'CIALISM, the name given to any one of various schemes for regenerating society by a more equal distribution of property, and esp. by substituting the principle of association for that of competition; S[=O]'CIALIST, an adherent of socialism.--_adj._ SOCIALIST'IC.--_ns._ SOCIAL'ITY, S[=O]'CIALNESS.--_adv._ S[=O]'CIALLY.--_adjs._ S[=O]'CI[=A]TIVE, expressing association; SOCIET[=A]'RIAN, SOC[=I]'ETARY, of or pertaining to society.--_ns._ SOC[=I]'ETY, fellowship, companionship: a number of persons associated for a common interest: a community or partnership: the civilised body of mankind, those who are recognised as the leaders in fashionable life, the fashionable world generally: persons who associate: any organised association for purposes literary, scientific, philanthropic, or ecclesiastical; SOC[=I]'ETY-HOUSE, a printing office which conforms to the rules of a trade-union; SOC[=I]'ETY-VERSE, poetry light and entertaining, treating of the topics of society so called.--SOCIAL SCIENCE, sociology, esp. the branch treating of the existing institutions of men as members of society, the science which treats of social relations; SOCIAL War, the war (90-88 b.c.) in which the Italian tribes known as the allies (_Socii_) fought for admission into Roman citizenship.--SOCIALISM OF THE CHAIR, a term first applied about 1872 in ridicule to the doctrines of a school of political economists in Germany whose aim was mainly to better the condition of the working-classes through remedial state-legislation, by factory-acts, savings-banks, insurances against sickness and old age, shortening the hours of labour, sanitation, &c.--also called PROFESSORIAL SOCIALISM, and having much the same ends and methods as the STATE SOCIALISM of Bismarck.--CHRISTIAN SOCIALISM, a movement for applying Christian ethics to social reform, led by Maurice, Kingsley, and others about 1848-52.--THE SOCIETIES, bodies that began to be organised in 1681 for the maintenance of Presbyterian worship in the face of persecution--ultimately forming the Reformed Presbyterian Church. [Fr.,--L. _sociabilis_--_soci[=a]re_, to associate--_socius_, a companion.] SOCINIAN, s[=o]-sin'i-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Socinus_, the name of two celebrated heresiarchs, uncle and nephew, who in the 16th century denied the doctrine of the Trinity, the deity of Christ, &c.--_n._ a follower of Lælius and Faustus Socinus, one who refuses to accept the divinity of Christ, a Unitarian.--_n._ SOCIN'IANISM, the doctrines of SOCINUS. SOCIOLOGY, s[=o]-shi-ol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the science that treats of man as a social being, in the origin, organisation, and development of human society and human culture, esp. on the side of social and political institutions, including ethics, political economy, &c.--_ns._ SOCIOG'ENY, the science of the origin of society; SOCIOG'RAPHY, the branch of sociology devoted to noting and describing the results of observation.--_adjs._ SOCIOLOG'IC, -AL.--_adv._ SOCIOLOG'ICALLY.--_ns._ SOCIOL'OGIST, one devoted to the study of sociology; S[=O]'CIUS, an associate: a fellow of an academy, &c. [A hybrid from L. _socius_, a companion, and Gr. _logia_--_legein_, to speak.] SOCK, sok, _n._ a kind of half-stocking: comedy, originally a low-heeled light shoe, worn by actors of comedy. [A.S. _socc_--L. _soccus_.] SOCK, sok, _n._ a ploughshare. [O. Fr. _soc_--Celt., Bret. _souc'h_, Gael. _soc_.] SOCK, sok, _v.t._ (_prov._ and _slang_) to throw: to strike hard, to give a drubbing. SOCKDOLOGER, sok-dol'[=o]-j[.e]r, _n._ (_Amer. slang_) a conclusive argument: a knock-down blow: anything very big, a whopper: a form of fish-hook. [A corr. of _doxology_ as the closing act of a service.] SOCKET, sok'et, _n._ a hollow into which something is inserted, the receptacle of the eye, &c.: a hollow tool for grasping and lifting tools dropped in a well-boring: the hollow of a candlestick: a steel apparatus attached to the saddle to protect thighs and legs.--_v.t._ to provide with or place in a socket.--_n._ SOCK'ET-BOLT, a bolt for passing through a thimble placed between the parts connected by the bolt.--_p.adj._ SOCK'ETED, provided with, placed in, or received in a socket. [A dim. of sock.] SOCLE, s[=o]'kl, _n._ (_archit._) a plain, square, flat member used instead of a pedestal to support a column, &c.: a plain face or plinth at the foot of a wall. [Fr.--It. _zoccolo_--L. _socculus_, dim. of _soccus_, a high-heeled shoe, as if a support.] SOCRATIC, -AL, s[=o]-krat'ik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to _Socrates_, a celebrated Greek philosopher (469-399 B.C.), to his philosophy, or to his manner of teaching, which was an art of inducing his interlocutors to discover their own ignorance and need of knowledge by means of a series of simple questions.--_adv._ SOCRAT'ICALLY.--_ns._ SOC'RATISM, the philosophy of SOCRATES; SOC'RATIST, a disciple of SOCRATES. SOD, sod, _n._ any surface of earth grown with grass, &c.: turf.--_adj._ consisting of sod.--_v.t._ to cover with sod.--_adj._ SOD'DY, covered with sod: turfy.--THE OLD SOD, one's native soil. [Low Ger. _sode_; Ger. _sode_; perh. conn. with A.S. _seáth_, a well--seóthan (pa.p. _soden_), to boil.] SOD, sod, obsolete _pa.t._ of _seethe_. SODA, s[=o]'da, _n._ oxide of sodium, or its hydrate: the alkali obtained from the ashes of marine vegetables, or by decomposing sea-salt: (_coll._) soda-water.--_ns._ S[=O]'DA-ASH, sodium carbonate; S[=O]'DA-CRACK'ER, a biscuit made of flour and water, with salt, bicarbonate of soda, and cream of tartar; S[=O]'DA-FOUNT'AIN, a metal or marble case for holding water charged with carbonic-acid gas.--_adj._ SOD[=A]'IC, pertaining to, or containing, soda.--_ns._ S[=O]'DA-LIME, a mixture of caustic soda and quicklime; S[=O]'DALITE, a mineral composed chiefly of soda, along with silica, alumina, and hydrochloric acid; S[=O]'DA-P[=A]'PER, a paper saturated with sodium carbonate; S[=O]'DA-SALT, a salt having soda for its base; S[=O]'DA-WA'TER, water containing soda charged with carbonic acid; S[=O]'DIUM, a yellowish-white metal, the base of soda. [It. _soda_--L. _solida_, firm.] SODALITY, s[=o]-dal'i-ti, _n._ a fellowship or fraternity. [L. _sodalitas_--sodalis, a comrade.] SODDEN, sod'n, _pa.p._ of _seethe_, boiled: soaked thoroughly: boggy: doughy, not well baked: bloated, saturated with drink.--_n._ SOD'DENNESS.--_adj._ SOD'DEN-WIT'TED (_Shak._), heavy, stupid. SODOMY, sod'om-i, _n._ unnatural sexuality, so called because imputed to the inhabitants of _Sodom_.--_n._ SOD'OMITE, an inhabitant of SODOM: one guilty of sodomy.--_adj._ SODOMIT'ICAL.--_adv._ SODOMIT'ICALLY. SOEVER, s[=o]-ev'[.e]r, _adv._ generally used to extend or render indefinite the sense of _who_, _what_, _where_, _how_, &c. SOFA, s[=o]'fa, _n._ a long seat with stuffed bottom, back and arms--formerly S[=O]'PHA.--_n._ S[=O]'FA-BED, a piece of furniture serving as a sofa by day, capable of being made into a bed at night. [Fr.,--Ar. _suffah_--_saffa_, to arrange.] SOFFIT, sof'it, _n._ a ceiling, now generally restricted to the ornamented under-sides of staircases, entablatures, archways, &c.; also the larmier or drip. [Fr.,--It.,--L. _suffixa_, pa.p. of _suffig[)e]re_, to fasten beneath--_sub_, under, _fig[)e]re_, to fix.] SOFI, SOFISM. See SUFI, SUFISM. SOFT, soft, _adj._ easily yielding to pressure: easily cut or acted upon: malleable: not rough to the touch: smooth: pleasing or soothing to the senses: easily yielding to any influence: mild: sympathetic: gentle: effeminate: gentle in motion: easy: free from lime or salt, as water: bituminous, as opposed to _anthracitic_, of coal: unsized, of paper: wet, rainy: warm enough to melt ice, thawing: (_phon._) pronounced with a somewhat sibilant sound, not guttural or explosive: vocal or sonant: not bony, cartilaginous, not spinous: soft-rayed, soft-shelled: of silk, having the natural gum cleaned or washed off--opp. to _Hard_.--_n._ a silly person, a fool.--_adv._ gently: quietly.--_interj._ hold! not so fast!--_adjs._ SOFT'-BOD'IED, having a soft body; SOFT'-CON'SCIENCED, having a sensitive conscience.--_v.t._ SOFT'EN, to make soft or softer: to mitigate: to tone down, make less glaring, make smoother in sound.--_v.i._ to grow soft or softer.--_ns._ SOFT'ENER; SOFT'ENING.--_adjs._ SOFT'-EYED, having gentle or tender eyes; SOFT'-FINNED, having no fin-spines.--_n.pl._ SOFT'-GOODS, cloth, and cloth articles, as opposed to _hardware_, &c.--_adjs._ SOFT'-HAND'ED, having soft hands, unused to work, slack in discipline; SOFT'-HEAD'ED, of weak intellect; SOFT'-HEART'ED, kind-hearted: gentle: meek.--_n._ SOFT-HEART'EDNESS.--_adj._ SOFT'ISH, rather soft.--_adv._ SOFT'LY.--_n._ SOFT'NESS.--_v.t._ SOFT'-SAW'DER (_U.S._), to flatter, blarney.--_n._ flattery.--_v.t._ SOFT'-SOAP, to flatter for some end.--_n._ flattery.--_adj._ SOFT-SP[=O]'KEN, -VOICED, having a mild or gentle voice: mild, affable.--_n._ SOFT'Y, a silly person, a weak fool.--A soft thing, a snug place where the pay is good and the work light. [A.S. _sófte_, _séfte_; Dut. _zacht_, Ger. _sanft_.] SOFTA, sof'ta, _n._ a Moslem theological student, attached to a mosque. [Turk.] SOGER, s[=o]'j[.e]r, _n._ (_naut._) one who skulks his work.--_v.i._ to shirk one's work. SOGGY, sog'i, _adj._ soaked with water.--_n._ SOG, a bog. SO-HO, s[=o]-h[=o]', _interj._ (_Shak._) a form of call from a distance, a sportsman's halloo. SOI-DISANT, swo-d[=e]-zong', _adj._ self-styled, pretended. [Fr.] SOIL, soil, _n._ the ground: the mould on the surface of the earth which nourishes plants: country.--_adj._ SOIL'-BOUND, attached to the soil.--_n._ SOIL'-CAP, the covering of soil on the bed-rock.--_adj._ SOILED, having soil. [O. Fr. _soel_, _suel_, _sueil_--Low L. _solea_, soil, ground, L. _solea_, sole, allied to L. _solum_, ground, whence Fr. _sol_, soil.] SOIL, soil, _n._ dirt: dung: foulness: a spot or stain: a marshy place in which a hunted boar finds refuge.--_v.t._ to make dirty: to stain: to manure.--_v.i._ to take a soil: to tarnish.--_n._ SOIL'INESS, stain: foulness.--_adj._ SOIL'LESS, destitute of soil.--_ns._ SOIL'-PIPE, an upright discharge-pipe which receives the general refuse from water-closets, &c., in a building; SOIL'URE (_Shak._), stain: pollution. [O. Fr. _soil_, _souil_ (Fr. _souille_), wallowing-place--L. _suillus_, piggish--_sus_, a pig, a hog.] SOIL, soil, _v.t._ to feed at the stall for the purpose of fattening. [O. Fr. _saouler_--_saol_, _saoul_--L. _satullus_--_satur_, full.] SOIRÉE, swä-r[=a]', _n._ an evening party: an evening social meeting with tea, &c. [Fr.,--_soir_, evening (Prov. _sera_)--L. _serus_, late.] SOJOURN, s[=o]'jurn, _v.t._ to stay for a day: to dwell for a time.--_n._ a temporary residence.--_ns._ S[=O]'JOURNER; S[=O]'JOURNING, S[=O]'JOURNMENT, the act of dwelling in a place for a time. [O. Fr. _sojourner_--L. _sub_, under, _diurn[=a]re_, to stay--Low L. _jornus_--L. _diurnus_, relating to day--_dies_, a day.] SOKE, s[=o]k, _n._ the same as _Soc_ (_q.v._).--_ns._ SOKE'MAN=_Socman_; S[=O]'KEN, a district held by tenure of socage: a miller's right to the grinding of all the corn within a certain manor. SOL, sol, _n._ the sun, Phoebus: (_her._) a tincture, the metal or, or gold, in blazoning by planets. [L.] SOL, sol, _n._ an old French coin, 1/20th of a livre, equal to 12 deniers, now superseded by the sou. [O. Fr. _sol_--L. _solidus_, solid.] SOLA, s[=o]-lä', _interj._ a cry to a person at a distance. SOLA, s[=o]'lä, _n._ the hat-plant or sponge-wood, also its pith.--Also S[=O]'LAH. [Hind. _shol[=a]_.] SOLACE, sol'[=a]s, _n._ consolation, comfort in distress: relief: (_obs._) pleasure, amusement.--_v.t._ to comfort in distress: to console: to allay.--_n._ SOL'ACEMENT, the act of solacing: the state of being solaced.--_adj._ SOL[=A]'CIOUS (_obs._), affording pleasure. [O. Fr. _solas_--L. _solatium_--_sol[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_, to comfort in distress.] SOLANDER, s[=o]-lan'd[.e]r, _n._ a case or box, usually in the form of a book, opening on the side or front with hinges, for holding prints, drawings, or pamphlets--named from the inventor, Daniel _Solander_ (1736-81). SOLAN-GOOSE, s[=o]'lan-g[=oo]s, _n._ the gannet.--Also S[=O]'LAND. [Ice. _súla_.] SOLANO, s[=o]-lä'no, _n._ a hot south-east wind which occasionally visits Spain. [Sp.,--L. _solanus_ (_ventus_), the east wind--_sol_, the sun.] SOLANUM, s[=o]-l[=a]'num, _n._ a genus of plants of the order _Solanaceæ_ or _Solaneæ_, the nightshade family--almost all the species containing a poisonous alkaloid, SOL'ANINE.--_adjs._ SOLAN[=A]'CEOUS, belonging to the _Solanaceæ_; SOL'ANOID, potato-like, said of cancers. [L. _solanum_, the nightshade.] SOLAR, s[=o]'lar, _adj._ pertaining to the sun: measured by the progress of the sun: produced by the sun.--_n._ S[=O]LARIS[=A]'TION, exposure to the action of the sun's rays: the effect in photography of over-exposure.--_v.t._ S[=O]'LARISE, to injure by exposing too long to the sun's light in a camera.--_v.i._ to take injury by too long exposure to the sun's light in a camera:--_pr.p._ s[=o]'lar[=i]sing; _pa.p._ s[=o]'lar[=i]sed.--_ns._ S[=O]'LARISM, excessive use of solar-myths in the explanation of mythology; S[=O]'LARIST, one addicted to solarism; S[=O]L[=A]'RIUM, a sun-dial: a place suited to receive the sun's rays--in a hospital or sanatorium; S[=O]'LAR-M[=I]'CROSCOPE, an apparatus for projecting upon a screen by means of sunlight an enlarged view of any object--essentially the same as the combination of lenses used in the magic-lantern taken in conjunction with a heliostat; S[=O]'LAR-MYTH, a myth allegorising the course of the sun, by some mythologists constantly invoked to explain the problems of mythology; S[=O]'LAR-PRINT, a photographic print made in a solar camera from a negative; S[=O]'LAR-SYS'TEM, the planets and comets which circle round the sun--also called _Planetary-system_.--SOLAR FLOWERS, flowers which open and shut daily at certain hours; SOLAR SPOTS=_Sun-spots_ (see SUN); SOLAR TIME (see TIME); SOLAR YEAR (see YEAR). [L. _sol_, the sun, _solaris_, pertaining to the sun.] SOLASTER, s[=o]-las't[.e]r, _n._ the typical genus of _Solasteridæ_, a family of star-fishes, having more than five rays. [L. _sol_, the sun, _aster_, a star.] SOLATIUM, s[=o]-l[=a]'shi-um, _n._ any compensation, a sum legally awarded, over and above actual damages, by way of compensation for wounded feelings. [L.] SOLD, s[=o]ld, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _sell_. SOLD, sold, _n._ (_Spens._) pay, remuneration. [Fr. _solde_--L. _solidus_, a piece of money.] SOLDADO, s[=o]l-dä'd[=o], _n._ a soldier. [Sp.] SOLDAN, s[=o]l'dan, _n._ (_Milt._). Same as SULTAN. SOLDANEL, sol'da-nel, _n._ a plant of the genus _Soldanella_, of the order _Primulaceæ_--the blue moonwort. SOLDATESQUE, sol-da-tesk', _adj._ soldier-like, [Fr.,--_soldat_, a soldier.] SOLDER, sod'[.e]r, or sol'd[.e]r, _v.t._ to unite two metallic surfaces by a fusible metallic cement: to cement.--_n._ a fusible alloy for uniting metals.--_ns._ SOL'DERER; SOL'DERING; SOL'DERING-BOLT, -[=I]'RON, a tool with pointed or wedge-shaped copper bit for use in soldering. [O. Fr. _soudre_, _souldure_--_souder_, _soulder_, to consolidate--L. _solid[=a]re_, to make solid.] SOLDIER, s[=o]l'j[.e]r, _n._ a man engaged in military service: a private, as distinguished from an officer: a man of much military experience or of great valour: a soldier-ant, beetle, hermit-crab, &c.: (_slang_) a red herring.--_v.i._ to serve as a soldier: to bully: to shirk one's work or duty: (_slang_) to take a mount on another man's horse.--_ns._ SOL'DIER-CRAB, a hermit-crab; SOL'DIERING, the state of being a soldier: the occupation of a soldier.--_adjs._ SOL'DIER-LIKE, SOL'DIERLY, like a soldier: martial: brave.--_ns._ SOL'DIER-OF-FOR'TUNE, one ready to serve anywhere for pay or his own advancement; SOL'DIERSHIP, state or quality of being a soldier: military qualities: martial skill; SOL'DIERY, soldiers collectively: the body of military men; FRESH'WATER-SOL'DIER, the _Stratiotes aloides_, a European aquatic plant with sword-shaped leaves.--COME THE OLD SOLDIER OVER ONE, to impose on any one.--OLD SOLDIER, a bottle emptied at a sitting: a cigar-stump. [O. Fr. _soldier_ (Fr. _soldat_)--L. _solidus_, a piece of money, the pay of a soldier.] SOLDO, sol'd[=o], _n._ an Italian coin, 1/20th of the lira, a sol or sou:--_pl._ SOL'DI. [It.] SOLE, s[=o]l, _n._ the lowest part or under-side of the foot: the foot: the bottom of a boot or shoe: the bottom of anything.--_v.t._ to furnish with a sole.--_adj._ SOL[=E]'IFORM, slipper-shaped.--_ns._ SOLE'-LEATH'ER, strong leather for the soles of boots and shoes; SOLE'-TILE, a form of tile for the bottoms of sewers, &c.; S[=O]L[=E]'US, a flat muscle of the calf of the leg beneath the gastrocnemius. [A.S. _sole_--L. _solea_--_solum_, bottom.] SOLE, s[=o]l, _n._ a genus (_Solea_) of flat-fish, elongate-oval in form, with flesh firm, white, and excellently flavoured. [Fr. _sole_--L. _solea_.] SOLE, s[=o]l, _adj._ alone: only: being or acting without another: single: (_law_) unmarried.--_advs._ SOLE; SOLE'LY, alone: only: singly.--_n._ SOLE'NESS. [Fr.,--L. _solus_, alone.] SOLECISM, sol'[=e]-sizm, _n._ a breach of syntax: any absurdity or impropriety: any incongruity, prodigy.--_v.i._ SOL'[=E]CISE, to commit solecisms.--_n._ SOL'[=E]CIST, one who commits solecisms.--_adjs._ SOL[=E]CIST'IC, -AL, pertaining to, or involving, a solecism: incorrect: incongruous.--_adv._ SOL[=E]CIST'ICALLY. [Fr. _solécisme_--L. _soloecismus_--Gr. _soloikismos_--_soloikos_, speaking incorrectly, awkward; dubiously said to come from the corruption of the Attic dialect among the Athenian colonists of _Soloi_ in Cilicia.] SOLEIN, sol'[=a]n, _adj._ (_Spens._) sad. [_Sullen_.] SOLEMN, sol'em, _adj._ attended with religions ceremonies, pomp, or gravity, originally taking place every year, said esp. of religious ceremonies: impressing with seriousness: awful: devout: having the appearance of gravity: devotional: attended with an appeal to God, as an oath: serious: sober, gloomy, black.--_n._ SOLEMNIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ SOL'EMNISE, to perform religiously or solemnly once a year, or periodically: to celebrate with due rites: to render grave.--_ns._ SOL'EMNISER; SOLEM'NITY, a solemn religious ceremony: a ceremony adapted to inspire with awe: reverence: seriousness: affected gravity.--_adv._ sol'emnly.--_n._ SOL'EMNNESS. [O. Fr. _solempne_, _solemne_ (Fr. _solennel_)--L. _sollemnis_, _solennis_--_sollus_, all, every, _annus_, a year.] SOLEN, s[=o]'len, _n._ a genus of bivalve molluscs--Razor-shell and Razor-fish.--_adjs._ SOLAN[=A]'CEAN, SOLAN[=A]'CEOUS.--_n._ SOL'ENITE, a fossil razor-shell. [Gr. _s[=o]l[=e]n_, a channel.] SOLENOID, s[=o]-l[=e]'noid, _n._ a helix of copper wound in the form of a cylinder, longitudinally magnetised with an intensity varying inversely as the area of the normal section in different parts.--_adj._ SOL[=E]NOI'DAL.--_adv._ SOL[=E]NOI'DALLY. [Gr. _s[=o]l[=e]n_, a pipe, eidos, form.] SOLENOSTOMOUS, sol-[=e]-nos't[=o]-mus, _adj._ having a tubular or fistulous snout.--_n._ SOLENOS'TOMUS, the typical genus of the SOLENOSTOMIDÆ, a family of solenostomous lophobranchiate fishes. [Gr. _s[=o]l[=e]n_, a pipe, _stoma_, mouth.] SOLERT, sol'ert, _adj._ (_obs._) subtle.--_n._ SOLER'TIOUSNESS. [L. _sollers_, crafty, _sollertia_, skill.] SOLEUS. See SOLE (1). SOL-FA, sol'-fa, _v.i._ to sing the notes of the scale in their proper pitch, using the syllables _do_ (or _ut_), _re_, _mi_, _fa_, _sol_, _la_, _si_;--_pr.p._ sol-faing (sol'-fa-ing); _pa.p._ sol-faed (sol'-fad).--_ns._ SOL'FAÏSM, singing by syllables, solmisation; SOL'FAÏST, a teacher or advocate of solmisation; SOLFEG'GIO, an exercise on the notes of the scale, as represented by _do_, _re_, _mi_, &c. [It.] SOLFATARA, sol-fä-tä'ra, _n._ a volcanic region no longer violently active, but emitting from crevices gases, steam, and chemical vapours, chiefly of sulphurous origin--Fr. _soufrière_, Ger. _schwefelgrube_ or _schwefelsee_. [It.,--_solfo_, sulphur.] SOLFERINO, sol-fe-r[=e]'n[=o], _n._ the colour of rosaniline--from the French victory at _Solferino_ in Italy (1859). SOLICIT, s[=o]-lis'it, _v.t._ to ask earnestly: to petition: to seek or try to obtain: to disturb.--_n._ solicitation.--_ns._ SOLIC'ITANT, one who solicits; SOLICIT[=A]'TION, a soliciting: earnest request: invitation; SOLIC'ITING (_Shak._), solicitation; SOLIC'ITOR, one who asks earnestly: one who is legally qualified to act for another in a court of law, esp. a court of equity: a lawyer who prepares deeds, manages cases, instructs counsel in the superior courts, and acts as an advocate in the inferior courts; SOLIC'ITOR-GEN'ERAL, in England, the law-officer of the crown next in rank to the attorney-general--in Scotland, to the lord-advocate; SOLIC'ITORSHIP.--_adj._ SOLIC'ITOUS, soliciting or earnestly asking or desiring: very desirous: anxious: careful.--_adv._ SOLIC'ITOUSLY.--_ns._ SOLIC'ITOUSNESS, SOLIC'ITUDE, state of being solicitous: anxiety or uneasiness of mind: trouble. [Fr. _solliciter_--L. _sollicit[=a]re_--_sollicitus_--_sollus_, whole, _citus_, aroused--_ci[=e]re_, to cite.] SOLID, sol'id, _adj._ having the parts firmly adhering: hard: compact: full of matter: not hollow: strong: having length, breadth, and thickness (opposed to a mere surface): cubic: substantial, reliable, worthy of credit, satisfactory: weighty: of uniform undivided substance: financially sound, wealthy: unanimous, smooth, unbroken, unvaried.--_n._ a substance having the parts firmly adhering together: a firm, compact body--opp. to _Fluid_.--_ns._ SOLID[=A]'GO, a genus of composite plants, the goldenrods; SOLIDARE, sol'id[=a]r (_Shak._), a small piece of money; SOLIDAR'ITY, the being made solid or compact: the being bound: a consolidation or oneness of interests.--_adj._ SOL'IDARY, marked by solidarity, jointly responsible.--_v.t._ SOL'IDATE, to make solid or firm.--_adj._ SOLID'IFIABLE.--_n._ SOLIDIFIC[=A]'TION, act of making solid or hard.--_v.t._ SOLID'IFY, to make solid or compact.--_v.i._ to grow solid: to harden:--_pa.p._ solid'ified.--_ns._ SOL'IDISM, the doctrine that refers all diseases to alterations of the solid parts of the body; SOL'IDIST, a believer in the foregoing; SOLID'ITY, the state of being solid: fullness of matter: strength or firmness, moral or physical: soundness: (_geom._) the solid content of a body.--_adv._ SOL'IDLY.--_n._ SOL'IDNESS.--SOLID COLOUR, a colour covering the whole of an object: a uniform colour; SOLID MATTER (_print._), matter set without leads between the lines.--BE SOLID FOR (_U.S._), to be hearty or unanimous in favour of; BE SOLID WITH (_U.S._), to have a firm footing with. [Fr.,--L. _solidus_, solid.] SOLIDUM, sol'i-dum, _n._ (_archit._) the die of a pedestal: (_Scots law_) a complete sum. [L.] SOLIDUNGULAR, sol-id-ung'g[=u]-lar, _adj._ having hoofs solid, that are not cloven, denoting a certain tribe of mammalia.--Also SOLIDUNG'ULOUS, SOLIDUNG'ULATE. [L. _solidus_, solid, _ungula_, a hoof.] SOLIDUS, sol'i-dus, _n._ a Roman gold coin introduced by Constantine in place of the _aureus_, known later as the bezant: a sign (/) denoting the English shilling, representing the old lengthened form of _s_--£ s. d. (_libræ_, _solidi_, _denarii_), pounds, shillings, pence. SOLIFIDIAN, sol-i-fid'i-an, _n._ one who holds that faith alone is what is necessary for justification.--_adj._ holding this view.--_n._ SOLIFID'IANISM. [L. _solus_, only, _fides_, faith.] SOLILOQUY, s[=o]-lil'[=o]-kwe, _n._ a talking when solitary or to one's self: a discourse of a person, not addressed to any one.--_v.i._ SOLIL'OQUISE, to speak to one's self or utter a soliloquy. [L. _soliloquium_--_solus_, alone, _loqui_, to speak.] SOLIPED, sol'i-ped, _n._ an animal with a single or uncloven hoof on each foot.--_adjs._ SOL'IPED, SOLIP'EDOUS. [L. _solus_, alone, _pes_, _pedis_, a foot.] SOLIPSISM, sol'ip-sizm, _n._ the theory that self-existence is the only certainty, absolute egoism--the extreme form of subjective idealism.--_n._ SOL'IPSIST, one who believes in this.--_adj._ SOLIPSIS'TIC. [L. _solus_, alone, _ipse_, self.] SOLISEQUIOUS, sol-i-s[=e]'kwi-us, _adj._ following the sun, as the sunflower. [L. _sol_, the sun, _sequi_, to follow.] SOLITAIRE, sol-i-t[=a]r', _n._ a recluse or one who lives alone: a game played by one person with a board and balls: a card-game for one--patience: an ornament worn singly on the neck or wrist: a black silk tie fixed to the bag of the wig behind, worn in the 18th century. SOLITARY, sol'i-tar-i, _adj._ being the sole person present: alone or lonely: single, separate, simple: living alone, not social or gregarious: without company: remote from society: retired, secluded: gloomy.--_n._ one who lives alone: a recluse or hermit--(_obs._) SOLIT[=A]'RIAN.--_adv._ SOL'ITARILY.--_n._ SOL'ITARINESS. [Fr. _solitaire_--L. _solitarius_--_solus_, alone.] SOLITO, sol'i-t[=o], _adv._ (_mus._) in the usual manner. [It.] SOLITUDE, sol'i-t[=u]d, _n._ a being alone: a lonely life: want of company: a lonely place or desert. [Fr.,--L. _solitudo_--_solus_, alone.] SOLIVAGOUS, s[=o]-liv'a-gus, _adj._ wandering alone.--Also SOLIV'AGANT. [L., _solus_, alone, _vagus_, wandering.] SOLIVE, so-l[=e]v', _n._ a joist or beam of secondary importance. [Fr.,--L. _sublev[=a]re_, to support.] SOLLAR, sol'ar, _n._ a platform in a mine: an upper gallery or balcony, a garret, loft.--Also SOLL'ER. [O. Fr. _soler_, solier--L. _solarium_, a terrace or flat roof--_sol_, the sun.] SOLLERET, sol'[.e]r-et, _n._ the steel shoe worn in medieval armour. [O. Fr. _soler_, a slipper, _sole_, a sole.] SOL-LUNAR, sol'-l[=u]'nar, _adj._ pertaining to, or due to the influence of, both sun and moon. [L. _sol_, sun, _luna_, moon.] SOLMISATION, sol-mi-z[=a]'shun, _n._ sol-faïng: a recital of the notes of the gamut, _do_, _re_, _mi_, &c. SOLO, s[=o]'l[=o], _n._ a musical piece performed by only one voice or instrument:--_pl._ S[=O]'L[=O]S.--_adj._ S[=O]'L[=O], unconcerted.--_n._ S[=O]'L[=O]IST. [It.,--L. _solus_, alone.] SOLOGRAPH, sol'[=o]-graf, _n._ a sun-print. [L. _sol_, the sun, Gr. _graphein_, to write.] SOLOMON, sol'o-mon, _n._ a person of unusual wisdom, from SOLOMON, king of Israel (see 1 Kings, iii. 5-15).--_adj._ SOLOMON'IC.--_n._ SOL'OMON'S-SEAL, any one of several species of perennial herbs, of the lily family, genus Polygonatum, with simple stems bearing small greenish flowers: a symbol formed of two triangles interlaced or superposed, forming a six-pointed star. SO-LONG, s[=o]-long', _interj._ good-bye! [Not _salaam_.] SOLONIAN, s[=o]-l[=o]'ni-an, _adj._ pertaining to the Athenian lawgiver _Solon_ (c. 640-c. 558 B.C.), or to his legislation.--Also SOLON'IC. SOLPUGA, sol-p[=u]'ga, _n._ the typical genus of _Solpugida_, an order of arachnids. SOLSTICE, sol'stis, _n._ that point in the ecliptic at which the sun is farthest from the equator, and where it is consequently at the turning-point of its apparent course--the _summer solstice_, where it touches the tropic of Cancer; the _winter solstice_, where it touches that of Capricorn: the time when the sun reaches these two points in its orbit, 21st June and about 21st December.--_adj._ SOLSTI'TIAL, pertaining to, or happening at, a solstice, esp. at the north one. [Fr.,--L. _solstitium_--_sol_, the sun, _sist[)e]re_, to make to stand--_st[=a]re_, to stand.] SOLUBLE, sol'[=u]-bl, _adj._ capable of being solved or dissolved in a fluid.--_ns._ SOLUBIL'ITY, SOL'UBLENESS, capability of being dissolved in a fluid. [L. _solubilis_--_solv[)e]re_, to solve.] SOLUM, s[=o]'lum, _n._ ground, a piece of ground. [L., the ground.] SOLUS, s[=o]'lus, _adj._ alone, in dramatic directions--feminine form S[=O]'LA. [L., alone.] SOLUTION, sol-[=u]'shun, _n._ act of solving or dissolving, esp. a solid by a fluid: the separating of the parts of any body: the preparation resulting from dissolving a solid in a liquid: explanation: removal of a doubt: construction or solving of a problem: the crisis of a disease.--_adj._ SOL[=U]TE', loose, free: merry, cheerful: (_bot._) not adhering.--_v.t._ (_Bacon_) to dissolve.--_adj._ SOL'[=U]TIVE, tending to dissolve: loosening.--SOLUTION OF CONTINUITY (_surg._), the separation of parts normally continuous, by fracture, &c. [L. _solutio_--_solv[)e]re_, _solutum_, to loosen.] SOLVE, solv, _v.t._ to loosen or separate the parts of: to clear up or explain: to remove.--_ns._ SOLVABIL'ITY, SOL'VABLENESS, capacity of being solved.--_adj._ SOL'VABLE, capable of being solved or explained: capable of being paid.--_n._ SOL'VENCY, state of being solvent, or able to pay all debts.--_adj._ SOL'VENT, having power to solve or dissolve: able to pay all debts.--_n._ anything that dissolves another.--_n._ SOL'VER, one who solves. [O. Fr. _solver_--L. _solv[)e]re_, to loosen, prob. from _se-_, aside, _lu[)e]re_, to loosen.] SOMA, s[=o]'ma, _n._ a certain plant, most prob. of the milkweed family, and its juice used for the preparation of an intoxicating drink--personified and worshipped, esp. in connection with the god Indra, the _Jupiter pluvius_ of the Vedic pantheon. [Sans. _soma_ (Zend _haoma_, juice)--root _su_ (cf. Gr. [Greek: huô]), to press out, distil, extract.] SOMATIST, s[=o]'ma-tist, _n._ one who admits the existence of corporeal beings only.--_n._ S[=O]'MA, the trunk of an animal: the body as distinguished from the _psyche_ or soul and the _pneuma_ or spirit.--_adjs._ S[=O]MAT'IC, -AL, physical, corporeal: parietal: pertaining to the body cavity.--_n._ S[=O]'MATISM, materialism.--_adjs._ S[=O]MATOLOG'IC, -AL, pertaining to somatology, corporeal, physical.--_ns._ S[=O]MATOL'OGY, the doctrine or science of bodies or material substances, human anatomy and physiology; S[=O]'MATOME, one of the homologous serial segments of which the body of a vertebrate is theoretically composed.--_adj._ S[=O]MATOPLEU'RAL, pertaining to the SOMAT'OPLEURE, the outer one of two divisions of the mesoderm of a four-layered germ.--_n._ S[=O]MATOT'OMY, the dissection of a body.--_adj._ S[=O]MATOTROP'IC, showing SOMATOT'ROPISM, any stimulative influence exerted upon growing organs by the substratum on which they grow. [Gr. _s[=o]ma_, the body.] SOMBRE, som'b[.e]r, _adj._ dull: gloomy: melancholy--also SOM'BROUS.--_adv._ SOM'BRELY, in a sombre or gloomy manner.--_n._ SOM'BRENESS.--_adv._ SOM'BROUSLY.--_n._ SOM'BROUSNESS. [Fr. _sombre_ (Sp. _sombra_, a shade)--L. _sub_, under, _umbra_, a shade. So Diez; others explain, on analogy of O. Fr. _essombre_, a shady place, as from L. _ex_, out, _umbra_, a shade.] SOMBRERITE, som-br[=a]'r[=i]t, _n._ a hard impure calcium phosphate--called also _Rock-guano_, _Osite_, and loosely _Apatite_. [_Sombrero_ in the Antilles.] SOMBRERO, som-br[=a]'r[=o], _n._ a broad-brimmed hat, generally of felt, much worn in Mexico and the south-western United States. [Sp.,--_sombre_, a shade.] SOME, sum, _adj._ denoting an indefinite number or quantity: certain, in distinction from others: moderate or in a certain degree: about.--_adv._ (_prov._) somewhat, in some degree.--_n._ SOME'BODY, some or any body or person: a person of importance.--_advs._ SOME'DEAL, SOME'DELE (_Spens._), in some degree, somewhat; SOME'GATE (_Scot._), somewhere, somehow; SOME'HOW, in some way or other.--_adj._ SOME'-SUCH, somewhat of that kind.--_n._ SOME'THING, an indefinite thing or event: a portion, an indefinite quantity.--_adv._ in some degree.--_advs._ SOME'TIME, at a time not fixed: once: at one time or other; SOME'TIMES, at certain times: now and then: at one time: (_B._) once, formerly.--_n._ SOME'WHAT, an unfixed quantity or degree.--_adv._ in some degree.--_advs._ SOME'WHEN, some time or other; SOME'WHERE, in some place: in one place or another; SOME'WHILE, sometimes, at times; SOME'WHITHER, to some place. [A.S. _sum_; Goth. _sums_, Ice. _sumr_.] SOMERSAULT, sum'[.e]r-sawlt, _n._ a leap in which a person turns with his heels over his head.--Also SOM'ERSET. [Corr. of Fr. _soubresaut_ (It. _soprasalto_)--L. _supra_, over, _saltus_, a leap--_sal[=i]re_, to leap.] SOMITE, s[=o]'m[=i]t, _n._ a segment of the body of an articulated or vertebrate animal: an arthromere or metamere.--_adjs._ S[=O]'MITAL, SOMIT'IC. SOMNAMBULATE, som-nam'b[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.i._ to walk in sleep.--_adj._ SOMNAM'B[=U]LANT, sleep-walking.--_n._ SOMNAMB[=U]L[=A]'TION.--_adj._ SOMNAM'B[=U]LIC.--_ns._ SOMNAM'BULISM, act or practice of walking in sleep; SOMNAM'B[=U]LIST, SOMNAM'B[=U]LATOR, a sleep-walker.--_adj._ SOMNAMB[=U]LIS'TIC, pertaining to a somnambulist or to somnambulism: affected by somnambulism. [L. _somnus_, sleep, _ambul[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to walk.] SOMNIFEROUS, som-nif'[.e]r-us, _adj._ bringing or causing sleep.--_adjs._ SOM'NIAL, pertaining to dreams; SOM'NI[=A]TIVE, SOM'NI[=A]TORY, relating to, or producing, dreams.--_n._ SOMNIF[=A]'CIENT, a soporific.--_adjs._ SOMNIF[=A]'CIENT, SOMNIF'IC, causing, or tending to induce, sleep.--_ns._ SOMNIL'OQUENCE, SOMNIL'OQUISM, the act of talking in sleep; SOMNIL'OQUIST, one who talks in his sleep.--_adj._ SOMNIL'OQUOUS, apt to talk in sleep.--_ns._ SOMNIL'OQUY, a talking in one's sleep; SOMNIP'ATHY, a hypnotic sleep; SOMNIV'OLENCY, any soporific. [L. _somnus_, sleep, _ferre_, to bring, _loqui_, to speak, _velle_, to will.] SOMNOLENCE, som'n[=o]-lens, _n._ sleepiness: inclination to sleep--also SOM'NOLENCY.--_adj._ SOM'NOLENT, sleepy or inclined to sleep.--_adv._ SOM'NOLENTLY, in a somnolent or sleepy manner: drowsily.--_adj._ SOMNOLES'CENT, half-asleep.--_ns._ SOM'NOLISM, the state of mesmeric sleep; SOM'NUS, sleep personified. [L. _somnolentia_--_somnus_, sleep.] SON, sun, _n._ a male child or descendant: any young male person spoken of as a child: a term of affection generally: a disciple: a native or inhabitant: the produce of anything.--_n._ SON'-IN-LAW, the husband of one's daughter.--_adj._ SON'LESS, without a son.--_ns._ SON'NY, a little son; SON'SHIP, state or character of a son.--SON OF MAN, Christ as the promised Messiah, the ideal man; THE SON, Christ, as the second person in the Trinity. [A.S. _sunu_; Dut. _zoon_, Ger. _sohn_.] SONANT, s[=o]'nant, _adj._ sounding: pertaining to sound: uttered with sound, instead of breath alone, as certain alphabetic sounds.--_ns._ S[=O]'NANCE (_Shak._), a call; S[=O]'NANCY, sonant character. [L. _sonans_, _-antis_, pr.p. of _son[=a]re_, to sound.] SONATA, s[=o]-nä'ta, _n._ a musical composition usually of three or more movements or divisions, designed chiefly for a solo instrument.--_n._ SONATINA (s[=o]-nä-t[=e]'na), a short or simplified sonata. [It.,--L. _son[=a]re_, to sound.] SONDELI, son'de-li, _n._ the musk-rat, or rat-tailed shrew of India. SONG, song, _n._ that which is sung: a short poem or ballad, adapted for singing, or set to music: the melody to which it is adapted: a poem, or poetry in general: the notes of birds: a mere trifle: (_B._) an object of derision.--_ns._ SONG'-BIRD, a bird that sings; SONG'BOOK, a collection of songs: a hymn-book; SONG'CRAFT, the art of making songs, skill in such.--_adjs._ SONG'FUL, full of song: disposed to sing; SONG'LESS, wanting the power of song.--_ns._ SONG'MAN (_Shak._), a singer; SONG'-SPARR'OW, the hedge-sparrow; SONG'STER, a singer, or one skilled in singing, esp. a bird that sings:--_fem._ SONG'STRESS; SONG'-THRUSH, the mavis or throstle.--SONG OF SONGS, or OF SOLOMON, Canticles; SONGS OF DEGREES (see DEGREE).--OLD SONG (see OLD). [A.S. _sang_--_singan_, to sing; Dut. _zang_, Ger. _gesang_, Goth. _saggws_, Ice. _söngr_.] SONG, song (_Spens._), _pa.t._ of _sing_. SONIFEROUS, son-if'[.e]r-us, _adj._ giving or conveying sound. [L. _sonus_, sound, ferre, to bring.] SONNED, sund (_Spens._). Same as SUNNED. SONNET, son'et, _n._ a poem in a stanza mostly iambic in movement, properly decasyllabic or hendecasyllabic in metre, always in fourteen lines--originally composed of an octave and a sestet--properly expressing two successive phases of one thought.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to celebrate in sonnets.--_adj._ SONN'ETARY.--_n._ SONNETEER', a composer of sonnets.--_v.i._ SONN'ETISE, to compose sonnets.--_v.t._ to celebrate in a sonnet.--_n._ SONN'ETIST (_Shak._), a sonneteer. [Fr.,--It. _sonetto_, dim. of _son[=a]re_, a sound, song--L. _sonus_, a sound.] SONNITE=_Sunnite_ (_q.v._). SONOMETER, s[=o]-nom'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring sounds or their intervals by means of a sounding-board with strings stretched above it, movable bridges, and weights for varying the tension. [L. _sonus_, a sound, Gr. _metron_, a measure.] SONOROUS, s[=o]-n[=o]'rus, _adj._ sounding when struck: giving a clear, loud sound: high-sounding.--_n._ S[=O]N[=O]RES'CENCE, the property possessed by hard rubber of emitting sound under intermittent radiant heat or light.--_adj._ S[=O]N[=O]RIF'IC, making sound.--_ns._ S[=O]NOR'ITY, sonorousness; S[=O]N[=O]'R[=O]PHONE, a kind of bombardon.--_adv._ S[=O]N[=O]'ROUSLY.--_n._ S[=O]N[=O]'ROUSNESS, sonorous quality or character. [L. _sonorus_--_sonor_, _sonus_, a sound--_son[=a]re_, to sound.] SONSY, SONCY, son'si, _adj._ (_Scot._) plump, buxom, good-natured.--Also SON'SIE, SON'CIE. SONTAG, son'tag, _n._ a woman's knitted cape, tied down round the waist. [From the famous German singer, Henrietta SONTAG (1806-54).] SONTY, son'ti, _n._ (_Shak._) sanctity--generally in plural, as in the oath, 'By God's sonties!' SOOCHONG=_Souchong_ (q.v.). SOON, s[=oo]n, _adv._ immediately or in a short time: without delay: early: readily, willingly.--_adj._ SOON'-BELIEV'ING (_Shak._), believing readily.--SOON AT (_Shak._), about; SOONER OR LATER, at some time in the future.--AS SOON AS, immediately after; NO SOONER THAN, as soon as. [A.S. _sóna_; Goth. _suns_.] SOOP, s[=oo]p, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to sweep.--_n._ SOOP'ING, sweeping. SOOT, soot, _n._ the black powder condensed from smoke.--_ns._ SOOT'ERKIN, a fabulous birth induced by the Dutch women sitting huddled over their stoves--hence anything fruitless or abortive; SOOT'FLAKE, a smut of soot; SOOT'INESS.--_adj._ SOOT'Y, consisting of, or like, soot. [A.S. _sót_; Dan. _sod_.] SOOTE, s[=oo]t. _adv._ (_Spens._) sweetly. SOOTH, s[=oo]th, _n._ truth, reality.--_adj._ true: pleasing.--_adv._ indeed.--_adj._ SOOTH'FAST, truthful, honest, faithful.--_adv._ SOOTH'FASTLY.--_n._ SOOTH'FASTNESS.--_advs._ SOOTH'LY, SOOTH'LICH (_Spens._), truly, indeed.--_v.i._ SOOTH'SAY, to foretell, to divine.--_ns._ SOOTH'SAYER, one who divines, esp. a pretender to the power; SOOTH'SAYING, divination, prediction. [A.S. _sóth_, true; Ice. _sannr_, true.] SOOTHE, s[=oo]_th_, _v.t._ to please with soft words: to flatter: to soften, allay.--_ns._ SOOTH'ER, one who, or that which, soothes: (_Shak._) one who gains by blandishments, a flatterer; SOOTH'ING (_Shak._), flattery (also _adj._).--_adv._ SOOTH'INGLY. [A.S. _gesóthian_, to confirm as true--_sóth_, true.] SOP, sop, _n._ anything dipped or soaked, esp. in soup, to be eaten: anything given to satisfy or quieten.--_v.t._ to steep in liquor: to take up by absorption (with up).--_v.i._ to soak in, percolate: to be soaked:--_pr.p._ sop'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ sopped.--_n._ SOP-, SOPS-, IN-WINE (_Spens._), a flower resembling a carnation. [A.S. _sop_ (in _sópcuppa_, a dish), from _súpan_, to sip; Ice. _soppa_, soup.] SOPH, sof, _n._ an abbreviation of _sophister_ (q.v.)--also of _sophomore_ (q.v.). SOPHERIM, s[=o]'fe-rim, _n.pl._ the scribes, the expounders of the Jewish oral law.--_adj._ S[=O]'PHERIC. [Heb.] SOPHI, s[=o]'fi, _n._ (_Milt._) a title of the king of Persia. [Pers. _sufi_, wise, pious.] SOPHIC, -AL, sof'ik, -al, _adj._ teaching wisdom, pertaining to wisdom.--_adv._ SOPH'ICALLY. SOPHISM, sof'izm, _n._ a specious fallacy..--_n._ SOPH'IST, one of a class of public teachers of rhetoric, philosophy, &c. in Greece in the 5th century B.C.: a captious or fallacious reasoner--also SOPH'ISTER (_Shak._): a student at an English university in his second or third year, the students in these years being called junior and senior sophister respectively.--_adjs._ SOPHIS'TIC, -AL, pertaining to a sophist or to sophistry: fallaciously subtle.--_adv._ SOPHIS'TICALLY.--_n._ SOPHIS'TICALNESS, the state or quality of being sophistical.--_v.t._ SOPHIS'TIC[=A]TE, to render sophistical or unsound: to corrupt by mixture.--_adj._ SOPHIS'TIC[=A]TED, adulterated: impure: not genuine.--_ns._ SOPHISTIC[=A]'TION, act of sophisticating, adulterating, or injuring by mixture; SOPHIS'TIC[=A]TOR, one who sophisticates or adulterates; SOPHIS'TICISM, the philosophy or the methods of the sophists; SOPH'ISTRESS, a she-sophist; SOPH'ISTRY, specious but fallacious reasoning. [Fr. _sophisme_--Gr. _sophisma_--_sophizein_, to make wise--_sophos_, wise.] SOPHOCLEAN, sof-[=o]-kl[=e]'an, _adj._ pertaining to _Sophocles_, Athenian tragic poet (496-405 B.C.). SOPHOMORE, sof'[=o]-m[=o]r, _n._ (_U.S._) a second-year student.--_adj._ pertaining to such.--_adjs._ SOPHOMOR'IC, -AL, [Gr. _sophos_, wise, _m[=o]ros_, foolish.] SOPHORA, s[=o]-f[=o]'ra, _n._ a genus of leguminous plants, natives of warm regions of both the Old and New World, with highly ornamental white, yellow, or violet flowers--_Sophora Japonica_ is the Japanese or Chinese pagoda-tree. [Ar. _sof[=a]ra_--_asfar_, yellow.] SOPHROSYNE, s[=o]-fros'i-n[=e], _n._ soundness of mind. [Gr.] SOPIENT, s[=o]'pi-ent, _n._ a soporific. SOPITE, s[=o]'p[=i]t, _v.t._ to put to rest: to quash.--_n._ SOPI'TION, lethargy. SOPORIFIC, s[=o]-p[=o]-rif'ik, _adj._ making or causing sleep.--_n._ anything that causes sleep.--_adj._ SOPORIF'EROUS, bringing, causing, or tending to cause sleep: sleepy.--_adv._ SOPORIF'EROUSLY.--_n._ SOPORIF'EROUSNESS.--_adjs._ S[=O]'POR[=O]SE, S[=O]'POROUS, sleepy, causing sleep. [Fr. _soporifique_--L. _sopor_, sleep, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] SOPPY. sop'i, _adj._ sopped or soaked in liquid. SOPRA, s[=o]'pra, _adv._ (_mus._) above. [It.] SOPRANO, s[=o]-prä'no, _n._ the highest variety of voice, treble: a singer with such a voice:--_pl._ SOPRA'NOS, SOPRA'NI.--_n._ SOPRA'NIST, a singer of soprano. [It., from _sopra_--L. _supra_ or _super_, above.] SORA, s[=o]'ra, _n._ a North American short-billed rail.--Also S[=O]'REE. SORAGE, s[=o]r'[=a]j, _n._ the time between a hawk's being taken from the aerie and her mewing her feathers. [See SORE (2).] SORASTRUM, s[=o]-ras'trum, _n._ a genus of fresh-water algæ. [Gr. _s[=o]ros_, a heap; _astron_, a star.] SORB, sorb, _n._ the mountain-ash or service-tree.--_ns._ SORB'-APPLE, the fruit of the service-tree; SOR'B[=A]TE, SOR'BIN or SOR'BINE, SOR'BITE.--_adj._ SOR'BIC, pertaining to, or from, the sorb. [Fr.,--L. _sorbus_.] SORB, sorb, _n._ one of a Slavonic race in Saxony and the neighbouring parts of Prussia.--Also _Wend_, or _Lusatian Wend_.--_adj._ SOR'BIAN, pertaining to the Sorbs or their language.--_n._ a Sorb, or the Sorbian tongue.--_adj._ and _n._ SOR'BISH. SORBEFACIENT, sor-be-f[=a]'shent, _adj._ producing absorption.--_n._ a medicine which produces absorption.--_n._ SOR'BENT, an absorbent. [L. _sorb[)e]r_e, to suck in, _faciens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _fac[)e]re_, to make.] SORBET, sor'bet, _n._ sherbet: water-ice. SORBONNE, sor-bon', _n._ the earliest and the most famous of all the colleges of the medieval university of Paris, founded in 1253 by Robert of _Sorbon_, in the diocese of Rheims. Exclusively devoted to theology, till the close of the 15th century it controlled by its teaching and its dogmatic decisions the intellectual life of Europe.--_adj._ SORBON'ICAL.--_n._ SOR'BONIST, a doctor of the Sorbonne. SORCERY, sor's[.e]r-i, _n._ divination by the assistance of evil spirits: enchantment: magic: witchcraft.--_n._ SOR'CERER, one who practises sorcery: an enchanter: a magician:--_fem._ SOR'CERESS, a witch.--_adj._ SOR'CEROUS, using sorcery. [O. Fr. _sorcerie_--Low L. _sortiarius_, one who tells fortunes by lots--L. _sort[=i]ri_, to cast lots--_sors_, _sortis_, a lot.] SORD, s[=o]rd, _n._ (_Milt._) a form of sward. SORDAMENTE, sor-da-men'te, _adv._ (_mus._) in a muffled manner, softly. [It.] SORDID, sor'did, _adj._ dirty, squalid: of a dull colour: morally foul, vile: mean: meanly avaricious.--_n._ SOR'DES, filth, foul accretions on the teeth in low forms of fever.--_adv._ SOR'DIDLY.--_ns._ SOR'DIDNESS, state of being sordid; SOR'DOR, filth, dregs. [Fr. _sordide_--L. _sordidus_--_sord[=e]re_, to be dirty.] SORDINE, sor'din, _n._ a mute, damper, or other device to soften or deaden the sound of a stringed instrument.--_advs._ SOR'DO, SOR'DA, damped with a mute.--_n._ SORD[=O]'NO, a musical instrument of the oboe family. [It. _sordina_--L. _surdus_, deaf.] SORE, s[=o]r, _n._ a wounded or diseased spot on an animal body: an ulcer or boil: (_B._) grief, affliction.--_adj._ wounded: tender: susceptible of pain: easily pained or grieved: bringing sorrow or regret: severe, violent, intense: wretched.--_adv._ painfully: grievously: severely, thoroughly.--_n._ SORE'HEAD (_U.S._), a person discontented with the reward for his political services.--_adj._ SORE'HEADED.--_adv._ SORE'LY, in a sore manner: grievously.--_n._ SORE'NESS. [A.S. _sár_; Ger. _sehr_, very, Ice. _sárr_, sore.] SORE, s[=o]r, _n._ (_Spens._) a hawk of the first year: (_Shak._) a buck of the fourth year. [O. Fr. _saur_, _sor_, sorrel, reddish.] SOREDIUM, s[=o]-r[=e]'di-um, _n._ one or more algal cells in a lichen with enveloping fungus-threads, a brood-bud:--_pl._ SOR[=E]'DIA.--_adjs._ SOR[=E]'DIAL, SOR[=E]'DIATE, SOREDIF'EROUS. SOREHON, s[=o]r'hon, _n._ an ancient Irish exaction of a lord from a freeholder or tenant. SOREX, s[=o]'reks, _n._ the typical genus of the family _Soricidæ_ and sub-family _Soricinæ_, one of this genus, a shrew.--_adjs._ SORIC'IDENT, having teeth like the shrew; SOR'ICINE, pertaining to the shrew-mouse; SOR'ICOID, soricine. [L.,--Gr. _hyrax_, a shrew-mouse.] SORGHUM, sor'gum, _n._ a genus of grasses, also called _Durra millet_ and _Indian millet_, or _Sorgho grass_. It is closely allied to sugar-cane and beard-grass. [Sp. _sorgo_--Low L. _sorgum_, _surgum_, _suricum_, prob. an East Ind. word.] SORITES, s[=o]-r[=i]'t[=e]z, _n._ an argument composed of an indeterminate number of propositions, so arranged that the predicate of the first becomes the subject of the second, and so on till the conclusion is reached, which unites the subject of the first with the predicate of the last. [Gr.,--_s[=o]ros_, a heap.] SORN, sorn, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to obtrude one's self on another as an uninvited guest.--_n._ SOR'NER, one who takes food and lodging by force or threats. [Prob. _sojourn_.] SORORICIDE, sor-or'i-s[=i]d, _n._ the murder, or the murderer, of a sister. [L. _soror_, a sister, _cæd[)e]re_, to kill.] SORORISE, s[=o]'ror-[=i]z, _v.i._ to associate as sisters.--_adj._ SOR[=O]'RAL.--_adv._ SOR[=O]'RIALLY, in a sisterly manner. SOROSIS, s[=o]-r[=o]'sis, _n._ a compound fleshy fruit, resulting from many flowers, as the pine-apple. [Gr. _s[=o]ros_, a heap.] SOROTROCHOUS, s[=o]-rot'r[=o]-kus, _adj._ having the wheel-organ compound, as a rotifer. [Gr. _s[=o]ros_, a heap, trochos, a wheel.] SORREL, sor'el, _n._ one of several species of the genus _Rumex_, allied to the dock, the leaves impregnated with oxalic acid--the Scotch _Sourock_. The Wood-sorrel belongs to the genus _Oxalis_. [O. Fr. _sorel_ (Fr. _surelle_)--_sur_, sour; from Old High Ger. _s[=u]r_ (Ger. _sauer_), sour.] SORREL, sor'el, _adj._ of a reddish-brown colour.--_n._ a reddish-brown colour. [O. Fr. _sor_ (Fr. _saure_), sorrel, from Low Ger. _soor_, dried, withered.] SORROW, sor'[=o], _n._ pain of mind: grief: affliction: lamentation: the devil (Irish _Sorra_).--_v.i._ to feel sorrow or pain of mind: to grieve.--_p.adj._ SORR'OWED. (_Shak._), accompanied with sorrow.--_adj._ SORR'OWFUL, full of sorrow: causing, showing, or expressing sorrow: sad: dejected.--_adv._ SORR'OWFULLY.--_n._ SORR'OWFULNESS.--_adj._ SORR'OWLESS, free from sorrow. [A.S. _sorg_, _sorh_; Ger. _sorge_, Ice. _sorg_.] SORRY, sor'i, _adj._ grieved for something past: melancholy: poor: worthless.--_adj._ SORR'IEST (_Shak._), most sorrowful.--_adv._ SORR'ILY.--_n._ SORR'INESS. [A.S. _sárig_, wounded--sár, pain; Dut. _zeerig_.] SORT, sort, _n._ a number of persons or things having like qualities: class, kind, or species: order or rank: manner.--_v.t._ to separate into lots or classes: to put together: to select: to procure, adapt: to geld: (_Scot._) to adjust, put right, dispose, fix: to punish.--_v.i._ to be joined with others of the same sort: to associate: to suit.--_adj._ SORT'ABLE, capable of being sorted: (_Bacon_) suitable, befitting.--_ns._ SORT'ANCE (_Shak._), suitableness, agreement; SORT'ER, one who separates and arranges, as letters; SORT'ES, lots used in divination by passages selected by hazard from the Bible, Homer, Virgil, &c.; SORT'ILEGE, the act or practice of divination by drawing lots; SORTI'TION, the casting of lots; SORT'MENT, act of sorting.--IN A SORT (_Shak._), in a manner; IN SORT, inasmuch as; OUT OF SORTS, out of order, unwell: (_print._) with some sorts of type in the font exhausted. [O. Fr. _sorte_--L. _sors_, _sortis_, a lot--_ser[)e]re_, to join.] SORTIE, sor't[=e], _n._ the issuing of a body of troops from a besieged place to attack the besiegers. [Fr.,--_sortir_, to go out, to issue--L. _surg[)e]re_, to rise up.] SORUS, s[=o]'rus, _n._ a heap:--_pl._ S[=O]'RI.--_adj._ S[=O]'ROSE, bearing sori. [Gr. _s[=o]ros_, a heap.] SO-SO, s[=o]'-s[=o], _adj._ neither very good nor very bad: tolerable: indifferent. SOSS, sos, _n._ a mess, a puddle: a heavy fall.--_v.t._ to dirty: to throw carelessly about.--_v.i._ to tumble into a chair, &c.--_adv._ plump.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ SOS'SLE, to dabble. [Prob. Gael. _sos_, a mixture.] SOSTENUTO, sos-te-n[=oo]'t[=o], _adj._ (_mus._) sustained, prolonged. [It.] SOSTRUM, sos'trum, _n._ a reward given for saving one's life, a physician's fee. [Gr., _s[=o]zein_, to save.] SOT, sot, _n._ one stupefied by drinking: a habitual drunkard.--_v.i._ to play the sot, to tipple.--_adj._ SOT'TISH, like a sot: foolish: stupid with drink.--_adv._ SOT'TISHLY.--_n._ SOT'TISHNESS. [O. Fr. _sot_, perh. of Celt. origin; Bret. _sod_, stupid.] SOTADEAN, sot-a-d[=e]'an, _adj._ pertaining to _Sotades_, a lascivious Greek poet at Alexandria about 276 B.C. His _Cinoedi_ were malicious and indecent satires and travesties of mythology written in Ionic dialect and in a peculiar metre.--_n._ SOTAD'IC, a sotadean verse. SOTERIOLOGY, s[=o]-t[=e]-ri-ol'[=o]-ji, _n._ (_theol._) the doctrine of salvation by Jesus Christ.--_adjs._ SOT[=E]'RIAL, pertaining to redemption; SOT[=E]RIOLOG'ICAL. [Gr. _s[=o]t[=e]rios_, saving--_s[=o]t[=e]r_, saviour, _logia_--_legein_, to speak.] SOTHIC, s[=o]'thik, _adj._ of or pertaining to the dog-star _Sothis_ or Sirius.--SOTHIC CYCLE, or period, a period of 1460 years; SOTHIC YEAR, the ancient Egyptian fixed year, according to the heliacal rising of Sirius. SOTTO, sot't[=o], _adv._ under, below, as in SOTTO VOCE, in an undertone, aside. [It.,--L. _subter_, under.] SOU, s[=oo], _n._ a French copper coin, the five-centime piece=1/20th of a franc. [Fr. _sou_ (It. _soldo_)--L. _solidus_, a coin.] SOUARI, sow-ä'ri, _n._ a tree of British Guiana yielding a durable timber and edible nuts. SOUBISE, s[=oo]-b[=e]z', _n._ an 18th-cent. men's cravat. [Fr.] SOUBRETTE, s[=oo]-bret', _n._ a maid-servant in a comedy, conventionally pert, coquettish, and intriguing. [Fr.] SOUCHONG, s[=oo]-shong', _n._ a fine sort of black tea. [Fr.,--Chin. _siao_, small, _chung_, sort.] SOUFFLE, s[=oo]'fl, _n._ a murmuring sound. [Fr.] SOUFFLÉ, s[=oo]-fl[=a]', _n._ a light dish, consisting of the whites of eggs, with chocolate, cheese, vanilla, &c., whisked into a creamy froth.--_adj._ prepared in this way. [Fr., _souffler_, to blow--L. _suffl[=a]re_, to blow.] SOUGH, sow, suf, or, as Scot., s[=oo]h, _v.i._ to sigh, as the wind.--_v.t._ to whine out cantingly.--_n._ a sighing of the wind: a vague rumour: a whining tone of voice.--KEEP A CALM SOUGH, to keep quiet. [Prob. Ice. _súgr_, a rushing sound, or A.S. _swógan_, to rustle.] SOUGH, suf, _n._ a drain, sewer, mine-adit.--_n._ SOUGH'ING-TILE, a drain-tile. [Prob. W. _soch_, a drain.] SOUGHT, sawt, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _seek_. SOUL, s[=o]l, _n._ that part of man which thinks, feels, desires, &c.: the seat of life and intellect: life: essence: internal power: energy or grandeur of mind: a human being, a person.--_ns._ SOUL'-BELL, the passing bell; SOUL'-C[=U]R'ER (_Shak._), a parson.--_adjs._ SOULED, full of soul or feeling; SOUL'-FEAR'ING (_Shak._), soul-terrifying; SOUL'FUL, expressive of elevated feeling.--_adv._ SOUL'FULLY.--_n._ SOUL'FULNESS.--_adj._ SOUL'LESS, without nobleness of mind, mean, spiritless.--_ns._ SOUL'LESSNESS; SOUL'-SHOT, -SCOT, a funeral payment.--_adj._ SOUL'-SICK, morally diseased.--ALL-SOULS' DAY, the 2d November, when the souls of the faithful departed are commemorated. [M. E. _saule_--A.S. _sáwol_; Ger. _seele_.] SOUM, SOWM, sowm, _n._ (_Scot._) the proportion of sheep or cattle suitable for any pasture: pasture for a certain number of sheep or cattle.--_v.i._ to determine such. [A form of _sum_.] SOUND, sownd, _adj._ safe, whole, entire: perfect: healthy, strong: profound: correct: orthodox: weighty.--_adv._ soundly, completely fast, as in sleep.--_adv._ SOUND'LY.--_n._ SOUND'NESS. [A.S. _gesund_; Ger. _gesund_, and perh. L. _sanus_, sound.] SOUND, sownd, _n._ a narrow passage of water: a strait. [A.S. _sund_, a narrow arm of the sea, from _swimman_, to swim; Ger. _sund_, a strait.] SOUND, sownd, _n._ the air or swimming bladder of a fish. [A.S. _sund_, swimming.] SOUND, sownd, _v.i._ to make a noise: to utter a voice: to spread or be spread: to appear on narration.--_v.t._ to cause to make a noise: to utter audibly: to direct by a sound or audible signal: to examine by percussion: to publish audibly.--_n._ the impression produced on the ear by the vibrations of air: noise, particular quality of tone: report, hearing-distance: empty or meaningless noise.--_p.adj._ SOUND'ING, making a sound or noise: having a magnificent sound.--_ns._ SOUND'ING-BOARD, SOUND'-BOARD, the thin plate of wood or metal which increases and propagates the sound of a musical instrument: the horizontal board or structure over a pulpit, reading-desk, &c., carrying the speaker's voice towards the audience; SOUND'ING-POST, SOUND'-POST, a support set under the bridge of a violin, for propagating the sounds to the body of the instrument.--_adj._ SOUND'LESS, without sound, silent: not capable of being sounded, unfathomable. [M. E. _sounen_--O. Fr. _soner_--L. _son[=a]re_, to sound, _sonus_, a sound.] SOUND, sownd, _v.t._ to measure the depth of, esp. with a line and plummet: to probe: to try to discover a man's secret thoughts, wishes, &c.: to test: to introduce an instrument into the bladder to examine it.--_v.i._ to use the line and lead in ascertaining the depth of water.--_n._ a probe, an instrument to discover stone in the bladder.--_ns._ SOUND'ING, the ascertaining the depth of water: (_pl._) any part of the ocean where a sounding-line will reach the bottom; SOUND'ING-LEAD, the weight at the end of a sounding-line; SOUND'ING-LINE, a line with a plummet at the end for soundings; SOUND'ING-ROD, a rod for measuring water in a ship's hold. [O. Fr. _sonder_, to sound; acc. to Diez, from Low L. _subund[=a]re_--L. _sub_, under, _unda_, a wave.] SOUND, sownd, _n._ (_Spens._) swoon. SOUNDER, sown'd[.e]r, _n._ a herd of swine, a young boar. [A.S. _sunor_, a herd of swine.] SOUP, s[=oo]p, _n._ the nutritious liquid obtained by boiling meat or vegetables in stock--named from the chief ingredient, as pea-, tomato-, vermicelli-, hare-, oxtail-soup, &c.--_ns._ SOUP'ER, a convert for the sake of material benefits; SOUP'-KITCH'EN, a place for supplying soup to the poor gratis or at a nominal price; SOUP'-MAI'GRE, a thin fish or vegetable soup, originally for fast-days; SOUP'-TICK'ET, a ticket authorising the holder to receive soup at a soup-kitchen.--_adj._ SOUP'Y. [O. Fr. _soupe_--Old Dut. _sop_, _zop_, broth, _soppe_, _zoppe_, a sop.] SOUPÇON, soop-song', _n._ a suspicion--hence a very small quantity, as of spirits. [Fr.] SOUPLE, s[=oo]p'l, _adj._ a provincial form of _supple_--denoting raw silk deprived of its silk-glue. SOUR, sowr, _adj._ having a pungent, acid taste: turned, as milk: rancid: crabbed or peevish in temper: bitter: cold and wet, as soil.--_v.t._ to make sour or acid: to make cross, peevish, or discontented.--_v.i._ to become sour or acid: to become peevish or crabbed.--_n._ SOUR'-CROUT (see SAUER-KRAUT).--_adj._ SOUR'-EYED, morose-looking.--_ns._ SOUR'-GOURD, the cream-of-tartar tree; SOUR'ING, vinegar: the crab-apple: the process in bleaching fabrics that follows the treatment with bleaching-powder, consisting in treatment of the fabric with hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, so as to wash out the lime.--_adj._ SOUR'ISH, somewhat sour.--_adv._ SOUR'LY, in a sour manner: with acidity: with acrimony: discontentedly.--_ns._ SOUR'NESS, the state of being sour: acidity: peevishness: discontent; SOUR'-SOP, a tree of tropical America and its fruit, closely allied to the custard-apple: (_prov._) an ill-natured person. [A.S. _súr_; Ger. _sauer_, Ice. _súrr_.] SOURCE, s[=o]rs, _n._ that from which anything rises or originates: origin: the spring from which a stream flows. [O. Fr. _sorse_ (Fr. _source_), from _sourdre_ (It. _sorgere_)--L. _surg[)e]re_, to raise up, to rise.] SOURDELINE, s[=oo]r'de-l[=e]n, _n._ a small bagpipe. [Fr.] SOURDINE, s[=oo]r-d[=e]n', _n._ a stop on the harmonium. [Fr.,--It. _sordino_, _sordo_, deaf--L. _surdus_, deaf.] SOUROCK, s[=oo]'rok, _n._ (_Scot._) the common sorrel. SOUS. Same as SOU. SOUSE, sows, _v.t._ to strike with sudden violence, as a bird its prey.--_v.i._ to rush with speed, as a bird on its prey.--_n._ violent attack, as of a bird striking its prey.--_adj._ (_Shak._) sudden, violent.--_adv._ with sudden violence, with swift descent downwards. SOUSE, sows, _n._ pickle made of salt: anything steeped in pickle: the ear, feet, &c. of swine pickled.--_v.t._ to steep in pickle: to plunge into water. [Written also _souce_, a form of _sauce_.] SOUT, sowt, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as SOOT. SOUTACHE, s[=oo]-tash', _n._ a narrow braid. [Fr.] SOUTANE, s[=oo]-t[=a]n', _n._ a cassock. [Fr.,--Low L. _subtana_--L. _subtus_, beneath.] SOUTER, s[=oo]'t[.e]r, _n._ (_Scot._) a shoemaker, a cobbler--also SOW'TER, SOU'TAR.--_adv._ SOU'TERLY. [A.S. _sútere_ (Ice. _sútari_)--L. _sutor_--_su[)e]re_, to sew.] SOUTH, sowth, _n._ the direction in which the sun appears at noon to the people north of the Tropic of Cancer: any land opposite the north: the Southern States in U.S. history: the side of a church on the right hand of one facing the altar.--_adj._ lying towards the south.--_adv._ towards the south.--_v.i._ to veer towards the south: to cross the meridian of a place.--_n._ SOUTH'-EAST', the direction equally distant from the south and east.--_adjs._ SOUTH'-EAST', SOUTH'-EAST'ERLY, SOUTH'-EAST'ERN, pertaining to, in the direction of, or coming from the south-east.--_n._ SOUTH'-EAST'ER, a wind from the south-east.--_advs._ SOUTH'-EAST'WARD, -LY, toward the south-east.--_n._ SOUTHER (sow_th_'-), a wind from the south.--_v.i._ to veer toward the south.--_adj._ SOUTHERING (su_th_'-), turned toward the south, having a southern exposure.--_n._ SOUTHERLINESS (su_th_'-), the condition of being southerly.--_adjs._ SOUTHERLY (su_th_'-), SOUTHERN (su_th_'-), pertaining to, situated in, or proceeding from or towards the south:--_superls._ SOUTHERMOST (su_th_'-), SOUTHERNMOST (su_th_'-), SOUTH'MOST, most southern, farthest towards the south.--_n._ SOUTHERNER (su_th_'-), an inhabitant of the south, esp. of the Southern States of America.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ SOUTHERNISE (su_th_'-), to render southern in qualities or character, or to become such.--_n._ SOUTHERNISM (su_th_'-), a form of expression peculiar to the south, esp. the Southern States of America.--_adv._ SOUTHERNLY (su_th_'-), towards the south.--_ns._ SOUTHERNWOOD (su_th_'-), an aromatic plant of southern Europe, closely allied to wormwood; SOUTHING (sow_th_'-), tendency or motion to the south: the time at which the moon passes the meridian; SOUTH'LAND, the south (also _adj._).--_adv._ SOUTH'LY.--_n._ SOUTH'NESS, tendency of a magnetic needle to point toward the south.--_adj._ SOUTHRON (su_th_'-), southern, esp. English.--_n._ a native or inhabitant of a southern country or district: an Englishman.--_advs._ SOUTH'WARD (also su_th_'ard), toward the south (also _n._ and _adj._); SOUTH'WARDLY (also _adj._); SOUTH'WARDS.--_n._ SOUTH'-WEST', the direction equally distant from the south and west--_adjs._ SOUTH'-WEST', SOUTH'-WEST'ERLY, SOUTH'-WEST'ERN, pertaining to, proceeding from, or lying in the direction of the south-west.--_n._ SOUTH'-WEST'ER, a storm or gale from the south-west: a painted canvas hat with a broad flap behind for the neck (often SOU'WEST'ER).--SOUTH SEA, the Pacific Ocean. [A.S. _súth_; Ger. _süd_, Ice. _sudhr_.] SOUTHCOTTIAN, sowth'kot-i-an, _n._ a follower of Joanna _Southcott_ (1750-1814), whose dropsy was taken by many, and perhaps herself, for the gestation of a second Shiloh or Prince of Peace. SOUTHDOWN, sowth'down, _adj._ pertaining to the _South Downs_ in Hampshire, the famous breed of sheep so named, or their mutton.--_n._ this breed of sheep, a sheep of the same, or its mutton. SOUTHSAY, SOUTHSAYER, s[=oo]th'-. Same as SOOTHSAY, &c. SOUVENIR, s[=oo]-ve-n[=e]r', _n._ a remembrancer, a keepsake.--_n._ SOUV'ENANCE (_Spens._), remembrance, memory. [Fr.,--L. _subven[=i]re_, to come up, to come to mind--_sub_, under, _ven[=i]re_, to come.] SOVEREIGN, suv'r[=a]n, or sov'e-r[=a]n, _adj._ supreme: possessing supreme power or dominion: superior to all others: utmost: most efficacious--(_Milt._) SOV'RAN.--_n._ a supreme ruler: a monarch: a gold coin=20s.--_v.t._ to rule over as a sovereign.--_adj._ SOV'EREIGNEST (_Shak._), most effectual.--_adv._ SOV'EREIGNLY, in a sovereign manner: in the highest degree: supremely.--_n._ SOV'EREIGNTY, supreme power: dominion. [O. Fr. _sovrain_--Low L. _superanus_--L. _super_, _supra_, above.] SOW, sow, _n._ a female pig: the metal solidified in parallel grooves or _pigs_, the iron of these being _pig-iron_: a movable shed for protecting the men using a battering-ram.--_ns._ SOW'BACK, a low ridge of sand or gravel; SOW'-BREAD, a genus of plants, allied to the primrose, natives of the south of Europe, the tubers of which are eaten by swine; SOW'-BUG, an air-breathing oniscoid isopod, a pill-bug, slater.--_adj._ SOW'-DRUNK (_prov._), beastly drunk.--_ns._ SOW'-GELD'ER, one who spays sows; SOW'-THIS'TLE, a genus of plants, the tender tops of which are used in the north of Europe as greens. [A.S. _sú_, _sugu_; Ger. _sau_, Ice. _sýr_; L. _sus_, Gr. _hys_.] SOW, s[=o], _v.t._ to scatter seed that it may grow: to plant by strewing: to scatter seed over: to spread, disseminate.--_v.i._ to scatter seed for growth:--_pa.p._ sown and sowed.--_ns._ SOW'ER; SOW'ING; SOW'ING-MACHINE', a hand or horse-power seed-planting machine: a broadcast sower. [A.S. _sáwan_; Ger. _säen_, Ice. _sá_, Goth. _saian_.] SOWAR, s[=o]-är', _n._ a native horse-soldier in the British Indian army, a mounted attendant. [Hind. _saw[=a]r_, a horseman.] SOWENS, s[=o]'enz, _n.pl._ (_Scot._) a dish made from the farina remaining among the husks of oats, flummery.--Also SOW'ANS. SOWL, SOWLE, sowl, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to pull by the ears. SOWND, sownd, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to wield. SOWND, sownd, _n._ (_Spens._)=swound, the same as SWOON. SOWNE, sown, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as SOUND. SOWSE, sows, _v._ and _n._ (_Spens._). Same as _Souse_, to strike. SOWTH, sowth, _v.i._ and _v.t._ (_Scot._) to whistle softly, to whistle over a tune. SOY, soi, _n._ a thick and piquant sauce made from the seeds of the soy bean or pea, a native of China, Japan, and the Moluccas.--Also SOO'JA. [Jap. _si-yan_, Chin. _shi-yu_.] SOYLE, soil, _n._ (_Spens._) prey. SOZZLE, soz'l, _v.t._ to make wet or muddy.--_n._ disorder.--_adj._ SOZZ'LY, sloppy. SPA, spaw, _n._ a place where there is a mineral spring of water. [From _Spa_ in Belgium.] SPACE, sp[=a]s, _n._ extension as distinct from material substances: room: largeness: distance between objects: interval between lines or words in books: quantity of time: distance between two points of time: opportunity, leisure: a short time: interval.--_v.t._ to make or arrange intervals between.--_ns._ SP[=A]'CER, one who, or that which, spaces: an instrument by which to reverse a telegraphic current, esp. in a marine cable, for increasing the speed of transmission: a space-bar; SPACE'-WRIT'ER, in journalism, one paid for his articles according to the space they occupy when printed; SP[=A]'CING, the act of dividing into spaces, placing at suitable intervals, as in printing, &c.: the space thus made: spaces collectively.--_adj._ SP[=A]'CIOUS, having large space: large in extent: roomy: wide.--_adv._ SP[=A]'CIOUSLY.--_n._ SP[=A]'CIOUSNESS. [Fr. _espace_--L. _spatium_; Gr. _sp[=a]n_.] SPACIAL=_Spatial_ (q.v.). SPADASSIN, spad'a-sin, _n._ a swordsman, a bravo. [Fr.,--It. _spadaccino_--_spada_, a sword.] SPADE, sp[=a]d, _n._ a broad blade of iron with a handle, used for digging: a playing-card of one of the two black suits, shaped like a heart with a triangular handle.--_v.t._ to dig with a spade.--_ns._ SPADE'-BONE, the scapula; SPADE'-FOOT, a scaphiopod or spade-footed toad; SPADE'FUL, as much as a spade will hold; SPADE'-GUIN'EA, a guinea coined 1787-99, so called from the shield on the reverse side having the shape of the spade in playing-cards.--CALL A SPADE A SPADE, to call things by their plain names, without softening: to speak out plainly. [A.S. _spadu_, _spædu_; L. _spatha_--Gr. _spath[=e]_, any broad blade.] SPADE, sp[=a]d, _n._ a eunuch: a gelding.--Also SP[=A]'DO. [Gr. _spad[=o]n_, a eunuch.] SPADILLE, spa-dil', _n._ the ace of spades in the games of ombre and quadrille.--Also SPADIL'IO. [Fr.,--Sp. _espadilla_, dim. of _espada_, the ace of spades.] SPADIX, sp[=a]'diks, _n._ (_bot._) a fleshy spike of flowers, usually covered by a leaf called a spathe:--_pl._ SP[=A]D[=I]'CES.--_adjs._ SP[=A]DIC'EOUS, SPAD'ICOSE. [Gr.] SPADONE, spa-d[=o]'n[=e], _n._ a long heavy sword for both hands.--Also SPADROON'. [It.] SPAE, sp[=a], _v.i._ and _v.t._ (_Scot._) to foretell, divine--also SPAY.--_ns._ SPAE'MAN; SP[=A]'ER; SPAE'WIFE, [Scand., Ice. _spá_; Ger. _spähen_, to spy.] SPAGHETTI, spa-get'ti, _n._ an Italian cord-like paste intermediate in size between macaroni and vermicelli. [It., _pl._ of _spaghetto_, dim. of _spago_, a cord.] SPAGIRIC, -AL, spa-jir'ik, -al, _adj._ chemical, according to the chemistry of Paracelsus and his followers.--_n._ SPAGIR'IST, a follower of Paracelsus. [Gr. _span_, to tear, _ageirein_, to bring together.] SPAHI, spä'h[=e], _n._ one of the irregular cavalry of the Turkish armies before the reorganisation of 1836.--Also SPA'HEE. [_Sepoy_.] SPAIRGE, sp[=a]rj, _v.t._ (_Scot._) a form of _sparge_, to sprinkle. SPAKE, sp[=a]k, old _pa.t._ of _speak_. SPALAX, sp[=a]'laks, _n._ the typical genus of mole-rats. [Gr., _spalax_, _sphalax_, a mole.] SPALE, sp[=a]l, _n._ (_Scot._) a splinter of wood--also SPAIL: in shipbuilding, a temporary brace, cross-band--also SP[=A]'LING. SPALL, spawl, _n._ (_Spens._) the shoulder.--Also SPALD. [O. Fr. _espaule_--L. _spatula_, a broad blade.] SPALL, spawl, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to split, splinter, to chip.--_n._ a chip or splinter thrown off.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ SPALT, to split off splinters.--_adj._ brittle. SPALPEEN, spal'p[=e]n, _n._ a rascal, a mischievous fellow. [Ir. _spailp[=i]n_.] SPALT, spalt, _n._ a scaly whitish mineral, used as a flux for metals. [Ger. _spalt-stein_--_spalten_, to split.] SPAN, span, _n._ the space from the end of the thumb to the end of the little-finger when the fingers are extended: nine inches: the spread of an arch between its abutments: a space of time, the full duration of anything: extent of stretch, as the spread of a man's arms, in measuring trees, &c.--_v.t._ to measure by spans: to measure: to embrace:--_pr.p._ span'ning; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ spanned.--_ns._ SPAN'-COUN'TER, SPAN'-FAR'THING, a game played by one throwing a coin or counter on the ground, and another trying to throw his so near it that he can span the distance between the two.--_adjs._ SPAN'LESS, that cannot be spanned or measured; SPAN'-LONG, of the length of a span.--_n._ SPAN'NER, one who spans: an iron tool or lever used to tighten the nuts of screws. [A.S. _span_--_spannan_; Ger. _spanne_--_spannen_.] SPAN, span, _n._ a yoke of horses or oxen. [Borrowed from Dut.; from the same root as above word.] SPAN, span, _adv._ wholly--in SPAN'-NEW, SPICK'-AND-SPAN. SPANCEL, span'sel, _n._ a tether for a cow's legs.--_v.t._ to fasten a cow with such.--_adj._ SPAN'CELED (_her_.), hobbled. [Old Dut. _spansel_.] [Illustration] SPANDREL, span'drel, _n._ the irregular triangular space between the curve of an arch and the enclosing right angle.--Also SPAN'DRIL. [Ety. dub.; prob. conn. with _span_.] SPANDY, span'di, _adv._ Same as SPAN (3). SPANE, SPEAN, sp[=a]n, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to wean. [A.S. _spanan_; Ger. _spänen_.] SPANEMIA, spa-n[=e]'mi-a, _n._ poverty of blood--also SPANÆ'MIA.--_adjs._ SPAN[=E]'MIC, SPANÆ'MIC. [Gr. _spanos_, scarce, _haima_, blood.] SPANG, spang, _n._ a spangle, shining ornament. SPANG, spang, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to leap.--_v.t._ to set in violent motion, to hurl.--_n._ a springing up: a sudden blow. SPANGLE, spang'gl, _n._ a small, thin plate or boss of shining metal: anything sparkling and brilliant, like a spangle.--_v.t._ to adorn with spangles.--_v.i._ to glitter.--_adjs._ SPANG'LED, SPANG'LY.--_n._ SPANG'LER. [A.S. _spange_; Ger. _spange_, Ice. _spöng_.] SPANGOLITE, spang'g[=o]-l[=i]t, _n._ a rare mineral found in hexagonal green crystals along with cuprite in Arizona. [Norman _Spang_ of Pittsburg.] SPANIARD, span'yard, _n._ a native of _Spain_. SPANIEL, span'yel, _n._ a kind of dog, usually liver-and-white coloured, or black-and-white, with large pendent ears.--_adj._ (_Shak._) like a spaniel, fawning, mean.--_n._ SPAN'IELSHIP, obsequious attention.--BLENHEIM SPANIEL, red-and-white, established by the Duke of Marlborough; CLUMBER SPANIEL, handsome lemon-and-white, short in leg, long in body, with a coat like a setter, and massive head with large, drooping ears; KING CHARLES SPANIEL, black-and-tan, first brought into notice by Charles II.; SUSSEX SPANIEL, like the Clumber, golden-liver or brown. [O. Fr. _espagneul_ (Fr. _épagneul_)--Sp. _Español_, Spanish.] SPANISH, span'ish, _adj._ of or pertaining to _Spain_.--_n._ the language of Spain.--_n._ SPAN'IARD, a native or citizen of Spain.--SPANISH BAYONET, any one of several species of yucca with straight sword-shaped leaves; SPANISH BROOM, a hardy deciduous Mediterranean shrub with showy yellow fragrant flowers; SPANISH CHALK, a variety of talc; SPANISH CRESS, a species of peppergrass; SPANISH FLY, a blister-beetle, a cantharid possessing a strong blistering principle, cantharidine: a preparation of cantharides used as a vesicant; SPANISH FOWL, a breed of the domestic hen--also _White-faced black Spanish_; SPANISH GRASS, esparto; SPANISH JUICE, extract of liquorice-root; SPANISH MAIN, a name given to the north coast of South America from the Orinoco to Darien, and to the shores of the former Central American provinces of Spain contiguous to the Caribbean Sea--the name is often popularly applied to the Caribbean Sea itself: SPANISH SHEEP, a merino; SPANISH SOAP, Castile soap.--WALK SPANISH, to be compelled to walk on tiptoe through being lifted up by the collar and the seat of the trousers--hence to proceed or act under compulsion. SPANK, spangk, _v.i._ to move with speed or spirit.--_n._ SPANK'ER, one who walks with long strides: a fast-going horse: any person or thing particularly striking, a dashing person.--_adj._ SPANK'ING, spirited, going freely: striking, beyond expectation, very large. [Cf. Dan. _spanke_, to strut.] SPANK, spangk, _v.i._ to strike with the flat of the hand, to slap.--_n._ a loud slap, esp. on the backside. SPANKER, spang'k[.e]r, _n._ the after-sail of a ship or barque, so called from its flapping in the breeze. SPAN-ROOF, span'-r[=oo]f, _n._ a roof having two equal inclined planes or sides. SPAR, spär, _n._ a rafter: a general term for masts, yards, booms, and gaffs, &c.--_n._ SPAR'-DECK, the upper deck of a vessel. [The A.S. _spearra_ is assumed from the verb _sparrian_, to fasten with a bar; cf. Ice. _sparri_, Dut. _spar_.] SPAR, spär, _n._ a term applied by miners to any bright crystalline mineral, and adopted by mineralogists in the names of a number of minerals--_calcareous spar_, _fluor spar_, _Iceland spar_, &c.--_adj._ SPAR'RY, resembling spar, spathic. [A.S. _spær_(_-stán_), gypsum; cf. Ger. _spar_(_-kalk_).] SPAR, spär, _v.i._ to box with the hands: to fight with showy action: to dispute:--_pr.p._ spar'ring; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ sparred.--_n._ a preliminary sparring, boxing-match, or cock-fight.--_ns._ SPAR'RER; SPAR'RING. [O. Fr. _esparer_ (Fr. _éparer_), to kick out, most prob. Teut.; Low Ger. _sparre_, a struggling.] SPARABLE, spar'a-bl, _n._ a small nail used by shoemakers.--Also SPER'RABLE. [_Sparrow-bill_.] SPARADRAP, spar'a-drap, _n._ a cerecloth, a plaster. [Fr.] SPARE, sp[=a]r, _v.t._ to use frugally: to do without: to save from any use: to withhold from: to forbear from harming, to treat tenderly: to part with willingly.--_v.i._ to be frugal: to forbear: to be tender: to be forgiving.--_adj._ sparing: frugal: scanty: lean: superfluous.--_n._ that which has been saved or stored away: in American bowling, a point made by overturning all the pins with the first two balls.--_adv._ SPARE'LY, in a spare manner: sparingly.--_ns._ SPARE'NESS; SP[=A]R'ER, one who spares or avoids expense; SPARE'RIB, a piece of pork consisting of ribs with the meat adhering to them.--_adj._ SP[=A]'RING, scarce: scanty: saving: merciful, forgiving.--_adv._ SP[=A]R'INGLY, frugally: not abundantly: with abstinence: seldom: cautiously.--_n._ SP[=A]R'INGNESS, the quality of being sparing: want of liberality: caution. [A.S. _sparian_, to spare--_spær_, spare; Ger. _spärlich_, frugal.] SPARGANIUM, spär-g[=a]'ni-um, _n._ a genus of plants of the order _Typhaceæ_:, the bur-reeds. [Gr.] SPARGE, spärj, _v.t._ to sprinkle--(_Scot._) SPAIRGE.--_n._ SPAR'GER, a sprinkler. [L. _sparg[)e]re_, to sprinkle.] SPARGOSIS, spär-g[=o]'sis, _n._ great distention of the breasts with milk.--Also SPARGAN[=O]'SIS. [Gr. _sparg[=o]sis_--_spargan_, to swell.] SPAR-HAWK, spär'-hawk, _n._=_Sparrow-hawk_. SPARK, spärk, _n._ a small ignited particle shot off from a burning body: any small shining body or light: a small portion of anything active or vivid: a gay sprightly person, a lover, a beau.--_v.i._ to emit sparks: to play the gallant.--_adj._ SPARK'ISH, gay, jaunty, showy. [A.S. _spearca_, a spark; Dut. _spark_.] SPARKE, spärk, _n._ (_Spens._) a battle-axe. [Perh. an error for _sparthe_.] SPARKLE, spärk'l, _n._ a little spark: lustre, brilliance: the presence of carbon dioxide, as in a wine, causing effervescence: the emission of sparks.--_v.i._ to emit sparks: to shine, glitter: to effervesce with glittering bubbles, or to contain much carbon dioxide, as certain wines.--_v.t._ to throw out sparklingly.--_n._ SPARK'LER, one who, or that which, sparkles.--_adj._ SPARK'LESS, not giving out sparks.--_adv._ SPARK'LESSLY.--_n._ SPARK'LET, a small spark.--_adj._ SPARK'LING, giving out sparks: glittering: brilliant: lively.--_adv._ SPARK'LINGLY, in a sparkling manner: with vivid and twinkling lustre.--_n._ SPARK'LINGNESS, the quality of being sparkling: vivid and twinkling lustre. [A freq. of _spark_.] SPARLING, spär'ling, _n._ the smelt.--Also SPIR'LING. SPARRE, spär, _n._ (_Spens._) a bolt, a bar. [_Spar_.] SPARRER. See under SPAR (3). SPARROW, spar'[=o], _n._ an Old World genus of birds of fringilline family.--_ns._ SPARR'OW-BILL, a small shoe-nail, so called from its shape--also SPAR'ABLE; SPARR'OW-GRASS, asparagus; SPARR'OW-HAWK, a genus of long-legged, short-winged falcons, like the goshawks, but smaller.--_adj._ SPARR'OW-TAIL (see SWALLOW-TAIL). [A.S. _spearwa_; Goth. _sparwa_, Ice. _spörr_, Ger. _sper-ling_.] SPARRY, spär'i, _adj._ consisting of, or like, spar.--_n._ SPARR'Y-[=I]'RON, a carbonite of iron, siderite. SPARSE, spärs, _adj._ thinly scattered: scanty.--_adv._ SPARSE'LY.--_n._ SPARSE'NESS.--_adj._ SPAR'SILE.--_n._ SPAR'SITY. [L. _sparsum_, pa.p. of _sparg[)e]re_, to scatter; Gr. _speirein_, to sow.] SPARTAN, spär'tan, _adj._ of or pertaining to _Sparta_ in Greece: hardy, rigorously severe: fearless. SPARTERIE, spär't[.e]r-i, _n._ articles made from esparto--mats, nets, ropes, &c. SPARTH, -E, sparth, _n._ a halberd, mace. SPASM, spazm, _n._ an irregular and violent contraction of muscular parts--involuntary even when the voluntary muscles are concerned. When persistent it is _tonic spasm_ or _cramp_, _catalepsy_, _tetanus_; when the relaxations alternate with the contractions, it is _clonic spasm_, as in _epilepsy_, _convulsive hysteria_, _chorea_, &c.--_n._ SPASMOD'IC, a medicine for removing spasms.--_adjs._ SPASMOD'IC, -AL, relating to, or consisting in, spasms: convulsive.--_adv._ SPASMOD'ICALLY, in a spasmodic manner: in fits.--_ns._ SPAS'MODIST; SPASMOL'OGY, scientific knowledge of spasms.--_adj._ SPAS'TIC, relating to spasms, spasmodic.--_adv._ SPAS'TICALLY.--_n._ SPASTIC'ITY, tendency to spasm.--SPASMODIC SCHOOL, a group of English poets, including P. J. Bailey, Sydney Dobell, and Alexander Smith, marked by overstrained and unnatural sentiment and expression. [Fr. _spasme_--L. _spasmus_--Gr. _spasmos_--_spaein_, to draw.] SPAT, spat, _pa.t._ of _spit_, to throw from the mouth. SPAT, spat, _n._ the spawn of shellfish.--_v.i._ to shed spawn. [From root of _spit_.] SPAT, spat, _n._ a slap: a large drop, as of rain: a petty quarrel.--_v.t._ to slap, to strike lightly.--_v.i._ to engage in a petty quarrel. SPAT, spat, _n._ a gaiter or legging--usually in _pl._ [_Spatter-dashes_.] SPATANGUS, sp[=a]-tang'gus, _n._ the typical genus of _Spatangidæ_, a family of irregular sea-urchins, the heart-urchins.--_n.pl._ SPATANG'IDA, the spatangoid sea-urchins.--_adj._ SPATANG'OID, like a cordate urchin.--_n._ one of these.--_ns.pl._ SPATANGOI'DA, SPATANGOI'D[=E]A, the _Spatangidæ_, an order of petalostichous sea-urchins, generally excluding the clypeastroids or flat sea-urchins. [Gr. _spatang[=e]s_, a sea-urchin.] SPATCH-COCK, spach'-kok, _n._ a fowl killed and immediately roasted or broiled for some sudden occasion. [Prob. a corr. of _despatch_ and _cock_.] SPATE, SPAIT, sp[=a]t, _n._ a sudden flood, as in a stream after heavy rain. [Prob. Ir. _speid_.] SPATHE, sp[=a]th, _n._ (_bot_.) a sheathing bract, which encloses one or more flowers, as in the narcissus.--_adjs._ SPATH[=A]'CEOUS, spathe-bearing; SP[=A]THED, having a spathe.--_n._ SPATHIL'LA, a secondary or diminutive spathe.--_adjs._ SP[=A]'THOSE, SP[=A]'THOUS (_bot_.), having a spathe or sheath-like bract, bursting longitudinally. [L. _spatha_--Gr. _spath[=e]_, a broad blade.] SPATHIC, spath'ik, _adj._ (_min._) foliated, lamellar.--_adj._ SPATH'IFORM, spathic. [Ger. _spath_, spar.] SPATHURA, sp[=a]-th[=u]'ra, _n._ a genus of humming-birds with peculiar tail-feathers expanding into a spatule at the end, and leg-muffs. [Gr. _spath[=e]_, a blade, _oura_, a tail.] SPATIAL, sp[=a]'shal, _adj._ relating to space.--_n._ SP[=A]TIAL'ITY.--_adv_. SP[=A]'TIALLY. SPATILOMANCY, sp[=a]-til'[=o]-man-si, _n._ divination by means of animal excrements. [Gr. _spatil[=e]_, excrement, _manteia_, divination.] [Illustration] SPATTER, spat'[.e]r, _v.t._ to throw out or scatter upon: to scatter about: to sprinkle with dirt or anything moist: to defame.--_n._ the act of spattering: what is spattered.--_n.pl._ SPATT'ER-DASH'ES, coverings for the legs, to keep them clean from water and mud, a kind of gaiters.--_n._ SPATT'ER-WORK, a method of producing designs by covering the surface with the pattern and then spattering colouring matter on the parts exposed. [A freq. of _spot_.] SPATULA, spat'[=u]-la, SPATTLE, spat'l, _n._ a little spade: a broad kind of knife for spreading plasters.--_n._ SPAT'ULAMANCY, a method of divination by a sheep's shoulder-blade.--_adj._ SPAT'UL[=A]TE, shaped like a spatula.--_n._ SPAT'ULE, a spatulate formation.--_adjs._ SPAT'ULIFORM, SPATULIG'EROUS. [L. _spatula_, _spathula_, dim. of _spatha_--Gr. _spath[=e]_.] SPAVIN, spav'in, _n._ a disease of horses occurring under two different forms--_bog-spavin_, in which the hock-joint is distended with dark-coloured synovia or joint-oil, and _bone-spavin_, in which a bony enlargement occurs towards the inside of the hock, at the head of the shank-bone, or between some of the small bones of the hock.--_adj._ SPAV'INED, affected with spavin. [O. Fr. _esparvain_ (Fr. _éparvin_)--Old High Ger. _sparo_, _sparwe_, a sparrow.] SPAWL, spawl, _n._ spittle, slaver.--_v.i._ to eject saliva. SPAWN, spawn, _n._ the eggs of fish or frogs when ejected: offspring.--_adj._ containing spawn.--_v.t._ to produce, as fishes and frogs do their eggs: to bring forth.--_v.i._ to deposit eggs, as fishes or frogs: to issue, as offspring.--_ns._ SPAWN'ER, the female fish from which the spawn is ejected; SPAWN'ING; SPAWN'ING-BED, -GROUND, a bed made in the bottom of a stream on which fish deposit their spawn. [O. Fr. _espandre_, to shed--L. _expand[)e]re_, to spread out.] SPAY, sp[=a], _v.t._ to make an animal barren by destroying its ovaries.--Also SP[=A]VE. [L. _spado_--Gr. _spad[=o]n_, a eunuch--Gr. _spaein_, draw out.] SPEAK, sp[=e]k, _v.i._ to utter words or articulate sounds: to say: to talk: to converse: to sound: to give expression by any means, to intimate, to hint.--_v.t._ to pronounce: to converse in: to address: to declare: to express by signs:--_pa.t._ spoke or sp[=a]ke; _pa.p._ sp[=o]'ken.--_adj._ SPEAK'ABLE, capable of being spoken: (_Milt._) having the power of speech.--_ns._ SPEAK'-EAS'Y (_U.S._), an illicit dram-shop, shebeen; SPEAK'ER, one who speaks or proclaims: the person who presides in a deliberative or legislative body, as the House of Commons; SPEAK'ERSHIP, the office of Speaker; SPEAK'ING, the act of expressing ideas in words: discourse.--_adj._ seeming to speak: natural: used to assist the voice.--_adv._ SPEAK'INGLY.--_ns._ SPEAK'ING-TRUM'PET, an instrument for enabling the sound of the voice to be conveyed to a greater distance; SPEAK'ING-TUBE, a tube communicating from one room to another for speaking through; SPEAK'ING-VOICE, the kind of voice used in speaking.--SPEAK A SHIP, to hail and speak to some one on board her; SPEAK FAIR, to address one in conciliatory terms; SPEAK FOR, to speak on behalf of: to be a proof of: to bespeak, engage; SPEAKING TERMS, a relationship between two persons not extending beyond the courtesy of verbal salutation, &c.; SPEAK OF, to talk about: to mention, or to be worth mentioning; SPEAK ONE'S MIND, to say frankly what one thinks; SPEAK OUT, to assert boldly or loudly; SPEAK TO, to reprove: to attest, testify to; SPEAK UP, to speak out; SPEAK WELL FOR, to witness favourably to.--SO TO SPEAK, as one might put it, as it were. [A.S. _specan_ (for _sprecan_); Dut. _spreken_, Ger. _sprechen_.] SPEAL-BONE, sp[=e]l'-b[=o]n, _n._ the shoulder-blade. SPEAR, sp[=e]r, _n._ a long weapon used in war and hunting, made of a pole pointed with iron: a lance with barbed prongs used for catching fish.--_v.t._ to pierce or kill with a spear.--_ns._ SPEAR'-FISH, a kind of carp-sucker--also _Sail-fish_ and _Skimback_: the bill-fish, a histiophoroid fish related to the swordfish; SPEAR'-FOOT, the off or right hind-foot of a horse; SPEAR'-GRASS, a name applied to various grasses, esp. those known as meadow-grass, the Kentucky blue-grass: either of two New Zealand plants of the parsley family with long spinous leaflets; SPEAR'-HEAD, the iron point of a spear; SPEAR'-LIL'Y, a plant of one of the species of the Australian genus _Doryanthes_ of the _Amaryllideæ_, with sword-shaped leaves; SPEAR'MAN, a man armed with a spear; SPEAR'MINT, the common garden-mint; SPEAR'-THIS'TLE, the common thistle; SPEAR'-WOOD, one of two Australian trees whose wood makes good spear-shafts; SPEAR'-WORT, the name of several species of Ranunculus with lance-shaped leaves. [A.S. _spere_; Ger. _speer_, L. _sparus_; cf. _Spar_.] SPEC, a colloquial abbrev. of _speculation_. SPECIAL, spesh'al, _adj._ of a species or sort; particular: distinctive: uncommon: designed for a particular purpose: confined to a particular subject or application.--_n._ any special or particular person or thing: any person or thing set apart for a particular duty--a constable, a railway-tram, &c.: a newspaper extra, a despatch from a special correspondent.--_n._ SPECIALIS[=A]'TION, the act or process of specialising: differentiation, as of organs, functions, &c.--_v.t._ SPEC'IALISE, to make specifically distinct, to limit to a particular kind of action or use.--_v.i._ to act in some particular way, to take a particular direction, as to devote one's self especially to some particular branch of study.--_ns._ SPEC'IALISM, devotion to some particular study or pursuit; SPEC'IALIST, one who devotes himself to a special subject.--_adj._ SPECIALIST'IC.--_n._ SPECIAL'ITY, the particular characteristic of a person or thing: a special occupation or object of attention.--_adv._ SPEC'IALLY.--_ns._ SPEC'IALTY, something special or distinctive: any special product, article of sale or of manufacture: any special pursuit, department of study, &c.: a special contract for the payment of money; SPECIE (sp[=e]'shi), gold and silver coin, metallic money (abl. of L. _species_, kind); SP[=E]'CIES, a group of individuals having common marks or characteristics, specialised from others of the same _genus_ to which it is subordinate: a group under a higher class, a kind or sort, a distinct constituent part, an element: an appearance to the senses, an image of an external object presented to the eye or the mind; SP[=E]'CIES-MONG'ER, one who busies himself with classifications only, indifferent to wider biological relations, one who makes distinctions for distinction's sake; SP[=E]CIF'IC, a remedy which has a special power in a particular disease: an infallible remedy.--_adjs._ SP[=E]CIF'IC, -AL, pertaining to, or constituting, a species: that specifies: peculiar to: produced by some special cause: precise: infallible.--_adv._ SP[=E]CIF'ICALLY.--_ns._ SP[=E]CIF'ICALNESS, SP[=E]CIF'ICNESS, the state or quality of being specific.--SPECIAL CONSTABLE (see CONSTABLE); SPECIAL LICENSE (see License); SPECIAL PLEADING (see PLEAD); SPECIAL VERDICT (see VERDICT).--SPECIFIC DENSITY, the mass of any given substance contained in unit volume; SPECIFIC GRAVITY, the weight of any given substance as compared with the weight of an equal bulk or volume of water or other standard substance at the same temperature and pressure; SPECIFIC HEAT (see HEAT). SPECIFY, spes'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to mention particularly: to set down as a requisite:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ spec'if[=i]ed.--_v.t._ SPECIF'ICATE, to specify.--_n._ SPECIFIC[=A]'TION, the act of specifying: any point or particular specified: the description of his invention presented by an applicant for a patent.--LOGICAL SPECIFICATION is the counterpart of generalisation--implying that beings the most like or homogeneous disagree or are heterogeneous in some respect. [O. Fr.,--Low L. _specific[=a]re_--L. _species_, kind, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] SPECILLUM, sp[=e]-sil'um, _n._ a surgical probe: a lens, eyeglass. [L.,--_spec[)e]re_, to look.] SPECIMEN, spes'i-men, _n._ a portion of anything to show the kind and quality of the whole: a sample, a typical individual: a preparation in natural history, &c., exemplifying anything noticeable in a species or other group. [L. _specimen_--_spec[)e]re_, to see.] SPECIOUS, sp[=e]'shus, _adj._ that looks well at first sight: showy: plausible: appearing actual, not merely imaginary.--_ns._ SP[=E]CIOS'ITY, SP[=E]'CIOUSNESS, plausible appearance.--_adv._ SP[=E]'CIOUSLY. [Fr.,--L. _speciosus_, showy--_species_, form--_spec[)e]re_, to see.] SPECK, spek, _n._ a spot: a blemish: a mark betokening decay: a separate piece or particle, an atom, the least morsel or quantity: a percoid fish of the United States, a darter.--_v.t._ to spot. [A.S. _specca_; Low Ger. _spakig_, spotted with wet.] SPECK, spek, _n._ fat, lard.--_n._ SPECKTIONEER', the chief harpooner in whale-fishing. [A.S. _spic_, bacon; Ger. _speck_, Dut. _spek_, fat.] SPECKLE, spek'l, _n._ a little speck or spot in anything different in substance or colour from the thing itself: (_Scot._) kind, sort.--_v.t._ to mark with speckles.--_adj._ SPECK'LED, variegated, piebald.--_n._ SPECK'LEDNESS.--_adjs._ SPECK'LESS, spotless, perfectly clean; SPECK'Y, partially spotted. SPECTACLE, spek'ta-kl, _n._ a sight: show, a pageant, exhibition: (_pl._) a pair of lenses mounted in frames to assist the sight, aids to mental vision: a marking resembling spectacles, as in the cobra.--_adjs._ SPEC'TACLED, wearing spectacles: marked like spectacles, as the bear, cobra, &c.; SPECTAC'ULAR, marked by display.--_n._ SPECTACULAR'ITY.--_adv._ SPECTAC'ULARLY. [L. _spectaculum_--_spect[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, intens. of _spec[)e]re_, to look at.] SPECTANT, spek'tant, _adj._ looking forward.--_v.t._ SPEC'T[=A]TE, to survey.--_n._ SPEC'T[=A]TION. [L. _spectans_, _-antis_, pr.p. of _spect[=a]re_.] SPECTATOR, spek-t[=a]'tor, _n._ one who looks on:--_fem._ SPECT[=A]'TRESS, SPECT[=A]'TRIX.--_adj._ SPECTAT[=O]'RIAL.--_n._ SPECT[=A]'TORSHIP, the office or quality of a spectator: (_Shak._) the act of beholding. SPECTRE, spek't[.e]r, _n._ a ghost.--_adj._ SPEC'TRAL, relating to, or like, a spectre.--_n._ SPECTRAL'ITY, the state of being spectral, a spectral object.--_adv._ SPEC'TRALLY.--_n._ SPEC'TRE-BAT, a South American leaf-nosed bat or vampire. [L. _spectrum_, a vision--_spec[)e]re_, to see.] SPECTRUM, spek'trum, _n._ the image of something seen continued after the eyes are closed: the colours of light separated by a prism, and exhibited as spread out on a screen:--_pl._ SPEC'TRA.--_n._ SPEC'TROGRAPH, an apparatus for photographing a spectrum.--_adjs._ SPECTROGRAPH'IC, -AL.--_n._ SPECTROG'RAPHY, the art of using the spectrograph.--_adj._ SPECTROLOG'ICAL.--_adv._ SPECTROLOG'ICALLY.--_ns._ SPECTROL'OGY, the division of physical science that embraces spectrum analysis: demonology; SPECTROM'ETER, an instrument like a spectroscope, by means of which the angular deviation of a ray of light in passing through a prism can be accurately measured.--_adj._ SPECTROMET'RIC.--_n._ SPEC'TROPH[=O]NE, an adaptation of the spectroscope, in which, on the principle of the radiophone, perception of a succession of sounds takes the place of observation by the eye.--_adj._ SPECTROPHON'IC.--_ns._ SPEC'TRO-POLAR'ISCOPE, a polariscope combined with a spectroscope; SPEC'TROSCOPE, an instrument for forming and examining spectra of luminous bodies, so as to determine their composition.--_adjs._ SPECTROSC[=O]P'IC, -AL.--_adv._ SPECTROSC[=O]P'ICALLY.--_ns._ SPEC'TROSC[=O]PIST, one skilled in spectroscopy; SPEC'TROSC[=O]PY, the use of the spectroscope and the study of spectrum analysis. [L.,--_spec[)e]re_, to see.] SPECULAR, spek'[=u]-lar, _adj._ resembling a speculum: having a smooth reflecting surface: assisting vision, serving for inspection.--SPECULAR IRON ORE, a variety of hematite, with a brilliant metallic lustre. [L.] SPECULARIA, spek-[=u]-l[=a]'ri-a, _n._ a genus of plants of the bellwort family (_Campanulaceæ_), including the Venus's-looking-glass. SPECULATE, spek'[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.i._ to look at or into with the mind: to consider: to theorise: to traffic for great profit.--_ns._ SPECUL[=A]'TION, act of speculating: mental view: contemplation: theory: the buying goods, &c., to sell them at an advance, any more or less risky investment of money for the sake of unusually large profits; SPEC'UL[=A]TIST, a speculative philosopher.--_adj._ SPEC'[=U]L[=A]TIVE, given to speculation or theory: ideal: pertaining to speculation in business, &c.--_adv._ SPEC'UL[=A]TIVELY.--_ns._ SPEC'UL[=A]TIVENESS, the state of being speculative; SPEC'UL[=A]TOR, one who engages in mental speculations, or who practises speculation in trade or business of any kind.--_adj._ SPEC'[=U]L[=A]TORY, exercising speculation: adapted for spying or viewing.--_n._ SPEC'UL[=A]TRIX, a female speculator. [L. _speculatus_, _pa.p._ of _specul[=a]ri_--_specula_, a lookout--_spec[)e]re_, to look.] SPECULUM, spek'[=u]-lum, _n._ (_opt._) a reflector usually made of polished metal: (_surg._) an instrument for bringing into view parts otherwise hidden: an ocellus or eye-spot, the mirror of a wing: a lookout place:--_pl._ SPEC'ULA. [L.,--_spec[)e]re_, to look.] SPED, sped, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _speed_. SPEECH, sp[=e]ch, _n._ that which is spoken: language: the power of speaking: manner of speech, oration: any declaration of thoughts: mention: colloquy: conference.--_ns._ SPEECH'-CRAFT, the science of language: the gift of speech; SPEECH'-CR[=I]'ER, one who hawked the broadsides containing the dying speeches of persons executed, once common; SPEECH'-DAY, the public day at the close of a school year.--_adj._ SPEECH'FUL, loquacious.--_ns._ SPEECHIFIC[=A]'TION, the act of making harangues; SPEECH'IF[=I]ER.--_v.i._ SPEECH'IFY, to make speeches, harangue (implying contempt).--_adj._ SPEECH'LESS, destitute or deprived of the power of speech.--_adv._ SPEECH'LESSLY.--_ns._ SPEECH'LESSNESS; SPEECH'-M[=A]K'ER, one accustomed to speak in public; SPEECH'-M[=A]K'ING, a formal speaking before an assembly; SPEECH'-READ'ING, the art of following spoken words by observing the speaker's lips, as taught to deaf-mutes. [A.S. _sp['æ]c_, _spr['æ]c_; Ger. _sprache_.] SPEED, sp[=e]d, _n._ quickness, velocity: success.--_v.i._ to move quickly, to hurry: to succeed, to fare.--_v.t._ to despatch quickly: to hasten, as to a conclusion: to cause to advance, to push forward: to give a certain speed to, regulate the speed of: to send off, to put forth, to rid of, to kill: to cause to be relieved (only in passive): to execute: to aid: to make prosperous:--_pr.p._ speed'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ sped.--_n._ SPEED'ER, one who, or that which, promotes speed.--_adj._ SPEED'FUL, speedy.--_advs._ SPEED'FULLY; SPEED'ILY.--_ns._ SPEED'INESS, speed, haste; SPEED'-PULL'EY, a pulley having different faces of different diameters giving various speeds according to the face the belt passes over; SPEED'WELL (_Veronica_), a genus of plants of the natural order _Scrophulariaceæ_, with blue, white, or pink flowers, the leaves of some species used medicinally.--_adj._ SPEED'Y, hasty: quick: nimble. [A.S. _spéd_; Dut. _spoed_.] SPEIR, SPEER, sp[=e]r, _v.t._ and _v.i._ (_Scot._) to ask. [A.S. _spyrian_, to inquire after, _spor_, a trace.] SPEISS, sp[=i]s, _n._ the product first obtained (an arsenide of the metal) when arsenical ores are smelted. [Ger. _speise_.] SPEKBOOM, spek'b[=o]m, _n._ a large South African shrub of the purslane family. [Dut.] SPELÆAN, SPELEAN, sp[=e]-l[=e]'an, _adj._ cave-dwelling. [L. _spelæum_--Gr. _sp[=e]laion_, a cave.] SPELD, speld, _n._ a chip, splinter.--Also SPEL'DER. SPELDING, spel'ding, _n._ (_Scot._) a small fish split and dried in the sun.--Also SPEL'DRIN, SPEL'DRON. SPELIN, spe-lin', _n._ an artificial linguistic system devised by G. Bauer in 1888 for universal use. SPELK, spelk, _n._ (_prov._) a rod, switch.--_v.t._ to use a spelk in or upon. SPELL, spel, _n._ any form of words supposed to possess magical power: fascination.--_v.t._ to tell or name the letters of: to name, write, or print the proper letters of.--_v.i._ to form words with the proper letters: to study:--_pr.p._ spell'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ spelled, spelt.--_adjs._ SPELL'ABLE, capable of being spelled; SPELL'-BOUND, SPELL'-STOPPED (_Shak._), entranced, fascinated.--_ns._ SPELL'ER, one who spells: one skilled in spelling; SPELL'ING, act of spelling or naming the letters of words: orthography; SPELL'ING-BEE, a competition in spelling; SPELL'ING-BOOK, a book for teaching to spell; SPELL'-WORK, that which is wrought by spells or charms: power of magic.--SPELL BACKWARD, to spell, repeat, or arrange in reverse order: to understand in a contrary sense: to turn wrong-side out, misconstrue one's qualities; SPELL BAKER, to do something difficult, that word being one of the earliest dissyllables in children's books. [A.S. _spell_, a narrative; Goth. _spill_, Ice. _spjall_, a tale.] SPELL, spel, _v.t._ to take another's place at work:--_pr.p._ spell'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ spelled.--_n._ a turn at work: a short period indefinitely: an interval of rest: a bad turn. [A.S. _spelian_, to act for another; cf. Dut. _spelen_, Ger. _spielen_, to play.] SPELT, spelt, _n._ a kind of wheat, probably only a race of common wheat, still grown in the mountainous parts of Europe and elsewhere--also called German wheat. [A.S. _spelt_--Low L. _spelta_.] SPELTER, spel't[.e]r, _n._ zinc. [Allied to Dut. _spiauter_.] SPENCE, spens, _n._ (_prov._) a place where provisions are kept: a larder: a pantry.--Also SPENSE. [O. Fr. _despense_, a buttery--_despendre_--L. _dispend[)e]re_.] SPENCER, spens'[.e]r, _n._ a short over-jacket worn by men or women, named after Earl _Spencer_ (1782-1845). SPENCER, spens'[.e]r, _n._ (in ships and barques) a fore-and-aft sail abaft the fore and main masts. SPENCERIAN, spen-s[=e]'ri-an, _adj._ pertaining to the philosophy of Herbert _Spencer_ (b. 1820).--_n._ a follower of Spencer.--_n._ SPENC[=E]'RIANISM, the system of evolutionary cosmology propounded by Herbert Spencer--the so-called synthetic philosophy. SPEND, spend, _v.t._ to expend or weigh out: to give for any purpose: to consume: to waste: to pass, as time.--_v.i._ to make expense: to be lost, wasted, or dissipated: to emit milt, semen, &c.:--_pr.p._ spend'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ spent.--_adj._ SPEN'DABLE, that may be spent.--_ns._ SPEND'ALL, a spendthrift; SPEN'DER; SPEN'DING; SPENSE=_Spence_ (q.v.).--_adj._ SPENT, exhausted: impotent: of fish, exhausted by spawning. [A.S. _spendan_--L. _expend[)e]re_ or _dispend[)e]re_, to weigh out.] SPENDTHRIFT, spend'thrift, _n._ one who spends the savings of thrift: a prodigal.--_adj._ excessively lavish. [_Spend_ and _thrift_.] SPENSERIAN, spen-s[=e]'ri-an, _adj._ pertaining to Edmund _Spenser_ (1552-1599) or his versification, esp. his stanza in _The Faerie Queene_, a strophe of eight decasyllabic lines and an Alexandrine, having three rhymes, the 1st and 3d, the 2d, 4th, 5th, and 7th, and the 6th, 8th, and 9th. SPENT, spent, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of spend. SPEOS, sp[=e]'os, _n._ a grotto-temple or tomb. [Gr.] SPER, sp[.e]r, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to bolt, to shut, as a gate. SPERABLE, sp[=e]'ra-bl, _adj._ (_Bacon_) that may be hoped.--_adj._ SP[=E]'RATE, hoped for. [L. _sperabilis_--_sper[=a]re_, to hope.] SPERGULA, sper'g[=u]-la, _n._ a genus of polypetalous annuals belonging to the _Caryophyllaceæ_, with small white or pink flowers--_spurry_ or _sandweed_.--_n._ SPERGUL[=A]'RIA, an allied genus, the sand-spurry. [L. _sparg[)e]re_, to scatter.] SPERKET, sp[.e]r'ket, _n._ a hooked peg for hanging harness upon.--Also SPIR'KET. SPERM, sp[.e]rm, _n._ animal seed: spawn of fishes or frogs: spermaceti.--_ns._ SPER'MADUCT, a spermatic duct; SPER'MAPHORE (_bot._), a placenta; SPER'MARY, the male germ-gland; SPERMATH[=E]'CA, a spermatic case or sheath--also SPERMATOTH[=E]'CA.--_adjs._ SPERMATH[=E]'CAL; SPERMAT'IC, -AL, pertaining to, or consisting of, sperm or seed, seminal: connected with the male function, testicular.--_v.i._ SPER'MATISE, to yield or to discharge semen.--_ns._ SPER'MATISM=_Spermism_; SPER'MATIST=_Spermist_; SPERM[=A]'TIUM, a minute spore within a spermogonium:--_pl._ SPERM[=A]'TIA.--_adj._ SPERMAT[=O]'AL, pertaining to a spermatoon.--_n._ SPER'MATOBLAST, the germ of a spermatozoon.--_adj._ SPERMATOBLAS'TIC.--_ns._ SPER'MATOCELE, swelling of the testicle; SPER'MATOCYST, a seminal vesicle; SPERMATOCYS'TIS, inflammation of the seminal vesicles.--_adj._ SPERMATOCY'TAL.--_ns._ SPER'MATOCYTE, a mother-cell from which spermatozoids are developed; SPERMATOGEM'MA, a mass of spermatocytes; SPERMATOGEN'ESIS, the formation of spermatozoa.--_adjs._ SPERMATOGENET'IC, SPERMATOG'ENOUS.--_ns._ SPERMATOG'ENY, the generation of spermatozoa; SPERMATOG[=O]'NIUM, one of the primitive seminal cells that by division form the spermatocytes.--_adjs._ SPER'MATOID, sperm-like; SPERMATOLOG'ICAL, pertaining to spermatology.--_ns._ SPERMATOL'OGIST, one versed in spermatology; SPERMATOL'OGY, the knowledge of the facts about semen; SPERMAT[=O]'ON, the nucleus of a spermatozoon; SPERMAT'[=O]PH[=O]RE, a case which in some Invertebrata encloses the spermatozoa.--_adj._ SPERMATOPH'OROUS.--_ns._ SPERMATORRH[=E]'A, involuntary seminal discharge; SPERMAT[=O]'VUM, a fecundated ovum; SPERMATOZ[=O]'ID, SPERMATOZ[=O]'ON, one of the male reproductive cells of animals, the physiological complements of the egg-cells or ova:--_pl._ SPERMATOZ[=O]'A; SPERM'-CELL, a spermatozoon: a spermatoblast or a spermatocyte.--_adj._ SPER'MIC=_Spermatic_--_ns._ SPER'MISM, a seminal discharge: the theory that the male sperm holds the whole germ of the future animal; SPER'MIST, one who holds the theory of spermism; SPERM'-N[=U]'CLEUS, the nucleus of a spermatozoon; SPER'MODERM, the whole integument of a seed; SPERMOG[=O]'NIUM, the cavity in which, spermatia are produced; SPERM'-OIL, oil from the sperm-whale; SPORMOL'OGY=_Spermatology_; SPERMOPH'[=O]RUM, a seminal vesicle.--_n.pl._ SPERMOPH'YTA, one of the four divisions of the vegetable kingdom including flowering plants.--_ns._ SPERM'[=U]LE, a sperm-cell; SPERM'-WHALE, the cachalot, a species of whale from which spermaceti is obtained. [Fr.,--L. _sperma_--Gr. _sperma_, _spermatos_--_speirein_, to sow.] SPERMACETI, sper-ma-set'i, or-s[=e]'t[=i], _n._ a waxy matter obtained mixed with oil from the head of the sperm-whale--purified by draining off the oil and repeatedly washing with hot water and weak boiling potash-lye.--_adj._ derived from, or yielding, spermaceti.--_n._ SPERMACET'I-WHALE, the sperm-whale. [L. _sperma_, _c[=e]tus_, a whale--Gr. _k[=e]tos_.] SPERMOPHILE, sper'm[=o]-f[=i]l, _n._ a rodent of the genus _Spermophilus_, a ground-squirrel. [Gr. _sperma_, seed, _philein_, to love.] SPERRE, sper, _v.t._ (_Spens._). Same as SPER. [_Spar_.] SPERRYLITE, sper'i-l[=i]t, _n._ an arsenide of platinum discovered in 1888 in the province of Ontario, Canada. SPERSE, sp[.e]rs, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to disperse. SPET, spet, _v.i._ (_Milt._) a form of _spit_. SPETCH, spech, _n._ a piece of skin used in making glue. [_Speck_.] SPEW, SPUE, sp[=u], _v.t._ and _v.i._ to vomit: to eject with loathing.--_ns._ SPEW'ER; SPEW'INESS, moistness.--_adj._ SPEW'Y, boggy. [A.S. _spíwan_; Dut. _spuwen_, Ger. _speien_; also L. _spu[)e]re_, Gr. _ptyein_.] SPHACELUS, sfas'e-lus, _n._ gangrene.--_adjs._ SPHAC'ELATE, -D, necrosed.--_ns._ SPHACEL[=A]'TION, SPHACELIS'MUS, necrosis; SPHACEL[=O]'MA, a genus of fungi containing _anthracnose_. [Gr. _sphakelos_.] SPHÆRIDIUM, sf[=e]-rid'i-um, _n._ one of the minute spheroidal bodies attached to the ambulacral plates of sea-urchins:--_pl._ SPHÆRID'IA. [Gr. _sphairidion_, dim. of _sphaira_, a sphere.] SPHÆRISTERIUM, sf[=e]-ris-t[=e]'ri-um, _n._ a tennis-court. [Gr.,--_sphaira_, a ball.] SPHÆRITE, sf[=e]'r[=i]t, _n._ a hydrous phosphate of aluminium. SPHAGNUM, sfag'num, _n._ a genus of mosses--peat or bog-moss, belonging to the order _Sphagnaceæ_.--_ns._ SPHAGNOL'OGIST, one who has studied the foregoing; SPHAGNOL'OGY, the study of the same.--_adj._ SPHAG'NOUS. [Gr. _sphagnos_, moss.] SPHECIUS, sf[=e]'shi-us, _n._ a genus of digger-wasps. [Gr. _sph[=e]x_, a wasp.] SPHENDONE, sfen'd[=o]-n[=e], _n._ an ancient Greek form of women's head-band: an elliptical or semi-elliptical auditorium. [Gr., a sling.] SPHENE, sf[=e]n, _n._ titanite. [Fr.,--Gr. _sph[=e]n_, wedge.] SPHENIC, sf[=e]'nik, _adj._ wedge-like. [Gr. _sph[=e]n_, a wedge.] SPHENISCUS, sf[=e]-nis'kus, _n._ a genus of penguins, of the family _Spheniscidæ_, the jackass-penguins. SPHENODON, sf[=e]'n[=o]-don, _n._ a genus of South American fossil sloths; a genus of extinct New Zealand lizards.--_adj._ SPH[=E]'NODONT. [Gr. _sph[=e]n_, a wedge, _odous_, _odontos_, a tooth.] SPHENOID, -AL, sf[=e]'noid, -al, _adj._ wedge-shaped: inserted like a wedge, denoting a bone at the base of the skull.--_adjs._ SPHENETH'MOID, pertaining to the sphenoid and the ethmoid bone; SPH[=E]'N[=O]-FRON'TAL, -M[=A]'LAR, -PAL'ATINE, -PAR[=I]'ETAL, -TEM'PORAL, pertaining to the sphenoid and frontal, malar, palatine, parietal, and temporal bones respectively.--_n._ SPH[=E]'NOGRAM, a cuneiform character.--_adjs._ SPH[=E]NOGRAPH'IC, -AL.--_n._ SPH[=E]NOG'RAPHY, the art of writing or deciphering cuneiform inscriptions.--_adjs._ SPH[=E]NOT'IC, pertaining to the sphenoid bone and the otic capsule; SPH[=E]'NO-TUR'BINAL, sphenoidal and turbinated or whorled. [Gr. _sph[=e]n_, _sph[=e]nos_, a wedge, _eidos_, form.] SPHERE, sf[=e]r, _n._ a ball or globe: an orb or circle: circuit of motion: province or duty: definite range: rank, position in society: (_geom._) a surface every point of which is equidistant from one and the same point, called the centre.--_adjs._ SPH[=E]R'AL; SPHERE'LESS.--_ns._ SPHERE'-MET'AL (_Milt._), metal like that of which the celestial spheres were anciently supposed to be made; SPHERE'-M[=U]'SIC, the music of the spheres.--_adjs._ SPHER'IC, -AL, pertaining to, or like, a sphere.--_n._ SPHERICAL'ITY.--_adv._ SPHER'ICALLY.--_ns._ SPHER'ICALNESS, SPHERIC'ITY, state or quality of being spherical: roundness; SPHER'ICLE, a little sphere; SPHER'ICS, the geometry and trigonometry of the sphere; SPH[=E]'ROID, a body or figure nearly spherical, but not quite so--a species of ellipsoid (_prolate_ spheroid, a slightly lengthened sphere; _oblate_ spheroid, a slightly flattened sphere).--_adj._ SPH[=E]ROI'DAL, having the form of a spheroid.--_ns._ SPH[=E]ROIDI'CITY, SPH[=E]ROID'ITY, the state of being spheroidal; SPH[=E]'ROM[=E]RE, one of the symmetrical segments of a radiate; SPH[=E]ROM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the sphericity of portions of spherical surfaces--for example, lenses; SPH[=E]'ROSID'ERITE, the name given to impure or earthy and frequently concretionary varieties of carbonate of iron.--_adj._ SPHER'[=U]LAR.--_ns._ SPHER'[=U]LE, a little sphere; SPHER'[=U]LITE, a radiating spherical group of minute acicular crystals common in silicious volcanic rocks.--_adjs._ SPHER[=U]LIT'IC; SPH[=E]'RY, spherical, round: belonging to the celestial spheres. [Fr.,--L. _sphæra_--Gr. _sphaira_.] SPHEX, sfeks, _n._ a genus of hymenopterous insects of the family _Sphegidæ_, closely allied to the true wasps (_Vespidæ_). [Gr. _sph[=e]x_, a wasp.] SPHINCTER, sfingk't[.e]r, _n._ (_anat._) a muscle that contracts or shuts an orifice or opening which it surrounds--around the anus, &c.--_adjs._ SPHINC'TER[=A]TE, provided with a sphincter, contracted as if by a sphincter; SPHINCT[=E]'RIAL, SPHINCTER'IC, relating to a sphincter or its function.--_n._ SPHINCTEROT'OMY, the operation of cutting a sphincter. [Gr. _sphingkt[=e]r_,--_sphinggein_, to bind tight.] SPHINX, sfingks, _n._ a monster of Greek mythology, with the head of a woman and the body of a lioness, that proposed riddles to travellers, and strangled those who could not solve them: an enigmatic or inscrutable person: a hawk-moth: the Guinea baboon. [Gr.,--_sphinggein_, to throttle.] SPHRAGISTICS, sfr[=a]-jis'tiks, _n._ knowledge about seals, their age, history, &c. [Gr. _sphragistikos_, pertaining to seals--_sphragis_, a seal.] SPHRIGOSIS, sfri-g[=o]'sis, _n._ in fruit-trees, excessive growth in wood and leaves at the expense of fruit. [Gr. _sphrigan_, to be vigorous.] SPHYGMOGRAPH, sfig'm[=o]-graf, _n._ an instrument for ascertaining and recording the form, force, and frequency of the pulse-beat, and the changes it undergoes in certain morbid states.--_adj._ SPHYG'MIC, pertaining to the pulse.--_n._ SPHYG'MOGRAM, the record made by a sphygmograph.--_adj._ SPHYGMOGRAPH'IC.--_n._ SPHYGMOG'RAPHY, the act of taking pulse-tracings.--_adj._ SPHYG'MOID, pulse-like.--_ns._ SPHYGMOL'OGY, the science of the pulse; SPHYGM[=O]M[=A]NOM'ETER, SPHYGMOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the tension of blood in an artery; SPHYG'MOPHONE, an instrument by means of which a pulse-beat makes a sound: SPHYG'M[=O]SC[=O]PE, an instrument for making arterial pulsations visible; SPHYG'MUS, the pulse. [Gr. _sphygmos_, the pulse, _graphein_, to write.] SPHYRNA, sf[.e]r'na, _n._ a genus of hammer-headed sharks.--_adj._ SPHYR'NINE. [Gr. _sphyra_, a hammer.] SPIAL, sp[=i]'al, _n._ (_obs._) espial: a spy, a scout. SPICA, sp[=i]'ka, _n._ a spiral bandage with reversed turns: (_ornith._) a spur.--_adjs._ SP[=I]'CAL, SP[=I]'C[=A]TE, -D, arranged in, or having the form of, a spike.--_n._ SPIC[=A]'TUM, in ancient masonry, herring-bone work. [L. _spicatus_, pa.p. of _spic[=a]re_--_spica_, ear.] SPICE, sp[=i]s, _n._ an aromatic and pungent vegetable substance used as a condiment and for seasoning food--pepper, cayenne pepper, pimento, nutmeg, mace, vanilla, ginger, cinnamon, cassia, &c.: a characteristic touch or taste, smack, flavour: anything that adds piquancy or interest: an aromatic odour.--_v.t._ to season with spice: to tincture, vary, or diversify.--_ns._ SPICE'-BOX, an ornamental box for keeping spices: (_coll._) a hot-tempered person; SPICE'-BUSH, an aromatic American shrub of the laurel family; SPICE'-CAKE, a cake flavoured with spice of some kind.--_adjs._ SPICED, impregnated with a spicy odour: over-scrupulous; SPICE'FUL, aromatic.--_ns._ SP[=I]'CER, one who seasons with spice; SP[=I]'CERY, spices in general: a repository of spices: spiciness; SPICE'-TREE, an evergreen tree of the Pacific United States, yielding a fine hard wood--the _Mountain-laurel_, _California-laurel_, _Olive-_ or _Bay-tree_, and _Cajeput_; SPICE'-WOOD, the spice-bush. [O. Fr. _espice_ (Fr. _épice_)--Late L. _species_, kinds of goods, spices--L. _species_, a particular kind, &c.] SPICIFEROUS, SPICIFORM, SPICOUS, &c. See SPIKE. SPICK, spik, _n._ a nail, a spike.--_adj._ tidy, fresh.--_adj._ SPICK'-AND-SPAN, new and fresh, brand-new.--SPICK-AND-SPAN NEW, i.e. as new as a spike just made and a chip just split. [_Spike_, nail.] SPICKNEL, spik'nel, _n._ the baldmoney.--Also SPIG'NEL. [Prob. _spike-nail_.] SPICY, sp[=i]'si, _adj._ producing or abounding with spices: fragrant: pungent: piquant, pointed, racy: showy.--_adv._ SP[=I]'CILY.--_n._ SP[=I]'CINESS. SPIDER, sp[=i]'d[.e]r, _n._ an arachnid of the order _Araneida_, the body divided into two distinct parts--an unsegmented cephalo-thorax, bearing six pairs of appendages, and a soft unsegmented abdomen, at the end of which are the spinnerets from each of which numerous 'spinning-spools' ooze forth the viscid fluid which hardens into the silken thread: a frying-pan with feet, a trivet.--_ns._ SP[=I]'DER-CATCH'ER, the wall-creeper; SP[=I]'DER-CRAB, a spider-like crab, or sea-spider with long thin legs; SP[=I]'DER-D[=I]V'ER, the little grebe, or dabchick; SP[=I]'DERDOM, spiders collectively.--_adj._ SP[=I]'DERED, cobwebbed.--_n._ SP[=I]'DER-FLY, a pupiparous fly, as a bird-louse, &c.--_adj._ SP[=I]'DER-LIKE, like a spider.--_ns._ SP[=I]'DERLING, a young spider; SP[=I]'DER-MON'KEY, an American platyrrine monkey, with long slender legs and tail; SP[=I]'DER-STITCH, a stitch in lace or netting in which threads are carried diagonally and parallel to each other; SP[=I]'DER-WASP, a pompilid wasp which fills its nest with spiders for its young; SP[=I]'DER-WEB, the snare spun by the spider; SP[=I]'DER-WHEEL, in embroidery, a circular pattern with radiating lines; SP[=I]'DER-WORK, lace worked by spider-stitch; SP[=I]'DER-WORT, any plant of the genus _Tradescantia_, esp. _T. virginica_, an American perennial with deep-blue or reddish-violet flowers.--_adj._ SP[=I]'DERY, spider-like. [M. E. _spither_--A.S. _spinnan_, to spin; cf. Dan. _spinder_, Ger. _spinne_.] SPIE, sp[=i], _n._ (_Spens._) a keen glance, the eye. [_Spy_.] SPIEGELEISEN, sp[=e]'gl-[=i]-zen, _n._ a white cast-iron containing from eight to fifteen per cent. of manganese, largely used in the manufacture of steel by the Bessemer process. [Ger.,--_spiegel_--L. _speculum_, a mirror, Ger. _eisen_, iron.] SPIFFY, spif'i, _adj._ (_slang_) smart, spruce, well-dressed. SPIFLICATE, spif'li-k[=a]t, _v.t._ (_slang_) to suffocate, kill: to beat severely, to confound.--_n._ SPIFLIC[=A]'TION. SPIGELIA, sp[=i]-j[=e]'li-a, _n._ a genus of plants of the natural order _Loganiaceæ_, containing the _Worm-grass_ and _Carolina-pink_, the root--_Pink-root_--being purgative, narcotic, and poisonous, a powerful vermifuge.--_adj._ SPIG[=E]'LIAN, denoting the _lobulus spigelii_, one of the lobes of the liver. [From the Belgian Ad. van der _Spiegel_ (1558-1625).] SPIGHT, sp[=i]t, v. and _n._ (_Spens._). Same as SPITE. SPIGOT, spig'ut, _n._ a plug for stopping a small hole in a cask. [Gael. _spiocaid_, W. _ysbigod_--L. _spica_.] SPIKE, sp[=i]k, _n._ an ear of corn: (_bot._) an inflorescence in which sessile flowers, or flowers having very short stalks, are arranged around an axis: a small pointed rod: a large nail.--_v.t._ to set with spikes: to stop the vent of with a cast-iron spike driven in hard and then broken off, as by soldiers obliged to abandon their own guns or unable to remove those of the enemy which they have captured.--_adjs._ SP[=I]'CATE, SP[=I]'COSE, SP[=I]'COUS, having spikes or ears, like corn; SPICIF'EROUS, bearing spikes: having spurs; SP[=I]'CIFORM, having the form of a spike.--_n._ SPICOS'ITY, state of being spicous or eared.--_adjs._ SPIC'[=U]LAR, resembling a dart: in the shape of, or having, sharp points; SPIC'[=U]LATE, covered with, or divided into, minute points.--_n._ SPIC'[=U]LE (_bot._), a little spike--also SPIC'[=U]LA: a minute, slender granule or point.--_adjs._ SPIC'UL[=I]FORM; SPIC[=U]LIG'ENOUS, SPIC[=U]LIF'EROUS, producing spicules; SPIC'[=U]L[=O]SE, SPIC'[=U]LOUS, having spicules.--_ns._ SPIC'[=U]LUM, a spicule; SPIKE'BILL, a merganser, a sawbill: the marbled godwit.--_p.adj._ SPIKED, furnished, fastened, or stopped with spikes.--_ns._ SPIKE'-EXTRACT'OR, an apparatus for drawing out spikes, as from railway-ties; SPIKE'-FISH, a kind of sail-fish; SPIKE'-GRASS, one of several American grasses with conspicuous spikelets of flowers; SPIKE'LET, a little spike; SPIKE'-NAIL, a spike; SPIKE'-OIL, the oil of spike, a species of lavender; SPIKE'-PLANK, a platform before the mizzen-mast of a vessel, used in Arctic voyages.--_adj._ SP[=I]'KY, furnished with spikes: having a sharp point. [L. _spica_, an ear of corn.] SPIKENARD, sp[=i]k'närd, _n._ an aromatic oil or balsam yielded by an Indian plant, the _Nardus_, closely allied to valerian: the plant itself. [L. _spica nardi_.] SPILE, sp[=i]l, _n._ a wooden plug serving as a spigot, a wooden pin or wedge: a spout driven into a sugar-maple tree, a tapping-gouge: a pile, or large timber driven into the ground for a foundation.--_v.t._ to pierce and provide with a spile: to drive piles into.--_n._ SP[=I]'LING, building-piles: the edge-curve of a plank or of a strake in a vessel's hull. [Cf. _Spill_ (2).] SPILL, spil, _v.t._ to allow to run out of a vessel: to shed: to waste: (_coll._) to throw from a vehicle or the saddle: to empty the belly of a sail of wind for reefing.--_v.i._ to be shed: to be allowed to fall, be lost, or wasted:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ spilled, spilt.--_n._ a fall, a throw: a downpour.--_ns._ SPILL'ER; SPILL'ING-LINE, a rope for spilling the wind out of a square sail to facilitate reefing or furling; SPILL'-STREAM, a stream formed by overflow water, a bayou; SPILL'WAY, a passage for overflow-water from a dam. [A.S. _spillan_; Dut. _spillen_, Ice. _spilla_, to destroy.] SPILL, spil, _n._ a small peg or pin to stop a hole: a thin strip of wood or twisted paper for lighting a candle, a pipe, &c.--_n._ SPILL'IKIN, one of a number of small pieces of wood, ivory, &c. for playing a game with: the game played--also SPIL'KIN. [A.S. _speld_, a torch; cf. Ger. _spalten_, to cleave, Dut. _speld_, a splinter.] SPILOMA, spi-l[=o]'ma, _n._ a birth-mark, a nævus. [Gr.] SPILOSITE, spil'o-s[=i]t, _n._ a greenish schistose rock spotted with chlorite, occurring in the Harz--the German _Fleckenschiefer_. [Gr. _spilos_, a spot.] SPILOTES, sp[=i]-l[=o]'t[=e]z, _n._ a genus of colubrine serpents. SPILT, spilt, _p.adj._ (_Spens._) pieced, inlaid. SPILTH, spilth, _n._ spilling, anything spilt or poured out lavishly, excess of supply. SPILUS, sp[=i]'lus, _n._ a nævus or birth-mark. [Gr. _spilos_, a spot.] SPIN, spin, _v.t._ to draw out and twist into threads: to draw out a thread as spiders do: to draw out tediously: to cause to whirl rapidly: to fish with a swivel or spoon-bait: to reject at an examination.--_v.i._ to practise the art or trade of spinning, to perform the act of spinning: to issue in a small or thread-like current: to whirl, to go fast:--_pr.p._ spin'ning; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ spun.--_n._ a rapid revolving motion, a spurt at high speed.--_ns._ SPIN'NER, one who spins: (_Shak._) a spider: a spinneret; SPIN'NERET, an organ, or one of the organs, with which insects form their webs.--_adj._ SPINNER'ULAR.--_ns._ SPIN'NERULE, one of the tubules of a spinneret; SPIN'NERY, a spinning-mill.--_adj._ SPIN'NING, used in spinning.--_ns._ SPIN'NING-HOUSE, a place of correction where lewd and incorrigible women were made to spin; SPIN'NING-JENN'Y, a machine by which a number of threads can be spun at the same time; SPIN'NING-MILL, a factory where thread is spun; SPIN'NING-WHEEL, a machine for spinning yarn, consisting of a wheel driven by the hand or by a treadle, which drives one or two spindles.--SPIN A YARN, to tell a long story; SPIN OUT, to prolong tediously. [A.S. _spinnan_; Ger. _spinnen_.] SPINACH, SPINAGE, spin'[=a]j, _n._ an esculent vegetable whose thick succulent young leaves are boiled and seasoned, or fried with butter, forming a wholesome dish.--_adj._ SPIN[=A]'CEOUS. [It. _spinace_--Low L. _spin[=a]ceus_--_spina_, a thorn.] SPINAL, sp[=i]n'al, _adj._ pertaining to the spine or backbone.--_n._ SP[=I]'NA, a spine, the backbone: one of the quills of a spinet: a barrier dividing the Roman hippodrome longitudinally.--_adj._ SPIN'[=A]TE, covered with spines or spine-like processes.--SPINAL COLUMN, the backbone; SPINAL CORD, MARROW, the main neural axis of every vertebrate. SPINDLE, spin'dl, _n._ the pin from which the thread is twisted: a pin on which anything turns: the fusee of a watch: anything very slender.--_v.i._ to grow long and slender.--_adjs._ SPIN'DLE-LEGGED, -SHANKED, having long slender legs, like spindles.--_ns.pl._ SPIN'DLE-LEGS, -SHANKS, long slim legs--hence an over-long and slender person.--_adj._ SPIN'DLE-SHAPED, shaped like a spindle: thickest in the middle and tapering to both ends.--_ns._ SPIN'DLE-SHELL, a spindle-shaped shell; SPIN'DLE-TREE, a shrub whose hard-grained wood was formerly used for making musical instruments and for spindles, and is now for skewers, &c.; SPIN'DLING, a person or thing too long and slender: a slender shoot.--_adj._ long and slender.--_adj._ SPIN'DLY, disproportionally long and slender. [A.S. _spinl_--_spinnan_, to spin; Ger. _spindel_.] SPINDRIFT, spin'drift, _n._ the spray blown from the crests of waves.--Also SPOON'DRIFT. SPINE, sp[=i]n, _n._ a thorn: a thin, pointed spike, esp. in fishes: the backbone of an animal: any ridge extending lengthways: the heart-wood of trees.--_adjs._ SPINED, having spines; SPINE'LESS, having no spine, weak; SPINES'CENT, somewhat spiny; SP[=I]NIF EROUS, bearing spines or thorns; SP[=I]'NIFORM, shaped like a spine or thorn; SP[=I]NIG'EROUS, bearing spines, as a hedgehog; SP[=I]'NIGRADE, moving by means of spines, as an echinoderm.--_n._ SP[=I]'NINESS.--_adjs._ SP[=I]NIREC'TOR, erecting the spine of the muscles of the back; SP[=I]NISPIR'ULAR, spiny and somewhat spiral.--_ns._ SP[=I]N[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the spinal cord in the horse, &c; SPIN'NEY, SPIN'NY, a small thicket with underwood.--_adjs._ SP[=I]'NOSE, SP[=I]'NOUS, full of spines: thorny.--_ns._ SPINOS'ITY, thorniness; SPIN'[=U]LA, SPIN'[=U]LE, a minute spine.--_adjs._ SPIN'[=U]L[=A]TE, SPIN'[=U]L[=O]SE, SPIN'[=U]LOUS, covered with spinules or minute spines; SP[=I]'NY, full of spines: thorny: troublesome: perplexed. [O. Fr. _espine_ (Fr. _épine_)--L. _spina_, a thorn.] SPINEL, spin'el, or spi-nel', _n._ a mineral composed chiefly of magnesia and alumina, and crystallising in octahedra--_ruby_, or _magnesia spinel_, reddish; _pleonaste_, dark green to black; _picotite_, or _chrome spinel_, black; _gahnite_, or _zinc spinel_, green to brown; _hercynite_, or _iron spinel_, black. [Low L. _spinellus_, dim. of _spina_, a thorn.] SPINET, spin'et, _n._ (_mus._) an old-fashioned keyed instrument like the harpsichord. [O. Fr. _espinette_--It. _spinetta_, dim. of _spina_--L. _spina_, a thorn.] SPINIFEX, spin'i-feks, _n._ porcupine-grass, a very coarse, hard, and spiny grass which grows in tussocks, and in some interior parts of Australia covers hundreds of square miles together. SPINK, spingk, _n._ the chaffinch. SPINK, spingk, _n._ the primrose, the lady's-smock. SPINNAKER, spin'[=a]-k[.e]r, _n._ a jib-headed sail sometimes carried on the side opposite the mainsail by racing yachts. [Prob. formed from _spin_.] SPINNEY. See under SPINE. SPINODE, sp[=i]'n[=o]d, _n._ (_geom._) a cusp or stationary point of a curve. SPINOZISM, spi-n[=o]z'izm, _n._ the doctrine of Benedict _Spinoza_ (1632-1677), who taught that God is not only the creator, but also the original matter of the universe, which consists of and is a development of Himself.--_n._ SPIN[=O]'ZIST, a follower of Spinoza.--_adj._ SPIN[=O]ZIS'TIC. SPINSTER, spin'st[.e]r, _n._ an unmarried female: an old maid: (_obs._) a woman of loose character, fit for the spinning-house.--_ns._ SPIN'STERDOM, the world of old maids collectively; SPIN'STERHOOD, SPIN'STERSHIP, the state of being a spinster; SPIN'STRESS, one who spins. [Orig. one who _spins_.] SPINTEXT, spin'tekst, _n._ a lengthy preacher. SPIRACLE, spir'a-kl, _n._ a breathing-hole: any minute passage.--_adjs._ SPIRAC'ULAR; SPIRAC'ULATE; SPIRACULIF'EROUS; SPIRAC'ULIFORM.--_n._ SPIRAC'ULUM:--_pl._ SPIRAC'ULA. [L. _spiraculum_, formed as a double dim. from _spir[=a]re_, to breathe.] SPIRÆA, sp[=i]-r[=e]'a, _n._ a genus of plants of the natural order _Rosaceæ_, containing many species of herbaceous plants and low deciduous shrubs--_Dropwort_, _Meadow-sweet_, &c. [L.,--Gr. _speiraia_, meadow-sweet--_speira_, a coil.] SPIRAL, sp[=i]'ral, _adj._ pertaining to, or like, a spire: winding like the thread of a screw.--_n._ a spiral line: a curve which continually recedes from a centre about which it revolves: a screw.--_n._ SPIRAL'ITY.--_adv._ SP[=I]'RALLY, in a spiral form or direction.--_adj._ SPIR[=A]'TED, spiral, whorled. SPIRANT, sp[=i]'rant, _n._ a consonant which is fricative or continuable--opp. to explosive, esp. _v_ and _f_, _th_, _dh_; by others made to include the sibilants, and the semi-vowels _w_ and _y_. SPIRANTHY, sp[=i]-ranth'i, _n._ the spiral distortion sometimes occurring in the parts of a flower.--_adj._ SPIRANTH'IC. [Gr. _speira_, a spire, _anthos_, a flower.] SPIRASTER, sp[=i]-ras't[.e]r, _n._ in sponges, a short curved axial rod-like spicule with thick spines. [Gr. _speira_, spire, _ast[=e]r_, star.] SPIRATION, sp[=i]-r[=a]'shun, _n._ a breathing: (_theol._) the procession of the Holy Ghost. SPIRE, sp[=i]r, _n._ a winding line like the threads of a screw: a curl: a wreath: a tapering body, a slender stalk, a shoot or sprout: any one of various tall grasses, rushes, or sedges--the _Marram_, _Reed canary-grass_, &c.: the top or summit of anything: a very acute pyramidal roof in common use over the towers of churches.--_v.i._ to sprout, shoot up.--_v.t._ to furnish with a spire.--_adjs._ SP[=I]RED, having a spire; SPIR'ULATE, spiral in form or arrangement; SP[=I]'RY, of a spiral form: wreathed: tapering like a spire or a pyramid: abounding in spires. [Fr.,--L. _spira_; Gr. _speira_, anything wound round or upon a thing; akin to _eirein_, to fasten together in rows.] SPIRIC, sp[=i]'rik, _adj._ like a tore or anchor-ring.--_n._ a curve, the plane section of a tore.--_n._ SPIR'ICLE, one of those threads in the hairs on the surface of certain seeds and achenes which uncoil when wet. SPIRIFER, spir'i-f[.e]r, _n._ a brachiopod of the Carboniferous system.--_adjs._ SP[=I]RIF'ERINE; SP[=I]RIF'EROID; SP[=I]RIF'EROUS. [L. _spira_, a spire, _ferre_, to bear.] SPIRILLUM, sp[=i]-ril'um, _n._ a genus of bacteria with cylindrical spirally twisted cells:--_pl._ SPIRILL'A. SPIRIT, spir'it, _n._ vital force: the soul: a ghost: mental disposition: enthusiasm, animation, courage, mettle: real meaning: essence, chief quality: a very lively person: any volatile, inflammable liquid obtained by distillation, as brandy: (_pl._) intellectual activity: liveliness: persons with particular qualities of mind: mental excitement: spirituous liquors.--_v.t._ to inspirit, encourage, cheer: to convey away secretly, to kidnap.--_ns._ SPIR'IT-BLUE, an aniline blue obtained from coal-tar; SPIR'IT-DUCK, the buffle-head, from its rapid diving.--_adj._ SPIR'ITED, full of spirit, life, or fire: animated.--_adv._ SPIR'ITEDLY.--_n._ SPIR'ITEDNESS.--_adj._ SPIR'ITFUL.--_n._ SPIR'ITING, the office of a spirit or sprite; SPIR'ITISM=_Spiritualism_; SPIR'ITIST=_Spiritualist_; SPIR'IT-LAMP, a lamp in which alcohol is burned, generally used for heating.--_adj._ SPIR'ITLESS, without spirit, cheerfulness, or courage: dejected: dead.--_adv._ SPIR'ITLESSLY.--_ns._ SPIR'ITLESSNESS, the state of being spiritless: want of animation or energy; SPIR'IT-LEV'EL, in surveying, a cylindrical glass tube, slightly convex on one side, and so nearly filled with alcohol that only a small bubble of air remains inside--from the position of the bubble the amount of variation from perfect levelness is determined.--_adj._ SPIR'ITOUS, of the nature of spirit, pure: ardent, spirituous.--_ns._ SPIR'ITOUSNESS; SPIR'IT-RAP'PER, one to whom spirits convey intelligence by raps or knocks; SPIR'IT-RAP'PING.--_adjs._ SPIR'IT-STIR'RING, rousing the spirit; SPIR'IT[=U]AL, consisting of spirit: having the nature of a spirit: immaterial: relating to the mind: intellectual: pertaining to the soul: holy: divine: relating to sacred things: not lay or temporal.--_n._ SPIRITUALIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ SPIR'IT[=U]ALISE, to make spiritual: to imbue with spirituality: to refine: to free from sensuality: to give a spiritual meaning to.--_ns._ SPIR'ITUALISER; SPIR'ITUALISM, a being spiritual: the philosophical doctrine that nothing is real but soul or spirit: the doctrine that spirit has a real existence apart from matter: the name applied to a varied series of abnormal phenomena purporting to be for the most part caused by spiritual beings acting upon specially sensitive persons or mediums; SPIR'IT[=U]ALIST, one who has a regard only to spiritual things: one who holds the doctrine of spiritualism or spiritism.--_adj._ SPIRIT[=U]ALIST'IC, relating to, or connected with, spiritualism.--_n._ SPIRIT[=U]AL'ITY, state of being spiritual: essence distinct from matter.--_adv._ SPIR'IT[=U]ALLY.--_ns._ SPIR'IT[=U]AL-MIND'EDNESS, the state of having holy affections; SPIR'IT[=U]ALNESS, the state or quality of being spiritual.--_adj._ SPI'RIT[=U]ELLE, showing great grace and delicacy.--_n._ SPIRIT[=U]OS'ITY, spirituous character: immateriality.--_advs._ SPIRIT-U[=O]'SO, SPIRIT[=O]'SO (_mus._), with spirit or animation.--_adj._ SPIR'IT[=U]OUS, possessing the qualities of spirit: containing much alcohol: volatile.--_ns._ SPIR'IT[=U]OUSNESS, the quality of being spirituous: stimulating quality: ardour: activity; SPIR'ITUS, a breathing, an aspirate: any spirituous preparation; SPIR'ITWORLD, the world of disembodied spirits.--_adj._ SPIR'ITY (_Scot._), full of spirit, spirited.--SPIRIT OF WINE, alcohol; SPIRITUAL COURT, an ecclesiastical court; SPIRITUS ASPER, a rough breathing; SPIRITUS LENIS, a soft or smooth breathing.--ANIMAL SPIRITS, constitutional liveliness of spirits; HOLY SPIRIT (see under HOLY); THE SPIRIT, the Holy Spirit: the human spirit under the influence of the Holy Spirit. [L. _spiritus_, a breath--_spir[=a]re_, to breathe.] SPIRKET, spir'ket, _n._ a space forward and aft between floor-timbers.--_n._ SPIR'KETTING, quick-work. SPIROMETER, sp[=i]-rom'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring the capacity of the lungs, or the quantity of air that one can breathe out after a forced inspiration.--_n._ SP[=I]'ROGRAPH, an instrument for marking down the breathing movement.--_adj._ SP[=I]ROMET'RIC.--_ns._ SP[=I]ROM'ETRY; SP[=I]'ROPHORE, an apparatus for inducing artificial respiration by means of an air-tight case for the body and an air-pump; SP[=I]ROPH'YTON, a genus of fossil algæ found in the Devonian in New York state; SP[=I]ROZ[=O]'OID, the filamentous defensive zooid of certain hydroids, coiled spirally when not in action. [L. _spir[=a]re_, to breathe, Gr. _metron_, a measure.] SPIRT, sp[.e]rt. Same as SPURT. SPIRTLE=_Spurtle_ (q.v.). SPIRULA, spir'[=u]-la, _n._ a genus of sepioid cuttle-fishes. [L. _sp[=i]ra_, a spire.] SPIRULATE, SPIRY. See under SPIRE. SPISSATED, spis'[=a]-ted, _adj._ inspissated, thickened.--_n._ SPISS'IT[=U]DE, density. [L. _spiss[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, thicken.] SPIT, spit, _n._ an iron prong on which meat is roasted: a long piece of land or a narrow shoal running into the sea: a wire or spindle holding a spool in a shuttle.--_v.t._ to pierce with a spit: to string on a stick and hang up to dry:--_pr.p._ spit'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ spit'ted.--_p.adj._ SPIT'TED, put upon a spit, impaled: shot out to a point.--_n._ SPIT'TER, one who puts meat on a spit: a young deer whose antlers have shot out but not branched. [A.S. _spitu_; Dut. _spit_, Ger. _spitze_.] SPIT, spit, _v.t._ to throw out from the mouth: to eject with violence.--_v.i._ to throw out saliva from the mouth: to fall in scattered drops, as rain at the beginning of a shower: to make a spitting sound, like an angry cat:--_pr.p._ spit'ting; _pa.t._ spit, spat; _pa.p._ spit.--_n._ saliva, spume: a light fall of rain or snow.--_ns._ SPIT'-BOX, a spittoon; SPIT'-CURL (_coll._), a soap-lock; SPIT'FIRE, a hot-tempered person; SPIT'POISON, a venomous calumniator.--_pa.p._ SPIT'TED (_B._), thrown out from the mouth.--_ns._ SPIT'TER, one who spits; SPIT'TING, the act of one who or that which spits: an appearance on the surface of melted silver or platinum allowed to cool slowly, jets of oxygen forming small cones and sometimes throwing up drops of molten metal--also called SPROUT'ING; SPIT'TLE, the moist matter thrown from the mouth: saliva; SPITTOON', a vessel for the convenience of such smokers as spit. [A.S. _spittan_, also _sp['æ]tan_; Ice. _spýta_, Ger. _spützen_.] SPITAL, spit'al, _n._ Same as HOSPITAL. SPITCH-COCK, spich'-kok, _n._ an eel split and broiled.--_v.t._ to split and broil, as an eel. [_Spatch-cock_.] SPITE, sp[=i]t, _n._ grudge: lasting ill-will: hatred.--_v.t._ to vex: to thwart: to hate.--_adj._ SPITE'FUL, full of spite: desirous to vex or injure: malignant.--_adv._ SPITE'FULLY.--_n._ SPITE'FULNESS.--IN SPITE OF, in opposition to all efforts of, in defiance of, in contempt of. [Short for despite.] SPITZ, spitz, _n._ a Pomeranian dog. [Ger.] SPIZA, sp[=i]'za, _n._ a genus of fringilline birds, including the United States dickcissel or black-throated bunting, &c.--_adj._ SPIZ'INE. [Gr., a finch.] SPIZELLA, spi-zel'a, _n._ a genus of small American finches or sparrows, the chipping-sparrows.--_adj._ SPIZELL'INE. SPLACHNUM, splak'num, _n._ a genus of bryaceous mosses. [Gr.] SPLANCHNIC, splangk'nik, _adj._ relating to the viscera, intestinal.--_ns._ SPLANCH'NOCOELE, a visceral cavity; SPLANCHNOG'RAPHY, descriptive splanchnology; SPLANCHNOL'OGY, the knowledge of the viscera; SPLANCH'NO-SKEL'ETON, the visceral skeleton; SPLANCHNOT'OMY, the anatomy of the viscera. [Gr. _splangchnon_ (pl. _splangchna_), bowels.] SPLASH, splash, _v.t._ to spatter with water or mud.--_v.i._ to dabble in water, to dash about water or any liquid.--_n._ water or mud thrown on anything: a spot of dirt, a daub: a complexion powder.--_ns._ SPLASH'BOARD, a guard to keep those in a vehicle from being splashed with mud; SPLASH'ER, one who, or that which, splashes.--_adj._ SPLASH'Y, splashing: wet and muddy: full of dirty water. [_Plash_.] SPLATTER, splat'[.e]r, _v.i._ to spatter water or the like about.--_n._ SPLATT'ER-DASH, an uproar, commotion.--_adj._ SPLATT'ER-FACED, flat-faced. [_Spatter_.] SPLAY, spl[=a], _v.t._ (_archit._) to slope or slant: to dislocate, as the shoulder-bone.--_adj._ turned outward, as in _splay-foot_, awkward.--_n._ SPLAY'-FOOT, a flat foot turned outward.--_adj._ SPLAY'-FOOTED.--_n._ SPLAY'-MOUTH, a wide mouth, a mouth stretched out in grinning.--_adj._ SPLAY'-MOUTHED. [_Display_.] SPLEEN, spl[=e]n, _n._ a soft, pulpy, blood-modifying gland near the large extremity of the stomach, supposed by the ancients to be the seat of anger and melancholy--hence spite: ill-humour: melancholy.--_adj._ SPLEEN'FUL, displaying spleen, angry, fretful.--_adv._ SPLEEN'FULLY.--_adj._ SPLEEN'ISH, affected with spleen, fretful, peevish.--_adv._ SPLEEN'ISHLY, in a spleenish manner.--_ns._ SPLEEN'ISHNESS, the state of being spleenish; SPLEEN'-STONE, jade or nephrite; SPLEEN'WORT, any fern of the genus _Asplenium_.--_adj._ SPLEEN'Y (_Shak._), spleenish.--_ns._ SPL[=E]NAL'GIA, pain in the region of the spleen; SPLEN'CULE, SPLEN'C[=U]LUS, a supplementary spleen; SPL[=E]NEC'TOMIST, one who excises the spleen; SPL[=E]NEC'TOMY, excision of the spleen; SPL[=E]NECT[=O]'PIA, displacement of the spleen; SPL[=E]N'ETIC, a splenetic person.--_adjs._ SPL[=E]NET'IC, -AL, affected with spleen: peevish: melancholy.--_adv._ SPL[=E]NET'ICALLY.--_adj._ SPLEN'IC, pertaining to the spleen.--_n._ SPL[=E]NIS[=A]'TION, a diseased condition of the lung, in which its tissue resembles that of the spleen, in softness, &c.--_adj._ SPL[=E]NIT'IC.--_n._ SPL[=E]N[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the spleen.--_adj._ SPLEN'ITIVE, full of spleen, passionate, irritable.--_ns._ SPLEN'OCELE, a splenic tumour; SPL[=E]NOG'RAPHY, the description of the spleen.--_adjs._ SPL[=E]'NOID, like the spleen; SPL[=E]NOLOG'ICAL.--_ns._ SPL[=E]NOL'OGY, knowledge about the spleen; SPL[=E]NOP'ATHY, disease of the spleen; SPL[=E]NOT'OMY, splenological anatomy.--SPLENIC FEVER (see ANTHRAX). [L. _splen_--Gr. _spl[=e]n_.] SPLENDID, splen'did, _adj._ magnificent: famous: illustrious: heroic.--_adj._ SPLEN'DENT, splendid, bright.--_adv._ SPLEN'DIDLY.--_ns._ SPLEN'DIDNESS; SPLEN'DOUR, the appearance of anything splendid: brilliance: magnificence. [L. _splendidus_--_splend[=e]re_, to shine.] SPLENIAL, spl[=e]'ni-al, _adj._ acting like a splint: pertaining to the splenium or the splenius.--_ns._ SPL[=E]'NIUM, the round pad-like posterior border of the _corpus callosum_; SPL[=E]'NIUS, a large thick muscle on the back of the neck. [Gr. _spl[=e]nion_, bandage.] SPLENT=_Splint_ (q.v.). SPLEUCHAN, spl[=oo]h'an, _n._ a pouch, a tobacco-pouch.--Also SPLEUGH'AN. [Gael. _spliuchan_.] [Illustration] SPLICE, spl[=i]s, _v.t._ to unite two ends of a rope by interweaving the strands: to join together two pieces of timber by overlapping.--_n._ act of splicing: joint made by splicing.--SPLICE THE MAINBRACE (_nautical slang_), to serve out an allowance of spirits, to fall to drinking. [Old Dut. _splissen_--_splitsen_, _splijten_; cf. _Split_, and Ger. _splissen_.] SPLINE, spl[=i]n, _n._ in machines, the slot to receive a feather, the feather itself: a long flexible strip of wood or rubber used by draftsmen in laying out railway-curves, &c.--_v.t._ to fit with a spline. SPLINT, splint, _n._ a small piece of wood split off: a thin piece of padded wood, &c., for keeping a fractured limb in its proper position: a bony enlargement on the horse's leg, between the knee and the fetlock, usually appearing on the inside of one or both forelegs, frequently situated between the large and small canon bones, depending upon concussion--also SPLENT.--_v.t._ to confine with splints.--_ns._ SPLINT'AGE, use of splints; SPLINT'-ARM'OUR, armour made of splints or narrow overlapping plates; SPLINT'-COAL, cannel-coal of slaty structure; SPLINT'ER, a piece of wood, &c., split off.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to split into splinters.--_ns._ SPLINT'ER-BAR, the cross-bar of a coach, supporting the springs; SPLINT'ER-BONE, the fibula.--_adjs._ SPLINT'ER-PROOF, proof against the splinters of bursting shells; SPLINT'ERY, made of, or like, splinters: apt to splinter. [Sw. _splint_--_splinta_, to splinter; cf. _Split_.] SPLIT, split, _v.t._ to cleave lengthwise: to tear asunder violently: to divide: to throw into discord.--_v.i._ to divide or part asunder: to be dashed to pieces: to divulge secrets: to vote for candidates of opposite parties: to burst with laughter:--_pr.p._ split'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ split.--_n._ a crack or rent lengthwise: a schism: a half-bottle of aerated water, a half-glass of spirits: (_pl._) the acrobatic feat of going down to the floor with the legs spread out laterally.--_adj._ SPLIT'-NEW (_Scot._), brand-new.--_n.pl._ SPLIT'-PEASE, husked pease split for making pea-soup, &c.--_n._ SPLIT'TER, one who, or that which, splits: one who splits hairs in argument, &c.: (_U.S._) a wheaten cake split and buttered when hot.--_adj._ SPLIT'TING, very severe: very rapid.--SPLIT ON A ROCK, to meet some unforeseen and disastrous difficulty, to go to ruin; SPLIT ONE'S SIDES, to laugh immoderately; SPLIT THE DIFFERENCE, to divide equally the sum or matter in dispute, to take the mean. [Scand., Dan. _splitte_, to split; Dut. _splijten_; Ger. _spleissen_.] SPLORE, spl[=o]r, _n._ (_Scot._) a frolic, a spree. SPLOTCH, sploch, _n._ a large spot, a stain.--_adj._ SPLOTCH'Y. SPLURGE, splurj, _n._ any boisterous display.--_v.i._ to make such a display.--_adj._ SPLUR'GY, given to such. SPLUTTER, splut'[.e]r, _v.i._ to eject drops of saliva while speaking: to scatter ink upon a paper, as a bad pen.--_n._ bustle.--_n._ SPLUTT'ERER, one who splutters. [For _sprutter_, a freq. of _sprout_, orig. form of _spout_.] SPODIUM, sp[=o]'di-um, _n._ a powder obtained from calcination, as ivory-black, &c.--_n._ SPODE, animal or bone charcoal, of which ornaments may be made. SPODOGENOUS, sp[=o]-doj'e-nus, _adj._ caused by waste-products, applied esp. to an enlargement of the spleen caused by waste red blood-corpuscles. [Gr. _spodos_, ashes, _gen[=e]s_, producing.] SPODOMANCY, spod'[=o]-man-si, _n._ divination by means of ashes.--_adj._ SPODOMAN'TIC. [Gr. _spodos_, ashes, _manteia_, divination.] SPODUMENE, spod'[=u]-m[=e]n, _n._ a silicate of aluminium and lithium. [Gr. _spodoun_, to burn to ashes, _spodos_, ashes.] SPOFFISH, spof'ish, _adj._ fussy, officious--also SPOFF'Y.--_v.i._ SPOFF'LE, to fuss or bustle. SPOIL, spoil, _v.t._ to take by force: to plunder.--_v.i._ to practise robbery.--_n._ prey, plunder: pillage: robbery.--_n._ SPOIL'ER, one who spoils, a plunderer.--_n.pl._ SP[=O]'LIA OP[=I]'MA, the most valued spoils--taken by a Roman commander from the enemy's commander in single combat; hence supreme rewards or honours generally. [O. Fr. _espoille_--L. _spolium_, spoil.] SPOIL, spoil, _v.t._ to corrupt: to mar: to make useless.--_v.i._ to decay: to become useless.--_ns._ SPOIL'ER, a corrupter; SPOIL'-FIVE, a round game of cards played with the whole pack, each one of the three to ten players receiving five cards.--_adj._ SPOIL'FUL (_Spens._), wasteful, rapacious.--_n._ SPOILS'MAN, one who looks for profit out of politics. [Same as above word.] SPOKE, sp[=o]k, _pa.t._ of _speak_. SPOKE, sp[=o]k, _n._ one of the bars from the nave to the rim of a wheel.--PUT A SPOKE IN ONE'S WHEEL, to thwart a person by some impediment. [A.S. _spáca_; Dut. _speek_, Ger. _speiche_.] SPOKEN, sp[=o]k'n, _pa.p._ of _speak_, used as _adj._ in 'civil-spoken,' &c. [Illustration] SPOKESHAVE, sp[=o]k'sh[=a]v, _n._ a carpenter's tool having a plane-bit between two bandies for curved work, &c. SPOKESMAN, sp[=o]ks'man, _n._ one who speaks for another, or for others, an advocate. SPOLE, sp[=o]l, _n._ the small wheel near the distaff in the spinning-wheel. [A variant of _spool_.] SPOLIATE, sp[=o]'li-[=a]t, _v.t._ to spoil, to plunder, to pillage.--_v.i._ to practise robbery.--_ns._ SP[=O]'LIARY, the place in a Roman amphitheatre where the bodies of slaughtered gladiators were dragged to be stripped; SPOLI[=A]'TION, act of spoiling: robbery.--_adj._ SP[=O]'LI[=A]TIVE, serving to take away or diminish.--_n._ SP[=O]'LI[=A]TOR, one who spoliates.--_adj._ SP[=O]'LI[=A]TORY, tending to spoil: destructive.--_n._ SP[=O]'LIUM, the property of a beneficed ecclesiastic not transmissible by will. [L. _spoliatus_, _pa.p._ of _spoli[=a]re_--_spolium_, spoil.] SPONDEE, spon'd[=e], _n._ in classical poetry, a foot of two long syllables, as _f[=a]t[=o]_.--_adjs._ SPOND[=A]'IC, -AL, pertaining to, or consisting of, spondees. [Fr.,--L. _spond[=e]us_ (_pes_)--Gr. _spondeios_ (_pous_), (a foot) of two syllables, so called because much used in the slow solemn hymns sung at a _spond[=e]_ or drink-offering--_spendein_, to pour out, make a libation.] SPONDYL, -E, spon'dil, _n._ a joint, joining.--_ns._ SPONDYLAL'GIA, pain in the spine; SPONDYL[=I]'TIS, arthritis of a vertebra.--_adj._ SPON'DYLOUS, vertebral. [Gr. _spondylos_, a joint.] SPONGE, spunj, _n._ a fixed, usually marine, animal with pores in the body-wall and without tentacles: the fibrous framework of such, remarkable for its power of sucking up water: any sponge-like substance, as dough before it is kneaded and formed: any cringing hanger-on or parasite, a drunken fellow: an instrument for cleaning cannon after a discharge: the heel of a horse's shoe.--_v.t._ to wipe with a sponge: to wipe out, absorb up, with a sponge: to wipe out completely: to destroy.--_v.i._ to suck in, as a sponge: to gain by mean tricks, to live on others by some mean subterfuge or other.--_ns._ SPONGE'CAKE, a very light sweet cake of flour, eggs, and sugar; SPONGE'LET, a little sponge.--_adjs._ SPONGE'OUS, SPON'GI[=O]SE, SPONGIOLIT'IC.--_n._ SPONG'ER, one who uses a sponge: a person or vessel engaged in fishing for sponges: an apparatus for sponging cloth by means of a perforated adjustable cylinder: a sponge or parasite.--_adjs._ SPONGIC'OLOUS, inhabiting sponges; SPONG'IFORM, resembling a sponge: porous.--_ns._ SPONG'INESS, porous quality; SPONG'ING-HOUSE, a bailiff's lodging-house for debtors in his custody before their committal to prison; SPON'GI[=O]LE, the spongy tissue of a root-tip; SPON'GIOLITE, a fossil sponge spicule.--_adj._ SPONGOID (spong'goid).--_ns._ SPONGOLOGIST (spong-gol'[=o]-jist), one devoted to the study of sponges; SPONGOLOGY (spong-gol'[=o]-ji), the knowledge about sponges.--_adj._ SPONG'Y, like a sponge, absorptive: of open texture, porous: wet and soft: drunken.--SET A SPONGE, to leaven a small mass of dough with which to leaven a large quantity; THROW UP THE SPONGE, to acknowledge defeat by throwing into the air the sponge with which a boxer is rubbed down between rounds: to give up any contest. [O. Fr. _esponge_--L. _spongia_--Gr. _sponggia_.] SPONSAL, spon'sal, _adj._ pertaining to a betrothal, a marriage, or a spouse.--_n._ SPON'SION, the act of becoming surety for another.--_adj._ SPON'SIONAL. [L.,--_spond[=e]re_, _sponsum_, to promise.] SPONSIBLE, spon'si-bl, _adj._ (_Scot._) reliable: respectable. SPONSON, spon'son, _n._ the curve of the timbers and planking towards the outer part of the wing, before and abaft each of the paddle-boxes of a steamer.--Also SPON'SING. [Ety. dub.] SPONSOR, spon'sur, _n._ one who promises solemnly for another: a surety: a godfather or godmother.--_adj._ SPONS[=O]'RIAL.--_n._ SPON'SORSHIP. [L.,--_spond[=e]re_, _sponsum_, to promise.] SPONTANEOUS, spon-t[=a]'n[=e]-us, _adj._ of one's free-will: involuntary: acting by its own impulse or natural law: produced of itself or without interference.--_ns._ SPONTAN[=E]'ITY, SPONT[=A]'NEOUSNESS, the state or quality of being spontaneous.--_adv._ SPONT[=A]'NEOUSLY.--SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION, a phenomenon that occasionally manifests itself in mineral and organic substances; SPONTANEOUS GENERATION, a term applied to the real or imaginary development of lowly organisms from non-living matter. [L. _spontaneus_--_sponte_, of one's own accord.] SPONTOON, spon-t[=oo]n', _n._ a weapon somewhat like a halberd, which used to be carried by certain officers of foot. [Fr. _sponton_--It. _spontone_--_spuntare_, to break off the point--_puntone_--_punto_, a point--L. _pung[)e]re_, _punctum_, to point.] SPOOK, sp[=oo]k, _n._ a ghost.--_v.i._ to play the spook.--_adjs._ SPOOK'ISH, SPOOK'Y, like a ghost, haunted by ghosts: sensitive to the dread of ghosts, suggesting the presence of ghosts. [Dut. _spook_; Ger. (obs.) _spuch_, Sw. _spöke_; not related to _puck_.] SPOOL, sp[=oo]l, _n._ a hollow cylinder for winding yarn, &c., upon.--_v.t._ to wind on spools. [Low Ger. _spole_, Dut. _spoel_; Ger. _spule_.] SPOOM, sp[=oo]m, _v.i._ to scud before the wind.--_adj._ SPOOM'ING (_Keats_), foaming. SPOON, sp[=oo]n, _n._ an instrument with a shallow bowl and handle for use in preparing, serving, or in eating food: anything like a spoon or its bowl, as an oar: in golf, a wooden-headed club of varying length, having the face more or less spooned, used in approaching the holes from varying distances.--_v.t._ to use a spoon upon: to lie spoon fashion with.--_v.i._ to fish with a spoon-hook: in croquet, to shove or scoop with the mallet: to be foolishly fond, to indulge in endearments openly.--_ns._ SPOON'-BAIT, a revolving metallic lure attached to a fishing-line by a swivel, used in trolling for fish; SPOON'BILL, a family of birds (_Plataleidæ_) allied to the _Ibididæ_, and more distantly to the storks, with a bill long, flat, and broad throughout, and much dilated in a spoon form at the tip; SPOON'-DRIFT, light spray borne on a gale; SPOON'FUL, as much as fills a spoon: a small quantity:--_pl._ SPOON'FULS.--_adv._ SPOON'ILY, in a spoony or silly way.--_n._ SPOON'MEAT, food taken with a spoon, such as is given to young children.--_adv._ SPOON'WAYS, applied to a way of packing slaves in ships very closely together.--_adjs._ SPOON'Y, SPOON'EY, silly, weakly affectionate, foolishly fond.--_n._ a simple fellow: one foolishly fond of a sweetheart.--APOSTLE SPOON (see APOSTLE); DESSERT-SPOON (see DESSERT); EUCHARISTIC SPOON, the cochlear or labis; TABLESPOON (see TABLE).--BE SPOONS ON, to be silly in the manifestation of one's love for a woman. [A.S. _spón_; Ger. _span_, a chip, Ice. _spánn_, a chip, a spoon.] SPOOR, sp[=oo]r, _n._ track or trail of an animal, esp. when hunted as game.--_n._ SPOOR'ER, one who tracks game by the spoor. [Dut. _spoor_, a track; cf. Ger. _spur_, Ice. _spor_, a track, Scot. _speir_, to ask.] SPORADIC, -AL, sp[=o]-rad'ik, -al, _adj._ scattered--a term specially applied to any disease usually epidemic or contagious, when it attacks only a few persons in a district and does not spread in its ordinary manner.--_adv._ SPORAD'ICALLY.--_n._ SPORAD'ICALNESS. [Gr. _sporadikos_--_sporas_, _sporados_, scattered--_speirein_, to sow.] SPORE, sp[=o]r, _n._ the reproductive body in flowerless plants like the fern, analogous to the seeds of ordinary flowering plants, but containing no embryo: a germ, a seed, a source of being generally.--_adjs._ SPORAN'GIAL; SPORANGIF'EROUS; SPORAN'GIFORM; SPORAN'GIOID, like a sporangium.--_ns._ SPORANG[=I]'OLUM, a small sporangium; SPORAN'GIOPH[=O]RE, the receptacle which bears the sporangia; SPORAN'GIOSP[=O]RE, one of the peculiar spores of the _Myxomycetes_; SPORAN'GIUM (_pl._ SPORAN'GIA), a spore-case, the sac in which the spores are produced endogenously--also SPORE'-CASE; SP[=O]'RIDESM (_bot._), a pluricellular body which becomes free like a simple spore, and in which every cell is capable of germinating; SPORID[=I]'OLUM, a secondary sporidium; SPORID'IUM, a secondary spore borne on a promycelium: an ascospore; SPORIFIC[=A]'TION, spore-production; SPORIPAR'ITY, reproduction by means of spores.--_adj._ SPORIP'AROUS.--_ns._ SP[=O]'ROCARP, a many-celled form of fruit produced in certain lower cryptogams in consequence of a sexual act; SP[=O]'ROCYST, the cyst or capsule developed in the process of sporular encystment.--_adj._ SPOROCYST'IC.--_ns._ SP[=O]'RODERM, the wall or covering of a spore; SPOROGEN'ESIS, reproduction by means of spores--also SPOROG'ENY.--_adj._ SPOROG'ENOUS.--_n._ SPOROG[=O]'NIUM, the sporocarp, capsule or so-called 'moss-fruit' in mosses.--_adj._ SP[=O]'ROID, like a spore.--_ns._ SPOROL'OGIST, a botanist who emphasises the spores in classification; SP[=O]'ROPHORE, the part of the thallus which bears spores: the placenta in flowering plants: a sporophyte.--_adjs._ SPOROPHOR'IC, SPOROPH'OROUS.--_ns._ SP[=O]'ROPHYL, the leaf bearing the spores or spore receptacles; SP[=O]'ROPHYTE, the spore-bearing stage in the life-cycle of a plant.--_adj._ SPOROPHYT'IC.--_ns._ SP[=O]'ROSAC, one of the gonophores of certain hydrozoans in which the medusoid structure is not developed: a redia or spiro-cyst, in Vermes; SPOROST[=E]'GIUM, the so-called fruit of plants in the _Characeæ_, consisting of the hard brownish spirally-twisted shell or covering of the spore.--_adjs._ SP[=O]'ROUS; SP[=O]'RULAR.--_ns._ SPORUL[=A]'TION, conversion into spores or sporules--also SPOR[=A]'TION; SP[=O]'RULE, a small spore.--_adjs._ SPORULIF'EROUS, SPOR'ULOID. [Gr. _sporos_, a sowing, seed--_speirein_, to sow.] [Illustration] SPORRAN, spor'an, _n._ an ornamental pouch worn in front of the kilt by the Highlanders of Scotland. [Gael, _sporan_.] SPORT, sp[=o]rt, _v.i._ to play: to frolic: to practise field diversions: to trifle.--_v.t._ to amuse: to make merry: to represent playfully: to spend in sport or display.--_n._ that which amuses or makes merry: play: mirth: jest: contemptuous mirth: anything for playing with: a toy: idle jingle: field diversion: an animal or plant, or one of its organs, that varies singularly and spontaneously from the normal type.--_n._ SPORT'ER, one who sports: a sportsman.--_adj._ SPORT'FUL, full of sport: merry: full of jesting.--_adv._ SPORT'FULLY.--_n._ SPORT'FULNESS.--_adj._ SPORT'ING, relating to, or engaging in, sports.--_adv._ SPORT'INGLY.--_adj._ SPORT'IVE, inclined to sport: playful: merry: amorous, wanton.--_adv._ SPORT'IVELY.--_n._ SPORT'IVENESS.--_adj._ SPORT'LESS, without sport or mirth: sad.--_n._ SPORTS'MAN, one who practises, or one skilled in, field-sports.--_adj._ SPORTS'MAN-LIKE.--_ns._ SPORTS'MANSHIP, practice or skill of a sportsman; SPORTS'WOMAN, a she-sportsman.--SPORT ONE'S OAK (see OAK). [Formed by aphæresis from _disport_.] SPOSH, sposh, _n._ slush.--_adj._ SPOSH'Y. SPOT, spot, _n._ a mark made by a drop of wet matter: a blot: a discoloured place: a small part of a different colour: a small extent of space: any particular place: one of the marked points on a billiard-table, from which balls are played (for _Centre-spot_, _Pyramid-spot_, &c., see BILLIARDS): one of the dark places on the surface of the sun, &c.: something that soils: a stain on character or reputation.--_v.t._ to mark with drops of wet: to stain: to discolour: to taint: to tarnish, as reputation: to note or recognise by some point, to detect: to indicate, name:--_pr.p._ spot'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ spot'ted.--_adj._ SPOT'LESS, without a spot: untainted: pure.--_adv._ SPOT'LESSLY.--_ns._ SPOT'LESSNESS; SPOT'-STROKE, a stroke in billiards when the player pockets the red ball from the 'spot,' leaving his own ball in position to repeat the stroke.--_adjs._ SPOT'TED, SPOT'TY, marked with spots or discoloured places.--_ns._ SPOT'TEDNESS, the state of being spotted; SPOT'TER, one who spots or detects; SPOT'TINESS, state of being spotty.--SPOT-BARRED GAME, a game at billiards when the spot-stroke is forbidden to be played more than twice consecutively. [Cf. Dut. _spat_, Dan. _spætte_; prob. conn. with _spit_.] SPOUSE, spowz, _n._ a husband or wife.--_adj._ SPOUS'AL, pertaining to a spouse, or to marriage: nuptial: matrimonial.--_n._ usually in _pl._ nuptials: marriage.--_adj._ SPOUSE'LESS, destitute of a spouse: unmarried. [O. Fr. _espouse_ (Fr. _époux_, fem. _épouse_)--L. _sponsus_, pa.p. of _spond[=e]re_, to promise in marriage.] SPOUT, spowt, _v.t._ to throw out, as from a pipe: to utter volubly: to pawn, pledge.--_v.i._ to issue with violence, as from a pipe: to speak volubly, to speechify.--_n._ the projecting mouth of a vessel from which a stream issues: a pipe for conducting a liquid: a term applied to the blowing or breathing of whales and other cetaceans.--_ns._ SPOUT'ER, one who, or that which, spouts: a speechifier: a South Sea whale, a skilful whaler; SPOUT'-HOLE, an orifice for discharging a liquid, a whale's spiracle.--_adj._ SPOUT'LESS, wanting a spout. [Skeat explains that _spout_, like _speak_, has lost an _r_, thus standing for _sprout_, the _r_ being preserved in _spurt_, with nearly the same sense as _spout_. Sw. _sputa_ for _spruta_, to squirt; Dut. _spuiten_.] SPRACK, sprak, _adj._ vigorous, sprightly.--Also SPRAG. [Ice. _sprækr_, _sparkr_, sprightly.] SPRACKLE, sprak'l, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to clamber up with difficulty.--Also SPRACH'LE, SPRAUCH'LE. [Ice. _spraukla_, to sprawl.] SPRAD, sprad (_Spens._). Same as SPREAD. SPRAG, sprag, _n._ a piece of wood used to lock a wheel: a punch-prop in mining.--_v.t._ to prop, or to stop, by a sprag. SPRAG, sprag, _n._ (_prov._) a young salmon. SPRAICH, spr[=a]h, _n._ (_Scot._) a shriek, cry.--_v.i._ to shriek. SPRAID, spr[=a]d, _adj._ (_prov._) chapped with cold.--Also SPRAYED. SPRAIN, spr[=a]n, _v.t._ to overstrain the muscles of a joint.--_n._ a term employed in surgery to designate a violent stretching of tendinous or ligamentous parts with or without rupture of some of their fibres. [O. Fr. _espreindre_ (Fr. _épreindre_), to press--L. _exprim[)e]re_, to press out.] SPRAINT, spr[=a]nt, _n._ the dung of an otter. SPRANG, _pa.t._ of _spring_. SPRANGLE, sprang'gl, _v.i._ to sprawl, struggle. SPRAT, sprat, _n._ a fish of the family _Clupeidæ_, like the herring, but much smaller.--_n._ SPRAT'-WEATH'ER, the dark days of November and December. [Dut. _sprot_; Ger. _sprotte_.] SPRATTLE, sprat'l, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to scramble. SPRAWL, sprawl, _v.i._ to toss or kick about the limbs: to stretch the body carelessly when lying: to spread ungracefully.--_n._ a sprawling posture.--_n._ SPRAWL'ER. [There is an A.S. _spréawlian_, to move convulsively; but the word is most probably for _sprattle_ or _sprottle_--Sw. _sprattla_, to sprawl; cf. Dan. _sprælle_, to toss about the limbs.] SPRAY, spr[=a], _n._ small particles of water driven by the wind, as from the top of waves, &c.--_adj._ SPRAY'EY, consisting of spray. [Skeat suggests that the word is from Dut. _spreiden_, to spread, scatter.] SPRAY, spr[=a], _n._ a small shoot of a tree.--_adj._ SPRAY'EY, branching. [Akin to Ice. _sprek_, a twig, Dan. _sprag_; Doublet _sprig_.] SPREAD, spred, _v.t._ to scatter abroad or in all directions: to stretch: to extend: to overlay: to shoot out, as branches: to circulate, as news: to cause to affect numbers, as a disease: to diffuse: to set with provisions, as a table.--_v.i._ to extend or expand in all directions: to be extended or stretched: to be propagated or circulated:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ spread.--_n._ extent: compass: expansion of parts: that which is spread out, a feast: a cover for a bed or a table.--_adj._ having a broad surface: shallower than the standard.--_adj._ SPREAD'-EA'GLE, like an eagle with the wings stretched out, bombastic, boastful.--_n._ (_naut._) a person seized in the rigging, a passenger thus made to pay his entrance forfeit.--_ns._ SPREAD'-EA'GLEISM, a bombastic and frothy patriotism; SPREAD'ER, one who, or that which, spreads, one who publishes or extends: any machine or implement for helping to scatter.--_p.adj._ SPREAD'ING.--_adv._ SPREAD'INGLY, increasingly.--SPREAD A FLEET, to keep more open order. [A.S. _spr['æ]dan_; Dut. _spreiden_, Ger. _spreiten_.] SPREAGH, spreh, _n._ plunder.--_n._ SPREAGH'ERY, cattle-lifting. [Gael. _spreidh_, cattle.] SPRECKLED, sprek'ld, _adj._ speckled. SPRED, spred, _pa.p._ and _n._ an obsolete form of _spread_.--Also SPRED'DEN. SPREE, spr[=e], _n._ a merry frolic: a drunken bout.--_v.i._ to carouse. [Prob. Ir. _spre_, a spark, _spraic_, vigour.] SPRENT, sprent, _adj._ sprinkled. [M. E. _sprengen_ (pa.t. _sprente_)--A.S. _sprengan_, to cause to spring.] SPRIG, sprig, _n._ a small shoot or twig: a scion, a young person: an ornament like a spray: one of various small pointed implements, a headless nail: one of the separate pieces of lace fastened on a ground in appliqué lace.--_v.t._ to embroider with representations of twigs:--_pr.p._ sprig'ging; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ sprigged.--_adj._ SPRIG'GY, full of sprigs or young branches. [Cf. Ice. _sprek_, a stick.] SPRIGHT, spr[=i]t, _n._ the same as _Sprite_ (q.v.).--_adj._ SPRIGHT'FUL (_Shak._), full of spirit: brisk, gay.--_adv._ SPRIGHT'FULLY, in a sprightful manner, briskly, vigorously.--_n._ SPRIGHT'FULNESS, the quality of being sprightful, briskness, liveliness.--_adj._ SPRIGHT'LESS, destitute of spirit or life: dull: sluggish.--_n._ SPRIGHT'LINESS.--_adj._ SPRIGHT'LY, airy: full of life: lively: brisk. [_Spright_=_sprite_.] SPRING, spring, _v.i._ to bound: to leap: to rush hastily: to move suddenly by elastic force: to start up suddenly: to break forth: to appear: to issue: to come into existence: (_B._) to rise, as the sun.--_v.t._ to cause to spring up: to start: to produce quickly, cause to act suddenly: to leap over: to explode, as a mine: to open, as a leak: to crack, as a mast: to bend by force, strain: (_archit._) to start from an abutment, &c.: to set together with bevel-joints:--_pa.t._ sprang, sprung; _pa.p._ sprung.--_n._ a leap: a flying back with elastic force: elastic power: an elastic body: any active power: that by which action is produced: cause or origin: a source: an outflow of water from the earth: (_B._) the dawn: the time when plants begin to spring up and grow, the vernal season--March, April, May: a starting of a plank in a vessel: a crack in a mast.--_ns._ SPRING'AL, SPRING'ALD, an active springy young man, a youth; SPRING'-BACK, an inner false joint on a bound book, springing upward from the true or outer back when the book is opened flat; SPRING'-BAL'ANCE, an instrument for determining the weight of a body by the elasticity of a spiral spring; SPRING'-BEAM, a beam of considerable span, without central support, the tie-beam of a truss; in a steamer, a fore-and-aft beam for connecting the two paddle-beams: an elastic bar at the top of a tilt-hammer, jig-saw, &c.; SPRING'-BEAU'TY, the _Claytonia Virginica_; SPRING'-BED, a mattress formed of spiral springs set in a wooden frame; SPRING'-BEE'TLE, an elater; SPRING'-BOARD, a board fastened on elastic supports, used to spring from in performing feats of agility; SPRING'BOK, a beautiful South African antelope, larger than a roebuck [Dut.]; SPRING'-BOX, a box or barrel in which a spring is coiled: the frame of a sofa, &c., in which the springs are set; SPRING'-CARR'IAGE, a wheel-carriage mounted on springs; SPRING'-CART, a light cart mounted upon springs; SPRING'ER, a kind of dog of the spaniel class, useful for springing game in copses: one who springs: the bottom stone of an arch; SPRING'-GUN, a gun having wires connected with its trigger, and so fixed and planted as to be discharged when trespassers stumble against the wire; SPRING'-HALT, a jerking lameness in which a horse suddenly twitches up his leg or legs; SPRING'-HAMM'ER, a machine-hammer in which the blow is delivered or augmented by the force of a spring; SPRING'-HEAD, a fountain-head, source: a head or end-piece for a carriage-spring.--_adj._ SPRING'-HEAD'ED (_Spens._), having heads springing afresh.--_ns._ SPRING'-HEELED JACK, one supposed capable of leaping a great height or distance in carrying out mischievous or frolicsome tricks; SPRING'-HOOK, an angler's snap-hook or spear-hook: a latch or door-hook with a spring-catch for keeping it fast in the staple: in a locomotive, a hook fixing the driving-wheel spring to the frame; SPRING'-HOUSE, a house for keeping meat in, or a dairy, built for coolness over a spring or brook; SPRING'INESS; SPRING'ING, the act of springing, leaping, arising, or issuing: (_B._) growth, increase: (_archit._) the lowest part of an arch on both sides; SPRING'-JACK, a device for inserting a loop in a main electric line-circuit, a plug being forced between two spring contacts; SPRING'-LATCH, a latch that snaps into the keeper whenever the door is shut; SPRING'LET, a little spring: a small stream; SPRING'-LIG'AMENT, the inferior calcaneoscaphoid ligament of the sole of the foot; SPRING'-LOCK, a lock which fastens by a spring; SPRING'-MAT'TRESS=_Spring-bed_; SPRING'-NET, a net that closes with a spring; SPRING'-PAD'LOCK, a padlock that snaps itself shut; SPRING'-POLE, a pole whose elasticity serves as a spring; SPRING'-SAD'DLE, a bent iron bar of [Spring-saddle] form on the top of a railway carriage journal-box, surrounding the arch-bar and supporting the spring; SPRING'-SEARCH'ER, a steel-pronged tool to search for defects in the bore of a gun; SPRING'-SHACK'LE, a shackle closed by a spring: a shackle joining one spring of a vehicle with another or with a rigid piece; SPRING'-STAY (_naut._), a smaller stay, placed above the stays as a duplicate if needed; SPRING'-STUD, a rod passed through the axis of a coil-spring to keep it in place; SPRING'-TAIL, one of an order of primitive wingless insects (_Collembola_), so called popularly from a peculiar springing fork usually present on the abdomen; SPRING'-TIDE, the periodical excess of the elevation and depression of the tide, after new and full moon, when both sun and moon act in the same direction; SPRING'-TIDE, -TIME, the season of spring; SPRING'-TOOL, any tool bearing a spring, as a glass-blower's tongs; SPRING'-TRAP, a trap worked by a spring, a mouse-trap, &c.; SPRING'-VALVE, a valve fitted with a spring: a safety-valve connected with a spring-balance; SPRING'-WA'TER, water issuing from a spring; SPRING'-WHEAT, wheat sown in the spring, rather than autumn or winter; SPRING'-WORT, a plant which draws down lightning--perh. the caperspurge.--_adj._ SPRING'Y, pertaining to, or like, a spring, elastic, nimble: abounding with springs.--SPRING A LEAK, to commence leaking; SPRING A MINE, to cause it to explode--often used figuratively; SPRING A RATTLE, to cause a rattle to sound; SPRING AT, to leap at; SPRING FORTH, to come forward with a leap: to shoot up rapidly; SPRING ON, or UPON, to attack with violence. [A.S. _springan_; Ger. _springen_.] SPRINGE, sprinj, _n._ a snare with a spring-noose: a gin.--_v.t._ to catch in a springe. [Prov. Eng. _springle_--_spring_; cf. Ger. _sprenkel_--_springen_.] SPRINKLE, spring'kl, _v.t._ to scatter in small drops or particles: to scatter on: to baptise with a few drops of water: to purify.--_v.i._ to scatter in drops.--_n._ an aspersorium or utensil for sprinkling.--_ns._ SPRIN'KLE, SPRIN'KLING, a small quantity sprinkled: in book-binding, the mottling of the edges of trimmed leaves by scattering a few drops of colour on them; SPRIN'KLER. [Freq. formed from A.S. _sprengan_, the causal of _springan_, to spring; cf. Ger. _sprenkeln_.] SPRINT, sprint, _n._ a short-distance race at full speed.--_v.i._ to run at full speed--also SPRENT.--_ns._ SPRIN'TER, a short-distance runner in races; SPRIN'TING; SPRINT'-RACE; SPRINT'-RUN'NER. [Cf. _Spurt_.] [Illustration] SPRIT, sprit, _n._ (_naut._) a spar set diagonally to extend a fore-and-aft sail. [A.S. _spreót_, a pole; Dut. and Ger. _spriet_, a bowsprit; conn. with _sprout_.] SPRITE, spr[=i]t, _n._ a spirit: a shade: a ghost: (_obs._) frame of mind, disposition.--Also SPRIGHT. [A doublet of _spirit_.] SPRITEFUL, SPRITELY, &c. Same as SPRIGHTFUL, &c. SPROCKET, sprok'et, _n._ a projection on the periphery of a wheel or capstan for engaging the chain. SPROD, sprod, _n._ (_prov._) a second-year salmon. SPRONG, sprong (_Spens._), _pa.t._ of _spring_. SPROUT, sprowt, _n._ a germ or young shoot: (_pl._) young shoots from old cabbages.--_v.i._ to shoot: to push out new shoots.--_adj._ SPROUT'ED, budded.--BRUSSELS SPROUTS (see BRUSSELS). [According to Skeat, not from A.S. _spreótan_, nor _sprýtan_, but from Old Friesic _spruta_, to sprout, Low Ger. _spruten_, Dut. _spruiten_, Ger. _spriessen_.] SPRUCE, spr[=oo]s, _adj._ smart: neat, dapper: over-fastidious, finical.--_n._ Prussian leather.--_v.t._ to smarten.--_v.i._ to become spruce or smart.--_n._ SPRUCE'-FIR, or merely SPRUCE, any tree of the genus _Picea_ of the pine family (_Coniferæ_), or the wood of such a tree.--_adv._ SPRUCE'LY.--_n._ SPRUCE'NESS.--_v.t._ SPRU'CIFY, to smarten. [O. Fr. _Pruce_--Late L. _Prussia_, Ger. _Preussen_.] SPRUCE-BEER, spr[=oo]s'-b[=e]r, _n._ beer flavoured with a decoction of the young shoots of the spruce-fir. [Ger. _sprossen-bier_, _sprossen_, young shoots, Englished as _Pruce-beer_, i.e. Prussian beer.] SPRUE, spr[=oo], _n._ in casting, one of the passages leading to the mould, also the metal which solidifies in it--_deadhead_.--_n._ SPRUE'-HOLE, ingate or pouring-hole in a mould. SPRUG, sprug, _v.t._ and _v.i._ (_prov._) to smarten, to dress neatly. SPRUG, sprug, _n._ (_prov._) a sparrow. SPRUIT, spr[=oo]'it, _n._ a small head-stream, a stream flowing through a village, dry in summer. [S. Afr. Dut.] SPRUNG, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _spring_.--_adj._ (_coll._) tipsy, tight. SPRUNNY, sprun'i, _adj._ (_prov._) neat.--_n._ a sweetheart. SPRUNT, sprunt, _v.i._ to spring up: sprout, germinate.--_n._ a steep bit in a road: a rebellious curl, &c.--_adv._ SPRUNT'LY, gaily, bravely.--SPRUNT UP, to bristle up. SPRY, spr[=i], _adj._ vigorous, lively, gay, pert. [Scand.; Sw. prov. _sprygg_, very active.] SPUD, spud, _n._ a small narrow spade with a short handle: any short thick thing, a baby's hand, a potato, &c.--_adj._ SPUD'DY, short and fat. [Prob. Scand., Dan. _spyd_, a spear.] SPUE. Same as SPEW. SPULZIE, SPUILZIE, spül'y[=e], _n._ (_Scot._) spoil.--Also SPUL'YE, SPUL'YIE. [_Spoil_.] SPUME, sp[=u]m, _n._ scum or froth thrown up by liquid: foam.--_v.i._ to throw up scum: to foam.--_adj._ SP[=U]'M[=E]OUS, frothy.--_n._ SP[=U]MES'CENCE, frothiness.--_adjs._ SP[=U]MES'CENT, foaming; SP[=U]MIF'EROUS, producing foam.--_n._ SP[=U]'MINESS, the quality of being spumy or frothy.--_adjs._ SP[=U]'MOUS, SP[=U]'MY, consisting of froth: frothy: foamy. [L. _spuma_--_spu[)e]re_ to spew.] SPUN, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of spin.--_adj._ SPUN'-OUT, unduly lengthened.--_n._ SPUN'-YARN, rope-yarn twisted into a cord. SPUNGE, spunj, v. and _n._ a form of _sponge_. SPUNK, spungk, _n._ touchwood, tinder, a fungus from which tinder is made, punk, amadou: (_Scot._) a small fire, a fiery spark, a lucifer-match: mettle, spirit, pluck.--_v.i._ to take fire, flame up.--_adj._ SPUNK'Y, spirited: fiery-tempered. [Cf. Ir. _sponc_, tinder, sponge--L. _spongia_, a sponge--Gr. _sponggia_.] SPUR, spur, _n._ an instrument on a horseman's heels, with sharp points for goading the horse: that which goads or instigates: something projecting: the hard projection on a cock's leg: a small range of mountains extending laterally from a larger range.--_v.t._ to urge on with spurs: to urge onward: to impel: to put spurs on.--_v.i._ to press forward: to travel in great haste:--_pr.p._ spur'ring; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ spurred.--_v.t._ SPUR'-GALL (_Shak._), to gall or wound with a spur.--_ns._ SPUR'-GEAR, -GEAR'ING, gearing in which spur-wheels are used.--_adj._ SPUR'-HEELED, having a long straight hind-claw.--_n._ SPUR'-LEATH'ER, the strap by which the spur is fastened to the foot.--_p.adj._ SPURRED, wearing spurs: having shoots like spurs: affected with ergot, as rye.--_ns._ SPUR'RER, one who, or that which, spurs; SPUR'RIER, one who makes spurs; SPUR'-ROY'AL, an ancient English coin, worth fifteen shillings, so called from having a star on one side resembling the rowel of a spur; SPUR'-WAY, a bridle-road; SPUR'-WHANG=_Spur-leather_; SPUR'-WHEEL (_mech._), a wheel with the cogs on the face of the edge like a spur.--_adj._ SPUR'-WINGED, with a horny spur on the pinion, as with the plovers, &c. [A.S. _spora_; Ice. _spori_, Ger. _sporn_.] SPURGE, spurj, _n._ a genus of plants of the natural order _Euphorbiaceæ_, all the species containing a resinous milky juice mostly very acrid.--_n._ SPURGE'-LAU'REL, a European evergreen shrub, with yellowish-green flowers, thick leaves, and poisonous berries. [O. Fr. _espurge_ (Fr. _épurge_)--L. _expurg[=a]re_, to purge--_ex_, off, _purg[=a]re_, to clear.] SPURIÆ, sp[=u]'ri-[=e], _n.pl._ the bastard quills forming the alula in birds. SPURIOUS, sp[=u]r'i-us, _adj._ illegitimate: bastard: not genuine: false: resembling an organ, but without its function, or having the functions of an organ while morphologically different.--_adv._ SP[=U]R'IOUSLY.--_n._ SP[=U]R'IOUSNESS. [L. _spurius_, false.] SPURLING=_Sparling_ (q.v.). SPURN, spurn, _v.t._ to drive away as with the foot: to kick: to reject with disdain.--_n._ disdainful rejection.--_n._ SPURN'ER, one who spurns. [A.S. _speornan_; cog. with _spur_.] SPURNE, spurn, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to spur. SPURRY, spur'i, _n._ a plant of the genus _Spergula_. [O. Fr. _sporrie_, of Teut. origin; cf. Ger. _spörgel_.] SPURT, spurt, _v.t._ to spout, or send out in a sudden stream, as water.--_v.i._ to gush out suddenly in a small stream: to flow out forcibly or at intervals.--_n._ a sudden or violent gush of a liquid from an opening: a jet: a sudden short effort, a special exertion of one's self for a short time, in running, rowing, &c. [Formerly _spirt_--Ice. _sprettr_, a spurt--_spretta_, to start, to sprout.] SPURTLE, spur'tl, _n._ (_Scot._) a short stick for stirring porridge, broth, &c.--_n._ SPUR'TLE-BLADE, a sword. SPUTTER, sput'[.e]r, _v.i._ to spit in small drops, as in rapid speaking: to throw out moisture in scattered drops: to speak rapidly and indistinctly, to jabber.--_v.t._ to throw out with haste and noise: to utter hastily and indistinctly.--_n._ moist matter thrown out in particles.--_n._ SPUTT'ERER, one who sputters. [The freq. of _spout_ (q.v.).] SPUTUM, sp[=u]'tum, _n._ spittle, the matter expectorated:--_pl._ SP[=U]'TA. [L.,--_spu[)e]re_, to spit.] SPY, sp[=i], _n._ one sent into an enemy's country or camp to find out their strength, &c.: one who keeps a watch on others: one who secretly conveys information.--_v.t._ to see: to discover, generally at a distance: to discover by close search: to inspect secretly:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ spied.--_ns._ SPY'AL=_Spial_; SPY'-CRAFT, SPY'ISM, the art or practice of spying; SPY'GLASS, a small hand-telescope; SPY'-HOLE, a peep-hole; SPY'-MON'EY, money paid for secret intelligence. [O. Fr. _espier_--Old High Ger. _speh[=o]n_; L. _spec[)e]re_.] SPYRE, sp[=i]r, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to shoot forth. [L. _spir[=a]re_, to sprout.] SQUAB, skwob, _adj._ fat, clumsy: curt, abrupt: unfledged, newly hatched: shy, coy.--_n._ a young pigeon, the young of other animals before the hair or feathers are grown: a short stumpy person: a thickly-stuffed cushion, a sofa padded throughout, an ottoman.--_v.t._ to stuff thickly and sew through, the stitches being concealed by buttons, &c.--_v.i._ to fall heavily.--_adv._ flat: heavily, as a fall.--_adjs._ SQUAB'BISH, thick, heavy; SQUAB'BY, squat.--_ns._ SQUAB'-CHICK, a fledgling; SQUAB'-PIE, a pie made of strips of mutton, onions, and slices of apple. [Prob. Scand.; cf. Sw. dial. _sqvapp_, a word imitative of a splash, _sqvabb_, loose flesh, _sqvabbig_, flabby.] SQUABASH, skwa-bash', _v.t._ to crush, smash. SQUABBLE, skwob'l, _v.i._ to dispute in a noisy manner: to wrangle.--_n._ a noisy, petty quarrel: a brawl.--_n._ SQUABB'LER. [Scand., Sw. dial. _skvabbel_, a dispute.] SQUACCO, skwak'[=o], _n._ a small crested African heron. SQUAD, skwod, _n._ a small body of men assembled for drill, any small group or company of men.--_n._ SQUAD'RON, a body of cavalry, consisting of two troops, or 120 to 200 men: a body of soldiers drawn up in a square: any regularly ranked body, or a group: section of a fleet, commanded by a flag-officer.--_p.adj._ SQUAD'RONED, formed into squadrons.--AWKWARD SQUAD, a body of recruits not yet competent in drill, &c. [O. Fr. _esquadre_--It. _squadra_, and L. _exquadr[=a]re_, to make square.] SQUADDY, skwad'i, _adj._ squabby. SQUAIL, skw[=a]l, _n._ a disc or counter used in the game of squails: (_pl._) a parlour-game in which small discs are snapped from the edge of the table to a centre mark called the _process_: the game of ninepins.--_v.i._ to throw a stick, &c., at any object.--_v.t._ to pelt with sticks, &c.--_n._ SQUAIL'ER, a throwing-stick. [A variant of _kail_.] SQUALID, skwol'id, _adj._ filthy, foul.--_n._ SQUALID'ITY, the state of being squalid: filthiness.--_adv._ SQUAL'IDLY.--_ns._ SQUAL'IDNESS; SQUAL'OR, state of being squalid: dirtiness: filthiness. [L. _squalidus_--_squal[=e]re_, to be stiff; akin to Gr. _skellein_, to dry.] SQUALL, skwawl, _v.i._ to cry out violently.--_n._ a loud cry or scream: a violent gust of wind.--_n._ SQUALL'ER.--_adj._ SQUALL'Y, abounding or disturbed with squalls or gusts of wind: gusty, blustering: threatening a squall.--WHITE SQUALL, a tropical whirlwind, coming on without warning other than a small white cloud. [Scand., Sw. _sqvala_, to gush out.] SQUALLY, skwawl'i, _adj._ irregularly woven: having bare patches, of a field of corn, &c. [Prob. the same as _scally_. Cf. _Scall_.] SQUALOID, skw[=a]'loid, _adj._ resembling a SQU[=A]'LUS or shark.--_n._ SQU[=A]'LID, one of the _Squalidæ_, a family of sharks.--_adj._ SQU[=A]'LIFORM, having the form of a shark. [L. _squalus_, a shark.] SQUAMA, skw[=a]'ma, _n._ a scale: the bractea of a deciduous spike, any scaly bracted leaf:--_pl._ SQU[=A]'MÆ.--_n.pl._ SQU[=A]M[=A]'TA, a division of reptiles, including lizards and serpents.--_adjs._ SQU[=A]'MATE, SQU[=A]'MOUS, SQUAM[=A]'CEOUS, SQU[=A]'MOSE, covered with, or consisting of, scales: scaly.--_ns._ SQU[=A]ME, a scale or squama; SQU[=A]MEL'LA, a small scale.--_adjs._ SQU[=A]MIF'EROUS, SQU[=A]MIG'EROUS, bearing squamæ or scales; SQU[=A]'MIFORM, SQU[=A]'MOID, like a scale.--_ns._ SQU[=A]M[=O]'SAL, the squamous portion of the temporal bone; SQUAM'ULA, a very small scale--also SQUAM'ULE.--_adjs._ SQUAM'ULATE, SQUAM'ULIFORM. [L. _squamosus_--_squama_, a scale.] SQUANDER, skwon'd[.e]r, _v.t._ to spend lavishly or wastefully: to waste money or powers.--_n._ SQUAN'DERER.--_adv._ SQUAN'DERINGLY, in a squandering manner, by squandering. [Skeat explains as a nasalised form of Lowland Scotch _squatter_, to splash water about, prov. Eng. _swatter_, to throw water about. These are frequentatives from Dan. _sqvatte_, to splash, spurt, squander; Sw. _sqvätta_, to squirt, _Ice_. _skvetta_, to squirt out water.] SQUARE, skw[=a]r; _adj._ having four equal sides and angles: forming a right angle: having a straight front or an outline formed by straight lines: exact suitable, fitting: true, that does equal justice, fair, honest: even, leaving no balance, settled, as accounts: directly opposed, complete, unequivocal: solid, full, satisfying.--_n._ that which is square: a square figure: a four-sided space enclosed by houses: a square body of troops: the length of the side of any figure squared: an instrument for measuring right angles: (_arith_.) the product of a quantity multiplied by itself: due proportion, order, honesty, equity, fairness.--_v.t._ to form like a square: to form with four equal sides and angles: (_arith_.) to multiply by itself: to reduce to any given measure or standard, to adjust, regulate: (_naut_.) to place at right angles with the mast or keel.--_v.i._ to suit, fit: to accord or agree: to take an attitude of offence and defence, as a boxer.--_adj._ SQUARE'-BUILT, of a square build or shape.--_adv._ SQUARE'LY, in a square form or manner.--_ns._ SQUARE'-MEAS'URE, [Illustration] a system of measures applied to surfaces, of which the unit is the square of the lineal unit; SQUARE'NESS.--_adj._ SQUARE'-PIERCED (_her_.), designating a charge perforated with a square opening so as to show the field.--_n._ SQU[=A]'RER, one who, or that which, squares: (_Shak._) a fighting, quarrelsome person.--_adj._ SQUARE'-RIGGED, having the chief sails square, and extended by yards suspended by the middle at right angles to the masts--opposed to _Fore-and-aft_.--_ns._ SQUARE'-ROOT, that root which being multiplied into itself produces the given number or quantity; SQUARE'-SAIL, a four-sided sail extended by yards suspended by the middle at right angles to the mast.--_adj._ SQUARE'-TOED.--_n._ SQUARE'-TOES, an old-fashioned, punctilious person.--_adj._ SQU[=A]'RISH.--SQUARE THE CIRCLE, to determine the area of a circle in square measure.--ON THE SQUARE, honestly. [O. Fr. _esquarre_ (Fr. _équerre_)--L. _ex-quadr[=a]re_, to square--_quadrus_, conn. with _quatuor_, four.] SQUARROSE, skwär'[=o]s, _adj._ rough, with projecting or deflexed scales.--_adj._ SQUARR'ULOSE, diminutively squarrose. SQUARSON, skwär'sn, _n._ one who is both a beneficed clergyman and a squire or land-owner in a parish.--_n._ SQUAR'SONAGE, the residence of such. SQUASH, skwosh, _v.t._ to press into pulp: to crush flat.--_v.i._ to form a soft mass as from a fall: to make a noise similar to such.--_n._ a sudden fall or shock of soft bodies: anything soft and easily crushed, anything soft or unripe, as a peascod.--_ns._ SQUASH'ER; SQUASH'INESS, state of being squashy.--_adj._ SQUASH'Y, like a squash: muddy. [O. Fr. _esquacher_ (Fr. _écacher_), to crush--L. _ex_, out, _coact[=a]re_, to restrain--_cog[)e]re_, _coactum_, to drive together.] SQUASH, skwosh, _n._ a term loosely used, esp. in the United States, for two or three kinds of gourd, including the pumpkin. [Amer. Ind. _asquash_ (pl. of _asq_), green.] SQUAT, skwot, _v.i._ to sit down upon the hams or heels: to cower, as an animal: to settle on new land without title:--_pr.p._ squat'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ squat'ted.--_adj._ short and thick, dumpy, clumsy.--_ns._ SQUATOC'RACY, the squatters of Australia collectively; SQUAT'TER, a settler on new land without title: one who leases pasture-land from the government; SQUAT'TINESS.--_v.i._ SQUAT'TLE (_Scot._), to squat down.--_adj._ SQUAT'TY, very short and thick. [O. Fr. _esquatir_, to crush--L. _ex-_, _coactus_, pa.p. of _cog[)e]re_, to drive together.] SQUATTER, skwot'[.e]r, _v.i._ to plunge through water. SQUAW, skwaw, _n._ an American Indian woman, esp. a wife.--_n._ SQUAW'MAN, a white man with an Indian wife. SQUEAK, skw[=e]k, _v.i._ to utter a shrill and usually short cry.--_n._ a sudden, shrill cry.--_v.i._ SQUAWK, to utter a harsh cry: (_U.S._) to back out in a mean way.--_n._ a loud squeak.--_n._ SQUEAK'ER, one who squeaks: a young bird.--_adv._ SQUEAK'INGLY.--A NARROW SQUEAK, a narrow escape. [Imit.; cf. Sw. _sqväka_, to croak, Ger. _quieken_, to squeak.] SQUEAL, skw[=e]l, _v.i._ to utter a shrill and prolonged sound: to turn informer.--_n._ a shrill loud cry.--_n._ SQUEAL'ER, a young pigeon: an informer. [Scand.; Sw. dial. _sqväla_, to cry out.] SQUEAMISH, skw[=e]m'ish, _adj._ sickish at stomach: easily disgusted or offended: fastidious in taste.--_adv._ SQUEAM'ISHLY.--_n._ SQUEAM'ISHNESS. [Scand.; Ice. _sveimr_, stir; prob. also influenced by qualmish.] SQUEEGEE, skw[=e]'j[=e], _n._ a wooden implement edged with rubber for clearing water away from decks, floors, windows, &c.: a photographer's roller for squeezing the moisture from a print--also SQUIL'GEE.--_v.t._ to smooth down with a squeegee. SQUEEZE, skw[=e]z, _v.t._ to crush or press between two bodies: to embrace closely: to force through a small hole: to cause to pass: to extort, oppress, harass.--_v.i._ to push between close bodies: to press: to crowd.--_n._ act of squeezing: pressing between bodies: an impression of an inscription, &c., made by taking a rubbing.--_n._ SQUEEZABIL'ITY.--_adj._ SQUEEZ'ABLE.--_ns._ SQUEEZ'ER, one who, or that which, squeezes: (_pl._) playing-cards having the number of spots marked in the right-hand corner of each; SQUEEZ'ING, the act of exerting pressure.--_adj._ SQUEEZ'Y, suggesting squeezing, small, contracted. [M. E. _queisen_--A.S. _cwísan_.] SQUELCH, skwelch, _n._ a heavy blow or a heavy fall.--_v.t._ to crush down. SQUIB, skwib, _n._ a paper tube filled with combustibles, thrown up into the air burning and bursting: a petty lampoon.--_v.t._ to aim squibs at: to lampoon.--_v.i._ to write lampoons: to use squibs: to sound like a squib exploding. [Scand.; Ice. _svipa_, to flash.] SQUID, skwid, _n._ a kind of cuttle-fish or calamary: a lure used in trolling for fish.--_v.i._ to fish with a squid or spoon-bait. SQUIGGLE, skwig'l, _v.i._ (_U.S._) to squirm, wriggle: (_prov_.) to rinse out the mouth with a liquid. SQUILGEE. See SQUEEGEE. SQUILL, skwil, _n._ a genus of bulbous-rooted plants of order _Liliaceæ_, with radical leaves, and flowers in terminal racemes or loose corymbs--the officinal Squill is diuretic and expectorant.--_adj._ SQUILLIT'IC. [Fr. _squille_--L. _squilla_, _scilla_--Gr. _skilla_.] SQUINCH, skwinch, _n._ a small stone arch, or series of arches, across an interior angle of a square tower to support the sides of an octagonal spire. SQUINNY, skwin'i, _v.i._ (_Shak._) to look asquint. SQUINT, skwint, _adj._ looking obliquely: having the vision distorted.--_v.i._ to look obliquely: to have the vision distorted.--_v.t._ to cause to squint.--_n._ act or habit of squinting: an oblique look: distortion of vision: a hagioscope, a narrow aperture cut in the wall of a church (generally about two feet wide) to enable persons standing in the side-chapels, &c., to see the elevation of the host at the high-altar.--_n._ SQUINT'-EYE, an eye that squints.--_adj._ SQUINT'-EYED, looking obliquely: oblique, malignant.--_n._ SQUINT'ING, technically _Strabismus_, a common deformity which may be defined as a want of parallelism in the visual axes, when the patient endeavours to direct both eyes to an object at the same time.--_adv._ SQUINT'INGLY. [Scand.; Sw. _svinka_, to shrink, a nasalised form of _svika_, to fail.] SQUIRE, skw[=i]r, _n._ an esquire, a knight's attendant: a beau or gallant: a country gentleman, an owner of land in England, esp. if of old family: (_U.S._) one who has been a justice of the peace, &c.--_ns._ SQUIRE'AGE, SQUIRE'ARCHY, landed gentry collectively.--_adj._ SQUIRE'ARCHAL.--_ns._ SQUIREEN', a gentleman farmer, one almost a squire; SQUIRE'HOOD, the state or rank of a squire--also SQUIRE'SHIP.--_adjs._ SQUIRE'-LIKE, SQUIRE'LY, like or becoming a squire.--_ns._ SQUIRE'LING, a squire of small possessions; SQUIREOC'RACY, government by the landed classes; SQU[=I]R'ESS, a squire's wife. [_Esquire_.] SQUIRE, skw[=i]r, _n._ (_Shak._) a square. [_Square_.] SQUIRM, skwirm, _v.i._ to wriggle or writhe, to climb by wriggling up: to escape with any awkward evasion or lie. [A variant of _squir_=_whir_.] SQUIRREL, skwir'el, _n._ a nimble, reddish-brown, rodent little animal with hairy tail and large eyes, mainly of arboreal habit.--_ns._ SQUIRR'EL-FISH, a holocentroid tropical fish; SQUIRR'EL-TAIL, any one of several grasses of the genus _Hordeum_, with long hair-like awns: a cap of squirrel-skins, with a tail hanging down behind. [O. Fr. _escurel_--Low L. _scurellus_, dim. of L. _sciurus_--Gr. _skiouros_--_skia_, shade, _oura_, tail.] SQUIRT, skw[.e]rt, _v.t._ to throw out water in a stream from a narrow opening.--_n._ a small instrument for squirting: a small, quick stream.--_n._ SQUIRT'ER. [Skeat says the _r_ appears to be intrusive; allied to prov. Eng. _squitter_, to squirt, and _squitter_, diarrhoea. From Sw. dial. _skvittär_, to sprinkle all round, freq. of _skwitta_, to squirt, Sw. _sqvätta_, to squirt; cf. Dan. _sqvatte_, to splash.] SQUITCH, skwich, _n._ quitch-grass. SRADDHA, srä'da, _n._ the offering of rice and flowers to the manes of a deceased ancestor. [Sans.] STAB, stab, _v.t._ to wound with a pointed weapon: to wound: to injure secretly, or by slander: to roughen a brick wall with a pick so as to hold plaster: to pierce folded sheets, near their back edges, for the passage of thread or wire.--_v.i._ to give a stab or a mortal wound:--_pr.p._ stab'bing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ stabbed.--_n._ a wound with a pointed weapon: an injury given secretly.--_n._ STAB'BER, one who stabs.--_adv._ STAB'BINGLY. [Gael. _stob_, a stake.] STABAT MATER, st[=a]'bat m[=a]'t[.e]r, _n._ a Latin hymn on the seven dolours of the Virgin, ascribed to Jacopone da Todi, a 13th-cent. Minorite: a musical setting of this sequence. [Its opening words.] STABLE, st[=a]'bl, _adj._ that stands firm: firmly established: durable: firm in purpose or character: constant, unchangeable.--_ns._ STABIL'ITY, state of being stable: steadiness; ST[=A]'BLENESS.--_adv._ ST[=A]'BLY. [Fr.,--L. _stabilis_--_st[=a]re_, to stand.] STABLE, st[=a]'bl, _n._ a building for horses and cattle.--_v.t._ to put or keep in a stable.--_v.i._ to dwell in a stable.--_ns._ ST[=A]'BLE-BOY, -MAN, a boy, or man, who attends in a stable; ST[=A]'BLER, a stable-keeper; ST[=A]'BLE-ROOM, room for stabling horses or cattle; ST[=A]'BLING, act of putting into a stable: accommodation for horses and cattle. [O. Fr. _estable_ (Fr. _étable_)--L. _stabulum_--_st[=a]re_, to stand.] STABLISH, stab'lish, _v.t._ old form of _establish_.--_n._ STAB'LISHMENT=_Establishment_. STACCATO, stak-kä'to, _adj._ (_mus._) with the notes to be played in an abrupt, disconnected manner--opp. to _Legato_: marked by abrupt emphasis: giving a clear distinct sound to each note.--_adj._ STACCATIS'SIMO, as staccato as possible. [It., from _staccare_, for _distaccare_, to separate.] STACHYS, st[=a]'kis, _n._ a genus of _Labiatæ_, containing the Hedge-nettle, the Woundwort, and according to some botanists the Common Betony or Wood Betony. [L.,--Gr. _stachys_, an ear of corn.] STACK, stak, _n._ a large pile of bay, corn, wood, &c.: a number of chimneys standing together: a pyramid formed by a number of muskets with fixed bayonets interlocked and the stocks spread widely apart.--_v.t._ to pile into a stack: to make up cards for cheating.--_ns._ STACK'-STAND, a frame of wood, iron, or stone, supported on short props, for building a stack upon; STACK'YARD, a yard for stacks. [Scand.; Ice. _stakkr_, a stack of hay.] STACTE, stak'te, _n._ a Jewish spice, liquid myrrh. STACTOMETER, stak-tom'e-t[.e]r, _n._ a tube with a small hole at the bottom for measuring a liquid in drops.--Also STALAGMOM'ETER. [Gr. _staktos_, dropping, _metron_, a measure.] STADDA, stad'a, _n._ a double-bladed hand-saw for cutting the teeth of combs. STADDLE, stad'l, _n._ anything that serves for support: a staff or crutch: a stack-stand: a small tree. [A.S. _stathol_, foundation; Ger. _stadel_.] STADE=_Stadium_ (q.v.). STADIA, st[=a]'di-a, _n._ a temporary surveying station: an instrument for measuring distances.--_n._ STADIOM'ETER, a self-recording theodolite. STADIUM, st[=a]'di-um, _n._ a Greek measure of length, 600 podes=582 English feet, the Greek foot being .971 of an English foot:--_pl._ ST[=A]'DIA. STADTHOLDER, stad-h[=o]l'd[.e]r, _n._ a barbarous English form of the Dutch _Stadhouder_, 'stead-holder,' of which the French _lieu-tenant_ is a literal translation, _Statthalter_ being the corresponding German. STAFF, staf, _n._ a stick carried for support or defence: a prop: a long piece of wood: pole: a flagstaff: the long handle of an instrument: a stick or ensign of authority: the five lines and spaces on which music is written: a stanza (the previous meanings have _pl._ STAFFS or STAVES, st[=a]vz): a body of skilled officers whose duty it is, under orders from the commanding officers of various grades, to arrange the movements and supply of the various bodies which go to make up an army: a similar body of persons in any undertaking, acting under a manager or chief (the last two meanings have _pl._ STAFFS, stafs).--_ns._ STAFF'-CAPTAIN, the senior grade in the navigating branch in the British navy; STAFF'-COLL'EGE, a college where military officers are trained in the higher branches of professional knowledge, and prepared for holding staff-appointments; STAFF'-CORPS, a body of intelligent officers and men who performed engineering and siege duties, made reconnaissances, &c. during the wars of Wellington; (INDIAN) a body of British officers serving on the permanent Indian establishment, appointed from it to do duty with native regiments, &c.; STAFF'-D[=U]'TY, the occupation of an officer who serves on a staff, having been detached from his regiment; STAFF'-NOT[=A]'TION, musical notation in which a staff is used, as opposed to the tonic-solfa system; STAFF'-SUR'GEON, a navy surgeon of senior grade; STAFF'-SYS'TEM, a block-system in use on single-line railways in which the station-master gives the engine-driver a staff authorising him to proceed over a given portion. [A.S. _stæf_; Ice. _stafr_, Ger. _stab_.] STAG, stag, _n._ the male deer, esp. one of the red deer:--_fem._ _Hind_: a speculator who applies for shares or stock in new concerns quoted at a premium, hoping to obtain an allotment and secure a profit without holding the stock, one who sells new securities quoted at a premium before allotment.--_v.t._ to follow, to dog, to shadow.--_v.i._ to act as a stag on the stock-exchange.--_ns._ STAG'-BEE'TLE, a genus of Lamellicorn beetles, nearly allied to the Scarabees, the males with large projecting mandibles; STAG'-DANCE, -PART'Y, a dance or party of men only; STAG'HOUND, a name applied both to the buck-hound and the Scottish deer-hound. [Ice. _steggr_, a male animal, _stiga_, to mount.] STAGE, st[=a]j, _n._ an elevated platform, esp. in a theatre: the theatre: theatrical representations, the theatrical calling: any place of exhibition or performance: a place of rest on a journey or road: distance between places: degree of progress.--_v.t._ to represent or place for representation on the stage.--_ns._ STAGE'-COACH, a coach that runs regularly with passengers from stage to stage; STAGE'-CRAFT, skill in putting a play on the stage; STAGE'-DOOR, the actors' entrance to a theatre; STAGE'-DRIV'ER, one who drives a stage; STAGE'-EFFECT', theatrical effect; STAGE'-F[=E]'VER, a passion to go on the stage; STAGE'-FRIGHT, nervousness before an audience, esp. for the first time; STAGE'-MAN'AGER, one who superintends the production of plays, and has general charge of everything behind the curtain; STAGE'-PLAY, a play for representation on a stage; STAGE'-PLAY'ER, a player on the stage; ST[=A]'GER, a stage-horse: one who has had much experience in anything.--_adj._ STAGE'-STRUCK, sorely smitten with stage-fever.--_ns._ STAGE'-WAG'ON, a wagon for conveying goods and passengers at fixed times; STAGE'-WHIS'PER, a loud whisper, as that of an actor meant to be heard by the audience.--_adjs._ ST[=A]'GEY, ST[=A]'GY, suggesting the stage, theatrical.--_ns._ ST[=A]'GINESS; ST[=A]'GING, a structure for workmen in building. [O. Fr. _estage_ (Fr. _étage_), a story of a house, through a L. form _staticus_, from _st[=a]re_, to stand.] STAGGER, stag'[.e]r, _v.i._ to reel from side to side: to begin to give way: to begin to doubt: to hesitate.--_v.t._ to cause to reel: to cause to doubt or hesitate: to shock.--_adv._ STAGG'ERINGLY.--_n._ STAGG'ERS, a popular term applied to several diseases of horses.--GRASS, or STOMACH, STAGGERS, an acute indigestion; MAD, or SLEEPY, STAGGERS, an inflammation of the brain. [Ice. _stakra_, to push, freq. of _staka_, to push.] STAGIRITE, STAGYRITE, staj'i-r[=i]t, _adj._ pertaining to _Stageira_ in Macedonia.--_n._ a native or inhabitant thereof, esp. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). STAGNANT, stag'nant, _adj._ stagnating: not flowing: motionless: impure from being motionless: not brisk: dull.--_n._ STAG'NANCY, the state of being stagnant.--_adv._ STAG'NANTLY.--_v.i._ STAG'NATE, to cease to flow: to become dull or motionless.--_n._ STAGN[=A]'TION, act of stagnating: state of being stagnant or motionless: dullness. [L. _stagnans_, _-antis_, pr.p. of _stagn[=a]re_.] STAHLIANISM, stäl'i-an-izm, _n._ the doctrines of Georg Ernst _Stahl_, a German physician (1660-1734), who held that there exists a mysterious force residing in, but independent of, matter, not only forming the body, but directing it in all its functions--also STAHL'ISM.--_adj._ STAHL'IAN. STAID, st[=a]d, _adj._ steady: sober: grave.--_adv._ STAID'LY.--_n._ STAID'NESS. [For _stayed_--_stay_.] STAIG, st[=a]g, _n._ (_Scot._) a young horse, a stallion. STAIN, st[=a]n, _v.t._ to tinge or colour: to give a different colour to: to impregnate, as a tissue, with some substance whose reaction colours some parts but not others, thus making form or structure plainly visible: to dye: to mark with guilt or infamy: to bring reproach on: to sully: to tarnish.--_v.i._ to take or impart a stain.--_n._ a discoloration: a spot: taint of guilt: cause of reproach: shame.--_n._ STAIN'ER, one who stains or blots: a dyer.--_adj._ STAIN'LESS, without or free from stain.--_adv._ STAIN'LESSLY.--_n._ STAIN'LESSNESS.--STAINED GLASS, glass painted with certain pigments fused into its surface. [Short for _distain_--O. Fr. _desteindre_--L. _dis-_, away, _ting[)e]re_, to dye.] STAIR, st[=a]r, _n._ a series of steps for ascending to a higher level: one of such steps: a flight of steps, only in _pl._: (_Spens._) a degree.--_ns._ STAIR'-CAR'PET, carpet suitable for stairs; STAIR'CASE, a flight of stairs with balusters, &c.; STAIR'-ROD, one of a number of metallic rods for holding a stair-carpet in its place.--_adv._ DOWN'STAIRS, in the lower part of a house--opp. to _Upstairs_.--BACK-STAIRS, adjectively for secret, underhand; BELOW STAIRS, in a lower story, in the basement. [A.S. _st['æ]ager_--_stígan_, to ascend; Ger. _steigen_, to climb, Ice. _stegi_, a step.] STAITH, STATHE, st[=a]th, _n._ (_prov._) the extremity of a line of rails laid on a platform, for discharging coals, &c., into vessels. [A.S. _stæth_, _steth_, bank.] STAKE, st[=a]k, _n._ a strong stick pointed at one end: one of the upright pieces of a fence: a post to which an animal is tied, esp. that to which a martyr was tied to be burned: martyrdom: a tinsmith's anvil: anything pledged in a wager: a prize, anything to gain or lose.--_v.t._ to fasten, or pierce with a stake: to mark the bounds of with stakes (often with off and out): to wager, to hazard.--_ns._ STAKE'-HOLD'ER, the person with whom the stakes in a wager are deposited; STAKE'-NET, a form of fishing-net hung on stakes.--AT STAKE, hazarded, in danger. [A.S. _staca_, a stake.] STALACTITE, sta-lak't[=i]t, _n._ a deposit of carbonate of lime, hanging like an icicle from the roof of a cavern, formed by the dripping of water.--_adjs._ STALAC'TIC, -AL, STALACTIT'IC, -AL, having the form or properties of a stalactite; STALAC'TIFORM, like a stalactite. [Gr. _stalaktos_--_stalazein_, to drip.] STALAGMITE, sta-lag'm[=i]t, _n._ a deposit of carbonate of lime, &c., on the floor of a cavern, usually cylindrical or conical in form, caused by the dripping from the roof of water holding some substance in solution; it is the counterpart to a _Stalactite_, and both are often fused together, forming a _Stalactitic column_.--_adjs._ STALAGMIT'IC, -AL, having the form of stalagmites.--_adv._ STALAGMIT'ICALLY. [Gr. _stalagmos_, a dropping--_stalazein_, to drip.] STAL'D, st[=a]ld, _pa.p._ (_Spens._) stolen, taken. [_Steal_.] STALDER, stal'd[.e]r, _n._ (_prov._) a pile of wood: a cask-stand. STALE, st[=a]l, _adj._ too long kept: tainted: vapid or tasteless from age, as beer: not new: worn out by age: decayed: no longer fresh, trite: in athletics, over-trained, hence unfit, as in 'gone stale.'--_n._ anything become stale: urine of cattle, &c.: (_Shak._) a whore.--_v.t._ to render insipid, to make common.--_v.i._ to make water, as beasts.--_adv._ STALE'LY.--_n._ STALE'NESS. [Prov. Eng. _stale_, conn. with Old Dut. _stel_, old. Skeat makes _stale_ that which reminds one of the stable, tainted, &c.--Sw. _stalla_, to put into a stall, also to stale (as cattle)--Sw. _stall_, a stable.] STALE, st[=a]l, _n._ something offered or exhibited as an allurement to draw others to any place or purpose: (_Spens._) a decoy, a gull: (_Shak._) a dupe, laughing-stock.--_n._ STALL, a thief's assistant. [A.S. _stalu_, theft--_stelan_, to steal.] STALE, st[=a]l, _n._ the handle of anything, a stalk. [A.S. _stæl_, _stel_, a stalk.] STALEMATE, st[=a]l'm[=a]t, _n._ in chess-playing, the position of the king when he cannot move without being placed in check.--_v.t._ to put into a condition of stalemate: to bring to a standstill. STALK, stawk, _n._ the stem of a plant: the stem on which a flower or fruit grows: the stem of a quill: the handle of anything, the stem: a tall chimney.--_p.adj._ STALKED, having a stalk.--_adjs._ STALK'-EYED, podophthalmous, as a crustacean; STALK'LESS, having no stalk; STALK'Y, hard as a stalk: resembling a stalk. [An extension of A.S. _stæl_, _stel_ (cf. Ice. _stilkr_, Dan. _stilk_); cog. with Ger. _stiel_, which is allied to, perh. borrowed from, L. _stilus_, a stake.] STALK, stawk, _v.i._ to walk as on stilts: to walk with long, slow steps: to walk behind a stalking-horse: to pursue game by approaching behind covers.--_v.t._ to approach secretly in order to kill, as deer.--_n._ a stately step: the pursuit of game by stealthy approach.--_ns._ STALK'ER, one who stalks, as a deer-stalker: a kind of fishing-net: (_pl._) the Gradatores; STALK'ING, the act of approaching game warily or behind a cover; STALK'ING-HORSE, a horse behind which a sportsman hides while stalking game: a mask or pretence. [A.S. _stælcan_, to walk cautiously, _stealc_, high; Dan. _stalke_, to walk with long steps.] STALKOES, staw'k[=o]z, _n.pl._ walking gentlemen. [Ir. _stalcaire_, a bully.] [Illustration] STALL, stawl, _n._ a place where a horse or other animal stands and is fed: a division of a stable for a single animal: a stable: a bench or table on which articles are exposed for sale: one of the seats in churches reserved for the clergy and choir, usually lining the choir or chancel on both sides, also an office entitling one to such a seat, or its stipend: a reserved seat in a theatre, usually one of those in the front division of the parquet--_orchestra stalls_.--_v.t._ to put or keep in a stall.--_v.i._ to inhabit.--_n._ STALL'AGE, liberty of erecting stalls in a fair or market: rent paid for this liberty.--_adj._ STALLED, kept or fed in a stall, fatted.--_v.t._ STALL'-FEED, to feed and fatten in a stall or stable.--_ns._ STALL'ING (_Tenn._) stabling; STALL'INGER (_prov._), a keeper of a stall; STALL'MAN, one who keeps a stall for the sale of any article; STALL'-READER, one who stands and reads books at a bookstall. [A.S. _steal_; Ice. _stallr_, Ger. _stall_.] STALLION, stal'yun, _n._ an uncastrated male horse, esp. one kept for breeding. [O. Fr. _estalon_ (Fr. _étalon_)--Late L. _equus ad stallum_, a horse at stall.] STALWART, stawl'wart, _adj._ stout, strong, sturdy: determined in one's partisanship.--_n._ a resolute person.--(_arch._) STAL'WORTH.--_adv._ STAL'WARTLY.--_n._ STAL'WARTNESS--(_arch._) STAL'WORTHINESS. [M. E. _stalworth_--A.S. _stæl-wyrthe_, serviceable. Prob. _stathol_,foundation, _weorth_, good, worth.] STAM, stam, _v.t._ (_prov._) to confound.--_n._ confusion. [Illustration] STAMEN, st[=a]'men, _n._ one of the male organs of a flower which produce the pollen:--_pl._ ST[=A]'MENS.--_adj._ ST[=A]'MENED, having stamens.--_n._ STAM'INA (prop. _pl._), the principal strength of anything: the firm part of a body which supports the whole.--_adjs._ STAM'INAL, STAMIN'[=E]OUS, consisting of or possessing stamens: pertaining to, or attached to, the stamen: apetalous, as certain flowers; STAM'INATE, -D, having or producing stamens; STAMINIF'EROUS, STAMINIG'EROUS, bearing or having stamens.--_ns._ STAM'INODE, STAMIN[=O]'DIUM, an abortive stamen; STAM'INODY, a condition of flowers in which sepals, pistils, &c. are metamorphosed into stamens. [L. _stamen_ (pl. _stamina_)--_st[=a]re_, to stand.] STAMMEL, stam'el, _n._ a kind of woollen cloth, dull red in colour: red colour.--_adj._ made of stammel, or like it in colour. [Earlier _stamin_--O. Fr. _estamine_--Low L. _stamina_--L. _stamineus_, _stamen_, a thread.] STAMMEL, stam'el, _n._ (_prov._) a stumbling horse: a bouncing girl. STAMMER, stam'[.e]r, _v.i._ to halt in one's speech, the result of failure in co-ordinate action of certain muscles and their appropriate nerves: to falter in speaking: to stutter.--_v.t._ to utter with hesitation.--_n._ hesitation in speech: defective utterance.--_ns._ STAMM'ERER; STAMM'ERING.--_adv._ STAMM'ERINGLY. [A.S. _stamor_; Dut. _stameren_.] STAMNOS, stam'nos, _n._ an ancient Greek short-necked, two-handled wine-vase. [Gr.] STAMP, stamp, _v.t._ to strike with the sole of the foot, by thrusting it down: to impress with some mark or figure: to imprint: to fix deeply: to coin: to form: to pound, bray, crush, bruise.--_v.i._ to step or plant the foot firmly down.--_n._ the act of stamping: the mark made by pressing something on a soft body: an instrument for making impressions on other bodies: that which is stamped: an official mark put on things chargeable with duty, as proof that the duty is paid: an instrument for cutting materials into a certain shape by a downward pressure: cast, form, character: distinguishing mark, imprint, sign, evidence: a species of heavy pestle, raised by water or steam power, for crushing and pulverising ores: (_pl._) stamp-duties: (_slang_) money, esp. paper money.--_ns._ STAMP'-ACT, an act for regulating stamp-duties; STAMP'-COLLECT'OR, an officer who collects stamp-duties: one who makes a collection of postage or other stamps; STAMP'-D[=U]'TY, a tax imposed on the paper on which legal documents are written; STAMP'ER; STAMP'ING; STAMP'ING-MACHINE', a machine used for stamping coins, in the stamping of brass-work, or in crushing metallic ores; STAMP'-, STAMP'ING-MILL, a crushing-mill for ores; STAMP'-NOTE, a certificate from a custom-house officer for goods to be loaded as freight of a ship; STAMP'-OFF'ICE, an office where stamp-duties are received and stamps issued.--STAMP OUT, to extinguish, extirpate. [A.S. _stempan_; Ger. _stampfen_.] STAMPEDE, stam-p[=e]d', _n._ a sudden fright seizing a herd of horses or other cattle, causing them to run: flight, or any sudden confused movement of a multitude, caused by panic.--_v.i._ to scamper off in panic. [Sp. _estampido_, a crash--_estampar_, to stamp.] STANCE, stans, _n._ (_Scot._) a station, site, stand. STANCH, stänsh, _v.t._ to stop the flowing of, as blood: to quench, allay.--_v.i._ (_B._) to cease to flow.--_adj._ constant: trusty: zealous: sound, strong, firm.--_n._ STANCH'ER.--_adj._ STANCH'LESS (_Shak._), that cannot be stanched or stopped.--_adv._ STANCH'LY.--_n._ STANCH'NESS. [O. Fr. _estancher_ (Fr. _étancher_)--Low L. _stanc[=a]re_, to stanch--L. _stagn[=a]re_, to be or make stagnant.] STANCH, stänsh, _adj._ Same as STAUNCH. STANCHION, stan'shun, _n._ an upright iron bar of a window or screen: (_naut._) an upright beam used as a support.--_v.t._ to fasten by means of or to a stanchion.--A Scotch form is STAN'CHEL. [O. Fr. _estançon_--_estancer_, to stop, _estance_--Low L. _stantia_--L. _st[=a]re_, to stand.] STAND, stand, _v.i._ to cease to move: to be stationary: to occupy a certain position: to stagnate: to be at rest: to be fixed in an upright position, to be erect, to be on the feet--as opposed to _sit_, _lie_, _kneel_, &c.: to become or remain erect: to have a position or rank: to be in a particular state, to be with relation to something else: to maintain an attitude: to be fixed or firm: to keep one's ground: to remain unimpaired: to endure, to be consistent: to consist: to depend or be supported: to offer one's self as a candidate: to have a certain direction: to hold a course at sea.--_v.t._ to endure: to sustain: to suffer: to abide by: to be at the expense of, to offer and pay for:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ stood.--_ns._ STAND'ER; STAND'ER-BY (_Shak._), a spectator; STAND'ER-UP, one who stands up or who takes a side.--_adj._ STAND'ING, established: settled: permanent: fixed: stagnant: being erect.--_n._ continuance: existence: place to stand in: position in society: a right or capacity to sue or maintain an action.--_n._ STAND'ING-GROUND, a place on which to stand, any basis or principle on which one rests.--_n.pl._ STAND'ING-OR'DERS, the name given to permanent regulations made by either House of Parliament for the conduct of its proceedings, and enduring from parliament to parliament unless rescinded.--_ns._ STAND'ING-POOL (_Shak._), a pool of stagnant water; STAND'ING-RIG'GING, the ropes in a ship that remain fixed; STAND'ING-ROOM, place in which to stand.--_n.pl._ STAND'ING-STONES, monoliths of unhewn stone, erected singly or in groups.--_n._ STAND'ISH, a standing dish for pen and ink.--_adj._ STAND'-OFF, holding others off, reserved--also STAND'-OFF'ISH.--_ns._ STAND'-OFF'ISHNESS, a distant, reserved, and haughty manner; STAND'-PIPE, a vertical pipe at a reservoir, into which the water is pumped up so as to give it a head: a small pipe inserted into an opening in a water-main: a pipe permitting expansion, as of hot water: a pipe sufficiently high for its contents to be forced into a boiler against the steam-pressure; STAND'-POINT, a station or position from which objects are viewed: a basis or fundamental principle according to which things are compared and judged; STAND'STILL, a standing without moving forward: a stop.--_adj._ STAND'-UP, standing erect: done standing, noting a fair boxing-match.--STAND AGAINST, to resist; STAND BY, to support; STAND FAST, to be unmoved; STAND FIRE, to remain steady under the fire of an enemy--also figuratively; STAND FOR, to be a candidate for: (_naut._) to direct the course towards; STAND FROM, to direct the course from; STAND IN, to cost; STAND IN WITH, to have a secret understanding with, as policemen with publicans; STAND LOW (_print._), to fall short of the standard height; STAND OFF, to keep at a distance: to direct the course from: (_Shak._) to forbear compliance or intimacy; STAND OFF AND ON, to sail away from shore and then towards it; STAND ON, to continue on the same tack or course: (_Shak._) to be satisfied or convinced of; STAND ONE'S GROUND, to maintain one's position; STAND OUT, to project, to be prominent: not to comply, to refuse to yield; STAND TO, to agree to, adhere to, abide by, maintain; STAND TOGETHER, to agree, to be consistent with; STAND TRIAL, not to give up without trial; STAND UNDER (_Shak._), to undergo, to sustain; STAND UP, to rise from a sitting posture; STAND UP FOR, to support or attempt to defend; STAND UPON (_B._), to attack; STAND UP TO, to meet face to face, to fulfil manfully; STAND UP WITH, to dance with as a partner; STAND WITH, to be consistent. [A.S. _standan_; Goth. _standan_, Ger. _stehen_; cf. Gr. _histanai_, to place, L. _st[=a]re_, to stand.] STAND, stand, _n._ a place where one stands or remains for any purpose: a place beyond which one does not go, the highest or ultimate point: an erection for spectators at races, &c.: the place of a witness in court: something on which anything rests, a frame for glasses, &c.: a stop, obstruction, rest, quiescence: a state of cessation from action, motion, or business: a state of perplexity or hesitation: a difficulty, resistance.--BE AT A STAND, to stop on account of doubt or difficulty: to hesitate, to be perplexed; MAKE A STAND, to halt and offer resistance; PUT TO A STAND, to stop, arrest. STANDARD, stand'ard, _n._ that which stands or is fixed, as a rule: the upright post of a truss: that which is established as a rule or model: a grade of classification in English elementary schools: a staff with a flag: an ensign of war: one of the two flags of a heavy cavalry regiment: (_hort._) a standing shrub or tree, not supported by a wall.--_adj._ according to some standard: legal: usual: having a fixed or permanent value.--_n._ STAND'ARD-BEAR'ER, the soldier or junior officer who carries the colours: the spokesman or representative of a movement. [O. Fr. _estandart_--Old High Ger. _standan_, to stand, with suff. _-art._] STANG, stang, _n._ a wooden bar, a pole.--RIDING THE STANG, a popular manner of punishing an unpopular man by carrying him astride of a stang. [A.S. _stæng_, a pole; Dut. _stang_.] STANG, stang, _v.i._ (_prov._) to throb with pain--also a Scotch form of _sting_. STANHOPE, stan'h[=o]p, _n._ a light open one-seated carriage without a top, formerly with two wheels, now usually with four. STANIEL, stan'yel, _n._ the kestrel or windhover.--Also STAN'NEL, STAN'YEL. [A.S. _stángella_.] STANK, stangk, _pa.t._ of stink. STANK, stangk, _n._ (_Scot._) a ditch, a pool, a tank. [O. Fr. _estang_, a pond--L. _stagnum_, a stagnant pool.] STANNARY, stan'ar-i, _adj._ of or relating to tin mines or works.--_n._ a tin-mine.--_n._ STANN'ATE, a salt formed with stannic acid and a base.--_adjs._ STANN'IC, pertaining to, or procured from, tin; STANNIF'EROUS, producing or containing tin.--_n._ STANN'INE, a mineral of a grayish-black colour, consisting chiefly of sulphur, tin, copper, and iron.--_adj._ STANN'OUS, containing tin.--STANNARY COURTS, courts in Cornwall for the tin-miners. [L. _stannum_, tin.] STANZA, stan'za, _n._ a series of lines or verses connected with and adjusted to each other in a fixed order of sequence as regards length and metrical form: a division of a poem containing every variation of measure in the poem.--_adj._ STANZ[=A]'IC. [It. _stanza_, a stop--Low L. _stantia_--L. _st[=a]re_, stand.] STAPELIA, sta-p[=e]'li-a, _n._ a genus of showy fleshy African plants of the milkweed family. [From J. B. van _Stapel_.] STAPES, st[=a]'p[=e]z, _n._ the inmost of the three auditory ossicles, situated in the tympanum.--_adjs._ STAP[=E]'DIAL, stirrup-shaped: pertaining to the stapes; STAPEDIF'EROUS, having a stapes.--_n._ STAP[=E]'DIUS, a stapedial muscle. [Low L. _stapes_, a stirrup--Old High Ger. _stapf_, a step.] STAPHYLINE, staf'i-lin, _adj._ of the form of a bunch of grapes.--_ns._ STAPH'YLE, the uvula; STAPHYL[=O]'MA, STAPHYL[=O]'SIS, a protrusion of any of the coats of the eye.--_adjs._ STAPHYLOMAT'IC; STAPHYL[=O]'MATOUS.--_ns._ STAPH'YLOPLASTY, the operation for replacing the soft palate; STAPHYLOR'APHY, the operation of uniting a cleft palate; STAPHYLOT'OMY, the amputation of the uvula. [Gr. _staphyl[=e]_, a bunch of grapes, the uvula.] STAPLE, st[=a]'pl, _n._ a settled mart or market: the principal production or industry of a district or country: the principal element: the thread of textile fabrics: unmanufactured material.--_adj._ established in commerce: regularly produced for market.--_n._ ST[=A]'PLER, a dealer. [O. Fr. _estaple_--Low Ger. _stapel_, a heap.] STAPLE, st[=a]'pl, _n._ a loop of iron, &c., for holding a bolt, &c.: the metallic tube to which the reed is fastened in the oboe, &c. [A.S. _stapel_, a prop--_stapan_, step; cf. Ger. _stapel_.] STAR, stär, _n._ one of the bright bodies in the heavens, except the sun and moon: one of the heavenly bodies shining by their own light, and which keep the same relative position in the heavens: anything star-like or star-shaped: a representation of a star worn as a badge of rank or honour: a person of brilliant or attractive qualities: the chief actor or actress in a dramatic company: (_print._) an asterisk (*).--_v.t._ to set with stars: to bespangle.--_v.i._ to shine, as a star: to attract attention: to appear as a star-actor (TO STAR IT, esp. on a provincial tour):--_pr.p._ star'ring; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ starred.--_ns._ STAR'-AP'PLE, the fruit of the West Indian tree _Chrysophyllum Cainito_; STAR'-BLAST'ING, the noxious influence of the stars.--_adjs._ STAR'-BLIND, so blind as not to see the stars: half-blind; STAR'-BROI'DERED (_Tenn._), embroidered with figures in the shape of stars.--_ns._ STAR'-BUZZ'ARD, an American goshawk; STAR'-CAT'ALOGUE, a list of stars, with their places, magnitudes, &c.--_adj._ STAR'-CROSSED, not favoured by the stars.--_ns._ STAR'-DRIFT, a common proper motion of a number of fixed stars in the same region of the heavens; STAR'-DUST, cosmic dust, matter in fine particles falling upon the earth from some outside source, like meteorites; STAR'-FINCH, the redstart; STAR'FISH (_Asteroidea_), an Echinoderm, nearly allied to the Brittle-stars (_Ophiuroidea_) and to the Sea-urchins (_Echinoidea_); STAR'-FLOW'ER, one of various plants with bright star-shaped flowers, the Star-of-Bethlehem: chickweed; STAR'-FORT, a fort surrounded with projecting angles, like the points of a star; STAR'-FRUIT, a small water-plant of southern Europe, with long-pointed radiating carpels; STAR'-G[=A]Z'ER, an astrologer: an astronomer; STAR'-G[=A]Z'ING, astrology; STAR'-GRASS, a grass-like plant, with star-shaped, yellow flowers; STAR'-HY'ACINTH, a bulbous-rooted plant, a species of squill, with pinkish purple flowers, found on the coast in the south of England; STAR'-JELL'Y, the common species of nostoc.--_adj._ STAR'LESS, having no stars visible: having no light from stars.--_n._ STAR'LIGHT, light or lustre of the stars.--_adjs._ STAR'-LIKE, resembling a star: radiated like a star: bright, illustrious; STAR'LIT, lighted by the stars.--_ns._ STAR'-NOSE, a North American mole; STAR'-OF-BETH'LEHEM, a garden plant of the lily family, with bright white star-like flowers: the miraculous star of the Nativity (Matt. ii. 2, 9, 10).--_adj._ STAR'-PROOF (_Milt._), impervious to starlight.--_n._ STAR'-READ (_Spens._), knowledge of the stars, astrology.--_adj._ STARRED, adorned or studded with stars.--_ns._ STAR'-REED, a South American plant used in Peru against dysentery, &c.; STAR'RINESS.--_adj._ STAR'RY, abounding or adorned with stars: consisting of, or proceeding from, the stars: like, or shining like, the stars.--_n._ STARS'-AND-STRIPES, the flag of the United States of America, with thirteen stripes alternately red and white, and a blue field containing as many stars as there are states.--_adj._ STAR'-SPANG'LED, spangled or studded with stars.--_n._ STAR'-STONE, a variety of corundum which, when cut in a particular way, exhibits a reflection of light in the form of a star.--_adj._ STAR'-STROWN (_Tenn._), strewn or studded with stars.--_ns._ STAR'-THIS'TLE, a species of centaury, so called from its star-like flowers; STAR'-WHEEL, a spur-wheel with V-shaped teeth; STAR'WORT, a genus of plants nearly allied to the Asters, with star-like flowers. [A.S. _steorra_; Ger. _stern_, L. _stella_ (for _sterula_), Gr. _ast[=e]r_.] STARBOARD, stär'b[=o]rd, _n._ the right-hand side of a ship, to one looking toward the bow.--_adj._ pertaining to, or lying on, the right side of a ship. [A.S. _steórbord_--_steór_, a rudder, _bord_, a board, the side of a ship. Cf. _Board_ and _Larboard_.] STARCH, stärch, _n._ the pure fecula or white farinaceous matter of vegetables, yielding a translucent jelly used for stiffening clothes in the laundry: stiffness, formality.--_adj._ stiff, rigid, formal.--_adj._ STARCHED, stiffened with starch: formal.--_adv._ STARCH'EDLY.--_ns._ STARCH'EDNESS; STARCH'ER; STARCH'-HY'ACINTH, a plant allied to the hyacinth, so called from the smell of the flower.--_adv._ STARCH'ILY, in a starch or stiff manner: formally.--_ns._ STARCH'INESS, the state or quality of being starchy: stiffness of manner: formality; STARCH'-SU'GAR, glucose.--_adj._ STARCH'Y, consisting of, or like, starch: stiff: precise. [A special use of adj. _stark_; cf. Ger. _stärke_, starch--_stark_, strong.] STAR-CHAMBER, stär'-ch[=a]m'b[.e]r, _n._ a tribunal with a civil and criminal jurisdiction, which met in the old council chamber of the palace of Westminster, abolished in the reign of Charles I. [Probably named from the gilt _stars_ on the ceiling, hardly from the Jewish bonds (called _starrs_, from Heb. _shetar_) kept in the council-room.] STARE, st[=a]r, _v.i._ to look at with a fixed gaze, as in horror, astonishment, &c.: to look fixedly.--_v.t._ to influence in some way by staring.--_n._ a fixed look.--_ns._ ST[=A]R[=EE]', one who is stared at; ST[=A]'RER, one who stares or gazes; ST[=A]'RING, the act of staring.--_adv._ ST[=A]'RINGLY, in a staring manner: with a fixed look. [A.S. _starian_, from a Teut. root seen in Ger. _starr_, rigid; also in Eng. _stern_.] STARK, stärk, _adj._ stiff: gross: absolute: entire: naked, an abbreviation of STARK'-N[=A]'KED, quite naked, which is really a corr. of M. E. _start-naked_=tail-naked (A.S. _steort_, a tail).--_adv._ absolutely: completely.--_v.t._ to make stark, as in death.--_v.t._ STARK'EN, to stiffen, to make obstinate.--_adv._ STARK'LY.--_n._ STARK'NESS, the state or quality of being stark: stiffness; stoutness. [A.S. _stearc_, hard, strong; cog. Ice. _sterk-r_, Ger. _stark_.] STARLING, stärling, _n._ a genus _Sturnus_ and family _Sturnidæ_ of Passerine birds: (_archit._) a ring of piles supporting the pier of a bridge. [Dim. from obs. _stare_--A.S. _stær_; Ger. _staar_, L. _sturnus_.] STAROST, stär'ost, _n._ a Polish noble holding a STAR'OSTY or domain by grant of life-estate from the crown. [Pol. _starosta_, elder--_stary_, old.] STARR. See under STAR-CHAMBER. START, stärt, _v.i._ to move suddenly aside: to wince: to deviate: to begin: to proceed: to give way somewhat.--_v.t._ to cause to move suddenly: to disturb suddenly: to rouse suddenly from concealment: to set in motion: to call forth: to invent or discover: to move suddenly from its place: to loosen: to empty: to pour out.--_n._ a sudden movement: a sudden motion of the body: a sudden rousing to action: an unexpected movement: a sally: a sudden fit: a quick spring: the first motion from a point or place: the outset.--_n._ START'ER, one who starts.--_adj._ START'FUL, apt to start.--_adv._ START'INGLY (_Shak._), by fits or starts.--_ns._ START'ING-POINT, the point from which anything starts, or from which motion begins; START'ING-POST, the post or barrier from which the competitors in a race start or begin the race.--_adj._ START'ISH, apt to start, skittish.--_ns._ START'-UP (_Shak._), an upstart; START'UPPE (_Spens._), a kind of high shoe or half-boot.--START AFTER, to set out after, to pursue; START UP, to rise suddenly, to come suddenly into notice.--GET, or HAVE, THE START, to begin before another, to obtain an advantage over another. [M. E. _sterten_; closely akin to Dut. and Low Ger. _storten_, to plunge, Ger. _stürzen_.] STARTLE, stärt'l, _v.i._ to start or move suddenly: to feel sudden alarm.--_v.t._ to excite suddenly: to shock: to frighten.--_n._ sudden alarm or surprise.--_n._ START'LER.--_adj._ START'LING, such as to strike with astonishment or alarm.--_adv._ START'LINGLY.--_adj._ START'LISH, apt to start. [Extension of _start_.] STARVE, stärv, _v.i._ to die of hunger or cold: to suffer extreme hunger or want: to be in want of anything necessary, to deteriorate for want of anything essential.--_v.t._ to kill with hunger or cold: to destroy by want: to deprive of power.--_n._ STARV[=A]'TION, act of starving: state of being starved.--_adj._ STARVE'LING, hungry: lean: weak.--_n._ a thin, weak, pining animal or plant. [A.S. _steorfan_, to die; Dut. _sterven_, Ger. _sterben_, to die.] STASIDION, sta-sid'i-on, _n._ a stall in a Greek church. STASIMON, stas'i-mon, _n._ an ode sung by the whole chorus, after the parode:--_pl._ STAS'IMA. [Gr.] STASIMORPHY, stas'i-mor-fi, _n._ any deviation from the normal form of a bodily organ due to arrested development [Gr. _stasis_, standing.] STASIS, st[=a]'sis, _n._ the arrest of the blood in its circulation: one of the sections of a cathisma or portion of the psalter. [Gr.] STATANT, st[=a]'tant, _adj._ (_her._) standing with all the feet on the ground. [L. _st[=a]re_, to stand.] STATE, st[=a]t, _n._ position: condition: situation: circumstances at any time: the whole body of people under one government: the public: the civil power: estate, one of the orders or classes of men forming the body politic (as nobles, clergy, commonalty): a body of men united by profession: rank, quality: pomp: dignity: style of living: stability, continuance: (_pl._) the bodies constituting the legislature of a country: (_obs._) a seat of dignity: a stage, condition, as of an etched or engraved plate at one particular stage of its progress.--_adj._ belonging to the state: public: royal: ceremonial: pompous: magnificent.--_v.t._ to set forth: to express the details of: to set down fully and formally: to narrate: to set in order: to settle.--_adj._ ST[=A]T'ABLE, capable of being stated.--_ns._ STATE'-CRAFT, the art of managing state affairs; STATE'-CRIM'INAL, one who commits an offence against the state, as treason.--_adj._ ST[=A]T'ED, settled: established: fixed: regular.--_adv._ ST[=A]T'EDLY.--_ns._ STATE'-HOUSE, the building in which the legislature of a state holds its sittings; ST[=A]TE'LINESS.--_adj._ ST[=A]TE'LY, showing state or dignity: majestic: grand.--_adv._ majestically: (_Milt._) loftily.--_ns._ ST[=A]TE'MENT, the act of stating: that which is stated: a narrative or recital; STATE'-P[=A]'PER, an official paper or document relating to affairs of state; STATE'-PRIS'ON; STATE'-PRIS'ONER, a prisoner confined for offence against the state; STATE'-RELIG'ION, the establishment or endowment by the government of a country of some particular form of religion; STATE'ROOM, a stately room in a palace or mansion: principal room in the cabin of a ship; STATES'-GEN'ERAL, the name given to the representative body of the three orders (nobility, clergy, burghers) of the French kingdom; STATES'MAN, a man acquainted with the affairs of government: one skilled in government: one employed in public affairs: a politician: one who farms his own estate, a small landholder.--_adj._ STATES'MAN-LIKE, like a statesman.--_adv._ STATES'MANLY, in a manner becoming a statesman.--_n._ STATES'MANSHIP.--STATE SOCIALISM, a scheme of government which would entrust to the state the carrying on of the great enterprises of private industry; STATES OF THE CHURCH, the former temporal possessions of the popes. [O. Fr. _estat_ (Fr. _état_)--L. _status_, from _st[=a]re_, _st[=a]tum_, to stand.] STATER, st[=a]'t[.e]r, _n._ the standard gold coin of ancient Greece. STATIC, -AL, stat'ik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to statics: pertaining to bodies at rest or in equilibrium: resting: acting by mere weight.--_adv._ STAT'ICALLY.--_n._ STAT'ICS, the science which treats of the action of force in maintaining rest or preventing change of motion. [Gr. _statik[=e]_ (_epist[=e]m[=e]_, 'science,' being understood)--_hist[=e]mi_.] STATION, st[=a]'shun, _n._ the place where a person or thing stands: post assigned: position: office: situation: occupation, business: state: rank: condition in life: the place where railway trains come to a stand in order to take up and set down passengers and goods, the buildings erected at such a place for railway business: a regular stopping-place: a stock farm in Australia: a district or branch police-office: the place in India where the group of English officials or the officers of a garrison reside: a recess in a mine-shaft or passage for a pumping-machine: (_pl._) in R.C. usage, applied to certain places of reputed sanctity, appointed to be visited as places of prayer, any one of the fourteen (fifteen, or even eleven) images or pictures ranged round a church, starting from one side of the high altar and ending at the other, representing the several stages of the Passion--the whole series the Way of Calvary.--_v.t._ to assign a station to: to set: to appoint to a post, place, or office.--_adj._ ST[=A]'TIONAL.--_n._ ST[=A]'TIONARINESS.--_adj._ ST[=A]'TIONARY, pertaining to a station: standing: fixed: settled: acting from, or in, a fixed position (as an engine): not progressing or retrogressing: not improving.--_n._ ST[=A]'TIONER, one who sells paper and other articles used in writing.--_adj._ ST[=A]'TIONERY, belonging to a stationer.--_n._ the articles sold by a stationer.--_ns._ ST[=A]'TION-HOUSE, a temporary place of arrest; ST[=A]'TION-MAS'TER, one who has charge of a station, esp. on a railway.--STATIONERS' HALL, the hall in London belonging to the Company of the Stationers, who enjoyed until the passing of the Copyright Act in 1842 an absolute monopoly of printing and publishing; STATIONERY OFFICE, an office in London for providing books, stationery, &c. to the government offices at home and abroad, and for making contracts for the printing of government reports and other public papers. [Fr.,--L. _statio_--_st[=a]re_, to stand.] STATIST, st[=a]'tist, _n._ a statesman, a politician. STATISTICS, sta-tist'iks, _n._ a collection of facts and figures regarding the condition of a people, class, &c.: the science which treats of the collection and arrangement of facts bearing on the condition--social, moral, and material--of a people.--_adjs._ STATIST'IC, -AL, pertaining to, or containing, statistics.--_adv._ STATIST'ICALLY.--_n._ STATISTIC'IAN, one skilled in statistics. [Coined (as if from a form _statistik[=e]_) from Gr. _statizein_, to set up.] STATIVE, st[=a]'tiv, _adj._ standing still, pertaining to a permanent camp: indicating a physical state or reflex action, of certain Hebrew verbs. STATUE, stat'[=u], _n._ a likeness of a human being or animal carved out of some solid substance: an image--(_obs._) STAT'UA.--_n._ STAT'[=U]ARY, the art of carving statues: a statue or a collection of statues: one who makes statues: a dealer in statues.--_adj._ STAT'UED, furnished with statues.--_n._ STATUETTE', a small statue. [Fr.,--L. _statua_--_statu[)e]re_, to cause lo stand--_st[=a]re_.] STATUESQUE, stat-[=u]-esk', _adj._ like a statue.--_adv._ STATUESQUE'LY. [Fr.] STATURE, stat'[=u]r, _n._ the height of any animal.--_adj._ STAT'URED, having a certain specified stature. [L. _statura_.] STATUS, st[=a]'tus, _n._ state: condition: rank. [L.] STATUTE, stat'[=u]t, _n._ a law expressly enacted by the legislature (as distinguished from a customary law or law of use and wont): a written law: the act of a corporation or its founder, intended as a permanent rule or law.--_adj._ STAT'[=U]TABLE, made by statute: according to statute.--_adv._ STAT'[=U]TABLY.--_ns._ STAT'UTE-BOOK, a record of statutes or enacted laws; STAT'UTE-CAP (_Shak._), a kind of cap enjoined to be worn by a statute passed in 1571 in behalf of the cap-makers; STAT'UTE-ROLL, an enrolled statute.--_adj._ STAT'[=U]TORY, enacted by statute: depending on statute for its authority. [L. _statutum_, that which is set up--_statu[)e]re_.] STAUNCH, stawnsh, _adj._ firm in principle, pursuit, or support: trusty, hearty, constant, zealous.--_adv._ STAUNCH'LY.--_n._ STAUNCH'NESS. [_Stanch_.] STAUROLITE, stawr'[=o]-l[=i]t, _n._ a silicate of alumina with ferrous oxide, magnesia, and water, crystallising in trimetric forms, common as twinned cruciform crystals in certain states.--_adj._ STAUROLIT'IC. STAVE, st[=a]v, _n._ one of the pieces of which a cask is made: a staff or part of a piece of music: a stanza.--_v.t._ to break a stave or the staves of: to break: to burst: to drive off, as with a staff: to delay:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ st[=a]ved or st[=o]ve. [By-form of _staff_.] STAVES, st[=a]vz, plural of _staff_ and of _stave_. STAVESACRE, st[=a]vz'[=a]-k[.e]r, _n._ a tall larkspur whose seeds yield delphinin for destroying lice. [O. Fr. _stavesaigre_--Low L. _staphisagria_--Gr. _staphis_, dried grapes, _agrios_, wild.] STAW, staw, _v.i._ (_prov._) to stand still, become fixed.--_v.t._ (_Scot._) to surfeit, to scunner at.--_n._ a surfeit. STAW, staw, a Scotch form of _stole_. STAY, st[=a], _v.i._ to remain: to abide for any time: to continue in a state: to wait: to cease acting: to dwell: to trust.--_v.t._ to cause to stand: to stop: to restrain: to delay: to prevent from falling: to prop: to support, rest, rely:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ stayed, staid.--_n._ continuance in a place: abode for a time: stand: stop: a fixed state: a standstill: suspension of a legal proceeding: prop, support: (_pl._) a kind of stiff inner waistcoat worn by women.--_ns._ STAY'-AT-HOME, one who keeps much at home--also _adj._; STAY'-BOLT, a bolt or rod binding together opposite plates; STAY'ER, one who, or that which, stops, holds, or supports: a person or animal of good lasting or staying qualities for a race, &c.; STAY'-LACE, a lace for fastening a bodice; STAY'-M[=A]'KER, one whose occupation is to make stays.--STAY THE STOMACH, to allay the cravings of hunger for the time. [O. Fr. _estayer, estaye_--Old Dut. _stade_, a stay.] STAY, st[=a], _n._ a large strong rope running from the head of one mast to another mast ('fore-and-aft' stay), or to the side of the ship ('back'-stay): the transverse piece in a chain-cable link.--_v.t._ to support or to incline to one side by means of stays: to put on the other tack, to cause to go about.--_v.i._ to change tack, to go about, to be in stays.--_ns._ STAY'SAIL, a sail extended on a stay; STAY'-TACK'LE, a large hoisting tackle fixed by a pendant to the mainstay of a ship.--MISS STAYS (see MISS). [A.S. _stæg_; Dut. _stag_, Ger. _stag_.] STAYED, st[=a]d, _adj._ (_Spens._). Same as _Staid_, constant. STAYNE, st[=a]n, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to dim, deface, or disparage. [A form of _stain_.] STAYRE, st[=a]r, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as _Stair_, a step. STEAD, sted, _n._ the place which another had or might have: a fixed place of abode: use, help, service, as in 'To stand in good stead.'--_n._ STEADING, the barns, stables, &c. of a farm. [A.S. _stede_, place; Ger. _stadt, statt_, place, Dut. _stad_, a town.] STEADFAST, sted'fast, _adj._ firmly fixed or established: firm: constant: resolute: steady.--_adv._ STEAD'FASTLY.--_n._ STEAD'FASTNESS. [A.S. _stedefæst, stede_, a place, _fæst_, firm, fast.] STEADY, sted'i, _adj._ (_comp._ STEAD'IER, _superl._ STEAD'IEST) firm in standing or in place: fixed: stable: constant: resolute: consistent: regular: uniform: sober, industrious.--_v.t._ to make steady: to make or keep firm:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ stead'ied.--_n._ a rest or support, as for the hand, a tool, or a piece of work.--_adv._ STEAD'ILY.--_n._ STEAD'INESS.--_adj._ STEAD'Y-G[=O]'ING, of steady habits or action. [A.S. _stæ_ðð_ig_--_stæ_ð, stead, bank; Ger. _stätig_, continual.] STEAK, st[=a]k, _n._ a slice of meat (esp. beef) broiled, or for broiling. [Prob. Ice. _steik, steikja_, to broil.] STEAL, st[=e]l, _v.t._ to take by theft or feloniously: to take away without notice: to gain or win by address, insidiously, or by gradual means: to snatch: in golf, to hole a long putt by a stealthy stroke--the opposite of _Gobble._--_v.i._ to practise theft: to take feloniously: to pass secretly: to slip in or out unperceived:--_pa.t._ st[=o]le; _pa.p._ st[=o]len.--_ns._ STEAL'ER; STEAL'ING, the act of taking another's property without his knowledge or consent: stolen property.--_adv._ STEAL'INGLY.--STEAL A MARCH ON, to gain an advantage unperceived. [A.S. _stelan_; Ger. _stehlen_, Dut. _stelen_.] STEAL, st[=e]l, _n._ (_Spens._) a handle. STEALTH, stelth, _n._ the act of stealing: a secret manner of bringing anything to pass.--_adv._ STEALTH'ILY.--_n._ STEALTH'INESS.--_adj._ STEALTH'Y, done by stealth: unperceived: secret. STEAM, st[=e]m, _n._ the vapour of water--when dry, invisible and transparent like air, and not to be confused with the semi-liquid cloud which comes from the chimney of a locomotive; when superheated, changing the characteristics of a vapour for those belonging to what is known as a 'perfect gas:' the mist formed by condensed vapour: any vaporous exhalation: energy, force, spirit.--_v.i._ to rise or pass off in steam or vapour: to move by steam.--_v.t._ to expose to steam.--_ns._ STEAM'BOAT, STEAM'SHIP, STEAM'-VESS'EL, a boat, ship, or vessel propelled by steam; STEAM'-BOIL'ER, a boiler for generating steam; STEAM'-CARRIAGE, a carriage moved by steam on common roads; STEAM'-CHEST, -DOME, a chamber above a steam-boiler serving as a reservoir for steam; STEAM'-CRANE, a crane worked by a steam-engine; STEAM'-DIG'GER, a machine for digging the soil by means of steam-power, the soil being thereby much more thoroughly pulverised than by ploughing; STEAM'-EN'GINE, an engine or machine which changes heat into useful work through the medium of steam; STEAM'ER, a vessel moved by steam: a road-locomotive, &c.: a vessel in which articles are steamed; STEAM'-GAUGE, an instrument for measuring the pressure of steam in a boiler; STEAM'-GOV'ERNOR, the governor of a steam-engine; STEAM'-GUN, a gun projecting a missile by means of steam; STEAM'-HAMM'ER, a hammer consisting of a steam cylinder and piston placed vertically over an anvil, the hammer moved by the action of the steam; STEAM'INESS, the quality of being vaporous or misty; STEAM'-JACK'ET, a hollow casing surrounding any vessel and into which steam may be admitted; STEAM'-LAUNCH (see LAUNCH); STEAM'-NAVIG[=A]'TION, the propulsion of vessels by steam; STEAM'-NAV'VY, an excavator operated by steam in the making of docks, canals, &c.; STEAM'-PACK'ET, a steam-vessel plying between certain ports; STEAM'-PIPE, a pipe for conveying steam; STEAM'-PLOUGH, a plough or gang of ploughs worked by a steam-engine; STEAM'-POW'ER, the force of steam when applied to machinery; STEAM'-PRESS, a printing-press worked by steam; STEAM'-PRINT'ING, printing in which the presses are operated by steam; STEAM'-TRAP, a contrivance for allowing the passage of water while preventing the passage of steam; STEAM'-TUG, a small steam-vessel used in towing ships; STEAM'-WHIS'TLE, an apparatus attached to a steam-engine through which steam is discharged, producing a sound in the manner of a common whistle.--_adj._ STEAM'Y, consisting of, or like, steam: full of steam or vapour.--_n._ STEAM'-YACHT, a yacht propelled by steam. [A.S. _steám_; cog. with Dut. _stoom_.] STEAN, STEEN, st[=e]n, _n._ a stone or earthenware vessel.--_n._ STEAN'ING, the stone or brick lining of a well, &c. [A.S. _stæn_, stone.] STEARE, st[=e]r, _n._ (_Spens._) a steer or ox. STEARINE, st[=e]'a-r[=i]n, _n._ one of the fats occurring in animals and plants, the chief constituent of the more solid fats, such as mutton suet.--_n._ ST[=E]'AR[=A]TE, a salt formed by the combination of stearic acid with a base.--_adj._ ST[=E]AR'IC, pertaining to, or obtained from, stearine.--_n._ ST[=E]ARRH[=E]'A, an abnormal increase of secretion from the oil-glands of the skin.--STEARIC ACID, an acid abundant in fats. [Gr. _stear_, _steatos_, suet--_histanai_, to make to stand, to fix.] STEATITE, st[=e]'a-t[=i]t, _n._ soapstone, a compact or massive variety of talc, a hydrous silicate of magnesia, white or yellow, soft and greasy to the touch--used by tailors for marking cloth, and called _Briançon Chalk_, _French Chalk_, and _Venice Talc_.--_adj._ ST[=E]ATIT'IC.--_ns._ ST[=E]AT[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the fatty tissue; ST[=E]'ATOCELE, a fatty tumour in the scrotum; ST[=E]AT[=O]'MA, a fatty encysted tumour.--_adj._ ST[=E]ATOM'ATOUS.--_n._ ST[=E]ATOP'YGA, an accumulation of fat on the buttocks of the Bushmen women.--_adj._ ST[=E]ATOP'YGOUS, fat-buttocked.--_n._ ST[=E]AT[=O]'SIS, fatty degeneration of an organ, as the heart. [Gr. _steatit[=e]s_--_stear_, _steatos_, suet.] STEBOY, ste-boi', _interj._ a cry in setting on a dog.--Also HIST'ABOY. STEDFAST=_Steadfast_. STEED, st[=e]d, _n._ a horse or stallion, esp. a spirited horse. [A.S. _stéda_, from _stód_, a stud; Ger. _stute_, a stud-mare, _ge-stüte_, a stud.] STEEDY, st[=e]d'i, _adj._ (_Spens._) steady. STEEK, st[=e]k, _n._ (_Scot._) a stitch.--_v.t._ to pierce, to stitch: to close. STEEL, st[=e]l, _n._ iron combined in varying proportions with carbon for making edged tools: any instrument or weapon of steel: an instrument of steel for sharpening knives on: a strip of steel for stiffening a corset: a piece of steel for striking fire from a flint: extreme hardness: a chalybeate medicine.--_adj._ made of steel: hard, unfeeling.--_v.t._ to overlay or edge with steel: to harden: to make obdurate.--_adj._ STEEL'-CLAD, clad with steel-mail.--_ns._ STEEL'-ENGRAVING, the art of engraving pictures on steel plates from which impressions may be taken, the impression or print so taken; STEEL'INESS, state of being steely, great hardness; STEEL'ING, the welding of a steel edge on a cutting instrument; STEEL'-PEN, a pen-nib made of steel; STEEL'-PLATE, a plate of steel: a plate of polished steel on which a design is engraved, the print taken from such.--_adj._ STEEL'-PL[=A]T'ED, plated with steel.--_n.pl._ STEEL'-TOYS, small articles of steel as buttons, buckles, &c.--_n._ STEEL'-WARE, articles made of steel collectively.--_adj._ STEEL'Y, made of steel: steel-like. [A.S. _stýle_; Ger. _stahl_.] STEELBOW, st[=e]l'b[=o], _n._ (_Scots law_) a term for goods, such as corn, cattle, straw, and implements of husbandry delivered by the landlord to his tenant, by means of which the latter is enabled to stock and labour the farm, and in consideration of which he becomes bound to return articles equal in quantity and quality at the expiration of the lease. STEELYARD, st[=e]l'yärd, _n._ the Roman balance, an instrument for weighing, consisting of a lever with unequal arms, in using which a single weight or counterpoise is employed, being moved along a graduated beam. [Orig. the _yard_ in London where _steel_ was sold by German merchants.] STEEM, st[=e]m (_Spens._). Same as ESTEEM. STEEN. See STEAN. STEENBOK, st[=a]n'bok, _n._ one of several small African antelopes. [Dut., _steen_, stone, _bok_, buck.] STEENKIRK, st[=e]n'kerk, _n._ a lace cravat loosely worn, so named from the defeat of William III. by Luxembourg at _Steenkerke_, August 3, 1692. STEEP, st[=e]p, _adj._ rising or descending with great inclination: precipitous: difficult, excessive, exorbitant.--_n._ a precipitous place: a precipice.--_adj._ STEEP'-DOWN (_Shak._), deep and precipitous.--_v.i._ STEEP'EN, to become steep.--_ns._ STEEP'INESS, STEEP'NESS, the state or quality of being steep.--_adv._ STEEP'LY.--_adj._ STEEP'Y, steep. [A.S. _steáp_; Ice. _steypthr_.] STEEP, st[=e]p, _v.t._ to dip or soak in a liquid: to imbue.--_n._ something steeped or used in steeping: a fertilising liquid for seed: rennet.--_n._ STEEP'ER, a vessel in which articles are steeped. [Scand., Ice. _steypa_, to make to stoop, pour out, causal of _stúpa_, to stoop.] STEEPLE, st[=e]p'l, _n._ a tower of a church or building, ending in a point: the high head-dress of the 14th century.--_adj._ STEEP'LED, furnished with a steeple: adorned with, or as with, steeples or towers.--_ns._ STEEP'LE-HAT, a high and narrow-crowned hat; STEEP'LE-HOUSE, an old Quaker name for the building in which believers meet for worship; STEEP'LEJACK, one who climbs steeples and chimney-stalks to make repairs. [A.S. _stýpel_, _stepel_--_steáp_, steep.] STEEPLECHASE, st[=e]p'l-ch[=a]s, _n._ a horserace run across the open country, over hedges, ditches, walls, and other obstacles.--_n._ STEEP'LECH[=A]SER, one who rides such. STEER, st[=e]r, _n._ a young ox, esp. a castrated one from two to four years old.--_n._ STEER'LING, a little or young steer. [A.S. _steór_; Ger. _stier_.] STEER, st[=e]r, _v.t._ to direct with the helm: to guide: to govern.--_v.i._ to direct a ship in its course: to be directed: to move.--_ns._ STEER'AGE, act or practice of steering: the effect of a rudder on the ship: an apartment in the fore-part of a ship for passengers paying a lower rate of fare; STEER'AGE-WAY, sufficient movement of a vessel to enable it to be controlled by the helm; STEER'ER, STEERS'MAN, a man who steers a ship; STEER'ING; STEER'ING-WHEEL, the wheel by which the rudder of a ship is turned. [A.S. _steóran_, _stýran_, to steer; Ger. _steuern_.] STEER, st[=e]r, _n._ a Scotch form of _stir_. STEEVE, st[=e]v, _n._ a spar with a block at the end for packing close certain kinds of cargo: the angle which the bowsprit of a ship makes with the horizon or the line of her keel.--Also STEEV'ING. STEEVE, st[=e]v, _adj._ (_Scot._) stiff, firm.--_adv._ STEEVE'LY. STEEVE, st[=e]v, _v.t._ to stuff, pack close.--_n._ STEEV'ING. STEGANOGRAPHY, steg-an-og'ra-fi, _n._ the art of writing in cipher or secret characters.--_n._ STEGANOG'RAPHIST, one who writes in cipher. [Gr. _steganos_, concealed--_stegein_, to cover, _graphein_, to write.] STEGANOPUS, ste-gan'[=o]-pus, _n._ a genus of phalaropes with long slender bill.--_adjs._ STEG'ANOPOD, STEGANOP'ODOUS, having all four toes webbed, totipalmate.--_n.pl._ STEGANOP'ODES, an order of swimming birds, with all four toes webbed and a gular pouch--cormorants, frigate-birds, pelicans, gannets. [Gr. _steganos_, covered, _pous_, _podos_, foot.] STEGNOSIS, steg-n[=o]'sis, _n._ constriction of the pores and vessels: constipation.--_adj._ STEGNOT'IC. STEGOCEPHALOUS, steg-[=o]-sef'a-lus, _adj._ with the head mailed, loricate, cataphract. [Gr. _stegein_, to cover, _kephal[=e]_, the head.] STEGOGNATHOUS, ste-gog'n[=a]-thus, _adj._ having a jaw composed of imbricated plates. [Gr. _stegein_, to cover, _gnathos_, the jaw.] STEGOPTEROUS, ste-gop'te-rus, _adj._ roof-winged, keeping the wings deflexed when at rest. [Gr. _stegein_, to cover, _pteron_, a wing.] STEGOSAURIAN, steg-[=o]-saw'ri-an, _adj._ pertaining to the STEGOSAU'RIA, an order or suborder of dinosaurs, represented by the families _Stegosauridæ_ and _Scelidosauridæ_.--_n._ STEGOSAU'RUS, the typical genus of _Stegosauridæ_, with enormous bucklers and spines. [Gr. _stegein_, to cover, _sauros_, a lizard.] STEINBERGER, st[=i]n-ber'g[.e]r, _n._ an esteemed Rhenish white wine, produced near Wiesbaden. STEINBOCK, STEENBOK, st[=e]n'bok, _n._ the name given in German Switzerland to the ibex of the Alps. [Ger. _stein_, stone, rock, _bock_, _buck_, he-goat.] STELE, st[=e]'l[=e], _n._ an upright stone slab or tablet, either sepulchral or on which laws, decrees, &c. are inscribed--also ST[=E]'LA.--_adj._ ST[=E]'LENE.--_n._ STELOG'RAPHY, the practice of writing on steles. [L.,--Gr. _st[=e]l[=e]_--_histanai_, to set, stand.] STELECHITE, stel'e-k[=i]t, _n._ a fine variety of storax. STELL, stel, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to place, set. [Illustration] STELLAR, stel'ar, STELLARY, stel'ar-i, _adj._ relating to the stars: starry.--_n._ STELL[=A]'RIA, a genus of tufted plants of the pink family--the chickweeds or starworts.--_adjs._ STELL'[=A]TE, -D, like a star: radiated; STELLED (_Milt._), starry: (_Shak._) set or fixed; STELLIF'EROUS, thickly abounding with stars; STELL'IFORM, star-shaped; STELL'ULAR, formed like little stars; STELL'ULATE (_bot._), like a little star. [L. _stellaris_--_stella_, a star.] STELLION, stel'yun, _n._ an agamoid lizard. STELTHS, stelths, _n.pl._ (_Spens._) thefts. STEM, stem, _n._ the ascending axis of a plant, which usually bears leaves and flowers, and maintains communication between the roots and the leaves: the little branch supporting the flower or fruit: a race or family: branch of a family.--_n._ STEM'-LEAF, a leaf growing from the stem.--_adj._ STEM'LESS (_bot._), wanting a stem, or having it so little developed as to seem to be wanting.--_ns._ STEM'LET, a little or young stem; STEM'MA, a pedigree or family tree: an ocellus.--_adjs._ STEM'MATOUS; STEMMED. [A.S. _stæfn_, _stefn_, _stemn_, from _stæf_, a staff; Ger. _stab_.] STEM, stem, _n._ the prow of a ship: a curved piece of timber at the prow to which the two sides of a ship are united.--_v.t._ to cut, as with the stem: to resist or make progress against: to stop, to check:--_pr.p._ stem'ming; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ stemmed.--FROM STEM TO STERN, from one end of a vessel to the other: completely, throughout. [Same word as above.] STEME, st[=e]m, _v.t._ an obsolete form of _steam_. STEMPEL, stem'pel, _n._ a timber helping to support a platform.--Also STEM'PLE. STEMSON, stem'sun, _n._ an arching piece of compass-timber behind the apron of a vessel, and supporting its scarfs. STENCH, stensh, _n._ stink: a strong bad odour or smell.--_adj._ STENCH'Y. [A.S. _stenc_; Ger. _stank_.] STENCIL, sten'sil, _n._ a plate of metal, &c., with a pattern cut out, which is impressed upon a surface by drawing a brush with colour over it.--_v.t._ to print or paint by means of a stencil:--_pr.p._ sten'cilling; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ sten'cilled.--_ns._ STEN'CILLER, one who does stencil-work; STEN'CILLING, a method of printing letters or designs, the pattern cut out on a thin plate, and brushed over so as to mark the surface below. [O. Fr. _estinceller_, _estincelle_--L. _scintilla_, a spark.] STEND, stend, _v.i._ (_prov._) to rear, leap, walk with long strides.--_n._ a leap. STENOCHROME, sten'[=o]-kr[=o]m, _n._ a print from a series of pigment-blocks arranged.--_n._ STEN'OCHROMY, the art of printing in several colours at one impression. [Gr. _stenos_, narrow, _chr[=o]ma_, colour.] STENOGRAPHY, sten-og'ra-fi, _n._ art of writing very quickly by means of abbreviations: shorthand.--_n._ STEN'OGRAPH, a character used in stenography: a stenographic machine.--_v.i._ to represent by means of stenography.--_ns._ STENOG'RAPHER, STENOG'RAPHIST.--_adjs._ STENOGRAPH'IC, -AL. [Gr. _stenos_, narrow, _graphein_, to write.] STENOPAIC, sten-[=o]-p[=a]'ik, _adj._ having a narrow opening. [Gr. _stenos_, narrow, _op[=e]_, an opening.] STENOSIS, sten-[=o]'sis, _n._ constriction of the pores and vessels: constipation.--_adjs._ STENOSED', contracted morbidly; STENOT'IC, abnormally contracted. [Gr., _stenos_, narrow.] STENOTYPY, sten'o-t[=i]p-i, _n._ a system of shorthand representing by ordinary letters shortened signs of words or phrases.--_n._ STEN'OTYPE, such a symbolic letter or combination of letters.--_adj._ STENOTYP'IC. STENT, stent, _v.t._ (_prov._) to stint, restrain.--_n._ extent, limit, amount of work required. [_Stint_.] STENTOR, stent'or, _n._ a very loud-voiced herald in the Iliad, hence any person with a remarkably loud voice: the ursine howler.--_adj._ STENT[=O]'RIAN, very loud or powerful. [Gr.] STEP, step, _n._ a pace: the distance crossed by the foot in walking or running: a small space: degree: one remove in ascending or descending a stair: round of a ladder: footprint: manner of walking: proceeding: action: the support on which the lower end of a mast, or staff, or a wheel rests: (_pl._) walk, direction taken in walking: a self-supporting ladder with flat steps.--_v.i._ to advance or retire by pacing: to walk: to walk slowly or gravely: to walk a short distance: to move mentally.--_v.t._ to set, as a foot: to fix, as a mast:--_pr.p._ step'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ stepped.--_ns._ STEP'PER, one who steps; STEP'PING-STONE, a stone for stepping on to raise the feet above the water or mud; STEP'STONE, a door-step.--STEP ASIDE, to walk to a little distance, as from company: to err; STEP IN, or INTO, to enter easily or unexpectedly; STEP OUT, to go out a little way: to increase the length of the step and so the speed; STEP SHORT, to shorten the length of one's step. [A.S. _stæpe_--_stapan_, to go; Dut. _stap_, Ger. _stapfe_.] STEP-CHILD, step'-ch[=i]ld, _n._ one who stands in the relation of a child through the marriage of a parent--also STEP'-BAIRN. So STEP'-BROTH'ER; STEP'-DAUGH'TER; STEP'-FA'THER; STEP'-MOTH'ER, or -DAME; STEP'-SIS'TER; STEP'-SON.--_n._ STEP'-COUN'TRY, an adopted country. [A.S. _steóp-_, as in _steóp-módor_; Ger. _stieb-_; orig. an _adj._ sig. _bereft_.] STEPHANE, stef'a-n[=e], _n._ an ancient Greek head-dress like a coronet. [Gr.,--_stephein_, to crown.] STEPHANITE, stef'a-n[=i]t, _n._ a metallic iron-black silver sulph-antimonite.--Also _Brittle silver ore_ and _Sulph-antimonite of silver_. STEPHANOTIS, stef-a-n[=o]'tis, _n._ a genus of shrubby twining plants of the milkweed family. [Gr. _stephanos_, a crown, _ous_, _[=o]tos,_ the ear.] STEPPE, step, _n._ one of the vast uncultivated plains in the south-east of Europe and in Asia. [Russ. _stepe_.] STERCORAL, ster'ko-ral, _adj._ pertaining to excrement--also STER'CORARY, STERCOR[=A]'CEOUS.--_ns._ STER'CORANIST, STERCOR[=A]'RIAN, one who held that the sacramental bread was digested and evacuated like other food; STERCOR[=A]'RIANISM; STERCOR[=A]'RIUS, a genus of _Laridæ_, the dung-hunters or skuas.--_v.t._ STER'CORATE, to manure. STERCULIA, ster-k[=u]'li-a, _n._ the typical genus of _Sterculiaceæ_, a family of large trees and shrubs, with mucilaginous and demulcent properties--Gum-tragacanth, &c. [L. _stercus_, dung.] STERE, st[=e]r, _n._ a cubic unit of metric measure--a cubic mètre, equivalent to 35.3156 English cubic feet.--_Decastère_=10 steres; _Decistère_=1/10 stere. [Fr. _stère_--Gr. _stereos_, solid.] STEREO, ster'[=e]-[=o], _adj._ and _n._ a contr. of _stereotype_. STEREOBATE, ster'[=e]-[=o]-b[=a]t, _n._ the substructure on which a building is based.--_adj._ STEREOBAT'IC. [Gr. _stereos_, solid, _batos_, verbal of _bainein_, to go.] STEREOCHROMY, ster'[=e]-[=o]-kr[=o]-mi, _n._ a process of painting on stone or plaster-work, the colours rendered permanent by a solution of fluoric acid.--_n._ ST[=E]'REOCHROME, a picture of this kind.--_adj._ STEREOCHR[=O]'MIC.--_adv._ STEREOCHR[=O]'MICALLY. [Gr. _stereos_, hard, _chr[=o]ma_, colour.] STEREOELECTRIC, ster'[=e]-[=o]-[=e]-lek'trik, _adj._ pertaining to electric currents produced when two solids are brought together at different temperatures. STEREOGRAPH, st[=e]'r[=e]-[=o]-graf, _n._ a double photograph for viewing in a stereoscope--also ST[=E]'R[=E][=O]GRAM.--_adjs._ STER[=E]OGRAPH'IC, -AL, pertaining to stereography: made according to stereography: delineated on a plane.--_adv._ STER[=E]OGRAPH'ICALLY.--_n._ STER[=E]OG'RAPHY, the art of showing solids on a plane. [Gr. _stereos_, hard, _graphein_, to write.] STEREOMETER, st[=e]-re-om'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring the specific gravity of bodies solid and liquid.--_adjs._ STER[=E]OMET'RIC, -AL.--_adv._ STER[=E]OMET'RICALLY.--_n._ STER[=E]OM'ETRY, the art of measuring the solid contents of solid bodies. [Gr. _stereos_, hard, _metron_, measure.] STEREOPTICON, ster-[=e]-op'ti-kon, _n._ a double magic-lantern, by means of which the one picture appears to dissolve gradually into the other. STEREOSCOPE, ster'[=e]-[=o]-sk[=o]p, _n._ an instrument in which each of two pictures is examined by a separate lens, and the two lenses are inclined so as to shift the images towards one another, and thus to ensure or to facilitate the blending of the two images into one, standing out in relief with solidity.--_adjs._ STER[=E]OSCOP'IC, -AL, pertaining to the stereoscope.--_adv._ STER[=E]OSCOP'ICALLY.--_ns._ ST[=E]'R[=E]OSCOPIST; STER[=E]OS'COPY. [Gr. _stereos_, solid, _skopein_, see.] STEREOTOMY, ster-[=e]-ot'[=o]-mi, _n._ the art of cutting solids into figures by certain sections.--_adjs._ STER[=E]O TOM'IC, -AL. [Gr. _stereos_, solid, _temnein_, to cut.] STEREOTROPE, ster'[=e]-[=o]-tr[=o]p, _n._ an optical contrivance by which an object is brought into relief and made to appear as if in motion. [Gr. _stereos_, solid, _trop[=e]_, a turning.] STEREOTYPE, st[=e]'r[=e]-[=o]-t[=i]p, _n._ a solid metallic plate for printing, cast from an impression of movable types, taken on some plastic substance: art of fabricating solid casts in type-metal from pages of movable type.--_adj._ pertaining to, or done with, stereotypes.--_v.t._ to make a stereotype of: to print with stereotypes.--_p.adj._ ST[=E]'REOTYPED, transferred as letterpress from set-up movable type to a mould, and thence to a metal plate: fixed; unchangeable, as opinions.--_ns._ ST[=E]'REOTYPER, ST[=E]'REOTYPIST, one who makes stereotype plates.--_adj._ ST[=E]REOTYP'IC.--_ns._ STER[=E]OTYPOG'RAPHER, a stereotype printer; ST[=E]REOTYPOG'RAPHY, the art, practice, or business of printing from stereotype plates; ST[=E]'REOTYPY, the art or employment of making stereotype plates. [Gr. _stereos_, solid, and _type_.] STERIGMA, st[=e]-rig'ma, _n._ (_bot._) a stalk or support.--_adj._ STERIGMAT'IC. [Gr. _st[=e]rigma_, a prop.] STERILE, ster'il, _adj._ unfruitful: barren: (_bot._) producing no pistil, or no spores: destitute of ideas or sentiment.--_n._ STERILIS[=A]'TION, act of sterilising.--_v.t._ STER'ILISE, to cause to be fruitless: to destroy bacteria or other micro-organisms in.--_ns._ STER'ILISER, anything which sterilises; STERIL'ITY, quality of being sterile: unfruitfulness, barrenness, in regard to reproduction. [O. Fr.,--L. _sterilis_, barren.] STERLET, st[.e]r'let, _n._ a small sturgeon. STERLING, st[.e]r'ling, _adj._ a designation of British money--pure, genuine, of good quality--also generally, of value or excellence, authoritative. [Orig. the name of a penny; prob. from the Hanse merchants or _Easterlings_ ('men from the east'), from North Germany, who had probably the privilege of coining money in England in the 13th century.] STERN, st[.e]rn, _adj._ severe of countenance, manner, or feeling: austere: harsh: unrelenting: steadfast.--_adv._ STERN'LY.--_n._ STERN'NESS. [A.S. _styrne_.] STERN, st[.e]rn, _n._ the hind-part of a vessel: the rump or tail of an animal.--_v.t._ to back a boat, to row backward.--_ns._ STERN'AGE (_Shak._), the steerage or stern of a ship; STERN'BOARD, backward motion of a ship: loss of way in tacking; STERN'-CHASE, a chase in which one ship follows directly in the wake of another; STERN'-CH[=A]S'ER, a cannon in the stern of a ship.--_adj._ STERNED, having a stern of a specified kind.--_ns._ STERN'-FAST, a rope or chain for making fast a ship's stern to a wharf, &c.; STERN'-FRAME, the sternpost, transoms, and fashion-pieces of a ship's stern.--_adj._ STERN'MOST, farthest astern.--_ns._ STERN'PORT, a port or opening in the stern of a ship; STERN'POST, the aftermost timber of a ship which supports the rudder; STERN'SHEETS, the part of a boat between the stern and the rowers; STERN'SON, the hinder extremity of a ship's keelson, to which the sternpost is bolted; STERN'WAY, the backward motion of a vessel; STERN'-WHEEL'ER (_U.S._), a small vessel with one large paddle-wheel at the stern. [Ice. _stjórn_, a steering.] STERNUM, st[.e]r'num, _n._ the breast-bone.--_adj._ STER'NAL.--_n._ STERNAL'GIA, pain about the breast-bone, esp. angina pectoris.--_adjs._ STERNAL'GIC; STER'NEBRAL, pertaining to the STER'NEBRA or serial segments of which the sternum of a vertebrate is composed.--_n._ STER'NITE, the ventral portion of the somite of an arthropod.--_adjs._ STERNIT'IC; STERNOCOST'AL, pertaining to, or connected with, the sternum and ribs: denoting those ribs and muscles attached to the sternum. [Gr. _sternon_, chest.] STERNUTATION, st[.e]r-n[=u]-t[=a]'shun, _n._ the act of sneezing.--_adjs._ STERN[=U]'T[=A]TIVE, STERN[=U]'TATORY, that causes sneezing.--_n._ a substance that causes sneezing. [L. _sternutatio_--_sternut[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, inten. of _sternu[)e]re_, _-utum_, to sneeze.] STERTOROUS, st[.e]r't[=o]-rus, _adj._ snoring.--_adv._ STER'TOROUSLY.--_n._ STER'TOROUSNESS. [L. _stert[)e]re_, to snore.] STERVE, st[.e]rv, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to starve, to die.--Also STER'VEN. STET, stet, _v.t._ to restore--generally on proof-sheets, in imperative, with a line of dots under the words to be retained. [L., 'let it stand,' 3d sing. pres. subj. of _st[=a]re_, to stand.] STETHIÆUM, steth-i-[=e]'um, _n._ the anterior half of a bird--opp. to _Uræum_.--_n._ STETHID'IUM, in insects, the thorax. [Gr., _st[=e]thos_, the breast.] STETHOMETER, steth-om'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring the relative mobility of the different sides of the chest in respiration.--_n._ STETH'OGRAPH, an instrument for marking the respiratory movements of the thorax.--_adj._ STETHOGRAPH'IC. [Gr. _st[=e]thos_, chest, _metron_, measure.] STETHOSCOPE, steth'[=o]-sk[=o]p, _n._ an instrument for auscultation, consisting of a tubular piece of wood to be applied to the patient's body--in the _binaural_ form with tubes of rubber, &c., to convey the sounds to the physician's ears.--_adjs._ STETHOSCOP'IC, -AL, pertaining to, or performed by, the stethoscope.--_adv._ STETHOSCOP'ICALLY.--_ns._ STETH'OSCOPIST; STETH'OSCOPY. [Gr. _st[=e]thos_, the breast, _skopein_, to see.] STEVEDORE, st[=e]v'e-d[=o]r, _n._ one who loads and unloads vessels. [A corr. of Sp. _estivador_, a wool-packer--_estivar_, to stow--L. _stip[=a]re,_ to press.] STEVEN, st[=e]'vn, _n._ (_Spens._) a cry, a loud clamour. [A.S. _stefn_, the voice.] STEW, st[=u], _v.t._ to simmer or boil slowly with little moisture.--_v.i._ to be boiled slowly and gently: (_slang_) to be in a state of worry or agitation: to read hard for an examination.--_n._ meat stewed: mental agitation: worry: (_slang_) one who reads hard: a room for bathing purposes: (_pl._) a brothel.--_ns._ STEW'-PAN, -POT, a pan, pot, used for stewing. [O. Fr. _estuve_ (_étuve_), a stove--Old High Ger. _stup[=a]_ (Ger. _stube_), a heated room.] STEW, st[=u], _n._ an artificial oyster-bed: a vivarium. STEWARD, st[=u]'ard, _n._ one who manages the domestic concerns of a family or institution: one who superintends another's affairs, esp. an estate or farm: the manager of the provision department, &c., at sea: a manager at races, games, &c.: the treasurer of a congregation, a guild or society, &c.--_ns._ STEW'ARDESS, a female steward: a female who waits on ladies on shipboard; STEW'ARDSHIP, STEW'ARDRY, office of a steward: management; STEW'ARTRY (_Scot._), a stewardship, or the extent of a stewardship--still applied esp. to the county of Kirkcudbright.--LORD HIGH STEWARD, one of the great officers of state, and anciently the first officer of the crown in England. [A.S. _stíg-weard_--_stigo_, a sty, _weard_, a ward.] STHENIC, sthen'ik, _adj._ attended with increased action of the heart: strong, robust: inspiring.--_n._ STHEN[=I]'A, strength. [Gr. _sthenos_, strength.] STIBBLER, stib'l[.e]r, _n._ one who cuts the handfuls left by the reaper: a clerical locum tenens. STIBIUM, stib'i-um, _n._ antimony.--_adj._ STIB'IAL, like antimony.--_n._ STIB'IALISM, poisoning by antimony.--_adj._ STIB'I[=A]TED, impregnated with antimony.--_n._ STIB'NITE, native antimony trisulphide. [Gr.] STIBOGRAM, stib'[=o]-gram, _n._ a graphic record of footprints. [Gr. _stibos_, a track, _gramma_, a letter.] STICH, stik, _n._ a verse or line of poetry, of whatever measure--used in composition: a row of trees.--_ns._ STICH[=A]'RION, a Greek vestment like the Western alb; STICH[=E]'RON, a troparion.--_adj._ STICH'IC, pertaining to a verse.--_n._ STICH'OMANCY, divination by the assumed meaning of a verse, text of Scripture, or literary passage taken at random.--_adjs._ STICHOMET'RIC, -AL, pertaining to stichom'etry, stating the number of lines.--_ns._ STICHOM'ETRY, measurement of manuscript by lines: a list stating such; STICHOMYTH'IA, dialogue in alternate lines; STICH'OS, a line of ordinary length in measuring a manuscript: a verse or versicle in the usage of the Greek Church. [Gr. _stichos_, a row--_steichein_, to ascend.] STICK, stik, _v.t._ to stab: to thrust in: to fasten by piercing: to fix in: to set with something pointed: to cause to adhere.--_v.i._ to hold to: to remain: to stop: to be hindered: to hesitate, to be embarrassed or puzzled: to adhere closely in affection:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ stuck.--_ns._ STICK'ER, one who kills pigs, &c.: one who sticks to anything; STICK'ING, the act of stabbing; STICK'ING-PLACE, the point at which a thing sticks or stays; STICK'ING-PLAS'TER, an adhesive plaster for closing wounds; STICK'-IN-THE-MUD, an old fogy; STICK'IT-MIN'ISTER (_Scot._), a licentiate who never gets a pastoral charge.--STICK AT, to hesitate: to persist at; STICK BY, to be firm in supporting, to adhere closely to; STICK OUT, to be prominent, project; STICK PIGS, to hunt wild hogs on horseback and transfix them with the spear; STICK TO, to persevere in holding to; STICK UP, to stand up: to waylay and plunder, as a mail-coach by bushrangers; STICK UP FOR, to speak or act in defence of.--BE STUCK ON (_U.S._), to be enamoured of; STUCK UP, conceited. [A.S. _stecan_ (assumed); Ger. _stechen_, Dut. _steken_; also A.S. _stician_, Ger. _stecken_, to set, stick fast.] STICK, stik, _n._ a small shoot or branch cut off a tree: a staff or walking-stick: anything in the form of a stick, a cudgel: a piece of printers' furniture used to lock up a form in a chase, a printer's composing-stick: a stiff, stupidly obstinate person.--_v.t._ to furnish or set with sticks: to arrange in a composing-stick.--_n._ STICK'-IN'SECT, a walking-stick or phasmid insect. [A.S. _sticca_; Ice. _stika_.] STICKLE, stik'l, _v.i._ to interpose between combatants: to contend obstinately: to hesitate.--_n._ a sharp point, a prickle, a spine.--_ns._ STICK'LEBACK, a small river-fish so called from the spines on its back; STICK'LER, a second or umpire in a duel: an obstinate contender, esp. for something trifling.--_adj._ STICK'LER-LIKE (_Shak._), in the manner of a stickler. [A dim. of _stick_ (n.).] STICKLE, stik'l, _adj._ high, rapid.--_n._ a current below a waterfall. [A.S. _sticol_, steep.] STICKY, stik'i, _adj._ that sticks or adheres: adhesive: glutinous.--_n._ STICK'INESS. [_Stick_.] STIE, st[=i], _v.i._ (_Spens._) to ascend. [A.S. _stígan_.] STIFF, stif, _adj._ not easily bent: rigid: not liquid: rather hard than soft: not easily overcome: obstinate: not natural and easy: constrained: formal: hard to overcome, difficult: firm, of prices, &c.: dead, rigid in death: (_naut._) keeping upright.--_n._ (_slang_) a corpse: negotiable paper: forged paper.--_v.t._ STIFF'EN, to make stiff.--_v.i._ to become stiff: to become less impressible or more obstinate.--_ns._ STIFF'ENER, one who, or that which, stiffens; STIFF'ENING, something used to make a substance more stiff.--_adj._ STIFF'-HEART'ED (_B._), obstinate, stubborn.--_adv._ STIFF'LY.--_n._ STIFF'-NECK, cervical myalgia, true torticollis.--_adj._ STIFF'-NECKED, obstinate, hard to move.--_ns._ STIFF'-NECK'EDNESS; STIFF'NESS.--DO A BIT OF STIFF, to accept or discount a bill. [A.S. _stíf_, stiff; Dut. _stijf_, Dan. _stiv_.] STIFLE, st[=i]'fl, _v.t._ to stop the breath of by foul air or other means: to suffocate, smother: to extinguish: to suppress the sound of: to destroy: to suppress, conceal.--_v.i._ to suffocate.--_adj._ ST[=I]'FLING, close, oppressive. [Scand., Ice. _stífla_, to choke up; Norw. _stivla_.] STIFLE, st[=i]'fl, _n._ the knee-joint on a horse's hind-leg, a disease of his knee-pan. [Perh. _stiff_.] STIGMA, stig'ma, _n._ a brand: a mark of infamy: (_bot._) the top of a pistil: any special mark: a place on the skin which bleeds periodically:--_pl._ STIG'MAS or STIG'MATA.--_n._ STIGM[=A]'RIA, the root of the fossil plant sigillaria, found in the coal-measures.--_n.pl._ STIG'MATA, the marks of the wounds on Christ's body, or marks resembling them, claimed to have been miraculously impressed on the bodies of certain persons, as Francis of Assisi in 1224.--_adjs._ STIGMAT'IC, -AL, marked or branded with a stigma: giving infamy or reproach.--_adv._ STIGMAT'ICALLY.--_adj._ STIGMATIF'EROUS (_bot._), stigma-bearing.--_n._ STIGMATIS[=A]'TION, the operation or effect of producing bleeding spots upon the body, as by hypnotism.--_v.t._ STIG'MATISE, to brand with a stigma.--_n._ STIG'MATIST, one impressed with the stigmata.--_adj._ STIG'MATOSE, stigmatic: stigmatised.--_n._ STIGMAT[=O]'SIS, a form of inflammation of the skin, occurring in spots.--_adj._ STIGMATYP'IC, pertaining to the making of impressions by means of scorching-hot plates.--_ns._ STIG'MATYPY, a species of printing with points, that consists of their arrangement in pictures; STIG'M[=E] (_Gr. paleog._), a dot used as a punctuation mark, esp. at the top of the line, equivalent to a period. [L.,--Gr.,--_stizein_, to mark.] STILBITE, stil'b[=i]t, _n._ a pearly and foliated variety of zeolite. [Gr. _stilbein_, to shine.] STILE, st[=i]l, _n._ a step, or set of steps, for climbing over a wall or fence. [A.S. _stigel_, a step--_stígan_; cf. Ger. _steigen_, to mount.] STILE, st[=i]l, _n._ the pin of a dial. [_Style_.] STILETTO, sti-let'[=o], _n._ a dagger with a slender and narrow blade: a pointed instrument for making eyelet-holes:--_pl._ STILETT'OS.--_v.t._ to stab with a stiletto:--_pr.p._ stilett'oing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ stilett'oed. [It., dim. of _stilo_, a dagger--L. _stilus_, a stake.] STILL, stil, _adj._ silent: motionless: calm, subdued: not sparkling or effervescing: constant.--_v.t._ to quiet: to silence: to appease: to restrain.--_adv._ always, constantly: nevertheless, for all that: even yet: after that.--_n._ calm.--_n._ STILL'-BIRTH, the state of being still-born: anything born without life.--_adj._ STILL'-BORN, dead when born.--_ns._ STILL'ER, one who stills or quiets; STILL'-LIFE, the class of pictures representing inanimate objects; STILL'NESS; STILL'-ROOM, an apartment where liquors, preserves, and the like are kept, and where tea, &c., is prepared for the table: a housekeeper's pantry; STILL'-STAND (_Shak._), absence of motion.--_adj._ STILL'Y, still: quiet: calm.--_adv._ silently: gently. [A.S. _stille_, firm; Dut. _stil_, Ger. _still_.] STILL, stil, _v.t._ to cause to fall by drops: to distil.--_n._ an apparatus for distillation, consisting essentially of a vessel in which the liquid to be distilled is placed, the vapour being conducted by means of a head or neck to the condenser or worm, where it is cooled by water or other means, and again forms liquid.--_adj._ STILL'IFORM, drop-shaped. [L. _still[=a]re_, to cause to drop--_stilla_, a drop, or simply a contr. for _distil_, like _sport_ from _disport_.] STILLAGE, stil'[=a]j, _n._ a frame on which things are laid.--_n._ STILL'ING, a stand. STILLICIDE, stil'i-s[=i]d, _n._ an urban servitude among the Romans, where a proprietor was not allowed to build to the extremity of his estate, but must leave a space regulated by the charter by which the property was held, so as not to throw the eavesdrop on the land of his neighbour--same as _Eavesdrip_.--_n._ STILLICID'IUM, a morbid trickling. [L.] STILP, stilp, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to go on crutches.--_n.pl._ STILP'ERS, crutches. STILT, stilt, _n._ one of a pair of props or poles with steps or supports at a sufficient distance from the lower end to allow a man standing on the steps to walk clear of the ground and with longer strides: a widely distributed genus (_Himantopus_) of wading-birds belonging to the Snipe family, having long slender bills and very long wings and legs--also STILT'-BIRD, -PLOV'ER.--_v.t._ to raise on stilts: to elevate by unnatural means.--_adjs._ STILT'ED, STILT'Y, elevated as if on stilts: pompous.--_n._ STILT'EDNESS.--STILTED ARCH, an arch that does not spring directly from the impost, but from horizontal courses of masonry resting on it. [Scand., Sw. _stylta_; Dut. _stelt_, a stilt.] STILTON, stil'ton, _n._ a rich white cheese--from _Stilton_ in Huntingdonshire. STIME, st[=i]m, _n._ (_Scot._) a ray of light, a glimmer.--Also STYME. [A.S. _scima_, a light.] STIMULANT, stim'[=u]-lant, _adj._ stimulating: increasing or exciting vital action.--_n._ anything that stimulates or excites: a stimulating medicine that increases the activity of the vital functions generally, or of one system or organ.--_v.t._ STIM'UL[=A]TE, to prick with anything sharp: to incite: to instigate: (_physiol._) to produce increased action in.--_n._ STIMUL[=A]'TION, act of stimulating, or condition of being stimulated.--_adj._ STIM'UL[=A]TIVE, tending to stimulate.--_n._ that which stimulates or excites.--_ns._ STIM'UL[=A]TOR, one who stimulates:--_fem._ STIM'UL[=A]TRESS; STIM'ULISM, the practice of treating diseases by stimulation; STIM'[=U]LUS, a goad: anything that rouses the mind, or that excites to action: a stimulant:--_pl._ STIM'UL[=I]. [L. _stimulus_ (for _stigmulus_)--Gr. _stizein_, to prick.] STING, sting, _v.t._ to stick anything sharp into, to pain acutely.--_v.i._ to have a sting: to give pain:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ stung.--_n._ the sharp-pointed weapon of some animals: the thrust of a sting into the flesh: anything that causes acute pain: any stimulus or impulse: the point in the last verse of an epigram.--_n._ STING'ER, one who, or that which, stings.--_adv._ STING'INGLY, with stinging.--_adj._ STING'LESS, having no sting.--_n._ STING'-RAY, a genus of cartilaginous fishes, of the order of Rays, and family _Trygonidæ_, the long tail bearing dorsally a long bi-serrated spine capable of giving an ugly wound. [A.S. _stingan_; Ice. _stinga_.] STINGO, sting'g[=o], _n._ strong malt liquor. STINGY, stin'ji, _adj._ niggardly: avaricious.--_adv._ STIN'GILY.--_n._ STIN'GINESS, [Merely _sting-y_.] STINK, stingk, _v.i._ to give out a strong, offensive smell: to have a bad reputation:--_pa.t._ stank; _pa.p._ stunk.--_n._ a disagreeable smell.--_ns._ STINK'ARD, one who stinks: a base fellow: the stinking badger of Java; STINK'-BALL, -POT, a ball or jar filled with a stinking, combustible mixture, used in boarding an enemy's vessel; STINK'ER, one who, or that which, stinks; STINK'ING.--_adv._ STINK'INGLY, in a stinking manner: with an offensive smell.--_ns._ STINK'STONE, a variety of limestone remarkable for the fetid urinous odour which it emits when rubbed; STINK'-TRAP, a contrivance to prevent effluvia from drains; STINK'-WOOD, the wood of a Cape tree, remarkable for its strong offensive smell, durable, taking an excellent polish resembling walnut. [A.S. _stincan_.] STINT, stint, _v.t._ to shorten: to limit: to restrain.--_v.i._ to cease, stop: to be saving.--_n._ limit: restraint, restriction: proportion allotted, fixed amount: one of several species of sandpiper, the dunlin.--_adj._ STINT'ED, limited.--_ns._ STINT'EDNESS; STINT'ER.--_adv._ STINT'INGLY.--_adjs._ STINT'LESS; STINT'Y. [A.S. _styntan_--_stunt_, stupid.] STIPA, st[=i]'pa, _n._ a genus of grasses, the feather-grasses. [L. _stipa_, tow.] STIPE, st[=i]p, _n._ (_bot._) the base of a frond of a fern: also a stalk, as of a pistil, of a fungus or mushroom, of the leaf of a fern, or even the trunk of a tree.--_n._ ST[=I]'PEL, the stipule of a leaflet.--_adj._ ST[=I]'PELLATE, having stipels.--_n._ ST[=I]'PES, a stipe: a stalk or stem.--_adjs._ ST[=I]'PIFORM, STIP'ITATE, STIPIT'IFORM. [Fr.,--L. _stipes_, a stem.] STIPEND, st[=i]'pend, _n._ a salary paid for services, esp. to a clergyman in Scotland: settled pay.--_adj._ STIPEND'IARY, receiving stipend.--_n._ one who performs services for a salary, esp. a paid magistrate.--_v.t._ STIPEN'DIATE, to provide with a salary. [L. _stipendium_--_stips_, donation, _pend[)e]re_, weigh.] STIPPLE, stip'l, _v.t._ to engrave or form by means of dots or small points, as distinguished from line-engraving:--_pr.p._ stipp'ling; _pa.p._ stipp'led.--_n._ a mode of execution in engraving and miniature-painting, in which the effect is produced by dots instead of lines: in colour-decoration, a gradation or combination of tones or tints serving as a transition between decided colours.--_adj._ STIPP'LED.--_ns._ STIPP'LER, one who stipples: a coarse brush for stippling; STIPP'LING, stippled work of any kind. [Dut. _stippelen_, dim. of _stippen_, to dot.] STIPULATE, stip'[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.i._ to contract: to settle terms.--_ns._ STIPUL[=A]'TION, act of stipulating: a contract; STIP'UL[=A]TOR. [L. _stipul[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_, prob. from old L. _stipulus_, firm, conn. with _stip[=a]re_, to press firm.] STIPULE, stip'[=u]l, _n._ (_bot._) an appendage or lobe at the base of certain leaves, resembling a small leaf: also, a small appendage at the base of petioles, usually softer than the latter--also STIP'[=U]LA.--_adjs._ STIP'ULAR, STIP'[=U]LARY; STIP'[=U]LATE, STIP'[=U]LED. [L. _stipula_, a stalk, dim. of _stipes_.] STIR, st[.e]r, _v.t._ to move: to rouse: to instigate.--_v.i._ to move one's self: to be active: to draw notice:--_pr.p._ stir'ring; _pa.p._ and _pa.t._ stirred.--_n._ tumult: bustle.--_n._ STIR'ABOUT, one who makes himself active: oatmeal porridge.--_adj._ busy, active.--_adj._ STIR'LESS, without stir.--_n._ STIR'RER.--_p.adj._ STIR'RING, putting in motion: active: accustomed to a busy life: animating, rousing.--STIR UP, to instigate the passions of: to put into motion or action: to enliven: to disturb. [A.S. _styrian_; Dut. _storen_, Ger. _stören_, to drive.] STIR, st[.e]r, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to steer, to direct. STIRK, st[.e]rk, _n._ (_Scot._) a yearling ox or cow. [A.S. _stirc_, a heifer--_steór_, a steer.] STIRP, st[.e]rp, _n._ (_Bacon_) a family, generation, or race:--_pl._ STIR'PES. [L. _stirps_, _stirpis_.] STIRRUP, stir'up, _n._ a ring or hoop suspended by a rope or strap from the saddle, for a horseman's foot while mounting or riding: a rope secured to a yard, having a thimble in its lower end for reeving a foot-rope.--_ns._ STIRR'UP-CUP, a cup taken by one who is departing on horseback; STIRR'UP-[=I]'RON, the ring of iron attached to the stirrup-leather to receive the foot; STIRR'UP-LEATH'ER, -STRAP, the strap of leather that supports a stirrup. [A.S. _stigeráp_--_stígan_, to mount, ráp, a _rope_.] STITCH, stich, _n._ a pass of a needle and thread, the part of the thread left in the fabric, a single loop or link: the kind of work produced by stitching--buttonhole-_stitch_, cross-_stitch_, &c.: the space between two double furrows: a fastening, as of thread or wire, through the back of a book to connect the leaves: an acute pain, a sharp spasmodic pain, esp. in the intercostal muscles: a bit of clothing, a rag.--_v.t._ to sew so as to show a regular line of stitches: to sew or unite.--_v.i._ to practise stitching.--_ns._ STITCH'ER; STITCH'ERY (_Shak._), needle-work; STITCH'ING, the act of one who stitches: needle-work done in such a way that a continuous line of stitches appears on the surface; STITCH'WORT, a genus of slender plants, including the chickweed, so called because once believed to cure 'stitch' in the side. [A.S. _stice_, a prick; Ger. _sticken_, to embroider; conn. with _stick_.] STITHY, stith'i, _n._ an anvil: a smith's shop.--_v.t._ to forge on an anvil. [Ice. _stethi_; Sw. _städ_, an anvil.] STIVE, st[=i]v, _v.i._ (_prov._) to stew, to be stifled.--_adj._ ST[=I]'VY, close, stuffy. STIVER, st[=i]'v[.e]r, _n._ a Dutch coin, worth one penny sterling: any small coin. [Dut. _stuiver_.] STOA, st[=o]'a, _n._ a portico or covered colonnade round a house, market-place, &c. STOAT, st[=o]t, _n._ a kind of weasel, called the ermine when in its winter dress.--Also STOTE. [_Stot_.] STOB, stob, _n._ a small post for supporting paling: a wedge in coal-mining. [A variant of _stub_.] STOCCADE, stok-[=a]d', STOCCADO, stok-[=a]'do, _n._ a thrust in fencing--(_Shak._) STOCCA'TA. [It. _stoccata_, a thrust--_stocco_, a rapier--Ger. _stock_, a stick.] STOCK, stok, _n._ something stuck or thrust in: the stem of a tree or plant: the trunk which receives a graft: a post, a log: anything fixed solid and senseless: a stupid person: the crank-shaped handle of a centre-bit: the wood in which the barrel of a firearm is fixed: the cross-piece of timber into which the shank of an anchor is inserted: the part to which others are attached: the original progenitor: family: a fund, capital, shares of a public debt: store: the cattle, horses, and other useful animals kept on a farm: the liquor or broth obtained by boiling meat, the foundation for soup: a stiff band worn as a cravat, often fastened with a buckle at the back: (_pl._) an instrument in which the legs of offenders were confined: the frame for a ship while building: the public funds.--_v.t._ to store: to supply: to fill: to supply with domestic animals or stock: to refrain from milking cows for 24 hours or more previous to sale.--_adj._ kept in stock, standing.--_ns._ STOCK'BREED'ER, one who raises live-stock; STOCK'BROKER, a broker who deals in stocks or shares; STOCK'BROKING, the business of a stockbroker; STOCK'-DOVE, the wild pigeon of Europe; STOCK'-EP'ITHET, any ordinary and conventional epithet; STOCK'-EXCHANGE', the place where stocks are bought and sold: an association of sharebrokers and dealers; STOCK'-FARM'ER, a farmer who rears live-stock, as cattle, &c.; STOCK'-FEED'ER, one who feeds or fattens live-stock; STOCK'HOLDER, one who holds stocks in the public funds, or in a company; STOCK'-IN-TRADE, the whole goods a shopkeeper keeps on sale: a person's mental resources; STOCK'-JOB'BER; STOCK'-JOB'BERY, -JOB'BING, speculating in stocks; STOCK'-LIST, a list of stocks and current prices regularly issued; STOCK'MAN, a herdsman who has the charge of stock on a sheep-run in Australia; STOCK'-MAR'KET, a market for the sale of stocks, the stock-exchange; STOCK'-POT, the pot in which the stock for soup is kept; STOCK'-RID'ER, a herdsman on an Australian station; STOCK'-SADD'LE, a saddle with heavy tree and iron horn; STOCK'-ST[=A]'TION, a station where stock and cattle are reared; STOCK'-WHIP, a whip with short handle and long lash for use in herding; STOCK'WORK, a deposit in which the ore is distributed all over it; STOCK'YARD, a large yard with pens, stables, &c. where cattle are kept for slaughter, market, &c.--TAKE STOCK, to make an inventory of goods on hand: to make an estimate of; TAKE STOCK IN, to take a share in, to put confidence in. [A.S. _stocc_, a stick; Ger. _stock_.] STOCK, stok, _n._ a favourite garden-flower. [Orig. called _stock-gillyflower_, to distinguish it from the stemless clove-pink, called the _gillyflower_.] STOCKADE, stok-[=a]d', _n._ a breastwork formed of stakes fixed in the ground.--_v.t._ to fortify with such. [Fr. _estocade_--_estoc_--Ger. _stock_, stick.] STOCKFISH, stok'fish, n, a commercial name of salted and dried cod and other fish of the same family, esp. ling, hake, and torsk. STOCK-GILLYFLOWER, stok'-jil'i-flow-[.e]r, _n._ a genus of herbaceous or half-shrubby plants of the natural order _Cruciferæ_, having their flowers in racemes, and generally beautiful and fragrant. [_Stock_, wood, and _gillyflower_.] STOCKING, stok'ing, _n._ a close covering for the foot and lower leg.--_ns._ STOCKINET', an elastic knitted fabric for under-garments; STOCK'INGER, one who knits stockings; STOCK'ING-FRAME, a knitting-machine. [From _stock_, the stockings being the _nether-stocks_ when the long hose came to be cut at the knee.] STOCKISH, stok'ish, _adj._ (_Shak._) like a stock, stupid.--_n._ STOCK'ISHNESS, stupidity.--_adj._ STOCK'-STILL, still as a stock or post. STOCK-TACKLE, stok'-tak'l, _n._ tackle used in hoisting an anchor on board ship to keep its stock clear of the ship's side. STOCK-TAKING, stok'-t[=a]k'ing, _n._ a periodical inventory made of the stock or goods in a shop or warehouse. STOCKY, stok'i, _adj._ short and stout, thick-set: having a strong stem.--_adv._ STOCK'ILY. STODGY, stoj'i, _adj._ heavy, lumpy: ill put together: indigestible.--_v.t._ STODGE, to stuff, cram.--_n._ STODG'INESS. STOG, stog, _v.t._ (_prov._) to plunge in mire: to probe a pool with a pole. [Related to _stock_.] STOIC, st[=o]'ik, _n._ a disciple of the philosopher Zeno (340-260 B.C.), who opened his school in a colonnade called the _Stoa Poikil[=e]_ ('painted porch') at Athens--later Roman Stoics were Cato the Younger, Seneca, Marcus Aurelius: one indifferent to pleasure or pain.--_adjs._ ST[=O]'IC, -AL, pertaining to the Stoics, or to their opinions; indifferent to pleasure or pain.--_adv._ ST[=O]'ICALLY.--_ns._ ST[=O]'ICALNESS; ST[=O]'ICISM, the doctrines of the Stoics, a school of ancient philosophy strongly opposed to Epicureanism in its views of life and duty: indifference to pleasure or pain. [L. _Stoicus_--Gr. _St[=o]ïkos_--_stoa_, a porch.] STOKE, st[=o]k, _v.i._ to stir or tend a fire.--_ns._ STOKE'-HOLE, the space about the mouth of a furnace: the space allotted to the stokers: a hole in a reverberatory furnace for introducing a stirring-tool; ST[=O]K'ER, one who, or that which, feeds a furnace with fuel. [Dut.,--_stoken_, to light a fire, _stok_, a stick.] STOLE, st[=o]l, _pa.t._ of _steal_. STOLE, st[=o]l, _n._ a long robe reaching to the feet: a narrow vestment, usually black silk, fringed at the ends, sometimes coloured according to the seasons, worn by bishops and priests in the Latin Church during mass.--_n._ ST[=O]'LA, the outer garment of the Roman matron: a chorister's surplice: (_her._) a bearing showing a fringed scarf. [L. _stola_--Gr. _stol[=e]_, a robe--_stellein_, to array.] STOLEN, st[=o]l'en, _pa.p._ of _steal_. STOLID, stol'id, _adj._ dull: heavy: stupid: foolish.--_n._ STOLID'ITY, STOL'IDNESS, state of being stolid: dullness of intellect.--_adv._ STOL'IDLY. [L. _stolidus_.] STOLON, st[=o]'lon, _n._ a shoot from the root of a plant: a sucker.--_adjs._ ST[=O]'LONATE, ST[=O]L[=O]NIF'EROUS. [L. _stolo_, a twig.] STOMA, st[=o]'ma, _n._ (_bot._) one of the minute openings in the epidermis of leaves and tender green stems of plants, subserving the purpose of respiration: (_zool._) one of the breathing-holes in the bodies of certain of the articulata:--_pl._ ST[=O]'MATA.--_adjs._ STOMAT'IC; STOMATIF'EROUS.--_n._ STOMAT[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the interior of the mouth.--_adj._ ST[=O]'MATODE, having a stoma.--_ns._ STOMATOL'OGY, the scientific knowledge of the mouth; ST[=O]'MATOSCOPE, an instrument for examining the interior of the mouth. [Gr. _stoma_, a mouth.] STOMACH, stum'ak, _n._ the strong muscular bag into which the food passes when swallowed, and where it is principally digested: the cavity in any animal for the digestion of its food: appetite, relish for food, inclination generally: disposition, spirit, courage, pride, spleen.--_v.t._ to brook or put up with: to turn the stomach of: to resent.--_adj._ STOM'ACHAL.--_ns._ STOM'ACHER, a part of the dress covering the front of the body, generally forming the lower part of the bodice in front, sometimes richly ornamented: a large brooch; STOMACH'IC, a medicine for the stomach.--_adjs._ STOMACH'IC, -AL, pertaining to the stomach: strengthening or promoting the action of the stomach; STOM'ACHOUS (_Spens._), angry, stout, obstinate.--_ns._ STOM'ACH-PUMP, a syringe with a flexible tube for withdrawing fluids from the stomach, or injecting them into it; STOM'ACH-STAG'GERS, a disease in horses due to a paralytic affection of the stomach. [O. Fr. _estomac_--L. _stomachus_--Gr. _stomachos_, the throat, stomach--_stoma_, a mouth.] STOMATOPOD, st[=o]'ma-to-pod, _n._ one of the STOMATOP'ODA, an order of marine crustaceans, having most of their seven or eight pair of legs near the mouth. [Gr. _stoma_, mouth, _pous_, _podos_, foot.] STOND, stond, _n._ (_Spens._) station: also=_stound_. STONE, st[=o]n, _n._ a hard mass of earthy or mineral matter, the hard material of which rock consists: a piece of rock of a certain size or form, or for a particular purpose, as grind_stone_, mill_stone_, &c.: a precious stone or gem, a crystal mirror: a tombstone: a concretion formed in the bladder: a hard shell containing the seed of some fruits: a standard weight of 14 lb. avoirdupois (other stones occur, as that of 24 lb. for wool, 22 lb. for hay, 16 lb. for cheese, &c.): torpor and insensibility.--_adj._ made of stone, or of stoneware.--_v.t._ to pelt with stones: to free from stones: to wall with stones.--_n._ STONE'-AGE, the condition of a people using stone as the material for the cutting-tools and weapons which, in a higher condition of culture, were made of metals.--_adj._ STONE'-BLIND, as blind as a stone, perfectly blind.--_ns._ STONE'-BOIL'ING, a primitive method of making water boil by putting hot stones in it; STONE'-BOW, a crossbow for shooting stones: a children's catapult; STONE'-BRASH, a soil made up of finely-broken rock; STONE'-BREAK, the meadow-saxifrage; STONE'-BREAK'ER, one who, or that which, breaks stones, a stone-crushing machine; STONE'-BRUISE, a bruise caused by a stone, esp. on the sole of the foot from walking barefooted; STONE'-CAST, STONE'S'-CAST, STONE'-SHOT, STONE'S'-THROW, the distance which a stone may be thrown by the hand; STONE'CHAT, STONE'CHATTER, STONE'CLINK, one of the most common of the British _Turdidæ_, smaller than the redbreast--the Wheat-ear is the true stonechat.--_n.pl._ STONE'-CIR'CLES, or Circles of Standing Stones, popularly but erroneously called _Druidical Circles_ in Britain, and _Cromlechs_ in France, consist of unhewn stones set up at intervals round the circumference of a circular area usually of level ground.--_n._ STONE'-COAL, mineral coal, as opposed to charcoal: any hard coal, anthracite.--_adj._ STONE'-COLD, cold as a stone.--_n._ STONE'-COL'OUR, the colour of stone, grayish.--_adj._ STONE'-COL'OURED.--_ns._ STONE'-COR'AL, massive coral, as distinguished from branching or tree coral; STONE'CROP, the wall-pepper, _Sedum acre_; STONE'-CURLEW, a large species of plover; STONE'-CUT'TER, one whose occupation is to hew stone; STONE'-CUT'TING, the business of hewing and carving stones for walls, monuments, &c.--_adjs._ STONED, containing stones; STONE'-DEAD, lifeless; STONE'-DEAF, quite deaf.--_ns._ STONE'-DRESS'ER, one who prepares stones for building; STONE'-FAL'CON, a species of hawk or falcon which builds its nest among the rocks; STONE'-FLY, a genus of insects typical of the order _Plecoptera_--several species are native to Britain, and furnish good lures to anglers; STONE'-FRUIT, a fruit whose seeds are enclosed in a hard kernel; STONE'-HAM'MER, a hammer for breaking stones.--_adjs._ STONE'-HARD (_Shak._), as hard as a stone; STONE'-HEART'ED (_Shak._), hard-hearted, cruel, pitiless.--_ns._ STONE'HORSE, a stallion; STONE'-LIL'Y, the popular name of an _Encrinite_; STONE'-M[=A]'SON, a mason who works with stone; STONE'-MILL, a machine for breaking stone; STONE'-OIL, rock-oil, petroleum; STONE'-PINE, a Mediterranean nut-pine; STONE'-PLOV'ER, the stone-curlew; ST[=O]'NER, one who strikes or kills with stones; STONE'-RAG, -RAW, a lichen, _Parmelia saxatilis_; STONE'-SNIPE, the greater tell-tale or long-legged tattler, a common North American bird.--_adj._ STONE'-STILL (_Shak._), as still as a stone, motionless.--_ns._ STONE'WARE, a coarse kind of potter's ware baked hard and glazed; STONE'-WORK, mason-work.--_adv._ ST[=O]'NILY.--_n._ ST[=O]'NINESS, the state of being stony or abounding with stones: hardness of heart or mind.--_adjs._ ST[=O]'NY, made of, or resembling, stone: abounding with stones: hard: pitiless: obdurate: (_B._) rocky; ST[=O]'NY-HEART'ED, hard-hearted, cruel, pitiless.--LEAVE NO STONE UNTURNED, to do everything that can be done in order to secure the effect desired; MARK WITH A WHITE STONE, to mark as particularly fortunate. [A.S. _stán_; Ger. _stein_, Dut. _steen_.] STONIED, ston'id, _adj._ (_Spens._) astonished, alarmed. STOOD, stood, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _stand_. STOOK, stook, _n._ (_Scot._) a full shock of corn-sheaves, generally twelve, as set up in the field.--_v.t._ to set up in stooks, as sheaves--also STOUK.--_n._ STOOK'ER, one who sets up the corn in stooks. [Cf. Low Ger. _stuke_, a bundle.] STOOL, st[=oo]l, _n._ a seat without a back: a low bench for the feet or for kneeling on: the seat used in evacuating the bowels: the act of evacuating the bowels, also that which is evacuated: a root of any kind from which sprouts shoot up: a portable piece of wood to which a pigeon is fastened as a decoy for wild birds.--_n._ STOOL'-PI'GEON, a decoy-pigeon: a gambler's decoy.--STOOL OF REPENTANCE, same as _Cutty-stool_ (q.v.).--FALL BETWEEN TWO STOOLS, to lose both of two things between the choice of which one was hesitating. [A.S. _stól_, Ger. _stuhl_; cf. Ger. _stellen_, to place.] STOOP, st[=oo]p, _v.i._ to bend the body: to lean forward: to submit: to descend from rank or dignity: to condescend: to swoop down on the wing, as a bird of prey.--_v.t._ to cause to incline downward.--_n._ the act of stooping: inclination forward: descent: condescension: a swoop.--_adj._ STOOPED, having a stoop, bent.--_n._ STOOP'ER, one who stoops.--_p.adj._ STOOP'ING.--_adv._ STOOP'INGLY. [A.S. _stúpian_; Old Dut. _stuypen_, Ice. _stúpa_.] STOOP, st[=oo]p, _n._ (_Shak._) a vessel of liquor, a flagon: liquor for drinking: a basin for holy water. [A.S. _stoppa_, a cup--_steáp_, a cup; Low Ger. _stoop_.] STOOP, st[=oo]p, _n._ an open platform before the entrance of a house. [Dut. _stoep_.] STOOP, st[=oo]p, _n._ a prop, support, a patron. STOOR, st[=oo]r, _adj._ (_obs._) great, formidable: stiff, harsh, austere.--Also STOUR. [A.S. _stór_, great.] STOOR, st[=oo]r, _n._ dust in motion--hence commotion, bustle: a gush of water.--_v.t._ to stir up, to pour out.--_adj._ STOOR'Y, dusty. [A.S. _stýrian_, to stir.] STOP, stop, _v.t._ to stuff or close up: to obstruct: to render impassable: to hinder from further motion, progress, effect, or change: to restrain, repress, suppress, suspend: to intercept: to apply musical stops to: to regulate the sounds of a stringed instrument by shortening the strings with the fingers: (_naut._) to make fast.--_v.i._ to cease going forward: to cease from any motion or action, to stay, tarry: to leave off: to be at an end: to ward off a blow:--_pr.p._ stop'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ stopped.--_n._ act of stopping: state of being stopped: hinderance: obstacle: interruption: (_mus._) one of the vent-holes in a wind instrument, or the place on the wire of a stringed instrument, by the stopping or pressing of which certain notes are produced: a mark used in punctuation: an alphabetic sound involving a complete closure of the mouth-organs: a wooden batten on a door or window-frame against which it closes: a stop-thrust in fencing.--_ns._ STOP'-COCK, a short pipe in a cask, &c., opened and stopped by turning a cock or key; STOP'-GAP, that which fills a gap or supplies a deficiency, esp. an expedient of emergency; STOP'-M[=O]'TION, a mechanical arrangement for producing an automatic stop in machinery, as for shutting off steam, &c.; STOP'PAGE, act of stopping: state of being stopped: an obstruction; STOP'PER, one who stops: that which closes a vent or hole, as the cork or glass mouthpiece for a bottle: (_naut._) a short rope for making something fast.--_v.t._ to close or secure with a stopper.--_ns._ STOP'PING, that which fills up, material for filling up cracks, &c., filling material for teeth: STOP'PING-OUT, the practice in etching of covering certain parts with a composition impervious to acid, to keep the acid off them while allowing it to remain on the other parts to mark them more; STOP'-WATCH, a watch whose hands can be stopped to allow of time that has elapsed being calculated more exactly, used in timing a race, &c. [M. E. _stoppen_--O. Fr. _estouper_ (Ice. _stoppa_, Ger. _stopfen_, to stuff); all from L. _stupa_, the coarse part of flax, tow.] STOPE, st[=o]p, _v.t._ to excavate, to remove the contents of a vein.--_n._ an excavation for this purpose.--_n._ ST[=O]'PING. STOPPLE, stop'l, _n._ that which stops or closes the mouth of a vessel: a cork or plug.--_v.t._ to close with a stopple. STORAX, st[=o]'raks, _n._ a resin resembling benzoin, obtained from the stem of _Styrax officinalis_, a native of Greece and the Levant, formerly used as a stimulating expectorant.--LIQUID STORAX, liquidambar. [L.,--Gr. _styrax_.] STORE, st[=o]r, _n._ a hoard or quantity gathered: abundance: a storehouse: any place where goods are sold: (_pl._) supplies of provisions, ammunition, &c. for an army or a ship.--_v.t._ to gather in quantities: to supply: to lay up in store: to hoard: to place in a warehouse.--_adj._ ST[=O]'RABLE, capable of being stored.--_ns._ ST[=O]'RAGE, the placing in a store: the safe-keeping of goods in a store: the price paid or charged for keeping goods in a store; STORE'-FARM (_Scot._), a stock-farm, a cattle-farm; STORE'-FARM'ER; STORE'HOUSE, a house for storing goods of any kind: a repository: a treasury; STORE'-KEEP'ER, a man who has charge of a store: one who owns a store: (_U.S._) any unsaleable article; ST[=O]'RER, one who stores; STORE'ROOM, a room in which things are stored: a room in a store; STORE'-SHIP, a vessel used for transporting naval stores.--IN STORE (_Shak._), in hoard for future use, ready for supply; SET STORE BY, to value greatly. [O. Fr. _estor_, _estoire_--L. _instaur[=a]re_, to provide.] STOREY, st[=o]'ri, _n._ Same as STORY. STORGE, stor'j[=e], _n._ natural affection. [Gr.] STORIATED, STORIED. See under STORY. STORK, stork, _n._ a long-necked and long-legged wading-bird nearly allied to the heron, spoonbill, and ibis--the COMMON STORK or WHITE STORK (_Ciconia alba_) about 3½ feet long, migratory in habit, common in Holland and northern Germany, often semi-domesticated, nesting on the tops of houses, &c.--_n._ STORK'S'-BILL, any plant of the genus _Erodium_, esp. the heron's-bill: a plant of the genus _Pelargonium_. [A.S. _storc_; Ger. _stork_.] STORM, storm, _n._ a violent commotion of the atmosphere producing wind, rain, &c.: a tempest: a fall of snow, a prolonged frost: an outbreak of anger, or the like: violent agitation of society: commotion: tumult: calamity: (_mil._) an assault.--_v.i._ to raise a tempest: to blow with violence: to be in a violent passion.--_v.t._ to attack by open force: to assault.--_n._ STORM'-[=A]'REA, the area covered by a storm.--_adjs._ STORM'-BEAT, -BEAT'EN, beaten or injured by storms.--_ns._ STORM'-BELT, a belt of maximum storm frequency; STORM'-BIRD, a petrel.--_adj._ STORM'BOUND, delayed by storms.--_ns._ STORM'-CARD, a sailors' chart showing from the direction of the wind the ship's position in relation to a storm-centre, and accordingly the proper course to be shaped; STORM'-CEN'TRE, the position of lowest pressure in a cyclonic storm; STORM'-COCK, the fieldfare: the mistle-thrush; STORM'-CONE, a cone of canvas stretched on a frame 3 feet high as a storm-signal; STORM'-DOOR, an outer supplementary door to shelter the interior of a building; STORM'-DRUM, a canvas cylinder extended on a hoop 3 feet high by 3 feet wide, hoisted in conjunction with the cone as a storm-signal.--_adj._ STORM'FUL, abounding with storms.--_ns._ STORM'FULNESS; STORM'-GLASS, a tube containing a solution of camphor, the amount of the precipitate varying with the weather; STORM'-HOUSE, a temporary shelter for men working on a railway, &c.; STORM'INESS; STORM'ING-PAR'TY, the party of men who first enter the breach or scale the walls in storming a fortress.--_adj._ STORM'LESS, without storms.--_ns._ STORM'-SAIL, a sail of the strongest canvas, for stormy weather; STORM'-SIG'NAL, a signal displayed on seacoasts, &c., to intimate the approach of a storm by the cone and drum, or by flags and lanterns in the United States; STORM'-STAY, a stay on which a storm-sail is set.--_adjs._ STORM'-STAYED, hindered from proceeding by storms; STORM'-TOSSED, tossed about by storms: much agitated by conflicting passions.--_ns._ STORM'-WIND, a wind that brings a storm, a hurricane; STORM'-WIN'DOW, a window raised above the roof, slated above and at the sides.--_adj._ STORM'Y, having many storms: agitated with furious winds: boisterous: violent: passionate. [A.S. _storm_; Ice. _stormr_; from root of _stir_.] STORNELLO, stor-nel'[=o], _n._ an Italian kind of improvised folk-song:--_pl._ STORNELL'I. [It.] STORTHING, st[=o]r'ting, _n._ the legislative assembly of Norway. [Norw. _stor_, great, _thing_, assembly.] STORY, st[=o]'ri, _n._ history or narrative of incidents in their sequence: an account, report, statement: an anecdote: the plot of a novel or drama: a lie, a fib, a fictitious narrative.--_v.t._ to tell or describe historically, to relate: to adorn with sculptured or painted scenes from history.--_v.i._ to relate.--_adjs._ STORI[=A]'TED, decorated with elaborate ornamental designs; ST[=O]'RIED, told or celebrated in a story: having a history: interesting from the stories belonging to it: adorned with scenes from history.--_ns._ STORIOL'OGIST, one learned in the comparative study of folk-tales; STORIOL'OGY, the scientific study of folk-tales; ST[=O]'RY-BOOK, a book of stories or tales true or fictitious; ST[=O]'RY-TELL'ER, one who relates tales, a liar; ST[=O]'RY-TELL'ING, act of relating stories: lying. [A short form of _history_.] STORY, STOREY, st[=o]'ri, _n._ a division of a house reached by one flight of stairs: a set of rooms on the same floor.--THE UPPER STORY, the brain. [O. Fr. _estoree_--_estorer_--L. _instaur[=a]re_, to build.] STOSH, stosh, _n._ fish-offal, pomace. STOT, stot, _n._ a young ox, a steer. [Ice. _stútr_, a bull.] STOT, stot, _v.i._ (_prov._) to stumble.--Also STOT'TER. STOUND, stownd, _n._ (_Spens._) a stunning influence, a blow, amazement: a shooting pain: a noise: sorrow, grief, mishap: effort.--_v.t._ to stun, astound. [A contr. of _astound_.] STOUND, stownd, _n._ (_Spens._) a moment of time: time, season, hour. [A.S. _stund_.] STOUND, stownd (_Spens._). Same as STUNNED. STOUP, stowp, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as STOOP (2). STOUR, stowr, _n._ a tumult, battle, assault: a paroxysm. [O. Fr. _estour_, tumult.] STOUT, stowt, _adj._ strong: robust: corpulent: resolute: proud: (_B._) stubborn.--_n._ extra strong porter.--_adj._ STOUT'-HEART'ED, having a brave heart.--_adv._ STOUT'-HEART'EDLY.--_n._ STOUT'-HEART'EDNESS.--_adv._ STOUT'LY.--_n._ STOUT'NESS (_B._), stubbornness. [O. Fr. _estout_, bold--Old Dut. _stolt_, stout; Ger. _stolz_, bold.] STOUTHRIEF, stowth'r[=e]f, _n._ (_Scots law_) theft attended with violence--also STOUTH'RIE.--_n._ STOUTH'-AND-ROUTH (_Scot._), plenty, abundance. STOVE, st[=o]v, _n._ an apparatus with a fire for warming a room, cooking, &c.: a pottery-kiln: an oven for heating the blast of a blast-furnace: a drying-room.--_v.t._ to heat or keep warm.--_ns._ STOVE'-PIPE, a metal pipe for carrying smoke from a stove to a chimney-flue; STOVE'PIPE-HAT, a high silk hat; STOVE'-PLANT, a plant cultivated in a stove; STOVE'-PLATE, a lid or plate covering one of the holes in a cooking-stove. [A.S. _stofa_; Ger. _stube_.] STOVE, st[=o]v, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _stave_. STOVER, st[=o]v'[.e]r, _n._ (_Shak._) fodder for cattle. [O. Fr. _estover_, necessity--_estover_, _estoveir_, to fit.] STOW, st[=o], _v.t._ to place: to arrange: to fill by packing things in: (_slang_) to put away out of sight: to be silent about.--_ns._ STOW'AGE, act of placing in order: state of being laid up: room for articles to be laid away: money paid for stowing goods; STOW'AWAY, one who hides himself in an outward-bound vessel in order to get a passage for nothing; STOW'DOWN, the process of stowing down in a ship's hold; STOW'ER, one who stows; STOW'ING, in mining, rubbish thrown into the cavities out of which the ore, coal, &c. have been taken. [M. E. _stowen_, to place--A.S. _stów_, a place; cf. Dut. _stuwen_, to stow, to push, Ger. _stauen_, to pack.] STOW, stow, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to cut off, crop. STOWLINS, st[=o]'linz, _adv._ (_Scot._) stealthily. STOWN, stown, a Scotch form of _stolen_. STRABISMUS, str[=a]-bis'mus, _n._ squint.--_adjs._ STRABIS'MAL, STRABIS'MIC, -AL.--_ns._ STRABISMOM'ETER, STRABOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring strabismus; STRABOT'OMY, the surgical operation for the cure of squinting, by the division of the muscle or muscles that distort the eyeball. [Gr.,--_strabos_, squinting--_strephein_, to twist.] STRADDLE, strad'l, _v.i._ to stride or part the legs wide: to stand or walk with the legs far apart: to seem favourable to both sides in any question that divides opinion into parties, to trim with regard to any controversy.--_v.t._ to stand or sit astride of.--_n._ act of straddling: an attempt to fill a non-committal position: a stock-transaction in which the buyer obtains the privilege of either a _put_ or a _call_: a vertical mine-timber supporting a set.--_adv._ astride.--_adj._ STRADD'LE-LEGGED, having the legs wide apart. [A freq. from A.S. _str['æ]d_, _pa.t._ of _strídan_, stride.] STRADIVARIUS, strad-i-v[=a]'ri-us, _n._ a violin, esp. one made by the famous Antonio _Stradivari_ (1649-1737) of Cremona. STRAE, str[=a], _n._ (_Scot._) straw.--STRAE DEATH, death in one's bed from natural causes, as opposed to death by accident, by violence, by the rope, &c. STRAGGLE, strag'l, _v.i._ to wander from the course: to ramble: to stretch beyond proper limits: to be dispersed.--_ns._ STRAGG'LER, one who straggles from the course: a wandering fellow: a vagabond: a migratory animal found away from its usual range; STRAGG'LE-TOOTH, a misshapen or misplaced tooth.--_adv._ STRAGG'LINGLY, in a straggling manner.--_n._ STRAGGL'ING-MON'EY, money paid for apprehending deserters and men absent without leave: money deducted from the wages of such absentees.--_adj._ STRAGG'LY, straggling, spread out. [For _strackle_, freq. of M. E. _straken_--A.S. _strícan_, to go.] STRAGULUM, strag'[=u]-lum, _n._ the mantle or pallium in ornithology. [L., a cover.] STRAIGHT, str[=a]t, _adj._ direct: being in a right line: not crooked: nearest: upright: free from disorder: honourable, fair: unqualified, out-and-out: consisting of a sequence at poker: (_slang_) undiluted, neat, as a dram of whisky, &c., direct, authoritative, reliable.--_adv._ immediately: in the shortest time.--_v.t._ to straighten.--_n._ STRAIGHT'-ARCH, an arch in the form of two sides of an isosceles triangle.--_adjs._ STRAIGHT'AWAY, straight forward; STRAIGHT'-CUT, cut lengthwise of the leaf, of tobacco.--_n._ STRAIGHT'-EDGE, a narrow board or piece of metal having one edge perfectly straight for applying to a surface to ascertain whether it be exactly even.--_v.t._ STRAIGHT'EN, to make straight.--_ns._ STRAIGHT'ENER, one who, or that which, straightens; STRAIGHT'-FACE, a sober, unsmiling face.--_adv._ STRAIGHT'FORTH directly: henceforth.--_adj._ STRAIGHTFOR'WARD, going forward in a straight course: honest: open: downright.--_adv._ STRAIGHTFOR'WARDLY.--_n._ STRAIGHTFOR'WARDNESS, direction in a straight course: undeviating rectitude.--_adv._ STRAIGHT'LY, tightly: closely.--_n._ STRAIGHT'NESS, narrowness: tightness.--_adjs._ STRAIGHT'-OUT, out-and-out; STRAIGHT'-PIGHT (_Shak._), straight, erect.--_adv._ STRAIGHT'WAY, directly: immediately: without loss of time. [A.S. _streht_, pa.p. of _streccan_, to stretch.] STRAIK, str[=a]k, _n._ a Scotch form of _stroke_. STRAIN, str[=a]n, _v.t._ to stretch tight: to draw with force: to exert to the utmost: to injure by overtasking: to make tight: to constrain, make uneasy or unnatural: to press to one's self, to embrace: to pass through a filter.--_v.i._ to make violent efforts: to filter.--_n._ the act of straining: a violent effort: an injury inflicted by straining, esp. a wrenching of the muscles: a note, sound, or song, stretch of imagination, &c.: any change of form or bulk of a portion of matter either solid or fluid, the system of forces which sustains the strain being called the _stress_: mood, disposition.--_ns._ STRAIN'ER, one who, or that which, strains: an instrument for filtration: a sieve, colander, &c.; STRAIN'ING, a piece of leather for stretching as a base for the seat of a saddle.--STRAIN A POINT, to make a special effort: to exceed one's duty; STRAIN AT, in Matt. xxiii. 24, a misprint for STRAIN OUT. [O. Fr. _straindre_--L. _string[)e]re_, to stretch tight. Cf. _String_ and _Strong_.] STRAIN, str[=a]n, _n._ race, stock, generation: descent: natural tendency, any admixture or element in one's character.--_n._ STRAIN'ING-BEAM, a tie-beam uniting the tops of the queen-posts. [M. E. _streen_--A.S. _gestréon_, gain; confused in M. E. with the related M. E. _strend_--A.S. _strynd_, lineage.] STRAINT, str[=a]nt, _n._ (_Spens._) violent tension. STRAIT, str[=a]t, _adj._ difficult: distressful: (_obs._ strict, rigorous: narrow, so in _B._).--_n._ a narrow pass in a mountain, or in the ocean between two portions of land: difficulty, distress.--_v.t._ to stretch, tighten: to distress.--_v.t._ STRAIT'EN, to make strait or narrow: to confine: to draw tight: to distress: to put into difficulties.--_adjs._ STRAIGHT'-HEART'ED, stingy; STRAIT'-LACED, rigid or narrow in opinion.--_adv._ STRAIT'LY, narrowly: (_B._) strictly.--_ns._ STRAIT'NESS, state of being strait or narrow: strictness: (_B._) distress or difficulty; STRAIT'-WAIST'COAT, STRAIT'-JACK'ET, a dress made with long sleeves, which are tied behind, so that the arms are confined. [O. Fr. _estreit_, _estrait_ (Fr. _étroit_)--L. _strictus_, _pa.p._ of _string[)e]re_, to draw tight.] STRAKE, str[=a]k, obsolete _pa.t._ of _strike_. STRAKE, str[=a]k, _n._ one breadth of plank in a ship, either within or without board, wrought from the stem to the sternpost: the hoop or tire of a wheel; (_obs._) a bushel: the place where ore is assorted on a mine floor.--Also STRAIK. [A variant of _streak_.] STRAMASH, stra-mash', _n._ (_Scot._) a tumult, disturbance.--_v.t._ to beat, destroy. STRAMMEL, stram'el, _n._ straw.--_adj._ STRAMIN'EOUS, strawy, light like straw. STRAMONIUM, str[=a]-m[=o]'ni-um, _n._ a common narcotic weed of the Nightshade family, called also the _Thorn-apple_, _Stink-weed_, and _Jimson-weed_--_Datura Stramonium_: a drug prepared from its seeds and leaves, resembling belladonna, good in asthma.--Also STRAM'ONY. STRAND, strand, _n._ the margin or beach of the sea or of a lake: (_Scot._) a rivulet, a gutter.--_v.t._ to run aground: to be stopped.--_v.i._ to drift or be driven ashore.--_p.adj._ STRAND'ED, driven on shore: left helpless without further resource. [A.S. _strand_; Ger. _strand_, Ice. _strönd_, border.] STRAND, strand, _n._ one of the strings or parts that compose a rope.--_v.t._ to break a strand: to form by uniting strands. [Dut. _streen_, a skein; Ger. _strähne_.] STRANGE, str[=a]nj, _adj._ foreign: belonging to another country: not formerly known, heard, or seen: not domestic: new: causing surprise or curiosity, marvellous: unusual, odd: estranged, reserved: unacquainted with, unversed: not lawfully belonging to one.--_adv._ STRANGE'LY.--_ns._ STRANGE'NESS; STR[=A]N'GER, a foreigner: one from homed: one unknown or unacquainted: a guest or visitor: one not admitted to communion or fellowship: a popular premonition of the coming of a visitor by a bit of stalk in a cup of tea, guttering in a candle, &c.--STRANGE WOMAN, a whore. [O. Fr. _estrange_ (Fr. _étrange_)--L. _extraneus_--_extra_, beyond.] STRANGLE, strang'gl, _v.t._ to compress the throat so as to prevent breathing and destroy life: to choke: to hinder from birth or appearance: to suppress.--_n._ STRANG'LER.--_n.pl._ STRANG'LES, a contagious eruptive disorder peculiar to young horses.--_n._ STRANG'LE-WEED, the dodder, the broom-rape.--_v.t._ STRANG'ULATE, to strangle: to compress so as to suppress or suspend function.--_p.adj._ STRANG'ULATED, having the function stopped by compression: constricted, much narrowed.--_n._ STRANGUL[=A]'TION, act of strangling: compression of the throat and partial suffocation: the state of a part abnormally constricted. [O. Fr. _estrangler_ (Fr. _étrangler_)--L. _strangul[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--Gr. _strangaloein_, to strangle, _strangos_, twisted.] STRANGURY, strang'g[=u]-ri, _n._ painful retention of, or difficulty in discharging, urine.--_adj._ STRANG[=U]'RIOUS. [L. _stranguria_--Gr. _strangx_, a drop, from _stranggein_, to squeeze, _ouron_, urine.] STRAP, strap, _n._ a narrow strip of cloth or leather: a razor-strop: an iron plate secured by screw-bolts, for connecting two or more timbers: (_naut._) a piece of rope formed into a circle, used to retain a block in its position: (_slang_) credit, esp. for liquor.--_v.t._ to beat or bind with a strap: to strop, as a razor: (_Scot._) to hang:--_pr.p._ strap'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ strapped.--_n._ STRAP'-GAME, the swindling game better known as _Prick-the-garter_, _Fast-and-loose_.--_n.pl._ STRAP'-MOUNTS, the buckles, &c., fitted on leather straps.--_ns._ STRAP'-OIL, a thrashing; STRAP'PER, one who works with straps, esp. one who harnesses horses: something big, a tall large person; STRAP'PING, the act of fastening with a strap: materials for straps: a thrashing.--_adj._ tall, handsome.--_adj._ STRAP'-SHAPED, shaped like a strap, ligulate.--_n._ STRAP'-WORK (_archit._), ornamentation consisting of crossed and interlaced fillets or bands. [Orig. _strop_, from A.S. _stropp_--L. _struppus_; cf. Gr. _strophos_, a twisted band.] STRAPPADO, strap-[=a]'do, _n._ (_Shak._) a punishment which consisted in pulling the victim to the top of a beam and letting him fall so as to break his bones.--_v.t._ (_Milt._) to torture or punish by the strappado. [It. _strappata_--_strappare_, to pull.] STRASS, stras, _n._ paste for making false gems. [J. _Strasser_.] STRATA, str[=a]'ta, _pl._ of _stratum_. STRATAGEM, strat'a-jem, _n._ an artifice, esp. in war: a plan for deceiving an enemy or gaining an advantage: any artifice generally.--_adjs._ STRATEGET'IC, -AL, STRATEG'IC, -AL, pertaining to, or done by, strategy.--_adv._ STRATEGET'ICALLY.--_ns._ STRATEGET'ICS, STRAT'EGY, generalship, or the art of conducting a campaign and manoeuvring an army: artifice or finesse generally.--_adv._ STRATEG'ICALLY.--_n._ STRAT'EGIST, one skilled in strategy. [Fr.,--L. _stratagema_--Gr. _strat[=e]g[=e]ma_--_strat[=e]gos_, a general--_stratos_, an army, _agein_, to lead.] STRATH, strath, _n._ in Scotland, an extensive valley through which a river runs. [Gael. _srath_, a valley--L. _strata_, a street.] STRATHSPEY, strath'sp[=a], _n._ a Scotch dance, allied to and danced alternately with the reel, differing from it in being slower, and abounding in the jerky motion of dotted notes and semiquavers (when the latter precede the former it constitutes the _Scotch snap_), while the reel is almost entirely in smooth, equal, gliding motion: the music for a strathspey, or its movement. [_Strathspey_, valley of the _Spey_.] STRATIFY, strat'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to form or lay in strata or layers:--_pr.p._ strat'ifying; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ strat'if[=i]ed.--_adj._ STRATIC'ULATE, arranged in thin layers.--_n._ STRATIFIC[=A]'TION, act of stratifying: state of being stratified: process of being arranged in layers.--_adj._ STRAT'IFORM, in the form of strata. [Fr. _stratifier_--L. _stratum_, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] STRATIOTES, strat'i-[=o]-t[=e]z, _n._ the water-soldier. See under SOLDIER. [Gr. _strati[=o]tes_, a soldier.] STRATOCRACY, str[=a]-tok'ra-si, _n._ military despotism. [Gr. _stratos_, an army, _kratein_, to rule.] STRATOGRAPHY, str[=a]-tog'ra-fi, _n._ description of an army and whatever pertains to it.--_adjs._ STRATOGRAPH'IC, -AL.--_adv._ STRATOGRAPH'ICALLY. [Gr. _stratos_, an army, _graphein_, to write.] STRATUM, str[=a]'tum, _n._ a bed of earth or rock formed by natural causes, and consisting usually of a series of layers: any bed or layer:--_pl._ STR[=A]'TA.--_adj._ STRAT'IFORM, formed like strata.--_ns._ STRATIG'RAPHER, STRATIG'RAPHIST, a student of stratigraphical geology.--_adjs._ STRATIGRAPH'IC, -AL, concerned with the relative position of the strata forming the earth's crust.--_adv._ STRATIGRAPH'ICALLY.--_n._ STRATIG'RAPHY, the order and position of the stratified groups: the study or description of these, descriptive geology.--_adj._ STR[=A]'TOSE, arranged in layers, stratified.--_n.pl._ STRAT'[=U]LA. thin layers in rock-strata. [L. _stratum_--_stern[)e]re_, _stratum_, to spread out.] STRATUS, str[=a]'tus, _n._ the fall or night-cloud, the lowest of clouds, a widely-extended horizontal sheet, of varied thickness.--_ns._ STR[=A]'TO-CIR'RUS, better CIRRO-STRATUS (see CIRRUS); STR[=A]'TO-C[=U]'MULUS, better CUMULO-STRATUS (see CUMULUS). [L. _stratus_, a coverlet--_stern[)e]re_, _stratum_, to spread.] STRAUGHT, strawt, obsolete _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _stretch_. STRAUNGE, strawnj. _adj._ (_Spens._), same as STRANGE: foreign, borrowed. STRAVAIG, stra-v[=a]g', _v.i._ (_Scot._) to wander about idly.--_n._ STRAVAIG'ER. [Cf. _Extravagant_.] STRAW, straw, _n._ the stalk on which corn grows, and from which it is thrashed: a quantity of these when thrashed: anything worthless, the least possible thing.--_ns._ STRAW'BERRY, the delicious and fragrant fruit of any of the species of the genus _Fragaria_, the plant itself; STRAW'BERRY-LEAF, a symbolic ornament on the coronets of dukes, marquises, and earls--in _pl._ a dukedom; STRAW'BERRY-MARK, a soft reddish nævus or birth-mark; STRAW'BERRY-TREE, a species of Arbutus, which produces a fruit resembling the strawberry; STRAW'-BOARD, a kind of mill-board or thick card-board, made of straw after it has been boiled with lime or soda to soften it; STRAW'-COL'OUR, the colour of dry straw, a delicate yellow.--_adj._ STRAW'-COL'OURED, of the colour of dry straw, of a delicate yellowish colour.--_ns._ STRAW'-CUT'TER, an instrument for chopping straw for fodder; STRAW'-EMBROI'DERY, embroidery done by sewing straw on net; STRAW'-HOUSE, a house for holding thrashed straw; STRAW'ING (_slang_), the sale of straws on the streets in order to cover the giving to the purchaser of things forbidden to be sold, as indecent books, &c.; STRAW'-PLAIT, a narrow band of plaited wheat-straw, used in making straw hats, bonnets, &c.; STRAW'-STEM, the fine stem of a wine-glass pulled out from the material of the bowl, instead of being attached separately: a wine-glass having such a stem.--_adj._ STRAW'Y, made of, or like, straw.--MAN OF STRAW (see under MAN). [A.S. _streaw_; Ger. _stroh_, from the root of _strew_.] STRAWED (_B._), for strewed, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _strew_. STRAY, str[=a], _v.i._ to wander: to go from the enclosure, company, or proper limits: to err: to rove: to deviate from duty or rectitude.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to cause to stray.--_n._ a domestic animal that has strayed or is lost: a straggler, a waif, a truant: the act of wandering.--_adj._ STRAYED, wandering, astray.--_ns._ STRAY'ER, one who strays, a wanderer; STRAY'LING, a little waif or stray. [O. Fr. _estraier_, to wander--_estree_, a street--L. _strata_, a street.] STRAYNE, str[=a]n, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to stretch out, to embody or express in strains. [_Strain_.] STRAYT, str[=a]t, _n._ (_Spens._) a street. STREAK, str[=e]k, _n._ a line or long mark different in colour from the ground, a band of marked colour of some length, a stripe: a slight characteristic, a trace, a passing mood: (_min._) the appearance presented by the surface of a mineral when scratched: a strake or line of planking: a short piece of iron forming one section of a pieced tire on the wheel of an artillery-carriage.--_v.t._ to form streaks in: to mark with streaks.--_adj._ STREAKED, streaky, striped: (_U.S._) confused.--_n._ STREAK'INESS.--_adj._ STREAK'Y, marked with streaks, striped: uneven in quality. [A.S. _strica_, a stroke--_strícan_, to go, Ger. _strich_; cf. _Strike_. Skeat makes it Scand., Sw. _strek_, Dan. _streg_, a dash.] STREAK, str[=e]k, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to lay out a corpse for burial.--_v.i._ to stretch out. STREAK, str[=e]k, _v.i._ (_U.S._) to run swiftly. STREAM, str[=e]m, _n._ a current of water, air, or light, &c.: anything flowing out from a source: anything forcible, flowing, and continuous: drift, tendency.--_v.i._ to flow in a stream: to pour out abundantly: to be overflown with: to issue in rays: to stretch in a long line.--_v.t._ to discharge in a stream: to wave.--_ns._ STREAM'ER, an ensign or flag streaming or flowing in the wind: a luminous beam shooting upward from the horizon; STREAM'-GOLD, placer-gold, the gold of alluvial districts; STREAM'-ICE, pieces of drift ice swept down in a current; STREAM'INESS, streamy quality; STREAM'ING, the working of alluvial deposits for the ores contained.--_adj._ STREAM'LESS, not watered by streams.--_ns._ STREAM'LET, STREAM'LING, a little stream; STREAM'-TIN, disintegrated tin-ore found in alluvial ground.--_adj._ STREAM'Y, abounding in streams: flowing in a stream. [A.S. _streám_; Ger. _straum_, Ice. _straumr_.] STREET, str[=e]t, _n._ a road in a town lined with houses, broader than a lane: those who live in a street: the part of the street for vehicles: the body of brokers.--_ns._ STREET'AGE, toll for the use of a street; STREET'CAR, a passenger-car on the streets of a city, drawn by horses, cable traction, or electricity; STREET'-DOOR, the door of a house which opens upon a street; STREET'-RAIL'ROAD, a railroad or tramway constructed on a public street; STREET'-SWEEP'ER, one who, or that which, sweeps the streets clean; STREET'-WALK'ER, a whore who prowls about the streets; STREET'-WARD, an officer who formerly took care of the streets; STREET'-WAY, the roadway. [A.S. _str['æ]t_ (Dut. _straat_, Ger. _strasse_, It. _strada_)--L. _strata_ (_via_), a paved (way), from _stern[)e]re_, _stratum_, to strew.] STREIGHT, str[=a]t, _adj._ (_Spens._) narrow, strict, close.--_adv._ strictly, closely.--_n._ same as STRAIT.--_adv._ STREIGHT'LY=_Straitly_.--_n._ STREIGHT'NESS=_Straitness_. STRELITZ, strel'its, _n._ one of the ancient Muscovite guards, a kind of hereditary standing army, abolished by Peter the Great. STRELITZIA, strel-it'si-a, _n._ a genus of South African plants of the banana family, with large showy flowers--_Strelitzia Reginæ_, also _Queen-plant_, _Bird-of-Paradise flower_--with fine orange and purple flowers. [From Queen Charlotte, wife of George III., of the house of Mecklenburg-_Strelitz_.] STRENE, str[=e]n, _n._ (_obs._) race, offspring. [_Strain_.] STRENGTH, strength, _n._ quality of being strong: power of any kind, active or passive: force, vigour, violence: solidity or toughness: power to resist attack: excellence, boldness of conception or treatment: the required consistency or degree of the essential element in any compound: intensity: brightness: validity: vigour of style or expression: security: amount of force: potency of liquors: available force or support: a fortification, stronghold.--_v.t._ STRENGTH'EN, to make strong or stronger: to confirm: to encourage: to increase in power or security.--_v.i._ to become stronger.--_n._ STRENGTH'ENER, one who, or that which, supplies strength.--_adjs._ STRENGTH'ENING, invigorating; STRENGTH'LESS, without strength.--ON THE STRENGTH, on the muster-rolls of; ON, or UPON, THE STRENGTH OF, in reliance upon.--PROOF-STRENGTH (see under PROOF). [A.S. _strengthu_--_strang_, strong.] STRENUOUS, stren'[=u]-us, _adj._ active: vigorous: urgent: zealous: bold: necessitating exertion.--_n._ STRENUOS'ITY, strenuousness: a straining after effect.--_adv._ STREN'UOUSLY.--_n._ STREN'UOUSNESS. [L. _strenuus_, akin to Gr. _str[=e]n[=e]s_, strong.] STREPENT, strep'ent, _adj._ (_rare_) noisy. [L. _strep[)e]re_, to make a noise.] STREPERA, strep'e-ra, _n._ an Australian genus of corvine passerine birds, the crow-shrikes.--_adj._ STREP'ERINE. [L. _strep[)e]re_, to make a noise.] STREPHON, stref'on, _n._ a love-sick shepherd in Sir Philip Sidney's _Arcadia_, hence a love-sick swain generally.--_n._ STREPH'ONADE, a love-song. STREPITANT, strep'i-tant, _adj._ loud, noisy. STREPITOSO, strep-i-t[=o]'z[=o], _adv._ (_mus._) in a loud, boisterous manner. STRESS, stres, _n._ force: pressure: urgency: strain: violence, as of the weather: the relative loudness or emphasis with which certain syllables are pronounced, accent: weight, importance: (_mech._) force exerted in any direction or manner between two bodies--the greatest stress which a substance will bear without being torn asunder being its ultimate strength.--_v.t._ to constrain: lay stress on: to emphasise. [O. Fr. _estrecir_, from L. _strictus_, _string[)e]re_, to draw tight.] STRESS, stres, _n._ distress: legal distraining. STRETCH, strech, _v.t._ to extend: to draw out: to expand: to reach out: to exaggerate, strain, or carry further than is right: to cause to lie at full length: (_slang_) to hang.--_v.i._ to be drawn out: to be extended: to extend without breaking: to exaggerate.--_n._ act of stretching: effort: struggle: reach: extension: state of being stretched: utmost extent of meaning: course: one single uninterrupted sitting, turn, &c.: (_slang_) a year's imprisonment.--_ns._ STRETCH'ER, anything used for stretching, as gloves, hats, &c.: a frame on which a painter's canvas is stretched by means of wedges forced into the corners: a frame for carrying the sick or dead: a footboard for a rower; STRETCH'ER-BOND, a method of building in which bricks or stones are laid lengthwise in successive courses, the joints of the one falling at the middle of that above and below; STRETCH'ING-COURSE, a course of bricks or stones having all the faces outward; STRETCH'ING-FRAME, a machine for stretching cotton rovings before being spun into yarn: a frame on which starched fabrics are dried; STRETCH'ING-[=I]'RON, a currier's tool for dressing leather.--_adj._ STRETCH'Y, apt to stretch too much: liable to stretch one's self from weariness. [A.S. _streccan_--_strec_, _stræc_, strong; cf. Ger. _strack_, straight.] STREW, str[=oo], _v.t._ to spread by scattering: to scatter loosely:--_pa.p._ strewed or strewn.--_ns._ STREW'ING, act of scattering or spreading over: anything fit to be strewed: (_Shak._) litter for cattle; STREW'MENT (_Shak._), anything strewed or scattered in decoration. [A.S. _streowian_; Ger. _streuen_, L. _stern[)e]re_.] STRIA, str[=i]'a, _n._ a stripe or streak, a small channel or thread-like line running parallel to another: (_archit._) one of the fillets between the flutes of columns, &c.:--_pl._ STR[=I]'Æ ([=e]).--_v.t._ STR[=I][=A]TE', to score, stripe.--_adjs._ STR[=I]'[=A]TE, -D, marked with striæ or small parallel channels.--_ns._ STR[=I][=A]'TION; STR[=I][=A]'TUM, the _corpus striatum_, the great ganglion of the fore-brain; STR[=I]'ATURE, mode of striation. [L. _stria_, a streak, _stri[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to furrow.] STRICH, STRICK, strik, _n._ (_Spens._) the screech-owl. [L. _strix_, _strigis_.] STRICKEN, strik'n (_B._), _pa.p._ of strike.--STRICKEN IN YEARS, advanced in years.--A STRICKEN HOUR, an hour as marked by the clock. STRICKLE, strik'l, _n._ a straight-edge for levelling the top of a measure of grain: a template.--Also STRICK'LER. STRICT, strikt, _adj._ exact: extremely nice: observing exact rules, regular: severe: restricted, taken strictly: thoroughly accurate: tense, stiff: closely intimate: absolute, unbroken: constricted.--_n._ STRIC'TION.--_adv._ STRICT'LY, narrowly, closely, rigorously, exclusively.--_ns._ STRICT'NESS; STRICT'URE (_surg._), an unnatural contraction, either congenital or acquired, of a mucous canal, such as the urethra, oesophagus, or intestine: an unfavourable criticism: censure: critical remark. [L. _strictus_, pa.p. of _string[)e]re_, to draw tight. Cf. _Strain_ and _Stringent_.] STRIDDLE, strid'l, _v.i._ (_prov._) to straddle. STRIDE, str[=i]d, _v.i._ to walk with long steps: to straddle.--_v.t._ to pass over at a step: to bestride, ride upon:--_pa.t._ str[=o]de (_obs._ strid); _pa.p._ strid'den.--_n._ a long step, the space passed over in such. [A.S. _strídan_, to stride; Ger. _streiten_, strive.] STRIDENT, str[=i]'dent, _adj._ creaking, grating, harsh.--_adv._ STR[=I]'DENTLY.--_n._ STR[=I]'DOR, a harsh sound.--_adj._ STRID'[=U]LANT, strident.--_n.pl._ STRID[=U]LAN'TIA, a group of hemipterous insects, the cicadas.--_v.i._ STRID'[=U]LATE, to make a stridulous sound.--_ns._ STRID[=U]L[=A]'TION, the act of stridulating; STRID'[=U]L[=A]TOR, an insect which emits such a sound.--_adjs._ STRID'[=U]L[=A]TORY, stridulant; STRID'[=U]LOUS, emitting a harsh creaking sound. [L. _stridens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _strid[=e]re_, to creak.] STRIFE, str[=i]f, _n._ contention for superiority: struggle for victory: contest: discord.--_adj._ STRIFE'FUL (_Spens._), full of strife, contentious, discordant--also STRIF'FUL. [M. E. _strif_--O. Fr. _estrif_--Scand., Ice. _strith_, strife; Ger. _streit_, Dut. _strijd_, strife.] STRIG, strig, _n._ the footstalk of a flower or leaf.--_v.t._ to strip this off. STRIGA, str[=i]'ga, _n._ (_bot_.) a sharp bristle or hair-like scale: a stripe, stria: the flute of a column:--_pl._ STR[=I]'GÆ.--_adjs._ STR[=I]'GATE, STR[=I]'GOSE, having strigæ: streaked; STRIG'ILOSE, minutely strigose. [L. _striga_, a furrow--_string[)e]re_, to contract.] STRIGES, str[=i]'jez, _n.pl._ the owls or _Strigidæ_, a sub-order of _Raptores_.--_adj._ STRIG'INE, owl-like. [L. _strix_, _strigis_, an owl.] STRIGIL, strij'il, _n._ a flesh-scraper. [L. _strigilis_, a scraper--_string[)e]re_, to contract.] STRIGILIS, strij'i-lis, _n._ an organ for cleaning the antennæ on the first tarsal-joint of a bee's foreleg. STRIGOPS, str[=i]'gops, _n._ a genus containing the kakapo or nocturnal New Zealand parrot, the owl-parrots. [L. _strix_, _strigis_, owl, Gr. _[=o]ps_, face.] STRIKE, str[=i]k, _v.t._ to give a blow to: to hit with force, to smite: to pierce: to dash: to stamp: to coin: to thrust in: to cause to sound: to let down, as a sail: to ground upon, as a ship: to punish: to affect strongly: to affect suddenly with alarm or surprise: to make a compact or agreement, to ratify: to take down and remove: to erase (with _out_, _off_): to come upon unexpectedly: to occur to: to appear to: to assume: to hook a fish by a quick turn of the wrist: (_slang_) to steal: (_B._) to stroke.--_v.i._ to give a quick blow: to hit: to dash: to sound by being struck: to touch: to run aground: to pass with a quick effect: to dart: to take root: to lower the flag in token of respect or surrender: to give up work in order to secure higher wages or the redress of some grievance: (_U.S._) to do menial work for an officer: to become saturated with salt: to run, or fade in colour:--_pa.t._ struck; _pa.p._ struck (_obs._ strick'en).--_n._ act of striking for higher wages: (_geol_.) the direction of the outcrop of a stratum--the line which it makes when it appears at the surface of the earth, always being at right angles to the dip of the bend: (_U.S._) any dishonest attempt to extort money by bringing in a bill in the hope of being bought off by those interested: full measure, esp. of malt: the whole coinage made at one time: an imperfect matrix for type: the metal plate into which a door-latch strikes as the door closes: the crystalline appearance of hard soaps.--_ns._ STRIKE'-PAY, an allowance paid by a trades-union to men on strike; STR[=I]K'ER, one who, or that which, strikes: a green-hand on shipboard.--_adj._ STR[=I]K'ING, affecting: surprising: forcible: impressive: exact.--_adv._ STR[=I]K'INGLY.--_n._ STR[=I]K'INGNESS, quality of being striking, or of affecting or surprising.--STRIKE A BALANCE, to bring out the relative state of a debtor and creditor account; STRIKE A TENT, to take it down; STRIKE DOWN, to prostrate by a blow or by illness; STRIKE FOR, to start suddenly for; STRIKE FROM, to remove with a stroke; STRIKE HANDS (_B._), to become surety for any one; STRIKE HOME, to strike right to the point aimed at; STRIKE IN, to enter suddenly: to interpose; STRIKE INTO, to enter upon suddenly, to break into; STRIKE OFF, to erase from an account, to deduct: to print: to separate by a blow; STRIKE OIL, to find petroleum when boring for it: to make a lucky hit; STRIKE OUT, to efface: to bring into light: to direct one's course boldly outwards: to strike from the shoulder: to form by sudden effort; STRIKE SAIL, to take in sail: to stop; STRIKE UP, to begin to beat, sing, or play; STRIKE WORK, to cease work. [A.S. _strícan_; Ger. _streichen_, to move, to strike.] STRING, string, _n._ a small cord or slip of anything for tying, small cord, twine: a ribbon: nerve, tendon, a vegetable fibre: the chord (slender piece of wire or catgut stretched) of a musical instrument: (_pl._) stringed instruments collectively: a cord on which things are filed, a succession or series of things: a drove of horses: in billiards, the buttons strung on a wire by which the score is kept, the score itself: an expedient, object in view or of pursuit: the highest range of planks in a ship's ceiling.--_v.t._ to supply with strings: to put in tune: to put on a string: to make tense or firm: to take the strings off.--_v.i._ to stretch out into a long line: to form itself into strings: at billiards, to drive the ball against the end of the table and back, in order to determine which player is to open the game:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ strung.--_ns._ STRING'-BAND, a band composed chiefly of stringed instruments; STRING'-BOARD, a board which faces the well-hole of a staircase, and receives the ends of the steps; STRING'-COURSE, a projecting horizontal course or line of mouldings running quite along the face of a building.--_adj._ STRINGED, having strings.--_ns._ STRING'ER, one who, or that which, strings: a lengthwise timber on which a rail is fastened resting on a transverse cross-tie or sleeper: any main lengthways timber in a bridge or other building: a small screw-hook to which piano-strings are sometimes attached: (_naut._) a shelf-piece, an inside horizontal plank, supporting beam-ends, any heavy timber similarly carried round a vessel to strengthen her for special heavy service, as whaling, &c.; STRING'INESS.--_adj._ STRING'LESS, having no strings.--_ns._ STRING'-OR'GAN, a reed-organ having a graduated set of vibrators or free reeds connected by rods which cause to vibrate corresponding wires or strings stretched over a sounding-board; STRING'-PEA, a pea with edible pods; STRING'-PIECE, a supporting timber forming the edge of the framework of a floor or staircase, &c.; STRING'-PLATE; a metal plate bearing the spring-block of a pianoforte.--_adj._ STRING'Y, consisting of strings or small threads: fibrous: capable of being drawn into strings.--_n._ STRING'Y-BARK, one of a class of Australian gum-trees with very fibrous bark.--HARP UPON ONE STRING (see under HARP); HAVE ONE ON A STRING, to gain complete influence or control over some one: to place a person under great anxiety; HAVE TWO STRINGS TO ONE'S BOW, to have more than one expedient for attaining the object in view. [A.S. _strenge_, cord--_strang_, strong; Dut. _streng_, Ice. _strengr_, Ger. _strang_; conn. with L. _string[)e]re_, to draw tight.] STRINGENT, strin'jent, _adj._ binding strongly: urgent.--_n._ STRIN'GENCY, state or quality of being stringent: severe pressure.--_advs._ STRINGEN'DO (_mus._) hastening the time; STRIN'GENTLY, in a stringent manner.--_n._ STRIN'GENTNESS. [L. _stringens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _string[)e]re_.] STRINGHALT, string'hawlt, _n._ a peculiar catching up of a horse's limbs, usually of one or both hind-limbs, a variety of chorea or St Vitus's dance. STRINKLE, string'kl, _v.t._ and _v.i._ (_Scot._) to sprinkle sparingly.--_n._ STRINK'LING. [_Sprinkle_.] STRIP, strip, v.t to pull off in strips or stripes: to tear off: to deprive of a covering: to skin, to peel, to husk: to make bare: to expose: to remove the overlying earth from a deposit: to deprive: to impoverish or make destitute: to plunder: to press out the last milk at a milking: to press out the ripe roe or milt from fishes, for artificial fecundation: to separate the leaves of tobacco from the stems.--_v.i._ to undress: to lose the thread, as a screw: to come off:--_pr.p._ strip'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ stripped.--_n._ a long narrow piece of anything (cf. _Stripe_).--_ns._ STRIP'LEAF, tobacco which has been stripped of the stalks before packing; STRIP'PER, one who, or that which, strips.--_n.pl._ STRIP'PINGS, the last milk drawn from a cow at a milking.--STRIP OFF, to pull or take off: to cast off. [A.S. _strýpan_; Ger. _streifen_.] STRIPE, str[=i]p, _n._ a blow, esp. one made with a lash, rod, &c.: a wale or discoloured mark made by a lash or rod: a line, or long narrow division of a different colour from the ground: kind, particular sort: striped cloth.--_v.t._ to make stripes upon: to form with lines of different colours.--_adjs._ STR[=I]PED, having stripes of different colours; STR[=I]'PY, stripelike. [Old Dut. _strijpe_, a stripe in cloth; Dut. _streep_, Low Ger. _stripe_, Ger. _streif_.] STRIPLING, strip'ling, _n._ a youth: one yet growing. [Dim. of _strip_.] STRIVE, str[=i]v, _v.i._ to make efforts (with _with_, _against_, _for_): to endeavour earnestly: to labour hard: to struggle, to fight: to contend: to aim:--_pa.t._ str[=o]ve; _pa.p._ striv'en.--_ns._ STR[=I]V'ER; STR[=I]V'ING.--_adv._ STR[=I]V'INGLY, with striving, struggles, or earnest efforts. [O. Fr. _estriver_--_estrif_, strife--Scand., Ice. _strídh_, strife.] STRIX, striks, _n._ a genus typical of _Strigidæ_. [L. _strix_--Gr. _strix_, a screech-owl.] STROAM, str[=o]m, _v.i._ (_prov._) to wander idly about. STROB, strob, _n._ the angular velocity of one radian per second.--_adj._ STROB'IC, seeming to spin. [Gr. _strobos_--_strephein_, to twist.] STROBILA, stro-b[=i]'la, _n._ a discomedusan at the stage succeeding the scyphistoma: a segmented tapeworm.--_adj._ STROBIL[=A]'CEOUS.--_v.i._ STROB'ILATE.--_n._ STROBIL[=A]'TION. [Gr. _strobil[=e]_, a twisted plug of lint.] STROBILE, strob'il, _n._ (_bot._) a cone--also STROB'ILUS.--_adjs._ STROBILIF'EROUS; STROBIL'IFORM; STROB'ILINE; STROB'ILOID. STROBOSCOPE, strob'[=o]-sk[=o]p, _n._ an apparatus for observing periodic motion by throwing light at intervals on the rotating body.--_adj._ STROBOSCOP'IC. [Gr. _strobos_, a turning, _skopein_, to see.] STRODE, str[=o]d, _pa.t._ of _stride_. STROKE, str[=o]k, _n._ a blow: a sudden attack: calamity: the sound of a clock: a dash in writing: the sweep of an oar in rowing, the aftmost oar of a boat: the movement of the piston of a steam-engine: the touch of a pen or pencil: any characteristic feature: an effective action, a feat, a masterly effort: a mental act, the action of any faculty of the mind.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to act as stroke for, to row the stroke-oar of a boat.--_n._ STROKE'-OAR, the aftmost oar in a boat, or its rower, whose stroke leads the rest. [A.S. _strác_, pa.t. of _strícan_, to strike.] STROKE, str[=o]k, _v.t._ to rub gently in one direction: to rub gently in kindness.--_ns._ STR[=O]K'ER; STR[=O]K'ING. [A.S. _strácian_, a causal of _strícan_, as above; cf. Ger. _streicheln_, to stroke, from _streichen_, to rub.] STROKE, str[=o]k, obsolete _pa.p._ of _strike_. STROKEN, str[=o]k'n (_Spens._), struck. [_Strike_.] STROLL, str[=o]l, _v.i._ to ramble idly or leisurely: to wander on foot.--_n._ a leisurely walk: a wandering on foot.--_n._ STROLL'ER. [Skeat explains as formerly _stroule_, _stroyle_, a contracted form, as if for _strugle_. Freq. of Dan. _stryge_, to stroll, Sw. _stryka_, to stroke, also to ramble. Allied to _strike_.] STROMA, str[=o]'ma, _n._ the subtentacular tissue or substance of an organ or cell: in fungi, the substance in which the perithecia are immersed: the solid mass left after all liquid is expressed from protoplasm.--_adjs._ STROMAT'IC; STR[=O]'MATIFORM; STR[=O]'MATOUS. [Gr. _str[=o]ma_, a covering.] STROMATOLOGY, str[=o]m-a-tol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the history of the formation of the stratified rocks. [Gr. _str[=o]ma_, a covering, _logos_, discourse.] STROMBUS, strom'bus, _n._ a genus of marine gasteropods, typical of the family _Strombidæ_, their shells, often called conch-shells, frequently used as decorative objects and in the manufacture of cameos. [Gr. _strombos_, a pine-cone.] STROND, strond, _n._ (_Shak._) the strand, beach. STRONG, strong, _adj._ firm: having physical power: hale, healthy: able to endure: solid: well fortified: having wealth or resources: moving with rapidity: impetuous: earnest: having great vigour, as the mind: forcible: energetic, determined, positive: affecting the senses, as smell and taste, forcibly offensive or intense in quality, pungent: loud, stentorian: hard, indigestible: having a quality in a great degree: intoxicating, rich in alcohol: bright: intense: well established, firm, steadily going upward without fluctuation: (_gram._) inflecting by a change of radical vowel instead of by syllabic addition.--_n._ STRONG'HOLD, a place strong to hold out against attack: a fastness or fortified place: a fortress.--_adj._ STRONG'-KNIT, firmly jointed or compacted.--_adv._ STRONG'LY.--_adj._ STRONG'-MIND'ED, having a vigorous mind: unfeminine, applied to women who unsex themselves to obtain the freedom of men.--_ns._ STRONG'-MIND'EDNESS; STRONG'-ROOM, a firmly secured place where valuables are stored; STRONG'-WA'TER, ardent spirits.--STRONG ESCAPE (_Shak._), an escape accomplished by strength. [A.S. _strang_, strong; Ice. _strangr_, Ger. _streng_, tight.] STRONGYLE, stron'jil, _n._ a strongyloid nematode worm.--_adj._ STRON'GYLOID. [Gr. _strongylos_, round.] STRONTIUM, stron'shi-um, _n._ a yellowish, ductile, malleable metal somewhat harder than lead, existing as a carbonate in the mineral _Strontianite_ (first found in 1790 near _Strontian_ in Argyllshire), and as a sulphate in the mineral known as _Celestine_.--_ns._ STRON'TIA, the oxide of strontium--also STRON'TIAN; STRON'TIANITE, carbonate of strontia. STROOK, str[=oo]k (_Milt._) obsolete _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _strike_. STROP, strop, _n._ a strip of leather, or of wood covered with leather, &c., for sharpening razors.--_v.t._ to sharpen on a strop:--_pr.p._ strop'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ stropped. [Older form of _strap_.] STROPHANTHUS, str[=o]-fan'thus, _n._ a genus of tropical African and Asiatic plants of order _Apocynaceæ_, often climbers, the seeds of several species in Africa yielding arrow-poison, those of _S. hispidus_ yielding an extremely poisonous bitter principle, STROPHAN'THIN, whose medicinal action is very similar to that of Digitalis. [Gr. _strophos_, twisted band, _anthos_, flower.] STROPHE, str[=o]f'e, _n._ in the ancient drama, the song sung by the chorus while dancing towards one side of the orchestra, to which its reverse, the _antistrophe_, answers.--_adj._ STROPH'IC. [Gr.] STROPHIOLE, strof'i-[=o]l, _n._ (_bot._) an aril-like appendage growing from the _raphe_ in the fruits of Viola, &c.--_adjs._ STROPH'IOLATE, -D. [Gr. _strophion_, dim. of _strophos_, a twisted band.] STROSSERS, stros'[.e]rz, _n._ (_Shak._) trousers. [A form of _trossers_=_trousers_.] STROUDING, strowd'ing, _n._ a coarse, warm cloth or blanketing. STROUP, str[=oo]p, _n._ (_Scot._) a spout, nozzle. STROUT, strowt, _v.t._ (_Bacon_) to strut, to cause to project or swell out. STROVE, str[=o]v, _pa.t._ of _strive_. STROW, str[=o], same as STREW:--_pa.p._ str[=o]wed or str[=o]wn. STROY, stroi, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to destroy. STRUB, strub, _v.t._ and _v.i._ (_prov._) to rob. STRUCK, STRUCKEN, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _strike_. STRUCTURE, struk't[=u]r, _n._ manner of building: construction: a building, esp. one of large size: arrangement of parts or of particles in a substance: manner of organisation: an organic form.--_adj._ STRUC'T[=U]RAL, morphological.--_n._ STRUCT[=U]RALIS[=A]'TION.--_adv._ STRUC'T[=U]RALLY, in a structural manner.--_adjs._ STRUC'TURED, having a certain structure; STRUC'TURELESS.--_adv._ STRUC'TURELY, in structure, by construction.--_n._ STRUC'T[=U]RIST, one who rears structures. [L. _structura_--_stru[)e]re_, _structum_, to build.] STRUGGLE, strug'l, _v.i._ to make great efforts with contortions of the body: to make great exertions: to contend: to labour in pain: to be in agony or distress.--_n._ a violent effort with contortions of the body: great labour: agony.--_n._ STRUGG'LER, one who struggles, strives, or contends. [Skeat explains M. E. _strogelen_ as a weakened form of an assumed _strokelen_, a freq. verb, from Ice. _strok-_, stem of _strokinn_, pa.p. of _strjúka_, to strike; cf. Ice. _strokka_, to churn, also Sw. _stryka_, to strike.] STRULDBRUG, struld'brug, _n._ one of a class of immortals in _Gulliver's Travels_, born with a special mark in the forehead, kept by the public after eighty. STRUM, strum, _v.t._ to play on (as a musical instrument) in a coarse, noisy manner:--_pr.p._ strum'ming; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ strummed. [A variant of _thrum_.] STRUMA, str[=oo]'ma, _n._ scrofula:--_pl._ STRU'MÆ.--_adjs._ STRUMAT'IC, STRU'MOUS, having scrofula: scrofulous--also STRUM[=O]SE'; STRUMIF'EROUS, bearing strumæ or swellings; STRU'MIFORM, having the form of a struma.--_ns._ STRUM[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the thyroid gland; STRUM[=O]'SIS, production of struma; STRU'MOUSNESS. [L. _strumosus_--_struma_, scrofula.] STRUMPET, strum'pet, _n._ a whore.--_adj._ like a strumpet: inconstant: false.--_v.t._ to make a strumpet of: to call a strumpet. [O. Fr. _strupe_, _stupre_--L. _stuprum_, dishonour, _strupr[=a]re_, to debauch.] STRUNG, strung, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _string_. STRUNT, strunt, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to strut. STRUNT, strunt, _n._ (_Scot._) spirits, a dram of such: a sulky fit. STRUT, strut, _v.i._ to walk in a pompous manner: to walk with affected dignity:--_pr.p._ strut'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ strut'ted.--_n._ a proud step or walk: affectation of dignity in walking.--_n._ STRUT'TER, one who struts.--_adv._ STRUT'TINGLY, in a strutting manner. [Scand., Dan. _strutte_, to strut; Low Ger. _strutt_, rigid; Ger. _strotzen_, to be puffed up.] STRUT, strut, _n._ a support for a rafter: an instrument for adjusting the plaits of a ruff.--_v.t._ to brace. STRUTHIO, str[=oo]'thi-[=o], _n._ the sole genus of _Struthionidæ_, the African ostriches.--_adjs._ STRU'THIONINE, STRU'THIOUS. [L.,--Gr. _strouthi[=o]n_, an ostrich.] STRYCHNINE, strik'nin, _n._ a poisonous alkaloid occurring in crystals, intensely bitter, colourless and inodorous, obtained from the seeds of nux vomica--also STRYCH'NIA.--_adj._ STRYCH'NIC.--_ns._ STRYCH'NINISM, the condition produced by a poisonous dose of strychnine; STRYCH'NISM, the morbid state of the spinal cord produced by strychnine. [Gr. _strychnos_, a kind of nightshade.] STRYDE, str[=i]d, _n._ (_Spens._) stride. STUB, stub, _n._ the stump left after a tree is cut down: anything short and thick, a stump or truncated end of anything, a worn horse-shoe nail, esp. in _pl._: the counterfoil in a cheque-book, &c.--_v.t._ to take the stubs or roots of from the ground: to cut to a stub: to strike against a stub:--_pr.p._ stub'bing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ stubbed.--_adj._ STUBBED, short and thick like a stump: blunt: obtuse.--_ns._ STUB'BEDNESS; STUB'BINESS, state of being stubby: stubbedness.--_adj._ STUB'BY, abounding with stubs: short, thick, and strong.--_ns._ STUB'-[=I]'RON, that worked up from stubs for gun-barrels; STUB'-NAIL, a short thick nail. [A.S. _styb_; Dut. _stobbe_, Ice. _stubbi_.] STUBBLE, stub'l, _n._ the stumps or root-ends of the stalks of corn left in the ground by the reaper or mower: anything like this, as a bristly beard, &c.: the sugar-cane in the field after the first year.--_adjs._ STUBB'LED, covered with stubble; STUBB'LE-FED, fed on the natural grass growing among stubble.--_ns._ STUBB'LE-GOOSE, or _Harvest-goose_, the greylag goose; STUBB'LE-RAKE, a rake with long teeth for raking stubble together.--_adj._ STUBB'LY, stubbled: having stubble: covered with stubble. [O. Fr. _estouble_, prob. Teut. (Old High Ger. _stupfila_), or directly from L. _stipula_, dim. of _stipes_, a stalk.] STUBBORN, stub'orn, _adj._ immovably fixed in opinion: obstinate: persevering: steady: stiff: inflexible: hardy: not easily melted or worked.--_v.t._ (_Keats_) to make stubborn.--_adv._ STUBB'ORNLY.--_n._ STUBB'ORNNESS.--_adj._ STUBB'ORN-SHAFT'ED, having strong shafts or trunks. [A.S. _styb_, a stub.] STUCCO, stuk'[=o], _n._ a plaster of lime and fine sand, &c., used as a coating for walls, for decorations, &c.: work done in stucco.--_v.t._ to face or overlay with stucco: to form in stucco.--_n._ STUCC'[=O]ER, one who works or deals in stucco. [It. _stucco_; from Old High Ger. _stucchi_, a crust, a shell.] STUCK, stuk, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _stick_.--_adj._ STUCK'-UP, affectedly vain, self-important. STUCK, stuk, _n._ (_Shak._) a thrust. [_Stoccado_.] STUCKLE, stuk'l, _n._ (_prov._) several sheaves set together. STUD, stud, _n._ a collection of breeding horses and mares, also the place where they are kept: a collection of horses for racing or hunting, also of other animals, even of dogs in America.--_ns._ STUD'-BOOK, a record of the pedigrees of famous animals, esp. horses; STUD'-FARM, a farm where horses are bred; STUD'-GROOM, a groom at a stud, esp. the head-groom; STUD'-HORSE, a stallion. [A.S. _stód_; Ger. _gestüt_.] STUD, stud, _n._ a nail with a large head: an ornamental double-headed button worn in a cuff or shirt-front: one of the intermediate posts in a partition to which laths are nailed: a cross-piece in the links of a chain-cable for strengthening: a small pin in a watch: a trunk, stem.--_v.t._ to adorn with knobs: to set thickly, as with studs:--_pr.p._ stud'ding; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ stud'ded.--_ns._ STUD'-BOLT, a bolt with a thread on each end, screwed into a fixed part at one end, receiving a nut upon the other; STUD'DING-SAIL, a narrow sail set temporarily at the outer edges of a square sail when the wind is light--also SCUDDING-SAIL; STUD'DLE, a prop supporting a platform in a mine; STUD'-WORK, brickwork walls between studs: studded leather armour. [A.S. _studu_, a post.] STUDENT, st[=u]'dent, _n._ one who studies, a scholar at a higher school, college, or university: one devoted to the study of any subject: a man devoted to books.--_ns._ ST[=U]'DENTRY, students collectively; ST[=U]'DENTSHIP, an endowment for a student in a college. STUDIO, st[=u]'di-o, _n._ the workshop of an artist or photographer:--_pl._ ST[=U]'DIOS. [It.] STUDIOUS, st[=u]'di-us, _adj._ given to study: thoughtful: diligent: careful (with _of_): studied: deliberately planned: favourable for study or meditation.--_adv._ ST[=U]'DIOUSLY.--_n._ ST[=U]'DIOUSNESS. STUDY, stud'i, _v.t._ to bestow pains upon: to apply the mind to: to examine closely, in order to learn thoroughly: to form and arrange by thought: to con over.--_v.i._ to apply the mind closely to a subject: to try hard: to muse, meditate, reflect: to apply the mind to books:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ stud'ied.--_n._ a setting of the mind upon a subject, earnest endeavour, application to books, &c.: absorbed attention: contrivance: any object of attentive consideration: any particular branch of learning: a room devoted to study: a first sketch from nature, a drawing or painting hastily done to facilitate later and more elaborate work, a student's exercise in painting or sculpture: a composition in music intended to help in acquiring mechanical facility: in theatrical phrase, one who commits a part to memory.--_adj._ STUD'IED, qualified by, or versed in, study: learned: planned with study or deliberation: premeditated.--_adv._ STUD'IEDLY, in a studied or premeditated manner.--_n._ STUD'IER, one who studies. [O. Fr. _estudie_ (Fr. _étude_)--L. _studium_, zeal; Gr. _spoud[=e]_, zeal.] STUFA, st[=oo]f'a, _n._ a jet of steam issuing from a fissure in the earth. [It.] STUFF, stuf, _n._ materials of which anything is made: that which fills anything: essence, elemental part: textile fabrics, cloth, esp. when woollen: something trifling, worthless, or contemptible: a melted mass of turpentine, tallow, &c. used for paying masts, planks, &c.: a medicinal mixture: boards for building: (_slang_) money: worthless matter: possessions generally, esp. household furniture, &c.--_v.t._ to fill by crowding: to fill very full: to press in: to crowd: to cram, as with nonsense or lies: to obstruct: to cause to bulge out by filling: to fill with seasoning, as a fowl: to fill the skin of a dead animal, so as to reproduce its living form.--_v.i._ to feed gluttonously: to practise taxidermy.--_ns._ STUFF'ER, one who stuffs, esp. the skins of animals; STUFF'-GOWN, a gown of stuff, not silk, esp. that of a junior barrister; STUFF'ING, that which is used to stuff or fill anything--straw, sawdust, feathers, hair, &c.: relishing ingredients put into meat, poultry, &c. in cooking; STUFF'ING-BOX, a contrivance for keeping a piston-rod, &c., air-tight or water-tight by means of closely-fitting packing, while allowing it free motion. [O. Fr. _estoffe_ (Fr. _étoffe_)--L. _stuppa_, tow.] STUFFY, stuf'i, _adj._ badly ventilated, musty: causing difficulty in breathing: (_Scot._) stout: sturdy: (_slang_) sulky.--_n._ STUFF'INESS. [O. Fr. _estouffer_, to choke--estoffe, stuff.] STUG, stug, _n._ (_Scot._) a thorn. STUGGY, stug'i, _adj._ (_prov._) thick-set, stout. STULL, stul, _n._ (_prov._) in mining, a cross-timber in an excavation. STULM, stulm, _n._ a small shaft used to drain a mine. STULP, stulp, _n._ (_prov._) a post. STULTIFY, stul'ti-f[=i], _v.t._ to make a fool of: to cause to appear foolish: to destroy the force of one's argument by self-contradiction: (_law_) to allege or prove to be of unsound mind:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ stul'tified.--_ns._ STULTIFIC[=A]'TION, act of stultifying or making foolish; STUL'TIFIER, one who stultifies or makes a fool of; STULTIL'OQUENCE, STULTIL'OQUY, foolish talk or discourse, babbling.--_adj._ STULTIL'OQUENT.--_adv._ STULTIL'OQUENTLY. [L. _stultus_, foolish, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] STUM, stum, _n._ must, grape-juice unfermented: new wine used to revive dead or vapid wine: a mixture used to impart artificial strength, &c., to weak beer or wine: wine revived by the addition of stum or by a second fermentation.--_v.t._ to renew or doctor with stum: to fume, as a cask of liquor, with burning sulphur. [Dut. _stom_, must--_stom_, mute; Ger. _stumm_, dumb.] STUMBLE, stum'bl, _v.i._ to strike the feet against something, to trip in walking: to light on by chance (with _upon_): to slide into crime or error.--_v.t._ to cause to trip or stop: to puzzle.--_n._ a trip in walking or running: a blunder: a failure.--_ns._ STUM'BLER, one who stumbles; STUM'BLING-BLOCK, -STONE, a block or stone over which one would be likely to stumble: a cause of error.--_adv._ STUM'BLINGLY.--_adj._ STUM'BLY, apt to stumble. [Skeat explains the _b_ as excrescent, the M. E. _stomblen_, _stomelen_, _stumlen_, also _stomeren_ being from Ice. _stumra_, to stumble. It is thus a doublet of _stammer_.] STUMMEL, stum'el, _n._ the bowl and stem of a pipe. STUMP, stump, _n._ the part of a tree left in the ground after the trunk is cut down: the part of a body remaining after a part is cut off or destroyed: (_cricket_) one of the three sticks forming a wicket.--_v.t._ to reduce to a stump, to truncate, to cut off a part of: to strike unexpectedly, as the foot against something fixed: (_cricket_) to knock down the wickets when the batsman is out of his ground: to bring to a stop by means of some obstacle or other, to defeat, ruin: (_U.S._) to challenge to do something difficult: to make stump-speeches throughout a district, constituency, &c.: (_slang_) to pay down, hand over (with _up_).--_v.i._ to walk along heavily: to make stump-speeches.--_ns._ STUMP'ER, one who stumps; STUMP'-OR'ATOR, one who harangues the multitude from a temporary platform, as the stump of a tree: a speaker who travels about the country, and whose appeals are mainly to the passions of his audience; STUMP'-OR'ATORY; STUMP'-SPEECH, an impromptu speech delivered on any improvised platform, any speech made all round a district by some frothy agitator.--_adj._ STUMP'Y, full of stumps, short and thick.--_n._ (_slang_) cash.--STUMP OUT (_cricket_), to put out by knocking down the stump or wicket. [Ice. _stumpr_; Ger. _stumpf_, nasalised form of _stub_.] STUN, stun, _v.t._ to stupefy or astonish with a loud noise, or with a blow: to surprise completely: to amaze:--_pr.p._ stun'ning; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ stunned.--_n._ a stroke, shock, stupefying blow.--_ns._ STUN'NER, a person or an action that strikes with amazement; STUN'NING, stupefaction.--_adj._ very striking, astonishing.--_adv._ STUN'NINGLY. [A.S. _stunian_, to make a din--_stun_, a din.] STUNDIST, stun'dist, _n._ one of a body of Russian dissenters who reject forms and ceremonies, and base their faith and practice on the Bible alone.--_n._ STUN'DISM, the doctrines of the Stundists. [Ger. _stunde_, an hour, from their stated meetings for Bible-reading.] STUNG, stung, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _sting_. STUNK, stungk, _pa.p._ of _stink_. STUNT, stunt, _v.t._ to hinder from growth, to dwarf, check.--_n._ a check in growth: an animal whose growth is stunted.--_adj._ STUNT'ED, dwarfed.--_n._ STUNT'EDNESS, state of being stunted. [A.S. _stunt_, blunt; Ice. _stuttr_, short.] STUPA, st[=u]'pa, _n._ a Buddhist monument: a dagoba or shrine of Buddha. [Sans.] STUPE, st[=u]p, _n._ a fomentation, or rather the tow or cloth dipped in it, and used in its application.--_v.t._ to treat with a stupe.--_adjs._ ST[=U]'P[=E]OUS, covered with long loose filaments or scales--also ST[=U]'P[=O]SE; ST[=U]'PUL[=O]SE, finely stupose. [L.,--Gr. _stupp[=e]_, tow.] STUPEFY, st[=u]'pe-f[=i], _v.t._ to make stupid or senseless: to deaden the perception: to deprive of sensibility:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ st[=u]'pefied.--_adj._ ST[=U]PEF[=A]'CIENT, stupefying.--_n._ anything that stupefies, a narcotic drug.--_n._ ST[=U]PEFAC'TION, the act of making stupid or senseless: insensibility: stupidity.--_adj._ ST[=U]PEFAC'TIVE, causing stupefaction or insensibility.--_ns._ ST[=U]'PEF[=I]EDNESS; ST[=U]'PEF[=I]ER.--_adj._ ST[=U]'PENT, struck with stupor. [L. _stup[=e]re_, to be struck senseless, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] STUPENDOUS, st[=u]-pen'dus, _adj._ wonderful, amazing, astonishing for its magnitude, force, enormity.--_adv._ ST[=U]PEN'DOUSLY.--_n._ ST[=U]PEN'DOUSNESS. [L. _stupendus_.] STUPID, st[=u]'pid, _adj._ struck senseless: insensible: deficient or dull in understanding: formed or done without reason or judgment: foolish: unskilful.--_ns._ STUPE (_coll._), a stupid person; ST[=U]PID'ITY, ST[=U]'PIDNESS.--_adv._ ST[=U]'PIDLY. [Fr.,--L. _stupidus_.] STUPOR, st[=u]'por, _n._ the state of being struck senseless: suspension of sense either complete or partial: insensibility, intellectual or moral: excessive amazement or astonishment.--_adj._ ST[=U]'POROUS. STUPRUM, st[=u]'prum, _n._ forcible violation of chastity: rape.--_v.t._ ST[=U]'PR[=A]TE, to ravish.--_n._ ST[=U]PR[=A]'TION. [L.,--_stupr[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to debauch.] STURDY, stur'di, _adj._ (_comp._ STUR'DIER, _superl._ STUR'DIEST) resolute: firm: forcible: strong: robust: stout: (_obs._) stubborn or obstinate.--_adv._ STUR'DILY.--_n._ STUR'DINESS. [O. Fr. _estourdi_, pa.p. of _estourdir_ (Fr. _étourdir_), It. _stordire_, to stun; acc. to Diez, through an assumed Low L. form from L. _torpidus_, stupefied.] STURDY, stur'di, _n._ the _gid_, a disease affecting young sheep with staggering and stupor, caused by a species of tapeworm in the brain.--_adj._ STUR'DIED. STURGEON, stur'jun, _n._ a genus of large Ganoid fishes, yielding palatable flesh, caviare from their roe, isinglass from their air-bladders. [O. Fr. _esturgeon_, from Old High Ger. _sturjo_--_st[=o]ren_, to spread.] STURNIDÆ, stur'ni-d[=e], _n.pl._ a family of oscine passerine birds, its representative genus, STUR'NUS, the starlings.--_adjs._ STUR'NIFORM; STUR'NOID. STURT, sturt, _n._ strife, wrath, vexation.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to vex, annoy: start with fear. STUTTER, stut'[.e]r, _v.i._ to hesitate in speaking: to stammer.--_n._ the act of stuttering: a hesitation in speaking.--_n._ STUTT'ERER, one who stutters.--_adj._ STUTT'ERING, hesitating in speaking: stammering.--_adv._ STUTT'ERINGLY. [A freq. of obs. _stut_, to stutter, M. E. _stoten_--Ice. _stauta_; cog. with Ger. _stossen_.] STY, st[=i], _n._ a small inflamed tumour on the eyelid. [A.S. _stígend_, from _stígan_, to step up.] STY, st[=i], _n._ an enclosure for swine: any place extremely filthy, any place of gross debauchery. [A.S. _stígo_; Ger. _steige_.] STYGIAN, stij'i-an, _adj._ relating to _Styx_, one of the rivers of Hades, across which Charon ferries the shades of the departed: hellish, infernal, deadly, impenetrable. [L.,--Gr. _stygein_, to hate.] STYLE, st[=i]l, _n._ anything long and pointed, esp. a pointed tool for engraving or writing: manner of writing, mode of expressing thought in language: the distinctive manner peculiar to an author: characteristic or peculiar mode of expression and execution (in the fine arts): title: mode of address: practice, esp. in a law-court: manner: form: fashion: mode of reckoning time--_Old Style_, when the system follows the Julian calendar, as still in Russia, and in England before 2d September 1752; _New Style_, when the system follows the Gregorian calendar (eleven days were omitted, thus the 3d September became the 14th): the pin of a dial: (_bot._) the middle portion of the pistil, between the ovary and the stigma (see PISTIL).--_v.t._ to entitle in addressing or speaking of: to name or designate.--_adjs._ STY'LAR, pertaining to the pin of a dial; STY'LATE, like a style, styliform.--_n._ STY'LET, a stiletto: the perforator of a trocar, a probe: a little style.--_adjs._ STY'LETIFORM, shaped like a stylet; STYLIF'EROUS, having a style, stylate; STY'LIFORM, style-shaped; STY'LISH, displaying style: fashionable: showy: pretending to style.--_adv._ STY'LISHLY.--_ns._ STY'LISHNESS; STY'LIST, one with a distinctive and fine literary style.--_adj._ STYLIST'IC.--_adv._ STYLIST'ICALLY.--_adj._ STY'LOID, resembling a style or pen.--_n._ STY'LUS, a style, pen. [Fr.,--L. _stilus_.] STYLITE, st[=i]'l[=i]t, _n._ one of an early class of anchorets who lived unsheltered on the tops of pillars--Simeon _Stylites_ (c. 390-459) is said to have lived thirty years on such. [Gr. _stylit[=e]s_--_stylos_, a pillar.] STYLOBATE, st[=i]'l[=o]-b[=a]t, _n._ the substructure of a temple beneath the columns. [Gr. _stylobat[=e]s_--_stylos_, a column, _bainein_, to go.] STYLOGRAPHY, st[=i]-log'ra-fi, _n._ a mode of writing or tracing lines with a style or pointed instrument on prepared paper, cards, or tablets.--_n._ STYL'OGRAPH, a stylographic pen, a pencil-like pen from which ink is fed to a tubular writing-point through which runs a needle which when pressed on the paper releases the ink.--_adj._ STYLOGRAPH'IC.--_adv._ STYLOGRAPH'ICALLY. [Gr. _stylos_, a style, _graphein_, to write.] STYMIE, st[=i]'mi, _n._ in golf, a position on the putting-green when the ball of one player lies between that of his opponent and the hole. STYPTIC, stip'tik, _adj._ drawing together: astringent: that stops bleeding.--_n._ an agent employed in surgery for the purpose of checking the flow of blood by application to the bleeding surface: an astringent medicine.--_n._ STYPTIC'ITY. [Fr.,--L. _stypticus_--Gr. _styptikos_--_styphein_, to contract.] STYRAX, st[=i]'raks, _n._ a genus of plants abounding in resinous and aromatic substances, one species of which produces storax, another benzoin. [L.--Gr.] STYTHE, st[=i]th, _n._ (_prov._) choke-damp. STYX, stiks. See STYGIAN. SUABLE, s[=u]'a-bl, _adj._ that may be sued.--_n._ SUABIL'ITY. SUAGE, sw[=a]j, _v.t._ (_Milt._) to assuage. SUASION, sw[=a]'zhun, _n._ the act of persuading or advising: advice.--_adj._ SU[=A]'SIVE, tending to persuade: persuasive.--_adv._ SU[=A]'SIVELY.--_n._ SU[=A]'SIVENESS. [Fr.,--L. _suasio_--_suad[=e]re_, to advise.] SUAVE, sw[=a]v, or swäv, _adj._ pleasant: agreeable.--_adv._ SU[=A]VE'LY.--_n._ SUAV'ITY. [Fr.,--L. _suavis_, sweet.] SUB, sub, _n._ (_coll._) a subordinate, a subaltern: subsist money, being a part of a man's wages paid to him while the work is going on. SUBABDOMINAL, sub-ab-dom'i-nal, _adj._ situated below the abdominal region, in the lower part of the abdomen. SUBACID, sub-as'id, _adj._ moderately acid, not unpleasantly sour: somewhat sharp or biting.--_n._ SUBACID'ITY.--_adj._ SUBACID'ULOUS, moderately acidulous. SUBACRID, sub-ak'rid, _adj._ moderately acrid. SUBACUTE, sub-a-k[=u]t', _adj._ slightly or moderately acute. SUBAERIAL, sub-[=a]-[=e]'ri-al, _adj._ beneath the sky: in the open air.--_n._ SUB[=A][=E]'RIALIST, one who ascribes the greater inequalities in the earth's surface to atmospheric influences.--_adv._ SUB[=A][=E]'RIALLY. SUBAGENT, sub-[=a]j'ent, _n._ one employed by an agent to transact business in his stead. SUBAHDAR, s[=oo]'ba-där, _n._ under the Mogul government, the title of the governor of a province (SU'BAH): now a native officer ranking as a captain under European officers.--_n._ SU'BAHDARY, the office or jurisdiction of such. SUBALPINE, sub-al'p[=i]n, _adj._ belonging to a mountainous region next below alpine--i.e. near but not below the timber-line, alpestrine. SUBALTERN, sub'al-t[.e]rn, or sub-al't[.e]rn, _adj._ inferior: subordinate.--_n._ a subordinate: an officer in the army under the rank of captain: (_logic_) a specific class as included under a general one, or a particular statement as deducible from a universal one.--_adjs._ SUBALTER'NANT, universal as opposed to particular; SUBALTER'NATE, succeeding by turns: subordinate.--_n._ a particular proposition or a species, as opposed to a universal proposition or a genus.--_n._ SUBALTERN[=A]'TION. [Fr.,--Low L. _subalternus_--L. _sub_, under, _alternus_, one after the other, _alter_, the other.] SUBAPOSTOLIC, sub-ap-os-tol'ik, _adj._ pertaining to the period just after that of the apostles--that of Barnabas, Clement of Rome, Hermas, Ignatius, Papias, and Polycarp. Just after these follow Justin Martyr, Irenæus, Clement of Alexandria, &c. SUBAQUEOUS, sub-[=a]'kwe-us, _adj._ lying under water: formed under water: living under water.--_adj._ SUBAQUAT'IC, subaqueous: partially aquatic. SUBARBORESCENT, sub-ar-bor-es'ent, _adj._ somewhat arborescent or tree-like. SUBARCTIC, sub-ark'tik, _adj._ of a region or climate next to the arctic. SUBARRHATION, sub-ar-[=a]'shun, _n._ the ancient custom of betrothal by gift of pledges. [L. _sub_, under, _arrha_, earnest-money.] SUBASTRAL, sub-as'tral, _adj._ situated beneath the stars, terrestrial. SUBAUDITION, sub-aw-dish'un, _n._ a sense understood not expressed. SUBAXILLARY, sub-aks'i-lar-i, _adj._ below the armpit: under the axil or angle formed by a branch or leaf. SUBBING, sub'ing, _n._ (_print._) the act of working as a substitute: the practice of advancing part of the wages while the work is going on. SUBCARBONATE, sub-kär'bon-[=a]t, _n._ a carbonate containing more than one equivalent of the base for each equivalent of carbonic acid. SUBCAUDAL, sub-kaw'dal, _adj._ beneath the tail. SUBCELESTIAL, sub-sel-est'yal, _adj._ under the heavens. SUBCLASS, sub'klas, _n._ a primary subdivision of a class. SUBCLAVIAN, sub-kl[=a]'vi-an, _adj._ under the clavicle or collar-bone.--Also SUBCLAVIC'ULAR. SUBCOMMITTEE, sub'ko-mit-[=e], _n._ an under-committee: a division of a committee. SUBCONSCIOUS, sub-kon'shus, _adj._ faintly conscious, applying to perceptions which are without consciousness or memory.--_adv._ SUBCON'SCIOUSLY.--_n._ SUBCON'SCIOUSNESS. SUBCONTIGUOUS, sub-kon-tig'[=u]-us, _n._ almost touching. SUBCONTINUOUS, sub-kon-tin'[=u]-us, _adj._ nearly continuous, with but slight interruptions. SUBCONTRACT, sub-kon'trakt, _n._ a contract subordinate to another contract, as for the subletting of work.--_v.i._ SUBCONTRACT'.--_adj._ SUBCONTRACT'ED.--_n._ SUBCONTRACT'OR. SUBCONTRARY, sub-kon'tra-ri, _adj._ contrary in an inferior degree: (_geom._) said of a section of an oblique cone on a circular base, which section is itself a circle: (_logic_) denoting the opposition of two subalternate propositions.--_n._ a subcontrary proposition.--_n._ SUBCONTRAR[=I]'ETY. SUBCORDATE, sub-kor'd[=a]t, _adj._ heart-shaped. SUBCOSTAL, sub-kos'tal, _adj._ under or between the ribs. SUBCREPITANT, sub-krep'i-tant, _adj._ slightly crepitant.--_n._ SUBCREPIT[=A]'TION. SUBCULTURE, sub-kul't[=u]r, _n._ in bacteriology, a culture derived from a previous one. SUBCUTANEOUS, sub-k[=u]-t[=a]'ne-us, _adj._ under the skin.--SUBCUTANEOUS SYRINGE, a syringe for injecting substances beneath the skin. SUBDEACON, sub-d[=e]'kn, _n._ a member of the order of the ministry next below that of deacon, preparing the vessels, &c., at the eucharist.--_ns._ SUBDEA'CONRY, SUBDEA'CONSHIP, SUBDIAC'ONATE. SUBDEAN, sub-d[=e]n', _n._ an assistant or substitute dean.--_n._ SUBDEAN'ERY. SUBDENTATE, sub-den't[=a]t, _adj._ imperfectly dentate, having indistinct teeth. SUBDERIVATIVE, sub-d[=e]-riv'a-tiv, _n._ a word derived from the derivative, rather than directly from the primitive word. SUBDIVIDE, sub-di-v[=i]d', _v.t._ to divide into smaller divisions: to divide again.--_v.i._ to be subdivided: to separate.--_adj._ SUBDIV[=I]'SIBLE.--_n._ SUBDIVI'SION, the act of subdividing: the part made by subdividing.--_adjs._ SUBDIVI'SIONAL; SUBDIV[=I]'SIVE. SUBDOLOUS, sub'd[=o]-lus, _adj._ (_obs._) crafty, subtle. SUBDOMINANT, sub-dom'i-nant, _n._ (_mus._) the tone next below the dominant. SUBDUCT, sub-dukt', _v.t._ to take away, to withdraw--also SUBDUCE'.--_n._ SUBDUC'TION. [L. _sub_, under, _duc[)e]re_, _ductum_, to lead.] SUBDUE, sub-d[=u]', _v.t._ to conquer: to bring under dominion: to render submissive: to tame: to soften.--_adj._ SUBD[=U]'ABLE.--_n._ SUBD[=U]'AL, the act of subduing.--_adj._ SUBDUED', toned down.--_ns._ SUBDUED'NESS; SUBDUE'MENT (_Shak._), conquests; SUBD[=U]'ER. [O. Fr. _souduire_--L. _sub_, under, _duc[)e]re_, to lead.] SUBDUPLE, sub'd[=u]-pl, _adj._ in the ratio of one to two.--_adj._ SUBD[=U]'PLICATE, expressed by the square root. SUBEDITOR, sub-ed'i-tur, _n._ an under or assistant editor.--_adj._ SUBEDIT[=O]'RIAL.--_n._ SUBED'ITORSHIP. SUBEQUAL, sub-[=e]k'wal, _adj._ approximately equal. SUBERIC, s[=u]-b[.e]r'ik, _adj._ relating to, or extracted from, cork.--_n._ S[=U]'BER[=A]TE, a salt of suberic acid.--_adj._ S[=U]B[=E]'R[=E]OUS.--_ns._ S[=U]'BERINE, the pure cellular tissue of cork; S[=U]BERIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ S[=U]'BERISE, to render corky.--_adjs._ S[=U]'BEROSE, S[=U]'BEROUS, of the nature of cork, cork-like. [L. _suber_, the cork-tree.] SUBEROSE, sub-e-r[=o]s', _adj._ appearing as if somewhat gnawed. [L. _sub_, under, _erosus_--_e_, out, _rod[)e]re_, _rosum_, to gnaw.] SUBFAMILY, sub'fam-i-li, _n._ a primary division of a family, of one or more genera. SUBFEU, sub-f[=u]', _v.t._ to make subinfeudation of.--_n._ SUBFEUD[=A]'TION=_Subinfeudation_ (q.v.).--_adj._ SUBFEUD'ATORY. SUBFLAVOUR, sub-fl[=a]'vur, _n._ a secondary flavour. SUBFLORA, sub'fl[=o]-ra, _n._ a more local flora included within one of wider range. SUBFLUVIAL, sub-fl[=oo]'vi-al, _adj._ situated under a stream. SUBFUSC, SUBFUSK, sub-fusk', _adj._ somewhat dark, dusky, tawny.--Also SUBFUS'COUS. SUBGENS, sub-jenz', _n._ the sociological division of a people next below the gens or clan:--_pl._ SUBGEN'TES. SUBGENUS, sub-j[=e]'nus, _n._ a primary division of a genus including one or more species with common characters.--_adj._ SUBGENER'IC.--_adv._ SUBGENER'ICALLY. SUBGLACIAL, sub-gl[=a]'shal, _adj._ belonging to the under side of a glacier: under a glacier. SUBGLOBULAR, sub-glob'[=u]-lar, _adj._ somewhat globular. SUBGRANULAR, sub-gran'[=u]-lar, _adj._ somewhat granular. SUBGROUP, sub'gr[=oo]p, _n._ any subordinate group in a classification. SUBHASTATION, sub-has-t[=a]'shun, _n._ a sale under the lance--a Roman method of auction. [L. _sub_, under, _hasta_, a lance.] SUBHUMAN, sub-h[=u]'man, _adj._ next below the human. SUBIMAGO, sub'i-m[=a]-g[=o], _n._ a stage in the metamorphosis of certain insects, between the _pupa_ and the _imago_.--Also _Pseudimago_. SUBINDICATE, sub-in'di-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to indicate by a hint.--_n._ SUBINDIC[=A]'TION.--_adj._ SUBINDIC'[=A]TIVE, suggestive. SUBINFEUDATION, sub-in-f[=u]-d[=a]'shun, _n._ the right enjoyed by the inferior lord, in imitation of his superiors, of making similar grants of portions of his land to others, to be held by them as his vassals.--_adjs._ and _ns._ SUBFEUD'ATORY, SUBINFEUD'ATORY. SUBINSPECTOR, sub'in-spek-tor, _n._ a subordinate or assistant inspector.--_n._ SUB'INSPECTORSHIP. SUBINTRANT, sub-in'trant, _adj._ with paroxysms succeeding one another so fast as to be almost continuous. SUBIRRIGATION, sub-ir-i-g[=a]'shun, _n._ irrigation by means of channels below the surface. SUBITAMENTE, sub-it-a-men'te, _adv._ (_mus._) suddenly.--Also SUB'ITO. [It.] SUBITANEOUS, sub-i-t[=a]'ne-us, _adj._ (_obs._) sudden.--_n._ SUBIT[=A]'NEOUSNESS. SUBJACENT, sub-j[=a]'sent, _adj._ lying under or below: being in a lower situation.--_n._ SUBJ[=A]'CENCY. [L. _subjacens_--_sub_, under, _jac[=e]re_, to lie.] SUBJECT, sub'jekt, _adj._ under the power of another: liable, prone, disposed: exposed: subordinate, tributary: subservient.--_n._ one under the power of another: one under allegiance to a sovereign: that on which any operation is performed: that which is treated or handled: (_anat._) a dead body for dissection: a person supposed to be peculiarly sensitive to hypnotic influence: that which it is the object of the artist to express, the scheme or idea of a work of art: a picture representing action and incident: that of which anything is said or of which a discourse treats, bringing many things under a common head: the mind, regarded as the thinking power, in contrast with the object, that about which it thinks: topic: matter, materials: the general plan of any work of art.--_v.t._ SUBJECT', to throw or bring under: to bring under the power of: to make subordinate or subservient: to subdue: to enslave: to expose or make liable to: to cause to undergo.--_n._ SUBJEC'TION, the act of subjecting or subduing: the state of being subject to another.--_adj._ SUBJECT'IVE, relating to the subject: derived from one's own consciousness: denoting those states of thought or feeling of which the mind is the conscious subject--opp. to _Objective_.--_adv._ SUBJECT'IVELY.--_n._ SUBJECT'IVENESS.--_v.t._ SUBJECT'IVISE.--_ns._ SUBJECT'IVISM, a philosophical doctrine which refers all knowledge to, and founds it upon, subjective states; SUBJECT'IVIST, one who holds to subjectivism.--_adj._ SUBJECTIVIST'IC.--_adv._ SUBJECTIVIST'ICALLY.--_ns._ SUBJECTIV'ITY, state of being subjective: that which is treated subjectively; SUB'JECT-MATTER, a tautological compound for subject, theme, topic; SUB'JECT-OB'JECT, the immediate object of cognition, or the thought itself; SUB'JECTSHIP, the state of being subject. [Fr. _sujet_--L. _subjectus_--_sub_, under, _jac[)e]re_, to throw.] SUBJOIN, sub-join', _v.t._ to join under: to add at the end or afterwards: to fix or annex.--_ns._ SUBJOIN'DER, a remark following on another; SUB'JOINT, a secondary joint. SUBJUGATE, sub'j[=oo]-g[=a]t, _v.t._ to bring under the yoke: to bring under power or dominion: to conquer.--_ns._ SUBJUG[=A]'TION; SUB'JUG[=A]TOR. [L. _sub_, under, _jugum_, a yoke.] SUBJUNCTIVE, sub-jungk'tiv, _adj._ subjoined: added to something: denoting that mood of a verb which expresses condition, hypothesis, or contingency.--_n._ the subjunctive mood. [L. _sub_, under, _jung[)e]re_, to join.] SUBKINGDOM, sub-king'dum, _n._ a subordinate kingdom: a division of a kingdom: a subdivision. SUBLAPSARIAN, sub-laps-[=a]'ri-an, _adj._ relating to the sublapsarians or to their doctrines.--_n._ one of a class of moderate Calvinists, who hold that God merely _permitted_ the fall of Adam, without preordaining it.--_n._ SUBLAPS[=A]'RIANISM. [L. _sub_, under, _lapsus_, fall.] SUBLATE, sub-l[=a]t', _v.t._ to deny--opp. to _Posit:_ to remove.--_n._ SUBL[=A]'TION.--_adj._ SUB'L[=A]TIVE. SUBLEASE, sub-l[=e]s', _n._ an under-lease or lease by a tenant to another.--_n._ SUB'LESSEE, the holder of a sublease. SUBLET, sub-let', _v.t._ to under-let or lease, as by one himself a tenant to another. SUBLEVATE, sub'l[=e]-v[=a]t, _v.t._ to raise, excite--also SOL'LEVATE.--_n._ SUBL[=E]V[=A]'TION. [L. _sublev[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to lift up.] SUBLIBRARIAN, sub-l[=i]b-r[=a]'ri-an, _n._ one who acts as an assistant to a librarian. SUBLIEUTENANT, sub-lef-ten'ant, _n._ formerly mate, or passed midshipman, the intermediate rank in the navy between midshipman and lieutenant.--SECOND LIEUTENANT, the rank given to officers on first joining the army, corresponding to the former _Cornet_ and _Ensign_. SUBLIMATE, sub'lim-[=a]t, _v.t._ to elevate: to refine and exalt: to purify by raising by heat into vapour which again becomes solid.--_n._ the product of sublimation.--_adj._ SUBL[=I]'MABLE.--_n._ SUBLIM[=A]'TION, the act of purifying by raising into vapour by heat and condensing by cold: elevation: exaltation.--_adj._ SUB'LIM[=A]TORY.--_n._ a vessel used in sublimation. [L. _sublim[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to lift up.] SUBLIME, sub-l[=i]m', _adj._ high: lofty: majestic: awakening feelings of awe or veneration.--_n._ that which is sublime: the lofty or grand in thought or style (THE SUBLIME): the emotion produced by sublime objects.--_v.t._ to exalt: to dignify, to ennoble: to improve: to purify, to bring to a state of vapour by heat and condense again by cold.--_v.i._ to be sublimed or sublimated.--_adv._ SUBLIME'LY, in a sublime manner: loftily: with elevated conceptions.--_ns._ SUBLIME'NESS, SUBLIM'ITY, loftiness: elevation: grandeur: loftiness of thought or style: nobleness of nature or character: excellence. [L. _sublimis_, high, ety. dub.; perh. _sub-limen_, up to the lintel.] SUBLIMINAL, sub-lim'i-nal, _adj._ beneath the level of consciousness, latent. [L. _sub_, under, _limen_, _liminis_, the door.] SUBLINEATION, sub-lin-e-[=a]'shun, _n._ an underlining, as of a word or words. SUBLINGUAL, sub-ling'gwal, _adj._ under the tongue. SUBLITTORAL, sub-lit'[=o]-ral, _adj._ being under the shore. SUBLUNAR, sub-l[=u]'nar, _adj._ under the moon: earthly: belonging to this world--also SUB'LUNARY.--_adj._ SUBL[=U]'NATE, approaching the form of a crescent. SUBMAMMARY, sub-mam'a-ri, _adj._ situated under the mammæ or paps. SUBMARGINAL, sub-mar'ji-nal, _adj._ situated near the margin. SUBMARINE, sub-ma-r[=e]n', _adj._ under, or in, the sea.--SUBMARINE BOAT, one capable of being propelled under water, esp. for carrying and firing torpedoes.--SUBMARINE MINE, a mass of explosives sunk in the sea. SUBMAXILLARY, sub-mak'si-l[=a]-ri, _adj._ under the jaw. SUBMEDIAN, sub-m[=e]'di-an, _adj._ near the middle. SUBMENTAL, sub-men'tal, _adj._ under the chin. [L. _sub_, under, _mentum_, the chin.] SUBMERGE, sub-m[.e]rj', SUBMERSE, sub-m[.e]rs', _v.t._ to plunge under water: to overflow with water: to drown.--_v.i._ to sink under water.--_ns._ SUBMERG'ENCE, SUBMER'SION.--_adjs._ SUBMERGED', SUBMERSED', being or growing under water. [L. _submerg[)e]re_, _-mersum_--_sub_, under, _merg[)e]re_, to plunge.] SUBMIT, sub-mit', _v.t._ to refer to the judgment of another: to surrender to another.--_v.i._ to yield one's self to another: to surrender: to yield one's opinion: to be subject:--_pr.p._ submit'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ submit'ted.--_adj._ SUBMISS' (_Milt._), cast down, prostrate.--_n._ SUBMIS'SION, act of submitting or yielding: acknowledgment of inferiority or of a fault: humble behaviour: resignation.--_adj._ SUBMIS'SIVE, willing or ready to submit: yielding: humble: obedient.--_adv._ SUBMIS'SIVELY, humbly--(_obs._) SUBMISS'LY.--_n._ SUBMIS'SIVENESS. [L. _submitt[)e]re_--_sub_, under, _mitt[)e]re_, _missum_, to send.] SUBMONTANE, sub-mon't[=a]n, _adj._ situated at the foot of a mountain or range. SUBMULTIPLE, sub-mul'ti-pl, _n._ a number or quantity which is contained in another an exact number of times, an aliquot part. SUBMUNDANE, sub-mun'd[=a]n, _adj._ situated beneath the ground. SUBMUSCULAR, sub-mus'k[=u]-lar, _adj._ under the muscles. SUBNASAL, sub-n[=a]'sal, _adj._ situated below the nose. SUBNASCENT, sub-nas'ent, _adj._ growing underneath. SUBNATURAL, sub-nat'[=u]-ral, _adj._ below nature, infranatural. SUBNEURAL, sub-n[=u]'ral, _adj._ situated beneath a main neural axis or nervous cord. SUBNIVEAN, sub-n[=i]'v[=e]-an, _adj._ situated under the snow. SUBNODAL, sub-n[=o]'dal, _adj._ situated beneath the nodus. SUBNORMAL, sub-nor'mal, _adj._ less than normal.--_n._ SUBNORMAL'ITY. SUBNUBILAR, sub-n[=u]'bi-lar, _adj._ situated under the clouds. SUBNUVOLAR, sub-n[=u]'v[=o]-lar, _adj._ partially clouded. SUBOBSCURE, sub-ob-sk[=u]r', _adj._ somewhat obscure.--_adv._ SUBOBSCURE'LY. SUBOCCIPITAL, sub-ok-sip'i-tal, _adj._ situated behind the occiput, or on the under surface of the occipital lobe of the brain. SUBOCELLATE, sub-os'el-[=a]t, _adj._ somewhat like an ocellus. SUBOCTAVE, sub'ok-t[=a]v, _adj._ existing in the proportion of 1 to 8.--_n._ an eighth part: (_mus._) the octave below a given tone. SUBOCTUPLE, sub-ok't[=u]-pl, _adj._ containing one part of 8. SUBOCULAR, sub-ok'[=u]-lar, _adj._ situated under the eye, suboptic. SUBOPERCULUM, sub-[=o]-per'k[=u]-lum, _n._ a bone of the gill-cover below and partly behind the operculum.--_adj._ SUBOPER'CULAR. SUBORBITAL, sub-or'bi-tal, _adj._ situated below the orbit of the eye. SUBORDER, sub-or'd[.e]r, _n._ a subdivision in an order.--_adj._ SUBOR'DINAL. SUBORDINARY, sub-or'di-n[=a]-ri, _n._ (_her._) one of a class of armorial charges less honourable than the ordinaries--the _bordure_, _orle_, _bend sinister_, &c. SUBORDINATE, sub-or'di-n[=a]t, _adj._ lower in order, rank, nature, power, &c.: descending in a regular series.--_n._ one in a lower order or rank: an inferior.--_v.t._ to place in a lower order: to consider of less value: to make subject.--_ns._ SUBOR'DINACY, SUBOR'DINANCE, the state of being subordinate.--_adv._ SUBOR'DINATELY.--_ns._ SUBOR'DINATENESS; SUBORDIN[=A]'TION, act of subordinating or placing in a lower order: state of being subordinate: inferiority of rank or position; SUBORDIN[=A]'TIONISM, the doctrine of the inferiority of the second and third Persons of the Trinity to the first.--_adj._ SUBOR'DIN[=A]TIVE, tending to, or expressing, subordination. [L. _sub_, under, _ordo_, _ordinis_, order.] SUBORN, sub-orn', _v.t._ to cause to commit a perjury: to procure indirectly.--_ns._ SUBORN[=A]'TION, act of causing a person to take a false oath: crime of procuring any one to do a bad action; SUBORN'ER. [L. _suborn[=a]re_--_sub_, under, _orn[=a]re_, to adorn.] SUBOVATE, sub-[=o]'v[=a]t, _adj._ almost ovate. SUBPANATION, sub-p[=a]-n[=a]'shun, _n._ the doctrine that the body and blood of Christ are locally and materially present in the eucharist under the form of bread and wine. [L. _sub_, under, _panis_, bread.] SUBPERITONEAL, sub-per-i-t[=o]-n[=e]'al, _adj._ situated under the peritoneum. SUBPERMANENT, sub-per'ma-nent, _adj._ somewhat permanent. SUBPOENA, SUBPENA, sub-p[=e]'na, _n._ a writ commanding the attendance of a person in court under a penalty.--_v.t._ to serve with a writ of subpoena. [L. _sub_, under, _poena_, punishment.] SUBPOLAR, sub-p[=o]'lar, _adj._ under or below the poles of the earth. SUBPREFECT, sub-pr[=e]'fekt, _n._ an assistant or deputy-prefect, esp. the official in France charged with the administration of the arrondissement under the prefect of the department.--_n._ SUB'PR[=E]FECTURE, the office or jurisdiction of a subprefect. SUBPRIOR, sub'pr[=i]-or, _n._ the vicegerent, deputy, or assistant of a prior. SUBPROVINCE, sub'prov-ins, _n._ a prime division of a province: in zoogeography, a division subordinate to a subregion. SUBPUBIC, sub-p[=u]'bik, _adj._ situated below the pubis. SUBREGION, sub'r[=e]-jun, _n._ a subdivision of a region, esp. of fauna in zoogeography.--_adj._ SUBR[=E]'GIONAL. SUBREPTION, sub-rep'shun, _n._ a procuring of some advantage by fraudulent concealment, esp. in Scots law, the gaining of a gift of escheat by concealing the truth: false inference due to misrepresentation.--_adj._ SUBREP'TIVE, surreptitious, noting conceptions arising out of obscure and unconscious suggestions of experience. SUBROGATION, sub-r[=o]-g[=a]'shun, _n._ the succession or substitution of one person or thing by or for another, in regard to a legal claim, &c. SUBSACRAL, sub-s[=a]'kral, _adj._ situated on the anterior or ventral surface of the sacrum. SUBSCAPULAR, sub-skap'[=u]-lar, _adj._ beneath the scapula.--_n._ a subscapular vessel or nerve. SUBSCRIBE, sub-skr[=i]b', _v.t._ to write underneath: to give consent to something written, or to attest, by writing one's name underneath: to sign one's name: to promise to give or pay, or to take, as a copy of a book, by attaching one's name: to attest by attaching one's signature.--_v.i._ to promise a certain sum by setting one's name to a paper: to enter one's name for anything.--_adj._ SUBSCR[=I]B'ABLE, capable of being subscribed.--_n._ SUBSCR[=I]B'ER.--_adj._ SUB'SCRIPT, written underneath.--_n._ SUBSCRIP'TION, act of subscribing: a name subscribed: a paper with signatures: consent by signature: sum subscribed. [L. _subscrib[)e]re_--_sub_, under, _scrib[)e]re_, _scriptum_, to write.] SUBSECIVE, sub's[=e]-siv, _adj._ left over, remaining, extra. [L. _subsecivus_--_sub_, under, _sec[=a]re_, to cut.] SUBSECTION, sub-sek'shun, _n._ an under section or division: a subdivision. SUBSENSATION, sub'sen-s[=a]-shun, _n._ a minor sensation. SUBSENSIBLE, sub-sen'si-bl, _adj._ beyond the range of the senses. SUBSEQUENT, sub's[=e]-kwent, _adj._ following or coming after.--_ns._ SUB'SEQUENCE, SUB'SEQUENCY, state of being subsequent.--_adv._ SUB'SEQUENTLY. [L. _subsequens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _subsequi_--_sub_, under, after, _sequi_, to follow.] SUBSEROUS, sub-s[=e]'rus, _adj._ somewhat serous or watery: below a serous membrane. SUBSERVE, sub-s[.e]rv', _v.t._ to serve subordinately or instrumentally: to help forward.--_ns._ SUBSER'VIENCE, SUBSER'VIENCY, state of being subservient: anything that promotes some purpose.--_adj._ SUBSER'VIENT, subserving: serving to promote: subject: submissive.--_adv._ SUBSER'VIENTLY. [L. _subserv[=i]re_--_sub_, under, _serv[=i]re_, to serve.] SUBSESSILE, sub-ses'il, _adj._ not quite sessile. SUBSIDE, sub-s[=i]d', _v.i._ to settle down: to settle at the bottom: to fall into a state of quiet: to sink to a lower level: (_coll._) to cease talking, to take a less prominent place.--_ns._ SUBS[=I]'DENCE (also SUB'SIDENCE), SUBS[=I]'DENCY, act or process of subsiding, settling, or sinking. [L. _subsid[)e]re_--_sub_, down, _sid[)e]re_, to settle.] SUBSIDY, sub'si-di, _n._ assistance: aid in money: a sum of money paid by one state to another for assistance in war.--_adv._ SUBSID'IARILY.--_adj._ SUBSID'IARY, furnishing a subsidy, help, or additional supplies: aiding.--_n._ one who, or that which, aids or supplies: an assistant.--_v.t._ SUB'SID[=I]SE, to furnish with a subsidy, grant, or regular allowance: to purchase the aid of, to buy over.--SUBSIDIARY TROOPS, mercenaries. [Fr.,--L. _subsidium_, orig. troops stationed behind in reserve, aid--_sub_, under, _sid[)e]re_, to settle.] SUBSIMIOUS, sub-sim'i-us, _adj._ almost monkey-like. SUBSIST, sub-sist', _v.i._ to have existence: to remain, continue, inhere: to have the means of living.--_n._ SUBSIST'ENCE, state of being subsistent: real being: means of supporting life: livelihood.--_adjs._ SUBSIST'ENT, subsisting: having real being: inherent; SUBSISTEN'TIAL.--_n._ SUBSIST'ER. [Fr.,--L. _subsist[)e]re_, to stand still--_sub_, under, _sist[)e]re_, to stand.] SUBSOIL, sub'soil, _n._ the under soil: the bed or stratum of earth which lies immediately beneath the surface soil.--_v.t._ to turn up the subsoil of.--_n._ SUB'SOILER. SUBSPECIES, sub-sp[=e]'sh[=e]z, _n._ a division of a species, a geographical variety.--_adj._ SUBSPECIF'IC.--_adv._ SUBSPECIF'ICALLY. SUBSPHERICAL, sub-sfer'i-kal, _adj._ not perfectly spherical.--_adv._ SUBSPHER'ICALLY. SUBSPINOUS, sub-sp[=i]'nus, _adj._ somewhat spinous: under the spinal column, or a spinous process. SUBSPIRAL, sub-sp[=i]'ral, _adj._ somewhat spiral: indistinctly marked with a spiral line. SUBSTAGE, sub'st[=a]j, _n._ an attachment below the stage of the compound microscope, to support the achromatic condenser, &c. SUBSTANCE, sub'stans, _n._ that in which qualities or attributes exist, the existence to which qualities belong: that which constitutes anything what it is: the essential part: body: matter: property: foundation, ground, confidence. [L. _substantia_--_subst[=a]re_, to stand under--_sub_, under, _st[=a]re_, to stand.] SUBSTANTIAL, sub-stan'shal, _adj._ belonging to or having substance: actually existing: real: solid: having substance or strength: lasting, likely to be permanent: strong, stout, bulky: corporeal, material: having property or estate: considerable, pretty wealthy: conforming to what is essential: involving the essential rights or merits of.--_v.t._ SUBSTAN'TIAL[=I]SE, to give reality to.--_ns._ SUBSTAN'TIALISM, the theory that there is a real existence or substratum underlying the phenomena of consciousness; SUBSTANTIAL'ITY.--_adv._ SUBSTAN'TIALLY.--_n._ SUBSTAN'TIALNESS.--_n.pl._ SUBSTAN'TIALS, essential parts.--_v.t._ SUBSTAN'TI[=A]TE, to make substantial: to prove or confirm.--_n._ SUBSTANTI[=A]'TION.--_adjs._ SUBSTANT[=I]'VAL; SUB'STANTIVE, expressing existence: real: of real, independent importance.--_n._ (_gram._) the part of speech denoting something that exists: a noun.--_adv._ SUB'STANTIVELY.--_n._ SUB'STANTIVENESS.--_v.t._ SUB'STANTIVISE. [Fr. _substantiel_--L. _substantialis_--_substantia_.] SUBSTATION, sub-st[=a]'shun, _n._ a subordinate station. SUBSTERNAL, sub-ster'nal, _adj._ situated beneath the sternum. SUBSTITUTE, sub'sti-t[=u]t, _v.t._ to put in place of another.--_n._ one who, or that which, is put in place of another.--_adj._ put instead of another.--_n._ SUBSTIT[=U]'TION, act of substituting or putting in place of another: (_Shak._) the office of a substitute: the use of one word for another, syllepsis: (_alg._) the replacing one quantity by another which is equal to it but differently expressed: (_chem._) the replacement of one or more equivalents of a body by a like number of equivalents of another.--_adjs._ SUBSTIT[=U]'TIONAL, SUBSTIT[=U]'TIONARY.--_adv._ SUBSTIT[=U]'TIONALLY.--_adj._ SUB'STIT[=U]TIVE. [L. _substitu[)e]re_, _-[=u]tum_--_sub_, under, _statu[)e]re_, to set.] SUBSTRACTOR, subs-trakt'or, _n._ (_Shak._) a detractor. SUBSTRATUM, sub-str[=a]'tum, _n._ an under stratum or layer, a fundamental element: the substance in which qualities exist. SUBSTRUCTURE, sub'struk-t[=u]r, _n._ an under structure or building: foundation.--_v.t._ SUBSTRUCT', to build beneath.--_n._ SUBSTRUC'TION.--_adj._ SUBSTRUC'TURAL. SUBSTYLE, sub'st[=i]l, _n._ the right line on which the style or gnomon of a dial is erected.--_adj._ SUB'STYLAR. SUBSULPHATE, sub-sul'f[=a]t, _n._ a basic sulphide. SUBSULTIVE, sub-sul'tiv, _adj._ bounding, moving by sudden leaps or starts, or by twitches.--_adv._ SUBSUL'TORILY.--_n._ SUBSUL'TUS, a convulsive movement. SUBSUME, sub-s[=u]m', _v.t._ to place any one cognition under another as belonging to it, as 'All horses are animals'--the minor premise is a SUBSUMP'TION under the major.--_adj._ SUBSUMP'TIVE. SUBSURFACE, sub'sur-f[=a]s, _adj._ below the surface. SUBTACK, sub'tak, _n._ an under-lease in Scotland. SUBTANGENT, sub'tan-jent, _n._ (_geom._) the part of the axis of a curve contained between the tangent and the ordinate. SUBTEMPERATE, sub-tem'p[.e]r-[=a]t, _adj._ pertaining to the colder parts of the temperate zone. SUBTENANT, sub-ten'ant, _n._ a tenant who hires or leases from one who is also a tenant.--_n._ SUBTEN'ANCY. SUBTEND, sub-tend', _v.t._ to extend under or be opposite to.--_n._ SUBTENSE' (_geom._), a line subtending or stretching across. SUBTEPID, sub-tep'id, _adj._ slightly tepid. SUBTERFUGE, sub't[.e]r-f[=u]j, _n._ that to which one resorts for escape or concealment: an artifice to escape censure or the force of an argument: evasion. [Fr.,--L. _subterfug[)e]re_--_subter_, under, _fug[)e]re_, to flee.] SUBTERNATURAL, sub-t[.e]r-nat'[=u]-ral, _adj._ less than, or below, the natural. SUBTERPOSITION, sub-t[.e]r-p[=o]-zish'un, _n._ the state of lying under something else. SUBTERRANEAN, sub-te-r[=a]'n[=e]-an, _adj._ under the earth or ground--also SUBTERR[=A]'NEOUS, SUBTERR[=E]NE', SUBTERRES'TRIAL.--_adv._ SUBTERR[=A]'NEOUSLY. [L. _sub_, under, _terra_, the earth.] SUBTHORACIC, sub-th[=o]-ras'ik, _adj._ situated below the thorax: nearly thoracic in position. SUBTIL, SUBTILLY. See SUBTLE. SUBTILE, sub'til, _adj._ delicately constructed: fine: thin or rare: piercing: shrewd.--_adv._ SUB'TILELY.--_ns._ SUB'TILENESS; SUBTILIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ SUB'TILISE, to make subtile, thin, or rare: to spin into niceties.--_v.i._ to make nice distinctions: to refine in argument.--_ns._ SUB'TILISM, the quality of being subtile; SUB'TILTY, state or quality of being subtile: fineness: extreme acuteness: cunning. [L. _subtilis_--_sub_, under, _tela_, a web.] SUBTITLE, sub't[=i]-tl, _n._ an additional or second title to a book, a half-title. SUBTLE, sut'l (_B._ SUB'TIL), _adj._ subtile in a figurative sense: acute, quick to discern or discriminate: insinuating, sly, artful: cunningly devised, ingenious.--_ns._ SUBT'LENESS, SUBT'LETY, quality of being subtle: artfulness: shrewdness: extreme acuteness.--_adj._ SUBT'LE-WIT'TED, sharp-witted.--_adv._ SUBT'LY (_B._ SUB'TILLY), ingeniously, cleverly: artfully, deceitfully. [Contr. of _subtile_.] SUBTONIC, sub'ton-ik, _n._ (_mus._) the seventh of the scale. SUBTORRID, sub-tor'id, _adj._ approximately torrid. SUBTRACT, sub-trakt', _v.t._ to take away a part from the rest: to take one number or quantity from another to find their difference.--_ns._ SUBTRAC'TER; SUBTRAC'TION, the act or operation of subtracting: the taking a less number or quantity from a greater.--_adj._ SUBTRACT'IVE, subtracting: tending to subtract or lessen.--_n._ SUB'TRAHEND, the sum or number to be subtracted from another. [L. _sub_, under, _trah[)e]re_, _tractum_, to draw away.] SUBTRIANGULAR, sub-tr[=i]-ang'g[=u]-lar, _adj._ somewhat triangular. SUBTRIBE, sub'tr[=i]b, _n._ a section or division of a tribe.--_adj._ SUB'TR[=I]BAL. SUBTRIPLICATE, sub-trip'li-k[=a]t, _adj._ expressed by the cube root. SUBTRIST, sub-trist', _adj._ somewhat sad. SUBTROPICAL, sub-trop'i-kal, _adj._ approaching the tropical or torrid zone in temperature: bordering on tropical regions.--Also SUBTROP'IC. SUBTYPE, sub't[=i]p, _n._ a type included in another and more general one.--_adj._ SUBTYP'ICAL. SUBUCULA, s[=u]-buk'[=u]-la, _n._ a man's under-garment or shirt: in the early English church, a kind of cassock worn under the alb. SUBULATE, s[=u]'b[=u]-l[=a]t, _adj._ awl-shaped.--Also S[=U]'B[=U]L[=A]TED, S[=U]'B[=U]LIFORM. [L. _subula_, an awl.] SUBULICORN, s[=u]'b[=u]-li-korn, _adj._ with subulate antennæ.--_n.pl._ S[=U]B[=U]LICOR'NIA, a division of neuroptera, including dragon-flies, May-flies, &c. SUBUNGULATE, sub-ung'g[=u]-l[=a]t, _adj._ hoofed, but with several digits.--_n._ a member of the Subungulata, as the elephant or the hyrax.--_n.pl._ SUBUNG[=U]L[=A]'TA, a division of hoofed mammals, esp. those having the carpal bones primitive. SUBURB, sub'urb, SUBURBS, sub'urbz, _n._ the district which is near but beyond the walls of a city: the confines, outskirts.--_adj._ SUBUR'BAN, situated or living in the suburbs.--_n._ one living in a suburb.--_n._ SUBUR'BANISM, the state of being suburban.--_adj._ SUBURBIC[=A]'RIAN, being near the city, esp. of the provinces of Italy forming the ancient diocese of Rome. [L. _suburbium_--_sub_, under, near, _urbs_, a city.] SUBURSINE, sub-ur's[=i]n, _adj._ somewhat bear-like. SUBVARIETY, sub-va-r[=i]'e-ti, _n._ a subordinate variety. SUBVENE, sub-v[=e]n', _v.i._ to occur so as to effect a result.--_n._ SUBVEN'TION, act of coming to relief, support: a government aid or subsidy. [L. _sub_, under, _ven[=i]re_, _ventum_, to come.] SUBVERSE, sub-v[.e]rs', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to subvert. SUBVERT, sub-v[.e]rt', _v.t._ to turn upside down: to overthrow from the foundation: to ruin utterly: to corrupt.--_n._ SUBVER'SION, act of subverting or overthrowing from the foundation: entire overthrow: ruin.--_adjs._ SUBVER'SIONARY, SUBVER'SIVE, tending to subvert, overthrow, or destroy.--_p.adj._ SUBVERST' (_Spens._), subverted, overturned.--_n._ SUBVERT'ER.--_adj._ SUBVERT'IBLE. [L. _sub_, under, _vert[)e]re_, versum, to turn.] SUBVERTEBRAL, sub-v[.e]r't[=e]-bral, _adj._ placed under a vertebra. SUBVERTICAL, sub-v[.e]r'ti-kal, _adj._ almost vertical. SUBVIRATE, sub'vi-r[=a]t, _n._ one of stunted or imperfectly developed manhood. SUBVITALISED, sub-v[=i]'tal-[=i]zd, _p.adj._ deficient in vitality. SUBVITREOUS, sub-vit'r[=e]-us, _adj._ partly vitreous or imperfectly so. SUBWAY, sub'w[=a], _n._ an underground way for traffic under railways, &c., or for water-pipes, gas-pipes, sewers, &c. SUBZONAL, sub-z[=o]'nal, _adj._ somewhat zonal: lying below a zone or girdle. SUCCADE, suk-k[=a]d' _n._ candied fruit. SUCCEDANEOUS, suk-s[=e]-d[=a]'ne-us, _adj._ acting as a succedaneum: supplying the place of something else: being a substitute.--_n._ SUCCED[=A]'NEUM, one who, or that which, comes in the place of another; a substitute. [L. _succedaneus_--_succed[)e]re_.] SUCCEED, suk-s[=e]d', _v.t._ to come after, to follow up or in order: to follow: to take the place of.--_v.i._ to follow in order: to take the place of: to obtain one's wish or accomplish what is attempted: to end with advantage.--_adjs._ SUCCEED'ABLE, capable of success; SUCCEED'ANT (_her._), following one another.--_ns._ SUCCEED'ER, one who succeeds: a successor; SUCCESS', act of succeeding or state of having succeeded: the prosperous termination of anything attempted: one who, or that which, succeeds, a successful person or affair.--_adj._ SUCCESS'FUL, resulting in success: having the desired effect or termination: prosperous.--_adv._ SUCCESS'FULLY.--_ns._ SUCCESS'FULNESS, state of being successful: success; SUCCES'SION, act of succeeding or following after: series of persons or things following each other in time or place: series of descendants: race: (_agri._) rotation, as of crops: right to take possession: in Roman and Scots law, the taking of property by one person in place of another.--_adj._ SUCCES'SIONAL, existing in a regular succession or in order.--_adv._ SUCCES'SIONALLY.--_n._ SUCCES'SIONIST, one who regards only that priesthood as valid which can be traced in a direct line of succession from the apostles.--_adj._ SUCCES'SIVE, following in succession or in order.--_adv._ SUCCES'SIVELY.--_n._ SUCCES'SIVENESS.--_adj._ SUCCESS'LESS, without success: unprosperous.--_ns._ SUCCES'SOR, one who succeeds or comes after: one who takes the place of another; SUCCES'SORSHIP.--_adj._ SUCCES'SORY.--SUCCESSION DUTY, a tax imposed on any succession to property, varying with the degree of relationship.--APOSTOLICAL SUCCESSION (see APOSTLE). [L. _succed[)e]re_--_sub_, up, _ced[)e]re_, to go.] SUCCENTOR, suk-sen'tor, _n._ a subcantor: the bass soloist in a choir. [L. _succin[)e]re_--_sub_, under, _can[)e]re_, to sing.] SUCCIDUOUS, suk-sid'[=u]-us, _adj._ on the point of falling. [L.,--_succid[)e]re_--_sub_, under, _cad[)e]re_, to fall.] SUCCIFEROUS, suk-sif'e-rus, _adj._ producing sap. [L. _succus_, juice, _ferre_, to bear.] SUCCIN, suk'sin, _n._ amber.--_n._ SUC'CINATE, a salt of succinic acid.--_adj._ SUCCIN'IC, of, relating to, or drawn from amber.--_n._ SUC'CINITE, amber.--_adj._ SUC'CINOUS, pertaining to amber.--SUCCINIC ACID, a natural constituent of amber, pine-resins, leaves of lettuce, and wormwood, &c. [L. _succinum_, amber.] SUCCINCT, suk-singkt', _adj._ short: concise.--_adv._ SUCCINCT'LY.--_ns._ SUCCINCT'NESS; SUCCINCT[=O]'RIUM, a band embroidered with an Agnus Dei, worn hanging from the girdle by the pope on some occasions. [L. _succinctus_--_sub_, up, _cing[)e]re_, to gird.] SUCCIVOROUS, suk-siv'[=o]-rus, _adj._ feeding on the sap of plants.--_adj._ SUCCOSE (suk'[=o]s), full of juice. SUCCORY, suk'or-i, _n._ a form of chicory. SUCCOTASH, suk'o-tash, _n._ a dish consisting of a stew of green Indian corn and beans. [Amer. Ind.] SUCCOUR, suk'ur, _v.t._ to assist: to relieve.--_n._ aid: relief.--_n._ SUCC'OURER.--_adj._ SUCC'OURLESS, destitute of succour. [L. _succurr[)e]re_, to run up to--_sub_, up, _curr[)e]re_, to run.] SUCCUBUS, suk'[=u]-bus, _n._ a demon in female form who consorts with men in their sleep--also SUCC'UBA.--_v.t._ SUCC'UB[=A]TE, to have carnal knowledge of a man by this means.--_adj._ SUCC'UBINE, pertaining to a succubus. [L. _succuba_, a whore, _succumb[)e]re_, to lie down.] SUCCULENT, suk'[=u]-lent, _adj._ full of juice or moisture: not dry or barren.--_ns._ SUCC'[=U]LENCE, SUCC'[=U]LENCY.--_adv._ SUCC'[=U]LENTLY. [L. _succulentus_--_succus_, juice--_sug[)e]re_, to suck.] SUCCUMB, suk-kum', _v.i._ to lie down under: to sink under: to yield, to submit, to die. [L. _sub_, under, _cumb[)e]re_, to lie down.] SUCCURSAL, suk-ur'sal, _adj._ subsidiary, of the relation of a minor church to a cathedral, &c. SUCCUS, suk'us, _n._ a fluid secretion, expressed juice. SUCCUSSIVE, suk-kus'iv, _adj._ characterised by a shaking motion, as that of an earthquake.--_v.t._ SUCCUSS', to shake suddenly.--_ns._ SUCCUSS[=A]'TION, a shaking; SUCCUS'SION, a shaking, a shock: a shaking of the thorax to detect pleural effusion. [L. _succut[)e]re_, _succussum_, to shake below--_sub_, under, _quat[)e]re_, to shake.] SUCH, such, _adj._ of the like kind: of that quality or character mentioned.--_pron._ denoting a particular person or thing, as in such and such.--_adv._ SUCH'WISE, in such a manner.--SUCH AND SUCH, SUCH OR SUCH, this or that, some, indefinitely; SUCH LIKE (_B._)=_Such_. [A.S. _swylc_, from _swa_, so, and _líc_, like, cog. with Goth. _swaleiks_.] SUCK, suk, _v.t._ to draw in with the mouth: to draw milk from with the mouth: to imbibe: to drain.--_v.i._ to draw with the mouth: to draw the breast: to draw in.--_n._ act of sucking: milk drawn from the breast: (_slang_) a short drink, esp. a dram of spirits.--_n._ SUCK'ER, one who, or that which, sucks, a sucking-pig: one of various kinds of fish: the organ by which an animal adheres to other bodies: the piston of a suction-pump: a shoot rising from a subterranean stem: a leather disc to the middle of which a string is attached, used by children as a toy: a parasite, toady, sponge: a hard drinker: (_U.S._) a native of Illinois.--_v.t._ to strip off suckers from: to provide with suckers.--_n._ SUCK'ET, a sugar-plum.--_adj._ SUCK'ING, still nourished by milk: young and inexperienced.--_ns._ SUCK'ING-BOT'TLE, a bottle of milk used for infants as a substitute for the breast; SUCK'ING-FISH, a name sometimes given to the _Remora_ or _Echineis_, which has a dorsal sucker, and to other fishes which have a sucker formed by the union of the ventral fins, as the _Lumpsucker_.--SUCK IN, to draw in, imbibe, absorb (_n._ a fraud); SUCK OUT, to draw out with the mouth; SUCK THE MONKEY (see MONKEY); SUCK UP, to draw up into the mouth. [A.S. _súcan_, _súgan_; Ger. _saugen_.] SUCKEN, suk'n, _n._ (_Scots law_) the district round a mill, the tenants farming which must grind their corn therein.--_n._ SUCK'ENER, a tenant so bound. [_Soken_.] SUCKLE, suk'l, _v.t._ to give suck to: to nurse at the breast.--_n._ SUCK'LER, a mammal that suckles its young, a suckling.--_n.pl._ SUCK'LERS, red clover.--_n._ SUCK'LING, a young child or animal being nursed at the breast.--_adj._ sucking. [Dim. of _suck_.] SUCROSE, s[=u]'kr[=o]s, _n._ the white crystalline compound known variously as _cane-sugar_, _beet-sugar_, _maple-sugar_. SUCTION, suk'shun, _n._ act or power of sucking: act of drawing, as fluids, by exhausting the air.--_n._ SUC'TION-PUMP, the common house-pump--not the force-pump.--_adj._ SUCT[=O]'RIAL, adapted for sucking: living by sucking--also SUCT[=O]'RIOUS. SUDAMINA, s[=u]-dam'i-na, _n.pl._ also called _Military eruption_, one of the vesicular diseases of the skin almost always occurring in association with febrile disorders, particularly acute rheumatism.--_adj._ SUDAM'INAL. [L. _sud[=a]re_, to sweat.] SUDATORY, s[=u]'da-tor-i, _adj._ sweating.--_n._ a sweating-bath.--_ns._ S[=U]D[=A]'RIUM, a cloth for wiping off sweat, esp. that of St Veronica on which the features of Jesus on His way to the Cross were miraculously impressed--also S[=U]'DARY; S[=U]D[=A]'TION, excessive sweating; S[=U]DAT[=O]'RIUM, a sweating-bath. [L. _sudatorius_--_sud[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_.] SUDDEN, sud'en, _adj._ unexpected: hasty: abrupt.--_adv._ SUD'DENLY.--_n._ SUD'DENNESS, (_Scot._) SUD'DENTY.--ON A SUDDEN, Of a sudden, suddenly, sooner than was expected. [O. Fr. _sodain_--L. _subitaneus_, sudden--_subitus_, coming stealthily--_sub_, up, _[=i]re_, _[=i]tum_, to go.] SUDDER, sud'[.e]r, _adj._ supreme, chief--in Bengal. [Ar. _sadr_, chief.] SUDORIFIC, s[=u]-dor-if'ik, _adj._ causing sweat.--_n._ a medicine producing sweat: a diaphoretic.--_n._ S[=U]'DOR, sweat.--_adjs._ S[=U]'DORAL; S[=U]DORIF'EROUS. [L. _sudor_, sweat, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] SUDRA, s[=u]'dra, _n._ a member of the fourth and lowest of the Hindu castes. [Hind.,--Sans. _ç[=u]dra_.] SUDS, sudz, _n.pl._ boiling water mixed with soap. [A.S. _soden_, pa.p. of _seóthan_, to seethe; cog. with Ger. _sod_--_sieden_.] SUE, s[=u], _v.t._ to prosecute at law: to seek after, to try to win.--_v.i._ to make legal claim: to make application: to entreat: to demand (with _for_).--SUED, (_naut._) to be left high and dry.--_n._ S[=U]'ING, the act of bringing a legal suit: wooing.--SUE OUT, to petition for and take out. [M. E. _suen_--O. Fr. _sevre_, _suir_ (Fr. _suivre_)--L. _sequi_, _secutus_, to follow.] SUÈDE, sw[=a]d, _n._ undressed kid--often _adj._, as 'suède gloves.' [Fr. _Suède_, Swede.] SUET, s[=u]'et, _n._ a solid fatty tissue, accumulating about the kidneys and omentum of the ox, sheep, &c.--_adj._ S[=U]'ETY. [O. Fr. _seu_ (Fr. _suif_)--L. _sebum_, fat.] SUFFER, suf'[.e]r, _v.t._ to undergo: to endure: to be affected by: to permit.--_v.i._ to feel pain or punishment: to sustain loss: to be injured.--_adj._ SUFF'ERABLE, that may be suffered: allowable.--_n._ SUFF'ERABLENESS.--_adv._ SUFF'ERABLY.--_ns._ SUFF'ERANCE, state of suffering: endurance: permission: toleration; SUFF'ERER; SUFF'ERING, distress, loss, or injury. [L. _sufferre_--_sub_, under, _ferre_, to bear.] SUFFETE, suf'[=e]t, _n._ one of the suffetes or chief administrative officials of ancient Carthage. [L. _sufes_, _-[)e]tis_--Punic; cf. Heb. _shôphet_, a judge.] SUFFICE, suf'f[=i]s, _v.i._ to be enough: to be equal to the end in view.--_v.t._ to satisfy.--_n._ SUFFI'CIENCY, state of being sufficient: competence: ability: capacity: conceit.--_adj._ SUFFI'CIENT, sufficing: enough: equal to any end or purpose: competent.--_adv._ SUFFI'CIENTLY.--_n._ SUF'FISANCE (_Spens._), sufficiency. [Fr.,--L. _suffic[)e]re_, to take the place of--_sub_, under, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] SUFFIONI, suf-[=e]-[=o]'ni, _n.pl._ a name given to the exhalations of hot sulphurous vapours, which are common in volcanic regions. [It.] SUFFIX, suf'iks, _n._ a particle added to the root of a word.--_v.t._ SUFFIX', to add a letter or syllable to a word to mark different notions and relations.--_adj._ SUFF'IXAL.--_n._ SUFFIX'ION. [L. _suffixus_, _sub_, under, _fig[)e]re_, to fix.] SUFFLAMINATE, suf-flam'i-n[=a]t, _v.t._ (_obs._) to impede. [L. _sufflamin[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_suffl[=a]men_, a clog.] SUFFLATE, suf-fl[=a]t', _v.t._ to blow up, inflate.--_n._ SUFFL[=A]'TION. [L. _suffl[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_.] SUFFOCATE, suf'[=o]-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to choke by stopping the breath: to stifle:--_pa.p._ suff'oc[=a]ted.--_p.adj._ (_Shak._) suffocated.--_p.adj._ SUFF'OC[=A]TING, choking.--_adv._ SUFF'OC[=A]TINGLY.--_n._ SUFFOC[=A]'TION, act of suffocating: state of being suffocated.--_adj._ SUFF'OC[=A]TIVE, tending to suffocate. [L. _suffoc[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_sub_, under, _fauces_, the throat.] SUFFRAGAN, suf'ra-gan, _adj._ assisting.--_n._ a coadjutor-bishop: any bishop in relation to his metropolitan.--_n._ SUFF'RAGANSHIP. SUFFRAGE, suf'r[=a]j, _n._ a vote: a vote in approbation of any proposal, hence approval, assent: testimony, witness: any short intercessory prayer.--_n._ SUFF'RAGIST, one who votes: one holding particular opinions about the right of voting. [L. _suffragium_, _saffrag[=a]ri_, to vote for.] SUFFRAGO, suf-fr[=a]'g[=o], _n._ the joint between the tibia and tarsus, as the hock of a horse's hind-leg, the heel of a bird.--_adj._ SUFFRAG'INOUS. [L. _suffrago_, the hock--_sub_, under, _frang[)e]re_, to break.] SUFFRUTESCENT, suf-r[=oo]-tes'ent, _adj._ somewhat woody at the base.--_n._ SUFF'RUTEX, an under-shrub, a herb with permanent woody base.--_adj._ SUFFRU'TIC[=O]SE, shrubby at base, small with woody stem--also SUFFRU'TICOUS.--_adj._ SUFFRUTIC'[=U]LOSE, somewhat fruticulose. [L. _sub_, under, _frutex_, a shrub.] SUFFULTED, su-ful'ted, _adj._ gradually blending into another colour. [L. _suffulc[=i]re_, _suffultum_, to support.] SUFFUMIGATE, suf-f[=u]'mi-g[=a]t, _v.t._ to apply fumes to.--_n._ SUFFUMIG[=A]'TION, the act of fumigating or burning perfumes. SUFFUSE, suf-f[=u]z', _v.t._ to pour underneath: to overspread or cover, as with a fluid.--_n._ SUFF[=U]'SION, act or operation of suffusing: state of being suffused: that which is suffused. [L. _sub_, underneath, _fund[)e]re_, _fusum_, to pour.] SUFISM, s[=u]'fizm, _n._ a form of pantheistic mysticism within Islam.--_ns._ S[=U]'FI, S[=O]'FI, one of such mystics.--_adjs._ S[=U]'FIC, SUFIS'TIC. [Ar. _s[=u]fi_--Gr. _sophos_, wise.] SUGAR, shoog'ar, _n._ a sweet substance obtained chiefly from a kind of cane: anything sugary, honeyed words, flattery.--_v.t._ to sprinkle or mix with sugar: to compliment.--_ns._ SUG'AR-BAK'ER, a sugar-refiner; SUG'AR-BEET, any one of several varieties of the common garden beet, grown for sugar; SUG'AR-CAN'DY, sugar candied or in large crystals; SUG'AR-CANE, the saccharine grass (_Saccharum officinarum_) from which sugar is chiefly obtained.--_adj._ SUG'AR-COAT'ED, coated with sugar.--_p.adj._ SUG'ARED, sweetened with sugar.--_ns._ SUG'AR-GUM, a large Australian eucalyptus yielding good timber, with sweetish foliage; SUG'AR-HOUSE, a factory where sugar is made; SUG'ARINESS, state or quality of being sugary or sweet; SUG'AR-LOAF, a loaf or mass of sugar, usually in the form of a truncated cone; SUG'AR-M[=A]'PLE, the hard maple; SUG'AR-MILL, a machine for pressing out the juice of the sugar-cane; SUG'AR-MITE, a mite infesting unrefined sugar; SUG'AR-PLUM, a species of sweetmeat made up in small ornamental balls or lumps like a plum: any very pleasing piece of flattery; SUG'AR-REF[=I]'NER, one who refines raw sugar; SUG'AR-REF[=I]'NERY.--_n.pl._ SUG'AR-TONGS, an implement for lifting pieces of sugar at table.--_adj._ SUG'ARY, sweetened with, tasting of, or like sugar: fond of sweets.--SUGAR OF LEAD, acetate of lead. [Fr. _sucre_--Sp. _azucar_--Ar. _assokhar_--Pers. _shakar_--Sans. _carkar[=a]_, sugar, orig. grains of sand, applied to sugar because occurring in grains.] SUGGEST, suj-jest', _v.t._ to introduce indirectly to the thoughts: to hint.--_v.i._ to make suggestions.--_ns._ SUGGES'TER; SUGGESTIBIL'ITY, capability of being suggested.--_adj._ SUGGES'TIBLE.--_n._ SUGGES'TION, act of suggesting: hint: proposal: incitement, temptation: (_law_) information without oath, not being pleadable: the act of exercising control over a hypnotised subject by communicating some belief or impulse by means of words or gestures, also the idea so suggested; SUGGES'TIONISM, the theory that hypnotic effects are entirely due to the action of suggestion upon weak persons; SUGGES'TIONIST, one who holds this view.--_adj._ SUGGES'TIVE, containing a hint: fitted to suggest: pertaining to hypnotic suggestion.--_adv._ SUGGES'TIVELY.--_ns._ SUGGES'TIVENESS, state of being suggestive; SUGGES'TOR; SUGGES'TRESS; SUGGES'TUM, a raised platform. [L. _sub_, under, _ger[)e]re_, _gestum_, to carry.] SUGGIL, suj'il, _v.t._ (_obs._) to beat black and blue--also SUGG'IL[=A]TE.--_n._ SUGGIL[=A]'TION, a livid mark, a blow. [L. _sugillatio_.] SUICIDE, s[=u]'i-s[=i]d, _n._ one who dies by his own hand: self-murder.--_adj._ S[=U]IC[=I]'DAL, pertaining to, or partaking of, the crime of suicide.--_adv._ S[=U]IC[=I]'DALLY.--_n._ SU'ICIDISM, a tendency towards suicide. [Coined from L. _sui_, of himself, _cæd[)e]re_, to kill.] SUIDÆ, s[=u]'i-d[=e], _n.pl._ a family of even-toed, non-ruminant Ungulates, including pigs, hogs, or boars, the Babiroussa, and the wart-hogs (_Phacochoerus_).--_adjs._ S[=U]'IFORM, like the _Suidæ_; S[=U]'ILLINE, swinish. SUINT, swint, _n._ the natural grease of wool. [Fr.] SUIST, s[=u]'ist, _n._ a self-seeker.--_n._ S[=U]'ICISM, selfishness. SUIT, s[=u]t, _n._ act of suing: an action at law: a petition: a series: a set: a number of things of the same kind or made to be used together, as clothes or armour: courtship.--_v.t._ to fit: to become: to please.--_v.i._ to agree: to correspond.--_p.adj._ SUIT'ED (_Shak._), dressed, clothed.--_ns._ SUIT'ING, cloth suitable for making suits of clothes, usually in _pl._; SUIT'OR, one who sues in love or law: a petitioner: a wooer:--_fem._ SUIT'RESS.--_v.i._ to play the suitor.--_adj._ SUIT'ORCIDE, suitor-killing. [Fr.,--Low L. _secta_, a suit--L. _sequi_, to follow.] SUITABLE, s[=u]t'a-bl, _adj._ that suits: fitting: agreeable to: adequate.--_ns._ SUITABIL'ITY, SUIT'ABLENESS.--_adv._ SUIT'ABLY. SUITE, sw[=e]t, _n._ a train of followers or attendants: a regular set, particularly of rooms: a series of dances arranged for instruments in the same or relative keys, and usually preceded by a prelude: a sequel. [Fr. Cf. _Suit_.] SUIVEZ, sw[=e]-v[=a]', _n._ (_mus._) a direction to the accompanist to adapt his time and style to the soloist. [Fr., 'follow.'] SUJEE, s[=oo]'j[=e], _n._ fine flour made from the heart of the wheat, for English tables in India--Also SOO'JEE, SOU'JEE. [Hind. _s[=u]j[=i]_.] SULCATE, -D, sul'k[=a]t, -ed, adj, furrowed, grooved.--_n._ SULC[=A]'TION.--_adj._ SUL'CIFORM.--_n._ SUL'CUS:--_pl._ SUL'CI. [L. _sulcus_, a furrow.] SULK, sulk, _v.i._ to be sullen.--_adv._ SULK'ILY, in a sulky, sullen, or morose manner.--_n._ SULK'INESS.--_n.pl._ SULKS, a fit of sullenness.--_adj._ SULK'Y, silently sullen.--_n._ a light two-wheeled vehicle for one person, sometimes having no body. [A.S. _solcen_, slow--_seolcan_, to be slow.] SULLAGE, sul'[=a]j, _n._ the floating scum on molten metal: silt: anything which sullies. SULLEN, sul'en, _adj._ gloomily angry and silent: malignant, baleful: dark: dull.--_adv._ SULL'ENLY.--_n._ SULL'ENNESS.--_n.pl._ SULL'ENS, sullen fits. [O. Fr. _solain_--L. _solus_, alone.] SULLY, sul'i, _v.t._ to soil: to spot: to tarnish.--_v.i._ to be soiled:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ sull'ied.--_n._ spot: tarnish. [A.S. _sylian_, to defile--_sol_, mud.] SULPHUR, sul'fur, _n._ a yellow mineral substance, very brittle, fusible, and inflammable: brimstone.--_n._ SUL'PHATE, a salt formed by sulphuric acid with a base.--_v.t._ to form a deposit of lead sulphate on.--_adj._ SULPHAT'IC.--_ns._ SUL'PHATILE, native sulphuric acid; SUL'PHIDE, a combination of sulphur with a metal; SUL'PHITE, a salt formed by sulphurous acid.--_v.t._ SUL'PH[=U]R[=A]TE, to combine with, or subject to, the action of sulphur.--_ns._ SULPH[=U]R[=A]'TION, the act or operation of subjecting to the action of sulphur or sulphurous acid; SULPHUR[=A]'TOR, an apparatus for sulphurating.--_adj._ SULPH[=U]'R[=E]OUS, consisting of, containing, or having the qualities of sulphur.--_adv._ SULPH[=U]'REOUSLY.--_ns._ SULPH[=U]'REOUSNESS; SUL'PH[=U]RET, a combination of sulphur with an alkali, earth, or metal.--_adjs._ SUL'PH[=U]RETTED, having sulphur in combination; SULPH[=U]'RIC, pertaining to, or obtained from, sulphur: denoting a certain well-known strong acid, formerly called oil of vitriol; SUL'PH[=U]ROUS, pertaining to, resembling, or containing sulphur: denoting the pungent acid given out when sulphur is burned in air; SUL'PHURY, partaking of the qualities of sulphur.--SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN, a compound of sulphur and hydrogen, stinking and noxious; SULPHUROUS ACID, an acid formed by one equivalent of sulphur combined with two of oxygen. [L. _sulphur_; said to be conn. with Sans. _çulv[=a]ri_.] SULTAN, sul'tan, _n._ a Mohammedan sovereign, esp. the supreme head of the Ottoman empire: a purple or hyacinthine gallinule, or porphyrio: a small white variety of the domestic hen:--_fem._ SULTANA (sul-tä'na), the mother, a wife, or a daughter of a sultan--also SUL'TANESS.--_ns._ SULTANA (sul-tä'na), a king's mistress: a kind of viol: an old form of necklace: a small kind of raisin; SUL'TANATE, the authority or jurisdiction of a sultan.--adj: SULTAN'IC.--_n._ SUL'TANSHIP. [Ar. _sult[=a]n_, victorious, a ruler.] SULTRY: sul'tri, _adj._ sweltering: very hot and oppressive: close.--_adv._ SUL'TRILY.--_n._ SUL'TRINESS. [Another form is _sweltry_, from root of _swelter_.] SUM, sum, _n._ the amount of two or more things taken together: the whole of anything: a quantity of money: a problem in arithmetic: chief points: substance or result of reasoning: summary: height: completion.--_v.t._ to collect into one amount or whole: to count: to bring into a few words:--_pr.p._ sum'ming; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ summed.--_adj._ SUM'LESS, not to be summed or counted: incalculable.--_ns._ SUM'MER, one who sums; SUM'MING, the act of one who sums, arithmetic; SUM'MING-UP, a recapitulation or review of the leading points, a judge's summary survey of the evidence given to a jury before it withdraws to consider its verdict; SUM'MIST, one who makes a summary, esp. a theological compendium. [Fr.,--L. _summa_--_summus_, _supremus_, highest, superl. of _superus_, on high--_super_, above.] SUMAC, SUMACH, s[=u]'mak, _n._ a genus of small trees and shrubs of the natural order _Anacardiaceæ_--the leaves of some species used in dyeing. [Fr. _sumac_--Sp. _zumaque_--Ar. _summ[=a]q_.] SUMERIAN, s[=u]-m[=e]'ri-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Sumir_, one of the two divisions of ancient Babylonia. SUMMARY, sum'a-ri, _adj._ summed up or condensed: short: brief: compendious: done by a short method.--_n._ an abstract, abridgment, or compendium.--_adv._ SUMM'ARILY.--_n._ SUMM'ARINESS.--_v.t._ SUMM'ARISE, to present in a summary or briefly.--_ns._ SUMM'ARIST; one who summarises; SUMM'[=U]LA, a brief educational text-book.--SUMMARY DILIGENCE (Scots law), the process by which execution may proceed without the need of further application to the court, in the case of bonds and other instruments registered for execution. SUMMATION, sum-[=a]'shun, _n._ act of summing or forming a total amount: an aggregate.--_adjs._ SUMM[=A]'TIONAL, SUMM'ATIVE. SUMMER, sum'[.e]r, _n._ the second and warmest season of the year--June, July, August.--_v.i._ to pass the summer.--_v.t._ to keep through the summer.--_adj._ SUMM'ER-DRIED, dried by the heat of summer.--_n._ SUMM'ER-DUCK, a beautiful North American duck.--_adj._ SUMM'ER-FALL'OW, lying fallow during the summer.--_ns._ SUMM'ER-HOUSE, a house in a garden used in summer: a summer residence; SUMM'ERING, a kind of early apple.--_adv._ SUMM'ER-LIKE.--_adj._ SUMM'ERLY, warm and bright like summer.--_ns._ SUMM'ER-SHINE, the summer colour of a bird, insect, &c.; SUMM'ER-TIDE, SUMM'ER-TIME, the summer season.--_adj._ SUMM'ERY, like summer.--INDIAN SUMMER (see INDIAN); ST LUKE'S, ST MARTIN'S, SUMMER (see SAINT). [A.S. _sumer_, _sumor_; Dut. _zomer_, Ger. _sommer_.] SUMMER, sum'[.e]r, _n._ the first stone laid over columns or pilasters to form a cross vault: the central beam of a floor which receives the joists: any large piece of timber supported on two strong piers or posts, and serving as a lintel to a door, window, &c.; (_obs._) a pack-horse, a sumpter-horse. [_Sumpter_.] SUMMERSET. Same as SOMERSAULT. SUMMIT, sum'it, _n._ the highest point or degree: the top.--_adj._ SUMM'ITLESS, having no summit or top.--_n._ SUMM'IT-LEV'EL, the highest level. [O. Fr. _som_, the top of a hill--L. _summum_, highest.] SUMMON, sum'un, _v.t._ to call with authority: to command to appear, esp. in court: to rouse to exertion.--_ns._ SUMM'ONER; SUMM'ONS, a summoning or an authoritative call: a call to appear, esp. in court: a call to surrender.--_v.t._ to serve with a summons. [O. Fr. _somoner_--L. _summon[=e]re_--_sub_, secretly, _mon[=e]re_, to warn.] SUMP, sump, _n._ a round pit of stone lined with clay, for receiving metal on its first fusion or reduction: the reservoir at the lowest point of a mine, from which the water is pumped: (_prov._) a bog, a puddle. [Dut. _somp_; Ger. _sumpf_.] SUMPH, sumf, _n._ (_prov._) a blockhead, a soft sheepish fellow.--_adj._ SUMPH'ISH.--_n._ SUMPH'ISHNESS. SUMPIT, sum'pit, _n._ the poisoned arrow thrown from the SUM'PITAN, or Malay blow-gun. SUMPSIMUS, sump'si-mus, _n._ a correct expression displacing an incorrect but common one (see MUMPSIMUS). [L., 1st pers. _pl._ perf. indic. of _sum[)e]re_, to take.] SUMPTER, sump't[.e]r, _n._ a horse for carrying burdens. [With inserted _p_ from O. Fr. _somier_--Low L. _sagmarius_--Gr. _sagma_, a pack-saddle--Gr. _sattein_, to pack.] SUMPTUARY, sumpt'[=u]-ar-i, _adj._ pertaining to or regulating expense, as in SUMPTUARY LAWS, which sought to prevent extravagance in banquets, dress, &c. [L. _sumptuarius_--_sum[)e]re_, _sumptum_, to take, contr. of _sub_, up, _em[)e]re_, to buy.] SUMPTUOUS, sumpt'[=u]-us, _adj._ costly: magnificent.--_ns._ SUMPT[=U]OS'ITY, SUMPT'[=U]OUSNESS.--_adv._ SUMPT'[=U]OUSLY. [L. _sumptuosus_, costly--_sumptus_, cost.] SUN, sun, _n._ the body which is the source of light and heat to our planetary system: a body which forms the centre of a system of orbs: that which resembles the sun in brightness or value: the sunshine: a revolution of the earth round the sun, a year: sunrise, day: (_her._) a bearing representing the sun.--_v.t._ to expose to the sun's rays.--_v.i._ to become warm in the sunshine:--_pr.p._ sun'ning; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ sunned.--_n._ SUN'BEAM, a beam or ray of the sun.--_adjs._ SUN'-BEAT, -EN, smitten by the rays of the sun.--_ns._ SUN'-BIRD, a family of small tropical birds, the male with resplendent metallic plumage; SUN'-BITT'ERN, a South American bird about the size of a small curlew, long-legged and long-necked, with brilliant many-coloured markings; SUN'-BONN'ET, a light bonnet projecting beyond the face to protect from the sun; SUN'BOW, an iris formed by the sun, esp. in the spray of a cataract; SUN'BURN, a burning or scorching by the sun, esp. the browning of the skin of the face, hands, &c. exposed to the sun.--_adjs._ SUN'BURNED, SUN'BURNT, burned or discoloured by the sun.--_n._ SUN'BURST, a strong outburst of sunlight.--_adj._ SUN'-CLAD, clothed in radiant light.--_ns._ SUN'-CRACK, one of the superficial markings frequently seen on the surfaces of thin-bedded flagstones and argillaceous sandstones; SUN'DAWN, the light of the dawning sun; SUN'DEW, a plant of the genus Drosera, found in bogs and moist heathy ground; SUN'-D[=I]'AL, an instrument for measuring time by means of the motion of the sun's shadow cast by a style erected on its surface; SUN'-DOG, a mock sun or parhelion; SUN'DOWN, sunset: a hat with a wide brim to shade the eyes; SUN'DOWNER, in Australia, a loafer who saunters from station to station in the interior, arriving about sundown in the hope of getting free rations and lodging for the night: a physician in government employment who practises for private fees after his official hours.--_adj._ SUN'-DRIED, dried by exposure to the sun.--_ns._ SUN'-FISH, a fish whose body resembles the forepart of a larger fish cut short off, supposed to be so called from its nearly circular form; SUN'FLOWER, a plant so called from its flower, which is a large disc with yellow rays; SUN'GOD, the sun considered as a deity; SUN'HAT, a light hat with wide brim to shade the face from the sun.--_adj._ SUN'LESS, without the sun: deprived of the sun or its rays: shaded: dark.--_ns._ SUN'LESSNESS; SUN'LIGHT, the light of the sun.--_adjs._ SUN'LIKE, like the sun; SUN'LIT, lighted up by the sun.--_n._ SUN'-MYTH, a solar myth (see SOLAR).--_p.adj._ SUNNED, exposed to the sun.--_n._ SUN'NINESS.--_adj._ SUN'NY, pertaining to, coming from, or like the sun: exposed to, warmed, or coloured by the sun's rays.--_ns._ SUN'-PICT'URE, -PRINT, a photograph; SUN'RISE, SUN'RISING, the rising or first appearance of the sun above the horizon: the time of this rising: the east; SUN'SET, SUN'SETTING, the setting or going down of the sun: the west; SUN'SHADE, a ladies' parasol: an awning; SUN'SHINE, the shining light of the sun: the place on which it shines: warmth.--_adjs._ SUN'SHINE, SUN'SHINY, bright with sunshine: pleasant: bright like the sun; SUN'-SMITT'EN, smitten by the rays of the sun.--_ns._ SUN'SPOT, one of the dark irregular spots appearing on the surface of the sun; SUN'STONE, aventurine feldspar.--_adj._ SUN'-STRICK'EN.--_n._ SUN'STROKE, a nervous disease, from exposure to the sun.--_adv._ SUN'WARD, toward the sun.--_ns._ SUN'-WOR'SHIP, adoration of the sun; SUN'-WOR'SHIPPER.--BE IN THE SUNSHINE, HAVE THE SUN IN ONE'S EYES, to be in liquor, to be drunk; TAKE THE SUN, to ascertain the latitude from the sun; UNDER THE SUN, in the world, on earth. [A.S. _sunne_; Ice. _sunna_, Ger. _sunne_.] SUNDARI, sun'da-ri, _n._ a tree abundant in Burma and Borneo, with dark durable timber.--Also SUN'DRA-TREE, SUN'DER-TREE. SUNDAY, sun'd[=a], _n._ the first day of the week, so called because anciently dedicated to the sun or its worship.--_ns._ SUN'DAY-BEST, one's best clothes; SUN'DAY-SAINT, one whose religion is confined to Sundays; SUN'DAY-SCHOOL, a school for religious instruction for children, held on Sunday. [A.S. _sunnan dæg_; Ger. _sonntag_.] SUNDER, sun'd[.e]r, _v.t._ to separate: to divide.--_ns._ SUN'DERANCE; SUN'DERMENT.--IN SUNDER (_B._), asunder. [A.S. _syndrian_, to separate--_sundor_, separate; Ice. _sundr_, asunder.] SUNDRY, sun'dri, _adj._ separate: more than one or two: several: divers.--_n.pl._ SUN'DRIES, sundry things: different small things.--ALL AND SUNDRY, all collectively and individually. SUNG, sung, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _sing_. SUNK, sungk, SUNKEN, sungk'n, _pa.p._ of _sink_. SUNKET, sung'ket, _n._ (_Scot._) a dainty. SUNN, sun, _n._ an Indian leguminous plant cultivated for the fibre of its bark. [Hind. _san_.] SUNNITE, sun'[=i]t, _n._ the name commonly given to orthodox Muslims, because in their rule of faith and manners the _Sunna_, or traditional teaching of the prophet, is added to the Koran.--Also SONN'ITE. SUP, sup, _v.t._ to take into the mouth, as a liquid: (_Scot._) to eat with a spoon.--_v.i._ to eat the evening meal: (_B._) to sip:--_pr.p._ sup'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ supped.--_n._ a small mouthful, as of a liquid. [A.S. _súpan_; Ice. _súpa_, Ger. _saufen_, to drink.] SUPAWN, su-pan', _n._ mush, or Indian meal boiled in water, eaten with milk.--Also SUPPAWN', SEPAWN', SEPON'. [Amer. Ind.] SUPE, s[=u]p, _n._ (_U.S._) a theatrical super: a toady. SUPER, s[=u]'p[.e]r, _n._ a supernumerary actor. SUPERABLE, s[=u]'p[.e]r-a-bl, _adj._ capable of being overcome.--_n._ S[=U]'PERABLENESS.--_adv._ S[=U]'PERABLY. SUPERABUNDANT, s[=u]-p[.e]r-ab-und'ant, _adj._ abundant to excess: more than enough: copious.--_v.i._ SUPERABOUND', to abound exceedingly: to be more than enough.--_n._ SUPERABUND'ANCE.--_adv._ SUPERABUND'ANTLY. SUPERACIDULATED, s[=u]-p[.e]r-a-sid'[=u]-l[=a]-ted, _adj._ acidulated to excess. SUPERADD, s[=u]-p[.e]r-ad', _v.t._ to add over and above.--_n._ SUPERADDI'TION. SUPERALTAR, s[=u]'p[.e]r-awlt-ar, _n._ a small slab of stone used as a portable altar, to be laid on the top of an unconsecrated altar. SUPERANGELIC, s[=u]-p[.e]r-an-jel'ik, _adj._ more than angelic. SUPERANNUATE, s[=u]-p[.e]r-an'[=u]-[=a]t, _v.t._ to impair or disqualify by living beyond the years of service or by old age: to pension on account of old age or infirmity.--_v.i._ to become incapacitated by long service.--_n._ SUPERANNU[=A]'TION, state of being superannuated: the allowance granted in consideration of such. [L. _super_, above, _annus_, a year.] SUPERATION, s[=u]-pe-r[=a]'shun, _n._ the apparent passing of one planet by another in longitude: the act of surmounting. SUPERB, s[=u]-p[.e]rb', _adj._ proud: magnificent: stately: elegant: showy: (_coll._) first-class, very good.--_adv._ SUPERB'LY.--_n._ SUPERB'NESS, the state of being superb. [L. _superbus_, proud--_super_, above.] SUPERCALENDERED, s[=u]-p[.e]r-kal'en-derd, _adj._ denoting paper of a very high degree of polish due to several courses of rolling. SUPERCALLOSAL, s[=u]-p[.e]r-ka-l[=o]'sal, _adj._ lying above the corpus callosum, specifying a fissure or sulcus of the median aspect of the cerebrum. SUPERCANOPY, s[=u]-p[.e]r-kan'[=o]-pi, _n._ an upper arch or gable above a lesser or lower one. SUPERCARGO, s[=u]-p[.e]r-kär'go, _n._ a person in a merchant-ship placed in charge of the cargo and superintending all the commercial transactions of the voyage.--_n._ SUPERCAR'GOSHIP. SUPERCELESTIAL, s[=u]-p[.e]r-sel-est'yal, _adj._ situated above the firmament or vault of heaven. SUPERCHARGE, s[=u]'p[.e]r-chärj, _n._ (_her._) a charge borne upon an ordinary or other charge. SUPERCILIOUS, s[=u]-p[.e]r-sil'i-us, _adj._ lofty with pride: disdainful: dictatorial: overbearing.--_adj._ SUPERCIL'IARY, above the eyebrow.--_adv._ SUPERCIL'IOUSLY.--_n._ SUPERCIL'IOUSNESS. [L. _superciliosus_--_supercilium_, an eyebrow--_super_, above, _cilium_, eyelid.] SUPERCRETACEOUS, s[=u]-p[.e]r-kr[=e]-t[=a]'shus, _adj._ (_geol._) lying above the chalk. SUPERDAINTY, s[=u]-p[.e]r-d[=a]n'ti, _adj._ (_Shak._) over-dainty. SUPERDOMINANT, s[=u]-p[.e]r-dom'i-nant, _n._ (_mus._) the tone just above the dominant, the sixth or submediant. SUPEREMINENT, s[=u]-p[.e]r-em'i-nent, _adj._ eminent in a superior degree: excellent beyond others.--_n._ SUPEREM'INENCE.--_adv._ SUPEREM'INENTLY. SUPEREROGATION, s[=u]-p[.e]r-er-[=o]-g[=a]'shun, _n._ doing more than duty requires or is necessary for salvation, hence anything superfluous or uncalled for.--_adjs._ SUPEREROG'ATIVE, SUPEREROG'ATORY (SUPERER'OGANT).--WORKS OF SUPEREROGATION (_R.C._), works not absolutely required of each individual for salvation, but which may be done for the sake of greater perfection--affording the church a store of surplus merit, to eke out the deficient merit of others. [L. _super_, above, _erog[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to pay out.] SUPERESSENTIAL, s[=u]-p[.e]r-e-sen'shal, _adj._ transcending mere being and essence. SUPEREXALT, s[=u]-p[.e]r-egz-awlt', _v.t._ to exalt to a superior degree.--_n._ SUPEREXALT[=A]'TION. SUPEREXCELLENT, s[=u]-p[.e]r-ek'sel-lent, _adj._ excellent above others, or in an uncommon degree.--_n._ SUPEREX'CELLENCE. SUPERFAMILY, s[=u]'p[.e]r-fam-i-li, _n._ a group in classification between a suborder and a family, a group of families. SUPERFECUNDATION, s[=u]-p[.e]r-fek-un-d[=a]'shun, _n._ the impregnation of two or more ova at the same stage of development by different acts of coition. SUPERFICIES, s[=u]-p[.e]r-fish'y[=e]z, _n._ the upper face or surface: the outer face or part of a thing.--_adj._ SUPERFI'CIAL, pertaining to, or being on, the surface: shallow: slight: containing only what is apparent and simple: not learned.--_v.t._ SUPERFI'CIALISE, to treat superficially.--_n._ SUPERFI'CIALIST, a person of merely superficial knowledge.--_adv._ SUPERFI'CIALLY.--_ns._ SUPERFI'CIALNESS, SUPERFICIAL'ITY; SUPERFI'CIARY, one possessing a right to what stands on the surface of the lands of another.--_adj._ belonging to the surface: situated on another's land. [L. _super_, above, _facies_, face.] SUPERFINE, s[=u]'p[.e]r-f[=i]n, _adj._ fine above others: finer than ordinary.--_n._ S[=U]'PERFINENESS.--_adj._ SUPERFIN'ICAL, very finical. SUPERFLUOUS, s[=u]-p[.e]r'fl[=oo]-us, _adj._ more than enough: unnecessary or useless.--_n._ SUPERFL[=U]'ITY, a superfluous quantity or more than enough: state of being superfluous: superabundance.--_adv._ SUPER'FLUOUSLY.--_ns._ SUPER'FLUOUSNESS, superfluity; S[=U]'PERFLUX (_Shak._), any superfluity. [L. _superfluus_--_super_, above, _flu[)e]re_, to flow.] SUPERFOETATION, s[=u]-p[.e]r-f[=e]-t[=a]'shun, _n._ the circumstance of two distinct conceptions occurring in the same woman at a considerable interval so that two foetuses of different ages--the offspring possibly of different fathers--may coexist in the uterus--also SUPERFET[=A]'TION.--_vs.i._ SUPERFOE'TATE, SUPERF[=E]'TATE, to conceive after a prior conception. SUPERFRONTAL, s[=u]-p[.e]r-fron'tal, _adj._ pertaining to the upper part of the frontal lobe of the brain.--_n._ a covering for the top of the altar, generally hanging down all round, and fringed. SUPERFUNCTION, s[=u]-p[.e]r-fungk'shun, _n._ action of some organ in excess of what is normal.--_adj._ SUPERFUNC'TIONAL. SUPERFUSE, s[=u]-p[.e]r-f[=u]z', _v.t._ to pour over something else. SUPERHEAT, s[=u]-p[.e]r-h[=e]t', _v.t._ to heat to excess.--_n._ SUPERHEAT'ER. SUPERHUMAN, s[=u]-p[.e]r-h[=u]'man, _adj._ above what is human: divine.--_n._ SUPERHUMAN'ITY.--_adv._ SUPERH[=U]'MANLY. SUPERHUMERAL, s[=u]-p[.e]r-h[=u]'me-ral, _n._ anything carried on the shoulders: the amice: the pallium: a Jewish ephod. SUPERIMPOSE, s[=u]-p[.e]r-im-p[=o]z', _v.t._ to impose or lay above: (_geol._) to establish a structural system over, independently of underlying structures.--_n._ SUPERIMPOSI'TION, the act of superimposing: state of being superimposed. SUPERINCUMBENT, s[=u]-p[.e]r-in-kum'bent, _adj._ lying above.--_ns._ SUPERINCUM'BENCE, SUPERINCUM'BENCY. SUPERINDUCE, s[=u]-p[.e]r-in-d[=u]s', _v.t._ to bring in over and above something else, to superadd.--_ns._ SUPERINDUC'TION, SUPERINDUCE'MENT. SUPERINENARRABLE, s[=u]-p[.e]r-in-[=e]-nar'a-bl, _adj._ in the highest degree incapable of being described. SUPERINTEND, s[=u]-p[.e]r-in-tend', _v.t._ to have the oversight or charge of: to control, manage.--_v.i._ to exercise supervision.--_ns._ SUPERINTEN'DENCE, SUPERINTEN'DENCY, oversight: direction: management.--_adj._ SUPERINTEN'DENT, superintending.--_n._ one who superintends: the head of a Sunday-school: in some Protestant churches a clergyman having the oversight of the clergy of a district: overseer.--_n._ SUPERINTEN'DENTSHIP. SUPERIOR, s[=u]-p[=e]'ri-or, _adj._ upper: higher in place, rank, or excellence: surpassing others: beyond the influence of: of wider application, generic: (_print._) set above the level of the line.--_n._ one superior to others: the chief of a monastery, &c., and of certain churches and colleges: (_Scots law_) one who has made an original grant of heritable property to a tenant or _vassal_, on condition of a certain annual payment (_feu-duty_) or of the performance of certain services.--_ns._ SUP[=E]'RIORESS, a female superior or chief in a convent, nunnery, &c.; SUPERIOR'ITY, quality or state of being superior: pre-eminence: advantage: (_Scots law_) the right which the superior enjoys in the land held by the vassal.--_adv._ SUP[=E]'RIORLY, in a superior manner.--SUPERIOR PLANETS, those more distant from the sun than the earth. [L., comp. of _superus_, high--_super_, above.] SUPERJACENT, s[=u]-p[.e]r-j[=a]'sent, _adj._ lying above or upon. SUPERLATIVE, s[=u]-p[.e]r'la-tiv, _adj._ raised above others or to the highest degree: superior to all others: most eminent: (_gram._) expressing the highest degree of a quality.--_n._ (_gram._) the superlative or highest degree of adjectives and adverbs: any word or phrase full of exaggeration.--_adv._ SUPER'LATIVELY.--_n._ SUPER'LATIVENESS, state of being superlative or in the highest degree. [L. _superlativus_--_superlatus_, pa.p. of _superferre_--_super_, above, _ferre_, to carry.] SUPERLUNAR, s[=u]-p[.e]r-l[=u]'nar, _adj._ above the moon: not of this world.--Also SUPERL[=U]'NARY. SUPERMEDIAL, s[=u]-p[.e]r-m[=e]'di-al, _adj._ being above the middle. SUPERMUNDANE, s[=u]-p[.e]r-mun'd[=a]n, _adj._ above the world. SUPERNACULAR, s[=u]-p[.e]r-nak'[=u]-lar, _adj._ very choice, of liquor.--_n._ SUPERNAC'[=U]LUM, wine fit to be drunk to the last drop with no heeltaps, anything very choice.--_adv._ to the last drop. SUPERNAL, s[=u]-p[.e]r'nal, _adj._ that is above or in a higher place or region: relating to things above: celestial. [L. _supernus_--_super_, above.] SUPERNATANT, s[=u]-p[.e]r-n[=a]'tant, _adj._ floating on the surface.--_n._ SUPERNAT[=A]'TION. [L. _supernat[=a]re_--_super_, above, _nat[=a]re_, to swim.] SUPERNATIONAL, s[=u]-p[.e]r-nash'un-al, _adj._ transcending the national, and belonging to mankind.--_n._ SUPERNA'TIONALISM. SUPERNATURAL, s[=u]-p[.e]r-nat'[=u]-ral, _adj._ above or beyond the powers of nature: not according to the usual course of nature: miraculous: spiritual.--_v.t._ SUPERNAT'URALISE, to bring into the supernatural sphere.--_ns._ SUPERNAT'URALISM, the belief in the influence of the supernatural in the world; SUPERNAT'URALIST, a believer in the supernatural.--_adj._ of or pertaining to the supernatural.--_adj._ SUPERNATURALIST'IC.--_adv._ SUPERNAT'URALLY.--_n._ SUPERNAT'URALNESS. SUPERNUMERARY, s[=u]-p[.e]r-n[=u]m'[.e]r-ar-i, _adj._ over and above the number stated, or which is usual or necessary.--_n._ a person or thing beyond the usual, necessary, or stated number: one who appears on the stage without a speaking part. [L. _supernumerarius_--_super_, over, _numerus_, a number.] SUPERNUTRITION, s[=u]-p[.e]r-n[=u]-trish'un, _n._ excessive nutrition. SUPEROCCIPITAL, s[=u]-p[.e]r-ok-sip'e-tal, _adj._ pertaining to the upper part of the occipital lobe of the brain. SUPEROCTAVE, s[=u]'p[.e]r-ok-t[=a]v, _n._ (_mus._) a coupler in the organ by means of which is sounded an octave higher than the one struck: an organ-stop two octaves above the principal. SUPEROLATERAL, s[=u]-pe-r[=o]-lat'[.e]r-al, _adj._ situated above and at the side. SUPERORDER, s[=u]-p[.e]r-or'd[.e]r, _n._ a group in the classifications of natural history above the order but below the class.--_adj._ SUPEROR'DINAL. SUPERORDINARY, s[=u]-p[.e]r-or'di-n[=a]-ri, _adj._ above the ordinary. SUPERORDINATION, s[=u]-p[.e]r-or-di-n[=a]'shun, _n._ the ordination of a successor by an ecclesiastic: (_logic_) the relation of a universal proposition to a particular proposition in the same terms.--_adj._ SUPEROR'DINATE. SUPERORGANIC, s[=u]-p[.e]r-or-gan'ik, _adj._ not dependent on organisation, psychical, spiritual: social. SUPERPARASITISM, s[=u]-p[.e]r-par'a-s[=i]t-izm, _n._ the infestation of parasites by other parasites.--_n._ S[=U]'PERPARASITE, the parasite of a parasite.--_adj._ SUPERPARASIT'IC. SUPERPHOSPHATE, s[=u]-p[.e]r-fos'f[=a]t, _n._ a phosphate containing the greatest amount of phosphoric acid that can combine with the base. SUPERPHYSICAL, s[=u]-p[.e]r-fiz'i-kal, _adj._ superorganic, psychical. SUPERPOSE, s[=u]-p[.e]r-p[=o]z', _v.t._ to place over or upon.--_adjs._ SUPERP[=O]'SABLE; SUPERPOSED'.--_n._ SUPERPOSI'TION, act of superposing: state of being superposed: that which is above anything. SUPERPRAISE, s[=u]-p[.e]r-pr[=a]z', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to praise excessively. SUPER-ROYAL, s[=u]-p[.e]r-roi'al, _adj._ larger than royal, denoting a size of paper, 19¼ × 27½ in. for writing and drawing paper, 20½ × 27½ in. for printing-paper. SUPERSACRAL, s[=u]-p[.e]r-s[=a]'kral, _adj._ situated on or over the sacrum. SUPERSALT, s[=u]'p[.e]r-sawlt, _n._ a salt having a greater number of equivalents of acid than base. SUPERSATURATE, s[=u]-p[.e]r-sat'[=u]-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to saturate beyond the normal point.--_n._ SUPERSATUR[=A]'TION. SUPERSCRIBE, s[=u]-p[.e]r-skr[=i]b', _v.t._ to write or engrave over, on the outside or top: to write the name on the outside or cover of.--_ns._ S[=U]'PERSCRIPT, SUPERSCRIP'TION, act of superscribing: that which is written or engraved above or on the outside. [L. _super_, above, _scrib[)e]re_, _scriptum_, to write.] SUPERSEDE, s[=u]-p[.e]r-s[=e]d', _v.t._ to take the place of another by reason of superior right, power, &c.: to make useless by superior power: to come in the room of, to replace: to displace, set aside, render unnecessary.--_ns._ SUPERS[=E]'DEAS, a writ to stay proceedings, or to suspend the powers of an officer in certain cases; SUPERS[=E]'DENCE, SUPERS[=E]'DURE, SUPERSES'SION, a setting aside, the act of superseding; SUPERSED[=E]'RE (_Scots law_), a private agreement among creditors, under a trust-deed, to supersede or sist diligence for a certain period: an order of court granting protection to a debtor. [L. _super_, above, _sed[=e]re_, _sessum_, to sit.] SUPERSENSIBLE, s[=u]-p[.e]r-sen'si-bl, _adj._ above the range of the senses, spiritual.--_adv._ SUPERSEN'SIBLY.--_adj._ SUPERSEN'SITIVE, excessively sensitive.--_n._ SUPERSEN'SITIVENESS.--_adjs._ SUPERSEN'SORY, SUPERSEN'SUAL, beyond the senses. SUPERSERVICEABLE, s[=u]-p[.e]r-s[.e]rv'is-a-bl, _adj._ (_Shak._) doing more than required, over-officious. SUPERSOLAR, s[=u]-p[.e]r-s[=o]'lar, _adj._ above the sun. SUPERSTITION, s[=u]-p[.e]r-stish'un, _n._ excessive reverence or fear, based on ignorance: excessive exactness in religious opinions or practice: false worship or religion: an ignorant and irrational belief in supernatural agency, omens, divination, sorcery, &c.: belief in what is absurd, without evidence: rites or practices proceeding from superstitious belief or fear: over-nicety, exactness too scrupulous or morbid.--_adj._ SUPERSTI'TIOUS, pertaining to, or proceeding from, superstition: over-exact.--_adv._ SUPERSTI'TIOUSLY.--_n._ SUPERSTI'TIOUSNESS. [L. _superstitio_, excessive religious belief--_super_, over, above, _statum_, _sist[)e]re_--_st[=a]re_, to stand.] SUPERSTRATUM, s[=u]-p[.e]r-str[=a]'tum, _n._ a stratum or layer situated above another. SUPERSTRUCTURE, s[=u]-p[.e]r-strukt'[=u]r, _n._ a structure above or on something else: anything erected on a foundation--also SUPERSTRUC'TION.--_adjs._ SUPERSTRUCT'IVE, SUPERSTRUCT'[=U]RAL. SUPERSUBTLE, s[=u]-p[.e]r-sut'l, _adj._ over-subtle.--_adj._ SUPERSUBT'ILISED, subtilised or refined to excess.--_n._ SUPERSUBT'LETY, excessive subtlety, over-nicety. SUPERTONIC, s[=u]-p[.e]r-ton'ik, _n._ (_mus._) the tone in a scale next above the tonic or keynote. SUPERVENE, s[=u]-p[.e]r-v[=e]n', _v.i._ to come in addition, or closely after: to occur, take place.--_adj._ SUPERV[=E]'NIENT, coming above, as something additional.--_n._ SUPERVEN'TION, act of supervening or taking place. [L. _super_, above, _ven[=i]re_, _ventum_, come.] SUPERVISE, s[=u]-p[.e]r-v[=i]z', _v.i._ to oversee: to superintend.--_ns._ SUPERV[=I]'SAL, SUPERVI'SION, act of supervising: inspection: control; SUPERV[=I]'SOR, one who supervises: an overseer: an inspector: (_Shak._) a spectator.--_adjs._ SUPERV[=I]'SORY, pertaining to, or having, supervision; SUPERVIS'[=U]AL, beyond the ordinary visual powers. [L. _super_, over, _vid[=e]re_, _visum_, to see.] SUPERVOLUTE, s[=u]'p[.e]r-vol-[=u]t, _adj._ (_bot._) having a plaited or convolute arrangement in the bud. SUPINE, s[=u]-p[=i]n', _adj._ lying on the back: leaning backward, inclined, sloping: negligent: indolent.--_v.t._ S[=U]'PIN[=A]TE, to bring the palm upward.--_ns._ S[=U]PIN[=A]'TION, the state of being supine: the act of lying or being laid with the face upward: the act of turning the palm of the hand upward: the hand so turned; S[=U]PIN[=A]'TOR, that which produces supination: a muscle that turns the palm upward; S[=U]'PINE, one of two parts of the Latin verb, really verbal nouns, ending in _tum_ and _tu_, called the first and second supine respectively.--_adv._ S[=U]PINE'LY.--_n._ S[=U]PINE'NESS. [L. _supinus_--_sub_, under.] SUPPEDANEUM, sup-[=e]-d[=a]'n[=e]-um, _n._ a foot-rest on a cross or crucifix.--_adj._ SUPPED[=A]'NEOUS, being under the feet. [L. _sub_, under, _pes_, _pedis_, the foot.] SUPPEDITATE, sup-ed'i-t[=a]t, _v.t._ to supply, furnish.--_n._ SUPPEDIT[=A]'TION, supply. [L. _suppedit[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to supply--_suppet[)e]re_, to be in store--_sub_, under, _pet[)e]re_, to seek.] SUPPER, sup'[.e]r, _n._ a meal taken at the close of the day.--_adj._ SUPP'ERLESS, without supper.--_ns._ SUPP'ING, the act of one who sups: that which is supped; LORD'S'-SUPP'ER (see LORD). [O. Fr. _soper_ (Fr. _souper_)--from Low Ger. _supen_, to sup.] SUPPLANT, sup-plant', _v.t._ to displace by stratagem: to take the place of: to undermine.--_ns._ SUPPLANT[=A]'TION; SUPPLANT'ER. [L. _supplant[=a]re_, to trip up one's heels--_sub_, under, _planta_, the sole of the foot.] SUPPLE, sup'l, _adj._ pliant: lithe: yielding to the humour of others: fawning.--_v.t._ to make supple: to make soft or compliant.--_v.i._ to become supple.--_n._ SUPP'LENESS.--_adj._ SUPP'LE-SIN'EWED, having supple sinews: lithe.--SUPPLE JACK (_U.S._), one of various climbing-shrubs with strong stems: a pliant cane. [Fr. _souple_--L. _supplex_, bending the knees--_sub_, under, plic[=a]re, to fold.] SUPPLEMENT, sup'le-ment, _n._ that which supplies or fills up: any addition by which defects are supplied: the quantity by which an angle or an arc falls short of 180° or a semicircle.--_v.t._ SUPPLEMENT', to supply or fill up: to add to.--_adjs._ SUPPLEMEN'TAL, SUPPLEMENT'ARY, added to supply what is wanting: additional.--_adv._ SUPPLEMENT'ARILY.--_ns._ SUPPLEMENT[=A]'TION; SUPPLEMENT'ER.--_v.t._ SUPPL[=E]TE', to supplement.--_adjs._ SUPP'L[=E]TIVE, SUPP'L[=E]TORY, supplemental.--_n._ a supplement. [L. _supplementum_--_suppl[=e]re_, to fill up.] SUPPLIANT, sup'li-ant, _adj._ supplicating: asking earnestly: entreating.--_n._ a humble petitioner.--_adv._ SUPP'LIANTLY.--_n._ SUPP'LIANTNESS. [Fr. _suppliant_, pr.p. of supplier--L. _supplic[=a]re_.] SUPPLICANT, sup'li-kant, _adj._ supplicating: asking submissively.--_n._ one who supplicates or entreats earnestly.--_adv._ SUPP'LICANTLY. [L. _supplicans_, _pr.p._ of supplic[=a]re.] SUPPLICATE, sup'li-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to entreat earnestly: to address in prayer.--_n._ SUPP'LICAT, in the English universities, a petition.--_adv._ SUPP'LIC[=A]TINGLY.--_n._ SUPPLIC[=A]'TION, act of supplicating: in ancient Rome, a solemn service or day decreed for giving formal thanks to the gods for victory, &c.: earnest prayer or entreaty, especially, in liturgies, a litany petition for some special blessing.--_adj._ SUPP'LIC[=A]TORY, containing supplication or entreaty: humble.--_n._ SUPPLIC[=A]'VIT, formerly a writ issued by the King's Bench or Chancery for taking the surety of the peace against a person. [L. _supplic[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_supplex_--_sub_, under, _plic[=a]re_, to fold.] SUPPLY, sup-pl[=i]', _v.t._ to fill up, esp. a deficiency: to add what is wanted: to furnish: to fill a vacant place: to serve instead of:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ supplied'. [Fr.,--L. _suppl[=e]re_--_sub_, up, _pl[=e]re_, to fill.] SUPPLY, sup-pl[=i]', _n._ act of supplying: that which is supplied or which supplies a want: amount of food or money provided (used generally in _pl._): a grant of money provided by a legislature for the expenses of government: a person who takes another's duty temporarily, a substitute, esp. a clergyman.--_ns._ SUPPL[=I]'AL, the act of supplying, the thing supplied; SUP'PLIANCE (_Shak._), that which is supplied, gratification.--_adj._ SUPPL[=I]'ANT (_Shak._), supplying, auxiliary.--_adv._ SUP'PLIANTLY.--_ns._ SUPPL[=I]'ER, one who supplies; SUPPLY'MENT (_Shak._), a supply.--COMMISSIONER OF SUPPLY, one of the body forming the chief county authority in Scotland for administrative and rating purposes, down to 1889. SUPPORT, sup-p[=o]rt', _v.t._ to bear up: to endure or sustain: to keep up as a part or character: to make good: to defend: to represent in acting: to supply with means of living: to uphold by countenance, patronise: to follow on the same side as a speaker.--_n._ act of supporting or upholding: that which supports, sustains, or maintains: maintenance: an actor playing a subordinate part with a star: an accompaniment in music.--_adj._ SUPPORT'ABLE, capable of being supported: endurable: capable of being maintained.--_n._ SUPPORT'ABLENESS.--_adv._ SUPPORT'ABLY.--_ns._ SUPPORT'ANCE (_Shak._), support; SUPPORT'ER, one who, or that which, supports: an adherent: a defender: (_her._) a figure on each side of the escutcheon.--_adjs._ SUPPORT'ING, SUPPORT'IVE.--_n.fem._ SUPPORT'RESS. [L. _support[=a]re_--_sub_, up, _port[=a]re_, to bear.] SUPPOSE, sup-p[=o]z', _v.t._ to lay down, assume, or state as true: to imagine.--_adj._ SUPP[=O]'SABLE, that may be supposed.--_n._ SUPP[=O]'SAL (_Shak._), supposition.--_adj._ SUPP[=O]SED' (_Shak._), counterfeit.--_adv._ SUPP[=O]'SEDLY, according to supposition.--_ns._ SUPP[=O]'SER; SUPPOSI'TION, act of supposing: that which is supposed: assumption: presumption, opinion.--_adj._ SUPPOSI'TIONAL, implying supposition.--_adv._ SUPPOSI'TIONALLY.--_adjs._ SUPPOSI'TIONARY, hypothetical; SUPPOS'ITIVE, implying, expressing, or including a supposition.--_adv._ SUPPOS'ITIVELY.--_ns._ SUPPOS'ITORY (_med._), a pill of any solid medicine in the form of a cone or cylinder intended for introduction into the rectum or other canal; SUPPOS'ITUM, that which is supposed; SUPP[=O]'S[=U]RE, supposition. [Fr. _supposer_--L. _suppon[)e]re_, _-positum_--_sub_, under, _pon[)e]re_, to place.] SUPPOSITITIOUS, sup-poz-i-tish'us, _adj._ put by trick in the place of another: spurious: imaginary, hypothetical, supposed.--_adv._ SUPPOSITI'TIOUSLY, in a supposititious manner.--_n._ SUPPOSITI'TIOUSNESS, the state of being supposititious. [L. _supposititius_--_suppon[)e]re_, to put in the place of another--_sub_, under, _pon[)e]re_, to place.] SUPPRESS, sup-pres', _v.t._ to crush, put down: to keep in: to retain or conceal: to stop, restrain.--_adv._ SUPPRESS'EDLY.--_ns._ SUPPRESS'ER, SUPPRESS'OR.--_adj._ SUPPRESS'IBLE.--_ns._ SUPPRES'SION, act of suppressing: stoppage: concealment; SUPPRES'SIONIST, one who supports suppression.--_adj._ SUPPRESS'IVE, tending to suppress: subduing. [L. _supprim[)e]re_, _suppressum_--_sub_, under, _prem[)e]re_, to press.] SUPPURATE, sup'[=u]-r[=a]t, _v.i._ to gather pus or matter.--_n._ SUPPUR[=A]'TION, a morbid process which gives rise to the formation of pus, one of the commonest products of inflammation.--_adj._ SUPP'UR[=A]TIVE, tending to suppurate: promoting suppuration.--_n._ a medicine which promotes suppuration. [L. _sub_, under, _pus_, _pur-is_, pus.] SUPRACILIARY, s[=u]-pra-sil'i-ar-i, _adj._ above the eyebrow.--Also SUPERCIL'IARY. SUPRACLAVICULAR, s[=u]-pra-kla-vik'[=u]-lar, _adj._ situated above the clavicle or collar-bone. SUPRACOSTAL, s[=u]-pra-kost'al, _adj._ above or upon the ribs. SUPRACRETACEOUS, s[=u]-pra-kr[=e]-t[=a]'shus, _adj._ (_geol._) denoting strata lying above the chalk. SUPRALAPSARIAN, s[=u]-pra-laps-[=a]'ri-an, _n._ one of a class of Calvinists who make the decree of election and predestination to precede the Creation and the Fall--opp. to _Sublapsarian_.--_adj._ pertaining to the Supralapsarians or to their opinions.--_n._ SUPRALAPS[=A]'RIANISM. [L. _supra_, above, beyond, _labi_, _lapsus_, to fall.] SUPRALATERAL, s[=u]-pra-lat'[.e]r-al, _adj._ placed on the upper part of the side. SUPRALUNAR, s[=u]-pra-l[=u]'nar, _adj._ beyond the moon: very lofty. SUPRAMAXILLARY, s[=u]-pra-mak'si-l[=a]-ri, _adj._ pertaining to the upper jaw.--_n._ the superior maxillary or upper jaw-bone. SUPRAMUNDANE, s[=u]-pra-mun'd[=a]n, _adj._ above the world. SUPRA-ORBITAL, s[=u]-pra-or'bi-tal, _adj._ being above the orbit of the eye. SUPRAPOSITION, s[=u]-pra-p[=o]-zish'un, _n._ the placing of one thing above another. SUPRAPROTEST, s[=u]-pra-pr[=o]'test, _n._ acceptance or payment of a bill of exchange, by one not a party to it, after protest for non-acceptance or non-payment. SUPRARENAL, s[=u]-pra-r[=e]'nal, _adj._ situated above the kidneys. SUPRASCAPULAR, s[=u]-pra-skap'[=u]-lar, _adj._ situated above the scapula or shoulder-blade.--Also S[=U]PRASCAP'ULARY. SUPRASENSIBLE, s[=u]-pra-sen'si-bl, _adj._ above the reach of the senses. SUPRASPINAL, s[=u]-pra-sp[=i]'nal, _adj._ situated above the spine.--_adj._ SUPRASP[=I]'NOUS, above a spine or spinous process. SUPREME, s[=u]-pr[=e]m', _adj._ highest: greatest: most excellent.--_n._ the highest point: the chief, the superior.--_n._ SUPREM'ACY, state of being supreme; highest authority or power.--_adv._ SUPREME'LY.--_ns._ SUPREME'NESS, SUPREM'ITY.--OATH OF SUPREMACY, an oath denying the supremacy of the pope; THE SUPREME BEING, God. [L. _supremus_, superl. of _superus_, high--_super_, above.] SURA, s[=oo]'ra, _n._ a chapter of the Koran.--Also SU'RAH. [Ar. _s[=u]ra_, a step.] SURA, s[=oo]'ra, _n._ the sap of the palmyra and coco-palm, &c. [Hind. _sur[=a]_.] SURADDITION, sur-a-dish'un, _n._ (_Shak._) something added, as to a name. SURAH, s[=u]'ra, _n._ a soft twilled silk fabric.--Also SURAH SILK. SURAL, s[=u]'ral, _adj._ pertaining to the calf of the leg. [L. _sura_, the calf.] SURANCE, sh[=oo]r'ans, _n._ (_Shak._) assurance. SURAT, s[=u]-rat', _n._ coarse uncoloured cotton made at _Surat_, 160 miles north of Bombay. SURBASE, sur'b[=a]s, _n._ a cornice or series of mouldings above the base of a pedestal.--_adj._ SURBASED'.--_n._ SURBASE'MENT. SURBATE, sur-b[=a]t', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to bruise, as the feet by travel.--Also SURBET'. [Prob. Fr. _solbatu_, _solbature_--_sole_, the sole, _battu_, pa.p. of _battre_, to beat.] SURBED, sur-bed', _v.t._ to set edgewise, as a stone with reference to the grain. SURCEASE, sur-s[=e]s', _v.i._ to cease.--_v.t._ to cause to cease.--_n._ cessation. [O. Fr. _sursis_, pa.p. of _surseoir_--L. _super-sed[=e]re_, to refrain from.] SURCHARGE, sur-chärj', _v.t._ to overcharge or overload.--_n._ an excessive load: an overcharge: an extra charge: a painting in lighter enamel over a darker which serves as the ground.--_adj._ SURCHARGED', overloaded.--_n._ SURCHARGE'MENT. SURCINGLE, sur'sing-gl, _n._ a girth or strap for holding a saddle on an animal's back: the girdle of a cassock.--_v.t._ to surround with such. [L. _super_, above, _cingulum_, a belt.] [Illustration] SURCOAT, sur'k[=o]t, _n._ an overcoat, generally applied to the long flowing drapery of knights anterior to the introduction of plate-armour: a short robe worn by ladies over the tunic at the close of the 11th century. [O. Fr. _surcote_, _surcot_--_sur_, over, _cote_, a garment.] SURCULUS, sur'k[=u]-lus, _n._ a shoot from a root-stock, a sucker.--_adjs._ SURCULIG'EROUS, bearing such; SUR'CULOSE, producing such. [L.] SURD, surd, _adj._ (_alg._) involving surds: produced by the action of the speech organs on the breath (not the voice), as the 'hard' sounds _k_, _t_, _p_, _f_, &c.: deaf: (_obs._) unheard, senseless.--_n._ (_alg._) a quantity inexpressible by rational numbers, or which has no root.--_ns._ SURDIM[=U]'TISM, the condition of being deaf and dumb; SURD'ITY, want of sonant quality. [L. _surdus_, deaf.] SURE, sh[=oo]r, _adj._ secure: fit to be depended on; certain: strong: confident beyond doubt.--_advs._ SURE, SURELY, firmly, safely: certainly, assuredly.--_adj._ SURE'FOOTED, walking firmly or securely: not liable to stumble.--_adv._ SUREFOOT'EDLY.--_ns._ SUREFOOT'EDNESS; SURE'NESS.--SURE ENOUGH, certainly.--BE SURE, be certain, see to it; HAVE A SURE THING (_slang_), to have a certainty; MAKE SURE, to make certain; TO BE SURE, without doubt. [O. Fr, _seür_ (Fr. _sûr_)--L. _securus_--_se-_, apart from, _cura_, care.] SURETY, sh[=oo]r'ti, _n._ certainty: he who, or that which, makes sure: security against loss: one who becomes bound for another, a sponsor.--_ns._ SURE'TYSHIP, SURE'TISHIP, state of being surety: obligation of one person to answer for another. [Doublet _security_.] SURF, surf, _n._ the foam made by the dashing of waves.--_ns._ SURF'-BIRD, a plover-like bird found on the Pacific coasts of North and South America, akin to sandpipers and turnstones, and sometimes called _Boreal sandpiper_ and _Plover-billed turnstone_; SURF'-DUCK, the scoter (q.v.); SURF'MAN, one skilful in handling boats in surf.--_adj._ SURF'Y. [Skeat explains the _r_ as intrusive, and suggests that _suffe_ is the same as '_sough_ of the sea,' M. E. _swough_, _swoughen_, _swowen_--A.S. _swógan_, to make a rushing sound.] SURFACE, sur'f[=a]s, _n._ the exterior part of anything.--_adj._ SUR'FACED, having a surface.--_ns._ SUR'FACEMAN, a miner employed in open-air working: a workman employed in keeping a railway-bed in repair; SUR'FACE-PRINT'ING, printing from a relief surface, as cotton-cloth; SUR'FACER, one who, or that which, smooths or levels a surface; SUR'FACE-TEN'SION, in liquids, that property in virtue of which a liquid surface behaves as if it were a stretched elastic membrane--say a sheet of india-rubber; SUR'FACE-WA'TER, drainage-water; SUR'FACING, the act of giving a certain surface to anything. [Fr., from _sur_--L. _super_, and _face_--L. _facies_.] SURFEIT, sur'fit, _v.t._ to fill to satiety and disgust.--_n._ excess in eating and drinking: sickness or satiety caused by overfullness.--_ns._ SUR'FEITER (_Shak._), one who surfeits, a glutton; SUR'FEITING, eating overmuch: gluttony. [O. Fr. _surfait_, excess, _sorfaire_, to augment--L. _super_, above, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] SURFICIAL, sur-fish'al, _adj._ formed on the surface, as opposed to _Subterranean_. SURFRAPPÉ, sur-frap'[=a], _adj._ restruck or restamped--of a coin. [Fr.] SURFUSION, sur-f[=u]'shun, _n._ the condition of being liquid below fusing-point. SURGE, surj, _n._ the rising or swelling of a large wave.--_v.i._ to rise high: to swell.--_adj._ SUR'GY, full of surges or waves: billowy. [L. _surg[)e]re_, to rise.] SURGEON, sur'jun, _n._ one who treats injuries or diseases by manual operations.--_ns._ SUR'GEONCY, SUR'GEONSHIP, the office or employment of a surgeon in the army or navy; SUR'GERY, act and art of treating lesions or malformations of the human body by manual operations, mediate and immediate: a place for surgical operations.--_adj._ SUR'GICAL, pertaining to surgeons, or to surgery: done by surgery.--_adv._ SUR'GICALLY. [A doublet of _chirurgeon_ (q.v.).] SURICATE, s[=u]'ri-k[=a]t, _n._ a long-legged South African carnivore, allied to the civet, genette, and ichneumon. SURINAM-TOAD, s[=u]-ri-nam'-t[=o]d, _n._ a South American toad-like amphibian. SURLOIN, the preferable form of _sirloin_ (q.v.). SURLY, sur'li, _adj._ morose: uncivil: tempestuous.--_adv._ SUR'LILY.--_n._ SUR'LINESS. [For _sir-ly_, for _sir-like_, arrogant.] SURMASTER, sur'mas-t[.e]r, _n._ a master in a school next in rank to a headmaster. SURMISE, sur-m[=i]z', _n._ suspicion: conjecture.--_v.t._ to imagine: to suspect.--_adjs._ SURM[=I]'SABLE, SURM[=I]'SANT.--_n._ SURM[=I]'SER. [O. Fr.,--_surmettre_, to accuse--L. _super_, upon, _mitt[)e]re_, to send.] SURMOUNT, sur-mownt', _v.t._ to mount above: to surpass: to overcome, get the better of.--_adj._ SURMOUNT'ABLE, that may be surmounted.--_n._ SURMOUNT'ABLENESS.--_adj._ SURMOUNT'ED, surpassed: overcome: (_archit._) denoting an arch or dome rising higher than a semicircle: (_her._) denoting a figure when another is laid over it.--_n._ SURMOUNT'ER. [Fr.--_sur_ (L. _super_), above, _monter_, to mount.] SURMULLET, sur-mul'et, _n._ a mulloid food-fish of the genus _Mullus_, with two long barbels on the throat. SURNAME, sur'n[=a]m, _n._ a name over and above the Christian name: the family name.--_v.t._ to call by a surname.--_adj._ SURNOM'INAL. [Formed from Fr. _sur_--L. _super_, over and above, and Eng. _name_, on the analogy of Fr. _sur-nom_.] SURPASS, sur-pas', _v.t._ to pass beyond: to exceed: to excel: to go past in space.--_adj._ SURPASS'ABLE, that may be surpassed.--_p.adj._ SURPASS'ING, passing beyond others: excellent in a high degree.--_adv._ SURPASS'INGLY.--_n._ SURPASS'INGNESS. [Fr. _surpasser_, _sur_--L. _super_, beyond, _passer_, to pass.] SURPLICE, sur'plis, _n._ a white linen garment worn over the cassock by clerks of all degrees, most commonly used for the service of the choir, and also employed, along with the stole, by priests in the administration of the sacraments and in preaching.--_adj._ SUR'PLICED, wearing a surplice. [Fr. _surplis_--Low L. _superpellicium_, an over-garment.] SURPLUS, sur'plus, _n._ the overplus: excess above what is required.--_n._ SUR'PLUSAGE, overplus. [Fr., from _sur_--L. _super_, over, _plus_, more.] SURPRISE, sur-pr[=i]z', _n._ act of taking unawares: the emotion caused by anything sudden: amazement.--_v.t._ to come upon suddenly or unawares: to lead or bring unawares, to betray (with _into_): to strike with wonder or astonishment: to confuse.--_n._ SURPR[=I]S'AL, act of surprising.--_adv._ SURPR[=I]S'EDLY.--_adj._ SURPR[=I]S'ING, exciting surprise: wonderful: unexpected.--_adv._ SURPR[=I]S'INGLY.--_n._ SURPR[=I]S'INGNESS. [Fr.,--surpris, pa.p. of _surprendre_--L. _super_, over, _prehend[)e]re_, to catch.] SURQUEDRY, sur'kwe-dri, _n._ (_Spens._) pride, arrogance--also SUR'QUIDRY.--_adj._ SUR'QUEDOUS. SURREBOUND, sur-e-bownd', _v.i._ to rebound again and again: to give back echoes. SURREBUT, sur-e-but', _v.i._ to reply to a defendant's rebutter.--_ns._ SURREBUT'TAL, a plaintiff's evidence or presentation of evidence, in response to a defendant's rebuttal; SURREBUT'TER, the plaintiffs reply, in common law pleading, to a defendant's rebutter; SURREJOIN'DER, the answer of a plaintiff to a defendant's rejoinder. SURREINED, sur'r[=a]nd, _adj._ (_Shak._) injured by driving, overworked. SURRENAL, sur-r[=e]'nal, _adj._ situated above the kidneys. SURRENDER, sur-ren'd[.e]r, _v.t._ to deliver over: to resign.--_v.i._ to yield up one's self to another.--_n._ act of yielding, or giving up to another.--_ns._ SURRENDEREE', one to whom a legal surrender is made; SURREN'DERER, one who surrenders; SURREN'DEROR (_law_), one who makes a surrender; SURREN'DRY, SURREN'DERY (_obs._), a surrender. [O. Fr. _surrendre_, from _sur_, over--L. _super_, over, _rendre_--L. _redd[)e]re_, to render.] SURREPTITIOUS, sur-rep-tish'us, _adj._ done by stealth or fraud.--_adv._ SURREPTI'TIOUSLY. [L., from _surrip[)e]re_, _surreptum_--_sub_, under, _rap[)e]re_, to seize.] SURREY, sur'[=a], _n._ (_U.S._) a light four-wheeled vehicle for four persons, usually with two seats in a box mounted on side-bars. SURROGATE, sur'r[=o]-g[=a]t, _n._ a substitute: the deputy of an ecclesiastical judge.--_ns._ SUR'ROG[=A]TESHIP; SURROG[=A]'TION, subrogation; SURROG[=A]'TUM, that which comes in place of something else. [L. _surrog[=a]re_, _[=a]tum_--_sub_, in the place of, _rog[=a]re_, to ask.] SURROUND, sur-rownd', _v.t._ to go round about; to encompass, environ: to cut off from communication or retreat.--_n._ SURROUND'ING, an encompassing: (_pl._) things which surround, external circumstances. [O. Fr. _suronder_--L. _superund[=a]re_, to overflow, often confused with _round_.] SURSIZE, sur-s[=i]z', _n._ a penalty in feudal times for non-payment of castle-guard rent on the appointed day. SURTAX, sur'taks, _n._ an additional tax on certain articles.--_v.t._ to lay such a tax upon. SURTOUT, sur-t[=oo]', -t[=oo]t', _n._ a close-bodied frock-coat: (_fort._) a raised portion of the parapet of a work at the angles, to protect from enfilade fire. [Fr.,--Low L. _super-totus_, an outer garment.] SURVEILLANCE, sur-vel'yans, _n._ a being vigilant or watchful: inspection.--_adj._ SURVEILL'ANT. [Fr.,--_surveiller_--_sur_, over--L. _super_, _veiller_, to watch--L. _vigil[=a]re_.] SURVEY, sur-v[=a]', _v.t._ to see or look over: to inspect: to superintend: to examine: to measure and estimate, as land--(_obs._) SURVIEW'.--_ns._ SUR'VEY, oversight: view: examination: the measuring of land, or of a country: general view: a description of the condition, use, &c. of property to be insured: an auction at which a farm is let for three lives: (_U.S._) a district for the collection of customs under a particular officer; SURVEY'ING, the art of ascertaining the boundaries and superficial extent of any portion of the earth's surface; SURVEY'OR, an overseer: a measurer of land; SURVEY'ORSHIP. [O. Fr. _surveoir_--L. _super_, over, _vid[=e]re_, to see.] SURVIVE, sur-v[=i]v', _v.t._ to live beyond: to outlive.--_v.i._ to remain alive.--_n._ SURV[=I]'VAL, a surviving or living after: any custom or belief surviving in folklore from a more or less savage earlier state of society, long after the philosophy or rationale of it is forgotten.--_p.adj._ SURV[=I]'VING, continuing alive: outliving.--_ns._ SURV[=I]'VOR, one who survives or lives after another; SURV[=I]'VORSHIP.--SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST, the preservation of favourable variations, attended with the destruction of injurious ones, such being the result of Natural Selection (see Natural). [Fr.,--L. _super_, beyond, _viv[)e]re_, to live.] SURYA, s[=oo]r'ya, _n._ the sun-god in Hindu mythology. [Sans. _s[=u]rya_, the sun.] SUSCEPTIBLE, sus-sep'ti-bl, _adj._ capable of receiving anything: impressible: disposed to admit.--_ns._ SUSCEPTIBIL'ITY, SUSCEP'TIBLENESS, quality of being susceptible: capability: sensibility.--_adv._ SUSCEP'TIBLY.--_adj._ SUSCEP'TIVE, capable of receiving or admitting: readily admitting.--_ns._ SUSCEP'TIVENESS; SUSCEPTIV'ITY; SUSCEP'TOR; SUSCIP'IENCY.--_adj._ SUSCIP'IENT. [Fr.,--L. _suscip[)e]re_, _susceptum_, to take up--_sub_, up, _cap[)e]re_, to take.] SUSCITATE, sus'i-t[=a]t, _v.t._ to excite, rouse.--_n._ SUSCIT[=A]'TION. [L. _suscit[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_sub_, under, _cit[=a]re_, to arouse.] SUSPECT, sus-pekt', _v.t._ to mistrust: to imagine to be guilty: to doubt: to have a slight opinion that something exists, but without sufficient evidence, to conjecture.--_v.i._ to imagine guilt, to be suspicious.--_n._ a person suspected.--_adv._ SUSPEC'TEDLY.--_n._ SUSPEC'TEDNESS.--_adj._ SUSPECT'LESS, not suspected. [L. _suspic[)e]re_, _suspectum_, to look at secretly--_sub_, up, _spec[)e]re_, to look at.] SUSPEND, sus-pend', _v.t._ to hang one thing beneath another: to make to depend on: to make to stop for a time: to delay: to debar from any privilege, office, emolument, &c. for a time.--_ns._ SUSPEN'DED-ANIM[=A]'TION, the temporary cessation of the outward signs and of some of the functions of life--due to asphyxia, drowning, strangulation; SUSPEN'DER, one who, or that which, suspends, one of a pair of straps crossing the shoulders to support the trousers; SUSPENSE', state of being suspended: act of withholding the judgment: uncertainty: indecision: stop betwixt two opposites; SUSPENSIBIL'ITY, susceptibility of being suspended.--_adj._ SUSPEN'SIBLE, capable of being suspended.--_ns._ SUSPEN'SION, act of suspending: interruption: delay: temporary privation of office or privilege: a conditional withholding; SUSPEN'SION-BRIDGE, a bridge in which the roadway is supported by chains, which pass over elevated piers, and are secured below at each end.--_adj._ SUSPEN'SIVE.--_adv._ SUSPEN'SIVELY.--_n._ SUSPEN'SOR, a suspensory bandage.--_adj._ SUSPENS[=O]'RIAL.--_n._ SUSPENS[=O]'RIUM, that which holds up a part, esp. the arrangement joining the lower jaw to the cranium in vertebrates below mammals.--_adj._ SUSPEN'SORY, that suspends: doubtful.--_n._ that which suspends: a bandage: having the effect of delaying or staying.--SUSPEND PAYMENT, to publicly stop paying debts from insolvency. [L. _suspend[)e]re_--_sub_, beneath, _pend[=e]re_, _pensum_, to hang.] SUSPERCOLLATE, sus-p[.e]r-kol'[=a]t, _v.t._ to hang. [_Sus. per coll._, abbrev. for L. _suspensio per collum_, hanging by the neck.] SUSPICION, sus-pish'un, _n._ act of suspecting: the imagining of something without evidence or on slender evidence: mistrust: (_coll._) a slight quantity of, as of spirits.--_adj._ SUSPI'CIOUS, full of suspicion: showing suspicion: inclined to suspect: liable to suspicion, doubtful.--_adv._ SUSPI'CIOUSLY.--_n._ SUSPI'CIOUSNESS. SUSPIRE, sus-p[=i]r', _v.i._ to fetch a deep breath, to sigh, to breathe.--_n._ SUSPIR[=A]'TION, act of sighing.--_adj._ SUSPIR'IOUS, sighing. [L. _susp[=i]r[=a]re_--_sub_, under, _spir[=a]re_, to breathe.] SUSTAIN, sus-t[=a]n', _v.t._ to hold up: to bear: to maintain: to relieve: to prove: to sanction: to prolong.--_adjs._ SUSTAIN'ABLE, that may be sustained; SUSTAINED', kept up at one uniform pitch.--_ns._ SUSTAIN'ER, one who, or that which, sustains; SUSTAIN'MENT, act of sustaining, sustenance; SUS'TENANCE, that which sustains: maintenance: provisions.--_adj._ SUSTENTAC'ULAR, supporting, pertaining to a SUSTENTAC'ULUM, a support or sustaining tissue, esp. an inferior spine of the tarsus in spiders of the genus _Epeira_.--_v.t._ SUS'TENT[=A]TE, to sustain.--_n._ SUSTENT[=A]'TION, that which sustains: support: maintenance.--_adj._ SUSTEN'TATIVE, sustaining.--_ns._ SUS'TENT[=A]TOR, a sustaining part or structure; SUSTEN'TION, the act of sustaining; SUSTEN'TOR, one of two posterior projections of a butterfly-chrysalis.--SUSTENTATION FUND, the scheme by which the ministers of the Free Church of Scotland are supported by voluntary contributions not local or congregational, but with a national altruism or solidarity paid into a great central fund, out of which equal stipends are paid to all alike. [L. _sustin[=e]re_--_sub_, up, _ten[=e]re_, to hold.] SUSURRANT, s[=u]-sur'ant, _adj._ murmuring, whispering.--_n._ SUSURR[=A]'TION, a soft murmur.--_adv._ SUSUR'RINGLY.--_adj._ SUSUR'ROUS, whispering, rustling.--_n._ SUSUR'RUS, a soft murmuring, a whispering. [L. _susurr[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to whisper.] SUTILE, s[=u]'til, _adj._ done by stitching. [L. _sutilis_--_su[)e]re_, to sew.] SUTLER, sut'l[.e]r, _n._ a person who follows an army and sells liquor or provisions: a camp-hawker.--_n._ SUT'LERY, a sutler's work: a sutler's store.--_adj._ SUT'LING, pertaining to sutlers: engaged in the occupation of a sutler. [Old Dut. _soetelaar_, _zoetelaar_, a small trader--_zoetelen_, to do mean work; Low Ger. _suddeln_, to do dirty work.] SUTOR, s[=u]'tor, _n._ a cobbler.--_adj._ SUT[=O]'RIAL. [L.] SUTRA, s[=oo]t'ra, _n._ in Sanskrit literature, the technical name of aphoristic rules, and of works consisting of such rules--the groundworks of the ritual, grammatical, metrical, and philosophical literature of India being written in this form. SUTTEE, sut-t[=e]', _n._ a usage long prevalent in India, in accordance with which, on the death of her husband, the faithful widow burned herself on the funeral pyre along with her husband's body.--_n._ SUTTEE'ISM, the practice of self-immolation among Hindu widows. [Sans. _satí_, a true wife.] SUTTLE, sut'l, _adj._ light. [_Subtle_.] SUTURE, s[=u]'t[=u]r, _n._ the mode of connection between the various bones of the cranium and face--_serrated_, when formed by the union of two edges of bone with projections and indentations fitting into one another--_squamous_, when formed by the overlapping of the bevelled edges of two contiguous bones: (_surg._) the sewing up of a wound by one or other mode, so as to maintain the opposed surfaces in contact: (_bot._) the seam at the union of two margins in a plant.--_adj._ S[=U]'T[=U]RAL, relating to a suture.--_adv._ S[=U]'T[=U]RALLY.--_n._ S[=U]T[=U]R[=A]'TION.--_adj._ S[=U]'T[=U]RED, having, or united by, sutures. [L. _sutura_--_su[)e]re_, to sew.] SUVERSED, su-verst', _adj._ versed and belonging to the supplement. SUZERAIN, s[=u]'ze-r[=a]n, _n._ a feudal lord: supreme or paramount ruler.--_n._ S[=U]'ZERAINTY, the dominion of a suzerain: paramount authority. [O. Fr.,--_sus_--Late L. _susum_, for _sursum_=_sub-versum_, above; the termination in imitation of Fr. _souverain_, Eng. _sovereign_.] SVELT, svelt, _adj._ in art, free, easy, bold. [Fr.,--It.] SWAB, swob, _n._ a mop for cleaning or drying floors or decks, or for cleaning out the bore of a cannon: a bit of sponge, &c., for cleansing the mouth of a sick person: (_slang_) a naval officer's epaulet: a lubber or clumsy fellow in sailor's slang.--_v.t._ to clean or dry with a swab:--_pr.p._ swab'bing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ swabbed.--_n._ SWAB'BER, one who uses a swab: a baker's implement for cleaning ovens. [Dut. _zwabber_, a swabber, _zwabberen_, to swab; Ger. _schwabber_.] SWACK, swak, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to drink greedily. SWACK, swak, _adj._ (_Scot._) active, nimble. SWAD, swad, _n._ a country lout. SWADDLE, swod'l, _v.t._ to swathe or bind tight with clothes, as an infant.--_ns._ SWADD'LER, an Irish papist's name for a Methodist, &c.; SWADD'LING-BAND, SWADD'LING-CLOTH, a cloth for swaddling an infant:--_pl._ SWADD'LING-CLOTHES (_B._). [A.S. _swethel_, a swaddling-band, _swathu_, a bandage.] SWADDY, swod'i, _n._ a soldier, esp. a militiaman. SWAG, swag, _n._ (_slang_) anything obtained by plunder: baggage, esp. that carried by one tramping through the bush, a swagman's pack: the subsidence of a mine-roof: a festoon or hanging cluster of flowers.--_ns._ SWAG'GER, SWAG'MAN, one who carries his swag about with him in his search for work; SWAG'SHOP, a place where cheap and trashy goods are sold. [Prob. _swag_ (v.).] SWAG, swag, _v.i._ to sink down by its own weight.--_adj._ SWAG'-BELL'IED, having a large projecting belly. [Prob. conn. with _sway_.] SWAGE, sw[=a]j, _n._ a tool used for making mouldings on sheet-iron. SWAGE, sw[=a]j, _v.t._ and _v.i._ (_Milt._) to assuage. SWAGGER, swag'[.e]r, _v.i._ to swing the body in a blustering defiant way: to brag noisily, to bully.--_n._ boastfulness: insolence of manner.--_adj._ (_slang_) very fashionable.--_n._ SWAGG'ERER.--_adj._ and _n._ SWAGG'ERING.--_adv._ SWAGG'ERINGLY. [A freq. of _swag_=_sway_.] SWAHILI, swa-h[=e]'li, _n._ the name given to the people of Zanzibar and the opposite coast belonging to the Bantu stock, with an Arab infusion, and speaking a Bantu tongue modified by Arabic.--_adj._ SWAHI'LIAN. [Ar. _Waswahili_, 'coast people.'] SWAIN, sw[=a]n, _n._ a young man: a peasant: a country lover.--_n._ SWAIN'ING, love-making.--_adj._ SWAIN'ISH, boorish.--_n._ SWAIN'ISHNESS, boorishness. [Ice. _sveinn_, young man, servant, Dan. _svend_, servant.] SWALE, sw[=a]l, _n._ a shady spot: a lower tract of rolling prairie. SWALLOW, swol'[=o], _n._ a migratory bird with long wings, which seizes its insect food on the wing: a genus (_Hirundo_) and family (_Hirundinidæ_) of passerine birds, with long and pointed wings.--_adj._ SWALL'OW-TAILED, like a swallow's tail in form, forked and pointed--of a dress-coat. [A.S. _swalewe_; Ger. _schwalbe_.] SWALLOW, swol'[=o], _v.t._ to receive through the gullet into the stomach: to engulf: to absorb: to occupy: to exhaust.--_n._ SWALL'OWER. [A.S. _swelgan_, to swallow; cog. with Ger. _schwelgen_.] SWAM, swam, _pa.t._ of _swim_. SWAMP, swomp, _n._ wet, spongy land: low ground filled with water.--_v.t._ to sink in, or as in a swamp: to overset, or cause to fill with water, as a boat.--_adj._ SWAMP'Y, consisting of swamp: wet and spongy. [Scand., Dan. and Sw. _svamp_, a sponge; from the root of _swim_.] SWAN, swon, _n._ a genus of birds constituting a very distinct section of the Duck family _Anatidæ_, having the neck as long as the body, noted for grace and stateliness of movement on the water.--_ns._ SWAN'-GOOSE, the China goose; SWAN'-HERD, one who tends swans; SWAN'-HOP'PING, better SWAN'-MARK'ING and SWAN'-UP'PING, the custom of marking the upper mandible of a swan to show ownership--done annually to the royal swans on the Thames, the occasion being excuse for a festive expedition.--_adj._ SWAN'-LIKE.--_ns._ SWAN'-MAID'EN, a familiar figure in European folklore, changing at will into a maiden or a swan by means of the magic properties of her shift; SWAN'-MARK, the notch made on the swan's upper mandible; SWAN'-NECK, the end of a pipe, &c., curved like a swan's neck; SWAN'NERY, a place where swans are kept and tended.--_adj._ SWAN'NY, swan-like.--_ns._ SWAN'S'-DOWN, the down or under-plumage of a swan, used for powder-puffs, &c.: a soft woollen cloth: a thick cotton with a soft nap on one side; SWAN'-SHOT, a shot of large size, like buck-shot; SWAN'-SKIN, the unplucked skin of a swan: a soft, nappy, fine-twilled flannel; SWAN'-SONG, the fabled song of a swan just before its death: a poet's or musician's last work. [A.S. _swan_; Ger. _schwan_, Dut. _zwaan_.] SWANG, swang, _n._ (_prov._) a swamp. SWANK, swangk, _adj._ (_Scot._) slender, pliant: agile, supple--also SWANK'ING.--_n._ SWANK'Y, an active fellow. [A.S. _swancor_, pliant; Ger. _schwank_.] SWANKY, SWANKIE, swangk'i, _n._ poor thin beer or any sloppy drink, even sweetened water and vinegar. SWANPAN. See SHWANPAN. SWAP, swop, _v.t._ to barter.--_n._ an exchange.--_adj._ SWAP'PING, large. [_Swop_.] SWAPE, sw[=a]p, _n._ (_prov._) a pump-handle: a large oar or sweep: a sconce for holding a light.--_v.i._ to sweep: to place aslant.--_n._ SWAPE'-WELL, a well from which water is raised by a well-sweep. SWARD, swawrd, _n._ the grassy surface of land: green turf--also SWARTH.--_v.t._ to cover with sward.--_adjs._ SWARD'ED, SWARD'Y, covered with sward. [A.S. _sweard_; Dut. _zwoord_, Ger. _schwarte_.] SWARE, sw[=a]r (_B._), _pa.t._ of _swear_. SWARF, swärf, _v.i._ to faint.--_n._ a swoon. SWARF, swärf, _n._ the grit from a grindstone in grinding cutlery wet. SWARM, swawrm, _n._ a body of humming or buzzing insects: a cluster of insects, esp. of bee: a great number: throng.--_v.i._ to gather as bees: to appear in a crowd: to throng: to abound: to breed multitudes.--_v.t._ to cause to breed in swarms. [A.S. _swearm_; Ger. _schwarm_; from the same root as Ger. _schwirren_.] SWARM, swawrm, _v.i._ to climb a tree by scrambling up by means of arms and legs (with _up_). SWARTH, swawrth, _n._ (_Shak._). Same as SWATH. SWARTH, swawrth, _n._ a wraith, apparition of a person about to die. SWARTHY, swawrth'i, _adj._ of a blackish complexion: dark-skinned: tawny--also SWART, SWARTH.--_adv._ SWARTH'ILY.--_ns._ SWARTHI'INESS; SWART'-STAR (_Milt._), the dog-star, so called because at the time of its appearance it darkens the complexion. [A.S. _sweart_; Ice. _svartr_, Ger. _schwarz_, black.] SWARVE, swawrv, _v.i._ to swerve. SWASH, swosh, _v.t._ to dash or splash.--_v.i._ to make a splashing noise, to wash up against.--_ns._ SWASH'-BUCK'LER, a bully, a blusterer; SWASH'ER (_Shak._), one who swashes, a blusterer.--_adj._ SWASH'ING, slashing, crushing.--_n.pl._ SWASH'-LETT'ERS, Italic capitals with top and bottom flourishes, intended to fill out ugly gaps.--_ns._ SWASH'-PLATE, a disc set obliquely on a revolving axis, to give a reciprocating motion to a bar along its length; SWASH'-WORK, lathe-work in which the cuts are inclined to the axis of rotation.--_adj._ SWASH'Y, swaggering. [Scand.; cf. dial. Sw. _svasska_, Norw. _svakka_, prov. Eng. _swack_, a blow.] SWASTIKA, swäs'ti-ka, _n._ the same as _Fylfot_ (q.v.).--Also SVAS'TIKA and _Gammadion_. [Sans., 'fortunate.'] SWAT, swot (_Spens._), _pa.t._ of _sweat_. SWATCH, swach, _n._ a strip of cloth as a sample. [_Swath_.] SWATH, swawth, _n._ a line of grass or corn cut by the scythe: the sweep of a scythe.--_adj._ SWATH'Y. [A.S. _swathu_, a track; Dut. _zwade_, also a scythe.] SWATHE, sw[=a]th, _v.t._ to bind with a band or bandage.--_n._ a bandage. [A.S. _swethian_; cf. _Swaddle_.] SWATS, swats, _n._ (_Scot._) new ale: thin sowens. SWATTER, swat'[.e]r, _v.i._ (_prov._) to spill water about. [Cf. Dut. _swaddren_, to dabble in water.] SWAY, sw[=a], _v.t._ to swing or wield with the hand: to incline to one side: to influence by power or moral force: to govern: to hoist, raise.--_v.i._ to incline to one side: to govern: to have weight or influence.--_n._ the sweep of a weapon: that which moves with power: preponderance: power in governing: influence or authority inclining to one side: a thatcher's binding-switch.--_adj._ SWAYED (_Shak._), bent down and injured in the back by heavy burdens--said of a horse. [Prob. Scand., as Ice. _sveigja_, Dan. _svaie_, to sway; akin to _swing_.] SWEAL, sw[=e]l, _v.t._ to scorch.--_v.i._ to melt and run down: to burn away slowly. [A.S. _swelan_.] SWEAR, sw[=a]r, _v.i._ to affirm, calling God to witness: to give evidence on oath: to utter the name of God or of sacred things profanely.--_v.t._ to utter, calling God to witness: to administer an oath to: to declare on oath:--_pa.t._ sw[=o]re; _pa.p._ sworn.--_n._ SWEAR'ER.--SWEAR AT, to aim profanity at: to be very incongruous with, esp. in colour; SWEAR BY, to put complete confidence in; SWEAR IN, to inaugurate by oath; SWEAR OFF, to renounce, promise to give up. [A.S. _swerian_; Dut. _zweren_, Ger. _schwören_.] SWEARD, sw[=e]rd, _n._ (_Spens._) sword. SWEAT, swet, _n._ the moisture from the skin, the state of one who sweats, diaphoresis: labour: drudgery.--_v.i._ to give out sweat or moisture: to toil, drudge for poor wages: to suffer penalty, smart.--_v.t._ to give out, as sweat: to cause to sweat: to squeeze money or extortionate interest from, to compel to hard work for mean wages: to wear away or pare down by friction or other means, as coins: to scrape the sweat from a horse.--_ns._ SWEAT'ER, one who sweats, or that which causes sweating, a diaphoretic: a heavy kind of jersey used by persons in training for athletic contests, to reduce their weight: one who sweats coins: a London street ruffian in Queen Anne's time who prodded weak passengers with his sword-point; SWEAT'INESS; SWEAT'ING-BATH, a bath to promote perspiration; SWEAT'ING-HOUSE, -ROOM, a house, room, for sweating persons: a room for sweating cheese and carrying off the superfluous juices; SWEAT'ING-SICK'NESS, an extremely fatal epidemic disorder which ravaged Europe, and esp. England, in the 15th and 16th centuries--a violent inflammatory fever, with a fetid perspiration over the whole body; SWEAT'ING-SYS'TEM, the practice of working poor people at starvation wages, esp. in making up clothes in their own houses.--_adj._ SWEAT'Y, wet with sweat: consisting of sweat: laborious. [A.S. _swát_, sweat, _sw['æ]tan_, to sweat; Dut. _zweet_; Low Ger. _sweet_, Ger. _schweiss_.] SWEATH-BAND, sw[=e]th'-band, _n._ (_Spens._) a swaddling-band. [_Swathe_.] SWEDE, sw[=e]d, _n._ a native of _Sweden_; a Swedish turnip.--_adj._ SW[=E]D'ISH, pertaining to Sweden, to Swedish turnips, gloves of undressed kid, &c. SWEDENBORGIAN, sw[=e]-dn-bor'ji-an, _n._ one who holds the religious doctrines of Emanuel Swedenborg, a Swedish philosopher (1688-1772), founder of the New Jerusalem Church.--_n._ SWEDENBOR'GIANISM. SWEENY, sw[=e]'ni, _n._ atrophy of a muscle. SWEEP, sw[=e]p, _v.t._ to wipe or rub over with a brush or broom: to carry along or off by a long brushing stroke or force: to destroy or carry off at a stroke: to strike with a long stroke: to carry with pomp: to drag over: to pass rapidly over.--_v.i._ to pass swiftly and forcibly: to pass with pomp: to move with a long reach:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ swept.--_n._ act of sweeping: extent of a stroke, or of anything turning or in motion: prevalence, range: direction of a curve: the act of bringing into a general movement: rapid or wide-spread destructiveness: a curved approach before a building: a chimney-sweeper: (_pl._) oars of great length used during a calm or in still water, either to assist the rudder or to propel the vessel.--_n._ SWEEP'ER.--_adv._ SWEEP'INGLY, in a sweeping manner.--_n._ SWEEP'INGNESS.--_n.pl._ SWEEP'INGS, things collected by sweeping: rubbish.--_ns._ SWEEP'-NET, a net that embraces a large compass: SWEEP'STAKE (_Shak._), one who wins all--usually in _pl._ SWEEP'STAKES, a method of gambling by which several persons contribute each certain stakes, the whole of which fall to one in case of a certain event happening; SWEEP'-WASH'ER, one who scrapes a little gold or silver from the sweepings of refineries.--_adj._ SWEEP'Y, swaying, sweeping, curving. [A.S. _swápan_; Ger. _schweifen_, Cf. _Swoop_.] SWEER, SWEIR, sw[=e]r, _adj._ (_Scot._) lazy, unwilling. [A.S. _sw['æ]r_, _swár_, heavy.] SWEET, sw[=e]t, _adj._ pleasing to the taste or senses: tasting like sugar: fragrant: melodious: beautiful, grateful to the eye: fresh, as opposed to salt or to sour: pure: recent, not stale, sour, or putrid: mild, soft, gentle: kind, obliging.--_n._ a sweet substance: a term of endearment: (_pl._) sweetmeats, confections: sweet dishes served at table, puddings, tarts, jellies, &c.--_v.t._ (_obs._) to sweeten.--_adj._ SWEET'-AND-TWEN'TY (_Shak._), at once fair and young.--_ns._ SWEET'-BAY, the laurel (_Laurus nobilis_); SWEET'BREAD, the pancreas of an animal used for food, both delicate and nutritious.--_adj._ SWEET'-BREATHED, sweet-smelling.--_ns._ SWEET'-BR[=I]'ER, a thorny shrub of the rose kind resembling the brier, having a sweet smell; SWEET'-CORN, a variety of maize.--_v.t._ SWEET'EN, to make sweet: to make pleasing, mild, or kind: to increase the agreeable qualities of: to make pure and healthy.--_ns._ SWEET'ENER, one who, or that which, sweetens; SWEET'ENING, act of sweetening: that which sweetens; SWEET'-FLAG, -RUSH, an aromatic plant of the genus _Acorus_ of the arum family; SWEET'HEART, a lover or mistress.--_n.pl._ SWEET'IES, confections.--_n._ SWEET'ING, a sweet apple: (_Shak._) a darling, a word of endearment.--_adj._ SWEET'ISH, somewhat sweet to the taste.--_ns._ SWEET'ISHNESS; SWEET'-JOHN, a flower of the narrow-leaved varieties of a species of pink, _Dianthus barbatus_, as distinguished from other varieties called _Sweet-william_; SWEET'LEAF, a small tree in the southern United States, having sweetish leaves relished by cattle and horses; SWEET'-LIPS, one whose lips are sweet--a term of endearment: the ballanwrasse, or _Labrus maculatus_.--_adv._ SWEET'LY.--_ns._ SWEET'-MAR'JORAM, a fragrant species of marjoram; SWEET'MEAT, a confection made wholly or chiefly of sugar; SWEET'-NAN'CY, the double-flowered variety of _Narcissus poeticus_; SWEET'NESS; SWEET'-OIL, olive-oil; SWEET'-PEA, a pea cultivated for its fragrance and beauty; SWEET'-POT[=A]'TO, a twining plant common in tropical and sub-tropical countries, having large sweetish edible tubers.--_adj._ SWEET'-SCENT'ED, having a sweet smell.--_n._ SWEET'-SOP, a tropical American evergreen, also its pulpy fruit.--_adj._ SWEET'-TEM'PERED, having a mild, amiable disposition.--_ns._ SWEET'-WA'TER, a white variety of the European grape, with very sweet juice; SWEET'-WILL'IAM, the bunch-pink, _Dianthus barbatus_, a garden flower of many colours and varieties; SWEET'WOOD, a name applied to various trees and shrubs of the laurel family found in South America and the West Indies.--BE SWEET ON, or UPON, to be in love with. [A.S. _swéte_; Ger. _süsz_, Gr. _h[=e]dys_, L. _suavis_, sweet, Sans. _svad_, to taste.] SWELL, swel, _v.i._ to grow larger: to expand: to rise into waves: to heave: to be inflated: to bulge out: to grow louder: to be bombastic, to strut: to become elated, arrogant, or angry: to grow upon the view: to grow more violent: to grow louder, as a note.--_v.t._ to increase the size of: to aggravate: to increase the sound of: to raise to arrogance: to augment the sound of:--_pa.p._ swelled or swollen (sw[=o]ln).--_n._ act of swelling: a bulge or protuberance: increase in size: an increase and a succeeding decrease in the volume of a tone: a gradual rise of ground: a wave or billow or succession of them in one direction, as after a storm: a distinct set of pipes in an organ, enclosed in a case furnished with movable shutters which being more or less opened by means of a pedal, produce a swell of sound: (_geol._) an upward protrusion of strata from whose central region the beds dip quaquaversally at a low angle: a strutting foppish fellow, a dandy.--_adj._ fashionable.--_n._ SWELL'DOM, the fashionable world generally.--_adj._ SWELL'ING (_B._), inflated, proud, haughty.--_n._ protuberance: a tumour: a rising, as of passion: (_B._) inflation by pride.--_adj._ SWELL'ISH, foppish, dandified.--_ns._ SWELL'-MOB, well-dressed pickpockets collectively; SWELL'-MOBS'MAN, a well-dressed pickpocket. [A.S. _swellan_; Ger. _schwellen_.] SWELT, swelt, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to swelter. SWELTER, swelt'[.e]r, _v.i._ to be faint or oppressed with heat: to perspire copiously from heat.--_v.t._ to cause to faint, to overpower, as with heat.--_p.adj._ SWELT'ERING.--_adv._ SWELT'ERINGLY.--_adj._ SWELT'RY, sultry, oppressive with heat. [A.S. _sweltan_, to die; Ice. _svelta_, to hunger.] SWEPT, swept, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _sweep_. SWERVE, sw[.e]rv, _v.i._ to turn, depart from any line, duty, or custom: to incline: to rove, wander.--_n._ an act of swerving.--_adj._ SWERVE'LESS, that does not swerve.--_n._ SWERV'ER, one who swerves. [A.S. _sweorfan_; Dut. _zwerven_.] SWEVEN, sw[=e]'vn, _n._ (_obs._) a dream.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to sleep, dream. [A.S. _swefen_, sleep, dream.] SWIFT, swift, _adj._ moving quickly: fleet, rapid: speedy: ready.--_n._ a genus (_Cypselus_) and family (_Cypselidæ_) of picarian birds, resembling the swallows in general appearance and habits, but most closely allied by anatomical structure to the humming-birds--with long pointed wings, a short tail, and remarkable powers of rapid and prolonged flight: the common newt: a reel for winding yarn: the main cylinder of a carding-machine: the current of a stream.--_n._ SWIF'TER, any rope temporarily used to tighten or keep a thing in its place.--_adjs._ SWIFT'-FOOT'ED; SWIFT'-HAND'ED; SWIFT'-HEELED.--_adv._ SWIFT'LY, with swiftness: rapidly.--_n._ SWIFT'NESS, quality of being swift: quickness: fleetness: rapidity: speed.--_adj._ SWIFT'-WINGED. [A.S. _swift_, from same root as _swoop_.] SWIG, swig, _n._ a pulley with ropes not parallel.--_v.t._ to tighten a rope by hauling at right angles to its lead: to castrate by ligating the scrotum and making the testicles slough off. [Prob. _swag_.] SWIG, swig, _n._ a large draught: one who drinks deep.--_v.t._ to drink by large draughts, to gulp down. [Prob. conn. with A.S. _swelgan_, to swallow.] SWILL, swil, _v.t._ or _v.i._ to drink greedily or largely, to drink habitually, to drench one's self with: to wash, rinse.--_n._ a large draught of liquor: the liquid mixture given to swine.--_ns._ SWILL'ER; SWILL'ING.--_n.pl._ SWILL'INGS, hog wash. [A.S. _swilian_, to wash; cf. Sw. _sqvala_, to gush.] SWIM, swim, _v.i._ to float, as opposed to sink: to move on or in water: to be borne along by a current: to glide along with a waving motion: to be dizzy: to be drenched: to overflow: to abound.--_v.t._ to pass by swimming: to make to swim or float:--_pr.p._ swim'ming; _pa.t._ swam; _pa.p._ swum or swam.--_n._ act of swimming: any motion like swimming: air-bladder of a fish.--_adj._ SWIM'MABLE, capable of being swum.--_ns._ SWIM'MER, one who swims: a web-footed aquatic bird; SWIM'MERET, one of the abdominal appendages which in the lobster and other Crustacea are used in swimming; SWIM'MING, the act of floating or moving on or in the water: dizziness; SWIM'MING-BATH, a bath large enough for swimming in.--_adv._ SWIM'MINGLY, in a gliding manner, as if swimming: smoothly, successfully.--_ns._ SWIM'MINGNESS, the state of swimming: a melting look, tearfulness; SWIM'MING-POND, an artificial pond adapted for swimming in; SWIM'MING-SCHOOL, a place where swimming is taught; SWIM'MING-STONE, a cellular variety of flint--_float-stone_.--IN THE SWIM, in the main current, of affairs, business, &c. [A.S. _swimman_; Ger. _schwimmen_.] SWINCK, swingk, _v.i._ (_Spens._). Same as SWINK. SWINDGE, swindj, _v.t._ (_Milt._). Same as SWINGE (1). SWINDLE, swin'dl, _v.t._ to cheat under the pretence of fair dealing.--_n._ the act of swindling or defrauding: anything not really what it appears to be.--_adj._ SWIN'DLEABLE, capable of being swindled.--_ns._ SWIN'DLER, one who defrauds by imposition: a cheat or rogue; SWIN'DLERY, roguery, swindling practices.--_adj._ SWIN'DLING, cheating. [Ger. _schwindler_, a cheat--_schwindeln_, to be giddy, _schwinden_empty, to sink; A.S. _swindan_, to droop.] SWINE, sw[=i]n, _n.sing._ and _pl._ a well-known quadruped with bristly skin and long snout, fed for its flesh: a pig: pigs collectively.--_ns._ SWINE'HERD, a herd or keeper of swine; SWINE'-POX, chicken-pox; SWIN'ERY, a place where pigs are kept; SWINE'S'-SNOUT, the dandelion; SWINE'-STONE (same as STINK-STONE); SWINE'-STY, a pig-sty. [A.S. _swín_, a pig; Ger. _schwein_, L. _sus_, Gr. _hys_.] SWING, swing, _v.i._ to sway or wave to and fro, as a body hanging in air: to move forward with swaying gait: to vibrate: to practise swinging: to turn round at anchor: to be hanged.--_v.t._ to move to and fro: to cause to wave or vibrate: to whirl, to brandish: to cause to wheel or turn as about some point: to fix up anything so as to hang freely:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ swung.--_n._ the act of swinging: motion to and fro: a waving motion: anything suspended for swinging in: the sweep or compass of a swinging body: the sweep of a golf-club when driving: influence or power of anything put in motion: free course, unrestrained liberty.--_ns._ SWING'-BACK, a device for adjusting the plate-holder of a camera at any desired angle; SWING'BOAT, a boat-shaped carriage swung from a frame, in use for swinging in at fairs, &c.; SWING'-BRIDGE, a bridge that may be moved aside by swinging, at the mouth of docks, &c.; SWING'-CHURN, a churn-box so hung as to be worked by oscillation; SWING'ER; SWING'-HAN'DLE, a pivoted handle of any utensil, esp. a bail or other arched handle; SWING'ING, the act of moving back and forth, esp. the pastime of moving in a swing.--_adj._ having a free easy motion.--_n._ SWING'ING-BOOM, the spar which stretches the foot of a lower studding-sail.--_adv._ SWING'INGLY, in a swinging-manner.--_ns._ SWING'ING-POST, the post to which a gate is hung; SWING'ISM, a form of intimidation common in England about 1830-33, which consisted mainly in sending letters signed 'Swing' or 'Captain Swing' to farmers, ordering them under threats to give up threshing-machines, &c.; SWING'-M[=O]'TION, a mechanism in the truck of a railway carriage, &c., permitting swaying from side to side; SWING'-PAN, a sugar-pan with spout, pivoted so that it may be emptied by tipping; SWING'-PLOUGH, a plough without a fore-wheel under the beam; SWING'-SHELF, a hanging shelf; SWING'-STOCK, an upright timber, with a blunt edge at top over which flax was beaten by the swingle--also SWING'ING-BLOCK; SWING'-SWANG, a complete oscillation.--_adj._ swinging, drawling.--_ns._ SWING'-T[=A]'BLE, a moveable bed on which plate-glass is cemented for polishing; SWING'-TOOL, a holder swinging on horizontal centres, on which work is fastened so as to hold flat against the face of a file; SWING'-TREE=_Swingle-tree_ (q.v.); SWING'-TROT, a swinging trot; SWING'-WHEEL, the wheel that drives a clock pendulum, corresponding to the balance-wheel in a watch. [A.S. _swingan_; Ger. _schwingen_, to swing; allied to _wag_, _sway_.] SWINGE, swinj, _v.t._ to beat, chastise: to forge, weld together: to wave to and fro.--_n._ a lash, a lashing movement.--_n._ SWINGE'-BUCK'LER (_Shak._), one who pretends to feats of arms, a blusterer.--_adj._ SWINGE'ING, great, huge.--_adv._ SWINGE'INGLY.--_n._ SWINGER (swinj'[.e]r), any person or thing great or astonishing, a bold lie, a whopper. [A.S. _swengan_, to shake, a causal form of _swingan_, to swing.] SWINGE, swinj, _v.t._ (_Spens._). Same as SINGE. SWINGLE, swing'gl, _v.t._ to dress or separate the fibrous parts of flax from the woody substance by beating.--_n._ an implement for this purpose.--_ns._ SWING'LE, the part of the flail which falls on the grain in threshing; SWING'LE-TREE, SING'LE-TREE, the cross-piece of a carriage, plough, &c. to which the traces of a harnessed horse are fixed. [_Swing_.] SWINISH, sw[=i]'nish, _adj._ like or befitting swine: gross: brutal.--_adv._ SWIN'ISHLY.--_n._ SWIN'ISHNESS. SWINK, swingk, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to labour, to toil, to drudge.--_v.t._ to tire out with labour.--_n._ labour.--_adj._ SWINK'ED (_Milt._), wearied with labour, fatigued. [A.S. _swincan_, to labour; cf. _swingan_, swing.] SWIPE, sw[=i]p, _n._ a hard blow.--_v.t._ to give a strong blow to: to steal by snatching.--_n._ SW[=I]'PER, one who swipes. [A.S. _swipe_, a whip.] SWIPES, sw[=i]ps, _n._ bad or spoilt beer, also small-beer.--_adj._ SW[=I]'PEY, fuddled with malt liquor. SWIRE, sw[=i]r, _n._ a hollow between two hills. [Prob. A.S. _swéora_, the neck.] SWIRL, sw[.e]rl, _v.i._ to sweep along with a whirling motion.--_n._ whirling motion, as of wind or water: a curl or twist: the rush of a fish through the water in rising to a fly.--_adj._ SWIRL'Y. [Skeat explains as Scand., Norw. _svirla_, to whirl round, a freq. of _sverra_, to whirl, orig. to hum.] SWISH, swish, _v.t._ to cause to move or to cut with a whistling sound: to flog, thrash.--_n._ a swishing sound.--_adv._ in a swishing manner or with such a sound.--_ns._ SWISH'ER, one who swishes or flogs; SWISH'-SWASH, a swishing action or sound: a washy drink. [Imit.] SWISS, swis, _adj._ of or belonging to _Switzerland_.--_n._ a native of Switzerland: the language of Switzerland: a High German patois, spoken in fifteen of the cantons.--_n._ SWIT'ZER, a native of Switzerland: one of a hired bodyguard of a king or pope.--SWISS GUARDS, a celebrated corps or regiment of Swiss mercenaries in the French army of the old régime, constituted 'Gardes' by royal decree in 1616. SWISSING, swis'ing, _n._ the calendering of bleached cloth, after dampening, by passing between bowls or pairs of rollers. SWITCH, swich, _n._ a small flexible twig: a movable rail for transferring a carriage from one line of rails to another: a device to make or break a circuit, or transfer an electric current from one conductor to another.--_v.t._ to strike with a switch: to swing, whisk: to transfer a carriage from one line of rails to another by a switch: to shift from one circuit to another, or in or out of circuit, as an electric current, to shunt.--_ns._ SWITCH'BACK, a term applied to a zigzagging, alternate back-and-forward mode of progression up a slope; SWITCH'BACK-RAIL'WAY, an apparatus for public amusement, consisting of a short length of elevated railway with a series of rounded inclines, so that the car gains enough of momentum descending the first steep incline to ascend one or more smaller inclines till it gradually and more slowly works its way to the original level at the far end of the course; SWITCH'ING, a beating with a switch: trimming; SWITCH'MAN, a pointsman. [Old Dut. _swick_, a whip.] SWITCHEL, swich'el, _n._ treacle-beer, molasses and water, &c. SWITH, swith, _adv._ (_obs._) quickly: away! begone! SWITHER, swith'[.e]r, _v.i._ (_prov._) to doubt, hesitate.--_n._ hesitation: a fright, a sweat. [Illustration] SWIVEL, swiv'l, _n._ something fixed in another body so as to turn round in it: a ring or link that turns round on a pin or neck: a small cannon turning on a swivel.--_v.i._ to turn on a pin or pivot.--_ns._ SWIV'EL-EYE, a squint-eye; SWIV'EL-HOOK, a hook secured to anything by means of a swivel. [A.S. _swífan_, to move quickly, to turn round.] SWIZZLE, swiz'l, _v.i._ to drink to excess.--_n._ a mixed or compounded drink. SWOLLEN, sw[=o]ln, _pa.p._ of _swell_. SWOON, sw[=oo]n, _v.i._ to faint: to fall into a fainting-fit.--_n._ the act of swooning: a fainting-fit.--SWOOND'ED, obsolete _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _swoon_.--_n._ SWOON'ING.--_adv._ SWOON'INGLY, [M. E. _swounen_, _swoghenen_--A.S. _swógan_, to resound.] SWOOP, sw[=oo]p, _v.t._ to sweep down upon: to take with a sweep: to catch while on the wing: to catch up.--_v.i._ to descend with a sweep.--_n._ the act of swooping: a seizing, as a bird on its prey. [A.S. _swápan_, to sweep; Ger. _schweifen_, to rove.] SWOP, swop, _v.t._ to exchange, to barter:--_pr.p._ swop'ping; pa.t and _pa.p._ swopped.--_n._ an exchange.--Also SWAP. [Most prob. the same as obs. _swap_, _swop_, to beat, cog. with _swoop_.] [Illustration] SWORD, s[=o]rd, _n._ an offensive weapon with a long blade, sharp upon one or both edges, for cutting or thrusting: destruction by the sword or by war, war, military force: the emblem of vengeance or justice, or of authority and power.--_adj._ SWORD'-AND-BUCK'LER, fought with sword and buckler, not the rapier: armed with sword and buckler.--_ns._ SWORD'-ARM, -HAND, the arm, hand, that wields the sword; SWORD'-BAY'ONET, a bayonet shaped somewhat like a sword, and used as one; SWORD'-BEAR'ER, a public officer who carries the sword of state; SWORD'-BELT, a military belt from which the sword is hung; SWORD'BILL, a South American humming-bird with a bill longer than its body; SWORD'-BREAK'ER, an old weapon for grasping and breaking an adversary's sword; SWORD'-CANE, -STICK, a cane or stick containing a sword; SWORD'CRAFT, skill with the sword; military power; SWORD'-CUT, a blow, wound, or scar caused by the edge of a sword; SWORD'-DANCE, a dance in which the display of naked swords, or movements made with such, form a part; SWORD'-DOLL'AR, a Scotch silver coin under James VI., worth 2s. 6d. in English money, having a sword on the reverse; SWORD'ER (_Shak._), a swordsman; SWORD'FISH, a family of spiny-rayed Teleostean fishes, sometimes 12 to 15 feet in length, with a sword about 3 feet long, formed from a compressed prolongation of the upper jaw; SWORD'-FLAG, the European water-flag or yellow iris; SWORD'-GRASS, a kind of sedge; SWORD'-GUARD, the part of a sword-hilt that protects the bearer's hand; SWORD'-KNOT, a ribbon tied to the hilt of a sword; SWORD'-LAW, government by the sword.--_adj._ SWORD'LESS, destitute of a sword.--_ns._ SWORD'PLAY, fencing; SWORD'PLAYER, a fencer.--_adj._ SWORD'-PROOF, capable of resisting the blow or thrust of a sword.--_n._ SWORD'-RACK, a rack for holding swords.--_adj._ SWORD'-SHAPED, ensiform.--_ns._ SWORDS'MAN, a man skilled in the use of a sword; SWORDS'MANSHIP. [A.S. _sweord_; Ice. _sverdh_, Ger. _schwert_.] SWORE, SWORN. See SWEAR. SWORN, sw[=o]rn, _pa.p._ of swear.--SWORN BROKER, a London broker who swears before the court of aldermen to maintain honesty in dealing; SWORN ENEMIES, enemies determined not to be reconciled; SWORN FRIENDS, fast or close friends. SWOTE, sw[=o]t, _adv._ (_Spens._) sweetly. SWOUND, swownd, _v.i._ (_Shak._) to swoon--also _n._ SWUM, swum, _pa.p._ of _swim_. SWUNG, swung, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _swing_. SYB, sib, _adj._ (_Spens._). Same as SIB. SYBARITE, sib'a-r[=i]t, _n._ an inhabitant of Sybaris, a Greek city in ancient Italy, on the Gulf of Tarentum, noted for the effeminacy and luxury of its inhabitants: one devoted to luxury.--_adjs._ SYBARIT'IC, -AL.--_n._ SYB'ARITISM. SYBO, s[=i]'b[=o], _n._ a Scotch form of _Cibol_ (q.v.):--_pl._ SY'BOES. SYBOTIC, s[=i]-bot'ik, _adj._ pertaining to a swineherd.--_n._ SY'BOTISM. [Gr. _syb[=o]t[=e]s_, swineherd.] SYCAMINE, sik'a-m[=i]n, _n._ (_B._) supposed to be the black mulberry-tree (_Morus nigra_). SYCAMORE, sik'a-m[=o]r, _n._ a fruit-tree of the fig family, common in Palestine, &c.: a species of maple, in Scotland usually called _plane-tree_: in America, the native plane. [Gr. _sykomoros_--_sykon_, a fig, _moron_, black mulberry.] SYCE. Same as _Sice_ (q.v.). SYCOPHANT, sik'[=o]-fant, _n._ a common informer: a servile flatterer.--_n._ SYC'OPHANCY, the behaviour of a sycophant: mean tale-bearing: obsequious flattery: servility--also SYCOPHANT'ISM.--_adjs._ SYCOPHANT'IC, -AL, SYCOPHANT'ISH, like a sycophant: obsequiously flattering: parasitic.--_v.i._ SYC'OPHANTISE.--_adv._ SYC'OPHANTISHLY.--_n._ SYC'OPHANTRY, the arts of the sycophant. [Gr. _sykophant[=e]s_, usually said to mean one who informed against persons exporting figs from Attica or plundering the sacred fig-trees; but more prob. one who brings figs to light by shaking the tree, hence one who makes rich men yield up their fruit by informations and other vile arts--_sykon_, a fig, _phainein_, to show.] SYCOSIS, s[=i]-k[=o]'sis, _n._ a pustular eruption on the scalp or bearded part of the face, due to ringworm, acne, or impetigo. [Gr.,--_sykon_, a fig.] SYENITE, s[=i]'en-[=i]t, _n._ a rock composed of feldspar and hornblende.--_adj._ SYENIT'IC, relating to _Syene_ in Egypt: pertaining to syenite. [From Gr. _Sy[=e]n[=e]_, Syene in Egypt.] SYKER, sik'[.e]r, _adv._ (_Spens._) surely. [_Sicker_.] SYLLABLE, sil'a-bl, _n._ several letters taken together so as to form one sound: a word or part of a word uttered by a single effort of the voice: a small part of a sentence.--_v.t._ to express by syllables, to utter.--_n._ SYLL'ABARY, a list of characters representing syllables--also SYLLAB[=A]'RIUM.--_adjs._ SYLLAB'IC, -AL, consisting of a syllable or syllables.--_adv._ SYLLAB'ICALLY.--_vs.t._ SYLLAB'IC[=A]TE, SYLLAB'IFY (_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ syllab'ified), to form into syllables--_ns._ SYLLABIC[=A]'TION, SYLLABIFIC[=A]'TION; SYLL'ABISM, syllabic character, representation of syllables. [L. _syllaba_--Gr. _syllab[=e]_--_syn_, with, _lab-_, _lambanein_, to take.] SYLLABUB, sil'a-bub, _n._ Same as SILLIBUB. SYLLABUS, sil'a-bus, _n._ an abstract: a table of contents: the catalogue of eighty heresies, annexed to the Encyclical _Quanta Cura_, addressed by Pius IX. to all Catholic bishops, 8th Dec. 1864. [L.] SYLLEPSIS, sil-lep'sis, _n._ substitution: a figure in rhetoric by which we take the sense of words rather by the intention of the author than by the strictness of grammar: the agreement of a verb or adjective, not with the word next it, but with some other word in the sentence.--_adjs._ SYLLEP'TIC, -AL.--_adv._ SYLLEP'TICALLY. [Gr. _syll[=e]psis_--_syn_, together, _lambanein_, to take.] SYLLOGISM, sil'[=o]-jizm, _n._ logical form of every argument, consisting of three propositions, of which the first two are called the premises, and the last, which follows from them, the conclusion.--_n._ SYLLOGIS[=A]'TION.--_v.i._ SYLL'OGISE, to reason by syllogisms.--_v.t._ to deduce consequences from.--_n._ SYLL'OGISER.--_adjs._ SYLLOGIS'TIC, -AL, pertaining to a syllogism: in the form of a syllogism.--_adv._ SYLLOGIS'TICALLY. [Gr. _syllogismos_--_syllogizesthai_--_syn_, together, _logizesthai_, to reckon--_logos_, speech.] SYLPH, silf, _n._ one of the elemental spirits of the air, intermediate between immaterial and material beings, occasionally holding intercourse with human creatures: a fairy.--_n._ SYLPH'ID, a little sylph.--_adjs._ SYLPH'INE, SYLPH'ISH. [Fr. _sylphe_, of Celtic origin; but cf. Gr. _silph[=e]_, a kind of beetle.] SYLVA, SILVA, sil'va, _n._ the forest trees of any region collectively.--_adjs._ SYL'VAN, SIL'VAN.--_n._ SYLVICUL'TURE, arboriculture, forestry. [L.] SYMBAL, sim'bal, _n._ Same as CYMBAL. SYMBIOSIS, sim-bi-[=o]'sis, _n._ a term introduced by De Bary to denote certain kinds of physiological partnership between organisms of different kinds--best restricted to such intimate and complementary partnerships as exist between algoid and fungoid elements in lichens, or between unicellular Algæ; and Radiolarians.--_n._ SYM'BION, an organism living in such a state.--_adj._ SYMBIOT'IC.--_adv._ SYMBIOT'ICALLY. [Gr. _syn_, together, _bios_, life.] SYMBOL, sim'bol, _n._ a sign by which one knows a thing: an arbitrary or other conventional mark, abbreviating methods of scientific expression, as in algebra, and esp. chemistry: an emblem: that which represents something else: a figure or letter representing something: (_theol._) a creed, compendium of doctrine, or a typical religious rite, as the Eucharist.--_adjs._ SYMBOL'IC, -AL, pertaining to, or of the nature of, a symbol: representing by signs: emblematic: figurative: typical.--_adv._ SYMBOL'ICALLY.--_ns._ SYMBOL'ICALNESS; SYMBOL'ICS, the study of the history and contents of Christian creeds; SYMBOLIS[=A]'TION.--_v.i._ SYM'BOLISE, to be symbolical: to resemble in qualities.--_v.t._ to represent by symbols.--_ns._ SYM'BOLISER, SYM'BOLIST, one who uses symbols; SYM'BOLISM, representation by symbols or signs: a system of symbols: use of symbols: (_theol._) the science of symbols or creeds.--_adjs._ SYMBOLIST'IC, -AL.--_ns._ SYMBOL'OGY, SYMBOLOL'OGY, the art of representing by symbols; SYMBOLOL'ATRY, undue veneration for symbols; SYM'BOLRY, the use of symbols generally. [Gr. _symbolon_, from _symballein_--_syn_, together, _ballein_, to throw.] SYMMETRY, sim'e-tri, _n._ the state of one part being of the same measure with or proportionate to another: due proportion: harmony or adaptation of parts to each other.--_adj._ SYMM'ETRAL, commensurable, symmetrical.--_n._ SYMMET'RIAN, one who is careful about symmetry.--_adjs._ SYMMET'RIC, -AL, having symmetry or due proportion in its parts: harmonious.--_adv._ SYMMET'RICALLY, with symmetry.--_ns._ SYMMET'RICALNESS; SYMMETRI'CIAN, SYMM'ETRIST, one careful about symmetry; SYMMETRIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ SYMM'ETRISE, to make symmetrical.--_n._ SYMMETROPH[=O]'BIA, fear or strong dislike of mechanical symmetry. [L. and Gr. _symmetria_--_syn_, together, _metron_, a measure.] SYMMORPH, sim'morf, _n._ a character different in form from another, but representing the same notion. [Gr. _symmorphos_, similar--_syn_, with, _morph[=e]_, form.] SYMPATHY, sim'pa-thi, _n._ like feeling: an agreement of inclination, feeling, or sensation: compassion: pity: tenderness: an agreement of affections or inclinations, or a conformity of natural temperament: mutual conformity of parts in the fine arts: correspondence of parts in similar sensations or affections, or the affection of the whole body or system, or some part of it, in consequence of local injury or disease: propensity of inanimate bodies to union or mutual action: the effective union of colours.--_adjs._ SYMPATHET'IC, -AL, showing, or inclined to, sympathy: feeling with another: able to sympathise: compassionate: produced by sympathy: uniting viscera and blood-vessels in a nervous action common to them all: noting sounds induced by vibrations conveyed through air, &c., from a body already in vibration.--_adv._ SYMPATHET'ICALLY.--_n._ SYMPATHET'ICISM, undue disipostion to be sympathetic.--_v.i._ SYM'PATHISE, to have sympathy: to feel with or for another: to be compassionate.--_ns._ SYM'PATHISER; SYM'PATHISM; SYM'PATHIST.--SYMPATHETIC INK (see INK). [Gr. _sympatheia_--_syn_, with, _pathos_, suffering.] SYMPELMOUS, sim-pel'mus, _adj._ in birds, having the tendons of the deep flexors of the toes blended in one before separating to proceed one to each of the four digits--opp. to _Nomopelmous_. [Gr. _syn_, with, _pelma_, the sole of the foot.] SYMPETALOUS, sim-pet'a-lus, _adj._ having all the petals united. SYMPHENOMENON, sim-f[=e]-nom'e-non, _n._ a phenomenon resembling others shown by the same object:--_pl._ SYMPHENOM'ENA.--_adj._ SYMPHENOM'ENAL. SYMPHONY, sim'f[=o]-ni, _n._ an agreeing together in sound: unison, consonance, or harmony of sound: a musical composition for a full band of instruments: an instrumental introduction or termination to a vocal composition.--_n._ SYMPH[=O]'NIA, concord in Greek music: a medieval name for the bagpipe, the virginal.--_adj._ SYMPHON'IC, relating to, or resembling, a symphony: symphonious.--_n._ SYMPH[=O]'NION, a combination of pianoforte and harmonium, the precursor of the orchestrion.--_adj._ SYMPH[=O]'NIOUS, agreeing or harmonising in sound: accordant: harmonious.--_n._ SYM'PHONIST, a composer of symphonies. [Gr. _symph[=o]nia_--_syn_, together, _ph[=o]n[=e]_ a sound.] SYMPHORICARPOUS, sim-f[=o]-ri-kar'pus, _adj._ bearing several fruits clustered together. SYMPHYLA, sim'fi-la, _n.pl._ an order or suborder of insects related to typical _Thysanura_, but resembling chilopods and having many abdominal legs.--_adj._ SYM'PHYLLOUS. [Gr. _symphylos_, of the same race--_syn_, with, _phylon_, a clan.] SYMPHYNOTE, sim'fi-n[=o]t, _adj._ soldered together at the hinge, as the valves of some unios. [Gr. _symphy[=e]s_, growing together, _n[=o]ton_, the back.] SYMPHYOGENESIS, sim-fi-[=o]-jen'e-sis, _n._ (_bot._) the forming of an organ or part by union of parts formerly separate.--_adj._ SYMPHYOGENET'IC. [Gr. _symphyesthai_, to grow together, _genesis_, generation.] SYMPHYSIS, sim'fi-sis, _n._ the union of two parts of the skeleton, either by confluence, by direct apposition, or by the intervention of cartilage or ligament: the union of parts normally separate, coalescence or growing together of parts.--_adj._ SYMPHYS'[=E]AL.--_ns._ SYMPHYS'IA, a malformation produced by the union of parts properly separate; SYM'PHYTISM, a coalescence of word-elements. [Gr. _syn_, with, _phyein_, to grow.] SYMPHYTUM, sim'fi-tum, _n._ a genus of gamopetalous plants, of the natural order _Boraginaceæ_. SYMPIESOMETER, sim-pi-e-som'e-t[.e]r, _n._ a barometer in which oil and hydrogen gas replace mercury and the Toricellian vacuum: an instrument for measuring the pressure of a current. [Gr. _sympiesis_, a pressing together--_syn_, with, _piezein_, to press, _metron_, a measure.] SYMPLECTIC, sim-plek'tik, _adj._ placed in or among, as if woven together.--_n._ a bone in the Teleostean fishes which forms the lower ossification of the suspensorium, and which articulates below with the quadrate bone by which it is firmly held. [Gr. _symplektikos_--_syn_, together, _plekein_, to weave.] SYMPLESITE, sim'ple-s[=i]t, _n._ a pearly, vitreous arseniate of ferrous iron. [Gr. _syn_, together, _pl[=e]sios_, near.] SYMPLOCE, sim'pl[=o]-s[=e], _n._ (_rhet._) the repetition of a word at the beginning and another at the end of successive clauses. [Gr. _symplok[=e]_, an interweaving.] SYMPLOCIUM, sim-pl[=o]'si-um, _n._ (_bot._) the annulus in the sporangium of ferns. SYMPODIUM, sim-p[=o]'di-um, _n._ (_bot._) an axis or stem morphologically made up of a series of superposed branches imitating a simple stem. [Gr. _syn_, with, _pous_, _podos_, foot.] SYMPOSIUM, sim-p[=o]'zi-um, _n._ a drinking together: a banquet with philosophic conversation: a merry feast.--_adjs._ SYMP[=O]'SIAC, SYMP[=O]'SIAL.--_ns._ SYM-P[=O]'SIARCH, the master of the feast, a toast-master; SYMP[=O]'SIAST, one who takes part in a symposium. [L.,--Gr. _symposion_--_syn_, together, _posis_, a drinking--_pinein_, to drink.] SYMPTOM, simp'tum, _n._ that which attends and indicates the existence of something else, not as a cause, but as a constant effect: (_med._) that which indicates disease.--_adjs._ SYMPTOMAT'IC, -AL, pertaining to symptoms: indicating the existence of something else: (_med._) proceeding from some prior disorder.--_adv._ SYMPTOMAT'ICALLY.--_n._ SYMPTOMATOL'OGY, the sum of knowledge concerning symptoms. [Gr. _sympt[=o]ma_--_syn_, with, _piptein_, to fall.] SYMPTOSIS, simp-t[=o]'sis, _n._ the meeting of polars of the same point with reference to different loci. SYNACMY, sin-ak'mi, _n._ the simultaneous maturity of the anthers and stigmas of a flower.--_adj._ SYNAC'MIC. [Gr. _syn_, with, _akm[=e]_, maturity.] SYNACRAL, sin-ak'ral, _adj._ having a common vertex, as faces of a polyhedron. [Gr. _syn_, with, _acros_, top.] SYNADELPHIC, sin-a-del'fik, _adj._ acting together, as different members of an animal body. [Gr. _syn_, with, _adelphos_, a brother.] SYNADELPHITE, sin-a-del'f[=i]t, _n._ an arseniate of manganese. SYNÆRESIS. See SYNERESIS. SYNÆSTHESIA, sin-es-th[=e]'si-a, _n._ sensation produced at a point different from the point of stimulation. SYNAGOGUE, sin'a-gog, _n._ an assembly of Jews for worship: a Jewish place of worship.--_adjs._ SYN'AGOGAL, SYNAGOG'ICAL. [Fr.,--Gr. _synag[=o]g[=e]_--_syn_, together, _agein_, to lead.] SYNALEPHA, sin-a-l[=e]'fa, _n._ a contraction by suppressing a final vowel or diphthong before another vowel or diphthong, so that the final syllable of one word runs or melts into the first of the other.--Also SYNAL[=E]'PHE. [Gr. _synaloiph[=e]_--_synaleiphein_, to melt together--_syn_, together with, _aleiphein_, to anoint.] SYNALGIA, si-nal'ji-a, _n._ sympathetic pain. [Gr. _syn_, with, _algos_, pain.] SYNALLAGMATIC, sin-a-lag-mat'ik, _adj._ mutually or reciprocally obligatory. [Gr. _synallagmatikos_--_synallagma_, a covenant.] SYNANCIA, si-nan'si-a, _n._ a genus of fishes with spines and poison-glands, of family _Synanciidæ_.--_adj._ SYNAN'CIOID. [Gr. _synangchos_, quinsy.] SYNANGIUM, si-nan'ji-um, _n._ an arterial trunk: the boat-shaped sorus of certain ferns. [Gr. _syn_, with, _angeion_, a vessel.] SYNANTHEROUS, si-nan'ther-us, _adj._ (_bot._) having the anthers united. SYNANTHOUS, si-nan'thus, _adj._ (_bot._) denoting plants whose flowers and leaves appear together or at the same time.--_n._ SYNAN'THY. [Gr. _syn_, together, _anthos_, a flower.] SYNAPHEA, sin-a-f[=e]'a, _n._ the metrical continuity between one colon and another, mutual connection of all the verses in a system, so that they are scanned as one verse, as in anapæstics: elision or synalepha, at the end of a line, of the final vowel of a dactylic hexameter before the initial vowel of the next.--Also SYNAPHEI'A. [Gr.,--_synaptein_, to join together.] SYNAPTE, si-nap't[=e], _n._ (_Gr. Church_) a litany. [Gr. _synapt[=e]_ (_euch[=e]_, a prayer), joined together.] SYNARCHY, sin'ar-ki, _n._ joint sovereignty. [Gr. _synarchia_--_syn_, with, _archein_, to rule.] SYNARTESIS, sin-ar-t[=e]'sis, _n._ a fastening together, close union.--_adj._ SYNARTET'IC. [Gr. _synart[=e]sis_--_syn_, with, _artaein_, to fasten to.] SYNARTHROSIS, sin-ar-thr[=o]'sis, _n._ a joint permitting no motion, between the parts articulated.--_adj._ SYNARTHR[=O]'DIAL.--_adv._ SYNARTHR[=O]'DIALLY. [Gr. _syn-arthr[=o]sis_--_syn_, with, _arthron_, a joint.] SYNASCETE, sin'a-s[=e]t, _n._ a fellow-ascetic. SYNASTRY, si-nas'tri, _n._ coincidence as regards stellar influences. [Gr. _syn_, together with, _astron_, a star.] SYNAXIS, si-nak'sis, _n._ in the early Church, an assembly for worship, esp. for celebrating the Eucharist.--_n._ SYNAX[=A]'RION, in Greek usage, a lection containing an account of a saint's life. [Gr. _synaxis_, a bringing together--_syn_, together, _agein_, to lead.] SYNCARPOUS, sin-kär'pus, _adj._ (_bot._) having the carpels consolidated into one. [Gr. _syn_, together, _karpos_, a fruit.] SYNCATEGOREMATIC, sin-kat-[=e]-gor-[=e]-mat'ik, _adj._ denoting words that can only form parts of terms, as adverbs, &c.--_adv._ SYNCATEGOREMAT'ICALLY. SYNCHONDROSIS, sing-kon-dr[=o]'sis, _n._ an articulation formed by the addition of a plate of cartilage.--_n._ SYNCHONDROT'OMY, the section of such. [Gr. _syngchondr[=o]sis_--_syn_, with, _chondros_, a cartilage.] SYNCHORESIS, sing-k[=o]-r[=e]'sis, _n._ (_rhet._) an admission made for the purpose of making a more effective retort. [Gr. _synch[=o]r[=e]sis_--_syn_, with, _ch[=o]ros_, space.] SYNCHRONAL, sing'kr[=o]-nal, _adj._ happening or being at the same time: simultaneous: lasting for the same time--also SYNCHRON'ICAL, SYN'CHRONOUS.--_adv._ SYNCHRON'ICALLY.--_n._ SYNCHRONIS[=A]'TION.--_v.i._ SYN'CHRONISE, to be synchronal or simultaneous: to agree in time.--_v.t._ to cause to be synchronous: to regulate a clock, &c., by some standard.--_ns._ SYN'CHRONISER; SYN'CHRONISM, concurrence of events in time: the tabular arrangement of contemporary events, &c., in history.--_adj._ SYNCHRONIS'TIC, showing synchronism.--_adv._ SYNCHRONIS'TICALLY.--_n._ SYNCHRONOL'OGY, chronological arrangement side by side.--_adv._ SYN'CHRONOUSLY.--_ns._ SYN'CHRONOUSNESS; SYN'CHRONY, simultaneity. [Gr. _synchronismos_--_synchronizein_, to agree in time--_syn_, together, _chronos_, time.] SYNCHYSIS, sing'ki-sis, _n._ (_rhet._) confusion of meaning due to unusual arrangement: fluidity of the vitreous humour of the eye. [Gr. _syngchysis_--_syn_, together with, _chein_, to pour.] SYNELASTIC, sin-klas'tik, _adj._ having the same kind of curvature in all directions--opp. to _Anticlastic_. [Gr. _syn_, together, _klastos_, broken.] SYNCLINAL, sin-kl[=i]'nal, _adj._ sloping downwards in opposite directions so as to meet in a common point or line: (_geol._) denoting strata dipping toward a common central line or plane.--_ns._ SYN'CLINE, a synclinal flexure--also SYNCL[=I]'NAL; SYNCLIN[=O]'RIUM, a mountain with a synclinal structure. [Gr. _syn_, together, _klinein_, to bend.] SYNCOPATE, sing'k[=o]-p[=a]t, _v.t._ to contract, as a word, by taking away letters from the middle: (_mus._) to unite by a slur the last note of a bar to the first note of the next.--_adjs._ SYN'COPAL, SYNCOP'IC, pertaining to syncope.--_ns._ SYNCOP[=A]'TION, act of syncopating; SYN'COPE, the omission of letters from the middle of a word, as _ne'er_ for _never_: (_med._) a fainting-fit, an attack in which the breathing and circulation become faint: (_mus._) syncopation.--_v.t._ SYN'COPISE, to contract by syncope.--_n._ SYN'COPIST.--_adj._ SYNCOP'TIC. [Low L. _syncop[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--L. _syncope_---Gr. _syn_, together, _koptein_, to cut off.] SYNCRETISM, sin'kre-tizm, _n._ the attempted reconciliation of irreconcilable principles, theological compromise--between Catholics and Protestants, between Lutherans and Reformed.--_adj._ SYNCRET'IC, pertaining to syncretism, tending to blend opposing parties and speculative systems by minimising differences.--_v.t._ SYN'CRETISE.--_n._ SYN'CRETIST.--_adj._ SYNCRETIS'TIC. [Gr. _synkr[=e]tismos_--_synkr[=e]tizein_, to unite against.] SYNDACTYL, sin-dak'til, _adj._ having the digits connected with a web, &c.--_n._ SYNDAC'TYLISM, union of digits.--_adj._ SYNDAC'TYLOUS. SYNDESMOSIS, sin-des-m[=o]'sis, _n._ the connection of bones by ligaments.--_ns._ SYNDESMOG'RAPHY, description of the ligaments and joints; SYNDESMOL'OGY, the knowledge of the ligaments.--_adj._ SYNDESMOT'IC.--_n._ SYNDESMOT'OMY, the anatomy of the ligaments. [Gr. _syndesmos_--_syn_, together with, _dein_, to bind.] SYNDETIC, -AL, sin-det'ik, -al, _adj._ connecting by conjunctions, &c. [Gr. _syndetikos_, binding together--_syn_, together, _dein_, to bind.] SYNDIC, sin'dik, _n._ the chief magistrate in Geneva, one of those officers delegated as agents by cities in France under the old régime, &c.: one chosen to transact business for others, esp. the accredited legal representative of a corporation, society, or company.--_n._ SYN'DIC[=A]TE, a body of syndics: a council: the office of a syndic: a body of men chosen to watch the interests of a company, or to manage a bankrupt's property, esp. an association of merchants or others for the purpose of carrying through some great or important enterprise, or for securing a kind of artificial monopoly in the production or supply of some commodity.--_v.t._ to effect by means of a syndicate.--_v.i._ to join in a syndicate.--_ns._ SYNDIC[=A]'TION; SYN'DIC[=A]TOR. [L. _syndicus_--Gr. _syndikos_--_syn_, with, _dik[=e]_, justice.] SYNDROME, sin'dr[=o]-m[=e], _n._ concurrence. [Gr., _syn_, together, _dramein_, to run.] SYNDYASMIAN, sin-di-as'mi-an, _adj._ coupling, noting the sexual relation. [Gr. _syndyasmos_, coupling.] SYNECDOCHE, sin-ek'd[=o]-k[=e], _n._ a figure of speech by which a part is made to comprehend the whole, or the whole is put for a part.--_adj._ SYNECDOCH'ICAL, expressed by, or implying, synecdoche. [Gr. _synekdoch[=e]_--_syn_, together, _ekdechesthai_, to receive.] SYNECHIA, sin-e-k[=i]'a, _n._ morbid adhesion between the iris and the cornea.--_n._ SYNECHIOL'OGY, the doctrine of the connection of things by causation.--_adj._ SYNEC'TIC, bringing into connection things of different nature.--_n._ SYNECTIC'ITY. [Gr. _synektikos_, holding together, _synechein_--_syn_, together with, _echein_, to hold.] SYNECPHONESIS, si-nek-f[=o]-n[=e]'sis, _n._ syneresis. SYNEDRAL, si-n[=e]'dral, _adj._ (_bot._) growing on the angle of a stem.--Also SYN[=E]'DROUS. [Gr. _synedros_, sitting together--_syn_, together, _hedra_, a seat.] SYNEDRION, si-ned'ri-on, _n._ a judicial assembly, a sanhedrim--also SYNED'RIUM.--_adj._ SYNED'RIAL. [_Sanhedrim_.] SYNEMA, si-n[=e]'ma, _n._ (_bot._) the column of combined filaments in a monadelphous flower. [Gr. _syn_, together, _n[=e]ma_, a thread.] SYNERESIS, SYNÆRESIS, si-ner'e-sis, _n._ the coalescence of two vowels or syllables--opp. to _Diæresis_. [Gr. _syn_, together, _hairein_, to take.] SYNERGISM, sin'[.e]r-jizm, _n._ the doctrine that the human will and the Divine Spirit are two efficient agents that co-operate in regeneration--ascribed to Melanchthon.--_adj._ SYNERGET'IC.--_n._ SYN'ERGIST, one maintaining the doctrine of synergism.--_adj._ SYNERGIST'IC.--_n._ SYN'ERGY, combined action. [Gr. _synergia_, co-operation--_syn_, together, _ergein_, to work.] SYNESIS, sin'e-sis, _n._ a grammatical construction in harmony with the sense rather than with strict syntax. [Gr., 'understanding.'] SYNGENESIOUS, sin-je-n[=e]'shus, _adj._ (_bot._) cohering into a ring, as the anthers of _Compositæ_, &c.--those plants which show this forming the 19th class in the Linnean system, the SYNGEN[=E]'SIA. [Gr. _syn_, with, _genesis_, generation.] SYNGENESIS, sin-jen'e-sis, _n._ the theory of reproduction which makes the embryo the product of both male and female by the union of spermatozoon and ovum: the theory that the germ so formed contains the germs of all future generations--opp. to _Epigenesis_.--_adj._ SYNGENET'IC. [Gr. _syn_, with, _genesis_, generation.] SYNGRAPH, sing'graf, _n._ a writing signed by both or all the parties thereto. [Gr. _synggraph[=e]_--_syn_, with, _graphein_, to write.] SYNIZESIS, sin-i-z[=e]'sis, _n._ the union into one syllable of two vowels incapable of forming a diphthong: closure of the pupil of the eye, with loss of sight. [Gr. _syn_, with, _hizein_, to place.] SYNOCHUS, sin'[=o]-kus, _n._ a continued fever--also SYN'OCHA.--_adjs._ SYN'OCHAL, SYN'OCHOID. [Gr. _synochos_, joined together--_syn_, with, _echein_, to hold.] SYNOCIL, sin'[=o]-sil, _n._ a filamentous formation of certain sponges, supposed to function as a sense-organ, probably an eye. [Gr. _syn_, with, L. _cilium_, an eyelid.] SYNOCREATE, si-nok'r[=e]-[=a]t, _adj._ (_bot._) uniting together on the opposite side of the stem from the leaf, and enclosing the stem in a sheath--of stipules. [Gr. _syn_, with, and _ocreate_.] SYNOD, sin'od, _n._ a meeting: an ecclesiastical council: among Presbyterians, a church court consisting of several presbyteries, intermediate between these and the General Assembly, also the supreme court of the United Presbyterian Church until its union with the Free Church in 1900.--_adjs._ SYN'ODAL, SYNOD'IC, -AL, pertaining to a synod: done in a synod.-_adv._ SYNOD'ICALLY.--_n._ SYN'ODIST. [L. _synodus_--Gr. _synodos_--_syn_, together, _hodos_, a way.] SYNOECIOUS, si-n[=e]'shi-us, _adj._ (_bot._) having male and female flowers in one head as in the _Compositæ_: having antheridia and archegonia on the same receptacle, as in many mosses. [Gr. _synoikia_, a living together--_syn_, with, _oikein_, to dwell.] SYNOMOSY, sin'[=o]-m[=o]-si, _n._ a body of political or other conspirators bound together by oath, a secret society. [Gr. _syn[=o]mosia_, a conspiracy--_syn_, with, _omnynai_, to take an oath.] SYNONYM, sin'o-nim, _n._ a name or word having the same meaning with another: one of two or more words which have the same meaning.--_adjs._ SYNONYMAT'IC, SYNONYM'IC, -AL.--_ns._ SYNONYM'ICON, a dictionary of synonymous words; SYNONYM'ICS, synonymy.--_v.t._ SYNON'YMISE, to express by other words of the same meaning.--_ns._ SYNON'YMIST, one who studies synonyms, or the different names of plants and animals; SYNONYM'ITY, the state of being synonymous.--_adj._ SYNON'YMOUS, pertaining to synonyms: expressing the same thing: having the same meaning.--_adv._ SYNON'YMOUSLY.--_n._ SYNON'YMY, the quality of being synonymous: a rhetorical figure by which synonymous words are used. [Gr. _syn[=o]nymon_--_syn_, with, _onoma_, a name.] SYNOPSIS, si-nop'sis, _n._ a view of the whole together: a collective or general view of any subject:--_pl._ SYNOP'S[=E]S.--_adjs._ SYNOP'TIC, -AL, affording a general view of the whole.--_adv._ SYNOP'TICALLY.--_n._ SYNOP'TIST, one of the writers of the Synoptic Gospels.--_adj._ SYNOPTIS'TIC.--The SYNOPTIC GOSPELS, a name first used by Griesbach for the first three gospels, those of Matthew, Mark, and Luke, which present such a similarity in matter and form that they readily admit of being brought under one and the same combined view or _synopsis_. [Gr. _synopsis_--_syn_, with, together, _opsis_, a view.] SYNOSTEOSIS, si-nos-t[=e]-[=o]'sis, _n._ union of different parts of the skeleton by means of bone, co-ossification--also SYNOST[=O]'SIS.--_ns._ SYNOSTEOL'OGY, the knowledge of the joints of the body; SYNOSTEOT'OMY, the dissection of the joints.--_adj._ SYNOSTOT'IC. [Gr. _syn_, together, _osteon_, a bone.] SYNOTUS, si-n[=o]'tus, _n._ a genus of long-eared bats having the rim of the ear produced in front of the eye, including the European Barbastel: a double monster united above the umbilicus, the head incompletely double. [Gr. _syn_, together, _ous_, _[=o]tos_, the ear.] SYNOVIAL, sin-[=o]'vi-al, _adj._ relating to SYN[=O]'VIA, an unctuous albuminous fluid, secreted from certain glands in the joints.--_adv._ SYN[=O]'VIALLY.--_n._ SYNOV[=I]'TIS, inflammation of a synovial membrane. [Gr. _syn_, with, _[=o]on_, an egg.] SYNTAX, sin'taks, _n._ (_gram._) the correct arrangement of words in sentences.--_adjs._ SYNTAC'TIC, -AL, pertaining to syntax: according to the rules of syntax.--_adv._ SYNTAC'TICALLY. [Gr. _syntaxis_--_syn_, together, _tassein_, _taxein_, to put in order.] SYNTENOSIS, sin-te-n[=o]'sis, _n._ the connection of bones by tendons. [Gr. _syn_, with, _ten[=o]n_, a sinew.] SYNTERESIS, sin-t[=e]-r[=e]'sis, _n._ preventive treatment, prophylaxis.--_adj._ SYNTERET'IC.--_n._ SYNTERET'ICS, hygiene. [Gr. _synt[=e]r[=e]sis_, observation--_syn_, with, _t[=e]rein_, to watch over.] SYNTEXIS, sin-tek'sis, _n._ a wasting of the body.--_adjs._ SYNTEC'TIC, -AL. [Gr. _synt[=e]xis_, a wasting away--_syn_, with, _t[=e]kein_, to melt.] SYNTHERMAL, sin-th[.e]rm'al, _adj._ having the same degree of heat. [Gr. _syn_, together, _therm[=e]_, heat.] SYNTHESIS, sin'the-sis, _n._ a term applied to the building up of compound substances from the elements they contain or from other compounds, usually of less complexity than themselves: a making a whole out of parts: the combination of separate elements of thought into a whole, or reasoning from principles previously established to a conclusion, as opposed to _analysis_: (_gram._) the uniting of ideas into a sentence: (_med._) the reunion of parts that have been divided: (_chem._) the uniting of elements to form a compound:--_pl._ SYN'THESES (-s[=e]z).--_v.t._ SYN'THES[=I]SE, to unite by synthesis.--_ns._ SYN'THESIST, SYN'THETIST, one who synthetises.--_adjs._ SYNTHET'IC, -AL, pertaining to synthesis: consisting in synthesis or composition.--_adv._ SYNTHET'ICALLY.--_n._ SYNTHET'ICISM, the principles of synthesis, a synthetic system.--_v.t._ SYN'THETISE.--SYNTHETIC PHILOSOPHY, the system of Herbert Spencer, so called by himself because conceived as a fusion of the different sciences into a whole. [Gr. _synthesis_--_syn_, with, together, _thesis_, a placing--_tith[=e]mi_, I place.] SYNTHRONUS, sin'thr[=o]-nus, _n._ the seat of the bishop and his presbyters, behind the altar. [Gr. _syn_, together with, _thronos_, a throne.] SYNTONIN, sin't[=o]-nin, _n._ a substance akin to fibrin, which is an important constituent of muscular tissue--also called Muscle Fibrin. SYNTONOUS, sin't[=o]-nus, _adj._ intense in quality.--Also SYNTON'IC. [Gr. _syntonos_, tightly drawn.] SYNTROPIC, sin-trop'ik, _adj._ turning or pointing in the same direction, as several vertebræ. [Gr. _syn_, together with, _trepein_, to turn.] SYPHILIS, sif'i-lis, _n._ a markedly contagious, infective, and inoculable disease, capable of being transmitted to the offspring, propagated by direct contagion or by the transmission of the virus through some vessel or medium which has recently been contaminated--most commonly caused by impure sexual intercourse.--_n._ SYPHILIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ SYPH'ILISE, to attempt to inoculate the system with the virus of syphilis as a preventive and curative measure.--_adj._ SYPHILIT'IC.--_n._ SYPHILOG'RAPHY, the description of syphilis.--_adj._ SYPH'ILOID, relating to syphilis.--_ns._ SYPHILOL'OGIST, one versed in syphilology; SYPHILOL'OGY, the knowledge of syphilis; SYPHIL[=O]'MA, a syphilitic tumour; SYPHILOPH[=O]'BIA, a morbid dread of contracting syphilis. [The word is borrowed from the name of a figure in Fracastoro's poem, _Syphilidis Libri III_.] SYPHON, SYREN. Same as SIPHON, SIREN. SYRIAC, sir'i-ak, _adj._ relating to _Syria_, or to its language.--_n._ the language, esp. the ancient language of Syria, a western dialect of Aramaic (q.v.).--_ns._ SYR'IACISM, SYR'IANISM, a Syrian idiom.--_adj._ SYR'IAN, relating to Syria.--_n._ a native of Syria.--_n._ SYR'IARCH, the chief priest in the Roman province of Syria. SYRINGA, s[=i]-ring'ga, _n._ the mock-orange. SYRINGE, sir'inj, _n._ a portable hydraulic instrument of the pump kind, used to draw in a quantity of liquid and eject it forcibly: a tube used by surgeons for injecting, &c.--_v.t._ to inject or clean with a syringe. [L. _syrinx_, (gen.) _syringos_--Gr. _syringx_, a reed.] SYRINGOTOMY, sir-in-got'[=o]-mi, _n._ the operation of cutting for the fistula.--_n._ SYR'INX, a fistula or fistulous opening: a narrow gallery in the tombs of ancient Egypt. [Gr. _syringx_, a pipe, _tom[=e]_, a cutting--_temnein_, to cut.] SYROPHOENICIAN, s[=i]-r[=o]-f[=e]-nish'an, _adj._ pertaining to _Syro-Phoenicia_ or its people, of mixed Phoenician and Syrian descent. SYRTIS, s[.e]r'tis, _n._ (_Milt._) a quicksand--also SYRT.--_adj._ SYR'TIC. [L.,--Gr.--_syrein_, to draw along.] SYRUP, sir'up, _n._ a saturated solution of sugar boiled to prevent fermentation: the juice of fruits saturated with sugar and many flavoured liquids, treated in the same way--also SIR'UP.--_adj._ SYR'UPY. [Fr. _syrop_--Sp. _xarope_, a drink--Ar. _shar[=a]b_.] SYSSARCOSIS, sis-ar-k[=o]'sis, _n._ the connection of one bone with another by intervening muscle.--_adj._ SYSSARC[=O]'SIC. [Gr., _syn_, together, _sarx_, flesh.] SYSSITIA, si-sit'i-a, _n._ the ancient Spartan custom of eating together in public the chief meal of the day. [Gr. _syn_, together with, _sitos_, food.] SYSTALTIC, sis-tal'tik, _adj._ alternately contracting and dilating, pulsatory. [Gr. _systaltikos_--_syn_, together, _stellein_, to place.] SYSTASIS, sis't[=a]-sis, _n._ a union or confederation.--_adj._ SYSTAT'IC, introductory, recommendatory. [Gr. _syn_, with, _histanai_, to set up.] SYSTEM, sis'tem, _n._ anything formed of parts placed together or adjusted into a regular and connected whole: an assemblage of bodies as a connected whole: an orderly arrangement of objects according to some common law or end: regular method or order: a full and connected view of some department of knowledge: an explanatory hypothesis or theory: the universe.--_adjs._ SYSTEMAT'IC, -AL, pertaining to, or consisting of, system: formed or done according to system: methodical.--_adv._ SYSTEMAT'ICALLY.--_ns._ SYSTEMATI'CIAN; SYSTEMATIS[=A]'TION, SYSTEMIS[=A]'TION.--_vs.t._ SYS'TEMATISE, SYS'TEMISE, to reduce to a system.--_ns._ SYS'TEMATISER; SYS'TEMATISM; SYS'TEMATIST; SYSTEMATOL'OGY.--_adjs._ SYSTEM'IC, systematic; pertaining to the human system; SYS'TEMLESS, without system: not exhibiting organic structure.--_ns._ SYS'TEM-M[=A]K'ER, -MON'GER, one unduly fond of constructing systems. [Gr. _syst[=e]ma_--_syn_, together, _hist[=e]mi_, I place.] SYSTOLE, s[=i]s't[=o]-l[=e], _n._ the regular contraction of the heart for impelling the blood outward--opp. to _Diastole_: (_gram._) the shortening of a long syllable.--_adj._ SYSTOL'IC. [Gr. _systol[=e]_--_syn_, together, _stellein_, to place.] SYSTYLE, sis't[=i]l, _n._ (_archit._) the arrangement of columns so that they are only two diameters apart: a front or portico having columns so arranged.--_adj._ SYS'TYLOUS (_bot._), having the styles united into a single body. [Gr. _syn_, with, _stylos_, a column.] SYTHE=_Scythe_. SYZYGY, siz'i-ji, _n._ the relative position of a planet (esp. the moon) when either in conjunction or in opposition with the sun: the period of new or full moon:--_pl._ SYZ'YGIES.--_n._ SYZ'YGANT (-gant), a rational integral function of the invariants of a quantic that vanishes when expressed as a function of the coefficients.--_adj._ SYZYGET'IC, pertaining to a linear relation.--_adv._ SYZYGET'ICALLY.--_adj._ SYZYG'IAL, pertaining to a syzygy. [Gr. _syzygia_, union.] * * * * * T the twentieth letter in our alphabet, its sound that of the hard dental mute, produced by the tip of the tongue being brought into contact with the base of the upper teeth: as a medieval numeral=160; [=T]=160,000: something fashioned like a T, or having a cross section like a T--also written TEE and sometimes TAU.--_ns._ T'-BAND'AGE, a bandage composed of two strips fashioned in the shape of the letter T, as for use about the perineum; T'-CART, a four-wheeled pleasure-vehicle without top, having a T-shaped body; T'-CLOTH, a plain cotton made for the India and China market--stamped with a T; T'-CROSS, a tau-cross; T'-PLATE, a T-shaped plate, as for strengthening a joint in a wooden framework; T'-RAIL, a rail, as for a railway, having a T-like cross section; T'-SQUARE, a ruler shaped like the letter T, used in mechanical and architectural drawing.--TO A T, with perfect exactness; BE MARKED WITH A T, to be branded as a thief. TAB, tab, _n._ a small tag, flap, or strap, forming an appendage of something: reckoning, tally, check. TABANUS, ta-b[=a]'nus, _n._ a genus of flies, including the horse-flies. [L.] TABARD, tab'ard, _n._ a military cloak of the 15th and 16th centuries, now a loose sleeveless coat worn by heralds.--_n._ TAB'ARDER, one who wears a tabard. [O. Fr.,--Low L. _tabardum_; perh. conn, with L. _tapete_, tapestry.] TABARET, tab'a-ret, _n._ an upholsterer's silk stuff, with alternate stripes of watered and satin surface. [_Tabby_.] TABASHEER, TABASBIR, tab-a-sh[=e]r', _n._ a substance, consisting chiefly of silica, sometimes found in the cavities or tubular parts of the stems of bamboos and other large grasses, and prized by the Hindus as a tonic, &c., prepared by imperfect calcination and trituration. [Hind. _tab[=a]sh[=i]r_.] TABBY, tab'i, _n._ a coarser kind of waved or watered silk: an artificial stone, a mixture of lime, shells, gravel, stones, and water: a female cat--also TABB'Y-CAT.--_adj._ brindled: diversified in colour.--_v.t._ to water or cause to look wavy:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ tabb'ied.--_n._ TABB'INET, a more delicate kind of tabby resembling damask, used for window-curtains. [Fr. _tabis_--Ar. _'att[=a]b[=i]_, a kind of rich, waved silk--_'Attabiya_, the quarter in Bagdad where first made.] TABEFACTION, tab-[=e]-fak'shun, _n._ a wasting away from disease.--_v.t._ TAB'EFY, to emaciate.--_v.i._ to lose flesh, to waste away.--_ns._ T[=A]'BES, a gradual wasting away; TABES'CENCE.--_adjs._ TABES'CENT; TABET'IC; TAB'IC; TAB'ID.--_adv._ TAB'IDLY.--_n._ TAB'IDNESS.--_adj._ TABIF'IC, causing tabes.--_n._ TAB'ITUDE, state of one affected with tabes.--TABES DORSALIS, the same as locomotor ataxia. [L. _tabes_, a wasting, _tab[=e]re_, to waste away.] TABELLA, t[=a]-bel'a, _n._ a medicated lozenge or hard electuary.--_adj._ TAB'ELLARY, tabular.--_n._ TABELL'ION, an official scrivener in the Roman empire, and in France down to 1761. [L. _tabella_, dim. of _tabula_, a table.] TABER, _v.i._ (_B._). Same as TABOUR. TABERD, tab'[.e]rd, _n._ Same as TABARD. TABERNACLE, tab'[.e]r-na-kl, _n._ (_B._) the movable tent carried by the Jews through the desert, and used as a temple: a tent: the human body as the temporary abode of the soul: a place of worship or sacred place: (_R.C._) the place in which the consecrated elements of the Eucharist are kept: a socket permitting a mast to be lowered beneath bridges.--_v.i._ to dwell: to abide for a time.--_adj._ TABERNAC'ULAR.--TABERNACLE WORK (_archit._), ornamental work over niches, stalls, &c. with canopies and pinnacles, or any work in which such forms a characteristic feature.--FEAST OF TABERNACLES, a Jewish autumn festival, celebrating the sojourning of the children of Israel in the wilderness (Lev. xxiii. 43), and the gathering-in of all the fruits of the year (Ex. xxiii. 16). [L. _tabernaculum_, double dim. of _taberna_, a hut, shed of boards.] TABLATURE, tab'la-t[=u]r, _n._ something tabular: a painting on a wall or ceiling: a picture in general: a method of musical notation, principally employed in the 15th and 16th centuries for the lute: (_anat._) a division of the skull into two tables. [Fr.,--L. _tabula_, a board.] TABLE, t[=a]'bl, _n._ a smooth, flat slab or board, with legs, used as an article of furniture: supply of food, entertainment: the company at a table: the board or table on which a game is played, as billiards, backgammon, draughts: a surface on which something is written or engraved: that which is cut or written on a flat surface: a flat gravestone supported on pillars: an inscription: a condensed statement: syllabus or index; (_B._) a writing tablet.--_adj._ of or pertaining to a table, or the food partaken from the table.--_v.t._ to make into a table or catalogue: to lay (money) on the table: to pay down: to lay on the table--i.e. to postpone consideration of.--_ns._ T[=A]'BLE-BEER, light beer for common use; T[=A]'BLE-BOOK, a book of tablets, on which anything is written without ink: a note-book: a book of tables, as of weights, measures, &c.; T[=A]'BLE-CLOTH, a cloth usually of linen, for covering a table, esp. at meals; T[=A]'BLE-COV'ER, a cloth for covering a table, esp. at other than meal-times; TABLE-D'HÔTE (ta'bl-d[=o]t), a meal for several persons at the same hour and at fixed prices; T[=A]'BLEFUL, as many as a table will hold; T[=A]'BLELAND, an extensive region of elevated land with a plain-like or undulating surface: a plateau; T[=A]'BLE-LEAF, a board at the side of a table which can be put up or down to vary the size of the table; T[=A]'BLE-LIN'EN, linen table-cloths, napkins, &c.; T[=A]'BLE-MON'EY, an allowance granted to general officers in the army, and flag-officers in the navy, to enable them to fulfil the duties of hospitality within their respective commands; T[=A]'BLE-RAP'PING, production of raps on tables by alleged spiritual agency.--_n.pl._ T[=A]'BLES, the game of backgammon.--_ns._ T[=A]'BLE-SPOON, one of the largest spoons used at table; T[=A]'BLE-SPOON'FUL, as much as will fill a table-spoon; T[=A]'BLE-TALK, familiar conversation, as that round a table, during and after meals; T[=A]'BLE-TURN'ING, movements of tables or other objects, attributed by spiritualists to the agency of spirits--by rational persons to involuntary muscular action--similarly T[=A]'BLE-LIFT'ING, T[=A]'BLE-RAP'PING; T[=A]'BLE-WARE, dishes, spoons, knives, forks, &c. for table use.--_adv._ T[=A]'BLEWISE, like a table--of the communion-table, with the ends east and west--opp. to _Altar-wise_.--_ns._ T[=A]'BLE-WORK, the setting of type for tables, columns of figures, &c.; T[=A]'BLING, the act of tabling or forming into tables: (_carp._) a rude dove-tailing: (_naut._) a broad hem on the skirts of sails.--THE LORD'S TABLE, the table at which the Lord's Supper is partaken, or on which the elements are laid: the Lord's Supper.--FENCE THE TABLES (see FENCE); LAY ON THE TABLE, to lay aside any proposed measure indefinitely, or for future discussion; LIE ON THE TABLE, to be laid upon the table; TURN THE TABLES, to bring about a complete reversal of circumstances. [O. Fr. _table_--L. _tabula_, a board.] TABLEAU, tab'l[=o], _n._ a picture: a striking and vivid representation:--_pl._ TABLEAUX (tab'l[=o]z).--TABLEAU VIVANT, a representation of a historical or other personage by a motionless living person dressed in suitable costume. [Fr.,--L. _tabula_, a painting.] TABLET, tab'let, _n._ a small flat surface: something flat on which to write, paint, &c.: a confection in a flat square form.--_n._ TAB'LOID, a small tablet containing a certain definite portion of some drug, a troche or lozenge. Registered trade mark. [Dim. of _table_.] TABOO, TABU, ta-b[=oo]', _n._ an institution among the Polynesians, forming a penal system based on religious sanctions, by which certain things are held sacred or consecrated, and hence prohibited to be used--by a natural transference of meaning by association of ideas becoming equivalent to 'unholy,' 'accursed'--also TAMBOO', TAMBU', and TAPU': any prohibition, interdict, restraint, ban, exclusion, ostracism.--_v.t._ to forbid approach to: to forbid the use of:--_pr.p._ tab[=oo]'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ tab[=oo]ed'. [Polynesian _tapu_--prob. _ta_, to mark, _pu_, expressing intensity.] TABOR, t[=a]'bor, _n._ a camp amongst the ancient nomadic Slavs and Turks, inside a ring of wagons. TABORITE, t[=a]'bor-[=i]t, _n._ one of the more extreme party of the Hussites, as opposed to the Calixtines or Utraquists, so named from their headquarters being at Mount _Tabor_, 24 miles N.E. of Pisek. TABOUR, TABOR, t[=a]'bor, _n._ a small drum like the timbrel or tambourine without jingles, usually played with one stick, and in combination with a fife.--_v.i._ to play on a tabour: to beat lightly and often:--_pr.p._ t[=a]'bouring: _pa.p._ t[=a]'boured.--_ns._ T[=A]'BORER (_Shak._), one who beats the tabour; TAB'ORINE (_Shak._), a tabour or small drum; TAB'OURET, TAB'RET, a small tabour or drum; TAB'R[=E]RE (_Spens._), a labourer. [O. Fr. _tabour_ (Fr. _tambour_)--Pers. _tamb[=u]r_, a kind of cithern.] TABOURET, tab'[=oo]-ret, _n._ a cushioned seat, without arms or back, highly ornamented: a frame for embroidery: a needle-case. TABU. Same as TABOO. TABULAR, tab'[=u]-lar, _adj._ of the form of, or pertaining to, a table: having a flat surface: arranged in a table or schedule, computed from tables: having the form of laminæ or plates.--_ns._ TAB'ULA, a writing-tablet, a legal record: a frontal: a dissepiment in corals, &c.; TABULARIS[=A]'TION, the act of tabularising or forming into tables: the state of being tabularised.--_v.t._ TAB'ULARISE, to put in a tabular form: to tabulate:--_pr.p._ tab'[=u]lar[=i]sing; _pa.p._ tab'[=u]lar[=i]sed.--_adv._ TAB'ULARLY.--_v.t._ TAB'UL[=A]TE, to reduce to tables or synopses: to shape with a flat surface.--_n._ TABUL[=A]'TION, the act of forming into tables. TACAHOUT, tak'a-howt, _n._ an Arab name for the small gall formed on the tamarisk-tree, and used as one source for obtaining gallic acid. TACAMAHAC, tak'a-ma-hak, _n._ a gum-resin yielded by several tropical trees. [South American.] TAC-AU-TAC, tak'-[=o]-tak', _n._ in fencing, the parry combined with the riposte, also a series of close attacks and parries between fencers of equal skill. [Fr.] TACE, t[=a]'s[=e], be silent.--TACE IS LATIN FOR A CANDLE, a phrase understood as requesting or promising silence. [L., imper. of _tac[=e]re_, to be silent.] TACHE, tash, _n._ (_B._) a fastening or catch. [_Tack_.] TACHE, tash, _n._ a spot, stain, or freckle: a moral blemish: a characteristic. [Fr.] TACHOMETER, t[=a]-kom'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring variations in the velocity of machines.--Also TACHYM'ETER. [Gr. _tachos_, speed, _metron_, a measure.] TACHYGRAPHY, t[=a]-kig'ra-fi, _n._ stenography, the art of writing in abbreviations.--_n._ TACHYG'RAPHER.--_adjs._ TACHYGRAPN'IC, -AL. [Gr. _tachys_, swift, _graphein_, to write.] TACHYLITE, tak'i-l[=i]t, _n._ a black opaque natural glass, which results from the rapid cooling of molten basalt, occurring as a thin selvage to dikes and veins of intrusive basalt.--_adj._ TACHYLIT'IC. TACHYMETER, t[=a]-kim'e-t[.e]r, _n._ a surveying instrument--also TACHEOM'ETER.--_n._ TACHYM'ETRY, scientific use of the tachymeter. TACIT, tas'it, _adj._ implied, but not expressed by words: silent, giving no sound.--_adv._ TAC'ITLY.--_n._ TAC'ITNESS.--_adj._ TAC'ITURN, habitually tacit or silent: not fond of talking: reserved in speech.--_ns._ TAC'ITURNIST, one habitually taciturn; TACITURN'ITY, habitual silence: reserve in speaking.--_adv._ TAC'ITURNLY. [L. _tacitus_, pa.p. of _tac[=e]re_, to be silent.] TACK, tak, _n._ a short, sharp nail with a broad head: a fastening, a long temporary stitch: the weather clew or foremost lower corner of any of the courses, or of any sail set with a boom or gaff, or of a flag, also the rope by which such clew or tack is confined or fastened: the course of a ship in reference to the position of her sails: a determinate course, the art of tacking, hence a change of policy, a strategical move: a shelf for drying cheese: term of a lease: adhesiveness, sticky condition, as of varnish, &c.--_v.t._ to attach or fasten, esp. in a slight manner, as by tacks.--_v.i._ to change the course or tack of a ship by shifting the position of the sails: to shift one's position, to veer.--_adj._ TACK'Y, adhesive, viscous. [Most prob. Celt., Ir. _taca_, a pin, Bret. _tach_, a nail.] TACK, tak, _n._ (_prov._) any distinctive and permanent flavour. TACK, tak, _n._ food generally, fare, esp. of the bread kind, as _hard tack_, _soft tack_, &c. TACKET, tak'et, _n._ (_Scot._) a hobnail in the soles of strong shoes. TACKLE, tak'l, _n._ the ropes, rigging, &c. of a ship: tools, weapons: ropes, &c., for raising heavy weights: a pulley.--_v.t._ to harness: (_prov._) to seize or take hold of, attack, fasten upon.--_v.i._ to get a hold of.--_adj._ TACK'LED, made of ropes tackled together.--_ns._ TACK'LING, furniture or apparatus belonging to the masts, yards, &c. of a ship: harness for drawing a carriage: tackle or instruments; TACKS'MAN, a tenant or lessee. [Scand., Sw. _tackel_--Ice. _taka_, to take.] TACKY, tak'i, _n._ (_U.S._) a poor ill-conditioned horse. TACT, takt, _n._ adroitness in managing the feelings of persons dealt with: nice perception in seeing and doing exactly what is best in the circumstances: (_mus._) the stroke in keeping time.--_adjs._ TACT'FUL; TAC'TILE, that may be touched or felt.--_ns._ TACTIL'ITY, state of being tactile: touchiness; TAC'TION, act of touching: sense of touch.--_adj._ TACT'LESS, without tact.--_n._ TACT'LESSNESS.--_adj._ TACT'[=U]AL, relating to, or derived from, the sense of touch.--_adv._ TACT'[=U]ALLY.--_n._ TACT'US, the sense of touch. [L. _tactus_--_tang[)e]re_, _tactum_, to touch.] TACTICS, tak'tiks, _n.sing._ the science or art of manoeuvring military and naval forces in the presence of the enemy: way or method of proceeding.--_adjs._ TAC'TIC, -AL, pertaining to tactics.--_adv._ TAC'TICALLY.--_n._ TACTI'CIAN, one skilled in tactics. [Gr. _taktik[=e]_ (_techn[=e]_, art, understood), art of arranging men in a field of battle--_tassein_, _taxein_, to arrange.] TADPOLE, tad'p[=o]l, _n._ a young toad or frog in its first state, before the tail is absorbed and the limbs pushed forth.--_n._ TAD (_U.S._), a street-boy. [A _toad_ with a _poll_.] TÆDIUM, t[=e]'di-um, _n._ weariness, tediousness. [L.] TAEL, t[=a]l, _n._ the Chinese _liang_ or ounce, equal to 1-1/3 oz. avoir.: a money of account in China, equivalent to a tael weight of pure silver, or to about 1250 of the copper coin known as 'cash.' The value of the Haikwan tael, or customs tael, is about 4s. 9d. English, varying with the price of silver. TA'EN, t[=a]n, a contraction of taken. TÆNIA, t[=e]'ni-a, _n._ a ribbon or fillet: the fillet above the architrave of the Doric order: a tapeworm.--_n._ TÆ'NICIDE, a drug that destroys tapeworms.--_adj._ TÆ'NIFORM, ribbon-like.--_n._ TÆ'NIFUGE, anything used to expel tapeworms.--_adj._ TÆ'NIOID, ribbon-like. [L.,--Gr. _tainia_, a band.] TAFFEREL, taf'[.e]r-el, TAFFRAIL, taf'r[=a]l, _n._ the upper part of a ship's stern timbers. [Dut. _tafereel_, a panel--_tafel_, a table--L. _tabula_, a table; cf. Ger. _täfelei_, flooring--_tafel_, a table.] TAFFETA, taf'e-ta, _n._ a thin glossy silk-stuff having a wavy lustre: (_orig._) silk-stuff plainly woven.--Also TAFF'ETY. [It. _taffetà_--Pers. _t[=a]ftah_, woven--_t[=a]ftan_, to twist.] TAFFY, taf'i, _n._ Same as TOFFY. TAFFY, taf'i, _n._ a Welshman--from _Davy_. TAFIA, taf'i-a, _n._ a variety of rum. [Malay.] TAFT, taft, _v.t._ in plumbing, to spread the end of a lead pipe outward so as to form a wide thin flange. TAG, tag, _n._ a tack or point of metal at the end of a string: any small thing tacked or attached to another: any pendant or appendage, the tip of an animal's tail: the rabble collectively, anything mean.--_v.t._ to fit a tag or point to: to tack, fasten, or hang to: to dog or follow closely.--_v.i._ to make tags, to string words or ideas together: to go behind as a follower:--_pr.p._ tag'ging; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ tagged.--_ns._ TAG'-END, a loosely connected end, the concluding part; TAG'GER, anything that tags, an appendage.--_n.pl._ TAG'GERS, thin sheet-iron.--_n._ and _adj._ TAG'RAG, a fluttering rag, a tatter: the rabble, or denoting it--the same as _Rag-tag_, often in phrase TAGRAG AND BOBTAIL.--_ns._ TAG'-SORE, a disease in sheep, in which, the tail is excoriated through diarrhoea; TAG'-TAIL, a worm with a tail like a tag: a hanger-on, parasite. [A weaker form of _tack_.] TAG, tag, _n._ a children's game in which the object is for the player to chase the rest until he touches one, who then takes his place as TAGG'GER.--_v.t._ to touch or hit in this game. TAGHAIRM, tag'erm, _n._ an ancient mode of divination among the Scotch Highlanders, in which a man was wrapped in a fresh bullock's hide and left by a running stream to wait for inspiration. [Gael.] TAGLIA, tal'ya, _n._ a rope and pulleys, tackle with a set of sheaves in a fixed block and another set in a movable block to which the weight is attached. [It.] TAGLIONI, tal-y[=o]'ni, _n._ a kind of overcoat, so called from the famous family of dancers, the most famous of whom was Maria _Taglioni_ (1804-84). TAHA, tä'ha, _n._ an African weaver-bird of the family _Ploceidæ_. TAHLI, tä'li, _n._ a Hindu gold ornament worn by the wives of Brahmans. TAHONA, ta-h[=o]'na, _n._ a crushing-mill for ores worked by horse-power. [Sp.,--Ar.] TAI, t[=i], _n._ the Japanese bream. TAIC, tä'ik, _adj._ pertaining to the _Tai_, the chief race in the Indo-Chinese peninsula, including the Siamese, the Laos, &c.--_n._ the group of languages spoken by the Tai. TAIGLE, t[=a]'gl, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to entangle, hinder.--_v.i._ to delay, tarry. TAIL, t[=a]l, _n._ the posterior extremity of an animal, its caudal appendage: anything resembling a tail in appearance, position, &c.: the back, lower, or hinder part of anything: a retinue, suite: a queue or body of persons in single file: anything long and hanging, as a catkin, train of a comet, long curl of hair, &c.: in Turkey, a horse-tail, formerly carried before a pasha as an emblem of relative rank.--_n._ TAIL'-BOARD, the board at the hinder end of a cart or wagon, which can be let down or removed, for convenience in unloading.--_adj._ TAILED, having a tail of a specified kind.--_ns._ TAIL'-END, the hind part of any animal, the tip of the tail: the end or finish of anything, the fag-end: (_pl._) inferior corn sorted out from that of better quality; TAIL'-FEATH'ER, one of the rectrices or rudder-feathers of a bird's tail; TAIL'-GATE, the aft or lower gate of a canal lock.--_n.pl._ TAIL'INGS, refuse, dregs.--_adj._ TAIL'LESS, having no tail.--_ns._ TAIL'PIECE, a piece at the tail or end, esp. of a series, as of engravings; TAIL'PIPE, the suction pipe in a pump.--_v.t._ to fasten something to the tail of, as a dog, to fix something to one by way of joke.--_ns._ TAIL'RACE, the channel in which water runs away below a mill-wheel; TAIL'ROPE, in coal-mining, a rope extending from the hind part of a car or kibble in a slightly inclined passage, by means of which the empties are drawn 'inby,' while the loaded cars are drawn 'outby.'--LAY, or PUT, SALT ON THE TAIL OF (see SALT); MAKE NEITHER HEAD NOR TAIL OF ANYTHING (see HEAD); TURN TAIL, to run away, to shirk a combat; TWIST THE LION'S TAIL (_U.S._), to goad or insult the pacific and long-suffering British public feeling for political purposes in America; WITH THE TAIL BETWEEN THE LEGS, in a cowardly way, after the manner of a beaten cur when he sneaks away. [A.S. _tægel_; Ger. _zagel_; Goth. _tagl_, hair.] TAIL, t[=a]l, _n._ (_law_) the term applied to an estate which is cut off or limited to certain heirs.--_ns._ TAIL'[=A]GE, TALL'[=A]GE. [Fr. _taille_, cutting. Cf. _Entail_.] TAILOR, t[=a]l'ur, _n._ one whose business is to cut out and make men's clothes:--_fem._ TAIL'ORESS.--_v.i._ to work as a tailor.--_v.t._ to make clothes for.--_ns._ TAIL'OR-BIRD, one of several Oriental small passerine birds which sew leaves together to form a nest: TAIL'ORING, the business or work of a tailor.--_adj._ TAIL'OR-MADE, made by a tailor, esp. of plain, close-fitting garments for women, in imitation of men's. [Fr. _tailleur_--_tailler_, to cut.] TAILZIE, TAILYE, t[=a]l'y[=e], _n._ (_law_) a Scotch form of _tail_. TAINT, t[=a]nt, _v.t._ to tinge, moisten, or impregnate with anything noxious: to infect: to stain.--_v.i._ to be affected with something corrupting.--_n._ a stain or tincture: infection or corruption: a spot: a moral blemish.--_adj._ TAINT'LESS, without taint, pure.--_adv._ TAINT'LESSLY, without taint.--_n._ TAINT'URE (_Shak._), taint, tinge, stain. [O. Fr. _taint_ (Fr. _teint_), pa.p. of _teindre_, to dye--L. _ting[)e]re_, _tinctum_, to wet.] T'ÂI-P'ING, t[=i]-ping', _n._ the name given by foreigners to one of the followers of Hung Hsiû-ch'wan (S'eiw-tseuen), who raised the standard of rebellion in China in 1851, and whose enterprise was finally suppressed in 1865 mainly through the vigour of Colonel Charles ('Chinese') Gordon, the hero of Khartoum. TAISCH, t[=a]sh, _n._ the sound of the voice of a person about to die heard by some one at a distance beyond the range of ordinary sounds.--Also TASK. [Gael. _taibhs_, _taibhse_, an apparition.] TAJ, täj, _n._ a crown, a distinctive head-dress, esp. the tall conical cap worn by Mohammedan dervishes--applied as expressing pre-eminence to the _Taj_ Mahal, the magnificent mausoleum of Shah Jehan (1628-58) at Agra. [Pers.] TAKE, t[=a]k, _v.t._ to lay hold of: to get into one's possession: to catch: to capture: to captivate: to receive: to choose: to use: to allow: to understand: to agree to: to become affected with.--_v.i._ to catch: to have the intended effect: to gain reception, to please: to move or direct the course of: to have recourse to:--_pa.t._ took; _pa.p._ t[=a]'ken.--_n._ quantity of fish taken or captured at one time.--_ns._ TAKE'-IN, an imposition, fraud: that by which one is deceived; TAKE'-OFF, a burlesque representation of any one; T[=A]'KER; T[=A]'KING, act of taking or gaining possession: a seizing: agitation, excitement: (_Spens._ sickness: (_Shak._) witchery: malignant influence.--_adj._ captivating: alluring.--_adv._ T[=A]'KINGLY.--_n._ T[=A]'KINGNESS, quality of being taking or attractive.--_adj._ T[=A]'KY, attractive.--TAKE ADVANTAGE OF, to employ to advantage: to make use of circumstances to the prejudice of; TAKE AFTER, to follow in resemblance; TAKE AIR, to be disclosed or made public; TAKE BREATH, to stop in order to breathe, to be refreshed; TAKE CARE, CARE OF (see CARE); TAKE DOWN, to reduce: to bring down from a higher place, to lower: to swallow: to pull down: to write down; TAKE FOR, to mistake; TAKE FRENCH LEAVE (see FRENCH); TAKE FROM, to derogate or detract from; TAKE HEED, to be careful; TAKE HEED TO, to attend to with care; TAKE IN, to enclose, to embrace: to receive: to contract, to furl, as a sail: to comprehend: to accept as true: to cheat: (_Shak._) to conquer; TAKE IN HAND, to undertake; TAKE INTO ONE'S HEAD, to be seized with a sudden notion; TAKE IN VAIN, to use with unbecoming levity or profaneness; TAKE IN WITH, to deceive by means of; TAKE IT OUT OF, to extort reparation from: to exhaust the strength or energy of; TAKE LEAVE (see LEAVE); TAKEN IN, deceived, cheated; TAKE NOTICE, to observe: to show that observation is made: (with _of_) to remark upon; TAKE OFF, to remove: to swallow: to mimic or imitate; TAKE ON, to take upon: to claim a character: (_coll._) to grieve; TAKE ORDERS, to receive ordination; TAKE ORDER WITH (_Bacon_), to check; TAKE OUT, to remove from within: to deduct: (_Shak._) to copy; TAKE PART, to share; TAKE PLACE, to happen: to prevail; TAKE ROOT, to strike out roots, to live and grow, as a plant: to be established; TAKE THE FIELD, to begin military operations; TAKE THE WALL OF, to pass on the side nearest the wall: to get the advantage of; TAKE TO, to apply to: to resort to: to be fond of; TAKE TO HEART, to feel sensibly; TAKE UP, to lift, to raise: (_Shak._) to borrow money, to buy on credit, to make up a quarrel: to employ, occupy or fill: to arrest: to comprise; TAKE UP ARMS, to commence to fight; TAKE UPON, to assume; TAKE UP WITH, to be pleased or contented with, to form a connection with, to fall in love with: to lodge; TAKE WITH, to be pleased with. [M. E. _taken_--Scand.; Ice. _taka_ pa.t. _tók_, pa.p. _tekinn_); conn. with L. _tang[)e]re_, _tetig-i_, to touch, and with Eng. _tack_.] TALARIA, t[=a]-l[=a]'ri-a, _n.pl._ the winged sandals of Hermes and other divinities.--_adj._ TALAR'IC, pertaining to the ankles. [L.,--_talus_, the ankle.] TALAUNT, tal'awnt, _n._ (_Spens._) talon. TALBOT, tal'bot, _n._ a broad-mouthed large-eared hound, usually white--apparently the same as the St Hubert's breed. [From the _Talbot_ family.] TALBOTYPE, tal'b[=o]-t[=i]p, _n._ a photographic process invented by William Henry Fox _Talbot_ (1800-77), a calotype. TALC, talk, _n._ a mineral occurring in thin flakes, of a white or green colour and a soapy feel.--_n._ TAL'CITE, a massive variety of talc.--_adjs._ TALC'KY, TAL'COSE, TAL'COUS, containing, consisting of, or like talc. [Fr. _talc_ (Ger. _talk_)--Sp. _talco_--Ar. _talq_.] TALE, t[=a]l, _n._ a narrative or story: a fable: what is told or counted off: number: reckoning.--_v.i._ (_obs._) to speak.--_n._ TALE'-BEAR'ER, one who maliciously tells tales or gives information.--_adj._ TALE'-BEAR'ING, given to tell tales or give information officiously.--_n._ act of telling secrets.--_adj._ TALE'FUL, abounding with stories.--_n._ TALE'-TELL'ER, one who tells stories, esp. officiously.--BE IN A (or ONE) TALE, to be in full accord; OLD WIVES' TALE, any marvellous story appealing to one's credulity; TELL ONE'S (or ITS) OWN TALE, to speak for one's self or itself; TELL TALES, to play the informer; TELL TALES OUT OF SCHOOL, to reveal confidential matters. [A.S. _talu_, a reckoning, a tale, also speech; Ger. _zahl_, a number.] TALEGALLA, tal-e-gal'a, _n._ the brush-turkey, a genus of gallinaceous birds, in the same family as the mound-building _Megapodes_.--Also TALEGALL'US. [The latter part is probably from L. _gallus_, a cock.] TALENT, tal'ent, _n._ an ancient weight or denomination of money--in the Attic system of money (_N.T._), 100 _drachmæ_ made a _mnâ_ (pound, Luke xix. 13), and 6000 made a _talent_; this talent weighed 57 lb. avoirdupois, and in value may be put roughly at about £213-£235, the mnâ at about £4: faculty: any natural or special gift: special aptitude: eminent ability: abundance.--_adjs._ TAL'ENTED, possessing mental gifts; TAL'ENTLESS, without talent. [L. _talentum_--Gr. _talanton_, a weight, a talent, from a root meaning to lift, as in _tl[=e]nai_, to bear; akin to L. _toll[)e]re_, Ger. _dulden_, Scot. _thole_.] TALES, t[=a]'l[=e]z, _n.pl._ a list of persons, apparently a selection from spectators in court, made by the sheriff or judge at a trial, to supply any defect in a jury or panel.--_n._ T[=A]'LESMAN, a bystander so chosen.--PRAY A TALES, to plead that the number of jurymen be completed in this way. [From the phrase '_tales_ de circumstantibus,' _tales_, _pl._ of L. _talis_, such.] TALIACOTIAN, tal-i-a-k[=o]'shi-an, _adj._ pertaining to the rhinoplastic operation of _Tagliacozzi_ or _Taliacotius_ (1546-99), in which the skin for the new nose was taken from the arm of the patient, the arm requiring to be kept in apposition with the face for about twenty days. TALIAN, tal'i-an, _n._ an old Bohemian dance, or its music. TALION, tal'i-on, _n._ the law of retaliation.--_adj._ TALION'IC. [L. _talio_, like punishment--_talis_, of such kind.] TALIPED, tal'i-ped, _adj._ club-footed: walking like the sloth.--_n._ a club-footed person.--_n._ TAL'IPES, a club-foot: club-footedness: the distorted formation of the feet of the sloth. [L. _talus_, the ankle, _pes_, the foot.] TALIPOT, tal'i-pot, _n._ an East Indian palm with fan-shaped leaves.--Also TAL'IPUT, TAL'IPAT. [Hind. _t[=a]lp[=a]t_.] TALISMAN, tal'is-man, _n._ a species of charm engraved on metal or stone when two planets are in conjunction, or when a star is at its culminating point, and supposed to exert some protective influence over the wearer of it: (_fig._) something that produces extraordinary effects:--_pl._ TAL'ISMANS.--_adjs._ TALISMAN'IC, -AL, pertaining to, or having the properties of, a talisman: magical. [Fr.,--Ar. _tilsam_--Late Ger. _telesma_, consecration, incantation--Gr. _telein_, to consecrate.] TALK, tawk, _v.i._ to speak familiarly: to prattle: to reason.--_n._ familiar conversation: that which is uttered in familiar intercourse: subject of discourse: rumour.--_adjs._ TALK'ABLE, capable of talking, or of being talked about; TALK'ATIVE, given to much talking: prating.--_adv._ TALK'ATIVELY.--_ns._ TALK'ATIVENESS; TALK'EE-TALK'EE, a corrupt dialect: incessant chatter--also _adj._ TALK'Y-TALK'Y.--_n._ TALK'ER.--_adj._ TALK'ING, given to talking.--TALK AGAINST TIME, to keep on talking merely to fill up time, as often in parliament: TALK BIG, to talk boastfully; TALK DOWN, to argue down; TALK FROM THE POINT, to wander away from the proper question; TALK GREEK, to talk above the understanding of one's hearers; TALKING OF, apropos of, with regard to; TALK OVER, to persuade, convince: to discuss, consider together; TALK ROUND, to exhaust the subject: to bring to one's way of thinking by persuasive talk; TALK SHOP (see SHOP); TALK TO, to address: to rebuke; TALK UP, to speak impudently or boldly to. [Prof. Skeat takes the M. E. _talken_ from Scand., and that from Lithuanian; Sw. _tolka_ (Ice. _túlka_), to interpret--Lith. _tulkas_, an interpreter. Prob., however, the M. E. _talken_ is _talen_, _talien_, to speak, with formative _-k_, giving a freq. or dim. force; cf. _Tale_.] TALL, tawl, _adj._ high, esp. in stature: lofty: long: sturdy: bold: courageous: great, remarkable: demanding much credulity, hardly to be believed.--_n._ TALL'NESS. [Ety. very dub.; perh. conn. with W. _tal_, large.] TALLAGE, tal'[=a]j, _n._ a name applied to those taxes to which, under the Anglo-Norman kings, the demesne lands of the crown and all royal towns were subject--also TALL'IAGE.--_v.t._ to lay an impost upon--also TALL'IATE.--_adj._ TALL'IABLE, subject to tallage. TALLAT, tal'at, _n._ (_prov._) a hay-loft.--ALSO TALL'OT, TALL'ET. TALLITH, tal'ith, _n._ the mantle worn by the Jews at prayer. [Heb.] TALLOW, tal'[=o], _n._ the fat of animals melted: any coarse, hard fat.--_v.t._ to grease with tallow.--_ns._ TALL'OW-CAN'DLE, a candle made of tallow; TALL'OW-CATCH, -KEECH, (_Shak._), a keech or lump of tallow: a low mean fellow; TALL'OW-CHAND'LER, a dealer in tallow, candles, &c.; TALL'OW-CHAND'LERY, the trade or place of business of a tallow-chandler; TALL'OWER, a tallow-chandler; TALL'OW-FACE, a yellow pasty-faced person.--_adj._ TALL'OW-FACED.--_n._ TALL'OW-TREE, the name given to trees of different kinds which produce a thick oil or vegetable tallow, or a somewhat resinous substance, capable of making candles.--_adj._ TALL'OWY, like tallow, greasy. [Old Dut. _talgh_, _talch_; Low Ger. _talq_, Ice. _tólgr_, _tólg_.] TALLY, tal'i, _n._ a stick cut or notched to match another stick, used to mark numbers or keep accounts by--(down to the beginning of the 19th century these were used in England for keeping accounts in Exchequer, answering the double purpose of receipts and public records): anything made to suit another:--_pl._ TALL'IES.--_v.t._ to score with corresponding notches: to make to fit.--_v.i._ to correspond: to suit:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ tall'ied.--_ns._ TALL'IER, one who keeps a tally; TALL'YMAN, one who keeps a tally-shop: one who lives with a woman without marriage; TALL'YSHOP, a shop where goods are sold to be paid by instalments, the seller having one account-book which tallies with the buyer's; TALL'Y-SYS'TEM, -TRADE, a mode of dealing by which dealers furnish certain articles on credit to their customers upon an agreement for the payment of the stipulated price by certain weekly or monthly instalments.--LIVE TALLY, to cohabit without marriage. [Fr. _taille_ (It. _taglia_)--L. _talea_, a cutting. Cf. _Tail_ (law).] TALLY-HO, tal'i-h[=o], _interj._ the huntsman's cry betokening that a fox has gone away: a four-in-hand pleasure-coach.--_v.t._ to urge on, as hounds. TALMA, tal'ma, _n._ a woman's loose cloak, generally hooded: a similar form of overcoat for men. [From F. J. _Talma_, the actor (1763-1826).] TALMUD, tal'mud, _n._ the name of the fundamental code of the Jewish civil and canonical law, comprising the _Mishna_ and the _Gemara_, the former as the text, the latter as the commentary and complement.--There are two Talmuds, the one called the Talmud of the Occidentals, or the JERUSALEM (Palestine) TALMUD, which was closed at Tiberias in the end of the 4th century, and the other the BABYLONIAN TALMUD, emphatically styled 'our Talmud,' not completed till the end of the 5th century, and making use of the former.--_adjs._ TALMUD'IC, -AL.--n, TAL'MUDIST, one learned in the Talmud.--_adj._ TALMUDIST'IC, relating to, or contained in the Talmud. [Chaldee _talm[=u]d_, instruction--_l[=a]mad_, to learn.] TALON, tal'on, _n._ the claw of a bird of prey.--_adj._ TAL'ONED. [Fr. _talon_, through Low L., from L. _talus_, the heel.] TALPA, tal'pa, _n._ the chief genus of the family _Talpidæ_, the moles: an encysted tumour on the head, a wen. [L., a mole.] TALUK, ta-l[=oo]k', _n._ in south and western India, a subdivision of a district presided over as regards revenue matters by a _tahs[=i]ld[=a]r_--in Bengal, a tract of proprietary land.--_n._ TALUK'DAR. [Hind.] TALUS, t[=a]'lus, _n._ the ankle-bone: (_arch._) a slope: (_fort._) the sloping part of a work: (_geol._) a sloping heap of fragments at the foot of a steep rock. [L.] TAMAL, tä-mal', _n._ a dish of crushed Indian corn highly seasoned, sold on the streets in Mexico, Texas, &c.--Also TAMA'LE. [Sp.] TAMANDUA, tä-man'd[=u]-a, _n._ an arboreal ant-eater with prehensile tail.--_n._ TAMANOIR (tam'a-nwor), the great ant-eater of tropical America. [Braz.] TAMANU, tam'a-n[=oo], _n._ a lofty gamboge tree of the East Indies and Pacific Islands, its trunk yielding tacamabac. [East Ind.] TAMARA, tam'a-ra, _n._ a condiment much used in Italy, made of powdered cinnamon, cloves, coriander, &c. [East Ind.] TAMARACK, tam'a-rak, _n._ the American or black larch. [Amer. Ind] TAMARIN, tam'a-rin, _n._ a small South American squirrel-monkey. TAMARIND, tam'a-rind, _n._ a beautiful spreading East Indian tree, its pods filled with a pleasant, acidulous, sweet, reddish-black pulp, in which the seeds are embedded. [_Tamarindus_, Latinised from Ar. _tamar-u'l Hind_, 'date of India,' or perhaps rather, in Persian form, _tamar-i-Hind[=i]_.] TAMARISK, tam'ar-isk, _n._ a genus of Mediterranean evergreen shrubs with small white or pink flowers. [L. _tamariscus_.] TAMBAC, tam'bak, _n._ agallochum or aloes-wood.--Also TOM'BAC. TAMBOO, TAMBU. See TABOO. TAMBOUR, tam'b[=oo]r, _n._ a small, shallow drum: a frame on which muslin or other material is stretched for embroidering: a rich kind of gold and silver embroidery: silk or other stuff embroidered on a tambour: a cylindrical stone in the shaft of a column, a drum: a vestibule of timber-work serving to break the draught in a church-porch, &c.: a work formed of palisades, defending a gate, &c.--_v.t._ to embroider on a tambour.--_v.i._ to do tambour-work. [Fr. _tambour_. Cf. _Tabour_.] TAMBOURINE, tam-b[=oo]-r[=e]n', _n._ a shallow drum with one skin and bells or jingles, and played on with the hand: a Provençal dance, also the music for such--(_Spens._) TAM'BURIN. [Fr. _tambourin_, dim. of tambour.] TAME, t[=a]m, _adj._ having lost native wildness and shyness: domesticated: gentle: spiritless: without vigour: dull, flat, uninspiring: wonted, accustomed.--_v.t._ to reduce to a domestic state: to make gentle: to reclaim: to civilise.--_ns._ T[=A]MABIL'ITY, T[=A]MEABLI'ITY, T[=A]M'ABLENESS, T[=A]ME'ABLENESS.--_adjs._ T[=A]M'ABLE, T[=A]ME'ABLE, that may be tamed; T[=A]ME'LESS.--_n._ T[=A]ME'LESSNESS.--_adv._ T[=A]ME'LY.--_ns._ T[=A]ME'NESS; T[=A]'MER, one who tames. [A.S. _tam_; cog. with Ger. _zahm_.] TAMIL, tam'il, _n._ one of the Dravidian languages spoken in south-eastern India and the northern half of Ceylon, possessing a rich and varied literature: one of the Dravidian inhabitants of southern India and Ceylon.--_adjs._ TAM'IL, TAMIL'LIAN, TAMIL'IC, TAMUL'IC. TAMIN, tam'in, _n._ a thin worsted stuff, highly glazed.--Also TAM'INE, TAM'INY, TAM'MY. TAMISE, ta-m[=e]z', _n._ a trade name for various thin woollen fabrics.--_n._ TAM'IS, a cloth for straining liquids. TAMMANY, tam'a-ni, _n._ the Tammany Society, a Democratic organisation in New York, notorious for the corrupt influence it has exerted in city politics. [From the name of an Indian chief, _Tammanend_, who is said to have signed the treaty with Penn.] TAMMUZ, tam'uz, _n._ a Syrian deity, same as the Phoenician Adonis, a sun-god, worshipped with peculiar naturalistic rites by women among the Chaldæans, and even in Jerusalem (Ezek. viii. 14). TAMMY-NORIE, tam'i-n[=o]'ri, _n._ (_Scot._) a sea-bird, the auk or puffin. TAM-O'-SHANTER, tam-[=o]-shan't[.e]r, _n._ a broad bonnet. [From the hero of Burns's famous poem.] TAMP, tamp, _v.t._ to fill up, as a hole bored in a rock for blasting: to pack earth, &c., round, as a mine, to prevent an explosion in a wrong direction.--_n._ TAM'PING, the act of filling up a hole in a rock for blasting: the material used. [_Tampion_ (q.v.).] TAMPER, tam'p[.e]r, _v.i._ to try the temper of: to try little experiments without necessity or authority: to meddle: to practise secretly and unfairly.--_n._ TAM'PERER. [A by-form of _temper_.] TAMPION, tamp'i-un, _n._ the stopper used to close the mouth of a cannon or mortar.--Also TOM'PION. [O. Fr. _tampon_, _tapon_--_tape_, a tap--Dut. _tap_, a bung.] TAMPON, tamp'on, _n._ (_surg._) a. plug inserted in a cavity of the body in order to arrest hæmorrhage.--_v.t._ to plug tightly.--_ns._ TAMPONADE', TAM'PONAGE, TAM'PONING, TAM'PONMENT. [_Tampion_.] TAM-TAM. See TOM-TOM. TAN, tan, _n._ bark of the oak, &c., bruised and broken for tanning: a yellowish-brown colour.--_v.t._ to convert skins and hides into leather by steeping in vegetable solutions containing tannin: to make brown or tawny: to take the freshness from: (_coll._) to beat.--_v.i._ to become tanned:--_pr.p._ tan'ning; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ tanned.--_n.pl._ TAN'-BALLS, the spent bark of the tanner's yard pressed into lumps, which harden on drying, and serve for fuel.--_n._ TAN'-BED (_hort._), a bark-bed.--_adj._ TAN'-COL'OURED, of the colour of tan.--_ns._ TAN'LING (_Shak._), one tanned or scorched by the heat of the sun; TAN'-LIQ'UOR, -OOZE, an aqueous extract of tan-bark.--_adj._ TAN'NABLE.--_ns._ TAN'NAGE, act of tanning: browning from exposure to the sun: the act of steeping cast slabs of artificial marble in a solution of potash alum to harden it and make it insoluble; TAN'NER, one who tans; TAN'NERY, a place for tanning; TAN'NING, the art of tanning or converting into leather; TAN'-PIT, -VAT, a vat in which hides are steeped in liquor with tan; TAN'-YARD, a yard or enclosure where leather is tanned. [A.S. _tannian_; cf. Dut. _tanen_, or prob. O. Fr. _tan_--Bret. _tann_, an oak. If the latter, then Old High Ger. _tanna_ (Ger. _tanne_), fir, oak, is borrowed.] TANA, tä'nä, _n._ a military or police station In India--also TAN'NA, THAN'NAH.--_ns._ TÄ'NADAR, TAN'NADAR, the commandant of a tana. [Hind. _th[=a]na_.] TANAGER, tan'[=a]-j[.e]r, _n._ any tanagrine bird, a member of the _Tanagridæ_, a family of the Passeriformes or perching birds, closely allied to the finches.--_n._ TAN'[=A]GRA, the name-giving genus of the family, now restricted to about a dozen species.--_adjs._ TAN'[=A]GRINE, TAN'[=A]GROID. [Braz. _tangara_.] TANDEM, tan'dem, _adv._ applied to the position of horses harnessed singly one before the other instead of abreast.--_n._ a team of horses (usually two) so harnessed: a bicycle or tricycle on which two ride one before the other. [Originated in university slang, in a play on the L. adv. _tandem_, at length.] TANE, t[=a]n, _pa.p._ ta'en, taken. TANG, tang, _n._ seaweed. [_Tangle_.] TANG, tang, _n._ a twang or sharp sound.--_v.t._ to cause to ring.--_v.i._ to ring. [Imit., like _twang_.] TANG, tang, _n._ a strong or offensive taste, esp. of something extraneous: relish: taste: specific flavour.--_adj._ TANG'Y. [A special use of _tang_, point.] TANG, tang, _n._ a point, the tapering part of a knife or tool which goes into the haft. [Ice. _tangi_; cog. with _tongs_.] [Illustration] TANGENT, tan'jent, _n._ a line which touches a curve, and which when produced does not cut it.--_ns._ TAN'GENCY, TAN'GENCE, state of being tangent: a contact or touching.--_adj._ TANGEN'TIAL, of or pertaining to a tangent: in the direction of a tangent.--_n._ TANGENTIAL'ITY.--_adv._ TANGEN'TIALLY, in the direction of a tangent.--GO OFF, or FLY OFF, AT A TANGENT, to break off suddenly into a different line of thought, &c. [L. _tangens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _tang[)e]re_, to touch.] TANGERINE, tan-je-r[=e]n', _adj._ relating to _Tangiers_ on the Morocco coast.--_n._ a native of Tangiers: a Tangerine orange. TANGHIN, tang'gin, _n._ a vegetable poison of Madagascar, acting upon the heart like digitalis--formerly used for the judicial ordeal. TANGIBLE, tan'ji-bl, _adj._ perceptible by the touch: capable of being possessed or realised.--_ns._ TANGIB'IL[=E], a tactile sensation or object; TANGIBIL'ITY, quality of being tangible or perceptible to the touch; TAN'GIBLENESS, the state or quality of being tangible.--_adv._ TAN'GIBLY. [L. _tangibilis_--_tang[)e]re_.] TANGIE, tang'i, _n._ an Orcadian water-spirit, appearing as a seahorse, or man covered with seaweed. TANGLE, tang'gl, _n._ a knot of things united confusedly: an edible seaweed: a perplexity, complication: (_Scot._) any long hanging thing, even a lank person: an apparatus for dredging.--_v.t._ to unite together confusedly: to interweave: to ensnare, entangle.--_n._ TANG'LEFOOT (_U.S._), whisky, &c.--_adj._ TANG'LESOME (_prov._), quarrelsome.--_adv._ TANG'LINGLY.--_adj._ TANG'LY, in a tangle: united confusedly: covered with tangle or seaweed. [Scand.; Dan. _tang_, Ice. _thang_, seaweed.] TANGRAM, tan'gram, _n._ a Chinese puzzle, consisting of a square of wood cut into seven pieces of various shapes. TANGUM, tang'gum, _n._ the Tibetan piebald horse. TANIST, tan'ist, _n._ the chief or holder of lands, &c., in certain Celtic races, also the chief's elective successor.--_n._ TAN'ISTRY, an ancient Celtic mode of tenure, according to which the right of succession lay not with the individual, but with the family in which it was hereditary, and by the family the holder of office or lands was elected. [Ir. and Gael. _tanaiste_, lord--_tan_, country.] TANITE, tan'[=i]t, _n._ an emery cement. TANJIB, tan'jib, _n._ a kind of figured muslin made in Oude.--Also TAN'ZIB. TANK, tangk, _n._ a large basin or cistern: a reservoir of water.--_v.t._ to cause to flow into a tank: to plunge into a tank.--_ns._ TANK'AGE, the act of storing oil, &c., in tanks: the price charged for such storage: the capacity of a tank or series of tanks; TANK'-CAR, a railway-car for carrying petroleum in bulk in a long cylindrical tank; TANK'-EN'GINE, a locomotive that carries the water and coal it requires; TANK'-WORM, a nematode worm in the mud of tanks in India. [Port. _tanque_ (Sp. _estanque_, O. Fr. _estang_)--L. _stagnum_, a stagnant pool.] TANKA, tan'ka, _n._ the boat population of Canton, inhabiting permanently the so-called tanka-boats, about 25 feet long.--Also TAN'KIA. TANKARD, tangk'ard, _n._ a large vessel for holding liquors: a drinking-vessel with a lid. [O. Fr. _tanquard_, prob. from L. _cantharus_--Gr. _kantharos_.] TANNER, tan'[.e]r, _n._ (_slang_) a sixpence. [Said to be Gipsy _tano_, little.] TANNIN, tan'in, _n._ an astringent substance found largely in oak-bark or gall-nuts, of great use in tanning.--_n._ TANN'ATE, a salt of tannic acid.--_adjs._ TANN'IC; TANNIF'EROUS, yielding tannin.--_n._ TAN'-RIDE, an enclosure spread with tan for riding.--TANNIC ACID, an acid forming the astringent principle of the bark of oak and other trees, used in tanning and in medicine. [Fr. _tannin_.] TANREC=_Tenrec_ (q.v.). TANSY, tan'zi, _n._ a genus of composite plants allied to _Artemisia_--Common tansy is a bitter, aromatic plant with small yellow flowers, common on old pasture: a pudding or cake flavoured with tansy, eaten at Easter. [O. Fr. _tanasie_, through Late L., from Gr. _athanasia_, immortality.] TANTALISE, tan'ta-l[=i]z, _v.t._ to torment by presenting something to excite desire, but keeping it out of reach.--_ns._ TANTALIS[=A]'TION, the act of tantalising: state of being tantalised; TAN'TALISER, one who, or that which, tantalises.--_adv._ TAN'TALISINGLY.--_ns._ TAN'TALISM, the punishment of Tantalus: a tormenting; TAN'TALUS, a spirit-case that locks; TAN'TALUS-CUP, a philosophical toy, having a siphon within the figure of a man whose chin is on a level with its bend. [_Tantalus_, in Gr. mythology, who stood in Tartarus up to his chin in water, with branches of fruit over his head, the water receding when he wished to drink, and the fruit when he wished to eat.] TANTALUM, tan'tal-um, _n._ a very rare metal of no practical importance, discovered in 1801, closely allied to columbium or niobium. TANTALUS, tan'ta-lus, _n._ the wood-ibis, a genus of birds of the stork family, quite distinct from the true ibises. TANTAMOUNT, tan'ta-mownt, _adj._ amounting to so much or to the same: equivalent: equal in value or meaning.--_n._ TAN'TITY, the fact of being or having so much.--_adv._ TAN'TO (_mus._), so much or too much. [O. Fr., _tant_--L. _tantum_, so much, so great, and O. Fr. _amonter_, to amount.] TANTARA, tan-tar'a, _n._ a blast on a trumpet or horn. [Imit.] TANTIVY, tan-tiv'i, _adv._ with great speed.--_adj._ swift, hasty.--_v.i._ to hurry off.--_n._ a hunting cry: a rapid movement, a rush. [Imit.] TANTONY, tan't[=o]-ni, _n._ the smallest pig in the litter--also TANTONY PIG: a petted servant or follower. [From St _Anthony_, who was attended by a pig.] TANTRA, tan'tra, _n._ in Sanscrit literature, one of the religious text-books of the numerous sects of _S'âktas_--i.e. worshippers of the _S'akti_, or active divine energy, personified in some female deity, esp. in one of the many forms of Pârvatî, the wife of S'iva.--_ns._ TAN'TRISM, the doctrines of the tantras; TAN'TRIST, a devotee of tantrism. [Sans. _tantra_, thread, fundamental doctrine.] TANTRUM, tan'trum, _n._ a capricious fit of ill-temper without adequate cause. [Prob. W. _tant_, a passion.] TANTUM ERGO, tan'tum er'g[=o], _n._ the fifth stanza of the hymn 'Pange, lingua, gloriosi corporis mysterium,' written for the office of the Festival of Corpus Christi, which St Thomas of Aquino drew up in 1263. [From its opening words.] TANZIMAT, tan'zi-mat, _n._ an organic statute of the Turkish empire, introducing reforms and granting fuller personal liberty, esp. applied to the _hatti-sherif_ of the sultan Abdul Medjid in 1839. [Turk.] TÂOISM, tä'[=o]-izm, or tow'izm, _n._ the religious system founded by the Chinese philosopher Lâo-tsze (born 604 B.C.), set forth in the _Tâo Teh King_.--_n._ TÂ'[=O]IST, an adherent of Tâoism.--_adj._ TÂOIST'IC. TAO-TAI, tä'[=o]-t[=i]', _n._ an officer presiding over a Chinese _tao_, or circuit, containing two or more _fu_, or departments. TAP, tap, _n._ a gentle blow or touch, esp. with something small: a signal with a drum to put lights out.--_v.t._ to strike lightly, touch gently.--_v.i._ to give a gentle knock:--_pr.p._ tap'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ tapped. [O. Fr. _tapper_--Low Ger. _tappen_.] [Illustration] TAP, tap, _n._ a hole or short pipe through which liquor is drawn: a place where liquor is drawn: any particular liquor drawn through a tap.--_v.t._ to pierce, so as to let out fluid: to open a cask and draw off liquor: to broach a vessel.--_v.i._ to act as a tapster:--_pr.p._ tap'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ tapped.--_ns._ TAP'-BOLT, a bolt with a head on one end and a thread on the other, to be screwed into some fixed part instead of passing through and receiving a nut; TAP'-CIN'DER, slag produced during puddling; TAP'-HOUSE, a tavern; TAP'LASH, poor stale swipes; TAPOTE'MENT, percussion; TAP'PER, one who taps; TAP'PING, an operation frequently resorted to for the removal of fluid accumulations, particularly in the pleural and peritoneal cavities, consisting in the introduction of one end of a small tube into the cavity and withdrawing the fluid by siphon action, or by means of a vacuum: the act or art of tapping or drawing out fluid; TAP'ROOM, a room where beer is served from the tap or cask; TAP'ROOT, a root of a plant or tree striking directly downward without dividing, and tapering towards the end, as that of the carrot; TAP'STER, one who taps or draws off liquor, a publican, barman.--ON TAP, kept in cask--opp. to bottled: ready to be drawn upon. [A.S. _tæppe_, seen in _tæppere_, one who taps casks; Dut. _tap_, Ger. _zapfen_, a tap.] TAP, tap, _n._ a Scotch form of _top_. TAP, tap, _n._ an Indian malarial fever. [Hind.] TAPA, tä'pä, _n._ the bark of the paper-mulberry, much used in the South Seas for mats, &c.--Also TAP'PA. TAPADERA, tap-a-d[=a]'ra, _n._ a leather guard for the stirrup of the Californian saddle. [Sp., 'a cover'--_tapar_, to cover.] TAPE, t[=a]p, _n._ a narrow fillet or band of woven work, used for strings, &c.: a strong flexible band rotating on pulleys for directing the sheets in a printing-machine: the strip of paper used in a printing-telegraph instrument, &c.: (_slang_) liquor.--_v.t._ to furnish, or tie up, with tape: to extend.--_ns._ TAPE'-LINE, -MEAS'URE, a measuring-line of tape, marked with inches, &c.--_adj._ T[=A]'PEN, made of tape.--_n._ T[=A]'PIST, one who uses tape, an official formalist.--BREAST THE TAPE, in foot-racing, to touch with the breast the tape or ribbon held by the judge at the finish-line. [A.S. _tæppe_, a fillet--L. _tapete_--Gr. _tap[=e]s_.] TAPER, t[=a]'p[.e]r, _n._ a small wax-candle or light: tapering form.--_adj._ narrowed towards the point, like a taper: long and slender.--_v.i._ to become gradually smaller towards one end.--_v.t._ to make to taper.--_adj._ T[=A]'PERING, growing gradually thinner.--_adv._ T[=A]'PERINGLY, in a tapering manner.--_n._ T[=A]'PERNESS, state of being taper. [A.S. _tapor_, prob. Ir. _tapar_.] TAPESTRY, tap'es-tri, _n._ an ornamental textile used for the covering of walls and furniture, and for curtains and hangings--divided into two classes, according as they are made in high-warp (_haute lisse_) or low-warp (_basse lisse_) looms.--_v.t._ to adorn with tapestry--_n._ TAP'ET (_Spens._). [O. Fr. _tapisserie_--_tapis_; a carpet--L. _tapete_, a carpet, tapestry--Gr. _tap[=e]s_, _-etis_--Pers. _tabsch_.] TAPETI, tap'e-ti, _n._ the Brazilian hare. TAPETUM, t[=a]-p[=e]'tum, _n._ (_bot._) the cells on the outside of an archesporium: the pigmentary layer of the retina:--_pl._ T[=A]'PETA. [L. _tapete_--Gr. _tap[=e]s_, _tap[=e]tos_, a carpet.] TAPEWORM, t[=a]p'wurm, _n._ a term sometimes used as a popular synonym for Cestoda or Cestoid Worms, but especially for those which belong to the families _Tæniadæ_ and _Bothriocephalidæ_. TAPIOCA, tap-i-[=o]'ka, _n._ a farinaceous substance obtained from cassava or manioc by drying it while moist on hot plates, so that the starch grains swell or burst, and the whole agglomerates in small lumps. [Braz. _tipioka_, the poisonous juice of the cassava.] TAPIR, t[=a]'pir, _n._ a genus of _Ungulata_, of the section Perissodactyla, thick-skinned, short-necked, with a short flexible proboscis, found in South America.--_adjs._ TAPIR'ODONT, having teeth like the tapir; TAP'IROID, related to the tapirs. [Braz.] TAPIS, tap'is, or ta-p[=e]', _n._ tapestry, carpeting: formerly, the cover of a council-table.--_vs.i._ (_obs._) TAP'PISH, TAP'PICE, to hide.--UPON THE TAPIS, on the table: under consideration. [Fr.] TAPPET, tap'et, _n._ (_Spens._) tapestry. TAPPET, tap'et, _n._ a projecting arm, lever, &c. from any moving part of a machine supplying intermittent motion to some other part.--_ns._ TAPP'ET-LOOM, -MO'TION, -RING, -ROD, &c. TAPPIT, tap'it, _adj._ (_Scot._) having a top or crest.--_n._ TAPP'IT-HEN, a crested hen: a vessel for liquor holding about three quarts, a liberal allowance of drink generally. TAPSALTEERIE, tap-sal-t[=e]'ri, _adj._ (_Scot._) topsy-turvy.--Also TAPSIETEER'IE. TAPSMAN, taps'man, _n._ (_Scot._) a servant with principal charge, the chief of a company of drovers. TAPU. See TABOO. TAR, tär, _v.t._ to set on, incite to fight. [M. E. _tarien_, to irritate--A.S. _tergan_, to provoke.] TAR, tär, _n._ a viscous, liquid, resinous substance of a dark colour, obtained from pine-trees: a sailor, so called from his tarred clothes.--_v.t._ to smear with tar:--_pr.p._ tar'ring; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ tarred.--_ns._ TAR'HEEL, a North Carolinian; TAR'HOOD, sailors collectively.--TAR AND FEATHER, to smear with tar and then cover with feathers.--BE TARRED WITH THE SAME BRUSH, or STICK, to have the same faults as another; HAVE A TOUCH OF THE TAR-BRUSH, to have an infusion of negro blood in the veins. [A.S. _teoro_, _teru_; Dut. _teer_.] TARABOOKA, ta-ra-b[=oo]'ka, _n._ a drum-like instrument. TARA-FERN, tä'rä-fern, _n._ a New Zealand brake, with a thickened edible rhizome. TARANTASS, tar-an-tas', _n._ a four-wheeled vehicle having a boat-shaped body, without springs. [Russ.] TARANTELLA. See under TARANTISM. TARANTISM, tar'ant-izm, _n._ an epidemic leaping or dancing mania, somewhat resembling chorea--also TAR'ENTISM.--_ns._ TARANTEL'LA, TARENTEL'LA, a lively Neapolitan dance in triplets for one couple--thought a remedy for tarantism; TARAN'TULA, TAREN'TULA, a species of spider found in South Italy, whose bite is much dreaded, and was long supposed to cause tarantism. [It. _tarantola_--_Taranto_--L. _Tarentum_, a town in South Italy where the spider abounds.] TARATANTARA, tar-a-tan-tar'a, _n._ or _adv._ a word imitative of the sound of a trumpet.--Also TANTAR'A, TARANTAR'A. TARAXACUM, tar-aks'a-kum, _n._ the root of the dandelion, a tonic laxative in diseases of the liver.--_n._ TARAX'ACINE, a crystallisable substance extracted from the foregoing. [A botanical Latin word, coined from Gr. _taraxis_, trouble--_tarassein_, to trouble. Davic refers to Ar. _taras-acon_, a kind of succory, Latinised in Avicenna as _taraxacon_.] [Illustration] TARBOOSH, TARBOUCHE, tär-boosh', _n._ a red cap with dark tassel worn by Moslem men. [Ar. _tarb[=u]sh_.] TARDIGRADE, tär'di-gr[=a]d, _adj._ slow in pace; belonging to the TAR'DIGRADA, a group or suborder of mammals containing the two genera of sloth.--_n._ one of the Tardigrada. [L. _tardus_, slow, _gradi_, to step.] TARDY, tär'di, _adj._ slow, late, sluggish: out of season.--_advs._ TARDAMEN'TE (_mus._), slowly; TAR'DILY, slowly: reluctantly: late.--_n._ TAR'DINESS.--_adj._ TAR'DY-GAIT'ED (_Shak._) slow-paced. [Fr. _tardif_--_tard_--L. _tardus_, slow.] TARE, t[=a]r, _n._ any one of several species of vetch: (_B._) an unidentified weed, prob. darnel. [Prob. _tear_.] TARE, t[=a]r, _n._ the weight of the vessel or package in which goods are contained: an allowance made for it, the remainder being the _net_ weight. [Fr.,--Sp. _tara_--Ar. _tarha_, thrown away.] TARE, t[=a]r, obsolete, _pa.p._ of _tear_ (2). [Illustration] TARGET, tär'get, _n._ a small buckler or shield: a mark to fire at for practice or competition: any object of desire or ambition: the frame holding railway-signals: (_her._) a bearing representing a buckler: (_Scot._) a pendant, tassel--also TARGE.--_adj._ TAR'GETED, provided with a shield.--_ns._ TARGETEER', TARGETIER', one armed with a shield, a peltast. [A.S. _targe_; Old High Ger. _zarga_, a frame, wall; Fr. _targe_ is of Teut. origin.] TARGUM, t[=a]r'gum, _n._ a general term for the Aramaic versions--often paraphrases--of the Old Testament, which became necessary when, after and perhaps during the Babylonian Exile, Hebrew began to die out as the popular language and was supplanted by Aramaic.--_adj._ TAR'GUMIC.--_n._ TAR'GUMIST, a writer of a Targum: a student of the Targums.--_adj._ TARGUMIST'IC. [Assyr. _ragâmu_, to speak, whence _targumânu_, speaker.] TARIFF, tar'if, _n._ a list of the duties, &c., fixed by law on merchandise: a list of charges, fees, or prices. [Fr.,--Sp.,--Ar. _ta`r[=i]f_, giving information, from _`arafa_, to explain.] TARLATAN, tär'la-tan, _n._ a fine, open, transparent muslin for women's dresses, often coarse in texture, made at _Tarare_ in the department of Rhône.--Also TAR'LETAN. [Prob. Milanese _tarlantanna_.] TARN, tärn, _n._ a small lake among the mountains. [Ice. _tjörn_.] TARNATION, tär-n[=a]'shun, _adj._ and _adv._ a softened form of damnation, as TAR'NAL, of _eternal_ or _infernal_. TARNISH, tär'nish, _v.t._ to soil by exposure to the air, &c.: to diminish the lustre or purity of, to stain, sully.--_v.i._ to become dull: to lose lustre.--_n._ a spot, stain, change in lustre of a mineral.--_n._ TAR'NISHER. [Fr. _ternir_ (pr.p. _ternissant_); _terne_, dull, wan--Mid. High Ger. _ternen_, Old High Ger. _tarnjan_, to darken; A.S. _dernan_, to cover.] TARO, tä'r[=o], _n._ a plant of the arum family, widely cultivated for its edible roots in the islands of the Pacific. [Polynesian.] TAROT, tar'ot, _n._ a kind of playing card used, and probably invented, in Italy about the middle of the 14th century, 78 to the pack: a game played with such.--Also TAR'OC. [Fr., so called prob. because _tarotée_ on the back--i.e. marked with plain or dotted lines crossing diagonally--It. _tarocchi_.] TARPAN, tar'pan, _n._ the small wild horse of the steppes of Russia. [Tatar.] TARPAULIN, tär-paw'lin, _n._ strong linen or hempen cloth coated with tar or pitch to render it waterproof: a sailor's wide-brimmed storm-hat: (_coll._) a sailor.--Also TARPAU'LING. [From _tar_, and prov. Eng. _pauling_, a cart cover; cf. _Pall_.] TARPEIAN, tär-p[=e]'an, _adj._ designating a cliff--the TARPEIAN ROCK upon the Capitoline Hill at Rome, from which state criminals were thrown--from the Roman traitress _Tarpeia_. TARPON, tär'pon, TARPUM, tär'pum, _n._ a food-fish of America, of the herring family, common in the warmer Atlantic waters, and six feet long.--Also _Jew-fish_. [Amer. Ind.] TARRADIDDLE, tar-a-did'l, _n._ a fib, a lie. [App. a coined word, the last part being the slang word _diddle_, to cheat.] TARRAGON, tar'a-gon, _n._ the herb-dragon, an aromatic plant used for flavouring vinegar, sauces, &c. [Sp. _taragontia_--Ar. _tarkh[=u]n_--Gr. _drak[=o]n_, a dragon.] TARRAS, tar'ras, _n._ (_Spens._) terrace. TARRE, tär, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to set on, to encourage. TARRIANCE, tar'i-ans, _n._ (_arch._) act of tarrying, delay. TARRIER, tar'i-[.e]r, _n._ old form of _terrier_: (_slang_) a rough fellow, a tough. TARROCK, tar'ok, _n._ the young of the kittiwake: the tern: guillemot. TARRY, tär'i, _adj._ consisting of, covered with, or like tar.--_n._ TARR'Y-BREEKS, a sailor.--_adj._ TARR'Y-FING'ERED, thievish.--_n.pl._ TARR'Y-FING'ERS, thieving fingers. TARRY, tar'i, _v.i._ to be tardy or slow: to loiter or stay behind: to delay:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ tarr'ied.--_n._ TARR'IER, one who tarries or delays.--_v.i._ TARR'OW (_Scot._), to hesitate, refuse. [M. E. _targen_, to delay (confused in form with _tarien_, to irritate)--O. Fr. _targer_ (Fr. _tarder_)--L. _tardus_, slow.] TARSIA, tär'si-a, _n._ an Italian mosaic, at first dealing with geometrical patterns in wood, but which developed into inlaid representations of architecture, views, figures, and drapery, and finally into foliaceous scrolls of modern marquetry. [It.] TARSIER, tär'si-er, _n._ a small arboreal East Indian lemuroid, the malmag.--_adj._ TAR'SIPED, having the same tarsal structure as the foregoing. [Fr.] TARSUS, tär'sus, _n._ the part of the foot to which the leg is articulated:--_pl._ TAR'S[=I].--_adj._ TAR'SAL, relating to the tarsus or ankle.--_ns._ TARSAL'GIA, pain in the tarsus: a neuralgic affection of the foot from which persons walking much sometimes suffer; TAR'SIPES, a small Australian honey-sucking marsupial, of the family _Phalangistidæ_, about the size of a mouse.--_adj._ TARSOMETATAR'SAL, pertaining to the tarsus and the metatarsus.--_n._ TARSOMETATAR'SUS, the single compound bone of birds.--_adj._ TARSOTAR'SAL, mediotarsal. [Gr. _tarsos_, the flat part of the foot.] TART, tärt, _adj._ sharp or sour to the taste: (_fig._) sharp: severe.--_adj._ TART'ISH, somewhat tart.--_adv._ TART'LY.--_n._ TART'NESS. [A.S. _teart_--_teran_, to tear.] TART, tärt, _n._ a small pie, containing fruit or jelly baked in paste.--_n._ TART'LET, a small tart. [O. Fr. _tarte_--L. _torta_, fem. of pa.p. of _torqu[=e]re_, twist.] TARTAN, tär'tan, _n._ a woollen or worsted stuff checked with various colours, once the distinctive dress of the Scottish Highlanders, each clan having its own pattern. [Fr. _tiretaine_, linsey-woolsey--Sp. _tiritaña_, a thin woollen stuff--_tiritar_, to shiver.] TARTAN, tär'tan, _n._ a Mediterranean vessel with lateen sail: a kind of long covered carriage [Fr.,--Ar. _taridah_, a small ship.] TARTAR, tär'tar, _n._ a mixture of bitartrate of potash and tartrate of lime, being a deposit formed from wine, and known in its crude form as argol: a concretion which sometimes forms on the teeth.--_adjs._ TAR-T[=A]'REOUS, TAR'TAROUS, consisting of, or resembling, tartar; TARTAR'IC, pertaining to, or obtained from, tartar.--_v.t._ TAR'TARISE, to impregnate or treat with tartar.--_adjs._ TARTRAL'IC, TARTREL'IC, derived from tartar.--_n._ TAR'TR[=A]TE, a salt of tartaric acid.--TARTAR EMETIC, a compound of potassium and antimony.--CREAM OF TARTAR (see CREAM). [Fr. _tartre_--Low L. _tartarum_--Ar. _durd_, dregs.] TARTAR, tär'tar, _n._ a native of _Tartary_ in Asia: an irritable person, or one too strong for his assailant. TARTARUS, tär'ta-rus, _n._ the lower world generally, but esp. the place of punishment for the wicked, according to Homer, a deep and sunless abyss, as far below Hades as earth is below heaven, and closed in by iron gates--(_Shak._) TAR'TAR: (_Spens._) TAR'TARY.--_adj._ TART[=A]'REAN. [L.,--Gr. _tartaros_.] TARTUFFE, tär-t[=oo]f', _n._ a hypocritical pretender to religion, from the chief character in Molière's most celebrated comedy (1669).--_adjs._ TARTUFF'ISH, TAR-TUF'ISH.--_ns._ TARTUFF'ISM, TARTUF'ISM. TARVE, tärv, _n._ (_prov._) a curve, bend. TAR-WATER, tär'-waw'tèr, _n._ cold infusion of tar in water, once used as a medicine for chest complaints. TASCAL, tas'kal, _n._ a reward for information about cattle-stealing.--Also TAS'CALL. [Gael, _taisgeal_.] TASEOMETER, tas-[=e]-om'e-tèr, _n._ an instrument for measuring strains in a structure. [Gr. _tasis_, a stretching, _metron_, measure.] TASH, tash, _n._ an Oriental silk fabric, with gold or silver thread.--Also TASS. [Hind, _t[=a]sh_, _t[=a]s_.] TASIMETER, ta-sim'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an apparatus for detecting changes in pressure by the variations in the electrical conductivity of carbon.--_adj._ TASIMET'RIC.--_n._ TASIM'ETRY. [Gr. _tasis_--_teinein_, stretch.] TASK, task, _n._ a set amount of work, esp. of study, given by another: work: drudgery.--_v.t._ to impose a task on: to burden with severe work.--_ns._ TASK'ER, one who imposes a task, or who performs it; TASK'ING, task-work; TASK'MASTER, a master who imposes a task: an overseer:--_fem._ TASK'MISTRESS; TASK'WORK, work done as a task, or by the job.--TAKE TO TASK, to reprove. [O. Fr. _tasque_ (Fr. _tâche_)--Low L. _tasca_, _taxa_--L. _tax[=a]re_, to rate.] TASLET, tas'let, _n._ a tass or piece of armour for the thigh--prob. the same as TASSET. TASMANIAN, tas-m[=a]'ni-an, _adj._ of or belonging to _Tasmania_ or Van Diemen's Land.--_n._ a native of Tasmania.--TASMANIAN DEVIL, or Dasyure (see DEVIL); TASMANIAN WOLF, a nocturnal carnivorous marsupial of Tasmania. [From Abel Jans _Tasman_ (c. 1602-59), the discoverer.] TASS, tas, _n._ (_prov._) a hay-mow, a heap. [O. Fr. _tas_, a heap, most prob. Teut.] TASS, tas, _n._ (_obs._) a pouch. [_Tasset_.] TASS, tas, _n._ a drinking-cup or its contents. [Fr. _tasse_--Ar. _t[=a]s_, a cup.] TASS, tas, _n._ a piece of armour for the thigh. [_Tasset_.] TASSEL, tas'el, _n._ a hanging ornament consisting of a bunch of silk or other material: anything like a tassel: the silk or ribbon-marker of a book: a thin plate of gold on the back of a bishop's gloves.--_v.t._ to attach a tassel to, to ornament with tassels.--_adj._ TASS'ELLED, adorned with tassels. [O. Fr. _tassel_, an ornament of a square shape, attached to the dress--L. _taxillus_, dim. of _talus_, a die.] TASSEL-GENTLE, tas'el-jen'tl, _n._ (_Shak._) the tiercel or male goshawk--also TASS'EL-GENT--properly TIER'CEL-GEN'TLE. TASSET, tas'et, _n._ an overlapping plate from the cuirass protecting the thigh. [O. Fr. _tassette_--_tasse_, n pouch--Teut., Old High Ger. _tasca_, a pouch.] TASSIE, tas'i, _n._ (_Scot._) a drinking-cup. [See _Tass_ (3).] TASTE, t[=a]st, _v.t._ to try or perceive by the touch of the tongue or palate: to try by eating a little: to eat a little of: to partake of: to relish, enjoy: to experience: (_Shak._) to enjoy carnally.--_v.i._ to try or perceive by the mouth: to have a flavour of.--_n._ the act or sense of tasting: the particular sensation caused by a substance on the tongue: the sense by which we perceive the flavour of a thing: the quality or flavour of anything: a small portion: intellectual relish or discernment: the faculty by which the mind perceives the beautiful: nice perception: choice, predilection.--_adjs._ T[=A]ST'ABLE, that may be tasted; TASTE'FUL, full of taste: having a high relish: showing good taste.--_adv._ TASTE'FULLY.--_n._ TASTE'FULNESS.--_adj._ TASTE'LESS, without taste: insipid.--_adv._ TASTE'LESSLY.--_ns._ TASTE'LESSNESS; T[=A]ST'ER, one skilful in distinguishing flavours by the taste: one whose duty it is to test the quality of food by tasting it before serving it to his master.--_adv._ T[=A]ST'ILY, with good taste, neatly.--_n._ T[=A]ST'ING, the act or sense of tasting.--_adj._ T[=A]ST'Y, having a good taste: possessing nice perception of excellence: in conformity with good taste.--TO ONE'S TASTE, to one's liking, agreeable. [O. Fr. _taster_ (Fr. _tâter_), as if from Low L. _taxit[=a]re_--L. _tax[=a]re_, to touch repeatedly, to estimate--_tang[)e]re_, to touch.] TAT, tat, _v.t._ to make by hand, as an edging with a shuttle by knotting and looping thread.--_v.i._ to make tatting.--_n._ TAT'TING, a kind of lace edging woven or knit from common sewing-thread. [Prob. Scand., Ice. _tæta_, to tease, _tæta_, shreds.] TAT, tat, _n._ East Indian matting, gunny-cloth. TAT, tat, _n._ a native-bred pony. [Anglo-Ind.] TA-TA, tä-tä, _interj._ (_coll._) good-bye. TATAR, tä'tar, _n._ a name originally applied to a native of certain Tungustic tribes in Chinese Tartary, but extended to the Mongol, Turkish, and other warriors, who swept over Asia under Genghis Khan. The term _Tatars_ is used loosely for tribes of mixed origin in Tartary, Siberia, and the Russian steppes, including Kazan Tartars, Crim Tartars, Kipchaks, Kalmucks, &c. In the classification of languages TARTAR'IC is used of the Turkish group.--_adjs._ TAT[=A]'RIAN, TATAR'IC. [The Turkish and Persian _Tátar_ became _Tartar_, because they were supposed to be like fiends from hell--Gr. _tartoros_.] TATE, t[=a]t, _n._ (_Scot._) a small portion of anything fibrous.--Also TAIT. TATER, t[=a]'t[.e]r, _n._ a vulgar form of _potato_.--Also T[=A]'TIE. TATH, tath, _n._ (_prov._) the dung of cattle.--_v.t._ to manure. TATTER, tat'[.e]r, _n._ a torn piece: a loose hanging rag.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to tear to tatters: to fall into tatters.--_n._ TATTERDEM[=A]'LION, a ragged fellow.--_p.adj._ TATT'ERED, in tatters or rags: torn.--_adj._ TATT'ERY, very ragged. [Ice. _töturr_ (pl. _tötrar_), rags, a torn garment.] TATTERSALLS, tat'[.e]r-salz, _n._ a famous mart in London for the sale of racing and other high-class horses, and one of the principal haunts of racing men--so called from Richard _Tattersall_ (1724-95). TATTLE, tat'l, _n._ trifling talk or chat.--_v.i._ to talk idly or triflingly: to tell tales or secrets.--_n._ idle talk.--_ns._ TATT'LER, one given to tattling; TATT'LERY, idle talk.--_p.adj._ TATT'LING, given to tattling or telling tales.--_n._ (_Shak._) the act of tale-telling.--_adv._ TATT'LINGLY. [M. E. _tatelen_; Low Ger. _tateln_, to gabble; an imit. word.] TATTOO, tat-t[=oo]', _n._ a beat of drum and a bugle-call to call soldiers to quarters, originally to shut the taps or drinking-houses against them.--THE DEVIL'S TATTOO, the act of drumming with the fingers on a table, &c.; in absence of mind or impatience. [Dut. _taptoe_--_tap_, a tap, and _toe_, which is the prep., Eng. _to_. Ger. _zu_, in the sense of 'shut.'] TATTOO, tat-t[=oo]', _v.t._ to mark permanently (as the skin) with figures, by pricking in colouring-matter.--_n._ marks or figures made by pricking colouring-matter into the skin.--_ns._ TATTOO'[=A]GE; TATTOO'ER; TATTOO'ING. [Tahitian _tatu_.] TATTY, tat'i, _n._ an East Indian screen or mat made of the roots of the fragrant cuscus-grass, with which door or window openings are filled up in the season of hot winds. [Hind. _t[=a]t[=i]_.] TAU, taw, _n._ the toad-fish: a tau-cross.--_ns._ TAU'-BONE, a [Greek: T]-shaped bone, as the interclavicle of a monotreme; TAU'-CROSS, a cross in the form of a [Greek: T]--also _Cross-tau_ and _Cross of St Anthony_; TAU'-STAFF, a staff with a cross-piece at the top like a crutch.--_adj._ TAU'-TOPPED, having a handle like a tau-cross. [See T.] TAUGHT, tawt, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _teach_. TAUNT, tawnt, _v.t._ to reproach or upbraid with severe or insulting words: to censure sarcastically.--_n._ upbraiding, sarcastic, or insulting words: a bitter reproach.--_n._ TAUNT'ER.--_adj._ TAUNT'ING.--_adv._ TAUNT'INGLY. [O. Fr. _tanter_--L. _tent[=a]re_, to tempt.] TAUPIE, TAWPIE, taw'pi, _n._ (_Scot._) a thoughtless girl. [Ice. _tópi_, a fool.] TAURUS, taw'rus, _n._ the Bull, one of the signs of the zodiac.--_adjs._ TAU'RIAN, pertaining to a bull; TAU'RIFORM, having the form of a bull; TAU'R[=I]NE, bull-like.--_ns._ TAUROB[=O]'LIUM, the slaughter of a bull in the Mithraic rites, or an artistic representation of the same; TAUROM'ACHY, bull-fighting.--_adj._ TAUROMOR'PHOUS, bull-shaped. [L.,--Gr.] TAUT, TAUGHT, tawt, _adj._ tightly drawn: in good condition.--_v.t._ TAUT'EN, to make tight.--_n._ TAUT'NESS. [A form of _tight_.] TAUTED, taw'ted, _adj._ (_Scot._) matted.--Also TAW'TIE, TAU'TIE, TAT'TY. [See TAT (1).] TAUTOCHRONOUS, taw-tok'r[=o]-nus, _adj._ isochronous.--_n._ TAU'TOCHRONE. TAUTOG, taw-tog', _n._ a labroid fish of the United States Atlantic coast. TAUTOLOGY, taw-tol'[=o]-ji, _n._ needless repetition of the same thing in different words.--_adjs._ TAUTOLOG'IC, -AL, containing tautology.--_adv._ TAUTOLOG'ICALLY.--_v.i._ TAUTOL'OGISE, to use tautology: to repeat the same thing in different words.--_ns._ TAUTOL'OGISM; TAUTOL'OGIST.--_adjs._ TAUTOL'OGOUS, tautological; TAUTOPHON'ICAL.--_n._ TAUTOPH'ONY, repetition of the same sound. [Gr. _tautologia_--_tauto_, the same, _legein_, to speak.] TAVERN, tav'[.e]rn, _n._ a licensed house for the sale of liquors, with accommodation for travellers: an inn.--_ns._ TAV'ERNER, an innkeeper; TAV'ERNING. [Fr. _taverne_--L. _taberna_, from root of _tabula_, a board.] TAVERS, TAIVERS, t[=a]'vers, _n.pl._ (_Scot._) tatters. TAVERT, TAIVERT, t[=a]'vert, _adj._ (_Scot._) muddled: fuddled. TAW, taw, _n._ a marble chosen to be played with, a game at marbles, also the line from which to play. TAW, taw, _v.t._ to prepare and dress, as skins into white leather.--_ns._ TAW'ER, a maker of white leather; TAW'ERY, a place where skins are dressed; TAW'ING. [A.S. _tawian_, to prepare; Old High Ger. _zoujan_, make, Dut. _touwen_, curry.] TAWDRY, taw'dri, _adj._ showy without taste: gaudily dressed.--_adj._ TAW'DERED, tawdrily dressed.--_adv._ TAW'DRILY.--_n._ TAW'DRINESS.--_n.pl._ TAW'DRUMS, finery. [Said to be corr. from _St Awdrey_=_St Ethelreda_, at whose fair (17th October) laces and gay toys were sold.] TAWIE, taw'i, _adj._ (_Scot._) tame. TAWNY, taw'ni, _adj._ of the colour of things tanned, a yellowish brown.--_n._ TAW'NINESS. [Fr. _tanné_, pa.p. of _tanner_, to tan.] TAWS, TAWSE, tawz, _n._ (_Scot._) a leather strap, usually fringed at the end, for chastising children. TAX, taks, _n._ a rate imposed on property or persons for the benefit of the state: anything imposed: a burdensome duty.--_v.t._ to lay a tax on: to register or enrol for fiscal purposes (Luke ii. 1): to burden: to accuse: to examine accounts in order to allow or disallow items.--_ns._ TAXABIL'ITY, TAX'ABLENESS.--_adj._ TAX'ABLE, capable of being, or liable to be, taxed--_adv._ TAX'ABLY.--_ns._ TAX[=A]'TION, act of taxing; TAX'-CART, a light spring-cart; TAX'ER.--_adj._ TAX'FREE, exempt from taxation.--_ns._ TAX'-GATH'ERER; TAXIM'ETER (see Addenda); TAX'ING-MAS'TER, an officer of a court of law who examines bills of costs; TAX'-PAY'ER. [Fr. _taxe_, a tax--L. _tax[=a]re_, to handle, value, charge--_tang[)e]re_ to touch.] TAXIARCH, tak'si-ärk, _n._ the commander of an ancient Greek taxis or battalion. TAXIDERMY, taks'i-d[.e]r-mi, _n._ the art of preparing and stuffing the skins of animals.--_adjs._ TAXIDER'MAL, TAXIDER'MIC.--_v.t._ TAX'IDERMISE.--_n._ TAX'IDERMIST. [Fr.,--Gr. _taxis_, arrangement, _derma_, a skin.] TAXING, taks'ing, _n._ (_Shak._) satire. [_Tax_.] TAXIS, tak'sis, _n._ (_surg._) the art of putting parts in their natural place by means of pressure: orderly arrangement, classification: a brigade in an ancient Greek army.--_ns._ TAXOL'OGY, the science of classification; TAXON'OMER, a taxonomist.--_adjs._ TAXONOM'IC, -AL.--_adv._ TAXONOM'ICALLY.--_ns._ TAXON'OMIST, one versed in taxonomy; TAXON'OMY, the laws and principles of taxology or orderly classification, also their application to natural history. [Gr.,--_tassein_, to arrange.] TAXUS, tak'sus, _n._ the yew genus of conifers. TAYO, ta'y[=o], _n._ a garment like an apron worn by South American Indians. TAZZA, tat'sa, _n._ a shallow vessel mounted on a foot: a saucer-shaped bowl. [It.] TCHICK, chik, _n._ a sound made by pressing the tongue against the roof of the mouth and then drawing it back quickly, as in urging a horse on.--_v.i._ to make such a sound. [Imit.] TEA, t[=e], _n._ the dried leaves of a shrub in China, Japan, Assam, and Ceylon: an infusion of the leaves in boiling water: any vegetable infusion.--_ns._ TEA'-BREAD, light spongy bread or buns to be eaten with tea; TEA'-CADD'Y, a caddy or small box for holding tea; TEA'-CAKE, a light cake to be eaten with tea; TEA'-CAN'ISTER, an air-tight jar or box for holding tea; TEA'-CHEST, a chest or case in which tea is imported; TEA'-CLIP'PER, a fast-sailing ship in the tea-trade; TEA'-C[=O]'SY (see COSY); TEA'-CUP, a small cup used in drinking tea; TEA'-DEAL'ER, one who buys and sells tea; TEA'-FIGHT (_slang_), a tea-party; TEA'-GAR'DEN, a public garden where tea and other refreshments are served; TEA'-GOWN, a loose gown for wearing at afternoon tea at home; TEA'-HOUSE, a Chinese or Japanese house for tea, &c.; TEA'-KETT'LE, a kettle in which to boil water for making tea; TEA'-LEAD, thin sheet-lead, used in lining tea-chests; TEA'-PAR'TY, a social gathering at which tea is served, also the persons present; TEA'-PLANT, the plant or shrub from which tea is obtained; TEA'-POT, a pot or vessel in which the beverage tea is made; TEA'-SAU'CER, a saucer in which a tea-cup is set; TEA'-SER'VICE, -SET, the utensils necessary for a tea-table; TEA'-SPOON, a small spoon used with the tea-cup, smaller still than the dessert-spoon; TEA'-STICK, a stick cut from the Australian tea-tree; TEA'-T[=A]'BLE, a table at which tea is drunk; TEA'-TAST'ER, one who ascertains the quality of tea by tasting it.--_n.pl._ TEA'-THINGS, the tea-pot, cups, &c.--_ns._ TEA'-TREE, the common tea-plant or shrub; a name of various Australian myrtaceous and other plants; TEA'-URN, a vessel for boiling water or keeping it hot, used on the tea-table.--BLACK TEA, that which in the process of manufacture is fermented between rolling and firing (heating with charcoal in a sieve), while GREEN TEA is that which is fired immediately after rolling. Among black teas are _bohea_, _congou_, _souchong_, and _pekoe_; among green, _hyson_, _imperial_, and _gunpowder_. The finest black is _Pekoe_; the finest green, _Gunpowder_. [From South Chinese _te_ (pron. _t[=a]_), the common form being _ch'a_ or _ts'a_.] TEACH, t[=e]ch, _v.t._ to show: to impart knowledge to: to guide the studies of: to exhibit so as to impress upon the mind: to impart the knowledge of: to accustom: to counsel.--_v.i._ to practise giving instruction:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ taught (tawt).--_n._ TEACHABIL'ITY.--_adj._ TEACH'ABLE, capable of being taught: apt or willing to learn.--_ns._ TEACH'ABLENESS; TEACH'ER, one who teaches or instructs; TEACH'ING, the act of teaching or instructing: instruction.--_adj._ TEACH'LESS, indocile. [A.S. _t['æ]can_, to show, teach; Ger. _zeigen_, to show; allied to L. _doc[=e]re_, to teach, Gr. _deiknunai_, to show.] TEAD, t[=e]d, _n._ (_Spens._) a torch, a flambeau. [L. _tæda_.] TEAGLE, t[=e]'gl, _n._ (_prov._) a hoist or lift. [Prob. a form of _tackle_.] TEAGUE, t[=e]g, _n._ an Irishman. TEAK, t[=e]k, _n._ a tree in the East Indies and Africa, also its wood, remarkable for its hardness and durability. [Malayalam _tekka_.] TEAL, t[=e]l, _n._ a web-footed water-fowl allied to the duck, but smaller. [Dut. _teling_, _taling_.] TEAM, t[=e]m, _n._ a number of animals moving together or in order: two or more oxen or other animals harnessed to the same vehicle; a number of persons associated for doing anything conjointly, playing a game, &c.--_v.t._ to join together in a team: to give work to a gang under a sub-contractor.--_adj._ TEAMED (_Spens._), arranged in a team.--_n._ TEAM'STER, one who drives a team.--_adv._ TEAM'WISE, like a team, harnessed together. [A.S. _teám_, offspring; prob. _teón_, to draw.] TEAPOY, t[=e]'poi, _n._ a small table for the tea-service, &c. [Hind. _t[=i]p[=a]i_--Pers. _s[=i]p[=a]i_.] TEAR, t[=e]r, _n._ a drop of the fluid secreted by the lachrymal gland, appearing in the eyes: anything like a tear.--_ns._ TEAR'-DROP, a tear; TEAR'-DUCT, the lachrymal or nasal duct.--_adjs._ TEAR'-FALL'ING (_Shak._), shedding tears, tender; TEAR'FUL, abounding with or shedding tears: weeping.--_adv._ TEAR'FULLY.--_n._ TEAR'FULNESS.--_adjs._ TEAR'LESS, without tears: unfeeling; TEAR'-STAINED (_Shak._), stained with tears; TEAR'Y, tearful, [A.S. _teár_, _t['æ]r_; Goth. _tagr_; cf. L. _lacrima_, Gr. _dakru_.] TEAR, t[=a]r, _v.t._ to draw asunder or separate with violence: to make a violent rent in: to lacerate.--_v.i._ to move or act with violence: to rage:--_pa.t._ t[=o]re, (_B._) t[=a]re; _pa.p._ t[=o]rn.--_n._ something torn, a rent: (_slang_) a spree.--_n._ TEAR'ER, one who, or that which, tears: (_slang_) a boisterous person.--_p.adj._ TEAR'ING, great, terrible, rushing.--TEAR AND WEAR (see WEAR); TEAR ONE'S SELF AWAY, to go off with great unwillingness; TEAR THE HAIR, to pull the hair in a frenzy of grief or rage; TEAR UP, to remove from a fixed state by violence: to pull to pieces. [A.S. _teran_; cf. Ger. _zehren_.] TEASE, t[=e]z, _v.t._ to comb or card, as wool: to scratch, as cloth: to raise a nap: to vex with importunity, jests, &c.: to torment, irritate.--_n._ one who teases or torments.--_n._ TEAS'ER, one who teases out anything: the stoker of a glass-works furnace.--_adj._ TEAS'ING, vexatious.--_adv._ TEAS'INGLY. [A.S. _t['æ]san_, to pluck; Dut. _teezen_, Ger. _zeisen_.] TEASEL, t[=e]z'l, _n._ a plant with large burs or heads covered with stiff, hooked awns, which are used in raising a nap on cloth--also TEAZ'EL, TEAZ'LE.--_v.t._ to raise a nap on with the teasel:--_pr.p._ teas'eling; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ teas'eled.--_ns._ TEAS'ELER; TEAS'ELING, the act of raising a nap on cloth. [A.S. _tæsel_, _tæsl_--_t['æ]san_, to pluck.] TEAT, t[=e]t, _n._ the nipple of the female breast through which the young suck the milk.--_adj._ TEAT'ED, mammiferous. [A.S. _tit_; cog. with Ger. _zitze_; or perh. through O. Fr. _tete_, from Teut.] TEBETH, teb'eth, _n._ the tenth month of the Jewish ecclesiastical, and fourth of the secular, year, corresponding to parts of December and January. TECHNIC, -AL, tek'nik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to art, esp. the useful arts: belonging to a particular art or profession.--_n._ TECHNICAL'ITY, state or quality of being technical: that which is technical.--_adv._ TECH'NICALLY.--_ns._ TECH'NICALNESS; TECHNI'CIAN; TECH'NICIST, one skilled in the practical arts.--_n.pl._ TECH'NICS, the doctrine of arts in general: the branches that relate to the arts; TECHNIQUE (tek-n[=e]k'), method of performance, manipulation, esp. everything concerned with the mechanical part of a musical performance.--_adjs._ TECHNOLOG'IC, -AL, relating to technology.--_ns._ TECHNOL'OGIST, one skilled in technology; TECHNOL'OGY, the systematic knowledge of the industrial arts: a discourse or treatise on the arts: an explanation of terms employed in the arts; TECHNON'OMY, the principles underlying technology. [Gr. _technikos_--_techn[=e]_, art, akin to _tekein_, to produce.] TECHY. See TETCHY. TECNOLOGY, tek-nol'[=o]-ji, _n._ a treatise on children. [Gr. _teknon_, a child, _logia_, discourse.] TECTARIA, tek-t[=a]'ri-a, _n._ a genus of univalves with a turbinate or conic shell.--_adjs._ TECTIBRANCH'IATE, having the gills covered; TEC'TIFORM, roof-like: (_entom._) ridged in the middle and sloping down on the sides. [L. _tectum_, a roof.] TECTOLOGY, tek-tol'[=o]-ji, _n._ structural morphology according to which an organism is regarded as composed of individuals of different orders.--_adj._ TECTOLOG'ICAL. [Gr. _tekt[=o]n_, a builder.] TECTONIC, tek-ton'ik, _adj._ pertaining to building.--_n.sing._ and _pl._ TECTON'ICS, building as an art: the shaping and ornamentation of furniture, weapons, &c. [Gr. _tekt[=o]n_, a builder.] TECTORIAL, tek-t[=o]'ri-al, _adj._ covering.--_n._ TECT[=O]'RIUM, a covering: the coverts of the wing or tail of birds taken collectively. TECTRICES, tek-tr[=i]'sez, _n.pl._ wing or tail coverts of birds:--_sing._ TEC'TRIX.--_adj._ TECTRI'CIAL. TED, ted, _v.t._ to spread or turn, as new-mown grass, for drying:--_pr.p._ ted'ding; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ ted'ded.--_n._ TED'DER, an implement for spreading hay. [Scand.; Ice. _tedhja_, spread manure.] TEDE, TEAD, t[=e]d, _n._ (_obs._) a torch. [L. _tæda_.] TEDESCO, te-des'k[=o], _adj._ German. [It.] TE DEUM, t[=e] d[=e]'um, _n._ a famous Latin hymn of the Western Church, sung at the end of matins on all feasts except Innocents' Day, and on all Sundays except during penitential seasons--it begins with the words _Te Deum Laudamus_, 'We praise thee, O God:' a thanksgiving service in which this hymn forms a principal part. TEDIOUS, t[=e]'di-us, _adj._ wearisome: tiresome from length or slowness: irksome: slow.--_n._ TEDIOS'ITY, tediousness.--_adv._ T[=E]'DIOUSLY.--_n._ T[=E]'DIOUSNESS. [L. _tædiosus_.] TEDIUM, t[=e]'di-um, _n._ wearisomeness: irksomeness. [L. _tædium_--_tædet_, it wearies.] TEE, t[=e], _n._ a mark for quoits, curling-stones, &c.: (_golf_) the raised sand from which the ball is played at the commencement of each hole.--_v.t._ to place the golf-ball on this before striking off. TEE, t[=e], _n._ a finial in the form of a conventionalised umbrella, crowning a dagoba in Indo-Chinese countries. TEEM, t[=e]m, _v.i._ to bring forth or produce: to bear or be fruitful: to be pregnant: to be full or prolific.--_n._ TEEM'ER.--_adjs._ TEEM'FUL; TEEM'ING; TEEM'LESS, barren. [A.S. _teám_, offspring.] TEEM, t[=e]m, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to pour, empty. TEEN, t[=e]n, _n._ (_arch._) grief, affliction, injury. [A.S. _teóna_, reproach, injury.] TEEN, t[=e]n, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to excite, provoke. [A.S. _týnan_, to irritate, vex.] TEEN, t[=e]n, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to allot, bestow. TEENS, t[=e]nz, _n.pl._ the years of one's age from thir_teen_ to nine_teen_. TEENY, t[=e]'ni, _adj._ very small, tiny. TEENY, t[=e]'ni, _adj._ (_prov._) peevish. TEER, t[=e]r, _v.t._ to stir, as a calico-printer's sieve. TEE-TEE, TITI, t[=e]'t[=e], _n._ a South American squirrel-monkey. TEETER, t[=e]'ter, _n._ (_U.S._) a see-saw.--_v.i._ to see-saw. TEETH. See TOOTH. TEETHING, t[=e]th'ing, _n._ the first growth of teeth, or the process by which they make their way through the gums.--_v.i._ TEETHE, to grow or cut the teeth. TEETOTALER, t[=e]-t[=o]'tal-[.e]r, _n._ one pledged to entire abstinence from intoxicating drinks.--_adj._ TEET[=O]'TAL.--_n._ TEET[=O]'TALISM. [Prob. from a stammering pronunciation of the word _Total_ by Richard Turner of Preston in 1833.] TEE-TOTUM, t[=e]-t[=o]'tum, _n._ a toy like a small top, twirled by the fingers. TEFF, tef, _n._ an Abyssinian cereal-grass. TEGMEN, teg'men, _n._ a covering: (_bot._) the endopleura or inner coat of the seed: (_anat._) the roof of the tympanic cavity of the ear: the covering of the posterior wing of some insects;--_pl._ TEG'MINA.--_adj._ TEG'MINAL. [L.] TEGMENTUM, teg-men'tum, _n._ the scaly covering of the leaf-buds of deciduous trees.--_adj._ TEGMEN'TAL. TEGULATED, teg-[=u]-l[=a]t'ed, _adj._ composed of plates overlapping like tiles.--_adj._ TEG'ULAR.--_adv._ TEG'U-LARLY. [L. _tegula_, a tile--_teg[)e]re_, to cover.] TEGUMENT, teg'[=u]-ment, _n._ an integument.--_adjs._ TEGUMEN'TAL, TEGUMEN'TARY. [L. _tegumentum_--_teg[)e]re_, to cover.] TEHEE, t[=e]'h[=e]', _n._ a laugh.--_v.i._ to titter. [Imit.] TEIAN, TEAN, t[=e]'an, _adj._ pertaining to _Teos_ in ancient Ionia, or to the poet Anacreon, a native. TE IGITUR, t[=e] ij'i-tur, _n._ the first paragraph of the eucharistic canon in the Roman liturgy. TEIL, t[=e]l, _n._ the linden or lime tree: the terebinth. [O. Fr. _teil_--L. _tilia_.] TEINDS, t[=e]ndz, _n.pl._ the name given in Scotland to tithes, or, strictly, to that part of the estates of the laity which is liable to be assessed for the stipend of the clergy of the established church. TEINOSCOPE, t[=i]'n[=o]-sk[=o]p, _n._ an optical instrument consisting of two prisms so combined as to correct the chromatic aberration. TEKNONYMY, tek-non'i-mi, _n._ the naming of the parent from the child.--_adj._ TEKNON'YMOUS. [Gr. _teknon_, a child, _onoma_, a name.] TELA, t[=e]'la, _n._ a tissue:--_pl._ TELÆ (t[=e]'l[=e]).--_adjs._ T[=E]'LAR, pertaining to a tela, web, or tissue; TEL[=A]'RIAN, spinning a web.--_n._ a spinning spider.--_adj._ TEL'ARY, pertaining to a tela, woven, spun. [L.] TELAMON, tel'a-mon, _n._ (_archit._) a man's figure bearing an entablature. [Gr. _telam[=o]n_, bearer.] TELANGIECTASIA, te-lan-ji-ek-t[=a]'si-a, _n._ a dilation of the small arteries or capillaries--also TELANGIEC'TASIS.--_adj._ TELANGIECTAT'IC. [Gr. _telos_, the end, _angeion_, a vessel, _ektasis_, extension.] TELAUTOGRAPH, te-law't[=o]-graf, _n._ a writing or copying telegraph, invented by Elisha Gray, for reproducing writings at a distance. [Gr. _t[=e]le_, far, _autos_, self, _graphein_, to write.] TELD, teld, (_Spens._) told. TELEDU, tel'e-d[=oo], _n._ the stinking badger of Java. TELEGA, t[=e]-l[=a]'ga, _n._ a Russian cart without springs. TELEGRAM, tel'e-gram, _n._ a message sent by telegraph.--_adj._ TELEGRAM'MIC, pertaining to a telegram, brief, succinct. [Gr. _t[=e]le_, at a distance, _gramma_, that which is written--_graphein_, to write.] TELEGRAPH, tel'e-graf, _n._ an apparatus for transmitting intelligible messages to a distance, esp. by means of electricity.--_v.t._ to convey or announce by telegraph.--_ns._ TEL'EGRAPH-C[=A]'BLE, a cable containing wires for transmitting telegraphic messages; TEL'EGRAPHER (or t[=e]-leg'-), TEL'EGRAPHIST (or t[=e]-leg'-), one who works a telegraph.--_adjs._ TELEGRAPH'IC, -AL, pertaining to, or communicated by, a telegraph.--_adv._ TELEGRAPH'ICALLY, in a telegraphic manner: by means of the telegraph.--_ns._ TEL'EGRAPH-PLANT, an Indian leguminous plant, the small lateral leaflets of whose trifoliate leaves have a strange, spontaneous motion, jerking up and down (sometimes 180 times in a minute), as if signalling, and also rotate on their axes; TEL'EGRAPHY (or t[=e]-leg'-), the science or art of constructing or using telegraphs. [Gr. _t[=e]le_ at a distance, _graphein_ to write.] TELEKINESIS, tel-[=e]-ki-n[=e]'sis, _n._ the production of motion without contact, through supra-physical causes, beyond the range of the senses.--_adj._ TELEKINET'IC. [Gr. _t[=e]le_, far, _kin[=e]sis_, movement.] TELEMETER, t[=e]-lem'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for fixing distances in surveying, &c.--_adj._ TELEMET'RIC.--_n._ TELEM'ETRY. [Gr. _t[=e]le_, far, _metron_, measure.] TELEOLOGY, tel-e-ol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the doctrine of the final causes of things.--_adjs._ TELEOLOG'IC, -AL.--_adv._ TELEOLOG'ICALLY.--_ns._ TELEOL'OGISM; TELEOL'OGIST. [Gr. _telos_, issue, _logos_, a discourse.] TELEOSAURUS, t[=e]-l[=e]-[=o]-sawr'us, _n._ a genus of fossil saurians belonging to the Oolitic period.--_adj._ and _n._ TELEOSAU'RIAN. [Gr. _teleios_, perfect, _sauros_, a lizard.] TELEOST, tel'[=e]-ost, _adj._ osseous.--_n._ an osseous fish--also TELEOS'TEAN. [Gr. _teleios_, complete, _osteon_, bone.] TELEPATHY, tel'[=e]-path-i, or t[=e]-lep'a-thi, _n._ the supposed fact that communication is possible between mind and mind otherwise than through the known channels of the senses, as at a distance without external means.--_adj._ TELEPATH'IC.--_adv._ TELEPATH'ICALLY.--_v.t._ TEL'EPATHISE, to affect or act upon through telepathy.--_v.i._ to practise telepathy.--_n._ TEL'EPATHIST (or te-lep'-), one who believes in telepathy. [Gr. _t[=e]le_, far, _pathos_, feeling.] TELEPHEME, tel'[=e]-f[=e]m, _n._ a telephonic message. [Gr. _t[=e]le_, far, _ph[=e]m[=e]_, a saying.] TELEPHONE, tel'e-f[=o]n, _n._ an instrument for reproducing sound at a distance over a conducting wire or cord, esp. by means of electricity.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to communicate by telephone.--_n._ TEL'EPH[=O]NER, one who uses a telephone.--_adj._ TELEPHON'IC.--_adv._ TELEPHON'ICALLY.--_ns._ TEL'EPH[=O]NIST, one who uses the telephone, one skilled in its use; TELEPH[=O]'NOGRAPH, an apparatus for recording a telephone message.--_adj._ TELEPHONOGRAPH'IC.--_n._ TEL'EPHONY, the art of telephoning. [Gr. _t[=e]le_, far, _ph[=o]n[=e]_, a sound.] TELEPHOTE, tel'[=e]-f[=o]t, _n._ an instrument for reproducing images of objects at a distance by means of electricity.--_ns._ TELEPH[=O]'TOGRAPH, a picture so produced; TELEPHOTOG'RAPHY, the art of producing such--still a dream of the future. [Gr. _t[=e]le_, far, _ph[=o]s_, _ph[=o]tos_, light.] TELEPLASTIC, tel-[=e]-plas'tik, _adj._ pertaining to the materialisation of spiritualistic phenomena.--Also TELESOMAT'IC. [Gr. _t[=e]le_, far, _plassein_, to form.] TELERPETON, t[=e]-l[.e]r'pe-ton, _n._ a remarkable genus of fossil reptiles of the Mesozoic period. [Gr. _t[=e]le_, far, _herpeton_, a reptile.] TELESCOPE, tel'e-sk[=o]p, _n._ an optical instrument for viewing objects at a distance.--_v.t._ to drive together so that one thing, as a railway-carriage in a collision, slides into another like the movable joints of a spyglass.--_v.i._ to be forced into each other in such a way.--_adjs._ TELESCOP'IC, -AL, pertaining to, performed by, or like a telescope: seen only by a telescope.--_adv._ TELESCOP'ICALLY.--_adj._ TEL'ESCOPIFORM.--_ns._ TEL'ESCOPIST, one who uses the telescope; TEL'ESCOPY (or t[=e]-les'-), the art of constructing or of using the telescope. [Fr.,--Gr. _t[=e]le_, at a distance, _skopein_, to see.] TELESEME, tel'[=e]-s[=e]m, _n._ a system of electric signalling for the automatic transmission of different signals, in use in large hotels, for police alarms, &c. [Gr. _t[=e]le_, far, _s[=e]ma_, a sign.] TELESIA, t[=e]-l[=e]'si-a, _n._ the sapphire. [Gr. _telesios_, finishing--_telos_, the end.] TELESPECTROSCOPE, tel-[=e]-spek'tr[=o]-sk[=o]p, _n._ a combined astronomical telescope and spectroscope. TELESTEREOSCOPE, tel-[=e]-ster'[=e]-[=o]-sk[=o]p, _n._ an optical instrument presenting distant objects in relief. TELESTIC, t[=e]-les'tik, _adj._ pertaining to the final end. [Gr. _telos_, an end.] TELESTICH, tel'[=e]-stik, _n._ a poem in which the final letters of the lines make a name. TELETHERMOGRAPH, tel-[=e]-ther'm[=o]-graf, _n._ a self-registering telethermometer. TELETHERMOMETER, tel-[=e]-ther-mom'e-t[.e]r, _n._ thermometer that records its temperature at a distance. TELEUTOSPORE, t[=e]-l[=u]'t[=o]-sp[=o]r, _n._ a thick-walled winter spore of the rust-fungi (_Uredineæ_), producing on germination a promycelium. [Gr. _teleut[=e]_ completion, spora, _seed_.] TELIC, tel'ik; _adj._ denoting a final end or purpose. TELL, tel, _v.t._ to number or give an account of: to utter: to narrate: to disclose: to inform: to discern: to explain.--_v.i._ to give an account: to produce or take effect: to chat, gossip: to tell tales, play the informer:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ t[=o]ld.--_adj._ TELL'ABLE, capable of being told.--_ns._ TELL'ER, one who tells or counts: a clerk whose duty it is to receive and pay money; TELL'ERSHIP, the office of a teller.--_p.adj._ TELL'ING, having great effect.--_adv._ TELL'INGLY, in a telling or effective manner.--_n._ TELL'-TALE, one who tells tales: one who officiously tells the private concerns of others: an indication or an indicator, as an automatic instrument: a bird of genus _Totanus_, a tattler.--_adj._ given to reveal secrets, blabbing: apparent, openly seen: giving warning.--TELL OFF, to count off: to detach on some special duty. [A.S. _tellan_; Ice. _telja_, Ger. _zählen_, to number.] TELLURAL, tel'[=u]-ral, _adj._ pertaining to the earth. TELLURIUM, te-l[=u]'ri-um, _n._ an element by some classed as a metal, placed by others among the metalloids, brittle and crystalline, of high metallic lustre, bluish-white in colour, with close analogies to sulphur and selenium.--_n._ TEL'LURATE, a salt of telluric acid.--_adjs._ TEL'L[=U]RETTED, combined with tellurium; TELL[=U]'RIAN, pertaining to the earth.--_n._ an inhabitant of the earth.--_adj._ TELL[=U]'RIC, pertaining to, or proceeding from, the earth: of or from tellurium.--_n._ TEL'LURIDE, a compound of tellurium with an electro-positive element.--_adjs._ TELL[=U]RIF'EROUS, containing tellurium; TEL'L[=U]ROUS, pertaining to tellurium. [L. _tellus_, _telluris_, the earth.] TELOTYPE, tel'[=o]-t[=i]p, _n._ a printing electric telegraph: an automatically printed telegram. TELPHER, tel'f[.e]r, _adj._ pertaining to a system of telpherage.--_n._ TEL'PHERAGE, a term coined by Prof. Fleeming Jenkin for a system of electric traction developed on an absolute automatic block system, the presence of a train on one section cutting off the supply of electric energy to the section behind, any mode of transport effected automatically with the aid of electricity. [Framed from _tel_(egraph)--Gr. _t[=e]le_, far, _pherein_, to carry.] TELSON, tel'son, _n._ the last somite of the pleon or abdomen of certain crustaceans and arachnidans. [Gr. _telson_, a boundary.] TELUGU, tel'[=oo]-g[=oo], _n._ the language spoken in the north-western portion of the Dravidian area inhabited by the _Telingas_.--Also TEL'OOGOO. TEMED, t[=e]md, _adj._ (_Spens._) yoked in a team. TEMENOS, tem'e-nos, _n._ a piece of land marked off from common uses and dedicated to a god, a precinct. [Gr.,--_temnein_, to cut off.] TEMERITY, te-m[.e]r'i-ti, _n._ rashness: unreasonable contempt for danger.--_adj._ TEMER[=A]'RIOUS (_obs._), rash, reckless.--_adv._ TEMER[=A]'RIOUSLY.--_adj._ TEM'EROUS, rash.--_adv._ TEM'EROUSLY. [Fr. _témérité_--L. _temeritas_--_temere_, by chance, rashly.] TEMEWISE, t[=e]m'w[=i]z, _adv._ (_Spens._) like a team. TEMPEAN, tem-p[=e]'an, _adj._ pertaining to, or resembling, _Tempe_, a valley in Thessaly, praised by the classic poets for its matchless beauty: beautiful: delightful. TEMPER, tem'p[.e]r, _v.t._ to mix in due proportion: to modify by blending or mixture: to moderate: to soften: to bring to a proper degree of hardness and elasticity, as steel: to amend or adjust, as a false or imperfect concord.--_n._ due mixture or balance or different or contrary qualities: state of a metal as to hardness, &c.: constitution of the body: constitutional frame or state of mind, esp. with regard to feelings, disposition, temperament, mood: passion, irritation: calmness or moderation: in sugar-works lime or other substance used to neutralise the acidity of cane-juice.--_adjs._ TEM'PERABLE, capable of being tempered; TEM'PERED, having a certain specified disposition or temper: brought to a certain temper, as steel: (_mus._) tuned or adjusted to some mean, or to equal, temperament.--_adv._ TEM'PEREDLY.--_ns._ TEM'PERER; TEM'PERING, the process of giving the required degree of hardness or softness to iron or steel, by heating to redness and cooling in different ways. [L. _temper[=a]re_, to combine properly, allied to _tempus_, time.] TEMPERA, tem'pe-rä, _n._ (_paint._) same as DISTEMPER. TEMPERAMENT, tem'p[.e]r-a-ment, _n._ state with respect to the predominance of any quality: internal constitution or state: disposition, one of the peculiarities of physical and mental organisation which to a certain extent influence our thoughts and actions--_choleric_ or _bilious_, _lymphatic_, _nervous_, _sanguine_: the adjustment of imperfect concords, so that the difference between two contiguous sounds is reduced to a minimum and the two appear identical--a system of compromise in the tuning of keyed instruments.--_adj._ TEMPERAMEN'TAL.--_adv._ TEMPERAMEN'TALLY. [L. _temperamentum_--_temper[=a]re_.] TEMPERANCE, tem'p[.e]r-ans, _n._ moderation, esp. in the indulgence of the natural appetites and passions--in a narrower sense, moderation in the use of alcoholic liquors, and even entire abstinence from such.--TEMPERANCE HOTEL, one which professes to supply no alcoholic liquors; TEMPERANCE MOVEMENT, a political agitation for the restriction or abolition of the use of alcoholic liquors; TEMPERANCE SOCIETY, usually an association of total-abstainers from alcoholic liquors. [L. _temperantia_.] TEMPERATE, tem'p[.e]r-[=a]t, _adj._ moderate in degree of any quality, esp. in the appetites and passions, self-restrained: calm: cool, mild, moderate in temperature: abstemious.--_adv._ TEM'PERATELY.--_n._ TEM'PERATENESS.--_adj._ TEM'PERATIVE.--_n._ TEM'PERATURE, constitution: proportion: degree of any quality, esp. of heat or cold in weather or climate: the thermal condition of a body which determines the interchange of heat between it and other bodies: state of a living body with respect to sensible heat.--TEMPERATE ZONES, the parts of the earth of more cool and equable temperature lying between the tropics and the polar circles--the _North Temperate Zone_ being the space between the tropic of Cancer and the arctic circle; the _South Temperate Zone_, that between the tropic of Capricorn and the antarctic circle. TEMPEST, tem'pest, _n._ wind rushing with great velocity, usually with rain or snow: a violent storm: any violent commotion.--_adjs._ TEM'PEST-BEAT'EN; TEM'PEST-TOST (_Shak._), driven about by storms; TEMPES'T[=U]OUS, resembling, or pertaining to, a tempest: very stormy: turbulent.--_adv._ TEMPES'T[=U]OUSLY.--_n._ TEMPES'T[=U]OUSNESS.--TEMPEST IN A TEA-POT, a great disturbance over a trivial matter. [O. Fr. _tempeste_--L. _tempestas_, a season, tempest--_tempus_, time.] TEMPLAR, tem'plar, _n._ one of a religious and military order founded in 1119 for the protection of the Holy Sepulchre and pilgrims going thither--extinguished, 1307-14, in one of the darkest tragedies of history: a student or lawyer living in the Temple, London.--GOOD TEMPLAR, a member of a teetotal society whose organisation is a travesty of that of the Freemasons. [Orig. called 'Poor fellow-soldiers of Christ and of the _Temple_ of Solomon,' from their first headquarters in the palace of King Baldwin II., which was built on the site of the temple of Solomon, close to the church of the Holy Sepulchre.] TEMPLATE, tem'pl[=a]t, _n._ a mould in wood or metal, showing the outline or profile of mouldings, and from which the workmen execute the moulding.--Also TEM'PLET. [Low L. _templatus_, vaulted--L. _templum_, a small timber.] TEMPLE, tem'pl, _n._ an edifice erected to a deity or for religious purposes: a place of worship: in London, two inns of court, once occupied by the Knights Templars. [L. _templum_, prob. for _temulum_, a space marked out for religious purposes, dim. of _tempus_, a piece cut off.] TEMPLE, tem'pl, _n._ the flat portion of either side of the head above the cheekbone.--_adj._ TEM'PORAL, pertaining to the temples. [O. Fr. _temple_--L. _tempora_, the temples, pl. of _tempus_, time.] TEMPO, tem'p[=o], _n._ (_mus._) time, relative rapidity of rhythm. [It.] TEMPORAL, tem'por-al, _adj._ pertaining to time, esp. to this life or world--opposed to eternal: worldly, secular, or civil--opposed to sacred or ecclesiastical.--_n._ TEMPORAL'ITY, what pertains to temporal welfare: (_pl._) secular possessions, revenues of an ecclesiastic proceeding from lands, tithes, and the like.--_adv._ TEM'PORALLY.--_n._ TEM'PORALNESS.--_adv._ TEM'PORARILY.--_n._ TEM'PORARINESS.--_adjs._ TEM'PORARY, TEMPOR[=A]'NEOUS, for a time only: transient.--_n._ TEMPORIS[=A]'TION.--_v.i._ TEM'PORISE, to comply with the time or occasion: to yield to circumstances.--_ns._ TEM'PORISER; TEM'PORISING.--_adv._ TEM'PORISINGLY. [Fr.,--L. _tempus_, time.] TEMPT, temt, _v.t._ to put to trial: to test: to try to persuade, esp. to evil: to entice.--_adj._ TEMP'TABLE.--_ns._ TEMP'TABLENESS; TEMPT[=A]'TION, act of tempting: state of being tempted: that which tempts: enticement to evil: trial.--_adj._ TEMPT[=A]'TIOUS, seductive.--_n._ TEMP'TER, one who tempts, esp. the devil:--_fem._ TEMP'TRESS.--_adj._ TEMP'TING, adapted to tempt or entice.--_adv._ TEMP'TINGLY.--_n._ TEMP'TINGNESS. [O. Fr. _tempter_ (Fr. _tenter_)--L. _tent[=a]re_, an inten. of _tend[)e]re_, to stretch.] TEMSE, TEMS, tems, _n._ a sieve.--_v.t._ to sift. [Cf. Dut. _tems_.] TEMULENCE, tem'[=u]-lens, _n._ intoxication--also TEM'ULENCY.--_adj._ TEM'ULENT.--_adv._ TEM'ULENTLY. [L. _temulentus_, drunk.] TEN, ten, _adj._ twice five.--_n._ a figure denoting ten units, as 10 or x.: a playing-card with ten spots: ten o'clock in the morning or evening.--_n._ UP'PER-TEN (see under UPPER). [A.S. _tén_, _tíen_; Ger. _zehn_, W. _deg_, L. _decem_, Gr. _deka_, Sans. _daçan_.] TENABLE, ten'a-bl, _adj._ capable of being retained, kept, or defended.--_ns._ TENABIL'ITY, TEN'ABLENESS, the state or quality of being tenable. [Fr. _tenable_, from _tenir_--L. _ten[=e]re_, to hold.] TENACE, ten'[=a]s, _n._ at whist, a holding of the first and third best cards (_major tenace_), or the second and fourth best cards (_minor tenace_), in a suit. [Fr.] TENACIOUS, t[=e]-n[=a]'shus, _adj._ retaining or holding fast: apt to stick: stubborn.--_adv._ TEN[=A]'CIOUSLY.--_ns._ TEN[=A]'CIOUSNESS, TENAC'ITY, quality of being tenacious: the quality of bodies which makes them stick to others. [L. _tenax_--_ten[=e]re_.] TENACULUM, t[=e]-nak'[=u]-lum, _n._ a surgical hooked instrument for drawing out a divided blood-vessel to be tied. TENAILLE, te-n[=a]l', _n._ (_fort._) an outwork in the main ditch immediately in front of the curtain, of great use for protecting the ditch, covering the postern from the enemy's view, &c.--_n._ TENAILLON (te-nal'yon), a work to strengthen the side of a small ravelin, and to support the shoulder of the bastion. [Fr.,--L. _tenaculum_, a holder--_ten[=e]re_, to hold.] TENANT, ten'ant, _n._ one who holds or possesses land or property under another, the payments and services which he owes to his superior constituting his tenure: one who has, on certain conditions, temporary possession of any place, an occupant.--_v.t._ to hold as a tenant.--_n._ TEN'ANCY, a holding by private ownership: a temporary holding of land or property by a tenant.--_adj._ TEN'ANTABLE, fit to be tenanted: in a state of repair suitable for a tenant.--_n._ TEN'ANT-FARM'ER, a farmer who rents a farm from the landlord.--_adj._ TEN'ANTLESS, without a tenant.--_ns._ TEN'ANT-RIGHT, the customary right of the tenant to sit continuously at a reasonable rent, and to receive compensation for his interest from the incoming tenant, and for all permanent or unexhausted improvements from the landlord; TEN'ANTRY, the body of tenants on an estate. [Fr. _tenant_--L. _tenens_, pr.p. of _ten[=e]re_, to hold.] TENCH, tensh, _n._ a fresh-water fish, of the carp family, very tenacious of life. [O. Fr. _tenche_ (Fr. _tanche_)--L. _tinca_.] TEND, tend, _v.t._ to accompany as assistant or protector: to take care of, to be attentive to, to wait upon so as to execute.--_ns._ TEN'DANCE (_Spens._), state of expectation: (_Shak._) act of waiting or tending, also persons attendant; TEN'DER, a small vessel that attends a larger with stores, &c.: a carriage attached to locomotives to supply fuel and water. [Contracted from _attend_.] TEND, tend, _v.i._ to stretch, aim at, move, or incline in a certain direction: to be directed to any end or purpose: to contribute.--_n._ TEN'DENCY, direction, object, or result to which anything tends: inclination: drift. [Fr. _tendre_--L. _tend[)e]re_; Gr. _teinein_, to stretch.] TENDER, ten'd[.e]r, _v.t._ to stretch out or offer for acceptance, esp. to offer to supply certain commodities for a certain period at rates specified.--_n._ an offer or proposal, esp. of some service, also the paper containing it: the thing offered, the actual production and formal offer of a sum due in legal money, or an offer of services to be performed, in order to save the consequences of non-payment or non-performance. TENDER, ten'd[.e]r, _adj._ soft, delicate: easily impressed or injured: not hardy: fragile: weak and feeble: easily moved to pity, love, &c.: careful not to injure (with _of_): unwilling to cause pain: apt to cause pain: pathetic, expressive of the softer passions: compassionate, loving, affectionate: young and inexperienced: weakly in health: delicate, requiring careful handling: quick, keen: apt to lean over under sail.--_n._ TEN'DER-FOOT, one not yet hardened to life in the prairie, mining-camp, &c.: a new-comer.--_adj._ TEN'DER-HEART'ED, full of feeling.--_adv._ TEN'DER-HEART'EDLY.--_n._ TEN'DER-HEART'EDNESS.--_adj._ TEN'DER-HEFT'ED (_Shak._), having great tenderness.--_ns._ TEN'DERLING, one too much coddled, an effeminate fellow: one of the first horns of a deer; TEN'DER-LOIN, the tenderest part of the loin of beef, pork, &c., lying close to the ventral side of the lumbar vertebræ.--_adv._ TEN'DERLY.--_n._ TEN'DERNESS. [Fr. _tendre_--L. _tener_, allied to _tenuis_, thin.] TENDON, ten'don, _n._ the white fibrous tissue reaching from the end of a muscle to bone or some other structure which is to serve as a fixed attachment for it, or which it is intended to move--_funicular_, as the long tendon of the biceps muscle of the arm; _fascicular_, as the short tendon of that muscle, and as most tendons generally; _aponeurotic_, tendinous expansions, as the tendons of the abdominal muscles--L. TEN'DO:--_pl._ TEN'DINES.--_adj._ TEN'DINOUS, consisting of, containing, or resembling tendons: full of tendons: sinewy.--_ns._ TENOG'RAPHY, the description of tendons; TENOL'OGY, that part of anatomy which relates to tendons; TENOT'OMY, the surgical operation of dividing a tendon. [Fr. _tendon_--L. _tend[)e]re_, to stretch; cf. Gr. _ten[=o]n_--_teinein_, to stretch.] TENDRIL, ten'dril, _n._ a slender, spiral shoot of a plant by which it attaches itself for support.--_adj._ clasping or climbing.--_adj._ TEN'DRILLED. [O. Fr. _tendrillons_, _tendre_--L. _tener_, tender.] TENEBROUS, ten'e-brus, _adj._ dark: gloomy--also TEN'EBROSE.--_n.pl._ TENEBRÆ (ten'e-br[=e]), an office held by Roman Catholics on Good Friday and the preceding two days, consisting of the matins and lauds of the following day. During it the church is gradually darkened by the putting out of all the candles but one, which for a time (as a symbol of our Lord's death and burial) is hidden at the Epistle corner of the altar.--_adj._ TENEBRIF'IC, producing darkness.--_ns._ T[=E]NEB'RIO, a genus of beetles, including the meal-worm; TENEBROS'ITY, darkness. [L. _tenebrosus_--_tenebræ_, darkness.] TENEMENT, ten'e-ment, _n._ anything held, or that may be held, by a tenant: a dwelling or habitation, or part of it, used by one family: one of a set of apartments in one building, each occupied by a separate family.--_adjs._ TENEMENT'AL; TENEMENT'ARY. TENENDUM, t[=e]-nen'dum, _n._ that clause in a deed wherein the tenure of the land is defined and limited. [L., neut. of _tenendus_, ger. of _ten[=e]re_, to hold.] TENESMUS, t[=e]-nes'mus, _n._ the term applied in medicine to a straining and painful effort to relieve the bowels when no fæcal matter is present in the rectum, the effort being caused by some adjacent source of irritation.--_adj._ TENES'MIC. TENET, ten'et, _n._ any opinion, principle, or doctrine which a person holds or maintains as true. [L. _tenet_, he holds--_ten[=e]re_, to hold.] TENFOLD, ten'f[=o]ld, _adj._ ten times folded: ten times more. TENIOID=_Tænioid_. TENNÉ, te-n[=a]', _n._ (_her._) an orange-brown tincture. [_Tawny_.] TENNER, ten'[.e]r, _n._ (_slang_) a ten-pound note. TENNIS, ten'is, _n._ an ancient game for two to four persons, played with ball and rackets within a building specially constructed for the purpose: lawn-tennis (q.v.), a modern imitation of the former.--_ns._ TENN'IS-BALL, a ball used in the game of tennis; TENN'IS-COURT, a place or court for playing at tennis. [Skeat suggests O. Fr. _tenies_, pl. of _tenie_, a fillet--L. _tænia_.] TENON, ten'un, _n._ a projection at the end of a piece of wood inserted into the socket or mortise of another, to hold the two together.--_v.t._ to fit with tenons.--_ns._ TEN'ONER, a machine for forming tenons; TEN'ON-SAW, a thin back-saw for tenons, &c. [Fr. _tenon_--_tenir_, to hold--L. _ten[=e]re_.] TENOR, ten'ur, _n._ continuity of state: general run or currency: purport: the higher of the two kinds of voices usually belonging to adult males: the part next above the bass in a vocal quartet: one who sings tenor.--_adj._ pertaining to the tenor in music.--_ns._ TEN'OR-CLEF, the C clef, placed on the fourth line; TEN'ORIST. [L. _tenor_--_ten[=e]re_, to hold.] TENPENNY, ten'pen-i, _adj._ worth or sold at tenpence. TENPINS, ten'pinz, _n._ a game played in a bowling-alley, the aim being to bowl down ten pins set up at the far end. TENREC, ten'rek, _n._ a genus of _Insectivora_, of one species, 12 to 16 inches long, with squat body and hardly any tail, found in Madagascar and Mauritius.--Also TAN'REC. [Malagasy.] TENSE, tens, _n._ time in grammar, the form of a verb to indicate the time of the action. [O. Fr. _tens_ (Fr. _temps_)--L. _tempus_, time.] TENSE, tens, _adj._ strained to stiffness: rigid.--_adv._ TENSE'LY.--_ns._ TENSE'NESS, state of being tense; TENSIBIL'ITY, TENSIL'ITY, quality of being tensile.--_adjs._ TEN'SIBLE, TEN'SILE, capable of being stretched.--_ns._ TEN'SION, act of stretching: state of being stretched or strained: strain: effort: strain in the direction of the length, or the degree of it: mental strain, excited feeling: a strained state of any kind; TEN'SION-ROD, a rod in a structure holding together different parts; TEN'SITY, tenseness: state of being tense.--_adj._ TEN'SIVE, giving the sensation of tenseness or stiffness.--_n._ TEN'SOR, a muscle that tightens a part. [L. _tensus_, pa.p. of _tend[)e]re_, to stretch.] TENSON, ten'son, _n._ a competition in verse between two troubadours before a tribunal of love, also a subdivision of the chanson composed at such.--Also TEN'ZON. [Fr.,--L. _tensio_, a struggle.] TENT, tent, _n._ a portable lodge or shelter, generally of canvas stretched on poles: a plug or roll of lint used to dilate a wound or opening in the flesh--_v.t._ to probe: to keep open with a tent.--_ns._ TENT'-BED, a bed having a canopy hanging from a central point overhead; TENT'-CLOTH, canvas, duck, &c. suitable for tents.--_adj._ TEN'TED, covered with tents.--_ns._ TEN'TER, one who lives in a tent; TENT'-FLY, an external piece of canvas stretched above the ridge-pole of a tent, shading from sun or shielding from rain; TENT'FUL, as many as a tent will hold; TENT'-GUY, an additional rope for securing a tent against a storm.--_adjs._ TEN'TIFORM, shaped like a tent; TEN'TING (_Keats_), having the form of a tent.--_ns._ TENT'-MAK'ER, one who makes tents; TENT'-PEG, -PIN, a strong peg of notched wood, or of iron, driven into the ground to fasten one of the ropes of a tent to; TENT'-PEG'GING, a favourite cavalry exercise in India, in which the competitor, riding at full speed, tries to bear off a tent-peg on the point of a lance; TENT'-POLE, one of the poles used in pitching a tent; TENT'-ROPE, one of the ropes by which a tent is secured to the tent-pins, generally one for each breadth of the canvas; TENT'-STITCH, in worsted and embroidery, a series of parallel diagonal stitches--also _Petit point_; TENT'-WORK, work produced by embroidering with tent-stitch. [Fr. _tente_--Low L. _tenta_--L. _tend[)e]re_, to stretch.] TENT, tent, _n._ a Spanish wine of a deep-red colour. [Sp. _tinto_, deep-coloured--L. _tinctus_, pa.p. of _ting[)e]re_, to dye.] TENT, tent, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to take heed.--_v.i._ to be careful.--_n._ care, watchfulness. [Same as _Intent_.] TENTACLE, ten'ta-kl, _n._ a thread-like organ of certain insects for feeling or motion.--_adjs._ TEN'TACLED; TENTAC'[=U]LAR; TENTAC'[=U]LATE; TENTACULIF'EROUS.--_n._ TENTAC'[=U]LITE, a genus of annulated tapering shells, found abundantly in Silurian and Devonian strata. [Fr. _tentacule_--L. _tent[=a]re_, to feel--_tend[)e]re_, to stretch.] TENTATION, ten-t[=a]'shun, _n._ old form of _temptation_. TENTATIVE, ten'ta-tiv, _adj._ trying: experimental.--_n._ any attempt, conjecture.--_adv._ TEN'TATIVELY. [Fr.,--Late L.,--L. _tent[=a]re_, to try--_tend[)e]re_, to stretch.] TENTER, ten't[.e]r, _n._ a machine for extending or stretching cloth on by hooks.--_v.t._ to stretch on hooks.--_n._ TEN'TER-HOOK, a sharp, hooked nail, anything that gives torture.--BE ON TENTER-HOOKS, to be on the stretch: to be in suspense or anxiety. [Fr. _tenture_--L. _tentura_--_tend[)e]re_, to stretch.] TENTER, ten't[.e]r, _n._ one who has charge of something.--_adj._ TEN'TY, attentive. TENTH, tenth, _adj._ the last of ten: next in order after the ninth.--_n._ one of ten equal parts.--_adv._ TENTH'LY, in the tenth place. TENTIGO, ten-t[=i]'g[=o], _n._ morbid lasciviousness.--_adj._ TENTIG'INOUS. TENTORIUM, ten-t[=o]'ri-um, _n._ a sheet of the dura mater stretched between the cerebrum and the cerebellum.--_adj._ TENT[=O]'RIAL. [L., 'a tent'--_tend[)e]re_, to stretch.] TENTURE, ten't[=u]r, _n._ hangings for walls. TENUITY, te-n[=u]'i-ti, _n._ thinness: smallness of diameter: slenderness: rarity.--_v.t._ TEN'[=U]ATE, to make tenuous.--_adj._ TEN[=U]IROS'TRAL, slender-billed, as a bird of the TEN[=U]IROS'TRES, a large division of passerine birds including humming-birds, nuthatches, &c.--_adj._ TEN'[=U]OUS, thin, slender. [L. _tenuitas_--_tenuis_, thin, slender; cf. _tend[)e]re_, to stretch.] TENURE, ten'[=u]r, _n._ a general name for the conditions on which land is held by the persons who occupy and use it. [Fr. _tenure_--Low L. _tenura_--L. _ten[=e]re_, to hold.] TENUTO, te-n[=oo]'t[=o], _adj._ (_mus._) sustained--opp. to _Staccato_. [It.] TEOCALLI, te-[=o]-kal'li, _n._ one of the temples of the aborigines of Central America, which were erected on the top of a four-sided pyramid, and the remains of which are chiefly found in Mexico. TEPEFY, tep'[=e]-f[=i], _v.t._ to make tepid or moderately warm:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ tep'ef[=i]ed.--_n._ TEPEFAC'TION, act of making tepid or lukewarm. [L. _tepefac[)e]re_--_tep[=e]re_, to be warm, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] TEPHRITE, tef'r[=i]t, _n._ a name applied to certain modern volcanic rocks.--_adj._ TEPHRIT'IC.--_ns._ TEPH'RITOID, a variety of tephrite; TEPHI'ROITE, a reddish silicate of manganese. TEPHROMANCY, tef'r[=o]-man-si, _n._ divination from the inspection of the ashes of a sacrifice.--Also TEPH'RAMANCY. [Gr. _tephra_, ashes, _manteia_, divination.] TEPID, tep'id, _adj._ moderately warm: lukewarm.--_ns._ TEPID[=A]'RIUM, an intermediate chamber in a Roman series of bathrooms, moderately hot: a boiler in which the water was heated: any room containing a warm bath; TEPID'ITY, TEP'IDNESS, lukewarmness; TEP'OR, gentle heat. [L. _tepidus_--_tep[=e]re_, to be warm.] TER, t[.e]r, _adv._ thrice. [L.] TERAMORPHOUS, ter-a-mor'fus, _adj._ monstrous in form or nature. [Gr. _teras_, a monster, _morph[=e]_, form.] TERAPHIM, ter'a-fim, _n.pl._ a Hebrew word of uncertain derivation, denoting a certain kind of images, idols, or household gods, of a human figure, associated with divination, and commonly used in the popular worship:--sing. TER'APH. [Heb.] TERATOLOGY, ter-a-tol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the study of malformations or abnormal growths, animal or vegetable.--_adj._ TERATOGEN'IC, producing monsters.--_n._ TERATOG'ENY, the production of monsters.--_adjs._ TER'ATOID, monstrous; TERATOLOG'IC, -AL, pertaining to teratology.--_ns._ TERATOL'OGIST, one skilled in teratology; TERAT[=O]'MA, an anomalous congenital tumour, often containing many different tissues.--_adj._ TERAT[=O]'MATOUS.--_n._ TERAT[=O]'SIS, monstrosity. [Gr. _teras_, _teratos_, a monster.] TERBIUM, ter'bi-um, _n._ a rare metal found in certain yttrium minerals.--_adj._ TER'BIC. TERCE, t[.e]rs, _n._ (_Scots law_) a widow's right, where she has no conventional provision, to a liferent of a third of the husband's heritable property: the office of the third hour, which should be said between sunrise and noon. [_Tierce_.] TERCEL, t[.e]rs'el, _n._ Same as TIERCEL. TERCENTENARY, t[.e]r-sen'te-n[=a]-ri, _adj._ including or relating to an interval of three hundred years.--_n._ the 300th anniversary of anything.--_adj._ TERCENTEN'NIAL. TERCET, ter'set, _n._ a triplet. TERCINE, ter'sin, _n._ (_bot._) a layer of the primine coat of an ovule. TEREBENE, ter'[=e]-b[=e]n, _n._ a light-yellow liquid, obtained by treating oil of turpentine with sulphuric acid, used as a disinfectant.--_adj._ TEREB'IC, pertaining to turpentine.--_n._ TER'EBINTH, the turpentine-tree.--_adj._ TEREBINTH'INE. [L.,--Gr. _terebinthos_.] TEREBRA, ter'[=e]-bra, _n._ a Roman engine for making a breach in a wall: the borer or ovipositor of various insects.--_adj._ TER'EBRANT.--_n._ a borer, a bore.--_v.t._ TER'EBR[=A]TE, to bore.--_adj._ provided with a borer.--_n._ TEREBR[=A]'TION. [L.] TEREBRATULA, ter-[=e]-brat'[=u]-la, _n._ a genus of deep-sea Brachiopods, from the form of the ventral valve of their shell termed Lamp-shells.--_n._ TEREBRAT'ULID, one of this genus.--_adj._ TEREBRAT'[=U]LIFORM.--_n._ TEREBRAT'ULITE, a fossil terebratulid.--_adj._ TEREBRAT'[=U]LOID (also _n._). TEREDO, t[=e]-r[=e]'do, _n._ the ship-worm, a worm very destructive in boring into wood.--Also TER'EDINE. [L.,--Gr. _ter[=e]d[=o]n_, from _teirein_, to wear away.] TEREK, ter'ek, _n._ a kind of sandpiper, of the genus TER[=E]'KIA. TERENTIAN, ter-en'shi-an, _adj._ pertaining to the Roman comic poet _Terence_, P. Terentius Afer (b. 195 B.C.). TERES, t[=e]'r[=e]z, _n._ a terete muscle.--_adjs._ TERETE', cylindrical and tapering, columnar; TERETICAU'DATE, round-tailed. [L. _teres_, _ter[)e]tis_, smooth, _ter[)e]re_, to rub.] TERGAL, ter'gal, _adj._ pertaining to the back, dorsal.--_adjs._ TER'GANT (_her._), turning the back, recursant; TERGIF'EROUS, bearing on the back.--_n._ TER'GITE, the tergum or back of one of the somites or segments of an arthropod, &c.--_adj._ TERGIT'IC.--_n._ TER'GUM, the back, dorsum, or notum, as of an arthropod:--_pl._ TER'GA. [L. _tergum_, the back.] TERGEMINATE, ter-jem'i-n[=a]t, _adj._ thrice double.--Also TERGEM'INAL, TERGEM'INOUS. TERGIVERSATION, t[.e]r-ji-v[.e]r-s[=a]'shun, _n._ a shuffling or shifting: subterfuge: fickleness of conduct.--_v.i._ TER'GIVERSATE, to practise or use evasion.--_n._ TER'GIVERS[=A]TOR. [L., from _tergum_, the back, _vers[=a]ri_, to turn.] TERM, t[.e]rm, _n._ any limited period: the time for which anything lasts: the time during which the courts of law are open: certain days on which rent is paid: that by which a thought is expressed, a word or expression: a condition or arrangement (gener. in _pl._): (_alg._) a member of a compound quantity.--_v.t._ to apply a term to: to name or call.--_n._ TERM'ER, one who attends a court term, often with the sense of a shifty rogue: one holding an estate for a term of years--also TERM'OR.--_adj._ TERMINOLOG'ICAL.--_adv._ TERMINOLOGY'ICALLY.--_n._ TERMINOL'OGY, doctrine of terms: the terms used in any art, science, &c.--_adj._ TERM'LESS, having no term or end: (_Spens._) unlimited, boundless.--_adv._ TERM'LY, term by term.--BE ON TERMS WITH, to be on friendly relations with; BRING TO TERMS, to compel to the acceptance of conditions; COME TO TERMS, to come to an agreement: to submit; EAT ONE'S TERMS (see EAT); IN TERMS OF, in the language peculiar to anything, in modes of; KEEP A TERM, to give the regular attendance during a period of study; MAJOR TERM, in a syllogism, that which is the predicate of the conclusion; the MINOR TERM, that which is the subject of the conclusion; MAKE TERMS, to come to an agreement; SPEAK IN TERMS, to speak plainly; STAND UPON ONE'S TERMS (_with_), to insist upon conditions. [Fr. _terme_--L. _terminus_, a boundary.] TERMA, ter'ma, _n._ the terminal lamina of the brain.--_adj._ TERMAT'IC.--_n._ the termatic artery. [Gr., 'a limit.'] TERMAGANT, t[.e]r'ma-gant, _n._ a boisterous, bold woman.--_adj._ boisterous: brawling: tumultuous.--_n._ TER'MAGANCY, state or quality of being a termagant: turbulence.--_adv._ TER'MAGANTLY. [M. E. _Termagant_ or _Tervagant_, a supposed Mohammedan idol, represented in the old plays and moralities as of a violent character--O. Fr. _Tervagant_, _Tervagan_--It. _Trivigante_, perh. from the moon as wandering under three names of _Selene_ (_Luna_) in heaven, _Artemis_ (_Diana_) on earth, and _Persephone_ (_Proserpine_) in the lower world.] TERMES, t[.e]r'm[=e]z, _n._ a genus of pseudoneuropterous insects. [_Termite_.] TERMINATE, t[.e]r'min-[=a]t, _v.t._ to set a limit to: to set the boundary: to put an end to: to finish.--_v.i._ to be limited: to end either in space or time: to close.--_adj._ TER'MINABLE, that may be limited: that may terminate or cease.--_n._ TER'MINABLENESS.--_adj._ TER'MINAL, pertaining to, or growing at, the end or extremity: ending a series or part: occurring in every term.--_n.pl._ TERMIN[=A]'LIA, an annual Roman festival in honour of _Terminus_, the god of boundaries.--_adv._ TER'MINALLY.--_n._ TERMIN[=A]'TION, act of terminating or ending: limit: end: result: the ending of words as varied by their signification.--_adjs._ TERMIN[=A]'TIONAL, pertaining to, or forming, a termination; TER'MIN[=A]TIVE, tending to terminate or determine: absolute.--_adv._ TER'MIN[=A]TIVELY.--_n._ TER'MIN[=A]TOR, one who, or that which, terminates: the boundary between the illuminated and dark portions of the moon or of a planet.--_adj._ TER'MIN[=A]TORY. [L. _terminus_.] TERMINUS, t[.e]r'mi-nus, _n._ the end or extreme point: one of the extreme points of a railway, &c.: the ancient Roman god of boundaries:--_pl._ TER'MINI ([=i]).--_ns._ TER'MINER (_law_), the act of determining; TER'MINISM, the theological doctrine that there is a limit in the life of each man and of mankind for the operation of grace; TER'MINIST, one who believes in terminism. TERMITE, ter'm[=i]t, _n._ the white ant.--_ns._ TERMIT[=A]'RIUM, TER'MITARY, a mound of termites.--_adj._ TER'MITINE. [L. _termes_, _termitis_, a wood-worm.] TERN, t[.e]rn, _n._ a long-winged aquatic fowl allied to the gull.--_n._ TER'NERY, a place where terns breed. [Allied to Dan. _terne_, sea-swallow, Ice. _therna_.] TERN, t[.e]rn, _adj._ threefold: consisting of three: growing in threes.--_n._ that which consists of three things or numbers together: a prize in a lottery got by drawing three favourable numbers.--_adjs._ TER'NAL, threefold; TER'NARY, proceeding by, or consisting of, threes.--_n._ the number three.--_adj._ TER'N[=A]TE, threefold, or arranged in threes.--_adv._ TER'N[=A]TELY.--_n._ TER'NION, a section of paper for a book containing three double leaves or twelve pages. [L. _terni_, three each--_tres_, three.] TERNE, t[.e]rn, _n._ an inferior tin-plate for roofs and the inside of packing-cases. [Fr. _terne_, dull.] TERPENE, ter'p[=e]n, _n._ one of several isomeric oily hydrocarbons. [_Terebene_.] TERPSICHORE, t[.e]rp-sik'[=o]-r[=e], _n._ one of the nine muses, who presided over choral song and dancing.--_adj._ TERPSICHOR[=E]'AN, relating to _Terpsichore_, or to dancing. [Gr. _terpsichor[=e]_, delighting in dancing--_terpsis_, delight--_terpein_, to enjoy, choros, dancing.] TERRA, ter'a, _n._ earth.--_ns._ TERR'A-COT'TA, a composition of clay and sand used for statues, hardened like bricks by fire; TERR'ACULTURE, agriculture; TERR'Æ-FIL'IUS, a person of humble origin: formerly the title of a scholar at Oxford who composed annually a satirical lampoon in which considerable license was allowed; TERR'A-FIR'MA, a term frequently employed to denote continental land as distinguished from islands: (_coll._) land as distinguished from water; TERR'A-JAPON'ICA, pale catechu or gambier; TERR'A-MARA (-mä'ra), an earthy deposit containing fertilising organic or mineral matter, any deposit containing prehistoric remains.--_adjs._ TERR[=A]'N[=E]AN, being in the earth; TERR[=A]'N[=E]OUS, growing on land.--_ns._ TERR[=A]'RIUM, a vivarium for land animals; TERR'A-ROS'SA, a name given to a ferruginous red earth extensively developed in the limestone districts of south-eastern Europe, esp. in Istria and Dalmatia. [L. _terra_, earth; L. _cocta_, pa.p. of _coqu[)e]re_, to cook; L. _firmus_, firm; It. _amara_, bitter; _rosso_, red.] TERRACE, ter'[=a]s, _n._ a raised level bank of earth: any raised flat place: the flat roof of a house:--_pl._ (_geol._) comparatively level strips of land near the sea, lakes, or rivers, with a sharp descent at the edge towards the water, showing an ancient water-level.--_v.t._ to form into a terrace. [Fr. _terrasse_--It. _terrazza_--L. _terra_, the earth.] TERRAIN, ter'[=a]n, _n._ (_geol._) any series of rocks continuously related: any tract considered in relation to its fitness for some purpose. [Fr.,--L. _terrenum_.] TERRAPIN, ter'a-pin, _n._ the popular name of many species of fresh-water and tidal tortoises of the family _Emydidæ_, natives of tropical and the warmer temperate countries. [Supposed to be Amer. Ind. in origin.] TERRAQUEOUS, ter-[=a]'kw[=e]-us, _adj._ consisting of land and water.--Also TERR[=A]'QU[=E]AN. [Coined from L. _terra_, earth, _aqua_, water.] TERREEN, ter-[=e]n', _n._ less common form of _tureen_. TERREMOTIVE, ter-e-m[=o]'tiv, _adj._ seismic. TERRENE, te-r[=e]n', _adj._ pertaining to the earth: earthy: earthly.--_adv._ TERRENE'LY.--_n._ TERREN'ITY. [L. _terrenus_--_terra_, the earth.] TERRESTRIAL, te-res'tri-al, _adj._ pertaining to, or existing on, the earth: earthly: living on the ground: representing the earth.--_adv._ TERRES'TRIALLY.--_n._ TERRES'TRIALNESS.--_adj._ TERRES'TRIOUS, terrestrial. [L. _terrestris_--_terra_, the earth.] TERRET, ter'et, _n._ one of the two round loops or rings on a pad-tree, through which the driving reins pass.--Also TERR'IT. TERRIBLE, ter'i-bl, _adj._ fitted to excite terror or awe: awful: dreadful.--_ns._ TERR'IBLE-IN'FANT, an inconveniently outspoken child--the Fr. _enfant terrible_; TERR'IBLENESS, state of being terrible: terror, dread.--_adv._ TERR'IBLY. [L. _terribilis_--_terr[=e]re_, to frighten.] TERRICOLOUS, te-rik'[=o]-lus, _adj._ terrestrial.--Also TER'RICOLE, TERRIC'OLINE. [L. _terra_, earth, _col[)e]re_, to inhabit.] TERRIER, ter'i-[.e]r, _n._ a name originally applied to any breed of dog used to burrow underground, but now applied to any small dog--varieties are the _Fox terrier_, _Scotch terrier_ (sometimes _Skye terrier_), _Dandie Dinmont_ (from the stout Borderer in Scott's 'Guy Mannering'), the _Irish terrier_, _Bedlington_, &c.: a hole or burrow where foxes, rabbits, &c. secure themselves. [Fr. _terrier_--_terre_, the earth--L. _terra_.] TERRIER, ter'i-[.e]r, _n._ a register or roll of a landed estate. [O. Fr.,--L. _terrarius_--_terra_, land.] TERRIFY, ter'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to cause terror in: to frighten greatly: to alarm:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ terr'if[=i]ed.--_adj._ TERRIF'IC, creating or causing terror: fitted to terrify: dreadful.--_adv._ TERRIF'ICALLY. [L. _terr[=e]re_, to terrify, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] TERRIGENOUS, te-rij'e-nus, _adj._ produced by the earth. TERRINE, te-r[=e]n', _n._ an earthenware vessel for containing some dainty: a tureen for soup. [Fr.,--L. _terra_, earth.] TERRITORY, ter'i-t[=o]-ri, _n._ the extent of land around or belonging to a city or state: domain: (_U.S._) a portion of the country not yet admitted as a State into the Union, and still under a provisional government.--_adj._ TERRIT[=O]'RIAL, pertaining to territory: limited to a district.--_v.t._ TERRIT[=O]'RIALISE, to enlarge by addition of territory: to reduce to the state of a territory.--_ns._ TERRIT[=O]'RIALISM, a theory of church government according to which the ruler of a country has the natural right to rule also over the ecclesiastical affairs of his people; TERRITORIAL'ITY, the possession of territory.--_adv._ TERRIT[=O]'RIALLY.--_adj._ TERR'ITORIED, possessed of territory. [L. _territorium_--_terra_, the earth.] TERROR, ter'or, _n._ extreme fear: an object of fear or dread--(_Milt._) TERR'OUR.--_adj._ TERR'OR-HAUNT'ED, haunted with terror.--_n._ TERRORIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ TERR'ORISE, to terrify: to govern by terror.--_ns._ TERR'ORISER, one who terrorises; TERR'ORISM, a state of terror: a state which impresses terror: an organised system of intimidation; TERR'ORIST, one who rules by terror.--_adjs._ TERR'ORLESS, free from terror: harmless; TERR'OR-SMIT'TEN, -STRICK'EN, -STRUCK, seized with terror, terrified.--_v.t._ TERR'OR-STRIKE, to smite with terror.--KING OF TERRORS, death; REIGN OF TERROR, or THE TERROR, the period of fever in the first French Revolution, during which the king, the queen, thousands of victims--the innocent and the guilty--the Girondists, Danton, Madame Roland, and at last Robespierre, were hurried to the guillotine. [L. _terror_--_terr[=e]re_, to frighten.] TERRY, ter'i, _n._ a pile fabric with uncut loops. TERSANCTUS. See TRISAGION. TERSE, t[.e]rs, _adj._ compact or concise, with smoothness or elegance: neat.--_adv._ TERSE'LY.--_ns._ TERSE'NESS, conciseness, brevity; TER'SION, act of wiping. [L. _tersus_--_terg[=e]re_, _tersum_, to rub clean.] TERTIAL, ter'shal, _adj._ of the third rank among the flight-feathers of a bird's wing.--_n._ a tertiary flight-feather. TERTIAN, t[.e]r'shi-an, _adj._ occurring every third day.--_n._ an ague or fever with paroxysms every third day. [L. _tertianus_--_tertius_, third--_tres_, three.] TERTIARY, t[.e]r'shi-ar-i, _adj._ of the third degree, order, or formation: pertaining to the series of sedimentary rocks or strata lying above the chalk and other secondary strata, and abounding in organic remains--the _Cainozoic_: (_ornith._) tertial.--_n._ one who, or that which, is tertiary.--_n.pl._ TER'TIARIES, a class in the R.C. Church, who, without entering into the seclusion of a monastery, aspire to practise in ordinary life all the substantial obligations of the scheme of virtue laid down in the Gospel. [L. _tertiarius_--_tertius_.] TERUNCIUS, te-run'shi-us, _n._ an ancient Roman coin, ¼ as, weighing 3 oz. TERU-TERO, ter'[=oo]-ter'[=o], _n._ the Cayenne lapwing. TERVY, ter'vi, _v.i._ (_prov._) to struggle. TERZA-RIMA, ter'tsa-r[=e]'ma, _n._ a form of Italian triplet in iambic decasyllables, in which the middle line of the first triplet rhymes with the first and third lines of the next triplet, as in Dante's _Divina Commedia_ and Longfellow's translation of it.--_n._ TERZET'TO, a musical composition for three voices. [It., _terza_, fem. of _terzo_, third, _rima_, rhyme.] TESHO-LAMA. See LAMA. TESSERA, tes'e-ra, _n._ one of the small square tiles or cut stones used in forming tessellated pavements:--_pl._ TESS'ERÆ--also TESSEL'LA:--_pl._ TESSEL'LÆ.--_adjs._ TESS'ELLAR, composed of, or like, tessellæ; TESS'ELLAR, TESSER[=A]'IC, TESS'ERAL, made up of tesseræ.--_v.t._ TESS'ELLATE, to form into squares or lay with chequered work.--_adj._ TESS'ELLATED.--_n._ TESSELL[=A]'TION, tessellated or mosaic work: the operation of making it. [L. _tessella_, dim. of _tessera_, a square piece.] [Illustration] TEST, test, _n._ a pot in which metals are tried and refined: any critical trial: means of trial: (_chem._) anything used to distinguish substances or detect their presence, a reagent: standard: proof: distinction: a witness, testimony: the hard covering of certain animals, shield, lorica.--_v.t._ to put to proof: to examine critically.--_ns._ TEST'-P[=A]'PER, a bibulous paper saturated with some chemical compound that readily changes colour when exposed to certain other chemicals; TEST'-PLATE, a white plate or tile on which to try vitrifiable colours by heat: a glass plate with a series of finely ruled lines used in testing the resolving power of microscopic objectives; TEST'-TUBE, a cylinder of thin glass closed at one end, used in testing liquids.--_n.pl._ TEST'-TYPES, letters or words in type of different sizes for testing the sight.--TEST ACTS, acts meant to secure that none but rightly affected persons and members of the established religion shall hold office--especially those of 1673 and 1685. [O. Fr. _test_--L. _testa_, an earthen pot.] TEST, test, _v.t._ to attest legally and date.--_v.i._ to make a will.--_adj._ TES'TABLE, capable of being given by will, capable of witnessing. [Fr. _tester_--L. _test[=a]ri_, to testify.] TESTA, tes'ta, _n._ the outer integument of a seed. TESTACEA, tes-t[=a]'s[=e]-a, _n.pl._ shelled or crustaceous animals.--_adjs._ TEST[=A]'CEAN (also _n._), TEST[=A]'CEOUS, consisting of, or having, a hard shell.--_ns._ TESTACELL'A, a genus of molluscs belonging to the _Pulmonifera_, and represented in Britain by three species; TESTACEOG'RAPHY, descriptive testaceology; TESTACEOL'OGY, conchology. [L. _testaceus_--_testa_, a shell.] TESTAMENT, tes'ta-ment, _n._ that which testifies, or in which an attestation is made: the solemn declaration in writing of one's will: a will: a dispensation, as of the Mosaic or old and the Christian or new, one of the two great divisions of the Bible.--_n._ TES'TACY, state of being testate.--_adjs._ TESTAMEN'TAL, TESTAMEN'TARY, pertaining to a testament or will: bequeathed or done by will.--_adv._ TESTAMEN'TARILY.--_adj._ TES'T[=A]TE, having made and left a will.--_ns._ TEST[=A]'TION, a witnessing, a giving by will; TEST[=A]'TOR, one who leaves a will;--_fem._ TEST[=A]'TRIX; TEST[=A]'TUM, one of the clauses of an English deed, enumerating the operative words of transfer, statement of consideration, money, &c. [L. _testamentum_--_test[=a]ri_, to be a witness--_testis_, a witness.] TESTAMUR, tes-t[=a]'mur, _n._ a certificate that one has passed an examination at an English university--from the opening word. [L., 'we testify.'] TESTER, tes't[.e]r, _n._ a flat canopy, esp. over the head of a bed. [O. Fr. _teste_ (Fr. _tête_), the head--L. _testa_, an earthen pot, the skull.] TESTER, tes't[.e]r, _n._ a sixpence--also TES'TERN.--_v.t._ TES'TERN (_Shak._), to present or reward with a sixpence. [O. Fr. _teston_--_teste_ (Fr. _tête_), the head, from that of Louis XII. on it.] TESTICLE, tes'ti-kl, _n._ a gland which secretes the seminal fluid in males, a testis, one of the stones.--_adjs._ TES'TICOND, having the testes concealed; TESTIC'ULAR, pertaining to a testicle; TESTIC'ULATE, -D, shaped like a testicle.--_n._ TES'TIS, a testicle, a rounded body resembling it:--_pl._ TES'TES. [L. _testiculus_, dim. of _testis_, a testicle.] TESTIERE, tes-ti-[=a]r', _n._ complete armour for a horse's head. [O. Fr.] TESTIFY, tes'ti-f[=i], _v.t._ to bear witness: to make a solemn declaration: to protest or declare a charge (with _against_).--_v.t._ to bear witness to: to affirm or declare solemnly or on oath:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ tes'tif[=i]ed.--_ns._ TESTIF'IC[=A]TE (_Scots law_), a solemn written assertion; TESTIFIC[=A]'TION, the act of testifying or of bearing witness; TES'TIFIER. [L. _testific[=a]ri_--_testis_, a witness, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] TESTIMONY, tes'ti-m[=o]-ni, _n._ evidence: declaration to prove some fact: proof: (_B._) the two tables of the law: the whole divine revelation.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to witness.--_adj._ TESTIM[=O]'NIAL, containing testimony.--_n._ a writing or certificate bearing testimony to one's character or abilities: a sum of money raised by subscription and presented in any form to a person as a token of respect.--_v.t._ TESTIM[=O]'NIALISE, to present with a testimonial. [L. _testimonium_--_test[=a]ri_, to witness.] TESTING, tes'ting, _n._ the act of trying for proof: the operation of refining gold and silver: chemical analysis.--TESTING CLAUSE, in a Scotch deed, the last clause which narrates when and where the parties signed the deed, before what witnesses, by whose hand written, &c. TESTRIL, tes'tril, _n._ (_Shak._) same as _Tester_, a sixpence. TESTUDINAL, tes-t[=u]'din-al, _adj._ relating to, or resembling, the tortoise.--_adjs._ TEST[=U]'DINATE, -D, TESTUDIN'EOUS, arched, vaulted, resembling the carapace of a tortoise.--_n._ TEST[=U]'DO, a cover for the protection of Roman soldiers attacking a wall, formed by overlapping their oblong shields above their heads: any similarly shaped shelter for miners, &c.: an encysted tumour: the fornix: a kind of lyre, the lute. [L. _testudo_, _-inis_, the tortoise.] TESTY, tes'ti, _adj._ heady: easily irritated: fretful: peevish.--_adv._ TES'TILY.--_n._ TES'TINESS. [From O. Fr. _teste_ (Fr. _tête_), the head.] TETANUS, tet'a-nus, _n._ an involuntary, persistent, intense, and painful contraction or cramp of more or less extensive groups of the voluntary muscles: lockjaw: the state of prolonged contraction of a muscle under stimuli repeated quickly.--_adjs._ TETAN'IC; TET'ANIFORM; TETANIG'ENOUS.--_n._ TETANIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ TET'ANISE.--_adj._ TET'ANOID.--_n._ TET'ANY, a rare and little understood disease of the nervous system, occurring both in children and adults, characterised by recurring attacks of tonic spasm of various muscles, particularly those of the fingers and toes, associated with defective hygienic conditions, imperfect ventilation, poor diet, and in children with rickets. [L.,--Gr.,--_tetanos_, stretched--_teinein_, to stretch.] TETCHY, TECHY, tech'i, _adj._ touchy, peevish, fretful.--_adv._ TETCH'ILY, in a tetchy or fretful manner.--_n._ TETCH'INESS, the state of being tetchy or fretful. [_Touchy_.] TÊTE, t[=a]t, _n._ a head, head-dress.--_n._ TÊTE-À-TÊTE (t[=a]t'-a-t[=a]t'), a private confidential interview: a sofa for two.--_adj._ confidential, secret.--_adv._ in private conversation: face to face. [Fr.] TETHER, teth'[.e]r, _n._ a rope or chain for tying a beast, while feeding, within certain limits.--_v.t._ to confine with a tether: to restrain within certain limits. [M. E. _tedir_, acc. to Skeat, prob. Celt., Gael. _teadhair_, a tether, W. _tid_, a chain. The Low Ger. _tider_, Ice. _tjóðir_, are prob. borrowed.] TETRABRANCHIATE, tet-ra-brang'ki-[=a]t, _adj._ having four gills.--_n.pl._ TETRABRANCH'I[=A]TA. TETRACHORD, tet'ra-kord, _n._ a series of four sounds, forming a scale of two tones and a half.--_adj._ TET'RACHORDAL. [Gr. _tetrachordos_, four-stringed--_tetra_, for _tetara_=_tessares_, four, _chord[=e]_, chord.] TETRACHOTOMOUS, tet-ra-kot'[=o]-mus, _adj._ doubly dichotomous, arranged in four rows.--_n._ TETRAC'TOMY, a division into four parts. [Gr. _tetracha_, in four parts, _temnein_, to cut.] TETRACT, tet'rakt, _adj._ having four rays.--Also TETRAC'TINAL, TETRAC'TINE. [Gr., _tetra-_, four, _aktis_, a ray.] TETRAD, tet'rad, _n._ a group of four: (_chem._) an atom, radical, or element having a combining power of four.--_adjs._ TET'RAD, TETRAD'IC.--_n._ TET'RADITE, one who attaches mystic properties to the number four, one born in the fourth month or on the fourth day of the month. TETRADACTYL, tet-ra-dak'til. _adj._ having four fingers or toes--also TETRADAC'TYLOUS.--_n._ TETRADAC'TYL, a four-toed animal. TETRADECAPOD, tet-ra-dek'a-pod, _adj._ having fourteen feet.--_n.pl._ TETRADECAP'ODA, fourteen-footed crustaceans.--_adj._ TETRADECAP'ODOUS. TETRAGAMY, te-trag'a-mi, _n._ marriage for the fourth time. [Gr., _tetra-_, four, _gamos_, marriage.] TETRAGON, tet'ra-gon, _n._ a figure of four angles.--_adj._ TETRAG'ONAL. [Gr. _tetragonon_--_tetra-_, four _g[=o]nia_, an angle.] TETRAGRAM, tet'ra-gram, _n._ a word of four letters: the TETRAGRAMMATON: (_geom._) a quadrilateral.--_n._ TETRAGRAM'MATON, the name JeHoVaH as written with four Hebrew letters, regarded as a mystic symbol: similarly some other sacred word of four letters, as the Latin _Deus_. [Gr., _tetra-_, four, _gramma_, a letter.] TETRAGYNOUS, tet-raj'i-nus, _adj._ (_bot._) having four styles or pistils--also TETRAGYN'IAN.--_n.pl._ TETRAGYN'IA. [Illustration] TETRAHEDRON, tet-ra-h[=e]'dron, _n._ a solid figure enclosed by four bases or triangles.--_adjs._ TETRAH[=E]'DRAL, having four sides: bounded by four triangles; TETRAHEXAH[=E]'DRAL.--_n._ TETRAHEX'AH[=E]DRON, a solid of twenty-four triangular faces. [Gr., _tetra-_, four, _hedra_, a base.] TETRALOGY, te-tral'[=o]-ji, _n._ a group of four dramas, three tragic and one satiric, exhibited together at the festivals of Dionysos at Athens: any series of four related dramatic or operatic works. TETRAMERA, te-tram'e-ra, _n.pl._ a division of beetles with four-jointed tarsi.--_adj._ TETRAM'ERAL, four-parted.--_n._ TETRAM'ERISM, division into four parts.--_adj._ TETRAM'EROUS, having four parts. [Gr., _tetra-_, four, _meros_, part.] TETRAMETER, te-tram'e-t[.e]r, _adj._ having four measures, each of two iambic or trochaic feet.--_n._ a verse of four measures. [Gr. _tetrametros_--_tetra-_, four, _metron_, measure.] TETRANDRIA, te-tran'dri-a, _n._ the fourth class of the Linnæan classification of plants, containing those with four stamens in a flower.--_adjs._ TETRAN'DRIAN, TETRAN'DROUS. [Gr., _tetra-_, four, _an[=e]r_, _andros_, a man.] TETRAO, tet'r[=a]-o, _n._ the chief genus of the family _Tetraonidæ_, which also includes quails and partridges. From these the grouse (forming a subfamily, _Tetraoninæ_) are distinguished. The genus _Tetrao_ is represented by the Capercailzie and the Blackcock or Black Grouse. [L.,--Gr. _tetra[=o]n_, a pheasant.] TETRAPETALOUS, tet-ra-pet'a-lus, _adj._ (_bot._) having four distinct petals or flower-leaves. TETRAPHYLLOUS, tet-ra-fil'us, _adj._ having four leaves: consisting of four distinct leaves or leaflets. [Gr., _tetra-_, four, _phyllon_, a leaf.] TETRAPLA, tet'ra-pla, _n._ a Bible consisting of four different versions in parallel columns, originally the edition of the Old Testament published by Origen, containing four Greek versions (those of Aquila, Symmachus, Theodotion, and the Septuagint). [Gr. _tetraplous_, fourfold.] TETRAPOD, tet'ra-pod, _n._ an insect distinguished by having but four perfect legs.--_adj._ four-footed, with four legs--also TETRAP'ODOUS.--_n._ TETRAP'ODY, a group of four feet. [Gr., _tetra-_, four, _pous_, _podos_, foot.] TETRAPOLITAN, tet-ra-pol'i-tan, _adj._ pertaining to a TETRAP'OLIS or a group of four towns.--TETRAPOLITAN CONFESSION, the Confession which the four cities of Strasburg, Constance, Memmingen, and Lindau presented to the Diet of Augsburg (11th July 1530), and, properly speaking, the first Confession of the Reformed Church. TETRAPTEROUS, te-trap'te-rus, _adj._ having four wings.--Also TETRAP'TERAN. [Gr., _tetra-_, four, _pteron_, a wing.] TETRAPTOTE, tet'rap-t[=o]t, _n._ a noun with but four cases. [Gr., _tetra-_, four, _pt[=o]sis_, a case.] TETRARCH, tet'rärk, or t[=e]', _n._ under the Romans, the ruler of the fourth part of a province: a subordinate prince: the commander of a subdivision of a Greek phalanx.--_ns._ TET'RARCHATE, TET'RARCHY, office or jurisdiction of a tetrarch: the fourth part of a province. [Gr., _tetra-_, four, _arch[=e]s_, a ruler.] TETRASEMIC, tet-ra-s[=e]'mik, _adj._ (_pros._) equivalent to four short syllables, as a dactyl, anapæst, or spondee. [Gr., tetra-, four, _s[=e]ma_, a sign.] TETRASPERMOUS, tet-ra-sper'mus, _adj._ four-seeded. [Gr., _tetra-_, four, sperma, seed.] TETRASPORE, tet'ra-sp[=o]r, _n._ a reproductive body, composed of four spores or germs, found in algæ.--_adjs._ TETRASPOR'IC, TET'RASPOROUS. [Gr., _tetra-_, four, spora, seed.] TETRASTICH, tet'ra-stik, _n._ a stanza, &c., of four lines, a quartet.--_adjs._ TETRASTICH'IC, TETRAS'TICHOUS. [Gr., _tetra-_, four, _stichos_, a row.] TETRASTYLE, tet'ra-st[=i]l, _n._ a temple or other building having four front columns in its portico: a group of four pillars.--_adj._ having four pillars. [Gr., _tetra-_, four, _stylos_, a column.] TETRASYLLABLE, tet'ra-sil-a-bl, _n._ a word of four syllables.--_adjs._ TETRASYLLAB'IC, -AL, consisting of four syllables. TETRATHEISM, tet'ra-th[=e]-izm, _n._ the belief in four elements in the Godhead--the three persons of the Trinity and a divine essence out of which each of these originates. [Gr., _tetra-_, four, _theos_, God.] TETT, tet, _n._ (_obs._) a plait. TETTER, tet'[.e]r, _n._ a popular name for several eruptive diseases of the skin.--_v.t._ to affect with such.--_adj._ TETT'EROUS. [A.S. _teter_.] TETTIX, tet'iks, _n._ a cicada: an ornament for the hair of that shape. [Gr., 'grasshopper.'] TEUCH, TEUGH, t[=u]h, _adj._ a Scotch form of _tough_. TEUCRIAN, t[=u]'kri-an, _adj._ relating to the ancient Trojans (_Teucri_) or to the Troad.--_n._ a Trojan. TEUTON, t[=u]'ton, _n._ one of the ancient inhabitants of Germany, esp. of a tribe living north of the Elbe who invaded Gaul, along with the Cimbri, and were cut to pieces by Marius near Aix in 102 B.C.: one belonging to that division of the Aryans including High and Low Germans and Scandinavians.--_adj._ TEUTON'IC, belonging to the race so called, including Germans, Scandinavians, English, &c.: also to their language.--_ns._ TEUTON'ICISM, TEU'TONISM, a Germanism; TEUTONIS[=A]'TION, the act of Germanising.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ TEU'TONISE, to Germanise, to adopt German ways.--TEUTONIC KNIGHTS, one of the three military-religious orders of knighthood founded during the period of the Crusades, their distinguishing habiliment a white mantle with a black cross. [L. _Teutones_--Goth. _thiuda_, a nation. Cf. _Dutch_.] TEW, t[=u], _v.t._ to make anything ready, to work up: to beat, mix, pound: to taw, as leather: to scourge, drub.--_v.i._ to work, to bustle, to potter about.--_n._ trouble, worry. TEXT, tekst, _n._ the original words of an author: that on which a comment is written: a passage of Scripture on which a sermon is supposed to be based.--_ns._ TEXT'-BOOK, a book containing the leading principles of a science; TEXT'-HAND, a large hand in writing--so called because it was the practice to write the text of a book in large-hand; TEXT'-MAN, TEX'T[=U]ALIST, one ready in citing Scripture texts: one who adheres to the text.--_adj._ TEX'T[=U]AL, pertaining to, or contained in, the text: serving for a text.--_adv._ TEX'TUALLY.--_ns._ TEX'TUARY, a textualist; TEX'TUS, the authoritative text, esp. of the Bible.--TEXTUS RECEPTUS, the received text of the Greek Testament. [L. _textus_--_tex[)e]re_, _textum_, to weave.] TEXTILE, teks'til, _adj._ woven: capable of being woven.--_n._ a woven fabric.--_adj._ TEXT[=O]'RIAL, pertaining to weaving. [L. _textilis_--_tex[)e]re_, textum, to weave.] TEXTURE, teks't[=u]r, _n._ anything woven, a web: manner of weaving or connecting: disposition of the parts of a body.--_adj._ TEX'T[=U]RAL. [L. _textura_--_tex[)e]re_.] THACK, thak, _n._ a Scotch form of _thatch_.--UNDER THACK AND RAPE, safely secured under thatch and rope, snug generally. THAIRM, _th_[=a]rm, _n._ (_Scot._) an intestine: catgut, a musical string. THALAMUS, thal'a-mus, _n._ the receptacle of a flower, the thallus of a fungus: an inner room, nuptial chamber:--_pl._ THAL'AM[=I].--_adjs._ THAL'AMIC, pertaining to the optic thalamus, a part of the brain near the origin of the optic nerve; THAL'AMI-FL[=O]'RAL, having the parts of the flower inserted on the thalamus or receptacle.--_n._ THAL[=A]'MIUM, the layer of reproductive cells in the apothecia of lichens:--_pl._ THAL[=A]'MIA. [Gr., 'chamber.'] THALASSIC, tha-las'ik, _adj._ pertaining to the smaller seas--opp. to _Oceanic_: (_zool._) pelagic.--_ns._ THALASSOC'RACY, THALASSOC'RATY, the sovereignty of the seas; THALASSOG'RAPHER, a student of the phenomena of the ocean.--_adj._ THALASSOGRAPH'IC.--_ns._ THALASSOG'RAPHY, the science of the ocean, oceanography; THALASSOM'ETER, a tide-gauge. [Gr. _thalassa_, the sea.] THALER, tä'l[.e]r, _n._ a dollar, in Germany a silver coin worth about 3s. [Ger. Cf. _Dollar_.] THALIA, th[=a]-l[=i]'a, _n._ one of the nine muses, who presided over pastoral and comic poetry.--_adj._ TH[=A]L[=I]'AN. [Gr. _Thaleia_, _Thalia_--_thallein_, to bloom.] THALICTRUM, th[=a]-lik'trum, _n._ a genus of perennial herbs of the Crowfoot family, the meadow-rues: a plant of this genus. [Gr. _thaliktron_--_thallein_, to bloom.] THALLIUM, thal'i-um, _n._ a metal closely resembling lead in colour and softness, but slightly heavier, first discovered in 1861, and so called from the presence of an intense green line in the spectrum of the flame in which it is volatilised.--_adjs._ THALL'IC, THALL'IOUS. [Gr. _thallos_, a green shoot.] THALLUS, thal'us, _n._ a vegetative body showing little or no differentiation into leaf, stem, and root, and characteristic of the THALL'OPHYTES or lower Cryptogamia, including algæ, fungi, and lichens.--_adjs._ THALL'IFORM, of the form of a thallus; THALL'INE, THALLOD'IC, pertaining to a thallus.--_n._ THALL'OGEN, a thallophyte.--_adjs._ THALLOG'ENOUS, belonging to the thallogens; THALL'OID, THALL'OSE, resembling a thallus.--_ns._ THALL'[=O]ME, a thallus; THAM'NIUM, the branched shrub-like thallus of fruticulose lichens. [Gr. _thallos_, a young shoot.] THALWEG, tal'v[=a]h, _n._ the deepest part of a valley. [Ger., _thal_, valley, _weg_, way.] THAMMUZ=_Tammuz_ (q.v.). THAN, _th_an, _conj._ when, as, if compared with--a word placed after the comparative of an adjective or adverb between the things compared. [A.S. _thonne_, in its use a relative or conjunctive adverb, equivalent to our when, used after comparatives to introduce the standard of comparison; closely allied to _thone_, accus. masc. of def. art. Cf. _The_.] THANATOID, than'a-toid, _adj._ looking like dead: deadly.--_adj._ THANATOGNOMON'IC, indicating death.--_ns._ THANATOG'RAPHY, an account of one's death; THANATOL'OGY, the scientific consideration of death; THANATOPH[=O]'BIA, a morbid dread of death; THANATOP'SIS, a view of, or reflection upon, death; THANAT[=O]'SIS, death of a part, gangrene. [Gr. _thanatos_, death.] THANE, th[=a]n, _n._ a member of a class in the old English community that stood distinctly below the old nobility (_eorlas_, &c.), but above the mere landowners or _ceorls_--a kind of nobility of service rather than blood.--_ns._ TH[=A]'NAGE, THANE'DOM, the jurisdiction or the dignity of a thane; THANE'HOOD, THANE'SHIP. [A.S. _thegen_, _thegn_, a servant, nobleman--_thíhan_, to grow; cog. with Ice. _thegn_, a man, warrior, Ger. _degen_, a soldier, servant, Gr. _teknon_, child.] THANK, thangk, _v.t._ to express gratitude for a favour.--_n._ (usually in _pl._) expression of gratitude for favour received, often elliptically=My thanks to you.--_adj._ THANK'FUL, full of thanks: grateful.--_adv._ THANK'FULLY.--_n._ THANK'FULNESS.--_adj._ THANK'LESS, unthankful: not expressing thanks or favours: not gaining thanks.--_adv._ THANK'LESSLY, in a thankless manner: unthankfully.--_ns._ THANK'LESSNESS, the state of being thankless: ingratitude; THANK'-OFF'ERING, an offering made to express thanks for mercies received; THANKS'GIVER, one who gives thanks, or acknowledges a favour; THANKS'GIVING, act of giving thanks: a public acknowledgment of divine goodness and mercy: a day set apart for this, esp. that in the United States on the last Thursday of November: a form of giving thanks, a grace, that form preceding the last two prayers of morning or evening prayer or of the litany--the _General Thanksgiving_; THANK'WORTHINESS, the state of being thankworthy.--_adj._ THANK'WORTHY, worthy of, or deserving, thanks.--_n._ THANK'-YOU-MA'AM, a ridge or hollow across a road--from the sudden bobbing of the head of a person in a vehicle crossing it. [A.S. _thanc_, _thonc_, will, thanks; cog. with Ger. _dank_; from the root of _think_.] THAPSIA, thap'si-a, _n._ a genus of umbelliferous plants round the Mediterranean. [L.,--Gr., a plant that dyed yellow, prob. _Thapsia garganica_, brought from _Thapsus_, Sicily.] THARGELIA, thar-g[=e]'li-a, _n.pl._ one of the more important ancient Greek festivals, held at Athens in honour of Apollo; in the month of _Thargelion_ (May-June). THAT, _th_at, _pron. demons._ and _rel._--as a _demons._ (_pl._ THOSE) it points out a person or thing: the former or more distant thing: not this but the other: as a _rel._, who or which.--_conj._ used to introduce a clause: because: for: in order that. [A.S. _thæt_, neut. of the article _the_ (_ðe_, _ðeó_, _ðæt_, usually replaced by _se_, _seó_, _ðæt_); cog. with Ger. _das_, _dass_; Gr. _to_, Sans. _tat_. Cf. _The_.] THATCH, thach, _v.t._ to cover, as a roof, with straw, reeds, &c.--_n._ straw, &c., used to cover the roofs of buildings and stacks.--_ns._ THATCH'ER; THATCH'ING, the act or art of covering with thatch: the materials used for thatching. [A.S. _thæc_, thatch, whence _theccan_, to cover; cog. with Ger. _decken_, L. _teg[)e]re_, Gr. _stegein_, to cover.] THAUMASITE, thaw'ma-s[=i]t, _n._ a dull white mineral calcium compound. [Gr. _thaumazein_, to wonder.] THAUMATROPE, thaw'ma-tr[=o]p, _n._ a variation of the Zoetrope (q.v.). [Gr. _thauma_, wonder, _tropos_--_trepein_, to turn.] THAUMATURGY, thaw'ma-tur-ji, _n._ the art of working wonders or miracles.--_adj._ THAUMAN'TIAN (_Ruskin_), wonderful.--_ns._ THAUMATOG'ENY, the doctrine of the miraculous origination of life; THAUMATOG'RAPHY, description of natural wonders; THAUMATOL'ATRY, undue wonder-worship; THAU'MATURGE, a wonder-worker.--_adjs._ THAUMATUR'GIC, -AL, wonder-working.--_n.pl._ THAUMATUR'GICS, wonderful, especially magical, performances: feats of legerdemain.--_ns._ THAUMATUR'GISM, thaumaturgy; THAUMATUR'GIST, a wonder-worker; THAUMATUR'GUS, a wonder-worker: a worker of miracles, applied to certain saints. [Gr.,--_thauma_, a wonder, _ergon_, work.] THAW, thaw, _v.i._ to melt or grow liquid, as ice: to become so warm as to melt ice.--_v.t._ to cause to melt.--_n._ the melting of ice or snow by heat: the change of weather which causes it.--_adj._ THAW'Y, inclined to thaw. [A.S. _tháwian_; cog. with Ger. _thauen_, to thaw, to fall in dew.] THE, _th_e, or (when emphatic) _th_[=e], _demons. pron._ usually called the definite article, used to denote a particular person or thing: also to denote a species. [A.S. _the_, rarely used as nom. masc. of def. art., but common as an indeclinable relative. Cf. _That_.] THE, _th_e, _adv._ used before comparatives, as, 'the more the better.' [A.S. _thý_, by that, by that much, the instrumental case of the def. art.] THEANDRIC, th[=e]-an'drik, _adj._ pertaining to the union and co-operation of the divine and human natures. [Gr., _theos_, a god, _an[=e]r_, _andros_, man.] THEANTHROPOS, th[=e]-an-thr[=o]'pos, _n._ the God-man, Christ as having both a divine and human person.--_adjs._ THEANTHROP'IC, -AL, being at once divine and human: embodying deity in human forms.--_ns._ THEAN'THROPISM, THEAN'THROPY, the ascribing of human qualities to deity, also of divine qualities to man; THEAN'THROPIST, one who believes in theanthropism. [Gr. _theos_, a god, _anthr[=o]pos_, man.] THEARCHY, th[=e]'ärk-i, _n._ a theocracy: a body of divine rulers.--_adj._ THEAR'CHIC. [Gr. _thearchia_--_theos_, a god, _archein_, to be first, to rule--_arch[=e]_, beginning.] THEATIN, th[=e]'a-tin, _n._ a member of a R.C. religious brotherhood founded in 1524, taking its name from _Theate_ (It. _Chieti_), of which one of its first founders, John Peter Caraffa, was bishop. THEATRE, th[=e]'a-t[.e]r, _n._ a place where public representations, chiefly dramatic or musical, are seen, a play-house: any place rising by steps like the seats of a theatre: a building adapted for scholastic exercises, anatomical demonstrations, &c.: scene of action, field of operations: the drama, the stage.--_adjs._ THEAT'RIC, -AL, relating or suitable to a theatre, or to actors: pompous: artificial, affected.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ THEAT'RICALISE, to adapt to dramatic representation: to make stagy.--_ns._ THEAT'RICALISM, THEATRICAL'ITY, staginess, artificiality.--_adv._ THEAT'RICALLY, in a theatrical manner: in a manner suiting the stage.--_n._ THEAT'RICALNESS.--_n.pl._ THEAT'RICALS, dramatic performances.--_v.i._ THEAT'RICISE, to play a part.--_ns._ THEAT'RICISM, theatricality, affectation, staginess; THEATROM[=A]'NIA, a craze for play-going; THEAT'ROPHONE, a telephone connected with a theatre. [Gr. _theatron_--_theaomai_, I see.] THEAVE, th[=e]v, _n._ (_prov._) a ewe of the first year. THEBAINE, th[=e]'ba-in, _n._ an alkaloid obtained from opium.--Also THEB[=A]'IA. THEBAN, th[=e]'ban, _n._ a native of _Thebes_: (_Shak._) a wise man.--_adjs._ THEB[=A]'IC, TH[=E]'BAN.--_n._ THEB[=A]'ID, the district around Egyptian Thebes.--THEBAN YEAR, the Egyptian year of 365¼ days. THECA, th[=e]'ka, _n._ a sheath, case, or sac, a spore-case: a case for a corporal-cloth:--_pl._ TH[=E]'CÆ.--_adjs._ TH[=E]'CAL, TH[=E]'CATE.--_ns._ TH[=E]'CAPHORE, a receptacle bearing thecæ; TH[=E]'CASPORE, a spore produced in a theca.--_adjs._ THECASP[=O]'ROUS; THECIF'EROUS, bearing thecæ; TH[=E]'CIFORM, thecal in use or form.--_n._ TH[=E]'CIUM, the part of the apothecium containing the organs of the fruit in lichens. [Gr. _th[=e]k[=e]_.] THECLA, thek'la, _n._ a genus of butterflies, containing the _hair-streaks_. THEE, _th_[=e], _pron._ objective of _thou_. [A.S. _the_, dat. accus. of _thu_ (cf. _Thou_).] THEE, th[=e], _v.i._ (_Spens._) to prosper, to thrive. [A.S. _theón_, _thión_, to thrive, to grow; Ger. _ge-deihen_, to increase.] THEFT, theft, _n._ act of thieving.--_adj._ THEFT'[=U]OUS, thievish.--_adv._ THEFT'[=U]OUSLY. [A.S. _theófth_, _thýfth_--_theóf_, thief.] THEINE, th[=e]'in, _n._ a bitter crystallisable volatile principle found in tea.--_ns._ TH[=E]'IC, a tea-drunkard; TH[=E]'ISM, a morbid state resulting from over-much tea-drinking. THEIR, _th_[=a]r, _poss. adj. pron._ of or belonging to them. [A.S. _þára_, gen. pl. of the def. art. (replaced the older _hira_).] THEIRS, _th_[=a]rz, _poss._ of _they_. [Like _hers_, _ours_, _yours_, a double genitive containing a plural suffix _r_ + a sing. _-s_. These forms were confined in the 13th and 14th centuries to the Northern dialects, and are probably due to Scandinavian influence.] THEISM, th[=e]'izm, _n._ belief in the existence of God with or without a belief in a special revelation.--_n._ TH[=E]'IST, one who believes in God.--_adjs._ TH[=E]IST'IC, -AL, pertaining to theism, or to a theist: according to the doctrines of theists. [Gr. _theos_, God.] THEM, _th_em, _pron._ objective of _they_. [A.S. _ðám_, dat. pl. of the def. art. (this replaced the older _heom_, _hem_). It is the result of two cross influences; the _th_ is taken from Old Norse _þeim_, the _e_ from A.S. _hem_.] THEME, th[=e]m, _n._ a subject set or proposed for discussion, or on which a person speaks or writes, a thesis, a brief essay: a verb in its radical form unmodified by inflections: (_mus._) subject, a short melody developed with variations: an administrative division under the Byzantine empire.--_n._ TH[=E]'MA, that which constitutes a subject of thought.--_adj._ TH[=E]MAT'IC.--_adv._ TH[=E]MAT'ICALLY.--_n._ TH[=E]'MATIST, a writer of themes. [Fr. _thème_--L. _thema_--Gr. _tith[=e]mi_, I place, set.] THEMIS, them'is, _n._ daughter of Uranus and G[=e], mother of the Hours and the Fates, the personification of the order of things established by law, custom, and equity. [Gr.] THEMSELVES, _th_em-selvz', _pron._ _pl._ of _himself_, _herself_, and _itself_. [_Them_ and _self_.] THEN, _th_en, _adv._ at that time: afterward: immediately: at another time.--_conj._ for that reason, therefore: in that case.--_adj._ being at that time.--_n._ a specific time already mentioned.--BY THEN, by that time. [A doublet of _than_.] THENAR, th[=e]'nar, _n._ the palm of the hand or the sole of the foot.--_adj._ of or pertaining to the thenar. [Gr. _thenar_--_theinein_, to stretch.] THENCE, _th_ens, _adv._ from that time or place: for that reason.--_advs._ THENCE'FORTH, from that time forth or forward; THENCEFOR'WARD, from that time forward or onward. [M. E. _thenne-s_, _thenne_ (cf. _Then_), with the gen. ending _-s_--A.S. _ðanan_. Cf. _Hence_ and _Whence_.] THEOBROMA, th[=e]-[=o]-br[=o]'ma, _n._ a small tropical American genus of trees of the sterculia or kola-nut family. The best-known species, _Theobroma cacao_, yields the cocoa and chocolate of commerce.--_n._ THEOBR[=O]'MINE, an alkaloid principle, similar to theine and caffeine, existing in the chocolate nut. [Gr., _theos_, a god, _br[=o]ma_, food.] THEOCRACY, th[=e]-ok'ra-si, _n._ that constitution of a state in which the Almighty is regarded as the sole sovereign, and the laws of the realm as divine commands rather than human ordinances--the priesthood necessarily becoming the officers of the invisible ruler: the state thus governed.--_ns._ TH[=E]'OCRAT, THEOC'RATIST.--_adjs._ THEOCRAT'IC, -AL. [Gr. _theokratia_--_theos_, God, _kratein_, to rule.] THEOCRASY, th[=e]-[=o]-kr[=a]'si, _n._ the mixed worship of polytheism: a mystic intimacy with deity reached through profound contemplation. [Gr. _theos_, a god, _krasis_, a mixing.] THEOCRITEAN, th[=e]-ok-ri-t[=e]'an, _adj._ after the manner of _Theocritus_ (3d century B.C.), the greatest of Greek pastoral poets: pastoral, idyllic. THEODICY, th[=e]-od'i-si, _n._ a name given to the exposition of the theory of Divine Providence, with a view especially to the vindication of the sanctity and justice of God in establishing the present order of things, in which evil, moral as well as physical, so largely appears to prevail.--_adj._ THEODIC[=E]'AN. [Gr. _theos_, God, _dik[=e]_, justice.] THEODOLITE, th[=e]-od'[=o]-l[=i]t, _n._ an instrument used in land-surveying for the measurement of angles horizontal and vertical, being neither more nor less than an altitude and azimuth instrument, proportioned and constructed so as to be conveniently portable.--_adj._ THEODOLIT'IC. [Ety. unknown; Gr. _theasthai_, to see + _hodos_, way + _litos_, smooth; _theasthai_ + _dolichos_, long, &c.] THEOGONY, th[=e]-og'[=o]-ni, _n._ the birth and genealogy of the gods, esp. as told in ancient poetry.--_adj._ THEOGON'IC.--_n._ THEOG'ONIST, a writer on theogony. [Gr. _theogonia_--_theos_, a god, _gon[=e]_, _genos_, race--_genein_, to beget.] THEOLOGY, th[=e]-ol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the science which treats of God, and of man's duty to Him--_Natural_, as discoverable by the light of reason alone; or _Positive_ or _Revealed_, based on the study of divine revelation.--_ns._ THEOL'OGASTER (-gas-), a shallow fellow who pretends to a knowledge of theology; THEOL'OGATE (-g[=a]t), the course of study for R.C. priests; THEOL'OGER, a theologian; THEOL[=O]'GIAN, one well versed in theology: a divine, a professor of or writer on divinity, esp. in R.C. usage, a theological lecturer attached to a cathedral church--also THEOL[=O]'GUS (-gus).--_adjs._ THEOLOG'IC, -AL, pertaining to theology or divinity.--_adv._ THEOLOG'ICALLY.--_n._ THEOLOG'ICS, theological disputation.--_v.t._ THEOL'OGISE, to render theological.--_v.i._ to make a system of theology.--_ns._ THEOL'OGISER, one who theologises; THEOL'OGIST, a student in the science of theology: a theologian; TH[=E]'OLOGUE (-log), a theologian, esp. a theological student. [Gr. _theologia_--_theos_, God, _logos_, a treatise.] THEOMACHY, th[=e]-om'a-ki, _n._ a fighting against the gods, as by the Titans and giants: (_Bacon_) opposition to the divine will.--_n._ THEOM'ACHIST. [Gr. _theomachia_--_theos_, a god, _mach[=e]_, a battle.] THEOMANCY, th[=e]'[=o]-man-si, _n._ divination by means of oracles, sibyls, and other persons inspired immediately by some divinity.--_adj._ TH[=E][=O]MAN'TIC. [Gr., _theos_, a god, _manteia_, divination.] THEOMANIA, th[=e]-[=o]-m[=a]'ni-a, _n._ a madman's belief that he himself is God, or that God dwells in him.--_n._ THEOM[=A]'NIAC, one who shows theomania. [Gr., _theos_, God, _mania_, madness.] THEOMORPHIC, th[=e]-[=o]-mor'fik, _adj._ having the form or likeness of a god.--_n._ THEOMOR'PHISM. [Gr., _theos_, a god, _morph[=e]_, form.] THEOPASCHITE, th[=e]-[=o]-pas'k[=i]t, _n._ a by-name applied to such as accepted the formula, that, in the passion of Christ, 'God had suffered and been crucified.' It was applied to the Monophysites.--_n._ THEOPAS'CHITISM. [Gr., _theos_, God, _paschein_, to suffer.] THEOPATHY, th[=e]-[=o]p'a-thi, _n._ religious emotion aroused by meditation about God.--_adj._ THEOPATHET'IC. THEOPHANY, th[=e]-of'a-ni, _n._ a manifestation or appearance of deity or the gods to man, esp. the appearance of God to the patriarchs in the form of an angel or in human form: the incarnation and second coming of Christ.--_adj._ THEOPHAN'IC. [Gr., _theos_, God, _phainomai_, I appear.] THEOPHILANTHROPY, th[=e]-[=o]-fil-an'thr[=o]-pi, _n._ a deistical system of religion drawn up under the French Directory in 1796, and designed to take the place of Christianity.--_adj._ THEOPHILANTHROP'IC.--_ns._ THEOPHILAN'THROPISM; THEOPHILAN'THROPIST; TH[=E]'OPHILE, one who loves God. THEOPNEUSTY, th[=e]'op-n[=u]s-ti, _n._ divine inspiration.--_adj._ THEOPNEUS'TIC. [Gr., _theos_, God, _pneustos_, inspired--_pnein_, to breathe.] THEORBO, th[=e]-orb'[=o], _n._ a large lute with two necks, one above the other, formerly used for the bass.--_n._ THEORB'IST. [It. _tiorba_.] THEOREM, th[=e]'[=o]-rem, _n._ a proposition to be proved.--_adjs._ THEOREMAT'IC, THEOREM'IC.--_n._ THEOREM'AT[=I]ST.--_adjs._ THEORET'IC, -AL, pertaining to theory: not practical: speculative.--_adv._ THEORET'ICALLY.--_n.pl._ THEORET'ICS, the speculative parts of a science.--_n._ TH[=E]'ORIC (_Shak._), theory, speculation.--_v.i._ TH[=E]'ORISE, to form a theory: to form opinions solely by theories: to speculate.--_ns._ TH[=E]'OR[=I]SER; TH[=E]'ORIST, a theoriser: one given to theory and speculation; TH[=E]'ORY, an explanation or system of anything: an exposition of the abstract principles of a science or art: speculation as opposed to practice. [Gr. _the[=o]r[=e]ma_--_the[=o]rein_, to view--_theasthai_, to see.] THEOSOPHY, th[=e]-os'[=o]-fi, _n._ immediate divine illumination or inspiration claimed to be possessed by specially gifted men, who also possess abnormal control over natural forces.--_ns._ TH[=E]'[=O]SOPH, THEOS'OPHER, THEOS'OPHIST, one who claims to believe in immediate divine illumination.--_adjs._ THEOSOPH'IC, -AL, pertaining to theosophy.--_adv._ THEOSOPH'ICALLY.--_v.i._ THEOS'OPHISE, to practise theosophy.--_n._ THEOS'OPHISM, theosophical tenets.--_adj._ THEOSOPHI'STICAL, theosophical. [Gr. _the[=o]sophia_--_theos_, God, _sophia_, wisdom.] THEOTECHNY, th[=e]-[=o]-tek'ni, _n._ the scheme of divine intervention, the art of introducing deities into poetry.--_adj._ THEOTECH'NIC. [Gr., _theos_, a god, _techn[=e]_, art.] THEOTOCOS, th[=e]-ot'[=o]-kos, _n._ the mother of God, a title of the Virgin Mary repudiated by Nestorius--it being not God the Logos but only the human nature which had a mother and suffered pain and death.--Also THEOT'OKOS. [Gr., _theos_, God, _tiktein_, _tekein_, to bring forth.] THERAPEUTÆ, ther-a-p[=u]'t[=e], _n.pl._ a traditional ascetic sect, allied to the Essenes, living chiefly on the Lake Mareotis, near Alexandria. THERAPEUTIC, ther-a-p[=u]'tik, _adj._ pertaining to the healing art: curative.--_adv._ THERAPEU'TICALLY.--_n.sing._ THERAPEU'TICS, that part of medicine concerned with the treatment and cure of diseases.--_n._ THERAPEU'TIST, one versed in therapeutics. [Gr. _therapeuein_, to take care of, to heal.] THERE, _th_[=a]r, _adv._ in that place--opp. to _Here_, at that point--it is used to begin sentences when the subject comes after the verb.--_interj._ expressing certainty, alarm, &c., and in interjectional phrases equivalent to _that_, as 'There's a good boy.'--_advs._ THEREABOUT' or -ABOUTS', about or near that place: near that number, quantity, or degree; THEREAFT'ER, after or according to that; THERE'AMONG, among them; THERE'-ANENT' (_Scot._), concerning that matter; THEREAT', at that place or occurrence: on that account; THERE'AWAY, from that place or direction, thence: in those parts, thereabout; THEREBY', by that means: in consequence of that; THEREFOR', for that, this, or it; THEREFORE (_th_[.e]r'fur), for that or this reason: consequently; THEREFROM', from that or this; THEREIN', in that or this place, time, or thing; THEREINAFT'ER, later in the same document; THEREIN'TO, into that place.--_n._ THERE'NESS, the property of having relative situation or existence.--_advs._ THEREOF', of that or this; THEREON', on that or this; THEREOUT', out of that or this: outside; THERETHROUGH', through that, by that means; THERETO', THEREUN'TO, to that or this; THERE'TOFORE, before that time; THEREUN'DER, under that; THEREUPON', upon or in consequence of that or this: immediately; THEREWITH', with that or this, thereupon; THERE'WITHAL, with that or this: at the same time, over and above. [A.S. _ðær_, _ðer_; conn. with the stem of _the_.] THEREOLOGY, ther-[=e]-ol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the art of healing, therapeutics.--_n._ THEREOL'OGIST, one versed in thereology. [Gr. _therein_=_therapeuein_, to tend the sick, _logia_--_legein_, to speak.] THERIACA, th[=e]-r[=i]'a-ka, _n._ one of the various preparations of opium: a medicine in the form of an electuary, supposed to be an antidote to snakebites, &c.--also TH[=E]'RIAC.--_adjs._ TH[=E]'RIAC, -AL, TH[=E]'RIAL, medicinal. [L.,--Gr. _th[=e]riak[=e]_--_th[=e]rion_, a wild beast.] THERIANTHROPISM, th[=e]-ri-an'thr[=o]-pizm, _n._ the representation of deities in combined man and beast forms.--_adj._ THERIANTHROP'IC, pertaining to super human beings of combined human and bestial forms, or their worship.--_n._ TH[=E]'RIOMANCY, divination by observation of beasts.--_adjs._ THERIOMOR'PHIC, THERIOMOR'PHOUS, beast-like.--_n._ THERIOT'OMY, the dissection of beasts, zootomy. THERIATRICA, th[=e]-ri-at'ri-ka, _n._ the art of veterinary medicine. THERMAL, th[.e]r'mal, _adj._ pertaining to heat: warm.--_n._ THERM, a thermal unit.--_n.pl._ THER'MÆ, hot springs or baths.--_adv._ THER'MALLY.--_n._ THERMATOL'OGY, the science of the treatment of disease by heat, esp. by thermal mineral waters.--_adj._ THER'MIC, thermal.--_adv._ THER'MICALLY.--_ns._ THERMOBAROM'ETER, an apparatus for measuring pressure of the atmosphere from the boiling-point of water; THERMOCHEM'ISTRY, that branch of chemistry which treats of the relations between chemical action and heat; THER'MOCHROSY, the property possessed by rays of radiant heat of having varying wave-lengths and degrees of refrangibility; THER'MO-CURR'ENT, a thermo-electric current.--_adj._ THER'MO-DYNAM'IC.--_n._ THER'MO-DYNAM'ICS, the branch of physics which treats of heat as a mechanical agent.--_adj._ THER'MO-ELEC'TRIC.--_ns._ THER'MO-ELECTRIC'ITY, electricity developed by the unequal heating of bodies; THER'MO-ELECTROM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the strength of a current of electricity by its effect in producing heat; THERMOGEN'ESIS, the production of heat, esp. in the body by physiological processes.--_adjs._ THERMOGENET'IC, THERMOGEN'IC.--_ns._ THER'MOGRAM, the record made by a thermograph; THER'MOGRAPH, an automatic self-registering thermometer; THERMOG'RAPHY, any process of writing involving the use of heat; THER'MO-MAG'NETISM, magnetism as modified or produced by the action of heat on the body magnetised or on the medium surrounding it; THERMOMET'ROGRAPH, a self-registering thermometer; THER'MO-PILE, a thermo-electric battery used as a thermometer; THER'MOSCOPE, an instrument for detecting changes of temperature without measuring them accurately.--_adj._ THERMOSCOP'IC.--_adv._ THERMOSCOP'ICALLY.--_n._ THER'MOSTAT, an appliance for showing temperatures automatically by the expansion of substances--used in regulating steam pressures, &c.--_adj._ THERMOSTAT'IC.--_adv._ THERMOSTAT'ICALLY.--_adjs._ THERMOT'IC, -AL, pertaining to heat.--_n._ THERMOT'ICS, the science of heat. [Gr. _thermos_, hot--_therm[=e]_, heat--_therein_, to heat.] THERMIDOR, ther-mi-d[=o]r', _n._ the eleventh month in the calendar of the first French Republic, lasting from the 19th of July to the 18th of August. The 9th Thermidor of the Republican year 2 (July 27, 1794) is historically memorable as the date of Robespierre's fall and the termination of the Reign of Terror.--_n._ THERMID[=O]'RIAN, one who took part in this fortunate coup d'état. THERMOMETER, th[.e]r-mom'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring the variations of sensible heat or temperature.--_adjs._ THERMOMET'RIC, -AL, pertaining to, or made with, a thermometer.--_adv._ THERMOMET'RICALLY.--For the _Centigrade_ and the _Fahrenheit_ scale and their relations to each other, see Centigrade and Fahrenheit. In the Réaumur scale, still largely used in Russia and Germany, the freezing-point is marked zero, and the space between this and boiling-point is divided into 80 degrees. To reduce it to Fahrenheit, multiply by 2¼ and add 32; to Centigrade, increase the number by one-fourth of itself. Thus: F = 9/5 C + 32 = 9/4 R + 32; C = 5/9 (F - 32) = 5/4 R; R = 4/9 (F - 32) = 4/5 C.--MAXIMUM THERMOMETER, one that registers the maximum temperature to which it is exposed; MINIMUM THERMOMETER, one that registers the minimum temperature to which it is exposed. [Gr. _therm[=e]_, heat, _metron_, a measure.] THESAURUS, th[=e]-saw'rus, _n._ a treasury or repository, esp. of knowledge: a lexicon or cyclopædia. [L.,--Gr. _th[=e]sauros_--_tith[=e]mi_, I place.] THESE, _th_[=e]z, _demons. pron._, _pl._ of _this_. [A.S. _th['æ]s_, pl. of _thes_, this. Doublet _those_.] THESIS, th[=e]'sis, _n._ a position or that which is set down or advanced for argument: a subject for a scholastic exercise: an essay on a theme:--_pl._ THESES (th[=e]'s[=e]z).--_adj._ THET'IC.--_adv._ THET'ICALLY. [L.--Gr. _ti-th[=e]-mi_, I set.] THESMOPHORIA, thes-m[=o]-ph[=o]'ri-a, _n.pl._ an ancient Greek festival with mysteries, celebrated by married women in honour of Demeter (Ceres) five days about October. THESMOTHETE, thes'm[=o]-th[=e]t, _n._ a lawgiver, esp. one of the six junior archons in ancient Athens. THESPIAN, thes'pi-an, _adj._ pertaining to tragedy: tragic. [Gr. _Thespis_, founder of the Greek drama.] THETCH, thech, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as THATCH. THETHER, theth'[.e]r, _adv._ (_Spens._). Same as THITHER. THEURGY, th[=e]'ur-ji, _n._ that kind of magic which affects to work by supernatural agency, as distinguished from natural magic and necromancy.--_adjs._ THEUR'GIC, -AL.--_n._ THEUR'GIST, a magician. [Gr. _theourgia_--_theos_, a god, _ergein_, to work.] THEW, th[=u], _n._ (used chiefly in _pl._) muscle or strength: sinews.--_adjs._ THEWED (_Spens._), furnished with thews or sinews; THEW'LESS, weak; THEW'Y, muscular, strong. [Perh. a form of _thigh_.] THEWED, th[=u]d, _adj._ (_Spens._) mannered, behaved, educated. [A.S. _théaw_, manner, habit.] THEY, _th_[=a], _pers. pron._, _pl._ of _he_, _she_, or _it_. [The form _thei_, _tha_, that came into use in the north of England in the 13th cent., replacing the older _hi_, _heo_. It is the A.S. _þá_, nom. pl. of the definite article, prob. modified by Scandinavian influence.] THIBLE, thib'l, _n._ (_prov._) a pot-stick. THICK, thik, _adj._ dense: imperfectly mobile: compact: not transparent or clear: misty: dull, mentally clouded: crowded: closely set: abundant: frequent, in quick succession: having great depth or circumference: (_coll._) in fast friendship.--_n._ the thickest part of anything: a stupid person.--_adv._ closely: frequently: fast: to a great depth.--_adjs._ THICK'-AND-THIN, thorough, completely devoted; THICK'-COM'ING (_Shak._), coming fast or close together.--_v.t._ THICK'EN, to make thick or close: to strengthen.--_v.i._ to become thick or obscure: to crowd or press.--_ns._ THICK'ENING, something put into a liquid or mass to make it more thick; THICK'ET, a collection of trees or shrubs thickly or closely set: close wood or copse.--_adjs._ THICK'-HEAD'ED, having a thick head or skull: stupid; THICK'ISH, somewhat thick.--_n._ THICK'-KNEE, a stone-plover.--_adj._ THICK'-LIPPED (_Shak._), having thick lips.--_adv._ THICK'LY.--_n._ THICK'NESS.--_adjs._ THICK'-PLEACHED (_Shak._), closely interwoven; THICK'-SET, closely planted: having a short, thick body.--_n._ THICK'-SKIN, a person wanting sensibility: a dull, stupid person, a blockhead.--_adj._ THICK'-SKINNED, having a thick skin: wanting sensibility: dull: obtuse.--_n._ THICK'-SKULL (same as THICK-SKIN).--_adjs._ THICK'-SKULLED, having a thick skull: dull: stupid; THICK'-SPRUNG (_Shak._), that have sprung up thick or close together.--_n._ THICK'UN (_slang_), a sovereign: a crown.--LAY IT ON THICK, to flatter or praise extravagantly; THROUGH THICK AND THIN, in spite of all obstacles, without any wavering. [A.S. _thicce_; cog. with Ger. _dick_.] THICK, thik, _n._ (_Spens._) a thicket.--_v.i._ (_Spens._) to grow dense. THIEF, th[=e]f, _n._ one who steals or takes unlawfully what is not his own.--_ns._ THIEF'-CATCH'ER, -T[=A]'KER, one whose business is to detect thieves and bring them to justice: a detective. [A.S. _theóf_; Ice. _thjóf-r_, Ger. _dieb_.] THIEVE, th[=e]v, _v.i._ to practise theft: to steal.--_n._ THIEV'ERY, the practice of thieving.--_adj._ THIEV'ISH, given to, or like, theft or stealing: acting by stealth: secret: sly.--_adv._ THIEV'ISHLY.--_n._ THIEV'ISHNESS. [A.S. _theófian_.] THIG, thig, _v.i._ to make supplication, to live on alms.--_v.t._ to beseech, beg.--_n._ THIG'GER, a beggar, a sorner. [A.S. _thicgan_, to take.] THIGH, th[=i], _n._ the thick fleshy part of the leg from the knee to the trunk.--_n._ THIGH'-BONE, the bone of the leg between the hip-joint and the knee. [A.S. _theó_, _theóh_; Ice. _thjó_, Old High Ger. _deoh_.] THILK, thilk, _pron._ (_Spens._) the same. [A.S. _thylc_, _thyllíc_, the like, such--_thí_, instrumental case of _thæt_, that, and _líc_, like.] THILL, thil, _n._ one of the shafts of a cart or other carriage.--_ns._ THILL'ER, THILL'-HORSE (_Shak._), the horse that goes between the thills or shafts of a carriage, or the last of a team. [A.S. _thille_, a board, a plank.] THIMBLE, thim'bl, _n._ a metal cover for the finger, used in sewing.--_ns._ THIM'BLE-CASE, a case for holding a thimble; THIM'BLEFUL, as much as a thimble will hold: a small quantity; THIM'BLE-RIG, a sleight-of-hand trick in which the performer conceals, or pretends to conceal, a pea or small ball under one of three thimble-like cups.--_v.i._ to cheat by such means.--_ns._ THIM'BLE-RIG'GER; THIM'BLE-RIG'GING. [A.S. _thýmel_, a thumb-stall--_thúma_, a thumb. An extension of _thumb_.] THIN, thin, _adj._ having little thickness: slim: lean: freely mobile: small: fine: not close or crowded: transparent, flimsy, shallow: not full or well grown, meagre, weak.--_adv._ not thickly or closely: in a scattered state.--_v.t._ to make thin: to make less close or crowded (with _away_, _out_, &c.): to make rare or less thick or dense.--_v.i._ to grow or become thin:--_pr.p._ thin'ning; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ thinned.--_adj._ THIN'-FACED (_Shak._), having a thin face.--_adv._ THIN'LY.--_n._ THIN'NESS.--_adjs._ THIN'NISH, somewhat thin; THIN'-SKINNED, having a thin skin: sensitive: irritable.--_n._ THIN'-SKINNED'NESS. [A.S. _thynne_; Ice. _thunnr_, Ger. _dünn_.] THINE, _th_[=i]n, _pron._ (poss. form of _thou_) belonging to thee: thy. [A.S. _thín_, thy--_thín_, gen. of _thú_, thou; Ger. _dein_.] THING, thing, _n._ an inanimate object: a living being (in tenderness or in contempt): an event: a part: (_pl._) clothes, wraps.--_ns._ THING'INESS, reality, objectivity: disposition to take a materialistic view of things; THING'-IN-ITSELF', a noumenon, the Ger. _ding an sich_; THING'UMBOB, THING'UMMY (_coll._), a thing, anything, an indefinite name for some person whom one cannot be troubled to name distinctly.--_adj._ THING'Y, materialistic.--DO THE HANDSOME THING BY, to treat generously; KNOW A THING OR TWO, to be shrewd; MAKE A GOOD THING OF IT, to reap a good advantage from; THE THING, the proper or right thing. [A.S. _thing_, _thinc_; Ger. _ding_.] THING, ting, _n._ a parliament, or a court of law, in Scandinavian countries. [Ice. _thing_, an assembly.] THINK, thingk, _v.i._ to exercise the mind (with _about_, _of_, _on_): to revolve ideas in the mind: to judge: to form or hold as an opinion: to consider: to purpose or design.--_v.t._ to imagine: to judge: to believe or consider:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ thought.--_adj._ THINK'ABLE, capable of being thought.--_n._ THINK'ER.--_p.adj._ THINK'ING, having the faculty of thought.--_n._ the act or state of one who thinks: (_Shak._) thought, imagination, judgment.--_adv._ THINK'INGLY.--THINK LITTLE OF, to have a poor opinion of--opposite to THINK MUCH, or WELL, OF; THINK LONG, to yearn for: to become weary in waiting; THINK OUT, to devise, project: to solve by a process of thought. [A.S. _thencan_, _thencean_; cog. with Ger. _denken_, from root of _thank_.] THIRD, th[.e]rd, _adj._ the last of three.--_n._ one of three equal parts: (_golf_) a handicap of a stroke every third hole.--_ns._ THIRD'-BOR'OUGH (_Shak._), an under-constable; THIRD'ING, the third part of anything.--_adv._ THIRD'LY, in the third place.--_adj._ THIRD'-RATE, of the third order.--_n._ THIRDS'MAN, a mediator.--THIRD ESTATE, in England, the House of Commons; THIRD PERSON IN THE TRINITY, the Holy Spirit. [A.S. _thridda_--_threó_, three.] THIRL, th[.e]rl, _n._ (_prov._) a hole: an opening: a short passage between two headings in a mine.--_v.t._ to pierce, wound: cause to quiver.--_v.i._ to vibrate, tingle, thrill. THIRL, th[.e]rl, _n._ a form of thrall.--_v.t._ to bind or subject.--_n._ THIRL'AGE, a form of servitude by which the grain produced on certain lands had to be ground at a certain mill and a certain proportion paid. THIRST, th[.e]rst, _n._ the uneasiness caused by want of drink: vehement desire for drink: eager desire for anything.--_v.i._ to feel thirst: to desire vehemently.--_n._ THIRST'ER.--_adv._ THIRST'ILY.--_n._ THIRST'INESS.--_adj._ THIRST'Y, suffering from thirst: dry: parched: vehemently desiring. [A.S. _thurst_, _thyrst_; Ger. _durst_; cf. Gr. _tersesthai_, L. _torr[=e]re_, to dry.] THIRTEEN, th[.e]r't[=e]n, _adj._ and _n._ three and ten.--_adj._ and _n._ THIR'TEENTH, the last of thirteen: a thirteenth part. [A.S. _threótýne_--_threó_, three, _týn_, ten.] THIRTY, th[.e]r'ti, _adj._ and _n._ three times ten.--_adj._ THIR'TIETH, the last of thirty.--_n._ a thirtieth part. [A.S. _thrítig_--_threó_, three, _-tig_, suff. denoting ten.] THIS, _th_is, _demons. pron._ or _adj._ denoting a person or thing near, just mentioned, or about to be mentioned: (_B._) the last past:--_pl._ THESE.--_n._ THIS'NESS, hæccity. [A.S. _this_, the neut. of the adj. pron. _thes_ (masc.), _theós_ (fem.), _this_ (neut.)--pl. _th['æ]s_ (=these), _thás_ (=those); Ice. _thessi_, Ger. _dieser_.] THISTLE, this'l, _n._ a genus of prickly plants.--_n._ THIS'TLE-DOWN, the tufted feathery bristles of the seeds of the thistle.--_adj._ THIS'TLY, overgrown with thistles. [A.S. _thistel_; Ger. _distel_.] THITHER, _th_ith'[.e]r, _adv._ to that place: to that end or result.--_adv._ THITH'ERWARD, toward that place. [A.S. _ðider_.] THLIPSIS, thlip'sis, _n._ constriction of a blood-vessel by external compression. [Gr.,--_thlibein_, to press.] THO, th[=o], _adv._ (_Spens._) then, also the sing. of _those_. THO'=_Though_. THOFT, thoft, _n._ (_prov._) a rowing-bench. [A.S. _thofte_.] THOLE, th[=o]l, _n._ a pin in the side of a boat to keep the oar in place.--Also THOLE'-PIN, THOWL, THOWEL. [A.S. _thol_; Dut. _dol_, Ice. _thollr_.] THOLE, th[=o]l, _v.t._ to endure, to suffer: to yield.--_v.i._ to be patient, to wait. [A.S. _tholian_, to suffer; Goth. _thulan_, Ice. _thola_; Old High Ger. _dolén_, whence Ger, _ge-duld_, patience, _dulden_, to suffer.] THOLOBATE, th[=o]'l[=o]-b[=a]t, _n._ (_archit._) the substructure on which a dome or cupola rests. [Gr. _tholos_, a dome, _bainein_, to go.] THOLUS, th[=o]'lus, _n._ a round building, dome, cupola:--_pl._ TH[=O]'LI.--Also THOLE. [Gr.] THOMISM, t[=o]'mizm, _n._ the doctrines of the followers of the prince of scholastic theologians, _Thomas_ Aquinas (1226-74), esp. as these are set forth in his _Summa Theologiæ_, which still represent, with few exceptions, the general teaching of the R.C. Church.--_n._ TH[=O]'MIST, a follower of Aquinas.--_adjs._ THOMIST'IC, -AL. THONG, thong, _n._ a piece or strap of leather to fasten anything. [A.S. _thwang_.] THOR, th[=o]r, _n._ the second principal Scandinavian divinity, the god of thunder. [Ice. _Thórr_.] THORAH=_Torah_. THORAL, th[=o]'ral, _adj._ nuptial. [L. _torus_, the bed.] THORAX, th[=o]'raks, _n._ the part of the body between the neck and belly: the chest.--_adj._ THORACIC (-ras'-), pertaining to the thorax or breast. [L.,--Gr.] THORIUM, th[=o]'ri-um, _n._ a rare metal resembling aluminium, but taking fire below a red heat, and burning with great brilliancy.--Also THOR[=I]'NUM. THORN, thorn, _n._ a sharp, woody spine on the stem of a plant: a spine: a plant having spines or thorns: anything prickly or troublesome.--_ns._ THORN'-APP'LE, a plant of genus _Datura_: a haw, a thorn-tree; THORN'BACK, a species of ray or skate which has nail-like crooked spines in its back; THORN'BILL, a variety of humming-bird with short, straight bill; THORN'-BUSH, a shrub producing thorns; THORN'-HEDGE, a hedge of hawthorn.--_adjs._ THORN'LESS, without thorns; THORN'SET, set or beset with thorns; THORN'Y, full of thorns: prickly: troublesome: harassing (A.S. _thorniht_).--THORN IN THE FLESH, any cause of constant irritation, from 2 Cor. xii. 7. [A.S. _thorn_; Ice. _thorn_, Ger. _dorn_.] THOROUGH, thur'[=o], _adj._ passing through or to the end: complete: entire.--_prep._ (_obs._) through.--_n._ that which goes through, a passage: the blind and obstinately tyrannical policy of Strafford and Laud in administering civil and ecclesiastical affairs without regard to opposite convictions.--_n._ THOR'OUGH-BASS (_mus._), a bass part all through a piece, with figures placed over the notes to indicate the harmony to be played to each.--_adj._ THOR'OUGHBRED, thoroughly or completely bred: bred from a dam and sire of the best blood, as a horse, and having the qualities supposed to depend thereon.--_n._ an animal, esp. a horse, of pure blood--of race-horses, one all of whose ancestors for seven generations (five in America) are recorded in the stud-book.--_n._ THOR'OUGHFARE, a fare or passage for going through: a public way or street: right of passing through.--_adj._ THOR'OUGHG[=O]'ING, going through or to the end: going all lengths: complete.--_adv._ THOR'OUGHLY.--_n._ THOR'OUGHNESS.--_adj._ THOR'OUGH-PACED, thoroughly or perfectly paced or trained: complete. [The longer form of _through_.] THORP, THORPE, thorp, _n._ a homestead: a hamlet. [A.S. _thorp_; Goth. _thaurp_, Ger. _dorf_.] THOSE, _th_[=o]z, _pron._, _pl._ of _that_. [From A.S. _thás_, the old pl. of _thes_, this. Cf. _This_. Doublet _these_.] THOTH, thoth, _n._ the ancient Egyptian god of wisdom, and the inventor of art, science, letters, &c., ibis-headed, with a tau-cross in his hand. THOU, thow, _pron._ of the second person sing., the person addressed (now generally used only in solemn address). [A.S. _ðú_; cog. with Goth. _thu_, Gr. _tu_, L. _tu_, Sans. _tva-m_.] THOUGH, _th_[=o], _conj._ admitting: allowing: even if notwithstanding. [Lit. 'on that' (condition), A.S. _ðeáh_, _ðéh_; cog. with Goth. _thau-h_, Ice. _thó_, Ger. _doch_; from the stem of _the_.] THOUGHT, thawt, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _think_. [A.S. _þoht_--_þencan_, to think.] THOUGHT, thawt, _n._ the act of thinking: reasoning: deliberation: that which one thinks: idea: fancy: consideration: opinion: meditation: design: care.--_adjs._ THOUGHT'ED, having thoughts; THOUGHT'FUL, full of thought: employed in meditation: attentive: considerate: promoting serious thought: favourable to meditation.--_adv._ THOUGHT'FULLY.--_n._ THOUGHT'FULNESS.--_adj._ THOUGHT'LESS, without thought or care: careless: inattentive: stupid: dull.--_adv._ THOUGHT'LESSLY.--_ns._ THOUGHT'LESSNESS; THOUGHT'-READ'ER; THOUGHT'-READ'ING, the dubious act or art of discerning what is passing in another's mind by some direct and unexplained method, depending neither on gesture, facial expression, nor any articulate or other voluntary indication.--_adj._ THOUGHT'-SICK (_Shak._), uneasy with reflection.--_n._ THOUGHT'-TRANS'FERENCE, telepathy.--_adj._ THOUGHT'-TRANSFEREN'TIAL, telepathic.--_n._ THOUGHT'-WAVE, a supposed undulatory movement of a hypothetical medium by which the phenomena of thought-transference are explained.--TAKE THOUGHT (_Shak._), to give way to grief. [A.S. _ge-thóht_; Ice. _thóttr_, Ger. _bedacht_. Cf. _Think_.] THOUS, _th_owz (_Spens._), Thou art. THOUS, th[=o]'us, _n._ a genus of canines, the African jackals, [L. _thos_--Gr. _th[=o]s_, a wild dog.] THOUSAND, thow'zand, _adj._ denoting ten hundred: proverbially, denoting any great number.--_n._ the number ten hundred: any large number.--_adj._ THOU'SANDFOLD, folded a thousand times: multiplied by a thousand.--_n._ THOU'SAND-LEGS, any one of the Myriapoda.--_adj._ THOU'SANDTH, the last of a thousand or of any great number.--_n._ one of a thousand or of any great number.--ONE IN [OF] A THOUSAND, anything exceedingly rare, implying a high degree of rarity or excellence. [A.S. _thúsend_; Ger. _tausend_, Goth. _thúsundi_.] THOWEL, THOWL. See THOLE (1). THOWLESS, thow'les, _adj._ (_Scot._) pithless: lazy. [_Thew_.] THRALL, thrawl, _n._ a slave, serf: slavery, servitude: a shelf for barrels.--_adj._ (_arch._) subject.--_v.t._ to enslave.--_ns._ THRAL'DOM, THRALL'DOM, the condition of a thrall or slave: slavery: bondage.--_adj._ THRALL'-LIKE (_Milt._), resembling a thrall or slave: resembling slavery: slavish. [Old Northumbrian _ðr['æ]l_--Ice. _þræll_, a slave; cf. Old High Ger. _drigil_, a slave, one who runs errands. From root of A.S. _þrægian_, to run.] THRAP, thrap, _v.t._ to fasten about. [Prob. _frap_.] THRAPPLE, thrap'l, _n._ (_Scot._) the windpipe.--Also THROPP'LE. [_Throttle_.] THRASH, thrash, _v.t._ to heat out grain from the straw, to beat soundly--also THRESH.--_ns._ THRASH'ER, THRESH'ER; THRASH'ING, THRESH'ING, the act of beating out grain from the straw: a sound beating or drubbing; THRASH'ING-FLOOR, THRESH'ING-FLOOR, a floor on which grain is thrashed; THRASH'ING-MACHINE', -MILL, a machine or apparatus for thrashing corn. [A.S. _therscan_; cog. with Ger. _dreschen_.] THRASH, thrash, _n._ (_Scot._) a rush.--Also THRESH. THRASHER, thrash'[.e]r, _n._ an American throstle or thrush, the brown thrush or sandy mocking-bird.--Also THRESH'ER. THRASONICAL, thr[=a]-son'ik-al, _adj._ resembling _Thraso_, a boastful soldier in Terence's _Eunuchus_: boastful, bragging.--_adv._ THRASON'ICALLY. THRATCH, thrach, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to gasp for breath.--_n._ laboured breathing. THRAVE, thr[=a]v, _n._ twenty-four sheaves of grain set up in two _stooks_ of twelve sheaves each: the number of two dozen, a good number.--Also THREAVE (thr[=e]v). [Scand., Ice. _þrefi_--_þrífa_, to grasp.] THRAW, thraw, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to twist, wrench.--_v.i._ to writhe, to wriggle: to be perverse.--_adjs._ THRÄ'WARD, THRÄ'WART, obstinate; THRAWN, twisted: perverse.--HEADS AND THRAWS, lying beside each other, the head of the one by the feet of the other; IN THE DEAD THRAW, in the agony of death. [_Throw_.] THREAD, thred, _n._ a very thin line of any substance twisted and drawn out: a filament of any fibrous substance: a fine line of yarn: anything resembling a thread: the prominent spiral part of a screw: something continued in long course: the uniform tenor of a discourse.--_v.t._ to pass a thread through the eye of (as a needle): to pass or pierce through, as a narrow way: to furnish with a thread.--_adj._ THREAD'BARE, worn to the bare thread: having the nap worn off: hackneyed: used till its novelty or interest is gone.--_n._ THREAD'BARENESS.--_adj._ THREAD'EN (_Shak._), made of thread.--_ns._ THREAD'ER; THREAD'INESS, the state of being thread-like or slender: the quality of containing threads; THREAD'-LACE, lace made of linen thread; THREAD'-P[=A]'PER, a piece of thin soft paper for wrapping up a skein of thread.--_n.pl._ THREAD'-WORMS, a popular name for Nematoda, a class of more or less thread-like worms, many parasitic, others free-living.--_adj._ THREAD'Y, like thread: slender: containing, or consisting of, thread.--THREAD AND THRUM, all, the good and bad together; THREAD OF LIFE, the thread imagined to be spun and cut by the Fates.--LISLE THREAD, a fine hard-twisted linen thread originally made at _Lille_ in France. [A.S. _thr['æ]d_--_thráwan_, to wind, to twist; Ger. _drehen_.] THREAP, THREEP, thr[=e]p, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to maintain persistently: to contradict: to urge, to press eagerly.--_v.i._ to dispute.--_n._ stubborn insistence: contradiction: a freet. [A.S. _threápian_, to rebuke.] THREAT, thret, _n._ declaration of an intention to inflict punishment or other evil upon another: menace.--_v.t._ THREAT'EN, to declare the intention of inflicting punishment or other evil upon another: to terrify by menaces: to present the appearance of coming evil or of something unpleasant.--_n._ THREAT'ENER.--_adj._ THREAT'ENING, indicating a threat or menace: indicating something approaching or impending.--_adv._ THREAT'ENINGLY.--_adj._ THREAT'FUL (_Spens._), full of threats, having a menacing appearance. [A.S. _þreát_--_þreótan_, to afflict; cog. with Ger. _verdriessen_, Goth. _thriutan_, to vex.] THREE, thr[=e], _adj._ and _n._ two and one.--_adj._ THREE'-COR'NERED, having three corners or angles: (_bot._) having three prominent longitudinal angles, as a stem.--_n._ THREE'-DECK'ER, ship of war carrying guns on three decks: an old-fashioned pulpit.--_adjs._ THREE'FOLD, folded thrice: thrice repeated: consisting of three; THREE'-FOOT, measuring three feet, or having three feet; THREE'-LEAFED, -LEAVED (_bot._), having three distinct leaflets: having the leaves arranged in threes; THREE'-LOBED (_bot._), having three lobes; THREE'-MAN (_Shak._), worked by three men.--_n._ THREE'-MAS'TER, a ship with three masts.--_adjs._ THREE'-NERVED, having three nerves: (_bot._) having three distinct nerves running longitudinally without branching, as a leaf; THREE'-NOOKED (_Shak._), three-cornered; THREE'-PART'ED, consisting of three parts: (_bot._) divided into three parts down to the base, as a leaf.--_n._ THREEPENCE (thr[=e]'pens, _coll._ thrip'ens), three pennies: a silver coin of the value of threepence.--_adj._ THREE'PENNY, worth threepence: of little worth: mean, vulgar.--_ns._ THREE'-PER-CENTS., bonds or other securities paying three per cent. interest, esp. a portion of the consolidated debt of Great Britain; THREE'-PILE (_Shak._), the finest kind of velvet.--_adjs._ THREE'-PILED, set with a thick pile, as velvet: (_Shak._) of the best quality: (_Shak._) piled one on another; THREE'PLY, having three plies or folds; THREE'SCORE, three times a score, sixty (also _n._); THREE'-SID'ED, having three sides; THREE'SOME, triple; THREE'-SUIT'ED, having but three suits of clothes; THREE'-VALVED, consisting of, or opening with, three valves.--THREE F'S, free sale, fixity of tenure, fair rent--the three demands of the Irish Land League; THREE R'S (see R); THREE TIMES THREE, three cheers thrice repeated. [A.S. _þreó_, _þrý_, _þír_; Ice. _þrír_, Gael. _tri_, Goth. _threis_, Ger. _drei_, L. _tres_, Gr. _treis_, Sans. _tri_.] THREMMATOLOGY, threm-a-tol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the science of breeding or propagating animals and plants under domestication. [Gr. _thremma_--_trephein_, to nurse, _logia_--_legein_, to say.] THRENODY, thren'[=o]-di, _n._ an ode or song of lamentation.--_n._ THRENE, a lament, lamentation.--_adjs._ THRENET'IC, -AL; THREN[=O]'DIAL, THRENOD'IC.--_n._ THREN'ODIST, a writer of threnodies. [Gr. _thr[=e]n[=o]dia_--_thr[=e]nos_, a lament, _[=o]d[=e]_, a song.] THREPSOLOGY, threp-sol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the science of the nutrition of living organisms, or a treatise thereon. [Gr. _threpsis_--_trephein_, to nourish, _logia_--_legein_, to say.] THRESH, thresh (see THRASH).--_ns._ THRESH'EL, a flail; THRESH'ER, the fox-shark; THRESH'ER-WHALE, the grampus. THRESHOLD, thresh'[=o]ld, _n._ a piece of wood or stone under the door of a house: door: entrance: the place or point of entering. [M. E. _threshwold_--A.S. _therscwald_--_therscan_, to thresh, _wald_, wood.] THRESTLE, thres'l, _n._ a three-legged stool. [_Trestle_.] THRETTY, thret'i, a dial. form of _thirty_. THREW, thr[=oo], _pa.t._ of _throw_. THRICE, thr[=i]s, _adv._ three times. [M. E. _thriës_--A.S. _þríwa_, thrice--_þrí_, three.] THRID, thrid, _n._ (_Spens._) a thread.--_v.t._ to slip through, as a narrow passage. [_Thread_.] THRIDACIUM, thri-d[=a]'si-um, _n._ the inspissated juice of lettuce.--Also THRID'ACE. [L. _thridax_--Gr. _thridax_, lettuce.] THRIFT, thrift, _n._ state of thriving: frugality: prosperity: increase of wealth: gain: a plant of genus _Armeria_, order _Plumbagineæ_, the marsh-rosemary.--_adv._ THRIFT'ILY.--_n._ THRIFT'INESS.--_adj._ THRIFT'LESS, not thrifty: extravagant: not thriving.--_adv._ THRIFT'LESSLY.--_n._ THRIFT'LESSNESS.--_adj._ THRIFT'Y (_comp._ THRIFT'IER, _superl._ THRIFT'IEST), showing thrift or economy: thriving by frugality. [_Thrive_.] THRILL, thril, _v.t._ to pierce: to affect strongly.--_v.i._ to pierce, as something sharp: to cause a tingling, shivering feeling to run through the body: to feel a sharp, shivering sensation.--_n._ a thrilling sensation.--_adjs._ THRILL'ANT (_Spens._), thrilling, piercing; THRILL'ING, causing to thrill.--_adv._ THRILL'INGLY, in a thrilling manner: with thrilling sensations.--_n._ THRILL'INGNESS. [A.S. _thyrlian_, to bore a hole--_thyrel_, a hole; Ger. _drillen_, to drill a hole.] THRIPS, thrips, _n._ a genus of the family _Thripidæ_, which is the sole family of the order _Thysanoptera_, any member of the same, the corn-thrips, the jassid, the grape-vine thrips. [Gr. _thrips_, a wood-worm.] THRIST, thrist, _v.i._ (_Spens._) same as _Thirst_.--_adj._ THRIST'Y=_Thirsty_. THRIVE, thr[=i]v, _v.i._ to prosper: to increase in goods: to be successful: to grow: to flourish:--_pa.t._ thr[=o]ve and thr[=i]ved; _pa.p._ thriv'en.--_adj._ THRIVE'LESS, thriftless.--_n._ THR[=I]'VER, one who succeeds.--_p.adj._ THR[=I]'VING, flourishing, successful.--_adv._ THR[=I]'VINGLY, in a thriving or prosperous manner.--_n._ THR[=I]'VINGNESS. [Ice. _thrífa_, to grasp.] THRO', THRO=_Through_. THROAT, thr[=o]t, _n._ the forepart of the neck, in which are the gullet and windpipe: an entrance: a narrow part of anything: (_naut._) the widened and hollowed end of a gaff next the mast--opp. to Peak, the outer end.--_ns._ THROAT'-BAND, -STRAP, -LATCH, a band about the throat; THROAT'-BOLT, an eye-bolt to which to hook the throat-halyards.--_n.pl._ THROAT'-BRAILS, those which are attached to the gaff for trussing up the sail close to the gaff as well as the mast.--_adj._ THROAT'ED, with a throat of a specified kind.--_n.pl._ THROAT'-HAL'YARDS, those for hoisting the throat of a gaff.--_adj._ THROAT'Y, formed in the throat, guttural in sound.--CLERGYMAN'S SORE THROAT, an affection commonly arising from too prolonged or powerful exercise of the voice by persons in whom the mucous membrane of the throat is in a relaxed condition; CUT ONE'S OWN, or ANOTHER'S, THROAT, to pursue some course ruinous to one's own or to another's interests; GIVE ONE THE LIE IN HIS THROAT, to accuse one to his face of a lie. [A.S. _throte_; Dut. _strot_, Ger. _drossel_, the throat.] THROB, throb, _v.i._ to beat or palpitate, as the heart or pulse, with more than usual force:--_pr.p._ throb'bing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ throbbed.--_n._ a beat or strong pulsation.--_adv._ THROB'BINGLY.--_adj._ THROB'LESS. [M. E. _throbben_; cf. L. _trepidus_, trembling.] THROE, thr[=o], _n._ suffering, pain: agony: the pains of childbirth.--_v.i._ to be in agony.--_v.t._ to put in agony. [A.S. _threá_, _threáw_, suffering--_threówan_, to suffer.] THROMBOSIS, throm-b[=o]'sis, _n._ an affection of the blood--vessels (either veins or arteries), which essentially consists in a coagulation of blood, forming a true clot, at a certain fixed spot.--_adjs._ THROM'BOSED, THROMBOT'IC.--_n._ THROM'BUS, the blood-clot formed in thrombosis. THRONE, thr[=o]n, _n._ a chair of state richly ornamented and covered with a canopy: seat of a bishop in the cathedral-church of his diocese: sovereign power and dignity: (_pl._) the third order of angels in the first triad of the celestial hierarchy.--_v.t._ to place on a royal seat: to exalt.--_v.i._ to sit in state, as on a throne:--_pr.p._ thr[=o]n'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ thr[=o]ned.--_adjs._ THR[=O]'NAL; THRONE'LESS. [O. Fr.,--L. _thronus_--Gr. _thronos_, a seat.] THRONG, throng, _n._ a large number of people pressed or crowded together: a crowd: a great multitude.--_v.t._ to press or crowd: to annoy with numbers.--_v.i._ to crowd together: to come in multitudes.--_adj._ (_prov._) crowded: busy.--_adj._ THRONG'FUL, thronged. [A.S. _ge-thrang_--_thringan_, to press.] THROPPLE. Same as THRAPPLE. THROSTLE, thros'l, _n._ the song-thrush or mavis: a machine for twisting and winding fibres from roves, consisting of a set of drawing-rollers with bobbins and fliers--also _Water-frame_.--_n._ THROS'TLE-COOK, the missel-thrush. [A.S. _throstle_; Ger. _drossel_, L. _turdus_, a thrush.] THROSTLING, thros'ling, _n._ a swelling on the throat of cattle causing strangulation. THROTTLE, throt'l, _n._ the throat or windpipe.--_v.t._ to choke by pressure on the windpipe: to shut off the steam from a steam-pipe, engine, &c.--_v.i._ to breathe hard, as when nearly suffocated.--_ns._ THROTT'LE-PIPE, the vertical pipe between the throttle-valve and dry-pipe of a locomotive; THROTT'LER, one who throttles; THROTT'LE-VALVE, a valve regulating the supply of steam to the cylinder. [Dim. of _throat_.] THROUGH, thr[=oo], _prep._ from end to end, or from side to side of: between the sides of: over the whole extent of: among: from beginning to end: by means of: in consequence of.--_adv._ from one end or side to the other: from beginning to end: to the end or purpose.--_adj._ clear, unobstructed, serving for an entire route.--_adv._ THROUGH'-AND-THROUGH, thoroughly.--_ns._ THROUGH'-BOLT, a bolt which passes through from side to side of what it fastens; THROUGH'FARE (_Shak._), same as THOROUGHFARE; THROUGH'-GANG (_Scot._), a thoroughfare.--_adj._ THROUGH'-GANG'ING, thorough-going.--_n._ THROUGH-G[=O]'ING (_Scot._), a scolding.--_adj._ active, energetic.--_adv._ THROUGH'LY (_obs._) same as THOROUGHLY.--_prep._ THROUGHOUT', through to the outside: in every part of: from one end to the other.--_adv._ in every part: everywhere.--_ns._ THROUGH'-STONE, a bonder or bond-stone in building: a grave-stone made so as to lie flat; THROUGH'-TICK'ET, a ticket for the whole of a journey; THROUGH'-TRAFF'IC, the traffic between two centres at a distance from each other--opp. to _Local traffic_; THROUGH'-TRAIN, a train which goes the whole length of a long route.--BE THROUGH, to be finished; CARRY THROUGH (see CARRY); GO THROUGH (see GO). [A.S. _þurh_; Ger. _durch_, Sans. _tiras_.] THROVE, thr[=o]v, _pa.t._ of _thrive_. THROW, thr[=o], _v.t._ to hurl: to fling: to wind or twist together, as yarn: to form on a wheel, as pottery: to venture at dice: to put off: to put on or spread carelessly: to cast down in wrestling.--_v.i._ to cast or hurl: to cast dice:--_pa.t._ threw (thr[=oo]); _pa.p._ thr[=o]wn.--_n._ the act of throwing; a cast, esp. of dice: the distance to which anything may be thrown: a violent effort.--_ns._ THROW'ER; THROW'ING-T[=A]'BLE, a potter's wheel.--_adj._ THROWN, twisted.--_ns._ THROWN'-SILK, organzine, silk thread formed by twisting together two or more threads or singles; THROW'STER, one who throws silk: a gambler; THROW'-STICK, a weapon thrown whirling from the hand, as the boomerang.--THROW ABOUT (_Spens._), to cast about or try expedients; THROW AWAY, to lose by neglect or folly, to spend in vain, to reject; THROW BACK, to retort, to refuse: to revert to some ancestral character, to show atavism; THROW BY, to reject, to lay aside as of no use; THROW DOWN, to destroy, to subvert: to depress; THROW IN, to inject, as a fluid, to put in or deposit along with others, to add as an extra; THROW LIGHT ON, to make clear; THROW OFF, to expel, to reject, to renounce: to give forth in an unpremeditated manner; THROW ON, to put on hastily; THROW ONE'S SELF INTO, to engage heartily in; THROW ONE'S SELF ON, or UPON, to cast one's confidence upon, to resign one's self to; THROW OPEN, to cause to swing wide open, to make freely accessible; THROW OUT, to cast out, to reject, to expel: to emit, to utter carelessly, to cause to project: to put into confusion, to confuse: to distance, leave behind; THROW OVER, to discard or desert; THROW UP, to hoist or raise, to raise hastily: to enlarge, as a picture reflected on a screen: to give up, to resign: to vomit. [A.S. _thráwan_, to turn, to twist; Ger. _drehen_, to twist, L. _torqu[=e]re_.] THRUM, thrum, _n._ the end of a weaver's thread, any loose thread or fringe: coarse yarn.--_v.t._ to furnish with thrums: to fringe: to insert short pieces of rope-yarn in a mat or piece of canvas:--_pr.p._ thrum'ming; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ thrummed.--_ns._ THRUM'-CAP, -HAT (_Shak._), a cap or hat made of thrums or of coarse, shaggy cloth.--_adj._ THRUM'MY, made of, or like, thrums. [Ice. _þrómr_, the edge; Ger. _trumm_, a fragment.] THRUM, thrum, _v.i._ to play rudely or monotonously on an instrument with the fingers.--_n._ a monotonous sound, as that made by unskilled fingers on a harp, &c.--_n._ THRUM'MER. THRUSH, thrush, _n._ a genus of Passerine birds of the family _Turdidæ_, specifically the throstle, song-thrush, or mavis of Europe. [A.S. _þrysce_, a thrush.] THRUSH, thrush, _n._ an inflammatory and suppurating affection of the sensitive surfaces within the frog of the horse: an infantile disease of the mouth and throat. [Scand., Ice. _þurr_, dry.] THRUST, thrust, _v.t._ to push or drive with force: to stab, pierce.--_v.i._ to make a push, esp. with a pointed weapon: to squeeze in: to intrude:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ thrust.--_n._ a stab: an assault: the horizontal outward pressure of an arch against its abutments, or of rafters, beams, &c. against the walls or bearings: the white whey, the last to be squeezed from the curd.--_ns._ THRUST'ER; THRUST'-HOE, a hoe worked by pushing.--THRUST ASIDE, to push away, to reject; THRUST OFF, to push away; THRUST ON, to urge or impel; THRUST ONE'S SELF INTO, to intrude; THRUST OUT, to drive out or away; THRUST THROUGH (_Shak._), to pierce, to stab; THRUST TO (_Spens._), to rush upon; THRUST TOGETHER, to compress; THRUST UPON, to force upon. [Ice. _thrýsta_, to press.] THRUST, thrust, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to thirst.--_n._ thirst. THUD, thud, _n._ a dull, hollow sound, caused by a blow or a heavy body falling: a loud noise, concussion, or blast.--_v.i._ to make a thudding sound: (_Scot._) to move quickly.--_v.t._ (_Scot._) to beat, strike. [A.S. _þóden_, noise.] THUG, thug, _n._ one of a class of professional robbers and assassins in India--a kind of secret religious fraternity, murdering stealthily by strangling or poisoning with datura, extirpated 1826-35: any cut-throat ruffian.--_ns._ THUGGEE', THUG'GERY, THUG'GISM, the practice and superstition of the Thugs. [Hind., _thag_, _thug_, cheat.] THULE, th[=u]'l[=e], _n._ the name generally given by the ancients to the most northerly part of Europe known to them, of which their want of knowledge was eked out by the imagination--the Orkney and Shetland groups, Iceland, &c. The usual Roman phrase was _Ultima Thule_. [L.,--Gr. _thyl[=e]_.] THUMB, thum, _n._ the short, thick digit, consisting of two phalanges, on the radial side of the human hand: the corresponding member in other animals.--_v.t._ to handle awkwardly: to play or soil with the thumb or fingers.--_v.i._ to finger.--_adj._ THUMBED, having thumbs: marked by the thumb, worn.--_ns._ THUMB'KIN, THUMB'SCREW, an old instrument of torture for compressing the thumb by means of a screw.--_adj._ THUMB'LESS.--_ns._ THUMB'-MARK, a mark left by the impression of the thumb on the pages of a book, &c.; THUMB'PIECE, a piece serving as a support for the thumb: a knob or projection by means of which a spring is worked by pressure of the thumb; THUMB'POT, a very small pot used by florists for starting slips or seedlings; THUMB'-RING (_Shak._), a ring worn on the thumb: a ring for the thumb fastened to the guard of a dagger or sword; THUMB'-STALL, a covering or sheath for the thumb.--BY RULE OF THUMB, in a rough-and-ready practical manner, found by experience to be convenient; UNDER ONE'S THUMB, under one's influence. [With intrusive _b_ from A.S. _þuma_; cog. with Ger. _daumen_.] THUMMIM, thum'im, _n.pl._ perfection. [Heb., _tumm[=i]m_ (pl. of _t[=o]m_), perfection--_t[=a]mam_, to be perfect. Cf. _Urim_.] THUMP, thump, _n._ a heavy blow.--_v.t._ to beat with something heavy.--_v.i._ to strike or fall with a dull, heavy blow.--_n._ THUMP'ER, one who, or that which, thumps: anything very big, a big lie, &c.--_adj._ THUMP'ING, unusually big. [Prob. imit., like Ice. _dumpa_, to thump.] THUNDER, thun'd[.e]r, _n._ the deep rumbling sound after a flash of lightning, a thunderbolt: any loud noise: an alarming denunciation.--_v.i._ to make thunder: to sound as thunder.--_v.t._ to give out with noise and terror: to publish a denunciation.--_ns._ THUN'DERBOLT, a bolt or shaft of lightning preceding a peal of thunder: anything sudden and irresistible: a daring or irresistible hero: ecclesiastical denunciation; THUN'DER-CLAP, a sudden peal of thunder: the report of an explosion of electricity in the clouds; THUN'DER-CLOUD, a cloud charged with electricity, which generally produces lightning and thunder; THUN'DERER; THUN'DERING, the report of a discharge of electricity in the clouds: thunder.--_adj._ unusually big, tremendous.--_adv._ THUN'DERINGLY.--_adjs._ THUN'DERLESS, without thunder; THUN'DER-LIKE (_Shak._), like thunder, as a loud noise; THUN'DEROUS, giving forth a sound like thunder, awful.--_adv._ THUN'DEROUSLY.--_ns._ THUN'DER-PEAL, a clap of thunder; THUN'DER-PLUMP, a heavy fall of rain in a thunder-storm; THUN'DER-SHOWER, a shower accompanied with thunder, or a short heavy shower from a thunder-cloud; THUN'DER-STONE (_Shak._), a stone fabulously supposed to be hurled by thunder, and to do the damage of lightning, a thunderbolt: (_geol._) a belemnite, so called from its dart-like shape; THUN'DER-STORM, continued discharges of electricity from the clouds, producing lightning and thunder, and generally accompanied with heavy rain.--_v.t._ THUN'DER-STRIKE, to strike as by lightning.--_n._ THUN'DER-STROKE (_Shak._), a stroke or blast by lightning.--_adjs._ THUN'DER-STRUCK, struck by lightning: astonished: struck dumb; THUN'DERY, indicative of thunder, or attended by it. [With intrusive _d_ from A.S. _þunor_--_þunian_, to rattle; cog. with Ger. _donner_, Ice. _þorr_ for _þonr_, L. _ton[=a]re_.] THURIBLE, th[=u]'ri-bl, _n._ a censer of metal for burning frankincense.--_n._ TH[=U]'RIFER, the server who carries the thurible.--_adjs._ THURIF'EROUS, producing or bearing frankincense; THURIF'ICATE, having offered incense.--_n._ THURIFIC[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ TH[=U]'RIFY, to cense.--_n._ THUS, frankincense. [L. _thuribulum_--_thus_, _thuris_, frankincense; akin to Gr. _thyos_, a sacrifice.] THURSDAY, thurz'd[=a], _n._ the fifth day of the week, so called because originally sacred to _Thor_, the old Teutonic god of thunder. [A.S. _thunres dæg_--_thunres_, gen. of _thunor_, thunder, _dæg_, day; Ice. _Thórsdag-r_, Thor's day, Ger. _Donnerstag_.] THUS, _th_us, _adv._ in this or that manner: to this degree or extent.--_n._ THUS'NESS, state of being thus.--_adv._ THUS'WISE, in this manner. [A.S. _ðus_, prob. _ðýs_, instrumental case of _ðes_, this.] THWACK, thwak, _v.t._ to strike with something blunt and heavy, to thrash.--_n._ a heavy blow. [A.S. _thaccian_, to stroke.] THWAITE, thw[=a]t, _n._ a piece of land reclaimed to tillage--common in place-names, as Bassen_thwaite_, Cross_thwaite_. [Ice. _thveit_.] THWART, thwawrt, _adj._ cross: being crosswise.--_v.t._ to cross: to oppose; to defeat.--_n._ the bench for rowers placed athwart the boat.--_advs._ THWART; THWAR'TEDLY.--_n._ THWAR'TER.--_adj._ THWAR'TING, perverse.--_advs._ THWAR'TINGLY, perversely; THWART'LY; THWART'SHIPS, across the ship. [Ice. _thvert_, neut. of _thverr_; perverse; cog. with A.S. _thweorh_, Ger. _zwerch_.] THY, _th_[=i], _poss. adj._ thine, of or pertaining to thee. [Short for _thine_, A.S. _ðín_, gen. of _ðu_, thou.] THYINE-WOOD, th[=i]'in-w[=oo]d, _n._ a wood named in Rev. xviii. 12, probably that of the sandarac-tree. [Gr.] THYLACINE, th[=i]'la-s[=e]n, _n._ the largest of the extant predaceous marsupials, represented by one species, now restricted to Tasmania. THYME, t[=i]m, _n._ a genus of humble half-shrubby plants of the natural order _Labiatæ_, the common garden-thyme, cultivated for its fragrance, wild-thyme, &c.--_n._ THY'MOL, an antiseptic phenol, obtained from oil of thyme by distillation.--_adj._ THY'MY. [Fr.,--L. L. _thymum_--Gr. _thyein_, to fill with sweet smells, to burn in sacrifice.] THYMUS, th[=i]'mus, _n._ a ductless gland near the root of the neck, of no known function, vestigial in adult man--that of veal and lamb called _neck-sweetbread_. [Gr. _thymos_, sweet thyme.] THYROID, th[=i]'roid, _adj._ in the form of a shield: denoting a cartilage constituting the anterior, upper part of the larynx, popularly called Adam's apple: denoting a vascular or ductless gland which arises in the earlier human embryo as an ingrowth from the lower part of the pharynx (see Myxoedema). [Gr. _thyreos_, a shield, _eidos_, form.] THYRSUS, th[.e]r'sus, _n._ (_bot._) an inflorescence consisting of a panicle with the lower branches shorter than the middle ones: the wand of Bacchus, a staff wreathed with ivy--also THYRSE.--_adjs._ THYR'SOID, -AL, having the form of a thyrsus. [Gr. _thyrsos_.] THYSANURA, this-a-n[=u]'ra, _n._ an order of wingless insects of small size, undergoing no metamorphosis, the abdomen usually bearing peculiar structures which seem to be abortive limbs, the spring-tails or bristle-tails.--_adjs._ THYSAN[=U]'RIAN; THYSAN[=U]'RIFORM. [Gr. _thysanos_, a fringe, _oura_, a tail.] THYSELF, _th_[=i]-self, _pron._ thou or thee, in person--used for emphasis. TI, t[=e], _n._ a small Pacific tree of the lily family whose fleshy roots are eaten, and yield sugar and spirit. [Illustration] TIARA, t[=i]-[=a]'ra, _n._ the lofty ornamental head-dress of the ancient Persians: a head-dress: the mitre of the Jewish high-priest: the pope's triple crown, the papal dignity--also (_poet._) TIAR.--_adj._ TI[=A]'RAED, wearing a tiara. [Fr. _tiare_--L. _tiara_--Gr. _tiara_.] TIB, tib, _n._ (_Shak._) a punk, whore. TIBET, THIBET, ti-bet', _n._ a woollen stuff generally printed in colours: a heavy fabric used for the same purposes as furs, made of goat's hair, black and finely curled--also TIBET CLOTH.--_adj._ TIB'ETAN, pertaining to _Tibet_, its language or people.--_n._ the language or people of Tibet. TIBIA, tib'i-a, _n._ the large shinbone.--_adj._ TIB'IAL, pertaining to the tibia: pertaining to a pipe or flute.--_ns._ TIBI[=A]'LIS, a tibial muscle; TIB[=I]'CEN, a flute-player. [L., the shinbone, hence a flute.] TIC, tik, _n._ a convulsive motion of certain muscles, esp. of the face.--_n._ TIC'-DOUL'OUREUX, painful convulsive motion of a nerve, usually in the face. [Fr. _tic_, a twitching; cf. Low Ger. _tukken_, to twitch.] TICE, t[=i]s, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to entice. TICK, tik, _n._ the popular name for several acaridan arachnids which infest dogs, sheep, &c. [M. E. _teke_; Dut. _teek_, Ger. _zecke_.] TICK, tik, _n._ the case or cover in which feathers, &c., are put for bedding.--_ns._ TICK'EN, TICK'ING, the cloth of which ticks are made. [L. _theca_---Gr. _th[=e]k[=e]_, a case--_tith[=e]mi_, I put.] TICK, tik, _v.i._ to make a small, quick noise: to beat, as a watch.--_ns._ TICK'ER, anything which ticks, a watch; TICK'-TACK, a noise like that made by a clock: (_Shak._) a game somewhat like backgammon--_adv._ with a recurring ticking sound. [Imit.; cf. Ger. _ticken_.] TICK, tik, _v.i._ to get or give credit.--_n._ credit: trust.--_n._ TICK'-SHOP, a shop where goods are given on credit.--BUY ON TICK, to buy on credit. [_Ticket_.] TICK, tik, _v.i._ to touch lightly.--_n._ a tap or light touch: a slight speck.--_adj._ TICKED, speckled.--_v.t._ TICK'LE, to touch lightly and cause to laugh: to please by slight gratification.--_v.i._ to feel titillation or tickling.--_ns._ TICK'LER; TICK'LING. [_Tickle_ is a dim. of _tick_, to touch lightly, M. E. _teck_, a touch; Dut. _tik_.] TICKET, tik'et, _n._ a marked card: a token of any right or debt, as for admission, &c.: a list of candidates put forward by a party for election: (_obs._) a visiting-card.--_v.t._ to mark by a ticket.--_ns._ TICK'ET-DAY, the day before settling day on the Stock Exchange; TICK'ET-OF-LEAVE, a license to be at large, granted to a convict for good conduct; TICK'ET-POR'TER, a licensed porter wearing a badge or ticket; COU'PON-TICK'ET (see COUPON); STRAIGHT'-TICKET, a ticket bearing the names of the nominees of a political party, and them only.--SEASON TICKET, a ticket entitling the holder to admission to lectures, &c., or to travel between certain places on a line of railway, for a certain specified period; THE TICKET, the correct thing. [Short for O. Fr. _etiquet_, a label, from Teut.; Ger. _stecken_, to stick.] TICKLE, tik'l, _adj._ (_Spens._) uncertain, insecure: (_Shak._) tottering, insecure, easily tickled, ticklish.--_n._ TICK'LER, something difficult, a puzzle: a banker's memorandum-book: a dram of spirits.--_adj._ TICK'LISH, easily tickled: easily affected: nice: critical.--_adv._ TICK'LISHLY.--_n._ TICK'LISHNESS.--_adj._ TICK'LY, ticklish.--_n._ TICKLY-BEND'ER, risky ice that bends under a skater: (_pl._) any game, as tag, played on such ice. [M. E. _tikel_, unstable, _tikelen_, freq. of _tick_, to touch lightly.] TID, tid, _n._ (_Scot._) fit time or condition. TIDBIT. Same as TITBIT. TIDDLE, tid'l, _v.t._ to fondle--also TID'DER.--_v.i._ to potter, trifle. TIDDLYWINK, tid'ly-wingk, _n._ (_prov._) an unlicensed pawn-shop or beer-house.--_n.pl._ TIDD'LEDYWINKS, a parlour-game in which small discs of ivory, &c., are snapped from the level of the table into a cup in the centre of it--also TIDD'LY-WINKS. TIDDY, tid'i, _n._ (_prov._) the European wren. TIDE, t[=i]d, _n._ time: season: the regular flux and reflux or rhythmic ebb and flow of the sea: course: a tide, time, or season, a feast-day, festival, a certain time, a day of twelve hours: commotion: turning-point.--_v.t._ to drive with the stream.--_v.i._ to pour a tide or flood: to work in or out of a river or harbour with the tide.--_adj._ T[=I]'DAL, pertaining to tides: flowing and ebbing periodically.--_ns._ TIDE'-GATE, a gate through which the water flows into a basin or dock with the tide, and which is shut to keep it from flowing out again when the tide ebbs: a place where the tide runs with great velocity; TIDE'-GAUGE, an instrument for registering the state of the tide continuously.--_adj._ TIDE'LESS, having no tides.--_ns._ TIDE'-LOCK, a lock placed between an entrance-basin and a harbour, canal, or river, and furnished with double gates, so that vessels can pass either out or in at all times of the tide; TIDE'MILL, a mill moved by tide-water: a mill for clearing lands of tide-water; TIDES'-MAN, TIDE'-WAIT'ER, an officer who waits the arrival of vessels, to secure the payment of the duties: one who watches public opinion before declaring his own; TIDE'-T[=A]'BLE, a table giving the time of high-tide at any place; TIDE'-WA'TER, the water of the portion of a river affected by the tide, the seaboard; TIDE'-WAVE, the great wave which follows the apparent motion of the moon; TIDE'-WAY, the channel in which the tide sets; NEAP'-TIDE (see Neap); SPRING'-TIDE (see SPRING).--TIDE OVER, to surmount difficulties, for the time at least, by favourable accidents or by skill. [A.S. _tíd_; Dut. _tijd_, Ger. _zeit_.] TIDINGS, t[=i]'dingz, _n.pl._ news: intelligence. [Ice. _tiðindi_--_tið_, time; cf. Ger. _zeit-ung_, news, from _zeit_.] TIDY, t[=i]'di, _adj._ neat: in good order: fairly large: (_coll._) comfortable.--_n._ a cover for chairs, &c.: a child's pinafore.--_v.t._ to make neat: to put in good order:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ t[=i]'died.--_adv._ T[=I]'DILY, in a tidy manner.--_n._ TI'DINESS, state or quality of being tidy: neatness.--TID'IVATE (_coll._) (see TITIVATE). [M. E. _tidy_, seasonable--_tid_, _tide_, time: Ger. _zeitig_.] TIE, t[=i], _v.t._ to bind: to fasten with a cord: to unite: to constrain: (_mus._) to unite notes with a tie: to score equally with: to bind with a ligature.--_v.i._ to make an exactly equal number of points with:--_pr.p._ ty'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ tied (t[=i]d).--_n._ a knot, bow, &c.: a bond: something for tying: a necktie: a member fastening parts together, one of a set of timbers laid crosswise: an equality in numbers, as of votes, or of points in a game: (_mus._) a curved line drawn over two or more notes on the same degree of the stave, signifying that the second note is not to be sounded separately, but is to sustain the first.--_ns._ TIE'-BEAM, a beam resting on the walls and stretching across, keeping the rafters fast; T[=I]'ER, one who ties: a child's apron; TIE'-ROD, a rod serving as a tie between two pieces; TIE'-WIG, a court-wig tied with ribbon at the back.--PLAY OFF A TIE, to take part in a final contest to decide a tie in a game. [M. E. _teyen_--_teye_, a band--A.S. _teág_, _teáh_, _týge_, a rope.] TIER, t[=e]r, _n._ a row or rank, especially when several rows are placed one above another. [Fr. _tire_--_tirer_, to draw.] TIERCE, t[=e]rs, _n._ a cask containing one-third of a pipe--that is, 42 gallons: a sequence of three cards of the same colour: (_mus._) a third: a thrust, in fencing: (_her._) a field tripartitely divided in three different tinctures: the third hour of the day, or the office of that hour, the terce.--_ns._ TIER'CERON (_archit._), in vaulting, a rib springing from the intersection of two other ribs; TIER'CET, a stanza of three rhymed verses, a triplet. [O. Fr. _tiers_, _tierce_--L. _tertia (pars)_, a third (part)--_tres_, three.] TIERCEL, t[=e]rs'el, _n._ a male hawk.--Also TIERCE'LET. [O. Fr. _tiercelet_--_tiers_, _tierce_, third.] TIERS ÉTAT, ty[=a]rz [=a]-tä', _n._ the third estate of the realm, the common people in relation to political power. See ESTATE. [Fr.] TIFF, tif, _v.t._ to sip, quaff.--_n._ a dram. TIFF, tif, _v.t._ (_obs._) to dress, trick out. [O. Fr. _tiffer_, _atiffer_, to adorn; of Teut. origin.] TIFF, tif, _v.i._ to be in a pet---n: a display of irritation, a pet, huff.--Also TIFT. [Orig. a _sniff_. Norw. _tev_, a drawing in of the breath, _teva_, to sniff.] TIFFANY, tif'a-ni, _n._ a silk-like gauze.--_adj._ made of tiffany, transparent. [_Tiff_, to adorn.] TIFFIN, tif'in, _n._ the East Indian name for luncheon.--_v.i._ TIFF, to take lunch--TIFF'IN is less correct. [From Prov. Eng. _tiff_, a draught of beer.] TIG, tig, _n._ a game in which one tries to tag or touch another. TIG, tig, _n._ an old four-handed drinking-cup. TIGE, t[=i]zh, _n._ a stalk: the shaft of a column. [Fr.--L. _tibia_, a pipe.] TIGELLUS, tij-el'us, _n._ the internode of a stem. [Fr.] TIGER, t[=i]'g[.e]r, _n._ a fierce and rapacious feline quadruped, nearly as large as a lion: the jaguar: a servant in livery who rides with his master: a swaggering bully, a low ruffian: (_U.S._) one more cheer after a round of cheers: a tiger-beetle:--_fem._ T[=I]'GRESS.--_ns._ TI'GER-BEE'TLE, a cicindela; T[=I]'GER-CAT, a wild-cat: the margay, ocelot, and serval; T[=I]'GER-FLOW'ER, a Mexican plant cultivated in flower-gardens for its streaked flowers.--_adjs._ T[=I]'GER-FOOT'ED (_Shak._), hastening to devour, fierce and rapacious; T[=I]'GERISH, like a tiger in disposition.--_ns._ T[=I]'GERISM; T[=I]'GER-LIL'Y, a species of lily with spotted flowers; T[=I]'GER-MOTH, any one of the _Arctiidæ_, whose larvæ are called woolly bears; T[=I]'GER-WOLF, a name given to the spotted hyena and to the Thylacine.--_adj._ T[=I]'GRINE, like a tiger. [Fr. _tigre_--L. _tigris_--Gr. _tigris_--Zend. _tighri_, an arrow, whence the river Tigris.] TIGHT, t[=i]t, _adj._ close: compact: rigid: hampered from want of money: snug, trim: not leaky: fitting closely, also too closely: scarce, not easily obtainable: (_coll._) unwilling to part with money: tipsy: not loose or free in treatment.--_v.t._ TIGHT'EN, to make tight or tighter: to straiten.--_v.i._ to grow tight or tighter.--_n._ TIGHT'ENER, one who, or that which, tightens: (_anat._) a tensor: (_slang_) a heavy meal.--_adv._ TIGHT'LY.--_ns._ TIGHT'NESS; TIGHT'ROPE, a tightly-stretched rope on which rope-dancers perform.--_n.pl._ TIGHTS, a garment often of silk, closely fitting the body, or at least the legs, worn by acrobats, dancers, &c. [Scand., Ice. _þéitr_; cf. Dan. _tæt_, Dut. _digt_, Ger. _dicht_.] TIGHT, t[=i]t (_Spens._), _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _tie_. TIKE, t[=i]k, _n._ (_Shak._) a dog, a cur, a boor: an uncouth fellow: a Yorkshireman. [Ice. _tík_, a bitch.] TILBURY, til'ber-i, _n._ a kind of gig for two. [Said to be so named from its first maker.] TILDE, til'd[=e], _n._ the diacritical sign over _n_ in Spanish--thus _ñ_. [Sp.,--L. _titulus_, a title.] TILE, t[=i]l, _n._ a piece of baked clay used for covering roofs, floors, &c.: a tube or pipe of baked clay used in drains: (_slang_) a tall cylindrical silk hat.--_v.t._ to cover with tiles: to drain by means of tiles: to secure against the intrusion of unauthorised persons by placing a person at the door of a lodge or close meeting.--_ns._ T[=I]'LER, one who makes or who lays tiles: the keeper of the door in a Freemasons' lodge--also TY'LER; TILE'-RED, a brownish-red, the colour of baked tiles; T[=I]'LERY, a place where tiles are made; TILE'-STONE, a tile: (_pl._, _geol._) the uppermost group of the Silurian period, consisting of a reddish, thin-bedded, slightly micaceous sandstone; T[=I]'LING, a roof of tiles: tiles in general.--DUTCH TILES, enamelled earthenware tiles, usually blue, with scriptural subjects, for chimney pieces, &c. [A.S. _tigele_--L. _tegula_--_teg[)e]re_, to cover.] TILIACEÆ, til-i-[=a]'se-[=e], _n.pl._ a natural order of exogenous trees and shrubs, mostly native to the tropics--the linden family. [L. _tilia_, a lime-tree.] TILKA, til'ka, _n._ the caste-mark on the forehead of Hindus. [Sans.] TILL, til, _n._ a money-box or drawer in a desk, counter, or trunk. [M. E. _tillen_, to draw out--A.S. _tyllan_, in _for-tyllan_, to draw aside.] TILL, til, _prep._ to the time of.--_adv._ to the time when: to the degree that. [Old Northumbrian _til_--Scand., Ice. _til_.] TILL, til, _v.t._ to cultivate.--_adj._ TILL'ABLE, arable.--_ns._ TILL'AGE, act or practice of tilling: husbandry: a place tilled; TILL'ER; TILL'ING. [A.S. _tilian_, to till--_til_, good, a limit; Ger. _zielen_, to arrange.] TILL, til, _n._ the usual name in Scotland for _Boulder-clay_, a widely-distributed stony clay, usually tough and hard, unquestionably the result of glaciation, probably being merely the bottom-moraine or ground-moraine of extinct glaciers. TILLANDSIA, ti-land'zi-a, _n._ a genus of mainly epiphytic plants of the pine-apple family (_Bromeliaceæ_). [From the Swedish botanist, _Tillands_.] TILLER, til'[.e]r, _n._ the handle or lever for turning a rudder.--_ns._ TILL'ER-CHAIN, -ROPE, the chain or rope uniting the fore-end of the tiller with the steering-wheel. [M. E. _tillen_, to draw out--A.S. _tyllan_. Cf. _Till_ (1).] TILLY-VALLY, til'i-val'i, _n._ (_Shak._) an expression of contempt at what has been said.--Also TILL'IE-VALL'IE. TILT, tilt, _n._ the canvas covering of a cart or wagon: an awning in a boat.--_v.t._ to cover with an awning. [A.S. _teld_--_teldan_, to cover; cog. with Ger. _zelt_.] TILT, tilt, _v.i._ to ride against another and thrust with a lance: to thrust or fight with a lance or rapier: to fall into a sloping posture, to heel over.--_v.t._ to point or thrust with, as a lance: to slant: to raise one end of: to forge with a tilt-hammer.--_n._ a thrust: in the Middle Ages, an exercise in which combatants rode against each other with lances: inclination forward, dip, slant.--_ns._ TILT'ER; TILT'-HAMM'ER, a heavy hammer used in ironworks, which is tilted or lifted by means of projections on the axis of a wheel; TILT'ING; TILT'-YARD, a place for tilting. [A.S. _tealt_, tottering; Ice. _tölta_, to trot; Ger. _zelter_.] TILTH, tilth, _n._ cultivation: cultivated land: the depth of soil turned up in cultivation. [From _till_ (3).] TIMARIOT, ti-mä'ri-ot, _n._ a soldier of the Turkish feudal militia. [Turk. _t[=i]m[=a]r_.] TIMBAL, tim'bal, _n._ a kettledrum. [Fr.,--It. _timballo_.] TIMBALE, tang-bal', _n._ a dish of fowl or fish pounded and mixed with white of egg, sweet cream, &c., poured into a mould. [Fr.] TIMBER, tim'b[.e]r, _n._ wood for building purposes: the trunk of a tree: material for any structure: one of the larger pieces of the framework of a house, ship, &c.: one of the planks forming the sides and roof of a gallery in a mine.--_v.t._ to furnish with timber or beams.--_p.adj._ TIM'BERED, furnished with timber: (_Shak._) built, formed, contrived: (_Spens._) made like timber, massive.--_ns._ TIM'BERING, timber materials; TIM'BER-MAN, one responsible for the timbers in a mine; TIM'BER-TOES, a person with a wooden leg; TIM'BER-TREE, a tree suitable for timber; TIM'BER-YARD, a yard or place where timber is stored. [A.S. _timber_, building, wood; Ger. _zimmer_, an apartment.] TIMBRE, tim'b[.e]r, _n._ tone, character, or quality of a musical sound. [O. Fr.,--L. _tympanum_, a drum.] TIMBREL, tim'brel, _n._ an ancient musical instrument, carried in the hand, apparently like a tambourine.--_adj._ TIM'BRELLED (_Milt._), sung to the sound of the timbrel. [O. Fr. _timbre_--L. _tympanum_, a drum.] TIMBROLOGY, tim-brol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the study of postage-stamps.--_n._ TIMBROPH'ILY, love for this harmless pursuit. [Fr. _timbre_, postage-stamp, _-ology_.] TIME, t[=i]m, _n._ a point at which, or period during which, things happen: a season or proper time: an opportunity: absolute duration: an interval: past time: the duration of one's life: allotted period: repetition of anything or mention with reference to repetition: musical measure, or rate of movement: a measured interval in verse: (_gram._) the relation of a verb with regard to tense: the umpire's call in prize-fights, &c.: hour of travail: the state of things at any period, usually in _pl._: the history of the world, as opposed to eternity: addition of a thing to itself.--_v.t._ to do at the proper season: to regulate as to time: (_mus._) to measure.--_v.i._ to keep or beat time.--_ns._ TIME'-BALL, a ball arranged to drop from the summit of a pole at a particular time; TIME'-BARGAIN, a contract to buy or sell merchandise or stock at a certain time in the future.--_adjs._ TIME'-BEGUIL'ING, making the time pass quickly; TIME'-BETT'ERING, improving the state of things as time goes on; TIME'-BEWAST'ED (_Shak._), wasted or worn by time.--_ns._ TIME'-BILL, a time-table; TIME'-BOOK, a book for keeping an account of the time men have worked; TIME'-CARD, a card bearing a time-table: a card with blank spaces for workmen's hours, &c., being filled in; TIME'-FUSE, a fuse calculated to burn a definite length of time; TIME'-GUN, a gun which is fired by means of a mechanical contrivance and a current of electricity at a particular time.--_adj._ TIME'-HON'OURED, honoured for a long time: venerable on account of antiquity.--_ns._ TIME'IST, TIM'IST, a musical performer in relation to his sense for time; TIME'-KEEP'ER, a clock, watch, or other instrument for keeping or marking time: one who keeps the time of workmen.--_adj._ TIME'LESS, done at an improper time, unseasonable: (_Shak._) done before the proper time.--_adv._ TIME'LESSLY, before the proper time: unseasonably.--_n._ TIME'LINESS.--_adj._ TIME'LY, in good time: sufficiently early: (_obs._) keeping time.--_adv._ early, soon.--_adjs._ TIME'LY-PART'ED (_Shak._), having died in time--i.e. at a natural time; TIME'OUS, in Scot. legal phraseology, in good time: seasonable.--_adv._ TIME'OUSLY, in good time.--_ns._ TIME'PIECE, a piece of machinery for keeping time, esp. a clock for a mantel-piece; TIME'-PLEAS'ER (_Shak._), one who complies with prevailing opinions, whatever they be; TIME'-SERV'ER, one who serves or meanly suits his opinions to the times.--_adj._ TIME'-SERVING, complying with the spirit of the times or with present power.--_n._ mean compliance with the spirit of the times or with present power.--_ns._ TIME'-T[=A]'BLE, a table or list showing the times of certain things, as trains, steamers, &c.; TIME'-THRUST, a thrust made in fencing at the moment the opponent draws breath for his thrust; TIME'-WORK, labour paid for by the hour or the day--opp. to _Piece-work_.--_adjs._ TIME'-WORN, worn or decayed by time; TIM'OUS (_Bacon_), timely.--TIME OUT OF MIND, from time immemorial.--APPARENT TIME, true solar time as shown by a carefully adjusted sun-dial; ASTRONOMICAL TIME, the time past mean noon of that day, and reckoned on to twenty-four hours in mean time; AT TIMES, at distinct intervals: occasionally; BE MASTER OF ONE'S TIME, to be free to do what one likes; CIVIL TIME, common time, or mean time, in which the day begins at midnight, and is divided into equal portions of twelve hours each; FILL TIME, to book vacant dates; IN TIME, TIME ENOUGH, in good season, sufficiently early; KEEP TIME, to indicate the time correctly: to make any regular rhythmical movements at the same time with others; LOSE TIME, to let time pass without making use of it: to run slow--of a watch, &c.; MAKE TIME, to recover lost time: to perform in a certain time; MEAN TIME, the mean or average of apparent time, as shown by a good clock; SIDEREAL TIME, the portion of a sidereal day which has elapsed since the transit of the first point of Aries; SOLAR TIME, time as shown by the sun or sun-dial; THE TIME BEING, the present time. [A.S. _tíma_; cf. Ice. _tími_; and _Tide_.] TIMENOGUY, t[=i]-men'[=o]-g[=i], _n._ (_naut._) a rope stretched so as to prevent gear from getting fouled. TIMID, tim'id, _adj._ fearful: wanting courage: faint-hearted.--_n._ TIMID'ITY, quality or state of being timid: want of courage.--_adv._ TIM'IDLY.--_n._ TIM'IDNESS.--_adv._ TIMOR[=O]'SO (_mus._), timid, hesitating, to be so rendered.--_adj._ TIM'OROUS, timid: indicating fear.--_adv._ TIM'OROUSLY.--_n._ TIM'OROUSNESS.--_adj._ TIM'ORSOME (_Scot._), easily frightened. [Fr.,--L. _timidus_--_tim[=e]re_, to fear.] TIMOCRACY, t[=i]-mok'r[=a]-si, _n._ a form of government in which a certain amount of property is a necessary qualification for office.--_adj._ TIMOCRAT'IC. [Gr. _timokratia_--_tim[=e]_, honour, _kratein_, to rule.] TIMON, t[=i]'mon, _n._ (_obs._) a helm.--_n._ TIMONEER', a helmsman. [L. _temo_, a beam.] TIMONIST, t[=i]'mon-ist, _n._ a misanthrope--from _Timon_ of Athens, the hero of Shakespeare's play so named which was based upon the story in Plutarch's Life of Alcibiades, as in North's translation.--_v.i._ T[=I]'MONISE, to play the misanthrope. TIMOTHY, tim'[=o]-thi, _n._ timothy-grass, the name commonly given to _Phleum pratense_, a grass much valued for feeding cattle--called also _Cat's-tail grass_ or _Meadow cat's-tail_. [So named from _Timothy_ Hanson, who introduced it to America about 1720.] TIMPANO, tim'pa-n[=o], _n._ an orchestral kettledrum:--_pl._ TIM'PANI.--Also TYM'PANO. [It.] TIM-WHISKY, tim'-hwis'ki, _n._ a kind of light one-horse chaise. TIN, tin, _n._ a silvery-white, non-elastic, easily fusible, and malleable metal: (_slang_) money: a vessel of tin, a can, &c.--_adj._ made of tin.--_v.t._ to cover or overlay with tin or tinfoil: to pack in tins:--_pr.p._ tin'ning; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ tinned.--_ns._ TIN'MAN, TIN'NER, a tinsmith; TIN'NING, the art of coating with tin, or of repairing tin-ware: the act of packing in tin cans for preservation.--_adj._ TIN'NY, like tin.--_n._ a small vessel of tin.--_ns._ TIN'-PLATE, thin sheet-iron coated with tin; TIN'-SMITH, a manufacturer of tin vessels: a worker in tin: a dealer in tin-ware; TIN'-TYPE, a ferrotype; TIN'-WARE, articles made of tin.--_ns.pl._ TIN'WITTS, dressed tin ore containing pyrites, &c.; TIN'-WORKS, works for working tin. [A.S. _tin_; Ice. _tin_, Ger. _zinn_.] TINAMOU, tin'a-m[=oo], _n._ a South American genus of birds sometimes called partridges, but really more akin to bustards, and having affinities with the rhea and emu. [Fr.,--native name.] TINCAL, TINKAL, ting'kal, _n._ crude borax. [Malay.] TINCHEL, tin'chel, _n._ a circle of men who close in round a herd of deer.--Also TIN'CHIL. [Gael. _timchioll_, a circuit.] TINCTURE, tingk't[=u]r, _n._ a tinge or shade of colour: a slight taste added to anything: (_med._) a solution of any substance in or by means of spirit of wine: (_her._) one of the metals, colours, or furs in achievements.--_v.t._ to tinge: to imbue: to mix with anything foreign.--_adj._ TINCT (_Spens._), tinged, coloured.--_n._ (_Tenn._) colour, stain, spot.--_adj._ TINCT[=O]'RIAL, giving a tinge: colouring. [L. _tinctura_.] TIND, tind, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to kindle. [A.S. _tendan_.] TINDAL, tin'dal, _n._ a native petty-officer of lascars. TINDER, tin'd[.e]r, _n._ anything used for kindling fire from a spark.--_n._ TIN'DER-BOX, a box in which tinder is kept.--_adjs._ TIN'DER-LIKE (_Shak._), inflammable as tinder; TIN'DERY, irascible. [A.S. _tynder_; Ice. _tundr_, Ger. _zunder_. The root is found in A.S. _tendan_, Ger. _zünden_, to kindle.] TINE, t[=i]n, _n._ the spike of a fork or harrow, or of a deer's antler.--_adj._ T[=I]NED, furnished with spikes. [A.S. _tind_, a point; cog. with Ice. _tind-r_, a tooth, a prickle; and prob. conn. with _tooth_.] TINE, t[=i]n, _v.t._ (_Spens._) same as TIND.--_v.i._ (_Spens._) to rage, to smart. TINE, t[=i]n, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as TEEN. TINE, t[=i]n, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to lose.--_v.i._ to be lost, to perish. [M. E. _tinen_, _tynen_--Scand., Ice. _týna_, to lose.] TINE, t[=i]n, _v.t._ and _v.i._ (_prov._) to enclose. [A.S. _týnan_, to surround.] TINE, t[=i]n, _n._ (_prov._) a wild vetch or tare. TINEA, tin'[=e]-ä, _n._ the generic name of certain diseases of the skin caused by the growth of microscopic fungi: a genus of small moths of the family _Tineidæ_ and superfamily _Tineina_.--_adj._ TIN'[=E]ID, relating to these moths. [L., a worm.] TINEWALD=_Tynewald_ (q.v.). TINFOIL, tin'foil, _n._ tin in thin leaves for wrapping articles.--_v.t._ to cover with such. TING, ting, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to tinkle like a bell.--_n._ a sharp sound, a tinkling.--_n._ TING'-A-LING, the sound of a bell tinkling--used adverbially. TINGE, tinj, _v.t._ to tint or colour: to mix with something: to give in some degree the qualities of a substance.--_n._ a small amount of colour or taste infused into another substance. [L. _ting[)e]re_, _tinctum_; conn. with Gr. _tenggein_, to wet, to stain.] TINGI, ting'gi, _n._ a Brazilian tree whose seeds yield soap.--Also TIN'GUY. TINGIS, tin'jis, _n._ a genus of heteropterous insects. TINGLE, ting'gl, _v.i._ to feel a thrilling sensation, as in hearing a shrill sound: to feel a sharp, thrilling pain: to tinkle.--_v.t._ to cause to tingle, to ring.--_n._ a tingling sensation.--_adj._ TING'LISH, capable of tingling or thrilling. [M. E. _tinglen_, a variant of _tinklen_, itself a freq. of _tinken_, to tink.] TINKER, tingk'[.e]r, _n._ a mender of brazen or tin kettles, pans, &c.--(_Scot._) TINK'LER: the act of doing tinker's work: a botcher or bungler: a botch or bungle: a young mackerel.--_v.t._ to repair, esp. unskilfully.--_v.i._ to do tinker's work: to make a botch or mess of anything. [M. E. _tinkere_--_tinken_, to tink, to make a sharp, shrill sound; cf. Scot. _tinkler_, a worker in tin.] TINKLE, tingk'l, _v.i._ to make small, sharp sounds: to clink: to jingle: to clink repeatedly or continuously.--_v.t._ to cause to make quick, sharp sounds.--_n._ a sharp, clinking sound.--_ns._ TINK'LER, a small bell; TINK'LING, a tinkling noise. [A freq. of M. E. _tinken_.] TINNITUS, ti-n[=i]'tus, _n._ a ringing in the ears. [L. 'a ringing'--_tinn[=i]re_, to ring.] TINSEL, tin'sel, _n._ something sparkling or shining: glittering metallic sheets, as of burnished brass, copper, or tin, almost as thin as foil, and used in discs, patches, strips, or threads, for giving clothing, &c., a striking appearance: anything showy, but of little value: anything having a false lustre.--_adj._ like tinsel: gaudy: superficial.--_v.t._ to adorn with, or as with, tinsel: to make glittering or gaudy:--_pr.p._ tin'selling: _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ tin'selled.--_adj._ TIN'SELLY, like tinsel, gaudy, showy.--_n._ TIN'SELRY, glittering and tawdry material. [O. Fr. _estincelle_--L. _scintilla_, a spark.] TINT, tint, _n._ a slight tinge distinct from the principal colour: a series of parallel lines in engraving, producing a uniform shading.--_v.t._ to give a slight colouring to.--_ns._ TIN'TAGE, the colouring or shading of anything; TINT'-BLOCK, a surface prepared for printing a background; TINT'-DRAW'ING, drawing in a wash of uniform tint; TIN'TER, one who, or that which, tints: a special kind of slide used with the magic-lantern to give moonlight effects, &c.; TIN'TINESS, state of being tinty; TIN'TING, the method of producing a uniform shading.--_adj._ TINT'LESS, having no tint or colour.--_ns._ TINTOM'ETER, an appliance for determining tints; TINT'-TOOL, an implement for producing a tint by parallel lines.--_adj._ TIN'TY, inharmoniously tinted. [L. _tinctus_.] TINTINNABULATION, tin-tin-ab-[=u]-l[=a]'shun, _n._ the tinkling sound of bells.--_adjs._ TINTINNAB'ULANT, TINTINNAB'ULAR, TINTINNAB'ULARY, TINTINNAB'ULOUS.--_n._ TINTINNAB'ULUM, a bell:--_pl._ TINTINNAB'ULA. [L. _tintinnabulum_, a bell:--_tintinn[=a]re_, to jingle, reduplicated from _tinn[=i]re_, to jingle.] TINY, t[=i]'ni, _adj._ (_comp._ T[=I]'NIER, _superl._ T[=I]'NIEST) thin: very small. [Prob. _teen_, and therefore 'fretful,' 'peevish.'] TIP, tip, _n._ the top or point of anything small: the end, as of a billiard-cue, &c.--_v.t._ to form a point to: to cover the tip or end of:--_pr.p._ tip'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ tipped.--ON THE TIP OF THE TONGUE, on the very point of being spoken. [A variant of top; cf. Dut. _tip_; Ger. _zipf-el_, point.] TIP, tip, _v.t._ to strike lightly: to cause to slant: (_slang_) to communicate, give: (_slang_) to give private information to, about betting, &c.: (_coll._) to give a small gift of money to, as a gratuity.--_v.i._ to slant: to give tips.--_n._ a tap or light stroke: a place for tipping any refuse into, a dump: a tram for expeditiously transferring coal: private information about horse-racing, stock speculations, &c.: a gratuity.--_ns._ TIP'-CART, a cart emptied by being canted up; TIP'-CAT, a game in which a pointed piece of wood called a cat is made to rebound from the ground by being struck on the tip with a stick; TIP'-CHEESE, a boys' game in which a small stick is struck forward; TIP'PER, a means of tipping, esp. an arrangement for dumping coal: one who tips: one who gives gratuities: one who gives private hints about speculation, racing, &c.; TIP'PING, act of tilting: the habit of giving gratuities to servants; TIP'STER, one whose business is to give private hints about racing, the rise and fall of stocks, &c.--_adj._ TIP'-TILT'ED, having the tip tilted up.--TIP OFF LIQUOR, to turn up the vessel till quite empty; TIP ONE THE WINK, to wink as a caution, or in mutual understanding; TIP OVER, to overturn by tipping; TIP THE SCALE, to depress one end of the scales.--FOUL TIP, a foul hit in baseball; STRAIGHT TIP, a reliable hint about betting, &c. [Scand., Sw. _tippa_, to tap; Ger. _tupfen_.] TIPPER, tip'[.e]r, _n._ a kind of ale--from Thomas _Tipper_, who brewed it in Sussex. TIPPET, tip'et, _n._ the cape of a coat: a cape of fur, &c.: the stuff cape worn in the English Church by a literate or non-graduate: a bird's ruffle: one of the patagia, or pieces at the side of the pronotum of a moth.--_ns._ TIPP'ET-GREBE, -GROUSE, a ruffed grebe or grouse. [A.S. _tæppet_--L. _tapete_, cloth.] TIPPLE, tip'l, _v.i._ to drink in small quantities: to drink strong liquors often or habitually.--_v.t._ to drink, as strong liquors, to excess.--_n._ liquor tippled.--_ns._ TIPP'LER, a constant toper; TIPP'LING-HOUSE.--_adj._ TIPP'Y, unsteady: smart, fine. [A freq. of _tip_, to tilt up a vessel in drinking; Norw. _tipla_; Ger. _zipfeln_.] TIPSTAFF, tip'staf, _n._ a staff tipped with metal, or an officer who carries it: a constable. TIPSY, tip'si, _adj._ partially intoxicated.--_v.t._ TIP'SIFY, to fuddle.--_adv._ TIP'SILY.--_ns._ TIP'SINESS; TIP'SY-CAKE, a cake made of pastry and almonds, with wine, served with custard-sauce; TIP'SY-KEY, a watch-key in which the head is released if an attempt is made to turn it backward. [_Tipple_.] TIPTOE, tip't[=o], _n._ the end of the toe.--_adv._ on tiptoe, literally or figuratively, through excitement, expectation, &c.--_v.i._ to walk on tiptoe, to go lightly and slyly. TIPTOP, tip'top, _n._ the extreme top: the height of excellence.--_adj._ first-rate.--_adv._ in a first-rate manner. TIPULA, tip'[=u]-la, _n._ a genus of crane-flies.--_n._ TIPUL[=A]'RIA, a genus of fossil crane-flies: a genus of terrestrial orchids, including the American crane-fly orchis.--_adj._ TIPUL[=A]'RIAN. [L., a water-spider.] TIRADE, ti-r[=a]d', _n._ a strain of censure or reproof; a long vehement reproof. [Fr.,--It. _tirata_--_tirare_, to pull.] TIRAILLEUR, ti-ra-ly[.e]r', _n._ a skirmisher, sharpshooter. TIRASSE, ti-ras', _n._ a pedal-coupler in organ-building. TIRAZ, t[=e]'raz, _n._ an ancient Moorish silk fabric. TIRE, t[=i]r, _n._ attire, apparel: furniture: a head-dress.--_v.t._ to dress, as the head.--_ns._ TIRE'-VAL'IANT (_Shak._), a kind of fanciful head-dress; TIRE'-WOM'AN, a lady's-maid; TIR'ING-HOUSE, -ROOM, the place where actors dress. [Short for _attire_.] TIRE, t[=i]r, _n._ the hoop of iron that ties or binds the fellies of wheels.--_ns._ TIRE'-MEAS'URER, -PRESS, -ROLL'ER, -SET'TER, -SHRINK'ER, -SMITH. [From _tie_.] TIRE, t[=i]r, _n._ (_Spens._, _Milt._) rank or row, esp. of guns, train. [Same as _tier_.] TIRE, t[=i]r, _v.i._ (_Shak._) to rend as a bird of prey: to feed: to dwell upon, gloat over:--_pr.p._ t[=i]r'ing; _pa.p._ t[=i]red. [O. Fr. _tirer_, to draw--Low L. _tir[=a]re_, to draw; prob. Teut., Goth. _tairan_, to tear.] TIRE, t[=i]r, _v.t._ to harass, to vex: to exhaust the strength of: to weary.--_v.i._ to become weary: to be fatigued: to have the patience exhausted.--_adj._ TIRED, wearied: fatigued.--_n._ TIRED'NESS.--_adj._ TIRE'LESS, untiring.--_adv._ TIRE'LESSLY.--_n._ TIRE'LESSNESS.--_adj._ TIRE'SOME, that tires: fatiguing: tedious.--_adv._ TIRE'SOMELY.--_n._ TIRE'SOMENESS. [A.S. _teorian_, to be tired--_teran_, to tear.] TIRL, tirl, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to quiver, vibrate: to make a twirling noise.--_v.t._ to twist: to strip, unroof.--_n._ a twirl, vibration: a substitute for a trundle or lantern wheel in a mill.--_n._ TIR'LIE-WHIR'LIE, a whirligig: an ornamental combination of irregular lines.--_adj._ irregular, twisting. [A variant of _twirl_.] TIRO. See TYRO. TIROCINIUM, t[=i]-r[=o]-sin'i-um, _n._ the first service of a soldier, any novitiate. [L.,--_tiro_, a raw soldier.] TIRONIAN, t[=i]-r[=o]'ni-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Tiro_, Cicero's amanuensis.--TIRONIAN NOTES, the shorthand signs of the ancient Romans. TIRR, tir, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to tear or strip off. TIRRA-LIRRA, tir'ra-lir'ra, _n._ (_Shak._, _Tenn._) an imitation of a musical sound. TIRRET, tir'et, _n._ (_her._) a manacle. TIRRIT, tir'it, _n._ (_Shak._) Mrs Quickly's word for terror. TIRRIVEE, tir'i-v[=e], _n._ (_Scot._) a tantrum or fit of passion.--Also TIRR'IVIE. 'TIS, tiz, a contraction of _it is_. TISANE, t[=e]-zan', _n._ a medicinal decoction. See PTISAN. TISIC, tiz'ik, _n._ (_Shak._) an obsolete spelling of _phthisic_. TISIPHONE, ti-sif'[=o]-n[=e], _n._ one of the Furies. [Gr. _tinein_, to avenge, _phonos_, murder.] TISRI, tiz'ri, _n._ the first month of the Jewish civil year, and the seventh of the ecclesiastical year, corresponding to part of September and October. TISSUE, tish'[=u], _n._ cloth interwoven with gold or silver, or with figured colours: (_anat._) the substance of which organs are composed: a connected series.--_v.t._ to form, as tissue: to interweave: to variegate.--_n._ TIS'SUE-P[=A]'PER, a thin, soft, semi-transparent kind of paper. [Fr. _tissu_, woven, pa.p. of _tistre_--L. _tex[)e]re_, to weave.] TIT, tit, _n._ a teat. TIT, tit, _n._ one of various small birds, a pipit, tomtit, or titmouse. [Ice. _tittr_, a little bird, Norw. _tita_.] TIT, tit, _n._ in phrase TIT FOR TAT, properly _tip for tap_, blow for blow. TITAN, t[=i]'tan, TITANIC, t[=i]-tan'ik, _adj._ relating to the _Titans_, giants of mythology, sons and daughters of Uranus (heaven) and Gæa (earth), enormous in size and strength: gigantic, huge generally.--_n._ T[=I]'TAN, any of the descendants of the Titans, as Prometheus: the sun personified: any one of commanding forces or ability:--_fem._ T[=I]'TANESS.--_adj._ TITANESQUE', like the Titans, Titanic in character.--_n._ TITANOM'ACHY, the battle of the Titans with the gods. TITANIA, t[=i]-t[=a]'ni-a, _n._ the queen of Fairyland, wife of Oberon. [L., applied to Diana.] TITANIUM, t[=i]-t[=a]'ni-um, _n._ a comparatively rare metal, occurring as a gray heavy iron-like powder, burning with brilliant scintillations in the air, forming titanium dioxide and nitride.--_adjs._ TIT[=A]'NIAN, TITAN'IC, TITANIT'IC; TITANIF'EROUS, containing titanium.--_n._ T[=I]'TANITE, or _Sphene_, a soft greenish mineral often present in syenite. TITBIT, tit'bit, _n._ a choice little bit. TITELY, t[=i]t'li, _adv._ (_Shak._) quickly--sometimes TITHE'LY, and erroneously _Tightly_. [M. E. _tytly_--Scand., Ice. _tídhr_, frequent.] TITHE, t[=i]th, _n._ a tenth part, hence any indefinitely small part: the tenth of the produce of land and stock allotted for the maintenance of the clergy and other church purposes: any rateable tax payable in kind or by commutation of its value in money.--_v.t._ to tax to a tenth.--_adjs._ T[=I]'THABLE, subject to the payment of tithes; TITHE'-FREE, exempt from paying tithes.--_n._ TITHE'-GATH'ERER, one who collects tithes.--_adj._ TITHE'-PAY'ING, subjected to pay tithes.--_ns._ TITHE'-PIG, one pig out of ten paid as a tithe; TITHE'-PROC'TOR, a levier or collector of tithes; T[=I]'THER, one who collects tithes; T[=I]'THING, an old Saxon district containing ten householders, each responsible for the behaviour of the rest; T[=I]'THING-MAN, the chief man of a tithing. [A.S. _teóða_, tenth--_teón_, or _týn_, ten; cog. with Ger. _zehnte_--_zehn_.] TITHONIC, ti-thon'ik, _adj._ denoting such rays of light as produce chemical effects.--_n._ TITHONIC'ITY, actinism.--_adj._ TITHONOGRAPH'IC, fixed by the tithonic rays of light.--_n._ TITHONOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the tithonicity of light-rays. TITIANESQUE, tish-an-esk', _adj._ in the manner of the Venetian painter _Titian_ (Tiziano Vecellio), 1477-1576, a combination of the richest surface with the most magnificent colour. TITILLATE, tit'il-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to tickle.--_n._ TITILL[=A]'TION, act of titillating: state of being titillated: a pleasant feeling.--_adj._ TIT'ILLATIVE. [L. _titill[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_.] TITIVATE, TITTIVATE, tit'i-v[=a]t, _v.i._ and _v.t._ (_slang_) to smarten up, by dress or otherwise. [Most prob. a factitious word, perh. based on _tidy_.] TITLARK, tit'lärk, _n._ a titling, a pipit. [_Tit_ and _lark_.] TITLE, t[=i]'tl, _n._ an inscription set over or at the beginning of a thing by which it is known, a title-page: a name of distinction: that which gives a just right to possession: ownership: the writing that proves a right: (_B._) a sign: a fixed sphere of work required as a condition for ordination, a parish in Rome--of these fifty give titles to cardinal-priests: in bookbinding, the panel on the back on which the name of the book is printed.--_adj._ T[=I]'TLED, having a title.--_ns._ T[=I]'TLE-DEED, a deed or document that proves a title or just right to exclusive possession; T[=I]'TLE-LEAF, the leaf on which is the title of a book.--_adj._ T[=I]'TLELESS (_Shak._), wanting a title or name.--_ns._ T[=I]'TLE-PAGE, the page of a book containing its title and usually the author's name; T[=I]'TLE-RÔLE, the part in a play which gives its name to it, as 'Macbeth;' T[=I]'TLE-SHEET, the first sheet of a book as printed, containing title, bastard-title, &c.; T[=I]'TLING, the act of impressing the title on the back of a book; T[=I]'TLONYM, a title taken as a pseudonym; BAS'TARD-T[=I]'TLE (see BASTARD). [O. Fr. _title_ (Fr. _titre_)--L. _titulus_.] TITLING, tit'ling, _n._ the hedge-sparrow.--_ns._ TIT'MAN, a puny man; TIT'MOUSE, a genus of little birds, which feed on insects, &c.:--_pl._ TITMICE (tit'm[=i]s). [Obs. Eng. _tit_, anything small; A.S. _máse_; Ger. _meise_, a small bird.] TITRATE, tit'r[=a]t, _v.t._ to subject to titration.--_n._ TITR[=A]'TION, volumetric analysis, the process of ascertaining the quantity of any given constituent present in a compound by observing it under the application of standard solutions. TI-TREE, t[=e]'-tr[=e], _n._ a palm-lily, a tea-tree or manuka. TIT-TAT-TO, tit'-tat-t[=oo] (or -t[=o]), _n._ a child's game, same as _Criss-cross_ (q.v.). TITTER, tit'[.e]r, _v.i._ to giggle, snicker, or laugh with the tongue striking the teeth: to laugh restrainedly.--_n._ a restrained laugh.--_ns._ TITTER[=A]'TION, a fit of giggling; TITT'ERER, one who titters. [M. E. _titeren_, to tattle. Prob. imit.] TITTLE, tit'l, _n._ a small particle: an iota.--_n._ TITT'LEBAT, the stickleback. [O. Fr. _title_--_titulus_, a title.] TITTLE, tit'l, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to chatter.--_n._ TITT'LE-TATT'LE, idle, empty talk.--_v.i._ to prate idly.--_ns._ TITT'LE-TATT'LER, a trifling tattler; TITT'LE-TATT'LING, the act of talking idly. TITTUP, TITUP, tit'up, _v.i._ to skip about gaily.--_n._ a light springy step, a canter.--_adjs._ TITT'UPPY, TIT'UPPY, gay, lively: unsteady. TITTY, tit'i, _n._ a teat, the breast. TITTY, tit'i, _n._ (_Scot._) sister. TITUBANT, tit'[=u]-bant, _adj._ staggering, stumbling.--_v.i._ TIT'[=U]BATE, to stagger, stumble.--_n._ TITUB[=A]'TION, reeling, stumbling; restlessness. [L. _titub[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to stagger.] TITULAR, tit'[=u]-lar, _adj._ existing in name or title only: nominal: having the title without the duties of an office.--_n._ one who enjoys the bare title of an office, without the actual possession of that office: a person invested with a title in virtue of which he holds a benefice, whether he performs its duties or not.--_n._ TITULAR'ITY.--_adv._ TIT'ULARLY.--_adj._ TIT'ULARY, consisting in, or pertaining to, a title.--_n._ one having the title of an office whether he performs its duties or not.--TITULAR BISHOP, in R.C. usage, a bishop without a diocese, taking his title from a place where there is no longer a bishop's see, as in the countries once conquered by Crusaders in the East--before 1882 called 'bishop in partibus infidelium;' TITULAR CHURCH, one of the parish churches of Rome supplying a title to cardinal-priests; TITULAR OF A CHURCH, that from which a church takes its special name--distinguished from a patron, who must be a canonised person or an angel; TITULARS OF THE TITHES, laymen invested with church lands after the Reformation in Scotland. TIVER, tiv'[.e]r, _n._ a kind of ochre for marking sheep.--_v.t._ to mark with such. TIVY, tiv'i, _adv._ with speed. TIZZY, tiz'i, _n._ (_slang_) a sixpence. TMESIS, tm[=e]'sis, _n._ (_gram._) the separation of the parts of a compound word by one or more words inserted between them, as 'Saxo _cere-_comminuit-_brum_;' 'of whom _be_ thou _ware_ also' (2 Tim. iv. 15). [L.,--Gr. _tm[=e]sis_--_temnein_, to cut.] TO, t[=oo], _prep._ in the direction of: in order to: as far as; in accordance with, in the character of: regarding, concerning, in connection with: expressing the end or purpose of an action, as in many uses of the gerundial infinitive, the sign of the infinitive mood: (_B._) sometimes=for.--_adv._ to a place in view, forward: to its place, together.--TO AND FRO, backwards and forwards. [A.S. _tó_; Ger. _zu_, Goth. _du_.] TOAD, t[=o]d, _n._ a genus of amphibians, typical of the family _Bufonidæ_, represented in Britain by two species--the Common Toad and the Natterjack.--_ns._ TOAD'-EAT'ER, a fawning sycophant--originally a mountebank's assistant, whose duty was to swallow, or pretend to swallow, any kind of garbage; TOAD'-EAT'ING, sycophancy.--_adj._ sycophantic.--_ns._ TOAD'-FISH, the sapo of the United States Atlantic coast; TOAD'-FLAX, a genus of herbaceous plants, closely allied to the Snapdragon; TOAD'-IN-A-HOLE, a piece of beef baked in batter; TOAD'-SPIT, cuckoo-spit.--_adj._ TOAD'-SPOT'TED, thickly stained or spotted like a toad.--_ns._ TOAD'-STONE, a soft and earthy variety of trap-rock of a brownish-gray colour, looking like an argillaceous deposit; TOAD'STOOL, a poisonous kind of mushroom; TOAD'Y, a mean hanger-on and flatterer.--_v.t._ to fawn as a sycophant:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ toad'ied.--_adj._ TOAD'YISH.--_n._ TOAD'YISM, the practice of a toady. [A.S. _tádige_, _tádie_, a toad.] TOAST, t[=o]st, _v.t._ to dry and scorch at the fire: to name when a health is drunk: to drink to the health of.--_v.i._ to drink toasts.--_n._ bread toasted: a slice of such dipped in liquor: the person or thing named whose health is to be drunk.--_ns._ TOAST'ER, one who, or that which, toasts; TOAST'ING-FORK, -[=I]'RON, a long-handled fork for toasting bread: a sword; TOAST'-MAS'TER, the master and announcer of toasts at public dinners; TOAST'-RACK, a stand, with partitions for slices of toast, for setting on the table. [O. Fr. _toster_--L. _tostus_, roasted, pa.p. of _torr[=e]re_.] TOBACCO, to-bak'[=o], _n._ a plant of genus _Nicotiana_, order _Solanaceæ_, esp. one of several species, the most generally cultivated being the stately Nicotiana _Tabacum_, a native of America--the dried leaves used for the sedative effects for smoking in pipes, &c., and also in the form of snuff.--_ns._ TOBACCAN[=A]'LIAN, a smoker; TOBACC'O-HEART, a functional disorder of the heart, due to excessive use of tobacco; TOBACC'ONIST, one who sells or manufactures tobacco; TOBACC'O-PIPE, a pipe used for smoking tobacco; TOBACC'O-POUCH, a small pouch for holding tobacco; TOBACC'O-STOP'PER, an instrument for pressing down the tobacco in a pipe. [Through Sp. _tabaco_, from the Haytian.] TOBIT, t[=o]'bit, _n._ an apocryphal Old Testament book, containing the story of _Tobit_. TOBOGGAN, t[=o]-bog'gan, _n._ a kind of sled turned up at the front, much used in Canada for sliding down snow-covered slopes.--_v.i._ to slide down over snow on such.--Earlier also TOBOG'GIN, TABOG'GAN, TARBOG'GIN.--_ns._ TOBOG'GANER; TOBOG'GANING; TOBOG'GANIST. [A native word.] TO-BRAKE, t[=oo]-br[=a]k', _v.t._ (Judges ix. 53) broke in pieces. [A.S. _tóbrecan_--pfx. _tó-_, asunder, and _brecan_, to break.] TOBY, t[=o]'bi, _n._ a beer-mug shaped like an old man with three-cornered hat. TOCCATA, tok-kä'tä, _n._ (_mus._) a work primarily intended to display the performer's touch.--_ns._ TOCCATEL'LA, TOCCATINA (-t[=e]'na), a short toccata. [It.,--_toccare_, to touch.] TOCHER, toh'[.e]r, _n._ (_Scot._) a woman's dowry.--_v.t._ to give a dowry to.--_adj._ TOCH'ERLESS, without a marriage portion. [Ir. _tochar_, Gael. _tochradh_.] TOCO, t[=o]'k[=o], _n._ (_slang_) punishment.--Also T[=O]'KO. [Gr. _tokos_, interest.] TOCOLOGY, t[=o]-kol'[=o]-ji, _n._ obstetrics.--Also TOKOL'OGY. [Gr. _tokos_, birth, _logia_--_legein_, to speak.] TOCSIN, tok'sin, _n._ an alarm-bell, or the ringing of it. [O. Fr. _toquesin_ (Fr. _tocsin_)--_toquer_, to strike; O. Fr. _sing_ (Fr. _signe_), a sign.] TOD, tod, _n._ (_Scot._), a fox.--_n._ TODLOW'RIE, a fox, a crafty fellow. TOD, tod, _n._ an ivy-bush--(_Spens._) TODDE: an old weight of about 28 lb.--_v.i._ to weigh a tod. TO-DAY, too-d[=a]', _n._ this or the present day. [A.S. _tó dæge_.] TODDLE, tod'l, _v.i._ to walk with short feeble steps, as a child.--_n._ a toddling gait: an aimless stroll.--_n._ TODD'LER, one who toddles.--_adj._ TODD'LING. [Prob. a by-form of _totter_.] TODDY, tod'i, _n._ the fermented juice of various palms of the East Indies: a mixture of whisky, sugar, and hot water.--_ns._ TODD'Y-L[=A]'DLE, a small ladle like a punch-ladle for use in mixing or serving out toddy; TODD'Y-PALM, a palm yielding toddy, as the jaggery-palm; TODD'Y-STICK, a small stick used in mixing toddy. [Hind. _t[=a]ri_--_t[=a]r_, a palm-tree.] TO-DO, t[=oo]-d[=oo]', _n._ bustle: stir: commotion. TODY, t[=o]'di, _n._ a small West Indian insectivorous bird--the _green sparrow_, _green humming-bird_, &c. TOE, t[=o], _n._ one of the five small members at the point of the foot: the corresponding member of a beast's foot: the front of an animal's hoof.--_v.t._ to touch or reach with the toes: to furnish with a toe, as a stocking.--_v.i._ to place the toes in any particular way.--_n._ TOE'-CAP, a cap of leather, &c., covering the toe of a shoe.--_adj._ TOED (t[=o]d), having toes.--_ns._ TOE'-NAIL; TOE'-PIECE. [A.S. _tá_ (pl. _tán_); Ice. _tá_, Ger. _zehe_.] TOFF, tof, _n._ (_slang_) a dandy, a swell. [Ety. dub.] TOFFEE, TOFFY, tof'i, _n._ a hard-baked sweetmeat, made of sugar and butter.--Also TAFF'Y. [Ety. unknown.] TOFORE, t[=oo]-f[=o]r', _adv._, _prep._ (_Shak._) before: formerly. [A.S. _tóforan_.] TOFT, toft, _n._ a hillock: a messuage with right of common.--_ns._ TOFT'MAN; TOFT'STEAD. [Ice.] TOG, tog, _n._ (_slang_) a garment--generally in _pl._--_v.t._ to dress.--_n._ TOG'GERY, clothes.--_n.pl._ Long'-togs (_naut._), shore clothes. [Prob. through Fr. from L. _toga_, a robe.] TOGA, t[=o]'ga, _n._ the mantle or outer garment of a Roman citizen.--_adjs._ TOG[=A]'TED, T[=O]'GED, dressed in a toga or gown.--_n._ TOGE (_Shak._), a robe.--TOGA PRÆTEXTA, the purple-hemmed toga worn by curule magistrates and censors, and by freeborn boys till fourteen; TOGA VIRILIS, the garb of manhood, put on by boys at fourteen. [L.,--_teg[)e]re_, to cover.] TOGETHER, t[=oo]-geth'[.e]r, _adv._ gathered to one place: in the same place, time, or company: in or into union: in concert. [A.S. _tógædere_--_tó_, to, _geador_, together.] [Illustration] TOGGLE, tog'l, _n._ (_naut._) a short bar of wood, tapering from the middle towards each end, placed in an eye at the end of a rope, to keep the end from passing through a loop or knot: an appliance for transmitting force at right angles to its direction.--_v.t._ to fix like a toggle-iron: to fix fast.--_ns._ TOGG'LE-[=I]'RON, a whaler's harpoon with movable blade instead of barbs; TOGG'LE-JOINT, an elbow or knee joint. [Conn. with _tug_ and _tow_.] TOGUE, t[=o]g, _n._ the mackinaw or great lake-trout. TOHO, t[=o]-h[=o]', _interj._ a call to pointers to stop. TOHU BOHU, t[=o]'h[=oo] b[=o]'h[=oo], _n._ chaos. [From the Heb. words in Gen. i. 2, 'without form' and 'void.'] TOIL, toil, _n._ a net or snare. [O. Fr. _toile_, cloth--L. _tela_, from _tex[)e]re_, to weave.] TOIL, toil, _v.i._ to labour: to work with fatigue.--_n._ labour, esp. of a fatiguing kind.--_n._ TOIL'ER.--_adjs._ TOIL'FUL, TOIL'SOME, full of fatigue: wearisome; TOIL'LESS.--_adv._ TOIL'SOMELY.--_n._ TOIL'SOMENESS.--_adj._ TOIL'-WORN, worn out with toil. [O. Fr. _touiller_, to entangle; of dubious origin--prob., acc. to Skeat, from a freq. form of Old High Ger. _zucchen_ (Ger. _zucken_), to twitch; cf. Old High Ger. _zocchón_, to pull, _zogón_, to tear; all derivatives from Old High Ger. _zíhan_ (Ger. _ziehen_), to pull.] TOILE, twol, _n._ cloth.--_n._ TOILINET', -TE', a fabric with silk and cotton chain and woollen filling: a kind of German quilting. [Fr.] TOILET, TOILETTE, toil'et, _n._ a dressing-table with a mirror: also a cover for such a table: the whole articles used in dressing: mode or operation of dressing: the whole dress and appearance of a person, any particular costume.--_ns._ TOIL'ET-CLOTH, -COV'ER, a cover for a dressing-table.--_adj._ TOIL'ETED, dressed.--_ns._ TOIL'ET-GLASS, a mirror set on the dressing-table; TOIL'ET-SET, -SERV'ICE, the utensils collectively used in dressing; TOIL'ET-SOAP, a fine kind of soap made up in cakes; TOIL'ET-T[=A]'BLE, a dressing-table.--MAKE ONE'S TOILET, to dress. [Fr. _toilette_, dim. of _toile_, cloth; cf. _Toil_ (1).] TOISE, toiz, _n._ an old French lineal measure=6.395 Eng. feet. [Fr.,--L. _tend[)e]re_, _tensum_, to stretch.] TOISON, toi'zon, _n._ the fleece of a sheep.--TOISON D'OR, the golden fleece. [Fr.,--Low L. _tonsion-em_--L. _tond[=e]re_, to shear.] TOIT, toit, _n._ (_prov._) a cushion. TOKAY, t[=o]-k[=a]', _n._ a sweetish and heavy wine with an aromatic flavour, produced at _Tokay_ in Hungary: a variety of grape. TOKEN, t[=o]'kn, _n._ a mark: something representing another thing or event: a sign: a memorial of friendship: a coin issued by a private person or civic authority redeemable in current money: in old Presbyterian use, a voucher of lead or tin, inscribed with the name of the church or parish, admitting a qualified communicant to the celebration of the Lord's Supper: a measure of press-work, 250 impressions on one form: a thin bed of coal showing the vicinity of a thicker seam.--_v.t._ (_obs._) to set a mark upon.--BY THE SAME TOKEN, further in corroboration; MORE BY TOKEN (see MORE). [A.S. _tácen_; Ger. _zeichen_, a mark.] TOLA, t[=o]'la, _n._ the Indian unit of weight=180 grains troy. [Hind.] TOLD, t[=o]ld, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _tell_. TOLE, TOLL, t[=o]l, _v.t._ to draw as with a lure, to attract, entice.--_ns._ T[=O]'LING, T[=O]'LLING, the use of toll-bait to allure fish: a method of decoying ducks. [See _Toll_ (1).] TOLEDO, t[=o]-l[=e]'d[=o], _n._ a sword-blade made at _Toledo_ in Spain.--_adj._ TOL'LETAN, of Toledo. [L. _Toletum_.] TOLERABLE, tol'[.e]r-a-bl, _adj._ that may be tolerated or endured: moderately good or agreeable: not contemptible.--_ns._ TOLERABIL'ITY, TOL'ERABLENESS.--_adv._ TOL'ERABLY.--_n._ TOL'ERANCE, the tolerating or enduring of offensive persons or opinions, charity, patience, indulgence.--_adj._ TOL'ERANT, tolerating: enduring: indulgent: favouring toleration.--_adv._ TOL'ERANTLY.--_v.t._ TOL'ER[=A]TE, to bear: to endure: to allow by not hindering.--_ns._ TOLER[=A]'TION, act of tolerating: allowance of what is not approved: liberty given to a minority to hold and express their own political or religious opinions, and to be admitted to the same civil privileges as the majority; TOLER[=A]'TIONIST; TOL'ERATOR. [L. _toler[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, from _toll[)e]re_, to lift up.] TOLL, t[=o]l, _n._ a tax for the liberty of passing over a bridge or road, selling goods in a market, &c.: a portion of grain taken by a miller for grinding.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to exact as a tribute.--_adj._ TOLL'ABLE, subject to toll.--_ns._ TOLL'AGE, payment of toll: the amount paid as toll; TOLL'BAR, a movable bar across a road, &c., to stop passengers liable to toll; TOLL'BOOTH, a booth where tolls are collected; TOLL'BRIDGE, a bridge where toll is taken; TOLL'DISH, a dish for measuring the toll in mills; TOLL'ER, TOLL'-GATH'ERER; TOLL'GATE, a gate where toll is taken; TOLL'HOUSE, the house of a toll-gatherer; TOLL'MAN, the man who collects toll: a toll-gatherer; TOL'SEY (_obs._), a tollbooth: an exchange. [A.S. _tol_, _toll_; cf. Dut. _tol_, Ger. _zoll_; and _tell_, to count.] TOLL, t[=o]l, _v.i._ to sound, as a large bell, esp. with a measured sound, as a funeral bell.--_v.t._ to cause to sound, as a bell: to strike, or signal by striking.--_n._ the sound of a bell when tolling.--_n._ TOLL'ER. [M. E. _tollen_, to pull--A.S. _tyllan_, in _for-tyllan_, to allure.] TOLL, t[=o]l, _v.t._ (_law_) to take, annul. [L. _toll[)e]re_, to take away.] TOL-LOL, tol-lol', _adj._ (_slang_) pretty good.--_adj._ TOL-LOL'ISH, tolerable. TOLT, t[=o]lt, _n._ an old English writ removing a court-baron cause to a county-court. [O. Fr. _tolte_--Low L. _tolta_--L. _toll[)e]re_, to take away.] TOLTEC, tol'tek, _n._ a member of the earlier race who occupied Mexico, their power passing later into the hands of the Aztecs.--_adj._ TOL'TECAN. TOLTER, tol't[.e]r, _v.i._ (_prov._) to flounder about. TOLU, t[=o]'l[=u], _n._ Tolu balsam, yielded by _Myroxylon Toluifera_, a native of Venezuela, Ecuador, and Brazil, employed in medicine and perfumery.--_n._ TOL'[=U][=E]NE, methyl benzene.--_adj._ TOL'[=U]IC. [From Santiago de _Tolu_ in Columbia.] TOM, tom, _n._ a dim. of _Thomas_--used generically for man in 'tomfool,' &c.: a male, esp. a male cat: (_prov._) a close-stool.--_ns._ TOM'-AND-JER'RY, a drink of hot rum and eggs, spiced and sweetened; TOM'-TROT, a toffee made with treacle, sugar, and butter.--TOM, DICK, AND HARRY, any persons taken at random.--LONG TOM, a long gun, as distinguished from a carronade, a gun carried amidships on a swivel-carriage. TOMAHAWK, tom'a-hawk, _n._ a light war-hatchet of the North American Indians, either wielded or thrown.--_v.t._ to cut or kill with a tomahawk. [The Indian name.] TOMALLEY, to-mal'i, _n._ the so-called liver of the lobster.--Also TOMALL'Y. [Prob. _tourmalin_, from the greenish colour.] TOMAN, t[=o]-män', _n._ a Persian gold coin worth 7s. 2d.--Also TOMAUN'. [Pers.] TOMATO, t[=o]-mä't[=o], or t[=o]-m[=a]'t[=o], _n._ the pulpy edible fruit of a plant of the Nightshade family (_Solanaceæ_), or the plant itself, native to South America, but now much cultivated in Europe--earlier called the 'love-apple':--_pl._ TOMA'TOES. [Sp. _tomate_--Mex. _tomate_.] TOMB, t[=oo]m, _n._ a pit or vault in the earth, in which a dead body is placed: a tombstone.--_adjs._ TOMB'IC; TOMB'LESS, without a tomb.--_n._ TOMB'STONE, a stone erected over a tomb to preserve the memory of the dead. [Fr. _tombe_--L. _tumba_--Gr. _tymbos_.] TOMBAC, tom'bak, _n._ a name given to an alloy of copper and zinc like Prince's metal, or to an alloy of copper and arsenic.--Also TOM'BAK. [Malay _t[=a]mbaga_, copper.] TOMBOC, tom'bok, _n._ a Javanese long-handled weapon. TOMBOLA, tom'b[=o]-la, _n._ a kind of lottery game played in France and the southern United States. [It.,--_tombolare_, to tumble.] TOMBOY, tom'boi, _n._ a wild romping girl, a hoyden: (_Shak._) a strumpet. [_Tom_ and _boy_.] TOMCAT, tom'kat, _n._ a full-grown male cat. [_Tom_.] TOME, t[=o]m, _n._ part of a book: a volume of a large work: a book. [Fr.,--L. _tomus_--Gr. _tomos_--_temnein_, to cut.] TOMENTUM, t[=o]-men'tum, _n._ (_bot._) a species of pubescence.--_adjs._ TOMEN'TOSE, TOMEN'TOUS. [L.] TOMFOOL, tom'f[=oo]l, _n._ a great fool: a trifling fellow.--_v.i._ to act foolishly.--_n._ TOMFOOL'ERY, foolish trifling or jesting: buffoonery.--_adj._ TOM'FOOLISH. [_Tom_.] TOMIUM, t[=o]'mi-um, _n._ the cutting edge of a bird's bill.--_adj._ T[=O]'MIAL. [Gr. _tomos_, _temnein_, to cut.] TOMMY, tom'i, _n._ a penny roll, bread, provisions: the system of giving food as part wages.--_v.t._ to oppress by the tommy or truck-system.--_ns._ TOMM'Y-SHOP, a truck-shop; TOM'-NOD'DY, the puffin or sea-parrot: a fool.--TOMMY ATKINS, or TOMM'Y, a generic name for the English private soldier.--SOFT TOMMY, soft bread, as opposed to hard tack or sea-biscuit. TO-MORROW, t[=oo]-mor'[=o], _n._ the morrow after this.--_adv._ on the morrow. [A.S. _tó morgen_.] TOMPION, tom'pi-on, _n._ the inking-pad of the lithographic printer.--Also TOM'PON. [_Tampion_.] TOMPION, tom'pi-on, _n._ (_obs._) a watch. TOMTIT, tom'tit, _n._ the titmouse. [_Tom_, a common name like Jack, and _tit_, as in _titmouse_.] [Illustration] TOM-TOM, tom'-tom, _n._ the drum used in India by musicians, jugglers, &c.: a gong.--_v.i._ TAM'-TAM, to beat on a tom-tom. TOMUNDAR, to-mun'-dar, _n._ the head chief of a Baluchi tribe. TON, tun, _n._ a measure of capacity, varying with the substance measured--timber, wheat, gravel, lime, coke, &c.--in the carrying capacity of ships, 40 cubic feet: a measure of weight, equal to 20 cwt. or 2240 lb. avoirdupois. [A.S. _tunne_, a vat, tub; Ger. _tonne_, cask.] TON, ton, _n._ fashion, style.--_adj._ TON'ISH, stylish.--_adv._ TON'ISHLY. TONALITE, t[=o]'nal-[=i]t, _n._ an igneous rock having a granitic structure, and composed essentially of plagioclase, biolite, and quartzite. TO-NAME, t[=oo]'-n[=a]m, _n._ a byname, nickname, or name in addition to Christian name and surname. TONE, t[=o]n, _n._ the character of a sound: quality of the voice: harmony of the colours of a painting, also its characteristic or prevailing effect as due to the management of chiaroscuro and to the effect of light upon the quality of colour: (_phot._) the shade or colour of a finished positive picture: (_gram._) syllabic stress, special accent given to a syllable: character or style: state of mind: mood: a healthy state of the body.--_v.t._ to utter with an affected tone: to intone, to utter in a drawling way: to give tone or quality to, in respect either of sound or colour: to alter or modify the colour.--_adj._ T[=O]'NAL.--_n._ TONAL'ITY.--_adjs._ TONED, having a tone (in compounds); TONE'LESS.--TONE DOWN, to give a lower tone to, to moderate, to soften, to harmonise the colours of as to light and shade, as a painting. [L. _tonus_--Gr. _tonos_, a sound--_tein[=o]_, to stretch.] TONG, tung, _n._ (_Spens._) the tongue of a buckle. TONGA, tong'ga, _n._ a light two-wheeled cart for four, in use in Burma. TONGA-BEAN, tong'ga-b[=e]n, _n._ Same as TONKA-BEAN. TONGS, tongz, _n.pl._ a domestic instrument, consisting of two jointed pieces or shafts of metal, used for lifting. [A.S. _tange_; Ice. _töng_, Ger. _zange_.] TONGUE, tung, _n._ the fleshy organ in the mouth, used in tasting, swallowing, and speech: power of speech: manner of speaking: speech: discourse: a language: anything like a tongue in shape: the catch of a buckle: the pointer of a balance: a point of land.--_adjs._ TONGUED, having a tongue.; TONGUE'LESS, having no tongue.--_n._ TONGUE'LET, a little tongue.--_p.adj._ TONGUE'-SHAPED, shaped like a tongue: (_bot._) linear and fleshy and blunt at the point, as a leaf.--_n._ TONGUE'STER, a babbler.--_adjs._ TONGUE'-TIED, -TACKED, having an impediment, as if the tongue were tied: unable to speak freely.--_n._ TONGUE'-WORK, babble, chatter.--HOLD ONE'S TONGUE (see HOLD). [A.S. _tunge_; Ice. _tunga_, Ger. _zunge_, the tongue; L. _lingua_ (old form _dingua_).] TONIC, ton'ik, _adj._ relating to tones or sounds: (_med._) giving tone and vigour to the system: giving or increasing strength.--_n._ a medicine which gives tone and vigour to the system.--_n._ TONIC'ITY, the healthy state of muscular fibres when at rest.--TONIC SPASM (see SPASM). TONIC SOLFA, ton'ik s[=o]l-fä', _n._ a modern system of musical notation, in which the notes are indicated by letters, and time and accent by dashes and colons. TO-NIGHT, t[=oo]-n[=i]t', _n._ this night: the night after the present day. TONITE, t[=o]'n[=i]t, _n._ an explosive made from pulverised gun-cotton. TONKA-BEAN, tong'ka-b[=e]n, _n._ the seed of a large tree of Guiana, used for flavouring snuff.--Also TON'QUIN-BEAN. TONNAGE, tun'[=a]j, _n._ in regard to ships, a measure both of cubical capacity and of dead-weight carrying capability--the _freight ton_ simply means 40 cubic feet of space available for cargo, and is therefore two-fifths of a register ton: a duty on ships, estimated per ton.--Also TUN'NAGE. TONSIL, ton'sil, _n._ one of two glands at the root of the tongue, so named from its shape.--_n._ TONSIL[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the tonsils.--_adjs._ TON'SILLAR, TON'SILAR, TONSILIT'IC. [L. _tonsilla_, a stake, a tonsil, dim. of _tonsa_, an oar.] TONSILE, ton'sil, _adj._ that may be clipped.--_n._ TON'SOR, a barber.--_adj._ TONS[=O]'RIAL, pertaining to a barber or to shaving. [L. _tonsilis_--_tond[=e]re_, _tonsum_, to clip.] TONSURE, ton'sh[=oo]r, _n._ act of clipping the hair, or of shaving the head: a religious observance of the R.C. and Eastern Churches, which consists in shaving or cutting part of the hair of the head as a sign of the dedication of the person to the special service of God, and commonly to the public ministry of religion.--_adj._ TON'SURED, having the crown of the head shaven as a priest: shaven: bald. [L. _tonsura_, a shearing--_tond[=e]re_.] TONTINE, ton-t[=e]n', _n._ a kind of life-annuity, increasing as the subscribers die: a loan raised with the benefit of survivorship--also _adj._--_n._ TONTIN'ER. [From Lorenzo _Tonti_, a Neapolitan, its inventor.] TONY, t[=o]'ni, _n._ a simpleton. [_Antony_.] TONY, t[=o]'ni, _adj._ (_U.S._) genteel, high-toned. TOO, t[=oo], _adv._ over: more than enough: extremely: likewise.--_adj._ TOO-TOO, quite too: extreme, superlative: (_slang_) extravagantly and affectedly sentimental, gushing. [A form of _to_, sig. lit. 'added to.'] TOOART, t[=oo]'art, _n._ a eucalyptus of south-western Australia, with remarkably heavy and durable wood.--Also TU'ART, TEW'ART. TOOK, t[=oo]k, _pa.t._ and obsolete _pa.p._ of _take_. TOOL, t[=oo]l, _n._ an instrument used by workmen: one who acts as the mere instrument of another.--_v.t._ to mark with a tool, esp. to ornament or imprint designs upon, of bookbinders: (_slang_) to drive, as a coach or other vehicle: to carry in a vehicle.--_v.i._ to travel in a vehicle, to drive.--_n._ TOOL'ING, workmanship done with a tool. [A.S. _tól_, _tohl_; perh. from the root of _tow_.] TOOLEY STREET, t[=oo]l'i str[=e]t, _n._ a street in Southwark, at the foot of London Bridge, famous through Canning's story of its three tailors who began their petition to parliament with 'We, the people of England.' TOOM, t[=oo]m, _adj._ empty.--_n._ a dumping-ground for rubbish. [Ice. _tómr_, empty.] TOON, t[=oo]n, _n._ a large tree of the bead-tree family, with red wood and astringent bark.--Also _East Indian mahogany_, _Indian cedar_. TOOT, t[=oo]t, _v.i._ to pry or peep about: (_obs._) to be prominent.--_n._ TOOT'ER, anything projecting. [A.S. _totian_, to elevate.] TOOT, t[=oo]t, _v.i._ to make short unmusical sounds on a flute or horn.--_v.t._ to blow, as a horn, &c.--_n._ a sound, as of a horn, a blast: (_U.S._) a spree.--_n._ TOOT'ER, one who toots, or that upon which he toots. [Old Dut. _tuyten_; cf. Ice. _thjóta_, to resound, A.S. _theótan_, to howl.] TOOT, t[=oo]t, _n._ (_slang_) an idle worthless creature: the devil. TOOTH, t[=oo]th, _n._ one of the hard bodies in the mouth, attached to the skeleton, but not forming part of it, developed from the dermis or true skin, their function primarily the mastication of the food: the taste or palate, relish: anything tooth-like: a prong: one of the projections on a saw or wheel:--_pl._ TEETH.--_v.t._ to furnish with teeth: to cut into teeth.--_ns._ TOOTH'ACHE, an ache or pain in a tooth; TOOTH'-BRUSH, a brush for cleaning the teeth; TOOTH'-DRAW'ER (_Shak._), one whose business is to extract teeth with instruments, a dentist; TOOTH'-DRAW'ING, the act of extracting a tooth: the practice of extracting teeth.--_adjs._ TOOTHED, having teeth: (_bot._) having tooth-like projections on the edge, as a leaf; TOOTH'FUL, full of teeth.--_n._ a small drink of spirits, &c.--_adj._ TOOTH'LESS, having no teeth.--_ns._ TOOTH'-ORNAMENT, a Romanesque and Early Pointed moulding, consisting of a square four-leaved flower pointed in the centre; TOOTH'PICK, an instrument for picking out anything in the teeth; TOOTH'-POW'DER, a powder used with a tooth-brush for cleaning the teeth.--_adj._ TOOTH'SOME, pleasant to the taste.--_ns._ TOOTH'SOMENESS; TOOTH'-WASH, a liquid preparation for cleansing the teeth; TOOTH'WORT, a name for _Lathræa squamaria_, one of the insectivorous plants, as well as for _Dentaria bulbifera_, one of the Cruciferæ, common in England, also known as 'coral-wort' and 'tooth-violet.'--_adj._ TOOTH'Y, having teeth: toothsome: biting.--TOOTH AND NAIL, with all possible vigour and fury.--A SWEET TOOTH, a relish for sweet things; IN SPITE OF ONE'S TEETH, IN THE TEETH OF, in defiance of opposition; SHOW ONE'S TEETH, to threaten, to show one's anger and power to injure; THROW, CAST, IN ONE'S TEETH, to fling at one, as a taunt, or in challenge; TO THE TEETH (_Shak._), in open opposition or defiance. [A.S. _tóth_ (pl. _téth_, also _tóthas_); cog. with Goth. _tunthus_, L. _dens_, _dent-is_, Gr. _o-dous_, _o-dont-os_, Sans. _danta_.] TOOTLE, t[=oo]t'l, _v.i._ to make a series of feeble sounds, as a poor player on the flute. [Freq. of _toot_.] TOP, top, _n._ the highest part of anything: the upper end or surface: the upper part of a plant: the crown of the head: the highest place, rank, or crown, consummation: the chief or highest person: (_naut._) a small platform at the head of the lower mast: the end-piece of a jointed fishing-rod: the same as _top-boot_, esp. in _pl._--_adj._ highest, foremost, chief: good, capital.--_v.t._ to cover on the top: to tip: to rise above: to surpass: to rise to the top of: to take off the top of: to hit a golf ball above its centre.--_v.i._ to be eminent:--_pr.p._ top'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ topped.--_adj._ TOP'-BOOT'ED, wearing top-boots.--_n.pl._ TOP'-BOOTS, long-legged boots with an ornamental band of bright-coloured leather round the top.--_ns._ TOP'COAT, a coat worn outside one's other clothes: TOP'-DRAIN'ING, the act or practice of draining the surface of land.--_v.t._ TOP'-DRESS, to spread manure on the surface of.--_n._ TOP'-DRESS'ING, a dressing of manure laid on the surface of land: (_fig._) any superficial covering.--_adjs._ TOP'FULL (_Shak._), full to the top or brim; TOP'GALLANT, applied to the mast and sail next above the topmast and topsail and below the royal-mast.--_n._ TOP'-HAMP'ER, unnecessary weight on a ship's upper-deck.--_adj._ TOP'-HEAV'Y, having the upper part too heavy for the lower: tipsy.--_n._ TOP'-KNOT, a crest or knot of feathers upon the head of a bird: a knot of ribbons worn by women on the top of the head: the popular name of some small fishes of the same genus as the turbot and brill.--_adjs._ TOP'-KNOTTED; TOP'LESS (_Shak._), supreme, without superior; TOP'LOFTICAL, TOP'LOFTY, having a high top, pompous, bombastic.--_ns._ TOP'LOFTINESS; TOP'MAN, a man stationed in one of the tops: a top-sawyer; TOP'MAST, the second mast, or that immediately above the lower mast.--_adj._ TOP'MOST, next the top: highest.--_ns._ TOP'PER, one who, or that which, excels; TOP'PING, the act of one who tops, that which tops: (_pl._) that cut off in topping.--_adj._ surpassing, pre-eminent: arrogant.--_adv._ TOP'PINGLY.--_adj._ TOP'-PROUD (_Shak._), proud in the highest degree.--_ns._ TOPSAIL (top's[=a]l, or -sl), a sail across the topmast; TOP'-SAW'YER, the upper sawyer in a sawpit: (_coll._) a superior, a person of importance; TOP'-SIDE, the upper part; TOPS'MAN, a head-drover, a foreman; TOP'-SOIL, the upper part or surface of the soil; TOP'-SOIL'ING, removal of the top-soil; TOP'-STONE, a stone placed on the top, or which forms the top. [A.S. _top_; Ger. _zopf_.] TOP, top, _n._ a child's toy, shaped like a pear, and set or kept whirling round by means of a string or a whip. [Prob. Old Dut. _top_, _toppe_, _dop_, _doppe_; Mid. High Ger. _topf_, _tupfen_, a pot.] TOPARCH, t[=o]'pärk, _n._ the ruler or principal man in a place: the governor of a toparchy.--_n._ T[=O]'PARCHY, a small state or government consisting of only a few cities: command in a small state or subdivision of a country. [Gr. _toparch[=e]s_--_topos_, a place, _archein_, to rule--_arch[=e]_, beginning.] TOPAZ, t[=o]'paz, _n._ a mineral, ranked among gems, found generally in primitive rocks, colourless, light blue or green, rose-pink, orange or straw-yellow, in great variety of shades, the most prized generally from Brazil.--_adj._ T[=O]'PAZINE.--_n._ TOPAZ'OLITE, a garnet resembling a topaz. [O. Fr. _topase_, _topaze_--Gr. _topazion_, also _topazos_.] TOPAZA, t[=o]-p[=a]'za, _n._ a genus of humming-birds. TOPE, t[=o]p, _v.i._ to drink hard or to excess: to tipple:--_pr.p._ t[=o]'ping; _pa.p._ t[=o]ped.--_n._ T[=O]'PER, a drunkard. [From _tope_, an obs. verb 'to drink hard,' from the phrase _to top off_, sig. 'to drink off at one draught.'] TOPE, t[=o]p, _n._ a Buddhist tumulus for the preservation of relics, of more or less solid masonry, in which the relics are deposited--the oldest spherical, others having polygonal bases, originally crowned with an umbrella-shaped finial, and surrounded by a carved stone railing with elaborately carved gateway. [Corr. from Sans. _st[=u]pa_, a heap.] TOPE, t[=o]p, _n._ a small species of British shark--the _Miller's dog_ and _Penny dog_. TOPHET, t[=o]'fet, _n._ a place at the south-east corner of Gehenna, or vale of Hinnom, to the south of Jerusalem, once the scene of idolatrous rites, later the common lay-stall of the city, in which fires were kept burning: the future place of torment for the damned. [Heb. _t[=o]pheth_.] TOPHUS, t[=o]'fus, _n._ a gouty deposit:--_pl._ T[=O]'PH[=I].--_adj._ TOPH[=A]'CEOUS. [L., 'sandstone.'] TOPIA, t[=o]'pi-a, _n._ a kind of mural decoration common in old Roman houses.--_adj._ T[=O]'PI[=A]RY, clipped into ornamental shapes, of trees and shrubs--also T[=O]PI[=A]'RIAN. [L.,--Gr. _topos_, a place.] TOPIC, top'ik, _n._ a subject of discourse or argument: a matter.--_adj._ TOP'ICAL, pertaining to a place: local: relating to a topic or subject: relating to things of local interest.--_adv._ TOP'ICALLY, with reference to a particular place or topic. [Fr.,--Low L.,--Gr. _ta topika_, the general principles of argument--_topos_, a place.] TOPOGRAPHER, t[=o]-pog'raf-[.e]r, _n._ one who describes a place, &c.: one skilled in topography.--_adjs._ TOPOGRAPH'IC, -AL, pertaining to topography.--_adv._ TOPOGRAPH'ICALLY, in a topographical manner.--_ns._ TOPOG'RAPHIST; TOPOG'RAPHY, the description of a place: a detailed account of the superficial features of a tract of country: the art of describing places. [Gr. _topos_, a place, _graphein_, to describe.] TOPOLATRY, t[=o]pol'a-tri, _n._ veneration for a place. [Gr. _topos_, a place, _latreia_, worship.] TOPOLOGY, t[=o]-pol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the art of aiding the memory by associating things with places. [Gr. _topos_, a place, _legein_, to speak.] TOPONYM, top'[=o]-nim, _n._ (_anat._) a topographical name, the technical designation of any region of an animal.--_n._ TOPON'OMY, topical terminology, the place-names of a district.--_adjs._ TOPON'YMAL, TOPONYM'IC, -AL.--_n._ TOPON'YMY, the nomenclature of anatomical regions. [Gr. _topos_, a place, _onoma_, a name.] TOPPLE, top'l, _v.i._ to fall forward: to tumble down. [Freq. of _top_.] TOPSYTURVY, top'si-tur-vi, _adv._ bottom upwards.--_adj._ turned upside down.--_n._ confusion.--_v.t._ to turn upside down.--_n._ TOPSYTURVIFIC[=A]'TION, a turning upside down.--_adv._ TOPSYTUR'VILY.--_ns._ TOPSYTUR'VINESS; TOPSYTUR'VYDOM. [Explained by Skeat as _top_ + _so_ (_adv._) + _tervy_, overturned--M. E. _terven_, to throw--A.S. _torfian_, to throw.] TOQUE, t[=o]k, _n._ a form of hat or cap worn in the 16th century: a modern close-fitting brimless bonnet for women: an African nominal money of account, equal to 40 cowries: the bonnet-macaque. [Fr., prob. Celt., Bret. _tok_, W. _toc_, a hat.] TOR, tor, _n._ a hill, a rocky height. [A.S. _torr_, _tor_--W. _tor_; Gael. _torr_.] TORAH, t[=o]'ra, _n._ the Mosaic law: the book of the law, the Pentateuch.--Also TH[=O]'RAH. [Heb.] TORBITE, t[=o]r'b[=i]t, _n._ a preparation of peat for fuel. TORCH, torch, _n._ a light formed of twisted tow dipped in pitch or other inflammable material: a large candle or flambeau.--_ns._ TORCH'-BEAR'ER; TORCH'-DANCE; TORCH'ER (_Shak._), one who gives light with, or as with, a torch; TORCH'ING, a way of catching fish at night with torch-light-and spear; TORCH'-LIGHT; TORCH'-RACE.--_n.pl._ TORCH'-STAVES (_Shak._), staves for carrying torches. [Fr. _torche_--L. _tortum_, pa.p. of _torqu[=e]re_, to twist.] TORCHÈRE, tor-sh[=a]r', _n._ a large ornamental candelabrum. [Fr.] TORCULAR, tor'k[=u]-lar, _n._ the tourniquet. [L.] TORE, t[=o]r, _pa.t._ of _tear_. TORE, t[=o]r, _n._ (_prov._) dead grass. TORE=_Torus_. TOREADOR, tor-e-a-d[=o]r', _n._ a bull-fighter, esp. on horseback. [Sp.] TO-RENT, t[=oo]'-rent', _p.adj._ (_Spens._) rent asunder. TOREUTIC, t[=o]-r[=oo]'tik, _adj._ pertaining to chased or embossed metal-work.--_ns._ TOREUMATOG'RAPHY, a treatise on ancient work in metal; TOREUMATOL'OGY, the art of ancient art-work on metal; TOREU'TES, an artist in metal. [Gr., _toreuein_, to bore.] TORGOCH, tor'goh, _n._ the red-bellied char. [W.] TORMENT, tor'ment, _n._ torture: anguish: that which causes pain.--_v.t._ TORMENT', to torture: to put to extreme pain, physical or mental: to distress: to afflict.--_p.adj._ TORMEN'TED (_U.S._), a euphemism for damned.--_adj._ TORMEN'TING, causing torment.--_adv._ TORMEN'TINGLY, in a tormenting manner.--_ns._ TORMEN'TOR, -ER, one who, or that which, torments: (_B._) a torturer, an executioner: a long meat-fork: a wing in the first groove of a stage; TORMEN'TUM, a whirligig. [O. Fr.,--L. _tormentum_, an engine for hurling stones--L. _torqu[=e]re_, to twist.] TORMENTIL, tor'men-til, _n._ a genus of plants, one species with an astringent woody root. [Fr.,--Low L. _tormentilla_--L. _tormentum_.] TORMINA, tor'mi-na, _n.pl._ gripes, colic.--_adjs._ TOR'MINAL, TOR'MINOUS. TORMODONT, tor'm[=o]-dont, _adj._ socketed, of teeth. [Gr. _tormos_, a hole, _odous_, _odontos_, a tooth.] TORN, t[=o]rn, _pa.p._ of _tear_: (_B._) stolen.--_adj._ TORN'-DOWN, rebellious, ungovernable. TORNADO, tor-n[=a]'d[=o], _n._ a violent hurricane, frequent in tropical countries:--_pl._ TORN[=A]'DOES.--_adj._ TORNAD'IC. [Sp., _tornada_--_tornar_--L. _torn[=a]re_.] TORNEAMENT, an obsolete form of _tournament_. TOROIDAL, t[=o]-roi'dal, _adj._ shaped like an anchor-ring. TOROUS, t[=o]'rus, _adj._ swelling, muscular.--_n._ TOROS'ITY, muscularity. TORPEDO, tor-p[=e]'do, _n._ a genus of cartilaginous fishes of family _Torpedinidæ_, related to the skates and rays, with electric organs on each side of the head, giving an electric shock when touched so as to produce torpor or numbness, the cramp-fish: a submarine weapon of offence, carrying a charge of gun-cotton or other explosive, and possessing powers of locomotion--in distinction to a submarine mine, which is stationary and used for defensive purposes:--_pl._ TORP[=E]'DOES.--_v.t._ to attack with torpedoes, to explode a torpedo in or under.--_adj._ TORPED'INOUS.--_ns._ TORP[=E]'DO-BOAT, a small swift steamer from which torpedoes are discharged; TORP[=E]'DO-BOOM, a spar for carrying a torpedo, projecting from a boat or anchored in a channel; TORP[=E]'DO-CATCH'ER, a swift vessel for capturing torpedo-boats; TORP[=E]'DOIST, one skilled in the management of torpedoes; TORP[=E]'DO-NET, a net of wire hung at some distance round a ship to intercept torpedoes. [L.,--_torp[=e]re_, to be stiff.] TORPESCENT, tor-pes'ent, _adj._ becoming torpid or numb.--_n._ TORPES'CENCE. [L., _pr.p._ of _torpesc[)e]re_, to become stiff--_torp[=e]re_, to be stiff.] TORPID, tor'pid, _adj._ stiff, numb: having lost the power of motion and feeling: sluggish, dormant: pertaining to the _Torpids_, or Lent boat-races, at Oxford.--_n._ a second-class racing boat, or one of its crew.--_n._ TORPID'ITY.--_adv._ TOR'PIDLY.--_n._ TOR'PIDNESS.--_v.t._ TOR'PIFY, to make torpid.--_ns._ TOR'PITUDE, state of being torpid: numbness: dullness: stupidity; TOR'POR, numbness: inactivity: dullness: stupidity. [L. _torpidus_--_torp[=e]re_.] TORQUE, tork, _n._ a twisting force: a necklace of metal rings interlaced.--_adjs._ TOR'QUATE, -D, collared; TORQUED', twisted. [L. _torques_--_torqu[=e]re_, to twist.] TORREFY, tor'e-f[=i], _v.t._ to scorch: to parch:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ torr'efied.--_n._ TORREFAC'TION, act of torrefying: state of being torrefied. [L. _torr[=e]re_, to dry, to burn, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] TORRENT, tor'ent, _n._ a rushing stream: a strong or turbulent current.--_adj._ rushing in a stream.--_ns._ TORR'ENT-BOW, a bow of prismatic colours formed above the spray of a torrent; TORR'ENT-DUCK, a merganser of genus _Merganetta_, found in the swift water-courses of the Andes.--_adj._ TORREN'TIAL, of the nature of a torrent, produced by the agency of rapid streams: overwhelmingly voluble.--_n._ TORRENTIAL'ITY.--_adv._ TORREN'TIALLY. [L. _torrens_, _-entis_, boiling, _pr.p._ of _torr[=e]re_, to dry.] TORRICELLIAN, tor-i-sel'i-an, or tor-i-ch[=e]l'i-an, _adj._ pertaining to the Italian mathematician Evangelista _Torricelli_ (1608-47), who discovered in 1643 the principle on which the barometer is constructed.--TORRICELLIAN TUBE, the barometer; TORRICELLIAN VACUUM, the vacuum in the barometer. TORRID, tor'id, _adj._ burning or parching: violently hot: dried with heat.--_ns._ TORRID'ITY, TORR'IDNESS.--TORRID ZONE, the broad belt round the earth betwixt the tropics, on either side of the equator. [L. _torridus_--_torr[=e]re_, to burn.] TORSE, tors, _n._ a heraldic wreath.--_ns._ TORSADE', an ornament like a twisted cord; TOR'SEL, a twisted scroll: a plate in a brick wall to support the end of a beam. TORSHENT, tor'shent, _n._ (_U.S._) the youngest child and pet of a family.--Also TORSH. TORSION, tor'shun, _n._ act of twisting or turning a body: the force with which a thread or wire tends to return when twisted, the kind of strain produced in a bar or wire when one end is kept fixed and the other is rotated about the axis: (_surg._) a method of common application for the purpose of checking arterial hæmorrhage in certain cases, by twisting the cut end of the artery.--_n._ TORSIBIL'ITY.--_adj._ TOR'SIONAL, pertaining to, or resulting from, torsion.--_n._ TOR'SION-BAL'ANCE, an instrument for measuring very minute forces by a delicate horizontal bar or needle, suspended by a very fine thread or wire.--_adj._ TOR'SIVE, twisted spirally. [L. _torsio_--_torqu[=e]re_, _tortum_, to twist.] TORSK, torsk, _n._ a genus of fish of the cod family, abundant in the northern parts of the Atlantic Ocean, characterised by a single long dorsal fin, and by having the vertical fins separate. [Sw. _torsk;_ Ger. _dorsch_, a haddock.] TORSO, tor's[=o], _n._ the trunk of a statue without head or limbs:--_pl._ TOR'SOS.--Also TORSE. [It.; prob. Teut., Old High Ger. _turso_, _torso_, stalk.] TORT, tort, _n._ a term in the law of England including all those wrongs, not arising out of contract, for which a remedy by compensation or damages is given in a court of law: (_Spens._) wrong, injury, calamity.--_adj._ TOR'TIOUS (_Spens._), wrongful, injurious. [Low L. _tortum_--L. _torqu[)e]re, tortum, to twist.]_ TORTICOLLIS, tor-ti-kol'is, _n._ wryneck. TORTILE, tor'til, _adj._ twisted: wreathed: coiled.--_n._ TORTIL'ITY.--_adj._ TOR'TIVE (_Shak._), twisted, wreathed. TORTILLA, tor-t[=e]'lya, _n._ a round flat cake made from maize in Mexico. [Sp., dim. of _torta_, a tart.] TORTOISE, tor'tis, or -tois, _n._ together with turtles, a well-defined order of reptiles, distinguished especially by the dorsal (_carapace_) and ventral (_plastron_) shields which protect the body.--_n._ TOR'TOISE-SHELL, the horny epidermic plate of a species of turtle.--_adj._ of the colour of the foregoing, mottled in yellow and black. [O. Fr. _tortis_--L. _tortus_, twisted.] TORTRIX, tor'triks, _n._ the typical genus of _Tortricidæ_, a family of small lepidopterous insects. TORTULOUS, tor't[=u]-lus, _adj._ having swellings at regular intervals. TORTUOUS, tor't[=u]-us, _adj._ twisted, winding: (_fig._) deceitful.--_adj._ TOR'TU[=O]SE, twisted: wreathed: winding.--_n._ TORTUOS'ITY, state of being tortuous.--_adv._ TOR'TUOUSLY.--_n._ TOR'TUOUSNESS. [Fr.,--L. _tortuosus_--_torqu[=e]re_, _tortum_, to twist.] TORTURE, tor't[=u]r, _n._ a putting to the rack or severe pain to extort a confession, or as a punishment: extreme pain: anguish of body or mind.--_v.t._ to put to torture or to the rack: to put to extreme pain: to annoy: to vex.--_n._ TOR'TURER.--_adv._ TOR'TURINGLY, in a torturing manner: so as to torment or punish.--_adj._ TOR'TUROUS, causing torture. [Late L. _tortura_, torment--_torqu[=e]re_.] TORUFFLED, too-ruf'ld, _adj._ (_Milt._) ruffled. TORULA, tor'[=u]-la, _n._ a small torus: the yeast-plant.--_adjs._ TOR'ULIFORM; TOR'ULOID; TOR'ULOSE; TOR'ULOUS.--_n._ TOR'ULUS, the socket of the antenna. [L. _torulus_, dim. of _torus_, swelling.] TORUS, t[=o]'rus, _n._ (_archit._) a moulding in the base of columns, the profile of which is semicircular: (_bot._) the receptacle or part of the flower on which the carpels stand: (_anat._) a rounded ridge, esp. one on the occipital bone of the skull:--_pl._ T[=O]'RI. [L., a round, swelling place, an elevation.] TORY, t[=o]'ri, _n._ a Conservative in English politics--a term since 1830 largely superseded by Conservative, but since 1880 a good deal revived in the sense frequently of a non-conservative Conservative.--_v.t._ T[=O]'RIFY, to infect with Tory principles.--_n._ T[=O]'RYISM, the principles of the Tories. [Ir. _toiridhe_, a pursuer; first applied to the Irish bog-trotters and robbers; next, about 1680, to the most hot-headed asserters of the royal prerogative.] TOSE, t[=o]z, _v.t._ (_obs._) to pull about, esp. to tease.--_adj._ T[=O]'SY, teased, soft. TOSH, tosh, _adj._ (_Scot._) neat, trim. TOSS, tos, _v.t._ to throw up suddenly or violently: to cause to rise and fall: to make restless: to agitate, pass from one to another: to toss up with: to drink off: to dress out smartly.--_v.i._ to be tossed: to be in violent commotion: to tumble about: to fling.--_n._ act of throwing upward: a throwing up of the head: confusion, commotion: a toss-up.--_v.t._ TOSS'EN (_Spens._), to toss, to brandish.--_n._ TOSS'ER.--_adv._ TOSS'ILY, pertly.--_ns._ TOSS'ING, the act of tossing or throwing upward: (_B._) violent commotion: (_mining_) process of washing ores; TOSS'-POT (_Shak._), a toper, a drunkard; TOSS'-UP, the throwing up of a coin to decide anything: an even chance or hazard.--_adj._ TOSS'Y, pert, contemptuous.--TOSS OFF, to drink off; TOSS UP, to throw up a coin and wager on which side it will fall. [Celt., as W. _tosio_, to jerk, _tos_, a quick jerk.] TOST, a form of _tossed_, _pa.p._ of _toss_. TOSTICATED, tos'ti-k[=a]-ted, _adj._ fuddled: perplexed--also TOS'SIC[=A]TED.--_n._ TOSTIC[=A]'TION, perplexity. TOT, tot, _n._ anything little, esp. a child: a drinking-cup holding but half-a-pint, a small dram.--_n._ TOT'TIE, a dim. of tot. [Cf. Ice. _tottr_, a dwarf.] TOT, tot, _v.t._ to add or sum up.--_n._ an addition of a long column. [Coll. abbrev. of _total_.] TOTAL, t[=o]'tal, _adj._ whole: complete: undivided: unqualified, absolute.--_n._ the whole: the entire amount.--_v.t._ to bring to a total, add up: to amount to.--_ns._ T[=O]TALIS[=A]'TION; T[=O]TALIS[=A]'TOR, T[=O]'TAL[=I]SER, an automatic betting-machine.--_v.t._ T[=O]'TAL[=I]SE.--_ns._ T[=O]'TAL[=I]SER; T[=O]TAL'ITY, the whole sum, quantity, or amount.--_adv._ T[=O]'TALLY.--_n._ T[=O]'TALNESS, entireness. [Fr.,--Low L. _totalis_--L. _totus_, whole.] TOTE, t[=o]t, _v.t._ to carry as a personal burden, to bear.--_n._ TOTE'-ROAD, a rough road for carriers. TOTEM, t[=o]'tem, _n._ a natural object, not an individual but one of a class, taken by a tribe, a family, or a single person, and treated with superstitious respect as an outward symbol of an existing intimate unseen relation.--_adj._ TOTEM'IC.--_ns._ T[=O]'TEMISM, the use of totems as the foundation of a vast social system of alternate obligation and restriction; T[=O]'TEMIST, one designated by a totem.--_adj._ T[=O]'TEMISTIC. [Algonquin _otem_, which must be preceded by the personal article, as _kitotem_=the family-mark, _nind-otem_=my family-mark.] T'OTHER, tuth'[.e]r, _indef. pron._ that other. TOTIENT, t[=o]'shi-ent, _n._ the number of totitives of a number. [L. _toties_, so many.] TOTIPALMATE, t[=o]-ti-pal'm[=a]t, _adj._ fully webbed in all four toes.--_n._ a bird showing this.--_n._ TOTIPALM[=A]'TION. TOTITIVE, tot'i-tiv, _n._ a number less than another having with it no common divisor but unity. TO-TORNE, t[=oo]-t[=o]rn', _p.adj._ (_Spens._) torn to pieces. TOTTER, tot'[.e]r, _v.i._ to shake as if about to fall: to be unsteady: to stagger: to shake.--_n._ TOTT'ERER.--_adv._ TOTT'ERINGLY, in a tottering manner.--_adjs._ TOTT'ERY, shaky; TOTT'Y (_Spens._), tottering, unsteady. [For _tolter_--M. E. _tulten_--A.S. _tealtrian_, to totter, _tealt_, unsteady.] TOUCAN, t[=oo]-kan', or t[=oo]'-, _n._ a genus of South American Picarian birds, with an immense beak. [Fr.,--Braz.] TOUCH, tuch, _v.t._ to come in contact with: to perceive by feeling: to reach: to relate to: to handle or treat gently or slightly, as in 'to touch the hat,' &c.: to take, taste: to move or soften: to influence: to move to pity: to taint: (_slang_) to cheat: to lay the hand upon for the purpose of curing scrofula or king's evil--a practice that ceased only with the accession of the House of Brunswick.--_v.i._ to be in contact with: to make a passing call: to speak of anything slightly: (_prov._) to salute by touching the cap.--_n._ act of touching: a movement on a musical instrument, skill or nicety in such, a musical note or strain: any impression conveyed by contact, a hint, a slight sound: a stroke with a pen, brush, &c.: a tinge, smack, trace, a slight degree of a thing: sense of feeling, contact, close sympathy, harmony: peculiar or characteristic manner: a style of anything at a certain expenditure: a touchstone, test.--_adj._ TOUCH'ABLE, capable of being touched.--_n._ TOUCH'ABLENESS, the state or quality of being touchable.--_adj._ TOUCH'-AND-GO, of uncertain issue, ticklish, difficult.--_ns._ TOUCH'-BACK, the act of touching the football to the ground behind the player's own goal when it has been kicked by an opponent; TOUCH'-BOX, a box containing tinder, which used to be carried by soldiers armed with matchlocks; TOUCH'-DOWN, the touching to the ground of a football by a player behind the opponents' goal; TOUCH'ER; TOUCH'-HOLE, the small hole of a cannon through which the fire is communicated to the charge.--_adv._ TOUCH'ILY, in a touchy manner: peevishly.--_n._ TOUCH'INESS, the quality of being touchy: peevishness: irritability.--_adj._ TOUCH'ING, affecting: moving: pathetic.--_prep._ concerning: with regard to.--_adv._ TOUCH'INGLY.--_ns._ TOUCH'INGNESS; TOUCH'-ME-NOT, a plant of genus _Impatiens_: lupus; TOUCH'-NEE'DLE, a small bar or needle of gold for testing articles of the same metal by comparing the streaks they make on a touchstone with those made by the needle; TOUCH'-P[=A]'PER, paper steeped in saltpetre for firing a train of powder, &c.; TOUCH'PIECE, a coin or medal formerly given by English sovereigns to those whom they touched for the cure of the king's evil; TOUCH'STONE, a kind of compact basalt or stone for testing gold or silver by the streak of the touch-needle: any test; TOUCH'WOOD, some soft combustible material, as amadou, used as tinder.--_adj._ TOUCH'Y, irritable: peevish.--TOUCH UP, to improve by a series of small touches, to elaborate, embellish.--A NEAR TOUCH, a close shave. [Fr. _toucher_--from Old High Ger. _zucchen_ (Ger. _zucken_), to move, to draw.] TOUGH, tuf, _adj._ not easily broken: firm: stiff, viscous, sticky: stubborn, hard to manage, trying: violent: tenacious: able to endure hardship.--_n._ a rough, a bully.--_v.t._ or _v.i._ TOUGH'EN, to make or become tough.--_adj._ TOUGH'ISH, rather tough.--_adv._ TOUGH'LY.--_n._ TOUGH'NESS. [A.S. _tóh_; cog. with Ger. _zähe_.] TOUPEE, t[=oo]-p[=e]', _n._ a little tuft or lock of hair, the top of a periwig, a small wig. [Fr. _toupet_.] TOUR, t[=oo]r, _n._ a going round: a journey in a circuit: a prolonged journey: a ramble.--_n._ TOUR'IST, one who makes a tour, a traveller for sight-seeing.--_adj._ TOURIS'TIC. [Fr.,--L. _tornus_, a turn.] TOURACO, t[=oo]'ra-k[=o], or t[=oo]-rä'-, _n._ a bird about the size of a pheasant found in the Amazon region, whose structure shows many anomalies--the sternal apparatus, the divided muscular crop, and the reptilian character of the head of the unhatched chick. TOURBILLON, t[=oo]r-bil'yun, _n._ anything with a spiral movement: a whirlwind: a kind of firework which gyrates in the air. [Fr., a whirlwind--L. _turbo_.] TOURMALIN, -E, t[=oo]r'ma-lin, _n._ a beautiful mineral, with vitreous lustre, mostly black, brownish-black, and bluish-black. [From _Tourmali_, in Ceylon, whence a variety of the stone was first brought.] TOURNAMENT, t[=oo]r'na-ment, _n._ a military sport of the Middle Ages in which combatants engaged one another to display their courage and skill in arms: any contest in skill involving a number of competitors and a series of games.--Also TOUR'NEY. [O. Fr. _tournoiement_, _tornoi_--_torner_--L. _torn[=a]re_, to turn.] TOURNIQUET, t[=oo]r'ni-ket, _n._ an instrument for compressing the main artery of the thigh or arm, either for the purpose of preventing too great a loss of blood in amputation, or to check dangerous hæmorrhage from accidental wounds, or to stop the circulation through an aneurism. [Fr., _tourner_--L. _torn[=a]re_, to turn.] TOURNURE, t[=oo]r-n[=u]r', _n._ contour, the characteristic turn of a drawing: a pad worn by women to give the hips a well-rounded outline, the drapery at the back of a gown. TOUSE, towz, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to pull, to tear, to tease or worry:--_pr.p._ tous'ing; _pa.p._ toused.--_n._ a pull: a disturbance.--_n._ TOUS'ER, one who, or that which, touses.--_v.t._ TOUS'LE (_coll._), to disarrange, to tumble.--_adj._ TOUS'Y, shaggy, unkempt, tousled. TOUT, towt, _v.i._ to look out for custom in an obtrusive way.--_n._ one who does so: a low fellow who hangs about racing-stables, &c., to pick up profitable information.--_n._ TOUT'ER, one who touts. [A.S. _tótian_, to look out.] TOUT, towt, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to pout.--_n._ a pet, a fit of the sulks, a sudden illness.--_adj._ TOUT'IE, petulant. TOW, t[=o], _v.t._ to pull a vessel through the water with a rope.--_n._ originally a rope for towing with: the coarse part of flax or hemp: the act of towing.--_ns._ TOW'AGE, act of towing: money for towing; TOW'-BOAT, a boat that is towed, or one used for towing other vessels.--_n.pl._ TOW'ING-BITTS, upright timbers projecting above the deck for fastening tow-lines to.--_ns._ TOW'ING-NET, a drag-net for collecting objects of natural history, &c.; TOW'ING-PATH, TOW'-PATH, a path, generally by the side of a canal or river, for horses towing barges; TOW'-[=I]'RON, a toggle-iron used in whaling; TOW'LINE, a line used in towing.--_adj._ TOW'Y, like tow. [A.S. _teóhan_, _teón_. Cf. _Tug_.] TOWARD, t[=o]'ard, TOWARDS, t[=o]'ardz, _prep._ in the direction of: with a tendency to: for, as a help to: near, about.--_adv._ nearly: in a state of preparation. [A.S. _tóweard_, _adj._--_tó_, to, and _ward_, sig. direction.] TOWARD, -LY, t[=o]'ward, -li, _adj._ ready to do or learn: apt.--_ns._ T[=O]'WARDNESS, T[=O]'WARDLINESS. TOWEL, tow'el, _n._ a cloth for wiping the skin after it is washed, and for other purposes: an altar-cloth.--_ns._ TOW'EL-HORSE, -RACK, a frame for hanging towels on; TOW'ELLING, cloth for towels: a thrashing.--A LEAD TOWEL, a bullet; AN OAKEN TOWEL, a cudgel. [O. Fr. _touaille_--Old High Ger. _twahilla_ (Ger. _zwehle_)--Old High Ger. _twahan_, to wash.] TOWER, tow'[.e]r, _n._ a lofty building, standing alone or forming part of another: a fortress: (_her._) a bearing representing a tower with battlements, &c.: a high head-dress worn by women under William III. and Anne.--_v.i._ to rise into the air: to be lofty.--_v.t._ (_Milt._) to rise aloft into.--_adjs._ TOW'ERED, having towers; TOW'ERING, very high, elevated: very violent; TOW'ERY, having towers: lofty. [O. Fr. _tur_--L. _turris_, a tower.] TOWHEE, tow'h[=e], _n._ the chewink, ground-robin, or marsh-robin of the United States. [Imit.] TOWN, town, _n._ a place larger than a village, not a city: the inhabitants of a town.--_ns._ TOWN'-CLERK, a clerk who keeps the records of a town; TOWN'-COUN'CIL, the governing body in a town, elected by the ratepayers; TOWN'-COUN'CILLOR, a member of a town-council; TOWN'-CR[=I]'ER, one who cries or makes public proclamations in a town; TOWN'HALL, a public hall for the official business of a town; TOWN'HOUSE, a house or building for transacting the public business of a town: a house in town as opposed to one in the country.--_adj._ TOWN'ISH, characteristic of town as opposed to country.--_ns._ TOWN'LAND, a township; TOWN'-MEET'ING, in New England, a primary meeting of the voters of a town.--_n.pl._ TOWNS'FOLK, the folk or people of a town.--_ns._ TOWN'SHIP, the territory or district of a town: the corporation of a town: a district; TOWNS'MAN, an inhabitant or fellow-inhabitant of a town.--_n.pl._ TOWNS'PEOPLE, townsfolk.--_ns._ TOWN'-TALK, the general talk of a town: the subject of common conversation; TOWN'Y, a townsman. [A.S. _tún_, an enclosure, town; Ice. _tún_, an enclosure, Ger. _zaun_, a hedge.] TO-WORNE, t[=oo]-worn', _p.adj._ (_Spens._) worn-out. TOXICOLOGY, tok-si-kol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the science of poisons.--_ns._ TOX[=E]'MIA, TOXÆ'MIA, TOXIC[=E]'MIA, TOXICÆ'MIA, blood-poisoning.--_adjs._ TOX[=E]'MIC, TOXÆ'MIC, septicemic; TOX'IC, -AL, pertaining to poisons, toxicological.--_adv._ TOX'ICALLY.--_adj._ TOX'ICANT, poisoning.--_n._ a poison.--_adj._ TOXICOLOG'ICAL, pertaining to toxicology.--_adv._ TOXICOLOG'ICALLY.--_ns._ TOXICOL'OGIST, one versed in toxicology; TOXIC[=O]'SIS, a morbid condition caused by the action of a poison; TOX'IN, -E, a poisonous ptomaine. [Gr. _toxikon_, arrow-poison--_toxikos_, for the bow--_toxon_, a bow, _logia_--_legein_, to say.] TOXOPHILITE, tok-sof'i-l[=i]t, _n._ a lover of archery: an archer.--_adj._ TOXOPHILIT'IC. [Gr. _toxon_, a bow, _philein_, to love.] TOY, toi, _n._ a child's plaything: a trifle: a thing only for amusement or look: a curious conceit, a story: a matter of no importance: amorous sport.--_v.i._ to trifle: to dally amorously.--_n._ TOY'ER, one who toys.--_adj._ TOY'ISH, given to toying or trifling: playful: wanton.--_adv._ TOY'ISHLY.--_ns._ TOY'ISHNESS; TOY'MAN, one who deals in toys; TOY'SHOP, a shop where toys are sold.--_adj._ TOY'SOME, disposed to toy: wanton. [Dut. _tuig_, tools; Ger. _zeng_, stuff.] TOYLE, toil (_Spens._). Same as _Toil_ (1). TOZE, t[=o]z, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to pull by violence or importunity:--_pr.p._ t[=o]z'ing; _pa.p._ t[=o]zed. TRABEATED, trä-b[=e]-[=a]'ted, _adj._ having an entablature: belonging to beam or lintel construction.--_adj._ TRAB'AL.--_ns._ TR[=A]'B[=E]A, a robe of state worn by consuls, augurs, &c. in ancient Rome:--_pl._ TR[=A]'BEÆ; TRAB[=E][=A]'TION, an entablature: combination of beams in a structure; TRABEC'ULA (_bot._), a projection from the cell-wall across the cell-cavity of the ducts of certain plants: one of the fibrous cords of connective tissue in the substance of spleen, kidneys, &c.: one of the fleshy columns, or _columnæ carneæ_, in the ventricle of the heart, to which the chordæ tendineæ are attached: (_entom._) one of the pair of movable appendages on the head, in front of the antennæ of some mallophagous insects--also TRABEC'ULUS:--_pl._ TRABEC'ULÆ.--_adj._ TRABEC'ULAR.--_n._ TRABEC'ULARISM.--_adjs._ TRABEC'ULATE, -D, having a trabecula. [L. _trabs_, a beam.] TRACE, tr[=a]s, _n._ a mark left: footprint: a small quantity: (_fort._) the ground-plan of a work.--_v.t._ to follow by tracks or footsteps, to discover the tracks of, to follow step by step, to traverse: to follow with exactness: to sketch: to cover with traced lines or tracery.--_v.i._ to move, travel: to dance.--_adj._ TRACE'ABLE, that may be traced.--_n._ TRACE'ABLENESS.--_adv._ TRACE'ABLY.--_ns._ TR[=A]'CER; TR[=A]'CERY, ornamentation traced in flowing outline: the beautiful forms in stone with which the arches of Gothic windows are filled for the support of the glass. [Fr.,--L. _tructus_, pa.p. of _trah[)e]re_, to draw.] TRACE, tr[=a]s, _n._ one of the straps by which a vehicle is drawn. [O. Fr. _trays_, _trais_, same as _traits_, pl. of _trait_; cf. TRAIT.] TRACHEA, tra-k[=e]'a, _n._ that part of the air-passages which lies between the larynx and the bronchi:--_pl._ TRACH[=E]'Æ.--_adjs._ TR[=A]'CH[=E]AL, pertaining to the trachea; TR[=A]'CH[=E]AN, having tracheæ.--_n.pl._ TR[=A]CH[=E][=A]'RIA, the tracheate arachnidans.--_adjs._ TR[=A]CH[=E][=A]'RIAN, pertaining to the tracheate arachnidans; TRA'CH[=E][=A]RY, pertaining to the trachea; TR[=A]'CH[=E][=A]TE, -D, having a trachea.--_ns._ TR[=A]CHENCH'YMA, tracheary tissue; TR[=A]CH[=E][=O]BRANCH'IA, a breathing-organ of certain aquatic insect larvæ.--_adj._ TR[=A]CH[=E][=O]BRONCH'IAL, pertaining to the trachea and the bronchi.--_n._ TR[=A]CH[=E]'[=O]C[=E]LE, an enlargement of the thyroid gland.--_adj._ TR[=A]CH[=E][=O]SCOP'IC, pertaining to tracheoscopy.--_ns._ TR[=A]CH[=E]'[=O]SCOPIST, one who practises tracheoscopy; TR[=A]CH[=E]'[=O]SC[=O]PY, the inspection of the trachea; TR[=A]'CHEOTOME, a knife used in tracheotomy; TR[=A]CH[=E]OT'[=O]MIST, one who practices tracheotomy; TR[=A]CHEOT'OMY, the operation of making an opening in the trachea; TR[=A]CH[=I]'TIS, TRACH[=E][=I]'TIS, inflammation of the trachea. [L. _trach[=i]a_--Gr. _trachys_, _tracheia_, rough.] TRACHELIUM, tr[=a]-k[=e]'li-um, _n._ the neck of a column: a genus of _Campanulaceæ_, native to the Mediterranean region.--_adj._ TR[=A]CH[=E]LO-OCCIP'ITAL, pertaining to the nape of the neck and the hind-head. [Gr. _trach[=e]los_, the neck.] TRACHINUS, tr[=a]-k[=i]'nus, _n._ the typical genus of _Trachinidæ_, a family of acanthopterygian fishes, the weevers. [Gr. _trachys_, rough.] TRACHLE, TRAUCHLE, träh'l, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to draggle: to fatigue.--_n._ a long and exhausting effort.--_adj._ TRACH'LY, dirty, slovenly. TRACHOMA, tra-k[=o]'ma, _n._ a disease of the eye, with hard pustules on the inner surface of the eyelids. TRACHURUS, tr[=a]-k[=u]'rus, _n._ a genus of carangoid fishes, the saurels. [Gr. _trachys_, rough, _oura_, tail.] TRACHYTE, tr[=a]'k[=i]t, _n._ a crystalline igneous rock, generally grayish in colour, usually fine-grained or compact, more or less markedly porphyritic, with large crystals of sanidine and scales of black mica.--_adjs._ TRACHYT'IC; TRACH'YTOID. [Gr. _trachys_, rough.] TRACING, tr[=a]'sing, _n._ act of one who traces: act of copying by marking on thin paper the lines of a pattern placed beneath: the copy so produced.--_n._ TR[=A]'CING-P[=A]'PER, a transparent paper which, when laid over a drawing, &c., allows the drawing to be seen through it, so that a copy can be made by tracing the lines of the original on the paper. TRACK, trak, _v.t._ to follow by marks or footsteps: to tow: to traverse: to make marks upon.--_n._ a mark left: footprint: a beaten path: course laid out for horse, foot, or bicycle races: the two continuous lines of rails on which railway carriages run.--_ns._ TRACK'AGE, a drawing or towing, as of a boat; TRACK'-BOAT, a boat towed by a line from the shore; TRACK'-CLEAR'ER, a guard in front of the wheels of a locomotive, &c., to clear any obstruction from the track; TRACK'ER, one who, or that which, tracks; TRACK'-LAY'ER, a workman engaged in laying railway-tracks.--_adj._ TRACK'LESS, without a path: untrodden.--_adv._ TRACK'LESSLY.--_ns._ TRACK'LESSNESS; TRACK'MAN, one who has charge of a railway-track; TRACK'-ROAD, a towing-path; TRACK'-WALK'ER, a trackman having charge of a certain section of railway-track.--IN ONE'S TRACKS, just where one stands; MAKE TRACKS, to go away hastily, to decamp; MAKE TRACKS FOR, to go after; OFF THE TRACK, derailed, of a railway carriage, &c.: away from the proper subject. [Fr. _trac_--Dut. _trek_, draught, _trekken_, to draw.] TRACT, trakt, _n._ something drawn out or extended: continued duration: a region, area: a short treatise: an anthem sung instead of the Alleluia after the gradual, or instead of it, from Septuagesima till Easter-eve.--_n._ TRACTABIL'ITY, quality or state of being tractable: docility.--_adj._ TRAC'TABLE, easily drawn, managed, or taught: docile.--_n._ TRAC'TABLENESS.--_adv._ TRAC'TABLY.--_n._ TRAC'TATE, a treatise, tract.--_adj._ TRAC'TILE, that may be drawn out.--_ns._ TRACTIL'ITY, the quality of being tractile: ductility; TRAC'TION, act of drawing or state of being drawn; TRAC'TION-EN'GINE, a steam vehicle for hauling heavy weights along a road, &c.--_adj._ TRAC'TIVE, that draws or pulls.--_ns._ TRAC'TOR, that which draws, esp. in _pl._ metallic tractors, two bars of iron and of steel, drawn over diseased parts of the body to give supposed relief; TRACTOR[=A]'TION, the use of metallic tractors in medicine. [L. _tractus_, pa.p. of _trah[)e]re_, to draw.] TRACTARIAN, trakt-[=a]r'i-an, _n._ one of the writers of the famous _Tracts for the Times_, published at Oxford during the years 1833-41--Pusey, Newman, Keble, Hurrell Froude, and Isaac Williams.--_ns._ TRACT[=A]R'IANISM, the system of religious opinion promulgated in these, its main aim to assert the authority and dignity of the Anglican Church; TRACT[=A]'TOR, one of the writers of the foregoing. TRADE, tr[=a]d, _n._ buying and selling: commerce: occupation, craft; men engaged in the same occupation: rubbish.--_v.i._ to buy and sell: to act merely for money.--_v.i._ to traffic with.--_adjs._ TR[=A]D'ED (_Shak._), versed, practised; TRADE'FUL (_Spens._), commercial, busy in traffic.--_ns._ TRADE'-HALL, a hall for the meetings of any trade or guild; TRADE'-MARK, any name or distinctive device warranting goods for sale as the production of any individual or firm; TRADE'-PRICE, the price at which goods are sold to members of the same trade, or are sold by wholesale to retail dealers; TR[=A]'DER; TRADE'-SALE, an auction sale of goods by producers, &c., to persons in the trade.--_n.pl._ TRADES'-FOLK, people employed in trade.--_n._ TRADES'MAN, a common name for a shopkeeper: a mechanic:--_fem._ TRADES'WOMAN.--_n.pl._ TRADES'PEO'PLE, people employed in various trades, esp. shopkeeping, &c.--_ns._ TRADES'-UN'ION, TRADE'-UN'ION, an organised association of the workmen of any trade or industry for the protection of their common interests; TRADE'-UN'IONISM; TRADE'-UN'IONIST; TRADE'-WIND, a wind blowing steadily toward the thermal equator and deflected westwardly by the eastward rotation of the earth.--_adj._ TR[=A]'DING, carrying on commerce (also _n._): (_Milt._) frequented by traders, denoting places where the trade-winds blow.--TRADE ON, to take advantage of.--BOARD OF TRADE, a department of government for control of railways, mercantile marine, harbours, and commercial matters generally. [A.S. _træd_, pa.t. of tredan, to tread. Not Fr. _traite_, transport of goods--L. _tract[=a]re_, freq. of _trah[)e]re_, to draw.] TRADE, tr[=a]d, _n._ (_Spens._) same as TREAD: (_Shak._) beaten path. TRADITION, tra-dish'un, _n._ the handing down of opinions or practices to posterity unwritten: a belief or practice thus handed down.--_adjs._ TRADI'TIONAL, TRADI'TIONARY, delivered by tradition.--_ns._ TRADI'TIONALISM; TRADITIONAL'ITY.--_advs._ TRADI'TIONALLY, TRADI'TIONARILY.--_n._ TRADI'TIONIST, one who adheres to tradition.--_adj._ TRAD'ITIVE, traditional. [L.,--_trans_, over, _d[)a]re_, to give.] TRADITOR, trad'i-tor, _n._ one of those early Christians who under persecution gave up copies of the Scriptures, the sacred vessels, or the names of their fellow-Christians. [L.,--_trad[)e]re_; to give up.] TRADUCE, tra-d[=u]s', _v.t._ to calumniate: to defame.--_ns._ TRADUCE'MENT, the act of traducing: (_Shak._) misrepresentation, calumny; TRAD[=U]'CER.--_adj._ TRAD[=U]'CIBLE.--_adv._ TRAD[=U]'CINGLY. [L. _traduc[)e]re_, to lead along--_trans_, across, _duc[)e]re_, to lead.] TRADUCTION, tra-duk'shun, _n._ the act of transferring, conveyance: (_Spens._) transfer: transmission from one to another, tradition: derivation from one of the same kind.--_ns._ TRAD[=U]'CIAN, one who believes in traducianism; TRAD[=U]'CIANISM, the belief, long prevalent in the Western Church, that children receive soul as well as body from their parents through natural generation--every soul being a fresh creation--also _Generationism_.--_adj._ TRADUC'TIVE. TRAFFIC, traf'ik, _n._ commerce: large trade: the business done on a railway, &c.--_v.i._ to trade: to trade meanly.--_v.t._ to exchange:--_pr.p._ traff'icking; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ traff'icked.--_n._ TRAFF'ICKER.--_adj._ TRAFF'ICLESS.--_n._ TRAFF'IC-MAN'AGER, the manager of the traffic on a railway, &c. [O. Fr. _trafique_; cf. It. _trafficare_, prob. from L. _trans_, across, and Low L. _vic[=a]re_, to exchange--L. _vicis_, change; not from fac[)e]re, to make.] TRAGACANTH, trag'a-kanth, _n._ a name given to several low spiny shrubs of the genus _Astragalus_, found in western Asia, as well as to the mucilaginous substance or gum derived from them. TRAGALISM, trag'a-lizm, _n._ goatishness, lust. TRAGEDY, traj'e-di, _n._ a species of drama in which the action and language are elevated, and the catastrophe sad: any mournful and dreadful event.--_n._ TRAG[=E]'DIAN, an actor of tragedy:--_fem._ TRAG[=E]'DIENNE.--_adjs._ TRAG'IC, -AL, pertaining to tragedy: sorrowful: calamitous.--_adv._ TRAG'ICALLY.--_ns._ TRAG'ICALNESS; TRAG'I-COM'EDY, a dramatic piece in which grave and comic scenes are blended.--_adjs._ TRAG'I-COM'IC, -AL.--_adv._ TRAG'I-COM'ICALLY. [Lit. 'goat-song,' so called either from the old dramas being exhibited when a goat was sacrificed, or from a goat being the prize, or because the actors were dressed in goat-skins--L. _tragoedia_--Gr. _trag[=o]dia_--_tragos_, a he-goat, _aoidos_, _[=o]dos_, a singer--_aeidein_, _adein_, to sing.] TRAGELAPHUS, tr[=a]-jel'a-fus, _n._ a fabulous animal associated with Diana: a genus of African antelopes, the boschbok, &c. [Gr.,--_tragos_, a goat, _elaphos_, a deer.] TRAGOPAN, trag'[=o]-pan, _n._ a genus of birds in the pheasant family, represented by five species in India and China, of most brilliant plumage. TRAGULINE, trag'[=u]-lin, _adj._ goat-like. TRAGUS, tr[=a]'gus, _n._ a small prominence at the entrance of the external ear: a corresponding process in bats, &c. [Gr. _tragos_.] TRAIK, tr[=a]k, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to wander about, to get lost: to decline in health.--_n._ a misfortune: the mutton of sheep that have died of disease or accident.--_adj._ TRAIK'ET, worn out.--TRAIK AFTER, to dangle after. TRAIL, tr[=a]l, _v.t._ to draw along the ground: to hunt by tracking: to draw out, lead on: to tread down, as grass, by walking through: to carry, as a musket or pike, in an oblique forward position, the breech or the butt near the ground.--_v.i._ to be drawn out in length, to hang or drag loosely behind: to run or climb as a plant: to move with slow sweeping motion: to drag one's self lazily along.--_n._ anything drawn out in length: track followed by the hunter.--_ns._ TRAIL'ER, one who trails: a climbing plant: a carriage dragged (or trailed) behind another to which the motive power is applied; TRAIL'-NET, a drag-net. [O. Fr. _traail_--Low L. _trahale_--L. _traha_, a sledge--_trah[)e]re_, to draw.] TRAIN, tr[=a]n, _v.t._ to draw along: to allure: to educate: to discipline: to tame for use, as animals: to cause to grow properly: to prepare men for athletic feats, or horses for the race.--_v.i._ to exercise, to prepare one's self for anything: to be under drill: to travel by train: (_coll._) to be on intimate terms with.--_n._ that which is drawn along after something else: the part of a dress which trails behind the wearer: a retinue: a series: process: a clue, trace: a line of gunpowder to fire a charge: a line of carriages on a railway: a set of wheels acting on each other, for transmitting motion: a string of animals, &c.: a lure, stratagem.--_adj._ TRAIN'ABLE, capable of being trained.--_ns._ TRAIN'-BAND, a band of citizens trained to bear arms; TRAIN'-BEAR'ER, one who bears or holds up a train, as of a robe or gown.--_adj._ TRAINED, formed by training, skilled.--_ns._ TRAIN'ER, one who prepares men for athletic feats, horses for a race, or the like; TRAIN'ING, practical education in any profession, art, or handicraft: the method adopted by athletes for developing their physical strength, endurance, or dexterity, or to qualify them for victory in competitive trials of skill, races, matches, &c.--including both bodily exercise and regulated dieting; TRAIN'ING-COL'LEGE, -SCHOOL, the same as _Normal school_ (see NORM); TRAIN'ING-SHIP, a ship equipped with instructors, &c., to train boys for the sea; TRAIN'-MILE, one of the aggregate number of miles traversed by the trains of any system--a unit of calculation.--TRAIN FINE, to discipline the body to a high pitch of effectiveness: to train the intellectual powers. [Fr. _train_, _trainer_, through Low L. forms from L. _trah[)e]re_, to draw.] TRAIN-OIL, tr[=a]n'-oil, _n._ whale-oil extracted from the blubber by boiling. [Old Dut. _traen_, whale-oil.] TRAIPSE. See TRAPE. TRAIT, tr[=a], or tr[=a]t, _n._ a drawing: a touch: a feature. [Fr.,--L. _tractus_, _trah[)e]re_, to draw.] TRAITOR, tr[=a]'tur, _n._ one who, being trusted, betrays: one guilty of treason: a deceiver:--_fem._ TRAIT'RESS.--_n._ TRAIT'ORISM.--_adv._ TRAIT'ORLY (_Shak._).--_adj._ TRAIT'OROUS, like a traitor: perfidious: treasonable.--_adv._ TRAIT'OROUSLY.--_n._ TRAIT'OROUSNESS. [Fr. _traître_--L. _traditor_--_trad[)e]re_, to give up.] TRAJECTORY, tra-jek't[=o]-ri, _n._ the curve described by a body (as a planet or a projectile) under the action of given forces.--_v.t._ TRAJECT', to throw across.--_ns._ TRAJ'ECT, a ferry: transmission; TRAJEC'TION, a crossing. [From L. _trajic[)e]re_, _-jectum_--_trans_, across, _jac[)e]re_, to throw.] TRAM, tram, _n._ a tramway or tramway-line: a four-wheeled coal-wagon in pits: a beam, bar, the shaft of a cart, barrow, &c.--_ns._ TRAM'-CAR, a tramway-car; TRAM'POT, the socket in which an upright spindle is stepped; TRAM'-ROAD, TRAM'WAY, a road or way for carriages or wagons to run along easily; TRAM'WAY-CAR, a carriage for conveying passengers along the public streets, running on rails, drawn by horses or impelled by cable traction, electrical power, or steam. [Prov. Eng. _tram_, a beam, is prob. cog. with Sw. dial. _tromm_, a log, Low Ger. _traam_, a beam, &c.] TRAMMEL, tram'el, _n._ a net used in fowling and fishing: shackles for making a horse amble: anything that confines.--_v.t._ to shackle: to confine:--_pr.p._ tramm'elling; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ tramm'elled.--_n._ TRAMM'ELLER. [O. Fr. _tramail_, a net--Low L. _tramacula_, from L. _tres_, three, _macula_, a mesh.] TRAMONTANE, tra-mon't[=a]n, _adj._ lying beyond the mountains (originally the Alps), from Rome: foreign: uncivilised.--_n._ TRAMONTÄ'NA, the north wind. [L. _trans_, beyond, _mons_, _montis_, a mountain.] TRAMP, tramp, _v.t._ to tread, to travel over on foot: (_Scot._) to tread clothes in a tub of water so as to cleanse them.--_v.i._ to walk, to go on foot: to wander about as a vagrant.--_n._ a foot-journey: a vagrant: a plate of iron worn by diggers under the hollow of the foot to save the shoe.--_n._ TRAMP'ER.--_vs.i._ TRAM'POUS, TRAM'POOSE, to tramp about.--_n._ TRAMP'-PICK, an iron pick forced by the foot into the ground. [M. E. _trampen_; an extension of _trap_, _trip_; cf. Ger. _trampen_.] TRAMPLE, tramp'l, _v.t._ to tread under foot: to tread with pride, to insult.--_v.i._ to tread in contempt: to tread forcibly and rapidly.--_n._ a trampling.--_n._ TRAMP'LER. [A freq. of _tramp_.] TRANCE, trans, _n._ a morbid sleep, differing from natural repose in duration, in profound insensibility, &c.--the concomitant or symptom of diseases of the nervous system, particularly hysteria: catalepsy.--_adv._ TRANCED (_Shak._), lying in a trance or ecstasy.--_adv._ TRANC'EDLY. [Fr. _transe_--L. _transitum_--_trans-[=i]re_, to go across, in Late L. to die.] TRANECT, tra-nekt', _n._ (_Shak._) a ferry. [L. _trans_, across, _nect[)e]re_, to join.] TRANGLE, trang'gl, _n._ (_her._) one of the diminutives of the fesse. TRANGRAM, trang'gram, _n._ a trumpery gimcrack.--Also TRANK'UM. TRANK, trangk, _n._ an oblong piece of skin from which the pieces for a glove are cut. TRANKA, trang'kä, _n._ a long cylindrical box balanced on their feet by jugglers. TRANQUIL, trang'kwil, _adj._ quiet: peaceful.--_n._ TRANQUILLIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ TRAN'QUILISE, to make tranquil.--_n._ TRANQUILL[=I]'SER.--_adv._ TRAN'QUILLISINGLY.--_n._ TRANQUILL'ITY.--_adv._ TRAN'QUILLY.--_n._ TRAN'QUILNESS, state of being tranquil: quietness. [Fr.,--L. _tranquillus_.] TRANSACT, trans-akt', _v.t._ to manage: to perform.--_v.i._ to manage anything.--_ns._ TRANSAC'TION, act of transacting: management of any affair: an affair: (_pl._) the reports or publications of certain learned societies; TRANSAC'TOR. [L. _transactum_, pa.p. of _transig[)e]re_--_trans_, through, _ag[)e]re_, carry on.] TRANSALPINE, trans-al'pin, _adj._ beyond the _Alps_ (in regard to Rome). [L. _transalpinus_--_trans_, beyond, _Alpinus_, pertaining to the Alps.] TRANSATLANTIC, trans-at-lan'tik, _adj._ beyond the Atlantic Ocean: crossing the Atlantic. TRANSCEND, tran-send', _v.t._ to rise above: to surmount: to surpass: to exceed.--_ns._ TRANSCEN'DENCE, TRANSCEN'DENCY.--_adjs._ TRANSCEN'DENT, transcending: superior or supreme in excellence: surpassing others: as applicable to _being_, relating to the absolute, transcending all limitation--as applicable to _knowledge_, pertaining to what transcends experience, being given _à priori_: beyond human knowledge: abstrusely speculative, fantastic; TRANSCENDEN'TAL, transcending: supereminent, surpassing others: concerned with what is independent of experience: vague.--_v.t._ TRANSCENDEN'TALISE.--_ns._ TRANSCENDEN'TALISM, the investigation of what is _à priori_ in human knowledge, or independent of experience: that which is vague and illusive in philosophy: the American reaction against Puritan prejudices, humdrum orthodoxy, old-fashioned metaphysics, materialistic philistinism, and materialism--best associated with the name of R. W. Emerson (1803-82); TRANSCENDEN'TALIST.--_advs._ TRANSCENDEN'TALLY; TRANSCEN'DENTLY.--_n._ TRANSCEN'DENTNESS. [L. _trans_, beyond, _scand[)e]re_, to climb.] TRANSCRIBE, tran-skr[=i]b', _v.t._ to write over from one book into another: to copy.--_ns._ TRANSCRIB'ER; TRANS'CRIPT, that which is transcribed: a copy; TRANSCRIP'TION, the act of copying: a transcript: a copy.--_adjs._ TRANSCRIP'TIONAL; TRANSCRIP'TIVE.--_adv._ TRANSCRIP'TIVELY. [L. _transcrib[)e]re_, _-scriptum_--_trans_, over, _scrib[)e]re_, to write.] TRANSCURRENT, trans-kur'ent, _adj._ passing transversely, as the postfrena of a beetle. TRANSDUCTOR, trans-duk'tor, _n._ that which draws across, esp. a muscle of the great-toe.--_n._ TRANSDUC'TION, the act of carrying over. TRANSENNA, tran-sen'a, _n._ a lattice-grating for enclosing shrines, as those of martyrs, while yet allowing the coffer to be seen. TRANSEPT, tran'sept, _n._ one of the wings or cross-aisles of a church, at right angles to the nave. [L. _trans_, across, _septum_, an enclosure--_sepes_, a hedge.] TRANSFARD, trans-fard', _p.adj._ (_Spens._) transferred. TRANSFER, trans-f[.e]r', _v.t._ to carry or bring over: to convey to another place: to remove: to transport:--_pr.p._ transfer'ring; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ transferred'.--_ns._ TRANS'FER, the act of transferring: the conveyance of anything from one person or place to another: that which is transferred; TRANSFERABIL'ITY, TRANSFERRIBIL'ITY.--_adjs._ TRANSFER'ABLE, TRANSFER'RIBLE, that may be transferred or conveyed from one place or person to another.--_ns._ TRANS'FER-BOOK, a register of the transfer of property, shares, &c.; TRANS'FER-DAY, one of certain regular days for registering transfer of bank-stock and government funds at the Bank of England; TRANSFER[=EE]', the person to whom a thing is transferred; TRANS'FERENCE, the act of transferring or conveying from one person or place to another: passage from one place to another; TRANS'FER-P[=A]'PER, a kind of prepared paper used for transferring impressions with copying-presses, &c.; TRANSFER'RER. [L. _trans_, across, _ferre_, to carry.] TRANSFIGURATION, trans-fig-[=u]r-[=a]'shun, _n._ a change of form.--_v.t._ TRANSFIG'URE (_rare_), to change the figure or form of: to change the appearance of--also TRANSFIG'[=U]R[=A]TE.--_n._ TRANSFIG'UREMENT.--THE TRANSFIGURATION, the supernatural change in the appearance of Christ, described in Matt. xvii.: a festival on 6th August, in commemoration of it. TRANSFIX, trans-fiks', _v.t._ to pierce through.--_n._ TRANSFIS'SION, cross-section.--_adj._ TRANSFIXED'.--_n._ TRANSFIX'ION. TRANSFLUENT, trans'fl[=oo]-ent, _adj._ flowing through.--_n._ TRANSFLUX', a flowing through. TRANSFORATE, trans'f[=o]-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to bore through.--_n._ TRANSFOR[=A]'TION. TRANSFORM, trans-form', _v.t._ to change the shape of: to change into another substance: to change the disposition.--_v.i._ to be changed in form or substance.--_adj._ TRANSFOR'MABLE.--_ns._ TRANSFORM[=A]'TION, change of form or substance, metamorphosis: the change of one metal into another: (_path._) any morbid change in a part; TRANSFORM[=A]'TION-SCENE, any scene on the stage which changes in presence of the audience.--_adj._ TRANSFOR'MATIVE.--_ns._ TRANSFOR'M[=A]TOR, TRANSFOR'MER.--_p.adj._ TRANSFOR'MING, effecting, or able to effect, a change of form or state.--_ns._ TRANSFOR'MISM, the theory of the development of one species from another; TRANSFOR'MIST.--_adj._ TRANSFORMIS'TIC. TRANSFRONTIER, trans-fron't[=e]r, _adj._ beyond the frontier. TRANSFUGE, trans'f[=u]j, _n._ a deserter.--Also TRANSF[=U]'GITIVE. [L. _transfuga_, a deserter.] TRANSFUND, trans-fund', _v.t._ to transfuse. TRANSFUSE, trans-f[=u]z', _v.t._ to pour out into another vessel: to cause to pass from one to another: to cause to be imbibed.--_n._ TRANSF[=U]'SER.--_adj._ TRANSF[=U]'SIBLE, capable of being transfused.--_ns._ TRANSF[=U]'SION, the act of transfusing, esp. blood from the veins of one animal into another; TRANSF[=U]'SIONIST.--_adj._ TRANSF[=U]'SIVE, tending or having power to transfuse.--_adv._ TRANSF[=U]'SIVELY. [L. _trans_, over, _fund[)e]re_, _fusum_, to pour.] TRANSGRESS, trans-gres', _v.t._ to pass beyond a limit: to break, as a law.--_v.i._ to offend by violating a law: to sin.--_adj._ TRANSGRES'SIBLE.--_n._ TRANSGRES'SION, the act of transgressing: violation of a law or command: offence: fault: crime: sin.--_adjs._ TRANSGRES'SIONAL; TRANSGRES'SIVE.--_adv._ TRANSGRES'SIVELY.--_n._ TRANSGRES'SOR, one who transgresses: one who violates a law or command: a sinner. [L. _trans_, across, _gradi_, _gressus_, to step.] TRANSHIP, tran-ship', _v.t._ to convey from one ship into another, or from one conveyance to another.--_ns._ TRANSHIP'MENT; TRANSHIP'PER; TRANSHIP'PING. TRANSHUMAN, trans-h[=u]'man, _adj._ more than human.--_v.t._ TRANSH[=U]'MANISE, to elevate into a higher or heavenly nature. TRANSIENT, tran'shent, _adj._ passing: of short duration: not lasting: momentary: (_mus._) intermediate.--_ns._ TRAN'SIENCE, TRAN'SIENCY, transientness.--_adv._ TRAN'SIENTLY.--_n._ TRAN'SIENTNESS. [L. _transiens_--_trans_, across, _[=i]re_, _itum_, to go.] TRANSILIENT, tran-sil'i-ent, _adj._ leaping across.--_n._ TRANSIL'IENCY. [L. _trans[=i]lire_, to leap across.] TRANSILLUMINATION, trans-il-l[=u]-mi-n[=a]'shun, _n._ a shining through. TRANSISTHMIAN, trans-ist'mi-an, _adj._ extending across an isthmus. TRANSIT, tran'sit, _n._ a passing over: conveyance: (_astron._) the passage of a heavenly body over the meridian of a place: the passage of a planet over the sun's disc: a transit circle, or instrument, for observing the transit of a heavenly body across the meridian.--_ns._ TRANS'IT-D[=U]'TY, a duty chargeable on goods passing through a country; TRANS'IT-IN'STRUMENT, an astronomical telescope mounted in the meridian and turning on a fixed east and west axis; TRANSI'TION, passage from one place or state to another: change: (_mus._) a change of key.--_adjs._ TRANSI'TIONAL, TRANSI'TIONARY, containing or denoting transition: of intermediate character between species or genera, transmutational: characteristic of one epoch or style in its transition to another.--_adv._ TRANSI'TIONALLY.--_adj._ TRANS'ITIVE, passing over: having the power of passing: (_gram._) denoting a verb which has a direct object.--_adv._ TRANS'ITIVELY.--_n._ TRANS'ITIVENESS.--_adv._ TRANS'ITORILY.--_n._ TRANS'ITORINESS.--_adj._ TRANS'ITORY, going or passing away: lasting for a short time: speedily vanishing.--_n._ TRANS'IT-TRADE, the trade of carrying foreign goods through a country. TRANSLATE, trans-l[=a]t', _v.t._ to remove to another place: to render into another language: to explain: to transfer from one office to another: to transform.--_adj._ TRANSL[=A]'TABLE, capable of being translated or rendered into another language.--_n._ TRANSL[=A]'TION, the act of translating: removal to another place: the rendering into another language: a version: (_slang_) the process of working up new things from old materials: motion free from rotation: the automatic retransmission of a telegraphic message.--_adjs._ TRANSL[=A]'TIONAL, TRANS'L[=A]TORY.--_n._ TRANSL[=A]'TOR:--_fem._ TRANSL[=A]'TRESS. [Fr.,--L. _trans_, over, _ferre_, _latum_, to carry.] TRANSLEITHAN, trans-l[=i]'than, _adj._ beyond the Leitha, the boundary river between the archduchy of Austria and Hungary. TRANSLITERATE, trans-lit'e-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to express the words of one language in the alphabetic characters of another.--_ns._ TRANSLITER[=A]'TION; TRANSLIT'ER[=A]TOR. TRANSLUCENT, trans-l[=u]'sent, _adj._ shining through: allowing light to pass, but not transparent: clear.--_ns._ TRANSL[=U]'CENCE, TRANSL[=U]'CENCY.--_adv._ TRANSL[=U]'CENTLY.--_adj._ TRANSL[=U]'CID, translucent. [L. _translucens_--_trans_, across, _luc[=e]re_, to shine--_lux_, _lucis_, light.] TRANSLUNAR, trans-l[=u]'nar, _adj._ beyond the moon.--Also TRANS'L[=U]NARY. TRANSMARINE, trans-ma-r[=e]n', _adj._ across or beyond the sea. TRANSMEABLE, trans'm[=e]-a-bl, _adj._ capable of being traversed.--_v.t._ TRANS'M[=E]ATE.--_n._ TRANSME[=A]'TION. TRANSMEW, trans-m[=u]', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to transmute, to transpose. TRANSMIGRATE, trans'mi-gr[=a]t, _v.i._ to migrate or remove across, esp. to another country: to pass into another country or state.--_adj._ TRANS'MIGRANT.--_ns._ TRANSMIGR[=A]'TION, the act of removing to another country: the passing into another state: the passage of the soul after death into another body; TRANS'MIGR[=A]TOR.--_adj._ TRANSM[=I]'GR[=A]TORY, passing to another place, body, or state. TRANSMIT, trans-mit', _v.t._ to send across to another person or place: to suffer to pass through:--_pr.p._ transmit'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ transmit'ted.--_n._ TRANSMISSIBIL'ITY.--_adjs._ TRANSMIS'SIBLE, TRANSMIT'TIBLE, that may be transmitted from one to another, or through any body or substance.--_ns._ TRANSMIS'SION, TRANSMIT'TAL, act of transmitting: the sending from one place or person to another: passage through.--_adj._ TRANSMIS'SIVE, transmitted: derived from one to another.--_ns._ TRANSMIT'TANCE, transfer; TRANSMIT'TER. [L. _trans_, across, _mitt[)e]re_, _missum_, to send.] TRANSMOGRIFY, trans-mog'ri-f[=i], _v.t._ (_coll._) to transform into something else, as by magic.--_n._ TRANSMOGRIFIC[=A]'TION. TRANSMONTANE, trans-mon-t[=a]n', _adj._ across a mountain. TRANSMORPHISM, trans-mor'fizm, _n._ the evolution of one thing from another. [L. _trans_, over, Gr. _morph[=e]_, form.] TRANSMOVE, trans-m[=oo]v', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to transpose. TRANSMUTE, trans-m[=u]t', _v.t._ to change to another form or substance.--_adj._ TRANSM[=U]'TABLE, that may be transmuted or changed into a different form, nature, or substance.--_ns._ TRANSM[=U]'TABLENESS, TRANSM[=U]TABIL'ITY.--_adv._ TRANSM[=U]'TABLY.--_adj._ TRANSM[=U]'TANT.--_ns._ TRANSM[=U]T[=A]'TION, a changing into a different form, nature, or substance; TRANSM[=U]T[=A]'TIONIST.--_adj._ TRANSM[=U]'TATIVE.--_n._ TRANSM[=U]'TER. [L. _trans_, over, _mut[=a]re_, to change.] TRANSNORMAL, trans-nor'mal, _adj._ beyond what is normal. TRANSOCEANIC, trans-[=o]-sh[=e]-an'ik, _adj._ crossing the ocean. TRANSOM, tran'sum, _n._ a thwart beam or lintel, esp. the horizontal mullion or crossbar of a window: in ships, the beam across the sternpost to strengthen the afterpart.--_n._ TRANS'OM-WIN'DOW, a window divided into two parts by a transom. [L. _transtrum_, a cross-bank--_trans_, across.] TRANSPADANE, trans-p[=a]'d[=a]n, _adj._ situated beyond the Po (L. _Padanus_), with reference to Rome. TRANSPARENCY, trans-p[=a]r'en-si, _n._ the quality of being transparent: clearness: that which is transparent: a picture on semi-transparent material seen by means of light shining through, a positive picture on glass, to be viewed by transmitted light: a humorous translation of the German title _Durchlaucht_--also TRANSP[=A]R'ENCE.--_adj._ TRANSP[=A]R'ENT, that may be distinctly seen through: clear.--_adv._ TRANSP[=A]R'ENTLY.--_n._ TRANSP[=A]R'ENTNESS. [L. _trans_, through, _par[=e]re_, to appear.] TRANSPICUOUS, tran-spik'[=u]-us, _adj._ (_Milt._) that can be seen through, transparent. [L. _transpic[)e]re_, to see through--_trans_, through, _spec[)e]re_, to look.] TRANSPIERCE, trans-p[=e]rs', _v.t._ to pierce through: to permeate. TRANSPIRE, tran-sp[=i]r', _v.t._ to breathe or pass through the pores of the skin.--_v.i._ to exhale: to become public, to come to light: to occur (a bad use).--_adj._ TRANSP[=I]R'ABLE.--_n._ TRANSPIR[=A]'TION, act or process of transpiring; exhalation through the skin.--_adj._ TRANSP[=I]R'ATORY.--_n._ TRANS'PIRY, act of transpiring. [L. _trans_, through, _spir[=a]re_, to breathe.] TRANSPLANT, trans-plant', _v.t._ to remove and plant in another place: to remove.--_adj._ TRANSPLAN'TABLE.--_ns._ TRANSPLANT[=A]'TION, act of transplanting, the removal of a living plant to another place, the removal of living tissue from one part of the body, or from one individual, to another; TRANSPLAN'TER, a machine for moving trees. TRANSPONTINE, trans-pon'tin, _adj._ situated across a bridge, esp. belonging to the part of London on the Surrey side of the Thames, hence melodramatic from the tastes of the theatres there. TRANSPORT, trans-p[=o]rt', _v.t._ to carry across or from one place to another: to banish: to carry away by violence of passion or pleasure.--_ns._ TRANS'PORT, carriage from one place to another: a vessel for conveyance: the conveyance of troops and their necessaries by sea or land: ecstasy; TRANSPORTABIL'ITY.--_adj._ TRANSPOR'TABLE, that may be carried across.--_ns._ TRANSPOR'TAL, transportation; TRANSPOR'TANCE (_Shak._), conveyance, removal; TRANSPORT[=A]'TION, removal: banishment.--_p.adj._ TRANSPOR'TED, carried away with ecstatic emotion.--_adv._ TRANSPOR'TEDLY.--_ns._ TRANSPOR'TEDNESS; TRANSPOR'TER.--_p.adj._ TRANSPOR'TING, carrying away with emotion: passionate: ravishing.--_adv._ TRANSPOR'TINGLY.--_ns._ TRANS'PORT-RID'ER, a carrier; TRANS'PORT-SHIP, -VESS'EL, a ship used for transporting, esp. for conveying troops, stores, &c. [L. _trans_, across, _port[=a]re_, to carry.] TRANSPOSE, trans-p[=o]z', _v.t._ to put each in the place of the other: to change, as the order of words, or the key in music.--_adj._ TRANSP[=O]'SABLE.--_ns._ TRANSP[=O]'SAL, a change of place or order; TRANSP[=O]'SER; TRANSPOSI'TION, act of putting one thing in place of another: state of being transposed; a change of the order of words: (_mus._) a change of key into a higher or lower scale.--_adjs._ TRANSPOSI'TIONAL; TRANSPOS'ITIVE.--_adv._ TRANSPOS'ITIVELY.--_n._ TRANSPOS'ITOR. [Fr.,--L. _transpon[)e]re_--_trans_, across, _pon[)e]re_, to place.] TRANSPRINT, trans-print', _v.t._ to print out of place. TRANS-SHAPE, trans-sh[=a]p', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to change into another shape, to transform. TRANS-SHIP. Same as TRANSHIP. TRANSUBSTANTIATE, tran-sub-stan'shi-[=a]t, _v.t._ to change to another substance.--_ns._ TRANSUBSTANTI[=A]'TION, a change into another substance: (_R.C._) the conversion, in the consecration of the elements of the Eucharist, of the whole substance of the bread and wine into Christ's body and blood, only the appearances of bread and wine remaining; TRANSUBSTANTI[=A]'TIONALIST, TRANSUBSTAN'TI[=A]TOR. [L. _trans_, across, _substantia_, a substance.] TRANSUDE, tran-s[=u]d', _v.i._ to ooze or pass through the pores or interstices of a membrane or substance.--_pr.p._ trans[=u]d'ing; _pa.p._ trans[=u]d'ed.--_n._ TRANSUD[=A]'TION.--_adj._ TRANS[=U]'DATORY. [L. _trans_, through, _sud[=a]re_, to sweat.] TRANSUMPTIVE, tran-sump'tiv, _adj._ transferred from one to another.--_ns._ TRANSUMPT', a copy of a writing; TRANSUMP'TION, the act of taking from one place to another. TRANSVERBERATE, trans-v[.e]r'be-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to beat or strike through. TRANSVERSE, trans-v[.e]rs', _adj._ turned or lying across.--_adv._ crosswise.--_n._ TRANSVER'SAL, a line drawn across several others so as to cut them all.--_adv._ TRANSVER'SALLY.--_adj._ TRANS'VERSARY.--_adv._ TRANSVERSE'LY, in a transverse or cross direction.--_n._ TRANSVER'SION. [L. _trans_, across, _vert[)e]re_, _versum_, to turn.] TRANSYLVANIAN, tran-sil-v[=a]'ni-an, _adj._ belonging to _Transylvania_, in Austro-Hungary. TRANT, trant, _v.i._ (_prov._) to go about.--_n._ TRAN'TER, a peddler. TRAP, trap, _n._ an instrument for snaring animals: an ambush: a stratagem: a contrivance for hindering the passage of foul air from a waste-pipe, &c.: a trap-door: any rickety structure: a carriage, a vehicle: (_slang_) a policeman.--_v.t._ to catch in a trap:--_pr.p._ trap'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ trapped.--_ns._ TRAP'-BALL, an old game played with a ball or bat and trap; TRAP'-DOOR, a door in a floor shutting like the catch of a trap; TRAP'-FALL, a trap-door which gives way beneath the feet; TRAP'PER, one who traps animals for their fur, &c.; TRAP'PINESS, the state of being trappy or unsafe; TRAP'PING; TRAP'-STAIR, a stair or kind of ladder surmounted by a trap-door.--_adj._ TRAP'PY, treacherous. [A.S. _træppe_; cog. with Old High Ger. _trapa_, a snare (whence Fr. _trappe_, by which the Eng. word has been modified).] TRAP, trap, _n._ a term loosely applied to many rocks of volcanic origin, so called because lying often in steps or terraces.--_adjs._ TRAP'P[=E]AN, TRAP'POUS, TRAP'PY.--_ns._ TRAP'-T[=U]'FA, -TUFF, a variety of tufa consisting of the detrital matter of trap-rock. [Sw. _trapp_--_trappa_, a stair.] TRAP, trap, _v.t._ to drape or adorn with gay clothes: to ornament:--_pr.p._ trap'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ trapped.--_n._ a horse-cloth: (_pl._) one's personal belongings, luggage.--_n.pl._ TRAP'PINGS, gay clothes: ornaments, esp. those put on horses. [Fr. _drap_--Low L. _drappus_, cloth; cf. _Drab_, _Drape_.] TRAPAN, tra-pan', _v.t._ to trap, to ensnare:--_pr.p._ trapan'ning; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ trapanned'.--_n._ a snare: a stratagem: a trapanner.--_n._ TRAPAN'NER. [From _trap_, instrument for snaring.] TRAPE, tr[=a]p, _v.i._ to run about idly or like a slattern.--_n._ TRAPES, a slattern: a tramp.--_v.i._ TRAPES, TRAIPSE, to gad about idly. TRAPEZIUM, tra-p[=e]'zi-um, _n._ a plane figure having four unequal sides, no two of which are parallel: one of the wrist-bones--also TRAP[=E]ZE':--_pl._ TRAP[=E]'ZIA, TRAP[=E]'ZIUMS.--_n._ TRAP[=E]ZE', a swing of one or more cross-bars used in gymnastic exercises.--_adjs._ TRAP[=E]'ZIAN, having opposed trapeziform faces; TRAP[=E]'ZIFORM, having the form of a trapeze.--_n._ TRAP'EZOID (also TRAP[=E]'ZOID), a plane four-sided figure like a trapezium, having two of its opposite sides parallel.--_adj._ TRAPEZOID'AL, having the form of a trapezoid. [Gr. _trapezion_ dim. of _trapeza_, a table; from _tetra_, four, _pous_, _podos_, a foot.] TRAPPIST, trap'ist, _n._ a member of a monastic body, a branch of the Cistercians, noted for the extreme austerity of the rule--so named from the abbey of La _Trappe_ in the French department of Orne.--_n._ TRAP'PISTINE, a nun of this order of La Trappe. TRASH, trash, _n._ a clog fastened to a dog or other animal to restrain his movements.--_v.t._ to encumber, check. TRASH, trash, _v.t._ to crop: to strip off superfluous leaves.--_n._ refuse, matter unfit for food, rubbish good for nothing, a worthless person.--_n._ TRASH'ERY, trash, rubbish.--_adv._ TRASH'ILY.--_ns._ TRASH'INESS, the state or quality of being trashy; TRASH'TRIE (_Scot._), trash.--_adj._ TRASH'Y, like trash; worthless. [Prob. Scand., Ice. _tros_, fallen twigs.] TRASH, trash, _v.t._ to wear out, to harass. TRASS, tras, _n._ a volcanic earth used as a hydraulic cement. [Dut. _tras_.] TRATTORIA, trat-t[=o]-r[=e]'a, _n._ a cook-shop. [It.] TRAUMA, traw'ma, _n._ an abnormal condition of the body caused by external injury.--_adj._ TRAUMAT'IC, produced by wounds.--_adv._ TRAUMAT'ICALLY.--_n._ TRAUM'ATISM, trauma. [Gr., a wound.] TRAVAIL, trav'[=a]l, _n._ excessive labour: toil: labour in childbirth.--_v.i._ to labour: to suffer the pains of childbirth.--_p.adj._ TRAV'EILED (_Spens._), toiled. [O. Fr. _travail_--Low L. _travaculum_, a shackle--L. _trabs_, a beam.] TRAVAIL, tra-v[=a]'ye, _n._ an appliance used among some North American Indians as a means of transporting sick persons, goods, &c.--a kind of litter attached by two poles on each side to a pack-saddle, the other ends trailing on the ground:--_pl._ TRAVAUX (tra-v[=o]'). [Fr.] TRAVE, tr[=a]v, _n._ a beam: a wooden frame to confine unruly horses while being shod. [O. Fr. _traf_, _tref_--L. _trabs_, _trabis_, a beam.] TRAVEL, trav'el, _v.i._ to walk: to journey: to pass: to move.--_v.t._ to pass: to journey over:--_pr.p._ trav'elling; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ trav'elled.--_n._ act of passing from place to place: journey: labour: (_pl._) an account of a journey.--_p.adj._ TRAV'ELLED, having made journeys: knowing.--_ns._ TRAV'ELLER, one who travels: a wayfarer: one who travels for a mercantile house: a ring that slides along a rope or spar; TRAV'ELLER'S-JOY, the virgin's-bower, _Clematis Vitalba_; TRAV'ELLER'S-TALE, a story that cannot be accepted, a tall story, an astounding lie, a whopper; TRAV'ELLER'S-TREE, a remarkable Madagascar tree, its stem resembling a plantain, but sending out leaves only on two opposite sides, like a great expanded fan.--_adj._ TRAV'ELLING.--_ns._ TRAV'ELLING-BAG, a bag for carrying necessaries on a journey, toilet articles, &c.; TRAV'ELLING-CARR'IAGE, a heavy carriage, fitted up for travelling in before railways; TRAV'ELLING-COU'VERT, a set of table utensils, arranged to pack up easily for travelling; TRAV'ELLING-CRANE, a crane fixed on a carriage which may be moved on rails; TRAV'ELLING-DRESS, a plain and easy dress to wear when travelling.--_p.adjs._ TRAV'EL-SOILED, -STAINED, showing the marks of travel; TRAV'EL-TAINT'ED (_Shak._), fatigued with travel, harassed. [A form of _travail_.] TRAVERSE, trav'[.e]rs, _adj._ turned or lying across: denoting a method of cross-sailing.--_n._ anything laid or built across: something that crosses or obstructs: a turn: (_law_) a plea containing a denial of some fact alleged by an opponent: a work for protection from the fire of an enemy: a gallery from one side of a large building to another.--_v.t._ to cross: to pass over: to survey: to plane across the grain of the wood: (_law_) to deny an opponent's allegation.--_v.i._ (_fencing_) to use the motions of opposition or counteraction: to direct a gun to the right or left of its position.--_adv._ athwart, crosswise--(_obs._) TRAV'ERS.--_adj._ TRAV'ERSABLE, that may be traversed or denied.--_ns._ TRAV'ERSER; TRAV'ERSE-T[=A]'BLE, a table or platform for shifting carriages to other rails; TRAV'ERSING-PLAT'FORM, a platform to support a gun and carriage which can easily be turned round. [L. _trans_, across, _vert[)e]re_, _versum_, to turn.] TRAVERTIN, -E, trav'er-tin, _n._ the Italian name for limestone formed by springs holding lime in solution. [It. _travertino_--L. _tiburtinus_ (_lapis_), stone of Tibur.] TRAVESTY, trav'es-ti, _adj._ having on the vesture or appearance of another: disguised so as to be ridiculous.--_n._ a kind of burlesque in which the original characters are preserved, the situations parodied.--_v.t._ to turn into burlesque. [Fr. _travestir_, to disguise--L. _trans_, over, _vest[=i]re_, to clothe.] TRAWL, trawl, _v.i._ to fish by dragging a trawl along the bottom.--_v.t._ to drag, to take with a trawl.--_n._ a wide-mouthed bag-net for trawling: a long line buoyed upon water, with baited hooks at intervals.--_ns._ TRAW'LER, one who, or that which, trawls: a vessel engaged in trawling--a method adopted in deep-sea fishing; TRAW'LING. [O. Fr. _trauler_, also _troller_, to go hither and thither.] TRAY, tr[=a], _n._ a shallow trough-like vessel: a salver. [M. E. _treye_--A.S. _treg_.] TRAY, TREY, tr[=a], _n._ the third branch of a deer's antler. TRAYLED, tr[=a]ld, _p.adj._ (_Spens._) interwoven, adorned. TRAY-TRIP, tr[=a]'-trip, _n._ (_Shak._) a game at dice. TREACHERY, trech'[.e]r-i, _n._ faithlessness.--_ns._ TREACH'ER, TREACH'ETOUR, TREACH'OUR (_obs._), a traitor.--_adj._ TREACH'EROUS, full of treachery: faithless.--_adv._ TREACH'EROUSLY.--_n._ TREACH'EROUSNESS. [O. Fr. _tricherie_--_tricher_--Teut., Mid. High Ger. _trechen_, to draw. _Trick_ is a doublet.] TREACLE, tr[=e]'kl, _n._ the dark, viscous uncrystallisable syrup obtained in refining sugar, also the drainings of crude sugar, properly distinguished from treacle as molasses.--_ns._ TREA'CLE-SLEEP, a sweet and refreshing sleep; TREA'CLINESS, viscosity.--_adj._ TREA'CLY, composed of, or like, treacle. [Orig. 'an antidote against the bite of poisonous animals,' O. Fr. _triacle_--L. _theriacum_--Gr. _th[=e]riaka_ (_pharmaka_), antidotes against the bites of wild beasts--_th[=e]rion_, a wild beast.] TREAD, tred, _v.i._ to set the foot down: to walk or go: to copulate, as fowls.--_v.t._ to walk on: to press with the foot: to trample in contempt: to subdue:--_pa.t._ trod; _pa.p._ trod or trod'den.--_n._ pressure with the foot: a step, way of stepping.--_ns._ TREAD'ER; TREAD'ING; TREAD'LE, TRED'DLE, the part of any machine which the foot moves.--_vs.i._ to work a treadle.--_ns._ TREAD'LER; TREAD'LING; TREAD'-MILL, a mill in which a rotary motion is produced by the weight of a person or persons treading or stepping from one to another of the steps of a cylindrical wheel, used chiefly as an instrument of prison discipline; TREAD'-WHEEL, a form of tread-mill with steps on its exterior surface, by treading on which the wheel is turned.--TREAD DOWN, to trample to destruction; TREAD IN ONE'S FOOTSTEPS, or STEPS, to follow one's example; TREAD ON, or UPON, to trample with contempt: to come close after; TREAD ON ONE'S TOES, to give offence to one; TREAD ON, or UPON, THE HEELS OF, to follow close after; TREAD OUT, to press out with the feet: to extinguish; TREAD UNDERFOOT, to treat with scorn: to destroy. [A.S. _tredan_; Ice. _trodha_, Ger. _treten_.] TREAGUE, tr[=e]g, _n._ (_Spens._) a truce. [It. _tregua_--Low L. _treuga_--Goth. _triggwa_.] TREASON, tr[=e]'zn, _n._ betraying of the government or an attempt to overthrow it: treachery; disloyalty.--_adj._ TREA'SONABLE, pertaining to, consisting of, or involving treason.--_n._ TREA'SONABLENESS.--_adv._ TREA'SONABLY.--_adj._ TREA'SONOUS.--TREASON FELONY, the crime of desiring to depose the sovereign, intimidate parliament, stir up a foreign invasion, &c.--declared by statute in 1848.--CONSTRUCTIVE TREASON, anything which may be interpreted as equivalent to actual treason by leading naturally to it; HIGH TREASON, offences against the state; MISPRISION OF TREASON, knowledge of the principal crime and concealment thereof; PETTY TREASON, the murder of a husband by a wife, a master by a servant, &c. [O. Fr. _traïson_ (Fr. _trahison_)--_trahir_--L. _trad[)e]re_, to betray.] TREASURE, trezh'[=u]r, _n._ wealth stored up: riches: a great quantity collected: great abundance: anything much valued: (_obs._) a treasure-house.--_v.t._ to board up: to collect for future use: to value greatly: to enrich.--_ns._ TREAS'URE-CHEST, a box for keeping articles of value; TREAS'URE-CIT'Y, a city for stores, magazines, &c.; TREAS'URE-HOUSE, a house for holding treasures; TREAS'URER, one who has the care of a treasure or treasury: one who has charge of collected funds; TREAS'URERSHIP; TREAS'URY, a place where treasure is deposited: a department of a government which has charge of the finances: one of a class of subterranean structures, now believed to be merely sepulchral; TREAS'URY-BENCH, the first row of seats on the Speaker's right hand in the House of Commons, occupied by the members of the government. [Fr. _trésor_--L. _thesaurus_--Gr. _th[=e]sauros_.] TREASURE-TROVE, trezh'[=u]r-tr[=o]v, _n._ treasure or money found in the earth, the owner unknown. [_Treasure_ and _trové_, pa.p. of O. Fr. _trover_, to find.] TREAT, tr[=e]t, _v.t._ to handle in a particular manner: to discourse on: to entertain, as with food or drink, &c.: to manage in the application of remedies: to use.--_v.i._ to handle a subject in writing or speaking: to negotiate: to give an entertainment.--_n._ an entertainment, esp. if of anything unusual: one's turn to provide such.--_adj._ TREAT'ABLE, moderate.--_ns._ TREAT'ER; TREAT'ING; TREAT'ISE, a written composition in which a subject is treated: a formal essay; TREAT'MENT, the act or manner of treating: management: behaviour to any one: way of applying remedies; TREAT'Y, the act of treating, negotiation: a formal agreement between states: (_Shak._, same as ENTREATY). [O. Fr. _traiter_--L. _tract[=a]re_, to manage--_trah[)e]re_, _tractum_, to draw.] TREBLE, treb'l, _adj._ triple: threefold: (_mus._) denoting the treble, that plays or sings the treble.--_n._ the highest of the four principal parts in the musical scale.--_v.t._ to make three times as much.--_v.i._ to become threefold:--_pa.p._ treb'led (-ld).--_adj._ TREB'LE-D[=A]'TED, living three times as long as man.--_n._ TREB'LENESS.--_p.adj._ TREB'LE-SIN'EWED (_Shak._), having threefold sinews, very strong.--_adv._ TREB'LY. [O. Fr.,--L. _triplus_.] TREBUCHET, treb'[=u]-shet, _n._ a military engine like the ballista. [O. Fr.] TRECENTO, tr[=a]-chen't[=o], _n._ the 14th century in Italian art, &c.--_n._ TRECEN'TIST, an admirer of it. [It.] TRECHOMETER, tre-kom'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an odometer. [Gr. _trechein_, to run, _metron_, measure.] TREDDLE. See TREAD. TREDDLE, tred'l, _n._ (_prov._) dung: (_slang_) a strumpet. TREDILLE, tre-dil', _n._ a game at cards for three.--Also TREDRILLE'. TREE, tr[=e], _n._ a plant having a single trunk, woody, branched, and of a large size: anything like a tree: wood, as in the compounds _axle-tree_, _saddle-tree_, &c.: a cudgel: (_B._) a cross.--_v.t._ to drive into a tree, to corner: to form on a tree.--_v.i._ to take refuge in a tree.--_ns._ TREE'-CAC'TUS, the giant cactus or saguaro; TREE'-CALF, a light-brown calf bookbinding, stained by acids into a conventional pattern, supposed to resemble the trunk of a tree and its branches; TREE'-DOVE, one of many arboricole Indian pigeons; TREE'-FERN, a fern with a tree-like, woody stem, and a head of fronds resembling the leaves of palms, found only in tropical countries; TREE'-FROG, a family of Amphibians, more closely related in structure to the toads than to frogs proper.--_adjs._ TREE'LESS, having no trees; TR[=EE]N, wooden, made of wood: (_Spens._) of trees.--_ns._ TREE'NAIL, TRE'NAIL, a long wooden pin or nail to fasten the planks of a ship to the timbers; TREE'-NYMPH, a hamadryad; TREE'-OF-LIB'ERTY, a tree dedicated to liberty, set up in some public place; TREE'-OF-LIFE, arbor vitæ: a tree in the garden of Eden, described in Gen. ii. 9; TREE'SHIP, existence as a tree; TREE'-TOP, the top of a tree; TREE'-WOR'SHIP, dendrolatry. [A.S. _treó_, _treów_; Ice. _tré_, Gr. _drus_, Sans. _dru_.] TREEN, tr[=e]n, _n._ a territorial division in the Isle of Man. [Illustration] TREFOIL, tr[=e]'foil, _n._ a three-leaved plant, as the white and red clover: (_archit._) an ornament like trefoil.--_n._ TREF'LE, a trefoil.--_adj._ TREFLE (tref'l[=a]), ending in a three-lobed figure (_her._). [L. _trifolium_--_tres_, three, _folium_, a leaf.] TREHALA, tr[=e]-hä'la, _n._ a kind of manna excreted by the insect _Larinus maculatus_, in the form of cocoons--also _Turkish manna_.--_n._ TR[=E]'HAL[=O]SE, a sugar extracted from trehala. TREILLAGE, trel'[=a]j, _n._ a frame to train shrubs and fruit-trees upon. [Fr.] TREK, trek, _v.i._ to drag a vehicle: to journey by ox-wagon.--_n._ the distance from one station to another.--_n._ TREK'KER, a traveller. [Dut. _trekken_, to draw.] TRELLIS, trel'is, _n._ a structure of cross-barred or lattice work, for supporting plants, &c.: a shed, &c., of trellis-work.--_adj._ TRELL'ISED, having a trellis, or formed as a trellis.--_n._ TRELL'IS-WORK, lattice-work. [O. Fr. _treillis_--L. _trichila_, a bower.] TREMANDO, tr[=a]-man'd[=o], _adv._ (_mus._) in a trembling, wavering manner. [It.] TREMATODA, trem-a-t[=o]'da, _n.pl._ a class of flat-worms whose members are parasitic in or on a great variety of animals, the body unsegmented, leaf-like or more or less cylindrical, and provided with adhesive suckers.--_n._ TREM'ATODE, one of the foregoing--also TREM'ATOID.--_adj._ TREM'ATOID, suctorial. [Gr. _tr[=e]mat[=o]d[=e]s_, porous--_tr[=e]ma_, a hole.] TREMBLE, trem'bl, _v.i._ to shake, as from fear, cold, or weakness: to shiver: to shake, as sound.--_n._ the act of trembling: a morbid trembling.--_ns._ TREM'BLEMENT; TREM'BLER; TREM'BLING.--_adv._ TREM'BLINGLY.--_n._ TREM'BLING-POP'LAR, the aspen.--_adj._ TREM'BLY, tremulous.--_adv._ tremulously.--_adjs._ TREM'[=U]LANT, TREM'[=U]LOUS, trembling: affected with fear: quivering.--_adv._ TREM'[=U]LOUSLY.--_n._ TREM'[=U]LOUSNESS. [O. Fr. _trembler_--L. _tremulus_, trembling--_trem[)e]re_, to shake.] TREMELLA, tr[=e]-mel'a, _n._ a genus of fungi, of the division _Hymenomycetes_, soft and gelatinous, mostly growing on decaying wood--_Witches' Meat_, _Fairy Butter_.--_adjs._ TREM'ELLOID, TREM'ELLOSE. TREMENDOUS, tr[=e]-men'dus, _adj._ such as astonishes or terrifies by its force or greatness: dreadful.--_adv._ TREMEN'DOUSLY.--_n._ TREMEN'DOUSNESS. TREMEX, tr[=e]'meks, _n._ a genus of hymenopterous insects. [Gr. _tr[=e]ma_, a hole.] TREMOLITE, trem'[=o]-l[=i]t, _n._ one of the amphibole group of minerals, composed of silica, magnesia, and lime, occurring usually in long prisms, white or gray, vitreous, translucent to opaque, usually associated with crystalline schistose rocks.--_adj._ TREMOLIT'IC. [From the Val _Tremola_ in the Alps.] TREMOLO, trem'[=o]-l[=o], _n._ (_mus._) a tremulous effect suggesting passion: the device in an organ by which this is produced--also TREM'OLANT, TREM'ULANT.--_adv._ TREMOLAN'DO, in a tremulous manner. [It.] TREMOR, trem'or, _n._ a shaking or quivering, any involuntary shaking.--_adj._ TREM'ORLESS. [_Tremble_.] TRENCH, trensh, _v.t._ to dig a ditch: to dig deeply with the spade or plough.--_v.i._ to encroach.--_n._ a long narrow cut in the earth: (_fort._) an excavation to interrupt the approach of an enemy: an excavated approach made by besiegers.--_n._ TREN'CHANCY, causticity.--_adjs._ TREN'CHANT, TREN'CHING, cutting: sharp: severe--(_Spens._) TREN'CHAND.--_ns._ TREN'CHER; TRENCH'-PLOUGH, a plough for trenching or turning up the land more deeply than usual.--_v.t._ to plough with a trench-plough. [O. Fr. _trencher_ (Fr. _trancher_), acc. to Littré from L. _trunc[=a]re_, to maim--_truncus_, maimed.] TRENCHER, tren'sh[.e]r, _n._ a wooden plate formerly used for cutting meat on at meals: the table: food: pleasures of the table.--_ns._ TREN'CHER-CAP, a style of college-cap: a mortar-board; TREN'CHER-FRIEND (_Shak._), one who frequents the table of another, a parasite; TREN'CHER-KNIGHT, -MAN (_Shak._), one who can do feats in the way of eating, a feeder; TREN'CHER-MATE, a table-companion, parasite. [O. Fr. _trenchoir_--_trencher_, to cut.] TREND, trend, _v.i._ to tend, to run, to go in a particular direction: to incline, lean.--_n._ tendency. [A.S. _trendan_.] TRENTAL, tren'tal, _n._ a service of thirty masses for thirty days, one each day, for a deceased person. [Low L. _trentale_--L. _triginta_, thirty.] TRENTE-ET-QUARANTE. See ROUGE-ET-NOIR. TREPAN, tr[=e]-pan', _v.t._ to ensnare:--_pr.p._ trepan'ning: _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ trepanned'. [Same as _trapan_, of which it is an erroneous spelling.] TREPAN, tr[=e]-pan', _n._ (_surg._) a small cylindrical saw used in perforating the skull: a powerful rock-boring tool.--_v.t._ to remove a circular piece of the skull with a trepan, in order to relieve the brain from pressure or irritation.--_ns._ TREPAN[=A]'TION, TREPAN'NING; TREPAN'NER. [Fr.,--Low L. _trepanum_--Gr. _tryp[)a]non_--_trypan_, to bore.] TREPANG, tr[=e]-pang', _n._ the Malay name for a species of Holothuria, much esteemed in China as a food delicacy--_bêche-de-mer_, sea-slug. [Illustration] TREPHINE, tre-f[=e]n', or tre-f[=i]n', _n._ the modern trepan, having a little sharp borer called the centre-pin.--_v.t._ to perforate with the trephine. TREPIDATION, trep-i-d[=a]'-shun, _n._ a state of confused hurry or alarm: an involuntary trembling.--_adj._ TREP'ID, quaking. [L. _trepid[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to hurry with alarm--_trepidus_, restless.] TRESPASS, tres'pas, _v.i._ to pass over a limit or boundary: to enter unlawfully upon another's land: to inconvenience by importunity: to intrude: to injure or annoy another: to sin.--_n._ act of trespassing: any injury to another's person or property: a sin.--_ns._ TRES'PASSER; TRES'PASS-OFF'ERING, an offering in expiation of a trespass or sin (See Lev. xiv. 12-18). [O. Fr. _trespasser_ (Fr. _trépasser_)--L. _trans_, across, _pass[=a]re_, to pass.] TRESS, tres, _n._ a lock or curl of hair: a ringlet (esp. in _pl._)--_v.t._ to form into tresses.--_adjs._ TRESSED, having tresses: formed into tresses or ringlets: curled; TRESS'Y, pertaining to tresses, like tresses. [Fr. _tresse_, through Low L. _tricia_, _trica_, from Gr. _tricha_, threefold--_treis_, three.] TRESSURE, tresh'[=u]r, _n._ (_her._) a subordinary, half the breadth of the orle, and usually borne double, and flowered and counter-flowered with fleurs-de-lis.--_p.adj._ TRES'SURED, having a tressure: arranged in the form of, or occupying the position of, a tressure. [Fr., from _tresser_, to plait.] TRESTLE, tres'l, _n._ a movable support fastened to a top-piece: the frame of a table--also, TRESS'EL.--_ns._ TREST (_Scot._), a beam: a stool; TRES'TLE-BRIDGE, one whose bed rests on framed sections or trestles; TRES'TLE-WORK, a series of trestles forming a viaduct. [O. Fr. _trestel_ (_tréteau_); ety. dub.; perh. through a Low L. dim. from L. _transtrum_, a beam.] TRET, tret, _n._ an allowance to purchasers of 4 lb. on every 104 lb. for waste. [Norm. Fr. _trett_, deduction (Fr. _trait_)--O. Fr. _traire_--L. _trah[)e]re_, to draw.] TREVISS, trev'is, _n._ a bar or beam separating stalls: a stall itself. [O. Fr. _travers_, across.] TREWS, tr[=oo]z, _n.pl._ trousers, esp. of tartan cloth.--_n._ TREWS'MAN, one wearing trews. [Ir. _trius_, Gael. _triubhas_. Cf. _Trousers_.] TREY, tr[=a], _n._ (_Shak._) a three at cards or dice: a card or die of three spots. [O. Fr. _treis_--L. _tres_, three.] TRIABLE, tr[=i]'a-bl, _adj._ subject to legal trial.--_n._ TR[=I]'ABLENESS. TRIACT, tr[=i]'akt, _adj._ having three rays.--Also TRIAC'TINAL, TR[=I]'ACTINE. TRIAD, tr[=i]'ad, _n._ the union of three: a Welsh composition arranged in groups of three: an association of three kindred deities.--_adj._ TRIAD'IC.--_n._ TR[=I]'ADIST, a composer of triads. [L. _trias_, _triadis_--Gr. _trias_, _triados_--_treis_, three.] TRIADELPHOUS, tr[=i]-a-del'fus, _adj._ (_bot._) having stamens united into three bundles. [Gr. _treis_, _tria_, three, _adelphos_, a brother.] TRIAGE, tr[=i]'[=a]j, _n._ what is picked out, esp. broken coffee-beans. TRIAL, tr[=i]'al, _n._ a trying: the act of trying: examination by a test: the state of being tried: suffering: temptation: judicial examination: attempt: a piece of ware used to test the heat of a kiln.--_ns._ TR[=I]'AL-DAY (_Shak._), day of trial; TR[=I]'AL-FIRE (_Shak._), a fire for trying or proving; TR[=I]'AL-TRIP, an experimental trip of a new vessel, to test her sailing-powers, &c.--ON TRIAL, on probation, as an experiment. TRIALISM, tr[=i]'a-lizm, _n._ the doctrine of the existence of body, soul, and spirit in man.--_ns._ TR[=I]AL'ITY, threeness; TR[=I]'ALOGUE, a colloquy of three persons. TRIANDRIA, tr[=i]-an'dri-a, _n._ an order of plants having three equal stamens.--_n._ TRIAN'DER, such a plant.--_adjs._ TRIAN'DRIAN, TRIAN'DROUS. [Gr. _treis_, _tria_, three, _an[=e]r_, _andros_, a male.] [Illustration] TRIANGLE, tr[=i]'ang-gl, _n._ (_math._) a plane figure with three angles and three sides: a musical instrument of percussion, formed of a steel rod bent in triangle-form, open at one angle: a frame of three halberds stuck in the ground to which soldiers were formerly bound to be flogged (generally _pl._).--_adjs._ TR[=I]'ANGLED, TRIANG'[=U]LAR, having three angles.--_n._ TRIANG[=U]LAR'ITY.--_adv._ TRIANG'[=U]LARLY.--_v.t._ TRIANG'[=U]L[=A]TE, to survey by means of a series of triangles.--_adv._ TRIANG'[=U]L[=A]TELY.--_n._ TRIANG[=U]L[=A]'TION, act of triangulating: the series of triangles so used.--_adj._ TRIANG'[=U]LOID. [Fr.,--L. _triangulum_--_tres_, three, _angulus_, an angle.] TRIAPSAL, tr[=i]-ap'sal, _adj._ having three apses.--Also TRIAP'SIDAL. TRIARCHY, tr[=i]'ar-ki, _n._ government by three persons: a state governed by three persons. [Gr. _triarchia_--_treis_, _tria_, three, _arch[=e]_, beginning, sovereignty.] TRIARIAN, tr[=i]-[=a]'ri-an, _adj._ of the third rank. TRIAS, tr[=i]'as, _n._ (_geol._) the oldest group of the Mesozoic or Secondary strata, formerly associated with the Permian rocks under the name of the New Red Sandstone.--_adj._ TRIAS'SIC. [So called by the German geologists, from their threefold grouping of the system, from Gr. _trias_, union of three.] TRIATOMIC, tr[=i]-a-tom'ik, _adj._ consisting of three atoms: trivalent. TRIAXIAL, tr[=i]-ak'si-al, _adj._ having three axes.--_n._ TRIAX'ON. [L. _tres_, _tri-_, three, _axis_, axis.] TRIBASIC, tr[=i]-b[=a]'sik, _adj._ having three hydrogen atoms replaceable by equivalents of a base--of some acids. TRIBBLE, trib'l, _n._ a horizontal frame for drying paper, having wires stretched across it. TRIBE, tr[=i]b, _n._ an aggregate of stocks--a stock being an aggregate of persons considered to be kindred--or an aggregate of families, forming a community usually under the government of a chief: a number of things having certain common qualities.--_adj._ TRIB'AL.--_n._ TRIB'ALISM.--_adv._ TRIB'ALLY.--_ns._ TRIBE'LET; TRIBES'MAN. [L. _tribus_, orig. applied to one of the three divisions of the ancient Roman people--_tri-_, _tres_, three.] TRIBLET, trib'let, _n._ a tapering mandrel on which rings, nuts, &c. are forged. TRIBOMETER, tr[=i]-bom'e-t[.e]r, _n._ a sled-like apparatus for measuring sliding friction. TRIBONYX, trib'[=o]-niks, _n._ a genus of Australian gallinules. [Gr. _tribein_, to rub, _onyx_, a claw.] TRIBRACH., tr[=i]'brak, _n._ (_poet._) a foot of three short syllables.--_adj._ TRIBRACH'IC. [L.,--Gr. _tribrachys_,--_tri-_, root of _treis_, three, _brachys_, short.] TRIBULATION, trib-[=u]-l[=a]'shun, _n._ severe affliction: distress. [L.,--_tribul[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to afflict--_tribulum_, a sledge for rubbing out corn--_ter[)e]re_, to rub.] TRIBUNAL, tr[=i]-b[=u]'nal, _n._ the bench on which a judge and his associates sit to administer justice: court of justice: the confessional. [L.] TRIBUNE, trib'[=u]n, _n._ a magistrate elected by the Roman plebeians to defend their rights: a champion of popular rights: the raised platform from which speeches were delivered, any platform or pulpit.--_ns._ TRIB'UN[=A]TE, TRIB'UNESHIP.--_adjs._ TRIBUNI'TIAL, TRIBUNI'CIAN, TRIBUNI'TIAN. [L. _tribunus_--_tribus_, a tribe.] TRIBUTE, trib'[=u]t, _n._ a fixed amount paid at certain intervals by one nation to another for peace or protection: a personal contribution: acknowledgment, or homage paid.--_adv._ TRIB'[=U]TARILY.--_n._ TRIB'UTARINESS.--_adj._ TRIB'[=U]TARY, paying tribute: subject: yielding supplies of anything, subsidiary: paid in tribute.--_n._ one who pays tribute: a stream which contributes water to another.--_ns._ TRIB'UTE-MON'EY, money paid as tribute; TRIB'[=U]TER, a miner paid by a proportion of the ore raised. [L. _tributum_--_tribu[)e]re_, to assign--_tribus_, a tribe.] TRICAPSULAR, tr[=i]-kap's[=u]-lar, _adj._ (_bot._) three-capsuled: having three capsules to each flower. TRICARPOUS, tr[=i]-kar'pus, _adj._ (_bot._) having three carpels. TRICAUDATE, tr[=i]-kaw'd[=a]t, _adj._ having three tail-like processes, as a butterfly's wing. TRICE, tr[=i]s, _v.t._ (_naut._) to haul or lift up by means of a rope:--_pr.p._ tr[=i]c'ing; _pa.p._ tri[=i]ced. [Ger. _trissen_.] TRICE, tr[=i]s, _n._ a very short time: an instant. [Perh. from _thrice_, while one can count three; or from Sp. _tris_, noise of breaking glass; cf. Scot. 'in a crack.'] TRICENNIAL, tr[=i]-sen'i-al, _adj._ pertaining to thirty years: occurring every thirty years. [L. _tricennium_, thirty years--_triginta_, thirty, _annus_, a year.] TRICENTENARY, tr[=i]-sen'te-n[=a]-ri, _n._ a space of three hundred years. [L. _trecenti_, three hundred--_tres_, three, _centum_, a hundred.] TRICEPHALOUS, tr[=i]-sef'a-lus, _adj._ three-headed [Gr., _treis_, three, _kephal[=e]_, a head.] TRICEPS, tr[=i]'seps, _adj._ three-headed.--Also TRICIP'ITAL. [L., _tres_, three, _caput_, head.] TRICERION, tr[=i]-s[=e]'ri-on, _n._ in Greek ecclesiastical use, a candlestick with three lights. [Late Gr.,--Gr. _treis_, three, _k[=e]ros_, wax.] TRICHANGIA, tr[=i]-kan'ji-a, _n.pl._ the capillary blood vessels. [Gr. _thriks_--_trichos_, hair, _angeion_, a vessel.] TRICHAS, tr[=i]'kas, _n._ a genus of American warblers. [Gr., a thrush.] TRICHATROPHIA, trik-a-tr[=o]'fi-a, _n._ a brittle condition of the hair.--_ns._ TRICH'IA, a folding inward of the eyelashes; TRICH[=I]'ASIS, a kidney disease: a morbid swelling of the breasts: trichia. [Gr. _thrix_, _trichos_, hair, _atrophia_, atrophy.] TRICHINA, tri-k[=i]'na, _n._ a parasitic worm, which in its mature state infests the intestinal canal, and in its larval state the muscular tissue of man and certain animals, esp. the hog:--_pl._ TRICH[=I]'NÆ:--_ns._ TRICHIN[=I]'ASIS (more usually TRICHIN[=O]'SIS), the disease caused by the presence of trichinæ in the body; TRICNINIS[=A]'TION.--_adjs._ TRICH'IN[=O]SED, TRICHINOT'IC, TRICH'INOUS. [Gr. _trichinos_, small like a hair--_thrix_, _trichos_, hair.] TRICHITE, tr[=i]'k[=i]t, _n._ a spicule of some sponges.--_adj._ TRICHIT'IC. TRICHIURUS, trik-i-[=u]'rus, _n._ the genus of hair-tails. TRICHODA, tr[=i]-k[=o]'da, _n._ a genus of ciliate infusorians. TRICHOGENOUS, tr[=i]-koj'e-nus, _adj._ helping the hair to grow.--_ns._ TRICHOCL[=A]'SIA, TRICHOCL[=A]'SIS, a brittle condition of the hair; TRICH'OGEN, a preparation for causing the hair to grow; TRICHOGYNE (trik'[=o]-j[=i]n), the slender portion of the procarp in red algæ, a receptive organ of reproduction; TRICHOL'OGY, the knowledge of the hair; TRICH[=O]'MA, a morbid condition of the hair, introversion of the eyelid.--_adjs._ TRICHOM'ATOSE; TRICHOPATH'IC, relating to disease of the hair.--_ns._ TRICHOP'ATHY, the treatment of diseases of the hair; TRICH'OPH[=O]RE (_bot._), the cell or cells in certain algæ supporting the trichogyne: a sac-like body from which the chitinous parapodial appendages of an annelid are developed.--_adjs._ TRICHOPHOR'IC, TRICHOPH'OROUS.--_ns._ TRICHOPH'YTON, a fungus growth round the hair-bulbs causing baldness, ringworm, &c.; TRICHOPHYT[=O]'SIS, disease of the skin due to the presence of the foregoing; TRICHOREX'IS, brittleness of the hair; TRICHORRH[=E]'A, a falling of the hair; TRICH[=O]'SIS, any disease of the hair. TRICHOME, tr[=i]'k[=o]m, _n._ an outgrowth from the epidermis of a plant. TRICHOPTERA, tr[=i]-kop'te-ra, _n.pl._ the caddis-flies.--_adjs._ TRICHOP'TERAN, TRICHOP'TEROUS. TRICHORD, tr[=i]'kord, _adj._ having three strings. TRICHOTOMOUS, tr[=i]-kot'[=o]-mus, _adj._ divided into three parts, or into threes--also TRICHOTOM'IC.--_adv._ TRICHOT'OMOUSLY.--_n._ TRICHOT'OMY, division into three parts. [Gr. _tricha_, threefold, _treis_, three; _tom[=e]_, a cutting--_temnein_, to cut.] TRICHROMATIC, tr[=i]-kr[=o]-mat'ik, _adj._ characterised by three colours, having the three fundamental colour-sensations of red, green, and purple, of the normal eye, as opposed to the colour-blind eye, which has but two.--Also TRICHR[=O]'MIC. [Gr. _treis_, three, _chr[=o]ma_, colour.] TRICHRONOUS, tr[=i]'kr[=o]-nus, _adj._ in ancient prosody, consisting of three times or _moræ_, trisemic. [Gr. _treis_, three, _chronos_, time.] TRICK, trik, _v.t._ to dress, to decorate.--_n._ TRICK'ING, the act of one who tricks: (_Shak._) dress, ornament. [Celt.; W. treciaw, to adorn.] TRICK, trik, _n._ any fraud or stratagem to deceive, an illusion: a clever contrivance to puzzle, amuse, or annoy: a particular habit or manner, skill, adroitness, manner: a parcel of cards falling to a winner at one turn: any toy or gimcrack: a turn as at the helm: (_slang_) a watch.--_v.t._ to deceive, to cheat.--_ns._ TRICK'ER; TRICK'ERY, act or practice of playing tricks: artifice: stratagem: imposition.--_adv._ TRICK'ILY.--_n._ TRICK'INESS.--_adj._ TRICK'ISH, addicted to tricks: artful in making bargains.--_adv._ TRICK'ISHLY, in a trickish manner: artfully: knavishly.--_n._ TRICK'ISHNESS, the state of being trickish or deceitful.--_adv._ TRICK'LY, cleverly, deftly.--_n._ TRICK'SCENE, a scene in which changes are made before the audience.--_adjs._ TRICK'SEY, TRICK'SY, trickish, exhibiting artfulness: pretty, dainty, neat.--_n._ TRICK'SINESS, state of being tricksey.--_adj._ TRICK'SOME.--_ns._ TRICK'STER, one who practises tricks, a cheat; TRICK'-WIG, a kind of wig worn by actors, the hair of which can be made to stand on end by a device.--_adj._ TRICK'Y. [O. Fr. _tricher_, to beguile--L. _tric[=a]ri_, to trifle.] TRICKLE, trik'l, _v.i._ to flow gently or in a small stream.--_n._ a trickling rill.--_n._ TRICK'LET, a little rill.--_adj._ TRICK'LY, trickling. [M. E. _triklen_, prob. for _striklen_, freq. of _striken_, to go.] TRICK-TRACK, trik'-trak, _n._ a form of backgammon in which pegs as well as pieces are used.--Also TRIC'-TRAC, TICK'-TACK. [Fr. _tric trac_] TRICLINIC, tr[=i]-klin'ik, _adj._ (_min._) having three axes obliquely inclined to each other. [Gr. _treis_, three, _klinein_, to bend.] TRICLINIUM, tr[=i]-klin'i-um, _n._ a couch running round three sides of a table for reclining on at meals: a dining-room with couches on three sides. [L.,--Gr. _triklinos_--_treis_, three, _klin[=e]_, a couch.] TRICOLOUR, TRICOLOR, tr[=i]'kul-or, _n._ the national flag of France, of three colours, red, white, and blue, in vertical stripes.--_adj._ TR[=I]'COLOURED, having three colours. [Fr. _tricolore_--L. _tres_, three, _color_, colour.] TRICONSONANTAL, tr[=i]-kon's[=o]-nan-tal, _adj._ composed of three consonants.--Also TRICONSONAN'TIC. TRICORN, tr[=i]'korn, _adj._ having three horns.--_n._ a hat with three points or corners. [L. _tricornis_, three-horned--_tres_, three, _cornu_, a horn.] TRICORNERED, tr[=i]-kor'n[.e]rd, _adj._ three-cornered. TRICORNIGEROUS, tr[=i]-kor-nij'e-rus, _adj._ bearing three horns. [L. _tres_, three, _cornu_, a horn, _ger[)e]re_, to bear.] TRICORNUTE, -D, tr[=i]-kor'n[=u]t, -ed, _adj._ having three horn-like processes. TRICORPORATE, tr[=i]-kor'p[=o]-r[=a]t, _adj._ having three bodies and only one head common to the three. TRICOSTATE, tr[=i]-kos't[=a]t, _adj._ three-ribbed. TRICOT, tr[=e]'k[=o], _n._ a hand-knitted woollen fabric, or machine fabric imitating it: a soft, slightly-ribbed cloth for women's garments. [Fr. _tricot_, knitting, _tricoter_, to knit, from Teut.; Ger. _stricken_.] TRICROTIC, tr[=i]-krot'ik, _adj._ having three beats.--_n._ TR[=I]'CROTISM.--_adj._ TR[=I]'CROTOUS. [Gr. _treis_, three, _krotos_, a beat.] [Illustration] TRICUSPID, tr[=i]-kus'pid, _adj._ having three cusps or points: (_anat._) denoting certain of the teeth, and the valve of the right ventricle of the heart.--_adj._ TRICUS'PIDATE (_bot._), three-pointed or ending in three points. [L. _tricuspis_, _tricuspidis_--_tri_, _tris_, thrice, _cuspis_, a point.] TRICYCLE, tr[=i]'si-kl, _n._ a velocipede with three wheels.--_v.i._ to ride on such.--_n._ TR[=I]'CYCLIST. [Gr. _tri-_, root of _treis_, three, _kyklos_, circle, wheel.] TRIDACNA, tr[=i]-dak'na, _n._ a genus of bivalves, the giant clam, without the shell weighing 20 lb., with the shell so much even as 500 lb. [Gr. _treis_, three, _daknein_, to bite.] TRIDACTYLOUS, tr[=i]-dak'til-us, _adj._ having three toes or fingers. TRIDE, tr[=i]d, _adj._ swift, fleet. [Fr.] TRIDENT, tr[=i]'dent, _n._ the three-pronged spear or sceptre of Neptune, god of the ocean: any three-toothed instrument.--_adjs._ TR[=I]'DENT, TRIDENT'[=A]TE, TR[=I]'DENTED, having three teeth or prongs. [Fr.,--L. _tres_, three, _dens_, _dentis_, tooth.] TRIDENTINE, tr[=i]-den'tin, _adj._ pertaining to the Council of _Trent_ (1545-63), or to its decrees.--_n._ a Roman Catholic. [L. _Tridentum_, Trent.] TRIDIGITATE, tr[=i]-dij'i-t[=a]t, _adj._ with three fingers or toes. TRIDIMENSIONAL, tr[=i]-di-men'shun-al, _adj._ having three dimensions--length, breadth, thickness. TRIDUUM, trid'[=u]-um, _n._ a space of three days: a three days' service of prayer preparatory to a saint's day, &c.--_adj._ TRID'[=U]AN, lasting three days. [L.] TRIDYMITE, trid'i-m[=i]t, _n._ a brittle mineral composed of silica, which occurs in various acid igneous rocks in the form of thin transparent six-sided plates, several of which are usually grouped together. TRIED. See TRY. TRIENNIAL, tr[=i]-en'yal, _adj._ continuing three years: happening every third year.--_adv._ TRIENN'IALLY. [L. _triennis_--_tres_, three, _annus_, a year.] TRIER, tr[=i]'[.e]r, _n._ one who tries by experiment: one who tries, as a judge: one of Cromwell's commissioners for examining into the qualifications of ministers: (_Shak._) one who brings to the test, a test. TRIERARCH, tr[=i]'[.e]r-ärk, _n._ the commander of an ancient Greek trireme--also a person obliged to furnish ships to the state.--_adj._ TR[=I]'ERARCHAL.--_n._ TR[=I]'ERARCHY, the office of trierarch: the system of requisitioning vessels from wealthy citizens. [Gr. _tri[=e]r[=e]s_, a trireme, _archein_, to rule.] TRIETERIC, -AL, tr[=i]-e-t[.e]r'ik, -al, _adj._ triennial. [Gr., _treis_, three, _etos_, a year.] TRIFACIAL, tr[=i]-f[=a]'shal, adj, threefold and pertaining to the face, esp. of the fifth cranial nerve.--_n._ the trigeminal nerve. [L. _tres_, three, _facies_, face.] TRIFARIOUS, tr[=i]-f[=a]'ri-us, _adj._ arranged in three rows: facing three ways. TRIFID, tr[=i]'fid, _adj._ three-cleft. TRIFLE, tr[=i]'fl, _v.i._ to act or talk lightly: to indulge in light or silly amusements: to waste or spend idly or unprofitably (_with_).--_n._ anything of little value: a light confection of whipped cream or white of egg, with fruit, wine, &c.--_n._ TR[=I]'FLER.--_adj._ TR[=I]'FLING, of small value or importance: trivial.--_adv._ TR[=I]'FLINGLY.--_n._ TR[=I]'FLINGNESS. [O. Fr. _trufle_, dim. of _truffe_, a gibe, also a truffle.] TRIFLOROUS, tr[=i]-fl[=o]'rus, _adj._ three-flowered.--Also TRIFL[=O]'RAL. TRIFOLIATE, -D, tr[=i]-f[=o]'li-[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ three-leaved.--_ns._ TRIF[=O]'LIUM, a genus of small plants of the bean family--the clovers with trifoliate leaves and purple, red, white, or yellow flowers; TR[=I]'FOLY (_Browning_), trefoil. [L. _tres_, three, _folium_, leaf.] TRIFORIUM, tr[=i]-f[=o]'ri-um, _n._ the arcade over the arches of a church between nave and side aisles:--_pl._ TRIF[=O]'RIA. [L. _tri_, _tris_, thrice, _foris_, a door.] TRIFORM, tr[=i]'form, _adj._ having a triple form--also TR[=I]'FORMED.--_n._ TRIFORM'ITY.--_adj._ TRIFORM'OUS. [L. _triformis_--_tres_, three, _forma_, form.] TRIFURCATE, -D, tr[=i]-fur'k[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ having three forks or branches.--_v.i._ TRIFUR'CATE, to divide into three parts.--_n._ TRIFURC[=A]'TION. [L. _trifurcus_--_tri_, _tris_, thrice, _furca_, a fork.] TRIG, trig, _adj._ trim, neat: tight, sound.--_n._ a dandy.--_adv._ TRIG'LY.--_n._ TRIG'NESS. [Prob. Scand., Ice. _tryggr_, fine.] TRIG, trig, _n._ a skid for a wheel, &c.: the mark for players at skittles, &c.--_v.t._ to stop, to obstruct, to skid. TRIGAMOUS, trig'am-us, _adj._ (_bot._) having three sorts of flowers, male, female, and hermaphrodite, in the same flower-head.--_ns._ TRIG'AMIST, one who marries three wives; TRIG'AMY, the state of having three husbands or wives at the same time. [Gr. _tri_, _tris_, three, _gamos_, marriage.] TRIGEMINAL, tr[=i]-jem'i-nal, _adj._ triple, threefold.--_adj._ TRIGEM'INOUS, born three at a birth.--_n._ TRIGEMI'NUS, the trifacial nerve. TRIGGER, trig'[.e]r, _n._ a catch which when pulled looses the hammer of a gun in firing: a catch to hold a wheel when driving on steep ground. [Dut. _trekker_--_trekken_, to pull.] TRIGLA, trig'la, _n._ the typical genus of _Triglidæ_, the gurnards.--_adj._ TRIG'LOID. TRIGLOT, tr[=i]'glot, _adj._ containing three languages. [Gr. _treis_, three, _gl[=o]ssa_, _gl[=o]tta_, tongue.] [Illustration] TRIGLYPH, tr[=i]'glif, _n._ a three-grooved tablet at equal distances along the frieze in Doric architecture.--_adjs._ TRIGLYPH'IC, -AL, consisting of, or pertaining to, triglyphs: containing three sets of characters or sculptures. [L. _triglyphus_--Gr. _triglyphos_--_treis_, three, _glyphein_, to carve.] TRIGON, tr[=i]'gon, _n._ a three-cornered figure, a triangle--also TRIG[=O]'NON: (_astrol._) the junction of three signs, the zodiac being divided into four trigons--the first or _watery_ trigon, Cancer, Scorpio, Pisces; the _earthly_, Taurus, Virgo, Capricornus; the _airy_, Gemini, Libra, Aquarius; the _fiery_, Aries, Leo, Sagittarius.--_adjs._ TRIG'ONAL, triangular in cross-section: three-angled, esp. in botany; TRIGON'IC, pertaining to a trigon; TRIG'ONOUS, three-angled. [Gr. _trig[=o]non_--_tri_, _tris_, thrice, _g[=o]nia_, an angle.] TRIGONEUTIC, tr[=i]-g[=o]-n[=u]'tik, _adj._ producing three broods in a year, of insects.--_n._ TRIGONEU'TISM. [Gr. _treis_, three, _goneuein_, to beget.] TRIGONOCEROUS, trig-[=o]-nos'e-rus, _adj._ having horns with three angles. TRIGONOMETRY, trig-[=o]-nom'e-tri, _n._ the branch of mathematics which treats of the relations between the sides and angles of triangles.--_n._ TRIGONOM'ETER, an instrument for solving plane right-angled figures by inspection.--_adjs._ TRIGONOMET'RIC, -AL, pertaining to trigonometry: done by the rules of trigonometry.--_adv._ TRIGONOMET'RICALLY.--TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY, the survey of a country by triangulation and trigonometrical calculation upon a single base. [Gr. _trig[=o]non_, a triangle, _metron_, a measure.] TRIGRAM, tr[=i]'gram, _n._ same as TRIGRAPH.--_adjs._ TRIGRAMMAT'IC, TRIGRAM'MIC. [Gr. _tri_, _tris_, thrice, _gramma_, a letter.] TRIGRAPH, tr[=i]'graf, _n._ a combination of three letters sounded as one, a triphthong. [Gr. _tri_, _tris_, thrice, and _graph[=e]_, a writing--_graphein_, to write.] TRIGYNIA, tr[=i]-jin'i-a, _n._ an order of plants having three pistils or styles.--_n._ TR[=I]'GYN, a plant with three styles.--_adjs._ TR[=I]GYN'IAN, TRIG'YNOUS. [Gr. _tri_, _tris_, thrice, _gyn[=e]_, a woman.] TRIHEDRAL, tr[=i]-h[=e]'dral, _adj._ having three equal sides.--_n._ TRIH[=E]'DRON, a figure having three equal bases or sides. [Gr. _treis_, three, _hedra_, a seat.] TRIJUGATE, tr[=i]'j[=oo]-g[=a]t, _adj._ (_bot._) having three pairs of leaflets or pinnæ.--Also TR[=I]'JUGOUS. TRILABE, tr[=i]'l[=a]b, _n._ a three-pronged surgical instrument for removing calculi from the bladder. [Gr. _treis_, three, _lab[=e]_, a hold.] TRILABIATE, tr[=i]-l[=a]'bi-[=a]t, _adj._ three-lipped. TRILAMINAR, tr[=i]-lam'i-nar, _adj._ having three laminæ, lamellæ, or layers.--Also TR[=I]LAM'INATE. TRILATERAL, tr[=i]-lat'[.e]r-al, _adj._ having three sides.--_adv._ TRILAT'ERALLY.--_n._ TRILAT'ERALNESS. [L. _tres_, three, _latus_, side.] TRILD, trild (_Spens._)=_Trilled_, flowed. TRILEMMA, tr[=i]-lem'a, _n._ a dilemmatic syllogism with three alternative propositions. TRILINEAR, tr[=i]-lin'[=e]-ar, _adj._ consisting of three lines. TRILINGUAL, tr[=i]-ling'gwal, _adj._ consisting of three tongues or languages.--Also TRILING'UAR. [L. _tres_, three, _lingua_, tongue.] TRILITERAL, tr[=i]-lit'[.e]r-al, _adj._ consisting of three letters.--_n._ TRILIT'ERALISM. [L. _tres_, three, _litera_, a letter.] TRILITH, tr[=i]'lith, _n._ a form of megalithic monument consisting of two upright stones supporting another lying crosswise--also TR[=I]'LITHON.--_adj._ TRILITH'IC. [Gr. _treis_, three, _lithos_, stone.] TRILL, tril, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to shake: to utter with a tremulous vibration, to quaver: to pronounce with a quick vibration of the tongue.--_n._ a quaver or tremulous vibration, warbling. [It. _trillare_, to shake; imit.] TRILL, tril, _v.i._ to trickle: (_obs._) to twirl. [Scand., Sw. _trilla_, to roll.] TRILLING, tril'ing, _n._ a compound threefold crystal: any one child of a triplet. TRILLION, tril'yun, _n._ a million raised to the third power, or multiplied twice by itself: in France, a thousand multiplied by itself three times, a million million.--_adj._ TRILL'IONTH. [Fr.,--L. _tres_, three, Low L. _millio_, a million.] TRILLIUM, tril'i-um, _n._ a North American genus of low perennial herbs of the lily family--including _wake-robin_, _three-leaved nightshade_, &c. TRILOBATE, -D, tr[=i]-l[=o]'b[=a]t, or tr[=i]'l[=o]-b[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ having three lobes.--Also TR[=I]'LOBED. TRILOBITE, tr[=i]'l[=o]-b[=i]t, _n._ one of an order of fossil crustacea entirely confined to the Paleozoic rocks.--_adj._ TRILOBIT'IC. TRILOCULAR, tr[=i]-lok'[=u]-lar, _adj._ three-celled. TRILOGY, tril'[=o]-ji, _n._ the name given by the Greeks to a group of three tragedies, either connected by a common subject or each representing a distinct story--the _Oresteia_ of Æschylus, which embraces the _Agamemnon_, the _Choephoroe_, and the _Eumenides_. [Gr. _trilogia_--_tri_, _tris_, thrice, _logia_, speech--_legein_, to say.] TRIM, trim, _adj._ in good order: nice.--_v.t._ to make trim: to put in due order: to dress: to decorate: to clip: to reduce to proper form: to arrange for sailing: to rebuke sharply, to thrash.--_v.i._ to balance or fluctuate between parties:--_pr.p._ trim'ming; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ trimmed.--_n._ dress: ornaments: state of a ship as to sailing qualities: arrangement.--_adv._ TRIM'LY.--_ns._ TRIM'MER, one who trims: one who fluctuates between parties, a time-server: a scold: a small horizontal beam on a floor into which the ends of joists are framed: a float bearing a baited hook and line, used in fishing for pike; TRIM'MING, that which trims: ornamental parts, esp. of a garment, dish, &c.: (_pl._) fittings.--_adv._ TRIM'MINGLY.--_n._ TRIM'NESS. [A.S. _trymian_, to strengthen, set in order--_trum_, firm.] TRIMEMBRAL, tr[=i]-mem'bral, _adj._ having three members. TRIMENSUAL, tr[=i]-men's[=u]-al, _adj._ happening every three months--also TRIMES'TRAL, TRIMES'TRIAL.--_n._ TRIMES'TER, a period of three months. TRIMERA, trim'e-ra, _n.pl._ a division of beetles with tarsi three-jointed.--_adj._ TRIM'EROUS. [Gr. _treis_, three, _meros_, part.] TRIMETER, trim'e-t[.e]r, _n._ a division of a verse consisting of three measures.--_adjs._ TRIM'ETER, TRIMET'RIC, -AL, consisting of three measures, esp. iambic. [Gr. _trimetros_--_treis_, three, _metron_, measure.] TRIMETHYL, tr[=i]-meth'il, _adj._ containing three methyl radicals in combination.--_n._ TRIMETH'YLAMINE, an organic base resembling ammonia in some of its properties, and having a strong herring-brine odour--incorrectly called _propylamine_. TRIMONTHLY, tr[=i]'munth-li, _adj._ every three months. TRIMORPHISM, tr[=i]-mor'fizm, _n._ (_biol._) the existence of an organism in three distinct forms, as in certain butterflies, in the common flower _Lythrum salicaria_, &c.--_adjs._ TRIMOR'PHIC, TRIMOR'PHOUS. TRIMURTI, tri-m[=oo]r'ti, _n._ the name of the Hindu triad, or the gods Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva when thought of as an inseparable unity, though three in form. TRINAL, tr[=i]'nal, _adj._ threefold.--_adjs._ TR[=I]'NARY, ternary; TRINE, threefold: of three.--_n._ a triad: the aspect of two planets, as seen from the earth, distant from each other one-third of the zodiac or 120°. [L. _trinus_--_tres_, _tria_, three.] TRINDLE, trin'dl, _n._ a piece of wood, &c., laid between the cords and boards of a book to flatten before cutting: a wheel of a barrow.--_v.i._ to roll, to trot.--_v.t._ to trundle. [A variant of _trendle_.] TRINERVATE, tr[=i]-n[.e]r'v[=a]t, _adj._ three-nerved.--Also TR[=I]'NERVED. TRINGA, tring'gä, _n._ a genus of sandpipers, of family _Scolopacidæ_--containing the knot, &c.--_adjs._ TRIN'GINE, TRIN'GOID. TRINGLE, tring'gl, _n._ a rod on which the rings of a curtain run: a small moulding of rectangular cross-section, in a Doric triglyph, &c.: a strip of wood at the edge of a gun-platform to turn the recoil of the truck. [Fr.] TRINITY, trin'i-ti, _n._ the union of three in one Godhead: the persons of the Godhead: any symbolical representation of the persons of the Trinity.--_adj._ TRINIT[=A]'RIAN, pertaining to the Trinity, or to the doctrine of the Trinity.--_n._ one who holds the doctrine of the Trinity: a member of the Trinitarian order.--_n._ TRINIT[=A]'RIANISM, the tenets of Trinitarians.--_n.pl._ TRINIT[=A]'RIANS, a religious order founded at Rome in 1198 to redeem Christian captives from the infidels--also _Mathurins_ and _Redemptionists_.--_ns._ TRIN'ITY-HOUSE, a corporation entrusted with the regulation and management of the lighthouses and buoys of the shores and rivers of England, and with the licensing and appointing of pilots for the English coast, founded at Deptford in 1518; TRIN'ITY-SUN'DAY, the Sunday next after Whitsunday, the Festival of the Holy Trinity; TRIN'ITY-TERM, formerly one of the fixed terms of the English law-courts that commenced on Friday next after Trinity Sunday. [L. _trinitas_, three--_trini_, three each--_tres_, three.] TRINKET, tring'ket, _n._ a small ornament for the person: anything of little value.--_v.i._ to deal in a mean and underhand way: to intrigue.--_ns._ TRINK'ETER, a mean intriguer; TRINK'ETRY, trinkets collectively. [Skeat suggests that M. E. _trenket_, _trynket_, may be from an O. Fr. _trenquer_, to cut, a by-form of _trencher_, to cut.] TRINKET, tring'ket, _n._ a vessel to drink out of. [Prob. conn. somehow with preceding.] TRINKET, tring'ket, _n._ a topsail. [O. Fr. _trinquet_--L. _triquetrus_, three-cornered.] TRINKLE, tringk'l, a Scotch form of _trickle_: also a form of _tinkle_. TRINOCTIAL, tr[=i]-nok'shal, _adj._ comprising three nights. TRINODAL, tr[=i]-n[=o]'dal, _adj._ having three nodes or joints. TRINOMIAL, tr[=i]-n[=o]'mi-al, _adj._ (_math._) consisting of three names or terms connected by the sign plus or minus.--_n._ a trinomial quantity.--_ns._ TRIN[=O]'MIALISM; TRIN[=O]'MIALIST; TRINOMIAL'ITY.--_adj._ TRIN[=O]'MIALLY. [L. _tres_, three, _nomen_, name.] TRIO, tr[=e]'o, or tr[=i]'o, _n._ three united: (_mus._) a composition for three performers. [It.,--L. _tres_, three.] TRIODION, tr[=i]-[=o]'di-on, _n._ a book of Greek offices for the services from the Sunday before Septuagesima to Easter. [Gr. _treis_, three, _hodos_, a way.] TRIOLET, tr[=e]'[=o]-let, _n._ a stanza of eight lines on two rhymes--the 1st, 3d, 4th, and 5th lines rhyming, as also the 2d and 6th. Again, the words of the 1st, 4th, and 7th lines are the same, while the 7th and 8th repeat the first two. [Fr.] TRIONES, tr[=i]-[=o]'n[=e]z, _n.pl._ a name applied to the seven principal stars in the constellation Ursa Major. [L.] TRIONYM, tr[=i]'[=o]-nim, _n._ a name consisting of three terms.--_adj._ TRION'YMAL. TRIP, trip, _v.i._ to move with short, light steps: to stumble and fall: to err, to go wrong, to make a slip in chastity: to fail.--_v.t._ to cause to stumble by striking one's feet from under him (with _up_): to overthrow by taking away support: to catch: to catch in a fault: to loosen, as an anchor, from the bottom, by a long rope: to turn, as a yard, from a horizontal to a vertical position: to fold in the middle, as a deep stage-drop: to strike against:--_pr.p._ trip'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ tripped.--_n._ a light, short step: a catch by which an antagonist is thrown: one of the points in coursing, when the hare is thrown off its legs: a false step: a mistake: a short voyage or journey, a jaunt.--_ns._ TRIP'-BOOK, a book in which the records and accounts of the trip of a fishing-boat are made up and kept: TRIP'-HAMM'ER, a large hammer used in forges, a tilt-hammer; TRIP'PER, a cheap excursionist, a tourist doing a certain round: one who stumbles or who makes another stumble; TRIP'-SLIP (_U.S._), a strip of paper on which a car-conductor must punch a hole when a fare is taken. [M. E. _trippen_; cog. with Dut. _trippen_, _trappen_, to tread upon, _trippelen_, to trip, Sw. _trippa_, to trip.] TRIPARTITE, trip'ar-t[=i]t, or tr[=i]-pär't[=i]t, _adj._ divided into three parts: having three corresponding parts: relating to three parties.--_adv._ TRIP'ARTITELY.--_n._ TRIPARTI'TION, a division into three. [L. _ter_, thrice, _partitus_, pa.p. of _part[=i]ri_, to divide--_pars_, a part.] TRIPE, tr[=i]p, _n._ entrails: parts of the compound stomach of a ruminant, esp. of sheep or horned cattle, prepared as food--the parts used being the paunch or rumen (yielding _plain tripe_), and the smaller reticulum (yielding _honeycomb tripe_).--_ns._ TRIPE'MAN, one who prepares tripe or who hawks it about; TR[=I]'PERY, a place for the preparation or sale of tripe.--TRIPE DE ROCHE, a name originally given to various species of lichens of the genera _Gyrophora_ and _Umbilicaria_, nutritious though bitter, nauseous, and purgative. [Celt.; Ir., _triopas_, W. _tripa_.] TRIPEDAL, trip'e-dal, or tr[=i]'ped-al, _adj._ having three feet. [L. _tres_, three, _pes_, _pedis_, a foot.] TRIPENNATE, tr[=i]-pen'[=a]t, _adj._ (_bot._) three-winged. [L. _tri_, _tris_, thrice, _penna_, a wing.] TRIPERSONAL, tr[=i]-p[.e]r'sun-al, _adj._ consisting of three persons.--_ns._ TRIPER'SONALIST, a believer in the Trinity; TRIPERSONAL'ITY. TRIPETALOUS, tr[=i]-pet'al-us, _adj._ (_bot._) having three petals or flower-leaves. [Gr. _treis_, three, _petalon_, a leaf.] TRIPHANE, tr[=i]'f[=a]n, _n._ spodumene. TRIPHTHONG, trif'thong, _n._ a combination of three vowels to form one sound.--_adj._ TRIPHTHONG'AL. [Gr. _treis_, three, _phthongos_, sound.] TRIPHYLLOUS, tr[=i]-fil'us, _adj._ (_bot._) three-leaved. [Gr. _tri_, _tris_, thrice, _phyllon_, a leaf.] TRIPHYSITE, trif'i-s[=i]t, _n._ one of a Spanish sect of the 7th century who maintained the existence of three natures in Christ--the human, the divine, and a third resulting from the union of the other two. [Gr. _treis_, three, _physis_, nature.] TRIPINNATE, tr[=i]-pin'[=a]t, _adj._ trebly pinnate. TRIPITAKA, tri-pit'a-ka, _n._ the whole body of the northern Buddhist canonical writings, comprising the three divisions of _Sutras_, or discourses of the Buddha for the laity; _Vinaya_, or discipline for the order; and _Abhidharma_, or metaphysics. [Sans. _tri_, three, _pitaka_, basket.] TRIPLE, trip'l, _adj._ consisting of three united: three times repeated: (_Shak._) third.--_v.t._ to treble.--_adjs._ TRIP'LE-CROWNED, having three crowns: wearing the triple crown, as the pope; TRIP'LE-HEAD'ED, having three heads.--_n._ TRIP'LET, three of a kind, or three united: three lines rhyming together: (_mus._) a group of three notes occupying the time of two, indicated by a slur and the figure 3: (_coll._) one of three children born at one birth.--_adj._ TRIP'LE-TURNED (_Shak._), three times faithless.--_n._ TR[=I]'PLEX, triple time in music.--_adj._ TRIP'LICATE, threefold: made thrice as much.--_n._ a third copy or thing corresponding to two others of the same kind.--_v.t._ to make threefold.--_ns._ TRIPLIC[=A]'TION, act of making threefold or adding three together; TRIPLIC'ITY, the state of being threefold: tripleness: (_Spens._) a triad: (_astrol._) the division of the signs according to the number of the elements.--_adv._ TRIP'LY.--TRIPLE ALLIANCE, the league of England, Sweden, and the Netherlands formed against France in 1668: the alliance of Britain, France, and Holland against Spain in 1717: the alliance between Germany, Austria, and Italy, formed in 1883, and directed to check French or Russian aggression; TRIPLE CROWN (_her._), see TIARA; TRIPLE TIME (_mus._), time or rhythm of three beats, or of three times three beats, in a bar.--THE TRIPLE EVENT, winning the Oaks, St Leger, and Derby. [Fr.,--L. _tri-plus_--_tri-_, _tres_, three, _-plus_, akin to Eng. _-fold_.] TRIPOD, tr[=i]'pod, _n._ anything on three feet or legs, as a stool, &c.--_adj._ having three legs or supports.--_adj._ TRIP'ODAL. [Gr. _tripous_, _tripodos_--_tri_, _treis_, three, _pous_, foot.] TRIPOLI, trip'[=o]-li, _n._ a mineral substance employed in polishing metals, marble, glass, &c. [Orig. brought from _Tripoli_ in Africa.] TRIPOS, tr[=i]'pos, _n._ a university examination for honours at Cambridge: the list of successful candidates in an honours examination at Cambridge: a tripod. [Prob. traceable to the custom by which a B.A., known as Mr _Tripos_, sat on a three-legged stool and disputed in the Philosophy School at Cambridge on Ash Wednesday, his speech being called the Tripos speech.] TRIPPANT, trip'ant, _adj._ (_her._) represented as walking or trotting. TRIPPING, trip'ing, _n._ the act of tripping: a light kind of dance.--_adv._ TRIPP'INGLY, in a tripping manner: with a light, quick step.--_n._ TRIPP'INGNESS. TRIPSACUM, trip'sa-kum, _n._ a genus of American grasses, including the gama-grass. TRIPSIS, trip'sis, _n._ pulverisation: the process of shampooing. [Gr.,--_tribein_, to rub.] TRIPTOTE, trip't[=o]t, _n._ a noun used in three cases only. [Fr.,--Gr. _tript[=o]ton_--_treis_, three, _pt[=o]tos_, falling,--_piptein_, to fall.] TRIPTYCH, trip'tik, _n._ a set of tablets consisting of three leaves, each painted with a distinct subject, but joined together by hinges, and capable of being folded so as to present a new face. [Gr. _tri_, thrice, _ptyx_, _ptychos_, a fold, a leaf--_ptyssein_, to fold.] TRIPUDIUM, tr[=i]-p[=u]'di-um, _n._ among the Romans, a religious dance, also a mode of divination based on observation of the action of birds feeding.--_adj._ TRIP[=U]'DIARY.--_n._ TRIPUDI[=A]'TION, dancing. [L., prob. from _tres_, three, _pes_, _pedis_, foot.] TRIQUETROUS, tr[=i]-kwet'rus, _adj._ three-sided: triangular--also TRIQUET'RAL.--_n._ TRIQUET'RA, an ornament consisting of three interlaced arcs, common in early art in northern Europe.--_adv._ TRIQUET'ROUSLY.--_n._ TRIQUET'RUM, one of the triangular Wormian bones in the lambdoid suture of the skull. [L. _tres_, three, _-quetrus_, prob. a mere formative.] TRIRADIATE, tr[=i]-r[=a]'di-[=a]t, _adj._ radiating in three directions.--_adv._ TRIR[=A]'DIALLY. TRIREME, tr[=i]'r[=e]m, _n._ an ancient galley--esp. a war-galley--having three banks or rows of oars. [Fr.,--L. _triremis_--_tri_, _tres_, three, _remus_, an oar.] TRISAGION, tri-s[=a]'gi-on, _n._ a hymn used in the early and Oriental Churches, and in the Greek Church, consisting of the words 'O Holy God, holy and mighty, holy and immortal, have mercy on us.' The name is often applied erroneously to the Tersanctus. [Gr. _tris_, thrice, _hagios_, holy.] TRISECT, tr[=i]-sekt', _v.t._ to cut or divide into three equal parts.--_n._ TRISEC'TION, the division of anything, as an angle, into three equal parts. [L. _tri_, thrice, _sec[=a]re_, _sectum_, to cut.] TRISEME, tr[=i]'s[=e]m, _adj._ and _n._ consisting of three semeia, equal to three short syllables, as the tribrach, iambic, and trochee.--Also TRIS[=E]'MIC. [Gr. _treis_, three, _s[=e]ma_, a sign.] TRISEPALOUS, tr[=i]-sep'al-us, _adj._ (_bot._) having three sepals. TRISERIAL, tr[=i]-s[=e]'ri-al, _adj._ in three rows or series--also TRIS[=E]'RIATE.--_advs._ TRIS[=E]'RIALLY, in three series; TRISERI[=A]'TIM, in three rows, triserially. TRISETUM, tr[=i]-s[=e]'tum, _n._ a genus of grasses, of the tribe _Aveneæ_, mostly perennial tufted grasses with flat leaves and shining spikelets. [L. _tres_, three, _setum_, a bristle.] TRISINUATE, tr[=i]-sin'[=u]-[=a]t, _adj._ having three sinuses, as a margin. TRISKELE, tris'k[=e]l, _n._ a three-armed cross, the fylfot. [Gr. _treis_, three, _skelos_, a leg.] TRISMEGISTUS, tris-me-gis'tus, _adj._ thrice greatest, an epithet used only in 'Hermes Trismegistus,' the Greek name of the Egyptian god Thoth, originator of Egyptian culture, the god of writing, of religion, and of the arts and sciences. TRISMUS, tris'mus, _n._ tetanic spasm of the muscles of mastication, lockjaw. [Gr.,--_trizein_, to gnash.] TRISOCTAHEDRON, tris-ok'ta-h[=e]-dron, _n._ a solid bounded by twenty-four equal faces, three corresponding to each face of an octahedron. TRISPERMOUS, tr[=i]-sper'mus, _adj._ three-seeded.--_n._ TRISPER'MUM, a poultice made of the crushed seeds of cummin, bay, and smallage. TRISPLANCHNIC, tr[=i]-splangk'nik, _adj._ pertaining to the viscera of the three great cavities of the body, the cranial, thoracic, and abdominal. [Gr. _treis_, three, _splangchna_, viscera.] TRISPORIC, tr[=i]-spor'ik, _adj._ having three spores.--Also TRISP[=O]'ROUS. TRISTESSE, tris-tes', _n._ (_arch._) sadness.--_adjs._ TRIST, TRIST'FUL. (_Shak._), sad, sorrowful, gloomy.--_adv._ TRIST'FULLY. [Fr. _triste_--L. _tristis_, sad.] TRISTICHOUS, tris'ti-kus, _adj._ (_bot._) grouped in three rows. [Gr. _treis_, three, _stichos_, a row.] TRISTIGMATIC, tr[=i]-stig-mat'ik, _adj._ having three stigmas.--Also TRISTIG'MAT[=O]SE. TRISTYLOUS, tr[=i]-st[=i]'lus, _adj._ (_bot._) having three styles. TRISULA, tri-s[=oo]'la, _n._ the trident of Siva.--Also TRISUL'. TRISULCATE, tr[=i]-sul'k[=a]t, _adj._ having three forks or prongs: (_bot._) having three furrows. [L. _trisulcus_--_tri_, _tris_, thrice, _sulcus_, a furrow.] TRISYLLABLE, tr[=i]-, or tri-sil'a-bl, _n._ a word of three syllables.--_adjs._ TRISYLLAB'IC, -AL, pertaining to a trisyllable: consisting of three syllables.--_adv._ TRISYLLAB'ICALLY. [Gr. _treis_, three, _syllab[=e]_, syllable.] TRITAGONIST, tri-tag'on-ist, _n._ the third actor in the Greek drama. [Gr. _tritos_, third, _agonist[=e]s_, an actor.] TRITE, tr[=i]t, _adj._ worn out by use: used till its novelty and interest are lost: hackneyed.--_adv._ TRITE'LY.--_n._ TRITE'NESS. [It. _trito_--L. _tritus_, rubbed, pa.p. of _ter[)e]re_, to rub.] TRITERNATE, tr[=i]-ter'n[=a]t, _adj._ thrice ternate--of a ternate leaf in which each division is divided into three parts, and each of these into three leaflets, thus making twenty-seven, as in some _Umbelliferæ_:--Also TRIP'LICATE-TER'NATE. TRITHEISM, tr[=i]'th[=e]-izm, _n._ the doctrine of three Gods: the opinion that the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost are actually different beings.--_n._ TR[=I]'THEIST, one who maintains the doctrine of tritheism.--_adjs._ TRITHEIS'TIC, -AL. [Gr. _treis_, three, _theos_, a god.] TRITHIONIC, tr[=i]-th[=i]-on'ik, _adj._ containing three sulphur atoms.--_n._ TRITH[=I]'[=O]N[=A]TE, a salt of trithionic acid. [Gr. _treis_, three, _theion_, sulphur.] TRITICAL, trit'i-kal, _adj._ trite, common.--_adv._ TRIT'ICALLY.--_n._ TRIT'ICALNESS. [Formed from _trite_, in imitation of _critical_.] TRITICUM, trit'i-kum, _n._ a genus of grasses including the varieties of wheat.--_adj._ TRITIC'EOUS. [L. 'wheat'--_ter[)e]re_, _tritum_, to rub.] TRITOMA, tri-t[=o]'ma, _n._ a genus of tufted herbaceous plants belonging to the natural order _Liliaceæ_. TRITON, tr[=i]'ton, _n._ (_myth._) a marine demi-god, one of the trumpeters of Poseidon (Neptune), his trumpet being a wreathed univalve shell: a genus of molluscs with a wreathed univalve shell. [Gr. _Tr[=i]t[=o]n_.] TRITONE, tr[=i]'t[=o]n, _n._ an interval in music composed of three whole steps or tones. TRITORIUM, tr[=i]-t[=o]'ri-um, _n._ a vessel for separating liquids of different densities.--Also TRIT[=U]'RIUM. TRITUBERCULAR, tr[=i]-t[=u]-ber'k[=u]-lar, _adj._ having three tubercles or cusps--also TRITUBER'CULATE.--_n._ TRITUBER'CULISM. TRITURATE, trit'[=u]-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to rub or grind to a fine powder.--_adj._ TRIT'URABLE, that may be reduced to a fine powder by grinding.--_ns._ TRITUR[=A]'TION; TRITUR[=A]'TOR; TRIT'UR[=A]TURE. [Late L. _tritur[=a]re, -[=a]tum_--L. _ter[)e]re_, to rub.] TRIUMPH, tr[=i]'umf, _n._ in ancient Rome, a solemn procession in honour of a victorious general: joy for success: victory: (_Shak._) a trump card.--_v.i._ to celebrate a victory with pomp: to rejoice for victory: to obtain victory: to be prosperous: to boast, exult (with _over_): (_Shak._) to shine brightly.--_v.t._ (_Milt._) to boast over.--_adj._ TRIUM'PHAL, pertaining to triumph: used in celebrating victory.--_n._ (_Milt._) a token of victory.--_adj._ TRIUM'PHANT, celebrating or rejoicing for a triumph: expressing joy for success: victorious.--_adv._ TRIUM'PHANTLY.--_n._ TR[=I]'UMPHER.--_adv._ TR[=I]'UMPHINGLY, in a triumphing manner: with triumph or exultation.--TRIUMPHAL ARCH, an arch erected in connection with the triumph of a Roman general, any decorative arch in public rejoicings, &c.--CHURCH TRIUMPHANT (see CHURCH). [L. _triumphus_; akin to Gr. _thriambos_, a hymn to Bacchus.] TRIUMVIR, tr[=i]-um'vir, _n._ one of three men in the same office or government:--_pl._ TRIUM'VIR[=I], TRIUM'VIRS.--_adj._ TRIUM'VIRAL.--_n._ TRIUM'VIRATE (_Shak._ TRIUM'VIRY), an association of three men in office or government, or for any political ends--esp. that of Pompey, Crassus, and Cæsar (60 B.C.), and that of Octavian (Augustus), Mark Antony, and Lepidus (43 B.C.): any trio or triad. [L. _trium-_, from _tres_, three, _vir_, a man.] TRIUNE, tr[=i]'[=u]n, _adj._ being three in one.--_n._ TRI[=U]'NITY. [Coined from L. _tri-_, root of _tres_, three, _unus_, one.] TRIVALENT, tr[=i]'v[=a]-lent, or triv'-, _adj._ equivalent in combining or displacing power to three monad atoms.--_n._ TR[=I]'VALENCE (or triv'-). [L. _tres_, three, _valens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _val[)e]re_, to be strong.] TRIVALVE, tr[=i]'valv, _adj._ having three valves.--Also TR[=I]'VALVED, TRIVAL'VULAR. TRIVERTEBRAL, tr[=i]-ver't[=e]-bral, _adj._ composed of three vertebræ. TRIVET, triv'et, _n._ a stool or other thing supported on three feet: a movable iron frame in a kitchen fire-grate for supporting kettles, &c.--RIGHT AS A TRIVET (_coll._), standing steadily like a tripod: perfectly right. [O. Fr. _trepied_--L. _tripes_, _tripedis_--_tres_, three, _pes_, a foot.] TRIVIAL, triv'i-al, _adj._ that may be found anywhere, of little importance; trifling: common, vernacular.--_v.i._ TRIV'IALISE, to render paltry.--_ns._ TRIV'IALISM, a trivial matter or remark; TRIVIAL'ITY, the state or quality of being trivial: that which is trivial, a trifle.--_adv._ TRIV'IALLY.--_ns._ TRIV'IALNESS; TRIV'IUM, in medieval schools the name given to the first three liberal arts--viz. grammar, rhetoric, and logic. [L. _trivialis_, (lit.) 'at the cross-roads or public streets'--_trivium_, a place where three ways meet--_tres_, three, _via_, a way.] TRI-WEEKLY, tr[=i]'-w[=e]k'li, _adj._ once every three weeks: three times a week. TROAD, tr[=o]d, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as TRODE. TROCAR, tr[=o]'kar, _n._ a surgical instrument used for withdrawing superfluous fluid from the body. [Fr.,--_trois_, three, _carre_, side.] TROCHANTER, tr[=o]-kan't[.e]r, _n._ a rough eminence on the outer aspect of the upper part of the thigh-bone for the insertion of various muscles which rotate the thigh outwards: the second joint of an insect's leg.--_adjs._ TROCHANT[=E]'RIAN, TROCHANTER'IC.--_n._ TROCHAN'TIN, the lesser trochanter of the femur.--_adj._ TROCHANTIN'IAN. [Gr.,--_trechein_, to run.] TROCHE, tr[=o]'k[=e] (better tr[=o]ch or tr[=o]k), _n._ a lozenge, usually round, of some medicinal ingredients mixed into a paste with sugar and mucilage.--Also TROCHISK (tr[=o]'kisk), TROCHIS'CUS. [Gr. _trochos_, a pill.] TROCHEE, tr[=o]'k[=e], _n._ a metrical foot of two syllables, so called from its tripping or joyous character: in Latin verse, consisting of a long and a short, as _n[=u]m[)e]n_; in English verse, of an accented and unaccented syllable, as _tri'pod_.--_n._ TROCH[=A]'IC, a trochaic verse or measure.--_adjs._ TROCH[=A]'IC, -AL, consisting of trochees. [Gr., _trochaios_ (_pous_, foot), running, tripping--_trochos_, a running--_trechein_, to run.] TROCHIDÆ, trok'i-d[=e], _n.pl._ a genus of gasteropodous molluscs, the top-shells--the typical genus TR[=O]'CHUS.--_adj._ TR[=O]'CHIFORM. TROCHILIC, tr[=o]-kil'ik, _adj._ pertaining to rotary motion. TROCHILUS, trok'i-lus, _n._ a genus of humming-birds. [Gr. _trochilos_.] TROCHITE, tr[=o]'k[=i]t, _n._ one of the wheel-like joints of the stem of an encrinite.--_adj._ TROCHIT'IC. TROCHITER, trok'i-t[.e]r, _n._ the greater tuberosity of the humerus, admitting several of the muscles of the shoulders.--_adj._ TROCHIT[=E]'RIAN. TROCHLEA, trok'l[=e]-a, _n._ a pulley-like cartilage through which the superior oblique muscle of the eye-ball passes: in the elbow-joint, the articular surface of the lower extremity of the humerus, grasped by the greater sigmoid cavity of the ulna.--_adjs._ TROCH'L[=E]AR, shaped like a pulley; TROCH'L[=E]ARY, relating to the trochlea. [L. _trochlea_--Gr. _trochalia_, a pulley.] TROCHOID, tr[=o]'koid, _n._ the curve traced by a fixed point in a wheel which rolls in a right line.--_adjs._ TR[=O]'CHOID, -AL. [Gr. _trochæid[=e]s_, round like a wheel--_trochos_, wheel, _eidos_, form.] TROCTOLITE, trok't[=o]-l[=i]t, _n._ a variety of Gabbro composed of white feldspar and dark olivine. TROD, trod, _n._ (_obs._) tramp, track.--HOT TROD (_Scott_), the pursuit of moss-troopers. [_Tread_.] TROD, TROD'DEN, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _tread_. TRODE, tr[=o]d, _n._ (_Spens._) tread, footing. [_Tread_.] TROGGS, trogz, _n.pl._ (_Scot._) clothes.--_n._ TROG'GIN, peddlers' goods. TROGLODYTE, trog'l[=o]-d[=i]t, _n._ a cave-dweller.--_adjs._ TROG'LODYTE, TROGLODYT'IC, -AL, cave-dwelling.--_n._ TROG'LODYTISM. [Fr.,--Gr. _tr[=o]glodyt[=e]s_--_tr[=o]gl[=e]_, a cave, _dyein_, to enter.] TROGON, tr[=o]'gon, _n._ one of a family of tropical and esp. South American birds of the order _Picariæ_, with brilliant plumage--the most celebrated species the Quetzal or Resplendent Trogon of Guatemala.--_adj._ TR[=O]'GONOID. TROIC, tr[=o]'ik, _adj._ Trojan. TROIKA, troi'ka, _n._ a Russian vehicle having three horses abreast. [Russ. _troe_, _troi_, three.] TROJAN, tr[=o]'jan, _adj._ pertaining to ancient _Troy_.--_n._ an inhabitant of ancient Troy: (_coll._) a plucky fellow: (_Shak._) a boon companion. TROKE, tr[=o]k, _n._ (_Scot._) exchange: small wares: familiar intercourse.--_v.i._ to exchange, deal.--_n._ TR[=O]'KING, dealing, making petty bargains, familiar intercourse with. [_Truck_.] TROLL, tr[=o]l, _n._ in Scandinavian mythology, a supernatural being of small size, dwelling in a cave, hill, &c. [Ice. _troll_ (Ger. _droll_). Cf. _Droll_.] TROLL, tr[=o]l, _v.t._ to move circularly: to sing the parts of in succession, as of a catch or round: to angle or fish for in a certain way: to fish for.--_v.i._ to roll: to move or run about: to sing a catch: to stroll, ramble: to fish, esp. for pike, with rod and line, using revolving lure, artificial or natural, such as spoon-bait, minnow, &c.--_n._ a moving round, repetition: a round song.--_ns._ TROLL'ER; TROLL'EY, TROLL'Y, a costermonger's cart: a metallic roller or pulley used in many electric street-railways in connection with an overhead electric conductor: a small truck running in a furnace, or in mines: lace whose pattern is outlined with a thicker thread or a flat border made up of several such threads; TROLL'ING; TROLL'ING-BAIT, -SPOON, a metallic revolving lure used in trolling. [O. Fr. _troller_, _trauler_ (Fr. _trôler_), to stroll; Old High Ger. _trollen_, to run.] TROLL-MY-DAME, trol'-mi-d[=a]m, _n._ (_Shak._) an old game.--Also _Nine-holes_, _Pigeon-holes_, and _Trunks_. TROLLOL, trol'lol', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to sing, to troll. TROLLOP, trol'op, _n._ (_Scot._) a loitering, slatternly woman: a woman negligently dressed: a draggle-tail: a strumpet.--_v.i._ to draggle: to work in a slovenly way.--_adjs._ TROLL'OPING, TROLL'OPISH, TROLL'OPY. [From troll, in the sense of running about.] TROMBONE, trom'b[=o]n, _n._ a deep-toned brass musical wind instrument of the trumpet kind, consisting of a tube bent twice on itself.--_n._ TROM'BONIST. [It.; augm. of _tromba_, a trumpet.] TROMMEL, trom'el, _n._ a revolving cylindrical sieve for cleaning or sizing ore. [Ger. _trommel_, a drum.] TROMOMETER, tr[=o]-mom'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument for measuring slight earthquake shocks.--_adj._ TROMOMET'RIC. [Gr. _tromos_, a trembling, _metron_, a measure.] TROMPE, tromp, _n._ the apparatus by which the blast is produced in the Catalan forge.--Also TROMP. TRON, tron, or tr[=o]n, _n._ the most ancient system of weight used in Scotland, the _Tron_ or _Trone_ being a heavy beam or balance set up in the market-place, and employed for the weighing of heavy wares.--_n._ TRON'AGE, a royal tax on wool. [O. Fr. _trone_--L. _trutina_, a pair of scales.] TRONA, tr[=o]'na, _n._ the native soda of Egypt, a grayish hydrous sodium carbonate. [_Natron_.] TRONCHEON, tron'shun, _n._ (_Spens._) a headless spear.--_adj._ TRONÇONNÉE (_her._), shivered, as a tilting-spear, dismembered. [_Truncheon_.] TRONE, tr[=o]n, _n._ (_prov._) a small drain. TROOP, tr[=oo]p, _n._ a crowd or collection of people: a company: soldiers taken collectively, an army, usually in _pl._: a small body of cavalry, forming the unit of formation, consisting usually of sixty men, corresponding to a company of infantry: the command of a troop of horse.--_v.i._ to collect in numbers: to march in a company, or in haste.--_ns._ TROOP'ER, a private cavalry soldier: a cavalry horse: a troop'-ship; TROOP'-HORSE, a cavalry horse; TROOP'-SHIP, a vessel for conveying soldiers.--TROOPING THE COLOURS, a ceremony performed at the public mounting of garrison guards.--HOUSEHOLD TROOPS (see HOUSE). [Fr. _troupe_, prob. through Low L. forms, from L. _turba_, a crowd.] TROPÆOLUM, tr[=o]-p[=e]'[=o]-lum, _n._ a genus of plants, natives of South America, annual or perennial herbs of trailing or climbing habits--Nasturtium, &c. [Gr. _tropaios_, pertaining to turning.] TROPARION, tr[=o]-p[=a]'ri-on, _n._ in the offices of the Greek Church, a short hymn or a stanza of a hymn:--_pl._ TROP[=A]'RIA. [Gr. _tropos_, a musical mode.] TROPE, tr[=o]p, _n._ (_rhet._) a word or expression changed from its proper sense for emphasis, a figure of speech---metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, and irony: a short cadence peculiar to Gregorian melodies--also _Differentia_ and _Distinctio_: formerly, a phrase occasionally interpolated in different parts of the mass: (_geom._) the reciprocal of a node.--_adj._ TR[=O]'PICAL, figurative.--_adv._ TR[=O]'PICALLY.--_n._ TR[=O]'PIST, one who uses tropes or who explains Scripture by them.--_adjs._ TR[=O]POLOG'IC, -AL, expressed or varied by tropes or figures.--_adv._ TR[=O]POLOG'ICALLY.--_v.t._ TROPOL'OGISE, to use as a trope.--_n._ TR[=O]POL'OGY, a tropical or figurative mode of speech: a treatise on tropes: that interpretation of Scripture which reads moral meanings into any and every passage. [Fr.,--L. _tropus_--Gr. _tropos_--_trepein_, to turn.] TROPHIC, -AL, trof'ik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to nutrition and its processes.--_adj._ TROPH[=E]'SIAL.--_n._ TROPH'ESY, deranged nutrition owing to disorder of the motor nerve force pertaining to the nutritive function.--_n.pl._ TR[=O]'PHI, the mouth-parts of an insect--labium, labrum, maxillæ, mandibles, lingua: the teeth of the pharynx of a rotifer. [Gr. _troph[=e]_, food.] TROPHONIAN, tr[=o]-f[=o]'ni-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Trophonius_, the mythical builder of the temple of Apollo at Delphi and the treasury of King Hyrieus in Boeotia. TROPHOTROPISM, trof'[=o]-tr[=o]-pizm, _n._ the movements of the organs in a growing plant, as towards nutrient substances, induced by the chemical nature of its surroundings.--_adj._ TROPHOTROP'IC. [Gr. _troph[=e]_, food, _trepein_, to turn.] TROPHY, tr[=o]'fi, _n._ a memorial of a victory, consisting of a pile of arms erected on the field of battle: anything taken from an enemy and preserved as a memorial of victory: something that is evidence of victory: an ornamental group of weapons, flags, memorials of the chase, &c.--_v.t._ to adorn with trophies.--_adj._ TR[=O]'PHIED, adorned with trophies. [Fr. _trophée_--L. _tropæum_--Gr. _tropaion_--_trop[=e]_, a turning--_trepein_, to turn.] TROPIC, trop'ik, _n._ one of the two circles on the celestial sphere, 23° 28' on each side of the equator, where the sun turns, as it were, after reaching its greatest declination north or south: one of two circles on the terrestrial globe corresponding to these: (_pl._) the regions lying between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn.--_adjs._ TROP'IC, -AL, pertaining to the tropics: being within or near the tropics.--_adv._ TROP'ICALLY.--_n._ TROP'IC-BIRD, a genus of bird the family _Phaëthontidæ_, usually seen in tropical regions. [Through L. _tropicus_, from Gr. _tropikos_, relating to a turning--_tropos_, a turning.] TROPPO, trop'p[=o], _adj._ (_mus._) too much: excessively. [It.; cf. Fr. _trop_, too much.] TROSSERS, tros'[.e]rz, _n._ (_Shak._) a form of _trousers_. TROT, trot, _v.i._ to go, lifting the feet quicker and higher than in walking: to walk or move fast: to run.--_v.t._ to ride at a trot:--_pr.p._ trot'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ trot'ted.--_n._ the pace of a horse or other quadruped when trotting: a toddling child: (_slang_) a crib, translation.--_ns._ TROT'TER, one that trots: a trotting-horse: the foot of an animal, as a sheep: (_slang_) the human foot; TROTTOIR (trot-wor'), a footway at the side of a street.--TROT OUT, to exhibit the paces of: to show. [O. Fr. _trotter_, _troter_--Low L. _trot[=a]re_, to go; prob. from Old High Ger. _trott[=o]n_, freq. of _tretan_, to tread.] TROT, trot, _n._ (_Shak._) an old woman. TROT-COSY, trot'-k[=o]'zi, _n._ (_Scot._) a covering to keep the neck and head warm in travelling, drawn over the head and hat, and buttoned beneath the chin. TROTH, troth, or tr[=o]th, _n._ truth, confidence: faith: fidelity.--_v.t._ to plight.--_adj._ TROTH'-PLIGHT (_Shak._), betrothed, affianced.--_n._ betrothal.--_n._ TROTH'-RING, a betrothal ring. [A.S. _treówth_.] TROUBADOUR, tr[=oo]'ba-d[=oo]r, _n._ one of a class of poets of chivalric love, who first appeared in Provence, and flourished from the 11th to the 13th century (see LANGUE D'OC). [Fr., from Prov. _trobador_--_trobar_ (Fr. _trouver_), to find--L. _turb[=a]re_, to move.] TROUBLE, trub'l, _v.t._ to put into a confused state: to agitate: to disturb: to annoy: to busy or engage overmuch: to put to inconvenience.--_v.i._ to take pains.--_n._ disturbance: affliction: disease: uneasiness: that which disturbs or afflicts.--_ns._ TROUB'LE-MIRTH, a kill-joy; TROUB'LER.--_adj._ TROUB'LESOME, causing or giving trouble or inconvenience: vexatious: importunate: troublous.--_adv._ TROUB'LESOMELY.--_n._ TROUB'LESOMENESS.--_adj._ TROUB'LOUS, full of trouble or disorder: agitated: tumultuous: disturbing.--CAST OIL ON TROUBLED WATERS (_fig._), to appease, calm, quieten. [O. Fr. _tourbler_--Low L. _turbul[=a]re_--L. _turb[=a]re_, to disturb--_turba_, a crowd.] TROUGH, trof, _n._ a long, hollow vessel for water or other liquid: a long tray: a long narrow channel: a concavity or hollow. [A.S. _trog_; Ger. _trog_.] TROUNCE, trowns, _v.t._ to punish or beat severely. [O. Fr. _troncer_, to cut--L. _truncus_, a trunk.] TROUPE, tr[=oo]p, _n._ a company, esp. of actors, dancers, or acrobats. [Fr. See TROOP.] TROUPIAL, TROOPIAL, tr[=oo]'pi-al, _n._ a bird of the family _Icteridæ_, the Hang-nests, famed for its exquisite song. [From their going in flocks, Fr. _troupe_, a troop.] TROUS-DE-LOUP, tr[=oo]-de-l[=oo], _n.pl._ conical pits dug in the ground, each with a vertical stake in the middle--a defence against cavalry. [Fr.] TROUSERS, trow'z[.e]rz, _n.pl._ long breeches: a garment worn by males on the lower limbs and trussed or fastened up at the waist by braces or belt.--_adj._ TROU'SERED, wearing trousers.--_n._ TROU'SERING, material for making trousers. [O. Fr. _trousses_, breeches worn by pages.] TROUSSE, tr[=oo]s, _n._ a collection of small implements in a case, esp. of surgical instruments. [Fr.] TROUSSEAU, tr[=oo]-s[=o]', _n._ the lighter articles of a bride's outfit: (_rare_) a bundle:--_pl._ TROUSSEAUX (-s[=o]z'). [Fr., a dim. of _trousse_, a bundle.] TROUT, trowt, _n._ a common name for fresh-water fish of the genus _Salmo_: the _Salmo Fario_, _Trutta_, or Common Trout, much sought after by anglers.--_n._ TROUT'-BAS'KET, an osier or willow creel for carrying trout.--_adj._ TROUT'-COL'OURED, speckled like a trout: white, with spots of black, bay, or sorrel.--_ns._ TROUT'-FARM, a place where trout are reared artificially; TROUT'LET, TROUT'LING, a little trout; TROUT'-ROD, a fishing-rod for trout; TROUT'-SPOON, a small revolving spoon used as a lure for trout; TROUT'-STREAM, a stream in which trout are caught. [A.S. _truht_--L. _tructa_, _tructus_--Gr. _tr[=o]kt[=e]s_, a sea-fish with sharp teeth--_tr[=o]gein_, to gnaw.] TROUVÈRE, tr[=oo]-v[=a]r', _n._ one of the medieval narrative or epic poets of northern France. For their language, the _langue d'oui_, see under LANGUE D'OC. TROVER, tr[=o]'v[.e]r, _n._ the gaining possession of goods: an action brought to recover goods from a person to whom they do not belong, but who has in some way obtained possession of them. [O. Fr. _trover_, to find (Fr. _trouver_)--Low L. _trop[=a]re_, to compose.] TROW, tr[=o], _v.i._ to hold as true: (_B._) to trust: to believe: to think. [A.S. _treów-ian_, to trust; cf. Ice. _trúa_, Ger. _trauen_.] TROWEL, trow'el, _n._ a tool used in spreading mortar, paint, &c., and in gardening.--_v.t._ to dress with a trowel.-LAY ON WITH A TROWEL, to spread thickly: to flatter grossly. [O. Fr. _truelle_--L. _trulla_, dim. of _trua_, a ladle.] TROWSERS. Same as TROUSERS. TROY-WEIGHT, troi'-w[=a]t, _n._ the system of weights used in England for gold, silver, and precious stones. The troy pound contains 5760 grains, and is to the avoirdupois pound as 144 to 175, while the troy ounce is to the avoirdupois ounce as 192 to 175. [From _Troyes_, in France, the pound weight of which was adopted in England in the 14th century.] TRUANT, tr[=oo]'ant, _n._ an idler: a boy who, idly or without excuse, absents himself from school.--_adj._ wandering from duty: loitering: idle.--_v.i._ to play truant.--_ns._ TRU'ANCY, TRU'ANTSHIP.--PLAY TRUANT, to stay from school without leave. [O. Fr. _truand_--Celt.; W. _truan_, wretched, Bret. _truek_, a beggar.] TRUCE, tr[=oo]s, _n._ a suspension of hostilities between two armies or states for a period specially agreed upon: cessation.--_n._ TRUCE'-BREAK'ER, one who violates a truce or engagement.--_adj._ TRUCE'LESS, without truce: relentless.--TRUCE OF GOD, in the 11th and 12th centuries, a cessation of private feuds observed in France, Italy, England, &c. from Wednesday evening to Monday morning in each week during Advent and Lent, and on certain of the principal saints' days and holy days of the Church.--FLAG OF TRUCE (see FLAG). [M. E. _trewes_, _treowes_, pl. of _trewe_, a truce; cf. _True_.] TRUCK, truk, _v.t._ to exchange or barter.--_v.i._ to traffic by exchange.--_n._ exchange of goods: barter: (_coll._) small goods: rubbish.--_ns._ TRUCK'AGE, the practice of exchanging or bartering goods; TRUCK'ER; TRUCK'-FARMER (_U.S._), a market-gardener; TRUCK'-HOUSE, TRUCK'ING-HOUSE, a house for storing goods.--_v.i._ TRUCK'LE, to yield meanly to the demands of another.--_ns._ TRUCK'LER; TRUCK'LING.--_adj._ fawning, slavish.--_n._ TRUCK'-SYS'TEM, the practice of paying workmen in goods instead of money.--TRUCK ACT, a statute of 1831, extended in 1887, requiring workmen's wages to be paid in money instead of goods. [O. Fr. _troquer_, to truck; Sp. _trocar_, to barter, It. _truccare_, to truck.] TRUCK, truk, _n._ a wheel: a railway-wagon for heavy articles: a platform running on wheels: a small wooden cap at the top of a mast or flag-staff: a circular piece of wood or metal for moving ordnance.--_v.t._ to convey by truck.--_ns._ TRUCK'AGE, conveyance by trucks: charge for carrying articles on a truck; TRUCK'-BOL'STER, a beam in the middle of a railway-truck supporting the body of the car; TRUCK'LE, a small wheel or castor: a truckle-bed.--_v.t._ to move on rollers.--_v.i._ to sleep in a truckle-bed.--_n._ TRUCK'LE-BED, a low bed on wheels that may be pushed under another. [L. _trochus_, a wheel--Gr. _trochos_--_trechein_, to run.] TRUCULENT, truk'[=u]-lent (tr[=oo]'k[=u]-lent, according to some), _adj._ very fierce: barbarous: cruel: inspiring terror.--_ns._ TRUC'ULENCE, TRUC'ULENCY.--_adv._ TRUC'ULENTLY. [L. _truculentus_--_trux_, wild, fierce.] TRUDGE, truj, _v.i._ to travel on foot: to travel with labour or effort: to march heavily on.--_n._ a weary walk. [Skeat suggests that the word is orig. to walk in heavy shoes, from Sw. dial. _truga_, _trudja_, a snow-shoe, Norw. _truga_, Ice. _thrúga_, a snow-shoe.] TRUE, tr[=oo], _adj._ agreeing with fact: worthy of belief or confidence: certain: trusty: genuine: normal: (_anat._) complete: exact: straight: right: rightful: honest.--_v.t._ to make straight in position, &c.--_n._ (_obs._) truth, a pledge: a truce.--_n._ TRUE'-BLUE, a faithful partisan.--_adjs._ TRUE'-BORN, of true or genuine birth: having a right by birth; TRUE'-BRED, of a true or genuine birth: of good breeding or manners; TRUE'-DERIVED' (_Shak._), legitimate; TRUE'-DEVOT'ED (_Shak._), full of honest zeal; TRUE'-DISPOS'ING (_Shak._), just; TRUE'-HEART'ED, sincere.--_ns._ TRUE'-HEART'EDNESS; TRUE'-LOVE, one truly or really beloved: a sweetheart: the herb-Paris (see HERB).--_adj._ affectionate.--_ns._ TRUE'-LOVE'-KNOT, TRUE'-LOV'ER'S-KNOT, lines interwoven with many involutions, fancifully held as an emblem of interwoven affection; TRUE'NESS; TRUE'-PENN'Y (_Shak._), an honest fellow.--_adv._ TRU'LY.--TRUE BILL, a bill of indictment endorsed, after investigation, by a grand jury, as containing a well-founded charge; TRUE RIB, a rib attached to spine and sternum--opp. to _Floating rib_. [A.S. _treówe_; Ice. _tryggr_, Ger. _treu_.] TRUFFLE, truf'l, _n._ a globose underground edible fungus, used for its agreeable flavour in the preparation of many dishes.--_adj._ TRUFF'LED, cooked with truffles. [O. Fr. _truffle_ (Fr. _truffe_), prob. from L. _tuber_.] TRUG, trug, _n._ (_prov._) a gardener's wooden basket. TRUISM, tr[=oo]'izm, _n._ a plain or self-evident truth.--_adj._ TRUISMAT'IC. TRUITE, trw[=e]-t[=a]', _adj._ having a delicately crackled surface, of porcelain, &c. [Fr.] TRULL, trul, _n._ a drab: a vagrant woman of loose habits. [Allied to Ger. _trolle_.] TRULLAN, trul'an, _adj._ pertaining to the _trullus_ or dome-roofed hall in the imperial palace at Constantinople, and esp. to the Quinisext Council held therein in 691. [Low L. _trullus_, a dome--L. _trulla_, a ladle.] TRUMEAU, tr[=oo]-m[=o]', _n._ any piece of wall between two openings:--_pl._ TRUMEAUX' (-m[=o]z'). [Fr.] TRUMP, trump, _v.t._ to deceive; to introduce unfairly.--_adj._ TRUMPED'-UP, forged, worthless.--_n._ TRUM'PERY, something showy but worthless: rubbish: nonsense, idle talk.--_adj._ showy and worthless.--TRUMP UP, to forge: collect from any quarter. [Fr. _tromper_, to deceive, orig. to play on the trump.] TRUMP, trump, _n._ a trumpet: a Jew's-harp. [O. Fr. _trompe_ (It. _tromba_); cf. Old High Ger. _trumba_, Ger. _tromme_, Eng. _drum_, which is thus a doublet of _trump_.] TRUMP, trump, _n._ a card of the leading suit that triumphs or wins: one of the suit of cards which takes any other: an old game of cards: (_coll._) a good, trusty fellow.--_v.i._ to play a trump card.--_v.t._ to play a trump card upon.--CALL, SIGNAL, FOR TRUMPS, in whist, a conventional signal indicating that the player wishes his partner to lead trumps. [From _triumph_, confused with _trump_, to deceive.] TRUMPET, trum'pet, _n._ the most ancient of wind instruments, formed of a long, narrow, straight tube, bent twice on itself, the last fifteen inches tapering into a bell, and sounded by means of a cupped mouthpiece--much used in military signalling: in organs, a powerful reed-stop having a trumpet-like sound: a cry resembling a trumpet-sound: (_fig._) one who praises.--_v.t._ to publish by trumpet: to proclaim: to sound the praises of.--_v.i._ to sound a trumpet.--_ns._ TRUM'PET-CALL, a call or summons on the trumpet, any call to action; TRUM'PETER, one who sounds on the trumpet the regimental calls and signals: one who proclaims, praises, or denounces: a genus of crane-like birds of British Guiana, &c.: one of the whistling swans: a kind of domestic pigeon: a large New Zealand food-fish; TRUM'PET-FISH, also _Snipe-fish_, a sea-fish so named from its trumpet-like or tubular muzzle; TRUM'PET-FLOW'ER, the popular name of various plants which produce large trumpet-shaped flowers--as the genera Bignonia and Tecoma (_Bignoniaceæ_), and Solandra (_Solonaceæ_); TRUM'PET-M[=A]'JOR, a head-trumpeter in a band or regiment.--_adj._ TRUM'PET-SHAPED, formed like a trumpet.--_ns._ TRUM'PET-SHELL, a shell of the genus _Triton_; TRUM'PET-TONE, the sound of a trumpet: a loud voice.--_adj._ TRUM'PET-TONGUED, having a voice or tongue loud as a trumpet.--_n._ SPEAK'ING-TRUM'PET (see SPEAK).--BLOW ONE'S OWN TRUMPET, to sound one's own praises; FEAST OF TRUMPETS, a Jewish feast in which trumpets played an important part; FLOURISH OF TRUMPETS (see FLOURISH). [O. Fr. _trompette_, dim. of _trompe_.] TRUNCAL. See TRUNK. TRUNCATE, trung'k[=a]t, _v.t._ to cut off: to lop: to maim.--_adjs._ TRUNC'ATE, -D, appearing as if cut off at the tip: ending in a transverse line.--_adv._ TRUN'CATELY.--_n._ TRUNC[=A]'TION.--TRUNCATED CONE, PYRAMID, a cone, pyramid, having the vertex cut off by a line parallel to the base. [L. _trunc[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_truncus_.] TRUNCHEON, trun'shun, _n._ a short staff: a cudgel: a baton or staff of authority.--_v.t._ to beat with a truncheon: to cudgel.--_adj._ TRUN'CHEONED, furnished with a truncheon: armed with a lance.--_ns._ TRUN'CHEONEER, TRUN'CHEONER, one armed with a truncheon. [O. Fr. _tronçon_--_tronc_.] TRUNDLE, trun'dl, _n._ anything round: a wheel: a truck: a trundle-bed: (_her._) a. spool of golden thread.--v.t to roll, as on wheels.--_v.i._ to roll: twirl: bowl along.--_ns._ TRUN'DLE-BED, a bed moving on trundles or low wheels: a truckle-bed; TRUN'DLE-TAIL (_Shak._), a round tail, a dog with a tail curled up. [A.S. _trendel_, a circle, wheel.] TRUNK, trungk, _n._ the stem of a tree: the body of an animal apart from the limbs: the main body of anything: anything long and hollow: the proboscis of an elephant: the shaft of a column, the dado or body of a pedestal: a water-course of planks leading from the race to the water-wheel: a large hollow piston in which a connecting-rod plays: a portable box or chest for clothes, &c., esp. on a journey: a flume, penstock.--_adjs._ TRUNC'AL, pertaining to the trunk, principal; TRUNKED, having a trunk: (_Spens._) beheaded.--_ns._ TRUNK'-FISH, the coffer-fish; TRUNK'FUL, as much as will fill a trunk; TRUNK'-HOSE, -BREECH'ES, large hose or breeches formerly worn over the lower part of the body and the upper part of the legs; TRUNK'-LINE, the main-line of a railway, canal, &c.; TRUNK'-ROAD, a main-road; TRUNK'-SLEEVE (_Shak._), a sleeve with the upper part puffed; TRUNK'-WORK, work involving secrecy as by means of a trunk. [O. Fr. _tronc_--L. _truncus_, a stock--_truncus_, maimed.] TRUNNION, trun'yun, _n._ one of the knobs on each side of a gun, on which it rests on the carriage: in steam-engines, a hollow gudgeon on each side of an oscillating cylinder, serving as a support to it.--_adj._ TRUNN'IONED, provided with trunnions.--_n._ TRUNN'ION-PLATE, a raised rim forming a shoulder around the trunnion of a gun. [Fr. _trognon_, a stalk--_tronc_, a stump--L. _truncus_.] TRUSS, trus, _n._ a bundle: timbers fastened together for binding a beam or supporting a roof: in ships, the rope or iron for keeping the lower yard to the mast: a tuft of flowers at the top of the main stalk or stem: a bandage or apparatus used in hernia to retain reduced parts, or to hinder protusion.--_v.t._ to bind up: to pack close: to furnish with a truss: to draw tight and tie: to skewer in cooking.--_n._ TRUSS'-BEAM, a wooden beam strengthened by a tie-rod.--_adj._ TRUSSED.--_n._ TRUSS'ING, in ship-building, diagonal timbers or iron plates crossing the ribs internally, and consolidating the whole together. [O. Fr. _trosser_, orig. _torser_, to bind together--L. _tortus_, pa.p. of _torqu[=e]re_, to twist.] TRUST, trust, _n._ trustworthiness: confidence in the truth of anything: confident expectation: a resting on the integrity, friendship, &c. of another: faith: hope: credit (esp. sale on credit or on promise to pay): he who, or that which, is the ground of confidence: that which is given or received in confidence: charge: an arrangement by which property is handed to or vested in a person, in the trust or confidence that he will use and dispose of it for the benefit of another, also the estate so managed for another: in modern commerce, an arrangement for the control of several companies under one direction, to cheapen expenses, regulate production, beat down competition, and so obtain a maximum return.--_adj._ held in trust.--_v.t._ to place trust in: to believe: to give credit to: to sell upon credit: to commit to the care of: to expect confidently.--_v.i._ to be confident or confiding.--_ns._ TRUST'-DEED, a deed conveying property to a trustee; TRUSTEE', one to whom anything is entrusted: one to whom the management of a property is committed in trust for the benefit of others; TRUSTEE'SHIP; TRUST'ER; TRUST-ESTATE', an estate held by trustees.--_adj._ TRUST'FUL, trusting: worthy of trust.--_adv._ TRUST'FULLY.--_n._ TRUST'FULNESS.--_adv._ TRUST'ILY.--_n._ TRUST'INESS.--_adj._ TRUST'ING, confiding.--_adv._ TRUST'INGLY.--_adj._ TRUST'LESS, treacherous, unfaithful.--_ns._ TRUST'LESSNESS; TRUST'WORTHINESS.--_adjs._ TRUST'WORTHY, worthy of trust or confidence: trusty; TRUST'Y (_comp._ TRUST'IER, _superl._ TRUST'IEST), that may be trusted: deserving confidence: honest: strong: firm: (_Shak._) involving trust.--ACTIVE, or SPECIAL, TRUST, a trust in which the trustee's power of management depends upon his having the right of actual possession; BREACH OF TRUST, a violation of duty by a trustee, executor, &c.; IN TRUST, as a charge, for safe-keeping; ON TRUST, on credit. [Scand., Ice. _traust_, trust; Ger. _trost_, consolation.] TRUTH, tr[=oo]th, _n._ that which is true or according to the facts of the case: agreement with reality: true state of things, or facts: practice of speaking or disposition to speak the truth: fidelity: genuineness: righteous conduct: a true statement: an established principle: in the fine arts, a faithful adherence to nature.--_adj._ TRUTH'FUL, full of truth: according to, or adhering to, truth: reliable.--_adv._ TRUTH'FULLY.--_ns._ TRUTH'FULNESS; TRUTH'INESS.--_adj._ TRUTH'LESS.--_ns._ TRUTH'LESSNESS; TRUTH'-LOV'ER; TRUTH'-TELL'ER, one who speaks the truth.--_adjs._ TRUTH'-WRIT, truthfully written; TRUTH'Y, truthful.--GOD'S TRUTH, a thing or statement absolutely true; IN TRUTH, truly, in fact; OF A TRUTH (_B._), truly. [A.S. _treówthu_--_treówe_, true.] TRUTINATE, tr[=oo]'ti-n[=a]t, _v.t._ (_obs._) to weigh.--_n._ TRUTIN[=A]'TION. [L. _trutin[=a]ri_--Gr. _trytan[=e]_, a balance.] TRUTTACEOUS, tru-t[=a]'shi-us, _adj._ pertaining to, or like, a trout. [_Trout_.] TRY, tr[=i], _v.t._ to put to the test or proof: to sift: to prove by experiment: to purify: to examine judiciously: to determine, settle: to examine carefully or experimentally: to experience: to attempt: to use as means: to put to severe trial, cause suffering to: to bring to a decision, to settle.--_v.i._ to endeavour: to make an effort: (_Shak._) to prove by experience: (_obs._) to keep a ship's bows to the sea during a gale:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ tried (tr[=i]d).--_n._ a trial: effort: in Rugby football, the score of three points gained by a player who succeeds in placing the ball with his hand over the enemy's line.--_adj._ TRIED, proved, experienced.--_n._ TR[=I]'ER.--_adjs._ TRY'ABLE, TR[=I]'ABLE, capable of being tried; TRYE (_Spens._), proved excellent.--_n._ TRY'-HOUSE, a place in which oil is extracted from blubber, &c.--_adj._ TRY'ING, making trial or proof of: adapted to try: searching: severe.--TRY ON, to put on for trial, as a garment: to attempt; TRY BACK, to revert, hark back. [O. Fr. _trier_, to pick out, to cull (the grain from the straw), from an assumed L. _tritare_--_ter[)e]re_, _tritum_, to rub.] TRYGON, tr[=i]'gon, _n._ a genus of cartilaginous fishes, of the order of Rays and family _Trygonidæ_--the sting-ray. [Gr. _tryg[=o]n_, a sting-ray.] TRYMA, tr[=i]'ma, _n._ a drupe with fleshy exocarp, dehiscent. [Gr. _tryma_, a hole.] TRYPETA, tr[=i]-p[=e]'ta, _n._ a genus of flies, family _Trypetidæ_, of greenish-yellow colour, forming gall-like deformations in the flower-heads of composite plants. [Gr. _tryp[=e]t[=e]s_, a borer--_trypan_, to bore.] TRYPOGRAPHIC, trip-[=o]-graf'ik, _adj._ pertaining to a method of printing by the use of paper stencils. [Gr. _trypan_, to bore, _graphein_, to write.] TRYPSIN, trip'sin, _n._ a ferment which occurs in the secretion of the pancreas, and may be isolated from the pancreatic juice, as pepsin from the gastric.--_adj._ TRYP'TIC.--_n._ TRYP'T[=O]NE, a substance formed from proteids by pancreatic juice. [Gr., from _tribein_, to rub, the substance having been first found on rubbing down the pancreas with glycerine.] TRYSAIL, tr[=i]'s[=a]l, or tr[=i]'sl, _n._ a reduced sail used by small craft, instead of their mainsail, in a storm: a small fore-and-aft sail set with a boom and gaff. TRYST, tr[=i]st, _n._ an appointment to meet: appointed place of meeting: a market.--_v.t._ to make an appointment with.--_v.i._ to agree to meet.--_ns._ TRYS'TER; TRYS'TING-DAY, a fixed day of meeting; TRYS'TING-PLACE, an arranged meeting-place.--BIDE TRYST, to wait for a person at the appointed place and time. [A variant of _trust_.] TSABIAN. See SABIAN. TSAMBA, tsam'ba, _n._ ground black barley, the chief food of Tibet. TSAR, tsär, _n._ better form of _Czar_. TSETSE, tset's[=e], _n._ a dipterous insect of South Africa (_Glossina morsitans_), not much larger than the common house-fly, brownish, with four yellow bars across the abdomen, strangely limited within sharply defined areas or 'fly-belts.' Its bite is fatal to the ox, horse, and dog. TSUBA, ts[=oo]'ba, _n._ the guard of a Japanese sword. TSUN, tsun, _n._ a Chinese inch, 1/10th of the _chih_. TSUNG-TUH, tsung'-tu', _n._ a Chinese viceroy, the highest provincial governor. TUATH, t[=u]'ath, _n._ an ancient Irish territorial division. TUB, tub, _n._ a two-handed open wooden vessel: a vessel made of staves and hoops: a small cask: anything like a tub: the quantity a tub holds: (_slang_) a pulpit: a clumsy boat: a receptacle for bathing water: the act of bathing in a tub.--_v.t._ to set, to bathe, in a tub.--_v.i._ to take a bath in a tub.--_n._ TUB'BING, the art of, or the material for, making tubs: in mining, a method of keeping out the water in sinking a shaft in watery ground: a tub-bath: rowing in clumsy boats.--_adjs._ TUB'BISH, round and fat; TUB'BY, sounding like an empty tub: dull: wanting elasticity of sound: round like a tub.--_ns._ TUB'-FAST (_Shak._) a process of treating venereal disease by sweating in a hot tub; TUB'FUL, as much as a tub will hold; TUB'-GIG, a Welsh car; TUB'-THUMP'ER (_slang_), a ranting preacher; TUB'-WHEEL, a kind of bowl-shaped water-wheel like the turbine, with spiral flanges at the exterior. [Low Ger. _tubbe_; Dut. _tobbe_.] TUBA, t[=u]'ba, _n._ a large, low-pitched trumpet-shaped instrument: in organs, a reed-stop of large scale: (_anat._) a tube, or tubular organ:--_pl._ T[=U]'BÆ, T[=U]'BAS (-b[=e], -bas). [L.] TUBE, t[=u]b, _n._ a pipe: a long hollow cylinder for the conveyance of fluids, &c.: a canal: the body of a musical instrument: a telescope: a cylindrical receptacle for holding semi-fluid substances, as pigments.--_v.t._ to furnish with, enclose in, a tube.--_n._ T[=U]'BAGE, the act or process of lining a heavy gun by insertion of a tube of wrought-iron, &c.: (_med._) the insertion of a tube into the larynx, &c.--_adjs._ T[=U]'BAL, T[=U]'BAR.--_n._ TUBE'-WELL, a pipe used to obtain water from beneath the ground, having a sharp point and a number of perforations just above the point.--_adjs._ TUBIC'OLAR, T[=U]'BICOLE, TUBIC'OLOUS, inhabiting a tube: spinning a tubular web; T[=U]'BIFLOROUS, having tubular flowers; T[=U]'BIFORM, shaped like a tube.--_n._ T[=U]'BING, the act of making tubes: tubes collectively: material for tubes.--_adjs._ T[=U]'B[=U]LAR, having the form of a tube: having a sound like that made by the passage of air through a tube; T[=U]B[=U]L[=A]'RIAN, hydriform in tubular shape with wide disc; T[=U]'B[=U]LATE, -D, T[=U]'B[=U]LOUS, T[=U]'B[=U]LOSE, formed like a tube: formed of tubes.--_n._ T[=U]'B[=U]LE, a small tube.--_adj._ T[=U]'B[=U]LIFORM, having the form of a small tube. [Fr.,--L. _tubus_, a pipe.] TUBER, t[=u]'b[.e]r, _n._ a knob in roots: a rounded, fleshy underground stem, as in the potato, formed by a part of the stem becoming thick and fleshy: a swelling.--_ns._ TUBER'CULUM, T[=U]'BERCULE, a little tuber: a small rounded elevation on a bodily organ.--_adjs._ TUBERIF'EROUS, bearing tubers; T[=U]'BERIFORM.--_ns._ TUBEROS'ITY, T[=U]'BEROUSNESS.--_adjs._ T[=U]'BEROUS, T[=U]'BER[=O]SE, having, or consisting of, tubers: knobbed. [L. _tuber_, a swelling, from root of L. _tum[=e]re_, to swell.] TUBERCLE, t[=u]'b[.e]r-kl, _n._ a small tuber or swelling: a pimple: a small knob on leaves: the characteristic product of a specific micro-organism, the _Bacillus tuberculosis_--a new formation belonging to the group of Granulomata or granulative growths, which, in virtue of their recognised infectiveness, have been classed as Infective Granulomata.--_adjs._ T[=U]'BERCLED, having tubercles; TUBER'CULAR; TUBER'CULATE, -D, TUBER'CULOSE, TUBER'CULOUS, pertaining to tubercles: pimpled: affected with, or caused by, tubercles.--_ns._ TUBER'CULIN, -E, a liquid prepared by Koch in 1890, a forty to fifty per cent. glycerine solution of a pure cultivation of the tubercle bacillus, injected into the subcutaneous tissues of persons affected with tuberculosis; TUBERCULIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ TUBER'CULISE.--_adjs._ TUBER'CULOID; TUBER'CUL[=O]SED.--_ns._ TUBERCUL[=O]'SIS, a specific infective disease induced by the invasion of the _Bacillus tuberculosis_, and characterised by the presence of tubercle or other tubercular formations--consumption or phthisis; TUBER'CULUM, a tubercle. [L. _tuberculum_, dim. of _tuber_.] TUBEROSE, t[=u]'be-r[=o]s, or t[=u]b'r[=o]z, _n._ a genus of _Liliaceæ_--the Common Tuberose, a garden and greenhouse bulb, having creamy-white, fragrant flowers. [From L. _tuberosa_, tuberous, used in the botanical name _Polianthes tuberosa_; the second pronunciation shows popular confusion with rose.] TUBISEN, t[=u]'bi-sen, _n._ a trumpeter.--_v.i._ TUBIC'INATE, to blow a trumpet. [L.] TUCAN, t[=oo]'kan, _n._ the Mexican pocket-gopher. TUCK, tuk, n, a rapier: a blow, tap: a blast, flourish. [O. Fr. _estoc_; perh. cog. with Ger. _stock_, a stock.] TUCK, tuk, _v.t._ to draw or press in or together: to stuff, cram: to fold under: to gather up: to enclose by pressing clothes closely around: (_slang_) to eat (with _in_).--_n._ a horizontal fold in a garment: (_naut._) the afterpart of a ship, immediately under the stern or counter, where the ends of the bottom planks are collected and terminate by the _tuck-rail_: (_slang_) eatables, pastry.--_n._ TUCK'ER, a piece of cloth tucked or drawn over the bosom, worn by women and children: (_slang_) food, also work that scarcely yields a living wage.--_v.t._ (_Amer. slang_) to tire exceedingly.--_ns._ TUCK'-IN (_slang_), a hearty meal--also TUCK'-OUT; TUCK'-SHOP (_slang_), a confectioner's or a pastry-cook's shop.--TUCK UP, to gather up: to contract: to make tucks: (_slang_) to hang. [A.S. _tucian_, to pull; cog. with Low Ger. _tukken_, Ger. _zucken_; also with A.S. _teón_, Ger. _ziehen_, to draw.] TUCKAHOE, tuk'a-h[=o], _n._ an edible but tasteless underground fungus growing as a saprophyte on the roots of the trees in the southern United States--also called _Indian bread_. TUCKET, tuk'et, _n._ (_Shak._) a flourish on a trumpet.--_n._ TUCK'ET-S[=O]'NANCE (_Shak._), the sound or signal of the tucket. [It. _toccata_, a touch--_toccare_, to touch.] TUDOR, t[=u]'dor, _adj._ pertaining to the royal line of the _Tudors_ (1485-1603): pertaining to the Tudor style of architecture.--TUDOR FLOWER, a trefoil ornament frequent in Tudor architecture; TUDOR ROSE, the conventional five-lobed flower adopted as a badge by Henry VII.; TUDOR STYLE (_archit._), a rather indefinite term applied to the Late Perpendicular, and the transition from that to Elizabethan--it is characterised by a flat arch, shallow mouldings, and a profusion of panelling on the walls. TUESDAY, t[=u]z'd[=a], _n._ the third day of the week. [A.S. _Tíwes dæg_, the day of Tíw (the god of war)=Ger. _die(n)s-tag_; cf. L. _dies Martis_. _Tíw_ (Ice. _Týr_, Old High Ger. _Zío_) is cog. with Gr. _Zeus_, _Dios_, and L. _Ju-piter_, _Jovis_.] TUFA, t[=u]'fa, _n._ a variety of calcium carbonate usually deposited from springs--calcareous tufa; the word was formerly used as synonymous with _tuff_.--_adj._ TUF[=A]'CEOUS. [It. _tufa_--L. _tofus_, a soft stone.] TUFF, tuf, _n._ generally _volcanic tuff_, the name given to the comminuted rock-débris ejected from a volcanic orifice. [Fr. _tuf_, _tuffe_--It. _tufo_, _tufa_--L. _tofus_.] TUFT, tuft, _n._ a green knoll: a grove, clump. [A.S _toft_--Ice. _topt_, _tupt_, a piece of ground.] TUFT, tuft, _n._ a number of small things in a knot: a cluster: a dense head of flowers: (_university slang_) a titled undergraduate, from the tuft or tassel in the cap: an imperial.--_v.t._ to separate into tufts: to adorn with tufts.--_adjs._ TUFT'ED, TUFT'Y.--_ns._ TUFT'-HUNT'ER, one over-eager to form acquaintance with persons of rank or consequence: a mean hanger-on of the great; TUFT'-HUNT'ING, the practice of a tuft-hunter. [O. Fr. _tuffe_ (Fr. _touffe_), from the Teut., as Low Ger. _topp_, Ger. _zopf_.] TUG, tug, _v.t._ to pull with effort: to drag along.--_v.i._ to pull with great effort: to struggle:--_pr.p._ tug'ging; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ tugged.--_n._ a strong pull: a steam-vessel for towing ships: a strong rope.--_ns._ TUG'-BOAT, a strongly-built steamship for towing vessels; TUG'GER, one who tugs.--_adv._ TUG'GINGLY.--_n._ TUG'-OF-WAR, a laborious contest: a contest in which opposing teams tug at the end of a rope, in their efforts to pull one another over a line marked on the ground between them. [Closely conn. with _tuck_ and _tow_ (v.).] TUILLE, tw[=e]l, _n._ in armour, a steel plate hanging below the tassets.--_n._ TUILLETTE' (_dim._). [Fr.,--L. _tegula_, a tile.] TUILYIE, TUILZIE, t[=oo]l'yi, _n._ (_Scot._) a struggle. TUISM, t[=u]'izm, _n._ the theory that all thought is directed to a second person or to one's future self as such. TUITION, t[=u]-ish'un, _n._ care over a young person: teaching, the fee paid for such.--_adj._ TUI'TIONARY. [L. _tuitio_--_tu[=e]ri_, _tuitus_, to see.] TULA-WORK, t[=oo]'la-wurk, _n._ niello-work, a kind of decorative work, done chiefly on silver, executed largely at _Tula_ in Russia. TULCHAN, tul'kan, _n._ a calf's skin stuffed with straw, and set beside a cow, to make her give her milk freely.--TULCHAN BISHOPS, the titular bishops of the Scottish Church, who in 1572 agreed to hold office, letting all the revenues of their charge, except a miserable pittance, be absorbed by the nobles as lay patrons. [Orig. unknown.] TULIP, t[=u]'lip, _n._ a genus of bulbous plants of the order _Liliaceæ_, with over forty species, having highly-coloured bell-shaped flowers.--_adj._ T[=U]'LIP-EARED, prick-eared, as a dog.--_ns._ TULIPOM[=A]'NIA, a craze for the cultivation of tulips; T[=U]'LIP-TREE, a large North American tree, having tulip-like flowers; T[=U]'LIP-WOOD, the soft, fine, straight-grained wood of the tulip-tree. [O. Fr. _tulipe_, _tulippe_, _tulipan_--Turk. _tulbend_, a turban.] TULLE, t[=oo]l, _n._ a delicate kind of thin silk network fabric of a very open structure used for the trimmings of ladies' dresses, and also for caps and veils. [Fr.: from _Tulle_, in the department of Corrèze.] TULLIAN, tul'i-an, _adj._ relating to, or resembling, Marcus _Tullius_ Cicero, the Roman orator. TULWAR, tul'wär, _n._ a Sikh form of sabre. TUMBLE, tum'bl, _v.i._ to fall: to come down suddenly and violently: to roll: to twist the body, as a mountebank: to fall rapidly, as prices: to go hastily: (_slang_) to understand, twig.--_v.t._ to throw headlong: to turn over: to throw about while examining: to disorder, rumple.--_n._ act of tumbling: a fall: a rolling over, a somersault: confusion.--_ns._ TUM'BLE-BUG, one of several kinds of scarabæoid beetles, which roll up balls of dung to protect their eggs; TUM'BLE-CAR, a one-horse car.--_adj._ TUM'BLE-DOWN, dilapidated.--_ns._ TUM'BLER, one who tumbles: one who plays any of the feats or tricks of the acrobat or contortionist: a large drinking-glass, so called because formerly, having a pointed base, it could not be set down without tumbling: a kind of domestic pigeon, so called from its tumbling on the wing: a kind of greyhound: a kind of spring-latch in a lock, preventing the bolt being shot in either direction: a piece attached to the hammer of a firearm lock, receiving the thrust of the mainspring and forcing the hammer forward so as to strike and explode the charge: a porpoise: one of a gang of London street ruffians early in the 18th century, whose favourite frolic was to set women on their heads: a tumbril: one of a set of levers from which hang the heddles in some looms; TUM'BLERFUL, as much as will fill a tumbler; TUM'BLER-STAND, a tray for tumblers, as in connection with a soda-water fountain; TUM'BLER-TANK, in plumbing, a flush-tank in which water gathers in one chamber before being tilted over so as to discharge its contents; TUM'BLER-WASH'ER, a revolving stand fitted with projecting pipes on which tumblers are hung to be washed automatically; TUM'BLE-WEED, a name given to several plants whose globular flowering heads are detached in autumn and rolled about, scattering their seed; TUM'BLING, the act of falling.--_adj._ TUM'BLY, uneven.--TUMBLE IN, or HOME, to incline in above the extreme breadth, of a ship's sides: to fit, as a piece of timber into other work: to go to bed; TUMBLE OVER, to toss about carelessly, to upset: to fall over; TUMBLE TO (_slang_), to comprehend; TUMBLE UP, to get out of bed: to throw into confusion. [A.S. _tumbian_; cf. Old High Ger. _t[=u]mil[=o]n_ (Ger. _taumeln_), Ice. _tumba_, to dance.] TUMBREL, tum'brel, TUMBRIL, tum'bril, _n._ a cart with two wheels for conveying the tools of pioneers, artillery stores, &c.: a dung-cart: the name given to the carts which conveyed victims to the guillotine during the French Revolution. [O. Fr. _tomberel_ (Fr. _tombereau_)--_tomber_, to fall, because the body of the cart could be tumbled without unyoking.] TUMEFY, t[=u]'me-f[=i], _v.t._ to cause to swell.--_v.i._ to swell: to rise in a tumour:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ t[=u]'mef[=i]ed.--_n._ TUMEFAC'TION, tumour: swelling. [L. _tumefac[)e]re_--_tum[=e]re_, to swell, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] TUMID, t[=u]'mid, _adj._ swollen or enlarged: inflated: falsely sublime: bombastic.--_n._ TUMES'CENCE.--_adj._ TUMES'CENT.--_n._ TUMID'ITY.--_adv._ T[=U]'MIDLY.--_n._ T[=U]'MIDNESS. [L. _tumidus_--_tum[=e]re_, to swell.] TUMOUR, t[=u]'mor, _n._ a morbid swelling on any of the cutaneous, mucous, or serous surfaces in any part of the body, of independent growth. [L. _tumor_--_tum[=e]re_, to swell.] TUMP, tump, _n._ (_prov._) a hillock.--_v.t._ to gather a mass of earth round a plant.--_adj._ TUMP'Y, uneven. TUMP-LINE, tump'-l[=i]n, _n._ a strap across the forehead or breast by means of which a burden is carried through the Canadian forests. [_Temple-line_.] TUM-TUM, tum'-tum, _n._ a West Indian dish of boiled plantains. TUMULT, t[=u]'mult, _n._ uproar of a multitude: violent agitation with confused sounds: high excitement.--_adv._ TUMULT'[=U]ARILY.--_n._ TUMULT'[=U]ARINESS.--_adjs._ TUMULT'[=U]ARY, TUMULT'[=U]OUS, full of tumult: disorderly: agitated: noisy.--_v.i._ TUMULT'[=U]ATE, to make a tumult.--_n._ TUMULT[=U][=A]'TION.--_adv._ TUMULT'[=U]OUSLY.--_ns._ TUMULT'[=U]OUSNESS; TUMULT'US, commotion. [L. _tumultus_--_tum[=e]re_, to swell.] TUMULUS, t[=u]'m[=u]-lus, _n._ a mound of earth over a grave: a barrow:--_pl._ T[=U]'M[=U]L[=I].--_adjs._ T[=U]'M[=U]LAR, -Y, T[=U]'M[=U]LOUS.--_v.t._ T[=U]'M[=U]LATE, to cover with a mound.--_n._ T[=U]M[=U]LOS'ITY. [L.,--_tum[=e]re_, to swell.] TUN, tun, _n._ a large cask: an obsolete liquid measure of capacity--in old ale and beer measure, 216 gallons; in old wine measure, 252 gallons.--_v.t._ to store in a tun.--_ns._ TUN'-BELL'Y, a big pot-belly; TUN'-DISH (_Shak._), a wooden funnel; TUN'NAGE, a tax on imported wines; TUN'NING, the act of brewing, the amount brewed at one time. [A.S. _tunne_.] TUNA, t[=u]'na, _n._ a prickly pear, also its fruit. TUNDRA, t[=oo]n'dra, _n._ one of the level treeless plains of northern Russia, both in Europe and Asia. [Russ.] TUNDUN, tun'dun, _n._ a bull-roarer. TUNE, t[=u]n, _n._ a melodious succession of notes or chords in a particular key: the relation of notes and intervals to each other causing melody: state of giving the proper sound: harmony: a melody or air: frame of mind, temper.--_v.t._ to adjust the tones, as of a musical instrument: to play upon, celebrate in music: to give a certain character to.--_adj._ T[=U]'NABLE.--_n._ T[=U]'NABLENESS.--_adv._ T[=U]'NABLY.--_adj._ TUNE'FUL, full of tune or harmony: melodious: musical.--_adv._ TUNE'FULLY.--_n._ TUNE'FULNESS.--_adj._ TUNE'LESS, without tune or melody: silent.--_ns._ T[=U]'NER, one who tunes or adjusts the sounds of musical instruments: one who makes music, or sings: in organs, an adjustable flap for altering the pitch of the tone; T[=U]'NING, the art of bringing musical instruments into tune; T[=U]'NING-FORK, a steel two-pronged instrument, designed when set in vibration to give a musical sound of a certain pitch; T[=U]'NING-HAMM'ER, a tuning-wrench with hammer attachment for regulating tension in stringed instruments.--TUNE UP, to begin to sing or play.--CHANGE ONE'S TUNE, SING ANOTHER TUNE, to alter one's attitude, or one's way of talking; IN TUNE, harmonious; OUT OF TUNE, inharmonious; TO THE TUNE OF, to the amount of. [A doublet of tone.] TUNGSTEN, tung'sten, _n._ a rare metal, chiefly derived from wolfram, which is a tungstate of iron and manganese, and likewise found in scheelite, which is a tungstate of lime.--_n._ TUNG'STATE, a salt of tungstic acid.--_adjs._ TUNGSTEN'IC; TUNGSTENIF'EROUS; TUNG'STIC.--_n._ TUNG'STITE, native oxide of tungsten. [Sw.,--tung, heavy, sten, stone.] TUNGUSIC, tun-g[=oo]'sik, _adj._ pertaining to the _Tunguses_, an ethnographic group of the Ural-Altaic family.--_n._ TUN'GUS, one of this people or their language.--_adj._ TUNGU'SIAN. TUNIC, t[=u]'nik, _n._ a loose frock worn by females and boys: an ecclesiastical short-sleeved vestment, worn over the alb at mass by the sub-deacon, very similar to the dalmatic, but smaller: a military surcoat: the ordinary fatigue-coat of a private soldier, also the coat of an officer: (_anat._) a membrane that covers some organ: (_bot._) a covering, as of a seed.--_n._ TUNIC[=A]'TA, a class of remarkable animals, many of which are popularly known as Ascidians or sea-squirts--now regarded as occupying a lowly place among vertebrate or chordate animals.--_adjs._ T[=U]'NICATE, -D (_bot._), covered with a tunic or with layers.--_n._ T[=U]'NICLE, a little tunic: as an ecclesiastical vestment, the same as tunic. [Fr. _tunique_--L. _tunica_, an under-garment of both sexes.] TUNKER, tungk'[.e]r, _n._ Same as Dunker (q.v.). TUN-MOOT, tun'-m[=oo]t, _n._ an assembly of the town or village. [A.S. _tún_, town, _gemót_, meeting.] TUNNEL, tun'el, _n._ an arched passage cut through a hill or under a river, &c.: the long underground burrow of certain animals, as the mole: any mine-level open at one end: (_Spens._) a flue, chimney.--_v.t._ to make a passage through: to hollow out:--_pr.p._ tunn'elling; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ tunn'elled.--_n._ TUNN'EL-NET, a net wide at the mouth and narrow at the other end. [O. Fr. _tonnel_ (Fr. _tonneau_), a cask; also O. Fr. _tonnelle_, an arched vault, dim. of tonne, a cask.] TUNNY, tun'i, _n._ a very large fish of the mackerel family (Scombridæ), fished chiefly on the Mediterranean coasts. [L. _thunnus_--Gr. _thynnos_--_thynein_, to dart along.] TUP, tup, _n._ a ram: the striking-face of a steam-hammer, &c.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to cover with (of a ram): to butt. [Conn. with Low Ger. _tuppen_, _toppen_, to pull by the hair; Ger. _tupfen_, to touch.] TUPAIA, t[=u]-p[=a]'ya, _n._ the genus of squirrel-shrews found in the Malay Peninsula, &c. TUPELO, t[=u]'pe-l[=o], _n._ a genus of trees, natives chiefly of the southern parts of the United States, including the Black Gum Tree, the Ogeechee Lime or Sour Gum Tree, &c. TUQUE, t[=u]k, _n._ a Canadian cap made by tucking in one tapered end of a long cylindrical bag, closed at both ends. [Fr. _toque_.] TURAKOO, t[=oo]'ra-k[=oo], _n._ one of the plantain-eaters, a large bird found in Africa, light green, with carmine wing-feathers.--_n._ TU'RACIN, the red colouring matter of its feathers. [African.] TURANIAN, t[=u]-r[=a]'ni-an, _adj._ a philological term which came to be used for the non-Aryan languages of the Ural-Altaic or Finno-Tartar group--sometimes extended so as to include the Dravidian tongues of India, also of the agglutinative type, thus erroneously suggesting affinity between non-Aryan and non-Semitic groups of languages which are probably quite unconnected. [From _Turan_=_not-Iran_, a term used by the Sassanian kings of Persia for those parts of their empire outside of Iran, and still the name for Turkestan among the Persians.] TURBAN, tur'ban, _n._ a head-covering worn by Eastern nations, consisting of a cap with a sash wound round it: a circular head-dress worn by ladies: the whole whorls of a shell.--_n._ TUR'BAND (_Shak._), a turban.--_adj._ TUR'BANED, wearing a turban. [Earlier forms _turbant_, _tulipant_ (Fr. _turban_, Port. _turbante_), from Pers. _dulband_.] TURBARY, tur'ba-ri, _n._ the right to go upon the soil of another and dig turf, and carry off the same: a place where peat is dug. [L. _turba_, turf.] TURBELLARIA, tur-be-l[=a]'ri-a, _n.pl._ a class of flat-worms with ciliated skin--the same as _Planaria_ (q.v.).--_adjs._ TURBELL[=A]'RIAN; TURBELLAR'IFORM. TURBID, tur'bid, _adj._ disordered: having the sediment disturbed: muddy: thick.--_adv._ TUR'BIDLY.--_ns._ TUR'BIDNESS, TURBID'ITY. [L. _turbidus_--_turba_, tumult.] TURBILLION, tur-bil'yun, _n._ a whirl, vortex. [Fr. _tourbillon_--L. _turbo_, a whirl.] TURBINACEOUS, tur-bi-n[=a]'shus, _adj._ turfy, peaty. TURBINE, tur'bin, _n._ a horizontal water-wheel with vertical axis, receiving and discharging water in various directions round the circumference--by parallel, outward, or inward flow.--_adj._ TUR'BINAL, turbinate.--_n._ (_anat._) a scroll-like bone.--_adjs._ TUR'BINATE, -D, shaped like a top or inverted cone: spiral: (_anat._) whorled in shape: whirling like a top.--_ns._ TURBIN[=A]'TION; TUR'BINE-PUMP, a pump in which water is raised by the inverted action of a turbine-wheel; TURB'INE-STEAM'ER, a vessel impelled by a steam-turbine.--_adjs._ TUR'BINIFORM, TUR'BINOID, top-shaped. [Fr.,--L. _turbo_, _turbinis_, a whirl--_turb[=a]re_, to disturb--_turba_, disorder.] TURBIT, tur'bit, _n._ a domestic pigeon having white body, coloured wings, and short beak. TURBO, tur'b[=o], _n._ the typical genus of the family of scutibranchiate gasteropods, _Turbinidæ_.--_n._ TUR'BINITE, a fossil shell of this family. [L. _turbo_, a top.] TURBOT, tur'bot, _n._ a highly esteemed food-fish of the genus _Rhombus_ and family _Pleuronectidæ_ or Flat-fishes, abundant in the North Sea. [O. Fr., _turbot_, prob. formed from L. _turbo_, a spinning-top.] TURBULENT, tur'b[=u]-lent, _adj._ tumultuous, disturbed: in violent commotion: disposed to disorder: restless: producing commotion.--_ns._ TUR'BULENCE, TUR'BULENCY.--_adv._ TUR'BULENTLY. [Fr.,--L. _turbulentus_--_turba_, a crowd.] TURCISM, tur'sizm, _n._ customs of Turks. TURCO, tur'k[=o], _n._ a popular name for one of the Tirailleurs Algériens, a body of native Algerian troops recruited for the French service. TURCOMAN=_Turkoman_. TURCOPHILE, tur'k[=o]-fil, _n._ one who favours the Ottoman Turks.--_n._ TUR'COPHILISM. [Low L. _Turcus_, Turk, Gr. _philein_, to love.] TURCOPOLIER, tur'k[=o]-po-l[=e]r, _n._ the commander of the light infantry of the Knights of St John of Jerusalem--always an Englishman. [O. Fr.,--Low L. _Turcopuli_--Late Gr. _tyrcopouloi_, light-armed soldiers--_Tourcos_, Turk, _poulos_, a child.] TURD, turd, _n._ a ball of dung. [A.S. _tord_.] TURDUS, tur'dus, _n._ a genus of Passerine birds of the _Turdidæ_ family, the thrushes.--_adjs._ TUR'DIFORM, TUR'DINE, TUR'DOID, like a thrush. TUREEN, t[=u]-r[=e]n', tu-r[=e]n', _n._ a large dish for holding soup at table. [Fr. _terrine_--L. _terra_, earth.] TURF, turf, _n._ the surface of land matted with the roots of grass, &c.: a cake of turf cut off: sod: peat: race-ground: horse-racing, the race-course:--_pl._ TURFS--(_obs._) TURVES.--_v.t._ to cover with peat or sod.--_adj._ TURF'-CLAD, covered with turf.--_n._ TURF'-DRAIN, a drain in which turf is used for a covering.--_adj._ TUR'FEN, made or covered with turf.--_ns._ TURF'-HEDGE, a combination of turf and hedge-plants, forming a fence; TUR'FINESS; TUR'FITE (_slang_), one devoted to horse-racing; TURF'-SPADE, a long narrow spade for digging turf.--_adj._ TUR'FY, resembling or abounding in turf: pertaining to horse-racing. [A.S. _turf_; Ice. _torf_.] TURGENT, tur'jent, _adj._ swelling: rising into a tumour: inflated: bombastic.--_adv._ TUR'GENTLY.--_ns._ TURGES'CENCE, TURGES'CENCY.--_adjs._ TURGES'CENT, swelling: growing big; TUR'GID, swollen: extended beyond the natural size: pompous: bombastic.--_ns._ TURGID'ITY, TUR'GIDNESS.--_adv._ TUR'GIDLY.--_n._ TURGOR (tur'gor), state of being full, the normal condition of the capillaries. [L. _turg-ens_, _-entis_, pr.p. of _turg[=e]re_, to swell.] TURION, t[=u]'ri-on, _n._ a shoot from an underground bud, growing upward into a new stem.--_adj._ TURIONIF'EROUS. [L. _turio_, a shoot.] TURK, turk, _n._ a native of _Turkey_, an Ottoman--more widely, a member of a race formerly classed among the 'Turanian' peoples, now more usual to say, of the Mongolo-Tartar ethnological group, and speaking languages of the Ural-Altaic family: a savage fellow: a Mohammedan: a Turkish horse: the plum-weevil or curculio.--_ns._ TURK'EY-CAR'PET, a soft thick kind of carpet; TURK'EY-HONE, -STONE, a kind of oilstone brought from Turkey, and used for hones; TURK'EY-MER'CHANT, one whose trade is with Turkey or the Turkish East; TURK'EY-RED, a fine durable red dye, obtained from madder, but now mostly prepared chemically, first produced in Turkey; TURK'EY-STONE, the turquoise.--_adj._ TURK'ISH, pertaining to the Turks or to Turkey.--_n._ the language of the Turks.--_ns._ TURK'ISH-BATH, a kind of hot-air bath in which the patient, after being sweated, is rubbed down, and conducted through a series of cooling-chambers until he regains his normal temperature; TURK'S'-HEAD, a kind of knot: a long broom with spherical head: a kind of cooking-pan, having a tin core in the centre.--TURN TURK, to become a Mohammedan: to go to the bad: to become hopelessly obstinate. TURKEY, turk'i, _n._ a large gallinaceous bird, a native of America--not _Turkey_.--_ns._ TURK'EY-BUZZ'ARD, a vulture found largely in North and South America; TURK'EY-COCK, the male of the turkey: a foolishly proud person. TURKIS, turk'is, _n._ an older spelling of _turquoise_.--Also TURK'OIS. TURKOMAN, tur'k[=o]-man, _n._ a member of a branch of the Turkish race, found in Central Asia to the north of Persia. TURLOUGH, tur'loh, _n._ a shallow pond in Ireland, dry in summer. [Ir. _turloch_.] TURM, turm, _n._ (_Milt._) a troop. [L. _turma_.] TURMERIC, tur'm[.e]r-ik, _n._ the rhizome or root-stock of _Curcuma longa_, a handsome herbaceous plant cultivated all over India, its yellowish tubers yielding a deep-yellow powder used as a chemical test for the presence of alkalies. [Cf. Fr. _terre-mérite_--as if from L. _terra_, earth, and _merita_, deserved; both prob. corr. from an Oriental name.] TURMOIL, tur'moil, _n._ harassing labour: disturbance.--_v.t._ to harass with commotion: to weary.--_v.i._ to be disquieted or in commotion. [Perh. L. _trem[)e]re_, to shake.] TURN, turn, _v.i._ to whirl round: to hinge: to depend: to issue: to take a different direction or tendency: to become by a change, hence to rebel: to return: to be fickle: to result: to be shaped on the lathe: to sour: to become giddy: to be nauseated: to change from ebb to flow or from flow to ebb: to become inclined in the other direction.--_v.t._ to cause to revolve: to reverse: to pass round: to direct, apply: to send, drive: to fold, remake: to translate: to make sour: to change the position or the direction of: to nauseate, to make giddy: to direct the mind to: to infatuate or make mad: to cause to return with profit: to transfer: to convert: to form in a lathe: to shape: to round: to adapt: to blunt.--_n._ act of turning: new direction or tendency, disposition: a walk to and fro: chance: a turning-point, crisis: (_mus._) a melodic embellishment, consisting of a principal tone with two auxiliary tones lying respectively next above and below it: a spell of work, a job: (_coll._) a nervous shock: change: a winding: a bend: form: manner: opportunity, convenience: act of kindness or malice: a type turned upside down, owing to a temporary want of the proper letter.--_ns._ TURN'ABOUT, a merry-go-round; TURN'BACK, the strap from the hames to the hip-strap; TURN'BUCKLE, a form of coupling so arranged as to regulate the length or tension of the connected parts; TURN'-CAP, a chimney-cowl rotating on a vertical axis; TURN'COAT, one who turns his coat--that is, abandons his principles or party; TURN'COCK, one who turns on the water for the mains, regulates the fire-plugs, &c., of a water company.--_adj._ TURN'-DOWN, folded down.--_ns._ TURN'ER, one who, or that which, turns: a tumbler, gymnast, esp. a member of the German _Turnvereine_ or gymnastic bodies, instituted by F. L. Jahn in 1811; TURN'ERY, art of turning or of shaping by a lathe: things made by a turner, also the place where these are made: ornamentation by means of the lathe; TURN'ING, a winding: deviation from the proper course: turnery, the art of shaping wood, metal, ivory, or other hard substances into forms having a curved (generally circular or oval) transverse section, and also of engraving figures composed of curved lines upon a smooth surface, by means of a turning-lathe: (_mil._) a manoeuvre for turning an enemy's position: in pottery, the shaping of a vase: (_pl._) chips; TURN'ING-LATHE, a lathe used by turners; TURN'ING-POINT, the point on which a question turns, and which decides the case: a grave and critical period; TURN'ING-REST, a support on a lathe serving as a fulcrum for a hand turning-tool; TURN'ING-SAW, a thin-bladed saw contrived for cutting curved wood for chair-backs, &c.--also _Sweep-saw_, _Frame-saw_, _Scroll-saw_; TURN'ING-STEEL, a piece of hard bar-steel for turning the edge of a tool, &c.; TURN'ING-TOOL, a tool for shaping the cutting edges of the tools used in seal-engraving; TURN'KEY, one who turns the keys in a prison: a warder; TURN'-OUT, the act of coming forth: a strike: a striker: a crowd of spectators: a carriage and its horses: quantity of produce yielded.--_adj._ TURN'OVER, made to be turned over or reversed.--_n._ act of turning over, upset, overthrow: a small pie made by turning half of the circular crust over the other which has been covered with fruit, &c.: an apprentice turned over to a new master to complete his apprenticeship: the total amount of the sales in a business for a specified time.--_ns._ TURN'PIKE, a gate set across a road to stop those liable to toll: a turnpike-road--originally a frame consisting of two cross-bars armed with pikes, and turning on a post; TURN'PIKE-MAN, a man who collects tolls at a tollgate; TURN'PIKE-ROAD, a road on which turnpikes or tollgates are established; TURN'-SCREW, a screw-driver; TURN'SKIN, a werewolf; TURN'SPIT, one who turns a spit: a person engaged in some menial occupation: a long-bodied, short-legged dog employed to drive a wheel by which roasting-spits were turned--closely allied to the _Dachshund_ (q.v.); TURN'STILE, a revolving frame in a footpath which prevents the passage of cattle, but allows the passage of one person at a time; TURN'STILE-REG'ISTER, a device for recording the number of persons passing through a turnstile; TURN'STONE, a small grallatorial bird, intermediate between the true plovers and sandpipers, so called from its habit of turning over pebbles on the beach in search of food; TURN'-TA'BLE (same as TRAVERSE-TABLE); TURN'-UP, a disturbance: something that appears unexpectedly.--TURN ABOUT, to move the face or front to another quarter; TURN ABOUT, TURN AND TURN ABOUT, alternately; TURN A, or THE, CORNER (see CORNER); TURN A DEAF EAR TO, to ignore; TURN ADRIFT, to unmoor and let float away: to cast off; TURN AGAIN, to return: to make a stand; TURN AGAINST, to use to the injury of: to render hostile: to rebel against; TURN AN ENEMY'S FLANK, LINE, or POSITION, to manoeuvre so as to attack an enemy in the rear: to outwit; TURN A PENNY (see PENNY); TURN AROUND ONE'S FINGER, to make any one subservient to one's will; TURN ASIDE, to avert; to deviate: to avert the face; TURN AWAY, to dismiss from service, to discharge: to avert, to look in another direction: to deviate, to depart from; TURN BACK, to cause to retreat: to return; TURN DOWN, to double or fold down: to hide the face of: to lessen or lower; TURN FORTH, to expel; TURN IN, to bend inward: to enter: (_coll._) to go to bed; TURN INTO, to become by a process of change; TURN OFF, to deviate: to dismiss: to divert: to complete, achieve by labour: to shut off: (_slang_) to hang; TURN ON, to set running (as water): to depend on: to confront in fight; TURN ONE'S HAND TO, to apply one's self; TURN ONE'S HEAD, or BRAIN, to make one giddy: to fill with pride or conceit; TURN OUT, to drive out, to expel: to put to pasture (as cattle): to make for market or for use: to project: to prove in the result: to muster: to leave one's work to take part in a strike: (_coll._) to get out of bed; TURN OVER, to roll over: to change sides: to sell goods to the amount of: to examine by turning the leaves; TURN ROUND, to reverse one's position or party; TURN THE BACK, to flee, to retreat; TURN THE BACK UPON, to quit with contempt, to forsake; TURN THE EDGE OF, to blunt; TURN THE SCALE, to decide, determine; TURN THE STOMACH, to nauseate; TURN TO, to have recourse to: to point to: to result in; TURN TURTLE (see TURTLE); TURN UP, to point upwards: to appear, happen: place with face up: to bring the point uppermost: to refer to in a book; TURN UPON, to cast back upon, retort; TURN UPSIDE DOWN, to throw into complete confusion.--BE TURNED OF, to have advanced beyond--of age; BY TURNS, one after another: at intervals; ILL TURN, an injurious act: a change for the worse; IN TURN, in order of succession; NOT TO TURN A HAIR, to be quite undisturbed or unaffected; ON THE TURN, at the turning-point, changing; SERVE A TURN, to answer the purpose; TAKE ONE'S TURN, to occupy one's allotted place; TAKE TURNS, to take each the other's place alternately; TO A TURN, exactly, perfectly. [A.S. _tyrnan_; Ger. _turnen_; Fr. _tourner_; all from L. _torn[=a]re_, to turn in a lathe--_tornus_, a turner's wheel--Gr. _tornos_.] TURNAGRA, tur'n[=a]-gra, _n._ a New Zealand genus of thrush-like birds. TURNER, tur'n[.e]r, _n._ a Scotch copper coin worth 2d., issued by James VI. [Prob. _turney_.] TURNEY, tur'ni, _n._ a copper coin current in Ireland under Edward III.--coined at _Tours_. TURNEY, tur'ni, _n._ (_Milt._)=_Tourney_. TURNIP, tur'nip, _n._ a biennial plant, with lyrate hispid leaves, the upper part of the root becoming, esp. in cultivation, swollen and fleshy--cultivated as a culinary esculent, and for feeding cattle and sheep.--_n._ TUR'NIP-FLY, a muscid fly whose maggots burrow in turnip-roots. [Perh. orig. _turn-nep_--_turn_, implying something round, and _nep_--A.S. _n['æ]p_, a turnip.] TURNSOLE, turn's[=o]l, _n._ a name sometimes given to the Heliotrope and other plants, esp. to the euphorbiaceous _Chrozophora tinctoria_, from which a deep-purple dye is obtained. [Fr.,--_tourner_--_sol_, for _soleil_--L. _sol_, the sun.] TURNUS, tur'nus, _n._ the tiger-swallowtail, a black-striped United States butterfly. TURPENTINE, tur'pen-t[=i]n, _n._ a semi-solid resinous substance secreted by various coniferous trees (the name turpentine is commonly understood to mean the product of the Scotch pine, the swamp pine of America, and the _Pinus maritima_ of France; _Venice turpentine_ is obtained from the larch, and _Chian turpentine_ from the 'Turpentine-tree'--see PISTACHIO): the oil or spirit of turpentine.--_ns._ TUR'PENTINE-MOTH, a moth whose larvæ bore into the twigs of pine and fir, causing exudation of resin and destroying the twig; TUR'PENTINE-TREE, the terebinth-tree--_Pistachia terebinthus_.--_adj._ TUR'PENTIN'IC.--_n._ TURPS, oil or spirits of turpentine. [O. Fr. _turbentine_--L. _terebinthina_ (_resina_), (the resin) of the terebinth--Gr. _terebinthos_.] TURPETH, tur'peth, _n._ the root of _Ipomoea_ (_Convolvulus_) _Turpethum_, a Ceylon plant of cathartic properties.--TURPETH MINERAL, an old name for the yellow basic mercury sulphate. TURPITUDE, tur'pi-t[=u]d, _n._ baseness: extreme depravity or wickedness: vileness of principles and actions. [L. _turpitudo_--_turpis_, base.] TURQUET, turk'et, _n._ (_Bacon_) a figure of a Turk. TURQUOISE, tur-koiz', or tur-k[=e]z', _n._ an opaque greenish-blue mineral from Persia, valued as a gem, essentially a phosphate of alumina, harder than feldspar but softer than quartz, occurring as thin veins in slate rock.--_n._ TURQUOISE'-GREEN, a pale colour between green and blue--also _adj._ [O. Fr.; because first brought through _Turkey_ from Persia.] TURRET, tur'et, _n._ a small tower on a building and rising above it: a movable building containing soldiers, engines, &c., used in medieval sieges: a tower, often revolving, for offensive purposes, on land and water: the raised portion above an American railroad car, for ventilation, &c.--_adj._ TURR'ETED, furnished with turrets: formed like a tower.--_ns._ TURR'ET-GUN, a gun designed for use in a revolving turret; TURR'ET-SHIP, an ironclad ship-of-war, whose guns are placed in one or more revolving turrets placed on deck.--_adjs._ TURRIC'ULATE, -D, having small turrets. [O. Fr. _touret_ (Fr. _tourelle_).] TURRIBANT, tur'i-bant, _n._ (_Spens._) a turban. TURTLE, tur'tl, TURTLE-DOVE, tur'tl-duv, _n._ a genus of _Columbidæ_, of graceful build, with small head and slender bill, long wings, and long rounded tail, flying swiftly and noiselessly, noted for their beauty of form and colour, their soft cooing, and their affection towards each other and their young. [A.S. _turtle_; Ger. _turtel_, Fr. _tourtereau_, _tourterelle_; all from the L. name _turtur_.] TURTLE, tur'tl, _n._ any tortoise, but esp. the edible Green Turtle, prized for the soup made from its flesh, chief glory of aldermanic banquets--_Calipash_ is the part of the animal that belongs to the upper shield, a fatty, gelatinous substance of a dull-greenish colour; _Calipee_, the yellowish meat of the lower shield.--_v.t._ to pursue turtles.--_ns._ TUR'TLEBACK, a turtle-shaped projection on the bows or stern of a ship for the purpose of keeping off heavy seas; TUR'TLER, a hunter of turtles; TUR'TLE-SHELL, tortoise-shell: a turtle-cowry; TUR'TLE-SOUP, a soup the chief ingredient of which is turtle meat; TURT'LING, the catching of turtles.--GREEN TURTLE, a species of turtle which attains great size and is the source of real turtle-soup--its eggs also are much prized; MOCK TURTLE, a soup made of calf's head in lieu of turtle meat; TURN TURTLE, to capsize, as a boat. [A corr. of _tortoise_, or of Sp. _tortuga_, or Port. _tartaruga_, a tortoise.] TUSCAN, tus'kan, _adj._ of or belonging to _Tuscany_ in Italy: denoting the simplest of the five classic orders of architecture, being a Roman modification of the Doric style, with unfluted columns, and without triglyphs. [L. _Tuscanus_.] TUSH, tush, _n._ (_Shak._) a tusk. TUSH, tush, _interj._ pshaw! be silent! an exclamation of impatience, &c.--_v.i._ to express contempt, &c. TUSK, tusk, _n._ a long, protruding tooth on either side of the mouth of certain animals: a sharp point: the share of a plough.--_v.t._ to gore with the tusks.--_adjs._ TUSKED, TUSK'Y.--_n._ TUSK'ER, an elephant whose tusks are grown. [A.S. _tusc_, _tux_; Ice. _toskr_.] TUSKAR, tus'kar, _n._ an iron implement with wooden shaft, for cutting peat. [Ice. _torfskeri_--_torf_, turf, _skera_, to cut.] TUSSER-SILK, tus'[.e]r-silk, _n._ a kind of dark fawn-coloured silk, generally made without brocading or patterns. [Hind. _tassar_--Sans. _tassara_, shuttle.] TUSSILAGO, tus-i-l[=a]'g[=o], _n._ a genus of plants of the natural order _Compositæ_, suborder _Corymbiferæ_--the only British species, _Tussilago farfara_, sometimes called Colt's-foot. [L.] TUSSIS, tus'is, _n._ a cough.--_adj._ TUSSIC'ULAR. [L.] TUSSLE, tus'el, _n._ a struggle.--_v.i._ to struggle. [_Tousle_.] TUSSOCK, tus'ok, _n._ a tuft of grass or twigs.--_ns._ TUSS'OCK-GRASS, a large grass of the same genus with the Cock's-foot Grass of Britain, native to the Falkland Islands, remarkable for forming great tufts--also TUSS'AC-GRASS; TUSS'OCK-MOTH, a grayish-white moth about an inch long, the caterpillars of which do great mischief in hop-grounds, and are known as _Hop-dogs_.--_adj._ TUSS'OCKY, abounding in tufts. [Perh. conn. with obs. _tusk_, a tuft; cf. Dan. _dusk_.] TUSSORE. Same as TUSSER-SILK. TUT, tut, _interj._ an exclamation of rebuke, or impatience, &c.--_v.i._ to express impatience by such. TUT, tut, _n._ (_prov._) a hassock--also TOTE.--_v.i._ to project. TUT, tut, _n._ a piece of work.--_v.i._ to work by the piece.--_ns._ TUT'WORK; TUT'WORKER; TUT'WORKMAN. TUTAMEN, t[=u]-t[=a]'men, _n._ a defence or protection. [L.] TUTANIA, t[=u]-t[=a]'ni-a, _n._ a kind of Britannia metal. [_Tutty_.] TUTELAGE, t[=u]'te-l[=a]j, _n._ guardianship: state of being under a guardian.--_adjs._ T[=U]'TELAR, T[=U]'TELARY, protecting: having the charge of a person or place. [L. _tutela_--_tut[=a]ri_, to guard--_tu[=e]ri_, to see.] TUTENAG, t[=u]'te-nag, _n._ the zinc imported into Europe from China and the East Indies during the 18th century. [Fr. _tutenague_, prob. from Pers. and Ar. _t[=u]tiya_, an oxide of zinc, and _-n[=a]k_, a suffix, or perh. Hind. _n[=a]ga_, lead.] TUTIORISM, t[=u]'ti-or-izm, _n._ in R. C. moral theology, the doctrine that in a case of doubt between right and wrong one should take the safer course, i.e. the one in verbal accordance with the law--the same as _Rigorism_, and the opposite of _Probabilism_.--_n._ TU'TIORIST, a rigorist in foregoing sense. [L. _tutior_, safer, comp. of _tutus_, safe.] TUTOR, t[=u]'tor, _n._ one who looks to or takes care of: one who has charge of the education of another: one who hears the lessons of and examines students: a teacher: (_Scots law_) a guardian of the person as well as of the estate of a boy under fourteen, or girl under twelve:--_fem._ T[=U]'TORESS.--v.t to instruct: to treat with authority or sternness.--_n._ T[=U]'TORAGE, the office or authority of a tutor: education, as by a tutor.--_adj._ TUT[=O]'RIAL, belonging to, or exercised by, a tutor.--_adv._ TUT[=O]'RIALLY.--_ns._ T[=U]'TORING; T[=U]'TORISM, T[=U]'TORSHIP; T[=U]'TRIX, a female guardian. [L. _tutor_, a guardian--_tu[=e]ri_, _tuitus_, to look to.] TUTSAN, tut'san, _n._ a species of St John's wort, once regarded as a panacea--also called _Park-leaves_. [O. Fr. _toutesaine_, _tout_--L. _totus_, all, _sain_--L. _sanus_, sound.] TUTTI, t[=oo]t'ti, _adj._ (_mus._) all together, as opposed to solo.--_n._ a concerted movement, rendered by all the voices or instruments together. [It., _pl._ of _tutto_, all--L. _totus_, all.] TUTTI-FRUTTI, t[=oo]t'ti-fr[=oo]t'ti, _n._ a confection, esp. ice-cream, flavoured with different kinds of fruit. [It.] TUTTY, tut'i, _n._ impure zinc protoxide. [O. Fr. _tutie_--Late L. _tutia_--Ar. _t[=u]tiya_. Cf. _Tutenag_.] TUTU, t[=oo]'t[=oo], _n._ a New Zealand shrub whose black fruit makes a light wine resembling claret, while the seeds yield a poison like strychnine, and the bark, tannin--also called _Tupa-kihi_, _Wineberry-shrub_, and _Toot-plant_. [Maori.] TUTULUS, t[=u]'t[=u]-lus, _n._ a conical Etruscan female headdress:--_pl._ T[=U]'TUL[=I]. [L.] TUUM, t[=u]'um, _adj._ thine.--_n._ that which is thine. [L.] TU-WHIT, t[=u]-hwit', TU-WHOO, t[=u]-hw[=oo]', _n._ an imitation of the note of the owl.--_v.i._ TU-WHOO', to cry tu-whoo. TUYÈRE. Same as _Twyer_ (q.v.). TUZA, t[=oo]'za, _n._ Same as _Tucan_ (q.v.). TUZZ, tuz, _n._ (_prov._) a tuft of wool, &c.--_n._ TUZ'ZI-MUZZY, a posy: the feather hyacinth.--_adj._ shaggy.--_n._ TUZ'ZY (_dim._), a tuft, cluster. [_Tussock_.] TWADDLE, twod'l, _v.i._ to talk in a silly manner.--_n._ silly talk: a senseless talker.--_ns._ TWADD'LER; TWADD'LING, twaddle or silly talk.--_adj._ TWADD'LY, consisting of twaddle. [Earlier form _twattle_, a variant of _tattle_.] TWAIN, tw[=a]n, _n._ two, a couple, pair.--IN TWAIN, asunder. [A.S. _twégen_ (masc.), two.] TWAL, twäl, a Scotch form of _twelve_. TWA-LOFTED, twä'-lof'ted, _adj._ (_Scot._) having two lofts or stories. TWANG, twang, _n._ (_prov._) a sharp flavour, an aftertaste. [Tang.] TWANG, twang, _n._ (_Scot._) a twinge. TWANG, twang, _n._ a sharp, quick sound, as of a tight string when pulled and let go: a nasal tone of voice.--_v.i._ to sound as a tight string pulled and let go: to sound with a quick, sharp noise: to have a nasal sound.--_v.t._ to make to sound with a twang.--_v.i._ TWANG'LE, to twang frequently.--_v.t._ to cause to twangle. [_Tang_.] TWANK, twangk, _v.i._ to emit a twang. 'TWAS, twoz, contraction of _it was_. TWAT, twot, _n._ pudendum muliebre. TWATTLE, twot'l, _v.i._ to twaddle.--_v.t._ to repeat idly.--_n._ chatter: a dwarf.--_ns._ TWATT'LER, a chatterer; TWATT'LING, a chattering.--_adj._ gabbling: trifling. [Prob. related to Ice. _thwætta_, chatter.] TWAY, tw[=a], _adj._ and _n._ (_Spens._) twain, two. TWAYBLADE, tw[=a]'bl[=a]d, _n._ a European orchid, a plant a foot high bearing a raceme of green flowers and a pair of broad ovate leaves--hence the name. TWEAK, tw[=e]k, _v.t._ to twitch, to pull: to pull with sudden jerks.--_n._ a sharp pinch or twitch: any perplexity. [A by-form of _twitch_.] TWEED, tw[=e]d, _n._ a kind of woollen twilled cloth of various patterns, much used for men's suits.--_adj._ made of tweed. [From a mistaken reading of '_tweels_' upon an invoice; not, as supposed, from the _Tweed_ valley.] TWEEDLE, tw[=e]'dl, _v.t._ to handle lightly: (_obs._) to wheedle.--_v.i._ to wriggle.--_n._ a sound such as is made by a fiddle--hence the humorous formations TWEEDLEDUM, TWEEDLEDEE, used to indicate distinctions that are the slightest possible. [Perh. a variant of _twiddle_; also confused with _wheedle_.] TWEEL, Scotch variant of _twill_. 'TWEEN, a contraction of _between_.--_adj._ 'TWEEN'-DECK, lodging between decks.--_n._ and _adv._ 'TWEEN'-DECKS. TWEEZERS, tw[=e]z'[.e]rz, _n.sing._ nippers: small pincers for pulling out hairs, &c.--_n._ TWEEZ'ER-CASE, a case for carrying tweezers. [Perh. traceable to A.S. _twisel_, a fork; some confusion is possible with obs. _tweeze_, a surgeon's case of instruments.] TWELFTH, twelfth, _adj._ the last of twelve.--_n._ one of twelve equal parts: (_mus._) a tone twelve diatonic degrees above or below a given tone.--_ns._ TWELFTH'-CAKE, an ornamental cake partaken of on Twelfth-night; TWELFTH'-DAY, -TIDE, the twelfth day after Christmas, the Epiphany; TWELFTH'-NIGHT, the eve of Twelfth-day or evening before Epiphany. [A.S. _twelfta_--_twelf_.] TWELVE, twelv, _adj._ ten and two.--_n._ the number next after eleven: the figures representing twelve: (_pl._) same as duodecimo.--_ns._ TWELVE'-MO, same as duodecimo, written 12mo; TWELVE'-MONTH, twelve months: a year.--_adjs._ TWELVE'-PENN'Y, worth a shilling: trifling, insignificant; TWELVE'SCORE, twelve times twenty, or two hundred and forty.--_n._ twelvescore yards, a common range in archery, used also in measurements.--TWELVE-DAY WRIT, a writ in actions on bills, &c., warning defendant to appear within twelve days, otherwise judgment would go against him; TWELVE TABLES, the name given to the earliest code of Roman law, civil, criminal, and religious, made by the decemvirs in 451-449 B.C.--TESTAMENTS OF THE TWELVE PATRIARCHS, a work of the 2d century after Christ, in which, on the model of Jacob's blessing of the tribes in Genesis xlix., discourses and prophecies of Christ are put into the mouths of the fathers of Israel; THE TWELVE, the twelve apostles. [A.S. _twelf_ (Ger. _zwölf_, and Goth. _twa-lif_), that is 'two and ten' (for _twá-_, cf. _Two_; and for _-lif_, cf. _Eleven_).] TWENTY, twen'ti, _adj._ twice ten: nineteen and one: an indefinite number.--_n._ the number next after nineteen: the figures representing twenty: an old English division of infantry.--_adj._ TWEN'TIETH, next after the nineteenth.--_n._ one of twenty equal parts of anything.--_adv._ TWEN'TYFOLD, twenty times as many.--_adj._ TWEN'TY-FOUR, twenty and four.--_n._ the number made up of four and twenty: (_pl._, _print._) a form of composed type or plates containing twenty-four leaves or forty-eight pages, properly arranged for printing and folding: a book made up of sections of twenty-four pages.--_n._ TWEN'TY-FOUR'-MO, written 24mo, a leaf from a sheet of paper folded for a book in twenty-four equal parts: a book made up of leaves folded in twenty-four equal parts. [A.S. _twentig_, from _twén_=_twegen_, twain, two--_tig_ (Goth. _tigjus_), ten; Ger. _zwanzig_.] 'TWERE, contraction of _it were_. TWIBILL, tw[=i]'bil, _n._ a double-headed battle-axe. [A.S. _twi-_, two, _bill_, a bill.] TWICE, tw[=i]s, _adv._ two times: once and again: doubly.--_n._ TW[=I]'CER, one who is both compositor and pressman.--_adj._ TWICE'-TOLD, told twice: hackneyed.--AT TWICE, at two distinct times. [A.S. _twíges_--_twíwa_--_twá_, two.] TWIDDLE, twid'l, _v.t._ to twirl idly, to play with.--_v.i._ to revolve: to trifle with something.--_n._ a twirl of the fingers.--_ns._ TWIDD'LER; TWIDD'LING-LINE, formerly a piece of small rope for steadying the steering-wheel: a string attached to a compass-gimbal, by which the compass-card may be started so as to play freely.--TWIDDLE ONE'S FINGERS, to be idle. [Ety. dub.] TWIFOLD, tw[=i]'f[=o]ld, _adj._ (_Spens._) twofold. TWIG, twig, _n._ a small shoot or branch of a tree: a divining-rod.--_v.i._ to be active.--_adjs._ TWIG'GEN (_Shak._), covered with osier; TWIG'GY, abounding in twigs or shoots; TWIG'SOME, full of twigs. [A.S. _twíg_--_twí-_, double; Ger. _zweig_.] TWIG, twig, _v.t._ (_slang_) to observe narrowly: to understand.--_v.i._ to understand, see. [Prob. Ir. _tuigim_, discern; cf. Gael. _tuig_, understand.] TWIGHT, tw[=i]t, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to twit. TWILIGHT, tw[=i]'l[=i]t, _n._ the faint light after sunset and before sunrise: an uncertain view: partial darkness.--_adj._ of twilight: faintly illuminated: obscure.--_v.t._ to illuminate faintly.--TWILIGHT OF THE GODS, the same as _Ragnarök_ (q.v.). [Lit. '_'tween light_,' A.S. _twí-_, from _twá_, two, and _light_.] 'TWILL, contraction of _it will_. TWILL, twil, or TWEEL, tw[=e]l, _n._ a woven fabric, in which the warp is raised one thread, and depressed two or more threads for the passage of the weft--thus giving a curious appearance of diagonal lines: a fabric with a twill.--_v.t._ to weave with a twill. [Low Ger. _twillen_, to make double, _twill_, a forked branch; cf. Sw. _tvilling_, twin, Ger. _zwillich_, twill.] TWILLED, twild, _adj._ (_Shak._, _Tempest_, iv. 64) a dubious word, either 'hedged,' from _twill_, to weave with a twill, or more probably 'covered with reeds or sedges,' from obsolete _twill_, a reed. TWILLY, twil'i, _n._ a cotton-cleaning machine: willowing-machine. [_Willow_.] TWILT, twilt, _n._ (_Scot._) a quilt. TWIN, twin, _v.i._ (_obs._) to be parted in twain.--_v.t._ to part in twain: to deprive. [See next word.] TWIN, twin, _n._ a pair: one of two born at a birth: one very like another: a union of two similar crystals, or of two halves of one crystal holding a reversed position to each other, as if one had been turned half round about an axis (the _twinning axis_), perpendicular to a plane (the _twinning plane_), which is not for either a plane of symmetry.--_adj._ twofold, double: being one of two born at a birth: very like another: consisting of two parts nearly alike.--_v.t._ to couple, mate.--_v.i._ to be born at the same birth: to bring forth two at once: to be paired or suited:--_pr.p._ twin'ning; _pa.p._ twinned.--_adj._ TWIN'-BORN, born at the same birth.--_ns._ TWIN'-BROTH'ER, one of two brothers who are twins; TWIN'-FLOWER, a slender, creeping evergreen--_Linnæa borealis_; TWIN'LING.--_adj._ TWINNED, produced at one birth: united.--_ns._ TWIN'NING; TWIN'-SCREW, a steam-vessel with two propellers on separate shafts; TWIN'SHIP; TWIN'-SIS'TER, one of two sisters who are twins.--THE TWINS, the constellation Gemini. [A.S. _getwinn_, _twinn_, double--_twí_, two.] TWINE, tw[=i]n, _n._ a cord composed of two or more threads twisted together: a twist: an intertwining.--_v.t._ to wind, as two threads together: to twist together: to wind about: to encircle: to blend, intermingle.--_v.i._ to unite closely: to bend: to make turns: to ascend spirally round a support.--_ns._ TWINE'-HOLD'ER, a case for holding a ball of twine to be unwinded as required; TW[=I]'NER, one who, or that which, twines.--_adj._ TW[=I]'NING, twisting, winding.--_adv._ TW[=I]'NINGLY. [A.S. _twín_, double-thread (Dut. _twijn_)--_twí-_, double.] TWINE, tw[=i]n, a variant of _twin_, to separate. TWINGE, twinj, _v.t._ to twitch or pinch: to affect with a sharp, sudden pain.--_v.i._ to have or suffer a sudden, sharp pain, like a twitch.--_n._ a twitch, a pinch: a sudden, sharp pain. [M. E. _twingen_, cog. with Ger. _zwingen_, to constrain; also with Ger. _zwangen_, to press.] TWINK, twingk, _n._ (_Shak._) a twinkle, a wink. TWINK, twingk, _v.t._ to twitter, chirp. TWINKLE, twing'kl, _v.i._ to blink: to shine with a trembling, sparkling light: to sparkle: to open and shut the eyes rapidly: to quiver.--_ns._ TWINK'LE, TWINK'LING, a quick motion of the eye: the time occupied by a wink: an instant: the scintillation of the fixed stars; TWINK'LER. [A.S. _twinclian_.] TWINTER, twin't[.e]r, _n._ (_Scot._) a beast two years old. TWIRE, tw[=i]r, _v.i._ (_obs._) to glance obliquely: (_Shak._) to twinkle, to gleam--also TWEER.--_n._ a shy look. [Cf. Bavarian _zwiren_, to spy, glance. Cf. _Queer_ and _Thwart_.] TWIRE, tw[=i]r, _v.t._ (_obs._) to twist, twirl. [Perh. conn. with A.S. _thweran_, to stir, churn; cf. Old High Ger. _dweran_, to stir.] TWIRK, twirk, _n._ (_Scot._) a twitch. TWIRL, tw[.e]rl, _v.t._ to turn round rapidly, esp. with the fingers.--_v.i._ to turn round rapidly: to be whirled round.--_n._ a whirl: a rapid circular motion.--_n._ TWIRL'ER.--TWIRL ONE'S THUMBS, to do nothing, be idle. [A.S. _thwirel_, a whisk for whipping milk--_thweran_, to churn, stir; Ger. _quirl_, _querl_, a stirring-spoon; cf. Ice. _thvara_, a stick for stirring, Gr. _toryne_, L. _trua_.] TWISSEL, twis'l, _adj._ (_obs._) double.--_n._ anything double.--_adj._ TWISS'EL-TONGUED, double-tongued. TWIST, twist, _v.t._ to twine: to unite or form by winding together: to form from several threads: to encircle with something: to wreathe: to wind spirally: to turn from the true form or meaning: to fabricate, compose: to cause to move spirally, to bend: to wrest, wrench: to insinuate.--_v.i._ to be united by winding: to be bent, to move spirally: to revolve: to writhe.--_n._ that which is twisted: a cord: a single thread: manner of twisting: a contortion: a small roll of tobacco: a strong silk thread: (_obs._) coarse cloth: a wrench, strain: a peculiar bent, perversion: (_slang_) a mixed drink, also an appetite for food.--_adjs._ TWIST'ABLE; TWIST'ED.--_n._ TW[=I]ST'ER, one who, or that which, twists: a whirling wind, a tornado: the inner part, of the thigh of a rider on horseback: a ball, as in cricket, billiards, &c., sent with a twist.--_v.t._ TWIST'LE (_Scot._), to twist.--_n._ a wrench.--TWIST OF THE WRIST, the turning movement of the wrist in any work requiring dexterity, any quick action. [A.S. _twist_, a rope--_twí-_, two; Ger. _zwist_, discord.] TWIT, twit, _v.t._ to remind of some fault, &c.:--_pr.p._ twit'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ twit'ted.--_n._ a reproach.--_n._ TWIT'TER.--_adj._ TWIT'TING.--_adv._ TWIT'TINGLY, in a twitting manner. [A.S. _æt-witan_, to reproach--_æt_, against, _witan_ (Scot. _wyte_, Ger. _ver-weisen_), to blame.] TWITCH, twich, _v.t._ to pull with a sudden jerk: to pluck: to snatch.--_v.i._ to be suddenly jerked: to move spasmodically: to carp, sneer.--_n._ a sudden, quick pull: a spasmodic contraction of the muscles: a loop fixed to a stick for fixing on the upper lip of a refractory horse during shoeing, &c.: the sudden narrowing almost to nothing of a vein of ore.--_ns._ TWITCH'ER; TWITCH'ING. [A.S. _twiccian_, to pluck; Ger. _zwicken_.] TWITCH-GRASS=_Couch-grass_. TWITTER, twit'[.e]r, _n._ a chirp, as of a bird: a tremulous broken sound: a slight trembling of the nerves.--_v.i._ to make a succession of small tremulous noises: to feel a slight trembling of the nerves, to palpitate.--_v.t._ to chirp out.--_ns._ TWITTER[=A]'TION, a flutter; TWITT'ERING, act of twittering: the sound of twittering: nervous excitement.--_adv._ TWITT'ERINGLY. [A freq. of _twit_, allied to _titter_, &c.; cf. Ger. _zwitschern_, Sw. _qvittra_.] TWITTER-BONE, twit'[.e]r-b[=o]n, _n._ an excrescence on a horse's hoof.--_adj._ TWITT'ER-BONED, shaky. TWIT-TWAT, twit'-twot, _n._ the house sparrow. 'TWIXT. Abbreviation for _betwixt_. TWIZZLE, twiz'l, _v.i._ (_prov._) to roll and twist. TWO, t[=oo], _adj._ one and one.--_n._ the sum of one and one: a figure representing two: a pair.--_n._ TWO'-DECK'ER, a vessel of war carrying guns on two decks.--_adjs._ TWO'-EDGED, having two edges; TWO'-FACED, having two faces, hence double-dealing, false; TWO'FOLD, folded twice: multiplied by two: double.--_adv._ doubly.--_adjs._ TWO'-FORKED, TW[=I]'-FORKED, double-pronged, bifurcate; TWO'-FRONT'ED, having fronts on opposite sides; TWO'-HAND'ED, having, or used with, two hands: ambidexterous, handy: to be used by two persons; TWO'-HEAD'ED, having two heads: directed by two authorities; TWO'-LEAVED, having two distinct leaves; TWO'-LEGGED, furnished with two legs; TWO'-LINE (_print._), having a depth of body equal to double that of the size specified, as _two-line_ nonpareil or pica; TWO'-LIPPED, having two lips: divided so as to resemble two lips; TWO'-MAST'ED, having two masts; TWO'-NEE'DLE, perforated with two needles.--_n._ TWO'NESS, the state of being two, doubleness.--_adj._ TWO'-PART'ED, bipartite, divided into two nearly to the base.--_n._ TWOPENCE (tup'ens, or t[=oo]'pens), the sum of two pennies: (_Shak._) a gilt coin worth two pence.--_adj._ TWOPENNY (tup'en-i, or t[=oo]'pen-i), of the value of twopence: cheap, worthless.--_n._ ale sold at twopence a quart.--_adjs._ TWO'-PLY, consisting of two thicknesses: woven double; TWO'-RANKED, alternately arranged in two exactly opposite rows, distichous, bifarious; TWO'-SID'ED, having two surfaces, or two aspects or phases: facing two ways, turned in two directions, often with implied sense of double-dealing or deceit; TWO'SOME, two, twofold; TWO'-TONGUED, double-tongued, deceitful; TWO'-WAY, arranged so as to permit a fluid to be turned into either of two channels: (_math._) having a double mode of variation; TW[=I]'-N[=A]'TURED, TWY'-N[=A]'TURED, double natured--human and animal in one.--BE TWO, to be at variance; IN TWO, asunder. [A.S. _twá_ (_fem._), _twégen_ (masc.), _twa_, _tú_ (neut.); Ger. _zwei_, Goth. _twai_; also Gr. _dyo_, L. _duo_, Sans. _dva_, Gael. _da_, _do_.] TWYER, tw[=i]'[.e]r, _n._ a tube through which the blast of air enters a blast-furnace.--Also TUY'ERE, TWEER, TUY'ER, TWI'ER. [Fr. _tuyère_, a nozzle.] TYBURN, t[=i]'burn, _n._ the historic place of execution in London.--_ns._ TY'BURN-TICK'ET, a certificate of exemption from certain parochial offices formerly granted to the prosecutor of a felon to conviction; TY'BURN-TIPP'ET, a halter; TY'BURN-TREE, the gallows. TYCHE, t[=i]'k[=e], _n._ (_Gr. myth._) the goddess of fortune. TYCHONIC, t[=i]-kon'ik, _adj._ pertaining to the Danish astronomer, _Tycho_ Brahe (1546-1601), or his system. TYCOON, t[=i]-k[=oo]n', _n._ the title by which the Shoguns of Japan were known to foreigners from 1854 to 1868.--_n._ TYCOON'[=A]TE, the shogunate. [Jap. _taikun_, great prince--Chin. _ta_, great, _kiun_, prince.] TYE, t[=i], _v.t._ to wash ore in a tye.--_n._ a narrow buddle or inclined hutch for washing ore. [Prob. A.S. _thweán_, to wash.] TYE, t[=i], _n._ an old form of _tie_: a runner of thick rope or chain, which forms part of the purchase used for hoisting the topsail and top-gallant yards.--_ns._ TYE'-BLOCK, the block on the yard through which the tye is rove, and passes on to be secured at the masthead; TY'ING, the act of fastening, a fastening. TYKE. See TIKE. TYLARUS, til'a-rus, _n._ one of the fleshy pads of the toe:--_pl._ TYL'AR[=I]. [Gr. _tylos_, a knot.] TYLE-BERRY, t[=i]l'-ber'i, _n._ the coral-plant. TYLER=_Tiler_ (q.v.). TYLOPOD, t[=i]'l[=o]-pod, _adj._ having padded digits, as the camel.--_n._ one of the _Tylopoda_. [Gr. _tylos_, a knot, _pous_, _podos_, a foot.] TYLOSIS, t[=i]-l[=o]'sis, _n._ (_bot._) a growth formed in the cavity of a duct by intrusion from a contiguous growing cell: an inflammation of the eyelids: callosity:--_pl._ TYL[=O]'SES.--_adj._ TYLOT'IC. [Gr.] TYLOTE, t[=i]'l[=o]t, _n._ a cylindrical spicule, knobbed at both ends.--_adj._ TY'L[=O]T[=A]TE. [Gr. _tyl[=o]tos_--_tylos_, a knot.] TYMBAL=_Timbal_ (q.v.). TYMP, timp, _n._ the crown of the opening in front of the hearth in a blast-furnace. TYMPAN, tim'pan, _n._ an ancient Irish musical instrument: a frame covered with parchment or cloth, on which the blank sheets are placed to be impressed. [Fr.,--L. _tympanum_, a drum.] TYMPANUM, tim'pan-um, _n._ (_anat._) the membrane which separates the external from the internal ear, often called the drum of the ear: in certain birds, the labyrinth at the bottom of the windpipe: (_archit._) the triangular space between sloping and horizontal cornices, or in the corners or sides of an arch: the panel of a door: a water-raising current wheel, originally drum-shaped.--_adjs._ TYM'PANAL, TYMPAN'IC, like a drum: pertaining to the tympanum.--_n._ a bone of the ear, supporting the drum-membrane.--_adj._ TYM'PANIFORM, like a tympanum.--_ns._ TYM'PANIST, one who plays a drum; TYMPAN[=I]'T[=E]S, flatulent distension of the belly.--_adj._ TYMPANIT'IC.--_ns._ TYMPAN[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the membrane of the ear; TYM'PANY, any swelling, turgidity: tympanites.--TYMPANIC MEMBRANE, the drum-membrane of the ear; TYMPANIC RESONANCE, the peculiar high-pitched quality of sound produced by percussion over the intestines, &c., when they contain air; TYMPANIC RING, an annular tympanic bone, to which the tympanic membrane is attached. [L.,--Gr. _tympanon_, _typanon_, a kettledrum--_typtein_, to strike.] TYNDE, t[=i]nd, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ (_Spens._) kindled. TYNE, t[=i]n, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to become lost, to perish. TYNE, t[=i]n, _n._ (_Spens._) anxiety. TYNEWALD, TINEWALD, tin'wold, _n._ the parliament of the Isle of Man. [Cf. Shetland _tingwall_--Ice. _thing-völlr_--_ting_, a parliament, _völlr_, a wood.] TYPE, t[=i]p, _n._ a mark or figure struck or stamped upon something: an emblem or figure of something to come, esp. the foreshadowing in the Old Testament of something realised in the New (the _antitype_): an exemplar, pattern: a representative style, model: the principal device on a coin or medal: a model in nature made the subject of a copy: (_nat. hist._) that which combines best the characteristics of a group: the order in which the symptoms of a disease exhibit themselves: a chemical compound which represents the composition and structure of many more complex compounds, esp. Gerhardt's four types--hydrochloric acid, water, ammonia, and marsh-gas: a piece of metal, wood, or other material, on one end of which is cast or engraved a character, sign, &c. used in printing (the sizes are designated by different names in respect of their _body_--i.e. the depths of the _face_ which comes in contact with the ink plus the _bevel_ and _beard_.[Illustration] Again, differences in width render the type _fat_ or _lean_, or, if strongly marked, _extended_ or _condensed_; differences in style or face are endless--_Roman_ and _Italic_ compose the text of all books in English; _Antique_ (1), _Gothic_ (2), _Clarendon_ (3), and _Black-letter_ (4) are approved styles for display. In America types are designated according to the number of 'points' of which the body consists. The point is 1/12 of a Pica; Nonpareil would accordingly be called six points. On the Continent the point is 1/12 of a Cicero, a body between Pica and English): the whole types used in printing.--_v.t._ to constitute a type of: to reproduce in type: to typify.--_adj._ TY'PAL.--_ns._ TYPE'-BAR, a line of type cast in one piece, as in a linotype or typograph; TYPE'-BLOCK, a body of metal or wood on which a type is cut or cast; TYPE'-CAST'ING, the act of founding type in moulds; TYPE'-CUT'TER, one who engraves dies for printing-types; TYPE'-CYL'INDER, the cylinder of a rotary printing-machine on which types or plates are fastened for printing; TYPE'-FOUND'ER, one who founds or casts printers' type; TYPE'-FOUND'ING; TYPE'-FOUND'RY, a place where type is founded or manufactured; TYPE'-GAUGE, a type-measure: a gauge for estimating the size of type.--_adj._ TYPE'-HIGH, of the standard height of type--of a woodcut, &c.--_ns._ TYPE'-HOLD'ER, a bookbinder's pallet or holder for use in hand-stamping; TYPEM'BRYO, an embryo at the stage when it first exhibits the type of structure of the phylum or sub-kingdom to which it belongs; TYPE'-MET'AL, metal used for making types, a compound of tin, antimony, copper, and lead; TYPE'-SCALE, a measuring-rod for type; TYPE'-SET'TER, a compositor: a machine which combines types in proper order for printing; TYPE'-SET'TING.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ TYPE'WRITE, to produce by means of a typewriter: to practise typewriting.--_ns._ TYPE'WRITER, a machine for producing legible characters on paper by mechanical means without the use of a pen: an operator on a typewriting machine; TYPE'WRITING.--_adjs._ TYP'IC, -AL, pertaining to, or constituting, a type: emblematic: figurative: (_nat. hist._) combining the characteristics of a group: connotative, indicative.--_n._ TYPICAL'ITY.--_adv._ TYP'ICALLY.--_ns._ TYP'ICALNESS; TYPIFIC[=A]'TION; TYPIF[=I]'ER.--_v.t._ TYP'IFY, to make a type of: to represent by an image or resemblance: to prefigure:--_pa.p._ and _pa.t._ typ'if[=i]ed.--_ns._ TY'PIST, one who uses a typewriter; TYPO (t[=i]'p[=o]), a compositor; TY'POCOSMY (_Bacon_), universal terminology; TY'POGRAPH, a machine for making and setting type; TYPOG'RAPHER, a printer; TYPOGRAPH'IA (_pl._), miscellany relating to printers and printing: (_sing._) a book of instruction in printing.--_adjs._ TYPOGRAPH'IC, -AL, pertaining to typography or printing.--_adv._ TYPOGRAPH'ICALLY.--_ns._ TYPOG'RAPHIST, a student of typography; TYPOG'RAPHY, the art of printing: (_orig._) the art of representing by types or symbols: the general appearance of printed matter.--_adj._ TYPOLOG'ICAL, pertaining to typology.--_ns._ TYPOL'OGY, the doctrine of Scripture types or figures; TYPOM[=A]'NIA, a craze for printing one's lucubrations.--TYPE GENUS (_biol._), a generic type; TYPE SPECIES (_biol._), a specific type.--UNITY OF TYPE, the fundamental agreement in structure seen in organic beings of the same class or order. [Fr. _type_--L. _typus_--Gr. _typos_--_typtein_, to strike.] [Illustration] The above specimen lines show the usual bodies used in the texts of books and newspapers; (1) being set in Great Primer, (2) in English, (3) in Pica, (4) in Small Pica, (5) in Long Primer, (6) in Bourgeois, (7) in Brevier, (8) in Minion, (9) in Nonpareil, (10) in Pearl, and (11) in Diamond. The black squares represent the square of the body of the type, one of the units of measurement, and is called an _em_, the letter M being exactly square. The following is a list of the number of lines to the foot of the respective bodies as made in actual metal types: Great Primer 51¼ Brevier 111 English 64 Minion 122 Pica 72 Nonpareil 144 Small Pica 83 Pearl 179 Long Primer 89 Diamond 204 Bourgeois 102 A 'font' of type is an indefinite quantity having all the proper proportions of 'sorts,' including capitals and small capitals, lower-case, spaces, points and references, figures, accents, hyphens, ligatures ([Ligatures for fi fl and ffi]), &c. The proportion of letters ranges from 200 z's to 12,000 e's. The smaller letters are called _lower-case_, from the case in which the compositor has them arranged; the capitals and small capitals being in a different or _upper_ case. TYPHA, t[=i]'fa, _n._ one of two distinct reed-like plants called Bulrush. [Gr. _typh[=e]_, cat-tail.] TYPHLITIS, tif-l[=i]'tis, _n._ inflammation of the cæcum and vermiform appendix--also TYPHLOËNTER[=I]'TIS.--_adj._ TYPHLIT'IC. [Gr. _typhlos_, blind.] TYPHOËAN, t[=i]-f[=o]'[=e]-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Typhoëus_, a monster of Greek mythology, buried under Etna. TYPHOID, t[=i]'foid, _adj._ pertaining to a widely-spread form of enteric or intestinal fever, long confounded with typhus, on account of the characteristic rash of rose-coloured spots--now proved to depend on defective hygienic conditions, and particularly on imperfect disposal of excreta--also TYPHOID FEVER.--_adjs._ TY'PHOIDAL; TYPHOMAL[=A]'RIAL, having both typhoid and malarial characteristics.--_n._ TYPHOM[=A]'NIA, a form of sleepless stupor and delirium in some cases of typhus fever--also TYPH[=O]'NIA. [Gr. _typh[=o]d[=e]s_--_typhos_, smoke, _eidos_, likeness. Cf. _Typhus_.] TYPHOON, t[=i]-f[=oo]n', _n._ a violent hurricane which occurs in the Chinese seas.--_adj._ TYPHON'IC. [Port. _tufão_--Ar., Pers., Hind. _t[=u]f[=a]n_, a hurricane, perh. traceable to Gr. _typh[=o]n_, whence obs. Eng. _typhon_, a whirlwind. The Chinese _t'ai fung_, a great wind, _pao fung_, fierce wind, are prob. independent.] TYPHUS, t[=i]'fus, _n._ an extremely contagious and very fatal kind of continued fever, specially associated with filth and overcrowding, often occurring as an epidemic--_Jail-fever_, _Camp-fever_, &c.--_adj._ TY'PHOUS, relating to typhus. [Through Late L. from Gr. _typhos_, smoke, hence stupor arising from fever--_typhein_, to smoke.] TYPOLITE, tip'[=o]-l[=i]t, _n._ a stone or fossil imprinted with the impression of a plant or animal. [Gr. _typos_, impression, _lithos_, stone.] TYPONYM, t[=i]'p[=o]-nim, _n._ a name based upon a type, as a specimen or species.--_adjs._ TYPON'YMAL, TYPONYM'IC. [Gr. _typos_, type, _onyma_, name.] TYPORAMA, tip-[=o]-rä'ma, _n._ a model or representation in fac-simile. [Gr. _typos_, type, _horama_, view.] TYPTOLOGY, tip-tol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the so-called science or theory of spirit-rapping.--_adj._ TYPTOLOG'ICAL.--_n._ TYPTOL'OGIST, one by whose means spirit-rappings are alleged to be induced: one who professes to believe in the genuineness of these. [Gr. _typtein_, to strike, _logia_--_legein_, to say.] TYR, tir, _n._ the name of a war-god in the old Norse mythology, a son of Odin. [Ice. _Týr_.] TYRANT, t[=i]'rant, _n._ one who uses his power arbitrarily and oppressively: (_orig._) an absolute monarch or irresponsible magistrate with unlimited powers or an overruling influence.--_v.t._ to tyrannise over.--_n._ TY'RAN (_Spens._), a tyrant.--_v.t._ to play the tyrant over.--_n._ TYR'ANNESS (_Spens._), a female tyrant.--_adjs._ TYRAN'NIC, -AL, TYR'ANNOUS, pertaining to or suiting a tyrant: unjustly severe: imperious: despotic.--_advs._ TYRAN'NICALLY, TYR'ANNOUSLY.--_n._ TYRAN'NICALNESS.--_adj._ TYRAN'NICIDAL.--_n._ TYRAN'NICIDE, the act of killing a tyrant: one who kills a tyrant.--_n.pl._ TYRAN'NIDÆ, a family of Passerine birds, the typical genus TYRAN'NUS, the tyrant-birds or tyrant-flycatchers.--_v.i._ TYR'ANNISE, to act as a tyrant: to rule with oppressive severity.--_v.t._ to act the tyrant to.--_adj._ TYR'ANNISH.--_n._ TYR'ANNY, the government or authority of a tyrant: absolute monarchy cruelly administered: oppression: cruelty: harshness. [O. Fr. _tirant_ (Fr. _tyran_)--L. _tyrannns_--Gr. _tyrannos_ (Doric _koiranos_).] TYRE. See TIRE. TYRE, t[=i]r, _n._ (_Spens._) attire, dress.--_v.t._ to adorn. TYRIAN, tir'i-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Tyre_: deep-purple, like the dye formerly prepared at Tyre.--_n._ a native of Tyre.--TYRIAN CYNOSURE, the constellation Ursa Minor, a familiar guide to Tyrian mariners. TYRIASIS, ti-r[=i]'a-sis, _n._ elephantiasis Arabum: the falling out of the hair.--Also TYR[=O]'MA. [Gr. _tyros_, cheese.] TYRO, TIRO, t[=i]'r[=o], _n._ one learning any art: one not yet well acquainted with a subject:--_pl._ TY'ROS.--_ns._ TYROC'INY, pupilage (see TIROCINIUM); TY'RONISM, state of being a tyro. [L. _tiro_, a young recruit.] TYROLESE, tir-ol-[=e]z', _adj._ relating to _Tyrol_, or to its people.--_n._ a native of Tyrol.--_n._ TYROLIENNE', a Tyrolese peasants' dance, or its music. TYROTOXICON, t[=i]-r[=o]-tok'si-kon, _n._ a ptomaine in milk or cheese. [Gr. _tyros_, cheese, _toxicon_, poison.] TYRRHENIAN, ti-r[=e]'ni-an, _adj._ Etruscan--also TYRRH[=E]NE'.--_n._ an Etruscan.--TYRRHENIAN SEA, that part of the Mediterranean between Tuscany and Sardinia and Corsica. [Gr. _Tyrrh[=e]nia_, Etruria.] TYRTÆAN, tir-t[=e]'an, _adj._ of or pertaining to _Tyrtæus_, a Greek martial poet of the 7th century B.C. TYTHE, t[=i]_th_, _n._ a form of _tithe_. TZAR, TZARINA=_Czar_, _Czarina_. TZIGANY, tsig'a-ni, _n._ a Hungarian gipsy.--_adj._ [Hung. _Cigany_, Gipsy; cf. It. _Zingano_, _Zingaro_, Ger. _Zigeuner_.] * * * * * U the twenty-first letter and the fifth vowel in our alphabet--evolving amongst the Greeks as _V_, with the value of _u_. From V, the lapidary and capital form, the uncial and cursive forms U and _u_ were developed, gradually V becoming appropriated as the symbol for the consonant, and the medial form _u_ as the symbol for the vowel. UBEROUS, [=u]'ber-us, _adj._ (_Browning_) yielding abundance, fruitful.--_n._ U'BERTY, fruitfulness. [L. _uber_.] UBIQUITY, [=u]-bik'wi-ti, _n._ existence everywhere at the same time: omnipresence.--_ns._ UB[=I]'ETY, the state of being in a definite place, whereness: omnipresence; UBIQUIT[=A]'RIAN, one who believes in the relative omnipresence of the human nature of Christ, and accordingly in His actual necessary bodily presence in the Eucharist.--_adj._ omnipresent--also _adj._ and _n._ UBIQU[=A]'RIAN (_rare_).--_adjs._ UBIQ'UITOUS, UBIQ'UITARY, being everywhere.--_adv._ UBIQ'UITOUSLY. [Fr. _ubiquité_, formed from L. _ubique_, everywhere.] UDAL, [=u]'dal, _adj._ applied to land held solely by uninterrupted succession, under no feudal superior.--_n._ a freehold estate.--_n._ U'DALLER, a holder of such. [Ice. _ódhal_, a homestead.] UDDER, ud'[.e]r, _n._ the mammary glands of various animals, esp. cows, &c.--_adjs._ UDD'ERED; UDD'ERFUL; UDD'ERLESS. [A.S. _úder_; cog. with Ger. _euter_; also conn. with L. _uber_, Gr. _outhar_.] UDOMETER, [=u]-dom'e-t[.e]r, _n._ a rain-gauge.--_adj._ UDOMET'RIC. [L. _udus_, wet, Gr. _metron_, a measure.] UG, ug, _n._ (_prov._) a surfeit.--_v.i._ to feel a loathing.--_v.t._ to give a surfeit to. [Ice. _uggr_, fear.] UGH, uh, _interj._ an exclamation of repugnance. UGLY, ug'li, _adj._ offensive to the eye: deformed: hateful: ill-natured: very severe, dangerous, as an ugly wound.--_n._ (_coll._) an ugly person: a hood formerly worn by ladies as a shade for the eyes.--_v.t._ (rare) to make ugly.--_n._ UGLIFIC[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ UG'LIFY, to make ugly.--_adv._ UG'LILY, in an ugly manner.--_n._ UG'LINESS.--_adj._ UG'SOME, hideous.--_n._ UG'SOMENESS.--UGLY CUSTOMER, a dangerous antagonist; UGLY MAN, the actual person who garrottes the victim in a confederacy of three, the others, the fore-stall and back-stall, covering his escape. [Ice. _uggligr_, frightful, _uggr_, fear; akin to Goth. _ogan_, A.S. _oge_, fear.] UGRIAN, [=oo]'gri-an, _adj._ pertaining to the _Ugrians_, a name used by Castrén for Ostiaks, Voguls, and Magyars belonging to the Ugro-Finnic division of the Ural-Altaic peoples.--Also UG'RIC. UHLAN, [=u]'lan, _n._ one of a kind of light cavalry for outpost duty, &c., armed with a lance, famous esp. in the Prussian army. [Polish _ulan_, orig. a light Tartar horseman--Turk, _ogl[=a]n_, a young man.] UITLANDER, the Dutch form of _Outlander_. See under OUTLAND. UKASE, [=u]-k[=a]s', _n._ a Russian decree having the force of law, emanating from the Czar directly or from the senate: any official proclamation. [Russ. _ukaz[)u]_, an edict--_y-_, prefix, _kazat[)i]_, show.] ULCER, ul's[.e]r, _n._ a dangerous sore, discharging matter: (_fig._) a sore, a strain.--_v.i._ UL'CERATE, to be formed into an ulcer.--v.t to affect with an ulcer or ulcers.--_n._ ULCER[=A]'TION, that part or effect of an inflammatory process in which the materials of inflamed tissues, liquefied or degenerate, are cast off, in solution or very minute particles, from free surfaces, or, more rarely, are absorbed from the substance of the body: an ulcer.--_adjs._ UL'CERED, affected with an ulcer; UL'CEROUS, of the nature of an ulcer: affected with an ulcer.--_adv._ UL'CEROUSLY, in an ulcerous manner.--_n._ UL'CEROUSNESS. [Fr. _ulcère_--L. _ulcus_, _ulc[)e]ris_; Gr. _helkos_, a wound.] ULEMA, [=oo]'le-ma, _n._ the collective name (which can not be used as a singular) of the body of professional theologians and doctors of divinity, and therefore of law, in any Mohammedan country. [Ar., plur. of _`âlim_, learned.] ULEX, [=u]'leks, _n._ a genus of shrubs of the Bean family, including the furze, gorse, or whin. [L.] ULIGINOSE, [=u]-lij'i-n[=o]s, _adj._ growing in swampy places.--Also ULIG'INOUS. [L. _uliginosus_--_uligo_--_uv[=e]re_, to be wet.] ULITIS, [=u]-l[=i]'tis, _n._ inflammation of the gums.--_ns._ ULON'CUS, swelling of the gums; ULORRH[=A]'GIA, bleeding from the gums. [Gr. _oula_, gums.] ULLAGE, ul'[=a]j, _n._ the quantity a cask lacks of being full.--_n._ ULL'ING. [O. Fr. _eullage_--_oeiller_, to fill up, prob. from L. _ova_, the brim.] ULLA-LULLA, ul'a-lul'a, _n._ an Irish word for a lament for the dead. ULMACEOUS, ul-m[=a]'shus, _adj._ relating to an order of trees of which the elm is the type.--_adjs._ UL'MIC, UL'MOUS, pertaining to ulmin.--_ns._ UL'MIN, a dark-brown gummy substance exuded from excrescences in the elm, oak, &c., and present in peat, vegetable mould, &c.; UL'MUS, the genus of the elms. [L. _ulmus_, an elm.] ULNA, ul'na, _n._ the inner and larger of the two bones of the forearm:--_pl._ UL'NÆ.--_adv._ UL'NAD, toward the ulna.--_adj._ UL'NAR.--_n._ ULN[=A]'RE, an element of the primitive carpus situated on the ulnar side--represented in man by the cuneiform bone:--_pl._ ULN[=A]'RIA. [L. _ulna_; Eng. _ell_.] ULODENDRON, [=u]-l[=o]-den'dron, _n._ a genus of fossil trees with lepidodendroid cortical scars. ULOSIS, [=u]-l[=o]'sis, _n._ the process by which a scar is formed, cicatrisation. [Gr. _oul[=e]_, a scar.] ULOTRICHOUS, [=u]-lot'ri-kus, _adj._ having crisp woolly hair.--_adj._ and _n._ ULOT'RICHAN:--_ns.pl._ ULOT'RICHI, ULOT'RICHES. [Gr. _oulos_, woolly, _thrix_, _trichos_, hair.] ULSTER, ul'st[.e]r, _n._ a long and loose kind of overcoat worn by men and women, usually having a hood and belt.--_n._ UL'STER-CUS'TOM, the form of tenant-right long customary in _Ulster_, and legalised by statute in 1870 and 1881 (see TENANT-RIGHT).--_adj._ UL'STERED, wearing an ulster. ULTERIOR, ul-t[=e]'ri-or, _adj._ on the further side: beyond: in the future: remoter, beyond what is seen or avowed.--_adv._ ULT[=E]'RIORLY, in an ulterior or remote manner. [L. _ulterior_ (comp. of _ulter_), that is beyond or on the other side.] ULTIMATE, ul'ti-m[=a]t, _adj._ furthest: last: incapable of further division.--_adv._ UL'TIMATELY.--_n._ ULTIM[=A]'TUM, the final proposition or terms for a treaty:--_pl._ ULTIM[=A]'TA.--_adj._ UL'TIMO, in the last (month).--_n._ UL'TIMO-GEN'ITURE, the same as _Borough-English_ (q.v.)--opp. to _Primogeniture_.--ULTIMUS HÆRES (_law_), the crown or the state, which succeeds to the property of those who die intestate, without leaving next of kin, or who, being bastards, have no next of kin. [L. _ultimus_, the last, superl. of _ulter_.] ULTION, ul'shun, _n._ revenge. [L.] ULTRA, ul'tra, _adj._ going beyond, extreme--in composition, as in _Ultra-classical_, _Ultra-fashionable_, _Ultra-conservative_, _Ultra-critical_, &c.--_n._ an ultraist: a fanatic.--_ns._ UL'TRAISM, the principles of ultraists; UL'TRAIST, one who carries to extremes the opinions or principles of his party.--ULTRA V[=I]'RES, beyond one's power or rights. [L. _ultra_, beyond, _vires_, pl. of _vis_, strength.] ULTRAMARINE, ul-tra-ma-r[=e]n', _adj._ situated beyond the sea.--_n._ the most beautiful and durable sky-blue colour, so called either from its intense blue, or from the _lapis lazuli_, from which it is made, being brought from Asia, beyond the sea. ULTRAMONTANE, ul-tra-mon't[=a]n, _adj._ being beyond the mountains (i.e. the Alps): originally used in Italy of the French, Germans, &c.; afterwards applied by the northern nations to the Italians, hence its present meaning--viz. holding or denoting extreme views as to the Pope's rights and supremacy.--_ns._ ULTRAMON'TANISM, ultramontane or extreme views as to the Pope's rights; ULTRAMON'TANIST, one who holds to ultramontanism. [L. _ultra_, beyond, _montanus_--_mons_, _montis_, a mountain.] ULTRAMUNDANE, ul-tra-mun'd[=a]n, _adj._ being beyond the world, or beyond the limits of our system. ULTRA-PROTESTANT, ul'tra-prot'es-tant, _n._ a supporter of extreme Protestant views.--Also _adj._ ULTRA-RELIGIOUS, ul'tra-re-lij'us, _adj._ excessively religious. ULTRA-SENSUAL, ul'tra-sen's[=u]-al, _adj._ beyond the range or reach of the senses. ULTRA-TROPICAL, ul'tra-trop'ik-al, _adj._ situated beyond the tropics: warmer than the tropics. ULTRA-VIRTUOUS, ul'tra-v[.e]r't[=u]-us, _adj._ prudish. ULTRONEOUS, ul-tr[=o]'n[=e]-us, _adj._ spontaneous, voluntary.--_adv._ ULTR[=O]'NEOUSLY.--_n._ ULTR[=O]'NEOUSNESS. [L. _ultro_, spontaneously.] ULULANT, ul'[=u]-lant, _adj._ howling.--_v.i._ UL'UL[=A]TE, to hoot or screech.--_n._ ULUL[=A]'TION, howling, wailing. [L. _ulul[=a]re_, to hoot.] UMBEL, um'bel, _n._ a form of flower in which a number of stalks, each bearing a flower, radiate from one centre.--_adjs._ UM'BELLATE, -D, bearing umbels.--_n._ UMBELL'IFER, any plant of the parsley family.--_adj._ UMBELLIF'EROUS, bearing or producing umbels.--_n._ UM'BELLULE, a secondary umbel. [L. _umbella_, dim. of _umbra_, a shade.] UMBER, um'b[.e]r, _n._ a brown earthy mineral used as a pigment.--_adjs._ UM'BERED, tinged with umber; UM'BERY, relating to, or like, umber. [_Umbria_.] UMBILIC, -AL, um-bil'ik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to the navel.--_adjs._ UMBIL'ICATE, -D, navel-shaped.--_n._ UMBIL'ICUS, the navel: a depression at the axial base of a spiral shell, as in many gasteropods.--UMBILICAL CORD, the navel-string; UMBILICAL DUCT, the passage connecting the umbilical vesicle with the primitive intestine; UMBILICAL HERNIA, the protrusion of a part through or near the umbilicus; UMBILICAL REGION, the middle portion of the abdomen. [L. _umbil[=i]cus_, the navel; Gr. _omphalos_.] UMBLES, um'blz, _n.pl._ the entrails of a deer.--_n._ UM'BLE-PIE (see HUMBLE-PIE). [O. Fr. _nombles_ (with initial _n_ for _l_), from _lomble_--_le_, the article, _omble_--L. _umbilicus_, the navel. The Eng. form _numbles_, by loss of initial _n_, as in _numpire_, &c., became _umbles_, sometimes written _humbles_, whence _humble-pie_, now associated in popular etymology and meaning with _humble_=low.] UMBO, um'b[=o], _n._ the boss of a shield: a knob: the point of a bivalve shell immediately above the hinge:--_pl._ UMB[=O]'NES, UM'BOS.--_adjs._ UM'B[=O]NAL, protuberant; UM'B[=O]N[=A]TE, -D (_bot._), having a central umbo, boss, or low rounded projection.--_n._ UMBON[=A]'TION.--_adjs._ UMBON'IC; UMBON'ULATE. [L.] UMBRA, um'bra, _n._ a shadow: (_astron._) the dark cone projected from a planet or satellite on the side opposite to the sun: an uninvited guest whom an invited one brings with him: one of the _Umbridæ_, the mud-minnows: a sciænoid fish, the umbrine.--_adjs._ UM'BRAL, pertaining to an umbra; UM'BR[=A]TED (_her._), shadowed; (_obs._) UMBRAT'IC, -AL, UM'BRATILE, shadowy, secluded.--_ns._ UMBR[=A]'TION, adumbration; UM'BRERE, UM'BRIERE (_Spens._), the visor of a helmet.--_adj._ UMBRIF'EROUS, casting a shade. [L.] UMBRACULUM, um-brak'[=u]-lum, _n._ (_bot._) any umbrella-shaped appendage, as the cap borne on the seta of _Marchantia_.--_adjs._ UMBRAC'ULATE, nearly covered by a projecting process, as the face of some _Orthoptera_; UMBRACULIF'EROUS, bearing an umbraculum; UMBRAC'ULIFORM, having the general form of an umbrella, as a mushroom. UMBRAGE, um'br[=a]j, _n._ suspicion of injury: offence: a shade of foliage: a slight appearance.--_v.t._ to shade.--_adj._ UMBR[=A]'GEOUS, shady or forming a shade.--_adv._ UMBR[=A]'GEOUSLY.--_n._ UMBR[=A]'GEOUSNESS. [Fr. _ombrage_--L. _umbra_, a shadow.] UMBRELLA, um-brel'a, _n._ a familiar covered sliding frame carried in the hand, as a screen from rain or sunshine.--_n._ UMBRELL'A-BIRD, a fruit-crow of South America, so called from its radiating crest.--_adj._ UMBRELLAED (um-brel'äd), provided with an umbrella.--_ns._ UMBRELL'A-GRASS, an Australian grass with millet-like seeds; UMBRELL'A-STAND, a stand in the hall of a house for holding umbrellas; UMBRELL'A-TREE, a small magnolia of the United States. [It. _ombrella_, dim. of _ombra_, a shade--L. _umbra_.] UMBRETTE, um-bret', _n._ the umber-bird, found in Africa and Madagascar, remarkable for the enormous domed nest which it builds. UMBRIAN, um'bri-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Umbria_, in central Italy.--_n._ a native thereof: the old language, akin to Latin, Sabine, and Oscan, to some extent preserved in the Eugubine tablets. UMBRIL, um'bril, _n._ the visor or face-defence of a helmet, the shade.--Also UM'BREL. UMBRINE, um'brin, _n._ a sciænoid fish, genus _Umbrina_. UMBROSE, um'br[=o]z, _adj._ shady: dark-coloured.--_n._ UMBROS'ITY. UMIAK, [=oo]m'yak, _n._ the large skin boat of the Eskimo, capable of carrying from 1½ to 3 tons. UMLAUT, [=oo]m'lowt, _n._ Grimm's word for a vowel-change in the Teutonic languages brought about on a preceding vowel by the vowel _i_ (or _e_) modifying the first in the direction of _e_ or _i_--German _gänse_, the plural of _gans_, &c. UMPIRE, um'p[=i]r, _n._ a third person called in to decide a dispute: an arbitrator.--_v.i._ to act as umpire.--_v.t._ to decide as umpire.--_ns._ UM'PIRAGE, UM'PIRESHIP. [For _numpire_; M. E. _nompere_--O. Fr. _nompair_--_non_, not, _pair_, a peer. From the sense of 'unequal,' 'odd,' the meaning passes to an odd man, an arbitrator, a third party, who gives his casting vote.] UMQUHILE, um'hw[=i]l, _adv._ and _adj._ a Scotch form of UM'WHILE, formerly, late, whilom. UNABASHED, un-a-basht', _adj._ not abashed. UNABATED, un-a-b[=a]'ted, _adj._ not diminished or lowered. UNABLE, un-[=a]'bl, _adj._ not able: not having sufficient strength, power, or skill: weak: impotent. UNABOLISHED, un-a-bol'isht, _adj._ not abolished. UNABRIDGED, un'a-brijd, _adj._ not abridged. UNACADEMIC, un-ak-a-dem'ik, _adj._ not scholarly or classical. UNACCENTED, un-ak-sent'ed, _adj._ without accent or stress in pronunciation: not marked with an accent. UNACCEPTABLE, un-ak-sept'a-bl, _adj._ not acceptable, not pleasing or welcome.--_n._ UNACCEPT'ABLENESS. UNACCOMMODATED, un-a-kom'[=o]-d[=a]t-ed, _adj._ not accommodated, unfurnished with accommodation.--_adj._ UNACCOMM'ODATING, not compliant. UNACCOMPANIED, un-a-kum'pa-nid, _adj._ not accompanied, escorted, or attended: not connected: (_mus._) having no instrumental accompaniment. UNACCOMPLISHED, un-ak-kum'plisht, _adj._ unfinished: lacking accomplishments or acquirements.--_n._ UNACCOM'PLISHMENT. UNACCOUNTABLE, un-ak-kownt'a-bl, _adj._ not accountable or to be accounted for: not responsible.--_ns._ UNACCOUNTABIL'ITY, UNACCOUNT'ABLENESS, the state or quality of being unaccountable.--_adv._ UNACCOUNT'ABLY, inexplicably. UNACCREDITED, un-a-kred'i-ted, _adj._ not accredited or authorised. UNACCUSABLY, un-a-k[=u]'za-bli, _adv._ so as to be beyond accusation. UNACCUSTOMED, un-a-kus'tomd, _adj._ not accustomed or used.--_n._ UNACCUS'TOMEDNESS. UNACHIEVABLE, un-a-ch[=e]v'a-bl, _adj._ not achievable. UNACHING, un-[=a]'king, _adj._ (_Shak._) not giving pain. UNACKNOWLEDGED, un-ak-nol'ejd, _adj._ not acknowledged or recognised: not confessed: not noticed.--_adj._ UNACKNOWL'EDGING, unthankful. UNACQUAINTANCE, un-ak-kw[=a]nt'ans, _n._ want of acquaintance: ignorance.--_adj._ UNACQUAINT'ED, not acquainted: (_Spens._) unusual.--_n._ UNACQUAINT'EDNESS. UNACQUIRED, un-a-kw[=i]rd', _adj._ not acquired or gained.--_adj._ UNACQUIR'ABLE, not acquirable.--_n._ UNACQUIR'ABLENESS. UNACTED, un-ak'ted, _adj._ not acted or performed.--_adj._ UNAC'TIVE, inactive: without efficacy. UNADAPTED, un-a-dapt'ed, _adj._ not adapted. UNADMIRE, un-ad-m[=i]r', _v.t._ not to admire.--_adj._ UNADMIRED', not admired. UNADORNED, un-a-dornd', _adj._ not adorned. UNADULTERATE, -D, un-a-dul'te-r[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ unmixed, pure, genuine. UNADVENTUROUS, un-ad-ven't[=u]r-us, _adj._ not adventurous or bold. UNADVISED, un-ad-v[=i]zd', _adj._ not advised: not prudent or discreet: rash.--_n._ UNADV[=I]SABIL'ITY.--_adj._ UNADV[=I]S'ABLE, not advisable.--_n._ UNADV[=I]S'ABLENESS.--_advs._ UNADV[=I]S'ABLY; UNADV[=I]S'EDLY.--_n._ UNADV[=I]S'EDNESS, imprudence: rashness. UNAFFECTED, un-af-fekt'ed, _adj._ not affected or moved: without affectation: not affected or artificial: plain: real: sincere.--_adv._ UNAFFECT'EDLY, in an unaffected manner: without affectation.--_n._ UNAFFECT'EDNESS, the state of being unaffected. UNAFFIED, un-a-f[=i]d', _adj._ not allied. UNAFRAID, un-a-fr[=a]d', _adj._ not afraid. UNAGREEABLE, un-a-gr[=e]'a-bl, _adj._ not agreeable.--_n._ UNAGREE'ABLENESS.--_adv._ UNAGREE'ABLY. UNAIDED, un-[=a]'ded, _adj._ not aided. UNAIMING, un-[=a]'ming, _adj._ having no definite aim. UNALIENABLE, un-[=a]l'yen-a-bl, _adj._ inalienable.--_adv._ UN[=A]L'IENABLY. UNALIST, [=u]'nal-ist, _n._ one who holds only one benefice--opp. to _Pluralist_. [L. _unus_, one.] UNALLIED, un-a-l[=i]d', _adj._ having no alliance or connection.--_adj._ UNALL[=I]'ABLE, incapable of such. UNALLOWABLE, un-al-low'a-bl, _adj._ not allowable. UNALLOYED, un-al-loid', _adj._ not alloyed or mixed: pure.--Also UNALLAYED'. UNALTERABLE, un-awl't[.e]r-a-bl, _adj._ not capable of alteration or change.--_ns._ UNALTERABIL'ITY, UNAL'TERABLENESS.--_adv._ UNAL'TERABLY.--_adj._ UNAL'TERED, not altered or changed. UNAMBIGUOUS, un-am-big'[=u]-us, _adj._ not ambiguous, clear.--_adv._ UNAMBIG'UOUSLY.--_n._ UNAMBIG'UOUSNESS. UNAMBITIOUS, un-am-bish'us, _adj._ not ambitious.--_adv._ UNAMBI'TIOUSLY. UNAMENDABLE, un-a-men'da-bl, _adj._ not capable of being amended or corrected. UN-AMERICAN, un-a-mer'i-kan, _adj._ not in accordance with American ideas or feeling,--_v.t._ UN-AMER'ICANISE, to make un-American. UNAMIABLE, un-[=a]'mi-a-bl, _adj._ not amiable, ill-natured.-_ns._ UNAMIABIL'ITY, UN[=A]'MIABLENESS. UNAMUSED, un-a-m[=u]zd', _adj._ not amused.--_adj._ UNAM[=U]'SING.--_adv._ UNAM[=U]'SINGLY.--_adj._ UNAM[=U]'SIVE, not giving amusement. UNANCESTRIED, un-an'ses-trid, _adj._ having no distinguished ancestors. UNANCHOR, un-ang'kor, _v.t._ to loose from anchorage.--_v.i._ to become loose or unattached. UNANEALED, UNANELED, un-a-n[=e]ld', _adj._ (_Shak._) not having received extreme unction. UNANGULAR, un-ang'g[=u]-lar, _adj._ not angular. UNANIMITY, [=u]-na-nim'i-ti, _n._ state of being unanimous.--_adj._ UNAN'IMOUS, of one mind: agreeing in opinion or will: done with the agreement of all.--_adv._ UNAN'IMOUSLY.--_n._ UNAN'IMOUSNESS, unanimity. [L. _unus_, one, _animus_, mind.] UNANNOUNCED, un-an-nownst', _adj._ not announced. UNANSWERABLE, un-an's[.e]r-a-bl, _adj._ not answerable or capable of refutation.--_ns._ UNANSWERABIL'ITY, UNAN'SWERABLENESS, the state of being unanswerable.--_adv._ UNAN'SWERABLY, in an unanswerable manner.--_adj._ UNAN'SWERED, not answered: unrequited. UNANXIOUS, un-angk'shus, _adj._ without anxiety. UNAPOSTOLIC, -AL, un-ap-os-tol'ik, -al, _adj._ not in accordance with apostolic usage or authority. UNAPPALLED, un-a-pawld', _adj._ not appalled or dismayed. UNAPPAREL, un-a-par'el, _v.t._ to uncover, unclothe.--_adj._ UNAPPAR'ELLED, not wearing clothes. UNAPPARENT, un-a-p[=a]r'ent, _adj._ not apparent, dark, invisible. UNAPPEALABLE, un-a-p[=e]l'a-bl, _adj._ not admitting of an appeal to a higher court, conclusive, final. UNAPPEASABLE, un-a-p[=e]'za-bl, _adj._ incapable of being appeased, implacable.--_adj._ UNAPPEASED', not appeased or pacified. UNAPPLAUSIVE, un-a-plaw'siv, _adj._ not applauding. UNAPPLIABLE, un-a-pl[=i]'a-bl, _adj._ inapplicable.--_adj._ UNAPPLIED', not put to any special purpose. UNAPPRECIABLE, un-a-pr[=e]'shi-a-bl, _adj._ inappreciable.--_adjs._ UNAPPR[=E]'CIATED, not appreciated; UNAPPR[=E]'CI[=A]TIVE, inappreciative. UNAPPREHENDED, un-a-pr[=e]-hen'ded, _adj._ not apprehended or understood.--_adjs._ UNAPPREHEN'SIBLE, inapprehensible; UNAPPREHEN'SIVE, not apprehensive or fearful: not intelligent.--_n._ UNAPPREHEN'SIVENESS. UNAPPRISED, un-a-pr[=i]zd', _adj._ not apprised, not previously informed. UNAPPROACHABLE, un-a-pr[=o]ch'a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be approached or attained.--_n._ UNAPPROACH'ABLENESS.--_adv._ UNAPPROACH'ABLY.--_adj._ UNAPPROACHED', not approached, impossible to be approached. UNAPPROPRIATE, un-a-pr[=o]'pri-[=a]t, _adj._ inappropriate: unappropriated.--_v.t._ to take from the possession of individuals and make common to all.--_adj._ UNAPPR[=O]'PRI[=A]TED, not appropriated: not applied to any other purpose: not granted to any person, corporation, &c. UNAPPROVED, un-a-pr[=oo]vd', _adj._ not approved: not proved. UNAPT, un-apt', _adj._ not suitable or qualified for: dull, inapt.--_adv._ UNAPT'LY.--_n._ UNAPT'NESS. UNARGUED, un-är'g[=u]d, _adj._ not argued or disputed. UNARM, un-ärm', _v.t._ to deprive of arms, to disarm: to make harmless.--_v.i._ to take off one's armour.--_adjs._ UNARMED', without weapons, defenceless: unprotected by any covering--scales, prickles, &c.: unaided, as by a glass; UNAR'MOURED, not armoured, not plated with armour, of ships. UNARRAYED, un-a-r[=a]d', _adj._ not arrayed or dressed: not arranged. UNARTFUL, un-ärt'f[=oo]l, _adj._ artless, genuine: inartistic.--_n._ UNART'FULLY. UNARTIFICIAL, un-är-ti-fish'al, _adj._ inartificial.--_adv._ UNARTIFI'CIALLY. UNARTISTIC, un-är-tis'tik, _adj._ inartistic. UNASCENDABLE, un-a-sen'da-bl, _adj._ that cannot be ascended.--_adj._ UNASCEN'DED, not having been ascended. UNASCERTAINABLE, un-as-[.e]r-t[=a]n'a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be ascertained or known certainly.--_adj._ UNASCERTAINED', not certainly known. UNASHAMED, un-a-sh[=a]md', _adj._ not ashamed. UNASKED, un-askt', _adj._ not asked. UNASPIRATED, un-as'pi-r[=a]-ted, _adj._ pronounced or written without an aspirate. UNASPIRING, un-as-p[=i]r'ing, _adj._ not aspiring, unambitious.--_adv._ UNASPIR'INGLY. UNASSAILABLE, un-a-s[=a]'la-bl, _adj._ not assailable: incontestable.--_adj._ UNASSAILED', not assailed or attacked. UNASSAYED, un-a-s[=a]d', _adj._ not essayed or attempted: untested. UNASSIMILATED, un-a-sim'i-l[=a]-ted, _adj._ not assimilated, not absorbed into the system as nutriment: not brought into conformity with something. UNASSISTED, un-a-sis'ted, _adj._ not assisted or helped. UNASSUETUDE, un-as'w[=e]-t[=u]d, _n._ unaccustomedness. UNASSUMING, un-a-s[=u]m'ing, _adj._ not assuming: not forward or arrogant: modest. UNASSURED, un-a-sh[=oo]rd', _adj._ not assured: not insured against loss. UNATONED, un-a-t[=o]nd', _adj._ not atoned for. UNATTACHED, un-a-tacht', _adj._ not attached, as of a student not living in college but in outside lodgings, at Oxford and elsewhere: not seized for debt: not assigned to a particular regiment or company, on half-pay. UNATTAINABLE, un-a-t[=a]n'a-bl, _adj._ beyond one's reach.--_n._ UNATTAIN'ABLENESS.--_adv._ UNATTAIN'ABLY. UNATTAINTED, un-a-t[=a]n'ted, _adj._ not attainted or corrupted: impartial. UNATTEMPTED, un-a-temp'ted, _adj._ not attempted. UNATTENDED, un-a-tend'ed, _adj._ not accompanied or attended: not attended to.--_adjs._ UNATTEND'ING, not attending; UNATTENT'IVE, inattentive. UNATTESTED, un-a-test'ed, _adj._ not attested. UNATTIRE, un-a-t[=i]r', _v.i._ to undress, esp. of robes of ceremony. UNATTRACTIVE, un-a-trakt'iv, _adj._ not attractive.--_adv._ UNATTRACT'IVELY.--_n._ UNATTRACT'IVENESS. UNAUSPICIOUS, un-aw-spish'us, _adj._ inauspicious. UNAUTHENTIC, un-aw-then'tik, _adj._ not authentic.--_adj._ UNAUTHEN'TIC[=A]TED, not attested.--_n._ UNAUTHENTIC'ITY. UNAUTHORISED, un-aw'thor-[=i]zd, _adj._ not sanctioned by proper authority.--_adj._ UNAUTHOR'IT[=A]TIVE. UNAVAILING, un-a-v[=a]l'ing, _adj._ not availing, or of no avail or effect: useless.--_n._ UNAVAILABIL'ITY.--_adj._ UNAVAIL'ABLE, not available.--_adv._ UNAVAIL'INGLY. UNAVENGED, un-a-venjd', _adj._ not avenged. UNAVOIDABLE, un-a-void'a-bl, _adj._ not avoidable: that may not be rendered null or void: inevitable.--_n._ UNAVOID'ABLENESS.--_adv._ UNAVOID'ABLY.--_adj._ UNAVOID'ED, not avoided: (_Shak._) unavoidable, inevitable. UNAVOWED, un-a-vowd', _adj._ not avowed or openly acknowledged. UNAWARE, un-a-w[=a]r', _adv._ without being or making aware: suddenly: unexpectedly--also UNAWARES'.--AT UNAWARES, unexpectedly, at a sudden disadvantage. UNBACKED, un-bakt', _adj._ never yet ridden: without any to help or encourage: not supported by bets, of a racehorse, &c. UNBAG, un-bag', _v.t._ to let out of a bag. UNBAILABLE, un-b[=a]'la-bl, _adj._ incapable of being bailed. UNBAIZED, un-b[=a]zd', _adj._ not covered with baize. UNBAKED, un-b[=a]kt', _adj._ not baked, immature. UNBALANCED, un-bal'anst, _adj._ not in a state of equipoise: without mental balance, unsteady: (_book-k._) not adjusted so as to show debtor and creditor balance.--_n._ UNBAL'ANCE, want of balance, derangement.--_v.t._ to throw out of balance. UNBALLAST, un-bal'ast, _v.t._ to discharge the ballast from.--_adj._ UNBALL'ASTED, not provided with ballast: unsteady. UNBANDED, un-band'ed, _adj._ without a band, esp. if stripped of it. UNBANK, un-bangk', _v.t._ to take a bank from: to make a fire burn up by raking off the ashes from the top, opening draughts, &c.--_adj._ UNBANK'ABLE, not bankable. UNBAPTISED, un-bap't[=i]zd, _adj._ not having received baptism, unchristian: unholy. UNBAR, un-bär', _v.t._ to remove a bar or hinderance from: to unfasten: to open. UNBARBED, un-bärbd', _adj._ (_Shak._) not shaven, untrimmed: without barbs or plumes. UNBARBERED, un-bär'b[.e]rd, _adj._ unshaven. UNBARRICADE, un-bar'i-k[=a]d, _v.t._ to throw open.--_adj._ UNBARRIC[=A]DOED (-k[=a]'d[=o]d), unobstructed. UNBASHFUL, un-bash'f[=oo]l, _adj._ not bashful, bold, shameless. UNBATED, un-b[=a]t'ed, _adj._ (_Shak._) unblunted: undiminished. UNBATHED, un-b[=a]thd', _adj._ not bathed. UNBATTERED, un-bat'[.e]rd, _adj._ not battered. UNBAY, un-b[=a]', _v.t._ to open up. UNBE, un-b[=e]', _v.t._ to cause not to be. UNBEAR, un-b[=a]r', _v.t._ to take off a horse's bearing-rein. UNBEARABLE, un-b[=a]r'a-bl, _adj._ intolerable.--_n._ UNBEAR'ABLENESS.--_adv._ UNBEAR'ABLY. UNBEARDED, un-b[=e]r'ded, _adj._ having no beard. UNBEARING, un-b[=a]r'ing, _adj._ bearing no fruit. UNBEATEN, un-b[=e]'tn, _adj._ not beaten with blows: untrodden: unconquered. UNBEAUTEOUS, un-b[=u]'t[=e]-us, _adj._ not beautiful.--_adj._ UNBEAU'TIFUL, ugly. UNBEAVERED, un-b[=e]'v[.e]rd, _adj._ without a beaver or hat: having the beaver of the helmet open. UNBECOMING, un-b[=e]-kum'ing, _adj._ not becoming: unsuited to the wearer, the place, &c.: not befitting, indecorous, improper.--_adv._ UNBECOM'INGLY.--_n._ UNBECOM'INGNESS. UNBECOMING, un-b[=e]-kum'ing, _n._ the transition from existence to non-existence. UNBED, un-bed', _v.t._ to rouse from bed.--_adj._ UNBED'DED, not yet having had the marriage consummated--of a bride. UNBEDINNED, un-b[=e]-dind', _adj._ not made noisy. UNBEFITTING, un-b[=e]-fit'ing, _adj._ not befitting, unbecoming. UNBEFOOL, un-b[=e]-f[=oo]l', _v.t._ to change from the condition of a fool: to undeceive. UNBEFRIEND, un-b[=e]-frend', _v.t._ to fail to befriend.--_adj._ UNBEFRIEN'DED, not supported by friends. UNBEGET, un-b[=e]-get', _v.t._ to cancel the begetting of. UNBEGINNING, un-b[=e]-gin'ing, _adj._ having no beginning. UNBEGOTTEN, un-b[=e]-got'n, _adj._ not yet begotten: existing independent of any generating cause.--Also UNBEGOT'. UNBEGUILE, un-b[=e]-g[=i]l', _v.t._ to undeceive.--_adj._ UNBEGUILED'. UNBEGUN, un-b[=e]-gun', _adj._ not yet begun. UNBEHOLDEN, un-b[=e]-h[=o]l'dn, _adj._ unseen. UNBEHOVING, un-b[=e]-h[=oo]v'ing, _n._ the state of not deserving. UNBEJUGGLED, un-b[=e]-jug'ld, _adj._ not deceived by any trick. UNBEKNOWN, un-b[=e]-n[=o]n', _adj._ (_prov._) unknown.--Also UNBEKNOWNST'. UNBELIEF, un-b[=e]-l[=e]f', _n._ want of belief: disbelief, esp. in divine revelation.--_n._ UNBELIEVABIL'ITY, incapability of being believed.--_adjs._ UNBELIEV'ABLE; UNBELIEVED'.--_n._ UNBELIEV'ER, one who does not believe, esp. in divine revelation: an incredulous person.--_adj._ UNBELIEV'ING, not believing, esp. divine revelation.--_adv._ UNBELIEV'INGLY, in an unbelieving manner. UNBELOVED, un-b[=e]-luvd', _adj._ not loved. UNBELT, un-belt', _v.t._ to ungird. UNBEND, un-bend', _v.t._ to free from being in a bent state: to make straight: to free from strain or exertion: to set at ease.--_v.i._ to become relaxed: to behave with freedom from stiffness, to be affable.--_adj._ UNBEND'ING, not bending: unyielding: resolute.--_n._ a relaxing.--_adv._ UNBEND'INGLY.--_n._ UNBEND'INGNESS. UNBENEFICED, un-ben'e-fist, _adj._ not having a benefice. UNBENEFICIAL, un-ben-e-fish'al, _adj._ not advantageous.--_adj._ UNBEN'EFITED, having received no benefit. UNBENIGHTED, un-b[=e]-n[=i]'ted, _adj._ not involved in darkness, intellectual or moral. UNBENIGN, un-b[=e]-n[=i]n', _adj._ not favourable: malignant. UNBEREFT, un-b[=e]-reft', _adj._ not bereaved.--Also UNBERE[=A]'VEN. UNBESEEM, un-b[=e]-s[=e]m', _v.t._ to be unworthy.--_adj._ UNBESEEM'ING, unbecoming.--_adv._ UNBESEEM'INGLY. UNBESOUGHT, un-b[=e]-sawt', _adj._ not besought. UNBESPEAK, un-b[=e]-sp[=e]k', _v.t._ to revoke. UNBESTOWED, un-b[=e]-st[=o]d', _adj._ not bestowed or conferred. UNBETTERED, un-bet'[.e]rd, _adj._ unmitigated. UNBIAS, un-b[=i]'as, _v.t._ to free from bias or prejudice.--_adj._ UNB[=I]'ASSED, free from bias or prejudice: impartial.--_adv._ UNB[=I]'ASSEDLY.--_n._ UNB[=I]'ASSEDNESS. UNBID, un-bid', _adj._ (_Spens._) not bid or prayed for.--_adjs._ UNBID', UNBID'DEN, not bid or commanded: spontaneous: uninvited. UNBIND, un-b[=i]nd', _v.t._ to remove a band from: to loose: to set free. UNBISHOP, un-bish'op, _v.t._ to deprive of the rank of bishop. UNBITT, un-bit', _v.t._ (_naut._) to take off the turns of a cable from around the bitts. UNBITTED, un-bit'ed, _adj._ unbridled. UNBLAMABLE, un-bl[=a]'ma-bl, _adj._ not deserving of blame: faultless.--_adv._ UNBL[=A]'MABLY.--_adj._ UNBLAMED'. UNBLEACHED, un-bl[=e]cht', _adj._ not having been bleached.--_adj._ UNBLEACH'ING. UNBLEMISHED, un-blem'isht, _adj._ not blemished or stained: free from reproach or deformity: pure.--_adj._ UNBLEM'ISHABLE. UNBLENCHED, un-blensht', _adj._ (_Milt._) not startled or confounded.--_adj._ UNBLENCH'ING, not flinching. UNBLESS, un-bles', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to make unhappy.--_adjs._ UNBLESSED', UNBLEST'.--_n._ UNBLESS'EDNESS.--_adj._ UNBLISS'FUL, not blest: unhappy. UNBLEST, un-blest', _adj._ (_Spens._) not wounded. UNBLIND, un-bl[=i]nd', _adj._ free from blindness. UNBLOCK, un-blok', _v.i._ at whist, to throw away a high card so as not to interrupt one's partner's long suit. UNBLOODY, un-blud'i, _adj._ not stained by blood, not cruel.--_adjs._ UNBLOOD'ED, not thoroughbred; UNBLOOD'IED, not made bloody.--_adv._ UNBLOOD'ILY. UNBLOTTED, un-blot'ed, _adj._ not erased or blotted out. UNBLOWN, un-bl[=o]n', _adj._ not sounded: yet in the bud, not yet having bloomed. UNBLUSHING, un-blush'ing, _adj._ not blushing: without shame: impudent.--_adv._ UNBLUSH'INGLY, in an unblushing or impudent manner. UNBOASTFUL, un-b[=o]st'f[=oo]l, _adj._ not boastful, modest. UNBODIED, un-bod'id, _adj._ freed from the body. UNBODING, un-b[=o]'ding, _adj._ not expecting. UNBODKINED, un-bod'kind, _adj._ not fastened with a bodkin. UNBOILED, un-boild', _adj._ not boiled. UNBOLT, un-b[=o]lt', _v.t._ to remove a bolt from: to open.--_v.i._ to disclose.--_adj._ UNBOLT'ED, not fastened by bolts: not separated by bolting or sifting: coarse. UNBONE, un-b[=o]n', _v.t._ to take the bones from. UNBONNET, un-bon'et, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to uncover the head.--_adj._ UNBONN'ETED, with no bonnet on: (_Shak._) without taking off the cap, on equal terms. UNBOOKISH, un-book'ish, _adj._ not given to reading, ignorant.--Also UNBOOKED' (rare). UNBOOT, un-b[=oo]t', _v.t._ to take the boots off. UNBORN, un-bawrn', _adj._ not yet born: non-existent. UNBOSOM, un-b[=oo]z'um, _v.t._ to disclose what is in the bosom or mind: to tell freely.--_n._ UNBOS'OMER, one who blabs or discloses secrets. UNBOTTOMED, un-bot'umd, _adj._ bottomless. UNBOUGHT, un-bawt', _adj._ not bought or sold, obtained without buying: not bribed. UNBOUND, un-bownd', _adj._ not bound: loose: wanting a cover.--_adj._ UNBOUND'ED, not bounded or limited: boundless: having no check or control.--_adv._ UNBOUND'EDLY.--_n._ UNBOUND'EDNESS. UNBOWED, un-bowd', _adj._ not bent: unconquered. UNBRACE, un-br[=a]s', _v.t._ to undo the braces or bands of: to loose or relax.--_adj._ UNBRACED'.--_n._ UNBR[=A]'CEDNESS. UNBREATHED, un-br[=e]thd', _adj._ (_Shak._) not breathed, not exercised or practised.--_adjs._ UNBREATH'ABLE, not respirable; UNBREATH'ING, not breathing. UNBRED, un-bred', _adj._ not well-bred: unpolished: rude: (_Shak._) not yet born. UNBREECH, un-br[=e]ch', _v.t._ to free the breech of, as a cannon from its fastenings. UNBREECHED, un-br[=e]chd', _adj._ wearing no breeches. UNBREWED, un-br[=oo]d', _adj._ not mixed, pure. UNBRIBABLE, un-br[=i]'ba-bl, _adj._ incapable of being bribed. UNBRIDLE, un-br[=i]'dl, _v.t._ to free from the bridle, to let loose.--_adj._ UNBR[=I]'DLED, unrestrained: licentious.--_n._ UNBR[=I]'DLEDNESS. UNBROKEN, un-br[=o]'kn, _adj._ entire: unsubdued: undisturbed--also UNBROKE' (_Shak._).--_adv._ UNBR[=O]'KENLY.--_n._ UNBR[=O]'KENNESS. UNBROTHERLY, un-bruth'[.e]r-li, _adj._ not becoming a brother.--_n._ UNBROTH'ERLINESS. UNBRUTE, un-br[=oo]t', _v.t._ to free from the qualities of the brute. UNBUCKLE, un-buk'l, _v.t._ to loose from buckles: to unfasten. UNBUCKRAMED, un-buk'ramd, _adj._ not stiffened with buckram, not stiff, easy. UNBUDDED, un-bud'ed, _adj._ not yet in bud. UNBUILD, un-bild', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to destroy. UNBUNDLE, un-bun'dl, _v.t._ to unpack, open up, declare. UNBURDEN, un-bur'dn, _v.t._ to take a burden off: to free the mind from any weight or anxiety: to disclose--also UNBUR'THEN.--_adj._ UNBUR'DENED. UNBURIABLE, un-ber'i-a-bl, _adj._ unfit to be buried.--_adj._ UNBUR'IED, not buried.--_v.t._ UNBUR'Y, to disinter: to reveal. UNBURNED, un-burnd', _adj._ not burned, scorched, or baked.--Also UNBURNT'. UNBURROW, un-bur'[=o], _v.t._ to unearth. UNBUSINESS-LIKE, un-biz'nes-l[=i]k, _adj._ not business-like. UNBUTTON, un-but'n, _v.t._ to loose the buttons of. UNCABLED, un-k[=a]'bld, _adj._ not fixed by a cable. UNCAGE, un-k[=a]j', _v.t._ to set free from a cage. UNCALLED, un-kawld', _adj._ not called, uninvited.--UNCALLED FOR, quite unnecessary or superfluous. UNCALM, un-käm', _v.t._ to disturb. UNCAMP, un-kamp', _v.t._ to break up the camp of: to dislodge. UNCANDID, un-kan'did, _adj._ not candid.--_adv._ UNCAN'DIDLY.--_ns._ UNCAN'DIDNESS; UNCAN'DOUR. UNCANNY, un-kan'i, _adj._ weird: unearthly: supposed to possess supernatural powers: dangerous, severe.--_adv._ UNCANN'ILY.--_n._ UNCANN'INESS. UNCANONIC, -AL, un-ka-non'ik, -al, _adj._ not agreeable to the canons, not according to the canon of Scripture.--_n._ UNCANON'ICALNESS.--_v.t._ UNCAN'ONISE, to deprive of canonical authority.--_adj._ UNCAN'ONISED, not canonised. UNCAP, un-kap', _v.t._ to remove a cap from.--_v.i._ to take off one's cap or hat. UNCAPE, un-k[=a]p', _v.t._ (_Shak._) either to uncouple hounds, to let out of a bag, as a fox, or to throw off the dogs so as to commence the hunt: to unhood, in hawking. UNCARED, un-k[=a]rd', _adj._ not regarded (with _for_).--_adj._ UNCARE'FUL, not careful or cautious. UNCART, un-kärt', _v.t._ to unload from a cart. UNCASE, un-k[=a]s', _v.t._ to take out of a case: to free from a covering: to flay.--_v.i._ (_Shak._) to undress. UNCATE, ung'k[=a]t, _adj._ hooked. UNCAUSED, un-kawzd', _adj._ without any precedent cause, self-existent. UNCEASING, un-s[=e]'sing, _adj._ not ceasing, continual.--_adv._ UNCEA'SINGLY. UNCEREMONIOUS, un-ser-[=e]-m[=o]'ni-us, _adj._ not ceremonious, informal.--_adv._ UNCEREM[=O]'NIOUSLY.--_n._ UNCEREM[=O]'NIOUSNESS. UNCERTAIN, un-s[.e]r't[=a]n, _adj._ not certain, doubtful: not to be depended upon: not sure of the result.--_adv._ UNCER'TAINLY.--_ns._ UNCER'TAINNESS; UNCER'TAINTY, state of being uncertain or doubtful: want of certainty: that which is uncertain. UNCHAIN, un-ch[=a]n', _v.t._ to free from chains or slavery. UNCHALLENGED, un-chal'enjd, _adj._ not challenged or called in question.--_adj._ UNCHALL'ENGEABLE.--_adv._ UNCHALL'ENGEABLY. UNCHANCY, un-chan'si, _adj._ (_Scot._) unlucky, uncanny: dangerous, inconvenient.--_n._ UNCHANCE', misfortune. UNCHANGEABLE, un-ch[=a]n'ja-bl, _adj._ not capable of change.--_ns._ UNCHANGEABIL'ITY, UNCHANGE'ABLENESS.--_adv._ UNCHANGE'ABLY.--_adjs._ UNCHANGED'; UNCHAN'GING.--_adv._ UNCHAN'GINGLY. UNCHARGE, un-chärj', _v.t._ to free from a charge or burden: to acquit.--_adj._ UNCHARGED'. UNCHARIOT, un-char'i-ot, _v.t._ to thrust out of a chariot. UNCHARITABLE, un-char'i-ta-bl, _adj._ not charitable, harsh in judgment.--_n._ UNCHAR'ITABLENESS.--_adv._ UNCHAR'ITABLY.--_n._ UNCHAR'ITY, want of charity. UNCHARM, un-chärm', _v.t._ to free from the power of some charm.--_adj._ UNCHAR'MING, not charming. UNCHARNEL, un-chär'nel, _v.t._ to dig up from a grave. UNCHARTERED, un-chär't[.e]rd, _adj._ not chartered, unrestricted. UNCHARY, un-ch[=a]r'i, _adj._ not chary, heedless. UNCHASTE, un-ch[=a]st', _adj._ not chaste, lewd.--_adv._ UNCH[=A]STE'LY.--_n._ UNCHAS'TITY, lewdness, incontinence. UNCHECKED, un-chekt', _adj._ not checked or hindered, unrestrained: uncontradicted.--_adj._ UNCHECK'ABLE. UNCHEERFUL, un-ch[=e]r'f[=oo]l, _adj._ not cheerful, gloomy: grudging.--_n._ UNCHEER'FULNESS. UNCHILD, un-ch[=i]ld', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to make childless. UNCHIVALROUS, un-shiv'al-rus, _adj._ not chivalrous or honourable.--Also UNCHIV'ALRIC. UNCHRISTEN, un-kris'n, _v.t._ to deprive of baptism: to make unchristian. UNCHRISTIAN, un-kris'tyan, _adj._ not CHRISTIAN, not converted to Christianity: contrary to the character of CHRISTIANITY, cruel, harsh: (_coll._) improper, unusual.--_v.t._ to make unchristian.--_v.t._ UNCHRIS'TIANISE, to cause to change from the Christian faith.--_adv._ UNCHRIS'TIANLY.--_n._ UNCHRIS'TIANNESS. UNCHURCH, un-church', _v.t._ to deprive of the rights of a church: to refuse the name of church to. [Illustration] UNCIAL, un'shal, _adj._ applied to that variety of majuscule writing, with large round characters, used in ancient MSS.--_n._ an uncial letter, uncial writing: a MS. written in uncials.--_v.t._ UN'CIALISE, to shape like uncials. [Lit. 'an inch long'--L., from _uncia_, a twelfth part, an inch.] UNCIATIM, un-si-[=a]'tim, _adv._ ounce by ounce. [L., 'by twelfths.'] UNCIFORM, un'si-form, _adj._ hook-shaped.--_adjs._ UNCIF'EROUS, having a hook, as an ovipositor; UN'CINAL, UN'CINATE, hooked at the end.--_n.pl._ UNCIN[=A]'TA, a division of marine chætopod worms--serpulas and other tubicolous worms.--_ns._ UNCIN[=A]'TUM, the unciform bone of the carpus; UNC[=I]'NUS, a hooklet, hamulus, one of the uncial teeth of the radula:--_pl._ UNC[=I]'NI ([=i]).--_adj._ UNCIROS'TR[=A]TE, having a hooked beak. [L. _uncus_, a hook.] UNCIRCUMCISION, un-s[.e]r-kum-sizh'un, _n._ want of circumcision: (_B._) those who are not circumcised.--_adj._ UNCIR'CUMCISED, not circumcised. UNCIRCUMSCRIBED, un-s[.e]r-kum-skr[=i]bd', _adj._ not shut in. UNCIVIL, un-siv'il, _adj._ not civil or courteous, rude: (_Spens._) not civilised, wild.--_adj._ UNCIV'ILISED, barbarous.--_adv._ UNCIV'ILLY, not civilly or politely. UNCLAD, un-klad', _adj._ not clothed. UNCLAIMED, un-kl[=a]md', _adj._ not claimed. UNCLASP, un-klasp', _v.t._ to loose the clasp of. UNCLASSABLE, un-klas'a-bl, _adj._ incapable of being classed or classified. UNCLE, ung'kl, _n._ the brother of one's father or mother: an old man generally: a pawnbroker.--_n._ UN'CLESHIP, the state of being an uncle.--UNCLE SAM, the United States or its people.--TALK LIKE A DUTCH UNCLE (see DUTCH). [O. Fr. (Fr. _oncle_)--L. _avunculus_, extension of _avus_, a grandfather.] UNCLEAN, un-kl[=e]n', _adj._ not clean: foul: (_B._) ceremonially impure: sinful: lewd.--_n._ UNCLEAN'LINESS.--_adj._ UNCLEAN'LY.--_n._ UNCLEAN'NESS, the state or quality of being unclean: dirtiness: (_B._) want of ceremonial purity: moral impurity: sinfulness. UNCLEAR, un-kl[=e]r', _adj._ not clear. UNCLERICAL, un-kl[.e]r'i-kal, _adj._ not befitting the clerical character. UNCLEW, un-kl[=oo]', _v.t._ to unwind, unfold, undo. UNCLINCH, un-klinsh', _v.t._ to cause to be no longer clinched: to open or set straight, as the closed hand.--Also UNCLENCH'. UNCLING, un-kling', _v.i._ to cease from clinging. UNCLOAK, un-kl[=o]k', _v.t._ to take the cloak off any one.--_v.i._ to take the cloak off. UNCLOG, un-klog', _v.t._ to remove a clog from: to free. UNCLOISTER, un-kloi'st[.e]r, _v.t._ to free from the cloister. UNCLOSE, un-kl[=o]z', _v.t._ to make not close, to open.--_adjs._ UNCLOSE (un-kl[=o]s'), open, babbling; UNCLOSED (un-kl[=o]zd'), open, unenclosed. UNCLOTHE, un-kl[=o]th', _v.t._ to take the clothes off: to make naked.--_adj._ UNCLOTHED'. UNCLOUD, un-klowd', _v.t._ to free from clouds.--_adj._ UNCLOUD'ED, free from clouds, clear.--_n._ UNCLOUD'EDNESS.--_adj._ UNCLOUD'Y. UNCLUBABLE, un-klub'a-bl, _adj._ not clubable, unsocial. UNCLUTCH, un-kluch', _v.t._ to force open anything shut. UNCO, ung'k[=o], _adj._ (_Scot._) strange, unusual.--_n._ any strange person or thing: (_pl._) news.--_adv._ remarkably, very. [_Uncouth_.] UNCOCK, un-kok', _v.t._ to release and let down the hammer of a firearm without exploding the charge: to open up a hay-cock, &c., spreading the hay out. UNCOFFINED, un-kof'ind, _adj._ not put into a coffin. UNCOGITABLE, un-koj'i-ta-bl, _adj._ not capable of being thought. UNCOIF, un-koif', _v.t._ to take the head-covering from.--_adj._ UNCOIFED', without a coif. UNCOIL, un-koil', _v.t._ to open out from being coiled: to unwind. UNCOIN, un-koin', _v.t._ to deprive metallic money of its character as coin.--_adj._ UNCOINED', not coined: (_Shak._) unalloyed, unfeigned. UNCOLLECTED, un-kol-ek'ted, _adj._ not collected or gathered: absent in mind, not having one's thoughts collected. UNCOLOURED, un-kul'urd, _adj._ not coloured, undyed, white: truthful, not exaggerated. UNCOLT, un-k[=o]lt', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to unhorse, to deprive of a colt or horse. UNCOMBINE, un-kom-b[=i]n', _v.t._ to separate.--_v.i._ to become separated. UNCOMEATABLE, un-kum-at'a-bl, _adj._ not accessible, out of one's reach. UNCOMELY, un-kum'li, _adj._ not comely: indecent.--_n._ UNCOME'LINESS, want of comeliness: unseemliness. UNCOMFORTABLE, un-kum'fur-ta-bl, _adj._ not comfortable, causing discomfort or disquiet: awkwardly situated.--_n._ UNCOM'FORTABLENESS.--_adv._ UNCOM'FORTABLY. UNCOMMENDABLE, un-kom-en'da-bl, _adj._ not to be commended. UNCOMMERCIABLE, un-kom-er'shi-a-bl, _adj._ not capable of being made material for commerce.--_adj._ UNCOMMER'CIAL, not engaged in commerce: not in the spirit of commerce. UNCOMMITTED, un-ko-mit'ed, _adj._ not committed or done: not entrusted: not bound by any pledge or promise: not referred to a committee. UNCOMMON, un-kom'un, _adj._ not common, strange.--_adv._ (_coll._) very.--_adv._ UNCOMM'ONLY.--_n._ UNCOMM'ONNESS. UNCOMMUNICATIVE, un-ko-m[=u]'ni-k[=a]-tiv, _adj._ not communicative, reserved.--_adjs._ UNCOMM[=U]'NICABLE; UNCOMM[=U]'NICATED.--_n._ UNCOMM[=U]'NICATIVENESS. UNCOMPACT, un-kom-pakt', _adj._ incompact.--_adj._ UNCOMPACT'ED, not compact or firm. UNCOMPANIED, un-kum'pa-nid, _adj._ unaccompanied.--_adjs._ UNCOMPAN'IONABLE, not companionable or sociable; UNCOMPAN'IONED, without a companion, or an equal, alone. UNCOMPASSIONATE, un-kom-pash'un-[=a]t, _adj._ not compassionate. UNCOMPELLABLE, un-kom-pel'a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be compelled. UNCOMPLAINING, un-kom-pl[=a]'ning, _adj._ not complaining.--_adv._ UNCOMPLAIN'INGLY. UNCOMPLAISANT, un-kom'pl[=a]-zant, _adj._ not complaisant or civil.--_adv._ UNCOM'PLAISANTLY. UNCOMPLIABLE, un-kom-pl[=i]'a-bl, _adj._ unwilling to comply.--_adj._ UNCOMPL[=I]'ANT, incompliant. UNCOMPOSABLE, un-kom-p[=o]'za-bl, _adj._ incapable of being composed or reconciled. UNCOMPOUNDED, un-kom-pown'ded, _adj._ not compounded, simple. UNCOMPREHENSIVE, un-kom-pr[=e]-hen'siv, _adj._ not comprehensive: incomprehensive: (_Shak._) incomprehensible. UNCOMPROMISING, un-kom'pr[=o]-m[=i]-zing, _adj._ not admitting of compromise or adjustment: unyielding: obstinate.--_adv._ UNCOM'PROMISINGLY.--_n._ UNCOM'PROMISINGNESS. UNCONCEALED, un-kon-s[=e]ld', _adj._ not concealed. UNCONCEIVABLE, un-kon-s[=e]'va-bl, _adj._ inconceivable.--_n._ UNCONCEI'VABLENESS.--_adv._ UNCONCEI'VABLY. UNCONCERN, un-kon-sern', _n._ want of concern, anxiety, or solicitude.--_adj._ UNCONCERNED', not concerned: carelessly secure.--_adv._ UNCONCER'NEDLY, in an unconcerned manner: without anxiety.--_ns._ UNCONCER'NEDNESS, UNCONCERN'MENT. UNCONCLUSIVE, un-kon-kl[=oo]'siv, _adj._ inconclusive.--_adjs._ UNCONCLU'DENT (_obs._), not decisive; UNCONCLU'DIBLE, not to be concluded; UNCONCLU'DING, inconclusive.--_n._ UNCONCLU'DINGNESS. UNCONCOCTED, un-kon-kok'ted, _adj._ not concocted, not digested. UNCONCURRENT, un-kon-kur'ent, _adj._ not concurring. UNCONDEMNED, un-kon-demd', _adj._ not condemned. UNCONDITIONED, un-kon-dish'und, _adj._ not subject to conditions or limitations: infinite: inconceivable.--_adj._ UNCONDI'TIONAL, not conditional, absolute, unreserved.--_n._ UNCONDITIONAL'ITY.--_adv._ UNCONDI'TIONALLY.--_n._ UNCONDI'TIONALNESS. UNCONFINABLE, un-kon-f[=i]'na-bl, _adj._ not to be confined: (_Shak._) unbounded.--_adj._ UNCONFINED', not confined, unrestrained: broad.--_adv._ UNCONF[=I]'NEDLY. UNCONFIRMED, un-kon-firmd', _adj._ not confirmed: not verified by further testimony: not yet having received the rite of confirmation: not yet having election as bishop confirmed by an archbishop: weak. UNCONFORM, un-kon-form', _adj._ (_Milt._) not conformed, unlike.--_n._ UNCONFORMABIL'ITY.--_adj._ UNCONFOR'MABLE.--_n._ UNCONFOR'MABLENESS.--_adv._ UNCONFOR'MABLY.--_n._ UNCONFOR'MITY. UNCONFUSED, un-kon-f[=u]zd', _adj._ not confused, free from confusion.--_adv._ UNCONF[=U]'SEDLY. UNCONGEAL, un-kon-j[=e]l', _v.i._ to thaw, melt. UNCONGENIAL, un-kon-j[=e]'ni-al, _adj._ not congenial. UNCONJUNCTIVE, un-kon-jungk'tiv, _adj._ impossible to be joined. UNCONNECTED, un-kon-ek'ted, _adj._ not connected, separate: not coherent, rambling, vague: without connections of family, &c. UNCONQUERABLE, un-kong'k[.e]r-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be conquered or brought under control.--_n._ UNCON'QUERABLENESS.--_adv._ UNCON'QUERABLY.--_adj._ UNCON'QUERED. UNCONSCIONABLE, un-kon'shun-a-bl, _adj._ not conformable to conscience: unreasonable: inordinate.--_n._ UNCON'SCIONABLENESS.--_adv._ UNCON'SCIONABLY. UNCONSCIOUS, un-kon'shus, _adj._ not conscious: not self-conscious, not perceiving.--_adv._ UNCON'SCIOUSLY.--_n._ UNCON'SCIOUSNESS. UNCONSECRATED, un-kon's[=e]-kr[=a]-ted, _adj._ not formally consecrated.--_v.t._ UNCON'SECRATE, to deprive of consecrated character. UNCONSENTING, un-kon-sen'ting, _n._ not consenting. UNCONSIDERED, un-kon-sid'[.e]rd, _adj._ not considered, esteemed, or attended to.--_adj._ UNCONSID'ER[=A]TE, inconsiderate.--_n._ UNCONSID'ER[=A]TENESS, inconsiderateness.--_adj._ UNCONSID'ERING, not considering. UNCONSTANT, un-kon'stant, _adj._ (_Shak._) inconstant.--_adv._ UNCON'STANTLY. UNCONSTITUTIONAL, un-kon-sti-t[=u]'shun-al, _adj._ not constitutional: contrary to the constitution.--_n._ UNCONSTITUTIONAL'ITY.--_adv._ UNCONSTIT[=U]'TIONALLY. UNCONSTRAINED, un-kon-str[=a]nd', _adj._ not under constraint, voluntary: not embarrassed.--_adv._ UNCONSTRAIN'EDLY.--_n._ UNCONSTRAINT'. UNCONSULTING, un-kon-sul'ting, _adj._ not consulting any one, rash. UNCONSUMMATE, un-kon-sum'[=a]t, _adj._ not consummated. UNCONTEMNED, un-kon-temd', _adj._ not contemned. UNCONTEMPORANEOUS, un-kon-tem-po-r[=a]'ne-us, _adj._ not contemporary: original. UNCONTENDED, un-kon-ten'ded, _adj._ not contested. UNCONTENTED, un-kon-ten'ted, _adj._ discontented.--_ns._ UNCONTEN'TEDNESS; UNCONTEN'TINGNESS. UNCONTESTED, un-kon-tes'ted, _adj._ not contested, indisputable.--_adj._ UNCONTES'TABLE, incontestable. UNCONTRADICTED, un-kon-tra-dik'ted, _adj._ not contradicted or denied.--_adj._ UNCONTRADIC'TABLE, incapable of being contradicted. UNCONTRIVING, un-kon-tr[=i]'ving, _adj._ not contriving, with little ability to contrive. UNCONTROLLABLE, un-kon-tr[=o]'la-bl, _adj._ not capable of being controlled: indisputable.--_n._ UNCONTROLL'ABLENESS.--_adv._ UNCONTROLL'ABLY.--_adj._ UNCONTROLLED'.--_adv._ UNCONTROLL'EDLY. UNCONTROVERTED, un-kon'tr[=o]-ver-ted, _adj._ not controverted or disputed. UNCONVENTIONAL, un-kon-ven'shun-al, _adj._ not conventional, free in one's ways.--_n._ UNCONVENTIONAL'ITY. UNCONVERSABLE, un-kon-ver'sa-bl, _adj._ not disposed to converse freely, reserved. UNCONVERSANT, un-kon'ver-sant, _adj._ not conversant (with and in). UNCONVERTED, un-kon-ver'ted, _adj._ not converted, not having experienced a quickening change of heart.--_n._ UNCONVER'SION, impenitence.--_adj._ UNCONVER'TIBLE, not convertible. UNCORD, un-kord', _v.t._ to free from cords. UNCORK, un-kork, _v.t._ to draw the cork from. UNCORROBORATED, un-kor-ob'o-r[=a]-ted, _adj._ not corroborated. UNCORRUPT, un-kor-upt', _adj._ not corrupt.--_adj._ UNCORRUPT'ED, not made corrupt.--_ns._ UNCORRUPT'EDNESS; UNCORRUPTIBIL'ITY.--_adj._ UNCORRUPT'IBLE, incorruptible.--_n._ UNCORRUP'TION, incorruption.--_adj._ UNCORRUPT'IVE, incorruptible.--_adv._ UNCORRUPT'LY, truly.--_n._ UNCORRUPT'NESS, integrity. UNCOSTLY, un-kost'li, _adj._ not high-priced. UNCOUNSELLED, un-kown'seld, _adj._ not advised: wrongly advised. UNCOUNTABLE, un-kown'ta-bl, _adj._ innumerable.--_adj._ UNCOUNT'ED, not counted or numbered. UNCOUPLE, un-kup'l, _v.t._ to loose from being coupled: to disjoin: to set loose.--_adj._ UNCOUP'LED, not coupled: not married: (_her._) _découplé_. UNCOURTEOUS, un-kurt'yus, _adj._ not courteous.--_adv._ UNCOURT'EOUSLY. UNCOURTLY, un-k[=o]rt'li, _adj._ not courtly, unpleasing, uncivil.--_n._ UNCOURT'LINESS. UNCOUTH, un-k[=oo]th', _adj._ awkward, ungraceful, esp. in manners or language, grotesque, odd.--_adv._ UNCOUTH'LY.--_n._ UNCOUTH'NESS. [A.S. _uncúdh_--_un-_, not, _cúdh_, _gecúdh_, known--_cunnan_, to know.] UNCOVENANTED, un-kuv'e-nan-ted, _adj._ not promised by covenant: not bound by a covenant, esp. not subscribing to the famous Solemn League and Covenant of 1643.--UNCOVENANTED CIVIL SERVICE, a branch of the East Indian civil service whose members pass no entrance examination, and may resign their offices at pleasure--opp. to _Covenanted service_; UNCOVENANTED MERCIES, such mercies as God may bestow on those not embraced within the covenant of grace--that is, those outside the ordinary channels of grace. UNCOVER, un-kuv'[.e]r, _v.t._ to remove the cover of: to lay open: to expose successively lines of formation of troops by the wheeling to right or left of the lines in front.--_v.i._ to take off the hat.--_adj._ UNCOV'ERED, having no covering, naked, esp. having no covering on the head. UNCOWL, un-kowl', _v.t._ to deprive of a cowl, esp. of a monk: to uncover by taking off anything that veils or hides. UNCREATE, un-kre-[=a]t', _v.t._ to deprive of existence.--_adj._ UNCRE[=A]'TED, not yet created: not produced by creation.--_n._ UNCRE[=A]'TEDNESS. UNCREDIBLE, un-kred'i-bl, _adj._ (_obs._) incredible. UNCREDITABLE, un-kred'i-ta-bl, _adj._ (_obs._) discreditable.--_n._ UNCRED'ITABLENESS (_obs._). UNCRITICAL, un-krit'i-kal, _adj._ not critical, without appetite or ability for critical analysis: not in accordance with the rules of criticism.--_adv._ UNCRIT'ICALLY. UNCROPPED, un-kropt', _adj._ not cropped. UNCROSS, un-kros', _v.t._ to change from a crossed position.--_adj._ UNCROSSED', not crossed: not limited as regards negotiability by being crossed, of a cheque, &c. UNCROWN, un-krown', _v.t._ to deprive of a crown, to dethrone.--_adj._ UNCROWNED', not yet wearing a crown, not yet formally crowned: possessing kingly power without the actual title and dignity. UNCTION, ungk'shun, _n._ an anointing: that which is used for anointing: ointment: that quality in language which raises emotion or devotion: warmth of address: divine or sanctifying grace.--_n._ UNCT[=U]OS'ITY, state or quality of being unctuous: oiliness: greasiness.--_adj._ UNC'T[=U]OUS, oily: greasy.--_adv._ UNC'T[=U]OUSLY.--_n._ UNC'T[=U]OUSNESS, unctuosity.--EXTREME UNCTION (_R.C. Church_), the sacrament of anointing persons with consecrated oil in their last hours. [L. _unctio_--_ungu[)e]re_, _unctum_, to anoint.] UNCUCKOLDED, un-kuk'ol-ded, _adj._ not made a cuckold of. UNCULAR, ung'k[=u]-lär, _adj._ pertaining to an uncle. UNCULLED, un-kuld', _adj._ not gathered. UNCULTIVABLE, un-kul'ti-va-bl, _adj._ not capable of being cultivated.--_adjs._ UNCULT' (_obs._), rude; UNCUL'TIV[=A]TED, not cultivated; UNCUL'T[=U]RED, not cultured. UNCUMBERED, un-kum'b[.e]rd, _adj._ unencumbered. UNCURBABLE, un-kur'ba-bl, _adj._ not able to be curbed.--_adj._ UNCURBED', not curbed. UNCURIOUS, un-k[=u]'ri-us, _adj._ not curious or inquisitive: not strange. UNCURL, un-kurl', _v.t._ to loose from curls or ringlets.--_v.i._ to relax from a curled state. UNCURTAIN, un-kur'tin, _v.t._ to remove a curtain from. UNCUS, ung'kus, _n._ a hook or claw, or a hook-like process: the head of the malleolus or lateral tooth of the mastax of a wheel-animalcule:--_pl._ UN'CI (s[=i]). [L. _uncus_, a hook.] UNCUSTOMED, un-kus'tomd, _adj._ not liable to payment of customs or duty, or having evaded it, smuggled.--_adj._ UNCUS'TOMABLE, not subject to customs. UNCUT, un-kut', _adj._ not cut, untrimmed, as the edges of the leaves of a book. UNDAM, un-dam', _v.t._ to free from a dam or obstacle. UNDAMAGED, un-dam'[=a]jd, _adj._ not damaged. UNDASHED, un-dasht', _adj._ not frightened. UNDATE, -D, un'd[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ waved or wavy: rising and falling in waves.--_adj._ UNDÉ (_her._), wavy, undulating. [L. _undatus_, _pa.p._ of und[=a]re, to rise in waves--unda, a wave.] UNDATED, un-d[=a]'ted, _adj._ having no date. UNDAUNTED, un-dän'ted, _adj._ not daunted: bold: intrepid.--_adv._ UNDAUN'TEDLY, in an undaunted or bold manner.--_n._ UNDAUN'TEDNESS, the state or quality of being undaunted or fearless: boldness. UNDAWNING, un-dawn'ing, _adj._ not yet dawning or showing light. UNDAZZLE, un-daz'l, _v.i._ to recover from a dazed condition. UNDEAF, un-def', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to free from deafness. UNDEAN, un-d[=e]n', _v.t._ to deprive of the office of a dean. UNDECAGON, un-dek'a-gon, _n._ (_geom._) a figure having eleven angles. [L. _undecim_, eleven, Gr. _g[=o]nia_, an angle.] UNDECEIVE, un-d[=e]-sev', _v.t._ to free from deception or mistake.--_adj._ UNDECEIV'ABLE. UNDECENCY, un-d[=e]'sen-si, _n._ (_obs._) indecency.--_adj._ UND[=E]'CENT (_obs._), indecent.--_adv._ UND[=E]'CENTLY (_obs._). UNDECENNIAL, un-d[=e]-sen'i-al, _adj._ pertaining to a period of eleven years, occurring on the eleventh year, or every eleven years.--Also UNDECENN'ARY. [L. _undecim_, eleven.] UNDECIDED, un-d[=e]-s[=i]'ded, _adj._ not having the mind made up, irresolute.--_adj._ UNDEC[=I]'DABLE, that cannot be decided.--_adv._ UNDEC[=I]'DEDLY.--_n._ UNDEC[=I]'DEDNESS. UNDECIMOLE, un-des'i-m[=o]l, _n._ (_mus._) a group of eleven notes to be taken in the time of eight. UNDECIPHERABLE, un-d[=e]-s[=i]'f[.e]r-a-bl, _adj._ indecipherable. UNDECISIVE, un-d[=e]-s[=i]'siv, _adj._ indecisive. UNDECK, un-dek', _v.t._ to divest of ornaments.--_adj._ UNDECKED', not adorned: having no deck, as a vessel. UNDECLINABLE, un-d[=e]-kl[=i]'na-bl, _adj._ indeclinable: that cannot be avoided.--_adj._ UNDECLINED', not having cases with different terminations. UNDECOMPOSABLE, un-d[=e]-kom-p[=o]'za-bl, _adj._ that cannot be decomposed. UNDEEDED, un-d[=e]d'ed, _adj._ (_Shak._) not signalised by any great action. UNDEFACED, un-d[=e]-f[=a]sd', _adj._ not defaced or disfigured. UNDEFECATED, un-def'[=e]-k[=a]-ted, _adj._ not defecated, unrefined. UNDEFENDED, un-de-fen'ded, _adj._ not defended. UNDEFILED, un-d[=e]-f[=i]ld', _adj._ not made unclean, unpolluted, spotless, innocent. UNDEFINED, un-d[=e]-f[=i]nd', _adj._ not defined or explained precisely: indefinite.--_v.i._ UNDEFINE', to make indefinite.--_adj._ UNDEF[=I]'NABLE, not capable of being defined. UNDEIFY, un-d[=e]'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to deprive of the nature of a god: to deprive a god of his due honour. UNDELECTABLE, un-d[=e]-lek'ta-bl, _adj._ not delectable or pleasant. UNDELEGATED, un-del'[=e]-g[=a]-ted, _adj._ not delegated or deputed. UNDELIBERATE, un-d[=e]-lib'[.e]r-[=a]t, _adj._ not deliberate. UNDELIGHTED, un-d[=e]-l[=i]'ted, _adj._ not delighted.--_adj._ UNDELIGHT'FUL, not affording delight. UNDEMOCRATISE, un-d[=e]-mok'ra-t[=i]z, _v.t._ to undemocratic. UNDEMONSTRATIVE, un-d[=e]-mon'stra-tiv, _adj._ not showing feeling openly, reserved, quiet.--_adj._ UNDEMON'STRABLE, indemonstrable.--_n._ UNDEMON'STRATIVENESS. UNDENIABLE, un-d[=e]-n[=i]'a-bl, _adj._ not deniable or able to be denied: true.--_n._ UNDEN[=I]'ABLENESS.--_adv._ UNDEN[=I]'ABLY. UNDENOMINATIONAL, un-d[=e]-nom-i-n[=a]'shun-al, _adj._ free from denominationalism, not sectarian.--_n._ UNDENOMIN[=A]'TIONALISM, the absence of denominationalism, as in the education of children. UNDEPENDABLE, un-d[=e]-pen'da-bl, _adj._ not to be depended upon.--_n._ UNDEPEN'DABLENESS.--_adj._ UNDEPEN'DING (_obs._), independent. UNDEPRAVED, un-d[=e]-pr[=a]vd', _adj._ not depraved. UNDEPRECIATED, un-d[=e]-pr[=e]'shi-[=a]-ted, _adj._ not depreciated. UNDEPRESSED, un-d[=e]-prest', _adj._ not pressed down or sunk: not dejected or cast down. UNDEPRIVED, un-d[=e]-pr[=i]vd', _adj._ not deprived of anything, not dispossessed. UNDER, un'd[.e]r, _prep._ in a lower position than: beneath: below: less than, falling short of: in subjection, subordination, oppression, liability, &c.: during the time of: undergoing: in accordance with: in, in course of.--_adv._ in a lower degree or condition: in subjection: below: less.--_adj._ lower in position, rank, or degree: subject: subordinate.--UNDER ARMS, in readiness to use arms or weapons; UNDER FIRE, exposed to the fire or shot of any enemy; UNDER ONE'S HAND (see HAND); UNDER ONE'S NOSE, under one's close observation; UNDER SAIL, moved by sails: in motion; UNDER THE BREATH, with low voice, very softly; UNDER THE LEE, to the leeward; UNDER THE ROSE (see ROSE); UNDER WATER, below the surface of the water; UNDER WAY, moving: having commenced a voyage. [A.S. _under_; Goth. _undar_, Ice. _undir_, Ger. _unter_, L. _inter_.] UNDERACT, un-d[.e]r-akt', _v.t._ to act a part inefficiently.--_n._ UNDERAC'TION, subordinate action: inefficient action. UNDERAGENT, un-d[.e]r-[=a]'jent, _n._ a subordinate agent. UNDERAID, un-d[.e]r-[=a]d', _v.t._ to aid secretly. UNDERBEAR, un-d[.e]r-b[=a]r', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to support, to endure, to line.--_n._ UN'DERBEARER. UNDERBID, un-d[.e]r-bid', _v.t._ to bid or offer less than, as at an auction. UNDERBILL, un-d[.e]r-bil', _v.t._ to bill under the actual measure or weight. UNDERBIND, un-d[.e]r-b[=i]nd', _v.t._ to bind underneath. UNDERBITTEN, un'd[.e]r-bit'n, _adj._ not bitten in by a corrosive acid deep enough to print from--of copperplates, &c. UNDER-BOARD, un'd[.e]r-b[=o]rd, _adv._ (_obs._) secretly--opp. to _Above-board_. UNDERBRACE, un-d[.e]r-br[=a]s', _v.t._ to fasten or fix underneath. UNDERBRANCH, un'd[.e]r-bransh, _n._ a small branch. UNDERBRED, un'd[.e]r-bred, _adj._ of inferior breeding or manners, vulgar: not pure-bred. UNDERBRUSH, un'd[.e]r-brush, _n._ brushwood or shrubs in a forest growing beneath large trees: undergrowth.--_v.t._ to clear away such--also UN'DERBUSH.--_vs.i._ UN'DERBRUSH, UN'DERBUSH, to work amongst underbrush. UNDERBUD, un'd[.e]r-bud, _n._ (_coll._) a young girl who has not yet come out in society. UNDERBUY, un-d[.e]r-b[=i], _v.t._ to buy a thing at a price lower than that paid by another: to pay less than the value for. UNDERCAST, un'd[.e]r-kast, _n._ an air-passage crossing a road in a mine by means of an air-tight box or channel beneath it. UNDERCHARGE, un-d[.e]r-chärj', _v.t._ to charge less than the proper sum.--_n._ a charge less than the proper sum. UNDERCLAY, un'd[.e]r-kl[=a], _n._ the bed of clay almost always found under coal-seams, considered as the soil in which grew the plants that formed the coal. UNDER-CLERK, un'd[.e]r-klärk, _n._ a subordinate clerk.--_n._ UN'DER-CLERK'SHIP. UNDERCLIFF, un'd[.e]r-klif, _n._ a subordinate or lower cliff on a shore, composed of material that has fallen from the higher cliff above. UNDERCLOTHES, un'd[.e]r-kl[=o]thz, _n.pl._ clothes worn under others--also UN'DERCLOTHING.--_adj._ UNDERCLOTHED'. UNDERCOAT, un'd[.e]r-k[=o]t, _n._ a coat for wearing in the house, one worn under an overcoat: the under-fur of a long-haired animal. UNDER-COLOUR, un'd[.e]r-kul'ur, _n._ a colour below another, a subdued colour.--_adj._ UN'DER-COL'OURED, not coloured sufficiently. UNDER-CRAFT, un'd[.e]r-kraft, _n._ (_Sterne_) a sly trick. UNDER-CREST, un'd[.e]r-krest, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to support, as a crest. UNDERCROFT, un'd[.e]r-kroft, _n._ a vault under the choir or chancel of a church: a vault or secret walk underground. UNDERCURRENT, un'd[.e]r-kur-ent, _n._ a current under the surface of the water: any influence or feeling not apparent on the surface.--_adj._ running below or unseen. UNDERCURVED, un-d[.e]r-kurvd', _adj._ curved so as to pass below the body--of parts of the upper surface of an insect. UNDERCUT, un-d[.e]r-kut', _v.t._ to cut under, as a mass of coal: to strike a heavy blow upward: to go to the foundation of.--_adj._ made so as to cut from the under side: effected by undercutting: having the parts in relief cut under.--_n._ UN'DERCUT, the act or effect of cutting under: a blow dealt upward: the tenderloin. UNDERDITCH, un-d[.e]r-dich', _v.t._ to make a deep ditch so as to drain the surface of.--_n._ UN'DERDITCH, a drain under the surface of the ground. UNDERDO, un-d[.e]r-d[=oo]', _v.t._ to do less than is requisite, esp. to cook insufficiently.--_n._ UNDERDO'ER, one who does less than is necessary.--_adj._ UNDERDONE', done less than is requisite: insufficiently cooked. UNDERDRAIN, un-d[.e]r-dr[=a]n', _v.t._ same as UNDERDITCH.--Also _n._ UN'DERDRAIN. UNDERDRAW, un-d[.e]r-draw', _v.t._ to represent inadequately in art, or by words. UNDER-DRESSED, un-d[.e]r-drest', _adj._ inadequately dressed. UNDER-DRIVEN, un-d[.e]r-driv'n, _adj._ driven from beneath. UNDERESTIMATE, un-d[.e]r-es'ti-m[=a]t, _v.t._ to estimate at too low a rate: to set too low a value on.--_n._ an insufficiently high opinion. UNDER-EXPOSED, un-d[.e]r-eks-p[=o]zd', _adj._ (_phot._) not exposed to the light long enough to make a good negative. UNDERFANG, un-d[.e]r-fang', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to undertake, to circumvent, to entrap. [A.S. _underfangen_, _underfón_--_under_, under, _fón_, to take.] UNDERFEED, un-d[.e]r-f[=e]d', _v.t._ to feed inadequately.--_adjs._ UNDERFED'; UNDERFEED'ING. UNDERFIRED, un-d[.e]r-f[=i]rd', _adj._ insufficiently baked. UNDERFLOW, un'd[.e]r-fl[=o], _n._ a current flowing below the surface. UNDERFOOT, un-d[.e]r-f[=oo]t', _adj._ downtrodden, abject.--_v.t._ to shore up, to underpin.--_adv._ under the feet, below. UNDERFURROW, un-d[.e]r-fur'[=o], _v.t._ to cover with a furrow, as manure, to plough in.--_adv._ under a furrow. UNDERGARMENT, un'd[.e]r-gär-ment, _n._ any article of clothing worn under another. UNDERGEAR, un'd[.e]r-g[=e]r, _n._ undergarments generally. UNDERGIRD, un-d[.e]r-gird', _v.t._ to gird or bind under or below: to gird round the bottom. UNDERGLAZE, un-d[.e]r-gl[=a]z', _adj._ suitable for underglaze painting, of a pigment.--UNDERGLAZE PAINTING, in ceramics, painting in a vitrifiable pigment before the glaze is applied. UNDERGO, un-d[.e]r-g[=o]', _v.t._ to go under or be subjected to: to endure or suffer: to pass through: to sustain without sinking: to partake of.--_adj._ UNDERG[=O]'ING, suffering. UNDER-GOWN, un'd[.e]r-gown, _n._ a, gown worn under another. UNDER-GRADE, un'd[.e]r-gr[=a]d, _adj._ in bridge-building, having the truss below the roadway, as in a deck-bridge. UNDERGRADUATE, un-d[.e]r-grad'[=u]-[=a]t, _n._ a student who has not taken his first degree.--_adj._ pertaining to such.--_n._ UNDERGRAD'UATESHIP. UNDERGROUND, un'd[.e]r-grownd, _adj._ under the surface of the ground.--_n._ that which is underground.--_v.t._ to place underground.--_adv._ UNDERGROUND', beneath the surface of the earth. UNDERGROVE, un'd[.e]r-gr[=o]v, _n._ a grove of low trees under taller trees. UNDERGROW, un-d[.e]r-gr[=o], _v.t._ to grow beneath the normal size.--_n._ UN'DERGROWTH, shrubs or low woody plants growing among trees: copsewood. UNDERGROWL, un'd[.e]r-growl, _n._ a subdued growling or grumbling. UNDERHAND, un-d[.e]r-hand', _adj._ and _adv._ secretly: by secret means: by fraud: in cricket, delivered with the hand underneath--opp. to _Over-arm_ and _Round-arm_.--_adj._ UNDERHAN'DED, clandestinely carried on: short-handed.--_adv._ UNDERHAN'DEDLY.--_n._ UNDERHAN'DEDNESS. UNDERHEW, un-d[.e]r-h[=u]', _v.t._ to hew less than is proper, esp. to hew unfairly timber which should be square, so that it appears to contain more cubic feet than it really does. UNDERHOLD, un'd[.e]r-h[=o]ld, _n._ in wrestling, an unfair seizing of the opponent under the arms. UNDER-HONEST, un-d[.e]r-on'est, _adj._ (_Shak._) not quite honest. UNDERHUNG, un-d[.e]r-hung', _adj._ hanging over, protruding from beneath: running on rollers on a rail below it--of a sliding-door--opp. to _Overhung_. UNDERJAWED, un'd[.e]r-jawd, _adj._ having a heavy underjaw. UNDERKEEP, un-d[.e]r-k[=e]p', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to keep under or in subjection. UNDERKING, un'd[.e]r-king, _n._ a subordinate king.--_n._ UN'DERKINGDOM. UNDERLAP, un-d[.e]r-lap', _v.t._ to be folded under, to extend beneath the edge of. UNDERLAY, un-d[.e]r-l[=a]', _v.t._ to lay under or to support by something laid under.--_v.i._ to incline from the perpendicular.--_n._ UN'DERLAY, a piece of paper pasted under woodcuts, stereotype plates, &c. in a form, to bring them up to the necessary level for printing.--_n._ UNDERLAY'ER, one who underlays. UNDERLEASE, un'd[.e]r-l[=e]s, _n._ a lease granted by a lessee for a shorter period than that covered by his own lease. UNDERLET, un-d[.e]r-let', _v.t._ to let below the proper value: to sublet.--_ns._ UNDERLET'TER; UNDERLET'TING. UNDERLIE, un-d[.e]r-l[=i]', _v.t._ to lie under or beneath: to be liable to.--_adj._ UNDERLY'ING, lying under or lower in position: supporting, fundamental. UNDERLINE, un-d[.e]r-l[=i]n', _v.t._ to draw a line under or below, as a word.--_n._ UN'DERLINE, an announcement of a theatrical performance to follow placed in an advertisement of the present one. UNDERLINEN, un-d[.e]r-lin'en, _n._ linen underwear--loosely applied to cotton or even woollen underclothing generally. UNDERLING, un'd[.e]r-ling, _n._ an inferior person or agent: a sorry, mean fellow. UNDERMAN, un-d[.e]r-man', _v.t._ to provide with an insufficient number of men.--_adj._ UNDERMANNED'. UNDERMASTED, un-d[.e]r-mas'ted, _adj._ not having sufficient masts. UNDERMENTIONED, un'd[.e]r-men-shund, _adj._ mentioned underneath or hereafter. UNDERMINE, un-d[.e]r-m[=i]n', _v.t._ to form mines under, in order to destroy: to destroy secretly the foundation or support of anything.--_n._ UNDERM[=I]'NER, one who undermines, a secret enemy. UNDERMOST, un'd[.e]r-m[=o]st, _adj._ lowest in place or condition. UNDERN, un'dern, _n._ nine o'clock in the morning, the third hour, the period from that till noon. UNDERNEATH, un-d[.e]r-n[=e]th', _adv._ beneath: below: in a lower place.--_prep._ under: beneath. UNDERNICENESS, un-d[.e]r-n[=i]s'nes, _n._ want of niceness or delicacy. UNDERNOTE, un'd[.e]r-n[=o]t, _n._ a subdued note, an undertone.--_adj._ UNDERN[=O]'TED, noted below. UNDERPAY, un-d[.e]r-p[=a]', _v.t._ to pay insufficiently.--_p.adj._ UNDERPAID'.--_n._ UNDERPAY'MENT. UNDERPEEP, un-d[.e]r-p[=e]p', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to peep under. UNDERPEOPLED, un'd[.e]r-p[=e]-pld, _adj._ not fully peopled. UNDERPIN, un-d[.e]r-pin', _v.t._ to pin or support underneath: to support or prop: to lay stones under, as the sills of a building, for it to rest on.--_n._ UN'DERPINNING, the act of underpinning or supporting by introducing a new structure as foundation, the act or practice of placing stones under the sills of a building: the stones so placed, an additional foundation wall: a method of well-sinking where a wall is laid in sections. UNDERPLAY, un-d[.e]r-pl[=a]', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to play a low card at whist while keeping up a higher one of the same suit.--_n._ UN'DERPLAY, the act of so doing. UNDERPLOT, un'd[.e]r-plot, _n._ a plot under or subordinate to the main plot in a play or tale: a secret scheme, a trick. UNDERPRAISE, un-d[.e]r-pr[=a]z', _v.t._ to praise below desert. UNDERPRIZE, un-d[.e]r-pr[=i]z', _v.t._ to value too little. UNDERPROOF, un-d[.e]r-pr[=oo]f', _adj._ lower or weaker than proof, of alcohol. UNDERPROP, un-d[.e]r-prop', _v.t._ to prop from under or beneath: to support. UNDERQUOTE, un-d[.e]r-kw[=o]t', _v.t._ to offer at a lower price than another. UNDERRATE, un-d[.e]r-r[=a]t', _v.t._ to rate under the value.--_n._ UN'DERRATE, a price less than the worth. UNDER-RIPE, un'd[.e]r-r[=i]p, _adj._ not quite ripe. UNDER-ROOF, un'd[.e]r-r[=oo]f, _n._ a roof under another. UNDERRUN, un-d[.e]r-run', _v.t._ to run beneath: (_naut._) to haul along underneath it, as a boat, to clear it, if any part happens to be foul.--_v.i._ to move under.--_n._ UNDERRUN'NING, a method of trawling in which the hooks are cleared and again baited in the same operation. UNDERSAY, un-d[.e]r-s[=a]', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to say by way of derogation or contradiction. UNDERSCORE, un-d[.e]r-sk[=o]r', _v.t._ to draw a score or line under, as for emphasis. UNDERSECRETARY, un'd[.e]r-sek-r[=e]-t[=a]-ri, _n._ a secretary subordinate to the principal secretary.--_n._ UNDERSEC'RETARYSHIP. UNDERSELL, un-d[.e]r-sel', _v.t._ to sell under or cheaper than another: to defeat fair trade, by selling for too small a price.--_n._ UNDERSELL'ER. UNDERSENSE, un'd[.e]r-sens, _n._ a deeper sense. UNDERSET, un-d[.e]r-set', _v.t._ to set under: to prop: to sublet.--_ns._ UN'DERSET, a current of water below the surface; UN'DERSETTER (_B._), prop, support; UN'DERSETTING, underpinning: the pedestal. UNDERSHAPEN, un-d[.e]r-sh[=a]'pn, _adj._ (_Tenn._) under the usual shape or size. UNDERSHERIFF, un'd[.e]r-sher-if, _n._ a deputy sheriff.--_n._ UN'DER-SHER'IFFRY. UNDERSHIRT, un'd[.e]r-sh[.e]rt, _n._ a shirt worn under another next the skin. UNDERSHOT, un'd[.e]r-shot, _adj._ moved by water passing under the wheel. UNDERSHRUB, un'd[.e]r-shrub, _n._ a shrubby plant, but hardly to be called a shrub, a small shrub. UNDERSIGN, un-d[.e]r-s[=i]n', _v.t._ to sign or write one's name under or at the foot of.--THE UNDERSIGNED, the person or persons subscribing. UNDERSIZED, un'd[.e]r-s[=i]zd, _adj._ below the usual size. UNDERSKINKER, un-d[.e]r-skingk'[.e]r, _n._ (_Shak._) an inferior tapster. UNDERSKIRT, un'd[.e]r-skirt, _n._ a petticoat, the foundation skirt of a draped gown. UNDERSKY, un'd[.e]r-sk[=i], _n._ a lower sky. UNDERSLEEP, un-d[.e]r-sl[=e]p', _v.i._ to sleep less than is necessary. UNDERSLEEVE, un'd[.e]r-sl[=e]v, _n._ a sleeve worn under another and generally separable. UNDERSOIL, un'd[.e]r-soil, _n._ subsoil or soil beneath the surface. UNDERSONG, un'd[.e]r-song, _n._ the burden or chorus of a song: an underlying meaning. UNDER-SPARRED, un'd[.e]r-spärd, _adj._ not having enough spars--of a ship. UNDERSPREAD, un-d[.e]r-spred', _adj._ spread under or beneath. UNDERSTAND, un-d[.e]r-stand', _v.t._ to comprehend: to have just ideas of: to know thoroughly: to be informed of: to learn: to suppose to mean: to mean without expressing: to imply.--_v.i._ to have the use of the intellectual faculties: to be informed: to learn.--_adj._ UNDERSTAN'DABLE.--_p.adj._ UNDERSTAN'DED (_obs._), understood (with _of_).--_n._ UNDERSTAN'DING, the act of comprehending: the faculty or the act of the mind by which it understands or thinks: the power to understand: knowledge: exact comprehension: agreement of minds: harmony.--_adj._ knowing, skilful.--_adv._ UNDERSTAN'DINGLY.--UNDERSTANDS', in Scotch Version of PSALMS, used for UNDERSTANDEST. [A.S. _understandan_, to stand under or in the midst of a thing.] UNDERSTATE, un-d[.e]r-st[=a]t', _v.t._ to state or represent under or below the truth.--_n._ UNDERSTATEMENT. UNDERSTOCK, un-d[.e]r-stok', _v.t._ to supply with an insufficient amount of stock. UNDERSTOOD, un-d[.e]r-stood', _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _understand_. UNDERSTRAPPER, un'd[.e]r-strap-[.e]r, _n._ an inferior agent, an underling, a subordinate, a petty fellow.--_adj._ UN'DERSTRAPPING, subservient. UNDERSTRATUM, un'd[.e]r-str[=a]-tum, _n._ a substratum:--_pl._ UN'DERSTR[=A]TA. UNDERSTROKE, un-d[.e]r-str[=o]k', _v.i._ to underline. UNDERSTUDY, un'd[.e]r-stud-i, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to study a dramatic part so as to be able to take the place of the actor playing it, if necessary.--_n._ an actor who prepares a part in this way. UNDERTAKE, un-d[.e]r-t[=a]k', _v.t._ to take under one's management: to take upon one's self: to attempt: to answer for, warrant: to take in, understand: to assume, to have charge of.--_v.i._ to take upon one's self: to be bound: to manage all the arrangements of a burial.--_adj._ UNDERT[=A]'KABLE, capable of being undertaken.--_ns._ UNDERT[=A]'KER, one who undertakes, a projector, a contractor: one who is surety or guarantee for another: one who manages funerals: formerly a contractor for the royal revenue in ENGLAND, one of those who undertook to manage the House of Commons for the king in the 'Addled Parliament' of 1614: one of the English and Scotch settlers in Ireland on forfeited lands in the 16th century; UNDERT[=A]'KING, that which is undertaken: any business or project engaged in. UNDERTENANT, un'd[.e]r-ten-ant, _n._ one who sublets a farm, house, &c. from the actual tenant.--_n._ UN'DERTENANCY. UNDERTIDE, un'd[.e]r-t[=i]d, UNDERTIME, un'd[.e]r-t[=i]m, _n._ (_Spens._) the after-part of the day.--_adj._ UN'DERTIMED, under-exposed--of a photograph. UNDERTINT, un'd[.e]r-tint, _n._ a subdued tint. UNDERTONE, un'd[.e]r-t[=o]n, _n._ a low tone: a low state of the physical faculties: a low, subdued colour.--_adj._ UN'DERT[=O]NED. UNDERTOOK, un-d[.e]r-t[=oo]k', _pa.t._ of undertake. UNDERTOW, un'd[.e]r-t[=o], _n._ an undercurrent in a different direction from that at the surface--seen esp. at the mouths of great rivers, or where tide and half-tides prevail. UNDERVALUE, un-d[.e]r-val'[=u], _v.t._ to value below the real worth: to esteem lightly.--_n._ a value or price under the real worth: low rate or price.--_ns._ UNDERVALU[=A]'TION, an undervaluing: rate below the worth; UNDERVAL'UER. UNDERVERSE, un'd[.e]r-v[.e]rs, _n._ (_Spens._) the following or second verse. UNDERVEST, un'd[.e]r-vest, _n._ an undershirt. UNDERVIEWER, un'd[.e]r-v[=u]-[.e]r, _n._ the person who has charge of the underground workings of a coal-mine. UNDERWEAR, un'd[.e]r-w[=a]r, _n._ garments worn under others, underclothing. UNDERWENT, un-d[.e]r-went', _pa.t._ of _undergo_. UNDERWING, un'd[.e]r-wing, _n._ a moth with conspicuous underwings, esp. one of genus _Catocala_.--_adj._ UN'DERWINGED. UNDERWOOD, un'd[.e]r-w[=oo]d, _n._ low wood or trees growing under large ones: coppice. UNDERWORK, un-d[.e]r-wurk', _v.t._ to work for a less price than: to undermine or destroy clandestinely.--_v.i._ to do less work than is requisite.--_n._ UN'DERWORK, subordinate work.--_ns._ UN'DERWORKER; UN'DER-WORKMAN. UNDER-WORLD, un'd[.e]r-wurld, _n._ the lower or inferior world, HADES, the place of departed souls: the portion of the world below the horizon: the opposite side of the world. UNDERWRITE, un-d[.e]r-r[=i]t', _v.t._ to write under something else: to subscribe: to subscribe one's name to for insurance: (_Shak._) to submit to.--_v.i._ to practise insuring.--_ns._ UN'DERWRITER, one who insures, as shipping, so called because he underwrites his name for a certain amount to the conditions of the policy; UN'DERWRITING. UNDERWROUGHT, un-d[.e]r-rawt', _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _underwork_. UNDESCENDIBLE, un-d[=e]-sen'di-bl, _adj._ not descendible, unfathomable: not capable of descending to heirs.--Also UNDESCEN'DABLE. UNDESCRIBABLE, un-des-kr[=i]'ba-bl, _adj._ indescribable.--_adj._ UNDESCRIBED', not described. UNDESCRIED, un-des-kr[=i]d', _adj._ not descried. UNDESERVER, un-de-z[.e]r'v[.e]r, _n._ (_Shak._) one who is not deserving or worthy.--_adj._ UNDESERVED', not deserved.--_adv._ UNDESER'VEDLY.--_n._ UNDESER'VEDNESS.--_adj._ UNDESER'VING.--_adv._ UNDESER'VINGLY. UNDESIGNING, un-de-z[=i]'ning, _adj._ not designing: artless: straightforward: sincere.--_adj._ UNDESIGNED'.--_adv._ UNDESIGN'EDLY.--_n._ UNDESIGN'EDNESS. UNDESIRABLE, un-d[=e]-z[=i]'ra-bl, _adj._ not to be wished for.--_ns._ UNDESIRABIL'ITY; UNDESIR'ABLENESS.--_adv._ UNDESIR'ABLY.--_adjs._ UNDESIRED'; UNDESIR'ING; UNDESIR'OUS. UNDESPAIRING, un-des-p[=a]r'-ing, _adj._ not yielding to despair.--_adv._ UNDESPAIR'INGLY. UNDESPONDENT, un-des-pon'dent, _adj._ not despondent.--_adv._ UNDESPOND'ENTLY. UNDESTINED, un-des'tind, _adj._ not destined. UNDETERMINED, un-de-t[.e]r'mind, _adj._ not determined or settled: not defined.--_adjs._ UNDETER'MINABLE, indeterminable; UNDETER'MINATE, indeterminate.--_ns._ UNDETER'MINATENESS; UNDETERMIN[=A]'TION. UNDETESTING, un-d[=e]-tes'ting, _adj._ not detesting. UNDEVELOPED, un-d[=e]-vel'opt, _adj._ not developed. UNDEVIATING, un-d[=e]'vi-[=a]-ting, _adj._ not deviating: steady: regular.--_adv._ UND[=E]'VIATINGLY. UNDEVOUT, un-d[=e]-vowt', _adj._ not devout.--_adv._ UNDEVOUT'LY.--_n._ UNDEVOUT'NESS. UNDIADEMED, un-d[=i]'a-demd, _adj._ not wearing a diadem or crown. UNDIAPHANOUS, un-d[=i]-af'a-nus, _adj._ not diaphanous. UNDID, un-did', _pa.t._ of undo. UNDIFFERENCING, un-dif'e-ren-sing, _adj._ not making any difference. UNDIFFERENTIATED, un-dif-e-ren'shi-[=a]-ted, _adj._ not differentiated. UNDIGENOUS, un-dij'e-nus, _adj._ originated by water. [L. _unda_, a wave, _gign[)e]re_, to produce.] UNDIGESTED, un-di-jes'ted, _adj._ not digested--_adj._ UNDIGES'TIBLE, indigestible. UNDIGHT, un-d[=i]t', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to put off, as ornaments or apparel. UNDIGNIFIED, un-dig'ni-f[=i]d, _adj._ not dignified, not consistent with dignity.--_v.t._ UNDIG'NIFY, to make undignified. UNDILUTION, un-dil-[=u]'shun, _n._ the quality of being undiluted.--_adj._ UNDIL[=U]'TED. UNDIMINISHED, un-di-min'isht, _adj._ not lessened. UNDINE, un-d[=e]n', _n._ a spirit of the waters, a water-nymph, without a soul--they marry readily with men, and an undine herself receives a soul on bearing a child. [L. _unda_, a wave.] UNDINTED, un-din'ted, _adj._ not bearing the marks of blows. UNDIOCESED, un-d[=i]'[=o]-s[=e]st, _adj._ not having a diocese. UNDISCERNIBLE, un-di-zer'ni-bl, _adj._ indiscernible--also UNDISCER'NABLE.--_adv._ UNDISCER'NEDLY.--_n._ UNDISCER'NIBLENESS.--_adv._ UNDISCER'NIBLY.--_adj._ UNDISCER'NING. UNDISCHARGED, un-dis-chärjd', _adj._ not discharged: not carried out. UNDISCIPLINED, un-dis'i-plind, _adj._ not disciplined, not properly trained and exercised.--_adj._ UNDIS'CIPLINABLE. UNDISCOMFITED, un-dis-kum'fi-ted, _adj._ not discomfited. UNDISCORDING, un-dis-kor'ding, _adj._ (_Milt._) not discording or making discord. UNDISCOURSED, un-dis-k[=o]rst', _adj._ not discussed or talked about. UNDISCOVERABLE, un-dis-kuv'[.e]r-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be discovered.--_adv._ UNDISCOV'ERABLY.--_adj._ UNDISCOV'ERED, not discovered or found out, unseen, hid. UNDISCRIMINATING, un-dis-krim'i-n[=a]-ting, _adj._ not discriminating, not quick to detect differences. UNDISCUSSED, un-dis-kust', _adj._ not discussed. UNDISGUISED, un-dis-g[=i]zd', _adj._ not disguised, frank, open, plain.--_adj._ UNDISGUIS'ABLE.--_adv._ UNDISGUIS'EDLY. UNDISHONOURED, un-dis-on'ord, _adj._ not dishonoured or disgraced. UNDISJOINED, un-dis-joind', _adj._ not disjoined or separated. UNDISMAYED, un-dis-m[=a]d', _adj._ not dismayed. UNDISPENSED, un-dis-penst', _adj._ not dispensed.--_adjs._ UNDISPEN'SABLE; UNDISPEN'SING. UNDISPOSED, un-dis-p[=o]zd', _adj._ not sold, allocated, or otherwise arranged. UNDISPRIVACIED, un-dis-pr[=i]'va-sid, _adj._ not deprived of privacy. UNDISPUTABLE, un-dis'p[=u]-ta-bl, _adj._ indisputable.--_n._ UNDIS'PUTABLENESS.--_adv._ UNDIS'PUTABLY.--_adj._ UNDISP[=U]'TED, not disputed, not called in question.--_adv._ UNDISP[=U]'TEDLY. UNDISSEMBLED, un-di-sem'bld, _adj._ not dissembled, open: unfeigned. UNDISSIPATED, un-dis'i-p[=a]-ted, _adj._ not dissipated. UNDISSOLVED, un-di-zolvd', _adj._ not dissolved, not broken.--_adjs._ UNDISSOL'VABLE, not to be loosened or broken; UNDISSOL'VING, not dissolving. UNDISTEMPERED, un-dis-tem'p[.e]rd, _adj._ free from distemper. UNDISTINCTIVE, un-dis-tingk'tiv, _adj._ making no distinctions. UNDISTINGUISHED, un-dis-ting'gwisht, _adj._ not distinguished: not marked out by conspicuous qualities, not famous: not having an air or appearance of distinction.--_adj._ UNDISTING'UISHABLE, indistinguishable.--_n._ UNDISTING'UISHABLENESS.--_adv._ UNDISTING'UISHABLY.--_adj._ UNDISTING'UISHING, not discriminating. UNDISTRACTED, un-dis-trak'ted, _adj._ not distracted, not having the attention drawn away from.--_adv._ UNDISTRAC'TEDLY.--_n._ UNDISTRAC'TEDNESS.--_adj._ UNDISTRAC'TING. UNDISTURBED, un-dis-turbd', _adj._ not disturbed.--_adv._ UNDISTUR'BEDLY.--_n._ UNDISTUR'BEDNESS. UNDIVERSIFIED, un-div-er'si-f[=i]d, _adj._ not diversified or varied. UNDIVERTED, un-di-ver'ted, _adj._ not diverted or turned away from: not amused. UNDIVESTEDLY, un-di-ves'ted-li, _adv._ with the absence of. UNDIVIDED, un-di-v[=i]'ded, _adj._ not divided or disunited.--_adj._ UNDIV[=I]'DABLE.--_adv._ UNDIV[=I]'DEDLY.--_n._ UNDIV[=I]'DEDNESS. UNDIVINE, un-di-v[=i]n', _adj._ not divine. UNDIVORCED, un'di-v[=o]rst, _adj._ not divorced or separated. UNDIVULGED, un-di-vuljd', _adj._ not divulged, secret. UNDO, un-d[=oo]', _v.t._ to reverse what has been done: to bring to naught: to loose: to open: to unravel: to impoverish: to ruin, as in reputation: (_Shak._) to leave undone.--_ns._ UNDO'ER; UNDO'ING, the reversal of what has been done: ruin.--_adj._ UNDONE', not done: ruined: untied, unfastened. UNDOCK, un-dok', _v.t._ to take out of dock, as a ship. UNDOCTOR, un-dok'tor, _v.t._ (_Carlyle_) to divest of the character of a doctor. UNDOGMATIC, un-dog-mat'ik, _adj._ not dogmatic. UNDOMESTICATE, un-d[=o]-mes'ti-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to make unfit for home life: to untame.--_adj._ UNDOMES'TIC[=A]TED, not domesticated, not tamed.--_n._ UNDOMESTIC[=A]'TION. UNDOSE, un'd[=o]s, _adj._ wavy, undulated. UNDOUBLE, un-dub'l, _v.t._ to make single, to unfold. UNDOUBTED, un-dowt'ed, _adj._ indubitable: unsuspected.--_adj._ UNDOUBT'ABLE, indubitable.--_advs._ UNDOUBT'ABLY; UNDOUBT'EDLY.--_adjs._ UNDOUBT'FUL, not doubtful: unsuspicious; UNDOUBT'ING, not doubting.--_adv._ UNDOUBT'INGLY. UNDRAINABLE, un-dr[=a]'na-bl, _adj._ that cannot be drained. UNDRAPE, un-dr[=a]p', _v.t._ to strip of clothing, to uncover.--_adj._ UNDRAPED', not covered with artistic drapery, not clothed, nude. UNDRAW, un-draw', _v.t._ to draw aside.--_adj._ UNDRAWN', not drawn or dragged away: not delineated: not drawn from a cask. UNDREADED, un-dred'ed, _adj._ not dreaded. UNDREAMED, un-dr[=e]md', _adj._ not dreamed, not thought of--also UNDREAMT, un-dremt' (with _of_).--_adj._ UNDREAM'ING, not dreaming. UNDRESS, un-dres', _v.t._ to take off the dress or clothes: to strip: to take the dressing from a wound.--_v.i._ to take off one's clothes.--_n._ (also UN'DRESS) a loose dress: the plain dress worn by soldiers when off duty.--_adj._ pertaining to ordinary dress, as opposed to uniform, &c.--_adj._ UNDRESSED', not dressed. UNDROSSY, un-dros'i, _adj._ not drossy, not impure. UNDUBITABLE, un-d[=u]'bi-ta-bl, _adj._ (_obs._) indubitable. UNDUE, un-d[=u]', _adj._ not due or owing: improper: immoderate: excessive.--_n._ UNDUE'NESS. UNDUKE, un-d[=u]k', _v.t._ to deprive of the rank of duke. UNDULATE, un'd[=u]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to wave, or to move like waves: to cause to vibrate.--_v.i._ to wave: to vibrate.--_adj._ wavy.--_adj._ UN'DULANT, undulating.--_adv._ UN'DUL[=A]TELY.--_adj._ UN'DUL[=A]TING.--_adv._ UN'DUL[=A]TINGLY.--_ns._ UNDUL[=A]'TION, an undulating: a waving motion or vibration: waviness, a set of waved lines: a feeling as if of an undulatory motion about the heart: the peculiar motion of the matter within an abscess on being pressed when it is ripe for opening; UNDUL[=A]'TIONIST, one who holds an undulatory theory.--_adjs._ UN'DUL[=A]TIVE, undulatory; UN'DUL[=A]TORY, moving like waves: relating to the theory of light which considers its transmission as wave-motion in a medium filling space; UN'DULOSE, UN'DULOUS, undulating. [Low L. _undul[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--L. _unda_, a wave.] UNDULL, un-dul', _v.t._ to remove the dullness from. UNDULY, un-d[=u]'li, _adv._ not according to duty or propriety: improperly. UNDURABLE, un-d[=u]'ra-bl, _adj._ not durable.--_adv._ UND[=U]'RABLY. UNDUTIFUL, un-d[=u]'ti-f[=oo]l, _adj._ not dutiful--also UND[=U]'TEOUS.--_adv._ UND[=U]'TIFULLY.--_n._ UND[=U]'TIFULNESS. UNDYING, un-d[=i]'ing, _adj._ not dying, unceasing.--_adv._ UNDY'INGLY.--_n._ UNDY'INGNESS. UNEARED, un-[=e]rd', _adj._ (_Shak._) not eared, untilled. UNEARNED, un-ernd', _adj._ not gained by labour.--UNEARNED INCREMENT (see INCREMENT). UNEARTH, un-[.e]rth', _v.t._ to take out of, drive, or draw from the earth or a burrow, as a fox or badger: to uncover, to disclose.--_n._ UNEARTH'LINESS, quality of being unearthly.--_adj._ UNEARTH'LY, supernatural. UNEASY, un-[=e]'zi, _adj._ not at ease: restless: feeling pain: constrained: not easy to be done.--_ns._ UNEASE' (_arch._), UNEAS'INESS, state of being uneasy or not at ease: want of ease: disquiet.--_adv._ UNEAS'ILY. UNEATABLE, un-[=e]'ta-bl, _adj._ not fit to be eaten.--_n._ UNEAT'ABLENESS.--_adj._ UNEAT'EN, not eaten. UNEATH, un-[=e]th', _adv._ (_Spens._) not easily, hardly. [A.S. _uneáthe_--_un-_, not, _eáthe_, easy.] UNEATH, un-[=e]th', _adv._ (_Spens._) underneath, beneath, below. [_Underneath_.] UNEBRIATE, un-[=e]'bri-[=a]t, _adj._ not intoxicating. UNEDGE, un-ej', _v.t._ to deprive of the edge, to blunt. UNEDIBLE, un-ed'i-bl, _adj._ inedible. UNEDIFYING, un-ed'i-f[=i]-ing, _adj._ not edifying. UNEDUCATED, un-ed'[=u]-k[=a]t-ed, _adj._ not educated.--_v.t._ UNED'UCATE, to deprive of the results of education. UNEFFECTUAL, un-e-fek't[=u]-al, _adj._ ineffectual. UNELASTIC, un-[=e]-las'tik, _adj._ inelastic. UNELECTED, un-[=e]-lek'ted, _adj._ not elected. UNELEGANT, un-el'e-gant, _adj._ inelegant.--_adv._ UNEL'EGANTLY. UNEMBARRASSED, un-em-bar'ast, _adj._ not embarrassed. UNEMBODIED, un-em-bod'id, _adj._ disembodied, incorporate: not collected into a body. UNEMOTIONAL, un-[=e]-m[=o]'shun-al, _adj._ not emotional, not readily giving way to feeling or causing emotion.--_adv._ UNEM[=O]'TIONALLY.--_adj._ UNEM[=O]'TIONED, impassive. UNEMPLOYED, un-em-ploid', _adj._ out of work: not put to use or profit.--_n._ UNEMPLOY'MENT. UNEMPTIABLE, un-emp'ti-a-bl, _adj._ not able to be emptied. UNENCHANTED, un-en-chan'ted, _adj._ not enchanted. UNENCLOSED, un-en-kl[=o]zd', _adj._ not enclosed.--Also UNINCLOSED'. UNENCUMBERED, UNINCUMBERED, un-en-, un-in-kum'b[.e]rd, _adj._ not encumbered, esp. in law, free from encumbrance by lien, claim, lease, or charge of any kind.--_v.t._ UNENCUM'BER, to disencumber.--_n._ UNENCUM'BEREDNESS. UNENDEARED, un-en-d[=e]rd', _adj._ without endearments. UNENDING, un-en'ding, _adj._ having no end, everlasting, eternal.--_adj._ UNEN'DED, infinite.--_adv._ UNEN'DINGLY.--_n._ UNEN'DINGNESS. UNENDOWED, un-en-dowd', _adj._ not endowed. UNENDURABLE, un-en-d[=u]r'a-bl, _adj._ intolerable.--_adv._ UNEND[=U]R'ABLY. UNENFRANCHISED, un-en-fran'chizd, _adj._ not having the franchise. UNENGAGED, un-en-g[=a]jd', _adj._ not engaged. UN-ENGLISH, un-ing'glish, _adj._ not English in character.--_adj._ UN-ENG'LISHED, not translated into English. UNENLIGHTENED, un-en-l[=i]t'nd, _adj._ not enlightened. UNENTANGLE, un-en-tang'gl, _v.t._ to disentangle.--_adj._ UNENTANG'LED. UNENTERING, un-en't[.e]r-ing, _adj._ not entering. UNENTERPRISING, un-en't[.e]r-pr[=i]-zing, _adj._ not enterprising. UNENTERTAINING, un-en-t[.e]r-t[=a]'ning, _adj._ not entertaining or amusing.--_n._ UNENTERTAIN'INGNESS. UNENTHRALLED, un-en-thrawld', _adj._ not reduced to slavery. UNENTOMBED, un-en-t[=oo]md', _adj._ not buried. UNENTRANCED, un-en-transt', _adj._ not entranced. UNENVIABLE, un-en'vi-a-bl, _adj._ not to be envied.--_adv._ UNEN'VIABLY.--_adjs._ UNEN'VIED, not envied; UNEN'VIOUS, not envious. UNEQUABLE, un-[=e]'kwa-bl, _adj._ not equable. UNEQUAL, un-[=e]'kwal, _adj._ not equal or alike in any quality, extent, duration, &c.: insufficient: varying, not uniform.--_adj._ UN[=E]'QUALLED, not to be equalled.--_adv._ UN[=E]'QUALLY.--_n._ UN[=E]'QUALNESS. UNEQUITABLE, un-ek'wi-ta-bl, _adj._ inequitable.--_adv._ UNEQ'UITABLY. UNEQUIVOCAL, un-[=e]-kwiv'[=o]-kal, _adj._ not equivocal.--_adv._ UNEQUIV'OCALLY.--_n._ UNEQUIV'OCALNESS. UNERRING, un-er'ing, making no error, infallible: not missing the mark.--_adv._ UNERR'INGLY.--_n._ UNERR'INGNESS. UNESCAPABLE, un-es-k[=a]'pa-bl, _adj._ that cannot be escaped. UNESPIED, un-es-p[=i]d', _adj._ not espied or discovered. UNESSAYED, un-e-s[=a]d', _adj._ not essayed or attempted. UNESSENTIAL, un-es-sen'shal, _adj._ not essential: unnecessary: unimportant: (_Milt._) void of real being.--_v.t._ UNESS'ENCE (_Lamb_), to deprive of essence. UNESTABLISH, un-es-tab'lish, _v.t._ to disestablish. UNEVANGELICAL, un-[=e]-van-jel'i-kal, _adj._ not evangelical. UNEVEN, un-[=e]'vn, _adj._ not even, smooth, straight, uniform, or just: odd, not divisible by two without remainder: ill-matched: difficult.--_adv._ UN[=E]'VENLY.--_n._ UN[=E]'VENESS, quality of not being even: want of an even surface: want of smoothness or uniformity. UNEVENTFUL, un-[=e]-vent'f[=oo]l, _adj._ not eventful, without striking events.--_adv._ UNEVENT'FULLY. UNEVIDENT, un-ev'i-dent, _adj._ not evident. UNEXACT, un-eg-zakt', _adj._ inexact. UNEXAMINABLE, un-eg-zam'i-na-bl, _adj._ incapable of being examined.--_adj._ UNEXAM'INED, not examined. UNEXAMPLED, un-eg-zam'pld, _adj._ having no example or precedent. UNEXCELLED, un-ek-seld', _adj._ not excelled. UNEXCEPTIONABLE, un-ek-sep'shun-a-bl, _adj._ not liable to exception: unobjectionable: faultless.--_n._ UNEXCEP'TIONABLENESS.--_adv._ UNEXCEP'TIONABLY.--_adj._ UNEXCEP'TIONAL, not forming an exception, usual.--_adv._ UNEXCEP'TIONALLY.--_adj._ UNEXCEP'TIVE, not exceptive. UNEXCISED, un-ek-s[=i]zd', _adj._ not liable to the payment of excise duty. UNEXCLUSIVE, un-eks-kl[=oo]'siv, _adj._ not exclusive, comprehensive.--_adv._ UNEXCLU'SIVELY. UNEXCOGITABLE, un-eks-koj'i-ta-bl, _adj._ not conceivable. UNEXCUSABLE, un-eks-k[=u]'za-bl, _adj._ inexcusable.--_n._ UNEXC[=U]'SABLENESS. UNEXECUTED, un-ek's[=e]-k[=u]-ted, _adj._ not executed: (_Shak._) unused. UNEXERCISED, un-ek's[.e]r-s[=i]zd, _adj._ not exercised. UNEXHAUSTED, un-eg-zawst'ed, _adj._ not exhausted. UNEXPECTED, un-eks-pek'ted, _adj._ not expected, coming without warning, sudden.--_adj._ UNEXPEC'TANT, not expectant.--_adv._ UNEXPECT'EDLY.--_n._ UNEXPEC'TEDNESS. UNEXPEDIENT, un-eks-p[=e]'di-ent, _adj._ inexpedient. UNEXPENSIVE, un-eks-pen'siv, _adj._ inexpensive. UNEXPERIENCED, un-eks-p[=e]'ri-enst, _adj._ inexperienced: untried.--_n._ UNEXP[=E]'RIENCE (_obs._), inexperience.--_adj._ UNEXP[=E]'RIENT (_Shak._), inexperienced. UNEXPERT, un-eks-pert', _adj._ inexpert, ignorant.--_adv._ UNEXPERT'LY. UNEXPIRED, un-eks-p[=i]rd', _adj._ not expired. UNEXPLORED, un-eks-pl[=o]rd', _adj._ not explored. UNEXPOSED, un-eks-p[=o]zd', _adj._ not exposed. UNEXPRESSIVE, un-eks-pres'iv, _adj._ not expressive: incapable of being expressed.--_adj._ UNEXPRESS'IBLE, inexpressible.--_adv._ UNEXPRESS'IBLY. UNEXTENDED, un-eks-ten'ded, _adj._ not extended, occupying no space. UNEXTINGUISHABLE, un-eks-ting'gwish-a-bl, _adj._ inextinguishable.--_adv._ UNEXTING'UISHABLY. UNEXTRICABLE, un-eks'tri-ka-bl, _adj._ inextricable. UNEYED, un-[=i]d', _adj._ unnoticed. UNFABLED, un-f[=a]'bld, _adj._ not fabled, real. UNFACE, un-f[=a]s', _v.t._ to expose. UNFADABLE, un-f[=a]'da-bl, _adj._ not able to fade or perish.--_adj._ UNF[=A]'DING, not losing strength, not subject to decay.--_adv._ UNF[=A]'DINGLY.--_n._ UNF[=A]'DINGNESS. UNFAILING, un-f[=a]'ling, _adj._ not failing or liable to fail.--_adj._ UNFAIL'ABLE (_obs._), infallible.--_n._ UNFAIL'ABLENESS.--_adv._ UNFAIL'INGLY.--_n._ UNFAIL'INGNESS. UNFAINTING, un-f[=a]n'ting, _adj._ not fainting. UNFAIR, un-f[=a]r', _adj._ not fair: dishonest: unequal.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to deprive of beauty.--_adv._ UNFAIR'LY.--_n._ UNFAIR'NESS, the state of being unfair, dishonest, or unjust. UNFAITH, un-f[=a]th', _n._ want of faith: faithlessness.--_adj._ UNFAITH'FUL, not faithful: violating trust: not having faith, infidel: not trustworthy.--_adv._ UNFAITH'FULLY, in an unfaithful manner: negligently: imperfectly.--_n._ UNFAITH'FULNESS, the quality of being unfaithful: violation of promise, duty, &c.: treacherous. UNFALCATED, un-fal'k[=a]-ted, _adj._ not hooked: (_obs._) not curtailed. UNFALLIBLE, un-fal'i-bl, _adj._ (_Shak._) infallible. UNFALLOWED, un-fal'[=o]d, _adj._ not fallowed. UNFALTERING, un-fawl't[.e]r-ing, _adj._ not faltering.--_adv._ UNFAL'TERINGLY. UNFAMED, un-f[=a]md', _adj._ not made famous. UNFAMILIAR, un-fa-mil'yar, _adj._ not familiar.--_n._ UNFAMILIAR'ITY.--_adv._ UNFAMIL'IARLY. UNFARROWED, un-far'[=o]d, _adj._ without a farrow or litter. UNFASHIONABLE, un-fash'un-a-bl, _adj._ not fashionable: incapable of being fashioned: shapeless.--_n._ UNFASH'IONABLENESS.--_adv._ UNFASH'IONABLY.--_adj._ UNFASH'IONED, shapeless, without regular form. UNFASTEN, un-fas'n, _v.t._ to loose, as from a fastening: to unfix. _v.i._ to become untied.--_n._ UNFAS'TENER. UNFATHERED, un-fä'th[.e]rd, _adj._ having no father, fatherless: not acknowledged by its father.--_adj._ UNFÄ'THERLY, not like a father. UNFATHOMABLE, un-fath'om-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be fathomed, too deep to be measured or to be understood.--_n._ UNFATH'OMABLENESS.--_adv._ UNFATH'OMABLY.--_adj._ UNFATH'OMED, not sounded. UNFAULTY, un-fawl'ti, _adj._ without fault. UNFAVOURABLE, un-f[=a]'vur-a-bl, _adj._ not favourable or propitious.--_n._ UNF[=A]'VOURABLENESS.--_adv._ UNF[=A]'VOURABLY. UNFEARED, un-f[=e]rd', _adj._ not feared.--_adj._ UNFEAR'FUL, not fearful.--_adv._ UNFEAR'FULLY. UNFEASIBLE, un-f[=e]'zi-bl, _adj._ not feasible or practicable. UNFEATHER, un-feth'[.e]r, _v.t._ to strip of feathers.--_adj._ UNFEATH'ERED. UNFEATURED, un-f[=e]'t[=u]rd, _adj._ without regular features, shapeless. UNFED, un-fed', _adj._ not fed. UNFEED, un-f[=e]d', _adj._ not feed or paid. UNFEELING, un-f[=e]'ling, _adj._ without feeling: without kind feelings: hard-hearted.--_adv._ UNFEEL'INGLY.--_n._ UNFEEL'INGNESS. UNFEIGNED, un-f[=a]nd', _adj._ not feigned: real: sincere.--_adv._ UNFEIGN'EDLY.--_n._ UNFEIGN'EDNESS.--_adj._ UNFEIGN'ING. UNFELLOW, un-fel'[=o], _v.t._ to separate as fellows, to dissociate.--_adj._ UNFELL'OWED, unmatched. UNFELT, un-felt', _adj._ not felt. UNFEMININE, un-fem'in-[=i]n, _adj._ not feminine. UNFENCED, un-fenst', _adj._ not fenced round, defenceless.--_v.t._ UNFENCE', to deprive of a fence. UNFERMENTED, un-f[.e]r-ment'ed, _adj._ not having undergone fermentation: not leavened. UNFETTER, un-fet'[.e]r, _v.t._ to take the fetters from: to set at liberty.--_adj._ UNFETT'ERED, unrestrained. UNFEUDALISE, un-f[=u]'dal-[=i]z, _v.t._ to free from feudal rights or character. UNFIGURED, un-fig'[=u]rd, _adj._ not figured, not marked with figures of any kind: literal. UNFILE, un-f[=i]l', _v.t._ to remove from a file or record. UNFILED, un-f[=i]ld', _adj._ not rubbed with a file. UNFILED, un-f[=i]ld', _adj._ not soiled or polluted. UNFILIAL, un-fil'yal, _adj._ not filial or becoming a child: undutiful.--_adv._ UNFIL'IALLY. UNFILLETED, un-fil'et-ed, _adj._ not bound up with, or as with, a fillet. UNFINE, un-f[=i]n', _adj._ not fine, shabby. UNFINISHED, un-fin'isht, _adj._ not finished.--_n._ UNFIN'ISH, lack of finish.--_adj._ UNFIN'ISHABLE, that cannot be finished.--_n._ UNFIN'ISHING, the act of leaving unfinished. UNFIRM, un-f[.e]rm', _adj._ infirm.--_n._ UNFIRM'NESS. UNFIRMAMENTED, un-f[.e]r'ma-men-ted, _adj._ not having a bounding firmament, limitless. UNFIST, un-fist', _v.t._ to release. UNFIT, un-fit', _adj._ unsuitable, improper.--_v.t._ to disqualify.--_adv._ UNFIT'LY.--_n._ UNFIT'NESS.--_adj._ UNFIT'TING, unsuitable.--_adv._ UNFIT'TINGLY. UNFIX, un-fiks', _v.t._ to make not fixed: to loose the fixing of: to unsettle.--_adj._ UNFIXED'.--_ns._ UNFIX'EDNESS; UNFIX'ITY. UNFLAGGING, un-flag'ing, _adj._ not flagging or drooping: maintaining strength or spirit. UNFLAME, un-fl[=a]m', _v.t._ to cool. UNFLATED, un-fl[=a]'ted, _adj._ not blown. UNFLATTERING, un-flat'[.e]r-ing, _adj._ not flattering.--_adv._ UNFLATT'ERINGLY. UNFLEDGED, un-flejd', _adj._ not yet fledged, immature. UNFLESH, un-flesh', _v.t._ to remove the flesh from.--_adjs._ UNFLESHED', deprived of flesh, reduced to a skeleton: not having tasted blood; UNFLESH'LY, ethereal, spiritual; UNFLESH'Y, fleshless. UNFLINCHING, un-flin'shing, _adj._ doing without flinching or shrinking, brave, steadfast.--_adv._ UNFLIN'CHINGLY.--_n._ UNFLIN'CHINGNESS. UNFLOWER, un-flow'[.e]r, _v.t._ to strip of flowers. UNFLUENT, un-fl[=oo]'ent, _adj._ not fluent. UNFLUSH, un-flush', _v.t._ to lose a flush of colour. UNFOILED, un-foild', _adj._ not foiled or baffled. UNFOLD, un-f[=o]ld', _v.t._ to open the folds of: to release from a fold: to spread out: to tell.--_v.i._ to spread open, expand, develop.--_ns._ UNFOLD'ER; UNFOLD'ING; UNFOLD'MENT. UNFOLIATED, un-f[=o]'li-[=a]-ted, _adj._ not foliated. UNFOOL, un-f[=oo]l', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to restore from folly, or from being a fool. UNFOOTED, un-f[=oo]t'ed, _adj._ not trodden by the foot of man. UNFORBIDDEN, un-for-bid'n, _adj._ not forbidden, permitted.--_n._ UNFORBIDD'ENNESS. UNFORCED, un-f[=o]rst', _adj._ not forced.--_adv._ UNFOR'CEDLY.--_adj._ UNFOR'CIBLE, without strength. UNFOREBODING, un-f[=o]r-b[=o]'ding, _adj._ not foretelling, giving no omen. UNFOREKNOWN, un-f[=o]r-n[=o]n', _adj._ not previously known or foreseen.--_adj._ UNFOREKNOW'ABLE, incapable of being known beforehand. UNFORESEE, un-f[=o]r-s[=e]', _v.t._ not to foresee.--_adjs._ UNFORESEE'ABLE, incapable of being foreseen; UNFORESEE'ING, not looking forward or provident; UNFORESEEN', not foreseen. UNFORESKINNED, un-f[=o]r'skind, _adj._ (_Milt._) circumcised. UNFORETOLD, un-f[=o]r-t[=o]ld', _adj._ not foretold. UNFOREWARNED, un-f[=o]r-wawrnd', _adj._ not forewarned. UNFORFEITED, un-for'fit-ed, _adj._ not forfeited or lost. UNFORGED, un-forjd', _adj._ not forged or made. UNFORGIVEABLE, un-for-giv'a-bl, _adj._ incapable of being forgiven.--_adj._ UNFORGIV'EN, not forgiven.--_n._ UNFORGIV'ER.--_adj._ UNFORGIV'ING, not forgiving, implacable.--_n._ UNFORGIV'INGNESS. UNFORGOTTEN, un-for-got'en, _adj._ not forgotten or neglected--also UNFORGOT'.--_adj._ UNFORGET'TABLE, that cannot be forgotten. UNFORM, un-form', _v.t._ to unmake.--_adjs._ UNFOR'MAL, informal; UNFOR'MALISED, not made formal; UNFORMED', not formed or arranged into order: having the form destroyed: structureless, amorphous: immature, not yet formed. UNFORTIFIED, un-for'ti-f[=i]d, _adj._ not fortified. UNFORTUNATE, un-for't[=u]-n[=a]t, _adj._ not fortunate, prosperous, or successful.--_n._ one who is unfortunate, esp. a fallen woman.--_adv._ UNFOR'TUNATELY.--_n._ UNFOR'TUNATENESS. UNFOSSILISED, un-fos'il-[=i]zd, _adj._ not fossilised.--_adj._ UNFOSSILIF'EROUS, destitute of fossils. UNFOSTERED, un-fos't[.e]rd, _adj._ not fostered: not patronised. UNFOUGHT, un-fawt', _adj._ not fought. UNFOUNDED, un-fown'ded, _adj._ not founded or established: having no foundation, baseless: (_Milt._) without bottom, bottomless.--_adv._ UNFOUN'DEDLY. UNFRAMED, un-fr[=a]md', _adj._ not formed or fashioned: not furnished with a frame. UNFRANCHISED, un-fran'chizd, _adj._ not franchised. UNFRANKABLE, un-frang'ka-bl, _adj._ incapable of being franked or sent by post free of expense. UNFRAUGHT, un-frawt', _adj._ not fraught or filled with. UNFREE, un-fr[=e]', _adj._ not free. UNFREQUENT, un-fr[=e]'kwent, _adj._ infrequent.--_n._ UNFRE'QUENCY, infrequency.--_v.t._ UNFREQUENT', to cease to frequent.--_adj._ UNFREQUEN'TED, not frequented: rarely visited.--_adv._ UNFRE'QUENTLY, infrequently. UNFRETTED, un-fret'ed, _adj._ not fretted or rubbed. UNFRIENDLY, un-frend'li, _adj._ not friendly, kind, or favourable.--_adv._ in an unkind manner.--_n._ UNFRIEND', one who is not a friend.--_adj._ UNFRIEN'DED, not supported by friends.--_ns._ UNFRIEN'DEDNESS, the state of being unfriended; UNFRIEN'DLINESS, unkindness; UNFRIEND'SHIP, unfriendliness. UNFRIGHTFUL, un-fr[=i]t'f[=oo]l, _adj._ not frightful or terrifying.--_adj._ UNFRIGHT'ED, not frighted or terrified. UNFROCK, un-frok', _v.t._ to strip of a frock or gown, esp. a monk, &c. UNFRUITFUL, un-fr[=oo]t'f[=oo]l, _adj._ yielding no fruit, barren.--_adv._ UNFRUIT'FULLY.--_n._ UNFRUIT'FULNESS. UNFUELED, UNFUELLED, un-f[=u]'eld, _adj._ not furnished with fuel. UNFULFILLED, un-f[=oo]l-fild', _adj._ not fulfilled. UNFUMED, un-f[=u]md', _adj._ not fumigated: (_obs._) undistilled. UNFUNDED, un-fun'ded, _adj._ not funded, floating, as a public debt. UNFURL, un-furl', _v.t._ to loose from being furled: to unfold, display: to spread.--_v.i._ to be spread out. UNFURNISHED, un-fur'nisht, _adj._ not furnished with furniture, &c., unsupplied generally.--_v.t._ UNFUR'NISH, to deprive of furniture, &c. UNFURNITURED, un-fur'ni-t[=u]rd, _adj._ without furniture, unfurnished. UNFUSED, un-f[=u]zd', _adj._ not fused or melted: not supplied with a fuse.--_adj._ UNF[=U]'SIBLE, infusible. UNGAIN, un-g[=a]n', _adj._ (_obs._) ungainly, clumsy: perilous. UNGAINLY, un-g[=a]n'li, _adj._ awkward: clumsy: uncouth.--_adv._ in an awkward manner.--_n._ UNGAIN'LINESS. [M. E. _un-gein_, inconvenient--A.S. _un-_, not, Ice. _gegn_, ready, serviceable.] UNGALLANT, un-gal'ant, _adj._ not gallant or courteous to women.--_adv._ UNGALL'ANTLY. UNGALLED, un-gawld', _adj._ not galled or hurt. UNGARMENT, un-gär'ment, _v.t._ to unclothe.--_adj._ UNGAR'MENTED, unclad. UNGARNISHED, un-gär'nisht, _adj._ not garnished or adorned. UNGARTERED, un-gär't[.e]rd, _adj._ not held in place by garters: not wearing garters. UNGATHERED, un-ga_th_'[.e]rd, _adj._ not gathered or picked: pertaining to printed sheets folded but not yet gathered in regular order for binding. UNGEAR, un-g[=e]r', _v.t._ to deprive of gear: to put out of gear. UNGENERALLED, un-jen'e-rald, _adj._ made not general or universal. UNGENERATED, un-jen'e-r[=a]-ted, _adj._ not generated. UNGENEROUS, un-jen'e-rus, _adj._ not generous or liberal.--_adv._ UNGEN'EROUSLY. UNGENIAL, un-j[=e]'ni-al, _adj._ not genial or kindly: not congenial: not favourable to natural growth. UNGENITURED, un-jen'i-t[=u]rd, _adj._ (_Shak._) without genitals, impotent. UNGENTEEL, un-jen-t[=e]l, _adj._ not genteel or polite.--_adv._ UNGENTEEL'LY. UNGENTLE, un-jen'tl, _adj._ (_Spens._) not gentle, uncourteous.--_adj._ UNGEN'TLEMANLIKE, not like a gentleman.--n, UNGEN'TLEMANLINESS.--_adj._ UNGEN'TLEMANLY, acting in a manner unbecoming a gentleman.--_adv._ in manner unlike a gentleman.--_n._ UNGEN'TLENESS, want of gentleness, rudeness, incivility.--_adv._ UNGENT'LY, harshly. UNGENUINE, un-jen'[=u]-in, _adj._ not genuine.--_n._ UNGEN'UINENESS. UNGET, un-get', _v.t._ to treat one as if he had not been begotten, to disinherit. UNGIFTED, un-gif'ted, _adj._ not gifted, not having received a gift. UNGILD, un-gild', _v.t._ to deprive of gilding.--_adjs._ UNGIL'DED, UNGILT', not gilt.--_n._ UNGIL'DING, the act of taking off gilding or any decoration. UNGILL, un-gil', _v.t._ to remove from a gill-net, as fish. UNGIRD, un-g[.e]rd', _v.t._ to free from a girdle or band: to unbind. UNGIVING, un-giv'ing, _adj._ not bringing gifts. UNGLADDEN, un-glad'n, _v.t._ to take the gladness from. UNGLAZE, un-gl[=a]z', _v.t._ to take the glass from.--_adj._ UNGLAZED', not provided with glass: not coated over with a vitreous substance, as earthenware. UNGLOOMED, un-gl[=oo]md', _adj._ not darkened over. UNGLORIFIED, un-gl[=o]'ri-f[=i]d, _adj._ not glorified or honoured.--_v.t._ UNGL[=O]'RIFY, to deprive of glory.--_adj._ UNGL[=O]'RIOUS, inglorious. UNGLOVE, un-gluv', _v.t._ to take the glove from. UNGLUE, un-gl[=oo]', _v.t._ to separate anything glued, cemented, or fixed in any way. UNGLUTTED, un-glut'ed, _adj._ not glutted or satiated. UNGODLY, un-god'li, _adj._ not godly, neglecting God: sinful, polluted by sin: (_slang_) outrageous, vexatious.--_v.t._ UNGOD', to divest of divinity: to make godless.--_adv._ UNGOD'LILY, in an ungodly manner.--_n._ UNGOD'LINESS, the quality of being ungodly: disregard of God and His commands: wickedness: an act of disobedience or irreverence. UNGORED, un-g[=o]rd', _adj._ not stained with gore. UNGORED, un-g[=o]rd', _adj._ not gored or wounded. UNGORGED, un-gorjd', _adj._ not gorged or sated. UNGORGEOUS, un-gor'jus, _adj._ not gorgeous or splendid. UNGOTTEN, un-got'n, _adj._ not gained--also UNGOT': (_Shak._) not begotten. UNGOVERNABLE, un-guv'[.e]r-na-bl, _adj._ that cannot be governed, refractory, unruly.--_n._ UNGOV'ERNABLENESS.--_adv._ UNGOV'ERNABLY.--_adj._ UNGOV'ERNED, without government: unbridled. UNGOWN, un-gown', _v.t._ to degrade from the position of priest. UNGRACIOUS, un-gr[=a]'shus, _adj._ without graciousness of manner, rude: (_obs._) wicked, hateful.--_adjs._ UNGRACED', not graced or honoured; UNGRACE'FUL, not graceful.--_adv._ UNGRACE'FULLY.--_n._ UNGRACE'FULNESS.--_adv._ UNGR[=A]'CIOUSLY.--_n._ UNGR[=A]'CIOUSNESS. UNGRAMMATICAL, un-gra-mat'i-kal, _adj._ not according to the rules of grammar.--_adv._ UNGRAMMAT'ICALLY. UNGRATEFUL, un-gr[=a]t'f[=oo]l, _adj._ not feeling or manifesting gratitude: disagreeable, irksome: not repaying one's labour, thankless.--_n._ UNGRATE', an ungrateful person.--_adj._ ungrateful.--_adv._ UNGRATE'FULLY.--_n._ UNGRATE'FULNESS. UNGRATIFIED, un-grat'i-f[=i]d, _adj._ not gratified. UNGROUNDED, un-grown'ded, _adj._ without ground or basis, unreal, false.--_adv._ UNGROUN'DEDLY.--_n._ UNGROUN'DEDNESS. UNGRUDGING, un-gruj'ing, _adj._ not grudging, liberal.--_adj._ UNGRUDGED'.--_adv._ UNGRUDG'INGLY. UNGUAL, ung'gwal, _adj._ relating to, like, or having a nail, claw, or hoof.--_adj._ UNG'UICAL.--_n._ UNG'UICORN, the horny nail at the tip of a bird's mandible.--_adj._ UNGUIC'[=U]LAR, relating to a nail or claw.--_n.pl._ UNGUIC[=U]L[=A]'TA, a superordinal division of mammals with claws.--_adjs._ UNGUIC'[=U]LATE, -D, having claws: furnished with a claw or narrow base, as the petal in some flowers.--_n._ UNGUIC'[=U]LUS, a diminutive claw or similar appendage at the end of an insect's foot.--_adjs._ UNGUIF'EROUS, bearing an unguis of one kind or other; UNG'UIFORM, shaped like a claw; UNG'UINAL, pertaining to the unguis or nail; UNGUIROS'TRAL, with a nail at the end of the bill.--_ns._ UNG'UIS, a nail, claw, hoof, or any structure resembling such: the narrow part of the base of a petal, acting as a footstalk: a measure equal to the length of the nail of the little finger, ½-inch; UNGULA (ung'g[=u]-la), a surgical instrument for use in removing a dead foetus: a hoof-shaped section of a cylinder, cone, or other solid of revolution, cut off by a plane oblique to the base.--_adj._ UNGULAR (ung'g[=u]-lar), like an ungula, ungual.--_n.pl._ UNGULATA (ung-g[=u]-l[=a]'ta), an order of mammals, including (1) the _Artiodactyla_ (with an even number of toes)--e.g. pig, hippopotamus, peccary, camel, and ruminants like cattle, sheep, and deer; (2) the _Perissodactyla_ (with an odd number of toes)--e.g. tapir, rhinoceros, and horse.--_adj._ UNGULATE (ung'g[=u]-l[=a]t), hoof-shaped: hoofed, having the digits enclosed in hoofs. [L. _unguis_, a nail.] UNGUARDED, un-gär'ded, _adj._ without guard or protection: careless.--_adv._ UNGUAR'DEDLY.--_n._ UNGUAR'DEDNESS. UNGUENT, ung'gwent, _n._ ointment.--_n._ UNGUENT[=A]'RIUM, a vessel for holding unguents.--_adjs._ UNG'UENTARY, pertaining to unguents; UNGUEN'TOUS, of the nature of an unguent; UNG'UINOUS, oily, unctuous. [L. _unguentum_--_ungu[)e]re_, to anoint.] UNGUESSED, un-gest', _adj._ not guessed at or suspected. UNGUIDED, un-g[=i]'ded, _adj._ not guided.--_adj._ UNGUID'ABLE, incapable of being guided.--_adv._ UNGUID'ABLY. UNGUILTY, un-gil'ti, _adj._ (_Spens._) not conscious of guilt.--_adv._ UNGUIL'TILY.--_n._ UNGUIL'TINESS. UNGUM, un-gum', _v.t._ to remove gum from. UNGYVE, un-j[=i]v', _v.t._ to free from handcuffs, &c. UNHABITABLE, un-hab'i-ta-bl, _adj._ uninhabitable. UNHABLE, un-h[=a]'bl, _adj._ (_Spens._) not able, incapable. UNHACKED, un-hakt', _adj._ not hacked. UNHACKNEYED, un-hak'nid, _adj._ not hackneyed, stale, or trite. UNHAIR, un-h[=a]r', _v.t._ to deprive of hair.--_v.i._ to become free from hair. UNHALLOWED, un-hal'[=o]d, _adj._ unholy: profane: very wicked.--_n._ UNHALL'OWING. UNHAMPERED, un-ham'p[.e]rd, _adj._ not hampered or hindered. UNHAND, un-hand', _v.t._ to take the hands off: to let go.--_adv._ UNHAND'ILY, awkwardly.--_n._ UNHAND'INESS.--_adjs._ UNHAN'DLED, not handled or managed: not broken-in; UNHAND'Y, not handy: awkward: not convenient. UNHANDSELED, un-hand'seld, _adj._ not hitherto used, untilled. UNHANDSOME, un-han'sum, _adj._ not handsome, ill-made: unbecoming in action, ungracious: clumsy, inconvenient.--_adv._ UNHAND'SOMELY.--_n._ UNHAND'SOMENESS. UNHANG, un-hang', _v.t._ to remove from a hanging position, from its hinges, &c.--_adjs._ UNHANGED', UNHUNG', not hanged, not put to death by hanging. UNHAPPY, un-hap'i, _adj._ not happy or fortunate: miserable: marked by evil: (_Shak._) mischievous, wicked.--_adj._ UNHAPP'IED (_Shak._), made unhappy.--_adv._ UNHAPP'ILY, in an unhappy or unfortunate manner: (_Shak._) censoriously.--_n._ UNHAPP'INESS, the state of being unhappy: misfortune: misery: (_Shak._) a mischievous prank. UNHARBOUR, un-här'bur, _v.t._ to drive out of shelter, to dislodge. UNHARDENED, un-här'dnd, _adj._ not hardened. UNHARDY, un-här'di, _adj._ not hardy or capable of enduring hardship, not resolute. UNHARMED, un-härmd', _adj._ not harmed.--_adj._ UNHARM'FUL, harmless.--_adv._ UNHARM'FULLY. UNHARMONIOUS, un-här-m[=o]'ni-us, _adj._ inharmonious. UNHARNESS, un-här'nes, _v.t._ to take the harness off: to disarm. UNHASP, un-hasp', _v.t._ to loose from a hasp. UNHASTY, un-h[=a]s'ti, _adj._ (_Spens._) not hasty, slow. UNHAT, un-hat', _v.t._ to remove the hat from.--_v.i._ to take off the hat from respect.--_n._ UNHAT'TING. UNHATCHED, un-hacht', _adj._ not hatched, undisclosed. UNHAUNTED, un-hawn'ted, _adj._ not haunted, unvisited. UNHAZARDED, un-haz'ar-ded, _adj._ not exposed to any risk.--_adj._ UNHAZ'ARDOUS, not hazardous or risky. UNHEAD, un-hed', _v.t._ to take the head from. UNHEAL. See UNHELE. UNHEALTHY, un-hel'thi, _adj._ not healthy: wanting health or soundness of body: unfavourable to health: not indicating health.--_n._ UNHEALTH', unhealthiness.--_adj._ UNHEALTH'FUL.--_adv._ UNHEALTH'FULLY.--_n._ UNHEALTH'FULNESS.--_adv._ UNHEAL'THILY.--_n._ UNHEAL'THINESS, state or quality of being unhealthy or unfavourable to health: unsoundness. UNHEARD, un-herd', _adj._ not heard: not granted a hearing: not known, obscure (often with _of_). UNHEART, un-härt', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to discourage. UNHEAVENLY, un-hev'n-li, _adj._ not heavenly. UNHEDGED, un-hejd', _adj._ not hedged. UNHEEDED, un-h[=e]'ded, _adj._ not heeded, unnoticed.--_adv._ UNHEED'EDLY.--_adj._ UNHEED'FUL, not heedful, rash.--_advs._ UNHEED'FULLY, UNHEED'ILY (_Spens._).--_adj._ UNHEED'ING, heedless, careless.--_adv._ UNHEED'INGLY.--_adj._ UNHEED'Y, careless: precipitate. UNHEIRED, un-[=a]rd', _adj._ without an heir. UNHELE, UNHEAL, un-h[=e]l', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to uncover. UNHELM, un-helm', _v.t._ to deprive of a helmet. UNHEPPEN, un-hep'en, _adj._ (_prov._) clumsy. UNHEROISM, un-her'[=o]-izm, _n._ unheroic conduct.--_adj._ UNHER[=O]'IC. UNHESITATING, un-hez'i-t[=a]-ting, _adj._ not hesitating or doubting: prompt: ready.--_adv._ UNHES'ITATINGLY, without hesitation. UNHINGE, un-hinj', _v.t._ to take from the hinges: to render unstable, to unsettle: to deprive of support.--_n._ UNHINGE'MENT. UNHIRED, un-h[=i]rd', _adj._ not hired. UNHISTORIC, -AL, un-his-tor'ik, -al, _adj._ not historic, not mentioned in history: not in accordance with history. UNHITCH, un-hich', _v.t._ to unfasten. UNHIVE, un-h[=i]v', _v.t._ to drive from a hive or from any shelter. UNHOARD, un-h[=o]rd', _v.t._ to dissipate what has been hoarded up. UNHOLD, un-h[=o]ld', _v.t._ to let go the hold of. UNHOLY, un-h[=o]'li, _adj._ not sacred or hallowed, wicked, sinful.--_adv._ UNH[=O]'LILY.--_n._ UNH[=O]'LINESS. UNHOMOGENEOUS, un-h[=o]-m[=o]-j[=e]'n[=e]-us, _adj._ not homogeneous.--_n._ UNHOMOG[=E]'NEOUSNESS. UNHONEST, un-on'est, _adj._ (_obs._) dishonest, unchaste.--_n._ UNHON'ESTY. UNHONOURED, un-on'urd, _adj._ not honoured. UNHOODED, un-hood'ed, _adj._ not having a hood. UNHOOK, un-hook', _v.t._ to loose from a hook. UNHOOP, un-h[=oo]p', _v.t._ to remove the hoops of, as a barrel: to remove the stiff hoops of, as a woman. UNHOPED, un-h[=o]pt', _adj._ not hoped for or expected.--_adj._ UNHOPE'FUL.--_adv._ UNHOPE'FULLY. UNHORSE, un-hors', _v.t._ to cause to come off or to throw from a horse. UNHOSPITABLE, un-hos'pi-ta-bl, _adj._ inhospitable. UNHOSTILE, un-hos'til, _adj._ not hostile: not caused by an enemy. UNHOUSE, un-howz', _v.t._ to deprive of or drive from a house or shelter.--_adj._ UNHOUSED', unsheltered, deprived of shelter. UNHOUSELED, un-howz'ld, _adj._ (_Shak._) not having received the sacrament. UNHUMAN, un-h[=u]'man, _adj._ not having the qualities of a human being.--_v.t._ UNH[=U]'MANISE. UNHUNG, un-hung', _adj._ Same as UNHANGED. UNHURT, un-hurt', _adj._ not hurt.--_adj._ UNHURT'FUL.--_adv._ UNHURT'FULLY.--_n._ UNHURT'FULNESS. UNHUSBANDED, un-huz'ban-ded, _adj._ unprovided with a husband: widowed. UNHUSK, un-husk', _v.t._ to strip the husk from. UNIAT, [=u]'ni-at, _n._ a member of any community of Oriental Christians that acknowledges the papal supremacy, all else--clerical matrimony, communion in both kinds, church discipline, rites, and liturgy--being allowed to remain Greek.--Also U'NI[=A]TE. The Uniats are also called _United Greeks_. UNIAURICULATE, [=u]-ni-aw-rik'[=u]-l[=a]t, _adj._ having a single ear-like process, as a bivalve-shell. UNIAXIAL, [=u]-ni-ak'si-al, _adj._ having a single axis or line of growth--also UNIAX'AL.--_adv._ UNIAX'IALLY. UNIBASAL, [=u]-ni-b[=a]'sal, _adj._ having but one basal. UNIBLE, [=u]'ni-bl, _adj._ capable of being unified. UNIBRANCHIATE, [=u]-ni-brang'ki-[=a]t, _adj._ having only one gill. UNICAMERAL, [=u]-ni-kam'e-ral, _adj._ consisting of but one chamber, of a legislative body. UNICAMERATE, [=u]-ni-kam'e-r[=a]t, _adj._ having one chamber or loculus, unilocular. UNICAPSULAR, [=u]-ni-kap's[=u]-lar, _adj._ having but one capsule to each flower. UNICARINATE, -D, [=u]-ni-kar'i-n[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ with but one keel. UNICELLULAR, [=u]-ni-sel'[=u]-lar, _adj._ having but one cell. UNICENTRAL, [=u]-ni-sen'tral, _adj._ having a single centre of growth. UNICILIATE, [=u]-ni-sil'i-[=a]t, _adj._ with one cilium. UNICITY, [=u]-nis'i-ti, _n._ state of being unique, sameness. UNICLINAL, [=u]-ni-kl[=i]'nal, _adj._ monoclinal. UNICOLOUR, [=u]-ni-kul'ur, _adj._ having but one colour.--_adjs._ UNICOL'OURATE, UNICOL'OURED. UNICORN, [=u]'ni-korn, _n._ a fabulous animal mentioned by ancient Greek and Roman authors as a native of INDIA, with a body like that of a horse and one straight horn on the forehead: (_B._) an unfortunate translation of the Hebrew _reêm_, Assyr. _rímu_, anticipated by the _monoker[=o]s_ of the Septuagint--variously understood as the rhinoceros, the urus, the wild ox, ox-antelope. [L. _unus_, one, _cornu_, a horn.] UNICOSTATE, [=u]-ni-kos't[=a]t, _adj._ one-ribbed, having but one principal costa, rib, or nervure. UNICOTYLEDONOUS, [=u]-ni-kot-i-l[=e]'don-us, _adj._ monocotyledonous. UNICURSAL, [=u]-ni-kur'sal, _adj._ on one path of a moving element. UNICUSPID, [=u]-ni-kus'pid, _adj._ having but one cusp, as an incisor or canine tooth.--Also UNICUS'PIDATE. UNICYCLE, [=u]-ni-s[=i]'kl, _n._ an acrobat's cycle having but one wheel. UNIDEAED, un-[=i]-d[=e]'ad, _adj._ without ideas, thoughtless. UNIDEAL, un-[=i]-d[=e]'al, _adj._ not ideal, realistic, prosaic.--_n._ UNID[=E]'ALISM. UNIDENTATE, [=u]-ni-den't[=a]t, _adj._ having but one tooth.--_adj._ UNIDENTIC'ULATE, having but one denticle. UNIDIGITATE, [=u]-ni-dij'i-t[=a]t, _adj._ having a single functional digit. UNIDIOMATIC, un-id-i-o-mat'ik, _adj._ not according to the idiom of a language. UNIFACIAL, [=u]-ni-f[=a]'shal, _adj._ having but one face or front surface, as a coral. UNIFARIOUS, [=u]-ni-f[=a]'ri-us, _adj._ with the parts arranged in one rank, uniserial. UNIFLOROUS, [=u]-ni-fl[=o]'rus, _adj._ one-flowered. UNIFOIL, [=u]'ni-foil, _adj._ bearing only a single leaf.--_n._ a single leaf.--_adjs._ UNIF[=O]'LIATE, having a single leaflet, unifoliar; UNIF[=O]'LIAR, UNIF[=O]'LIOL[=A]TE, having a single leaflet, but compound in structure. UNIFORM, [=u]'ni-form, _adj._ having one or the same form: having always the same manner or character: consistent with itself: agreeing with another.--_n._ a dress or livery of the same kind for persons who belong to the same body, as of a soldier.--_v.t._ U'NIFORMISE, to make uniform.--_adj._ UNIFORMIT[=A]'RIAN.--_ns._ UNIFORMIT[=A]'RIANISM, the doctrine in geology of Sir Charles Lyell (1797-1875), that the present is the type of all preceding ages, so far as these are revealed by the fossiliferous strata; UNIFORM'ITY, state of being uniform: agreement with a pattern or rule: sameness: likeness between the parts of a whole.--_adv._ U'NIFORMLY.--_n._ U'NIFORMNESS.--ACT OF UNIFORMITY, an intolerant measure passed in 1662, by which a number of clergymen, variously stated at from 800 to 2000, were driven out of the English national church. UNIFY, [=u]'ni-f[=i], _v.t._ to make into one.--_adjs._ U'NIF[=I]ABLE, capable of being made one; UNIF'IC, making one.--_ns._ UNIFIC[=A]'TION; U'NIF[=I]ER. [L. _unus_, one, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] UNIGENITAL, [=u]-ni-jen'i-tal, _adj._ only-begotten.--_ns._ UNIGEN'ITURE, the state of being the only begotten; UNIGEN'ITUS, the name of the famous obscurantist bull issued by Clement XI. in 1713, at the instance of the JESUITS, in condemnation of the Jansenist Quesnel's admirable annotations on the New Testament. UNIGENOUS, [=u]-nij'e-nus, _adj._ homogeneous. UNIGLOBULAR, [=u]-ni-glob'[=u]-lar, _adj._ consisting of a single globe or globular part. UNIJUGATE, [=u]-ni-j[=oo]'g[=a]t, _adj._ having one pair of leaflets--of a pinnate leaf. UNILABIATE, [=u]-ni-l[=a]'bi-[=a]t, _adj._ having one lip or labium. UNILAMINAR, [=u]-ni-lam'i-nar, _adj._ having one lamina. UNILATERAL, [=u]-ni-lat'e-ral, _adj._ one-sided.--_n._ UNILATERAL'ITY.--_adv._ UNILAT'ERALLY. UNILITERAL, [=u]-ni-lit'e-ral, _adj._ consisting of one letter only. UNILLUMED, un-i-l[=u]md', _adj._ not illumed.--_adj._ UNILL[=U]'MINATED. UNILLUSORY, un-i-l[=u]'s[=o]-ri, _adj._ not producing an illusion. UNILOBED, [=u]'ni-l[=o]bd, _adj._ having but one lobe.--Also U'NILOBAR. UNILOCULAR, [=u]-ni-lok'[=u]-lar, _adj._ having but one loculus or cavity, as the heart of an amphioxus. UNIMAGINABLE, un-i-maj'i-na-bl, _adj._ not imaginable, inconceivable.--_n._ UNIMAG'INABLENESS.--_adv._ UNIMAG'INABLY.--_adj._ UNIMAG'IN[=A]TIVE, not imaginative, prosaic.--_n._ UNIMAG'IN[=A]TIVENESS.--_adj._ UNIMAG'INED, not imagined. UNIMPAIRED, un-im-p[=a]rd', _adj._ not impaired. UNIMPASSIONED, un-im-pash'und, _adj._ not impassioned, calm, tranquil. UNIMPEACHABLE, un-im-p[=e]'cha-bl, _adj._ not to be impeached: not liable to be accused: free from fault: blameless.--_ns._ UNIMPEACHABIL'ITY, UNIMPEACH'ABLENESS.--_adv._ UNIMPEACH'ABLY.--_adj._ UNIMPEACHED', not impeached. UNIMPLORED, un-im-pl[=o]rd', _adj._ not implored or besought. UNIMPORTANCE, un-im-p[=o]r'tans, _n._ want of importance.--_adj._ UNIMPOR'TANT, not important, trivial. UNIMPOSED, un-im-p[=o]zd', _adj._ not imposed or exacted.--_adj._ UNIMP[=O]'SING, not imposing or commanding respect: voluntary. UNIMPRESSIBLE, un-im-pres'i-bl, _adj._ not capable of being impressed, not readily impressed.--_n._ UNIMPRESSIBIL'ITY. UNIMPRISON, un-im-priz'n, _v.t._ to set free from prison. UNIMPROVED, un-im-pr[=oo]vd', _adj._ not improved, made better, or cultivated, cleared, or built upon: not used, unemployed, inactive. UNIMPUGNABLE, un-im-p[=u]'na-bl, _adj._ that cannot be impugned. UNINCENSED, un-in-senst', _adj._ not incensed or provoked. UNINCIDENTAL, un-in-si-den'tal, _adj._ unmarked by incidents, uneventful. UNINCLOSED, un-in-kl[=o]zd', UNENCLOSED, un-en-, _adj._ not inclosed. UNINCORPORATED, un-in-kor'p[=o]-r[=a]-ted, _adj._ not incorporated. UNINDENTED, un-in-den'ted, _adj._ not indented. UNINDIVIDUALISED, un-in-di-vid'[=u]-al-[=i]zd, _adj._ not separated into individual parts--of certain eruptive rocks. UNINFLAMMABLE, un-in-flam'a-bl, _adj._ incapable of being set on fire.--_n._ UNINFLAMMABIL'ITY. UNINFLUENCED, un-in'fl[=oo]-enst, _adj._ not subject to, or acted upon by, influence: not biassed or prejudiced. UNINFORMED, un-in-formd', _adj._ not having received information, untaught: not imbued with life or activity. UNINGENIOUS, un-in-j[=e]'ni-us, _adj._ not ingenious, stupid. UNINGENUOUS, un-in-jen'[=u]-us, _adj._ not ingenuous, disingenuous.--_n._ UNINGEN'UOUSNESS. UNINHABITABLE, un-in-hab'i-ta-bl, _adj._ not inhabitable.--_ns._ UNINHABITABIL'ITY, UNINHAB'ITABLENESS.--_adj._ UNINHAB'ITED, not inhabited. UNINJURED, un-in'j[=oo]rd, _adj._ not injured. UNINOMINAL, [=u]-ni-nom'i-nal, _adj._ consisting of a single word or term in a scientific nomenclature.--Also UNIN[=O]'MIAL. UNINQUISITIVE, un-in-kwiz'i-tiv, _adj._ not inquisitive or curious. UNINSCRIBED, un-in-skr[=i]bd', _adj._ without inscription. UNINSPIRED, un-in-sp[=i]rd', _adj._ not inspired. UNINSTRUCTED, un-in-struk'ted, _adj._ not instructed or taught.--_adj._ UNINSTRUC'TIVE, not serving to instruct.--_adv._ UNINSTRUC'TIVELY. UNINTEGRATED, un-in't[=e]-gr[=a]-ted, _adj._ not integrated. UNINTELLIGENT, un-in-tel'i-jent, _adj._ not intelligent.--_n._ UNINTELL'IGENCE.--_adv._ UNINTELL'IGENTLY.--_n._ UNINTELLIGIBIL'ITY.--_adj._ UNINTELL'IGIBLE, not capable of being understood.--_n._ UNINTELL'IGIBLENESS.--_adv._ UNINTELL'IGIBLY. UNINTENTIONAL, un-in-ten'shun-al, _adj._ done or happening without intention or design, involuntary.--_n._ UNINTENTIONAL'ITY.--_adv._ UNINTEN'TIONALLY. UNINTERESTED, un-in't[.e]r-es-ted, _adj._ not interested or personally concerned in, not engaging the attention of.--_adj._ UNIN'TERESTING, not interesting.--_adv._ UNIN'TERESTINGLY.--_n._ UNIN'TERESTINGNESS. UNINTERMITTED, un-in-t[.e]r-mit'ed, _adj._ not intermitted or interrupted.--_adv._ UNINTERMITT'EDLY.--_adj._ UNINTERMITT'ING, not intermitting.--_adv._ UNINTERMITT'INGLY. UNINTERPRETABLE, un-in-t[.e]r'pre-ta-bl, _adj._ incapable of being interpreted. UNINTERRUPTED, un-in-t[.e]r-rup'ted, _adj._ not interrupted, incessant.--_adv._ UNINTERRUP'TEDLY. UNINTRODUCED, un-in-tr[=o]-d[=u]st', _adj._ not introduced. UNINUCLEAR, [=u]-ni-n[=u]'kl[=e]-ar, _adj._ with a single nucleus.--Also UNIN[=U]'CLEATE. UNINVENTED, un-in-ven'ted, _adj._ not invented.--_adj._ UNINVEN'TIVE, not inventive or apt at inventing.--_adv._ UNINVEN'TIVELY. UNINVITE, un-in-v[=i]t', _v.t._ to cancel the invitation of. UNIOLA, [=u]-n[=i]'[=o]-la, _n._ a genus of perennial American grasses with creeping root-stocks, broad leaves, and large compressed spikelets in an open or spiked panicle--_Spike-grass_, _Union-grass_, _Seaside oat_. UNION, [=u]n'yun, _n._ a uniting: that which is united or made one: something formed by the combination of parts or individual things or persons: concord: harmony in colour: agreement between parts: the state of wedlock: a device emblematic of union borne in the canton of a flag, the canton used separately as a flag, the union-jack: a combination as among workmen for class protection: several parishes united for joint support and management of their poor, also the workhouse for such: (_pl._) textile fabrics made up of more than one kind of fibre, as of wool and cotton.--_adj._ [=U]N'IONED, showing evidence of union.--_n.pl._ [=U]NION'IDÆ, a family of lamellibranchiate molluscs represented in Britain by two genera, [=U]'NIO and _Anodonta_.--_ns._ [=U]NIONIST, one who advocates or supports union, esp. an upholder of the Union and opponent of secession before the American Civil War, also one opposed to granting Home Rule to Ireland, whether a natural Conservative or one of the Liberals who fell away from Mr Gladstone on this question in 1886; [=U]NION-JACK, the national flag adopted by Great Britain and Ireland, consisting of a union of the crosses of St GEORGE, St ANDREW, and St PATRICK.--THE UNION, the legislative incorporation of England and Scotland in 1707, or of Ireland with both in 1801. [Fr. _union_--L. _unio_, _-onis_--_unus_, one.] UNIPAROUS, [=u]-nip'a-rus, _adj._ producing one at a birth: (_bot._) having but one axis or stem. [L. _unus_, one, _par[)e]re_, to bring forth.] UNIPARTITE, [=u]-ni-pär't[=i]t, _adj._ not divided into parts. UNIPED, [=u]'ni-ped, _adj._ having only one foot.--_n._ one having but one foot. UNIPELTATE, [=u]-ni-pel't[=a]t, _adj._ with a carapace of one piece, as a crustacean.--_n._ one of the UNIPELT[=A]'TA, the adult _Squillidæ_, as a division of stomatopods. UNIPERSONAL, [=u]-ni-p[.e]r'son-al, _adj._ existing as only one person: (_gram._) used in only one person.--_ns._ UNIPER'SONALIST; UNIPERSONAL'ITY. UNIPETALOUS, [=u]-ni-pet'a-lus, _adj._ having but one petal. UNIPHONOUS, [=u]'ni-f[=o]-nus, _adj._ giving out only one sound. UNIPLANAR, [=u]-ni-pl[=a]'nar, _adj._ lying in one plane. UNIPLICATE, [=u]-nip'li-k[=a]t, _adj._ once folded. UNIPOLAR, [=u]-ni-p[=o]'lar, _adj._ (_elect._) showing only one kind of polarity: (_biol._) having one process only.--_n._ UNIPOLAR'ITY. UNIQUE, [=u]-n[=e]k', _adj._ single or alone in any quality: without a like or equal.--_adv._ UNIQUE'LY.--_ns._ UNIQUE'NESS; UNIQ'UITY. [Fr.,--L. _unicus_--_unus_.] UNIRADIATE, -D, [=u]'ni-r[=a]'di-[=a]t, -ed, _adj._ having only one ray. UNIRAMOUS, [=u]-ni-r[=a]'mus, _adj._ one-branched. UNISEPALOUS, [=u]-ni-sep'a-lus, _adj._ having but one sepal. UNISEPTATE, [=u]-ni-sep't[=a]t, _adj._ having but one septum or partition. UNISERIAL, [=u]-ni-s[=e]'ri-al, _adj._ placed in one series.--_adv._ UNIS[=E]'RIALLY.--_adj._ UNIS[=E]'RIATE.--_adv._ UNIS[=E]'RIATELY. UNISERRATE, [=u]-ni-ser'[=a]t, _adj._ having one row of teeth or serrations.--_adj._ UNISER'R[=U]LATE, having one row of small serrations. UNISEXUAL, [=u]-ni-sek's[=u]-al, _adj._ of one sex only, as a plant.--_n._ UNISEXUAL'ITY.--_adv._ UNISEX'UALLY. UNISON, [=u]'ni-son, _n._ oneness or agreement of sound: concord: harmony--_adj._ U'NIS[=O]NAL.--_adv._ U'NIS[=O]NALLY.--_n._ U'NIS[=O]NANCE, state of being unisonant: accordance of sounds.--_adjs._ U'NIS[=O]NANT, U'NIS[=O]NOUS, being in unison. [L. _unus_, one, _sonus_ a sound, _son[=a]re_, to sound.] UNIT, [=u]'nit, _n._ one: a single thing or person: the least whole number: anything taken as one: any known determinate quantity by constant application of which any other quantity is measured.--_adj._ U'NITAL.--_n._ UNIT[=A]'RIAN, one who asserts the unity of the Godhead as opposed to the TRINITY, and ascribes divinity to God the Father only.--_adj._ pertaining to Unitarians or their doctrine.--_n._ UNIT[=A]'RIANISM, the doctrines or principles of a UNITARIAN.--_adj._ U'NITARY, pertaining to unity or to a unit: (_biol._) monistic, as opposed to dualistic: whole, integral.--_n._ U'NIT[=A]TE, the remainder after dividing a number by any digit.--_v.t._ to obtain the unitate of.--_n._ UNIT[=A]'TION. [L. _unitum_, pa.p. of _un[=i]re_, to unite--unus, one.] UNITE, [=u]-n[=i]t', _v.t._ to make one: to join two or more into one: to join: to make to agree or adhere.--_v.i._ to become one: to grow or act together.--_adj._ UN[=I]'TED, joined, made one: harmonious.--_adj._ UN[=I]'TEDLY, in union: together.--_ns._ UN[=I]'TER, one who unites; UNI'TION, act of uniting, conjunction; U'NITISM, monism.--_adj._ U'NITIVE, harmonising, uniting.--_adv._ UN[=I]'TIVELY.--UNITAS FRATRUM, or UNITED BRETHREN (see MORAVIAN); UNITED GREEKS (see UNIAT); UNITED IRISHMEN, an organisation originally formed to help Grattan in carrying his reforms, but which quickly became a rebel organisation, and caused the rising of 1798; UNITED PRESBYTERIAN (see PRESBYTER); UNITED PROVINCES, the seven northern provinces of Holland--Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Gelderland, Groningen, Friesland, and Overyssel, united in 1579 under the Union of Utrecht; UNITED STATES, a federal union of states, esp. that of North AMERICA. UNITY, [=u]'ni-ti, _n._ oneness: state of being one or at one: agreement: the arrangement of all the parts to one purpose or effect: harmony: (_math._) any quantity taken as one.--THE UNITIES (of _place_, _time_, and _action_), the three canons of the classical drama--that the scenes should be at the same place, that all the events should be such as might happen within a single day, and that nothing should be admitted not directly relevant to the development of the plot. UNIVALENT, [=u]-niv'a-lent, _adj._ having a valence of one.--_ns._ UNIV'ALENCE, UNIV'ALENCY. UNIVALVE, [=u]'ni-valv, _adj._ having one valve or shell only.--_n._ a shell of one valve only: a mollusc whose shell is composed of a single piece.--_adj._ UNIVAL'VULAR. UNIVERSAL, [=u]-ni-v[.e]r'sal, _adj._ comprehending, affecting, or extending to the whole: comprising all the particulars: applied to a great variety of uses.--_n._ a universal proposition, a general term, a universal concept.--_n._ UNIVERSALIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ UNIVER'SALISE.--_ns._ UNIVER'SALISM, the doctrine or belief of universal salvation, or the ultimate salvation of all mankind, and even of the fallen angels; UNIVER'SALIST, a believer in universalism.--_adj._ pertaining to such beliefs.--_adj._ UNIVERSALIST'IC.--_n._ UNIVERSAL'ITY, state or quality of being universal.--_adv._ UNIVER'SALLY.--_n._ UNIVER'SALNESS.--_adj._ UNIVERSAN'IMOUS, of one mind. [L. _universalis_--_universus_.] UNIVERSE, [=u]'ni-v[.e]rs, _n._ the whole system of created things: all created things viewed as one whole: the world.--_adj._ UNIVERSOLOG'ICAL.--_ns._ UNIVERSOL'OGIST; UNIVERSOL'OGY, the science of the universe, or of all forms of human activity. [L. _universum_, neut. sing. of _universus_, whole, _unus_, one, _versus_, _vert[)e]re_, to turn.] UNIVERSITY, [=u]-ni-v[.e]r'si-ti, _n._ a corporation of teachers or assemblage of colleges for teaching the higher branches of learning, and having power to confer degrees. [L. _universitas_, a corporation--_universus_.] UNIVOCAL, [=u]-niv'[=o]-kal, _adj._ having one meaning only: having unison of sounds.--_n._ a word with but one meaning.--_n._ UNIV'OCACY.--_adv._ UNIV'OCALLY.--_n._ UNIVOC[=A]'TION, agreement of name and meaning. [L. _univocus_--_unus_, one, _vox_, _vocis_, a voice.] UNJAUNDICED, un-jän'dist, _adj._ not jaundiced, not affected by jealousy. UNJEALOUS, un-jel'us, _adj._ not jealous. UNJOINTED, un-join'ted, _adj._ having no joint or articulation. UNJOYFUL, un-joi'f[=oo]l, _adj._ not joyful.--_adj._ UNJOY'OUS, not joyous or cheerful.--_adv._ UNJOY'OUSLY. UNJUST, un-just', _adj._ not just or controlled by justice: contrary to justice: dishonest, faithless.--_adj._ UNJUS'TIF[=I]ABLE, not justifiable.--_n._ UNJUS'TIF[=I]ABLENESS.--_advs._ UNJUS'TIF[=I]ABLY; UNJUST'LY.--_n._ UNJUST'NESS. UNKED, ung'ked, _adj._ (_prov._) strange, ugly, inconvenient.--Also UNK'ID, UNK'ETH, UNK'ARD. [_Uncouth_.] UNKEMPT, un'kemt, _adj._ uncombed: unpolished, rough. [Pfx. _un-_, not, A.S. _cemban_, to comb--_camb_, a comb.] UNKENNED, un-kend', _adj._ not known.--Also UNKENT'. UNKENNEL, un-ken'el, _v.t._ to drive from a kennel or hole: to rouse from secrecy or retreat. UNKEPT, un-kept', _adj._ not kept or sustained. UNKIND, un-k[=i]nd', _adj._ contrary to kind or nature: wanting in kindness: cruel.--_n._ UNK[=I]ND'LINESS, want of kindliness.--_adj._ UNK[=I]ND'LY, contrary to kind or nature: malignant: not kind.--_adv._ (_Milt._) in a manner contrary to kind or nature: in an unkindly manner: cruelly.--_n._ UNK[=I]ND'NESS, want of kindness or affection: cruelty.--_adj._ UNKIN'DRED (_obs._), not related.--_adv._ UNKIN'DREDLY. UNKING, un-king', _v.t._ to strip of royal power.--_adv._ UNKING'LY, unbecoming a king. UNKISS, un-kis', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to annul by kissing. UNKNELLED, un-neld', _adj._ untolled. UNKNIGHTLY, un-n[=i]t'li, _adj._ contrary to the rules of chivalry, unbecoming a knight.--_n._ UNKNIGHT'LINESS. UNKNIT, un-nit', _v.t._ to separate or loose what is knit or knotted: to open. UNKNOT, un-not', _v.t._ to free from knots: to untie. UNKNOWABLE, un-n[=o]'a-bl, _adj._ incapable of being known.--_n._ that which cannot be known, the first or original cause: that which is cognisable only in its relations.--_n._ UNKNOW'ABLENESS.--_adv._ UNKNOW'ABLY.--_adj._ UNKNOW'ING, ignorant, obtuse.--_adv._ UNKNOW'INGLY.--_n._ UNKNOW'INGNESS.--_adj._ UNKNOWN', not known, mentally apprehended, recognised, or made know.--_n._ UNKNOWN'NESS. UNLABOURED, un-l[=a]'burd, _adj._ showing no traces of labour, unwrought: unrestrained, easy.--_adj._ UNLAB[=O]'RIOUS, not toilsome.--_adv._ UNLAB[=O]'RIOUSLY.--_adj._ UNL[=A]'BOURING, not labouring. UNLACE, un-l[=a]s', _v.t._ to loose from being laced: to loose the dress of.--_adj._ UNLAST' (_Spens._), unlaced. UNLADE, un-l[=a]d', _v.i._ to unload: to take out the cargo of. UNLAID, un-l[=a]d', _adj._ not laid or fixed: not having parallel water-marked lines, as paper: untwisted: not allayed or pacified. UNLAMENTED, un-la-men'ted, _adj._ not lamented. UNLAP, un-lap', _v.t._ to unfold. UNLARDED, un-lär'ded, _adj._ not larded or mixed with lard, unadulterated. UNLASH, un-lash', _v.t._ (_naut._) to loose the lashings of. UNLATCH, un-lach', _v.t._ to open by lifting the latch. UNLAWFUL, un-law'f[=oo]l, _adj._ not lawful or permitted by law.--_n._ UNLAW', lawlessness, any breach of law: an injury, injustice: a fine exacted from a transgressor of the law.--_adv._ UNLAW'FULLY.--_n._ UNLAW'FULNESS. UNLAY, un-l[=a]', _v.t._ (_naut._) to untwist, as the strands of a rope. UNLEAD, un-led', _v.t._ (_print._) to take out the leads from matter set up. UNLEAL, un-l[=e]l', _adj._ not leal or loyal. UNLEARN, un-l[.e]rn', _v.t._ to forget or lose what has been learned.--_v.i._ to become ignorant.--_adj._ UNLEAR'NED, not learned: ignorant.--_adv._ UNLEAR'NEDLY.--_n._ UNLEAR'NEDNESS. UNLEASH, un-l[=e]sh', _v.t._ to free from a leash, to let go. UNLEAVE, un-l[=e]v', _v.t._ (_obs._) to strip of leaves.--_v.i._ to lose leaves. UNLEAVENED, un-lev'nd, _adj._ not leavened. UNLECTURED, un-lek't[=u]rd, _adj._ not taught in lectures, not subjected to instruction or admonition in lectures. UNLED, un-led', _adj._ not led, without guidance. UNLEISURED, un-l[=e]'zh[=oo]rd, _adj._ not having leisure.--_n._ UNLEI'SUREDNESS. UNLESS, un-les', _conj._ at or for less: if not: supposing that not: save, except. [Formerly _on les_, _on lesse_, in phrase _on lesse that_, in less than.] UNLESSONED, un-les'nd, _adj._ not instructed, not taught. UNLETTERED, un-let'[.e]rd, _adj._ unlearned, illiterate.--_n._ UNLETT'EREDNESS. UNLEVEL, un-lev'l, _adj._ not level, uneven.--_v.t._ to make uneven. UNLICENSED, un-l[=i]'senst, _adj._ having no license, done without a license. UNLICH, un-lik', _adj._ (_Spens._) unlike. UNLICKED, un-likt', _adj._ not licked into shape, shapeless, not smooth--from the old notion that the she-bear licks her cubs into shape, hence ungainly, awkward. UNLIKE, un-l[=i]k', _adj._ not like or similar: having no resemblance.--_adv._ in another manner to.--_ns._ UNLIKE'LIHOOD, UNLIKE'LINESS, improbability.--_adj._ UNLIKE'LY, not likely: improbable: likely to fail.--_adv._ in an unlikely manner, improbably.--_n._ UNLIKE'NESS, want of resemblance. UNLIMBER, un-lim'b[.e]r, _v.t._ to remove the limbers from, to take off the limbers of.--_v.i._ to detach the limbers from the guns. UNLIMBER, un-lim'b[.e]r, _adj._ (_obs._) not flexible. UNLIME, un-l[=i]m', _v.t._ to remove the lime from. UNLIMITED, un-lim'i-ted, _adj._ not limited, bounded, defined, or restrained.--_adj._ UNLIM'ITABLE (_obs._), illimitable.--_adv._ UNLIM'ITEDLY.--_n._ UNLIM'ITEDNESS. UNLINE, un-l[=i]n', _v.t._ to remove the lining from, to empty. UNLINEAL, un-lin'[=e]-al, _adj._ not lineal. UNLINK, un-lingk', _v.t._ to separate the links of, to untwist.--_adj._ UNLINKED', not joined by links. UNLIQUEFIED, un-lik'w[=e]-f[=i]d, _adj._ unmelted. UNLIQUIDATED, un-lik'wi-d[=a]-ted, _adj._ not determined, settled, or adjusted. UNLIQUORED, un-lik'urd, _adj._ not moistened with liquor: not in liquor, sober. UNLISTENING, un-lis'ning, _adj._ not listening or giving heed to. UNLITURGISE, un-lit'ur-j[=i]z, _v.t._ to deprive of a liturgy. UNLIVE, un-liv', _v.t._ to undo by living: (_obs._) to deprive of life.--_adj._ UNLIVED' (_Shak._), bereft of life.--_n._ UNL[=I]VE'LINESS, want of liveliness. UNLOAD, un-l[=o]d', _v.t._ to take the load from: to discharge: to disburden: (_U.S. slang_) to sell in great quantity, as risky stock, &c.--_v.i._ to discharge freight.--_ns._ UNLOAD'ER; UNLOAD'ING. UNLOCATED, un-l[=o]-k[=a]'ted, _adj._ not located: (_U.S._) not surveyed or marked off. UNLOCK, un-lok', _v.t._ to unfasten what is locked: to open. UNLODGE, un-loj', _v.t._ to dislodge. UNLOGICAL, un-loj'i-kal, _adj._ illogical. UNLOOKED, un-l[=oo]kt', _adj._ not anticipated (generally with _for_). UNLOOSE, un-l[=oo]s', _v.t._ to make loose: to set free.--_v.t._ UNLOOS'EN, to unloose. UNLORD, un-lord', _v.t._ to strip of the dignity of a lord.--_adjs._ UNLORD'ED, not raised to the rank of lord; UNLORD'LY, not lordly. UNLOSABLE, un-l[=oo]'za-bl, _adj._ that cannot be lost.--_adj._ UNLOST', not lost. UNLOVE, un-luv', _v.t._ to cease to love.--_n._ the absence of love.--_adjs._ UNLOV'ABLE, not deserving to be loved, unlikely to be loved; UNLOVED', not loved.--_n._ UNLOVE'LINESS, want of loveliness, amiability, or beauty.--_adjs._ UNLOVE'LY, not lovely; UNLOV'ING, not loving.--_adv._ UNLOV'INGLY.--_n._ UNLOV'INGNESS. UNLUCKY, un-luk'i, _adj._ not lucky or fortunate: ill-omened.--_adv._ UNLUCK'ILY, in an unlucky or unfortunate manner.--_n._ UNLUCK'INESS, the state or quality of being unlucky or unfortunate. UNLUSTROUS, un-lus'trus, _adj._ not lustrous. UNLUTE, un-l[=oo]t', _v.t._ to separate the lute or clay from. UNMAGISTRATE, un-maj'is-tr[=a]t, _v.t._ to degrade from the position of magistrate. UNMAIDENLY, un-m[=a]'dn-li, _adj._ unbecoming a maiden.--_v.t._ UNMAID'EN, to deflower. UNMAILABLE, un-m[=a]'la-bl, _adj._ incapable of being mailed or sent to its proper destination by post. UNMAIMED, un-m[=a]md', _adj._ not maimed, entire. UNMAKE, un-m[=a]k', _v.t._ to destroy the make or form and qualities of.--_adjs._ UNMADE', not made: reduced to its original form; UNM[=A]'KABLE, that cannot be made.--_n._ UNM[=A]'KING, act of destroying.--UNMADE UP, not worked up into form. UNMALLEABLE, un-mal'[=e]-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be hammered, stubborn, unyielding.--_n._ UNMALLEABIL'ITY. UNMAN, un-man', _v.t._ to deprive of the powers of a man, as courage, virility, &c.: to deprive of men.--_adj._ UNMAN'LIKE, not manlike.--_n._ UNMAN'LINESS, effeminacy.--_adjs._ UNMAN'LY, not becoming a man: unworthy of a noble mind: base: cowardly; UNMANNED', not manned or furnished with men: (_Shak._) not tamed or made subject to man, maiden, virgin. UNMANACLE, un-man'a-kl, _adj._ to release from manacles, to set free. UNMANAGEABLE, un-man'[=a]j-a-bl, _adj._ not manageable, not easily controlled or directed.--_n._ UNMAN'AGEABLENESS.--_adv._ UNMAN'AGEABLY.--_adj._ UNMAN'AGED, not controlled: not broken in. UNMANNERLY, un-man'[.e]r-li, _adj._ not mannerly: ill-bred.--_adv._ in an unmannerly manner.--_adj._ UNMANN'ERED, wanting in good manners: uncivil: rude.--_n._ UNMANN'ERLINESS, state or quality of being unmannerly: want of good manners: rudeness. UNMANTLE, un-man'tl, _v.t._ to divest of a mantle. UNMANUFACTURED, un-man-[=u]-fak't[=u]rd, _adj._ not manufactured or worked up from its natural state: not simulated or put on. UNMANURED, un-ma-n[=u]rd', _adj._ not manured: (_obs._) untilled. UNMARKED, un-märkt', _adj._ bearing no distinctive mark: not noticed. UNMARKETABLE, un-mär'ket-a-bl, _adj._ not suitable for the market, not saleable. UNMARRED, un-märd', _adj._ not marred. UNMARRIED, un-mar'id, _adj._ not married.--_adjs._ UNMARR'IABLE (_obs._), not marriageable; UNMARR'IAGEABLE, not fit to marry, not yet old enough to be married.--_n._ UNMARR'IAGEABLENESS.--_v.t._ UNMARR'Y, to dissolve the marriage of. UNMARTYR, un-mär't[.e]r, _v.t._ to degrade from the dignity of a martyr. UNMASCULINE, un-mas'k[=u]-lin, _adj._ not masculine. UNMASK, un-mask', _v.t._ to take a mask or any disguise off: to expose.--_v.i._ to put off a mask.--_adj._ UNMASKED'. UNMASTERED, un-mas't[.e]rd, _adj._ not subdued, not conquerable.--_adj._ UNMAS'TERABLE, that cannot be mastered. UNMATCHED, un-macht', _adj._ matchless, without an equal.--_adj._ UNMATCH'ABLE, not to be equalled.--_n._ UNMATCH'EDNESS. UNMATED, un-m[=a]'ted, _adj._ not mated. UNMATERIAL, un-ma-t[=e]'ri-al, _adj._ not material.--_adj._ UNMAT[=E]'RIAL[=I]SED, not in bodily shape: not yet having become actual or taken shape. UNMEANING, un-m[=e]'ning, _adj._ having no meaning: without intelligence.--_adv._ UNMEAN'INGLY.--_n._ UNMEAN'INGNESS.--_adj._ UNMEANT (un-ment'), not meant. UNMEASURED, un-mezh'[=u]rd, _adj._ not measured, boundless: irregular.--_adj._ UNMEAS'URABLE, immeasurable.--_n._ UNMEAS'URABLENESS.--_adv._ UNMEAS'URABLY. UNMECHANISE, un-mek'a-n[=i]z, _v.t._ to destroy the mechanism of, to throw out of order. UNMEDDLE, un-med'l, _v.i._ to repair the effects of meddling.--_adj._ UNMEDD'LING, not meddling.--_n._ UNMEDD'LINGNESS. UNMEDICINABLE, un-m[=e]-dis'in-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be cured: unable to cure. UNMEDITATED, un-med'i-t[=a]-ted, _adj._ not meditated, unpremeditated. UNMEET, un-m[=e]t', _adj._ not meet, unfit.--_adv._ UNMEET'LY.--_n._ UNMEET'NESS. UNMELLOWED, un-mel'[=o]d, _adj._ not mellowed or softened. UNMELODIOUS, un-m[=e]-l[=o]'di-us, _adj._ not melodious, harsh.--_n._ UNMEL[=O]'DIOUSNESS. UNMENSEFUL, un-mens'f[=oo]l, _adj._ (_Scot._) unmannerly. UNMENTIONABLE, un-men'shun-a-bl, _adj._ unworthy of being mentioned.--_n._ UNMEN'TIONABLENESS.--_n.pl._ UNMEN'TIONABLES, otherwise _inexpressibles_, a would-be humorous name for trousers. UNMERCENARY, un-mer'se-na-ri, _adj._ not mercenary. UNMERCHANTABLE, un-mer'chant-a-bl, _adj._ not merchantable, unsaleable. UNMERCIFUL, un-mer'si-f[=oo]l, _adj._ showing no mercy: exorbitant.--_adv._ UNMER'CIFULLY.--_n._ UNMER'CIFULNESS. UNMERITED, un-mer'i-ted, _adj._ not merited, undeserved: obtained without service.--_adj._ UNMER'ITABLE (_Shak._), without merit.--_n._ UNMER'ITEDNESS.--_adj._ UNMER'ITING, not deserving. UNMETED, un-m[=e]'ted, _adj._ not meted or measured. UNMETHODICAL, un-me-thod'i-kal, _adj._ not methodical.--_adj._ UNMETH'ODISED, not regulated by method. UNMEW, un-m[=u]', _v.t._ to release, as from a mew, to set free. UNMILITARY, un-mil'i-ta-ri, _adj._ not in accordance with military methods, without military spirit. UNMINDED, un-m[=i]n'ded, _adj._ not heeded, forgotten.--_adj._ UNMIND'FUL, not keeping in mind, regardless.--_adv._ UNMIND'FULLY.--_n._ UNMIND'FULNESS. UNMINGLE, un-ming'gl, _v.t._ to separate things mixed. UNMIRACULOUS, un-mi-rak'[=u]-lus, _adj._ not miraculous.--_adv._ UNMIRAC'ULOUSLY. UNMIRY, un-m[=i]r'i, _adj._ not miry or muddy. UNMISTAKABLE, un-mis-t[=a]'ka-bl, _adj._ incapable of being mistaken: clear: distinct.--_n._ UNMIST[=A]'KABLENESS.--_adv._ UNMIST[=A]'KABLY. UNMITIGABLE, un-mit'i-ga-bl, _adj._ that cannot be mitigated or alleviated.--_advs._ UNMIT'IGABLY, UNMIT'IG[=A]TEDLY.--_adj._ UNMIT'IG[=A]TED, not mitigated or abated, having full force. UNMITRE, un-m[=i]'t[.e]r, _v.t._ to deprive of a mitre, to degrade from the dignity of bishop. UNMIXED, un-mikst', _adj._ free from any foreign admixture, unadulterated.--_adv._ UNMIX'EDLY. UNMOANED, un-m[=o]nd', _adj._ not lamented. UNMODERNISE, un-mod'[.e]r-n[=i]z, _v.t._ to give an old-fashioned form or manner to. UNMODIFIED, un-mod'i-f[=i]d, _adj._ not modified, qualified, or limited.--_adj._ UNMOD'IF[=I]ABLE, that cannot be modified.--_n._ UNMOD'IF[=I]ABLENESS. UNMODISH, un-m[=o]'dish, _adj._ not modish or fashionable. UNMOISTENED, un-moi'snd, _adj._ not moistened or wetted. UNMOLESTED, un-m[=o]-les'ted, _adj._ not molested. UNMOMENTARY, un-m[=o]'men-ta-ri, _adj._ without a moment's interval. UNMONEYED, un-mun'id, _adj._ without money.--Also UNMON'IED. UNMONOPOLISE, un-m[=o]-nop'[=o]'-l[=i]z, _v.t._ to free from monopoly.--_adj._ UNMONOP'OLISING, not including in a monopoly. UNMOOR, un-m[=oo]r', _v.t._ to loose from being moored or anchored.--_v.i._ to weigh anchor. UNMORAL, un-mor'al, _adj._ not moral.--_adjs._ UNMOR'AL[=I]SED, not moralised upon, having no moral attached; UNMORAL[=I]S'ING, not given to making moral reflections.--_n._ UNMORAL'ITY. UNMORTISE, un-mor'tis, _v.t._ to loosen the mortises or joints of. UN-MOSAIC, un-m[=o]-z[=a]'ik, _adj._ not according to _Moses_ or his law. UNMOTHERLY, un-muth'[.e]r-li, _adj._ not like a mother. UNMOTIVED, un-m[=o]'tivd, _adj._ uninfluenced by a motive. UNMOULD, un-m[=o]ld', _v.t._ to change the form of. UNMOUNTED, un-mown'ted, _adj._ not mounted: not placed on horseback: not set or arranged with any suitable background, &c., for display or protection, as a precious stone, a drawing or photograph for framing, a lantern or microscopic slide, &c. UNMOURNED, un-m[=o]rnd', _adj._ not mourned. UNMOVED, un-m[=oo]vd', _adj._ not moved, firm: not touched by emotion, calm.--_adjs._ UNMOV'ABLE, UNMOVE'ABLE, immovable.--_advs._ UNMOV'ABLY, immovably; UNMOV'EDLY.--_adj._ UNMOV'ING, not moving: unaffecting. UNMUDDLE, un-mud'l, _v.t._ to free from muddle. UNMUFFLE, un-muf'l, _v.t._ to take a muffle or covering from.--_v.i._ to throw off concealments. UNMULTIPLY, un-mul'ti-pl[=i], _v.t._ to reverse the process of multiplication, to find the factors of. UNMUNITIONED, un-m[=u]-nish'und, _adj._ not provided with war materials. UNMURMURING, un-mur'mur-ing, _adj._ not murmuring.--_adv._ UNMUR'MURINGLY. UNMUSCULAR, un-mus'k[=u]-lar, _adj._ not muscular or physically strong.--_adj._ UNMUSCLED (un-mus'ld), with the muscles relaxed. UNMUSICAL, un-m[=u]'zi-kal, _adj._ not musical or harmonious: not skilled in music.--_n._ UNMUSICAL'ITY.--_adv._ UNM[=U]'SICALLY. UNMUTILATED, un-m[=u]'ti-l[=a]-ted, _adj._ not mutilated. UNMUZZLE, un-muz'l, _v.t._ to take a muzzle off. UNNAIL, un-n[=a]l', _v.t._ to take the nails from. UNNAMABLE, un-n[=a]'ma-bl, _adj._ not to be named.--_adj._ UNNAMED', not named. UNNAPPED, un-napt', _adj._ without a nap, as cloth: deprived of nap. UNNATIVE, un-n[=a]'tiv, _adj._ not native or natural. UNNATURAL, un-nat'[=u]-ral, _adj._ not natural or according to nature: without natural affection.--_v.t._ UNNAT'URALISE.--_adj._ UNNAT'URALISED, not naturalised.--_ns._ UNNAT'URALISM, UNNATURAL'ITY.--_adv._ UNNAT'URALLY.--_n._ UNNAT'URALNESS. UNNAVIGABLE, un-nav'i-ga-bl, _adj._ not navigable.--_n._ UNNAVIGABIL'ITY.--_adj._ UNNAV'IGATED, not sailed on or over. UNNECESSARY, un-nes'e-sa-ri, _adj._ not necessary: useless: needless.--_adv._ UNNEC'ESSARILY, without necessity.--_n._ UNNEC'ESSARINESS. UNNEEDFUL, un-n[=e]d'f[=oo]l, _adj._ not needful.--_adv._ UNNEED'FULLY. UNNEIGHBOURED, un-n[=a]'burd, _adj._ having no neighbours.--_n._ UNNEIGH'BOURLINESS.--_adj._ UNNEIGH'BOURLY, not neighbourly, friendly, or social.--_adv._ in an unneighbourly manner. UNNERVE, un-n[.e]rv', _v.t._ to deprive of nerve, strength, or vigour: to weaken.--_adj._ UNNER'VATE (_obs._), enervated. UNNEST, un-nest', _v.t._ to turn out of a nest. UNNETH. See UNEATH. UNNETTED, un-net'ed, _adj._ not enclosed in a net. UNNIGGARDLY, un-nig'ard-li, _adj._ not niggardly or miserly.--_adj._ UNNIGG'ARD, not niggard, liberal. UNNIMBED, un-nimd', _adj._ without a nimbus. UNNOBLE, un-n[=o]'bl, _adj._ (_Spens._) ignoble.--_v.t._ to deprive of nobility. UNNOOKED, un-n[=oo]kt', _adj._ with no nooks, simple, open, guileless. UNNOTED, un-n[=o]'ted, _adj._ not noted or marked. UNNOTICED, un-n[=o]'tisd, _adj._ not noticed or observed. UNNOTIFY, un-n[=o]'ti-f[=i], _v.t._ to negative something previously told. UNNUMBERED, un-num'b[.e]rd, _adj._ (_Milt._) not to be numbered, innumerable.--_adj._ UNNUM'BERABLE, innumerable. UNNUN, un-nun', _v.t._ to divest of the character of a nun. UNNURTURED, un-nur't[=u]rd, _adj._ not nurtured or educated, rough. UNOBJECTIONABLE, un-ob-jek'shun-a-bl, _adj._ not liable to objection.--_adv._ UNOBJEC'TIONABLY. UNOBNOXIOUS, un-ob-nok'shus, _adj._ not liable or subject to. UNOBSERVANCE, un-ob-zer'vans, _n._ state of being unobservant, inattention: lack of observance of some law.--_adjs._ UNOBSER'VABLE, not to be observed; UNOBSER'VANT, not observant or attentive; UNOBSERVED', not observed.--_adv._ UNOBSER'VEDLY.-_adj._ UNOBSER'VING, not observing. UNOBSTRUCTED, un-ob-struk'ted, _adj._ not obstructed or hindered, clear.--_adj._ UNOBSTRUC'TIVE, offering no obstacle. UNOBTRUSIVE, un-ob-tr[=oo]'siv, _adj._ not obtrusive or forward.--_adv._ UNOBTRU'SIVELY, in an unobtrusive or modest manner.--_n._ UNOBTRU'SIVENESS, state of being unobtrusive: modesty. UNOBVIOUS, un-ob'vi-us, _adj._ not obvious, evident, or manifest. UNOCCUPIED, un-ok'[=u]-p[=i]d, _adj._ not occupied: not used. UNODE, [=u]'n[=o]d, _n._ (_geom._) a limiting case of a conical point, in which the tangent cone has become a pair of coincident planes. UNOFFENDING, un-o-fen'ding, _adj._ not offending, blameless.--_adj._ UNOFFEN'SIVE, inoffensive. UNOFFICIAL, un-o-fish'al, _adj._ not official. UNOFFICIOUS, un-o-fish'us, _adj._ not officious. UNOFTEN, un-of'n, _adv._ not often. UNOIL, un-oil', _v.t._ to free from oil. UNOPERATIVE, un-op'e-r[=a]-tiv, _adj._ inoperative. UNOPPOSED, un-o-p[=o]zd', _adj._ not opposed. UNOPPRESSIVE, un-o-pres'iv, _adj._ not oppressive. UNORDAINED, un-or-d[=a]nd', _adj._ not appointed or established: not having received ordination. UNORDER, un-or'd[.e]r, _v.t._ to cancel an order.--_adjs._ UNOR'DERED, disordered: not ordered or commanded: UNOR'DERLY, not orderly. UNORDINARY, un-or'di-na-ri, _adj._ not ordinary. UNORGANISED, un-or'gan-[=i]zd, _adj._ not organised or having organic structure. UNORIGINAL, un-[=o]-rij'in-al, _adj._ not original: (_Milt._) without origin, birth, or source.--_adjs._ UNORIG'IN[=A]TE, -D.--_n._ UNORIG'IN[=A]TEDNESS.--_adv._ UNORIG'IN[=A]TELY. UNORNAMENTAL, un-or-na-men'tal, _adj._ not ornamental.--_adj._ UNOR'NAMENTED, not ornamented. UNORTHODOX, un-or'th[=o]-doks, _adj._ not orthodox.--_n._ UNOR'THODOXY, heterodoxy, heresy. UNOSSIFIED, un-os'i-f[=i]d, _adj._ not yet formed into bone. UNOSTENTATIOUS, un-os-ten-t[=a]'shus, _adj._ not ostentatious or showy.--_adv._ UNOSTENT[=A]'TIOUSLY.--_n._ UNOSTENT[=A]'TIOUSNESS. UNOWED, un-[=o]d', _adj._ not owed or due: (_Shak._) unowned. UNOWNED, un-[=o]nd', _adj._ not owned, without an owner. UNOWNED, un-[=o]nd', _adj._ not avowed or acknowledged as one's own property or one's own work. UNPACK, un-pak', _v.t._ to take out of a pack: to open.--_n._ UNPACK'ER. UNPAID, un-p[=a]d', _adj._ not discharged: receiving no pay. UNPAINFUL, un-p[=a]n'f[=oo]l, _adj._ not painful.--_adj._ UNPAINED', not pained. UNPAINT, un-p[=a]nt', _v.t._ to efface the painting of. UNPAIRED, un-p[=a]rd', _adj._ not paired. UNPALATABLE, un-pal'[=a]-ta-bl, _adj._ not agreeable.--_adv._ UNPAL'ATABLY. UNPANEL, un-pan'el, _v.t._ to unsaddle. UNPANGED, un-pangd', _adj._ not affected with pangs. UNPARADISE, un-par'a-d[=i]s, _v.t._ to deprive of any supreme delight. UNPARAGONED, un-par'a-gond, _adj._ unmatched. UNPARALLELED, un-par'a-leld, _adj._ without parallel or equal.--_adj._ UNPAR'ALLELABLE, incapable of being paralleled. UNPARCHED, un-pärcht', _adj._ not parched. UNPARDONABLE, un-pär'don-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be pardoned or forgiven.--_n._ UNPAR'DONABLENESS.--_adv._ UNPAR'DONABLY. UNPARLIAMENTARY, un-pär-li-men'tar-i, _adj._ contrary to the usages of proceeding in Parliament: not such as can be spoken in PARLIAMENT. UNPASSABLE, un-pas'a-bl, _adj._ impassable: not current.--_n._ UNPASS'ABLENESS. UNPASSIONATE, un-pash'un-[=a]t, _adj._ dispassionate.--_adv._ UNPAS'SIONATELY.--_adj._ UNPAS'SIONED, free from passion. UNPATHED, un-pätht', _adj._ pathless.--_adj._ UNPATH'WAYED, without pathway. UNPATRIOTIC, un-p[=a]-tri-ot'ik, _adj._ not patriotic. UNPATRONISED, un-p[=a]'tron-izd, _adj._ without the support of patrons: not traded with usually. UNPATTERNED, un-pat'[.e]rnd, _adj._ having no pattern. UNPAVED, un-p[=a]vd', _adj._ having no pavement: (_Shak._) gelded. UNPAY, un-p[=a]', _v.t._ to annul by payment, to make undone. UNPEACEABLE, un-p[=e]'sa-bl, _adj._ not peaceable.--_n._ UNPEACE'ABLENESS.--_adj._ UNPEACE'FUL.--_adv._ UNPEACE'FULLY. UNPEDIGREED, un-ped'i-gr[=e]d, _adj._ not having a pedigree. UNPEELED, un-p[=e]ld', _adj._ not peeled. UNPEERABLE, un-p[=e]r'a-bl, _adj._ not to be matched.--_adj._ UNPEERED', unequalled. UNPEG, un-peg', _v.t._ to take the pegs from. UNPEN, un-pen', _v.t._ to free from captivity. UNPENSIONED, un-pen'shund, _adj._ not rewarded by a pension: not kept in one's pay. UNPEOPLE, un-p[=e]'pl, v. t. to deprive of people. UNPEPPERED, un-pep'[.e]rd, _adj._ unseasoned. UNPERCEIVABLE, un-per-s[=e]'va-bl, _adj._ not to be perceived.--_adv._ UNPERCEI'VABLY.--_adj._ UNPERCEIVED', not perceived.--_adv._ UNPERCEI'VEDLY, so as not to be perceived. UNPERCH, un-perch', _v.t._ to drive from a perch. UNPERFECT, un-p[.e]r'fekt, _adj._ imperfect. UNPERFORMED, un-per-formd', _adj._ not performed or fulfilled: not represented on the stage. UNPERISHING, un-per'ish-ing, _adj._ not perishing.--_adj._ UNPER'ISHABLE.--_adv._ UNPER'ISHABLY. UNPERJURED, un-per'j[=oo]rd, _adj._ not perjured. UNPERPLEXED, un-per-plekst', _adj._ not perplexed.--_v.t._ UNPERPLEX', to separate. UNPERSECUTED, un-per's[=e]-k[=u]-ted, _adj._ not persecuted. UNPERSONABLE, un-per'sun-a-bl, _adj._ not personable.--_adj._ UNPER'SONAL, not personal.--_n._ UNPERSONAL'ITY. UNPERSUADABLE, un-per-sw[=a]'da-bl, _adj._ not to be persuaded.--_ns._ UNPERSU[=A]'DABLENESS, UNPERSU[=A]'SIBLENESS; UNPERSU[=A]'SION.--_adj._ UNPERSU[=A]'SIVE, not persuasive. UNPERTURBED, un-per-turbd', _adj._ not perturbed.--_n._ UNPERTUR'BEDNESS. UNPERVERT, un-per-v[.e]rt', _v.t._ to reconvert.--_adj._ UNPERVERT'ED, not perverted. UNPETRIFIED, un-pet'ri-f[=i]d, _adj._ not petrified. UNPHILOSOPHICAL, un-fil-[=o]-sof'i-kal, _adj._ not philosophical--also UNPHILOSOPH'IC.--_adv._ UNPHILOSOPH'ICALLY.--_n._ UNPHILOSOPH'ICALNESS.--_v.t._ UNPHILOS'OPHISE, to divest of the character of philosopher. UNPICK, un-pik', _v.t._ to take out by picking: to unfasten, undo.--_adjs._ UNPICK'ABLE, that cannot be picked; UNPICKED', not picked. UNPIERCED, un-p[=e]rst', _adj._ not pierced.--_adj._ UNPIERCE'ABLE, not to be pierced. UNPILLARED, un-pil'ard, _adj._ stripped of pillars. UNPILLOWED, un-pil'[=o]d, _adj._ without a pillow or support for the head. UNPILOTED, un-p[=i]'lot-ed, _adj._ without pilot or guide. UNPIN, un-pin', _v.t._ to loose what is pinned. UNPINION, un-pin'yun, _v.t._ to set free from restraint. UNPINKED, un-pingkt', _adj._ not pinked, not pierced with eyelet-holes. UNPITEOUS, un-pit'e-us, _adj._ merciless, cruel.--_adv._ UNPIT'EOUSLY.--_n._ UNPIT'EOUSNESS.--_adjs._ UNPIT'IED, not pitied; UNPIT'IFUL, having no pity.--_adv._ UNPIT'IFULLY.--_n._ UNPIT'IFULNESS.--_adj._ UNPIT'YING, showing no pity.--_adv._ UNPIT'YINGLY. UNPLACED, un-pl[=a]st', _adj._ not arranged in proper places, confused.--_v.t._ UNPLACE', to displace. UNPLAGUED, un-pl[=a]gd', _p.adj._ not plagued or afflicted. UNPLAINED, un-pl[=a]nd', _adj._ not lamented. UNPLAIT, un-pl[=a]t', _v.t._ to loosen, undo. UNPLANTED, un-plan'ted, _adj._ not planted or cultivated.--_v.t._ UNPLANT', to strip of plants. UNPLASTIC, un-plas'tik, _adj._ not plastic, not suitable for sculpture. UNPLAUSIBLE, un-plaw'zi-bl, _adj._ not plausible.--_adv._ UNPLAU'SIBLY, not plausibly.--_adj._ UNPLAU'SIVE, not approving. UNPLEADED, un-pl[=e]'ded, _adj._ not pleaded.--_adj._ UNPLEA'DABLE, incapable of being pleaded. UNPLEASANT, un-plez'ant, _adj._ not pleasant: disagreeable.--_adj._ UNPLEASABLE (-pl[=e]'), not to be pleased.--_n._ UNPLEAS'ANCE.--_adv._ UNPLEAS'ANTLY, in an unpleasant manner: disagreeably.--_ns._ UNPLEAS'ANTNESS, state or quality of being unpleasant: disagreeableness; UNPLEAS'ANTRY, want of pleasantness: any unpleasant occurrence, any particular discomfort.--_adjs._ UNPLEASED (-pl[=e]zd'), displeased; UNPLEASING (-pl[=e]'), displeasing, disgusting.--_adv._ UNPLEASINGLY (-pl[=e]').--_n._ UNPLEASINGNESS (-pl[=e]').--_adj._ UNPLEAS'URABLE, not giving pleasure.--_adv._ UNPLEAS'URABLY. UNPLIANT, un-pl[=i]'ant, _adj._ not pliant, stiff, stubborn.--_adj._ UNPL[=I]'ABLE, not pliable.--_advs._ UNPL[=I]'ABLY; UNPL[=I]'ANTLY. UNPLUCKED, un-plukt', _adj._ not plucked. UNPLUGGED, un-plugd', _adj._ free from plugs: not short-circuited by a plug.--_v.t._ UNPLUG', to remove a plug from. UNPLUMB, un-plum', _v.t._ to remove the lead from.--_adj._ not plumb or vertical.--_adj._ UNPLUMBED', not measured by a plumb-line: unfathomed. UNPLUME, un-pl[=oo]m', _v.t._ to strip of feathers. UNPOETICAL, un-p[=o]-et'i-kal, _adj._ not poetical, prosaic--also UNPOET'IC.--_adv._ UNPOET'ICALLY.--_n._ UNPOET'ICALNESS. UNPOINTED, un-poin'ted, _adj._ not pointed, blunt: having no vowel points, as in Hebrew: with the joints uncemented, of a wall. UNPOISED, un-poizd', _adj._ not poised. UNPOISON, un-poi'zn, _v.t._ to expel the poison from. UNPOLICIED, un-pol'i-sid, _adj._ without organised civil polity: impolitic.--_adj._ UNPOL'ITIC, impolitic. UNPOLISH, un-pol'ish, _v.t._ to take the polish from, to make rough.--_adj._ UNPOL'ISHED. UNPOLITE, un-p[=o]-l[=i]t', _adj._ not polite, rude.--_adv._ UNPOLITE'LY.--_n._ UNPOLITE'NESS. UNPOLLED, un-p[=o]ld', _adj._ not polled. UNPOLLUTED, un-po-l[=u]'ted, _adj._ not polluted. UNPOPE, un-p[=o]p', _v.t._ to divest of papal authority. UNPOPULAR, un-pop'[=u]-lar, _adj._ not popular: disliked by the people.--_n._ UNPOPULAR'ITY, the state of being unpopular.--_adv._ UNPOP'ULARLY, in an unpopular manner: not popularly. UNPORTIONED, un-p[=o]r'shund, _adj._ not provided with a portion. UNPORTUOUS, un-por't[=u]-us, _adj._ without harbours. UNPOSITIVE, un-poz'i-tiv, _adj._ not assertive. UNPOSSESSED, un-po-zest', _adj._ not possessed, not in possession (with of).--_adj._ UNPOSSESS'ING (_Shak._), having no possessions. UNPOSSIBILITY, un-pos-i-bil'i-ti, _n._ impossibility.--_adj._ UNPOSS'IBLE, impossible. UNPOSTED, un-p[=o]s'ted, _adj._ not having a fixed post: not posted up for public information: (_coll._) not posted or informed about anything. UNPOWERFUL, un-pow'[.e]r-f[=oo]l, _adj._ not powerful. UNPRACTICAL, un-prak'ti-kal, _adj._ not practical, disinclined to give attention to things immediately useful or profitable: not workable in detail.--_n._ UNPRACTICAL'ITY.--_adv._ UNPRAC'TICALLY. UNPRACTISED, un-prak'tist, _adj._ having no practice or experience: not carried out in practice, not usually done: not yet familiar through practice.--_n._ UNPRAC'TISEDNESS. UNPRAISE, un-pr[=a]z', _v.t._ to deprive of praise. UNPRAY, un-pr[=a]', _v.t._ to revoke a prayer. UNPREACH, un-pr[=e]ch', _v.t._ to recant something already preached. UNPRECEDENTED, un-pres'[=e]-den-ted, _adj._ having no precedent: novel.--_adv._ UNPREC'EDENTEDLY. UNPREDICT, un-pr[=e]-dikt', _v.i._ (_Milt._) to recall what has been predicted or foretold. UNPREGNANT, un-preg'nant, _adj._ (_Shak._) stupid, unapt for business: indifferent to (with _of_). UNPREJUDICATE, un-pr[=e]-j[=oo]'di-k[=a]t, _adj._ unprejudiced.--_n._ UNPREJUD'ICATENESS. UNPREJUDICED, un-prej'[=oo]-dist, _adj._ not prejudiced: impartial.--_n._ UNPREJ'UDICE, absence of prejudice.--_adv._ UNPREJ'UDICEDLY.--_n._ UNPREJ'UDICEDNESS. UNPRELATE, un-prel'[=a]t, _v.t._ to deprive of the dignity of prelate.--_adj._ UNPRELAT'ICAL. UNPREMEDITATED, un-pr[=e]-med'i-t[=a]-ted, _adj._ not planned beforehand, not previously thought of.--_adj._ UNPREMED'ITABLE, not to be foreseen, unforeseen.--_adv._ UNPREMED'ITATEDLY.--_ns._ UNPREMED'ITATEDNESS; UNPREMEDIT[=A]'TION. UNPREPARED, un-pr[=e]-p[=a]rd', _adj._ without preparation, done without such.--_n._ UNPREPAR[=A]'TION, unpreparedness.--_adv._ UNPREP[=A]R'EDLY.--_n._ UNPREP[=A]R'EDNESS. UNPREPOSSESSING, un-pr[=e]-po-zes'ing, _adj._ not predisposing in one's favour, unpleasing.--_adj._ UNPREPOSSESSED', not prepossessed or prejudiced. UNPRESCRIBED, un-pr[=e]-skr[=i]bd', _adj._ not prescribed or laid down beforehand. UNPRESENTABLE, un-pr[=e]-zen'ta-bl, _adj._ not presentable, not fit to be seen. UNPRESSED, un-prest', _adj._ not pressed. UNPRESUMING, un-pr[=e]-z[=u]'ming, _adj._ not presuming, unpretentious. UNPRESUMPTUOUS, un-pr[=e]-zump't[=u]-us, _adj._ not presumptuous, modest. UNPRETENDING, un-pr[=e]-ten'ding, _adj._ not pretending or making pretence: modest.--_adv._ UNPRETEN'DINGLY.--_adj._ UNPRETEN'TIOUS, not pretentious.--_n._ UNPRETEN'TIOUSNESS. UNPRETTY, un-prit'i, _adj._ not pretty.--_n._ UNPRETT'INESS. UNPREVAILING, un-pr[=e]-v[=a]'ling, _adj._ having no force, unavailing. UNPREVENTED, un-pr[=e]-ven'ted, _adj._ not hindered or prevented: (_obs._) not preceded by anything.--_adj._ UNPREVEN'TABLE, impossible to be prevented.--_n._ UNPREVEN'TABLENESS. UNPRICED, un-pr[=i]st', _adj._ having no fixed price: beyond price, priceless. UNPRIEST, un-pr[=e]st', _v.t._ to strip of the rank of priest.--_adj._ UNPRIEST'LY, unbecoming a priest. UNPRINCE, un-prins', _v.t._ to deprive of princely dignity.--_adj._ UNPRINCE'LY, unbecoming a prince. UNPRINCIPLED, un-prin'si-pld, _adj._ without settled principles: not restrained by conscience: profligate.--_v.t._ UNPRIN'CIPLE, to destroy the moral principles of.--_n._ UNPRIN'CIPLEDNESS. UNPRISON, un-priz'n, _v.t._ to release from prison. UNPRIVILEGED, un-priv'i-lejd, _adj._ not privileged. UNPRIZABLE, un-pr[=i]'za-bl, _adj._ (_Shak._) incapable of being valued, either as so far above or below price. UNPROCLAIMED, un-pr[=o]-kl[=a]md', _adj._ not proclaimed. UNPRODUCTIVE, un-pr[=o]-duk'tiv, _adj._ not productive, profitable, or efficient, not effecting some particular result (with _of_).--_adv._ UNPRODUC'TIVELY.--_ns._ UNPRODUC'TIVENESS; UNPRODUCTIV'ITY. UNPROFANED, un-pr[=o]-f[=a]nd', _adj._ not profaned or desecrated. UNPROFESSIONAL, un-pr[=o]-fesh'un-al, _adj._ having no profession: beyond the limits of one's profession: contrary to the rules or the usual etiquette of a particular profession.--_adv._ UNPROFES'SIONALLY. UNPROFITABLE, un-prof'i-ta-bl, _adj._ not profitable: bringing no profit: serving no purpose.--_n._ UNPROF'ITABLENESS.--_adv._ UNPROF'ITABLY.--_adjs._ UNPROF'ITED, profitless; UNPROF'ITING, unprofitable. UNPROGRESSIVE, un-pr[=o]-gres'iv, _adj._ not progressive.--_n._ UNPROGRESS'IVENESS. UNPROHIBITED, un-pr[=o]-hib'i-ted, _adj._ not prohibited. UNPROJECTED, un-pr[=o]-jek'ted, _adj._ not projected or planned. UNPROLIFIC, un-pr[=o]-lif'ik, _adj._ not prolific. UNPROMISING, un-prom'i-sing, _adj._ not promising or affording a good prospect of success, &c.--_v.t._ UNPROM'ISE, to revoke a promise.--_adj._ UNPROM'ISED, not promised. UNPROMPTED, un-promp'ted, _adj._ not prompted. UNPRONOUNCEABLE, un-pr[=o]-nown'sa-bl, _adj._ difficult to pronounce: not fit to be mentioned.--_adj._ UNPRONOUNCED', not pronounced. UNPROP, un-prop', _v.t._ to remove a prop or support from. UNPROPER, un-prop'[.e]r, _adj._ improper: (_Shak._) common to all.--_adv._ UNPROP'ERLY. UNPROPHETIC, -AL, un-pr[=o]-fet'ik, -al, _adj._ not prophetic. UNPROPITIOUS, un-pr[=o]-pish'us, _adj._ not propitious, inauspicious.--_adj._ UNPROPI'TIABLE, incapable of being propitiated.--_adv._ UNPROPI'TIOUSLY.--_n._ UNPROPI'TIOUSNESS. UNPROPORTIONABLE, un-pr[=o]-p[=o]r'shun-a-bl, _adj._ disproportionable.--_n._ UNPROPOR'TIONABLENESS.--_adjs._ UNPROPOR'TIONATE, not proportionate; UNPROPOR'TIONED, not proportioned. UNPROPOSED, un-pr[=o]-p[=o]zd', _adj._ not proposed. UNPROPPED, un-propt', _adj._ not propped or supported. UNPROPRIETY, un-pr[=o]-pr[=i]'e-ti, _n._ impropriety. UNPROSELYTE, un-pros'[=e]-l[=i]t, _v.t._ to prevent from being made a proselyte. UNPROSPEROUS, un-pros'p[.e]r-us, _adj._ not prosperous or fortunate.--_adv._ UNPROS'PEROUSLY.--_n._ UNPROS'PEROUSNESS. UNPROPECTED, un-pr[=o]-tek'ted, _adj._ not protected.--_n._ UNPROTEC'TEDNESS. UNPROTESTANTISE, un-prot'es-tan-t[=i]z, _v.t._ to pervert from PROTESTANTISM, to strip of Protestant features. UNPROVED, un-pr[=oo]vd', _adj._ not proved.--_adjs._ UNPROV'ABLE, UNPROVE'ABLE, incapable of being proved.--_n._ UNPROVED'NESS. UNPROVIDED, un-pr[=o]-v[=i]'ded, _adj._ not furnished or provided for, unprepared.--_v.t._ UNPROVIDE', to unfurnish, to deprive of what is necessary.--_adv._ UNPROV[=I]'DEDLY.--_adj._ UNPROV'IDENT, improvident. UNPROVOKED, un-pr[=o]-v[=o]kt', _adj._ not having received provocation, uncalled for.--_adv._ UNPROV[=O]'KEDLY. UNPRUDENT, un-pr[=oo]'dent, _adj._ imprudent--also UNPRUDEN'TIAL.--_n._ UNPRU'DENCE, imprudence. UNPRUNED, un-pr[=oo]nd', _adj._ not pruned. UNPUBLISHED, un-pub'lisht, _adj._ not made public, esp. still in MS. or privately printed form: secret.--_adj._ UNPUB'LIC, not public. UNPUCKER, un-puk'[.e]r, _v.t._ to smooth out the puckers or creases of, to relax. UNPUNCTUAL, un-pungk't[=u]-al, _adj._ not punctual.--_n._ UNPUNCTUAL'ITY.--_adv._ UNPUNC'TUALLY. UNPUNISHABLE, un-pun'ish-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be punished.--_adv._ UNPUN'ISHABLY.--_adj._ UNPUN'ISHED, not punished. UNPURE, un-p[=u]r', _adj._ impure.--_adv._ UNPURE'LY.--_n._ UNPURE'NESS. UNPURGED, un-purjd', _adj._ not purged. UNPURPOSED, un-pur'post, _adj._ not purposed or intended. UNQUALIFIED, un-kwol'i-f[=i]d, _adj._ not possessing the proper qualifications for anything, incompetent: given without restrictions, absolute.--_adv._ UNQUAL'IFIEDLY.--_n._ UNQUAL'IFIEDNESS.--_v.t._ UNQUAL'IFY, to disqualify. UNQUEEN, un-kw[=e]n', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to divest of the dignity of queen. UNQUENCHABLE, un-kwen'sha-bl, _adj._ that cannot be quenched or extinguished.--_n._ UNQUEN'CHABLENESS.--_adv._ UNQUEN'CHABLY. UNQUESTIONABLE, un-kwes'tyun-a-bl, _adj._ not questionable or to be questioned: (_Shak._) not questioning or inquisitive.--_ns._ UNQUESTIONABIL'ITY, UNQUES'TIONABLENESS, the quality of being unquestionable: that which cannot be questioned.--_adv._ UNQUEST'IONABLY, without question or doubt.--_adj._ UNQUES'TIONED, not called in question, undoubted, not examined, indisputable.--_n._ UNQUES'TIONINGNESS. UNQUIET, un-kw[=i]'et, _adj._ not at rest, disturbed: causing restlessness.--_v.t._ to disquiet.--_n._ UNQUIES'CENCE, inquietude.--_adv._ UNQU[=I]'ETLY.--_ns._ UNQU[=I]'ETNESS, state of disturbance, restlessness; UNQU[=I]'ETUDE, inquietude. UNQUIT, un-kwit', _adj._ not discharged. UNQUIZZABLE, un-kwiz'a-bl, _adj._ incapable of being quizzed or ridiculed. UNRACKED, un-rakt', _adj._ not drawn off from the lees, as wine. UNRAISED, un-r[=a]zd', _adj._ not raised. UNRAKED, un-r[=a]kt', _adj._ not gone over with the rake: not cleared out. UNRANSACKED, un-ran'sakt, _adj._ not ransacked. UNRAPTURED, un-rap't[=u]rd, _adj._ not enraptured. UNRAVEL, un-rav'el, _v.t._ to take out of a ravelled state: to unfold or explain: to separate.--_v.i._ to be disentangled.--adj UNRAV'ELABLE.--_ns._ UNRAV'ELLER; UNRAV'ELMENT. UNRAZORED, un-r[=a]'zord, _adj._ unshaved. UNREACHED, un-r[=e]cht', _adj._ not reached. UNREAD, un-red', _adj._ not informed by reading, ignorant: not perused.--_adj._ UNREADABLE (un-r[=e]'da-bl), indecipherable, too dull to be read.--_n._ UNREA'DABLENESS. UNREADY, un-red'i, _adj._ not ready or prepared: slow: awkward: (_Shak._) not dressed.--_adv._ UNREAD'ILY.--_n._ UNREAD'INESS. UNREAL, un-r[=e]'al, _adj._ not real: having appearance only, illusive.--_v.t._ UNR[=E]'AL[=I]SE, to divest of reality.--_ns._ UNR[=E]'ALISM, UNREAL'ITY, want of reality or existence.--_adv._ UNR[=E]'ALLY. UNREASONABLE, un-r[=e]'zn-a-bl, _adj._ not agreeable to reason: exceeding the bounds of reason, immoderate: not influenced by reason.--_ns._ UNREA'SON, lack of reason; UNREA'SONABLENESS, the state or quality of being unreasonable: exorbitance.--_adv._ UNREA'SONABLY, in an unreasonable manner: excessively.--_adjs._ UNREA'SONED, not argued out; UNREA'SONING, not reasoning.--_adv._ UNREA'SONINGLY.--ABBOT OF UNREASON (see MISRULE). UNREAVE, un-r[=e]v' _v.t._ (_Spens._) to unwind. UNREBATED, un-r[=e]-b[=a]'ted, _adj._ unbated. UNREBUKABLE, un-r[=e]-b[=u]'ka-bl, _adj._ not deserving rebuke. UNRECALLING, un-r[=e]-kawl'ing, _adj._ not to be recalled.--_adj._ UNRECALL'ABLE, that cannot be recalled. UNRECEIVED, un-r[=e]-s[=e]vd', _adj._ not received. UNRECKONED, un-rek'nd, _adj._ not reckoned.--_adj._ UNRECK'ONABLE, that cannot be reckoned, immeasurable. UNRECLAIMED, un-r[=e]-kl[=a]md', _adj._ not reclaimed.--_adj._ UNRECLAIM'ABLE, irreclaimable.--_adv._ UNRECLAIM'ABLY. UNRECOGNISED, un-rek'og-n[=i]zd, _adj._ not recognised.--_adj._ UNREC'OGNISABLE.--_adv._ UNREC'OGNISABLY. UNRECOMMENDED, un-rek-o-men'ded, _adj._ not recommended. UNRECOMPENSED, un-rek'om-penst, _adj._ not recompensed. UNRECONCILED, un-rek'on-s[=i]ld, _adj._ not reconciled, restored to friendship, or made consistent.--_adj._ UNREC'ONCILABLE, irreconcilable.--_n._ UNRECONCIL'ABLENESS.--_adv._ UNREC'ONCILABLY. UNRECONSTRUCTED, un-r[=e]-kon-struk'ted, _adj._ not reconstructed: (_U.S._) not yet admitted as a state of the Union. UNRECORDED, un-r[=e]-kord'ed, _adj._ not recorded, not kept in remembrance. UNRECOUNTED, un-r[=e]-kownt'ed, _adj._ not recounted or related. UNRECOVERABLE, un-r[=e]-kuv'[.e]r-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be recovered: sick beyond hope of recovery.--_adv._ UNRECOV'ERABLY.--_adj._ UNRECOV'ERED. UNRECRUITABLE, un-r[=e]-kr[=oo]t'a-bl, _adj._ not able to be recruited. UNRECUMBENT, un-r[=e]-kum'bent, _adj._ not recumbent or reclining. UNRECURING, un-r[=e]-k[=u]r'ing, _adj._ (_Shak._) incurable. UNRECURRING, un-r[=e]-kur'ing, _adj._ not recurring. UNRED, un-red', _adj._ (_Spens._) untold. UNREDEEMED, un-r[=e]-d[=e]md', _adj._ not redeemed or ransomed: not fulfilled: unmitigated: not recalled into the treasury by payment of the value in money: not taken out of pawn.--_adj._ UNREDEEM'ABLE, that cannot be redeemed. UNREDRESSED, UNREDREST, un-r[=e]-drest', _adj._ without redress: (_Spens._) unrescued. UNREEL, un-r[=e]l', _v.t._ to unwind from a reel. UNREEVE, un-r[=e]v', _v.t._ (_naut._) to withdraw a rope from any block, thimble, dead-eye, &c. through which it had formerly passed. UNREFINED, un-r[=e]-f[=i]nd', _adj._ not refined, unpolished. UNREFORMABLE, un-r[=e]-for'ma-bl, _adj._ not reformable.--_ns._ UNREFORM[=A]'TION; UNREFOR'MEDNESS. UNREGARDED, un-r[=e]-gär'ded, _adj._ not regarded. UNREGENERATE, un-r[=e]-jen'e-r[=a]t, _adj._ not renewed in heart through regeneration, unreconciled to God.--_ns._ UNREGEN'ERACY, UNREGENER[=A]'TION. UNREGISTERED, un-rej'is-t[.e]rd, _adj._ not registered. UNREGRETFUL, un-r[=e]-gret'f[=oo]l, _adj._ without having any regrets.--_n._ UNREGRET'FULNESS. UNREIN, un-r[=a]n', _v.t._ to loosen the rein of.--_adj._ UNREINED', unchecked. UNREJOICING, un-r[=e]-joi'sing, _adj._ not rejoicing. UNRELATED, un-r[=e]-l[=a]'ted, _adj._ not related.--_adj._ UNREL'ATIVE, not relative. UNRELAXED, un-r[=e]-lakst', _adj._ not relaxed, strained. UNRELENTING, un-r[=e]-len'ting, _adj._ not relenting: inflexible: cruel.--_adv._ UNRELEN'TINGLY.--_n._ UNRELEN'TINGNESS. UNRELIABLE, un-r[=e]-l[=i]'a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be relied upon, untrustworthy.--_ns._ UNRELIABIL'ITY, UNREL[=I]'ABLENESS. UNRELIEVABLE, un-r[=e]-l[=e]'va-bl, _adj._ that cannot be relieved.--_adj._ UNRELIEVED', not relieved.--_adv._ UNRELIE'VEDLY. UNREMEDIABLE, un-r[=e]-m[=e]'di-a-bl, _adj._ irremediable. UNREMEMBERED, un-r[=e]-mem'b[.e]rd, _adj._ not remembered.--_adj._ UNREMEM'BERING, not remembering.--_n._ UNREMEM'BRANCE. UNREMITTING, un-r[=e]-mit'ting, _adj._ not remitting or relaxing: continued: incessant.--_adj._ UNREMIT'TED, not remitted or forgiven: without remission.--_advs._ UNREMIT'TEDLY; UNREMIT'TINGLY.--_n._ UNREMIT'TINGNESS. UNREMORSEFUL, un-r[=e]-mors'f[=oo]l, _adj._ feeling no remorse.--_adv._ UNREMORSE'FULLY.--_adj._ UNREMORSE'LESS, having no remorse or pity.--_adv._ UNREMORSE'LESSLY. UNREMOVED, un-r[=e]-m[=oo]vd', _adj._ not removed, unshaken.--_adj._ UNREMOV'ABLE.--_n._ UNREMOV'ABLENESS.--_adv._ UNREMOV'ABLY. UNRENEWED, un-r[=e]-n[=u]d', _adj._ not renewed, not regenerated. UNRENT, un-rent', _adj._ not rent. UNREPAID, un-r[=e]-p[=a]d', _adj._ not repaid. UNREPAIR, un-r[=e]-p[=a]r', _n._ an unsound state.--_adj._ UNREPAIR'ABLE, irreparable. UNREPEALED, un-r[=e]-p[=e]ld', _adj._ not repealed.--_adj._ UNREPEAL'ABLE, incapable of being repealed. UNREPENTANT, un-r[=e]-pen'tant, _adj._ not repentant or penitent.--_n._ UNREPEN'TANCE, impenitence.--_adjs._ UNREPEN'TED, not repented of; UNREPEN'TING, not repenting.--_adv._ UNREPEN'TINGLY. UNREPINING, un-r[=e]-p[=i]'ning, _adj._ not repining.--_adv._ UNREP[=I]'NINGLY. UNREPLENISHED, un-r[=e]-plen'isht, _adj._ not replenished. UNREPOSING, un-r[=e]-p[=o]'zing, _adj._ not reposing or resting. UNREPRESENTED, un-rep-r[=e]-zen'ted, _adj._ not represented. UNREPRIEVABLE, un-r[=e]-pr[=e]'va-bl, _adj._ that cannot be reprieved.--_adj._ UNREPRIEVED', not reprieved. UNREPROACHABLE, un-r[=e]-pr[=o]'cha-bl, _adj._ irreproachable.--_n._ UNREPROA'CHABLENESS.--_adv._ UNREPROA'CHABLY. UNREPROVED, un-r[=e]-pr[=oo]vd', _adj._ not reproved: (_Milt._) not liable to reproof, blameless.--_adj._ UNREPROV'ABLE, incapable of being reproved.--_adv._ UNREPROV'EDLY.--_n._ UNREPROV'EDNESS. UNREPULSABLE, un-r[=e]-pul'sa-bl, _adj._ that cannot be repulsed. UNREPUTABLE, un-rep'[=u]-ta-bl, _adj._ not reputable. UNREQUESTED, un-r[=e]-kwes'ted, _adj._ not requested. UNREQUISITE, un-rek'wi-zit, _adj._ not requisite. UNREQUITED, un-r[=e]-kw[=i]'ted, _adj._ not requited.--_adj._ UNREQU[=I]'TABLE, not requitable.--_adv._ UNREQU[=I]'TEDLY. UNRESERVED, un-r[=e]-z[.e]rvd', _adj._ not reserved or restrained: withholding nothing.--_n._ UNRESERVE', absence of reserve.--_adv._ UNRESER'VEDLY, without reservation: frankly.--_n._ UNRESER'VEDNESS. UNRESISTED, un-r[=e]-zis'ted, _adj._ not resisted.--_n._ UNRESIS'TANCE.--_adv._ UNRESIS'TEDLY.--_adjs._ UNRESIS'TIBLE, irresistible; UNRESIS'TING, not making resistance.--_adv._ UNRESIS'TINGLY. UNRESOLVED, un-r[=e]-zolvd', _adj._ not resolved: not separated into its constituent parts.--_adj._ UNRESOL'VABLE, incapable of being resolved.--_v.i._ UNRESOLVE', to change a resolution.--_n._ UNRESOL'VEDNESS, state of being unresolved or undetermined.--_adj._ UNRESOL'VING. UNRESPECTABLE, un-r[=e]-spek'ta-bl, _adj._ not respectable. UNRESPECTIVE, un-r[=e]-spek'tiv, _adj._ (_Shak._) devoid of respect and consideration, regardless, unthinking: not attended with regard, used at random. UNRESPITED, un-res'pi-ted, _adj._ not delayed: not having received a respite from sentence. UNRESPONSIBLE, un-r[=e]-spon'si-bl, _adj._ irresponsible.--_n._ UNRESPON'SIBLENESS.--_adj._ UNRESPON'SIVE, not responsive.--_n._ UNRESPON'SIVENESS. UNREST, un-rest', _n._ want of rest: disquiet of mind or body.--_adj._ UNREST'FUL.--_n._ UNREST'FULNESS.--_adj._ UNREST'ING, not resting.--_adv._ UNREST'INGLY.--_n._ UNREST'INGNESS. UNRESTORED, un-r[=e]-st[=o]rd', _adj._ not restored, esp. to a former or better state: of a work of art, remaining in its original condition. UNRESTRAINED, un-r[=e]-str[=a]nd', _adj._ not restrained, licentious.--_adv._ UNRESTRAIN'EDLY.--_ns._ UNRESTRAIN'EDNESS; UNRESTRAINT'. UNRESTRICTED, un-r[=e]-strik'ted, _adj._ not restricted.--_adv._ UNRESTRIC'TEDLY. UNRETARDED, un-r[=e]-tär'ded, _adj._ not retarded. UNRETENTIVE, un-r[=e]-ten'tiv, _adj._ not retentive. UNRETURNABLE, un-r[=e]-tur'na-bl, _adj._ incapable of being returned.--_adj._ UNRETUR'NING, not returning. UNREVEALED, un-r[=e]-v[=e]ld', _adj._ not revealed.--_n._ UNREVEAL'EDNESS. UNREVENGED, un-r[=e]-venjd', _adj._ not revenged.--_adj._ UNREVENGE'FUL. UNREVEREND, un-rev'[.e]r-end, _adj._ not reverend: (_Shak._) irreverent, disrespectful.--_n._ UNREV'ERENCE, want of reverence.--_adj._ UNREV'ERENT, not reverent.--_adv._ UNREV'ERENTLY. UNREVERSED, un-r[=e]-verst', _adj._ not reversed. UNREVERTED, un-r[=e]-ver'ted, _adj._ not reverted. UNREVOKED, un-r[=e]-v[=o]kt', _adj._ not revoked. UNREWARDED, un-r[=e]-wawr'ded, _adj._ not rewarded.--_adv._ UNREWAR'DEDLY.--_adj._ UNREWAR'DING. UNRHYTHMICAL, un-rith'mi-kal, _adj._ not rhythmical. UNRIDDLE, un-rid'l, _v.t._ to read the riddle of: to solve.--_adj._ UNRIDD'LEABLE.--_n._ UNRIDD'LER. UNRIFLED, un-r[=i]'fld, _adj._ not rifled. UNRIG, un-rig', _v.t._ to strip of rigging.--_adj._ UNRIGGED', without rigging. UNRIGHTEOUS, un-r[=i]'tyus, _adj._ not righteous: wicked: unjust.--_n._ UNRIGHT', injustice.--_adv._ UNRIGH'TEOUSLY.--_n._ UNRIGH'TEOUSNESS.--_adj._ UNRIGHT'FUL.--_adv._ UNRIGHT'FULLY.--_n._ UNRIGHT'FULNESS. UNRING, un-ring', _v.t._ to take a ring from.--_adj._ UNRINGED', having no ring. UNRIP, un-rip', _v.t._ to rip up or open. UNRIPE, un-r[=i]p', _adj._ not ripe.--_adj._ UNR[=I]'PENED.--_n._ UNRIPE'NESS. UNRIVALLED, un-r[=i]'vald, _adj._ without a rival or competitor.--_adj._ UNR[=I]'VALABLE, that cannot be rivalled. UNRIVET, un-riv'et, _v.t._ to loosen the rivets of. UNROBE, un-r[=o]b', _v.t._ to strip of a robe, to undress.--_v.i._ to take off a robe, esp. a robe of state. UNROLL, un-r[=o]l', _v.t._ to roll down: to open out.--_v.i._ to become uncoiled or opened out.--_n._ UNROLL'MENT. UNROMANISED, un-r[=o]'man-[=i]zd, _adj._ not subjected to Roman laws or customs: freed from subjection to the Roman see. UNROMANTIC, un-r[=o]-man'tik, _adj._ not romantic.--_adv._ UNROMAN'TICALLY. UNROOF, un-r[=oo]f, _v.t._ to strip the roof off.--_adj._ UNROOFED'. UNROOST, un-r[=oo]st' _v.t._ to drive out of a roost. UNROOT, un-r[=oo]t', _v.t._ to tear up by the roots. UNROPE, un-r[=o]p', _v.t._ to loosen from ropes, to unharness. UNROUGH, un-ruf', _adj._ not rough. UNROYAL, un-roi'al, _adj._ not royal.--_n._ UNROY'ALIST, one not of royal blood.--_adv._ UNROY'ALLY. UNRUDE, un-r[=oo]d', _adj._ not rude. UNRUFFLED, un-ruf'ld, _adj._ not ruffled: calm.--_v.i._ UNRUFF'LE, to settle into calmness. UNRUINED, un-r[=oo]'ind, _adj._ not ruined.--_adjs._ UNRU'INABLE, not to be ruined; UNRU'IN[=A]TE (_obs._), not in ruins. UNRULED, un-r[=oo]ld', _adj._ not ruled.--_ns._ UNRUL'IMENT (_Spens._), UNRUL'INESS, state of being unruly.--_adj._ UNRUL'Y, regardless of restraint or law. UNRUMPLE, un-rum'pl, _v.t._ to free from rumples. UNSADDLE, un-sad'l, _v.t._ to take the saddle off: to throw from the saddle. UNSAFE, un-s[=a]f, _adj._ not safe.--_adv._ UNSAFE'LY.--_ns._ UNSAFE'NESS, UNSAFE'TY. UNSAID, un-sed', _adj._ not said. UNSAINT, un-s[=a]nt', _v.t._ to divest of saintliness.--_adj._ UNSAINT'LY. UNSALABLE, un-s[=a]'la-bl, _adj._ that cannot be sold, not in demand--also UNSALE'ABLE.--_ns._ UNSALABIL'ITY, UNS[=A]'LABLENESS. UNSALARIED, un-sal'a-rid, _adj._ not receiving a salary. UNSALTED, un-sawl'ted, _adj._ not salted, fresh. UNSALUTED, un-sa-l[=u]'ted, _adj._ not saluted. UNSALVABLE, un-sal'va-bl, _adj._ not capable of being saved. UNSANCTIFIED, un-sangk'ti-f[=i]d, _adj._ not sanctified, unholy.--_n._ UNSANCTIFIC[=A]'TION. UNSANGUINE, un-sang'gwin, _adj._ not sanguine. UNSANITARY, un-san'i-ta-ri, _adj._ not sanitary, unhealthy. UNSAPPED, un-sapt', _adj._ not sapped. UNSATIABLE, un-s[=a]'shi-a-bl, _adj._ not to be satiated or appeased.--_n._ UNS[=A]'TIABLENESS.--_adv._ UNS[=A]'TIABLY. UNSATISFACTORY, un-sat-is-fak't[=o]-ri, _adj._ not satisfying.--_adv._ UNSATISFAC'TORILY.--_n._ UNSATISFAC'TORINESS.--_adjs._ UNSATISF[=I]'ABLE, not to be satisfied; UNSAT'ISFIED, not satisfied, not content: not fully informed about anything: not paid.--_n._ UNSAT'ISFIEDNESS.--_adj._ UNSAT'ISFYING.--_n._ UNSAT'ISFYINGNESS. UNSATURATED, un-sat'[=u]-r[=a]-ted, _adj._ not saturated. UNSAVOURY, un-s[=a]'vor-i, _adj._ not savoury, tasteless: unpleasing, disgusting.--_adv._ UNS[=A]'VOURILY.--_n._ UNS[=A]'VOURINESS. UNSAY, un-s[=a]', _v.t._ to recall what has been said: to retract.--_adj._ UNSAID'. UNSCALABLE, un-sk[=a]'la-bl, _adj._ that cannot be scaled or climbed.--Also UNSCALE'ABLE. UNSCALE, un-sk[=a]l', _v.t._ to remove the scales from.--_adj._ UNSC[=A]'LY. UNSCANNED, un-skand', _adj._ not scanned or measured. UNSCARRED, un-skärd', _adj._ not marked with scars. UNSCATHED, un-sk[=a]_th_t', _adj._ not harmed or injured. UNSCEPTERED, un-sep't[.e]rd, _adj._ deprived of kingly authority. UNSCHOOLED, un-sk[=oo]ld', _adj._ not taught or trained in anything. UNSCISSORED, un-siz'ord, _adj._ not cut with scissors. UNSCOTTIFY, un-skot'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to deprive of Scotch qualities or characteristics. UNSCOURED, un-skowrd', _adj._ not scoured or rubbed clean. UNSCRATCHED, un-skracht', _adj._ not scratched. UNSCREENED, un-skr[=e]nd', _adj._ not screened: unsifted. UNSCREW, un-skr[=oo]', _v.t._ to loose from screws: to unfasten. UNSCRIPTURAL, un-skrip't[=u]-ral, _adj._ not in with Scripture.--_adv._ UNSCRIP'TURALLY. UNSCRUPULOUS, un-skr[=oo]'p[=u]-lus, _adj._ not scrupulous, unprincipled.--_adv._ UNSCRU'P[=U]LOUSLY.--_n._ UNSCRU'P[=U]LOUSNESS. UNSCRUTABLE, un-skr[=oo]'ta-bl, _adj._ inscrutable. UNSCULPTURED, un-skulp't[=u]rd, _adj._ not sculptured, without inscription. UNSCUTCHEONED, un-skuch'ond, _adj._ having no escutcheon or claim to such. UNSEAL, un-s[=e]l, _v.t._ to remove the seal of: to open what is sealed.--_adj._ UNSEALED'. UNSEAM, un-s[=e]m, _v.t._ to undo a piece of sewing, to split. UNSEARCHABLE, un-s[.e]r'cha-bl, _adj._ not capable of being found out by searching: mysterious.--_n._ UNSEAR'CHABLENESS.--_adv._ UNSEAR'CHABLY.--_adj._ UNSEARCHED'. UNSEASONABLE, un-s[=e]'zn-a-bl, _adj._ not in the proper season or time: late: ill-timed: not suited to the time of the year.--_v.t._ UNSEA'SON (_Spens._), to strike unseasonably, as the ear.--_n._ UNSEA'SONABLENESS, state or quality of being unseasonable or ill-timed.--_adv._ UNSEA'SONABLY, in an unseasonable manner: not in due time.--_adj._ UNSEA'SONED, not seasoned or ripened by time: not experienced, unripe: not sprinkled with seasoning: (_obs._) unseasonable: (_obs._) inordinate. UNSEAT, un-s[=e]t', _v.t._ to throw from or deprive of a seat. UNSEAWORTHY, un-s[=e]-wurth'i _adj._ unfit for a sea voyage.--_n._ UNSEAWORTH'INESS. UNSECONDED, un-sek'un-ded, _adj._ not seconded, supported, or assisted. UNSECTARIAN, un-sek-t[=a]'ri-an, _adj._ not sectarian, free from the narrow qualities or prejudices of sect.--_n._ UNSECT[=A]'RIANISM. UNSECULAR, un-sek'[=u]-lar, _adj._ not secular or worldly. UNSEDUCED, un-s[=e]-d[=u]st', _adj._ not seduced. UNSEEDED, un-s[=e]d'ed, _adj._ not seeded. UNSEEL, un-s[=e]l', _v.t._ to open the eyes, as of a hawk which has been seeled, to enlighten. UNSEEMLINESS, un-s[=e]m'li-nes, _n._ state or quality of being unseemly or unbecoming.--_v.i._ UNSEEM' (_Shak._), not to seem.--_adj._ UNSEEM'LY, not seemly, becoming, or decent.--_adv._ in an unseemly manner. UNSEEN, un-s[=e]n', _adj._ not seen: invisible.--_adj._ UNSEE'ING, not seeing, blind. UNSEIZED, un-s[=e]zd', _adj._ not seized: not taken or put in possession. UNSELDOM, un-sel'dum, _adv._ not seldom. UNSELF, un-self', _v.t._ to deprive of individuality.--_n._ absence of weak self-consciousness.--_n._ UNSELF-CON'SCIOUSNESS, absence of self-consciousness.--_adj._ UNSEL'FISH, not selfish.--_adv._ UNSEL'FISHLY.--_ns._ UNSEL'FISHNESS, UNSELF'NESS (_rare_). UNSEMINARED, un-sem'i-närd, _adj._ (_Shak._) deprived of seminal energy or virility. UNSENSE, un-sens', _v.t._ to free from the dominion of the senses--also UNSEN'S[=U]ALISE.--_adj._ UNSENSED'. UNSENT, un-sent', _adj._ not sent. UNSENTENCED, un-sen'tenst, _adj._ not having received sentence: (_obs._) not decreed. UNSENTIMENTAL, un-sen-ti-men'tal, _adj._ not sentimental, prosaic, matter-of-fact. UNSEPULCHRED, un-sep'ul-k[.e]rd, _adj._ unburied. UNSEQUESTERED, un-s[=e]-kwes't[.e]rd, _adj._ not sequestered, unreserved. UNSERVICE, un-ser'vis, _n._ neglect of service or duty.--_adj._ UNSER'VICEABLE, not serviceable. UNSET, un-set', _adj._ not set or placed: unplanted: not mounted or placed in a setting: not set, as a broken limb. UNSETTLE, un-set'l, _v.t._ to move from being settled: to make uncertain.--_v.i._ to become unfixed.--_adj._ UNSETT'LED, not settled, fixed, or determined: changeable; not having the dregs deposited: not yet inhabited and cultivated: turbulent, lawless.--_adv._ UNSETT'LEDLY.--_ns._ UNSETT'LEDNESS; UNSETT'LEMENT.--_adj._ UNSETT'LING. UNSEVERED, un-sev'[.e]rd, _adj._ not severed, inseparable. UNSEX, un-seks', _v.t._ to deprive of sex: to make unmanly or unwomanly.--_adj._ UNSEX'UAL. UNSHACKLE, un-shak'l, _v.t._ to loose from shackles: to set free. UNSHADED, un-sh[=a]'ded, _adj._ not shaded: without gradations of light or colour. UNSHADOWED, un-shad'[=o]d, _adj._ not clouded, free from gloom. UNSHAKABLE, un-sh[=a]'ka-bl, _adj._ (_Shak._) not to be shaken.--_adjs._ UNSHAKED' (_Shak._), not shaken; UNSH[=A]'KEN, not shaken, firm, steady.--_adv._ UNSH[=A]'KENLY. UNSHALE, un-sh[=a]l', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to strip the shale or husk from, to expose. UNSHAMED, un-sh[=a]md', _adj._ not shamed. UNSHAPE, un-sh[=a]p', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to deprive of shape, to derange, to confound.--_adjs._ UNSHAPE'LY, not shapely; UNSH[=A]'PEN, shapeless. UNSHAVEN, un-sh[=a]v'n, _adj._ not shaven. UNSHEATHE, un-sh[=e]th', _v.t._ to draw from the sheath or scabbard, as a sword. UNSHED, un-shed', _adj._ (_Spens._) unparted. UNSHELL, un-shel', _v.t._ to strip of the shell, to release. UNSHELVE, un-shelv', _v.t._ to remove the shelves from. UNSHENT, un-shent', _adj._ not disgraced. UNSHIFTINESS, un-shif'ti-nes, _n._ shiftlessness.--_adj._ UNSHIF'TABLE, shiftless. UNSHIP, un-ship', _v.t._ to take out of a ship or other vessel: to remove from the place where it is fixed or fitted.--_n._ UNSHIP'MENT. UNSHOD, un-shod', _adj._ without shoes, barefoot. UNSHOE, un-sh[=oo]', _v.t._ to strip of a shoe. UNSHORN, un-shorn', _adj._ not shorn, unclipped, unshaven. UNSHOT, un-shot', _v.t._ to take the shot out of. UNSHOUT, un-showt', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to retract, as a shout. UNSHOWERED, un-show'[.e]rd, _adj._ not watered by showers. UNSHOWN, un-sh[=o]n', _adj._ not shown. UNSHRINED, un-shr[=i]nd', _adj._ not placed in a shrine. UNSHRINKING, un-shring'king, _adj._ not shrinking.--_adv._ UNSHRINK'INGLY. UNSHRIVEN, un-shriv'n, _adj._ not shriven. UNSHROUD, un-shrowd', _v.t._ to remove the shroud from, to disclose. UNSHRUBBED, un-shrubd', _adj._ not furnished with shrubs. UNSHUNNABLE, un-shun'a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be shunned.--_adj._ UNSHUNNED', not shunned or avoided. UNSHUTTER, un-shut'[.e]r, _v.t._ to take the shutters off. UNSIFTED, un-sif'ted, _adj._ not sifted, untried. UNSIGHTED, un-s[=i]'ted, _adj._ not seen--earlier UNSIGHT': not furnished with a sight.--_adj._ UNSIGHT'ABLE, invisible.--_n._ UNSIGHT'LINESS, the quality of being unsightly: ugliness.--_adj._ UNSIGHT'LY, not sightly or pleasing to the eye: ugly. UNSIGNIFICANT, un-sig-nif'i-kant, _adj._ without signification. UNSIMPLICITY, un-sim-plis'i-ti, _n._ want of simplicity. UNSINCERE, un-sin-s[=e]r', _adj._ not sincere, insincere: not genuine, alloyed. UNSINEW, un-sin'[=u], _v.t._ to take the strength from. UNSING, un-sing', _v.t._ to take back what has been sung. UNSINGLED, un-sing'gld, _adj._ not singled. UNSINNING, un-sin'ing, _adj._ not sinning, untouched by sin. UNSISTERED, un-sis't[.e]rd, _adj._ being without a sister.--_n._ UNSIS'TERLINESS.--_adj._ UNSIS'TERLY. UNSISTING, un-sis'ting, _adj._ not resisting or opposing. UNSIZED, un-s[=i]zd', _adj._ not sized or stiffened. UNSKILFUL, un-skil'fool, _adj._ not skilful: wanting skill or experience: awkward.--_adv._ UNSKIL'FULLY, in an unskilful or awkward manner.--_n._ UNSKIL'FULNESS, want of skill or experience: awkwardness.--_adj._ UNSKILLED', without special skill, untrained, unacquainted with. UNSLAIN, un-sl[=a]n', _adj._ not slain. UNSLAKED, un-sl[=a]kt', _adj._ not slaked. UNSLEEPING, un-sl[=e]'ping; _adj._ not sleeping. UNSLING, un-sling', _v.t._ to release from slings, to take the slings off. UNSLIPPING, un-slip'ing, _adj._ not slipping. UNSLUICE, un-sl[=oo]s', _v.t._ to open the sluice of. UNSLUMBERING, un-slum'b[.e]r-ing, _adj._ not slumbering.--_adj._ UNSLUM'BROUS, not slumbrous. UMSMIRCHED, un-smircht', _adj._ not smirched or stained, clean. UNSMITTEN, un-smit'n, _adj._ not smitten. UNSMOOTH, un-sm[=oo]th', _adj._ not smooth, rough. UNSMOTE, un-sm[=o]t', _adj._ unsmitten. UNSMOTHERABLE, un-smuth'[.e]r-a-bl, _adj._ unable to be smothered. UNSNARE, un-sn[=a]r', _v.t._ to set free from a snare. UNSNARL, un-snarl', _v.t._ to disentangle. UNSNECK, un-snek', _v.t._ to draw the sneck or bar of a door. UNSOAPED, un-s[=o]pt', _adj._ not soaped, unwashed. UNSOCIABLE, un-s[=o]'sha-bl, _adj._ not sociable or inclined to society: reserved.--_ns._ UNSOCIABIL'ITY; UNS[=O]'CIABLENESS.--_adv._ UNS[=O]'CIABLY.--_adj._ UNS[=O]'CIAL, not social.--_ns._ UNS[=O]'CIALISM, UNSOCIAL'ITY. UNSOFT, un-soft', _adv._ (_Spens._) not softly. UNSOLDER, un-sod'[.e]r, _v.t._ to separate, as what has been soldered, to sunder. UNSOLDIERLIKE, un-s[=o]l'j[.e]r-l[=i]k, _adj._ not characteristic of or becoming a soldier. UNSOLEMN, un-sol'em, _adj._ not solemn, sacred, or formal.--_v.t._ UNSOL'EMNISE, to strip of solemnity. UNSOLICITED, un-s[=o]-lis'it-ed, _adj._ not solicited.--_adj._ UNSOLIC'ITOUS, not solicitous. UNSOLID, un-sol'id, _adj._ not solid, not sound, empty.--_n._ UNSOLID'ITY. UNSOLVED, un-solvd', _adj._ not solved. UNSON, un-sun', _v.t._ to make unworthy of sonship. UNSONSIE, UNSONCIE, un-son'si, _adj._ (_Scot._) unlucky. UNSOOT, un-s[=oo]t', _adj._ (_Spens._) unsweet. UNSOPHISTICATED, un-s[=o]-fis'ti-k[=a]-ted, _adj._ genuine, unadulterated: free from artificiality, simple, inexperienced--also UNSOPHIS'TICATE.--_ns._ UNSOPHIS'TICATEDNESS; UNSOPHISTIC[=A]'TION. UNSORROWED, un-sor'[=o]d, _adj._ not sorrowed or regretted. UNSORTED, un-sor'ted, _adj._ not sorted or arranged: ill-chosen. UNSOUGHT, un-sawt', _adj._ not sought or solicited. UNSOUL, un-s[=o]l', _v.t._ to deprive of soul or spirit. UNSOUND, un-sownd', _adj._ not sound or perfect: not honest: erroneous: defective: (_Spens._) not substantial, not to be depended upon.--_adv._ UNSOUND'LY.--_n._ UNSOUND'NESS. UNSOUNDABLE, un-sown'da-bl, _adj._ that cannot be sounded or fathomed. UNSPAR, un-spär', _v.t._ to take the spars or bars from. UNSPARING, un-sp[=a]r'ing, _adj._ not sparing, liberal, profuse: unmerciful.--_adj._ UNSPARED', not spared: not saved from ruin.--_adv._ UNSPAR'INGLY.--_n._ UNSPAR'INGNESS. UNSPATIAL, un-sp[=a]'shal, _adj._ not extending into space.--_n._ UNSPATIAL'ITY. UNSPEAKABLE, un-sp[=e]'ka-bl, _adj._ incapable of being spoken, uttered, or described.--_v.t._ UNSPEAK' (_Shak._), to retract, as what has been spoken.--_adv._ UNSPEA'KABLY, in an unspeakable or inexpressible manner.--_adj._ UNSPEA'KING, not being able to speak. UNSPECIALISED, un-spesh'a-l[=i]zd, _adj._ not specialised in the biological sense: generalised. UNSPECIFIED, un-spes'i-f[=i]d, _adj._ not specified. UNSPED, un-sped', _adj._ not performed. UNSPEEDY, un-sp[=e]'di, _adj._ not speedy. UNSPELL, un-spel', _v.t._ to free from the power of a spell. UNSPENT, un-spent', _adj._ not spent or exhausted: not having lost its force of motion. UNSPHERE, un-sf[=e]r', _v.t._ to take out of its sphere. UNSPIED, un-sp[=i]d', _adj._ (_Spens._) not spied, unseen. UNSPIKE, un-sp[=i]k', _v.t._ to remove a spike from. UNSPILT, un-spilt', _adj._ not spilt or shed.--Also UNSPILLED'. UNSPIN, un-spin', _v.t._ to undo what has been spun. UNSPIRITUAL, un-spir'i-t[=u]-al, _adj._ not spiritual.--_v.t._ UNSPIR'ITUALISE, to deprive of spirituality.--_adv._ UNSPIR'ITUALLY. UNSPLEENED, un-spl[=e]nd', _adj._ free from spleen. UNSPOIL, un-spoil', _v.t._ to undo the ill effects of spoiling.--_adj._ UNSPOILED'. UNSPOKEN, un-sp[=o]'kn, _adj._ not spoken, unconfessed. UNSPONTANEOUS, un-spon-t[=a]'n[=e]-us, _adj._ not spontaneous. UNSPORTFUL, un-sp[=o]rt'fool, _adj._ not sportful, melancholy. UNSPOTTED, un-spot'ed, _adj._ free from spot: not tainted with guilt.--_n._ UNSPOTT'EDNESS. UNSQUARED, un-skw[=a]rd', _adj._ not made square: undressed: irregular, unbalanced. UNSQUIRE, un-skw[=i]r', _v.t._ to strip of the dignity of squire. UNSTABLE, un-st[=a]'bl, _adj._ not stable, unreliable, infirm, inconstant: in such a physical state that the slightest change induces further change of form or composition.--_ns._ UNSTABIL'ITY, UNST[=A]'BLENESS. UNSTABLISHED, un-stab'lisht, _adj._ not firmly fixed. UNSTACK, un-stak', _v.t._ to remove from a stack. UNSTAID, un-st[=a]d', _adj._ not staid or steady.--_n._ UNSTAID'NESS. UNSTAINED, un-st[=a]nd', _adj._ not stained or tarnished. UNSTAMPED, un-stampt', _adj._ not stamped, not having a stamp affixed. UNSTANCHED, un-stäncht', _adj._ not stanched: incontinent.--_adj._ UNSTANCH'ABLE. UNSTARCH, un-stärch' _v.t._ to take the starch from. UNSTATE, un-st[=a]t', _v.t._ to deprive of state or dignity. UNSTATUTABLE, un-stat'[=u]-ta-bl, _adj._ unwarranted by statute.--_adv._ UNSTAT'UTABLY. UNSTAYED, un-st[=a]d', _adj._ not stayed or restrained. UNSTEADY, un-sted'i, _adj._ not steady: changeable.--_v.t._ to make unsteady.--_adj._ UNSTEAD'FAST, not steadfast or resolute: insecure.--_adv._ UNSTEAD'FASTLY.--_n._ UNSTEAD'FASTNESS.--_adv._ UNSTEAD'ILY, in an unsteady manner.--_n._ UNSTEAD'INESS, the state or quality of being unsteady: want of firmness: irresolution. UNSTEEL, un-st[=e]l, _v.t._ to soften, to disarm. UNSTEP, un-step', _v.t._ to remove, as a mast, from its place. UNSTERCORATED, un-ster'k[=o]-r[=a]-ted, _adj._ not stercorated or manured. UNSTICK, un-stik', _v.t._ to tear something free. UNSTING, un-sting', _v.t._ to disarm of a sting. UNSTINTED, un-stint'ed, _adj._ not stinted, profuse. UNSTITCH, un-stich', _v.t._ to take out the stitches of. UNSTOCK, un-stok', _v.t._ to deplete of stock: to remove from the stock: (_obs._) to launch. UNSTOCKINGED, un-stok'ingd, _adj._ not wearing stockings. UNSTOOPING, un-st[=oo]p'ing, _adj._ not stooping. UNSTOP, un-stop', _v.t._ to free from a stopper; to free from hinderance: to draw out the stops of an organ. UNSTOPPER, un-stop'[.e]r, _v.t._ to open, as a bottle, by taking out the stopper. UNSTOPPLE, un-stop'l, _v.t._ to remove a stopple from. UNSTOW, un-st[=o]', _v.t._ to empty of its contents.--_adj._ UNSTOWED', not stowed or packed. UNSTRAINED, un-str[=a]nd', _adj._ not strained or purified by straining: not forced, natural.--_v.t._ UNSTRAIN', to relieve from a strain. UNSTRATIFIED, un-strat'i-f[=i]d, _adj._ not stratified, as rocks. UNSTRESSED, un-strest', _adj._ not pronounced with stress, unaccented. UNSTRETCH, un-strech', _v.i._ to become unstretched or relaxed. UNSTRIATED, un-str[=i]'[=a]-ted, _adj._ not striated or striped. UNSTRING, un-string', _v.t._ to take the strings off: to relax or loosen.--_adjs._ UNSTRINGED'; UNSTRUNG'. UNSTRUCK, un-struk', _adj._ not struck. UNSTUDIED, un-stud'id, _adj._ done without premeditation, natural, easy: not acquainted with through study. UNSTUFFED, un-stuft', _adj._ not stuffed. UNSUBDUED, un-sub-d[=u]d', _adj._ not subdued.--_adj._ UNSUBD[=U]'ABLE, incapable of being subdued. UNSUBJECT, un-sub'jekt, _adj._ not subject. UNSUBMISSIVE, un-sub-mis'iv, _adj._ not submissive.--_n._ UNSUBMIS'SION.--_adv._ UNSUBMISS'IVELY.--_n._ UNSUBMISS'IVENESS.--_adj._ UNSUBMIT'TING, not submitting. UNSUBORDINATE, un-sub-or'di-n[=a]t, _adj._ not subordinate. UNSUBSTANTIAL, un-sub-stan'shal, _adj._ not substantial, not real, not solid or strong.--_v.t._ UNSUBSTAN'TIALISE.--_ns._ UNSUBSTANTIAL'ITY; UNSUBSTANTI[=A]'TION. UNSUCCEEDED, un-suk-s[=e]d'ed, _adj._ not succeeded.--_adjs._ UNSUCCEED'ABLE (_obs._); UNSUCCESS'IVE, without succession. UNSUCCESS, un-suk-ses', _n._ want of success: failure.--_adj._ UNSUCCESS'FUL, not successful or fortunate.--_adv._ UNSUCCESS'FULLY, in an unsuccessful or unfortunate manner.--_n._ UNSUCCESS'FULNESS. UNSUCCOURABLE, un-suk'ur-a-bl, _adj._ incapable of being succoured. UNSUCKED, un-sukt', _adj._ not sucked. UNSUFFERABLE, un-suf'[.e]r-a-bl, _adj._ (_obs._) insufferable.--_adv._ UNSUFF'ERABLY (_obs._). UNSUFFICIENT, un-su-fish'ent, _adj._ (_obs._) insufficient.--_n._ UNSUFFI'CIENCE (_obs._).--_adv._ UNSUFFI'CIENTLY (_obs._). UNSUITABLE, un-s[=u]'ta-bl, _adj._ not suitable, fitting, or adequate: unbecoming.--_v.t._ UNSUIT', to be unsuitable for.--_ns._ UNSUITABIL'ITY, UNSUIT'ABLENESS.--_adv._ UNSUIT'ABLY.--_adjs._ UNSUIT'ED, not suited or adapted to; UNSUIT'ING, not suiting. UNSULLIED, un-sul'id, _adj._ not sullied, not disgraced. UNSUMMERED, un-sum'[.e]rd, _adj._ not possessing the characteristics of summer. UNSUNG, un-sung', _adj._ not celebrated in song, forgotten: not yet sung. UNSUNNED, un-sund', _adj._ not exposed to the sun, not lighted.--_adj._ UNSUN'NY, not sunny or bright. UNSUPPLIABLE, un-su-pl[=i]'a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be supplied. UNSUPPORTABLE, un-su-p[=o]r'ta-bl, _adj._ insupportable.--_n._ UNSUPPOR'TABLENESS.--_adv._ UNSUPPOR'TABLY.--_adj._ UNSUPPOR'TED, not supported.--_adv._ UNSUPPOR'TEDLY. UNSUPPRESSED, un-su-prest', _adj._ not suppressed. UNSURE, un-sh[=oo]r', _adj._ not sure.--_adj._ UNSURED', not made sure.--_adv._ UNSURE'LY. UNSURMOUNTABLE, un-sur-mown'ta-bl, _adj._ insurmountable. UNSURPASSABLE, un-sur-pas'a-bl, _adj._ incapable of being surpassed.--_adv._ UNSURPASS'ABLY.--_adj._ UNSURPASSED'. UNSURRENDERED, un-su-ren'd[.e]rd, _adj._ not surrendered. UNSUSCEPTIBLE, un-su-sep'ti-bl, _adj._ not susceptible.--_n._ UNSUSCEPTIBIL'ITY. UNSUSPECTED, un-sus-pek'ted, _adj._ not suspected: not known or supposed to exist--(_Milt._) UNSUSPECT'.--_adv._ UNSUSPEC'TEDLY.--_n._ UNSUSPEC'TEDNESS.--_adj._ UNSUSPEC'TING.--_adv._ UNSUSPEC'TINGLY.--_n._ UNSUSPEC'TINGNESS. UNSUSPICIOUS, un-sus-pish'us; _adj._ not suspicious, unsuspecting: free from suspicion.--_n._ UNSUSPI'CION, absence of suspicion.--_adv._ UNSUSPI'CIOUSLY.--_n._ UNSUSPI'CIOUSNESS. UNSUSTAINED, un-sus-t[=a]nd', _adj._ not sustained. UNSWADDLE, un-swod'l, _v.t._ to remove swaddling-bands from, to unswathe. UNSWATHE, un-sw[=a]th', _v.t._ to take swathings or bandages from. UNSWAYABLE, un-sw[=a]'a-bl, _adj._ (_Shak._) not to be swayed.--_adj._ UNSWAYED', not swayed.--_n._ UNSWAYED'NESS. UNSWEAR, un-sw[=a]r', _v.i._ (_Spens._) to recall an oath. UNSWEATING, un-swet'ing, _adj._ not sweating. UNSWEET, un-sw[=e]t', _adj._ not sweet.--_v.t._ UNSWEET'EN, to make unsweet. UNSWEPT, un-swept', _adj._ not swept or cleaned, not swept over. UNSWERVING, un-swer'ving, _adj._ not swerving, firm.--_adv._ UNSWER'VINGLY. UNSWORN, un-sw[=o]rn', _adj._ not sworn, not solemnly pronounced. UNSYLLABLED, un-sil'a-bld, _adj._ not syllabled, not articulated. UNSYMMETRICAL, un-si-met'ri-kal, _adj._ not symmetrical--also UNSYMMET'RIC.--_adv._ UNSYMMET'RICALLY.--_n._ UNSYMM'ETRY, want of symmetry. UNSYMPATHY, un-sim'pa-thi, _n._ want of sympathy.--_n._ UNSYMPATH[=I]SABIL'ITY.--_adj._ UNSYM'PATH[=I]SABLE. UNSYSTEMATIC, -AL, un-sis-te-mat'ik, -al, _adj._ not systematic.--_adv._ UNSYSTEMAT'ICALLY. UNTACK, un-tak', _v.t._ to undo what is tacked or fastened. UNTACKLE, un-tak'l, _v.t._ to unhitch. UNTAINTED, un-t[=a]n'ted, _adj._ not tainted or stained, not made unfit for eating by putrescence.--_adv._ UNTAIN'TEDLY.--_n._ UNTAIN'TEDNESS. UNTAINTED, un-t[=a]n'ted, _adj._ not attainted. UNTAKEN, un-t[=a]'kn, _adj._ not taken. UNTALENTED, un-tal'en-ted, _adj._ not talented. UNTALKED, un-tawkt', _adj._ not talked or spoken (with of). UNTAMED, un-t[=a]md', _adj._ not tamed, not domesticated.--_adj._ UNT[=A]'MABLE, incapable of being tamed.--_n._ UNT[=A]'MABLENESS.--_adj._ UNTAME', not tame.--_n._ UNTAMED'NESS. UNTANGLE, un-tang'gl, _v.t._ to disentangle. UNTAPPICE, un-tap'is, _v.i._ (_obs._) to come out of concealment.--_v.t._ to drive out of such. UNTARNISHED, un-tär'nisht, _adj._ not tarnished or soiled. UNTASTED, un-t[=a]s'ted, _adj._ not tasted, not enjoyed. UNTAUGHT, un-tawt', _adj._ not taught, illiterate: not communicated by teaching: ignorant. UNTAX, un-taks', _v.t._ to take a tax from.--_adj._ UNTAXED', not taxed: not charged with any fault. UNTEACH, un-t[=e]ch', _v.t._ to cause to forget, as what has been taught.--_adj._ UNTEACH'ABLE, not teachable.--_n._ UNTEACH'ABLENESS. UNTEAM, un-t[=e]m', _v.t._ to unyoke a team from. UNTELL, un-tel', _v.t._ to recall what has been told. UNTEMPERING, un-tem'p[.e]r-ing, _adj._ (_Shak._) not softening.--_v.t._ UNTEM'PER, to remove the temper from, to soften.--_adj._ UNTEM'PERED, not tempered: not regulated. UNTEMPTIBLE, un-temt'i-bl, _adj._ incapable of being tempted.--_adv._ UNTEMPT'IBLY. UNTENABLE, un-ten'a-bl, _adj._ not tenable, not defensible.--_ns._ UNTENABIL'ITY, UNTEN'ABLENESS. UNTENANT, un-ten'ant, _v.t._ to deprive of a tenant, to evict.--_adjs._ UNTEN'ANTABLE, not fit to be tenanted or inhabited; UNTEN'ANTED, not occupied. UNTENDER, un-ten'd[.e]r, _adj._ not tender, not affectionate.--_adv._ UNTEN'DERLY. UNTENDERED, un-ten'd[.e]rd, _adj._ not offered. UNTENT, un-tent', _v.t._ to bring out of a tent.--_adj._ UNTEN'TED, having no tents. UNTENTED, un-ten'ted, _adj._ (_Scot._) uncared for.--_adj._ UNTEN'TY, careless. UNTERMINATED, un-ter'mi-n[=a]-ted, _adj._ without termination. UNTETHER, un-te_th_'[.e]r, _v.t._ to release from a tether. UNTHANKFUL, un-thank'fool, _adj._ not thankful.--_v.t._ UNTHANK' (_obs._), to take back one's thanks.--_adj._ UNTHANKED', not thanked.--_adv._ UNTHANK'FULLY.--_n._ UNTHANK'FULNESS. UNTHINK, un-thingk', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to dismiss from the mind, as a thought.--_n._ UNTHINKABIL'ITY.--_adj._ UNTHINK'ABLE, that cannot be thought.--_n._ UNTHINK'ER, one who does not think.--_adj._ UNTHINK'ING, not thinking: thoughtless.--_adv._ UNTHINK'INGLY.--_n._ UNTHINK'INGNESS. UNTHOUGHT, un-thawt', _adj._ not thought (with of).--_n._ UNTHOUGHT'FULNESS, thoughtlessness. UNTHREAD, un-thred', _v.t._ to take a thread from: to loosen: to find one's way through. UNTHRIFTY, un-thrif'ti, _adj._ not thrifty: without thriftiness.--_ns._ UNTHRIFT', UNTHRIF'TINESS--(_Spens._) UNTHRIF'TIHEAD.--_adv._ UNTHRIF'TILY. UNTHRONE, un-thr[=o]n', _v.t._ to dethrone. UNTIDY, un-t[=i]'di, _adj._ not tidy or neat.--_adv._ UNT[=I]'DILY.--_n._ UNT[=I]'DINESS. UNTIE, un-t[=i]', _v.t._ to loose from being tied: to unbind: to loosen.--_adj._ UNTIED'. UNTIL, un-til', _prep._ till: to: as far as (used mostly with respect to time).--_adv._ till: up to the time that. UNTILE, un-t[=i]l', _v.t._ to take the tiles from. UNTILLED, un-tild', _adj._ not tilled.--_adj._ UNTILL'ABLE, incapable of being tilled. UNTIMBERED, un-tim'b[.e]rd, _adj._ not provided with timber. UNTIMELY, un-t[=i]m'li, _adj._ not timely: before the time, premature: unseasonable, ill-timed.--_adv._ (_Shak._) before the time: prematurely, unseasonably.--_n._ UNTIME'LINESS.--_adj._ UNTIME'OUS, untimely, unseasonable.--_adv._ UNTIME'OUSLY. UNTIN, un-tin', _v.t._ to take the tin from. UNTINCTURED, un-tingk't[=u]rd, _adj._ not tinctured. UNTINGED, un-tinjd', _adj._ not tinged, not infected. UNTIRING, un-t[=i]r'ing, _adj._ unwearied.--_adjs._ UNTIR'ABLE, incapable of being wearied; UNTIRED', not tired.--_adv._ UNTIR'INGLY. UNTITLED, un-t[=i]'tld, _adj._ having no title. UNTO, un't[=oo], _prep._ to. UNTOILING, un-toi'ling, _adj._ without toil. UNTOLD, un-t[=o]ld', _adj._ not told or related: not counted or capable of being counted. UNTOMB, un-t[=oo]m', _v.t._ to take out of the tomb. UNTONGUE, un-tung', _v.t._ (_obs._) to silence. UNTOOTH, un-t[=oo]th', _v.t._ to deprive of teeth.--_adj._ UNTOOTH'SOME, unpalatable.--_n._ UNTOOTH'SOMENESS. UNTORMENTED, un-tor-men'ted, _adj._ not tormented. UNTORN, un-torn', _adj._ not torn. UNTOUCHED, un-tucht', _adj._ not touched, not mentioned, not moved or affected emotionally.--_adj._ UNTOUCH'ABLE, incapable of being touched. UNTOWARD, un-t[=o]'ard, _adj._ not easily guided: froward: awkward: inconvenient--also UNT[=O]'WARDLY.--_n._ UNT[=O]'WARDLINESS.--_adv._ UNT[=O]'WARDLY.--_n._ UNT[=O]'WARDNESS. UNTOWERED, un-tow'[.e]rd, _adj._ not having towers. UNTRACE, un-tr[=a]s', _v.t._ to loose from traces. UNTRACED, un-tr[=a]sd', _adj._ not traced or tracked.--_adj._ UNTRACE'ABLE, that cannot be traced. UNTRACKED, un-trakt', _adj._ not tracked. UNTRACTABLE, un-trak'ta-bl, _adj._ not tractable, difficult, rough.--_ns._ UNTRACTABIL'ITY, UNTRAC'TABLENESS.--_adv._ UNTRAC'TABLY. UNTRADED, un-tr[=a]'ded, _adj._ (_Shak._) unused, uncommon, inexperienced.--_adj._ UNTR[=A]'DING, not accustomed. UNTRAINED, un-tr[=a]nd', _adj._ not trained or disciplined. UNTRAMMELLED, un-tram'eld, _adj._ not trammelled. UNTRAMPLED, un-tramp'ld, _adj._ not trod upon. UNTRANSFERABLE, un-trans-fer'a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be transferred. UNTRANSFORMED, un-trans-formd', _adj._ not transformed. UNTRANSLATED, un-trans-l[=a]'ted, _adj._ not translated from one tongue into another.--_ns._ UNTRANSL[=A]TABIL'ITY, UNTRANSL[=A]'TABLENESS.--_adj._ UNTRANSL[=A]'TABLE.--_adv._ UNTRANSL[=A]'TABLY. UNTRANSMUTABLE, un-trans-m[=u]'ta-bl, _adj._ that cannot be transmuted. UNTRANSPARENT, un-trans-p[=a]r'ent, _adj._ not transparent. UNTRAVELLED, un-trav'eld, _adj._ not passed over: not having learned through travel: narrow-minded. UNTREAD, un-tred', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to tread back, to retrace. UNTREASURE, un-trezh'[=u]r, _v.t._ to despoil of treasure: to display or set forth. UNTREATABLE, un-tr[=e]'ta-bl, _adj._ that cannot be treated. UNTREMBLING, un-trem'bling, _adj._ not trembling.--_adv._ UNTREM'BLINGLY. UNTRESPASSING, un-tres'pas-ing, _adj._ not trespassing. UNTRESSED, un-trest', _adj._ not having the hair dressed in tresses. UNTRICKED, un-trikt', _adj._ not adorned. UNTRIED, un-tr[=i]d', _adj._ not tried, not yet experienced, not yet having passed trial: unnoticed. UNTRIFLING, un-tr[=i]'fling, _adj._ not trifling. UNTRIM, un-trim', _v.t._ to deprive of trimming, to put out of order.--_adj._ UNTRIMMED', not adorned with trimmings: not made neat by clipping, &c.--_n._ UNTRIMMED'NESS. UNTRODDEN, un-trod'n, _adj._ not trodden upon, unfrequented.--Also UNTROD'. UNTROUBLED, un-trub'ld, _adj._ not troubled or disturbed: not rising in waves: not turbid.--_n._ UNTROUB'LEDNESS. UNTRUCED, un-tr[=oo]st', _adj._ without truce. UNTRUE, un-tr[=oo]', _adj._ not true: false: not faithful: disloyal: not in accordance with a standard.--_ns._ UNTRUE'NESS, state of being untrue; UNTRU'ISM, something palpably untrue.--_adv._ UNTRU'LY, not truly, falsely.--_n._ UNTRUTH, falsehood: a lie.--_adj._ UNTRUTH'FUL.--_adv._ UNTRUTH'FULLY.--_n._ UNTRUTH'FULNESS. UNTRUSS, un-trus', _v.t._ to loosen or free from a truss: to unfasten, let down the breeches by undoing the points that kept them up, to undress.--_adj._ UNTRUSSED', not trussed.--_n._ UNTRUSS'ER (_obs._), one who untrusses persons for whipping. UNTRUSTFUL, un-trust'fool, _adj._ not trusting: not trustworthy.--_adv._ UNTRUST'WORTHILY.--_n._ UNTRUST'WORTHINESS.--_adjs._ UNTRUST'WORTHY, not worthy of trust; UNTRUST'Y, not trusty, not deserving trust. UNTUCK, un-tuk', _v.t._ to undo, as a tuck: to loose from a tuck. UNTUCKERED, un-tuk'[.e]rd, _adj._ not having a tucker on. UNTUFTED, un-tuf'ted, _adj._ without tufts, of scales, hairs, &c. UNTUNE, un-t[=u]n', _v.t._ to put out of tune: to disorder or confuse.--_adj._ UNT[=U]'NABLE, inharmonious.--_n._ UNT[=U]'NABLENESS.--_adv._ UNT[=U]'NABLY.--_adj._ UNTUNED'. UNTURF, un-turf', _v.t._ to strip the turf from. UNTURN, un-turn', _v.t._ to turn the opposite way.--_adj._ UNTURNED', not turned. UNTUTORED, un-t[=u]'tord, _adj._ having had no tutor, uninstructed, raw. UNTWINE, un-tw[=i]n', _v.t._ to untwist: to open.--_v.i._ to become untwined. UNTWIST, un-twist', _v.t._ to open what is twisted, to unravel.--_v.i._ to become loosened out.--_n._ a twist in the opposite direction. UNUNDERSTANDABLE, un-un-d[.e]r-stan'da-bl, _adj._ not to be understood. UNUNIFORM, un-[=u]'ni-form, _adj._ not uniform.--_n._ UN[=U]'NIFORMNESS. UNURGED, un-urjd', _adj._ not urged. UNUSED, un-[=u]zd', _adj._ not used, not accustomed.--_ns._ UN[=U]'SAGE (_obs._); UNUSED'NESS.--_adj._ UNUSE'FUL, useless.--_adv._ UNUSE'FULLY.--_n._ UNUSE'FULNESS. UNUSUAL, un-[=u]'zh[=u]-al, _adj._ not usual or common.--_n._ UNUSUAL'ITY, rarity.--_adv._ UN[=U]'SUALLY.--_n._ UN[=U]'SUALNESS. UNUTTERABLE, un-ut'[.e]r-a-bl, _adj._ incapable of being uttered or expressed.--_ns._ UNUTTERABIL'ITY, UNUTT'ERABLENESS.--_adv._ UNUTT'ERABLY. UNVACCINATED, un-vak'si-n[=a]-ted, _adj._ not vaccinated. UNVALUED, un-val'[=u]d, _adj._ not valued; not yet having the value set: invaluable.--_adj._ UNVAL'UABLE, priceless. UNVANQUISHED, un-vang'kwisht, _adj._ not conquered.--_adj._ UNVANQ'UISHABLE, that cannot be conquered. UNVARIED, un-v[=a]'rid, _adj._ not varied.--_adjs._ UNV[=A]'RIABLE, invariable; UNV[=A]'RYING, not varying. UNVARIEGATED, un-v[=a]'ri-e-g[=a]-ted, _adj._ not variegated. UNVARNISHED, un-vär'nisht, _adj._ not varnished: not artfully embellished: plain. UNVASCULAR, un-vas'k[=u]-lar, _adj._ non-vascular, devoid of vessels. UNVASSAL, un-vas'al, _v.t._ to free from vassalage. UNVEIL, un-v[=a]l', _v.t._ to remove a veil from: to disclose, reveal.--_v.i._ to become unveiled, to reveal one's self.--_adv._ UNVEIL'EDLY.--_n._ UNVEIL'ER. UNVENERABLE, un-ven'e-ra-bl, _adj._ not venerable. UNVENOMED, un-ven'umd, _adj._ not venomous.--Also UNVEN'OMOUS. UNVENTED, un-ven'ted, _adj._ not vented. UNVENTILATED, un-ven'ti-l[=a]-ted, _adj._ not ventilated. UNVERACIOUS, un-ve-r[=a]'shus, _adj._ not veracious or truthful.--_n._ UNVERAC'ITY. UNVERDANT, un-ver'dant, _adj._ not verdant. UNVERSED, un-verst', _adj._ not skilled: not put in verse. UNVEXED, un-vekst', _adj._ not vexed or troubled. UNVICAR, un-vik'ar, _v.t._ to deprive of the office of vicar. UNVIOLABLE, un-v[=i]'[=o]-la-bl, _adj._ not to be violated.--_adj._ UNV[=I]'OL[=A]TED, not violated. UNVIRTUE, un-v[.e]r't[=u], _n._ lack of virtue.--_adj._ UNVIR'TUOUS.--_adv._ UNVIR'TUOUSLY. UNVITAL, un-v[=i]'tal, _adj._ not vital. UNVITIATED, un-vish'i-[=a]-ted, _adj._ not vitiated. UNVIZARD, un-viz'ard, _v.t._ to divest of a vizard. UNVOICED, un-voist', _adj._ not spoken. UNVOIDABLE, un-voi'da-bl, _adj._ that cannot be made void. UNVOLUNTARY, un-vol'un-ta-ri, _adj._ (_obs._) involuntary. UNVOLUPTUOUS, un-v[=o]-lupt'[=u]-us, _adj._ not voluptuous. UNVOTE, un-v[=o]t, _v.t._ to cancel by vote. UNVOWED, un-vowd', _adj._ not vowed. UNVOYAGEABLE, un-voi'[=a]j-a-bl, _adj._ that cannot be navigated, impassable. UNVULGAR, un-vul'gar, _adj._ not vulgar.--_v.t._ UNVUL'GARISE, to divest of vulgarity. UNWAITED, un-w[=a]'ted, _adj._ not attended (with _on_). UNWAKEFUL, un-w[=a]k'fool, _adj._ not waking easily, sleeping soundly.--_n._ UNWAKE'FULNESS.--_adj._ UNW[=A]K'ENED. UNWALLET, un-wol'et, _v.t._ to take from a wallet. UNWANDERING, un-won'd[.e]r-ing, _adj._ not wandering. UNWARLIKE, un-wawr'l[=i]k, _adj._ not warlike. UNWARM, un-wawrm', _adj._ not warm.--_v.i._ to lose warmth. UNWARNED, un-wawrnd', _adj._ not warned.--_adv._ UNWARN'EDLY. UNWARP, un-wawrp', _v.t._ to change from being warped.--_adj._ UNWARPED'. UNWARRANTABLE, un-wor'an-ta-bl, _adj._ not warrantable or justifiable: improper.--_ns._ UNWARRANTABIL'ITY, UNWARR'ANTABLENESS.--_adv._ UNWARR'ANTABLY, in an unwarrantable manner: improperly.--_adj._ UNWARR'ANTED, without warrant or authorisation: not guaranteed as to quality, &c.--_adv._ UNWARR'ANTEDLY. UNWARY, un-w[=a]'ri, _adj._ not wary or cautious (_Spens._) unexpected.--_adv._ UNW[=A]'RILY, in an unwary or heedless manner.--_n._ UNW[=A]'RINESS, the state of being unwary, careless, or heedless. UNWASHED, un-wosht', _adj._ not washed, filthy: untouched by the waves. UNWASTED, un-w[=a]s'ted, _adj._ not wasted, not devastated. UNWATCHFUL, un-woch'fool, _adj._ not watchful.--UNWATCH'FULLY.--_n._ UNWATCH'FULNESS. UNWATER, un-waw't[.e]r, _v.t._ to free, as a mine, by pumping out the water.--_adj._ UNWA'TERED, freed from water, not wetted or moistened: not supplied with water. UNWAVERING, un-w[=a]'v[.e]r-ing, _adj._ not wavering.--_adv._ UNW[=A]'VERINGLY. UNWAYED, un-w[=a]d', _adj._ not used to the road: having no roads or paths. UNWEAKENED, un-w[=e]k'nd, _adj._ not weakened. UNWEANED, un-w[=e]nd', _adj._ not weaned. UNWEARIED, un-w[=e]'rid, _adj._ not tiring: indefatigable.--_adj._ UNWEA'RIABLE, that cannot be wearied out.--_advs._ UNWEA'RIABLY; UNWEA'RIEDLY.--_n._ UNWEA'RIEDNESS.--_adj._ UNWEA'RY, not weary.--_v.t._ to refresh after weariness. UNWEAVE, un-w[=e]v', _v.t._ to undo what is woven. UNWEB, un-web', _v.t._ to undo the web of.--_adj._ UNWEBBED', not web-footed. UNWED, un-wed', _adj._ unmarried. UNWEDGABLE, un-wej'a-bl, _adj._ (_Shak._) unable to be split with wedges. UNWEEDED, un-w[=e]'ded, _adj._ not weeded. UNWEEPING, un-w[=e]'ping, _adj._ not weeping. UNWEETING, un-w[=e]'ting, _adj._ unwitting, not knowing, ignorant.--_adv._ UNWEE'TINGLY, ignorantly. UNWEIGHED, un-w[=a]d', _adj._ not weighed: not pondered: unguarded. UNWELCOME, un-wel'kum, _adj._ not welcome, causing grief.--_v.t._ to treat as unwelcome.--_adv._ UNWEL'COMELY.--_n._ UNWEL'COMENESS. UNWELL, un-wel', _adj._ not well: not in good health.--_n._ UNWELL'NESS. UNWEPT, un-wept', _adj._ not mourned. UNWHIPPED, un-whipt', _adj._ not whipped. UNWHOLESOME, un-h[=o]l'sum, _adj._ not wholesome: unfavourable to health: repulsive.--_adv._ UNWHOLE'SOMELY.--_n._ UNWHOLE'SOMENESS. UNWIELDY, un-w[=e]l'di, _adj._ not easily moved or handled.--_adv._ UNWIEL'DILY.--_n._ UNWIEL'DINESS, the state or quality of being unwieldy: difficulty of being moved. UNWILFUL, un-wil'fool, _adj._ not wilful. UNWILLING, un-wil'ing, _adj._ not willing: disinclined: reluctant.--_v.t._ UNWILL', to will the opposite of.--_adj._ UNWILLED', spontaneous.--_adv._ UNWILL'INGLY.--_n._ UNWILL'INGNESS. UNWILY, un-w[=i]'li, _adj._ not wily. UNWIND, un-w[=i]nd', _v.t._ to wind down or off.--_v.i._ to become unwound. UNWINKING, un-wing'king, _adj._ not winking, not ceasing to keep watch. UNWINNING, un-win'ing, _adj._ not winning, not conciliatory. UNWIPED, un-w[=i]pt', _adj._ not wiped. UNWIRE, un-w[=i]r, _v.t._ to take out the wire from. UNWISE, un-w[=i]z', _adj._ not wise: injudicious: foolish.--_n._ UNWIS'DOM, want of wisdom: ignorance: foolishness.--_adv._ UNWISE'LY, not wisely or prudently. UNWISH, un-wish', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to wish not to be.--_adj._ UNWISHED', not wished for. UNWIST, un-wist', _adj._ (_Spens._) not known. UNWITCH, un-wich', _v.t._ to set free from the power of witchcraft. UNWITHDRAWING, un-with-draw'ing, _adj._ not withdrawing. UNWITHERED, un-with'[.e]rd, _adj._ not withered.--_adj._ UNWITH'ERING, not withering or fading. UNWITHHELD, un-with-held', _adj._ not withheld. UNWITHSTOOD, un-with-st[=oo]d', _adj._ not opposed or resisted. UNWITNESSED, un-wit'nest, _adj._ not witnessed. UNWITTILY, un-wit'i-li, _adv._ not wittily, without wit. UNWITTING, un-wit'ing, _adj._ without knowledge: ignorant.--_adv._ UNWITT'INGLY. UNWIVED, un-w[=i]vd, _adj._ not having a wife. UNWOMAN, un-w[=oo]m'an, _v.t._ to make unwomanly.--_n._ UNWOM'ANLINESS.--_adj._ UNWOM'ANLY, not befitting or becoming a woman.--_adv._ in a manner unbecoming a woman. UNWONDERING, un-wun'd[.e]r-ing, _adj._ not wondering. UNWONTED, un-wun'ted, _adj._ not wonted or accustomed: uncommon--(_Spens._) UNWONT'.--_adv._ UNWON'TEDLY.--_n._ UNWON'TEDNESS. UNWOOED, un-w[=oo]d', _adj._ not wooed. UNWOOF, un-w[=oo]f', _v.t._ to remove the woof from. UNWORDED, un-wur'ded, _adj._ not worded, silent. UNWORK, un-wurk', _v.t._ to undo.--_adjs._ UNWOR'KABLE, not workable: difficult to manage; UNWOR'KING, living without labour; UNWORK'MANLIKE, not like a good workman. UNWORLDLY, un-wurld'li, _adj._ above worldly or self-interested motives, spiritual.--_n._ UNWORLD'LINESS. UNWORMED, un-wurmd', _adj._ not wormed, not having had the worm or lytta under the tongue cut out--of a dog. UNWORN, un-w[=o]rn', _adj._ not worn. UNWORSHIPPED, un-wur'shipt, _adj._ not worshipped. UNWORTHY, un-wur'_th_i, _adj._ not worthy: worthless: unbecoming.--_n._ UNWORTH (-worth'), unworthiness.--_adv._ UNWOR'THILY, in an unworthy manner: without due regard to worth or merit.--_n._ UNWOR'THINESS. UNWOUNDED, un-w[=oo]n'ded, _adj._ not wounded: not offended. UNWRAP, un-rap', _v.t._ to open what is wrapped or folded.--_v.i._ to become unwrapped. UNWREAKED, un-r[=e]kt', _adj._ (_Spens._) unrevenged. UNWREATHE, un-r[=e]th', _v.t._ to untwist, as anything wreathed. UNWRECKED, un-rekt', _adj._ not wrecked. UNWRINKLE, un-ring'kl, _v.t._ to smooth out from a wrinkled state.--_adj._ UNWRINK'LED, not wrinkled, smooth. UNWRITTEN, un-rit'n, _adj._ not written or reduced to writing, oral: containing no writing.--_v.t._ UNWRITE', to cancel what is written.--_adj._ UNWR[=I]T'ING, not writing. UNWROUGHT, un-rawt', _adj._ not laboured or manufactured. UNWRUNG, un-rung', _adj._ not galled. UNYIELDING, un-y[=e]l'ding, _adj._ not yielding or bending: stiff: obstinate.--_adv._ UNYIEL'DINGLY.--_n._ UNYIEL'DINGNESS. UNYOKE, un-y[=o]k', _v.t._ to loose from a yoke: to disjoin.--_v.i._ to be loosed from a yoke, to cease work.--_adj._ UNYOKED', not yoked: not having worn the yoke: (_Shak._) unrestrained, licentious. UNZEALOUS, un-zel'us, _adj._ not zealous, devoid of zeal or fervour. UNZONED, un-z[=o]nd', _adj._ having no zone or girdle. UP, up, _adv._ toward a higher place: aloft: on high: from a lower to a higher position, as out of bed, above the horizon, &c.: in a higher position: in a condition of elevation, advance, excitement, &c.: as far as, abreast of: completely: at an end, over.--_prep._ from a lower to a higher place on or along.--_adj._ inclining up, upward.--_n._ in phrase '_ups_ and downs,' rises and falls, vicissitudes.--_adv._ UP'-AND-DOWN', upright: here and there.--_adj._ plain, downright.--UP STICK, to pack up; UP TO (_coll._), about, engaged in doing; UP TO ANYTHING, capable of and ready for any mischief; UP TO DATE, to the present time: containing all recent facts, statistics, &c.: knowing the latest developments of fashion, usage, &c.; UP TO SNUFF (see SNUFF); UP TO THE KNOCKER (_slang_), up to the required standard, excellent; UP TOWN (_coll._), pertaining to the upper part of a town: towards the upper part of a town. [A.S. _up_, _upp_; Ger. _auf_; L. _sub_, Gr. _hypo_.] UPANISHAD, [=oo]-pan'i-shad, _n._ in Sanskrit literature, a name given to a class of treatises of theosophic and philosophical character, more or less closely connected with the Brâhmanas, which are theological prose-works attached to each of the four collections (_Samhitâ_) forming the Veda. [Sans.] UPAS, [=u]'pas, _n._ the juice of the Antjar or Anchar tree of the Philippine Islands, a powerful vegetable poison. [Malay, _[=u]pas_, poison.] UPBAR, up-bär', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to lift up the bar of, to unbar. UPBEAR, up-b[=a]r', _v.t._ to bear up: to raise aloft: to sustain. UPBIND, up-b[=i]nd'. _v.t._ to bind up. UPBLAZE, up-bl[=a]z, _v.i._ to blaze or shoot up. UPBLOW, up-bl[=o]', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to blow up. UPBRAID, up-br[=a]d', _v.t._ to charge with something wrong or disgraceful: to reproach: to reprove severely.--_v.i._ to utter reproaches.--_n._ UPBRAID'ING, a charging with something wrong: act of reproaching.--_adv._ UPBRAID'INGLY. [A.S. _up_, up, on, _bregdan_, to braid.] UPBRAST, up-brast', _v.pa.t._ (_Spens._) burst open. UPBRAY, up-br[=a]', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to upbraid.--_n._ an upbraiding. UPBREAK, up'br[=a]k, _n._ a breaking up or bursting forth. UPBRINGING, up'bring-ing, _n._ the process of nourishing and training. UPBROUGHT, up-brawt', _adj._ (_Spens._) brought up, educated. UPBUILDING, up-bil'ding, _n._ the act of building up, edification. UPBUOYANCE, up-boi'ans, _n._ the act of buoying up. UPBURST, up'burst, _n._ a bursting up. UPBY, up'b[=i], _adv._ (_Scot._) up the way, a little farther on or up. UPCAST, up'kast, _n._ a cast or throw in bowling: a shaft for the upward passage of air from a mine, a current of air passing along such: (_Scot._) state of being thrown into confusion, a taunt or gibe.--_adj._ thrown or turned upward. UPCAUGHT, up-kawt', _adj._ caught up. UPCHEER, up-ch[=e]r', _v.t._ to cheer up, to brighten. UPCLIMB, up-kl[=i]m', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to climb up, to ascend. UPCOIL, up-koil', _v.t._ and _v.i._ to coil. UPCOMING, up'kum-ing, _n._ act of coming up. UP-COUNTRY, up'kun-tri, _adv._ toward the interior.--_n._ the interior of a country.--_adj._ away from the seaboard. UPFILL, up-fil', _v.t._ to fill up. UPFLOW, up-fl[=o]', _v.i._ to stream up.--_n._ UP'FLOW, a flowing up. UPGATHER, up-gath'[.e]r, _v.t._ to gather up: (_Spens._) to contract. UPGAZE, up-g[=a]z', _v.i._ to gaze or look steadily upward. UPGROWTH, up'gr[=o]th, _n._ process of growing up, development: that which grows up.--_v.i._ UPGROW', to grow up. UPGUSH, up-gush', _v.i._ to gush upward.--_n._ UP'GUSH, a gushing upward. UPHAND, up'hand, _adj._ lifted by hand. UPHEAP, up-h[=e]p', _v.t._ to heap up.--_n._ UPHEAP'ING. UPHEAVE, up-h[=e]v', _v.t._ to heave or lift up.--_n._ UPHEAV'AL, the raising of surface formations by the action of internal forces, believed to be due to the sinking in of the crust upon the cooling and contracting nucleus. UPHELD, up-held', _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _uphold_. UPHILL, up'hil, _adj._ ascending: difficult.--_adv._ up a hill, against difficulties. UPHOARD, up-h[=o]rd', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to hoard up. UPHOLD, up-h[=o]ld', _v.t._ to hold up: to sustain: to countenance: to defend: to continue without failing.--_n._ UPH[=O]L'DER.--_v.t._ UPH[=O]L'STER, to furnish furniture with stuffing, springs, &c., to provide with curtains, &c.--_ns._ UPH[=O]L'STERER, one who supplies or who sells furniture, beds, curtains, &c.; UPH[=O]L'STERY, furniture, &c., supplied by upholsterers. UPHROE, [=u]'fr[=o], _n._ (_naut._) the circular piece of wood, with holes in it, by which the legs of a crowfoot are extended for suspending an awning.--Also U'VROU. [Dut. _juffrouw_, a young woman.] UPKEEP, up'k[=e]p, _n._ maintenance, means of support. UPLAND, up'land, _n._ upper or high land, as opposed to meadows, river-sides, &c.--_adj._ high in situation: pertaining to uplands.--_n._ UP'LANDER.--_adj._ UP'LANDISH (_obs._). UPLAY, up-l[=a]', _v.t._ to lay up, to hoard. UPLEAN, up-l[=e]n', _v.i._ (_Spens._) to lean upon anything. UPLIFT, up-lift', _v.t._ to lift up or raise aloft.--_n._ a raising or upheaval of strata. UPLOCK, up-lok', _v.t._ to lock up. UPLOOK, up-look', _v.i._ (_Shak._) to look up. UPLYING, up'l[=i]-ing, _adj._ upland, elevated. UPMAKING, up'm[=a]-king, _n._ (_naut._) pieces of plank or timber piled on each other as filling up in building, esp. between the bilge-ways and ship's bottom, preparatory to launching: (_print._) arrangement of lines into columns or pages. UPMOST. See UPPER. UPON, up-on', _prep._ on, in an elevated position.--_adv._ on. UPPER, up'[.e]r, _adj._ (comp. of _up_) farther up: higher in position, dignity, &c.: superior:--_superl._ UP'PERMOST, UP'MOST.--_ns._ UP'PER, the part of a boot or shoe above the sole and welt; UP'PERHAND, superiority: advantage.--_adj._ UP'PERMOST, highest in place, rank, &c.: first to come into the mind.--_adv._ in the highest place, first.--_n._ UP'PER-ST[=O]'RY, a story above the ground-floor: the brain.--_n.pl._ UP'PER-TEN, the wealthier or leading class in a community.--_adj._ UP'PISH, assuming, pretentious, snobbish.--_adv._ UP'PISHLY.--_n._ UP'PISHNESS. [For affix _-most_, cf. _Aftermost_, _Foremost_.] UP-PILE, up-p[=i]l', _v.t._ to pile up. UPPING, up'ing, _n._ the same as _swan-upping_ or _-marking_. UP-PLOUGH, up-plow', _v.t._ to plough up. UP-PLUCK, up-pluk', _v.t._ to pluck or pull up. UP-PRICKED, up-prikt', _adj._ pricked up, erected. UP-PROP, up-prop', _v.t._ to prop up. UP-PUTTING, up'-poot'ing, _n._ (_Scot._) lodging and entertainment. UPRAISE, up-r[=a]z', _v.t._ to raise or lift up.--_n._ UPRAIS'ING (_Scot._), nurture. UPREAR, up-r[=e]r', _v.t._ to rear or raise. UPRIDGED, up-rijd', _adj._ raised up in ridges.--_v.t._ UPRIDGE', to raise up in ridges. UPRIGHT, up'r[=i]t, _adj._ right or straight up: in an erect position: adhering to rectitude: honest: just.--_adv._ vertically.--_advs._ UPRIGH'TEOUSLY (_obs._), in an upright or just manner; UP'RIGHTLY, in an upright manner: honestly.--_n._ UP'RIGHTNESS. UPRISE, up-r[=i]z', _v.i._ to rise up.--_ns._ UP'RISE (_Shak._), the act of rising: appearance above the horizon; UPR[=I]'SING, the act of rising up, ascent: any strong outburst of popular excitement, insurrection: (_Shak._) an ascent, a steep place.--_v.pa.t._ UPRIST' (_Coleridge_), uprose. UPROAR, up'r[=o]r, _n._ noise and tumult: bustle and clamour.--_v.t._ UPROAR' (_Shak._), to throw into uproar or confusion.--_v.i._ to make an uproar.--_adj._ UPROAR'IOUS, making or accompanied by great uproar.--_adv._ UPROAR'IOUSLY.--_n._ UPROAR'IOUSNESS, the state of being uproarious, noisy, or riotous. [Dut. _oproer_, from _op_, up, and _roeren_ (Ger. _rühren_, A.S. _hréran_), to stir; the form due to confusion with _roar_.] UPROLL, up-r[=o]l', _v.t._ to roll up. UPROOT, up-r[=oo]t', _v.t._ to tear up by the roots.--_n._ UPROOT'AL, act of uprooting. UPROSE, up-r[=o]z', _pa.t._ of _uprise_. UPROUSE, up-rowz', _v.t._ to rouse up. UPRUN, up-run', _v.t._ to run up, ascend. UPRUSH., up-rush', _v.i._ to rush upward.--_n._ UP'RUSH, a rush upward. UPSEE, up's[=e], _adv._ after the manner of, as 'to drink upsee Dutch'--(Scott) UP'SEES. [Dut, _op zijn Duitsch_, in the Dutch, i.e. German, fashion.] UPSEEK, up-s[=e]k', _v.i._ to seek upward. UPSEND, up-send', _v.t._ to send or throw up. UPSET, up-set', _v.t._ to turn upside down: to overthrow.--_v.i._ to be upset.--_n._ UP'SET, an overturn.--_adj._ relating to what is set up for sale, in phrase UPSET PRICE, the sum at which anything is started at a public sale.--_ns._ UPSET'MENT; UPSET'TER.--_adj._ UPSET'TING discomposing: (_Scot._) conceited, assuming. UPSHOOT, up-sh[=oo]t', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to shoot upward. UPSHOT, up'shot, _n._ final issue: end. UPSIDE, up's[=i]d, _n._ the upper side.--_adv._ on the upper side.--_adv._ UP'SIDE-DOWN, with the upper part undermost: in complete confusion.--BE UPSIDES WITH (_coll._), to be even with, to be revenged upon. UPSITTING, up'sit-ing, _n._ (_obs._) the sitting up of a woman after confinement, the feast held on such occasion. UPSNATCH, up-snach', _v.t._ to snatch up. UPSOAR, up-s[=o]r', _v.i._ to soar upward. UPSPEAR, up-sp[=e]r', _v.i._ to shoot up straight like a spear. UPSPRING, up'spring, _n._ (_Shak._) an upstart.--_v.i._ UPSPRING', to spring up, rise:--_pa.t._ upsprung'. UPSTAIRS, up-st[=a]rz', _adv._ in or toward the upper story.--_adj._ UP'STAIRS, pertaining to an upper story or flat.--_n._ an upper story. UPSTAND, up-stand', _v.i._ (_Milt._) to stand up:--_pa.t._ upstood'. UPSTARE, up-st[=a]r', _v.i._ (_Spens._) to stare upward, to stand up erect. UPSTART, up'stärt, _adj._ (_Milt._) suddenly raised to prominence or consequence, characteristic of such, pretentious and vulgar.--_n._ one who has suddenly risen from poverty or obscurity to wealth or power.--_v.i._ UPSTART', to start up suddenly. UPSTAY, up-st[=a]', _v.t._ to stay, sustain, support. UPSTREAM, up'str[=e]m, _adv._ towards the upper part of a stream.--_v.i._ UPSTREAM', to stream up. UP-STROKE, up'-str[=o]k, _n._ an upward line made by the pen in writing. UPSURGE, up-surj', _v.i._ to surge up. UPSWARM, up-swawrm', _v.t._ (_Shak._) to raise in a swarm. UPSWAY, up-sw[=a]', _v.t._ to swing up. UPSWEEP, up-sw[=e]p', _n._ a sweeping upward. UPSWELL, up-swel', _v.i._ to swell or surge up. UPTAKE, up't[=a]k, _n._ the act of lifting up: (_prov._) mental apprehension: the upcast pipe from the smoke-box of a steam-boiler towards the chimney.--_v.t._ UPTAKE', to take up. UPTEAR, up-t[=a]r', _v.t._ to tear up. UPTHROW, up-thr[=o]', _v.t._ to throw up.--_n._ UP'THROW, an upheaval, an uplift. UPTHRUST, up'thrust, _n._ a thrust upward, an upheaval of a mass of rock. UPTHUNDER, up-thun'd[.e]r, _v.i._ to send up a noise like thunder. UPTIE, up-t[=i]', _v.t._ to tie up: (_Spens._) to twist. UPTILT, up-tilt', _v.t._ to tilt up.--_adj._ UPTILT'ED. UPTOSS, up-tos', _v.t._ to toss up.--_adj._ UPTOSSED', tossed upward, greatly agitated. UPTOWN, up'town, _adj._ situated in the upper part of a town.--_adv._ to or in the upper part of a town. UPTRACE, up-tr[=a]s', _v.i._ to trace up. UPTRAIN, up-tr[=a]n', _v.t._ to train up. UPTRILL, up-tril', _v.t._ to trill in a high voice. UPTURN, up-turn', _v.t._ to turn up or upward: to throw up.--_v.i._ to turn up.--_n._ UPTUR'NING, the act of throwing up. UPWAFTED, up-waf'ted, _adj._ borne or wafted upward. UPWARD, up'ward, _adj._ directed up or to a higher place.--_advs._ UP'WARD, UP'WARDLY, UP'WARDS, toward a higher direction; UP'WAYS, upward.--UPWARD OF, more than, about. UPWELL, up-wel', _v.i._ to upspring. UPWHIRL, up-hw[.e]rl', _v.i._ to whirl upward.--_v.t._ to raise upward in a whirling course. UPWIND, up-w[=i]nd', _v.t._ (_Spens._) to wind up:--_pa.t._ upwound'. UPWREATHE, up-r[=e]_th_', _v.i._ to rise with a wreathing or curling motion. UPWROUGHT, up-rawt', _p.adj._ wrought upward. UR, er, _interj._ a meaningless utterance between the words of hesitating speakers. URACHUS, [=u]'ra-kus, _n._ one of the ligaments of the bladder formed by the remaining constricted portion of the allantois of the foetus. [Gr. _ourachos_--_ouron_, urine.] URÆMIA, [=u]-r[=e]'mi-a, _n._ a morbid condition of the blood due to the retention of urea or other waste materials ordinarily excreted from the body by the kidneys--also UR[=E]'MIA.--_adjs._ URÆ'MIC, UR[=E]'MIC, relating to the peculiar symptoms associated with defective excretion of waste products by the kidneys. URÆUM, [=u]-r[=e]'um, _n._ the posterior half of a bird--opp. to _Stethiæum_:--_pl._ URÆ'A. [Gr. _oura_, a tail.] URÆUS, [=u]-r[=e]'us, _n._ the serpent emblem of ancient Egyptian divinities and kings, placed on the headdress. [Gr. _ouraios_, of the tail.] URAL-ALTAIC, [=u]-ral-al-t[=a]'ik, _adj._ pertaining to a racial and linguistic group of peoples, one of the four great branches of the Mongolic stock. URALITE, [=u]'ral-[=i]t, _n._ a mineral with the crystalline form of augite and the cleavage and specific gravity of hornblende.--_adj._ URALIT'IC.--_n._ URALITIS[=A]'TION, the paramorphic change of augite to hornblende.--_v.t._ U'RALITISE. URANIA, [=u]-r[=a]'ni-a, _n._ the Muse of astronomy, represented with a celestial globe in her hand, to which she points with a little staff.--_adj._ UR[=A]'NIAN. [L.,--Gr. _ouranios_, heavenly--_ouranos_, heaven.] URANISCUS, [=u]-ra-nis'kus, _n._ the vault or roof of the mouth. [Gr. _ouraniskos_, dim. of _ouranos_, the vault of heaven.] URANITE, [=u]'ra-n[=i]t, _n._ a greenish ore of uranium.--_adj._ URANIT'IC. URANIUM, [=u]-r[=a]'ni-um, _n._ a very hard but moderately malleable metal, resembling nickel or iron in its lustre and colour, but in a finely comminuted state occurring as a black powder.--_adj._ UR[=A]'NIC. [Gr. _ouranos_, heaven.] URANOGRAPHY, [=u]-ra-nog'ra-fi, _n._ descriptive astronomy, esp. of the constellations.--_adjs._ URAN'IC; URANOGRAPH'IC, -AL.--_n._ URANOG'RAPHIST. URANOMETRY, [=u]-ra-nom'e-tri, _n._ the measurement of the heavens: a description of the groups of constellations. URANOSCOPY, [=u]'ra-nos-k[=o]-pi, _n._ observation of the heavenly bodies. URANUS, [=u]'ra-nus, _n._ the name of one of the primary planets. [L.,--Gr. _ouranos_, heaven.] URAO, [=oo]-rä'[=o], _n._ the natron found in the dried-up beds of South American lakes and streams. URATE, [=u]'r[=a]t, _n._ a salt of uric acid.--_adj._ URAT'IC, pertaining to the urates.--_ns._ URAT[=O]'MA, a deposit of urates in the tissues; URAT[=O]'SIS, a morbid condition in which this takes place. URBAN, ur'ban, _adj._ of or belonging to a city.--_adj._ URB[=A]NE', pertaining to, or influenced by, a city: civilised: refined: courteous.--_adv._ URB[=A]NE'LY.--_n._ URBAN'ITY, the quality of being urbane: refinement: politeness.--URBI ET ORBI='to the city and to the world,' a form used in the publication of papal bulls, for the purpose of signifying their formal promulgation to the entire Catholic world, as well as to the city of Rome. [L. _urbanus_--_urbs_, a city.] URCEOLUS, ur-s[=e]'[=o]-lus, _n._ a monopetalous corolla with a contracted orifice: the external case or sheath of a rotifer.--_n._ URC[=E][=O]L[=A]'RIA, a genus of gymnocarpous lichens with urceolate apothecia.--_adjs._ URCEOL[=A]'RIAN; UR'CEOL[=A]TE, pitcher-shaped: having an urceolus, as a rotifer.--_n._ UR'CEUS, a ewer for holding water for washing. [L. _urceolus_, dim. of _urceus_, a pitcher.] URCHIN, ur'chin, _n._ a hedgehog: a mischievous child, an elf, fairy.--_adj._ elfish, mischievous. [O. Fr. _eriçon_ (Fr. _hérisson_)--L. _ericius_, a hedgehog.] URDÉ, ur-d[=a]', _adj._ (_her._) pointed, as a cross, or having a point projected, as a bend: varriated. [Fr.,--Old High Ger. _ort_, a point.] URDÚ, [=oo]r'd[=oo], _n._ Hindustani, a peculiar and important form of Hindi--now a kind of _lingua franca_ for the whole of India. URE, [=u]r, _n._ (_obs._) practice, operation.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ to work, exercise. UREA, [=u]'r[=e]-a, _n._ a readily soluble colourless crystalline compound formed in the tissues during the disintegration of proteid material, and carried by the blood to the kidneys, which separate it and pass it off in the urine.--_adj._ U'R[=E]AL, pertaining to urea.--_ns._ UREAM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the amount of urea in in urine; UREAM'ETRY. [Gr. _ouron_, urine.] UREDO, [=u]-r[=e]'d[=o], _n._ a form-genus or stage of fungi of order _Uredineæ_.--_adjs._ UREDIN'EOUS, URED'INOUS; UR[=E]'DOFORM.--_n._ UR[=E]'DOSPORE.--_adj._ UREDOSPOR'IC. URENA, [=u]-r[=e]'na, _n._ a genus of _Malvaceæ_--the Indian mallow. URETER, [=u]-r[=e]'t[.e]r, _n._ the duct which conveys the urine from the kidneys to the bladder.--_adjs._ UR[=E]'TAL, UR[=E]'TERAL, UR[=E]TER'IC.--_n._ UR[=E]TER[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the ureter. [Gr.,--_ouron_, urine.] URETHRA, [=u]-r[=e]'thra, _n._ the canal by which the urine is discharged from the bladder:--_pl._ UR[=E]'THRÆ.--_adjs._ UR[=E]'THRAL; UR[=E]THRIT'IC affected with urethritis.--_n._ UR[=E]THR[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the urethra. [Gr.,--_ouron_, urine.] URF, urf, _n._ (_Scot._) a stunted child. URGE, urj, _v.t._ to press in any way: to drive: to press earnestly: to solicit earnestly: to provoke.--_v.i._ to incite: to insist: to make allegations.--_n._ act of urging.--_n._ UR'GENCY, quality of being urgent: earnest asking: pressing necessity.--_adj._ UR'GENT, urging: pressing with importunity: calling for immediate attention: earnest.--_adv._ UR'GENTLY.--_n._ UR'GER. [L. _urg[=e]re_, to press.] URIA, [=u]'ri-a, _n._ a genus of _Alcidæ_--the guillemots and murres. URICONIAN, [=u]-ri-k[=o]'ni-an, _n._ the name applied to a series of volcanic rocks of which the Wrekin is composed. [_Uriconium_, a Roman station on the site of which Wroxeter in Shropshire stands.] URILE, [=u]'ril, _n._ a kind of cormorant. URIM, [=u]'rim, THUMMIM, thum'im, _ns.pl._ first mentioned in Exod. xxviii. 30, in connection with the High-priest's breastplate, apparently a pair of objects used at critical junctures as a kind of traditional oracle, but which could not always be counted on for an answer (1 Sam. xxviii. 6). URINE, [=u]'rin, _n._ the fluid which is secreted or separated by the kidneys from the blood and conveyed to the bladder--the principal means of removing the worn-out tissues, esp. the nitrogenous and saline matters, from the system.--_n._ UR[=E]'SIS, a frequent desire to make water.--_adj._ U'RIC, pertaining to, or obtained from, urine.--_ns._ URICÆ'MIA, lithemia; URIDR[=O]'SIS, the excretion of urea in the sweat; URINÆ'MIA, the contamination of the blood with urinary deposits; U'RINAL, a vessel for urine: a convenience for discharging urine.--_adjs._ U'RINANT (_her._) diving; U'RINARY, pertaining to, or like, urine.--_n._ a reservoir for keeping urine.--_v.i._ U'RINATE, to discharge urine.--_n._ URIN[=A]'TION.--_adj._ U'RIN[=A]TIVE.--_n._ U'RIN[=A]TOR, a diver.--_adjs._ URINAT[=O]'RIAL; URINIF'EROUS, conveying urine; URINIF'IC, secreting urine; URINIP'AROUS, producing urine.--_ns._ URINOL'OGY, the scientific knowledge of urine; URINOM'ETER, an instrument for weighing urine.--_adj._ URINOMET'RIC.--_n._ URINOM'ETRY.--_adj._ URINOSCOP'IC.--_n._ U'RINOSCOPY, inspection of urine.--_adjs._ U'RINOSE, U'RINOUS, relating to urine: partaking of the qualities of urine: like urine.--_ns._ U'ROCHROME, a yellow pigment of the urine; URODIAL'YSIS, a partial suppression of urine; UROGAS'TER, the urinary passages collectively.--_adjs._ UROGEN'ITAL, pertaining to the urinary and genital organs--also URINOGEN'ITAL, URINOGEN'ITARY, _Genito-urinary_; UROG'ENOUS, producing urine.--_ns._ UROLITH[=I]'ASIS, lithiasis; UROL'OGY, urinology; U'ROMANCY, divination by urine; UROPL[=A]'NIA, the abnormal presence of urine in any part of the body; UROPOI[=E]'SIS, the formation of urine.--_adj._ UROPOIET'IC.--_ns._ URORRH[=A]'GIA, excessive micturation; URORRH[=E]'A, URORRHOE'A, involuntary passage of urine.--_adj._ UROSCOP'IC (same as URINOSCOPIC).--_ns._ U'ROSC[=O]PIST, one skilled in urinoscopy; U'ROSCOPY (same as urinoscopy); UR[=O]'SIS, any disease of the urinary organs. [Fr.,--L. _urina_; cog. with Gr. _ouron_, Sans. _v[=a]ri_, water.] URITE, [=u]'r[=i]t, _n._ the sternite of an abdominal segment of an insect. [Gr. _oura_, a tail.] URMAN, ur'man, _n._ a large tract of swampy coniferous forest in Siberia. [Tatar.] URN, urn, _n._ a rounded or angular vase having a foot, a water vessel, an electoral vase, a tea-urn, &c.: a vessel in which the ashes of the dead were anciently deposited, hence the grave.--_v.t._ to enclose in an urn.--_adj._ URN'AL.--_n._ URN'FUL, as much as an urn will hold.--_adj._ URN'-SHAPED, having the shape of an urn. [L. _urna_, an urn--_ur[)e]re_, to burn.] UROCARDIAC, [=u]-r[=o]-kar'di-ak, _adj._ pertaining to the posterior part of the cardiac division of the stomach of the crayfish and some other crustaceans. UROCHORD, [=u]'r[=o]-kord, _n._ the caudal chord of an ascidian or tunicate.--_adjs._ UROCHOR'DAL, UROCHOR'D[=A]TE. UROCHROA, [=u]-rok'r[=o]-a, _n._ a genus of humming-birds in Ecuador. [Gr. _oura_, tail, _chroa_, colour.] UROCISSA, [=u]-r[=o]-sis'a, _n._ a genus of Asiatic _Corvidæ_, with very long tail. [Gr. _oura_, tail, _kissa_, magpie.] UROCYON, [=u]-ros'i-on, _n._ a genus of canine quadrupeds, the type of which is the common gray fox of the United States. [Gr. _oura_, tail, _ky[=o]n_, dog.] UROCYST, [=u]'r[=o]-sist, _n._ the urinary bladder.--_adj._ UROCYST'IC. [Gr. _ouron_, urine, _kystis_, bladder.] URODELE, [=u]'r[=o]-d[=e]l, _adj._ tailed, as an amphibian.--Also UROD[=E]'LAN, UROD[=E]'LIAN, UROD[=E]'LOUS. [Gr. _oura_, tail, _d[=e]los_, plain.] UROGASTRIC, [=u]-r[=o]-gas'trik, _adj._ pertaining to the posterior pair of divisions of the gastric lobe of the dorsal surface of the carapace of a crab: pertaining to the urogaster (see under URINE). [Gr. _ouron_, urine, _gast[=e]r_, the stomach.] UROHYAL, [=u]-r[=o]-h[=i]'al, _n._ the tail-piece of the composite hyoid bone.--_adj._ pertaining to this. UROMERE, [=u]'r[=o]-m[=e]r, _n._ a caudal segment of an arthropod.--_adj._ UROMER'IC. [Gr. _oura_, tail, _meros_, part.] UROPOD, [=u]'r[=o]-pod, _n._ any abdominal limb of an arthropod.--_adj._ UROP'ODAL. [Gr. _oura_, tail, _pous_, _podos_, foot.] UROPYGIUM, [=u]-r[=o]-pij'i-um, _n._ the rump in birds.--_adj._ UROPYG'IAL. [Gr. _orrhos_, rump, _pyg[=e]_, buttocks.] UROPYLORIC, [=u]-r[=o]-p[=i]-lor'ik, _adj._ pertaining to the posterior part of the pyloric division of the stomach of the crayfish and some other crustaceans. UROSACRAL, [=u]-r[=o]-s[=a]'kral, _adj._ pertaining to the sacrum and to the coccyx.--_n._ UROS[=A]'CRUM. UROSOME, [=u]'r[=o]-s[=o]m, _n._ the terminal somatome of a vertebrate: the post-thoracic region of the body of an arthropod.--_n._ UROS[=O]'MITE, one of the somites of the urosome.--_adj._ UROSOMIT'IC. [Gr. _oura_, tail, _s[=o]ma_, body.] UROSTEGE, [=u]'r[=o]-st[=e]j, _n._ one of the special scales on the under side of a snake's tail--also U'ROSTEGITE.--_adj._ U'ROST[=E]GAL. [Gr. _oura_, tail, _steg[=e]_, a roof.] UROSTEON, [=u]-ros't[=e]-on, _n._ a median posterior ossification of the sternum of some birds. [Gr. _oura_, tail, _osteon_, bone.] UROSTERNITE, [=u]-r[=o]-ster'n[=i]t, _n._ the sternite of any somite of the urosome of an arthropod. UROSTHENE, [=u]'r[=o]-sth[=e]n, _n._ an animal whose strength rests mainly in its tail.--_adj._ UROSTHEN'IC. [Gr. _oura_, tail, _sthenos_, strength.] UROSTYLE, [=u]'r[=o]-st[=i]l, _n._ a prolongation backward of the last vertebra.--_adj._ UROSTY'LAR. [Gr. _oura_, tail, _stylos_, column.] UROTOXIC, [=u]-ro-tok'sik, _adj._ pertaining to poisons eliminated in the urine. [Gr. _ouron_. urine, _toxikon_, poison.] URRY, ur'i, _n._ a dark clay near a bed of coal. [Prob. Gael. _uirlach_--_uir_, earth.] URSINE, ur'sin, _adj._ of or resembling a bear: thickly clothed with bristles, as certain caterpillars.--_n._ a bear.--_n._ UR'SA, the name of two constellations, _Ursa-Major_ and _Ursa-Minor_, the Great and the Little Bear.--_adj._ UR'SIFORM, in appearance like a bear.--_n.pl._ UR'SINÆ, the bears proper. [L.,--_ursus_, a bear.] URSON, ur'sun, _n._ a rodent nearly allied to the porcupine, and often called the Canada Porcupine. URSULINE, ur's[=u]-lin, _adj._ of or pertaining to _St Ursula_, esp. pertaining to the female teaching order founded by St Angela Merici of Brescia in 1537. URTICA, ur'ti-ka, _n._ the genus of nettles, order _Urticaceæ_.--_adjs._ URTIC[=A]'CEOUS, relating to nettles; UR'TICAL, pertaining to the nettles.--_n._ URTIC[=A]'RIA, nettle-rash, hives.--_adjs._ URTIC[=A]'RIAL, URTIC[=A]'RIOUS.--_v.t._ UR'TICATE, to sting, as with nettles.--_n._ URTIC[=A]'TION. [L. _urtica_, a nettle.] URUBU, [=oo]'r[=oo]-b[=oo], _n._ an American vulture. [Braz.] URUS, [=u]'rus, _n._ the Latin name of the wild ox, which in the time of Julius Cæsar was abundant in European forests--the _Aurochs_ of the Germans, and the ancestor of the European domesticated cattle. [L.] URVA, ur'va, _n._ the ichneumon of northern India. URVED, urvd, _adj._ (_her._) turned upward.--Also UR'VANT. US, us, _pron._ the objective case of _we_.--_adv._ US'WARD, toward us. [A.S.] USAGE, [=u]'z[=a]j, _n._ act or mode of using: treatment: practice: custom.--_ns._ U'SAGER, one of the non-jurors who maintained 'the usages'--mixed chalices, oblation in prayer of consecration, and prayer for the dead. [Fr.,--Low L.,--L. _usus_.] USE, [=u]z, _v.t._ to put to some purpose: to avail one's self of: to habituate: to treat or behave toward.--_v.i._ to be accustomed.--_adj._ U'SABLE, that may be used.--_ns._ U'SABLENESS; U'SEE, one for whose use a suit is brought in another's name; U'SER.--USE ONE'S SELF (_Shak._), to behave; USE UP, to consume, to exhaust, to tire out. [Fr. _user_--L. _uti_, _usus_, to use.] USE, [=u]s, _n._ act of using or putting to a purpose: convenience: employment: need: advantage: practice: common occurrence: a distinctive form of public worship or service peculiar to a church, diocese, &c.: custom: interest for money.--_n._ US'ANCE (_obs._), use, usage, employment: (_Shak._) usury, interest for money: the time allowed by usage for the payment of a bill of exchange.--_adj._ USE'FUL, full of use or advantage: able to do good: serviceable.--_adv._ USE'FULLY.--_n._ USE'FULNESS.--_adj._ USE'LESS, having no use: answering no good purpose or the end proposed.--_adv._ USE'LESSLY.--_n._ USE'LESSNESS.--_n.pl._ US'ES, a form of equitable ownership peculiar to English law by which one person enjoys the profits of lands, &c., the legal title to which is vested in another in trust.--USE AND WONT, the customary practice.--HAVE NO USE FOR (_U.S._), to have no liking for; IN USE, in employment or practice; MADE USE OF, to use, to employ; OF NO USE, useless; OF USE, useful; OUT OF USE, not used or employed. [L. _usus_--_uti_.] USHER, ush'[.e]r, _n._ one who meets people at the door of a hall, &c., and conducts them to seats, an officer whose business it is to introduce strangers or to walk before a person of rank: an under-teacher or assistant.--_v.t._ to introduce: to forerun.--_ns._ USH'ERANCE; USH'ERDOM, USH'ERSHIP.--_adjs._ USH[=E]'RIAN; USH'ERLESS. [O. Fr. _ussier_ (Fr. _huissier_)--L. _ostiarius_, a door-keeper--_ostium_, a door.] USITATE, [=u]'zi-t[=a]t, _adj._ according to custom.--_adj._ USIT[=A]'TIVE, expressing usual action. USQUEBAUGH, us'kw[=e]-baw, _n._ whisky. [Ir. and Gael. _uisgebeatha_, _uisge_, water, _beatha_, life.] USTILAGO, us-ti-l[=a]'g[=o], _n._ a genus of parasitic fungi, causing _smut_.--_adj._ USTILAGIN'EOUS. USTION, us'ti-on, _n._ the act of burning, cauterisation by burning.--_adjs._ UST[=O]'RIOUS, burning; US'TULATE, coloured by burning.--_n._ USTUL[=A]'TION, burning. USUAL, [=u]'zh[=u]-al, _adj._ in use: occurring in ordinary use: common.--_adv._ U'SUALLY.--_n._ U'SUALNESS. [L. _usualis_.] USUCAPTION, [=u]-z[=u]-kap'shun, _n._ (_law_) the acquisition of property in anything by possession and enjoyment for a certain term of years.--_n._ USUC[=A]'PIENT, one who has acquired rights by usucaption.--_v.t._ U'SUCAPT, to acquire so.--_adj._ USUCAPT'IBLE. [L. _usus_, use, _cap[)e]re_, _captum_, to take.] USUFRUCT, [=u]'z[=u]-frukt; _n._ the use and profit, but not the property, of a thing: liferent.--_v.t._ to hold in usufruct.--_adj._ USUFRUC'TUARY.--_n._ one who holds property for use by usufruct. [L. _usus-fructus_--_usus_, use, _fructus_, fruit.] USURP, [=u]-zurp', _v.t._ to take possession of by force without right.--_n._ USURP[=A]'TION, act of usurping: unlawful seizure and possession: intrusion into an office.--_adj._ USUR'PATORY.--_ns._ USUR'P[=A]TRIX, a female usurper; USUR'PATURE, usurpation.--_adv._ USUR'PEDLY.--_n._ USUR'PER.--_adj._ USUR'PING.--_adv._ USUR'PINGLY. [Fr.,--L. _usurp[=a]re_, perh. contr. from _usu-rap[)e]re_, to seize to one's own use--_usus_, use, _rap[)e]re_, to seize; or from _usum rump[)e]re_, to break a use.] USURY, [=u]'zh[=u]-ri, _n._ the taking of iniquitous or illegal interest on a loan, formerly interest of any kind on money lent.--_v.i._ U'SURE (_Shak._), to practise usury.--_n._ U'SURER (_orig._, and in _B._), any money-lender for interest: one who practises usury.--_adj._ US[=U]'RIOUS.--_adv._ US[=U]'RIOUSLY.--_n._ US[=U]'RIOUSNESS. [L. _usura_--_uti_, _usus_, to use.] UTA, [=u]'ta, _n._ a genus of small American lizards. [From _Utah_.] UTAS, [=u]'tas, _n._ (_obs._) the time between a festival and the eighth day after it: festivity, stir.--Also U'TIS. [Through O. Fr. from L. _octo_, eight.] UTENSIL, [=u]-ten'sil, _n._ an instrument or vessel used in common life. [Fr. _utensile_--L. _utensilis_, fit for use--_uti_, to use.] UTERINE, [=u]'te-rin, _adj._ pertaining to the womb: born of the same mother by a different father.--_ns._ UTER[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the womb; U'TEROGEST[=A]'TION, the progressive development of the embryo within the womb; UTEROM[=A]'NIA, nymphomania; U'TERUS, the womb. [Fr. _uterin_--L. _uterinis_--_uterus_, the womb.] UTGARD, ut'gard, _n._ (_Scand. myth._) the abode of the giant _Utgard-_Loki on the other side of the great sea which surrounds Midgard, the earth. UTILISE, [=u]'ti-l[=i]z, _v.t._ to make useful: to put to profitable use.--_adj._ U'TIL[=I]SABLE.--_ns._ UTILIS[=A]'TION; U'TILISER; UTIL'ITY, usefulness: profit: a useful thing; UTIL'ITY-MAN, an actor of one of the least important parts in a play. [Fr. _utiliser_--L. _uti_.] UTILITARIAN, [=u]-til-i-t[=a]'ri-an, _adj._ consisting in, or pertaining to, utility or to utilitarianism.--_n._ one who holds utilitarianism.--_v.t._ UTILIT[=A]'RIANISE, to make to serve a utilitarian purpose.--_ns._ UTILIT[=A]'RIANISM, the ethical theory which finds the basis of moral distinctions in the utility of actions, i.e. their fitness to produce happiness. UTMOST, ut'm[=o]st, _adj._ outmost: farthest out: most distant: last: in the greatest degree: highest.--_n._ the greatest that can be: the greatest effort. [A.S. _útemest_, formed with double superlative suffix _-m-est_ from _úte_, out.] UTOPIAN, [=u]-t[=o]'pi-an, _adj._ imaginary: fanciful: chimerical.--_n._ one who advocates impracticable reforms or who expects an impossible state of perfection in society.--_ns._ UT[=O]'PIANISER; UT[=O]'PIANISM; UT[=O]'PIAST.--_adj._ UTOP'ICAL (_obs._).--_ns._ U'T[=O]PISM, utopianism; U'T[=O]PIST, a utopian. [From _Utopia_, lit. 'nowhere'--Gr. _ou_, not, _topos_, place, an imaginary island represented by Sir T. More in his famous political romance, or rather satire (Lat. 1516, Eng. 1551), as enjoying perfection in politics, laws, &c., community of goods, freedom of creed, &c.] UTRAQUISM, [=u]'tra-kwizm, _n._ the doctrine of the U'TRAQUISTS or Calixtines, who asserted the right to communicate in both kinds--_sub utraque specie_. UTRICLE, [=u]'tri-kl, _n._ a little bag, bladder, or cell.--_adjs._ UTRIC'[=U]LAR, UTRIC'[=U]LATE, containing or furnished with utricles; UTRIC[=U]LIF'EROUS, producing utricles; UTRIC'[=U]LIFORM, shaped like a utricle; UTRIC'[=U]LOID; UTRIC'[=U]LOSE.--_n._ UTRIC'[=U]LUS, any small pear-shaped sac. [L. _utriculus_, dim. of _uter_, _utris_, a bag.] UTRICULARIA, [=u]-trik-[=u]-l[=a]'ri-a, _n._ the genus of bladderworts. [L. _utriculus_, a bag.] UTRIFORM, [=u]'tri-form, _adj._ having the shape of a leather bottle. [L. _uter_, a leather bottle, _forma_, form.] UTTER, ut'[.e]r, _adj._ farthest out: extreme: total: perfect.--_adv._ UTT'ERLY.--_n._ UTT'ERNESS, quality of being extreme. [A.S. _útor_, outer--_út_, out.] UTTER, ut'[.e]r, _v.t._ to circulate: to publish abroad: to speak.--_adj._ UTT'ERABLE, that may be uttered or expressed.--_ns._ UTT'ERABLENESS; UTT'ERANCE, act of uttering: manner of speaking: pronunciation: expression; UTT'ERER; UTT'ERING, circulation.--_adj._ UTT'ERLESS, that cannot be uttered in words. [A.S. _útian_, to put out--_út_, out.] UTTERANCE, ut'[.e]r-ans, _n._ (_Shak._) extremity, deadly contention. [Fr. _outrance_--_outre_, beyond--L. _ultra_, beyond.] UTTERMOST, ut'[.e]r-m[=o]st, _adj._ farthest out: utmost.--_n._ the greatest degree. [Same as _utmost_, the _r_ being intrusive, and _t_ being doubled on the analogy of _utter_.] UVA, [=u]'va, _n._ a name for such succulent indehiscent fruits as have a central placenta. [L. _uva_, a cluster of grapes.] UVEA, [=u]'v[=e]-a, _n._ the vascular tunic of the eye--iris, ciliary body, and choroid.--_adjs._ U'VEAL, U'VEOUS. [L. _uva_, a bunch of grapes.] UVEOUS, [=u]'v[=e]-us, _adj._ resembling a grape. [From L. _uva_, a grape.] UVULA, [=u]'v[=u]-la, _n._ the fleshy conical body suspended from the palate over the back part of the tongue.--_adj._ U'V[=U]LAR.--_adv._ U'V[=U]LARLY, with thick utterance. [L. _uva_, a bunch of grapes.] UXORIOUS, uk-s[=o]'ri-us, _adj._ excessively or submissively fond of a wife.--_adjs._ UX[=O]'RIAL, pertaining to a wife; UX[=O]'RICIDAL, pertaining to uxoricide.--_n._ UX[=O]'RICIDE, one who kills his wife: the killing of a wife.--_adv._ UX[=O]'RIOUSLY.--_n._ UX[=O]'RIOUSNESS. [L. _uxorius_--_uxor_, a wife.] UZBEG, uz'beg, _n._ a member of the Turkish family of Tartars in Turkestan, their blood in some places mixed with a Tajik (or Aryan) strain, elsewhere with Kiptchak, Kalmuck, and Kirghiz elements. * * * * * V the twenty-second letter of our alphabet, a differentiated form of _U_--in sound it is a labio-dental and closely related to _F_. As a Roman numeral V=5; [=V]=5000. VACANT, v[=a]'kant, _adj._ empty: free: not occupied by an incumbent or possessor: not occupied with study, &c.: thoughtless, inane.--_n._ V[=A]'CANCY, emptiness: idleness: empty space, void or gap between bodies: a situation unoccupied: (_Shak._) unoccupied or leisure time.--_adv._ V[=A]'CANTLY.--_v.t._ VAC[=A]TE', to leave empty: to quit possession of: (_obs._) to annul, to make useless.--_ns._ VAC[=A]'TION, a vacating or making void or invalid: freedom from, duty, &c.: recess: break in the sittings of law-courts: school and college holidays; VAC[=A]'TIONIST, one travelling for pleasure.--_adj._ VAC[=A]'TIONLESS.--_n._ VAC[=A]'TUR, the act of annulling in law. [Fr.,--L. _vacans_, _-antis_, pr.p. of _vac[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to be empty.] VACCINATE, vak'si-n[=a]t, _v.t._ to inoculate with the cowpox as a preventive against smallpox.--_adjs._ VACCIG'ENOUS, producing vaccine; VAC'CINAL, pertaining to vaccine or to vaccination.--_ns._ VACCIN[=A]'TION; VAC'CIN[=A]TOR, one who vaccinates.--_adj._ VAC'CINE, pertaining to or derived from cows: of or relating to vaccinia or vaccination.--_n._ the virus of cowpox or vaccinia used in the process of vaccination.--_n._ VACCIN'IA, an eruptive disease occurring in cattle--also VACC[=I]'NA. [L. _vacc[=i]nus_--_vacca_, a cow.] VACHERY, vash'[.e]r-i, _n._ a dairy. VACILLATE, vas'i-l[=a]t, _v.i._ to sway to and fro: to waver: to be unsteady.--_adjs._ VAC'ILLANT, vacillating; VAC'ILL[=A]TING, inclined to fluctuate: wavering: unsteady.--_adv._ VAC'ILL[=A]TINGLY.--_n._ VACILL[=A]'TION, act of vacillating.--_adj._ VAC'ILL[=A]TORY, wavering. [L. _vacill[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_.] VACUOUS, vak'[=u]-us, _adj._ empty, void: without intelligence, unexpressive.--_v.t._ VAC'U[=A]TE, to make empty.--_ns._ VACU[=A]'TION; VAC'UIST, one who thinks there are empty spaces in nature; VAC[=U]'ITY, emptiness: space unoccupied: idleness, listlessness; VAC'U[=O]LE, a very small cavity in the tissue of organisms; VAC'UOUSNESS; VAC'[=U]UM, vacant or empty space: a space empty or devoid of all matter:--_pl._ VAC'[=U]A; VAC'[=U]UM-BRAKE, a brake working on the principle of keeping up a vacuum in a continuous pipe or pipes extending under the train, and in brake-cylinders connected to them under each vehicle, the air being sucked out by ejectors or pumps on the locomotive; VAC'[=U]UM-GAUGE, a gauge for indicating to what extent a vacuum is produced; VAC'[=U]UM-PAN, a vessel for boiling saccharine juices in a partial vacuum in sugar-making; VAC'[=U]UM-TUBE, a sealed glass tube in which a vacuum has been made, employed to examine the effects of a discharge of electricity through air or gas rarefied or exhausted. [L. _vacuus_, empty.] VADE, v[=a]d, _v.i._ (_Shak._) to fade. [_Fade_.] VADE-MECUM, v[=a]'d[=e]-m[=e]'kum, _n._ a hand-book, pocket-companion. [L., 'go with me'--_vad[)e]re_, to go, _me_, abl. of _ego_, I, _cum_, with.] VADIUM, v[=a]'di-um, _n._ (_Scots law_) a wad or surety. [L. _vas_, _vadis_.] VAG, vag, _n._ (_prov._) turf for fuel. VAGABOND, vag'a-bond, _adj._ wandering: having no settled home: driven to and fro: unsettled.--_n._ one who wanders without any settled habitation: a wandering, idle fellow: a scamp, a rascal.--_n._ VAG'ABONDAGE.--_v.t._ VAG'ABONDISE, to wander like a vagabond.--_adj._ VAG'ABONDISH.--_n._ VAG'ABONDISM. [Fr.,--Low L.,--_vag[=a]ri_, to wander--_vagus_, wandering.] VAGARY, va-g[=a]'ri, _n._ a wandering of the thoughts: a wild freak: a whim:--_pl._ VAG[=A]'RIES.--_n._ VAG[=A]'RIAN, a person with vagaries.--_adjs._ VAG[=A]'RIOUS; VAG[=A]'RISH.--_n._ VAGAR'ITY, irregularity, capriciousness. VAGINA, v[=a]-j[=i]'na, _n._ (_anat._) the canal or passage which leads from the external orifice to the uterus, a sheath, case: the upper part of the pedestal of a terminus: (_bot._) a leaf-stalk when it becomes thin and rolls round the stem to which it then forms a stalk, as in grasses.--_adjs._ VAG'INAL; VAG'INANT (_bot._), investing as a sheath; VAG'IN[=A]TE, -D (_bot._), invested by the tubular base of a leaf or leaf-stalk, as a stem: denoting a certain order of sheathed polypes; VAGINIC'OLINE, VAGINIC'OLOUS, living in a vagina; VAGINIF'EROUS, bearing a vagina; VAGINIPENN'ATE, VAGINOPENN'OUS, sheath-winged.--_ns._ VAGINIS'MUS, spasmodic contraction of the vagina; VAGIN[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the vagina; VAGINOT'OMY, cutting of the vagina; VAGIN'[=U]LA, VAG'INULE, a diminutive vagina.--_adj._ VAGIN'ULATE, having a vaginula, sheathed. [L., 'a sheath.'] VAGITUS, v[=a]-j[=i]'tus, _n._ the cry of a new-born child. [L.,--_vag[=i]re_, to cry.] VAGOUS, v[=a]'gus, _adj._ wandering. VAGRANT, v[=a]'grant, _adj._ wandering without any settled dwelling: unsettled: uncertain, erratic: (_med._) wandering.--_n._ one who has no settled home: an idle or disorderly person: a beggar.--_ns._ V[=A]'GRANCY, V[=A]'GRANTNESS (_rare_), the state of being a vagrant: life and habits of a vagrant.--_adv._ V[=A]'GRANTLY. [L. _vagans_, _-antis_, pr.p. of _vag[=a]ri_, to wander; with _r_ intruded.] VAGROM, v[=a]'grom, (_Shak._) Dogberry's perverted spelling and pronunciation of _vagrant_. VAGUE, v[=a]g, _adj._ unsettled: indefinite: uncertain: of doubtful origin: not thinking clearly.--_v.i._ (_obs._) to wander.--_n._ indefinite expanse.--_adv._ VAGUE'LY.--_n._ VAGUE'NESS. [Fr.,--L. _vagus_, wandering.] VAGUS, v[=a]'gus, _n._ the tenth cranial nerve or wandering nerve, the longest and most widely extended of the nerves of the brain:--_pl._ V[=A]'G[=I]. VAIDIC, v[=a]'dik, _adj._ Same as VEDIC. VAIL, v[=a]l. Same as VEIL. VAIL, v[=a]l, _v.t._ to let fall.--_v.i._ to yield: to drop, move down.--_n._ (_Shak._) submission, decline.--_n._ VAIL'ER. [Contr. from _avale_; cf. _Avalanche_.] VAIL, v[=a]l', _v.i._ (_poet._) to profit, avail.--_n.pl._ VAILS, money given to servants by a visitor--also VALES. [Contr. from _avail_.] VAIN, v[=a]n, _adj._ unsatisfying: fruitless: unreal: silly: conceited: showy: (_B._) vacant, worthless.--_adv._ VAIN'LY.--_ns._ VAIN'NESS, fruitlessness: (_Shak._) empty pride, folly; VAN'ITY, worthlessness, futility: empty pride or ostentation: ambitious display: idle show: empty pleasure: fruitless desire, a trifle: (_Shak._) a personified vice in the old moralities and puppet-shows: (_B._) a heathen deity.--VANITY FAIR, the world as the scene of vanity or empty folly, the world of fashion, so named from the fair described in Bunyan's _Pilgrim's Progress_.--IN VAIN, FOR VAIN (_Shak._), ineffectually: to no end: with levity or profanity. [Fr.,--L. _vanus_, empty.] VAINGLORY, v[=a]n-gl[=o]'ri, _n._ vain or empty glory in one's own performances: pride above desert.--_v.i._ to boast vainly.--_adj._ VAINGL[=O]'RIOUS, given to vainglory: proceeding from vanity.--_adv._ VAINGL[=O]'RIOUSLY.--_n._ VAINGL[=O]'RIOUSNESS. VAIR, v[=a]r, _n._ (_her._) a kind of fur, the skin of the squirrel, bluish-gray on the back and white on the belly, represented by blue and white shields or bells in horizontal rows.--_adjs._ VAIRÉ, VAIRY (v[=a]'ri), charged or variegated with vair. [O. Fr.,--L. _varius_, variegated.] VAISHNAVA, v[=i]sh'na-va, _n._ a worshipper of _Vishnu_, the Vaishnavas forming one of the great sects of Brahmanism. [Sans.,--_Vishnu_, Vishnu.] VAISYA, v[=i]s'ya, _n._ a member of the third caste among the Hindus. [Sans. _vaiçya_--_viç_, settler.] VAIVODE, WAYWODE=_Voivode_. VAKASS, va-kas', _n._ a semicircular eucharistic vestment in Armenian use--also called _Ephod_. VAKE, v[=a]k, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to be vacant. VAKEEL, VAKIL, va-k[=e]l', _n._ a native attorney or agent in the East Indies. [Hind.,--Ar. _vak[=i]l_.] VALANCE, val'ans, _n._ hanging drapery for a bed, &c.--also VAL'ENCE.--_v.t._ to decorate with such. [From _Valence_--L. _Valentia_, in France.] VALDENSES=_Waldenses_. VALE, v[=a]l, _n._ a tract of low ground, esp. between hills: a valley. [Fr. _val_--L. _vallis_, a vale.] VALEDICTION, val-[=e]-dik'shun, _n._ a farewell.--_adj._ VALEDIC'TORY, saying farewell: farewell: taking leave.--_n._ a farewell oration spoken at American graduations by the graduating person of highest rank, often called the VALEDICT[=O]'RIAN. [L. _valedic[)e]re_, _-dictum_--_vale_, farewell, _dic[)e]re_, to say.] VALENCE, v[=a]'lens, _n._ (_chem._) the combining power of an element, or the proportion in which it forms a combination with another.--Also V[=A]'LENCY. [From L. _val[=e]re_, to be strong.] VALENCIENNES, va-long-si-enz', _n._ a kind of lace made at _Valenciennes_ in France. VALENTINE, val'en-t[=i]n, _n._ a lover or sweetheart chosen on St Valentine's Day, 14th February: a love-letter or other amatory print sent on that day. [O. Fr. _valentin_, a young person betrothed on the first Sunday in Lent, perh. from a form _valant_, equiv. to _galant_, gallant, but commonly identified with the name of St _Valentine_, on whose day the choice of valentines came to be made, because birds on that day were supposed to choose their mates.] VALENTINIAN, val-en-tin'i-an, _n._ one of a Gnostic sect founded by _Valentinus_ (died c. 160 A.D.).--_adj._ belonging to the foregoing.--_n._ VALENTIN'IANISM. VALERIAN, va-l[=e]'ri-an, _n._ the plant all-heal, the root of which is used in medicine.--_adj._ VAL'ERIC, pertaining to or obtained from the root of valerian. [O. Fr.,--L. _val[=e]re_, to be strong.] VALET, val'et, or val'[=a], _n._ a man-servant, esp. one who attends on a gentleman's person.--_v.t._ to act as valet to.--_n._ VALET DE PLACE, in France, one who offers his services as guide, messenger, &c. for hire, esp. to strangers. [O. Fr.,--_vaslet_, later also _varlet_--Low L. _vassalettus_, dim. of _vassalis_, a vassal.] VALETUDINARIAN, val-[=e]-t[=u]-di-n[=a]'ri-an, _adj._ pertaining to ill-health: sickly: weak--also VALET[=U]'DINARY.--_n._ a person of weak health.--_ns._ VALET[=U]'DINARINESS, VALET[=U]DIN[=A]'RIANISM, the condition of a valetudinarian: weak health; VALETUDIN[=A]'RIUM, an ancient Roman hospital. [L. _valetudinarius_--_valetudo_, state of health--_val[=e]re_, to be strong.] VALGUS, val'gus, _n._ a bow-legged man: a form of club-foot--_talipes valgus_:--_pl._ VAL'GI (-j[=i]). [L.] VALHALLA, val-hal'la, _n._ (_Scand. myth._) the palace of immortality for the souls of heroes slain in battle: an edifice forming the final resting-place of the heroes of a nation. [Ice. _valhöll_, 'the hall of the slain'--_valr_, the slain, conn. with A.S. _wæl_, slaughter, Ice. _höll_, hall.] VALIANT, val'yant, _adj._ strong: brave: intrepid in danger: heroic.--_n._ (_obs._) a valiant person.--_ns._ VAL'IANCE, VAL'IANCY.--_adv._ VAL'IANTLY, bravely.--_n._ VAL'IANTNESS, courage. [Fr. _vaillant_--L. _valens_, _valentis_, pr.p. of _val[=e]re_, to be strong.] VALID, val'id, _adj._ strong: having sufficient strength or force: founded in truth: sound: conclusive: (_law_) executed with the proper formalities: legal: rightful.--_v.t._ VAL'IDATE, to confirm, give legal force to: test the validity of.--_ns._ VALID[=A]'TION; VALID'ITY.--_adv._ VAL'IDLY.--_n._ VAL'IDNESS. [Fr.,--L. _validus_--_val[=e]re_, to be strong.] VALISE, va-l[=e]s', _n._ a travelling bag, generally of leather, opening at the side: a portmanteau. [Fr.,--L. _valise_ (It. _valigia_, Sp. _balija_), orig. unknown.] VALKYR, val'kir, _n._ (_Scand. myth._) one of the nine handmaidens of Odin, serving at the banquet of Valhalla--also VALKYR'IA, WAL'KYR.--_adjs._ VALKYR'IAN, WALKYR'IAN. [Ice. _valkyrja_--_valr_, the slain, _kyrja_--_kjósa_, to choose. Ger. _Walküre_.] VALLAR, val'ar, _adj._ pertaining to a rampart.--Also VALL'ARY. [L. _vallum_.] VALLATE, val'[=a]t, _adj._ cup-shaped: circumvallate.--Also VALL'ATED. VALLECULA, va-lek'[=u]-la, _n._ a groove or furrow.--_adjs._ VALLEC'ULAR, VALLEC'ULATE. VALLEY, val'i, _n._ a vale or low land between hills or mountains: a low, extended plain, usually watered by a river:--_pl._ VALL'EYS. [O. Fr. _valee_ (Fr. _vallée_)--_val_, a vale.] VALLISNERIA, val-is-n[=e]'ri-a, _n._ a genus of the natural order of plants _Hydrocharideæ_. [Named after Antonio _Vallisneri_ (1661-1730), an Italian naturalist.] VALLUM, val'um, _n._ a rampart, entrenchment: (_anat._) the eyebrow. [L., 'a rampart.'] VALONIA, va-l[=o]'ni-a, _n._ the large acorn-cup of a species of oak which grows round the Levant, used in tanning. [It. _vallonia_--Gr. _balanos_, an acorn.] VALOUR, val'ur, _n._ intrepidity: courage: bravery.--_adj._ VAL'OROUS, intrepid: courageous.--_adv._ VAL'OROUSLY. [O. Fr. _valour_--Low L. _valor_--L. _val[=e]re_, to be strong.] VALUE, val'[=u], _n._ worth: that which renders anything useful or estimable: the degree of this quality: esteem, regard: efficacy: importance: excellence: price: precise meaning: (_mus._) the relative length of a tone signified by a note: (_paint._) relation of one part of a picture to the others with reference to light and shade and without reference to hue: (_math._) the special determination of a quantity.--_v.t._ to estimate the worth of: to rate at a price: to esteem: to prize.--_v.i._ (_Shak._) to be worth.--_adj._ VAL'UABLE, having value or worth: costly: deserving esteem.--_n._ a thing of value, a choice article--often in _pl._--_ns._ VAL'UABLENESS; VALU[=A]'TION, the act of valuing: value set upon a thing: estimated worth; VALU[=A]'TOR, one who sets a value upon: an appraiser.--_adjs._ VAL'UED; VAL'UELESS.--_n._ VAL'UER, one who values.--VALUE IN EXCHANGE, exchange value: (_pol. econ._) economic value (i.e. the amount of other commodities for which a thing can be exchanged in open market) as distinguished from its more general meaning of utility; VALUE RECEIVED, a phrase indicating that a bill of exchange, &c., has been accepted for a valuable consideration.--GOOD VALUE, full worth in exchange. [O. Fr. _value_, prop. the fem. of Fr. _valu_, pa.p. of _valoir_, to be worth--L. _val[=e]re_.] VALVE, valv, _n._ one of the leaves of a folding-door: a cover to an aperture which opens in one direction and not in the other: one of the pieces or divisions forming a shell: (_anat._) a membraneous fold resembling a valve or serving as a valve in connection with the flow of blood, lymph, or other fluid--also VAL'VA.--_adjs._ VAL'VAL, pertaining to a valve; VAL'V[=A]TE, having or resembling a valve or valves: (_bot._) meeting at the edges without overlapping, as the petals of flowers; VALVED, having or composed of valves.--_ns._ VALVE'-GEAR, the mechanism for working a valve; VALVE'LET, VAL'V[=U]LA, VAL'V[=U]LE, a little valve: (_bot._) formerly used of the pieces which compose the outer covering of a pericarp.--_adj._ VAL'V[=U]LAR.--_n._ VALV[=U]L[=I]'TIS, inflammation of one of the valves of the heart. [Fr.,--L. _valva_, a folding-door.] VAMBRACE, vam'br[=a]s, _n._ a piece of plate-armour to protect the forearm.--_adj._ VAM'BR[=A]CED (_her._), having armour on the forearm. [Also _vantbrace_, _vantbrass_--Fr. _avant-bras_--_avant_, before, _bras_, arm.] VAMOSE, va-m[=o]s', _v.i._ (_slang_) to be off, to be gone. [Sp. _vamos_, 1st pers. pl. pres. indic.--L. _vadimus_, we go--_vad[)e]re_, to go.] VAMP, vamp, _n._ the upper leather of a boot or shoe.--_v.t._ to repair with a new vamp: to patch old with new: give a new face to: (_mus._) to improvise an accompaniment to (_coll._).--_v.i._ to improvise accompaniments, to travel, proceed.--_n._ VAM'PER, one who vamps or cobbles up anything old to pass for new.--VAMP UP, to patch up, to improvise, to cook up.--IN VAMP, in pawn. [Corr. of Fr. _avant-pied_, the forepart of the foot--_avant_, before, _pied_--L. _pes_, _pedis_, foot.] VAMPIRE, vam'p[=i]r, _n._ in eastern Europe, an accursed body which cannot rest in the kindly earth, but nightly leaves its grave to suck the blood of sleeping men: an extortioner.--_n._ VAM'PIRE-BAT, the name of several species of bats all supposed to suck blood--the real blood-suckers only in Central and South America, attacking cattle, horses, and sometimes human beings asleep.--_adj._ VAMPIR'IC.--_n._ VAM'PIRISM, the actions of a vampire or the practice of blood-sucking: extortion. [Fr.,--Servian _vampir_; the word is common in the Slavonic tongues.] VAMPLATE, vam'pl[=a]t, _n._ the iron plate through which the lance passed, serving as a protection to the hand when the lance was couched. [Fr. _avant-plat_--_avant_, before, _plat_, plate.] VAN, van, _n._ the front: the front of an army or a fleet: the leaders of any movement. [Abbrev. of _vanguard_.] VAN, van, _n._ a fan for grain, &c.: a vane, wing: a test for ascertaining the value of an ore by washing a small quantity on a shovel.--_v.t._ to separate ore in this way.--_ns._ VAN'NER, an ore-separator; VAN'NING. [Fr.,--L. _vannus_.] VAN, van, _n._ a large covered wagon for goods, &c.: a light vehicle, covered or not, used by tradesmen in delivering goods: a carriage in a railway-train for carrying luggage, for the use of the guard, &c. [Short for _caravan_.] VANADIUM, van-[=a]'di-um, _n._ a rare metal somewhat resembling silver in appearance, very brittle and infusible, and unoxidisible either by air or water.--_ns._ VAN'AD[=A]TE, VAN[=A]'DI[=A]TE, a salt formed by vanadic acid combined with a base.--_adjs._ VANAD'IC, VAN[=A]'DIOUS, VAN'ADOUS, pertaining to or obtained from vanadium; VANADIF'EROUS, yielding vanadium.--_n._ VAN'ADINITE, a compound of lead vanadate and lead chloride. [Named from _Vanadis_, a Scandinavian goddess.] VANCOURIER, van'k[=oo]-ri-er, _n._ a precursor. [Fr. _avant-courier_--_avant_, before.] VANDAL, van'dal, _n._ one of a fierce race from north-eastern Germany who entered Gaul about the beginning of the 5th century, crossed the Pyrenees into Spain (leaving their name in _Andalusia_=_Vandalitia_), next under Genseric crossed the Strait of Gibraltar, and carried devastation and ruin from the shores of the Atlantic to the frontiers of Cyrene: any one hostile to arts or literature, a barbarian.--_adjs._ VAN'DAL, VANDAL'IC, barbarous, rude.--_n._ VAN'DALISM, hostility to arts or literature. [Low L. _Vandali_, _Vinduli_--the Teut. name seen in Dut. _Wenden_, the Wends.] VANDYKE, van-d[=i]k', _n._ one of the points forming an edge or border, as of lace, ribbon, &c.: a painting by _Vandyke_: a small round cape, the border ornamented with points and indentations, as seen in paintings by Vandyke of the time of Charles I.--_adj._ pertaining to the style of dress represented in portraits by Vandyke.--_v.t._ to cut the edge off in points.--_n._ VANDYKE'-BROWN, a reddish-brown pigment, a species of peat or lignite.--_adj._ VANDYKED', notched with large points like a Vandyke collar. [Anthony _Van Dyck_ (1599-1641), a great Flemish painter.] VANE, v[=a]n, _n._ a flag or banner: a thin slip of wood or metal at the top of a spire, &c., to show which way the wind blows: a weather-cock: the thin web of a feather: one of the blades of a windmill.--_adjs._ VANED, furnished with vanes; VANE'LESS. [Older form _fane_--A.S. _fana_; Goth. _fana_, cloth, Ger. _fahne_; akin to L. _pannus_, Gr. _penos_, a cloth.] VANESSA, va-nes'a, _n._ a genus of butterflies, e.g. the _Vanessa atalanta_ or Red Admiral, _Vanessa antiope_ or Camberwell Beauty. [Perh. intended for _Phanessa_--Gr. _Phan[=e]s_, a mystic divinity.] VANG, vang, _n._ (_naut._) one of two guy-ropes from the end of a gaff to the deck to steady the peak. [Dut.] VANGUARD, van'gärd, _n._ the guard in the van of an army: the part of an army preceding the main body: the front line. [Formerly _vantgard_--Fr. _avant-garde_--_avant_, before, _garde_, guard.] VANILLA, va-nil'a, _n._ the dried aromatic sheath-like pod or fruit of a tropical epiphytal orchid, a favourite confection.--_adj._ VANILL'IC. [Latinised from Fr. _vanille_--Sp. _vainilla_--_vaina_--L. _vagina_, a sheath.] VANISH, van'ish, _v.i._ to pass away from a place, leaving it vacant or empty: to disappear: to be annihilated or lost: (_math._) to become zero: (_Shak._) to exhale.--_n._ VAN'ISHER.--_adv._ VAN'ISHINGLY.--_n._ VAN'ISHMENT.--VANISHING POINT, the point of disappearance of anything. [Through Fr. from L. _vanesc[)e]re_, to pass away--_vanus_, empty.] VANITY. See VAIN. VANNER. See VAN (2). VANQUISH, vangk'wish, _v.t._ to conquer: to defeat in any contest: to confute.--_adj._ VANQ'UISHABLE, capable of being vanquished.--_ns._ VANQ'UISHER; VANQ'UISHMENT. [Fr. _vaincre_ (pa.t. _vainquis_)--L. _vinc[)e]re_, to conquer.] VANTAGE, van't[=a]j, _n._ advantage: in lawn-tennis, same as advantage: (_Shak._) opportunity, convenience, excess, addition.--_v.i._ (_Spens._) to benefit, profit.--_ns._ VAN'TAGE-GROUND, -POINT, superiority of place, opportunity, &c. VANTBRACE, VANTBRASS, _n._ See VAMBRACE. VANWARD, van'wawrd, _adj._ (_rare_) situated in or pertaining to the van or front.--_n._ the advance-guard of an army on the march. [_Van_ and _ward_.] VAPID, vap'id, _adj._ having the spirit evaporated: spiritless: insipid.--_adv._ VAP'IDLY.--_ns._ VAP'IDNESS, VAPID'ITY. [L. _vapidus_.] VAPOROLE, v[=a]'p[=o]-r[=o]l, _n._ a thin glass capsule, containing a volatile drug wrapped in cotton-wool and enclosed in a silk bag, to be crushed in the fingers so as to permit inhalation. VAPOUR, VAPOR, v[=a]'pur, _n._ the gas into which most liquids and solids are convertible by heat: the condition of a body when it becomes gas by heat: water in the atmosphere: anything vain or transitory: (_pl._) a disease of nervous weakness in which a variety of strange images float before the mind, temporary depression of spirits, dejection.--_v.i._ to pass off in vapour: to evaporate: to boast: to brag.--_v.t._ to make to pass into vapour: to cause to dissolve into gas, thin air, or other unsubstantial thing: (_rare_) to depress, dispirit: (_obs._) to bully.--_adjs._ V[=A]'PORABLE, V[=A]'PORISABLE, capable of being converted into vapour.--_n._ VAPOR[=A]'RIUM, a Russian bath.--_adjs._ VAPORIF'EROUS, producing vapour; VAPORIF'IC, converting into steam or other vapour; V[=A]'PORIFORM, existing in the form of vapour.--_n._ VAPORIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ V[=A]'PORISE, to convert into vapour.--_v.i._ to pass off in vapour.--_adj._ V[=A]'PORISH, full of vapours: hypochondriacal: peevish.--_n._ VAPOROM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the pressure of a vapour.--_adjs._ V[=A]'POROUS, V[=A]'POROSE, full of or like vapour: vain: affected with the vapours: unsubstantial, vainly imaginative.--_adv._ V[=A]'POROUSLY.--_ns._ V[=A]'POROUSNESS, VAPOROS'ITY; V[=A]'POUR-BATH, an apparatus for bathing the body in vapour of water.--_adj._ V[=A]'POURED, full of vapours: affected with the vapours.--_ns._ V[=A]'POURER, one who vapours, a boaster; V[=A]'POURING, windy or ostentatious talk.--_adv._ V[=A]'POURINGLY.--_adj._ V[=A]'POURY, full of vapour: affected with the vapours: peevish. [Fr.,--L. _vapor_.] VAPULATION, vap-[=u]-l[=a]'shun, _n._ (_rare_) a flogging.--_adj._ VAP'UL[=A]T[=O]RY. [L. _vapul[=a]re_, to be flogged.] VAQUERO, va-k[=a]'r[=o], _n._ a herdsman.--_n._ VACQUERIA (vak-e-r[=e]'a), a farm for grazing cattle. [Sp.,--Fr. _vacher_, a cowherd--L. _vacca_, a cow.] VARA, vä'ra, _n._ a Spanish-American linear measure, about thirty-three inches. [_Vare_.] VARANGIAN, va-ran'ji-an, _n._ the name given by the Slavic Russians and the Greeks to one of those Northmen or Värings who made settlements on the east side of the Baltic in the second half of the 9th century, and laid the foundations under Rurik of the kingdom of Gardarike out of which grew the subsequent Russia.--VARANGIAN GUARD, a trusted bodyguard of the emperors of Constantinople from the end of the 10th century down to the close in 1453. VARANUS, var'a-nus, _n._ the typical genus of _Varanidæ_, a family of eriglossate lacertilians, a monitor.--_n._ VAR'AN, a varanoid lizard.--_adj._ VAR'ANOID. VARE, v[=a]r, _n._ a wand of authority. [Sp. _vara_, a pole--L. _vara_, a trestle, forked stick--_varus_, crooked.] VAREC, var'ek, _n._ a Breton impure sodium carbonate. [Fr.,--Ice. _vágrek_, _vágr_, a wave, _rek_, drift.] VAREUSE, va-r[.e]z', _n._ a kind of loose jacket. [Fr.] VARGUENO, var-g[=a]'n[=o], _n._ a form of cabinet made at _Vargas_ in Spain, having a box-shaped body with lid, resting on columns, and opening at the bottom so as to serve as a writing-desk. VARIABLE, v[=a]'ri-a-bl, _adj._ that may be varied: changeable: liable to change: unsteady: (_bot._, _zool._) of a species embracing many individuals and groups departing more or less from the strict type: (_math._) quantitatively indeterminate: (_astron._) changing in brightness.--_n._ (_math._) a quantity subject to continual increase or decrease: a quantity which may have an infinite number of values in the same expression: a shifting wind.--_ns._ VARIABIL'ITY (_biol._), tendency to depart in any direction from the mean character of the species; V[=A]'RIABLENESS.--_adv._ V[=A]'RIABLY.--_v.t._ V[=A]'RIATE, to vary.--_v.i._ to change.--_adj._ V[=A]'RIATED, varied, diversified: varriated.--_n._ VARI[=A]'TION, a varying: a change: change from one to another: successive change: the extent to which a thing varies: (_gram._) change of termination: (_mus._) a manner of singing or playing the same air with various changes in time, rhythm, or key: (_astron._) deviation from the mean orbit of a heavenly body: (_biol._) departure from the mean character of a species.--_adjs._ VARI[=A]'TIONAL, pertaining to variation; V[=A]'RIATIVE, tending to variation.--VARIABLE SPECIES, any species with marked rate of variability. [Fr.,--L. _variabilis_.] VARIANCE, v[=a]'ri-ans, _n._ state of being varied: an alteration: a change of condition: (_law_) a discrepancy: difference that arises from, or produces, dispute.--_n._ V[=A]'RIANT, a different form of the same original word: a different reading, e.g. in a manuscript.--_adj._ diverse, variable, inconstant.--AT VARIANCE, in disagreement. VARICELLA, var-i-sel'a, _n._ chicken-pox--applied also loosely to various eruptive diseases, as swine-pox, hives, or varioloid.--_adjs._ VARICELL'AR, pertaining to varicella; VARICELL'OID, resembling varicella. VARICOCELE, var'i-k[=o]-s[=e]l, _n._ an enlargement of the veins of the spermatic cord, or sometimes of the veins of the scrotum. [L. _varix_, a dilated vein, Gr. _k[=e]l[=e]_, a tumour.] VARICOLOURED, v[=a]'ri-kul-urd, _adj._ diversified in colour.--Also VARICOL'OROUS. [L. _varius_, various, _color_, colour.] VARICORN, v[=a]'ri-korn, _adj._ having diversiform antennæ.--_n._ a varicorn beetle. [L. _varius_, various, _cornu_, a horn.] VARICOSE, var'i-k[=o]s, _adj._ permanently dilated or enlarged, as a vein, the actual dilatation being called a varix--most often in the sub-mucous veins of the rectum (constituting _hæmorrhoids_ or _piles_), in the spermatic veins (giving rise to _varicocele_), and in the veins of the lower extremities--also VAR'ICOUS.--_adjs._ VAR'IC[=A]TED, marked by varicose formations (said of shells); VAR'ICOSED.--_n._ VARICOS'ITY, state of being varicose.--VARICOSE VEINS, a condition in which the superficial veins, usually of the leg, are swollen for no apparent physiological reason. [L. _varicosus_, full of dilated veins--_varix_, a dilated vein--_varus_, bent, crooked.] VARIEGATE, v[=a]'ri-e-g[=a]t, _v.t._ to mark with different colours.--_ns._ VARIEG[=A]'TION, in plants, a condition in which other colours are exhibited in parts where green is the normal colour; V[=A]'RIEG[=A]TOR. [L. _variegatus_--_varius_, various, _ag[)e]re_, to make.] VARIETY, va-r[=i]'e-ti, _n._ the quality of bring various: difference: many-sidedness, versatility: a collection of different things: one of a number of things nearly allied to each other: one or more individuals of a species, which, owing to accidental causes, differ from the normal form in minor points:--_pl._ VAR[=I]'ETIES.--_adj._ V[=A]R[=I]'ETAL (_biol._), having the character of a zoological or botanical variety.--_adv._ VAR[=I]'ETALLY.--_ns._ VAR[=I]'ETY-SHOW, a mixed entertainment comprising dances, songs, negro-minstrelsy, farces, short sketches, &c.; VAR[=I]'ETY-TH[=E]'ATRE, a theatre devoted to variety-shows.--_adj._ V[=A]'RIFORM, varied in form.--_v.t._ V[=A]'RIFY, to variegate. [L. _varietas_--_varius_, various.] VARIOLA, v[=a]-r[=i]'[=o]-la, _n._ smallpox.--_adjs._ VAR[=I]'OLAR, VARIOL'IC, VAR[=I]'OLOUS.--_ns._ VARIOL[=A]'TION, inoculation with the virus of smallpox; V[=A]'RIOLE, a shallow pit or pitted marking, a foveole; VAR[=I]'OLITE, a rock covered with pea-like pustular forms, held in India as a preventive of smallpox and worn sometimes as an amulet round the neck.--_adjs._ VARIOLIT'IC, pertaining to variolite; V[=A]'RIOLOID, resembling smallpox: resembling measles.--_n._ modified smallpox. [Low L.,--L. _varius_, various, spotted.] VARIOMETER, v[=a]-ri-om'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument used in measuring magnetic intensity. [L. _varius_, various, Gr. _metron_, measure.] VARIORUM, v[=a]-r[=i]-[=o]'rum, _adj._ a term applied to an edition of some work in which the notes of various commentators are inserted. [From the full Latin 'editio cum notis _variorum_.'] VARIOUS, v[=a]'ri-us, _adj._ varied, different: several: unlike each other: changeable: uncertain: variegated.--_adv._ V[=A]'RIOUSLY.--_n._ V[=A]'RIOUSNESS. [L. _varius_.] VARISCITE, var'i-s[=i]t, _n._ a mineral very like a greenish turquoise found in Brittany. [From L. _Variscia_, Voigtland, part of Saxony.] VARIX, v[=a]'riks, _n._ abnormal dilatation or tortuosity of a vein:--_pl._ VAR'IC[=E]S. [L.,--_varus_, bent.] VARLET, vär'let, _n._ a footman: a low fellow: a scoundrel.--_n._ VAR'LETRY (_Shak._), the rabble, the crowd. [O. Fr. _varlet_, formerly _vaslet_, from a dim. of Low L. _vassalis_.] VARMIN, VARMINT, var'min, var'mint, dialectal variants for _vermin_. VARNISH, vär'nish, _v.t._ to cover with a liquid so as to give a glossy surface to: to give a fair appearance to.--_n._ a sticky liquid which dries and forms a hard, lustrous coating: a glossy, lustrous appearance: any gloss or palliation.--_ns._ VAR'NISHER; VAR'NISHING; VAR'NISHING-DAY, a day before the opening of a picture exhibition when exhibitors may varnish or retouch their pictures after they have been hung; VAR'NISH-TREE, a name given to trees of several distinct natural orders, the resinous juice of which is used for varnishing or for lacquering. [Fr. _vernis_--Low L. _vitrinus_, glassy--L. _vitrum_, glass.] VARRIATED, var'i-[=a]-ted, _adj._ (_her._) battlemented with solid projections and crenelles, both pointed bluntly, but in the latter case reversed. [So named from the resemblance to _vair_.] VARSAL, var'sal, _adj._ (_coll._) universal. VARSITY, var'si-ti, _n._ (_coll._) university. VARSOVIENNE, var-s[=o]-vi-en', _n._ a dance imitated from the Polish mazurka, the music for such. [Fr., fem. of _Varsovien_--_Varsovie_, Warsaw.] VARTABED, vär'ta-bed, _n._ one of an order of Armenian clergy devoted to teaching.--Also VAR'TABET. VARUNA, var'[=oo]-na, _n._ an ancient Indian Vedic god of heaven and day--latterly, rather the deity that rules over the waters. VARUS, v[=a]'rus, _n._ the same as _talipes varus_: a knock-kneed person. [L.] VARUS, v[=a]'rus, _n._ acne. [L.] VARVELS, värv'elz, _n._ same as VERVELS.--_adj._ VAR'VELED (_her._), provided with vervels or rings. VARY, v[=a]'ri, _v.t._ to make different: to diversify, modify: (_mus._) to alter or embellish a melody, preserving its identity: (_Shak._) to express variously: to change to something else: to make of different kinds.--_v.i._ to alter or be altered: to be or become different: to change in succession: to deviate (with _from_): to disagree: (_math._) to be subject to continual increase or decrease:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ v[=a]'ried.--_n._ (_Shak._) change.--_adj._ V[=A]'RIED.--_adv._ V[=A]'RIEDLY.--_n._ V[=A]'RIER, one who varies. [Fr. _varier_--L. _vari[=a]re_--_varius_.] VAS, vas, _n._ (_anat._, _zool._) a vessel containing blood, &c.:--_pl._ V[=A]'SA.--_adjs._ V[=A]'SAL, pertaining to a vas; VAS'IFORM, having the form of a duct; VASOM[=O]'TOR, serving to regulate the tension of blood-vessels, as nerves; VASOM[=O]'TORY, VASOMOT[=O]'RIAL. [L.] VASALIUM, va-s[=a]'li-um, _n._ vascular tissue proper. VASCULAR, vas'k[=u]-lar, _adj._ of or relating to the vessels of animal and vegetable bodies.--_n.pl._ VASCUL[=A]'RES, a division of the vegetable kingdom embracing plants with vessels or ducts.--_v.t._ VAS'CULARISE.--_n._ VASCULAR'ITY.--_adv._ VAS'CULARLY.--_adjs._ VASCULIF'EROUS; VAS'CULIFORM.--_ns._ VAS'CULOSE, the substance, closely allied to cellulose, that makes up the greater part of the vessels of plants; VAS'CULUM, a botanist's specimen-box. [Fr. _vasculaire_--L. _vasculum_, dim. of _vas_, a vessel.] VASE, v[=a]z, or v[ä]z, _n._ a vessel of stone, metal, glass, or earthenware, anciently used for domestic purposes and in offering sacrifices: an ornamental vessel generally of an antique pattern: a sculptured, vaselike ornament: (_archit._) the body of the Corinthian capital.--_n._ VASE'-PAINT'ING, the decoration of vases with pigments, esp. the decoration of the pottery of the ancient Greeks.--_adj._ V[=A]'SIFORM.--ETRUSCAN VASES, Greek vases so called mistakenly because found in Etruscan tombs; PORTLAND VASE, a famous Græco-Roman cameo-glass with reliefs in opaque white glass on a dark-blue ground, 9¾ inches high, now preserved in the British Museum. [Fr.,--L. _vasum_ or _vas_.] VASELINE, vas'e-lin, _n._ a yellowish, almost tasteless and inodorous, translucent substance obtained from petroleum, used as a salve, liniment, lubricant, &c. [Formed from Ger. _wasser_, water, and Gr. _elaion_, oil.] VASIFORM, VASOMOTOR. See VAS. VASSAL, vas'al, _n._ one who holds land from, and renders homage to, a superior: a dependant, retainer: a bondman, slave: (_Shak._) a low wretch.--_adj._ (_Shak._) servile.--_v.t._ to enslave, to dominate.--_ns._ VASS'AL[=A]GE, state of being a vassal: dependence: subjection: a fee, fief: (_Shak._) vassals collectively; VASS'ALESS (_Spens._), a female vassal; VASS'ALRY, vassals collectively. [Fr.,--Low L. _vassalis_--Bret. _gwaz_, a servant; cf. W. _gwas_, a youth.] VAST, vast, _adj._ of great extent: very great in amount: very great in degree, mighty: (_Shak._) vacant, desolate.--_n._ immensity: (_coll._) a large quantity: (_Shak._) the darkness of night.--_ns._ VASTID'ITY (_Shak._), immensity, desolation; VAS'TITUDE.--_adv._ VAST'LY.--_ns._ VAST'NESS; VAS'TUS, one of the great muscles upon the front of the thigh.--_adj._ VAS'TY, large, enormously great. [Fr. _vaste_--L. _vastus_, waste, vast; cf. A.S. _wéste_, waste.] VAT, vat, _n._ a large vessel or tank, esp. one for holding liquors.--_v.t._ to put in a vat.--_n._ VAT'FUL, the contents of a vat. [Older form _fat_--A.S. _fæt_; Dut. _vat_, Ice. _fat_, Ger. _fass_.] VATICAN, vat'i-kan, _n._ an assemblage of buildings on the Vatican hill in Rome, including one of the pope's palaces: the papal authority.--_ns._ VAT'ICANISM, the system of theology and ecclesiastical government based on absolute papal authority, ultramontanism; VAT'ICANIST, one who upholds such a system.--VATICAN CODEX, a famous uncial MS. of the Greek Testament, of the 4th century, in the Vatican library at Rome; VATICAN COUNCIL, the Twentieth Ecumenical Council, according to popish reckoning, which met 8th December 1869 and proclaimed the Infallibility of the Pope. [Fr.,--It. _Vaticano_--L. _Mons Vaticanus_, a hill in Rome.] VATICIDE, vat'i-s[=i]d, _n._ the killing of a prophet: one who kills a prophet. [L. _vates_, _vatis_, a prophet, _cæd[)e]re_, to kill.] VATICINATE, va-tis'i-n[=a]t, _v.t._ to prophesy.--_adj._ VAT'IC, prophetic, oracular, inspired--also VATIC'INAL.--_ns._ VATICIN[=A]'TION, prophecy: prediction; VATIC'INATOR, a prophet. [L. _vaticin[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_, to prophesy--_vates_, a seer.] VAUDEVILLE, v[=o]d'vil, _n._ originally a popular song with topical allusions: a play interspersed with dances and songs incidentally introduced and usually comic.--_n._ VAUDE'VILLIST, a composer of these. [From _vau_ (_val_) _de Vire_, the valley of the VIRE, in Normandy, where they were first composed about 1400 A.D.] VAUDOIS, v[=o]-dwo', _n._ a native of _Vaud_: the dialect spoken in Vaud.--_adj._ pertaining to Vaud or its people. VAUDOIS, v[=o]-dwo', _n._ one of the Waldenses (q.v.).--_adj._ Waldensian. VAUDOO. See VOODOO. VAULT, vawlt, _n._ an arched roof: a chamber with an arched roof, esp. one underground: a cellar: anything vault-like: a leap or spring by means of a pole or by resting the hands on something: the bound of a horse: a jump.--_v.t._ to shape as a vault: to arch: to roof with an arch: to form vaults in.--_v.i._ to curvet or leap, as a horse: to leap: to exhibit feats of leaping or tumbling.--_n._ VAUL'TAGE (_Shak._), an arched cellar: vaulted work.--_adj._ VAUL'TED, arched: concave overhead: covered with an arch or vault.--_ns._ VAUL'TER, one who vaults or leaps; VAUL'TING (_archit._), vaulted work; VAUL'TING-HORSE, a wooden horse used in gymnasiums for vaulting over.--_adj._ VAUL'TY (_Shak._), arched, concave. [O. Fr. _volte_ (Fr. _voûte_)--L. _volv[)e]re_, _volutum_, to roll.] VAUNCE, väns, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to advance. VAUNT, vawnt', or vänt, _v.i._ to make a vain display: to boast.--_v.t._ to make a vain display of: to boast of.--_n._ vain display: boast.--_ns._ VAUN'TER; VAUN'TERY, vaunting.--_adj._ VAUNT'FUL.--_n._ VAUN'TING.--_adv._ VAUN'TINGLY. [O. Fr. _vanter_--Low L. _vanit[=a]re_--L. _vanitas_, vanity--_vanus_, vain.] VAUNT, vänt, _n._ (_Shak._) the first part. [_Van_.] VAUNT-COURIER, vänt'-k[=oo]'-ri-[.e]r, _n._ (_Shak._). Same as VANCOURIER. VAUT, vawt, _v.i._ (_Spens._) same as VAULT.--_adj._ VAU'TY, vaulted. VAVASOUR, vav'a-s[=oo]r, _n._ in feudal times, one who held his lands not directly of the crown but of one of the higher nobility.--_n._ VAV'AS[=O]RY, the tenure or lands of a vavasour. [O. Fr.,--Low L. _vassus vassorum_, vassal of vassals--_vassus_, vassal.] VAWARD, v[=a]'wawrd, _n._ and _adj._ Same as VANWARD. VEADAR, v[=e]'a-dar, _n._ the name of the intercalary or thirteenth month of the Jewish year, which must have been inserted about every third year. [Heb., 'the additional _adar_,' from _ve_, and, and _adar_, so called because it was introduced in the calendar after the month Adar.] VEAL, v[=e]l, _n._ the flesh of a calf.--_n._ VEAL'-SKIN, a skin-disease marked by white shiny tubercles on the ears and neck.--_adj._ VEAL'Y, like veal or like a calf: immature. [O. Fr. _veël_ (Prov. _vedel_)--L. _vitellus_, dim. of _vitulus_; Gr. _italos_, a calf.] VECTOR, vek'tor, _n._ (_math._) any directed quantity, as a straight line in space, involving both its direction and magnitude.--_n._ VECTIT[=A]'TION, a carrying.--_adj._ VECT[=O]'RIAL. [L.,--_veh[)e]re_, _vectum_, to convey.] VEDA, v[=a]'dä, _n._ the four holy books of the Hindus--_Rigveda_, or Veda of praises or hymns; _Sâmaveda_, or Veda of chants or tunes; _Yajurveda_, or Veda of prayers; and _Atharvaveda_, or Veda of the Atharvans:--_pl._ VEDAS (v[=a]'däz).--_n._ VEDAN'TA, a system of Hindu philosophy based on the VEDAS.--_adjs._ VEDAN'TIC, VE'DIC. [Sans. _veda_, knowledge--_vid_, to know; cf. _Wit_.] VEDETTE, ve-det', _n._ a mounted sentry stationed at the outposts of an army to watch an enemy. [Fr.,--It. _vedetta_--_vedere_, to see--L. _vid[=e]re_, to see.] VEER, v[=e]r, _v.i._ to change direction, as the wind: to alter, of the course of a ship: to change one's mind.--_v.t._ to turn, shift: to change a ship's course by turning her head away from the wind.--_n._ and _adj._ VEER'ING.--_adv._ VEER'INGLY. [Fr. _virer_ (Prov. _virar_)--Low L. _vir[=a]re_, to turn--L. _viriæ_, armlets.] VEERY, v[=e]r'i, _n._ the tawny thrush of North America. VEGA, v[=a]'ga, _n._ a tract of flat land, a tobacco-field in Cuba. [Sp.] VEGETABLE, vej'e-ta-bl, _n._ an organised body without sensation and voluntary motion, nourished by roots fixed in the ground: a plant for the table.--_adj._ belonging to plants: consisting of or having the nature of plants: derived from vegetables.--_adj._ VEG'ETAL, of the nature of a vegetable: pertaining to the vital functions of plants and animals, as growth, reproduction, &c.--_ns._ VEG'ETALINE, a substitute for ivory, &c., made by treating woody fibre with sulphuric acid, mixing with various ingredients, and pressing into any required form; VEGETAL'ITY, vegetable character, the vegetal functions collectively.--_adj._ VEGET[=A]'RIAN, pertaining to those who abstain from animal food: consisting of vegetables.--_n._ one who holds that vegetables are the only proper food for man.--_n._ VEGET[=A]'RIANISM, the theory and practice of a vegetarian.--_v.i._ VEG'ET[=A]TE, to grow by roots and leaves: to sprout: to lead an idle, aimless life.--_n._ VEGET[=A]'TION, process of growing, as a plant: vegetable growth: plants in general.--_adj._ VEG'ET[=A]TIVE, growing, as plants: producing growth in plants: pertaining to unconscious or involuntary bodily functions as resembling the processes of vegetable growth: without intellectual activity, unprogressive.--_adv._ VEG'ET[=A]TIVELY.--_n._ VEG'ET[=A]TIVENESS.--_adj._ VEGETE (vej'[=e]t), vigorous.--_n._ VEG'ETIVE (_Shak._), a vegetable.--VEGETABLE KINGDOM, that division of natural objects which embraces vegetables or plants; VEGETABLE MARROW, the fruit of a species of gourd, so called from its marrow-like appearance; VEGETABLE MOULD, mould consisting mostly of humus; VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY, that department of botany which treats of the growth and functions of plants. [O. Fr.,--Low L. _vegetabilis_, animating--L. _veget[=a]re_, to quicken--_veg[=e]re_, to be lively; akin to _vig[=e]re_, to be vigorous. Cf. _Vigour_.] VEHEMENT, v[=e]'he-ment, _adj._ passionate: furious: very eager or urgent.--_ns._ V[=E]'HEMENCE, V[=E]'HEMENCY, the quality of being vehement: violence: great ardour or fervour.--_adv._ V[=E]'HEMENTLY. [O. Fr.,--L. _vehemens_, from _ve_, out of, _mens_, mind; acc. to Vanicek, from _veh[)e]re_, to carry.] VEHICLE, v[=e]'hi-kl, _n._ any kind of carriage or conveyance: that which is used to convey: (_med._) a substance in which a medicine is taken: (_paint._) a liquid used to render colours, varnishes, &c. fit for use.--_adjs._ VEHIC'[=U]LAR, -Y, pertaining to or serving as a vehicle.--_v.t._ VEHIC'[=U]LATE (_rare_), to ride in a vehicle.--_n._ VEHIC[=U]L[=A]'TION.--_adj._ VEHIC'[=U]L[=A]T[=O]RY. [L. _vehiculum_--_veh[)e]re_, to carry.] VEHMGERICHT, f[=a]m'ge-richt, _n._ one of the dread medieval German tribunals, empowered by the emperors to try cases in which the penalty was death and to execute the punishment on the guilty--also FEM'GERICHTE, or simply VEHME, FEHME:--_pl._ VEHMGERICHTE (f[=a]m'ge-rich-te).--_adj._ VEHM'IC. [Ger.,--fehme, _fehm_, a criminal tribunal, _gericht_, judgment.] VEIL, v[=a]l, _n._ a curtain: anything that hides an object: a piece of muslin or thin cloth worn by ladies to shade or hide the face: a cover: a disguise: an obscuration of the clearness of the tones in pronunciation: in fungi, the partial covering of the stem or margin of the cap--applied also to the indusium of ferns.--_v.t._ to cover with a veil: to cover: to conceal.--_n._ VEIL'ING, the act of concealing with a veil: a veil: material for making veils.--_adjs._ VEIL'LESS, wanting a veil: uncovered; V[=E]'LAR (_philol._), denoting sounds (_gw_, _kw_, &c.) produced by the veil of the palate or soft palate; V[=E]'LARY, pertaining to a sail.--_n._ V[=E]L[=A]'TION, a veiling: concealment, mystery.--EUCHARISTIC or SACRAMENTAL VEILS, the linen or silk cloths used to cover the eucharistic vessels and the elements during the celebration of Mass or Holy Communion.--TAKE THE VEIL, to become a nun. [O. Fr. _veile_ (Fr. _voile_)--L. _velum_, a curtain--_veh[)e]re_, to carry.] VEILLEUSE, v[=a]-ly[.e]z', _n._ a shaded night-lamp. VEIN, v[=a]n, _n._ one of the vessels or tubes which convey the blood back to the heart: one of the horny tubes forming the framework of an insect's wings: (_bot._) one of the small branching ribs in a leaf: a seam of a different mineral through a rock: a fissure or cavity: a streak in wood or stone: a train of thought: a course: tendency or turn of mind: mood or humour.--_v.t._ to form veins or the appearance of veins in.--_n._ VEIN'AGE, veins collectively.--_adj._ VEINED, full of veins: streaked, variegated: (_bot._) having vessels branching over the surface, as a leaf.--_n._ VEIN'ING, formation or disposition of veins: streaking.--_adj._ VEIN'LESS, having no veins.--_n._ VEIN'LET (_bot._), a little vein or vessel branching out from a larger one.--_adjs._ VEIN'OUS, VEIN'Y, full of veins.--_ns._ VEIN'STONE, the earthy part of a lode; VEIN'[=U]LE, a very small vein. [Fr. _veine_--L. _vena_, perh. from _veh[)e]re_, to carry.] VELAMENTUM, vel-a-men'tum, _n._ a membrane or membraneous envelope--also VEL[=A]'MEN.--_adj._ VELAMEN'TOUS, veil-like. VELARIUM, v[=e]-l[=a]'ri-um, _n._ an awning which could be drawn over the Roman amphitheatre: the marginal membrane of certain hydrozoans:--_pl._ VEL[=A]'RIA. VELATURA, vel-a-t[=oo]'ra, _n._ a method of glazing a painting by rubbing on colour with the hand. [It.] VELDT, velt, _n._ in South Africa, the name given to unforested or thinly-forested grass country.--Also VELD. [Dut. _veld_, field.] VELE, v[=e]l, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as VEIL. VELIA, v[=e]'li-a, _n._ a genus of semi-aquatic water-bugs. VELITATION, vel-i-t[=a]'shun, _n._ a slight skirmish. VELITE, v[=e]'l[=i]t, _n._ a light-armed Roman soldier. [L. _veles_, _velitis_.] VELL, vel, _v.t._ (_prov._) to cut the turf from. VELL, vel, _n._ (_prov._) rennet. VELLEITY, ve-l[=e]'i-ti, _n._ (rare) volition in its lowest form: mere inclination. [Low L. _velleitas_, irregularly formed from L. _velle_, to wish.] VELLENAGE, vel'en-[=a]j, _n._ (_Spens._) slavery--the same as VILLEINAGE. [_Villain_.] VELLET, vel'et, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as VELVET. VELLICATE, vel'i-k[=a]t, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to twitch.--_n._ VELLIC[=A]'TION.--_adj._ VELL'IC[=A]TIVE. [L. _vellic[=a]re_,-_[=a]tum_, to pluck.] VELLON, ve-ly[=o]n', _n._ a Spanish money of account. VELLOPED, vel'opt, _adj._ (_her._) having pendant wattles. [Prob. _jelloped_ for _dewlapped_.] VELLOZIA, ve-l[=o]'zi-a, _n._ a genus of plants of the natural order _Hæmodoraceæ_, found in Brazil, Madagascar, &c. [_Vellozo_, Brazilian botanist.] VELLUM, vel'um, _n._ a finer kind of parchment prepared by lime-baths and burnishing from the skins of calves, kids, or lambs. [O. Fr. _velin_--Low L. (_charta_, paper), _vitulina_, of a calf--L. _vitulus_.] VELOCE, ve-l[=o]'che, _adv._ (_mus._) with great rapidity. VELOCIPEDE, v[=e]-los'i-p[=e]d, _n._ a light vehicle originally moved by striking the toes on the road, now with a treadle--its developments are the bicycle and tricycle.--_ns._ VELOC'IMAN, a velocipede driven by hand; VELOCIP[=E]'DEAN, VELOC'IP[=E]DIST, one who rides on a velocipede. [Fr.,--L. _velox_, _velocis_, swift, _pes_, _pedis_, foot.] VELOCITY, v[=e]-los'i-ti, _n._ swiftness: speed: rate of change of position of a point per unit of time.--_n._ VELOCIM'ETER, an apparatus for measuring velocity.--INITIAL VELOCITY, the rate of movement of a body at starting, esp. of a projectile. [L. _velocitas_--_velox_, swift.] VELUM, v[=e]'lum, _n._ a velarium: the ciliated disc-like fold of the integument with which some embryo molluscs are provided:--_pl._ V[=E]'LA.--_adj._ V[=E]'L[=A]TE, having a velum.--_n._ V[=E]L[=A]'TION, formation of a velum.--_adjs._ V[=E]LIF'EROUS, V[=E]LIG'EROUS, having a velum. VELURE, vel'[=u]r, _n._ velvet: a silk or plush pad for smoothing or giving lustre to silk hats--also VELOURS (ve-loor').--_v.t._ to dress with a velure.--_n._ VELOUTINE', a corded fabric of merino and fancy wool.--_adj._ VEL[=U]'TINOUS, velvety. [O. Fr. _velours_, _velous_ (Fr. _velours_)--Low L. _villosus_, velvet--L. _villosus_, shaggy.] VELVET, vel'vet, _n._ a cloth made from silk, with a close shaggy pile: a similar cloth made of cotton: the velvet-like covering of a growing antler: (_slang_) money gained by gambling.--_adj._ made of velvet: soft like velvet.--_ns._ VEL'VERET, a poor quality of velvet, the web of cotton, the pile of silk; VELVETEEN', a fustian made of twilled cotton with a pile of the same material: a kind of velvet made of silk and cotton mixed throughout; VEL'VET-FLOWER, the love-lies-bleeding.--_n.pl._ VEL'VET-GUARDS (_Shak._), velvet trimmings, applied metaphorically to the citizens who wore them.--_ns._ VEL'VETING, the nap of velvet: (_pl._) velvet goods collectively; VEL'VET-LEAF, the Indian mallow; VEL'VET-P[=A]'PER, flock paper; VEL'VET-PILE, any material with a long, soft nap; VEL'VET-SC[=O]'TER, a kind of black duck with large white spot on the wings; VEL'VET-WORK, embroidery on velvet.--_adj._ VEL'VETY, made of or like velvet: soft: soft in taste or touch.--STAND ON VELVET, to place one's bets in such a way as not to loose in any event. [From Low L. _velluetum_--Low L. _villutus_--L. _villus_, shaggy hair.] VENA, v[=e]'na, _n._ a vein.--VENA CAVA, the largest vein in the body, entering the right auricle of the heart. VENAL, v[=e]'nal, _adj._ that may be sold or got for a price: held for sale: mercenary.--_n._ VENAL'ITY, quality of being venal: prostitution of talents or services for a reward.--_adv._ V[=E]'NALLY. [Fr.,--L. _venalis_--_venus_, sale; Gr. _[=o]n[=e]_, purchase.] VENAL, v[=e]'nal, _adj._ pertaining to a vein or veins: contained in the veins. [L. _vena_, a vein.] VENATIC, -AL, v[=e]-nat'ik, -al, _adj._ pertaining to hunting.--_adv._ VENAT'ICALLY.--_adj._ VENAT[=O]'RIAL. [_Venery_.] VENATION, ve-n[=a]'shun, _n._ the way in which the leaves of plants are arranged: in insects, the distribution of the veins of the wings. [_Vein_.] VEND, vend, _v.t._ to give for sale, to sell: to give for money: to make an object of trade.--_ns._ VENDEE', the person to whom a thing is sold; VEN'DER, -DOR, one who sells; VENDIBIL'ITY.--_adj._ VEND'IBLE, that may be sold: that may be disposed of as an object of trade.--_n._ something salable.--_n._ VEN'DIBLENESS.--_adv._ VEN'DIBLY.--_n._ VENDUE' (_rare_), a public auction. [Fr. _vendre_--L. _vend[)e]re_--_venus_, sale, _d[)a]re_, to give.] VENDACE, ven'd[=a]s, _n._ a variety of the whitefish, found in Great Britain only in the Castle Loch at Lochmaben. [O. Fr. _vendese_, _vandoise_ (Fr. _vandoise_); orig. unknown.] VENDÉMIAIRE, vong-d[=a]-mi-[=a]r', _n._ the first month in the French Revolutionary Calendar, from 22d September to 21st October. ['The vintage-month,' Fr.,--L. _vindemia_, vintage--_vinum_, wine, _dem[)e]re_, to take off--_de_, off, _em[)e]re_, to take.] VENDETTA, ven-det'ta, _n._ the practice--not yet entirely extinct in Calabria and Corsica--of individuals taking private vengeance on those who have shed the blood of their relatives. [It.,--L. _vindicta_, revenge--_vindic[=a]re_, to claim.] VENEER, ve-n[=e]r', _v.t._ to overlay or face with another and superior wood: to cover with a thin coating of any substance other than wood: to disguise with artificial attractiveness.--_n._ a thin coating, as of wood: false show or charm.--_ns._ VENEER'-CUT'TER, a machine for cutting veneers from the block of wood; VENEER'ING, the act or art of overlaying an inferior wood with thin leaves of a more valuable kind: the thin leaf thus laid on. [Formerly _fineer_; corr. from Ger. _furniren_--O. Fr. _fornir_ (Fr. _fournir_), It. _fornire_, to furnish.] VENEFICAL, v[=e]-nef'i-kal, _adj._ poisonous, using sorcery--also VENEFI'CIAL, VENEFI'CIOUS.--_v.t._ VEN'EN[=A]TE, to poison.--_adj._ poisoned.--_n._ VENEN[=A]'TION.--_adjs._ VENENIF'LUOUS; VEN'ENOUS. [L. _veneficium_, a poisoning--_venenum_, poison, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] VENERABLE, ven'e-ra-bl, _adj._ that may be venerated: worthy of veneration, reverence, or honour: rendered sacred by religious or other associations: aged.--_n._ VEN'ERABLENESS.--_adv._ VEN'ERABLY. [L. _venerabilis_--_vener[=a]ri_, to venerate.] VENERATE, ven'e-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to honour or reverence with religious awe: to reverence: to regard with the greatest respect.--_adjs._ VEN'ERANT (_rare_), VEN'ER[=A]TIVE, reverent.--_ns._ VENER[=A]'TION, the act of venerating: the state of being venerated: the highest degree of respect and reverence: respect mingled with reverence and awe: awe; VEN'ER[=A]TOR, one who venerates. [L. _vener[=a]ri_, _-[=a]tus_.] VENEREAL, v[=e]-n[=e]'r[=e]-al, _adj._ pertaining to or arising from sexual intercourse: exciting desire for sexual intercourse: curing venereal diseases.--_adj._ VEN[=E]'REOUS, lascivious: stimulating sexual desire, aphrodisiac.--_n._ VEN'ERY, sexual intercourse. [L. _venereus_--_Venus_, _Ven[)e]ris_, the goddess of love; conn. with L. _vener[=a]ri_.] VENERY, ven'[.e]r-i, _n._ the act or exercise of hunting: the sports of the chase.--_ns._ VEN'ERER, a gamekeeper, hunter; VENEUR (ve-n[.e]r'), a person having an oversight of the chase. [O. Fr. _venerie_--_vener_--L. _ven[=a]ri_, to hunt.] VENESECTION, v[=e]-n[=e]-sek'shun, _n._ the section or cutting open of a vein for letting blood: blood-letting. [L. _vena_, a vein, _sectio_, cutting.] VENETIAN, v[=e]-n[=e]'shan, _adj._ of or belonging to _Venice_.--_n._ a native or inhabitant of Venice: a strong tape for Venetian-blinds: a domino.--_n._ VEN[=E]'TIAN-BLIND, a blind for windows formed of thin slips of wood, so hung as to admit of being set either edgewise or overlapping.--_adj._ VEN[=E]'TIANED, furnished with Venetian-blinds.--_ns._ VEN[=E]'TIAN-GLASS, a delicate and beautiful glass made by the craftsmen of Venice into mirrors, cups, goblets, &c., its forms reflecting its Oriental origin, famous since the middle ages; VEN[=E]'TIAN-STYLE, the type of the Renaissance architecture developed in VENICE, highly decorative and original. VENEW, ven'[=u], VENEY, ven'i, _n._ (_Shak._) a bout at fencing, a thrust, a hit. [_Venue_.] VENGE, venj, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to avenge, to punish.--_adj._ VENGE'ABLE (_Spens._), revengeful: deserving to be revenged.--_n._ VENGE'ANCE, the infliction of punishment upon another in return for an injury or offence: retribution: (_Shak._) harm, mischief.--_adv._ (_Shak._) extremely, exceedingly.--_adj._ VENGE'FUL, vindictive, retributive: revengeful.--_adv._ VENGE'FULLY.--_ns._ VENGE'FULNESS; VENGE'MENT (_Spens._), vengeance, penal retribution; VEN'GER (_Spens._), an avenger.--WITH A VENGEANCE (_coll._), violently: exceedingly. [O. Fr. _venger_--L. _vindic[=a]re_.] VENIAL, v[=e]'ni-al, _adj._ pardonable: excusable: allowed.--_adv._ V[=E]'NIALLY.--_ns._ V[=E]'NIALNESS, VENIAL'ITY.--VENIAL SIN (see MORTAL). [Fr.,--L. _venialis_, pardonable--_venia_, pardon.] VENI CREATOR, v[=e]'n[=i] kr[=e]-[=a]'tor, _n._--more fully, 'Veni Creator Spiritus'--a hymn of the Roman Breviary, used at Whitsuntide, ordinations, &c.--not to be confounded with the _Veni Sancte Spiritus, Et emitte coelitus_, the 'Golden Sequence.' VENISON, ven'i-zn, or ven'zn, _n._ the flesh of animals taken in hunting, esp. the deer. [Fr. _venaison_--L. _venatio_, a hunting, game--_ven[=a]ri_, to hunt.] VENITE, v[=e]-n[=i]'t[=e], _n._ in liturgics, the 95th Psalm. [From its opening words, 'Venite exultemus.'] VENNEL, ven'el, _n._ (_Scot._) an alley, a narrow street. [Fr. _venelle_, a small street.] VENOM, ven'um, _n._ any drink, juice, or liquid injurious or fatal to life: poison: spite: malice.--_adj._ (_Shak._) venomous, poisonous.--_v.t._ to infect with poison.--_n._ VEN'OM-DUCT, in a poisonous animal, the duct conveying venom from the sac or gland where it is secreted to the tooth or _venom-fang_ whence it is discharged.--_adjs._ VEN'OM-MOUTHED, having a venomous mouth: (_Shak._) slanderous; VEN'OMOUS, poisonous: spiteful: mischievous.--_adv._ VEN'OMOUSLY.--_n._ VEN'OMOUSNESS. [Fr. _venin_ (It. _veneno_)--L. _venenum_.] VENOSE, v[=e]'n[=o]s, _adj._ (_bot._) having well-marked veins, veined.--_n._ V[=E]NOS'ITY, the state or quality of being venous: (_med._) a condition of the blood in which the venous blood is unnaturally abundant.--_adj._ V[=E]'NOUS, pertaining to or contained in veins: veined.--_adv._ V[=E]'NOUSLY. [_Vein._] VENT, vent, _n._ a small opening to let air, &c., escape: the flue of a chimney: the opening in the top of a barrel allowing air to pass in as the liquid is drawn out: a gimlet used to extract a little liquid from a barrel for sampling purposes: discharge: escape: passage into notice: publication, utterance, voice: the anus of birds and fishes: (_mil._) the opening at the breech of a firearm through which fire is conveyed to the charge, the touch-hole.--_v.t._ to give a vent or opening to: to let out, as at a vent: to allow to escape: to publish: to pour forth.--_ns._ VENT'[=A]GE (_Shak._), a vent, a small hole; VEN'TAIL (_Spens._), same as AVENTAIL; VENT'-BUSH'ING, -PIECE, a copper cylinder inserted through the walls of a cannon over the seat of the charge and preventing the escaping gases from injuring the metal near the vent; VENT'ER, one who vents or publishes.--_adj._ VENTIC'[=U]LAR.--_ns._ VENT'-PEG, -PLUG, a plug for stopping the vent of a barrel; VENT'-PIPE, an escape-pipe.--GIVE VENT TO, to allow to escape or break out. [Altered form of _fent_, M. E. _fente_--O. Fr. _fente_, a slit.] VENT, vent, _n._ scent: (_hunting_) the act of taking breath.--_v.i._ to sniff, snort: to take breath: (_Scot._) of a chimney, to draw.--VENT UP (_Spens._), to lift so as to give air. [O. Fr.,--L. _ventus_, wind.] VENT, vent, _n._ the act of selling, sale: market. [O. Fr. _vente_--Low L. _vendita_, a sale--L. _vend[)e]re_, _-d[)i]tum_, to sell.] VENTANNA, ven-tan'a, _n._ a window. [Sp.] VENTER, ven't[.e]r, _n._ the belly, abdomen. [L.] VENTILATE, ven'ti-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to fan with wind: to open to the free passage of air: to cause fresh air to pass through: to expose to examination and discussion: to make public.--_adj._ VEN'TILABLE.--_ns._ VENTIL[=A]'BRUM, flabellum; VENTIL[=A]'TION, act or art of ventilating: state of being ventilated: free exposure to air: supply of air: act of examining and making public: public exposure.--_adj._ VEN'TIL[=A]TIVE.--_n._ VEN'TIL[=A]TOR, that which ventilates: a contrivance for introducing fresh air. [L. _ventil[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_ventulus_, dim. of _ventus_, the wind.] VENTOSE, ven't[=o]s, _adj._ windy.--_n._ the sixth month of the French Revolutionary Calendar, 19th February to 20th March.--_n._ VENTOS'ITY, windiness: empty pride. [L. _ventosus_--_ventus_, wind.] VENTRAL, ven'tral, _adj._ belonging to the belly: (_bot._) denoting the anterior or inferior surface: in the body, situated opposite the dorsal or back aspect.--_n._ in fishes, one of the posterior fins.--_advs._ VEN'TRAD (_zool._, _anat._), to or toward the belly, or ventral surface or aspect of the body; VEN'TRALLY.--_adj._ VEN'TRIC.--_n._ VEN'TRICLE, a small cavity within an animal body, as in the heart or brain: (_Shak._) the womb.--_adjs._ VEN'TRIC[=O]SE, VEN'TRICOUS, swelling out in the middle: bellied; VENTRIC'[=U]LAR. [L. _ventralis_--_venter_, the belly.] VENTRICULITE, ven-trik'[=u]-l[=i]t, _n._ one of a genus of fossil sponges found in the cretaceous system, and often giving their shape to flint nodules. VENTRILOQUISM, ven-tril'[=o]-kwizm, _n._ the act or art of producing tones and words without any motion of the mouth, so that the hearer is induced to refer the sound to some other place--also VENTRILOC[=U]'TION, VENTRIL'OQUY.--_adv._ VENTRIL[=O]'QUIALLY.--_v.i._ VENTRIL'OQUISE, to practise ventriloquism.--_n._ VENTRIL'OQUIST, one who practises ventriloquism.--_adjs._ VENTRILOQUIS'TIC, VENTRIL[=O]'QUIAL, VENTRIL'OQUOUS. [L. _ventriloquus_, speaking from the belly--_venter_, the belly, _loqui_, to speak.] VENTRIPOTENT, ven-trip'[=o]-tent, _adj._ (_rare_) of great gastronomic capacity. [L. _venter_, belly, _potens_--_posse_, to have power.] VENTROSITY, ven-tros'i-ti, _n._ the state of having a pot-belly. VENTURE, ven't[=u]r, _n._ chance, luck, hazard: that which is put to hazard (esp. goods sent by sea at the sender's risk): an undertaking whose issue is uncertain or dangerous.--_v.t._ to send on a venture: to expose to hazard: to risk.--_v.i._ to make a venture: to run a risk: to dare.--_n._ VEN'T[=U]RER.--_adjs._ VEN'T[=U]ROUS, VEN'T[=U]RESOME.--_advs._ VEN'T[=U]ROUSLY, VEN'T[=U]RESOMELY.--_ns._ VEN'T[=U]ROUSNESS, VEN'T[=U]RESOMENESS.--VENTURE ON, UPON, to dare to engage in.--AT A VENTURE, at hazard, random. [Short for _adventure_.] VENUE, ven'[=u], _n._ (_Shak._) a hit in fencing: a bout or match: a lunge, thrust. [O. Fr.,--L. _ven[=i]re_, to come.] VENUE, ven'[=u], _n._ (_law_) the place where an action is laid: the district from which a jury comes to try a question of fact: in England, usually the county where a crime is alleged to have been committed.--CHANGE OF VENUE, change of place of trial; LAY THE VENUE, to specify the place where the trial is to be held. [A particular use of preceding word, but confused with O. Fr. _visne_, neighbourhood--L. _vicinia_, neighbourhood.] VENUS, v[=e]'nus, _n._ (_Roman myth._) the goddess of love, originally of spring, patron of flower-gardens, but identified with the Greek Aphrodite: beauty and love deified: sexual commerce, venery: the most brilliant of the planets, second in order from the sun.--VENUS'S FLOWER-BASKET, a beautiful glass sponge; VENUS'S FLY-TRAP (see DIONÆA); VENUS'S GIRDLE, a tæniate ctenophoran.--MOUNT OF VENUS (_palm._), the elevation at the base of the thumb. [L., orig. personified from _venus_, desire; akin to _vener[=a]ri_, to worship.] VERACIOUS, ve-r[=a]'shus, _adj._ truthful: true.--_adv._ VER[=A]'CIOUSLY.--_n._ VERAC'ITY, the quality of being veracious: habitual truthfulness: truth. [L. _verax_, _veracis_--_verus_, true.] VERANDA, VERANDAH, ve-ran'da, _n._ a kind of covered balcony or open portico, with a roof sloping beyond the main building, supported by light pillars. [Hind. _varand[=a]_, perh. from Pers. _bar[=a]madah_, a porch--_bar_, up, _[=a]madan_, to come; by others derived from Old Port, _varanda_, a balcony--_vara_, a rod--L. _vara_, a rod.] VERATRUM, v[=e]-r[=a]'trum, _n._ hellebore.--_adj._ VER[=A]'TRIC.--_ns._ VER[=A]'TRIN, -E, a poisonous ointment used to relieve neuralgia.--_v.t._ VER[=A]'TRISE, to poison with veratrin. [L.] VERB, verb, _n._ (_gram._) the part of speech which asserts or predicates something.--_adj._ VER'BAL, relating to or consisting in words: spoken (as opposed to _written_): exact in words: attending to words only: literal, word for word: derived directly from a verb.--_n._ a part of speech, a noun derived from a verb.--_n._ VERBALIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ VER'BALISE, to turn into a verb.--_ns._ VER'BALISM, something expressed in words or orally; VER'BALIST, one skilled in words: a literalist; VERBAL'ITY.--_adv._ VER'BALLY.--_ns._ VERB[=A]'RIAN, a coiner of words; VERB[=A]'RIUM, a game played with the letters of the alphabet.--_adv._ VERB[=A]'TIM, word for word: (_Shak._) orally, verbally.--_ns._ VER'BI[=A]GE, abundance of words: wordiness: verbosity; VER'BICIDE, the perversion of a word, as if the killing of its natural meaning: one who so mangles words, a punster; VER'BICULTURE, the deliberate cultivation or production of words; VERBIFIC[=A]'TION, the act of verbifying.--_v.t._ VER'BIFY, to verbalise.--_ns._ VERBIGER[=A]'TION, the morbid and purposeless repetition of certain words and phrases at short intervals; VER'BO-M[=A]'NIAC, one crazy about words and their study, a dictionary-maker.--_adj._ VERB[=O]SE', containing more words than are necessary: wordy: diffuse.--_adv._ VERB[=O]SE'LY.--_ns._ VERB[=O]SE'NESS, VERBOS'ITY.--VERBAL DEFINITION, a definition intended to state the meaning of a word, apart from the essence of the thing signified; VERBAL INSPIRATION, that view which regards Holy Scripture as _literally_ inspired; VERBAL NOTE, in diplomacy, an unsigned memorandum calling attention to a neglected, though perhaps not urgent, matter. [Fr. _verbe_--L. _verbum_.] VERBENA, ver-b[=e]'na, _n._ a genus of plants of natural order _Verbenaceæ_, cultivated for their fragrance or beauty: vervain.--_adj._ VERBEN[=A]'CEOUS. [L. _verbenæ_, leaves, twigs, &c.] VERBERATE, ver'b[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.t._ to strike.--_n._ VERBER[=A]'TION. [L. _verber[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to scourge.] VERDANT, v[.e]r'dant, _adj._ green: fresh (as grass or foliage): flourishing: inexperienced: ignorant.--_n._ VER'DANCY.--_adv._ VER'DANTLY.--_ns._ VER'DERER, -OR, an officer in the old English royal forests who had charge of the vert (q.v.); VER'D[=U]RE, greenness: freshness of growth.--_v.t._ to cover with verdure.--_adjs._ VER'D[=U]RED; VER'D[=U]RELESS; VER'D[=U]ROUS. [Fr. _verdoyant_--L. _viridans_, _-antis_, pr.p. of _virid[=a]re_, to grow green--_viridis_, green--_vir[=e]re_, to be green.] VERDE-ANTIQUE, verd-an-t[=e]k', _n._ a beautiful stone of a dark-green colour with patches of white, and sometimes black and red--a mixture of serpentine with limestone dolomite or magnesite, much prized by the ancient Romans. [O. Fr.] VERDICT, ver'dikt, _n._ the finding of a jury on a trial: decision: opinion pronounced.--OPEN VERDICT, a verdict upon an inquest which finds that a crime has been committed without specifying the criminal; SPECIAL VERDICT, a verdict in which specific facts are found and put on the record. [O. Fr. _verdit_--Low L. _veredictum_--L. _vere_, truly, _dictum_, a saying.] VERDIGRIS, ver'di-gris, _n._ a basic acetate of copper, the greenish rust of copper, brass, or bronze: a bluish-green paint got artificially from copper-plates.--_v.t._ to coat with verdigris.--Also VER'DEGRIS. [M. E. _verdegrese_, _verte grece_--O. Fr. _verd (vert) de gris_--_verd_, green, _de_, of, _Gris_, Greeks--L. _Græcus_, Greek. _Vert de gris_ has been wrongly explained as 'green of gray'--_gris_, gray, or as 'green of copper'--L. _æs_, _æris_, copper.] VERDITER, ver'di-t[.e]r, _n._ a light-blue pigment, essentially a hydrated cupric carbonate--_Green verditer_ is the blue pigment changed to green by boiling. [A corr. of Fr. _verd-de-terre_=earth green.] VERDOY, ver'doi, _adj._ (_her._) charged with flowers, leaves, or vegetable charges, as a bordure. [Fr. _verd_, green.] VERDUN, ver-dun', _n._ a 16th-cent. form of rapier. [From the French town _Verdun_.] VERECUND, ver'[=e]-kund, _adj._ (_obs._) modest.--_adj._ VERECUN'DIOUS.--_n._ VERECUN'DITY. VERETILLIFORM, ver-e-til'i-form, _adj._ rod-like, virgate.--Also VERETILL'EOUS. VERGE, verj, _n._ a slender green branch, a twig: a rod, staff, or mace, or anything like them, used as an emblem of authority: extent of jurisdiction (esp. of the lord-steward of the royal household): the brink, extreme edge: the horizon: a boundary, limit: scope, opportunity: in gardening, the grass edging of a bed or border.--_ns._ VER'GER, one who carries a verge or emblem of authority: the beadle of a cathedral church: a pew-opener or attendant in church; VER'GERSHIP; VERGETTE' (_her._), a pallet. [L. _virga_, a slender branch.] VERGE, verj, _v.i._ to bend or incline: to tend downward: to slope: to tend: to border upon.--_n._ VER'GENCY.--_adj._ VER'GENT. [L. _verg[)e]re_, to bend, incline; cf. _valgus_, wry.] VERIDICAL, v[=e]-rid'i-kal, _adj._ truthful, truth-telling: true.--_adv._ VERID'ICALLY.--_adj._ VERID'ICOUS, truthful. [L. _verus_, true, _dic[)e]re_, to say.] VERIEST. See VERY. VERIFY, ver'i-f[=i], _v.t._ to make out or show to be true: to establish the truth of by evidence: to fulfil: to confirm the truth or authenticity of: (_Shak._) to affirm, support, strengthen:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ ver'if[=i]ed.--_n._ VERIF[=I]ABIL'ITY.--_adj._ VER'IF[=I]ABLE, that may be verified, proved, or confirmed.--_ns._ VERIFIC[=A]'TION, a verifying or proving to be true: the state of being verified; VER'IF[=I]ER. [L. _verus_, true, _fac[)e]re_, to make.] VERILY, ver'i-li, _adv._ truly: certainly: really. VERISIMILAR, ver-i-sim'i-lar, _adj._ truth-like: likely: probable.--_adv._ VERISIM'ILARLY.--_ns._ VERISIMIL'ITUDE, similitude or likeness to truth: likelihood; VERISIMIL'ITY (_obs._).--_adj._ VERISIM'ILOUS. [L. _verisimilis_--_verus_, true, _similis_, like.] VERITY, ver'i-ti, _n._ the quality of being true or real: truth: a true assertion or tenet: (_Shak._) honesty:--_pl._ VER'ITIES.--_adj._ VER'ITABLE, true: according to fact: real: actual.--_adv._ VER'ITABLY.--OF A VERITY, certainly. [L. _veritas_--_verus_, true.] VERJUICE, ver'j[=oo]s, _n._ the expressed juice of green or unripe fruit: sourness of temper.--_v.t._ to make sour or acid. [Fr. _verjus_--_vert_, green (cf. _Verdant_), and Fr. _jus_, juice.] VERMEIL, VERMIL, ver'mil, _n._ (_Spens._) same as VERMILION: silver-gilt.--_adj._ VER'MEIL-TINC'TURED (_Milt._), tinged bright-red. [Illustration] VERMES, ver'm[=e]z, _n.pl._ worms: the name given by Linnæus to one of the classes in his zoological system, in which he included all the invertebrate animals, other than Insecta, whether of worm-like form or not.--_ns._ VERMEOL'OGIST, one skilled in vermeology; VERMEOL'OGY, the knowledge of worms, helminthology.--_adjs._ VER'MIAN, VERMI'CEOUS, worm-like; VER'MICIDAL, destroying worms.--_n._ VER'MICIDE, a worm-killer.--_adjs._ VERMIC'[=U]LAR, VERMIC'[=U]LATE, -D, pertaining to or like a worm (esp. in its motion): inlaid or formed so as to imitate the track of worms: crawling like a worm.--_v.t._ VERMIC'[=U]LATE, to form inlaid work which resembles the motion or track of worms.--_ns._ VERMICUL[=A]'TION; VER'MICULE, a little worm.--_adjs._ VERMIC'ULOSE, VERMIC'ULOUS, wormy; VER'MIFORM, having the form of a worm; VERMIF'UGAL, expelling worms.--_n._ VER'MIFUGE (_med._), a substance that destroys intestinal worms or expels them from the digestive canal.--_adjs._ VER'MIGRADE, wriggling like a worm; VERMIV'OROUS, devouring worms, feeding on grubs. [L. _vermis_, a worm.] VERMICELLI, ver-mi-chel'i, or -sel'i, _n._ the stiff paste or dough of fine wheat-flour made into small worm-like or thread-like rolls. [It., pl. of _vermicello_--L. _vermiculus_, dim. of _vermis_, worm.] VERMILION, ver-mil'yun, _n._ a bright-red pigment obtained from cinnabar, but generally made artificially from mercury and sulphur: any beautiful red colour: (_obs._) the kermes or cochineal insect, also the product of cochineal.--_adj._ of the colour of vermilion.--_v.t._ to dye vermilion: to colour a delicate red.--_n._ VER'MILY (_Spens._), same as VERMILION. [O. Fr. _vermillon_--_vermeil_--L. _vermiculus_, a little worm, hence (in the Vulgate) the 'scarlet' worm, dim. of _vermis_, a worm.] VERMIN, ver'min, _n.sing._ and _pl._ a worm: a name for all obnoxious insects, as bugs, fleas, and lice; troublesome animals, such as mice, rats; animals destructive to game, such as weasels, polecats, also hawks and owls: any contemptible person, or such collectively.--_v.i._ VER'MIN[=A]TE, to breed vermin.--_ns._ VERMIN[=A]'TION; VER'MIN-KILL'ER.--_adj._ VER'MINOUS, infested with worms: like vermin.--_adv._ VER'MINOUSLY. [Fr. _vermine_--L. _vermis_, a worm.] VERMUTH, VERMOUTH, ver'mooth, _n._ a mild cordial consisting of white wine flavoured with wormwood, used as a stimulant for the appetite. [Ger. _wermuth_, wormwood; cf. A.S. _werm[=o]d_.] VERNACULAR, ver-nak'[=u]-lar, _adj._ native: belonging to the country of one's birth.--_n._ one's mother-tongue.--_n._ VERNACULARIS[=A]'TION, the act of making vernacular.--_v.t._ VERNAC'ULARISE, to make vernacular.--_ns._ VERNAC'ULARISM, a vernacular word or idiom, the use of such; VERNACULAR'ITY, an idiom.--_adv._ VERNAC'ULARLY.--_v.t._ VERNAC'ULATE, to express in a vernacular idiom.--_adj._ VERNAC'ULOUS, scurrilous. [L. _vernaculus_--_verna_, a home-born slave.] VERNAL, ver'nal, _adj._ belonging to the spring: appearing in spring: belonging to youth.--_adv._ VER'NALLY.--_adj._ VER'NANT (_Milt._), flourishing as in spring.--_v.i._ VER'N[=A]TE, to flourish.--_n._ VERN[=A]'TION, the particular manner of arrangement of leaves in the bud.--VERNAL EQUINOX, the equinox on or about 21st March (see EQUINOX); VERNAL GRASS, a common British meadow grass about a foot high, and sown among hay for its flavour and agreeable odour. [L. _vernalis_--_ver_, spring.] VERNER'S LAW. See LAW. VERNIER, ver'ni-[.e]r, _n._ a contrivance for measuring very small intervals, consisting of a short scale made to slide along a graduated instrument. [So called from Pierre _Vernier_ (1580-1637) of Brussels, its inventor.] VERONESE, ver-[=o]-n[=e]s', or -n[=e]z', _n._ of or pertaining to _Verona_ in Italy.--_n._ an inhabitant of VERONA. VERONICA, v[=e]-ron'i-ka, _n._ a portrait of our Saviour's face on a handkerchief--from the legend that St Veronica wiped the sweat from the face of Jesus, on His way to Calvary, with her handkerchief, whereupon His features were impressed on the cloth: a genus of plants, popularly known as Speedwell. [_Veronica_, not L. _vera_, true, Gr. _eik[=o]n_, image, but identical with _Beren[=i]c[=e]_, the traditional name of the woman cured of the issue of blood--a corr. of Gr. _pherenik[=e]_, victorious--_pherein_, to bear, _nik[=e]_, victory.] VERRÉ, VERREY, ve-r[=a]', _adj._ Same as VAIRÉ. VERREL, ver'el, _n._ a corruption of _ferrule_. VERRICULE, ver'i-k[=u]l, _n._ a tuft of upright hairs. [L. _verriculum_, a net.] VERRUCA, ve-r[=u]'ka, _n._ a wart, a glandular elevation: one of the wart-like sessile apothecia of some lichens.--_adjs._ VERR[=U]'CIFORM, warty; VER'R[=U]COSE, VER'R[=U]COUS, covered with little knobs or wart-like prominences: warty; VERR[=U]'CULOSE, minutely verrucose. [L. _verruca_, a wart.] VERRUGAS, ve-r[=oo]'gas, _n._ an endemic disease of Peru, characterised by warty tumours on the skin. [Sp.,--L. _verruca_, a wart.] VERSABILITY, ver-sa-bil'i-ti, _n._ aptness to be turned round.--_adj._ VER'SABLE.--_n._ VER'SABLENESS. [L. _vers[=a]re_, to whirl about.] VERSAL, ver'sal, _adj._ (_Shak._) abbrev. of _universal_. VERSANT, ver'sant, _adj._ familiar, conversant: (_her._) with wings erect and open.--_n._ the general slope of surface of a country. [Fr.,--L. _vers[=a]re_, to whirl about.] VERSATILE, ver'sa-til, _adj._ capable of being moved or turned round: changeable: unsteady: turning easily from one thing to another: (_bot._) swinging freely on a support: (_ornith._) reversible, of toes.--_adv._ VER'SATILELY.--_ns._ VER'SATILENESS, VERSATIL'ITY, the quality of being versatile: changeableness: the faculty of turning easily to new tasks or subjects. [Fr.,--L. _versatilis_--_vers[=a]re_, freq. of _vert[)e]re_, to turn.] VERSE, vers, _n._ a line of poetry: metrical arrangement and language: poetry: a stanza: a short division of any composition, esp. of the chapters of the Bible, originally confined to the metrical books, applied first to whole Bible in 1528: (_mus._) a portion of an anthem to be performed by a single voice to each part.--_v.t._ to relate in verse.--_ns._ VERS-DE-SOCIÉTÉ (same as SOCIETY-VERSE; see under SOCIABLE); VERSE'LET; VERSE-M[=A]'KER; VERSE-M[=A]'KING; VERSE'-MAN, a writer of verses; VERSE'-MONG'ER, a scribbler of verses; VERSE'-MONG'ERING, verse-writing, esp. of poor verses; VER'SER, a versifier; VER'SET (_mus._), a very short organ interlude or prelude; VER'SICLE, a little verse: in liturgy, the verse said by the officiant.--_adj._ VERSIC'[=U]LAR, pertaining to verses.--_ns._ VERSIFIC[=A]'TION, the act, art, or practice of composing metrical verses; VER'SIFIC[=A]TOR, VER'SIFIC[=A]TRIX, a male, female, maker of verses; VER'SIF[=I]ER.--_v.i._ VER'SIFY, to make verses.--_v.t._ to relate in verse: to turn into verse:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ ver'sif[=i]ed.--_n._ VER'SION, the act of translating or turning from one language into another: that which is translated from one language into another: account: statement: a school exercise, generally of composition in a foreign language.--_adj._ VER'SIONAL, pertaining to a version or translation.--_n._ VER'SIONIST, a translator.--_adj._ VER'S[=U]AL, of the character of a verse, pertaining to verses or short paragraphs. [A.S. _fers_--L. _versus_, _vorsus_, a line, furrow, turning--_vert[)e]re_, to turn; influenced by O. Fr. _vers_.] VERSED, verst, _adj._ thoroughly acquainted, skilled (fol. by _in_): (_math._) reversed.--_adj._ VERSÉ (_her._), reversed or turned in an unusual direction.--Also RENVERSE. [Fr. _versé_--L. _versatus_, pa.p. of _vers[=a]ri_, to turn round.] VERSICOLOUR, ver'si-kul-ur, _adj._ having diverse or having changeable colours.--Also VERSICOL'OURED. [L. _vers[=a]re_, to change, and colour.] VERSIFORM, ver'si-form, _adj._ varying in form. VERSO, ver's[=o], _n._ a left-hand page: the reverse of a coin or medal. VERST, verst, _n._ a Russian mile, 3500 feet in length, or almost two-thirds of an English mile. [Russ. _versta_, a verst; perh. _vertiet[)i]_, to turn, cog. with L. _vert[)e]re_, to turn.] VERSUS, ver'sus, _prep._ against, in legal phraseology--abbreviated _v._ and _vs._ [L.] VERSUTE, ver-s[=u]t, _adj._ crafty, wily. VERT, vert, _n._ in forest law, every green leaf or plant having green leaves which may serve as a covert for deer: a power to cut green trees or wood: (_her._) a green colour represented by parallel lines sloping diagonally from the dexter chief to the sinister base. [Fr. _vert_--L. _viridis_, green.] VERT, vert, _n._ a familiar word for _convert_ or _pervert_.--_v.i._ to become such. VERTEBRA, ver't[=e]-bra, _n._ one of the segmented portions of the spinal column:--_pl._ VERTEBRÆ (ver'te-br[=e]).--_adj._ VER'TEBRAL.--_adv._ VER'TEBRALLY.--_n.pl._ VERTEBR[=A]'TA, a division of the animal kingdom containing all animals having a backbone or its equivalent.--_n._ VER'TEBR[=A]TE, an animal having an internal skeleton with a backbone.--_adjs._ VER'TEBR[=A]TE, -D, furnished with joints: having a backbone.--_n._ VERTEBR[=A]'TION, the formation of vertebræ;. [L.,--_vert[)e]re_, to turn.] VERTEX, v[.e]r'teks, _n._ the top or summit: the point of a cone, pyramid, or angle; (_astron._) the zenith: (_anat._) the crown of the head:--_pl._ VER'TICES.--_adj._ VER'TICAL, pertaining to the vertex: placed in the zenith: perpendicular to the plane of the horizon.--_n._ a vertical line.--_adv._ VER'TICALLY.--_n._ VER'TICALNESS.--VERTICAL ANGLES, opposite angles formed by intersecting lines; VERTICAL CIRCLE, a great circle of the heavens passing through the zenith and the nadir. [L., eddy, summit--_vert[)e]re_, to turn.] VERTICILLATE, ver-ti-sil'[=a]t, _adj._ (_bot._) arranged round the stalk in a ring or whorl, as leaves or flowers, whorled.--_n._ VER'TICIL, a whorl. [Low L. _verticillatus_--_verticillus_, dim. of _vertex_.] VERTIGO, ver'ti-g[=o], or ver-t[=i]'g[=o], _n._ a sensation of giddiness: dizziness.--_adjs._ VERTIGINATE (ver-tij'-), VERTIG'INOUS, turning round: affected with vertigo: giddy.--_adv._ VERTIG'INOUSLY.--_n._ VERTIG'INOUSNESS. [L.,--_vert[)e]re_, to turn.] VERTU, old spelling of virtue.--_adj._ VER'TUOUS (_Spens._), possessing virtue or power. VERTUMNUS, ver-tum'nus, _n._ an ancient Roman divinity of gardens and orchards, a spring god. VERULAMIAN, v[.e]r-[=u]-l[=a]'mi-an, _adj._ of or pertaining to St Albans, or Francis Bacon, Baron _Verulam_, Viscount St Albans (1561-1626). [L. _Verulamium_, an ancient British city near the site of St Albans.] VERULED, ver'[=oo]ld, _adj._ (_her._) ringed, as a horn, in a different tincture.--_n._ VER'ULES (_her._), a bearing consisting of a series of concentric rings, one within another. [_Virole_.] VERVAIN, ver'v[=a]n, _n._ a plant of the genus _Verbena_--credited with efficacy in love-philtres, good against witches, &c. [O. Fr. _verveine_--L. _verb[=e]na_.] VERVE, verv, _n._ the enthusiasm which animates a poet or artist: animation: energy. [Fr.] VERVELLE, ver-vel', _n._ the loop that secured the camail in medieval armour. [Fr.] VERVELS, verv'elz, _n.pl._ small rings attached to the ends of the jesses of a hawk, through which the leash is passed that fastens the hawk to its block.--_adj._ VERV'ELLED. [Fr. _vervelle_.] VERVET, ver'vet, _n._ a South African monkey. VERY, ver'i, _adj._ true (now used chiefly in an intensive sense): real (so in _B._): actual--sometimes used in superlative form VER'IEST.--_adv._ in a high degree.--IN VERY DEED, of a truth, certainly. [Older form _veray_--O. Fr. _verai_ (Fr. _vrai_), from L. _verax_, _veracis_, speaking truly--_verus_, true; cf. Ger. _wahr_.] VESALIAN, v[=e]-s[=a]'li-an, _adj._ connected with the name of the anatomist Andreas _Vesalius_ (1514-64). VESANIA, v[=e]-s[=a]'ni-a, _n._ insanity. VESICA, v[=e]-s[=i]'ka, _n._ (_anat._) a bladder, sac, esp. the urinary bladder:--_pl._ VESICÆ (v[=e]-s[=i]'s[=e]).--_adjs._ VES'ICAL, of or pertaining to a vesica; VES'ICANT, blistering.--_n._ a substance that vesicates or raises blisters.--_v.t._ VES'IC[=A]TE, to raise blisters on:--_pr.p._ ves'ic[=a]ting; _pa.p._ ves'ic[=a]ted.--_ns._ VESIC[=A]'TION, the act or process of raising blisters on the skin; VES'IC[=A]TORY (same as VESICANT); VES'ICLE, a small bladder or blister: a small cavity in an animal body; (_bot._) a bladder-like cell; V[=E]SIC'[=U]LA, a vesicle.--_adj._ V[=E]SIC'ULAR.--_adv._ V[=E]SIC'[=U]LARLY.--_n._ V[=E]SIC[=U]L[=A]'TION, formation of vesicles.--_adjs._ V[=E]SIC[=U]LIF'EROUS, bearing vesicles; V[=E]SIC'[=U]LIFORM; V[=E]SIC'[=U]LOSE, V[=E]SIC'[=U]LOUS, V[=E]SIC'[=U]L[=A]TE, pertaining to or full of vesicles: full of interstices: having little glands on the surface.--VESICA PISCIS (a fish's bladder), a symbol of Christ, an oval aureole surrounding the entire upright figure, supposed to contain an allusion to the sacred Christian emblem, the _ichthys_. [L., bladder.] VESPER, ves'p[.e]r, _n._ the evening star, Venus: the evening: (_pl._) the last but one of the seven canonical hours: evensong, evening service generally.--_adj._ VES'PERAL, pertaining to the evening or to vespers.--_n._ VES'PER-BELL, the bell that summons to vespers.--_adjs._ VES'PERTINE, VES'PERTINAL, of or pertaining to the evening: (_bot._) opening in the evening: (_zool._) active in the evening.--SICILIAN VESPERS (see SICILIAN). [Fr.,--L.; Gr. _hesperos_.] VESPERTILIO, ves-p[.e]r-til'i-[=o], _n._ a Linnæan genus of mammals, of order _Primates_--the modern order _Chiroptera_.--_adj._ VESPERTIL'IONINE. VESPIARY, ves'pi-a-ri, _n._ a hornet's nest.--_adj._ VES'PIFORM, VES'PINE, wasp-like. VESSEL, ves'el, _n._ a vase or utensil for holding something: a hollow structure made to float on water, used for conveyance, &c.: a tube in which fluids, as blood, &c., are contained: a person considered as an agent of God.--THE WEAKER VESSEL, a phrase colloquially applied to a woman, in allusion to 1 Pet. iii. 7. [O. Fr. _vessel_ (Fr. _vaisseau_)--L. _vascellum_, dim. of _vas_, a vase.] VEST, vest, _n._ that which is put on as dress: a garment: a waistcoat: formerly a cassock-like garment: a kind of close jacket worn by women, an extra piece or trimming on the front of the bodice of a woman's gown, often V-shaped: a knitted or woven undergarment: (_arch._) a vestment.--_v.t._ to clothe: to invest: (_law_) to give fixed right of possession.-_v.i._ to descend or to take effect, as a right.--_adj._ VES'TED, clothed, wearing robes of ceremony: not contingent or suspended, hence (_law_) already acquired: denoting a present absolute right.--_n._ VES'TIARY (_obs._), a wardrobe: (_rare_) garb, clothing:--_pl._ VES'TIARIES.--_n._ VES'TING, cloth for men's waistcoats.--VEST IN INTEREST, to devolve as matter of right without reference to immediate right of possession. [Fr. _veste_--L. _vestis_.] VESTA, ves'ta, _n._ among the Romans, the chaste goddess that presided over the family, in whose temple the sacred fire was continually kept burning: the fourth planetoid discovered in 1807: a match or waxlight:--_pl._ VES'TAS.--_adj._ VES'TAL, pertaining to or consecrated to the service of Vesta: chaste: pure.--_n._ in the ancient Roman religion, one of the six patrician virgins consecrated to Vesta: a virgin, a nun, a woman of spotless chastity. VESTIBULE, ves'ti-b[=u]l, _n._ an open court or porch before a house: a hall next the entrance to a house: (_anat._) a small bony cavity forming part of the ear--also VESTIB'-[=U]LUM.--_v.t._ to furnish with a vestibule.--_adjs._ VESTIB'[=U]LAR, VESTIB'[=U]L[=A]TE. [Fr.,--L. _vestibulum_--traced by some to _ve_, apart, _stabulum_, abode; by others to _vestis_, garment, as being the place where the outer clothing is put on or off in entering or leaving a house.] VESTIGE, ves'tij, _n._ a track or footprint: traces or remains of something: (_biol._) an organ or tissue which still survives but has lost the utility it possessed, but corresponding to a useful part in an organism of lower type.--_adjs._ VESTI'GIAL, VESTI'GIARY.--_n._ VESTI'GIUM (_anat._, _biol._), a vestige. [Fr.,--L. _vestigium_--_vestig[=a]re_, to track.] VESTIMENT, ves'ti-ment, _n._ (_Spens._)=_Vestment_. VESTITURE, ves'ti-t[=u]r, _n._ the hairs, scales, &c. covering a surface. VESTLET, vest'let, _n._ a tubicolous sea-anemone of genus _Cerianthus_. VESTMENT, vest'ment, _n._ something put on, a garment: a long outer robe: (_pl._) articles of dress worn by the clergy during divine service and the administration of the sacraments--_amice_, _alb_, _girdle_, _maniple_, _stole_, _chasuble_, &c.: covering of the altar. [L. _vestimentum_--_vest[=i]re_, to clothe--_vestis_, a garment.] VESTRY, ves'tri, _n._ a room adjoining a church in which the vestments are kept and parochial meetings held, any small room attached to a church: in English parishes, a meeting of the ratepayers to elect parish officers, to assess church-rates, and to manage the property of the parish, the incumbent acting as chairman.--_adj._ VES'TRAL.--_ns._ VES'TRY-CLERK, an officer chosen by the vestry who keeps the parish accounts and books; VES'TRYMAN, a member of a vestry.--SELECT VESTRY, a board consisting of representatives of the ratepayers, as opposed to the _common vestry_ or assembly of all the ratepayers. [Fr.,--L. _vestiarium_--_vestiarius_, belonging to clothes--_vestis_, a garment.] VESTURE, ves't[=u]r, _n._ clothing: dress: a robe: integument.--_v.t._ to clothe, robe.--_adjs._ VES'T[=U]RAL; VES'T[=U]RED.--_n._ VES'T[=U]RER, one who has charge of ecclesiastical vestments. VESUVIAN, v[=e]-s[=u]'vi-an, _adj._ pertaining or relating to _Vesuvius_, a volcano near Naples.--_n._ a kind of match used in lighting cigars, &c.--_n._ VES[=U]'VIAN[=I]TE, a mineral allied to garnet, sometimes called pyramidal garnet, found in volcanic and primitive rocks, and so called because frequent in masses ejected from Vesuvius--also Idocrase.--_v.t._ VES[=U]'VIATE, to burst forth like an eruption. VET., vet, _n._ (_coll._) an abbreviation from _veterinary_ (_surgeon_). VETCH, vech, _n._ a genus of plants, mostly climbing, some cultivated for fodder, esp. the tare.--_n._ VETCH'LING, a name of various vetch-like plants.--_adj._ VETCH'Y, abounding with vetches: (_Spens._) consisting of vetches. [O.Fr. _veche_ (Fr. _vesce_)--L. _vicia_, akin to _vinc[=i]re_, to bind.] VETERAN, vet'e-ran, _adj._ old, experienced: long exercised, esp. in military life.--_n._ one long exercised in any service, esp. in war.--_v.t._ VET'ERANISE, to make veteran.--_v.i._ (_U.S._) to re-enlist for military service. [L. _veteranus_--_vetus_, _veteris_, old.] VETERINARY, vet'e-ri-na-ri, _adj._ pertaining to the art of treating the diseases of domestic animals: professing or practising this art.--_n._ one skilled in the diseases of domestic animals.--Also VETERIN[=A]'RIAN. [L. _veterinarius_--_veterina_ (_bestia_), a beast of burden.] VETIVER, vet'i-v[.e]r, _n._ the dried roots of the cuscus-grass, with an odour like sandalwood--making baskets, fans, and mats, VETO, v[=e]'t[=o], _n._ any authoritative prohibition: the power of rejecting or forbidding:--_pl._ VETOES (v[=e]'t[=o]z).--_v.t._ to reject by a veto: to withhold assent to.--ABSOLUTE VETO, a veto without restriction. [L. _vet[=a]re_, to forbid.] VETTURA, vet-t[=oo]'ra, _n._ an Italian four-wheeled carriage.--_n._ VETTURINO (vet-t[=oo]-r[=e]'n[=o]), one who drives or lends for hire a vettura:--_pl._ VETTURI'NI. [It.,--L. _vectura_, a carrying--_veh[)e]re_, to convey.] VETUST, v[=e]-tust', _adj._ old. [L. _vetustus_--_vetus_, old.] VEX, veks, _v.t._ to harass: to torment: to irritate by small provocations: to agitate: to contest.--_v.i._ (_obs._) to be vexed.--_n._ (_Scot._) a trouble.--_n._ VEX[=A]'TION, a vexing: state of being vexed: trouble: a teasing annoyance: uneasiness.--_adj._ VEX[=A]'TIOUS, causing vexation or annoyance: harassing: full of trouble.--_adv._ VEX[=A]'TIOUSLY.--_n._ VEX[=A]'TIOUSNESS.--_adj._ VEXED, amazed.--_n._ VEX'ER.--_adj._ VEX'ING.--_adv._ VEX'INGLY, so as to vex or annoy.--_n._ VEX'INGNESS.--VEXATIOUS SUIT (_law_), a suit begun without justifiable cause. [Fr. _vexer_--L. _vex[=a]re_, to shake, annoy--_veh[)e]re_. to carry.] VEXILLUM, vek-sil'um, _n._ in the ancient Roman army, a standard, the troop serving under such a standard: (_eccles._) a processional banner: (_bot._) the large posterior petal of a papilionaceous flower--also VEX'IL; the web or vane of a feather:--_pl._ VEXILL'A.--_adjs._ VEX'ILLAR, VEX'ILLARY.--_ns._ VEX'ILLARY, VEX'ILL[=A]TOR, a standard-bearer.--_adj._ VEX'ILLATE, having vexilla.--_n._ VEXILL[=A]'TION, a company under one vexillum. [L., 'an ensign'--_veh[)e]re_, to carry.] VIA, v[=i]'a, or v[=e]'a, _n._ a highway, a road, a route--_via London_=by way of London: a natural passage of the body.--_n._ VIAM'ETER, an odometer.--_adj._ VIAT'IC.--_n.pl._ VIAT'ICALS, military baggage.--VIA DOLOROSA, the Way of Calvary (see STATION); VIA LACTEA, the Milky-Way or Galaxy; VIA MEDIA, the midway course or mean between popular Protestantism and Roman Catholicism which Newman almost down to 1845 succeeded in believing that the Anglican divines of the 17th century had taken up.--PRIMÆ VIÆ, the first or main passages, the alimentary canal, the bowels; SECUNDÆ VIÆ, the lacteal or chyliferous vessels. VIA, v[=e]'a, _interj._ away! off! either in command or defiance. [It.,--L. _via_, way.] VIABLE, v[=i]'a-bl, _adj._ capable of living.--_n._ VIABIL'ITY. [Fr., through Low L.--L. _vita_, life.] VIADUCT, v[=i]'a-dukt, _n._ a road or railway carried by a structure over a valley, river, &c. [L. _via_, a way, _duc[)e]re_, _ductum_, to lead, bring.] VIAL, v[=i]'al, _n._ same as PHIAL, _v.t._ to keep in a vial.--_n._ V[=I]'ALFUL.--POUR OUT VIALS OF WRATH, to inflict judgment (Rev. xvi. 1): to storm, rage. VIAND, v[=i]'and, _n._ food, articles for food--usually in _pl._ [Fr. _viande_--Low L. _vivanda_ (for _vivenda_), food necessary for life--L. _viv[)e]re_, to live.] VIATICUM, v[=i]-at'ik-um, _n._ (_orig._) provisions for the way: (_R.C. Church_) the eucharist given to persons in danger of death: a portable altar.--_n._ VI[=A]'TOR, a traveller, wayfarer: a summoner, apparitor. [L.,--_via_, a way.] VIBEX, v[=i]'beks, _n._ a purple spot under the skin in certain fevers:--_pl._ VIB[=I]'CES. [L.] VIBRACULUM, v[=i]-brak'[=u]-lum, _n._ one of the long whip-like appendages of the cells of some Polyzoa:--_pl._ VIBRAC'[=U]LA.--Also VIBRAC[=U]L[=A]'RIUM. VIBRATE, v[=i]'br[=a]t, _v.i._ to shake: to tremble: to move backwards and forwards: to swing: to pass from one state to another.--_v.t._ to cause to shake: to move to and fro: to measure by moving to and fro: to affect with vibratory motion.--_adjs._ V[=I]'BRANT, vibrating: sonorous; V[=I]'BRATILE, having a vibratory motion: (_zool._) adapted to or used in vibratory motion.--_ns._ V[=I]BRATIL'ITY; V[=I]BR[=A]'TION, a vibrating: state of being vibrated: tremulousness, quivering motion.--_adj._ V[=I]BR[=A]'TIONAL.--_n._ V[=I]BR[=A]'TIUNCLE, a small vibration.--_adjs._ V[=I]'BR[=A]TIVE, V[=I]'BR[=A]TORY, vibrating: consisting in vibrations: causing vibrations.--_ns._ V[=I]'BR[=A]TOR (_elect._), a vibrating reed used to open and close the electric current: (_print._) a vibrating reed used for distributing the ink; VI'BROSCOPE, an instrument for registering vibrations. [L. _vibr[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_, to tremble.] VIBRATO, v[=e]-brä't[=o], _n._ a pulsating effect in vocal music, caused by rapid variation of emphasis on the same tone. [It.] VIBRIO, vib'r[=i]-[=o], _n._ a name given with much laxity to various kinds of more or less screw-shaped Bacteria--also to small nematoid worms, such as cause ear-cockles in wheat.--_n._ VIB'RION, a motile bacterium. [L. _vibr[=a]re_.] VIBRISSA, v[=i]-bris'a, _n._ a whisker, as of a cat: a rictal bristle in birds: bristle, hair, as in the nostril:--_pl._ VIBRISS'Æ (-[=e]). [L., 'a hair in the nostril.'] VIBROGEN, vib'r[=o]-jen, _n._ (_bot._) active cellular tissue arranged in layers in the cortex of certain tendrils, causing circumnutation. VIBURNUM, v[=i]-bur'num, _n._ a genus of plants of the order _Caprifoliaceæ_, the species being shrubs with simple leaves, natives chiefly of the northern parts of the world.--_Viburnum opulus_ is the Guelder Rose or Snowball Tree; _Viburnum tinus_, the Laurustinus. [L., 'the wayfaring tree.'] VICAR, vik'ar, _n._ one who holds authority as the delegate or substitute of another: a parson of a parish where the tithes are impropriate to a layman or to a chapter, he receiving only the smaller tithes or a salary: (_R.C. Church_) a bishop's assistant who exercises jurisdiction in his name.--_ns._ VIC'AR[=A]GE, the benefice or residence of a vicar; VIC'AR-APOSTOL'IC (formerly one to whom the pope delegated some remote portion of his jurisdiction), now usually a titular bishop appointed to a country where either no sees have been formed or the episcopal succession has been broken; VIC'AR-CH[=O]'RAL, an assistant, cleric or lay, at an English cathedral, esp. in connection with the music; VIC'AR-FOR[=A]NE', an ecclesiastic to whom a bishop gives a limited jurisdiction in a town or district of his diocese--in effect, a rural dean; VIC'AR-GEN'ERAL, an official performing the work of an archdeacon under the bishop: in the English Church, an officer assisting the bishop, the chancellor of the diocese.--_adjs._ V[=I]C[=A]'RIAL, pertaining to a vicar: substituted; V[=I]C[=A]'RI[=A]TE, having vicarious or delegated power.--_n._ (also VIC'AR[=A]TE) vicarship, delegated power.--_adj._ V[=I]C[=A]'RIOUS, filling the place of another: performed or suffered in place of or for the sake of another.--_adv._ V[=I]C[=A]'RIOUSLY.--_ns._ V[=I]C[=A]'RIOUSNESS; V[=I]C[=A]'RIUS, a vicar; VIC'ARSHIP, the office of a vicar; VIC'ARY, a vicarage.--VICARIOUS SACRIFICE (_theol._), the suffering of Christ accepted by God in lieu of the punishment to which guilty man is liable.--VICAR-OF-BRAY, one who turns his coat without difficulty to suit the times--from Simon Aleyn, who kept the vicarage of _Bray_ from 1540 to 1588, during the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth; VICAR OF CHRIST, a title assumed by the pope, who claims to be the representative of Christ on earth as the head of His Church. [L. _vicarius_, supplying the place of another--_vicis_, change, alternation.] VICE, VISE, v[=i]s, _n._ an iron or wooden screw-press, fixed to the edge of a workboard, for holding anything tightly while being filed, &c.: (_Shak._) a grip, grasp.--_v.t._ to screw. [Fr. _vis_ (It. _vite_, screw)--L. _vitis_, tendril of a vine, anything spiral.] VICE, v[=i]s, _n._ a blemish or fault: immoral conduct: depravity of manners: a bad trick or habit in a horse: mischievousness: the stock buffoon in the old English Moralities or moral plays.--_n._ VICIOS'ITY.--_adj._ VICIOUS (vish'us).--_adv._ VIC'IOUSLY.--_n._ VIC'IOUSNESS.--VICIOUS CIRCLE, syllogism, circular or erroneous reasoning; VICIOUS INTROMISSION (see INTROMIT). [Fr.,--L. _vitium_, a blemish.] VICE, v[=i]s, _prep._ in the place of: also a prefix denoting in the compound word one who acts in place of or is second in rank to another.--_n._ a vice-chairman, &c.: one who acts in place of a superior.--_ns._ VICE'-AD'MIRAL, one acting in the place of, or second in command to, an admiral; VICE'-AD'MIRALTY, the office of a vice-admiral--(VICE'-AD'MIRALTY COURTS, tribunals in the British colonies, having jurisdiction over maritime causes); VICE'-CHAIR'MAN, an alternate chairman; VICE'-CHAIR'MANSHIP; VICE'-CHAN'CELLOR, one acting for a chancellor: a lower judge of Chancery; (_R.C. Church_) the cardinal whose duty it is to draft and despatch papal bulls and briefs; VICE'-CHAN'CELLORSHIP; VICE'-CON'SUL, one who acts in a consul's place: a consul in a less important district; VICE'-CON'SULSHIP; VICE-DEAN', a canon chosen to represent an absent dean; VICEG[=E]'RENCY, the office of a vicegerent, deputed power.--_adj._ VICEG[=E]'RENT, acting in place of another, having delegated authority.--_n._ one acting in place of a superior.--_ns._ VICE'-GOV'ERNOR, deputy governor; VICE'-KING, one who acts in place of a king; VICE'-PRES'IDENCY, -PRES'IDENTSHIP; VICE'-PRES'IDENT, an officer next in rank below the president; VICE'-PRIN'CIPAL, assistant principal.--_adj._ VICER[=E]'GAL.--_ns._ VICER[=E]'GENCY; VICE'ROY, VICER[=E]'GENT, one representing the royal authority in a dependency, as in India; VICEROY'ALTY, VICE'ROYSHIP. [L., 'in the place of,' abl. of _vicis_ (gen.), change.] VICENARY, vis'e-n[=a]-ri, _adj._ of or belonging to the number twenty: twentieth.--_adj._ V[=I]CEN'NIAL, continuing or comprising twenty years: occurring once every twenty years. [L. _vicenarius_--_viceni_--_viginti_, twenty.] VICINAGE, vis'i-n[=a]j, _n._ neighbourhood: the places near: neighbourliness.--_adj._ VIC'INAL, neighbouring.--_n._ VICIN'ITY, neighbourhood: nearness: that which is near. [O. Fr. _veisinage_--_veisin_--L. _vicinus_, neighbouring--_vicus_, a row of houses; cf. Gr. _oikos_, a dwelling.] VICISSITUDE, vi-sis'i-t[=u]d, _n._ change from one thing to another: change: revolution.--_adjs._ VICISSIT[=U]'DINARY, VICISSIT[=U]'DINOUS, changeful, changeable. [L. _vicissitudo_--_vicis_, change.] VICTIM, vik'tim, _n._ a living being offered as a sacrifice: some thing or person destroyed in the pursuit of an object: a person suffering injury: a dupe.--_n._ VICTIM[=I]S[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ VIC'TIM[=I]SE, to make a victim of: to cheat.--_n._ VIC'TIM[=I]SER, a swindler. [Fr.,--L. _victima_, a beast for sacrifice, adorned with the fillet--_vinc[=i]re_, to bind.] VICTOR, vik'tor, _n._ one who conquers on any particular occasion: one who defeats in battle: a winner:--_fem._ VIC'TRESS, VIC'TORESS, VIC'TRIX.--_adjs._ VIC'TOR, VICT[=O]'RIOUS, relating to victory: superior in contest: having overcome an enemy: producing or indicating victory.--_adv._ VICT[=O]'RIOUSLY.--_ns._ VICT[=O]'RIOUSNESS; VIC'TORY, a conquering: success in any contest: a battle gained: a female deity of the Greeks personifying success in battle.--CADMEAN VICTORY, one as fatal to the victors as to the vanquished--from the armed men who grew up from the dragon's teeth sown by _Cadmus_, and slew one another all but five, who became the ancestors of the Thebans; MORAL VICTORY (see MORAL); PYRRHIC VICTORY (see PYRRHIC). [L.,--_vinc[)e]re_, _victum_, to conquer.] VICTORIA, vik-t[=o]'ri-a, _n._ a genus of gigantic aquatic plants of the water-lily family, native to South America, its one species, _Victoria regia_, named after Queen _Victoria_: a low, light, four-wheeled carriage, seating two, having a calash top.--_adj._ VICT[=O]'RIAN, relating to the reign of Queen Victoria, which began in 1837: relating to the colony of Victoria in Australia.--VICTORIA CROSS, a decoration, consisting of a bronze Maltese cross, founded by Queen Victoria in 1856, and awarded for conspicuous bravery on the field. VICTORINE, vik-t[=o]-r[=e]n', _n._ a kind of fur tippet worn by ladies: a variety of peach. VICTUAL, v[=i]t'l, _n._ provision of food, that which is necessary for living, food for human beings (gener. in _pl._).--_v.t._ to supply with victuals or food: to store with provisions:--_pr.p._ VICTUALLING (vit'l-ing); _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ VICTUALLED (vit'ld).--_ns._ VICT'UALLAGE, provisions; VICTUALLER (v[=i]t'l-[.e]r), one who supplies provisions.--_adj._ VICT'UALLESS.--_ns._ VICT'UALLING-BILL, a customs document warranting the captain of an outward-bound vessel to ship bonded stores for the voyage; VICT'UALLING-OFF'ICE, -SHIP, an office supplying, a ship conveying, provisions to the navy; VICT'UALLING-YARD, a public establishment for the collection and supply of provisions to the navy.--LICENSED VICTUALLER, an innkeeper who is allowed to sell spirits, wines, &c. [O. Fr. _vitaille_--Low L. _victualia_--L. _victualis_, relating to living--_viv[)e]re_, _victum_, to live.] VICUGNA, VICUÑA, vi-k[=oo]'nya, or vi-k[=u]'na, _n._ a species or variety of the South American genus _Auchenia_ (allied to the camels), which also includes the llama, alpaca, and the guanaco.--_n._ VICU'NA-CLOTH, a trade name for a mixture of wool and cotton. [Peruv.] VIDAME, v[=e]-dam', _n._ in French feudal jurisprudence, the deputy of a bishop in temporal affairs: a minor noble. [Low L. _vice_, in place of, _dominus_, lord.] VIDE, v[=i]'d[=e], see, imper. of L. _vid[=e]re_, to see.--_Vide antea_=see before; _Vide infra_=see below; _Vide post_=see after; _Vide supra_=see above; _Quod vide_, or _q.v._=which see. VIDELICET, vi-del'i-set, _adv._ to wit, that is, namely--generally VIZ., and rendered 'namely.' [L., for _vid[=e]re licet_, it is permitted to see.] VIDENDUM, v[=i]-den'dum, _n._ a thing to be seen:--_pl._ V[=I]DEN'DA. [L., ger. of _vid[=e]re_, to see.] VIDETTE. Same as VEDETTE. VIDIMUS, vid'i-mus, _n._ an inspection, as of accounts, &c. [L., 'we have seen'--_vid[=e]re_, to see.] VIDUOUS, vid'[=u]-us, _adj._ widowed.--_ns._ VID'[=U]AGE, widowhood; VID'U[=A]TE, the position or order of widows; VIDU[=A]'TION, the state of being widowed; VID[=U]'ITY, widowhood. [L. _vidua_, a widow.] VIE, v[=i], _v.i._ to strive for superiority.--_v.t._ to contend about: (_Shak._) to offer as a stake or wager:--_pr.p._ vy'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ v[=i]ed.--_n._ (_obs._) a contest. [M. E. _vien_, by aphæresis from _envien_, to vie, through Fr. from L. _invit[=a]re_, to invite.] VIELLE, vi-el', _n._ an old form of _viol_. [Fr.] VIENNESE, vi-e-n[=e]s', or -n[=e]z', _adj._ pertaining to _Vienna_.--_n._ an inhabitant, or the inhabitants, of VIENNA. VIEW, v[=u], _n._ a seeing: sight: reach of the sight: whole extent seen: that which is seen: inspection, as by a jury, of the place of a crime, of the corpse, &c.: direction in which a thing is seen: the picture of a scene: a sketch: mental survey: mode of looking at or receiving: opinion: intention: (_Shak._) show, appearance.--_v.t._ to see: to look at attentively: to examine intellectually.--_adj._ VIEW'ABLE, that can be viewed.--_ns._ VIEW'ER; VIEW'-HALLOO', the huntsman's cry when the fox breaks cover; VIEW'INESS, character of being viewy or visionary.--_adj._ VIEW'LESS, not to be viewed: invisible.--_adv._ VIEW'LESSLY.--_adj._ VIEW'LY (_prov._), pleasing to look at.--_n._ VIEW'-POINT, point of view.--_adjs._ VIEW'SOME (_prov._), viewly; VIEW'Y (_coll._), holding opinions vague or purely speculative.--DISSOLVING VIEWS, pictures thrown on a screen and made to pass one into the other; FIELD OF VIEW, the compass of visual power; IN VIEW OF, having regard to; ON VIEW, open to public inspection; TO THE VIEW (_Shak._), in public. [Fr. _vue_--_vu_, pa.p. of _voir_--L. _vid[=e]re_, to see.] VIFDA, vif'da, _n._ in Shetland, meat hung and dried without salt.--Also VIV'DA. VIGESIMAL, v[=i]-jes'i-mal, _adj._ twentieth.--_n._ VIGESIM[=A]'TION, the putting to death of every twentieth man.--_adj._ VIGES'IMO-QUAR'TO, formed of sheets folded so as to make twenty-four leaves. [L. _vigesimus_--_viginti_, twenty.] VIGIA, vi-j[=e]'a, _n._ a hydrographical warning on a chart, of a rock, &c. [Sp.] VIGIL, vij'il, _n._ watching: keeping awake for religious exercises: the eve before a feast or fast day, originally kept by watching through the night.--_n._ VIG'ILANCE, wakefulness: watchfulness: circumspection: (_obs._) a guard, watch.--_adj._ VIG'ILANT, watchful: on the lookout for danger: circumspect.--_n._ VIGILAN'TE, a member of a vigilance committee.--_adv._ VIG'ILANTLY.--VIGILANCE COMMITTEE (_U.S._), an unauthorised body which, in the absence or inefficiency of regular courts, exercises legal powers of arrest, punishment, &c. in cases of gross crime: also any self-appointed association for the compulsory improvement of local morals. [Fr.,--L. _vigilia_--_vigil_, awake, watchful--_vig[=e]re_, to be lively.] VIGNERON, v[=e]n-ye-rong, _n._ a vine-grower. [Fr.] VIGNETTE, vin-yet', _n._ any small ornamental engraving, design, or photograph not enclosed by a definite border: (_orig._) an ornamental flourish of vine leaves and tendrils on manuscripts and books.--_v.t._ to treat or produce in such a style.--_ns._ VIGNETT'ER; VIGNETT'ING-GLASS, -P[=A]'PER, a glass frame, mask, used in printing vignette pictures; VIGNETT'IST, one who makes vignettes. [Fr.,--_vigne_--L. _vinea_, a vine.] VIGOUR, vig'ur, _n._ active strength: physical force: vital strength in animals or plants: strength of mind: energy.--_adj._ VIG'OROUS, strong either in mind or body.--_adv._ VIG'OROUSLY.--_n._ VIG'OROUSNESS. [Fr.,--L. _vigor_--_vig[=e]re_, to be strong.] VIKING, v[=i]'king, _n._ one of the piratical Northmen who in the 8th, 9th, and 10th centuries ravaged the coasts of western Europe.--_n._ V[=I]'KINGISM, characteristics, acts, &c. of VIKINGS. [Ice. _víkingr_, (lit.) 'a creeker'--_víkr_ (Swed. _vik_, Eng. _wick_), a bay, and _-ingr_=Eng. _-ing_.] VILAYET, vil-a-yet', _n._ the name given to the great provinces into which the Ottoman empire is divided. VILD, v[=i]ld, _adj._ (_Spens._) vile, wicked.--_adv._ VILD'LY. VILE, v[=i]l, _adj._ worthless: mean: morally impure: wicked: (_B._) poor, cheap.--_adv._ VILE'LY.--_n._ VILE'NESS.--_ns._ VILIFIC[=A]'TION, act of vilifying: defamatory speech: abuse; VIL'IF[=I]ER.--_v.t._ VIL'IFY, to make vile: to attempt to degrade by slander: to defame:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ vil'if[=i]ed.--_v.t._ VIL'IPEND, to slander, vilify.--_v.i._ to use vilification. [Fr.,--L. _vilis_.] VILLA, vil'a, _n._ a country residence or seat: a suburban mansion--also VILL.--_ns._ VILL'ADOM, villas collectively, people living in them; VILL'[=A]GE, any small assemblage of houses, less than a town: (_orig._) a number of houses inhabited by persons near the residence of a proprietor or farmer: (_law_) a manor, a parish or the outlying part of a parish; VILL'AGE-COMM[=U]'NITY, a clan of settlers who built their huts on a tract of land and laid out common fields which they cultivated in common as one family, the land being divided out every few years into family lots, but the whole continuing to be cultivated by the community subject to the established customs as interpreted in the village-council by the sense of the village elders--the so-called _Mark system_ of Sir Henry Maine; VILL'[=A]GER, an inhabitant of a village; VILL'[=A]GERY (_Shak._), a district of villages; VILL'AKIN, VILLANETTE', a little villa.--_adj._ VILLAT'IC (_Milt._), pertaining to a farm. [O. Fr. _ville_ (Fr. _ville_)--L. _villa_, a country-house, prob. reduced from _vicla_, dim. of _vicus_, a village; Gr. _oikos_, a house.] VILLAIN, vil'[=a]n, or vil'in, _n._ a wicked wretch: a man extremely degraded: in feudal times, a member of the lowest class of unfree persons.--_ns._ VILL'AIN[=A]GE, VILL'AN[=A]GE, VILL'EIN[=A]GE, VILL'EN[=A]GE, in feudal times, the tenure of land by villein, i.e. base or menial services.--_adj._ VILL'AINOUS, like or suited to a villain: depraved: proceeding from extreme depravity: very bad, mean, vile.--_adv._ VILL'AINOUSLY.--_ns._ VILL'AINOUSNESS; VILL'AINY, the act of a villain: extreme depravity: an atrocious crime. [Orig. 'a serf attached to a farm,' O. Fr. _villain_--Low L. _villanus_--L. _villa_.] VILLANELLE, vil-a-nel', _n._ a poem, of a form borrowed from the French, consisting of nineteen lines on two rhymes, arranged in six stanzas, the first five having three, the last four lines. [It. _villanella_--_villano_, rustic.] VILLARSIA, vi-l[=a]r'si-a, _n._ a genus of widely distributed aquatic or marsh plants, of order _Gentianaceæ_--named from the French botanist Dominique _Villars_ (1745-1814). VILLEGIATURA, vi-l[.e]j-a-t[=oo]'ra, _n._ country retirement. [It.,--_villegiare_, to stay at a country-seat--_villa_, a country-seat.] VILLEIN, another spelling of _villain_ (only in its original meaning). VILLI, vil'[=i], _n.pl._ (_anat._) fine small fibres covering certain membranes: (_bot._) fine soft hairs on fruits, flowers, and other parts of plants:--_sing._ VILL'US.--_adjs._ VILL'IFORM, having the form or appearance of villi; VILL'[=O]SE, VILL'OUS, covered with long, soft hairs: formed of minute villi, resembling the pile of velvet.--_n._ VILLOS'ITY, state of being villous. [L., pl. of _villus_, hair, wool.] VIM, vim, _n._ (_slang_) energy, force. [Accus. of L. _vis_, strength.] VIMEN, v[=i]'men, _n._ a long flexible shoot of a plant.--_adjs._ VIM'INAL; VIMIN'EOUS. [L.] VINA, v[=e]'na, _n._ an East Indian musical instrument having five or seven steel strings stretched on a long fretted finger-board over two gourds. VINAIGRETTE, vin-[=a]-gret', _n._ a small box of silver or gold for holding aromatic vinegar, used as a smelling-bottle. [Fr.,--_vinaigre_.] VINASSE, vi-nas', _n._ a residual product containing potash salts, obtained from the wine-press, &c. [Fr.] VINAYA PITAKA, vin'a-ya pit'a-ka, _n._ one of the three parts of the Tripitaka (q.v.). VINCA, ving'ka, _n._ a genus of woody herbaceous plants of the dogbane family, the periwinkles. VINCENTIAN, vin-sen'shi-an, _adj._ pertaining to St _Vincent_ de Paul (1576-1660) or to the charitable associations founded by him. VINCIBLE, vin'si-bl, _adj._ that may be conquered.--_ns._ VINCIBIL'ITY, VIN'CIBLENESS. [L. _vincibilis_--_vinc[)e]re_, to conquer.] VINCULUM, ving'k[=u]-lum, _n._ a band: a bond: (_math._) a horizontal line placed over several quantities to show that they are to be treated as one: (_anat._) a ligamentous band.--_v.t._ VIN'CUL[=A]TE, to bind. [L.,--_vinc[=i]re_, to bind.] VINDEMIAL, vin-d[=e]'mi-al, _adj._ pertaining to the vintage.--_v.i._ VIND[=E]'MIATE, to gather the vintage. VINDICATE, vin'di-k[=a]t, _v.t._ to lay claim to: to defend: to maintain by force.--_n._ VINDICABIL'ITY.--_adj._ VIN'DICABLE, that may be vindicated or defended.--_n._ VINDIC[=A]'TION, act of vindicating: defence: justification: support.--_adj._ VIN'DIC[=A]TIVE, vindicating: tending to vindicate: (_Shak._) revengeful, vindictive.--_ns._ VIN'DIC[=A]TIVENESS, vindictiveness; VIN'DIC[=A]TOR, one who vindicates:--_fem._ VIN'DIC[=A]TRESS.--_adjs._ VIN'DIC[=A]TORY, tending to vindicate: inflicting punishment; VINDIC'TIVE, revengeful.--_adv._ VINDIC'TIVELY.--_n._ VINDIC'TIVENESS. [L. _vindic[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_vis_, _vim_, power, _dic[=a]re_, to proclaim, _dic[)e]re_, to say; others trace to the root of _venia_, favour.] VINE, v[=i]n, _n._ the plant from which wine is made: the woody climbing plant that produces grapes: (_hort._) a climbing or trailing plant, or its stem.--_adj._ V[=I]N[=A]'CEOUS, belonging to wine or grapes: wine-coloured.--_ns._ V[=I]'N[=A]GE, the addition of spirit to wine to enable it to stand transportation; V[=I]N[=A]'LIA, a wine festival in honour of Jupiter, celebrated on 23d April.--_adjs._ V[=I]N[=A]'RIAN, relating to wine; VINE'-CLAD, covered with vines.--_ns._ VINE'-CUL'TURE (same as VITICULTURE); VINE'-CURCU'LIO, a small reddish curculio producing galls on the stems of grape-vines; VINE'-DISEASE', a disease affecting the vine; VINE'-DRESS'ER, one who dresses or trims and cultivates vines; VINE'-FRET'TER, a small insect that infests vines; VINE'-GALL, a gall made on the stem of the vine by a vine-curculio; VINE'-LAND, land on which vines are grown; V[=I]'NERY, a hot-house for rearing vines; VINEYARD (vin'yard), a plantation of grape vines.--_adj._ V[=I]'NIC, pertaining to, or derived from, wine.--_ns._ VIN'ICULTURE, the cultivation of the vine; VIN'ICULT[=U]RIST; VIN'-ORDINAIRE', common wine: cheap wine mixed with water, commonly drunk in France and the south of Europe.--_adjs._ V[=I]'NOSE, V[=I]'NOUS, pertaining to wine: wine-coloured: caused by wine.--_n._ VINOS'ITY, state or quality of being vinous.--_adj._ V[=I]'NY, pertaining to or producing vines.--DWELL UNDER ONE'S VINE AND FIG-TREE, to live at peace on one's own land. [O. Fr.,--L. _vinea_, a vine--_vinum_; Gr. _oinos_, wine.] VINEGAR, vin'e-gar, _n._ the form of acetic acid generally preferred for culinary purposes--made by the fermentation of vegetable substances, from malt, or from inferior wines: sourness of temper.--_v.t._ to apply vinegar to.--_adj._ VIN'AIGROUS, sour like vinegar, ill-tempered.--_ns._ VIN'EGAR-CRU'ET, a glass bottle for holding vinegar; VINEGARETTE', a vinaigrette; VIN'EGAR-PLANT, the microscopic fungus which produces acetous fermentation--found in two forms known as _mother of vinegar_ and _flowers of vinegar_.--_adjs._ VIN'EGARY, VIN'EGARISH, sour. [Fr. _vinaigre_--_vin_ (L. _vinum_, wine), _aigre_--L. _acer_, sour.] VINEWED, vin'[=u]d, _adj._ (_Shak._) mouldy: musty. VINGT-ET-UN, vangt-[=a]-ung', _n._ a game of cards, the aim in which is to get as near as possible to the value of twenty-one (hence the name) without exceeding it. The game is played with the whole pack, the ordinary cards being reckoned according to the number of pips on them, while the court cards are ten, and the ace is one or eleven, as the holder may elect. VINT, vint, _v.t._ to make or prepare, as wine. [Formed from _vintage_.] VINTAGE, vin't[=a]j, _n._ the gathering of grapes: the yearly produce of grapes: the time of grape-gathering: wine.--_n._ VIN'T[=A]GER. [Fr. _vendange_--L. _vindemia_--_vinum_, wine, grapes, _dem[)e]re_, to remove--_de_, out of or away, _em[)e]re_, to take.] VINTNER, vint'n[.e]r, _n._ a wine-seller.--_ns._ VINT'NERY, the trade of a vintner; VINT'RY, a store for wine. [O. Fr. _vinetier_, through Low L.--L. _vinetum_, a vineyard--_vinum_, wine.] VIOL, v[=i]'ol, _n._ a musical instrument which was the immediate precursor of the violin, having from three to six strings, and played by means of a bow.--_ns._ VIOLA (v[=e]-[=o]'la, or v[=i]'[=o]-la), a larger description of violin having four strings tuned in fifths, to which the part between the second violin and bass is generally assigned--also called _Alto viola_ or _Tenor violin_; V[=I]'OL-BLOCK (_naut._), a large single block big enough to reeve a small hawser; V[=I]'OLIST, a player on the viol or the viola.--BASS VIOL, a large medieval viol: the modern violoncello. [O. Fr. _viole_--Low L. _vidula_, from L. _vitul[=a]ri_, to skip like a calf, to make merry--L. _vitulus_, a calf.] VIOLATE, v[=i]'[=o]-l[=a]t, _v.t._ to injure: to abuse: to ravish: to profane: to break forcibly: to transgress.--_adj._ V[=I]'OLABLE, that may be violated, injured, or broken.--_adv._ VI'OLABLY.--_ns._ V[=I]OL[=A]'TION, the act of violating or injuring: infringement: non-observance: profanation: rape; V[=I]'OL[=A]TOR. [L. _viol[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_vis_, strength; cf. Gr. _is_, strength, force.] VIOLENT, v[=i]'[=o]-lent, _adj._ acting with physical force or strength: moved by strong feeling: passionate: vehement: outrageous: produced by force: intense: compulsory: unnatural.--_v.i._ (_Shak._) to be violent.--_n._ V[=I]'OLENCE, the state or quality of being violent: force, physical or moral: unjust force: outrage: profanation: injury: rape.--_adv._ V[=I]'OLENTLY.--DO VIOLENCE ON (_Shak._), to attack, murder; DO VIOLENCE TO, to outrage, injure. [Fr.,--L. _violentus_--_vis_, force.] VIOLET, v[=i]'[=o]-let, _n._ any plant of genus _Viola_, of many species, with a flower generally of some shade of blue, but also white and yellow, and most often fragrant: the colour of the violet, a bluish or light purple.--_adj._ of the colour of the violet, bluish or light purple.--_adjs._ VIOL[=A]'CEOUS, of a violet colour, purple; VIOLES'CENT, tending to a violet colour. [Fr. _violette_, dim. of O. Fr. _viole_--L. _viola_; cf. Gr. _ion_.] VIOLIN, v[=i]-[=o]-lin', _n._ a musical instrument of four strings placed with a bow: a fiddle: a player on the violin.--_ns._ VIOLIN'-BOW, a bow for sounding the violin; V[=I]'OLINIST, a player on the violin. [It. _violino_--_viola_.] VIOLONCELLO, v[=e]-[=o]-lon-chel'[=o], or v[=i]-[=o]-lon-sel'[=o], _n._ a large four-stringed musical instrument of the violin class, the quality of its tone even more sympathetic than that of the violin, held between the knees in playing--it superseded the _Viol da gamba_ in the early part of the 18th century:--_pl._ VIOLONCELL'OS.--_n._ VIOLONCELL'IST, a player on the violoncello. [It., dim. of _violone_, a bass violin; see next word.] VIOLONE, v[=e]-[=o]-l[=o]'n[=a], _n._ the largest kind of bass viol, having strings tuned an octave lower than the violoncello. [It.,--_viola_.] VIPER, v[=i]'p[.e]r, _n._ a genus of venomous snakes, representative of family _Viperidæ_--the Common Viper or adder being the only poisonous snake indigenous to Britain: loosely, any venomous serpent except a rattlesnake, any cobriform serpent: any base, malicious person.--_adjs._ V[=I]'PERINE, related to or resembling the viper; V[=I]'PERISH, like a viper; V[=I]'PEROUS, having the qualities of a viper: venomous: malignant.--_adv._ V[=I]'PEROUSLY.--VIPER'S BUGLOSS, the blue weed or blue thistle; VIPER'S GRASS, a European perennial of the aster family. [Fr.,--L. _vipera_ (contr. of _vivipara_)--_vivus_, living, _par[)e]re_, to bring forth.] VIRAGO, vi-r[=a]'go, or v[=i]-r[=a]'g[=o], _n._ a masculine woman: a bold, impudent woman: a termagant.--_adjs._ VIRAGIN'IAN, VIRAGINOUS (viraj'-).--_n._ VIRAGIN'ITY. [L.,--_vir_, a man.] VIRE, v[=e]r, _n._ a crossbow-bolt: (_her._) an annulet. [Fr.] VIRELAY, vir'e-l[=a], _n._ an ancient kind of French poem in short lines, and consisting of only two rhymes, their order as well as the length of the verses being arbitrary. [Fr. _virelai_--_virer_, to turn, _lai_, a song.] VIREO, vir'[=e]-[=o], _n._ a genus of American singing birds, the greenlets. [L.] VIRESCENT, v[=i]-res'ent, _adj._ growing green, greenish.--_n._ VIRES'CENCE, greenness: (_bot._) the turning green of organs properly bright-coloured. [L., pr.p. of _vir[=e]re_, to be green.] VIRGATE, v[.e]r'g[=a]t, _adj._ like a wand or rod: slender, straight.--_n._ an old English measure of surface. [L. _virga_, a rod.] VIRGILIAN, v[.e]r-jil'i-an, _adj._ relating to or resembling the style of _Virgil_, the Roman poet (70-21 B.C.). VIRGIN, v[.e]r'jin, _n._ a maiden: a woman who has had no sexual intercourse with man: one devoted to virginity: a madonna, a figure of the Virgin: a person of either sex who has not known sexual intercourse: any female animal that has not copulated: a parthenogenetic insect: (_astron._) Virgo, one of the signs of the zodiac.--_adj._ becoming a maiden: maidenly: pure: chaste: undefiled: fresh, new: parthenogenetic.--_v.i._ (_Shak._) to continue chaste.--_adj._ VIR'GINAL, maidenly: (_zool._) parthenogenetic.--_n._ VIRGIN[=A]'LE, a book of prayers and hymns to the Virgin Mary.--_adj._ VIR'GIN-BORN, born of the VIRGIN, of Jesus Christ: (_zool._) born by internal gemmation without impregnation.--_ns._ VIRGIN'ITY, VIR'GINHOOD, the state of a virgin; VIR'GIN-KNOT (_Shak._), maidenly chastity, in reference to the unloosing of the girdles of Greek and Roman maidens on marriage.--_adj._ VIR'GINLY, pure.--_adv._ chastely.--_ns._ VIR'GIN'S-BOW'ER, a species of clematis, hedge-vine; VIR'GIN-WOR'SHIP, adoration of the Virgin Mary; VIR'GO, the Virgin, in the zodiac.--VIRGIN BIRTH, GENERATION, parthenogenesis; VIRGIN CLAY, in pottery, &c., clay which has never been fired.--THE VIRGIN, THE BLESSED VIRGIN, the Virgin Mary, the mother of Christ. [O, Fr.,--L. _virgo_, _virginis_.] VIRGINAL, v[.e]r'jin-al, _n._ an old keyed musical instrument, oblong in shape, one of the three forms of the harpsichord.--_v.i._ (_Shak._) to finger, as on a virginal. VIRGINIA, v[.e]r-jin'i-a, _n._ a well-known brand of tobacco, grown and manufactured in _Virginia_.--_n._ VIRGIN'IA-CREEP'ER, an American climbing vine, common in the south of England, remarkable for the bright-red colour it assumes in autumn.--_adj._ VIRGIN'IAN, pertaining to Virginia.--_n._ a native of Virginia. VIRGULE, v[.e]r'g[=u]l, _n._ a little rod: a mark of punctuation, a comma.--_adj._ VIR'G[=U]L[=A]TE, rod-shaped.--_n._ VIRGUL'TUM, a twig. [L. _virgula_--_virga_, a twig.] VIRID, vir'id, _adj._ green.--_n._ VIRID'IAN, a deep and pure bluish-green pigment, being a hydrated sesquioxide of chromium.--_adj._ VIRIDIGENOUS (-ij'-), producing a green tint.--_ns._ VIRID'ITY, VIR'IDNESS, verdure: greenness. [L., _viridis_, green--_vir[=e]re_, to be green.] VIRIDESCENT, vir-i-des'ent, _adj._ slightly green: greenish.--_n._ VIRIDES'CENCE. [L. _viridis_, green.] VIRILE, vir'il, or v[=i]'ril, _adj._ of or belonging to a man or to the male sex: masculine: manly.--_n._ VIRIL'ITY, the state or quality of being a man: the power of a full-grown male: the power of procreation: manhood. [L. _virilis_--_vir_, a man; cog. with Gr. _h[=e]r[=o]s_, a hero, Old High Ger. _wer_, a man.] VIROLE, vi-r[=o]l', _n._ a ferrule: (_her._) a hoop or ring. [O. Fr.; a doublet of _ferrule_.] VIRTU, v[.e]r't[=oo], or -t[=oo]', _n._ a love of the fine arts: taste for curiosities: objects of art or antiquity.--_adjs._ VIRTUOSE', VIRTU[=O]'SIC, exhibiting the qualities and skill of a virtuoso.--_ns._ VIRTUOS'ITY, lovers of the elegant arts as a class: exceptional skill in some of the fine arts; VIRTU[=O]'S[=O], one skilled in the fine arts, in antiquities, curiosities, and the like: a skilful musician, painter, &c. (_pl._ VIRTU[=O]'S[=O]S, VIRTU[=O]'SI):--_fem._ VIRTU[=O]'SA (_pl._ VIRTU[=O]'SE, -se); VIRTU[=O]'S[=O]SHIP. [It.; a doublet of _virtue_.] VIRTUE, v[.e]r'tu, _n._ excellence: worth: moral excellence: the practice of duty: a moral excellence: sexual purity, esp. female chastity: purity: (_B._) strength: force: inherent power, efficacy: one of the orders of the celestial hierarchy.--_adj._ VIR'TUAL, having virtue or efficacy: having the efficacy without the material part: in effect though not in fact: (_mech._) possible and infinitesimal.--_adv._ VIR'TUALLY.--_adjs._ VIR'TUELESS, wanting virtue: without efficacy; VIR'TUE-PROOF (_Milt._), impregnable in virtue; VIR'TUOUS, having virtue or moral goodness: blameless: righteous: practising duty: being according to the moral law: chaste (of a woman).--_adv._ VIR'TUOUSLY.--_n._ VIR'TUOUSNESS.--BY, IN, VIRTUE OF, through the power, force, or efficacy of; MAKE A VIRTUE OF NECESSITY, to do as if from inclination or sense of duty something one must needs do; SEVEN PRINCIPAL VIRTUES, faith, hope, charity, justice, prudence, temperance, and fortitude--the first three the _theological_, the last four the _moral_ virtues; THE CARDINAL VIRTUES (see CARDINAL). [O. Fr.,--L. _virtus_, bravery, moral excellence--_vir_, a man; cf. Gr. _h[=e]r[=o]s_, Sans. _vira_, a hero.] VIRULENT, vir'[=u]-lent, _adj._ full of poison: very active in injury: bitter in enmity: malignant.--_ns._ VIR'ULENCE, VIR'ULENCY.--_adv._ VIR'ULENTLY. [L. _virulentus_--_virus_, poison.] VIRUS, v[=i]'rus, _n._ contagious or poisonous matter (as of ulcers, &c.): the poison which causes infection: any foul, hurtful matter.--_adjs._ V[=I]'ROSE, V[=I]'ROUS; VIR[=U]LIF'EROUS, bearing a specific virus. [L.; cog. with Gr. _ios_, Sans. _visha_, poison.] VIS, vis, _n._ force: power:--_pl._ V[=I]'RES.--VIS INERTIÆ, inertia: sluggishness; VIS MORTUA, force of pressure, dead force; VIS VIVA, living force, equal to the mass of a moving body multiplied by the square of its velocity. [L.] VISAGE, viz'[=a]j, _n._ the face or look.--_adj._ VIS'AGED. [Fr., through an assumed form _visaticum_, from L. _visus_, seen--_vid[=e]re_, to see.] VIS-À-VIS, v[=e]z'-a-v[=e]', _adv._ facing one another.--_n._ one who faces, or is opposite to, another: a light carriage with seats facing each other: a kind of couch. [Fr. _vis_, face (--L. _visus_, look), _à_, to, _vis_, face.] VISCACHA, vis-kach'a, _n._ a South American rodent of the Chinchilla family, inhabiting the South American Pampas, of stout form and about twenty inches in length, a gregarious burrower and nocturnal in habits--also _Bizcacha_.--_n._ VISCACHERA (vis-ka-ch[=a]'ra), a settlement of viscachas. [Sp.; prob. of Peruv. origin.] VISCERA, vis'e-ra, _n.pl._ the inner parts of the animal body: the entrails:--_sing._ VIS'CUS.--_adj._ VIS'CERAL, pertaining to the viscera: abdominal.--_v.t._ VIS'CER[=A]TE, to disembowel. [L. _viscus_ (pl. _viscera_).] [Illustration] VISCOUNT, v[=i]'kownt, _n._ an officer who formerly acted as deputy to the earl, the _vice-comes_: a title of nobility next below an earl:--_fem._ V[=I]'SCOUNTESS.--_ns._ V[=I]'SCOUNTCY, V[=I]'SCOUNTSHIP, V[=I]'SCOUNTY, the rank or dignity of a viscount. [O. Fr. _viscomte_ (Fr. _vicomte_)--Low L. _vice-comes_--L. _vice_, in place of, _comes_, a companion.] VISCOUS, vis'kus, _adj._ sticky: tenacious--also VIS'CID.--_ns._ VISCID'ITY, VIS'COUSNESS; VISCOS'ITY, the property of being viscous: (_phys._) that property of matter which is seen when the relative motion of parts of any body or substance decays on its being left to itself. [Low L. _viscosus_, sticky--L. _viscum_, bird-lime, mistletoe; cog. with Gr. _ixos_, mistletoe.] VISCUM, vis'kum, _n._ a genus of parasitic plants, including the mistletoe. [L.] VISE. See VICE (1). VISÉ, v[=e]-z[=a]', _n._ an indorsement on a passport denoting that it has been officially examined, and that the bearer may proceed on his journey.--_v.t._ to indorse a passport.--Also VISA (v[=e]'za). [Fr.,--Low L. _vis[=a]re_, freq. of L. _vid[=e]re_, _visum_, to see.] VISHNU, vish'n[=oo], _n._ the second god of the Hindu triad, now the most worshipped of all Hindu gods. He became specially the benefactor of man in his _avatars_ or incarnations, ten in number--according to others, twenty-two. [Sans., 'the preserver.'] VISIBLE, viz'i-bl, _adj._ that may be seen: obvious.--_ns._ VISIBIL'ITY, state or quality of being visible, or perceivable by the eye; VIS'IBLENESS.--_adv._ VIS'IBLY.--VISIBLE CHURCH, the body of professing Christians, as opposed to the _Invisible Church_, which consists of those spiritual persons who fulfil the notion of the ideal Church, together with the body of the departed saints in heaven; VISIBLE MEANS, means or resources which are apparent to or ascertainable by others; VISIBLE SPEECH, a system of alphabetic characters, each of which represents the configuration of the mouth that produces the sound. VISIGOTH, viz'i-goth, _n._ one of the Western Goths, as distinguished from the Ostrogoths or Eastern Goths. They formed settlements in the south of France and in Spain, and their kingdom in the latter lasted into the 8th century.--_adj._ VISIGOTH'IC. [Low L. _Visegothæ_--Teut. _west_, west, _Gothæ_, Goths.] VISION, vizh'un, _n._ the act or sense of seeing: sight: anything seen: anything imagined to be seen: a divine revelation: an apparition: anything imaginary.--_v.t._ to see as a vision: to present as in a vision.--_n._ (_Scot._) VISIE (viz'i), a close look at anything.--_adj._ VIS'IONAL, pertaining to a vision, not real.--_adv._ VIS'IONALLY.--_n._ VIS'IONARINESS.--_adj._ VIS'IONARY, affected by visions: apt to see visions, imaginative: existing in imagination only: not real.--_n._ one who sees visions: one who forms impracticable schemes.--_adj._ VIS'IONED (_rare_), inspired so as to see visions: seen in a vision, spectral.--_n._ VIS'IONIST, a visionary person, one who believes in visions.--_adj._ VIS'IONLESS, destitute of vision.--BEATIFIC VISION (see BEATIFY); CENTRE, POINT, OF VISION, the position from which anything is observed, or represented as being seen. [Fr.,--L. _visio_, _visionis_--_vid[=e]re_, _visum_, to see; cf. Gr. _idein_, Eng. _wit_.] VISIT, viz'it, _v.t._ to go to see or inspect: to attend: enter, appear in: to call on: (_B._) to reward or punish.--_v.i._ to be in the habit of seeing or meeting each other: to keep up acquaintance.--_n._ act of visiting or going to see.--_adjs._ VIS'ITABLE, subject to visitation: attractive to visitors; VIS'ITANT, paying visits, visiting.--_n._ one who visits: one who is a guest in the house of another: a migratory bird: one of an order of nuns founded by St Francis de Sales in 1610, also called _Salesians_, _Order_ (also _Nuns_) _of the Visitation_--the order has done much in the education of young girls.--_n._ VISIT[=A]'TION, act of visiting: examination by authority: a dispensation, whether of divine favour or retribution: (_rare_) the object of a visit: the act of a naval commander in boarding the vessel of another state to ascertain her character and object: a visit of a herald to a district for the examination of its arms, pedigrees, &c.: an unusual and extensive irruption of a species of animals into another region: (_eccles._) a festival to commemorate the visit of the Virgin Mary to Elizabeth, observed by the Roman and Greek Churches on 2d July.--_adjs._ VISIT[=A]T[=O]'RIAL, VISIT[=O]'RIAL.--_n._ VIS'ITING, the act of paying visits: prompting, influence.--_adj._ that which visits.--_ns._ VIS'ITING-BOOK, a book recording the names of persons who have called or are to be called on; VIS'ITING-CARD, a small card, on which the name, address, or title, may be printed, to be left in making calls or paying visits, and sometimes sent as an act of courtesy or in token of sympathy; VIS'ITING-DAY, a day on which one is at home or ready to receive callers; VIS'ITOR, -ER, one who visits, calls on, or makes a stay with a person: a person authorised to visit an institution to see that it is managed properly:--_fem._ VIS'ITRESS.--VISITATION OF THE SICK, an office in the Anglican Church, used for the spiritual benefit of the sick, provision being also made for special confession and absolution. [Fr. _visiter_--L. _visit[=a]re_, freq. of _vis[)e]re_, to go to see, visit--_vid[=e]re_, to see.] VISITE, vi-z[=e]t', _n._ a woman's close-fitting outer garment worn early in the 19th century. [Fr.] VISIVE, v[=i]'siv, _adj._ visual. VISNOMY, viz'no-mi, _n._ (_Spens._), physiognomy. VISON, v[=i]'son, _n._ the American mink. VISOR, viz'ur, _n._ a part of a helmet covering the face, movable, and perforated to see through (see ARMOUR): a mask.--_adj._ VIS'ORED, wearing a visor: masked. [Fr. _visière_--_vis_, countenance.] VISTA, vis'ta, _n._ a view or prospect through or as through an avenue: the trees, &c., that form the avenue. [It. _vista_, sight, view--L. _vid[=e]re_, to see.] VISUAL, viz'[=u]-al, _adj._ belonging to vision or sight: visible: produced by sight: used in sight: used for seeing.--_n._ VISUALIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ VIS'UAL[=I]SE, to make visible or visual, externalise to the eye.--_v.i._ to call up a clear mental image.--_ns._ VIS'UAL[=I]SER; VISUAL'ITY.--_adv._ VIS'UALLY. VITAL, v[=i]'tal, _adj._ belonging or contributing to life: containing or necessary to life: important as life: essential.--_n._ V[=I]TALIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ V[=I]'TALISE, to make vital or alive: to give life to or furnish with the vital principle.--_ns._ V[=I]'TALISM, the doctrine that there is a vital principle distinct from the organisation of living bodies, which directs all their actions and functions; V[=I]'TALIST, one who holds this doctrine.--_adj._ V[=I]TALIS'TIC.--_n._ V[=I]TAL'ITY, quality of being vital: principle or power of life: capacity to endure and flourish.--_adv._ V[=I]'TALLY.--_n.pl._ V[=I]'TALS, the interior organs essential for life: the part of any whole necessary for its existence.--_n._ V[=I]T[=A]'TIVENESS (_phrenol._), the love of life, a faculty assigned to a protuberance under the ear.--VITAL FORCE, the principle of life in animals and plants; VITAL FUNCTIONS, power, ability to continue living; VITAL PRINCIPLE, that principle on which the life of an organism is thought to depend; VITAL STATISTICS, a division of statistics dealing with the facts and problems concerning population. [L. _vitalis_--_vita_, life--_viv[)e]re_, to live; cog. with Gr. _bios_, life.] VITELLUS, v[=i]-tel'us, _n._ the yolk of an egg.--_adjs._ VIT'ELLARY, VITELL'INE, pertaining to the vitellus, or forming such.--_n._ VITELL'ICLE, a yolk-sac.--_adj._ VITELLIGENOUS (-ij'-), producing yolk. [L., 'a yolk,' a transferred use of _vitellus_--_vitulus_, a calf.] VITEX, v[=i]'teks, _n._ a genus of trees or shrubs of the natural order _Verbenaceæ_. [L.] VITIATE, vish'i-[=a]t, _v.t._ to render faulty or defective: to make less pure: to deprave: to taint--earlier VI'CIATE.--_ns._ VITI[=A]'TION; VI'TI[=A]TOR; VITIOS'ITY, state or quality of being vicious. [L. _viti[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_vitium_. See VICE (2).] VITILITIGATION, vit-i-lit-i-g[=a]'shun, _n._ vexatious litigation.--_v.i._ VITILIT'IGATE. VITIS, v[=i]'tis, _n._ a genus of plants, including the grape.--_n._ VIT'ICIDE, a vine-destroyer, vine-pest.--_adj._ VITIC'OLOUS, inhabiting, or produced upon, the vine.--_ns._ VIT'ICULTURE, cultivation of the vine; VITICUL'T[=U]RIST. [L. _vitis_, a vine--_vi[=e]re_, to twist.] VITREOUS, vit'r[=e]-us, _adj._ glassy: pertaining to, consisting of, or like glass.--_ns._ VITREOS'ITY, VIT'REOUSNESS; VITRES'CENCE.--_adj._ VITRES'CENT, tending to become glass.--_n._ VIT'REUM, the vitreous humour of the eye.--_adj._ VIT'RIC.--_ns._ VIT'RICS, glassy materials: the history of glass and its manufacture; VITRIFAC'TION, VITRIFIC[=A]'TION, act, process, or operation of vitrifying, or converting into glass; VITRIFAC'TURE, the manufacture of glass.--_adjs._ VIT'RIFIABLE, that may be vitrified or turned into glass; VIT'RIFIED.--_ns.pl._ VIT'RIFIED-FORTS, -WALLS, certain ancient Scottish, French, &c. forts or walls in which the silicious stone has been vitrified by fire, whether by intention or accident is uncertain.--_adj._ VIT'RIFORM, having the form of glass.--_v.t._ VIT'RIFY, to make into glass.--_v.i._ to become glass.--_ns._ VITR[=I]'NA, a genus of land molluscs forming a connecting-link between the slugs and true snails--the glass-snail; VIT'RINE, a show-case made of glass and used to protect delicate articles. [L. _vitrum_, glass--_vid[=e]re_, to see.] VITRIOL, vit'ri-ol, _n._ the popular name of sulphuric acid: a soluble sulphate of a metal--_green vitriol_=sulphate of iron, _blue vitriol_=sulphate of copper, _white vitriol_=sulphate of zinc.--_v.t._ VIT'RIOL[=A]TE, to convert into vitriol.--_n._ VITRIOL[=A]'TION, the act or process of converting into vitriol.--_adjs._ VITRIOL'IC, pertaining to or having the qualities of vitriol: biting, very severe; VIT'RIOL[=I]SABLE.--_n._ VITRIOLIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ VIT'RIOLISE, to vitriolate: to poison with vitriol.--ELIXIR OF VITRIOL, old name for the aromatic sulphuric acid of the Pharmacopoeia; OIL OF VITRIOL, concentrated sulphuric acid. [O. Fr.,--Low L. _vitriolum_--_vitriolus_--L. _vitreus_, of glass.] VITRO-DI-TRINA, vit'r[=o]-di-tr[=e]'na, _n._ lacework glass. [It., 'glass of lace.'] VITROPHYRE, vit'r[=o]-f[=i]r, _n._ a porphyritic variety of volcanic glass.--_adj._ VITROPHYR'IC. [L. _vitrum_, glass, _porphyrites_, porphyry.] [Illustration] VITRUVIAN, vi-tr[=oo]'vi-an, _adj._ denoting a peculiar kind of convoluted scrollwork, so named from _Vitruvius_, a Roman architect under Augustus. VITTA, vit'a, _n._ a fillet, or garland for the head:--_pl._ VITT'Æ (-[=e]). [L.] VITULAR, vit'[=u]-lar, VITULINE, vit'[=u]-l[=i]n, _adj._ relating to a calf or to veal. [From L. _vitulus_, a calf.] VITUPERATE, v[=i]-t[=u]'pe-r[=a]t, _v.t._ to find fault with: to address with abuse: to rate soundly.--_adj._ VIT[=U]'PERABLE, deserving vituperation.--_n._ VIT[=U]PER[=A]'TION, act of vituperating: censure: abuse.--_adj._ VIT[=U]'PER[=A]TIVE, containing vituperation or censure.--_adv._ VIT[=U]'PER[=A]TIVELY.--_n._ VIT[=U]'PER[=A]TOR, one who vituperates. [L. _vituper[=a]re_, _-[=a]tum_--_vitium_, a fault, _par[=a]re_, to set out.] VIURE, v[=e]'[=u]r, _n._ (_her._) a thin ribbon crossing the field in any direction. [Fr.] VIVA, v[=e]'va, _interj._ long live.--_n._ the exclamation _Viva_! [It., 'Let him live'--L. _viv[)e]re_, to live.] VIVACE, v[=e]-vä'che, _adj._ (_mus._) lively:--_superl._ VIVACIS'SIMO. [It.] VIVACIOUS, v[=i]-v[=a]'shus, (or vi-), _adj._ lively or long-lived: active: sportive.--_adv._ VIV[=A]'CIOUSLY.--_ns._ VIV[=A]'CIOUSNESS; VIVAC'ITY, state of being vivacious: life: animation: liveliness or sprightliness of temper or behaviour: (_rare_) a vivacious act or saying. [L. _vivax_, _vivacis_--_viv[)e]re_, to live.] VIVANDIÈRE, v[=e]-vong-di-[=a]r', _n._ in the French and some other Continental armies, a female attendant in a regiment, who sells spirits and other comforts, marching with the corps. [Fr., _fem._ of _vivandier_--It. _vivandière_, a sutler--_vivanda_, food.] VIVARIUM, v[=i]-v[=a]'ri-um, _n._ an artificial enclosure for keeping or raising living animals, as a park, fish-pond, &c.--Also V[=I]'VARY. [L. _vivarium_--_vivus_, alive--_viv[)e]re_, to live.] VIVAT, v[=i]'vat, _n._ an exclamation of applause. [L., 'let him live.'] VIVA VOCE, v[=i]'va v[=o]'s[=e], by word of mouth. [L., 'with living voice,'--_vivus_, living, _vox_, _vocis_, voice.] VIVE, v[=e]v, _interj._ long live. [Fr., 'let him live.'] VIVE, v[=i]v, _adj._ (_Bacon_) lively, forcible. [Fr.,--L. _vivus_--_viv[)e]re_, to live.] VIVERRINE, v[=i]-ver'in, _adj._ pertaining to the _Viverridæ_, one of the four families of the _Æluroidea_ section of Carnivora.--_n._ one of the _Viverridæ_, and esp. of the division of _Viverrinæ_, including the civets, genets, &c. VIVERS, v[=e]'v[.e]rz, _n.pl._ (_Scot._) food, eatables. [Fr. _vivres_--L. _viv[)e]re_, to live.] VIVES, v[=i]vz, _n.pl._ a disease of horses, &c., seated in the glands under the ear. [O. Fr. _avives_, _vives_--Sp. _avivas_--Ar. _addh[=i]ba_--_al_, the, _dh[=i]ba_, she-wolf.] VIVID, viv'id, _adj._ lively or life-like: having the appearance of life: forming brilliant images in the mind: striking.--_adv._ VIV'IDLY.--_ns._ VIV'IDNESS, VIVID'ITY.--_adj._ VIVIF'IC, vivifying.--_ns._ VIVIFIC[=A]'TION; VIV'IFIER.--_v.t._ VIV'IFY, to make vivid, endue with life. [L. _vividus_--_viv[)e]re_, to live.] VIVIPAROUS, v[=i]-vip'a-rus, _adj._ producing young alive: (_bot._) germinating from a seed still on the parent plant.--_ns._ V[=I]VIPAR'ITY, V[=I]VIP'AROUSNESS.--_adv._ V[=I]VIP'AROUSLY. [L., from _vivus_, alive, _par[)e]re_, to produce.] VIVISECTION, viv-i-sek'shun, _n._ the practice of making operations or painful experiments on living animals, for the purposes of physiological research or demonstration.--_v.t._ VIVISECT', to practise vivisection on.--_adj._ VIVISEC'TIONAL.--_ns._ VIVISEC'TIONIST, one who practises or defends vivisection; VIVISEC'TOR, one who practises vivisection; VIVISECT[=O]'RIUM, a place for vivisection. [L. _vivus_, alive, _sectio_--_sec[=a]re_, to cut.] VIVISEPULTURE, viv-i-sep'ul-t[=u]r, _n._ burial alive. VIXEN, vik'sn, _n._ a she-fox: an ill-tempered woman.--_adjs._ VIX'EN, VIX'ENISH, VIX'ENLY, ill-tempered, snarling. [Formerly also _vixon_; a form of _fixen_--A.S. _fyxen_, a she-fox.] VIZ. See VIDELICET. VIZAMENT, viz'a-ment, _n._ (_Shak._) advisement. VIZARD, viz'ard, VIZOR, viz'ur. Same as VISOR. VIZIR, VIZIER, vi-z[=e]r', _n._ a minister or councillor of state in the Ottoman Empire and other Mohammedan states--also VISIER', VEZIR', WIZIER'.--_ns._ VIZIR'ATE, VIZIER'ATE, VIZIR'SHIP, VIZIER'SHIP, the office of a vizir.--_adjs._ VIZIR'IAL, VIZIER'IAL.--GRAND VIZIR, in Turkey, the prime-minister, and formerly also commander of the army. [Ar. _waz[=i]r_, a porter--_wazara_, to bear a burden.] VLY, vl[=i], or fl[=i], _n._ a swamp, a shallow pond which is sometimes dry.--Also VLEIJ, VLEI. [A word of Dutch origin used in South Africa, prob. derived from Dut. _vallei_, a valley.] VOCABLE, v[=o]'ka-bl, _n._ that which is sounded with the voice: a word: a name.--_ns._ VOCAB'[=U]LARY, a list of vocables or words explained in alphabetical order: the words of a language: a dictionary: any list of words; VOCAB'[=U]LIST, a lexicographer, the harmless drudge who compiles a dictionary.--_adjs._ V[=O]'CAL, having a voice: uttered or changed by the voice: (_phon._) voiced, uttered with voice: having a vowel function; VOCAL'IC, containing vowels.--_n._ VOCALIS[=A]'TION, act of vocalising.--_v.t._ V[=O]'CALISE, to make vocal: to form into voice: to insert the vowel points, as in Hebrew.--_v.i._ to speak, sing.--_ns._ V[=O]'CALIST, a vocal musician, a singer; VOCAL'ITY, V[=O]'CALNESS, utterableness: vowel character.--_adv._ V[=O]'CALLY.--_adj._ VOC'ULAR (_rare_), vocal.--VOCAL CHORDS, two elastic membraneous folds of the larynx capable of being stretched or relaxed; VOCAL MUSIC, music produced by the human voice alone, as opposed to _Instrumental music_. [L. _vocabulum_--_voc[=a]re_, to call.] VOCATION, v[=o]-k[=a]'shun, _n._ call or act of calling: calling: occupation.--_adj._ VOC[=A]'TIONAL.--_adv._ VOC[=A]'TIONALLY. [L. _vocatio_--_voc[=a]re_.] VOCATIVE, vok'a-tiv, _adj._ pertaining to the act of calling, applied to the grammatical case used in personal address.--_n._ the case of a word when a person or thing is addressed. [L. _vocativus_--_voc[=a]re_.] VOCIFERATE, v[=o]-sif'e-r[=a]t, _v.i._ to cry with a loud voice.--_v.t._ to utter with a loud voice.--_n._ VOCIF'ERANCE, clamour.--_adj._ VOCIF'ERANT, clamorous.--_ns._ VOCIFER[=A]'TION, act of vociferating: a violent or loud outcry; VOCIF'ER[=A]TOR.--_v.t._ VOCIF'ERISE, to vociferate.--_n._ VOCIFEROS'ITY.--_adj._ VOCIF'EROUS, making a loud outcry: noisy.--_adv._ VOCIF'EROUSLY.--_n._ VOCIF'EROUSNESS. [L.--_vox_, _vocis_, voice, _ferre_, to carry.] VOCULAR, vok'[=u]-lar, _adj._ vocal.--_n._ VOC'ULE, a slight sound of the voice. VODKA, v[=o]d'ka, _n._ a Russian spirit, properly distilled from rye, but sometimes from potatoes. [Russ., 'brandy,' dim. of _voda_, water.] VOE, v[=o], _n._ in Shetland, a bay, creek.--Also VO, VAE. [Ice. _vágr_, _vogr_, a creek.] VOGIE, v[=o]'gi, _adj._ (_Scot._) vain: merry. VOGUE, v[=o]g, _n._ mode or fashion at any particular time: practice: popular reception. [Fr. _vogue_, course of a ship--_voguer_, to row, from Old High Ger. _wag[=o]n_ (Ger. _wogen_, to fluctuate, float)--_waga_, a waving, akin to _w[=a]g_, a wave.] VOICE, vois, _n._ sound from the mouth: sound given out by anything: utterance or mode of utterance: language: expression: expressed opinion: one who speaks: (_Shak._) reputation: sound uttered with resonance of the vocal chords: vote: (_gram._) mode of inflecting verbs, as being active or passive.--_v.t._ to give utterance to, declare, announce: to fit for sounding: to regulate the tone of: to utter with voice or tone, as distinguished from breath.--_adjs._ VOICED, furnished with a voice; VOICE'FUL, having a voice: vocal.--_n._ VOICE'FULNESS.--_adj._ VOICE'LESS, having no voice or vote.--_ns._ VOICE'LESSNESS; VOIC'ER; VOIC'ING, the regulating of the tone of organ pipes, ensuring proper power, pitch, and quality.--IN MY VOICE (_Shak._), in my name; INNER VOICE, PART, in music, a voice-part intermediate between the highest and the lowest; IN VOICE, in good condition for singing or speaking.--WITH ONE VOICE, unanimously. [O. Fr. _voix_--L. _vox_, _vocis_; akin to Gr. _epos_, a word.] VOID, void, _adj._ unoccupied: empty: destitute (with _of_): having no binding force: wanting: unsubstantial.--_n._ an empty space.--_v.t._ to make vacant: to quit: to send out, emit, empty out: to render of no effect, to nullify: (_Spens._) to lay aside, divest one's self of.--_adj._ VOID'ABLE, that may be voided or evacuated.--_n._ VOID'ANCE, act of voiding or emptying: state of being void: ejection.--_p.adj._ VOID'ED (_her._), having the inner part cut away or left vacant--said of a charge or ordinary.--_ns._ VOID'ER, one who empties: a contrivance in armour for covering an unprotected part of the body: a tray for carrying away crumbs, &c.; VOID'ING, the act of voiding: a remnant; VOID'NESS, emptiness: nullity. [O. Fr. _voide_, _void_, empty--L. _viduus_, bereft; others trace to Low L. form, akin to L. _vac[=a]re_, to be empty.] VOIVODE, VAIVODE, voi'v[=o]d, v[=a]'v[=o]d, _n._ the leader of an army: in Poland the title of the head of an administrative division, in Moldavia and Wallachia the former title of the princes, in Turkey an inferior administrative official--also VAY'VODE, WAI'WODE, WAY'WODE.--_ns._ VOI'VODESHIP, VAI'VODESHIP. [Russ. _voevoda_ (Serv. _vojvoda_, Pol. _wojewoda_), a general.] VOL, vol, _n._ (_her._) two wings displayed and conjoined in base. [Fr.] VOLABLE, vol'a-bl, _adj._ (_Shak._) nimble--willed. [L. _vol[=a]re_, to fly.] VOLANT, v[=o]'lant, _adj._ flying: nimble: (_her._) represented as flying, or as in the air unsupported, or creeping.--_n._ V[=O]'LANT-PIECE, a part of the helmet which could be removed at will.--_adj._ VOL'ATILE, evaporating very quickly: flighty: apt to change.--_ns._ VOL'ATILENESS, VOLATIL'ITY, quality of being volatile: disposition to evaporate rapidly: sprightliness: fickleness.--_adj._ VOL'ATILISABLE.--_ns._ VOLATILIS[=A]'TION, act or process of making volatile or evaporating.--_v.t._ VOL'ATILISE, to make volatile: to cause to evaporate.--_n._ VOL'ERY, a large enclosure for birds in which they have room to fly.--_adj._ VOL'ITANT, flying.--_n._ VOLIT[=A]'TION. [Fr.,--L. _volans_, _antis_, pr.p. of _vol[=a]re_, to fly.] VOLANTE, v[=o]-lan'te, _n._ a two-wheeled covered vehicle with long shafts, with a chaise-body hung before the axle, driven by a postillion. [Sp.] VOLAPÜK, v[=o]-la-pük', _n._ a name given to a universal language invented in 1879 by Johann Schleyer of Constance, Baden, the vocabulary being mainly based on English, and the grammar being simplified to the utmost.--_n._ VOLAPÜK'IST, one versed in Volapük: one who advocates the adoption of Volapük. [Lit. 'world-speech'--_vol_, shortened from Eng. _world_, _pük_, for Eng. _speak_.] VOLAR, v[=o]'lar, _adj._ pertaining to the palm, palmar.--_n._ V[=O]'LA, the hollow of the hand or foot:--_pl._ V[=O]'LÆ. [L.] VOLCANO, vol-k[=a]'no, _n._ a more or less conical hill or mountain, usually truncated, and communicating with the interior of the earth by a pipe or funnel, through which issue hot vapours and gases, and frequently loose fragmentary materials and streams of molten rock: a form of firework.--_adj._ VOLCAN'IC, pertaining to, produced, or affected by a volcano.--_adv._ VOLCAN'ICALLY.--_n._ VOLCANIS[=A]'TION.--_v.t._ VOL'CANISE, to subject to the action of volcanic heat.--_ns._ VOL'CANISM, VOLCANIC'ITY, phenomena connected with volcanoes; VOL'CANIST, a student of volcanic phenomena; VOLCAN'ITY, state of being volcanic; VOLC[=A]'NOISM (_rare_), violent eruptiveness.--_adj._ VOLCANOLOG'ICAL.--_n._ VOLCANOL'OGY.--VOLCANIC ROCKS, those formed by volcanic agency. [It. _volcano_--L. _Volcanus_, _Vulcanus_, god of fire.] VOLE, v[=o]l, _n._ in card-playing, the winning of all the tricks in one deal.--_v.i._ to win such. [Fr.,--L. _vol[=a]re_, to fly.] VOLE, v[=o]l, _n._ a genus of rodent quadrupeds of the subfamily _Arvicolinæ_, which also includes the lemmings, the musk-rats, &c., the Field-vole, the Water-vole, popularly called the water-rat, and the Bank-vole. VOLERY. See under VOLANT. VOLET, vol'[=a], _n._ a veil: one of the wings of a triptych picture. [O. Fr., 'a shutter'--L. _vol[=a]re_, to fly.] VOLITANT, vol'i-tant, _adj._ having the power of flight.--_n._ VOLIT[=A]'TION, act of flying. VOLITION, v[=o]-lish'un, _n._ act of willing or choosing: the exercise of the will: the power of determining.--_adjs._ VOLI'TIENT (_rare_), willing; VOLI'TIONAL, VOLI'TIONARY.--_adv._ VOLI'TIONALLY.--_adjs._ VOLI'TIONLESS; VOL'ITIVE, having power to will: expressing a wish. [Low L. _volitio_--L. _volo_, _velle_, to will, be willing.] VOLKSLIED, f[=o]lks'l[=e]t, _n._ a folk-song. [Ger.] VOLKSRAAD, f[=o]lks'rät, _n._ the name of the legislative assembly of the Orange Free State before its final annexation by England in 1900. VOLLEY, vol'i, _n._ a flight of shot: the discharge of many small-arms at once: an outburst of many at once: in tennis and lawn-tennis, a hard return of the ball before it reaches the ground--_half-volley_ is a return by striking the ball just as it touches or rises from the ground:--_pl._ VOLL'EYS.--_v.t._ to discharge in a volley.--_v.i._ to fly together, as missiles: to sound together: in lawn-tennis, to use the stroke so called. [Fr. _volée_, a flight--_voler_--L. _vol[=a]re_, to fly.] VOLSUNGS, vol'sungz, _n.pl._ a famous heroic race in old German legend, its founder _Volsung_ or Wolsung, the grandson of Odin, and its brightest ornament Volsung's son, Siegmund. VOLT, v[=o]lt, _n._ a turn or bound: a sudden movement or leap to avoid a thrust: a gait of two treads made by a horse going sideways round a centre.--_n._ VOL'TAGE. [Fr. _volte_--It. _volta_--L. _volv[)e]re_, _volutum_, to turn.] VOLT, v[=o]lt, _n._ the unit of electro-motive force now in universal use among electricians, defined legally in terms of the ohm and ampere.--_adj._ VOL'TA-ELEC'TRIC, of or pertaining to galvanism.--_n._ VOL'TA-ELECTROM'ETER, an instrument for measuring electric currents.--_adj._ VOL'TA-ELECTROM[=O]'TIVE.--_n._ V[=O]L'TAGE, electro-motive force reckoned in volts.--_adj._ VOLT[=A]'IC, pertaining to Alessandro _Volta_, an Italian scientist (1745-1826), who mainly developed the theory of current electricity along purely physical lines, discovered the electric decomposition of water, and invented a new electric battery, the electrophorus, and the electroscope.--_ns._ VOL'TAISM, that branch of electric science which treats of the production of an electric current from the chemical interaction of two immersed dissimilar metals (same as GALVANISM); VOLTAM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the decomposition produced by an electric current; V[=O]LT'-AM'PERE, the rate of activity in an electric circuit when the electro-motive force is one volt and the current one ampere; VOLT'ATYPE, an electrotype; V[=O]LT'METER, an instrument for measuring voltage.--VOLTAIC PILE, a galvanic battery. VOLTA, v[=o]l'ta, _n._ an old dance: (_mus._) turn, time:--_pl._ VOL'TE (-te). [It.] VOLTAIRIAN, vol-t[=a]r'i-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Voltaire_, a famous French poet, dramatist, historian, and sceptic (1694-1778).--_n._ one who advocates the views and principles of VOLTAIRE.--_ns._ VOLTAIR'IANISM, the spirit of Voltaire--i.e. a sceptical, incredulous, and sarcastic attitude, especially towards Christianity; VOLTAIR'ISM, incredulity, scepticism. VOLTIGEUR, vol-ti-zh[.e]r', _n._ a vaulter or tumbler: formerly in the French army, one of a light-armed company of picked men placed on the left of a battalion: under the Second Empire, a member of several special infantry regiments. [Fr.] VOLUBLE, vol'[=u]-bl, _adj._ easy to roll or move: flowing smoothly: fluent in speech.--_adj._ VOL'UBILE (_Milt._), rolling: revolving.--_ns._ VOLUBIL'ITY, VOL'UBLENESS, state or quality of being voluble: fluency of speech.--_adv._ VOL'UBLY. [L. _volubilis_--_volv[)e]re_, _volutum_, to roll.] VOLUCRINE, vol'[=u]-krin, _adj._ pertaining to birds, bird-like. [L. _volucris_, a bird--_vol[=a]re_, to fly.] VOLUME, vol'[=u]m, _n._ a roll or scroll, which was the form of ancient books: a book, whether complete in itself or part of a work: a rounded mass, convolution: cubical content: a quantity: dimensions: fullness of voice.--_v.i._ to swell.--_adj._ VOL'UMED, having the form of a volume or roll: of volume or bulk.--_ns._ VOLUMENOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the volume of a solid body by the quantity of fluid it displaces; VOL'UM[=E]TER, an instrument for measuring the volumes of gases.--_adjs._ VOLUMET'RIC, -AL.--_adv._ VOLUMET'RICALLY.--_adjs._ VOL[=U]'MINAL, pertaining to cubical content; VOL[=U]'MINOUS, consisting of many volumes or books, or of many coils: of great bulk: having written much, as an author: in many volumes, capable of filling many volumes.--_adv._ VOL[=U]'MINOUSLY.--_ns._ VOL[=U]'MINOUSNESS, VOLUMINOS'ITY; VOL'[=U]MIST (_rare_), an author.--VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS, the analysis of a compound by determining the quantity of a standard solution required to satisfy a reaction in a known quantity of the compound.--SPEAK, TELL, VOLUMES, to mean much, to be very significant. [Fr.,--L. _volumen_, a roll--_volv[)e]re_, _volutum_, to roll.] VOLUNTARY, vol'un-ta-ri, _adj._ willing: acting by choice: free: proceeding from the will: subject to the will: done by design or without compulsion: of or pertaining to voluntaryism.--_n._ one who does anything of his own free-will: a piece of music played at will: an upholder of voluntaryism.--_adv._ VOL'UNTARILY.--_ns._ VOL'UNTARINESS; VOL'UNTARYISM, the system of maintaining the Church by voluntary offerings, instead of by the aid of the State, as alone consistent with true religious liberty, involving freedom from State support, patronage, or control; VOL'UNTARYIST.--_adj._ VOL'UNT[=A]TIVE, voluntary.--VOLUNTARY SCHOOL, in England, one of a number of elementary schools supported by voluntary subscriptions, and in many cases controlled by religious bodies. [L. _voluntarius_--_voluntas_, choice--_volo_, _velle_, to will.] VOLUNTEER, vol-un-t[=e]r', _n._ one who enters any service, esp. military, voluntarily or of his own free choice: a soldier belonging to any body other than the regular army.--_adj._ entering into service voluntarily.--_v.t._ to offer voluntarily.--_v.i._ to enter into any service of one's own free-will or without being asked. [Fr. _volontaire_--L. _voluntarius_.] VOLUPTUARY, v[=o]-lup't[=u]-a-ri, _n._ a voluptuous person, or one excessively given to bodily enjoyments or luxury: a sensualist.--_adj._ promoting sensual pleasure. [L. _voluptuarius_--_voluptas_, pleasure.] VOLUPTUOUS, v[=o]-lup't[=u]-us, _adj._ full of pleasure: given to excess of pleasure, esp. sensual: contributing to sensual pleasure.--_adv._ VOLUP'TUOUSLY.--_n._ VOLUP'TUOUSNESS. [L. _voluptuosus_--_voluptas_, pleasure.] VOLUSPA, vol-us-pä', _n._ one of the poems of the Elder Edda: a sibyl or prophetess--a wrong use, though found in Scott's _Pirate_. [Ice. _Völuspá_, the song of the sibyl, _völu_, gen. of _völva_, a prophetess, _spá_, prophecy.] VOLUTE, v[=o]-l[=u]t', _n._ a spiral scroll used in the Ionic and Corinthian capitals: a kind of spiral shell, chiefly tropical: whorl of a spiral shell.--_adj._ (_bot._) rolled up in any direction.--_adj._ VOL[=U]'TED, having a volute.--_n._ VOL[=U]'TION, a convolution: a whorl.--_adj._ VOL'[=U]TOID, like a volute. [Fr.,--L. _volv[)e]re_, _volutum_, to roll.] VOLVE, volv, _v.t._ (_obs._) to turn over, ponder. [L. _volv[)e]re_, to turn.] VOLVOX, vol'voks, _n._ a genus of simple organisms found in ponds, canals, &c., being fresh-water algæ, consisting of green flagellate cells, united by protoplasmic bridges in a hollow spherical colony. [Formed from L. _volv[)e]re_, to roll.] VOLVULUS, vol'v[=u]-lus; _n._ occlusion of the intestine through twisting. VOMER, v[=o]'m[.e]r, _n._ the thin flat bone forming part of the middle partition of the nose, separating the nostrils. [L., 'a ploughshare.'] VOMIT, vom'it, _v.i._ to throw up the contents of the stomach by the mouth, to spew.--_v.t._ to throw out with violence.--_n._ matter ejected from the stomach: something that excites vomiting.--_adj._ VOM'IC, purulent.--_n._ VOM'ICA, a cavity in the lung containing pus; VOM'ITING, act of one who vomits: matter vomited.--_adjs._ VOM'ITIVE, VOM'ITORY, causing to vomit.--_n._ a vomit or emetic.--_ns._ VOM'ITO, the worst form of yellow fever, usually attended with the black vomit; VOM'ITORY, a door of a large building by which the crowd is let out; VOMITURI'TION, violent retching. [L. _vom[)e]re_, _-[)i]tum_, to throw up; Gr. _emein_.] VOODOO, VOUDOU, v[=oo]-d[=oo], _n._ the name given in the southern United States to any practiser of witchcraft, or of any charm, incantation, &c., especially when tinctured with African rites or superstitions: the supreme evil spirit of the voodoos.--_adj._ pertaining to the rites or practices of the voodoo.--_v.t._ to affect by voodoo charms.--_n._ VOODOO'ISM, voodoo superstitions. [Creole Fr. _vaudoux_, a negro sorcerer, prob. a form of Fr. _Vaudois_, a Waldensian--a heretic being capable of any kind of wickedness.] VORACIOUS, v[=o]-r[=a]'shus, _adj._ eager to devour: greedy: very hungry.--_adv._ VOR[=A]'CIOUSLY.--_ns._ VORAC'ITY, VOR[=A]'CIOUSNESS, quality of being voracious. [L. _vorax_, _voracis_--_vor[=a]re_, to devour.] VORAGINOUS, v[=o]-raj'i-nus, _adj._ pertaining to a whirlpool.--_n._ VOR[=A]'GO (-g[=o]), a gulf. [L. _vorago_.] VORANT, v[=o]'rant, _adj._ (_her._) devouring. [L. _vorans_, pr.p. of _vorare_, to devour.] VORTEX, vor'teks, _n._ a whirling motion of a fluid forming a cavity in the centre: a whirlpool: an eddy having a rotational motion of the smallest visible portion in the centre:--_pl._ VOR'TICES, VOR'TEXES.--_ns._ VOR'TEX-RING (_phys._), a vortical molecular filament or column forming a ring composed of a number of small rotating circles, placed side by side--e.g. the smoke-rings emitted by a skilful cigarette-smoker; VOR'TEX-TH[=E]'ORY, the theory that matter is ultimately composed of vortices in a fluid--a conception due to Lord Kelvin.--_adj._ VOR'TICAL, whirling.--_adv._ VOR'TICALLY.--_adjs._ VOR'TICOSE, VORTIC'[=U]LAR, VORTIGINAL (-ij'-), VORTIGINOUS (-ij'-). [L. _vortex_, _vertex_--_vort[)e]re_, _vert[)e]re_, to turn.] VORTICELLA, vor-ti-sel'a, _n._ a genus of ciliated Infusorians belonging to the order _Peritricha_, in which the cilia are restricted to a fringe round the mouth. [From L. _vortex_, a whirl.] VOTARY, v[=o]'ta-ri, _adj._ bound or consecrated by a vow.--_n._ one devoted as by a vow to some service, worship, or way of life:--_fem._ V[=O]'TARESS.--_n._ V[=O]'TARIST, a votary. [Low L. _votarius_--L. _votum_, to vow.] VOTE, v[=o]t, _n._ expression of a wish or opinion, as to a matter in which one has interest: that by which a choice is expressed, as a ballot: decision by a majority: something granted by the will of the majority.--_v.i._ to express the choice by a vote.--_v.t._ to choose by a vote: to grant by a vote: (_coll._) to declare by general consent.--_adjs._ V[=O]'TABLE, capable of voting; VOTE'LESS.--_ns._ V[=O]'TER; V[=O]'TING-P[=A]'PER, a balloting-paper, used in the election of members to Parliament.--VOTE DOWN, to put an end to by a vote, or otherwise; VOTE STRAIGHT, to give one's vote honestly.--CUMULATIVE VOTING, that system of voting in which the voter has a right to as many votes as there are members to be elected, and may give all his votes or as many as he pleases to one candidate.--SPLIT ONE'S VOTES, to divide one's votes judiciously among several candidates so as to strengthen those one favours. [L. _votum_, a wish--_vov[=e]re_, _votum_, to vow.] VOTIVE, v[=o]'tiv, _adj._ given by vow: vowed.--_adv._ V[=O]'TIVELY.--VOTIVE OFFERING, a tablet, picture, &c. dedicated in fulfilment of a vow. [L. _votivus_--_votum_, a vow.] VOUCH, vowch, _v.t._ to call upon to witness: to maintain by repeated affirmations: to warrant: to attest: to produce vouchers for: (_Milt._) to second, support.--_v.i._ to bear witness: to give testimony.--_n._ confirmation, attestation.--_ns._ VOUCHEE', the person vouched or summoned in a writ of right; VOUCH'ER, one who vouches or gives witness: a paper which vouches or confirms the truth of anything, as accounts: a mechanical contrivance used in shops for automatically registering the amount of money drawn; VOUCH'MENT, a solemn declaration. [O. Fr. _voucher_, _vocher_, to call to defend--L. _voc[=a]re_, to call.] VOUCHSAFE, vowch-s[=a]f, _v.t._ to vouch or warrant safe: to sanction or allow without danger: to condescend to grant.--_v.i._ to condescend.--_n._ VOUCHSAFE'MENT. VOULGE, v[=oo]zh, _n._ a weapon carried by foot-soldiers in the 14th century, having a blade fixed on a long staff. [Fr.] VOUSSOIR, v[=oo]-swär', _n._ one of the wedge-like stones which form part of an arch.--_v.t._ to form with such. [Fr., through Low L., from L. _volutus_--_volv[)e]re_, to roll.] VOW, vow, _n._ a voluntary promise made to God, and, as such, carrying with it the most stringent obligation to its fulfilment: a solemn or formal promise of fidelity or affection: (_Shak._) a positive assertion.--_v.t._ to give by solemn promise: to devote: to threaten, to maintain solemnly.--_v.i._ to make vows.--_n._ VOW'-FELL'OW (_Shak._), one bound by the same vow.--BAPTISMAL VOWS, the promises made at baptism by the person baptised, or by the sponsors or parents in his name; MONASTIC VOWS (see MONASTERY); SOLEMN, as opposed to SIMPLE VOWS, such vows as the Church takes under her special charge, or is said in a solemn manner to accept, as those of poverty, obedience, and chastity, involving complete and irrevocable surrender. [O. Fr. _vou_ (Fr. _voeu_)--L. _votum_--_vov[=e]re_, to vow.] VOWEL, vow'el, _n._ a sound or tone produced by the unimpeded passage of the breath, when modified by the glottis into _voice_, through the tube of the mouth, which is made to assume different shapes by altering the form and position of the tongue and the lips--the letters _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_, _u_ are called vowels, as being able to be sounded by themselves, with a continuous passage of the breath; but there are thirteen simple vowel sounds in English.--_adj._ vocal: pertaining to a vowel.--_vs.t._ VOW'EL, VOW'ELISE, to insert vowel signs in words written primarily with consonants only.--_ns._ VOW'ELISM, the use of vowels; VOW'ELIST, one given to vowelism.--_adjs._ VOW'ELLED, furnished with vowels; VOW'ELLESS, without vowels; VOW'ELLY, full of vowels.--VOWEL POINTS, marks inserted in consonantal word to indicate vowels. [Fr. _voyelle_--L. _vocalis_--_vox_, _vocis_, the voice.] VOX, voks, _n._ voice: a voice or song part.--VOX ANGELICA, or CÆLESTIS, in organ-building, a stop producing a wavy effect; VOX HUMANA, in organ-building, a reed-stop producing tones resembling those of the human voice. [L.] VOYAGE, voi'[=a]j, _n._ passage by water: (_Shak._) an enterprise.--_v.i._ to make a voyage, or to pass by water.--_v.t._ to traverse, pass over.--_adj._ VOY'AGE-ABLE, navigable.--_n._ VOY'AGER, one who voyages.--_n.pl._ VOYAGEURS (vwo-ya-zher'), name given in Canada to the men who in their bark canoes kept up communication between the stations, and effected transportation of men and supplies, in the North-west and Hudson's Bay territory. [Fr.,--L. _viaticum_, travelling-money--L. _via_, a way.] VRAISEMBLANCE, vr[=a]-song-blongs', _n._ verisimilitude. [Fr., _vrai_, true, _semblance_, appearance.] VUG, vug, _n._ a Cornish miner's name for a cavity in a rock.--_adj._ VUG'GY. VULCAN, vul'kan, _n._ (_Roman myth._) the god of fire.--_n._ VULCAN[=A]'LIA, an ancient Roman, festival in honour of VULCAN, held on 23d August.--_adjs._ VULC[=A]'NIAN, pertaining to VULCAN, or to one who works in iron; VULCAN'IC (same as VOLCANIC).--_n._ VULCANIC'ITY, volcanicity.--_adj._ VULCAN[=I]'SABLE.--_n._ VULCANIS[=A]'-TION.--_v.t._ VUL'CANISE, to combine with sulphur by heat, as caoutchouc--_v.i._ to admit of such treatment.--_ns._ VUL'CANISM, volcanism; VUL'CANIST, a supporter of the Huttonian theory in geology which asserted the igneous origin of such rocks as basalt; VUL'CANITE, the harder of the two kinds of vulcanised india-rubber or caoutchouc, the softer kind being called _soft-rubber_. [L. _Vulcanus_.] VULGAR, vul'gar, _adj._ pertaining to or used by the common people, native: public: common; national, vernacular: mean or low: rude.--_n._ the common people: the common language of a country.--_ns._ VULG[=A]'RIAN, a vulgar person: a rich unrefined person; VULGARIS[=A]'TION, a making widely known: a making coarse or common.--_v.t._ VUL'GARISE, to make vulgar or rude.--_ns._ VUL'GARISM, a vulgar phrase: coarseness; VULGAR'ITY, VUL'GARNESS, quality of being vulgar: mean condition of life: rudeness of manners.--_adv._ VUL'GARLY.--_n._ VUL'GATE, an ancient Latin version of the Scriptures, so called from its common use in the R.C. Church, prepared by Jerome in the fourth century, and pronounced 'authentic' by the Council of Trent.--VULGAR FRACTION, a fraction written in the common way.--THE VULGAR, the common people. [L. _vulgaris_--_vulgus_, the people.] VULNERABLE, vul'ne-ra-bl, _adj._ capable of being wounded: liable to injury.--_v.t._ VULN (_her._), to wound.--_adj._ VULNED (_her._).--_ns._ VULNERABIL'ITY, VUL'NERABLENESS.--_adj._ VUL'NERARY, pertaining to wounds: useful in healing wounds.--_n._ anything useful in curing wounds.--_adj._ VUL'NEROSE, with many wounds. [L. _vulnerabilis_--_vulner[=a]re_, to wound--_vulnus_, _vulneris_, a wound.] VULPINE, vul'pin, _adj._ relating to or like the fox: cunning.--_adj._ VULPEC'[=U]LAR, vulpine.--_ns._ VUL'PICIDE, the killing of a fox: a fox-killer; VUL'PINISM, craftiness. [L.,--_vulpes_, a fox.] VULSELLA, vul-sel'a, _n._ a forceps with toothed or clawed blades:--_pl._ VULSELL'Æ (-[=e]). [L.] VULTURE, vul't[=u]r, _n._ a large rapacious bird of prey, feeding largely on carrion: one who or that which resembles a vulture.--_adjs._ VUL'T[=U]RINE, VUL'T[=U]RISH, VUL'T[=U]ROUS, like the vulture: rapacious.--_ns._ VUL'TURISM, rapacity; VUL'TURN, the Australian brush-turkey. [O. Fr. _voutour_ (Fr. _vautour_)--L. _vultur_; perh. from _vell[)e]re_, to pluck, to tear.] VULVA, vul'va, _n._ the orifice of the external organs of generation of the female.--_adjs._ VUL'VAR, VUL'VATE; VUL'VIFORM, oval.--_ns._ VULVIS'MUS, vaginismus; VULV[=I]'TIS, inflammation of the vulva.--_adjs._ VULVO-[=U]'TERINE, pertaining to the vulva and the uterus; VULVOVAG'INAL, pertaining to the vulva and the vagina.--_n._ VULVOVAGIN[=I]'TIS, inflammation of both the vulva and the vagina. VUM, vum, _v.i._ (_U.S._) a corruption of _vow_, in phrase 'I vum.' VYING, v[=i]'ing, _pr.p._ of _vie_. * * * * * W the twenty-third letter of our alphabet, like _æ_, a ligature rather than a letter, with a double value, as consonant and as vowel--when the sound is voiced we have _w_, as in 'we' or 'wen,' the corresponding unvoiced sound being _wh_, as in 'when,' 'what.' A final _w_ is vocalic, as in 'few.' The A.S. _hw_ has become _wh_; _cw_ has become _qu_ as in _queen_, from A.S. _cwén_; while _w_ is occasionally intrusive, as in _whole_, from A.S. _hál_. WABBLE, WOBBLE, wob'l, _v.i._ to incline alternately to one side and the other: to rock, to vacillate.--_n._ a hobbling, unequal motion.--_ns._ WABB'LER, WOBB'LER, one who or that which wabbles: a boiled leg of mutton.--_adjs._ WABB'LY, WOBB'LY, shaky, given to wabbling.--_adj._ and _n._ WOBB'LING, vacillating. [Low Ger. _wabbeln_, to wabble; cog. with Eng. _waver_.] WABSTER, wab'st[.e]r, _n._ (_Scot._) a webster, weaver. WACKE, wak'e, _n._ German miners' term for a soft, grayish kind of trap-rock. WAD, wod, _n._ a mass of loose matter thrust close together for packing, &c., as hay, tow, &c.: a little mass of paper, tow, or the like to keep the charge in a gun.--_v.t._ to form into a mass: to pad, stuff out: to stuff a wad into:--_pr.p._ wad'ding; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ wad'ded.--_n._ WAD'DING, a wad, or the materials for wads: a soft stuff, also sheets of carded cotton for stuffing garments, &c. [Skeat refers to Scand., Sw. _vadd_, wadding; cf. Ger. _watte_, wadding, _wat_, cloth (whence Fr. _ouate_); ult. allied to _weed_.] WAD, wad, a Scotch form of _wed_, also of _would_. WAD, WADD, wod, _n._ an earthy ore of manganese. WADDLE, wod'l, _v.i._ to take short steps and move from side to side in walking.--_n._ a clumsy, rocking gait.--_n._ WADD'LER.--_adv._ WADD'LINGLY, with a waddling gait. [Perh. _wade_.] WADDY, wad'i, _n._ a native Australian wooden war-club, a walking-stick--also WADD'IE.--_v.t._ to strike with a waddy. WADE, w[=a]d, _v.i._ to walk through any substance that yields to the feet, as water: to pass with difficulty or labour.--_n._ (_coll._) a ford.--_n._ W[=A]'DER, one who wades: a bird that wades, e.g, the heron: (_pl._) high waterproof boots used by fishermen for wading. [A.S. _wadan_, to move; Ger. _waten_.] WADI, WADY, wod'i, _n._ the dry bed of a torrent: a river-valley. [Ar. _wad[=i]_, a ravine (Sp. _guad-_, first syllable of many river-names).] WADMAL, wod'mal, _n._ (_Scot._) a thick woollen cloth.--Also WAD'MOLL. [Ice. _vadhmál_--_vadhr_, cloth, _mál_, a measure.] WADSET, wod'set, _n._ a mortgage--also WAD'SETT.--_n._ WAD'SETTER, a mortgagee. [_Wad_=_wed_, _set_.] WAE, w[=a], _n._ (_Spens._) woe.--_adj._ (_Scot._) sorrowful.--_adjs._ WAE'FUL, WAE'SOME, woeful, pitiful.--_n._ WAE'NESS, sadness.--_interj._ WAE'SUCKS, alas! WAFER, w[=a]'f[.e]r, _n._ a thin round cake of unleavened bread, usually stamped with a cross, an Agnus Dei, the letters I.H.S., &c., used in the Eucharist in the R.C. Church: a thin leaf of coloured paste for sealing letters, &c.: a thin cake of paste used to facilitate the swallowing of powders.--_v.t._ to close with a wafer.--_n._ W[=A]'FER-CAKE.--_adj._ W[=A]'FERY, like a wafer. [O. Fr. _waufre_ (Fr. _gaufre_)--Old Dut. _waefel_, a cake of wax; Ger. _wabe_, a honeycomb.] WAFF, waf, _adj._ (_Scot._) weak, worthless, paltry.--_n._ a worthless person. [_Waif_.] WAFF, waf, _n._ (_Scot._) a slight hasty motion: a quick light blow: a sudden ailment: a faint but disagreeable odour: a ghost. WAFF, waf, _n._ an obsolete form of _wave_. WAFF, waf, _v.i._ (_prov._) to bark.--Also WAUGH. WAFFLE, wof'l, _n._ a kind of batter-cake, baked over the fire in an iron utensil of hinged halves called a WAFF'LE-[=I]'RON. [Dut. _wafel_, wafer.] WAFFLE, wof'l, _v.i._ (_prov._) to wave. [_Waff_ (3).] WAFT, waft, _v.t._ to bear through a fluid medium, as air or water: (_Shak._) to wave the hand, beckon, to turn.--_v.i._ to float.--_n._ a floating body: a signal made by moving something in the air, esp. an ensign, stopped together at the head and middle portions, slightly rolled up lengthwise, and hoisted at different positions at the after-part of a ship: a breath, puff, slight odour.--_ns._ WAF'T[=A]GE, act of wafting, transportation in air or water; WAF'TER, one who or that which wafts; WAF'T[=U]RE (_Shak._), act of wafting or of waving, waving motion, beckoning. [_Wave_.] WAG, wag, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to move from side to side: to shake to and fro: (_coll._) to depart: (_Shak._) to move on, make progress:--_pr.p._ wag'ging; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ wagged.--_n._ a shaking, moving to and fro. [Referred by Skeat to Old Sw. _wagga_, to wag (Ice. _vagga_, a cradle); allied to A.S. _wagian_, to wag, Old High Ger. _wag[=o]n_, to shake, A.S. _wegan_, to carry, move.] WAG, wag, _n._ a droll, mischievous fellow: a man full of sport and humour: a wit: a fellow generally.--_n._ WAG'GERY, mischievous merriment.--_adjs._ WAG'GISH--(_rare_) WAG'SOME.--_adv._ WAG'GISHLY.--_ns._ WAG'GISHNESS; WAG'-WIT, a would-be wit. [Prob. _waghalter_, one who deserves hanging.] WAGE, w[=a]j, _v.t._ to pledge: to engage in as if by pledge: to carry on, esp. of war: to venture: (_prov._) to hire for pay: (_Shak._) to pay wages to: (_Spens._) to let out for pay.--_v.i._ (_Shak._) to be equal in value, to contend, battle (_with_).--_n._ a gage or stake: that for which one labours: wages.--_ns._ WAGE'-EARN'ER, one receiving pay for work done; WAGE'-FUND, W[=A]'GES-FUND THEORY, the theory that there is at any given time in a country a determinate amount of capital available for the payment of labour, therefore the average wage depends on the proportion of this fund to the number of persons who have to share in it; W[=A]'GER, that which is waged or pledged: something staked on the issue of anything: a bet: that on which bets are laid: (_law_) an offer to make oath.--_v.t._ to hazard on the issue of anything.--_v.i._ to lay a wager.--_n._ W[=A]'GERER.--_n.pl._ W[=A]'GES (used as _sing._), wage: that which is paid for services.--_n._ WAGE'-WORK, work done for wages.--WAGER OF BATTLE, trial by combat, an ancient usage which permitted the accused and accuser, in defect of sufficient direct evidence, to challenge each other to mortal combat, for issue of the dispute.--LIVING WAGE (see LIVING). [O. Fr. _wager_ (Fr. _gager_), to pledge.] WAGGLE, wag'l, _v.i._ and _v.t._ to wag or move from side to side. [Freq. of _wag_ (1).] WAGMOIRE, wag'moir, _n._ (_Spens._) a quagmire. WAGNERIAN, vag-n[=e]'ri-an, _adj._ pertaining to or characterised by the ideas or style of Richard _Wagner_ (1813-83), a famous German composer of music-dramas: pertaining to Rudolf _Wagner_ (1805-64), a famous physiologist.--_ns._ WAG'NERISM, WAGNE'RIANISM, the art theory of Richard Wagner, its main object being the freeing of opera from traditional and conventional forms, and its one canon, dramatic fitness; WAG'NERIST, an adherent of Wagner's musical methods. WAGON, WAGGON, wag'un, _n._ a four-wheeled vehicle for carrying heavy goods: (_Shak._) a chariot.--_v.t._ to transport by wagon.--_ns._ WAG'ONAGE, money, paid for conveyance by wagon; WAG'ON-BOX, -BED, the carrying part of a wagon; WAG'ONER, WAG'GONER, one who conducts a wagon: (_Shak._) a charioteer: (_Spens._) the constellation Auriga; WAGONETTE', a kind of open carriage built to carry six or eight persons, with one or two seats crosswise in front, and two back seats arranged lengthwise and facing inwards; WAG'ONFUL, as much as a wagon will hold; WAG'ON-LOAD, the load carried by a wagon: a great amount; WAG'ON-LOCK, a kind of iron shoe which is placed on the rear-wheel of a wagon to retard motion in going downhill; WAG'ON-TRAIN, the machines used by an army for the conveyance of ammunition, provisions, sick, &c.; WAG'ON-WRIGHT, a maker of wagons. [Dut. _wagen_; A.S. _wægn_, Eng., _wain_.] WAGTAIL, wag't[=a]l, _n._ any bird of the family _Motacillidæ_, so named from their constant wagging of the tail--the pipits or titlarks, &c.: (_Shak._) a pert person. WAHABEE, WAHABAI, wä-hä'b[=e], _n._ one of a sect of Puritan Moslems founded in Central Arabia about 1760 by Abd-el-_Wahhab_ (1691-1787), whose aim was to restore primitive Mohammedanism--also WAHÄ'BITE.--_n._ WAHÄ'BIISM, the doctrine and practices of the Wahabis. WAHOO, wa-h[=oo]', _n._ the burning bush, a richly ornamental shrub: the bear-berry, which yields cascara sagrada: the winged elm, with valuable hard-grained wood. WAID, WAIDE. Old spellings of _weighed_. WAIF, w[=a]f, _n._ a stray article: anything found astray without an owner: a worthless wanderer.--_adj._ vagabond, worthless. [O. Fr. _waif_, _wef_--Ice. _veif_, any flapping or waving thing.] WAIFT, w[=a]ft, _n._ (_Spens._) a waif. WAIL, w[=a]l, _v.i._ to lament or sorrow audibly.--_v.t._ to bemoan: to grieve over.--_n._ a cry of woe: loud weeping.--_n._ WAIL'ER.--_adj._ WAIL'FUL, sorrowful, mournful.--_n._ WAIL'ING.--_adv._ WAIL'INGLY. [M. E. _weilen_--Ice. _vaela_, _vála_, to wail--_væ_, _vei_, woe.] WAIN, w[=a]n, _n._ a wagon.--_v.t._ (_rare_) to carry.--_ns._ WAIN'AGE, the team and implements necessary for the cultivation of land; WAIN'-ROPE, a rope for binding a load on a wain or wagon; WAIN'WRIGHT, a wagon-maker.--THE LESSER WAIN, the constellation Ursa Minor. [A.S. _wægen_, _wæn_--_wegen_, to carry; cf. Ger. _wagen_, L. _veh[)e]re_.] WAINSCOT, w[=a]n'skot, _n._ the panelled boards on the walls of apartments: a collector's name for certain noctuoid moths.--_v.t._ to line with, or as if with, boards or panels.--_ns._ WAIN'SCOTING, WAIN'SCOTTING, the act of lining with boards or panels: materials for making a wainscot. [Orig. perh. wood used for a partition in a wagon--Dut. _wagenschot_, oakwood, beechwood--_wagen_, wagon, _schot_, partition. Skeat explains as a corr. of Old Dut. _waegheschot_, wall-hoarding, from Old Dut. _waeg_, a wall, _schot_, a partition.] WAIST, w[=a]st, _n._ the smallest part of the human trunk, between the ribs and the hips: the bodice of a woman's dress: the middle part, as of a ship, of a musical instrument--(_Shak._) of a period of time; (_Shak._) something that surrounds.--_ns._ WAIST'-ANCHOR, an anchor stowed in the waist of a ship; WAIST'BAND, the band or part of a garment which encircles the waist; WAIST'BELT, a belt for the waist; WAIST'BOAT, a boat carried in the waist of a vessel; WAIST'CLOTH, a piece of cloth worn around the waist, and hanging below it, in India; WAIST'COAT, a short coat worn immediately under the coat, and fitting the waist tightly; WAISTCOATEER' (_obs._), a strumpet; WAIST'COATING, material for men's waistcoats, usually of a fancy pattern and containing silk.--_adjs._ WAIST'-DEEP, -HIGH, as deep, high, as to reach up to the waist.--_n._ WAIST'ER, a green-hand on a whaler: an old man-of-war's-man who has not risen. [A.S. _wæxt_, growth (Ice. _vöxtr_); conn, with _wæstme_, growth, _weaxen_, to grow.] WAIT, w[=a]t, _v.i._ to stay in expectation (with _for_): to remain: to attend (with _on_): to follow: to lie in ambush.--_v.t._ to stay for: to await: (_coll._) to defer: (_obs._) to accompany.--_n._ ambush, now used only in such phrases as 'to lie in wait,' 'to lay wait:' the: act of waiting or expecting: delay: (_pl._) itinerant musicians, originally watchmen, who welcome-in Christmas.--_ns._ WAIT'ER, one who waits: an attending servant: a salver or tray: a custom-house officer: (_obs._) a watchman; WAIT'ERAGE, service; WAIT'ERING, the employment of a waiter; WAIT'ING, act of waiting: attendance.--_adv._ WAIT'INGLY.--_ns._ WAIT'ING-MAID, -WOM'AN, a female attendant; WAIT'ING-ROOM, a room for the convenience of persons waiting; WAIT'ING-VASS'AL (_Shak._), an attendant; WAIT'RESS, a female waiter.--WAIT ATTENDANCE (_Shak._), to remain in attendance; WAIT UPON, ON, to call upon, visit: to accompany, to be in the service of: (_B._) to look toward, to attend to, do the bidding of.--LIE IN WAIT, to be in hiding ready for attack or surprise.--LORDS, or GROOMS, IN WAITING, certain officers in the Lord Chamberlain's department of the royal household; MINORITY WAITER, a waiter out of employment, as a political minority is out of office. [O. Fr. _waiter_ (Fr. _guetter_), to watch, attend--_waite_, a sentinel--Old High Ger. _wahta_ (Ger. _wacht_), a watchman; cog. with A.S. _wacan_, to watch.] WAIVE, w[=a]v, _v.t._ to relinquish for the present: to give up claim to: not to insist on a right or claim.--_n._ WAI'VER, the act of waiving: renouncement of a claim: process by which a woman was outlawed. [O. Fr. _guever_, to refuse, resign--perh. Ice. _veifa_, to move to and fro; cf. L. _vibr[=a]re_.] WAIVODE, WAIWODE, WAIWODESHIP. Same as VOIVODE, &c. WAKE, w[=a]k, _v.i._ to cease from sleep: to lie awake: (_B._) to watch: to be roused up, active, or vigilant: to return to life: (_Shak._) to hold a late revel: to keep vigil.--_v.t._ to rouse from sleep: to keep vigil over: to excite, disturb: to reanimate:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ waked or woke.--_n._ act of waking: feast of the dedication of a church, formerly kept by watching all night: sitting up of persons with a corpse.--_adj._ WAKE'FUL, being awake: indisposed to sleep: vigilant.--_adv._ WAKE'FULLY.--_n._ WAKE'FULNESS.--_v.t._ and _v.i._ W[=A]'KEN, to wake or awake: to be awake.--_ns._ WAKE'NER, one who or that which wakens; WAKE'NING, act of one who wakens; (Scots law) revival of an action; W[=A]'KER, one who wakes.--_adj._ WAKE'RIFE (_Scot._), wakeful.--_ns._ WAKE'-TIME, time during which one is awake; W[=A]'KING.--_adj._ being awake: rousing from sleep: passed in the waking state. [A.S. _wacan_, to be born, also _wacian_, to waken (cf. _weccan_, Ger. _wecken_). Cf. _Wait_, _Watch_.] WAKE, w[=a]k, _n._ the streak of smooth water left in the track of a ship: hence (_fig._) 'in the wake of,' in the train of, immediately after. [Ice. _vök_, a hole in the ice, _vökr_, moist. The root is seen in L. _hum[=e]re_, to be moist, Gr. _hugros_, moist.] WAKE-ROBIN, w[=a]k'-rob'in, _n._ the cuckoo-pint, _Arum maculatum_: in America, any species of trillium. WALDENSES, wol-den's[=e]z, _n.pl._ a famous Christian community of austere morality and devotion to the simplicity of the Gospel, which originally grew out of an anti-sacerdotal movement originated by Peter _Waldo_ of Lyons in the second half of the 12th century--long cruelly persecuted, but still flourishing in the valleys of the Cottian Alps.--_adj._ and _n._ WALDEN'SIAN. WALDGRAVE, wold'gr[=a]v, _n._ an old German title of nobility, originally a head forest-ranger. [Ger. _waldgraf_.] WALDHORN, wold'horn, _n._ a hunting-horn, a French horn without valves. [Ger.] WALE, w[=a]l, _n._ a raised streak left by a stripe: a ridge on the surface of cloth: a plank all along the outer timbers on a ship's side.--_v.t._ to mark with wales.--_n._ W[=A]'LER, one who chastises severely. [A.S. _walu_, the mark of a stripe or blow; Ice. _völr_, a rod.] WALE, w[=a]l, _n._ (_Scot._) the choice or pick of anything.--_v.t._ to choose. [Ice. _val_, choice; Ger. _wahl_, choice; from the root of _will_.] WALER, w[=a]'l[.e]r, _n._ in India, a horse imported from New South _Wales_, or from Australia generally. WALHALLA, wal-hal'la, _n._ Same as VALHALLA. WALK, wawk, _v.i._ to move along leisurely on foot with alternate steps: to pace: to travel on foot: to conduct one's self: to act or behave: to live: to be guided by: (_coll._) to move off, depart: to be stirring, move about, go restlessly about (as of a ghost).--_v.t._ to pass through or upon: to cause to walk.--_n._ act or manner of walking: gait: that in or through which one walks: distance walked over: place for walking, promenade: place for animals to exercise: path: high pasture-ground: conduct: course of life, sphere of action, a hawker's district or round: (_obs._) a hunting-ground: (_pl._) grounds, park (_obs._).--_adj._ WALK'ABLE, fit for walking.--_ns._ WALK'-AROUND', a dancing performance by negroes in which a large circle is described, also the music for such; WALK'ER, one who walks: (_law_) a forester: one who trains and walks young hounds: a gressorial bird; WALK'ING, the verbal noun of walk: pedestrianism; WALK'ING-BEAM, in a vertical engine, a horizontal beam, usually trussed, that transmits power to the crankshaft through the connecting-rod; WALK'ING DRESS, a dress for the street or for walking; WALK'ING-FAN, a large fan used out of doors to protect the face from the sun; WALK'ING-LEAF, a leaf-insect; WALK'ING-STICK, -CANE, -STAFF, a stick, cane, or staff used in walking; WALK'ING-STICK, also a sort of long, slender-bodied bug; WALK'ING-TOAD, a natterjack; WALK'-[=O]'VER, a race where one competitor appears, who has to cover the course to be entitled to the prize: an easy victory.--WALK ABOUT, a former order of an officer to a sentry, waiving the customary salute; WALK AWAY FROM, to distance easily; WALK'ER! a slang interjection of incredulity (also HOOKEY WALKER!); WALKING GENTLEMAN, LADY, a gentleman, lady, who plays ornamental but unimportant parts on the stage; WALK INTO (_coll._), to beat: to storm at: to eat heartily of; WALK ONE'S CHALKS, to quit, go away without ceremony; WALK TALL, to behave haughtily; WALK THE CHALK, CHALK-MARK, to keep a correct course in manners or morals; WALK THE HOSPITALS, to be a student under clinical instruction at a general hospital or infirmary; WALK WITH, to attend as a sweetheart.--HEEL-AND-TOE WALK, a mode of walking in which the heel of one foot is put on the ground before the toe of the other leaves it. [A.S. _wealcan_, to roll, turn; cog. with Ger. _walken_, to full cloth.] WALKING, wawk'ing, _n._ the act or process of fulling cloth.--_n._ WALK'MILL, a fulling-mill. WALKYR, wol'kir. Same as VALKYR. WALL, wawl, _n._ an erection of brick, stone, &c. for a fence or security: the side of a building: (_fig._) defence, means of security: in mining, one of the surfaces of rock enclosing the lode: (_anat._) a paries or containing structure or part of the body: (_pl._) fortifications.--_v.t._ to enclose with, or as with, a wall: to defend with walls: to hinder as by a wall.--_n._ WALL'-CLOCK, a clock hung on a walk.--_adj._ WALLED, fortified.--_ns._ WALL'ER, one who builds walls; WALL'-FLOWER, a plant with fragrant yellow flowers, found on old walls: a woman at a ball who keeps her seat, presumably for want of a partner--applied sometimes to men; WALL'-FRUIT, fruit growing on a wall; WALL'ING, walls collectively: materials for walls; WALL'-KNOT, a nautical method of tying the end of a rope.--_adj._ WALL'-LESS.--_ns._ WALL'-LIZ'ARD, -NEWT, a gecko; WALL'-MOSS, the yellow wall-lichen: the stone-crop; WALL'-PAINT'ING, the decoration of walls with ornamental painted designs; WALL'-P[=A]'PER, paper usually coloured and decorated, for pasting on the walls of a room; WALL'-PIECE, a gun mounted on a wall; WALL'-PLATE, a horizontal piece of timber on a wall, under the ends of joists, &c.; WALL'-SPACE (_archit._), a plain expanse of wall; WALL'-SPRING, a spring of water running between stratified rocks; WALL'-TOW'ER, a tower built into and forming part of a line of fortification or a fortified city-wall; WALL'-TREE, a tree trained against a wall; WALL'-WORT, the European dwarf elder; HANG'ING-WALL, that wall of the vein which is over the miner's head while working, the opposite wall being called the FOOT'-WALL.--WALL A ROPE, to make a wall-knot on the end of a rope.--DRIVE TO THE WALL, to push to extremities; GO TO THE WALL, to be hard pressed: to be pushed to extremes; HANG BY THE WALL, to hang up neglected: to remain unused; PUSH, or THRUST, TO THE WALL, to force to give place; THE WALL, the right of taking the side of the road near the wall when encountering another person, as in the phrase to GIVE, or TAKE, THE WALL. [A.S. _weall_, _wall_; Ger. _wall_, both from L. _vallum_, a rampart--_vallus_, a stake.] WALLA, WALLAH, wol'a, _n._ a worker, agent: fellow.--COMPETITION WALLAH, a term applied in Anglo-Indian colloquial speech to a member of the Civil Service who obtained appointment by the competitive system instituted in 1856. [Yule explains _w[=a]l[=a]_ as a Hindi adjectival affix, corresponding in a general way to the Latin _-arius_. Its usual employment as affix to a substantive makes it frequently denote agent, doer, keeper, owner, &c.] WALLABA, wol'a-ba, _n._ a Guiana tree with winged leaves and streaked reddish wood. WALLABY, wol'ab-i, _n._ a small kangaroo.--ON THE WALLABY, ON THE WALLABY TRACK, out of employment, a slang Australian phrase derived from the shy habits of the kangaroo. WALLACHIAN, wäl-[=a]'ki-an, _adj._ of or pertaining to _Wallachia_, a Danubian principality, since 1878 forming with Moldavia the kingdom of Roumania.--_ns._ WALL'ACH, WALL'ACK, a native or inhabitant of WALLACHIA. [From a Slavonic term represented by Pol. _Wloch_, an Italian, _Woloch_, a Wallach; all from Old High Ger. _walh_ (A.S. _wealh_), a foreigner.] WALLET, wol'et, _n._ a bag for carrying necessaries on a journey: a knapsack: a pocket-book: a bag for tools: (_Shak._) anything protuberant. [M. E. _walet_, possibly from _watel_, a bag.] WALL-EYE, wawl'-[=i], _n._ an eye in which the white part is very large: the popular name for the disease of the eye called glaucoma.--_adj._ WALL'-EYED, very light gray in the eyes, esp. of horses: (_Shak._) glaring, fierce. [The adj. is the earlier, prob. from Ice. _vald-eygthr_--_vagl_, a disease of the eye, and _eygthr_, eyed--_auga_, an eye.] WALLOON, wal'[=oo]n, _adj._ of or pertaining to a population of mixed Celtic and Romanic stock akin to the French, occupying the tract along the frontiers of the Teutonic-speaking territory in the South Netherlands, from Dunkirk to Malmedy.--_n._ a native or inhabitant of that part of Flanders: the language of the Walloons, a patois or popular dialect of northern French, with a considerable infusion both of Old Celtic and Low German elements. [O. Fr. _Wallon_--Late L. _Wallus_--L. _Gallus_, a Gaul; cog. with _Gael_, _Welsh_, _Wallachian_, A.S. _wealh_, a foreigner.] WALLOP, wol'op, _v.i._ (_dial._) to boil and bubble: to move clumsily, to waddle about, to kick about as one does for a little when hung up by the neck--also _n._ [O. Fr. _galoper_, to boil, gallop--Old Flem. _walop_, a gallop; perh. traceable to Old. Flem. _wallen_ (A.S. _weallan_), to boil.] WALLOP, wol'op, _v.t._ (_slang_) to beat, flog.--_n._ a blow.--_ns._ WALL'OPER, one that wallops; WALL'OPING, a thrashing.--_adj._ (_slang_) great, bouncing. [Orig. dubious; most prob. a particular use of preceding word.] WALLOW, wol'[=o], _v.i._ to roll about, as in mire: to live in filth or gross vice.--_n._ the place an animal wallows in.--_n._ WALL'OWER. [A.S. _wealwian_--L. _volv[)e]re_.] WALLOW, wol'[=o], _v.i._ (_prov._) to fade away. WALLSEND, wawlz'end, _n._ a kind of coal originally dug at _Wallsend_ on the Tyne. WALNUT, wawl'nut, _n._ a genus (_Juglans_) comprising seven or eight species of beautiful trees of natural order _Juglandaceæ_--the wood of the common walnut is much used for furniture and gunstocks; its ripe fruit is one of the best of nuts, and yields an oil used by artists, &c.--BLACK WALNUT, a North American walnut, the timber of which is more valuable than that of common walnut, though the fruit is inferior. [A.S. _wealh_, foreign, _hnut_, a nut; Ger. _wallnuss_.] WALPURGIS NIGHT, val-p[=oo]r'gis n[=i]t, the night before the first of May, during which German witches rode on broomsticks and he-goats to hold revel with their master the devil at the ancient places of sacrifice, esp. the Brocken in the Harz Mountains. [So called with reference to the day of St _Walpurga_, abbess of Heidenheim, who died about 778.] WALRUS, wol'rus, _n._ a genus of aquatic, web-footed (pinniped) Carnivores, representative of a family (_Trichechidæ_) intermediate between the sea-lions and the seals--the upper canine teeth developed into enormous tusks--also called the _Morse_ or the Seahorse. [Dut.,--Sw. _vallross_ (Ice. _hross-hvalr_)--_vall_, a whale, Ice. _hross_, a horse.] WALTY, wol'ti, _adj._ (_naut._) inclined to lean or roll over. WALTZ, wawlts, _n._ a German national dance performed by two persons with a rapid whirling motion, introduced into England in 1813: the music for such.--_v.i._ to dance a waltz: (_slang_) to move trippingly.--_ns._ WALTZ'ER; WALTZ'ING. [Ger. _walzer_--_walzen_, to roll.] WALY, WALIE, wä'li, _adj._ (_Scot._) beautiful: strong, large. [Conn. with _wale_, choice, and perh. influenced by A. S. _welig_, rich--_wel_, well.] WALY, w[=a]'li, _interj._ (_Scot._) alas! [_Wellaway_.] WAMBLE, wom'bl, _v.i._ (_prov._) to rumble, of the stomach.--_n._ a rumbling, a feeling of nausea.--_adj._ WAM'BLE-CROPPED, sick at stomach. WAME, w[=a]m, _n._ a provincial form of womb.--_n._ WAME'-TOW, a belly-band, girth. WAMMUS, wam'us, _n._ (_U.S._) a warm knitted jacket. WAMPISH, wom'pish, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to brandish, flourish. WAMPUM, wom'pum, _n._ the North American Indian name for shells or beads used as money.--WAMPUM PEAG (wom'pum p[=e]g), lit. 'white strung beads,' strings of wampum. WAN, won, _adj._ faint: wanting colour: pale and sickly: languid: gloomy, dark.--_v.i._ to become wan.--_adv._ WAN'LY.--_n._ WAN'NESS.--_adj._ WAN'NISH, somewhat wan. [A.S. _wann_, dark, lurid; but perh. conn, with A.S. _wan_, deficient.] WAN, wan, old _pa.t._ of _win_. WANCHANCY, won-chan'si, _adj._ (_Scot._) unlucky, wicked. [Old pfx. _wan-_, still Seen in _wanton_ (q.v.).] WAND, wond, _n._ a long slender rod: a rod of authority, or of conjurers.--_adj._ WAND'Y, long and flexible. [Ice. _vöndr_, a shoot of a tree; Dan. _vaand_.] WANDER, won'd[.e]r, _v.i._ to ramble with no definite object: (_lit._ or _fig._) to go astray: to leave home; to depart from the subject: to be delirious: (_coll._) to lose one's way.--_v.t._ to traverse: (_coll._) to lead astray.--_n._ WAN'DERER.--_adj._ WAN'DERING.--_adv._ WAN'DERINGLY, in a wandering, uncertain, or unsteady manner.--WANDERING JEW, a legendary Jew in the folklore of north-western Europe who cannot die but must wander till the Day of Judgment, for an insult offered to Christ on the way to the Crucifixion--various names given him are _Cartaphilus_, _Isaac Laquedom_, and _Buttadeus_. [A.S. _wandrian_; Ger. _wandern_; allied to _wend_, and to _wind_, to turn round.] WANDEROO, won-de-r[=oo]', _n._ a catarrhine monkey, a native of the Malabar coast of India. [Cingalese.] WANDLE, won'dl, _adj._ (_prov._) supple, pliant, nimble. WANDOO, won'd[=oo], _n._ the white-gum of Western Australia. WANE, w[=a]n, _v.i._ to decrease, esp. of the moon--opp. to _Wax_: to decline, to fail.--_n._ decline: decrease. [A.S. _wanian_ (Ice. _vana_), to decrease--_wan_, deficient, lacking.] WANG, wang, _n._ (_obs._) the jaw.--_n._ WANG'-TOOTH, a grinder. [A.S. _wange_, cheek.] WANHOPE, won'h[=o]p, _n._ (_obs._) despair. WANION, wan'yon, _n._ (_obs._ or _Scot._) found only in phrases--e.g. WITH A WANION, bad luck to you: with a vengeance, vehemently. [Prob. conn. with _wane_, to decline.] WANKLE, wang'kl, _adj._ (_prov._) unstable, not to be depended on. WANNISH, won'ish, _adj._ See WAN. WANRESTFUL, won-rest'fool, _adj._ (_Scot._) restless. [_Wan-_, negative pfx., and _restful_.] WANT, wont, _n._ state of being without anything: absence of what is needful or desired: poverty: scarcity: need.--_v.t._ to be destitute of: to need: to dispense with: to feel need of: to fall short: to wish for.--_v.i._ to be deficient: to fall short: to be in need.--_n._ WAN'TAGE, deficiency.--_adj._ WAN'TED, sought after, being searched for.--_n._ WAN'TER, one who wants.--_adj._ WAN'TING, absent: deficient: (_obs._) poor.--_prep._ except.--_n._ WANT'-WIT (_Shak._), a fool. [Scand., Ice. _vant_, neut. of _vanr_, lacking; cog. with _wane_.] WANTHRIVEN, won-thriv'n, _adj._ (_Scot._) decayed. WANTON, won'tun, _adj._ moving or playing loosely: roving in sport: frisky: wandering from rectitude: licentious: running to excess: unrestrained: irregular.--_n._ a wanton or lewd person, esp. a female: a trifler.--_v.i._ to ramble without restraint: to frolic: to play lasciviously.--_adv._ WAN'TONLY.--_n._ WAN'TONNESS. [M. E. _wantowen_, from pfx. _wan-_, sig. want, A.S. _togen_, educated, pa.p. of _teón_, to draw, lead; cf. Ger. _ungezogen_, rude.] WANTY, won'ti, _n._ (_prov._) a leather strap, wagon-rope. WAP, wop, _v.t._ (_coll._) to strike, drub: to flap.--_n._ a smart blow. [_Whop_.] WAP, wop, _v.t._ (_obs._) to wrap, bind.--_n._ a bundle. WAPACUT, wop'a-kut, _n._ a large white American owl. WAPENSHAW, wap'n-shaw, _n._=_Wapinschaw_. WAPENTAKE, wap'n-t[=a]k, _n._ a name given in Yorkshire to the territorial divisions of the county, similar to the _hundreds_ of southern counties and the _wards_ of more northern counties, so called from the inhabitants being formerly taught the use of arms. [A.S. _wæpen-getæc_, lit. 'weapon-taking.'] WAPINSCHAW, wap'n-shaw, _n._ in ancient Scottish usage, a periodical gathering of the people within various areas for the purpose of seeing that each man was armed in accordance with his rank, and ready to take the field when required. The name is sometimes revived for volunteer meetings and shooting competitions.--_v.i._ to hold a wapinschaw.--_ns._ WAP'INSCHAWING, WAP'ENSHAWING. [Lit., 'weapon-show.'] WAPITI, wop'i-ti, _n._ a species of deer of large size, native to North America--often called _elk_ and _gray moose_, though very different from the true elk or moose-deer. WAPPENED, wop'nd, _adj._ (_Shak._) a word of doubtful meaning--perh. a misprint for _weeping_. WAPPER, wap'[.e]r, _n._ a gudgeon. WAPPER, wap'[.e]r, _v.i._ to move tremulously.--_adj._ WAPP'ER-EYED, blinking. WAPPER-JAW, wap'[.e]r-jaw, _n._ a projecting under-jaw.--_adj._ WAPP'ER-JAWED. WAPPET, wap'et, _n._ a yelping cur. WAR, wawr, _n._ a state of opposition or contest: a contest between states carried on by arms: open hostility: the profession of arms: (_rare_) army, warlike preparations, warlike outfit.--_v.i._ to make war: to contend: to fight:--_pr.p._ war'ring; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ warred.--_ns._ WAR'-CRY, a cry or signal used in war; WAR'-DANCE, a dance engaged in by some savage tribes before going to war; WAR'F[=A]RE, armed contest, military life; WAR'F[=A]RER; WAR'F[=A]RING; WAR'-HORSE, a charger, a horse used in battle.--_adj._ WAR'LIKE, fond of war, pertaining to or threatening war: martial, military.--_ns._ WAR'LIKENESS; WAR'MAN (_rare_), a warrior.--_adj._ WAR'-MARKED (_Shak._), experienced in war.--_ns._ WAR'-MONG'ER (_Spens._), a mercenary soldier; WAR'-OFF'ICE, the English military bureau or department; WAR'-PAINT, paint applied to the face and person by savages, indicating that they are going to war: (_slang_) full-dress, equipment; WAR'-PATH, among the Red Indians, the path followed on a military expedition, the expedition itself; WAR'-PROOF (_rare_), fitness to be a soldier; WAR'RIOR, a soldier, a veteran:--_fem._ WAR'RIORESS (_rare_); WAR'-SHIP, a vessel for war; WAR'-SONG, a song sung by men about to fight: a song celebrating brave deeds in war; WAR'-TAX, a tax levied for purposes of war; WAR'-THOUGHT (_Shak._), martial deliberation.--_adjs._ WAR'-WAST'ED, laid waste or ravaged by war; WAR'-WEA'RIED, -WORN, wearied, worn, with military service--of a veteran.--_ns._ WAR'-WHOOP, a cry uttered by savages on going into battle; WAR'-WOLF, a medieval military engine used in defending fortresses; MAN'-OF-WAR (see MAN).--WAR DEPARTMENT, in Great Britain, a department of the state under a Cabinet Minister, the Secretary of State for War, assisted by a permanent and a parliamentary under-secretary, having control of everything connected with the army; WAR OF LIBERATION, the war of independence carried on by Prussia, with the help of Russia and Great Britain, against Napoleon in 1813.--DECLARATION OF WAR, that public announcement of war by a duly organised state or kingdom which is necessary to constitute an enemy; DECLARE WAR, to announce war publicly; HOLY WAR (see HOLY); MAKE WAR, to carry on hostilities; NAPOLEONIC WARS, a general name for the wars of France dating from the campaigns of Napoleon in Italy (1796) to his overthrow in 1815; PRIVATE WAR, warfare waged between persons in their individual capacity, as by duelling, family feuds, &c.; SACRED WARS, in ancient Greek history, wars against states judged guilty of sacrilege by the Amphictyonic Council; SEVEN WEEKS' WAR, or SEVEN DAYS' WAR, the Austro-Prussian war of 1866. [A.S. _werre_, influenced by O. Fr. _werre_ (Fr. _guerre_), which is from Old High Ger. _werra_, quarrel.] WAR, wawr, _adj._ (_Spens._) worse.--_v.t._ (_Scot._) to defeat. WARBLE, wawr'bl, _v.i._ to sing in a quavering way, or with variations: to chirp as birds do.--_v.t._ to sing in a vibratory manner: to utter musically: to carol.--_n._ a quavering modulation of the voice: a song.--_n._ WAR'BLER, one that warbles: a songster: a singing-bird: any bird of the family _Sylviidæ_, the _Fauvettes_--nightingale, redbreast, stonechat, wheatear, whitethroat, &c., also the reed-warbler, &c.: in bagpipe music an ornamental group of grace-notes, introduced to glide from one passage to the other; WAR'BLING.--_adv._ WAR'BLINGLY. [O. Fr. _werbler_, to warble, make turns with the voice--Old High Ger. _werban_; cf. A.S. _hweorfan_, to turn (Ger. _wirbeln_), to make a turn.] WARBLE, wawr'bl, _n._ a small hard swelling on a horse's back, caused by the galling of the saddle: a tumour caused by the gadfly, &c.--_n._ WAR'BLE-FLY, a fly causing warbles. [Other forms are _wormil_, _wornal_; ety. dub.] WARD, wawrd, _v.t._ to guard or take care of: to keep in safety: to keep away, fend off (with _off_).--_v.i._ to act on the defensive.--_n._ act of warding, watch: those whose business is to ward or defend: state of being guarded: means of guarding: one who is under a guardian: a division of a city, hospital, county, (_B._) army, &c.: that which guards a lock or hinders any but the right key from opening it: (_B._) guard, prison: a defensive movement in fencing.--_ns._ WARD'EN, one who wards or guards: a keeper, especially a public officer appointed for the naval or military protection of some particular district of country: the head of a school, college, &c.; WARD'ENRY (_rare_), the district in charge of a warden; WARD'ENSHIP, the office of a warden; WARD'ER, one who wards or keeps: a staff of authority; WARD'-MOTE, a meeting of a ward, or of a court of a ward, which has power to inquire into and present defaults in matters relating to watch, police, &c.; WARD'ROBE, a room or portable closet for robes or clothes: wearing apparel; WARD'-ROOM, a room used as a messroom by the officers of a war-ship; WARD'SHIP, the office of a ward or guardian: state of being under a guardian: in English feudal law, the guardianship which the feudal lord had of the land of his vassal while the latter was an infant or minor.--WARD IN CHANCERY, a minor under the protection of the Court of Chancery.--WARDEN OF THE CINQUE PORTS, the governor of the Cinque Ports, having the authority of an admiral and the power to hold a court of admiralty; WARDEN OF THE MARCHES, officers formerly appointed to keep the districts of England adjoining Scotland and Wales in a state of defence; WARDEN OF THE MINT, formerly the official of the English Mint next in rank to the Master.--PORT WARDEN, the chief officer in a port. [A.S. _weardian_; Ger. _warten_, to watch in order to protect.] WARDEN, wawr'dn, _n._ a kind of pear.--WARDEN PIE, a pie made of warden pears. [Prob. 'a pear which may be _kept long_,' from the preceding word.] WARDIAN, wawr'di-an, _adj._ denoting a kind of close-fitting glass case for transporting delicate ferns and other such plants, or for keeping them indoors--so named from Nathaniel Bagshaw _Ward_ (1791-1868), the inventor. WARE, w[=a]r, _n._ (used generally in _pl._) merchandise: commodities: goods.--_v.t._ (_obs._) to expend, lay out.--_n._ WARE'HOUSE, a house or store for wares or goods.--_v.t._ to deposit in a warehouse.--_ns._ WARE'HOUSEMAN, a man who keeps, or is employed in, a warehouse or wholesale store; WARE'HOUSING, the act of depositing goods in a warehouse; WARE'ROOM, a room where goods are exposed for sale.--WAREHOUSING SYSTEM, the plan of allowing importers of dutiable goods to store them in a government warehouse without payment of duties until ready to bring the goods into market.--BENARES WARE, a fine ornamental metal-work made at _Benares_ and other places in India; DELFT WARE (see DELF); SMALL WARE, WARES, textile articles of a small kind--e.g. tape, bindings and braids of cotton, silk, &c.; buttons, hooks, &c.: trifles; TUNBRIDGE WARE, inlaid or mosaic wood-work manufactured at _Tunbridge_; WEDGWOOD WARE, a superior kind of pottery invented by Josiah _Wedgwood_ (1730-1795), ornamented by white cameo reliefs on a blue ground and the like; WELSH WARE, a yellowish-brown earthenware with a transparent glaze. [A.S. _waru_, wares; Ger. _waare_.] WARE, w[=a]r, _adj._ aware.--_v.t._ to take care of. [_Wary_.] WARE, w[=a]r, in _B._ _pa.t._ of wear. WARELESS, w[=a]r'les, _adj._ (_Spens._) unwary, incautious: unperceived. WARELY, w[=a]r'li, _adv._ (_Spens._) warily. WARHABLE, wawr'a-bl, _adj._ (_Spens._) fit for war. WARIATED, w[=a]'ri-[=a]-ted, _adj._ (_her._) varriated. WARILY, WARINESS, WAREFUL, &c. See WARY. WARIMENT, w[=a]r'i-ment, _n._ (_Spens._) wariness. WARISON, WARRISON, war'i-son, _n._ (_obs._) healing: reward--used by Scott erroneously for a note of assault. [O. Fr.,--_warir_, to guard.] WARK, wawrk, _n._ (_Spens._) work. WARLOCK, wawr'lok, _n._ a sorcerer, a wizard.--_n._ WAR'LOCKRY, sorcery. [A.S. _w['æ]rloga_, a breaker of an agreement--_w['æ]r_, a compact, _leógan_, to lie.] WARM, wawrm, _adj._ having moderate heat, hot: subject to heat: zealous: easily excited: violent: enthusiastic: intimate, close: fresh, of a scent: (_coll._) comfortable, well-off: (_coll._) indelicate.--_v.t._ to make warm: to interest: to excite: (_coll._) to beat.--_v.i._ to become warm or ardent.--_n._ (_coll._) a heating.--_adj._ WARM'-BLOOD'ED, having warm blood: generous, passionate.--_n._ WAR'MER.--_adj._ WARM'-HEART'ED, having warm affections: affectionate: hearty.--_ns._ WARM'-HEART'EDNESS; WAR'MING, act of warming: (_slang_) a beating; WAR'MING-PAN, a covered pan, with a long handle, for holding live-coals to warm a bed: a person put into a situation to hold it till another is able to take it.--_adv._ WARM'LY.--_ns._ WARM'NESS; WARMTH, moderate heat: geniality: earnestness, moderate or growing anger: the bright effect of warm colours.--WARM COLOURS (_paint._), colours of which the basis is yellow or red. [A.S. _wearm_; Ger. _warm_.] WARN, wawrn, _v.t._ to make wary or aware: to put on ward or guard: to give notice of danger: to caution against: to admonish: (_Spens._) to defend.--_ns._ WAR'NER; WAR'NING, caution against danger, &c.: admonition: previous notice: notice to quit, notice of the termination of an engagement, &c.: summons, call.--_adj._ of threatening aspect.--_adv._ WAR'NINGLY. [A.S. _warnian_; cf. Ice. _varna_, to warn, forbid, Ger. _warnen_; allied to _ward_, _beware_, _wary_.] WARP, wawrp, _v.t._ to turn: to twist out of shape: to turn from the right course: to pervert: to move a vessel by hauling on warps or ropes attached to buoys, other ships, anchors, &c.: to improve land by distributing on it, by means of embankments, canals, flood-gates, &c., the alluvial mud brought down by rivers: (_rare_) to change.--_v.i._ to be twisted out of a straight direction: to bend: to swerve: to move with a bending motion.--_n._ alluvial sediment: the threads stretched out lengthwise in a loom to be crossed by a woof: a rope used in towing.--_adj._ WARPED, twisted by shrinking: perverted.--_ns._ WAR'PER; WAR'PING; WAR'PING-BANK, a bank to retain water in the process of warping land; WAR'PING-HOOK, a ropemakers' hook used in twisting rope-yarns; WAR'PING-POST, a post in a rope-walk, used in warping rope-yarn. [A.S. _weorpan_, _werpan_; Ger. _werfen_, to cast; conn. with Ice. _varpa_, to throw--_varp_, a casting, a throw with a net.] WARRAGAL, war'a-gal, _n._ the Australian dingo: an Australian horse run wild.--Also WAR'RI-GAL. WARRANT, wor'ant, _v.t._ to guarantee or make secure: to give assurance against harm to: to authorise: to maintain: to assure.--_n._ that which warrants or authorises: a commission giving authority: a writ for arresting a person or for carrying a judgment into execution: security: in the army and navy, a writ or authority inferior to a commission: in coal-mining, under-clay.--_n._ WARR'ANDICE (_Scot._), warranty, a clause in a deed by which the grantor binds himself to make good to the grantee the right conveyed.--_adj._ WARR'ANTABLE, authorised by warrant or right: justifiable: of sufficient age to be hunted.--_n._ WARR'ANTABLENESS.--_adv._ WARR'ANTABLY.--_adj._ WARR'ANTED.--_ns._ WARR'ANTEE, one to whom warrant is given; WARR'ANTER, -OR, one who warrants; WARR'ANTING; WARR'ANTISE (_Shak._), warrant, authority: promise; WARR'ANT-OFF'ICER, in the army and navy, an officer holding a warrant, being the highest rank open to seamen and ordinary soldiers under ordinary circumstances; WARR'ANTY, a legal warrant or deed of security: a guarantee: authority.--WARRANT OF ARREST, ATTACHMENT, a writ authorising the arrest of a person or the seizure of property.--DISTRESS WARRANT, warrant authorising distraining of goods; GENERAL WARRANT, a warrant directed against suspected persons generally; GENERAL WARRANTY, a warranty against the claims of all and every person; JUSTICE'S WARRANT, warrant of a justice of the peace to arrest a suspected criminal; SPECIAL WARRANTY, warrant against the claims of a particular person. [O. Fr. _warantir_ (Fr. _garantir_), perh. conn. with _warir_, to defend--Old High Ger. _warjan_, _werjan_.] WARRAY, wawr'[=a], _v.t._ (_Spens._) to make war upon. WARRE, wor, _adj._ (_Spens._) worse. WARREN, wor'en, _n._ a piece of ground kept for breeding game or rabbits: (_law_) a right of enclosure (extending to hares, rabbits, partridges, &c.) by prescription or grant from the Crown.--_n._ WARR'ENER, the keeper of a warren. [O. Fr. _warenne_ (Fr. _garenne_)--_warir_, to defend.] WART, wawrt, _n._ a small, hard excrescence on the skin: a protuberance on trees.--_adj._ WART'ED.--_n._ WART'-HOG, a kind of hog found in Africa, having a very large head and the cheeks furnished with large wart-like excrescences.--_adj._ WART'LESS.--_ns._ WART'WEED, the sun-spurge; WART'WORT, a common name for certain lichens having a warty thallus: the wart-cress or swine-cress, the cud-weed.--_adj._ WART'Y, like a wart: overgrown with warts. [A.S. _wearte_; Ger. _warze_; prob. allied to L. _verruca_.] WARTH, wawrth, _n._ (_prov._) a ford. WARY, w[=a]'ri, _adj._ warding or guarding against deception, &c.: cautious.--_adj._ WARE'FUL, careful.--_n._ WARE'FULNESS.--_adv._ W[=A]'RILY.--_n._ W[=A]'RINESS. [Longer form of _ware_ (2). See AWARE.] WAS, woz, used as _pa.t._ of _be_. [A.S. _wæs_, _w['æ]re_--_wesan_, to remain, be; Goth. _wisan_, pa.t. _was_, to remain; Ice. _vera_, pa.t. _var_.] WASE, w[=a]z, _n._ (_prov._) a wisp of hay, straw, &c.: a pad on the head to ease the pressure of a burden. WASE-GOOSE. See WAYGOOSE. WASH, wosh, _v.t._ to cleanse with water: to overflow: to waste away by the action of water: to cover with a thin coat of metal or paint: in mining, to separate from earth by means of water.--_v.i._ to cleanse one's self, to cleanse clothes with water: to stand water, of clothes: (_coll._) to stand the test.--_n._ a washing: the break of waves on the shore: the rough water left behind by a moving vessel: the shallow part of a river or arm of the sea: a marsh or fen: alluvial matter: waste liquor, refuse of food, &c.: that with which anything is washed: a lotion: a thin coat of paint, metal, &c.: (_slang_) a fictitious kind of sale of stock or other securities between parties of one interest, or by a broker who is at once the buyer and the seller, and who minds his own interest rather than that of his clients.--_adj._ WASH'ABLE.--_ns._ WASH'-BALL, a ball of toilet-soap; WASH'-B[=A]'SIN, -BOWL, WASH'HAND B[=A]'SIN, a bowl in which to wash face and hands; WASH'-BOARD, a corrugated board for rubbing clothes on in washing: a thin plank placed on a boat's gunwale to prevent the sea from breaking over: a board round the bottom of the walls of a room; WASH'-BOTT'LE, a bottle used by chemists for washing chemical preparations and instruments; WASH'-CLOTH, a piece of cloth used in washing; WASH'-DIRT, earth rich enough in metal to pay for washing; WASH'ER, one who washes: a flat ring of iron or leather between the nave of a wheel and the linch-pin, under the head of a screw, &c.--v.t to lift with washers; WASH'ERMAN, a man who washes clothes, esp. for hire:--_fem._ WASH'ERWOMAN; WASH'-GILD'ING, a gilding made with an amalgam of gold from which the mercury is driven off by heat, leaving a coating of gold; WASH'-HOUSE, WASH'ING-HOUSE, a house for washing clothes in; WASH'INESS, state of being watery, weakness, worthlessness; WASH'ING, the act of cleansing by water: the clothes washed, esp. at one time: what is washed; WAS'HING-MACHINE', a machine for washing clothes; WASH'ING-POW'DER, a powdered preparation used in washing clothes; WASH'ING-UP, WASH'-UP, cleaning up; WASH'-LEATH'ER, split sheepskin prepared with oil in imitation of chamois, and used for household purposes: buff leather for regimental belts.--_adj._ WASH'-OFF, that will not stand washing.--_ns._ WASH'-OUT, an erosion of earth by the action of water, the hole made by such; WASH'-POT, a vessel for washing; WASH'-STAND, WASH'HAND STAND, a piece of furniture for holding ewer, basin, and other requisites for washing a person; WASH'-TUB, a tub for washing clothes.--_adj._ WASH'Y, watery, moist: thin, feeble.--_n._ RAIN'-WASH, a washing away by the force of rain: a deposit formed by rain. [A.S. _wascan_; Ice. _vaska_, Ger. _waschen_.] WASHINGTONIA, wosh-ing-t[=o]'ni-a, _n._ a Californian genus of palms, valued for ornament in lawns--from George _Washington_ (1732-99). WASP, wosp, _n._ a popular name for Hymenopterous insects belonging to the family _Vespidæ_, or to closely related families--(Wasps are generally more slender and much less hairy than bees, and their stinging organ--an ovipositor--resembles that of bees in structure and mode of action): a petulant and spiteful person.--_adjs._ WAS'PISH, like a wasp: having a slender waist like a wasp: quick to resent an affront; WAS'PISH-HEAD'ED (_Shak._), passionate.--_adv._ WAS'PISHLY.--_n._ WAS'PISHNESS.--_adjs._ WASP'-TONGUED (_Shak._), biting in tongue, shrewish; WASP'-WAIST'ED, very slender waisted, laced tightly; WAS'PY, waspish. [A.S. _wæsp_, _wæps_; Ger. _wespe_, L. _vespa_.] WASSAIL, wos'[=a]l, _n._ the salutation uttered in drinking a person's health, a festive occasion: a drunken bout: a liquor consisting of ale with roasted apples, sugar, nutmeg, and toast, once much used on festive occasions.--_v.i._ to hold a wassail or merry drinking-meeting: to drink to the health of.--_ns._ WASS'AIL-BOUT, a carouse; WASS'AIL-BOWL, -CUP, a cup from which healths were drunk; WASS'AILER, one who wassails or drinks wassail: a reveller. [A.S. _wes hál_, 'may you be in health,' the salutation used in pledging another, which the Normans transferred to mean 'a carousal.'] WASSERMAN, wos'[.e]r-man, _n._ (_Spens._) a sea-monster, shaped like a man. [Ger. _wasser_, water, _mann_, man.] WAST, wost, _pa.t._ 2d pers. sing. of the verb _be_. WASTE, w[=a]st, _adj._ empty, desert: desolate: useless, vain: stripped: lying unused: unproductive.--_v.t._ to lay waste or make desolate: to destroy: to wear out gradually: to squander: to diminish: to impair.--_v.i._ to be diminished: to dwindle: to be consumed.--_n._ act of wasting: useless expenditure: superfluous material, stuff left over: loss: destruction: that which is wasted or waste: uncultivated country: desert: refuse, as of coal, &c.: decay, decline: (_law_) natural but permanent injury to the inheritance.--_ns._ W[=A]S'TAGE, loss by use, natural decay; WASTE'-BAS'KET, WASTE'PAPER-BAS'KET, a basket for holding useless scraps of paper; WASTE'-BOOK, a book in which merchants make entries of transactions in order as they occur, and for a temporary purpose.--_adj._ WASTE'FUL, full of waste: destructive: lavish: (_Spens._) desolate.--_adv._ WASTE'FULLY.--_ns._ WASTE'FULNESS; WASTE'-GATE, a gate for discharging surplus water from a dam, &c.; W[=A]S'TEN (_Spens._), a desert; WASTE'NESS (_B._), devastation; WASTE'-PIPE, a pipe for carrying off waste or surplus water; W[=A]S'TER, one who or that which wastes: a spendthrift: a destroyer: an article spoilt in the making.--_adj._ W[=A]S'TING, devastating: enfeebling--(WASTING INVESTMENTS, stocks redeemable on a certain date at a fixed price, for which a premium above the redemption price is paid).--_ns._ W[=A]S'TING, devastation; W[=A]S'TREL, refuse: anything neglected, a neglected child: (_dial._) a profligate; W[=A]S'TRY (_Scot._), prodigality.--_adj._ improvident.--WASTE LANDS, uncultivated and unprofitable tracts in populous and cultivated countries; WASTE TIME, to employ time unprofitably or not at all.--RUN TO WASTE, to become incapable or useless.--UTILISATION OF WASTE PRODUCTS, the putting to other use of such material as is rendered either wholly or partially useless in the manufacture of articles and products--e.g. _waste-silk_ is now a valuable raw material for a large spun-silk industry. [O. Fr. _wast_, _gaste_--L. _vastus_, waste; cf. A.S. _wéste_, Ger. _wüst_, desolate.] WASTEL-BREAD, w[=a]s'tel-bred, _n._ bread made from the finest of the flour. [O. Fr. _wastel_, pastry--Old High Ger. _wastel_, a cake, and _bread_.] WASTER, w[=a]s't[.e]r, _n._ a wooden sword for practising fencing with: (_Scot._) a leister.--PLAY AT WASTERS, to practise fencing. [Ety. dub.] WAT, wot, _n._ (_Shak._) a hare. WAT, wot, _adj._ (_Scot._) drunken. [_Wet_.] WATCH, woch, _n._ act of looking out: close observation: guard: one who watches or those who watch: a sentry: a pocket timepiece: the place where a guard is kept: a division of the night: time of watching, esp. in a ship, a division of a ship's crew into two or three sections, so that one set of men may have charge of the vessel while the others rest. (The day and night are divided into watches of four hours each, except the period from 4 to 8 P.M., which is divided into two _dog-watches_ of two hours' duration each).--_v.i._ to look with attention: to keep guard: to look out: to attend the sick by night: to inspect, keep guard over (with _over_).--_v.t._ to keep in view: to give heed to: to have in keeping: to guard: to wait for, detect by lying in wait: (_Shak._) to keep from sleep.--_ns._ WATCH'-BILL, a list of the officers and crew of a ship, as divided into watches, with their several stations; WATCH'-BOX, a sentry-box; WATCH'CASE, the outer case of a watch: (_Shak._) a sentry-box; WATCH'-CLOCK, a watchman's clock; WATCH'-DOG, a dog kept to guard premises and property; WATCH'ER, one who watches; WATCH'-FIRE, a night-fire acting as a signal: a fire for the use of a watching-party, sentinels, scouts, &c.--_adj._ WATCH'FUL, careful to watch or observe: attentive: circumspect: cautious.--_adv._ WATCH'FULLY.--_ns._ WATCH'FULNESS; WATCH'-GLASS, a sand-glass: the glass covering of the face of a watch; WATCH'-GUARD, a watch-chain of any material; WATCH'-GUN, a gun fired at the changing of the watch, as on a ship; WATCH'-HOUSE, a house in which a guard is placed: a lock-up, detaining office; WATCH'-JEW'EL, a jewel used in the works of a watch for lessening friction; WATCH'-KEY, a key for winding a watch; WATCH'-LIGHT, a light used for watching or sitting up in the night; WATCH'-M[=A]K'ER, one who makes and repairs watches; WATCH'-M[=A]K'ING; WATCH'MAN, a man who watches or guards, esp. the streets of a city at night; WATCH'-MEET'ING, a religious meeting to welcome in the New Year, held on the night before, called the WATCH'-NIGHT; WATCH'-OFF'ICER, the officer in charge of the ship during a watch, also called OFFICER OF THE WATCH; WATCH'-P[=A]'PER, a round piece of paper, often decorated, put inside the outer case of a watch to prevent rubbing; WATCH'-POCK'ET, a small pocket for holding a watch; WATCH'-SPRING, the mainspring of a watch; WATCH'-TOW'ER, a tower on which a sentinel is placed to watch or keep guard against the approach of an enemy; WATCH'WORD, the password to be given to a watch or sentry: any signal: a maxim, rallying-cry.--WATCH AND WARD, the old custom of watching by night and by day in towns and cities: uninterrupted vigilance.--THE BLACK WATCH, the 42d and 73d Regiments, now the 1st and 2d Battalions of the Black Watch or Royal Highlanders. [A.S. _wæcce_--_wacan_, wake.] WATCHET, woch'et, _adj._ (_Spens._) pale-blue. [M. E. _wachet_, perh. conn. ultimately with _woad_.] WATER, waw't[.e]r, _n._ in a state of purity, at ordinary temperatures, a clear transparent liquid, perfectly neutral in its reaction, and devoid of taste or smell: any collection of such, as the ocean, a lake, river, &c.: mineral water: tears: saliva: eye-water: urine: transparency, lustre, as of a diamond: (_pl._) waves.--_v.t._ to wet, overflow, or supply with water: to wet and press so as to give a wavy appearance to: to increase the nominal capital of a company by the issue of new shares without a corresponding increase of actual capital.--_v.i._ to shed water: to gather saliva, noting strong craving: to take in water.--_ns._ WA'TERAGE, money paid for a journey by water; WA'TER-BAG, the bag-like compartment in which the camel stores water; WA'TER-BAIL'IFF, a custom-house officer who inspects ships on reaching or leaving a port: a person appointed to guard the fish in a protected piece of water; WA'TER-BAROM'ETER, a barometer in which water is substituted for mercury; WA'TER-BARR'EL, -CASK, a barrel, cask, for holding water; WA'TER-BATH, a bath composed of water: a vessel containing warm water used for chemical purposes; WA'TER-BATT'ERY, a voltaic battery in which the electrolyte is water: (_fort._) a battery nearly on a level with the water; WA'TER-BEAR'ER, one who carries water: (_astron._) a sign of the zodiac; WA'TER-BED, an india-rubber mattress filled with water, used by invalids to prevent bed-sores; WA'TER-BELL'OWS, a form of blower used in gas-machines, and formerly to supply a blast for furnaces; WA'TER-BIRD, a bird that frequents the water; WA'TER-BIS'CUIT, a biscuit made of flour and water; WA'TER-BLINK, a spot of cloud hanging over open water in arctic regions; WA'TER-BOAT, a boat carrying water in bulk to supply ships; WA'TER-BOAT'MAN, a kind of aquatic bug.--_adj._ WA'TER-BORNE, conveyed in a boat.--_ns._ WA'TER-BOTT'LE, a glass, rubber, &c. bottle for carrying water; WA'TER-BRASH, an affection consisting of a hot sensation in the stomach with eructations of an acrid burning liquid; WA'TER-BREAK, a ripple; WA'TER-BROSE (_Scot._), brose made of meal and water alone; WA'TER-BUCK, an African water-antelope; WA'TER-BUG, a species of hemipterous insects found in ponds and still water; WA'TER-BUTT, a large barrel for rain-water, usually kept out of doors; WA'TER-CARR'IAGE, carriage or conveyance by water; WA'TER-CART, a cart for conveying water, esp. for the purpose of watering streets or roads; WA'TER-CELL, one of several small paunches in a camel used for storing water: a voltaic cell containing pure water; WA'TER-CEMENT', hydraulic cement; WA'TER-CHEST'NUT (_Marron d'eau_), the name given in France to the edible seeds of the _Trapa natans_; WA'TER-CLOCK, a clock which is made to go by the fall of water; WA'TER-CLOS'ET, a closet used as a privy, in which the discharges are carried off by water; WA'TER-COCK, the kora, a large East Indian gallinule; WA'TER-COL'OUR, a colour or pigment diluted with water and gum, instead of oil: a painting in such a colour or colours; WA'TER-COL'OURIST, a painter in water-colours; WA'TER-COOL'ER, a machine for cooling water or for keeping water cool; WA'TER-CORE, an apple with watery-looking core: in founding, a hollow core through which water may be passed; WA'TERCOURSE, a course or channel for water; WA'TER-CRAFT, boats plying on the water; WA'TER-CRANE, a crane for turning water from a railway-tank into a locomotive tender; WA'TER-CRESS, a small plant growing in watery places, much esteemed as a salad, and used as a preventive of scurvy; WA'TER-CURE, medical treatment by means of water; WA'TER-DECK, a decorated canvas cover for a dragoon's saddle; WA'TER-DEER, a small Chinese musk-deer of aquatic habits: in Africa, one of the chevrotains; WA'TER-DOC'TOR, a hydropathist: one who divines diseases from the urine; WA'TER-DOG, a dog accustomed to the water: a variety of the common dog valuable to sportsmen in hunting water-fowl on account of its aquatic habits: (_coll._) an experienced sailor: (_pl._) small irregular floating clouds supposed to indicate rain; WA'TER-DRAIN, a channel through which water runs; WA'TER-DRAIN'AGE; WA'TER-DRINK'ER, a drinker of water: a teetotaler; WA'TER-DROP, a drop of water: a tear; WA'TER-DROP'WORT, a genus of umbelliferous plants.--_adj._ WA'TERED, marked with wavy lines like those made by water--(WATERED STOCKS, a term applied to securities whose nominal amount has been increased without any corresponding payment in cash).--_ns._ WA'TER-EL'EVATOR, a device for raising water to a level: a lift that works by water; WA'TER-EN'GINE, an engine for raising water: an engine for extinguishing fires; WA'TERER, one who waters: a vessel for watering with; WA'TERFALL, a fall or perpendicular descent of a body of water: a cataract or cascade: (_coll._) a neck-tie, a chignon; WA'TER-FLAG, the yellow iris; WA'TER-FLEA, the common name for minute aquatic crustaceans; WA'TER-FLOOD, an inundation; WA'TER-FLOW, current of water.--_adj._ WA'TER-FLOW'ING, streaming.--_ns._ WA'TER-FLY, an aquatic insect: (_Shak._) an insignificant, troublesome person; WA'TER-FOWL, a fowl that frequents water; WA'TER-FRAME, Arkwright's spinning-frame, which was driven by water; WA'TER-GALL, a watery appearance in the sky accompanying the rainbow: a pit or cavity made by a torrent of water; WA'TER-GAS, a gas partly derived from the decomposition of steam; WA'TER-GATE, a flood-gate: a gate admitting to a river or other body of water; WA'TER-GAUGE, -GAGE, an instrument for gauging or measuring the quantity or height of water; WA'TER-GILDING=_Wash-gilding_; WA'TER-GLASS, a water-clock: an instrument for making observations beneath the surface of water: soluble glass; WA'TER-GOD, a deity presiding over some tract of water; WA'TER-GRU'EL, gruel made of water and meal, &c., eaten without milk; WA'TER-GUARD, river, harbour, or coast police; WA'TER-HAMM'ER, the noise made by the sudden stoppage of moving water in a pipe: an air vacuum containing some water: (_med._) a metal hammer heated in water and applied to the skin as a counter-irritant; WA'TER-HEN, the moorhen; WA'TER-HOLE, a reservoir for water, a water-pool; WA'TERINESS; WA'TERING, act of one who waters: the art or process of giving a wavy, ornamental appearance; WA'TERING-CALL, a cavalry trumpet-signal to water horses; WA'TERING-CAN, -POT, a vessel used for watering plants; WA'TERING-HOUSE, a place where cab-horses are watered; WA'TERING-PLACE, a place where water may be obtained: a place to which people resort to drink mineral water, for bathing, &c.; WA'TERING-TROUGH, a trough in which horses and cattle drink.--_adj._ WA'TERISH, resembling, abounding in, water: somewhat watery: thin.--_ns._ WA'TERISHNESS; WA'TER-JACK'ET, a casing containing water placed around anything to keep it cool--also WA'TER-BOX and WA'TER-MAN'TLE; WA'TER-KEL'PIE, a malignant water-spirit, generally in the form of a horse, which delights to drown unwary travellers; WA'TER-LEM'ON, a species of passion-flower; WA'TER-LENS, a simple lens formed by placing a few drops of water in a small brass cell with blackened sides and a glass bottom.--_adj._ WA'TERLESS, lacking water.--_ns._ WA'TER-LEV'EL, the level formed by the surface of still water: a levelling instrument in which water is used; WA'TER-LIL'Y, a name commonly given to the different species of _Nymphæa_ and _Nuphar_, and also of _Nelumbium_, all genera of the natural order _Nymphæaceæ_, and indeed often extended to all the plants of that order--of the three British species all have heart-shaped leaves, floating on the water; WA'TER-LINE, the line on a ship to which the water rises: a water-mark.--_adj._ WA'TER-LOGGED, rendered log-like or unmanageable from being filled with water.--_ns._ WA'TER-LOT, a lot of ground which is under water; WA'TER-MAIN, a great subterranean pipe supplying water in cities; WA'TERMAN, a man who plies a boat on water for hire: a boatman: a ferryman: a neat oarsman; WA'TERMANSHIP, oarsmanship; WA'TERMARK, a mark showing the height to which water has risen: a tide-mark: a mark wrought into paper, denoting its size or its manufacturer.--_v.t._ to mark with water-marks.--_ns._ WA'TER-MEAD'OW, a meadow periodically overflowed by a stream; WA'TER-MEL'ON, a plant having a spherical, pulpy, pleasantly flavoured fruit, the fruit itself; WA'TER-ME'TER, an instrument measuring the quantity of water passing through it: an instrument for measuring evaporation; WA'TER-MILL, a mill driven by water; WA'TER-MOLE, the desman: a duck-mole or duck-billed platypus; WA'TER-MONK'EY, an earthenware jar for keeping drinking-water in hot climates, round, with narrow neck--also _Monkey-jar_; WA'TER-M[=O]'TOR, any water-wheel or turbine, esp. any small motor driven by water under pressure; WA'TER-NIX'Y, a spirit inhabiting water; WA'TER-NYMPH, a Naiad; WA'TER-OU'SEL, the dipper; WA'TER-PARS'NIP, a plant of the aquatic genus _Sium_--the skirret; WA'TER-PART'ING (same as WATERSHED); WA'TER-PHONE, an instrument for detecting leaks in pipes; WA'TER-PIPE, a pipe for conveying water; WA'TER-PLANE, a plane passing through a vessel when afloat; WA'TER-PLANT, a plant which grows in water; WA'TER-PLATE, a plate having a double bottom and a space for hot water, used to keep food warm; WA'TER-P[=O]'LO, an aquatic game played by swimmers in swimming-baths, at piers, &c., the sides numbering seven each--a goal-keeper, two backs, one half-back, and three forwards; WA'TER-POT, a pot or vessel for holding water; WA'TER-POW'ER, the power of water, employed to move machinery, &c.; WA'TER-POX, varicella; WA'TER-PRIV'ILEGE, the right to the use of water, esp. for machinery.--_adj._ WA'TERPROOF, proof against water: not permitting water to enter.--_n._ anything with such qualities: a garment of some waterproof substance, like india-rubber.--_ns._ WA'TERPROOFING, the act of making any substance impervious to water: the material with which a thing is made waterproof, as caoutchouc; WA'TER-PUMP, a pump for water, used humorously of the eyes; WA'TER-PUR'PIE (_Scot._), brook-lime, a species of _Veronica_; WA'TER-RAIL, the common rail of Europe; WA'TER-RAM, a hydraulic ram; WA'TER-RAT, the popular name of the water-vole: the American musk-rat; WA'TER-RATE, a rate or tax for the supply of water; WA'TER-ROUTE, a stream, lake, &c. used as a means of travel; WA'TER-RUG (_Shak._), a kind of dog; WA'TERSHED, the line which separates two river-basins: a district from which several rivers rise; WA'TER-SIDE, the brink of water: the sea-shore; WA'TER-SMOKE, water evaporating as visible mist; WA'TER-SNAKE, a snake frequenting the water; WA'TER-SOL'DIER, an aquatic plant (_Stratiotes aloïdes_) common in lakes and ditches in the east of England; WA'TER-SPAN'IEL (see SPANIEL); WA'TER-SP[=I]'DER, an aquatic spider; WA'TERSPOUT, a pipe from which water spouts: a moving spout or column of water, often seen at sea, and sometimes on land; WA'TER-SPRIN'KLE (_Spens._), a water-pot; WA'TER-SPRITE, a spirit inhabiting the water.--_adj._ WA'TER-STAND'ING (_Shak._), containing water, tearful.--_ns._ WA'TER-STRID'ER, any aquatic heteropterous insect of the family _Hydrobatidæ_; WA'TER-SUPPLY', the obtaining and distribution of sufficient water to the inhabitants of a town: the amount of water thus distributed; WA'TER-T[=A]'BLE, a moulding or other projection in the wall of a building to throw off the water; WA'TER-TANK, a tank or cistern for holding water; WA'TER-TAP, a tap or cock used for letting out water; WA'TER-THERMOM'ETER, a thermometer filled with water instead of mercury, and used for showing the point at which water acquires its greatest density; WA'TER-THIEF (_Shak._), a pirate.--_adj._ WA'TER-TIGHT, so tight as not to admit water nor let it escape--(WATER-TIGHT COMPARTMENT, a division of a ship's hull or other sub-aqueous structure so formed that water cannot enter it from any other part; see BULKHEAD).--_ns._ WA'TER-TUBE, a pipe for rain-water; WA'TER-TWIST, a kind of cotton-twist, first made by the water-frame; WA'TER-V[=I]'OLET, a plant of the genus _Hottonia_; WA'TER-VOLE, the common European water-rat; WA'TER-WAG'TAIL, a wagtail, the pied wagtail; WA'TER-WAY (_naut._) a series of pieces of timber, extending round a ship at the junction of the decks with the sides, pierced by scuppers to carry off the water: a water-route; WA'TERWHEEL, a wheel moved by water: an engine for raising water; WA'TERWORK (mostly in _pl._) any work or engine by which water is furnished, as to a town, &c.: a textile fabric, used like tapestry: (_slang_) used humorously of shedding tears.--_adj._ WA'TER-WORN, worn by the action of water.--_n._ WA'TER-WRAITH, a water-spirit supposed to portend death.--_adj._ WA'TERY, pertaining to or like water: thin or transparent: tasteless: weak, vapid: affecting water (of the moon, as governing the tide): (_Shak._) eager.--_ns._ HIGH'-WA'TER, HIGH'-WA'TER-MARK (see HIGH); LOW'-WA'TER (see LOW); LOW'-WA'TER-MARK, the limit of water at low tide: the lowest point of anything.--WATER OF LIFE, spiritual refreshment: (_Scot._) whisky; WATER ON THE BRAIN, knee, an accumulation of serous fluid in the cranial cavity, knee-joint; WATERED SILK, silk on which a changeable pattern has been worked by means of pressing and moistening.--ABOVE WATER, out of trouble; AERATED WATER (see AERATE); APOLLINARIS WATER, an agreeable table-water, obtained in Rhenish Prussia; BAG OF WATERS, the foetal membranes, filled with _liquor amnii_, which dilate the mouth of the womb; CAST A PERSON'S WATER, to examine urine to aid in the diagnosis of disease; DEEP WATER, or WATERS, water too deep for safety, sore trouble, distress; FIRST WATER, the highest degree of fineness in a diamond, &c., hence the highest rank generally; HOLD WATER, to be correct or well-grounded, to stand investigation; HOLY WATER, water used symbolically as a means of purification; LIKE WATER, with the quick, full flow of water: extravagantly, recklessly; MAKE THE MOUTH WATER, to arouse in any one a strong desire for a thing--from the gathering of saliva in the mouth at the prospect of a savoury morsel; MAKE WATER, to micturate; MINERAL WATER (see MINERAL); OIL ON TROUBLED WATERS, anything that allays or assuages, from the effect of pouring oil on rough water; TREAD WATER, to keep the head above water by an up-and-down movement of the feet; UNDER WATER, below the surface; WHITE WATER, breakers, foaming water. [A.S. _wæter_; Dut. _water_, Ger. _wasser_; Gr. _hyd[=o]r_, L. _udus_, wet, _unda_, a wave, Sans. _udan_, water.] WATLING STREET, wat'ling strët, _n._ one of the great Roman highways of Britain, commencing at Dover, passing through Canterbury and Rochester to London, and thence to Chester and York, and northwards in two branches to Carlisle and the Wall in the neighbourhood of Newcastle. WATT, wot, _n._ the practical unit of electrical activity or power--from James _Watt_ (1736-1819). WATTEAU BODICE, wat'[=o] bod'is, _n._ a bodice with a square opening at the neck resembling the costumes in the paintings of the French artist Antoine _Watteau_ (1684-1721). WATTLE, wot'l, _n._ a twig or flexible rod: a hurdle: the fleshy excrescence under the throat of a cock or a turkey: one of various Australian acacias.--_v.t._ to bind with wattles or twigs: to form by plaiting twigs.--_n._ WATT'LE-BIRD, a wattled honey-eater of Australia.--_adj._ WATT'LED, having wattles like a bird.--_n._ WATT'LING, a construction made by interweaving twigs. [A.S. _watel_, _watul_, a hurdle.] WAUGHT, WAUCHT, w[=a]ht, _n._ (_Scot._) a large draught. [Gael. _cuach_, a cup.] WAUKRIFE. See WAKE. WAUL, WAWL, wawl, _v.t._ to cry as a cat. [Imit.] WAVE, w[=a]v, _n._ a ridge on the surface of water swaying or moving backwards and forwards: (_poet._) the sea: a state of vibration propagated through a system of particles: inequality of surface: a line or streak like a wave: an undulation: a rush of anything: a gesture.--_v.i._ to move like a wave: to play loosely: to be moved, as a signal: to fluctuate.--_v.t._ to move backwards and forwards: to brandish: to waft or beckon: to raise into inequalities of surface.--_p.adj._ WAVED, showing a wavelike form or outline: undulating: (_her._) indented: (_nat. hist._) having on the margin a succession of curved segments or incisions.--_n._ WAVE'-LENGTH, the distance between the crests of adjacent waves.--_adj._ WAVE'LESS, free from waves: undisturbed.--_n._ WAVE'LET, a little wave.--_adj._ WAVE'LIKE.--_ns._ WAVE'-LINE, the outline, path, of a wave: the surface of the waves: the line made by a wave on the shore; WAVE'-LOAF, a loaf for a wave-offering; WAVE'-M[=O]'TION, undulatory movement; WAVE'-MOULD'ING (_archit._), undulating moulding; WAVE'-OFF'ERING, an ancient Jewish custom of moving the hands in succession towards the four points of the compass in presenting certain offerings--opposed to the _Heave-offering_, in which the hands were only lifted up and lowered.--_v.t._ W[=A]'VER, to move to and fro: to shake: to falter: to be unsteady or undetermined: to be in danger of falling.--_ns._ W[=A]'VERER; W[=A]'VERING.--_adv._ W[=A]'VERINGLY, in a wavering or irresolute manner.--_n._ W[=A]'VERINGNESS.--_adjs._ W[=A]'VEROUS, W[=A]'VERY, unsteady.--_n._ WAVE'SON, goods floating on the sea after a shipwreck.--_adj._ WAVE'-WORN, worn or washed away by the waves.--_ns._ W[=A]'VINESS, the state or quality of being wavy; W[=A]'VING.--_adj._ W[=A]'VY, full of or rising in waves: playing to and fro: undulating.--HOT WAVE, WARM WAVE, a movement of heat or warmth onwards, generally eastward. [A.S. _wafian_, to wave; cf. Ice. _vafra_, to waver.] WAVEY, WAVY, waw'vi, _n._ the snow-goose. WAWE, waw, _n._ (_Spens._) a wave. WAX, waks, _n._ the name given to some animal and vegetable substances, and even to one or two mineral bodies (e.g. _ozokerite_), which more or less resemble beeswax both in their appearance and in their physical properties: the fat-like yellow substance produced by bees, and used by them in making their cells: any substance like it, as that in the ear: the substance used to seal letters: that used by shoemakers to rub their thread: in coal-mining, puddled clay: a thick sugary substance made by boiling down the sap of the sugar-maple, and cooling by exposure to the air: (_coll._) a passion.--_v.t._ to smear or rub with wax.--_ns._ WAX'-BILL, one of various small spermestine seed-eating birds with bills like sealing-wax; WAX'-CHAND'LER, a maker or dealer in wax candles; WAX'-CLOTH, cloth covered with a coating of wax, used for table-covers, &c., a popular name for all oil floorcloths; WAX'-DOLL, a child's doll having the head and bust made of hardened beeswax.--_adj._ WAX'EN, made of wax, like wax, easily effaced.--_ns._ WAX'-END, better WAXED END, a strong thread having its end stiffened by shoemakers' wax, so as to go easily through the hole made by the awl; WAX'ER, one who or that which waxes; WAX'-FLOW'ER, a flower made of wax; WAX'INESS, waxy appearance; WAX'ING, a method of putting a finish on dressed leather: the process of stopping out colours in calico-printing; WAX'-IN'SECT, an insect which secretes wax; WAX'-LIGHT, a candle or taper made of wax; WAX'-MOD'ELLING, the process of forming figures in wax; WAX'-MOTH, a bee-moth; WAX'-MYR'TLE, the candle-berry tree; WAX'-PAINT'ING, a kind of painting, the pigments for which are ground with wax and diluted with oil of turpentine; WAX'-PALM, either of two South American palms yielding wax; WAX'-P[=A]'PER, paper prepared by spreading over its surface a thin coating made of white wax and other materials.--_adj._ WAX'-RED (_Shak._), bright-red like sealing-wax.--_ns._ WAX'TREE, a genus of plants of natural order _Hypericaceæ_, all whose species yield a yellow resinous juice when wounded, forming when dried the so-called American gamboge; WAX'-WING, a genus of small Passerine birds, so named from most of the species having small red horny appendages, resembling red sealing-wax, on their wings; WAX'WORK, work made of wax, esp. figures or models formed of wax: (_pl._) an exhibition of wax figures; WAX'WORKER.--_adj._ WAX'Y, resembling wax: soft: pallid, pasty: adhesive: (_slang_) irate, incensed.--WAXY DEGENERATION, a morbid process in which the healthy tissue of various organs is transformed into a peculiar waxy albuminous substance--also _amyloid_ or _lardaceous degeneration_. [A.S. _weax_; Ice. _vax_, Dut. _was_, Ger. _wachs_.] WAX, waks, _v.i._ to grow or increase, esp. of the moon, as opposed to _Wane_: to pass into another state.--_pa.p._ WAX'EN (_B._), grown. [A.S. _weaxan_; Ice. _vaxa_, Ger. _wachsen_, L. _aug[=e]re_, to increase, Gr. _auxanein_.] WAY, w[=a], _v.t._ (_Spens._) to weigh, esteem. WAY, w[=a], _n._ passage: road: length of space: distance: direction: manner of life: condition, state: advance in life: general manner of acting: means: manner: will: (_naut._) progress or motion through the water, headway.--_v.i._ (_Spens._) to journey.--_ns._ WAY'-BAG'GAGE (_U.S._), baggage to be laid down at a way-station; WAY'-BILL, list of passengers and goods carried by a coach; WAY'-BOARD, WEIGH'-BOARD, a thin stratum or seam separating thicker strata; WAY'BREAD, the common plantain.--_v.i._ WAY'F[=A]RE, to travel on foot.--_n._ WAY'F[=A]RER, a traveller or passenger.--_adj._ WAY'F[=A]RING, travelling or passing.--_n._ WAY'F[=A]RING-TREE, the _Viburnum lantana_, a large shrub common in British hedges.--_adjs._ WAY'-G[=O]'ING, departing; WAY'GONE, exhausted by travelling.--_v.t._ WAY'LAY, to lie in the way for: to watch or lie in ambush for.--_n._ WAYLAY'ER.--_adj._ WAY'LESS, without a path.--_ns._ WAY'-M[=A]K'ER, a pioneer, path-finder; WAY'-MARK, -POST, guide-post; WAY'-PASS'ENGER, one taken up or set down by the way; WAY'-SIDE, the side of a way, path, or highway.--_adj._ growing or lying near the way-side.--_ns._ WAY'-SLID'ING (_rare_), a wandering from the right way; WAY'-ST[=A]'TION, an intermediate station between principal stations on a railway; WAY'-THIS'TLE, the Canada thistle; WAY'-TRAFF'IC, local traffic, as distinguished from through or express traffic; WAY'-TRAIN (_U.S._), a train stopping at most of the stations on a line.--_adj._ WAY'WARD, froward: wilful: irregular.--_n._ WAY'-WAR'DEN, a keeper of roads.--_adv._ WAY'WARDLY.--_n._ WAY'WARDNESS.--_adj._ WAY'WORN, worn-out by travel.--_n._ RIGHT'-OF-WAY (see RIGHT).--WAY OF THE CROSS, a series of pictorial representations representing the stages of Christ's progress to Calvary: devotions used in connection with these stages; WAYS AND MEANS, resources: methods of raising money for the carrying on of government.--BE UNDER WAY, HAVE WAY (_naut._), to be in progress, as a vessel; BY THE WAY, as we go on; BY WAY OF, as for the purpose of: in character of; COME ONE'S WAY, to come in one's direction; COMMITTEE OF WAYS AND MEANS, the House of Commons in its capacity of raising the supplies; GIVE WAY (see GIVE); GO ONE'S WAY (see GO); GO THE WAY OF ALL THE EARTH, to die; HAVE ONE'S WAY, to carry one's point or wish; IN A SMALL WAY, on a petty scale; IN THE FAMILY WAY (see FAMILY); IN THE WAY, on the way: impeding, obstructing; IN THE WAY OF, in a good position for effecting something: in respect of; LEAD THE WAY, to act as a guide in any movement; MAKE ONE'S WAY, to push one's self forward; MAKE WAY, to give room: to advance; ON THE WAY, in progress; OUT OF THE WAY, so as not to hinder or obstruct: away from the ordinary course: unusual: (_Shak._) lost, hidden; PUT ONE'S SELF OUT OF THE WAY, to give one's self trouble; TAKE ONE'S WAY, to set out: to follow one's own inclination or plan; THE WAY, the Christian Religion (Acts ix. 2, &c.). [A.S. _weg_; Ger. _weg_, L. _via_, Sans. _vaha_, akin to _veh[)e]re_, to carry.] WAYGOOSE, w[=a]'g[=oo]s, _n._ a printers' annual dinner or picnic, formerly one given by an apprentice to his fellow-workmen, at which a _wase-_goose or stubble-goose was the great dish.--Also WASE'-GOOSE, WAYZ'-GOOSE. WAYMENT, w[=a]-ment', _v.t._ and _v.i._ (_Spens._) to lament, grieve.--_n._ (_Spens._) lamentation, grief. [O. Fr. _waimenter_--L. _lament[=a]ri_, to lament.] WE, w[=e], _pron.pl._ of I: I and others. [A.S. _wé_; cog. with Goth. _weis_, Ger. _wir_.] WEAK, w[=e]k, _adj._ soft: wanting strength and vigour: not able to sustain a great weight: wanting health: easily overcome: feeble of mind: wanting moral or mental force: frail: unsteady: slight or incomplete: having little of the chief ingredient: impressible: inconclusive: (_Shak._) inconsiderable: (_gram._) of a verb inflected by regular syllabic addition instead of by change of the main vowel: tending downward in price.--_adj._ WEAK'-BUILT (_Shak._), ill-founded.--_v.t._ WEAK'EN, to make weak: to reduce in strength or spirit.--_v.i._ to grow weak or weaker.--_n._ WEAK'ENER, one who or that which weakens.--_adjs._ WEAK'-EYED, having weak eyes or sight; WEAK'-HAND'ED, powerless; WEAK'-HEAD'ED, having a feeble intellect; WEAK'-HEART'ED (_Shak._), of weak or feeble heart or spirit; WEAK'-HINGED, ill-balanced; WEAK'-KNEED, having weak knees: weak in will.--_n._ WEAK'LING, a weak or feeble creature.--_adv._ WEAK'LY.--_adj._ WEAK'-MIND'ED, of feeble powers of mind.--_ns._ WEAK'-MIND'EDNESS; WEAK'NESS.--_adjs._ WEAK'-SIGHT'ED, having feeble eyesight; WEAK'-SPIR'ITED, bearing wrong tamely, cowardly.--WEAKER SEX, women; WEAKER VESSEL (see VESSEL).--WEAK SIDE, POINT, that side or point in which a person is most easily influenced or most liable to temptation. [A.S. _wác_, pliant--_wican_, to yield; Dut. _week_, Ice. _veikr_, Ger. _weich_.] WEAL, w[=e]l, _n._ state of being well: a sound or prosperous state: welfare.--_adj._ WEAL'-BAL'ANCED (_Shak._), explained by Schmidt as kept in a state of just proportion by reasons of state.--_n._ WEALS'MAN (_Shak._), a statesman.--THE PUBLIC, GENERAL, or COMMON WEAL, the well-being, interest, and prosperity of the country. [A.S. _wela_, wealth, bliss; Ger. _wohl_.] WEAL, w[=e]l, _n._ a form of _wale_. WEALD, w[=e]ld, _n._ any open country.--_adj._ WEALD'EN, pertaining to the _Weald_.--_n._ a geological formation seen in the Weald--viz. the upper oolitic series of rocks.--THE WEALD, a district comprising portions of Kent and Sussex, extending from Folkestone Hill near the Straits of Dover to Beachy Head. [From the root of _wild_; not directly conn. with A.S. _weald_, a forest, wold.] WEALTH, welth, _n._ large possessions of any kind: riches.--_adv._ WEALTH'ILY.--_n._ WEALTH'INESS.--_adj._ WEALTH'Y, rich: prosperous: well-fed. [An extension of _weal_.] WEAN, w[=e]n, _v.t._ to accustom to nourishment other than the mother's milk: to reconcile to the want of anything: to estrange the affections from any object or habit.--_n._ (w[=a]n) an infant, a child (_Scot._).--_ns._ WEAN'EL (_Spens._), a weanling; WEAN'ING-BRASH, a severe form of diarrhoea, which supervenes, at times, on weaning.--_adj._ WEAN'LING, newly weaned.--_n._ a child or animal newly weaned. [A.S. _wenian_; Ice. _venja_, Ger. _gewöhnen_, to accustom, _ent-wöhnen_, to disuse, to wean.] WEAPON, wep'un, _n._ any instrument or organ of offence or defence.--_adjs._ WEAP'ONED; WEAP'ONLESS, having no weapons.--_n._ WEAP'ON-SALVE, a salve supposed to cure a wound by being applied to the weapon that made it. [A.S. _w['æ]pen_; Goth. _wepna_, arms, Ger. _waffen_ and _wappen_.] WEAPON-SCHAW=_Wapinschaw_ (q.v.). WEAR, w[=a]r, _v.t._ to carry on the body: to have the appearance of: to consume by use, time, or exposure: to waste by rubbing: to do by degrees: to exhaust, efface: (_naut._) to veer.--_v.i._ to be wasted by use or time: to be spent tediously: to consume slowly: to last under use: (_Shak._) to be in fashion, to become accustomed: (_naut._) to come round away from the wind: (_obs._) to become:--_pa.t._ w[=o]re; _pa.p._ w[=o]rn.--_n._ act of wearing: lessening or injury by use or friction: article worn.--_adj._ WEAR'ABLE, fit to be worn.--_n._ WEAR'ER.--_p.adj._ WEAR'ING, made or designed for wear: consuming, exhausting.--_n._ the process of wasting by attrition or time: that which is worn, clothes.--_ns._ WEAR'ING-APPAR'EL, dress; WEAR'-[=I]'RON, a friction-guard.--WEAR AND TEAR, loss by wear or use; WEAR AWAY, to impair, consume; WEAR OFF, to rub off by friction: to diminish by decay: to pass away by degrees; WEAR OUT, to impair by use: to render useless by decay: to consume tediously: to harass. [A.S. _werian_, to wear; Ice. _verja_, to cover, Goth. _wasjan_.] WEAR, w[=e]r, _n._ another spelling of _weir_. WEAR, w[=e]r, _v.t._ (_obs._) to guard, ward off: to guide. [A.S. _werian_, to guard, from root of _wary_.] WEARISH, w[=e]r'ish, _adj._ (_Spens._) withered, shrunk. WEARY, w[=e]'ri, _adj._ worn-out: having the strength or patience exhausted: tired: causing weariness: (_prov._) puny.--_v.t._ to wear out or make weary: to reduce the strength or patience of: to harass.--_v.i._ to become weary or impatient: to long for.--_adjs._ WEA'RIED, tired; WEA'RIFUL, wearisome.--_adv._ WEA'RIFULLY.--_adj._ WEA'RILESS, incessant.--_adv._ WEA'RILY.--_n._ WEA'RINESS.--_adj._ WEA'RISOME, making weary: tedious.--_adv._ WEA'RISOMELY.--_n._ WEA'RISOMENESS.--WEARY OUT, to exhaust. [A.S. _wérig_, weary.] WEARY, w[=e]'ri, _n._ (_Scot._) a curse, as in 'weary on you.' WEASAND, w[=e]'zand, _n._ the windpipe: the throat. [A.S. _wásend_; not to be traced to A.S. _hwésan_ (Ice. _hvæsa_), to wheeze.] WEASEL, w[=e]'zl, _n._ a common carnivore belonging to the same genus as the polecat and stoat--the body long and slender--eating rats, frogs, birds, mice, &c.: (_Shak._) a lean, hungry fellow.--_n._ WEA'SEL-COOT, the red-headed smew.--_adj._ WEA'SEL-FACED, having a lean sharp face. [A.S. _wesle_; Ger. _wiesel_.] WEATHER, weth'[.e]r, _n._ state of the air as to heat or cold, dryness, wetness, cloudiness, &c.--_v.t._ to affect by exposing to the air: to sail to the windward of: to gain or pass, as a promontory or cape: to hold out stoutly against difficulties.--_v.i._ to become discoloured by exposure.--_adj._ (_naut._) toward the wind, windward.--_adjs._ WEATH'ER-BEAT'EN, distressed or seasoned by the weather; WEATH'ER-BIT'TEN, worn or defaced by exposure to the winds.--_n._ WEATH'ER-BOARD, the windward side of a ship: a plank in the port of a laid-up vessel placed so as to keep off rain, without preventing air to circulate.--_v.t._ to fit with such planks.--_n._ WEATH'ER-BOARD'ING, thin boards placed overlapping to keep out rain: exterior covering of a wall or roof.--_adj._ WEATH'ER-BOUND, delayed by bad weather.--_ns._ WEATH'ER-BOX, -HOUSE, a toy constructed on the principle of a barometer, consisting of a house with the figures of a man and wife who come out alternately as the weather is respectively bad or good; WEATH'ER-CLOTH, a tarpaulin protecting boats, hammocks, &c.; WEATH'ERCOCK, a vane (often in the form of a cock) to show the direction of the wind: anything turning easily and often.--_v.t._ to act as a weathercock for.--_p.adj._ WEATH'ER-DRIV'EN, driven by winds or storms.--_adj._ WEATH'ERED (_archit._), made slightly sloping, so as to throw off water: (_geol._) having the surface altered in colour, form, texture, or composition by the action of the elements.--_n._ WEATH'ER-EYE, the eye considered as the means by which one forecasts the weather.--_v.t._ WEATH'ER-FEND (_Shak._), to defend from the weather, to shelter.--_ns._ WEATH'ER-GAGE, the position of a ship to the windward of another: advantage of position; WEATH'ER-GLASS, a glass or instrument that indicates the changes of the weather: a barometer; WEATH'ER-GLEAM (_prov._), a bright aspect of the sky at the horizon; WEATH'ER-HELM, a keeping of the helm somewhat a-weather when a vessel shows a tendency to come into the wind while sailing; WEATH'ERING (_archit._), a slight inclination given to the top of a cornice or moulding, to prevent water from lodging on it: (_geol._) the action of the elements in altering the form, colour, texture, or composition of rocks.--_adj._ WEATH'ERLY (_naut._), making little leeway when close-hauled.--_n._ WEATH'ER-MAP, a map indicating meteorological conditions over a large tract of country.--_adj._ WEATH'ERMOST, farthest to windward.--_n._ WEATH'ER-NOT[=A]'TION, a system of abbreviation for meteorological phenomena.--_adj._ WEATH'ER-PROOF, proof against rough weather.--_ns._ WEATH'ER-PROPH'ET, one who foretells weather: a device for foretelling the weather; WEATH'ER-ROLL, the lurch of a vessel to windward when in the trough of the sea; WEATH'ER-SER'VICE, an institution for superintending and utilising observed meteorological phenomena; WEATH'ER-SIDE, the windward side; WEATH'ER-SIGN, a phenomenon indicating change of weather: any prognostic; WEATH'ER-STAIN, discolouration produced by exposure; WEATH'ER-ST[=A]'TION, a station where phenomena of weather are observed; WEATH'ER-STRIP, a thin piece of some material used to keep out wind and cold; WEATH'ER-SYM'BOL, a conventional sign indicating some meteorological phenomenon.--_adjs._ WEATH'ER-WISE, wise or skilful in foreseeing the changes or state of the weather; WEATH'ER-WORN, worn by exposure to the weather.--WEATHER ANCHOR, the anchor lying to windward; WEATHER A POINT, to gain an advantage or accomplish a purpose against opposition; WEATHER OUT (_obs._), to hold out against till the end.--KEEP ONE'S WEATHER EYE OPEN, to be on one's guard, to have one's wits in readiness; MAKE FAIR WEATHER (_Shak._), to conciliate: to flatter; STRESS OF WEATHER, violent and especially unfavourable winds, force of tempests. [A.S. _weder_; Ice. _vedhr_, Ger. _wetter_.] WEAVE, w[=e]v, _v.t._ to twine threads together: to unite threads in a loom to form cloth: to work into a fabric: to unite by intermixture: to construct, contrive.--_v.i._ to practise weaving:--_pa.t._ w[=o]ve, (rarely) weaved; _pa.p._ w[=o]v'en.--_ns._ WEAV'ER; WEAV'ER-BIRD, a family of Passerine birds resembling the finches, so called from their remarkably woven nests; WEAV'ING, the act or art of forming a web or cloth by the intersecting of two distinct sets of fibres, threads, or yarns--those passing longitudinally from end to end of the web forming the warp, those crossing and intersecting the warp at right angles forming the weft. [A.S. _wefan_; Ice. _vefa_, Ger. _weben_; cog. with Gr. _hupp[=e]_, a web, _huphainein_, to weave.] WEAVE, w[=e]v, _v.t._ and _v.i._ (_Spens._) waved, floated. WEAZAND, w[=e]'zand, _n._ Same as WEASAND. WEAZEN, w[=e]'zn, _adj._ thin, sharp. [_Wizen_.] WEB, web, _n._ that which is woven: anything resembling a web, as a roll of cloth, paper, &c.: a plot, scheme: in birds, the blade of a feather: (_anat._) any connective tissue: the fine texture spun by the spider as a snare for flies: a film over the eye: the skin between the toes of water-fowls.--_v.t._ to envelop, to connect with a web.--_adj._ WEBBED, having the toes united by a web or skin.--_n._ WEB'BING, a narrow woven fabric of hemp, used for chairs, &c.: (_zool._) the webs of the digits: (_print._) tapes conducting webs of paper in a printing machine.--_adj._ WEB'BY.--_n._ WEB'-EYE, a film spreading over the eye.--_adjs._ WEB'-EYED; WEB'-FING'ERED.--_n._ WEB'-FOOT, a foot the toes of which are united with a web or membrane.--_adjs._ WEB'-FOOT'ED; WEB'-TOED.--WEB AND PIN (_Shak._), or PIN AND WEB, cataract on the eye. [A.S. _webb_; Ice. _vefr_, Ger. _gewebe_; from root of _weave_.] WEBSTER, web'st[.e]r, _n._ (_obs._) a weaver. [A.S. _webbestre_, a female weaver--_webban_, to weave.] WECHT, weht, _n._ (_Scot._) an instrument for lifting grain. [Perh. conn. with _weigh_.] WED, wed, _v.t._ to marry: to join in marriage: to unite closely.--_v.i._ to marry:--_pr.p._ wed'ding; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ wed'ded or wed.--_adj._ WED'DED, married: belonging to marriage: clasped together.--_ns._ WED'DING, marriage: marriage ceremony; WED'DING-BED, the bridal bed; WED'DING-CAKE, a highly decorated cake served at a wedding, and also divided among absent friends.--_n.pl._ WED'DING-CARDS, complimentary cards of a newly married pair, sent to friends.--_ns._ WED'DING-DAY, day of marriage; WED'DING-DOWER, marriage portion; WED'DING-DRESS, a bride's dress; WED'DING-F[=A]VOUR, white rosette worn by men at a wedding; WED'DING-GAR'MENT, garment worn at a wedding; WED'DING-RING, a plain ring given by the groom to the bride at a wedding.--PENNY WEDDING, a wedding where the guests paid for the entertainment, and sometimes contributed to the outfit; SILVER, GOLDEN, DIAMOND WEDDING, the celebrations of the 25th, 50th, and 60th anniversaries of a wedding. [A.S. _weddian_, to engage, to marry (Ger. _wetten_, to wager)--_wed_, a pledge; Goth. _wadi_, Ger. _wette_, a bet.] WED, wed, _n._ a pledge, security--(_Scot._) WAD.--_v.t._ to wager. [A.S. _wed_, a pledge.] WEDGE, wej, _n._ a piece of wood or metal, thick at one end and sloping to a thin edge at the other, used in splitting: anything shaped like a wedge: a mass of metal: at Cambridge, the man lowest on the list of the classical tripos.--_v.t._ to cleave with a wedge: to force or drive with a wedge: to press closely: to fasten with a wedge: to make into a wedge.--_v.i._ to force one's way like a wedge.--_adjs._ WEDGED, cuneiform or wedge-shaped; WEDGE'-SHAPED, having the shape of a wedge; WEDGE'-TAILED, having the tail wedge-shaped or cuneate.--_adv._ WEDGE'WISE, in the manner of a wedge.--_n._ WEDG'ING, a method of joining timbers.--WEDGE OF LEAST RESISTANCE, the form in which a substance yields to pressure.--THE THIN, or SMALL, END OF THE WEDGE, the insignificant-looking beginning of a principle or practice which will yet lead to something great and important. [A.S. _wecg_; Ice. _veggr_, Ger. _weck_, a wedge; prob. from the root of _weigh_.] WEDGWOOD WARE. See WARE. WEDLOCK, wed'lok, _n._ marriage: matrimony.--BREAK WEDLOCK, to commit adultery. [A.S. _wedlác_--_wed_, _-lác_, a gift.] WEDNESDAY, wenz'd[=a], _n._ fourth day of the week. [A.S. _Wódenes dæg_, the day of _Woden_ or _Odin_, the chief Teutonic deity.] WEE, w[=e], _n._ a short distance, a short time.--_adj._ tiny. [Scand. form of _way_; Dan. _vei_, Ice. _vegr_; not conn. with Ger. _wenig_, little.] WEED, w[=e]d, _n._ any useless plant of small growth: anything useless or troublesome; a sorry animal, a worthless fellow: (_coll._) a cigar.--_v.t._ to free from weeds: to remove anything hurtful or offensive.--_adjs._ WEED'ED, WEED'-GROWN, overgrown with weeds.--_n._ WEED'ER.--_n.pl._ WEED'ER-CLIPS (_Scot._), shears for weeding.--_ns._ WEED'ERY, a place full of weeds; WEED'INESS; WEED'ING-CHIS'EL, -FOR'CEPS, -FORK, -HOOK, -TONGS (_pl._) garden implements of varying forms for destroying weeds.--_adjs._ WEED'LESS; WEED'Y, weed-like, consisting of weeds; worthless. [A.S. _wéod_, an herb.] WEED, w[=e]d, _n._ a garment, esp. in _pl._ a widow's mourning apparel.--_adj._ WEED'Y, clad in widow's mourning. [A.S. _w['æ]d_, clothing; Old High Ger. _w[=a]t_, cloth; cf. _leinwand_.] WEED, w[=e]d, _n._ (_Scot._) a popular name for any sudden illness, cold, or relapse with febrile symptoms in women after confinement or nursing: lymphangitis in the horse.--Also WEID. WEEK, w[=e]k, _n._ the space of seven days, esp. from Sunday to Sunday: the six working days of the week.--_n._ WEEK'DAY, any day of the week except Sunday.--_adj._ WEEK'LY, coming, happening, or done once a week.--_adv._ once a week.--_n._ a publication appearing once a week.--WEEK ABOUT, in alternate periods of seven days.--A PROPHETIC WEEK (_B._), seven years; A WEEK OF SUNDAYS (_coll._), seven weeks: a long time; FEAST OF WEEKS, a Jewish festival lasting seven weeks; GREAT WEEK, HOLY WEEK, PASSION WEEK, the week preceding Easter Sunday; THIS DAY WEEK, a week from to-day. [A.S. _wice_; Dut. _week_, Ger. _woche_.] WEEK, w[=e]k, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as WICK. WEEL, w[=e]l, _n._ a whirlpool. [A.S. _w['æ]l_.] WEEL, w[=e]l, _n._ (_prov._) a trap or snare for fish: (_her._) a bearing resembling such. WEEL, w[=e]l, _adv._ (_Scot._) well. WEEM, w[=e]m, _n._ (_Scot._) a subterranean dwelling. WEEN, w[=e]n, _v.i._ to think or fancy. [A.S. _wénan_--_wén_ (Ger. _wahn_), expectation, hope.] WEEP, w[=e]p, _v.i._ to express grief by shedding tears: to wail or lament: to drip, rain: to be pendent, as a _weeping_ willow.--_v.t._ to lament: to pour forth:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ wept.--_n._ WEEP'ER, one who weeps: a white border round the sleeve of a mourning dress: a crape hat-band: a widow's crape-veil: anything pendent.--_adj._ WEEP'ING, drooping the branches (as it were through grief).--_ns._ WEEP'ING-ASH, a variety of the common European ash, with drooping branches; WEEP'ING-BIRCH, a variety of the white birch, with drooping branches.--_adv._ WEEP'INGLY.--_adj._ WEEP'ING-RIPE (_Shak._), ripe or ready for tears.--_ns._ WEEP'ING-ROCK, a rock through which water percolates slowly; WEEP'ING-SPRING, a spring from which water escapes slowly; WEEP'ING-TREE, a tree with long pendulous branches; WEEP'ING-WILL'OW (see WILLOW).--_adj._ WEEP'Y, oozy. [A.S. _wépan_--_wóp_, clamour; allied to Goth. _wópjan_.] WEET, WEET'ING, WEET'INGLY, WEET'LESS, obsolete form of wit, &c. WEET, dialectal form of _wet_. WEEVER, w[=e]'v[.e]r, _n._ a genus of fishes (_Trachinus_) of which two species are British, with sharp dorsal and opercular spines capable of inflicting serious wounds.--Also _Sting-fish_. [Perh. conn. with L. _vipera_.] WEEVIL, w[=e]v'il, _n._ a popular name for a large number of beetles, with the anterior part of the head prolonged into a beak or proboscis, feeding upon plants: any insect injurious to stored grain.--_adjs._ WEEV'ILED, WEEV'ILLED, WEEV'ILY, WEEV'ILLY, infested by weevils. [A.S. _wifel_; Ger. _wiebel_.] WEFT, weft, _n._ the threads woven into and crossing the warp--also WOOF.--_n._ WEFT'AGE, texture. [A.S. _weft_--_wefan_, to weave.] WEFT, weft, _n._ (_Spens._) a waif, a castaway. WEFTE, weft, _v.pa.t._ (_Spens._) was wafted, avoided. WEIGH. w[=a], _v.t._ to compare by the balance: to find the heaviness of: to be equal to in heaviness: to bear up, to raise, esp. a ship's anchor: to ponder in the mind: to consider worthy of notice.--_v.i._ to have weight: to be considered of importance: to press heavily: to weigh anchor, get under sail.--_adj._ WEIGH'ABLE, capable of being weighed.--_ns._ WEIGH'AGE, rate paid for the weighing of goods; WEIGH'-BAUK (_Scot._), the beam of a balance: (_pl._) a pair of scales; WEIGH'-BOARD (same as WAY-BOARD); WEIGH'-BRIDGE, a machine for weighing carts with their loads.--_p.adj._ WEIGHED (_Bacon_), experienced.--_ns._ WEIGH'ER, an officer who weighs articles or tests weights; WEIGH'-HOUSE, a public building for weighing goods, ascertaining the tonnage of boats, &c.; WEIGH'ING; WEIGH'ING-CAGE, a cage in which live animals are weighed; WEIGH'ING-MACHINE', a machine or apparatus for weighing heavy goods; WEIGHT, the heaviness of a thing when weighed, or the amount which anything weighs: the force with which a body is attracted to the earth, measured by the mass into the acceleration: a mass of metal adjusted to a standard and used for finding weight: anything heavy: a ponderous mass: pressure: importance: power: impressiveness: in mining, subsidence of the roof due to overhead pressure, also called WEIGH'TING.--_v.t._ to make more heavy.--_adv._ WEIGH'TILY.--_n._ WEIGH'TINESS.--_adjs._ WEIGHT'LESS; WEIGH'TY.--WEIGH DOWN, to depress: (_Shak._) to preponderate over; WEIGH IN, to ascertain one's weight before a contest, as a horse-race; WEIGHT OF METAL, total weight of iron thrown at one discharge from a ship's guns.--DEAD WEIGHT (see DEAD). [A.S. _wegan_, to carry; Ger. _wiegen_; L. _veh[)e]re_, to carry.] WEIGH, w[=a], _n._ a very common misspelling of _way_ in the phrase 'Under way,' through confusion with the phrase 'To weigh anchor.' WEIR, WEAR, w[=e]r, _n._ a dam across a river: a fence of stakes set in a stream for catching fish. [A.S. _wer_, an enclosure, allied to _werian_, to protect; cf. Ger. _wehr_, a dam, _wehren_, to ward.] WEIRD, w[=e]rd, _n._ fate: that which comes to pass: a spell or charm.--_adj._ skilled in witchcraft: unearthly, uncanny.--_v.t._ to destine, doom, adjure.--_adv._ WEIRD'LY.--_n._ WEIRD'NESS.--DREE ONE'S WEIRD (see DREE).--THE WEIRD SISTERS, the Fates. [A.S. _wyrd_, fate--_weorthan_, to become; Ger. _werden_.] WEISM, w[=e]'izm, _n._ inordinate use of the pronoun _we_. WEISMANNISM, v[=i]s'man-izm, _n._ the doctrine in biology of August _Weismann_ (born 1834)--that acquired characters are not transmitted, function and environment affecting the individual only, not the species, the sole source of evolutionary change being the intermingling of germ-plasma which occurs in fertilisation, and the condition of progress being found in the action of natural selection on the germinal variations which thus arise. WELAWAY. Same as WELLAWAY. WELCOME, wel'kum, _adj._ received with gladness: admitted willingly: causing gladness: free to enjoy.--_n._ kindly reception.--_v.t._ to receive with kindness: to entertain hospitably.--_ns._ WEL'COMENESS; WEL'COMER, one who welcomes.--BID A WELCOME, to receive with professions of kindness. [Scand., Ice. _velkominn_--_vel_, well, _kominn_, pa.p. of _koma_, to come.] WELD, weld, _n._ a scentless species of mignonette, yielding a yellow dye--(_Scot._) WALD. [Cf. Ger. _wau_.] WELD, weld, _v.t._ to join together as iron or steel by hammering, when softened by heat: to join closely.--_v.i._ to undergo welding.--_n._ a welded joint.--_n._ WELDABIL'ITY.--_adj._ WEL'DABLE.--_ns._ WEL'DER; WEL'DING; WELD'-[=I]'RON, wrought-iron.--_adj._ WELD'LESS, having no welds.--_n._ WELD'-STEEL, puddled steel. [Scand., Sw. _välla_, orig. to well up, and so cog. with A.S. _weallan_, to boil; Ger. _wallen_.] WELD, weld, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to wield. WELDER, wel'd[.e]r, _n._ a land-tenant holding under the farmer or middleman. [Ir.] WELFARE, wel'f[=a]r, _n._ state of faring or doing well: freedom from any calamity, &c.: enjoyment of health, &c.: prosperity. WELK, welk, _v.i._ (_obs._) to wither, to shrivel or shrink: to decline.--_v.t._ to contract, shorten, or impair: to form into wrinkles or ridges. [From a root seen in Old High Ger. _welc_ (Ger. _welk_), moist.] WELKIN, wel'kin, _n._ the sky or region of clouds.--_adj._ (_Shak._) sky-blue. [A.S. _wolcnu_, pl. of _wolcen_, cloud, air, sky; Ger. _wolke_, cloud.] WELL, wel, _n._ a rise of water from the earth: a spring: a pit in the earth whence a supply of water is obtained: an enclosure in a ship's hold round the pumps: the open space in the middle of a staircase: a cavity: an eddy.--_v.i._ to issue forth, as water from the earth: to spring.--_ns._ WELL'-BOAT, -SMACK, a fishing-boat having a well; WELL'-BOR'ING, sinking wells by drilling through rock; WELL'-BUCK'ET, a vessel for drawing up water from a well; WELL'-CURB, the stone ring built round the mouth of a well; WELL'-DECK, an enclosed space on the deck of a ship; WELL'-DRAIN, a pit drawing the water from wet land; WELL'-DRESS'ING, the festal decoration of wells and springs, as at Tissington in Derbyshire on Ascension-day, &c.; WELL'-HEAD, the source of a spring; WELL'-HOLE, the pit or shaft of a well; WELL'-HOUSE, a room built over a well; WELL'ING, an outpouring; WELL'-ROOM, a room enclosing a mineral well: a cavity in a boat for collecting leakage and rain-water; WELL'-SINK'ER, one who digs wells; WELL'-SINK'ING, the act of boring for water; WELL'-SPRING, a fountain.--THE WELLS, any place where mineral wells are situated. [A.S. _wella_--_weallan_, to boil; cf. Ice. _vella_, to boil.] WELL, wel, _adj._ good in condition: fortunate: comfortable: in health.--_n._ (_Spens._) good health, fortune.--_adv._ in a proper manner: rightly: thoroughly: favourably: conveniently: to a considerable extent: conscientiously: so be it (as a sign of assent).--_adjs._ WELL'-ACQUAINT'ED, having intimate personal knowledge; WELL'-ADVISED', prudent.--_adv._ WELL'-ANEAR' (_Shak._), very soon.--_adj._ WELL'-APPOINT'ED, in good trim.--_n._ WELL'-APPOINT'EDNESS'.--_adjs._ WELL'-BAL'ANCED, properly adjusted; WELL'-BEH[=A]VED', becoming in manner.--_n._ WELL'-B[=E]'ING, state of being well, welfare.--_adjs._ WELL'-BELOVED', very dear; WELL'-BESEEM'ING, properly becoming; WELL'-BESEEN' (_Spens._), showy in appearance; WELL'-BORN, born of a good or respectable family: not of mean birth; WELL'-BREATHED, strong of lung; WELL'-BRED, educated to polished manners: of good stock; WELL'-CONDI'TIONED, in a desirable condition; WELL'-CONDUCT'ED, properly led: acting properly; WELL'-DISPOSED', favourable.--_ns._ WELL'-DO'ER, a benefactor; WELL'-DO'ING, a doing of what is right or good.--_adjs._ WELL'-EARNED, thoroughly deserved; WELL'-ED'UCATED, having a good education; WELL'-FAMED, famous; WELL-F[=A]'VOURED, good-looking; WELL'-FED, fat; WELL'-FOUND, commendable; WELL'-FOUND'ED, highly probable; WELL'-GRACED, popular; WELL'-GROUND'ED, very likely; WELL'-INFORMED', full of varied information; WELL'-INTEN'TIONED, of upright intentions or purpose; WELL'-JUDGED, correctly calculated; WELL'-KNIT, strongly framed; WELL'-KNOWN, fully known: celebrated: notorious; WELL'-LIK'ING (_Shak._), in good condition: clever, smart; WELL'-LOOK'ING, good-looking; WELL'-MANN'ERED, polite: obedient; WELL'-MARKED, obvious, decided; WELL'-MEAN'ING, well-intentioned; WELL'-MEANT, rightly intended; WELL'-MIND'ED, favourably inclined.--_adv._ WELL'-NIGH, nearly: almost.--_adjs._ WELL'-OR'DERED, correctly governed; WELL'-PLEAS'ING, acceptable; WELL'-PLIGHT'ED (_Spens._), well folded; WELL'-PROPOR'TIONED, having correct proportions; WELL'-READ, of extensive reading; WELL'-REG'ULATED, well-ordered; WELL'-RESPECT'ED, highly esteemed; WELL-ROUND'ED, symmetrical; WELL'-SEEN (_Shak._), experienced, skilful; WELL'-SET, properly arranged: fitly put together; WELL'-SP[=O]'KEN, spoken properly: graceful in speech; WELL'-TEM'PERED (_mus._), tuned in equal temperament; WELL'-THEWED (_Spens._), well-educated, well-mannered, of good disposition; WELL'-TIM'BERED, furnished with much timber; WELL'-TIMED, opportune: keeping accurate time; WELL'-TO-DO, prosperous; WELL'-TURNED, accurately rounded or fashioned; WELL'-WARR'ANTED, having good credit.--_ns._ WELL'-WILL'ER, -WISH'ER, one who wills or wishes well.--_adjs._ WELL'-WISHED (_Shak._), held in good-will; WELL'-WON, honestly gained; WELL'-WORN, worn threadbare: (_rare_) becomingly worn.--_adv._ WELL'Y (_prov._), well-nigh.--WELL DONE, a word of praise, bravely! nobly! WELL ENOUGH, in a moderate but sufficient degree; WELL MET (see MEET); WELL OFF, in good circumstances; WELL SAID, well done! WELL UP (_coll._), well versed in, well acquainted with (with _in_).--AS WELL AS (see AS); JUST AS WELL, all the same: so much the better. [A.S. _wel_; cog. with Goth. _vaila_, Ger. _wohl_, from the root of _will_.] WELLADAY, wel'a-d[=a], WELLAWAY, wel'a-w[=a], _interjs._ alas! [Corr. from M. E. _weylaway_--A.S. _wá_, _lá_, _wá_, 'woe, lo! woe.'] WELLINGTONIA, wel-ing-t[=o]'ni-a, _n._ the largest of existing trees, a native of California--the same as SEQUOIA (q.v.). WELLINGTONS, wel'ing-tonz, _n._ a kind of riding-boots covering the knee in front, but cut away behind: a shorter closely-fitting boot, worn under the trousers. [Named after the great Duke of _Wellington_.] WELSH, welsh, _adj._ pertaining to _Wales_ or its inhabitants.--_n.pl._ the inhabitants of Wales:--_sing._ their language.--_ns._ WELSH'-HARP, a large instrument, furnished with three rows of strings, two tuned in unison and in the diatonic scale, the third in the sharps and flats of the chromatic; WELSH'-HOOK, an old weapon, like the bill; WELSH'MAN, a native of WALES; WELSH'-ON'ION, the cibol, a perennial plant with a garlic taste; WELSH'-RABB'IT (see RABBIT). [A.S. _welisc_, foreign--_wealh_ (pl. _wealas_), a foreigner, esp. the Celts or Welshmen.] WELSH, welsh, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to run off from a race-course without settling or paying one's bets--also WELCH.--_ns._ WELSH'ER, WELCH'ER. [Perh. in allusion to the alleged bad faith of Welshmen.] WELT, welt, _n._ a kind of hem or edging round a shoe: (_coll._) a weal.--_v.t._ to furnish with a welt: to flog severely.--_adj._ WELT'ED.--_n._ WELT'ING. [W. _gwald_, a hem.] WELT, welt, _v.i._ (_prov._) to decay: to become stringy. [_Wilt_.] WELTER, wel't[.e]r, _v.i._ to roll or tumble about, to wallow about, esp. in dirt: to lie in some floating substance.--_v.t._ to make way in a weltering manner.--_n._ a tossing about, a state of turmoil.--_adj._ WEL'TERING. [M. E. _walten_, to roll over--A.S. _wealtan_, to roll.] WELTER-WEIGHT, wel't[.e]r-w[=a]t, _n._ an unusually heavy weight, carried mostly in steeple-chases and hurdle-races.--_n._ WEL'TER-RACE, a race in which such weights are carried.--_n.pl._ WEL'TER-STAKES, the stakes in a welter-race. [Perh. from _welter_, in allusion to the less free motion; others trace to _swelter_, from the heating of the heavily weighted horses.] WELWITSCHIA, wel-wich'i-a, _n._ a genus of African Gymnosperms belonging to the _Gnetaceæ_, and containing only one species, its flower consisting of a panicle of brilliant overlapping scarlet scales. [Friedrich _Welwitsch_ (1806-72), an Austrian traveller.] WEN, wen, _n._ a sebaceous cyst, most commonly on the scalp, consisting of obstructed sebaceous glands, which enlarge by the internal pressure of their accumulated secretions.--_adjs._ WEN'NISH, WEN'NY, wen-like. [A.S. _wen_, a swelling, a wart; Dut. _wen_.] WENCH, wensh, _n._ a maid, damsel: a working-girl, a maid-servant: a lewd woman, a mistress, a whore.--_v.i._ to frequent the company of whores.--_n._ WENCH'ER, one who indulges in lewdness. [Perh. from the sing. of A.S. _winclo_, children, prob. _wencel_, weak, _wancol_, unstable.] WEND, wend, _v.i._ to go: to wind or turn. [A.S. _wendan_, the causative of _windan_, to turn round.] WEND, wend, _n._ the name given by the Germans to a branch of the Slavs which, as early as the 6th century, occupied the north and east of Germany from the Elbe along the coast of the Baltic to the Vistula, and as far south as Bohemia: one of the Slavic population of Lusatia who still speak the Wendish tongue.--_adjs._ WEN'DIC, WEN'DISH. [Prob. ultimately cog. with _wander_.] WENLOCK, wen'lok, _adj._ (_geol._) denoting a group or series of rocks of the Upper Silurian period, consisting of limestone and shale, and largely developed in the neighbourhood of _Wenlock_ in Shropshire. WENT, went, properly _pa.t._ of _wend_, but now used as _pa.t._ of _go_.--_n._ (_Spens._) a turning: a path. WENTLE-TRAP, wen'tl-trap, _n._ a genus of gasteropodous molluscs, having a spiral shell with many deep whorls, crossed by elevated ribs, and the aperture round and narrow. [Ger. _wendel-treppe_, a winding staircase.] WEPT, wept, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _weep_. WERE, wer, _v.i._ the _pl._ of _was_, used as _pa.t._ of _be_. [A.S. _w['æ]re_; Ger. _war_, Ice. _vera_, to be. Cf. _Was_.] WEREWOLF, WERWOLF, w[=e]r'woolf, _n._ a person supposed to be able by natural gift or magic art to change himself for a time into a wolf.--_adjs._ WERE'WOLFISH, WER'WOLFISH.--_n._ WERE'WOLFISM, lycanthropy. [A.S. _werwulf_--_wer_, man (Goth. _vair_, L. _vir_), _wulf_, a wolf. The modern Ger. _Währwolf_ is the Mid. High Ger. _Werwolf_, Latinised as _garulphus_ or _gerulphus_, whence the O. Fr. _garoul_, the modern French name being pleonastically _loup-garou_.] WEREGILD, WERGILD, w[=e]r'gild, _n._ a composition by which, by the custom of Anglo-Saxons, Franks, and other Teutonic peoples, homicide and other heinous crimes against the person were expiated. [A.S. _wergield_, from _wer_, man, _gield_--_gieldan_, to pay.] WERNERIAN, w[.e]r-n[=e]'ri-an, _adj._ pertaining or according to the opinions or system of A. G. _Werner_, a German mineralogist and geologist (1750-1817), who classified minerals according to their external characters, and advocated that all geological phenomena are due to the action of water.--_n._ an upholder of this theory.--_n._ WER'NERITE, a variety of scapolite. WERSH, wersh, _adj._ (_Scot._) tasteless, unsalted. [_Wearish_.] WERT, wert, the 2d pers. sing. of _were_, used as the _pa.t._ subjunctive of _be_. WERTHERIAN, ver-t[=e]'ri-an, _adj._ pertaining to or resembling the character of _Werther_ in Goethe's romance, 'The Sorrows of Young Werther.'--_n._ WER'THERISM, sentimentality like that of WERTHER. WESAND, w[=e]'zand, _n._ (_Spens._). Same as WEASAND. WESLEYAN, wes'le-an, _adj._ pertaining to Wesleyanism.--_n._ one who adopts Wesleyanism.--_n._ WES'LEYANISM, the system of doctrine and church polity of the Wesleyan Methodists: Arminian Methodism. [Named from John _Wesley_ (1703-91).] WEST, west, _n._ the quarter where the sun sets: one of the four chief points of the compass: the direction faced when one stands with his back to the high altar of a church: the countries to the west of Europe.--_adj._ situated towards or coming from the west: opposite the high altar of a church.--_adv._ towards the west.--_v.i._ (_Spens._) to move towards the west.--_adv._ WEST'-ABOUT', towards the west.--_v.i._ WES'TER (_obs._), to turn westward.--_adjs._ WES'TERING (_Milt._), passing to the west; WES'TERLY, lying or moving towards west: from the west.--_adv._ towards the west.--_adj._ WES'TERN, situated in the west: belonging to the west: moving towards, or coming from, the west.--_n._ an inhabitant of a western region or country.--_ns._ WES'TERNER, a person belonging to the west; WES'TERNISM, an idiom or other characteristic of western people.--_adj._ WES'TERNMOST, furthest to the west.--_n._ WES'TING, space or distance westward: departure westward: time of setting or reaching the west.--_adv._ WEST'LING, towards the west.--_adj._ WEST'MOST, most westerly.--_adj._ and _adv._ WEST'WARD, towards the west.--_advs._ WEST'WARDLY, WEST'WARDS, towards the west.--WESTERN CHURCH, the Latin Church, as distinguished from the Eastern or Greek Church; WESTERN EMPIRE, the western division of the later Roman Empire; WESTERN STATES, the states of the American Union lying west of the Alleghanies.--WESTWARD HO! to the west! an old cry of London watermen plying westwards. [A.S. _west_ (Fr. _ouest_, Ice. _vestr_); prob. conn. with Ice. _vist_, abode, L. _vesper_, Gr. _hespera_.] WESTPHALIAN, west-f[=a]'li-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Westphalia_, a duchy, a kingdom, and now a province of Prussia.--_n._ a native of Westphalia. WET, wet, _adj._ containing water: having water on the surface: rainy: (_slang_) given to drinking, tipsy: (_U.S._) allowing the sale of intoxicating liquors, as opposed to prohibition.--_n._ water or wetness: moisture: act of wetting, a dram, a debauch.--_v.t._ to make wet: to soak with water: to sprinkle: (_slang_) to celebrate by drinking:--_pr.p._ wet'ting; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ wet, (rarely) wet'ted.--_ns._ WET'-CUP'PING, the simultaneous application of a cupping-glass and the making an incision on the skin; WET'-DOCK, a dock or basin for floating vessels at all states of the tide; WET'NESS; WET'-NURSE, a nurse who suckles a child for its mother.--_adj._ WET'-SHOD, having shoes or feet wet.--_n._ WET'TING-MACHINE', a machine used to damp paper for printing.--_adj._ WET'TISH, somewhat wet.--WET BOB (_slang_), a boy at school who goes in for rowing in preference to cricket or football; WET BULB THERMOMETER (see PSYCHROMETER); WET GOODS, liquors; WET METER, a gas-meter in which the gas to be measured passes through water; WET PLATE (_phot._), a plate coated with collodion and sensitised with a salt of silver.--A WET BLANKET, a damper, kill-joy. [A.S. _w['æ]t_; Ice. _vátr_; from root of water.] WETHER, weth'[.e]r, _n._ a castrated ram. [A.S. _wither_; Ger. _widder_.] WEY, w[=a], _n._ a measure or weight differing with different articles=182 lb. wool, 40 bushels salt or corn, 48 bushels oats, &c. [_Weigh_.] WHACK, hwak, _v.t._ to thwack: (_slang_) to parcel out, share.--_v.i._ to keep on striking: (_slang_) to settle accounts.--_n._ a blow: a stroke, share.--_n._ WHACK'ER (_slang_), something big.--_adj._ WHACK'ING, very large, astounding. [_Thwack_.] WHAISLE, WHAIZLE, hw[=a]'zl, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to wheeze. [A form of _wheeze_.] WHALE, hw[=a]l, _n._ the common name of a cetaceous mammal, the largest of sea-animals, including the _toothed_ whales, such as Sperm Whale and Dolphin, and the _whalebone_ whales, such as Right Whale and Rorqual, in which the teeth are only embryonic.--_v.i._ to take whales.--_ns._ WHALE'-BACK, a boat whose maindecks are covered in and rounded, for rough seas; WHALE'-BOAT, a long, narrow boat used in the pursuit of whales; WHALE'BONE, a light flexible substance consisting of the baleen plates of the Arctic and allied whales.--_adj._ made of whalebone.--_ns._ WHALE'-CALF, a young whale--also CALF WHALE; WHALE'-FISH'ER, one engaged in whale-fishery or the hunting of whales; WHALE'-FISH'ERY; WHALE'-FISH'ING; WHALE'-LINE, strong rope used for harpoon-lines in the whale-fishery; WHALE'-LOUSE, a genus of Crustacea, parasitic on the skin of Cetaceans; WHALE'-MAN, WH[=A]L'ER, a person employed in whale-fishing; WHALE'-OIL, oil obtained from the blubber of a whale; WH[=A]L'ER, WHALE'SHIP, a ship employed in the whale-fishing; WH[=A]L'ERY, whaling.--_adj._ WH[=A]L'ING, connected with whale-catching.--_n._ the business of catching whales.--_ns._ WH[=A]L'ING-GUN, a contrivance for killing whales by means of a projectile; WH[=A]L'ING-MAS'TER, the captain of a whaler; WH[=A]L'ING-PORT, a port where whalers are registered.--WHALE'S BONE, ivory.--BULL WHALE, an adult male whale. [A.S. _hwæl_ (Ice. _hvalr_, Ger. _walfisch_); orig. unknown.] WHALE, hw[=a]l, _v.t._ (_slang_) to thrash. [Form of _wale_.] WHALLY, hw[=a]l'i, _adj._ wall-eyed.--_n._ WHALL, wall-eye. WHANG, hwang, _n._ a leathern thong. [Form of _thwang_, _thong_.] WHANG, hwang, _v.t._ to flog: (_Scot._) to cut in great slices.--_n._ a blow, bang: a large slice. [Prob. a variant of _whack_.] WHANGAM, hwang'gam, _n._ a feigned name of some animal, invented by Goldsmith. WHARF, hworf, _n._ a bank of timber or stone on the shore of a harbour or river for lading and unlading vessels: (_Shak._) the bank of a river:--_pl._ WHARFS, WHARVES.--_v.t._ to secure by a wharf: to place on a wharf.--_ns._ WHARF'AGE, the dues paid for using a wharf: accommodation at a wharf; WHARF'ING, material for making a wharf: wharfs; WHARFINGER (hworf'in-j[.e]r), one who has the care of, or owns, a wharf; WHARF'-RAT, the common brown rat: a fellow who loafs about a wharf in the hope of picking up a chance job. [A.S. _hwerf_, a dam; prob. conn. with _hweorfan_ (Ice. _hverfa_), to turn.] WHAT, hwot, _interrog. pron._ applied both to persons and things--also used elliptically and as an interjection: (_Shak._) used to express a summons, or as a mere expletive.--_interrog. adj._ of what sort, how much, how great--also used in an intensive manner.--_rel. pron._ that which, such ... as: (_Shak._) any, who, which.--_indef. pron._ something: (_Spens._) a portion, bit.--_adv._ (_obs._) why? to what degree?--_conj._ so much as: that, as in _but what_, that ... not.--_ns._ WHAT'ABOUTS, the things one is occupied about; WHAT'-D'YE-CALL (-IT, -'EM), a word substituted for the name of a thing (or person) because of forgetfulness, or in contempt.--_adjs._ WHAT'EN, WHAT'TEN (_Scot._), what kind of.--_prons._ WHATEV'ER, WHATE'ER', anything which: (_coll._) what?--_adj._ any or all that, no matter what.--_adjs._ WHAT'-LIKE (_coll._), of what kind; WHAT'NA (_Scot._), same as WHATEN.--_pron._ WHAT'NOT, whatever or whoever.--_adj._ WHAT'SO, of whatever kind.--_pron._ whosoever.--_adjs._ WHATSOEV'ER, WHATSOE'ER', of whatever kind; WHATSOMEV'ER (_coll._), whatsoever.--WHAT AN IF (_Shak._), what of; WHAT ELSE, could anything else be the case? WHAT ... FOR (_Shak._), what kind of; WHAT HO! a loud summons; WHAT IF, what would happen if? WHAT NOT, elliptical for 'what may I not say?' implying the presence or existence of many other things; WHAT OF, what comes of? what do you think of? WHAT'S WHAT, the real or genuine thing; WHAT THOUGH, what matters it though, notwithstanding; WHAT TIME, at the very time when; WHAT WITH, by reason of. [A.S. _hwæt_, neut. of _hwa_, who; Ger. _was_, L. _quid_.] WHATNOT, hwot'not, _n._ a piece of furniture with shelves for books, &c., so called because used to hold anything: anything, no matter what. WHAUP, hwawp, _n._ (_Scot._) a curlew--sometimes _Great Whaup_ as opposed to _Little Whaup_, the whimbrel. WHEAL, hw[=e]l, _n._ a wale, weal.--_v.t._ to cause weals upon. [Prob. conn. with A.S. _hwelan_, to pine.] WHEAL, hw[=e]l, _n._ a Cornish name for a mine. WHEAT, hw[=e]t, _n._ the most valuable of all the cereal grasses, the grain furnishing a white flour for bread--known as _bearded_, _beardless_, or _bald_, according to the presence or the absence of the awns or beard; as _white_, _red_, or _amber_, according to colour; and as _spring_, _summer_, _autumn_, or _winter_, according to the time of sowing.--_ns._ WHEAT'-BIRD, the chaffinch; WHEAT'-EAR, an ear of wheat; WHEAT'-EEL, a disease in wheat--also _Ear-cockle_.--_adj._ WHEAT'EN, made of wheat.--_ns._ WHEAT'-FIELD, a field of wheat; WHEAT'-FLY, name of several flies which destroy wheat--e.g. the Hessian fly; WHEAT'-MIDGE, a dipterous insect which lays its eggs in the flowers of wheat-heads, and whose reddish larvæ devour the kernels; WHEAT'-MIL'DEW, the rust which gathers on wheat and oats; WHEAT'-MOTH, one of several small moths whose larvæ devour stored wheat.--WHEAT-EAR STITCH, a fancy stitch in embroidery. [A.S. _hw['æ]te_--_hwit_, white; Ger. _weizen_; allied to _white_, and named from its colour.] WHEAT-EAR, hw[=e]t'-[=e]r, _n._ a bird of the genus Chat, a common summer visitant of Britain, abounding on downs and fallow fields. [Corr. from _White-arse_.] WHEEDLE, hw[=e]d'l, _v.t._ to entice by soft words: to flatter.--_n._ a coaxing person.--_n._ WHEED'LER.--_adj._ WHEED'LESOME, coaxing.--_n._ WHEED'LING. [Perh. from Ger. _wedeln_, to wag the tail, as a dog--_wedel_, a fan, brush--Old High Ger. _wehan_, to blow.] WHEEL, hw[=e]l, _n._ a circular frame turning on an axle: an old instrument of torture: a steering-wheel: (_fig._) the course of events, from the wheel, one of the attributes of Fortune, the emblem of mutability: (_coll._) a bicycle or tricycle: circular motion: principle of life or motion: (_Shak._) a refrain: (_pl._) chariot: (_slang_) a dollar.--_v.t._ to cause to whirl: to convey on wheels: to turn.--_v.i._ to turn round or on an axis: to roll forward: to change direction: to move in a circle: to change about: (_coll._) to ride a bicycle or tricycle.--_ns._ WHEEL'-AN'IMAL, -ANIMAL'CULE, a rotifer; WHEEL'-BARROW, a barrow supported on one wheel and two handles, and driven forward by one man; WHEEL'-BOAT, a boat having wheels, for use on water or on inclined planes; WHEEL'-CARR'IAGE, any kind of carriage moved on wheels; WHEEL'-CHAIR, a chair moving on wheels.--_adj._ WHEEL'-CUT, cut, or ground and polished, on a wheel--of glass.--_n._ WHEEL'-CUT'TER, a machine for cutting the teeth on watch and clock wheels.--_p.adj._ WHEELED, having wheels.--_ns._ WHEEL'ER, one who wheels: the horse nearest the wheels of a carriage: a maker of wheels; WHEEL'-HORSE, one of the horses next the wheels in a team; WHEEL'-HOUSE, a box or small house erected over the steering-wheel in ships: a paddle-box; WHEEL'ING, the act of moving or conveying on wheels: a turning or circular movement of troops; WHEEL'-LOCK, a lock for firing a gun by means of a small steel wheel; WHEEL'MAN, a steersman: a cyclist; WHEEL'-PLOUGH, a plough the depth of whose furrow is regulated by a wheel; WHEEL'-RACE, the part of a race in which the water-wheel is fixed; WHEEL'-TAX, a tax on carriages; WHEEL'-WIN'DOW, a circular window with radiating tracery; WHEEL'-WORK, a combination of wheels and their connection in machinery; WHEEL'WRIGHT, a wright who makes wheels and wheel-carriages.--_adj._ WHEEL'Y, like a wheel.--WHEEL AND AXLE, one of the mechanical powers, in its primitive form a cylindrical axle, on which a wheel, concentric with the axle, is firmly fastened, the power being applied to the wheel, and the weight attached to the axis; WHEEL OF LIFE (see ZOETROPE); WHEELS WITHIN WHEELS, a complication of circumstances.--BREAK A BUTTERFLY (FLY, &c.) UPON THE WHEEL, to inflict a punishment out of all proportion to the offence: to employ great exertions for insignificant ends. [A.S. _hwéol_; Ice. _hjól_.] WHEEN, hw[=e]n, _n._ (_Scot._) a small quantity: a quantity. [A.S. _hw['æ]ne_--_hwón_, _adv._, a little.] WHEEZE, hw[=e]z, _v.i._ to breathe with a hissing sound: to breathe audibly or with difficulty.--_n._ WHEEZE--also WHEEZ'ING.--_adv._ WHEEZ'ILY.--_v.i._ WHEEZ'LE, to make wheezy sounds.--_adj._ WHEEZ'Y. [A.S. _hwésan_; Ice. _hvæsa_, to wheeze, to hiss.] WHELK, hwelk, _n._ a popular name for a number of marine Gasteropods, especially applied to species of _Buccinum_ common on the coasts of northern seas.--_adjs._ WHELKED, ridged like a whelk; WHEL'KY, knobby, rounded. [Wrong form of _welk_--A.S. _wiloc_, _weoluc_, prob. from _wealcan_, to roll.] WHELK, hwelk, _n._ (_Shak._) the mark of a stripe on the body, a wrinkle, an inequality or protuberance. [_Weal_, _wheal_.] WHELM, hwelm, _v.t._ to cover completely: to plunge deep: to overburden: to ruin, destroy.--_v.i._ to pass over in such a way as to submerge. [M. E. _whelmen_, _whelven_, to overturn (Ice. _hválfa_, Ger. _wölben_); allied to A.S. _hwealf_, arched; cf. Gr. _kolpos_, a gulf.] WHELP, hwelp, _n._ the young of the dog kind and of lions, &c.: a puppy: a cub: a young man (in contempt).--_v.i._ and _v.t._ to bring forth young. [A.S. _hwelp_; Ice. _hvelpr_.] WHEMMLE, hwem'l, WHUMMLE, hwum'l, _n._ an overthrow: (_Scot._) confusion.--_v.t._ to whelm, overthrow. [Freq. form of _whelm_.] WHEN, hwen, _adv._ and _conj._ at what time? at which time: at or after the time that: while.--_interj._ (_Shak._) an exclamation of impatience, like _what!_--_conj._ WHEN'AS (_Shak._), when: whereas.--_adv._ and _conj._ WHENCE (also FROM WHENCE), from what place: from which things: wherefore.--_adv._ WHENCEFORTH' (_Spens._), whence.--_conjs._ WHENCESOEV'ER, from what place, cause, or source soever; WHENEV'ER, WHENE'ER', at every time when; WHENSOEV'ER, at what time soever: whenever. [A.S. _hwænne_, _hwonne_ (Ger. _wann_, _wenn_); orig. accus. of interrog. pron. _hwá_, who.] WHERE, hw[=a]r, _adv._ and _conj._ at which place, at what place? to what place, to which place? (_Shak._) whence, whereas: wherever.--_n._ (_Shak._) situation, place.--_adv._ and _conj._ WHEREABOUT', about which, about where: near what?--also WHERE'ABOUTS.--_n._ WHERE'ABOUTS, one's present place.--_conjs._ WHEREAGAINST' (_Shak._), against which; WHEREAS', as or on account of which: since: when in fact: where.--_advs._ and _conjs._ WHEREAT', at which: at what? WHEREBY', by which; WHERE'FORE, for which reason: for what reason? why?--_n._ the cause.--_advs._ and _conjs._ WHEREFROM', whence; WHEREIN', in which respect: in what? WHEREINSOEV'ER, in whatever place or respect; WHEREINTO (hw[=a]r-in't[=oo], -in-t[=oo]'), into what? into which.--_n._ WHERE'NESS, state of having place or position.--_advs._ and _conjs._ WHEREOF', of which: of what? WHEREON', on which: on what? WHEREOUT', out of which; WHERE'SO, WHERESOE'ER', WHERESOEV'ER, in what place soever: (_Shak._) whencesoever; WHERETHROUGH', through which; WHERETO', to which: to what? WHEREUN'DER, under which; WHEREUNTIL' (_Shak._), whereunto; WHEREUNTO', WHEREUN'TO, whereto: for what purpose? WHEREUPON', upon or in consequence of which; WHERE'ER', WHEREV'ER, at whatever place; WHEREWITH', WHEREWITHAL', with which? with what.--WHERE AWAY? (_naut._), a query uttered by the officer of the deck as to the direction of an object sighted by the lookout.--THE WHEREWITH, WHEREWITHAL, means. [A.S. _hw['æ]r_, _hwár_; from stem of who. Cf. _There_.] WHERRY, hwer'i, _n._ a shallow, light boat, sharp at both ends for speed:--_pl._ WHERR'IES.--_n._ WHERR'Y-MAN, one who rows a wherry. [Ety. dub.; perh. conn. with Ice. _hverfr_, crank--_hverfa_, to turn.] WHERRY, hwer'i, _n._ a liquor made from the pulp of crab-apples. WHET, hwet, _v.t._ to sharpen by rubbing: to make keen: to excite: (_obs._) to preen:--_pr.p._ whet'ting: _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ whet'ted.--_n._ act of sharpening: something that sharpens the appetite.--_ns._ WHET'-STONE, a stone for sharpening edged instruments: a stimulant; WHET'TER.--WHET ON, or FORWARD (_Shak._), to urge on. [A.S. _hwettan_--_hwæt_, sharp; Ger. _wetzen_.] WHETHER, hweth'[.e]r, _interrog._ and _rel. pron._ signifying which of two.--_conj._ which of two alternatives.--_interrog. adv._ introducing the first of two questions, the second being introduced by or--also _conj._--WHETHER OR NO (_coll._), in any case, surely. [A.S. _hwæther_, from _hwá_, who, with the old comp. suffix _-ther_; cog. with Goth. _hwathar_, Ger. _weder_; also with L. _uter_, Gr. _koteros_, Sans. _katara_. Cf. _Other_ and _Alter_.] WHETHERING, hweth'[.e]r-ing, _n._ (_prov._) the retention of the afterbirth in cows. WHEW, WHEUGH, hw[=u], _interj._ expressing wonder or dismay.--_n._ a whistling sound noting astonishment.--_v.i._ to utter such a sound. WHEW, hw[=u], _v.i._ (_prov._) to bustle about. WHEY, hw[=a], _n._ the watery part of milk, separated from the curd, esp. in making cheese.--_adjs._ WHEY'EY, WHEY'ISH, of whey: like whey.--_n._ WHEY'-FACE, a pale or white face, caused by fright.--_adj._ WHEY'-FACED.--_ns._ WHEY'ISHNESS; WHEY'-TUB. [A.S, _hw['æ]g_; Low Ger. _wey_.] WHICH, hwich, _interrog. pron._ what one of a number?--also used adjectively.--_rel. pron._ (_obs._) who, whom: now used of things only.--_prons._ WHICHEV'ER, WHICHSOEV'ER, every one which: whether one or other.--(_obs._) WHICH...HE, who; WHICH...HIS, whose--surviving in the vulgar use of _which_ as a mere introductory word; WHICH IS WHICH? which is the one, which is the other? a common phrase denoting inability to decide between two or more things.--THE WHICH (_obs._), which. [A.S. _hwilc_, _hwelc_, from _hwí_, instrumental case of _hwá_, who, and _líc_, like; Goth. _hwei-leiks_, Ger. _welch_, _welcher_; L. _qualis_. Cf. _Such_ and _Each_.] WHID, hwid, _n._ (_Scot._) a rapid movement.--_v.i._ to move quickly, to whisk.--_v.i._ WHID'DER, to whiz. [Prob. conn. with W. _chwid_, a jerk; or perh. A.S. _hwitha_, a breeze.] WHID, hwid, _n._ (_Scot._) a lie: (_obs._) a word: (_prov._) a quarrel.--_v.i._ to lie.--CUT BOON WHIDS, to speak good words. [Perh. A.S. _cwide_, a word--_cwethan_, to say.] WHIDAH-BIRD. See WHYDAH. WHIFF, hwif, _n._ a sudden puff of air or smoke from the mouth: a slight blast: a light kind of outrigger boat: (_prov._) a glimpse.--_v.t._ to throw out in whiffs: to puff.--_v.i._ to go out or off in a whiff.--_ns._ WHIFF'ER; WHIFF'ET, a whipper-snapper.--_v.i._ WHIFF'LE, to veer about, blow in gusts: to be fickle: to prevaricate: to talk idly.--_n._ a fickle, light-headed person.--_ns._ WHIFF'LER, a fickle person: a herald, usher, piper, leading the way in a procession; WHIFF'LERY, levity; WHIFT, a breath, snatch. [W. _chwiff_, a puff; imit.] WHIFF, hwif, _v.i._ to fish with a hand-line.--_n._ WHIFF'ING. [_Whip_.] WHIFFLETREE, hwif'l-tr[=e], _n._ a swingletree.--Also WHIP'PLETREE. [From whifle, to turn. Cf. _Whiff_.] WHIG, hwig, _n._ the name, since 1830 almost superseded by 'Liberal,' of one of the great English political parties: a Scotch Presbyterian, first so called in the middle of the 17th century: (_U.S._) one of those who in the colonial period were opposed to British rule: one of the survivors of the old National Republican party, first so called in 1834--it died in 1852.--_adj._ composed of Whigs--also WHIG'GISH.--_n._ WHIG'GARCHY, government by WHIGS.--_adv._ WHIG'GISHLY.--_ns._ WHIG'GISM, WHIG'GERY, WHIG'GISHNESS, WHIG'SHIP, Whig principles. [Prob. short for _whiggamore_.] WHIG, hwig, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to jog along. WHIG, hwig, _n._ (_prov._) sour whey, buttermilk. WHIGGAMORE, hwig'a-m[=o]r, _n._ originally a person who came from the west and south-west of Scotland to Leith to buy corn: one of the 7000 Western Covenanters who marched on Edinburgh in 1648, sealing the doom of Charles I.: a Scotch Presbyterian, a WHIG. [Traced by some to _whiggam_, a sound used by the peasantry of the western Lowlands in driving their horses; others derive from _whig_, sour whey. Not derivable from _whig_ (1) and Gael. _mor_, great.] WHIGMALEERIE, hwig-ma-l[=e]'ri, _n._ (_Scot._) a trinket, knick-knack: a whim. [Orig. uncertain.] WHILE, hw[=i]l, _n._ a space of time: trouble spent.--_adv._ during the time that: at the same time that, as long as.--_v.t._ to cause to pass without irksomeness (with _away_).--_conjs._ WHILE, WHILST, as long as: at the same time that: (_Shak._) until; WHILES (_B._), while, at the same time that.--_adv._ (_Scot._) at times (orig. gen. of A.S. _hwíl_).--_advs._ WH[=I]'LOM, WH[=I]'LOME (_Milt._), formerly, once (orig. dat. pl. of A.S. _hwíl_, time).--EVERY ONCE IN A WHILE, now and then; THE WHILE (_Shak._), in the meantime; THE WHILST (_Shak._), while: in the meantime; WORTH WHILE, worth the trouble and time taken. [A.S. _hwíl_; Goth. _hweila_, Ger. _weile_.] WHILK, hwilk, _pron._ an obsolete form of _which_. WHILLY, hwil'i, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to cajole.--_v.i._ WHILL'Y-WHAW, to make wheedling speeches.--_n._ cajolery.--_adv._ smooth-tongued, wheedling. [Prob. a mixture of _wile_ and _wheedle_.] WHIM, hwim, _n._ a caprice: a fancy: a machine for raising ore, a mine.--_v.i._ to turn round, to be seized with a whim.--_v.t._ to cause to turn.--_adjs._ WHIM'MY, WHIM'SICAL, full of whims, odd, fantastical.--_ns._ WHIMSICAL'ITY, WHIM'SICALNESS.--_adv._ WHIM'SICALLY.--_ns._ WHIM'SY, WHIM'SEY, a whim, freak.--_adj._ full of whims, changeable.--_n._ WHIM'-WHAM, a ridiculous notion or thing, a freak, an odd device. [Ice. _hvima_, to have the eyes wandering.] WHIMBREL, hwim'brel, _n._ a bird of the family _Scolopacidæ_, allied to the curlew and like it in form, plumage, and habits, but smaller, and having a shorter bill.--Also WIM'BREL. [Prob. imit.] WHIMPER, hwim'p[.e]r, _v.i._ to cry with a low, whining voice.--_n._ a peevish cry.--_ns._ WHIM'PERER, one who whimpers; WHIM'PERING, peevish crying.--_adv._ WHIM'PERINGLY.--BE ON THE WHIMPER, to be peevish and ready to cry. [Scot. _whimmer_; Ger. _wimmern_; perh. from the root of _whine_.] WHIMPLE, hwim'pl (_Spens._). Same as WIMPLE. WHIN, hwin, _n._ gorse, furze.--_n._ WHIN'-CHAT, a bird very similar in appearance, esp. when it assumes its duller autumn plumage, to the Stone-chat, a summer visitant of Britain.--_adj._ WHIN'NY, abounding in whins. [W. _chwyn_, weeds.] WHIN, hwin, _n._ See WHINSTONE. WHINE, hw[=i]n, _v.i._ to utter a plaintive, shrill cry: to complain in an unmanly way.--_n._ a plaintive cry: an affected nasal tone of complaint.--_ns._ WH[=I]'NER; WH[=I]'NING.--_adv._ WH[=I]'NINGLY. [A.S. _hwínan_, to whine; Ice. _hvína_.] WHINGE, hwinj, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to whine. [_Whine_.] WHINGER, hwing'[.e]r, _n._ a dirk.--Also WHIN'IARD and WHIN'YARD. [Prob. a corr. of _hanger_.] WHINNOCK, hwin'ok, _n._ (_prov._) the smallest pig in a litter: a milk-pail. WHINNY, hwin'i, v.i, to neigh:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ whinn'ied.--_n._ a neigh. [Freq. of _whine_.] WHINSTONE, hwin'st[=o]n, _n._ a popular name in Scotland for any hard and compact kind of stone, as distinguished from sandstone or freestone and rocks of slaty structure.--Also WHIN. [Perh. corr. from _whernstone_, _quernstone_, stone suitable for querns.] WHINYARD. See WHINGER. WHIP, hwip, _n._ that which whips: a lash with a handle for punishing or driving: a driver, coachman: one who enforces the attendance of a political party: a whipper-in, the person who manages the hounds: a call made on members of parliament to be in their places against important divisions: a simple form of hoisting apparatus, a small tackle consisting of a single rope and block.--_v.t._ to strike with a lash: to drive or punish with lashes: to lash with sarcasm: (_coll._) to beat, outdo: to beat into a froth, as eggs, cream, &c.: to keep together, as a party: to fish with fly: to overlay, as one cord with another, to enwrap, lay regularly on: to sew lightly: to overcast, as a seam: to move quickly, snatch (with _up_, _away_, _out_).--_v.i._ to move nimbly: to make a cast in fishing with fly:--_pr.p._ whip'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ whipped, whipt.--_ns._ WHIP'-AND-DER'RY, a hoisting apparatus--same as _whip_ above; WHIP'CAT, a tailor; WHIP'CORD, cord for making whips.--_adj._ WHIP'CORDY, tough like whipcord.--_v.t._ WHIP'-GRAFT, to graft by fitting a tongue cut on the scion to a slit cut slopingly in the stock.--_ns._ WHIP'-HAND, the hand that holds the whip: advantage over; WHIP'-HAND'LE, the handle or stock of a whip: an advantage; WHIP'JACK, a poor whining seaman who never was at sea; WHIP'LASH, the lash of a whip; WHIP'PER, one who whips: an officer who inflicts the penalty of whipping; WHIP'PER-IN, one who keeps the hounds from wandering, and whips them in to the line of chase: one who enforces the discipline of a party; WHIP'PER-SNAP'PER, a pretentious but insignificant person; WHIP'PING, act of whipping: punishment with the whip or lash: a defeat: a binding of twine, as at the end of a rope: in bookbinding, the sewing of the edges of single leaves in sections by overcasting the thread--also WHIP'-STITCH'ING; WHIP'PING-BOY, a boy formerly educated along with a prince and bearing his punishments for him; WHIP'PING-CHEER (_Shak._), chastisement; WHIP'PING-POST, a post to which offenders are tied to be whipped: the punishment itself; WHIP'-SAW, a saw usually set in a frame, for dividing timber lengthwise, and commonly worked by two persons.--_v.t._ to cut with a whip-saw: to have the advantage of a person at every point.--_ns._ WHIP'-SNAKE, a name given in North America to various species of the genus _Masticophis_ (esp. _M. flagelliformis_, the coach-whip snake, four to five feet long, slender, and harmless), as also to species of _Philodryas_, of _Passerita_, &c.; WHIP'-SOCK'ET, a socket to hold the butt of a whip; WHIP'-STAFF, the handle of a whip; WHIP'STER (_Shak._), same as WHIPPER-SNAPPER; WHIP'-STITCH, a kind of half-ploughing--_raftering_: a hasty composition: a tailor; WHIP'-STOCK, the rod or handle of a whip.--_adjs._ WHIP'-TAIL, -TAILED, having a long, slender tail.--WHIP AND SPUR, with great haste; WHIP THE CAT, to practise small economies: to work by the day as a dressmaker going from house to house. [M. E. _whippen_; prob. a form of _wippen_--Old Dut. _wippen_, to shake, conn. with Old High Ger. _wipph_, swinging motion (Ger. _weifen_, to move), and akin to L. _vibr[=a]re_, to tremble.] WHIPPET, hwip'et, _n._ (_obs._) a kind of dog, a cross between a greyhound and spaniel. WHIPPLETREE. See WHIFFLETREE. WHIP-POOR-WILL, hwip'-p[=oo]r-wil', _n._ a species of goat-sucker, a native of North America. [So named from the fancied resemblance of its notes to the words _whip poor Will_.] WHIPPY, hwip'i, _adj._ (_Scot._) active, nimble.--_n._ a pert young woman. WHIR, hw[.e]r, _n._ a sound from rapid whirling.--_v.i._ to whirl round with a noise.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to hurry away with a whizzing sound:--_pr.p._ whir'ring; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ whirred.--_n._ WHIR'RING. [Dan. _hvirre_, to whirl; ult. imit.] WHIRL, hw[.e]rl, _n._ a turning with rapidity: anything that turns with velocity.--_v.i._ to revolve rapidly.--_v.t._ to turn round rapidly: to carry away rapidly, as on wheels.--_ns._ WHIRL'-ABOUT', anything that turns round rapidly; WHIRL'-BAT (_obs._), the ancient cestus; WHIRL'-BLAST, a whirling blast of wind; WHIRL'-BONE, the knee-cap; WHIRL'ER; WHIRL'IGIG, a child's toy which is spun or whirled rapidly round: a merry-go-round: anything that revolves rapidly: the water-beetle (_Gyrinus_): an ancient instrument of punishment, consisting of a pivoted wooden cage in which the prisoner was spun round; WHIRL'ING; WHIRL'ING-DER'VISH, one of an order of Mohammedan devotees who dance or spin round--the Mevlevis or dancing dervishes, founded in 1273; WHIRL'ING-T[=A]'BLE, -MACHINE', a machine exhibiting the effects of centripetal and centrifugal forces: an instrument used by potters; WHIRL'POOL, a circular current in a river or sea, produced by opposing tides, winds, or currents: an eddy; WHIRL'WIND, a violent aerial current, with a whirling, rotary, or spiral motion and wild circling rush. [Skeat explains M. E. _whirlen_ as a contraction for an assumed _whirf-le_, a freq. of Ice. _hvirfla_, to whirl, freq. of _hverfa_ (pa.t. _hvarf_), to turn round; Ger. _wirbeln_, to whirl.] WHIRRET, hwir'et, _n._ (_obs._) a blow.--_v.t._ to give a box on the ear to: to vex.--Also WHIRR'ICK. WHIRRY, hw[.e]r'i, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to fly rapidly. WHISH, hwish, _v.i._ to move with the whizzing sound of rapid motion. [Imit.] WHISH, hwish, _interj._ hush!--also WHISHT.--_adj._ (_obs._) silent. WHISK, hwisk, _v.t._ to move with a quick motion: to sweep or stir rapidly.--_v.i._ to move nimbly and rapidly.--_n._ a rapid sweeping motion: a small bunch of anything used for a brush: a small instrument for beating or whisking, esp. eggs.--_ns._ WHIS'KER, he who, or that which, whisks: the hair on the sides of a man's face (esp. in _pl._): the bristle on the face of a cat, &c.; WHISKERAN'DO, a whiskered person, in allusion to Don Ferolo _Whiskerandos_ in Sheridan's _Critic_.--_adjs._ WHISKERAN'DOED, WHIS'KERED, WHIS'KERY, having whiskers; WHIS'KING, moving briskly; WHIS'KY-FRIS'KY, flighty. [Scand., Ice. _visk_, a wisp of hay; Sw. _viska_, to wipe, Ger. _wischen_; prob. conn. with _wash_.] WHISK, hwisk, _n._ whist. [So called from the rapid action of sweeping the cards off the table after a trick has been won.] WHISKET, hwis'ket, _n._ (_prov._) a basket. WHISKY, WHISKEY, hwis'ki, _n._ a spirit made by the distillation of the fermented extract from malted and unmalted cereals, potatoes, or any starch-yielding material--the best qualities made either from malted barley alone, or from a mixed grist of barley-malt and dried barley and oats.--_adjs._ WHIS'KIFIED, WHIS'KEYFIED, intoxicated.--_n._ WHIS'KY-LIV'ER, cirrhosis of the liver, from too much whisky.--WHISKY INSURRECTION, an outbreak against the excise regulations which occurred in Western Pennsylvania in 1794; WHISKY TODDY, toddy having whisky for its chief ingredient. [Gael. _uisge beatha_--_uisge_, water, _beatha_, life; cf. L. _vita_, Gr. _bios_, life.] WHISKY, WHISKEY, hwis'ki, _n._ a light gig. WHISKY-JACK, hwis'ki-jak, _n._ the gray or Canada jay.--Also WHIS'KY-JOHN. [Amer. Ind. _wiss-ka-tjan_.] WHISPER, hwis'p[.e]r, _v.i._ to speak with a low sound: to speak very softly: to plot secretly.--_v.t._ to utter in a low voice or under the breath.--_n._ a low, hissing voice or sound: cautious or timorous speaking: a secret hint: a low rustling sound.--_ns._ WHIS'PERER, one who whispers: (_B._) a secret informer; WHIS'PERING, whispered talk: insinuation.--_adj._ like a whisper.--_n._ WHIS'PERING-GALL'ERY, a gallery or dome so constructed that a whisper or slight sound is carried to an unusual distance.--_advs._ WHIS'PERINGLY, in a whisper or low voice; WHIS'PEROUSLY, in a whisper. [A.S. _hwisprian_; Ger. _wispern_, Ice. _hvískra_; allied to _whistle_.] WHIST, hwist, _adj._ hushed: silent.--_v.i._ to become silent.--_v.t._ (_Spens._) to hush or silence.--_interj._ hush! silence! be still! [Akin to _hist!_] WHIST, hwist, _n._ a well-known game at cards, played with the whole pack, by two against two.--_ns._ WHIST'-PLAY, play in the game of whist; WHIST'-PLAY'ER.--DUMMY WHIST (see Dummy); FIVE POINT WHIST, whist played without counting honours; LONG WHIST, a game of ten points with honours counting; SHORT WHIST, the game of five points, without honours. [Orig. _whisk_. Cf. _Whisk_.] WHISTLE, hwis'l, _v.i._ to make a shrill sound by forcing the breath through the lips contracted: to make a like sound with an instrument: to sound shrill: to inform by whistling, to become informer.--_v.t._ to form or utter by whistling: to call by a whistle.--_n._ the sound made in whistling: a small wind instrument: an instrument sounded by escaping steam, used for signalling on railway-engines, steamships, &c.--_adj._ WHIS'TLE-DRUNK (_obs._), too drunk to whistle.--_ns._ WHIS'TLE-FISH, a rockling; WHIS'TLER, one who, or that which, whistles: a kind of marmot: a broken-winded horse; WHIS'TLING.--_adv._ WHIS'TLINGLY.--_n._ WHIS'TLING-SHOP (_slang_), a shebeen, the keeper being called a _whistler_.--WHISTLE DOWN THE WIND, to talk to no purpose; WHISTLE FOR, to summon by whistling; WHISTLE FOR A WIND, a superstitious practice of old sailors during a calm; WHISTLE OFF, to send off by a whistle: (_Shak._) turn loose.--GO WHISTLE (_Shak._), to go to the deuce; PAY FOR ONE'S WHISTLE, to pay highly for one's caprice; PIGS AND WHISTLES, an exclamation equivalent to 'The deuce!' or the like--also in phrase, 'To make pigs and whistles of anything'=to make a sad mess of it; WET ONE'S WHISTLE (_coll._), to take a drink of liquor; WORTH THE WHISTLE, worth the trouble of calling for. [A.S. _hwistlian_; Sw. _hvissla_; cf. _Whisper_.] WHIT, hwit, _n._ the smallest particle imaginable: a bit. [By-form of _wight_, a creature.] WHITE, hw[=i]t, _adj._ of the colour of pure snow: pale, pallid: colourless: pure: unblemished: purified from sin: bright: burnished without ornament: transparent and colourless, as of wine: pertaining to the Carmelite monks: gracious, favourable: (_U.S._) reliable, honest.--_n._ the colour of snow: anything white, as a white man, the mark at which an arrow is shot, the albuminous part of an egg.--_v.t._ to make white.--_ns._ WHITE'-ALLOY', a cheap alloy used to imitate silver; WHITE'-ANT, a termite.--_adj._ WHITE'-BACKED, having the back white or marked with white.--_ns._ WHITE'BAIT, the name by which the fry of the herring and sprat are known in the market, and when served for the table, esp. in London; WHITE'-BASS, a silvery serranoid fish of the American Great Lake region.--_adj._ WHITE'-BEAKED, having a white beak.--_ns._ WHITE'-BEAR, the polar bear; WHITE'-BEARD, an old man.-_adjs._ WHITE'-BEARD'ED; WHITE'-BELL'IED; WHITE'-BILLED.--_ns._ WHITE'BOY, a member of an association of Irish peasants first formed in County Tipperary about 1761--wearing white shirts--long noted for agrarian outrages; WHITE'BOYISM, the principles of the Whiteboys; WHITE'-BRASS, an alloy of copper and zinc.--_adj._ WHITE'-BREAST'ED.--_n.pl._ WHITE'CAPS (_U.S._), the name given to a self-constituted committee of persons who generally commit outrageous acts under the guise of serving the community.--_ns._ WHITE'CHAPEL-CART, a light two-wheeled spring-cart much used by London butchers, grocers, &c.; WHITE'-COPP'ER, a light-coloured alloy of copper.--_adjs._ WHITE'-CREST'ED, -CROWNED, having the crest or crown white--of birds.--_n.pl._ WHITE'-CROPS, grain, as barley, rye, wheat.--_ns._ WHITE'-DAMP, carbonic oxide, a poisonous but not inflammable gas found in coal-mines in the after-damp; WHITE'-EL'EPHANT (see ELEPHANT).--_adjs._ WHITE'-FACED, having a face pale with fear or from illness: with white front, forehead--also WHITE'-FRONT'ED; WHITE'-F[=A]'VOURED, wearing white favours.--_ns._ WHITE'-FEATH'ER (see FEATHER); WHITE'FISH, a general name for such fish as the whiting, haddock, menhaden, &c.: the largest of all the _Coregoni_ or American lake whitefish; WHITE'FRIAR, one of the Carmelite order of friars, so called from their white dress.--_adj._ WHITE'-HAND'ED, having white hands unstained with guilt.--_ns._ WHITE'-HASS (_Scot._), an oatmeal and suet pudding; WHITE'HEAD, the blue-winged snow-goose: a breed of domestic pigeons, a white-tailed monk; WHITE'-HEAT, the degree of heat at which bodies become white; WHITE'-HERR'ING, a fresh or uncured herring; WHITE'-HON'EYSUCKLE, the clammy azalea; WHITE'-HORSE, the name applied to a figure of a horse on a hillside, formed by removing the turf so as to show the underlying chalk--the most famous in Berkshire, at Uffington, traditionally supposed to commemorate Alfred the Great's victory of Ashdown (871)--periodically 'scoured' or cleaned from turf, &c.--_adj._ WHITE'-HOT.--_ns._ WHITE'-[=I]RON, pig-iron in which the carbon is almost entirely in chemical combination with the iron; WHITE'-L[=A]'DY, a spectral figure which appears in many of the castles of Germany, as at Ansbach, Baireuth, Altenburg, &c., by night as well as by day, particularly when the death of any member of the family is imminent; WHITE'-LAND, land with a stiff clayey soil white when dry; WHITE'LEAD, a carbonate of lead used in painting white; WHITE'-LEATH'ER (see LEATHER); WHITE'-LEG, an ailment of women after parturition--also _Milk-leg_; WHITE'-LIE (see LIE); WHITE'-LIGHT, ordinary sunlight; WHITE'-LIME, whitewash.--_adjs._ WHITE'-LIMED, whitewashed; WHITE'-LIST'ED, having white lists or stripes on a darker ground; WHITE'-LIV'ERED, having a pale look, so called because thought to be caused by a white liver: cowardly: malicious; WHITE'LY (_Shak._), coming near to white, white-faced.--_ns._ WHITE'-MEAT, food made of milk, butter, eggs, &c.: the flesh of poultry, rabbits, veal, &c.; WHITE'-MET'AL, a general name for alloys of light colour.--_v.t._ WH[=I]'TEN, to make white: to bleach.--_v.i._ to become or turn white.--_ns._ WH[=I]T'ENER; WHITE'NESS; WHITE'-POT, a Devonshire dish of sliced rolls, milk, eggs, sugar, &c. baked; WHITE'-PRECIP'ITATE, a white mercurial preparation used externally; WHITE'-PYR[=I]'TES, marcasite; WHITE'-RENT, the tinner's poll-tax of eightpence to the Duke of Cornwall: rent paid in silver.--_adj._ WHITE'-RUMPED.--_ns._ WHITES (see LEUCORRHOEA); WHITE'-SALT, salt dried and calcined; WHITE'SMITH, a worker in tinned or white iron: a tinsmith; WHITE'-SQUALL (see SQUALL); WHITE'STONE, granulite; WHITE'-SWELL'ING, a disease of the joints, esp. the knee, in which the synovial membrane passes into pulpy degeneration; WHITE'THORN, the common hawthorn; WHITE'THROAT, a bird of the same genus as the Blackcap, having the breast and belly of a brownish-white; WHITE'-VIT'RIOL, sulphate of zinc; WHITE'WASH, slaked quicklime, reduced to the consistency of milk by means of water, used for colouring walls and as a disinfectant: a wash for the skin: false colouring.--_v.t._ to cover with whitewash: to give a fair appearance to.--_ns._ WHITE'WASHER, one who whitewashes; WHITE'-WA'TER, shoal water near the shore, breakers: the foaming water in rapids, &c.; WHITE'-WAX, bleached beeswax: Chinese wax, or pela; WHITE'-WINE, any wine of clear transparent colour, as hock, &c.; WHITE'WING, the velvet scoter, scurf-duck: the chaffinch.--_adj._ WHITE'-WINGED.--_ns._ WHITE'WOOD, a name applied to a large number of trees or their timber--the American tulip-tree, white-wood cedar, cheesewood, &c.; WH[=I]'TING, a small sea-fish allied to the cod, so called from its white colour: ground chalk free from stony matter and other impurities, extensively used as a size-colour, &c.--also WHITE'NING, and SPANISH WHITE, PARIS WHITE (the finest); WH[=I]'TING-TIME (_Shak._), bleaching-time.--_adj._ WH[=I]'TISH, somewhat white.--_ns._ WH[=I]'TISHNESS; WH[=I]T'STER (_Shak._), a bleacher of cloth or clothes.--_adjs._ WH[=I]'TY, whitish; WH[=I]'TY-BROWN, white with a tinge of brown.--WHITE-HEADED EAGLE, the North American bald eagle; WHITE HORSE, a white-topped wave; WHITE HOUSE, a popular name of the official residence of the President of the United States at Washington; WHITE OF AN EGG, the albumen, the pellucid viscous fluid surrounding the yolk; WHITE OF THE EYE, that part of the ball of the eye which surrounds the iris or coloured part.--CHINA WHITE, a very pure variety of whitelead--also SILVER WHITE and FRENCH WHITE; PEARL WHITE, the basic nitrate of bismuth used as a cosmetic; ZINC WHITE, impure oxide of zinc.--MARK WITH A WHITE STONE (see STONE); SHOW THE WHITE FEATHER (see FEATHER). [A.S. _hwít_; Ice. _hvitr_, Ger. _weiss_.] WHITHER, hwith'[.e]r, _adv._ to what place? to which place: to what: whithersoever.--_adv._ WHITHERSOEV'ER, to whatever place.--NO WHITHER, to no place. [A.S. _hwider_, from the stem of _who_. Cf. _Thither_, _There_.] WHITLEATHER, hwit'leth-[.e]r, _n._ leather dressed with alum, white leather: the paxwax or nuchal ligament of the ox. WHITLOW, hwit'l[=o], _n._ a painful inflammatory affection of the fingers, almost always proceeding to suppuration, paronychia.--_n._ WHIT'LOW-GRASS, a small British saxifrage: the small _Draba verna_ of America. [A corr. of _whick-flaw_=quick-flaw. Cf. _Quick_ and _Flaw_.] WHIT-MONDAY, hwit'-mun'd[=a], _n._ the Monday following Whitsunday. WHITSOUR, hwit'sowr, _n._ a kind of summer apple. WHITSUN, hwit'sun, _adj._ pertaining to, or observed at, _Whitsuntide_.--_ns._ WHIT'SUN-ALE, a festival formerly held at WHITSUNTIDE; WHIT'SUNDAY, WHIT'SUNTIDE, the seventh Sunday after Easter, commemorating the day of Pentecost, when the converts in the primitive Church wore white robes: in Scotland, one of the term-days (May 15) on which rents, annuities, &c. are payable, the Whitsunday removal terms in towns being fixed as May 28; WHIT'SUNTIDE, the season of Pentecost, comprising the week following Pentecost Sunday; WHIT'SUN-WEEK, the week beginning with Whitsunday. WHITTAW, hwit'aw, _n._ (_prov._) a saddler.--Also WHITT'AWER. WHITTIE-WHATTIE, hwit'i-hwot'i, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to mutter, whisper.--_n._ language intended to deceive. WHITTLE, hwit'l, _v.t._ to pare or cut with a knife: to cut to an edge.--_v.i._ to cut wood aimlessly: (_obs. slang_) to confess at the gallows.--_n._ a small pocket-knife. [M. E. _thwitel_--A.S. _thwítan_, to cut.] WHITTLE, hwit'l, _n._ (_prov._) a woollen shawl: a blanket. [A.S. _hwítel_, a white mantle--_hwít_, white.] WHIZ, hwiz, _v.i._ to make a hissing sound, like an arrow or ball flying through the air:--_pr.p._ whiz'zing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ whizzed.--_n._ a hissing sound.--_ns._ WHIZ'ZER; WHIZ'ZING.--_adv._ WHIZ'ZINGLY. [Imit.; cf. _Wheeze_, _Whist_, and _Hiss_.] WHO, h[=oo], _pron._ (both _rel._ and _interrog._) what person? which person.--_pron._ WHOEV'ER, every one who: whatever person.--WHO BUT HE, who else? he only.--AS WHO SHOULD SAY, as if one should say.--THE WHO (_Shak._), who. [A.S. _hwá_; cog. with Goth. _hwas_, Ice. _hver_, Ger. _wer_; also with Sans. _kas_, Gr. _pos_, L. _quis_.] WHOA, hw[=o], _interj._ stop! WHOLE, h[=o]l, _adj._ sound, as in health (so in _B._): unimpaired: containing the total amount, number, &c.: all: not defective: complete: in mining, as yet unworked.--_n._ the entire thing: a system or combination of parts.--_adv._ wholly.--_adjs._ WHOLE'-COL'OURED, all of one colour; WHOLE'-FOOT'ED (_coll._) unreserved; WHOLE'-HEART'ED, -SOULED, noble: hearty, generous; WHOLE'-HOOFED, having undivided hoof; WHOLE'-LENGTH, giving the whole figure, as a portrait: full-length.--_n._ a portrait or statue giving the whole figure.--_ns._ WHOLE'NESS; WHOLE'S[=A]LE, sale of goods by the whole piece or large quantity.--_adj._ buying and selling in large quantities: extensive.--_n._ WHOLE'S[=A]LER, one who sells by wholesale.--_adjs._ WHOLE'-SKINNED, having an unbroken skin: unhurt: safe in reputation; WHOLE'SOME, healthy: sound: salutary: (_Shak._) prosperous.--_adv._ WHOLE'SOMELY.--_ns._ WHOLE'SOMENESS; WHOLE'-STITCH, a lace-making stitch used in filling.--_adv._ WHOLLY (h[=o]'li), completely, altogether.--_n._ WHOLTH, wholeness, soundness.--WHOLE NUMBER, a unit, or a number composed of units, an integral number.--UPON, ON, THE WHOLE, generally speaking, to sum up.--WITH WHOLE SKIN, safe, unscathed. [A.S. _hál_, healthy; Ice. _heill_, Ger. _heil_. By-form _hale_ (1).] WHOM, h[=oo]m, _pron._ objective case of _who_.--_prons._ WHOMEV'ER, WHOMSOEV'ER, objective case of _whoever_, _whosoever_. [A.S. _hwám_, which was orig. dat. of _hwá_, who, and replaced in the 12th and 13th centuries the older accus. _hwone_.] WHOMMLE, hwom'l, WHOMBLE, hwomb'l, _v.t._ (_prov._). Same as WHEMMLE. WHOOBUB, h[=oo]'bub, _n._ (_Shak._). Same as HUBBUB. WHOOP, hw[=oo]p, or h[=oo]p, _n._ a loud eager cry.--_v.i._ to give a clear, sharp cry: to shout in scorn, eagerness, &c.--_v.t._ to insult with shouts.--_interj._ (_Shak._) ho!--_ns._ WHOOP'ER, one who whoops: a species of swan; WHOOP'ING-COUGH, HOOPING-COUGH, an infectious and epidemic disease, mostly attacking children under ten, esp. in spring and autumn, its characteristic sign a cough occurring in paroxysms consisting of a series of short expiratory puffs followed by a deep inspiration of air through the contracted cleft of the glottis. [O. Fr. _houper_, to shout; cf. _Houp!_ _Houp-la!_ Perh. of Teut. origin, cog. with Goth. _w[=o]pjan_, to crow.] WHOOT. See HOOT. WHOP, WHAP, hwop, _v.t._ (_coll._) to whip.--_v.i._ to flop on the ground.--_n._ WHOP'PER, one who whops: anything very large, esp. a monstrous lie.--_adj._ WHOP'PING (_slang_), very large. [_Whip_.] WHORE, h[=o]r, _n._ a woman who prostitutes her body for hire, a prostitute, harlot, strumpet, hence any unchaste woman.--_v.i._ to practise lewdness.--_v.t._ to corrupt by lewd commerce.--_ns._ WHORE'DOM, unlawful sexual intercourse: idolatry; WHORE'HOUSE, a brothel; WHORE'MASTER (_Shak._), a pimp.--_adj._ WHORE'MASTERLY, libidinous.--_ns._ WHORE'MONGER, a lecher: a pander; WHORE'SON (_Shak._), a bastard.--_adj._ mean, scurvy.--_adj._ WH[=O]'RISH.--_adv._ WH[=O]'RISHLY.--_n._ WH[=O]'RISHNESS. [Ice. _hóra_, an adulteress, fem. of _hórr_, an adulterer. The word was confused with A.S. _horu_ (Old High Ger. _horo_), dirt. There is no connection with _hire_.] WHORL, hworl, _n._ a number of leaves in a circle round the stem: a turn in a spiral shell: a volution--e.g. in the ear: the fly of a spindle.--_p.adj._ WHORLED, having whorls: arranged in the form of a whorl or whorls. [By-form of _whirl_.] WHORTLEBERRY, hwor'tl-ber-i, _n._ a widely-spread health plant with a purple edible berry, called also the _Bilberry_--in Scotland, _Blaeberry_--sometimes abbrev. WHORT. [A.S. _wyrtil_, a shrub (Ger. _wurzel_, root), dim. of _wyrt_, root, and _berie_, berry; confused rather than conn. with A.S. _heort berge_, berry of the buckthorn.] WHOSE, h[=oo]z, _pron._ the possessive case of _who_ or _which_.--_pron._ WHOSESOEV'ER (_B._), of whomsoever. [M. E. _hwas_--A.S. _hwæs_, gen. of _hwá_, who.] WHOSO, h[=oo]'so, WHOSOEVER, h[=oo]-so-ev'[.e]r, _indef. rel. pron._ every one who: whoever. WHOT, hwot, _adj._ (_Spens._). Same as HOT. WHUMMLE, a form of _whemmle_. WHUNSTANE, a form of _whinstone_. WHY, hw[=i], _adv._ and _conj._ for what cause or reason? on which account: wherefore.--_interj._ used us an expletive or exclamation.--_n._ WHY'-NOT (_obs._), a dilemma.--WHY, SO (_Shak._), an expression of unwilling consent.--THE CAUSE WHY, THE REASON WHY, the reason why a thing is, or is to be done; THE WHY AND WHEREFORE, the whole reason. [A.S. _hwí_, _hwý_, instrumental case of _hwá_, who.] WHYDAH, WHIDAH, hwid'a, _n._ a genus of birds of the Weaver family, natives of the tropical parts of Africa, often brought to Britain as cage-birds. [From the country of _Whydah_ in Dahomey.] WICK, wik, _n._ a creek. [Ice. _vík_, a bay. Cf. _Viking_.] WICK, wik, _v.t._ in curling, to strike a stone in an oblique direction. [Prob. A.S. _wícan_, to bend.] WICK, wik, _n._ the twisted threads of cotton or other substance in a candle or lamp which draw up the inflammable liquid to a flame. [A.S. _weoca_; allied to _weak_--A.S. _wác_.] WICK, wik, _adj._ (_prov._) quick, alive.--_n._ a lively person. WICK, wik, _n._ a village or town, as in Ber_wick_, Green_wich_. [A.S. _wíc_--L. _vicus_, a village.] WICKED, wik'ed, _adj._ evil in principle or practice: deviating from morality: sinful: ungodly: mischievous: (_prov._) active, brisk.--_n._ (_B._) a wicked person, (_pl._) wicked persons collectively.--_adv._ WICK'EDLY.--_n._ WICK'EDNESS.--WICKED BIBLE, an edition printed in 1632 in which the word 'not' was omitted in Exodus xx. 14.--THE WICKED ONE, the devil. [Orig. a pa.p. with the sense 'rendered evil' from _wikken_, to make evil, _wikke_, bad; A.S. _wicca_, wizard.] WICKEN, wik'n, _n._ the mountain-ash or rowan-tree.--Also WICK'Y. WICKER, wik'[.e]r, _n._ a small pliant twig or osier: wickerwork.--_adj._ made of twigs or osiers.--_adj._ WICK'ERED, made of wicker: covered with wickerwork.--_n._ WICK'ERWORK, basketwork of any kind. [M. E. _wiker_--A.S. _wicen_, pa.p. of _wícan_, to bend.] WICKET, wik'et, _n._ a small gate: one of three upright rods bowled at in cricket: a batsman's stay at the wicket: the ground where the wickets are placed.--_ns._ WICK'ET-DOOR, -GATE, a wicket; WICK'ET-KEEP'ER, in cricket, the fieldsman who stands immediately behind the wicket. [O. Fr. _wiket_ (Fr. _guichet_), a dim. form, prob. from Ice. _vik-inn_, pa.p. of _víkja_, to move; cf. A.S. _wícan_, to bend.] WIDDERSHINS, WIDERSHINS, &c. See WITHERSHINS. WIDDY, wid'i, provincial form of _widow_ and of _withy_ (see WITHE). WIDE, w[=i]d, _adj._ extended far: having a considerable distance between: broad: distant: bulging, expanded: deviating, errant, wild.--_n._ wideness: in cricket, a ball that goes wide of the wicket, counting one to the batting side.--_advs._ W[=I]DE, W[=I]DE'LY.--_adj._ W[=I]DE'-AWAKE', fully awake: on the alert: ready.--_n._ a kind of soft felt hat.--_n._ W[=I]DE'AWAKENESS.--_adj._ W[=I]DE'-CHAPPED, wide-mouthed.--_v.t._ and v.i, W[=I]'DEN, to make or grow wide or wider: (_Shak._) to throw open.--_ns._ W[=I]DE'NER, one who, or that which, widens: a kind of tool; W[=I]DE'NESS, width.--_adjs._ W[=I]DE'-SPREAD, diffused; W[=I]DE'-STRETCHED (_Shak._), large; W[=I]DE'-WA'TERED, bordered or covered by wide waters.--_n._ WIDTH, wideness, breadth. [A.S. _wíd_; Ice. _víthr_, Ger. _weit_.] WIDGEON, WIGEON, wij'on, _n._ a genus of Ducks having the bill shorter than the head, the legs short, the feet rather small, the wings long and pointed, and the tail wedge-shaped: a fool. [O. Fr. _vigeon_--L. _vipio_, _vipionis_, a small crane.] WIDOW, wid'[=o], _n._ a woman who has lost her husband by death.--_v.t._ to bereave of a husband: to strip of anything valued: (_Shak._) to endow with a widow's right: to be widow to.--_ns._ WID'OW-BENCH, a widow's share of her husband's estate besides her jointure; WID'OW-BEWITCHED', a grass-widow; WID'OW-BIRD, a corruption of WHYDAH-BIRD; WID'OWER, a man whose wife is dead; WID'OWERHOOD; WID'OWHOOD, state of being a widow, or (rarely) of being a widower: (_Shak._) a widow's right; WID'OW-HUN'TER, one who seeks to marry a widow for her money; WID'OW-M[=A]'KER, one who bereaves women of their husbands; WID'OW'S-CHAM'BER, the apparel and bedroom furniture of the widow of a London freeman, to which she was entitled; WID'OW-WAIL, a dwarf shrub with pink, sweet-scented flowers, native to Spain and southern France.--WIDOW'S LAWN, a fine thin muslin; WIDOW'S MAN, a fictitious person; WIDOW'S SILK, a silk fabric with dull surface, for mournings; WIDOW'S WEEDS, the mourning dress of a widow. [A.S. _widwe_, _wuduwe_; Ger. _wittwe_, L. _vidua_, bereft of a husband, Sans. _vidhav[=a]_.] WIELD, w[=e]ld, _v.t._ to use with full command: to manage: to use.--_adj._ WIEL'DABLE, capable of being wielded.--_ns._ WIEL'DER; WIEL'DINESS.--_adjs._ WIELD'LESS (_Spens._), not capable of being wielded, unmanageable; WIEL'DY, capable of being wielded: manageable: dexterous, active.--WIELD THE SCEPTRE, to have supreme command or control. [A.S. _geweldan_--_wealdan_; Goth. _waldan_, Ger. _walten_.] WIERY, w[=e]'ri, _adj._ (_obs._) wet, marshy, moist. [A.S. _wær_, a pond.] WIFE, w[=i]f, _n._ a woman: a married woman: the mistress of a house, a hostess--often in this sense 'goodwife.'--_n._ WIFE'HOOD, the state of being a wife.--_adjs._ WIFE'LESS, without a wife; WIFE'-LIKE, WIFE'LY. [A.S. _wíf_; Ice. _víf_, Ger. _weib_; not conn. with weave.] WIG, wig, _n._ an artificial covering of hair for the head, worn to conceal baldness, formerly for fashion's sake, as in the full-dress _full-bottomed_ form of Queen Anne's time, still worn by the Speaker and by judges, and the smaller _tie-wig_, still represented by the judge's undress wig and the barrister's or advocate's frizzed wig: a judge. (For BAG-WIG, see BAG.)--_n._ WIG'-BLOCK, a block or shaped piece of wood for fitting a wig on.--_adj._ WIGGED, wearing a wig.--_n._ WIG'GERY, false hair: excess of formality.--_adj._ WIG'LESS, without a wig.--_n._ WIG'-M[=A]'KER, a maker of wigs. [Short for _periwig_.] WIG, wig, _v.t._ (_coll._) to scold.--_n._ WIG'GING, a scolding. [Prob. derived from 'to snatch at one's wig,' to handle roughly.] WIGAN, wig'an, _n._ a stiff canvas-like fabric for stiffening shirts, borders, &c. [_Wigan_, the town.] WIGEON. See WIDGEON. WIGGLE, wig'l, _v.i._ (_prov._) to waggle, wriggle.--_n._ a wiggling motion.--_n._ WIGG'LER, one who wriggles. WIGHT, w[=i]t, _n._ a creature or a person--used chiefly in sport or irony. [A.S. _wiht_, a creature, prob. from _wegan_, to move, carry; Ger. _wicht_. Cf. _Whit_.] WIGHT, w[=i]t, _adj._ swift, nimble: courageous, strong.--_adv._ WIGHT'LY, swiftly, nimbly. [Ice. _vígr_, warlike--_víg_, war (A.S. _wíg_).] WIGWAG, wig'wag, _v.i._ to twist about, to signal by means of flags.--_adj._ twisting.--_adv._ to and fro. WIGWAM, wig'wam, _n._ an Indian hut. [Eng. corr. of Algonkin word.] WILD, w[=i]ld, _adj._ frolicsome, light-hearted: being in a state of nature: not tamed or cultivated: uncivilised: desert: unsheltered: violent: eager, keen: licentious: fantastic: wide of the mark.--_n._ an uncultivated region: a forest or desert.--_ns._ W[=I]LD'-ASS, an Asiatic or African ass living naturally in a wild state; W[=I]LD'-BOAR, a wild swine or animal of the hog kind.--_adj._ W[=I]LD'-BORN, born in a wild state.--_n._ W[=I]LD'-CAT, the undomesticated cat.--_adj._ (_U.S._) haphazard, reckless, unsound financially.--_ns._ W[=I]LD'-CHERR'Y, any uncultivated tree bearing cherries, or its fruit; W[=I]LD'-DUCK, any duck excepting the domesticated duck.--_v.t._ WILDER (wil'd[.e]r), to bewilder.--_v.i._ to wander widely or wildly.--_adv._ WIL'DEREDLY, in a wildered manner.--_ns._ WIL'DERING, any plant growing wild, esp. one that has escaped from a state of cultivation; WIL'DERMENT, confusion; WIL'DERNESS, a wild or waste place: an uncultivated region: a confused mass: (_Shak._) wildness; W[=I]LD'-FIRE, a composition of inflammable materials: a kind of lightning flitting at intervals: a disease of sheep; W[=I]LD'-FOWL, the birds of the duck tribe: game-birds; W[=I]LD'-FOWL'ING, the pursuit of wild-fowl; W[=I]LD'-GOOSE, a bird of the goose kind which is wild or feral; W[=I]LD'-GOOSE-CHASE (see CHASE); W[=I]LD-HON'EY, the honey of wild bees; W[=I]LD'ING, that which grows wild or without cultivation: a wild crab-apple.--_adj._ uncultivated.--_adj._ W[=I]LD'ISH, somewhat wild.--_n._ W[=I]LD'-LAND, land completely uncultivated.--_adv._ W[=I]LD'LY.--_ns._ W[=I]LD'NESS; W[=I]LD'-OAT, a tall perennial Old World grass.--_adj._ W[=I]LD'-WOOD, belonging to wild uncultivated wood.--_n._ a forest.--WILD ANIMALS, undomesticated animals; WILD BIRDS, birds not domesticated, esp. those protected at certain seasons under the Act of 1880; WILD HUNT, the name given in Germany to a noise sometimes heard in the air at night, mostly between Christmas and Epiphany, as of a host of spirits rushing along, accompanied by the shouting of huntsmen and the baying of dogs--the 'Seven Whistlers' and 'Gabriel's Hounds' of our own north country; WILD SHOT, a chance shot.--_Run wild_, to take to loose living: to revert to the wild or uncultivated state; SOW WILD OATS (see OAT). [A.S. _wild_; prob. orig. 'self-willed,' from the root of _will_; Ger. _wild_.] WILD, w[=i]ld, a variety of _weald_. WILDGRAVE, w[=i]ld'gr[=a]v, _n._ a German noble, whose office was connected with hunting. [Ger. _wild_, game, _graf_, count.] WILE, w[=i]l, _n._ a trick: a sly artifice.--_v.t._ to beguile, inveigle: coax, cajole: to make to pass easily or pleasantly (confused with _while_).--_adj._ WILE'FUL, full of wiles. [A.S. _wíl_, _wíle_; Ice. _vél_, _væl_, a trick. Doublet _guile_.] WILL, wil, _n._ power of choosing or determining: volition: choice or determination: pleasure: command: arbitrary disposal: feeling towards, as in good or ill will: disposition of one's effects at death, the written document containing such.--_v.i._ to have a wish, desire: to resolve, be resolved: to be accustomed, certain, ready, or sure (to do, &c.)--used as an auxiliary, esp. in future constructions: to exercise the will: to decree: (_B._) to be willing.--_v.t._ to wish, desire: to determine: to be resolved to do: to command: to dispose of by will: to subject to another's will, as in hypnotism:--_pa.t._ would.--_adj._ WIL'FUL, governed only by one's will: done or suffered by design: obstinate: (_Shak._) willing.--_adv._ WIL'FULLY.--_n._ WIL'FULNESS.--_adj._ WILLED, having a will: brought under another's will.--_n._ WILL'ER, one who wishes, one who wills.--_adjs._ WILL'ING, having the will inclined to a thing: desirous: disposed: chosen; WILL'ING-HEART'ED, heartily consenting.--_adv._ WILL'INGLY.--_n._ WILL'INGNESS.--_adj._ WILL'YARD (_Scot._), wilful: shy.--_ns._ GOOD'-WILL (see GOOD); ILL'-WILL (see ILL).--AT WILL, at pleasure; CONJOINT, JOINT, WILL, a testamentary act by two persons jointly in the same instrument; HAVE ONE'S WILL, to obtain what one desires; TENANT AT WILL, one who holds lands at the will of the owner; WITH A WILL, with all one's heart; WORK ONE'S WILL, to do exactly what one wants. [A.S. _willa_, will--_willan_, _wyllan_, to wish; Goth. _wiljan_, Ger. _wollen_, L. _velle_.] WILLET, wil'et, _n._ a North American bird of the snipe family, belonging to the tattler group--also _Stone-curlew_. WILLIEWAUGHT, wil'i-wäht, _n._ (_Scot._), for _gude-willie waught_. [See WAUGHT.] WILL-O'-THE-WISP, wil'-o-the-wisp', _n._ the ignis-fatuus: any deluding person or thing. WILLOW, wil'[=o], _n._ any tree or shrub of the genus Salix, having slender, pliant branches: the wood of the willow: a cricket-bat.--_v.t._ to beat with willow rods, as in cleaning cotton, &c.--_adj._ WILL'OWED, abounding with, or containing, willows.--_n._ WILL'OW-HERB, a perennial herb (_Epilobium_) of the evening primrose family--also _Rose-bay_, _Bay-willow_, _French_ or _Persian willow_.--_adj._ WILL'OWISH, like a willow, slender and supple.--_ns._ WILL'OW-MACHINE', a machine for extracting dirt from hemp, cotton, &c.--also WILL'OW; WILL'OW-MOTH, a common British night-moth; WILL'OW-WAR'BLER, -WREN, a small European sylviine bird; WILL'OW-WEED, one of various species of _Polygonum_ or knot-weed: the purple loose-strife.--_adj._ WILL'OWY, abounding in willows: flexible, graceful.--_n._ WEEP'ING-WILL'OW, a very ornamental species, a native of the East, much planted in Britain on account of its beautiful pendent twigs.--BEDFORD WILLOW, a species whose bark is especially rich in salicin and in tannin; WHITE, or HUNTINGDON, WILLOW, the largest of British species, reaching a height of eighty feet. [A.S. _welig_; Low Ger. _wilge_, Dut. _wilg_.] WILL-WORSHIP, wil'-wur'ship, _n._ (_B._) worship that is self-invented, superstitious observance without divine authority. WILLY, wil'i, _n._ (_prov._) a willow basket. WILLY-NILLY, wil'i-nil'i, _adv._ willing or unwilling.--_adj._ vacillating. [_Will_ and _nill_.] WILT, wilt, _v.i._ to droop, lose energy.--_v.t._ to render limp or pithless. [Cf. _Welk_; cf. Ger. _welk_, withered.] WILT, wilt, 2d pers. sing. of _will_. WILY, w[=i]'li, _adj._ full of wiles or tricks: using craft or stratagem: artful: sly.--_adv._ W[=I]'LILY.--_n._ W[=I]'LINESS, cunning. WIMBLE, wim'bl, _n._ an instrument for boring holes, turned by a handle.--_v.t._ to bore through with such. [Scand., Dan. _vimmel_, auger; conn. with Old Dut. _weme_, a wimble, and _wemelen_, to whirl.] WIMBLE, wim'bl, _adj._ (_Spens._) active, nimble. [Sw. _vimmel_, giddy--_vima_, to be giddy; allied to _whim_.] WIMPLE, wim'pl, _n._ a hood or veil folded round the neck and face (still a part of a nun's dress): a flag.--_v.t._ to hide with a wimple: (_Shak._) to hoodwink: to lay in folds.--_v.i._ to ripple: (_Spens._) to lie in folds. [A.S. _wimpel_, a neck-covering; cf. Ger. _wimpel_, a pennon, Fr. _guimpe_, a nun's veil, Eng. _gimp_, a thin cloth for trimming.] WIN, win, _v.t._ to get by labour: to gain in contest: to allure to kindness, to gain: to achieve, effect: to attain: to induce: in mining, to sink down to a bed of coal: to obtain the favour of.--_v.i._ to gain the victory: to gain favour: (_prov._) to make one's way, to succeed in getting:--_pr.p._ win'ning; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ won (wun).--_n._ a victory, success.--_ns._ WIN'NER; WIN'NING, the act of one who wins: that which is won (usually in _pl._): a shaft or pit to open a bed of coal.--_adj._ influencing: attractive.--_adv._ WIN'NINGLY.--_ns._ WIN'NINGNESS; WIN'NING-POST, the goal of a race-course.--WIN BY A HEAD, to win very narrowly; WIN IN A CANTER, to win easily, as it were at an easy gallop; WIN ON, UPON, to gain upon, to obtain favour with; WIN, or GAIN, ONE'S SPURS, to earn one's knighthood by valour on the field, hence to gain recognition or reputation by merit of any kind. [A.S. _winnan_, to suffer, to struggle; Ice. _vinna_, to accomplish, Ger. _gewinnen_, to win.] WIN, win, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to dry by exposure to the wind. [_Wind_.] WINCE, wins, _v.i._ to shrink or start back: to be affected acutely, as by a sarcasm: to be restive, as a horse uneasy at its rider.--_n._ WIN'CER, one who winces. [O. Fr. _guinchir_, _ganchir_, to wince--Old High Ger. _wenkan_ (Ger. _wanken_), to wince. Allied to Eng. _wink_, and Ger. _winken_, to nod.] WINCEY, WINSEY, win'si, _n._ a cloth, plain or twilled, usually with a cotton warp and woollen filling--same as linsey-woolsey (q.v.). WINCH, winsh, _n._ the crank of a wheel or axle: a kind of hoisting machine: a dyer's reel suspended horizontally by the ends of its axis over the vat, so as to allow the cloth to descend into either compartment of the bath according as it is turned on the right or left.--Also WINCE. [A.S. _wince_, prob. orig. 'a bent handle,' and so akin to Eng. _wink_.] WIND, wind (_poet._ w[=i]nd), _n._ air in motion: breath: flatulence: anything insignificant: the wind instruments in an orchestra: air impregnated with scent: a hint or suggestion of something secret, publicity: (_slang_) a part of the body near the stomach: a disease of sheep in which the inflamed intestines are distended by gases.--_v.t._ (w[=i]nd) to sound or signal by blowing: to scent: (wind) to expose to the wind: to drive hard, so as to put out of breath: to allow to recover wind:--_pr.p._ w[=i]nd'ing and wind'ing; _pa.p._ wind'ed and wound.--_ns._ WIND'AGE, the difference between the size of the bore of a gun and that of the ball or shell: the influence of the wind in deflecting a missile; WIND'BAG, a person of mere words.--_adjs._ WIND'-BOUND, hindered from sailing by a contrary wind; WIND'-BR[=O]'KEN, affected with convulsive breathing--of a horse; WIND'-CHANG'ING, fickle.--_ns._ WIND'-CHART, a chart showing the direction of the wind; WIND'-CHEST, the box or reservoir that supplies compressed air to the pipes or reeds of an organ; WIND'-DROP'SY, tympanites; WIND'-EGG, an addle-egg, one soft-shelled or imperfectly formed; W[=I]ND'ER, one who sounds a horn: one who, or that which, winds or rolls; WIND'FALL, fruit blown off a tree by the wind: any unexpected money or other advantage.--_adj._ WINDFALL'EN, blown down by wind.--_ns._ WIND'-FLOW'ER, the wood-anemone; WIND'-FUR'NACE, any form of furnace using the natural draught of a chimney without aid of a bellows; WIND'-GALL, a puffy swelling about the fetlock joints of a horse; WIND'-GAUGE, an instrument for gauging or measuring the velocity of the wind: an appliance fixed to a gun by means of which the force of the wind is ascertained so that allowance may be made for it in sighting; WIND'-GUN, air-gun; WIND'-H[=O]'VER, the kestrel.--_adv._ WIND'ILY.--_ns._ WIND'INESS; WIND'-IN'STRUMENT, a musical instrument sounded by means of wind or by the breath.--_adj._ WIND'LESS, without wind.--_ns._ WIND'MILL, a mill for performing any class of work in which fixed machinery can be employed, and in which the motive-power is the force of the wind acting on a set of sails; WIND'PIPE, the passage for the breath between the mouth and lungs, the trachea.--_adj._ WIND'-RODE (_naut._), riding at anchor with head to the wind.--_ns._ WIND'ROSE, a graphic representation of the relative frequency of winds from different directions drawn with reference to a centre; WIND'ROW, a row of hay raked together to be made into cocks, a row of peats, &c., set up for drying; WIND'-SAIL (_naut._), a wide funnel of canvas used to convey a stream of air below deck.--_adj._ WIND'-SH[=A]'KEN, agitated by the wind.--_ns._ WIND'SIDE, the side next the wind; WIND'-SUCK'ER, the kestrel: a critic ready to fasten on any weak spot, however small or unimportant.--_adjs._ WIND'-SWIFT, swift as the wind; WIND'-TIGHT, air-tight.--_adv._ WIND'WARD, toward where the wind blows from.--_adj._ toward the wind.--_n._ the point from which the wind blows.--_adj._ WIND'Y.--A CAPFUL OF WIND, a slight breeze; BEFORE THE WIND, carried along by the wind; BETWEEN WIND AND WATER, that part of a ship's side which is now in, now out of, the water owing to the fluctuation of the waves: any vulnerable point; BROKEN WIND, a form of paroxysmal dyspnoea; CAST, or LAY, AN ANCHOR TO WINDWARD, to make prudent provision for the future; DOWN THE WIND, moving with the wind; FIGHT WINDMILLS, to struggle with imaginary opposition, as Don Quixote tilted at the windmill; GET ONE'S WIND, to recover one's breath; GET THE WIND OF, to get on the windward side of; GET TO WINDWARD OF, to secure an advantage over; GET WIND OF, to learn about, to be informed of; HAVE THE WIND OF, to be on the trail of; HOW THE WIND BLOWS, or LIES, the state of the wind: the position of affairs; IN THE WIND, astir, afoot; IN THE WIND'S EYE, IN THE TEETH OF THE WIND, right against the wind; SAIL CLOSE TO THE WIND, to keep the boat's head near enough to wind as to fill but not shake the sails: to be almost indecent; SECOND WIND, new powers of respiration succeeding to the first breathlessness; SOW THE WIND AND REAP THE WHIRLWIND, to act wrongly and receive a crushing retribution. [A.S. _wind_; Ice. _vindr_, Ger. _wind_, L. _ventus_, Gr. _a[=e]t[=e]s_, Sans. _v[=a]ta_, wind.] WIND, w[=i]nd, _v.t._ to turn: to twist: to coil: to haul or hoist, as by a winch: to encircle: to change: (_Spens._) to weave.--_v.i._ to turn completely or often: to turn round something: to twist: to move spirally: to meander: to beat about the bush:--_pr.p._ w[=i]nd'ing; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ wound.--_n._ W[=I]ND'ER, one who winds: an instrument for winding: a twisting plant.--_adj._ W[=I]ND'ING, curving, full of bends: twisted.--_n._ a turning: a twist.--_n._ W[=I]ND'ING-EN'GINE, a machine for hoisting.--_adv._ W[=I]ND'INGLY.--_ns._ W[=I]ND'ING-MACHINE', a twisting or warping machine; W[=I]ND'ING-SHEET, a sheet enwrapping a corpse: the dripping grease which clings to the side of a candle; W[=I]ND'-UP, the close.--WIND A SHIP, to turn her about end for end; WIND UP, to come to a conclusion: to tighten, to excite very much: to give new life to: to adjust for final settlement: (_Shak._) to restore to harmony. [A.S. _windan_; Ger. _winden_, Ice. _vinda_, Goth. _windan_. Cf. _Wend_, _Wander_.] WINDLASS, wind'las, _n._ a modification of the wheel and axle, used for raising weights, consisting of a revolving cylinder.--_v.i._ to use a windlass.--_v.t._ to hoist by means of such. [Skeat explains as a corruption, due to confusion with the succeeding word, of M. E. _windas_, a windlass--Ice. _vindáss_--_vinda_, to wind; Dut. _windas_.] WINDLASS, wind'las, _n._ (_Shak._) indirect, crafty action.--_v.i._ to take a round-about course. [For _wind-lace_, a winding course; from _wind_ (n.) and _lace_, a twist.] WINDLE, win'dl, _n._ an engine for turning: a dry measure. [A.S. _windel_--_windan_, to turn.] WINDLESTRAW, win'dl-straw, _n._ the stalk of various grasses. [A.S. _windel_, a woven basket, _streów_, straw.] WINDOW, win'd[=o], _n._ an opening in the wall of a building for air and light: the frame in the opening: a cover, lid.--_v.t._ to furnish with windows: (_Shak._) to make rents in: (_Shak._) to place in a window.--_ns._ WIND'OW-BAR, a wooden or iron bar fitted into a window for security: (_Shak._) lattice-work across a woman's stomacher; WIN'DOW-BLIND, a blind or screen for a window; WIN'DOW-BOLE (same as BOLE, 3); WIN'DOW-CUR'TAIN, a curtain hung over a window, inside a room.--_adj._ WIN'DOWED, having a window or windows.--_ns._ WIN'DOW-FRAME, a frame or case which surrounds a window; WIN'DOW-GAR'DENING, the cultivation of plants indoors before a window, or in boxes fitted on the outside sill; WIN'DOW-GLASS, glass suitable for windows.--_adj._ WIN'DOWLESS, having no windows.--_ns._ WIN'DOW-PANE, a square of glass set in a window; WIN'DOW-SASH, a light frame in which panes of glass are set; WIN'DOW-SCREEN, any device for filling the opening of a window; WIN'DOW-SEAT, a seat in the recess of a window; WIN'DOW-SHADE, a sheet covering the window when pulled out; WIN'DOW-SILL, the flat piece of wood at the bottom of a window-frame.--WINDOW TAX, till 1851 a tax in Great Britain levied on windows of houses.--BLIND WINDOW, a window space blocked up with masonry. [M. E. _windowe_--Ice. _vindauga_--_vindr_, wind, _auga_, eye.] WINDRING, w[=i]nd'ring, _adj._ (_Shak._) winding. WINDSOR, win'zor, _adj._ pertaining to _Windsor_, as in WIND'SOR-CHAIR, a kind of strong, plain, polished chair, made entirely of wood; WIND'SOR-SOAP, a kind of perfumed brown toilet-soap. WINE, w[=i]n, _n._ the fermented juice of the grape: a liquor made from other fruits: (_fig._) intoxication: a wine-drinking, a wine-party.--_ns._ WINE'-BAG, a wine-skin: a tippler; WINE'-BIBB'ER, a bibber or drinker of wine: a drunkard; WINE'-BIBB'ING; WINE'-BIS'CUIT, a sweet biscuit intended to be served with wine; WINE'-CASK, a cask for holding wine; WINE'-CELL'AR, a cellar for storing wine.--_adj._ WINE'-COL'OURED, of the colour of red wine.--_ns._ WINE'-COOL'ER, a receptacle for cooling wine in bottles about to be served at table; WINE'-FAT, the vat receiving the liquor from a wine-press; WINE'-GLASS, a small glass used in drinking wine; WINE'-GLASS'FUL; WINE'-GROW'ER, one who cultivates a vineyard and makes wine; WINE'-MEAS'URE, an old English liquid measure, its gallon 5/6 of the gallon in beer-measure, containing 231 cubic inches--the standard United States gallon; WINE'-MER'CHANT, a merchant who deals in wine, esp. at wholesale; WINE'-PAR'TY, a drinking-party; WINE'-PRESS, a machine in which grapes are pressed in the manufacture of wine; WINE'-SKIN, a skin for holding wine; WINE'-STONE, crude argol; WINE'-T[=A]ST'ER, one whose business it is to sample wines; WINE'-VAULT, a vaulted wine-cellar: (_pl._) a place where wine is tasted or drunk.--ADAM'S WINE, water; RHINE, RHENISH, WINE, wine produced on the banks of the _Rhine_, esp. hock; SPIRIT OF WINE, alcohol; WHITE WINE, Chablis, Sauterne, the wines of Germany--formerly Madeira and sherry. [A.S. _wín_; Goth, _wein_, Ger. _wein_; all from L. _vinum_; cog. with Gr. _oinos_.] WING, wing, _n._ the organ of a bird, or other animal or insect, by which it flies: flight, means of flying: anything resembling a wing, any side-piece, the side of a building, &c.: one of the longer sides of crown-works or horn-works in fortification: the flank corps or division of an army on either side: the ships on either extremity of a fleet ranged in line: (_fig._) protection.--_v.t._ to furnish or transport with wings: to lend speed to: to supply with side-pieces: to bear in flight, to traverse by flying: to wound on the wing, to wound a person in arm or shoulder.--_v.i._ to soar on the wing.--_adv._ WING'-AND-WING', the condition of a ship sailing before the wind with studding sails on both sides.--_n._ WING'-CASE, the horny case or cover over the wings of some insects, as the beetle.--_adj._ WINGED, furnished with wings: swift: wounded in the wing: lofty, sublime: alate, abounding in wings.--_adv._ WING'EDLY, on or by wings.--_adjs._ WING'-FOOT'ED, having wings on the feet, aliped; WING'LESS, without wings.--_ns._ WING'LET, the bastard wing or alula of a bird: the pterygium of a weevil; WING'-SHELL, a stromb: an aviculoid bivalve, a hammer-oyster: a wing-snail; WING'-SHOOT'ING, the act or practice of shooting flying birds; WING'-SHOT, a shot at a bird on the wing: one who shoots flying birds.--_adj._ shot in the wing, or while on the wing.--_adj._ WING'Y, having wings: soaring on wings.--WINGED BULL, a common form in Assyrian sculpture, symbolic of domination.--MAKE, TAKE, WING, to depart; ON, UPON, THE WING, flying, in motion: departing; ON THE WINGS OF THE WIND, with the highest speed; UNDER ONE'S WING, under one's protection. [Ice. _vængr_, a wing; Sw. _vinge_.] WINK, wingk, _v.i._ to move the eyelids quickly: to give a hint by winking: to seem not to see, connive at (gener. with _at_): to flicker, twinkle, sparkle.--_v.t._ to close and open quickly.--_n._ act of winking: a hint given by winking.--_ns._ WINK'-A-PEEP, the scarlet pimpernel; WINK'ER, one who winks: a horse's blinkers: (_Shak._) an eye: the winking membrane of a bird's eye, the winking muscle: a small bellows in an organ, regulated by a spring, controlling variations of wind-pressure; WINK'ING, the act of winking.--_adv._ WINK'INGLY.--FORTY WINKS (_coll._), a short nap; LIKE WINKING (_slang_), very rapidly; TIP ONE THE WINK, to wink to one as a sign of caution, or of mutual understanding, &c. [A.S. _wincian_ (Ger. _winken_); akin to A.S. _wancol_, wavering.] WINKLE=_Periwinkle_ (q.v.). WINNA, win'a, a Scotch form for _will not_. WINNING, win'ing, _adj._ and _n._--_n._ WIN'NER.--_adv._ WIN'NINGLY. [_Win_.] WINNOCK, win'ok, _n._ (_Scot._) a window.--Also WIN'DOCK. WINNOW, win'[=o], _v.i._ to separate the chaff from the grain by wind: to fan: to examine: to sift: to blow upon: (_Milt._) to set in motion: (_rare_) to flap, flutter.--_v.i._ to separate chaff from grain.--_n._ a fan for winnowing.--_ns._ WINN'OWER; WINN'OWING; WINN'OWING-FAN, -MACHINE', a fan, machine, for winnowing. [A.S. _windwian_, to winnow.] WINSEY=_Wincey_ (q.v.). WINSOME, win'sum, _adj._ cheerful: pleasant: attractive.--_adv._ WIN'SOMELY.--_n._ WIN'SOMENESS. [A.S. _wyn-sum_, pleasant--_wyn_, joy (Ger. _wonne_).] WINTER, win't[.e]r, _n._ the cold season of the year: a year: any season of cheerlessness: the last corn of the harvest, a harvest festival.--_adj._ wintry.--_v.i._ to pass the winter.--_v.t._ to feed, or to detain, during winter.--_ns._ WIN'TER-APP'LE, an apple that keeps well in winter, or that does not ripen till winter; WIN'TER-BAR'LEY, a kind of barley which is sown in autumn.--_adj._ WIN'TER-BEAT'EN (_Spens._), beaten or injured by the cold of winter.--_ns._ WIN'TER-BERR'Y, a name given to several shrubs of the genus _Ilex_, growing in the eastern parts of North America; WIN'TER-BLOOM, the witch-hazel; WIN'TER-BOURNE, an intermittent spring in the chalk-districts; WIN'TER-CHERR'Y, one of the _Solanaceæ_, a plant with edible red berries--also called in the United States _Strawberry-tomatoes_: the Balloon-vine, having large triangular, inflated fruit.--_adj._ WIN'TER-CLAD, warmly clad.--_ns._ WIN'TER-CLOV'ER, the partridge-berry; WIN'TER-CRESS, a cruciferous plant, cultivated for winter salad; WIN'TER-CROP, a crop that will endure the winter, or that yields fodder in winter-time.--_adj._ WIN'TERED, having seen many winters: exposed to winter: (_Shak._) worn in winter.--_ns._ WIN'TER-FALL'OW, a fallow made in the winter; WIN'TER-GAR'DEN, an ornamental garden for winter; WIN'TER-GREEN, a plant of genus _Pyrola_, also of _Chimaphila_: a plant of genus _Gualtheria_, whose oil is an aromatic stimulant, used chiefly in flavouring confectionery and syrups.--_v.t._ WIN'TER-GROUND (_Shak._), to protect, as a plant, from the inclemency of winter.--_ns._ WIN'TER-LODGE, -LODG'MENT, the hibernacle of a plant.--_adj._ WIN'TERLY, cheerless.--_n.pl._ WIN'TER-QUAR'TERS, the quarters of an army during winter: a winter residence.--_ns._ WIN'TER-SETT'LE, an old word for a winter dwelling; WIN'TER-TIDE, winter: WIN'TER-WHEAT, wheat sown in autumn; WIN'TRINESS.--_adjs._ WIN'TRY, WIN'TERY, resembling, or suitable to, winter: stormy. [A.S. _winter_; Ger. _winter_; of uncertain origin; not conn. with _wind_.] WINTER, win't[.e]r, _n._ an appliance for fixing on the front of a grate, to keep warm a tea-kettle or the like. WINTER'S-BARK, win't[.e]rs-bärk, _n._ a stimulant, aromatic, and tonic bark, named from Captain _Winter_, who first brought it from the Strait of Magellan in 1579. WINTLE, win'tl _v.i._ (_Scot._) to stagger.--_n._ a stagger. WINY, w[=i]'ni, _adj._ having the qualities of, or resembling, wine: influenced by wine. WINZE, winz, _n._ (_Scot._) a curse. [_Wish_.] WINZE, winz, _n._ in mining, a small ventilating shaft between two levels. [Prob. related to _winnow_.] WIPE, w[=i]p, _v.t._ to clean by rubbing (with _away_, _off_, _out_): cleanse, clear away: to apply solder to with a piece of cloth or leather: (_coll._) to beat.--_n._ act of cleaning by rubbing: a blow: a scar: (_slang_) handkerchief.--_ns._ W[=I]'PER; W[=I]'PING, the act of wiping: a thrashing. [A.S. _wípian_; cf. Low Ger. _wiep_, a wisp.] WIRE, w[=i]r, _n._ a thread of metal: the metal thread used in telegraphy, &c.: the string of an instrument: the slender shaft of the plumage of certain birds: a telegram: (_slang_) a clever pickpocket: (_Shak._) the lash, scourge.--_adj._ formed of wire.--_v.t._ to bind, snare, or supply with wire: to keep the ends of a broken bone together with wire: to send by telegraph.--_v.i._ to telegraph.--_n._ WIRE'-BRIDGE, a suspension-bridge.--_adj._ WIRED, having wiry feathers.--_n._ WIRE'-DAN'CER, a performer on a tight wire.--_v.t._ WIRE'-DRAW, to draw into wire: to draw or spin out to a great length: to strain or stretch the meaning of anything.--_ns._ WIRE'DRAWER; WIRE'DRAWING.--_adj._ WIRE'DRAWN, spun out into needless fine distinctions.--_ns._ WIRE'-GAUZE, a kind of stiff close fabric made of fine wire; WIRE'-GRASS, a kind of fine meadow-grass; WIRE'-GUARD, wire-netting placed in front of a fire; WIRE'-HEEL, a defect or disease of the foot; WIRE'-MAN, one who puts up or takes care of wires; WIRE'-NET'TING, WIRE'WORK, a texture of wire woven in the form of a net; WIRE'-PULL'ER, one who exercises an influence felt but not seen, as if the actors were his puppets and he pulled the wires that move them: an intriguer; WIRE'-PULL'ING; W[=I]'RER, a snarer; WIRE'-ROPE, a rope of twisted iron or steel.--_adj._ WIRE'-SEWED, -STITCHED, sewed with wire instead of thread.--_ns._ WIRE'WAY, transportation by means of wires; WIRE'WORK, articles made of wire; WIRE'WORKER; WIRE'WORKING; WIRE'-WORM, a name given to the larvæ of click-beetles, from their slenderness and uncommon hardness, very injurious to root, grain, and fodder crops.--_adj._ WIRE'WOVE, denoting a fine glazed quality of writing-paper.--_adv._ W[=I]'RILY.--_n._ W[=I]'RINESS, the state of being wiry.--_adj._ W[=I]'RY, made of, or like, wire: flexible and strong.--WIRE AWAY, or IN, to act with vigour.--PULL THE WIRES (see WIRE-PULLER above). [A.S. _wír_; Ice. _vírr_; perh. conn. with L. _viriæ_, bracelets.] WIS, wis, v. (in the form _I wis_) erroneously used as 'I know.' [I wis is the M. E. adv. _i-wis_--A.S. _ge-wis_, certainly; cf. Ger. _ge-wiss_.] WISARD, wiz'ard, _n._ Same as WIZARD. WISDOM, wiz'dum, _n._ quality of being wise: judgment: right use of knowledge: learning: (_B._) skilfulness, speculation, spiritual perception: the apocryphal Book of the Wisdom of Solomon (see APOCRYPHA).--_n._ WIS'DOM-TOOTH, a large double back-tooth, so called because it appears late, when people are supposed to have arrived at the age of wisdom. [A.S. _wísdóm_, wisdom. Cf. _Wise_.] WISE, w[=i]z, _adj._ having wit or knowledge: able to make use of knowledge well: judging rightly: discreet: learned: skilful: dictated by wisdom: containing wisdom: pious, godly.--_adjs._ WISE'-HEART'ED, having wisdom: prudent; WISE'-LIKE (_Scot._), sensible, judicious: looking as if capable of playing one's part well.--_n._ WISE'LING, one who pretends to be wise.--_adv._ WISE'LY.--_n._ WISE'NESS.--WISE WOMAN, a witch: (_Scot._) a midwife.--NEVER THE WISER, still in ignorance. [A.S. _wís_; Ger. _weise_; from root of _wit_.] WISE, w[=i]z, _v.t._ (_Scot._) to guide in a certain direction, to incline. WISE, w[=i]z, _n._ way, manner.--IN ANY WISE, IN NO WISE, in any way, in no way; ON THIS WISE, in this way. [A.S. _wíse_, orig. wiseness; Ger. _weise_; akin to _wise_ (1) and _wit_. Doublet _guise_.] WISEACRE, w[=i]'z[=a]-k[.e]r, _n._ one who pretends to wisdom without grounds, a simpleton quite unconscious of being such. [Perh. through the medium of Dutch from Ger. _weissager_, a soothsayer, _weissagen_, to foretell--Old High Ger. _w[=i]zago_, a prophet.] WISH, wish, _v.i._ to have a desire: to long (so in B.): to be inclined.--_v.t._ to desire or long for: to ask: to invoke: (_Shak._) to recommend.--_n._ desire, longing: thing desired: expression of desire.--_n._ WISH'ER.--_adj._ WISH'FUL, having a wish or desire: eager.--_adv._ WISH'FULLY.--_ns._ WISH'FULNESS; WISH'ING-BONE, WISH'-BONE, the furcula or merrythought of a fowl; WISH'ING-CAP, a cap by wearing which one obtains everything he wishes. [A.S. _wýscan_--_wúsc_, a wish; Ger. _wünschen_, Sw. _önska_.] WISHTONWISH, wish'ton-wish, _n._ the North American prairie-dog. [Amer. Ind.] WISH-WASH, wish'-wosh, _n._ (_coll._) anything wishy-washy.--_adj._ WISH'Y-WASH'Y, thin and weak, diluted, feeble. [Formed from _wash_.] WISKET, wis'ket, _n._ (_prov._) a basket. WISP, wisp, _n._ a small bundle of straw or hay: a small broom: will-o'-the-wisp: a disease affecting the feet of cattle.--_v.t._ to rub down with a wisp.--_adj._ WIS'PY, like a wisp. [M. E. _wisp_, _wips_, conn. with _wipe_; cf. Low Ger. _wiep_, Norw. _vippa_, a wisp.] WIST, wist, _v.pa.t._ (_B._) knew. [A.S. _wiste_, _pa.t._ of _witan_, 3d pers. sing. pr.t. _wát_, to know. Cf. _Wit_.] WISTARIA, wis-t[=a]'ri-a, _n._ a genus of leguminous plants, some of the species amongst the most magnificent ornamental climbers known in English gardens, named from the American anatomist, Caspar _Wistar_ (1761-1818). WISTFUL, wist'f[=oo]l, _adj._ hushed: full of thought: thoughtful: earnest: eager, wishful, longing.--_adv._ WIST'FULLY.--_n._ WIST'FULNESS.--_adv._ WIST'LY (_Shak._), silently, earnestly. [Most prob. for _whistful_, _whistly_--i.e. silently; and not conn. with _wish_. Skeat, however, makes it a substitution for _wishful_, confused with _wisly_=certainly--Ice. _viss_, certain (distinct from, yet allied to, _víss_, wise).] WISTITI=_Ouistiti_ (q.v.)--WIS'TIT (_obs._). WIT, wit, _v.i._ to know:--_pr.t._ 1st pers. sing. WOT; 2d, WOST (erroneously WOT'TEST); 3d, WOT (erroneously WOT'TETH):--_pl._ 1st, 2d, 3d, WOT; _pa.t._ WIST (erroneously WOT'TED); _pr.p._ WIT'TING, WEET'ING (erroneously WOT'TING); _pa.p._ WIST.--TO DO TO WIT, to cause to know; TO WIT, that is to say--the A.S. gerund _tó witanne_. [A.S. _witan_, to know (pr.t. ic _wát_, þu _wást_, he _wát_, pl. _witon_; pa.t. _wiste_--also _wisse_, pl. _wiston_, pa.p. _wist_); Goth. _witan_, Ger. _wissen_; cf. L. _vid[=e]re_, Gr. _idein_.] WIT, wit, _n._ understanding: a mental faculty (chiefly in _pl._): the power of combining ideas with a ludicrous effect, the result of this power: ingenuity: (_rare_) imagination: (_obs._) information.--_adj._ WIT'LESS, wanting wit or understanding: thoughtless.--_adv._ WIT'LESSLY.--_ns._ WIT'LESSNESS; WIT'LING, one who has little wit: a pretender to wit; WIT'-MONG'ER, a poor would-be wit; WIT'-SNAP'PER (_Shak._), one who affects wit or repartee.--_adj._ WIT'TED, having wit or understanding.--_n._ WITTICISM (wit'i-sizm), a witty remark: a sentence or phrase affectedly witty.--_adv._ WIT'TILY.--_n._ WIT'TINESS.--_adv._ WIT'TINGLY, knowingly: by design.--_adj._ WIT'TY, possessed of wit: amusing: droll: sarcastic: (_B._) ingenious: (_Shak._) wise, discreet.--_v.i._ WIT'WANTON, to indulge in irreverent wit.--AT ONE'S WITS' END, utterly perplexed; LIVE BY ONE'S WITS, to live in a haphazard manner by any shift; THE FIVE WITS, the five senses. [A.S. _wit_, from the verb above.] WIT, wit, _n._ a person of understanding or judgment, esp. a person who has a keen perception of the ludicrous and can express it neatly. [Perh. a use of the preceding word; others trace through A.S. _wita_, _gewita_, a counsellor--_witan_, to know.] WITAN, wit'an, _n.pl._ members of the _Witenagemot_. [Pl. of A.S. _wita_, a man of knowledge. See preceding words.] WITCH, wich, _n._ a woman regarded as having supernatural or magical power and knowledge through compact with the devil or some minor evil spirit: a hag, crone: (_coll._) a fascinating young girl: (_Shak._) a wizard.--_v.t._ to bewitch, to effect by means of witchcraft.--_ns._ WITCH'CRAFT, the craft or practice of witches: the black art, sorcery: supernatural power; WITCH'-DOC'TOR, a medicine-man; WITCH'ERY, witchcraft: fascination; WITCH'ES'-BROOM, a popular name for the broom-like tufts of branches developed on the silver-fir, birch, cherry, &c. by means of an uredineous fungus; WITCH'ES'-BUT'TER, a dark-brown fungus (see NOSTOC); WITCH'ES'-THIM'BLE, the sea-campion; WITCH'-FIND'ER, one whose business was to detect witches.--_adj._ WITCH'ING, weird: fascinating.--_adv._ WITCH'INGLY.--_ns._ WITCH'-KNOT, a knot, esp. in the hair, tied by means of witchcraft; WITCH'-MEAL, the inflammable pollen of the club-moss.--_adj._ WITCH'-RIDD'EN, ridden by witches.--_n._ WITCH'-WIFE, a woman who practises witchcraft. [M. E. _wicche_ (both masc. and fem.)--A.S. _wicca_ (masc.), wicce (fem.), wizard, witch; prob. reduced from _wítega_, _wítiga_, _witga_, a seer (Old High Ger. _w[=i]zago_)--a supposed adj. _wítig_, seeing--_wítan_, to see, allied to _witan_, to know. For the change, cf. _Orchard_--A.S. _ortgeard_. Cf. _Wit_ and _Wicked_.] WITCH, WITCH-ELM, wich, wich'-elm, _n._ the common wild elm--also WITCH'-H[=A]'ZEL.--_n._ WITCH'EN, the mountain-ash or rowan. [A.S. _wice_, the service-tree--_wícan_, to bend.] WIT-CRACKER, wit'-krak'[.e]r, _n._ (_Shak._) a joker, jester. WITE, w[=i]t, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to blame, to reproach.--_n._ (_Spens._) blame, reproach.--_adj._ WITE'LESS (_Spens._), blameless. [A.S. _wítan_, to punish, fine (Ice. _víta_); ult. conn. with _witan_, to know.] WITENAGEMOT, wit'e-na-ge-m[=o]t', _n._ the supreme council of England in Anglo-Saxon times, composed of the bishops, the ealdormen of shires, and a number of the king's friends and dependents, the king's thanes. It was thus purely a council of royal officers and territorial magnates, not at all resembling the representative House of Commons. [A.S. _witena gemót_--_wita_, a wise man, _gemót_, a meeting.] WITH, _n._ Same as WITHE. WITH, wi_th_, _prep._ denoting nearness, agreement, or connection: by: in competition or contrast: on the side of: immediately after: among: possessing: in respect of, in the regard of: like: by, by means of, through: showing, using: from.--_adv._ WITHAL', with all or the rest: likewise: moreover.--_prep._ an emphatic form of with.--WITH THAT, thereupon. [A.S. _wið_; Ice. _við_, Ger. _wider_. It absorbed the A.S. _mid_, with (Ger. _mit_).] WITHDRAW, with-draw', _v.t._ to draw back or away: to take back: to recall.--_v.i._ to retire: to go away.--_ns._ WITHDRAW'AL, WITHDRAW'MENT; WITHDRAW'ER; WITHDRAW'ING-ROOM, a room used to retire into: a drawing-room. [Pfx. _with-_, against, and _draw_.] WITHE, with, or w[=i]_th_, WITHY, with'y, _n._ a flexible twig, esp. of willow: a band of twisted twigs: an elastic handle to a tool to save the hand from the shock of blows: a boom-iron.--_adj._ WITHY (with'i or w[=i]'_th_i), made of withes: like withes, flexible. [A.S. _withthe_, a form of _withig_, a withy; Ice. _vidhir_, Ger. _weide_, willow.] WITHER, with'[.e]r, _v.i._ to fade or become dry: to lose freshness: to shrink: waste.--_v.t._ to cause to dry up: to cause to decay, perish, waste.--_adj._ WITH'ERED, dried up.--_n._ WITH'EREDNESS.--_adj._ WITH'ERING, blasting, blighting, scorching.--_n._ WITH'ERING-FLOOR, the drying-floor of a malt-house.--_adv._ WITH'ERINGLY. [A.S. _wedrian_, to expose to weather.] WITHERS, wi_th_'[.e]rz, _n.pl._ the ridge between the shoulder-bones of a horse and behind the root of the neck.--_adj._ WITH'ER-WRUNG, injured in the withers. [A.S. _wither_, against, an extension of _with_, against.] WITHERSHINS, WIDDERSHINS, with'-, wid'[.e]r-shinz, _adv._ (_Scot._) in the contrary direction--to the left, contrary to the course of the sun, in the wrong way.--Also WIDD'ERSINS, WIDD'ERSINNIS. Cf. the Gaelic _deiseil_, to the right, going round in the way of the sun. [_Widder-_ is the Ice. _vithra_, against (A.S. _wither_, Ger. _wieder_, Dut. _weder_); _Sins_ is the adverbial genitive, from Ice. _sinni_, walk, movement, originally journey, cog. with A.S. _síth_, Goth. _sinths_, journey, Old High Ger. _sind_.] WITHHOLD, with-h[=o]ld', _v.t._ to hold back: to keep back.--_v.i._ to stay back:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ WITHHELD' (_arch. pa.p._ WITHHOL'DEN).--_ns._ WITHHOL'DER; WITHHOLD'MENT. [Pfx. _with-_, against, and _hold_.] WITHIN, with-in', _prep._ in the inner part: inside: in the reach of: not going outside of.--_adv._ in the inner part: inwardly: at home.--WITHIN CALL, HAIL, not too far to hear a call, hail. [A.S. _wiðinnan_--_wið_, against, with, _innan_, in.] WITHOUT, with-owt', _prep._ outside or out of: beyond: not with: in absence of: not having: except: all but.--_adv._ on the outside: out of doors.--_conj._ except.--_adj._ WITHOUT'-DOOR (_Shak._), being out of doors.--_prep._ WITHOUT'EN (_Spens._), without.--WITHOUT BOOK, on no authority; WITHOUT DISTINCTION, indiscriminately.--FROM WITHOUT, from the outside. [A.S. _wiðútan_--_wið_, against, _útan_, outside.] WITHSTAND, with-stand', _v.t._ to stand against: to oppose or resist:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ WITHSTOOD'.--_n._ WITHSTAND'ER. WITHWIND, with'w[=i]nd, _n._ the bindweed. WITLOOF, wit'l[=o]f, _n._ a kind of chicory with large roots. [Dut.] WITNESS, wit'nes, _n._ knowledge brought in proof: testimony of a fact: that which furnishes proof: one who sees or has personal knowledge of a thing: one who attests.--_v.t._ to have direct knowledge of: to see: to give testimony to: to show: (_Shak._) to foretell.--_v.i._ to give evidence.--_ns._ WIT'NESS-BOX, the enclosure in which a witness stands when giving evidence in a court of law; WIT'NESSER.--WITH A WITNESS (_Shak._), to a great degree. [A.S. _witnes_, testimony--_witan_, to know.] WITTOL, wit'ol, _n._ one who knows his wife's faithlessness, and submits to it.--_adj._ WITT'OLLY (_Shak._), like a wittol or contented cuckold. [Formerly also _wittal_, _wittold_, a particular use of _witwal_, the popinjay; cf. the similar allusions to the _cuckoo_, from which grew the word _cuckold_.] WITWAL, wit'wawl, _n._ the popinjay, or green woodpecker, the greater spotted woodpecker. [Var. of _woodwale_, a woodpecker.] WIVE, w[=i]v, _v.t._ to take for a wife: to provide with a wife.--_v.i._ to marry.--_n._ WIVE'HOOD (_Spens._), wifehood. [A.S. _wífian_--_wíf_, wife.] WIVERN, w[=i]'vern, _n._ Same as WYVERN. WIVES, w[=i]vz, _pl._ of _wife_. WIZARD, wiz'ard, _n._ one who practises witchcraft or magic: (_obs._) a wise man.--_adj._ with magical powers.--_adv._ WIZ'ARDLY, like a wizard.--_n._ WIZ'ARDRY, sorcery. [O. Fr. _guiscart_--Ice. _vizkr_ (for _vitskr_), from _vita_, to know.] WIZEN, wiz'n, WIZENED, wiz'nd, _adj._ dried up: thin: shrivelled.--_v.i._ and _v.t._ to become dry, to make dry.--_adj._ WIZ'EN-FACED, having a thin, shrivelled face. [A.S. _wisnian_, to wither; cog. with Ice. _visinn_, wizened, _visna_, to wither.] WIZIER=_Vizir_. WO. Same as WOE. WOAD, w[=o]d, _n._ a genus of cruciferous plants, whose few species are mostly natives of the countries around the Mediterranean--DYER'S WOAD yields a good and very permanent dye, but is now largely superseded by indigo.--_adj._ WOAD'ED, dyed blue with woad. [A.S. _wád_; Ger. _waid_; L. _vitrum_.] WOBBLE, WOBBLER, WOBBLING. See WABBLE. WODEN, w[=o]'den, _n._ the Anglo-Saxon form of the Norse Odin.--_n._ W[=O]'DENISM, the worship of Woden. WOE, WO, w[=o], _n._ grief: misery: a heavy calamity: a curse: an exclamation of grief.--_adj._ sad, wretched.--_adjs._ WOE'BEGONE, W[=O]'BEGONE, beset with woe (see BEGONE); WOE'FUL, W[=O]'FUL, WOE'SOME (_Scot._ WAE'SOME), sorrowful: bringing calamity: wretched.--_advs._ WOE'FULLY, W[=O]'FULLY.--_ns._ WOE'FULNESS, W[=O]'FULNESS.--_adjs._ WOE'-WEA'RIED, -WORN, wearied, worn, with woe.--WOE WORTH THE DAY (see WORTH).--IN WEAL AND WOE, in prosperity and adversity. [A.S. (interj.) _wá_; Ger. _weh_; L. _væ_, Gr. _ouai_. Cf. _Wail_.] WOIWODE. See VOIVODE. WOLD, w[=o]ld, _n._ an open tract of country. [A.S. _weald_, _wald_, a wood, perh. ultimately conn. with _wealdan_, to possess, wield.] WOLF, woolf, _n._ the common name of certain species of the genus _Canis_--including the ravenous Common Wolf, the Abyssinian Wolf, the Antarctic Wolf, the Maned Wolf, and the Prairie Wolf or Coyote: anything very ravenous: a greedy and cunning person: (_obs._) a tuberculous excrescence: (_mus._) a harsh discord heard in the organ, &c.:--_pl._ WOLVES.--_v.i._ to hunt for wolves.--_v.t._ (_slang_) to devour ravenously.--_ns._ WOLF'-DOG, a dog of large breed kept to guard sheep, esp. against wolves; WOL'FER, one who hunts wolves; WOLF'-FISH, a fierce and voracious salt-water fish--called also _Sea-wolf_ and _Cat-fish_; WOLF'-HOUND (see BORZOI); WOL'FING, the hunting of wolves for their skins.--_adjs._ WOL'FISH, WOL'VISH, like a wolf either in form or quality: rapacious.--_adv._ WOL'FISHLY.--_ns._ WOLF'KIN, WOLF'LING, a young wolf; WOLF'S'-BANE, aconite; WOLF'S'-FOOT, -CLAW, the club-moss _Lycopodium_; WOLF'-SKIN, the skin or pelt of a wolf; WOLF'S'-PEACH, the tomato; WOLF'-SP[=I]'DER, the tarantula; WOLF'-TOOTH, a small supernumerary premolar in a horse.--CRY WOLF, to give a false alarm--from the story of the boy who cried 'Wolf' when there was none, and was not believed when there was one; HAVE A WOLF BY THE EARS, to be in a very difficult situation; HAVE A WOLF IN THE STOMACH, to be ravenously hungry; KEEP THE WOLF FROM THE DOOR, to keep out hunger; SEE A WOLF, to lose one's voice, in allusion to an old superstition. [A.S. _wulf_; Ger. _wolf_; L. _lupus_; Gr. _lykos_.] WOLFFIAN, w[=oo]l'fi-an, _adj._ pertaining to, or associated with, the name of the German embryologist K. F. _Wolff_ (1733-94)--applied to the primordial renal organs in the embryo of the higher vertebrates, performing the function of kidneys till superseded by the true or permanent kidneys. WOLFIAN, w[=oo]l'fi-an, _adj._ pertaining to the philosophy of Johann Christian von _Wolf_ (1679-1754). He systematised and popularised the philosophy of Leibnitz, and gave a strong impulse to that development of natural theology and rationalism which soon almost drove out revelation by rendering it unnecessary--also WOLFF'IAN.--_n._ WOLF'IANISM. WOLFIAN, w[=oo]l'fi-an, _adj._ pertaining to, or associated with, the name of Friedrich August _Wolf_ (1759-1824), the most gifted classical scholar and first critic of his age--applied esp. to his theory that the _Odyssey_ and _Iliad_ are composed of numerous ballads by different minstrels, strung together in a kind of unity by subsequent editors. WOLFRAM, wol'fram, _n._ a native compound of tungstate of iron and manganese. [Ger.] WOLVERENE, WOLVERINE, wool-ve-r[=e]n', _n._ a name given to the American glutton or carcajou, from its rapacity. [Extension of _wolf_.] WOMAN, woom'an, _n._ the female of man, an adult female of the human race: the female sex, women collectively: a female attendant:--_pl._ WOMEN (wim'en).--_v.t._ to cause to act like a woman, to unite to a woman (both Shak.): to call a person 'woman' abusively.--_n._ WOM'AN-BOD'Y (_Scot._), a woman, used disparagingly.--_adjs._ WOM'AN-BORN, born of woman; WOM'AN-BUILT, built by women.--_adv._ WOM'ANFULLY, like a woman.--_adj._ WOM'AN-GROWN, grown to womanhood.--_ns._ WOM'AN-H[=A]T'ER, a misogynist; WOM'ANHOOD, the state, character, or qualities of a woman.--_adj._ WOM'ANISH, having the qualities of a woman: feminine.--_adv._ WOM'ANISHLY.--_ns._ WOM'ANISHNESS; WOM'ANKIND, WOM'ENKIND, women taken together: the female sex.--_adj._ WOM'AN-LIKE, like a woman.--_n._ WOM'ANLINESS.--_adj._ WOM'ANLY, like or becoming a woman: feminine.--_adv._ in the manner of a woman.--_ns._ WOM'AN-POST (_Shak._), a female messenger; WOM'AN-QUELL'ER, a killer of women; WOM'AN-SUFF'RAGE, the exercise of the electoral franchise by women.--_adjs._ WOM'AN-TIRED (_Shak._), hen-pecked; WOM'AN-VEST'ED, wearing women's clothes.--WOMAN OF THE TOWN, a whore; WOMAN OF THE WORLD, a woman of fashion.--WOMEN'S RIGHTS, the movement of women towards personal and proprietary independence.--PLAY THE WOMAN, to give way to weakness. [A.S. _wimman_, _wífman_, a compound of _wíf_, a woman, _man_, man.] WOMB, w[=oo]m, _n._ the uterus, the organ in which the young of mammals are developed and kept till birth: (_Shak._) the stomach: the place where anything is produced: any deep cavity.--_v.t._ (_Shak._) to contain.--_adj._ WOMB'Y (_Shak._), capacious. [A.S. _wamb_; Ger. _wamme_, paunch.] WOMBAT, wom'bat, _n._ an Australian marsupial mammal of the opossum family. [Native name.] WON, wun, _v.i._ to dwell: to abide: to be accustomed.--_n._ a dwelling: an abode.--_n._ WON'ING, dwelling. [A.S. _wunian_, Dut. _wonen_, Ger. _wohnen_, to dwell.] WON, wun, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _win_. WONDER, wun'd[.e]r, _n._ the state of mind produced by something new, unexpected, or extraordinary: a strange thing: a prodigy: a sweet fried cake--also _Cruller_.--_v.i._ to feel wonder: to be amazed (with at): to speculate expectantly.--_p.adj._ WON'DERED (_Shak._), having performed, or able to perform, wonders.--_n._ WON'DERER.--_adj._ WON'DERFUL, full of wonder: exciting wonder: strange: (_B._) wonderfully.--_adv._ WON'DERFULLY.--_ns._ WON'DERFULNESS; WON'DERING.--_adv._ WON'DERINGLY, with wonder.--_ns._ WON'DERLAND, a land of wonders; WON'DERMENT, surprise.--_adjs._ WON'DEROUS (same as WONDROUS); WON'DER-STRUCK, -STRICK'EN, struck with wonder or astonishment.--_ns._ WON'DER-WORK, a prodigy, miracle: thaumaturgy; WON'DER-WORK'ER; WON'DER-WORK'ING.--_adjs._ WON'DER-WOUND'ED (_Shak._), wonder-stricken; WON'DROUS, such as may excite wonder: strange.--_adv._ WON'DROUSLY.--_ns._ WON'DROUSNESS.--BIRD OF WONDER, the phoenix; NINE DAYS' WONDER, something that astonishes everybody for the moment; SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD (see SEVEN). [A.S. _wundor_; Ger. _wunder_, Ice. _undr_.] WONGA-WONGA, wong'ga-wong'ga, _n._ the large Australian white-faced pigeon--a table delicacy. WONT, wunt, _adj._ used or accustomed.--_n._ habit.--_v.i._ to be accustomed.--_adj._ WON'TED, accustomed: usual.--_n._ WON'TEDNESS.--_adj._ WONT'LESS (_Spens._), unaccustomed. [Orig. pa.p. of _won_, to dwell--A.S. _wunian_; Ger. _wohnen_.] WON'T, w[=o]nt, will not. [Contr. of M. E. _wol not_.] WOO, w[=oo], _v.t._ to ask in order to marriage: to court: to solicit eagerly, to seek.--_v.i._ to court or make love: to ask.--_ns._ WOO'ER; WOO'ING. [A.S. _wógian_, to woo--_wóg_, _wóh_, bent.] WOOD, wood, _n._ the solid part of trees: trees cut or sawed: timber: a collection of growing trees: the cask or barrel, as distinguished from the bottle: (_print._) a woodblock.--_v.t._ to supply with wood.--_ns._ WOOD'-AC'ID, wood-vinegar, impure acetic acid from wood-distillation; WOOD'-ANEM'ONE, the wind-flower, a little woodland plant, blooming in early spring, with a single white flower purplish outside; WOOD'-ANT, a large forest-dwelling ant: a white ant infesting the wood of old buildings.--_n.pl._ WOOD'-ASH'ES, ashes obtained by burning wood or plants--the source of many potassium salts.--_ns._ WOOD'BINE, WOOD'BIND, the honeysuckle, applied also to other climbers, such as some kinds of ivy, the Virginia-creeper, &c.; WOOD'-BIRD, a bird that lives in the woods; WOOD'BLOCK, a die cut in relief on wood and ready to furnish ink impressions: a woodcut.--_adjs._ WOOD'-B[=O]'RING; WOOD'-BORN, born in the woods.--_ns._ WOOD'-CAR'VING, the process of carving in wood; WOOD'CHAT, a bird which, notwithstanding its name, is not a species of Chat, but of Shrike; WOOD'CHUCK, the green woodpecker; WOOD'-COAL, coal like wood in texture: charcoal: lignite or brown coal; WOOD'COCK, a genus of birds allied to the snipes, but of a more bulky body, and with shorter and stronger legs; WOOD'COCK'S-HEAD, a tobacco-pipe; WOOD'CRAFT, skill in the chase or anything pertaining to forests, forestry generally; WOOD'CUT, an engraving cut on wood: an impression from it; WOOD'-CUT'TER, one who cuts wood: a wood-engraver; WOOD'-CUT'TING, the act or employment of cutting wood: wood-engraving.--_adjs._ WOOD'ED, supplied with wood: covered with wood; WOOD'EN, made of wood: hard: dull, insensible: heavy, stupid: clumsy, without grace or spirit--of literary style, &c.--_ns._ WOOD'-ENGR[=A]'VER; WOOD'-ENGR[=A]VING, the art of engraving designs on wood, differing from copper and steel plate engraving by having the parts intended to print on the paper in relief: an engraving on or taken from wood; WOOD'EN-HEAD, a blockhead, stupid person.--_adj._ WOOD'EN-HEAD'ED, stupid.--_n._ WOOD'EN-HEAD'EDNESS.--_adv._ WOOD'ENLY.--_ns._ WOODENNESS, wooden quality: want of spirit or expression, clumsiness; WOOD'-[=E]'VIL, red-water: severe constipation in cattle, often occurring after eating freely of hedge-cuttings or shoots of trees; WOOD'-F[=I]'BRE, fibre derived from wood; WOOD'-FRET'TER, a wood-borer or wood-eater; WOOD'-GOD, a deity of the woods; WOOD'-GROUSE, the capercailzie; WOOD'-HOLE, a place where wood is stored; WOOD'-HON'EY, wild honey; WOOD'-HORSE, a saw-horse; WOOD'-HOUSE, a house or shed in which wood for fuel is deposited; WOOD'-[=I]'BIS (see TANTALUS); WOOD'INESS, the state or quality of being woody; WOOD'LAND, land covered with wood; WOOD'LANDER, an inhabitant of the woods; WOOD'LARK, a species of lark, found in or near woods, singing chiefly on the wing; WOOD'-LAY'ER, a young oak, &c., laid down in a hedge.--_adj._ WOOD'LESS, without wood.--_ns._ WOOD'LESSNESS; WOOD'-LOUSE, any terrestrial isopod of the family _Oniscidæ_--the Scotch _slater_, common under stones, &c.: a termite or white ant: any one of the pseudo-neuropterous family _Psocidæ_, found in the woodwork of houses; WOOD'MAN, a man who cuts down trees: a forest officer: a huntsman; WOOD'-MITE, a beetle-mite; WOOD'-NAPH'THA, the mixture of light hydrocarbons distilled from wood (see PYROXYLIC); WOOD'-NIGHT'SHADE, bitter-sweet, or woody nightshade; WOOD'-NOTE (_Milt._), a wild musical note, like that of a song-bird; WOOD'-NYMPH, a nymph or goddess of the woods; WOOD'-OFF'ERING (_B._), wood burned on the altar; WOOD'-[=O]'PAL, silicified wood; WOOD'-OWL, the European brown owl; WOOD'-P[=A]'PER, paper prepared from wood; WOOD'PECKER, one of a family (_Picidæ_) of birds in the order _Picariæ_, remarkable for the structural modification of the skull in adaptation to its use as an axe, and for the long flexible tongue, which is used for extracting insects from holes and crevices of trees; WOOD'-PIG'EON, the cushat or ringdove; WOOD'-PULP, wood-fibre reduced to a pulp, used in making paper; WOOD'-REEVE, the overseer of a wood; WOOD'RUFF, a genus of rubiaceous plants with whorled leaves and a funnel-shaped corolla--_Sweet Woodruff_ has a creeping root-stock sending up erect stems, and small white flowers; when dried it has a very agreeable fragrance like vernal-grass--(_obs._) WOOD'-ROOF; WOOD'-SAGE, the wood germander; WOOD'-SAND'PIPER, a common European tattler, allied to the redshank; WOOD'-SCREW, a screw for fastening pieces of wood or wood and metal; WOOD'SHED, a shed for storing firewood; WOOD'-SHOOK, the pekan, fisher, or Pennant's marten--also _Black-cat_ and _Black-fox_; WOOD'-SKIN, a Guiana Indian's canoe, made of the bark of the purple heart-tree; WOODS'MAN, a woodman; WOOD'-SOOT, soot from burnt wood; WOOD'-SORR'EL, a plant of the genus Oxalis; WOOD'-SPIR'IT (same as PYROXYLIC SPIRIT); WOOD'-SPITE, the green woodpecker or yaffle; WOOD'-STAMP, a stamp made of wood, as for stamping fabrics in colours; WOOD'-STONE, petrified wood; WOOD'-SWALL'OW, an Australian name for any of the fly-catching _Artamidæ_, also called _Swallow-shrike_--the resemblance to shrikes being considerably closer than to swallows either in appearance or habits.--_adj._ WOOD'SY, pertaining to, or characteristic of, woods.--_ns._ WOOD'-TAR, tar obtained from the dry distillation of wood; WOOD'THRUSH, a singing-thrush common in the woods of the eastern United States, reddish-brown above, olive on the rump, white spotted with black on breast; WOOD'-TICK, any tick of the family _Ixonidæ_: a small insect which makes a ticking sound in the woodwork of a house, the death-watch; WOOD'-TIN, a nodular variety of cassiterite, or tin-stone; WOOD'-VIN'EGAR (see WOOD-ACID); WOOD'WALE, a woodpecker, esp. the green woodpecker, _Yaffle_ or _Rainbird_; WOOD'-WARB'LER, the yellow willow-warbler or woodwren: an American warbler, esp. of the beautiful genus _Dendroeca_; WOOD'WARD, an officer to guard the woods; WOOD'WORK, a part of any structure made of wood; WOOD'WORM, a worm or larva infesting wood; WOOD'WREN, the willow-warbler or willow-wren (_Phylloscopus trochilus_): the true wood-warbler or yellow willow-wren (_Phylloscopus sibilatrix_)--neither being properly wrens.--_adj._ WOOD'Y, abounding with woods: pertaining to woods: consisting of wood.--_n._ WOOD'Y-NIGHT'SHADE (see WOOD-NIGHTSHADE).--WOODEN HORSE, or _Timber-mare_ (see HORSE); WOODEN LEG, an artificial leg made of wood; WOODEN SPOON, a spoon of wood presented to the person who stands lowest for the year in the mathematical tripos list at Cambridge; WOODEN TYPE, large type cut in wood.--COMMISSIONERS OF WOODS AND FORESTS, a department of government having charge of the Crown woods and forests. [A.S. _wudu_; cog. with Ice. _vidhr_, wood; akin to Ir. _fiodh_, timber.] WOOD, wood, _adj._ (_Shak._) mad, furious.--_n._ WOOD'NESS. [A.S. _wód_; Ice. _ódhr_, Goth. _wods_, frantic, Ger. _wuth_, madness.] WOODBURYTYPE, wood'ber-i-t[=i]p, _n._ a method of photograph printing in which a sensitised gelatine film, developed under a negative to an extra relief, is impressed on soft metal by hydraulic pressure. This in turn can be printed by special ink in a press, and as it gives all the gradations of tint, it may be said to be a perfect photo-mechanical printing process. [Named from the inventor.] WOODCHUCK, wood'chuk, _n._ the marmot. [Corr. from an Amer. Ind. name.] WOODIE, wood'i, _n._ (_Scot._) the gallows. [A form of _widdy_, _withy_,] WOOF, woof, _n._ same as _Weft_ (q.v.).--_adj._ WOOF'Y, dense. [A.S. _ówef_, _áweb_--_áwefan_, to weave--_á-_, prefix, _wefan_, to weave.] WOOINGLY, w[=oo]'ing-li, _adv._ in a wooing or persuasive manner. [_Woo_.] WOOL, wool, _n._ the soft, curly hair of sheep and other animals: short, thick hair: any light, fleecy substance resembling wool.--_n._ WOOL'BALL, a ball of wool, such as is sometimes found in a sheep's stomach.--_adj._ WOOL'-BEAR'ING, bearing or yielding wool.--_ns._ WOOL'-CARD'ING, the process of separating the fibres of wool preparatory to spinning; WOOL'-COMB'ER, one whose occupation is to comb wool in order to disentangle and straighten out the fibres; WOOL'-COMB'ING; WOOL'-DR[=I]'VER, one who buys up wool for a market.--_adj._ WOOL'-DYED, dyed before spinning or weaving.--_ns._ WOOL'FAT, lanolin; WOOL'FELL, the skin with the wool still on it; WOOL'-GATH'ERING, indulgence of idle fancies.--_adj._ dreamy: listless.--_n._ WOOL'-GROW'ER, one who raises sheep for the production of wool.--_adj._ WOOL'LEN, made of, or pertaining to, wool: clad in wool, rustic.--_n._ cloth made of wool.--_ns._ WOOL'LEN-CORD, a ribbed stuff, the face all of wool; WOOL'LEN-DR[=A]'PER, one who deals in woollen goods; WOOL'LINESS.--_adjs._ WOOL'LY, consisting of, or like, wool: clothed with wool; WOOL'LY-HAIRED, -HEAD'ED, having the hair like wool.--_ns._ WOOL'LY-PAS'TINUM, a kind of red orpiment; WOOL'MAN, a dealer in wool; WOOL'-MILL, a building for the spinning of wool and the weaving of woollen cloth; WOOL'PACK, the package in which wool was formerly done up for sale: a bundle weighing 240 lb.: cirro-cumulus cloud; WOOL'-PACK'ER; WOOL'-PICK'ER, a machine for cleaning wool; WOOL'SACK, the seat of the Lord Chancellor in the House of Lords, being a large square sack of wool covered with scarlet; WOOL'SEY, a material made of cotton and wool.--_n.pl._ WOOL'-SHEARS, shears used in shearing sheep.--_ns._ WOOL'-SORT'ER, one who sorts wool according to quality, &c.; WOOL'-ST[=A]'PLE, the fibre or pile of wool; WOOL'-ST[=A]'PLER, a wool-factor: a wool-sorter.--_adv._ WOOL'WARD (_Shak._), in wool, as a penance.--_ns._ WOOL'-WIND'ER, one who bundles wool for packing; WOOL'WORK, needlework imitative of tapestry.--WOOL-SORTERS' DISEASE (see ANTHRAX).--ANGORA WOOL, the wool of the Angora goat; BERLIN-WOOL, a kind of fine-dyed wool used for worsted work. [A.S. _wull_; Goth. _wulla_, Ger. _wolle_, L. _villus_.] WOOLD, w[=oo]ld, _v.t._ to wind about.--_adj._ WOOL'DED.--_ns._ WOOL'DER, a stick used in woolding a mast or yard, or a pin in a rope-maker's top; WOOL'DING. WOOM, w[=oo]m, _n._ beaver fur. WOOMERA, w[=oo]m'[.e]r-a, _n._ a stick for spear-throwing (Austral.). WOON, w[=oo]n, _n._ a governor of a province. [Burmese.] WOON, w[=oo]n, _v.i._ (_Spens._). Same as WON (1). WOORALI, woo'ra-li, _n._ a S. American poison for arrows.--Also WOO'RARA, WOU'RALI, same as _Curari_ (q.v.). WOOTZ, woots, _n._ steel made by fusing iron with carbonaceous matter. [Perh. the Canarese _ukku_, steel.] WOP, wop, _v.t._ See WHOP. WORD, wurd, _n._ an oral or written sign expressing an idea or notion: talk, discourse: signal or sign: message: promise: declaration: a pass-word, a watch-word, a war-cry: the Holy Scripture, or a part of it: (_pl._) verbal contention.--_v.t._ to express in words: (_Shak._) to flatter.--_v.i._ to speak, talk.--_ns._ WORD'-BLIND'NESS, loss of ability to read; WORD'-BOOK, a book with a collection of words: a vocabulary.--_adj._ WORD'-BOUND, unable to find expression in words.--_n._ WORD'-BUILD'ING, the formation or composition of words.--_adj._ WOR'DED, expressed in words.--_adv._ WOR'DILY.--_ns._ WOR'DINESS; WOR'DING, act, manner, or style of expressing in words.--_adj._ WOR'DISH (_obs._), verbose.--_n._ WOR'DISHNESS.--_adj._ WORD'LESS (_Shak._), without words, silent.--_ns._ WORD'-MEM'ORY, the power of recalling words to the mind; WORD'-PAINT'ER, one who describes vividly; WORD'-PAINT'ING, the act of describing anything clearly and fully by words only; WORD'-PIC'TURE, a description in words which presents an object to the mind as if in a picture.--_adj._ WOR'DY, full of words: using or containing many words.--WORD FOR WORD, literally, verbatim.--BREAK ONE'S WORD, to fail to fulfil a promise; BY WORD OF MOUTH, orally; GOOD WORD, favourable mention, praise; HARD WORDS, angry, hot words; HAVE A WORD WITH, to have some conversation with; HAVE WORDS WITH, to quarrel, dispute with; IN A WORD, IN ONE WORD, in short, to sum up; IN WORD, in speech only, in profession only; PASS ONE'S WORD, to make a promise; THE WORD, the Scripture: (_theol._) the second person in the Trinity, the Logos. [A.S. _word_; Goth. _waurd_, Ice. _orth_, Ger. _wort_; also conn. with L. _verbum_, a word, Gr. _eirein_, to speak.] WORDSWORTHIAN, wurds-wur'thi-an, _adj._ pertaining to the style of the sovereign poet of nature, William _Wordsworth_ (1770-1850).--_n._ an admirer of WORDSWORTH. WORE, w[=o]r, _pa.t._ of _wear_. WORK, wurk, _n._ effort directed to an end: employment: the result of work: that on which one works: anything made or done: embroidery: deed: effect: a literary composition: a book: management: an establishment for any manufacture, a factory (gener. in _pl._): (_physics_) the product of a force by the component displacement of its point and application in the direction of the force: (_pl._), (_fort._) walls, trenches, &c.: (_theol._) acts performed in obedience to the Divine law: a manufactory, workshop, place of work (esp. in _pl._): mechanism--e.g. of a watch.--_v.i._ to make efforts to attain anything: to perform: to be in action: to be occupied in business or labour: to produce effects, to make progress with difficulty, to strain or labour: to ferment: to be agitated, to seethe: to embroider.--_v.t._ to make by labour: to bring into any state by action: to effect: to carry on operations in: to put in motion: to purge: to influence: to manage: to solve: to achieve: to cause to ferment: to provoke, agitate: to keep employed: to embroider:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ worked or wrought (rawt).--_ns._ WORKABIL'ITY, WORK'ABLENESS.--_adjs._ WORK'ABLE, that may be worked; WORK'ADAY, work-day, toiling, plodding.--_ns._ WORK'-BAG, -BAS'KET, a bag, basket, for holding materials for work, esp. needlework; WORK'-BOX, a lady's box for holding materials for work; WORK'-DAY, a day for work: a week-day.--_adj._ pertaining to a work-day.--_ns._ WORK'ER, a toiler, performer: among insects, the neuter or undeveloped female; WORK'-FELL'OW, one who is engaged in the same work with another.--_ns.pl._ WORK'FOLK, WORK'FOLKS, persons engaged in manual labour.--_adj._ WORK'FUL, industrious.--_ns._ WORK'GIRL, a girl or young woman employed in some manual labour; WORK'HOUSE, a house where any work or manufacture is carried on: a house of shelter for the poor, who are made to work; WORK'ING, action, operation: fermentation: (_pl._) the parts of a mine, &c., where actual operations are in hand.--_adj._ active: labouring: connected with labour.--_ns._ WORK'ING-BEAM, the oscillating lever of a steam-engine connecting the piston-rod and the crank-shaft, a walking-beam; WORK'ING-CLASS, manual labourers (often in _pl._); WOR'KING-DAY, a day on which work is done, as distinguished from the Sabbath and holidays: the period of actual work each day.--_adj._ laborious: plodding.--_ns._ WORK'ING-DRAW'ING, a drawing of the details of a building by which the builders are guided in their work; WORK'ING-HOUSE (_Shak._), workshop; WORK'ING-PAR'TY, a group of persons who do some work in common, or who meet periodically for such a purpose; WORK'MAN, WORK'ING-MAN, a man who works or labours, esp. manually: a skilful artificer.--_adjs._ WORK'MAN-LIKE, like a workman: becoming a skilful workman: well performed; WORK'MANLY, becoming a skilful workman.--_adv._ in a manner becoming a skilful workman.--_ns._ WORK'MANSHIP, the skill of a workman: manner of making: work done; WORK'-MAS'TER, a skilled or directing workman, esp. in some great undertaking.--_n.pl._ WORK'-PEO'PLE, people engaged in labour.--_ns._ WORK'ROOM, a room for working in; WORK'SHOP, a shop where work is done.--_adj._ WORK'SOME, industrious.--_ns._ WORK'-T[=A]'BLE, a small table used by ladies at their needlework; WORK'-WOMAN, a woman who makes her living by some manual labour.--WORK OF ART, a production in one of the fine arts; WORK DOUBLE TIDES, to work through continuous tides, night and day; WORK IN, to intermix, to make to penetrate; WORK INTO, to make way gradually into: to change, alter; WORK OFF, to separate and throw off, to get rid of, circulate: to produce as by work, esp. to print; WORK ON, or UPON, to act or operate upon, to influence; WORK ONE'S PASSAGE, to give one's work on board in place of passage-money; WORK OUT, to effect by continued labour: to expiate: to exhaust: to solve or study anything fully out; WORK UP, to excite, rouse: to create by slow degrees, to expand, elaborate: to use up, as material: (_naut._) to set at an irksome or needless task; WORK WITH, to strive to influence by appeals, &c.--BOARD OF WORKS, the body which has the management and control of public works and buildings, of which the expenses are defrayed from the crown revenues or parliamentary grants; HAVE ONE'S WORK CUT OUT, to have one's work prescribed: to have a difficult task before one; MAKE SHORT WORK OF (see SHORT); OUT OF WORK, out of working order: without employment; SET TO WORK, to employ in some work: to engage in some work; SEVEN WORKS OF CORPORAL MERCY, to feed the hungry, give drink to the thirsty, to clothe the naked, visit prisoners, visit the sick, harbour strangers, bury the dead--OF SPIRITUAL MERCY, to convert sinners, instruct the ignorant, counsel the doubtful, console the afflicted, bear wrongs patiently, forgive injuries, pray for the living and the dead. [A.S. _weorc_; Ice. _verk_, Ger. _werk_; further conn. with Gr. _ergon_.] WORLD, wurld, _n._ the earth and its inhabitants: the system of things: present state of existence: any planet or heavenly body: public life or society: an organic whole: business: the public: a secular life: course of life: a very large extent of country, as the 'New World:' very much or a great deal, as 'a world of good:' time, as in the phrase 'world without end'=eternally: possibility, as in 'nothing in the world:' (_B._) the ungodly.--_adjs._ WORL'DED, containing worlds; WORLD'-HAR'DENED, hardened by the love of worldly things.--_ns._ WORLD'-LANG'UAGE, a universal language; WORLD'LINESS; WORLD'LING, one who is devoted to worldly or temporal possessions.--_adjs._ WORLD'LY, pertaining to the world, esp. as distinguished from the world to come: devoted to this life and its enjoyments: bent on gain--also _adv._; WORLD'LY-MIND'ED, having the mind set on the present world.--_n._ WORLD'LY-MIND'EDNESS.--_adjs._ WORLD'LY-WISE, wise in this world's affairs; WORLD'-OLD, exceedingly ancient; WORLD'-WEA'RIED, -WEA'RY, tired of the world; WORLD'WIDE, wide or extensive as the world.--ALL THE WORLD, everybody: everything; ALL THE WORLD AND HIS WIFE (_coll._), everybody: also, an ill-assorted mass; A WORLD, a great deal; CARRY THE WORLD BEFORE ONE, to pass to success through every obstacle; FOR ALL THE WORLD, precisely, entirely; GO TO THE WORLD (_Shak._), to get married; IN THE WORLD, an intensive phrase, usually following an interrogative pronoun or adverb.--THE NEW WORLD, the western hemisphere, the Americas; THE OLD WORLD, the eastern hemisphere, comprising Europe, Africa, and Asia; THE OTHER WORLD, the non-material sphere, the spiritual world; THE WHOLE WORLD, the sum of what is contained in the world; THE WORLD'S END, the most distant point possible. [A.S. _woruld_, _world_, _weorold_, (lit.) 'a generation of men,' from _wer_, a man, and _yldo_, sig. an age; Ice. _veröld_, Old High Ger. _weralt_ (Ger. _welt_).] WORM, wurm, _n._ a term destitute of scientific precision, but often applied to any one of the members of numerous classes of invertebrate animals which are more or less earthworm-like in appearance, the earthworm, a grub, a maggot: anything spiral: the thread of a screw: the lytta or vermiform cartilage of a dog's tongue: the instrument used to withdraw the charge of a gun: a spiral pipe surrounded by cold water into which steam or vapours pass for condensation in distilling: anything that corrupts, gnaws, or torments: remorse: a debased being, a groveller: (_pl._) any intestinal disease arising from the presence of parasitic worms.--_v.i._ to move like a worm, to squirm: to work slowly or secretly.--_v.t._ to effect by slow and secret means: to elicit by underhand means: to remove the lytta or vermiform cartilage of a dog's tongue.--_n._ WORM'-CAST, the earth voided by the earthworm.--_adjs._ WORM'-EAT'EN, eaten by worms: old: worn-out; WORM'-EAT'ING, living habitually on worms; WORMED, bored by worms: injured by worms.--_ns._ WORM'-FENCE, a zigzag fence formed of stakes; WORM'-F[=E]'VER, a feverish condition in children ascribed to intestinal worms; WORM'-GEAR, a gear-wheel having teeth shaped so as to mesh with a worm or shaft on which a spiral is turned, an endless screw; WORM'-GEAR'ING; WORM'-GRASS, pink-root: a kind of stonecrop; WORM'-HOLE, the hole made by a worm.--_adj._ WORM'-HOLED, perforated by worm-holes.--_ns._ WORM'-POW'DER, a vermifuge; WORM'-SEED, santonica: the treacle mustard; WORM'-WHEEL, a wheel gearing with an endless screw or worm, receiving or imparting motion.--_adj._ WOR'MY, like a worm: grovelling: containing a worm: abounding with worms: gloomy, dismal, like the grave. [A.S. _wyrm_, dragon, snake, creeping animal; cog. with Goth. _waurms_, a serpent, Ice. _ormr_, Ger. _wurm_; also with L. _vermis_.] WORMIAN, wurm'i-an, _adj._ associated with the name of the Danish anatomist Olaus _Worm_ (1588-1654), applied esp. to the supernumerary bones developed in the sutures of the skull. WORMWOOD, wurm'wood, _n._ the bitter plant _Artemisia absinthium_: bitterness. [A.S. _wermod_ (Ger. _wermuth_), wormwood; perh. lit. 'keep-mind,' in allusion to its medicinal (anthelmintic and tonic) properties--_werian_, to protect (Ger. _wehren_), _mód_, mind.] WORN, w[=o]rn, _pa.p._ of _wear_. WORN-OUT, w[=o]rn'-owt, _adj._ much injured or rendered useless by wear: wearied: past, gone. WORRICOW, wur'i-kow, _n._ (_Scot._) a hobgoblin: the devil: anything frightful or even only grotesque. WORRY, wur'i, _v.t._ to tear with the teeth: to harass: to tease: (_Scot._) to choke.--_v.i._ to trouble one's self: to be unduly anxious: to fret:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ worr'ied.--_n._ act of worrying: trouble, perplexity, vexation.--_ns._ WORR'IER, one who worries himself or others; WORR'IMENT (_coll._), anxiety.--_adj._ WORR'ISOME, causing trouble.--v. WORR'IT (_slang_), to worry.--_n._ (_slang_) annoyance.--_adj._ WORR'YING, harassing.--_adv._ WORR'YINGLY.--WORRY DOWN, to swallow with a strong effort. [A.S. _wyrgan_, found in compound _áwyrgan_, to harm; cf. Dut. _worgen_, Ger. _würgen_, to choke; A.S. _wearg_, _werg_, a wolf.] WORSE, wurs, _adj._ (used as _comp._ of _bad_) bad or evil in a greater degree: more sick.--_adv._ bad in a higher degree: less: (_Shak._) with more severity.--_v.t._ (_obs._) to worst.--_v.i._ WOR'SEN, to grow worse.--_v.t._ to make worse.--_adv._ WOR'SER, a redundant comparative of _worse_.--THE WORSE, defeat, disadvantage. [A.S. _wyrsa_, from _wiers-sa_ from _wirsiza_ (Goth. _wairsiza_), formed with comp. suffix _-iz_ from a Teut. root _wers_, found in Ger. _ver-wirren_, to confuse.] WORSHIP, wur'ship, _n._ religious service: fervent esteem: adoration paid to God: a title of honour in addressing certain magistrates, &c.: submissive respect.--_v.t._ to respect highly: to treat with civil reverence: to pay divine honours to: to adore or idolise.--_v.i._ to perform acts of adoration: to perform religious service:--_pr.p._ wor'shipping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ wor'shipped.--_adjs._ WOR'SHIPABLE, WOR'SHIPFUL, worthy of worship or honour, used as a term of respect.--_adv._ WOR'SHIPFULLY.--_n._ WOR'SHIPFULNESS.--_adj._ WOR'SHIPLESS, destitute of worship or worshippers.--_n._ WOR'SHIPPER.--HOUSE, or PLACE, OF WORSHIP, a church or chapel. [A.S. _weorthscipe_--_weorth_, WURTH, worth, affix _-scipe_, _-ship_.] WORST, wurst, _adj._ bad or evil in the highest degree.--_adv._ to a very bad or very evil degree.--_n._ the highest degree of badness: the most evil state.--_v.t._ to get the advantage over in a contest: to defeat.--_v.i._ (_obs._) to grow worse. [A.S. _wyrst_, _wyrrest_, _wyrresta_, from the same source as _worse_.] WORSTED, woost'ed, or woorst'ed, _n._ twisted thread or yarn spun out of long, combed wool: woollen yarn for ornamental needlework.--_adj._ made of worsted yarn.--_n._ WORST'ED-WORK, needlework done with worsted. [From _Worstead_, a village near Norwich in England.] WORT, wurt, _n._ a plant of the cabbage kind. [A.S. _wyrt_; Ger. _wurz_, _wurzel_, a root.] WORT, wurt, _n._ new beer unfermented or in the act of fermentation: the sweet infusion of malt. [A.S. _wyrte_, new beer (Ice. _virtr_)--_wyrt_, root. See preceding word.] WORTH, wurth, _n._ value: possessions: that quality which renders a thing valuable: price: moral excellence: importance.--_adj._ equal in value to: having a certain moral value: deserving of.--_adj._ WORTH'FUL.--_adv._ WORTH'ILY (_th_), in a worthy manner: justly: truly.--_n._ WORTH'INESS (_th_).--_adj._ WORTH'LESS, of no worth or value: having no value, virtue, excellence, &c.: useless.--_adv._ WORTH'LESSLY.--_n._ WORTH'LESSNESS.--_adj._ WORTHY (wur'_th_i), having worth: valuable: deserving: suited to: (_B._) deserving (either of good or bad).--_n._ a man of eminent worth: a local celebrity: (_Shak._) anything of value:--_pl._ WOR'THIES.--_v.t._ to make worthy.--WORTHIEST OF BLOOD, male, as opposed to female--of inheritance.--NINE WORTHIES, Hector, Alexander the Great, Julius Cæsar; Joshua, David, Judas Maccabæus; Arthur, Charlemagne, Godfrey of Bouillon. [A.S. _weorth_, _wurth_ (Ger. _wert_), value.] WORTH, wurth, _v.i._ to be, happen, as in the phrase WOE WORTH=_woe be to_ (with the noun in the dative). [A.S. _weorthan_, to become; cf. Ger. _werden_.] WOT, wot, WOTTETH, wot'eth, _v.t._ (_B._) _pr.t._ of obsolete _wit_, to know. [_Wit_.] WOULD, wood, _pa.t._ of _will_.--_adj._ WOULD'-BE, aspiring, trying, or merely professing to be.--_n._ a vain pretender. [A.S. _wolde_, pa.t. of _willan_.] WOULFE-BOTTLE, woolf'-bot'l, _n._ a form of three-necked bottle, generally arranged in a series known as _Woulfe's apparatus_, used for the purpose of purifying gases, or of dissolving them in suitable solvents--from the name of the London chemist, Peter _Woulfe_ (1727-1806). WOUND, wownd, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _wind_. WOUND, w[=oo]nd, _n._ any division of soft parts, including the skin, produced by external mechanical force--whether incised, punctured, contused, lacerated, or poisoned: any cut, bruise, hurt, or injury.--_v.t._ to make a wound in: to injure.--_adj._ WOUN'DABLE, capable of being wounded.--_n._ WOUN'DER.--_adv._ WOUN'DILY (_coll._), excessively.--_n._ WOUN'DING.--_adj._ WOUND'LESS, exempt from being wounded, invulnerable: harmless.--_n._ WOUND'WORT, a name applied to several plants of popular repute as vulneraries, as the kidney-vetch, &c.: a plant of genus _Stachys_, the marsh or clown's woundwort.--_adj._ WOUN'DY, causing wounds: (_coll._) excessive. [A.S. _wund_ (Ger. _wunde_, Ice. _und_)--A.S. _wund_, wounded; prob. orig. pa.p. of A.S. _winnan_, to fight, strive.] WOURALI. See WOORALI. WOVE, WOVEN, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _weave_. WOW, wow, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to woo. WOW, wow, _interj._ an exclamation of wonder. WOWF, wowf, _adj._ (_Scot._) crazy. WOW-WOW, wow'-wow, _n._ the gibbon of Sumatra. WOX, WOXEN. (_Spens._), _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _wax_. WRACK, RACK, rak, _n._ a term loosely given to various seaweeds, esp. to the _Fucaceæ_, common on British shores, long valuable as a source of kelp, and utilised as manure: shipwreck: ruin.--_adj._ WRACK'FUL, destructive. [Lit. 'something cast ashore,' A.S. _wræc_, exile, misery--_wrecan_, to drive, urge. _Wrack_ is a doublet of _wreck_.] WRACK, rak, by-form of _wreck_. WRAITH, r[=a]th, _n._ a spectre: an apparition in the exact likeness of a person seen before or soon after his death. [Cf. dial. form _warth_, an apparition; prob. orig. having the sense of 'guardian spirit'--Ice. _vörthr_, a guardian.] WRANGLE, rang'gl, _v.i._ to make a disturbance: to dispute: to dispute noisily or peevishly.--_n._ a noisy dispute.--_ns._ WRANG'LER, one who wrangles or disputes angrily: (_Shak._) a stubborn foe: in the University of Cambridge, one of those who have attained the first class in the public mathematical honour examinations; WRANG'LERSHIP.--_adj._ WRANG'LESOME, given to wrangling.--_n._ WRANG'LING.--SENIOR WRANGLER, the student taking the first place in the class mentioned, the second being called SECOND WRANGLER, and so on in the same way. [A freq. of _wring_.] WRAP, rap, _v.t._ to roll or fold together: to enfold: hide: to cover by winding something round (often with up):--_pr.p._ wrap'ping; _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ wrapped.--_n._ a wrapper, as a shawl, &c.--_ns._ WRAP'PAGE, act of wrapping: things used as wrappers; WRAP'PER, one who, or that which, wraps: a loose outer garment of a woman; WRAP'PING; WRAP'-RAS'CAL, a loose greatcoat worn about 1740 (a humorous term).--WRAPPED UP IN, bound up in: engrossed with: comprised in. [A form of _warp_--M. E. _wrappen_, also _wlappen_. Cf. _Lap_ (v.t. to wrap) and _Envelop_.] WRAP. Same as RAP. WRASSE, ras, _n._ a genus of bony fishes representative of the large family _Labridæ_, and including many species on European and North African coasts. Common British species are the _ballan-wrasse_, the _red wrasse_, and the _gibbous wrasse_. [Perh. the W. _gwrachen_.] WRATH, räth, _n._ violent anger: holy indignation: heat.--_adj._ violently angry.--_adj._ WRATH'FUL, full of wrath: very angry: springing from, or expressing, wrath.--_adv._ WRATH'FULLY.--_n._ WRATH'FULNESS.--_adv._ WRATH'ILY.--_adjs._ WRATH'LESS; WRATH'Y, apt to wrath. [Old Northumbrian _wr['æ]ððo_--A.S. _wráð_, adj. wroth; Ice. _reithi_.] WRAWL, rawl, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to cry as a cat, to caterwaul. [Imit.] WRAXLING, raks'ling, _n._ wrestling. WREAK, r[=e]k, _v.t._ to inflict: avenge.--_n._ WREAK'ER.--_adjs._ WREAK'FUL, revengeful: angry; WREAK'LESS, unpunished. [A.S. _wrecan_, orig. to drive, and so to punish, avenge; Ice. _reka_, to drive, pursue, Ger. _rächen_; conn. with L. _urg[=e]re_.] WREAK, r[=e]k, _v.i._ (_Shak._). Same as RECK. WREATH, r[=e]th, _n._ a chaplet: a garland: anything long and circular: a defect in glass.--_v.t._ WREATHE (r[=e]_th_), to form by twisting: to form into a wreath: to twine about or encircle.--_v.i._ to be interwoven.--_adj._ WREATH'EN (_th_), wreathed.--_n._ WREATH'ER (_th_).--_adjs._ WREATH'LESS; WREATH'Y. [A.S. _wrædh_, 'a twisted band'--_wríthan_, to writhe.] WRECK, rek, _n._ destruction: destruction of a ship: ruins of a destroyed ship: remains of anything ruined: shipwrecked property.--_v.t._ to destroy or disable: to ruin.--_v.i._ to suffer wreck or ruin.--_ns._ WRECK'AGE, the act of wrecking: wrecked material; WRECK'ER, a person who purposely causes a wreck or who plunders wreckage: one who lures a ship on to the rocks for purposes of plunder: one who criminally ruins anything: a person employed by the owners in recovering disabled vessels or their cargo.--_adj._ WRECK'FUL, causing ruin.--_n._ WRECK'-MAS'TER, a person taking charge of a disabled ship and its cargo.--WRECK COMMISSIONERS, a tribunal which inquires into shipping disasters.--RECEIVERS OF WRECKS, wreck-masters. [A.S. _wræc_, expulsion--_wrecan_, to drive, Low Ger. _wrak_, Dut. _wrak_, Ice. _reki_, a thing drifted ashore; a doublet of _wrack_.] WRECK, rek, _n._ (_Spens._) same as WREAK.--_v.t._ (_Milt._) to wreak. WREN, ren, _n._ a genus (_Troglodytes_) and family (_Troglodytidæ_) of birds, having a slender, slightly curved and pointed bill, the wings very short and rounded, the tail short and carried erect, the legs slender and rather long.--_ns._ WREN'NING, the stoning of a wren to death on St Stephen's Day, December 26th--WRENNING DAY--once practised in the North Country; WREN'-TIT, a Californian bird (_Chamæa fasciata_), of dubious relations, at once resembling the wren and the titmouse. [A.S. _wrenna_, _wr['æ]nna_--_wr['æ]ne_, lascivious.] WRENCH, rensh, _v.t._ to wring or pull with a twist: to force by violence: to sprain.--_v.i._ to undergo a violent wrenching.--_n._ a violent twist: a sprain: an instrument for turning bolts, &c.: in coursing, bringing the hare round at less than a right angle--half a point in the recognised code of points for judging. [A.S. _wrencan_ (Ger. _renken_)--_wrenc_, fraud; root of _wring_.] WREST, rest, v.t, to twist from by force: to twist from truth or from its natural meaning.--_n._ violent pulling and twisting: distortion: an instrument, like a wrench, for tuning the piano, &c.--_n._ WREST'ER. [A.S. _wr['æ]stan_--_wr['æ]st_, firm, from _wráth_, pa.t. of _wríthan_, to writhe; Dan. _vriste_.] WRESTLE, res'l, _v.i._ to contend by grappling and trying to throw the other down: to struggle: to apply one's self keenly to: (_Scot._) to pray earnestly.--_v.t._ to contend with in wrestling.--_n._ a bout at wrestling: a struggle between two to throw each other down.--_ns._ WREST'LER; WREST'LING, the sport or exercise of two persons struggling to throw each other to the ground in an athletic contest governed by certain fixed rules--_catch-hold_, _ground-wrestling_, _catch-as-catch-can_, _back-hold_, &c. [A.S. _wr['æ]stlian_; a freq. of _wr['æ]stan_, to wrest.] WRETCH, rech, _n._ a most miserable person: one sunk in vice: a worthless person: body, creature (in pity, sometimes admiration).--_adj._ WRETCH'ED, very miserable: distressingly bad: despicable: worthless.--_adv._ WRETCH'EDLY.--_n._ WRETCH'EDNESS. [A.S. _wrecca_, an outcast--_wræc_, pa.t. of _wrecan_, to drive.] WRETHE, r[=e]th, _v.t._ and _v.i._ (_Spens._). Same as WREATHE. WRICK, rik, _v.t._ (_prov._) to twist, turn. [Low Ger. _wrikken_, to turn.] WRIGGLE, rig'l, _v.i._ to twist to and fro: to move sinuously: to use crooked means.--_v.t._ to cause to wriggle.--_n._ the motion of wriggling.--_ns._ WRIGG'LER, one who wriggles: one who uses trickery; WRIGG'LING;. [A freq. of obs. _wrig_, to move about, itself a variant of _wrick_, M. E. _wrikken_, to twist; cf. Dut. _wriggelen_, to wriggle.] WRIGHT, r[=i]t, _n._ a maker (chiefly used in compounds, as ship-_wright_, &c.). [A.S. _wyrhta_--_wyrht_, a work--_wyrcan_, to work.] WRING, ring, _v.t._ to twist: to force, or force out, by twisting: to force or compress: to pain: to extort: to bend out of its position.--_v.i._ to writhe: to twist:--_pa.t._ and _pa.p._ wrung, (_B._) wringed.--_ns._ WRING'-BOLT, a bolt with a ring or eye, used to secure a ship's planks against the frame till they are permanently fixed in place; WRING'ER, one who wrings: a machine for forcing water from wet clothes--also WRING'ING-MACHINE'.--_adj._ WRING'ING-WET, so wet that water can be wrung out.--_n.pl._ WRING'-STAVES, strong pieces of wood used in applying wring-bolts.--WRING FROM, to extort; WRING OFF, to force off by wringing; WRING OUT, to squeeze out by twisting; WRING THE HANDS, to manifest grief by convulsive clasping of the hands. [A.S. _wringan_, to twist; Dut. _wringen_, Ger. _ringen_. Cf. _Wreak_, _Wry_.] WRINKLE, ring'kl, _n._ (_coll._) a tip, valuable hint. [Perh. from A.S. _wrenc_, a trick. Cf. _Wrench_.] WRINKLE, ring'kl, _n._ a small ridge on a surface caused by twisting or shrinking: unevenness.--_v.t._ to contract into wrinkles or furrows: to make rough.--_v.i._ to shrink into ridges.--_adj._ WRINK'LY, full of wrinkles: liable to be wrinkled. [M. E. _wrinkel_, conn. with A.S. _wringan_, to twist; prob. related to Sw. _rynka_, Dan. _rynke_, a wrinkle.] WRIST, rist, _n._ the joint by which the hand is united to the arm: a stud or pin projecting from the side of a crank.--_ns._ WRIST'BAND, the band or part of a sleeve which covers the wrist; WRIST'-DROP, inability to extend the hand, often caused by lead-poisoning; WRIST'LET, an elastic band used to confine the upper part of a glove to the wrist: a bracelet: (_slang_) a handcuff; WRIST'-PLATE, an oscillating plate bearing wrist-pins for the connection of rods or pitmans, as on the cut-off gear of an engine; WRIST'-PIN, any pin connecting a pitman to a cross-head; WRIST'-SHOT, in golf, a short stroke usually played with an iron, from the wrist, without swinging the club over the shoulder. [A.S. _wrist_--_wríthan_, to twist; Ger. _rist_.] WRIT, rit, obsolete _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _write_. WRIT, rit, _n._ a writing: (_law_) a written document by which one is summoned or required to do something: a formal document, any writing.--HOLY WRIT, the Scriptures.--SERVE A WRIT ON, to deliver a summons to. WRITE, r[=i]t, _v.t._ to form letters with a pen or pencil: to express in writing: to compose: to engrave: to record: to communicate by letter.--_v.i._ to perform the act of writing: to be employed as a clerk: to compose books: to send letters: to practise the art of writing: to work as an author: to compose a letter:--_pr.p._ wr[=i]'ting; _pa.t._ wr[=o]te; _pa.p._ writ'ten.--_ns._ WR[=I]'TER, one who writes: a professional scribe or clerk: an ordinary legal practitioner in Scotch country towns: an author: a petty officer in the United States navy who keeps the watch-muster and other books of the ship--usually _Ship-writer_:--_fem._ WR[=I]'TERESS (_rare_); WR[=I]'TER'S-CRAMP (see CRAMP); WR[=I]'TERSHIP, the office of a writer; WR[=I]'TING, the forming letters with a pen or pencil: that which is written: literary production; WR[=I]'TING-BOOK, a book of paper for practising penmanship; WR[=I]'TING-CASE, a portable case containing materials for writing; WR[=I]'TING-CHAM'BER, a room fitted for writing: a law office; WR[=I]'TING-DESK, a desk with a sloping top for writing upon: a portable writing-case; WR[=I]'TING-INK, ink suited for writing with; WR[=I]'TING-MAS'TER, a master who teaches the art of penmanship: the yellow-bunting; WR[=I]TING-P[=A]'PER, paper finished with a smooth surface, for writing upon; WR[=I]'TING-SCHOOL, a school for penmanship; WR[=I]'TING-T[=A]'BLE, a table fitted or used for writing upon.--_adj._ WRIT'TEN, reduced to writing--opposed to _Oral_.--WRITERS TO THE SIGNET, an ancient society of solicitors in Scotland who formerly had the exclusive right to prepare all summonses and other writs pertaining to the supreme court of justice, and still have the exclusive privilege of preparing crown writs, which include all charters, precepts, and writs from the sovereign or prince of Scotland.--WRITE DOWN, to put down in written characters: to condemn in writing; WRITE OFF, to cancel by an entry on the opposite side of the account; WRITE OUT, to transcribe: to exhaust one's mental capacity by too much writing; WRITE UP, to put a full description of in writing: to praise something in writing above its merits. [A.S. _wrítan_; Ice. _ríta_; the original meaning being 'to scratch' (cf. the cog. Ger. _reissen_, to tear).] WRITHE, r[=i]th, _v.t._ to turn to and fro: to twist violently: to wrest: (_obs._) to extort.--_v.i._ to twist.--_n._ (_rare_) a contortion.--_adv._ WR[=I]'THINGLY. [A.S. _wríthan_, to twist; Ice. _rítha_. Cf. _Wreath_, _Wrest_, _Wrist_.] WRITHLE, rith'l, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to wrinkle: (_Shak._) to shrivel. WRIZZLED, riz'ld, _adj._ (_Spens._) wrinkled. WROKE, r[=o]k, WROKEN, r[=o]k'n, obsolete _pa.p._ of _wreak_. WRONG, rong, _adj._ not according to rule or right, deviating from what is correct or suitable: perverse: not fit or suitable: incorrect: not right or true.--_n._ whatever is not right or just: any injury done to another: an erroneous view.--_adv._ not rightly.--_v.t._ to do wrong to: to deprive of some right: to injure.--_ns._ WRONG'-DO'ER, one who does wrong: one who injures another; WRONG'-DO'ING, evil or wicked action or conduct; WRONG'ER, one who wrongs.--_adj._ WRONG'FUL, wrong: unjust: injurious.--_adv._ WRONG'FULLY.--_n._ WRONG'FULNESS.--_adj._ WRONG'-HEAD'ED, obstinately and perversely stubborn.--_adv._ WRONG'-HEAD'EDLY.--_n._ WRONG'-HEAD'EDNESS.--_adv._ WRONG'LY, in a wrong manner.--_adj._ WRONG'-MIND'ED, having erroneous views.--_n._ WRONG'NESS.--_adj._ WRONG'OUS, unjust, illegal.--_adv._ WRONG'OUSLY.--_adj._ WRONG'-TIMED, inopportune.--GO WRONG, to fail to work properly: to stray from virtue; HAVE WRONG, to be wrong: to suffer injustice; IN THE WRONG, holding an erroneous view or unjust position; PRIVATE WRONG, a violation of the civil or personal rights of an individual in his private capacity; PUT IN THE WRONG, to cause to appear in error. [A.S. _wrang_, a wrong; most prob. Scand., Ice. _rangr_, unjust, Dan. _vrang_, wrong. Skeat explains A.S. _wrang_ as from _wrang_, pa.t. of _wringan_, to wring, like Fr. _tort_, from L. _tortus_, twisted.] WROTE, r[=o]t. _pa.t._ of _write_. WROTH, r[=o]th, _adj._ wrathful. [A.S. _wráth_, angry--_wráth_, pa.t. of _wríthan_, to writhe; cf. Ice. _reithr_.] WROUGHT, rawt, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _work_.--_n._ WROUGHT'-[=I]'RON, malleable iron. [A.S. _worhte_, _geworht_, pa.t. and pa.p. of _wyrcan_, _wircan_, to work.] WRUNG, rung, _pa.t._ and _pa.p._ of _wring_. WRY, r[=i], _adj._ twisted or turned to one side: not in the right direction.--_n._ (_prov._) distortion.--_v.i._ (_Shak._) to go astray.--_v.t._ to give a twist to, pervert.--_n._ WRY'BILL, a New Zealand plover with bill bent sideways.--_adv._ WRY'LY.--_adj._ WRY'-MOUTHED, having a crooked mouth, unflattering.--_n._ WRY'-NECK, a twisted or distorted neck: a small bird allied to the woodpecker, which twists round its head strangely when surprised.--_adj._ WRY'-NECKED.--_n._ WRY'NESS.--MAKE A WRY FACE, or MOUTH, to pucker up the face, or mouth, in sign of disgust or pain. [A.S. _wrigian_, to drive, bend. Ult. conn. with _wriggle_ and _writhe_.] WULL, wul, _v.i._ (_Spens._). Same as WILL. WUTHER, wuth'[.e]r, _v.i._ (_prov._) to roar sullenly.--_n._ a low roaring. [Perh. traceable to A.S. _wóth_, a cry.] WUZZENT, wuz'ent, _adj._ (_Scot._) wizened. WUZZLE, wuz'l, _v.t._ (_U.S._) to jumble. WYCH-ELM, _n._ See WITCH-ELM. WYCLIFITE, WYCLIFFITE, wik'lif-[=i]t, _adj._ pertaining to the English reformer and translator of the Bible, John _Wycliffe_ (1325-84).--_n._ a follower of WYCLIFFE; a Lollard. WYKEHAMIST, wik'am-ist, _n._ a student, or former student, of Winchester College, founded by William of _Wykeham_, Bishop of Winchester (died 1404). WYLIE-COAT, w[=i]'li-k[=o]t, _n._ (_Scot._) a flannel undervest or petticoat. WYND, w[=i]nd, _n._ (_Scot._) a lane: narrow alley in a town. [Same as _Wind_ (2).] WYVERN, w[=i]'vrn, _n._ (_her._) a fictitious monster allied to the dragon and the griffin, and having its two legs and feet like those of the eagle. [O. Fr. _wivre_, a viper--L. _vipera_.] * * * * * X the twenty-fourth letter in our alphabet, having in modern English the value of _ks_, which it had in Anglo-Saxon--except at the beginning of a word, where it is pronounced like _z_. As a numeral X stands for ten, [X on its side] for a thousand, [=X] for ten thousand; X as an abbreviation represents the word Christ--Xian, Xmas; _x_ in algebra is the first of the unknown quantities; and the use of X, XX, and XXX on barrels of stout is a well-known way of indicating the quality.--X-RAYS, the name given by Röntgen of Würzburg in 1895 to those dark or invisible rays emitted, under the influence of an electric current, from a glass-bulb highly exhausted of air through an aluminium window into a close box, and which when passed through the hand or other part of the body imprint a shadow-picture of the bones on a sensitive photographic plate--a discovery of high value in surgery, enabling a bullet, &c., embedded in the flesh to be carefully localised. XANTHEINE, zan'the-in, _n._ the yellow colouring matter of flowers. [From Gr. _xanthos_, yellow.] XANTHIAN, zan'thi-an, _adj._ pertaining to _Xanthus_, the capital of ancient Lycia, in Asia Minor. XANTHIN, zan'thin, _n._ a name given to the yellow colouring matter of various flowers, to a principle in madder, and to a deposit of urine.--_n._ XAN'THATE, a salt of xanthic acid.--_adj._ XAN'THIC. [Gr. _xanthos_, yellow.] XANTHIUM, zan'thi-um, _n._ a weedy plant of the aster family.--Also _Cockle-bur_, _Clot-bur_. XANTHOCHROI, zan-thok'roi, _n.pl._ one of the five groups of men, according to Huxley and other ethnologists, comprising the fair whites.--_n._ XANTHOCHROI'A, a yellow discolouration of the skin.--_adjs._ XANTHOCHR[=O]'IC, XANTHOCH'R[=O]OUS. [Formed through L. from Gr. _xanthos_, yellow, _chroa_, skin.] XANTHOMA, zan-th[=o]'ma, _n._ a skin disease consisting of a growth of flat or tuberculated yellowish patches, often on the eyelids.--_adj._ XANTHOMA'ATOUS. [Gr. _xanthos_, yellow.] XANTHOMELANOUS, zan-th[=o]-mel'a-nus, _adj._ applied to a type of men with black hair and yellow or olive skins. [Gr. _xanthos_, yellow, _melas_, _-anos_, black.] XANTHOPHYLL, zan'th[=o]-fil, _n._ any one of certain yellow pigments contained in leaves. XANTHOPSY, zan'thop-si, _n._ a kind of colour-blindness in which everything looks yellowish. XANTHOSIS, zan-th[=o]'sis, _n._ the formation of a yellowish pigment in the areolar or muscular tissue, discolouring the skin--esp. in cancerous tumours. XANTHOUS, zan'thus, _adj._ yellow. [Gr. _xanthos_, yellow.] XANTHOXYLUM, zan-thok'si-lum, _n._ a genus of the _Rutaceæ_, comprising over one hundred species, of which many are found in Brazil and the West Indies--the Prickly Ash or Toothache-tree. [Formed from Gr. _xanthos_, yellow, _xylon_, wood.] XANTHURA, zan-th[=u]'ra, _n._ a genus of American jays, with yellow tail. [Gr. _xanthos_, yellow, _oura_, tail.] XANTIPPE, zan-tip'e, _n._ a scold, shrew. [Wife of Socrates.] XEBEC, z[=e]'bek, _n._ a small three-masted vessel much used by the former corsairs of Algiers. [Sp.,--Turk. _sumbak[=i]_.] XEMA, z[=e]'ma, _n._ the genus of fork-tailed gulls. XENARTHRAL, zen-arth'ral, _adj._ peculiarly jointed, as dorso-lumbar vertebræ. [Gr. _xenos_, strange, _arthron_, a joint.] XENIAL, z[=e]'ni-al, _adj._ of or belonging to hospitality. [Gr. _xenos_, a guest.] XENIUM, z[=e]'ni-um, _n._ a present made to a guest, stranger, or ambassador. [Gr.] XENODOCHY, z[=e]-nod'[=o]-ki, _n._ reception of strangers.--_n._ XENODOCH[=E]'UM, a building for the reception of strangers: an inn in modern Greece. XENOGAMY, zen-og'a-mi, _n._ (_bot._) cross-fertilisation. [Gr. _xenos_, strange, _gamos_, marriage.] XENOGENESIS, zen-[=o]-jen'e-sis, _n._ the generation of something altogether and permanently unlike the parent.--_adj._ XENOGENET'IC. [Gr. _xenos_, a stranger, _genesis_, birth.] XENOMANIA, zen-[=o]-m[=a]'ni-a, _n._ an inordinate attachment to things foreign. [Gr. _xenos_, foreign, _mania_, madness.] XENOMENIA, zen-[=o]-m[=e]'n[=i]-a, _n._ vicarious or supplementary menstruation. [Gr. _xenos_, strange, _m[=e]niaia_, menses.] XENOMORPHIC, zen-[=o]-mor'fik, _adj._ not having its own proper form, but an irregular shape impressed by adjacent minerals. [Gr. _xenos_, strange, _morph[=e]_, form.] XENOPS, z[=e]'nops, _n._ a genus of South American tree-creepers, with short turned-up bills. [Gr. _xenos_, strange, _[=o]ps_, face.] XENURUS, z[=e]-n[=u]'rus, _n._ a genus of armadillos.--_adj._ XEN[=U]'RINE. [Gr. _xenos_, strange, _oura_, tail.] XERANSIS, z[=e]-ran'sis, _n._ siccation.--Also XER[=O]'SIS. XERANTIC, z[=e]-ran'tik, _adj._ drying up, exsiccant. XERASIA, z[=e]-r[=a]'si-a, _n._ a morbid dryness of the hair.--Also XER[=O]'SIS. [Gr. _x[=e]ros_, dry.] XERODERMA, z[=e]-r[=o]-der'ma, _n._ a morbid state of dryness of the skin due to diminished secretion of the sebaceous glands. XERODES, z[=e]-r[=o]'d[=e]s, _n._ any tumour attended with dryness. XEROMYRUM, z[=e]-rom'i-rum, _n._ a dry ointment. XEROPHAGY, z[=e]-rof'a-ji, _n._ the habit of living on dry food. [Gr. _x[=e]ros_, dry, _phagein_, to eat.] XEROPHILOUS, z[=e]-rof'i-lus, _adj._ (_bot._) loving dryness. XEROPHTHALMIA, z[=e]-rof-thal'mi-a, _n._ a dry form of conjunctivis. XEROSTOMIA, z[=e]-r[=o]-st[=o]'mi-a, _n._ abnormal dryness of the mouth. XEROTES, z[=e]'r[=o]-t[=e]z, _n._ a dry habit of body.--_adj._ XEROT'IC. XEROTRIBIA, z[=e]-r[=o]-trib'i-a, _n._ dry friction.--Also XEROTRIP'SIS. XIPHOID, zif'oid, _adj._ resembling the sword-fish. XOANON, z[=o]'a-non, _n._ a primitive statue, fallen from heaven, originally of wood, later overlaid with ivory and gold. [Gr.] X-RAYS. See under X. XYLANTHRAX, z[=i]-lan'thraks, _n._ wood-coal. XYLEM, z[=i]'lem, _n._ the woody part of vegetable tissue--opposed to the _phloëm_, or bast part. XYLOBALSAMUM, z[=i]-l[=o]-bal'sa-mum, _n._ the dried twigs of the balm-of-Gilead tree. XYLOCARP, z[=i]'l[=o]-kärp, _n._ a hard and woody fruit.--_adj._ XYLOCAR'POUS. XYLOGRAPHY, zi-log'ra-fi, _n._ the art of engraving on wood.--_ns._ XYL'OGRAPH, an impression or print from a wood block: an impression of the grain of wood for surface decoration; XYLOG'RAPHER.--_adjs._ XYLOGRAPH'IC, -AL. [Gr. _xylon_, wood, _graphein_, to write.] XYLOID, z[=i]'loid, _adj._ woody, ligneous. XYLOIDINE, z[=i]-loi'din, _n._ an explosive like gun-cotton, prepared by the action of strong nitric acid on starch or woody fibre. [Gr. _xylon_, wood, _eidos_, form, appearance.] XYLOL, z[=i]'lol, _n._ any of the metameric dimethyl benzenes. [Gr. _xylon_, wood, L. _oleum_, oil.] XYLONITE, z[=i]'-l[=o]-n[=i]t, _n._ a kind of celluloid (q.v.). [Gr. _xylon_, wood.] XYLOPHAGAN, z[=i]-lof'a-gan, _n._ one of the XYLOPH'AGA, a genus of boring bivalves. XYLOPHAGOUS, z[=i]-lof'a-gus, _adj._ wood-eating. XYLOPHILOUS, z[=i]-lof'i-lus, _adj._ fond of wood, living upon wood. XYLOPHONE, z[=i]'l[=o]-f[=o]n, _n._ a musical instrument consisting of a graduated series of wooden bars, which are rested on straw, and are struck by wooden hammers. [Gr. _xylon_, wood, _ph[=o]n[=e]_, a voice.] XYLOPIA, z[=i]-l[=o]'p[=i]-a, _n._ a genus of plants, natives of the tropics, chiefly in America. [Gr. _xylon_, wood, _pikros_, bitter.] XYLOPYROGRAPHY, z[=i]-l[=o]-p[=i]-rog'ra-fi, _n._ poker-painting. XYST, zist, _n._ a covered portico used by athletes for their exercises.--Also XYST'OS, XYST'US. XYSTER, zis't[.e]r, _n._ a surgeon's instrument for scraping bones. * * * * * Y the twenty-fifth letter of our alphabet.--Y=150; [=Y]=150,000.--_ns._ Y'-LEVEL, an engineers' spirit-level, so called because of the telescope formerly resting on 'Y's,' capable of being rotated at will--now substituted by the 'dumpy-level'--also _Wye-level_; Y'-MOTH, the gamma, a destructive noctuid moth, with a silvery Y-shaped mark on the upper wings; Y'-TRACK, a short track laid at right angles to a railway-line, connected with it by two switches resembling a Y, used instead of a turn-table for reversing engines. YACCA, yak'a, _n._ a kind of evergreen in the West Indies. YACHT, yot, _n._ a sailing or steam vessel, elegantly fitted up for pleasure-trips or racing, or as a vessel of state.--_v.i._ to sail in a yacht.--_adj._ YACHT'-BUILT, built on the model of a yacht.--_ns._ YACHT'-CLUB, a club of yachtsmen; YACHT'ER, one engaged in sailing a yacht; YACHT'ING, sailing in a yacht; YACHTS'MAN, one who keeps or sails a yacht; YACHTS'MANSHIP, the art of sailing a yacht. [Dut. _jagt_ (formerly _jacht_), from _jagen_, to chase=Old High Ger. _jag[=o]n_, Ger. _jagen_, to hunt.] YAFF, yaf, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to bark like a snarling dog. YAFFINGALE, yaf'ing-g[=a]l, _n._ (_Tenn._) the green woodpecker. [From Prov. Eng. _yaffle_ (and under the influence of _nightingale_), from the sound.] YAGER, y[=a]'g[.e]r, _n._ formerly one of various bodies of light infantry in German armies, largely recruited from foresters, now one of various corps of infantry or cavalry, generally riflemen.--Also JÄ'GER. [Ger. _jäger_, a huntsman.] YAGGER, yag'[.e]r, _n._ (_Scot._) a peddler, a stroller. [Dut. _jager_, a huntsman--_jagen_, to hunt.] YAHOO, ya-h[=oo]', _n._ a name given by Swift in _Gulliver's Travels_ to a class of animals which have the forms of men but the understanding and passions of the lowest brutes: a despicable character. YAHVEH, yä-v[=a]'=_Jehovah_.--_n._ YAH'VIST=_Jehovist_. YAK, yak, _n._ a species of ox found in Tibet, and domesticated there, covered all over with a thick coat of long silky hair, that of the lower parts hanging down almost to the ground. [Tibetan.] YAKUT, ya-k[=oo]t', _n._ a member of a mixed Turkish race in Siberia, in the Lena district. YALD, YAULD, yäld, _adj._ (_Scot._) active, supple. YAM, yam, _n._ a large root like the potato growing in tropical countries. [Port. _inhame_.] YAMA, yam'a, _n._ in Hindu mythology, the first mortal progenitor of the human race. [Sans.] YAMADOU, yam'a-d[=oo], _n._ an oil from the yellow-nutmeg. YAMMER, yam'[.e]r, _v.i._ to lament, wail: to whine.--_n._ YAMM'ERING. [A.S. _geómerian_--_geómor_, sad.] YAMUN, yä'mun, _n._ the office and residence of a mandarin. [Chin.] YANK, yangk, _v.t._ to carry, move with a jerk (with out, over).--_n._ (_Scot._) a blow, buffet.--_n._ YANK'ER (_Scot._), a rap: a big lie.--_adj._ YANK'ING (_Scot._), active: (_U.S._) pulling, jerking.--_n._ YANK'IE (_Scot._), a scold: an impudent woman. [Scand., Sw. prov. _jakka_, to rove about, Ice. _jaga_, to move about.] YANKEE, yang'k[=e], _n._ a citizen of the New England States in America: an inhabitant of the United States--also YANK (_coll._).--_ns._ YANK'EEDOM, the country inhabited by Yankees: Yankees generally; YANK'EE-DOO'DLE, a Yankee, from a popular air--also _adj._--_adj._ YANK'EEFIED.--_n._ YANK'EEISM, Yankee characteristics. [Perh. a corr. of _English_, or of Fr. _Anglais_, by the North American Indians.] YAP, yap, _v.i._ (_prov._) to yelp, bark constantly.--_n._ a yelp: a cur.--_n._ YAP'STER, a dog. YAPOK, YAPOCK, yap'ok, _n._ the S. Amer. water-opossum. [From the river _Oyapok_, in French Guiana.] YAPON, yä'pon, _n._ a bushy evergreen shrub of the holly family, native to the S.E. coasts of the U.S., its leaves yielding the medicinal 'black drink' of the Indians.--Also YAU'PON, YU'PON. [Most prob. Amer. Ind.] YAPP, yap, _n._ a kind of limp leather binding in which the cover overlaps the edge of the book. YARD, yärd, _n._ an English measure of 3 feet or 36 inches: a long beam on a mast for spreading square sails: the penis.--_ns._ YARD'-ARM, either half of a ship's yard (right or left) from the centre to the end; YARD'STICK, a stick 3 feet long, any standard of measurement--also YARD'WAND. [A.S. _gyrd_, _gierd_, a rod, measure; Dut. _garde_, Ger. _gerte_; further conn. with Goth. _gazds_, a stick, L. _hasta_, a spear.] YARD, yärd, _n._ an enclosed place, esp. near a building, as 'prison-yard,' or where any special work is carried on, as 'brick-yard,' 'wood-yard,' 'dock-yard,' 'navy-yard:' a garden.--_v.t._ to enclose in a yard.--_ns._ YARD'AGE, the use of a yard, or the charge made for such: the cutting of coal at so much per yard; YARD'-LAND, the amount of land held by a tenant in villeinage, in older English usage, varying from 15 to 40 acres; YARD'MAN, the person having special charge of a farm-yard: one employed in a railway-yard in making up trains, &c.; YARD'-MAS'TER, one who has the special oversight of a railway-yard. [A.S. _geard_, hedge, enclosure; Ger. _garten_; conn. with L. _hortus_, Gr. _chortos_.] YARE, y[=a]r, _adj._ ready: dexterous: quick: easily handled, manageable.--_adv._ YARE'LY (_Shak._), promptly: dexterously: skilfully. [A.S. _gearu_, _gearo_, ready, prompt; Dut. _gaar_, dressed, Ger. _gar_, wholly.] YARN, yärn, _n._ spun thread: one of the threads of a rope: a sailor's story (spun out to some length), a story generally.--_v.i._ to tell stories. [A.S. _gearn_, thread; Ice. and Ger. _garn_.] YARPHA, yär'fa, _n._ peaty soil in Shetland. YARR, yär, _n._ (_prov._) the corn spurry. YARRISH, yär'ish, _adj._ (_prov._) having a rough, dry taste. YARROW, yar'[=o], _n._ the plant milfoil. [A.S. _gearuwe_; Ger. _garbe_.] YASHMAK, yash'mak, _n._ the double veil worn by Moslem women in public, the eyes only being uncovered. [Ar.] YASHT, yäsht, _n._ in the Zend-Avesta, one of a collection of hymns and prayers. YATAGHAN, yat'a-gan, _n._ a long Turkish dagger, without guard, usually curved. [Turk.] YATE, y[=a]t, _n._ (_Spens._) a gate. YAUD, yäd, _n._ Scotch form of _jade_. YAUP, yäp, _n._ (_prov._) the blue titmouse. YAUP, yäp, _v.i._ (_Scot._) to be hungry.--_adj._ hungry. YAW, yaw, _v.i._ to move unsteadily: (_naut._) to deviate temporarily or to turn out of the line of her course, as a ship.--_n._ a deviation from the course. [Scand., cf. Norw. _gaga_, to bend back, Ice. _gagr_, bent back.] YAWL, yawl, _v.i._ to howl. [Cf. _Gowl_.] YAWL, yawl, _n._ a ship's small boat, generally with four or six oars: a small fishing-boat: a small sailing-boat with jigger and curtailed mainboom. [Dut. _jol_. Cf. _Jollyboat_.] YAWN, yawn, _v.i._ to open the jaws involuntarily from drowsiness: to gape: to gape with astonishment.--_n._ the opening of the mouth from drowsiness.--_adj._ YAWN'ING, gaping: opening wide: drowsy.--_n._ act of opening wide or gaping: a modification of the ordinary movements of respiration, in which the inspiration is deeper than usual, accompanied by a kind of spasmodic contraction of the muscles which depress the lower jaw, and by a great elevation of the ribs and to some degree of the shoulder-blades.--_adv._ YAWN'INGLY. [A.S. _gánian_, to yawn--_gínan_, pa.t. _gán_, to gape widely; Ice. _gína_, to gape, Gr. _chainein_, to gape.] YAWS, yaws, _n._ a tropical epidemic and contagious disease of the skin--also _Framboesia_, _Button scurvy_, _Verruga Peruviana_, _Buba_ or _Boba_, _Patta_, _Tetia_, &c.--_adj._ YAW'EY, pertaining to the yaws. [African _yaw_, a raspberry.] Y-CLAD, i-klad', an obsolete form of _clad_, _pa.p._ of _clothe_. YCLEPT, or YCLEPED, i-klept', _pa.p._ (_obs._) called. [_Clepe_.] YE, y[=e], _pron._ the nom. pl. of the 2d person--in old English _ye_ was always used as a nominative, and _you_ as a dative or accusative, as in the English Bible. [M. E. _ye_, _[gh]e_, nom.; _your_, _[gh]our_, gen.; _you_, _[gh]ou_, _yow_, dat. and accus. pl. A.S. _ge_, nom. ye; _eówer_, gen. of you; _eów_, to you, you, dat. and accus.] YEA, y[=a], _adv._ yes: verily.--_adj._ (_B._) true.--_n._ an affirmative vote. [A.S. _geá_; Dut. and Ger. _ja_, Ice. _já_. Cf. _Yes_.] YEAD, YEDE, y[=e]d, _v.i._ (_Spens._) to go: to march:--_pr.p._ yead'ing; _pa.p._ y[=o]de. [A.S. _eode_, went, pa.t. of _gán_, to go.] YEAN, y[=e]n, _v.t._ to bring forth young.--_n._ YEAN'LING (_Shak._), the young of a sheep: a lamb. [A.S. _éanian_, to bring forth--_eacen_, pregnant.] YEAR, y[=e]r, _n._ a period of time determined by the revolution of the earth in its orbit, and embracing the four seasons, popularly a period beginning with 1st January and ending with 31st December, consisting of 365 days (excepting every fourth year, called 'bissextile' or 'leap-year,' in which one day is added to February, making the number 366)--the CALENDAR, CIVIL, or LEGAL YEAR: a space of twelve calendar months: (_pl._) period of life, esp. age or old age.--_ns._ YEAR'-BOOK, a book published annually, containing reports of judicial cases, or of discoveries, events, &c.; YEAR'LING, an animal a year old.--_adj._ a year old.--_adjs._ YEAR'LONG, lasting a year; YEAR'LY, happening every year: lasting a year.--_adv._ once a year: from year to year.--YEAR OF GRACE, or OF OUR LORD, date of the Christian era.--ANOMALISTIC YEAR (see ANOMALY); ASTRONOMICAL YEAR, the interval between one vernal equinox and the next, or one complete mean apparent circuit of the ecliptic by the sun, or mean motion through 360° of longitude--365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 49.7 seconds--called also the EQUINOCTIAL, SOLAR, or TROPICAL YEAR; CANICULAR YEAR--the ancient Egyptian--counted from one heliacal rising of Sirius to the next--(the _Canicular Cycle_ was the cycle of 1461 years of 365 days each, or 1460 Julian years, also called the _Sothiac period_); ECCLESIASTICAL YEAR, the year as arranged in the ecclesiastical calendar, with saints' days, festivals, &c.; EMBOLISMIC YEAR, a year of thirteen lunar months or 384 days, occurring in a lunisolar calendar like that of the Jews; HEBREW YEAR, a lunisolar year, of 12 or 13 months of 29 or 30 days--in every cycle of nineteen years the 3d, 6th, 8th, 11th, 14th, 17th, and 19th having thirteen months instead of twelve; JULIAN YEAR, a period of 365¼ days, thus causing an annual error of about 11 minutes--corrected by dropping 10 days in 1582 under Pope Gregory XIII.--not adopted in England till 3d September 1752, which became September 14 (see STYLE); LEGAL YEAR, the year by which dates were reckoned, which till 1752 began in England on 25th March, that date being originally chosen by Dionysius Exiguus as being the Annunciation--exactly nine months before Christmas. In Scotland the year began on 1st January since 1600.--The most common New Year's Days were these four--(a) 25th December; (b) 25th March; (c) Easter; (d) 1st January. Thus England used both the first and second from the 6th century to 1066; the fourth till 1155; then the second till the day after 31st December 1751, which was called 1st January 1752. Scotland used the second till 1599, when the day after 31st December 1599 was called 1st January 1600. France under Charlemagne used the first, and afterwards also the third and second till 1563; LUNAR YEAR, a period of twelve lunar months or 354 days, PLATONIC YEAR, a cycle of years at the end of which the heavenly bodies are in the same place as at the Creation--also GREAT, or PERFECT, YEAR; SABBATIC, -AL, YEAR (see SABBATH); SIDEREAL YEAR, the period required by the sun to move from a given star to the same star again--affected by Nutation only, one of the most invariable quantities which nature affords us, having a mean value of 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, 9.6 seconds.--IN YEARS, advanced in age. [A.S. _geár_, _gér_; Ger. _jahr_, Ice. _ár_, Gr. _h[=o]ra_, season.] YEARN, y[.e]rn, _v.i._ to feel earnest desire: to feel uneasiness, as from longing or pity.--_n._ YEARN'ING, earnest desire, tenderness, or pity.--_adj._ longing.--_adv._ YEARN'INGLY. [A.S. _giernan_, _giernian_, to desire--_georn_, desirous, eager; cf. Ger. _begehren_. to long for.] YEARN, y[.e]rn, _v.i._ and _v.t._ (_Shak._) to grieve. [M. E. _ermen_--A.S. _yrman_, to vex--_earm_, poor.] YEARN, y[.e]rn, _v.t._ (_Spens._) to earn. YEARN, y[.e]rn, _v.i._ to curdle, as milk--also Earn.--_n._ YEARN'ING, rennet. YEAST, y[=e]st, _n._ the froth of malt liquors in fermentation: the vegetable growth to which fermentation is due, of value in brewing, baking, &c.: (_Shak._) spume or foam of water.--_v.i._ to ferment.--_ns._ YEAST'INESS, the state of being yeasty or frothy; YEAST'-PLANT, a small plant causing alcoholic fermentation in saccharine liquids; YEAST'-POW'DER, a baking powder.--_adj._ YEAST'Y, like yeast: frothy, foamy: unsubstantial. [A.S. _gist_, _gyst_; Ger. _gäscht_, _gischt_.] YELD, yeld, _adj._ (_Scot._) barren, not giving milk. [A variant of _geld_.] YELDRING, yel'dring, _n._ the same as YOWLEY.--Also YEL'DROCK. YELK. Same as YOLK. YELL, yel, _v.i._ to howl or cry out with a sharp noise: to scream from pain or terror.--_v.t._ to utter with a yell.--_n._ a sharp outcry.--_n._ YELL'ING.--_v.i._ YELL'OCH (_Scot._), to yell.--_n._ a yell. [A.S. _gellan_, _gyllan_; Ger. _gellen_; conn. with A.S. _galan_, to sing.] YELLOW, yel'[=o], _adj._ of a bright gold colour.--_n._ a bright golden colour: (_pl._) the peach-yellows (see PEACH): (_Shak._) jaundice in horses.--_v.t._ to make yellow.--_v.i._ to become yellow.--_adjs._ YELL'OW-BACKED, -BELL'IED, -BILLED, -BREAST'ED, -COV'ERED, -CROWNED, -EYED, -FOOT'ED, -FRONT'ED, -HEAD'ED, -HORNED, -LEGGED, -NECKED, -POLLED, -RINGED, -RUMPED, -SHOUL'DERED, -SPOT'TED, &c.--_ns._ YELL'OW-BIRD, one of various birds of a yellow colour--the golden oriole, summer-warbler, &c.; YELL'OW-BOY, a gold coin: a mulatto or dark quadroon:--_fem._ YELL'OW-GIRL; YELL'OW-BUNT'ING, the yellow-hammer; YELL'OW-EARTH, a yellow ochre sometimes used as a pigment; YELL'OW-F[=E]'VER, a pestilential contagious fever of a continuous and special type, presenting at least two well-defined stages, the first occupying 36 to 150 hours, marked by a rapid circulation and high temperature; the second being characterised by general depression and black vomit--also known as _Yellow Jack_, _Bronze John_, _El Vomito_, and _Vomito Prieto_ or _Vomito Amarilli_; YELL'OW-FLAG, a flag of a yellow colour, displayed by a vessel in quarantine or over a military hospital or ambulance; YELL'OW-GUM, the melæna or black jaundice of infants; YELL'OW-HAMM'ER, -AMM'ER, a song-bird, so named from its yellow colour: the common yellow-bunting.--_adj._ YELL'OWISH, somewhat yellow.--_ns._ YELL'OWISHNESS; YELL'OW-MET'AL, a brass consisting of sixty parts copper and forty parts zinc; YELL'OWNESS; YELL'OW-ROOT, an American herb whose root-stock yields berberine--also _Orange-root_, _Goldenseal_; YELL'OW-SOAP, common soap composed of tallow, resin, and soda; YELL'OW-WASH, a lotion consisting of a mixture of mercuric chloride and lime-water; YELL'OW-WEED, weld; YELL'OW-WOOD, a name given to Fustic and many other trees--e.g. satin-wood, and various kinds of podocarpus, rhus, xanthoxylum, &c.; YELL'OW-WORT, an annual of the gentian family--also YELL'OW-CEN'TAURY.--_adj._ YELL'OWY, yellowish.--_ns._ YELL'OW-YOL'DRING, -YOR'LING, or -YOW'LEY, the European yellow-hammer.--YELLOW BERRIES, Persian berries. [A.S. _geolo_; Ger. _gelb_; cog. with L. _heluus_, light bay.] YELP, yelp, _v.i._ to utter a sharp bark.--_n._ a sharp, quick cry or bark.--_n._ YELP'ER. [A.S. _gilpan_, to boast, exult; Ice. _giálpa_, to yelp.] YEN, yen, _n._ a Japanese gold or silver coin, used as the monetary unit since 1871, and now equivalent to about 2s. 0½d. of our money. [Jap.,--Chin. _yuen_, round, a dollar.] YEOMAN, y[=o]'man, _n._ in early English history, a common menial attendant, but after the fifteenth century, one of a class of small freeholders, forming the next grade below gentlemen: a man of small estate, any small farmer or countryman above the grade of labourer: an officer of the royal household: a member of the yeomanry cavalry: (_Shak._) a journeyman, assistant: a gentleman in a royal or noble household, ranking between a sergeant and a groom.--_adj._ YEO'MANLY, of yeoman's rank: humble and honest.--_adv._ staunchly, bravely.--_n._ YEO'MANRY, the collective body of yeomen or smaller freeholders: a cavalry volunteer force in Great Britain, formed during the wars of the French Revolution, its organisation by counties, under the lords-lieutenant, raised and drilled locally, the men providing their own horses and uniform.--YEOMEN OF THE GUARD, a veteran company of picked soldiers, employed in conjunction with the gentlemen-at-arms on grand occasions as the sovereign's bodyguard--constituted a corps in 1485 by Henry VII., and still wearing the costume of that period; YEOMAN'S SERVICE, powerful aid, such as came from the yeomen in the English armies of early times. [M. E. _yoman_, _yemen_, doubtless from an A.S. _gáman_, not found, but seen in Old Frisian _g[=a]man_, villager--_g[=a]_, a village (Ger. _gau_, district), _man_, man.] YERBA, yer'ba, _n._ the Paraguay tea or maté. [Sp.,--L. _herba_.] YERK, y[.e]rk, _v.t._ to throw or thrust with a sudden, quick motion, to jerk: (_obs._) to beat, rouse, excite (_Scot._): to bind or tie with a jerk. [Akin to _jerk_.] YES, yes, _adv._ ay: a word of affirmation or consent. [A.S. _gise_, _gese_--_geá_, yea, _sý_, let it be.] YESTER, yes't[.e]r, _adj._ relating to yesterday: last.--_n._ YES'TERDAY, the day last past.--_adv._ on the day last past.--_ns._ YES'TEREVE, -N, YES'TEREVENING, the evening last past; YES'TERMORN, YES'TERMORNING, the morning last past; YES'TERNIGHT, the night last past; YES'TERYEAR, last year.--_adv._ YESTREEN' (_Scot._), last evening, contracted from _yestereven_. [A.S. _geostran-_, _giestran-_ (only in compounds); Ger. _gestern_; cf. L. _hesternus_, Gr. _chthes_.] YET, yet, _adv._ in addition: besides: at the same time: up to the present time: hitherto: even: however.--_conj._ nevertheless: however. [A.S. _git_, _gita_; Ger. _jetz_.] YETT, yet, _n._ (_Scot._) a gate, door--another term of _yate_, itself a dialectal form of _gate_. YEVE, y[=e]v, _v.t._ to give:--_pa.p._ (_Spens._) YEV'EN. YEW, [=u], _n._ a tree of genus _Taxus_--natural order _Taxaceæ_, itself a suborder of _Coniferæ_--widely diffused over the whole northern parts of the world, with narrow lanceolate or linear leaves (in Europe long planted in graveyards), yielding an elastic wood good for bows: its wood.--_adj._ YEW'EN (_Spens._), made of yew.--_n._ YEW'-TREE. [A.S. _íw_, _éow_, _éoh_; Ger. _eibe_, Ir. _iubhar_.] YEX, yeks, _v.i._ (_prov._) to hiccup.--_n._ a hiccup. YGGDRASIL, ig'dra-sil, _n._ (_Scand. myth._) the ash-tree binding together heaven, earth, and hell, and extending its branches over the whole world and above the heavens--according to Vigfusson and Powell, not a primitive Scandinavian idea, but originating after the contact with Christianity, and so a corruption of the cross [Ice. _Yggdra Syll_; cf. _Yggr_, _Uggr_, a surname of Odin, _syll_, sill. Magnusson explains as 'Odin's horse,' Ice. _sleipner_, horse.] YIDDISH, yid'ish, _n._ a strange compound of very corrupt Hebrew and ancient or provincial German spoken by the commoner Jews--extensively in the East End of London.--_ns._ YID, YIDD'ISHER, a Jew. [Ger. _jüdisch_, Jewish.] YIELD, y[=e]ld, _v.t._ to resign: to grant: to give out: to produce: to allow.--_v.i._ to submit: to comply with: to give place.--_n._ amount yielded: product.--_adj._ YIELD'ABLE, that may be yielded: inclined to yield.--_ns._ YIELD'ABLENESS; YIELD'ER.--_adj._ YIELD'ING, inclined to give way or comply: compliant.--_adv._ YIELD'INGLY.--_n._ YIELD'INGNESS.--YIELD UP THE GHOST (see 'Give up the ghost,' under GIVE). [A.S. _gieldan_, _gildan_, to pay, _gelten_, Ice. _gjalda_.] YILL, yil, _n._ (_Scot._) ale. [_Ale_.] YITE, y[=i]t, _n._ (_prov._) the yellow-bunting.--Also YOIT. Y-LEVEL, Y-MOTH. See Y. YO, y[=o], _interj._ expressive of effort, &c.--YO-HO, in order to call attention. YODEL, YODLE, y[=o]'dl, _v.t._ and _v.i._ to sing, changing frequently from the ordinary voice to falsetto and back again after the manner of the mountaineers of the Tyrol.--_n._ a song sung in this fashion--also J[=O]'DEL.--_ns._ Y[=O]'DELER, Y[=O]'DLER. [Ger. dial. _jodeln_.] YOGA, y[=o]'ga, _n._ a system of Hindu philosophy showing the means of emancipation of the soul from further migrations.--_ns._ Y[=O]'GI, a Hindu ascetic who practises the _yoga_ system, consisting in the withdrawal of the senses from external objects, long continuance in unnatural postures, &c.; Y[=O]'GISM. [Hind. _yoga_--Sans. _yoga_, union.] YOICKS, y[=o]'iks, _interj._ an old fox-hunting cry.--_v.t._ Y[=O]'ICK, to urge on by this cry. YOJANA, y[=o]'ja-na, _n._ an Indian measure of distance, usually about five miles.--Also Y[=O]'JAN. YOKE, y[=o]k, _n._ that which joins together: the frame of wood joining oxen for drawing together: any similar frame, as one for carrying pails: (_prov._) a chain of hills: a stretch of work--e.g. from meal-time to meal-time: a mark of servitude: slavery: a pair or couple.--_v.t._ to put a yoke on: to join together: to enslave.--_v.i._ to be joined: to go along with.--_ns._ YOKE'-DEV'IL (_Shak._), a companion devil; YOKE'-FELL'OW, -MATE, an associate: a mate or fellow.--_adj._ YOKE'-TOED, pair-toed.--_n._ Y[=O]K'ING, as much work as is done at a stretch. [A.S. _geoc_, _iuc_, _ioc_; Ger. _joch_; L. _jugum_, Gr. _zygon_.] YOKEL, y[=o]'kl, _n._ a country bumpkin.--_adj._ Y[=O]'KELISH. [Ety. dub.; but cf. _Gawk_ and _Gowk_.] YOLDING, YOLDRING. Same as YOWLEY. YOLK, y[=o]k, YELK, yelk, _n._ the yellow part of an egg: the vitellus of a seed: wool-oil.--_adjs._ YOLKED, having a yolk; YOLK'Y, like yolk. [A.S. _geoloca_, _geoleca_--_geolo_, yellow.] YON, yon, YONDER, yon'd[.e]r, _adv._ at a distance within view.--_adj._ being at a distance within view. [A.S. _geon_; Goth. _jains_ (masc.), _jaina_ (fem.), Ger. _jen-er_, that.] YOND, yond, _adj._ (_Spens._) furious, mad--apparently a mere coinage from the foregoing. YONI, y[=o]'n[=e], _n._ the _pudendum muliebre_, the symbol under which Sakti is worshipped in India. YONKER=_Younker_ (q.v.). YOOP, yoop, _n._ a word imitative of a sobbing sound. YORE, y[=o]r, _n._ in old time. [A.S. _geára_, formerly, gen. pl. of _gár_, a year.] YORKER, york'[.e]r, _n._ a term in cricket applied to a ball pitched to a point directly under the batsman's bat--formerly called _tice_ from _entice_. [Prob. from _Yorkshire_, but history quite unknown.] YORKISH, york'ish, _adj._ pertaining to the county or city of _York_: adhering to the House of York in the Wars of the Roses.--_n._ YORK'IST, one of this party.--YORKSHIRE GRIT, a grit from Yorkshire used for polishing; YORKSHIRE PUDDING, a pudding made of unsweetened batter, and baked under meat so as to catch the drippings. YOU, [=u], _pron._ 2d pers. pron. pl., but also used as singular.--_pron.pl._ YOU'-UNS, a provincial form for _you_, _you ones_.--YOU'RE ANOTHER, the vulgar form of _tu quoque_, effective in vituperation, but not an argument. [A.S. _eów_, orig. only dat. and accus. Cf. _Ye_.] YOUNG, yung, _adj._ not long born: in early life: in the first part of growth: vigorous: relating to youth: junior, the younger of two persons having the same name: inexperienced: newly arrived--in Australia.--_n._ the offspring of animals.--_adjs._ YOUNG'-EYED (_Shak._), with the bright eyes of youth; YOUNG'ISH, somewhat young.--_n._ YOUNG'LING, a young person or animal.--_adj._ youthful, young.--_adv._ YOUNG'LY.--_ns._ YOUNG'NESS; YOUNG'STER, a young person: a lad; YOUNGTH (_Spens._), youth.--_adj._ YOUNGTH'LY (_Spens._), youthful.--YOUNG BLOOD, fresh accession of strength; YOUNG ENGLAND, the name applied, during the Corn-Law struggle (1842-45), to a little band of young Tory politicians, who hated Free Trade and Radicalism, and professed a sentimental attachment to earlier forms of social life in England; YOUNG ENGLAND, AMERICA, &c., the rising generation in England, America, &c.; YOUNG IRELAND, a group of Irish politicians who broke away from O'Connell about 1844, because of his rooted aversion to physical force; YOUNG ITALY, an association of Italian republican agitators, active about 1834, under the lead of Mazzini; YOUNG PERSON, Mr Podsnap's phrase for youth generally, considered as too inexperienced to hear about some matters within the range of adult human experience--from Dickens's _Our Mutual Friend_; YOUNG PRETENDER, Prince Charlie, as distinguished from his father the Pretender or Old Pretender.--WITH YOUNG, pregnant. [A.S. _geong_; Ger. _jung_; also conn. with L. _juvenis_, Sans. _yuvan_, young.] YOUNKER, yung'k[.e]r, _n._ a young person: (_Shak._) a simpleton: (_Spens._) a young gentleman or knight. [Old Dut. _joncker_ (Dut. _jonker_), from _jonk-heer_, 'young master' or 'lord;' Ger. _junker_.] YOUR, [=u]r, _pron._ poss. of _you_: belonging to you: (_Shak._) used to denote a class or species well known, the use implying something of contempt.--YOURN (_prov._), yours. [A.S. _eówer_. Cf. _Ye_.] YOURS, [=u]rz, _pron._ poss. of _you_, not followed by a noun: used in many idiomatic senses, as e.g. 'you and _yours_,' your family, property, '_yours_ of yesterday,' your letter, &c.--YOURS FAITHFULLY, SINCERELY, TRULY, &c., YOURS TO COMMAND, &c., are forms used in letters just before the signature, as phrases of conventional politeness, for the most part: also sometimes used by a vulgar speaker in alluding to himself. YOURSELF, [=u]r-self', _pron._ your own self or person:--_pl._ YOURSELVES'. YOUTH, y[=oo]th, _n._ state of being young: early life: a young person: young persons taken together: (_Shak._) recentness, freshness.--_adj._ YOUTH'FUL, pertaining to youth or early life: young: suitable to youth: fresh: buoyant, vigorous.--_adv._ YOUTH'FULLY.--_ns._ YOUTH'FULNESS; YOUTH'HEAD, YOUTH'HOOD (_obs._), youth.--_adjs._ YOUTH'LY (_Spens._), young, youthful; YOUTH'SOME, youthful; YOUTH'Y, young. [A.S. _geogoth_--_geong_, young; Ger. _jugend_.] YOWL, yowl, _v.i._ to cry mournfully, as a dog: to yell, bawl.--_n._ a distressed cry.--_n._ YOWL'ING, a howling. [M. E. _yowlen_--Ice. _gaula_, to howl; cf. Scot. _gowl_ and Eng. _yell_.] YOWLEY, yow'li, _n._ the yellow-bunting.--Also YEL'DRING, YEL'DROCK, YOR'LING, &c. [A.S. _geolu_, yellow.] Y-POINTING, i-point'ing, _adj._ (_Milt._) pointing, looking up into the air. [An erroneous formation, as the prefix y- was confined to the past participle, and then, too, only or nearly always to words of Anglo-Saxon origin.] Y-RAVISH, i-rav'ish, _v.t._ (_Shak._) to ravish. [An erroneous formation. Cf. _Y-pointing_.] YSLAKED, an obsolete _pa.p._ of _slake_. Y-TRACK. See Y. YTTERBIUM, i-ter'bi-um, _n._ an element discovered by Marignac in gadolinite. YTTRIUM, it'ri-um, _n._ a rare metal obtained as a blackish-gray powder, and contained in a few minerals in which there are usually also present compounds of one or more other rare metals, such as cerium, didymium, erbium, and lanthanum.--_n._ YTT'RIA, its oxide, a yellowish-white powder.--_adjs._ YTT'RIC; YTTRIF'EROUS; YTT'RIOUS.--_ns._ YTT'RO-C[=E]'RITE, a violet mineral found embedded in quartz, a fluoride of yttrium, cerium, and calcium; YTT'RO-COL'UMBITE, -TAN'TALITE, a brownish mineral found at YTTERBY, a tantalate of yttrium, uranium, and iron, with calcium. [From _Ytterby_, a town in Sweden, where it was first discovered.] YUCCA, yuk'a, _n._ a genus of plants of natural order _Liliaceæ_, natives of Mexico, &c., some cultivated in gardens on account of the singularity and splendour of their appearance.--YUCCA GLORIOSA, a native of Virginia, but quite hardy in England, the stem two or three feet high, its upper part producing a great tuft or crown of large sword-shaped evergreen leaves, each terminating in a sharp black spine. From the centre of this crown of leaves rises the flower-stalk, three feet high, branching out into a large panicle, the flowers white with a purple stripe. [West Indian name.] YUCK, yuk, _v.i._ (_prov._) to itch.--_n._ the itch.--_adj._ YUCK'Y, itchy. YUCKER, yuk'[.e]r, _n._ the American flicker or golden-winged woodpecker. YUFTS, yufts, _n._ Russia leather. YUGA, y[=oo]'ga, _n._ one of the Hindu ages of the world.--Also YUG. [Sans.] YULAN, y[=oo]'lan, _n._ a Chinese magnolia, with large white flowers. [Chin.] YULE, yool, _n._ the season or feast of Christmas.--_n._ YULE'TIDE, the time or season of Yule or Christmas.--YULE LOG, the block of wood cut down in the forest, then dragged to the house, and set alight in celebration of Christmas. [A.S. _géol_, yule, _se ['æ]rra géola_, December; Ice. _jól_. Not conn. either with Ice. _hjól_, wheel, or M. E. _youlen_, _yollen_, to cry out or yawl.] YUNX, yungks, _n._ the wry-neck. Y-WIS, i-wis', _adv._ (_Spens._) certainly, truly. [Cf. _Iwis_.] * * * * * Z the twenty-sixth and last letter in our alphabet, is derived through the Greek _zeta_, from _zayin_, the seventh Semitic letter--its sound a voiced sibilant, either a voiced _s_ as in 'zeal,' or a voiced _sh_ as in 'azure.'--The _cedilla_ (_ç_) is a 'little _zed_,' as is implied by the Italian name _zediglia_, from _zeticula_. ZABIAN, z[=a]'bi-an, _adj._ and _n._ the same as SABIAN.--_ns._ Z[=A]'BAISM, Z[=A]'BISM, the doctrines esp. of the Pseudo-ZABIANS, or Syrian Zabians (in Haurân, Edessa, Bagdad), remnants of the ancient Syrian but Hellenised heathens, from about the 9th to the 12th century. Under the name _Zabians_ used to be grouped several peoples distinct in origin and by no means alike in religion. The medieval Arabic and Jewish writers called nearly all those heathens or _Sabæans_ who were neither Jews or Christians, nor Mohammedans or Magians. Now the name _Sabæans_ denotes strictly the ancient inhabitants of southern Arabia, who were but little modified by Babylonian influences; the _Zabians_ of the Koran were originally non-Christian Gnostics--the ancestors of the still existing Mandæans (q.v.) or Joannes' Christians. ZABRA, zä'bra, _n._ a small vessel on the Spanish coast. [Sp.] ZABRUS, z[=a]'brus, _n._ a large genus of caraboid beetles. [Gr. _zabros_, gluttonous.] ZADKIEL, zad'ki-el, _n._ the name assumed by Richard James Morrison (1794-1874), the compiler of a popular astrological almanac, a retired commander in the royal navy, a Hebraist, mathematician, astronomer, and a real believer in his pseudo-science. ZAFFRE, ZAFFER, zaf'[.e]r, _n._ the impure oxide obtained by partially roasting cobalt ore previously mixed with two or three times its weight of fine sand. [Fr. _zafre_, of Ar. origin.] ZALOPHUS, zal'[=o]-fus, _n._ a genus of otaries or eared seals. [Gr. _za-_, intens., _lophos_, a crest.] ZAMBOMBA, tham-bom'ba, _n._ a simple Spanish musical instrument made by stretching a piece of parchment over a wide-mouthed jar and inserting a stick in it which is rubbed with the fingers. ZAMIA, z[=a]'mi-a, _n._ a genus of palm-like trees or low shrubs of the order _Cycadaceæ_--some species yield an edible starchy pith. [L. _zamia_, a dead fir-cone--Gr. _z[=e]mia_, damage.] ZAMINDAR=_Zemindar_ (q.v.). ZAMOUSE, za-moos', _n._ the short-horned buffalo of West Africa. ZAMPOGNA, tsam-p[=o]'nya, _n._ the Italian bagpipe. [It.] ZANDER, zan'd[.e]r, _n._ the European pike-perch.--Also SAN'DER and ZANT. [Ger.] ZANELLA, z[=a]-nel'a, _n._ a mixed twilled fabric for covering umbrellas. ZANJE, than'h[=e], _n._ an irrigating canal.--_n._ ZANJ[=E]'RO, one who superintends the distribution of such water. [Sp. Amer.] ZANTE, zan'te, _n._ the same as ZAN'TE-WOOD, the wood of the smoke-tree, from _Zante_, one of the principal Ionian Islands: satin-wood.--_n._ ZAN'TIOTE, a native of Zante.--ZANTE CURRANT, the small seedless fruit of a Zante grape. ZANY, z[=a]'ni, _n._ a merry-andrew: a buffoon.--_v.t._ to play the zany to.--_n._ Z[=A]'NYISM, condition or habits of a buffoon. [Fr. _zani_--It. _zani_, a corr. of _Giovanni_, John. Cf. the similar use of the names _John_ and _Jack_.] ZAPOROGIAN, z[=a]-p[=o]-r[=o]'ji-an, _adj._ pertaining to those Little Russian or Ukraine Cossacks who dwelt near the _Porogi_ or falls of the Dnieper.--_n._ one of the foregoing. ZAPOTILLA, zap-[=o]-til'a, _n._ the same as Sapodilla. ZAPTIEH, zap'ti-[=a], _n._ a Turkish policeman.--Also ZAB'TIEH. ZARAPE, za-rä'pe, _n._ the same as SERAPE. ZARATHUSTRIAN, zar-a-th[=oo]s'tri-an, _adj._ and _n._=_Zoroastrian_.--ZARATHUS'TRIANISM, ZARATHUS'TRISM=_Zoroastrianism_; ZARATHUS'TRIC=_Zoroastric_. ZARATITE, zar'a-t[=i]t, _n._ a hydrous carbonate of nickel, found usually as an incrustation on chromite. [From _Zarate_, a Spaniard.] ZAREBA, z[=a]-r[=e]'ba, _n._ in the Soudan, a stockade, thorn-hedge, &c. against wild animals or enemies, a fortified camp generally.--Also ZAREE'BA, ZERE'BA, ZERI'BA. ZARF, zärf, _n._ an ornamental holder for a hot coffee-cup.--Also ZURF. [Ar. _zarf_, a vessel.] ZARNICH, zär'nik, _n._ a native sulphide of arsenic, orpiment, realgar.--Also ZAR'NEC. [Ar. _zernikh_--Gr. _arsenikon_, arsenic.] ZARZUELA, thär-th[=oo]-[=a]'la, _n._ a kind of operetta or vaudeville--named from the royal residence of La _Zarzuela_ in Spain. ZASTRUGA, zas-tr[=oo]'ga, _n._ one of a series of long parallel snow-ridges on the open wind-swept plains of Russia. [Russian.] ZATI, zä'ti, _n._ the capped macaque of India and Ceylon. ZAX, zaks, _n._ a slaters' hammer.--Also _Sax_ (q.v.). ZEA, z[=e]'a, _n._ a cereal having monoecious flowers. The only species is _Z. mays_, the well-known maize or Indian corn. [Gr.] ZEAL, z[=e]l, _n._ boiling or passionate ardour for anything: enthusiasm.--_n._ ZEAL'ANT (_Bacon_), a zealot or enthusiast.--_adj._ ZEAL'LESS, wanting zeal.--_ns._ ZEALOT (zel'ot), one full of zeal: an enthusiast: a fanatic: one of a fanatical Jewish party whose restless opposition to the Roman domination finally brought about the ruin of Jerusalem in 70 A.D.; ZEALOTISM (zel'-), the character of a zealot; ZEALOTRY (zel'-).--_adj._ ZEALOUS (zel'-), full of zeal: warmly engaged or ardent in anything.--_adv._ ZEALOUSLY (zel'-).--_n._ ZEALOUSNESS (zel'-). [O. Fr. _zele_--L. _zelus_--Gr. _z[=e]los_, _zeein_, to boil. Cf. _Yeast_.] ZEBEC, ZEBECK=_Xebec_ (q.v.). ZEBRA, z[=e]'bra, _n._ a generic name given to the group of striped Equidæ--all of which are peculiar to the African continent--and thus including the Dauw or Burchell's Zebra, the Quagga, and the true or Mountain Zebra.--_n._ Z[=E]'BRA-WOOD, the hard and beautifully striped wood of a Guiana tree.--_adj._ Z[=E]'BRINE, like the zebra. [Of African origin.] ZEBU, z[=e]'b[=u], _n._ the humped domestic ox of India (or Brahminy bull), a kind of ox very nearly allied to the common ox, diffused over India, China, the east coast of Africa, &c. [Fr. _zébu_, the whimsical name taken by Buffon from the exhibitors of such a beast at a French fair as if African.] ZEBUB, z[=e]'bub, _n._ an Abyssinian fly hurtful to cattle, similar to the tsetse. [Ar. _zub[=a]b_, a fly.] ZECCHINO, tsek-k[=e]'n[=o], _n._ a Venetian gold coin, the same as the _sequin_ (q.v.). ZECHSTEIN, zek'st[=i]n, _n._ a deposit of calcareous rock which covers the Kupfer-schiefer. [Ger.,--_zeche_, a mine, _stein_, a stone.] ZED, zed, _n._ the letter Z, also called _zee_ and _izzard_: a bar of metal of form similar to the letter Z. ZEDOARY, zed'[=o]-[=a]-ri, _n._ certain species of curcuma, natives of India, China, &c., whose root-stocks (_rhizomes_) are aromatic, bitter, pungent, and tonic, and used for similar purposes with ginger--a powerful sudorific. [Ar. _Jedwar_.] ZEIN, z[=e]'in, _n._ a proteid found in Indian corn. [_Zea_.] ZEITGEIST, ts[=i]t'g[=i]st, _n._ the spirit of the age. [Ger.] ZEL, zel, _n._ a form of Oriental cymbal. [Pers. _zil_.] ZELOTYPIA, zel-[=o]-tip'i-a, _n._ morbid zeal in the prosecution of any project or cause. [Gr. _z[=e]lotypia_, jealousy, _z[=e]los_, zeal, _typtein_, to strike.] ZEMINDAR, zem-in-dar', _n._ under the Mogul emperors of India, the farmer of revenue from land held in common by the cultivators, as responsible for the revenue--now the actual native proprietor paying revenue direct, and not to any intermediate superior--also ZAMINDAR'.--_n._ ZEM'INDARY, the jurisdiction of a zemindar, the system of land-tenure and taxation under such--also ZAM'INDARI, ZEM'INDARI, &c. [Pers. _zem[=i]nd[=a]r_, a landholder.] ZEMSTVO, zems'tv[=o], _n._ in Russia, a district and provincial assembly to which the administration of the economic affairs of the district and the province was committed in 1866, but whose rights were much curtailed in 1890. [Russ.] ZENANA, ze-nä'na, _n._ the apartments in which Indian women are secluded, corresponding to the _harem_ in Arabic-speaking Moslem lands.--ZENANA MISSION, a mission to Hindu women, necessarily conducted by women. [Pers. _zan[=a]na_--_zan_, a woman.] ZEND, zend, _n._ the ancient East-Iranian and purely Aryan language, in which the Zend-Avesta was long orally preserved and at last written--closely related to the Vedic Sanskrit.--ZEND-AVESTA, the ancient sacred writings of the Parsees, including works of widely differing character and age, collected into their present canon under Shah-puhar II. (Shah-pur II.; 309-338 A.D.). [A word meaning 'commentary' (_zend_=_zand_, from Sans. _jñâ_, to know).] ZENDIK, zen'dik, _n._ an unbeliever in revealed religion in the East, one who practises magic. [Ar. _zend[=i]q_.] ZENITH, zen'ith, _n._ that point of the heavens which is exactly overhead--i.e. in line with the spectator's position and the centre of the earth (it is thus the upper pole of the spectator's horizon, as the _nadir_ is the under pole): greatest height, summit of ambition, &c.--_adj._ ZEN'ITHAL.--_ns._ ZEN'ITH-DIS'TANCE, the angular distance of a heavenly body from the zenith; ZEN'ITH-SEC'TOR, an instrument for measuring zenith-distances. [Fr., through Sp. _zenit_, from Ar. _samt_, short for _samt-ur-ras_, lit. 'way of the head.'] ZEOLITE, z[=e]'[=o]-l[=i]t, _n._ the common name of a large group of minerals often called the Zeolitic family--they are all soluble in acids, and most of them gelatinise in acids in consequence of silica being set free.--_adjs._ ZEOLIT'IC; ZEOLIT'IFORM. [Gr. _zeein_, to boil, _lithos_, a stone.] ZEPHYR, zef'ir, _n._ the west wind: a soft, gentle breeze: thin light worsted or woollen yarn, also a close-fitting jersey or undergarment made of such: anything very light and fine of its kind.--ZEPHYR CLOTH, a thin, finely spun woollen cloth for women's gowns. [Gr. _zephyros_--_zophos_, darkness, the dark quarter, the west.] ZERDA, zer'da, _n._ a small African fox, a fennec. ZEREBA=_Zareba_ (q.v.). ZERO, z[=e]'ro, _n._ cipher: nothing: the point from which the reckoning begins on scales, such as those of the barometer, &c. [Fr.,--Ar. _sifr_. Doublet _cipher_.] ZERUMBET, z[=e]-rum'bet, _n._ an East Indian drug, the cassumunar--sometimes for the round zedoary. ZEST, zest, _n._ something that gives a relish: relish. [Fr. _zeste_, skin of an orange or lemon used to give a flavour--L. _schistus_--Gr. _schistos_, cleft, divided--_schizein_, to cleave.] ZETA, z[=e]'ta, _n._ a small closet or parlour, the sexton's room over the porch of a church. [Gr. _diaita_, a dwelling.] ZETETIC, z[=e]-tet'ik, _adj._ proceeding by inquiry.--_n._ a seeker, the name taken by some of the Pyrrhonists. [Gr. _z[=e]t[=e]tikos_--_z[=e]tein_, to seek.] ZEUGLODON, z[=u]g'l[=o]-don, _n._ a fossil whale-like mammal, so named by Owen from the yoke-like double-rooted formation of its cheek teeth.--_adj._ and _n._ ZEUG'LODONT.--_n.pl._ ZEUGLODON'TIA, a suborder of _Cetacea_, represented by the zeuglodonts. [Gr. _zeugl[=e]_, the strap or loop of the yoke, _odous_, _-ontos_, a tooth.] ZEUGMA, z[=u]g'ma, _n._ (_gram._) a figure by which an adjective or verb which agrees with a nearer word is, by way of supplement, referred also to another more remote, whether grammatically corresponding or not.--_adj._ ZEUGMAT'IC. [Gr.,--_zeugnunai_, to yoke.] ZEUS, z[=u]s, _n._ the greatest of the national deities of Greece, son of Cronos (Saturn) and Rhea, brother of Poseidon (Neptune), Hades (Pluto), Hestia (Vesta), Demeter (Ceres), and Hera (Juno). His consort was Hera; his supreme seat, Mount Olympus in Thessaly. [Gr.] ZEUXITE, z[=u]ks'[=i]t, _n._ a ferriferous tourmaline. [Gr.,--_zeuxis_, joining--_zeugnunai_, to yoke.] ZIAMET, zi-ä'met, _n._ a large military fief under the Turkish feudal system. [Turk.] ZIBELINE, zib'e-lin, _adj._ pertaining to the sable.--_n._ the fur of the sable. [_Sable_.] ZIBET, zib'et, _n._ an Asiatic or Indian civet. [_Civet_.] ZIGANKA, zi-gan'ka, _n._ a Russian country-dance, the music for such, usually quick, with a drone bass. [Russ.] ZIGZAG, zig'zag, _n._ a short, sharp turning.--_adj._ having short, sharp turns, bent from side to side.--_v.t._ to form with short turns:--_pr.p._ zig'zagging; _pa.p._ zig'zagged.--_adv._ with frequent sharp turns--also ZIG'ZAGGY.--_n._ ZIGZAG'GERY, angular crookedness.--_adj._ ZIG'ZAGGY, zigzag. [Fr. _zig-zag_--Ger. _zick-zack_, _zacke_, a sharp point.] ZILLAH, zil'a, _n._ the technical name for the administrative districts into which British India is divided, each of which has in the older provinces a Collector (or Collector and Magistrate combined), a Sessions Judge, &c., and in the newer provinces, such as the Punjab and British Burma, a Deputy Commissioner. [Properly Ar. (in Indian pronunciation) _zila_, 'a rib,' thence 'a side,' 'a district.'] ZIMB, zimb, _n._ an Abyssinian dipterous insect, like the tsetse, hurtful to cattle. [Ar. _zimb_, a fly.] ZIMBI, zim'bi, _n._ a money-cowry. [East Ind.] ZIMENT-WATER, zi-ment'-wa't[.e]r, _n._ water found in copper-mines. ZIMOCCA, zi-mok'a, _n._ a fine quality of bath-sponge. ZINC, zingk, _n._ a bluish-white metal, breaking with a crystalline fracture--when chemically pure it is malleable and ductile at ordinary temperature, but ordinary zinc is so only at temperatures above 212° Fahr.--_v.t._ to cover with zinc.--_ns._ ZINC'-AM'YL, a colourless transparent liquid, composed of zinc and amyl; ZINC'-BLENDE, sphalerite, native sulphide of zinc; ZINC'-BLOOM, hydrozincite; ZINC-COL'IC, a colic caused by the slow poison of zinc-oxide; ZINC'-[=E]'THYL, a colourless volatile liquid, composed of zinc and the radical ethyl.--_adjs._ ZINCIF'EROUS, ZINKIF'EROUS, containing or producing zinc.--_ns._ ZINC'ITE, a native oxide of zinc, brittle, translucent, deep red; ZINCKIFIC[=A]'TION, ZINKIFIC[=A]'TION, the process of coating or impregnating an object with zinc.--_vs.t._ ZINCK'IFY, ZINK'IFY, to cover or impregnate with zinc.--_adjs._ ZINCK'Y, ZINK'Y, pertaining to zinc: looking like zinc.--_n._ ZINC'-METH'YL, a mobile stinking liquid, spontaneously inflammable, resembling zinc-ethyl.--_adj._ ZINC'OID, like zinc.--_ns._ ZINCOL'YSIS, a mode of decomposition caused by an electric current; ZINC'OLYTE, a body decomposable by electricity; ZINC'OTYPE, a zincograph.--_adj._ ZINC'OUS, pertaining to zinc.--_ns._ ZINC'-WHITE, zinc oxide used as a pigment; ZINC'-WORK'ER. [Ger. _zink_, prob. allied to _zinn_, tin.] ZINCALI, zin'ka-li, _n._ a name in Spain for the Gipsies, akin to _Zingaro_ (q.v.). ZINCKENITE, zing'ken-[=i]t, _n._ a grayish mineral consisting of the sulphides of antimony and lead. [Named from the German metallurgist _Zincken_ (1790-1862).] ZINCO, zing'k[=o], _n._ a familiar abbreviation for _zincograph_.--_v.i._ to produce a plate for printing by the zincographic process. ZINCODE, zing'k[=o]d, _n._ the negative pole of a voltaic battery: the anode of an electrolytic cell. ZINCOGRAPHY, zing-kog'ra-fi, _n._ a process of etching on zinc (or copper) by which black and white pictures of all kinds can be reproduced as surface-blocks for printing by the ordinary letterpress process--in the etching the _whites_, and not the _black lines_ as in the ordinary etching, are eaten away.--_ns._ ZINC'OGRAPH, a plate or picture produced by zincography; ZINCOG'RAPHER, one who makes zincographic plates.--_adjs._ ZINCOGRAPH'IC, -AL. [_Zinc_, Gr. _graphein_, to write.] ZINGARO, zing'ga-r[=o], _n._ a name in Italy for the Gipsies;--_pl._ ZING'ARI, ZING'ANE.--Also ZING'ANO. [Cf. the Ger. _Zigeuner_, Czech _Cingán_ or _Cigán_, Magyar _Cigány_.] ZINGEL, zing'el, _n._ a fish of the perch family, found in the Danube. [Ger.] ZINGIBERACEÆ, zin'ji-be-r[=a]'s[=e]-[=e], _n.pl._ a natural order of about 470 species of perennial tropical herbs, with horizontal thickened root-stock and cone-like inflorescence--the typical genus ZIN'GIBER.--_adjs._ ZINGIBER[=A]'CEOUS, ZINZIBER[=A]'CEOUS. [L. _zingiber_--Gr. _zingiberis_, ginger.] ZINKE, tsing'ke, _n._ an old wind instrument like a cornet, of wood or horn, with seven finger-holes. [Ger.] ZION, z[=i]'on, _n._ Jerusalem: the Israelitish theocracy: the Christian Church: heaven.--_adv._ Z[=I]'ONWARD, heavenward. [Gr. _Zi[=o]n_--Heb. _ts[=i]y[=o]n_, a hill.] ZIP, zip, _n._ the ping or sound of a bullet striking anything or whizzing through the air. [Imit.] ZIPHIINÆ, zif-i-[=i]'n[=e], _n.pl._ a subfamily of _Physteridæ_, the ziphioid or ziphiiform cetaceans--the typical genus ZIPH'IUS.--_n.pl._ ZIPHI[=I]'DÆ, the _ziphiinæ_ rated as a family apart from _Physteridæ_, and divided into _Ziphiinæ_ and _Anarnacinæ_.--_adjs._ ZIPHI[=I]'FORM; ZIPH'IOID. [Gr. _xiphios_, the sword-fish--_xiphos_, a sword.] ZIRCONIUM, zir-k[=o]'ni-um, _n._ the metallic constituent of the earth ZIRC[=O]'NIA, which is found in association with silica in the minerals ZIR'CON and _hyacinth_, and is obtained only in Ceylon, one district of the Ural, and southern Norway.--_n._ ZIR'CONITE, a variety of zircon. [Ar. _zark[=u]n_, vermilion--Pers. _zarg[=u]n_, gold-coloured.] ZITHER, z[=i]th'[.e]r, _n._ the cithern, the modern representative of the ancient _cithara_, a popular and common instrument in Tyrol--a flat stringed instrument, having a wooden frame and flat sounding-board with from twenty-nine to forty-two strings, placed on a table or on the knees, the strings played by the right hand, the thumb being armed with a metallic _plectrum_.--Also ZITH'ERN. [Ger.] ZIZANIA, z[=i]-z[=a]'ni-a, _n._ a genus of tall aquatic grasses, of tribe _Oryzeæ_--_wild_, _water_, or _Indian rice_. [Gr. _zizanion_, darnel.] ZIZEL, ziz'el, _n._ a European ground squirrel, type of a genus mainly American.--Also _Suslik_. ZIZYPHUS, ziz'i-fus, _n._ a genus of shrubs or trees of the buckthorn family, mostly native to tropical Asia and America--the jujube-tree. [L.,--Gr. _zizyphos_.] ZOANTHARIA, z[=o]-an-th[=a]'ri-a, _n.pl._ a division of _Actinozoa_, including the sea-anemones, &c.--_adj._ and _n._ ZOANTH[=A]'RIAN. ZOANTHROPY, z[=o]-an'thr[=o]-pi, _n._ a form of mental delusion in which a man believes himself to be a beast--the devout divine, Simon Browne (1680-1732), under this belief devoted himself to the making of a dictionary--'I am doing nothing,' he says, 'that requires a reasonable soul: I am making a dictionary.'--_adj._ Z[=O]ANTHROP'IC. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _anthr[=o]pos_, a man.] ZOANTHUS, z[=o]-an'thus, _n._ the typical genus of _Zoanthidæ_, a family of hexacoralline actinozoans. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _anthos_, a flower.] ZOARIUM, z[=o]-[=a]'ri-um, _n._ the colony of the polypides of a polyzoan. [Gr. _z[=o]arion_, dim. of _z[=o]on_, an animal.] ZOBO, z[=o]'b[=o], _n._ a name used in the semi-Tibetan tracts of the Himalaya for hybrids between the yak bull and the ordinary hill cow, much used in transport and agriculture.--Also ZH[=O]'BO, DS[=O]'MO. [Tibetan.] ZOCCO, zok'[=o], _n._ a socle.--Also ZOCC'OLO. [It.,--L. _soccus_, a sock.] ZODIAC, z[=o]'di-ak, _n._ an imaginary belt in the heavens, having as its mesial line the ecliptic or apparent path of the sun, and containing the twelve constellations, called signs of the zodiac. The constellations, with the appropriate symbols of the corresponding signs, are as follows: Aries (_Ram_), [Aries]; Taurus (_Bull_), [Taurus]; Gemini (_Twins_), [Gemini]; Cancer (_Crab_), [Cancer]; Leo (_Lion_), [Leo]; Virgo (_Virgin_), [Virgo]; Libra (_Balance_), [Libra]; Scorpio (_Scorpion_), [Scorpio]; Sagittarius (_Archer_), [Sagittarius]; Capricornus (_Goat_), [Capricornus]; Aquarius (_Water-bearer_), [Aquarius]; Pisces (_Fishes_), [Pisces].--_adj._ ZOD[=I]'ACAL.--ZODIACAL LIGHT, a singular appearance seen after sunset or before sunrise, at all seasons of the year in low latitudes, but rarely in Great Britain, except in March, April, and May in the evenings, and six months later in the mornings. [Fr. _zodiaque_--L. _zodiacus_--Gr. _z[=o]diakos_, belonging to animals--_z[=o]dion_, dim. of _z[=o]on_, an animal, _zaein_, to live.] ZOËA, z[=o]-[=e]'a, _n._ a larval stage of certain decapod crustaceans--also called the _copepod_ stage preceding the _megalopa_ stage--also ZOOE'A:--_pl._ ZOË'Æ.--_adjs._ ZOË'AL, ZOOE'AL; Z[=O]'ËFORM. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal.] ZOËTIC, z[=o]-et'ik, _adj._ vital. [Gr. _z[=o][=e]_, life.] ZOETROPE, z[=o]'e-tr[=o]p, _n._ a scientific toy by which several pictures of objects or persons in various positions are combined into one visual impression, so as to give the appearance of movement or life--the _Thaumatrope_ and _Praxinoscope_ are variations.--_adj._ ZOETROP'IC. [Gr. _z[=o][=e]_, life, _tropos_, a turning--_trepein_, to turn.] ZOIATRIA, z[=o]-i-at'ri-a, _n._ veterinary surgery. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _iatreia_, healing.] ZOIC, z[=o]'ik, _adj._ pertaining to animals: containing evidences of life in fossils--of rocks. [Gr. _z[=o]ikos_, of animals--_z[=o]on_, an animal.] ZOILISM, z[=o]'i-lizm, _n._ carping and unjust criticism.--_adj._ ZOIL'[=E]AN, characteristic of _Zoilus_, a Greek grammarian who flourished in the time of Philip of Macedon, and assailed Homer with such asperity that his name became proverbial for a captious and malignant critic.--_n._ Z[=O]'ILIST, a carping critic. ZOISITE, zoi's[=i]t, _n._ a mineral closely allied to epidote. [Baron von _Zois_.] ZOISM, z[=o]'izm, _n._ the doctrine that life originates from a specific principle.--_n._ Z[=O]'IST, one who maintains this theory. [Gr. _z[=o][=e]_, life.] ZOLAISM, z[=o]'la-izm, _n._ the literary principles and practice of the industrious French novelist Emile _Zola_ (1840-1902)--an attempt at a so-called realism claimed to be a proper scientific view of human nature and human life. In effect Zola's books are dull and dirty, and his realism is not reality. ZÖLLNER'S LINES, rows of parallel lines appearing to be not parallel through the optical effect of oblique intersecting lines.--Also ZÖLLNER'S PATTERN. ZOLLVEREIN, zol've-r[=i]n, _n._ a union of the German states, under the leadership of Prussia, so as to enable them in their commercial relations with other countries to act as one state. [Ger.,--_zoll_, duty, _verein_, union.] ZONDA, zon'da, _n._ a dry, hot, and dusty wind blowing from the Andes in the vicinity of San Juan, Argentine Republic, during July and August. ZONE, z[=o]n, _n._ a girdle, a belt, a stripe of different colour or substance round anything: one of the five great belts into which the surface of the earth is divided: any continuous tract with particular characteristics.--_v.t._ to encircle, as with a zone.--_n._ Z[=O]'NA, a term in anatomy, &c., for a belt: herpes zoster.--_adjs._ Z[=O]'NAL, like a zone, arranged in zones: pertaining to the somites of an articulate or annulose animal; Z[=O]'NARY, resembling a belt or girdle; Z[=O]'NATE, marked with zones, belted; ZONED, wearing a zone, having zones; ZONE'LESS, wanting a zone or belt.--_n._ Z[=O]'NIC, a girdle.--_adjs._ ZONIF'EROUS, zoned; Z[=O]'NOID, like a zone.--_n._ Z[=O]'NULA, a small zone.--_adj._ Z[=O]'NULAR, like a zone or zonule.--_ns._ ZON'ULE, ZON'ULET, a little girdle. [L. _zona_--Gr. _z[=o]n[=e]_, a girdle--_z[=o]nnynai_, to gird; akin to _join_, _yoke_.] ZONOTRICHIA, z[=o]-n[=o]-trik'i-a, _n._ a genus of American finches, the crown-sparrows. [Gr. _z[=o]n[=e]_, a girdle, _thrix_, _trichos_, hair.] ZONURUS, z[=o]-n[=u]'rus, _n._ the typical genus of _Zonuridæ_, a South African family of lizards. [Gr. _z[=o]n[=e]_, a belt, _oura_, a tail.] ZOO, z[=oo], _n._ the Zoological Gardens in London: any similar collection of animals. ZOOBLAST, z[=o]'[=o]-blast, _n._ an animal cell. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _blastos_, a germ.] ZOOCHEMISTRY, z[=o]-[=o]-kem'is-tri, _n._ the chemistry of the constituents of the animal body.--_adj._ ZOOCHEM'ICAL. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _chemistry_.] ZOODYNAMICS, z[=o]-[=o]-d[=i]-nam'iks, _n._ the science that treats of the vital powers of animals, animal physiology. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _dynamics_.] ZOOECIUM, z[=o]-[=e]'si-um, _n._ one of the cells forming the investment of polyzoans:--_pl._ ZOOE'CIA. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _oikia_, a house.] ZOOGAMOUS, z[=o]-og'a-mus, _adj._ pertaining to zoogamy.--_n._ ZOÖG'AMY, sexual reproduction. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _gamos_, marriage.] ZOOGENY, z[=o]-oj'e-ni, _n._ the doctrine or the process of the origination of living beings--also ZOÖG'ONY.--_adj._ ZOOGEN'IC. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _geneia_, production.] ZOOGEOGRAPHY, z[=o]-[=o]-j[=e]-og'ra-fi, _n._ the science of the distribution of animals on the surface of the globe, faunal geography.--_n._ ZOOGEOG'RAPHER, a student of faunal geography.--_adjs._ ZOOGEOGRAPH'IC, -AL. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _geography_.] ZOOGLOEA, z[=o]-[=o]-gl[=e]'a, _n._ the term applied to the resting, motionless stage of the Bacteria, in which they are embedded in gelatinous material.--_adjs._ ZOOGLOE'IC; ZOOGLOE'OID. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _gloios_, a sticky substance.] ZOOGRAFT, z[=o]'[=o]-graft, _n._ a piece of tissue taken from the living body of an animal to supply a part wanting in the human body, by being grafted on it. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _graft_.] ZOOGRAPHY, z[=o]-og'ra-fi, _n._ descriptive zoology.--_n._ ZOÖG'RAPHER.--_adjs._ ZOOGRAPH'IC, -AL.--_n._ ZOÖG'RAPHIST. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _graphein_, to write.] ZOOGYROSCOPE, z[=o]-[=o]-j[=i]'r[=o]-sk[=o]p, _n._ a development of the zoetrope by means of which an appearance of an object in motion is thrown on a screen. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _gyroscope_.] ZOOID, z[=o]'oid, _adj._ having the nature of an animal, having organic life and motion.--_n._ a term applied to each of the individuals which make up a compound organism. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _eidos_, form.] ZOOKS, z[=oo]ks, _interj._ a minced oath--same as GADZOOKS. ZOOLATRY, z[=o]-ol'a-tri, _n._ the worship of animals.--_ns._ ZOÖL'ATER, one who worships animals; ZOOL[=A]'TRIA, zoolatry.--_adj._ ZOÖL'ATROUS. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _latreia_, worship.] ZOOLITE, z[=o]'[=o]-l[=i]t, _n._ a fossil animal--also Z[=O]'OLITH.--_adjs._ ZOOLITH'IC, ZOOLIT'IC. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _lithos_, a stone.] ZOOLOGY, z[=o]-ol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the science of animal life included along with Botany within the science of Biology. The various departments of zoological study are the _Morphological_, _Physiological_, _Historical_, and the _Ætiological_.--_adj._ ZOOLOG'ICAL.--_adv._ ZOOLOG'ICALLY.--_n._ ZOOL'OGIST, one versed in zoology.--ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS, a place where wild animals are kept for public exhibition. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _logia_--_legein_, to speak.] ZOOMAGNETISM, z[=o]-[=o]-mag'ne-tizm, _n._ animal magnetism.--_adj._ ZOOMAGNET'IC. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _magnetism_.] ZOOMANCY, z[=o]'[=o]-man-si, _n._ divination by observation of animals.--_adj._ ZOOMAN'TIC. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _manteia_, divination.] ZOOMETRY, z[=o]-om'e-tri, _n._ comparative measurement of the parts of animals.--_adj._ ZOOMET'RIC. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _metron_, a measure.] ZOOMORPHIC, z[=o]-[=o]-mor'fik, _adj._ pertaining to zoomorphism: representing animals in art.--_n._ ZOOMOR'PHISM, the representation or the conception of a god or a man in an animal form, the attributing of human or of divine qualities to beings of animal form--also ZOOMOR'PHY. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _morph[=e]_, form.] ZOON, z[=o]'on, _n._ a morphological individual, the total product of a fertilised ovum:--_pl._ Z[=O]'A, Z[=O]'ONS.--_adjs._ Z[=O]'ONAL, like a zoon; ZOÖN'IC, relating to animals.--_n._ Z[=O]'ONITE, one of the segments of an articulated animal.--_adj._ ZOONIT'IC. [Gr.] ZOONOMY, z[=o]-on'[=o]-mi, _n._ animal physiology--also ZOON[=O]'MIA.--_adj._ ZOONOM'IC.--_n._ ZOÖN'OMIST. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _nomos_, law.] ZOONOSIS, z[=o]-on'[=o]-sis, _n._ a disease communicated to man from the lower animals, as hydrophobia, &c.:--_pl._ ZOÖN'OS[=E]S. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _nosos_, disease.] ZOOPATHOLOGY, z[=o]-[=o]-pa-thol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the study of disease in animals. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _pathology_.] ZOOPATHY, z[=o]-op'a-thi, _n._ animal pathology. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _pathos_, suffering.] ZOOPHAGA, z[=o]-of'a-ga, _n.pl._ the carnivorous animals collectively.--_n._ ZOÖPH'AGAN, a carnivorous animal.--_adj._ ZOÖPH'AGOUS. [Gr. _z[=o]ophagos_, flesh-eating, _z[=o]on_, an animal, _phagein_, to eat.] ZOOPHILIST, z[=o]-of'il-ist, _n._ a lover of animals.--_n._ ZOÖPH'ILY, love of animals. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _philos_, dear.] ZOOPHORUS, z[=o]-of'[=o]-rus, _n._ a continuous frieze sculptured in relief with figures of men and animals.--_adj._ ZOOPHOR'IC. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _pherein_, to bear.] ZOOPHYSICS, z[=o]-[=o]-fiz'iks, _n._ the study of the structure of animal bodies, comparative anatomy. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _physics_.] ZOOPHYTE, z[=o]'[=o]-f[=i]t, _n._ a term employed by Cuvier in his earlier attempts at classification to designate numerous simple animals, sedentary in habit, often with a superficial resemblance to plants--now restricted to hydroid colonies.--_adjs._ ZOOPHYT'IC, -AL; ZOÖPH'YTOID; ZOOPHYTOLOG'ICAL.--_ns._ ZOOPHYTOL'OGIST; ZOOPHYTOL'OGY; ZOÖPH'YTON:--_pl._ ZOÖPH'YTA. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _phyton_, a plant.] ZOOPLASTIC, z[=o]-[=o]-plas'tik, _adj._ pertaining to the operation of transplanting living tissue from one of the lower animals to man. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _plassein_, to form.] ZOOPRAXINOSCOPE, z[=o]-[=o]-prak'si-n[=o]-sk[=o]p, _n._ a mechanical toy by means of which images of animals are made to go through motions on a screen. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _praxis_, doing, _skopein_, to view.] ZOOPSYCHOLOGY, z[=o]-[=o]-s[=i]-kol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the psychology of the lower animals. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _psychology_.] ZOOSCOPY, z[=o]'[=o]-sk[=o]-pi, _n._ a form of mental delusion in which one sees imaginary animals, esp. snakes.--_adj._ ZOOSCOP'IC. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _skopein_, to view.] ZOOSPERM, z[=o]'[=o]-sperm, _n._ the sperm-cell, or male seed-cell--also ZOOSPER'MIUM.--_adj._ ZOOSPERMAT'IC. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _sperma_, seed.] ZOOSPORE, z[=o]'[=o]-sp[=o]r, _n._ a spore capable of moving about.--_adjs._ ZOOSPOR'IC; ZOOSPORIF'EROUS. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _spora_, a seed.] ZOOTAXY, z[=o]'[=o]-tak-si, _n._ the science of the classification of animals, systematic zoology. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _taxis_, arrangement.] ZOOTECHNY, z[=o]'[=o]-tek-ni, _n._ the science of the breeding and domestication of animals.--Also ZOOTECH'NICS. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _techn[=e]_, art.] ZOOTHAPSIS, z[=o]-[=o]-thap'sis, _n._ premature burial. [Gr. _zoo-_, living, _thaptein_, to bury.] ZOOTHECIUM, z[=o]-[=o]-th[=e]'si-um, _n._ the tubular sheath of certain infusorians.--_adj._ ZOOTH[=E]'CIAL. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _th[=e]kion_, a casket.] ZOOTHEISM, z[=o]'[=o]-th[=e]-izm, _n._ the attribution of divine qualities to an animal.--_adj._ ZOOTHEIS'TIC. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _theism_.] ZOOTHERAPY, z[=o]-[=o]-ther'a-pi, _n._ veterinary therapeutics. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _therapeia_, service.] ZOOTOCOLOGY, z[=o]-[=o]-t[=o]-kol'[=o]-ji, _n._ the biology of animals. [Gr. _z[=o]otokos_, viviparous, _legein_, to speak.] ZOOTOMY, z[=o]-ot'[=o]-mi, _n._ the dissection of animals: comparative anatomy.--_adjs._ ZOOTOM'IC, -AL.--_adv._ ZOOTOM'ICALLY.--_n._ ZOÖT'OMIST, one who dissects the bodies of animals: an anatomist. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _temnein_, to cut.] ZOOTROPHIC, z[=o]-[=o]-trof'ik, _adj._ pertaining to the nourishment of animals. [Gr. _z[=o]on_, an animal, _trophos_, food.] ZOOZOO, z[=oo]'z[=oo], _n._ (_prov._) the wood-pigeon. [Imit.] ZOPILOTE, z[=o]-pi-l[=o]'te, _n._ one of the smaller American vultures, the turkey-buzzard, an urubu.--Also _Tzopilotl_. [Mex.] ZOPISSA, z[=o]-pis'a, _n._ an old medicinal mixture of pitch and tar scraped from the sides of ships. [Gr. _z[=o]pissa_.] ZOPPO, tsop'p[=o], _adj._ (_mus._) alternately with and without syncopation. [It.] ZORGITE, zor'g[=i]t, _n._ a metallic copper-lead selenide, found at _Zorge_, in the Harz Mountains. ZORIL, ZORILLE, zor'il, _n._ an African skunk-like carnivore: an American skunk.--_n._ ZORIL'LA, a genus of African skunk-like quadrupeds, representing the _Zorillinæ_, an African subfamily of _Mustelidæ_. [Fr. _zorille_--Sp. _zorilla_, dim. of _zorra_, a fox.] ZOROASTRIANISM, zor-[=o]-as'tri-an-izm, _n._ the ancient religion founded or reformed by _Zoroaster_--the Greek pronunciation of Zarathushtra--set forth in the _Zend-Avesta_ (q.v.), and still held by the Guebres and Parsees in India.--_n._ and _adj._ ZOROAS'TRIAN. ZORRA, zor'a, _n._ a South American skunk.--Also ZORRINO (zo-r[=e]'n[=o]). [Sp.] ZORRO, zor'[=o], _n._ a South American fox-wolf. [Sp.] ZOSTER, zos't[.e]r, _n._ an ancient Greek waist-belt for men: herpes zoster or shingles. [Gr. _z[=o]st[=e]r_, a girdle.] ZOTHECA, z[=o]-th[=e]'ka, _n._ a small living-room, as distinguished from a sleeping-room: an alcove. [Gr. _z[=o]th[=e]k[=e]_.] ZOUAVE, zwäv, _n._ one of a body of troop wearing a quasi-Moorish dress in the French army, which derives its name from the _Zwawa_, a tribe of Kabyles in the Algerian province of Constantine. These Kabyles had long been employed as mercenaries by the _deys_ of Algiers; and after the conquest in 1830 the French took them into their service. ZOUNDS, zowndz, _interj._ an exclamation of anger and astonishment. [A corr. of _God's wounds_, referring to Christ's sufferings on the cross.] ZUCCHETTA, tsuk-ket'ta, _n._ the skull-cap of an ecclesiastic, covering the tonsure: a form of helmet worn in the 16th century. [It., dim. of _zucca_, a gourd.] ZUFOLO, z[=oo]'f[=o]-l[=o], _n._ a small flute or flageolet used in training singing-birds.--Also ZUF'FOLO. [It.] ZULU, zoo'loo, _n._ a branch of the great Bantu division of the human family, belonging to South Africa, conspicuous for physical and intellectual development.--_adj._ pertaining to the ZULUS, their language, &c. [South African.] ZUMBOORUK, zum'b[=oo]-ruk, _n._ a small cannon mounted on a swivel, carried on the back of a camel.--Also ZUM'BOORUCK, ZOM'BORUK, ZAM'BOORAK. [Hind. _zamb[=u]rak_--Turk. _zamb[=u]rak_--Ar. _zamb[=u]r_, a hornet.] ZUÑI, z[=oo]'ny[=e], _n._ one of a tribe of Pueblo Indians living in large communal houses near the _Zuñi_ river in New Mexico.--_adj._ and _n._ ZU'ÑIAN. ZUPA, z[=u]'pa, _n._ a confederation of village communities governed by a ZU'PAN, in the early history of Servia, &c. [Servian.] ZURF. See ZARF. ZURLITE, zurl'[=i]t, _n._ a white or green Vesuvian mineral. ZUZ, z[=oo]z, _n._ a coin or money of account in New Testament times. ZWANZIGER, tswan'tsi-g[.e]r, _n._ an old Austrian silver coin, equivalent to twenty kreutzers. [Ger.,--_zwanzig_, twenty.] ZWIEBACK, zv[=i]'bak, _n._ biscuit rusk, or a sweet spiced bread toasted. [Ger.] ZWINGLIAN, zwing'- or tswing'gli-an, _adj._ pertaining to the Swiss reformer Huldreich _Zwingli_ (1484-1531), or his doctrines, esp. his divergence from Luther in the doctrine of the Eucharist. Zwingli rejected every form of local or corporeal presence, whether by transubstantiation, impanation, or consubstantiation, assailing every form, however subtle, of the old _Capernaitic_ (John vi. 51-53, 59) conception of a carnal presence and carnal appropriation.--_n._ a follower of ZWINGLI. ZYGADITE, zig'a-d[=i]t, _n._ a variety of albite found in thin twin crystals at Andreasberg, in the Harz Mountains. [Gr. _zygad[=e]n_, jointly--_zygon_, a yoke.] ZYGÆNA, z[=i]-j[=e]'na, _n._ a genus of moths, typical of the family _Zygænidæ_: a genus of sharks, the hammer-heads, now _Sphyrna_.--_adjs._ ZYGÆ'NID, ZYGÆ'NINE, ZYGÆ'NOID. [Gr. _zygaina_, a shark.] ZYGAL, z[=i]'gal, _n._ pertaining to a zygon, formed like a letter [H shape]. [_Zygon_.] ZYGANTRUM, z[=i]-gan'trum, _n._ a fossa on the posterior face of the arches of each of the vertebræ of the Lacertilia, into which the zygosphene of the succeeding vertebra fits. [Gr. _zygon_, a yoke, _antron_, a cave.] ZYGAPOPHYSIS, z[=i]-ga-pof'i-sis, _n._ one of the yoke-pieces or articulations of the vertebræ: _pl._ ZYGAPOPH'YS[=E]S. [Gr. _zygon_, a yoke, _apophysis_, process.] ZYGITE, z[=i]'g[=i]t, _n._ a rower in the second tier of a Greek trireme. [Gr. _zygit[=e]s_--_zygon_, yoke.] ZYGOBRANCHIATE, z[=i]-g[=o]-brang'ki-[=a]t, _adj._ having paired gills or ctenidia, as certain molluscs: belonging to the ZYGOBRANCHI[=A]'TA, an order or suborder of _Gastropoda_.--Also ZY'GOBRANCH. [Gr. _zygon_, yoke, _brangchia_, gills.] ZYGOCARDIAC, z[=i]-g[=o]-kär'di-ak, _adj._ yoke-like and cardiac, as an ossicle of the stomach of some Crustacea. [Gr. _zygon_, a yoke, _kardia_, the heart.] ZYGODACTYL, z[=i]-g[=o]-dak'til, _adj._ having the toes arranged in pairs, two before and two behind, as certain birds--also ZYGODACTYL'IC, ZYGODAC'TYLOUS.--_n._ ZYGODAC'TYLISM. [Gr. _zygon_, a yoke, _daktylos_, a finger.] ZYGODONT, z[=i]'g[=o]-dont, _adj._ pertaining to molar teeth whose cusps are paired, possessing such molars. [Gr. _zygon_, yoke, _odous_, _odontos_, a tooth.] ZYGOMA, z[=i]-g[=o]'ma, _n._ the arch formed by the malar bone and the zygomatic process of the temporal bone of the skull.--_adj._ ZYGOMAT'IC.--ZYGOMATIC FOSSA, the lower part of the fossa bridged over by the zygomatic arch; ZYGOMATIC MUSCLES, two muscles (major and minor) arising from the zygomatic arch. [Gr. _zyg[=o]ma_--_zygon_, a yoke.] ZYGOMORPHOUS, z[=i]-g[=o]-mor'fus, _adj._ yoke-shaped--of flowers divisible into similar halves in one plane only--also ZYGOMOR'PHIC.--_ns._ ZYGOMOR'PHISM, ZYGOMOR'PHY. [Gr. _zygon_, a yoke, _morph[=e]_, form.] ZYGOMYCETES, z[=i]-g[=o]-m[=i]-s[=e]'t[=e]z, _n.pl._ a group of fungi marked by the production of zygospores--the commonest type _Mucor mucedo_, the common white mould of dead organic matter, as horse-dung.--_adj._ ZYGOMYC[=E]'TOUS. [Gr. _zygon_, a yoke, _myk[=e]s_, _myk[=e]tos_, a mushroom.] ZYGON, z[=i]'gon, _n._ a connecting bar: an [H shape]-shaped fissure of the brain. [Gr., a yoke.] ZYGOPHYLLACEÆ, z[=i]-g[=o]-fil-[=a]'s[=e]-[=e], _n.pl._ a natural order containing about 100 species of herbaceous plants, shrubs, and trees, chiefly natives of subtropical countries--the bean-caper family--the typical genus _Zygophyllum_. [Gr. _zygon_, a yoke, _phyllon_, a leaf.] ZYGOPHYLLUM, z[=i]-g[=o]-fil'um, _n._ a genus of plants, natural order _Zygophylleæ_, of the bean-caper family. ZYGOPHYTE, z[=i]'g[=o]-f[=i]t, _n._ a plant in which reproduction takes place by means of zygospores. [Gr. _zygon_, a yoke, _phyton_, a plant.] ZYGOPLEURAL, z[=i]-g[=o]-pl[=oo]'ral, _adj._ bilaterally symmetrical. [Gr. _zygon_, a yoke, _pleura_, the side.] ZYGOSIS, z[=i]-g[=o]'sis, _n._ (_bot._) conjugation, the coalescence of two distinct cells: the sexual intercourse of protoplasmic bodies.--_n._ ZY'GO[=I]TE, an organism resulting from zygosis.--_adj._ ZY'GOSE, pertaining to zygosis. [Gr. _zyg[=o]sis_, a joining.] ZYGOSPHENE, z[=i]'g[=o]-sf[=e]n, _n._ a process on the anterior face of each of the vertebral arches in the Lacertilia, which articulates with the _zygantrum_ of the preceding arch. [Gr. _zygon_, a yoke, _sph[=e]n_, a wedge.] ZYGOSPORE, z[=i]'g[=o]-sp[=o]r, _n._ a spore produced by the union of buds from two adjacent hyphaæ in the process of conjugation by which some fungi multiply--the same as ZY'GOSPERM and ZY'GOTE. [Gr. _zygon_, a yoke, _spora_, seed.] ZYLONITE=_Xylonite_ (q.v.). ZYMASE, z[=i]'m[=a]s, _n._ the same as ENZYM. [See ZYME.] ZYME, z[=i]m, _n._ a ferment: a disease-germ--the supposed specific cause of a zymotic disease.--_n._ ZY'MASE, enzym, any of the unorganised ferments.--_adj._ ZY'MIC, relating to fermentation.--_ns._ ZY'MITE, a priest using leavened bread in the Eucharist; ZY'MOGEN, a substance capable of developing by internal change into a ferment.--_adjs._ ZYMOGEN'IC; ZY'MOID, like a ferment; ZYMOLOG'IC, -AL, pertaining to zymology.--_ns._ ZYMOL'OGIST, one skilled in zymology; ZYMOL'OGY, the science of fermentation; ZYMOL'YSIS, ZYM[=O]'SIS, fermentation of any kind; ZYMOM'ETER, ZYMOSIM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the degree of fermentation; ZY'MOPHYTE, a bacterioid ferment capable of liberating fatty acids from neutral fats.--_adjs._ ZYMOTECH'NIC, -AL, producing and utilising fermentation.--_n._ ZYMOTECH'NICS, the art of managing fermentation.--_adj._ ZYMOT'IC, pertaining to fermentation.--_adv._ ZYMOT'ICALLY.--ZYMOTIC DISEASE, a term for diseases caused by the multiplication of a living germ introduced from without into the body. [Gr. _zym[=e]_, leaven, _zym[=o]sis_, fermentation.] ZYMOME, z[=i]'m[=o]m, _n._ an old name for the part of gluten insoluble in alcohol. ZYMURGY, z[=i]'m[.e]r-ji, _n._ that department of technological chemistry which treats of wine-making, brewing, distilling, and similar processes involving fermentation. [Gr. _zym[=e]_, leaven, _ergon_, work.] ZYTHEPSARY, z[=i]-thep'sa-ri, _n._ (_obs._) a brewery. ZYTHUM, z[=i]'thum, _n._ a kind of beer made by the ancient Egyptians--much commended by Diodorus. [Gr. _zythos_.] ZYXOMMA, zik-som'a, _n._ a genus of Indian dragon-flies, of family _Libellulidæ_, with large head and eyes and narrow face. [Gr. _zeuxis_, a joining, _omma_, eye.] * * * * * PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES. * * * * * The best account of these is to be found in Kellner's edition of Dr Morris's _Historical Outlines of English Accidence_ (1895), and especially in Professor Skeat's _Principles of English Etymology_--First Series (2d ed. 1892), chaps. xii.-xiv.; Second Series (1891), chap. xviii. To these books the following lists are largely indebted. A- (A.S.) represents: (1) A.S. _an_, _on_, on, as _a_bed, _a_board, _a_foot, _a_shore, _a_sunder, now-_a-_days, twice-_a-_week, _a_live, _a_mong, _a_bout, _a-_fishing. (2) A.S. _and-_, over against, in reply to, to, as _a_long (from A.S. _and-lang_, i.e. over against in length); appearing also as E- in _e_lope, as AM- in _am_bassador, and as EM- in _em_bassy; the same as _un-_ in verbs. See Un- (2). [Cog. with Goth. _and-_, Ger. _ent-_, _ant-_, L. _ante-_, Gr. _anti-_.] (3) A.S. _á-_, an intensive prefix to verbs, out, out from, as in _a_rise (from A.S. _árísan_, to rise out of or up); or sig. 'very,' as in _a_ghast. Cf. _a_bide, _ac_curse, _af_fright, _a_maze, _a_rise, _a_rouse, _a_go. [Cog. with Ger. _er-_, Goth. _us-_, _ur-_.] (4) A.S. _of_, of, from, as in _a_down (from A.S. _of dúne_, 'from the height'), _a_new, _a_kin; or from _of-_, intensive, as _a_thirst. (5) A.S. _ge-_, _y-_, as _a_ware (A.S. _ge-w['æ]re_), _a_fford. (6) _at_, old sign of inf., as _a_do. [A Northern idiom, due to Scand. influences, as in Ice., Sw., &c.] A- (L. and Gr.) represents: (1) L. AB-, as in _a_vert; (2) L. AD-, as _a_chieve; (3) L. E- or EX-, as in _a_bash, _a_mend; (4) Gr. A- (for AN-), as in _a_byss. See these prefixes. A-, AB-, ABS-, AS- (L.), away from, as _a_vert, _ab_sent, _ab_solve, _ab_stract; and also _as_soil and _av_aunt through French. Indeed, this prefix appears as A-, ADV-, AV-, V-, as in _a_vert, _adv_ance, _av_aunt, _v_anguard, &c. [L. _a_, _ab_, _abs_ (oldest form _ap_); cog. with Gr. _apo-_, Sans. _apa_, Ger. _ab_, Eng. _off_.] AB-. See Ad-. AC-. See Ad-. AD- (L.), to, at, as ADhere, ADapt. It appears as A-, AB-, AC-, AD-, AF-, AG-, AL-, AN-, AP-, AR-, AS-, AT-, as in _a_chieve, _ab_breviate, _ac_cede, _ad_mire, _af_fix, _ag_gregate, _al_lot, _an_nex, _ap_prove, _ar_rive, _as_sign, _at_tract. The words _a_chieve, _a_gree, _a_merce, _a_mount, _a_cquit, _a_cquaint, _a_vow, &c. show the same prefix, derived through the medium of Old French. [L. _ad_; cog. with Sans. _adhi_, Goth. and Eng. _at_, Celt. _ar-_.] AF-. See Ad-. AFTER- (A.S.), as _after-_growth, _after-_math, _after-_wards. [A.S. _æfter-_.] AG-. See Ad-. AL-. See Ad-. AL- (Ar.), the--also as A-, AR-, AS-, EL-, L-, as _a_pricot, _ar_tichoke, _as_sagai, _el_ixir, _l_ute. ALL- (A.S.), all, as _al_mighty, _all-_wise. In Early English _al-_=quite is added (1) to past participles, as _al-_brent=quite burnt, _al-_heled=quite concealed; (2) to verbs preceded by _to_, as _al-_to-brenne=to burn up entirely. In Elizabethan and later writers _all-to_=altogether, quite--the original meaning of _to_ having been lost sight of. Cf. Milton's 'all-to ruffled,' &c. [A.S. _eall-_.] AM-, (1) the Fr. _em_--L. _im_ for _in_, as _am_bush: see In- (2); (2) the Gr. _an-_, as in _Am_brosia: see An- (2); (3) the same as An- (1), as in _am_bassador. AMBI-, AMB-, AM- (L.), round about, both, as _ambi_dexter, _am_bition, _am_putate. [L.; cog. with Gr. _amphi-_, Sans. _abhi_, around.] AMPHI- (Gr.), round about, both, as _amphi_theatre, _amphi_bious. [Cog. with L. _ambi-_, _amb-_.] AN- (A.S.), against, in return, as _an_swer. See A- (A.S.) (2), above. [A.S. _and-_, Ger. _ant-_, Goth. _and-_.] AN-, A-, AM- (Gr.), not, without, as _an_archy, _a_tom, _am_brosia. [Gr.; cog. with Sans. _an-_, _a-_, L. _in-_, Eng. _un-_, _in-_, not.] AN- (Fr. _en_--L. _in_), as in anoint. See In- (2). AN-, as in _an_cestor; see Ante- (below). AN-. See Ad-. ANA-, AN- (Gr.), up, back, as _ana_lyse, _ana_tomy, _an_eurism. [Cog. with Goth. _ana_, Eng. _on_.] ANTE-, ANTI-, ANCI-, AN- (L.), before, as _ante_cedent, _anti_cipate, _anc_ient, _anc_estor (for L. _antecessor_). [L. _ante_, old form _anti_; conn. with _anti-_; Fr. _anci-_, _an-_.] ANTI- (Gr.), opposite to, against, as _anti_pathy, _anti_podes; as ANT- in _ant_agonist, and ANTH- in _anth_em. [Gr.; conn. with L. _ante-_, Sans. _anti-_, facing, Ger. _ant-_ in _Ant_wort, Eng. _an-_ (for _and-_) in _answer_ (see Dict.). Cf. _A-_ (A.S.) (2), above.] AP-. See Ad-. APO- (Gr.), off, from, away, as APOstle; as APH- in _aph_elion, _aph_æresis. [Cog. with L. _ab-_.] AR-. See Ad-. ARCH-, ARCHI-, ARCHE- (Gr.), first, chief, as _arch_bishop, _archi_tect, _arche_type. AS-. See Ad-. AT-. See Ad-. AT- (Eng.), denoting nearness, as _at_one; against, as _t_wit (A.S. _æt-wítan_, to blame). [A.S. _æt_.] AUTO-, AUTH- (Gr.), self, as _auto_crat, _auto_graph, _auto_psy, _auth_entic. AV-. See Ab-. BE- (A.S.), the most fertile of all English prefixes, is the weak form of _by_. The original meaning was '_about_.' (1) It forms derivative verbs, with the sense of 'around,' 'on all sides,' 'in all directions,' as _be_blear=to blear all over, _be_girdle, _be_jumble, _be_paste, _be_smudge; (2) it forms intensive verbs, with the sense of 'thoroughly,' 'soundly,' as _be_breech=to breech soundly, _be_daub, _be_welcome; (3) it renders intransitive verbs transitive by adding a prepositional relation, as _be_chatter=to environ with chattering, _be_gaze=to gaze at, _be_smile=to smile at, _be_speak; (4) it forms transitive verbs of adjectives and substantives, as _be_foul=to affect with foulness, _be_dim=to make dim, _be_dew=to cover with dew, _be_friend. BIS-, BI-, BIN- (L.), twice, double, as _bis_cuit, _bi_ennial, _bin_ocular; as BA- in balance. [Corr. of _duis_, ablative of _duo_, two.] CATA-, CATH-, CAT- (Gr.), down, downwards, according to, thoroughly, as _cata_ract, _cath_olic, _cat_echism. [Gr. _kata_.] CIRCUM-, CIRCU- (L.), round about, as _circum_scribe, _circu_it. [Properly accusative of _circus_, a circle. See Circle in Dict.] CIS- (L.), on this side, as _cis_alpine. COM-, CON-, CO- (L.), together, with, as _con_nect, _co_here, _col_lect, _cor_rect, _coun_cil. In _cur_ry, this prefix has been attached to O. Fr. _roi_, order; often intensive, as _com_motion; _co-_admire, _co-_enjoy, _co-_actor, _co-_believer. [_Com-_ is the old form of L. _cum_, with; cog. with Gr. _syn_, Sans. _sam_. The root, originally signifying 'one,' is seen in L. _sim-ul_, together, Gr. _ham-a_, together, Eng. _sim_ple (which see in Dict.).] CONTRA-, CONTRO-, CONTR-, COUNTER- (L.), against, as _contra_dict, _contro_vert, _contr_alto, _counter_act. [L. _contra_ (whence Fr. _contre_), from _Con-_, and -_tra_, from root _tar_, to cross, seen also in _trans_.] DE- (L., or Fr.--L.), down, from, away, occurs in words derived either directly from L., as _de_duce; or through the Fr. from L., in which case DE-, DI-, represents either (1) O. Fr. _des-_ from L. _dis-_, asunder, not, as in _de_feat (O. Fr. _des-_fait), or (2) Fr.--L. _de-_, as _de_scribe [lit. 'write _down_'], decompose. This prefix DE- is negative and oppositive in _destroy_, _desuetude_, _deform_, or intensive in _declare_, _desolate_, _desiccate_. DEMI- (Fr.--L.), half, as _demi_god, _demi_quaver. [Fr. _demi_--L. _dimidium_, half.] DI- (Gr.), double, as _di_lemma, _di_alogue. DIA- (Gr.), through, as _dia_meter; shortened to DI- in _di_æresis, and appearing as DE-, DEA-, in _de_vil, _dea_con. [Gr. _dia_, from _dyo_, two.] DIF-. See Dis-. DIS- (Gr.), two, twice, as _dis_syllable, _di_cotyledonous. [From _duis_, from root of _two_.] DIS-, DI- (L.; in O. Fr. DES-), in two, asunder, as _dis_part, _dif_fer, _dis_perse; negative, as _dis_relish; privative, as _dis_lodge. Thus variously DI-, DIF-, DIS-, DES-, DE-, and even S-, as in _s_pend. [_Dis_ for _duis_, from L. _duo_, Gr. _dyo_, Sans. _dvi_, Goth. and Eng. _two_.] DYS- (Gr.), ill, difficult, as _dys_entery, _dys_pepsy. [Cog. with Sans. _dus_, Goth. _tus_, Ger. _zer-_, A.S. _to-_, Eng. _two_.] E-. See Ex-. E-=A.S. _ge-_, in enough (A.S. _genóh_, Ger. _genug_). E-, as in _e_lope. See A- (A.S.) (2), and also An- (A.S.). E-, a purely phonetic addition, of French origin, as in _e_squire, _e_state, _e_schew, _e_special, _e_scutcheon. EC- or EX- (Gr.), out of, from, as _ec_stasy, _ex_odus; also as EL- in _el_lipse. [Gr. _ex_, cog. with L. _ex_, out.] EDD-, in _eddy_. [A.S. _ed-_, back.] EF-. See Ex-. EL-, in _el_lipse, &c. See Ec- or Ex-. EMB-, in _emb_er days. [A.S. _ymb-_ryne, a circuit.] EN- (Gr.), in, on, as _en_ergy, _en_demic, emphasis--sometimes extended to ENDO-, within, as _endo_gen. EN-, EM- (Fr.--L.), in, into, as _en_list; to make, as _en_large, _en_act, _en_dure; before _b_ and _p_, EM-, as _em_bark, _em_bolden. [Fr. _en_--L. _in_. See In- (L.), in, into.] ENTER- (Fr.), between, among, as _enter_tain. [Fr. _entre_--L. _inter-_.] EPI-, EP-, EPH- (Gr.), on, as _epi_taph; during, as _ep_och, _eph_emeral. [Gr. _epi_; Sans. _api_, L. _ob-_.] ES- (Fr. or Sp.--L.), out, as _es_cape, _es_planade. [O. Fr. or Sp. _es_--L. _ex-_.] ESO- (Gr.), in, into, as _eso_teric. [From Gr. _eis_, into, whose form was prob. orig. _ens_, a strengthened form of EN- (Gr.).] EU- (Gr.), well, as _eu_phony, _eu_logy; as EV- in _ev_angelist. [Gr. _eu_, _eus_, good, for an assumed _es-us_, real.] EX- or E- (L.), from, out of, as _ex_pel, _e_ject, _ef_flux; by assimilation, appearing as A-, E-, EF-, ES-, EX-, ISS-, S-, as _a_mend, _e_normous, _ef_fect, _es_cape, _ex_tend, _iss_ue, _s_ample. It is French influence which has disguised it in such words as _affray_, _amend_, _escape_, _escheat_, _essay_, &c.--EX- has a privative sense in _ex-_emperor, _ex-_mayor. [L. _ex-_, _e-_; O. Fr. _es-_, Fr. _é-_, _ex_.] EX-, out of, as in _ex_odus.--EXO-, outside, as _exo_tic. [Gr. _ex_, out of, _ex[=o]_, outside.] EXTRA- (L.), on the outside, beyond, as _extra_mural, _extra_ordinary, _extra-_work; as STRA- in _stra_nge. [Contr. of _exter[=a]_ (_parte_ being understood), abl. fem. of _exterus_, beyond, a comp. form, from _Ex-_ (L.).] FOR- (A.S.), in place of, as _for_asmuch. [A.S. prep. _for_.] FOR- (A.S.), through, thorough, away, so as to be non-existent, or to be destroyed, as _for_swear, _for_bid, _fore_go (better _for_go). [A.S. _for-_; Ger. _ver-_, Goth. _fra-_, conn. with _far_ and _from_.] FOR- (Fr.--L.), as in _fore_close, _for_feit. [Fr.--L. _foris_, lit. 'out of doors,' used in the sense of 'outside,' 'beyond,' 'amiss.'] FORE- (A.S.), before, as _fore_tell, _fore_bode; _fore_dated, _fore_said, _fore_told; _fore_castle, _fore_father, _fore_sight. [A.S. _fore-_; Ger. _vor_.] FORTH- (A.S.), forth, only in _forth_with. FRO- (A.S.), from, as _fro_ward. [A.S. _fro_--Scand., Ice. _frá_.] GAIN- (A.S.), against, as _gain_say. [A.S. _gegn_. See _Against_ in Dict.] HEMI- (Gr.), half, as _hemi_sphere--shortened to ME- in _me_grim. [Gr.; cog. with L. _semi-_, Sans. _s[=a]mi-_.] HETERO- (Gr.), other, as _hetero_doxy. [Gr. _heteros_, other.] HOLO- (Gr.), entire, as _holo_graph. [Gr. _holos_, entire.] HOMO- (Gr.), same--lengthened to HOMOEO-, as _homoeo_pathy. [Gr. _homos_, same.] HYPER- (Gr.), over, above, beyond, as _hyper_borean, _hyper_critical. [Cog. with _super-_ and _over-_.] HYPO-, HYPH-, HYP-, (Gr.), under, as _hypo_tenuse, _hyph_en, _hyp_allage. [Cog. with L. _sub-_, Goth. _uf_, Sans. _upa_.] I-, in _i_gnoble. See In- (1), negative. I-, Y-, as in _I-_wis, _y_clept, hand-_y-_work. This prefix appears as A- in _a_ware, as C- in _c_lutch, and as E- in _e_nough. [A.S. _ge-_, sign of the past participle passive.] IL-, as in _il_lude. See In- (2). IL-, as in _il_legal. See In- (1). IN-, IM- (L.), not, as _in_convenience, _in_cautious, _in_firm. Before _p_ the _n_ changes to _m_, as _im_pudent; before _l_, _m_, and _r_ it is assimilated to those consonants, as _il_legal, _im_mature, _ir_regular. This prefix thus appears as EN-, I-, IL-, IM-, IN-, IR-, as _en_emy, _ig_noble, _il_legal, _im_mortal, _in_firm, _ir_regular. [L.; cog. with Gr. _an-_, Eng. _un-_.] IN- (L.), in, into, as _in_fuse, _il_lumine, _im_pel, _ir_rigate. It becomes _il-_ before _l_; _im-_ before _b_, _m_, and _p_; _ir_- before _r_. This prefix thus appears as AM-, AN-, EM-, EN-, IL-, IM-, IN-, IR-, as _am_bush, _an_oint, _em_brace, _en_close, _il_lude, _im_mure, _in_clude, _ir_ritate. IN- (A.S.), in, on, as _in_come, _in_ward, _in_land, _in_sight; to make, as _im_bitter, lit. to put _into_ a state of bitterness; as _im-_ in _im_bed, _im_park, &c. INTER- (L.), in the midst of, between, as _inter_val, _intel_lect, _inter_marry. [A compar. form; cog. with Eng. _under_, and Sans. _antar_, within.] INTRA- (L.), in the inside of, within, as _intra_mural. [Contr. of _intera_, ablative feminine of _interus_, inward--_Inter-_.] INTRO- (L.), into, within, as _intro_duce. [Contr. of _intero_, ablative masculine of _interus_--_Inter-_.] IR-, as in _ir_ritate. See In- (2). IR-, as in _ir_regular. See In- (1). ISS-, as in _iss_ue. See Ex- (1). JUXTA- (L.), near, as _juxta_position. [Superl. form, from root of L. _jung[)e]re_, to join.] L-, as in _l_one; an abbreviation of _all_. L-, as in _l_ouver. See Al-. L-, as in _l_ute. See Al-. MALE-, MALI-, MAL-, MAU- (L.), badly, ill, as _male_factor, _mal_content, _male_diction, _male_volent; through French, _mau_gre=notwithstanding. [L. _male_, badly.] META-, METH-, MET- (Gr.), among, with; after, as _meth_od. (lit. 'way after'); often implies change, as _meta_morphose, _met_eor, _met_onomy. [Gr. _meta_; cog. with A.S. _mid_, Goth. _mith_, Ger. _mit_.] MID- (A.S.), with, as _mid_wife. [A.S. _mid-_, together with.] MIS- (A.S.), wrong, ill, as _mis_behave, _mis_deed, _mis_lead. [A.S. _mis-_; Ice. _mis-_, Goth. _missa-_, Ger. _miss-_. Cf. _Mis-_in Dict.] MIS- (Fr.--L.), as in _mis_chief, _mis_alliance, _mis_chance. [Fr. _mis-_, for O. Fr. _mes-_, from L. _minus_, less.] MONO-, MON- (Gr.), single, as _mono_graph, _mono_logue, _mon_k, and _min_ster. [Gr. _monos_, alone.] MULTI-, MULT-, many, as in _multi_ply, _mult_eity. [L. _multus_, much, many.] N-, as in _n_ewt, _n_ickname, due to the _n_ of the article in _an ewt_, _an ekename_. In _n_uncle the origin is _mine_ uncle; in 'for the _nonce_,' M. E. for the nones, miswritten _for then ones_, for the once. N- (A.S.), no, not, as _n_ever; or L. NE-, as in _n_ull. [A.S. _ne_; cog. with Goth. _ni_, L. _ne_, Sans. _na_.] NE- (Gr.), not, as _ne_penthe; NE-, NEG- (L.), not, as _ne_farious, _ne_uter, _neg_ative, _neg_lect. [L. _ne_, _nec_, a contr. of _neque_, from _ne_, not, _que_, and.] NON- (L.), not, as _non_sense, _non_age. It appears as _um-_ in _um_pire=_num_pire. [From _ne unum_, not one.] OB- (L., by assimilation, O-, OB-, OC-, OF-, OP-, also OS-), in front of, against, in the way of, as _ob_struct, _o_mit, _oc_cur, _of_fer, _op_pose, _os_tentation. [Cog. with Gr. _epi_, Sans. _api_.] OC-, as in _oc_cur. See Ob-. OF-, as in _of_fer. See Ob-. OFF- (A.S.), off, from, away, as _of_fal, _off_shoot, _off_set. [A form of OF. There is the same relation between _of_ and _off_ as between _be_ and _by_; A.S. _of_ has been differentiated into the stressless or weak form _of_, and the stressed or strong form _off_. Cf. A-, Ab-.] ON- (A.S.), on, as _on_set, _on_looker. [See _On_ in Dict.] OP-, as in _op_press. See Ob-. OR- (A.S.), out, in _or_deal. [A.S. _or-_; cog. with Dut. _oor-_, Ger. _ur-_, Goth, _us-_, away, out of.] OS-, as in _os_tensible. See Ob-. OUT- (A.S.), out, beyond, as _out_law, _out_bid, _out_side, _out_cast. [A.S. _út_.] OVER- (A.S.), over, above, as _over_arch, _over_seer. [A.S. _ofer_.] PA-, as in _pa_lsy. See Para-. PALIN-, PALIM- (Gr.), again, as _palin_genesis, _palim_psest. [Gr. _palin_, again.] PAN-, PANTO- (Gr.), all, as _pan_acea, _pan_theism, _panto_mime. PARA-, PAR- (Gr.), beside, as _para_ble; beyond, wrong, as _para_lyse. It appears as PA- in _pa_lsy, PAR- in _par_ody. [Gr. _para_.] PEL-, as in _pel_lucid. See Per-. PENE- (L.), almost, as _pen_insula. PER- (L.), through, as _per_mit; thoroughly, as _per_fect; also appearing as PAR-, PEL-, PIL-, as in _par_son, _par_don, _pel_lucid, _pil_grim. In _per_jure, _per_ish, it has a destructive force, equivalent to Eng. FOR- in _for_swear (_for-_, A.S.). [Akin to Gr. _para-_, beside, Eng. _for-_, Ger. _ver_.] PERI- (Gr.), round, as _peri_meter, _peri_phrasis. [Gr. _peri_; Sans. _pari_, also allied to Gr. _para_.] POL-, POR- (L.), as _pol_lute, _por_tend. [From Old L. _port-_, towards; cf. Ger. _pros_, Eng. _forth_.] POLY- (Gr.), many, as _poly_gamy. POR-, as in _por_trait. See Pro- (2). POST- (L.), after, backwards, behind, as _post_date, _post_script, _post_pone. POUR-, PUR- (Fr.--L.), as _pour_tray, _pur_vey. [Fr.--L. _pro-_.] PRE-, PRÆ- (L.), before, as _pre_dict, _pre_fer, _pre_arrange, _præ_tor; also in _pri_son and _pro_vost. [L. _præ_, akin to L. _pro_.] PRETER- (L.), beyond, as _preter_it, _preter_natural, _preter_mit. [L. _præter_--_præ_, with comp. suffix -_ter_.] PRO- (Gr.), before, as prologue, programme, prophet. [Gr. pro; cog. with L. pro-, Sans. pra, Eng. for (prep.).] PRO- (L.), forth, forward, before, instead, as _pro_ject; instead of, from the idea of being before, as _pro_noun, _pro_consul. Appearing also as POR-, POUR-, PR-, PROF-, PUR-, and as PROD- in _prod_igal.--Of Fr. origin, _pro_ceed, _pur_chase, _pur_pose, _pur_sue, _pur_vey. [Cog. with _pro-_ (Gr.), which see.] PROS- (Gr.), towards, as _pros_elyte, _pros_ody. PROTO-, PROT- (Gr.), first, as _proto_type, _prot_oxide. [Gr. _pr[=o]tos_, first.] PUR-. See under Pour-. RE-, RED-, REN- (L.), change of place or condition, as in _re_move, _re_union (an assemblage of things or persons formerly apart); hence, change of motion from one direction to the opposite='back,' 'again,'as _re_tract, _re_sound, _re_deem, _re_dolent. It appears as REN- in _ren_der, &c.; as R- in _r_ally, _r_ampart; as RA- in _ra_gout. In _re_build, _re_mind, &c. it has been prefixed to English words. RETRO- (L.), back, backwards, as _retro_spect, _retro_grade.--Of Fr. origin, _rere_ward, ar_rear_, &c. S- for _Se-_, as in _s_ure; for _Dis-_, as in _s_pend; for _Ex-_, as in _s_ample; for _Sub-_, as in _s_ombre. SE-, SED- (L.), without, as _se_cure; aside, as _se_duce, _se_cede, _sed_ition; appearing as S- in _s_ure, _s_ober. SEMI- (L.), half, as _semi_circle. [L.; cog. with Gr. h[=e]mi.] SINE- (L.), without, as _sine_cure. SO-, as in _so_journ. See Sub-. SO-, as in _so_ber. See Se-. SOVR-, SOPR-. See Super-. SU-, as in _su_spect. See Sub-. SUB- (L.), by assimilation, before _c_, _f_, _g_, _m_, _p_, _r_, _s_--SUC-, SUF-, SUG-, SUM-, SUP-, SUR-, SUS-; under, from under, after, as _sub_ject, _sus_pect, _suc_ceed, _suf_fuse, _sug_gest, _sum_mon, _sup_port, _sur_prise, _sus_pend--also as S- in _s_ombre and SO- in _so_journ.--Of Fr. origin, _suc_cour, _sum_mon; Eng. formations, _sub_let, _sub-_kingdom, _sub-_worker. [L. _sub_ (which in O. Fr. became _so-_).] SUBTER- (L.), under, as _subter_fuge. [From _Sub-_, and compar. suffix -_ter_, meaning motion.] SUC-, SUF-, SUG-, SUM-, SUP-. See Sub-. SUPER- (L.), over, above, beyond, as _super_structure, _super_natural.--Of Fr. origin, _sur_face, _sur_feit, _sur_pass, _sur_prise;--Eng. compounds, _super_abundant, _super_cargo, _super_critical. [L.; cog. with Sans. _upari_, Gr. _hyper_.] SUPRA- (L.), over, above, as _supra_mundane. [Contr. of ablative fem. of _superus_, above, from _Super-_.] SUR- (Fr.), over, as _sur_mount. [Fr., from L. _super_.] SUR-, as in _sur_rogate. See Sub-. SUS-, as in _sus_pend. See Sub-. SYN-, SY-, SYL-, SYM- (Gr.), together, with, as _syn_tax, _sys_tem, _syl_lable, _sym_bol, _sym_metry. [Cog. with _Com-_.] T-, in _t_wit, for _at_; in _t_awdry=_Saint Awdry_, the _t_ being the final letter of saint; in _t_autology, representing the Greek article _to_. THOROUGH- (A.S.), through, as _thorough_fare. [A.S. _ðurh_, through.] TO- (A.S.), in _to-_day, _to_gether, _to_ward, here-_to-_fore, is the prep. _to_. [A.S. _tó_.] TO- (A.S.), asunder, as in _to-_brake. [A.S. _tó-_; cf. Ger. _zer-_, Gr. _dys-_.] TRANS-, TRA-, TRAN-, TRES-, TRE- (L.), beyond, across, as _trans_port, _tra_verse, _tran_scend, _tres_pass, and _tre_ason (through French). TRI- (L.), thrice, as in _tri_ple, _tre_ble. TWI- (A.S.), double, as in _twi_light. [A.S. _twí-_, double, _twá_, two.] U- (Gr.), no, not, as _U_topia. [Gr. _ou_, not.] ULTRA- (L.), beyond, as _ultra_marine. The French form _outre_ appears in _out_rage and in _utter_ance. [From _ulter_ (stem of _ulterior_), _ul-_ being from root of L. _ille_.] UM-, in _um_pire. See Non-. UN- (A.S.), negative prefix, not, as _un_happy, _un_truth, _un_couth. [Cog. with Gr. _an-_ and L. _in_- (negative).] UN- (A.S.), verbal prefix, signifying the reversal of an action, as _un_lock, _un_bind, _un_do, _un_wind. [A.S. _on-_, _un-_; cf. Dut. _ont-_, Ger. _ent-_, Goth. _and-_. See A- (A.S.) (2).] UN-, UNI- (L.), one, as _un_animous, _uni_form. [L. unus, one.] UNDER- (A.S.), under, below, as _under_growth, _under_wood, _under_prop, _under_sell. [See _Under_ in Dict.] UP- (A.S.), up, as _up_land, _up_start, _up_right, _up_hill, _up_braid, _up_set. [A.S. _up_, _upp_; Ger. _auf_.] VE- (L.), apart from, as _ve_stibule. [L. _ue_, apart from; prob. allied to _bi-_ and _duo_, two.] VIS-, VICE- (Fr.--L.), in place of, as _vis_count, _vice_roy. [Fr. _vis-_, from L. _vice_, instead of.] WAN- (A.S.), wanting, as _wan_ton. [See _Wanton_ in Dict.] WITH- (A.S.), against, back, as _with_stand, _with_draw; with, near, as within (this meaning is very rare as prefix). [A.S. _with_--_wither_. See _With_ in Dict.] Y-. See under I-. * * * * * SUFFIXES. -ABLE, adj. suffix, capable of, as port_able_, laugh_able_; cf. also come-at_-able_, get-at_-able_. [L., according to the stem-ending, _-abilis_, _-ebilis_, _-ibilis_, _-ubilis_.] -AC, adj. suffix, pertaining to, as elegi_ac_; also used as noun suffix, as mani_ac_. [L. _-acus_, Gr. _-akos_.] -ACEOUS, having the qualities of, as herb_aceous_. [L. _-aceus_.] -ACIOUS, full of, as aud_acious_. [L. _-ax_, _-acis_.] -ADE, noun suffix, the L. _-ata_, which in popular French words appears as _-ée_, becomes _-ade_ in words borrowed from the Provençal, Spanish, Portuguese, and even Italian, as in accol_ade_, gascon_ade_. Also we have ambass_ade_, ambusc_ade_, balustr_ade_, brig_ade_, casc_ade_, &c. from French, words in _-ade_. Examples of words formed in imitation of these in English itself are block_ade_, orange_ade_. -AGE, ending of abstract nouns, as hom_age_; marks place where, as vicar_age_;--of English formation, bond_age_, brew_age_, parson_age_. [L. _-aticum_; Fr. _-age_.] -AIN, -AN, -EN, -ON, noun suffixes, as vill_ain_, pag_an_, ward_en_, surge_on_. [L. _-anus_.] -AL, adj. suffix, as annu_al_, leg_al_, mort_al_, cardin_al_;--of English or French formation, circumstanti_al_, cordi_al_, nation_al_. Noun suffix, as approv_al_, deni_al_, remov_al_, betroth_al_. Latin nouns in _-alia_ (neut. pl.) which survived into Old French became _-aille_ (fem. sing.), adopted in Middle English as _-aylle_, _-aille_, later _-aile_, _-al_, as Latin spons_[=a]lia_, O. Fr. espous_ailles_, M. E. spous_aille_, spous_al_; L. batt_[=a]lia_, O. Fr. bat_aille_, M. E. bat_aille_, bat_ail_, battle. On this analogy, _-aille_, _-ail_, _-al_, became a formative of nouns of action on verbs of French or Latin, and even of Teutonic, origin. [L. _-alis_; Fr. _-al_, _-el_.] -AN, -AIN, -ANE, adj. suffix, as hum_an_, cert_ain_, hum_ane_;--of English formation, Anglic_an_, suburb_an_. Noun suffix [L. _-anus_; Fr. _-ain_, _-en_], as public_an_, veter_an_. [L. _-anus_; Fr. _-ain_, _-en_.] -ANA, things belonging to, such as sayings, anecdotes, &c., as Johnsoni_ana_, Burnsi_ana_. [L. neut. pl. of adjs. in _-anus_. See _-an_.] -ANCE, -ENCE (L. _-antia_, _-entia_, Fr. _-ance_), noun suffix, as in arrog_ance_, repent_ance_, experi_ence_, penit_ence_. -ANCY, -ENCY, a modern English differentiated form of the earlier _-ance_, expressing more distinctly the sense of quality, state, or condition, often belonging to Latin substantives in _-ntia_, as in eleg_antia_, 'elegantness,' as distinct from the sense of action or process, regularly expressed by the French form _-ance_, as in aid_ance_, guid_ance_. The modern tendency is to confine _-nce_ to action, and to express quality or state by _-ncy_; cf. compli_ance_, pli_ancy_, annoy_ance_, buoy_ancy_. -AND, -END, noun suffix, as vi_and_, leg_end_. [L. _-andus_, _-endus_, gerundial suffix.] -ANEOUS, belonging to, as extr_aneous_. [L. _-aneus_.] -ANT, -ENT, adj. suffix, as repent_ant_, pati_ent_. Also noun suffix, sometimes denoting the agent, as inst_ant_, serge_ant_, stud_ent_, innoc_ent_. [L. _-ans_, _-ant-is_, or _-ens_, _-ent-is_, suffix of pr.p.] -AR, adj. suffix, belonging to, as angul_ar_, popul_ar_. [L. _-aris_; Fr. _-ier_ or _-aire_.] -AR, -ARD, -ART. See under -er (marking the agent). -AR, -ER, -OR, noun suffixes, marking place where, as cell_ar_, lard_er_, man_or_ [L. _-arium_];--denoting the agent, as vic_ar_, treasur_er_, chancell_or_. [L. _-arius_.] -ARD, intensive, as drunk_ard_, cow_ard_, slugg_ard_, wiz_ard_. [O. Fr. _-ard_, _-art_; Ger. _-hard_, strong.] -ARY, noun suffix, marking place where, as semin_ary_ [L. _-arium_]; the agent, as secret_ary_, antiqu_ary_ [L. _-arius_]. Adjective suffix [L. _-arius_, Fr. _-aire_], as contr_ary_, necess_ary_, second_ary_. -ASM. See under -ism. -ASS, -ACE, as cuir_ass_, cutl_ass_, men_ace_, pinn_ace_. [L. _-aceus_, _-acius_; It. _-accio_, Fr. _-as_.] -ASTER, dim. and freq. (often implying contempt), as poet_aster_. [Fr. _-artre_ (It. _astro_)--L. _-as-ter_.] -ATE, -ETE, -ITE, -UTE, -T, forming adjectives--all adapted forms of the endings of past participles in Latin according to the conjugation of the verbs from which they are formed, as accur_ate_, desol_ate_; compl_ete_, repl_ete_; contr_ite_, exquis_ite_; absol_ute_, min_ute_; abjec_t_, elec_t_. -ATE, verbal suffix, as navig_ate_, perme_ate_. Adj., as above. Noun, as leg_ate_, advoc_ate_. [Norm. Fr. _at_--L. _-[=a]tus_, suffix of pa.p.] -BLE. See -able. -BLE, -PLE, fold, as dou_ble_, tre_ble_, quadru_ple_. [L. _-plus_, lit. 'full.'] -BUND and -CUND, as mori_bund_, rubi_cund_. [L. _-bundus_ and _-cundus_; Fr. _-bond_ and _-cond_.] -CE. See under -s, adverbial suffix. -CELLI, -CELLO, dim., as vermi_celli_, violon_cello_. [It., from L. _-culus_.] -CH, dim., as blot_ch_. [See -ock.] -CLE, -CULE, dim., as in parti_cle_, animal_cule_, from L. _culus_, which also gives (through It.) -CELLI, -CELLO, [See under -l.] -CRAFT, noun suffix, as in book_craft_, priest_craft_. [A.S. _cræft_, skill.] -CY, -SY, noun suffix, denoting being, or state of being, condition, rank, as clemen_cy_, bankrupt_cy_, cura_cy_, minstrel_sy_. [L. _-tia_, as in constan_tia_, constan_cy_, or _-tio_, as in conspira_tio_, conspira_cy_.] -D, -T, or -ED, pa.t. suffix, as loved. The _e_ in _-ed_ is the connecting vowel, omitted when the verb ends in e. [A.S. _-de_, 'did,' from _di-de_, pa.t. of do.] -D, pa.p. suffix of weak verbs, as love_d_; in nouns (with passive meaning), as dee_d_, see_d_; in adjectives formed from nouns, as connoting the possession of the attribute or thing expressed by the substantive, as boote_d_, feathere_d_, woode_d_; in the form -TH (or -T), in abstract nouns from adjectives and, later on, from verbs, as dea_th_, fligh_t_, swif_t_, (with euphonic _-s_-) du_-s__-t_, bla_-s__-t_. [Orig. _-th_, as in uncou_th_, and from the root of _the_, _that_; seen also in the L. suffix _-tu-s_, as in _no-tu-s_, Sans. _jna-ta-s_, and in the Gr. suffix _-to-s_.] -DOM, noun suffix, denoting dominion, power, as king_dom_; state, as free_dom_; act, as martyr_dom_. New words, as flunkey_dom_, can be coined. [A.S. _dóm_, judgment, Ger. _-thum_.] -DOR, -DORE, noun suffix, as in corri_dor_, mata_dore_, steve_dore_, battle_door_. [Sp. -DOR, L. _-tor_.] -ED. See -d. -EE, noun suffix, one who or that which is (passive), as trust_ee_, legat_ee_. In such words as absent_ee_, devot_ee_, the old function of _-ee_ is entirely lost; refug_ee_ is adopted from Fr. _refugié_, grand_ee_ from Sp. _grande_. [Fr. _-é_--L. _-[=a]tus_, suffix of pa.p.] -EER, -IER, one who, has frequentative meaning, as chariot_eer_; also -ER, -AR, as in carpent_er_, vic_ar_. [Fr. _-ier_---L. _-arius_.] -EL, dim., as dams_el_. [See under -l.] -EN, dim., as chick_en_, maid_en_. [A.S. _-en_.] -EN, fem. suffix, now found only in vix_en_. [A.S. _-en_, _-n_; Ger. _-in_, Gr. _-ine_, L. _-ina_.] -EN, added to noun-stems to form adjectives chiefly indicating the material of which a thing is composed. From the 16th century onwards there has been a tendency to discard these adjectives for the attributive use of the substantive, as in 'a gold watch;' only a few words are still familiarly used in their literal sense--earth_en_, wheat_en_, wood_en_, wooll_en_. [A.S. _-en_; Goth. _-en_, _-an_, Ger. _-en_, _-ein_, Sans. _-um_; a genitive suffix, as in mi_ne_.] -EN, pa.p., as wov_en_, bor_ne_, swo_rn_. [A.S. _-n_, _-ne_, _-en_; conn. with _-ant_, _-ent_.] -EN, pl. suffix, as ox_en_, ki_ne_ (for M. E. _kyen_--A.S. _cý_, pl. of _cú_, a cow). [A.S. _-an_.] -EN, to make, as dark_en_, moist_en_, strength_en_, whit_en_. -EN, -IN, -ENE, belonging to, as ali_en_, verm_in_, terr_ene_. [L. _-enus_, _-ena_, _-enum_.] -ENCE, -ENCY. See -nce, -ncy. -ENT, belonging to, as different. [L. _-ens_, _-entis_. See -ant.] -EOUS, in right_eous_, corr. of -wise (which see); in court_eous_, from O. Fr. _-eis_ (from L. _-ensis_.) -EOUS, same as in -ous, as lign_eous_. [L. _-eus_.] -ER, freq. and intens., as glimm_er_, flutt_er_. -ER, infinitive suffix, as cov_er_, encount_er_. [Fr, _-re_, _-ir_, from L. pres. infin. _-[=a]re_, _-[=e]re_, _-[)e]re_, _-[=i]re_.] -ER marks the agent, designating persons according to their occupation, as writ_er_, sing_er_, hatt_er_, lead_er_, sometimes changed to _-ar_, as li_ar_; with _-i-_ or _-y-_ prefixed, as cloth_-i__-er_, law_-y-er_ (where the A.S. primitive substantive ends in [gh]); with excrescent _-t_ or _-d_, as bragg_-ar__-t_. Note that in the words _auger_, _heifer_, _shelter_, what looks like the suffix _-er_ is really an independent substantive. [A.S. _-ere_; Goth. _-arja_, Ger. _-er_.] -ER, more, used in compar. of adjs., as great_er_, mo_re_. [Aryan compar., suffix _-ra_.] -ER, noun suffix, as matt_er_, gutt_er_. [Fr. _-iere_--L. _-eria_.] -EREL, dim. suffix, as mack_erel_. [See under -l.] -ERIE, place where, as menag_erie_. [Fr., from L. _-arium_. See -ery.] -ERLY, direction to or from, as south_erly_. [From _-ern_ and _-ly_.] -ERN, adj. suffix sig. direction, as south_ern_ [A.S. _-er__-n_]; adj. suffix, sig. belonging to, as mod_ern_ [L. _-ernus_]; noun suffix, as cist_ern_ [L. _-erna_]. -ERY, noun suffix, as brew_ery_, witch_ery_, cutl_ery_. [Noun suffix -Y added to nouns in -ER (marking agent). See -ary, -erie, -ory.] -ES or -S, pl. suffix, as fox_es_, hat_s_. [A.S. _-as_. -S is a general pl. suffix, as L. and Gr. _-es_.] -ESCENT, adj. suffix, denoting growing, becoming, as conval_escent_. [L. _-esco_, _-isco_, _-asco_, Gr. _-ask[=o]_, suffix, implying becoming, beginning.] -ESE, adj. suffix, belonging to, as Japan_ese_. [L. _-ensis_; O. Fr. _-eis_, mod. Fr. _-ois_, _-ais_.] -ESQUE, adj. suffix, partaking of the quality of, as pictur_esque_, grot_esque_, Turner_esque_. [Fr. _-esqe_ (It. _-esco_)--L. _-iscus_, a by-form of _-icus_ (see -ic), and conn. with -ish, adj. suffix.] -ESS, fem. suffix of nouns, as lion_ess_, godd_ess_. [Fr. _-esse_, L. _-issa_.] -ESS, -ICE, -ISE, as prow_ess_, just_ice_, merchand_ise_. Note that _riches_ was mistaken for a plural, being really M. E. _richesse_--Fr. _richesse_. [L. _-itia_, _-ities_, Late L. _-icia_, Fr. _-esse_.] -EST, as in harv_est_, earn_est_. -EST, suffix of 2d sing. in verbs, as bring_est_. [A.S. _-ast_, _-est_; L. _-es_, _-isti_; Gr. _-si_, _-sthon_. -S or -ST = 2d pers. pron., Gr. _sy_ (_su_), L. _tu_, Eng. _thou_.] -EST, superl. suffix, formed from the compar. by adding _-t_, as small_est_. [A.S. _-est_ (in adjectives), _-ost_ (in adverbs); L. _-issimus_, Gr. _-istos_, _-stos_, _-tatos_. Sans. _-ishta_.] -ET, -ETE, noun suffix, marking the agent, as proph_et_, po_et_, athl_ete_. [L. _-[=e]ta_, Gr. _-[=e]t[=e]_s.] -ET, -ETTE, -OT, dim., as cygn_et_, bill_et_, etiqu_ette_, ball_ot_. See also -let. [Norm. Fr. _-et_, _-ot_; Fr. _-et_, _-ette_.] -EUR. See under -or. -EVER, at any time, as who_ever_, every one who. [See _Ever_ in Dict.] -FARE, way, as in wel_fare_, chaf_fer_. [See _Fare_ in Dict.] -FAST, adj. suffix, as in stead_fast_, shame_faced_ (A.S. _scamfæst_). [A.S. _fæst_, firm, fast.] -FOLD, adj. suffix, as four_fold,_ mani_fold_. [A.S. _-feald_.] -FUL, full of, as delight_ful_. [A.S. _-full_.] -FY, a verbal suffix signifying to make, as puri_fy_. [Fr. _-fier_--L. _-fic-[=a]re_, for _fac-[)e]re_, to make.] -HEAD, -HOOD, noun suffix, denoting state, nature, as God_head_, man_hood_, likeli_hood_, hardi_hood_. Note that liveli_hood_ was in A.S. _líflád_=_líf_, life + _lád_, way; the second part ceased to be understood, and thus _-lihood_ took its place. [From A.S. _hád_, Ger. _-heit_, state; changed into Hood.] -I, pl. suffix of nouns in _-us_, as in literat_i_ [L. _-i_; conn. with Ger. _-ai_, _-oi_]; also pl. suffix of nouns borrowed from It., as banditti [It.--L.]. -IAN, adj. suffix, as Arab_ian_, Christ_ian_. See -an. [L. _-ianus_; Fr. _-ien_.] -IBLE, adj. suffix, as poss_ible_, flex_ible_. [From L. _-ibilis_, another form of _-abilis_. See _-able_.] -IC, adj. suffix, of or belonging to, as gigant_ic_, publ_ic_, volta_ic_. Also largely used as noun suffix, as fabr_ic_. [L. _-icus_, _-ica_, _-icum_, Gr. _-ikos_; Fr. _-ic_, _-igne_.] -ICAL, adj. suffix, belonging to, as cub_ical_, whims_ical_. [_-ic_ and _-al_.] -ICE, noun suffix, as chal_ice_ [Fr.--L. _-ex_, _-icis_]; nov_ice_ [Fr.--L. _-icius_]. [See another -ice under -ess, -ice, -ise.] -ICISM. See -ism. -ICS, lit. things that belong to a science, as mathemat_ics_. [In imitation of Gr. _-ika_, neuter pl. of adjs. in _-ikos_. See -ic.] -ID, noun suffix, as Nere_id_; also used in coining chemical words, as chlor_ide_, ox_ide_, brom_ide_ [L. _-id_-, Gr. _-id_-, Fr. _-ide_]. Also adj. suffix, as tep_id_, ac_id_, morb_id_ [L. _-idus_]. -IE, -Y, dim., as lass_ie_. [From _-ick_, a weakened form of -ock.] -IER, noun suffix, one who, as caval_ier_, cloth_ier_, braz_ier_, hos_ier_. [Fr. _-ier_; usually appears in form -eer.] -IFF. See -ive. -IL, -ILE, able, as civ_il_, duct_ile_. [L. _-[)i]lis_, from verbal roots, _-[=i]lis_, from noun-stems; to be distinguished from -ile (below). See -able.] -ILE, belonging to, as Gent_ile_. [L. _-ilis_.] -IM, pl. suffix, as cherub_im_. [Heb. _îm_.] -INA, fem. suffix, as czar_ina_. [See _-en_, fem.] -INE, fem. suffix, as hero_ine_. [See _-en_, fem.] -INE, -IN, noun suffix, as rav_ine_, medic_ine_, cous_in_; much used in chemical compounds, as iod_ine_, glycer_ine_, brom_ine_. Also adj. suffix, as adamant_ine_, div_ine_. [L. _-inus_, _-ina_; Fr. _-in_.] -ING, suffix of present participles (often used as adjectives), as lov_ing_, charm_ing_. [Corr. of A.S. _-ende_, which, as also _-ande_, it replaced. See -nd, also -ant, -ent.] -ING, noun suffix, forming nouns of action from verbs, as liv_ing_, dwell_ing_; these often acquire a concrete sense, as learn_ing_. [A.S. _-ung_, _-ing_; Ger. _-ung_.] -ING, representing Teut. _ingoz_ (masc.), with several functions--(1) _-ing_ (A.S. _-ing_), patronymic _æðeling_ (the son of a noble), _cyning_ (lit. 'son of a king,' _cyne_ = king), _Elising_ (the son of Elisa). This suffix is preserved in proper names, as Hard_ing_, Mann_ing_; esp. in place-names, as Bill_ing_sgate, Read_ing_. (2) -ING is also found in names of animals, as in herr_ing_, whit_ing_. (3) -ING in names of coins has also a sense of diminution, as in farth_ing_ (the fourth part, viz., of a penny), shill_ing_. -ION, -SION, -TION, -SON, -SOM, being, state of being, as opin_ion_, rebell_ion_, relig_ion_, ten_sion_, poi_son_, ran_som_, rea_son_, sea_son_, crea_tion_. [L. _-io_, _-tio_, _-sio_; Fr. _-ion_, _-sion_, _-tion_.] -IOR, more, term. of comp. degree, as super_ior_. [L. _-ior_. See -er, more.] -IQUE, belonging to, as ant_ique_. [Fr.--L. _-iquus_; conn. with _-ic_, L. _-icus_. See -ac.] -ISE, -IZE, verbal suffix, signifying to make; as equal_ise_. [L. _-iz[=a]re_, from Gr. _-izein_; Fr. _-iser_.] -ISE, noun suffix. See -ice. -ISH, adj. suffix, ethnic, as Ir_ish_; signifying somewhat, as brown_ish_, old_ish_; sometimes implying depreciation, as outland_ish_, child_ish_. [A.S. _-isc_.] -ISH, verbal suffix, signifying to make, as establ_ish_. [From Fr. pr.p. suffix _-iss-ant_; chiefly used in words from the Fr. The Fr. _-iss_- is from L. _-esc_-, inceptive.] -ISK, dim., as aster_isk_. [Gr. _-iskos_; conn. with _-ish_, little. See -ock.] -ISM, -ASM, -ICISM, forming abstract nouns sig. condition, system, as ego_ism_, de_ism_, Calvin_ism_, lacon_ism_, pleon_asm_; Angl_icism_, wittic_ism_. [L. _-ismus_, _-asmus_--Gr. _-ismos_, _-asmos_.] -IST, denoting the person who holds a doctrine or practises an art, as Calvin_ist_, chem_ist_, novel_ist_, art_ist_, royal_ist_, nihil_ist_. [L. _-ista_--Gr. _-ist[=e]s_.] -ITE, -IT, noun suffix, born in, belonging to, as Israel_ite_, Jesu_it_. [L. _-ita_--Gr. _-it[=e]s_.] -ITUDE, noun suffix, as fort_itude_, mult_itude_. [L. _-itudo_.] -IVE (-IFF), forming nouns, orig. an adjectival suffix, as bail_iff,_ capt_ive_, nat_ive_, plaint_iff_; forming adjectives (L. _-ivus_), as act_ive_, extens_ive_, furt_ive_. -IX, fem. suffix, as testatr_ix_. [L. _-ix_, _-icis_. Conn. with _-ess_, fem. suffix.] -IZE, to make, same as -ise. -K, a verbal suffix, freq. or intens., as har_k_, lur_k_, tal_k_, wal_k_. -KIN, dim., as bump_kin_, fir_kin_, lamb_kin_, manni_kin_, nap_kin_; also in proper names, as Jen_kins_ (_John_), Per_kins_ (_Peterkin_), Wil_kins_ (_William_). [A.S. _-cen_--very rare, the currency of the suffix being due to words adopted from Dutch or Low German; Ger. _-chen_.] -KIND, noun suffix, kind, race, as man_kind_, woman_kind_. [See -kin above.] -L, -LE, -EL (after _v_, _th_, _ch_, _n_), represents A.S. _-el_, _-ela_, _-ele_, and serves to form agent-nouns, instrumental substantives, and diminutives, as nai_l_, sai_l_; bead_le_, fidd_le_, sick_le_, app_le_, bramb_le_, bund_le_, icic_le_, nett_le_; runn_el_. -AL is sometimes from A.S. _-els_ from _isli_, as brid_le_, ridd_le_, buri_al_. -L, -LE, as a verbal suffix, gives to the root the sense of frequency, repetition, diminution, as knee_l_, drizz_le_, nest_le_, spark_le_. -LEDGE. See -lock (1). -LENCE, -LENCY, forming abstract nouns. [L. _-l-entia_, from _-lens_. See -lent.] -LENT, adj. suffix, full of, as vio_lent_, viru_lent_. [L. _-lentus_.] -LESS, adj. suffix, free from, wanting, as guilt_less_, god_less_. [A.S. _-léas_, Ger. _-los_, Goth. _-laus_.] -LET, dim., as brace_let_, leaf_let_, stream_let_. [From -L and -ET, dim. in certain words formed with _-et_ on substantives ending in _-el_.] -LIKE, like, as god_like_. [See _Like_ in Dict.] -LING, dim., hence expressing affection, as dar_ling_ (A.S. _déorling_), duck_ling_, gos_ling_; sometimes implying depreciation, as hire_ling_, ground_ling_, under_ling_, world_ling_. [A.S. _-ling_.] -LING, -LONG, adv. suffix, as dark_ling_, side_long_. [A.S. _-lunga_, _-linga_.] -LOCK, noun suffix, in wed_lock_ and know_ledge_. It is the A.S. _lác_, the same as _lác_, sport. -LOCK, -LICK, noun suffix, being a weakened form of A.S. _leác_, a leek, as in hem_lock_, gar_lic_, char_lock_. -LY, adj. and adv. suffix, as man_ly_, on_ly_, wicked_ly_. [The adj. suffix is from A.S. _líc_, Eng. _like_; adv. is from _líc-e_, dat. of _líc_.] -M, noun suffix, as blosso_m_ [A.S. _blóstma_]; fatho_m_ [A.S. _-ma_, _-m_]; as real_m_, regi_me_ [Fr.,--L. _-men_]. -MA, noun suffix, as diora_ma_, ene_ma_. [Gr.] -MEAL, adv. suffix, as inch_meal_, piece_meal_. [A.S. _-m['æ]lum_.] -MEN, that which, state, as regi_men_, acu_men_. [Only in words borrowed from Latin. L. _-men_; Sans. _-man_. See -ment, -mony.] -MENT, noun suffix, as nourish_ment_, establish_ment_, detri_ment_;--of Eng. formation, acknowledg_ment_, employ_ment_. [L. _-mentum_, Fr. _-ment_. See -men.] -MONY, as testi_mony_, parsi_mony_. [L. _-mon-iu-m_, _-mon-ia_. See -men.] -MOST, suffix of superl. deg., as end_most_. See _Most_ in Dict. [In most cases this suffix is not the word _most_, the _m_ being part of the root, or an old superl. suffix, and _-ost_, the superl. suffix, as in in_most_=in_-m-ost_. See -est, superl. suffix.] -N, in participles, as broke_n_, hew_n_; in substantives, as bair_n_, beaco_n_, burde_n_, chi_n_, cor_n_, heave_n_, maide_n_. -NCE, -NCY, forming abstract nouns, as dista_nce_, dece_ncy_. [Fr. _-nce_--L. _-nt-ia_.] -ND, as fie_nd_ (lit. 'hating'), frie_nd_ (lit. 'loving'). [A.S. pr.p. suffix.] -NESS, noun suffix, denoting abstract idea, as tender_ness_, sweet_ness_. [A.S. _-nis_, _-nes_, cog. with Ger. _-niss_.] -OCK, dim., as hill_ock_, bull_ock_--also in proper names, as Poll_ock_ (from _Paul_), &c. In stir_k_ we see the simple suffix _-k_, the word being the diminutive of _steer_, A.S. _stéor_, whence _stýric_, a stirk. [A.S. _-uca_--Aryan _-ka_. See -ie and -ing, dim.] -OM, old dative suffix, now used as objective, as wh_om_; in adverbs of time, as seld_om_. [A.S. _-um_.] -ON, -EON, -ION, noun suffix, as cap_on_, mas_on_, trunch_eon_, on_ion_, clar_ion_. [Fr.--L. _-onem_, _ionem_.] -OON, noun suffix, often augmentative, as ball_oon_, sal_oon_. [Fr. _-on_, It. _-one_.] -OR, -OUR, -ER, denoting the agent, sometimes directly from L. (see -tor), but mostly through O. Fr. _-[)o]r_, _-our_ (mod. Fr. _eur_), as emper_or_ (old spelling emper_our_, Fr. _empereur_--L. _imperatorem_); in others, Eng. _-er_ has supplanted _-eur_, _-our_, as preach_er_ (Fr. _prêcheur_--L. _prædicatorem_), while _-or_ is at times affixed to Eng. roots, as sail_or_. In certain abstract nouns from L. _-or_, Fr. _-eur_ is still represented by -our, as col_our_, lab_our_, hon_our_, and in a few cases directly retained, as in grand_eur_. The words demean_our_ and behavi_our_ are English formations with _-our_. -ORY, belonging to, as prefat_ory_ [L. _-orius_]; place where, as purgat_ory_. [L. _-orium_.] -OSE, full of, as bellic_ose_, mor_ose_, verb_ose_. [L. _-osous_. See -ous.] -OT, dim., as ball_ot_. [See -et, dim.] -OUR. See -or. -OUS, adj. suffix, as religi_ous_, deliri_ous_, curi_ous_ [L. _-osus_]; dubi_ous_, anxi_ous_ [L. _-us_].--In righte_ous_ the _ous_ has replaced _wís_, A.S. _rihtwís_. -OW, noun suffix, as shad_ow_ [from A.S. _-u_]; swall_ow_ [from A.S. _-ewe_]; marr_ow_ [from A.S. _-h_]. Also adj. suffix, as narr_ow_ [from A.S. _-u_]. -PLE. See _-ble_, fold. -R, noun suffix, marking the instrument, as stai_r_, timb_er_; adj. suffix, as bitt_er_. -RE, place, as he_re_. [A.S. _-r_, _-ra_, orig. a locative suffix.] -RED, noun suffix, denoting manner, state, as hat_red_, kind_red_ (in A.S. _cynren_, a shortening of _cynn-ryne_, in M. E. the meaningless _-ren_ being supplanted by _-red_). [A.S. _-r['æ]den_; cog. with Ger. _-rath_. See _Read_ in Dict.] -RED, in hundred. This is cog. with Ice. hund_rað_, Ger. hund_ert_, the suffix implying number, reckoning. -RIC, noun suffix, formerly an independent word denoting dominion, power, region, as bishop_ric_. [A.S. _ríce_, power.] -RIGHT, as up_right_, down_right_. [A.S. _riht_.] -RY, noun suffix, originally with a collective meaning, as _chevalerie_, 'body of knights;' now expressing action or quality, as bigot_ry_, pedant_ry_, sorce_ry_; condition, as outlaw_ry_, slave_ry_; trade, as carpent_ry_, herald_ry_; the place of action or occupation, as laund_ry_, nurse_ry_; the result or product of action, as poet_ry_, tapest_ry_; forming collective nouns, as infant_ry_, yeoman_ry_. [Fr. _rie_ = _er_ + _ie_.] -S, adverbial suffix, as need_s_, alway_s_, on_ce_, hen_ce_, then_ce_, whil_-s_-t, betwi_-x_-t. [A.S. _-es_, gen. suffix.] -'S, is the present genitive suffix. [Short for A.S. _-es_--Aryan _-s_ or _sya_, orig. a demons. pron. The (') is prob. due to a false notion that this _-s_ was a relic of _his_.] -S, -SE, verbal suffix, making transitive verbs from adjectives, as _cleanse_ (A.S. _cl['æ]nsian_), _rinse_ (Ice. _hreinsa_--_hreinn_, pure). It also occurs in cla_s_p, gra_s_p, put for clap_-s_, grap_-s_. -SHIP, -SCAPE, noun suffix, as friend_ship_, steward_ship_, wor_ship_, land_scape_ (earlier land_skip_, the Dut. land_schap_). [A.S. _scipe_, shape, form--_scapan_; cog. with Ger. _-schaft_.] -SIS, action or state, as the_sis_. [Gr.] -SOME, adj. suffix, full of, as glad_some_, bu_xom_ (orig. 'pliable,' 'good-natured,' A.S. _búhsum_, lissome, from _búgan_, to bow, bend). [A.S. _-sum_, Ger. _-sam_; a by-form of _same_.] -SON, son, as John_son_. -SON, in ar_son_, rea_son_, trea_son_, the same as -tion (q.v.). -ST. See -est, suffix of 2d sing. -STER marks the agent, as malt_ster_, and in the personal names (orig. trade-names) Ba_xter_, Brew_ster_, Web_ster_; often with depreciation, as game_ster_, pun_ster_. [A.S. _-estre_, a fem. suffix, which now keeps this sense only in spin_ster_.] -STRESS, fem. suffix, as song_stress_. [From _-ster_, orig. fem. suffix, with the addition of L. _-ess_.] -SY, state, as pleuri_sy_. [Same as _-sis_.] -T. See -d. -T, -TE, adj. and noun suffix, as conven_t_, fac_t_, chas_te_, tribu_te_. [L. _-tus_, pa.p. suffix; cog. with _-d_, pa.p. suffix.] -TEEN, ten to be added, as four_teen_. [A.S. _-tyne_. Cf. _-ty_, ten to be multiplied.] -TER, noun suffix, as charac_ter_. [Gr. _-ter_, L. _-tor_, Sans. _-tri_; perh. conn. with _-ster_.] -TER, -THER, as in af_ter_, hi_ther_. [A.S. _-der_, _-ther_, old comp. suffix.] -TH, order, as six_th_. [Becomes also _-d_; conn. with L. _-tus_, _-tius_, as in L. quar_tus_, fourth.] -TH, suffix of 3d pers. sing. of verbs, now for the most part softened to _-s_. [A.S. from root _-ta_, which appears in L. _-t_, Gr. _-ti_, _-si_, _-tai_, _-to_.] -TH, -T, noun suffix, as in streng_th_, heigh_t_; see under -d (pa.p. suffix). -THER, denoting the agent, as fa_ther_, mo_ther_. [Cf. _-tor_.] -THER. See -ter, -ther. -TOR, the agent, as conduc_tor_. See -ther, and cf. _-or_, _-our_, _-er_. -TOR-Y, -SOR-Y, noun suffix, denoting place, as dormi_tory_. -TUDE forms abstract nouns, as grati_tude_. [L. _-tudo_.] -TY, being or state of being, as digni_ty_; quality, as hones_ty_. [L. _-tas_, _-tatem_; O. Fr. _-té_.] -TY, ten to be multiplied, as six_ty_. [A.S. _-tig_; cog. with Ger. _-zig_. Cf. _-teen_.] -ULE, little, dim. [from L. _-ulus_, _-ula_, _-ulum_], as in glob_ule_, pust_ule_; also -CULE [L. _-culus_, _-cula_, _-culum_], as animal_cule_, or [through Fr.] -CLE, as arti_cle_. A different Latin suffix _-culum_, forming substantives from verbs, is represented in the form _-cle_ in several words adopted through French, as mira_cle_, ora_cle_, specta_cle_. -UM, neuter term., as medi_um_. [L. _-um_, Gr. _-on_.] -UNCLE, little, dim., as ped_uncle_. [L. _-un-cu-l_us, A.S. _-incle_; conn. with _-en_ and _-cule_, diminutives.] -URE, noun suffix, denoting act of, as capt_ure_; state of being, as verd_ure_.--In leis_ure_ and pleas_ure_, _-ir_ has been replaced by _-ure_, O. Fr. leis_ir_, plais_ir_. [L. _-ura_; Fr. _-ure_.] -URNAL, belonging to, as di_urnal_. [L. _-urn_-us and _-al_; conn. with _-ern_ (in mod_ern_).] -WARD, -WARDS, forming adjectives from substantives, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions, as east_ward_, home_ward_, home_wards_; down_ward_, for_ward_, in_ward_, to_ward_. [A.S. _-weard_, gen. _-weardes_, cog. with Ger. _-wärts_; conn. with A.S. _weorthan_, to be, and L. _versus_--_vert[)e]re_, to turn.] -WAY, -WAYS, adv. suffix, sig. manner, direction, as al_way_, al_ways_, straight_way_. [Cf. _-wise_.] -WISE, way, manner, as like_wise_, also righteous. [A.S. _-wíse_, manner; Ger. _-wiss_.] -WORTH, adj. suffix, as stal_worth_, stal_wart_. [A.S. _weorð_, _wurð_.] -Y, adj. suffix, as spong_y_ [from L. _-iosus_]; as joll_y_ [Norm. Fr. _-if_ from L. _-ivus_; cf. _-ive_]; as sill_y_, dirt_y_, an_y_ [A.S. _-ig_; cog. with Ger. _-ig_, Goth. _-ha_, _-ga_, L. _-cu-s_, Gr. _-ko-s_]. -Y, noun suffix, as stor_y_, famil_y_, Ital_y_ [Fr. _-ie_, L. _-ia_]; as augur_y_, jo_y_, remed_y_ [from L. _-ium_]; as all_y_, clergy, deput_y_, treat_y_ [from L. _-[=a]tus_, Fr. _-é_]; as progen_y_ [from L. _-ies_]; as arm_y_, countr_y_, entr_y_ [from L. _-[=a]ta_, Fr. _ée_]; as bod_y_ [from A.S. _-ig_]; and perhaps the modern Eng. in forming diminutives or words of contempt, as pupp_y_, bab_y_, lass_ie_, from _pup_, _babe_, _lass_; Bill_y_ from _Bill_; Bets_y_, Lizz_ie_, &c. -YER, as in law_yer_. See -er, noun suffix. * * * * * ETYMOLOGY OF NAMES OF PLACES, &c. * * * * * The following are the more important significant syllables or words that enter into the composition of the names of rivers, mountains, towns, &c. See C. Blackie's _Dictionary of Place-Names_, Dr Joyce's _Irish Names of Places_, Isaac Taylor's _Words and Places_, and the Rev. James B. Johnston's _Place-Names of Scotland_ (1892). A (A.S. _eá_, Ice. -_aa_), 'a stream;' as Gret_a_, Roth_a_, Thurs_o_ ('Thor's stream'), Lax_ay_ ('salmon stream'). ABAD (Pers. and Sans.), 'a dwelling;' as Hyder_abad_, Allah_abad_. ABER (Celt.), 'a confluence,' 'an embouchure;' as _Aber_feldy, _Aber_deen, _Aber_ystwith, _Bar_mouth, _Aber_brothwick or _Ar_broath, Foch_abers_, Loch_aber_, _Apple_cross for Aber-Crossan. [Synonymous with _Inver_.] AIN (Heb.), 'a fountain;' as _En_gedi. AK (Turk.), 'white;' as _Ak_-serai, 'white palace.' ALL (Gael.), 'white;' AL-IAN, 'white water,' so the rivers _Allen_, _Ellen_, _Aln_, _Lune_, _Allwen_, _Elwin_. ALT (Gael.), 'a stream;' as _Alt_rive, _Alt_naharra, Garv_ald_. AR, ARA, found in many river-names; as _Aire_, _Ayr_, _Aar_, _Aray_, _Ir_vine, _Arno_, _Arve_. [Perh. conn. with Sans. _ara_, 'swift,' 'flowing.'] ARD (Celt.), 'high;' as _Ard_och, _Aird_rie, _Ard_rossan, _Ard_glass, _Ard_en, _Ard_ennes. ATH (Ir. and Gael.), 'a ford;' as _Ath_lone, _Ath_truim (now Trim), _Ath_ole. The Gael. _abh_, 'water,' appears in _Ab_oyne, _Awe_. AUCH (Gael.), AGH (Ir.), 'a field;' as _Auch_inleck, _Agh_inver, _Agh_adoe. AUCHTER (Gael.), 'summit;' as _Auchter_arder, _Auchter_muchty. AVON (Celt.), 'a river;' as _Avon_, _Aven_, _Aisne_, _Inn_, _Ain_, _Vienne_; also in _Devon_, _Evan_, Guadi_ana_, Punj_aub_. AY. See Ea. BAB (Ar.), 'a gate;' as _Bab_-el-mandeb, _Bab_-el. BAD (Teut.), 'a bath;' as _Bath_, _Bad_en, Karls_bad_. BAHR (Ar.), 'a sea,' 'lake,' 'river;' as in _Bahr_ein, _Bahar_-el-azrak. BALA (Turk.), 'high;' as _Balla_-hissar, _Bal_kan. BALLOCH (Gael.), 'a pass;' as _Balloch_myle, _Ballagh_more. BALLY (Ir. and Gael.), 'a village' or 'town;' as _Bally_more, _Bal_briggan, _Bal_moral, _Ball_antrae, _Bal_quhidder. BAN (Celt.), 'white;' as _Ban_na, _Ban_on, _Ban_chory; the rivers _Ben_, _Bann_, _Ban_don, _Ban_ney, &c. BECK (Scand.), BACH (Ger.), 'a brook;' as Hol_beck_, Lauter_bach_. [See _Beck_ in Dict.] BEDD (W.), 'a grave;' as _Bedd_gelert. BEER (Heb.), 'a well;' as _Beer_sheba, _Beir_out. BEG, BIHAN (Celt.), 'little;' as Bally_beg_, Mor_bihan_. BEN (Gael. and Ir.), 'mountain,' PEN (W.), 'headland,' 'hilltop;' as _Ben_ Nevis, _Ben_ Lomond, The Twelve _Pins_, _Ban_gor; _Pen_, _Pen_nigant, _Pen_zance, _Pen_nine Alps, _Apen_nines, _Pin_dus. BERG, BOROUGH (A.S. beorh), 'a hill;' as Ingle_borough_, Flam_borough_ Head, Brow_berg_ Hill, Königs_berg_, _Berg_en. [From the same root as _Burgh_ (below).] BETH (Heb.), 'a house;' as _Beth_el (house of God). BETTWS (W.), 'a dwelling;' as _Bettws_-y-coed. BLAIR (Gael.), 'a plain,' 'a battlefield;' as _Blair_-Athole, _Blair_gowrie. BOCA (Sp.), 'a mouth;' as _Boca_-grande. BOR (Slav.), 'wood;' as _Bor_ovsk, Rati_bor_. BOTTLE or BATTLE, BÜTTEL (Teut.), 'a dwelling;' as New_battle_, _Buittle_, More_battle_, Wolfen_büttel_. BROAD (Eng.), as _Brad_don, _Brad_shaw, _Brad_ford. BRUNN (Ger.), 'a spring;' as Salz_brunn_, Pader_born_. BRYN (W.), 'a hill-ridge;' as _Brown_-Willy. BUEN (Sp.), 'good;' as _Buenos_-Ayres ('good breezes'). BURGH, BOROUGH, BURY (Teut.), 'a fortified place,' 'a town;' as Edin_burgh_, Peter_borough_, Shrews_bury_, Ham_burg_, Cher_bourg_, Caris_brook_, _Burg_os. [A.S. _burg_, _burh_ (see _Borough_ in Dict.), Ger. _burg_.] BURN (Northern Eng. and Scotch, A.S. _burna_), 'a brook.;' as _Burn_foot, Black_burn_, Ty_burn_, East_bourne_. BY (Scand.), 'a dwelling,' 'a town;' as Der_by_, Rug_by_, Whit_by_, El_boeuf_. [Cf. _Bylaw_ in Dict.] CAER, CADER (W.), CAHER (Ir.), 'fortified enclosure;' as _Caer_leon, _Caer_narvon, _Car_digan, _Car_lisle, _Cader_-Idris, San_quhar_, _Car_lingford. CAM (Celt.), 'crooked;' as _Cam_, _Cam_beck, _Cam_buskenneth, More_cambe_ Bay, _Cam_brai. CARRICK (Gael. and Ir. _carraig_), CARREG (W.), 'a sea-cliff,' 'rock;' as _Carrick_fergus, _Carrick_-on-Suir, _Carrig_afoyle, _Cerrig_-y-Druidion. CASTER, CHESTER, CESTER (--L. _castra_), 'a camp,' as Don_caster_, _Chester_, Win_chester_, Lei_cester_. CEANN (Gael.), 'a head,' 'promontory;' as _Kin_tyre, _King_horn, _Ken_more. CEFN (Celt.), 'a ridge;' as _Cefn_coed, _Chevin_, _Keyn_ton, _Chevin_gton, _Cheviot_, _Cevennes_. CHEAP and CHIPPING (A.S. _ceap_), 'price,' 'a market;' as _Chipping_-Norton, _Chep_stow, _Cheap_side, _Copen_hagen (Dan. _Kjöben-havn_, 'merchants' haven'). [See _Cheap_ in Dict.] CIVITA (It.), CIUDAD (Sp.), 'a city;' as _Civita_ Vecchia ('old city'); _Ciudad_ Rodrigo ('city of Roderick'). [From L. _civitas_.] CLACH, CLOCH, CLOUGH (Gael.), 'a stone;' as _Clack_mannan, _Clogh_er, Auchna_cloy_, _Clon_akilty. CLACHAN (Gael.), 'a village,' often also 'church.' There are perhaps twenty clachans in Scotland. CLUAN, CLOON (Gael.), 'a meadow;' as _Clun_ie, _Clon_mel, _Clon_tarf, _Clyn_der. CLYD (Celt.), 'warm,' CLYTH (Celt.), 'strong;' as _Clwyd_--most prob. not _Clyde_. CNOC (Gael.), 'a knoll,' 'hill,' as _Knock_meledown. Sir Herbert Maxwell (_Studies in the Topography of Galloway_, 1885) gives 220 _Knocks_ in Galloway alone. COED (Celt.), 'a wood;' _Cots_wold Hills, _Chat_moss. COLN (from L. _colonia_), 'a colony;' as Lin_coln_, _Colne_, _Cologne_ (_Köln_). [See _Colony_ in Dict.] COMBE (A.S.), CWM or CUM (Celt.), 'a hollow between hills;' as Wy_combe_, _Comp_ton, The _Coombs_, _Com_o. CRAIG, CRAG (Celt.), 'a rock;' as _Craig_ie, _Crath_ie, _Carrick_, _Crick_, _Crick_lade, _Croagh_-Patrick. See _Carrick_ (above). CROFT (A.S.), 'an enclosed field;' as _Croft_on, Thorny_croft_. DAGH (Turk.), 'mountain;' as Kara_dagh_. DAL (Scand.), THAL (Ger.), DAIL and DOL (Celt.), 'a dale,' 'a field;' as Liddes_dale_, Ry_dal_, Ken_dal_, Arun_del_, Rhein_thal_; (in Celtic names prefixed) _Dal_ry, _Dal_keith, _Dol_gelly. [See _Dale_ in Dict.] DAR (Ar.), 'a dwelling,' 'district;' as _Dar_fur, _Diar_bekr. DEN or DEAN (Teut.), 'a deep wooded valley;' as Tenter_den_, South_dean_, Hazel_dean_, _Den_holm. DORF. See THORPE. DOUR (Celt.), 'water;' as the _Dour_, _Adour_, _Douro_, _Dore_, _Thur_, _Doro_, _Adder_, _Der_went, _Dar_win, _Dar_ent, _Dar_t, _Dor_chester, _Dor_dogne. DRUM AND DROM (Celt.), 'a backbone,' 'a ridge;' as _Drom_ore, _Drum_mond, Augh_rim_, Leit_rim_. DU (Celt.), 'black;' as _Dou_glas; the rivers _Du_las, _Dou_las; _Dub_lin ('dark pool'). DUM, DUN (Gael.), DINAS, DIN (W.), 'a hill-fortress;' as _Dun_more, _Dun_blane, _Dun_keld, _Dum_barton, _Dum_fries, _Dun_stable, _Dun_mow, _Down_patrick, _Don_egal, Mal_don_, Ver_dun_, Ley_den_, _Din_as-fawr, _Din_an, _Den_bigh. [See _Down_, a hill, in Dict.] DYSART (Celt.--L. _desertum_), 'a hermitage;' as _Dysart_, _Dysert_more. EA, EY (A.S. _íg_, Ice. _ey_, Norw. and Dan. _ö_), 'an island;' as Swan_sea_, _E_ton, Jers_ey_, Romn_ey_, Shepp_ey_, Rothes_ay_, Staff_a_, Far_oe_. [See _Island_ in Dict.] ECCLES, EGLES (like Fr. _église_, through L., from Gr. _ekkl[=e]sia_), 'a church;' as _Eccle_ston, _Eccle_fechan, _Eccles_machan, _Eccles_iamagirdle, _Eagles_ham, Terr_egles_. ELF, ELV (Goth.), 'a river;' as _Elbe_. ERMAK (Turk.), 'a river;' as Kizil-_ermak_. ESK (Gael. and Ir. _easg_ [obs.] or _uisge_, W. _wysg_), 'water;' as the _Esk_, _Usk_, _Ise_, _Oise_, _Ease_burn, _Ash_bourne, _Iz_, _Is_is, _Exe_, _Ux_, _Ouse_, _Wis_beach, _Wis_, _Isch_ia, _Is_ère, _Ais_ne, _Aus_onne. ESKI (Turk.), 'old,' as _Eski_-djuma ('old ditch'). FAHR, FUHR (Teut.), 'way,' 'passage;' as _Fahr_enbach, Camp_vere_, Queens_ferry_, Connel-_Ferry_. FELD, or VELD (Teut.), 'plain,' 'field;' as Hudders_field_, Lich_field_, Spital_fields_. FELL (Old Norse _fjall_, _fell_), 'a mountain;' as Carter_fell_, Goat_fell_, Snae_fell_. FIN, FINN (Gael.), 'fair,' 'white;' as _Fin_don, _Fin_try, _Fin_castle, Knock_fin_. FIORD, FJORD (Scand.), 'a creek,' 'inlet of the sea;' as Lax_fiord_, Water_ford_, Wex_ford_. FLEET (Scand. _fljót_, a stream), 'a small river' or 'channel;' as Pur_fleet_; found in Normandy as _fleur_, as Har_fleur_, Bar_fleur_. FOLK (A.S.), 'people;' as Nor_folk_ ('north people'), Suf_folk_ ('south people'). FORD (A.S.), 'a shallow passage over a river,' as Chelms_ford_, Here_ford_, Stam_ford_. FORS, FOSS (Scand.), 'a waterfall;' as High _Force_, Wilber_force_, _Fos_ton. GARTH (Scand.), 'yard;' GOROD, GROD, GRADE, GRÄTZ (Slav.), 'enclosure,' 'town;' as Stutt_gart_, Nov_gorod_ (=Newton), _Grod_no, Bel_grade_ (=Whitton), König_grätz_ (=Kingston). GARW (Celt.), 'rough;' hence _Gar_onne, _Gar_ioch, _Yar_row, _Yair_, possibly _Garry_. GATE (Teut.), 'a passage' or 'road;' as Canon_gate_, Harrow_gate_, Rei_gate_ (=Ridge_gate_), Catte_gat_. GEBEL, JEBEL (Ar.), 'a mountain;' as _Gib_raltar, _Jebel_-Mukattam. GILL (Scand.), 'a ravine;' as Butter_gill_, Orms_gill_. GLEN (Gael.), GLYN (W.), 'a narrow valley;' as _Glen_coe, _Glen_garry, _Glyn_neath, _Gla_morgan. GORM (Gael.), 'green' or 'blue;' as Cairn_gorm_. GUADA, the name given to the rivers in Spain by the Moors, from the Ar. _wad[=i]_, 'a ravine;' as in _Guada_lquivir (_Wad[=i]-'l-keb[=i]r_, 'the great river'), _Guad_iana. GWEN (Celt.), 'white;' as Der_went_, _Vent_nor, Cor_wen_; GWENT (Celt.), 'a plain;' Latinised into _venta_, as _Venta_ Belgarum (now _Win_chester), formerly Caer_gwent_. GWY. See WY. HALL (Teut.), 'a stone house;' as Eccles_hall_, Wals_all_; (in Germany) a _salt_-work, as _Halle_, _Hall_stadt. [See _Hall_ in Dict.] HAM (A.S., Ger. _heim_), 'a home;' as Bucking_ham_, Clap_ham_, Hex_ham_, Trond_hjem_, Hildes_heim_, Hoch_heim_, Edn_am_, Edr_om_, Houn_am_. HAR, HAER (Teut.), 'the army;' as _Har_wich, _Hers_tall, _Har_bottle. HAUGH, HEUGH, a particular Scotch form and use of _Haw_ (A.S. _haga_), perhaps due to the Ice. form _hagi_, a pasture. The meaning is generally a low-lying meadow between hills or on the banks of a stream, and it is noticeable that in Scotch use _How_ and _Hope_ have frequently the same sense. A _Hope_, however, is properly a hollow, esp. the upper end of a narrow mountain valley, while a _How_ is a low hill (Ice. _haugr_, 'a mound'). Cf. _Hob_kirk, _How_wood, _Hu_tton, Fox _How_. HAY, HAIGH (Teut.), a place surrounded by a '_hedge_;' as Rothwell _Haigh_, _Hague_. HISSAR (Turk.), 'a castle;' as Kara-_hissar_. HITHE (A.S.), 'haven;' as _Hythe_, Lam_beth_=Loam_hithe_ (the 'clayey haven'). HO (Chin.), 'river;' as Pei_ho_. HOANG, WHANG (Chin.), 'yellow;' as _Hoang_-ho, _Whang_-Hai. HOLM (Scand., &c.), 'an island in a lake or river,' 'a plain near a river;' as Stock_holm_, Flat_holm_, Lang_holm_. HOLT (Teut.), 'a wood;' as Bags_hot_, Alders_hot_, _Hol_stein. [See _Holt_ in Dict.] HORN (Teut.), 'a peak;' as Schreck_horn_, Matter_horn_. HURST (A.S. _hyrst_), 'a wood;' as Lynd_hurst_. ING (A.S.), a suffix denoting _son_, in pl. 'a family' or 'tribe;' as Warr_ing_ton ('the town of the Warrings'), Hadd_ing_ton. [See _-ing_ in list of suffixes.] INNIS or ENNIS (Celt.), INCH in Scotland, an island; as _Inch_colm ('the island of St Columba'); _Ennis_killen, _Ennis_more, _Innis_fallen, in Ireland. INVER (Gael.), 'the mouth of a river;' as _Inver_ness, _Inver_aray, _Inner_leithen. This is supposed to be the Gaelic form (_inbhir_) corresponding to the Brythonic _aber-_; and it is at any rate certain that in Wales there are scores of _abers-_, but of _invers-_ not a solitary one; while on the west coast of Scotland and north of Inverness _aber-_ barely exists. KALAT, KALAH (Ar.), 'a castle;' as _Khelat_, _Cala_horrah. KARA (Turk.), 'black;' as _Kara_kum ('black sand'), _Kara_ Hissar ('black castle'). KENN (Gael.), KIN (Ir.), 'a head;' as _Ken_more, _Can_tire, _Kinn_aird, _Kin_ross, _Kin_sale, _Ken_t. _Kin_ or _Cin_, older _cind_, is really a survival of the old dative or locative of Gael. _ceann_ (W. _penn_), 'head,' 'promontory,' as in _Kin_aldie, _Kin_buck, _Kin_glassie, _Kin_loch, _Kin_gussie, _Kin_noul. See Ceann. KIL (Gael. _cill_, really a survival of the old dative of _ceall_, a hermit's cell--L. _cella_, then a church, esp. a parish church--the proper form is seen in Lochnan-_ceal_, 'loch of the churches,' in Mull); as _Kil_bride, _Kil_chattan, _Kil_donan, _Kil_marnock; Icolm_kill_, 'the island (_I_) of Columba of the church.' KIL (Gael. _coil_), 'a wood,' 'a corner;' as in _Kil_drummy, _Kil_ham. KIRJATH (Heb.), GADR (Phoenician), 'an enclosure,' 'a fortified place;' as _Kirjath_-Arba, _Car_thage, _Cad_es or _Cad_iz. KIRK (North Eng. and Scand.), KIRCHE (Ger.); as Sel_kirk_, _Kirk_wall, _Kirk_cudbright, _Kirch_heim, Fünf_kirchen_. [See _Church_ in Dict.] KIZIL (Turk.), 'red.' KNOCK. See Cnoc. LAX (Scand.; Ger. _lachs_), 'a salmon'; as Loch _Lax_ford in Sutherland; the _Lax_ay in the Hebrides and in Man; _Lax_weir on the Shannon. LEAMHAN (Ir. and Gael.; pron. _lavawn_), 'the elm-tree;' as in _Leven_, _Lennox_, _Laune_. LEA, LEE, LEY (A.S. _leáh_), 'a meadow;' Had_leigh_, Water_loo_. LINN (Celt.), 'a waterfall;' as _Lynn_ Regis in Norfolk; Ros_lin_, 'the promontory (_ross_) at the fall;' _Lin_lithgow, _Lin_ton. LIS (Celt.), 'an enclosure,' 'a fort,' 'a garden;' as _Lis_more ('the great enclosure' or 'garden'). LLAN (W.), 'an enclosure,' 'a church;' as _Llan_daff ('the church on the Taff'). LLANO (Sp.), 'a plain.' LOCH, LOUGH (Gael.), 'a lake.' LOW and LAW (A.S. _hláw_, _hlæw_),'a rising ground;' as Houns_low_, Lud_low_, and numerous _laws_ in Scotland. [Cog. with Goth. _hlaiw_, a mound, and perh. allied to L. _clivus_, a slope.] MAGH (Celt.), 'a plain;' as Ar_magh_, _May_nooth. MARK (Teut.), 'a boundary;' Den_mark_, _Merc_ia, _Murc_ia. MARKT (Ger.), 'a market;' as Bibert_markt_. MEDINA (Ar.), 'city;' as _Medina_, _Medina_-Sidonia. MERE, MOOR (A.S.), 'a lake' or 'marsh;' as _Mer_sey, Black_more_. MINSTER (A.S.), MÜNSTER (Ger.), 'a monastic foundation;' as West_minster_, Neu_münster_. MOR (Celt.), 'great;' Ben_more_ ('great mountain'). MOR (Celt.), 'the sea;' as _Mor_ay, Ar_mor_ica, _Mor_laix, Gla_mor_gan, _Mor_bihan. MULL (Gael.), 'a headland;' as _Mull_ of Galloway. NAGY (Hungarian), 'great;' as _Nagy_-Koros, _Nagy_-Karoly. NANT (Celt.), 'a brook,' 'valley;' as _Nant_wich, _Nant_glyn. NESS or NAZE (Scand.; see Dict.), 'a nose' or 'promontory;' as Caith_ness_, Sheer_ness_, Cape Gris_nez_; the _Naze_. OCHTER. See Auchter. OË. See Ea. OLD, ELD, ALT (Teut.), 'old;' as _Alt_horp, _Elt_on, _Elt_ham, _Ald_bury, _A_bury. [See _Old_ in Dict.] PATAM (Sans.), 'a city;' Seringa_patam_, _Patna_. PEAK, PIKE (Celt., conn. with Ger. _spitz_, Fr. _pic_ and _puy_) 'point;' as the _Peak_, the _Pikes_ in Cumberland, _Spitz_bergen, _Pic_ du Midi, _Puy_ de Dôme. PEEL (Celt.), 'a stronghold;' as _Peel_ in Man, and numerous _peels_ on the Border of Scotland. PEN. See Ben. POLIS (Gr.), 'a city;' as Greno_ble_, Na_blous_, Na_ples_, Sebasto_pol_. PONT (L.), 'a bridge;' as _Pont_efract, Negro_pont_. POOR, PORE, PUR (Sans. _pura_), 'a town;' as Nag_pur_, Cawn_pore_, Singa_pore_. PORT (L. _portus_), 'a harbour;' as _Port_patrick, South_port_. RAS (Ar.), 'a cape;' as _Ras_-al-had. RATH (Ir.), 'a round earthen fort;' as _Rath_more, _Rath_beg, _Rath_o, _Ratt_ray. RHE, REA, RI, a root found in many languages, as L. _rivus_, a stream, Sans. _r[=i]na_, flowing, A.S. _ríth_, a stream, Sp. and Port. _rio_, a river, meaning 'to flow;' as _Rh_ine, _Rh_one, _Rh_a, _Re___no, _Rye_, _Ray_, _Rhee_, _Wrey_, _Roe_, _Rae_; _Rio_ de Janeiro, _Rio_-Negro. RIDGE, in Scotland RIGG (A.S. _hrycg_, Ger. _rücken_), 'a back;' as _Rei_gate, _Ruge_ley, Long_ridge_. RIN (Celt.), 'a point of land;' _Rhinns_ of Galloway; Pen_rhyn_ in Wales, _Ring_send near Dublin. ROS, ROSS (Celt.), 'a promontory;' Kin_ross_, _Ros_neath, _Rose_hearty, _Ross_dhu, _Ros_lin; in S. Ireland, a wood, as _Ros_common, _Ross_keen. The _-ros_ in Melrose is more probably the equivalent of Cornish _ros_, a moor; thus Melrose=the Celt. _maol-ros_, 'bare moor.' SALZ (Ger.), 'salt;' as _Salz_burg. SCALE (Scand.), 'a hut' (Scot. _shieling_; Ice. _skali_); Portin_scale_, and possibly _Shields_, Gala_shiels_, _Sel_kirk. SCAR (Scand.), 'a cliff;' _Scar_borough, the _Skerries_. SCHLOSS (Ger.), 'a castle;' as Marien_schloss_. SERAI (Turk.), 'a palace;' as Bosna-_serai_ or _Serai_ëvo. SET (A.S.), 'a seat,' 'a settlement;' Dor_set_, Somer_set_, Amble_side_, _Seid_litz. SEX, 'Saxons;' as Es_sex_ ('East Saxons'), Sus_sex_ ('South Saxons'). SIERRA (Sp.--L. _serra_), 'a saw;' or from Ar. _sehrah_, 'an uncultivated tract.' SLIEVH (Ir.; allied to L. _clivus_, a slope), 'a mountain;' as _Slievh_ Beg. SOUTH, found in _Suf_folk, _Sus_sex, _South_ampton, _Suther_land, _Sut_ton, _Sud_bury, _Sud_ley. STADT. See Stead. STAN (Per.), 'a land;' Hindu_stan_. Afghani_stan_. STAPLE (A.S.), 'a store;' Dun_stable_, Barn_staple_. STEAD (A.S.), STADT (Ger.), 'a town;' as Hamp_stead_, Neu_stadt_, Ny_sted_. STER (Scand. _stadhr_), 'a place;' as Ul_ster_. STOC, STOKE, and STOW (A.S.), 'a stockaded place;' as Bri_stow_ or Bri_stol_, Tavi_stock_, _Stock_holm, _Stow_. STONE (A.S.), STEIN (Ger.), 'a stone,' 'a rock;' as _Stan_ton, _Staines_, Eddy_stone_, _Stennis_, Franken_stein_. STRATH (Gael.), 'a broad valley;' as _Strath_more, _Strath_blane, _Strath_earn. STREET (L. _stratum_), 'a Roman road;' as _Strat_ford, _Stratt_on, _Streat_ham. [See _Street_ in Dict.] SU (Turk.), 'water;' as Kara_su_. TAIN (Gael.), 'a river;' as the _Tyne_, prob. a form of _Don_. TAM (Celt.), 'still,' 'smooth;' as the _Tham_esis ('smooth Isis'), the _Tema_, _Tame_, _Tamar_, _Tay_. THING (Scand.), 'a legislative assembly,' also 'the place where it is held;' as in _Ding_wall, _Tin_wald, _Tyn_wald Hill, _Tain_. THORPE (Norse), DORF (Ger.), DORP (Dut.), 'a village;' as Burnham-_Thorpe_, Hey_thorpe_, Düssel_dorf_, Middle_dorp_. THWAITE (Scand.), 'a clearing;' as Cross_thwaite_. TOBAR (Gael.), 'a fountain;' as _Tober_mory. TOFT (Dan.), 'an enclosure;' as Lowes_toft_, Ive_tot_. TON (A.S.), 'enclosure,' 'town;' the most common of English local suffixes. TOR (Celt.), 'a tower-like rock;' as _Tor_bay, _Tor_phichen, _Turr_iff, _Tor_bolton, Kin_tore_, _Torr_idon. [From L. _turris_, 'a tower,' and its derivatives are _Torres_-Novas and _Torres_-Vedras in Portugal, _Trux_illo in Spain, _Tour_coing in France.] TRE (W.), 'a dwelling;' as _Tre_town, Coven_try_ ('convent dwelling'), Oswes_try_, Uchil_tre_. UCHEL (W.), 'high;' UACHTER (Gael.), 'a height;' as the _Ochil_ Hills, _Ochil_tree, _Auchter_arder. VAR, VARAD (Hungarian), 'a fortress;' as Nagy_varad_. VAROS (Hungarian), 'a town;' as Uj_varos_. VILLE (Fr.,--L. _villa_), VILLA (It., Sp., Port.), WELL (Eng.), 'an abode;' as Tanker_ville_, Yeo_vil_, Potts_ville_, Kettle_well_, Brad_well_, Max_well_town. WADY (Ar.), 'a river-course,' 'a river.' See Guad. WALL, found in many names of places on the Roman wall from Newcastle to Carlisle; as _Wall_send, _Wall_head. WEALD, WOLD (Ger. wald), 'a wood;' _Walt_ham, _Wald_en, the Cots_wolds_; Schwarz_wald_ ('Black Forest'). WHANG. See Hoang. WICK, WICH (A.S. _wíc_), 'a village;' as in Ber_wick_, War_wick_, Green_wich_, Sand_wich_. WICK (Scand., Ice. _vík_, 'a creek'); as _Wick_ in Caithness. WORTH (A.S.), 'a farm' or 'estate;' as Tam_worth_, Kenil_worth_, Bos_worth_, _Worth_ing, Pol_warth_, Jed_burgh_=Jed_ward_. WY or GWY (W.), 'water;' as the _Wye_; used as affix to many streams, as Con_way_, Med_way_. * * * * * LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS, TOGETHER WITH SIGNS AND SYMBOLS USED IN MEDICINE AND MUSIC. A. Amateur; Academician. A. Accepted; acre; active; afternoon; _annus_, year; _ante_, before. [=A] or [=A][=A], in prescriptions, of each a like quantity. A. or ANS. Answer. A1. First-class (of ships). A.A.C., _anno ante Christum_=In the year before Christ. A.A.Q.M.G. Acting Assistant Quartermaster-general. A.A.S., _Americanæ Antiquarianæ Societatis Socius_, Fellow of the American Academy. A.B. Able-bodied seaman. A.B., _Artium Baccalaureus_=Bachelor of Arts. ABB. Abbess; Abbot; Abbey. ABBR. or ABBREV. Abbreviated, or Abbreviation. ABD. Abdicated. A.B.F.M. American Board of Foreign Missions. AB INIT., _ab initio_=From the beginning. ABL. Ablative. ABP. Archbishop. ABR. Abridged; Abridgment. A.B.S. American Bible Society. ABS., ABSOL. Absolutely. ABS., ABSTR. Abstract. ABS RE., _absente reo_, the defendant being absent. A.C., _ante Christum_=Before Christ. ACC. Accusative. ACC., ACCT. Account (also A/C); Accountant. A.C.P. Associate of the College of Preceptors. A.D., _anno Domini_=In the year of our Lord. A.D. After date; _ante diem_, before the day. AD. Advertisement. A.D.C. Aide-de-camp. AD FIN., _ad finem_=At or to the end. AD H.L., _ad hunc locum_=At this place. AD INF., _ad infinitum_=To infinity. AD INIT., _ad initium_=At or to the beginning. AD INT., _ad interim_=In the meantime. ADJ. Adjective. ADJT. Adjutant;--ADJT.-GEN., Adjutant-general. AD LIB., _ad libitum_=At pleasure. AD LOC., _ad locum_=At the place. ADM. Admiral. ADOLPH. Adolphus. ADV. Advent; Advocate. ADV. Adverb; _adversus_=Against. AD VAL., _ad valorem_=According to value. ADVT. Advertisement. Æ., ÆT., _ætatis_=Aged (so many years). A.F.A. Associate of the Faculty of Actuaries. A.F.B.S. American and Foreign Bible Society. AFF. Affectionate; Affirmative. A.G. Adjutant-general. AG., _argentum_=Silver. AGR., AGRIC. Agriculture. AGT. Agent. A.H., _anno Hegiræ_=In the year of Hegira--i.e. from the flight of Mohammed (622 A.D., 13th Sept.). A.H.L., _ad hunc locum_=At this place. A.H.V., _ad hunc vocem_=At this word. A.H.S., _Anno humanæ salutis_=In the year of human salvation. A.I.A. Associate of the Institute of Actuaries. A.I.C.E. Associate of the Institute of Civil Engineers. A.K.C. Associate of King's College, London. AL., ALA. Alabama. ALBAN. Of St Albans. ALD. Alderman. ALEX. Alexander. ALF. Alfred. ALG. Algebra. ALGY. Algernon. ALT. Alternate; Altitude; Alto. A.M., _Artium Magister_=Master of Arts; _Ante meridiem_=Before noon; _Anno mundi_=In the year of the world; _Annus mirabilis_=The wonderful year (1666); _Ave Maria_=Hail Mary. AM., AMER. America or American. A.M.A. American Missionary Association. AMT. Amount. AN., _anno_=In the year; anonymous; answer; _ante_=before. ANAL. Analysis; Analogy. ANAT. Anatomy or Anatomical. ANC. Ancient, Anciently. AND. Andrew. ANG., _Anglicé_=In English. ANG.-SAX. Anglo-Saxon. ANON. Anonymous. ANS. Answer. ANT., ANTIQ. Antiquities. A.O.F. Ancient Order of Foresters. AOR. Aorist. AP., APL., APR. April. A.P.D. Army Pay Department. APO. Apogee. APOC. Apocalypse; Apocrypha, Apocryphal. APP. Appendix; Apprentice. A.P.R.C., _Anno post Romam conditam_=In the year after the building of Rome (753 B.C.). AQ., _aqua_=Water. A.R., _anno regni_=In the year of the reign. AR., ARAB. Arabic. AR., ARR. Arrive or Arrives, Arrival. A.R.A. Associate of the Royal Academy. ARBOR. Arboriculture. ARCH. Archibald. ARCH. Archaic. ARCHÆOL. Archæology. ARCH., ARCHIT. Architecture. ARCHD. Archdeacon; Archibald. ARG., _argentum_=Silver. A.R.H.A. Associate of the Royal Hibernian Academy. ARITH. Arithmetic or Arithmetical. ARK. Arkansas. ARM. Armenian; Armoric. A.R.R., _anno regni regis_ or _reginæ_= In the year of the king's or queen's reign. A.R.S.A. Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy; Associate of the Royal Society of Arts. A.R.S.L. Associate of the Royal Society of Literature. A.R.S.M. Associate of the Royal School of Mines. A.R.S.S., _Antiquariorum Regiæ Societatis Socius_=Fellow of the Royal Society of Antiquaries. ART. Article; Artillery. A.S. Anglo-Saxon; _Anno salutis_=In the year of salvation; Assistant Secretary. ASAPH. Of St Asaph. A.S.E. Amalgamated Society of Engineers. ASS., ASSOC. Association. ASST. Assistant. ASTR., ASTRON. Astronomer; Astronomy. ASTROL. Astrology. ATS. At suit of. ATT., ATTY. Attorney. ATT.-GEN. Attorney-general. AT. WT. Atomic weight. AU (L. _aurum_), gold. A.U.C., _anno urbis conditæ_, or _ab urbe conditâ_=In the year from the building of the city--Rome (753 B.C.). AUG. August. AUG. Augmentative. AUTH. VER. Authorised Version. A.V. Authorised Version; Artillery Volunteers; _Annos vixit_=Lived [so many] years. AV. Avenue; Average. AVE. Avenue. AVOIR., AVDP. Avoirdupois. AX. Axiom. B. born. B., BK. Book. B., BRIT. British. B.A., _Baccalaureus Artium_=Bachelor of Arts; British America; British Association. BACH. Bachelor. B. & F.B.S. British and Foreign Bible Society. BAL. Balance. BAP., BAPT. Baptist. BAP., BAPT. Baptised. BAR. Barometer; Barrel. BAR. Barrister. BART., BT. Baronet. BAT., BATT. Battalion; Battery. B.B.C. Baseball Club. BBL. Barrel. B.C. Before Christ; Board of Control; British Columbia. B.C.L. Bachelor of Civil Law. B.D. Bachelor of Divinity. BD. Bound. BDS. Boards. B.E. Bill of exchange. BEDS. Bedfordshire. BEF. Before. BELG. Belgian, Belgic. BEN., BENJ. Benjamin. BERKS. Berkshire. B. ÈS L., _Bachelier ès Lettres_ (Fr.)=Bachelor of Letters. BET. Between. BIB. Bible. BIBL. Bibliotheca. BIBLIOG. Bibliographer, Bibliography. BIOG. Biographer, Biography. BIOL. Biology, Biological. BIS. Bissextile. BK. Book; Bank; Bark. BKG. Banking. BKT. Basket. B.L. Bachelor of Laws. BL. Barrel; Bale. B.L. Bill of lading. BLDG. Building. B.M. Bachelor of Medicine; _Beatæ Memoriæ_=Of blessed memory; British Museum. B.MUS. Bachelor of Music. BN. Baron. BN. Battalion. B.O. Branch Office; Buyer's Option. B.O.A. British Optical Association. B.O.A.F.G. British Order of Ancient Free Gardeners. BOH. Bohemia, Bohemian. BOL. Bolivia. BOMB.C.S. Bombay Civil Service. BOMB.S.C. Bombay Staff Corps. BOR. Borough. BOT. Botany, Botanical. BOUL. Boulevard. BP. Bishop. B.P. Bill of parcels; Bills payable; Birthplace (also BPL.); _Bonum publicum_=The public good. B.P. British Pharmacopoea. B.Q., _Bene quiescat_--May he (or she) rest well. BQUE. Barque. BR. or BRO. Brother. BR. Brig. BR. AM. British America. BRAZ. Brazil; Brazilian. B.REC. Bills receivable. BRET. Breton. BREV. Brevet, Brevetted. BRIG. Brigade, Brigadier;--BRIG.-GEN., Brigadier-general. BRIT. Britain; Britannia; British; Briton. BRO. Brother;--BROS., Brothers. B.S. Bill of sale. B.S.C. Bengal Staff Corps. B.SC. See SC.B. B.S.L. Botanical Society of London. BT. Baronet. BU., BUS. Bushel, Bushels. BUCKS. Buckinghamshire. BULG. Bulgaria; Bulgarian. BURL. Burlesque. BUSH. Bushel. B.V., _Beata Virgo_=Blessed Virgin; also _Bene vale_=Farewell. B.V.M. The Blessed Virgin Mary. B.W.T.A. British Women's Temperance Association. B. & S. Brandy and soda-water. C. Centigrade; Catholic; Consul; Court; Congress; Church; Chancellor; Conservative. C., CAP., _caput_=Chapter. C. Centime. C., CT., CENT., _centum_=A hundred. C.A. Chartered Accountant; Chief Accountant; Commercial Agent; Confederate Army. CA. Calcium. CA. Cases; Centare; _circa_=About. CA., CAL. California. CAM., CAMB. Cambridge. CAN. Canon; Canto. CANT. Canterbury; Canticles. CANTAB., _Cantabrigiensis_=Of Cambridge. CANTUAR., _Cantuaria_=Canterbury; _Cantuariensis_=Of Canterbury. CAP., _caput_=Capital; Chapter;--_Capitulum_=Head; _Capiat_=Let him (or her) take. CAP., CAPT. Captain. CAPS. Capitals. CAR. Carat. CAR., _Carolus_=Charles. CARD. Cardinal. CARP. Carpentry. CASH. Cashier. CAT. Catechism; Catalogue. CATH. Catherine; Catholic. CAV. Cavalry. C.B. Companion of the [Most Honourable Order of the] Bath; Confined to barracks. C.B.S. Confraternity of the Blessed Sacrament. C.C. Caius College; Circuit Court; County Council; County Clerk; Cricket Club; Catholic Clergyman. CC. Chapters. C.C.C. Corpus Christi College; Christ's College, Cambridge. C.C.C.S. Colonial and Continental Church Society. C.D. ACTS. The Contagious Diseases Acts. C.D.S.O. Companion of the Distinguished Service Order. C.D.V. Carte-de-visite. C.E. Civil Engineer; Canada East. CEL. Celsius (scale of--i.e. Centigrade). CEL. Celebrated. CELT. Celtic. CEN. Central; Century. CENT., _centum_=A hundred. CENTIG. Centigrade. CERT., CERTIF. Certificate; Certify. CESTR., _Cestrensis_=Of Chester. CET. PAR., _ceteris paribus_=Other things being equal. CF., _confer_=Compare; Calf. C. F. & I. Cost, freight, and insurance. CG. Centigram. C.G. Captain-general; Captain of the Guard; Coast-guard; Commissary-general; Consul-general. C.G.H. Cape of Good Hope. C.G.S. Centimetre, Gramme, Second--the units of length, mass, and time. C.H. Custom-house; Court-house. CH. Charles; Chief; China; Church. CH. Chaldron; Chapter; Child. CHAL. Chaldron. CHAL., CHALD. Chaldee, Chaldaic. CHAMB. Chamberlain. CHANC. Chancellor. CHAP. Chaplain; Chapter. CHAS. Charles. CH.C., CH.CH. Christ Church. CH. CLK. Chief Clerk. CHEM. Chemistry; Chemical. CH. HIST. Church History. CHIN. China, Chinese. CH.J. Chief-justice. CHR. Christ; Christian; Christopher. CHRON. Chronicles; Chronology. C.I. [Imperial Order of the] Crown of India (for ladies). CIC. Cicero. CICESTR., _Cicestrensis_=Of Chichester. C.I.E. Companion of the [Most Eminent Order of the] Indian Empire. CIR., CIRC., _circa_, _circiter_, _circum_=About. CIT. Citation; Citizen. CIV. Civil; Civilian. C.J. Chief-justice. CL. Clergyman; Chlorine; Claudius. CLASS. Classical; Classification. CLK. Clerk. C.L.S.C. Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle. C.M. Certificated Master; Corresponding Member; Common Metre; _Chirurgiæ Magister_=Master in Surgery. CM. Centimetres. C.M., _causa mortis_=By reason of death. C.M.G. Companion of the [Most Distinguished] Order of St Michael and St George. C.M.S. Church Missionary Society. C.O. Colonial Office; Commanding Officer; Crown Office; Criminal Office. CO. Cobalt; Company; County. C/O. Care of. COAD. Coadjutor. COCH., COCHL., _cochlear_=a spoon, spoonful;--COCH. AMP., _cochlear amplum_=a tablespoonful;--COCH. MAG., _cochlear magnum_=a large spoonful;--COCH. MED., _cochlear medium_=a dessert-spoonful;--COCH. PARV., _cochlear parvum_=a teaspoonful. COD. Codex. C.O.D. Cash (or collect) on delivery. COG. Cognate. COL. Colonel; Column; Colossians. COLL. College; Colleague; Collector; Colloquial. COLLAT. Collateral. COLLECT. Collective. COLLOQ. Colloquially. COM. Commander; Commodore; Committee; Commissioner; Commonwealth. COM. Common; Comedy; Commerce; Commune. COMM. Commentary; Commander. COMMISSR. Commissioner;--COMMY., Commissary. COMMN. Commission. COMP. Comparative; Compositor; Compare; Compound or Compounded. COMPAR. Comparative; Comparison. COM. VER. Common Version. CON. Consul. CON., _contra_=Against; _conjux_=Consort: Conclusion; Conversation. CONG. Congress; Congregation. CONJ. Conjunction. CONN. or CT. Connecticut. CONS. Consonant. CON. SEC. Conic Sections. CONSOLS. Consolidated Funds. CONTR. Contracted; Contraction. CONTR. BON. MOR., _contra bonos mores_=Contrary to good manners. COP., COPT. Coptic. COR. Corinthians; Coroner. COR. MEM. Corresponding Member. CORN. Cornish; Cornwall. CORR. Corrupted; Corruption. COR. SEC. Corresponding Secretary. C.O.S. Charity Organisation Society. COS. Cosine. COSMOG. Cosmography. COSS., _consules_=Consuls. COT. Cotangent. CP. Compare. C.P. Clerk of the Peace; Common Pleas: Carriage Paid. C.P.C. Clerk of the Privy Council. C.P.S., _Custos Privati Sigilli_=Keeper of the Privy Seal. C.R., _Carolus rex_=King Charles; _Civis Romanus_=a Roman citizen; _Custos Rotulorum_=Keeper of the Rolls. CR. Credit; Creditor; Crown. CRANIOL. Craniology. CRES. Crescendo. CRIM. CON. Criminal conversation, or adultery. C.S. Court of Session; Clerk to the Signet; Civil Service; Chemical Society. C.S.A. Confederate States of America. C.S.I. Companion of the [Most Exalted Order of the] Star of India. C.T. Certificated Teacher; Commercial Traveller. CT. Cent. C.T.C. Cyclists' Touring Club. CU., _cuprum_=Copper. CU., CUB. Cubic. CUR., CURT. Current--this month. C.V. Common Version. C.V.O. Commander of the Royal Victorian Order. C.W. Canada West. C.W.O. Cash with order. CWT. A hundredweight--c for _centum_, a hundred, and _wt_ for weight. CYC., CYCLO. Cyclopædia. CYM. Cymric. D., _dele_=Delete; Dead or Died; Deserted; Degree; _Denarius_ or _denarii_=A penny or pence; Duke. DAN. Daniel; Danish. DAT. Dative. DAU. Daughter. DAV. David. D.C., _Da Capo_ (It.)=Repeat from the beginning; District of Columbia. D.C.L. Doctor of Civil Law. D.C.S. Deputy Clerk of Session. D.D., _Divinitatis Doctor_=Doctor of Divinity. D.D., _Deo dedit_=Gave to God. D.D.D., _dat, dicat, dedicat_=He gives, devotes, and dedicates; _Dono dedit dedicavit_=He gave and dedicated as a gift. DEA. Deacon. DEC. December. DEC. Declaration; Declension. DECID. Deciduous. DECL. Declension. DEF. Defendant; Definition. DEFT. Defendant. DEG. Degree, Degrees. DEL. Delaware; Delegate. DEL., DELT., _delineavit_='He drew it,' put after the draftsman's name on an engraving. DEMON. Demonstrative. DENT. Dental, Dentist, Dentistry. DEP. Department (also DEPT.); Deputy. DEP. Deposed. DER. Derivation. DEUT. Deuteronomy. D.F. Defender of the Faith; Dean of the Faculty. DFT. Defendant; Draft. D.G., _Dei gratiâ_=By the grace of God. D.H., _das heisst_ (Ger.). That is. DIAL. Dialect. DIAM. Diameter. DICT. Dictator; Dictionary. DIR. Director. DISC. Discount; Discoverer. DISS. Dissertation. DIST. Distance; Distinguish. DIV. Divide; Divine. D.L. Deputy Lieutenant. D.LIT. or LITT. Doctor of Literature. D.L.O. Dead-letter Office. DO., _ditto_=The same. DOLS. Dollars. D.O.M., _Deo optimo maximo_=To God, best and greatest. DOM. Dominion. DOM. Domestic. DOR. Doric. DOZ. Dozen. D.P.H. Department of Public Health. D.P.O. Distributing Post-office. DPT. Department. DR. Debtor; Doctor. DR. Dram; Drawer. D.SC. See SC.D. D.S.O. Distinguished Service Order; District Staff Officer. D.S.P., _decessit sine prole_=Died without issue. D.T. Doctor of Theology. D.T. Delirium tremens. DUNELM., _Dunelmensis_=Of Durham. D.V., _Deo volente_=God willing, If God will. D.V.P., _decessit vita patris_=Died in his father's life-time. DWT. Pennyweight--_d_ for _denarius_, penny, and _wt_ for weight. E. East; English. EA. Each. EBEN. Ebenezer. EBOR., _Eboracum_=York; _Eboracensis_=Of York. E.C. Eastern Central; Established Church. ECCL., ECCLES. Ecclesiastes, Ecclesiastical;--Ecclesiol., Ecclesiology. E.C.U. English Church Union. ED. Editor. ED., edit. Edited; Edition. ED., Edw. Edward. EDENBURGEN., _Edenburgensis_=Of Edinburgh. ED., EDIN. Edinburgh. E.D.S. English Dialect Society. E.E. Errors excepted. E.E.T.S. Early English Text Society. E.G., EX. GR., _exempli gratiâ_=For example. E.I. East Indies;--E.I.C.S., East India Company's Service. EJUSD., _ejusdem_=Of the same. ELIS., ELIZ. Elizabeth. ELZ. Elzevir. EMP. Emperor; Empress. ENCY., ENCYC. Encyclopædia. E.N.E. East-north-east. ENG. Engineer; Engraver; Engraving. ENS. Ensign. ENT., ENTOM. Entomology. ENT. STA. HALL Entered at Stationers' Hall. ENV. EXT. Envoy Extraordinary. E.O.D. Every other day. EP. Epistle. EPH. Ephesians. EPIPH. Epiphany. EPIS., EPISC. Episcopal. EPIT. Epitaph; Epitome. EQ. Equal; Equivalent. E.S.E. East-south-east. ESP., ESPEC. Especially. ESQ., ESQR. Esquire. EST. Established. ET AL., _et alibi_=And elsewhere; or _et alii_ or _alia_=And others. ETC., &C., _et ceteri_ or _cetera_=And others, and so forth. ET SEQ., SQ., or SQQ., _et sequentes_ or _sequentia_=And the following. ETY., ETYM. Etymology. E.U. Evangelical Union. EUPH. Euphemia. EUR. Europe; European. EX. Examined; Example; Exception; Excursus; Executive; Export. EX., EXOD. Exodus. EXC. Excellency. EXC. Except; Exception. EX DIV., _extra dividendum_=Without dividend. EX. G., EX. GR. _exempli gratiâ_=For the sake of example. EXON., _Exonia_=Exeter; _Exoniensis_=Of Exeter. EXP. Export. EXR. Executor. EZ. Ezra. EZEK. Ezekiel. E. & O.E. Errors and Omissions Excepted. F. Following; Farthing; Feminine; Fathom; Foot; Forte. F., FAHR. Fahrenheit. FAM. Familiar; Family. F.A.M. Free and Accepted Masons. F.A.S. Fellow of the Society of Arts; Fellow of the Antiquarian Society. F.B. Fenian Brotherhood. F.B.S. Fellow of the Botanical Society;--F.B.S.E., Fellow of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh. F.C.I.S. Fellow of the Chartered Institute of Secretaries. F.C.P. Fellow of the College of Preceptors. FCP., FCAP. Foolscap. F.C.S. Fellow of the Chemical Society. F.D., _Fidei Defensor_=Defender of the Faith. FEB. February. FEC., _fecit_=He did it. F.E.I.S. Fellow of the Educational Institute of Scotland. FEM. Feminine. F.E.S. Fellow of the Ethnological or of the Entomological Society. FEUD. Feudal. FF. The Pandects, prob. by corr. of Greek [Greek: P]. FF., _fecerunt_=They did it or made it; Folios. F.F.A. Fellow of the Faculty of Actuaries. F.F.P.S. Fellow of the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons (Glasgow). F.G.S. Fellow of the Geological Society. F.I.A. Fellow of the Institute of Actuaries. FICT. Fiction. FI. FA., _fieri facias_=That you cause to be made (a writ of execution). FIG. Figure, Figuratively. FIN., _ad finem_=At the end. F.K.Q.C.P.I. Fellow of the King's and Queen's College of Physicians in Ireland. FL., _floruit_=Flourished; Florin. FLOR., FLA., FA. Florida. F.L.S. Fellow of the Linnæan Society. F.M. Field-marshal. FM. Fathom. F.O. Field-officer; Foreign Office; Full Organ. FO., FOL. Folio. F.O.B. Free on board. F.P. Fire-plug. F.P.S. Fellow of the Philological Society. FR. France, French; Friar; Friday. FR. Fragment; Franc; Frequently;--FRCS., Francs. F.R.A.S. Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society; Fellow of the Royal Asiatic Society. F.R.C.P. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians. F.R.C.P.E. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. F.R.C.S. Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons. F.R.C.S.E. Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh. F.R.C.S.I. Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of Ireland. F.R.C.S.L. Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of London. FRED. Frederick. F.R.G.S. Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society. F.R.H.S. Fellow of the Royal Horticultural Society. F.R.I.B.A. Fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects. F.R.MET.S. Fellow of the Royal Meteorological Society. F.R.S. Fellow of the Royal Society. P.R.S.E. Fellow of the Royal Society, Edinburgh. F.R.S.G.S. Fellow of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society. F.R.S.L. Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature. F.R.S.S.A. Fellow of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts. F.S.A. Fellow of the Society of Arts; Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. F.S.A.SCOT. Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. F.S.S. Fellow of the Statistical Society. FT. Foot, Feet; Fort. F.T.C.D. Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. FTH., FTHM. Fathom. FUR. Furlong. FUT. Future. F.W.B. Free-will Baptist. FZ. Forzando or Forzato. F.Z.S. Fellow of the Zoological Society. G. Genitive; Gramme. G.A. General Assembly. GA., GEO. Georgia. GAEL. Gaelic. GAL. Galatians. GAL. Gallon;--GALL., gallons. GAM. Gamut. GAZ. Gazette. G.B. Great Britain;--G.B. AND I., Great Britain and Ireland. G.C.B. [Knight] Grand Cross of the [Most Honourable Order of the] Bath. G.C.H. [Knight] Grand Cross of Hanover. G.C.I.E. [Knight] Grand Commander [of the Most Eminent Order] of the Indian Empire. G.C.L.H. Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour. G.C.M. Greatest common measure. G.C.M.G. [Knight] Grand Cross of [the Most Distinguished Order of] St Michael and St George. G.C.S.I. [Knight] Grand Commander of the [Most Exalted Order of the] Star of India. G.C.V.O. [Knight] Grand Cross of the [Royal] Victorian Order. GEN. General; Genesis. GEN., GENL. General. GEN. Gender; Genitive; Genus. GENT. Gentleman, Gentlemen. GEO. George. GEOG. Geography. GEOL. Geology. GEOM. Geometry. GER. Gerund. G.F.S. Girls' Friendly Society. GK. or GR. Greek. GM. Gramme. G.M.T. Greenwich Mean Time. G.O. General Order; Grand Organ. G.O.M. Grand Old Man (W. E. Gladstone). GOV. Government, Governor. G.P. General Practitioner; Grateful Patient; _Gloria patri_=Glory to the Father. G.P.O. General Post-office. GR. Grain; Grammar; Gross. GS. Guineas. G.S.P. Good Service Pension. GU. Guinea; Gules. GUIN. Guinea. H., HR. Hour. HAB. Habakkuk. HAB. Habitat. HAG. Haggai. HANTS. Hampshire. HAR. Harold. H.B.M. His (or Her) Britannic Majesty. H.C. Heralds' College; House of Commons; Holy Communion. H.C.M. His (or Her) Catholic Majesty. H.E., _hic est_=This is; _hoc est_=That is. HEB. Hebrews. H.E.I.C.S. Honourable East India Company's Service. HER. Heraldry; _Heres_=Heir. HF. Half;--HF.-BD., half-bound;--HF.-CF., half-calf. H.G. Horse Guards; His Grace. H.H. His (or Her) Highness. HHD. Hogshead. H.I.H. His (or Her) Imperial Highness. HIST. Historian, History. H.J., _hic jacet_=Here lies;--H.J.S., _hic jacet sepultus_=Here lies buried. H.K. House of Keys (Isle of Man). H.M. His (or Her) Majesty. H.M.C. His (or Her) Majesty's Customs. H.M.I.S. His (or Her) Majesty's Inspector of Schools. H.M.P., _hoc monumentum posuit_=Erected this monument. H.M.S. His (or Her) Majesty's Ship or Service. HO. House. HON. Honourable, Honorary. HOR. Horizon; Horology. HORT., HORTIC. Horticulture, Horticultural. HOS. Hosea. H.P. High-priest; Half-pay. H.P. Horse-power. H.R. House of Representatives; Home Rule. HR. Hour. H.R.E. Holy Roman Emperor or Empire. H.R.H. His (or Her) Royal Highness. H.R.I.P., _hic requiescit in pace_=Here rests in peace. H.S., _hic situs_=Here lies;--H.S.E., _hic sepultus_ (or _situs_) _est_=Here is buried (or laid). H.S.H. His (or Her) Serene Highness. H.S.S., _Historiæ Societatis Socius_=Fellow of the Historical Society. HY. Henry. IA. Iowa. IA., IND. Indiana. IB., IBID., _ibidem_=In the same place. I.C.E. Institute of Civil Engineers. ICH., ICHTH. Ichthyology. ICON. Iconography, Iconographic. I.C.S. Indian Civil Service. ID., _idem_=The same. I.D.B. Illicit Diamond Buyer (in Cape Colony). I.D.N., _in Dei nomine_=In the name of God. I.E., _id est_=That is. I.H.P. Indicated horse-power. I.H.S., for the Greek capitals I[=H]C, (the C a form of Greek [Sigma]), the first three letters of the name Jesus, often misread as _Jesus Hominum Salvator_=Jesus Saviour of Men. ILL. Illinois. ILL. Illustration, Illustrated. I.L.P. Independent Labour Party. IMP. Imperial; _Imperator_=Emperor. IMP. Imperfect; Imperative; _Imprimatur_=Let it be printed. I.M.S. Indian Medical Service. IN. Inch, Inches. INC., INCORP. Incorporated. INCOG., _incognito_ (It.). Unknown, avoiding publicity. IND. Indiana. I.N.D. Same as I.D.N. (q.v.). IND., INDIC. Indicative. INDECL. Indeclinable. INDEF. Indefinite. IND. TER. Indian Territory. INF., _infra_=Below; Infantry; Infinitive. INFRA DIG., _infra dignitatem_=Beneath one's dignity. INIT., _initio_=In the beginning. IN LIM., _in limine_=On the threshold, at the outset. IN LOC., _in loco_=In its place;--IN LOC. CIT., _in loco citato_ =In the place cited. IN PR., _in principio_=In the beginning. I.N.R.I., J_esus Nazarenus Rex Judæorum_=Jesus of Nazareth< King of the Jews. INST. Instant--the present month; Institute. INST. ACT. Institute of Actuaries. INST.C.E. Institute of Civil Engineers. INT. Interest; Interior; Interpreter. INTERROG. Interrogation, Interrogatively. IN TRANS., _in transitu_=On the passage. INTRO., INTROD. Introduction. INV., _invenit_=He designed it; Inventor, Invented; Invoice. I.O.F. Independent Order of Foresters. I.O.G.T. Independent Order of Good Templars. I.O.U. I owe you. I.P.D., _in præsentiâ Dominorum_=In presence of the Lords (of Session). I.Q., _idem quod_=The same as. I.R.B. Irish Republican Brotherhood. IS., ISA. Isaiah. IS., ISAB. Isabella. I.S.C. Indian Staff Corps. IT. Italian. I.T. Idaho Territory; Indian Territory. JAN. January. JAS. James. J.C., _Juris Consultus_=Jurisconsult; Jesus Christ; Justice Clerk. JER. Jeremiah. J.H.S. The same as I.H.S. (q.v.). JNO. John. JO. Joel. JOS. Josiah; Joseph. JOSH. Joshua. JOUR. Journal. J.P. Justice of the Peace. JR., JUN., JUNR. Junior. J.U.D., _Juris Utriusque Doctor_=Doctor both of Canon and of Civil Law. JUD., JUDG. Judges. JUL. July. JUNC. Junction. JURISP. Jurisprudence. KAL., _Kalendæ_=Calends. KAN., also KS. Kansas. K.B. Knight of the Bath; King's Bench. K.C. King's Counsel; King's College. K.C.B. Knight Commander of the [Most Honourable Order of the] Bath. K.C.H. Knight Commander of [the Order of] Hanover. K.C.I.E. Knight Commander of the [Most Eminent Order of the] Indian Empire. K.C.M.G. Knight Commander of [the Most Distinguished Order of] St Michael and St George. K.C.S.I. Knight Commander of the [Most Exalted Order of the] Star of India. K.C.V.O. Knight Commander of the [Royal] Victorian Order. KG. Kilogram. K.G. Knight of the [Most Noble Order of the] Garter. K.G.C. Knight of the Grand Cross. K.G.C.B. Knight of the Grand Cross of the Bath. K.G.F. Knight of the Golden Fleece. K.H. Knight of Hanover. KILO. Kilogramme. KIT. Christopher. K.K., _Kaiserlich_, _Königleich_=Imperial, Royal. K.K.K. Ku Klux Khan. K.L.H. Knight of the Legion of Honour. K.M. Knight of Malta. KM. Kingdom, KM. Kilometre. KNT., KT. Knight. K. OF L. Knight of Labour. K.P. Knight of [the Most Illustrious Order of St] Patrick. KR. Kreutzer. K.S.I. Knight of the Star of India. K.T. Knight of [the Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of] the Thistle. KT. BACH. Knight Bachelor. K.T.L., _kai ta leipomena_ (Gr.)=And the rest, And so forth. KY. or KEN. Kentucky. L. Lake; Latin; Liberal; Libra (pound). L. Latitude; League; Long. L.A. Law Agent; Literate in Arts. L.A.C. Licentiate of the Apothecaries' Company. LAM. Lamentations. LANG. Language. LAT. Latitude; Latin. LB., _libra_=A pound. L.C. Lower-case (in printing); _Loco citato_=In the place cited; Left centre; Letter of credit. L.C. Lower Canada; Lord Chancellor; Lord Chamberlain. L.C.B. Lord Chief-baron. L.C.C. London County Council. L.C.J. Lord Chief-justice. L.C.P. Licentiate of the College of Preceptors. LD. Lord;--LDP., LP., Lordship. L.D. Lady Day; Light Dragoons. L.D.S. Licentiate in Dental Surgery. LECT. Lecture. LEG. Legal; Legate; Legislature. LEIP. Leipzig. LEV., LEVIT. Leviticus. LEX. Lexicon. LEYD. Leyden. L.H. Left hand. L.I. Long Island; Light Infantry. LIB., _liber_=Book;--LIB. CAT., Library catalogue. LIEUT., LT. Lieutenant. LINN. Linnæan, Linnæus. LIQ. Liquid. LIT. Literally; Literature. LITT. Littérateur. L.L.A. Lady Literate in Arts. LL.B., _Legum Baccalaureus_=Bachelor of Laws. LL.D., _Legum Doctor_=Doctor of Laws. L.M. Long Metre. L.M.S. London Missionary Society. LOC. CIT., _loco citato_=At the place quoted. LOG. Logarithm. LON., LONG. Longitude. LOND. London. LOQ., _loquitur_=Speaks. LOU., LA. Louisiana. L.P. Lord Provost. L.R.C.P. Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians. L.R.C.P.E. Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. L.R.C.S. Licentiate of the Royal College of Surgeons. L.S. Linnæan Society; _Loco sigilli_=In the place of the Seal. L.S. Left side. L.S.A. Licentiate of the Society of Apothecaries. L.S.D., _libræ_, _solidi_, _denarii_=Pounds, shillings, pence. LT. Lieutenant. LXX. Septuagint Version. M., _mille_=A thousand. M. Married; Masculine; _Meridiem_=Noon; Metre. M., MONS., _Monsieur_ (Fr.). Mr or Sir;--MM., _Messieurs_, Gentlemen or Sirs. M.A. Master of Arts. See A.M. M.A.B.Y.S. Metropolitan Association for Befriending Young Servants. MAC., MACC. Maccabees. MACH. Machinery. MAD. Madam. MAG. Magazine. MAJ. Major. MAL. Malachi. MAR. March. MARG. Margin, Marginal. MARG., MRGT. Margaret. MARQ. Marquis. MAS., MASC. Masculine. MASS. Massachusetts. MATH. Mathematics. MATT. Matthew. M.B. Mark of the Beast, as in 'M.B. waistcoat.' M.B., _Medicinæ Baccalaureus_=Bachelor of Medicine. M.B., _Musicæ Baccalaureus_=Bachelor of Music. M.C. Member of Congress; Master of Ceremonies; Member of Council. M.C.C. Member of the County Council; Marylebone Cricket Club. M.C.P. Member of the College of Preceptors. M.C.S. Madras Civil Service. MD. Maryland. M.D., _Medicinæ Doctor_=Doctor of Medicine. MDLLE., MLLE., _Mademoiselle_ (Fr.). Miss. MDM. Madam. M.E. Most Excellent; Methodist Episcopal; Middle English; Mining Engineer. ME. Maine. M.E.C. Member of the Executive Council. MED. Medical, Medicine; Mediæval. MEM. Memorandum; _Memento_=Remember. MESSRS, _Messieurs_ (Fr.). Sirs, Gentlemen. MET., METAPH. Metaphysics. METAL., METALL. Metallurgy. METEOR. Meteorology. MFD. Manufactured;--MFRS., Manufacturers. M.F.H. Master of Foxhounds. M. FT., _mistura fiat_=Let a mixture be made. MGR. Monseigneur. M.H.G. Middle High German. M.H.R. Member of the House of Representatives. M.I.C.E. or M.INST.C.E. Member of the Institute of Civil Engineers. MIC. Micah. MICH. Michigan. MIN. Mineralogy. MINN. Minnesota. MIS. Missouri. MISC. Miscellaneous, Miscellany. MIL., MILIT. Military. MISS., MIS. Mississippi. M.L.A. Member of Legislative Assembly. M.L.C. Member of Legislative Council. MLLE. Mademoiselle. M.M. (Their) Majesties; Martyrs. MME., _Madame_ (Fr.). Madam:--_pl._ MMES. M.N.S. Member of the Numismatical Society. MO. Missouri. MO. Month. MOD. Modern. MOL. WT. Molecular weight. MONS. Monsieur. MONSIG. Monsignor. MORN. Morning. MOS. Months. M.P. Member of Parliament. M.P.S. Member of the Philological Society. M.P.S. Member of the Pharmaceutical Society. M.R. Master of the Rolls. MR. Master or Mister. M.R.A.S. Member of the Royal Asiatic Society. M.R.A.S. Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences. M.R.C.C. Member of the Royal College of Chemistry. M.R.C.P. Member of the Royal College of Preceptors. M.R.C.S. Member of the Royal College of Surgeons. M.R.C.V.S. Member of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons. M.R.G.S. Member of the Royal Geographical Society. M.R.I. Member of the Royal Institution. M.R.I.A. Member of the Royal Irish Academy. MRS. Mistress. MS. Manuscript;--MSS., Manuscripts. M.S. Master in Surgery; _Memoriæ Sacrum_=Sacred to the Memory. M.S. Months (after) sight. M.S.C. Madras Staff Corps. M.S.L. Mean sea-level. M.S.S. Member of the Statistical Society. MT. Mount;--MTS., Mountains. MTH. Month. MUS. Music; Museum. MUS.B. Bachelor of Music. MUS.D., DOC., DOCT. Doctor of Music. M.V.O. Member of the Royal Victorian Order. MYST. Mysteries. MYTH. Mythology. N. North, Northern; Nitrogen. N. Name; _Natus_=Born; Neuter; Noon. N.A. North America. NA. Nebraska. NAH. Nahum. NAP. Napoleon. NAT. National. NAT. HIST. Natural History. NAT. ORD. Natural order. NAUT. Nautical. NAV. Naval; Navigation. N.B. North Britain, North British; New Brunswick. N.B., _nota bene_=Note well, or take notice. N.C. North Carolina; New Church. N.D. No date, Not dated. N.DAK. North Dakota. N.E. North-east; New England. NEB., NEBR. Nebraska. NEG. Negative. NEH. Nehemiah. N.E.I., _non est inventus_=Is not found. NEM. CON., _nemime contradicente_=No one contradicting. NEM. DISS., _nemine dissentiente_=No one dissenting. NEP. Neptune. NETH. Netherlands. NEUT. Neuter. NEV. Nevada. NEW M. New Mexico. N.F. Newfoundland; Norman French. N.H. New Hampshire. NI. PRI., _nisi prius_. See _Nisi_ in Dict. N.J. New Jersey. N.L., _non licet_=It is not permitted; _non liquet_=It is not clear; _non longe_=Not far. N.M. New Mexico. N.N.E. North-north-east. N.N.W. North-north-west. N.O. New Orleans; Natural Order. NO., _numero_=Number;--NOS., Numbers. NON-CON. Non-content. NON OBST., _non obstante_=Notwithstanding. NON PROS., _non prosequitur_=He does not prosecute. NON SEQ., _non sequitur_=It does not follow. N.O.P. Not otherwise provided. NORTHMB. Northumberland. NORVIC., _Norvicensis_=Of Norwich. NOS. Numbers. NOTTS. Nottinghamshire. NOV. November. N.P. Notary Public; New Providence. N.S. New Style. N.S. Nova Scotia. N.S. Not specified. N.S.W. New South Wales. N.T. New Testament. N.U. Name unknown. NUM., NUMB. Numbers. NUMIS., NUMISM. Numismatics. N.V. New Version. N.V.M. Nativity of the Virgin Mary. N.W. North-west. N.W.P. North-west Provinces (India). N.W.T. North-west Territories. N.Y. New York. N.Z. New Zealand. N. & Q. Notes and Queries. O. Ohio; Oxygen. O/A. On account of. OB., _obiit_=Died. OB., OBAD. Obadiah. OBDT. Obedient. OBJ. Object, Objective. OBL. Oblique; Oblong. OBS. Observation; Obsolete. OBSTET. Obstetrics. OC. Ocean. O.C.R. Order of Corporate Reunion. OCT. October. O.D. Ordnance Data. O.E. Old English. O.F. Odd Fellow; Old French. OFF. Official. O.H.G. Old High German. O.H.M.S. On His (or Her) Majesty's Service. O.K. All correct (prob. a humorous spelling of this). OLD TEST. Old Testament. O.M. Old Measurement. OMN. HOR., _omni hora_=Every year. ONOMAT. Onomatopoeia. O/O. Percent. O.P. Old Price; _Ordinis Prædicatorum_=Of the Order of Preachers (or Dominicans). O.P. Out of Print. OP. Opera. OP. Opposite; _Opus_=Work. OP. CIT., _opere citato_=In the work cited. ORD. Ordained; Order; Ordinary; Ordnance. OR. Oregon. O.S. Old Style. O.S.A., _Ordinis Sancti Augustini_=Of the Order of St Augustine. O.S.B., _Ordinis Sancti Benedicti_=Of the Order of St Benedict. O.S.F., _Ordinis Sancti Francisci_=Of the Order of St Francis. O.T. Old Testament. OXF. Oxford. OXON., _Oxonia_=Oxford;--_Oxoniensis_=Of Oxford. OZ. Ounce. P. Page; Participle;--P.A., Participial adjective. PA., also PENN. Pennsylvania. PAC. OC. Pacific Ocean. PAINT. Painting. PAL. Palestine; Palæontology. PAM. Pamphlet. PAN. Panama. PAR. Paragraph; Parallel; Parish. PAT., PK. Patrick. PAT. OFF. Patent Office. P.C., _Patres Conscripti_=Conscript Fathers; Privy Councillor; Police Constable; Post Commander. P.C. Postal-card. P.C.S. Principal Clerk of Session. PD. Paid. P.E. Protestant Episcopal. P.E.I. Prince Edward Island. PEN. Peninsula. PENN. Pennsylvania. PENT. Pentecost. PER. Period; Person. PER AN., _per annum_=Per year, By the year. PER CENT., PER CT., _per centum_=By the hundred. PERS. Person. PETRIBURG., _Petriburgensis_=Of Peterborough. PG. Portugal. PHAR., PHARM. Pharmaceutical; Pharmacopoeia; Pharmacy. PH.B., _Philosophiæ Baccalaureus_=Bachelor of Philosophy. PH.D., _Philosophiæ Doctor_=Doctor of Philosophy. PHIL. Philippians; Philemon; Philadelphia; Philip. PHIL. TRANS. Philosophical Transactions. PHON., PHONET. Phonetics. PHONOG. Phonography. PHOT. Photography. PHR. Phrase. PHYS. Physiology; Physics; Physician. PINX., PXT., _pinxit_=He (or she) painted it. P.M. Past Master; _Post meridiem_=Afternoon; Post-master; _Post mortem_. PM. Premium. P.M.G. Postmaster-general. P.N. Promissory note. P.O. Post-office; Postal Order. PO. Pole. P.O.C. Peninsular and Oriental Company. P.O.D. Pay on delivery. P.O.O. Post-office Order. POP. Population. POS., POSIT. Positive. P.P. Parish Priest. PP. Pages. P.P.C., _pour prendre congé_ (Fr.)=To take leave. P.P.S. Postscript additional. P.R. Prize-ring; Porto Rico. P.R., _Populus Romanus_=The Roman people. PR. Pair; Per; Present; Price; Pronoun; Prince; Priest; Provençal. P.R.A. President of the Royal Academy. P.R.B. Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. PREB. Prebend, Prebendary. PREF. Preface. PRES., PRESES. President. P.R.I.B.A. President of the Royal Institute of British Architects. P.R.N., _pro re nata_=For special business arising. PRO. Professional. PROF. Professor. PROT. Protestant. PRO TEM., _pro tempore_=For the time being. PROV. Proverbs. PROX., _proximo_=Next. P.R.S. President of the Royal Society. P.R.S.A. President of the Royal Scottish Academy. P.R.S.E. President of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. P.S., _post scriptum_=Postscript, written after. PS., PSA. Psalms. PSEUD. Pseudonym. P.T. Pupil Teacher. P.T. Post-town. P.T.O. Please turn over. PUB. DOC. Public Document. P.W.D. Public Works Department. PWT. Pennyweight. P. & O. Peninsular and Oriental Company. Q., _quadrans_=Farthing; Query; Quintal. Q., QU. Query; Question. Q.A.B. Queen Anne's Bounty. Q.B. Queen's Bench. Q.C. Queen's Counsel; Queen's College. Q.D., _quasi dicat_=As if he should say. Q.E., _quod est_=Which is. Q.E.D., _quod erat demonstrandum_=Which was to be demonstrated. Q.E.F., _quod erat faciendum_=Which was to be done. Q.E.I, _quod erat inveniendum_=Which was to be found out. Q.L., _quantum libet_=As much as you please. Q.M. Quartermaster. QM., _quomodo_=In what manner; How. Q.M.G. Quartermaster-general. QR. Quarter. Q.S. Quarter-Sessions. Q.S., Quantum suff., _quantum sufficit_=A sufficient quantity. QT. Quantity; Quart;--QTS., Quarts. QU. Queen; Question, QU., QUAR. Quart, Quarter, Quarterly, Q.V., _quod vide_=Which see; _quantum vis_=As much as you will. R., _rex, regina_=King, Queen. R., _recipe_=Take. R., REAU. Réaumur's thermometric scale. R.A. Royal Academy or Academician; Royal Artillery. RABB. Rabbinical. R.A.C. Royal Arch Chapter. RAD. Radical. RAD., _radix_=Root. R.A.M. Royal Academy of Music. R.A.S. Royal Asiatic Society. R.C. Right centre. R.C. Roman Catholic; Red Cross. R.C.M. Royal College of Music. R.C.P. Royal College of Preceptors. R.C.S. Royal College of Surgeons. R.D. Rural Dean; Royal Dragoons. R.E. Royal Engineers. REC. Recipe. RECD. Received. RECPT. Receipt. RECT. Rector; Rectory. REF. CH. Reformed Church. REG. PROF. Regius Professor. REGT. Regiment. REP. Representative; Republic; Report, Reporter. REPT. Receipt. RETD. Returned. REV. Revise, Revision; Revelation. REV., REVD. Reverend;--REVS., Reverends. REV. VER. Revised Version. R.G.G. Royal Grenadier Guards. R.G.S. Royal Geographical Society. R.H. Right hand. R.H. Royal Highness; Royal Highlanders. R.H.A. Royal Horse Artillery; Royal Hibernian Academy. RHET. Rhetoric. R.H.G. Royal Horse Guards. R.H.S. Royal Humane Society; Royal Horticultural Society; Royal Historical Society. R.I. Rhode Island. R.I.B.A. Royal Institute of British Architects. R.I.P., _requiescat in pace_=May he (or she) rest in peace. R.M. Royal Mail; Royal Marines. R.M.A. Royal Military Asylum; Royal Marine Artillery. R.M.L.I. Royal Marine Light Infantry. R.M.S. Royal Mail Steamer; Royal Microscopical Society. R.N. Royal Navy. R.N.R. Royal Naval Reserve. ROB., ROBT. Robert. ROFFEN. Of Rochester. ROM. Romans. ROM. CATH. Roman Catholic. R.P. Reformed Presbyterian; Regius Professor. R.R. Right Reverend. R.R.C. Royal Red Cross (for ladies). R.S. Royal Society. R.S.A. Royal Society of Antiquaries; Royal Scottish Academy or Academician. R.S.D. Royal Society of Dublin. R.S.E. Royal Society of Edinburgh. R.S.L. Royal Society of London. R.S.M. Royal School of Mines. R.S.O. Railway Sub-office; Railway Sorting Office. R.S.S., also S.R.S., _Regiæ Societatis Socius_=Fellow of the Royal Society. R.S.V.P., _Répondez, s'il vous plait_ (Fr.)=Reply, if you please. RT. HON. Right Honourable. RT. REV. Right Reverend. R.T.S. Religious Tract Society. RT. W., RT. WPFUL. Right Worshipful. R.V. Rifle Volunteers; Revised Version. R.W.D.G.M. Right Worshipful Deputy Grand Master. R.W.G.M. Right Worshipful Grand Master. R.W.G.R. Right Worthy Grand Representative. R.W.G.S. Right Worthy Grand Secretary. R.W.G.T. Right Worthy Grand Templar; Right Worthy Grand Treasurer. R.W.G.W. Right Worshipful Grand Warden. R.W.S. Royal Society of Painters in Water Colours. R.W.S.G.W. Right Worshipful Senior Grand Warden. RX. Tens of rupees. RY. Railway. S. South; Sabbath; Saint; Seconds; Society; Sun. S.A. South Africa; South America; South Australia. SA. Saturday. S.A., _secundum artem_=According to art; _sine anno_=Without date. S.A.I., _Son Altesse Imperiale_ (Fr.). His Royal Highness. SAM. Samuel. SARUM. Of Salisbury. S.A.S., _Societatis Antiquariorum Socius_=Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. SAT. Saturday. S.C. South Carolina; _Senatus Consuetum_=A decree of the Roman Senate. S.C., S. CAPS., SM. CAPS. Small capitals. SC., SCIL., _scilicet_=To wit, Namely, Being understood. SC., SCULP., SCULPT., _sculpsit_=He (or she) engraved it. SC.B., _Scientiæ Baccalaureus_= Bachelor of Science. SC.D., _Scientiæ Doctor_=Doctor of Science. SCH., SCHR. Schooner. SCI. FA., _scire facias_=That you cause to know. S.C.L. Student of the Civil Law. SCOT. Scotland, Scotch. SCRIPT. Scripture. S.D. South Dakota; Senior Deacon. S.D., _salutem dicit_=Sends greeting. S.D., _sine die_=Without day. S.D.U.K. Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. S.E. South-east. SEC. Second; Section. SEC., SECY. Secretary. SEC. LEG., _secundum legem_= According to law. SEC. REG., _secundum regulam_= According to rule. SECT. Section. SEM. Seminary; Semitic. SEN. Senator; Senior. SEP., Sept. September; Septuagint. SEQ., _sequentes_ or _sequentia_=The following. SER. Series; Sermon. SERG., SERGT. Sergeant;--SERJ., SERJT., Serjeant. SESS. Session. SFZ. Sforzando. S.G. Solicitor-general. S.G. Specific gravity. S.H. School-house. SH. Shilling. S.H.V., _sub hoc verbo_ or _sub hac voce_=Under this word. S.J. Society of Jesus. S.L. Solicitor at Law. S.L., S. LAT. South latitude. SLD. Sailed. S.L.P., _sine legitima prole_=Without lawful issue. S.M. Short Metre. S.M., _Sa Majesté_. His (or Her) Majesty. SMITH. INST. Smithsonian Institution. S.M. LOND. SOC., _Societatis Medicæ Londiniensis Socius_=Member of the London Medical Society. S.M.M., _Sancta Mater Maria_=Holy Mother Mary. S.M.P., _sine mascula prole_=Without male issue. S.N., _secundum naturam_=According to nature. S.O. Sub-office. S.O. Seller's option. SOC. Society. SOL. Solution. SOL., SOLR. Solicitor. SOL.-GEN. Solicitor-general. SOP. Soprano. SP. Spelling. S.P., _sine prole_=Without issue. S.P.C.A. Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. S.P.C.C. Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. S.P.C.K. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. S.P.G. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. SPORT. Sporting. S.P.Q.R., _Senatus Populusque Romanus_=The Senate and People of Rome. S.P.S., _sine prole superstite_=Without surviving issue. SPT. Seaport. SQ. Square. SQ., _sequens_=The following. SR. Senior; Sir. S.R.I., _Sacrum Romanum Imperium_=Holy Roman Empire. S.R.S., _Societatis Regiæ Socius_=Fellow of the Royal Society. S.S. Sabbath School. SS. Saints. S.S. Steamship; Screw steamer. S.S.C. Solicitor before the Supreme Court (Scotland); _Societas Sancti Crucis_=Society of the Holy Cross. SS.D., _Sanctissimus Dominus_=Most holy Lord (the Pope). S.S.E. South-south-east. S.S.W. South-south-west. ST. Saint; Strait; Street. STDY. Saturday. STE., _Sainte_ (Fr.). Fem. of _Saint_. STER., STEREO. Stereotype. STER., STG. Sterling. S.T.P., _Sanctæ Theologiæ Professor_=Professor of Theology. STR. Steamer. SU. Sunday. SUB. Subject; Suburb. SUBJ. Subject; Subjunctive. SUBST. Substitute. SUF., SUFF. Suffix. SUP. Superfine; Superior; Superlative; Supreme. SUP. CT. Superior Court; Supreme Court. SUPP. Supplement. SUPR. Supreme. SUPT. Superintendent. SURG. Surgeon, Surgery. SURV.-GEN. Surveyor-general. S.V., _Sancta Virgo_=Holy Virgin; _Sanctitas Vestra_=Your Holiness. S.V., _sub voce_=Under the word or title. S.W. South-west; Senior Warden. SYM. Symbol. SYN. Synonym. SYNOP. Synopsis. SYST. System. TAL. QUAL., _talis qualis_=Just as they come, Average quantity. TAM. Tamil. TAN. Tangent. TC. Tierce. T.C.D. Trinity College, Dublin. TE. Tellurium. TECH. Technically; Technology. TEL., TELEG. Telegram, Telegraph. TEMP. Temporal; _tempore_=In the time of. TEN. Tenor. TEN., TENN. Tennessee. TER., TERR. Territory. TERM. Termination. TEST. Testament. TEUT. Teutonic. TEX. Texas. TEXT. REC., _Textus receptus_=The Received Text. T.F. Till forbidden. THEAT. Theatrical. THEOL. Theology, theologian. THEOR. Theorem. THEOS. Theosophy. THERAP. Therapeutics. THESS. Thessalonians. THO., THOS. Thomas. T.H.W.M. Trinity High-water Mark. TIM. Timothy. TIT. Titus. T.O. Turn Over; Telegraph-office. TOM. Tome or Volume. TP. Township. TR. Transactions; Translator; Trustee. TRANS. Transitive. TRANSF. Transferred. TREAS. Treasurer. T.R.H. Their Royal Highnesses. TRIG. Trigonometry. TRIN. Trinity. TROP. Tropic. TRURON., _Truronensis_=Of Truro. T.S.O. Town Sub-office. T.T.L. To take leave. TU., TUES. Tuesday. TYP., TYPO. Typographer, Typography. U.C. Upper Canada. U.F.C. United Free Church [of Scotland]. U.K. United Kingdom. U.K.A. United Kingdom Alliance. ULT., _ultimo_=Last. UNIT. Unitarian. UNIV. University; Universalist. U.P. United Presbyterian. UP. Upper. U.S. United States; United Service. U.S., _ut supra_=As above. U.S.A. United States of America; United States Army. U.S.C. United States of Colombia. U.S.N. United States Navy. U.S.S. United States Ship or Steamer. USU. Usually. U.S.W., _und so weiter_ (Ger.)= And so forth. UT DICT., _ut dictum_=As said. UT SUP., _ut supra_=As above. UX., _uxor_=Wife. V., _versus_=Against; _vide_=See; Verb; Verse; Volume; Viscount. V.A. Royal Order of Victoria and Albert (for ladies). V.A. Vicar Apostolic. VA. Virginia. VAL. Value. VAR. Variant. VAR. LECT., _varia lectio_= Varying reading. VAT. Vatican. VB. Verb. V.C. Vice-chancellor; Vice-consul; Victoria Cross. V.D. Volunteer [Officers'] Decoration. V.D. Various dates. V.D.M., _Verbi Dei Minister_=Preacher of God's Word. VEN. Venerable. VENET. Venetian. VERT. Vertebrata. VES. Vessel. VET., VETER. Veterinary;--VET. SURG., Veterinary Surgeon. V.G. Vicar-general. V.G., _verbi gratiâ_=For example. VIC. Vicar; Vicarage. VID., _vide_=See. VIL. Village. V.IMP. Verb impersonal. V.IRR. Verb irregular. VIS., VISC. Viscount. VIZ., _videlicet_=Namely. V.N. Verb neuter. VOC. Vocative. VOCAB. Vocabulary. VOL. Volunteer. VOL. Volume;--VOLS., volumes. VOLC. Volcano. V.P. Vice-president. V.R., _Victoria Regina_=Queen Victoria. V.R. Verb reflexive. V.R.I., _Victoria Regina et Imperatrix_=Victoria, Queen and Empress. V.S. Veterinary Surgeon. VT. Vermont. V.T. verb transitive. VUL. Vulgar. VUL., VULG. Vulgate. VV.LL., _variæ lectiones_=Various readings. V.Y. Various years. W. West; Warden; Week; Welsh. W.A. West Africa; West Australia. WAL. Walloon. WASH. Washington. W.B. Water Board; Way-bill. W.C. Water-closet; Western Central; Wesleyan Chapel. W.C.T.U. Women's Christian Temperance Union. WE., WED. Wednesday. W.F. Wrong font. W.I. West Indies. WINTON., _Wintoniensis_=Of Winchester. WIS. Wisconsin. WK. Week. WM. William. W.M.S. Wesleyan Missionary Society. W.N.W. West-north-west. WP., WPFL. Worshipful. W.R. West Riding. WR., WLR. Walter. W.S. Writer to the Signet. W.S.W. West-south-west. WT. Weight. X. or XT. Christ. (_X._=Gr. _Ch._) XM., XMAS. Christmas. XN., XTIAN. Christian. Y., YR. Year. Y., YD. Yard. Y^E. The (the _Y_ not being a _Y_, but as representing the Anglo-Saxon þ). Y.M.C.A. Young Men's Christian Association. YR. Your; Younger. Y^T. That (_Y_ as in Y^e). Y.W.C.A. Young Women's Christian Association. ZN. Zinc. ZECH. Zechariah. ZEPH. Zephaniah. ZR. Zirconium. &, _et_=And. &C., _et cetera_=And so forth. * * * * * SYMBOLS USED IN MEDICINE AND PHARMACY. [scruple] Scruple; [scruple]i, one scruple; [scruple]ij, two scruples; [scruple]ss, half a scruple; [scruple]iss, a scruple and a half. [drachm] Dram or drachm; [drachm]i, one dram; [drachm]ij, two drams; [drachm]ss, half a dram; [drachm]iss, a dram and a half. [ounce] Ounce; [ounce]i, one ounce; [ounce]ij, two ounces; [ounce]ss, half an ounce; [ounce]iss, an ounce and a half. [minim] A minim; a drop. [ana] (Gr. _ana_), of each a like quantity. [recipe] (L. _recipe_), take. The above symbols are employed almost always in medical prescriptions. A prescription consists of the following parts: (1) The _Superscription_; (2) The _Inscription_; (3) The _Subscription_; (4) The _Signature_. The _Superscription_, which consists of the letter [recipe], is a relic of the days of astrology. It originally was used to represent the symbol of the planet Jupiter. By common consent it is now regarded as representing the imperative mood of the Latin verb _recipere_, to take. The _Inscription_ is a statement of the names of the substances to be used, with their quantities. The _Subscription_ is made up of the directions for the guidance of the dispenser. The _Signature_ includes the directions to the patient. This part of the prescription should be written in English; the other parts are in Latin. Sometimes the signature also is in Latin. The body or prescription contains the following: the _Basis_, or principal active ingredient; the _Adjuvant_, or _Auxiliary_, to assist its action; the _Corrective_, to correct or diminish some undesirable quality; the _Vehicle_, or _Excipient_, to give a suitable form for administration. PRESCRIPTION. [Recipe] Superscription. (Basis) Pot. Acet. [Drachm]v } (Adjuvant) Tinct. Digitalis [Drachm]j } Inscription. (Corrective) Syr. Aurantii [Ounce]j } (Vehicle) Dec. Scopar. ad [Ounce]viij } Misce, fiat mist. Subscription. Cpt. Cochl. mag. ii. 4ta. q.q. hora ex paul. aquæ Signature. WITHOUT ABBREVIATIONS OR CONTRACTIONS. Recipe. Potassii Acetatis drachmas quinque. Tincturæ Digitalis drachmam unam. Syrupi Aurantii unciam unam. Decoctum Scoparii ad uncias octo. Misce, fiat mistura. Capiat cochlearia duo magna quartâ quâque horâ ex paululo aquæ. ENGLISH TRANSLATION. Take thou (the dispenser). Five drachms of acetate of potassium. One drachm of the tincture of digitalis. One ounce of syrup of orange-peel. Decoction of broom up to eight ounces. Mix, let a mixture be made. Let him (the patient) take two large spoonfuls at each fourth hour, out of (in) a little water. LIST OF LATIN PHRASES COMMONLY USED IN THE WRITING OF PRESCRIPTIONS. aa. Ana of each. Ad. Adde add. Ad lib. Ad libitum to the desired amount. Ad us. Ad usum according to custom. Æq. Æquales equal. Aq. Aqua water. Aq. bull. Aqua bulliens boiling water. Aq. dest. Aqua destillata distilled water. Bib. Bibe drink. Bis ind. Bis indies twice a day. Bis in 7 d. Bis in septem diebus twice a week. C. Cum with. Cap. Capiat let him take. C. m. Cras mane to-morrow morning. C. m. s. Cras mane sumendus to be taken to-morrow morning. C. n. Cras nocte to-morrow night. Cochl. Cochleare spoonful. Cochl. ampl. Cochleare amplum a table-spoonful. Cochl. infant. Cochleare infantis a tea-spoonful. Cochl. mag. Cochleare magnum a table-spoonful. Cochl. mod. Cochleare modicum a dessert-spoonful. Cochl. parv. Cochleare parvum a tea-spoonful. Contin. Continuetur let it be continued. Cpt. Capiat let him take. Cuj. Cujus of which. C. v. Cras vespere to-morrow evening. Cyath. Cyathus a glassful. Cyath. vinos. Cyathus vinosus a wine-glassful. D. Dosis a dose. d. Da give. D. d. in d. De die in diem from day to day. Det. Detur let it be given. Dieb. alt. Diebus alternis on alternate days. Dim. Dimidius one-half. Div. Divide divide. D. in p. æ. Divide in partes æquales divide into equal parts. Exhib. Exhibiatur let it be given. F. or ft. Fiat let it be made. F. h. Fiat haustus make a draught. F. m. Fiat mistura make a mixture. F. pil. Fiat pilula make a pill. Gutt. Gutta or guttæ drop or drops. Habt. Habeat let him have. Hor. intermed. Horis intermediis at intermediate hours. H. s. Horâ somni at bedtime. Ind. Indies daily. Lat. dol. Lateri dolenti to the painful side. Mit. Mitte send. Mod. præscript. Modo præscripto in the manner directed. O. m. Omni mane every morning. Omn. bih. Omni bihorâ every two hours. Omn. hor. Omni horâ every hour. O. n. Omni nocte every night. P. or pt. Perstetur continue. Part. æq. Partes æquales equal parts. P. r. n. Pro re natâ when required. Q. l. Quantum libet as much as is requisite. Q. s. Quantum sufficit a sufficient quantity. Q. v. Quantum volueris at will. [Recipe] Recipe take. Rep. Repetatur let it be repeated. Sing. Singulorum of each. Sum. Sumat or sumendum let him take or let it be taken. T. d. Ter in die three times a day. * * * * * MUSICAL SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS. Signs denoting time or relative value of sound: [Illustration] Each of these notes represents twice the duration of sound of that which comes next in order. The sign to the right of each note indicates a rest or silence equal to its sound duration. [Illustration] In time, the figure above a line drawn thus across the stave denotes the length of the pause in bars. _Accel._ Accelerando. Gradually increasing the speed. _Adg^{_o_}_ or _Ad^{_o_}._ Adagio. Slow; also name given to a slow movement or piece. _Ad lib._ Ad libitum. Passages so marked may be rendered at the will of the performer. _And._ Andante. Moderately slow: graceful; sometimes used as the name of a movement or separate piece. _Anim^{_o_}._ Animato. Animated: with soul. _A tem._ A tempo. In time. [Illustration] _Bar._ A line drawn perpendicularly across the stave, separating the notes into measures of equal length; also the music comprised within two such lines.--_Double Bar_. The former of the two signs is used to mark the larger divisions of a piece or movement; in psalm tunes, hymns, chants, &c., to mark the end of a verse or sentence. The latter sign denotes the end of a composition. [Bind marks] Bind or Tie. Placed over two or more notes in the same position on the stave, to show they are to be played as one. [Breath marks] Breath-marks. In vocal music, signs used to show where breath should be taken. [Illustration] Denoting common time; the former indicating four crotchets to the bar, the latter two minims to the bar. _Cal._ Calando. Gradually slower, and with decreasing volume of tone. [Illustration] _Clef._ The sign placed at the beginning of a stave, determining the absolute pitch of the notes that follow it. [Crescendo] Crescendo. Gradual increase of tone. ([Dash]) Dash. When placed over or under a note, implies a very detached (_staccato_) style. _D.C._ Da capo. From the beginning; indicating that the performer must return to the beginning of the movement, and conclude at the double bar marked _Fine_. [Decrescendo] Decrescendo. Gradually softer. _Dim._ Diminuendo. Gradual decrease of tone. (·) Dot. When added to a note or rest, lengthens it by one-half. When placed over or under a note, means that its duration should be cut short. [Flat] Flat. The sign which lowers the pitch of a note one semitone. [Double Flat] Double Flat. Used before a note already flat, lowering it another semitone. It is corrected by a flat and a natural. _f._ Forte. Loudly: strongly. _ff._ Fortissimo. Very loud. _fff._ Fortississimo. As loud as possible. _f.p._ Forte-piano. Loud, then soft. _Leg._ Legato. In a smooth and gliding manner. _Lo._ Loco. Indicating to return to the proper pitch after having played an octave higher. _mf._ or _mff._ Mezzo-forte. Moderately loud. _mp._ Mezzo-piano. Moderately soft. _Manc._ Mancando. Dying away, decreasing. _Marc._ Marcato. In a marked manner, emphasised. M.M. Maelzel's metronome. M.M. [Crotchet]=80. Denoting that the beat of a crotchet is equal to the pulse of the pendulum of Maelzel's metronome, with the weight set at 80. [Natural] Natural. Restores a note, which has been raised by the sharp or lowered by the flat, to its original pitch. _Ott._, O^{va}, 8^{va}=Ottava. An octave--as 8^{va} _alta_=_ottava alta_, (to be played) an octave higher; 8^{va} _bas._ = _ottava bassa_, an octave lower. _p._ Piano. Softly. _P.F._ or _pf._ Piano-forte. Soft, then loud. _pp._ Pianissimo. Very soft. _ppp._ Pianississimo. As softly as possible. [Pause] Pause or _Corona_. When placed over a note or rest, indicates that it must be held longer than its natural length. When over a double bar, indicates where the piece is to be concluded after a repeat. _Pizz_. Pizzicato. A direction to violinists to twang the string with the finger instead of using the bow. [Illustration] Quintuplet. A group of five notes played in the time of four. 4^{tte} Quartette. 5^{tte} Quintette. _Raddol._ Raddolcendo. Gradually softer and sweeter. _Rall._ Rallentando. Becoming gradually slower. [Illustration] Repeat. When placed at the beginning and end of a passage or movement, indicates that the portion so marked is to be played over again. _Rit._ Ritardando. Retarding, holding back the time. [Segno] Segno. The sign--as _Al Segno_, to the sign; _Dal Segno_, from the sign. _Sem._, _Semp._ Sempre. Always, throughout--as _sempre legato_, smooth throughout; _sempre ritardando_, continually slackening the time. 7^{tte} Septet. 6^{tte} Sextet, or Sestet. [Sforzando] Sforzando. Denoting emphasis applied to a particular note or notes. Abbreviated _sf._, _sfz._ [Sforzato-piano.] Sforzato-piano. A sudden _forte_ followed by a _diminuendo_ or _piano_. Abbreviated _sfp._, _sfz.p._ [Sharp] Sharp. The sign which raises the pitch of a note one semitone. [Double Sharp] Double Sharp. Used before a note already sharp, raising the pitch by a semitone. It is contradicted by a natural and a sharp. [Slur] Slur. Showing that the notes over which it is placed must be played in a smooth (_legato_) manner. _Sos._, _Sos^{_t_}._ Sostenuto. Sustained; prolonging the tone for the full duration of time indicated. _Spir._ Spiritoso. In a spirited or lively manner. [Illustration] Stave or Staff. The horizontal and parallel lines on which the notes are placed, used to indicate their relative position as regards pitch. _Trem._ Tremolando. With trembling or wavering; a note or chord played with great rapidity so as to produce such an effect. 3^o Trio. [Illustration] Triplet. A group of three notes performed in the time of two. _T.S._ Tasto solo. One key alone: a direction to play a part in unison. * * * * * CORRECT CEREMONIOUS FORMS OF ADDRESS. The following are the correct ceremonious modes of addressing and beginning letters to persons of title or holding offices: AMBASSADOR, BRITISH--Address: 'His Excellency [in other respects according to his rank], H.B.M.'s Ambassador and Plenipotentiary.' Begin: 'Sir,' 'My Lord,' &c., according to rank. Refer personally to as 'Your Excellency.' An Ambassador's wife, when resident abroad, is sometimes, but not very correctly, designated 'Your Excellency.' ARCHBISHOP--'His Grace the Lord Archbishop of ----.' Begin: 'My Lord Archbishop.' Refer to as 'Your Grace.' In formal documents the Archbishop of Canterbury is addressed as 'The Most Reverend Father in God, Frederick, by Divine Providence Lord Archbishop of Canterbury, Primate of all England and Metropolitan;' the Archbishop of York as 'The Most Reverend Father in God, William, by Divine permission Lord Archbishop of York, Primate of England and Metropolitan.' But an Irish Archbishop appointed since 1868 is only 'The Most Reverend the Archbishop of ----,' unless he happen to be a temporal peer, in which case he is 'The Right Hon. and Most Rev.' ARCHDEACON--'The Venerable the Archdeacon of ----.' Begin: 'Venerable Sir.' BARON--'The Right Hon. Lord ----,' or 'The Lord ----.' Begin: 'My Lord.' Refer to as 'Your Lordship.' BARON'S DAUGHTER--If unmarried, 'The Hon.' [Christian name and surname]; if married, 'The Hon. Mrs' [husband's surname]. Begin: 'Madam.' If married to a Baronet or Knight, 'The Hon. Lady' [husband's surname]. Begin: 'My Lady.' If the wife of a peer, or of the son of a Duke or Marquess, address as such. BARON'S SON--'The Hon.' [Christian name and surname]. Begin: 'Sir.' But the eldest sons of Barons in the Peerage of Scotland are usually addressed as 'The Hon. the Master of' [peerage title]. BARON'S SON'S WIFE--'The Hon. Mrs' [husband's surname], or, if necessary for distinction, the husband's Christian name should also be used. Begin: 'Madam.' If the daughter of an Earl, Marquess, or Duke, address as such. BARONESS, EITHER IN HER OWN RIGHT OR HER HUSBAND'S--'The Right Hon. the Baroness ----,' 'The Right Hon. Lady ----,' or 'The Lady ----.' Begin: 'My Lady.' Refer to as 'Your Ladyship.' BARONET--'Sir [Christian name and surname], Bart.' Commence: 'Sir.' BARONET'S WIFE--'Lady' [surname]. Begin: 'Madam.' Refer to as 'Your Ladyship.' BISHOP, COLONIAL--As Scottish bishop. BISHOP, ENGLISH--'The Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of London,' or 'The Lord Bishop of London.' Begin: 'My Lord Bishop.' Refer to as 'Your Lordship.' In formal documents a Bishop is 'The Right Rev. Father in God, John, by Divine permission Lord Bishop of Salisbury.' BISHOP, IRISH, CONSECRATED BEFORE 1868--As English Bishop. BISHOP, IRISH, CONSECRATED SINCE 1868--'The Right Rev. the Bishop of Ossory,' or in case of the Bishops of Meath and Tuam, 'The Most Rev.' Begin: 'Right Rev. Sir,' or 'Most Rev. Sir.' BISHOP, RETIRED--'The Right Rev. Bishop ----,' or 'The Right Rev. ---- ----, D.D.' Begin: 'Right Rev. Sir.' BISHOP, SCOTTISH--'The Right Rev. the Bishop of Edinburgh,' or 'The Right Rev. Bishop Dowden.' The Bishop who holds the position of Primus is generally addressed, 'The Most Rev. the Primus.' The use of 'Lord Bishop' and 'My Lord' is incorrect. BISHOP SUFFRAGAN--'The Right Rev. the Bishop Suffragan of Bedford.' Begin: 'Right Rev. Sir.' BISHOPS' WIVES AND CHILDREN have no titles. CLERGY--'The Rev.' [Christian name and surname]. Begin: 'Rev. Sir.' If son of a Duke or Marquess, 'The Rev. Lord' [Christian name and surname]. If the son of an Earl, Viscount, or Baron, 'The Rev. the Hon.' [Christian name and surname] is beginning to supersede 'The Hon. and Rev.' The Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland during his year of office is styled 'Right Rev.;' ex-moderators are usually spoken of as 'Very Rev.' COMPANION OF AN ORDER OF KNIGHTHOOD--The initials, C.B., C.M.G., C.S.I., or C.I.E., as it may be, are subjoined to the ordinary form of address. CONSUL, BRITISH--'---- ----, Esq., H.B.M.'s Agent and Consul-General,' 'Consul-General,' 'Consul,' or 'Vice-Consul,' as it may be. COUNTESS--'The Right Hon. the Countess of ----.' Begin: 'Madam.' Refer to as 'Your Ladyship.' DEAN--'The Very Rev. the Dean of ----.' Begin: 'Very Rev. Sir.' DOCTOR--The initials D.D., M.D., LL.D., Mus.D., are placed after the ordinary form of address, as 'The Rev. John Davidson, D.D.,' 'David Patrick, Esq., LL.D.' But 'The Rev. Dr Davidson,' 'Dr David Patrick,' are also frequently used. DOWAGER--On the marriage of a peer or Baronet, the widow of the previous holder of the title becomes 'Dowager,' and is addressed, 'The Right Hon. the Dowager Countess of ----,' 'The Dowager Lady ----.' As more than one Dowager may hold the same title, the term is less used than formerly, and the Christian name is instead coming to be employed as a distinction--e.g. 'The Right Hon. Helen Countess of ----.' DUCHESS--'Her Grace the Duchess of ----.' Begin: 'Madam.' Refer to as 'Your Grace.' DUKE--'His Grace the Duke of ----.' Begin: 'My Lord Duke.' Refer to as 'Your Grace.' DUKE'S DAUGHTER--'The Right Hon. Lady' [Christian name and surname], or 'The Lady' [Christian name and surname], the surname being that of her husband if married. Begin: 'Madam.' Refer to as 'Your Ladyship.' If married to a peer, she is addressed according to her husband's rank only. This, however, does not hold in the case of peers by courtesy; and a Duke's daughter married to the eldest son of an Earl, after the prefix 'Lady,' sometimes takes her own Christian name, followed by her husband's courtesy title. DUKE'S ELDEST SON AND HIS CHILDREN--The courtesy title is treated as if it were an actual peerage; his eldest son taking the grandfather's third title, and being addressed as if a peer. DUKE'S ELDEST SON'S WIFE--As if her husband's courtesy title were an actual peerage. DUKE'S YOUNGER SON--'The Right Hon. Lord' [Christian name and surname], or 'The Lord' [Christian name and surname]. Begin: 'My Lord.' Refer to as 'Your Lordship.' DUKE'S YOUNGER SON'S WIFE--'The Right Hon. Lady,' or 'The Lady' [husband's Christian name and surname]. Begin: 'Madam.' Refer to as 'Your Ladyship.' EARL--'The Right Hon. the Earl of ----,' or 'The Earl of ----.' Begin: 'My Lord.' Refer to as 'Your Lordship.' EARL'S DAUGHTER--As Duke's daughter. EARL'S ELDEST SON, and EARL'S ELDEST SON'S WIFE--As if the courtesy title were an actual peerage. EARL'S YOUNGER SON AND HIS WIFE--As Baron's son and his wife. GOVERNOR OF COLONY--'His Excellency [ordinary designation], Governor of ----.' Begin according to rank, and refer to as 'Your Excellency.' JUDGE, ENGLISH OR IRISH--'The Hon. Sir ---- ----,' if a Knight, or 'The Hon. Mr Justice ----.' Begin: 'Sir.' On the bench only he is addressed as 'My Lord,' and referred to as 'Your Lordship.' JUDGE OF COUNTY COURT--'His Honour Judge ----.' When on the bench, referred to as 'Your Honour.' JUDGES, SCOTTISH--See Lord of Session. JUSTICE OF PEACE IN ENGLAND (not Scotland)--'The Right Worshipful.' Referred to when on the bench as 'Your Worship.' KING--'The King's Most Excellent Majesty.' Begin: 'Sire,' or 'May it please your Majesty,' or 'Lord ---- presents his duty to your Majesty.' Refer to as 'Your Majesty.' KING'S COUNSEL--Append K.C. to ordinary address. KNIGHT BACHELOR--As Baronet, except that the word 'Bart.' is omitted. KNIGHT OF THE BATH, OF ST MICHAEL AND ST GEORGE, OR OF THE STAR OF INDIA--'Sir' [Christian name and surname], with the initials G.C.B., K.C.B., K.M.G., or K.S.I. added. Begin: 'Sir.' KNIGHT OF THE GARTER, OF THE THISTLE, OR OF ST PATRICK--The initials K.G., K.T., or K.P., as it may be, are to be added to the address. KNIGHT'S WIFE, WHETHER WIFE OF KNIGHT BACHELOR, OF THE BATH, OF ST MICHAEL AND ST GEORGE, OR OF THE STAR OF INDIA--As Baronet's wife. LORD ADVOCATE OF SCOTLAND--'The Right Hon. the Lord Advocate.' Usual beginning: 'My Lord,' though 'Sir' is said to be more correct. LORD CHANCELLOR--'The Right Hon. the Lord Chancellor.' Begin and refer to according to rank. LORD CHIEF-JUSTICE--'The Right Hon. the Lord Chief-Justice of England,' or 'The Right Hon. Sir ---- ----, Lord Chief-Justice of England.' Begin, if a peer, according to his degree; otherwise as under Judge. LORD HIGH COMMISSIONER TO THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY--'His Grace the Lord High Commissioner.' Begin according to rank as a peer. Refer to as 'Your Grace.' LORD JUSTICE-CLERK--'The Right Hon. the Lord Justice-Clerk.' Begin: 'My Lord.' Refer to as 'Your Lordship.' LORD JUSTICE-GENERAL OF SCOTLAND--'The Right Hon. the Lord Justice-General.' Begin: 'My Lord.' Refer to as 'Your Lordship.' LORD JUSTICE OF APPEAL--'The Right Hon. the Lord Justice ----,' or 'The Right Hon. Sir ---- ----.' Begin and refer to as a Judge. LORD LIEUTENANT OF IRELAND--'His Grace,' if a Duke; otherwise, 'His Excellency the Lord Lieutenant.' Begin and refer to according to rank as a peer. LORD MAYOR OF LONDON, YORK, DUBLIN, &C.--'The Right Hon. the Lord Mayor of London,' or 'The Right Hon. ---- ----, Lord Mayor of London.' Begin: 'My Lord.' Refer to as 'Your Lordship.' LORD MAYOR'S WIFE--'The Right Hon. the Lady Mayoress of ----.' Begin: 'Madam.' Refer to as 'Your Ladyship.' LORD OF APPEAL IN ORDINARY AND HIS WIFE--As Baron and Baroness. Their children have no title. LORD OF SESSION IN SCOTLAND--'The Hon. Lord ----.' Begin: 'My Lord.' Refer to as 'Your Lordship.' His wife has no title. LORD PROVOST--'The Right Hon. the Lord Provost of Edinburgh,' 'The Hon. the Lord Provost of Glasgow,' 'The Lord Provost of Aberdeen' or of 'Perth.' Begin: 'My Lord Provost,' or 'My Lord.' Refer to as 'Your Lordship.' The Lord Provost's wife has no title. MAID OF HONOUR--'The Hon. Miss ----.' Begin: 'Madam.' MARCHIONESS--'The Most Hon. the Marchioness of ----.' Begin: 'Madam.' Refer to as 'Your Ladyship.' MARQUESS--'The Most Hon. the Marquess of ----.' Begin: 'My Lord Marquess.' Refer to as 'Your Lordship.' MARQUESS'S DAUGHTER--Like Duke's daughter. MARQUESS'S ELDEST SON--Like Duke's eldest son. MARQUESS'S YOUNGER SON--Like Duke's younger son. MAYOR--'The Right Worshipful the Mayor of ----.' Begin: 'Sir.' Refer to as 'Your Worship.' MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT--Add M.P. to the usual form of address. MINISTER RESIDENT--'---- ----, Esq. [or according to rank], 'H.B.M.'s Minister Resident, ----.' OFFICERS IN THE ARMY AND NAVY--The professional is prefixed to any other rank--e.g. 'Admiral the Right Hon. the Earl of ----,' 'Lieut.-Col. Sir ---- ----, K.C.B.' Officers below the rank of Captain in the Army or Commander in the Navy are more generally addressed by their social, not professional rank, followed by the name of the regiment, R.A., R.E., or R.N., as may be. PREMIER--According to his rank. PRINCE--If a Duke, 'His Royal Highness the Duke of ----.' If not a Duke, 'His Royal Highness Prince' [Christian name]. Begin, in either case, 'Sir.' Refer to as 'Your Royal Highness.' PRINCESS--If a Duchess, 'Her Royal Highness the Duchess of ----.' If not a Duchess, 'Her Royal Highness the Princess' [Christian name]. Begin: 'Madam.' Refer to as 'Your Royal Highness.' PRINCIPAL OF A SCOTTISH UNIVERSITY--When a clergyman, 'The Very Rev. the Principal of Aberdeen,' or 'The Very Rev. Principal' [Marshall Lang]. PRIVY COUNCILLOR--'The Right Hon.,' followed by name or title. Begin and refer to according to rank. QUEEN--'The Queen's Most excellent Majesty.' Begin: 'Madam,' or 'May it please your Majesty.' Otherwise, 'Lord ---- presents his duty to your Majesty.' Refer to as 'Your Majesty.' QUEEN'S COUNSEL--Append Q.C. to ordinary address. SECRETARY OF STATE--'Her Majesty's Principal Secretary of State for the ---- Department.' SERJEANT-AT-LAW--'Serjeant ----,' or 'Mr Serjeant ----.' SHERIFF OF LONDON--'The Right Worshipful.' VICE-CHANCELLOR--As a Judge. Begin: 'Sir.' Address on the bench as 'My Lord.' VISCOUNT--'The Right Hon. the Lord Viscount ----,' or 'The Lord Viscount ----.' Begin: 'My Lord.' Refer to as 'Your Lordship.' VISCOUNTESS--'The Right Hon. the Viscountess ----,' or 'The Viscountess ----.' Begin: 'Madam.' Refer to as 'Your Ladyship.' VISCOUNT'S DAUGHTER, SON, AND SON'S WIFE--As Baron's daughter, son, and son's wife. In correspondence with equals or personal friends letters are begun less formally--e.g., 'My dear Lord,' 'Dear Lord ----,' 'Dear Sir James.' We are less ceremonious than our ancestors a few generations ago, when letters to the nearest relatives and most intimate friends were begun and ended in the most formal manner. Designations like 'Mrs General ----,' 'Mrs Captain ----,' 'Mrs Dr ----,' which were fifty years ago not uncommon, were always improper. Persons holding offices other than those enumerated are addressed in the usual form, 'Sir,' 'Dear Sir,' or 'My dear Sir,' according to the more or less formal terms on which the writer may be with his correspondent. A firm is addressed 'Gentlemen' or 'Dear Sirs.' * * * * * PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY OF SCRIPTURE PROPER NAMES. [This vocabulary contains all common Scripture Names except monosyllables and dissyllables, the latter being always accented on the first syllable. _Ch_ has the sound of _k_, and so has _c_, except when marked _ç_, to indicate the sound of _s_; _g_ is hard, except when marked otherwise.] A-bad'don. Ab'a-na. Ab'a-rim. A-bed'ne-g[=o]. [=A]-bel-Me-h[=o]'lah. [=A]-bel-Miz'r[=a]-im (_or_ -r[=a]'). [=A]-bel-Shit'tim. A-b[=i]'a. A-b[=i]'a-thar. A-bi-[=e]'zer. Ab'i-gail. A-b[=i]'h[=u]. A-b[=i]'jah. A-b[=i]'jam. Ab-i-l[=e]'ne. A-bim'e-lech. A-bin'a-dab. A-b[=i]'ram. Ab'i-shag. A-bish'[=a]-[=i]. [=A]'bra-ham. Ab'sa-lom. A-çel'da-ma. A-ch[=a]'ia ('ya, _or_ a-k[=i]'a). A-d[=i]'n[=o] (_or_ Ad'i-n[=o]) A-do-ni-b[=e]'zek. Ad-o-n[=i]'jah. Ad-o-n[=i]'ram. A-do-ni-z[=e]'dek. A-dram'me-lech. Ad-ra-myt'ti-um. A'dri-a. [=A]'dri-el. A-dul'lam. Ag'a-bus (_or_ -g[=a]'). A-grip'pa. A-has-[=u]-[=e]'rus. [=A]-ha-z[=i]'ah. A-h[=i]'jah. A-him'[=a]-az. A-him'e-lech. A-hin'o-am. A-hith'o-phel. A-h[=i]'tub. A-h[=o]'li-ab. A-hol'i-bah. Aj'a-lon. Al-ex-an'dri-a. Al-phæ'us (-f[=e]'). Al-tas'chith. Am'a-lek. Am'a-lek-[=i]te (_or_ A-mal'). Am'a-na, A-m[=a]'na. Am'a-sa, A-m[=a]'sa. Am-a-z[=i]'ah. A-min'a-dab. Am'mon-[=i]te. Am'o-r[=i]te. Am-phip'o-lis. Am'ra-phel. An'a-kims. A-nam'me-lech. An-a-n[=i]'as. An'a-thoth. An-dro-n[=i]'cus. An'ti-och. An'ti-pas. An-tip'a-tris. A-pel'l[=e]s ('l[=e]z). Ap-ol-l[=o]'ni-a. A-pol'los. A-pol'ly-on. Ap'pi-[=i] F[=o]'rum. Aq'ui-la (ak'wi-). Ar'a-rat. A-rau'nah. Ar-che-l[=a]'us. Arc-t[=u]'rus. Ar-[=e]-op'a-gus. Ar'e-tas. [=A]'ri-el. Ar-i-ma-th[=e]'a. A'ri-och. Ar-is-tar'chus. Ar-is-to-b[=u]'lus. Ar-ma-ged'don. Ar-m[=e]'ni-a. Ar'o-er. Ar'te-mas. A-ru'mah. As'a-hel. As'e-nath. Ash'ke-naz. Ash't[=a]-roth. Ash-t[=o]'reth. A'si-a ([=a]'zhi-a). As'ke-lon. As-syr'i-a. Ath-a-l[=i]'ah. At-ta-l[=i]'a. Au-gus'tus. Az-a-r[=i]'ah. A-z[=o]'tus. B[=a]'al-ah. B[=a]-al-b[=e]'rith. B[=a]'al-gad. B[=a]-al-h[=a]'zor. B[=a]-al-her'mon. B[=a]-al-m[=e]'on. B[=a]-al-p[=e]'or. B[=a]-al-per'a-zim. B[=a]-al-shal'i-sha (_or_ -l[=i]'). B[=a]-al-t[=a]'mar. B[=a]-al-z[=e]'bub. B[=a]-al-z[=e]'phon. B[=a]'a-sha. Bab'y-lon. Ba-h[=u]'rim. Ba-rab'bas. Bar'na-bas. Bar'sa-bas. Bar-thol'o-mew. Bar-ti-mæ'us. Bar-zil'l[=a]-[=i]. Bath-sh[=e]'ba (_or_ Bath'). B[=e]-el'ze-bub. B[=e]-er-la-h[=a]i'roi. Be-[=e]'roth. B[=e]-er'she-ba (_or_ -sh[=e]'). B[=e]'he-moth. B[=e]'li-al. Bel-shaz'zar. Bel-te-shaz'zar. Be-n[=a]'iah ('ya, _or_ -n[=i]'a). Ben-h[=a]'dad. Ben'ja-min. Be-r[=e]'a. Ber-n[=i]'çe. Be-r[=o]'dach-bal'a-dan. Beth-ab'a-ra. Beth'a-ny. Beth-ar'bel. Beth-[=a]'ven. Be-thes'da (-thez'). Beth-h[=o]'ron. Beth'le-hem. Beth-m[=a]'a-chah. Beth-p[=e]'or (_or_ Beth'). Beth'pha-g[=e] (-j[=e]). Beth-s[=a]'i-da. Beth-sh[=e]'mesh (_or_ Beth'). Be-th[=u]'el (_or_ Beth'). Be-zal'e-el. Bi-thyn'i-a. B[=o]-a-ner'g[=e]s ('j[=e]z). C[=a]'ia-phas (k[=a]'ya- _or_ k[=i]'a-). Cal'va-ry. C[=a]'naan-[=i]te. Can'da-ç[=e]. Ca-per'n[=a]-um. Cap-pa-d[=o]'ci-a ('shi-). Car'che-mish. Cen'chre-a (sen'). C[=e]s-a-r[=e]'a. Chal-d[=e]'an. Ched-or-l[=a]'o-mer (_or_ -l[=a]-[=o]'). Chem'a-rims. Cher'eth-[=i]tes. Chin'ne-reth. Cho-r[=a]'zin. Ch[=u]-shan-rish-a-th[=a]'im. Ci-lic'i-a (si-lish'i-a). Cin'ne-roth (sin'). Clau'di-a. Clau'di-us. Cl[=e]'o-phas. Co-los's[=e]. Co-n[=i]'ah. Cor-n[=e]'li-us. Cy-r[=e]'n[=e] (s[=i]-). Cy-r[=e]'ni-us (s[=i]-). Dal-ma-n[=u]'tha. Dal-m[=a]'ti-a ('shi-). Dam'a-ris. Da-mas'cus. Dan'i-el. Da-r[=i]'us. Deb'o-rah (_or_ -b[=o]'). De-cap'o-lis. Del'i-lah (Heb. De-l[=i]'lah). De-m[=e]'tri-us. D[=i]-an'a. D[=i]-o-nys'i-us (-nish'). D[=i]-ot're-ph[=e]s (-f[=e]z). Dru-sil'la. [=E]-bed-m[=e]'lech. Eb-en-[=e]'zer. [=E]'dom-[=i]te. Ed're-[=i]. El-[=e]'a-leh. El-[=e]-[=a]'zar. El-e-l[=o]'he-Is'ra-el. El-h[=a]'nan. E-l[=i]'ab. E-l[=i]'a-kim. E-l[=i]'a-shib. El-i-[=e]'zer. E-l[=i]'h[=u]. E-l[=i]'jah. E-lim'e-lech. El'i-phaz. E-l[=i]'sha. E-lish'e-ba (_or_ -sh[=e]'). El'ka-nah. El'la-sar. El'n[=a]-than. E-l[=o]'[=i]. El'y-mas. [=E]'ne-as. Em'ma-us (_or_ Em-m[=a]'). En-eg-l[=a]'im. En'g[=e]-d[=i] (_or_ -ged'). En-r[=o]'gel. Ep'a-phras. E-paph-ro-d[=i]'tus. Eph'e-sus. [=E]'phr[=a]-im. Eph'ra-tah. Ep-i-c[=u]-r[=e]'ans. E-ras'tus. [=E]-sar-had'don. Es-dra-[=e]'lon. Esh't[=a]-ol. [=E]-thi-[=o]'pi-a. E[=u]-n[=i]'çe. E[=u]-[=o]'di-as. E[=u]-phr[=a]'t[=e]s ('t[=e]z). E[=u]-roc'ly-don. E[=u]'ty-chus. [=E]-vil-me-r[=o]'dach (or -mer'). Ex'o-dus. E-z[=e]'ki-el. [=E]-zi-on-g[=a]'ber. For-t[=u]-n[=a]'tus. Gab'ba-tha. G[=a]'bri-el. Gad'a-r[=e]nes. Ga-l[=a]'ti-a (-l[=a]'shi-a) Gal'e-ed. Gal-i-l[=e]'an. Gal'i-lee. Gal'li-o. Ga-m[=a]'li-el. Ged-a-l[=i]'ah. Ged'e-roth. Ge-h[=a]'z[=i]. Gem-a-r[=i]'ah. Gen-nes'a-ret. Gen'e-sis (jen'). Ge-n[=u]'bath. Ger'ge-s[=e]nes. Ger'i-zim (Heb. Ge-riz'zim). Geth-sem'a-ne. Gib'be-thon. Gib'e-ah. Gib'e-on. Gid'e-on. Gil-b[=o]'a. Gil'e-ad. Gir'gash-[=i]te. Gol'go-tha. Go-l[=i]'ath. Go-mor'rah. Hab'ak-kuk. Hach'i-lah. Had-ad-[=e]'zer. Had-ad-rim'mon. H[=a]'gar-[=e]nes. Hag'g[=a]-[=i]. Ha-nan'e-el. Ha-n[=a]'n[=i]. Han-a-n[=i]'ah. Har'[=o]-sheth (_or_ -r[=o]'). Hav'i-lah. H[=a]-voth-j[=a]'ir. Haz'[=a]-el (or H[=a]'). Heph'zi-bah. Her-mog'e-n[=e]s (-moj'e-n[=e]z). He-r[=o]'di-ans. He-r[=o]'di-as. He-r[=o]'di-on. Hez-e-k[=i]'-ah. Hid'de-kel (_or_ -dek'). H[=i]-e-rap'o-lis. Hig-g[=a]i'on ('gi- _or_ g[=a]'yon). Hil-k[=i]'ah. Ho-s[=e]'a (-z[=e]'). Ho-sh[=e]'a. H[=y]-me-næ'us. Ich'a-bod. I-c[=o]'ni-um. Id-[=u]-m[=e]'a. Il-lyr'-i-cum. Im-man'[=u]-el. I-sai'ah ([=i]-z[=i]'a _or_ [=i]-z[=a]'ya). Is-car'i-ot. Ish'bo-sheth (_or_ -b[=o]'). Ish'm[=a]-el. Ish'm[=a]-el-[=i]te. Is'r[=a]-el (iz'). Is'r[=a]-el-[=i]te (iz'). Is'sa-char. Ith'a-mar. It't[=a]-[=i]. It-[=u]-r[=e]'a. J[=a]-besh-gil'e-ad. Jab'ne-el. J[=a]'ir-us. Jeb'[=u]-s[=i]te. Jec-o-n[=i]'ah. Jed'[=u]-thun. J[=e]-gar-s[=a]-ha-d[=u]'tha. Je-h[=o]'a-haz. Je-h[=o]'ash. je-hoi'a-chin. Je-hoi'a-da. Je-hoi'a'-kim. Je-hon'a-dab. Je-h[=o]'ram. Je-hosh'a-phat. Je-hosh'e-ba. Je-h[=o]-vah-j[=i]'reh. Je-h[=o]-vah-nis's[=i]. Je-h[=o]-vah-sh[=a]'lom. Jer-e-m[=i]'ah. Jer'i-ch[=o]. Jer-o-b[=o]'am. Je-rub'ba-al (_or_ -b[=a]'). Je-ru'sa-lem. Jesh'i-mon. Jesh'[=u]-run. Jez'e-bel. Jez're-el. Jo-an'na. Joch'e-bed (_or_ -eb'). Jo-h[=a]'nan (_or_ J[=o]'). Jon'a-dab. Jon'a-than. Josh'-[=u]-a. Jo-s[=i]'ah. Joz'a-char. J[=u]-d[=e]'a. J[=u]'li-us. J[=u]'pi-ter. Kad'mon-[=i]tes. Ked'e-moth. Ken'niz-z[=i]tes. K[=e]'ri-oth. Ke-t[=u]'rah. Kib-roth-hat-t[=a]'a-vah. Kir-h[=e]'res. Kir-jath-[=a]'im. Kir-jath-ar'ba. Kir-jath-h[=u]'zoth. Kir-jath-j[=e]'a-rim. La-hai'roi (-h[=i]'). L[=a]-od-i-ç[=e]'a. La-s[=e]'a. Laz'a-rus. Leb'a-non. Leb-b[=e]'us. Lem'[=u]-el. Le-v[=i]'a-than. Lib'er-t[=i]nes. Lib'y-a. L[=o]-am'm[=i]. L[=o]-r[=u]'ha-mah (_or_ -h[=a]'). L[=u]'çi-fer. L[=u]'-ci-us (l[=u]'shi-us). Lyc-a-[=o]'ni-a. Lyc-i-a (lish'i-a). Lyd'i-a. L[=y]-s[=a]'ni-as. Lys-i-as (lish'i-as). M[=a]'a-cah. Maç-e-d[=o]'ni-a. Mach-p[=e]'lah (_or_ Mach'). Mag'da-la. M[=a]'ha-lath. M[=a]-ha-n[=a]'im. M[=a]-her-shal-al-hash'baz. Mak-k[=e]'dah. Mal'a-ch[=i]. Man'[=a]-en. Ma-nas'seh. Ma-n[=o]'ah. Mar-a-nath'a. Ma-r[=e]'shah (_or_ Mar'). Mat-ta-n[=i]'ah. Mat-th[=i]'as (Math-th[=i]'as). Maz'za-roth. Med'e-ba. Me-gid'do. Mel-chiz'e-dek. Mel'i-ta. Men'a-hem. Me-phib'o-sheth (or Me-phi-b[=o]'). Mer'a-r[=i]. Mer-a-th[=a]'im. Mer'i-bah. Me-r[=o]-dach-bal'a-dan. Mes-o-po-t[=a]'mi-a. Mes-s[=i]'ah. M[=e]-theg-am'mah. Me-th[=u]'se-lah. M[=i]-cai'ah (-k[=i]'a _or_ -k[=a]'ya). M[=i]'cha-el. M[=i]-chai'ah (-k[=i]'a or -k[=a]'ya). Mid'i-an-[=i]te. M[=i]-l[=e]'tus. Mir'i-am. Mit-y-l[=e]'n[=e]. Miz'r[=a]-im. M[=o]'ab-[=i]te. Mor-de-c[=a]'[=i], Mor'-de-cai (-k[=i]). Mo-r[=i]'ah. Mys-i-a (mizh'i-a). N[=a]'a-man. Nai'oth (n[=i]' _or_ n[=a]'-yoth). N[=a]'o-m[=i] _or_ N[=a]-[=o]'m[=i]. Naph'ta-l[=i]. Na-than'[=a]-el. Naz'a-r[=e]ne. Naz'a-reth. Naz'a-r[=i]te. Ne-ap'o-lis. Ne-bai'oth (-b[=i]', _or_ Ne-b[=a]'yoth). Neb-[=u]-chad-nez'zar. Neb-[=u]-zar'a-dan. Neg'i-noth. N[=e]-he-m[=i]'ah. N[=e]'hi-loth. Ne-hush'tan. Neth'i-nims. N[=i]-c[=a]'nor. Nic-o-d[=e]'mus. Nic-o-l[=a]'i-tans. Nic'o-las. N[=i]-cop'o-lis. Nin-e-veh. [=O]-ba-d[=i]'ah. [=O]-bed-[=e]'dom. [=O]'me-ga. O-n[=e]'si-mus. On-[=e]-siph'o-rus. O-r[=i]'on. Oth'ni-el. P[=a]-dan-[=a]'ram. Pal'es-t[=i]ne. Pam-phyl'i-a. Par'me-nas. Par'thi-ans. Par-v[=a]'im. Pat'a-ra. Pek-a-h[=i]'ah. Pel-a-t[=i]'ah. P[=e]'leth-[=i]tes. Pe-n[=i]'el. Pe-n[=u]'el. Per'a-zim. P[=e]-rez-uz'zah. Per'ga-mos. Per'iz-z[=i]te. Per'-si-a (per'shi-a). Phal'ti-el. Ph[=a]-ra[=o]h-hoph'ra (f[=a]'r[=o]- _or_ f[=a]'ra-[=o]-). Ph[=a]-ra[=o]h-n[=e]'choh. Ph[=e]-n[=i]'çe. Ph[=e]-nic'i-a (-nish'). Phil-a-del'phi-a. Ph[=i]-l[=e]'mon. Ph[=i]-l[=e]'tus. Phi-lip'pi. Phil'is-tine (-tin). Phin'e-has. Phryg'i-a (frij'). P[=i]-h[=a]-h[=i]'roth. Pir'a-thon. Pi-sid'i-a. Pl[=e]'ia-d[=e]s ('ya-d[=e]z _or_ pl[=i]'a-). Pot'i-phar. Po-tiph'e-rah. Pris-çil'la. Proch'o-rus. Ptol-e-m[=a]'is (tol-). Pub'li-us. Pu-t[=e]'o-l[=i]. R[=a]'a-mah. R[=a]-am's[=e]s ('s[=e]z). Rab'sha-keh (-k[=a]). Ra-g[=u]'el. R[=a]-math-a'im. R[=a]-math-l[=e]'h[=i]. Ra-m[=e]'s[=e]s ('s[=e]z _or_ Ram'). R[=a]-moth-gil'e-ad. Re-bek'ah. R[=e]'chab-[=i]tes (_or_ Rech'). R[=e]-ho-b[=o]'am. Re-h[=o]'both. Reph'[=a]-im. Reph'i-dim. Rh[=e]'gi-um (r[=e]'ji-). Sa-b[=a]'oth. Sa-b[=e]'ans. Sal'a-mis. Sal-m[=o]'n[=e]. Sa-l[=o]'m[=e]. Sa-m[=a]'ri-a. Sa-mar'i-tan. Sam-o-thr[=a]'ci-a (-thr[=a]'shi-a). Sam'[=u]-el. San-bal'lat. Sap-ph[=i]'ra (saf-f[=i]'). Sa-rep'ta. Scyth'i-an (sith'). Se-cun'dus. Se-leu'ci-a ('shi-a _or_ Se-leu-ç[=i]'a). Sen-nach'e-rib. Seph'a-rad. Seph-ar-v[=a]'im. Ser-ai'ah (-[=i]'a _or_ -[=a]'ya). Ser'gi-us ('ji-). Shal'i-sha. Shal-ma-n[=e]'ser ('zer). Sha-r[=e]'zer. Shem-ai'ah (-[=i]'a). Shem'i-nith. Sheph-a-t[=i]'ah. Shesh-baz'zar. Sh[=e]'thar-boz'na-[=i]. Shig-gai'on (-g[=i]'on). Shim'e-[=i]. Sho-shan'nim. Sh[=u]'lam-[=i]te. Si-l[=o]'am. Sil-v[=a]'nus. Sim'e-on. Sir'i-on. Sis'e-ra. Sod'om-[=i]tes. Sol'o-mon. S[=o]'pa-ter. S[=o]-sip'a-ter. Sos'the-n[=e]s (-n[=e]z). Steph'a-nas. Suk'ki-ims. Su-san'na (-zan'). S[=y]-[=e]'n[=e]. Syn'ty-ch[=e]. Syr'a-c[=u]se. Syr'-i-a. S[=y]-ro-phe-nic'i-an (-nish'i-an). T[=a]'a-nach. Tab'e-rah. Tab'i-tha. Ta-hap'a-n[=e]s (-n[=e]z). Tah'pan-h[=e]s (-h[=e]z). Tah'pe-n[=e]s (-n[=e]z). Tap-p[=u]'ah. Te-haph'ne-h[=e]s (-h[=e]z). Te-k[=o]'ah. Ter'ti-us ('shi-us). Ter-tul'lus. Thad-dæ'us. The-oph'i-lus. Thes-sa-lo-n[=i]'ca. Th[=y]-a-t[=i]'ra. T[=i]-b[=e]'ri-as. T[=i]-b[=e]'ri-us. Tig-lath-pi-l[=e]'ser ('zer). Tim-nath-h[=e]'r[=e]s ('r[=e]z). Tim-nath-s[=e]'rah. Tim'o-thy. Tir'ha-kah. Tir'ha-nah. Tir'sha-tha (_or_ -sh[=a]'). To-b[=i]'ah. To-b[=i]'jah. To-gar'mah. Trach-o-n[=i]'tis. Tro-gyl'li-um (-jil'). Troph'i-mus. Tr[=y]-ph[=e]'na. Tr[=y]-ph[=o]'sa. T[=u]'bal-cain (-k[=a]n). Tych'i-cus. Ty-ran'nus. U-phar'sin ([=u]-). U-r[=i]'ah ([=u]-). U-r[=i]'jah ([=u]-). Uz-z[=i]'ah. Zac-chæ'us. Zach-a-r[=i]'ah. Zach-a-r[=i]'as. Zal-mun'na. Zam-zum'mims. Zar'e-phath. Zar'e-tan. Zeb'e-dee. Ze-boi'im. Ze-b[=o]'im. Zeb'[=u]-lun. Zech-a-r[=i]'ah. Zed-e-k[=i]'ah. Ze-l[=o]'phe-had. Zem-a-r[=a]'im. Zeph-a-n[=i]'ah. Zeph'a-thah. Ze-rub'ba-bel. Zer-[=u]-[=i]'ah. Zip-p[=o]'rah. * * * * * THE MORE COMMON ENGLISH CHRISTIAN NAMES, WITH THEIR ORIGIN AND MEANING. * * * * * See especially Miss Yonge's _History of Christian Names_ (2 vols. 1863). * * * * * AARON (Heb.), lofty, mountaineer.--Ar. _Harun_, _Haroun_. ABEL (Heb.), breath, vanity. ABIATHAR (Heb.), father of excellence or plenty. ABIGAIL (Heb.), father of exultation.--Dims. ABBY, NABBY. ABIHU (Heb.), father [is] he [God]. ABIJAH, ABIA (Heb.), the Lord is a father. ABNER (Heb.), father of Ner, or light, or the father [is] a lamp. ABRAHAM, ABRAM (Heb.), father of a multitude, high father.--Dims. ABE, ABY. ABSALOM (Heb.), father of peace. ADA. See _Edith_. ADALBERT (Teut.), nobly bright. ADAM (Heb.), man, earth, red earth.--Scotch dims. EDIE, YIDDY. ADELINE, also _Adaline_, _Adela_, _Adelaide_, _Adelia_, _Adelina_ (Teut.), of noble birth, a princess.--Dim. ADDY. ADOLPHUS (Teut.), noble wolf.--Fr. _Adolphe_, It. _Adolfo_ or _Udolfo_, Ger. _Adolf_. ADRIAN. See _Hadrian_. ÆNEAS, ENEAS (Gr.), commended.--Fr. _Enée_. AGATHA (Gr.), good, kind. AGNES (Gr.), pure, sacred, chaste.--Dims. AGGIE, AGGY. AILEEN, EILEEN, an Irish form of _Helen_ (q.v.), thus meaning light. AILIE, a Scotch dim. of _Alison_, also of _Alice_, or of _Helen_. ALARIC (Teut.), noble ruler. ALBERT (Teut.), nobly bright.--Dims. BERT, BERTIE.--L. _Albertus_, Fr. _Albert_, Sp. and It. _Alberto_, Ger. _Adalbert_, _Albert_, _Albrecht_.--Fem. ALBERTA. ALETHEA (Gr.), truth. ALEXANDER (Gr.), a helper of men.--Dims. ALECK, ALICK, ECK, ECKY, SANDERS, SANDY, SAWNIE.--Fr. _Alexandre_, It. _Alessandro_.--Fem. ALEXANDRA, ALEXANDRINA. ALFRED (Teut.), elf in counsel--i.e. good counsellor.--Dim. ALF.--L. _Alfredus_, _Aluredus_, Fr. _Alfred_, It. and Sp. _Alfredo_. ALGERNON (O. Fr.), with moustaches--prob. from the usual title, 'William _als Gernons_,' applied for this cause to William de Albini, the second husband of Henry I.'s widow, Alix of Louvaine.--Dim. ALGY. ALICE, ALICIA (Teut.), noble cheer--closely related to _Adeline_ above.--Dims. ALLY or ALLIE, ELSIE. ALISON, a Scotch form of _Aloyse_, _Elöise_, _Helöise_, from _Hlodovicia_, a name of Teut. origin meaning holy fame.--Dim. ELSIE. ALLAN, ALAN, a name first found in early Breton history, referred by Miss Yonge to Hilarius ('cheerful'), confused with Ælianus; more prob. Celt., meaning harmony. ALPHEUS (Heb.), exchange. AMABEL (L.), lovable--whence _Mabel_. AMAZIAH (Heb.), the Lord is strong. AMBROSE (Gr.), immortal, divine.--L. _Ambrosius_, Fr. _Ambroise_, It. _Ambrogio_, Sp. _Ambrosio_. AMELIA (Teut.), toiling, energetic.--Fr. _Amélie_, It. _Amelia_, _Amalia_. AMOS (Heb.), strong, one who bears a burden. AMY (L.), beloved.--L. _Amata_, Fr. _Aimée_, It. _Amata_. ANDREW (Gr.), manly.--Dim. ANDY.--L. _Andreas_, Fr. _André_, It. _Andrea_, Sp. _Andres_. ANGELICA (Gr.), angelic, lovely. ANGELINA (Gr.), angel. ANGUS (Celt.), excellent virtue. ANN, ANNA, ANNE (Heb.), grace--the same as _Hannah_.--Dims. ANNIE, NANCY, NANNY, NINA, NAN, ANNETTE. ANNABEL, ANNABELLA, ANNAPLE, made up of _Anna_ (Heb.), grace, as above, and _Bella_ (L.), fair; or probably the early Celtic name _Aine_, meaning joy, praise, Anglicised. It may be, however, a variant of _Arabella_, earlier _Arnhilda_ (Teut.), eagle heroine. ANSELM (Teut.), divine helmet.--Fr. _Anselme_, It. and Sp. _Anselmo_. ANTHONY, ANTONY (L.), worthy of praise.--Dim. TONY.--L. _Antonius_, Fr. _Antoine_, It. and Sp. _Antonio_, Ger. _Antonius_, _Anton_.--Fem. ANTONIA. ANTOINETTE, the French form of _Antonia_, _Antonina_, the fem. of _Anthony_.--Dim. NET, NETTY. ARABELLA (L.), a fair altar, or an Arabian woman--perh. Teut., meaning eagle heroine.--Dims. BELLA, BEL, BELLE. See _Annabel_ above. ARCHIBALD (Teut.), very bold, or holy prince.--Dims. ARCHY, BALDIE.--L. _Archibaldus_, Fr. _Archambault_, It. _Arcibaldo_. ARNOLD (Teut.), strong as an eagle. ARTHUR (Celt.), high, noble.--L. _Arthurus_, Fr. _Artur_, _Artus_, It. _Arturo_. ASA (Heb.), [the Lord is] a healer. ATHANASIUS (Gr.), immortal.--Fr. _Athanase_, It. _Atanasio_. ATHELSTAN (Teut.). noble stone. AUBREY (Teut.), elf-ruler, ruler of spirits. AUGUSTIN, AUGUSTINE, AUSTIN (L.), belonging to Augustus.--L. _Augustinus_, Fr. _Augustin_, It. _Agostino_, Ger. _Augustin_. AUGUSTUS (L.), exalted.--Dims. GUS, GUSSIE, GUSTUS.--Fr. _Auguste_, Ger. _August_.--Fem. AUGUSTA. AURELIUS (L.), golden.--Fem. AURELIA. ASAPH (Heb.), a collector, [God] gathereth. BALDWIN (Teut.), prince-friend.--L. _Balduinus_, Fr. _Baudouin_, It. _Baldovino_, _Balduino_, Ger. _Balduin_. BAPTIST (Gr.), a baptiser.--Fr. _Baptiste_, _Batiste_, It. _Battista_, Ger. _Baptist_. BARBARA (Gr.), foreign.--Dims. BAB, BABBIE. BARDOLPH (Teut.), bright wolf or distinguished helper.--Fr. _Bardolphe_, It. _Bardolfo_. BARNABAS, BARNABY (Heb.), son of exhortation. BARTHOLOMEW (Heb.), son of one's own brother (i.e. friend).--Dims. BART, BAT.--L. _Bartholomæus_, Fr. _Bartolomée_, _Barthélemi_, It. _Bartolomeo_, Ger. _Bartholomäus_, _Barthel_. BARUCH (Heb.), blessed [by God]. BASIL (Gr.), kingly.--L. _Basilius_, Fr. _Basile_, It. and Sp. _Basilio_. BATHSHEBA (Heb.), prob. daughter of the seven, or of an oath. BEATRICE, BEATRIX (L.), making happy. BENEDICT (L.), blessed.--Dim. BENNET.--L. _Benedictus_, Fr. _Benoît_, It. _Benedetto_, _Bettino_, Sp. _Benedicto_, _Benito_, Ger. _Benedict_.--Fem. BENEDICTA. BENJAMIN (Heb.), son of the right hand (i.e. of good fortune).--Dims. BEN, BENNY.--It. _Beniamino_. BERNARD (Teut.), bold as a bear.--Dim. BARNEY.--L. _Bernardus_, Fr. _Bernard_, _Bernardin_, It. _Bernardo_, _Bernardino_, Sp. _Bernardo_, _Bernal_, Ger. _Bernhard_, _Barend_, _Berend_. BERTHA (Teut.), bright.--Dims. BERTIE, BERTY.--Fr. _Berthe_, It. and Sp. _Berta_. BERTRAM (Teut.), bright raven.--Dim. BERT.--Fr. _Bertrand_, It. _Bertrando_, Sp. _Beltran_. BESSIE, BETSY, a dim. of _Elisabeth_ (q.v.). BLANCHE (Teut.), white.--Fr. _Blanche_, It. _Bianca_, Sp. _Blanca_. BONIFACE (L.), a benefactor.--L. _Bonifacius_, It. _Bonifacio_, _Bonifazio_, Sp. _Bonifacio_. BRIAN (Celt.), strong.--It. _Briano_. BRIDGET (Celt.), strength.--Dim. BIDDY.--Fr. _Brigitte_, It. and Sp. _Brigida_, Ger. _Brigitta_. CADWALLADER (W.), arranger of battle. CÆSAR (L.), hairy, or blue-eyed, or born under the Cæsarean operation.--Fr. _César_, It. _Cesare_, Ger. _Cäsar_. CAIN (Heb.), artificer, smith. CALEB (Heb.), a dog. CALVIN (L.), bald.--L. _Calvinus_, Fr. _Calvin_, _Cauvin_, Sp. _Calvo_. CAMILLA (L.), an attendant at a sacrifice.--Fr. _Camille_. CAROLINE, a French form of the fem. of _Carolus_, the Latin of Charles.--Dims. CARRIE, CADDIE. CASIMIR (Slav.), show forth peace.--Dim. CASSIE. CASSANDRA (Gr.), she who inflames with love. CATHERINE, also _Catherina_, _Catharine_, _Katharine_, _Katherine_ (Gr.), pure.--Dims. CASY, KATE, KATHLEEN, KATIE, CATHIE, KATHIE, KATRINE, KIT, KITTY.--Fr. _Catherine_, It. _Caterina_, Sp. _Catalina_, Ger. _Katharine_. CECIL (L.), blind. CECILIA, CECILY, fem. of _Cecil_.--Dims. SISELY, SIS, CIS, CISSY.--Fr. _Cécile_, It. _Cecilia_. CHARLES (Teut.), strong, manly.--Dims. CHARLEY, CHARLIE.--L. _Carolus_, Fr. _Charles_, It. _Carlo_, Sp. _Carlos_, Ger. _Carl_, _Karl_.--Fem. CAROLINE, CHARLOTTE. CHRISTIAN (L.), belonging to Christ.--Dims. CHRISTIE, CHRISTY.--L. _Christianus_, Fr. _Chrestien_, _Chrétien_, It. and Sp. _Cristiano_.--Fem. CHRISTIANA, CHRISTINA. CHRISTINA, fem. of _Christian_.--Dims. CHRISSIE, TEENIE, TINA, XINA. CHRISTOPHER (Gr.), bearing Christ.--Dims. KESTER, KIT, CHRIS.--L. _Christophorus_, Fr. _Christophe_, It. _Cristoforo_, Sp. _Cristoval_, Ger. _Christoph_. CICELY, a form of _Cecilia_ (q.v.). CLARA (L.), bright.--Dim. CLARE.--Fr. _Claire_, It. _Chiara_, Sp. _Clara_. CLARENCE (L.), illustrious. CLARIBEL (L.), brightly fair. CLARICE, CLARISSA, derivatives from _Clara_. CLAUD, CLAUDIUS (L.), lame. CLAUDIA, fem. of _Claudius_. CLEMENT (L.), mild, merciful.--L. _Clemens_, It. and Sp. _Clemente_, Fr. _Clément_, Ger. _Clemens_.--Fem. and dim. forms are CLEMENTINA, CLEMENTINE. CONRAD (Teut.), bold in counsel, resolute.--L. _Conradus_, Fr. _Conrade_, It. _Conrado_, _Corrado_, Ger. _Konrad_. CONSTANCE, a fem. form of _Constant_.--Dim. CONNIE.--L. _Constantia_, Fr. _Constance_, It. _Costanza_. CONSTANT (L.), firm, faithful.--L. _Constans_, _Constantius_, It. _Costante_, _Costanzo_, Sp. _Constancio_, Ger. _Constanz_. CONSTANTINE (L.), firm.--L. _Constantinus_, It. _Costantino_, Sp. _Constantino_, Ger. _Constantin_. CORA, CORINNA (Gr.), maiden.--Fr. _Corinne_. CORDELIA (L.), warm-hearted.--Fr. _Cordélie_. CORNELIUS, prob. related to L. _cornu_, a horn.--Fr. _Cornélius_ (fem. _Cornélie_), It. and Sp. _Cornelio_.--Fem. CORNELIA. CRISPIN, CRISPIAN, CRISPUS (L.), curly-haired.--L. _Crispinus_, _Crispianus_, Fr. _Crispin_, _Crépin_, It. _Crispino_, _Crispo_, Ger. _Crispus_. CUTHBERT (A.S.), well-known splendour. CYNTHIA (Gr.), of or from Mount Cynthus. CYPRIAN (Gr.), of Cyprus.--L. _Cyprianus_. CYRIL (Gr.), lordly.--L. _Cyrillus_, Fr. _Cyrille_, Sp. _Cirilo_, Ger. _Cyrill_. CYRUS (Pers.), the sun. DANIEL (Heb.), God is judge.--Dims. DAN, DANNY. DARIUS (Pers.), preserver. DAVID (Heb.), beloved.--Dims. DAVY, DAVE.--Fr. _David_, It. _Davide_, _Davidde_, Ger. _David_.--Fem. DAVIDA, VIDA. DEBORAH (Heb.), a bee. DELIA (Gr.), of Delos. DEMETRIUS (Gr.), belonging to Demeter or Ceres.--Fr. _Demétrius_, It. _Demetrio_. DENIS, DENNIS, DENYS, a French form of _Dionysius_. DERRICK, a corruption of _Theodoric_. DIANA (L.), goddess.--Dims. DI, DIE. DINAH (Heb.), judged. DIONYSIUS (Gr.), belonging to Dionysos or Bacchus.--Fr. _Denys_, _Denis_, It. _Dionigio_, _Dionigi_, _Dionisio_, Ger. _Dionysius_, _Dionys_. DOMINIC (L.), Sunday child.--L. _Dominicus_, Fr. _Dominique_, It. _Domenico_, Sp. _Domingo_. DONALD (Celt.), proud chief. DORA, a dim. of _Dorothea_ (q.v.). DORCAS (Gr.), a gazelle. DOROTHEA, DOROTHY (Gr.), the gift of God.--Dims. DOL, DOLLY.--Fr. _Dorothée_, _Dorette_, It. and Sp. _Dorotea_. DOUGAL (Celt.), black stranger. DRUSILLA (L.), strong. DUNCAN (Celt.), brown chief. EBENEZER (Heb.), the stone of help. EDGAR (A.S.), rich spear.--L. _Edgarus_, It. _Edgaro_. EDITH (A.S.), rich gift.--L. _Editha_, It. _Edita_. EDMUND (A.S.), rich protection.--Dims. ED, NED.--L. _Edmundus_, Fr. _Edmond_, It. _Edmondo_, Sp. _Edmundo_. EDNA (Heb.) pleasure. EDWARD (A.S.), rich guard.--Dims. ED, EDDY, NED, NEDDY, TED, TEDDY.--L. _Edvardus_, Fr. _Edouard_, It. _Eduardo_, _Edoardo_, Sp. _Eduardo_, Ger. _Eduard_. EDWIN (A.S.), rich friend.--Dims. ED, EDDY.--L. _Edvinus_, It. _Eduino_. EFFIE, a dim. of _Euphemia_ (q.v.). EGBERT (A.S.), terribly bright.--L. _Egbertus_, It. _Egberto_, Ger. _Eckbert_, _Egbert_. ELDRED (A.S.), terrible. ELEANOR, ELINOR (Gr.), light--the same as _Helen_.--Dims. ELLA, ELLEN, NELL, NELLIE, NORA.--It. _Eleonora_, Ger. _Eleonore_, Fr. _Aliénor_. ELEAZER (Heb.), God is a help. ELI (Heb.), going up, or my God. ELIAB (Heb.), God is his father. ELIAS, the same as _Elijah_ (q.v.). ELIHU (Heb.), God the Lord. ELIJAH (Heb.), God is the Lord.--L. _Elija_, Fr. _Élie_, It. _Elia_, Ger. _Elias_, _Elia_. ELISABETH, ELIZABETH, ELIZA (Heb.), God of the oath.--Dims. BESS, BESSIE, BESSY, BETH, BETSY, BETTY, ELSIE, LIZ, LIZZIE, LIBBY, LISA, LIZA.--Fr. _Elisabeth_, _Élise_, It. _Elisabetta_, _Elisa_, Ger. _Elisabeth_, _Elise_. ELISHA (Heb.), God of salvation.--L. _Eliseus_, Fr. _Élisée_, It. and Sp. _Eliseo_. ELLA, ELLEN, dims. of _Eleanor_. ELSPETH (Heb.), God of the oath--a Scotch form of _Elisabeth_.--Dims. ELSPIE, ELSIE. EMELINE, EMMELINE, EMILY (Teut.), industrious, energetic.--Fr. _Émilie_, It. and Sp. _Emilia_, Ger. _Emilie_. EMMA, the same as _Emeline_.--Dims. EMM, EMMIE.--Fr. _Emma_, It. _Emma_, Sp. _Ema_. EMMANUEL, IMMANUEL (Gr. from Heb.), God with us.--Fr. _Emmanuel_, It. _Emmanuele_, Sp. _Manuel_, Ger. _Emanuel_. ENOCH (Heb.), consecrated. EPHRAIM (Heb.), fruitful. ERASMUS (Gr.), lovely, deserving love.--Fr. _Erasme_, It. and Sp. Erasmo. ERASTUS (Gr.), lovely.--Fr. _Eraste_. ERIC (A.S.), rich, powerful.--L. _Ericus_. ERNEST (Ger.), earnest.--Fr. _Ernest_, It. and Sp. _Ernesto_, Ger. _Ernst_.--Fem. ERNESTINE. ERNESTINE, fem. and dim. of _Ernest_. ESAU (Heb.), hairy. ESTHER (Pers.), a star, good fortune.--Dim. ESSIE.--Fr. _Esther_, It. _Ester_, _Esterre_, Sp. _Ester_, Ger. _Esther_. ETHEL (A.S.), noble. ETHELINDA (Teut.), noble snake. EUDORA (Gr.), good gift.--Fr. _Eudore_. EUGENE (Gr.), well born, noble.--L. _Eugenius_, Fr. _Eugène_, It. _Eugenio_, Sp. _Eugenio_, Ger. _Eugenius_, _Eugen_.--Fem. EUGENIA. EUGENIA, fem. of _Eugene_.--Dim. GENIE.--Fr. _Eugénie_, It. and Sp. _Eugenia_. EULALIA (Gr.), fair speech.--Fr. _Eulalie_, It. _Eulalia_. EUNICE (Gr.), happy victory. EUPHEMIA (Gr.), of good report.--Dims. EFFIE, EUPHIE, PHEMIE, PHAMIE.--Fr. _Euphémie_, It. and Sp. _Eufemia_. EUSEBIUS (Gr.), pious.--Fr. _Eusèbe_, It. and Sp. _Eusebio_. EUSTACE (Gr.), healthy, firm.--L. _Eustachius_, _Eustathius_, Fr. _Eustach_, _Eustathe_, It. _Eustazio_, _Eustachio_, Ger. _Eustathius_. EVA, EVE (Heb.), life.--Dims. EVELINA, EVELINE, EVELYN.--Fr. _Eve_, It. and Sp. _Eva_, Ger. _Eva_. EVAN (W.), young warrior. EVANGELINE (Gr.), bringing glad news. EVERARD (Teut.), strong as a wild boar.--Fr. _Evraud_, It. _Everardo_, _Eberardo_, Ger. _Eberhard_, _Ebert_. EZEKIEL (Heb.), God will strengthen.--Dim. ZEKE.--Fr. _Ezéchiel_. EZRA (Heb.), help.--L. _Ezra_, _Ezdras_, Fr. _Esdras_. FAITH (L.), faith. FAUSTINA, FAUSTINE (L.), fortunate.--Fr. _Faustine_, It. _Faustina_. FELICIA (L.), happiness.--Fr. _Félicie_, _Félicite_, It. _Felicia_, Sp. _Felicidad_. FELIX (L.), happy.--Fr. _Félix_, It. _Felice_, Sp. _Felix_, Port. _Feliz_, Ger. _Felix_.--Fem. FELICIA. FERDINAND (Teut.), brave.--Fr. _Ferdinand_, _Ferrand_, It. _Ferdinando_, _Ferrando_, Sp. _Hernando_, _Fernando_, Ger. _Ferdinand_. FESTUS (L.) joyful. FIDELIA (L.), faithful. FLORA (L.), flowers.--Fr. _Flore_, It. _Flora_. FLORENCE (L.), blooming.--Dims. FLO, FLOSSIE, FLOY.--L. _Florentia_. FRANCES, fem. of _Francis_.--Dim. FANNY.--L. _Francisca_, Fr. _Françoise_, _Francisque_, It. _Francesca_, Sp. _Francisca_, Ger. _Franziske_. FRANCIS (Fr.), free--dim. FRANK--L. _Franciscus_, Fr. _François_, It. _Francesco_, _Franco_, Sp. _Francisco_, Ger. _Franciscus_, _Franz_.--Fem. FRANCES--dim. FANNY. FREDERIC, FREDERICK (Teut.), peace ruler.--Dims. FRED, FREDDY.--L. _Fredericus_, Fr. _Frédéric_, It, _Frederigo_, _Frederico_, Sp. _Federico_, Ger. _Friedrich_, _Fritz_.--Fem. FREDERICA. FREDERICA, fem. of _Frederic_.--Dim. FREDDIE.--Fr. _Frédérique_, It. _Frederica_, Sp. _Federica_, Ger. _Friederike_. GABRIEL (Heb.), hero of God.--Dim. GABE.--Fr. _Gabriel_, It. _Gabriello_. GAMALIEL (Heb.), God is a recompenser. GEOFFREY, the same as _Godfrey_. GEORGE (Gr.), a husbandman--dims. GEORGIE, GEORDIE--L. _Georgius_, Fr. _Georges_, It. _Giorgio_, Sp. _Jorge_, Ger. _Georg_.--Fem. GEORGIANA, GEORGINA--dim. GEORGIE. GERALD, GERARD (Teut.), spear-power.--L. _Geraldus_, _Gerardus_, Fr. _Gérard_, _Géraud_, _Giraud_, _Girauld_, It. _Gerardo_, _Giraldo_, Ger. _Gerhard_.--Fem. GERALDINE. GERMAN, GERMAINE (L.), German.--L. _Germanus_, Fr. _Germain_, It. _Germano_. GERTRUDE (Teut.), spear-maid.--Dims. GERTIE, TRUDY.--Fr. _Gertrude_, It. _Gertrude_, _Geltruda_, Sp. _Gertrudes_, Ger. _Gertraud_, _Gertrud_. GIDEON (Heb.), a hewer down. GILBERT (Teut.), bright pledge.--Dim. GIL.--L. _Gilbertus_, Fr. _Guilbert_, _Gilbert_, It. and Sp. _Gilberto_, Ger. _Gilbert_, _Giselbert_. GILES (Gr.), with the ægis, or a kid.--L. _Ægidius_, Fr. _Gilles_, _Égide_, It. _Egidio_, Ger. _Egidius_. GODFREY (Teut.), God's peace.--L. _Godefridus_, _Galfridus_, Fr. _Godefroi_, _Geoffroi_, It. _Godofredo_, _Goffredo_, _Giotto_, Sp. _Godofredo_, _Gofredo_, Ger. _Gottfried_. GODWIN (A.S.), divine friend. GRACE (L.), grace. GREGORY (Gr.), watchman.--L. _Gregorius_, Fr. _Grégoire_, It. and Sp. _Gregoiro_, Ger. _Gregorius_, _Gregor_. GRIFFITH (W.), ruddy. GRISELDA (Teut.), stone heroine.--Dim. GRISSEL. GUSTAVUS (Teut.), Goth's staff--Fr. _Gustave_, It. and Sp. _Gustavo_, Ger. _Gustav_. GUY (Fr.), a leader, or Celt., meaning sense.--L. _Guido_, Fr. _Guy_, It. and Sp. _Guido_. HADRIAN, ADRIAN (L.), of Adria, a town in Picenum, whence also _Adriatic_ Sea.--L. _Hadrianus_. HANNAH (Heb.), grace, the same as _Anna_ (q.v.). HANNIBAL (Punic), grace of Baal.--So L., Fr. _Hannibal_, _Annibal_, It. _Annibale_, Sp. _Anibal_. HAROLD (A.S.), warrior power.--Fr. _Harold_, It. _Araldo_, _Aroldo_. HARRIET, HARRIOT, fem. and dim. forms of _Harry_, _Henry_.--Dim. HATTY. HELEN, HELENA (Gr.), light.--Dims. NELL, NELLIE.--L. _Helena_, Fr. _Hélène_, It. _Elena_, Sp. _Helena_, _Elena_, Ger. _Helene_. HENRIETTA, a French dim. form of _Henry_.--Dims. ETTA, HETTY, NETTIE.--Fr. _Henriette_, It. _Enrighetta_, Sp. _Enriqueta_, Ger. _Henriette_. HENRY (Teut.), home ruler.--Dims. HARRY, HAL, HEN, HENNY.--L. _Henricus_, _Enricus_, Fr. _Henri_, It. _Enrico_, Sp. _Enrique_, Ger. _Heinrich_, Dut. _Hendrik_.--Fem. HENRIETTA, HARRIET. HERBERT (A.S.), glory of the army.--L. _Herbertus_, Fr. _Herbert_, It. _Erberto_, Sp. _Heberto_, Ger. _Herbert_. HERCULES (Gr.), lordly fame.--So L., Fr. _Hercule_, It. _Ercole_. HERMAN (Teut.), a warrior.--L. _Arminius_, It. _Ermanno_, Ger. _Hermann_. HESTER, HESTHER, the same as _Esther_. HEZEKIAH (Heb.), the Lord is strength.--Fr. _Ezéchias_, It. _Ezechia_, Sp. _Ezequias_, Ger. _Hiskia_. HILARY (L.), cheerful.--L. _Hilarius_, Fr. _Hilaire_, It. _Ilario_, Sp. _Hilario_, Ger. _Hilarius_.--Fem. HILARIA. HILDA (Teut.), battle maid. HIRAM (Heb.), noble. HOMER (Gr.), a pledge.--L. _Homerus_, Fr. _Homère_, It. _Omero_, Ger. _Homerus_. HONORA, HONORIA (L.), honourable.--Dims. NORAH, NORA. HOPE (Eng.), hope. HORACE, HORATIO (L.).--L. _Horatius_, Fr. _Horace_, It. _Orazio_, Sp. _Horacio_, Ger. _Horatius_, _Horazo_.--Fem. HORATIA. HORTENSIA (L.), a gardener.--Fr. _Hortense_, It. _Ortensia_, Ger. _Hortensia_. HOSEA (Heb.), help, deliverance. HUBERT (Teut.), mind bright.--L. _Hubertus_, Fr. _Hubert_, It. _Uberto_, Sp. _Huberto_, Ger. _Hubert_, _Hugibert_. HUGH, HUGO (Teut.), mind, soul.--Dims. HUGHIE, HUGHOC, HUGGIN.--L. _Hugo_, Fr. _Hugues_, It. _Ugo_, _Ugolino_, Sp. _Hugo_, Ger. _Hugo_. HULDAH (Heb.), a mole, a weasel. HUMPHRY, HUMPHREY (A.S.), support of peace.--Dim. HUMPH.--L. _Humphredus_ or _Humfridus_, Fr. _Onfroi_, It. _Onofredo_, _Omfredo_, Sp. _Hunfredo_, Ger. _Humfried_. IAN, the Gaelic form of _John_. ICHABOD (Heb.), inglorious, the glory has departed. IDA (Teut.), happy. IGNATIUS (Gr.), fiery.--Fr. _Ignace_, It. _Ignazio_, Sp. _Ignacio_ and _Inigo_, Ger. _Ignaz_. INCREASE (Eng.), increase (of faith). INEZ, the Portuguese form of _Agnes_. INGRAM (Teut.), a raven. INIGO. See _Ignatius_. IRA (Heb.), a watcher. IRENE (Gr.), peace.--Fr. _Irène_, It. _Irene_. ISAAC, IZAAK (Heb.), he laugheth.--Dims. IK, IKE.--L. _Isacus_, Fr. _Isaac_, It. _Isacco_, Ger. _Isaak_. ISABELLA, ISABEL, ISOBEL, ISABEAU, the same as _Elisabeth_.--Dims. ISA, BEL, BELLA, TIB, TIBBIE.--Fr. _Isabeau_, _Isabelle_, It. _Isabella_, Sp. _Isabel_, Ger. _Isabelle_. ISAIAH (Heb.), the Lord is salvation.--L. _Isaias_. ISRAEL (Heb.), God fighteth. IVAN, the Russian form of _John_. JABEZ (Heb.), sorrow. JACOB (Heb.), he taketh hold of the heel, or followeth after, a supplanter.--Dim. JAKE.--L. _Jacobus_, Fr. _Jacob_, It. _Giacobbe_, Sp. _Jacobo_, Ger. _Jakob_. JAMES, the same as _Jacob_.--Dims. JEAMES, JEM, JIM, JEMMY, JIMMY.--L. _Jacobus_, Fr. _Jacques_, It. _Jacopo_, _Jachimo_, _Giacomo_, Sp. _Jacobo_, _Diego_, _Jago_, _Jaime_, Port. _Javme_, _Diogo_, Ger. _Jakob_.--Fem. JAMESINA, JAQUELINE. JANE, the fem. of _John_ (q.v.).--Dims. JANET, JEAN, JEANIE, JEANNIE. JANET, a dim. of _Jane_ (q.v.), hence 'grace of the Lord.'--Dims. JEN, JENNIE, JENNY. JAPHETH (Heb.), He extendeth widely. JAQUELINE, the French form of the fem. of _James_. JARED (Heb.), descent. JASON (Gr.), a healer. JASPER (Pers.), prob. treasure-master.--Fr. _Gaspard_, It. _Gasparo_, _Gasparro_, Sp. _Gaspar_. JAVAN (Heb.), clay. JEAN, JEANNE, JEANNETTE, French forms of _Jane_ or _Joan_. JEDEDIAH (Heb.), beloved of the Lord. JEMIMA (Heb.), a dove. JEREMIAH, JEREMIAS, JEREMY (Heb.), the Lord layeth the foundation.--L. _Jeremias_, Fr. _Jérémie_, It. _Geremia_, Sp. _Jeremias_, Ger. _Jeremias_. JEROME (Gr.), holy name.--L. _Hieronymus_, Fr. _Jérôme_, It. _Geronimo_, _Girolamo_, Sp. _Jeronimo_, _Jeromo_, Ger. _Hieronymus_. JESSIE, a Scotch form of _Janet_, hence 'grace of the Lord.'--Dim. JESS. JOAB (Heb.), the Lord is a father. JOAN, JOANNA, JOHANNA, fem. forms of _John_.--L. _Johanna_, Fr. _Jeanne_, _Jeannette_, It. _Giovanna_, Sp. _Juana_, Ger. _Johanna_. JOB (Heb.), repentant, or one persecuted. JOEL (Heb), the Lord is God. JOHN (Heb.), the Lord graciously gave, the gracious gift of God.--Dims. JOHNNY, JACK, JOCK.--L. _Johannes_, _Joannes_, Fr. _Jean_, It. _Giovanni_, _Gian_, _Gianni_, Sp. _Juan_, Port. _João_, Ger. _Johann_, _Johannes_, _Hans_, Dut. _Jan_, Russ. _Ivan_.--Fem. JOANNA, JOAN, JANE. JONAS, JONAH (Heb.), a dove. JONATHAN (Heb.), the Lord hath given. JOSEPH (Heb.), may he add (children)! he shall add--dims. JOE, JOEY--L. _Josephus_, Fr. _Joseph_, It. _Giuseppe_, Sp. _José_, _Josef_, Port. _José_, _Joze_, Ger. _Joseph_.--Fem. JOSEPHINE--dims. JO, JOZY, PHENY--Fr. _Joséphine_, It. _Giuseppina_, Sp. _Josefina_, Port. _Josephina_, Ger. _Josephine_. JOSHUA (Heb.), the Lord is welfare.--Dim. JOSH.--L. _Josua_, Fr. _Josué_, Ger. _Josua_. JOSIAH, JOSIAS (Heb.), the Lord healeth. JOYCE (L.), sportive. JUDAH (Heb.), praised. JUDITH (Heb.), praised.--Dim. JUDY.--Fr. _Judith_, It. _Giuditta_, Ger. _Judith_. JULIAN (L.), sprung from _Julius_.--Dim. JULE.--Fem. JULIANA.--L. _Julianus_, Fr. _Julien_, It. _Giuliano_, Sp. _Julian_, Port. _Julião_, Ger. _Julianus_, _Julian_. JULIUS (Gr.), downy-bearded--dim. JULE--Fr. _Jules_ It. _Giulio_, Sp. _Julio_, Ger. _Julius_.--Fem. JULIA, JULIET--Fr. _Julie_, It. _Giulia_, Sp. _Julia_, Ger. _Julie_. JUSTIN (L.), just.--L. _Justinus_, Fr. _Justin_, It. _Giustino_, Sp. _Justino_, Ger. _Justin_.--Fem. JUSTINA--Fr. _Justine_, It. _Giustina_, Sp. _Justina_, Ger. _Justine_. JUSTUS (L.), just.--Fr. _Juste_, It. _Giusto_, Sp. _Justo_, Ger. _Justus_, _Just_. KATE, dim. of _Catherine_. KATHARINE, KATHERINE, the same as _Catherine_. KENELM (A.S.), defender of his kindred. KENNETH (Celt.), comely, or a leader. KETURAH (Heb.), incense. KEZIA (Heb.), cassia. LABAN (Heb.), white. LAMBERT (Teut.), country's brightness.--Fr. _Lambert_, _Lanbert_, It. _Lamberto_, Ger. _Lambert_, _Landbert_. LANCELOT, LAUNCELOT (Fr.), servant, or a little lance.--Fr. _Lancelot_, It. _Lancilotto_. LAURA (L.), a laurel--also _Laurinda_.--Fr. _Laure_, It. _Laura_. LAURENCE, LAWRENCE (L.), crowned with laurel.--Dim. LARRY.--L. _Laurentius_, Fr. _Laurent_. It. _Lorenzo_, Sp. _Lorenzo_, Ger. _Lorenz_. LAVINIA (L.), of Latium. LAZARUS (Heb.), God helpeth.--Fr. _Lazare_, It. _Lazaro_, Sp. _Lazaro_, _Lazarillo_, Ger. _Lazarus_. LEANDER (Gr.), lion-man.--Fr. _Léandre_, It. _Leandro_. LEBBEUS (Heb.), a man of heart or courage. LEMUEL (Heb.), unto God. LENA, dim. of _Helena_ or _Magdalene_. LEONARD (Teut.), strong as a lion.--L. _Leondardus_, Fr. _Léonard_, It. _Lionardo_, Sp. _Leonardo_, Ger. _Leonhard_. LEONIDAS (Gr.), lion-like. LEONORA, the same as _Eleanor_.--Ger. _Lenore_. LEOPOLD (Teut.), people's prince.--Fr. _Léopold_, It. and Sp. _Leopoldo_, Ger. _Luitpold_, _Leupold_, _Leopold_. LETITIA, LETTICE (L.), happiness.--Dim. LETTIE.--L. _Lætitia_, It. _Letizia_. LEVI (Heb.), wreathing or adhesion. LEWIS (Teut.), famous warrior.--Dims. LEWIE, LOUIE, LEW.--L. _Ludovicus_, Fr. _Louis_, It. _Lodovico_, _Luigi_, Sp. _Clodoveo_, _Luis_, Port. _Luiz_, Ger. _Ludwig_.--Fem. LOUISA, LOUISE. LILIAN, LILLY, LILY (L.), a lily. LIONEL (L.), young lion.--It. _Lionello_. LLEWELLYN (W.), lightning. LOIS (Gr.), good. LORENZO, the Italian form of _Laurence_. LORINDA, a variant of _Laurinda_. LOUIS, the French form of _Lewis_. LOUISA, LOUISE, fem. of _Louis_.--Dims. LOU, LOUIE.--Fr. LOUISE, _Lisette_, _Héloïse_, It. _Luisa_, _Eloïsa_, Sp. _Luisa_, Port. _Luiza_, Ger. _Luise_, _Ludovica_. LUCAS. See _Luke_. LUCIA, the Italian form of _Lucy_;--LUCINDA (L.), the same as _Lucy_. LUCIAN (L.), pertaining to _Lucius_.--L. _Lucianus_, Fr. _Lucien_, It. _Luciano_. LUCIFER (L.), light-bringer. LUCIUS (L.), born at daybreak.--Fr. _Luce_, It. _Lucio_, Sp. _Lucio_.--Fems. LUCIA, LUCY. LUCRETIA, Lucrece (L.), gain, or light.--L. _Lucretia_, Fr. _Lucrèce_, It. _Lucrezia_. LUCY, fem. of _Lucius_.--Fr. _Lucie_, It. _Lucia_, Sp. _Lucia_. LUDOVIC, LODOWIC, the same as _Lewis_ (q.v.). LUKE.--L. _Lucas_, Fr. _Luc_, It. _Luca_, Sp. _Lucas_, Ger. _Lukas_. LUTHER (Teut.), famous warrior.--L. _Lutherus_, Fr. _Lothaire_, It. _Lotario_, Sp. _Clotario_, Ger. _Luther_. LYCURGUS (Gr.), wolf-driver. LYDIA (Gr.), a native of Lydia. MABEL (L.), lovable, worthy of love, inspiring love--a contraction of _Amabel_ (q.v.). MADELINE, the French form of _Magdalene_ (Heb.), belonging to Magdala.--Dims. MAUD, MAUDLIN.--Fr. _Magdelaine_, _Madeleine_, _Madelon_, It. _Maddalena_, Sp. _Magdalena_, _Madelena_, Ger. _Magdalene_. MADOC (W.), beneficent. MALACHI (Heb.), messenger of the Lord, or my messenger. MANASSEH (Heb.), forgetting, one who forgets.--L. _Manasses_. MARCELLUS, dim. of _Marcus_.--Fem. MARCELLA. MARCUS, MARCIUS, MARK (L.), a hammer, or sprung from Mars--L. _Marcus_, Fr. _Marc_, It. _Marco_, Sp. _Marcos_, Ger. _Markus_.--Fem. MARCIA--Fr. _Marcie_, It. _Marcia_, _Marzia_. MARGARET (Gr.), a pearl.--Dims. MARGIE, MARGERY, MARJORY, MADGE, MAG, MAGGIE, MEG, MEGGY, PEG, PEGGY, META, GRITTY.--Fr. _Marguérite_, It. _Margherita_, Sp. _Margarita_, Port. _Margarida_, Ger. _Margarethe_, _Gretchen_. MARIA, the Latin form of _Mary_. MARIANNE, a compound of _Mary_ and _Anne_--so MARIAN, MARYANN.--Fr. _Mariane_, _Marianne_, It. _Marianna_, Sp. _Mariana_, Ger. _Marianne_. MARION, a French form of _Mary_.--Dim. MAMIE. MARMADUKE (prob. Celt., last syllable L.), sea-leader, or mighty leader. MARTHA (Heb.), lady.--Dims. MAT, MATTY, PAT, PATTY.--Fr. _Marthe_, It. and Sp. _Marta_, Ger. _Martha_. MARTIN (L.), of Mars, warlike.--L. _Martinus_, Fr. _Martin_, _Mertin_, It. and Sp. _Martino_, Port. _Martinho_, Ger. _Martin_. MARY (Heb.), prob. related to _Mara_, _Marah_, bitter.--Dims. MAY, MOLL, MOLLY, MAMIE, POL, POLLY.--L. _Maria_, Fr. _Marie_, _Marion_, It. and Sp. _Maria_, Pol. _Marya_. MATILDA, MATHILDA (Teut.), mighty battle maid.--Dims. MAT, MATTY, MAUD, PATTY, TILDA.--Fr. _Mathilde_, It. _Matilda_, Ger. _Matilde_. MATTHEW (Heb.), gift of the Lord.--Dim. MAT.--L. _Matthæus_, Fr. _Mathieu_, It. _Matteo_, Sp. _Mateo_, Ger. _Matthæus_. MATTHIAS, the Greek form of _Matthew_. MAUD, a contraction of _Matilda_ or of _Magdalene_. MAURICE (L.), Moorish, dark-coloured.--L. _Mauritius_, Fr. _Maurice_, It. _Maurizio_, Sp. _Mauricio_, Ger. _Moritz_. MAXIMILIAN (L.), the greatest Æmilianus.--L. _Maximilianus_, Fr. _Maximilien_, Port. _Maximiliãs_, Ger. _Maximilian_. MAY, the month of May, or a contraction of _Mary_. MELICENT, MILICENT (L.), sweet singer, or (Teut.) strength.--Sp. _Melisenda_. MELISSA (Gr.), a bee.--Fr. _Mélisse_, _Mélite_, It. _Melissa_. MERCY (Eng.), Mercy. MICAH (Heb.), who is like the Lord? MICHAEL (Heb.), who is like God?--Dims. MIKE, MICKY.--Fr. _Michel_, It. _Michele_, Sp. and Port. _Miguel_, Ger. _Michael_. MILDRED (Teut.), mild threatener.--L. _Mildreda_. MILES (L.), soldier. MINNIE (Teut.), remembrance--sometimes for _Mina_, a contraction of _Wilhelmina_; sometimes put for _Mary_. MIRANDA (L.), admirable. MIRIAM (Heb.), the same as _Mary_. MORGAN (W.), seaman. MOSES (Heb.), he that draws out, but more probably an Egyptian name.--Dims. MOSE, MOSEY.--So L., Fr. _Moïse_, It. _Moise_, Sp. _Moises_, Ger. _Moses_.--Fem. MOSINA. MYRA (Gr.), she who laments. NAAMAN (Heb.), pleasant. NAHUM (Heb.), consolation, a consoler. NANCY, a familiar form of _Anne_, not properly of Agnes.--Dims. NAN, NANCE, NINA. NAOMI (Heb.), pleasant. NAPOLEON (Gr.), of the new city.--Fr. _Napoléon_, It. _Napoleone_. NATHAN (Heb.), he hath given;--NATHANAEL, NATHANIEL, gift of God. NEHEMIAH (Heb.), the Lord comforteth. NEIL, NEAL (Celt.), chief. NELLIE, NELLY, a dim. of _Ellen_, _Helen_, or _Eleanor_. NICHOLAS, NICOLAS (Gr.), victory of the people.--Dim. NICK.--L. _Nicolaus_, Fr. _Nicolas_, _Nicole_, It. _Nicolo_, _Nicola_, Sp. _Nicolas_, Port. _Nicolao_, Ger. _Nikolaus_. NOAH (Heb.), rest. NOEL (Fr.--L.), Christmas, born on that day.--Fr. _Noël_, It. _Natale_, Sp. and Port. _Natal_. NORA, NORAH, a contraction of _Honora_, _Leonora_, and _Eleanor_. NORMAN (Teut.), Northman. OBADIAH (Heb.), servant or worshipper of the Lord.--L. _Obadias_. OBED (Heb.), a worshipper (of the Lord). OCTAVIUS, OCTAVUS (L.), the eighth born--dims. TAVY, TAVE--L. _Octavius_, _Octavianus_, Fr. _Octavien_, It. _Ottaviano_, _Ottavio_.--Fem. OCTAVIA--Fr. _Octavie_, _Octave_, It. _Ottavia_, Sp. _Octavia_, Ger. _Octavia_. OLIVER (L.), an olive-tree.--Dims. NOL, NOLLY.--L. _Oliverus_, Fr. _Olivier_, It. _Oliviero_, _Uliviero_, Sp. _Oliverio_, Port. _Oliveiro_, Ger. _Oliver_.--Fem. OLIVE, OLIVIA. OLYMPIA (Gr.), heavenly.--Fr. _Olympe_, It. _Olimpia_, Ger. _Olympie_. OPHELIA (Gr.), serpent.--Fr. _Ophélie_. ORLANDO, the Italian form of _Roland_. OSCAR (Celt.), bounding warrior.--L. _Oscarus_. OSMOND, OSMUND (Teut.), divine protection.--Fr. _Osmont_. OSWALD, OSWOLD (Teut.), divine power. OWEN (Celt.), lamb, or young warrior. OZIAS (Heb.), the Lord is strength=_Uzziah_. PATIENCE (L.), patience. PATRICK, PATRICIUS (L.), noble.--Dims. PAT, PADDY.--L. _Patricius_, Fr. _Patrice_, It. _Patrizio_, Sp. _Patricio_, Ger. _Patrizius_.--Fem. PATRICIA. PAUL, PAULUS, PAULINUS (L.), little--L. _Paulus_, Fr. _Paul_, It. _Paola_, Sp. _Pablo_, Port. _Paulo_, Ger. _Paul_.--Fem. PAULA, PAULINA, PAULINE--Fr. _Paule_, _Paulìne_, It. _Paola_, _Paolìna_, Sp. _Paula_, Ger. _Pauline_. PENELOPE (Gr.), weaver. PEREGRINE (L.), a stranger.--L. _Peregrinus_, Fr. _Pérégrin_, It. _Pellegrino_, Sp. _Peregrino_, Ger. _Piligrim_. PERSIS (Gr.), a Persian woman.--Fr. _Perside_, It. _Persida_, Sp. _Perside_, Ger. _Persis_. PETER (Gr.), a rock.--Dims. PETE, PETERKIN.--L. _Petrus_, Fr. _Pierre_, It. _Pietro_, Sp. and Port. _Pedro_, Ger. _Peter_, _Petrus_. PHEBE See _Phoebe_. PHILANDER (Gr.), a lover of men. PHILEMON (Gr.), loving. PHILIP (Gr.), a lover of horses.--Dims. PHIL, PIP.--L. _Philippus_, Fr. _Philippe_, It. _Filippo_, Sp. _Felipe_, Ger. _Philipp_.--Fem. PHILIPPA. PHILIPPA, fem. of _Philip_ above.--Fr. _Philippine_, It. _Filippa_, _Filippina_, Sp. _Felipa_, Ger. _Philippine_. PHINEAS, PHINEHAS (Heb.), oracle--more probably an Egyptian word meaning negro. PHOEBE, PHEBE (Gr.), shining.--It. _Febe_. PHILLIS. See _Phyllis_. PHYLLIS, PHILLIS (Gr.), a green bough. PIUS (L.), pious, dutiful.--Fr. _Pie_, It. _Pio_. PLINY, PLINIUS (L.), the meaning doubtful. POLLY, a familiar dim. of _Mary_. POLYCARP (Gr.), much fruit. PRISCILLA (L.), somewhat old. PRUDENCE (L.), prudence.--Dims. PRUE, PRUDY. PTOLEMY (Gr.), mighty in war. QUINTIN, Quentin (L.), the fifth.--L. _Quintus_, _Quintianus_. RACHEL (Heb.), a ewe.--Fr. _Rachel_, It. _Rachele_, Sp. _Raquel_, Ger. _Rahel_. RALPH (pron. r[=a]f). See _Rodolph_. RANDAL (Teut.), house wolf. RAPHAEL (Heb. _rephael_), God hath healed.--Fr. _Raphael_, It. _Raffaello_, _Raffaele_, Ger. _Raphael_. RAYMOND, RAYMUND (Teut.), wise protection.--Fr. _Raymond_, It. _Raimondo_, Sp. _Raimundo_, Ger. _Raimund_. REBECCA, REBEKAH (Heb.), a noose.--Dims. BECK, BEX, BECKY.--L. _Rebecca_, Fr. _Rebecca_, Ger. _Rebekka_. REGINALD (Teut.), powerful judgment.--L. _Reginaldus_, Fr. _Regnauld_, _Renaud_, _Regnault_, It. _Rinaldo_, Sp. _Reynaldos_, Ger. _Reinwald_, _Reinald_. REUBEN (Heb.), behold, a son! REYNOLD, the same as _Reginald_. RHODA (Gr.), a rose. RICHARD (Teut.), stern king.--Dims. DICK, DICKY, DICKEN, DICKON.--L. _Ricardus_, Fr. _Richard_, It. _Riccardo_, Sp. _Ricardo_, Ger. _Richard_. ROBERT (Teut.), bright in fame.--Dims. BOB, BOBBY, DOB, DOBBIN, ROB, ROBBIE, ROBIN.--L. _Robertus_, Fr. _Robert_, It. _Roberto_, _Ruberto_, _Ruperto_, Ger. _Robert_, _Rupert_, _Rudbert_, _Ruprecht_. RODERICK, RODERIC (Teut.), famous king, or rich in fame.--Fr. _Rodrigue_, It. _Rodrigo_, Sp. _Rodrigo_, _Ruy_, Ger. _Roderich_, Russ. _Rurik_. RODOLPH, RODOLPHUS (Teut.), wolf of fame.--L. _Rodolphus_, Fr. _Rodolphe_, _Raoul_, It. _Rodolfo_, _Ridolfo_, Sp. _Rodolfo_, Ger. _Rudolf_. ROGER (Teut.), spear of fame.--Dims. HODGE, HODGKIN.--L. _Rogerus_, Fr. _Roger_, It. _Ruggiero_, _Rogero_, Sp. _Rogerio_, Ger. _Rüdiger_. ROLAND, ROWLAND (Teut.), fame of the land.--L. _Rotlandus_, _Rolandus_, Fr. _Roland_, It. _Orlando_, Sp. _Roldan_, Port. _Rolando_, _Roldão_, Ger. _Roland_. ROSA (L.), a rose;--ROSABEL, ROSABELLA, a fair rose;--ROSALIA, ROSALIE, a little rose;--ROSALIND, beautiful as a rose.--Dim. ROSIE. ROSAMOND (Teut.), horse-protection, or famous protection.--Fr. _Rosemonde_, It. _Rosmonda_, Sp. _Rosamunda_. ROXANA (Pers.), dawn of day--Dim. ROXY.--Fr. _Roxane_. RUDOLPH, RUDOLPHUS, the same as _Rodolph_, _Rodolphus_ above. RUFUS (L.), red, red-haired. RUPERT, the same as _Robert_.--L. _Rupertus_. RUTH (Heb.), friend. SABINA (L.), a Sabine woman.--Fr. _Sabine_, Ger. _Sabine_. SABRINA (L.), the river Severn. SALOME (Heb.), peaceful.--Fr. _Salomé_, Ger. _Salome_. SAMSON, SAMPSON (Heb.), of the sun, solar.--Fr. _Samson_, Sp. _Sanson_, Port. _Sansão_. SAMUEL (Heb.), heard of God, name of God.--Dims. SAM, SAMMY.--Fr. _Samuel_, It. _Samuele_, Ger. _Samuel_. SARAH, SARA (Heb.), princess, queen.--Dim. SAL, SALLY.--Fr. _Sara_, It. and Sp. _Sara_, Ger. _Sara_. SAUL (Heb.), asked for. SEBASTIAN (Gr.), venerable.--L. _Sebastianus_, Fr. _Sébastien_, It. _Sebastiano_.--Sp. _Sebastian_, Port. _Sebastião_, Ger. _Sebastian_. SELINA (Gr.), the moon. SERENO, SERENUS (L.), peaceful.--Fem. SERENA. SETH (Heb.), set, placed. SHADRACH, Aramaic name of Hananiah (Heb.), the Lord is gracious. SIBYL, SIBYLLA (Gr.), a prophetess.--Fr. _Sibylle_, Ger. _Sibylle_. SIGISMUND (Teut.), conquering protection.--Fr. _Sigismond_, It. _Sigismondo_, _Sismondo_, Sp. _Sigismundo_, Ger. _Sigismund_, _Sigmund_. SILAS, SILVANUS (L.), living in a wood.--Fr. _Silvain_, It. _Silvano_, _Silvio_, Ger. _Silvanus_, _Silvan_.--Fem. SYLVIA. SILVESTER, SYLVESTER (L.), rustic.--Dims. VESTER, VEST.--Fr. _Silvestre_, Ger. _Silvester_. SIMEON, SIMON (Heb.), famous, that hears.--Dim. SIM.--Fr. _Siméon_, It. _Simone_, Sp. _Simon_, Port. _Simão_, _Simeão_, Ger. _Simeon_, _Simon_. SOPHIA (Gr.), wisdom.--Dim. SOPHY.--Fr. _Sophie_, It. _Sofia_, Ger. _Sophia_. SOPHRONIA (Gr.), of sound mind. SOLOMON (Heb.), peaceable.--Dim. SOL.--Fr. _Salomon_, It. _Salomone_, Ger. _Salomo_. STELLA (L.), a star.--Fr. _Estelle_, Sp. _Estella_. STEPHEN (Gr.), a crown.--Dims. STEENIE, STEVE, STEVIE.--L. _Stephanus_, Fr. _Étienne_, It. _Stefano_, Sp. _Estevan_, _Esteban_, Port. _Estevão_, Ger. _Stephan_. STEPHANA, fem., of _Stephen_.--Fr. _Stéphanie_, Ger. _Stephanie_. SWITHIN (A.S.), strong friend. SUSAN, SUSANNA, SUSANNAH (Heb.), a lily.--Dims. SUE, SUKE, SUKY, SUSIE, SUSY.--Fr. _Susanne_, It. _Susanna_, Sp. _Susana_, Ger. _Susanne_. SYLVESTER, same as SILVESTER. SYLVIA, fem. of _Silvanus_. TABITHA (Aramaic), a gazelle. THADDEUS (Aramaic), strong.--L. _Thaddæus_, It. _Taddeo_, Sp. _Tadeo_, Ger. _Thaddäus_. THEOBALD (Teut.), people's prince.--Fr. _Thibaut_, It. _Teobaldo_, Sp. _Theudebaldo_, Ger. _Dietbold_. THEODORA, fem. of _Theodore_.--Dim. DORA.--It. _Teodora_, Ger. _Theodora_. THEODORE (Gr.), gift of God.--L. _Theodorus_, Fr. _Théodore_, It. _Teodoro_, Ger. _Theodor_, Russ. _Feodor_. THEODORIC (Teut.), people's rule.--L. _Theodoricus_. THEODOSIUS (Gr.), divinely given.--It. _Teodosia_, Ger. _Theodosia_.--Fem. THEODOSIA. THEOPHILUS (Gr.), a lover of God.--Fr. _Théophile_, It. _Teofilo_, Ger. _Theophilus_, _Gottlieb_. THERESA (Gr.), carrying ears of corn.--Dims. TERRY, TRACIE.--Fr. _Thérèse_, It. and Sp. _Teresa_, Ger. _Therese_, _Theresia_. THOMAS (Heb.), a twin.--Dims. TOM, TOMMY, TAM, TAMMIE.--Fr. _Thomas_, It. _Tomaso_, Sp. _Tomas_, Ger. _Thomas_.--Fem. THOMASA, THOMASINA, THOMASINE, TOMINA. TIB, TIBBIE, a Scotch dim. of _Isabella_ (q.v.). TIMOTHY (Gr.), honoured of God.--Dim. TIM.--L. _Timotheus_, Fr. _Timothée_, It. _Timoteo_, Sp. _Timoteo_, Ger. _Timotheus_. TITUS (prob. L. _tutus_), safe.--Fr. _Tite_, It. and Sp. _Tito_. TOBIAH, TOBIAS (Heb.), the Lord is good.--Dim. TOBY.--L. _Tobias_, Fr. _Tobie_, It. _Tobia_, Sp. _Tobias_, Ger. _Tobias_. TRISTAM, TRISTRAM (Celt.), a herald. TRYPHON (Gr.), dainty.--Fem. TRYPHENA. TRYPHOSA (Gr.), dainty. TYBALT, a form of _Theobald_. ULRICA (Teut.), noble ruler.--Fr. _Ulrique_, It. _Ulrica_, Ger. _Ulrike_. ULYSSES (Gr.), a hater. URANIA (Gr.), heavenly.--Fr. _Uranie_. URBAN (L.), of the town, courteous.--L. _Urbanus_, Fr. _Urbain_, It. _Urbano_, Ger. _Urbanus_, _Urban_. URIAH (Heb.), the Lord is light. URIEL (Heb.), God is light. URSULA (L.), a she-bear.--Fr. _Ursule_, It. _Orsola_, Sp. _Ursola_. VALENTINE (L.), strong.--L. _Valentinus_, Fr. _Valentin_, It. _Valentino_, Sp. _Valentin_, Ger. _Valentin_. VALERIA, fem. of _Valerius_ (L.), healthy.--Fr. _Valérie_, It. _Valeria_, Ger. _Valerie_. VICTOR (L.), a conqueror.--Fr. _Victor_, Ger. _Victor_. VICTORIA, fem. of _Victor_.--Fr. _Victoire_, It. _Vittoria_, Ger. _Victoria_. VIDA, a fem. form of _David_. VINCENT (L.), conquering.--L. _Vincens_, Fr. _Vincent_, It. _Vincenzio_, Sp. _Vincente_, Port. _Vicente_, Ger. _Vincenz_. VIOLA (L.), a violet.--Fr. _Violette_, It. _Viola_, Sp. _Violante_, Ger. _Viola_, _Viole_. VIRGINIA (L.), virgin.--Fr. _Virginie_, It. _Virginia_, Ger. _Virginia_. VIVIAN (L.), lively.--Fr. _Vivien_, Ger. _Vivian_. WALTER (Teut.), powerful warrior.--Dims. WAT, WATTY.--L. _Gualterus_, Fr. _Gauthier_, _Gautier_, It. _Gualtiero_, Sp. _Gualterio_, Ger. _Walther_. WILFRED (A.S.), resolute peace. WILHELMINA, fem. of _Wilhelm_, the German form of _William_ (q.v.).--Dims. WILMETT, WILMOT, MINA, MINNIE, MINELLA.--Fr. _Guillelmine_, _Guillemette_, It. _Guglielma_, Sp. _Guillelmina_, Ger. _Wilhelmine_. WILLIAM (Teut.), helmet of resolution.--Dims. WILL, WILLY, BILL, BILLY.--L. _Guilielmus_, _Gulielmus_, Fr. _Guillaume_, It. _Guglielmo_, Sp. _Guillermo_, Port. _Guilherme_, Ger. _Wilhelm_.--Fem. WILHELMINA. WINIFRED, WINFRED (Teut.), friend of peace.--Dim. WINNIE. ZABDIEL (Heb.), God endoweth. ZACCHEUS (Heb.), pure. ZACHARIAH, ZECHARIAH (Heb.), the Lord hath remembered.--Dims. ZACH, ZECHY. ZADOK (Heb.), just. ZEBADIAH, Zebedee (Heb.), the Lord has bestowed. ZEDEKIAH (Heb.), the Lord is righteousness. ZENOBIA (Gr.), having life from Zeus.--Fr. _Zénobie_. ZEPHANIAH (Heb.), the Lord hideth. ZOE (Gr.), life. * * * * * WORDS AND PHRASES IN MORE OR LESS CURRENT USE FROM LATIN, GREEK, AND MODERN FOREIGN LANGUAGES. * * * * * See especially the _Stanford Dictionary of Anglicised Words and Phrases_, edited by Dr C. A. M. FENNELL (Cambridge, 1892). * * * * * AASVOGEL (Ger.), a carrion-bird. AB ABSURDO (L.), from absurdity. AB ÆTERNO (L.), from eternity. AB ANTE (L.), from before. À BAS (Fr.), down, down with! À BÂTONS ROMPUS (Fr.), by fits and starts. ABATTU, fem. ABATTUE (Fr.), cast down, dejected. A BENE PLACITO (It.), at pleasure. AB EXTRA (L.), from without. ABIIT, EXCESSIT, EVASIT, ERUPIT (L.), he is gone, he is off, he has escaped, he has broken away (Cicero, _In Catilinam_, II. i. 1). AB IMO PECTORE (L.), from the bottom of the heart. AB INCUNABULIS (L.), from the cradle. AB INITIO (L.), from the beginning. AB INTRA (L.), from within. AB OFFICIO ET BENEFICIO (Late L.), from office and benefice--of a clergyman suspended. À BON CHAT, BON RAT (Fr.), to a good cat, a good rat--tit for tat. À BON DROIT (Fr.), with justice. À BON MARCHÉ (Fr.), at a good bargain, cheap. ABONNEMENT (Fr.), subscription. AB ORIGINE (L.), from the origin or beginning. ABORT (Ger.), a privy, water-closet. AB OVO (L.), from the egg: from the beginning. AB OVO USQUE AD MALA (L.), from the egg to the apples--of a Roman banquet: from the beginning to the end. À BRAS OUVERTS (Fr.), with open arms. ABRÉGÉ (Fr.), abridgment. ABSENCE D'ESPRIT (Fr.), absence of mind. ABSENS HERES NON ERIT (L.), the absent one will not be the heir--out of sight, out of mind. ABSENTE REO (L.), the defendant being absent. ABSIT (L.), lit. 'let him be absent'--leave to pass one night away from college. ABSIT DICTO INVIDIA (L.), to be said without boasting. ABSIT OMEN (L.), may there be no ill omen (as in a word just used)! ABSOLVI MEAM ANIMAM (L.), I have relieved my mind. ABUNA, the primate of the Abyssinian Church: a Nestorian priest. AB UNO DISCE OMNES (L.), from one learn all: from one example you may know the rest. AB URBE CONDITÂ (L.), from the founding of the city--i.e. Rome, 753 B.C. ABUSUS NON TOLLIT USUM (L.), abuse does not do away with use--i.e. an abuse does not forfeit the legitimate use of a thing. A CAPITE AD CALCEM (L.), from head to heel. ACCABLÉ (Fr.), depressed, overwhelmed. ACCESSIT (L.), he came near. ACCUEIL (Fr.), reception, welcome. ACEDIA (Late L.), sloth, indifference. AC ETIAM (L.), 'and also'--the name of a clause added to a complaint of trespass in the Court of King's Bench. À CHAQUE SAINT SA CHANDELLE (Fr.), to every saint his candle: to every patron his meed of service. ACHARNÉ (Fr.), furious, desperate (esp. of battles). ACHERONTIS PABULUM (L.), food for Acheron--of a bad person. À CHEVAL (Fr.), on horseback. À COMPTE (Fr.), on account: in part-payment. À CONTRECOEUR (Fr.), reluctantly. À CORPS PERDU (Fr.), desperately, with might and main. À COUVERT (Fr.), under cover: protected. ACROAMA, ACROASIS (Gr.), oral teaching, anything rhetorical or otherwise pleasant to listen to. ACTÆON (Gr.), the hunter who surprised Artemis bathing, and so, being changed into a stag, was torn in pieces by his own hounds: a cuckold. ACTIONNAIRE (Fr.), shareholder. ACTUALITÉ (Fr.), real existence: appropriateness. ACTUM EST DE REPUBLICA (L.), it is all over with the republic. ACTUM NE AGAS (L.), do not do over again what is done--i.e. do a thing and have done with it. ACUSHLA (Irish), darling. AD APERTURAM [LIBRI] (L.), as [the book] opens. AD ARBITRIUM (L.), at pleasure. AD ASTRA (L.), to the stars. A DATO (L.), from date. AD CALENDAS GRÆCAS (L.), at the Greek Calends--i.e. never, as the Greeks had no Calends. AD CAPTANDUM VULGUS (L.), to catch the rabble. AD CLERUM (L.), to the clergy. AD CRUMENAM (L.), to the purse. ADELANTADO (Sp.), a grandee of high rank, the governor of a province. À DEMI (Fr.), by halves, half. A DEO ET REGE (L.), from God and the king. À DESSEIN (Fr.), on purpose. AD EUNDEM [GRADUM] (L.), to the same [degree]--of the admission of a graduate of one university to the same degree at another without examination. À DEUX (Fr.), of two, between two, two-handed. À DEUX MAINS (Fr.), with both hands. AD EXTRA (Late L.), in an outward direction--opposite of _ad intra_. AD EXTREMUM (L.), to the extreme. AD FINEM (L.), to the end, toward the end. AD GUSTUM (L.), to taste. AD HOC (L.), for this [object]. AD HOMINEM (L.), to the man, personal. ADHUC SUB JUDICE LIS EST (L.), the dispute is still undecided. AD HUNC LOCUM (L.), on this passage. AD IDEM (L.), to the same [point]. A DIE (L.), from that day. ADIEU PANIERS, VENDANGES SONT FAITES (Fr.), farewell hampers, the vintage is over--good-bye to our hopes! all is over. AD INFINITUM (L.), to infinity. AD INQUIRENDUM (Late L.), for making inquiry--name of a writ. AD INTERIM (Late L.), for the meantime. AD INTERNECIONEM (L.), to extermination. A DIO (It.), to God;--addio! adieu! À DISCRÉTION (Fr.), at discretion: without restriction. AD LIBITUM (L.), at pleasure. AD LITEM (L.), for a suit. AD MAJOREM DEI GLORIAM (L.), for the greater glory of God--the Jesuit motto. AD MANUM (L.), at hand, ready. AD MISERICORDIAM (L.), to pity--of an argument, &c.--Also used adjectively. AD MODUM (L.), after the manner of. ADMONITUS LOCORUM (L.), local associations. AD NAUSEAM (L.), to the pitch of producing disgust. ADONAI (Heb.), the Lord--the name substituted for _Jahveh_ or _Jehovah_ in reading the Old Testament; lit. 'my lords.' AD PATRES (L.), gathered to his fathers, dead. AD REFERENDUM (L.), to be further considered. AD REM (L.), to the point: to the purpose. À DROITE (Fr.), to the right;--À DROITE ET À GAUCHE (Fr.), right and left. ADSCRIPTUS GLEBÆ (L.), bound to the soil--of serfs. ADSUM! (L.), I am present, here! AD SUMMUM (L.), to the highest point. AD UNGUEM (L.), to the nail: nicely. AD UNUM OMNES (L.), all to a man. AD UTRUMQUE PARATUS (L.), prepared for either case. AD VALOREM (L.), according to value. AD VERBUM (L.), to a word, verbally. AD VITAM AUT CULPAM (L.), for life or till fault--i.e. till some misconduct be proved. AD VIVUM (L.), to the life, like-life. ADVOCATUS DIABOLI (L.), devil's advocate, a person appointed to contest before the papal court the claims of a candidate for canonisation; hence any adverse critic. ÆGRESCITQUE MEDENDO (L.), and he becomes worse from the very remedies used. ÆGRI SOMNIA (L.), a sick man's dreams. A.E.I.O.U. (AUSTRIÆ EST IMPERARE ORBI UNIVERSO), it is Austria's part to command the whole globe. ÆOLUS, EOLUS (L.), the god of the winds: a kind of ventilator. ÆQUABILITER ET DILIGENTER (L.), equably and diligently. ÆQUAM MEMENTO REBUS IN ARDUIS SERVARE MENTEM (L.), remember to keep a calm mind in difficulties. ÆQUANIMITER (L.), composedly. ÆQUITAS SEQUITUR LEGEM (L.), equity follows law. ÆQUO ANIMO (L.), with an equable mind. ÆRARIUM (L.), the public treasury of ancient Rome under the charge of the _Ærarii_. ÆS ALIENUM (L.), debt, lit. 'copper money belonging to another.' ÆSCULAPIUS, ESCULAPIUS (L.), the god of the healing art, representative of physicians. ÆS TRIPLEX (L.), triple brass, a strong defence. ÆSTUARIUM (L.), an estuary: a vapour-bath. ÆSTUS (L.), efflux, passionate glow. ÆTATIS SUÆ (L.), of his [or her] age. ÆVUM (L.), the same as _Æon_ (q.v. in Dict.). AFER (L.), the south-west wind, lit. 'the African.' AFFAIRE D'AMOUR (Fr.), a love affair. AFFAIRE DE COEUR (Fr.), an affair of the heart. AFFAIRE D'HONNEUR (Fr.), an affair of honour. AFFENTHALER (Ger.), a kind of hock. AFFICHE (Fr.), a notice, placard, advertisement,--AFFICHÉ, posted up, published. AFFREUX (Fr.), frightful. AFIN DE (Fr.), in order to. AFIN QUE (Fr.), to the end that. À FOND (Fr.), to the bottom: thoroughly. À FORFAIT (Fr.), by contract, by the job. A FORTIORI (L.), with stronger reason. AGAÇANT, fem. AGAÇANTE (Fr.), provoking, alluring;--AGAÇERIE, allurement. AGALLOCHUM (L.). See under _Aloe_ in Dict. AGAMEMNON (Gr.), the leader of the Greeks in the Trojan war, king of Mycenæ: a generic name for a king. AGANIPPE (Gr.), a fountain on Mount Helicon sacred to the Muses, supplying poetic inspiration: poetic genius generally. AGAR-AGAR (Malay), an edible seaweed, used in the East for jelly and glue and for dressing silks. AGATHODÆMON (Gr.), a good genius or minor divinity. À GAUCHE (Fr.), to the left. À GENOUX (Fr.), on the knees. AGE QUID AGAS (L.), do what you are doing--i.e. with all your powers. AGERASIA (Gr.), a hearty and healthy old age. AGGER (L.), a mound, rampart. A GIORNO (It.), like daylight. AGNUS CASTUS (L.), the chaste-tree or Abraham's balm, a species of _vitex_. AGONOTHETES (Gr.), one who managed public games in ancient Greece. À GRANDS FRAIS (Fr.), at great expense. AGRÉMENTS (Fr.), graceful courtesies, charms, blandishments. À HAUTE VOIX (Fr.), aloud. AHRIMAN, the principle of evil and darkness in the Old Persian mythology--the opposite of _Ormuzd_ (q.v. in Dict.). À HUIS CLOS (Fr.), with closed doors. AIDE (Fr.), an assistant, a helper, a mate. AIDE DE CAMP (Fr.), an aide-de-camp (q.v. in Dict.). AIDE-MÉMOIRE (Fr.), an aid to the memory, a reminder, a memorandum-book. AIDE TOI, LE CIEL T'AIDERA (Fr.), help yourself and Heaven will help you. AID[=O]S (Gr.), shame, modesty. AIGRE-DOUX, fem. -DOUCE (Fr.), sourish, rather bitter;--aigreur, sourness;--aigri, soured, embittered. AILES DE PIGEON (Fr.), pigeon's wings--powdered side-curls (of hair). AÎNÉ, fem. AÎNÉE (Fr.), elder, senior--opposed to _puîné_ or _cadet_=younger. AIR NOBLE (Fr.), an air of distinction. À JAMAIS (Fr.), for ever. AJAX (L.,--Gr.), the Greek hero next to Achilles in the Trojan war: a privy, by a pun on a _jakes_. À L'ABANDON (Fr.), at random, left uncared for. À LA BELLE ÉTOILE (Fr.), in the open air. À LA BONNE HEURE (Fr.), in good or favourable time--well and good, very good, that is right. À LA BRAISE (Fr.), braised, half-baked and half-stewed. À L'ABRI (Fr.), under shelter. À LA CAMPAGNE (Fr.), in the country. À LA CARTE (Fr.), according to the bill of fare. À LA DÉROBÉE (Fr.), by stealth. À LA FRANÇAISE (Fr.), after the French mode;--À LA PARISIENNE (Fr.), in the Parisian style. À LA GRECQUE (Fr.), in the Greek style. À LA HAUTEUR (Fr.), on a level with, abreast of. ALALAGMOS (Gr.), war-cry, cry of alala. À LA LANTERNE (Fr.), to the lamp(-chain)--of the murders by the mob in the French Revolution, when the victims were seized and hanged on the chains from which hung the street lamps. À LA MAIN (Fr.), in hand, ready: by hand. À LA MAÎTRE D'HÔTEL (Fr.), in the style of a house-steward, of a hotel-keeper: in major-domo fashion. ALAMBIQUÉ (Fr.), over-elaborated, hyper-refined. À LA MILITAIRE (Fr.), in military style. À LA MODE (Fr.), according to the custom: in fashion. À LA MORT (Fr.), to the death. À L'ANGLAISE (Fr.), in the English style. À L'ANTIQUE (Fr.), in antique style. À LA ROMAINE (Fr.), in Roman style. À LA RUSSE (Fr.), in Russian fashion--of dinners the courses of which are served from side-tables. À LA TARTUFFE (Fr.), like Tartuffe, hypocritically. A LATERE, AB LATERE (L.), lit. 'from the side,' in intimate association with, confidential--of legates sent by the Pope. ALATERNUS (Late L.), a species of blackthorn (_Rhamnus_). À LA VICTIME (Fr.), in the fashion of a victim. À LA VOLÉE (Fr.), on the flight--of any quick return. ALBERGO, ALBERGE (It.), an inn, auberge. ALBION (L.), an old name of Great Britain--usually said to be from the white (L. _albus_) cliffs of Kent. ALBRICIAS (Sp.), a reward to the bearer of good news. ALBUM GRÆCUM (Late L.), the dried dung of dogs, once used for inflammation of the throat. ALCAICERIA (Sp.), a bazaar. ALCARRAZA (Sp.), a porous earthen vessel for cooling water by evaporation. ALCAZAR (Sp.), a palace, fortress, bazaar. ALCIDES (L.,--Gr.), a patronymic of Hercules, from Alcæus, the name of the father of his mother's husband. AL CONTO (It.), à la carte. See _à la carte_ above. ALCORZA (Sp.), a kind of sweetmeat. ALDEA, ALDEE (Sp.), a village, hamlet. ALEA BELLI INCERTA (L.), the hazard of war is uncertain. ALEA JACTA EST, or rather _jacta est alea_ (L.), the die is cast (said by Cæsar on crossing the Rubicon). ALECT[=O] (Gr.), one of the Furies or Eumenides or Erinyes. ALECTRY[=O]N (Gr.), a cock. À L'ENVI (Fr.), emulously. ALEPINE, ALAPEEN, a mixed stuff of wool and silk or of cotton and mohair--named from Aleppo. ALERE FLAMMAM (L.), to feed the flame. ALEXIPHARMACON (Gr.), an antidote, counter-poison. À L'EXTÉRIEUR (Fr.), on the outside, abroad. À L'EXTRÉMITÉ (Fr.), to the end of one's resources, to extremes, at the point of death. ALFAQUI (Sp.), a lawyer. ALFERES, ALFEREZ (Sp.), standard-bearer. ALFORJA (Sp.), a saddle-bag: the cheek-pouch of a baboon. ALGARROBA (Sp.), the carob tree and bean: a South American mimosa. À L'IMPROVISTE (Fr.), on a sudden, unawares. À L'INTÉRIEUR (Fr.), in the inside, at home. ALIQUANDO BONUS DORMITAT HOMERUS (L.), sometimes the good Homer nods--the brightest genius is sometimes dull. ALIQUID HÆRET (L.), something sticks. ALIUNDE (L.), from another place. ALLA FRANCA (It.), in the French style. ALLAH IL ALLAH, a corr. of Ar. _l[=a] il[=a]ha ill[=a] 'll[=a]h_=there is no God but the God--the Moslem war-cry. ALLA VOSTRA SALUTE (It.), to your health. ALLÉE (Fr.), an avenue, a walk or garden-path. ALLEZ VOUS EN! (Fr.), away with you! begone! ALLIUM (L.), the genus to which the leek and onion belong. ALLOEOSTROPHA (Gr.), arranged in irregular strophes. ALLONS (Fr.), let us go: come on: come. ALLURE (Fr.), mien, gait, air. ALMA (It.), soul, essence. ALMA MATER (L.), benign mother--applied by old students to their university. ALNASCHAR, a figure in Galland's _Arabian Nights_ who, having no basis but a basket of glass-ware for sale, dreams of making a fortune and marrying a princess, but in his pride kicks the princess of his dream, and so destroys the real foundation of his fortune--hence any one whose illusions of good fortune are disastrously dispelled. ALOPECIA (L.,--Gr.), fox mange: a skin disease, which destroys the hair. À L'OUTRANCE (Fr.), erroneously written for _à outrance_ (q.v.). ALPARCA, ALPARGATE (Port., prob. from Basque), a hempen shoe or sandal. AL PASTO (It.), according to a fixed rate--of meals in a restaurant. ALPEEN (Ir.), a cudgel. AL PIU (It.), at most. AL SEGNO (It.), to the sign--a direction to the performer to go back to and repeat from the place marked thus--[Segno] ALSIRAT (Ar.), the bridge across mid-hell to the Mohammedan paradise. ALTER EGO (L.), one's second self: a friend, a representative. ALTER IDEM (L.), another precisely similar. ALTER IPSE AMICUS (L.), a friend is another self. ALTERNIS VICIBUS (L.), in alternative turns. ALTERNUM TANTUM (L.), as much more. ALTESSE (Fr.), highness;--ALTEZA (Sp.);--ALTEZZA (It.). ALTHING (Norse), the former supreme court of Iceland. ALTUM SILENTIUM, (L.), profound silence. AMABILIS INSANIA (L.), a pleasing delusion. AMADAVAT, AVADAVAT (Anglo-Ind.), an Indian songbird, of family _Fringillidæ_. À MAIN ARMÉE (Fr.), by force of arms, with mailed fist. A MAJORI [AD MINUS] (L.), from the greater [to the less]. AMALTHÆA (Gr.), the goat which suckled Zeus. See _Cornucopia_ in Dict. AMANT, fem. AMANTE (Fr.), a lover. AMANTES: AMENTES (L.), lovers: lunatics. AMANTIUM IRÆ AMORIS INTEGRATIO EST (L.), lovers' quarrels are a renewal of love. AMARE SIMUL ET SAPERE IPSI JOVI NON DATUR (L.), to be in love and to be wise at the same time is not granted even to Jupiter. AMARI ALIQUID (L.), somewhat bitter. AMATA BENE (L.), well loved (fem.). A MAXIMIS AD MINIMA (L.), from the greatest to the least. AMAZONE (Fr.), a lady's riding-habit. ÂME DAMNÉE (Fr.), lit. 'damned soul,' any one's tool or agent blindly devoted to one's will. ÂME DE BOUE (Fr.), a soul of mud, a low-minded person. A MENSÂ ET TORO (L.), from bed and board. ÂME PERDUE (Fr.), lit. 'lost soul,' a desperate character. Â MERVEILLE (Fr.), wonderfully, perfectly. AMICIZIA (It.), friendship, an intrigue. AMICUS CURIÆ (L.), a friend of the court: a disinterested adviser, not a party to the case (wrongly, a friend in high quarters). AMICUS HUMANI GENERIS (L.), a friend of the human race. AMICUS PLATO, AMICUS SOCRATES, SED MAGIS AMICA VERITAS (L.), Plato is dear to me, Socrates is dear, but truth is dearer still. AMICUS USQUE AD ARAS (L.), a friend even to the altar--i.e. to the last extremity. AMI DE COUR (Fr.), a court friend. AMIE (Fr.), a mistress--fem. of AMI, a friend. A MINORI [AD MAJUS] (L.), from the less [to the greater]. AMITIÉ (Fr.), friendship. À MOITIÉ (Fr.), half, by halves. AMOMUM (L.,--Gr.), an aromatic plant, once loosely used, now applied to a genus of _Zingiberaceæ_. À MON AVIS (Fr.), in my opinion. AMORINO (It.), a cupid. AMOROSA, pl. AMOROSI, fem. of AMOROSO (It.), a mistress. AMOR PATRIÆ (L.), love of country. AMOR SCELERATUS HABENDI (L.), the accursed love of possessing. AMORTISSEMENT (Fr.), amortisation. See _Amortise_ in Dict. AMOR VINCIT OMNIA (L.), love conquers all things. AMPHIGOURI (Fr.), any nonsensical rigmarole. AMPOULÉ, fem. AMPOULÉE (Fr.), bombastic. AMTMAN, AMPTMAN, also AMMAN (Eng.,--Ger.), a district magistrate, a civil officer in charge of an _amt_, a steward or bailiff. ANA, written [=a][=a], [=a] (Low L.,--Gr.), used in recipes to mean throughout, in equal quantity or proportion (of each ingredient); hence sometimes as noun, 'an equal quantity' or 'number.' ANAK, pl. ANAKIM (Heb.), a race of giants. ANANK[=E] (Gr.), necessity. ANATHEMA SIT, let him be accursed (1 Cor. xvi. 22). A NATURA REI (L.), from the nature of the case. ANAX (Gr.), a prince. 'ANCH' IO SON PITTORE' (It.), 'I, too, am a painter' [said by Correggio with pride on looking at Raphael's picture of St Cecilia]. ANCIEN RÉGIME (Fr.), the old order of things [esp. before the French Revolution];--ANCIENNE NOBLESSE, the nobility of the foregoing. ANCILE, pl. ANCILIA (L.), the shield which fell from heaven in the reign of Numa Pompilius, on the safety of which the prosperity of Rome depended. ANGEKOK, an Eskimo conjurer. ANGLICÈ (L.), in English. ANGUIS IN HERBA (L.), snake in the grass. ANICUT, ANNICUT, a Tamil name for a dam or weir across a river. ANIMAL BIPES (L.), the two-footed animal, man;--ANIMAL IMPLUME, featherless;--ANIMAL RATIONALE, rational;--ANIMAL RISIBILE, able to laugh. ANIMA MUNDI (L.), the soul of the world--a Platonic conception. ANIMO ET FIDE (L.), by courage and faith. ANIMULA VAGULA (L.), little soul flitting away--beginning of a poem ascribed to the dying Hadrian, translated or paraphrased by Prior, Pope, Byron, and Dean Merivale. ANNO ÆTATIS SUÆ (L.), in the year of his [or her] age. ANNO CHRISTI (L.), in the year of Christ. ANNO DOMINI (L.), in the year of our Lord. ANNO MUNDI (L.), in the year of the world. ANNO SALUTIS (L.), in the year of redemption. ANNO URBIS CONDITÆ (L.), in the year the city [Rome] was built (753 B.C.). ANNUS MIRABILIS (L.), year of wonders. ANONYMA (Gr.), a showy woman of light fame whom one is not supposed to know. ANTAR, the hero of an Arabian romance based on the exploits of Antara ben Shadd[=a]d;--`ANTER[=I] (pl. `AN[=A]TIRA), a reciter of romances in Egypt. ANTE AGAMEMNONA. See _vixere fortes_. ANTE BELLUM (L.), before the war. ANTE LUCEM (L.), before light. ANTE MERIDIEM (L.), before noon. ANTEROS (Gr.), a deity capable of resisting Eros or love. ANTIBARBARUS (Late L.), a name applied to a collection of words and locutions to be avoided in the classical usage of a language. ANTICHTHON (Gr.), a counter-earth, placed by Pythagoreans on the opposite side of the sun--its inhabitants the ANTICHTHONES, hence antipodeans generally. ANTICYRA (Gr.), a town of Phocis in ancient Greece, abounding in hellebore, reported a cure for insanity--hence _naviget Anticyram_=let him sail to Anticyra (i.e. he is mad). ANTIPASTO (It.), a whet before a meal. ANTIQUARIUM (L.), a collection of antiquities. ANZÌANO, pl. ANZÌANI (It.), an elder, magistrate. À OUTRANCE (Fr.), to excess, furiously, with a vengeance, to the bitter end: rapturously, to the echo [of applause]: furious, desperate. APAGE, SATANA, get thee behind me, Satan (Matt. iv. 10). A PARIBUS (L.), from equals. A PARTE ANTE (L.), on the side before--opp. to _a parte post_, on the side after. À PAS DE GÉANT (Fr.), with a giant's stride. À PERTE DE VUE (Fr.), till beyond one's view. À PEU PRÈS (Fr.), nearly. ÄPFEL-STRUDEL (Ger.), a wafery paste made of flour, butter, and warm water, covered with buttered bread-crumbs, raisins, sugar, allspice, and apples, and rolled up. A PIACÉRE (It.), at pleasure. À PIED (Fr.), on foot. À PIEDS JOINTS (Fr.), with feet joined. À PLAISIR (Fr.), at pleasure. À POINT (Fr.), to a point: exactly right. APOLLINARIS, an alkaline mineral water containing carbonate of soda, derived from the Apollinaris Spring in the valley of the Ahr, in the Rhine province. APOLLO, the Greek sun-god, a representative of youthful manly beauty. APOLOGIA (Gr.), an apologetic writing. APOPHYGE, APOPHYGIS (Gr.), the curving out of the top or bottom of a column from the capital or base. APOPHYSIS, pl. APOPHYSES, a process of a bone. APOPRO[=E]GMENA (Gr.), things rejected--opp. to _proegmena_, things preferred. ÀPORIA (Gr.), in rhetoric, a professed doubt of what to say or to choose. APORRH[=E]TA (Gr.), esoteric doctrines. À PORTÉE (Fr.), within reach or range. A POSSE AD ESSE (L.), from the possible to the actual. APOSTOLICON (Gr.), apostles' ointment, a sovereign salve. APPALTO (It.), farm: monopoly. APPARTEMENT (Fr.), a set of rooms in a house for an individual or a family. APPEL AU PEUPLE (Fr.), a plebiscite. APPEL NOMINAL (Fr.), call of the names--call of the House. APPUI (Fr.), prop, support. APRÈS (Fr.), after;--APRÈS COUP, too late. APRÈS MOI LE DÉLUGE (Fr.), after me the deluge: then the deluge may come when it likes. A PRIMA VISTA (It.), at first sight. À PROPOS DE BOTTES (Fr.), apropos of boots--i.e. without real relevancy. À PROPOS DE RIEN (Fr.), apropos of nothing. AQUA (L.), water;--AQUA CÆLESTIS, a sovereign cordial;--AQUA FONTANA, spring water. À QUATRE (Fr.), of or between four: four together. À QUATRE ÉPINGLES (Fr.), lit. 'with four pins,' with the most careful neatness. À QUATRE MAINS (Fr.), for four hands. A QUATR' OCCHI (It.), lit. 'to four eyes,' face to face, tête-à-tête. AQUA VITÆ (L.), water of life. AQUILA NON CAPIT MUSCAS (L.), an eagle does not catch flies. À QUOI BON? (Fr.), what's the good of it? À RAVIR (Fr.), in ravishing style. ARBITER ELEGANTIARUM (L.), a judge in matters of taste. ARBITRIUM (L.), power of decision. ARCADES AMBO (L.), Arcadians both, both alike. ARCANA CÆLESTIA (L.), celestial mysteries. ARCANA IMPERII (L.), state secrets. ARC DE TRIOMPHE (Fr.), triumphal arch. ARC-EN-CIEL (Fr.), rainbow. ARCHÆUS (Late L. from Gr.), a personification by Paracelsus of animal and vegetable life. ARDENTIA VERBA (L.), words that burn, glowing language. AREB (Hind. _arb_), a sum of 10 crore, or 100,000,000. ARGALA (Hind. _harg[=i]l[=a]_), the Indian adjutant-bird or gigantic crane. ARGENT COMPTANT (Fr.), ready money. ARGUMENTI CAUSÂ (L.), for the sake of argument. ARGUMENTUM AB INCONVENIENTI (L.), argument from the inconvenient. ARGUMENTUM AD CRUMENAM (L.), argument to the purse. ARGUMENTUM AD REM (L.), argument to the purpose. ARGUMENTUM BACULINUM (L.), the argument of the stick, club-law--the ultimate appeal. ARISTIDES (Gr.), an embodiment of justice, from the figure in ancient Greek history. ARISTIPPUS (Gr.), an embodiment of self-indulgence, from the founder of the Cyrenaic school of philosophy. ARISTON MEN HYDOR (Gr.), nothing like water. ARISTON METRON (Gr.), the middle course is the best: the golden mean. ARRECTIS AURIBUS (L.), with ears pricked up. ARRIÈRE-GARDE (Fr.), rear-guard. ARRIÈRE PENSÉE (Fr.), a mental reservation. ARS EST CELARE ARTEM (L.), true art is to conceal art. ARS LONGA, VITA BREVIS (L.), art is long, life short. ARTIUM BACCALAUREUS (L.), Bachelor of Arts. ARTIUM MAGISTER or MAGISTER ARTIUM (L.), Master of Arts. A SALTI (It.), by fits and starts. ASBESTOS GEL[=O]S (Gr.), inextinguishable laughter. ASHERAH, the sacred tree erected beside Canaanite altars, wrongly translated in the A.V. as 'grove.' See _Grove_ in Dict. ASHTAROTH (pl.), ASHTORETH (pl.), ASTARTE, the chief Canaanite goddess, female counterpart to Baal, corresponding to the Assyrian _Ishtar_. ASINUS AD LYRAM (L.), an ass at the lyre, one ignorant of music. ASKESIS, ASCESIS (Late L.--Gr.); training: the monastic life, asceticism. ASMODEUS, ASMODAY, an evil spirit of Semitic mythology, whose functions are seen in Le Sage's story, _Le Diable Boiteux_. ASPASIA, a gifted Athenian courtesan, mistress of Pericles--any charming and accomplished woman of easy morals. ASSEZ BIEN (Fr.), pretty well. ASSIETTE (Fr.), plate, course of meat. ASSONANCIA, ASSONANCY (Sp.), assonance. ASSORA (Ar. _al-s[=u]ra_), a chapter or section of the Koran. ASTATKI (Turk.), refuse petroleum. ASTOLFO, ASTOLPHO, the name of one of Charlemagne's paladins. ASTRA CASTRA, NUMEN LUMEN (L.), the stars my camp, God my lamp. ASTRÆA, the goddess of justice in Greek mythology who lived on earth during the Golden Age, but fled from man's impiety. ATABEK, an ancient Turkish title of honour. ATALANTA, a fleet-footed Arcadian maiden who raced her suitors--defeated by Hippomedon by means of the stratagem of letting fall three golden apples. ATALANTIS, ATLANTIS. See under _Atlantean_ in Dict. ATALAYA (Sp.--Ar.), a watch-tower. ATARAXIA (Gr.), the indifference to circumstances aimed at by the Stoic. À TÂTONS (Fr.), groping. ATHANASIUS CONTRA MUNDUM (L.), Athanasius against the world: one resolute man facing universal opposition. ATH[=E]N[=E], ATH[=E]NA, the Greek goddess of wisdom, the Roman Minerva. ATHET[=E]SIS (Gr.), rejection of words, &c., as spurious. ATMAIDAN (Turk.), a hippodrome. À TORT ET À TRAVERS (Fr.), at random. À TOUTE FORCE (Fr.), by all means, absolutely. À TOUT HASARD (Fr.), at all hazards. À TOUT PRIX (Fr.), at any price. ATRA CURA (L.), black care. À TRAVERS (Fr.), across, through. ATREUS, son of Pelops, who served up the flesh of Thyestes' children to their father. ATROPOS, one of the Fates of Greek mythology, who cut the destined thread of life. AT SPES NON FRACTA (L.), but hope is not yet crushed. ATTAP, ATAP, palm-fronds used for thatch by the Javanese. ATTAR-GUL (Ar.,--Pers.), essence of roses. ATTELAGE (Fr.), team. ATTENTAT (Fr.), attempt. ATTIRAIL (Fr.), apparatus. AU BOUT DE SON LATIN (Fr.), at the end of his Latin, at the end of his knowledge, at his wits' end. AU CINQUIÈME (Fr.), on the fifth [story], in the attics. AU CONTRAIRE (Fr.), on the contrary. AU COURANT (Fr.), fully acquainted with matters. AUCTOR PRETIOSA FACIT (L.), the giver adds value to the gift. AUDACE (Fr.), daring. AUDACES FORTUNA JUVAT (L.), fortune favours the daring. AUDACTER ET SINCERE (L.), boldly and sincerely. AUDAX ET CAUTUS (L.), bold and cautious. AU DÉSESPOIR (Fr.), in despair. AUDI ALTERAM PARTEM (L.), hear the other side. AUDIENCIA (Sp.), court of justice. AUDIENZA (It.), audience. AUDITA QUERELA (L.), the suit having been heard--name of a writ. AUDITQUE VOCATUS APOLLO (L.), and Apollo listens when invoked. AU FAIT (Fr.), well acquainted with a matter: expert. AUFGESCHOBEN IST NICHT AUFGEHOBEN (Ger.), put off is not given up. AU FOND (Fr.), at the bottom. AUF WIEDERSEHEN! (Ger.), till we meet again, good-bye! AU GRAND SÉRIEUX (Fr.), in all seriousness. AU GRATIN (Fr.), after the style of _gratin_, i.e. brown--fish cooked in this way being covered with bread-crumbs and browned in an oven, &c. AUJOURD'HUI ROI, DEMAIN RIEN (Fr.), to-day king, to-morrow nothing. AU JOUR LE JOUR (Fr.), from day to day, from hand to mouth. AU LEVANT (Fr.), towards the east. AU MIEUX (Fr.), on the best of terms. AUMÔNIÈRE (Fr.), a purse carried at the girdle. AU NATUREL (Fr.), in the natural state: cooked plainly. AU PIED DE LA LETTRE (Fr.), close to the letter, quite literally. AU PIS ALLER (Fr.), at the worst. AU PLAISIR DE VOUS REVOIR (Fr.), till I have the pleasure of seeing you again. AU POIDS DE L'OR (Fr.), at the weight of gold, very dear. AU PREMIER (Fr.), on the first [floor]. AU QUATRIÈME (Fr.), on the fourth [floor]. AURA POPULARIS (L.), the breeze of popular favour. AUREA MEDIOCRITAS (L.), the golden or happy mean. AU RESTE (Fr.), as for the rest. AUREUS [NUMMUS] (L.), golden [coin]--the standard gold coin of ancient Rome, equal to 100 sesterces, worth about £1, 1s.: a weight of 1½ drachms. AU REVOIR (Fr.), adieu until we meet again. AURIBUS TENEO LUPUM (L.), I am holding a wolf by the ears. AURIGA (L.), a charioteer. AURI SACRA FAMES (L.), accursed hunger for gold. AU ROYAUME DES AVEUGLES LES BORGNES SONT ROIS (Fr.), in the kingdom of the blind the one-eyed are kings. AURUM FULMINANS (Late L.), an explosive precipitate of chloride of gold. AURUM OMNES, VICTÂ JAM PIETATE, COLUNT (L.), all worship gold, piety being overthrown. AURUM POTABILE (L.), potable gold. AU SECOND (Fr.), on the second [floor]. AU SECRET (Fr.), in close custody or confinement. AU SÉRIEUX (Fr.), seriously. AUSPEX, pl. AUSPICES (L.), an augur in ancient Rome;--auspicium, pl. auspicia, an observation made by an augur. AUSPICIUM MELIORIS ÆVI (L.), augury of a better age. AUSSITÔT DIT, AUSSITÔT FAIT (Fr.), no sooner said than done. AUT AMAT AUT ODIT MULIER, NIHIL EST TERTIUM (L.), a woman either loves or she hates, there is no third course for her. AUTANT D'HOMMES (or DE TÊTES), AUTANT D'AVIS (Fr.), so many men, so many minds. AUT CÆSAR AUT NULLUS (L.), either Cæsar or nobody. AUT INSANIT HOMO AUT VERSUS FACIT (L.), either the man is mad or he is making verses. AUT INVENIAM VIAM AUT FACIAM (L.), I shall either find a way or make one. AUT NON TENTARIS AUT PERFICE (L.), either do not attempt or else achieve. AUTO (Sp.), an act: a drama: an auto-da-fé. AUT PRODESSE VOLUNT AUT DELECTARE POETÆ (L.), poets seek either to profit or to please. AUTREFOIS ACQUIT (law French), previously acquitted. AUTREFOIS CONVICT (law French), previously convicted. AUT RAGEM AUT FATUUM NASCI OPORTET (L.), it behoves one to be born either king or fool. AUTRES TEMPS, AUTRES MOEURS (Fr.), other times, other manners. AU TROISIÈME (Fr.), on the third [floor]. AUT VINCERE AUT MORI (L.), either to conquer or to die. AUX ABSENTS LES OS (Fr.), to the absent the bones. AUX ARMES! (Fr.), to arms! AUX GRANDS MAUX LES GRANDS REMÈDES (Fr.), to desperate evils desperate remedies. AUXILIUM AB ALTO (L.), help from on high. AVANIA, AVARIA, AVENIA (It.), an extortionate Turkish impost. AVANT-COUREUR (Fr.), a forerunner. AVANT-GOÛT (Fr.), a foretaste. AVANT PROPOS (Fr.), preliminary matter: preface. AVEC PERMISSION (Fr.), by consent. AVE, IMPERATOR, MORITURI TE SALUTANT! (L.), hail, emperor, men doomed to die salute thee! [said by gladiators]. AVENIR (Fr.), future, prospects. AVENTURIER, fem. AVENTURIÈRE (Fr.), an adventurer or adventuress. A VERBIS AD VERBERA (L.), from words to blows. AVERNUS (L.), the infernal regions, any abyss--from Lake Avernus in Campania. À VIEUX COMPTES NOUVELLES DISPUTES (Fr.), old accounts breed new disputes. A VINCULO MATRIMONII (L.), from the bond of matrimony. AVI NUMERANTUR AVORUM (L.), ancestors of ancestors are counted [to me]. AVISE LA FIN (Fr.), weigh well the end. AVITO VIRET HONORE (L.), he flourishes upon ancestral honours. AVOCAT CONSULTANT (Fr.), consulting lawyer, chamber counsel. AVOIRA, AWARA, a South American palm, also its fruit. AVOIR LA LANGUE DÉLIÉE (Fr.), to have the tongue unbound, to be glib of speech. À VOLONTÉ (Fr.), at pleasure. A VOSTRO BENEPLACITO (It.), at your pleasure, at your will. À VOTRE SANTÉ (Fr.), to your health. AVOUÉ (Fr.), attorney, solicitor. AVOYER (Fr.), formerly the chief magistrate in some Swiss cantons. A VUESTRA SALUD! (Sp.), to your health! AVVOCATO, AVVOCADO (It.), an advocate, barrister;--AVVOCATO DEL DIABOLO (see _advocatus diaboli_). AVVOGADORE (It.), an official criminal prosecutor in Venice. AXIOMA MEDIUM (L.), a generalisation from experience. AYMEZ LOYAULTÉ (O. Fr.), love loyalty. AYUNTAMIENTO (Sp.), municipal council. BACALLAO (Sp.), cod-fish. BACCAH (Ir.), a cripple. BACCHIUS (L.--Gr.), a metrical foot consisting of two long syllables preceded or followed by a short syllable. BACCHUS (L.--Gr.), the god of wine. BADAUD (Fr.), a lounger, a simpleton. BADMASH, BUDMASH (Hind.), a rascal. BAEL, BEL (Anglo-Ind.), the Bengal quince, also its fruit. BAGASSE, BAGASS (Fr.), refuse products of sugar manufacture. BAGNE (Fr.), a bagnio. BAHAR, BHAR (Ar.), a measure for heavy weight in India, &c., varying from two cwt. upwards. BAHI (Gipsy), fortune. BAHUT (Fr.), a trunk, chest. BAILLI (Fr.), a magistrate;--BAILLIAGE, the jurisdiction of such. BAIN-MARIE (Fr.), a flat vessel containing boiling water. BAJOCCHO, pl. BAJOCCHI (It.), copper coin worth ½d. BAJRA, BAJRI (Hind.), a kind of Indian millet. BAKAL, BAKHAL (Ar.), a storekeeper. BALACHONG, BLACHONG (Malay), a condiment of prawns, shrimps, &c., fermented, salted, and spiced. BALADIÈRE (Fr.), a ballad singer. BALADIN, BALADINE (Fr.), a public dancer: a mountebank. BALAGAN (Tartar), a booth of branches, &c. BALA-KHANAH (Pers.), an upper room. BALALAIKA (Russ.), a popular musical instrument. BALLET D'ACTION (Fr.), a ballet combining action with dancing;--BALLET DIVERTISSEMENT, a ballet entertainment. BALLIADERA, BALLIADERE, the same as _Bayadère_ (q.v. in Dict.). BALLON D'ESSAI (Fr.), an experimental balloon sent up: a 'feeler' of any kind. BALNEUM (L.), bath;--BALNEUM MARIÆ, the same as _bain-marie_ above. BAL PARÉ (Fr.), a dress ball. BALZORINE, BALZERINE (Fr.), a light stuff of wool and cotton mixed. BANALITÉ; (Fr.), triviality. BANCO REGIS (L.), on the king's bench. BANDALERO (Sp.), a robber. BANDERILLA (Sp.), a dart with which the BANDERILLERO annoys the bull in a bull-fight. BANDY (Telegu), a carriage, cart. BANGY, BANGHY (Hind.), a shoulder-yoke with its suspended load. BANQUETTE (Fr.), the front bench of a diligence. BÁNSULI (Hind.), a flute. BARATARIA, the island government committed to Sancho Panza in _Don Quixote_. BARATHRUM (L.--Gr.), an abyss: an insatiable extortioner. BARBÂ TENUS SAPIENTES (L.), sages as far as the beard--i.e. with an appearance of wisdom only. BARCA (It.), a boat, barge;--BARCA-LONGA, a large Spanish fishing-boat. BARCELONA (Sp.), a coloured neckerchief. BARRANCA, BARRANCO (Sp.), the bed of a torrent. BAS-BLEU (Fr.), a blue-stocking: a literary woman. BASILICON (Gr.), lit. 'royal,' a title applied to various ointments of repute--also _basilicum_. BASISTAN, BAZESTAN (Turk.), a market. BASOCHE (Fr.), a tribunal for disputes between the clerks of the French parliament. BASSO PROFONDO (It.), a deep bass voice, or a person possessing such. BASTA! (It.), enough! no more! BASTIDE (Fr.), a French country-house. BASTO (Sp.), the ace of clubs in quadrille and ombre. BÂT (Fr.), a pack-saddle--only in composition, as in bathorse, batman, batmoney, &c. BÂTON FERRÉ (Fr.), a staff shod with iron, an alpenstock. BATTANT, pl. BATTANS (Fr.), the leaf of a table or door. BATTERIE DE CUISINE (Fr.), set of utensils for cooking. BATTRE LA CAMPAGNE (Fr.), to scour the country, to beat about the bush. BATTUTA (It.), beating [time]. BAVARDAGE (Fr.), idle talk. BAYARD, a gentleman of perfect courage and spotless honour, from the Chevalier Bayard (1476-1524), _sans peur et sans reproche_. BAYER AUX CORNEILLES (Fr.), to gape at the crows, to stare vacantly. BEATÆ MEMORIÆ (L.), of blessed memory. BEATI PACIFICI (L.), blessed are the peacemakers. BEATUS ILLE QUI PROCUL NEGOTIIS ... PATERNA RURA BOBUS EXERCET SUIS (L.), happy he who, far removed from city cares, ... tills with his own oxen the fields that were his father's. BEAU GARÇON (Fr.), a handsome man. BEAU JOUR (Fr.), fine day, good times. BEAU SABREUR (Fr.), a dashing cavalry soldier. BEAUTÉ DU DIABLE (Fr.), that overpowering beauty for the sake of which men fling everything away. BEAUX YEUX (Fr.), fine eyes: a pretty woman. BÉCASSE (Fr.), a woodcock, an idiot. BECCACCIA (It.), a woodcock. BÉCHAMEL (Fr.), a kind of sauce made with a little flour in cream. BEEGAH, BEGAH, BEEGHA (Hind.), a Hindoo square measure, varying from 1/3 to 2/3 acre. BEL AIR (Fr.), fine deportment. BEL ESPRIT (Fr.), a fine genius: a person of wit or genius;--pl. BEAUX ESPRITS, men of wit: gay spirits. BEL ÉTAGE (Fr.), the best story, the first floor. BELLA GERANT ALII, TU, FELIX AUSTRIA, NUBE (L.), let others wage wars; do thou, lucky Austria, make marriages. BELLA, HORRIDA BELLA! (L.), wars, horrid wars! BELLAQUE MATRIBUS DETESTATA (L.), and wars abhorred by mothers. BELLE AMIE (Fr.), a female friend, a mistress. BELLE ASSEMBLÉE (Fr.), a fashionable gathering. BELLE-MÈRE (Fr.), mother-in-law. BELLE PASSION (Fr.), tender passion. BELLE VUE (Fr.), fine prospect. BELLUM INTERNECINUM (L.), a war of extermination. BELLUM LETHALE (L.), deadly war. BELLUM NEC TIMENDUM NEC PROVOCANDUM (L.), war is neither to be feared nor provoked. BEL SANGUE (It.), gentle blood. BELTÀ E FOLLIA VANNO SPESSO IN COMPAGNIA (It.), beauty and folly often go together. BELUA MULTORUM CAPITUM (L.), monster with many heads--the irrational mob. BENE DECESSIT (Late L.), he has left well--a leaving certificate given to a schoolboy, curate, &c. BÉNÉFICIAIRE (Fr.), the person receiving a benefit. BENEFICIUM ACCIPERE LIBERTATEM EST VENDERE (L.), to accept a favour is to sell one's liberty. BENE MERENTIBUS (L.), to the well-deserving;--BENE MERITI (acc. -TOS), having well deserved. BENE ORÂSSE EST BENE STUDUISSE (L.), to have prayed well is to have endeavoured well. BENEPLACITO (L.), by your leave. BENE QUI LATUIT BENE VIXIT (L.), he has lived well who has lived obscure. BENE VOBIS! (L.), health to you! BENIGNO NUMINE (L.), with favouring providence. BENJ, the same as _Bhang_ (q.v. in Dict.). BEN TROVATO (It.), cleverly invented. BEN VENUTO (It.), welcome. BERCEAU (Fr.), a cradle: a covered walk;--BERCEAUNETTE (pseudo-French), a bassinette. BERENICE'S HAIR. See _Coma Berenices_. BERGÈRE (Fr.), a kind of easy-chair. BESOIN (Fr.), need, want, desire. BESO LAS MANOS (Sp.), I kiss your hands. BÊTE (Fr.), brute, stupid person;--BÊTE NOIRE, a black beast: a bugbear;--BÊTISE, stupidity. BETHESDA (Heb.), a healing pool at Jerusalem--often applied to a Nonconformist church. BEULAH (Heb.), a land of rest--a name for Israel in its future condition, in Isa. lxii. 4. BÉVUE (Fr.), an oversight, a blunder. BHAT, BHAUT, BAWT (Hind.), a professional bard. BHEESTY, BHISTI (Pers. _bihist[=i]_), a water-carrier. BIBELOT (Fr.), a trinket. BIBERE VENENUM IN AURO (L.), to drink poison from a cup of gold. BIBLIOTHECA (L.,--Gr.), a library: a bibliographer's catalogue: a series of books. BIDET (Fr.), a nag, a cob. BIEN (Fr.), well;--BIEN-AIMÉ, well beloved;--BIEN CHAUSSE (fem. CHAUSSÉE), well shod, with neat boots;--BIEN ENTENDU, of course, to be sure;--BIEN GANTÉ, with neat gloves. BIENNIUM (L.), a period of two years. BIEN PERDU, BIEN CONNU (Fr.), blessing flown is blessing known. BIENSÉANCE (Fr.), propriety--in pl. the proprieties. BIFFÉ (Fr.), erased, cancelled. BIGA (L.), a chariot-and-pair. BIJOUTERIE (Fr.), jewellery. BILLET D'AMOUR (Fr.), love-letter. BIONDO, fem. BIONDA (It.), blonde. BIS (L.), twice: repeated: encore. BIS DAT QUI CITO DAT (L.), he gives twice who gives promptly. BIS PECCARE IN BELLO NON LICET (L.), in war one may not blunder twice. BIS PUERI SENES (L.), old men are twice boys. BLAGUEUR (Fr.), one given to blague (see _Blague_ in Dict.). BLANCHISSEUSE (Fr.), a laundress. BLANDÆ MENDACIA LINGUÆ (L.), falsehoods of a smooth tongue. BLANQUETTE (Fr.), a variety of pear. BLEUÂTRE (Fr.), bluish. BLUETTE (Fr.), a production of bright and witty character. BLUT UND EISEN. See _Eisen und Blut_, the correct form. BOCCA (It.), one of the mouths of a glass-furnace. BOCK (Fr.), a strong kind of German beer, drunk in May--from _Eimbockbier_--Einbeck in Prussia: now often a glass or mug of any beer. BONA (L.), goods;--BONA MOBILIA, movable goods;--BONA PERITURA, perishable goods;--BONA VACANTIA, unclaimed goods. BON ACCUEIL (Fr.), good reception, due honour;--BON AMI, good friend;--BON CAMARADE, good comrade;--BON DIABLE, good-natured fellow;--BON ENFANT, good fellow, pleasant companion;--BON GOÛT, good taste. BONA FIDES (L.), good faith. BONAGH, BONOUGH (Ir.), a regular soldier;--BONAGHT, a subsidy to Irish chiefs for a supply of soldiers. BONA SI SUA NÔRINT (L.), if only they knew their own blessings. BONASUS (L.), a bison or aurochs. BON AVOCAT, MAUVAIS VOISIN (Fr.), a good lawyer is a bad neighbour. BON-CHRÉTIEN (Fr.), 'good Christian'--a kind of pear, the William. BON GRÉ, MAL GRÉ (Fr.), willing or unwilling. BONHOMIE (Fr.), good nature. BONHOMME (Fr.), a French peasant. BONIS AVIBUS (L.), under good auspices. BONJOUR (Fr.), good-day: good-morning. BON JOUR, BONNE OEUVRE (Fr.), the better day the better the deed. BON MARCHÉ (Fr.), 'good bargain:' cheapness: cheap: a large ready-money drapery shop. BON MOT, pl. BONS MOTS (Fr.), a witty saying. BONNE BOUCHE (Fr.), a choice morsel. BONNE COMPAGNIE (Fr.), good society. BONNE ET BELLE (Fr.), good and fair. BONNE FOI (Fr.), good faith. BONNE FORTUNE (Fr.), good luck, success in an intrigue. BONNE GRÂCE (Fr.), good grace, gracefulness. BONNE MINE (Fr.), good appearance, pleasant looks. BONNES NOUVELLES ADOUCISSENT LE SANG (Fr.), good news sweetens the blood. BONSOIR (Fr.), good-evening. BON TON (Fr.), the height of fashion. BON VIVANT (Fr.), a jovial companion: one who lives too well [BONNE VIVANTE is _not_ according to French usage]; BON VIVEUR, a free or fast liver. BON VOYAGE! (Fr.), a good journey to you! BOOZA (Ar.), a drink made in Turkey and Egypt by fermenting millet or barley. BORDEREAU (Fr.), a memorandum. BOREEN (Ir.), a narrow road. BORGEN MACHT SORGEN (Ger.), borrowing makes sorrowing. BORGHETTO (It.), a big village. BORNÉ (Fr.), limited, narrow-minded. BOTTE (Fr.), a pass or thrust in fencing. BOUCHE (Fr.), the staff of cooks in a large house. BOUDERIE (Fr.), pouting, sulking. BOUFFÉE (Fr.), puff, whiff. BOUILLON (Fr.), soup;--BOUILLI, boiled or stewed beef. BOUILLONNÉ (Fr.), provided with puffs. BOUILLOTTE (Fr.), a game at cards for five players. BOULE (Fr.), anything round like a ball. BOULEVERSÉ (Fr.), upset;--BOULEVERSEMENT, an overturning. BOUQUETIÈRE (Fr.), a flower-girl. BOURGEOIS, fem. BOURGEOISE (Fr.), a townsman, trader--(adj.) of the middle class, commercial;--BOURGEOIS GENTILHOMME, the tradesman-gentleman. BOURSIER (Fr.), a foundation-scholar: a speculator on 'Change. BOUTEZ EN AVANT (Fr.), push forward. BOUTIQUE (Fr.), a shop, tradesman's stock. BOUTONNIÈRE (Fr.), a flower made up for the buttonhole, &c. BOWERY (Dut.), a farm, plantation. BRACHIUM CIVILE (L.), the civil arm;--BRACHIUM SECULARE, the secular arm. BRAVA! (It.), well done! BREVET D'INVENTION (Fr.), a patent. BREVETÉ (Fr.), patented. BREVI MANU (L.), with a short hand, off-hand. BREVIS ESSE LABORO, OBSCURUS FIO (L.), in labouring to be brief I become obscure. BRIAL (Sp.), a rich skirt. BRIDE (Fr.), the string of a woman's bonnet. BRILLANT (Fr.), brilliancy. BRILLER PAR SON ABSENCE (Fr.), to be conspicuous by its absence. BRINDISI (It.), a rhymed toast. BRINJAUL (Port. _beringela_), the egg-plant. BRIOCHE (Fr.), a bun: a blunder, mistake. BROCHETTE (Fr.), a small spit or skewer. BRODSTUDIEN (Ger.), bread studies, those by means of which one earns his living. BROUILLERIE (Fr.), disagreement. BRÛLER LA CHANDELLE PAR LES DEUX BOUTS (Fr.), to burn the candle at both ends. BRÛLOT (Fr.), an incendiary. BRUNE (Fr.), fem. of _brun_, brown, a dark girl or woman. BRUTUM FULMEN (L.), an ineffectual thunderbolt. BUCELLAS (Port.), a Portuguese white wine. BUDGEROW (Hind.), a heavy keelless barge. BUEN PRINCIPIO, LA MITAD ES HECHA (Sp.), well begun is half-done. BULSE (Port. _bolsa_), a package of diamonds or gold-dust. BUND (Hind.), an artificial embankment. BUNDESRATH (Ger.), the Federal Council in the German Empire. BUNEEYA, BUNYA (Hind.), a grain-dealer. BUONA MANO (Sp.), small gratuity. BUONO STATO (It.), good state [of affairs]. BUONTEMPO (It.), good time, pleasure. BURGO (It.), a market-town. BURSCH, pl. BURSCHEN (Ger.), a comrade, a student;--BURSCHENSCHAFT, an association of German students. BUVETTE (Fr.), a taproom. BUXEE, BUXIE (Hind.), a military paymaster. CABANA (Sp.), an exporting house: a kind of cigar. CABAYA (Malay), a long tunic of cotton, &c. CABOCEER (Port.), a West African chief. CACAFUEGO, CACAFOGO (Sp.), a spitfire. CACHINNUS (L.), a loud laugh. CACHOT (Fr.), dungeon. CACO[=E]THES LOQUENDI (L.), a mania for speaking. CACO[=E]THES SCRIBENDI (L.), a mania for scribbling. CADEAU (Fr.), a gift, present. CADIT QUÆSTIO (L.), the question drops. CADRE (Fr.), a frame, scheme: a list of officers. CÆCA EST INVIDIA (L.), envy is blind. CÆLUM NON ANIMUM MUTANT QUI TRANS MARE CURRANT (L.), they change their sky, not their mind, who scour across the sea. CAFÉ AU LAIT (Fr.), coffee with [hot] milk;--CAFÉ NOIR, black coffee [without milk]. CAFILA, CAFFILA (Ar.), a caravan. CAILLIACH (Gael.), a hag. ÇA IRA (Fr.), 'that shall go'-the opening words of a famous song of the French Revolution. CAJAVA, CADJOWA (Ar.), a pannier slung across a camel. CALDARIUM (L.), a hot bath. CALDERA (Sp.), the crater of a volcano. CALEAN, CALEEOON (Pers.), a water-pipe, a hookah. CALEMBOUR, CALEMBOURG (Fr.), a pun. CALLIDA JUNCTURA (L.), a skilful connection. CAMISCIA, CAMICIA (It.), a shirt. CAMPO SANTO (It.), a burying-ground. CAMPUS MARTIUS (L.), field of Mars, used by the ancient Romans for games, military drill, &c. CANAILLE (Fr.), a pack of hounds, the rabble. CANAUT (Hind.), a canvas enclosure. CANDIDA PAX (L.), white-robed Peace. CANDY, CANDIL (Tamil), a South Indian weight, generally containing 20 _maunds_, about 500 pounds English. CANOPUS (L.--Gr.), a bright star in the southern constellation _Argo navis_: an Egyptian vase for holding the entrails of the body embalmed. CANTABILE (It.), fit for singing. CANTABIT VACUUS CORAM LATRONE VIATOR (L.), the empty traveller will sing before a robber. CANTAMBANCO (It.), a mountebank--sometimes CANTABANK. CANTATE (L.), Psalm xcviii. as a canticle in the Anglican evening service;--CANTATE DOMINO, sing to the Lord. CANTHUS, pl. CANTHI (L.), a corner of the eye. CANTILENA (L.), the plain-song or _canto-fermo_: a ballad. CANTINIÈRE (Fr.), a female canteen-keeper. CAPUCINEX (Ger.), coffee with a little milk. CAPUT (L.), head: chapter. CAPUT MORTUUM (L.), worthless residue. CARA SPOSA (It.), dear wife. CARENT QUIA VATE SACRO (L.), because they lack a sacred bard. CARPE DIEM, QUAM MINIMUM CREDULA POSTERO (L.), enjoy the present day, trusting the least possible to the future;--often CARPE DIEM alone, meaning 'seize the opportunity.' CARVIOL (Ger.), cauliflower. CASSARE (L.), to quash, make null. CASUS BELLI (L.), whatever involves or justifies war. CASUS CONSCIENTIÆ (L.), a case of conscience. CATALOGUE RAISONNÉ (Fr.), a descriptive catalogue of books, &c., arranged according to their subjects. CAUSA SINE QUÂ NON (L.), an indispensable cause. CAUSE CÉLÈBRE (Fr.), a peculiarly notable trial. CAVEAT ACTOR (L.). let the doer beware. CAVEAT EMPTOR (L.), let the buyer beware. CAVE CANEM (L.), beware of the dog, a frequent inscription on Roman thresholds. CAVENDO TUTUS (L.), safe through taking care. CAVE QUID DICIS, QUANDO, ET CUI (L.), beware what you say, when, and to whom. CEDANT ARMA TOGÆ (L.), let arms yield to the gown: let military authority yield to civil. CEINTURE (Fr.), a girdle, belt. CELA VA SANS DIRE (Fr.), that goes without saying: it is a matter of course: agreed! CELA VIENDRA (Fr.), that will come. CELUI QUI VEUT, CELUI-LÀ PEUT (Fr.), who has the will, he has the skill. CE MONDE EST PLEIN DE FOUS (Fr.), this world is full of fools. C'EN EST FAIT DE LUI (Fr.), it is all over with him. C'EN EST QUE LE PREMIER PAS QUI COÛTE (Fr.), it is only the first step that is difficult. CENSOR MORUM (L.), censor of morals. CENTUM (L.), a hundred. CERTUM EST QUIA IMPOSSIBILE EST (L.), it is certain because it is impossible. C'EST-À-DIRE (Fr.), that is to say. C'EST ÉGAL (Fr.), it's all one [to me]: it makes no odds. C'EST LE COMMENCEMENT DE LA FIN (Fr.), it is the beginning of the end. C'EST MAGNIFIQUE, MAIS CE N'EST PAS LA GUERRE (Fr.), that is magnificent, but it is not war [said at Balaklava by a French general watching the charge of the Light Brigade]. C'EST PIRE [PLUS] QU'UN CRIME, C'EST UNE FAUTE (Fr.), it is worse than a crime, it is a blunder. C'EST SELON (Fr.), that is according to circumstances. C'EST UNE AUTRE CHOSE (Fr.), that is quite another thing. CETERA DESUNT (L.), the rest is awanting. CETERIS PARIBUS (L.), other things being equal. CETERUM CENSEO (L.), but I think [said of persistent obstruction, like that of Cato]. CHACUN SON GOÛT, À CHACUN SON GOÛT (Fr.), every one to his taste [CHACUN À SON GOÛT is _not_ French]. CHAMADE (Fr.), during war, the sounding of a trumpet or drum to ask a parley. CHAMBRE À COUCHER (Fr.), a bedroom. CHAMPS ELYSÉES (Fr.), Elysian fields--name of a park in Paris. CHAPEAU BRAS, CHAPEAU DE BRAS, a crush-hat [coined English-French, not _real_ French]. CHAPEAUX BAS! (Fr.), hats off! CHAPELLE ARDENTE (Fr.), a chapel or chamber in which a corpse lies in state before burial, surrounded by lighted candles. CHAPELLE EXPIATOIRE (Fr.), a chapel built in expiation, generally on the site of one's sin. CHARMANTE (Fr.), charming woman. CHÂTEAUX EN ESPAGNE (Fr.), castles in Spain, castles in the air. CHEF DE CUISINE, or merely CHEF (Fr.), male head-cook. CHEMIN DE FER (Fr.), the iron way, railway. CHER AMI (Fr.), a dear male friend;--CHÈRE AMIE, a dear female friend.--CHÉRI, fem. CHÉRIE, beloved. CHERCHEZ LA FEMME! (Fr.), seek for the woman! there's a woman at the bottom of it! [the phrase is due to Dumas _père_]. CHE SARÀ SARÀ (It.), what will be will be. CHEVAL DE BATAILLE (Fr.), war-horse. CHEVALIER D'INDUSTRIE (Fr.), lit. a knight of industry: one who lives by persevering fraud. CHIESA LIBERA IN LIBERO STATO (It.), a free church in a free state [Cavour's recipe for Italy]. CHI TACE CONFESSA (It.), he who keeps silence confesses. CHRONIQUE SCANDALEUSE (Fr.), a record of scandals. CI-DEVANT (Fr.), before this, former, heretofore. CI-GÎT (Fr.), here lies. CINGULUM VENERIS (L.), the girdle of Venus. CIRCUITUS VERBORUM (L.), a circumlocution. CIRCULUS IN PROBANDO (L.), arguing in a circle, using the conclusion as one of the arguments. CITO (L.), quickly. CLARIOR E TENEBRIS (L.), the brighter from the darkness. CLARUM ET VENERABILE NOMEN (L.), an illustrious and venerable name. CLASSES AISÉES (Fr.), the well-off classes. COELEBS QUID AGAM (L.), being a bachelor, what am I to do? COENA DOMINI (L.), the Lord's Supper. COGITO, ERGO SUM (L.) I think, therefore I am [Descartes' fundamental basis of philosophy]. COIFFEUR (Fr.), a hairdresser. COLLECTANEA (L.), passages collected from authors. COMA BERENICES (L.), an asterism between Boötes and Leo, representing the amber hair of Berenice, wife of Ptolemy Euergetes. COMÉDIE FRANÇAISE, LA (Fr.), the official name of the subsidised Théâtre Français. COMÉDIE HUMAINE (Fr.), the name applied to the collection of Balzac's novels, planned to form a complete picture of contemporary society. COMITAS INTER GENTES (L.), international comity. COMME IL FAUT (Fr.), as it should be: correct: approved by the fashionable world, genteel. COMMUNE BONUM (L.), common good. COMMUNIBUS ANNIS (L.), on the annual average. COMMUNI CONSENSU (L.), by common consent. COMPAGNON DE VOYAGE (Fr.), travelling companion. COMPOS MENTIS (L.), of sound mind, sane. COMPTE RENDU (Fr.), an account rendered: report. COMPTOIR (Fr.), counter: counting-room. CON AMORE (It.), with love: very earnestly. CONCIO AD CLERUM (L.), discourse to the clergy. CONCOURS (Fr.), contest, competition. CON DILIGENZA (It.), with diligence. CONDITIO SINE QUÂ NON (L.), an indispensable condition. CON DOLORE (It.), with grief. CONFER (L.), compare. CONJUNCTIS VIRIBUS (L.), with united powers. CONQUIESCAT IN PACE (L.), may he [or she] rest in peace. CONSCIA MENS RECTI (L.), a mind conscious of rectitude. CONSEIL D'ÉTAT (Fr.), a council of state. CONSEIL DE FAMILLE (Fr.), a family consultation. CONSENSUS FACIT LEGEM (L.), consent makes law or rule. CONSILIO ET ANIMIS (L.), by wisdom and courage. CONSILIO ET PRUDENTIÂ (L.), by wisdom and prudence. CON SPIRITO (It.), with spirit. CONSTANTIÂ ET VIRTUTE (L.), by constancy and virtue. CONSUETUDO PRO LEGE SERVATUR (L.), custom is held as a law. CONSULE PLANCO (L.), when Plancus was consul, when I was a young man. CONTRA BONOS MORES (L.), against good manners or morals. COPIA VERBORUM (L.), plenty of words, fluency. CORAM DOMINO REGE (L.), before our lord the king. CORAM NOBIS (L.), before us, in our presence. CORAM POPULO (L.), in the presence of the public. CORDON SANITAIRE (Fr.), a sanitary cordon, a line of sentries posted so as to keep contagious disease within a certain area. CORPUS DELICTI (L.), the substance of the offence. CORPUS JURIS CANONICI (L.), body of the canon law; corpus juris civilis (L.), body of the civil law. CORRUPTIO OPTIMI PESSIMA (L.), the corruption of the best is the worst of all. CORSETIÈRE (Fr.), a maker of corsets. COSI FAN TUTTE (It.), so do they all: they're all like that [of women]. CÔTELETTE (Fr.), a cutlet, a chop. COUP DE BONHEUR (Fr.), stroke of good luck. COUP DE CHAPEAU (Fr.), a touching of the hat. COUP DE HASARD (Fr.), lucky chance. COUP DE SOLEIL (Fr.), sunstroke. COUP DE VENT (Fr.), a gust of wind, a gale. COUPE-JARRET (Fr.), a cut-throat, ruffian. COUP MANQUÉ (Fr.), an abortive stroke, a failure. COÛTE QUE COÛTE (Fr.), cost what it may. COUTURIÈRE (Fr.), a dressmaker. COUVRE-PIED (Fr.), a coverlet or rug for the feet. CRAMBE REPETITA (L.), cauld kail het again--cold cabbage-broth warmed up. CREDAT JUDÆUS APELLA! (L.), let the Jew Apella believe that [if he likes]! CREDO QUIA ABSURDUM (L.), I believe it because it is absurd. CRÊME DE LA CRÊME (Fr.), cream of the cream: the very best. CRÊPÉ (Fr.), frizzed. CRESCIT EUNDO (L.), it grows as it goes. CRÈVE-COEUR (Fr.), deep sorrow, heart-break. CRIARD, fem. CRIARDE (Fr.), crying, discordant. CRIMEN FALSI (L.), crime of perjury. CRIMEN LÆSÆ MAJESTATIS (L.), high treason. CROQUIS (Fr.), an outline or rough sketch. CROUSTADE (Fr.), a kind of rissole with hard crust. CRUX CRITICORUM (L.), a puzzle for the critics. CUCULLUS NON FACIT MONACHUM (L.), the cowl does not make the monk. CUI BONO? (L.), for whose benefit is it? who is the gainer? CUILIBET IN ARTE SUÂ CREDENDUM EST (L.), every person is to be trusted in his own art. CULPA LEVIS (L.), a slight fault. CUM BONÂ VENIÂ (L.), with your kind indulgence. CUM GRANO SALIS (L.), with a grain of salt--i.e. with some allowance. CUM MULTIS ALIIS (L.), with many other things. CUM NOTIS VARIORUM (L.), with the notes of various [critics]. CUM PRIVILEGIO (L.), with privilege. CURIOSA FELICITAS (L.), nice felicity of expression that is the fruit of pains. CURRENTE CALAMO (L.), with a running pen, with the pen of a ready writer. CUSTOS ROTULORUM (L.), keeper of the rolls. D'ACCORD (Fr.), agreed, in tune. DA DEXTRAM MISERO (L.), give the right hand to one unhappy. DA LOCUM MELIORIBUS (L.), give place to your betters. DAME D'HONNEUR (Fr.), maid of honour. DAMES DE LA HALLE (Fr.), market-women. DAMNUM ABSQUE INJURIÂ (L.), loss without injury. DARDANARIUS (L.), a speculator in grain. DAS EWIG-WEIBLICHE (Ger.), the eternal feminine. DAS HEISST, or simply D.H. (Ger.), that is. DATA ET ACCEPTA (L.), expenditures and receipts. DATE OBOLUM BELISARIO (L.), give a penny to Belisarius [the appeal ascribed to the great general when reduced to mendicancy]. DAVUS SUM, NON OEDIPUS (L.), I am only Davus, not Oedipus--a plain man, and no prophet. DEBITO JUSTITIÆ (L.), by debt of justice. DE BON AUGURE (Fr.), of good omen. DE BONNE GRÂCE (Fr.), with good grace: willingly. DÉCHÉANCE (Fr.), forfeiture. DE DIE IN DIEM (L.), from day to day. DE FACTO (L.), from the fact: really: actual. DÉGAGÉ, fem. DÉGAGÉE (Fr.), easy and unconstrained. DÉGOÛT (Fr.), distaste. DE GUSTIBUS NON EST DISPUTANDUM (L.), there is no disputing about tastes. DE HAUT EN BAS (Fr.), from top to bottom: contemptuously. DEI GRATIÂ (L.), by the grace of God. DE INTEGRO (L.), anew. DÉJEUNER (Fr.), in France, a late breakfast, a midday meal with meat and wine; in England, luncheon--more specifically, DÉJEUNER À LA FOURCHETTE, a breakfast with meat. DE JURE (L.), in law: by right: rightful. DÉLASSEMENT (Fr.), relaxation. DE L'AUDACE, ENCORE DE L'AUDACE, ET TOUJOURS DE L'AUDACE (Fr.), to dare, still to dare, and ever to dare [Danton's famous phrase]. DELENDA EST CARTHAGO (L.), Carthage must be destroyed [a saying constantly repeated by Cato]. DE MAL EN PIS (Fr.), from bad to worse. DEMEURE (Fr.), dwelling. DEMI-JOUR (Fr.), half-light, twilight, subdued light. DE MINIMIS NON CURAT LEX (L.), the law does not concern itself about very small matters. DE MORTUIS NIL NISI BONUM (L.), say nothing but good of the dead. DE NIHILO NIHILUM, IN NIHILUM NIL POSSE REVERTI (L.), from nothing nothing, into nothing nothing can return. DE NOVO (L.), anew. DEO DATE (L.), give ye to God. DEO FAVENTE (L.), with God's favour. DEO GRATIAS (L.), thanks to God. DE OMNI RE SCIBILI ET QUIBUSDAM ALIIS (L.), about all things knowable, and some others. DEO VOLENTE, or D.V. (L.), God willing: by God's will. DÉPÊCHE (Fr.), despatch, message. DE PIS EN PIS (Fr.), worse and worse. DE PROFUNDIS (L.), out of the depths, a dirge. DE RETOUR (Fr.), back again, returned. DER GROSSE HEIDE (Ger.), the great heathen or Pagan [Heine's name for Goethe]. DE RIGUEUR (Fr.), strictly required: indispensable: obligatory: compulsory: latest. DERNIER RESSORT (Fr.), last resort, last resource. DÉSAGRÉMENT (Fr.), something disagreeable. DESIPERE IN LOCO (L.), to jest at the proper time. DÉSOBLIGEANTE (Fr.), a carriage for two. DÉSORIENTÉ (Fr.), having lost one's bearings, confused, bemuddled. DESUETUDO (L.), disuse. DESUNT CETERA (L.), the remainder is wanting. DE TE FABULA NARRATUR (L.), the parable is told about you yourself; thou art the man. DÉTENU, fem. DÉTENUE (Fr.), a prisoner. DE TROP (Fr.), too much, or too many, superfluous, intrusive. DETUR DIGNIORI (L.), let it be given to the more worthy;--DETUR PULCHRIORI (L.), let it be given to the fairer. DEUS AVERTAT! (L.), God forbid! DEUS DET! (L.), God grant! DEUS EX MACHINA (L.), a god [let down] out of the machine [in theatrical apparatus]: a too obvious device in an author's plot. DEUS NOBIS HÆC OTIA FECIT (L.), it is a god that hath given us this ease. DEUS VOBISCUM! (L.), God be with you! DEUS VULT! (L.), God wills it! [the Crusaders' cry]. DEXTRO TEMPORE (L.), at a lucky moment. DICAMUS BONA VERBA (L.), let us speak words of good omen. DICHTUNG UND WAHRHEIT (Ger.), fiction and truth. DICTA PROBANTIA (L.), proof texts. DICTUM DE DICTO (L.), hearsay report. DICTUM SAPIENTI SAT EST (L.), a word to the wise is enough. DIEM PERDIDI (L.), I have lost a day [said by the emperor Titus]. DIES FASTI or PROFESTI (L.), days on which judgment could be pronounced, on which courts could be held in ancient Rome, lawful days. DIES FAUSTUS (L.), lucky day. DIES FESTI or FERIÆ (L.), days of actual festival. DIES INFAUSTUS (L.), unlucky day. DIES IRÆ (L.), day of wrath: the day of judgment. DIES NEFASTI (L.), days on which judgment could not be pronounced or assemblies of the people be held, in ancient Rome. DIES NON (L.), a day on which judges do not sit. DIEU AVEC NOUS (Fr.), God with us. DIEU DÉFEND LE DROIT (Fr.), God defends the right. DIEU ET MON DROIT (Fr.), God and my right. DIEU VOUS GARDE! (Fr.), God guard you! DIGITO MONSTRARI (L.), to be pointed out with the finger: to be famous. DI GRADO IN GRADO (It.), by degrees. DI MAJORUM GENTIUM (L.), the divinities of superior rank--i.e. the twelve greater gods of classical mythology. DI PENATES (L.), household gods. DIS ALITER VISUM (L.), the gods have adjudged otherwise. DI SALTO (It.), at a leap. DISJECTA MEMBRA (L.), the scattered members. DISTINGUÉ, fem. DISTINGUÉE (Fr.), distinguished: striking. DISTRAIT, fem. DISTRAITE (Fr.), absent-minded. DIT (Fr.), called. DIVERTISSEMENT (Fr.), amusement: sport. DIVIDE ET IMPERA (L.), divide [your opponents], and so rule them. DIVISIM (L.), separately. DOCENDO DISCITUR (L.), one learns in teaching. DOLCE FAR NIENTE (It.), sweet doing-nothing: pleasant idleness. DOLI CAPAX (L.), capable of committing a wrong--opp. of _doli incapax_. DOMINE, DIRIGE NOS! (L.), Lord, direct us!--the motto of London. DOMINUS ILLUMINATIO MEA (L.), the Lord is my enlightening. DOMUS ET PLACENS UXOR (L.), a home and a pleasing wife. DONNA È MOBILE (It.), woman is changeable. DONNERWETTER! (Ger.), thunderstorms! [as an ejaculation]. DORER LA PILULE (Fr.), to gild the pill. DORMITAT HOMERUS (L.), Homer nods. DOS MOI POU ST[=O] KAI T[=E]N G[=E]N KIN[=E]S[=O] (Gr.), give me where to stand, and I will move the earth [attributed to Archimedes]. DOUBLE ENTENTE (Fr.), double meaning, equivocal sense. DO UT DES (L.), I give that you may give. DRAMATIS PERSONÆ (L.), characters of a drama. DROIT AU TRAVAIL (Fr.), right to labour. DROIT DES GENS (Fr.), international law. DRÔLE (Fr.), a rogue, a knave. DULCE EST DESIPERE IN LOCO (L.), it is pleasant to play the fool on occasion. DULCE ET DECORUM EST PRO PATRIÂ MORI (L.), it is sweet and glorious to die for one's country. DULCE, 'DOMUM!' (L.), sweet strain, 'Homeward!' from a Winchester school song sung before holidays. DUM SPIRO, SPERO (L.), while I breathe, I hope. DUM VIVIMUS, VIVAMUS (L.), while we live, let us live. D'UN SEUL JET (Fr.), at one effort. DURANTE BENE PLACITO (Late L.), during good pleasure. DURANTE VITA (Late L.), during life. DUX FEMINA FACTI (L.), a woman was leader of the deed. EAU BÉNITE (Fr.), holy water. EAU SUCRÉE (Fr.), sugared water. ÉBAUCHE (Fr.), a sketch, drawing in outline. ÉBOULEMENT (Fr.), a landslip. ECCE! (L.), behold! ECCE SIGNUM! (L.), behold the sign or the proof! ECCO! (It.), here is! there! look there! ÉCLAIRCISSEMENT (Fr.), an explanation. ÉCOLE (Fr.), school;--ÉCOLE DE DROIT, law school;--ÉCOLE DE MÉDECINE, school of medicine;--ÉCOLE MILITAIRE, military school;--ÉCOLE POLYTECHNIQUE, polytechnic school. E CONTRA (Late L.), contrariwise, conversely. E CONTRARIO (Late L.), on the contrary. E CONVERSO (Late L.), conversely, by logical conversion. ÉCRASÉ (Fr.), crushed;--ÉCRASER, to crush;--ÉCRASEZ L'INFÂME! crush the abominable [superstition] out of existence! [motto of Voltaire--against the Roman Catholic Church of his time]. ÉCREVISSE (Fr.), crayfish. ÉCRIN (Fr.), casket, jewel-case. ÉCRU (Fr.), unbleached, raw. EDAX RERUM (L.), devourer of [all] things. EDITION DE LUXE (Fr.), a splendid and expensive edition of a book. EDITIO PRINCEPS (L.), original edition [especially of a work till then only known in MS.]. ÉGALITÉ (Fr.), equality. ÉGAREMENT (Fr.), confusion, bewilderment. EGERIA, the nymph who instructed the ancient Roman king Numa Pompilius, hence any woman who gives a man his inspiration. EGESTA (Late L.), excrements, fæces. EGO ET REX MEUS (L.), I and my king [Cardinal Wolsey]. EHEU FUGACES ... LABUNTUR ANNI! (L.), alas! the fleeting years slip away. EILE MIT WEILE (Ger.), speed with heed, make haste leisurely. Cf. _festina lente_. EIN MAL, KEIN MAL (Ger.), just once counts nothing. EISEN UND BLUT (Ger.), iron and blood--a famous phrase of Bismarck's. EJUSDEM GENERIS (L.), of the same kind. EK PARERGOU (Gr.), as a by-work. ÉLAN (Fr.), dash, eagerness to advance. ÉLÉGANT, fem. ÉLÉGANTE (Fr.), a person of fashion. ÉLÈVE (Fr.), pupil. ÉLITE (Fr.), choice, pick. EMBARRAS DE (DU) CHOIX (Fr.), embarrassment in choice, a perplexing number of objects from which to choose. EMBARRAS DE(S) RICHESSES (Fr.), a perplexing amount of wealth or abundance of any kind. ÉMEUTE (Fr.), a riot;--ÉMEUTIER, a rioter. ÉMIGRÉ, fem. ÉMIGRÉE (Fr.), an emigrant, esp. one of those royalists who fled from France during the great Revolution. EMIR-EL-HAJJ (Ar.), chief of the great caravan of pilgrims to Mecca. EMPRESSÉ, fem. EMPRESSÉE (Fr.), eager to show goodwill or civility;--EMPRESSEMENT, warmth of manner, cordiality. EN AMI (Fr.), as a friend. EN ARRIÈRE (Fr.), behind, in the rear. EN ATTENDANT (Fr.), in the meantime, while waiting for. EN AVANT! (Fr.), forward! EN BADINANT (Fr.), roguishly, with badinage. EN BARBETTE (Fr.), on a breastwork or platform for ordnance which is fired over a parapet and not through embrasures--also of a ship's guns fired over the bulwarks and not through ports. EN BEAU (Fr.), as fair or handsome, in flattering style. EN CABALLO (Sp.), on horseback. EN CAVALIER (Fr.), in a cavalier manner. EN CHEMISE [DE NUIT] (Fr.), in night-dress. ENCOMIENDA (Sp.), a commandery;--ENCOMENDERO, its commander. EN CROUPE (Fr.), on the crupper, on a pillion. EN CUERPO (Sp.), in close-fitting dress; sometimes erroneously for 'stark naked,' the Spanish for which is _en cueros_. EN DÉSHABILLÉ (Fr.), in undress, in careless costume. EN EFFET (Fr.), in effect. EN ÉVIDENCE (Fr.), conspicuously, conspicuous, before the public view. EN FAMILLE (Fr.), amongst the family, as at a family gathering, at home. ENFANS PERDUS, ENFANTS PERDUS (Fr.), lit. 'lost children:' forlorn hope. ENFANT DE LA MAISON (Fr.), child of the house, quite at home. ENFANT GÂTÉ, fem. GÂTÉE (Fr.), spoilt child. ENFANT TERRIBLE (Fr.), lit. 'terrible child,' a precocious child whose indiscreet prattle puts his elders to the blush. ENFANT TROUVÉ (Fr.), foundling. EN FÊTE (Fr.), in festivity, keeping holiday. EN GARÇON (Fr.), like a bachelor, in bachelor's style. EN GRANDE TENUE (Fr.), in full dress. EN L'AIR (Fr.), in the air, being discussed or expected. ENLEVÉ (Fr.), carried away, kidnapped. EN MASSE (Fr.), in a body, universally. EN MILITAIRE (Fr.), as a military man. EN PASSANT (Fr.), in passing: by the way. EN PLEIN JOUR (Fr.), in broad day. EN PRINCE (Fr.), in princely style. EN PURE PERTE (Fr.), to mere loss, to no purpose. EN QUEUE (Fr.), like a tail, in a string or line. ENRAGÉ, fem. ENRAGEÉ (Fr.), desperate: a lunatic. EN RAPPORT (Fr.), in direct relation: in sympathy with. EN RÈGLE (Fr.), in due order: according to rules. EN RETRAITE (Fr.), in retirement, on half-pay. EN REVANCHE (Fr.), in revenge. EN ROUTE (Fr.), on the road: let us go! march! EN SPECTACLE (Fr.), as a spectacle. ENS PER ACCIDENS (Late L.), that which exists only as an accident of _ens per se_--i.e. a substance. ENS RATIONIS (Late L.), an entity of reason--opposed to ENS REALE. EN SUITE (Fr.), in succession [the sense 'to match' is _not_ French]. ENTAMÉ, fem. ENTAMÉE (Fr.), broached, entered upon. ENTENTE (Fr.), understanding;--ENTENTE CORDIALE, cordial understanding between nations. ENTÊTÉ, fem. ENTÊTÉE (Fr.), infatuated. EN TOUT (Fr.), in all: wholly. EN TOUT CAS (Fr.), in any case or emergency. ENTRAIN (Fr.), heartiness;--ENTRAÎNEMENT (Fr.), enthusiasm. EN TRAIN (Fr.), in progress. ENTRECHAT (Fr.), caper. ENTRECÔTE (Fr.), meat between the ribs, a kind of steak. ENTRE NOUS (Fr.), between ourselves. ENTREPRENEUR (Fr.), contractor: builder. ENTREZ (Fr.), come in. EN VILLE (Fr.), in town, 'not at home.' EO NOMINE (L.), by that name, on that claim. EPEA PTEROENTA (Gr.), winged words. ÉPERDU, fem. ÉPERDUE (Fr.), distracted;--ÉPERDUMENT AMOUREUX, desperately in love. EPHPHATHA (Aramaic), be thou opened. ÉPICIER (Fr.), a grocer. E PLURIBUS UNUM (Late L.), one out of many--motto of the United States. ÉPOUSE (Fr.), wife, bride. E PUR SI MUOVE! (It.), but it does move, though! [attributed to Galileo, after recanting his doctrine that the earth goes round the sun]. ÉPRIS, fem. ÉPRISE (Fr.), captivated, smitten. ÉPUISÉ, fem. ÉPUISÉE (Fr.), worn out. ÉQUESTRIENNE (an English-coined word in imitation French), a horsewoman, a female circus-rider. ERD GEIST (Ger.), earth-spirit. E RE NATÂ (Late L.), from the circumstance arisen, according to the exigencies of the case. ERGO BIBAMUS! (L.), therefore let us drink! ERGON (Gr.), work, business. ERIN(N)YS, pl. ERIN(N)YES (Gr.), the Furies. EROS (Gr.), the Greek god of sensual passion, miscalled love. ERRARE EST HUMANUM (L.), to err is human. ESCALIER (Fr.), staircase;--ESCALIER DÉROBÉ, private staircase. ESCAMOTAGE (Fr.), juggling. ESCHSCHOLTZIA (Latinised from name of German botanist Eschscholtz), a Californian poppy with showy yellow flowers. ESCRIBANO (Sp.), a notary. ESCROC (Fr.), a swindler. ESPADA (Sp.), a sword: a matador. ESPRIT FOLLET (Fr.), a mischievous goblin. ESSE QUAM VIDERI (L.), to be, rather than to seem. ESTANCIA (Sp.), a mansion: in Spanish America, a large grazing farm or landed estate;--ESTANCIERO, the owner or overseer of such. EST MODUS IN REBUS (L.), there is a proper mean in [all] things. ESTO PERPETUA! (L.), may she be lasting! EST QUÆDAM FLERE VOLUPTAS (L.), there is in weeping a certain pleasure. ESTRO (It.), enthusiasm, height of poetic inspiration. ÉTAGE (Fr.), floor, story [BEL ÉTAGE, best story, first floor, is _not_ a French usage]. ÉTAGÈRE (Fr.), an ornamental stand of shelves for flowers, articles of virtu, &c. ÉTANG (Fr.), pond. ÉTAPE (Fr.), a storehouse: a halting-place: a day's march: rations: forage. ÉTAT (Fr.), state, rank;--ÉTAT-MAJOR, the staff of an army, regiment, &c. ÉTATS GÉNÉRAUX (Fr.), the States-General. ET EGO IN ARCADIA (L.), I, too, was in Arcadia: I know as much about it as anybody. ET HOC GENUS OMNE, ET ID GENUS OMNE (L.), and everything of this, or of that, sort. ETHOS (Gr.), permanent character: in literature and art, the chief characteristics of a work as affecting the intellectual and moral faculties, as opposed to pathos, which appeals to the emotions. ÉTOILE (Fr.), star. ÉTOURDERIE (Fr.), heedlessness, stupid blundering. ÉTOURDI, fem. ÉTOURDIE (Fr.), giddy, foolish, light-headed. ÉTRANGER, fem. ÉTRANGÈRE (Fr.), strange: a foreigner. ÉTRENNES (Fr.), New Year's gift or gifts. ET SEQUENTES (L.), and those that follow. ET SEQUENTIA (L.), and what follows. ET SIC DE CETERIS (Late L.), and so about the rest. ET SIC DE SIMILIBUS (L.), and so of the like. ET TU, BRUTE! (L.), you too, Brutus! [Cæsar's exclamation when he saw his much-loved Brutus amongst his murderers.] EUGE! (L.--Gr.), well done! EUREKA [HEUREKA]! (Gr.), I have found it! EURIPUS (L.--Gr.), a strait, channel. EVENTUS STULTORUM MAGISTER (L.), the result is the schoolmaster of fools. EX ABUNDANTI (L.), superfluously;--ex abundanti cautela, from excessive caution. EX ABUSU NON ARGUITUR AD USUM (L.), from the abuse no argument is drawn against the use. EX ACCIDENTI (Late L.), accidentally, as opposed to _essentially_. EX ÆQUO (Late L.), equally, equitably. EXAMEN (L.), examination. EX ANIMO (L.), from the mind, earnestly. EX AUCTORITATE MIHI COMMISSÂ (L.), by the authority entrusted to me. EX CATHEDRÂ (Late L.), from the chair of office, esp. the pope's throne in the Consistory, or a professor's chair, hence authoritatively, judicially. EXCELSIOR (L.), higher: [erroneously] upwards! EXCEPTIO CONFIRMAT [PROBAT] REGULAM (L.), the exception proves the rule. EXCEPTIS EXCIPIENDIS (Late L.), excepting what is to be excepted, with proper exceptions. EXCERPTA (L., pl. of _excerptum_), extracts, selections. EX CONCESSIS, EX CONCESSO (Late L.), from what has been conceded. EX CONSEQUENTI (Late L.), by way of consequence. EX CONVERSO. See _e converso_. EXCREMENTA (L., pl. of _excrementum_), refuse matter. EX CURIÂ (L.), out of court. EX DEBITO JUSTITIÆ (Late L.), from what is due to justice. EX DELICTO (Late L.), owing to a crime. EX DONO (Late L.), by gift, as a present from. EXEAT (L.), let him go out--formal leave, as for a student to be out of college for more than one night. EXEGI MONUMENTUM ÆRE PERENNIUS (L.), I have reared a monument more lasting than brass. EXEMPLA SUNT ODIOSA (L.), examples are hateful. EXEMPLI GRATIÂ (L.), by way of example, for instance--often abbreviated e.g. EXEUNT OMNES (L.), all go out, or retire. EX HYPOTHESI (Late L.), from the hypothesis. EX IMPROVISO (Late L.), in an unforeseen manner, suddenly. EXITUS ACTA PROBAT (L.), the issue or event proves the acts. EX LIBRIS (Late L.), from the books--followed by the owner's name in the genitive--written in the volumes or on the bookplates of a library. EX MERO MOTU (L.), from his own impulse. EX NATURÂ REI (Late L.), from the nature of the case;--EX NATURÂ RERUM, from the nature of things. EX NIHILO [NILO] NIHIL [NIL] FIT (L.), out of nothing nothing comes. EX OFFICIO (L.), by virtue of his office. EX OPERE OPERATO (Late L.), by virtue of a work done. See _Opus_ in Dict. EX PARTE (L.), on one side, as a partisan. EX PEDE HERCULEM (L.), [we recognise] Hercules from his foot. EXPERIENTIA DOCET STULTOS (L.), experience teaches fools. EXPERIMENTUM CRUCIS (L.), the experiment of the cross, a crucial test. EXPERTO CREDE (L.), trust one who has tried, or had experience. EXPERTUS METUIT (L.), having had experience, he fears. EX POST FACTO (L.), retrospective. EXPRESSIS VERBIS (L.), in express terms. EX PROFESSO (L.), avowedly. EX PROPRIIS (L.), from one's own resources. EX PROPRIO MOTU (Late L.), of his own accord. EX QUOCUNQUE CAPITE (L.), from whatever source. EX RE NATÂ (Late L.), according to a circumstance that has arisen. EX TACITO (L.), silently. EXTINCTUS AMABITUR IDEM (L.), the same man [maligned living], when dead, will be loved. EXTRAIT (Fr.), an extract. EXTRA JUDICIUM (Late L.), out of court, extra-judicially. EXTRA MODUM (L.), beyond measure, extravagant. EXTRA MUROS (L.), beyond the walls. EX UNGUE LEONEM (L.), [judge] the lion from his claws. EX UNO DISCE OMNES (L.), from one example learn what they all are. EX UTRAQUE PARTE (L.), on either side. EX VOTO (L.), according to one's prayer, by reason of a vow: votive: a votive offering. FABER EST QUISQUE FORTUNÆ SUÆ (L.), every man is the fashioner of his own fortune. FABLE CONVENUE (Fr.), fable agreed upon--Voltaire's name for history. FACILE EST INVENTIS ADDERE (L.), it is easy to add to things invented already. FACILE PRINCEPS (L.), obviously pre-eminent: an easy first. FACILIS DESCENSUS AVERNO (or AVERNI) (L.), descent to Avernus (hell) is easy: the road to evil is easy. FACINUS MAJORIS ABOLLÆ (L.), the crime of a larger cloak, i.e. of a deep philosopher. FACIT INDIGNATIO VERSUM (L.), indignation inspires verse. FAÇON DE PARLER (Fr.), way of speaking, a mere form of words. FACTA NON VERBA (L.), deeds, not words. FACTUM EST (L.), it is done. FADAISE (Fr.), silliness, nonsense. FADE (Fr.), insipid, colourless;--FADEUR, dullness. FÆX POPULI (L.), dregs of the people. FAIRE BONNE MINE (Fr.), to put a good face upon the matter. FAIRE DE LA PROSE SANS LE SAVOIR (Fr.), to produce prose without knowing it--which Molière's M. Jourdain was surprised to find he had been doing all his days in conversation. FAIRE L'HOMME D'IMPORTANCE (Fr.), to assume the air of importance. FAIRE MON DEVOIR (Fr.), to do my duty. FAIRE SANS DIRE (Fr.), to act without talking. FAIT ACCOMPLI (Fr.), a thing already done. FALSI CRIMEN (Late L.), the crime of falsity, fraudulent concealment, forgery. FALSUS IN UNO, FALSUS IN OMNIBUS (L.), false in one point, false in all. FAMA CLAMOSA (L.), a current scandal. FAMA NIHIL EST CELERIUS (L.), nothing is swifter than rumour. FAMA SEMPER VIVAT! (L.), may his [or her] fame live for ever! FAMILLE DE ROBE (Fr.), a legal family. FANTOCCINI (It.), puppets made to move by strings or wires, a puppet-show. FAR NIENTE (It.), doing nothing. FARCEUR (Fr.), a wag, a joker. FAROUCHE (Fr.), sullen, savage. FARRAGO LIBELLI (L.), a medley of miscellaneous topics for a little book [of satire]. FAS EST ET AB HOSTE DOCERI (L.), it is right to be taught even by an enemy. FATA OBSTANT (L.), the Fates oppose it. FATA VIAM INVENIENT (L.), the Fates will find out a way. FAUTE DE MIEUX (Fr.), for want of better. FAUX PAS (Fr.), a false step: a mistake. FAVETE LINGUIS (L.), favour me with your tongues--keep a discreet silence. FAX MENTIS INCENDIUM GLORIÆ (L.), the passion for glory is a torch to the mind. FECIT (L.), [T. D.] made or executed [this]. FECUNDI CALICES, QUEM NON FECERE DISERTUM? (L.), full cups, whom have they not made eloquent? FÉE (Fr.), a fairy;--FÉERIE, fairyland. FELICITAS MULTOS HABET AMICOS (L.), prosperity has many friends. FELICITER (L.), happily: successfully. FELO DE SE (L.), a suicide, lit. 'felon of himself.' FEMME (Fr.), woman, wife;--FEMME COUVERTE (old law French), a married woman, as under her husband's protection;--FEMME GALANTE, a gay woman;--FEMME INCOMPRISE, a woman misunderstood or unappreciated;--FEMME SAVANTE, a learned woman, a blue-stocking;--FEMME SOLE (law French), a single woman, a woman legally independent. FEMME DE CHAMBRE (Fr.), a lady's maid. FENDRE UN CHEVEU EN QUATRE (Fr.), to split a hair in quarters, to make over-subtle distinctions. FERMIER GÉNÉRAL (Fr.), farmer-general, one who farmed certain taxes under the old French monarchy. FESTINA LENTE (L.), hasten gently. FÊTE CHAMPÊTRE (Fr.), a rural festival, garden party. FÊTE-DIEU (Fr.), Corpus Christi. FEU (pl. FEUX) D'ARTIFICE (Fr.), fireworks. FEU DE JOIE (Fr.), a bonfire: in English (_not_ in French), a firing of guns in token of joy. FEUILLETONISTE (Fr.), one who writes for feuilletons. See _Feuilleton_ in Dict. FIAT EXPERIMENTUM IN CORPORE VILI (L.), let experiment be made on a worthless body. FIAT JUSTITIA, RUAT COELUM (L.), let justice be done, though the heavens should fall. FIAT LUX (L.), let there be light. FICHU (Fr.), a triangular kerchief or wrap worn on a woman's neck and shoulders. FIDE ET AMORE (L.), by faith and love. FIDE ET FIDUCIÂ (L.), by faith and confidence. FIDE ET FORTITUDINE (L.), by faith and fortitude. FIDEI DEFENSOR (L.), defender of the faith. FIDE NON ARMIS (L.), by faith, not by arms. FIDE, SED CUI VIDE (L.), trust, but in whom take care. FIDES ET JUSTITIA (L.), fidelity and justice. FIDES PUNICA (L.), Punic faith: treachery. FI DONC! (Fr.), for shame! FIDUS ACHATES (L.), faithful Achates: a true friend. FIDUS ET AUDAX (L.), faithful and bold. FIERI FACIAS (Late L.), cause to be done--the name of a writ commanding the sheriff to distrain the defendant's goods. FIERTÉ (Fr.), haughtiness, high spirit. FIGURANT, fem. FIGURANTE (Fr.), a supernumerary on the stage;--FIGURANTE, pl. FIGURANTI (It.), a ballet-dancer. FILIUS NULLIUS (L.), son of nobody, a bastard. FILIUS POPULI (L.), son of the people. FILIUS TERRÆ (L.), son of the soil, one of mean birth. FILLE DE CHAMBRE (Fr.), chambermaid. FILLE DE JOIE (Fr.), a prostitute. FILLE D'HONNEUR (Fr.), maid of honour. FILS (Fr.), son. FIN DE SIÈCLE (Fr.), end of the [19th] century: decadent. FINIS CORONAT OPUS (L.), the end crowns the work. FINIS POLONIÆ! (L.), the end of Poland! the Scotch Chancellor Seafield's 'end o' an auld sang' in 1707. FIN MOT (Fr.), main point. FISOLEN (Ger.), beans. FLACON (Fr.), a smelling-bottle. FLAGRANTE BELLO (L.), while war is raging. FLAGRANTE DELICTO (L.), in the very act. FLAIR (Fr.), scent, keen sense of smell. FLECTERE SI NEQUEO SUPEROS, ACHERONTA MOVEBO (L.), if I can't move the gods, I'll stir up hell. FLECTI, NON FRANGI (L.), to be bent, not to be broken. FLEURON (Fr.), a piece of decorative flower-work. FLOCCULUS, pl. FLOCCULI (Late L.), a small flock or tuft of wool or the like. FLOREAT (L.), let it flourish. FLORILEGIUM, pl. FLORILEGIA (Late L.), a collection of flowers--i.e. of choice passages, an anthology. FLOSCULI SENTENTIARUM (L.), flowerets of wisdom. FOENUM HABET IN CORNU (L.), he has hay on his horn [the sign of a dangerous bull]. FOIBLESSE (Old French; modern, _faiblesse_), a failing. FOIE GRAS (Fr.), fat liver [of goose] made into _pâté de foie gras_ (or _foies gras_). FOLÂTRE (Fr.), sportive, frolicsome, fond of romping. FOMES, pl. FOMITES (L.), touchwood, a substance which retains contagion. FOND (Fr.), ground, basis, fund;--FONDS, ground, fund, stock, capital. FONDA (Sp.), a tavern. FONS ET ORIGO (L.), the source and origin. FONS LACRIMARUM (L.), fount or source of tears. FORCE MAJEURE (Fr.), superior power. FORENSIS STREPITUS (L.), the clamour of the forum. FORMALITER (Late L.), formally, in respect of the formal element. FORSAN ET HÆC OLIM MEMINISSE JUVABIT (L.), perchance hereafter it will be delightful to remember even these things. FORS CLAVIGERA--the title assumed by Ruskin for his series of periodical letters to British working-men. _Fors_=fortune; _Claviger_, the club-bearer, an epithet of Hercules. FORTI ET FIDELI NIHIL DIFFICILE (L.), to the brave and faithful nothing is difficult. FORTIS CADERE, CEDERE NON POTEST (L.), the brave man may fall, he cannot yield. FORTITER ET RECTE (L.), bravely and uprightly. FORTITER, FIDELITER, FELICITER (L.), firmly, faithfully, felicitously. FORTITER IN RE, SUAVITER IN MODO (L.), forcibly in deed, gently in manner. FORTUNA FAVET FATUIS (L.), fortune favours fools. FORTUNA FAVET FORTIBUS (L.), fortune aids the bold. FORTUNA FORTES ADJUVAT (L.), fortune aids the brave. FORUM CONSCIENTIÆ (L.), the court of conscience. FOURGON (Fr.), a wagon, cart. FRA (It.), brother, friar. FRAÎCHEUR (Fr.), freshness, coolness. FRAIS (Fr.), _n.pl._ expenses, charges. FRANCISÉ, fem. FRANCISÉE (Fr.), Frenchified. FRANCO (It.), post-free, franked. FRANGAS, NON FLECTES (L.), you may break, you shall not bend. FRANKFURTER (Ger.) a small smoked sausage. FRAPPÉ, fem. FRAPPÉE (Fr.), iced, artificially cooled. FRATE, pl. FRATI (It.), a friar, a mendicant Franciscan. FRAU (Ger.), dame, married woman, wife. FRÄULEIN (Ger.), miss, unmarried woman, German governess. FRAUS EST CELARE FRAUDEM (L.), it is a fraud to conceal a fraud. FRAUS PIA (L.), a pious fraud. FREDAINE (Fr.), escapade, prank. FRIAND, fem. FRIANDE (Fr.), dainty, delicate: an epicure. FRIGIDARIUM (L.), the cold swimming-tank of a bath-house. FRIJOL, pl. FRIJOLES (Sp.), French beans. FRIPONNERIE (Fr.), knavery, roguishness. FRISETTE (Fr.), a frizette, fringe of frizzled hair worn above or on the forehead. FRITURE (Fr.), frying: fried food: fry. FRONDEUR (Fr.), an adherent of the Fronde: any malcontent. See _Fronde_ in Dict. FRONT À FRONT (Fr.), front to front, face to face. FRONTIGNAC, a sweet wine produced near Frontignan, in Hérault, France [in modern French, _Frontignan_.] FRONTI NULLA FIDES (L.), no reliance on the face, no trusting appearances. FROU-FROU (Fr.), the delicate rustling of women's drapery. FROW(E), FRO(E), Anglicised from Dut. _vruow_, a married woman, wife: a slovenly woman. FRUGES CONSUMERE NATI (L.), born to consume the fruits of the soil. FUGIT HORA (L.), the hour flies. FUIMUS TROES (L.), we were once Trojans. FUIT ILIUM (L.), Troy has been--i.e. is no more. FULMEN BRUTUM (L.), a harmless thunderbolt. FUMADO (Sp.), smoked fish. FUNCTUS OFFICIO (L.), having fulfilled an office, out of office. FUNDAMENTUM RELATIONIS (Late L.), ground of relation. FUNÈBRE (Fr.), mournful. FUREUR (Fr.), extravagant admiration. FUROR ARMA MINISTRAT (L.), rage supplies arms. FUROR LOQUENDI (L.), a rage for speaking. FUROR POETICUS (L.), poetic frenzy. FUROR SCRIBENDI (L.), a rage for writing. GAGE D'AMOUR (Fr.), pledge of love, love-token. GAIETÉ DE COEUR (Fr.), gaiety of heart. GAILLARD, fem. GAILLARDE (Fr.), lively, frolicsome. GALANT, fem. GALANTE (Fr.), given to illicit intrigue: one of the parties in an amour;--GALANT HOMME, a man of honour. GALAPAGO (Sp.), a tortoise. GALIMAFRÉE (Fr.), hotch-potch, hash.--Anglicised as _Gallimaufry_ (q.v. in Dict.). GARDE À CHEVAL (Fr.), mounted guard. GARDE CHAMPÊTRE (Fr.), rural guard, field-keeper. GARDE-CHASSE (Fr.), gamekeeper. GARDE DU CORPS (Fr.), a bodyguard. GARDE-FEU (Fr.), fender. GARDE-FOU (Fr.), a parapet. GARDE MOBILE (Fr.), a guard liable to general service. GARDE NATIONALE (Fr.), national guard. GARDE ROYALE (Fr.), royal guard. GARDEZ (Fr.), take care, be on your guard. GARDEZ BIEN (Fr.), take good care. GARDES LA FOI (Fr.), keep the faith. GAUDEAMUS IGITUR (L.), let us therefore rejoice. GAUDET TENTAMINE VIRTUS (L.), virtue rejoices in trial. GAUDIUM CERTAMINIS (L.), the delight of battle. GEFLÜGELTE WORTE (Ger.), winged words. GEFRORNES (Ger.), ices. GENDARMES (Fr.), _n.pl._ armed police. GENIUS LOCI (L.), the genius of the place. GENS D'AFFAIRES (Fr.), business men; GENS D'ARMES, men-at-arms (cf. GENDARMES); GENS DE BIEN, honest folk; GENS DE CONDITION, people of rank; GENS D'ÉGLISE, churchmen; GENS DE LANGUES, linguists; GENS DE LETTRES, men of letters; GENS DE LOI, lawyers; GENS DE MÊME FARINE, birds of a feather; GENS DE MER, seamen; GENS D'ÉPÉE, GENS DE GUERRE, military men; GENS DE PEU, people of humble condition; GENS DE ROBE, lawyers; GENS DU MONDE, people of fashion. GENS TOGATA (L.), the toga-wearing nation--i.e. the Romans. GENTILHOMME (Fr.), a nobleman: a gentleman. GENUS IRRITABILE VATUM (L.), the irritable tribe of poets. GERMANICÈ (L.), in German. GESPRITZT (Ger.), mixed in equal quantity with soda water--of wine. GIBIER DE POTENCE (Fr.), game for the gibbet, gallows-bird, jail-bird. GIOVINE SANTO, DIAVOLO VECCHIO (It.), young saint, old devil. GIPPESVICUM (L.), Ipswich. GITANO, fem. GITANA (Sp.), gipsy. GLI ASSENTI HANNO TORTO (It.), the absent are in the wrong. GLORIA IN EXCELSIS (L.), glory to God in the highest. GLORIA PATRI (L.), glory be to the Father. GLORIA VIRTUTIS UMBRA (L.), glory [is] the shadow of virtue. GLÜCKLICHE REISE! (Ger.), prosperous journey to you! GN[=O]THI SEAUTON (Gr.), know thyself. GOUTTE À GOUTTE (Fr.), drop by drop. GOUVERNANTE (Fr.), a governess. GRÂCE À DIEU (Fr.), thanks to God. GRADU DIVERSO, VIÂ UNÂ (L.), with different step on the one way. GRADUS AD PARNASSUM (L.), a step to Parnassus, aid in the composition of Latin or Greek verse. GRANDE CHÈRE ET BEAU FEU (Fr.), ample cheer and a fine fire. GRANDE FORTUNE, GRANDE SERVITUDE (Fr.), great wealth, great slavery. GRANDE PARURE or TOILETTE (Fr.), full dress. GRANDE PASSION (Fr.), a serious love-affair. GRAND MERCI (Fr.), many thanks. GRATIANOPOLIS (L.), Grenoble. GRATIA PLACENDI (L.), the delight of pleasing. GRATIS DICTUM (L.), mere assertion. GRAVIORA MANENT (L.), more grievous things remain. GRAVIORA QUÆDAM SUNT REMEDIA PERICULIS (L.), some remedies are more grievous than the perils. GRAVIS IRA REGUM EST SEMPER (L.), the anger of kings is always serious. GREGATIM (L,), in flocks. GREX VENALIUM (L.), the herd of hirelings. GROSSE SEELEN DULDEN STILL (Ger.), great souls suffer in silence. GROSSE TÊTE ET PEU DE SENS (Fr.), big head and little wit. GROSSIÈRETÉ (Fr.), grossness, vulgarity in conversation. GUERRA AL CUCHILLO (Sp.), war to the knife. GUERRE À MORT (Fr.), war to the death. GUERRE À OUTRANCE (Fr.), war to the uttermost, to the bitter end. GULYÁS (Hung.), meat stewed with paprika or red pepper. GUTTA CAVAT LAPIDEM (L.), the drop wears away the stone. HAC LEGE (L.), with this law, under this condition. HAFNIA (L.), Copenhagen. HALA (L.), Halle. HANC VENIAM PETIMUSQUE DAMUSQUE VICISSIM (L.), we ask and grant this liberty turn about. HANNIBAL AD PORTAS! (L.), Hannibal at the gates! HAPAX LEGOMENON (Gr.), a word or phrase that occurs once only; a solitary instance. HAUD LONGIS INTERVALLIS (L.), at no long intervals. HAUT ET BON (Fr.), great and good. HEIMWEH (Ger.), home-sickness. HELLUO LIBRORUM (L.), a devourer of books. HEU PIETAS! HEU PRISCA FIDES! (L.), alas for piety! alas for the ancient faith! HEUREUSEMENT (Fr.), happily, fortunately. HIATUS VALDE DEFIENDUS (L.), a gap deeply to be deplored. HIC ET UBIQUE (L.), here and everywhere. HIC FINIS FANDI (L.), here [was] an end of the speaking. HIC JACET (L.), here lies. HIC LABOR, HOC OPUS EST (L.), this is the labour, this the toil. HIC SEPULTUS (L.), here buried. HINC ILLÆ LACRIMÆ (L.), hence [proceed] these tears. HINC LUCEM ET POCULA SACRA (L.), from this source [we draw] light and draughts of sacred learning. HOC AGE (L.), this do. HOC ANNO (L.), in this year. HOC ERAT IN VOTIS (L.), this was the very thing I prayed for. HOC GENUS OMNE (L.), and all that sort [of people]. HOCH (Ger.), _lebe hoch!_ your health! [in drinking]. HOC LOCO (L.), in this place. HOC SAXUM POSUIT (L.), this stone [T. D.] placed. HOC TEMPORE (L.), at this time. HOC VOLO, SIC JUBEO, SIT PRO RATIONE VOLUNTAS (L.), this I will, thus I command, be my will sufficient reason. HODIE MIHI, CRAS TIBI (L.), to-day is mine, to-morrow thine. HOFRATH (Ger.), an Aulic councillor: a complimentary title. HOI POLLOI (Gr.), the many; the rabble: the vulgar. HOLMIA (L.), Stockholm. HOMINIBUS PLENUM, AMICIS VACUUM (L.), full of men, empty of friends. HOMINIS EST ERRARE (L.), it belongs to man to err. HOMME D'AFFAIRES (Fr.), business man: agent: steward; HOMME DE BIEN, man of worth, good man; HOMME DE COUR, courtier; HOMME DE FORTUNE, fortunate man: rich man; HOMME DE LETTRES, man of letters; HOMME DE PAILLE, man of straw; HOMME D'ÉPÉE, military man; HOMME DE ROBE, a lawyer; HOMME D'ESPRIT, a man of wit; HOMME D'ÉTAT, a statesman; HOMME DU MONDE, man of fashion. HOMO ALIENI JURIS (L.), one under control of another. HOMO ANTIQUÂ VIRTUTE AC FIDE (L.), a man of the antique virtue and loyalty. HOMO HOMINI LUPUS (L.), man is a wolf to man. HOMO MULTARUM LITTERARUM (L.), a man of many literary accomplishments. HOMO NULLIUS COLORIS (L.), a man of no colour, one who does not commit himself. HOMO SUI JURIS (L.), one who is his own master. HOMO SUM: HUMANI NIHIL A ME ALIENUM PUTO (L.), I am a man; I count nothing human indifferent to me. [Said by a Paul Pry in Terence, _Heaut._ I. i. 25.] HOMO TRIUM LITTERARUM (L.), man of three letters--i.e. _fur_ = thief. HOMO UNIUS LIBRI (L.), a man of one book. HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE (O. Fr.), the shame be his who thinks ill of it--the motto of the Order of the Garter. HONNEUR ET PATRIE (Fr.), honour and native land. HONORES MUTANT MORES (L.), honours change [men's] manners. HONORIS CAUSÂ [GRATIÂ] (Late L.), for the sake of honour, as honorary. HONOR VIRTUTIS PRÆMIUM (L.), honour is the reward of virtue. HONOS ALIT ARTES (L.), honour nourishes the arts. HONOS HABET ONUS (L.), honour has its burden. HORÆ CANONICÆ (L.), the canonical hours. HORÆ SUBSECIVÆ (Late L.), leisure hours. HORA FUGIT (L.), the hour flies. HORAS NON NUMERO NISI SERENAS (L.), I number none but shining hours. HORRESCO REFERENS (L.), I shudder in relating. HORRIBILE DICTU (L.), horrible to relate. HORS DE COMBAT (Fr.), unfit to fight, disabled. HORS CONCOURS (Fr.), outside competition. HORS LA LOI (Fr.), in outlawry, outlawed. HORS DE PROPOS (Fr.), aside from the purpose. HORS DE SAISON (Fr.), out of season. HORTUS SICCUS (L.), a collection of dried plants. HOSTIS HONORI INVIDIA (L.), an enemy's hatred is an honour. HOSTIS HUMANI GENERIS (L.), enemy of the human race. HÔTEL DES INVALIDES (Fr.), Hospital for Invalids--the name of a hospital for disabled soldiers in Paris, founded in 1670. HÔTEL-DIEU (Fr.), the House of God, a hospital. HÔTEL GARNI (Fr.), a furnished town house. HUISSIER (Fr.), doorkeeper, usher: bailiff. HUMANUM EST ERRARE (L.), to err is human. HURTAR PARA DAR POR DIOS (Sp.), to steal in order to give to God. IBIDEM (L.), in the same place, thing, or case. ICH DIEN (Ger.), I serve. ICI (Fr.), here--i.e. here is a W.C. ICI ON PARLE FRANÇAIS (Fr.), here French is spoken. IDÉE FIXE (Fr.), a fixed idea, a monomania. IDEM (L.), the same. IDEM SONANS (L.), sounding the same. IDEM VELLE ATQUE IDEM NOLLE (L.), to like and to dislike the same things. ID EST (L.), that is, often I.E. ID GENUS OMNE (L.), all that class or kind. IESUS HOMINIM SALVATOR (L.), Jesus Saviour of men. IGNORATIO ELENCHI (L.), ignoring the point in question, the fallacy of arguing to the wrong point. IGNORATIO LEGIS NEMINEM EXCUSAT (L.), ignorance of the law excuses nobody. IGNOTI NULLA CUPIDO (L.), for a thing unknown there is no desire. IGNOTUM PER IGNOTIUS (L.), the unknown by the still more unknown. IGRAN DOLORI SONO MUTI (It.), great griefs are mute. IL A INVENTÉ L'HISTOIRE (Fr.), he has invented history. IL A LE DIABLE AU CORPS (Fr.), the devil is in him. IL A LES DÉFAUTS DE SES QUALITÉS (Fr.), he has the defects which go with the good qualities he has. IL DOLCI FAR NIENTI (It.), the sweet state of do-nothing. IL FAUT DE L'ARGENT (Fr.), money is necessary. IL FAUT LAVER SON LINGE SALE EN FAMILLE (Fr.), one should wash one's foul linen within the family, in private, at home. ILIAS MALORUM (L.), an Iliad of woes. ILLE CRUCEM SCELERIS PRETIUM TULIT, HIC DIADEMA (L.), that man got a cross, this man a crown, as the price of his crime. ILLE TERRARUM MIHI PRÆTER OMNES ANGULUS RIDET (L.), that corner of the earth to me smiles sweetest of all. ILLUSTRISSIMO (It.), most illustrious. IL MEGLIO È L'INIMICO DEL BENE (It.), the better is the enemy of the well. IL N'Y A PAS À DIRE (Fr.), there is nothing to be said. IL N'Y A PAS QUE LE PREMIER PAS QUI COÛTE (Fr.), it is only the first step that is difficult. IL PENSEROSO (It.), the pensive man. ILS N'ONT RIEN APPRIS NI RIEN OUBLIÉ (Fr.), they have learned nothing and forgotten nothing [said of the French _Emigrés_, often of the Bourbons]. IMPAR CONGRESSUS ACHILLI (L.), unequally matched against Achilles. IMPASSE (Fr.), a cul-de-sac, an insoluble difficulty. IMPAYABLE (Fr.), invaluable. IMPEDIMENTA (L.), luggage in travelling: the baggage of an army. IMPERIUM ET LIBERTAS (L.), empire and liberty. IMPERIUM IN IMPERIO (L.), a government within another. IN ABSTRACTO (Late L.), in the abstract. IN ARTICULO MORTIS (L.), at the point of death. IN BANCO REGIS (Late L.), in the King's Bench. IN BIANCO (It.), in blank, in white. IN CAMERÂ (Late L.), in a [judge's private] room. IN CAPITE (Late L.), in chief, by direct grant from the Crown. INCIDIS IN SCYLLAM CUPIENS VITARE CHARYBDIM (L.), you fall into Scylla trying to avoid Charybdis. IN COMMENDAM (Late L.). See under _Commend_ in Dict. IN CONTUMACIAM (Late L.), as an act of contumacy. IN DELICIIS (L.), as favourites. IN DEPOSITO (Late L.), for a pledge. INDEX EXPURGATORIUS (L.), a list of prohibited books. IN DOMINO (Late L.), in the Lord. IN EQUILIBRIS (Late L.), in equilibrium. IN ESSE (Late L.), in being, in fact. IN EXCELSIS (Late L.), in the highest, at the highest point. IN EXTENSO (Late L.), at full length. IN EXTREMIS (Late L.), at the point of death. INFIMA SPECIES (Late L.), the lowest species included in a genus or class. IN FLAGRANTI DELICTO (L.), in the very act of committing the crime. IN FORMÂ PAUPERIS (L.), as a poor man. IN FORO CONSCIENTIÆ (L.), in the court of conscience: judged by one's own conscience. INFRA DIGNITATEM (L.), below one's dignity. INGÉNU, INGÉNUE (Fr.), a young man or woman of exceptional simplicity. IN GREMIO (Late L), in the bosom. IN HOC SIGNO VINCES (L.), in this sign thou wilt conquer--i.e. in the Cross [the motto of Constantine the Great]. IN LIMINE (L.), on the threshold. IN LOCO PARENTIS (L.), in the place of a parent. IN MAGNIS ET VOLUISSE SAT EST (L.), in great things even to have wished to try is enough. IN MALEM PARTEM (L.), in an unfavourable manner. IN MEDIAS RES (L.), into the midst of things. IN MEMORIAM (L.), to the memory of: in memory. IN NUBIBUS (L.), in the clouds. IN PACE (L.), in peace. IN PARTIBUS INFIDELIUM (L.), in unbelieving countries--where there are no strictly territorial Catholic dioceses. IN PETTO (It.), within the breast: in reserve. IN POSSE (Late L.), in potential existence: in possibility. IN PROPRIÂ PERSONÂ (Late L.), in person. IN PURIS NATURALIBUS (Late L.), quite naked. IN RE (L.), in the matter of. IN RERUM NATURÂ (L.), in nature. IN SECULA SECULORUM (L.), for ever and ever. IN SITU (L.), in its original situation. INSTAR OMNIUM (L.), worth all the rest. IN STATU PUPILLARI (Late L.), in a state of wardship. IN STATU QUO (Late L.), in the former state. INSULA or INSULÆ (L.), Lille. INTEGER VITÆ SCELERISQUE PURUS (L.), blameless in life and clear of crime. INTER ALIA (L.), among other things;--inter alios, among other persons. INTER ARMA SILENT LEGES (L.), amid wars laws are silent. INTÉRIEUR (Fr.), interior, home, inside. INTER NOS (L.), between ourselves. INTER POCULA (L.), over one's cups. IN TERROREM (L.), as a warning. INTER SE (L.), amongst themselves. IN TOTO (L.), in the whole: entirely. INTRA MUROS (L.), within the walls. IN TRANSITU (L.), on the passage. IN USUM DELPHINI (L.), for the use of the Dauphin: toned down to suit the young person. IN UTRUMQUE PARATUS (L.), prepared for either alternative. INVENIT (L.), [T.D.] devised [this]. IN VINO VERITAS (L.), in wine the truth [comes out]. INVITÂ MINERVÂ (L.), against the will of Minerva, against the grain. IPSE DIXIT (L.), he himself said it: his mere word. IPSISSIMA VERBA (L.), the very words. IPSO FACTO (L.), in the fact itself: virtually. IRA FUROR BREVIS EST (L.), rage is a brief madness. ISPALIS (L.), Seville. ITALIA IRREDENTA (It.), unredeemed Italy--the parts of Italy not yet freed from foreign domination--South Tyrol, Dalmatia, Trieste, &c. ITALICÈ (L.), in Italian. ITERUM (L.), again. IVRESSE (Fr.), drunkenness. JACTA EST ALEA (L.), the die is cast. JAM PROXIMUS ARDET UCALEGON (L.), already [the house of] our next-door neighbour, Ucalegon, is in flames. JE N'EN VOIS PAS LA NÉCESSITÉ! (Fr.), I don't see the necessity for that! [said in reply to a man who pleaded, 'But one must live somehow']. JE NE SAIS QUOI (Fr.), I know not what. JET D'EAU (Fr.), a jet of water. JEU DE MOTS (Fr.), a play on words: a pun. JEU D'ESPRIT (Fr.), a witticism. JEUNESSE DORÉE (Fr.), gilded youth, luxurious young fops. JOCI CAUSÂ (L.), for the sake of the joke. JUDEX DAMNATUR CUM NOCENS ABSOLVITUR (L.), the judge is condemned when the guilty man is acquitted. JUNGFERNBRATEN (Ger.), roast-pork with juniper-berries. JUPITER PLUVIUS (L.), rain-bringing Jupiter: rainy weather. JURE DIVINO (L.), by divine law. JURE HUMANO (L.), by human law. JURIS UTRIUSQUE DOCTOR (L.), doctor both of canon and of civil law. JUS GLADII (L.), the right of the sword. JUSTE MILIEU (Fr.), the just mean, the happy medium. JUSTUM ET TENACEM PROPOSITI VIRUM (L.), a man upright and tenacious of purpose. J'Y SUIS, J'Y RESTE! (Fr.), here I am, and here I stay! [said by Macmahon at the Malakoff]. KAISERFLEISCH (Ger.), smoked sucking-pig. KAISERSCHMARN (Ger.), a pudding consisting of flour and eggs fried in lard. KNÖDEL (Ger.), a ball of dough made of bread, eggs, flour, milk, and lard. KREN (Ger.), horse-radish. KT[=E]MA ES AEI (Gr.), a possession [to be kept] for ever. KULTURKAMPF (Ger.), the war of culture [said by Virchow in 1873 of the conflict between Bismarck and the Catholic Church]. LABORARE EST ORARE (L.), work is prayer. LABORE ET HONORE (L.), by labour and honour. LABOR IMPROBUS (L.), persistent, dogged labour. LABOR IPSE VOLUPTAS (L.), labour itself is pleasure. LABUNTUR ET IMPUTANTUR (L.), they [i.e. the moments] slip away and are laid to our account [on sundials]. LÆSA MAJESTAS (L.), LÈSE MAJESTÉ (Fr.), injured majesty, treason. LA GRANDE NATION (Fr.), the great nation--i.e. France. L'ALLEGRO (It.), the merry, cheerful, man. LANGAGE DES HALLES (Fr.), language of the market-places, billingsgate. L'APPÉTIT VIENT EN MANGEANT (Fr.), appetite comes as you eat: the more you get, the more you would have. LA PROPRIÉTÉ C'EST LE VOL (Fr.), property is theft [from Proudhon]. LAPSUS CALAMI (L.), a slip of the pen. LAPSUS LINGUÆ (L.), a slip of the tongue. LAPSUS MEMORIÆ (L.), a slip of the memory. LARES ET PENATES (L.), household gods. LA REYNE LE VEULT (Norm Fr.), the Queen will it, the form expressing the Queen's assent to a bill. LASCIATE OGNI SPERANZA, VOI CH' ENTRATE (It.), abandon hope, all ye who enter here [in Dante, the inscription over the gate of hell]. LAUDATOR TEMPORIS ACTI (L.), one who praises past times. LAUS DEO (L.), praise to God. L'AVENIR (Fr.), the future. LE BEAU MONDE (Fr.), the fashionable world. LECTOR BENEVOLE (L.), kind reader. LE GÉNIE C'EST LA PATIENCE (Fr.), genius is patience. LE GRAND MONARQUE (Fr.), the great king--i.e. Louis XIV. LEITMOTIF (Ger.), a representation theme used to indicate a certain person, attribute, or idea, in an opera, oratorio, &c. LE JEU NE VAUT PAS LA CHANDELLE (Fr.), the game is not worth the candle. L'EMPIRE C'EST LA PAIX (Fr.), the empire means peace [said by Louis Napoleon in 1852]. LEODICUM (L.), Liège. LE PAS (Fr.), precedence in place or rank. LE STYLE EST L'HOMME MÊME (Fr.), the style is the man himself [from Buffon]. L'ÉTAT, C'EST MOI! (Fr.), the state? I am the state! [said by Louis XIV.]. LETTRE DE CACHET (Fr.), a sealed letter: a royal warrant for arrest and imprisonment. LETTRE DE CHANGE (Fr.), a bill of exchange. LETTRE DE CRÉANCE (Fr.), letter of credit. LETTRE DE MARQUE (Fr.), a letter of marque or of reprisal. LEVER LE RIDEAU (Fr.), to raise the curtain. LEX NON SCRIPTA (L.), unwritten law--i.e. the common law. LEX SCRIPTA (L.), statute law. LEX TALIONIS (L.), the law of retaliation. LIBERAVI ANIMUM MEUM (L.), I have cleared my mind. LIBRAIRE (Fr.), a bookseller. LICENTIA VATUM (L.), poetical license. LIMÆ LABOR (L.), the labour of the file, of polishing. LIMBO PATRUM; LIMBUS INFANTUM (Late L.). See _Limbo_ in Dict. LINGUA FRANCA (It.), the corrupt Italian once current in the Levant: the mixed language spoken by Europeans in the East. LIT DE JUSTICE (Fr.), bed of justice. See _Bed_ in Dict. LITTERA SCRIPTA MANET (L.), what is written down is permanent. LOCUM TENENS (L.), one occupying the place: a deputy or substitute. LOCUS CLASSICUS (L.), the classical passage, the stock quotation. LOCUS PÆNITENTIÆ (L.), room for penitence: time for repentance. LOCUS STANDI (L.), a place for standing: a right to interfere. LUCRI CAUSÂ (L.), for the sake of gain. LUCUS A NON LUCENDO (L.), the grove [_lucus_] [is so named] from its _not_ shining--of a contradictory or incredible explanation. LUDERE CUM SACRIS (L.), to trifle with sacred things. LUGDUNUM (L.), Lyons.--LUGDUNUM BATAVORUM, Leyden. LUPUS IN FABULÂ (L.), the wolf in the fable. LUSUS NATURÆ (L.), a sport or freak of nature. LUTETIA (L.), Paris. MA CHÈRE (Fr.), my dear (fem.). MA FOI (Fr.), upon my faith. MAGNA EST VERITAS ET PRÆVALEBIT (L.), truth is great and will prevail [better, ET PREVALET, and prevails]. MAGNI NOMINIS UMBRA (L.), the mere shadow of a mighty name. MAGNUM BONUM (L.), a great good. MAGNUM OPUS (L.), a great work. MAISON DO VILLE (Fr.), a town-house. MAÎTRE D'HÔTEL (Fr.), a house-steward, a hotel-keeper. MALADIE DU PAYS (Fr.), home-sickness. MALÂ FIDE (L.), with bad faith: treacherously. MAL À PROPOS (Fr.), ill-timed. MAL DE MER (Fr.), sea-sickness. MALENTENDU (Fr.), a misunderstanding. MALGRÉ NOUS (Fr.), in spite of us. MANDAMUS (L.), we command: a writ or command issued by a higher court to a lower. MARIAGE DE CONVENANCE (Fr.), marriage from interest rather than love. MASSILIA (L.), Marseilles. MATERFAMILIAS (L.), the mother of a family. MATERIA MEDICA (L.), medicines collectively: all substances used as remedies: the science of their properties and use. MATÉRIEL (Fr.), materials, esp. the baggage and munitions of an army. MATINÉE (Fr.), a morning recital or performance. MATRE PULCHRÂ FILIA PULCHRIOR (L.), a daughter fairer than her fair mother. MAUVAISE HONTE (Fr.), false modesty, bashfulness. MAUVAIS SUJET (Fr.), a bad subject: a worthless fellow;--MAUVAIS TON (Fr.), bad style, bad form. MAXIMA DEBETUR PUERO REVERENTIA (L.), the greatest reverence is due to the boy--i.e. to the innocence of his age. MEÂ CULPÂ (Late L.), by my own fault. MEA VIRTUTE ME INVOLVO (L.), I wrap myself in my virtue [as in a cloak]. MEDEN AGAN! (Gr.), [let there be] nothing in excess! MEDIOLANUM (L.), Milan. MEDIO TUTISSIMUS IBIS (L.), thou wilt go safest in the middle. MEGA BIBLION, MEGA KAKON (Gr.), big book, great evil. ME JUDICE (L.), I being judge, in my opinion. MÉLANGE (Fr.), a mixture: coffee with milk. MÊLÉE (Fr.), a confused scuffle: a hot debate. MEMENTO MORI (L.), remember that you must die. MEMORABILIA (L.), things to be remembered. MENS SANA IN CORPORE SANO (L.), a sound mind in a sound body. MENS SIBI CONSCIA RECTI (L.), a mind conscious of rectitude. MEO PERICULO (L.), at my own risk. MERUM SAL (L.), pure salt, genuine Attic wit. MÉSALLIANCE (Fr.), marriage with one of lower station. MESQUIN, fem. MESQUINE (Fr.), mean;--MESQUINERIE, meanness. MESSIEURS (Fr.), sirs, gentlemen. MEUM ET TUUM (L.), mine and thine. MIRABILE DICTU (L.), wonderful to tell. MIRABILE VISU (L.), wonderful to see. MIRABILIA (L.), wonders. MISE EN SCÈNE (Fr.), the get-up for the stage. MODUS (L.), manner, mode. MODUS OPERANDI (L.), plan of working: mode of operation;--MODUS VIVENDI, a way or mode of living: an arrangement or compromise by means of which persons or parties differing greatly are enabled to get on together for a time. MOGUNTIACUM (L.), Mainz. MON AMI (Fr.), my friend. MON CHER (Fr.), my dear. MONSIEUR (Fr.), sir, Mr. MONT-DE-PIÉTÉ (Fr.), a pawnbroking shop established by public authority.--It. _monte di pietà_. MORCEAU (Fr.), a morsel: fragment: piece of music. MORE HIBERNICO (L.), after the Irish fashion. MORE MAJORUM (L.), after the manner of our ancestors. MORE SUO (L.), in his own way. MOTIVÉ (Fr.), supported by a statement of reasons. MOTU PROPRIO (L.), of his own accord. MUET COMME UN POISSON (Fr.), mute as a fish. MULTUM IN PARVO (L.), much in little. MULTUM NON MULTA (L.), much, not many things. MUTATIS MUTANDIS (L.), with necessary changes. MUTATO NOMINE (L.), the name being changed. MUTUUS CONSENSUS (L.), mutual consent. NAISSANCE (Fr.), birth. NATALE SOLUM (L.), natal soil. NATURAM EXPELLAS FURCÂ, TAMEN USQUE RECURRET (L.), though you drive out nature with a pitchfork [i.e. with violence], yet will she always return. NEAPOLIS (L.), Naples. NEC CUPIAS, NEC METUAS (L.), neither desire nor fear. NE CEDE MALIS (L.), yield not to misfortune. NÉCESSAIRE (Fr.), a dressing-case, work-box. NECESSITAS NON HABET LEGEM (L.), necessity has, or knows, no law. NEC SCIRE FAS EST OMNIA (L.), it is not permitted to know all things. NÉE (Fr.), born So-and-so: her maiden name being So-and-so, as Madame de Staël, née Necker. NE EXEAT (L.), let him not depart. NEMINE CONTRADICENTE (L.; often NEM. CON.), without opposition: no one speaking in opposition. NEMINE DISSENTIENTE (L.), no one dissenting. NEMO ME IMPUNE LACESSIT (L.), no one hurts me with impunity--the motto of Scotland. NEMO REPENTE FIT TURPISSIMUS (L.), no one becomes utterly bad all at once. NE PLUS ULTRA (L.), nothing further: the uttermost point or extreme perfection of anything. NE QUID NIMIS (L.), [let there be] nothing in excess. NESCIS, MI FILI, QUANTILLA PRUDENTIA MUNDUS REGATUR (L.), you know not, my son, with what a small stock of wisdom the world is governed. NE SUTOR ULTRA CREPIDAM (L.), let not the cobbler go beyond his last. NICHT WAHR? (Ger.), is it not true? isn't that so? NIHIL AD REM (L.), nothing to the point. NIHIL TETIGIT QUOD NON ORNAVIT, OR NULLUM QUOD TETIGIT NON ORNAVIT (L.), he touched nothing without adorning it. NIL ADMIRARI (L.), to wonder at nothing, to admire nothing, to be superior and self-complacent. NIL DESPERANDUM (L.), never despair. N'IMPORTE (Fr.), it matters not. NISI DOMINUS FRUSTRA (L.), unless the Lord [build the house, they labour] in vain [that build it]--the motto of Edinburgh. NISI PRIUS (L.), unless previously--a name [from the first words of the writ] given to the jury sittings in civil cases. NITOR IN ADVERSUM (L.), I strive against adverse circumstances. NOBLESSE OBLIGE (Fr.), rank imposes obligations. NOLENS VOLENS (L.), whether he will or not. NOLI ME TANGERE (L.), don't touch me. NOLLE PROSEQUI (L.), to be unwilling to prosecute. NOLO EPISCOPARI (L.), I do not wish to be a bishop. NOM DE GUERRE (Fr.), an assumed name: travelling title: pseudonym [NOM DE PLUME is _not_ French]. NON COMPOS MENTIS (L.), not of sound mind. NON EST INVENTUS (L.), he has not been found, he has disappeared. NON MI RICORDO (It.), I don't remember. NON MULTA, SED MULTUM (L.), not many things, but much. NON OLET PECUNIA (L.), money does not stink--you can't tell how the money has been acquired. NON OMNIA POSSUMUS OMNES (L.), we cannot all do everything. NON OMNIS MORIAR (L.), I shall not wholly die. NON TALI AUXILIO (L.), not with such aid [should it be done]. NOSCE TEIPSUM (L.), know thyself. NOTRE-DAME (Fr.), Our Lady. NOUS AVONS CHANGÉ TOUT CELA (Fr.), we have changed all that--from Molière. NOUS VERRONS (Fr.), we shall see. NOUVEAUX RICHES (Fr.), persons who have but lately acquired wealth, upstarts. NULLA DIES SINE LINEÂ (L.), no day without a line, without writing a little. NULLA NUOVA, BUONA NUOVA (It.), no news is good news. NULLI SECUNDUS (L.), second to none. NULLIUS ADDICTUS JURARE IN VERBA MAGISTRI (L.), bound to swear to the words of no master, to follow no one blindly or slavishly. NUNC EST BIBENDUM (L.), now it is time to drink. OBERS (Ger.), cream. OBIIT (L.), he, or she, died. OBITER (L.), by the way, cursorily;--OBITER DICTUM, pl. OBITER DICTA, something said by the way, a cursory remark. OBSCURUM PER OBSCURIUS (L.), [explaining] the obscure by means of the more obscure. OBSERVANDA (L.), things to be observed. OBSTA PRINCIPIIS (L.), resist the first beginnings. OCTROI (Fr.), duties paid at the gate of a city. ODERINT DUM METUANT (L.), let them hate so long as they fear. ODI PROFANUM VULGUS (L.), I loathe the profane rabble. ODIUM THEOLOGICUM (L.), the hatred of theologians--of theological controversy. OEIL DE BOEUF (Fr.), a bull's eye. OENIPONS (L.), Innsbruck. OEUVRES (Fr.), works. OLIM MEMINISSE JUVABIT (L.), it will sometime be a pleasure to remember [these trials]. OLISIPO, ULYSSIPO, ULYSSIPOLIS (L.), Lisbon. OMNE IGNOTUM PRO MAGNIFICO (L.), everything unknown [is taken to be] magnificent. OMNE TULIT PUNCTUM QUI MISCUIT UTILE DULCI (L.), he scored every point who combined the useful with the sweet. OMNIA MUTANTUR, ET NOS MUTAMUR IN ILLIS (L.), all things change, and we change with them. OMNIA VINCIT AMOR, NOS ET CEDAMUS AMORI (L.), love overcomes all things, and even we succumb to love. ON DIT (Fr.), they say, hence a flying rumour. ORA ET LABORA (L.), pray and labour. ORA PRO NOBIS (L.), pray for us. ORE ROTUNDO (L.), with round, full voice. O SANCTA SIMPLICITAS! (L.), O sacred simplicity! O! SI SIC OMNIA (L.), O would that all [had been done or said] thus! O TEMPORA! O MORES! (L.), O the times! O the manners!--i.e. what sad times! what dreadful doings! OTIA DANT VITIA (L.), idleness begets vice. OTIUM CUM DIGNITATE (L.), dignified leisure. OUVERT, fem. OUVERTE (Fr.), open. OUVRAGE (Fr.), a work. OUVRIERS (Fr.), operatives, workpeople. OXONIA (L.), Oxford. PACE (L.), by leave of;--PACE TUÂ, by your leave. PACTUM ILLICITUM (L.), an illegal compact. PADRONE (It.), ruler: protector: master. PALLIDA MORS (L.), pale death. PALMAM QUI MERUIT FERAT (L.), let him who has won the palm wear it. PANEM ET CIRCENSES! (L.), [give us] bread and circus-games! [the cry of the Roman populace]: beer and skittles. PÁPRIKA (Hung.), pepper. PARCERE SUBJECTIS ET DEBELLARE SUPERBOS (L.), to spare the vanquished and put down the proud. PARERGON (Gr.), something done by-the-bye. PAR EXCELLENCE (Fr.), by way of eminence. PAR EXEMPLE (Fr.), for example. PARI PASSU (L.), with equal pace: together. PAR NOBILE FRATRUM (L.), a noble pair of brothers. PARTICEPS CRIMINIS (L.), an accomplice. PARTURIUNT MONTES, NASCETUR RIDICULUS MUS (L.), the mountains are in travail, an absurd mouse will be the outcome. PARVIS COMPONERE MAGNA (L.), to compare great things with small. PATER PATRIÆ (L.), the father of his country. PATH[=E]MATA MATH[=E]MATA (Gr.), sufferings [are] lessons. PENSION (Fr.), board paid, a boarding-house. PER ASPERA AD ASTRA (L.), to the stars by rough roads. through bolts and bars. PEREUNT ET IMPUTANTUR (L.), [the moments, hours] pass away and are reckoned to our account. PER FAS ET NEFAS (L.), through right and wrong. PERSONNEL (Fr.), the persons employed in any service as distinguished from the _matériel_. PER TOT DISCRIMINA RERUM (L.), through so many crises of fortune. PETROPOLIS (L.), St Petersburg. PIA DESIDERIA (L.), pious regrets. PIA FRAUS (L.), pious fraud. PIÈCE DE RÉSISTANCE (Fr.), the substantial course at dinner, the joint. PIED-À-TERRE (Fr.), temporary lodging. PINXIT (L.), [T. D.] painted [this]. PIS ALLER (Fr.), the last or worst shift, a make-shift. PLENO JURE (L.), with full authority. POETA NASCITUR, NON FIT (L.), the poet is born, not made. POINT D'APPUI (Fr.), point of support: prop. POPULUS VULT DECIPI (L.), the people wish to be fooled. POSCIMUR (L.), we are called on [to sing, &c.]. POSSE COMITATUS (L.), the power of the county [called by the sheriff to quell a riot]. POSTE RESTANTE (Fr.), a department in a post-office, in which letters so addressed are kept to be called for. POST HOC, ERGO PROPTER HOC (L.), after this, therefore because of this [a fallacious reasoning]. POST MORTEM (L.), after death. POST OBITUM (L.), after death. POUR FAIRE RIRE (Fr.), to raise a laugh. POUR PASSER LE TEMPS (Fr.), to pass away the time. POUR PRENDRE CONGÉ, or P.P.C. (Fr.), to take leave. PRESCRIPTUM (L.), a thing prescribed. PREUX CHEVALIER (Fr.), a brave knight. PRIMÂ FACIE (L.), on the first view. PRIMO (L.), in the first place. PRO ARIS ET FOCIS (L.), for altars and firesides: for faith and home. PROFANUM VULGUS (L.), the profane rabble. PROH PUDOR! (L.), oh, for shame! PROJET DE LOI (Fr.), a legislative bill. PRO MEMORIÂ (L.), for a memorial. PRO PATRIÂ (L.), for our country. PRO RE NATÂ (L.), for a special emergency, according to the circumstances. PRO TANTO (L.), for so much. PRO TEMPORE (L.), for the time being. PROXIME ACCESSIT (L.), he came next [to the prizeman]. PUBLICÈ (L.), publicly. PULVIS ET UMBRA SUMUS (L.), we are dust and a shadow. PUNICA FIDES (L.), Punic or Carthaginian faith--i.e. treachery. QUÆRE (L.), inquire. QUÆRITUR (L.), the question is asked. QUALIS AB INCEPTO (L.), as from the beginning. QUAMDIU SE BENE GESSERIT (L.), during good behaviour. QUANTUM MUTATUS AB ILLO! (L.), how much changed from what he was! QUE DIABLE ALLAIT-IL FAIRE DANS CETTE GALÈRE? (Fr.), what the devil was he doing in that galley? [from Molière's _Les Fourberies de Scapin_]. QUEM DEUS PERDERE VULT, PRIUS DEMENTAT (L.), whom a god wishes to destroy, he first makes mad. QUE SAIS-JE? (Fr.), how do I know? and what not. QUE VOULEZ-VOUS? (Fr.), what would you have? QUICQUID DELIRANT REGES PLECTUNTUR ACHIVI (L.), whatever madness possesses the chiefs, it is [the common soldiers or people of] the Achæans who suffer. QUID DESIDERIO SIT PUDOR AUT MODUS? (L.), why should there be shame or stint in regret for the loss of one so dear? QUID RIDES? (L.), why do you laugh? QUIETA NON MOVERE (L.), things that are at rest not to move--to let sleeping dogs lie. QUIS CUSTODIET IPSOS CUSTODES? (L.), who will watch the watchers? QUI S'EXCUSE S'ACCUSE (Fr.), he who excuses himself accuses himself. QUIS SEPARABIT? (L.), who shall separate [us]? QUI TACET CONSENTIT (L.), who keeps silence consents. QUI VA LÀ? (Fr.), who goes there? QUOD AVERTAT DEUS! (L.), which may God avert! QUOD BONUM, FELIX, FAUSTUMQUE SIT (L.), may this be right, happy, and of good omen. QUOD ERAT DEMONSTRANDUM (L.), or Q.E.D., which was to be proved or demonstrated. QUOD ERAT FACIENDUM (L.), or Q.E.F., which was to be done. QUOD HOC SIBI VULT? (L.), what does this mean? QUOD VIDE (L.), which see. QUO JURE? (L.), by what right? QUORUM PARS MAGNA FUI (L.), in which I bore a great share. QUOT HOMINES, TOT SENTENTIÆ (L.), as many men, so many minds (Terence's _Phormio_). QUOUSQUE TANDEM, O CATILINA? (L.), to what length, then, O Catiline, [are you resolved to go]? [from Cicero's oration against Catiline]. RABAT (in mod. Fr. _rabais_), reduction of price. RAGIONE (It.), a commercial company, a firm. RARA AVIS (L.), a rare bird, a prodigy. RARI NANTES IN GURGITE VASTO (L.), here and there [some] swimming in a vast whirlpool. REALSCHULEN (Ger.), secondary schools in Germany, giving a general practical training. RÉCHAUFFÉ (Fr.), warmed over, as food; hence stale, insipid. REÇU (Fr.), received: receipt. RECULER POUR MIEUX SAUTER (Fr.), to draw back to take a better leap. REDOLET LUCERNÂ (L.), it smells of the lamp. RE GALANTUOMO (It.), the gallant king [said of Victor Emmanuel]. REGIOMONTIUM (L.), Königsberg. REICHSTAG (Ger.), the Imperial Diet of Germany. RELÂCHE (Fr.), intermission: no performance: relaxation. RELIGIO LOCI (L.), the religious spirit of the place. REM ACU TETIGISTI (L.), you have touched the thing with a needle: you have hit it exactly. RENOMMÉE (Fr.), renown. RENTES (Fr.), funds bearing interest: stocks. RÉPONSE, S'IL VOUS PLAÎT, or R.S.V.P. (Fr.), reply, if you please, an answer will oblige. REQUIESCAT IN PACE! or R.I.P. (L.), may he [or she] rest in peace! RES ANGUSTA DOMI (L.), narrow circumstances at home, poverty. RES GESTÆ (L.), exploits. RESPICE FINEM (L.), look to the end. RÉSUMÉ (Fr.), an abstract or summary. RESURGAM (L.), I shall rise again. REVENONS À NOS MOUTONS (Fr.), let us return to our sheep: let us return to our subject. RÉVERBÈRE (Fr.), a reflector, street-lamp. RÊVEUR, fem. RÊVEUSE (Fr.), a day-dreamer. RIFACIMENTO (It.), restatement, recast. RISUM TENEATIS, AMICI? (L.), could you keep from laughing, friends? ROMA LOCUTA, CAUSA FINITA (L.), Rome has spoken, the cause is ended. ROTOMAGUS (L.), Rouen. RUAT COELUM (L.), let the heavens fall. RUDIS INDIGESTAQUE MOLES (L.), a rude and shapeless mass. RUIT MOLE SUÂ (L.), it falls by its own weight. RUSE CONTRE RUSE (Fr.), cunning against cunning, diamond cut diamond. RUSE DE GUERRE (Fr.), a stratagem of war. RUS IN URBE (L.), the country in town. SALLE (Fr.), a hall. SALVO JURE (L.), the right being safe. SANCTA SIMPLICITAS (L.), holy simplicity, child-like innocence. SANS CÉRÉMONIE (Fr.), without ceremony. SANS PEUR ET SANS REPROCHE (Fr.), without fear and without reproach. SANS PHRASE (Fr.), without phrases [of courtesy], without formalities, without any more talk. SANS SOUCI (Fr.), without care. SAPERE AUDE (L.), dare to be wise. SARTOR RESARTUS (L.), the tailor done over. SARUM (L.), Salisbury. SATIS VERBORUM (L.), enough of words. SAT SAPIENTI (L.), enough for the wise: a nod to the wise. SAUVE QUI PEUT (Fr.), save himself who can--devil take the hindmost. SCHNITZEL (Ger.), a cutlet [of veal]. SCULPSIT (L.), [T. D.] sculptured [this]. SECUNDUM ORDINEM (L.), in order. SELON LES RÈGLES (Fr.), according to the rules. SEMPER IDEM (L.), always the same. SEMPER PARATUS (L.), always ready. SE NON È VERO, È BEN TROVATO (It.), if it is not true, it is cleverly invented. SERVUS SERVORUM DEI (L.), a servant of the servants of God [a title adopted by the popes]. SIC ITUR AD ASTRA (L.), such is the way to the stars, to fame. SIC TRANSIT GLORIA MUNDI (L.), so passes away earthly glory. SIC VOLO, SIC JUBEO (L.), thus I will, thus I command. SIC VOS NON VOBIS (L.), thus you [toil] not for yourselves. SILENT LEGES. See _inter arma_. SIMILIA SIMILIBUS CURANTUR (L.), like things are cured by like--a hair of the dog that bit one. SI MONUMENTUM REQUIRIS, CIRCUMSPICE (L.), if you seek [his] monument, look round you [inscription for the architect Christopher Wren's tomb in St Paul's]. SINE IRÂ ET STUDIO (L.), without ill-will and without favour. SISTE, VIATOR! (L.), stop, traveller! SI VIS PACEM, PARA BELLUM (L.), if you wish peace, be ready for war. SOLVENTUR RISU TABULÆ (L.), the bills will be dismissed with laughter--you will be laughed out of court. SOLVITUR AMBULANDO (L.), [the problem] is solved by walking--by practical experiment. S'ORIENTER (Fr.), to take one's bearings. SPERO MELIORA (L.), I hope for better things. SPLENDIDE MENDAX (L.), splendidly false [for a good purpose]--lying in state. SPONTE SUÂ (L.), of one's own accord. SPRETÆ INJURIA FORMÆ (L.), the insult of beauty slighted. STANS PEDE IN UNO (L.), standing on one foot. STAT PRO RATIONE VOLUNTAS (L.), my will stands in place of reason. STATUS QUO (L.), the state in which. STET FORTUNA DOMUS! (L.), may the fortune of the house long last! STURM UND DRANG (Ger.), storm and stress. SUAVITER IN MODO, FORTITER IN RE (L.), gentle in manner, resolute in deed. SUB JUDICE (L.), under consideration. SUB POENÂ (L.), under a penalty. SUB ROSÂ (L.), under the rose: privately. SUB SPECIE (L.), under the appearance of. SUB VOCE (L.), under that head. SUCCÈS D'ESTIME (Fr.), a success of esteem or approval [if not profit]. SUGGESTIO FALSI (L.), suggestion of something false. SUI GENERIS (L.), of its own kind, peculiar. SUMMUM BONUM (L.), the chief good. SUNT LACRIMÆ RERUM (L.), there are tears for things [unhappy]. SURSUM CORDA (L.), lift up your hearts [to God]. SURTOUT, PAS DE ZÈLE! (Fr.), above all, no zeal! SUTOR NE SUPRA CREPIDAM JUDICARET (L.), let not the cobbler venture above his last. SUUM CUIQUE (L.), to each his own--let each have his own. TABULA RASA (L.), a smooth or blank tablet. TÆDIUM VITÆ (L.), weariness of life. TACENT, SATIS LAUDANT (L.), their silence is praise enough. TANTÆ MOLIS ERAT ROMANAM CONDERE GENTEM (L.), a task of such difficulty was it to found the Roman race. TANTÆNE ANIMIS COELESTIBUS IRÆ? (L.), are there such violent passions in celestial minds? TANT MIEUX (Fr.), so much the better. TANTO UBERIOR (L.), so much the richer. TANT PIS (Fr.), so much the worse. TARVISIUM (L.), Treviso. TEMPORA MUTANTUR, NOS ET MUTAMUR IN ILLIS (L.), the times are changed, and we with them. TEMPOS EDAX RERUM (L.), time consumer of things. TEMPUS FUGIT (L.), time flies. TERRA INCOGNITA (L.), an unknown country. TERTIUM QUID (L.), a third something. THALATTA, THALATTA! (Gr.), the sea, the sea! [the exulting cry of Xenophon's soldiers on catching sight of the sea]. TIMEO DANAOS ET DONA FERENTES (L.), I fear the Greeks, even when bringing gifts. TIRAGE À PART (Fr.), an off-print, or article reprinted separately from the magazine, &c., in which it first appeared--the German _Abdruck_. TOGA VIRILIS (L.), the garb of manhood. TO KALON (Gr.), the beautiful: the chief good. TORNACUM (L.), Tournay. TOTIDEM VERBIS (L.), in just so many words. TOTIES QUOTIES (L.), as often as. TOTO COELO (L.), by the whole heavens: diametrically opposite. TOTUS, TERES, ATQUE ROTUNDUS (L.), complete, smooth, and round. TOUJOURS PERDRIX (Fr.), partridge every day--there may be too much even of a good thing. TOUR DE FORCE (Fr.), a feat of strength or skill. TOUT AU CONTRAIRE (Fr.), quite the contrary. TOUT À FAIT (Fr.), entirely. TOUT À VOUS (Fr.), wholly yours. TOUT ENSEMBLE (Fr.), the whole taken together: the broad or general effect. TOUT EST PERDU HORS L'HONNEUR (Fr.), all is lost but honour [said by Francis I. at Pavia]. TOUT LE MONDE (Fr.), all the world, everybody. TRADUTTORE TRADITORE (It.), a translator is a traitor or betrayer:--pl. TRADUTTORI TRADITORI. TRAJECTUM or ULTRAJECTUM (L.), Utrecht. TRECÆ or CIVITAS TRICASSINA (L.), Troyes. TRIA JUNCTA IN UNO (L.), three in one. TRIDENTUM (L.), Trent. TU QUOQUE, BRUTE! (L.), and thou too, Brutus! UBI BENE, IBI PATRIA (L.), where it goes well with me, there is my fatherland. UBIQUE (L.), everywhere. ULTIMA RATIO REGUM (L.), the last argument of kings [war]. ULTIMA THULE (L.), the utmost boundary or limit. ULTIMUS ROMANORUM (L.), the last of the Romans. ULTRA VIRES (L.), beyond one's powers. UND SO WEITER (Ger.), or U.S.W., and so forth. USQUE AD NAUSEAM (L.), to disgust. USUS LOQUENDI (L.), current usage of speech. UTILE DULCI (L.), the useful with the agreeable. UT INFRA (L.), as below. UT SUPRA (L.), as above. VADE IN PACE (L.), go in peace. VADE MECUM (L.), go with me: a constant companion. VÆ VICTIS! (L.), woe to the conquered. VALE (L.), farewell. VALET DE CHAMBRE (Fr.), an attendant: a footman. VARIÆ LECTIONES (L.), various readings. VARIORUM NOTÆ (L.), the notes of various authors. VARIUM ET MUTABILE SEMPER FEMINA (L.), woman is ever fickle and changeable. VAURIEN (Fr.), a worthless fellow, a rogue. VEDI NAPOLI, E POI MUORI (L.), see Naples, and die. VENI, VIDI, VICI (L.), I came, I saw, I conquered. VERA INCESSU PATUIT DEA (L.), the true goddess stood revealed by her gait. VERBATIM ET LITTERATIM (L.), word for word and letter for letter. VERBUM SAPIENTI SAT EST (L.), a word is enough for a wise man--often abbrev. _verb. sap._ and _verb. sat._ VERITAS ODIUM PARIT (L.), truth begets hatred. VERSUS OR V. (L.), against: toward. VESTIGIA (L.), tracks: vestiges. VESTIGIA NULLA RETRORSUM (L.), no footprints backwards [at the lion's den]: no going back. VEXATA QUÆSTIO (L.), a disputed question. VIÂ (L.), by way of. VIA MEDIA (L.), a middle course. VIA TRITA, VIA TUTA (L.), the beaten path is the safe path. VICE (L.), in the place of. VICE VERSÂ (L.), the terms being exchanged. VIDELICET (L.), to wit, namely; usually shortened into VIZ. VIDEO MELIORA PROBOQUE, DETERIORA SEQUOR (L.), I see the better course and approve it, I follow the worse. VI ET ARMIS (L.), by force and arms: by main force. VIGILATE ET ORATE (L.), watch and pray. VIRES ACQUIRIT EUNDO (L.), it gains strength as it goes. VIRGILIUM VIDI TANTUM (L.), I just saw Virgil [and no more]. VIRGINIBUS PUERISQUE (L.), for maidens and boys--for the young person. VIRTUS POST NUMMOS (L.), virtue after money--i.e. money first. VIRTUTE OFFICII (Late L.), by virtue of office. VIS A TERGO (L.), compulsion from behind. VIS-À-VIS (Fr.), opposite: facing. VIS COMICA (L.), comic power. VIS INERTIÆ (L.), the power of inertia: passive resistance. VITA BREVIS, ARS LONGA (L.), life is short, art is long. VITA PATRIS (L.), or V.P., in the father's lifetime. VITA SINE LITTERIS MORS EST (L.), life without literature is death. VIVAT REGINA! (L.), long live the queen! VIVAT REX! (L.), long live the king! VIVÂ VOCE (L.), by the living voice: by oral testimony. VIVE LA BAGATELLE! (quasi-French), long live folly! VIVE LA RÉPUBLIQUE! (Fr.), long live the republic! VIVE L'EMPEREUR! (Fr.), long live the emperor! VIVE UT VIVAS (L.), live that you may live. VIVE, VALEQUE! (L.), life and health to you! VIXERE FORTES ANTE AGAMEMNONA (L.), brave heroes lived before Agamemnon. VOGUE LA GALÈRE! (Fr.), forward, come what may! VOILÀ (Fr.), behold: there is, or there are. VOILÀ TOUT (Fr.), that is all. VOITURE (Fr.), a carriage. VOLAGE (Fr.), flighty, fickle, giddy. VOLENTE DEO (L.), God willing. VOLO, NON VALEO (L.), I am willing, but unable. VOLTO SCIOLTO E PENSIERI STRETTI (It.), countenance open and thoughts closed. VOUS L'AVEZ VOULU, GEORGE DANDIN! (Fr.), you would have it so! [from Molière's _George Dandin_]. VOX ET PRÆTEREA NIHIL (L.), a voice and nothing more. VOX POPULI, VOX DEI (L.), the voice of the people is the voice of God. VULGO (L.), commonly. WAHRHEIT UND DICHTUNG (Ger.), truth and poetry. WANDERJAHRE (Ger.), years of journeymanship. WELI, WELY (Ar.), a Mohammedan saint. WELTGEIST (Ger.), the world-spirit. WELTSCHMERZ (Ger.), world-sorrow: sympathy with universal misery: thorough-going pessimism. WIENER SCHNITZEL (Ger.), a veal cutlet dressed with bread-crumbs and eggs. XANTHIPPE (Gr.), a shrewish wife--from the wife of Socrates. XERAFIN, XERAPHIM (Port.), a silver coin of Goa, worth about 1s. 5d. XERES (Sp.), wine of Xeres, sherry. XYSTUM, pl. XYSTA (L.--Gr.), a covered colonnade in a gymnasium, a shaded walk in the garden of a Roman village. YABOO (Pers.), an Afghan pony. YAGHOURT, YAOORT (Turk.), a kind of cream cheese. ZABETA (Ar.), a stated tariff. ZABTIE, ZAPTIEH (Turk.), a Turkish policeman. ZAMARRA, ZAMARRO (Sp.), a shepherd's sheepskin coat. ZECCHIN. See _Sequin_ in Dict. ZEITGEIST (Ger.), spirit [and tendency] of the times. ZEITVERTREIB (Ger.), a pastime. ZIF (Heb.), a Hebrew month, same as _Iyar_, which begins with the new moon of April. ZIKR (Ar.), a dervishes' circular dance. ZOLLVEREIN (Ger.), the German Customs-League. ZONAM PERDIDIT (L.), he has lost his purse, he is in needy circumstances. ZONUM SOLVERE (L.), to loose the virgin zone. Z[=O]ON POLITIKON (Gr.), a political animal [said of man]. ZUM BEISPIEL (Ger.), for example, often Z.B. * * * * * THE METRIC OR FRENCH SYSTEM. [Illustration] MEASURES OF LENGTH. The MÈTRE, the unit of length, is the ten-millionth part of a line drawn from the Pole to the Equator. 1 MÈTRE = as above. 1 DÉCAMÈTRE = 10 mètres. 1 HECTOMÈTRE = 100 " 1 KILOMÈTRE = 1000 " 1 MYRIAMÈTRE = 10,000 " 1 DECIMÈTRE = 1/10th of a mètre. 1 CENTIMÈTRE = 1/100th " 1 MILLIMÈTRE = 1/1000th " The Greek prefixes (_deca_, _hecto_, _kilo_, _myria_) denote multiplication. The Latin prefixes (_deci_, _centi_, _milli_) denote division. SQUARE MEASURE. The ARE, the unit of surface measure, is a square the side of which is ten mètres long. 1 ARE = 100 Square mètres. 1 DECARE = 10 ares. 1 HECTARE = 100 " 1 DÉCIARE = 1/10th of an are. 1 CENTIARE = 1/100th of an are, or, mètre carré (square mètre). MEASURES OF WEIGHT. The GRAMME, the unit of weight, is the _weight_ of a cubic centimètre of distilled water at 4° Centigrade. 1 GRAMME = as above. 1 DÉCAGRAMME = 10 gram. 1 HECTOGRAMME = 100 " 1 KILOGRAMME, or KILO = 1000 " 1 MYRIAGRAMME = 10,000 " 1 DÉCIGRAMME = 1/10th of a gram. 1 CENTIGRAMME = 1/100th " 1 MILLIGRAMME = 1/1000th " ½ kilogramme is called a livre. MEASURES OF CAPACITY, DRY AND LIQUID. The LITRE, the unit of the measures of capacity, dry and liquid, is the _volume_ of a cubic decimètre. 1 LITRE = as above. 1 DÉCALITRE = 10 litres. 1 HECTOLITRE = 100 " 1 DÉCILITRE = 1/10th of a litre. 1 CENTILITRE = 1/100th " 1 MILLILITRE = 1/1000th " MONEY. 1 FRANC = 100 centimes. A franc = 5 grammes (4.5 silver, and .5 alloy). 1 DÉCIME = 10 centimes. 1 SOU = 5 " * * * * * FRENCH LINEAL MEASURES, &c. = BRITISH. _French_. | _British_. LINEAL. | MILLIMÈTRE | 0.0394 inch. CENTIMÈTRE | 0.3937 " or less than half an inch. DÉCIMÈTRE | 3.937 inches nearly 4 inches. MÈTRE | 39.3708 " about 3 feet 3 inches. HECTOMÈTRE | 0.0621 mile " 1/16th of a mile. KILOMÈTRE | 0.6214 " 8 kilomètres = 5 miles. | SQUARE. | CENTIARE | 1.196 square yard or 1-1/5th square yard. ARE | 3.954 poles 40½ ares = 1 acre. HECTARE | 2.471 acres nearly 2½ acres. BRITISH LINEAL MEASURES, &c. = FRENCH. _British_. _French_. LINEAL. | INCH | 25.399 millimètres. FOOT | 30.479 centimètres. YARD | 0.914 mètre. CHAIN [22 yards] | 20.116 mètres. FURLONG [10 chains] | 201.164 " MILE | 1.609 kilomètre. 5 miles = 8 kilomètres, | nearly. | SQUARE. | SQUARE FOOT | 9.29 square décimètres. ACRE | 0.405 hectare or about 40 ares. SQUARE MILE | 2.599 square kilomètres 100 square miles = 260 sq. kilomètres. * * * * * FRENCH WEIGHTS = BRITISH. _French_. _British_. DÉCIGRAMME | 1.543 grain or about 1½ grains. GRAMME | 15.432 grains 28-1/3 grammes = 1 ounce avoirdupois. DÉCAGRAMME | 0.353 ounce avoirdupois about 1/3 of an ounce avoirdupois. HECTOGRAMME | 3.527 ounces nearly ¼ pound. KILOGRAMME or KILO | 2.2046 pounds In trade, a kilo is reckoned at 10 per cent. more than 2 pounds. BRITISH WEIGHTS = FRENCH. _British_. _French_. GRAIN | .0648 gramme. OUNCE (avoirdupois) | 28-1/3 grammes. POUND " | 454 " POUND (troy) | 373 grammes. CWT (avoirdupois) | 50.8 kilos. TON | 1015 " * * * * * FRENCH LIQUID AND CORN MEASURES = BRITISH. _French_. _British_. LITRE | 1.76 pint (imperial) or about 1¾ pints. HECTOLITRE | 22.01 gallons " 22 gallons. BRITISH LIQUID AND CORN MEASURES = FRENCH. _British_. _French_. PINT | 0.568 litre or more than ½ litre. QUART | 1.136 " about 1-1/8 litres. GALLON | 4.543 litres " 4½ litres 11 gallons = 50 litres. PECK | 9.087 " " 9 litres. BUSHEL [8 gallons] | 36.348 " " 36-1/3 litres. QUARTER [8 bushels] | 2.908 hectolitres " 3 hectolitres. * * * * * MONEY. _English_. _French_. 1 £. | 25 francs 22 centimes, or about 25 francs. 1 s. | 1 franc 26 centimes, " 1¼ franc. 1 d. | 10 centimes. ½ d. | 5 centimes, or a 'sou.' A franc is about 9½ d. 100 francs = £4, nearly. A milliard of francs (1,000,000,000) = £40,000,000, nearly. * * * * * ADDENDA. * * * * * ACETONE, a's[=e]-t[=o]n, _n._ one of a class of carbon compounds in many respects similar to the aldehydes; also called _Ketone_. [From ACETIC.] ACIERATE, as'i-[.e]r-[=a]t, _v.t._ to turn into steel.--_n._ AC'IERAGE, the process of electroplating a metal with iron or steel. [Fr. _acier_, steel, L. _acies_, edge.] ADIABATIC, ad-i-a-bat'ik, _adj._ (_physics_) neither losing nor gaining heat: impassable to heat. [Gr. _a_, not, _dia_, through, _batos_, passable.] AËROPLANE, [=a]'e-r[=o]-pl[=a]n, _n._ a form of flying-machine: a small plane for aerostatic experiments. [Gr. _a[=e]r_, air, L. _planus_, plain.] AGAR-AGAR, äg'ar-äg'ar, _n._ a nutrient jelly prepared from certain seaweeds, and used in the artificial cultivation of bacteria. ALBUMINURIA, al-b[=u]-min-[=u]'ri-a, _n._ the presence of albumin in the urine: the disease producing this. ALTISCOPE, al'ti-sk[=o]p, _n._ an instrument containing several lenses and mirrors, so arranged that an observer can see beyond intervening objects. BARRANCA, bar-ran'ka, _n._ a deep gorge, with steep sides.--Also BARRAN'CO. [Sp. Am.] CARBOHYDRATE, kär'b[=o]-h[=i]-dr[=a]t, _n._ a compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the last two being in the proportion to form water. [CARBON and HYDRATE.] CIRRHOSIS, si-r[=o]'sis, _n._ a wasting of the proper tissue of an organ, accompanied by abnormal growth of connective tissue. [Gr. _kirrhos_, tawny.] ELECTRON, [=e]-lek'tron, _n._ a particle or corpuscle vastly more minute than anything heretofore contemplated by science--in mass about a thousandth part of that of a hydrogen atom; and identified with the charge of negative electricity with which it is indissolubly associated. [From the root of ELECTRIC (q.v.).] FORMALIN, form'al-in, _n._ a powerful antiseptic and germicide.--Also FORMAL'DEHYDE (see ALDEHYDE). LIMERICK, lim'[.e]r-ik, _n._ 'nonsense verse' in five-lined stanzas. LITCHI, l[=e]'ch[=e], _n._ a Chinese fruit: the tree on which it grows. MAFFICKING, maf'fik-ing, _n._ noisy rejoicings of the mob. [From the scene in the streets of London when the news of the relief of _Mafeking_ was received (1900).] MALNUTRITION, mal'n[=u]-trish'un, _n._ imperfect nutrition. MARCONIGRAM, mar-c[=o]'ni-gram, _n._ a message transmitted by 'wireless' telegraphy. [From _Marconi_, the inventor of the system, and Gr. _gramma_, that which is written.] MERCERISE, m[.e]r'c[.e]r-[=i]z, _v.t._ to treat cotton so as to make it appear like silk. [From _Mercer_ (1791-1866), the inventor of the process.] MOTOR-GARAGE, m[=o]'tor-gär-äzh', _n._ a depot where motor-cars are stored or repaired and provided with accessories. [_Motor_ and Fr. _garage_--_gare_, dock, railway station; from the High German root found in AWARE (q.v.).] PARALDEHYDE, pär-al'de-h[=i]d, _n._ a colourless liquid, of disagreeable taste and smell, used to produce sleep (see ALDEHYDE). POGROM, pog-rom', _n._ destruction: devastation: a lawless outburst involving injury to persons and property. [Russian.] PRODUCER-GAS, pro-d[=u]'s[.e]r-gas, _n._ a mixture of hydrogen and carbon-monoxide diluted with nitrogen. RADIO-ACTIVITY, r[=a]'di-o-ak-tiv'i-ti, _n._ the power of producing photographic or electrical effects by a process identical with or analogous to radiation. RADIOSCOPE, r[=a]'di-o-sk[=o]p, _n._ an instrument for detecting radiation (see RADIANT). RÖNTGENISE, runt'gen-[=i]z (g hard), _v.t._ to treat by the Röntgen rays (see at X-RAYS under X).--_ns._ RÖNTGENOG'RAPHY, photography by these rays; RÖNTGENOL'OGY, the study of the rays; RÖNTGENOS'COPY, observation by means of them; RÖNTGENOTHER'APY, healing by means of them. SERENDIPITY, s[.e]r-en-dip'i-ti, _n._ a love for rare old books and other articles of virtu.--_adj._ appertaining to this. [Coined from _Serendib_, a character in the _Arabian Nights_ who went about picking up odds and ends and piecing them together.] SPINTHARISCOPE, spin-thär'i-sk[=o]p, _n._ an instrument devised by Sir W. Crookes for observing the scintillations produced in zinc sulphide by a small fragment of a radium compound placed near it. [Gr. _spintharis_, a spark, and _skopein_, to see.] SULPHONAL, sul'f[=o]-nal, _n._ a chemical compound used as a hypnotic and anæsthetic, and derived in part from potassium sulpho-hydrate. TAXIMETER, tak-sim'e-t[.e]r, _n._ an instrument attached to cabs for indicating the fare due for the distance travelled. Sometimes (but wrongly) called TAXAMETER. [Fr. _taxe_, price, and Gr. _metron_, measure.] TELEGONY, tel-eg'on-i, _n._ the transmitted influence of a male by whom a female has previously conceived upon her subsequent offspring by another male. [Gr. _t[=e]l[=e]_, at a distance, _gonia_, a begetting.] TELESCRIPTOR, tel'e-skrip-tor, _n._ a machine for the purpose of sending messages over telegraph wires so that they appear in the handwriting of the sender when received. [Gr. _t[=e]l[=e]_, at a distance, L. _scriptum_, _scribere_, to write.] TRIONAL, tr[=i]'[=o]-nal, _n._ a drug used as a hypnotic, akin to sulphonal, but safer. VERONAL, ver'[=o]-nal, _n._ a drug used as a hypnotic, akin to trional. * * * * * Edinburgh: Printed by W. & R. Chambers, Limited. * * * * * Corrections made to printed original. Under "Sal":--"corrosive sublimate and ammonium chloride", "and" omitted in original. Under "Savin":--"anthelmintic", printed as "antithelmintic" in original. Under "Sesquiduple":--"two and a half times", printed as "three and a half times" in original. Under "Silk" in "raw silk is unwound":--"silk", printed as "cotton" in original. Under "Soldier" (in etymology):--"a piece of money", printed as "or a piece of money" in original. Under "Solomon":--"two triangles interlaced", printed as "one triangle interlaced" in original. Under "Somatist":--"S[=o]matotrop'ic", printed as "S[=o]matrop'ic" in original. Under "Somite":--"arthromere", printed as "arthromore" in original. Under "Stibium":--"trisulphide", printed as "trisulphid" in original. Under "Subimago":--"certain", printed as "cetrain" in original. Under "Tenesmus":--"fæcal", printed as "foecal" in original. Under "Trepan" (in etymology):--"tryp[)a]non", printed as "tyrp[)a]non" in original. Under "Trieteric" (pronunciation):--"tr[=i]-e-t[.e]r'ik", printed as "tr[=i]-e-t[.e]r'k" in original. Under "Unnecessary" (descibing Unnecessarily):--"adv.", printed as "adj." in original. Under "D.d." (abbreviation):--"dedit", printed as "detit" in original. Under "Musical terms: Sforzando" (abbreviations):--"sfz.", printed as "rf., rfz." in original. Under "Christian names: William (name)" before Guillaume:--"Fr.", printed as "Gr." in original. 
11615	----	Transcriber's Notes: Despite the severity with which the author of this work treats those who depart from his standard of correctness, the source text does contain a small number of typographical errors. Missing punctuation has been supplied silently, but all other errors have been left uncorrected. To let the reader distinguish such problems from any inadvertent transcription errors that remain, I have inserted notes to flag items that appear errors by Brown's own standard. Spellings that are simply different from current practice, e.g., 'Shakspeare' are not noted. Special characters: vowels with macrons are rendered with an equals sign (=) before the vowel. Vowels with breve marks are rendered with tildes (~) before the vowels.--KTH. THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS, WITH AN INTRODUCTION HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL; THE WHOLE METHODICALLY ARRANGED AND AMPLY ILLUSTRATED; WITH FORMS OF CORRECTING AND OF PARSING, IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION, EXAMPLES FOR PARSING, QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION, EXERCISES FOR WRITING, OBSERVATIONS FOR THE ADVANCED STUDENT, DECISIONS AND PROOFS FOR THE SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTED POINTS, OCCASIONAL STRICTURES AND DEFENCES, AN EXHIBITION OF THE SEVERAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS, AND A KEY TO THE ORAL EXERCISES: TO WHICH ARE ADDED FOUR APPENDIXES, PERTAINING SEPARATELY TO THE FOUR PARTS OF GRAMMAR. BY GOOLD BROWN, AUTHOR OF THE INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, THE FIRST LINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, ETC. "So let great authors have their due, that Time, who is the author of authors, be not deprived of his due, which is, farther and farther to discover truth."--LORD BACON. SIXTH EDITION--REVISED AND IMPROVED. ENLARGED BY THE ADDITION OF A COPIOUS INDEX OF MATTERS. BY SAMUEL U. BERRIAN, A. M. PREFACE The present performance is, so far as the end could be reached, the fulfillment of a design, formed about twenty-seven years ago, of one day presenting to the world, if I might, something like a complete grammar of the English language;--not a mere work of criticism, nor yet a work too tame, indecisive, and uncritical; for, in books of either of these sorts, our libraries already abound;--not a mere philosophical investigation of what is general or universal in grammar, nor yet a minute detail of what forms only a part of our own philology; for either of these plans falls very far short of such a purpose;--not a mere grammatical compend, abstract, or compilation, sorting with other works already before the public; for, in the production of school grammars, the author had early performed his part; and, of small treatises on this subject, we have long had a superabundance rather than a lack. After about fifteen years devoted chiefly to grammatical studies and exercises, during most of which time I had been alternately instructing youth in four different languages, thinking it practicable to effect some improvement upon the manuals which explain our own, I prepared and published, for the use of schools, a duodecimo volume of about three hundred pages; which, upon the presumption that its principles were conformable to the best usage, and well established thereby, I entitled, "The Institutes of English Grammar." Of this work, which, it is believed, has been gradually gaining in reputation and demand ever since its first publication, there is no occasion to say more here, than that it was the result of diligent study, and that it is, essentially, the nucleus, or the groundwork, of the present volume. With much additional labour, the principles contained in the Institutes of English Grammar, have here been not only reaffirmed and rewritten, but occasionally improved in expression, or amplified in their details. New topics, new definitions, new rules, have also been added; and all parts of the subject have been illustrated by a multiplicity of new examples and exercises, which it has required a long time to amass and arrange. To the main doctrines, also, are here subjoined many new observations and criticisms, which are the results of no inconsiderable reading and reflection. Regarding it as my business and calling, to work out the above-mentioned purpose as circumstances might permit, I have laid no claim to genius, none to infallibility; but I have endeavoured to be accurate, and aspired to be useful; and it is a part of my plan, that the reader of this volume shall never, through my fault, be left in doubt as to the origin of any thing it contains. It is but the duty of an author, to give every needful facility for a fair estimate of his work; and, whatever authority there may be for anonymous copying in works on grammar, the precedent is always bad. The success of other labours, answerable to moderate wishes, has enabled me to pursue this task under favourable circumstances, and with an unselfish, independent aim. Not with vainglorious pride, but with reverent gratitude to God, I acknowledge this advantage, giving thanks for the signal mercy which has upborne me to the long-continued effort. Had the case been otherwise,--had the labours of the school-room been still demanded for my support,--the present large volume would never have appeared. I had desired some leisure for the completing of this design, and to it I scrupled not to sacrifice the profits of my main employment, as soon as it could be done without hazard of adding another chapter to "the Calamities of Authors." The nature and design of this treatise are perhaps sufficiently developed in connexion with the various topics which are successively treated of in the Introduction. That method of teaching, which I conceive to be the best, is also there described. And, in the Grammar itself, there will be found occasional directions concerning the manner of its use. I have hoped to facilitate the study of the English language, not by abridging our grammatical code, or by rejecting the common phraseolgy [sic--KTH] of its doctrines, but by extending the former, improving the latter, and establishing both;--but still more, by furnishing new illustrations of the subject, and arranging its vast number of particulars in such order that every item may be readily found. An other important purpose, which, in the preparation of this work, has been borne constantly in mind, and judged worthy of very particular attention, was the attempt to settle, so far as the most patient investigation and the fullest exhibition of proofs could do it, the multitudinous and vexatious disputes which have hitherto divided the sentiments of teachers, and made the study of English grammar so uninviting, unsatisfactory, and unprofitable, to the student whose taste demands a reasonable degree of certainty. "Whenever labour implies the exertion of thought, it does good, at least to the strong: when the saving of labour is a saving of thought, it enfeebles. The mind, like the body, is strengthened by hard exercise: but, to give this exercise all its salutary effect, it should be of a reasonable kind; it should lead us to the perception of regularity, of order, of principle, of a law. When, after all the trouble we have taken, we merely find anomalies and confusion, we are disgusted with what is so uncongenial: and, as our higher faculties have not been called into action, they are not unlikely to be outgrown by the lower, and overborne as it were by the underwood of our minds. Hence, no doubt, one of the reasons why our language has been so much neglected, and why such scandalous ignorance prevails concerning its nature and history, is its unattractive, disheartening irregularity: none but Satan is fond of plunging into chaos."--_Philological Museum_, (Cambridge, Eng., 1832,) Vol. i, p. 666. If there be any remedy for the neglect and ignorance here spoken of, it must be found in the more effectual teaching of English grammar. But the principles of grammar can never have any beneficial influence over any person's manner of speaking or writing, till by some process they are made so perfectly familiar, that he can apply them with all the readiness of a native power; that is, till he can apply them not only to what has been said or written, but to whatever he is about to utter. They must present themselves to the mind as by intuition, and with the quickness of thought; so as to regulate his language before it proceeds from the lips or the pen. If they come only by tardy recollection, or are called to mind but as contingent afterthoughts, they are altogether too late; and serve merely to mortify the speaker or writer, by reminding him of some deficiency or inaccuracy which there may then be no chance to amend. But how shall, or can, this readiness be acquired? I answer, By a careful attention to such _exercises_ as are fitted to bring the learner's knowledge into practice. The student will therefore find, that I have given him something to _do_, as well as something to _learn_. But, by the formules and directions in this work, he is very carefully shown how to proceed; and, if he be a tolerable reader, it will be his own fault, if he does not, by such aid, become a tolerable grammarian. The chief of these exercises are the _parsing_ of what is right, and the _correcting_ of what is wrong; both, perhaps, equally important; and I have intended to make them equally easy. To any real proficient in grammar, nothing can be more free from embarrassment, than the performance of these exercises, in all ordinary cases. For grammar, rightly learned, institutes in the mind a certain knowledge, or process of thought, concerning the sorts, properties, and relations, of all the words which can be presented in any intelligible sentence; and, with the initiated, a perception of the construction will always instantly follow or accompany a discovery of the sense: and instantly, too, should there be a perception of the error, if any of the words are misspelled, misjoined, misapplied,--or are, in any way, unfaithful to the sense intended. Thus it is the great end of grammar, to secure the power of apt expression, by causing the principles on which language is constructed, if not to be constantly present to the mind, at least to pass through it more rapidly than either pen or voice can utter words. And where this power resides, there cannot but be a proportionate degree of critical skill, or of ability to judge of the language of others. Present what you will, grammar directs the mind immediately to a consideration of the sense; and, if properly taught, always creates a discriminating taste which is not less offended by specious absurdities, than by the common blunders of clownishness. Every one who has any pretensions to this art, knows that, to _parse_ a sentence, is but to resolve it according to one's understanding of its import; and it is equally clear, that the power to _correct_ an erroneous passage, usually demands or implies a knowledge of the author's thought. But, if parsing and correcting are of so great practical importance as our first mention of them suggests, it may be well to be more explicit here concerning them. The pupil who cannot perform these exercises both accurately and fluently, is not truly prepared to perform them at all, and has no right to expect from any body a patient hearing. A slow and faltering rehearsal of words clearly prescribed, yet neither fairly remembered nor understandingly applied, is as foreign from parsing or correcting, as it is from elegance of diction. Divide and conquer, is the rule here, as in many other cases. Begin with what is simple; practise it till it becomes familiar; and then proceed. No child ever learned to speak by any other process. Hard things become easy by use; and skill is gained by little and little. Of the whole method of parsing, it should be understood, that it is to be a critical exercise in utterance, as well as an evidence of previous study,--an exhibition of the learner's attainments in the practice, as well as in the theory, of grammar; and that, in any tolerable performance of this exercise, there must be an exact adherence to the truth of facts, as they occur in the example, and to the forms of expression, which are prescribed as models, in the book. For parsing is, in no degree, a work of invention; but wholly an exercise, an exertion of skill. It is, indeed, an exercise for all the powers of the mind, except the inventive faculty. Perception, judgement, reasoning, memory, and method, are indispensable to the performance. Nothing is to be guessed at, or devised, or uttered at random. If the learner can but rehearse the necessary definitions and rules, and perform the simplest exercise of judgement in their application, he cannot but perceive what he _must say_ in order to speak the truth in parsing. His principal difficulty is in determining the parts of speech. To lessen this, the trial should commence with easy sentences, also with few of the definitions, and with definitions that have been perfectly learned. This difficulty being surmounted, let him follow the forms prescribed for the several praxes of this work, and he shall not err. The directions and examples given at the head of each exercise, will show him exactly the number, the order, and the proper phraseology, of the particulars to be stated; so that he may go through the explanation with every advantage which a book can afford. There is no hope of him whom these aids will not save from "plunging into chaos." "Of all the works of man, language is the most enduring, and partakes the most of eternity. And, as our own language, so far as thought can project itself into the future, seems likely to be coeval with the world, and to spread vastly beyond even its present immeasurable limits, there cannot easily be a nobler object of ambition than to purify and better it."--_Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 665. It was some ambition of the kind here meant, awakened by a discovery of the scandalous errors and defects which abound in all our common English grammars, that prompted me to undertake the present work. Now, by the bettering of a language, I understand little else than the extensive teaching of its just forms, according to analogy and the general custom of the most accurate writers. This teaching, however, may well embrace also, or be combined with, an exposition of the various forms of false grammar by which inaccurate writers have corrupted, if not the language itself, at least their own style in it. With respect to our present English, I know not whether any other improvement of it ought to be attempted, than the avoiding and correcting of those improprieties and unwarrantable anomalies by which carelessness, ignorance, and affectation, are ever tending to debase it, and the careful teaching of its true grammar, according to its real importance in education. What further amendment is feasible, or is worthy to engage attention, I will not pretend to say; nor do I claim to have been competent to so much as was manifestly desirable within these limits. But what I lacked in ability, I have endeavored to supply by diligence; and what I could conveniently strengthen by better authority than my own, I have not failed to support with all that was due, of names, guillemets, and references. Like every other grammarian, I stake my reputation as an author, upon "a certain set of opinions," and a certain manner of exhibiting them, appealing to the good sense of my readers for the correctness of both. All contrary doctrines are unavoidably censured by him who attempts to sustain his own; but, to grammatical censures, no more importance ought to be attached than what belongs to grammar itself. He who cares not to be accurate in the use of language, is inconsistent with himself, if he be offended at verbal criticism; and he who is displeased at finding his opinions rejected, is equally so, if he cannot prove them to be well founded. It is only in cases susceptible of a rule, that any writer can be judged deficient. I can censure no man for differing from me, till I can show him a principle which he ought to follow. According to Lord Kames, the standard of taste, both in arts and in manners, is "the common sense of mankind," a principle founded in the universal conviction of a common nature in our species. (See _Elements of Criticism_, Chap, xxv, Vol. ii, p. 364.) If this is so, the doctrine applies to grammar as fully as to any thing about which criticism may concern itself. But, to the discerning student or teacher, I owe an apology for the abundant condescension with which I have noticed in this volume the works of unskillful grammarians. For men of sense have no natural inclination to dwell upon palpable offences against taste and scholarship; nor can they be easily persuaded to approve the course of an author who makes it his business to criticise petty productions. And is it not a fact, that grammatical authorship has sunk so low, that no man who is capable of perceiving its multitudinous errors, dares now stoop to notice the most flagrant of its abuses, or the most successful of its abuses? And, of the quackery which is now so prevalent, what can be a more natural effect, than a very general contempt for the study of grammar? My apology to the reader therefore is, that, as the honour of our language demands correctness in all the manuals prepared for schools, a just exposition of any that are lacking in this point, is a service due to the study of English grammar, if not to the authors in question. The exposition, however, that I have made of the errors and defects of other writers, is only an incident, or underpart, of the scheme of this treatise. Nor have I anywhere exhibited blunders as one that takes delight in their discovery. My main design has been, to prepare a work which, by its own completeness and excellence, should deserve the title here chosen. But, a comprehensive code of false grammar being confessedly the most effectual means of teaching what is true, I have thought fit to supply this portion of my book, not from anonymous or uncertain sources, but from the actual text of other authors, and chiefly from the works of professed grammarians. "In what regards the laws of grammatical purity," says Dr. Campbell, "the violation is much more conspicuous than the observance."--See _Philosophy of Rhetoric_, p. 190. It therefore falls in with my main purpose, to present to the public, in the following ample work, a condensed mass of special criticism, such as is not elsewhere to be found in any language. And, if the littleness of the particulars to which the learner's attention is called, be reckoned an objection, the author last quoted has furnished for me, as well as for himself, a good apology. "The elements which enter into the composition of the hugest bodies, are subtile and inconsiderable. The rudiments of every art and science exhibit at first, to the learner, the appearance of littleness and insignificancy. And it is by attending to such reflections, as to a superficial observer would appear minute and hypercritical, that language must be improved, and eloquence perfected."--_Ib._, p. 244. GOOLD BROWN. LYNN, MASS., 1851. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PRELIMINARY MATTERS. Preface to the Grammar of English Grammars This Table of Contents Catalogue of English Grammars and Grammarians INTRODUCTION. Chapter I. Of the Science of Grammar Chapter II. Of Grammatical Authorship Chapter III. Of Grammatical Success and Fame Chapter IV. Of the Origin of Language Chapter V. Of the Power of Language Chapter VI. Of the Origin and History of the English Language Chapter VII. Changes and Specimens of the English Language Chapter VIII. Of the Grammatical Study of the English Language Chapter IX. Of the Best Method of Teaching Grammar Chapter X. Of Grammatical Definitions Chapter XI. Brief Notices of the Schemes of certain Grammars THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. Introductory Definitions General Division of the Subject PART I. ORTHOGRAPHY. Chapter I. Of Letters I. Names of the Letters II. Classes of the Letters III. Powers of the Letters IV. Forms of the Letters Rules for the use of Capitals Errors concerning Capitals Promiscuous Errors of Capitals Chapter II. Of Syllables Diphthongs and Triphthongs Rules for Syllabication Observations on Syllabication Errors concerning Syllables Chapter III. Of Words Rules for the Figure of Words Observations on Figure of Words On the Identity of Words Errors concerning Figure Promiscuous Errors in Figure Chapter IV. Of Spelling Rules for Spelling Observations on Spelling Errors in Spelling Promiscuous Errors in Spelling Chapter V. Questions on Orthography Chapter VI Exercises for Writing PART II. ETYMOLOGY. Introductory Definitions Chapter I. Of the Parts of Speech Observations on Parts of Speech Examples for Parsing, Praxis I Chapter II. Of the Articles Observations on the Articles Examples for Parsing, Praxis II Errors concerning Articles Chapter III. Of Nouns Classes of Nouns Modifications of Nouns Persons Numbers Genders Cases The Declension of Nouns Examples for Parsing, Praxis III Errors concerning Nouns Chapter IV. Of Adjectives Classes of Adjectives Modifications of Adjectives Regular Comparison Comparison by Adverbs Irregular Comparison Examples for Parsing, Praxis IV Errors concerning Adjectives Chapter V. Of Pronouns Classes of the Pronouns Modifications of the Pronouns The Declension of Pronouns Examples for Parsing, Praxis V Errors concerning Pronouns Chapter VI. Of Verbs Classes of Verbs Modifications of Verbs Moods Tenses Persons and Numbers The Conjugation of Verbs I. Simple Form, Active or Neuter First Example, the verb _LOVE_ Second Example, the verb _SEE_ Third Example, the verb _BE_ II. Compound or Progressive Form Fourth Example, to _BE READING_ Observations on Compound Forms III. Form of Passive Verbs Fifth Example, to _BE LOVED_ IV. Form of Negation V. Form of Question VI. Form of Question with Negation Irregular Verbs, with Obs. and List Redundant Verbs, with Obs. and List Defective Verbs, with Obs. and List Examples for Parsing, Praxis VI Errors concerning Verbs Chapter VII. Of Participles Classes of Participles Examples for Parsing, Praxis VII Errors concerning Participles Chapter VIII. Of Adverbs Classes of Adverbs Modifications of Adverbs Examples for Parsing, Praxis VIII Errors concerning Adverbs Chapter IX. Of Conjunctions Classes of Conjunctions List of the Conjunctions Examples for Parsing, Praxis IX Errors concerning Conjunctions Chapter X. Of Prepositions List of the Prepositions Examples for Parsing, Praxis X Errors concerning Prepositions Chapter XI. Of Interjections List of the Interjections Examples for Parsing, Praxis XI Errors concerning Interjections Chapter XII. Questions on Etymology Chapter XIII. Exercises for Writing PART III. SYNTAX. Introductory Definitions Chapter I. Of Sentences The Rules of Syntax General or Critical Obs. on Syntax The Analyzing of Sentences The several Methods of Analysis Observations on Methods of Analysis Examples for Parsing, Praxis XII Chapter II. Of the Articles Rule I. Syntax of Articles Observations on Rule I Notes to Rule I; 17 of them False Syntax under Notes to Rule I Chapter III. Of Cases, or Nouns Rule II. Of Nominatives Observations on Rule II False Syntax under Rule II Rule III. Of Apposition Observations on Rule III False Syntax under Rule III Rule IV. Of Possessives Observations on Rule IV Notes to Rule IV; 5 of them False Syntax under Notes to Rule IV Rule V. Of Objectives after Verbs Observations on Rule V Notes to Rule V; 8 of them False Syntax under Rule V Rule VI. Of Same Cases Observations on Rule VI Notes to Rule VI; 2 of them False Syntax under Rule VI Rule VII. Of Objectives after Prepositions Observations on Rule VII Note to Rule VII; 1 only False Syntax under Rule VII Rule VIII. Of Nominatives Absolute Observations on Rule VIII False Syntax under Rule VIII Chapter IV. Of Adjectives Rule IX. Of Adjectives Observations on Rule IX Notes to Rule IX; 16 of them False Syntax under Rule IX Chapter V. Of Pronouns Rule X. Pronoun and Antecedent Observations on Rule X Notes to Rule X; 16 of them False Syntax under Rule X Rule XI. Pronoun and Collective Noun Observations on Rule XI Notes to Rule XI; 2 of them False Syntax under Rule XI Rule XII. Pronoun after AND Observations on Rule XII False Syntax under Rule XII Rule XIII. Pronoun after OR or NOR Observations on Rule XIII False Syntax under Rule XIII Chapter VI. Of Verbs Rule XIV. Verb and Nominative Observations on Rule XIV Notes to Rule XIV; 10 of them False Syntax under Rule XIV Rule XV. Verb and Collective Noun Observations on Rule XV Note to Rule XV; 1 only False Syntax under Rule XV Rule XVI. The Verb after AND Observations on Rule XVI Notes to Rule XVI; 7 of them False Syntax under Rule XVI Rule XVII. The Verb with OR or NOR Observations on Rule XVII Notes to Rule XVII; 15 of them False Syntax under Rule XVII Rule XVIII. Of Infinitives with TO Observations on Rule XVIII False Syntax under Rule XVIII Rule XIX. Of Infinitives without TO Observations on Rule XIX False Syntax under Rule XIX Chapter VII. Of Participles Rule XX. Syntax of Participles Observations on Rule XX Notes to Rule XX; 13 of them False Syntax under Rule XX Chapter VIII. Of Adverbs Rule XXI. Relation of Adverbs Observations on Rule XXI Notes to Rule XXI; 10 of them False Syntax under Rule XXI Chapter IX. Of Conjunctions Rule XXII. Use of Conjunctions Observations on Rule XXII Notes to Rule XXII; 8 of them False Syntax under Rule XXII Chapter X. Of Prepositions Rule XXIII. Use of Prepositions Observations on Rule XXIII Notes to Rule XXIII; 5 of them False Syntax under Rule XXIII Chapter XI. Of Interjections Rule XXIV. For Interjections Observations on Rule XXIV False Syntax Promiscuous Examples for Parsing, Praxis XIII Chapter XII. General Review False Syntax for a General Review Chapter XIII. General Rule of Syntax Critical Notes to the General Rule General Observations on the Syntax False Syntax under the General Rule False Syntax under the Critical Notes Promiscuous Examples of False Syntax Chapter XIV. Questions on Syntax Chapter XV. Exercises for Writing PART IV. PROSODY. Introductory Definitions and Observations Chapter I. Punctuation Obs. on Pauses, Points, Names, &c. Section I. The Comma; its 17 Rules Errors concerning the Comma Section II. The Semicolon; its 3 Rules Errors concerning the Semicolon Mixed Examples of Error Section III. The Colon; its 3 Rules Errors concerning the Colon Mixed Examples of Error Section IV. The Period; its 8 Rules Observations on the Period Errors concerning the Period Mixed Examples of Error Section V. The Dash; its 3 Rules Observations on the Dash Errors concerning the Dash Mixed Examples of Error Section VI. The Eroteme; its 3 Rules Observations on the Eroteme Errors concerning the Eroteme Mixed Examples of Error Section VII. The Ecphoneme; its 3 Rules Errors concerning the Ecphoneme Mixed Examples of Error Section VIII. The Curves; and their 2 Rules Errors concerning the Curves Mixed Examples of Error Section IX. The Other Marks Mixed Examples of Error Bad English Badly Pointed Chapter II. Of Utterance Section I. Of Articulation Article I. Of the Definition Article II. Of Good Articulation Section II. Of Pronunciation Article I. Powers of Letters Article II. Of Quantity Article III. Of Accent Section III. Of Elocution Article I. Of Emphasis Article II. Of Pauses Article III. Of Inflections Article IV. Of Tones Chapter III. Of Figures Section I. Figures of Orthography Section II. Figures of Etymology Section III. Figures of Syntax Section IV. Figures of Rhetoric Section V. Examples for Parsing, Praxis XIV Chapter IV. Of Versification Section I. Of Verse Definitions and Principles Observations on Verse Section II. Of Accent and Quantity Section III. Of Poetic Feet Critical Observations on Theories Section IV. Of the Kinds of Verse Order I. Iambic Verse; its 8 Measures Order II. Trochaic Verse; its Nature Observations on Trochaic Metre Trochaics shown in their 8 Measures Order III. Anapestic Verse; its 4 Measures Observations on the Short Anapestics Order IV. Dactylic Verse; its 8 Measures Observations on Dactylics Order V. Composite Verse Observations on Composites Section V. Improprieties for Correction Chapter V. Questions on Prosody Chapter VI. Exercises for Writing KEY TO THE ORAL EXERCISES. THE KEY.--PART I.--ORTHOGRAPHY. Chapter I. Of Letters; Capitals Corrections under each of the 16 Rules Promiscuous corrections of Capitals Chapter II. Of Syllables Corrections of False Syllabication Chapter III. Of the Figure of Words Corrections under each of the 6 Rules Promiscuous corrections of Figure Chapter IV. Of Spelling Corrections under each of the 15 Rules Promiscuous corrections of Spelling THE KEY.--PART II--ETYMOLOGY. Chapter I. Of the Parts of Speech Remark concerning False Etymology Chapter II. Of Articles; 5 Lessons Chapter III. Of Nouns; 3 Lessons Chapter IV. Of Adjectives; 3 Lessons Chapter V. Of Pronouns; 3 Lessons Chapter VI. Of Verbs; 3 Lessons Chapter VII. Of Participles; 3 Lessons Chapter VIII. Of Adverbs; 1 Lesson Chapter IX. Of Conjunctions; 1 Lesson Chapter X. Of Prepositions; 1 Lesson Chapter XI. Of Interjections; 1 Lesson THE KEY.--PART III.--SYNTAX. Chapter I. Of Sentences; Remark Chapter II. Of Articles. Corrections under the 17 Notes to Rule 1 Chapter III. Of Cases, or Nouns Cor. under Rule II; of Nominatives Cor. under Rule III; of Apposition Cor. under Rule IV; of Possessives Cor. under Rule V; of Objectives Cor. under Rule VI; of Same Cases Cor. under Rule VII; of Objectives Cor. under Rule VIII; of Nom. Absolute Chapter IV. Of Adjectives. Corrections under the 16 Notes to Rule IX Chapter V. Of Pronouns. Corrections under Rule X and its 16 Notes Corrections under Rule XI; of Pronouns Cor. under Rule XII; of Pronouns Cor. under Rule XIII; of Pronouns Chapter VI. Of Verbs. Corrections under Rule XIV and its 10 Notes Cor. under Rule XV and its Note Cor. under Rule XVI and its 7 Notes Cor. under Rule XVII and its 15 Notes Cor. under Rule XVIII; of Infinitives Cor. under Rule XIX; of Infinitives Chapter VII. Of Participles. Corrections under the 13 Notes to Rule XX Chapter VIII. Of Adverbs. Corrections under the 10 Notes to Rule XXI Chapter IX. Of Conjunctions. Corrections under the 8 Notes to Rule XXII Chapter X. Of Prepositions. Corrections under the 5 Notes to Rule XXIII Chapter XI. Promiscuous Exercises. Corrections of the 8 Lessons Chapter XII. General Review. Corrections under all the preceding Rules and Notes; 18 Lessons Chapter XIII. General Rule. Corrections under the General Rule; 16 Lessons Corrections under the Critical Notes Promiscuous Corrections of False Syntax; 5 Lessons, under Various Rules THE KEY.--PART IV.--PROSODY. Chapter I. Punctuation Section I. The Comma; Corrections under its 17 Rules Section II. The Semicolon; Corrections under its 8 Rules Mixed Examples Corrected Section III. The Colon; Corrections under its 8 Rules Mixed Examples Corrected Section IV. The Period; Corrections under its 8 Rules Mixed Examples Corrected Section V. The Dash; Corrections under its 8 Rules Mixed Examples Corrected Section VI. The Eroteme; Corrections under its 3 Rules Mixed Examples Corrected Section VII. The Ecphoneme; Corrections under its 3 Rules Mixed Examples Corrected Section VIII. The Curves; Corrections under their 2 Rules Mixed Examples Corrected Section IX. All Points; Corrections Good English Rightly Pointed Chapter II. Utterance; no Corrections Chapter III. Figures; no Corrections Chapter IV. Versification. False Prosody, or Errors of Metre, Corrected THE FOUR APPENDIXES. Appendix I. (To Orthography.) Of the Sounds of the Letters Appendix II. (To Etymology.) Of the Derivation of Words Appendix III. (To Syntax.) Of the Qualities of Style Appendix IV. (To Prosody.) Of Poetic Diction; its Peculiarities INDEX OF MATTERS. A DIGESTED CATALOGUE OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS AND GRAMMARIANS, WITH SOME COLLATERAL WORKS AND AUTHORITIES, ESPECIALLY SUCH AS ARE CITED IN THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. ADAM, ALEXANDER, LL. D.; "Latin and English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 302: Edinburgh, 1772; Boston, 1803. ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY, LL. D.; "Lectures on Rhetoric and Oratory;" 2 vols., 8vo: Cambridge, N. E., 1810. ADAMS, Rev. CHARLES, A. M.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 172: 1st Edition, Boston, 1838. ADAMS, DANIEL, M. B.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 103: 3d Edition, Montpelier, Vt., 1814. ADAMS, E.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 143. Leicester, Mass., 1st Ed., 1806; 5th Ed., 1821. AICKIN, JOSEPH; English Grammar, 8vo: London, 1693. AINSWORTH, ROBERT; Latin and English Dictionary, 4to: 1st Ed., 1736; revised Ed., Lond., 1823. AINSWORTH, LUTHER; "A Practical System of English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 144: 1st Ed., Providence, R. I., 1837. ALDEN, ABNER, A. M.; "Grammar Made Easy;" 12mo, pp. 180: 1st Ed., Boston, 1811. ALDEN, Rev. TIMOTHY, Jun.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 36: 1st Ed., Boston, 1811. ALDRICH, W.; "Lectures on English Grammar and Rhetoric, for Common Schools, Academies," &c.; 18mo, pp. 68: 11th Ed., Boston, 1847. ALEXANDER, CALEB, A. M.; (1.) "Grammatical Elements," published before 1794. (2.) "A Grammatical Institute of the Latin Language;" 12mo, pp. 132: Worcester, Mass., 1794. (3.) "A Grammatical System of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 96; written at Mendon, Mass., 1795: 10th Ed., Keene, N. H., 1814. Also, (4.) "An Introduction to Latin," 1795; and, (5.) "An Introduction to the Speaking and Writing of English." ALEXANDER, SAMUEL; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 216: 4th Edition, London, 1832. ALGER, ISRAEL, Jun., A. M.; "Abridgement of Murray's E. Gram.," &c.; 18mo, pp. 126: Boston, 1824 and 1842. ALLEN, Rev. WILLIAM, M. A.; "Grammar of the English Language," &c.; 18mo: London. Also, "The Elements of English Grammar." &c.; 12mo, pp. 457: London, 1813; 2d Ed., ALLEN and CORNWELL; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 162: 3d Edition, London, 1841. ALLEN, D. CAVERNO; "Grammatic Guide, or Common School Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 94: Syracuse, N. Y., 1847. ANDREW, JAMES, LL. D.; English Grammar; 8vo, pp. 129: London, 1817. ANDREWS & STODDARD; "A Grammar of the Latin Language;" 12mo, pp. 328: Boston, 1836; 11th Ed., 1845. ANGELL, OLIVER, A. M.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 90: 1st Edition, Providence, R. I., 1830. ANGUS, WILLIAM, M. A.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 255: 2d Edition, Glasgow, Scotland, 1807. ANON.; "The British Grammar;" 8vo, pp. 281: London, 1760, or near that date. Boston, Mass., 1784. ANON.; "A Comprehensive Grammar," &c.; 18mo, pp. 174: 3d Ed., Philadelphia, T. Dobson, 1789. ANON.; "The Comic Grammar," &c,: London, 1840. ANON.; "The Decoy," an English Grammar with Cuts; 12mo, pp. 33: New York, S. Wood & Sons, 1820. ANON.: E. Gram., "By T. C.;" 18mo, pp. 104: London, 1843. ANON.; Grammar and Rhetoric; 12mo, pp. 221: London, 1776. ANON.; "The English Tutor;" 8vo: London, 1747. ANON.; English Grammar, 12mo: London, Boosey, 1795. ANON.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 161: London, 1838. ANON.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 85: London, 1838. ANON.; An English Grammar, with Engravings; 18mo, pp. 16: London, 1820. ANON.; English Grammar, pp. 84: 1st Ed., Huddersfield, 1817. ANON.: "The Essentials of English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 108: 3d Edition, London, 1821. ANON.; "A Plain and Comprehensive Grammar," in "The Complete Letter-Writer;" 12mo, pp. 31;--pages of the whole book, 215: London, 1811. ANON.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 131: Albany, N. Y., 1819. ANON.; (A. H. Maltby & Co. pub.;) Murray's Abridgement, "with Additions;" 18mo, pp. 120: Newhaven, Ct., 1822. ANON.; (James Loring, pub.;) Murray's Abridgement, "with Alterations and Improvements; by a Teacher of Youth;" (Lawson Lyon;) 18mo, pp. 72: 14th Ed., Boston, 1821. ANON.; "The Infant School Grammar;" (said to have been written by Mrs. Bethune;) 18mo, pp. 182: New York, 1830. Jonathan Seymour, proprietor. ANON.; Pestalozzian Grammar; 12mo, pp. 60: Boston, 1830. ANON.; Interrogative Grammar; 12mo, pp. 70: Boston, 1832. ANON.; Grammar with Cuts; 18mo, pp. 108: Boston, 1830. ANON.; "The Juvenile English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 89: Boston, 1829. B. Perkins & Co., publishers and proprietors. ANON.; "The Little Grammarian;" 18mo, pp. 108: 2d Edition, Boston, 1829. ANON.; An Inductive Grammar; 12mo, pp. 185: Windsor, Vt., 1829. ANON.; "A Concise Grammar of the English Language, attempted in Verse;" 18mo, pp. 63: 1st Edition, New York, 1825. ANON.; "Edward's First Lessons in Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 108: 1st Ed., Boston, T. H. Webb & Co., 1843. ANON.; "The First Lessons in English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 90: 1st Edition, Boston, 1842. ANON.; "A New Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 124: New York, 1831; 2d Ed., Boston, 1834. ANON.; "Enclytica, or the Principles of Universal Grammar;" 8vo, pp. 133: London, J. Booth, 1814. ANON.; "The General Principles of Grammar, edited by a few Well-Wishers to Knowledge;" 18mo, pp. 76: Philadelphia, Lea & Blanchard, 1847. ANON.; "English School Grammar;" small 12mo, pp. 32: London, 1850. A meagre sketch, published by "the Society for promoting Christian Knowledge." ANON.; "An English Grammar, together with a First Lesson in Reading;" 18mo, pp. 16: James Burns, London; 2d Ed., 1844. Not worth a pin. ARISTOTLE; his Poetics;--the Greek text, with Goulston's Latin Version, and Winstanley's Notes;--8vo, pp. 320: Oxford, England, 1780. ARNOLD, T. K., M. A.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 76: 2d Edition, London, 1841. ASH, JOHN, LL. D.; "Grammatical Institutes;" 18mo, pp. 142: London, first published about 1763; New York, "A New Edition, Revised and Corrected," 1799. BACON, CALEB, Teacher; "Murray's English Grammar Put into Questions and Answers;" 18mo, pp. 108: New York, 1st Edition, 1818; 5th Edition, 1823, 1827, and 1830. BADGLEY, JONATHAN; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 200: 1st Edition, Utica, N. Y., 1845. Suppressed for plagiarism from G. Brown. BALCH, WILLIAM S.; (1.) "Lectures on Language;" 12mo, pp. 252: Providence, 1838. (2.) "A Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo, pp, 140: 1st Edition, Boston, 1839. BALDWIN, EDWARD; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 148: London, 1810; 2d Ed., 1824. BARBER, Dr. JONATHAN; "A Grammar of Elocution;" 12mo; Newhaven, 1830. BARNARD, FREDERICK A. P., A. M.; "Analytic Grammar; with Symbolic Illustration;" 12mo, pp. 264: New York, 1836. This is a curious work, and remarkably well-written. BARNES, DANIEL H., of N. Y.; "The Red Book," or Bearcroft's "Practical Orthography," Revised and Enlarged; 12mo, pp. 347: New York, 1828. BARNES, WILLIAM, B. D.; (1.) English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 120: London, 1842. (2.) "A Philological Grammar, grounded upon English, and formed from a Comparison of more than Sixty Languages;" 8vo, pp. 312: London, 1854. BARRETT, JOHN; "A Grammar of the English Language;" 18mo, pp. 214: 2d Ed., Boston, 1819. BARRETT, SOLOMON, Jun.; (1.) "The Principles of Language;" 12mo, pp. 120: Albany, 1837. (2.) "The Principles of English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 96; "Tenth Edition, Revised:" Utica, 1845. (3.) "The Principles of Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 407: "Revised Edition;" Cambridge, 1854. BARRIE, ALEXANDER; English Grammar; 24to, pp. 54: Edinburgh, 9th Ed., 1800. BARTLETT, MONTGOMERY R.; "The Common School Manual;" called in the Third or Philadelphia Edition, "The _National_ School Manual;"--"in Four Parts," or Separate Volumes, 12mo: I, pp. 108; II, 302; III, 379; IV, promised "to consist of 450 or 500 pages." First three parts, "Second Edition," New York, 1830. A miserable jumble, in the successive pages of which, Grammar is mixed up with Spelling-columns, Reading-lessons, Arithmetic, Geometry, and the other supposed daily tasks of a school-boy! BAILEY, N., Schoolmaster; "English and Latin Exercises;" 12mo, pp. 183: London. 18th Ed., 1798. BAILEY, Rev. R. W., A. M.; "English Grammar," or "Manual of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 240: 2d Ed., Philadelphia, 1854. BAYLEY, ANSELM, LL. D.; English Grammar, 8vo: London, 1772. BEALE, SOLON; English Grammar, 18mo, pp. 27: Bangor, Maine, 1833. BEALL, ALEXANDER; English Grammar, 12mo: 1st Ed., Cincinnati, Ohio, 1841. BEATTIE, JAMES, LL. D.; "Theory of Language:" London, 1783; Philadelphia, 1809. "Elements of Moral Science;" 12mo, pp. 572; Baltimore, 1813. See, in Part 1, the sections which treat of "The Faculty of Speech," and the "Essentials of Language;" and, in Part IV, those which treat of "Rhetorick, Figures, Sentences, Style, and Poetry." BECK, WILLIAM; "Outline of English Grammar;" very small, pp. 34: 3d Ed., London, 1829. BEECHER, CATHARINE E.; English Grammar, 12mo, pp. 74. 1st Ed., Hartford, Ct., 1829. BELL, JOHN; English Grammar, 12mo, pp. 446: (2 vols.:) 1st Ed., Glasgow, 1769. BELLAMY, ELIZABETH; English Grammar, 12mo: London, 1802. BENEDICT,--------; English Grammar, 12mo, pp. 192: 1st Ed., Nicholasville, Ky., 1832. BETTESWORTH, JOHN; English Grammar, 12mo: London, 1778. BICKNELL, ALEXANDER, Esq.; "The Grammatical Wreath; or, a Complete System of English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 804: London, 1790. BINGHAM, CALEB, A. M.; "The Young Lady's Accidence;" 18mo, pp. 60: Boston, 1804; 20th Ed., 1815. BLAIR, HUGH, D. D., F. B. S.; "Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles-Lettres;" 8vo, pp. 500: London, 1783; New York, 1819. BLAIR, JOHN, D. D.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 145: 1st Ed., Philadelphia, 1831. BLAIR, DAVID, Rev.; "A Practical Grammar of the English Language;" 18mo, pp. 167: 7th Ed., London, 1815. BLAISDALE, SILAS; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 88: 1st Ed., Boston, 1831. BLISS, LEONARD Jun.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 73: 1st Ed., Louisville, Ky., 1839. BOBBITT, A.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 136: 1st Ed., London, 1833. BOLLES, WILLIAM; (1.) "A Spelling-Book;" 12mo, pp. 180: Ster. Ed., N. London, 1831. (2.) "An Explanatory and Phonographic Pronouncing Dictionary of the English Language;" royal octavo, pp. 944; Ster. Ed., New London, 1845. BOOTH, DAVID; Introd. to Analytical Dict.; 8vo, pp. 168: London, 1814. Analytical Dictionary of the English Language: London, 1835. E. Grammar, 12mo: London, 1837. BRACE, JOAB; "The Principles of English Grammar;" (vile theft from Lennie;) 18mo, pp. 144: 1st Edition, Philadelphia, 1839. BRADLEY, JOSHUA, A. M.; "Youth's Literary Guide;" 12mo, pp. 192: 1st Ed., Windsor, Vt., 1815. BRADLEY, Rev. C.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 148: York, Eng., 1810; 3d Ed., 1813. BRIDIL, EDMUND, LL. D.; E. Gram., 4to: London, 1799. BRIGHTLAND, JOHN, _Pub._; "A Grammar of the English Tongue;" 12mo, pp. 800: 7th Ed., London, 1748. BRITTAIN, Rev. LEWIS; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 156: 2d Edition, London, 1790. BROMLEY, WALTER; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 104: 1st Ed., Halifax, N. S., 1822. BROWN, GOOLD; (1.) "The Institutes of English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 220-312: New York, 1st Ed., 1823; stereotyped in 1832, and again in 1846. (2.) "The First Lines of English Grammar;" early copies 18mo, late copies 12mo, pp. 108: New York, 1st Ed., 1823; stereotyped in 1827, and in 1844. (3.) 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(4.) "Practical Lessons in English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 132: New York, 1844. (5.) "An Analytical and Practical Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 240: 1st Ed., New York, 1849. BULLOKAR, WILLIAM; (1.) "Booke at Large for the Amendment of Orthographie for English Speech." (2.) "A Bref Grammar for English:" London, 1586. BURHANS, HEZEKIAH; "The Critical Pronouncing Spelling-Book;" 12mo, pp. 204: 1st Ed., Philad., 1823. BURLES, EDWARD; E. Gram., 12mo: Lond., 1652. BURN, JOHN; "A Practical Grammar of the E. Lang.;" 12mo, pp. 275: Glasgow, 1766; 10th Ed., 1810. BURR, JONATHAN, A. M.; "A Compendium of Eng. Gram.;" 18mo, pp. 72: Boston, 1797,--1804,--1818. BUTLER, CHARLES; E. Gram., 4to: Oxford, Eng., 1633. BUTLER, NOBLE, A. M.; (1.) "A Practical Grammar of the E. Lang.;" 12mo, pp. 216: 1st Ed., Louisville, Ky., 1845. (2.) "Introductory Lessons in E. Grammar," 1845. CAMPBELL, GEORGE, D. D., F. R. S.; "The Philosophy of Rhetoric;" 8vo, pp. 445: London, 1776: Philad., 1818. CARDELL, WM. S.; (1.) An "Analytical Spelling-Book;" (with Part of the "Story of Jack Halyard;") 12mo, pp. 192: (published at first under the fictitious name of "John Franklin Jones:") New York, 1823; 2d Ed., 1824. (2.) An "Essay on Language;" 12mo, pp. 203: New York, 1825. (3.) "Elements of English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 141: New York, 1826; 3d Ed., Hartford, 1827. (4.) "Philosophic Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 236: Philadelphia, 1827. CAREY, JOHN; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 220: 1st Ed., London, 1809. CARTER, JOHN; E. Gram., 8vo: Leeds, 1773. CHANDLER, JOSEPH R.; "A Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 180: Philad., 1821. Rev. Ed., pp. 208, stereotyped, 1847. CHAPIN, JOEL; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 252: 1st Edition, Springfield, Mass., 1842. CHAUVIER, J. H., M. A.; "A Treatise on Punctuation;" translated from the French, by J. B. Huntington; large 18mo, pp. 112: London, 1849. CHESSMAN, DANIEL, A. M.; Murray Abridged; 18mo, pp. 24: 3d Ed., Hullowell, Me., 1821. CHILD, PROF. F. J.; "Revised Edition" of Dr. Latham's "Elementary English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 236: Cambridge, N. E., 1852. CHURCHILL, T. O.; "A New Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 454: 1st Ed., London, 1823. CLAPHAM, Rev. SAMUEL; E. Grammar: London, 1810. CLARK, HENRY; E. Grammar; 4to: London, 1656. CLARK, SCHUYLER; "The American Linguist, or Natural Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 240: Providence, 1830. CLARK, S. W., A. M.; "A Practical Grammar," with "a System of Diagrams;" 12mo, pp. 218; 2d Ed., New York, 1848. CLARK, WILLIAM; E. Gram.; 18mo: London, 1810. CLARKE, R.; "Poetical Grammar of the English Language, and an Epitome of Rhetoric;" 12mo, pp. 172; price, 2s. 6d.: London, 1855. COAR, THOMAS; "A Grammar of the English Tongue;" 12mo, pp. 276: 1st Ed., London, 1796. COBB, ENOS; "Elements of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 108: 1st Ed., Boston, 1820. COBB, LYMAN, A. M.; (1.) A Spelling-Book according to J. Walker; "Revised Ed.:" Ithaca, N. Y., 1825. (2.) "Abridgment of Walker's Crit. Pron. Dict.:" Hartford, Ct., 1829. (3.) "Juvenile Reader, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and Sequel:" New York, 1831. (4.) "The North American Reader;" 12mo, pp. 498: New York, 1835. (5.) "New Spelling-Book, in Six Parts;" 12mo, pp. 168: N. Y., 1843. (6.) An "Expositor," a "Miniature Lexicon," books of "Arithmetic, &c., &c." COBBETT, WILLIAM; "A Grammar of the E. Language;" 12mo, New York and Lond., 1818; 18mo, N. Y., 1832. COBBIN, Rev. INGRAM, M. A.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 72: 20th Edition, London, 1844. COCHRAN, PETER, A. B.: English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 71: 1st Ed., Boston, 1802. COLET, Dr. John, Dean of St. Paul's; the "English Introduction" to Lily's Grammar; dedicated to Lily in 1510. See _Gram. of E. Gram., Introd._, Chap. XI, ¶¶ 3, 4, and 5. COMLY, JOHN; "English Grammar Made Easy;" 18mo, pp. 192: 6th Ed., Philad., 1815; 15th Ed., 1826. COMSTOCK, ANDREW, M. D.; "A System of Elocution;" 12mo, pp. 364: Philadelphia, 1844. "A Treatise on Phonology;" 12mo, 1846: &c. CONNEL, ROBERT; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 162: Glasgow, 1831; 2d Ed., 1834. CONNON, C. W., M. A.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 168: Edinburgh, 1845. COOPER, Rev. JOAB GOLDSMITH, A. M.; (1.) "An Abridgment of Murray's English Grammar;" (largely stolen from G. Brown;) 12mo, pp. 200: Philadelphia, 1828. (2.) "A Plain and Practical English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 210: Philad., 1831. COOTE, C., LL. D.; on the English Language; 8vo, pp. 281: 1st Edition, London, 1788. CORBET, JAMES; English Grammar; 24to, pp. 153: 1st Edition, Glasgow, 1743. CORBET, JOHN; English Grammar; 12mo: Shrewsbury, England, 1784. CORNELL, WILLIAM M.; English Grammar; 4to, pp. 12: 1st Edition, Boston, 1840. COVELL, L. T.; "A Digest of English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 219: 3d Ed., New York, 1853. Much indebted to S. S. Greene, H. Mandeville, and G. Brown. CRANE, GEORGE; "The Principles of Language;" 12mo, pp. 264: 1st Ed., London, 1843. CROCKER, ABRAHAM; English Grammar, 12mo: Lond., 1772. CROMBIE, ALEXANDER, LL. D., F. R. S.; "A Treatise on the Etymology and Syntax of the English Language;" 8vo, pp. 425: London, 2d Ed., 1809; 4th Ed., 1836. CUTLER, ANDREW, A. M.; "English Grammar and Parser;" 12mo, pp. 168: 1st Ed., Plainfield, Ct., 1841. DALE, W. A. T.; a small "English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 72: 1st Ed., Albany, N. Y., 1820. DALTON, JOHN; "Elements of English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 122: London, 1st Ed., 1801. DAVENPORT, BISHOP; "English Grammar Simplified;" 18mo, pp. 139: 1st Ed., Wilmington, Del., 1830. DAVIDSON, DAVID; a Syntactical Treatise, or Grammar; 12mo: London, 1823. DAVIS, Rev. JOHN, A. M.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 188: 1st Ed., Belfast, Ireland, 1832. DAVIS, PARDON; (1.) An Epitome of E. Gram.; 12mo, pp. 56: 1st Ed., Philad., 1818. (2.) "Modern Practical E. Gram.;" 12mo, pp. 175: 1st Ed., Philad., 1845. DAY, PARSONS E.; "District School Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 120: 2d Ed., Ithaca, N. Y., 1844. DAY, WILLIAM; "Punctuation Reduced to a System;" 18mo, pp. 147: 3d Ed., London, 1847. DEARBORN, BENJAMIN; "Columbian Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 140: 1st Ed., Boston, 1795. DEL MAR, E.; Treatise on English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 115: 1st Ed., London, 1842. D'ORSEY, ALEXANDER J. D.; (1.) A Duodecimo Grammar, in Two Parts; Part I, pp. 153; Part II, pp. 142: 1st Ed., Edinburgh, 1842. (2.) An Introduction to E. Gram.; 18mo, pp. 104: Edin., 1845. DE SACY, A. J. SYLVESTRE, Baron; "Principles of General Grammar;" translated from the French, by D. Fosdick, Jun.; 12mo, pp. 156: 1st American, from the 5th French Edition; Andover and New York, 1834. "DESPAUTER, JOHN, a Flemish grammarian, whose books were, at one time, in great repute; he died in 1520."--_Univ. Biog. Dict._ Despauter's Latin Grammar, in Three Parts,--Etymology, Syntax, and Versification,--comprises 858 octavo pages. Dr. Adam says, in the "Preface to the Fourth Edition" of his Grammar, "The first complete edition of Despauter's Grammar was printed at Cologne, anno 1522; his _Syntax_ had been published anno 1509." G. Brown's copy is a "complete edition," printed partly in 1517, and partly in 1518. DEVIS, ELLEN; E. Gram.; 18mo, pp. 130: London and Dublin; 1st Ed., 1777; 17th Ed., 1825. [Fist] Devis's Grammar, spoken of in D. Blair's Preface, as being too "comprehensive and minute," is doubtless an other and much larger work. DILWORTH, THOMAS; "A New Guide to the English Tongue;" 12mo, pp. 148: London; 1st Ed., 1740: 26th Ed., 1764; 40th Ed., (used by G. B.,) undated. DOHERTY, HUGH; a Treatise on English Grammar; 8vo, pp. 240; 1st Ed., London, 1841. DRUMMOND, JOHN; English Grammar; 8vo: London, 1767. DYCHE, THOMAS; English Grammar; 8vo, pp. 10: London, 1st Ed., 1710; 12th Ed., 1765. EARL, MARY; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 36: 1st Ed., Boston, 1816. EDWARDS, Mrs. M. C.; English Grammar; 8vo: Brentford. England, 1796. EGELSHEM, WELLS; English Grammar; 12mo: London, 1781. ELMORE, D. W., A. M.; "English Grammar, or Natural Analysis;" 18mo, pp. 18: 1st Ed., Troy, N. Y., 1830. A mere trifle. ELPHINSTON, JAMES; on the English Language; 12mo, pp. 298: 1st Ed., London, 1796. EMERSON, BENJAMIN D.; "National Spelling-Book;" 12mo, pp. 168: Boston, 1828. EMERY, J., A. B.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 39: 1st Ed., Wellsborough, Pa., 1829. EMMONS, S. B.; "The Grammatical Instructer;" 12mo, pp. 160: 1st Ed., Boston, 1832. Worthless. ENSELL, G.; "A Grammar of the English Language;" in English and Dutch; 8vo, pp. 612: Rotterdam, 1797. EVEREST, Rev. CORNELIUS B.; "An English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 270: 1st Ed., Norwich, Ct., 1835. Suppressed for plagiarism from G. Brown. EVERETT, ERASTUS, A. M.; "A System of English Versification;" 12mo, pp. 198: 1st Ed., New York, 1848. FARNUM, CALEB, Jun., A. M.; "Practical Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 124: 1st Edition, (suppressed for petty larcenies from G. Brown,) Providence, R. I., 1842; 2d Edition, (altered to evade the charge of plagiarism,) Boston, 1843. FARBO, DANIEL; "The Royal British Grammar and Vocabulary;" 12mo, pp. 344: 1st Ed., London. 1754. FELCH, W.; "A Comprehensive Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 122: 1st Edition, Boston, 1837. This author can see others' faults better than his own. FELTON, OLIVER C.; "A Concise Manual of English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 145: Salem, Mass., 1843. FENNING, DANIEL; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 224: 1st Ed., London, 1771. FENWICK, JOHN; an English Grammar, 12mo.: London, 1811. FISHER, A.; "A Practical New Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 176: London: 1st Ed., 1753; 28th Ed., 1795; "A New Ed., Enlarged, Improved, and Corrected," (used by G. B.,) 1800. FISK, ALLEN; (1.) Epitome of E. Gram.; 18mo, pp. 124: Hallowell, Me., 1821; 2d Ed., 1828. (2.) "Adam's Latin Grammar Simplified;" 8vo, pp. 190: New York, 1822; 2d Ed., 1824. (3.) "Murray's English Grammar Simplified;" 8vo, pp. 178: 1st Ed., Troy, N. Y., 1822. FLEMING, Rev. CALEB; an English Grammar, 12mo: London, 1765. FLETCHER, LEVI; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 83: 1st Ed., Philadelphia, 1834. FLETCHER, Rev. W.; English Gram.; 18mo, pp. 175: London; 1st Ed., 1828; 2d Ed., 1833. FLINT, ABEL, A. M., and D. D.; "Murray's English Grammar Abridged;" 12mo, pp. 204: Hartford, Ct.; 1st Ed., 1807; 6th Ed., pp. 214, 1826. FLINT, JOHN; "First Lessons in English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 107: 1st Ed., New York, 1834. FLOWER, M. and W. B.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 170: 1st Ed., London, 1844. FOLKER, JOSEPH; "An Introduction to E. Gram.;" 12mo, pp. 34: Savannah, Ga., 1821. FORMEY, M., M. D., S. E., &c., &c.; "Elementary Principles of the Belles-Lettres;"--"Translated from the French, by the late Mr. Sloper Forman;" 12mo, pp. 224: Glasgow, 1767. FOWLE, WILLIAM BENTLEY; (1.) "The True English Grammar," (Part I;) 18mo, pp. 180: Boston, 1827. (2.) "The True English Grammar, Part II;" 18mo, pp. 97: Boston, 1829. (3.) "The Common School Grammar, Part I;" 12mo, pp. 46: Boston, 1842. (4.) "The Common School Grammar, Part II;" 12mo, pp. 108: Boston, 1842. FOWLER, WILLIAM C.; "English Grammar;" 8vo, pp. 675: 1st Ed., New York, 1850. FRAZEE, Rev. BRADFORD; "An Improved Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 192: Philad., 1844; Ster. Ed., 1845. FRENCH, D'ARCY A.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 168: Baltimore, 1st Ed., 1831. FROST, JOHN, A. M.; (1.) "Elements of English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 108: 1st Ed., Boston, 1829. (2.) "A Practical English Grammar;" (with 89 cuts;) 12mo, pp. 204: 1st Ed., Philadelphia, 1842. FULLER, ALLEN; "Grammatical Exercises, being a plain and concise Method of teaching English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 108: 1st Ed., Plymouth, Mass., 1822. A book of no value. GARTLEY, G.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 225: 1st Edition, London, 1830. GAY, ANTHELME; "A French Prosodical Grammar;" for English or American Students; 12mo, pp. 215: New York, 1795. GENGEMBRE, P. W.; "Brown and Gengembre's English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 213: Philad., 1855. (See J. H. Brown.) GIBBS, Prof. J. W., of Yale C.; on Dialects, Sounds, and Derivations. See about 126 pages, credited to this gentleman, in Prof. Fowler's large Grammar, of 1850. GILBERT, ELI; a "Catechetical Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 124: 1st Ed., 1834; 2d Ed., New York, 1835. GILCHRIST, JAMES; English Grammar; 8vo, pp. 269: 1st Ed., London, 1815. GILES, JAMES; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 152: London, 1804; 2d Ed., 1810. GILES, Rev. T. A., A. M.; English Grammar; 12mo, London, 2d Ed., 1838. GILL, ALEXANDER; English Grammar, treated in Latin; 4to: London, 1621. GILLEADE, G.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 206: London; 1st Ed., 1816. GIRAULT Du VIVIER, Ch. P.; (1.) "La Grammaire des Grammaires;" two thick volumes, 8vo: Paris; 2d Ed., 1814. (2.) "Traité des Participes;" 8vo, pp. 84: 2d Ed., Paris, 1816. GOLDSBURY, JOHN, A. M.; (1.) "The Common School Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 94: 1st Ed., Boston, 1842. (2.) "Sequel to the Common School Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 110: 1st Ed., Boston, 1842. GOODENOW, SMITH B.; "A Systematic Text-Book of English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 144: 1st Edition, Portland, 1839; 2d Edition, Boston, 1843. GOUGH, JOHN and JAMES; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 212: 2d Ed., Dublin, 1760. GOULD, BENJAMIN A.; "Adam's Lat. Gram., with Improvements;" 12mo, pp. 300: Boston, 1829. GRAHAM, G. F.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 134: 1st Ed., London, 1843. GRANT, JOHN, A. M.; (1.) "Institutes of Latin Grammar;" 8vo, pp. 453: London, 1808. (2.) A Comprehensive English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 410: 1st Ed., London, 1813. GRANVILLE, GEO.; English Grammar, 12mo: London, 1827. GRAY, JAMES, D. D.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 144: 1st Ed., Baltimore, 1818. GREEN, MATTHIAS; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 148: 1st Ed., London, 1837. GREEN, RICHARD W.; "Inductive Exercises in English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 108: 1st Ed., New York, 1829; 5th Ed., Phila., 1834. GEEENE, ROSCOE G.; (1.) E. Gram.; 12mo, pp. 132: Hallowell, Me.; 1st Ed., 1828; Ster. Ed., 1835. (2.) "A Practical Grammar for the English Language;" (with Diagrams of Moods;) 12mo: Portland, 1829. (3.) "A Grammatical Text-Book, being an Abstract of a Practical Gram., &c.;" 12mo, pp. 69: Boston, 1833. GREENE, SAMUEL S.; (1.) "Analysis of Sentences;" 12mo, pp. 258: 1st Ed., Philadelphia, 1848. (2.) "First Lessons in Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 171: 1st Ed., Philad., 1848. GREENLEAF, JEREMIAH; "Grammar Simplified;" 4to, pp. 48: New York; 3d Ed., 1821; 20th Ed., 1837. GREENWOOD, JAMES; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 315: London, 1711; 2d Ed., 1722. GEENVILLE, A. S.; "Introduction to English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 63: 1st Ed., Boston, 1822. GRISCOM, JOHN, LL. D.; "Questions in English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 42: 1st Ed., New York, 1821. GURNEY, DAVID. A. M.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 72: Boston, 1801; 2d Ed., 1808. GUY, JOSEPH, Jun.; "English School Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 143: 4th Ed., London 1816. HALL, Rev. S. R.; "The Grammatical Assistant;" 12mo, pp. 131: 1st Ed., Springfield, Mass., 1832. HALL, WILLIAM; "Encyclopedia of English Grammar;" (by report;) Ohio, 1850. HALLOCK, EDWARD J., A. M.; "A Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 251: 1st Ed., New York, 1842. A very inaccurate book, with sundry small plagiarisms from G. Brown. HAMLIN, LORENZO F.; "English Grammar in Lectures;" 12mo, pp. 108: New York, 1831; Ster. Ed., 1832. HAMMOND, SAMUEL; English Grammar; 8vo: Lond., 1744. HARRIS, JAMES, Esq.; "Hermes; or a Philosophical Inquiry concerning Universal Grammar;" 8vo, pp. 468; London, 1751: 6th Ed., 1806. HARRISON, Mr.; "Rudiments of English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 108: 9th American Ed., Philad., 1812. HARRISON, Rev. MATTHEW, A. M.; "The Rise, Progress, and Present Structure of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 393: Preface dated Basingstoke, Eng., 1848; 1st American Ed., Philad., 1850. HART, JOHN S., A. M.; "English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 192; 1st Ed., Philadelphia, 1845. HARVEY, J.; English Grammar: London, 1841. HAZEN, EDWARD, A. M.; "A Practical Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 240: New York, 1842. HAZLITT, WILLIAM; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 205: London, 1810. HENDRICK, J. L., A. M.; "A Grammatical Manual;" 18mo, pp. 105: 1st Ed., Syracuse, N. Y., 1844. HEWES, JOHN, A. M.; English Grammar; 4to: London, 1624. HEWETT, D.; English Grammar; folio, pp. 16: 1st Edition, New York, 1838. HIGGINSON, Rev. T. E.; E. Gram.; 12mo; Dublin, 1803. HILEY, RICHARD; "A Treatise on English Grammar," &c.; 12mo, pp. 269: 3d Ed., London, 1840. Hiley's Grammar Abridged; 18mo, pp. 196: London, 1843: 4th Ed., 1851. HILL, J. H.; "On the Subjunctive Mood;" 8vo, pp. 63: 1st Ed., London, 1834. HODGSON, Rev. ISAAC; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 184: 1st Ed., London, 1770. HOME, HENRY, Lord Kames; "Elements of Criticism;" 2 volumes 8vo, pp. 836: (3d American, from the 8th London Ed.:) New York, 1819. Also, "The Art of Thinking;" 12mo, pp. 284: (from the last London Ed.:) New York, 1818. HORNSEY, JOHN; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 144; York, England, 1798: 6th Ed., 1816. HORT, W. JILLARD; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 219: 1st Ed., London, 1822. HOUGHTON, JOHN; English Grammar; 8vo: London, 1766. HOUSTON, SAMUEL, A. B.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 48: 1st Ed., Harrisburgh, Pa., 1818. HOWE, S. L.; English Grammar; 18mo; 1st Ed., Lancaster, Ohio, 1838. HOWELL, JAMES; English Grammar; 12mo: London, 1662. HULL, JOSEPH HERVEY; "E. Gram., by Lectures;" 12mo, pp. 72: 4th Ed., Boston, 1828. HUMPHREY, ASA; (1.) "The English Prosody;" 12mo, pp. 175: 1st Ed., Boston, 1847. (2.) "The Rules of Punctuation;" with "Rules for the Use of Capitals;" 18mo, pp. 71: 1st Ed., Boston, 1847. HURD, S. T.; E. Gram.: 2d Ed., Boston, 1827. HUTHERSAL, JOHN; English Grammar; 18mo: England, 1814. INGERSOLL, CHARLES M.; "Conversations on English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 296: New York, 1821. JAMIESON, ALEXANDER; "A Grammar of Rhetoric and Polite Literature;" 12mo, pp. 345: "The first American, from the last London Edition;" Newhaven, 1820. JAUDON, DANIEL; "The Union Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 216: Philadelphia; 1st Ed., 1812; 4th, 1828. JENKINS, AZARIAH; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 256; 1st Ed., Rochester, N. Y., 1835. JOEL, THOMAS; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 78: 1st Ed., London, 1775. JOHNSON, RICHARD; "Grammatical Commentaries;" (chiefly on Lily;) 8vo, pp. 436: London, 1706. JOHNSON, SAMUEL, LL. D.; "A Dictionary of the English Language;" in two thick volumes, 4to: 1st American, from the 11th London Edition; Philadelphia, 1818. To this work, are prefixed Johnson's "History of the English Language," pp. 29; and his "Grammar of the English Tongue," pp. 14. JONES, JOSHUA; E. Gram.; 18mo: Phila., 1841. JONSON, BEN;--see, in his Works, "The English Grammar, made by Ben Jonson, for the Benefit of all Strangers, out of his Observation of the English Language, now spoken and in use:" London, 1634: 8vo, pp. 94; Lond., 1816. JUDSON, ADONIRAM, Jun., A. B.; E. Grammar; 12mo, pp. 56: 1st Ed., Boston, 1808. KENNION, CHARLOTTE; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 157: 1st Ed., London, 1842. KILSON, ROGER; English Grammar; 12mo: England, 1807. KING, WALTER W.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 76: 1st Ed., London, 1841. KIRKHAM, SAMUEL; "English Grammar in familiar Lectures;" 12mo, pp. 141--228: 2d Ed., Harrisburgh, Pa., 1825; 12th Ed., New York, 1829. KNOWLES, JOHN; "The Principles of English Grammar;" 12mo: 3d Ed., London, 1794. KNOWLTON, JOSEPH; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 84: Salem, Mass., 1818; 2d Ed., 1832. LATHAM, ROBERT GORDON, A. M., M. D., F. R. S. (1.) "The English Language;" 8vo, pp. 418: 1st Ed., London, 1841. (2.) "English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 214: 1st Ed., London, 1843. (3.) "A Hand-Book of the English Language;" large 12mo, pp. 898: New York, 1852. LEAVITT, DUDLEY; English Grammar; 24to, pp. 60: 1st Ed., Concord, N. H., 1826. LENNIE, WILLIAM; "The Principles of English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 142: 5th Ed., Edinburgh, 1819; 13th Ed., 1831. LEWIS, ALONZO; "Lessons in English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 50: 1st Ed., Boston, 1822. LEWIS, JOHN; (1.) English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 48: 1st Ed., New York, 1828. (2.) "Tables of Comparative Etymology; or, The Student's Manual of Languages;" 4to, pp. 108: Philad., 1828. LEWIS, WILLIAM GREATHEAD; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 204: 1st Ed., London, 1821. LILY, WILLIAM; "Brevissima Institutio, seu Ratio Grammatices cognoscendæ;" large 18mo, pp. 140: London, 1793. LINDSAY, Rev. JOHN, A. M.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 88: 1st Ed., London. 1842. LOCKE, JOHN, M. D.; small English Grammar; 18mo: 1st Ed., Cincinnati, Ohio, 1827. LOUGHTON, WILLIAM; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 194: 3d Ed., London, 1739. LOVECHILD, Mrs.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 72: 40th Ed., London, 1842. LOWTH, ROBERT, D. D.; "A Short Introduction to English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 132: London, 1763;--Philadelphia, 1799;--Cambridge, Mass., 1838. LYNDE, JOHN; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 10: 1st Ed., Woodstock, Vt., 1821. MACK, EVERED J.; "The Self-Instructor, and Practical English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 180: 1st Ed., Springfield, Mass., 1835. An egregious plagiarism from G. Brown. MACGOWAN, Rev. JAMES; "English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 248: London, 1825. MACKINTOSH, DUNCAN; "An Essay on English Grammar;" 8vo, pp. 239: Boston, 1797. MACKILQUHEM, WILLIAM; English Grammar; 12mo: Glasgow, 1799. MAITTAIRE, MICHAEL; English Grammar; 8vo, pp. 272: London, 1712. MANDEVILLE, HENRY, D. D.; (1.) "Elements of Reading and Oratory;" large 12mo: Utica, N. Y., 1845. (2.) "A Course of Reading for Schools;" 12mo, pp. 377: Improved Ed.; New York, 1851. MARCET, Mrs.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 331: 7th Ed., London, 1843. MARTIN, BENJ.; English Grammar; 12mo: London, 1754. MATHESON, JOHN; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 138: 2d Ed., London, 1821. MAUNDER, SAMUEL; Grammar prefixed to Dict.; 12mo, pp. 20: 1st Ed., London, 1830. MAVOR, WILLIAM; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 70: 1st Ed., London, 1820. M'CREADY, F.; 12mo Grammar: Philad., 1820. M'CULLOCH, J. M., D. D.; "A Manual of English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 188: 7th Ed., Edinburgh, 1841. M'ELLIGOTT, JAMES N.; "Manual, Analytical and Synthetical, of Orthography and Definition;" 8vo, pp. 223: 1st Ed., New York, 1846. Also, "The Young Analyzer:" 12mo, pp. 54: New York, 1846. MEILAN, MARK A.; English Grammar; 12mo: London, 1803. MENDENHALL, WILLIAM; "The Classification of Words;" 12mo, pp. 36: Philad., 1814. MENNYE, J.: "English Grammar;" 8vo, pp. 124: 1st Ed., New York, 1785. MERCEY, BLANCHE; English Grammar; 12mo, 2 vols., pp. 248: 1st Ed., London, 1799. MERCHANT, AARON M.; Murray's Small Grammar, Enlarged; 18mo, pp. 216: N. Y., 1824. This "Enlarged Abridgement" became "The American School Grammar" in 1828. MILLER, ALEXANDER; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 119: 1st Ed., New York, 1795. MILLER, The Misses; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 63: 1st Ed., London, 1830. MILLER, FERDINAND H.; "The Ready Grammarian;" square 12mo, pp. 24: Ithaca, New York, 1843. MILLER, TOBIAS HAM; Murray's Abridgement, with Questions; 12mo, pp. 76: Portsmouth, N. H., 1823. MILLIGAN, Rev. GEORGE; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 72: Edin., 1831; 2d Ed., 1839. MOORE, THOMAS; "Orthography and Pronunciation;" 12mo, pp. 176: London, 1810. MORGAN, JONATHAN, Jun., A. B.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 405: 1st Ed., Hallowell, Me., 1814. MORLEY, CHARLES, A. B.; "School Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 86: (with Cuts:) 1st Ed., Hartford, Ct., 1836. MOREY, AMOS C.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 106: Albany, N. Y., 1829. MULKEY, WILLIAM; "An Abridgment of Walker's Rules on the Sounds of the Letters;" 18mo, pp. 124: Boston. 1834. Fudge! MULLIGAN, JOHN, A. M.; (1.) "Exposition of the Grammatical Structure of the English Language;" small 8vo, pp. 574: New York, 1852. (2.) Same Abridged for Schools; 12mo, pp. 301: N. Y., 1854. MURRAY, ALEXANDER, D. D.; "The History of European Languages;" in two vols., 8vo.; pp. 800. MURRAY, ALEXANDER, Schoolmaster; "Easy English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 194: 3d Ed., London, 1793. MURRAY, LINDLEY; (1.) "English Grammar, Adapted to the Different Classes of Learners;" 12mo, pp. 284: York, Eng., 1795; 2d Ed., 1796; 23d Ed., 1816. (2.) "Abridgment of Murray's English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 105: "From the 30th English Ed.," New York, 1817. (3.) "An English Grammar;" in two volumes, octavo; pp. 684: 4th American from the last English Ed.; New York, 1819. (4.) A Spelling-Book; 18mo, pp. 180: New York, 1819. MYLINS, WM. F.; Gram., 12mo: England, 1809. MYLNE, Rev. A., D. D.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 180: 11th Ed., Edinburgh, 1832. NESBIT, A.; "An Introd. to English Parsing;" 18mo, pp. 213: 2d Ed., York, England, 1823. NEWBURY, JOHN; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 152: 5th Ed., London, 1787. NIGHTINGALE, Rev. J.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 96: 1st Ed., London, 1822. NIXON, H.; (1.) "The English Parser;" 12mo, pp. 164: 1st Ed., London, 1826. (2.) "New and Comprehensive English Grammar;" 12mo: 1st Ed., London, 1833. NUTTING, RUFUS, A. M.; "A Practical Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 144: 3d Ed., Montpelier, Vt., 1826. ODELL, J., A. M.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 205: 1st Ed., London, 1806. OLIVER, EDWARD, D. D.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 178: 1st Ed., London, 1807. OLIVER, SAMUEL; English Grammar; 8vo, pp. 377: 1st Ed., London, 1825. PALMER, MARY; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 48: New York, 1803. PARKER, RICHARD GREEN; (1.) "Exercises in Composition;" 12mo, pp. 106: 3d Ed., Boston, 1833. (2.) "Aids to English Composition;" 12mo, pp. 418: 1st Ed., Boston, 1844. PARKER and FOX; "Progressive Exercises in English Grammar;" in three separate parts, 12mo:--Part I, pp. 96; Boston, 1834: Part II, pp. 60; Boston, 1835: Part III, pp. 122; Boston, 1840. PARKHURST, JOHN L.; (1.) "A Systematic Introduction to English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 104: Concord, N. H., 1820; 2d Ed., 1824. (2.) "English Grammar for Beginners;" 18mo, pp. 180: 1st Ed., Andover, Mass., 1838. PARSONS, SAMUEL H.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 107: 1st Ed., Philadelphia, 1836. PEIRCE, JOHN; "The New American Spelling-Book," with "A Plain and Easy Introduction to English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 200: 6th Ed., Philadelphia, 1804. This Grammar is mostly copied from Harrison's. PEIRCE, OLIVER B.; "The Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 384: 1st Ed., New York, 1839. Also, Abridgement of the same; 18mo, pp. 144: Boston, 1840. PENGELLEY, EDWARD; English Gram.; 18mo, pp. 108: 1st Ed., London, 1840. PERLEY, DANIEL, M. D.; "A Grammar of the English Language;" 18mo, pp. 79: 1st Ed., Andover, Mass., 1834. PERRY, WILLIAM; Grammar in Dict.; 12mo: Edinburgh, 1801. PICKBOURN, JAMES; "Dissertation on the English Verb:" London, 1789. PICKET, ALBERT; "Analytical School Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 252: New York, 1823; 2d Ed., 1824. PINNEO, T. S., M. A., M. D.; (1.) "A Primary Grammar, for Beginners:" Cincinnati. (2.) "Analytical Grammar of the E. Language:" 12mo, pp. 216: Cincinnati, 1850; New York, 1853. (3.) "Pinneo's English Teacher; in which is taught the Structure of Sentences by Analysis and Synthesis;" 12mo, pp. 240: Cincinnati, 1854. PINNOCK, W.; (1.) A Catechism of E. Gram.; 18mo, pp. 70: 18th Ed., London, 1825. (2.) A Comprehensive Grammar; 12mo, pp. 318: 1st Ed., London, 1829. POND, ENOCH, D. D.; "Murray's System of Eng. Grammar, Improved;" 12mo, pp. 228: 5th Ed., Worcester, Mass., 1835. Also, under the same title, a petty Grammar with Cuts; 18mo, pp. 71: New Ed., Worcester, 1835. POWERS, DANIEL, A. M.; E. Grammar; 12mo, pp. 188: 1st Ed., West Brookfleld, Mass., 1845. PRIESTLEY, JOSEPH, LL. D.; "The Rudiments of E. Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 202: 3d Ed., London, 1772. PUE, HUGH A.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 149: 1st Ed., Philadelphia, 1841. PULLEN, P. H.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 321: London, 1820; 2d Ed., 1822. PUTNAM, J. M.; "English Grammar;" (Murray's, Modified;) 18mo, pp. 162: Concord, N. H., 1825; Ster., 1831. PUTNAM, SAMUEL; "Putnam's Murray;" 18mo, pp. 108: Improved Ster. Ed.; Dover, N. H., 1828. PUTSEY, Rev. W.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 211: London, 1821; 2d Ed., 1829. QUACKENBOS, GEO. PAYN; (1.) "First Lessons in Composition." (2.) "Advanced Course of Composition and Rhetoric;" 12mo, pp. 455: New York, 1854. RAND, ASA; "Teacher's Manual," &c.; 18mo, pp. 90: 1st Ed., Boston, 1832. REED, CALEB, A. M.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 30: 1st Ed., Boston, 1821. REID, A.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 46: 2d Ed., London, 1839. REID, JOHN, M. D.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 68: 1st Ed., Glasgow, 1830. RICORD, F. W., A. M.; "The Youth's Grammar; or, Easy Lessons in Etymology;" 12mo, pp. 118: 1st Ed., N. Y., 1855. RIGAN, JOHN; Grammar, 12mo: Dublin, 1823. ROBBINS, MANASSEH; "Rudimental Lessons in Etym. and Synt.;" 12mo, pp. 70: Prov., R. I., 1826. ROBINSON, JOHN; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 95: 1st Ed., Maysville, 1830. ROOME, Rev. T.; Gram.; 12mo: England, 1813. ROSS, ROBERT; an American Grammar; 12mo, pp. 199: 7th Ed., Hartford, Ct., 1782. ROTHWELL, J.; English Grammar; 12mo: 2d Ed., London, 1797. ROZZELL, WM.; English Grammar in Verse; 8vo: London, 1795. RUSH, JAMES, M. D.; "Philosophy of the Human Voice;" 8vo: Philadelphia, 1833. RUSSELL, Rev. J., D. D.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 168: London, 1835; 10th Ed., 1842. RUSSELL, WILLIAM; (1.) "A Grammar of Composition;" 12mo, pp. 150: Newhaven, 1823. (2.) "Lessons in Enunciation:" Boston, 1841. (3.) "Orthophony; or the Cultivation of the Voice;" 12mo, pp. 300: improved Ed., Boston, 1847. RUSSELL, WILLIAM E.: "An Abridgment of Murray's Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 142: Hartford, 1819. RYLAND, JOHN; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 164: 1st Ed., Northampton, Eng., 1767. SABINE, H., A. M.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 120: 1st Ed., London, 1702. SANBOBN, DYER H.; "An Analytical Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 299: 1st Ed., Concord, N. H., 1836. SANDERS, CHARLES W. and J. C.; "The Young Grammarian;" 12mo, pp. 120: Rochester, N. Y., 1847. SARGENT, EPES; "The Standard Speaker; a Treatise on Oratory and Elocution;" small 8vo, pp. 558: Philadelphia, 1852. SCOTT, WILLIAM; Grammar, 12mo: Edinb., 1797. Dictionary, with Grammar prefixed; square, pp. 492: Cork, 1810. SEARLE, Rev. THOMAS; Grammar in Verse; 18mo, pp. 114: 1st Ed., London, 1822. SHATFORD, W.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 104: 1st Ed., London, 1834. SHAW, Rev. JOHN; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 259: 4th Ed., London, 1793. SHERIDAN, THOMAS, A. M.; (1.) "Lectures on Elocution;" 12mo, pp. 185: London, 1762; Troy, N. Y., 1803. (2.) "Lectures on the Art of Reading." (3.) "A Rhetorical Grammar;" square 12mo, pp. 73: 3d Ed., Philadelphia, 1789. (4.) "Elements of English;" 12mo, pp. 69: Dublin, 1789. (5.) "A Complete Dictionary of the English Language;" 1st Ed., 1780. SHERMAN, JOHN; American Grammar; 12mo, pp. 323: 1st Ed., Trenton Falls, N. Y., 1836. SIMMONITE, W. J.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 228: 1st Ed., London, 1841. SKILLERN, R. S., A. M.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 184: 2d Ed., Gloucester, England, 1808. SMART, B. H.; (1.) "A Practical Grammar of English Pronunciation;" 8vo: London, 1810. (2.) "The Accidence of English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 52: London, 1841. (3.) "The Accidence and Principles of English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 280: London, 1841. SMETHAM, THOMAS; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 168: 1st Ed., London, 1774. SMITH, ELI; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 108: 1st Ed., Philadelphia, 1812. SMITH, JOHN; Grammar, 8vo: Norwich, Eng., 1816. SMITH, PETER, A. M.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 176: 1st Ed., Edinburgh, 1826. SMITH, Rev. THOMAS; (1.) Alderson's "Orthographical Exercises," Copied; 18mo, pp. 108: 15th Ed., London, 1819. (2.) "Smith's Edition of L. Murray's Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 128: London, 1832. Very petty authorship. SMITH, ROSWELL C.; (1.) "English Grammar on the Inductive System;" 12mo, pp. 205: Boston, 1830; 2d Ed., 1881. (2.) "English Grammar on the Productive System;" 12mo, pp. 192: 2d Ed., New York, 1832. A sham. SNYDER, W.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 164: 1st Ed., Winchester, Va., 1834. SPALDING, CHARLES; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 36: 1st Ed., Onondaga, N. Y., 1825. SPEAR, MATTHEW P.; "The Teacher's Manual of English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 116: 1st Ed., Boston, 1845. SPENCER, GEORGE, A. M.; "An English Grammar on Synthetical Principles;" 12mo, pp. 178: New York, 1851. STANIFORD, DANIEL, A. M.; "A Short but Comprehensive Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 96: Boston, 1807; 2d Ed., 1815. STEARNS, GEORGE; English Grammar; 4to, pp. 17: 1st Ed., Boston, 1843. STOCKWOOD, JOHN; Gram., 4to: London, 1590. STORY, JOSHUA; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 180: 1st Ed., Newcastle, Eng., 1778; 3d, 1783. ST. QUENTIN, D., M. A.; "The Rudiments of General Gram.;" 12mo, pp. 163: Lond., 1812. SUTCLIFFE, JOSEPH, A. M.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 262; London, 1815; 2d Ed., 1821. SWETT, J., A. M.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 192: Claremont, N. H., 1843; 2d Ed., 1844. TICKEN, WILLIAM; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 147: 1st Ed., London, 1806. TICKNOR, ELISHA, A. M.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 72: 3d Ed., Boston, 1794. TOBITT, R.; "Grammatical Institutes;" (in Verse;) 12mo, pp. 72: 1st Ed., London, 1825. TODD, LEWIS C.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 126: Fredonia, N. Y., 1826; 2d Ed., 1827. TOOKE, JOHN HORNE, A. M.; "Epea Pteroenta; or, the Diversions of Purley;" 2 vols., 8vo; pp. 924: 1st American, from the 2d London Ed.; Philadelphia, 1806. TOWER, DAVID B., A. M.; "Gradual Lessons in Grammar;" small 12mo, pp. 180: Boston, 1847. TRENCH, RICHARD CHENEVIX, B. D; "On the Study of Words;" 12mo, pp. 236: London, 1st Ed., 1851; 2d Ed., 1852: reprinted, New York, 1852. TRINDER, WILLIAM M.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 116: 1st Ed., London, 1781. TUCKER, BENJAMIN; "A Short Introd. to E. Gram.;" 18mo, pp. 36: 4th Ed., Phila., 1812. TURNER, DANIEL, A. M.; English Grammar; 8vo: London, 1739. TURNER, Rev. BRANDON, A. M.; Grammar from G. Brown's Inst.; 12mo, pp. 238: Lond., 1841. TWITCHELL, MARK; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 106: 1st Ed., Portland. Me., 1825. USSHER, G. NEVILLE; English Grammar: 12mo, pp. 132: London, 1787; 3d Amer. Ed., Exeter, N. H., 1804. WALDO, JOHN; "Rudiments," 12mo; Philad., 1813: "Abridg't," 18mo, pp. 124; Philadelphia, 1814. WALKER, JOHN; (1.) E. Gram., 12mo, pp. 118: London, 1806. (2.) "Elements of Elocution;" 8vo, pp. 379: Boston, 1810. (3.) Rhyming Dict., 12mo; (4.) Pronouncing Dict., 8vo; and other valuable works. WALKER, WILLIAM, B. D.; (1.) "A Treatise of English Particles;" 12mo, pp. 488: London, 1653; 10th Ed., 1691. (2.) "The Art of Teaching Grammar;" large 18mo, pp. 226: 8th Ed., London, 1717. WALLIS, JOHN, D. D.; E. Gram. in Latin; 8vo, pp. 281:. Lond., 1653; 6th Ed., 1765. WARD, H.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 151: Whitehaven, England, 1777. WARD, JOHN, LL. D.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 238: London, 1768. WARD, WILLIAM, A. M.; "A Practical Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 192: York, England, 1765. WARE, JONATHAN, Esq.; "A New Introduction to English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 48: Windsor, Vt., 1814. WASE, CHRISTOPHER, M. A.; "An Essay of a Practical Gram.," 12mo, pp. 79: Lond., 1660. WATT, THOMAS, A. M.; "Gram. Made Easy;" 18mo, pp. 92: Edinburgh, 1708.; 5th Ed., 1742. WEBBER, SAMUEL, A. M., M. D.; "An Introd. to E. Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 116: Cambridge, Mass., 1832. WEBSTER, NOAH, LL. D.; (1.) "A Plain and Comprehensive Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 131: 8th Ed., Hartford, Ct., 1800. (2.) "A Philosophical and Practical Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 250: Newhaven, Ct., 1807. (3.) "Rudiments of English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 87: New York, 1811. (4.) "An Improved Grammar of the E. L.;" 12mo, pp. 180: Newhaven, 1831. (5.) "An American Dictionary of the E. L.," 4to; and an Abridgement, 8vo. WELCH, A. S.; "Analysis of the English Sentence;" 12mo, pp. 264: New York, 1854. Of no value. WELD, ALLEN H., A. M.; (1.) "English Grammar Illustrated;" 12mo, pp. 228: Portland, Me., 1846; 2d Ed., 1847: "Abridged Edition," Boston, 1849. "Improved Edition," much altered: Portland, 1852. (2.) "Parsing Book, containing Rules of Syntax," &c.; 18mo, pp. 112: Portland, 1847. WELLS, WILLIAM H., M. A.; "Wells's School Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 220: 1st Ed., Andover, 1846; "113th Thousand," 1850. WHITE, MR. JAMES; "The English Verb;" 8vo, pp. 302: 1st Ed., London, 1761. WHITING, JOSEPH, A. M.; English Grammar; 12mo: Detroit, 1845. WHITWORTH, T.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 216: 1st Ed., London, 1819. WICKES, EDWARD WALTER; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 106: 2d Ed., London, 1841. WILBER & LIVINGSTON; "The Grammatical Alphabet;" (with a Chart;) 18mo, pp. 36: 2d Ed., Albany, 1815. WILBUR, JOSIAH; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 132: Bellows Falls, N. H., 1815; 2d Ed., 1822. WILCOX, A. F.; "A Catechetical and Practical Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 110: 1st Ed., Newhaven, Ct., 1828. WILLARD, SAMUEL: English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 54: 1st Ed., Greenfield, Mass., 1816. WILLIAMS, MRS. HONORIA; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 226: London, 1823; 3d Ed., 1826. WILSON, CHARLES, D. D.; "Elements of Hebrew Grammar;" 8vo, pp. 398: 3d Ed., London, 1802. WILSON, GEORGE; English Grammar; 18mo; London, 1777. WILSON, JAMES P., D. D.: "An Essay on Grammar;" 8vo, pp. 281: Philadelphia, 1817. WILSON, JOHN; "A Treatise on English Punctuation;" 12mo, pp. 204: Boston, 1850. WILSON, Rev. J.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 184: 3d Ed., Congleton, England, 1803. WINNING, Rev. W. B., M. A.; "A Manual of Comparative Philology;" 8vo, pp. 291: London, 1838. WISEMAN, CHARLES; an English Grammar, 12mo: London, 1765. WOOD, HELEN; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 207: London, 1st Ed., 1827; 6th Ed., 1841. WOOD, Rev. JAMES, D. D; English Grammar; 12mo: London, 1778. WOODWORTH, A.; "Grammar Demonstrated;" 12mo, pp. 72: 1st Ed., Auburn, N. Y., 1823. WORCESTER, JOSEPH, E.; "Universal and Critical Dictionary of the English Language;" 1st Ed., Boston, 1846. WORCESTER, SAMUEL; "A First Book of English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 86; Boston, 1831. WRIGHT, ALBERT D.; "Analytical Orthography;" 18mo, pp. 112: 2d Ed., Cazenovia, N. Y., 1842. WRIGHT, JOSEPH W.; "A Philosophical Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 252: New York and London, 1838. [Asterism] The _Names_, or _Heads_, in the foregoing alphabetical Catalogue, are 452; the _Works_ mentioned are 548; the _Grammars_ are 463; the _other Books_ are 85. END OF THE CATALOGUE. INTRODUCTION HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL CHAPTER I. OF THE SCIENCE OF GRAMMAR. "Hæc de Grammatica quam brevissime potui: non ut omnia dicerem sectatus, (quod infinitum erat,) sed ut maxima necessaria."--QUINTILIAN. _De Inst. Orat._, Lib. i, Cap. x. 1. Language, in the proper sense of the term, is peculiar to man; so that, without a miraculous assumption of human powers, none but human beings can make words the vehicle of thought. An imitation of some of the articulate sounds employed in speech, may be exhibited by parrots, and sometimes by domesticated ravens, and we know that almost all brute animals have their peculiar natural voices, by which they indicate their feelings, whether pleasing or painful. But _language_ is an attribute of reason, and differs essentially not only from all brute voices, but even from all the chattering, jabbering, and babbling of our own species, in which there is not an intelligible meaning, with division of thought, and distinction of words. 2. Speech results from the joint exercise of the best and noblest faculties of human nature, from our rational understanding and our social affection; and is, in the proper use of it, the peculiar ornament and distinction of man, whether we compare him with other orders in the creation, or view him as an individual preëminent among his fellows. Hence that science which makes known the nature and structure of speech, and immediately concerns the correct and elegant use of language, while it surpasses all the conceptions of the stupid or unlearned, and presents nothing that can seem desirable to the sensual and grovelling, has an intrinsic dignity which highly commends it to all persons of sense and taste, and makes it most a favourite with the most gifted minds. That science is Grammar. And though there be some geniuses who affect to despise the trammels of grammar rules, to whom it must be conceded that many things which have been unskillfully taught as such, deserve to be despised; yet it is true, as Dr. Adam remarks, that, "The study of Grammar has been considered an object of great importance by the wisest men in all ages."--_Preface to Latin and English Gram._, p. iii. 3. Grammar bears to language several different relations, and acquires from each a nature leading to a different definition. _First_, It is to language, as knowledge is to the thing known; and as doctrine, to the truths it inculcates. In these relations, grammar is a science. It is the first of what have been called the seven sciences, or liberal branches of knowledge; namely, grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. _Secondly_, It is as skill, to the thing to be done; and as power, to the instruments it employs. In these relations, grammar is an art; and as such, has long been defined, "_ars rectè scribendi, rectèque loquendi_" the art of writing and speaking correctly. _Thirdly_, It is as navigation, to the ocean, which nautic skill alone enables men to traverse. In this relation, theory and practice combine, and grammar becomes, like navigation, a practical science. _Fourthly_, It is as a chart, to a coast which we would visit. In this relation, our grammar is a text-book, which we take as a guide, or use as a help to our own observation. _Fifthly_, It is as a single voyage, to the open sea, the highway of nations. Such is our meaning, when we speak of the grammar of a particular text or passage. 4. Again: Grammar is to language a sort of self-examination. It turns the faculty of speech or writing upon itself for its own elucidation; and makes the tongue or the pen explain the uses and abuses to which both are liable, as well as the nature and excellency of that power, of which, these are the two grand instruments. From this account, some may begin to think that in treating of grammar we are dealing with something too various and changeable for the understanding to grasp; a dodging Proteus of the imagination, who is ever ready to assume some new shape, and elude the vigilance of the inquirer. But let the reader or student do his part; and, if he please, follow us with attention. We will endeavour, with welded links, to bind this Proteus, in such a manner that he shall neither escape from our hold, nor fail to give to the consulter an intelligible and satisfactory response. Be not discouraged, generous youth. Hark to that sweet far-reaching note: "Sed, quanto ille magis formas se vertet in omnes, Tanto, nate, magis contende tenacia vincla." VIRGIL. Geor. IV, 411. "But thou, the more he varies forms, beware To strain his fetters with a stricter care." DRYDEN'S VIRGIL. 5. If for a moment we consider the good and the evil that are done in the world through the medium of speech, we shall with one voice acknowledge, that not only the faculty itself, but also the manner in which it is used, is of incalculable importance to the welfare of man. But this reflection does not directly enhance our respect for grammar, because it is not to language as the vehicle of moral or of immoral sentiment, of good or of evil to mankind, that the attention of the grammarian is particularly directed. A consideration of the subject in these relations, pertains rather to the moral philosopher. Nor are the arts of logic and rhetoric now considered to be properly within the grammarian's province. Modern science assigns to these their separate places, and restricts grammar, which at one period embraced all learning, to the knowledge of language, as respects its fitness to be the vehicle of any particular thought or sentiment which the speaker or writer may wish to convey by it. Accordingly grammar is commonly defined, by writers upon the subject, in the special sense of an art--"the _art_ of speaking or writing a language with propriety or correctness."--_Webster's Dict._ 6. Lily says, "Grammatica est rectè scribendi atque loquendi ars;" that is, "Grammar is the art of writing and speaking correctly." Despauter, too, in his definition, which is quoted in a preceding paragraph, not improperly placed writing first, as being that with which grammar is primarily concerned. For it ought to be remembered, that over any fugitive colloquial dialect, which has never been fixed by visible signs, grammar has no control; and that the speaking which the art or science of grammar teaches, is exclusively that which has reference to a knowledge of letters. It is the certain tendency of writing, to improve speech. And in proportion as books are multiplied, and the knowledge of written language is diffused, local dialects, which are beneath the dignity of grammar, will always be found to grow fewer, and their differences less. There are, in the various parts of the world, many languages to which the art of grammar has never yet been applied; and to which, therefore, the definition or true idea of grammar, however general, does not properly extend. And even where it has been applied, and is now honoured as a popular branch of study, there is yet great room for improvement: barbarisms and solecisms have not been rebuked away as they deserve to be. 7. Melancthon says, "Grammatica est certa loquendi ac scribendi ratio, Latinis Latinè." Vossius, "Ars benè loquendi eóque et scribendi, atque id Latinis Latinè." Dr. Prat, "_Grammatica est rectè loquendi atque scribendi ars._" Ruddiman also, in his Institutes of Latin Grammar, reversed the terms _writing_ and _speaking_, and defined grammar, "_ars recè loquendi scribendique_;" and, either from mere imitation, or from the general observation that speech precedes writing, this arrangement of the words has been followed by most modern grammarians. Dr. Lowth embraces both terms in a more general one, and says, "Grammar is the art of _rightly expressing_ our thoughts by words." It is, however, the province of grammar, to guide us not merely in the expression of our own thoughts, but also in our apprehension of the thoughts, and our interpretation of the words, of others. Hence, Perizonius, in commenting upon Sanctius's imperfect definition, "_Grammatica est ars rectè loquendi_," not improperly asks, "_et quidni intelligendi et explicandi_?" "and why not also of understanding and explaining?" Hence, too, the art of _reading_ is virtually a part of grammar; for it is but the art of understanding and speaking correctly that which we have before us on paper. And Nugent has accordingly given us the following definition: "Grammar is the art of reading, speaking, and writing a language by rules."--_Introduction to Dict._, p. xii.[1] 8. The word _rectè_, rightly, truly, correctly, which occurs in most of the foregoing Latin definitions, is censured by the learned Richard Johnson, in his Grammatical Commentaries, on account of the vagueness of its meaning. He says, it is not only ambiguous by reason of its different uses in the Latin classics, but destitute of any signification proper to grammar. But even if this be true as regards its earlier application, it may well be questioned, whether by frequency of use it has not acquired a signification which makes it proper at the present time. The English word _correctly_ seems to be less liable to such an objection; and either this brief term, or some other of like import, (as, "with correctness"--"with propriety,") is still usually employed to tell what grammar is. But can a boy learn by such means what it is, _to speak and write grammatically_? In one sense, he can; and in an other, he cannot. He may derive, from any of these terms, some idea of grammar as distinguished from other arts; but no simple definition of this, or of any other art, can communicate to him that learns it, the skill of an artist. 9. R. Johnson speaks at large of _the relation_ of words to each other in sentences, as constituting in his view the most essential part of grammar; and as being a point very much overlooked, or very badly explained, by grammarians in general. His censure is just. And it seems to be as applicable to nearly all the grammars now in use, as to those which he criticised a hundred and thirty years ago. But perhaps he gives to the relation of words, (which is merely their dependence on other words according to the sense,) an earlier introduction and a more prominent place, than it ought to have in a general system of grammar. To the right use of language, he makes four things to be necessary. In citing these, I vary the language, but not the substance or the order of his positions. _First_, That we should speak and write words according to the significations which belong to them: the teaching of which now pertains to lexicography, and not to grammar, except incidentally. "_Secondly_, That we should observe _the relations_ that words have one to another in sentences, and represent those relations by such variations, and particles, as are usual with authors in that language." _Thirdly_, That we should acquire a knowledge of the proper sounds of the letters, and pay a due regard to accent in pronunciation. _Fourthly_, That we should learn to write words with their proper letters, spelling them as literary men generally do. 10. From these positions, (though he sets aside the first, as pertaining to lexicography, and not now to grammar, as it formerly did,) the learned critic deduces first his four parts of the subject, and then his definition of grammar. "Hence," says he, "there arise Four Parts of Grammar; _Analogy_, which treats of the several parts of speech, their definitions, accidents, and formations; _Syntax_, which treats of the use of those things in construction, according to their relations; _Orthography_, which treats of spelling; and _Prosody_, which treats of accenting in pronunciation. So, then, the true definition of Grammar is this: Grammar is the art of _expressing the relations_ of things in construction, with due accent in speaking, and orthography in writing, according to the custom of those whose language we learn." Again he adds: "The word _relation_ has other senses, taken by itself; but yet the _relation of words one to another in a sentence_, has no other signification than what I intend by it, namely, of cause, effect, means, end, manner, instrument, object, adjunct, and the like; which are names given by logicians to those relations under which the mind comprehends things, and therefore the most proper words to explain them to others. And if such things are too hard for children, then grammar is too hard; for there neither is, nor can be, any grammar without them. And a little experience will satisfy any man, that the young will as easily apprehend them, as _gender, number, declension_, and other grammar-terms." See _R. Johnson's Grammatical Commentaries_, p. 4. 11. It is true, that the _relation of words_--by which I mean that connexion between them, which the train of thought forms and suggests--or that dependence which one word has on an other according to the sense--lies at the foundation of all syntax. No rule or principle of construction can ever have any applicability beyond the limits, or contrary to the order, of this relation. To see what it is in any given case, is but to understand the meaning of the phrase or sentence. And it is plain, that no word ever necessarily agrees with an other, with which it is not thus connected in the mind of him who uses it. No word ever governs an other, to which the sense does not direct it. No word is ever required to stand immediately before or after an other, to which it has not some relation according to the meaning of the passage. Here then are the relation, agreement, government, and arrangement, of words in sentences; and these make up the whole of syntax--but not the whole of grammar. To this one part of grammar, therefore, the relation of words is central and fundamental; and in the other parts also, there are some things to which the consideration of it is incidental; but there are many more, like spelling, pronunciation, derivation, and whatsoever belongs merely to letters, syllables, and the forms of words, with which it has, in fact, no connexion. The relation of words, therefore, should be clearly and fully explained in its proper place, under the head of syntax; but the general idea of grammar will not be brought nearer to truth, by making it to be "the art of _expressing the relations_ of things in construction," &c., according to the foregoing definition. 12. The term _grammar_ is derived from the Greek word [Greek: gramma], a letter. The art or science to which this term is applied, had its origin, not in cursory speech, but in the practice of writing; and speech, which is first in the order of nature, is last with reference to grammar. The matter or common subject of grammar, is language in general; which, being of two kinds, _spoken_ and _written_, consists of certain combinations either of sounds or of visible signs, employed for the expression of thought. Letters and sounds, though often heedlessly confounded in the definitions given of vowels, consonants, &c., are, in their own nature, very different things. They address themselves to different senses; the former, to the sight; the latter, to the hearing. Yet, by a peculiar relation arbitrarily established between them, and in consequence of an almost endless variety in the combinations of either, they coincide in a most admirable manner, to effect the great object for which language was bestowed or invented; namely, to furnish a sure medium for the communication of thought, and the preservation of knowledge. 13. All languages, however different, have many things in common. There are points of a philosophical character, which result alike from the analysis of any language, and are founded on the very nature of human thought, and that of the sounds or other signs which are used to express it. When such principles alone are taken as the subject of inquiry, and are treated, as they sometimes have been, without regard to any of the idioms of particular languages, they constitute what is called General, Philosophical, or Universal Grammar. But to teach, with Lindley Murray and some others, that "Grammar may be considered as _consisting of two species_, Universal and Particular," and that the latter merely "applies those general principles to a particular language," is to adopt a twofold absurdity at the outset.[2] For every cultivated language has its particular grammar, in which whatsoever is universal, is necessarily included; but of which, universal or general principles form only a part, and that comparatively small. We find therefore in grammar no "two species" of the same genus; nor is the science or art, as commonly defined and understood, susceptible of division into any proper and distinct sorts, except with reference to different languages--as when we speak of Greek, Latin, French, or English grammar. 14. There is, however, as I have suggested, a certain science or philosophy of language, which has been denominated Universal Grammar; being made up of those points only, in which many or all of the different languages preserved in books, are found to coincide. All speculative minds are fond of generalization; and, in the vastness of the views which may thus be taken of grammar, such may find an entertainment which they never felt in merely learning to speak and write grammatically. But the pleasure of such contemplations is not the earliest or the most important fruit of the study. The first thing is, to know and understand the grammatical construction of our own language. Many may profit by this acquisition, who extend not their inquiries to the analogies or the idioms of other tongues. It is true, that every item of grammatical doctrine is the more worthy to be known and regarded, in proportion as it approaches to universality. But the principles of all practical grammar, whether universal or particular, common or peculiar, must first be learned in their application to some one language, before they can be distinguished into such classes; and it is manifest, both from reason and from experience, that the youth of any nation not destitute of a good book for the purpose, may best acquire a knowledge of those principles, from the grammatical study of their native tongue. 15. Universal or Philosophical Grammar is a large field for speculation and inquiry, and embraces many things which, though true enough in themselves, are unfit to be incorporated with any system of practical grammar, however comprehensive its plan. Many authors have erred here. With what is merely theoretical, such a system should have little to do. Philosophy, dealing in generalities, resolves speech not only as a whole into its constituent parts and separable elements, as anatomy shows the use and adaptation of the parts and joints of the human body; but also as a composite into its matter and form, as one may contemplate that same body in its entireness, yet as consisting of materials, some solid and some fluid, and these curiously modelled to a particular figure. Grammar, properly so called, requires only the former of these analyses; and in conducting the same, it descends to the thousand minute particulars which are necessary to be known in practice. Nor are such things to be despised as trivial and low: ignorance of what is common and elementary, is but the more disgraceful for being ignorance of mere rudiments. "Wherefore," says Quintilian, "they are little to be respected, who represent this art as mean and barren; in which, unless you faithfully lay the foundation for the future orator, whatever superstructure you raise will tumble into ruins. It is an art, necessary to the young, pleasant to the old, the sweet companion of the retired, and one which in reference to every kind of study has in itself more of utility than of show. Let no one therefore despise as inconsiderable the elements of grammar. Not because it is a great thing, to distinguish consonants from vowels, and afterwards divide them into semivowels and mutes; but because, to those who enter the interior parts of this temple of science, there will appear in many things a great subtilty, which is fit not only to sharpen the wits of youth, but also to exercise the loftiest erudition and science."--_De Institutione Oratoria_, Lib. i, Cap. iv. 16. Again, of the arts which spring from the composition of language. Here the art of logic, aiming solely at conviction, addresses the understanding with cool deductions of unvarnished truth; rhetoric, designing to move, in some particular direction, both the judgement and the sympathies of men, applies itself to the affections in order to persuade; and poetry, various in its character and tendency, solicits the imagination, with a view to delight, and in general also to instruct. But grammar, though intimately connected with all these, and essential to them in practice, is still too distinct from each to be identified with any of them. In regard to dignity and interest, these higher studies seem to have greatly the advantage over particular grammar; but who is willing to be an ungrammatical poet, orator, or logician? For him I do not write. But I would persuade my readers, that an acquaintance with that grammar which respects the genius of their vernacular tongue, is of primary importance to all who would cultivate a literary taste, and is a necessary introduction to the study of other languages. And it may here be observed, for the encouragement of the student, that as grammar is essentially the same thing in all languages, he who has well mastered that of his own, has overcome more than half the difficulty of learning another; and he whose knowledge of words is the most extensive, has the fewest obstacles to encounter in proceeding further. 17. It was the "original design" of grammar, says Dr. Adam, to facilitate "the acquisition of languages;" and, of all practical treatises on the subject, this is still the main purpose. In those books which are to prepare the learner to translate from one tongue into another, seldom is any thing else attempted. In those also which profess to explain the right use of vernacular speech, must the same purpose be ever paramount, and the "original design" be kept in view. But the grammarian may teach many things incidentally. One cannot learn a language, without learning at the same time a great many opinions, facts, and principles, of some kind or other, which are necessarily embodied in it. For all language proceeds from, and is addressed to, the understanding; and he that perceives not the meaning of what he reads, makes no acquisition even of the language itself. To the science of grammar, the _nature of the ideas_ conveyed by casual examples, is not very essential: to the learner, it is highly important. The best thoughts in the best diction should furnish the models for youthful study and imitation; because such language is not only the most worthy to be remembered, but the most easy to be understood. A distinction is also to be made between use and abuse. In nonsense, absurdity, or falsehood, there can never be any grammatical authority; because, however language may be abused, the usage which gives law to speech, is still that usage which is founded upon the _common sense_ of mankind. 18. Grammar appeals to reason, as well as to authority, but to what extent it should do so, has been matter of dispute. "The knowledge of useful arts," says Sanctius, "is not an invention of human ingenuity, but an emanation from the Deity, descending from above for the use of man, as Minerva sprung from the brain of Jupiter. Wherefore, unless thou give thyself wholly to laborious research into the nature of things, and diligently examine the _causes and reasons_ of the art thou teachest, believe me, thou shalt but see with other men's eyes, and hear with other men's ears. But the minds of many are preoccupied with a certain perverse opinion, or rather ignorant conceit, that in grammar, or the art of speaking, there are no causes, and that reason is scarcely to be appealed to for any thing;--than which idle notion, I know of nothing more foolish;--nothing can be thought of which is more offensive. Shall man, endowed with reason, do, say, or contrive any thing, without design, and without understanding? Hear the philosophers; who positively declare that nothing comes to pass without a cause. Hear Plato himself; who affirms that names and words subsist by nature, and contends that language is derived from nature, and not from art." 19. "I know," says he, "that the Aristotelians think otherwise; but no one will doubt that names are the signs, and as it were the instruments, of things. But the instrument of any art is so adapted to that art, that for any other purpose it must seem unfit; thus with an auger we bore, and with a saw we cut wood; but we split stones with wedges, and wedges are driven with heavy mauls. We cannot therefore but believe that those who first gave names to things, did it with design; and this, I imagine, Aristotle himself understood when he said, _ad placitum nomina significare._ For those who contend that names were made by chance, are no less audacious than if they would endeavour to persuade us, that the whole order of the universe was framed together fortuitously." 20. "You will see," continues he, "that in the first language, whatever it was, the names of things were taken from Nature herself; but, though I cannot affirm this to have been the case in other tongues, yet I can easily persuade myself that in every tongue a reason can be rendered for the application of every name; and that this reason, though it is in many cases obscure, is nevertheless worthy of investigation. Many things which were not known to the earlier philosophers, were brought to light by Plato; after the death of Plato, many were discovered by Aristotle; and Aristotle was ignorant of many which are now everywhere known. For truth lies hid, but nothing is more precious than truth. But you will say, 'How can there be any certain origin to names, when one and the same thing is called by different names, in the several parts of the world?' I answer, of the same thing there may be different causes, of which some people may regard one, and others, an other. * * * There is therefore no doubt, that of all things, even of words, a reason is to be rendered: and if we know not what that reason is, when we are asked; we ought rather to confess that we do not know, than to affirm that none can be given. I know that Scaliger thinks otherwise; but this is the true account of the matter." 21. "These several observations," he remarks further, "I have unwillingly brought together against those stubborn critics who, while they explode reason from grammar, insist so much on the testimonies of the learned. But have they never read Quintilian, who says, (Lib. i, Cap. 6,) that, 'Language is established by reason, antiquity, authority, and custom?' He therefore does not exclude reason, but makes it the principal thing. Nay, in a manner, Laurentius, and other grammatists, even of their fooleries, are forward to offer _reasons_, such as they are. Moreover, use does not take place without reason; otherwise, it ought to be called abuse, and not use. But from use authority derives all its force; for when it recedes from use, authority becomes nothing: whence Cicero reproves Coelius and Marcus Antonius for speaking according to their own fancy, and not according to use. But, 'Nothing can be lasting,' says Curtius, (Lib. iv,) 'which is not based upon reason.' It remains, therefore, that of all things the reason be first assigned; and then, if it can be done, we may bring forward testimonies; that the thing, having every advantage, may be made the more clear."--_Sanctii Minerva_, Lib. i, Cap. 2. 22. Julius Cæsar Scaliger, from whose opinion Sanctius dissents above, seems to limit the science of grammar to bounds considerably too narrow, though he found within them room for the exercise of much ingenuity and learning. He says, "Grammatica est scientia loquendi ex usu; neque enim constituit regulas scientibus usus modum, sed ex eorum statis frequentibusque usurpatiombus colligit communem rationem loquendi, quam discentibus traderet."--_De Causis L. Latinæ_, Lib. iv, Cap. 76. "Grammar is the science of speaking according to use; for it does not establish rules for those who know the manner of use, but from the settled and frequent usages of these, gathers the common fashion of speaking, which it should deliver to learners." This limited view seems not only to exclude from the science the use of the pen, but to exempt the learned from any obligation to respect the rules prescribed for the initiation of the young. But I have said, and with abundant authority, that the acquisition of a good style of writing is the main purpose of the study; and, surely, the proficients and adepts in the art can desire for themselves no such exemption. Men of genius, indeed, sometimes affect to despise the pettiness of all grammatical instructions; but this can be nothing else than affectation, since the usage of the learned is confessedly the basis of all such instructions, and several of the loftiest of their own rank appear on the list of grammarians. 23. Quintilian, whose authority is appealed to above, belonged to that age in which the exegesis of histories, poems, and other writings, was considered an essential part of grammar. He therefore, as well as Diomedes, and other ancient writers, divided the grammarian's duties into two parts; the one including what is now called grammar, and the other the explanation of authors, and the stigmatizing of the unworthy. Of the opinion referred to by Sanctius, it seems proper to make here an ampler citation. It shall be attempted in English, though the paragraph is not an easy one to translate. I understand the author to say, "Speakers, too, have their rules to observe; and writers, theirs. Language is established by reason, antiquity, authority, and custom. Of reason the chief ground is analogy, but sometimes etymology. Ancient things have a certain majesty, and, as I might say, religion, to commend them. Authority is wont to be sought from orators and historians; the necessity of metre mostly excuses the poets. When the judgement of the chief masters of eloquence passes for reason, even error seems right to those who follow great leaders. But, of the art of speaking, custom is the surest mistress; for speech is evidently to be used as money, which has upon it a public stamp. Yet all these things require a penetrating judgement, especially analogy; the force of which is, that one may refer what is doubtful, to something similar that is clearly established, and thus prove uncertain things by those which are sure."--QUINT, _de Inst. Orat._, Lib. i, Cap. 6, p. 48. 24. The science of grammar, whatever we may suppose to be its just limits, does not appear to have been better cultivated in proportion as its scope was narrowed. Nor has its application to our tongue, in particular, ever been made in such a manner, as to do _great_ honour to the learning or the talents of him that attempted it. What is new to a nation, may be old to the world. The development of the intellectual powers of youth by instruction in the classics, as well as the improvement of their taste by the exhibition of what is elegant in literature, is continually engaging the attention of new masters, some of whom may seem to effect great improvements; but we must remember that the concern itself is of no recent origin. Plato and Aristotle, who were great masters both of grammar and of philosophy, taught these things ably at Athens, in the fourth century _before_ Christ. Varro, the grammarian, usually styled the most learned of the Romans, was _contemporary_ with the Saviour and his apostles. Quintilian lived in the _first_ century of our era, and before he wrote his most celebrated book, taught a school twenty years in Rome, and received from the state a salary which made him rich. This "consummate guide of wayward youth," as the poet Martial called him, being neither ignorant of what had been done by others, nor disposed to think it a light task to prescribe the right use of his own language, was at first slow to undertake the work upon which his fame now reposes; and, after it was begun, diligent to execute it worthily, that it might turn both to his own honour, and to the real advancement of learning. 25. He says, at the commencement of his book: "After I had obtained a quiet release from those labours which for twenty years had devolved upon me as an instructor of youth, certain persons familiarly demanded of me, that I should compose something concerning the proper manner of speaking; but for a long time I withstood their solicitations, because I knew there were already illustrious authors in each language, by whom many things which might pertain to such a work, had been very diligently written, and left to posterity. But the reason which I thought would obtain for me an easier excuse, did but excite more earnest entreaty; because, amidst the various opinions of earlier writers, some of whom were not even consistent with themselves, the choice had become difficult; so that my friends seemed to have a right to enjoin upon me, if not the labour of producing new instructions, at least that of judging concerning the old. But although I was persuaded not so much by the hope of supplying what was required, as by the shame of refusing, yet, as the matter opened itself before me, I undertook of my own accord a much greater task than had been imposed; that while I should thus oblige my very good friends by a fuller compliance, I might not enter a common path and tread only in the footsteps of others. For most other writers who have treated of the art of speaking, have proceeded in such a manner as if upon adepts in every other kind of doctrine they would lay the last touch in eloquence; either despising as little things the studies which we first learn, or thinking them not to fall to their share in the division which should be made of the professions; or, what indeed is next to this, hoping no praise or thanks for their ingenuity about things which, although necessary, lie far from ostentation: the tops of buildings make a show, their foundations are unseen."--_Quintiliani de Inst. Orat., Prooemium._ 26. But the reader may ask, "What have all these things to do with English Grammar?" I answer, they help to show us whence and what it is. Some acquaintance with the history of grammar as a science, as well as some knowledge of the structure of other languages than our own, is necessary to him who professes to write for the advancement of this branch of learning--and for him also who would be a competent judge of what is thus professed. Grammar must not forget her origin. Criticism must not resign the protection of letters. The national literature of a country is in the keeping, not of the people at large, but of authors and teachers. But a grammarian presumes to be a judge of authorship, and a teacher of teachers; and is it to the honour of England or America, that in both countries so many are countenanced in this assumption of place, who can read no language but their mother tongue? English Grammar is not properly an indigenous production, either of this country or of Britain; because it is but a branch of the general science of philology--a new variety, or species, sprung up from the old stock long ago transplanted from the soil of Greece and Rome. 27. It is true, indeed, that neither any ancient system of grammatical instruction nor any grammar of an other language, however contrived, can be entirely applicable to the present state of our tongue; for languages must needs differ greatly one from an other, and even that which is called the same, may come in time to differ greatly from what it once was. But the general analogies of speech, which are the central principles of grammar, are but imperfectly seen by the man of one language. On the other hand, it is possible to know much of those general principles, and yet be very deficient in what is peculiar to our own tongue. Real improvement in the grammar of our language, must result from a view that is neither partial nor superficial. "Time, sorry artist," as was said of old, "makes all he handles worse." And Lord Bacon, seeming to have this adage in view, suggests: "If Time of course alter all things to the worse, and Wisdom and Counsel shall not alter them to the better, what shall be the end?"--_Bacon's Essays_, p. 64. 28. Hence the need that an able and discreet grammarian should now and then appear, who with skillful hand can effect those corrections which a change of fashion or the ignorance of authors may have made necessary; but if he is properly qualified for his task, he will do all this without a departure from any of the great principles of Universal Grammar. He will surely be very far from thinking, with a certain modern author, whom I shall notice in an other chapter, that, "He is bound to take words and explain them as he finds them in his day, _without any regard to their ancient construction and application_."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 28. The whole history of every word, so far as he can ascertain it, will be the view under which he will judge of what is right or wrong in the language which he teaches. Etymology is neither the whole of this view, nor yet to be excluded from it. I concur not therefore with Dr. Campbell, who, to make out a strong case, extravagantly says, "It is _never from an attention to etymology_, which would frequently mislead us, but from custom, the only infallible guide in this matter, that the meanings of words in present use must be learnt."--_Philosophy of Rhetoric_, p. 188. Jamieson too, with an implicitness little to be commended, takes this passage from Campbell; and, with no other change than that of "_learnt_" to "_learned_" publishes it as a corollary of his own.--_Grammar of Rhetoric_, p. 42. It is folly to state for truth what is so obviously wrong. Etymology and custom are seldom at odds; and where they are so, the latter can hardly be deemed infallible. CHAPTER II. OF GRAMMATICAL AUTHORSHIP. "Respondeo, dupliciter aliquem dici grammaticum, arte et professione. Grammatici vera arte paucissimi sunt: et hi magna laude digni sunt, ut patuit: hos non vituperant summi viri; quia ipse Plinius ejusmodi grammaticus fuit, et de arte grammatica libelos edidit. Et Grellius veræ grammaticæ fuit diligentissimus doctor; sic et ipse Datus. Alii sunt grammatici professione, et ii plerumque sunt inceptissimi; quia scribimus indocti doctique, et indignissimus quisque hanc sibi artem vindicat:----hos mastigias multis probris docti summo jure insectantur."--DESPAUTER. _Syntaxis_, fol. 1. 1. It is of primary importance in all discussions and expositions of doctrines, of any sort, to ascertain well the _principles_ upon which our reasonings are to be founded, and to see that they be such as are immovably established in the nature of things; for error in first principles is fundamental, and he who builds upon an uncertain foundation, incurs at least a _hazard_ of seeing his edifice overthrown. The lover of _truth_ will be, at all times, diligent to seek it, firm to adhere to it, willing to submit to it, and ready to promote it; but even the truth may be urged unseasonably, and important facts are things liable to be misjoined. It is proper, therefore, for every grammarian gravely to consider, whether and how far the principles of his philosophy, his politics, his morals, or his religion, ought to influence, or actually do influence, his theory of language, and his practical instructions respecting the right use of words. In practice, grammar is so interwoven with all else that is known, believed, learned, or spoken of among men, that to determine its own peculiar principles with due distinctness, seems to be one of the most difficult points of a grammarian's duty. 2. From misapprehension, narrowness of conception, or improper bias, in relation to this point, many authors have started wrong; denounced others with intemperate zeal; departed themselves from sound doctrine; and produced books which are disgraced not merely by occasional oversights, but by central and radical errors. Hence, too, have sprung up, in the name of grammar, many unprofitable discussions, and whimsical systems of teaching, calculated rather to embarrass than to inform the student. Mere collisions of opinion, conducted without any acknowledged standard to guide the judgement, never tend to real improvement. Grammar is unquestionably a branch of that universal philosophy by which the thoroughly educated mind is enlightened to see all things aright; for philosophy, in this sense of the term, is found in everything. Yet, properly speaking, the true grammarian is not a philosopher, nor can any man strengthen his title to the former character by claiming the latter; and it is certain, that a most disheartening proportion of what in our language has been published under the name of Philosophic Grammar, is equally remote from philosophy, from grammar, and from common sense. 3. True grammar is founded on the authority of reputable custom; and that custom, on the use which men make of their reason. The proofs of what is right are accumulative, and on many points there can be no dispute, because our proofs from the best usage, are both obvious and innumerable. On the other hand, the evidence of what is wrong is rather demonstrative; for when we would expose a particular error, we exhibit it in contrast with the established principle which it violates. He who formed the erroneous sentence, has in this case no alternative, but either to acknowledge the solecism, or to deny the authority of the rule. There are disputable principles in grammar, as there are moot points in law; but this circumstance affects no settled usage in either; and every person of sense and taste will choose to express himself in the way least liable to censure. All are free indeed from positive constraint on their phraseology; for we do not speak or write by statutes. But the ground of instruction assumed in grammar, is similar to that upon which are established the maxims of _common law_, in jurisprudence. The ultimate principle, then, to which we appeal, as the only true standard of grammatical propriety, is that species of custom which critics denominate GOOD USE; that is, present, reputable, general use. 4. Yet a slight acquaintance with the history of grammar will suffice to show us, that it is much easier to acknowledge this principle, and to commend it in words, than to ascertain what it is, and abide by it in practice. Good use is that which is neither ancient nor recent, neither local nor foreign, neither vulgar nor pedantic; and it will be found that no few have in some way or other departed from it, even while they were pretending to record its dictates. But it is not to be concealed, that in every living language, it is a matter of much inherent difficulty, to reach the standard of propriety, where usage is various; and to ascertain with clearness the decisions of custom, when we descend to minute details. Here is a field in which whatsoever is achieved by the pioneers of literature, can be appreciated only by thorough scholars; for the progress of improvement in any art or science, can be known only to those who can clearly compare its ruder with its more refined stages; and it often happens that what is effected with much labour, may be presented in a very small compass. 5. But the knowledge of grammar may _retrograde_; for whatever loses the vital principle of renovation and growth, tends to decay. And if mere copyists, compilers, abridgers, and modifiers, be encouraged as they now are, it surely will not advance. Style is liable to be antiquated by time, corrupted by innovation, debased by ignorance, perverted by conceit, impaired by negligence, and vitiated by caprice. And nothing but the living spirit of true authorship, and the application of just criticism, can counteract the natural tendency of these causes. English grammar is still in its infancy; and even bears, to the imagination of some, the appearance of a deformed and ugly dwarf among the liberal arts. Treatises are multiplied almost innumerably, but still the old errors survive. Names are rapidly added to our list of authors, while little or nothing is done for the science. Nay, while new blunders have been committed in every new book, old ones have been allowed to stand as by prescriptive right;. and positions that were never true, and sentences that were never good English, have been published and republished under different names, till in our language grammar has become the most ungrammatical of all studies! "Imitators generally copy their originals in an inverse ratio of their merits; that is, by adding as much to their faults, as they lose of their merits."--KNIGHT, _on the Greek Alphabet_, p. 117. "Who to the life an exact piece would make, Must not from others' work a copy take."--_Cowley_. 6. All science is laid in the nature of things; and he only who seeks it there, can rightly guide others in the paths of knowledge. He alone can know whether his predecessors went right or wrong, who is capable of a judgement independent of theirs. But with what shameful servility have many false or faulty definitions and rules been copied and copied from one grammar to another, as if authority had canonized their errors, or none had eyes to see them! Whatsoever is dignified and fair, is also modest and reasonable; but modesty does not consist in having no opinion of one's own, nor reason in following with blind partiality the footsteps of others. Grammar unsupported by authority, is indeed mere fiction. But what apology is this, for that authorship which has produced so many grammars without originality? Shall he who cannot write for himself, improve upon him who can? Shall he who cannot paint, retouch the canvass of Guido? Shall modest ingenuity be allowed only to imitators and to thieves? How many a prefatory argument issues virtually in this! It is not deference to merit, but impudent pretence, practising on the credulity of ignorance! Commonness alone exempts it from scrutiny, and the success it has, is but the wages of its own worthlessness! To read and be informed, is to make a proper use of books for the advancement of learning; but to assume to be an author by editing mere commonplaces and stolen criticisms, is equally beneath the ambition of a scholar and the honesty of a man. "'T is true, the ancients we may rob with ease; But who with that mean shift himself can please?" _Sheffield, Duke of Buckingham_. 7. Grammar being a practical art, with the principles of which every intelligent person is more or less acquainted, it might be expected that a book written professedly on the subject, should exhibit some evidence of its author's skill. But it would seem that a multitude of bad or indifferent writers have judged themselves qualified to teach the art of speaking and writing well; so that correctness of language and neatness of style are as rarely to be found in grammars as in other books. Nay, I have before suggested that in no other science are the principles of good writing so frequently and so shamefully violated. The code of false grammar embraced in the following work, will go far to sustain this opinion. There have been, however, several excellent scholars, who have thought it an object not unworthy of their talents, to prescribe and elucidate the principles of English Grammar. But these, with scarcely any exception, have executed their inadequate designs, not as men engaged in their proper calling, but as mere literary almoners, descending for a day from their loftier purposes, to perform a service, needful indeed, and therefore approved, but very far from supplying all the aid that is requisite to a thorough knowledge of the subject. Even the most meritorious have left ample room for improvement, though some have evinced an ability which does honour to themselves, while it gives cause to regret their lack of an inducement to greater labour. The mere grammarian can neither aspire to praise, nor stipulate for a reward; and to those who were best qualified to write, the subject could offer no adequate motive for diligence. 8. Unlearned men, who neither make, nor can make, any pretensions to a knowledge of grammar as a study, if they show themselves modest in what they profess, are by no means to be despised or undervalued for the want of such knowledge. They are subject to no criticism, till they turn authors and write for the public. And even then they are to be treated gently, if they have any thing to communicate, which is worthy to be accepted in a homely dress. Grammatical inaccuracies are to be kindly excused, in all those from whom nothing better can be expected; for people are often under a necessity of appearing as speakers or writers, before they can have learned to write or speak grammatically. The body is more to be regarded than raiment; and the substance of an interesting message, may make the manner of it a little thing. Men of high purposes naturally spurn all that is comparatively low; or all that may seem nice, overwrought, ostentatious, or finical. Hence St. Paul, in writing to the Corinthians, suggests that the design of his preaching might have been defeated, had he affected the orator, and turned his attention to mere "excellency of speech," or "wisdom of words." But this view of things presents no more ground for neglecting grammar, and making coarse and vulgar example our model of speech, than for neglecting dress, and making baize and rags the fashionable costume. The same apostle exhorts Timothy to "hold fast the form of sound _words_," which he himself had taught him. Nor can it be denied that there is an obligation resting upon all men, to use speech fairly and understandingly. But let it be remembered, that all those upon whose opinions or practices I am disposed to animadvert, are either professed grammarians and philosophers, or authors who, by extraordinary pretensions, have laid themselves under special obligations to be accurate in the use of language. "The _wise in heart_ shall be called prudent; and _the sweetness of the lips_ increaseth learning."--_Prov._, xvi, 21. "The words of a man's mouth are as deep waters, and the well-spring of wisdom [is] as a flowing brook."--_Ib._, xviii, 4. "A fool's mouth is his destruction, and his lips are the snare of his soul."--_Ib._, xviii, 7. 9. The old maxim recorded by Bacon, "_Loquendum ut vulgus, sentiendum ut sapientes_,"--"We should speak as the vulgar, but think as the wise," is not to be taken without some limitation. For whoever literally speaks as the vulgar, shall offend vastly too much with his tongue, to have either the understanding of the wise or the purity of the good. In all untrained and vulgar minds, the ambition of speaking well is but a dormant or very weak principle. Hence the great mass of uneducated people are lamentably careless of what they utter, both as to the matter and the manner; and no few seem naturally prone to the constant imitation of low example, and some, to the practice of every abuse of which language is susceptible. Hence, as every scholar knows, the least scrupulous of our lexicographers notice many terms but to censure them as "_low_," and omit many more as being beneath their notice. Vulgarity of language, then, ever has been, and ever must be, repudiated by grammarians. Yet we have had pretenders to grammar, who could court the favour of the vulgar, though at the expense of all the daughters of Mnemosyne. 10. Hence the enormous insult to learning and the learned, conveyed in the following scornful quotations: "Grammarians, go to your _tailors_ and _shoemakers_, and learn from them the _rational_ art of constructing your grammars!"--_Neef's Method of Education_, p. 62. "From a labyrinth without a clew, in which the _most enlightened scholars_ of Europe have mazed themselves and misguided others, the author ventures to turn aside."--_Cardell's Gram._, 12mo, p. 15. Again: "The _nations_ of _unlettered men_ so adapted their language to philosophic truth, that all physical and intellectual research can find no essential rule to reject or change."--_Ibid._, p. 91. I have shown that "the nations of unlettered men" are among that portion of the earth's population, upon whose language the genius of grammar has never yet condescended to look down! That people who make no pretensions to learning, can furnish better models or instructions than "the most enlightened scholars," is an opinion which ought not to be disturbed by argument. 11. I regret to say, that even Dr. Webster, with all his obligations and pretensions to literature, has well-nigh taken ground with Neef and Cardell, as above cited; and has not forborne to throw contempt, even on grammar as such, and on men of letters indiscriminately, by supposing the true principles of every language to be best observed and kept by the illiterate. What marvel then, that all his multifarious grammars of the English language are despised? Having suggested that the learned must follow the practice of the populace, because they cannot control it, he adds: "Men of letters may revolt at this suggestion, but if they will attend to the history of our language, they will find the fact to be as here stated. It is commonly supposed that the tendency of this practice of unlettered men is _to corrupt the language_. But the fact is directly the reverse. I am prepared to prove, were it consistent with the nature of this work, that nineteen-twentieths of _all the corruptions_ of our language, for five hundred years past, have been introduced by _authors_--men who have made alterations in particular idioms _which they did not understand_. The same remark is applicable to the _orthography_ and _pronunciation_. The tendency of unlettered men is to _uniformity_--to _analogy_; and so strong is this disposition, that the common people have actually converted some of our irregular verbs into regular ones. It is to unlettered people that we owe the disuse of _holpen, bounden, sitten_, and the use of the regular participles, _swelled, helped, worked_, in place of the ancient ones. This popular tendency is not to be contemned and disregarded, as some of the learned affect to do;[3] for it is governed by _the natural, primary principles of all languages_, to which we owe all their regularity and all their melody; viz., a love of uniformity in words of a like character, and a preference of an easy natural pronunciation, and a desire to express the most ideas with the smallest number of words and syllables. It is a fortunate thing for language, that these natural principles generally prevail over arbitrary and artificial rules."--_Webster's Philosophical Gram._, p. 119; _Improved Gram._, p. 78. So much for _unlettered erudition!_ 12. If every thing that has been taught under the name of grammar, is to be considered as belonging to the science, it will be impossible ever to determine in what estimation the study of it ought to be held; for all that has ever been urged either for or against it, may, upon such a principle, be _proved_ by reference to different authorities and irreconcilable opinions. But all who are studious to know, and content to follow, _the fashion_ established by the concurrent authority of _the learned_,[4] may at least have some standard to refer to; and if a grammarian's rules be based upon this authority, it must be considered the exclusive privilege of the unlearned to despise them--as it is of the unbred, to contemn the rules of civility. But who shall determine whether the doctrines contained in any given treatise are, or are not, based upon such authority? Who shall decide whether the contributions which any individual may make to our grammatical code, are, or are not, consonant with the best usage? For this, there is no tribunal but the mass of readers, of whom few perhaps are very competent judges. And here an author's reputation for erudition and judgement, may be available to him: it is the public voice in his favour. Yet every man is at liberty to form his own opinion, and to alter it whenever better knowledge leads him to think differently. 13. But the great misfortune is, that they who need instruction, are not qualified to choose their instructor; and many who must make this choice for their children, have no adequate means of ascertaining either the qualifications of such as offer themselves, or the comparative merits of the different methods by which they profess to teach. Hence this great branch of learning, in itself too comprehensive for the genius or the life of any one man, has ever been open to as various and worthless a set of quacks and plagiaries as have ever figured in any other. There always have been some who knew this, and there may be many who know it now; but the credulity and ignorance which expose so great a majority of mankind to deception and error, are not likely to be soon obviated. With every individual who is so fortunate as to receive any of the benefits of intellectual culture, the whole process of education must begin anew; and, by all that sober minds can credit, the vision of human perfectibility is far enough from any national consummation. 14. Whatever any may think of their own ability, or however some might flout to find their errors censured or their pretensions disallowed; whatever improvement may actually have been made, or however fondly we may listen to boasts and felicitations on that topic; it is presumed, that the general ignorance on the subject of grammar, as above stated, is too obvious to be denied. What then is the remedy? and to whom must our appeal be made? Knowledge cannot be imposed by power, nor is there any domination in the republic of letters. The remedy lies solely in that zeal which can provoke to a generous emulation in the cause of literature; and the appeal, which has recourse to the learning of the learned, and to the common sense of all, must be pressed home to conviction, till every false doctrine stand refuted, and every weak pretender exposed or neglected. Then shall Science honour them that honour her; and all her triumphs be told, all her instructions be delivered, in "sound speech that cannot be condemned." 15. A generous man is not unwilling to be corrected, and a just one cannot but desire to be set right in all things. Even over noisy gainsayers, a calm and dignified exhibition of true docrine [sic--KTH], has often more influence than ever openly appears. I have even seen the author of a faulty grammar heap upon his corrector more scorn and personal abuse than would fill a large newspaper, and immediately afterwards, in a new edition of his book, renounce the errors which had been pointed out to him, stealing the very language of his amendments from the man whom he had so grossly vilified! It is true that grammarians have ever disputed, and often with more acrimony than discretion. Those who, in elementary treatises, have meddled much with philological controversy, have well illustrated the couplet of Denham: "The tree of knowledge, blasted by disputes, Produces sapless leaves in stead of fruits." 16. Thus, then, as I have before suggested, we find among writers on grammar two numerous classes of authors, who have fallen into opposite errors, perhaps equally reprehensible; the visionaries, and the copyists. The former have ventured upon too much originality, the latter have attempted too little. "The science of philology," says Dr. Alexander Murray, "is not a frivolous study, fit to be conducted by ignorant pedants or visionary enthusiasts. It requires more qualifications to succeed in it, than are usually united in those who pursue it:--a sound penetrating judgement; habits of calm philosophical induction; an erudition various, extensive, and accurate; and a mind likewise, that can direct the knowledge expressed in words, to illustrate the nature of the signs which convey it."--_Murray's History of European Languages_, Vol. ii, p. 333. 17. They who set aside the authority of custom, and judge every thing to be ungrammatical which appears to them to be unphilosophical, render the whole ground forever disputable, and weary themselves in beating the air. So various have been the notions of this sort of critics, that it would be difficult to mention an opinion not found in some of their books. Amidst this rage for speculation on a subject purely practical, various attempts have been made, to overthrow that system of instruction, which long use has rendered venerable, and long experience proved to be useful. But it is manifestly much easier to raise even plausible objections against this system, than to invent an other less objectionable. Such attempts have generally met the reception they deserved. Their history will give no encouragement to future innovators. 18. Again: While some have thus wasted their energies in eccentric flights, vainly supposing that the learning of ages would give place to their whimsical theories; others, with more success, not better deserved, have multiplied grammars almost innumerably, by abridging or modifying the books they had used in childhood. So that they who are at all acquainted with the origin and character of the various compends thus introduced into our schools, cannot but desire to see them all displaced by some abler and better work, more honourable to its author and more useful to the public, more intelligible to students and more helpful to teachers. Books professedly published for the advancement of knowledge, are very frequently to be reckoned, among its greatest impediments; for the interests of learning are no less injured by whimsical doctrines, than the rights of authorship by plagiarism. Too many of our grammars, profitable only to their makers and venders, are like weights attached to the heels of Hermes. It is discouraging to know the history of this science. But the multiplicity of treatises already in use, is a reason, not for silence, but for offering more. For, as Lord Bacon observes, the number of ill-written books is not to be diminished by ceasing to write, but by writing others which, like Aaron's serpent, shall swallow up the spurious.[5] 19. I have said that some grammars have too much originality, and others too little. It may be added, that not a few are chargeable with both these faults at once. They are original, or at least anonymous, where there should have been given other authority than that of the compiler's name; and they are copies, or, at best, poor imitations, where the author should have shown himself capable of writing in a good style of his own. What then is the middle ground for the true grammarian? What is the kind, and what the degree, of originality, which are to be commended in works of this sort? In the first place, a grammarian must be a writer, an author, a man who observes and thinks for himself; and not a mere compiler, abridger, modifier, copyist, or plagiarist. Grammar is not the only subject upon which we allow no man to innovate in doctrine; why, then, should it be the only one upon which a man may make it a merit, to work up silently into a book of his own, the best materials found among the instructions of his predecessors and rivals? Some definitions and rules, which in the lapse of time and by frequency of use have become a sort of public property, the grammarian may perhaps be allowed to use at his pleasure; yet even upon these a man of any genius will be apt to set some impress peculiar to himself. But the doctrines of his work ought, in general, to be expressed in his own language, and illustrated by that of others. With respect to quotation, he has all the liberty of other writers, and no more; for, if a grammarian makes "use of his predecessors' labours," why should any one think with Murray, "it is scarcely necessary to apologize for" this, "or for _omitting_ to _insert_ their names?"--_Introd. to L. Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 7. 20. The author of this volume would here take the liberty briefly to refer to his own procedure. His knowledge of what is _technical_ in grammar, was of course chiefly derived from the writings of other grammarians; and to their concurrent opinions and practices, he has always had great respect; yet, in truth, not a line has he ever copied from any of them with a design to save the labour of composition. For, not to compile an English grammar from others already extant, but to compose one more directly from the sources of the art, was the task which he at first proposed to himself. Nor is there in all the present volume a single sentence, not regularly quoted, the authorship of which he supposes may now be ascribed to an other more properly than to himself. Where either authority or acknowledgement was requisite, names have been inserted. In the doctrinal parts of the volume, not only quotations from others, but most examples made for the occasion, are marked with guillemets, to distinguish them from the main text; while, to almost every thing which is really taken from any other known writer, a name or reference is added. For those citations, however, which there was occasion to repeat in different parts of the work, a single reference has sometimes been thought sufficient. This remark refers chiefly to the corrections in the Key, the references being given in the Exercises. 21. Though the theme is not one on which a man may hope to write well with little reflection, it is true that the parts of this treatise which have cost the author the most labour, are those which "consist chiefly of materials selected from the writings of others." These, however, are not the didactical portions of the book, but the proofs and examples; which, according to the custom of the ancient grammarians, ought to be taken from other authors. But so much have the makers of our modern grammars been allowed to presume upon the respect and acquiescence of their readers, that the ancient exactness on this point would often appear pedantic. Many phrases and sentences, either original with the writer, or common to everybody, will therefore be found among the illustrations of the following work; for it was not supposed that any reader would demand for every thing of this kind the authority of some great name. Anonymous examples are sufficient to elucidate principles, if not to establish them; and elucidation is often the sole purpose for which an example is needed. 22. It is obvious enough, that no writer on grammar has any right to propose himself as authority for what he teaches; for every language, being the common property of all who use it, ought to be carefully guarded against the caprices of individuals; and especially against that presumption which might attempt to impose erroneous or arbitrary definitions and rules. "Since the matter of which we are treating," says the philologist of Salamanca, "is to be verified, first by reason, and then by testimony and usage, none ought to wonder if we sometimes deviate from the track of great men; for, with whatever authority any grammarian may weigh with me, unless he shall have confirmed his assertions by reason, and also by examples, he shall win no confidence in respect to grammar. For, as Seneca says, Epistle 95, 'Grammarians are the _guardians_, not the _authors_, of language.'"--_Sanctii Minerva_, Lib. ii, Cap. 2. Yet, as what is intuitively seen to be true or false, is already sufficiently proved or detected, many points in grammar need nothing more than to be clearly stated and illustrated; nay, it would seem an injurious reflection on the understanding of the reader, to accumulate proofs of what cannot but be evident to all who speak the language. 23. Among men of the same profession, there is an unavoidable rivalry, so far as they become competitors for the same prize; but in competition there is nothing dishonourable, while excellence alone obtains distinction, and no advantage is sought by unfair means. It is evident that we ought to account him the best grammarian, who has the most completely executed the worthiest design. But no worthy design can need a false apology; and it is worse than idle to prevaricate. That is but a spurious modesty, which prompts a man to disclaim in one way what he assumes in an other--or to underrate the duties of his office, that he may boast of having "done all that could reasonably be expected." Whoever professes to have improved the science of English grammar, must claim to know more of the matter than the generality of English grammarians; and he who begins with saying, that "little can be expected" from the office he assumes, must be wrongfully contradicted, when he is held to have done much. Neither the ordinary power of speech, nor even the ability to write respectably on common topics, makes a man a critic among critics, or enables him to judge of literary merit. And if, by virtue of these qualifications alone, a man will become a grammarian or a connoisseur, he can hold the rank only by courtesy--a courtesy which is content to degrade the character, that his inferior pretensions may be accepted and honoured under the name. 24. By the force of a late popular example, still too widely influential, grammatical authorship has been reduced, in the view of many, to little or nothing more than a mere serving-up of materials anonymously borrowed; and, what is most remarkable, even for an indifferent performance of this low office, not only unnamed reviewers, but several writers of note, have not scrupled to bestow the highest praise of grammatical excellence! And thus the palm of superior skill in grammar, has been borne away by a _professed compiler_; who had so mean an opinion of what his theme required, as to deny it even the common courtesies of compilation! What marvel is it, that, under the wing of such authority, many writers have since sprung up, to improve upon this most happy design; while all who were competent to the task, have been discouraged from attempting any thing like a complete grammar of our language? What motive shall excite a man to long-continued diligence, where such notions prevail as give mastership no hope of preference, and where the praise of his ingenuity and the reward of his labour must needs be inconsiderable, till some honoured compiler usurp them both, and bring his "most useful matter" before the world under better auspices? If the love of learning supply such a motive, who that has generously yielded to the impulse, will not now, like Johnson, feel himself reduced to an "humble drudge"--or, like Perizonius, apologize for the apparent folly of devoting his time to such a subject as grammar? 25. The first edition of the "Institutes of English Grammar," the doctrinal parts of which are embraced in the present more copious work, was published in the year 1823; since which time, (within the space of twelve years,) about forty new compends, mostly professing to be abstracts of _Murray_, with improvements, have been added to our list of English grammars. The author has examined as many as thirty of them, and seen advertisements of perhaps a dozen more. Being various in character, they will of course be variously estimated; but, so far as he can judge, they are, without exception, works of little or no real merit, and not likely to be much patronized or long preserved from oblivion. For which reason, he would have been inclined entirely to disregard the petty depredations which the writers of several of them have committed upon his earlier text, were it not possible, that by such a frittering-away of his work, he himself might one day seem to some to have copied that from others which was first taken from him. Trusting to make it manifest to men of learning, that in the production of the books which bear his name, far more has been done for the grammar of our language than any single hand had before achieved within the scope of practical philology, and that with perfect fairness towards other writers; he cannot but feel a wish that the integrity of his text should be preserved, whatever else may befall; and that the multitude of scribblers who judge it so needful to remodel Murray's defective compilation, would forbear to publish under his name or their own what they find only in the following pages. 26. The mere rivalry of their authorship is no subject of concern; but it is enough for any ingenuous man to have toiled for years in solitude to complete a work of public utility, without entering a warfare for life to defend and preserve it. Accidental coincidences in books are unfrequent, and not often such as to excite the suspicion of the most sensitive. But, though the criteria of plagiarism are neither obscure nor disputable, it is not easy, in this beaten track of literature, for persons of little reading to know what is, or is not, original. Dates must be accurately observed; and a multitude of minute things must be minutely compared. And who will undertake such a task but he that is personally interested? Of the thousands who are forced into the paths of learning, few ever care to know, by what pioneer, or with what labour, their way was cast up for them. And even of those who are honestly engaged in teaching, not many are adequate judges of the comparative merits of the great number of books on this subject. The common notions of mankind conform more easily to fashion than to truth; and even of some things within their reach, the majority seem contend to take their opinions upon trust. Hence, it is vain to expect that that which is intrinsically best, will be everywhere preferred; or that which is meritoriously elaborate, adequately appreciated. But common sense might dictate, that learning is not encouraged or respected by those who, for the making of books, prefer a pair of scissors to the pen. 27. The fortune of a grammar is not always an accurate test of its merits. The goddess of the plenteous horn stands blindfold yet upon the floating prow; and, under her capricious favour, any pirate-craft, ill stowed with plunder, may sometimes speed as well, as barges richly laden from the golden mines of science. Far more are now afloat, and more are stranded on dry shelves, than can be here reported. But what this work contains, is candidly designed to qualify the reader to be himself a judge of what it _should_ contain; and I will hope, so ample a report as this, being thought sufficient, will also meet his approbation. The favour of one discerning mind that comprehends my subject, is worth intrinsically more than that of half the nation: I mean, of course, the half of whom my gentle reader is not one. "They praise and they admire they know not what, And know not whom, but as one leads the other."--_Milton_. CHAPTER III. OF GRAMMATICAL SUCCESS AND FAME. "Non is ego sum, cui aut jucundum, aut adeo opus sit, de aliis detrahere, et hac viâ ad famara contendere. Melioribus artibus laudem parare didici. Itaque non libenter dico, quod præsens institutum dicere cogit."--Jo. AUGUSTI ERNESTI _Præf. ad Græcum Lexicon_, p. vii. 1. The real history of grammar is little known; and many erroneous impressions are entertained concerning it: because the story of the systems most generally received has never been fully told; and that of a multitude now gone to oblivion was never worth telling. In the distribution of grammatical fame, which has chiefly been made by the hand of interest, we have had a strange illustration of the saying: "Unto every one that hath shall be given, and he shall have abundance; but from him that hath not, shall be taken away even that which he hath." Some whom fortune has made popular, have been greatly overrated, if learning and talent are to be taken into the account; since it is manifest, that with no extraordinary claims to either, they have taken the very foremost rank among grammarians, and thrown the learning and talents of others into the shade, or made them tributary to their own success and popularity. 2. It is an ungrateful task to correct public opinion by showing the injustice of praise. Fame, though it may have been both unexpected and undeserved, is apt to be claimed and valued as part and parcel of a man's good name; and the dissenting critic, though ever-so candid, is liable to be thought an envious detractor. It would seem in general most prudent to leave mankind to find out for themselves how far any commendation bestowed on individuals is inconsistent with truth. But, be it remembered, that celebrity is not a virtue; nor, on the other hand, is experience the cheapest of teachers. A good man may not have done all things ably and well; and it is certainly no small mistake to estimate his character by the current value of his copy-rights. Criticism may destroy the reputation of a book, and not be inconsistent with a cordial respect for the private worth of its author. The reader will not be likely to be displeased with what is to be stated in this chapter, if he can believe, that no man's merit as a writer, may well be enhanced by ascribing to him that which he himself, for the protection of his own honour, has been constrained to disclaim. He cannot suppose that too much is alleged, if he will admit that a grammarian's fame should be thought safe enough in his _own keeping_. Are authors apt to undervalue their own performances? Or because proprietors and publishers may profit by the credit of a book, shall it be thought illiberal to criticise it? Is the author himself to be disbelieved, that the extravagant praises bestowed upon him may be justified? "Superlative commendation," says Dillwyn, "is near akin to _detraction_." (See his _Reflections_, p. 22.) Let him, therefore, who will charge detraction upon me, first understand wherein it consists. I shall criticise, freely, both the works of the living, and the doctrines of those who, to us, live only in their works; and if any man dislike this freedom, let him rebuke it, showing wherein it is wrong or unfair. The amiable author just quoted, says again: "Praise has so often proved an _impostor_, that it would be well, wherever we meet with it, to treat it as a vagrant."--_Ib._, p. 100. I go not so far as this; but that eulogy which one knows to be false, he cannot but reckon impertinent. 3. Few writers on grammar have been more noted than WILLIAM LILY and LINDLEY MURRAY. Others have left better monuments of their learning and talents, but none perhaps have had greater success and fame. The Latin grammar which was for a long time most popular in England, has commonly been ascribed to the one; and what the Imperial Review, in 1805, pronounced "the best English grammar, beyond all comparison, that has yet appeared," was compiled by the other. And doubtless they have both been rightly judged to excel the generality of those which they were intended to supersede; and both, in their day, may have been highly serviceable to the cause of learning. For all excellence is but comparative; and to grant them this superiority, is neither to prefer them now, nor to justify the praise which has been bestowed upon their authorship. As the science of grammar can never be taught without a book, or properly taught by any book which is not itself grammatical, it is of some importance both to teachers and to students, to make choice of the best. Knowledge will not advance where grammars hold rank by prescription. Yet it is possible that many, in learning to write and speak, may have derived no inconsiderable benefit from a book that is neither accurate nor complete. 4. With respect to time, these two grammarians were three centuries apart; during which period, the English language received its most classical refinement, and the relative estimation of the two studies, Latin and English grammar, became in a great measure reversed. Lily was an Englishman, born at Odiham,[6] in Hampshire, in 1466. When he had arrived at manhood, he went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem; and while abroad studied some time at Rome, and also at Paris. On his return he was thought one of the most accomplished scholars in England. In 1510, Dr. John Colet, dean of St. Paul's church, in London, appointed him the first high master of St. Paul's School, then recently founded by this gentleman's munificence. In this situation, Lily appears to have taught with great credit to himself till 1522, when he died of the plague, at the age of 56. For the use of this school, he wrote and published certain parts of the grammar which has since borne his name. Of the authorship of this work many curious particulars are stated in the preface by John Ward, which may be seen in the edition of 1793. Lily had able rivals, as well as learned coadjutors and friends. By the aid of the latter, he took precedence of the former; and his publications, though not voluminous, soon gained a general popularity. So that when an arbitrary king saw fit to silence competition among the philologists, by becoming himself, as Sir Thomas Elliott says, "the chiefe authour and setter-forth of an introduction into grammar, for the childrene of his lovynge subjects," Lily's Grammar was preferred for the basis of the standard. Hence, after the publishing of it became a privilege patented by the crown, the book appears to have been honoured with a royal title, and to have been familiarly called King Henry's Grammar. 5. Prefixed to this book, there appears a very ancient epistle to the reader, which while it shows the reasons for this royal interference with grammar, shows also, what is worthy of remembrance, that guarded and maintained as it was, even royal interference was here ineffectual to its purpose. It neither produced uniformity in the methods of teaching, nor, even for instruction in a dead language, entirely prevented the old manual from becoming diverse in its different editions. The style also may serve to illustrate what I have elsewhere said about the duties of a modern grammarian. "As for the diversitie of grammars, it is well and profitably taken awaie by the King's Majesties wisdome; who, foreseeing the inconvenience, and favorably providing the remedie, caused one kind of grammar by sundry learned men to be diligently drawn, and so to be set out, only every where to be taught, for the use of learners, and for the hurt in changing of schoolemaisters." That is, to prevent the injury which schoolmasters were doing by a whimsical choice, or frequent changing, of grammars. But, says the letter, "The varietie of teaching is divers yet, and alwaies will be; for that every schoolemaister liketh that he knoweth, and seeth not the use of that he knoweth not; and therefore judgeth that the most sufficient waie, which he seeth to be the readiest meane, and perfectest kinde, to bring a learner to have a thorough knowledge therein." The only remedy for such an evil then is, to teach those who are to be teachers, and to desert all who, for any whim of their own, desert sound doctrine. 6. But, to return. A law was made in England by Henry the Eighth, commanding Lily's Grammar only, (or that which has commonly been quoted as Lily's,) to be everywhere adopted and taught, as the common standard of grammatical instruction.[7] Being long kept in force by means of a special inquiry, directed to be made by the bishops at their stated visitations, this law, for three hundred years, imposed the book on all the established schools of the realm. Yet it is certain, that about one half of what has thus gone under the name of Lily, ("because," says one of the patentees, "he had _so considerable a hand_ in the composition,") was written by Dr. Colet, by Erasmus, or by others who improved the work after Lily's death. And of the other half, it has been incidentally asserted in history, that neither the scheme nor the text was original. The Printer's Grammar, London, 1787, speaking of the art of type-foundery, says: "The Italians in a short time brought it to _that_ perfection, that in the beginning of the year 1474, they cast a letter not much inferior to the best types of the present age; as may be seen in a Latin Grammar, written by Omnibonus Leonicenus, and printed at Padua on the 14th of January, 1474; _from whom our grammarian, Lily, has taken the entire scheme of his Grammar, and transcribed the greatest part thereof, without paying any regard to the memory of this author_." The historian then proceeds to speak about types. See also the same thing in the History of Printing, 8vo, London, 1770. This is the grammar which bears upon its title page: "_Quam solam Regia Majestas in omnibus scholis docendam prcæcipit_." 7. Murray was an intelligent and very worthy man, to whose various labours in the compilation of books our schools are under many obligations. But in original thought and critical skill he fell far below most of "the authors to whom," he confesses, "the grammatical part of his compilation is _principally indebted for its materials_; namely, Harris, Johnson, Lowth, Priestley, Beattie, Sheridan, Walker, Coote, Blair, and Campbell."--_Introd. to Lindley Murray's Gram._, p. 7. It is certain and evident that he entered upon his task with a very insufficient preparation. His biography, which was commenced by himself and completed by one of his most partial friends, informs us, that, "Grammar did not particularly engage his attention, until a short time previous to the publication of his first work on that subject;" that, "His Grammar, as it appeared in the first edition, was completed in rather less than a year;" that, "It was begun in the spring of 1794, and published in the spring of 1795--though he had an intervening illness, which, for several weeks, stopped the progress of the work;" and that, "The Exercises and Key were also composed in about a year."--_Life of L. Murray_, p. 188. From the very first sentence of his book, it appears that he entertained but a low and most erroneous idea of the duties of that sort of character in which he was about to come before the public.[8] He improperly imagined, as many others have done, that "little can be expected" from a modern grammarian, or (as he chose to express it) "from a _new compilation_, besides a careful selection of the most useful matter, and some degree of improvement in the mode of adapting it to the understanding, and the gradual progress of learners."--_Introd. to L. Murray's Gram._; 8vo, p. 5; 12mo, p. 3. As if, to be master of his own art--to think and write well himself, were no part of a grammarian's business! And again, as if the jewels of scholarship, thus carefully selected, could need a burnish or a foil from other hands than those which fashioned them! 8. Murray's general idea of the doctrines of grammar was judicious. He attempted no broad innovation on what had been previously taught; for he had neither the vanity to suppose he could give currency to novelties, nor the folly to waste his time in labours utterly nugatory. By turning his own abilities to their best account, he seems to have done much to promote and facilitate the study of our language. But his notion of grammatical authorship, cuts off from it all pretence to literary merit, for the sake of doing good; and, taken in any other sense than as a forced apology for his own assumptions, his language on this point is highly injurious towards the very authors whom he copied. To justify himself, he ungenerously places them, in common with others, under a degrading necessity which no able grammarian ever felt, and which every man of genius or learning must repudiate. If none of our older grammars disprove his assertion, it is time to have a new one that will; for, to expect the perfection of grammar from him who cannot treat the subject in a style at once original and pure, is absurd. He says, "The greater part of an English grammar _must necessarily be a compilation _;" and adds, with reference to his own, "originality belongs to but a small portion of it. This I have acknowledged; and I trust _this acknowledgement_ will protect me from all attacks, grounded on any supposed unjust and irregular assumptions." This quotation is from a letter addressed by Murray to his American publishers, in 1811, after they had informed him of certain complaints respecting the liberties which he had taken in his work. See "_The Friend_," Vol. iii, p. 34. 9. The acknowledgement on which he thus relies, does not appear to have been made, till his grammar had gone through several editions. It was, however, at some period, introduced into his short preface, or "Introduction," in the following well-meant but singularly sophistical terms: "In _a work_ which professes itself to be a _compilation_, and which, _from the nature and design of it_, must consist chiefly of materials selected from the writings of others, _it is scarcely necessary to apologise_ for the use which the Compiler has made of his predecessors' labours, or for _omitting to insert_ their names. _From the alterations_ which have been frequently made in the sentiments and the language, to suit the connexion, and to adapt them to the particular purposes for which they are introduced; and, in many instances, _from the uncertainty to whom_ the passages originally belonged, the insertion of names _could seldom be made with propriety_. But if this could have been generally done, a work of this nature _would derive no advantage from it_, equal to the inconvenience of crowding the pages with a repetition of names and references. It is. however, proper to acknowledge, in general terms, that the authors to whom the grammatical part of this compilation is principally indebted for its materials, are Harris, Johnson, Lowth, Priestley, Beattie, Sheridan, Walker, and Coote."--_Introd.; Duodecimo Gram._, p. 4; _Octavo_, p. 7. 10. The fallacy, or absurdity, of this language sprung from necessity. An impossible case was to be made out. For compilation, though ever so fair, is not grammatical authorship. But some of the commenders of Murray have not only professed themselves satisfied with this general acknowledgement, but have found in it a candour and a liberality, a modesty and a diffidence, which, as they allege, ought to protect him from all animadversion. Are they friends to learning? Let them calmly consider what I reluctantly offer for its defence and promotion. In one of the recommendations appended to Murray's grammars, it _is_ said, "They have nearly superseded every thing else of the kind, by concentrating the remarks of the best authors on the subject." But, in truth, with several of the best English grammars published previously to his own, Murray appears to have been totally unacquainted. The chief, if not the only school grammars which were largely copied by him, were Lowth's and Priestley's, though others perhaps may have shared the fate of these in being "superseded" by his. It may be seen by inspection, that in copying these two authors, the compiler, agreeably to what he says above, omitted all names and references--even such as they had scrupulously inserted: and, at the outset, assumed to be himself the sole authority for all his doctrines and illustrations; satisfying his own mind with making, some years afterwards, that general apology which we are now criticising. For if he so mutilated and altered the passages which he adopted, as to make it improper to add the names of their authors, upon what other authority than his own do they rest? But if, on the other hand, he generally copied without alteration; his examples are still anonymous, while his first reason for leaving them so, is plainly destroyed: because his position is thus far contradicted by the fact. 11. In his later editions, however, there are two opinions which the compiler thought proper to support by regular quotations; and, now and then, in other instances, the name of an author appears. The two positions thus distinguished, are these: _First_, That the noun _means_ is necessarily singular as well as plural, so that one cannot with propriety use the singular form, _mean_, to signify that by which an end is attained; _Second_, That the subjective mood, to which he himself had previously given all the tenses without inflection, is not different in form from the indicative, except in the present tense. With regard to the later point, I have shown, in its proper place, that he taught erroneously, both before and after he changed his opinion; and concerning the former, the most that can be proved by quotation, is, that both _mean_ and _means_ for the singular number, long have been, and still are, in good use, or sanctioned by many elegant writers; so that either form may yet be considered grammatical, though the irregular can claim to be so, only when it is used in this particular sense. As to his second reason for the suppression of names, to wit, "the _uncertainty to whom_ the passages originally belonged,"--to make the most of it, it is but partial and relative; and, surely, no other grammar ever before so multiplied the difficulty in the eyes of teachers, and so widened the field for commonplace authorship, as has the compilation in question. The origin of a sentiment or passage may be uncertain to one man, and perfectly well known to an other. The embarrassment which a _compiler_ may happen to find from this source, is worthy of little sympathy. For he cannot but know from what work he is taking any particular sentence or paragraph, and those parts of a _grammar_, which are new to the eye of a great grammarian, may very well be credited to him who claims to have written the book. I have thus disposed of his second reason for the omission of names and references, in compilations of grammar. 12. There remains one more: "A work of this nature _would derive no advantage from it_, equal to the inconvenience of crowding the pages with a repetition of names and references." With regard to a small work, in which the matter is to be very closely condensed, this argument has considerable force. But Murray has in general allowed himself very ample room, especially in his two octavoes. In these, and for the most part also in his duodecimoes, all needful references might easily have been added without increasing the size of his volumes, or injuring their appearance. In nine cases out of ten, the names would only have been occupied what is now blank space. It is to be remembered, that these books do not differ much, except in quantity of paper. His octavo Grammar is but little more than a reprint, in a larger type, of the duodecimo Grammar, together with his Exercises and Key. The demand for this expensive publication has been comparatively small; and it is chiefly to the others, that the author owes his popularity as a grammarian. As to the advantage which Murray or his work might have derived from an adherence on his part to the usual custom of compilers, _that_ may be variously estimated. The remarks of the best grammarians or the sentiments of the best authors, are hardly to be thought the more worthy of acceptance, for being concentrated in such a manner as to merge their authenticity in the fame of the copyist. Let me not be understood to suggest that this good man sought popularity at the expense of others; for I do not believe that either fame or interest was his motive. But the right of authors to the credit of their writings, is a delicate point; and, surely, his example would have been worthier of imitation, had he left no ground for the foregoing objections, and carefully barred the way to any such interference. 13. But let the first sentence of this apology be now considered. It is here suggested, that because this work is a compilation, even such an acknowledgement as the author makes, is "scarcely necessary." This is too much to say. Yet one may readily admit, that a compilation, "from the nature and design of it, must consist chiefly"--nay, _wholly_--"of materials selected from the writings of others." But what able grammarian would ever willingly throw himself upon the horns of such a dilemma! The nature and design _of a book_, whatever they may be, are matters for which the author alone is answerable; but the nature and design _of grammar_, are no less repugnant to the strain of this apology, than to the vast number of errors and defects which were overlooked by Murray in his work of compilation. It is the express purpose of this practical science, to enable a man to write well himself. He that cannot do this, exhibits no excess of modesty when he claims to have "done all that could reasonably be expected in a work of this nature."--_L. Murray's Gram., Introd._, p. 9. He that sees with other men's eyes, is peculiarly liable to errors and inconsistencies: uniformity is seldom found in patchwork, or accuracy in secondhand literature. Correctness of language is in the mind, rather than in the hand or the tongue; and, in order to secure it, some originality of thought is necessary. A delineation from new surveys is not the less original because the same region has been sketched before; and how can he be the ablest of surveyors, who, through lack of skill or industry, does little more than transcribe the field-notes and copy the projections of his predecessors? 14. This author's oversights are numerous. There is no part of the volume more accurate than that which he literally copied from Lowth. To the Short Introduction alone, he was indebted for more than a hundred and twenty paragraphs; and even in these there are many things obviously erroneous. Many of the best practical notes were taken from Priestley; yet it was he, at whose doctrines were pointed most of those "positions and discussions," which alone the author claims as original. To some of these reasonings, however, his own alterations may have given rise; for, where he "persuades himself he is not destitute of originality," he is often arguing against the text of his own earlier editions. Webster's well-known complaints of Murray's unfairness, had a far better cause than requital; for there was no generosity in ascribing them to peevishness, though the passages in question were not worth copying. On perspicuity and accuracy, about sixty pages were extracted from Blair; and it requires no great critical acumen to discover, that they are miserably deficient in both. On the law of language, there are fifteen pages from Campbell; which, with a few exceptions, are well written. The rules for spelling are the same as Walker's: the third one, however, is a gross blunder; and the fourth, a, needless repetition. 15. Were this a place for minute criticism, blemishes almost innumerable might be pointed out. It might easily be shown that almost every rule laid down in the book for the observance of the learner, was repeatedly violated by the hand of the master. Nor is there among all those who have since abridged or modified the work, an abler grammarian than he who compiled it. Who will pretend that Flint, Alden, Comly, Jaudon, Russell, Bacon, Lyon, Miller, Alger, Maltby, Ingersoll, Fisk, Greenleaf, Merchant, Kirkham, Cooper, R. G. Greene, Woodworth, Smith, or Frost, has exhibited greater skill? It is curious to observe, how frequently a grammatical blunder committed by Murray, or some one of his predecessors, has escaped the notice of all these, as well as of many others who have found it easier to copy him than to write for themselves. No man professing to have copied and improved Murray, can rationally be supposed to have greatly excelled him; for to pretend to have produced an _improved copy of a compilation_, is to claim a sort of authorship, even inferior to his, and utterly unworthy of any man who is able to prescribe and elucidate the principles of English grammar. 16. But Murray's grammatical works, being extolled in the reviews, and made common stock in trade,--being published, both in England and in America, by booksellers of the most extensive correspondence, and highly commended even by those who were most interested in the sale of them,--have been eminently successful with the public; and in the opinion of the world, success is the strongest proof of merit. Nor has the force of this argument been overlooked by those who have written in aid of his popularity. It is the strong point in most of the commendations which have been bestowed upon Murray as a grammarian. A recent eulogist computes, that, "at least five millions of copies of his various school-books have been printed;" particularly commends him for his "candour and liberality towards rival authors;" avers that, "he went on, examining and correcting his Grammar, through all its forty editions, till he brought it to a degree of perfection which will render it as permanent as the English language itself;" censures (and not without reason) the "presumption" of those "superficial critics" who have attempted to amend the work, and usurp his honours; and, regarding the compiler's confession of his indebtedness to others, but as a mark of "his exemplary diffidence of his own merits," adds, (in very bad English,) "Perhaps there never was an author whose success and fame were more _unexpected by himself than Lindley Murray_."--_The Friend_, Vol. iii, p. 33. 17. In a New-York edition of Murray's Grammar, printed in 1812, there was inserted a "Caution to the Public," by Collins & Co., his American correspondents and publishers, in which are set forth the unparalleled success and merit of the work, "as it came _in purity_ from the pen of the author;" with an earnest remonstrance against the several _revised editions_ which had appeared at Boston, Philadelphia, and other places, and against the unwarrantable liberties taken by American teachers, in altering the work, under pretence of improving it. In this article it is stated, "that _the whole_ of these mutilated editions _have been seen_ and examined by Lindley Murray himself, and that they, have met with _his decided disapprobation_. Every rational mind," continue these gentlemen, "will agree with him, that, 'the _rights of living authors_, and the _interests of science and literature_, demand the abolition of this _ungenerous practice_.'" (See this also in _Murray's Key_, 12mo, N. Y., 1811, p. iii.) Here, then, we have the feeling and opinion of Murray himself, upon this tender point of right. Here we see the tables turned, and other men judging it "scarcely necessary to apologize for the use which _they have made_ of their predecessors' labours." 18. It is really remarkable to find an author and his admirers so much at variance, as are Murray and his commenders, in relation to his grammatical authorship; and yet, under what circumstances could men have stronger desires to avoid apparent contradiction? They, on the one side, claim for him the highest degree of merit as a grammarian; and continue to applaud his works as if nothing more could be desired in the study of English grammar--a branch of learning which some of them are willing emphatically to call "_his_ science." He, on the contrary, to avert the charge of plagiarism, disclaims almost every thing in which any degree of literary merit consists; supposes it impossible to write an English grammar the greater part of which is not a "compilation;" acknowledges that originality belongs to but a small part of his own; trusts that such a general acknowledgement will protect him from all censure; suppresses the names of other writers, and leaves his examples to rest solely on his own authority; and, "contented with the great respectability of his private character and station, is satisfied with being _useful_ as an author."--_The Friend_, Vol. iii, p. 33. By the high praises bestowed upon his works, his own voice is overborne: the trumpet of fame has drowned it. His liberal authorship is profitable in trade, and interest has power to swell and prolong the strain. 19. The name and character of Lindley Murray are too venerable to allow us to approach even the errors of his grammars, without some recognition of the respect due to his personal virtues and benevolent intentions. For the private virtues of Murray, I entertain as cordial a respect as any other man. Nothing is argued against these, even if it be proved that causes independent of true literary merit have given him his great and unexpected fame as a grammarian. It is not intended by the introduction of these notices, to impute to him any thing more or less than what his own words plainly imply; except those inaccuracies and deficiencies which still disgrace his work as a literary performance, and which of course he did not discover. He himself knew that he had not brought the book to such perfection as has been ascribed to it; for, by way of apology for his frequent alterations, he says, "Works of this nature admit of repeated improvements; and are, perhaps, never complete." Necessity has urged this reasoning upon me. I am as far from any invidious feeling, or any sordid motive, as was Lindley Murray. But it is due to truth, to correct erroneous impressions; and, in order to obtain from some an impartial examination of the following pages, it seemed necessary first to convince them, _that it is possible_ to compose a better grammar than Murray's, without being particularly indebted to him. If this treatise is not such, a great deal of time has been thrown away upon a useless project; and if it is, the achievement is no fit subject for either pride or envy. It differs from his, and from all the pretended amendments of his, as a new map, drawn from actual and minute surveys, differs from an old one, compiled chiefly from others still older and confessedly still more imperfect. The region and the scope are essentially the same; the tracing and the colouring are more original; and (if the reader can pardon the suggestion) perhaps more accurate and vivid. 20. He who makes a new grammar, does nothing for the advancement of learning, unless his performance excel all earlier ones designed for the same purpose; and nothing for his own honour, unless such excellence result from the exercise of his own ingenuity and taste. A good style naturally commends itself to every reader--even to him who cannot tell why it is worthy of preference. Hence there is reason to believe, that the true principles of practical grammar, deduced from custom and sanctioned by time, will never be generally superseded by any thing which individual caprice may substitute. In the republic of letters, there will always be some who can distinguish merit; and it is impossible that these should ever be converted to any whimsical theory of language, which goes to make void the learning of past ages. There will always be some who can discern the difference between originality of style, and innovation in doctrine,--between a due regard to the opinions of others, and an actual usurpation of their text; and it is incredible that these should ever be satisfied with any mere compilation of grammar, or with any such authorship as either confesses or betrays the writer's own incompetence. For it is not true, that, "an English grammar must necessarily be," in any considerable degree, if at all, "a compilation;" nay, on such a theme, and in "the grammatical part" of the work, all compilation beyond a fair use of authorities regularly quoted, or of materials either voluntarily furnished or free to all, most unavoidably implies--not conscious "ability," generously doing honour to rival merit--nor "exemplary diffidence," modestly veiling its own--but inadequate skill and inferior talents, bribing the public by the spoils of genius, and seeking precedence by such means as not even the purest desire of doing good can justify. 21. Among the professed copiers of Murray, there is not one to whom the foregoing remarks do not apply, as forcibly as to him. For no one of them all has attempted any thing more honourable to himself, or more beneficial to the public, than what their master had before achieved; nor is there any one, who, with the same disinterestedness, has guarded his design from the imputation of a pecuniary motive. It is comical to observe what they say in their prefaces. Between praise to sustain their choice of a model, and blame to make room for their pretended amendments, they are often placed in as awkward a dilemma, as that which was contrived when grammar was identified with compilation. I should have much to say, were I to show them all in their true light.[9] Few of them have had such success as to be worthy of notice here; but the names of many will find frequent place in my code of false grammar. The one who seems to be now taking the lead in fame and revenue, filled with glad wonder at his own popularity, is SAMUEL KIRKHAM. Upon this gentleman's performance, I shall therefore bestow a few brief observations. If I do not overrate this author's literary importance, a fair exhibition of the character of his grammar, may be made an instructive lesson to some of our modern literati. The book is a striking sample of a numerous species. 22. Kirkham's treatise is entitled, "English Grammar _in familiar Lectures_, accompanied by a _Compendium_;" that is, by a folded sheet. Of this work, of which I have recently seen copies purporting to be of the "SIXTY-SEVENTH EDITION," and others again of the "HUNDRED AND FIFTH EDITION," each published at Baltimore in 1835, I can give no earlier account, than what may be derived from the "SECOND EDITION, enlarged and much improved," which was published at Harrisburg in 1825. The preface, which appears to have been written for his _first_ edition, is dated, "Fredericktown, Md., August 22, 1823." In it, there is no recognition of any obligation to Murray, or to any other grammarian in particular; but with the modest assumption, that the style of the "best philologists," needed to be retouched, the book is presented to the world under the following pretensions: "The author of this production has endeavoured to condense _all the most important subject-matter of the whole science_, and present it in so small a compass that the learner can become familiarly acquainted with it in a _short time_. He makes but small pretensions to originality in theoretical matter. Most of the principles laid down, have been selected from our _best modern philologists_. If his work is entitled to any degree of _merit_, it is not on account of a judicious selection of principles and rules, but for the easy mode adopted of communicating _these_ to the mind of the learner."--_Kirkham's Grammar_, 1825, p. 10. 23. It will be found on examination, that what this author regarded as _"all the most important subject-matter of the whole science" of grammar_, included nothing more than the most common elements of the orthography, etymology, and syntax, of the English tongue--beyond which his scholarship appears not to have extended. Whatsoever relates to derivation, to the sounds of the letters, to prosody, (as punctuation, utterance, figures, versification, and poetic diction,) found no place in his "comprehensive system of grammar;" nor do his later editions treat any of these things amply or well. In short, he treats nothing well; for he is a bad writer. Commencing his career of authorship under circumstances the most forbidding, yet receiving encouragement from commendations bestowed in pity, he proceeded, like a man of business, to profit mainly by the chance; and, without ever acquiring either the feelings or the habits of a scholar, soon learned by experience that, "It is much better to _write_ than [to] _starve_."--_Kirkham's Gram., Stereotyped_, p. 89. It is cruel in any man, to look narrowly into the faults of an author who peddles a school-book for bread. The starveling wretch whose defence and plea are poverty and sickness, demands, and must have, in the name of humanity, an immunity from criticism, if not the patronage of the public. Far be it from me, to notice any such character, except with kindness and charity. Nor need I be told, that tenderness is due to the "young;" or that noble results sometimes follow unhopeful beginnings. These things are understood and duly appreciated. The gentleman was young once, even as he says; and I, his equal in years, was then, in authorship, as young--though, it were to be hoped, not quite so immature. But, as circumstances alter cases, so time and chance alter circumstances. Under no circumstances, however, can the artifices of quackery be thought excusable in him who claims to be the very greatest of modern grammarians. The niche that in the temple of learning belongs to any individual, can be no other than that which his own labours have purchased: here, his _own merit_ alone must be his pedestal. If this critical sketch be unimpeachably _just_, its publication requires no further warrant. The correction has been forborne, till the subject of it has become rich, and popular, and proud; proud enough at least to have published his utter contempt for me and all my works. Yet not for this do I judge him worthy of notice here, but merely as an apt example of some men's grammatical success and fame. The ways and means to these grand results are what I purpose now to consider. 24. The common supposition, that the world is steadily advancing in knowledge and improvement, would seem to imply, that the man who could plausibly boast of being the most successful and most popular grammarian of the nineteenth century, cannot but be a scholar of such merit as to deserve some place, if not in the general literary history of his age, at least in the particular history of the science which he teaches. It will presently be seen that the author of "English Grammar in Familiar Lectures," boasts of a degree of success and popularity, which, in this age of the world, has no parallel. It is not intended on my part, to dispute any of his assertions on these points; but rather to take it for granted, that in reputation and revenue he is altogether as preëminent as he pretends to be. The character of his alleged _improvements_, however, I shall inspect with the eyes of one who means to know the certainty for himself; and, in this item of literary history, the reader shall see, in some sort, _what profit_ there is in grammar. Is the common language of two of the largest and most enlightened nations on earth so little understood, and its true grammar so little known or appreciated, that one of the most unscholarly and incompetent of all pretenders to grammar can have found means to outrival all the grammarians who have preceded him? Have plagiarism and quackery become the only means of success in philology? Are there now instances to which an intelligent critic may point, and say, "This man, or that, though he can scarcely write a page of good English, has patched up a grammar, by the help of Murray's text only, and thereby made himself rich?" Is there such a charm in the name of _Murray_, and the word _improvement_, that by these two implements alone, the obscurest of men, or the absurdest of teachers, may work his passage to fame; and then, perchance, by contrast of circumstances, grow conceited and arrogant, from the fortune of the undertaking? Let us see what we can find in Kirkham's Grammar, which will go to answer these questions. 25. Take first from one page of his "hundred and fifth edition," a few brief quotations, as a sample of his thoughts and style: "They, however, who introduce _usages which depart from the analogy and philosophy_ of a language, _are conspicuous_ among the number of those who _form that language_, and have power to control it." "PRINCIPLE.--A principle in grammar is a _peculiar construction_ of the language, sanctioned by good usage." "DEFINITION.--A definition in grammar is a _principle_ of language expressed in a _definite form_." "RULE.--A rule describes _the peculiar construction_ or circumstantial relation of words, _which_ custom has established for our observance."--_Kirkham's Grammar_, page 18. Now, as "a rule describes a peculiar construction," and "a principle is a peculiar construction," and "a definition is a principle;" how, according to this grammarian, do a principle, a definition, and a rule, differ each from the others? From the rote here imposed, it is certainly not easier for the learner to conceive of all these things _distinctly_, than it is to understand how a departure from philosophy may make a man deservedly "_conspicuous_." It were easy to multiply examples like these, showing the work to be deficient in clearness, the first requisite of style. 26. The following passages may serve as a specimen of the gentleman's taste, and grammatical accuracy; in one of which, he supposes the neuter verb _is_ to express an _action_, and every _honest man_ to be _long since dead!_ So it stands in all his editions. Did his praisers think so too? "It is correct to say, _The man eats, he eats_; but we cannot say, _The man dog eats, he dog eats_. Why not? Because the man _is here represented_ as the possessor, and dog, the property, or thing possessed; and the genius of our language requires, that when we add _to the possessor_, the _thing_ which _he_ is represented as possessing, _the possessor_ shall take a particular form to show ITS case, or relation to the property."--_Ib._, p. 52. THE PRESENT TENSE.--"This tense is sometimes applied to represent the _actions_ of persons _long since dead_; as, 'Seneca _reasons_ and _moralizes_ well; An HONEST MAN IS the noblest work of God.'"--_Ib._, p. 138. PARTICIPLES.--"The term _Participle_ comes from the Latin word _participio_,[10] which signifies to _partake_."--"Participles are formed by adding to the verb the termination _ing, ed_, or _en_. _Ing_ signifies the same thing as the noun _being_. When _postfixed_ to the _noun-state_ of the verb, the _compound word_ thus formed expresses a continued state of the _verbal denotement_. It implies that what is meant by the verb, is _being_ continued."--_Ib._, p. 78. "All participles _are compound_ in their meaning and office."--_Ib._, p. 79. VERBS.--"Verbs express, not only _the state_ or _manner of being_, but, likewise, all the different _actions_ and _movements_ of all creatures and things, whether animate or inanimate."--_Ib._, p. 62. "It can be easily shown, that from the noun and verb, all the other parts of speech have sprung. Nay, more. _They_ may even be reduced to _one_. _Verbs do not, in reality, express actions_; but they are intrinsically _the mere_ NAMES _of actions_."--_Ib._, p. 37. PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR.--"I have thought proper to intersperse through the pages of this work, under the head of '_Philosophical Notes_,' an entire system of grammatical principles, as deduced from what _appears[11] to me_ to be the _most rational and consistent_ philosophical investigations."-- _Ib._, p. 36. "Johnson, and Blair, and Lowth, _would have been laughed at_, had they essayed to thrust _any thing like our_ modernized philosophical grammar _down the throats of their cotemporaries_."--_Ib._, p. 143. Is it not a pity, that "more than one hundred thousand children and youth" should be daily poring over language and logic like this? 27. For the sake of those who happily remain ignorant of this successful empiricism, it is desirable that the record and exposition of it be made brief. There is little danger that it will long survive its author. But the present subjects of it are sufficiently numerous to deserve some pity. The following is a sample of the gentleman's method of achieving what he both justly and exultingly supposes, that Johnson, or Blair, or Lowth, could not have effected. He scoffs at his own grave instructions, as if they had been the production of some _other_ impostor. Can the fact be credited, that in the following instances, he speaks of _what he himself teaches_?--of what he seriously pronounces _"most rational and consistent?"_--of what is part and parcel of that philosophy of his, which he declares, "will _in general be found to accord_ with the _practical theory_ embraced in the body of his work?"--See _Kirkham's Gram._, p. 36. "Call this '_philosophical parsing_, on reasoning principles, according to the original laws of nature and of thought,' and _the pill will be swallowed_, by pedants and their dupes, with the greatest ease imaginable."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 144. "For the _satisfaction_ of those teachers who prefer it, and _for their adoption, too_, a modernized philosophical theory of the moods and tenses is here presented. If it is not quite so convenient and useful as the old one, they need not hesitate to adopt it. It has the advantage of being _new_; and, moreover, it sounds _large_, and will make the _commonalty stare_. Let it be distinctly understood that you teach '[_Kirkham's_] _philosophical grammar_, founded on reason and common sense,' and you will pass for a very learned man, and make all the good housewives wonder at the rapid march of intellect, and the vast improvements of the age."--_Ib._, p. 141. 28. The _pretty promises_ with which these "Familiar Lectures" abound, are also worthy to be noticed here, as being among the peculiar attractions of the performance. The following may serve as a specimen: "If you _proceed according to my instructions_, you will be sure to acquire a practical knowledge of Grammar in _a short time_."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 49. "If you have sufficient _resolution to do this_, you will, in a short time, _perfectly understand_ the nature and office of the different parts of speech, their various properties and relations, and the rules of syntax that apply to them; _and, in a few weeks_, be able to speak and write accurately."--_Ib._, p. 62. "You will please to turn back and read over again _the whole five lectures_. You must exercise _a little_ patience."--_Ib._, p. 82. "By studying these lectures with attention, you will acquire _more grammatical_ knowledge in three months, than is commonly obtained in _two years_."--_Ib._, p. 82. "I will conduct you _so smoothly through the moods and tenses_, and the conjugation of verbs, that, instead of finding yourself involved in obscurities and deep intricacies, you will scarcely find _an obstruction to impede your progress_."--_Ib._, p. 133. "The supposed Herculean task of learning to conjugate verbs, will be transformed into _a few hours of pleasant pastime_."--_Ib._, p. 142. "_By examining carefully_ the conjugation of the verb through this mood, you will find it _very easy_."--_Ib._, p. 147. "By pursuing the following direction, you can, _in a very short time_, learn to conjugate any verb."--_Ib._, p. 147. "Although this mode of procedure _may, at first, appear to be laborious_, yet, as it is necessary, I trust you will not hesitate to adopt it. _My confidence in your perseverance_, induces me to recommend _any course_ which I know will tend to facilitate your progress."--_Ib._, p. 148. 29. The grand boast of this author is, that he _has succeeded_ in "pleasing himself and the public." He trusts to have "gained the latter point," to so great an extent, and with such security of tenure, that henceforth no man can safely question _the merit_ of his performance. Happy mortal! to whom that success which is the ground of his pride, is also the glittering ægis of his sure defence! To this he points with exultation and self-applause, as if the prosperity of the wicked, or the popularity of an imposture, had never yet been heard of in this clever world![12] Upon what merit this success has been founded, my readers may judge, when I shall have finished this slight review of his work. Probably no other grammar was ever so industriously spread. Such was the author's perseverance in his measures to increase the demand for his book, that even the attainment of such accuracy as he was capable of, was less a subject of concern. For in an article designed "to ward off some of the arrows of criticism,"--an advertisement which, from the eleventh to the "one hundred and fifth edition," has been promising "to the _publick another and a better_ edition,"--he plainly offers this urgent engagement, as "an apology for its defects:" "The author is apprehensive that his work is _not yet as_ accurate and as much simplified as it _may be_. If, however, the disadvantages of lingering under a broken constitution, and of being able to devote to this subject _only a small portion of his time_, snatched from the _active pursuits of a business life_, (active as far as imperfect health permits him to be,) are any apology for his defects, he hopes that the candid will set down _the apology to his credit_.--Not that he would beg a truce with the gentlemen _criticks_ and reviewers. Any compromise with them would betray a want of _self-confidence_ and _moral courage_, which he would by no means, be willing to avow."--_Kirkham's Gram._, (Adv. of 1829,) p. 7. 30. Now, to this painful struggle, this active contention between business and the vapours, let all _credit_ be given, and all _sympathy_ be added; but, as an aid to the studies of healthy children, what better is the book, for any forbearance or favour that may have been won by this apology? It is well known, that, till _phrenology_ became the common talk, the author's principal business was, to commend his own method of teaching _grammar_, and to turn this publication to profit. This honourable industry, aided, as himself suggests, by "not much _less_ than one thousand written recommendations," is said to have wrought for him, in a very few years, a degree of success and fame, at which both the eulogists of Murray and the friends of English grammar may hang their heads. As to a "_compromise_" with any critic or reviewer whom he cannot bribe, it is enough to say of that, it is morally impossible. Nor was it necessary for such an author to throw the gauntlet, to prove himself not lacking in "_self-confidence_." He can show his "_moral courage_," only by daring do right. 31. In 1829, after his book had gone through ten editions, and the demand for it had become so great as "to call forth twenty thousand copies during the year," the prudent author, intending to veer his course according to the _trade-wind_, thought it expedient to retract his former acknowledgement to "our best modern philologists," and to profess himself a modifier of the Great Compiler's code. Where then holds the anchor of his praise? Let the reader say, after weighing and comparing his various pretensions: "Aware that there is, in the _publick_ mind, a strong predilection for the doctrines contained in Mr. Murray's grammar, he has thought proper, not merely from motives of policy, but from choice, _to select his principles chiefly from that work_; and, moreover, to adopt, as far as consistent with his own views, _the language of that eminent philologist_. In no instance has he varied from him, unless he conceived that, in so doing, _some practical advantage_ would be gained. He hopes, _therefore_, to escape the censure so frequently and so justly awarded to those _unfortunate innovators_ who have not scrupled to alter, mutilate, and torture the text of that able writer, merely to gratify an itching propensity to figure in the world _as authors_, and gain an ephemeral popularity by arrogating to themselves _the credit due to another_." [13]--_Kirkham's Gram._, 1829, p. 10. 32. Now these statements are either true or false; and I know not on which supposition they are most creditable to the writer. Had any Roman grammatist thus profited by the name of Varro or Quintilian, he would have been filled with constant dread of somewhere meeting the injured author's frowning shade! Surely, among the professed admirers of Murray, no other man, whether innovator or copyist, unfortunate or successful, is at all to be compared to this gentleman for the audacity with which he has "not scrupled to alter, mutilate, and torture, the text of that able writer." Murray simply intended to do good, and good that might descend to posterity; and this just and generous intention goes far to excuse even his errors. But Kirkham, speaking of posterity, scruples not to disavow and to renounce all care for them, or for any thing which a coming age may think of his character: saying, "My pretensions reach not so far. To the _present generation only_, I present my claims. Should it lend me a listening ear, and grant me its suffrages, _the height of my ambition_ will be attained."--_Advertisement, in his Elocution_, p. 346. His whole design is, therefore, upon the very face of it, a paltry scheme of present income. And, seeing his entered classes of boys and girls must soon have done with him, he has doubtless acted wisely, and quite in accordance with his own interest, to have made all possible haste in his career. 33. Being no rival with him in this race, and having no personal quarrel with him on any account, I would, for his sake, fain rejoice at his success, and withhold my criticisms; because he is said to have been liberal with his gains, and because he has not, like some others, copied me instead of Murray. But the vindication of a greatly injured and perverted science, constrains me to say, on this occasion, that pretensions less consistent with themselves, or less sustained by taste and scholarship, have seldom, if ever, been promulgated in the name of grammar. I have, certainly, no intention to say more than is due to the uninformed and misguided. For some who are ungenerous and prejudiced themselves, will not be unwilling to think me so; and even this freedom, backed and guarded as it is by facts and proofs irrefragable, may still be ingeniously ascribed to an ill motive. To two thirds of the community, one grammar is just as good as an other; because they neither know, nor wish to know, more than may be learned from the very worst. An honest expression of sentiment against abuses of a literary nature, is little the fashion of these times; and the good people who purchase books upon the recommendations of others, may be slow to believe there is no merit where so much has been attributed. But facts may well be credited, in opposition to courteous flattery, when there are the author's own words and works to vouch for them in the face of day. Though a thousand of our great men may have helped a copier's weak copyist to take "some practical advantage" of the world's credulity, it is safe to aver, in the face of dignity still greater, that testimonials more fallacious have seldom mocked the cause of learning. They did not read his book. 34. Notwithstanding the author's change in his professions, the work is now essentially the same as it was at first; except that its errors and contradictions have been greatly multiplied, by the addition of new matter inconsistent with the old. He evidently cares not what doctrines he teaches, or whose; but, as various theories are noised abroad, seizes upon different opinions, and mixes them together, that his books may contain something to suit all parties. "_A System of Philosophical Grammar_," though but an idle speculation, even in his own account, and doubly absurd in him, as being flatly contradictory to his main text, has been thought worthy of insertion. And what his title-page denominates "_A New System of Punctuation_," though mostly in the very words of Murray, was next invented to supply a deficiency which he at length discovered. To admit these, and some other additions, the "comprehensive system-of grammar" was gradually extended from 144 small duodecimo pages, to 228 of the ordinary size. And, in this compass, it was finally stereotyped in 1829; so that the ninety-four editions published since, have nothing new for history. 35. But the publication of an other work designed for schools, "_An Essay an Elocution_" shows the progress of the author's mind. Nothing can be more radically opposite, than are some of the elementary doctrines which this gentleman is now teaching; nothing, more strangely inconsistent, than are some of his declarations and professions. For instance: "A consonant is a letter that cannot be perfectly sounded without the help of a vowel."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 19. Again: "A consonant is not only capable of being perfectly sounded without the help of a vowel, but, moreover, of forming, like a vowel, a separate syllable."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 32. Take a second example. He makes "ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS" a _prominent division_ and _leading title_, in treating of the pronouns proper; defines the term in a manner peculiar to himself; prefers and uses it in all his parsing; and yet, by the third sentence of the story, the learner is conducted to this just conclusion: "Hence, such a thing as an _adjective-pronoun_ cannot exist."--_Grammar_, p. 105. Once more. Upon his own rules, or such as he had borrowed, he comments thus, and comments _truly_, because he had either written them badly or made an ill choice: "But some of these rules are foolish, trifling, and unimportant."--_Elocution_, p. 97. Again: "Rules 10 and 11, rest on a sandy foundation. They appear not to be based on the principles of the language."--_Grammar_, p. 59. These are but specimens of his own frequent testimony against himself! Nor shall he find refuge in the impudent falsehood, that the things which I quote as his, are not his own.[14] These contradictory texts, and scores of others which might be added to them, are as rightfully his own, as any doctrine he has ever yet inculcated. But, upon the credulity of ignorance, his high-sounding certificates and unbounded boasting can impose any thing. They overrule all in favour of cue of the worst grammars extant;--of which he says, "it is now studied by more than one hundred thousand children and youth; and is more extensively used than _all other English grammars_ published in the United States."--_Elocution_, p. 347. The booksellers say, he receives from his publishers _ten cents a copy_, on this work, and that he reports the sale of _sixty thousand copies per annum_. Such has of late been his public boast. I have once had the story from his own lips, and of course congratulated him, though I dislike the book. Six thousand dollars a year, on this most miserable modification of Lindley Murray's Grammar! Be it so--or double, if he and the public please. Murray had so little originality in his work, or so little selfishness in his design, that he would not take any thing; and his may ultimately prove the better bargain. 36. A man may boast and bless himself as he pleases, his fortune, surely, can never be worthy of an other's envy, so long as he finds it inadequate to his own great merits, and unworthy of his own poor gratitude. As a grammarian, Kirkham claims to be second only to Lindley Murray; and says, "Since the days of Lowth, no other work on grammar, Murray's only excepted, has been so favourably received by the _publick_ as his own. As a proof of this, he would mention, that within the last six years it has passed through _fifty_ editions."--_Preface to Elocution_, p. 12. And, at the same time, and in the same preface, he complains, that, "Of all the labours done under the sun, the labours _of the pen_ meet with the poorest reward."--_Ibid._, p. 5. This too clearly favours the report, that his books were not written by himself, but by others whom he hired. Possibly, the anonymous helper may here have penned, not his employer's feeling, but a line of his own experience. But I choose to ascribe the passage to the professed author, and to hold him answerable for the inconsistency. Willing to illustrate by the best and fairest examples these fruitful means of grammatical fame, I am glad of his present success, which, through this record, shall become yet more famous. It is the only thing which makes him worthy of the notice here taken of him. But I cannot sympathize with his complaint, because he never sought any but "the poorest reward;" and more than all he sought, he found. In his last "Address to Teachers," he says, "He may doubtless be permitted emphatically to say with Prospero, '_Your breath has filled my sails_.'"--_Elocution_, p. 18. If this boasting has any truth in it, he ought to be satisfied. But it is written, "He that loveth silver, shall not be satisfied with silver; nor he that loveth abundance, with increase." Let him remember this.[15] He now announces three or four other works as forthcoming shortly. What these will achieve, the world will see. But I must confine myself to the Grammar. 37. In this volume, scarcely any thing is found where it might be expected. "The author," as he tells us in his preface, "has not followed the common 'artificial and unnatural arrangement adopted by most of his predecessors;' _yet he_ has endeavoured to pursue a more judicious one, namely, '_the order of the understanding_.'"--_Grammar_, p. 12. But if this is the order of his understanding, he is greatly to be pitied. A book more confused in its plan, more wanting in method, more imperfect in distinctness of parts, more deficient in symmetry, or more difficult of reference, shall not easily be found in stereotype. Let the reader try to follow us here. Bating twelve pages at the beginning, occupied by the title, recommendations, advertisement, contents, preface, hints to teachers, and advice to lecturers; and fifty-four at the end, embracing syntax, orthography, orthoëpy, provincialisms, prosody, punctuation, versification, rhetoric, figures of speech, and a Key, all in the sequence here given; the work consists of fourteen chapters of grammar, absurdly called "Familiar Lectures." The first treats of sundries, under half a dozen titles, but chiefly of Orthography; and the last is three pages and a half, of the most common remarks, on Derivation. In the remaining twelve, the Etymology and Syntax of the ten parts of speech are commingled; and an attempt is made, to teach simultaneously all that the author judged important in either. Hence he gives us, in a strange congeries, rules, remarks, illustrations, false syntax, systematic parsing, exercises in parsing, two different orders of notes, three different orders of questions, and a variety of other titles merely occasional. All these things, being additional to his main text, are to be connected, in the mind of the learner, with the parts of speech successively, in some new and inexplicable catenation found only in the arrangement of the lectures. The author himself could not see through the chaos. He accordingly made his table of contents a mere meagre alphabetical index. Having once attempted in vain to explain the order of his instructions, he actually gave the matter up in despair! 38. In length, these pretended lectures vary, from three or four pages, to eight-and-thirty. Their subjects run thus: 1. Language, Grammar, Orthography; 2. Nouns and Verbs; 3. Articles; 4. Adjectives; 5. Participles; 6. Adverbs; 7. Prepositions; 8. Pronouns; 9. Conjunctions; 10. Interjections and Nouns; 11. Moods and Tenses; 12. Irregular Verbs; 13. Auxiliary, Passive, and Defective Verbs; 14. Derivation. Which, now, is "more judicious," such confusion as this, or the arrangement which has been common from time immemorial? Who that has any respect for the human intellect, or whose powers of mind deserve any in return, will avouch this jumble to be "the order of the understanding?" Are the methods of science to be accounted mere hinderances to instruction? Has grammar really been made easy by this confounding of its parts? Or are we lured by the name, "_Familiar Lectures_,"--a term manifestly adopted as a mere decoy, and, with respect to the work itself, totally inappropriate? If these chapters have ever been actually delivered as a series of lectures, the reader must have been employed on some occasions eight or ten times as long as on others! "People," says Dr. Johnson, "have now-a-days got a strange opinion that every thing should be taught by _lectures_. Now, I cannot see that lectures can do so much good as a private reading of the books from which the lectures are taken. I know of nothing that can be best taught by lectures, except where experiments are to be shown. You may teach chymistry by lectures--you _might_ teach the making of shoes by lectures." --_Boswell's Life of Johnson_. 39. With singular ignorance and untruth, this gentleman claims to have invented a better method of analysis than had ever been practised before. Of other grammars, his preface avers, "They have _all overlooked_ what the author considers a very important object; namely, _a systematick order of parsing_."--_Grammar_, p. 9. And, in his "Hints to Teachers," presenting himself as a model, and his book as a paragon, he says: "By pursuing this system, he can, with less labour, advance a pupil _farther_ in the practical knowledge of this _abstruse science_, in _two months_, than he could in _one year_, when he taught in the _old way_."--_Grammar_, p. 12. What his "_old way_" was, does not appear. Doubtless something sufficiently bad. And as to his new way, I shall hereafter have occasion to show that _that_ is sufficiently bad also. But to this gasconade the simple-minded have given credit--because the author showed certificates that testified to his great success, and called him "amiable and modest!" But who can look into the book, or into the writer's pretensions in regard to his predecessors, and conceive the merit which has made him--"preëminent by so much odds?" Was Murray less praiseworthy, less amiable, or less modest? In illustration of my topic, and for the sake of literary justice, I have selected that honoured "_Compiler_" to show the abuses of praise; let the history of this his vaunting _modifier_ cap the climax of vanity. In general, his amendments of "that eminent philologist," are not more skillful than the following touch upon an eminent dramatist; and here, it is plain, he has mistaken two nouns for adjectives, and converted into bad English a beautiful passage, the sentiment of which is worthy of an _author's_ recollection: "The evil _deed_ or _deeds_ that men do, _lives_ after them; The good _deed_ or _deeds is_ oft interred with their bones." [16] _Kirkham's Grammar_, p. 75. 40. Lord Bacon observes, "Nothing is thought so easy a request to a great person as his letter; and yet, if it be not in a good cause, it is so much out of his reputation." It is to this mischievous facility of recommendation, this prostituted influence of great names, that the inconvenient diversity of school-books, and the continued use of bad ones, are in a great measure to be attributed. It belongs to those who understand the subjects of which authors profess to treat, to judge fairly and fully of their works, and then to let the _reasons_ of their judgement be known. For no one will question the fact, that a vast number of the school-books now in use are either egregious plagiarisms or productions of no comparative merit. And, what is still more surprising and monstrous, presidents, governors, senators, and judges; professors, doctors, clergymen, and lawyers; a host of titled connoisseurs; with incredible facility lend their names, not only to works of inferior merit, but to the vilest thefts, and the wildest absurdities, palmed off upon their own and the public credulity, under pretence of improvement. The man who thus prefixes his letter of recommendation to an ill-written book, publishes, out of mere courtesy, a direct impeachment of his own scholarship or integrity. Yet, how often have we seen the honours of a high office, or even of a worthy name, prostituted to give a temporary or local currency to a book which it would disgrace any man of letters to quote! With such encouragement, nonsense wrestles for the seat of learning, exploded errors are republished as novelties, original writers are plundered by dunces, and men that understand nothing well, profess to teach all sciences! 41. All praise of excellence must needs be comparative, because the thing itself is so. To excel in grammar, is but to know better than others wherein grammatical excellence consists. Hence there is no fixed point of perfection beyond which such learning may not be carried. The limit to improvement is not so much in the nature of the subject, as in the powers of the mind, and in the inducements to exert them upon a theme so humble and so uninviting. Dr. Johnson suggests, in his masterly preface, "that a whole life cannot be spent upon syntax and etymology, and that even a whole life would not be sufficient." Who then will suppose, in the face of such facts and confessions as have been exhibited, that either in the faulty publications of Murray, or among the various modifications of them by other hands we have any such work as deserves to be made a permanent standard of instruction in English grammar? With great sacrifices, both of pleasure and of interest, I have humbly endeavoured to supply this desideratum; and it remains for other men to determine, and other times to know, what place shall be given to these my labours, in the general story of this branch of learning. Intending to develop not only the principles but also the history of grammar, I could not but speak of its authors. The writer who looks broadly at the past and the present, to give sound instruction to the future, must not judge of men by their shadows. If the truth, honestly told, diminish the stature of some, it does it merely by clearing the sight of the beholder. Real greatness cannot suffer loss by the dissipating of a vapour. If reputation has been raised upon the mist of ignorance, who but the builder shall lament its overthrow? If the works of grammarians are often ungrammatical, whose fault is this but their own? If _all_ grammatical fame is little in itself, how can the abatement of what is undeserved of it be much? If the errors of some have long been tolerated, what right of the critic has been lost by nonuser? If the interests of Science have been sacrificed to Mammon, what rebuke can do injustice to the craft? Nay, let the broad-axe of the critic hew up to the line, till every beam in her temple be smooth and straight. For, "certainly, next to commending good writers, the greatest service to learning is, to expose the bad, who can only in that way be made of any use to it." [17] And if, among the makers of grammars, the scribblings of some, and the filchings of others, are discreditable alike to themselves and to their theme, let the reader consider, how great must be the intrinsic worth of that study which still maintains its credit in spite of all these abuses! CHAPTER IV. OF THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE. "Tot fallaciis obrutum, tot hallucinationibus demersum, tot adhuc tenebris circumfusum studium hocce mihi visum est, ut nihil satis tuto in hac materia præstari posse arbitratus sim, nisi nova quadam arte critica præmissa."--SCIPIO MAFFEIUS: _Cassiod. Complexiones_, p. xxx. 1. The origin of things is, for many reasons, a peculiarly interesting point in their history. Among those who have thought fit to inquire into the prime origin of speech, it has been matter of dispute, whether we ought to consider it a special gift from Heaven, or an acquisition of industry--a natural endowment, or an artificial invention. Nor is any thing that has ever yet been said upon it, sufficient to set the question permanently at rest. That there is in some words, and perhaps in some of every language, a natural connexion between the sounds uttered and the things signified, cannot be denied; yet, on the other hand, there is, in the use of words in general, so much to which nature affords no clew or index, that this whole process of communicating thought by speech, seems to be artificial. Under an other head, I have already cited from Sanctius some opinions of the ancient grammarians and philosophers on this point. With the reasoning of that zealous instructor, the following sentence from Dr. Blair very obviously accords: "To suppose words invented, or names given to things, in a manner purely arbitrary, without any ground or reason, is to suppose an effect without a cause. There must have always been some motive which led to the assignation of one name rather than an other."--_Rhet._, Lect. vi, p. 55. 2. But, in their endeavours to explain the origin and early progress of language, several learned men, among whom is this celebrated lecturer, have needlessly perplexed both themselves and their readers, with sundry questions, assumptions, and reasonings, which are manifestly contrary to what has been made known to us on the best of all authority. What signifies it[18] for a man to tell us how nations rude and barbarous invented interjections first,[19] and then nouns, and then verbs,[20] and finally the other parts of speech; when he himself confesses that he does not know whether language "can be considered a human invention at all;" and when he believed, or ought to have believed, that the speech of the first man, though probably augmented by those who afterwards used it, was, essentially, the one language of the earth for more than eighteen centuries? The task of inventing a language _de novo_, could surely have fallen upon no man but Adam; and he, in the garden of Paradise, had doubtless some aids and facilities not common to every wild man of the woods. 3. The learned Doctor was equally puzzled to conceive, "either how society could form itself, previously to language, or how words could rise into a language, previously to society formed."--_Blair's Rhet._, Lect. vi, p. 54. This too was but an idle perplexity, though thousands have gravely pored over it since, as a part of the study of rhetoric; for, if neither could be previous to the other, they must have sprung up simultaneously. And it is a sort of slander upon our prime ancestor, to suggest, that, because he was "_the first_," he must have been "_the rudest_" of his race; and that, "consequently, those first rudiments of speech," which alone the supposition allows to him or to his family, "must have been poor and narrow."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 54. It is far more reasonable to think, with a later author, that, "Adam had an insight into natural things far beyond the acutest philosopher, as may be gathered from his giving of names to all creatures, according to their different constitutions."--_Robinson's Scripture Characters_, p. 4. 4. But Dr. Blair is not alone in the view which he here takes. The same thing has bean suggested by other learned men. Thus Dr. James P. Wilson, of Philadelphia, in an octavo published in 1817, says: "It is difficult to discern how communities could have existed without language, and equally so to discover how language could have obtained, in a peopled world, prior to society."--_Wilson's Essay on Gram._, p. 1. I know not how so many professed Christians, and some of them teachers of religion too, with the Bible in their hands, can reason upon this subject as they do. We find them, in their speculations, conspiring to represent primeval man, to use their own words, as a "_savage_, whose 'howl at the appearance of danger, and whose exclamations of joy at the sight of his prey, reiterated, or varied with the change of objects, were probably the origin of language.'--_Booth's Analytical Dictionary_. In the dawn of society, ages may have passed away, with little more converse than what these efforts would produce."--_Gardiner's Music of Nature_, p. 31. Here Gardiner quotes Booth with approbation, and the latter, like Wilson, may have borrowed his ideas from Blair. Thus are we taught by a multitude of guessers, grave, learned, and oracular, that the last of the ten parts of speech was in fact the first: "_Interjections_ are exceedingly interesting in one respect. They are, there can be little doubt, _the oldest words_ in all languages; and may be considered the elements of speech."--_Bucke's Classical Gram._, p. 78. On this point, however, Dr. Blair seems not to be quite consistent with himself: "Those exclamations, therefore, which by grammarians are called _interjections_, uttered in a strong and passionate manner, were, _beyond doubt_, the first elements or beginnings of speech."--_Rhet._, Lect. vi, p. 55. "The _names_ of sensible objects were, _in all languages_, the words most early introduced."--_Rhet._, Lect. xiv, p. 135. "The _names of sensible objects_," says Murray too, "were the words most early introduced."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 336. Bat what says the Bible? 5. Revelation informs us that our first progenitor was not only endowed with the faculty of speech, but, as it would appear, actually incited by the Deity to exert that faculty in giving _names_ to the objects by which he was surrounded. "Out of the ground the Lord God formed every beast of the field and every fowl of the air; and brought them unto Adam, to see what he would call them: and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the name thereof. And Adam gave names to all cattle, and to the fowls of the air, and to every beast of the field; but for Adam there was not found a help meet for him."--_Gen._, ii, 19, 20. This account of the first naming of the other creatures by man, is apparently a parenthesis in the story of the creation of woman, with which the second chapter of Genesis concludes. But, in the preceding chapter, the Deity is represented not only as calling all things into existence _by his Word_; but as _speaking to the first human pair_, with reference to their increase in the earth, and to their dominion over it, and over all the living creatures formed to inhabit it. So that the order of the events cannot be clearly inferred from the order of the narration. The manner of this communication to man, may also be a subject of doubt. Whether it was, or was not, made by a voice of words, may be questioned. But, surely, that Being who, in creating the world and its inhabitants, manifested his own infinite wisdom, eternal power, and godhead, does not lack words, or any other means of signification, if he will use them. And, in the inspired record of his work in the beginning, he is certainly represented, not only as naming all things imperatively, when he spoke them into being, but as expressly calling the light _Day_, the darkness _Night_, the firmament _Heaven_, the dry land _Earth_, and the gatherings of the mighty waters _Seas_. 6. Dr. Thomas Hartwell Horne, in commending a work by Dr. Ellis, concerning the origin of human wisdom and understanding, says: "It shows satisfactorily, that religion _and language_ entered the world by divine revelation, without the aid of which, man had not been a rational or religious creature."--_Study of the Scriptures_, Vol. i, p. 4. "Plato attributes the primitive words of the _first language_ to a divine origin;" and Dr. Wilson remarks, "The transition from silence to speech, implies an effort of the understanding too great for man."--_Essay on Gram._, p. 1. Dr. Beattie says, "Mankind must have spoken in all ages, the young constantly learning to speak by imitating those who were older; and, if so, our first parents must have received this art, as well as some others, by inspiration."--_Moral Science_, p. 27. Horne Tooke says, "I imagine that it is, _in some measure_, with the vehicle of our thoughts, as with the vehicles for our bodies. Necessity produced both."--_Diversions of Purley_, Vol. i, p. 20. Again: "Language, it is true, _is an art_, and a glorious one; whose influence extends over all the others, and in which finally all science whatever must centre: but an art _springing from necessity_, and originally invented by artless men, who did not sit down like philosophers to invent it."--_Ib._, Vol. i, p. 259. 7. Milton imagines Adam's first knowledge of speech, to have sprung from the hearing of his own voice; and that voice to have been raised, instinctively, or spontaneously, in an animated inquiry concerning his own origin--an inquiry in which he addresses to unintelligent objects, and inferior creatures, such questions as the Deity alone could answer: "Myself I then perused, and limb by limb Surveyed, and sometimes went, and sometimes ran With supple joints, as lively vigor led: But who I was, or where, or from what cause, Knew not; _to speak I tried, and forthwith spake; My tongue obeyed, and readily could name Whatever I saw_. 'Thou Sun,' said I, 'fair light, And thou enlightened Earth, so fresh and gay, Ye Hills and Dales, ye Rivers, Woods, and Plains; And ye that live and move, fair Creatures! tell, Tell, if ye saw, how came I thus, how here? Not of myself; by some great Maker then, In goodness and in power preëminent: Tell me how I may know him, how adore, From whom I have that thus I move and live, And feel that I am happier than I know.'" _Paradise Lost_, Book viii, l. 267. But, to the imagination of a poet, a freedom is allowed, which belongs not to philosophy. We have not always the means of knowing how far he _literally_ believes what he states. 8. My own opinion is, that language is partly natural and partly artificial. And, as the following quotation from the Greek of Ammonius will serve in some degree to illustrate it, I present the passage in English for the consideration of those who may prefer ancient to modern speculations: "In the same manner, therefore, as mere motion is from nature, but dancing is something positive; and as wood exists in nature, but a door is something positive; so is the mere utterance of vocal sound founded in nature, but the signification of ideas by nouns or verbs is something positive. And hence it is, that, as to the simple power of producing vocal sound--which is as it were the organ or instrument of the soul's faculties of knowledge or volition--as to this vocal power, I say, man seems to possess it from nature, in like manner as irrational animals; but as to the power of using significantly nouns or verbs, or sentences combining these, (which are not natural but positive,) this he possesses by way of peculiar eminence; because he alone of all mortal beings partakes of a soul which can move itself, and operate to the production of arts. So that, even in the utterance of sounds, the inventive power of the mind is discerned; as the various elegant compositions, both in metre, and without metre, abundantly prove."--_Ammon. de Interpr._, p. 51.[21] 9. Man was made for society; and from the first period of human existence the race were social. Monkish seclusion is manifestly unnatural; and the wild independence of the savage, is properly denominated a state of nature, only in contradistinction to that state in which the arts are cultivated. But to civilized life, or even to that which is in any degree social, language is absolutely necessary. There is therefore no danger that the language of any nation shall fall into disuse, till the people by whom it is spoken, shall either adopt some other, or become themselves extinct. When the latter event occurs, as is the case with the ancient Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, the language, if preserved at all from oblivion, becomes the more permanent; because the causes which are constantly tending to improve or deteriorate every living language, have ceased to operate upon those which are learned only from ancient books. The inflections which now compose the declensions and conjugations of the dead languages, and which indeed have ever constituted the peculiar characteristics of those forms of speech, must remain forever as they are. 10. When a nation changes, its language, as did our forefathers in Britain, producing by a gradual amalgamation of materials drawn from various tongues a new one differing from all, the first stages of its grammar will of course be chaotic and rude. Uniformity springs from the steady application of rules; and polish is the work of taste and refinement. We may easily err by following the example of our early writers with more reverence than judgement; nor is it possible for us to do justice to the grammarians, whether early or late, without a knowledge both of the history and of the present state of the science which they profess to teach. I therefore think it proper rapidly to glance at many things remote indeed in time, yet nearer to my present purpose, and abundantly more worthy of the student's consideration, than a thousand matters which are taught for grammar by the authors of treatises professedly elementary. 11. As we have already seen, some have supposed that the formation of the first language must have been very slow and gradual. But of this they offer no proof, and from the pen of inspiration we seem to have testimony against it. Did Adam give names to all the creatures about him, and then allow those names to be immediately forgotten? Did not both he and his family continually use his original nouns in their social intercourse? and how could they use them, without other parts of speech to form them into sentences? Nay, do we not know from the Bible, that on several occasions our prime ancestor expressed himself like an intelligent man, and used all the parts of speech which are now considered _necessary_? What did he say, when his fit partner, the fairest and loveliest work of God, was presented to him? "This is now bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh: she shall be called Woman, because she was taken out of Man." And again: Had he not other words than nouns, when he made answer concerning his transgression: "I heard thy voice in the garden, and I was afraid, because I was naked; and I hid myself?" What is it, then, but a groundless assumption, to make him and his immediate descendants ignorant savages, and to affirm, with Dr. Blair, that "their speech must have been poor and narrow?" It is not possible now to ascertain what degree of perfection the oral communication of the first age exhibited. But, as languages are now known to improve in proportion to the improvement of society in civilization and intelligence, and as we cannot reasonably suppose the first inhabitants of the earth to have been savages, it seems, I think, a plausible conjecture, that the primeval tongue was at least sufficient for all the ordinary intercourse of civilized men, living in the simple manner ascribed to our early ancestors in Scripture; and that, in many instances, human speech subsequently declined far below its original standard. 12. At any rate, let it be remembered that the first language spoken on earth, whatever it was, originated in Eden before the fall; that this "one language," which all men understood until the dispersion, is to be traced, not to the cries of savage hunters, echoed through the wilds and glades where Nimrod planted Babel, but to that eastern garden of God's own planting, wherein grew "every tree that is pleasant to the sight and good for food;" to that paradise into which the Lord God put the new-created man, "to dress it and to keep it." It was here that Adam and his partner learned to speak, while yet they stood blameless and blessed, entire and wanting nothing; free in the exercise of perfect faculties of body and mind, capable of acquiring knowledge through observation and experience, and also favoured with immediate communications with their Maker. Yet Adam, having nothing which he did not receive, could not originally bring any real knowledge into the world with him, any more than men do now: this, in whatever degree attained, must be, and must always have been, either an acquisition of reason, or a revelation from God. And, according to the understanding of some, even in the beginning, "That was not first which is spiritual, but that which is natural; and afterward that which is spiritual."--_1 Cor., xv, 46_. That is, the spirit of Christ, the second Adam, was bestowed on the first Adam, after his creation, as the life and the light of the immortal soul. For, "In _Him_ was life, and the life was the light of men," a life which our first parents forfeited and lost on the day of their transgression. "It was undoubtedly in the light of this pure influence that Adam had such an intuitive discerning of the creation, as enabled him to give names to all creatures according to their several natures."--_Phipps, on Man_, p. 4. A lapse from all this favour, into conscious guilt and misery; a knowledge of good withdrawn, and of evil made too sure; followed the first transgression. Abandoned then in great measure by superhuman aid, and left to contend with foes without and foes within, mankind became what history and observation prove them to have been; and henceforth, by painful experience, and careful research, and cautious faith, and humble docility, must they gather the fruits of _knowledge_; by a vain desire and false conceit of which, they had forfeited the tree of life. So runs the story "Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste Brought death into the world, and all our wo, With loss of Eden, till one greater Man Restore us, and regain the blissful seat." 13. The analogy of words in the different languages now known, has been thought by many to be sufficiently frequent and clear to suggest the idea of their common origin. Their differences are indeed great; but perhaps not greater, than the differences in the several races of men, all of whom, as revelation teaches, sprung from one common stock. From the same source we learn, that, till the year of the world 1844, "The whole earth was of one language, and of one speech."--_Gen._, xi, 1.[22] At that period, the whole world of mankind consisted only of the descendants of the eight souls who had been saved in the ark, and so many of the eight as had survived the flood one hundred and eighty-eight years. Then occurred that remarkable intervention of the Deity, in which he was pleased to confound their language; so that they could not understand one an other's speech, and were consequently scattered abroad upon the face of the earth. This, however, in the opinion of many learned men, does not prove the immediate formation of any new languages. 14. But, whether new languages were thus immediately formed or not, the event, in all probability, laid the foundation for that diversity which subsequently obtained among the languages of the different nations which sprung from the dispersion; and hence it may be regarded as the remote cause of the differences which now exist. But for the immediate origin of the peculiar characteristical differences which distinguish the various languages now known, we are not able with much certainty to account. Nor is there even much plausibility in the speculations of those grammarians who have attempted to explain the order and manner in which the declensions, the moods, the tenses, or other leading features of the languages, were first introduced. They came into use before they could be generally known, and the partial introduction of them could seldom with propriety be made a subject of instruction or record, even if there were letters and learning at hand to do them this honour. And it is better to be content with ignorance, than to form such conjectures as imply any thing that is absurd or impossible. For instance: Neilson's Theory of the Moods, published in the Classical Journal of 1819, though it exhibits ingenuity and learning, is liable to this strong objection; that it proceeds on the supposition, that the moods of English verbs, and of several other derivative tongues, were invented in a certain order by persons, not speaking a language learned chiefly from their fathers, but uttering a new one as necessity prompted. But when or where, since the building of Babel, has this ever happened? That no dates are given, or places mentioned, the reader regrets, but he cannot marvel. 15. By what successive changes, our words in general, and especially the minor parts of speech, have become what we now find them, and what is their original and proper signification according to their derivation, the etymologist may often show to our entire satisfaction. Every word must have had its particular origin and history; and he who in such things can explain with certainty what is not commonly known, may do some service to science. But even here the utility of his curious inquiries may be overrated; and whenever, for the sake of some favourite theory, he ventures into the regions of conjecture, or allows himself to be seduced from the path of practical instruction, his errors are obstinate, and his guidance is peculiarly deceptive. Men fond of such speculations, and able to support them with some show of learning, have done more to unsettle the science of grammar, and to divert ingenious teachers from the best methods of instruction, than all other visionaries put together. Etymological inquiries are important, and I do not mean to censure or discourage them, merely as such; but the folly of supposing that in our language words must needs be of the same class, or part of speech, as that to which they may be traced in an other, deserves to be rebuked. The words _the_ and _an_ may be articles in English, though obviously traceable to something else in Saxon; and a learned man may, in my opinion, be better employed, than in contending that _if, though_, and _although_, are not conjunctions, but verbs! 16. Language is either oral or written; the question of its origin has consequently two parts. Having suggested what seemed necessary respecting the origin of _speech_, I now proceed to that of _writing_. Sheridan says, "We have in use _two kinds of language_, the spoken and the written: the one, the gift of God; the other, the invention of man."--_Elocution_, p. xiv. If this ascription of the two things to their sources, were as just as it is clear and emphatical, both parts of our question would seem to be resolved. But this great rhetorician either forgot his own doctrine, or did not mean what he here says. For he afterwards makes the former kind of language as much a work of art, as any one will suppose the latter to have been. In his sixth lecture, he comments on the gift of speech thus: "But still we are to observe, that nature did no more than furnish the power and means; _she did not give the language_, as in the case of the passions, but left it to the industry of men, to find out and agree upon such articulate sounds, as they should choose to make the symbols of their ideas."--_Ib._, p. 147. He even goes farther, and supposes certain _tones of the voice_ to be things invented by man: "Accordingly, as she did not furnish the _words_, which were to be the symbols of his ideas; neither did she furnish the _tones_, which were to manifest, and communicate by their own virtue, the internal exertions and emotions, of such of his nobler faculties, as chiefly distinguish him from the brute species; but left them also, like words, to the care and invention of man."--_Ibidem_. On this branch of the subject, enough has already been presented. 17. By most authors, alphabetic writing is not only considered an artificial invention, but supposed to have been wholly unknown in the early ages of the world. Its antiquity, however, is great. Of this art, in which the science of grammar originated, we are not able to trace the commencement. Different nations have claimed the honour of the invention; and it is not decided, among the learned, to whom, or to what country, it belongs. It probably originated in Egypt. For, "The Egyptians," it is said, "paid divine honours to the Inventor of Letters, whom they called _Theuth_: and Socrates, when he speaks of him, considers him as a god, or a god-like man."--_British Gram._, p. 32. Charles Bucke has it, "That the first inventor of letters is supposed to have been _Memnon_; who was, in consequence, fabled to be the son of Aurora, goddess of the morning."--_Bucke's Classical Gram._, p. 5. The ancients in general seem to have thought Phoenicia the birthplace of Letters: "Phoenicians first, if ancient fame be true, The sacred mystery of letters knew; They first, by sound, in various lines design'd, Express'd the meaning of the thinking mind; The power of words by figures rude conveyed, And useful science everlasting made." _Rowe's Lucan_, B. iii, l. 334. 18. Some, however, seem willing to think writing coeval with speech. Thus Bicknell, from Martin's Physico-Grammatical Essay: "We are told by Moses, that Adam _gave names to every living creature_;[23] but how those names were written, or what sort of characters he made use of, is not known to us; nor indeed whether Adam ever made use of a written language at all; since we find no mention made of any in the sacred history."--_Bicknell's Gram._, Part ii, p. 5. A certain late writer on English grammar, with admirable flippancy, cuts this matter short, as follows,--satisfying himself with pronouncing all speech to be natural, and all writing artificial: "Of how many primary kinds is language? It is of two kinds; natural or spoken, and artificial or written."--_Oliver B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 15. "Natural language is, to a limited extent, (the representation of the passions,) common to brutes as well as man; but artificial language, being the work of invention, is peculiar to man."--_Ib._, p. 16.[24] 19. The writings delivered to the Israelites by Moses, are more ancient than any others now known. In the thirty-first chapter of Exodus, it is said, that God "gave unto Moses, upon Mount Sinai, two tables of testimony, tables of stone, _written with the finger of God_." And again, in the thirty-second: "The tables were the work of God, and the writing was _the writing of God_, graven upon the tables." But these divine testimonies, thus miraculously written, do not appear to have been the first writing; for Moses had been previously commanded to write an account of the victory over Amalek, "for a memorial in a book, and rehearse it in the ears of Joshua."--_Exod._, xvii, 14. This first battle of the Israelites occurred in Rephidim, a place on the east side of the western gulf of the Red Sea, at or near Horeb, but before they came to Sinai, upon the top of which, (on the fiftieth day after their departure from Egypt,) Moses received the ten commandments of the law. 20. Some authors, however, among whom is Dr. Adam Clarke, suppose that in this instance the order of the events is not to be inferred from the order of the record, or that there is room to doubt whether the use of letters was here intended; and that there consequently remains a strong probability, that the sacred Decalogue, which God himself delivered to Moses on Sinai, A. M. 2513, B. C. 1491, was "the first writing _in alphabetical characters_ ever exhibited to the world." See _Clarke's Succession of Sacred Literature_, Vol. i, p. 24. Dr. Scott, in his General Preface to the Bible, seems likewise to favour the same opinion. "Indeed," says he, "there is some probability in the opinion, that the art of writing was first communicated by revelation, to Moses, in order to perpetuate, with certainty, those facts, truths, and laws, which he was employed to deliver to Israel. Learned men find no traces of _literary_, or alphabetical, writing, in the history of the nations, till long after the days of Moses; unless the book of Job may be regarded as an exception. The art of expressing almost an infinite variety of sounds, by the interchanges of a few letters, or marks, seems more like a discovery to man from heaven, than a human invention; and its beneficial effects, and almost absolute necessity, for the preservation and communication of true religion, favour the conjecture."--_Scott's Preface_, p. xiv. 21. The time at which Cadmus, the Phoenician, introduced this art into Greece, cannot be precisely ascertained. There is no reason to believe it was antecedent to the time of Moses; some chronologists make it between two and three centuries later. Nor is it very probable, that Cadmus invented the sixteen letters of which he is said to have made use. His whole story is so wild a fable, that nothing certain can be inferred from it. Searching in vain for his stolen sister--his sister Europa, carried off by Jupiter--he found a wife in the daughter of Venus! Sowing the teeth of a dragon, which had devoured his companions, he saw them spring up to his aid a squadron of armed soldiers! In short, after a series of wonderful achievements and bitter misfortunes, loaded with grief and infirm with age, he prayed the gods to release him from the burden of such a life; and, in pity from above, both he and his beloved Hermíonè were changed into serpents! History, however, has made him generous amends, by ascribing to him the invention of letters, and accounting him the worthy benefactor to whom the world owes all the benefits derived from literature. I would not willingly rob him of this honour. But I must confess, there is no feature of the story, which I can conceive to give any countenance to his claim; except that as the great progenitor of the race of authors, his sufferings correspond well with the calamities of which that unfortunate generation have always so largely partaken. 22. The benefits of this invention, if it may be considered an invention, are certainly very great. In oral discourse the graces of elegance are more lively and attractive, but well-written books are the grand instructors of mankind, the most enduring monuments of human greatness, and the proudest achievements of human intellect. "The chief glory of a nation," says Dr. Johnson, "arises from its authors." Literature is important, because it is subservient to all objects, even those of the very highest concern. Religion and morality, liberty and government, fame and happiness, are alike interested in the cause of letters. It was a saying of Pope Pius the Second, that, "Common men should esteem learning as silver, noblemen value it as gold, and princes prize it as jewels." The uses of learning are seen in every thing that is not itself useless.[25] It cannot be overrated, but where it is perverted; and whenever that occurs, the remedy is to be sought by opposing learning to learning, till the truth is manifest, and that which is reprehensible, is made to appear so. 23. I have said, learning cannot be overrated, but where it is perverted. But men may differ in their notions of what learning is; and, consequently, of what is, or is not, a perversion of it. And so far as this point may have reference to theology, and the things of God, it would seem that the Spirit of God alone can fully show us its bearings. If the illumination of the Spirit is necessary to an understanding and a reception of scriptural truth, is it not by an inference more erudite than reasonable, that some great men have presumed to limit to a verbal medium the communications of Him who is everywhere His own witness, and who still gives to His own holy oracles all their peculiar significance and authority? Some seem to think the Almighty has never given to men any notion of Himself, except by words. "Many ideas," says the celebrated Edmund Burke, "have never been at all presented to the senses of any men _but by words_, as God,[26] angels, devils, heaven, and hell, all of which have however a great influence over the passions."--_On the Sublime and [the] Beautiful_, p. 97. That God can never reveal facts or truths except by words, is a position with which I am by no means satisfied. Of the great truths of Christianity, Dr. Wayland, in his Elements of Moral Science, repeatedly avers, "All these being _facts_, can never be known, except _by language_, that is, by revelation."--_First Edition_, p. 132. Again: "All of them being of the _nature of facts_, they could be made known to man _in no other way than by language_."--_Ib._, p. 136. But it should be remembered, that these same facts were otherwise made known to the prophets; (1 Pet., i, 11;) and that which has been done, is not impossible, whether there is reason to expect it again or not. So of the Bible, Calvin says, "No man can have the least knowledge of true and sound doctrine, without having been a disciple of the Scripture."-- _Institutes_, B. i, Ch. 6. Had Adam, Abel, Enoch, Noah, and Abraham, then, no such knowledge? And if such they had, what Scripture taught them? We ought to value the Scriptures too highly to say of them any thing that is _unscriptural_. I am, however, very far from supposing there is any _other doctrine_ which can be safely substituted for the truths revealed of old, the truths contained in the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments: "Left only in those written records pure, Though not but by the Spirit understood." [27]--_Milton_. CHAPTER V. OF THE POWER OF LANGUAGE. "Quis huic studio literarum, quod profitentur ii, qui grammatici vocantur, penitus se dedidit, quin omnem illarum artium pæne infinitam _vim_ et _materiam_ scientiæ cogitatione comprehenderit?"--CICERO. _De Oratore_, Lib. i, 3. 1. The peculiar _power_ of language is another point worthy of particular consideration. The power of an instrument is virtually the power of him who wields it; and, as language is used in common, by the wise and the foolish, the mighty and the impotent, the candid and the crafty, the righteous and the wicked, it may perhaps seem to the reader a difficult matter, to speak intelligibly of its _peculiar power_. I mean, by this phrase, its fitness or efficiency to or for the accomplishment of the purposes for which it is used. As it is the nature of an agent, to be the doer of something, so it is the nature of an instrument, to be that with which something is effected. To make signs, is to do something, and, like all other actions, necessarily implies an agent; so all signs, being things by means of which other things are represented, are obviously the instruments of such representation. Words, then, which represent thoughts, are things in themselves; but, as signs, they are relative to other things, as being the instruments of their communication or preservation. They are relative also to him who utters them, as well as to those who may happen to be instructed or deceived by them. "Was it Mirabeau, Mr. President, or what other master of the human passions, who has told us that words are things? They are indeed things, and things of mighty influence, not only in addresses to the passions and high-wrought feelings of mankind, but in the discussion of legal and political questions also; because a just conclusion is often avoided, or a false one reached, by the adroit substitution of one phrase or one word for an other."--_Daniel Webster, in Congress_, 1833. 2. To speak, is a moral action, the quality of which depends upon the motive, and for which we are strictly accountable. "But I say unto you, that every idle word that men shall speak, they shall give account thereof in the day of judgement; for by thy words thou shalt be justified, and by thy words thou shalt be condemned."--_Matt._, xii, 36, 37. To listen, or to refuse to listen, is a moral action also; and there is meaning in the injunction, "Take heed what ye hear."--_Mark_, iv, 24. But why is it, that so much of what is spoken or written, is spoken or written in vain? Is language impotent? It is sometimes employed for purposes with respect to which it is utterly so; and often they that use it, know not how insignificant, absurd, or ill-meaning a thing they make of it. What is said, with whatever inherent force or dignity, has neither power nor value to him who does not understand it;[28] and, as Professor Duncan observes, "No word can be to any man the sign of an idea, till that idea comes to have a real existence in his mind."--_Logic_, p. 62. In instruction, therefore, speech ought not to be regarded as the foundation or the essence of knowledge, but as the sign of it; for knowledge has its origin in the power of sensation, or reflection, or consciousness, and not in that of recording or communicating thought. Dr. Spurzheim was not the first to suggest, "It is time to abandon the immense error of supposing that words and precepts are sufficient to call internal feelings and intellectual faculties into active exercise."--_Spurzheim's Treatise on Education_, p. 94. 3. But to this it may be replied, When God wills, the signs of knowledge are knowledge; and words, when he gives the ability to understand them, may, in some sense, become--"spirit and life." See _John_, vi, 63. Where competent intellectual faculties exist, the intelligible signs of thought do move the mind to think; and to think sometimes with deep feelings too, whether of assent or dissent, of admiration or contempt. So wonderful a thing is a rational soul, that it is hard to say to what ends the language in which it speaks, may, or may not, be sufficient. Let experience determine. We are often unable to excite in others the sentiments which we would: words succeed or fail, as they are received or resisted. But let a scornful expression be addressed to a passionate man, will not the words "call internal feelings" into action? And how do feelings differ from thoughts?[29] Hear Dr. James Rush: "The human mind is the place of representation of all the existences of nature which are brought within the scope of the senses. The representatives are called ideas. These ideas are the simple passive pictures of things, or [else] they exist with an activity, capable of so affecting the physical organs as to induce us to seek the continuance of that which produces them, or to avoid it. This active or vivid class of ideas comprehends the passions. The functions of the mind here described, exist then in different forms and degrees, from the simple idea, to the highest energy of passion: and the terms, thought, sentiment, emotion, feeling, and passion, are but the verbal signs of these degrees and forms. Nor does there appear to be any line of classification, for separating thought from passion: since simple thoughts, without changing their nature, do, from interest or incitement, often assume the colour of passion."--_Philosophy of the Human Voice_, p. 328. 4. Lord Kames, in the Appendix to his Elements of Criticism, divides _the senses_ into external and internal, defining _perception_ to be the act by which through the former we know outward objects, and _consciousness_ the act by which through the latter we know what is within the mind. An _idea_, according to his definition, (which he says is precise and accurate,) is, "That _perception_ of a real object which _is raised_ in the mind by the power of _memory_." But among the real objects from which memory may raise ideas, he includes the workings of the mind itself, or whatever we remember of our former passions, emotions, thoughts, or designs. Such a definition, he imagines, might have saved Locke, Berkley, and their followers, from much vain speculation; for with the ideal systems of these philosophers, or with those of Aristotle and Des Cartes, he by no means coincides. This author says, "As ideas are the chief materials employed in reasoning and reflecting, it is of consequence that their nature and differences be understood. It appears now that ideas may be distinguished into three kinds: first, Ideas derived from original perceptions, properly termed _ideas of memory_; second, Ideas communicated _by language_ or other signs; and third, Ideas _of imagination_. These ideas differ from each other in many respects; but chiefly in respect to their _proceeding from different causes_. The first kind is derived from real existences that have been objects of our senses; _language is the cause of the second_, or any other sign that has the same power with language; and a man's imagination is to himself the cause of the third. It is scarce [ly] necessary to add, that an idea, originally of imagination, being conveyed to others by language or any other vehicle, becomes in their mind an idea of the second kind; and again, that an idea of this kind, being afterwards recalled to the mind, becomes in that circumstance an idea of memory."--_El. of Crit._, Vol. ii, p. 384. 5. Whether, or how far, language is to the mind itself _the instrument of thought_, is a question of great importance in the philosophy of both. Our literature contains occasional assertions bearing upon this point, but I know of no full or able discussion of it.[30] Cardell's instructions proceed upon the supposition, that neither the reason of men, nor even that of superior intelligences, can ever operate independently of words. "Speech," says he, "is to the mind what action is to animal bodies. Its improvement is the improvement of our intellectual nature, and a duty to God who gave it."--_Essay on Language_, p. 3. Again: "An attentive investigation will show, that there is no way in which the individual mind can, within itself, to any extent, _combine its ideas_, but by the intervention of words. Every process of the reasoning powers, beyond the immediate perception of sensible objects, depends on the structure of speech; and, in a great degree, according to the excellence of this _chief instrument of all mental operations_, will be the means of personal improvement, of the social transmission of thought, and the elevation of national character. From this, it may be laid down as a broad principle, that no individual can make great advances in intellectual improvement, beyond the bounds of a ready-formed language, as the necessary means of his progress."--_Ib._, p. 9. These positions might easily be offset by contrary speculations of minds of equal rank; but I submit them to the reader, with the single suggestion, that the author is not remarkable for that sobriety of judgement which gives weight to opinions. 6. We have seen, among the citations in a former chapter, that Sanctius says, "Names are the signs, and as it were _the instruments, of things_." But what he meant by "_instrumenta rerum_" is not very apparent. Dr. Adam says, "The principles of grammar may be traced from the progress of the mind in the acquisition of language. Children first express their feelings by motions and gestures of the body, by cries and tears. _This is_[31] the language of nature, and therefore universal. _It fitly represents_[32] the quickness of sentiment and thought, which are as instantaneous as the impression of light on the eye. Hence we always express our stronger feelings by these natural signs. But when we want to make known to others the particular conceptions of the mind, we must represent them by parts, we must divide and analyze them. We express _each part by certain signs_,[33] and join these together, according to the order of their relations. Thus words are _both the instrument and signs[34] the division_ of thought."--_Preface to Latin Gram._ 7. The utterance of words, or the making of signs of any sort, requires time;[35] but it is here suggested by Dr. Adam, that sentiment and thought, though susceptible of being retained or recalled, naturally flash upon the mind with immeasurable quickness.[36] If so, they must originate in something more spiritual than language. The Doctor does not affirm that words are the instruments of thought, but of _the division_ of thought. But it is manifest, that if they effect this, they are not the only instruments by means of which the same thing may be done. The deaf and dumb, though uninstructed and utterly ignorant of language, can think; and can, by rude signs of their own inventing, manifest a similar division, corresponding to the individuality of things. And what else can be meant by "_the division of thought_," than our notion of objects, as existing severally, or as being distinguishable into parts? There can, I think, be no such division respecting that which is perfectly pure and indivisible in its essence; and, I would ask, is not simple continuity apt to exclude it from our conception of every thing which appears with uniform coherence? Dr. Beattie says, "It appears to me, that, as all things are individuals, all thoughts must be so too."--_Moral Science_, Chap, i, Sec. 1. If, then, our thoughts are thus divided, and consequently, as this author infers, have not in themselves any of that generality which belongs to the signification of common nouns, there is little need of any instrument to divide them further: the mind rather needs help, as Cardell suggests, "to combine its ideas." [37] 8. So far as language is a work of art, and not a thing conferred or imposed upon us by nature, there surely can be in it neither division nor union that was not first in the intellect for the manifestation of which it was formed. First, with respect to generalization. "The human mind," says Harris, "by an energy as spontaneous and familiar to its nature, as the seeing of colour is familiar to the eye, discerns at once what in many is one, what in things dissimilar and different is similar and the same."--_Hermes_, p. 362. Secondly, with respect to division. Mechanical separations are limited: "But the mind surmounts all power of concretion; and can place in the simplest manner every attribute by itself; convex without concave; colour without superficies; superficies without body; and body without its accidents: as distinctly each one, as though they had never been united. And thus it is, that it penetrates into the recesses of all things, not only dividing them as wholes, into their more conspicuous parts, but persisting till it even separate those elementary principles which, being blended together after a more mysterious manner, are united in the minutest part as much as in the mightiest whole."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 307. 9. It is remarkable that this philosopher, who had so sublime conceptions of the powers of the human mind, and who has displayed such extraordinary acuteness in his investigations, has represented the formation of words, or the utterance of language, as equalling in speed the progress of our very thoughts; while, as we have seen, an other author, of great name, avers, that thought is "as instantaneous as the impression of light on the eye." Philosophy here too evidently nods. In showing the advantage of words, as compared with pictures, Harris says, "If we consider the ease and speed with which words are formed,-an ease which knows no trouble or fatigue, and a _speed which equals the progress of our very thoughts_,[38]--we may plainly perceive an answer to the question here proposed, Why, in the common intercourse of men with men, imitations have been rejected, and symbols preferred."--_Hermes_, p. 336. Let us hear a third man, of equal note: "Words have been called _winged_; and they well deserve that name, when their abbreviations are compared with the progress which speech could make without these inventions; but, compared with the rapidity of thought, they have not _the smallest claim to that title_. Philosophers have calculated the difference of velocity between sound and light; but who will attempt to calculate the difference between speech and thought!"--_Horne Tooke's Epea Pteroenta_, Vol. i, p. 23. 10. It is certain, that, in the admirable economy of the creation, natures subordinate are made, in a wonderful manner, subservient to the operations of the higher; and that, accordingly, our first ideas are such as are conceived of things external and sensible. Hence all men whose intellect appeals only to external sense, are prone to a philosophy which reverses the order of things pertaining to the mind, and tends to materialism, if not to atheism. "But"--to refer again to Harris--"the intellectual scheme which never forgets Deity, postpones every thing corporeal to the primary mental Cause. It is here it looks for the origin of intelligible ideas, even of those which exist in human capacities. For though sensible objects may be the destined medium to awaken the dormant energies of man's understanding, yet are those energies themselves no more contained, in sense, than the explosion of a cannon, in the spark which gave it fire. In short, all minds that are, are similar and congenial; and so too are their ideas, or intelligible forms. Were it otherwise, there could be no intercourse between man and man, or (what is more important) between man and God."--_Hermes_, p. 393. 11. A doctrine somewhat like this, is found in the Meditations of the emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, though apparently repugnant to the polytheism commonly admitted by the Stoics, to whom he belonged: "The world, take it all together, is but one; there is but one sort of matter to make it of, one God to govern it, and one law to guide it. For, run through the whole system of rational beings, and you will find reason and truth but single and the same. And thus beings of the same kind, and endued with the same reason, are made happy by the same exercises of it."--Book vii, Sec. 9. Again: "Let your soul receive the Deity as your blood does the air; for the influences of the one are no less vital, than those of the other. This correspondence is very practicable: for there is an ambient omnipresent Spirit, which lies as open and pervious to your mind, as the air you breathe does to your lungs: but then you must remember to be disposed to draw it."--Book viii, Sec. 54; _Collier's Translation_. 12. Agreeably to these views, except that he makes a distinction between a natural and a supernatural idea of God, we find Barclay, the early defender of the Quakers, in an argument with a certain Dutch nobleman, philosophizing thus: "If the Scripture then be true, there is in men a supernatural idea of God, which altogether differs from this natural idea--I say, in all men; because all men are capable of salvation, and consequently of enjoying this divine vision. Now this capacity consisteth herein, that they have such a supernatural idea in themselves.[39] For if there were no such idea in them, it were impossible they should so know God; for whatsoever is clearly and distinctly known, is known by its proper idea; neither can it otherwise be clearly and distinctly known. _For the ideas of all things are divinely planted in our souls_; for, as the better philosophy teacheth, they are not begotten in us by outward objects or outward causes, but only are by these outward things excited or stirred up. And this is true, not only in supernatural ideas of God and things divine, and in natural ideas of the natural principles of human understanding, and conclusions thence deduced by the strength of human reason; but even in the ideas of outward objects, which are perceived by the outward senses: as that noble Christian philosopher Boëthius hath well observed; to which also the Cartesian philosophy agreeth." I quote only to show the concurrence of others, with Harris's position. Barclay carries on his argument with much more of a similar import. See _Sewell's History_, folio, p. 620. 13. But the doctrine of ideas existing primarily in God, and being divinely planted in our souls, did not originate with Boëthius: it may be traced back a thousand years from his time, through the philosophy of Proclus, Zeno, Aristotle,[40] Plato, Socrates, Parmenides, and Pythagoras. It is absurd to suppose any production or effect to be more excellent than its cause. That which really produces motion, cannot itself be inert; and that which actually causes the human mind to think and reason, cannot itself be devoid of intelligence. "For knowledge can alone produce knowledge." [41] A doctrine apparently at variance with this, has recently been taught, with great confidence, among the professed discoveries of _Phrenology_. How much truth there may be in this new "_science_," as it is called, I am not prepared to say; but, as sometimes held forth, it seems to me not only to clash with some of the most important principles of mental philosophy, but to make the power of thought the result of that which is in itself inert and unthinking. Assuming that the primitive faculties of the human understanding have not been known in earlier times, it professes to have discovered, in the physical organization of the brain, their proper source, or essential condition, and the true index to their measure, number, and distribution. In short, the leading phrenologists, by acknowledging no spiritual substance, virtually deny that ancient doctrine, "It is not in flesh to think, or bones to reason," [42] and make the mind either a material substance, or a mere mode without substantial being. 14. "The doctrine of _immaterial substances_," says Dr. Spurzheim, "is not sufficiently amenable to the test of observation; it is founded on belief, and only supported by hypothesis."--_Phrenology_, Vol. i, p. 20. But it should be remembered, that our notion of material substance, is just as much a matter of hypothesis. All accidents, whether they be qualities or actions, we necessarily suppose to have some support; and this we call _substance_, deriving the term from the Latin, or _hypostasis_, if we choose to borrow from the Greek. But what this substance, or hypostasis, is, independently of its qualities or actions, we know not. This is clearly proved by Locke. What do we mean by _matter_? and what by _mind_? _Matter_ is that which is solid, extended, divisible, movable, and occupies space. _Mind_ is that which thinks, and wills, and reasons, and remembers, and worships. Here are qualities in the one case; operations in the other. Here are two definitions as totally distinct as any two can be; and he that sees not in them a difference of _substance_, sees it nowhere: to him all natures are one; and that one, an absurd supposition. 15. In favour of what is urged by the phrenologists, it may perhaps be admitted, as a natural law, that, "If a picture of a visible object be formed upon the retina, and the impression be communicated, by the nerves, to the brain, the _result_ will be an act of perception."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 4. But it does not follow, nor did the writer of this sentence believe, that perception is a mere act or attribute of the organized matter of the brain. A material object can only occasion in our sensible organs a corporeal motion, which has not in it the nature of thought or perception; and upon what principle of causation, shall a man believe, in respect to vision, that the thing which he sees, is more properly the cause of the idea conceived of it, than is the light by which he beholds it, or the mind in which that idea is formed? Lord Kames avers, that, "Colour, which appears to the eye as spread upon a substance, has no existence but in the mind of the spectator."--_Elements of Criticism_, i, 178. And Cicero placed the perception, not only of colour, but of taste, of sound, of smell, and of touch, in the mind, rather than in the senses. "Illud est album, hoc dulce, canorum illud, hoc bene olens, hoc asperum: animo jam hæc tenemus comprehensa, non sensibus."--_Ciceronis Acad._ Lib. ii, 7. Dr. Beattie, however, says: "Colours inhere not in the coloured body, but in the light that falls upon it; * * * and the word _colour_ denotes, an external thing, and never a sensation of the mind."--_Moral Science_, i, 54. Here is some difference of opinion; but however the thing may be, it does not affect my argument; which is, that to perceive or think is an act or attribute of our immaterial substance or nature, and not to be supposed the effect either of the objects perceived or of our own corporeal organization. 16. Divine wisdom has established the senses as the avenues through which our minds shall receive notices of the forms and qualities of external things; but the sublime conception of the ancients, that these forms and qualities had an abstract preëxistence in the divine mind, is a common doctrine of many English authors, as Milton, Cowper, Akenside, and others. For example: "Now if _Ens primum_ be the cause of _entia a primo_, then he hath the idea of them in him: for he made them by counsel, and not by necessity; for then he should have needed them, and they have a parhelion of that wisdom that is in his Idea."--_Richardson's Logic_, p. 16: Lond. 1657. "Then the Great Spirit, whom his works adore, Within his own deep essence view'd the forms, The forms eternal of created things."--AKENSIDE. _Pleasures of the Imagination_, Book i. "And in the school of sacred wisdom taught, To read his wonders, in whose thought the world, Fair as it is, existed ere it was."--COWPER. _Task: Winter Morning Walk_, p. 150. "Thence to behold this new-created world, The addition of his empire, how it show'd In prospect from his throne, how good, how fair, Answering his great idea."--MILTON. _Paradise Lost_, Book vii, line 554. "Thought shines from God as shines the morn; Language from kindling thought is born." ANON.: _a Poem in imitation of Coleridge_. 17. "Original Truth," [43] says Harris, "having the most intimate connection with the _Supreme Intelligence_, may be said (as it were) to shine with unchangeable splendor, enlightening throughout the universe every possible subject, by nature susceptible of its benign influence. Passions and other obstacles may prevent indeed its efficacy, as clouds and vapours may obscure the sun; but itself neither admits diminution, nor change, because the darkness respects only particular percipients. Among _these_ therefore we must look for ignorance and error, and for that _subordination of intelligence_ which is their natural consequence. Partial views, the imperfections of sense; inattention, idleness, the turbulence of passions; education, local sentiments, opinions, and belief; conspire in many instances to furnish us with ideas, some too partial, and (what is worse than all this) with many that are erroneous, and contrary to truth. These it behoves us to correct as far as possible, by cool suspense and candid examination. Thus by a connection perhaps little expected, the cause of _Letters_, and that of _Virtue_, appear to coincide; it being the business of both, to examine our ideas, and to amend them by the standard of nature and of truth."--See _Hermes_, p. 406. 18. Although it seems plain from our own consciousness, that the mind is an active self-moving principle or essence, yet capable of being moved, after its own manner, by other causes outward as well as inward; and although it must be obvious to reflection, that all its ideas, perceptions, and emotions, are, with respect to itself, of a spiritual nature--bearing such a relation to the spiritual substance in which alone they appear, as bodily motion is seen to bear to material substances; yet we know, from experience and observation, that they who are acquainted with words, are apt to think in words--that is, mentally to associate their internal conceptions with the verbal signs which they have learned to use. And though I do not conceive the position to be generally true, that words are to the mind itself the necessary instruments of thought, yet, in my apprehension, it cannot well be denied, that in some of its operations and intellectual reaches, the mind is greatly assisted by its own contrivances with respect to language. I refer not now to the communication of knowledge; for, of this, language is admitted to be properly the instrument. But there seem to be some processes of thought, or calculation, in which the mind, by a wonderful artifice in the combination of terms, contrives to prevent embarrassment, and help itself forward in its conceptions, when the objects before it are in themselves perhaps infinite in number or variety. 19. We have an instance of this in numeration. No idea is more obvious or simple than that of unity, or one. By the continual addition of this, first to itself to make two, and then to each higher combination successively, we form a series of different numbers, which may go on to infinity. In the consideration of these, the mind would not be able to go tar without the help of words, and those peculiarly fitted to the purpose. The understanding would lose itself in the multiplicity, were it not aided by that curious concatenation of names, which has been contrived for the several parts of the succession. As far as _twelve_ we make use of simple unrelated terms. Thenceforward we apply derivatives and compounds, formed from these in their regular order, till we arrive at a _hundred_. This one new word, _hundred_, introduced to prevent confusion, has nine hundred and ninety-nine distinct repetitions in connexion with the preceding terms, and thus brings us to a _thousand_. Here the computation begins anew, runs through all the former combinations, and then extends forward, till the word _thousand_ has been used nine hundred and ninety-nine thousand times; and then, for ten hundred thousand, we introduce the new word _million_. With this name we begin again as before, and proceed till we have used it a million of times, each combination denoting a number clearly distinguished from every other; and then, in like manner, we begin and proceed, with _billions, trillions, quadrillions, quintillions, etc._, to any extent we please. 20. Now can any one suppose that words are not here, in some true sense, the instruments of thought, or of the intellectual process thus carried on? Were all these different numbers to be distinguished directly by the mind itself, and denominated by terms destitute of this artificial connexion, it may well be doubted whether the greatest genius in the world would ever be able to do what any child may now effect by this orderly arrangement of words; that is, to distinguish exactly the several stages of this long progression, and see at a glance how far it is from the beginning of the series. "The great art of knowledge," says Duncan, "lies in managing with skill the capacity of the intellect, and contriving such helps, as, if they strengthen not its natural powers, may yet expose them to no unnecessary fatigue. When ideas become very complex, and by the multiplicity of their parts grow too unwieldy to be dealt with in the lump, we must ease the view of the mind by taking them to pieces, and setting before it the several portions separately, one after an other. By this leisurely survey we are enabled to take in the whole; and if we can draw it into such an orderly combination as will naturally lead the attention, step by step, in any succeeding consideration of the same idea, we shall have it ever at command, and with a single glance of thought be able to run over all its parts."--_Duncan's Logic_, p. 37, Hence we may infer the great importance of method in grammar; the particulars of which, as Quintilian says, are infinite.[44] 21. Words are in themselves but audible or visible signs, mere arbitrary symbols, used, according to common practice and consent, as significant of our ideas or thoughts.[45] But so well are they fitted to be made at will the medium of mental conference, that nothing else can be conceived to equal them for this purpose. Yet it does not follow that they who have the greatest knowledge and command of words, have all they could desire in this respect. For language is in its own nature but an imperfect instrument, and even when tuned with the greatest skill, will often be found inadequate to convey the impression with which the mind may labour. Cicero, that great master of eloquence, frequently confessed, or declared, that words failed him. This, however, may be thought to have been uttered as a mere figure of speech; and some may say, that the imperfection I speak of, is but an incident of the common weakness or ignorance of human nature; and that if a man always knew what to say to an other in order to persuade or confute, to encourage or terrify him, he would always succeed, and no insufficiency of this kind would ever be felt or imagined. This also is plausible; but is the imperfection less, for being sometimes traceable to an ulterior source? Or is it certain that human languages used by perfect wisdom, would all be perfectly competent to their common purpose? And if some would be found less so than others, may there not be an insufficiency in the very nature of them all? 22. If there is imperfection in any instrument, there is so much the more need of care and skill in the use of it. Duncan, in concluding his chapter about words as signs of our ideas, says, "It is apparent, that we are sufficiently provided with the means' of communicating our thoughts one to another; and that the mistakes so frequently complained of on this head, are wholly owing to ourselves, in not sufficiently defining the terms we use; or perhaps not connecting them with clear and determinate ideas."--_Logic_, p. 69. On the other hand, we find that some of the best and wisest of men confess the inadequacy of language, while they also deplore its misuse. But, whatever may be its inherent defects, or its culpable abuses, it is still to be honoured as almost the only medium for the communication of thought and the diffusion of knowledge. Bishop Butler remarks, in his Analogy of Religion, (a most valuable work, though defective in style,) "So likewise the imperfections attending the only method by which nature enables and directs us to communicate our thoughts to each other, are innumerable. Language is, in its very nature, inadequate, ambiguous, liable to infinite abuse, even from negligence; and so liable to it from design, that every man can deceive and betray by it."--Part ii, Chap. 3. Lord Kames, too, seconds this complaint, at least in part: "Lamentable is the imperfection of language, almost in every particular that falls not under external sense. I am talking of a matter exceedingly clear in the perception, and yet I find no small difficulty to express it clearly in words."--_Elements of Criticism_, Vol. i, p. 86. "All writers," says Sheridan, "seem to be under the influence of one common delusion, that by the help of words alone, they can communicate all that passes in their minds."--_Lectures on Elocution_, p. xi. 23. Addison also, in apologizing for Milton's frequent use of old words and foreign idioms, says, "I may further add, that Milton's sentiments and ideas were so wonderfully sublime, that it would have been impossible for him to have represented them in their full strength and beauty, without having recourse to these foreign assistances. _Our language sunk under him_, and was unequal to that greatness of soul which furnished him with such glorious conceptions."--_Spectator_, No. 297. This, however, Dr. Johnson seems to regard as a mere compliment to genius; for of Milton he says, "The truth is, that both in prose and verse, he had formed his style by a perverse and pedantick principle." But the grandeur of his thoughts is not denied by the critic; nor is his language censured without qualification. "Whatever be the faults of his diction, he cannot want the praise of copiousness and variety: he was master of his language in its full extent; and has selected the melodious words with such diligence, that from his book alone the Art of English Poetry might be learned."-- _Johnson's Life of Milton_: _Lives_, p. 92. 24. As words abstractly considered are empty and vain, being in their nature mere signs, or tokens, which derive all their value from the ideas and feelings which they suggest; it is evident that he who would either speak or write well, must be furnished with something more than a knowledge of sounds and letters. Words fitly spoken are indeed both precious and beautiful--"like apples of gold in pictures of silver." But it is not for him whose soul is dark, whose designs are selfish, whose affections are dead, or whose thoughts are vain, to say with the son of Amram, "My doctrine shall drop as the rain, my speech shall distil as the dew; as the small rain upon the tender herb, and as the showers upon the grass."--_Deut._, xxxii, 2. It is not for him to exhibit the true excellency of speech, because he cannot feel its power. It is not for him, whatever be the theme, to convince the judgement with deductions of reason, to fire the imagination with glowing imagery, or win with graceful words the willing ear of taste. His wisdom shall be silence, when men are present; for the soul of manly language, is the soul that thinks and feels as best becomes a man. CHAPTER VI. OF THE ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. "Non mediocres enim tenebræ in sylva, ubi hæc captanda: neque eon, quo pervenire volumus semitæ tritæ: neque non in tramitibus quædam objecta, quæ euntem retinere possent."--VARRO. _De Lingua Latina_, Lib. iv, p. 4. 1. In order that we may set a just value upon the literary labours of those who, in former times, gave particular attention to the culture of the English language, and that we may the better judge of the credibility of modern pretensions to further improvements, it seems necessary that we should know something of the course of events through which its acknowledged melioration in earlier days took place. For, in this case, the extent of a man's knowledge is the strength of his argument. As Bacon quotes Aristotle, "Qui respiciunt ad pauca, de facili pronunciant." He that takes a narrow view, easily makes up his mind. But what is any opinion worth, if further knowledge of facts can confute it? 2. Whatsoever is successively varied, or has such a manner of existence as time can affect, must have had both an origin and a progress; and may have also its particular _history_, if the opportunity for writing it be not neglected. But such is the levity of mankind, that things of great moment are often left without memorial, while the hand of Literature is busy to beguile the world with trifles or with fictions, with fancies or with lies. The rude and cursory languages of barbarous nations, till the genius of Grammar arise to their rescue, are among those transitory things which unsparing time is ever hurrying away, irrecoverably, to oblivion. Tradition knows not what they were; for of their changes she takes no account. Philosophy tells us, they are resolved into the variable, fleeting breath of the successive generations of those by whom they were spoken; whose kindred fate it was, to pass away unnoticed and nameless, lost in the elements from which they sprung. 3. Upon the history of the English language, darkness thickens as we tread back the course of time. The subject of our inquiry becomes, at every step, more difficult and less worthy. We have now a tract of English literature, both extensive and luminous; and though many modern writers, and no few even of our writers on grammar, are comparatively very deficient in style, it is safe to affirm that the English language in general has never been written or spoken with more propriety and elegance, than it is at the present day. Modern English we read with facility; and that which was good two centuries ago, though considerably antiquated, is still easily understood. The best way, therefore, to gain a practical knowledge of the changes which our language has undergone, is, to read some of our older authors in retrograde order, till the style employed at times more and more remote, becomes in some degree familiar. Pursued in this manner, the study will be less difficult, and the labour of the curious inquirer, which may be suspended or resumed at pleasure, will be better repaid, than if he proceed in the order of history, and attempt at first the Saxon remains. 4. The value of a language as an object of study, depends chiefly on the character of the _books_ which it contains; and, secondarily, on its connexion with others more worthy to be thoroughly known. In this instance, there are several circumstances which are calculated soon to discourage research. As our language took its rise during the barbarism of the dark ages, the books through which its early history must be traced, are not only few and meagre, but, in respect to grammar, unsettled and diverse. It is not to be expected that inquiries of this kind will ever engage the attention of any very considerable number of persons. Over the minds of the reading public, the attractions of novelty hold a much greater influence, than any thing that is to be discovered in the dusk of antiquity. All old books contain a greater or less number of obsolete words, and antiquated modes of expression, which puzzle the reader, and call him too frequently to his glossary. And even the most common terms, when they appear in their ancient, unsettled orthography, are often so disguised as not to be readily recognized. 5. These circumstances (the last of which should be a caution to us against innovations in spelling) retard the progress of the reader, impose a labour too great for the ardour of his curiosity, and soon dispose him to rest satisfied with an ignorance, which, being general, is not likely to expose him to censure. For these reasons, ancient authors are little read; and the real antiquary is considered a man of odd habits, who, by a singular propensity, is led into studies both unfashionable and fruitless--a man who ought to have been born in the days of old, that he might have spoken the language he is so curious to know, and have appeared in the costume of an age better suited to his taste. 6. But _Learning_ is ever curious to explore the records of time, as well as the regions of space; and wherever her institutions flourish, she will amass her treasures, and spread them before her votaries. Difference of languages she easily overcomes; but the leaden reign of unlettered Ignorance defies her scrutiny. Hence, of one period of the world's history, she ever speaks with horror--that "long night of apostasy," during which, like a lone Sibyl, she hid her precious relics in solitary cells, and fleeing from degraded Christendom, sought refuge with the eastern caliphs. "This awful decline of true religion in the world carried with it almost every vestige of civil liberty, of classical literature, and of scientific knowledge; and it will generally be found in experience that they must all stand or fall together."--_Hints on Toleration_, p. 263. In the tenth century, beyond which we find nothing that bears much resemblance to the English language as now written, this mental darkness appears to have gathered to its deepest obscuration; and, at that period, England was sunk as low in ignorance, superstition, and depravity, as any other part of Europe. 7. The English language gradually varies as we trace it back, and becomes at length identified with the Anglo-Saxon; that is, with the dialect spoken by the Saxons after their settlement in England. These Saxons were a fierce, warlike, unlettered people from Germany; whom the ancient Britons had invited to their assistance against the Picts and Scots. Cruel and ignorant, like their Gothic kindred, who had but lately overrun the Roman empire, they came, not for the good of others, but to accommodate themselves. They accordingly seized the country; destroyed or enslaved the ancient inhabitants; or, more probably, drove the remnant of them into the mountains of Wales. Of Welsh or ancient British words, Charles Bucke, who says in his grammar that he took great pains to be accurate in his scale of derivation, enumerates but one hundred and eleven, as now found in our language; and Dr. Johnson, who makes them but ninety-five, argues from their paucity, or almost total absence, that the Saxons could not have mingled at all with these people, or even have retained them in vassalage. 8. The ancient languages of France and of the British isles are said to have proceeded from an other language yet more ancient, called the _Celtic_; so that, from one common source, are supposed to have sprung the present Welsh, the present Irish, and the present Highland Scotch.[46] The term _Celtic_ Dr. Webster defines, as a noun, "The language of the Celts;" and, as an adjective, "Pertaining to the primitive inhabitants of the south and west of Europe, or to the early inhabitants of Italy, Gaul, Spain, and Britain." What _unity_, according to this, there was, or could have been, in the ancient Celtic tongue, does not appear from books, nor is it easy to be conjectured.[47] Many ancient writers sustain this broad application of the term _Celtæ_ or _Celts_; which, according to Strabo's etymology of it, means horsemen, and seems to have been almost as general as our word _Indians_. But Cæsar informs us that the name was more particularly claimed by the people who, in his day, lived in France between the Seine and the Garonne, and who by the Romans were called _Galli_, or _Gauls_. 9. The _Celtic_ tribes are said to have been the descendants of Gomer, the son of Japhet. The English historians agree that the first inhabitants of their island owed their origin and their language to the _Celtæ_, or Gauls, who settled on the opposite shore. Julius Cæsar, who invaded Britain about half a century before the Christian era, found the inhabitants ignorant of letters, and destitute of any history but oral tradition. To this, however, they paid great attention, teaching every thing in verse. Some of the Druids, it is said in Cæsar's Commentaries, spent twenty years in learning to repeat songs and hymns that were never committed to writing. These ancient priests, or diviners, are represented as having great power, and as exercising it in some respects beneficially; but their horrid rites, with human sacrifices, provoked the Romans to destroy them. Smollett says, "Tiberius suppressed those human sacrifices in Gaul; and Claudius destroyed the Druids of that country; but they subsisted in Britain till the reign of Nero, when Paulus Suetonius reduced the island of Anglesey, which was the place of their retreat, and overwhelmed them with such unexpected and sudden destruction, that all their knowledge and tradition, conveyed to them in the songs of their predecessors, perished at once."--_Smollett's Hist. of Eng._, 4to, B. i, Ch. i, §7. 10. The Romans considered Britain a province of their empire, for a period of about five hundred years; but the northern part of the island was never entirely subdued by them, and not till Anno Domini 78, a hundred and thirty-three years after their first invasion of the country, had they completed their conquest of England. Letters and arts, so far at least as these are necessary to the purposes of war or government, the victors carried with them; and under their auspices some knowledge of Christianity was, at a very early period, introduced into Britain. But it seems strange, that after all that is related of their conquests, settlements, cities, fortifications, buildings, seminaries, churches, laws, &c., they should at last have left the Britons in so helpless, degraded, and forlorn a condition. They _did not sow among them the seeds_ of any permanent improvement. 11. The Roman government, being unable to sustain itself at home, withdrew its forces finally from Britain in the year 446, leaving the wretched inhabitants almost as savage as it found them, and in a situation even less desirable. Deprived of their native resources, their ancient independence of spirit, as well as of the laws, customs, institutions, and leaders, that had kept them together under their old dynasties, and now deserted by their foreign protectors, they were apparently left at the mercy of blind fortune, the wretched vicissitudes of which there was none to foresee, none to resist. The glory of the Romans now passed away. The mighty fabric of their own proud empire crumbled into ruins. Civil liberty gave place to barbarism; Christian truth, to papal superstition; and the lights of science were put out by both. The shades of night gathered over all; settling and condensing, "till almost every point of that wide horizon, over which the Sun of Righteousness had diffused his cheering rays, was enveloped in a darkness more awful and more portentous than that which of old descended upon rebellious Pharaoh and the callous sons of Ham."--_Hints on Toleration_, p. 310. 12. The Saxons entered Britain in the year 449. But what was the form of their language at that time, cannot now be known. It was a dialect of the _Gothic_ or _Teutonic_; which is considered the parent of all the northern tongues of Europe, except some few of Sclavonian origin. The only remaining monument of the Gothic language is a copy of the Gospels, translated by Ulphilas; which is preserved at Upsal, and called, from its embellishments, _the Silver Book_. This old work has been three times printed in England. We possess not yet in America all the advantages which may be enjoyed by literary men in the land of our ancestors; but the stores of literature, both ancient and modern, are somewhat more familiar to us, than is there supposed; and the art of printing is fast equalizing, to all nations that cultivate learning, the privilege of drinking at its ancient fountains. 13. It is neither liberal nor just to argue unfavourably of the intellectual or the moral condition of any remote age or country, merely from our own ignorance of it. It is true, we can derive from no quarter a favourable opinion of the state of England after the Saxon invasion, and during the tumultuous and bloody government of the heptarchy. But I will not darken the picture through design. If justice were done to the few names--to Gildas the wise, the memorialist of his country's sufferings and censor of the nation's depravity, who appears a solitary star in the night of the sixth century--to the venerable Bede, the greatest theologian, best scholar, and only historian of the seventh--to Alcuin, the abbot of Canterbury, the luminary of the eighth--to Alfred the great, the glory of the ninth, great as a prince, and greater as a scholar, seen in the evening twilight of an age in which the clergy could not read;--if justice were done to all such, we might find something, even in these dark and rugged times, if not to soften the grimness of the portrait, at least to give greater distinctness of feature. 14. In tracing the history of our language, Dr. Johnson, who does little more than give examples, cites as his first specimen of ancient English, a portion of king [sic--KTH] Alfred's paraphrase in imitation of Boëthius. But this language of Alfred's is not English; but rather, as the learned doctor himself considered it, an example of the Anglo-Saxon in its highest state of purity. This dialect was first changed by admixture with words derived from the Danish and the Norman; and, still being comparatively rude and meagre, afterwards received large accessions from the Latin, the French, the Greek, the Dutch--till, by gradual changes, which the etymologist may exhibit, there was at length produced a language bearing a sufficient resemblance to the present English, to deserve to be called English at this day. 15. The formation of our language cannot with propriety be dated earlier than the thirteenth century. It was then that a free and voluntary amalgamation of its chief constituent materials took place; and this was somewhat earlier than we date the revival of learning. The English of the thirteenth century is scarcely intelligible to the modern reader. Dr. Johnson calls it "a kind of intermediate diction, neither Saxon nor English;" and says, that Sir John Gower, who wrote in the latter part of the fourteenth century, was "the first of our authors who can be properly said to have written English." Contemporary with Gower, the father of English poetry, was the still greater poet, his disciple Chaucer; who embraced many of the tenets of Wickliffe, and imbibed something of the spirit of the reformation, which was now begun. 16. The literary history of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries is full of interest; for it is delightful to trace the progress of great and obvious improvement. The reformation of religion and the revival of learning were nearly simultaneous. Yet individuals may have acted a conspicuous part in the latter, who had little to do with the former; for great learning does not necessarily imply great piety, though, as Dr. Johnson observes, "the Christian religion always implies or produces a certain degree of civility and learning."--_Hist. Eng. Lang. before his 4to Dict._ "The ordinary instructions of the clergy, both philosophical and religious, gradually fell into contempt, as the Classics superseded the one, and the Holy Scriptures expelled the other. The first of these changes was effected by _the early grammarians_ of Europe; and it gave considerable aid to the reformation, though it had no immediate connexion with that event. The revival of the English Bible, however, completed the work: and though its appearance was late, and its progress was retarded in every possible manner, yet its dispersion was at length equally rapid, extensive, and effectual."--_Constable's Miscellany_, Vol. xx, p. 75. 17. Peculiar honour is due to those who lead the way in whatever advances human happiness. And, surely, our just admiration of the character of the _reformers_ must be not a little enhanced, when we consider what they did for letters as well as for the church. Learning does not consist in useless jargon, in a multitude of mere words, or in acute speculations remote from practice; else the seventeen folios of St. Thomas Aquinas, the angelical doctor of the thirteenth century, and the profound disputations of his great rival, Duns Scotus the subtle, for which they were revered in their own age, had not gained them the contempt of all posterity. From such learning the lucid reasoning of the reformers delivered the halls of instruction. The school divinity of the middle ages passed away before the presence of that which these men learned from the Bible, as did in a later age the Aristotelian philosophy before that which Bacon drew from nature. 18. Towards the latter part of the fourteenth century, Wickliffe furnished the first entire translation of the Bible into English. In like manner did the Germans, a hundred and fifty years after, receive it in their tongue from the hands of Luther; who says, that at twenty years of age, he himself had not seen it in any language. Wickliffe's English style is elegant for the age in which he lived, yet very different from what is elegant now. This first English translation of the Bible, being made about a hundred years before the introduction of printing into England, could not have been very extensively circulated. A large specimen of it may be seen in Dr. Johnson's History of the English Language. Wickliffe died in 1384. The art of printing was invented about 1440, and first introduced into England, in 1468; but the first printed edition of the Bible in English, was executed in Germany. It was completed, October 5th, 1535. 19. "Martin Luther, about the year 1517, first introduced metrical psalmody into the service of the church, which not only kept alive the enthusiasm of the reformers, but formed a rallying point for his followers. This practice spread in all directions; and it was not long ere six thousand persons were heard singing together at St. Paul's Cross in London. Luther was a poet and musician; but the same talent existed not in his followers. Thirty years afterwards, Sternhold versified fifty-one of the Psalms; and in 1562, with the help of Hopkins, he completed the Psalter. These poetical effusions were chiefly sung to German melodies, which the good taste of Luther supplied: but the Puritans, in a subsequent age, nearly destroyed these germs of melody, assigning as a reason, that music should be so simplified as to suit all persons, and that all may join."--_Dr. Gardiner's Music of Nature_, p. 283. 20. "The schools and colleges of England in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries were not governed by a system of education which would render their students very eminent either as scholars or as gentlemen: and the monasteries, which were used as seminaries, even until the reformation, taught only the corrupt Latin used by the ecclesiastics. The time however was approaching, when the united efforts of Stanbridge, Linacre, Sir John Cheke, Dean Colet, Erasmus, William Lily, Roger Ascham, &c., were successful in reviving the Latin tongue in all its purity; and even in exciting a taste for Greek in a nation the clergy of which opposed its introduction with the same vehemence which characterized their enmity to a reformation in religion. The very learned Erasmus, the first who undertook the teaching of the Greek language at Oxford, met with few friends to support him; notwithstanding Oxford was the seat of nearly all the learning in England."--_Constable's Miscellany_, Vol. xx, p. 146. 21. "The priests preached against it, as a very recent invention of the arch-enemy; and confounding in their misguided zeal, the very foundation of their faith, with the object of their resentment, they represented the New Testament itself as 'an impious and dangerous book,' because it was written in that heretical language. Even after the accession of Henry VIII, when Erasmus, who had quitted Oxford in disgust, returned under his especial patronage, with the support of several eminent scholars and powerful persons, his progress was still impeded, and the language opposed. The University was divided into parties, called Greeks and Trojans, the latter being the strongest, from being favoured by the monks; and the Greeks were driven from the streets, with hisses and other expressions of contempt. It was not therefore until Henry VIII and Cardinal Wolsey gave it their positive and powerful protection, that this persecuted language was allowed to be quietly studied, even in the institutions dedicated to learning."--_Ib._, p. 147. 22. These curious extracts are adduced to show the _spirit of the times_, and the obstacles then to be surmounted in the cause of learning. This popular opposition to Greek, did not spring from a patriotic design to prefer and encourage English literature; for the improvement of this was still later, and the great promoters of it were all of them classical scholars. They wrote in English, not because they preferred it, but because none but those who were bred in colleges, could read any thing else; and, even to this very day, the grammatical study of the English language is shamefully neglected in what are called the higher institutions of learning. In alleging this neglect, I speak comparatively. Every student, on entering upon the practical business of life, will find it of far more importance to him, to be skillful in the language of his own country than to be distinguished for any knowledge which the learned only can appreciate. "Will the greatest Mastership in Greek and Latin, or [the] translating [of] these Languages into English, avail for the Purpose of acquiring an elegant English Style? No--we know just the Reverse from woeful Experience! And, as Mr. Locke and the Spectator observe, Men who have threshed hard at Greek and Latin for ten or eleven years together, are very often deficient in their own Language."--_Preface to the British Gram._, 8vo, 1784, p. xxi. 23. That the progress of English literature in early times was slow, will not seem wonderful to those who consider what is affirmed of the progress of other arts, more immediately connected with the comforts of life. "Down to the reign of Elizabeth, the greater part of the houses in considerable towns, had no chimneys: the fire was kindled against the wall, and the smoke found its way out as well as it could, by the roof, the door, or the windows. The houses were mostly built of wattling, plastered over with clay; and the beds were only straw pallets, with a log of wood for a pillow. In this respect, even the king fared no better than his subjects; for, in Henry the Eighth's time, we find directions, 'to examine every night the straw of the king's bed, that no daggers might be concealed therein.' A writer in 1577, speaking of the progress of luxury, mentions three things especially, that were 'marvellously altered for the worse in England;' the multitude of chimneys lately erected, the increase of lodgings, and the exchange of treen platters into pewter, and wooden spoons into silver and tin; and he complains bitterly that oak instead of willow was employed in the building of houses."--REV. ROYAL ROBBINS: _Outlines of History_, p. 377. 24. Shakspeare appeared in the reign of Elizabeth; outlived her thirteen years; and died in 1616 aged 52. The English language in his hands did not lack power or compass of expression. His writings are now more extensively read, than any others of that age; nor has any very considerable part of his phraseology yet become obsolete. But it ought to be known, that the printers or editors of the editions which are now read, have taken extensive liberty in modernizing his orthography, as well as that of other old authors still popular. How far such liberty is justifiable, it is difficult to say. Modern readers doubtless find a convenience in it. It is very desirable that the orthography of our language should be made uniform, and remain permanent. Great alterations cannot be suddenly introduced; and there is, in stability, an advantage which will counterbalance that of a slow approximation to regularity. Analogy may sometimes decide the form of variable words, but the concurrent usage of the learned must ever be respected, in this, as in every other part of grammar. 25. Among the earliest of the English grammarians, was Ben Jonson, the poet; who died in the year 1637, at the age of sixty-three. His grammar, (which Horne Tooke mistakingly calls "the _first_ as well as the _best_ English grammar,") is still extant, being published in the several editions of his works. It is a small treatise, and worthy of attention only as a matter of curiosity. It is written in prose, and designed chiefly for the aid of foreigners. Grammar is an unpoetical subject, and therefore not wisely treated, as it once very generally was, in verse. But every poet should be familiar with the art, because the formal principles of his own have always been considered as embraced in it. To its poets, too, every language must needs be particularly indebted; because their compositions, being in general more highly finished than works in prose, are supposed to present the language in its most agreeable form. In the preface to the Poems of Edmund Waller, published in 1690, the editor ventures to say, "He was, indeed, the Parent of English Verse, and the first that shewed us our Tongue had Beauty and Numbers in it. Our Language owes more to Him, than the French does to Cardinal Richelieu and the whole Academy. * * * * The Tongue came into His hands a rough diamond: he polished it first; and to _that_ degree, that all artists since him have admired the workmanship, without pretending to mend it."--_British Poets_, Vol. ii, Lond., 1800: _Waller's Poems_, p. 4. 26. Dr. Johnson, however, in his Lives of the Poets, abates this praise, that he may transfer the greater part of it to Dryden and Pope. He admits that, "After about half a century of forced thoughts and rugged metre, some advances towards nature and harmony had been already made by Waller and Denham;" but, in distributing the praise of this improvement, he adds, "It may be doubted whether Waller and Denham could have over-born [_overborne_] the prejudices which had long prevailed, and which even then were sheltered by the protection of Cowley. The new versification, as it was called, may be considered as owing its establishment to Dryden; from whose time it is apparent that English poetry has had no tendency to relapse to its former savageness."--_Johnson's Life of Dryden: Lives_, p. 206. To Pope, as the translator of Homer, he gives this praise: "His version may be said to have tuned the English tongue; for since its appearance no writer, however deficient in other powers, has wanted melody."--_Life of Pope: Lives_, p. 567. Such was the opinion of Johnson; but there are other critics who object to the versification of Pope, that it is "monotonous and cloying." See, in Leigh Hunt's Feast of the Poets, the following couplet, and a note upon it: "But ever since Pope spoil'd the ears of the town With his cuckoo-song verses half up and half down." 27. The unfortunate Charles I, as well as his father James I, was a lover and promoter of letters. He was himself a good scholar, and wrote well in English, for his time: he ascended the throne in 1625, and was beheaded in 1648. Nor was Cromwell himself, with all his religious and military enthusiasm, wholly insensible to _literary_ merit. This century was distinguished by the writings of Milton, Dryden, Waller, Cowley, Denham, Locke, and others; and the reign of Charles II, which is embraced in it, has been considered by some "the Augustan age of English literature." But that honour, if it may well be bestowed on any, belongs rather to a later period. The best works produced in the eighteenth century, are so generally known and so highly esteemed, that it would be lavish of the narrow space allowed to this introduction, to speak particularly of their merits. Some grammatical errors may be found in almost all books; but our language was, in general, written with great purity and propriety by Addison, Swift, Pope, Johnson, Lowth, Hume, Horne, and many other celebrated authors who flourished in the last century. Nor was it much before this period, that the British writers took any great pains to be accurate in the use of their own language; "Late, very late, correctness grew our care, When the tir'd nation breath'd from civil war."--_Pope_. 28. English books began to be printed in the early part of the sixteenth century; and, as soon as a taste for reading was formed, the press threw open the flood-gates of general knowledge, the streams of which are now pouring forth, in a copious, increasing, but too often turbid tide, upon all the civilized nations of the earth. This mighty engine afforded a means by which superior minds could act more efficiently and more extensively upon society in general. And thus, by the exertions of genius adorned with learning, our native tongue has been made the polished vehicle of the most interesting truths, and of the most important discoveries; and has become a language copious, strong, refined, and capable of no inconsiderable degree of harmony. Nay, it is esteemed by some who claim to be competent judges, to be the strongest, the richest, the most elegant, and the most susceptible of sublime imagery, of all the languages in the world. CHAPTER VII. CHANGES AND SPECIMENS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. "Quot enim verba, et nonnunquam in deterius, hoc, quo vivimus, sæculo, partim aliqâ, partim nullâ necessitate cogente, mutata sunt?"--ROB. AINSWORTH: _Lat. Dict., 4to_; Præf., p. xi. 1. In the use of language, every one chooses his words from that common stock which he has learned, and applies them in practice according to his own habits and notions. If the style of different writers of the same age is various, much greater is the variety which appears in the productions of different ages. Hence the date of a book may often be very plausibly conjectured from the peculiarities of its style. As to what is best in itself, or best adapted to the subject in hand, every writer must endeavour to become his own judge. He who, in any sort of composition, would write with a master's hand, must first apply himself to books with a scholar's diligence. He must think it worth his while to inform himself, that he may be critical. Desiring to give the student all the advantage, entertainment, and satisfaction, that can be expected from a work of this kind, I shall subjoin a few brief specimens in illustration of what has been said in the foregoing chapter. The order of time will be followed _inversely_; and, as Saxon characters are not very easily obtained, or very apt to be read, the Roman letters will be employed for the few examples to which the others would be more appropriate. But there are some peculiarities of ancient usage in English, which, for the information of the young reader, it is proper in the first place to explain. 2. With respect to the letters, there are _several changes_ to be mentioned. (1.) The pages of old books are often crowded with capitals: it was at one time the custom to distinguish all nouns, and frequently verbs, or any other important words, by heading them with a great letter. (2.) The letter Ess, of the lower case, had till lately two forms, the long and the short, as [tall-s] and s; the former very nearly resembling the small f, and the latter, its own capital. The short _s_ was used _at the end of words_, and the long _[tall-s]_, in other places; but the latter is now laid aside, in favour of the more distinctive form. (3.) The letters _I_ and _J_ were formerly considered as one and the same. Hence we find _hallelujah_ for _halleluiah, Iohn_ for _John, iudgement_ for _judgement_, &c. And in many dictionaries, the words beginning with _J_ are still mixed with those which begin with _I_. (4.) The letters _U_ and _V_ were mixed in like manner, and for the same reason; the latter being a consonant power given to the former, and at length distinguished from it by a different form. Or rather, the figure of the capital seems to have been at last appropriated to the one, and that of the small letter to the other. But in old books the forms of these two letters are continually confounded or transposed. Hence it is, that our _Double-u_ is composed of two _Vees_; which, as we see in old books, were sometimes printed separately: as, VV, for W; or vv, for w. 3. The _orthography_ of our language, rude and unsettled as it still is in many respects, was formerly much more variable and diverse. In books a hundred years old or more, we often find the most common words spelled variously by the same writer, and even upon the very same page. With respect to the forms of words, a few particulars may here be noticed: (1.) The article _an_, from which the _n_ was dropped before words beginning with a consonant sound, is often found in old books where _a_ would be more proper; as, _an heart, an help, an hill, an one, an use_. (2.) Till the seventeenth century, the possessive case was written without the apostrophe; being formed at different times, in _es, is, ys, or s_, like the plural; and apparently without rule or uniformity in respect to the doubling of the final consonant: as _Goddes, Godes, Godis, Godys_, or _Gods_, for _God's_; so _mannes, mannis, mannys_ or _mans_, for _man's_. Dr. Ash, whose English Grammar was in some repute in the latter part of the eighteenth century, argued against the use of the apostrophe, alleging that it was seldom used to distinguish the possessive case till about the beginning of that century; and he then prophesied that the time would come, when _correct writers would lay it aside again_, as a strange corruption, an improper "departure from the original formation" of that case of English nouns. And, among the speculations of these latter days, I have somewhere seen an attempt to disparage this useful sign, and explode it, as an unsightly thing _never well established_. It does not indeed, like a syllabic sign, inform the ear or affect the sound; but still it is useful, because it distinguishes to the eye, not only the _case_, but the _number_, of the nouns thus marked. Pronouns, being different in their declension, do not need it, and should therefore always be written without it. 4. The common usage of those who have spoken English, has always inclined rather to brevity than to melody; contraction and elision of the ancient terminations of words, constitute no small part of the change which has taken place, or of the difference which perhaps always existed between the solemn and the familiar style. In respect to euphony, however, these terminations have certainly nothing to boast; nor does the earliest period of the language appear to be that in which they were the most generally used without contraction. That degree of smoothness of which the tongue was anciently susceptible, had certainly no alliance with these additional syllables. The long sonorous endings which constitute the declensions and conjugations of the most admired languages, and which seem to chime so well with the sublimity of the Greek, the majesty of the Latin, the sweetness of the Italian, the dignity of the Spanish, or the polish of the French, _never had_ any place in English. The inflections given to our words never embraced any other vowel power than that of the short _e_ or _i_; and even, this we are inclined to dispense with, whenever we can; so that most of our grammatical inflections are, to the ear, nothing but consonants blended with the final syllables of the words to which they are added. _Ing_ for the first participle, _er_ for the comparative degree, and _est_ for the superlative, are indeed added as whole syllables; but the rest, as _d_ or _ed_ for preterits and perfect participles, _s_ or _es_ for the plural number of nouns, or for the third person singular of verbs, and _st_ or _est_ for the second person singular of verbs, nine times in ten, fall into the sound or syllable with which the primitive word terminates. English verbs, as they are now commonly used, run through their entire conjugation without acquiring a single syllable from inflection, except sometimes when the sound of _d, s_, or _st_ cannot be added to them. 5. This simplicity, so characteristic of our modern English, as well as of the Saxon tongue, its proper parent, is attended with advantages that go far to compensate for all that is consequently lost in euphony, or in the liberty of transposition. Our formation of the moods and tenses, by means of a few separate auxiliaries, all monosyllabic, and mostly without inflection, is not only simple and easy, but beautiful, chaste, and strong. In my opinion, our grammarians have shown far more affection for the obsolete or obsolescent terminations _en, eth, est_, and _edst_, than they really deserve. Till the beginning of the sixteenth century, _en_ was used to mark the plural number of verbs, as, _they sayen_ for _they say_; after which, it appears to have been dropped. Before the beginning of the seventeenth century, _s_ or _es_ began to dispute with _th_ or _eth_ the right of forming the third person singular of verbs; and, as the Bible and other grave books used only the latter, a clear distinction obtained, between the solemn and the familiar style, which distinction is well known at this day. Thus we have, _He runs, walks, rides, reaches_, &c., for the one; and, _He runneth, walketh, rideth, reacheth_, &c., for the other. About the same time, or perhaps earlier, the use of the second person singular began to be avoided in polite conversation, by the substitution of the plural verb and pronoun; and, when used in poetry, it was often contracted, so as to prevent any syllabic increase. In old books, all verbs and participles that were intended to be contracted in pronunciation, were contracted also, in some way, by the writer: as, "_call'd, carry'd, sacrific'd;" "fly'st, ascrib'st, cryd'st;" "tost, curst, blest, finisht_;" and others innumerable. All these, and such as are like them, we now pronounce in the same way, but usually write differently; as, _called, carried, sacrificed; fliest, ascribest, criettst; tossed, cursed, blessed, finished_. Most of these topics will be further noticed in the Grammar. I. ENGLISH OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 6. _Queen Victoria's Answer to an Address.--Example written in 1837_. "I thank you for your condolence upon the death of his late Majesty, for the justice which you render to his character, and to the measures of his reign, and for your warm congratulations upon my accession to the throne. I join in your prayers for the prosperity of my reign, the best security for which is to be found in reverence for our holy religion, and in the observance of its duties."--VICTORIA, _to the Friends' Society_. 7. _From President Adams's Eulogy on Lafayette.--Written in 1834_. "Pronounce him one of the first men of his age, and you have yet not done him justice. Try him by that test to which he sought in vain to stimulate the vulgar and selfish spirit of Napoleon; class him among the men who, to compare and seat themselves, must take in the compass of all ages; turn back your eyes upon the records of time; summon from the creation of the world to this day the mighty dead of every age and every clime; and where, among the race of merely mortal men, shall one be found, who, as the benefactor of his kind, shall claim to take precedence of Lafayette?"--JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 8. _From President Jackson's Proclamation against Nullification.--1832_. "No, we have not erred! The Constitution is still the object of our reverence, the bond of our Union, our defence in danger, the source of our prosperity in peace. It shall descend, as we have received it, uncorrupted by sophistical construction, to our posterity: and the sacrifices of local interest, of State prejudices, of personal animosities, that were made to bring it into existence, will again be patriotically offered for its support."--ANDREW JACKSON. 9. _From a Note on one of Robert Hall's Sermons.--Written about 1831_. "After he had written down the striking apostrophe which occurs at about page 76 of most of the editions--'Eternal God! on what are thine enemies intent! what are those enterprises of guilt and horror, that, for the safety of their performers, require to be enveloped in a darkness which the eye of Heaven must not _penetrate_!'--he asked, 'Did I say _penetrate_, sir, when I preached, it?' 'Yes.' 'Do you think, sir, I may venture to alter it? for no man who considered the force of the English language, would use a word of three syllables there, but from absolute necessity.' 'You are doubtless at liberty to alter it, if you think well.' 'Then be so good, sir, as to take your pencil, and for _penetrate_ put _pierce_; _pierce_ is the word, sir, and the only word to be used there.'"--OLINTHUS GREGORY. 10. _King William's Answer to an Address.--Example written in 1830_. "I thank you sincerely for your condolence with me, on account of the loss which I have sustained, in common with my people, by the death of my lamented brother, his late Majesty. The assurances which you have conveyed to me, of loyalty and affectionate attachment to my person, are very gratifying to my feelings. You may rely upon my favour and protection, and upon my anxious endeavours to promote morality and true piety among all classes of my subjects."--WILLIAM IV, _to the Friends_. 11. _Reign of George IV, 1830 back to 1820.--Example written in 1827_. "That morning, thou, that slumbered[48] not before, Nor slept, great Ocean I laid thy waves to rest, And hushed thy mighty minstrelsy. No breath Thy deep composure stirred, no fin, no oar; Like beauty newly dead, so calm, so still, So lovely, thou, beneath the light that fell From angel-chariots sentinelled on high, Reposed, and listened, and saw thy living change, Thy dead arise. Charybdis listened, and Scylla; And savage Euxine on the Thracian beach Lay motionless: and every battle ship Stood still; and every ship of merchandise, And all that sailed, of every name, stood still." ROBERT POLLOK: _Course of Time_, Book VII, line 634-647. II. ENGLISH OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 12. _Reign of George III, 1820 back to 1760.--Example written in 1800_. "There is, it will be confessed, a delicate sensibility to character, a sober desire of reputation, a wish to possess the esteem of the wise and good, felt by the purest minds, which is at the farthest remove from arrogance or vanity. The humility of a noble mind scarcely dares approve of itself, until it has secured the approbation of others. Very different is that restless desire of distinction, that passion for theatrical display, which inflames the heart and occupies the whole attention of vain men. * * * The truly good man is jealous over himself, lest the notoriety of his best actions, by blending itself with their motive, should diminish their value; the vain man performs the same actions for the sake of that notoriety. The good man quietly discharges his duty, and shuns ostentation; the vain man considers every good deed lost that is not publickly displayed. The one is intent upon realities, the other upon semblances: the one aims to _be_ virtuous, the other to _appear_ so."--ROBERT HALL: _Sermon on Modern Infidelity_. 13. _From Washington's Farewell Address.--Example written in 1796_. "Of all the dispositions and habits which lead to political prosperity, Religion and Morality are indispensable supports. In vain would that man claim the tribute of patriotism, who should labour to subvert these great pillars of human happiness, these firmest props of the duties of men and citizens. The mere politician, equally with the pious man, ought to respect and cherish them. A volume could not trace all their connexions with private and publick felicity. Let it simply be asked, where is the security for property, for reputation, for life, if the sense of religious obligation desert the oaths which are the instruments of investigation in courts of justice? And let us with caution indulge the supposition, that morality can be maintained without religion. Whatever may be conceded to the influence of refined education on minds of a peculiar structure; reason and experience both forbid us to expect that national morality can prevail in exclusion of religious principle."--GEORGE WASHINGTON. 14. _From Dr. Johnson's Life of Addison.--Example written about 1780_. "That he always wrote as he would think it necessary to write now, cannot be affirmed; his instructions were such as the character of his readers made proper. That general knowledge which now circulates in common talk, was in his time rarely to be found. Men not professing learning, were not ashamed of ignorance; and in the female world, any acquaintance with books was distinguished only to be censured. His purpose was to infuse literary curiosity, by gentle and unsuspected conveyance, into the gay, the idle, and the wealthy; he therefore presented knowledge in the most alluring form, not lofty and austere, but accessible and familiar. When he shewed them their defects, he shewed them likewise that they might easily be supplied. His attempt succeeded; inquiry was awakened, and comprehension expanded. An emulation of intellectual elegance was excited, and from this time to our own, life has been gradually exalted, and conversation purified and enlarged."--SAMUEL JOHNSON: _Lives_, p. 321. 15. _Reign of George II, 1760 back to 1727.--Example written in 1751_. "We Britons in our time have been remarkable borrowers, as our _multiform_ Language may sufficiently shew. Our Terms in _polite Literature_ prove, that this came from _Greece_; our terms in _Music_ and _Painting_, that these came from Italy; our Phrases in _Cookery_ and _War_, that we learnt these from the French; and our phrases in _Navigation_, that we were taught by the _Flemings_ and _Low Dutch_. These many and very different Sources of our Language may be the cause, why it is so deficient in _Regularity_ and _Analogy_. Yet we have this advantage to compensate the defect, that what we want in _Elegance_, we gain in _Copiousness_, in which last respect few Languages will be found superior to our own."--JAMES HARRIS: _Hermes_, Book iii, Ch. v, p. 408. 16. _Reign of George I, 1727 back to 1714.--Example written about 1718_. "There is a certain coldness and indifference in the phrases of our European languages, when they are compared with the Oriental forms of speech: and it happens very luckily, that the Hebrew idioms ran into the English tongue, with a particular grace and beauty. Our language has received innumerable elegancies and improvements from that infusion of Hebraisms, which are derived to it out of the poetical passages in holy writ. They give a force and energy to our expressions, warm and animate our language, and convey our thoughts in more ardent and intense phrases, than any that are to be met with in our tongue."--JOSEPH ADDISON: _Evidences_, p. 192. 17. _Reign of Queen Anne, 1714 to 1702.--Example written in 1708_. "Some by old words to Fame have made pretence, Ancients in phrase, mere moderns in their sense; Such labour'd nothings, in so strange a style, Amaze th' unlearn'd, and make the learned smile." "In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold; Alike fantastick, if too new or old: Be not the first by whom the new are try'd, Nor yet the last to lay the old aside." ALEXANDER POPE: _Essay on Criticism_, l. 324-336. III. ENGLISH OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 18. _Reign of William III, 1702 to 1689.--Example published in 1700_. "And when we see a Man of _Milton's_ Wit _Chime_ in with such a _Herd_, and Help on the _Cry_ against _Hirelings_! We find How Easie it is for _Folly_ and _Knavery_ to Meet, and that they are Near of Kin, tho they bear Different Aspects. Therefor since _Milton_ has put himself upon a _Level_ with the _Quakers_ in this, I will let them go together. And take as little Notice of his _Buffoonry_, as of their _Dulness_ against _Tythes_. Ther is nothing worth _Quoting_ in his _Lampoon_ against the _Hirelings_. But what ther is of _Argument_ in it, is fully Consider'd in what follows."--CHARLES LESLIE: _Divine Right of Tithes, Pref._, p. xi. 19. _Reign of James II, 1689 back to 1685.--Example written in 1685._ "His conversation, wit, and parts, His knowledge in the noblest useful arts, Were such, dead authors could not give; But habitudes of those who live; Who, lighting him, did greater lights receive: He drain'd from all, and all they knew; His apprehension quick, his judgment true: That the most learn'd with shame confess His knowledge more, his reading only less." JOHN DRYDEN: _Ode to the Memory of Charles II; Poems_, p. 84. 20. _Reign of Charles II, 1685 to 1660.--Example from a Letter to the Earl of Sunderland, dated, "Philadelphia, 28th 5th mo. July, 1683."_ "And I will venture to say, that by the help of God, and such noble Friends, I will show a Province in seven years, equal to her neighbours of forty years planting. I have lay'd out the Province into Countys. Six are begun to be seated; they lye on the great river, and are planted about six miles back. The town platt is a mile long, and two deep,--has a navigable river on each side, the least as broad as the Thames at Woolwych, from three to eight fathom water. There is built about eighty houses, and I have settled at least three hundred farmes contiguous to it."--WILLIAM PENN. _The Friend_, Vol. vii, p. 179. 21. _From an Address or Dedication to Charles II.--Written in 1675_. "There is no [other] king in the world, who can so experimentally testify of God's providence and goodness; neither is there any [other], who rules so many free people, so many true Christians: which thing renders thy government more honourable, thyself more considerable, than the accession of many nations filled with slavish and superstitious souls."--ROBERT BARCLAY: _Apology_, p. viii. 22. The following example, from the commencement of _Paradise Lost_, first published in 1667, has been cited by several authors, to show how large a proportion of our language is of Saxon origin. The thirteen words in Italics are the only ones in this passage, which seem to have been derived from any other source. "Of man's first _disobedience_, and the _fruit_ Of that forbidden tree, whose _mortal_ taste Brought death into the world, and all our woe, With loss of _Eden_; till one greater Man _Restore_ us, and _regain_ the blissful _seat_, Sing, heav'nly _Muse_, that on the _secret_ top Of _Oreb_, or of _Sinai_, didst _inspire_ That shepherd, who first taught the chosen seed, In the beginning, how the Heav'ns and Earth Rose out of _Chaos_."--MILTON: _Paradise Lost_, Book I. 23. _Examples written during Cromwell's Protectorate, 1660 to 1650_. "The Queene was pleased to shew me the letter, the seale beinge a Roman eagle, havinge characters about it almost like the Greeke. This day, in the afternoone, the vice-chauncellor came to me and stayed about four hours with me; in which tyme we conversed upon the longe debates."--WHITELOCKE. _Bucke's Class. Gram._, p. 149. "I am yet heere, and have the States of Holland ingaged in a more than ordnary maner, to procure me audience of the States Generall. Whatever happen, the effects must needes be good."--STRICKLAND: _Bucke's Classical Gram._, p. 149. 24. _Reign of Charles I, 1648 to 1625.--Example from Ben Jonson's Grammar, written about 1634; but the orthography is more modern_. "The second and third person singular of the present are made of the first, by adding _est_ and _eth_; which last is sometimes shortened into _s_. It seemeth to have been poetical licence which first introduced this abbreviation of the third person into use; but our best grammarians have condemned it upon some occasions, though perhaps not to be absolutely banished the common and familiar style." "The persons plural keep the termination of the first person singular. In former times, till about the reign of Henry the eighth, they were wont to be formed by adding _en_; thus, _loven, sayen, complainen_. But now (whatever is the cause) it hath quite grown out of use, and that other so generally prevailed, that I dare not presume to set this afoot again: albeit (to tell you my opinion) I am persuaded that the lack hereof well considered, will be found a great blemish to our tongue. For seeing _time_ and _person_ be, as it were, the right and left hand of a verb, what can the maiming bring else, but a lameness to the whole body?"--Book i, Chap. xvi. 25. _Reign of James I, 1625 to 1603.--From an Advertisement, dated 1608_. "I svppose it altogether needlesse (Christian Reader) by commending M. _VVilliam Perkins_, the Author of this booke, to wooe your holy affection, which either himselfe in his life time by his Christian conversation hath woon in you, or sithence his death, the neuer-dying memorie of his excellent knowledge, his great humilitie, his sound religion, his feruent zeale, his painefull labours, in the Church of God, doe most iustly challenge at your hands: onely in one word, I dare be bold to say of him as in times past _Nazianzen_ spake of _Athanasius_. His life was a good definition of a true minister and preacher of the Gospell."--_The Printer to the Reader_. 26. _Examples written about the end of Elizabeth's reign--1603_. "Some say, That euer 'gainst that season comes Wherein our Saviour's Birth is celebrated, The Bird of Dawning singeth all night long; And then, say they, no Spirit dares walk abroad: The nights are wholsom, then no Planets strike, No Fairy takes, nor Witch hath pow'r to charm; So hallow'd and so gracious is the time." SHAKSPEARE: _Hamlet_. "The sea, with such a storme as his bare head In hell-blacke night indur'd, would haue buoy'd up And quench'd the stelled fires. Yet, poore old heart, he holpe the heuens to raine. If wolues had at thy gate howl'd that sterne time, Thou shouldst haue said, Good porter, turne the key." SHAKSPEARE: _Lear_. IV. ENGLISH OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 27. _Reign of Elizabeth, 1603 back to 1558.--Example written in 1592_. "As for the soule, it is no accidentarie qualitie, but a spirituall and inuisible essence or nature, subsisting by it selfe. Which plainely appeares in that the soules of men haue beeing and continuance as well forth of the bodies of men as in the same; and are as wel subiect to torments as the bodie is. And whereas we can and doe put in practise sundrie actions of life, sense, motion, vnderstanding, we doe it onely by the power and vertue of the soule. Hence ariseth the difference betweene the soules of men, and beasts. The soules of men are substances: but the soules of other creatures seeme not to be substances; because they haue no beeing out of the bodies in which they are."--WILLIAM PERKINS: _Theol. Works, folio_, p. 155. 28. _Examples written about the beginning of Elizabeth's reign.--1558_. "Who can perswade, when treason is aboue reason; and mighte ruleth righte; and it is had for lawfull, whatsoever is lustfull; and commotioners are better than commissioners; and common woe is named common weale?"--SIR JOHN CHEKE. "If a yong jentleman will venture him selfe into the companie of ruffians, it is over great a jeopardie, lest their facions, maners, thoughts, taulke, and dedes, will verie sone be over like."--ROGER ASCHAM. 29. _Reign of Mary the Bigot, 1558 to 1553.--Example written about 1555_. "And after that Philosophy had spoken these wordes the said companye of the musys poeticall beynge rebukyd and sad, caste downe their countenaunce to the grounde, and by blussyng confessed their shamefastnes, and went out of the dores. But I (that had my syght dull and blynd wyth wepyng, so that I knew not what woman this was hauyng soo great aucthoritie) was amasyd or astonyed, and lokyng downeward, towarde the ground, I began pryvyle to look what thyng she would save ferther."--COLVILLE: _Version from Boëthius: Johnson's Hist. of E. L._, p. 29. 30. _Example referred by Dr. Johnson to the year 1553_. "Pronunciation is an apte orderinge bothe of the voyce, countenaunce, and all the whole bodye, accordynge to the worthinea of such woordes and mater as by speache are declared. The vse hereof is suche for anye one that liketh to haue prayse for tellynge his tale in open assemblie, that hauing a good tongue, and a comelye countenaunce, he shal be thought to passe all other that haue not the like vtteraunce: thoughe they have muche better learning."--DR. WILSON: _Johnson's Hist. E. L._, p. 45. 31. _Reign of Edward VI, 1553 to 1547.--Example written about 1550._ "Who that will followe the graces manyfolde Which are in vertue, shall finde auauncement: Wherefore ye fooles that in your sinne are bolde, Ensue ye wisdome, and leaue your lewde intent, Wisdome is the way of men most excellent: Therefore haue done, and shortly spede your pace, To quaynt your self and company with grace." ALEXANDER BARCLAY: _Johnson's Hist. E. L._, p. 44. 32. _Reign of Henry VIII, 1547 to 1509.--Example dated 1541_. "Let hym that is angry euen at the fyrste consyder one of these thinges, that like as he is a man, so is also the other, with whom he is angry, and therefore it is as lefull for the other to be angry, as unto hym: and if he so be, than shall that anger be to hym displeasant, and stere hym more to be angrye."--SIR THOMAS ELLIOTT: _Castel of Helthe_. 33. _Example of the earliest English Blank Verse; written about 1540_. The supposed author died in 1541, aged 38. The piece from which these lines are taken describes the death of _Zoroas_, an Egyptian astronomer, slain in Alexander's first battle with the Persians. "The Persians waild such sapience to foregoe; And very sone the Macedonians wisht He would have lived; king Alexander selfe Demde him a man unmete to dye at all; Who wonne like praise for conquest of his yre, As for stoute men in field that day subdued, Who princes taught how to discerne a man, That in his head so rare a jewel beares; But over all those same Camenes,[49] those same Divine Camenes, whose honour he procurde, As tender parent doth his daughters weale, Lamented, and for thankes, all that they can, Do cherish hym deceast, and sett hym free, From dark oblivion of devouring death." _Probably written by SIR THOMAS WYAT._ 34. _A Letter written from prison, with a coal._ The writer, _Sir Thomas More_, whose works, both in prose and verse, were considered models of pure and elegant style, had been Chancellor of England, and the familiar confidant of Henry VIII, by whose order he was beheaded in 1535. "Myne own good doughter, our Lorde be thanked I am in good helthe of bodye, and in good quiet of minde: and of worldly thynges I no more desyer then I haue. I beseche hym make you all mery in the hope of heauen. And such thynges as I somewhat longed to talke with you all, concerning the worlde to come, our Lorde put theim into your myndes, as I truste he doth and better to by hys holy spirite: who blesse you and preserue you all. Written wyth a cole by your tender louing father, who in hys pore prayers forgetteth none of you all, nor your babes, nor your nources, nor your good husbandes, nor your good husbandes shrewde wyues, nor your fathers shrewde wyfe neither, nor our other frendes. And thus fare ye hartely well for lacke of paper. THOMAS MORE, knight."--_Johnson's Hist. E. Lang._, p. 42. 35. _From More's Description of Richard III.--Probably written about 1520._ "Richarde the third sonne, of whom we nowe entreate, was in witte and courage egall with either of them, in bodye and prowesse farre vnder them bothe, little of stature, ill fetured of limmes, croke backed, his left shoulder much higher than his right, hard fauoured of visage, and such as is in states called warlye, in other menne otherwise, he was malicious, wrathfull, enuious, and from afore his birth euer frowarde. * * * Hee was close and secrete, a deep dissimuler, lowlye of counteynaunce, arrogant of heart--dispitious and cruell, not for euill will alway, but after for ambicion, and either for the suretie and encrease of his estate. Frende and foo was muche what indifferent, where his aduauntage grew, he spared no mans deathe, whose life withstoode his purpose. He slew with his owne handes king Henry the sixt, being prisoner in the Tower."--SIR THOMAS MORE: _Johnson's History of the English Language_, p. 39. 36. _From his description of Fortune, written about the year 1500._ "Fortune is stately, solemne, prowde, and hye: And rychesse geueth, to haue seruyce therefore. The nedy begger catcheth an half peny: Some manne a thousaude pounde, some lesse some more. But for all that she kepeth euer in store, From euery manne some parcell of his wyll, That he may pray therefore and serve her styll. Some manne hath good, but chyldren hath he none. Some manne hath both, but he can get none health. Some hath al thre, but vp to honours trone, Can he not crepe, by no maner of stelth. To some she sendeth chyldren, ryches, welthe, Honour, woorshyp, and reuerence all hys lyfe: But yet she pyncheth hym with a shrewde wife." SIR THOMAS MORE. V. ENGLISH OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 37. _Example for the reign of Henry VII, who was crowned on Bosworth field, 1485, and who died in 1509._ "Wherefor and forasmoche as we haue sent for our derrest wif, and for our derrest moder, to come unto us, and that we wold have your advis and counsail also in soche matters as we haue to doo for the subduying of the rebelles, we praie you, that, yeving your due attendaunce vppon our said derrest wif and lady moder, ye come with thaym unto us; not failing herof as ye purpose to doo us plaisir. Yeven undre our signett, at our Castell of Kenelworth, the xiii daie of Maye."--HENRY VII: _Letter to the Earl of Ormond: Bucke's Classical Gram._, p. 147. 38. _Example for the short reign of Richard III,--from 1485 to 1483._ "Right reverend fader in God, right trusty and right wel-beloved, we grete yow wele, and wol and charge you that under oure greate seale, being in your warde, ye do make in all haist our lettres of proclamation severally to be directed unto the shirrefs of everie countie within this oure royaume."--RICHARD III: _Letter to his Chancellor._ 39. _Reign of Edward IV,--from 1483 to 1461.--Example written in 1463._ "Forasmoche as we by divers meanes bene credebly enformed and undarstand for certyne, that owr greate adversary Henry, naminge hym selfe kynge of England, by the maliceous counseyle and exitacion of Margaret his wife, namynge hir selfe queane of England, have conspired," &c.--EDWARD IV: _Letter of Privy Seal_. 40. _Examples for the reign of Henry VI,--from 1461 back to 1422._ "When Nembroth [i.e. _Nimrod_] by Might, for his own Glorye, made and incorporate the first Realme, and subduyd it to hymself by Tyrannye, he would not have it governyd by any other Rule or Lawe, but by his own Will; by which and for th' accomplishment thereof he made it. And therefor, though he had thus made a Realme, holy Scripture denyd to cal hym a Kyng, _Quia Rex dicitur a Regendo_; Whych thyng he did not, but oppressyd the People by Myght."--SIR JOHN FORTESCUE. 41. _Example from Lydgate, a poetical Monk, who died in 1440._ "Our life here short of wit the great dulnes The heuy soule troubled with trauayle, And of memorye the glasyng brotelnes, Drede and vncunning haue made a strong batail With werines my spirite to assayle, And with their subtil creping in most queint Hath made my spirit in makyng for to feint." JOHN LYDGATE: _Fall of Princes_, Book III, Prol. 42. _Example for the reign of Henry V,--from 1422 back to 1413._ "I wolle that the Duc of Orliance be kept stille withyn the Castil of Pontefret, with owte goyng to Robertis place, or to any other disport, it is better he lak his disport then we were disceyved. Of all the remanant dothe as ye thenketh."--_Letter of_ HENRY V. 43. _Example for the reign of Henry IV,--from 1413 back to 1400._ "Right heigh and myghty Prynce, my goode and gracious Lorde,--I recommaund me to you as lowly as I kan or may with all my pouer hert, desiryng to hier goode and gracious tydynges of your worshipful astate and welfare."--LORD GREY: _Letter to the Prince of Wales: Bucke's Classical Gram._, p. 145. VI. ENGLISH OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 44. _Reign of Richard II, 1400 back to 1377.--Example written in 1391._ "Lytel Lowys my sonne, I perceve well by certaine evidences thyne abylyte to lerne scyences, touching nombres and proporcions, and also well consydre I thy besye prayer in especyal to lerne the tretyse of the _astrolabye_. Than for as moche as a philosopher saithe, he wrapeth hym in his frende, that condiscendeth to the ryghtfull prayers of his frende: therefore I have given the a sufficient astrolabye for oure orizont, compowned after the latitude of Oxenforde: vpon the whiche by meditacion of this lytell tretise, I purpose to teche the a certame nombre of conclusions, pertainynge to this same instrument."--GEOFFREY CHAUCER: _Of the Astrolabe_. 45. _Example written about 1385--to be compared with that of 1555, on p. 87_. "And thus this companie of muses iblamed casten wrothly the chere dounward to the yerth, and shewing by rednesse their shame, thei passeden sorowfully the thresholde. And I of whom the sight plounged in teres was darked, so that I ne might not know what that woman was, of so Imperial aucthoritie, I woxe all abashed and stonied, and cast my sight doune to the yerth, and began still for to abide what she would doen afterward."--CHAUCER: _Version from Boëthius: Johnson's Hist. of E. L._, p. 29. 46. _Poetical Example--probably written before 1380_. "O Socrates, thou stedfast champion; She ne might nevir be thy turmentour, Thou nevir dreddist her oppression, Ne in her chere foundin thou no favour, Thou knewe wele the disceipt of her colour, And that her moste worship is for to lie, I knowe her eke a false dissimulour, For finally Fortune I doe defie."--CHAUCER. 47. _Reign of Edward III, 1377 to 1327.--Example written about 1360_. "And eke full ofte a littell skare Vpon a banke, er men be ware, Let in the streme, whiche with gret peine, If any man it shall restreine. Where lawe failleth, errour groweth; He is not wise, who that ne troweth."--SIR JOHN GOWER. 48. _Example from Mandeville, the English traveller--written in 1356_. "And this sterre that is toward the Northe, that wee clepen the lode sterre, ne apperethe not to hem. For whiche cause, men may wel perceyve, that the lond and the see ben of rownde schapp and forme. For the partie of the firmament schewethe in o contree, that schewethe not in another contree. And men may well preven be experience and sotyle compassement of wytt, that zif a man fond passages be schippes, that wolde go to serchen the world, men mighte go be schippe all aboute the world, and aboven and benethen. The whiche thing I prove thus, aftre that I have seyn. * * * Be the whiche I seye zou certeynly, that men may envirowne alle the erthe of alle the world, as wel undre as aboven, and turnen azen to his contree, that hadde companye and schippynge and conduyt: and alle weyes he scholde fynde men, londes, and yles, als wel as in this contree."--SIR JOHN MANDEVILLE; _Johnson's Hist. of E. L._, p. 26. 49. _Example from Rob. Langland's "Vision of Pierce Ploughman," 1350_. "In the somer season, When hot was the Sun, I shope me into shroubs, As I a shepe were; In habit as an harmet, Vnholy of werkes, Went wyde in this world Wonders to heare." 50. _Description of a Ship--referred to the reign of Edward II: 1327-1307_. "Such ne saw they never none, For it was so gay begone, Every nayle with gold ygrave, Of pure gold was his sklave, Her mast was of ivory, Of samyte her sayle wytly, Her robes all of whyte sylk, As whyte as ever was ony mylke. The noble ship was without With clothes of gold spread about And her loft and her wyndlace All of gold depaynted was." ANONYMOUS: _Bucke's Gram._, p. 143. 51. _From an Elegy on Edward I, who reigned till 1307 from 1272_. "Thah mi tonge were made of stel, Ant min herte yzote of bras, The goodness myht y never telle, That with kyng Edward was: Kyng, as thou art cleped conquerour, In uch battaille thou hadest prys; God bringe thi soule to the honour, That ever wes ant ever ys. Now is Edward of Carnavan Kyng of Engelond al aplyght; God lete him never be worse man Then his fader, ne lasse myht, To holden his pore men to ryht, Ant understonde good counsail, Al Engelond for to wysse and dyht; Of gode knyhtes darh him nout fail." ANON.: _Percy's Reliques_, Vol. ii, p. 10. VII. ENGLISH OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 52. _Reign of Henry III, 1272 to 1216.--Example from an old ballad entitled Richard of Almaigne_; which Percy says was "made by one of the adherents of Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, soon after the battle of Lewes, which was fought, May 14, 1264."--_Percy's Reliques_, Vol. ii. "Sitteth alle stille, and herkneth to me; The kyng of Almaigne, bi mi leaute, Thritti thousent pound askede he For te make the pees in the countre, Ant so he dude more. Richard, thah thou be ever trichard, Trichten shalt thou never more." 53. In the following examples, I substitute Roman letters for the Saxon. At this period, we find the characters mixed. The style here is that which Johnson calls "a kind of intermediate diction, neither Saxon nor English." Of these historical rhymes, by _Robert of Gloucester_, the Doctor gives us more than two hundred lines; but he dates them no further than to say, that the author "is placed by the criticks in the thirteenth century."--_Hist. of Eng. Lang._, p. 24. "Alfred thys noble man, as in the ger of grace he nom Eygte hondred and syxty and tuelue the kyndom. Arst he adde at Rome ybe, and, vor ys grete wysdom, The pope Leo hym blessede, tho he thuder com, And the kynges croune of hys lond, that in this lond gut ys: And he led hym to be kyng, ar he kyng were y wys. An he was kyng of Engelond, of alle that ther come, That vorst thus ylad was of the pope of Rome, An suththe other after hym of the erchebyssopes echon." "Clere he was god ynou, and gut, as me telleth me, He was more than ten ger old, ar he couthe ys abece. Ac ys gode moder ofte smale gyftes hym tok, Vor to byleue other pie, and loky on ys boke. So that by por clergye ys rygt lawes he wonde, That neuere er nere y mad to gouerny ys lond." ROBERT OF GLOUCESTER: _Johnson's Hist. of E. L._, p. 25. 54. _Reign of John_, 1216 _back to_ 1199.--_Subject of Christ's Crucifixion_. "I syke when y singe for sorewe that y se When y with wypinge bihold upon the tre, Ant se Jhesu the suete ys hert blod for-lete For the love of me; Ys woundes waxen wete, thei wepen, still and mete, Marie reweth me." ANON.: _Bucke's Gram._, p. 142. VIII. ENGLISH, OR ANGLO-SAXON, OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY. 55. _Reign of Richard I, 1199 back to 1189.--Owl and Nightingale_. "Ich was in one sumere dale, In one snive digele pale, I herde ich hold grete tale, An hule and one nightingale. That plait was stif I stare and strong, Sum wile softe I lud among. An other again other sval I let that wole mod ut al. I either seide of otheres custe, That alere worste that hi wuste I hure and I hure of others songe Hi hold plaidung futhe stronge." ANON.: _Bucke's Gram._, p. 142. 56. _Reign of Henry II, 1189 back to 1154.--Example dated 1180_. "And of alle than folke The wuneden ther on folde, Wes thisses landes folke Leodene hendest itald; And alswa the wimmen Wunliche on heowen." GODRIC: _Bucke's Gram._, p. 141. 57. _Example from the Saxon Chronicle, written about 1160_. "Micel hadde Henri king gadered gold & syluer, and na god ne dide me for his saule thar of. Tha the king Stephne to Engla-land com, tha macod he his gadering æt Oxene-ford, & thar he nam the biscop Roger of Seres-beri, and Alexander biscop of Lincoln, & te Canceler Roger hife neues, & dide ælle in prisun, til hi jafen up here castles. Tha the suikes undergæton that he milde man was & softe & god, & na justise ne dide; tha diden hi alle wunder." See _Johnson's Hist. of the Eng. Language_, p. 22. 58. _Reign of Stephen, 1154 to 1135.--Example written about this time_. "Fur in see bi west Spaygne. Is a lond ihone Cokaygne. There nis lond under heuenriche. Of wel of godnis hit iliche. Thoy paradis be miri and briyt. Cokaygne is of fairer siyt. What is ther in paradis. Bot grasse and flure and greneris. Thoy ther be ioi and gret dute. Ther nis met bot ænlic frute. Ther nis halle bure no bench. Bot watir manis thurst to quench." ANON.: _Johnson's Hist. Eng. Lang._, p. 23. 59. _Reign of Henry I, 1135 to 1100.--Part of an Anglo-Saxon Hymn_. "Heuene & erthe & all that is, Biloken is on his honde. He deth al that his wille is, On sea and ec on londe. He is orde albuten orde. And ende albuten ende. He one is eure on eche stede, Wende wer thu wende. He is buuen us and binethen, Biuoren and ec bihind. Se man that Godes wille deth, He mai hine aihwar uinde. Eche rune he iherth, And wot eche dede. He durh sighth eches ithanc, Wai hwat sel us to rede. Se man neure nele don god, Ne neure god lif leden, Er deth & dom come to his dure, He mai him sore adreden. Hunger & thurst, hete & chele, Ecthe and all unhelthe, Durh deth com on this midelard, And other uniselthe. Ne mai non herte hit ithenche, Ne no tunge telle, Hu muchele pinum and hu uele, Bieth inne helle. Louie God mid ure hierte, And mid all ure mihte, And ure emcristene swo us self, Swo us lereth drihte." ANON.: _Johnson's Hist. Eng. Lang._, p. 21. IX. ANGLO-SAXON OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY, COMPARED WITH ENGLISH. 60. _Saxon,--11th Century_.[50] LUC�, CAP. I. "5. On Herodes dagum Iudea cynincges, wæs sum sacred on naman Zacharias, of Abian tune: and his wif wæs of Aarones dohtrum, and hyre nama waas Elizabeth. 6. Sothlice hig wæron butu rihtwise beforan Gode, gangende on eallum his bebodum and rihtwisnessum, butan wrohte. 7. And hig næfdon nan bearn, fortham the Elizabeth wæs unberende; and hy on hyra dagum butu forth-eodun. 8. Sothlice wæs geworden tha Zacharias hys sacerdhades breac on his gewrixles endebyrdnesse beforan Gode, 9. �fter gewunan thæs sacerdhades hlotes, he eode that he his offrunge sette, tha he on Godes tempel eode. 10. Eall werod thæs folces wæs ute gebiddende on thære offrunge timan. 11. Tha ætywde him Drihtnes engel standende on thæs weofodes swithran healfe. 12. Tha weard Zacharias gedrefed that geseonde, and him ege onhreas. 13. Tha cwæth se engel him to, Ne ondræd thu the Zacharias; fortham thin ben is gehyred, and thin wif Elizabeth the sunu centh, and thu nemst hys naman Johannes."--_Saxon Gospels_. _English.--14th Century_. LUK, CHAP. I. "5. In the dayes of Eroude kyng of Judee ther was a prest Zacarye by name, of the sort of Abia: and his wyf was of the doughtris of Aaron, and hir name was Elizabeth. 6. And bothe weren juste bifore God, goynge in alle the maundementis and justifyingis of the Lord, withouten playnt. 7. And thei hadden no child, for Elizabeth was bareyn; and bothe weren of greet age in her dayes. 8. And it befel that whanne Zacarye schould do the office of presthod in the ordir of his course to fore God, 9. Aftir the custom of the presthood, he wente forth by lot, and entride into the temple to encensen. 10. And al the multitude of the puple was without forth and preyede in the our of encensying. 11. And an aungel of the Lord apperide to him, and stood on the right half of the auter of encense. 12. And Zacarye seyinge was afrayed, and drede fel upon him. 13. And the aungel sayde to him, Zacarye, drede thou not; for thy preier is herd, and Elizabeth thi wif schal bere to thee a sone, and his name schal be clepid Jon." _Wickliffe's Bible_, 1380. _English.--17th Century_. LUKE, CHAP. I. "5. There was in the days of Herod the king of Judea, a certain priest named Zacharias, of the course of Abia: and his wife was of the daughters of Aaron, and her name was Elisabeth. 6. And they were both righteous before God, walking in all the commandments and ordinances of the Lord, blameless. 7. And they had no child, because that Elisabeth was barren; and they both were now well stricken in years. 8. And it came to pass, that while he executed the priest's office before God in the order of his course, 9. According to the custom of the priest's office, his lot was to burn incense when he went into the temple of the Lord. 10. And the whole multitude of the people were praying without at the time of incense. 11. And there appeared unto him an angel of the Lord, standing on the right side of the altar of incense. 12. And when Zacharias saw him, he was troubled, and fear fell upon him. 13. But the angel said unto him, Fear not, Zacharias; for thy prayer is heard, and thy wife Elisabeth shall bear thee a son, and thou shall call his name John." _Common Bible_, 1610. See Dr. Johnson's History of the English Language, in his Quarto Dictionary. X. ANGLO-SAXON IN THE TIME OF KING ALFRED. 61. Alfred the Great, who was the youngest son of Ethelwolf, king of the West Saxons, succeeded to the crown on the death of his brother Ethelred, in the year 871, being then twenty-two years old. He had scarcely time to attend the funeral of his brother, before he was called to the field to defend his country against the Danes. After a reign of more than twenty-eight years, rendered singularly glorious by great achievements under difficult circumstances, he died universally lamented, on the 28th of October, A. D. 900. By this prince the university of Oxford was founded, and provided with able teachers from the continent. His own great proficiency in learning, and his earnest efforts for its promotion, form a striking contrast with the ignorance which prevailed before. "In the ninth century, throughout the whole kingdom of the West Saxons, no man could be found who was scholar enough to instruct the young king Alfred, then a child, even in the first elements of reading: so that he was in his twelfth year before he could name the letters of the alphabet. When that renowned prince ascended the throne, he made it his study to draw his people out of the sloth and stupidity in which they lay; and became, as much by his own example as by the encouragement he gave to learned men, the great restorer of arts in his dominions."--_Life of Bacon_. 62. The language of eulogy must often be taken with some abatement: it does not usually present things in their due proportions. How far the foregoing quotation is true, I will not pretend to say; but what is called "the revival of learning," must not be supposed to have begun at so early a period as that of Alfred. The following is a brief specimen of the language in which that great man wrote; but, printed in Saxon characters, it would appear still less like English. "On thære tide the Gotan of Siththiu mægthe with Romana rice gewin upahofon. and mith heora cyningum. Rædgota and Eallerica wæron hatne. Romane burig abræcon. and eall Italia rice that is betwux tham muntum and Sicilia tham ealonde in anwald gerehton. and tha ægter tham foresprecenan cyningum Theodric feng to tham ilcan rice se Theodric wæs Amulinga. he wass Cristen. theah he on tham Arrianiscan gedwolan durhwunode. He gehet Romanum his freondscype. swa that hi mostan heora ealdrichta wyrthe beon."--KING ALFRED: _Johnson's Hist. of E. L., 4to Dict._, p. 17. CHAPTER VIII. OF THE GRAMMATICAL STUDY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. "Grammatica quid est? ars rectè scribendi rectèque loquendi; poetarum enarrationem continens; omnium Scientiarum fons uberrimus. * * * Nostra ætas parum perita rerum veterum, nimis brevi gyro grammaticum sepsit; at apud antiques olim tantum auctoritatis hic ordo habuit, ut censores essent et judices scriptorum omnium soli grammatici; quos ob id etiam Criticos vocabant."--DESPAUTER. _Præf. ad Synt_, fol. 1. 1. Such is the peculiar power of language, that there is scarcely any subject so trifling, that it may not thereby be plausibly magnified into something great; nor are there many things which cannot be ingeniously disparaged till they shall seem contemptible. Cicero goes further: "Nihil est tam incredibile quod non dicendo fiat probabile;"--"There is nothing so incredible that it may not by the power of language be made probable." The study of grammar has been often overrated, and still oftener injuriously decried. I shall neither join with those who would lessen in the public esteem that general system of doctrines, which from time immemorial has been taught as grammar; nor attempt, either by magnifying its practical results, or by decking it out with my own imaginings, to invest it with any artificial or extraneous importance. 2. I shall not follow the footsteps of _Neef_, who avers that, "Grammar and incongruity are identical things," and who, under pretence of reaching the same end by better means, scornfully rejects as nonsense every thing that others have taught under that name; because I am convinced, that, of all methods of teaching, none goes farther than his, to prove the reproachful assertion true. Nor shall I imitate the declamation of _Cardell_; who, at the commencement of his Essay, recommends the general study of language on earth, from the consideration that, "The faculty of speech is the medium of social bliss for superior intelligences in an eternal world;" [51] and who, when he has exhausted censure in condemning the practical instruction of others, thus lavishes praise, in both his grammars, upon that formless, void, and incomprehensible theory of his own: "This application of words," says he, "in their endless use, by one plain rule, to all things which nouns can name, instead of being the fit subject of blind cavil, _is the most sublime theme presented to the intellect on earth. It is the practical intercourse of the soul at once with its God, and with all parts of his works!_"--_Cardell's Gram._, 12mo, p. 87; _Gram._, 18mo, p. 49. 3. Here, indeed, a wide prospect opens before us; but he who traces science, and teaches what is practically useful, must check imagination, and be content with sober truth. "For apt the mind or fancy is to rove Uncheck'd, and of her roving is no end."--MILTON. Restricted within its proper limits, and viewed in its true light, the practical science of grammar has an intrinsic dignity and merit sufficient to throw back upon any man who dares openly assail it, the lasting stigma of folly and self-conceit. It is true, the judgements of men are fallible, and many opinions are liable to be reversed by better knowledge: but what has been long established by the unanimous concurrence of the learned, it can hardly be the part of a wise instructor now to dispute. The literary reformer who, with the last named gentleman, imagines "that the persons to whom the civilized world have looked up to for instruction in language were all wrong alike in the main points," [52] intends no middle course of reformation, and must needs be a man either of great merit, or of little modesty. 4. The English language may now be regarded as the common inheritance of about fifty millions of people; who are at least as highly distinguished for virtue, intelligence, and enterprise, as any other equal portion of the earth's population. All these are more or less interested in the purity, permanency, and right use of that language; inasmuch as it is to be, not only the medium of mental intercourse with others for them and their children, but the vehicle of all they value, in the reversion of ancestral honour, or in the transmission of their own. It is even impertinent, to tell a man of any respectability, that the study of this his native language is an object of great importance and interest: if he does not, from these most obvious considerations, feel it to be so, the suggestion will be less likely to convince him, than to give offence, as conveying an implicit censure. 5. Every person who has any ambition to appear respectable among people of education, whether in conversation, in correspondence, in public speaking, or in print, must be aware of the absolute necessity of a competent knowledge of the language in which he attempts to express his thoughts. Many a ludicrous anecdote is told, of persons venturing to use words of which they did not know the proper application; many a ridiculous blunder has been published to the lasting disgrace of the writer; and so intimately does every man's reputation for sense depend upon his skill in the use of language, that it is scarcely possible to acquire the one without the other. Who can tell how much of his own good or ill success, how much of the favour or disregard with which he himself has been treated, may have depended upon that skill or deficiency in grammar, of which, as often as he has either spoken or written, he must have afforded a certain and constant evidence.[53] 6. I have before said, that to excel in grammar, is but to know better than others wherein grammatical excellence consists; and, as this excellence, whether in the thing itself, or in him that attains to it, is merely comparative, there seems to be no fixed point of perfection beyond which such learning may not be carried. In speaking or writing to different persons, and on different subjects, it is necessary to vary one's style with great nicety of address; and in nothing does true genius more conspicuously appear, than in the facility with which it adopts the most appropriate expressions, leaving the critic no fault to expose, no word to amend. Such facility of course supposes an intimate knowledge of all words in common use, and also of the principles on which they are to be combined. 7. With a language which we are daily in the practice of hearing, speaking, reading, and writing, we may certainly acquire no inconsiderable acquaintance, without the formal study of its rules. All the true principles of grammar were presumed to be known to the learned, before they were written for the aid of learners; nor have they acquired any independent authority, by being recorded in a book, and denominated grammar. The teaching of them, however, has tended in no small degree to settle and establish the construction of the language, to improve the style of our English writers, and to enable us to ascertain with more clearness the true standard of grammatical purity. He who learns only by rote, may speak the words or phrases which he has thus acquired; and he who has the genius to discern intuitively what is regular and proper, may have further aid from the analogies which he thus discovers; but he who would add to such acquisitions the satisfaction of knowing what is right, must make the principles of language his study. 8. To produce an able and elegant writer, may require something more than a knowledge of grammar rules; yet it is argument enough in favour of those rules, that without a knowledge of them no elegant and able writer is produced. Who that considers the infinite number of phrases which words in their various combinations may form, and the utter impossibility that they should ever be recognized individually for the purposes of instruction and criticism, but must see the absolute necessity of dividing words into classes, and of showing, by general rules of formation and construction, the laws to which custom commonly subjects them, or from which she allows them in particular instances to deviate? Grammar, or the art of writing and speaking, must continue to be learned by some persons; because it is of indispensable use to society. And the only question is, whether children and youth shall acquire it by a regular process of study and method of instruction, or be left to glean it solely from their own occasional observation of the manner in which other people speak and write. 9. The practical solution of this question belongs chiefly to parents and guardians. The opinions of teachers, to whose discretion the decision will sometimes be left, must have a certain degree of influence upon the public mind; and the popular notions of the age, in respect to the relative value of different studies, will doubtless bias many to the adoption or the rejection of this. A consideration of the point seems to be appropriate here, and I cannot forbear to commend the study to the favour of my readers; leaving every one, of course, to choose how much he will be influenced by my advice, example, or arguments. If past experience and the history of education be taken for guides, the study of English grammar will not be neglected; and the method of its inculcation will become an object of particular inquiry and solicitude. The English language ought to be learned at school or in colleges, as other languages usually are; by the study of its grammar, accompanied with regular exercises of parsing, correcting, pointing, and scanning; and by the perusal of some of its most accurate writers, accompanied with stated exercises in composition and elocution. In books of criticism, our language is already more abundant than any other. Some of the best of these the student should peruse, as soon as he can understand and relish them. Such a course, pursued with regularity and diligence, will be found the most direct way of acquiring an English style at once pure, correct, and elegant. 10. If any intelligent man will represent English grammar otherwise than as one of the most useful branches of study, he may well be suspected of having formed his conceptions of the science, not from what it really is in itself, but from some of those miserable treatises which only caricature the subject, and of which it is rather an advantage to be ignorant. But who is so destitute of good sense as to deny, that a graceful and easy conversation in the private circle, a fluent and agreeable delivery in public speaking, a ready and natural utterance in reading, a pure and elegant style in composition, are accomplishments of a very high order? And yet of all these, the proper study of English grammar is the true foundation. This would never be denied or doubted, if young people did not find, under some other name, better models and more efficient instruction, than what was practised on them for grammar in the school-room. No disciple of an able grammarian can ever speak ill of grammar, unless he belong to that class of knaves who vilify what they despair to reach. 11. By taking proper advantage of the ductility of childhood, intelligent parents and judicious teachers may exercise over the studies, opinions, and habits of youth a strong and salutary control; and it will seldom be found in experience, that those who have been early taught to consider grammatical learning as worthy and manly, will change their opinion in after life. But the study of grammar is not so enticing that it may be disparaged in the hearing of the young, without injury. What would be the natural effect of the following sentence, which I quote from a late well-written religious homily? "The pedagogue and his dunce may exercise their wits correctly enough, in the way of grammatical analysis, on some splendid argument, or burst of eloquence, or thrilling descant, or poetic rapture, to the strain and soul of which not a fibre in their nature would yield a vibration."--_New-York Observer_, Vol. ix, p. 73. 12. Would not the bright boy who heard this from the lips of his reverend minister, be apt the next day to grow weary of the parsing lesson required by his schoolmaster? And yet what truth is there in the passage? One can no more judge of the fitness of language, without regard to the meaning conveyed by it, than of the fitness of a suit of clothes, without knowing for whom they were intended. The grand clew to the proper application of all syntactical rules, is _the sense_; and as any composition is faulty which does not rightly deliver the author's meaning, so every solution of a word or sentence is necessarily erroneous, in which that meaning is not carefully noticed and literally preserved. To parse rightly and fully, is nothing else than to understand rightly and explain fully; and whatsoever is well expressed, it is a shame either to misunderstand or to misinterpret. 13. This study, when properly conducted and liberally pursued, has an obvious tendency to dignify the whole character. How can he be a man of refined literary taste, who cannot speak and write his native language grammatically? And who will deny that every degree of improvement in literary taste tends to brighten and embellish the whole intellectual nature? The several powers of the mind are not so many distinct and separable agents, which are usually brought into exercise one by one; and even if they were, there might be found, in a judicious prosecution of this study, a healthful employment for them all. The _imagination_, indeed, has nothing to do with the elements of grammar; but in the exercise of composition, young fancy may spread her wings as soon as they are fledged; and for this exercise the previous course of discipline will have furnished both language and taste, as well as sentiment. 14. The regular grammatical study of our language is a thing of recent origin. Fifty or sixty years ago, such an exercise was scarcely attempted in any of the schools, either in this country or in England.[54] Of this fact we have abundant evidence both from books, and from the testimony of our venerable fathers yet living. How often have these presented this as an apology for their own deficiencies, and endeavoured to excite us to greater diligence, by contrasting our opportunities with theirs! Is there not truth, is there not power, in the appeal? And are we not bound to avail ourselves of the privileges which they have provided, to build upon the foundations which their wisdom has laid, and to carry forward the work of improvement? Institutions can do nothing for us, unless the love of learning preside over and prevail in them. The discipline of our schools can never approach perfection, till those who conduct, and those who frequent them, are strongly actuated by that disposition of mind, which generously aspires to all attainable excellence. 15. To rouse this laudable spirit in the minds of our youth, and to satisfy its demands whenever it appears, ought to be the leading objects with those to whom is committed the important business of instruction. A dull teacher, wasting time in a school-room with a parcel of stupid or indolent boys, knows nothing of the satisfaction either of doing his own duty, or of exciting others to the performance of theirs. He settles down in a regular routine of humdrum exercises, dreading as an inconvenience even such change as proficiency in his pupils must bring on; and is well content to do little good for little money, in a profession which he honours with his services merely to escape starvation. He has, however, one merit: he pleases his patrons, and is perhaps the only man that can; for they must needs be of that class to whom moral restraint is tyranny, disobedience to teachers, as often right as wrong; and who, dreading the expense, even of a school-book, always judge those things to be cheapest, which cost the least and last the longest. What such a man, or such a neighbourhood, may think of English grammar, I shall not stop to ask. 16. To the following opinion from a writer of great merit, I am inclined to afford room here, because it deserves refutation, and, I am persuaded, is not so well founded as the generality of the doctrines with which it is presented to the public. "Since human knowledge is so much more extensive than the opportunity of individuals for acquiring it, it becomes of the greatest importance so to economize the opportunity as to make it subservient to the acquisition of as large and as valuable a portion as we can. It is not enough to show that a given branch of education is useful: you must show that it is the most useful that can be selected. Remembering this, I think it would be expedient to dispense with the formal study of English grammar,--a proposition which I doubt not many a teacher will hear with wonder and disapprobation. We learn the grammar in order that we may learn English; and we learn English whether we study grammars or not. Especially we _shall_ acquire a competent knowledge of our own language, if other departments of our education were improved." 17. "A boy learns more English grammar by joining in an hour's conversation with educated people, than in poring for an hour over Murray or Horne Tooke. If he is accustomed to such society and to the perusal of well-written books, he will learn English grammar, though he never sees a word about syntax; and if he is not accustomed to such society and such reading, the 'grammar books' at a boarding-school will not teach it. Men learn their own language by habit, and not by rules: and this is just what we might expect; for the grammar of a language is itself formed from the prevalent habits of speech and writing. A compiler of grammar first observes these habits, and then makes his rules: but if a person is himself familiar with the habits, why study the rules? I say nothing of grammar as a general science; because, although the philosophy of language be a valuable branch of human knowledge, it were idle to expect that school-boys should understand it. The objection is, to the system of attempting to teach children formally that which they will learn practically without teaching."--JONATHAN DYMOND: _Essays on Morality_, p. 195. 18. This opinion, proceeding from a man who has written upon human affairs with so much ability and practical good sense, is perhaps entitled to as much respect as any that has ever been urged against the study in question. And so far as the objection bears upon those defective methods of instruction which experience has shown to be inefficient, or of little use, I am in no wise concerned to remove it. The reader of this treatise will find their faults not only admitted, but to a great extent purposely exposed; while an attempt is here made, as well as in my earlier grammars, to introduce a method which it is hoped will better reach the end proposed. But it may easily be perceived that this author's proposition to dispense with the formal study of English grammar is founded upon an untenable assumption. Whatever may be the advantages of those purer habits of speech, which the young naturally acquire from conversation with educated people, it is not true, that, without instruction directed to this end, they will of themselves become so well educated as to speak and write grammatically. Their language may indeed be comparatively accurate and genteel, because it is learned of those who have paid some attention to the study; but, as they cannot always be preserved from hearing vulgar and improper phraseology, or from seeing it in books, they cannot otherwise be guarded from improprieties of diction, than by a knowledge of the rules of grammar. One might easily back this position by the citation of some scores of faulty sentences from the pen of this very able writer himself. 19. I imagine there can be no mistake in the opinion, that in exact proportion as the rules of grammar are unknown or neglected in any country, will corruptions and improprieties of language be there multiplied. The "general science" of grammar, or "the philosophy of language," the author seems to exempt, and in some sort to commend; and at the same time his proposition of exclusion is applied not merely to the school-grammars, but _a fortiori_ to this science, under the notion that it is unintelligible to school-boys. But why should any principle of grammar be the less intelligible on account of the extent of its application? Will a boy pretend that he cannot understand a rule of English grammar, because he is told that it holds good in all languages? Ancient etymologies, and other facts in literary history, must be taken by the young upon the credit of him who states them; but the doctrines of general grammar are to the learner the easiest and the most important principles of the science. And I know of nothing in the true philosophy of language, which, by proper definitions and examples, may not be made as intelligible to a boy, as are the principles of most other sciences. The difficulty of instructing youth in any thing that pertains to language, lies not so much in the fact that its philosophy is above their comprehension, as in our own ignorance of certain parts of so vast an inquiry;--in the great multiplicity of verbal signs; the frequent contrariety of practice; the inadequacy of memory; the inveteracy of ill habits; and the little interest that is felt when we speak merely of words. 20. The grammatical study of our language was early and strongly recommended by Locke,[55] and other writers on education, whose character gave additional weight to an opinion which they enforced by the clearest arguments. But either for want of a good grammar, or for lack of teachers skilled in the subject and sensible of its importance, the general neglect so long complained of as a grievous imperfection in our methods of education, has been but recently and partially obviated. "The attainment of a correct and elegant style," says Dr. Blair, "is an object which demands application and labour. If any imagine they can catch it merely by the ear, or acquire it by the slight perusal of some of our good authors, they will find themselves much disappointed. The many errors, even in point of grammar, the many offences against purity of language, which are committed by writers who are far from being contemptible, demonstrate, that a _careful study_ of the language is previously requisite, in all who aim at writing it properly."--_Blair's Rhetoric_, Lect. ix, p. 91. 21. "To think justly, to write well, to speak agreeably, are the three great ends of academic instruction. The Universities will excuse me, if I observe, that both are, in one respect or other, defective in these three capital points of education. While in Cambridge the general application is turned altogether on speculative knowledge, with little regard to polite letters, taste, or style; in Oxford the whole attention is directed towards classical correctness, without any sound foundation laid in severe reasoning and philosophy. In Cambridge and in Oxford, the art of speaking agreeably is so far from being taught, that it is hardly talked or thought of. _These defects_ naturally produce dry unaffecting compositions in the one; superficial taste and puerile elegance in the other; ungracious or affected speech in both."--DR. BROWN, 1757: _Estimate_, Vol. ii, p. 44. 22. "A grammatical study of our own language makes no part of the ordinary method of instruction, which we pass through in our childhood; and it is very seldom we apply ourselves to it afterward. Yet the want of it will not be effectually supplied by any other advantages whatsoever. Much practice in the polite world, and a general acquaintance with the best authors, are good helps; but alone [they] will hardly be sufficient: We have writers, who have enjoyed these advantages in their full extent, and yet cannot be recommended as models of an accurate style. Much less then will, what is commonly called learning, serve the purpose; that is, a critical knowledge of ancient languages, and much reading of ancient authors: The greatest critic and most able grammarian of the last age, when he came to apply his learning and criticism to an English author, was frequently at a loss in matters of ordinary use and common construction in his own vernacular idiom."--DR. LOWTH, 1763: _Pref. to Gram._, p. vi. 23. "To the pupils of our public schools the acquisition of their own language, whenever it is undertaken, is an easy task. For he who is acquainted with several grammars already, finds no difficulty in adding one more to the number. And this, no doubt, is one of the reasons why English engages so small a proportion of their time and attention. It is not frequently read, and is still less frequently written. Its supposed facility, however, or some other cause, seems to have drawn upon it such a degree of neglect as certainly cannot be praised. The students in those schools are often distinguished by their compositions in the learned languages, before they can speak or write their own with correctness, elegance, or fluency. A classical scholar too often has his English style to form, when he should communicate his acquisitions to the world. In some instances it is never formed with success; and the defects of his expression either deter him from appearing before the public at all, or at least counteract in a great degree the influence of his work, and bring ridicule upon the author. Surely these evils might easily be prevented or diminished."--DR. BARROW: _Essays on Education_, London, 1804; Philad., 1825, p. 87. 24. "It is also said that those who know Latin and Greek generally express themselves with more clearness than those who do not receive a liberal education. It is indeed natural that those who cultivate their mental powers, write with more clearness than the uncultivated individual. The mental cultivation, however, may take place in the mother tongue as well as in Latin or Greek. Yet the spirit of the ancient languages, further is declared to be superior to that of the modern. I allow this to be the case; but I do not find that the English style is improved by learning Greek. It is known that literal translations are miserably bad, and yet young scholars are taught to translate, word for word, faithful to their dictionaries. Hence those who do not make a peculiar study of their own language, will not improve in it by learning, in this manner, Greek and Latin. Is it not a pity to hear, what I have been told by the managers of one of the first institutions of Ireland, that it was easier to find ten teachers for Latin and Greek, than one for the English language, though they proposed double the salary to the latter? Who can assure us that the Greek orators acquired their superiority by their acquaintance with foreign languages; or, is it not obvious, on the other hand, that they learned ideas and expressed them in their mother tongue?"--DR. SPURZHEIM: _Treatise on Education_, 1832, p. 107. 25. "Dictionaries were compiled, which comprised all the words, together with their several definitions, or the sense each one expresses and conveys to the mind. These words were analyzed and classed according to their essence, attributes, and functions. Grammar was made a rudiment leading to the principles of all thoughts, and teaching by simple examples, the general classification of words and their subdivisions in expressing the various conceptions of the mind. Grammar is then the key to the perfect understanding of languages; without which we are left to wander all our lives in an intricate labyrinth, without being able to trace back again any part of our way."--_Chazotte's Essay on the Teaching of Languages_, p. 45. Again: "Had it not been for his dictionary and his grammar, which taught him the essence of all languages, and the natural subdivision of their component parts, he might have spent a life as long as Methuselah's, in learning words, without being able to attain to a degree of perfection in any of the languages."--_Ib._, p. 50. "Indeed, it is not easy to say, to what degree, and in how many different ways, both memory and judgement may be improved by an intimate acquaintance with grammar; which is therefore, with good reason, made the first and fundamental part of literary education. The greatest orators, the most elegant scholars, and the most accomplished men of business, that have appeared in the world, of whom I need only mention Cæsar and Cicero, were not only studious of grammar, but most learned grammarians."--DR. BEATTIE: _Moral Science_, Vol. i, p. 107. 26. Here, as in many other parts of my work, I have chosen to be liberal of quotations; not to show my reading, or to save the labour of composition, but to give the reader the satisfaction of some other authority than my own. In commending the study of English grammar, I do not mean to discountenance that degree of attention which in this country is paid to other languages; but merely to use my feeble influence to carry forward a work of improvement, which, in my opinion, has been wisely begun, but not sufficiently sustained. In consequence of this improvement, the study of grammar, which was once prosecuted chiefly through the medium of the dead languages, and was regarded as the proper business of those only who were to be instructed in Latin and Greek, is now thought to be an appropriate exercise for children in elementary schools. And the sentiment is now generally admitted, that even those who are afterwards to learn other languages, may best acquire a knowledge of the common principles of speech from the grammar of their vernacular tongue. This opinion appears to be confirmed by that experience which is at once the most satisfactory proof of what is feasible, and the only proper test of what is useful. 27. It must, however, be confessed, that an acquaintance with ancient and foreign literature is absolutely necessary for him who would become a thorough philologist or an accomplished scholar; and that the Latin language, the source of several of the modern tongues of Europe, being remarkably regular in its inflections and systematic in its construction, is in itself the most complete exemplar of the structure of speech, and the best foundation for the study of grammar in general. But, as the general principles of grammar are common to all languages, and as the only successful method of learning them, is, to commit to memory the definitions and rules which embrace them, it is reasonable to suppose that the language most intelligible to the learner, is the most suitable for the commencement of his grammatical studies. A competent knowledge of English grammar is also in itself a valuable attainment, which is within the easy reach of many young persons whose situation in life debars them from the pursuit of general literature. 28. The attention which has lately been given to the culture of the English language, by some who, in the character of critics or lexicographers, have laboured purposely to improve it, and by many others who, in various branches of knowledge, have tastefully adorned it with the works of their genius, has in a great measure redeemed it from that contempt in which it was formerly held in the halls of learning. But, as I have before suggested, it does not yet appear to be sufficiently attended to in the course of what is called a _liberal education_. Compared with, other languages, the English exhibits both excellences and defects; but its flexibility, or power of accommodation to the tastes of different writers, is great; and when it is used with that mastership which belongs to learning and genius, it must be acknowledged there are few, if any, to which it ought on the whole to be considered inferior. But above all, it is _our own_; and, whatever we may know or think of other tongues, it can never be either patriotic or wise, for the learned men of the United States or of England to pride themselves chiefly upon them. 29. Our language is worthy to be assiduously studied by all who reside where it is spoken, and who have the means and the opportunity to become critically acquainted with it. To every such student it is vastly more important to be able to speak and write well in English, than to be distinguished for proficiency in the learned languages and yet ignorant of his own. It is certain that many from whom better things might be expected, are found miserably deficient in this respect. And their neglect of so desirable an accomplishment is the more remarkable and the more censurable on account of the facility with which those who are acquainted with the ancient languages may attain to excellence in their English style. "Whatever the advantages or defects of the English language be, as it is our own language, it deserves a high degree of our study and attention. * * * Whatever knowledge may be acquired by the study of other languages, it can never be communicated with advantage, unless by such as can write and speak their own language well."--DR. BLAIR: _Rhetoric_, Lect. ix, p. 91. 30. I am not of opinion that it is expedient to press this study to much extent, if at all, on those whom poverty or incapacity may have destined to situations in which they will never hear or think of it afterwards. The course of nature cannot be controlled; and fortune does not permit us to prescribe the same course of discipline for all. To speak the language which they have learned without study, and to read and write for the most common purposes of life, may be education enough for those who can be raised no higher. But it must be the desire of every benevolent and intelligent man, to see the advantages of literary, as well as of moral culture, extended as far as possible among the people. And it is manifest, that in proportion as the precepts of the divine Redeemer are obeyed by the nations that profess his name, will all distinctions arising merely from the inequality of fortune be lessened or done away, and better opportunities be offered for the children of indigence to adorn themselves with the treasures of knowledge. 31. We may not be able to effect all that is desirable; but, favoured as our country is, with great facilities for carrying forward the work of improvement, in every thing which can contribute to national glory and prosperity, I would, in conclusion of this topic, submit--that a critical knowledge of our common language is a subject worthy of the particular attention of all who have the genius and the opportunity to attain it;--that on the purity and propriety with which American authors write this language, the reputation of our national literature greatly depends;--that in the preservation of it from all changes which ignorance may admit or affectation invent, we ought to unite as having one common interest;--that a fixed and settled orthography is of great importance, as a means of preserving the etymology, history, and identity of words;--that a grammar freed from errors and defects, and embracing a complete code of definitions and illustrations, rules and exercises, is of primary importance to every student and a great aid to teachers;--that as the vices of speech as well as of manners are contagious, it becomes those who have the care of youth, to be masters of the language in its purity and elegance, and to avoid as much as possible every thing that is reprehensible either in thought or expression. CHAPTER IX. OF THE BEST METHOD OF TEACHING GRAMMAR. "Quomodo differunt grammaticus et grammatista? Grammaticus est qui diligenter, acutè, scienterque possit aut dicere aut scribere, et poetas enarrare: idem literatus dicitur. Grammatista est qui barbaris literis obstrepit, cui abusus pro usu est; Græcis Latinam dat etymologiam, et totus in nugis est: Latinè dicitur literator."--DESPAUTER. _Synt._, fol. 1. 1. It is hardly to be supposed that any person can have a very clear conviction of the best method of doing a thing, who shall not at first have acquired a pretty correct and adequate notion of the thing to be done. Arts must be taught by artists; sciences, by learned men; and, if Grammar is the science of words, the art of writing and speaking well, the best speakers and writers will be the best teachers of it, if they choose to direct their attention to so humble an employment. For, without disparagement of the many worthy men whom choice or necessity has made schoolmasters, it may be admitted that the low estimation in which school-keeping is commonly held, does mostly exclude from it the first order of talents, and the highest acquirements of scholarship. It is one strong proof of this, that we have heretofore been content to receive our digests of English grammar, either from men who had had no practical experience in the labours of a school-room, or from miserable modifiers and abridgers, destitute alike of learning and of industry, of judgement and of skill. 2. But, to have a correct and adequate notion of English grammar, and of the best method of learning or teaching it, is no light attainment. The critical knowledge of this subject lies in no narrow circle of observation; nor are there any precise limits to possible improvement. The simple definition in which the general idea of the art is embraced, "Grammar is the art of writing and speaking correctly," however useful in order to fix the learner's conception, can scarcely give him a better knowledge of the thing itself, than he would have of the art of painting, when he had learned from Dr. Webster, that it is "the art of representing to the eye, by means of figures and colors, any object of sight, and sometimes emotions of the mind." The first would no more enable him to write a sonnet, than the second, to take his master's likeness. The force of this remark extends to all the technical divisions, definitions, rules, and arrangements of grammar; the learner may commit them all to memory, and know but very little about the art. 3. This fact, too frequently illustrated in practice, has been made the basis of the strongest argument ever raised against the study of grammar; and has been particularly urged against the ordinary technical method of teaching it, as if the whole of that laborious process were useless. It has led some men, even of the highest talents, to doubt the expediency of that method, under any circumstances, and either to discountenance the whole matter, or invent other schemes by which they hoped to be more successful. The utter futility of the old accidence has been inferred from it, and urged, even in some well-written books, with all the plausibility of a fair and legitimate deduction. The hardships of children, compelled to learn what they did not understand, have been bewailed in prefaces and reviews; incredible things boasted by literary jugglers, have been believed by men of sense; and the sympathies of nature, with accumulated prejudices, have been excited against that method of teaching grammar, which after all will be found in experience to be at once the easiest, the shortest, and the best. I mean, essentially, the ancient positive method, which aims directly at the inculcation of principles. 4. It has been already admitted, that definitions and rules committed to memory and not reduced to practice, will never enable any one to speak and write correctly. But it does not follow, that to study grammar by learning its principles, or to teach it technically by formal lessons, is of no real utility. Surely not. For the same admission must be made with respect to the definitions and rules of every practical science in the world; and the technology of grammar is even more essential to a true knowledge of the subject, than that of almost any other art. "To proceed upon principles at first," says Dr. Barrow, "is the most compendious method of attaining every branch of knowledge; and the truths impressed upon the mind in the years of childhood, are ever afterwards the most firmly remembered, and the most readily applied."--_Essays_, p. 84. Reading, as I have said, is a part of grammar; and it is a part which must of course precede what is commonly called in the schools the study of grammar. Any person who can read, can learn from a book such simple facts as are within his comprehension; and we have it on the authority of Dr. Adam, that, "The principles of grammar are the first abstract truths which a young mind can comprehend."--_Pref. to Lat. Gram._, p. 4. 5. It is manifest, that, with respect to this branch of knowledge, the duties of the teacher will vary considerably, according to the age and attainments of his pupils, or according to each student's ability or inclination to profit by his printed guide. The business lies partly between the master and his scholar, and partly between the boy and his book. Among these it may be partitioned variously, and of course unwisely; for no general rule can precisely determine for all occasions what may be expected from each. The deficiencies of any one of the three must either be supplied by the extraordinary readiness of an other, or the attainment of the purpose be proportionably imperfect. What one fails to do, must either be done by an other, or left undone. After much observation, it seems to me, that the most proper mode of treating this science in schools, is, to throw the labour of its acquisition almost entirely upon the students; to require from them very accurate rehearsals as the only condition on which they shall be listened to; and to refer them to their books for the information which they need, and in general for the solution of all their doubts. But then the teacher must see that he does not set them to grope their way through a wilderness of absurdities. He must know that they have a book, which not only contains the requisite information, but arranges it so that every item of it may be readily found. That knowledge may reasonably be required at their recitations, which culpable negligence alone could have prevented them from obtaining. 6. Most grammars, and especially those which are designed for the senior class of students, to whom a well-written book is a sufficient instructor, contain a large proportion of matter which is merely to be read by the learner. This is commonly distinguished in type from those more important doctrines which constitute the frame of the edifice. It is expected that the latter will receive a greater degree of attention. The only successful method of teaching grammar, is, to cause the principal definitions and rules to be committed thoroughly to memory, that they may ever afterwards be readily applied. Oral instruction may smoothe the way, and facilitate the labour of the learner; but the notion of communicating a competent knowledge of grammar without imposing this task, is disproved by universal experience. Nor will it avail any thing for the student to rehearse definitions and rules of which he makes no practical application. In etymology and syntax, he should be alternately exercised in learning small portions of his book, and then applying them in parsing, till the whole is rendered familiar. To a good reader, the achievement will be neither great nor difficult; and the exercise is well calculated to improve the memory and strengthen all the faculties of the mind. 7. The objection drawn from the alleged inefficiency of this method, lies solely against the practice of those teachers who disjoin the principles and the exercises of the art; and who, either through ignorance or negligence, impose only such tasks as leave the pupil to suppose, that the committing to memory of definitions and rules, constitutes the whole business of grammar.[56] Such a method is no less absurd in itself, than contrary to the practice of the best teachers from the very origin of the study. The epistle prefixed to King Henry's Grammar almost three centuries ago, and the very sensible preface to the old British Grammar, an octavo reprinted at Boston in 1784, give evidence enough that a better method of teaching has long been known. Nay, in my opinion, the very best method cannot be essentially different from that which has been longest in use, and is probably most known. But there is everywhere ample room for improvement. Perfection was never attained by the most learned of our ancestors, nor is it found in any of our schemes. English grammar can be better taught than it is now, or ever has been. Better scholarship would naturally produce this improvement, and it is easy to suppose a race of teachers more erudite and more zealous, than either we or they. 8. Where invention and discovery are precluded, there is little room for novelty. I have not laboured to introduce a system of grammar essentially new, but to improve the old and free it from abuses. The mode of instruction here recommended is the result of long and successful experience. There is nothing in it, which any person of common abilities will find it difficult to understand or adopt. It is the plain didactic method of definition and example, rule and praxis; which no man who means to teach grammar well, will ever desert, with the hope of finding an other more rational or more easy. This book itself will make any one a grammarian, who will take the trouble to observe and practise what it teaches; and even if some instructors should not adopt the readiest means of making their pupils familiar with its contents, they will not fail to instruct by it as effectually as they can by any other. A hope is also indulged, that this work will be particularly useful to many who have passed the ordinary period allotted to education. Whoever is acquainted with the grammar of our language, so as to have some tolerable skill in teaching it, will here find almost every thing that is true in his own instructions, clearly embraced under its proper head, so as to be easy of reference. And perhaps there are few, however learned, who, on a perusal of the volume, would not be furnished with some important rules and facts which had not before occurred to their own observation. 9. The greatest peculiarity of the method is, that it requires the pupil to speak or write a great deal, and the teacher very little. But both should constantly remember that grammar is the art of speaking and writing well; an art which can no more be acquired without practice, than that of dancing or swimming. And each should ever be careful to perform his part handsomely--without drawling, omitting, stopping, hesitating, faltering, miscalling, reiterating, stuttering, hurrying, slurring, mouthing, misquoting, mispronouncing, or any of the thousand faults which render utterance disagreeable and inelegant. It is the learner's diction that is to be improved; and the system will be found well calculated to effect that object; because it demands of him, not only to answer questions on grammar, but also to make a prompt and practical application of what he has just learned. If the class be tolerable readers, and have learned the art of attention, it will not be necessary for the teacher to say much; and in general he ought not to take up the time by so doing. He should, however, carefully superintend their rehearsals; give the word to the next when any one errs; and order the exercise in such a manner that either his own voice, or the example of his best scholars, may gradually correct the ill habits of the awkward, till all learn to recite with clearness, understanding well what they say, and making it intelligible to others. 10. Without oral instruction and oral exercises, a correct habit of speaking our language can never be acquired; but written rules, and exercises in writing, are perhaps quite as necessary, for the formation of a good style. All these should therefore be combined in our course of English grammar. And, in order to accomplish two objects at once, the written doctrines, or the definitions and rules of grammar, should statedly be made the subject of a critical exercise in utterance; so that the boy who is parsing a word, or correcting a sentence, in the hearing of others, may impressively realize, that he is then and there exhibiting his own skill or deficiency in oral discourse. Perfect forms of parsing and correcting should be given him as models, with the understanding that the text before him is his only guide to their right application. It should be shown, that in parsing any particular word, or part of speech, there are just so many things to be said of it, and no more, and that these are to be said in the best manner: so that whoever tells fewer, omits something requisite; whoever says more, inserts something irrelevant; and whoever proceeds otherwise, either blunders in point of fact, or impairs the beauty of the expression. I rely not upon what are called "_Parsing Tables_" but upon the precise forms of expression which are given in the book for the parsing of the several sorts of words. Because the questions, or abstract directions, which constitute the common parsing tables, are less intelligible to the learner than a practical example; and more time must needs be consumed on them, in order to impress upon his memory the number and the sequence of the facts to be stated. 11. If a pupil happen to be naturally timid, there should certainly be no austerity of manner to embarrass his diffidence; for no one can speak well, who feels afraid. But a far more common impediment to the true use of speech, is carelessness. He who speaks before a school, in an exercise of this kind, should be made to feel that he is bound by every consideration of respect for himself, or for those who hear him, to proceed with his explanation or rehearsal, in a ready, clear, and intelligible manner. It should be strongly impressed upon him, that the grand object of the whole business, is his own practical improvement; that a habit of speaking clearly and agreeably, is itself one half of the great art of grammar; that to be slow and awkward in parsing, is unpardonable negligence, and a culpable waste of time; that to commit blunders in rehearsing grammar, is to speak badly about the art of speaking well; that his recitations must be limited to such things as he perfectly knows; that he must apply himself to his book, till he can proceed without mistake; finally, that he must watch and imitate the utterance of those who speak well, ever taking that for the best manner, in which there are the fewest things that could be _mimicked_.[57] 12. The exercise of parsing should be commenced immediately after the first lesson of etymology--the lesson in which are contained the definitions of the ten parts of speech; and should be carried on progressively, till it embraces all the doctrines which are applicable to it. If it be performed according to the order prescribed in the following work, it will soon make the student perfectly familiar with all the primary definitions and rules of grammar. It asks no aid from a dictionary, if the performer knows the meaning of the words he is parsing; and very little from the teacher, if the forms in the grammar have received any tolerable share of attention. It requires just enough of thought to keep the mind attentive to what the lips are uttering; while it advances by such easy gradations and constant repetitions as leave the pupil utterly without excuse, if he does not know what to say. Being neither wholly extemporaneous nor wholly rehearsed by rote, it has more dignity than a school-boy's conversation, and more ease than a formal recitation, or declamation; and is therefore an exercise well calculated to induce a habit of uniting correctness with fluency in ordinary speech--a species of elocution as valuable as any other.[58] 13. Thus would I unite the practice with the theory of grammar; endeavouring to express its principles with all possible perspicuity, purity, and propriety of diction; retaining, as necessary parts of the subject, those technicalities which the pupil must needs learn in order to understand the disquisitions of grammarians in general; adopting every important feature of that system of doctrines which appears to have been longest and most generally taught; rejecting the multitudinous errors and inconsistencies with which unskillful hands have disgraced the science and perplexed the schools; remodelling every ancient definition and rule which it is possible to amend, in respect to style, or grammatical correctness; supplying the numerous and great deficiencies with which the most comprehensive treatises published by earlier writers, are chargeable; adapting the code of instruction to the present state of English literature, without giving countenance to any innovation not sanctioned by reputable use; labouring at once to extend and to facilitate the study, without forgetting the proper limits of the science, or debasing its style by puerilities. 14. These general views, it is hoped, will be found to have been steadily adhered to throughout the following work. The author has not deviated much from the principles adopted in the most approved grammars already in use; nor has he acted the part of a servile copyist. It was not his design to introduce novelties, but to form a practical digest of established rules. He has not laboured to subvert the general system of grammar, received from time immemorial; but to improve upon it, in its present application to our tongue. That which is excellent, may not be perfect; and amendment may be desirable, where subversion would be ruinous. Believing that no theory can better explain the principles of our language, and no contrivance afford greater facilities to the student, the writer has in general adopted those doctrines which are already best known; and has contented himself with attempting little more than to supply the deficiencies of the system, and to free it from the reproach of being itself ungrammatical. This indeed was task enough; for, to him, all the performances of his predecessors seemed meagre and greatly deficient, compared with what he thought needful to be done. The scope of his labours has been, to define, dispose, and exemplify those doctrines anew; and, with a scrupulous regard to the best usage, to offer, on that authority, some further contributions to the stock of grammatical knowledge. 15. Having devoted many years to studies of this nature, and being conversant with most of the grammatical treatises already published, the author conceived that the objects above referred to, might be better effected than they had been in any work within his knowledge. And he persuades himself, that, however this work may yet fall short of possible completeness, the improvements here offered are neither few nor inconsiderable. He does not mean to conceal in any degree his obligations to others, or to indulge in censure without discrimination. He has no disposition to depreciate the labours, or to detract from the merits, of those who have written ably upon this topic. He has studiously endeavoured to avail himself of all the light they have thrown upon the subject. With a view to further improvements in the science, he has also resorted to the original sources of grammatical knowledge, and has not only critically considered what he has seen or heard of our vernacular tongue, but has sought with some diligence the analogies of speech in the structure of several other languages. If, therefore, the work now furnished be thought worthy of preference, as exhibiting the best method of teaching grammar; he trusts it will be because it deviates least from sound doctrine, while, by fair criticism upon others, it best supplies the means of choosing judiciously. 16. Of all methods of teaching grammar, that which has come nearest to what is recommended above, has doubtless been the most successful; and whatever objections may have been raised against it, it will probably be found on examination to be the most analogous to nature. It is analytic in respect to the doctrines of grammar, synthetic in respect to the practice, and logical in respect to both. It assumes the language as an object which the learner is capable of conceiving to be one whole; begins with the classification of all its words, according to certain grand differences which make the several parts of speech; then proceeds to divide further, according to specific differences and qualities, till all the classes, properties, and relations, of the words in any intelligible sentence, become obvious and determinate: and he to whom these things are known, so that he can see at a glance what is the construction of each word, and whether it is right or not, is a good grammarian. The disposition of the human mind to generalize the objects of thought, and to follow broad analogies in the use of words, discovers itself early, and seems to be an inherent principle of our nature. Hence, in the language of children and illiterate people, many words are regularly inflected even in opposition to the most common usage. 17. It has unfortunately become fashionable to inveigh against the necessary labour of learning by heart the essential principles of grammar, as a useless and intolerable drudgery. And this notion, with the vain hope of effecting the same purpose in an easier way, is giving countenance to modes of teaching well calculated to make superficial scholars. When those principles are properly defined, disposed, and exemplified, the labour of learning them is far less than has been represented; and the habits of application induced by such a method of studying grammar, are of the utmost importance to the learner. Experience shows, that the task may be achieved during the years of childhood; and that, by an early habit of study, the memory is so improved, as to render those exercises easy and familiar, which, at a later period, would be found very difficult and irksome. Upon this plan, and perhaps upon every other, some words will be learned before the ideas represented by them are fully comprehended, or the things spoken of are fully understood. But this seems necessarily to arise from the order of nature in the development of the mental faculties; and an acquisition cannot be lightly esteemed, which has signally augmented and improved that faculty on which the pupil's future progress in knowledge depends. 18. The memory, indeed, should never be cultivated at the expense of the understanding; as is the case, when the former is tasked with ill-devised lessons by which the latter is misled and bewildered. But truth, whether fully comprehended or not, has no perplexing inconsistencies. And it is manifest that that which does not in some respect surpass the understanding, can never enlighten it--can never awaken the spirit of inquiry or satisfy research. How often have men of observation profited by the remembrance of words which, at the time they heard them, they did not "_perfectly understand!_" We never study any thing of which we imagine our knowledge to be perfect. To learn, and, to understand, are, with respect to any science or art, one and the same thing. With respect to difficult or unintelligible phraseology alone, are they different. He who by study has once stored his memory with the sound and appropriate language of any important doctrine, can never, without some folly or conceit akin to madness, repent of the acquisition. Milton, in his academy, professed to teach things rather than words; and many others have made plausible profession of the same thing since. But it does not appear, that even in the hands of Milton, the attempt was crowned with any remarkable success. See _Dr. Barrow's Essays_, p. 85. 19. The vain pretensions of several modern simplifiers, contrivers of machines, charts, tables, diagrams, vincula, pictures, dialogues, familiar lectures, ocular analyses, tabular compendiums, inductive exercises, productive systems, intellectual methods, and various new theories, for the purpose of teaching grammar, may serve to deceive the ignorant, to amuse the visionary, and to excite the admiration of the credulous; but none of these things has any favourable relation to that improvement which may justly be boasted as having taken place within the memory of the present generation. The definitions and rules which constitute the doctrines of grammar, may be variously expressed, arranged, illustrated, and applied; and in the expression, arrangement, illustration, and application of them, there may be room for some amendment; but no contrivance can ever relieve the pupil from the necessity of committing them thoroughly to memory. The experience of all antiquity is added to our own, in confirmation of this; and the judicious teacher, though he will not shut his eyes to a real improvement, will be cautious of renouncing the practical lessons of hoary experience, for the futile notions of a vain projector. 20. Some have been beguiled with the idea, that great proficiency in grammar was to be made by means of a certain fanciful method of _induction._ But if the scheme does not communicate to those who are instructed by it, a better knowledge of grammar than the contrivers themselves seem to have possessed, it will be found of little use.[59] By the happy method of Bacon, to lead philosophy into the common walks of life, into the ordinary business and language of men, is to improve the condition of humanity; but, in teaching grammar, to desert the plain didactic method of definition and example, rule and praxis, and pretend to lead children by philosophic induction into a knowledge of words, is to throw down the ladder of learning, that boys may imagine themselves to ascend it, while they are merely stilting over the low level upon which its fragments are cast. 21. The chief argument of these inductive grammarians is founded on the principle, that children cannot be instructed by means of any words which they do not perfectly understand. If this principle were strictly true, children could never be instructed by words at all. For no child ever fully understands a word the first time he hears or sees it; and it is rather by frequent repetition and use, than by any other process, that the meaning of words is commonly learned. Hence most people make use of many terms which they cannot very accurately explain, just as they do of many _things_, the real nature of which they do not comprehend. The first perception we have of any word, or other thing, when presented to the ear or the eye, gives us some knowledge of it. So, to the signs of thought, as older persons use them, we soon attach some notion of what is meant; and the difference between this knowledge, and that which we call an understanding of the word or thing, is, for the most part, only in degree. Definitions and explanations are doubtless highly useful, but induction is not definition, and an understanding of words may be acquired without either; else no man could ever have made a dictionary. But, granting the principle to be true, it makes nothing for this puerile method of induction; because the regular process by definitions and examples is both shorter and easier, as well as more effectual. In a word, this whole scheme of inductive grammar is nothing else than a series of _leading_ questions and _manufactured_ answers; the former being generally as unfair as the latter are silly. It is a remarkable tissue of ill-laid premises and of forced illogical sequences. 22. Of a similar character is a certain work, entitled, "English Grammar on the _Productive System_: a method of instruction recently adopted in Germany and Switzerland." It is a work which certainly will be "_productive_" of no good to any body but the author and his publishers. The book is as destitute of taste, as of method; of authority, as of originality. It commences with "the _inductive_ process," and after forty pages of such matter as is described above, becomes a "_productive_ system," by means of a misnamed "RECAPITULATION;" which jumbles together the etymology and the syntax of the language, through seventy-six pages more. It is then made still more "_productive_" by the appropriation of a like space to a reprint of Murray's Syntax and Exercises, under the inappropriate title, "GENERAL OBSERVATIONS." To Prosody, including punctuation and the use of capitals, there are allotted six pages, at the end; and to Orthography, four lines, in the middle of the volume! (See p. 41.) It is but just, to regard the _title_ of this book, as being at once a libel and a lie; a libel upon the learning and good sense of Woodbridge;[60] and a practical lie, as conveying a false notion of the origin of what the volume contains. 23. What there is in Germany or Switzerland, that bears _any resemblance_ to this misnamed system of English Grammar, remains to be shown. It would be prodigal of the reader's time, and inconsistent with the studied brevity of this work, to expose the fallacy of what is pretended in regard to the origin of this new method. Suffice it to say, that the anonymous and questionable account of the "Productive System of Instruction," which the author has borrowed from a "valuable periodical," to save himself the trouble of writing a preface, and, as he says, to "_assist_ [the reader] in forming an opinion of the comparative merits of _the system_" is not only destitute of all authority, but is totally irrelevant, except to the whimsical _name_ of his book. If every word of it be true, it is insufficient to give us even the slightest reason to suppose, that any thing analogous to his production ever had existence in either of those countries; and yet it is set forth on purpose to convey the idea that such a system "_now predominates_" in the schools of both. (See _Pref._, p. 5.) The infidel _Neef_, whose new method of education has been tried in our country, and with its promulgator forgot, was an accredited disciple of this boasted "productive school;" a zealous coadjutor with Pestalozzi himself, from whose halls he emanated to "teach the offspring of a free people"--to teach them the nature of things sensible, and a contempt for all the wisdom of _books_. And what similarity is there between his method of teaching and that of _Roswell C. Smith_, except their pretence to a common parentage, and that both are worthless? 24. The success of Smith's Inductive and Productive Grammars, and the fame perhaps of a certain "Grammar in Familiar Lectures," produced in 1836 a rival work from the hands of a gentleman in New Hampshire, entitled, "An Analytical Grammar of the English Language, embracing the _Inductive and Productive Methods of Teaching_, with _Familiar Explanations in the Lecture Style_" &c. This is a fair-looking duodecimo volume of three hundred pages, the character and pretensions of which, if they could be clearly stated, would throw further light upon the two fallacious schemes of teaching mentioned above. For the writer says, "This grammar professes _to combine_ both the _Inductive_ and _Productive_ methods of imparting instruction, of which much has been said within a few years _past_"--_Preface_, p. iv. And again: "The inductive and productive methods of instruction contain the essence of modern improvements."--_Gram._, p. 139. In what these modern improvements consist, he does not inform us; but, it will be seen, that he himself claims the _copyright_ of _all_ the improvements which he allows to _English grammar_ since the appearance of Murray in 1795. More than two hundred pretenders to such improvements, appear however within the time; nor is the grammarian of Holdgate the least positive of the claimants. This new purveyor for the public taste, dislikes the catering of his predecessor, who poached in the fields of Murray; and, with a tacit censure upon _his productions_, has _honestly bought_ the rareties which he has served up. In this he has the advantage. He is a better writer too than some who make grammars; though no adept at composition, and a total stranger to method. To call his work a "_system_" is a palpable misnomer; to tell what it is, an impossibility. It is a grammatical chaos, bearing such a resemblance to Smith's or Kirkham's as one mass of confusion naturally bears to an other, yet differing from both in almost every thing that looks like order in any of the three. 25. The claimant of the combination says, "this new system of English grammar now offered to the public, embraces _the principles_ of a 'Systematic Introduction to English Grammar,' by John L. Parkhurst; and the _present author_ is indebted to Mr. Parkhurst for a knowledge of _the manner_ of applying the principles involved in _his peculiar method_ of teaching grammatical science. He is also under obligations to Mr. Parkhurst for many useful hints received several years since while under his instruction.--The _copy right_ of Parkhurst's Grammar has been purchased by the writer of this, who alone is responsible for the present application of _its definitions._ Parkhurst's Systematic Introduction to English Grammar has passed through two editions, and is _the first improved system_ of English grammar that has appeared before the public _since the first introduction_ of Lindley Murray's English Grammar."--_Sanborn's Gram., Preface_, p. iii. What, then, is "THE PRODUCTIVE SYSTEM?" and with whom did it originate? The thousands of gross blunders committed by its professors, prove at least that it is no system of writing grammatically; and, whether it originated with Parkhurst or with Pestalozzi, with Sanborn or with Smith, as it is confessedly a method but "recently adopted," and, so far as appears, never fairly tested, so is it a method that needs only to be _known_, to be immediately and forever exploded. 26. The best instruction is that which ultimately gives the greatest facility and skill in practice; and grammar is best taught by that process which brings its doctrines most directly home to the habits as well as to the thoughts of the pupil--which the most effectually conquers inattention, and leaves the deepest impress of shame upon blundering ignorance. In the language of some men, there is a vividness, an energy, a power of expression, which penetrates even the soul of dullness, and leaves an impression both of words unknown and of sentiments unfelt before. Such men can teach; but he who kindly or indolently accommodates himself to ignorance, shall never be greatly instrumental in removing it. "The colloquial barbarisms of boys," says Dr. Barrow, "should never be suffered to pass without notice and censure. Provincial tones and accents, and all defects in articulation, should be corrected whenever they are heard; lest they grow into established habits, unknown, from their familiarity, to him who is guilty of them, and adopted by others, from the imitation of his manner, or their respect for his authority."--_Barrow's Essays on Education_, p. 88. 27. In the whole range of school exercises, there is none of greater importance than that of parsing; and yet perhaps there is none which is, in general, more defectively conducted. Scarcely less useful, as a means of instruction, is the practice of correcting false syntax orally, by regular and logical forms of argument; nor does this appear to have been more ably directed towards the purposes of discipline. There is so much to be done, in order to effect what is desirable in the management of these things; and so little prospect that education will ever be generally raised to a just appreciation of that study which, more than all others, forms the mind to habits of correct thinking; that, in reflecting upon the state of the science at the present time, and upon the means of its improvement, the author cannot but sympathize, in some degree, with the sadness of the learned Sanctius; who tells us, that he had "always lamented, and often with tears, that while other branches of learning were excellently taught, grammar, which is the foundation of all others, lay so much neglected, and that for this neglect there seemed to be no adequate remedy."--_Pref. to Minerva_. The grammatical use of language is in sweet alliance with the moral; and a similar regret seems to have prompted the following exclamation of the Christian poet: "Sacred Interpreter of human thought, How few respect or use thee as they ought!"--COWPER. 28. No directions, either oral or written, can ever enable the heedless and the unthinking to speak or write well. That must indeed be an admirable book, which can attract levity to sober reflection, teach thoughtlessness the true meaning of words, raise vulgarity from its fondness for low examples, awaken the spirit which attains to excellency of speech, and cause grammatical exercises to be skillfully managed, where teachers themselves are so often lamentably deficient in them. Yet something may be effected by means of better books, if better can be introduced. And what withstands?--Whatever there is of ignorance or error in relation to the premises. And is it arrogant to say there is much? Alas! in regard to this, as well as to many a weightier matter, one may too truly affirm, _Multa non sunt sicut multis videntur_--Many things are not as they seem to many. Common errors are apt to conceal themselves from the common mind; and the appeal to reason and just authority is often frustrated, because a wrong head defies both. But, apart from this, there are difficulties: multiplicity perplexes choice; inconvenience attends change; improvement requires effort; conflicting theories demand examination; the principles of the science are unprofitably disputed; the end is often divorced from the means; and much that belies the title, has been published under the name. 29. It is certain, that the printed formularies most commonly furnished for the important exercises of parsing and correcting, are either so awkwardly written or so negligently followed, as to make grammar, in the mouths of our juvenile orators, little else than a crude and faltering jargon. Murray evidently intended that his book of exercises should be constantly used with his grammar; but he made the examples in the former so dull and prolix, that few learners, if any, have ever gone through the series agreeably to his direction. The publishing of them in a separate volume, has probably given rise to the absurd practice of endeavouring to teach his grammar without them. The forms of parsing and correcting which this author furnishes, are also misplaced; and when found by the learner, are of little use. They are so verbose, awkward, irregular, and deficient, that the pupil must be either a dull boy or utterly ignorant of grammar, if he cannot express the facts extemporaneously in better English. They are also very meagre as a whole, and altogether inadequate to their purpose; many things that frequently occur in the language, not being at all exemplified in them, or even explained in the grammar itself. When we consider how exceedingly important it is, that the business of a school should proceed without loss of time, and that, in the oral exercises here spoken of, each pupil should go through his part promptly, clearly, correctly, and fully, we cannot think it a light objection that these forms, so often to be repeated, are so badly written. Nor does the objection lie against this writer only: "_Ab uno disce omnes_." But the reader may demand some illustrations.[61] 30. First--from his etymological parsing: "O Virtue! how amiable thou art!" Here his form for the word _Virtue_ is--"_Virtue_ is a _common substantive, of_ the _neuter_ gender, _of the third_ person, _in the_ singular number, _and the_ nominative case."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, Vol. ii, p. 2. It should have been--"_Virtue_ is a common _noun_, personified _proper_, of the _second_ person, singular number, _feminine_ gender, and nominative case." And then the definitions of all these things should have followed in regular numerical order. He gives the class of this noun wrong, for virtue addressed becomes an individual; he gives the gender wrong, and in direct contradiction to what he says of the word in his section on gender; he gives the person wrong, as may be seen by the pronoun _thou_, which represents it; he repeats the definite article three times unnecessarily, and inserts two needless prepositions, making them different where the relation is precisely the same: and all this, in a sentence of two lines, to tell the properties of the noun _Virtue!_--But further: in etymological parsing, the definitions explaining the properties of the parts of speech, ought to be regularly and rapidly rehearsed by the pupil, till all of them become perfectly familiar; and till he can discern, with the quickness of thought, what alone will be true for the full description of any word in any intelligible sentence. All these the author omits; and, on account of this omission, his whole method of etymological parsing is, miserably deficient.[62] 31. Secondly--from his syntactical parsing: "_Vice_ degrades us." Here his form for the word _Vice_ is--"_Vice_ is a common substantive, _of_ the third person, _in the_ singular number, _and the_ nominative case."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, Vol. ii, p. 9. Now, when the learner is told that this is the syntactical parsing of a noun, and the other the etymological, he will of course conclude, that to advance from the etymology to the syntax of this part of speech, is merely, _to omit the gender_--this being the only difference between the two forms. But even this difference had no other origin than the compiler's carelessness in preparing his octavo book of exercises--the gender being inserted in the duodecimo. And what then? Is the syntactical parsing of a noun to be precisely the same as the etymological? Never. But Murray, and all who admire and follow his work, are content to parse many words by halves--making, or pretending to make, a necessary distinction, and yet often omitting, in both parts of the exercise, every thing which constitutes the difference. He should here have said--"_Vice_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case: and is the subject of _degrades_; according to the rule which says, 'A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a verb, must be in the nominative case.' Because the meaning is--_vice degrades_." This is the whole description of the word, with its construction; and to say less, is to leave the matter unfinished. 32. Thirdly--from his "Mode of verbally correcting erroneous sentences:" Take his first example: "The man is prudent which speaks little." (How far silence is prudence, depends upon circumstances: I waive that question.) The learner is here taught to say, "This sentence is incorrect; because _which_ is a pronoun _of the neuter gender, and does not agree in gender_ with its antecedent _man_, which is masculine. But a pronoun should agree with its antecedent in gender, &c. according to the fifth rule of syntax. _Which_ should _therefore_ be _who_, a relative pronoun, agreeing with its antecedent _man_; and the sentence should stand thus: 'The man is prudent _who_ speaks little.'"--_Murray's Octavo Gram._, Vol. ii, p. 18; _Exercises_, 12mo, p. xii. Again: "'After I visited Europe, I returned to America.' This sentence," says Murray, "_is not correct_; because the verb _visited_ is in the imperfect tense, and yet used here to express an action, not only past, but prior to the time referred to by the verb _returned_, to which it relates. By the thirteenth rule of syntax, when verbs are used that, in point of time, relate to each other, the order of time should be observed. The imperfect tense _visited_ should therefore have been _had visited_, in the pluperfect tense, representing the action of _visiting_, not only as past, but also as prior to the time of _returning_. _The sentence corrected would stand thus_: 'After I _had visited_ Europe, I returned to America.'"--_Gr._, ii, p. 19; _and Ex._ 12mo, p. xii. These are the first two examples of Murray's verbal corrections, and the only ones retained by Alger, in his _improved, recopy-righted edition_ of Murray's Exercises. Yet, in each of them, is the argumentation palpably false! In the former, truly, _which_ should be _who_; but not because _which_ is "of the _neuter gender_;" but because the application of that relative to _persons_, is now nearly obsolete. Can any grammarian forget that, in speaking of brute animals, male or female, we commonly use _which_, and never _who_? But if _which_ must needs be _neuter_, the world is wrong in this.--As for the latter example, it is right as it stands; and the correction is, in some sort, tautological. The conjunctive adverb _after_ makes one of the actions subsequent to the other, and gives to the _visiting_ all the priority that is signified by the pluperfect tense. "_After_ I _visited_ Europe," is equivalent to "_When_ I _had visited_ Europe." The whole argument is therefore void.[63] 33. These few brief illustrations, out of thousands that might be adduced in proof of the faultiness of the common manuals, the author has reluctantly introduced, to show that even in the most popular books, with all the pretended improvements of revisers, the grammar of our language has never been treated with that care and ability which its importance demands. It is hardly to be supposed that men unused to a teacher's duties, can be qualified to compose such books as will most facilitate his labours. Practice is a better pilot than theory. And while, in respect to grammar, the consciousness of failure is constantly inducing changes from one system to another, and almost daily giving birth to new expedients as constantly to end in the same disappointment; perhaps the practical instructions of an experienced teacher, long and assiduously devoted to the study, may approve themselves to many, as seasonably supplying the aid and guidance which they require. 34. From the doctrines of grammar, novelty is rigidly excluded. They consist of details to which taste can lend no charm, and genius no embellishment. A writer may express them with neatness and perspicuity--their importance alone can commend them to notice. Yet, in drawing his illustrations from the stores of literature, the grammarian may select some gems of thought, which will fasten on the memory a worthy sentiment, or relieve the dullness of minute instruction. Such examples have been taken from various authors, and interspersed through the following pages. The moral effect of early lessons being a point of the utmost importance, it is especially incumbent on all those who are endeavouring to confer the benefits of intellectual culture, to guard against the admission or the inculcation of any principle which may have an improper tendency, and be ultimately prejudicial to those whom they instruct. In preparing this treatise for publication, the author has been solicitous to avoid every thing that could be offensive to the most delicate and scrupulous reader; and of the several thousands of quotations introduced for the illustration or application of the principles of the science, he trusts that the greater part will be considered valuable on account of the sentiments they contain. 35. The nature of the subject almost entirely precludes invention. The author has, however, aimed at that kind and degree of originality which are to be commended in works of this sort. What these are, according to his view, he has sufficiently explained in a preceding chapter. And, though he has taken the liberty of a grammarian, to think for himself and write in a style of his own, he trusts it will be evident that few have excelled him in diligence of research, or have followed more implicitly the dictates of that authority which gives law to language. In criticising the critics and grammatists of the schools, he has taken them upon their own ground--showing their errors, for the most part, in contrast with the common principles which they themselves have taught; and has hoped to escape censure, in his turn, not by sheltering himself under the name of a popular master, but by a diligence which should secure to his writings at least the humble merit of self-consistency. His progress in composing this work has been slow, and not unattended with labour and difficulty. Amidst the contrarieties of opinion, that appear in the various treatises already before the public, and the perplexities inseparable from so complicated a subject, he has, after deliberate consideration, adopted those views and explanations which appeared to him the least liable to objection, and the most compatible with his ultimate object--the production of a work which should show, both extensively and accurately, what is, and what is not, good English. 36. The great art of meritorious authorship lies chiefly in the condensation of much valuable thought into few words. Although the author has here allowed himself ampler room than before, he has still been no less careful to store it with such information as he trusted would prevent the ingenious reader from wishing its compass less. He has compressed into this volume the most essential parts of a mass of materials in comparison with which the book is still exceedingly small. The effort to do this, has greatly multiplied his own labour and long delayed the promised publication; but in proportion as this object has been reached, the time and patience of the student must have been saved. Adequate compensation for this long toil, has never been expected. Whether from this performance any profit shall accrue to the author or not, is a matter of little consequence; he has neither written for bread, nor on the credit of its proceeds built castles in the air. His ambition was, to make an acceptable book, by which the higher class of students might be thoroughly instructed, and in which the eyes of the critical would find little to condemn. He is too well versed in the history of his theme, too well aware of the precarious fortune of authors, to indulge in any confident anticipations of extraordinary success: yet he will not deny that his hopes are large, being conscious of having cherished them with a liberality of feeling which cannot fear disappointment. In this temper he would invite the reader to a thorough perusal of these pages. 37. A grammar should speak for itself. In a work of this nature, every word or tittle which does not recommend the performance to the understanding and taste of the skillful, is, so far as it goes, a certificate against it. Yet if some small errors shall have escaped detection, let it be recollected that it is almost impossible to compose and print, with perfect accuracy, a work of this size, in which so many little things should be observed, remembered, and made exactly to correspond. There is no human vigilance which multiplicity may not sometimes baffle, and minuteness sometimes elude. To most persons grammar seems a dry and difficult subject; but there is a disposition of mind, to which what is arduous, is for that very reason alluring. "Quo difficilius, hoc præclarius," says Cicero; "The more difficult, the more honourable." The merit of casting up a high-way in a rugged land, is proportionate not merely to the utility of the achievement, but to the magnitude of the obstacles to be overcome. The difficulties encountered in boyhood from the use of a miserable epitome and the deep impression of a few mortifying blunders made in public, first gave the author a fondness for grammar; circumstances having since favoured this turn of his genius, he has voluntarily pursued the study, with an assiduity which no man will ever imitate for the sake of pecuniary recompense. CHAPTER X. OF GRAMMATICAL DEFINITIONS. "Scientiam autem nusquam esse censebant, nisi in animi motionibus atque rationibus: quâ de causâ _definitiones_ rerum probabant, et has ad omnia, de quibus disceptabatur, adhibebant."--CICERONIS _Academica_, Lib. i, 9. 1. "The first and highest philosophy," says Puffendorf, "is that which delivers the most accurate and comprehensive _definitions_ of things." Had all the writers on English grammar been adepts in this philosophy, there would have been much less complaint of the difficulty and uncertainty of the study. "It is easy," says Murray, "to advance plausible objections against almost every definition, rule, and arrangement of grammar."--_Gram._, 8vo, p. 59. But, if this is true, as regards his, or any other work, the reason, I am persuaded, is far less inherent in the nature of the subject than many have supposed.[64] Objectionable definitions and rules are but evidences of the ignorance and incapacity of him who frames them. And if the science of grammar has been so unskillfully treated that almost all its positions may be plausibly impugned, it is time for some attempt at a reformation of the code. The language is before us, and he who knows most about it, can best prescribe the rules which we ought to observe in the use of it. But how can we expect children to deduce from a few particulars an accurate notion of general principles and their exceptions, where learned doctors have so often faltered? Let the abettors of grammatical "_induction_" answer. 2. Nor let it be supposed a light matter to prescribe with certainty the principles of grammar. For, what is requisite to the performance? To know certainly, in the first place, what is the _best usage_. Nor is this all. Sense and memory must be keen, and tempered to retain their edge and hold, in spite of any difficulties which the subject may present. To understand things exactly as they are; to discern the differences by which they may be distinguished, and the resemblances by which they ought to be classified; to know, through the proper evidences of truth, that our ideas, or conceptions, are rightly conformable to the nature, properties, and relations, of the objects of which we think; to see how that which is complex may be resolved into its elements, and that which is simple may enter into combination; to observe how that which is consequent may be traced to its cause, and that which is regular be taught by rule; to learn from the custom of speech the proper connexion between words and ideas, so as to give to the former a just application, to the latter an adequate expression, and to things a just description; to have that penetration which discerns what terms, ideas, or things, are definable, and therefore capable of being taught, and what must be left to the teaching of nature: these are the essential qualifications for him who would form good definitions; these are the elements of that accuracy and comprehensiveness of thought, to which allusion has been made, and which are characteristic of "the first and highest philosophy." 3. Again, with reference to the cultivation of the mind, I would add: To observe accurately the appearances of things, and the significations of words; to learn first principles first, and proceed onward in such a manner that every new truth may help to enlighten and strengthen the understanding; and thus to comprehend gradually, according to our capacity, whatsoever may be brought within the scope of human intellect:--to do these things, I say, is, to ascend by sure steps, so far as we may, from the simplest elements of science--which, in fact, are our own, original, undefinable notices of things--towards the very topmost height of human wisdom and knowledge. The ancient saying, that truth lies hid, or in the bottom of a well, must not be taken without qualification; for "the first and highest philosophy" has many principles which even a child may understand. These several suggestions, the first of which the Baron de Puffendorf thought not unworthy to introduce his great work on the Law of Nature and of Nations, the reader, if he please, may bear in mind, as he peruses the following digest of the laws and usages of speech. 4. "Definitions," says Duncan, in his Elements of Logic, "are intended to make known the meaning of words standing for _complex ideas_;[65] and were we always careful to form those ideas exactly in our minds, and copy our definitions from that appearance, much of the confusion and obscurity complained of in languages might be prevented."--P. 70. Again he says: "The writings of the mathematicians are a clear proof, how much the advancement of human knowledge depends upon a right use of definitions."--P. 72. Mathematical science has been supposed to be, in its own nature, that which is best calculated to develop and strengthen the reasoning faculty; but, as speech is emphatically _the discourse of reason_, I am persuaded, that had the grammarians been equally clear and logical in their instructions, their science would never have been accounted inferior in this respect. Grammar is perhaps the most comprehensive of all studies; but it is chiefly owing to the unskillfulness of instructors, and to the errors and defects of the systems in use, that it is commonly regarded as the most dry and difficult. 5. "Poor Scaliger (who well knew what a definition should be) from his own melancholy experience exclaimed--'_Nihil infelicius grammatico definitore!_' Nothing is more unhappy than the grammatical definer."--_Tooke's Diversions_, Vol. i, p. 238. Nor do our later teachers appear to have been more fortunate in this matter. A majority of all the definitions and rules contained in the great multitude of English grammars which I have examined, are, in some respect or other, erroneous. The nature of their multitudinous faults, I must in general leave to the discernment of the reader, except the passages be such as may be suitably selected for examples of false syntax. Enough, however, will be exhibited, in the course of this volume, to make the foregoing allegation credible; and of the rest a more accurate judgement may perhaps be formed, when they shall have been compared with what this work will present as substitutes. The importance of giving correct definitions to philological terms, and of stating with perfect accuracy whatsoever is to be learned as doctrine, has never been duly appreciated. The grand source of the disheartening difficulties encountered by boys in the study of grammar, lies in their ignorance of the meaning of words. This cause of embarrassment is not to be shunned and left untouched; but, as far as possible, it ought to be removed. In teaching grammar, or indeed any other science, we cannot avoid the use of many terms to which young learners may have attached no ideas. Being little inclined or accustomed to reflection, they often hear, read, or even rehearse from memory, the plainest language that can be uttered, and yet have no very distinct apprehension of what it means. What marvel then, that in a study abounding with terms taken in a peculiar or technical sense, many of which, in the common manuals, are either left undefined, or are explained but loosely or erroneously, they should often be greatly puzzled, and sometimes totally discouraged? 6. _Simple ideas_ are derived, not from teaching, but from sensation or consciousness; but _complex ideas_, or the notions which we have of such things as consist of various parts, or such as stand in any known relations, are definable. A person can have no better definition of _heat_, or of _motion_, than what he will naturally get by _moving_ towards a _fire_. Not so of our complex or general ideas, which constitute science. The proper objects of scientific instruction consist in those genuine perceptions of pure mind, which form the true meaning of generic names, or common nouns; and he who is properly qualified to teach, can for the most part readily tell what should be understood by such words. But are not many teachers too careless here? For instance: a boy commencing the process of calculation, is first told, that, "Arithmetic is the art of computing by numbers," which sentence he partly understands; but should he ask his teacher, "What is a _number_, in arithmetic?" what answer will he get? Were Goold Brown so asked, he would simply say, "_A number, in arithmetic, is an expression that tells how many_;" for every expression that tells how many, is a number in arithmetic, and nothing else is. But as no such definition is contained in _the books_,[66] there are ten chances to one, that, simple as the matter is, the readiest master you shall find, will give an erroneous answer. Suppose the teacher should say, "That is a question which I have not thought of; turn to your dictionary." The boy reads from Dr. Webster: "NUMBER--the designation of a unit in reference to other units, or in reckoning, counting, enumerating."--"Yes," replies the master, "that is it; Dr. Webster is unrivalled in giving definitions." Now, has the boy been instructed, or only puzzled? Can he conceive how the number _five_ can be a _unit_? or how the word _five_, the figure 5, or the numeral letter V, is "the designation of a _unit_?" He knows that each of these is a number, and that the oral monosyllable _five_ is the same number, in an other form; but is still as much at a loss for a proper answer to his question, as if he had never seen either schoolmaster or dictionary. So is it with a vast number of the simplest things in grammar. 7. Since what we denominate scientific terms, are seldom, if ever, such as stand for ideas simple and undefinable; and since many of those which represent general ideas, or classes of objects, may be made to stand for more or fewer things, according to the author's notion of classification; it is sufficiently manifest that the only process by which instruction can effectually reach the understanding of the pupil and remove the difficulties spoken of, is that of delivering accurate definitions. These are requisite for the information and direction of the learner; and these must be thoroughly impressed upon his mind, as the only means by which he can know exactly how much and what he is to understand by our words. The power which we possess, of making known all our complex or general ideas of things by means of definitions, is a faculty wisely contrived in the nature of language, for the increase and spread of science; and, in the hands of the skillful, it is of vast avail to these ends. It is "the first and highest philosophy," instructing mankind, to think clearly and speak accurately; as well as to know definitely, in the unity and permanence of a general nature, those things which never could be known or spoken of as the individuals of an infinite and fleeting multitude. 8. And, without contradiction, the shortest and most successful way of teaching the young mind to distinguish things according to their proper differences, and to name or describe them aright, is, to tell in direct terms what they severally are. Cicero intimates that all instruction appealing to reason ought to proceed in this manner: "Omnis enim quse à ratione suscipitur de re aliqua institutio, debet à _definitione_ proficisci, ut intelligatur quid sit id, de quo disputetur."--_Off_. Lib. i, p. 4. Literally thus: "For all instruction which from reason is undertaken concerning any thing, ought to proceed from a _definition_, that it may be understood what the thing is, about which the speaker is arguing." Little advantage, however, will be derived from any definition, which is not, as Quintilian would have it, "Lucida et succincta rei descriptio,"--"a clear and brief description of the thing." 9. Let it here be observed that scientific definitions are of _things_, and not merely of _words_; or if equally of words _and_ things, they are rather of nouns than of the other parts of speech. For a definition, in the proper sense of the term, consists not in a mere change or explanation of the verbal sign, but in a direct and true answer to the question, What is such or such a thing? In respect to its extent, it must with equal exactness include every thing which comes under the name, and exclude every thing which does not come under the name: then will it perfectly serve the purpose for which it is intended. To furnish such definitions, (as I have suggested,) is work for those who are capable of great accuracy both of thought and expression. Those who would qualify themselves for teaching any particular branch of knowledge, should make it their first concern to acquire clear and accurate ideas of all things that ought to be embraced in their instructions. These ideas are to be gained, either by contemplation upon the things themselves as they are presented naturally, or by the study of those books in which they are rationally and clearly explained. Nor will such study ever be irksome to him whose generous desire after knowledge, is thus deservedly gratified. 10. But it must be understood, that although scientific definitions are said to be _of things_, they are not copied immediately from the real essence of the things, but are formed from the conceptions of the author's mind concerning that essence. Hence, as Duncan justly remarks, "A mistaken idea never fails to occasion a mistake also in the definition." Hence, too, the common distinction of the logicians, between definitions of the _name_ and definitions of the _thing_, seems to have little or no foundation. The former term they applied to those definitions which describe the objects of pure intellection, such as triangles, and other geometrical figures; the latter, to those which define objects actually existing in external nature. The mathematical definitions, so noted for their certainty and completeness, have been supposed to have some peculiar preëminence, as belonging to the former class. But, in fact the idea of a triangle exists as substantively in the mind, as that of a tree, if not indeed more so; and if I define these two objects, my description will, in either case, be equally a definition both of the name and of the thing; but in neither, is it copied from any thing else than that notion which I have conceived, of the common properties of all triangles or of all trees. 11. Infinitives, and some other terms not called nouns, may be taken abstractly or substantively, so as to admit of what may be considered a regular definition; thus the question, "What is it _to read?_" is nearly the same as, "What is _reading?_" "What is it _to be wise?_" is little different from, "What is _wisdom?_" and a true answer might be, in either case, a true definition. Nor are those mere translations or explanations of words, with which our dictionaries and vocabularies abound, to be dispensed with in teaching: they prepare the student to read various authors with facility, and furnish him with a better choice of terms, when he attempts to write. And in making such choice, let him remember, that as affectation of _hard_ words makes composition ridiculous, so the affectation of _easy_ and _common_ ones may make it unmanly. But not to digress. With respect to grammar, we must sometimes content ourselves with such explications of its customary terms, as cannot claim to be perfect definitions; for the most common and familiar things are not always those which it is the most easy to define. When Dr. Johnson was asked, "What is _poetry_?" he replied, "Why, sir, it is easier to tell what it is not. We all know what _light_ is: but it is not easy _to tell what it is_."--_Boswell's Life of Johnson_, Vol. iii, p. 402. This was thought by the biographer to have been well and ingeniously said. 12. But whenever we encounter difficulties of this sort, it may be worth while to seek for their _cause_. If we find it, the understanding is no longer puzzled. Dr. Johnson seemed to his biographer, to show, by this ready answer, the acuteness of his wit and discernment. But did not the wit consist in adroitly excusing himself, by an illusory comparison? What analogy is there between the things which he compares? Of the difficulty of defining _poetry_, and the difficulty of defining _light_, the reasons are as different as are the two things themselves, _poetry_ and _light_. The former is something so various and complex that it is hard to distinguish its essence from its accidents; the latter presents an idea so perfectly simple and unique that all men conceive of it exactly in the same way, while none can show wherein it essentially consists. But is it true, that, "We all know _what light is_?" Is it not rather true, that we know nothing at all about it, but what it is just as easy to tell as to think? We know it is that reflexible medium which enables us to see; and this is definition enough for all but the natively blind, to whom no definition perhaps can ever convey an adequate notion of its use in respect to sight. 13. If a person cannot tell what a thing is, it is commonly considered to be a fair inference, that he does not know. Will any grammarian say, "I know well enough what the thing is, but I cannot tell?" Yet, taken upon this common principle, the authors of our English grammars, (if in framing their definitions they have not been grossly wanting to themselves in the exercise of their own art,) may be charged, I think, with great ignorance, or great indistinctness of apprehension; and that, too, in relation to many things among the very simplest elements of their science. For example: Is it not a disgrace to a man of letters, to be unable to tell accurately what a letter is? Yet to say, with Lowth, Murray, Churchill, and a hundred others of inferior name, that, "_A letter_ is _the first principle_ or _least part_ of a word," is to utter what is neither good English nor true doctrine. The two articles _a_ and _the_ are here inconsistent with each other. "_A_ letter" is _one_ letter, _any_ letter; but "_the first principle_ of a word" is, surely, not one or any principle taken _indefinitely_. Equivocal as the phrase is, it must mean either _some particular principle_, or some particular _first_ principle, of a word; and, taken either way, the assertion is false. For it is manifest, that in _no sense_ can we affirm of _each_ of the letters of a word, that it is "_the first principle_" of that word. Take, for instance, the word _man_. Is _m_ the first principle of this word? You may answer, "Yes; for it is the first _letter_." Is _a_ the first principle? "No; it is the _second_." But _n_ too is a letter; and is _n_ the first principle? "No; it is the _last_!" This grammatical error might have been avoided by saying, "_Letters_ are the first principles, or least parts, of words." But still the definition would not be true, nor would it answer the question, What is a letter? The true answer to which is: "A letter is an alphabetic _character_, which commonly represents some elementary sound of human articulation, or speech." 14. This true definition sufficiently distinguishes letters from the marks used in punctuation, because the latter are not alphabetic, and they represent silence, rather than sound; and also from the Arabic figures used for numbers, because these are no part of any alphabet, and they represent certain entire words, no one of which consists only of one letter, or of a single element of articulation. The same may be said of all the characters used for abbreviation; as, & for _and_, $ for _dollars_, or the marks peculiar to mathematicians, to astronomers, to druggists, &c. None of these are alphabetic, and they represent significant words, and not single elementary sounds: it would be great dullness, to assume that a word and an elementary sound are one and the same thing. But the reader will observe that this definition embraces _no idea_ contained in the faulty one to which I am objecting; neither indeed could it, without a blunder. So wide from the mark is that notion of a letter, which the popularity of Dr. Lowth and his copyists has made a hundred-fold more common than any other![67] According to an other erroneous definition given by these same gentlemen, "_Words_ are articulate _sounds_, used by common consent, as signs of our ideas."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 22; _Kirkham's_, 20; _Ingersoll's_, 7; _Alger's_, 12; _Russell's_, 7; _Merchant's_, 9; _Fisk's_, 11; _Greenleaf's_, 20; and many others. See _Lowth's Gram._, p. 6; from which almost all authors have taken the notion, that words consist of "_sounds_" only. But letters are no principles or parts of _sounds_ at all; unless you will either have visible marks to be sounds, or the sign to be a principle or part of the thing signified. Nor are they always principles or parts of _words_: we sometimes write what is _not a word_; as when, by letters, we denote pronunciation alone, or imitate brute voices. If words were formed of articulate sounds only, they could not exist in books, or be in any wise known to the deaf and dumb. These two primary definitions, then, are both false; and, taken together, they involve the absurdity of dividing things acknowledged to be indivisible. In utterance, we cannot divide consonants from their vowels; on paper, we can. Hence letters are the least parts of written language only; but the least parts of spoken words are syllables, and not letters. Every definition of a consonant implies this. 15. They who cannot define a letter or a word, may be expected to err in explaining other grammatical terms. In my opinion, nothing is well written, that can possibly be misunderstood; and if any definition be likely to _suggest_ a wrong idea, this alone is enough to condemn it: nor does it justify the phraseology, to say, that a more reasonable construction can be put upon it. By Murray and others, the young learner is told, that, "A _vowel_ is an articulate _sound_, that can be perfectly _uttered by itself_;" as if a vowel were nothing but a sound, and that a sort of echo, which can _utter itself_; and next, that, "A _consonant_ is an articulate _sound_, which cannot be perfectly uttered _without the help of_ a vowel." Now, by their own showing, every letter is either a vowel or a consonant; hence, according to these definitions, all the letters are articulate _sounds_. And, if so, what is a "silent letter?" It is a _silent articulate sound!_ Again: ask a boy, "What is a _triphthong?_" He answers in the words of Murray, Weld, Pond, Smith, Adams, Kirkham, Merchant, Ingersoll, Bacon, Alger, Worcester, and others: "A triphthong is the union of three vowels, _pronounced in like manner_: as _eau_ in beau, _iew_ in view." He accurately cites an entire paragraph from his grammar, but does he well conceive how the three vowels in _beau_ or _view_ are "pronounced _in like manner?_" Again: "A _syllable_ is a _sound_, either simple or _compound_, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 22. This definition resolves syllables into _sounds_; whereas their true elements are _letters_. It also mistakes the participle _compounded_ for the adjective _compound_; whereas the latter only is the true reverse of _simple_. A _compound sound_ is a sound composed of others which may be separated; a _sound compounded_ is properly that which is made an ingredient with others, but which may itself be simple. 16. It is observable, that in their attempts to explain these prime elements of grammar, Murray, and many others who have copied him, overlook all _written_ language; whereas their very science itself took its origin, name, and nature, from the invention of writing; and has consequently no bearing upon any dialect which has not been written. Their definitions absurdly resolve letters, vowels, consonants, syllables, and words, all into _sounds_; as if none of these things had any existence on paper, or any significance to those who read in silence. Hence, their explanations of all these elements, as well as of many other things equally essential to the study, are palpably erroneous. I attribute this to the carelessness with which men have compiled or made up books of grammar; and that carelessness to those various circumstances, already described, which have left diligence in a grammarian no hope of praise or reward. Without alluding here to my own books, no one being obliged to accuse himself, I doubt whether we have any school grammar that is much less objectionable in this respect, than Murray's; and yet I am greatly mistaken, if nine tenths of all the definitions in Murray's system are not faulty. "It was this sort of definitions, which made _Scaliger_ say, _'Nihil infelicius definitore grammatico_.'"--See _Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 351; also _Paragraph_ 5th, above. 17. Nor can this objection be neutralized by saying, it is a mere matter of opinion--a mere prejudice originating in rivalry. For, though we have ample choice of terms, and may frequently assign to particular words a meaning and an explanation which are in some degree arbitrary; yet whenever we attempt to define things under the name which custom has positively fixed upon them, we are no longer left to arbitrary explications; but are bound to think and to say that only which shall commend itself to the understanding of others, as being altogether true to nature. When a word is well understood to denote a particular object or class of objects, the definition of it ought to be in strict conformity to what is known of the real being and properties of the thing or things contemplated. A definition of this kind is a proposition susceptible of proof and illustration; and therefore whatsoever is erroneously assumed to be the proper meaning of such a term, may be refuted. But those persons who take every thing upon trust, and choose both to learn and to teach mechanically, often become so slavishly habituated to the peculiar phraseology of their text-books, that, be the absurdity of a particular expression what it may, they can neither discover nor suspect any inaccuracy in it. It is also very natural even for minds more independent and acute, to regard with some reverence whatsoever was gravely impressed upon them in childhood. Hence the necessity that all school-books should proceed from skillful hands. Instruction should tell things as they are, and never falter through negligence. 18. I have admitted that definitions are not the only means by which a general knowledge of the import of language may be acquired; nor are they the only means by which the acquisition of such knowledge may be aided. To exhibit or point out _things_ and tell their names, constitutes a large part of that instruction by which the meaning of words is conveyed to the young mind; and, in many cases, a mere change or apposition of terms may sufficiently explain our idea. But when we would guard against the possibility of misapprehension, and show precisely what is meant by a word, we must fairly define it. There are, however, in every language, many words which do not admit of a formal definition. The import of all definitive and connecting particles must be learned from usage, translation, or derivation; and nature reserves to herself the power of explaining the objects of our simple original perceptions. "All words standing for complex ideas are definable; but those by which we denote simple ideas, are not. For the perceptions of this latter class, having no other entrance into the mind, than by sensation or reflection, can be acquired only by experience."--_Duncan's Logic_, p. 63. "And thus we see, that as our simple ideas are the materials and foundation of knowledge, so the names of simple ideas may be considered as the elementary parts of language, beyond which we cannot trace the meaning and signification of words. When we come to them, we suppose the ideas for which they stand to be already known; or, if they are not, experience alone must be consulted, and not definitions or explications."--_Ibid._, p. 69. 19. But this is no apology for the defectiveness of any definition which might be made correct, or for the effectiveness of our English grammars, in the frequent omission of all explanation, and the more frequent adoption of some indirect form of expression. It is often much easier to make some loose observation upon what is meant by a given word or term in science, than to frame a faultless definition of the thing; because it is easier to refer to some of the relations, qualities, offices, or attributes of things, than to discern wherein their essence consists, so as to be able to tell directly and clearly what they are. The improvement of our grammatical code in this respect, was one of the principal objects which I thought it needful to attempt, when I first took up the pen as a grammarian. I cannot pretend to have seen, of course, every definition and rule which has been published on this subject; but, if I do not misjudge a service too humble for boasting, I have myself framed a greater number of new or improved ones, than all other English grammarians together. And not a few of them have, since their first publication in 1823, been complimented to a place in other grammars than my own. This is in good keeping with the authorship which has been spoken of in an other chapter; but I am constrained to say, it affords no proof that they were well written. If it did, the definitions and rules in Murray's grammar must undoubtedly be thought the most correct that ever have been given: they have been more frequently copied than any others. 20. But I have ventured to suggest, that nine tenths of this author's definitions are bad, or at least susceptible of some amendment. If this can be shown to the satisfaction of the reader, will he hope to find an other English grammar in which the eye of criticism may not detect errors and deficiencies with the same ease? My object is, to enforce attention to the proprieties of speech; and this is the very purpose of all grammar. To exhibit here all Murray's definitions, with criticisms upon them, would detain us too long. We must therefore be content to take a part of them as a sample. And, not to be accused of fixing only upon the worst, we will take a _series_. Let us then consider in their order his definitions of the nine parts of speech;--for, calling the participle a verb, he reduces the sorts of words to that number. And though not one of his nine definitions now stands exactly as it did in his early editions, I think it may be said, that not one of them is now, if it ever has been, expressed grammatically. 21. FIRST DEFINITION:--"An Article is a word _prefixed_ to substantives, _to point them out_, and to show how far their[68] signification extends."--_Murray, and others, from, Lowth's Gram._, p. 10. This is obscure. In what manner, or in what respect, does an article point out substantives? To point them out _as such_, or to show which words are substantives, seems at first view to be the meaning intended; but it is said soon after, "_A_ or _an_ is used in a vague sense, to _point out_ one single _thing_ of the kind, in other respects _indeterminate_; as, 'Give me _a_ book;' 'Bring me _an_ apple.'"--_Lowth_, p. 11; _Murray_, p. 31. And again: "It is _of the nature_ of both the articles to determine or limit _the thing_ spoken of."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 170. Now to point out _nouns_ among the parts of speech, and to point out _things_ as individuals of their class, are very different matters; and which of these is the purpose for which articles are used, according to Lowth and Murray? Their definition says the former, their explanations imply the latter; and I am unable to determine which they really meant. The term _placed before_ would have been better than "_prefixed_;" because the latter commonly implies junction, as well as location. The word "_indeterminate_" is not a very easy one for a boy; and, when he has found out what it means, he may possibly not know to which of the four preceding nouns it ought to be referred:--"in a vague _sense_, to point out one single _thing_ of the _kind_, in other _respects_ indeterminate." What is this "vague sense?" and what is it, that is "indeterminate?" 22. SECOND DEFINITION:--"A Substantive or Noun is the name of any thing _that_ exists, or of _which_ we have any notion."--_Murray, and others_. According to his own syntax, this sentence of Murray's is wrong; for he himself suggests, that when two or more relative clauses refer to the same antecedent, the same pronoun should be used in each. Of clauses connected like these, this is true. He should therefore have said, "A Substantive, or Noun, is the name of any thing _which_ exists, or of _which_ we have any notion." His rule, however, though good against a text like this, is utterly wrong in regard to many others, and not very accurate in taking _two_ for a "_series_" thus: "Whatever relative is used, in one of a _series_ of clauses relating to the same antecedent, the same relative ought, generally to be used in _them all_. In the following sentence, _this rule is violated_: 'It is remarkable, that Holland, against _which_ the war was undertaken, and _that_, in the very beginning, was reduced to the brink of destruction, lost nothing.' The clause ought to have been, 'and _which_ in the very beginning.'"--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 155. But both the rule and the example, badly as they correspond, were borrowed from Priestley's Grammar, p. 102, where the text stands thus: "Whatever relative _be_ used, in one of a _series_ of clauses, relating to the same antecedent, the same ought to be used in _them all_. 'It is remarkable, that Holland,'" &c. 23. THIRD DEFINITION:--"An Adjective is a word added to a substantive, to express _its_ quality."--_Lowth, Murray, Bullions, Pond, and others_. Here we have the choice of two meanings; but neither of them is according to truth. It seems doubtful whether "_its_ quality" is the _adjective's_ quality, or the _substantive's_; but in either sense, the phrase is false; for an adjective is added to a noun, not to express any quality either of the adjective or of the noun, but to express some quality of the _thing signified_ by the noun. But the definition is too much restricted; for adjectives may be added to pronouns as well as to nouns, nor do they always express _quality_. 24. FOURTH DEFINITION:--"A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to _avoid the too frequent_ repetition of _the same word_."--_Dr. Ash's Gram._, p. 25; _Murray's_, 28 and 50; _Felton's_, 18; _Alger's_, 13; _Bacon's_, 10; _and others_. The latter part of this sentence is needless, and also contains several errors. 1. The verb _avoid_ is certainly very ill-chosen; because it implies intelligent agency, and not that which is merely instrumental. 2. The article _the_ is misemployed for _a_; for, "_the_ too frequent repetition," should mean _some particular_ too frequent repetition--an idea not intended here, and in itself not far from absurdity. 3. The phrase, "_the same word_" may apply to the pronoun itself as well as to the noun: in saying, "_I_ came, _I_ saw, _I_ conquered," there is as frequent a repetition of _the same word_, as in saying, "_Cæsar_ came, _Cæsar_ saw, _Cæsar_ conquered." If, therefore, the latter part of this definition must be retained, the whole should be written thus: "A Pronoun is a word used _in stead_ of a noun, to _prevent_ too frequent _a_ repetition of _it_." 25. FIFTH DEFINITION:--"A Verb is a word which signifies _to be, to do_, or _to suffer_"--_Lowth, Murray, and others_. NOTE:--"A verb may generally be distinguished by _its making sense_ with any of the personal pronouns, or the word _to_ before it."--_Murray, and others_. It is confessedly difficult to give a perfect definition of a _verb_; and if, with Murray, we will have the participles to be verbs, there must be no small difficulty in forming one that shall be tolerable. Against the foregoing old explanation, it may be objected, that the phrase _to suffer_, being now understood in a more limited sense than formerly, does not well express the nature or import of a passive verb. I have said, "A Verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_." Children cannot readily understand, how every thing that is in any way _acted upon_, may be said _to suffer_. The participle, I think, should be taken as a distinct part of speech, and have its own definition. The note added by Murray to his definition of a verb, would prove the participle not to be included in this part of speech, and thus practically contradict his scheme. It is also objectionable in respect to construction. The phrase "_by its making sense_" is at least very questionable English; for "_its making_" supposes _making_ to be a noun, and "_making sense_" supposes it to be an active participle. But Lowth says, "Let it be either the one or the other, and abide by its own construction." Nay, the author himself, though he therein contradicts an other note of his own, virtually condemns the phrase, by his caution to the learner against treating words in _ing_, "as if they were of an _amphibious species_, partly nouns and partly verbs."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 193. 26. SIXTH DEFINITION:--"_An_ Adverb is _a part of speech joined_ to a verb, an adjective, _and sometimes to_ another adverb, to express some _quality_ or _circumstance_ respecting _it_."--_Murray's Gram._, pp. 28 and 114. See _Dr. Ash's Gram._, p. 47. This definition contains many errors; some of which are gross blunders. 1. The first word, "_An_," is erroneously put for _The: an_ adverb is _one_ adverb, not the whole class; and, if, "_An_ adverb is a part of speech," any and every adverb is a _part of speech_; then, how many parts of speech are there? 2. The word "_joined_" is not well chosen; for, with the exception of _not_ in _cannot_, the adverb is very rarely _joined_ to the word to which it relates. 3. The want of a comma before _joined_, perverts the construction; for the phrase, "_speech joined_ to a verb," is nonsense; and to suppose _joined_ to relate to the noun _part_, is not much better. 4. The word "_and_" should be _or_; because no adverb is ever added to three or four different terms at once. 5. The word "_sometimes_" should be omitted; because it is needless, and because it is inconsistent with the only conjunction which will make the definition true. 6. The preposition "_to_" should either be inserted before "_an adjective_," or suppressed before the term which follows; for when several words occur in the same construction, uniformity of expression is desirable. 7. For the same reason, (if custom may be thus far conformed to analogy,) the article "_an_" ought, in cases like this, if not always, to be separated from the word _other_; thus, "An adverb is a word added to _a_ verb, _a_ participle, _an_ adjective, or _an_ other adverb." Were the eye not familiar with it, _another_ would be thought as irregular as _theother_. 8. The word "_quality_" is wrong; for no adverb ever expresses any _quality_, as such; qualities are expressed by _adjectives_, and never, in any direct manner, by adverbs. 9. The "_circumstances_" which we express by adverbs never belong to the _words_, as this definition avers that they do, but always to the _actions_ or _qualities_ which the words signify. 10. The pronoun _it_, according to Murray's second rule of syntax, ought to be _them_, and so it stands in his own early editions; but if _and_ be changed to _or_, as I have said it should be, the pronoun _it_ will be right. 27. SEVENTH DEFINITION:--"Prepositions serve to connect words with _one another_, and to show the relation _between them_."--_Lowth, Murray, and others_. This is only an observation, not a definition, as it ought to have been; nor does it at all distinguish the preposition from the conjunction. It does not reach the thing in question. Besides, it contains an actual solecism in the expression. The word "_between_" implies but _two_ things; and the phrase "_one another_" is not applicable where there are but two. It should be, "to connect words with _each other_, and to show the _relation between_ them;"--or else, "to connect words with _one an other_, and to show the _relations among_ them." But the latter mode of expression would not apply to prepositions considered severally, but only to the whole class. 28. EIGHTH DEFINITION:--"A Conjunction is _a part of speech_ that is _chiefly_ used to connect sentences; so as, out of two _or more_ sentences, to make but one: it sometimes connects only words."--_Murray, and others_. Here are more than thirty words, awkwardly and loosely strung together; and all that is said in them, might be much better expressed in half the number. For example: "A Conjunction is a word which connects other terms, and commonly of two sentences makes but one." But verbosity and want of unity are not the worst faults of this definition. We have three others to point out. 1. "A conjunction is" not "_a part of speech_;" because _a_ conjunction is _one_ conjunction, and a part of speech is a whole class, or sort, of words. A similar error was noticed in Murray's definition of an adverb; and so common has this blunder become, that by a comparison of the definitions which different authors have given of the parts of speech, probably it will be found, that, by some hand or other, every one of the ten has been commenced in this way. 2. The words "_or more_" are erroneous, and ought to be omitted; for no one conjunction can connect more than two terms, in that consecutive order which the sense requires. Three or more simple sentences may indeed form a compound sentence; but, as they cannot be joined in a _cluster_, they must have two or more connectives. 3. The last clause erroneously suggests, that any or every conjunction "_sometimes connects only words_;" but the conjunctions which may connect only words, are not more than five, whereas those which connect only sentences are four times as many. 29. NINTH DEFINITION:--"Interjections are words _thrown in between the parts of a sentence_, to express the passions or emotions of the _speaker_; as, 'O Virtue! how amiable thou art!'"--_Murray, and many others_. This definition, which has been copied from grammar to grammar, and committed to memory millions of times, is obviously erroneous, and directly contradicted by the example. Interjections, though often enough thrown in between the parts of a _discourse_, are very rarely "thrown in between the parts of a _sentence_." They more frequently occur at the beginning of a sentence than any where else; and, in such cases, they do not come under this narrow definition. The author, at the head of his chapter on interjections, appends to this definition two other examples; both of which contradict it in like manner: "_Oh_! I have alienated my friend."--"_Alas_! I fear for life." Again: Interjections are used occasionally, in _written_, as well as in _oral_ discourse; nor are they less indicative of the emotions of the _writer_, than of those "of the _speaker_." 30. I have thus exhibited, with all intentional fairness of criticism, the entire series of these nine primary definitions; and the reader may judge whether they sustain the praises which have been bestowed on the book,[69] or confirm the allegations which I have made against it. He will understand that my design is, here, as well as in the body of this work, to teach grammar practically, by _rectifying_, so far as I may, all sorts of mistakes either in it or respecting it; to compose a book which, by a condensed exposition of such errors as are commonly found in other grammars, will at once show the need we have of a better, and be itself a fit substitute for the principal treatises which it censures. Grammatical errors are universally considered to be small game for critics. They must therefore be very closely grouped together, to be worth their room in this work. Of the tens of thousands who have learned for grammar a multitude of ungrammatical definitions and rules, comparatively few will ever know what I have to say of their acquisitions. But this I cannot help. To the readers of the present volume it is due, that its averments should be clearly illustrated by particular examples; and it is reasonable that these should be taken from the most accredited sources, whether they do honour to their framers or not. My argument is only made so much the stronger, as the works which furnish its proofs, are the more esteemed, the more praised, or the more overrated. 31. Murray tells us, "There is no necessary connexion between words and ideas."--_Octavo Gram._, Vol. i, p. 139. Though this, as I before observed, is not altogether true, he doubtless had very good reason to distinguish, in his teaching, "between _the sign_ and _the thing signified_." Yet, in his own definitions and explanations, he frequently _confounds_ these very things which he declares to be so widely different as not even to have a "necessary connexion." Errors of this kind are very common in all our English grammars. Two instances occur in the following sentence; which also contains an error in doctrine, and is moreover obscure, or rather, in its literal sense, palpably absurd: "To substantives belong gender, number, and case; and _they_ are _all of_ the third person _when spoken of_, and of the second person _when spoken to_."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 38; _Alger's Murray_, 16; _Merchant's_, 23; _Bacon's_, 12; _Maltby's_, 12; _Lyon's_, 7; _Guy's_, 4; _Ingersoll's_, 26; _S. Putnam's_, 13; _T. H. Miller's_, 17; _Rev. T. Smith's_, 13. Who, but a child taught by language like this, would ever think of _speaking to a noun_? or, that a noun of the second person _could not be spoken of_? or, that a noun cannot be put in the _first person_, so as to agree with _I_ or _we_? Murray himself once taught, that, "Pronouns _must always agree_ with their antecedents, _and_ the nouns for which they stand, in gender, number, and _person_;" and he departed from a true and important principle of syntax, when he altered his rule to its present form. But I have said that the sentence above is obscure, or its meaning absurd. What does the pronoun "_they_" represent? "_Substantives_," according to the author's intent; but "_gender, number_, and _case_," according to the obvious construction of the words. Let us try a parallel:" To scriveners belong pen, ink, and paper; and _they_ are all of primary importance when there is occasion to use them, and of none at all when they are not needed." Now, if this sentence is _obscure_, the other is not less so; but, if this is perfectly _clear_, so that what is said is obviously and only what is intended, then it is equally clear, that what is said in the former, is gross absurdity, and that the words cannot reasonably be construed into the sense which the writer, and his copyists, designed. 32. All Murray's grammars, not excepting the two volumes octavo, are as _incomplete_ as they are _inaccurate_; being deficient in many things which are of so great importance that they should not be excluded from the very smallest epitome. For example: On the subject of the _numbers_, he attempted but one definition, and that is a fourfold solecism. Ho speaks of the _persons_, but gives neither definitions nor explanations. In treating of the _genders_, he gives but one formal definition. His section on the _cases_ contains no regular definition. On the _comparison_ of adjectives, and on the _moods_ and _tenses_ of verbs, he is also satisfied with a very loose mode of teaching. The work as a whole exhibits more industry than literary taste, more benevolence of heart than distinctness of apprehension; and, like all its kindred and progeny, fails to give to the principles of grammar that degree of clearness of which they are easily susceptible. The student does not know this, but he feels the effects of it, in the obscurity of his own views on the subject, and in the conscious uncertainty with which he applies those principles. In grammar, the terms _person, number, gender, case, mood, tense_, and many others, are used in a technical and peculiar sense; and, in all scientific works, the sense of technical terms should be clearly and precisely defined. Nothing can be gained by substituting other names of modern invention; for these also would need definitions as much as the old. We want to know the things themselves, and what they are most appropriately called. We want a book which will tell us, in proper order, and in the plainest manner, what all the elements of the science are. 33. What does he know of grammar, who cannot directly and properly answer such questions as these?--"What are numbers, in grammar? What is the singular number? What is the plural number? What are persons, in grammar? What is the first person? What is the second person? What is the third person? What are genders, in grammar? What is the masculine gender? What is the feminine gender? What is the neuter gender? What are cases, in grammar? What is the nominative case? What is the possessive case? What is the objective case?"--And yet the most complete acquaintance with every sentence or word of Murray's tedious compilation, may leave the student at a loss for a proper answer, not only to each of these questions, but also to many others equally simple and elementary! A boy may learn by heart all that Murray ever published on the subject of grammar, and still be left to confound the numbers in grammar with numbers in arithmetic, or the persons in grammar with persons in civil life! Nay, there are among the professed _improvers_ of this system of grammar, _men_ who have actually confounded these things, which are so totally different in their natures! In "Smith's New Grammar on the Productive System," a work in which Murray is largely copied and strangely metamorphosed, there is an abundance of such confusion. For instance: "What is the meaning of the word _number_? Number means _a sum that may be counted_."--_R. C. Smith's New Gram._, p. 7. From this, by a tissue of half a dozen similar absurdities, called _inductions_, the novice is brought to the conclusion that the numbers are _two_--as if there were in nature but two sums that might be counted! There is no end to the sickening detail of such blunders. How many grammars tell us, that, "The first person is the _person who speaks_;" that, "The second person is the _person spoken to_;" and that, "the third person is the _person spoken of_!" As if the three persons of a verb, or other part of speech, were so many _intelligent beings_! As if, by exhibiting a word in the three persons, (as _go, goest, goes_,) we put it first _into the speaker_, then _into the hearer_, and then _into somebody else_! Nothing can be more abhorrent to grammar, or to sense, than such confusion. The things which are identified in each of these three definitions, are as unlike as Socrates and moonshine! The one is a thinking being; the other, a mere form peculiar to certain words. But Chandler, of Philadelphia, ("the Grammar King," forsooth!) without mistaking the grammatical persons for rational souls, has contrived to crowd into his definition of _person_ more errors of conception and of language,--more insult to common sense,--than one could have believed it possible to put together in such space. And this ridiculous old twaddle, after six and twenty years, he has deliberately re-written and lately republished as something "adapted to the schools of America." It stands thus: "_Person is a distinction which is made in a noun between its representation of its object, either as spoken to, or spoken of_."--Chandler's E. Grammar; Edition of 1821, p. 16; Ed. 1847, p. 21. 34. Grammarians have often failed in their definitions, because it is impossible to define certain terms in the way in which the description has been commonly attempted. He who undertakes what is impossible must necessarily fail; and fail too, to the discredit of his ingenuity. It is manifest that whenever a generic name in the singular number is to be defined, the definition must be founded upon some property or properties common to all the particular things included under the term. Thus, if I would define a _globe_, a _wheel_, or a _pyramid_, my description must be taken, not from what is peculiar to one or an other of these things, but from those properties only which are common to all globes, all wheels, or all pyramids. But what property has _unity_ in common with _plurality_, on which a definition of _number_ may be founded? What common property have the _three cases_, by which we can clearly define _case_? What have the _three persons_ in common, which, in a definition of _person_, could be made evident to a child? Thus all the great classes of grammatical modifications, namely, _persons, numbers, genders, cases, moods_, and _tenses_, though they admit of easy, accurate, and obvious definitions in the plural, can scarcely be defined at all in the singular. I do not say, that the terms _person, number, gender, case, mood_, and _tense_, ia their technical application to grammar, are all of them equally and absolutely undefinable in the singular; but I say, that no definition, just in sense and suitable for a child, can ever be framed for any one of them. Among the thousand varied attempts of grammarians to explain them so, there are a hundred gross solecisms for every tolerable definition. For this, as I have shown, there is a very simple reason in the nature of the things. 35. But this reason, as well as many other truths equally important and equally clear, our common grammarians, have, so far as I know, every man of them, overlooked. Consequently, even when they were aiming at the right thing, they frequently fell into gross errors of expression; and, what is still more surprising, such errors have been entailed upon the very art of grammar, and the art of authorship itself, by the prevalence of an absurd notion, that modern writers on this subject can be meritorious authors without originality. Hence many a school-boy is daily rehearsing from his grammar-book what he might well be ashamed to have written. For example, the following definition from Murray's grammar, is found in perhaps a dozen other compends, all professing to teach the art of speaking and writing with propriety: "_Number_ is the _consideration of an object_, as _one_ or _more_." [70] Yet this short sentence, as I have before suggested, is a fourfold solecism. _First_, the word "_number_" is wrong; because those modifications of language, which distinguish unity and plurality, cannot be jointly signified by it. _Secondly_, the word "_consideration_" is wrong; because _number_ is not _consideration_, in any sense which can be put upon the terms: _condition, constitution, configuration_, or any other word beginning with _con_, would have done just as well. _Thirdly_, "the consideration of _an_ object as _one_," is but idle waste of thought; for, that one thing is one,--that _an_ object is _one_ object,--every child knows by _intuition_, and not by "_consideration_." _Lastly_, to consider "_an_ object as _more_" than one, is impossible; unless this admirable definition lead us into a misconception in so plain a case! So much for the art of "the grammatical definer." 36. Many other examples, equally faulty and equally common, might, be quoted and criticised for the further proof and illustration of what I have alleged. But the reader will perhaps judge the foregoing to be sufficient. I have wished to be brief, and yet to give my arguments, and the neglected facts upon which they rest, their proper force upon the mind. Against such prejudices as may possibly arise from the authorship of rival publications, or from any interest in the success of one book rather than of an other, let both my judges and me be on our guard. I have intended to be fair; for captiousness is not criticism. If the reader perceives in these strictures any improper bias, he has a sort of discernment which it is my misfortune to lack. Against the compilers of grammars, I urge no conclusions at which any man can hesitate, who accedes to my preliminary remarks upon them; and these may be summed up in the following couplet of the poet Churchill: "To copy beauties, forfeits all pretence To fame;--to copy faults, is want of sense." CHAPTER XI. BRIEF NOTICES OF THE SCHEMES OF CERTAIN GRAMMARS. "Sed ut perveniri ad summa nisi ex principiis non potest: ita, procedente jam opere, minima incipiunt esse quæ prima sunt."--QUINTILIAN. _De Inst. Orat._, Lib. x, Cap. 1, p. 560. 1. The _history_ of grammar, in the proper sense of the term, has heretofore been made no part of the study. I have imagined that many of its details might be profitable, not only to teachers, but to that class of learners for whose use this work is designed. Accordingly, in the preceding pages, there have been stated numerous facts properly historical, relating either to particular grammars, or to the changes and progress of this branch of instruction. These various details it is hoped will be more entertaining, and perhaps for that reason not less useful, than those explanations which belong merely to the construction and resolution of sentences. The attentive reader must have gathered from the foregoing chapters some idea of what the science owes to many individuals whose names are connected with it. But it seems proper to devote to this subject a few pages more, in order to give some further account of the origin and character of certain books. 2. The manuals by which grammar was first taught in English, were not properly English Grammars. They were translations of the Latin Accidence; and were designed to aid British youth in acquiring a knowledge of the Latin language, rather than accuracy in the use of their own. The two languages were often combined in one book, for the purpose of teaching sometimes both together, and sometimes one through the medium of the other. The study of such works doubtless had a tendency to modify, and perhaps at that time to improve, the English style of those who used them. For not only must variety of knowledge have led to copiousness of expression, but the most cultivated minds would naturally be most apt to observe what was orderly in the use of speech. A language, indeed, after its proper form is well fixed by letters, must resist all introduction of foreign idioms, or become corrupted. Hence it is, that Dr. Johnson avers, "The great pest of speech is frequency of translation. No book was ever turned from one language into another, without imparting something of its native idiom; this is the most mischievous and comprehensive innovation."--_Preface to Joh. Dict._, 4to, p. 14. Without expressly controverting this opinion, or offering any justification of mere metaphrases, or literal translations, we may well assert, that the practice of comparing different languages, and seeking the most appropriate terms for a free version of what is ably written, is an exercise admirably calculated to familiarize and extend grammatical knowledge. 3. Of the class of books here referrred [sic--KTH] to, that which I have mentioned in an other chapter, as Lily's or King Henry's Grammar, has been by far the most celebrated and the most influential. Concerning this treatise, it is stated, that its parts were not put together in the present form, until eighteen or twenty years after Lily's death. "The time when this work was completed," says the preface of 1793, "has been differently related by writers. Thomas Hayne places it in the year 1543, and Anthony Wood, in 1545. But neither of these accounts can be right; for I have seen a beautiful copy, printed upon vellum, and illuminated, anno 1542, in quarto. And it may be doubted whether this was the first edition."--_John Ward, Pref._, p. vii. In an Introductory Lecture, read before the University of London in 1828, by Thomas Dale, professor of English literature, I find the following statement: "In this reign,"--the reign of Henry VIII,--"the study of grammar was reduced to a system, by the promulgation of many grammatical treatises; one of which was esteemed of sufficient importance to be honoured with a royal name. It was called, 'The Grammar of King Henry the Eighth;' and to this, 'with other works, the young Shakspeare was probably indebted for some learning and much loyalty.' But the honour of producing the first English grammar is claimed by William Bullokar, who published, in the year 1586, 'A Bref Grammar for English,' being, to use his own words, 'the first Grammar for English that ever waz, except my Grammar at large.'" 4. Ward's preface to Lily commences thus: "If we look back to the origin of our common _Latin Grammar_, we shall find it was no hasty performance, nor the work of a single person; but composed at different times by several eminent and learned men, till the whole was at length finished, and by the order of _King Henry_ VIII.[,] brought into that form in which it has ever since continued. The _English introduction_ was written by the reverend and learned Dr. _John Colet_, Dean of St. _Paul's_, for the use of the school he had lately founded there; and was dedicated by him to _William Lily_, the first high master of that school, in the year 1510; for which reason it has usually gone by the name of _Paul's Accidence_. The substance of it remains the same, as at first; though it has been much altered in the manner of expression, and sometimes the order, with other improvements. The _English syntax_ was the work of _Lily_, as appears by the title in the most ancient editions, which runs thus: _Gulielmi Lilii Angli Rudimenta_. But it has been greatly improved since his time, both with, regard to the method, and an enlargement of double the quantity." 5. Paul's Accidence is therefore probably the oldest grammar that can now be found in our language. It is not, however, an English grammar; because, though written in antique English, and embracing many things which are as true of our language as of any other, it was particularly designed for the teaching of _Latin_. It begins thus: "In speech be these eight parts following: Noun, Pronoun, Verb, Participle, declined; Adverb, Conjunction, Preposition, Interjection, undeclined." This is the old platform of the Latin grammarians; which differs from that of the Greek grammars, only in having no Article, and in separating the Interjection from the class of Adverbs. Some Greek grammarians, however, separate the Adjective from the Noun, and include the Participle with the Verb: thus, "There are in Greek eight species of words, called Parts of Speech; viz. Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, and Conjunction."--_Anthon's Valpy_, p. 18. With respect to our language, the plan of the Latin Accidence is manifestly inaccurate; nor can it be applied, without some variation, to the Greek. In both, as well as in all other languages that have _Articles_, the best amendment of it, and the nearest adherence to it, is, to make the Parts of Speech _ten_; namely, the Article, the Noun, the Adjective, the Pronoun, the Verb, the Participle, the Adverb, the Conjunction, the Preposition, and the Interjection. 6. The best Latin grammarians admit that the Adjective ought not to be called a Noun; and the best Greek grammarians, that the Interjections ought not to be included among Adverbs. With respect to Participles, a vast majority of grammarians in general, make them a distinct species, or part of speech; but, on this point, the English grammarians are about equally divided: nearly one half include them with the verbs, and a few call them adjectives. In grammar, it is wrong to deviate from the old groundwork, except for the sake of truth and improvement; and, in this case, to vary the series of parts, by suppressing one and substituting an other, is in fact a greater innovation, than to make the terms ten, by adding one and dividing an other. But our men of nine parts of speech innovated yet more: they added the Article, as did the Greeks; divided the Noun into Substantive and Adjective; and, without good reason, suppressed the Participle. And, of latter time, not a few have thrown the whole into confusion, to show the world "the order of [their] understanding." What was grammar fifty years ago, some of these have not thought it worth their while to inquire! And the reader has seen, that, after all this, they can complacently talk of "the censure so frequently and so justly awarded to _unfortunate innovators_."--KIRKHAM'S _Gram._, p. 10. 7. The old scheme of the Latin grammarians has seldom, if ever, been _literally_ followed in English; because its distribution of the parts of speech, as declined and undeclined, would not be true with respect to the English participle. With the omission of this unimportant distinction, it was, however, scrupulously retained by Dilworth, by the author of the British Grammar, by William Ward, by Buchanan, and by some others now little known, who chose to include both the article and the adjective with the noun, rather than to increase the number of the parts of speech beyond eight. Dr. Priestley says, "I shall adopt the _usual distribution_ of words into eight classes; viz. Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections.[71] I do this in compliance with the practice of most Grammarians; and because, _if any number, in a thing so arbitrary, must be fixed upon_, this seems to be as comprehensive and distinct as any. All the innovation I have made hath been to throw out the _Participle_, and substitute the _Adjective_, as more evidently a distinct part of speech."--_Rudiments of English Gram._, p. 3. All this comports well enough with Dr. Priestley's haste and carelessness; but it is not true, that he either adopted, "the usual distribution of words," or made an other "as comprehensive and distinct as any." His "_innovation_," too, which has since been countenanced by many other writers, I have already shown to be greater, than if, by a promotion of the article and the adjective, he had made the parts of speech ten. Dr. Beattie, who was Priestley's coeval, and a much better scholar, adopted this number without hesitation, and called every one of them by what is still its right name: "In English there are _ten_ sorts of words, which are all found in the following short sentence; 'I now see the good man coming; but, alas! he walks with difficulty.' _I_ and _he_ are pronouns; _now_ is an adverb; _see_ and _walks_ are verbs; _the_ is an article; _good_, an adjective; _man_ and _difficulty_ are nouns, the former substantive, the latter abstract; _coming_ is a participle; _but_, a conjunction; _alas!_ an interjection; _with_, a preposition. That no other sorts of words are necessary in language, will appear, when we have seen in what respects these are necessary."--_Beattie's Moral Science_, Vol. i, p. 30. This distribution is precisely that which the best _French_ grammarians have _usually_ adopted. 8. Dr. Johnson professes to adopt the division, the order, and the terms, "of the common grammarians, without inquiring whether a fitter distribution might not be found."--_Gram. before 4to Dict._, p. 1. But, in the Etymology of his Grammar, he makes no enumeration of the parts of speech, and treats only of articles, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs; to which if we add the others, according to the common grammarians, or according to his own Dictionary, the number will be _ten_. And this distribution, which was adopted by Dr. Ash about 1765, by Murray the schoolmaster about 1790, by Caleb Alexander in 1795, and approved by Dr. Adam in 1793, has since been very extensively followed; as may be seen in Dr. Crombie's treatise, in the Rev. Matt. Harrison's, in Dr. Mandeville's reading-books, and in the grammars of Harrison, Staniford, Alden, Coar, John Peirce, E. Devis, C. Adams, D. Adams, Chandler, Comly, Jaudon, Ingersoll, Hull, Fuller, Greenleaf, Kirkham, Ferd. H. Miller, Merchant, Mack, Nutting, Bucke, Beck, Barrett, Barnard, Maunder, Webber, Emmons, Hazen, Bingham, Sanders, and many others. Dr. Lowth's distribution is the same, except that he placed the adjective after the pronoun, the conjunction after the preposition, and, like Priestley, called the participle a verb, thus making the parts of speech _nine_. He also has been followed by many; among whom are Bicknell, Burn, Lennie, Mennye, Lindley Murray, W. Allen, Guy, Churchill, Wilson, Cobbett, Davis, David Blair, Davenport, Mendenhall, Wilcox, Picket, Pond, Russell, Bacon, Bullions, Brace, Hart, Lyon, Tob. H. Miller, Alger, A. Flint, Folker, S. Putnam, Cooper, Frost, Goldsbury, Hamlin, T. Smith, R. C. Smith, and Woodworth. But a third part of these, and as many more in the preceding list, are confessedly mere modifiers of Murray's compilation; and perhaps, in such a case, those have done best who have deviated least from the track of him whom they professed to follow.[72] 9. Some seem to have supposed, that by reducing the number of the parts of speech, and of the rules for their construction, the study of grammar would be rendered more easy and more profitable to the learner. But this, as would appear from the history of the science, is a mere retrogression towards the rudeness of its earlier stages. It is hardly worth while to dispute, whether there shall be nine parts of speech or ten; and perhaps enough has already been stated, to establish the expediency of assuming the latter number. Every word in the language must be included in some class, and nothing is gained by making the classes larger and less numerous. In all the artificial arrangements of science, distinctions are to be made according to the differences in things; and the simple question here is, what differences among words shall be at first regarded. To overlook, in our primary division, the difference between a verb and a participle, is merely to reserve for a subdivision, or subsequent explanation, a species of words which most grammarians have recognized as a distinct sort in their original classification. 10. It should be observed that the early period of grammatical science was far remote from the days in which _English_ grammar originated. Many things which we now teach and defend as grammar, were taught and defended two thousand years ago, by the philosophers of Greece and Rome. Of the parts of speech, Quintilian, who lived in the first century of our era, gives the following account: "For the ancients, among whom were Aristotle[73] and Theodectes, treated only of verbs, nouns, and conjunctions: as the verb is what we say, and the noun, that of which we say it, they judged the power of discourse to be in _verbs_, and the matter in _nouns_, but the connexion in _conjunctions_. Little by little, the philosophers, and especially the Stoics, increased the number: first, to the conjunctions were added _articles_; afterwards, _prepositions_; to nouns, was added the _appellation_; then the _pronoun_; afterwards, as belonging to each verb, the _participle_; and, to verbs in common, _adverbs_. Our language [i. e., the _Latin_] does not require articles, wherefore they are scattered among the other parts of speech; but there is added to the foregoing the _interjection_. But some, on the authority of good authors, make the parts only eight; as Aristarchus, and, in our day, Palæmon; who have included the vocable, or appellation, with the noun, as a species of it. But they who make the noun one and the vocable an other, reckon nine. But there are also some who divide the vocable from the appellation; making the former to signify any thing manifest to sight or touch, as _house, bed_; and the latter, any thing to which either or both are wanting, as _wind, heaven, god, virtue_. They have also added the _asseveration_ and the _attrectation_, which I do not approve. Whether the vocable or appellation should be included with the noun or not, as it is a matter of little consequence, I leave to the decision of others."--See QUINTIL. _de Inst. Orat._, Lib. i, Cap. 4, §24. 11. Several writers on English grammar, indulging a strange unsettlement of plan, seem not to have determined in their own minds, how many parts of speech there are, or ought to be. Among these are Horne Tooke, Webster, Dalton, Cardell, Green, and Cobb; and perhaps, from what he says above, we may add the name of Priestley. The present disputation about the sorts of words, has been chiefly owing to the writings of Horne Tooke, who explains the minor parts of speech as mere abbreviations, and rejects, with needless acrimony, the common classification. But many have mistaken the nature of his instructions, no less than that of the common grammarians. This author, in his third chapter, supposes his auditor to say, "But you have not all this while informed me _how many parts of speech_ you mean to lay down." To whom he replies, "That shall be as you please. Either _two_, or _twenty_, or _more_." Such looseness comported well enough with his particular purpose; because he meant to teach the derivation of words, and not to meddle at all with their construction. But who does not see that it is impossible to lay down rules for the _construction_ of words, without first dividing them into the classes to which such rules apply? For example: if a man means to teach, that, "A verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, in person and number," must he not first show the learner _what words are verbs?_ and ought he not to see in this rule a reason for not calling the participle a verb? Let the careless followers of Lowth and Priestley answer. Tooke did not care to preserve any parts of speech at all. His work is not a system of grammar; nor can it be made the basis of any regular scheme of grammatical instruction. He who will not grant that the same words may possibly be used as different parts of speech, must make his parts of speech either very few or very many. This author says, "I do not allow that _any_ words change their nature in this manner, so as to belong sometimes to one part of speech, and sometimes to another, from the different ways of using them. I never could perceive any such fluctuation in any word whatever."--_Diversions of Purley_, Vol. i, p. 68. 12. From his own positive language, I imagine this ingenious author never well considered what constitutes the sameness of words, or wherein lies the difference of the parts of speech; and, without understanding these things, a grammarian cannot but fall into errors, unless he will follow somebody that knows them. But Tooke confessedly contradicts, and outfaces "_all other Grammarians_" in the passage just cited. Yet it is plain, that the whole science of grammar--or at least the whole of etymology and syntax, which are its two principal parts--is based upon a division of words into the parts of speech; a division which necessarily refers, in many instances, the same words to different sections according to the manner in which they are used. "Certains mots répondent, ainsi au même temps, à diverses parties d'oraison selon que la grammaire les emploie diversement."--_Buffier_, Art. 150. "Some words, from the different ways in which they are used, belong sometimes to one part of speech, sometimes to another."--_M'Culloch's Gram._, p. 37. "And so say all other Grammarians."--_Tooke, as above_. 13. The history of _Dr. Webster_, as a grammarian, is singular. He is remarkable for his changeableness, yet always positive; for his inconsistency, yet very learned; for his zeal "to correct popular errors," yet often himself erroneous; for his fertility in resources, yet sometimes meagre; for his success as an author, yet never satisfied; for his boldness of innovation, yet fond of appealing to antiquity. His grammars are the least judicious, and at present the least popular, of his works. They consist of four or five different treatises, which for their mutual credit should never be compared: it is impossible to place any firm reliance upon the authority of a man who contradicts himself so much. Those who imagine that the last opinions of so learned a man must needs be right, will do well to wait, and see what will be his last: they cannot otherwise know to what his instructions will finally lead: Experience has already taught him the folly of many of his pretended improvements, and it is probable his last opinions of English grammar will be most conformable to that just authority with which he has ever been tampering. I do not say that he has not exhibited ingenuity as well as learning, or that he is always wrong when he contradicts a majority of the English grammarians; but I may venture to say, he was wrong when he undertook to disturb the common scheme of the parts of speech, as well as when he resolved to spell all words exactly as they are pronounced. 14. It is not commonly known with how rash a hand this celebrated author has sometimes touched the most settled usages of our language. In 1790, which was seven years after the appearance of his first grammar, he published an octavo volume of more than four hundred pages, consisting of Essays, moral, historical, political, and literary, which might have done him credit, had he not spoiled his book by a grammatical whim about the reformation of orthography. Not perceiving that English literature, multiplied as it had been within two or three centuries, had acquired a stability in some degree corresponding to its growth, he foolishly imagined it was still as susceptible of change and improvement as in the days of its infancy. Let the reader pardon the length of this digression, if for the sake of any future schemer who may chance to adopt a similar conceit, I cite from the preface to this volume a specimen of the author's practice and reasoning. The ingenious attorney had the good sense quickly to abandon this project, and content himself with less glaring innovations; else he had never stood as he now does, in the estimation of the public. But there is the more need to record the example, because in one of the southern states the experiment has recently been tried again. A still abler member of the same profession, has renewed it but lately; and it is said there are yet remaining some converts to this notion of improvement. I copy literally, leaving all my readers and his to guess for themselves why he spelled "_writers_" with a _w_ and "_riting_" without. 15. "During the course of ten or twelv yeers, I hav been laboring to correct popular errors, and to assist my yung brethren in the road to truth and virtue; my publications for theze purposes hav been numerous; much time haz been spent, which I do not regret, and much censure incurred, which my hart tells me I do not dezerv." * * * "The reeder wil observ that the _orthography_ of the volum iz not uniform. The reezon iz, that many of the essays hav been published before, in the common orthography, and it would hav been a laborious task to copy the whole, for the sake of changing the spelling. In the essays, ritten within the last yeer, a considerable change of spelling iz introduced by way of experiment. This liberty waz taken by the writers before the age of queen Elizabeth, and to this we are indeted for the preference of modern spelling over that of Gower and Chaucer. The man who admits that the change of _hoasbonde, mynde, ygone, moneth_ into _husband, mind, gone, month_, iz an improovment, must acknowlege also the riting of _helth, breth, rong, tung, munth_, to be an improovment. There iz no alternativ. Every possible reezon that could ever be offered for altering the spelling of wurds, stil exists in full force; and if a gradual reform should not be made in our language, it wil proov that we are less under the influence of reezon than our ancestors."--_Noah Webster's Essays, Preface_, p. xi. 16. But let us return, with our author, to the question of the parts of speech. I have shown that if we do not mean to adopt some less convenient scheme, we must count them _ten_, and preserve their ancient order as well as their ancient names.[74] And, after all his vacillation in consequence of reading Horne Tooke, it would not be strange if Dr. Webster should come at last to the same conclusion. He was not very far from it in 1828, as may be shown by his own testimony, which he then took occasion to record. I will give his own words on the point: "There is great difficulty in devising a correct classification of the several sorts of words; and probably no classification that shall be simple and at the same time philosophically correct, can be invented. There are some words that do not strictly fall under any description of any class yet devised. Many attempts have been made and are still making to remedy this evil; but such schemes as I have seen, do not, in my apprehension, correct the defects of the old schemes, nor simplify the subject. On the other hand, all that I have seen, serve only to obscure and embarrass the subject, by substituting new arrangements and new terms which are as incorrect as the old ones, and less intelligible. I have attentively viewed these subjects, in all the lights which my opportunities have afforded, and am convinced that the distribution of words, most generally received, _is the best that can be formed_, with some slight alterations adapted to the particular construction of the English language." 17. This passage is taken from the advertisement, or preface, to the Grammar which accompanies the author's edition of his great quarto Dictionary. Now the several schemes which bear his own name, were doubtless all of them among those which he had that he had "_seen_;" so that he here condemns them all collectively, as he had previously condemned some of them at each reformation. Nor is the last exempted. For although he here plainly gives his vote for that common scheme which he first condemned, he does not adopt it without "some slight alterations;" and in contriving these alterations he is inconsistent with his own professions. He makes the parts of speech _eight_, thus: "1. The name or noun; 2. The pronoun or substitute; 3. The adjective, attribute, or attributive; 4. The verb; 5. The adverb; 6. The preposition; 7. The connective or conjunction; 8. The exclamation or interjection." In his Rudiments of English Grammar, published in 1811, "to unfold the _true principles_ of the language," his parts of speech were _seven_; "viz. 1. Names or nouns; 2. Substitutes or pronouns; 3. Attributes or adjectives; 4. Verbs, with their participles; 5. Modifiers or adverbs; 6. Prepositions; 7. Connectives or conjunctions." In his Philosophical and Practical Grammar, published in 1807, a book which professes to teach "the _only legitimate principles_, and established usages," of the language, a twofold division of words is adopted; first, into two general classes, primary and secondary; then into "_seven species_ or parts of speech," the first two belonging to the former class, the other five to the latter; thus: "1. Names or nouns; 2. Verbs; 3. Substitutes; 4. Attributes; 5. Modifiers; 6. Prepositions; 7. Connectives." In his "Improved Grammar of the English Language," published in 1831, the same scheme is retained, but the usual names are preferred. 18. How many different schemes of classification this author invented, I know not; but he might well have saved himself the trouble of inventing any; for, so far as appears, none of his last three grammars ever came to a second edition. In the sixth edition of his "Plain and Comprehensive Grammar, grounded on the _true principles_ and idioms of the language," a work which his last grammatical preface affirms to have been originally fashioned "on the model of Lowth's," the parts of speech are reckoned "_six_; nouns, articles, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and abbreviations or particles." This work, which he says "was extensively used in the schools of this country," and continued to be in demand, he voluntarily suppressed; because, after a profitable experiment of four and twenty years, he found it so far from being grounded on "true principles," that the whole scheme then appeared to him incorrigibly bad. And, judging from this sixth edition, printed in 1800, the only one which I have seen, I cannot but concur with him in the opinion. More than one half of the volume is a loose _Appendix_ composed chiefly of notes taken from Lowth and Priestley; and there is a great want of method in what was meant for the body of the work. I imagine his several editions must have been different grammars with the same title; for such things are of no uncommon occurrence, and I cannot otherwise account for the assertion that this book was compiled "on _the model of Lowth's_, and on the same principles as [those on which] Murray has constructed his."--_Advertisement in Webster's Quarto Dict., 1st Ed._ 19. In a treatise on grammar, a bad scheme is necessarily attended with inconveniences for which no merit in the execution can possibly compensate. The first thing, therefore, which a skillful teacher will notice in a work of this kind, is the arrangement. If he find any difficulty in discovering, at sight, what it is, he will be sure it is bad; for a lucid order is what he has a right to expect from him who pretends to improve upon all the English grammarians. Dr. Webster is not the only reader of the EPEA PTEROENTA, who has been thereby prompted to meddle with the common scheme of grammar; nor is he the only one who has attempted to simplify the subject by reducing the parts of speech to _six_. John Dalton of Manchester, in 1801, in a small grammar which he dedicated to Horne Tooke, made them six, but not the same six. He would have them to be, nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions. This writer, like Brightland, Tooke, Fisher, and some others, insists on it that the articles are _adjectives_. Priestley, too, throwing them out of his classification, and leaving the learner to go almost through his book in ignorance of their rank, at length assigns them to the same class, in one of his notes. And so has Dr. Webster fixed them in his late valuable, but not faultless, dictionaries. But David Booth, an etymologist perhaps equally learned, in his "Introduction to an Analytical Dictionary of the English Language," declares them to be of the same species as the _pronouns_; from which he thinks it strange that they were ever separated! See _Booth's Introd._, p. 21. 20. Now, what can be more idle, than for teachers to reject the common classification of words, and puzzle the heads of school-boys with speculations like these? It is easy to admit all that etymology can show to be true, and still justify the old arrangement of the elements of grammar. And if we depart from the common scheme, where shall we stop? Some have taught that the parts of speech are only _five_; as did the latter stoics, whose classes, according to Priscian and Harris, were these: articles, nouns appellative, nouns proper, verbs, and conjunctions. Others have made them _four_; as did Aristotle and the elder stoics, and, more recently, Milnes, Brightland, Harris, Ware, Fisher, and the author of a work on Universal Grammar, entitled Enclytica. Yet, in naming the four, each of these contrives to differ from _all the rest!_ With Aristotle, they are, "nouns, verbs, articles, and conjunctions;" with Milnes, "nouns, adnouns, verbs, and particles;" with Brightland, "names, qualities, affirmations, and particles;" with Harris, "substantives, attributives, definitives, and connectives;" with Ware, "the name, the word, the assistant, the connective;" with Fisher, "names, qualities, verbs, and particles;" with the author of Enclytica, "names, verbs, modes, and connectives." But why make the classes so numerous as four? Many of the ancients, Greeks, Hebrews, and Arabians, according to Quintilian, made them _three_; and these three, according to Vossius, were nouns, verbs, and particles. "Veteres Arabes, Hebræi, et Græci, tres, non amplius, classes faciebant; l. Nomen, 2. Verbum, 3. Particula seu Dictio."--_Voss. de Anal._, Lib. i, Cap. 1. 21. Nor is this number, _three_, quite destitute of modern supporters; though most of these come at it in an other way. D. St. Quentin, in his Rudiments of General Grammar, published in 1812, divides words into the "three general classes" last mentioned; viz., "1. Nouns, 2. Verbs, 3. Particles."--P. 5. Booth, who published the second edition of his etymological work in 1814, examining severally the ten parts of speech, and finding what he supposed to be the true origin of all the words in some of the classes, was led to throw one into an other, till he had destroyed seven of them. Then, resolving that each word ought to be classed according to the meaning which its etymology fixes upon it, he refers the number of classes to _nature_, thus: "If, then, each [word] has a _meaning_, and is capable of raising an idea in the mind, that idea must have its prototype in nature. It must either denote an _exertion_, and is therefore a _verb_; or a _quality_, and is, in that case, an _adjective_; or it must express an _assemblage_ of qualities, such as is observed to belong to some individual object, and is, on this supposition, the _name_ of such object, or a _noun_. * * * We have thus given an account of the different divisions of words, and have found that the whole may be classed under the three heads of Names, Qualities, and Actions; or Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs."--_Introd. to Analyt. Dict._, p. 22. 22. This notion of the parts of speech, as the reader will presently see, found an advocate also in the author of the popular little story of Jack Halyard. It appears in his Philosophic Grammar published in Philadelphia in 1827. Whether the writer borrowed it from Booth, or was led into it by the light of "nature," I am unable to say: he does not appear to have derived it from the ancients. Now, if either he or the lexicographer has discovered in "nature" a prototype for this scheme of grammar, the discovery is only to be proved, and the schemes of all other grammarians, ancient or modern, must give place to it. For the reader will observe that this triad of parts is not that which is mentioned by Vossius and Quintilian. But authority may be found for reducing the number of the parts of speech yet lower. Plato, according to Harris, and the first inquirers into language, according to Horne Tooke, made them _two_; nouns and verbs, which Crombie, Dalton, M'Culloch, and some others, say, are the only parts essentially necessary for the communication of our thoughts. Those who know nothing about grammar, regard all words as of _one_ class. To them, a word is simply a word; and under what other name it may come, is no concern of theirs. 23. Towards this point, tends every attempt to simplify grammar by suppressing any of the _ten_ parts of speech. Nothing is gained by it; and it is a departure from the best authority. We see by what steps this kind of reasoning may descend; and we have an admirable illustration of it in the several grammatical works of William S. Cardell. I shall mention them in the order in which they appeared; and the reader may judge whether the author does not ultimately arrive at the conclusion to which the foregoing series is conducted. This writer, in his Essay on Language, reckons seven parts of speech; in his New-York Grammar, six; in his Hartford Grammar, three principal, with three others subordinate; in his Philadelphia Grammar, three only--nouns, adjectives, and verbs. Here he alleges, "The unerring plan of _nature_ has established three classes of perceptions, and consequently three parts of speech."--P. 171. He says this, as if he meant to abide by it. But, on his twenty-third page, we are told, "Every adjective is either a noun or a participle." Now, by his own showing, there are no participles: he makes them all adjectives, in each of his schemes. It follows, therefore, that all his adjectives, including what others call participles, are nouns. And this reduces his three parts of speech to two, in spite of "the unerring plan of _nature!_" But even this number is more than he well believed in; for, on the twenty-first page of the book, he affirms, that, "All other terms are but derivative forms and new applications of _nouns_." So simple a thing is this method of grammar! But Neef, in his zeal for reformation, carries the anticlimax fairly off the brink; and declares, "In the grammar which shall be the work of my pupils, there shall be found no nouns, no pronouns, no articles, no participles, no verbs, no prepositions, no conjunctions, no adverbs, no interjections, no gerunds, not even one single supine. Unmercifully shall they be banished from it."--_Neef's Method of Education_, p. 60. 24. When Cardell's system appeared, several respectable men, convinced by "his powerful demonstrations," admitted that he had made "many things in the _established doctrines_ of the expounders of language appear sufficiently ridiculous;" [75] and willingly lent him the influence of their names, trusting that his admirable scheme of English grammar, in which their ignorance saw nothing but new truth, would be speedily "perfected and generally embraced." [76] Being invited by the author to a discussion of his principles, I opposed them _in his presence_, both privately and publicly; defending against him, not unsuccessfully, those doctrines which time and custom have sanctioned. And, what is remarkable, that candid opposition which Cardell himself had treated with respect, and parried in vain, was afterwards, by some of his converts, impeached of all unfairness, and even accused of wanting common sense. "No one," says Niebuhr, "ever overthrew a literary idol, without provoking the anger of its worshipers."--_Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 489. The certificates given in commendation of this "set of opinions," though they had no extensive effect on the public, showed full well that the signers knew little of the history of grammar; and it is the continual repetition of such things, that induces me now to dwell upon its history, for the information of those who are so liable to be deceived by exploded errors republished as novelties. A eulogist says of Cardell, "He had adopted a set of opinions, which, to most of his readers, appeared _entirely new."_ A reviewer proved, that all his pretended novelties are to be found in certain grammars now forgotten, or seldom read. The former replies, Then he [Cardell,] is right--and the man is no less stupid than abusive, who finds fault; for here is proof that the former "had highly respectable authority for almost every thing he has advanced!"--See _The Friend_, Vol. ii, pp. 105 and 116, from which all the quotations in this paragraph, except one, are taken. 25. The reader may now be curious to know what these doctrines were. They were summed up by the reviewer, thus: "Our author pretends to have drawn principally from his own resources, in making up his books; and many may have supposed there is more _novelty_ in them than there really is. For instance: 1. He classes the _articles_ with _adjectives_; and so did Brightland, Tooke, Fisher, Dalton, and Webster. 2. He calls the _participles, adjectives_; and so did Brightland and Tooke. 3. He make the _pronouns_, either _nouns_ or _adjectives_; and so did Adam, Dalton, and others. 4. He distributes the _conjunctions_ among the other parts of speech; and so did Tooke. 5. He rejects the _interjections_; and so did Valla, Sanctius, and Tooke. 6. He makes the _possessive case_ an _adjective_; and so did Brightland. 7. He says our language has _no cases_; and so did Harris. 8. He calls _case, position_; and so did James Brown. 9. He reduces the adjectives to two classes, _defining_ and _describing_; and so did Dalton. 10. He declares all _verbs_ to be _active_; and so did Harris, (in his Hermes, Book i, Chap. ix,) though he admitted the _expediency_ of the common division, and left to our author the absurdity of contending about it. Fisher also rejected the class of _neuter verbs_, and called them all _active_. 11. He reduces the _moods_ to _three_, and the _tenses_ to _three_; and so did Dalton, in the very same words. Fisher also made the _tenses three_, but said there _are no moods_ in English. 12. He makes the _imperative mood_ always _future_; and so did Harris, in 1751. Nor did the doctrine originate with him; for Brightland, a hundred years ago, [about 1706,] ascribed it to some of his predecessors. 13. He reduces the whole of our _syntax_ to about _thirty lines_; and two thirds of these are useless; for Dr. Johnson expressed it quite as fully in _ten_. But their explanations are both good for nothing; and Wallis, more wisely, omitted it altogether."--_The Friend_, Vol. ii, p. 59. 26. Dr. Webster says, in a marginal note to the preface of his Philosophical Grammar, "Since the days of _Wallis_, who published a Grammar of the English Language, in Latin, in the reign of Charles II.[,] from which Johnson and Lowth borrowed most of their rules, _little improvement_ has been made in English grammar. Lowth supplied some valuable criticisms, most of which however respect obsolete phrases; but many of his criticisms are extremely erroneous, and they have had an ill effect, in perverting the true idioms of our language. Priestley furnished a number of new and useful observations on the peculiar phrases of the English language. To which may be added some good remarks of Blair and Campbell, interspersed with many errors. Murray, not having mounted to the original sources of information, and professing only to select and arrange the rules and criticisms of preceding writers, has furnished little or nothing new. Of the numerous compilations of inferior character, it may be affirmed, that they have added nothing to the stock of grammatical knowledge." And the concluding sentence of this work, as well as of his Improved Grammar, published in 1831, extends the censure as follows: "It is not the English language only whose history and principles are yet to be illustrated; but the grammars and dictionaries of _all other_ languages, with which I have any acquaintance, must be revised and corrected, before their elements and true construction can be fully understood." In an advertisement to the grammar prefixed to his quarto American Dictionary, the Doctor is yet more severe upon books of this sort. "I close," says he, "with the single remark, that from all the observations I have been able to make, I am convinced the dictionaries and grammars which have been used in our seminaries of learning for the last forty or fifty years, are _so incorrect and imperfect_ that they have introduced or sanctioned more errors than they have amended; in other words, had the people of England and of these States been left to learn the pronunciation and construction of their vernacular language solely by tradition, and the reading of good authors, the language would have been spoken and written with more purity than it has been and now is, by those who have learned to adjust their language by the rules which dictionaries prescribe." 27. Little and much are but relative terms; yet when we look back to the period in which English grammar was taught only in Latin, it seems extravagant to say, that "little improvement has been made" in it since. I have elsewhere expressed a more qualified sentiment. "That the grammar of our language has made considerable progress since the days of Swift, who wrote a petty treatise on the subject, is sufficiently evident; but whoever considers what remains to be done, cannot but perceive how ridiculous are many of the boasts and felicitations which we have heard on that topic." [77] Some further notice will now be taken of that progress, and of the writers who have been commonly considered the chief promoters of it, but especially of such as have not been previously mentioned in a like connexion. Among these may be noticed _William Walker_, the preceptor of Sir Isaac Newton, a teacher and grammarian of extraordinary learning, who died in 1684. He has left us sundry monuments of his taste and critical skill: one is his "Treatise of English Particles,"--a work of great labour and merit, but useless to most people now-a-days, because it explains the English in Latin; an other, his "Art of Teaching Improv'd,"--which is also an able treatise, and apparently well adapted to its object, "the Grounding of a Young Scholar in the Latin Tongue." In the latter, are mentioned other works of his, on "_Rhetorick_, and _Logick_" which I have not seen. 28. In 1706, _Richard Johnson_ published an octavo volume of more than four hundred pages, entitled, "Grammatical Commentaries; being an Apparatus to a New National Grammar: by way of animadversion upon the falsities, obscurities, redundancies and defects of Lily's System now in use." This is a work of great acuteness, labour, and learning; and might be of signal use to any one who should undertake to prepare a new or improved Latin grammar: of which, in my opinion, we have yet urgent need. The English grammarian may also peruse it with advantage, if he has a good knowledge of Latin--and without such knowledge he must be ill prepared for his task. This work is spoken of and quoted by some of the early English grammarians; but the hopes of the writer do not appear to have been realized. His book was not calculated to supply the place of the common one; for the author thought it impracticable to make a new grammar, suitable for boys, and at the same time to embrace in it proofs sufficient to remove the prejudices of teachers in favour of the old. King Henry's edict in support of Lily, was yet in force, backed by all the partiality which long habit creates; and Johnson's learning, and labour, and zeal, were admired, and praised, and soon forgot. 29. Near the beginning of the last century, some of the generous wits of the reign of Queen Anne, seeing the need there was of greater attention to their vernacular language, and of a grammar more properly English than any then in use, produced a book with which the later writers on the same subjects, would have done well to have made themselves better acquainted. It is entitled "A Grammar of the English Tongue; with the Arts of Logick, Rhetorick, Poetry, &c. Illustrated with useful Notes; giving the Grounds and Reasons of Grammar in General. The Whole making a Compleat System of an English Education. _Published by_ JOHN BRIGHTLAND, for the Use of the Schools of Great Britain and Ireland." It is ingeniously recommended in a certificate by Sir Richard Steele, or the Tattler, under the fictitious name of Isaac Bickerstaff, Esq., and in a poem of forty-three lines, by Nahum Tate, poet laureate to her Majesty. It is a duodecimo volume of three hundred pages; a work of no inconsiderable merit and originality; and written in a style which, though not faultless, has scarcely been surpassed by any English grammarian since. I quote it as Brightland's:[78] who were the real authors, does not appear. It seems to be the work of more than one, and perhaps the writers of the Tattler were the men. My copy is of the seventh edition, London, printed for Henry Lintot, 1746. It is evidently the work of very skillful hands; yet is it not in all respects well planned or well executed. It unwisely reduces the parts of speech to four; gives them new names; and rejects more of the old system than the schools could be made willing to give up. Hence it does not appear to have been very extensively adopted. 30. It is now about a hundred and thirty years, since _Dr. Swift_, in a public remonstrance addressed to the Earl of Oxford, complained of the imperfect state of our language, and alleged in particular, that "in many instances it offended against every part of grammar." [79] Fifty years afterward, _Dr. Lowth_ seconded this complaint, and pressed it home upon the polite and the learned. "Does he mean," says the latter, "that the English language, as it is spoken by the politest part of the nation, and as it stands in the writings of the most approved authors, often offends against every part of grammar? _Thus far, I am afraid the charge is true_."--_Lowth's Grammar, Preface_, p. iv. Yet the learned Doctor, to whom much praise has been justly ascribed for the encouragement which he gave to this neglected study, attempted nothing more than "A Short Introduction to English Grammar;" which, he says, "was calculated for the learner _even of the lowest class_:" and those who would enter more deeply into the subject, he referred to _Harris_; whose work is not an English grammar, but "A Philosophical Inquiry concerning Universal Grammar." Lowth's Grammar was first published in 1758. At the commencement of his preface, the reverend author, after acknowledging the enlargement, polish, and refinement, which the language had received during the preceding two hundred years, ventures to add, "but, whatever other improvements it may have received, it hath made _no advances_ in grammatical accuracy." I do not quote this assertion to affirm it literally true, in all its apparent breadth; but there is less reason to boast of the correctness even now attained, than to believe that the writers on grammar are not the authors who have in general come nearest to it in practice. Nor have the ablest authors always produced the best compends for the literary instruction of youth. 31. The treatises of the learned doctors Harris, Lowth, Johnson, Ash, Priestley, Horne Tooke, Crombie, Coote, and Webster, owe their celebrity not so much to their intrinsic fitness for school instruction, as to the literary reputation of the writers. Of _Harris's Hermes_, (which, in comparison with our common grammars, is indeed a work of much ingenuity and learning, full of interesting speculations, and written with great elegance both of style and method,) _Dr. Lowth_ says, it is "the most beautiful and perfect example of analysis, that has been exhibited since the days of Aristotle."--_Preface to Gram._, p. x. But these two authors, if their works be taken together, as the latter intended they should be, supply no sufficient course of English grammar. The instructions of the one are too limited, and those of the other are not specially directed to the subject. 32. _Dr. Johnson_, who was practically one of the greatest grammarians that ever lived, and who was very nearly coetaneous with both Harris and Lowth, speaks of the state of English grammar in the following terms: "I found our speech copious without order, and energetick _without rules_: wherever I turned my view, there was perplexity to be disentangled, and confusion to be regulated."--_Preface to Dict._, p. 1. Again: "Having therefore _no assistance but from general grammar_, I applied myself to the perusal of our writers; and noting whatever might be of use to ascertain or illustrate any word or phrase, accumulated in time the materials of a dictionary."--_Ibid._ But it is not given to any one man to do every thing; else, Johnson had done it. His object was, to compile a dictionary, rather than to compose a grammar, of our language. To lexicography, grammar is necessary, as a preparation; but, as a purpose, it is merely incidental. Dr. Priestley speaks of Johnson thus: "I must not conclude this preface, without making my acknowledgements to Mr. _Johnson_, whose admirable dictionary has been of the greatest use to me in the study of our language. It is pity he had not formed as just, and as extensive an idea of English grammar. Perhaps this very useful work may still be reserved for his distinguished abilities in this way."--_Priestley's Grammar, Preface_, p. xxiii. Dr. Johnson's English Grammar is all comprised in fourteen pages, and of course it is very deficient. The syntax he seems inclined entirely to omit, as (he says) Wallis did, and Ben Jonson had better done; but, for form's sake, he condescends to bestow upon it ten short lines. 33. My point here is, that the best grammarians have left much to be done by him who may choose to labour for the further improvement of English grammar; and that a man may well deserve comparative praise, who has not reached perfection in a science like this. Johnson himself committed many errors, some of which I shall hereafter expose; yet I cannot conceive that the following judgement of his works was penned without some bias of prejudice: "Johnson's merit ought not to be denied to him; but his dictionary is the most imperfect and faulty, and the least valuable _of any_[80] of his productions; and that share of merit which it possesses, makes it by so much the more hurtful. I rejoice, however, that though the least valuable, he found it the most profitable: for I could never read his preface without shedding a tear. And yet it must be confessed, that his _grammar_ and _history_ and _dictionary_ of what _he calls_ the English language, are in all respects (except the bulk of the _latter_[81]) most truly contemptible performances; and a reproach to the learning and industry of a nation which could receive them with the slightest approbation. Nearly one third of this dictionary is as much the language of the Hottentots as of the English; and it would be no difficult matter so to translate any one of the plainest and most popular numbers of the _Spectator_ into the language of this dictionary, that no mere Englishman, though well read in his own language, would he able to comprehend one sentence of it. It appears to be a work of labour, and yet is in truth one of the most idle performances ever offered to the public; compiled by an author who possessed not one single requisite for the undertaking, and (being a publication of a set of booksellers) owing its success to that very circumstance which alone must make it impossible that it should deserve success."--_Tooke's Diversions of Purley_, Vol. i, p. 182. 34. _Dr. Ash's_ "Grammatical Institutes, or Easy Introduction to Dr. Lowth's English Grammar," is a meagre performance, the ease of which consists in nothing but its brevity. _Dr. Priestley_, who in the preface to his third edition acknowledges his obligations to Johnson, and also to Lowth, thought it premature to attempt an English grammar; and contented himself with publishing a few brief "Rudiments," with a loose appendix consisting of "Notes and Observations, for the use of those who have made some proficiency in the language." He says, "With respect to our own language, there seems to be a kind of claim upon all who make use of it, to do something for its improvement; and the best thing we can do for this purpose at present, is, to exhibit its actual structure, and the varieties with which it is used. When these are once distinctly pointed out, and generally attended to, the best forms of speech, and those which are most agreeable to the analogy of the language, will soon recommend themselves, and come into general use; and when, by this means, the language shall be written with sufficient uniformity, we may hope to see a complete grammar of it. At present, _it is by no means ripe for such a work_;[82] but we may approximate to it very fast, if all persons who are qualified to make remarks upon it, will give a little attention to the subject. In such a case, a few years might be sufficient to complete it."--_Priestley's Grammar, Preface_, p. xv. In point of time, both Ash and Priestley expressly claim priority to Lowth, for their first editions; but the former having allowed his work to be afterwards entitled an Introduction to Lowth's, and the latter having acknowledged some improvements in his from the same source, they have both been regarded as later authors. 35. The great work of the learned etymologist _John Horne Tooke_, consists of two octavo volumes, entitled, "EPEA PTEROENTA, or the Diversions of Purley." This work explains, with admirable sagacity, the origin and primitive import of many of the most common yet most obscure English words; and is, for that reason, a valuable performance. But as it contains nothing respecting the construction of the language, and embraces no proper system of grammatical doctrines, it is a great error to suppose that the common principles of practical grammar ought to give place to such instructions, or even be modelled according to what the author proves to be true in respect to the origin of particular words. The common grammarians were less confuted by him, than many of his readers have imagined; and it ought not to be forgotten that his purpose was as different from theirs, as are their schemes of Grammar from the plan of his critical "Diversions." In this connexion may be mentioned an other work of similar size and purpose, but more comprehensive in design; the "History of European Languages," by that astonishing linguist the late _Dr. Alexander Murray_. This work was left unfinished by its lamented author; but it will remain a monument of erudition never surpassed, acquired in spite of wants and difficulties as great as diligence ever surmounted. Like Tooke's volumes, it is however of little use to the mere English scholar. It can be read to advantage only by those who are acquainted with several other languages. The works of _Crombie_ and _Coote_ are more properly essays or dissertations, than elementary systems of grammar. 36. The number of English grammars has now become so very great, that not even a general idea of the comparative merits or defects of each can here be given. I have examined with some diligence all that I have had opportunity to obtain; but have heard of several which I have never yet seen. Whoever is curious to examine at large what has been published on this subject, and thus to qualify himself to judge the better of any new grammar, may easily make a collection of one or two hundred bearing different names. There are also many works not called grammars, from which our copyists have taken large portions of their compilations. Thus Murray confessedly copied from ten authors; five of whom are Beattie, Sheridan, Walker, Blair, and Campbell. Dr. Beattie, who acquired great celebrity as a teacher, poet, philosopher, and logician, was well skilled in grammar; but he treated the subject only in critical disquisitions, and not in any distinct elementary work adapted to general use. Sheridan and Walker, being lexicographers, confined themselves chiefly to orthography and pronunciation. Murray derived sundry principles from the writings of each; but the English Grammar prepared by the latter, was written, I think, several years later than Murray's. The learned doctors Blair and Campbell wrote on rhetoric, and not on the elementary parts of grammar. Of the two, the latter is by far the more accurate writer. Blair is fluent and easy, but he furnishes not a little false syntax; Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric is a very valuable treatise. To these, and five or six other authors whom I have noticed, was Lindley Murray "principally indebted for his materials." Thus far of the famous contributors to English grammar. The Lectures on Rhetoric and Oratory, delivered at Harvard University by John Quincy Adams, and published in two octavo volumes in 1810, are such as do credit even to that great man; but they descend less to verbal criticism, and enter less into the peculiar province of the grammarian, than do most other works of a similar title. 37. Some of the most respectable authors or compilers of more general systems of English grammar for the use of schools, are the writer of the British Grammar, Bicknell, Buchanan, William Ward, Alexander Murray the schoolmaster, Mennye, Fisher, Lindley Murray, Penning, W. Allen, Grant, David Blair, Lennie, Guy, Churchill. To attempt any thing like a review or comparative estimate of these, would protract this introduction beyond all reasonable bounds; and still others would be excluded, which are perhaps better entitled to notice. Of mere modifiers and abridgers, the number is so great, and the merit or fame so little, that I will not trespass upon the reader's patience by any further mention of them or their works. Whoever takes an accurate and comprehensive view of the history and present state of this branch of learning, though he may not conclude, with Dr. Priestley, that it is premature to attempt a complete grammar of the language, can scarcely forbear to coincide with Dr. Barrow, in the opinion that among all the treatises heretofore produced no such grammar is found. "Some superfluities have been expunged, some mistakes have been rectified, and some obscurities have been cleared; still, however, that all the grammars used in our different schools, public as well as private, are disgraced by errors or defects, is a complaint as just as it is frequent and loud."--_Barrow's Essays_, p. 83. 38. Whether, in what I have been enabled to do, there will be found a remedy for this complaint, must be referred to the decision of others. Upon the probability of effecting this, I have been willing to stake some labour; how much, and with what merit, let the candid and discerning, when they shall have examined for themselves, judge. It is certain that we have hitherto had, of our language, no complete grammar. The need of such a work I suppose to be at this time in no small degree felt, especially by those who conduct our higher institutions of learning; and my ambition has been to produce one which might deservedly stand along side of the Port-Royal Latin and Greek Grammars, or of the Grammaire des Grammaires of Girault Du Vivier. If this work is unworthy to aspire to such rank, let the patrons of English literature remember that the achievement of my design is still a desideratum. We surely have no other book which might, in any sense, have been called "_the Grammar of English Grammars_;" none, which, either by excellence, or on account of the particular direction of its criticism, might take such a name. I have turned the eyes of Grammar, in an especial manner, upon the conduct of her own household; and if, from this volume, the reader acquire a more just idea of _the grammar_ which is displayed in _English grammars_, he will discover at least one reason for the title which has been bestowed upon the work. Such as the book is, I present it to the public, without pride, without self-seeking, and without anxiety: knowing that most of my readers will be interested in estimating it _justly_; that no true service, freely rendered to learning, can fail of its end; and that no achievement merits aught with Him who graciously supplies all ability. The opinions expressed in it have been formed with candour, and are offered with submission. If in any thing they are erroneous, there are those who can detect their faults. In the language of an ancient master, the earnest and assiduous _Despauter_, I invite the correction of the candid: "Nos quoque, quantumcunque diligentes, cùm a candidis tùm a lividis carpemur: a candidis interdum justè; quos oro, ut de erratis omnibus amicè me admoneant--erro nonnunquam quia homo sum." GOOLD BROWN. _New York_, 1836. THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. Grammar, as an art, is the power of reading, writing, and speaking correctly. As an acquisition, it is the essential skill of scholarship. As a study, it is the practical science which teaches the right use of language. _An English Grammar_ is a book which professes to explain the nature and structure of the English language; and to show, on just authority, what is, and what is not, good English. ENGLISH GRAMMAR, in itself, is the art of reading, writing, and speaking the English language correctly. It implies, in the adept, such knowledge as enables him to avoid improprieties of speech; to correct any errors that may occur in literary compositions; and to parse, or explain grammatically, whatsoever is rightly written. _To read_ is to perceive what is written or printed, so as to understand the words, and be able to utter them with their proper sounds. _To write_ is to express words and thoughts by letters, or characters, made with a pen or other instrument. _To speak_ is to utter words orally, in order that they may be heard and understood. Grammar, like every other liberal art, can be properly taught only by a regular analysis, or systematic elucidation, of its component parts or principles; and these parts or principles must be made known chiefly by means of definitions and examples, rules and exercises. A _perfect definition_ of any thing or class of things is such a description of it, as distinguishes that entire thing or class from every thing else, by briefly telling _what it is_. An _example_ is a particular instance or model, serving to prove or illustrate some given proposition or truth. A _rule of grammar_ is some law, more or less general, by which custom regulates and prescribes the right use of language. An _exercise_ is some technical performance required of the learner in order to bring his knowledge and skill into practice. LANGUAGE, in the primitive sense of the term, embraced only vocal expression, or human speech uttered by the mouth; but after letters were invented to represent articulate sounds, language became twofold, _spoken_ and _written_, so that the term, _language_, now signifies, _any series of sounds or letters formed into words and employed for the expression of thought._ Of the composition of language we have also two kinds, _prose_ and _verse_; the latter requiring a certain number and variety of syllables in each line, but the former being free from any such restraint. The _least parts_ of written language are letters; of spoken language, syllables; of language significant in each part, words; of language combining thought, phrases; of language subjoining sense, clauses; of language coördinating sense, members; of language completing sense, sentences. A discourse, or narration, of any length, is but a series of sentences; which, when written, must be separated by the proper points, that the meaning and relation of all the words may be quickly and clearly perceived by the reader, and the whole be uttered as the sense requires. In extended compositions, a sentence is usually less than a paragraph; a paragraph, less than a section; a section, less than a chapter; a chapter, less than a book; a book, less than a volume; and a volume, less than the entire work. The common order of _literary division_, then, is; of a large work, into volumes; of volumes, into books; of books, into chapters; of chapters, into sections; of sections, into paragraphs; of paragraphs, into sentences; of sentences, into members; of members, into clauses; of clauses, into phrases; of phrases, into words; of words, into syllables; of syllables, into letters. But it rarely happens that any one work requires the use of all these divisions; and we often assume some natural distinction and order of parts, naming each as we find it; and also subdivide into articles, verses, cantoes, stanzas, and other portions, as the nature of the subject suggests. Grammar is divided into four parts; namely, Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. Orthography treats of letters, syllables, separate words, and spelling. Etymology treats of the different _parts of speech_, with their classes and modifications. Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government, and arrangement of words in sentences. Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, figures, and versification. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--In the Introduction to this work, have been taken many views of the study, or general science, of grammar; many notices of its history, with sundry criticisms upon its writers or critics; and thus language has often been presented to the reader's consideration, either as a whole, or with broader scope than belongs to the teaching of its particular forms. We come now to the work of _analyzing_ our own tongue, and of laying down those special rules and principles which should guide us in the use of it, whether in speech or in writing. The author intends to dissent from other grammarians no more than they are found to dissent from truth and reason; nor will he expose their errors further than is necessary for the credit of the science and the information of the learner. A candid critic can have no satisfaction merely in finding fault with other men's performances. But the facts are not to be concealed, that many pretenders to grammar have shown themselves exceedingly superficial in their knowledge, as well as slovenly in their practice; and that many vain composers of books have proved themselves _despisers_ of this study, by the abundance of their inaccuracies, and the obviousness of their solecisms. OBS. 2.--Some grammarians have taught that the word _language_ is of much broader signification, than that which is given to it in the definition above. I confine it to speech and writing. For the propriety of this limitation, and against those authors who describe the thing otherwise, I appeal to the common sense of mankind. One late writer defines it thus: "LANGUAGE is _any means_ by which one _person_ communicates his _ideas_ to _another_."--_Sanders's Spelling-Book_, p. 7. The following is the explanation of an other slack thinker: "One may, by speaking or by writing, (and sometimes _by motions_,) communicate his thoughts to others. _The process_ by which this is done, is called LANGUAGE.--_Language_ is _the expression_ of thought _and feeling_."--_S. W. Clark's Practical Gram._, p. 7. Dr. Webster goes much further, and says, "LANGUAGE, in its most extensive sense, is the instrument or means of communicating ideas _and affections_ of the mind _and body_, from one _animal to another_. In this sense, _brutes possess the power of language_; for by various inarticulate sounds, they make known their wants, desires, and sufferings."-- _Philosophical Gram._, p. 11; _Improved Gram._, p. 5. This latter definition the author of that vain book, "_the District School_," has adopted in his chapter on Grammar. Sheridan, the celebrated actor and orthoëpist, though he seems to confine language to the human species, gives it such an extension as to make words no necessary part of its essence. "The first thought," says he, "that would occur to every one, who had not properly considered the point, is, that language is composed of words. And yet, this is so far from being an adequate idea of language, that the point in which most men think its very essence to consist, is not even a necessary property of language. For language, in its full extent, means, any way or method whatsoever, by which _all that passes in the mind of one man_, may be manifested to another."--_Sheridan's Lectures on Elocution_, p. 129. Again: "I have already _shown_, that words are, in their own nature, _no essential part of language_, and are only considered so through custom."--_Ib._ p. 135. OBS. 3.--According to S. Kirkham's notion, "LANGUAGE, in its most extensive sense, implies those signs by which _men and brutes_, communicate _to each other_ their thoughts, affections and desires."--_Kirkham's English Gram._, p. 16. Again: "_The language of brutes_ consists in the use of those inarticulate sounds by which they express _their thoughts and affections_."--_Ib._ To me it seems a shameful abuse of speech, and a vile descent from the dignity of grammar, to make the voices of "_brutes_" any part of language, as taken in a literal sense. We might with far more propriety raise our conceptions of it to the spheres above, and construe literally the metaphors of David, who ascribes to the starry heavens, both "_speech_" and "_language_," "_voice_" and "_words_," daily "_uttered_" and everywhere "_heard_." See _Psalm_ xix. OBS. 4.--But, strange as it may seem, Kirkham, commencing his instructions with the foregoing definition of language, proceeds to divide it, agreeably to this notion, into two sorts, _natural_ and _artificial_; and affirms that the former "is common both to man and brute," and that the language which is peculiar to man, the language which consists of _words_, is altogether an _artificial invention_:[83] thereby contradicting at once a host of the most celebrated grammarians and philosophers, and that without appearing to know it. But this is the less strange, since he immediately forgets his own definition and division of the subject, and as plainly contradicts himself. Without limiting the term at all, without excluding his fanciful "_language of brutes_," he says, on the next leaf, "_Language_ is _conventional_, and not only _invented_, but, in its progressive advancement, _varied for purposes of practical convenience_. Hence it assumes _any and every form_ which those who make use of it, choose to give it."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 18. This, though scarcely more rational than his "_natural language of men and brutes_," plainly annihilates that questionable section of grammatical science, whether brutal or human, by making all language a thing "_conventional_" and "_invented_." In short, it leaves no ground at all for any grammatical science of a positive character, because it resolves all forms of language into the irresponsible will of those who utter any words, sounds, or noises. OBS. 5.--Nor is this gentleman more fortunate in his explanation of what may really be called language. On one page, he says, "_Spoken language_ or _speech_, is made up of articulate sounds uttered by the human voice."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 17. On the next, "The most important use of _that faculty called speech_, is, to convey our thoughts to others."--_Ib._, p. 18. Thus the grammarian who, in the same short paragraph, seems to "defy the ingenuity of man to give his words any other meaning than that which he himself intends _them to express_," (_Ib._, p. 19,) either writes so badly as to make any ordinary false syntax appear trivial, or actually conceives man to be the inventor of one of his own _faculties_. Nay, docs he not make man the contriver of that "natural language" which he possesses "in common with the brutes?" a language "_The meaning of which_," he says, "_all the different animals perfectly understand_?"--See his _Gram._, p. 16. And if this notion again be true, does it not follow, that a horse knows perfectly well what horned cattle mean by their bellowing, or a flock of geese by their gabbling? I should not have noticed these things, had not the book which teaches them, been made popular by _a thousand_ imposing attestations to its excellence and accuracy. For grammar has nothing at all to do with inarticulate voices, or the imaginary languages of _brutes_. It is scope enough for one science to explain all the languages, dialects, and speeches, that lay claim to _reason_. We need not enlarge the field, by descending "To beasts, whom[84] God on their creation-day Created mute to all articulate sound."--_Milton_.[85] PART I. ORTHOGRAPHY. ORTHOGRAPHY treats of letters, syllables, separate words, and spelling. CHAPTER I.--OF LETTERS. A _Letter_ is an alphabetic character, which commonly represents some elementary sound of the human voice, some element of speech. An elementary sound of the human voice, or an element of speech, is one of the simple sounds which compose a spoken language. The sound of a letter is commonly called its _power_: when any letter of a word is not sounded, it is said to be _silent_ or _mute._ The letters in the English alphabet, are twenty-six; the simple or primary sounds which they represent, are about thirty-six or thirty-seven. A knowledge of the letters consists in an acquaintance with these _four sorts of things_; their _names_, their _classes_, their _powers_, and their _forms_. The letters are written, or printed, or painted, or engraved, or embossed, in an infinite variety of shapes and sizes; and yet are always _the same_, because their essential properties do not change, and their names, classes, and powers, are mostly permanent. The following are some of the different sorts of types, or styles of letters, with which every reader should be early acquainted:-- 1. The Roman: A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, F f, G g, H h, I i, J j, K k, L l, M m, N n, o, P p, Q q, R r, S s, T t, U u, V v, W w, X x, Y y, Z z. 2. The Italic: _A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, F f, G g, H h, I i, J j, K k, L l, M m, N n, o, P p, Q q, R r, S s, T t, U u, V v, W w, X x, Y y, Z z._ 3. The Script: [Script: A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, F f, G g, H h, I i, J j, K k, L l, M m, N n, o, P p, Q q, R r, S s, T t, U u, V v, W w, X x, Y y, Z z.] 4. The Old English: [Old English: A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, F f, G g, H h, I i, J j, K k, L l, M m, N n, o, P p, Q q, R r, S s, T t, U u, V v, W w, X x, Y y, Z z.] OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--A letter _consists_ not in the figure only, or in the power only, but in the figure and power united; as an ambassador consists not in the man only, or in the commission only, but in the man commissioned. The figure and the power, therefore, are necessary to constitute the letter; and a name is as necessary, to call it by, teach it, or tell what it is. The _class_ of a letter is determined by the nature of its power, or sound; as the ambassador is plenipotentiary or otherwise, according to the extent of his commission. To all but the deaf and dumb, written language is the representative of that which is spoken; so that, in the view of people in general, the powers of the letters are habitually identified with their sounds, and are conceived to be nothing else. Hence any given sound, or modification of sound, which all men can produce at pleasure, when arbitrarily associated with a written sign, or conventional character, constitutes what is called _a letter_. Thus we may produce the sounds of _a, e, o_, then, by a particular compression of the organs of utterance, modify them all, into _ba, be, bo_, or _fa, fe, fo_; and we shall see that _a, e_, and _o_, are letters of one sort, and _b_ and _f_ of an other. By _elementary_ or _articulate_ sounds,[86] then, we mean not only the simple tones of the voice itself, but the modifying stops and turns which are given them in speech, and marked by letters: the real voices constituting vowels; and their modifications, consonants. OBS. 2.--A mere mark to which no sound or power is ever given, cannot be a letter; though it may, like the marks used for punctuation, deserve a name and a place in grammar. Commas, semicolons, and the like, represent _silence_, rather than sounds, and are therefore not letters. Nor are the Arabic figures, which represent entire _words_, nor again any symbols standing for _things_, (as the astronomic marks for the sun, the moon, the planets,) to be confounded with letters; because the representative of any word or number, of any name or thing, differs widely in its power, from the sign of a simple elementary sound: i. e., from any constituent _part_ of a written word. The first letter of a word or name does indeed sometimes stand for the whole, and is still a letter; but it is so, as being the first element of the word, and not as being the representative of the whole. OBS. 3.--In their definitions of vowels and consonants, many grammarians have resolved letters into _sounds only_; as, "A Vowel is an articulate _sound_," &c.--"A Consonant is an articulate _sound_," &c.--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 7. But this confounding of the visible signs with the things which they signify, is very far from being a true account of either. Besides, letters combined are capable of a certain mysterious power which is independent of all sound, though speech, doubtless, is what they properly represent. In practice, almost all the letters may occasionally happen to be _silent_; yet are they not, in these cases, necessarily useless. The deaf and dumb also, to whom none of the letters express or represent sounds, may be taught to read and write understandingly. They even learn in some way to distinguish the accented from the unaccented syllables, and to have some notion of _quantity_, or of something else equivalent to it; for some of them, it is said, can compose verses according to the rules of prosody. Hence it would appear, that the powers of the letters are not, of necessity, identified with their sounds; the things being in some respect distinguishable, though the terms are commonly taken as synonymous. The fact is, that a word, whether spoken or written, is of itself _significant_, whether its corresponding form be known or not. Hence, in the one form, it may be perfectly intelligible to the illiterate, and in the other, to the educated deaf and dumb; while, to the learned who hear and speak, either form immediately suggests the other, with the meaning common to both. OBS. 4.--Our knowledge of letters rises no higher than to the forms used by the ancient Hebrews and Phoenicians. Moses is supposed to have written in characters which were nearly the same as those called Samaritan, but his writings have come to us in an alphabet more beautiful and regular, called the Chaldee or Chaldaic, which is said to have been made by Ezra the scribe, when he wrote out a new copy of the law, after the rebuilding of the temple. Cadmus carried the Phoenician alphabet into Greece, where it was subsequently altered and enlarged. The small letters were not invented till about the seventh century of our era. The Latins, or Romans, derived most of their capitals from the Greeks; but their small letters, if they had any, were made afterwards among themselves. This alphabet underwent various changes, and received very great improvements, before it became that beautiful series of characters which we now use, under the name of _Roman letters_. Indeed these particular forms, which are now justly preferred by many nations, are said to have been adopted after the invention of printing. "The Roman letters were first used by Sweynheim and Pannartz, printers who settled at Rome, in 1467. The earliest work printed wholly in this character in England, is said to have been Lily's or Paul's Accidence, printed by Richard Pinson, 1518. The Italic letters were invented by Aldus Manutius at Rome, towards the close of the fifteenth century, and were first used in an edition of Virgil, in 1501."--_Constables Miscellany_, Vol. xx, p. 147. The Saxon alphabet was mostly Roman. Not more than one quarter of the letters have other forms. But the changes, though few, give to a printed page a very different appearance. Under William the Conqueror, this alphabet was superseded by the modern Gothic, Old English, or Black letter; which, in its turn, happily gave place to the present Roman. The Germans still use a type similar to the Old English, but not so heavy. OBS. 5.--I have suggested that a true knowledge of the letters implies an acquaintance with their _names_, their _classes_, their _powers_, and their _forms_. Under these four heads, therefore, I shall briefly present what seems most worthy of the learner's attention at first, and shall reserve for the appendix a more particular account of these important elements. The most common and the most useful things are not those about which we are in general most inquisitive. Hence many, who think themselves sufficiently acquainted with the letters, do in fact know but very little about them. If a person is able to read some easy book, he is apt to suppose he has no more to learn respecting the letters; or he neglects the minute study of these elements, because he sees what words they make, and can amuse himself with stories of things more interesting. But merely to understand common English, is a very small qualification for him who aspires to scholarship, and especially for a _teacher_. For one may do this, and even be a great reader, without ever being able to name the letters properly, or to pronounce such syllables as _ca, ce, ci, co, cu, cy_, without getting half of them wrong. No one can ever teach an art more perfectly than he has learned it; and if we neglect the _elements_ of grammar, our attainments must needs be proportionately unsettled and superficial. I. NAMES OF THE LETTERS. The _names_ of the letters, as now commonly spoken and written in English, are _A, Bee, Cee, Dee, E, Eff, Gee, Aitch, I, Jay, Kay, Ell, Em, En, O, Pee, Kue, Ar, Ess, Tee, U, Vee, Double-u, Ex, Wy, Zee_. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--With the learning and application of these names, our literary education begins; with a continual rehearsal of them in spelling, it is for a long time carried on; nor can we ever dispense with them, but by substituting others, or by ceasing to mention the things thus named. What is obviously indispensable, needs no proof of its importance. But I know not whether it has ever been noticed, that these names, like those of the days of the week, are worthy of particular distinction, for their own nature. They are words of a very peculiar kind, being nouns that are at once _both proper and common_. For, in respect to rank, character, and design, each letter is a thing strictly individual and identical--that is, it is ever one and the same; yet, in an other respect, it is a comprehensive sort, embracing individuals both various and numberless. Thus every B is a _b_, make it as you will; and can be nothing else than that same letter b, though you make it in a thousand different fashions, and multiply it after each pattern innumerably. Here, then, we see individuality combined at once with great diversity, and infinite multiplicity; and it is _to this combination_, that letters owe their wonderful power of transmitting thought. Their _names_, therefore, should always be written with capitals, as proper nouns, at least in the singular number; and should form the plural regularly, as ordinary appellatives. Thus: (if we adopt the names now most generally used in English schools:) _A, Aes; Bee, Bees; Cee, Cees; Dee, Dees; E, Ees; Eff, Effs; Gee, Gees; Aitch, Aitches; I, Ies; Jay, Jays; Kay, Kays; Ell, Ells; Em, Ems; En, Ens; O, Oes; Pee, Pees; Kue, Kues; Ar, Ars; Ess, Esses; Tee, Tees; U, Ues; Vee, Vees; Double-u, Double-ues; Ex, Exes; Wy, Wies; Zee, Zees._ OBS. 2.--The names of the letters, as expressed in the modern languages, are mostly framed _with reference_ to their powers, or sounds. Yet is there in English no letter of which the name is always identical with its power: for _A, E, I, O_, and _U_, are the only letters which can name themselves, and all these have other sounds than those which their names express. The simple powers of the other letters are so manifestly insufficient to form any name, and so palpable is the difference between the nature and the name of each, that did we not know how education has been trifled with, it would be hard to believe even Murray, when he says, "They are frequently confounded by writers on grammar. Observations and reasonings on the _name_, are often applied to explain the _nature_ of a consonant; and by this means the student is led into error and perplexity."--_L. Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 8. The confounding of names with the things for which they stand, implies, unquestionably, great carelessness in the use of speech, and great indistinctness of apprehension in respect to things; yet so common is this error, that Murray himself has many times fallen into it.[87] Let the learner therefore be on his guard, remembering that grammar, both in its study and in its practice, requires the constant exercise of a rational discernment. Those letters which name themselves, take for their names those sounds which they usually represent at the end of an accented syllable; thus the names, _A, E, I, O, U_, are uttered with the sounds given to the same letters in the first syllables of the other names, _Abel, Enoch, Isaac, Obed, Urim_; or in the first syllables of the common words, _paper, penal, pilot, potent, pupil_. The other letters, most of which can never be perfectly sounded alone, have names in which their powers are combined with other sounds more vocal; as, _Bee, Cee, Dee,--Ell, Em, En,--Jay, Kay, Kue_. But in this respect the terms _Aitch_ and _Double-u_ are irregular; because they have no obvious reference to the powers of the letters thus named. OBS. 3.--Letters, like all other things, must be learned and spoken of _by their names_; nor can they be spoken of otherwise; yet, as the simple characters are better known and more easily exhibited than their written names, the former are often substituted for the latter, and are read as the words for which they are assumed. Hence the orthography of these words has hitherto been left too much to mere fancy or caprice. Our dictionaries, by a strange oversight or negligence, do not recognize them as words; and writers have in general spelled them with very little regard to either authority or analogy. What they are, or ought to be, has therefore been treated as a trifling question: and, what is still more surprising, several authors of spelling-books make no mention at all of them; while others, here at the very threshold of instruction, teach falsely--giving "_he_" for _Aitch_, "_er_" for _Ar_, "_oo_" or "_uu_" for _Double-u_, "_ye_" for _Wy_, and writing almost all the rest improperly. So that many persons who think themselves well educated, would be greatly puzzled to name on paper these simple elements of all learning. Nay, there can be found a hundred men who can readily write the alphabetic names which were in use two or three thousand years ago in Greece or Palestine, for one who can do the same thing with propriety, respecting those which we now employ so constantly in English:[88] and yet the words themselves are as familiar to every school-boy's lips as are the characters to his eye. This fact may help to convince us, that _the grammar_ of our language has never yet been sufficiently taught. Among all the particulars which constitute this subject, there are none which better deserve to be everywhere known, by proper and determinate names, than these prime elements of all written language. OBS. 4.--Should it happen to be asked a hundred lustrums hence, what were the names of the letters in "the Augustan age of English literature," or in the days of William the Fourth and Andrew Jackson, I fear the learned of that day will be as much at a loss for an answer, as would most of our college tutors now, were they asked, by what series of names the Roman youth were taught to spell. Might not Quintilian or Varro have obliged many, by recording these? As it is, we are indebted to Priscian, a grammarian of the sixth century, for almost all we know about them. But even the information which may be had, on this point, has been strangely overlooked by our common Latin grammarians.[89] What, but the greater care of earlier writers, has made the Greek names better known or more important than the Latin? In every nation that is not totally illiterate, custom must have established for the letters a certain set of names, which are _the only true ones_, and which are of course to be preferred to such as are local or unauthorized. In this, however, as in other things, use may sometimes vary, and possibly improve; but when its decisions are clear, no feeble reason should be allowed to disturb them. Every parent, therefore, who would have his children instructed to read and write the English language, should see that in the first place they learn to name the letters as they are commonly named in English. A Scotch gentleman of good education informs me, that the names of the letters, as he first learned them in a school in his own country, were these: "A, Ib, Ec, Id, E, Iff, Ig, Ich, I, Ij, Ik, Ill, Im, In, O, Ip, Kue, Ir, Iss, It, U, Iv, Double-u, Ix, Wy, Iz;" but that in the same school the English names are now used. It is to be hoped, that all teachers will in time abandon every such local usage, and name the letters _as they ought to be named_; and that the day will come, in which the regular English _orthography_ of these terms, shall be steadily preferred, ignorance of it be thought a disgrace, and the makers of school-books feel no longer at liberty to alter names that are a thousand times better known than their own. OBS. 5.--It is not in respect to their _orthography_ alone, that these first words in literature demand inquiry and reflection: the _pronunciation_ of some of them has often been taught erroneously, and, with respect to three or four of them, some writers have attempted to make an entire change from the customary forms which I have recorded. Whether the name of the first letter should be pronounced "_Aye_," as it is in England, "_Ah_," as it is in Ireland, or "_Aw_," as it is in Scotland, is a question which Walker has largely discussed, and clearly decided in favour of the first sound; and this decision accords with the universal practice of the schools in America. It is remarkable that this able critic, though he treated minutely of the letters, naming them all in the outset of his "Principles" subsequently neglected the names of them all, except the first and the last. Of _Zee_, (which has also been called _Zed, Zad, Izzard, Uzzard, Izzet_, and _Iz_,)[90] he says, "Its common name is _izzard_, which Dr. Johnson explains into _s hard_; if, however, this is the meaning, it is a gross misnomer; for the _z_ is not the hard, but the soft _s_;[91] but as it has a less sharp, and therefore not so audible a sound, it is not impossible _but_ it may mean _s surd_. _Zed_, borrowed from the French, is the more fashionable name of this letter; but, in my opinion, _not to be admitted, because the names of the letters ought to have no diversity._"--_Walker's Principles_, No. 483. It is true, the name of a letter ought to be one, and in no respect diverse; but where diversity has already obtained, and become firmly rooted in custom, is it to be obviated by insisting upon what is old-fashioned, awkward, and inconvenient? Shall the better usage give place to the worse? Uniformity cannot be so reached. In this country, both _Zed_ and _Izzard_, as well as the worse forms _Zad_ and _Uzzard_, are now fairly superseded by the softer and better term _Zee_; and whoever will spell aloud, with each of these names, a few such words as _dizzy, mizzen, gizzard_, may easily perceive why none of the former can ever be brought again into use. The other two, _Iz_ and _Izzet_, being localisms, and not authorized English, I give up all six; _Zed_ to the French, and the rest to oblivion. OBS. 6.--By way of apology for noticing the name of the first letter, Walker observes, "If a diversity of names to vowels did not confound us in our spelling, or declaring to each other the component letters of a word, it would be entirely needless to enter into _so trifling a question_ as the mere name of a letter; but when we find ourselves unable to convey signs to each other on account of this diversity of names, and that words themselves are endangered by an improper utterance of their component parts, it seems highly incumbent on us to attempt a uniformity in this point, which, insignificant as it may seem, is undoubtedly the foundation of a just and regular pronunciation."--_Dict., under A_. If diversity in this matter is so perplexing, what shall we say to those who are attempting innovations without assigning reasons, or even pretending authority? and if a knowledge of these names is the basis of a just pronunciation, what shall we think of him who will take no pains to ascertain how he ought to speak and write them? He who pretends to teach the proper fashion of speaking and writing, cannot deal honestly, if ever he silently prefer a suggested improvement, to any established and undisturbed usage of the language; for, in grammar, no individual authority can be a counterpoise to general custom. The best usage can never be that which is little known, nor can it be well ascertained and taught by him who knows little. Inquisitive minds are ever curious to learn the nature, origin, and causes of things; and that instruction is the most useful, which is best calculated to gratify this rational curiosity. This is my apology for dwelling so long upon the present topic. OBS. 7.--The names originally given to the letters were not mere notations of sound, intended solely to express or make known the powers of the several characters then in use; nor ought even the modern names of our present letters, though formed with special reference to their sounds, to be considered such. Expressions of mere sound, such as the notations in a pronouncing dictionary, having no reference to what is meant by the sound, do not constitute words at all; because they are not those acknowledged signs to which a meaning has been attached, and are consequently without that significance which is an essential property of words. But, in every language, there must be a series of sounds by which the alphabetical characters are commonly known in speech; and which, as they are the acknowledged names of these particular objects, must be entitled to a place among _the words_ of the language. It is a great error to judge otherwise; and a greater to make it a "trifling question" in grammar, whether a given letter shall be called by one name or by an other. Who shall say that _Daleth, Delta_, and _Dee_, are not three _real words_, each equally important in the language to which it properly belongs? Such names have always been in use wherever literature has been cultivated; and as the forms and powers of the letters have been changed by the nations, and have become different in different languages, there has necessarily followed a change of the names. For, whatever inconvenience scholars may find in the diversity which has thence arisen, to name these elements in a set of foreign terms, inconsistent with the genius of the language to be learned, would surely be attended with a tenfold greater. We derived our letters, and their names too, from the Romans; but this is no good reason why the latter should be spelled and pronounced as we suppose they were spelled and pronounced in Rome. OBS. 8.--The names of the twenty-two letters in Hebrew, are, without dispute, proper _words_; for they are not only significant of the letters thus named, but have in general, if not in every instance, some other meaning in that language. Thus the mysterious ciphers which the English reader meets with, and wonders over, as he reads the 119th Psalm, may be resolved, according to some of the Hebrew grammars, as follows:-- [Hebrew: Aleph] Aleph, A, an ox, or a leader; [Hebrew: Beth] Beth, Bee, house; [Hebrew: Gimel] Gimel, Gee, a camel; [Hebrew: Dalet] Daleth, Dee, a door; [Hebrew: he] He, E, she, or behold; [Hebrew: vav] Vau, U, a hook, or a nail; [Hebrew: zajin] Zain, Zee, armour; [Hebrew: het] Cheth, or Heth, Aitch, a hedge; [Hebrew: tet] Teth, Tee, a serpent, or a scroll; [Hebrew: jod] Jod, or Yod, I, or Wy, a hand shut; [Hebrew: kaf] Caph, Cee, a hollow hand, or a cup; [Hebrew: lamed] Lamed, Ell, an ox-goad; [Hebrew: mem] Mem, Em, a stain, or spot; [Hebrew: nun] Nun, En, a fish, or a snake; [Hebrew: samekh] Samech, Ess, a basis, or support; [Hebrew: ayin] Ain, or Oin, O, an eye, or a well; [Hebrew: pe] Pe, Pee, a lip, or mouth; [Hebrew: tsadi] Tzaddi, or Tsadhe, Tee-zee, (i. e. tz, or ts,) a hunter's pole; [Hebrew: qof] Koph, Kue, or Kay, an ape; [Hebrew: resh] Resch, or Resh, Ar, a head; [Hebrew: shin] Schin, or Sin, Ess-aitch, or Ess, a tooth; [Hebrew: tav] Tau, or Thau, Tee, or Tee-aitch, a cross, or mark. These English names of the Hebrew letters are written with much less uniformity than those of the Greek, because there has been more dispute respecting their powers. This is directly contrary to what one would have expected; since the Hebrew names are words originally significant of other things than the letters, and the Greek are not. The original pronunciation of both languages is admitted to be lost, or involved in so much obscurity that little can be positively affirmed about it; and yet, where least was known, grammarians have produced the most diversity; aiming at disputed sounds in the one case, but generally preferring a correspondence of letters in the other. OBS. 9.--The word _alphabet_ is derived from the first two names in the following series. The Greek letters are twenty-four; which are formed, named, and sounded, thus:-- [Greek: A a], Alpha, a; [Greek: B, b], Beta, b; [Greek: G g], Gamma, g hard; [Greek: D d], Delta, d; [Greek: E e], Epsilon, e short; [Greek: Z z], Zeta, z; [Greek: � æ], Eta, e long; [Greek: TH Th th], Theta, th; [Greek: I i], Iota, i; [Greek K k], Kappa, k; [Greek: L l], Lambda, l; [Greek: M m], Mu, m; [Greek: N n], Nu, n; [Greek: X x], Xi, x; [Greek: O o], Omicron, o short; [Greek: P p], Pi, p; [Greek: R r] Rho, r; [Greek: S s s], Sigma, s; [Greek: T t], Tau, t; [Greek: Y y], Upsilon, u; [Greek: PH ph], Phi, ph; [Greek: CH ch], Chi, ch; [Greek: PS ps], Psi, ps; [Greek: O o], Omega, o long. Of these names, our English dictionaries explain the first and the last; and Webster has defined _Iota_, and _Zeta_, but without reference to the meaning of the former in Greek. _Beta, Delta, Lambda_, and perhaps some others, are also found in the etymologies or definitions of Johnson and Webster, both of whom spell the word _Lambda_ and its derivative _lambdoidal_ without the silent _b_, which is commonly, if not always, inserted by the authors of our Greek grammars, and which Worcester, more properly, retains. OBS. 10.--The reader will observe that the foregoing names, whether Greek or Hebrew, are in general much less simple than those which our letters now bear; and if he has ever attempted to spell aloud in either of those languages, he cannot but be sensible of the great advantage which was gained when to each letter there was given a short name, expressive, as ours mostly are, of its ordinary power. This improvement appears to have been introduced by the Romans, whose names for the letters were even more simple than our own. But so negligent in respect to them have been the Latin grammarians, both ancient and modern, that few even of the learned can tell what they really were in that language; or how they differed, either in orthography or sound, from those of the English or the French, the Hebrew or the Greek. Most of them, however, may yet be ascertained from Priscian, and some others of note among the ancient philologists; so that by taking from later authors the names of those letters which were not used in old times, we can still furnish an entire list, concerning the accuracy of which there is not much room to dispute. It is probable that in the ancient pronunciation of Latin, _a_ was commonly sounded as in _father_; _e_ like the English _a_; _i_ mostly like _e_ long; _y_ like _i_ short; _c_ generally and _g_ always hard, as in _come_ and _go_. But, as the original, native, or just pronunciation of a language is not necessary to an understanding of it when written, the existing nations have severally, in a great measure, accommodated themselves, in their manner of reading this and other ancient tongues. OBS. 11.--As the Latin language is now printed, its letters are twenty-five. Like the French, it has all that belong to the English alphabet, except the _Double-u_. But, till the first Punic war, the Romans wrote C for G, and doubtless gave it the power as well as the place of the Gamma or Gimel. It then seems to have slid into K; but they used it also for S, as we do now. The ancient Saxons, generally pronounced C as K, but sometimes as Ch. Their G was either guttural, or like our Y. In some of the early English grammars the name of the latter is written _Ghee_. The letter F, when first invented, was called, from its shape, Digamma, and afterwards Ef. J, when it was first distinguished from I, was called by the Hebrew name Jod, and afterwards Je. V, when first distinguished from U, was called Vau, then Va, then Ve. Y, when the Romans first borrowed it from the Greeks, was called Ypsilon; and Z, from the same source, was called Zeta; and, as these two letters were used only in words of Greek origin, I know not whether they ever received from the Romans any shorter names. In Schneider's Latin Grammar, the letters are named in the following manner; except Je and Ve, which are omitted by this author: "A, Be, Ce, De, E, Ef, Ge, Ha, I, [Je,] Ka, El, Em, En, O, Pe, Cu, Er, Es, Te, U, [Ve,] Ix, Ypsilon, Zeta." And this I suppose to be the most proper way of writing their names _in Latin_, unless we have sufficient authority for shortening Ypsilon into Y, sounded as short _i_, and for changing Zeta into Ez. OBS. 12.--In many, if not in all languages, the five vowels, A, E, I, O, U, name themselves; but they name themselves differently to the ear, according to the different ways of uttering them in different languages. And as the name of a consonant necessarily requires one or more vowels, that also may be affected in the same manner. But in every language there should be a known way both of writing and of speaking every name in the series; and that, if there is nothing to hinder, should be made conformable to _the genius of the language_. I do not say that the names above can be regularly declined in Latin; but in English it is as easy to speak of two Dees as of two trees, of two Kays as of two days, of two Exes as of two foxes, of two Effs as of two skiffs; and there ought to be no more difficulty about the correct way of writing the word in the one case, than in the other. In Dr. Sam. Prat's Latin Grammar, (an elaborate octavo, all Latin, published in London, 1722,) nine of the consonants are reckoned mutes; b, c, d, g, p, q, t, j, and v; and eight, semivowels; f, l, m, n, r, s, x, z. "All the mutes," says this author, "are named by placing _e_ after them; as, be, ce, de, ge, except _q_, which ends in _u_." See p. 8. "The semivowels, beginning with _e_, end in themselves; as, ef, _ach_, el, em, en, er, es, _ex_, (or, as Priscian will have it, _ix_,) _eds_." See p. 9. This mostly accords with the names given in the preceding paragraph; and so far as it does not, I judge the author to be wrong. The reader will observe that the Doctor's explanation is neither very exact nor quite complete: K is a mute which is not enumerated, and the rule would make the name of it _Ke_, and not _Ka_;--H is not one of his eight semivowels, nor does the name Ach accord with his rule or seem like a Latin word;--the name of Z, according to his principle, would be _Ez_ and not "_Eds_," although the latter may better indicate the _sound_ which was then given to this letter. OBS. 13.--If the history of these names exhibits diversity, so does that of almost all other terms; and yet there is some way of writing every word with correctness, and correctness tends to permanence. But Time, that establishes authority, destroys it also, when he fairly sanctions newer customs. To all names worthy to be known, it is natural to wish a perpetual uniformity; but if any one thinks the variableness of these to be peculiar, let him open the English Bible of the fourteenth century, and read a few verses, observing the names. For instance: "Forsothe whanne _Eroude_ was to bringynge forth hym, in that nigt _Petir_ was slepynge bitwixe tweyno knytis."--_Dedis_, (i. e., _Acts_,) xii, 6. "_Crist Ihesu_ that is to demynge the quyke and deed."--_2 Tim._, iv, 1. Since this was written for English, our language has changed much, and at the same time acquired, by means of the press, some aids to stability. I have recorded above the _true_ names of the letters, as they are now used, with something of their history; and if there could be in human works any thing unchangeable, I should wish, (with due deference to all schemers and fault-finders,) that these names might remain the same forever. OBS. 14.--If any change is desirable in our present names of the letters, it is that we may have a shorter and simpler term in stead of _Double-u_. But can we change this well known name? I imagine it would be about as easy to change _Alpha, Upsilon, or Omega_; and perhaps it would be as useful. Let Dr. Webster, or any defender of his spelling, try it. He never named the _English_ letters rightly; long ago discarded the term _Double-u_; and is not yet tired of his experiment with "_oo_;" but thinks still to make the vowel sound of this letter its name. Yet he writes his new name wrong; has no authority for it but his own; and is, most certainly, reprehensible for the _innovation_.[92] If W is to be named as a vowel, it ought to _name itself_, as other vowels do, and not to take _two Oes_ for its written name. Who that knows what it is, to name a letter, can think of naming _w_ by double _o_? That it is possible for an ingenious man to misconceive this simple affair of naming the letters, may appear not only from the foregoing instance, but from the following quotation: "Among the thousand mismanagements of literary instruction, there is at the outset in the hornbook, _the pretence to represent elementary sounds_ by syllables composed of two or more elements; as, _Be, Kay, Zed, Double-u_, and _Aitch_. These words are used in infancy, and through life, as _simple elements_ in the process of synthetic spelling. If the definition of a _consonant_ was made by the master from the practice of the child, it might suggest pity for the pedagogue, but should not make us forget the realities of nature."--_Dr. Push, on the Philosophy of the Human Voice_, p. 52. This is a strange allegation to come from such a source. If I bid a boy spell the word _why_, he says, "Double-u, Aitch, Wy, _hwi_;" and knows that he has spelled and pronounced the word correctly. But if he conceives that the five syllables which form the three words, _Double-u_, and _Aitch_, and _Wy_, are the three simple sounds which he utters in pronouncing the word _why_, it is not because the hornbook, or the teacher of the hornbook, ever made any such blunder or "pretence;" but because, like some great philosophers, he is capable of misconceiving very plain things. Suppose he should take it into his head to follow Dr. Webster's books, and to say, "Oo, he, ye, _hwi_;" who, but these doctors, would imagine, that such spelling was supported either by "the realities of nature," or by the authority of custom? I shall retain both the old "definition of a consonant," and the usual names of the letters, notwithstanding the contemptuous pity it may excite in the minds of _such_ critics. II. CLASSES OF THE LETTERS. The letters are divided into two general classes, _vowels_ and _consonants_. A _vowel_ is a letter which forms a perfect sound when uttered alone; as, _a, e, o_. A _consonant_ is a letter which cannot be perfectly uttered till joined to a vowel; as, _b, c, d_.[93] The vowels are _a, e, i, o, u_, and sometimes _w_ and _y._ All the other letters are consonants. _W_ or _y_ is called a consonant when it precedes a vowel heard in the same syllable; as in _wine, twine, whine; ye, yet, youth_: in all other cases, these letters are vowels; as in _Yssel, Ystadt, yttria; newly, dewy, eyebrow._ CLASSES OF CONSONANTS. The consonants are divided, with respect to their powers, into _semivowels_ and _mutes._ A _semivowel_ is a consonant which can be imperfectly sounded without a vowel, so that at the end of a syllable its sound may be protracted; as, _l, n, z_, in _al, an, az._ A _mute_ is a consonant which cannot be sounded at all without a vowel, and which at the end of a syllable suddenly stops the breath; as, _k, p, t_, in _ak, ap, at._ The semivowels are, _f, h, j, l, m, n, r, s, v, w, x, y, z_, and _c_ and _g_ soft: but _w_ or _y_ at the end of a syllable, is a vowel; and the sound of _c, f, g, h, j, s_, or _x_, can be protracted only as an _aspirate_, or strong breath. Four of the semivowels,--_l, m, n_, and _r_,--are termed _liquids_, on account of the fluency of their sounds; and four others,--_v, w, y_, and _z_,--are likewise more vocal than the aspirates. The mutes are eight;--_b, d, k, p, q, t_, and _c_ and _g_ hard: three of these,--_k, q_, and _c_ hard,--sound exactly alike: _b, d_, and _g_ hard, stop the voice less suddenly than the rest. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--The foregoing division of the letters is of very great antiquity, and, in respect to its principal features sanctioned by almost universal authority; yet if we examine it minutely, either with reference to the various opinions of the learned, or with regard to the essential differences among the things of which it speaks, it will not perhaps be found in all respects indisputably certain. It will however be of use, as a basis for some subsequent rules, and as a means of calling the attention of the learner to the manner in which he utters the sounds of the letters. A knowledge of about three dozen different elementary sounds is implied in the faculty of speech. The power of producing these sounds with distinctness, and of adapting them to the purposes for which language is used, constitutes perfection of utterance. Had we a perfect alphabet, consisting of one symbol, and only one, for each elementary sound; and a perfect method of spelling, freed from silent letters, and precisely adjusted to the most correct pronunciation of words; the process of learning to read would doubtless be greatly facilitated. And yet any attempt toward such a reformation, any change short of the introduction of some entirely new mode of writing, would be both unwise and impracticable. It would involve our laws and literature in utter confusion, because pronunciation is the least permanent part of language; and if the orthography of words were conformed entirely to this standard, their origin and meaning would, in many instances, be soon lost. We must therefore content ourselves to learn languages as they are, and to make the best use we can of our present imperfect system of alphabetic characters; and we may be the better satisfied to do this, because the deficiencies and redundancies of this alphabet are not yet so well ascertained, as to make it certain what a perfect one would be. OBS. 2.--In order to have a right understanding of the letters, it is necessary to enumerate, as accurately as we can, the elementary _sounds_ of the language; and to attend carefully to the manner in which these sounds are enunciated, as well as to the characters by which they are represented. The most unconcerned observer cannot but perceive that there are certain differences in the sounds, as well as in the shapes, of the letters; and yet under what heads they ought severally to be classed, or how many of them will fall under some particular name, it may occasionally puzzle a philosopher to tell. The student must consider what is proposed or asked, use his own senses, and judge for himself. With our lower-case alphabet before him, he can tell by his own eye, which are the long letters, and which the short ones; so let him learn by his own ear, which are the vowels, and which, the consonants. The processes are alike simple; and, if he be neither blind nor deaf, he can do both about equally well. Thus he may know for a certainty, that _a_ is a short letter, and _b_ a long one; the former a vowel, the latter a consonant: and so of others. Yet as he may doubt whether _t_ is a long letter or a short one, so he may be puzzled to say whether _w_ and _y_, as heard in _we_ and _ye_, are vowels or consonants: but neither of these difficulties should impair his confidence in any of his other decisions. If he attain by observation and practice a clear and perfect pronunciation of the letters, he will be able to class them for himself with as much accuracy as he will find in books. OBS. 3.--Grammarians have generally agreed that every letter is either a vowel or a consonant; and also that there are among the latter some semivowels, some mutes, some aspirates, some liquids, some sharps, some flats, some labials, some dentals, some nasals, some palatals, and perhaps yet other species; but in enumerating the letters which belong to these several classes, they disagree so much as to make it no easy matter to ascertain what particular classification is best supported by their authority. I have adopted what I conceive to be the best authorized, and at the same time the most intelligible. He that dislikes the scheme, may do better, if he can. But let him with modesty determine what sort of discoveries may render our ancient authorities questionable. Aristotle, three hundred and thirty years before Christ, divided the Greek letters into _vowels, semivowels_, and _mutes_, and declared that no syllable could be formed without a vowel. In the opinion of some neoterics, it has been reserved to our age, to detect the fallacy of this. But I would fain believe that the Stagirite knew as well what he was saying, as did Dr. James Rush, when, in 1827, he declared the doctrine of vowels and consonants to be "a misrepresentation." The latter philosopher resolves the letters into "_tonics, subtonics_, and _atonics_;" and avers that "consonants alone may form syllables." Indeed, I cannot but think the ancient doctrine better. For, to say that "consonants alone may form syllables," is as much as to say that consonants are not consonants, but vowels! To be consistent, the attempters of this reformation should never speak of vowels or consonants, semivowels or mutes; because they judge the terms inappropriate, and the classification absurd. They should therefore adhere strictly to their "tonics, subtonics, and atonics;" which classes, though apparently the same as vowels, semivowels, and mutes, are better adapted to their new and peculiar division of these elements. Thus, by reforming both language and philosophy at once, they may make what they will of either! OBS. 4.--Some teach that _w_ and _y_ are always vowels: conceiving the former to be equivalent to _oo_, and the latter to _i_ or _e_. Dr. Lowth says, "_Y_ is always a vowel," and "_W_ is either a vowel or a diphthong." Dr. Webster supposes _w_ to be always "a vowel, a simple sound;" but admits that, "At the beginning of words, _y_ is called an _articulation_ or _consonant_, and _with some propriety perhaps_, as it brings the root of the tongue in close contact with the lower part of the palate, and nearly in the position to which the close _g_ brings it."--_American Dict., Octavo_. But I follow Wallis, Brightland, Johnson, Walker, Murray, Worcester, and others, in considering both of them sometimes vowels and sometimes consonants. They are consonants at the beginning of words in English, because their sounds take the article _a_, and not _an_, before them; as, _a wall, a yard_, and not, _an wall, an yard_. But _oo_ or the sound of _e_, requires _an_, and not _a_; as, _an eel, an oozy bog_.[94] At the end of a syllable we know they are vowels; but at the beginning, they are so squeezed in their pronunciation, as to follow a vowel without any hiatus, or difficulty of utterance; as, "_O worthy youth! so young, so wise!_" OBS. 5.--Murray's rule, "_W_ and _y_ are consonants when they begin a word or syllable, but in every other situation they are vowels," which is found in Comly's book, _Kirkham's_, Merchant's, Ingersoll's, Fisk's. Hart's, Hiley's, Alger's, Bullions's, Pond's, S. Putnam's, Weld's, and in sundry other grammars, is favourable to my doctrine, but too badly conceived to be quoted here as authority. It _undesignedly_ makes _w_ a consonant in _wine_, and a vowel in _twine_; and _y_ a consonant when it _forms_ a syllable, as in _dewy_: for a letter that _forms_ a syllable, "begins" it. But _Kirkham_ has lately learned his letters anew; and, supposing he had Dr. Rush on his side, has philosophically taken their names for their sounds. He now calls _y_ a "_diphthong_." But he is wrong here by his own showing: he should rather have called it a _triphthong_. He says, "By pronouncing in a very deliberate and perfectly natural manner, the letter _y_, (which is a _diphthong_,) the _unpractised_ student will perceive, that the sound produced, is compound; being formed, at its opening, of the obscure sound of _oo_ as heard in _oo_-ze, which sound rapidly slides into that of _i_, and then advances to that of _ee_ as heard in _e_-ve, _and_ on which it gradually passes off into silence."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 75. Thus the "unpractised student" is taught that _b-y_ spells _bwy_; or, if pronounced "very deliberately, _boo-i-ee_!" Nay, this grammatist makes _b_, not a labial mute, as Walker, Webster, Cobb, and others, have called it, but a nasal subtonic, or semivowel. He delights in protracting its "guttural murmur;" perhaps, in assuming its name for its sound; and, having proved, that "consonants are capable of forming syllables," finds no difficulty in mouthing this little monosyllable _by_ into _b-oo-i-ee!_ In this way, it is the easiest thing in the world, for such a man to outface Aristotle, or any other divider of the letters; for he _makes_ the sounds by which he judges. "Boy," says the teacher of Kirkham's Elocution, "describe the protracted sound of _y_."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 110. The pupil may answer, "That letter, sir, has no longer or more complex sound, than what is heard in the word _eye_, or in the vowel _i_; but the book which I study, describes it otherwise. I know not whether I can make you understand it, but I will _tr-oo-i-ee_." If the word _try_, which the author uses as an example, does not exhibit his "protracted sound of _y_," there is no word that does: the sound is a mere fiction, originating in strange ignorance. OBS. 6.--In the large print above, I have explained the principal classes of the letters, but not all that are spoken of in books. It is proper to inform the learner that the _sharp_ consonants are _t_, and all others after which our contracted preterits and participles require that _d_ should be sounded like _t_; as in the words faced, reached, stuffed, laughed, triumphed, croaked, cracked, houghed, reaped, nipped, piqued, missed, wished, earthed, betrothed, fixed. The _flat_ or _smooth_ consonants are _d_, and all others with which the proper sound of _d_ may be united; as in the words, daubed, judged, hugged, thronged, sealed, filled, aimed, crammed, pained, planned, feared, marred, soothed, loved, dozed, buzzed. The _labials_ are those consonants which are articulated chiefly by the lips; among which, Dr. Webster reckons _b, f, m, p_, and _v_. But Dr. Rush says, _b_ and _m_ are nasals, the latter, "purely nasal." [95] The _dentals_ are those consonants which are referred to the teeth; the _nasals_ are those which are affected by the nose; and the _palatals_ are those which compress the palate, as _k_ and hard _g_. But these last-named classes are not of much importance; nor have I thought it worth while to notice _minutely_ the opinions of writers respecting the others, as whether _h_ is a semivowel, or a mute, or neither. OBS. 7.--The Cherokee alphabet, which was invented in 1821, by See-quo-yah, or George Guess, an ingenious but wholly illiterate Indian, contains eighty-five letters, or characters. But the sounds of the language are much fewer than ours; for the characters represent, not simple tones and articulations, but _syllabic sounds_, and this number is said to be sufficient to denote them all. But the different syllabic sounds in our language amount to some thousands. I suppose, from the account, that _See-quo-yah_ writes his name, in his own language, with three letters; and that characters so used, would not require, and probably would not admit, such a division as that of vowels and consonants. One of the Cherokees, in a letter to the American Lyceum, states, that a knowledge of this mode of writing is so easily acquired, that one who understands and speaks the language, "can learn to read in a day; and, indeed," continues the writer, "I have known some to acquire the art in a single evening. It is only necessary to learn the different sounds of the characters, to be enabled to read at once. In the English language, we must not only first learn the letters, but to spell, before reading; but in Cherokee, all that is required, is, to learn the letters; for they have _syllabic sounds_, and by connecting different ones together, a word is formed: in which there is no art. All who understand the language can do so, and both read and write, so soon as they can learn to trace with their fingers the forms of the characters. I suppose that more than one half of the Cherokees can read their own language, and are thereby enabled to acquire much valuable information, with which they otherwise would never have been blessed."--_W. S. Coodey_, 1831. OBS. 8.--From the foregoing account, it would appear that the Cherokee language is a very peculiar one: its words must either be very few, or the proportion of polysyllables very great. The characters used in China and Japan, stand severally for _words_; and their number is said to be not less than seventy thousand; so that the study of a whole life is scarcely sufficient to make a man thoroughly master of them. Syllabic writing is represented by Dr. Blair as a great improvement upon the Chinese method, and yet as being far inferior to that which is properly _alphabetic_, like ours. "The first step, in this new progress," says he, "was the invention of an alphabet of syllables, which probably preceded the invention of an alphabet of letters, among some of the ancient nations; and which is said to be retained to this day, in Ethiopia, and some countries of India. By fixing upon a particular mark, or character, for every syllable in the language, the number of characters, necessary to be used in writing, was reduced within a much smaller compass than the number of words in the language. Still, however, the number of characters was great; and must have continued to render both reading and writing very laborious arts. Till, at last, some happy genius arose, and tracing the sounds made by the human voice, to their most simple elements, reduced them to a very few _vowels and consonants_; and, by affixing to each of these, the signs which we now call letters, taught men how, by their combinations, to put in writing all the different words, or combinations of sound, which they employed in speech. By being reduced to this simplicity, the art of writing was brought to its highest state of perfection; and, in this state, we now enjoy it in all the countries of Europe."--_Blair's Rhetoric_, Lect. VII, p. 68. OBS. 9.--All certain knowledge of the sounds given to the letters by Moses and the prophets having been long ago lost, a strange dispute has arisen, and been carried on for centuries, concerning this question, "Whether the Hebrew letters are, or are not, _all consonants_:" the vowels being supposed by some to be suppressed and understood; and not written, except by _points_ of comparatively late invention. The discussion of such a question does not properly belong to English grammar; but, on account of its curiosity, as well as of its analogy to some of our present disputes, I mention it. Dr. Charles Wilson says, "After we have sufficiently known the figures and names of the letters, the next step is, to learn to enunciate or to pronounce them, so as to produce articulate sounds. On this subject, which appears at first sight very plain and simple, numberless contentions and varieties of opinion meet us at the threshold. From the earliest period of the invention of written characters to represent human language, however more or less remote that time may be, it seems absolutely certain, that the distinction of letters into _vowels and consonants_ must have obtained. All the speculations of the Greek grammarians assume this as a first principle." Again: "I beg leave only to premise this observation, that I absolutely and unequivocally deny the position, that all the letters of the Hebrew alphabet are consonants; and, after the most careful and minute inquiry, give it as my opinion, that of the twenty-two letters of which the Hebrew alphabet consists, five are vowels and seventeen are consonants. The five vowels by name are, Aleph, He, Vau, Yod, and Ain."--_Wilson's Heb. Gram._, pp. 6 and 8. III. POWERS OF THE LETTERS. The powers of the letters are properly those elementary sounds which their figures are used to represent; but letters formed into words, are capable of communicating thought independently of sound. The simple elementary sounds of any language are few, commonly not more than _thirty-six_;[96] but they may be variously _combined_, so as to form words innumerable. Different vowel sounds, or vocal elements, are produced by opening the mouth differently, and placing the tongue in a peculiar manner for each; but the voice may vary in loudness, pitch, or time, and still utter the same vowel power. The _vowel sounds_ which form the basis of the English language, and which ought therefore to be perfectly familiar to every one who speaks it, are those which are heard at the beginning of the words, _ate, at, ah, all, eel, ell, isle, ill, old, on, ooze, use, us_, and that of _u_ in _bull_. In the formation of syllables, some of these fourteen primary sounds may be joined together, as in _ay, oil, out, owl_; and all of them may be preceded or followed by certain motions and positions of the lips and tongue, which will severally convert them into other terms in speech. Thus the same essential sounds may be changed into a new series of words by an _f_; as, _fate, fat, far, fall, feel, fell, file, fill, fold, fond, fool, fuse, fuss, full_. Again, into as many more with a _p_; as, _pate, pat, par, pall, peel, pell, pile, pill, pole, pond, pool, pule, purl, pull_. Each of the vowel sounds may be variously expressed by letters. About half of them are sometimes words: the rest are seldom, if ever, used alone even to form syllables. But the reader may easily learn to utter them all, separately, according to the foregoing series. Let us note them as plainly as possible: eigh, ~a, ah, awe, =eh, ~e, eye, ~i, oh, ~o, oo, yew, ~u, û. Thus the eight long sounds, _eigh, ah, awe, eh, eye, oh, ooh, yew_, are, or may be, words; but the six less vocal, called the short vowel sounds, as in _at, et, it, ot, ut, put_, are commonly heard only in connexion with consonants; except the first, which is perhaps the most frequent sound of the vowel A or _a_--a sound sometimes given to the word _a_, perhaps most generally; as in the phrase, "twice _~a_ day." The simple _consonant sounds_ in English are twenty-two: they are marked by _b, d, f, g hard, h, k, l, m, n, ng, p, r, s, sh, t, th sharp, th flat, v, w, y, z_, and _zh_. But _zh_ is written only to show the sound of other letters; as of _s_ in _pleasure_, or _z_ in _azure_. All these sounds are heard distinctly in the following words: _buy, die, fie, guy, high, kie, lie, my, nigh, eying, pie, rye, sigh, shy, tie, thigh, thy, vie, we, ye, zebra, seizure_. Again: most of them may be repeated in the same word, if not in the same syllable; as in _bibber, diddle, fifty, giggle, high-hung, cackle, lily, mimic, ninny, singing, pippin, mirror, hissest, flesh-brush, tittle, thinketh, thither, vivid, witwal, union,[97] dizzies, vision_. With us, the consonants J and X represent, not simple, but complex sounds: hence they are never doubled. J is equivalent to _dzh_; and X, either to _ks_ or to _gz_. The former ends no English word, and the latter begins none. To the initial X of foreign words, we always give the simple sound of Z; as in _Xerxes, xebec_. The consonants C and Q have no sounds peculiar to themselves. Q has always the power of _k_. C is hard, like _k_, before _a, o_, and _u_; and soft, like _s_, before _e, i_, and _y_: thus the syllables, _ca, ce, ci, co, cu, cy_, are pronounced, _ka, se, si, ko, ku, sy_. _S_ before _c_ preserves the former sound, but coalesces with the latter; hence the syllables, _sca, sce, sci, sco, scu, scy_, are sounded, _ska, se, si, sko, sku, sy_. _Ce_ and _ci_ have sometimes the sound of _sh_; as in _ocean, social_. _Ch_ commonly represents the compound sound of _tsh_; as in _church_. G, as well as C, has different sounds before different vowels. G is always hard, or guttural, before _a, o_, and _u_; and generally soft, like _j_, before _e, i_, or _y_: thus the syllables, _ga, ge, gi, go, gu, gy_, are pronounced _ga, je, ji, go, gu, jy_. The possible combinations and mutations of the twenty-six letters of our alphabet, are many millions of millions. But those clusters which are unpronounceable, are useless. Of such as may be easily uttered, there are more than enough for all the purposes of useful writing, or the recording of speech. Thus it is, that from principles so few and simple as about six or seven and thirty plain elementary sounds, represented by characters still fewer, we derive such a variety of oral and written signs, as may suffice to explain or record all the sentiments and transactions of all men in all ages. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--A knowledge of sounds can be acquired, in the first instance, only by the ear. No description of the manner of their production, or of the differences which distinguish them, can be at all intelligible to him who has not already, by the sense of hearing, acquired a knowledge of both. What I here say of the sounds of the letters, must of course be addressed to those persons only who are able both to speak and to read English. Why then attempt instruction by a method which both ignorance and knowledge on the part of the pupil, must alike render useless? I have supposed some readers to have such an acquaintance with the powers of the letters, as is but loose and imperfect; sufficient for the accurate pronunciation of some words or syllables, but leaving them liable to mistakes in others; extending perhaps to all the sounds of the language, but not to a ready analysis or enumeration of them. Such persons may profit by a written description of the powers of the letters, though no such description can equal the clear impression of the living voice. Teachers, too, whose business it is to aid the articulation of the young, and, by a patient inculcation of elementary principles, to lay the foundation of an accurate pronunciation, may derive some assistance from any notation of these principles, which will help their memory, or that of the learner. The connexion between letters and sounds is altogether _arbitrary_; but a few positions, being assumed and made known, in respect to some characters, become easy standards for further instruction in respect to others of similar sound. OBS. 2.--The importance of being instructed at an early age, to pronounce with distinctness and facility all the elementary sounds of one's native language, has been so frequently urged, and is so obvious in itself, that none but those who have been themselves neglected, will be likely to disregard the claims of their children in this respect.[98] But surely an accurate knowledge of the ordinary powers of the letters would be vastly more common, were there not much hereditary negligence respecting the manner in which these important rudiments are learned. The utterance of the illiterate may exhibit wit and native talent, but it is always more or less barbarous, because it is not aided by a knowledge of orthography. For pronunciation and orthography, however they may seem, in our language especially, to be often at variance, are certainly correlative: a true knowledge of either tends to the preservation of both. Each of the letters represents some one or more of the elementary sounds, exclusive of the rest; and each of the elementary sounds, though several of them are occasionally transferred, has some one or two letters to which it most properly or most frequently belongs. But borrowed, as our language has been, from a great variety of sources, to which it is desirable ever to retain the means of tracing it, there is certainly much apparent lack of correspondence between its oral and its written form. Still the discrepancies are few, when compared with the instances of exact conformity; and, if they are, as I suppose they are, unavoidable, it is as useless to complain of the trouble they occasion, as it is to think of forcing a reconciliation. The wranglers in this controversy, can never agree among themselves, whether orthography shall conform to pronunciation, or pronunciation to orthography. Nor does any one of them well know how our language would either sound or look, were he himself appointed sole arbiter of all variances between our spelling and our speech. OBS. 3.--"Language," says Dr. Rush, "was long ago analyzed into its alphabetic elements. Wherever this analysis is known, the art of teaching language has, with the best success, been conducted upon the rudimental method." * * * "The art of reading consists in having all the vocal elements under complete command, that they may be properly applied, for the vivid and elegant delineation of the sense and sentiment of discourse."--_Philosophy of the Voice_, p. 346. Again, of "the pronunciation of the alphabetic elements," he says, "The least deviation _from the assumed standard_ converts the listener into the critic; and I am surely speaking within bounds when I say, that for every miscalled element in discourse, ten succeeding words are lost to the greater part of an audience."--_Ibid._, p. 350. These quotations plainly imply both the practicability and the importance of teaching the pronunciation of our language analytically by means of its present orthography, and agreeably to the standard assumed by the grammarians. The first of them affirms that it has been done, "with the best success," according to some ancient method of dividing the letters and explaining their sounds. And yet, both before and afterwards, we find this same author complaining of our alphabet and its subdivisions, as if sense or philosophy must utterly repudiate both; and of our orthography, as if a ploughman might teach us to spell better: and, at the same time, he speaks of softening his censure through modesty. "The deficiencies, redundancies, and confusion, of the system of alphabetic characters in this language, prevent the adoption of its subdivisions in this essay."--_Ib._, p. 52. Of the specific sounds given to the letters, he says, "The first of these matters is under the rule of every body, and therefore is very properly to be excluded from the discussions of that philosophy which desires to be effectual in its instruction. How can we hope to establish a system of elemental pronunciation in a language, when great masters in criticism condemn at once every attempt, in so simple and useful a labour as the correction of its orthography!"--P. 256. Again: "I _deprecate noticing_ the faults of speakers, in the pronunciation of the alphabetic elements. It is better for criticism to be modest on this point, till it has the sense or independence to make our alphabet and its uses, look more like the work of what is called--wise and transcendent humanity: till the pardonable variety of pronunciation, and the _true spelling by the vulgar_, have satirized into reformation that pen-craft which keeps up the troubles of orthography for no other purpose, as one can divine, than to boast of a very questionable merit as a criterion of education."--_Ib._, p. 383. OBS. 4.--How far these views are compatible, the reader will judge. And it is hoped he will excuse the length of the extracts, from a consideration of the fact, that a great master of the "pen-craft" here ridiculed, a noted stickler for needless Kays and Ues, now commonly rejected, while he boasts that his grammar, which he mostly copied from Murray's, is teaching the old explanation of the alphabetic elements to "more than one hundred thousand children and youth," is also vending under his own name an abstract of the new scheme of "_tonicks, subtonicks_, and _atonicks_;" and, in one breath, bestowing superlative praise on both, in order, as it would seem, to monopolize all inconsistency. "Among those who have successfully laboured in the philological field, _Mr. Lindley Murray_ stands forth in bold relief, as undeniably at the head of the list."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 12. "The modern candidate for oratorical fame, stands on very different, and far more advantageous, ground, than that occupied by the young and aspiring Athenian; especially since a _correct analysis of the vocal organs_, and a faithful record of their operations, have been given to the world by _Dr. James Rush_, of Philadelphia--a name that will _outlive_ the unquarried marble of our mountains."--_Ibid._, p. 29. "But what is to be said when presumption pushes itself into the front ranks of elocution, and thoughtless friends undertake to support it? The fraud must go on, till presumption quarrels, as often happens, with its own friends, or with itself, and thus dissolves the spell of its merits."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 405. OBS. 5.--The question respecting the _number_ of simple or elementary sounds in our language, presents a remarkable puzzle: and it is idle, if not ridiculous, for any man to declaim about the imperfection of our alphabet and orthography, who does not show himself able to solve it. All these sounds may easily be written in a plain sentence of three or four lines upon almost any subject; and every one who can read, is familiar with them all, and with all the letters. Now it is either easy _to count_ them, or it is difficult. If difficult, wherein does the difficulty lie? and how shall he who knows not what and how many they are, think himself capable of reforming our system of their alphabetic signs? If easy, why do so few pretend to know their number? and of those who do pretend to this knowledge, why are there so few that agree? A certain verse in the seventh chapter of Ezra, has been said to contain all the letters. It however contains no _j_; and, with respect to the sounds, it lacks that of _f_, that of _th sharp_, and that of _u_ in _bull_. I will suggest a few additional words for these; and then both all the letters, and all the sounds, of the English language, will be found in the example; and most of them, many times over: "'And I, even I, Artaxerxes, the king, do make a decree to all the treasurers' who 'are beyond the river, that whatsoever Ezra the priest, the scribe of the law of the God of heaven, shall require of you, it be done speedily' and faithfully, according to that which he shall enjoin." Some letters, and some sounds, are here used much more frequently than others; but, on an average, we have, in this short passage, each sound five times, and each letter eight. How often, then, does a man speak all the elements of his language, who reads well but one hour! OBS. 6.--Of the number of elementary sounds in our language, different orthoëpists report differently; because they cannot always agree among themselves, wherein the identity or the simplicity, the sameness or the singleness, even of well-known sounds, consists; or because, if each is allowed to determine these points for himself, no one of them adheres strictly to his own decision. They may also, each for himself, have some peculiar way of utterance, which will confound some sounds which other men distinguish, or distinguish some which other men confound. For, as a man may write a very bad hand which shall still be legible, so he may utter many sounds improperly and still be understood. One may, in this way, make out a scheme of the alphabetic elements, which shall be true of his own pronunciation, and yet have obvious faults when tried by the best usage of English speech. It is desirable not to multiply these sounds beyond the number which a correct and elegant pronunciation of the language obviously requires. And what that number is, it seems to me not very difficult to ascertain; at least, I think we may fix it with sufficient accuracy for all practical purposes. But let it be remembered, that all who have hitherto attempted the enumeration, have deviated more or less from their own decisions concerning either the simplicity or the identity of sounds; but, most commonly, it appears to have been thought expedient to admit some exceptions concerning both. Thus the long or diphthongal sounds of _I_ and _U_, are admitted by some, and excluded by others; the sound of _j_, or soft _g_, is reckoned as simple by some, and rejected as compound by others; so a part, if not all, of what are called the long and the short vowels, as heard in _ale_ and _ell, arm_ and _am, all_ and _on, isle_ or _eel_ and _ill, tone_ and _tun, pule_ or _pool_ and _pull_, have been declared essentially the same by some, and essentially different by others. Were we to recognize as elementary, no sounds but such as are unquestionably simple in themselves, and indisputably different in quality from all others, we should not have more sounds than letters: and this is a proof that we have characters enough, though the sounds are perhaps badly distributed among them. OBS. 7.--I have enumerated _thirty-six_ well known sounds, which, in compliance with general custom, and for convenience in teaching. I choose to regard as the oral elements of our language. There may be found some reputable authority for adding four or five more, and other authority as reputable, for striking from the list seven or eight of those already mentioned. For the sake of the general principle, which we always regard in writing, a principle of universal grammar, _that there can be no syllable without a vowel_, I am inclined to teach, with Brightland, Dr. Johnson, L. Murray, and others, that, in English, as in French, there is given to the vowel _e_ a certain very obscure sound which approaches, but amounts not to an absolute suppression, though it is commonly so regarded by the writers of dictionaries. It may be exemplified in the words _oven, shovel, able_;[99] or in the unemphatic article _the_ before a consonant, as in the sentence, "Take the nearest:" we do not hear it as "_thee nearest_," nor as "_then carest_," but more obscurely. There is also a feeble sound of _i_ or _y_ unaccented, which is equivalent to _ee_ uttered feebly, as in the word _diversity_. This is the most common sound of _i_ and of _y_. The vulgar are apt to let it fall into the more obscure sound of short _u_. As elegance of utterance depends much upon the preservation of this sound from such obtuseness, perhaps Walker and others have done well to mark it as _e_ in _me_; though some suppose it to be peculiar, and others identify it with the short _i_ in _fit_. Thirdly, a distinction is made by some writers, between the vowel sounds heard in _hate_ and _bear_, which Sheridan and Walker consider to be the same. The apparent difference may perhaps result from the following consonant _r_, which is apt to affect the sound of the vowel which precedes it. Such words as _bear, care, dare, careful, parent_, are very liable to be corrupted in pronunciation, by too broad a sound of the _a_; and, as the multiplication of needless distinctions should be avoided, I do not approve of adding an other sound to a vowel which has already quite too many. Worcester, however, in his new Dictionary, and Wells, in his new Grammar, give to the vowel A _six_ or _seven_ sounds in lieu of _four_; and Dr. Mandeville, in his Course of Reading, says, "_A_ has _eight_ sounds."--P. 9. OBS. 8.--Sheridan made the elements of his oratory _twenty-eight_. Jones followed him implicitly, and adopted the same number.[100] Walker recognized several more, but I know not whether he has anywhere told us _how many there are_. Lindley Murray enumerates _thirty-six_, and the same thirty-six that are given in the main text above. The eight sounds not counted by Sheridan are these: 1. The Italian _a_, as in _far, father_, which he reckoned but a lengthening of the _a_ in _hat_; 2. The short _o_, as in _hot_, which he supposed to be but a shortening of the _a_ in _hall_; 3. The diphthongal _i_, as in _isle_, which he thought but a quicker union of the sounds of the diphthong _oi_, but which, in my opinion, is rather a very quick union of the sounds _ah_ and _ee_ into _ay, I_;[101] 4. The long _u_, which is acknowledged to be equal to _yu_ or _yew_, though perhaps a little different from _you_ or _yoo_,[102] the sound given it by Walker; 5. The _u_ heard in _pull_, which he considered but a shortening of _oo_; 6. The consonant _w_, which he conceived to be always a vowel, and equivalent to _oo_; 7. The consonant _y_, which he made equal to a short _ee_; 8. The consonant _h_, which he declared to be no letter, but a mere breathing, In all other respects, his scheme of the alphabetic elements agrees with that which is adopted in this work, and which is now most commonly taught. OBS. 9.--The effect of _Quantity_ in the prolation of the vowels, is a matter with which every reader ought to be experimentally acquainted. _Quantity_ is simply the _time_ of utterance, whether long or short. It is commonly spoken of with reference to _syllables_, because it belongs severally to all the distinct or numerable impulses of the voice, and to these only; but, as vowels or diphthongs may be uttered alone, the notion of quantity is of course as applicable to them, as to any of the more complex sounds in which consonants are joined with them. All sounds imply time; because they are the transient effects of certain percussions which temporarily agitate the air, an element that tends to silence. When mighty winds have swept over sea and land, and the voice of the _Ocean_ is raised, he speaks to the towering cliffs in the deep tones of a _long_ quantity; the rolling billows, as they meet the shore, pronounce the long-drawn syllables of his majestic elocution. But see him again in gentler mood; stand upon the beach and listen to the rippling of his more frequent waves: he will teach you _short_ quantity, as well as long. In common parlance, to avoid tediousness, to save time, and to adapt language to circumstances, we usually utter words with great rapidity, and in comparatively short quantity. But in oratory, and sometimes in ordinary reading, those sounds which are best fitted to fill and gratify the ear, should be sensibly protracted, especially in emphatic words; and even the shortest syllable, must be so lengthened as to be uttered with perfect clearness: otherwise the performance will be judged defective. OBS. 10.--Some of the vowels are usually uttered in longer time than others; but whether the former are naturally long, and the latter naturally short, may be doubted: the common opinion is, that they are. But one author at least denies it; and says, "We must explode the pretended natural epithets _short_ and _long_ given to our vowels, independent on accent: and we must observe that our silent _e_ final lengthens not its syllable, unless the preceding vowel be accented."--_Mackintosh's Essay on E. Gram._, p. 232. The distinction of long and short vowels which has generally obtained, and the correspondences which some writers have laboured to establish between them, have always been to me sources of much embarrassment. It would appear, that in one or two instances, sounds that differ only in length, or time, are commonly recognized as different elements; and that grammarians and orthoëpists, perceiving this, have attempted to carry out the analogy, and to find among what they call the long vowels a parent sound for each of the short ones. In doing this, they have either neglected to consult the ear, or have not chosen to abide by its verdict. I suppose the vowels heard in _pull_ and _pool_ would be necessarily identified, if the former were protracted or the latter shortened; and perhaps there would be a like coalescence of those heard in _of_ and _all_, were they tried in the same way, though I am not sure of it. In protracting the _e_ in _met_, and the _i_ in _ship_, ignorance or carelessness might perhaps, with the help of our orthoëpists, convert the former word into _mate_ and the latter into _sheep_; and, as this would breed confusion in the language, the avoiding of the similarity may perhaps be a sufficient reason for confining these two sounds of _e_ and _i_, to that short quantity in which they cannot be mistaken. But to suppose, as some do, that the protraction of _u_ in _tun_ would identify it with the _o_ in _tone_, surpasses any notion I have of what stupidity may misconceive. With one or two exceptions, therefore, it appears to me that each of the pure vowel sounds is of such a nature, that it may be readily recognized by its own peculiar quality or tone, though it be made as long or as short as it is possible for any sound of the human voice to be. It is manifest that each of the vowel sounds heard in _ate, at, arm, all, eel, old, ooze, us_, may be protracted to the entire extent of a full breath slowly expended, and still be precisely the same one simple sound;[103] and, on the contrary, that all but one may be shortened to the very minimum of vocality, and still be severally known without danger of mistake. The prolation of a pure vowel places the organs of utterance in that particular position which the sound of the letter requires, and then _holds them unmoved_ till we have given to it all the length we choose. OBS. 11.--In treating of the quantity and quality of the vowels, Walker says, "The first distinction of sound that seems to obtrude itself upon us when we utter the vowels, is a long and a short sound, according to the greater or less duration of time taken up in pronouncing them. This distinction is so obvious as to have been adopted in all languages, and is that to which we annex _clearer ideas than to any other_; and though the short sounds of some vowels have not in our language been classed with sufficient accuracy with their parent long ones, yet this has bred but little confusion, as vowels long and short are always sufficiently distinguishable."--_Principles_, No. 63. Again: "But though the terms long and short, as applied to vowels, are pretty generally understood, an accurate ear will easily perceive that these terms do not always mean the long and short sounds of the respective vowels to which they are applied; for, if we choose to be directed by the ear, in denominating vowels long or short, we must certainly give these appellations to those sounds only which have _exactly the same radical tone_, and differ only in the long or short emission of that tone."--_Ib._, No. 66. He then proceeds to state his opinion that the vowel sounds heard in the following words are thus correspondent: _tame, them; car, carry; wall, want; dawn, gone; theme, him; tone_, nearly _tun; pool, pull_. As to the long sounds of _i_ or _y_, and of _u_, these two being diphthongal, he supposes the short sound of each to be no other than the short sound of its latter element _ee_ or _oo_. Now to me most of this is exceedingly unsatisfactory; and I have shown why. OBS. 12.--If men's notions of the length and shortness of vowels are the clearest ideas they have in relation to the elements of speech, how comes it to pass that of all the disputable points in grammar, this is the most perplexed with contrarieties of opinion? In coming before the world as an author, no man intends to place himself clearly in the wrong; yet, on the simple powers of the letters, we have volumes of irreconcilable doctrines. A great connoisseur in things of this sort, who professes to have been long "in the habit of listening to sounds of every description, and that with more than ordinary attention," declares in a recent and expensive work, that "in every language we find the vowels _incorrectly classed_"; and, in order to give to "the simple elements of English utterance" a better explanation than others have furnished, he devotes to a new analysis of our alphabet the ample space of twenty octavo pages, besides having several chapters on subjects connected with it. And what do his twenty pages amount to? I will give the substance of them in ten lines, and the reader may judge. He does not tell us _how many_ elementary sounds there are; but, professing to arrange the vowels, long and short, "in the order in which they are naturally found," as well as to show of the consonants that the mutes and liquids form correspondents in regular pairs, he presents a scheme which I abbreviate as follows. VOWELS: 1. _A_, as in _=all_ and _wh~at_, or _o_, as in _orifice_ and _n~ot_; 2. _U--=urn_ and _h~ut_, or _l=ove_ and _c~ome_; 3. _O--v=ote_ and _ech~o_; 4. _A--=ah_ and _h~at_; 5. _A--h=azy_, no short sound; 6. _E--=e=el_ and _it_; 7. _E--m=ercy_ and _m~et_; 8. _O--pr=ove_ and _ad~o_; 9. _OO--t=o=ol_ and _f~o~ot_; 10. _W--vo=w_ and _la~w_; 11. _Y_--(like the first _e_--) _s=yntax_ and _dut~y_. DIPHTHONGS: 1. _I_--as _ah-ee_; 2. _U_--as _ee-oo_; 3. _OU_--as _au-oo_. CONSONANTS: 1. Mutes,--_c_ or _s, f, h, k_ or _q, p, t, th sharp, sh_; 2. Liquids,--_l_, which has no corresponding mute, and _z, v, r, ng, m, n, th flat_ and _j_, which severally correspond to the eight mutes in their order; 3. Subliquids,--_g hard, b_, and _d_. See "Music of Nature," by _William Gardiner_, p. 480, and after. OBS. 13.--Dr. Rush comes to the explanation of the powers of the letters as the confident first revealer of nature's management and wisdom; and hopes to have laid the foundation of a system of instruction in reading and oratory, which, if adopted and perfected, "will beget a similarity of opinion and practice," and "be found to possess an excellence which must grow into sure and irreversible favour."--_Phil. of the Voice_, p. 404. "We have been willing," he says, "_to believe, on faith alone_, that nature is wise in the contrivance of speech. Let us now show, by our works of analysis, how she manages the _simple elements_ of the voice, in the production of their unbounded combinations."--_Ibid._, p. 44. Again: "Every one, with peculiar self-satisfaction, thinks he reads well, and yet all read differently: there is, however, _but one mode_ of reading well."--_Ib._, p. 403. That one mode, some say, his philosophy alone teaches. Of that, others may judge. I shall only notice here what seems to be his fundamental position, that, on all the vocal elements of language, nature has stamped duplicity. To establish this extraordinary doctrine, he first attempts to prove, that "the letter _a_, as heard in the word _day_," combines two distinguishable yet inseparable sounds; that it is a compound of what he calls, with reference to vowels and syllables in general, "the radical and the vanishing movement of the voice,"--a single and indivisible element in which "two sounds are heard continuously successive," the sounds of _a_ and _e_ as in _ale_ and _eve_. He does not know that some grammarians have contended that _ay_ in _day_ is a proper diphthong, in which both the vowels are heard; but, so pronouncing it himself, infers from the experiment, that there is no simpler sound of the vowel a. If this inference is not wrong, the word _shape_ is to be pronounced _sha-epe_; and, in like manner, a multitude of other words will acquire a new element not commonly heard in them. OBS. 14.--But the doctrine stops not here. The philosopher examines, in some similar way, the other simple vowel sounds, and finds a beginning and an end, a base and an apex, a radical and a vanishing movement, to them all; and imagines a sufficient warrant from nature to divide them all "into two parts," and to convert most of them into diphthongs, as well as to include all diphthongs with them, as being altogether as simple and elementary. Thus he begins with confounding all distinction between diphthongs and simple vowels; except that which he makes for himself when he admits "the radical and the vanish," the first half of a sound and the last, to have no difference in quality. This admission is made with respect to the vowels heard in _ooze, eel, err, end_, and _in_, which he calls, not diphthongs, but "monothongs." But in the _a_ of _ale_, he hears _=a'-ee_; in that of _an, ~a'-~e_; (that is, the short _a_ followed by something of the sound of _e_ in _err_;) in that of _art, ah'~-e_; in that of _all, awe'-~e_; in the _i_ of _isle, =i'-ee_; in the _o_ of _old, =o'-oo_; in the proper diphthong _ou, ou'-oo_; in the _oy_ of _boy_, he knows not what. After his explanation of these mysteries, he says, "The seven radical sounds with their vanishes, which have been described, include, as far as I can perceive, all the elementary diphthongs of the English language."--_Ib._, p. 60. But all the sounds of the vowel _u_, whether diphthongal or simple, are excluded from his list, unless he means to represent one of them by the _e_ in _err_; and the complex vowel sound heard in _voice_ and _boy_, is confessedly omitted on account of a doubt whether it consists of two sounds or of three! The elements which he enumerates are thirty-five; but if _oi_ is not a triphthong, they are to be thirty-six. Twelve are called "_Tonics_; and are heard in the usual sound of the separated _Italics_, in the following words: _A_-ll, _a_-rt, _a_-n, _a_-le, _ou_-r, _i_-sle, _o_-ld, _ee_-l, _oo_-ze, _e_-rr, _e_-nd, _i_-n,"--_Ib._, p. 53. Fourteen are called "_Subtonics_; and are marked by the separated Italics, in the following words: _B_-ow, _d_-are, _g_-ive, _v_-ile, _z_-one, _y_-e, _w_-o, _th_-en, a-_z_-ure, si-_ng_, _l_-ove, _m_-ay, _n_-ot, _r_-oe."--_Ib._, p. 54. Nine are called "_Atonics_; they are heard in the words, U-_p_, ou-_t_, ar-_k_, i-_f_, ye-_s, h_-e, _wh_-eat, _th_-in, pu-_sh_."--_Ib._, p. 56. My opinion of this scheme of the alphabet the reader will have anticipated. IV. FORMS OF THE LETTERS. In printed books of the English language, the Roman characters are generally employed; sometimes, the _Italic_; and occasionally, the [Font change: Old English]: but in handwriting, [Font change: Script letters] are used, the forms of which are peculiarly adapted to the pen. Characters of different sorts or sizes should never be _needlessly mixed_; because facility of reading, as well as the beauty of a book, depends much upon the regularity of its letters. In the ordinary forms of the Roman letters, every thick stroke that slants, slants from the left to the right downwards, except the middle stroke in Z; and every thin stroke that slants, slants from the left to the right upwards. Italics are chiefly used to distinguish emphatic or remarkable words: in the Bible, they show what words were supplied by the translators. In manuscripts, a single line drawn under a word is meant for Italics; a double line, for small capitals; a triple line, for full capitals. In every kind of type or character, the letters have severally _two forms_, by which they are distinguished as _capitals_ and _small letters_. Small letters constitute the body of every work; and capitals are used for the sake of eminence and distinction. The titles of books, and the heads of their principal divisions, are printed wholly in capitals. Showbills, painted signs, and short inscriptions, commonly appear best in full capitals. Some of these are so copied in books; as, "I found an altar with this inscription, TO THE UNKNOWN GOD."--_Acts_, xvii, 23. "And they set up over his head, his accusation written, THIS IS JESUS, THE KING OF THE JEWS."--_Matt._, xxvii, 37. RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS. RULE I.--OF BOOKS. When particular books are mentioned by their names, the chief words in their titles begin with capitals, and the other letters are small; as, "Pope's Essay on Man"--"the Book of Common Prayer"--"the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments." [104] RULE II.--FIRST WORDS. The first word of every distinct sentence, or of any clause separately numbered or paragraphed, should begin with a capital; as, "Rejoice evermore. Pray without ceasing. In every thing give thanks: for this is the will of God in Christ Jesus concerning you. Quench not the Spirit. Despise not prophesyings. Prove all things: hold fast that which is good."--_1 Thess._, v, 16--21. "14. He has given his assent to their acts of pretended legislation: 15. _For_ quartering large bodies of armed troops among us: 16. _For_ protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for murders: 17. _For_ cutting off our trade with all parts of the world: 18. _For_ imposing taxes on us without our consent:" &c. _Declaration of American Independence._ RULE III.--OF THE DEITY. All names of the Deity, and sometimes their emphatic substitutes, should begin with capitals; as, "God, Jehovah, the Almighty, the Supreme Being, Divine Providence, the Messiah, the Comforter, the Father, the Son, the Holy Spirit, the Lord of Sabaoth." "The hope of my spirit turns trembling to Thee."--_Moore_. RULE IV.--PROPER NAMES. Proper names, of every description, should always begin with capitals; as, "Saul of Tarsus, Simon Peter, Judas Iscariot, England, London, the Strand, the Thames, the Pyrenees, the Vatican, the Greeks, the Argo and the Argonauts." RULE V.--OF TITLES. Titles of office or honour, and epithets of distinction, applied to persons, begin usually with capitals; as, "His Majesty William the Fourth, Chief Justice Marshall, Sir Matthew Hale, Dr. Johnson, the Rev. Dr. Chalmers, Lewis the Bold, Charles the Second, James the Less, St. Bartholomew, Pliny the Younger, Noah Webster, Jun., Esq." RULE VI.--ONE CAPITAL. Those compound proper names which by analogy incline to a union of their parts without a hyphen, should be so written, and have but one capital: as, "Eastport, Eastville, Westborough, Westfield, Westtown, Whitehall, Whitechurch, Whitehaven, Whiteplains, Mountmellick, Mountpleasant, Germantown, Germanflats, Blackrock, Redhook, Kinderhook, Newfoundland, Statenland, Newcastle, Northcastle, Southbridge, Fairhaven, Dekalb, Deruyter, Lafayette, Macpherson." RULE VII.--TWO CAPITALS. The compounding of a name under one capital should be avoided when the general analogy of other similar terms suggests a separation under two; as, "The chief mountains of Ross-shire are Ben Chat, _Benchasker_, Ben Golich, Ben Nore, Ben Foskarg, and Ben Wyvis."--_Glasgow Geog._, Vol. ii, p. 311. Write _Ben Chasker_. So, when the word _East, West, North_, or _South_, as part of a name, denotes relative position, or when the word _New_ distinguishes a place by contrast, we have generally separate words and two capitals; as, "East Greenwich, West Greenwich, North Bridgewater, South Bridgewater, New Jersey, New Hampshire." RULE VIII.--COMPOUNDS. When any adjective or common noun is made a distinct part of a compound proper name, it ought to begin with a capital; as, "The United States, the Argentine Republic, the Peak of Teneriffe, the Blue Ridge, the Little Pedee, Long Island, Jersey City, Lower Canada, Green Bay, Gretna Green, Land's End, the Gold Coast." RULE IX.--APPOSITION. When a common and a proper name are associated merely to explain each other, it is in general sufficient, if the proper name begin with a capital, and the appellative, with a small letter; as, "The prophet Elisha, Matthew the publican, the brook Cherith, the river Euphrates, the Ohio river, Warren county, Flatbush village, New York city." RULE X.--PERSONIFICATIONS. The name of an object personified, when it conveys an idea strictly individual, should begin with a capital; as, "Upon this, _Fancy_ began again to bestir herself."--_Addison_. "Come, gentle _Spring_, ethereal mildness, come."--_Thomson_. RULE XI.--DERIVATIVES. Words derived from proper names, and having direct reference to particular persons, places, sects, or nations, should begin with capitals; as, "Platonic, Newtonian, Greek, or Grecian, Romish, or Roman, Italic, or Italian, German, or Germanic, Swedish, Turkish, Chinese, Genoese, French, Dutch, Scotch, Welsh:" so, perhaps, "to Platonize, Grecize, Romanize, Italicize, Latinize, or Frenchify." RULE XII.--OF I AND O. The words _I_ and _O_ should always be capitals; as, "Praise the Lord, O Jerusalem; praise thy God, O Zion."--_Psalm_ cxlvii. "O wretched man that I am!"--"For that which I do, I allow not: for what I would, that do I not; but what I hate, that do I."--_Rom._, vii, 24 and 15. RULE XIII.--OF POETRY. Every line in poetry, except what is regarded as making but one verse with the line preceding, should begin with a capital; as, "Our sons their fathers' failing language see, And such as Chaucer is, shall Dryden be."--_Pope_. Of the exception, some editions of the Psalms in Metre are full of examples; as, "Happy the man whose tender care relieves the poor distress'd! When troubles compass him around, the Lord shall give him rest." _Psalms with Com. Prayer, N. Y._, 1819, Ps. xli. RULE XIV.--OF EXAMPLES. The first word of a full example, of a distinct speech, or of a direct quotation, should begin with a capital; as, "Remember this maxim: 'Know thyself.'"--"Virgil says, 'Labour conquers all things.'"--"Jesus answered them, Is it not written in your law, I said, Ye are gods?"--_John_, x, 34. "Thou knowest the commandments, Do not commit adultery, Do not kill, Do not steal, Do not bear false witness, Honour thy father and thy mother."--_Luke_, xviii, 20. RULE XV.--CHIEF WORDS. Other words of particular importance, and such as denote the principal subjects treated of, may be distinguished by capitals; and names subscribed frequently have capitals throughout: as, "In its application to the Executive, with reference to the Legislative branch of the Government, the same rule of action should make the President ever anxious to avoid the exercise of any discretionary authority which can be regulated by Congress."--ANDREW JACKSON, 1835. RULE XVI.--NEEDLESS CAPITALS. Capitals are improper wherever there is not some special rule or reason for their use: a century ago books were disfigured by their frequency; as, "Many a Noble _Genius_ is lost for want of _Education_. Which wou'd then be Much More Liberal. As it was when the _Church_ Enjoy'd her _Possessions_. And _Learning_ was, in the _Dark Ages_, Preserv'd almost only among the _Clergy_."--CHARLES LESLIE, 1700; _Divine Right of Tythes_, p. 228. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--The letters of the alphabet, read by their names, are equivalent to words. They are a sort of universal signs, by which we may mark and particularize objects of any sort, named or nameless; as, "To say, therefore, that while A and B are both quadrangular, A is more or less quadrangular than B, is absurd."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 50. Hence they are used in the sciences as symbols of an infinite variety of things or ideas, being construed both substantively and adjectively; as, "In ascending from the note C to D, the interval is equal to an inch; and from D to E, the same."--_Music of Nature_, p. 293. "We have only to imagine the G clef placed below it."--_Ib._ Any of their forms may be used for such purposes, but the custom of each science determines our choice. Thus Algebra employs small Italics; Music, Roman capitals; Geometry, for the most part, the same; Astronomy, Greek characters; and Grammar, in some part or other, every sort. Examples: "Then comes _answer_ like an ABC book."--_Beauties of Shakspeare_, p. 97. "Then comes _question_ like an _a, b, c_, book.--_Shakspeare_." See A, B, C, in _Johnson's quarto Dict._ Better:--"like an _A-Bee-Cee_ book." "For A, his magic pen evokes an O, And turns the tide of Europe on the foe."--_Young_. OBS. 2.--A lavish use of capitals defeats the very purpose for which the letters were distinguished in rank; and carelessness in respect to the rules which govern them, may sometimes misrepresent the writer's meaning. On many occasions, however, their use or disuse is arbitrary, and must be left to the judgement and taste of authors and printers. Instances of this kind will, for the most part, concern _chief words_, and come under the fifteenth rule above. In this grammar, the number of rules is increased; but the foregoing are still perhaps too few to establish an accurate uniformity. They will however tend to this desirable result; and if doubts arise in their application, the difficulties will be in particular examples only, and not in the general principles of the rules. For instance: In 1 Chron., xxix, 10th, some of our Bibles say, "Blessed be thou, LORD God of Israel our father, for ever and ever." Others say, "Blessed be thou, LORD God of Israel, our Father, for ever and ever." And others, "Blessed be thou, LORD God of Israel our Father, for ever and ever." The last is wrong, either in the capital F, or for lack of a comma after _Israel_. The others differ in meaning; because they construe the word _father_, or _Father_, differently. Which is right I know not. The first agrees with the Latin Vulgate, and the second, with the Greek text of the Septuagint; which two famous versions here disagree, without ambiguity in either.[105] OBS. 3.--The innumerable discrepancies in respect to capitals, which, to a greater or less extent, disgrace the very best editions of our most popular books, are a sufficient evidence of the want of better directions on this point. In amending the rules for this purpose, I have not been able entirely to satisfy myself; and therefore must needs fail to satisfy the very critical reader. But the public shall have the best instructions I can give. On Rule 1st, concerning _Books_, it may be observed, that when particular books or writings are mentioned by other terms than their real titles, the principle of the rule does not apply. Thus, one may call Paradise Lost, "Milton's _great poem_;" or the Diversions of Purley, "the _etymological investigations_ of Horne Tooke." So it is written in the Bible, "And there was delivered unto him _the book of the prophet_ Esaias."--_Luke_, iv, 17. Because the name of Esaias, or Isaiah, seems to be the only proper title of his book. OBS. 4.--On Rule 2d, concerning _First Words_, it may be observed, that the using of other points than the period, to separate sentences that are totally distinct in sense, as is sometimes practised in quoting, is no reason for the omission of capitals at the beginning of such sentences; but, rather, an obvious reason for their use. Our grammarians frequently manufacture a parcel of puerile examples, and, with the formality of apparent quotation, throw them together in the following manner: "He is above disguise;" "we serve under a good master;" "he rules over a willing people;" "we should do nothing beneath our character."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 118. These sentences, and all others so related, should, unquestionably, begin with capitals. Of themselves, they are distinct enough to be separated by the period and a dash. With examples of one's own making, the quotation points may be used or not, as the writer pleases; but not on their insertion or omission, nor even on the quality of the separating point, depends in all cases the propriety or impropriety of using initial capitals. For example: "The Future Tense is the form of the verb which denotes future time; as, John _will come_, you shall go, they will learn, the sun will rise to-morrow, he will return next week."--_Frazee's Improved Gram._, p. 38; _Old Edition_, 35. To say nothing of the punctuation here used, it is certain that the initial words, _you, they, the_, and _he_, should have commenced with capitals. OBS. 5.--On Rule 3d, concerning _Names of Deity_, it may be observed, that the words _Lord_ and _God_ take the nature of proper names, only when they are used in reference to the Eternal Divinity. The former, as a title of honour to men, is usually written with a capital; but, as a common appellative, with a small letter. The latter, when used with reference to any fabulous deity, or when made plural to speak of many, should seldom, if ever, begin with a capital; for we do not write with a capital any common name which we do not mean to honour: as, "Though there be that are called _gods_, whether in heaven or in earth--as there be _gods_ many, and _lords_ many."--_1 Cor._, viii, 5. But a diversity of design or conception in respect to this kind of distinction, has produced great diversity concerning capitals, not only in original writings, but also in reprints and quotations, not excepting even the sacred books. Example: "The Lord is a great God, and a great King above all _Gods_."--_Gurney's Essays_, p. 88. Perhaps the writer here exalts the inferior beings called gods, that he may honour the one true God the more; but the Bible, in four editions to which I have turned, gives the word _gods_ no capital. See _Psalms_, xcv, 3. The word _Heaven_ put for God, begins with a capital; but when taken literally, it commonly begins with a small letter. Several nouns occasionally connected with names of the Deity, are written with a very puzzling diversity: as, "The Lord of _Sabaoth_;"--"The Lord God of _hosts_;"--"The God of _armies_;"--"The Father of _goodness_;"--"The Giver of all _good_;"--"The Lord, the righteous _Judge_." All these, and many more like them, are found sometimes with a capital, and sometimes without. _Sabaoth_, being a foreign word, and used only in this particular connexion, usually takes a capital; but the equivalent English words do not seem to require it. For "_Judge_," in the last example, I would use a capital; for "_good_" and "_goodness_," in the preceding ones, the small letter: the one is an eminent name, the others are mere attributes. Alger writes, "_the Son of Man_," with two capitals; others, perhaps more properly, "_the Son of man_," with one--wherever that phrase occurs in the New Testament. But, in some editions, it has no capital at all. OBS. 6.--On Rule 4th, concerning _Proper Names_, it may be observed, that the application of this principle supposes the learner to be able to distinguish between proper names and common appellatives. Of the difference between these two classes of words, almost every child that can speak, must have formed some idea. I once noticed that a very little boy, who knew no better than to call a pigeon a turkey because the creature had feathers, was sufficiently master of this distinction, to call many individuals by their several names, and to apply the common words, _man, woman, boy, girl_, &c., with that generality which belongs to them. There is, therefore, some very plain ground for this rule. But not all is plain, and I will not veil the cause of embarrassment. It is only an act of imposture, to pretend that grammar _is easy_, in stead of making it so. Innumerable instances occur, in which the following assertion is by no means true: "The distinction between a common and a proper noun is _very obvious_."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p 32. Nor do the remarks of this author, or those of any other that I am acquainted with, remove any part of the difficulty. We are told by this gentleman, (in language incorrigibly bad,) that, "_Nouns_ which denote the genus, species, or variety of beings or things, are always common; as, _tree_, the genus; _oak, ash, chestnut, poplar_, different species; and _red oak, white oak, black oak_, varieties."--_Ib._, p. 32. Now, as it requires _but one noun_ to denote either a genus or a species, I know not how to conceive of _those_ "_nouns_ which denote _the genus_ of things," except as of other confusion and nonsense; and, as for the three varieties of oak, there are surely no "_nouns_" here to denote them, unless he will have _red, white_, and _black_ to be nouns. But what shall we say of--"the Red sea, the White sea, the Black sea;" or, with two capitals, "Red Sea, White Sea, Black Sea," and a thousand other similar terms, which are neither proper names unless they are written with capitals, nor written with capitals unless they are first judged to be proper names? The simple phrase, "the united states," has nothing of the nature of a proper name; but what is the character of the term, when written with two capitals, "the United States?" If we contend that it is not then a proper name, we make our country anonymous. And what shall we say to those grammarians who contend, that "_Heaven, Hell, Earth, Sun_, and _Moon_, are proper names;" and that, as such, they should be written with capitals? See _Churchill's Gram._, p. 380. OBS. 7.--It would seem that most, if not all, proper names had originally some common signification, and that very many of our ordinary words and phrases have been converted into proper names, merely by being applied to particular persons, places, or objects, and receiving the distinction of capitals. How many of the oceans, seas, lakes, capes, islands, mountains, states, counties, streets, institutions, buildings, and other things, which we constantly particularize, have no other proper names than such as are thus formed, and such as are still perhaps, in many instances, essentially appellative! The difficulties respecting these will be further noticed below. A proper noun is the name of some particular individual, group, or people; as, _Adam, Boston_, the _Hudson_, the _Azores_, the _Andes_, the _Romans_, the _Jews_, the _Jesuits_, the _Cherokees_. This is as good a definition as I can give of a proper noun or name. Thus we commonly distinguish the names of particular persons, places, nations, tribes, or sects, with capitals. Yet we name the sun, the moon, the equator, and many other particular objects, without a capital; for the word the may give a particular meaning to a common noun, without converting it into a proper name: but if we say _Sol_, for the sun, or _Luna_, for the moon, we write it with a capital. With some apparent inconsistency, we commonly write the word _Gentiles_ with a capital, but _pagans, heathens_, and _negroes_, without: thus custom has marked these names with degradation. The names of the days of the week, and those of the months, however expressed, appear to me to partake of the nature of proper names, and to require capitals: as, _Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday_; or, as the Friends denominate them, _Firstday, Secondday, Thirdday, Fourthday, Fifthday, Sixthday, Seventhday_. So, if they will not use _January, February_, &c., they should write as proper names their _Firstmonth, Secondmonth_, &c. The Hebrew names for the months, were also proper nouns: to wit, Abib, Zif, Sivan, Thamuz, Ab, Elul, Tisri, Marchesvan, Chisleu, Tebeth, Shebat, Adar; the year, with the ancient Jews, beginning, as ours once did, in March. OBS. 8.--On Rule 5th, concerning _Titles of Honour_, it may be observed, that names of office or rank, however high, do not require capitals merely as such; for, when we use them alone in their ordinary sense, or simply place them in apposition with proper names, without intending any particular honour, we begin them with a small letter: as, "the emperor Augustus;"--"our mighty sovereign, Abbas Carascan;"--"David the king;"--"Tidal king of nations;"--"Bonner, bishop of London;"--"The sons of Eliphaz, the first-born you of Esau; duke Teman, duke Omar, duke Zepho, duke Kenaz, duke Korah, duke Gatam, and duke Amalek."--_Gen._, xxxvi, 15. So, sometimes, in addresses in which even the greatest respect is intended to be shown: as, "O _sir_, we came indeed down at the first time to buy food."--_Gen._, xliii, 20. "O my _lord_, let thy servant, I pray thee, speak a word in my _lord's_ ears."--_Gen._, xliv, 18. The Bible, which makes small account of worldly honours, seldom uses capitals under this rule; but, in some editions, we find "Nehemiah the _Tirshatha_," and "Herod the _Tetrarch_," each with a needless capital. Murray, in whose illustrations the word _king_ occurs early one hundred times, seldom honours his Majesty with a capital; and, what is more, in all this mawkish mentioning of royalty, nothing is said of it _that is worth knowing_. Examples: "The _king_ and the queen had put on their robes."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 154. "The _king_, with his life-guard, has just passed through the village."--_Ib._, 150. "The _king_ of Great Britain's dominions."--_Ib._, 45. "On a sudden appeared the _king_."--_Ib._, 146. "Long live the _King_!"--_Ib._, 146. "On which side soever the _king_ cast his eyes."--_Ib._, 156. "It is the _king_ of Great Britain's."--_Ib._, 176. "He desired to be their _king_."--_Ib._, 181. "They desired him to be their _king_."--_Ib._, 181. "He caused himself to be proclaimed _king_."--_Ib._, 182. These examples, and thousands more as simple and worthless, are among the pretended quotations by which this excellent man, thought "to promote the cause of virtue, as well as of learning!" OBS. 9.--On Rule 6th, concerning _One Capital for Compounds_, I would observe, that perhaps there is nothing more puzzling in grammar, than to find out, amidst all the diversity of random writing, and wild guess-work in printing, the true way in which the compound names of places should be written. For example: What in Greek was "_ho Areios Pagos_," the _Martial Hill_, occurs twice in the New Testament: once, in the accusative case, "_ton Areion Pagan_," which is rendered _Areopagus_; and once, in the genitive, "_tou Areiou Pagou_," which, in different copies of the English Bible is made _Mars' Hill, Mars' hill, Mars'-hill, Marshill, Mars Hill_, and perhaps _Mars hill_. But if _Mars_ must needs be put in the possessive case, (which I doubt,) they are all wrong: for then it should be _Mars's Hill_; as the name _Campus Martins_ is rendered "_Mars's Field_," in Collier's Life of Marcus Antoninus. We often use nouns adjectively; and _Areios_ is an adjective: I would therefore write this name _Mars Hill_, as we write _Bunker Hill_. Again: _Whitehaven_ and _Fairhaven_ are commonly written with single capitals; but, of six or seven _towns_ called _Newhaven_ or _New Haven_, some have the name in one word and some in two. _Haven_ means a _harbour_, and the words, _New Haven_, written separately, would naturally be understood of a harbour: the close compound is obviously more suitable for the name of a city or town. In England, compounds of this kind are more used than in America; and in both countries the tendency of common usage seems to be, to contract and consolidate such terms. Hence the British counties are almost all named by compounds ending with the word _shire_; as, Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Staffordshire, Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, Warwickshire, Worcestershire, &c. But the best books we have, are full of discrepancies and errors in respect to names, whether foreign or domestic; as, "_Ulswater_ is somewhat smaller. The handsomest is _Derwentwater_."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 212. "_Ulswater_, a lake of England," &c. "_Derwent-Water_, a lake in Cumberland," &c.--_Univ. Gazetteer_, "_Ulleswater_, lake, Eng. situated partly in Westmoreland," &c.--_Worcester's Gaz._ "_Derwent Water_, lake, Eng. in Cumberland."--_Ibid._ These words, I suppose, should be written _Ullswater_ and _Derwentwater_. OBS. 10.--An affix, or termination, differs from a distinct word; and is commonly understood otherwise, though it may consist of the same letters and have the same sound. Thus, if I were to write _Stow Bridge_, it would be understood of a _bridge_; if _Stowbridge_, of a _town_: or the latter might even be the name of a _family_. So _Belleisle_ is the proper name of a _strait_; and _Belle Isle_ of several different _islands_ in France and America. Upon this plain distinction, and the manifest inconvenience of any violation of so clear an analogy of the language, depends the propriety of most of the corrections which I shall offer under Rule 6th. But if the inhabitants of any place choose to call their town a creek, a river, a harbour, or a bridge, and to think it officious in other men to pretend to know better, they may do as they please. If between them and their correctors there lie a mutual charge of misnomer, it is for the literary world to determine who is right. Important names are sometimes acquired by mere accident. Those which are totally inappropriate, no reasonable design can have bestowed. Thus a fancied resemblance between the island of Aquidneck, in Narraganset Bay, and that of Rhodes, in the �gean Sea, has at length given to a _state_, or _republic_, which lies _chiefly on the main land_, the absurd name of _Rhode Island_; so that now, to distinguish Aquidneck itself, geographers resort to the strange phrase, "_the Island of Rhode Island_."--_Balbi_. The official title of this little republic, is, "_the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations_." But this name is not only too long for popular use, but it is doubtful in its construction and meaning. It is capable of being understood in four different ways. 1. A stranger to the fact, would not learn from this phrase, that the "Providence Plantations" are included in the "State of Rhode Island," but would naturally infer the contrary. 2. The phrase, "Rhode Island and Providence Plantations," may be supposed to mean "Rhode Island [Plantations] and Providence Plantations." 3. It may be understood to mean "Rhode Island and Providence [i.e., two] Plantations." 4. It may be taken for "Rhode Island" [i.e., as an island,] and the "Providence Plantations." Which, now, of all these did Charles the Second mean, when he gave the colony this name, with his charter, in 1663? It happened that he meant the last; but I doubt whether any man in the state, except perhaps some learned lawyer, can _parse_ the phrase, with any certainty of its true construction and meaning. This old title can never be used, except in law. To write the popular name "_Rhodeisland_," as Dr. Webster has it in his American Spelling-Book, p. 121, would be some improvement upon it; but to make it _Rhodeland_, or simply _Rhode_, would be much more appropriate. As for _Rhode Island_, it ought to mean nothing but the island; and it is, in fact, _an abuse of language_ to apply it otherwise. In one of his parsing lessons, Sanborn gives us for good English the following tautology: "_Rhode Island_ derived its name from the _island of Rhode Island_."--_Analytical Gram._, p. 37. Think of that sentence! OBS. 11.--On Rules 7th and 8th, concerning _Two Capitals for Compounds_, I would observe, with a general reference to those _compound terms_ which designate particular places or things, that it is often no easy matter to determine, either from custom or from analogy, whether such common words as may happen to be embraced in them, are to be accounted parts of compound proper names and written with capitals, or to be regarded as appellatives, requiring small letters according to Rule 9th. Again the question may be, whether they ought not to be joined to the foregoing word, according to Rule 6th. Let the numerous examples under these four rules be duly considered: for usage, in respect to each of them, is diverse; so much so, that we not unfrequently find it contradictory, in the very same page, paragraph, or even sentence. Perhaps we may reach some principles of uniformity and consistency, by observing the several different kinds of phrases thus used. 1. We often add an adjective to an old proper name to make a new one, or to serve the purpose of distinction: as, Now York, New Orleans, New England, New Bedford; North America, South America; Upper Canada, Lower Canada; Great Pedee, Little Pedee; East Cambridge, West Cambridge; Troy, West Troy. All names of this class require two capitals: except a few which are joined together; as _Northampton_, which is sometimes more analogically written _North Hampton_. 2. We often use the possessive case with some common noun after it; as, Behring's Straits, Baffin's Bay, Cook's Inlet, Van Diemen's Land, Martha's Vineyard, Sacket's Harbour, Glenn's Falls. Names of this class generally have more than one capital; and perhaps all of them should be written so, except such as coalesce; as, Gravesend, Moorestown, the Crowsnest. 3. We sometimes use two common nouns with _of_ between them; as, the Cape of Good Hope, the Isle of Man, the Isles of Shoals, the Lake of the Woods, the Mountains of the Moon. Such nouns are usually written with more than one capital. I would therefore write "the Mount of Olives" in this manner, though it is not commonly found so in the Bible. 4. We often use an adjective and a common noun; as, the Yellow sea, the Indian ocean, the White hills, Crooked lake, the Red river; or, with two capitals, the Yellow Sea, the Indian Ocean, the White Hills, Crooked Lake, the Red River. In this class of names the adjective is the distinctive word, and always has a capital; respecting the other term, usage is divided, but seems rather to favour two capitals. 5. We frequently put an appellative, or common noun, before or after a proper name; as, New York city, Washington street, Plymouth county, Greenwich village. "The Carondelet canal extends from the city of New Orleans to the bayou St. John, connecting lake Pontchartrain with the Mississippi river."--_Balbi's Geog._ This is apposition. In phrases of this kind, the common noun often has a capital, but it seldom absolutely requires it; and in general a small letter is more correct, except in some few instances in which the common noun is regarded as a permanent part of the name; as in _Washington City, Jersey City_. The words _Mount, Cape, Lake_, and _Bay_, are now generally written with capitals when connected with their proper names; as, Mount Hope, Cape Cod, Lake Erie, Casco Bay. But they are not always so written, even in modern books; and in the Bible we read of "mount Horeb, mount Sinai, mount Zion, mount Olivet," and many others, always with a single capital. OBS. 12.--In modern compound names, the hyphen is now less frequently used than it was a few years ago. They seldom, if ever, need it, unless they are employed as adjectives; and then there is a manifest propriety in inserting it. Thus the phrase, "the New London Bridge," can be understood only of a new bridge in London; and if we intend by it a bridge in New London, we must say, "the New-London Bridge." So "the New York Directory" is not properly a directory for New York, but a new directory for York. I have seen several books with titles which, for this reason, were evidently erroneous. With respect to the ancient Scripture names, of this class, we find, in different editions of the Bible, as well as in other books, many discrepancies. The reader may see a very fair specimen of them, by comparing together the last two vocabularies of Walker's Key. He will there meet with an abundance of examples like these: "Uz'zen Shérah, Uzzen-shérah; Talitha Cúmi, Talithacúmi; Náthan Mélech, Nathan'-melech; A'bel Mehólath, Abel-mehólah; Házel Elpóni, Hazelepóni; Az'noth Tábor, Asnoth-tábor; Báal Ham'on, Baal-hámon; Hámon Gog, Ham'ongog; Báal Zébub, Bäal'zebub; Shéthar Boz'näi, Shether-boz'näi; Meródach Bal'adan, Merodach-bal'adan." All these glaring inconsistencies, and many more, has Dr. Webster restereotyped from Walker, in his octavo Dictionary! I see no more need of the hyphen in such names, than in those of modern times. They ought, in some instances, to be joined together without it; and, in others, to be written separately, with double capitals. But special regard should be had to the ancient text. The phrase, "Talitha, cumi,"--i. e., "Damsel, arise,"--is found in some Bibles, "Talitha-cumi;" but this form of it is no more correct than either of those quoted above. See _Mark_, v, 41st, in _Griesbach's Greek Testament_, where a comma divides this expression. OBS. 13.--On Rule 10th, concerning _Personifications_, it may be well to observe, that not every noun which is the name of an object personified, must begin with a capital, but only such as have a resemblance to _proper nouns_; for the word _person_ itself, or _persons_, or any other common noun denoting persons or a person, demands no such distinction. And proper names of persons are so marked, not with any reference to personality, but because they are _proper nouns_--or names of individuals, and not names of sorts. Thus, �sop's viper and file are both personified, where it is recorded, "'What ails thee, fool?' says the _file_ to the _viper_;" but the fable gives to these names no capitals, except in the title of the story. It may here be added, that, according to their definitions of personification, our grammarians and the teachers of rhetoric have hitherto formed no very accurate idea of what constitutes the figure. Lindley Murray says, "PERSONIFICATION [,] or PROSOPOPOEIA, is that figure by which we attribute _life_ and _action_ to _inanimate_ objects."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 346; _Duodecimo_, p. 211. Now this is all wrong, doubly wrong,--wrong in relation to what personification is, and wrong too in its specification of the objects which may be personified. For "_life and action_" not being peculiar to _persons_, there must be something else than these ascribed, to form the figure; and, surely, the objects which _Fancy_ thinks it right to personify, are not always "_inanimate_." I have elsewhere defined the thing as follows: "_Personification_ is a figure by which, in imagination, we ascribe intelligence and personality to unintelligent beings or abstract qualities."--_Inst._, p. 234. OBS. 14.--On Rule 11th, concerning _Derivatives_, I would observe, that not only the proper adjectives, to which this rule more particularly refers, but also nouns, and even verbs, derived from such adjectives, are frequently, if not generally, written with an initial capital. Thus, from _Greece_, we have _Greek, Greeks, Greekish, Greekling, Grecise, Grecism, Grecian, Grecians, Grecianize_. So Murray, copying Blair, speaks of "_Latinised English_;" and, again, of style strictly "_English_, without _Scotticisms_ or _Gallicisms_."--_Mur. Gram._, 8vo, p. 295; _Blair's Lect._, pp. 93 and 94. But it is questionable, how far this principle respecting capitals ought to be carried. The examples in Dr. Johnson's quarto Dictionary exhibit the words, _gallicisms, anglicisms, hebrician, latinize, latinized, judaized_, and _christianized_, without capitals; and the words _Latinisms, Grecisms, Hebraisms_, and _Frenchified_, under like circumstances, with them. Dr. Webster also defines _Romanize_, "To _Latinize_; to conform to _Romish_ opinions." In the examples of Johnson, there is a manifest inconsistency. Now, with respect to adjectives from proper names, and also to the nouns formed immediately from such adjectives, it is clear that they ought to have capitals: no one will contend that the words _American_ and _Americans_ should be written with a small _a_. With respect to _Americanism, Gallicism_, and other similar words, there may be some room to doubt. But I prefer a capital for these. And, that we may have a uniform rule to go by, I would not stop here, but would write _Americanize_ and _Americanized_ with a capital also; for it appears that custom is in favour of thus distinguishing nearly all verbs and participles of this kind, so long as they retain an obvious reference to their particular origin. But when any such word ceases to be understood as referring directly to the proper name, it may properly be written without a capital. Thus we write _jalap_ from _Jalapa, hermetical_ from _Hermes, hymeneal_ from _Hymen, simony_, from _Simon, philippic_ from _Philip_; the verbs, to _hector_, to _romance_, to _japan_, to _christen_, to _philippize_, to _galvanize_; and the adverbs _hermetically_ and _jesuitically_, all without a capital: and perhaps _judaize, christianize_, and their derivatives, may join this class. Dr. Webster's octavo Dictionary mentions "the _prussic_ acid" and "_prussian_ blue," without a capital; and so does Worcester's. OBS. 15.--On Rule 12th, concerning _I_ and _O_, it may be observed, that although many who occasionally write, are ignorant enough to violate this, as well as every other rule of grammar, yet no printer ever commits blunders of this sort. Consequently, the few erroneous examples which will be exhibited for correction under it, will not be undesigned mistakes. Among the errors of books, we do not find the printing of the words _I_ and _O_ in small characters; but the confounding of _O_ with the other interjection _oh_, is not uncommon even among grammarians. The latter has no concern with this rule, nor is it equivalent to the former, as a sign: _O_ is a note of wishing, earnestness, and vocative address; but _oh_ is, properly, a sign of sorrow, pain, or surprise. In the following example, therefore, a line from Milton is perverted:-- "_Oh_ thou! that with surpassing glory crowned!" --_Bucke's Gram._, p. 88. OBS. 16.--On Rule 13th, concerning _Poetry_, it may be observed, that the principle applies only to regular versification, which is the common form, if not the distinguishing mark, of poetical composition. And, in this, the practice of beginning every line with a capital is almost universal; but I have seen some books in which it was whimsically disregarded. Such poetry as that of Macpherson's Ossian, or such as the common translation of the Psalms, is subjected neither to this rule, nor to the common laws of verse. OBS. 17.--On Rule 14th, concerning _Examples, Speeches_, and _Quotations_, it may be observed, that the propriety of beginning these with a capital or otherwise, depends in some measure upon their form. One may suggest certain words by way of example, (as _see, saw, seeing, seen_,) and they will require no capital; or he may sometimes write one half of a sentence in his own words, and quote the other with the guillemets and no capital; but whatsoever is cited as being said with other relations of what is called _person_, requires something to distinguish it from the text into which it is woven. Thus Cobbett observes, that, "The French, in their Bible, say _Le Verbe_, where we say _The Word_."--_E. Gram._, p. 21. Cobbett says _the whole_ of this; but he here refers one short phrase to the French nation, and an other to the English, not improperly beginning each with a capital, and further distinguishing them by Italics. Our common Bibles make no use of the quotation points, but rely solely upon capitals and the common points, to show where any particular speech begins or ends. In some instances, the insufficiency of these means is greatly felt, notwithstanding the extraordinary care of the original writers, in the use of introductory phrases. Murray says, "When a quotation is brought in obliquely after a comma, a capital is unnecessary: as, 'Solomon observes, "that pride goes before destruction."'"--_Octavo Gram._, p. 284. But, as the word '_that_' belongs not to Solomon, and the next word begins his assertion, I think we ought to write it, "Solomon observes, that, '_Pride goeth_ before destruction.'" Or, if we do not mean to quote him literally, we may omit the guillemets, and say, "Solomon observes that pride goes before destruction." IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. ERRORS RESPECTING CAPITALS. [Fist][The improprieties in the following examples are to be corrected orally by the learner, according to the formules given, or according to others framed from them with such slight changes as the several quotations may require. A correct example will occasionally he admitted for the sake of contrast, or that the learner may see the quoted author's inconsistency. It will also serve as a block over which stupidity may stumble and wake up. But a full explanation of what is intended, will be afforded in the Key.] UNDER RULE I.--OF BOOKS. "Many a reader of the bible knows not who wrote the acts of the apostles."--_G. B._ [FORMULE OF CORRECTION.--Not proper, because the words, _bible, acts_, and _apostles_, here begin with small letters. But, according to Rule 1st, "When particular books are mentioned by their names, the chief words in their titles begin with capitals, and the other letters are small." Therefore, "Bible" should begin with a capital B; and "Acts" and "Apostles," each with a large A.] "The sons of Levi, the chief of the fathers, were written in the book of the chronicles."--SCOTT'S BIBLE: _Neh._, xii, 23. "Are they not written in the book of the acts of Solomon?"--SCOTT, ALGER: I _Kings_, xi, 41. "Are they not written in the book of the Chronicles of the kings of Israel?"--ALGER: _1 Kings_, xxii, 39. "Are they not written in the book of the chronicles of the kings of Judah?"--SCOTT: _ib._, ver. 45. "Which were written in the law of Moses, and in the prophets, and in the psalms."--SCOTT: _Luke_, xxiv, 44. "The narrative of which may be seen in Josephus's History of the Jewish wars."--_Scott's Preface_, p. ix. "This history of the Jewish war was Josephus's first work, and published about A. D. 75."--_Note to Josephus_. "'I have read,' says Photius, 'the chronology of Justus of Tiberias.'"--_Ib., Jos. Life_. "A philosophical grammar, written by James Harris, Esquire."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 34. "The reader is referred to Stroud's sketch of the slave laws."--_Anti-Slavery Mag._, i, 25. "But God has so made the bible that it interprets itself."--_Ib._, i, 78. "In 1562, with the help of Hopkins, he completed the psalter."--_Music of Nature_, p. 283. "Gardiner says this of _Sternhold_; of whom the universal biographical dictionary and the American encyclopedia affirm, that he died in 1549."--_Author_. "The title of a Book, to wit: 'English Grammar in familiar lectures,'" &c.--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 2. "We had not, at that time, seen Mr. Kirkham's 'Grammar in familiar Lectures.'"--_Ib._, p. 3. "When you parse, you may spread the Compendium before you."--_Ib._, p. 53. "Whenever you parse, you may spread the compendium before you."--_Ib._, p. 113. "Adelung was the author of a grammatical and critical dictionary of the German language, and other works."--_Univ. Biog. Dict._ "Alley, William, author of 'the poor man's library,' and a translation of the Pentateuch, died in 1570."--_Ib._ UNDER RULE II.--OF FIRST WORDS. "Depart instantly: improve your time: forgive us our sins."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 61. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the words _improve_ and _forgive_ begin with small letters. But, according to Rule 2nd, "The first word of every distinct sentence should begin with a capital." Therefore, "Improve" should begin with a capital I; and "Forgive," with a capital F.] EXAMPLES: "Gold is corrupting; the sea is green; a lion is bold."--_Mur. Gram._, p. 170; _et al_. Again: "It may rain; he may go or stay; he would walk; they should learn."--_Ib._, p. 64; _et al_. Again: "Oh! I have alienated my friend; alas! I fear for life."--_Ib._, p. 128; _et al_. Again: "He went from London to York;" "she is above disguise;" "they are supported by industry."--_Ib._, p. 28; _et al_. "On the foregoing examples, I have a word to say. they are better than a fair specimen of their kind, our grammars abound with worse illustrations, their models of English are generally spurious quotations. few of their proof-texts have any just parentage, goose-eyes are abundant, but names scarce. who fathers the foundlings? nobody. then let their merit be nobody's, and their defects his who could write no better."--_Author_. "_goose-eyes_!" says a bright boy; "pray, what are they? does this Mr. Author make new words when he pleases? _dead-eyes_ are in a ship, they are blocks, with holes in them, but what are goose-eyes in grammar?" ANSWER: "_goose-eyes_ are quotation points, some of the Germans gave them this name, making a jest of their form, the French call them _guillemets_, from the name of their inventor."--_Author. "it_ is a personal pronoun, of the third person singular."--_Comly's Gram._, 12th Ed., p. 126. "_ourselves_ is a personal pronoun, of the first person plural."--_Ib._, 138. "_thee_ is a personal pronoun, of the second person singular."--_Ib._, 126. "_contentment_ is a noun common, of the third person singular."--_Ib._, 128. "_were_ is a neuter verb, of the indicative mood, imperfect tense."--_Ib._, 129. UNDER RULE III.--OF DEITY. "O thou dispenser of life! thy mercies are boundless."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 449. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word _dispenser_ begins with a small letter. But, according to Rule 3d, "All names of the Deity, and sometimes their emphatic substitutes, should begin with capitals." Therefore, "Dispenser" should here begin with a capital D.] "Shall not the judge of all the earth do right?"--SCOTT: _Gen._, xviii, 25. "And the spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 330. "It is the gift of him, who is the great author of good, and the Father of mercies."--_Ib._, 287. "This is thy god that brought thee up out of Egypt."--SCOTT, ALGER: _Neh._, ix, 18. "For the lord is our defence; and the holy one of Israel is our king."--See _Psalm_ lxxxix, 18. "By making him the responsible steward of heaven's bounties."--_Anti- Slavery Mag._, i, 29. "Which the Lord, the righteous judge, shall give me at that day."--SCOTT, FRIENDS: 2 _Tim._, iv, 8. "The cries of them * * * entered into the ears of the Lord of sabaoth."--SCOTT: _James_, v, 4. "In Horeb, the deity revealed himself to Moses, as the eternal I am, the self-existent one; and, after the first discouraging interview of his messengers with Pharaoh, he renewed his promise to them, by the awful name, jehovah--a name till then unknown, and one which the Jews always held it a fearful profanation to pronounce."--_Author_. "And god spake unto Moses, and said unto him, I am the lord: and I appeared unto Abraham, unto Isaac, and unto Jacob, by the name of god almighty; but by my name jehovah was I not known to them."--See[106] _Exod._, vi, 2. "Thus saith the lord the king of Israel, and his redeemer the lord of hosts; I am the first, and I am the last; and besides me there is no god."--See _Isa._, xliv, 6. "His impious race their blasphemy renew'd, And nature's king through nature's optics view'd."--_Dryden_, p. 90. UNDER RULE IV.--OF PROPER NAMES. "Islamism prescribes fasting during the month ramazan."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 17. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word _ramazan_ here begins with a small letter. But, according to Rule 4th, "Proper names, of every description, should always begin with capitals." Therefore, "Ramazan" should begin with a capital R. The word is also misspelled: it should rather be _Ramadan_.] "Near mecca, in arabia, is jebel nor, or the mountain of light, on the top of which the mussulmans erected a mosque, that they might perform their devotions where, according to their belief, mohammed received from the angel gabriel the first chapter of the Koran."--_Author_. "In the kaaba at mecca, there is a celebrated block of volcanic basalt, which the mohammedans venerate as the gift of gabriel to abraham, but their ancestors once held it to be an image of remphan, or saturn; so 'the image which fell down from jupiter,' to share with diana the homage of the ephesians, was probably nothing more than a meteoric stone."--_Id._ "When the lycaonians, at lystra, took paul and barnabas to be gods, they called the former mercury, on account of his eloquence, and the latter jupiter, for the greater dignity of his appearance."--_Id._ "Of the writings of the apostolic fathers of the first century, but few have come down to us; yet we have in those of barnabas, clement of rome, hermas, ignatius, and polycarp, very certain evidence of the authenticity of the New Testament, and the New Testament is a voucher for the old."--_Id._ "It is said by tatian, that theagenes of rhegium, in the time of cambyses, stesimbrotus the thracian, antimachus the colophonian, herodotus of halicarnassus, dionysius the olynthian, ephorus of cumæ, philochorus the athenian, metaclides and chamæleon the peripatetics, and zenodotus, aristophanes, callimachus, erates, eratosthenes, aristarchus, and apollodorus, the grammarians, all wrote concerning the poetry, the birth, and the age of homer." See _Coleridge's Introd._, p. 57. "Yet, for aught that now appears, the life of homer is as fabulous as that of hercules; and some have even suspected, that, as the son of jupiter and alcmena, has fathered the deeds of forty other herculeses, so this unfathered son of critheis, themisto, or whatever dame--this melesigenes, mæonides, homer--the blind schoolmaster, and poet, of smyrna, chios, colophon, salamis, rhodes, argos, athens, or whatever place--has, by the help of lycurgus, solon, pisistratus, and other learned ancients, been made up of many poets or homers, and set so far aloft and aloof on old parnassus, as to become a god in the eyes of all greece, a wonder in those of all Christendom."--_Author_. "Why so sagacious in your guesses? Your _effs_, and _tees_, and _arrs_, and _esses_?"--_Swift_. UNDER RULE V.--OF TITLES. "The king has conferred on him the title of duke."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 193. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word _duke_ begins with a small letter. But, according to Rule 5th, "Titles of office or honour, and epithets of distinction, applied to persons, begin usually with capitals." Therefore, "Duke" should here begin with a capital D.] "At the court of queen Elizabeth."--_Murray's Gram._; 8vo, p. 157; 12mo, p. 126; _Fisk's_, 115; _et al_. "The laws of nature are, truly, what lord Bacon styles his aphorisms, laws of laws."--_Murray's Key_, p. 260. "Sixtus the fourth was, if I mistake not, a great collector of books."--_Ib._, p. 257. "Who at that time made up the court of king Charles the second."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 314. "In case of his majesty's dying without issue."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 181. "King Charles the first was beheaded in 1649."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 45. "He can no more impart or (to use lord Bacon's word,) _transmit_ convictions."--_Kirkham's Eloc._, p. 220. "I reside at lord Stormont's, my old patron and benefactor."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 176. "We staid a month at lord Lyttleton's, the ornament of his country."--_Ib._, p. 177. "Whose prerogative is it? It is the king of Great Britain's;" "That is the duke of Bridgewater's canal;" "The bishop of Llandaff's excellent book;" "The Lord mayor of London's authority."--_Ib._, p. 176. "Why call ye me lord, lord, and do not the things which I say?"--See GRIESBACH: _Luke_, vi, 46. "And of them he chose twelve, whom also he named apostles."--SCOTT: _Luke_, vi, 13. "And forthwith he came to Jesus, and said, Hail, master; and kissed him."--See _the Greek: Matt._, xxvi, 49. "And he said, Nay, father Abraham: but if one went unto them from the dead, they will repent."--_Luke_, xvi, 30. UNDER RULE VI.--OF ONE CAPITAL. "Fall River, a village in Massachusetts, population 3431."--See _Univ. Gaz._, p. 416. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the name _Fall River_ is here written in two parts, and with two capitals. But, according to Rule 6th, "Those compound proper names which by analogy incline to a union of their parts without a hyphen, should be so written, and have but one capital." Therefore, _Fallriver_, as the name of a _town_, should be one word, and retain but one capital.] "Dr. Anderson died at West Ham, in Essex, in 1808."--_Biog. Dict._ "Mad River, [the name of] two towns in Clark and Champaign counties, Ohio."--_Williams's Universal Gazetteer_. "White Creek, town of Washington county, N. York."--_Ib._ "Salt Creek, the name of four towns in different parts of Ohio."--_Ib._ "Salt Lick, a town of Fayette county, Pennsylvania."--_Ib._ "Yellow Creek, a town of Columbiana county, Ohio."--_Ib._ "White Clay, a hundred of New Castle county, Delaware."--_Ib._ "Newcastle, town and halfshire of Newcastle county, Delaware."--_Ib._ "Sing-Sing, a village of West Chester county, New York, situated in the town of Mount Pleasant."--_Ib._ "West Chester, a county of New York; also a town in Westchester county."--_Ib._ "West Town, a village of Orange county, New York."--_Ib._ "White Water, a town of Hamilton county, Ohio."--_Ib._ "White Water River, a considerable stream that rises in Indiana, and flowing southeasterly, unites with the Miami, in Ohio."--_Ib._ "Black Water, a village of Hampshire, in England, and a town in Ireland."--_Ib._ "Black Water, the name of seven different rivers in England, Ireland, and the United States."--_Ib._ "Red Hook, a town of Dutchess county, New York, on the Hudson."--_Ib._ "Kinderhook, a town of Columbia county, New York, on the Hudson."--_Ib._ "New Fane, a town of Niagara county, New York."--_Ib._ "Lake Port, a town of Chicot county, Arkansas."--_Ib._ "Moose Head Lake, the chief source of the Kennebeck, in Maine."--_Ib._ "Macdonough, a county of Illinois, population (in 1830) 2,959."--_Ib._, p. 408. "Mc Donough, a county of Illinois, with a courthouse, at Macomb."--_Ib._, p. 185. "Half-Moon, the name of two towns, in New York and Pennsylvania; also of two bays in the West Indies."--See _Worcester's Gaz._ "Le Boeuf, a town of Erie county, Pennsylvania, near a small lake of the same name."--_Ib._ "Charles City, James City, Elizabeth City, names of counties in Virginia, not cities, nor towns."--See _Univ. Gaz._ "The superior qualities of the waters of the Frome, here called Stroud water."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 223. UNDER RULE VII.--TWO CAPITALS. "The Forth rises on the north side of Benlomond, and runs easterly."--_Glas. Geog_. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the name "_Benlomond_" is compounded under one capital, contrary to the general analogy of other similar terms. But, according to Rule 7th, "The compounding of a name under one capital should be avoided when the general analogy of other similar terms suggests a separation under two." Therefore, "Ben Lomond" should be written with two capitals and no hyphen.] "The red granite of Ben-nevis is said to be the finest in the world."--_Ib._, ii, 311. "Ben-more, in Perthshire, is 3,915 feet above the level of the sea."--_Ib._, 313. "The height of Benclough is 2,420 feet."--_Ib._. "In Sutherland and Caithness, are Ben Ormod, Ben Clibeg, Ben Grin, Ben Hope, and Ben Lugal."--_Ib._, 311. "Benvracky is 2,756 feet high; Ben-ledi, 3,009; and Benvoirlich, 3,300."--_Ib._, 313. "The river Dochart gives the name of Glendochart to the vale through which it runs."--_Ib._, 314. "About ten miles from its source, the Tay diffuses itself into Lochdochart."--_Geog. altered_. LAKES:--"Lochard, Loch-Achray, Loch-Con, Loch-Doine, Loch-Katrine, Loch-Lomond, Loch-Voil."--_Scott's Lady of the Lake_. GLENS:--"Glenfinlas, Glen Fruin, Glen Luss, Ross-dhu, Leven-glen, Strath-Endrick, Strath-Gartney, Strath-Ire."--_Ib._ MOUNTAINS:--"Ben-an, Benharrow, Benledi, Ben-Lomond, Benvoirlich, Ben-venue, and sometimes Benvenue."--_Ib._ "Fenelon died in 1715, deeply lamented by all the inhabitants of the Low-countries."--_Murray's Sequel_, p. 322. "And Pharaoh-nechoh made Eliakim, the son of Josiah, king."--SCOTT, FRIENDS: 2 _Kings_, xxiii, 34. "Those who seem so merry and well pleased, call her _Good Fortune_; but the others, who weep and wring their hands, _Bad-fortune_."--_Collier's Tablet of Cebes_. UNDER RULE VIII.--OF COMPOUNDS. "When Joab returned, and smote Edom in the valley of salt."--SCOTT: _Ps._ lx, _title_. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the words _valley_ and _salt_ begin with small letters. But, according to Rule 8th, "When any adjective or common noun is made a distinct part of a compound proper name, it ought to begin with a capital." Therefore, "Valley" should here begin with a capital V, and "Salt" with a capital S.] "Then Paul stood in the midst of Mars' hill and said," &c.--SCOTT: _Acts_, xvii, 22. "And at night he went out, and abode in the mount that is called the mount of Olives."--_Luke_, xxi, 37. "Abgillus, son of the king of the Frisii, surnamed Prester John, was in the Holy land with Charlemagne."--_Univ. Biog. Dict._ "Cape Palmas, in Africa, divides the Grain coast from the Ivory coast."--_Dict. of Geog._, p. 125. "The North Esk, flowing from Loch-lee, falls into the sea three miles north of Montrose."--_Ib._, p. 232. "At Queen's ferry, the channel of the Forth is contracted by promontories on both coasts."--_Ib._, p. 233. "The Chestnut ridge is about twenty-five miles west of the Alleghanies, and Laurel ridge, ten miles further west."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 65. "Washington City, the metropolis of the United States of America."--_W.'s Univ. Gaz._, p. 380. "Washington city, in the District of Columbia, population (in 1830) 18,826."--_Ib._, p. 408. "The loftiest peak of the white mountains, in new Hampshire, is called mount Washington."--_Author_. "Mount's bay, in the west of England, lies between the land's end and lizard point."--_Id._ "Salamis, an island of the Egean Sea, off the southern coast of the ancient Attica."--_Dict. of Geog_. "Rhodes, an island of the Egean sea, the largest and most easterly of the Cyclades."--_Ib._ "But he overthrew Pharaoh and his host in the Red sea."--BRUCE'S BIBLE: _Ps._ cxxxvi, 15. "But they provoked him at the sea, even at the Red sea."--SCOTT: _Ps._ cvi, 7.[107] UNDER RULE IX.--OF APPOSITION. "At that time, Herod the Tetrarch heard of the fame of Jesus."--ALGER: _Matt._, xiv, 1. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word Tetrarch begins with a capital letter. But, according to Rule 8th, "When a common and a proper name are associated merely to explain each other, it is in general sufficient, if the proper name begin with a capital, and the appellative, with a small letter." Therefore, "tetrarch" should here begin with a small _t_.] "Who has been more detested than Judas the Traitor?"--_Author_. "St. Luke, the Evangelist, was a physician of Antioch, and one of the converts of St. Paul."--_Id._ "Luther, the Reformer, began his bold career by preaching against papal indulgences."--_Id._ "The Poet Lydgate was a disciple and admirer of Chaucer: he died in 1440."--_Id._ "The Grammarian Varro, 'the most learned of the Romans,' wrote three books when he was eighty years old."--_Id._ "John Despauter, the great Grammarian of Flanders, whose works are still valued, died in 1520."--_Id._ "Nero, the Emperor and Tyrant of Rome, slew himself to avoid a worse death."--_Id._ "Cicero the Orator, 'the Father of his Country,' was assassinated at the age of 64."--_Id._ "Euripides, the Greek Tragedian, was born in the Island of Salamis, B. C. 476."--_Id._ "I will say unto God my Rock, Why hast thou forgotten me?"--SCOTT: _Ps._ xlii, 9. "Staten Island, an island of New York, nine miles below New York City."--_Univ. Gaz._ "When the son of Atreus, King of Men, and the noble Achilles first separated."--_Coleridge's Introd._, p. 83. "Hermes, his Patron-God, those gifts bestow'd, Whose shrine with weaning lambs he wont to load." --POPE: _Odys._, B. 19. UNDER RULE X.--OF PERSONIFICATIONS. "But wisdom is justified of all her children."--SCOTT, ALGER: _Luke_, vii, 35. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word _wisdom_ begins with a small letter. But, according to Rule 10th, "The name of an object personified, when it conveys an idea strictly individual, should begin with a capital." Therefore, "Wisdom" should here begin with a capital W.] "Fortune and the church are generally put in the feminine gender."--_Murray's Gram._, i, p. 37. "Go to your natural religion; lay before her Mahomet, and his disciples."--_Blair's Rhetoric_, p. 157: see also _Murray's Gram._, i, 347. "O death! where is thy sting? O grave! where is thy victory?"--_1 Cor._, xv, 55; _Murray's Gram._, p. 348; _English Reader_, 31; _Merchant's Gram._, 212. "Ye cannot serve God and Mammon."--SCOTT, FRIENDS, ET AL.: _Matt._, vi, 24. "Ye cannot serve God and mammon."--IIDEM: _Luke_, xvi, 13. "This house was built as if suspicion herself had dictated the plan."--See _Key_. "Poetry distinguishes herself from prose, by yielding to a musical law."--See _Key_. "My beauteous deliverer thus uttered her divine instructions: 'My name is religion. I am the offspring of truth and love, and the parent of benevolence, hope, and joy. That monster, from whose power I have freed you, is called superstition: she is the child of discontent, and her followers are fear and sorrow.'"--See _Key_. "Neither hope nor fear could enter the retreats; and habit had so absolute a power, that even conscience, if religion had employed her in their favour, would not have been able to force an entrance."--See _Key_. "In colleges and halls in ancient days, There dwelt a sage called discipline."--_Wayland's M. Sci._, p. 368. UNDER RULE XI.--OF DERIVATIVES. "In English, I would have gallicisms avoided."--FELTON: _Johnson's Dict._ [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word _gallicisms_ here begins with a small letter. But, according to Rule 11th, "Words derived from proper names, and having direct reference to particular persons, places, sects, or nations, should begin with capitals." Therefore, "Gallicisms" should begin with a capital G.] "Sallust was born in Italy, 85 years before the christian era."--_Murray's Seq._, p. 357. "Dr. Doddridge was not only a great man, but one of the most excellent and useful christians, and christian ministers."--_Ib._, 319. "They corrupt their style with untutored anglicisms."--MILTON: _in Johnson's Dict._ "Albert of Stade, author of a chronicle from the creation to 1286, a benedictine of the 13th century."--_Universal Biog. Dict._ "Graffio, a jesuit of Capua in the 16th century, author of two volumes on moral subjects."--_Ib._ "They frenchify and italianize words whenever they can."--See _Key_. "He who sells a christian, sells the grace of God."--_Anti-Slavery Mag._, p. 77. "The first persecution against the christians, under Nero, began A. D. 64."--_Gregory's Dict._ "P. Rapin, the jesuit, uniformly decides in favour of the Roman writers."--_Cobbett's E. Gram._, ¶ 171. "The Roman poet and epicurean philosopher Lucretius has said," &c.--_Cohen's Florida_, p. 107. Spell "calvinistic, atticism, gothicism, epicurism, jesuitism, sabianism, socinianism, anglican, anglicism, anglicize, vandalism, gallicism, romanize."--_Webster's El. Spelling-Book_, 130-133. "The large ternate bat."--_Webster's Dict. w_. ROSSET; _Bolles's Dict., w_. ROSET. "Church-ladders are not always mounted best By learned clerks, and latinists profess'd."--_Cowper_. UNDER RULE XII.--OF I AND O. "Fall back, fall back; i have not room:--o! methinks i see a couple whom i should know."--_Lucian, varied._ [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word _I_, which occurs three times, and the word _O_, which occurs once, are here printed in letters of the lower case.[108] But, according to Rule 12th, "The words _I_ and _O_ should always be capitals." Therefore, each should be changed to a capital, as often as it occurs.] "Nay, i live as i did, i think as i did, i love you as i did; but all these are to no purpose: the world will not live, think, or love, as i do."--_Swift, varied_. "Whither, o! whither shall i fly? o wretched prince! o cruel reverse of fortune! o father Micipsa! is this the consequence of thy generosity?"--_Sallust, varied_. "When i was a child, i spake as a child, i understood as a child, i thought as a child; but when i became a man, i put away childish things."--_1 Cor._, xiii, 11, _varied_. "And i heard, but i understood not: then said i, o my Lord, what shall be the end of these things?"--_Dan._, xii, 8, _varied_. "Here am i; i think i am very good, and i am quite sure i am very happy, yet i never wrote a treatise in my life."--_Few Days in Athens, varied_. "Singular, Vocative, _o master_; Plural, Vocative, _o masters_."--_Bicknell's Gram._, p. 30. "I, i am he; o father! rise, behold Thy son, with twenty winters now grown old!"--See _Pope's Odyssey_. UNDER RULE XIII.--OF POETRY. "Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, lie in three words--health, peace, and competence; but health consists with temperance alone, and peace, O Virtue! peace is all thy own." _Pope's Essay on Man, a fine London Edition_. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the last three lines of this example begin with small letters. But, according to Rule 18th, "Every line in poetry, except what is regarded as making but one verse with the preceding line, should begin with a capital." Therefore, the words, "Lie," "But," and "And," at the commencement of these lines, should severally begin with the capitals L, B, and A.] "Observe the language well in all you write, and swerve not from it in your loftiest flight. The smoothest verse and the exactest sense displease us, if ill English give offence: a barbarous phrase no reader can approve; nor bombast, noise, or affectation love. In short, without pure language, what you write can never yield us profit or delight. Take time for thinking, never work in haste; and value not yourself for writing fast." See _Dryden's Art of Poetry:--British Poets_, Vol. iii, p. 74. UNDER RULE XIV.--OF EXAMPLES. "The word _rather_ is very properly used to express a small degree or excess of a quality: as, 'she is _rather_ profuse in her expenses.'"--_Murray's Gram._, p. 47. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word _she_ begins with a small letter. But, according to Rule 14th, "The first word of a full example, of a distinct speech, or of a direct quotation, should begin with a capital." Therefore, the word "She" should here begin with a capital S.] "_Neither_ imports _not either_; that is, not one nor the other: as, 'neither of my friends was there.'"--_Murray's Gram._, p. 56. "When we say, 'he is a tall man,' 'this is a fair day,' we make some reference to the ordinary size of men, and to different weather."--_Ib._, p. 47. "We more readily say, 'A million of men,' than 'a thousand of men.'"--_Ib._, p. 169. "So in the instances, 'two and two are four;' 'the fifth and sixth volumes will complete the set of books.'"--_Ib._, p. 124. "The adjective may frequently either precede or follow it [the verb]: as, 'the man is _happy_;' or, '_happy_ is the man:' 'The interview was _delightful_;' or, '_delightful_ was the interview.'"--_Ib._, p. 168. "If we say, 'he writes a pen,' 'they ran the river, 'the tower fell the Greeks,' 'Lambeth is Westminster-abbey,' [we speak absurdly;] and, it is evident, there is a vacancy which must be filled up by some connecting word: as thus, 'He writes _with_ a pen;' 'they ran _towards_ the river;' 'the tower fell _upon_ the Greeks;' 'Lambeth is _over against_ Westminster-abbey.'"--_Ib._, p. 118. "Let me repeat it;--he only is great, who has the habits of greatness."--_Murray's Key_, 241. "I say not unto thee, until seven times; but, until seventy times seven."--See _Matt._, xviii, 22. "The Panther smil'd at this; and when, said she, Were those first councils disallow'd by me?"--_Dryden_, p. 95. UNDER RULE XV.--OF CHIEF WORDS. "The supreme council of the nation is called the divan."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 360. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word _divan_ begins with a small letter. But, according to Rule 15th, "Other words of particular importance, and such as denote the principal subjects treated of, may be distinguished by capitals." Therefore, "Divan" should here begin with a capital D.] "The British parliament is composed of kings, lords, and commons."--_Murray's Key_, p. 184. "A popular orator in the House of Commons has a sort of patent for coining as many new terms as he pleases."--See _Campbell's Rhet._, p. 169; _Murray's Gram._, 364. "They may all be taken together, as one name; as, the _house of commons_."-- _Merchant's School Gram._, p. 25. "Intrusted to persons in whom the parliament could confide."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 202. "For 'The Lords' house,' it were certainly better to say, 'The house of lords;' and, in stead of 'The commons' vote,' to say, 'The votes of the commons.'"--See _ib._, p. 177, 4th _Amer. Ed._; also _Priestley's Gram._, p. 69. "The house of lords were so much influenced by these reasons."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 152; _Priestley's Gram._, 188. "Rhetoricians commonly divide them into two great classes; figures of words, and figures of thought. The former, figures of words, are commonly called tropes."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 132. "Perhaps figures of imagination, and figures of passion, might be a more useful distribution."--_Ib._, p. 133. "Hitherto we have considered sentences, under the heads of perspicuity, unity, and strength."--_Ib._, p. 120. "The word is then depos'd, and in this view, You rule the scripture, not the scripture you."--_Dryden_, p. 95. UNDER RULE XVI.--OF NEEDLESS CAPITALS. "Be of good cheer: It is I; be not afraid."--ALGER: _Matt._, xiv, 27. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word _It_ begins with a capital _I_, for which there appears to be neither rule nor reason. But, according to Rule 16th, "Capitals are improper wherever there is not some special rule or reason for their use." Therefore, 'it' should here begin with a small letter, as Dr. Scott has it.] "Between passion and lying, there is not a Finger's breadth."--_Murray's Key_, p. 240. "Can our Solicitude alter the course, or unravel the intricacy, of human events?"--_Ib._, p. 242. "The last edition was carefully compared with the Original M. S."--_Ib._, p. 239. "And the governor asked him, saying, Art thou the King of the Jews?"--ALGER: _Matt._, xxvii, 11. "Let them be turned back for a reward of their shame, that say, Aha, Aha!"--FRIENDS' BIBLE: _Ps._, lxx, 3. "Let them be desolate for a reward of their shame, that say unto me, Aha, aha!"--IB.: _Ps._, xl, 15. "What think ye of Christ? whose Son is he? They say unto him, The Son of David. He saith unto them, How then doth David in Spirit call him Lord?"--SCOTT: _Matt._, xxii, 42, 43. "Among all Things in the Universe, direct your Worship to the Greatest; And which is that? 'T is that Being which Manages and Governs all the Rest."--_Meditations of M. Aurelius Antoninus_, p. 76. "As for Modesty and Good Faith, Truth and Justice, they have left this wicked World and retired to Heaven: And now what is it that can keep you here?"--_Ib._, p. 81. "If Pulse of Terse, a Nation's Temper shows, In keen Iambics English Metre flows."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 151. PROMISCUOUS ERRORS RESPECTING CAPITALS. LESSON I.--MIXED. "Come, gentle spring, Ethereal mildness, come."--_Gardiner's Music of Nature_, p. 411. [FORMULES.--1. Not proper, because the word _spring_ begins with a small letter. But, according to Rule 10th, "The name of an object personified, when it conveys an idea strictly individual, should begin with a capital." Therefore "Spring" should here begin with a capital S. 2. Not proper again, because the word _Ethereal_ begins with a capital E, for which there appears to be neither rule nor reason. But, according to Rule 16th. "Capitals are improper whenever there is not some special rule or reason for their use." Therefore, "ethereal" should here begin with a small letter.] As, "He is the Cicero of his age; he is reading the lives of the Twelve Cæsars."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 36. "In the History of Henry the fourth, by father Daniel, we are surprized at not finding him the great man."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 151. "In the history of Henry the fourth, by Father Daniel, we are _surprised_ at not finding him the great man."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 172; _Ingersoll's_, 187; _Fisk's_, 99. "Do not those same poor peasants use the Lever and the Wedge, and many other instruments?"--_Murray_, 288; from _Harris_, 293. "Arithmetic is excellent for the gauging of Liquors; Geometry, for the measuring of Estates; Astronomy, for the making of Almanacks; and Grammar, perhaps, for the drawing of Bonds and Conveyances."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 295. "The wars of Flanders, written in Latin by Famianus Strada, is a book of some note."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 364. "_William_ is a noun.--why? _was_ is a verb.--why? _a_ is an article.--why? _very_ is an adverb.--why?" &c.--_Merchant's School Gram._, p. 20. "In the beginning was the word, and that word was with God, and God was that word."--_Gwilt's Saxon Gram._, p. 49. "The greeks are numerous in thessaly, macedonia, romelia, and albania."--_Balbi, varied_. "He is styled by the Turks, Sultan (Mighty) or Padishah (lord)."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 360. "I will ransom them from the power of the grave; I will redeem them from death: O death, I will be thy plagues;[109] O grave, I will be thy destruction."--SCOTT, ALGER, ET AL.: _Hosea_, xiii, 14. "Silver and Gold have I none; but such as I have, give I unto thee."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 321. "Return, we beseech thee, O God of Hosts, look down from heaven, and behold, and visit this vine."--_Ib._, p. 342. "In the Attic Commonwealth, it was the privilege of every citizen to rail in public."--_Ib._, p. 316. "They assert that, in the phrases, 'give me _that_,' '_this_ is John's,' and '_such_ were _some_ of you,' the words in italics are pronouns: but that, in the following phrases, they are not pronouns; '_this_ book is instructive,' '_some_ boys are ingenious,' '_my_ health is declining,' '_our_ hearts are deceitful,' &c."--_Ib._, p. 58. "And the coast bends again to the northwest, as far as Far Out head."--_Glasgow Geog._, Vol. ii, p. 308. Dr. Webster, and other makers of spelling-books, very improperly write "sunday, monday, tuesday, wednesday, thursday, friday, saturday," without capitals.--See _Webster's Elementary Spelling-Book_ p. 85. "The commander in chief of the Turkish navy is styled the capitan-pasha."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 360. "Shall we not much rather be in subjection unto the father of spirits, and live?"--SCOTT'S BIBLE: _Heb._, xii, 9. "Shall we not much rather be in subjection unto the Father of Spirits, and live?"--FRIENDS' BIBLE: _Heb._, xii, 9. "He was more anxious to attain the character of a Christian hero."--_Murray's Sequel_, p. 308. "Beautiful for situation, the joy of the whole earth, is mount Zion."--_Psalms_, xlviii, 2. "The Lord is my Helper, and I will not fear what man shall do unto me."--SCOTT: _Heb._, xiii, 6. "Make haste to help me, O LORD my Salvation."--SCOTT: _Ps._, xxxviii, 22. "The City, which Thou seest, no other deem Than great and glorious Rome, Queen of the Earth." _Harris's Hermes_, p. 49. LESSON II.--MIXED. "That range of hills, known under the general name of mount Jura."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 110. "He rebuked the Red sea also, and it was dried up."--SCOTT: _Ps._, cvi, 9. "Jesus went unto the mount of Olives."--_John_, viii, 1. "Milton's book, in reply to the _Defence of the king_, by Salmasius, gained him a thousand pounds from the parliament, and killed his antagonist with vexation."--See _Murray's Sequel_, 343. "Mandeville, sir John, an Englishman, famous for his travels, born about 1300, died in 1372."--_Biog. Dict._ "Ettrick pen, a mountain in Selkirkshire, Scotland, height 2,200 feet."--_Glasgow Geog._, Vol. ii, p. 312. "The coast bends from Dungsbyhead in a northwest direction to the promontory of Dunnet head."--_Ib._, p. 307. "Gen. Gaines ordered a detachment of near 300 men, under the command of Major Twiggs, to surround and take an Indian Village, called Fowl Town, about fourteen miles from fort Scott."--_Cohen's Florida_, p. 41. "And he took the damsel by the hand, and said unto her, Talitha Cumi."--ALGER: _Mark_, v, 4. "On religious subjects, a frequent recurrence of scripture-language is attended with peculiar force."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 318. "Contemplated with gratitude to their Author, the Giver of all Good."--_Ib._, p. 289. "When he, the Spirit of Truth, is come, he will guide you into all truth."--_Ib._, p. 171; _Fisk_, 98; _Ingersoll_, 186. "See the lecture on verbs, rule XV. note 4."--_Fisk's E. Gram._, p. 117. "At the commencement of lecture II. I informed you that Etymology treats, 3dly, of derivation."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 171. "This VIII. lecture is a very important one."--_Ib._, p. 113. "Now read the XI. and XII. lectures _four_ or _five_ times over."--_Ib._, p. 152. "In 1752, he was advanced to the bench, under the title of lord Kames."--_Murray's Sequel_, p. 331. "One of his maxims was, 'know thyself.'"--_Lempriere's Dict., n. Chilo._ "Good master, what good thing shall I do, that I may have eternal life?"--See _Matt._, xix, 16. "His best known works, however, are 'anecdotes of the earl of Chatham,' 2 vols. 4to., 3 vols. 8vo., and 'biographical, literary, and political anecdotes of several of the most eminent persons of the present age; never before printed,' 3 vols. 8vo. 1797."--_Univ. Biog. Dict., n. Almon_. "O gentle sleep, Nature's soft nurse, how have I frighted thee?"--_Merchant's School Gram._, p. 172. "O sleep, O gentle sleep, Nature's soft nurse," &c.--SINGER'S SHAK. _Sec. Part of Hen. IV_, Act iii. "Sleep, gentle sleep, Nature's soft nurse," &c.--_Dodd's Beauties of Shakspeare_, p. 129. "And Peace, O, Virtue! Peace is all thy own."--_Pope's Works_, p. 379. "And peace, O virtue! peace is all thy own."--_Murray's Gram._, ii, 16. LESSON III.--MIXED. "Fenelon united the characters of a nobleman and a Christian pastor. His book entitled 'An explication of the Maxims of the Saints concerning the interior life,' gave considerable offence to the guardians of orthodoxy."--_Murray's Sequel_, p. 321. "When natural religion, who before was only a spectator, is introduced as speaking by the centurion's voice."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 157. "You cannot deny, that the great mover and author of nature constantly explaineth himself to the eyes of men, by the sensible intervention of arbitrary signs, which have no similitude, or connexion, with the things signified."--_Berkley's Minute Philosopher_, p. 169. "The name of this letter is double U, its form, that of a double V."--_Wilson's Essay on Gram._, p. 19. "Murray, in his spelling book, wrote 'Charles-Town' with a Hyphen and two Capitals."--See p. 101. "He also wrote 'european' without a capital."--See p. 86. "They profess themselves to be pharisees, who are to be heard and not imitated."--_Calvin's Institutes, Ded._, p. 55. "Dr. Webster wrote both 'Newhaven' and 'Newyork' with single capitals."--See his _American Spelling-Book_, p. 111. "Gayhead, the west point of Martha's Vineyard."--_Williams's Univ. Gaz._ Write "Craborchard, Eggharbor, Longisland, Perthamboy, Westhampton, Littlecompton, Newpaltz, Crownpoint, Fellspoint, Sandyhook, Portpenn, Portroyal. Portobello, and Portorico."--_Webster's American Spelling-Book_, 127-140. Write the names of the months: "january, february, march, april, may, june, july, august, september, october, november, december."--_Cobb's Standard Spelling-Book_, 21-40. Write the following names and words properly: "tuesday, wednesday, thursday, friday, saturday, saturn;--christ, christian, christmas, christendom, michaelmas, indian, bacchanals;--Easthampton, omega, johannes, aonian, levitical, deuteronomy, european."--_Cobb's Standard Spelling-Book, sundry places_. "Eight Letters in some Syllables we find, And no more Syllables in Words are joined." _Brightland's Gram._, p. 61. CHAPTER II.--OF SYLLABLES. A _Syllable_ is one or more letters pronounced in one sound; and is either a word, as, _a, an, ant_; or a part of a word, as _di_ in _dial_. In every word there are as many syllables as there are distinct sounds, or separate impulses of the voice; as, _gram-ma-ri-an_. A word of one syllable is called a _monosyllable_; a word of two syllables, a _dissyllable_; a word of three syllables, a _trissyllable_; and a word of four or more syllables, a _polysyllable_. Every vowel, except _w_, may form a syllable of itself; but the consonants belong to the vowels or diphthongs; and without a vowel no syllable can be formed. DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS. A _diphthong_ is two vowels joined in one syllable; as, _ea_ in _beat, ou_ in _sound_. In _oe_ or _æ_, old or foreign, the characters often unite. A _proper diphthong_ is a diphthong in which both the vowels are sounded; as, _oi_ in _voice, ow_ in _vow_. An _improper diphthong_ is a diphthong in which only one of the vowels is sounded; as, _oa_ in _loaf, eo_ in _people_. A _triphthong_ is three vowels joined in one syllable; as, _eau_ in beau, _iew_ in _view, oeu_ in _manoeuvre_. A _proper triphthong_ is a triphthong in which all the vowels are sounded; as, _uoy_ in _buoy_. An _improper triphthong_ is a triphthong in which only one or two of the vowels are sounded; as, _eau_ in _beauty, iou_ in _anxious_. The diphthongs in English are twenty-nine; embracing all but six of the thirty-five possible combinations of two vowels: _aa, ae, ai, ao, au, aw, ay,--ea, ee, ei, eo, eu, ew, ey,--ia, ie_, (_ii_,) _io_, (_iu, iw, iy_,)--_oa, oe, oi, oo, ou, ow, oy,--ua, ue, ui, uo_, (_uu, uw_,) _uy_. Ten of these diphthongs, being variously sounded, may be either proper or improper; to wit, _ay,--ie,--oi, ou, ow,--ua, ue, ui, uo, uy_. The proper diphthongs appear to be thirteen; _ay,--ia, ie, io,--oi, ou, ow, oy,--ua, ue, ui, uo, uy_: of which combinations, only three, _ia, io_, and _oy_, are invariably of this class. The improper diphthongs are twenty-six; _aa, ae, ai, ao, au, aw, ay,--ea, ee, ei, eo, eu, ew, ey,--ie,--oa, oe, oi, oo, ou, ow,--ua, ue, ui, uo, uy_. The only proper triphthong in English is _uoy_, as in _buoy, buoyant, buoyancy_; unless _uoi_ in _quoit_ may be considered a parallel instance. The improper triphthongs are sixteen; _awe, aye,--eau, eou, ewe, eye,--ieu, iew, iou,--oeu, owe,--uai, uaw, uay, uea, uee_. SYLLABICATION. In dividing words into syllables, we are to be directed chiefly by the ear; it may however be proper to observe, as far as practicable, the following rules. RULE I.--CONSONANTS. Consonants should generally be joined to the vowels or diphthongs which they modify in utterance; as, _An-ax-ag'-o-ras, ap-os-tol'-i-cal_.[110] RULE II.--VOWELS. Two vowels, coming together, if they make not a diphthong, must be parted in dividing the syllables; as, _A-cka'-i-a, A-o'-ni-an, a-e'-ri-al_. RULE III.--TERMINATIONS. Derivative and grammatical terminations should generally be separated from the radical words to which they have been added; as, _harm-less, great-ly, connect-ed_: thus _count-er_ and _coun-ter_ are different words. RULE IV.--PREFIXES. Prefixes, in general, form separate syllables; as, _mis-place, out-ride, up-lift_: but if their own primitive meaning be disregarded, the case may be otherwise; thus, _re-create_, and _rec'-reate, re-formation_, and _ref-ormation_, are words of different import. RULE V.--COMPOUNDS. Compounds, when divided, should be divided into the simple words which compose them; as, _boat-swain, foot-hold, never-the-less_. RULE VI.--LINES FULL. At the end of a line, a word may be divided, if necessary; but a syllable must never be broken. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--The doctrine of English syllabication is attended with some difficulties; because its purposes are various, and its principles, often contradictory. The old rules, borrowed chiefly from grammars of other languages, and still retained in some of our own, are liable to very strong objections.[111] By aiming to divide on the vowels, and to force the consonants, as much as possible, into the beginning of syllables, they often pervert or misrepresent our pronunciation. Thus Murray, in his Spelling-Book, has "_gra-vel, fi-nish, me-lon, bro-ther, bo-dy, wi-dow, pri-son, a-va-rice, e-ve-ry, o-ran-ges, e-ne-my, me-di-cine, re-pre-sent, re-so-lu-tion_," and a multitude of other words, divided upon a principle by which the young learner can scarcely fail to be led into error respecting their sounds. This method of division is therefore particularly reprehensible in such books as are designed to teach the true pronunciation of words; for which reason, it has been generally abandoned in our modern spelling-books and dictionaries: the authors of which have severally aimed at some sort of compromise between etymology and pronunciation; but they disagree so much, as to the manner of effecting it, that no two of them will be found alike, and very few, if any, entirely consistent with themselves. OBS. 2.--The object of syllabication may be any one of the following four; 1. To enable a child to read unfamiliar words by spelling them; 2. To show the derivation or composition of words; 3. To exhibit the exact pronunciation of words; 4. To divide words properly, when it is necessary to break them at the ends of lines. With respect to the first of these objects, Walker observes, "When a child has made certain advances in reading, but is ignorant of the sound of many of the longer words, it may not be improper to lay down the common general rule to him, that a consonant between two vowels must go to the latter, and that two consonants coming together must be divided. _Farther than this it would be absurd to go with a child_."--_Walker's Principles_, No. 539. Yet, as a caution be it recorded, that, in 1833, an itinerant lecturer from the South, who made it his business to teach what he calls in his title-page, "An _Abridgment_ of Walker's Rules on the Sounds of the Letters,"--an _Abridgement_, which, he says in his preface, "will be found to contain, it is believed, all the important rules that are established by Walker, and to carry his principles _farther_ than he himself has _done_"--befooled the Legislature of Massachusetts, the School Committee and Common Council of Boston, the professor of elocution at Harvard University, and many other equally wise men of the east, into the notion that English pronunciation could be conveniently taught to children, in "four or five days," by means of some three or four hundred rules of which the following is a specimen: "RULE 282. When a single consonant is preceded by a vowel under the preantepenultimate accent, and is followed by a vowel that is succeeded by a consonant, it belongs to the accented vowel."--_Mulkey's Abridgement of Walker's Rules_, p. 34. OBS. 3.--A grosser specimen of literary quackery, than is the publication which I have just quoted, can scarcely be found in the world of letters. It censures "the principles laid down and illustrated by Walker," as "so elaborate and so verbose as to be wearisome to the scholar and useless to the child;" and yet declares them to be, "for the most part, the true rules of pronunciation, according to the analogy of the language."--_Mulkey's Preface_, p. 3. It professes to be an abridgement and simplification of those principles, especially adapted to the wants and capacities of children; and, at the same time, imposes upon the memory of the young learner twenty-nine rules for syllabication, similar to that which I have quoted above; whereas Walker himself, with all his verbosity, expressly declares it "_absurd_," to offer more than one or two, and those of the very simplest character. It is to be observed that the author teaches nothing but the elements of reading; nothing but the sounds of letters and syllables; nothing but a few simple fractions of the great science of grammar: and, for this purpose, he would conduct the learner through the following particulars, and have him remember them all: 1. _Fifteen distinctions_ respecting the "classification and organic formation of the letters." 2. _Sixty-three rules_ for "the sounds of the vowels, according to their relative positions." 3. _Sixty-four explanations_ of "the different sounds of the diphthongs." 4. _Eighty-nine rules_ for "the sounds of the consonants, according to position." 5. _Twenty-three heads_, embracing a hundred and fifty-six principles of accent. 6. _Twenty-nine_ "_rules_ for dividing words into syllables." 7. _Thirty-three "additional principles;"_ which are thrown together promiscuously, because he could not class them. 8. _Fifty-two pages_ of "irregular Words," forming particular exceptions to the foregoing rules. 9. _Twenty-eight pages_ of notes extracted from Walker's Dictionary, and very prettily called "The Beauties of Walker." All this is Walker simplified for children! OBS. 4.--Such is a brief sketch of Mulkey's system of orthoëpy; a work in which "he claims to have devised what has heretofore been a _desideratum_--a mode by which children in our common schools may be taught _the rules_ for the pronunciation of their mother tongue."--_Preface_, p. 4. The faults of the book are so exceedingly numerous, that to point them out, would be more toil, than to write an accurate volume of twice the size. And is it possible, that a system like this could find patronage in the metropolis of New England, in that proud centre of arts and sciences, and in the proudest halls of learning and of legislation? Examine the gentleman's credentials, and take your choice between the adoption of his plan, as a great improvement in the management of syllables, and the certain conclusion that great men may be greatly duped respecting them. Unless the public has been imposed upon by a worse fraud than mere literary quackery, the authorities I have mentioned did extensively patronize the scheme; and the Common Council of that learned city did order, November 14th, 1833, "That the School Committee be and they are hereby authorized to employ Mr. William Mulkey to give a course of Lectures on Orthoëpy _to the several instructors of the public schools_, and that the sum of five hundred dollars is hereby appropriated for that purpose, and that the same amount be withdrawn from the reserved fund."--See _Mulkey's Circular_. OBS. 5.--Pronunciation is best taught to children by means of a good spelling-book; a book in which the words are arranged according to their analogies, and divided according to their proper sounds. Vocabularies, dictionaries, and glossaries, may also be serviceable to those who are sufficiently advanced to learn how to use them. With regard to the first of the abovenamed purposes of syllabication, I am almost ready to dissent even from the modest opinion of Walker himself; for ignorance can only guess at the pronunciation of words, till positive instruction comes in to give assurance; and it may be doubted whether even the simple rule or rules suggested by Walker would not about as often mislead the young reader as correct him. With regard to the second purpose, that of showing the derivation or composition of words, it is plain, that etymology, and not pronunciation, must here govern the division; and that it should go no further than to separate the constituent parts of each word; as, _ortho-graphy, theo-logy_. But when we divide for the third purpose, and intend to show what is the pronunciation of a word, we must, if possible, divide into such syllabic sounds as will exactly recompose the word, when put together again; as, _or-thog-ra-phy, the-ol-o-gy_. This being the most common purpose of syllabication, perhaps it would be well to give it a general preference; and adopt it whenever we can, not only in the composing of spelling-books and dictionaries, but also in the dividing of words at the ends of lines. OBS. 6.--Dr. Lowth says, "The best and easiest rule, for dividing the syllables in spelling, is, to divide them as they are naturally divided in a right pronunciation; without regard to the derivation of words, or the possible combination of consonants at the beginning of a syllable."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 5. And Walker approves of the principle, with respect to the third purpose mentioned above: "This," says that celebrated orthoëpist, "is the method adopted by those who would convey the whole sound, by giving distinctly every part; and, when this is the object of syllabication, Dr. Lowth's rule is certainly to be followed."--_Walker's Principles_,--No. 541. But this rule, which no one can apply till he has found out the pronunciation, will not always be practicable where that is known, and perhaps not always expedient where it is practicable. For example: the words _colonel, venison, transition, propitious_, cannot be so divided as to exhibit their pronunciation; and, in such as _acid, magic, pacify, legible, liquidate_, it may not be best to follow the rule, because there is some reasonable objection to terminating the first syllables of these words with _c, g_, and _q_, especially at the end of a line. The rule for terminations may also interfere with this, called "Lowth's;" as in _sizable, rising, dronish_. OBS. 7.--For the dividing of words into syllables, I have given six rules, which are perhaps as many as will be useful. They are to be understood as general principles; and, as to the exceptions to be made in their application, or the settling of their conflicting claims to attention, these may be left to the judgement of each writer. The old principle of dividing by the eye, and not by the ear, I have rejected; and, with it, all but one of the five rules which the old grammarians gave for the purpose. "The divisions of the letters into syllables, should, unquestionably, be the same in written, as in spoken language; otherwise the learner is misguided, and seduced by false representations into injurious errors."--_Wilson's Essay on Gram._, p. 37. Through the influence of books in which the words are divided according to their sounds, the pronunciation of the language is daily becoming more and more uniform; and it may perhaps be reasonably hoped, that the general adoption of this method of syllabication, and a proper exposition of the occasional errors of ignorance, will one day obviate entirely the objection arising from the instability of the principle. For the old grammarians urged, that the scholar who had learned their rules should "strictly conform to them; and that he should industriously avoid _that random Method of dividing by the Ear_, which is subject to mere jumble, as it must be continually fluctuating according to the various Dialects of different Countries."--_British Grammar_, p. 47. OBS. 8.--The important exercise of oral spelling is often very absurdly conducted. In many of our schools, it may be observed that the teacher, in giving out the words to be spelled, is not always careful to utter them with what he knows to be their true sounds, but frequently accommodates his pronunciation to the known or supposed ignorance of the scholar; and the latter is still more frequently allowed to hurry through the process, without putting the syllables together as he proceeds; and, sometimes, without forming or distinguishing the syllables at all. Merely to pronounce a word and then name its letters, is an exceedingly imperfect mode of spelling; a mode in which far more is lost in respect to accuracy of speech, than is gained in respect to time. The syllables should not only be distinctly formed and pronounced, but pronounced as they are heard in the whole word; and each should be successively added to the preceding syllables, till the whole sound is formed by the reunion of all its parts. For example: _divisibility_. The scholar should say, "Dee I, de; Vee I Ess, viz, de-viz; I, de-viz-e; Bee I Ell, bil, de-viz-e-bil; I, de-viz-e-bil-e; Tee Wy, te, de-viz-e-bil-e-te." Again: _chicanery_. "Cee Aitch I, she; Cee A, ka, she-ka; En E Ar, nur, she-ka-nur; Wy, she-ka-nur-e." One of the chief advantages of oral spelling, is its tendency to promote accuracy of pronunciation; and this end it will reach, in proportion to the care and skill with which it is conducted. But oral spelling should not be relied on as the sole means of teaching orthography. It will not be found sufficient. The method of giving out words for practical spelling on slates or paper, or of reading something which is to be written again by the learner, is much to be commended, as a means of exercising those scholars who are so far advanced as to write legibly. This is called, in the schools, _dictation_. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. ERRORS IN SYLLABICATION. LESSON I.--CONSONANTS. 1. Correct the division of the following words of two syllables: "ci-vil, co-lour, co-py, da-mask, do-zen, e-ver, fea-ther, ga-ther, hea-ven, hea-vy, ho-ney, le-mon, li-nen, mea-dow, mo-ney, ne-ver, o-live, o-range, o-ther, phea-sant, plea-sant, pu-nish, ra-ther, rea-dy, ri-ver, ro-bin, scho-lar, sho-vel, sto-mach, ti-mid, whe-ther."--_Murray's Spelling-Book_, N. Y., 1819, p. 43-50. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the _v_ in _ci-vil_, the _l_ in _co-lour_, the _p_ in _co-py_, &c., are written with the following vowel, but spoken with that which precedes. But, according to Rule 1st, "Consonants should generally be joined to the vowels or diphthongs which they modify in utterance." Therefore, these words should be divided thus: _civ-il, col-our, cop-y_, &c.] 2. Correct the division of the following words of three syllables: "be-ne-fit, ca-bi-net, ca-nis-ter, ca-ta-logue, cha-rac-ter, cha-ri-ty, co-vet-ous, di-li-gence, di-mi-ty, e-le-phant, e-vi-dent, e-ver-green, fri-vo-lous, ga-ther-ing, ge-ne-rous, go-vern-ess, go-vern-or, ho-nes-ty, ka-len-dar, la-ven-der, le-ve-ret, li-be-ral, me-mo-ry, mi-nis-ter, mo-dest-ly, no-vel-ty, no-bo-dy, pa-ra-dise, po-ver-ty, pre-sent-ly, pro-vi-dence, pro-per-ly, pri-son-er, ra-ven-ous, sa-tis-fy, se-ve-ral, se-pa-rate, tra-vel-ler, va-ga-bond;--con-si-der, con-ti-nue, de-li-ver, dis-co-ver, dis-fi-gure, dis-ho-nest, dis-tri-bute, in-ha-bit, me-cha-nic, what-e-ver;--re-com-mend, re-fu-gee, re-pri-mand."--_Murray: ib._, p. 67-83. 3. Correct the division of the following words of four syllables: "ca-ter-pil-lar, cha-ri-ta-ble, di-li-gent-ly, mi-se-ra-ble, pro-fit-a-ble, to-le-ra-ble;--be-ne-vo-lent, con-si-der-ate, di-mi-nu-tive, ex-pe-ri-ment, ex-tra-va-gant, in-ha-bi-tant, no-bi-li-ty, par-ti-cu-lar, pros-pe-ri-ty, ri-di-cu-lous, sin-ce-ri-ty;--de-mon-stra-tion, e-du-ca-tion, e-mu-la-tion, e-pi-de-mic, ma-le-fac-tor, ma-nu-fac-ture, me-mo-ran-dum, mo-de-ra-tor, pa-ra-ly-tic, pe-ni-ten-tial, re-sig-na-tion, sa-tis-fac-tion, se-mi-co-lon."--_Murray: ib._, p. 84-87. 4. Correct the division of the following words of five syllables: "a-bo-mi-na-ble, a-po-the-ca-ry, con-sid-e-ra-ble, ex-pla-na-to-ry, pre-pa-ra-to-ry;--a-ca-de-mi-cal, cu-ri-o-si-ty, ge-o-gra-phi-cal, ma-nu-fac-to-ry, sa-tis-fac-to-ry, me-ri-to-ri-ous;--cha-rac-te-ris-tic, e-pi-gram-ma-tic, ex-pe-ri-ment-al, po-ly-syl-la-ble, con-sid-e-ra-tion." --_Murray: ib._, p. 87-89. 5. Correct the division of the following proper names: "He-len, Leo-nard, Phi-lip, Ro-bert, Ho-race, Tho-mas;--Ca-ro-line, Ca-tha-rine, Da-ni-el, De-bo-rah, Do-ro-thy, Fre-de-rick, I-sa-bel, Jo-na-than, Ly-di-a, Ni-cho-las, O-li-ver, Sa-mu-el, Si-me-on, So-lo-mon, Ti-mo-thy, Va-len-tine;--A-me-ri-ca, Bar-tho-lo-mew, E-li-za-beth, Na-tha-ni-el, Pe-ne-lo-pe, The-o-phi-lus."--_Murray: ib._, p. 98-101. LESSON II.--MIXED. 1. Correct the division of the following words, by Rule 1st: "cap-rice, es-teem, dis-es-teem, ob-lige;--az-ure, mat-ron, pat-ron, phal-anx, sir-en, trait-or, trench-er, barb-er, burn-ish, garn-ish, tarn-ish, varn-ish, mark-et, musk-et, pamph-let;--brave-ry, knave-ry, siave-ry, eve-ning, scene-ry, bribe-ry, nice-ty, chi-cane-ry, ma-chine-ry, im-age-ry;-- as-y-lum, hor-i-zon,--fi-nan-cier, he-ro-ism,--sar-don-yx, scur-ril-ous,-- com-e-di-an, post-e-ri-or."--_Webster's Spelling-Books_. 2. Correct the division of the following words by Rule 2d: "oy-er, fol-io, gen-ial, gen-ius, jun-ior, sa-tiate, vi-tiate;--am-bro-sia, cha-mel-ion, par-hel-ion, con-ven-ient, in-gen-ious, om-nis-cience, pe-cul-iar, so-cia-ble, par-tial-i-ty, pe-cun-ia-ry;--an-nun-ciate, e-nun-ciate, ap-pre-ciate, as-so-ciate, ex-pa-tiate, in-gra-tiate, in-i-tiate, li-cen-tiate, ne-go-tiate, no-vi-ciate, of-fi-ciate, pro-pi-tiate, sub-stan-tiate."--_Webster: Old Spelling-Book_, 86-91; _New_, 121-128. 3. Correct the division of the following words by Rule 3d: "dres-ser, has-ty, pas-try, sei-zure, rol-ler, jes-ter, wea-ver, vam-per, han-dy, dros-sy, glos-sy, mo-ver, mo-ving, oo-zy, ful-ler, trus-ty, weigh-ty, noi-sy, drow-sy, swar-thy."--_Cobb's Standard Spelling-Book_. Again: "eas-tern, full-y, pull-et, rill-et, scan-ty, nee-dy."--_Webster_. 4. Correct the division of the following words by Rule 4th: "aw-ry,"--_Webster's Old Book_, 52; "ath-wart,"--_Ib._, 93; "pros-pect-ive,"--_Ib._, 66; "pa-renth-e-sis,"--_Ib._, 93; "res-ist-i-bil-ity,"--_Webster's New Book_, 93; "hem-is-pher-ic,"--_Ib._, 130; "mo-nos-tich, he-mis-tick," [112]--_Walker's Dict._, 8vo; _Cobb_, 33; "tow-ards,"--_Cobb_, 48. 5. Correct the division of the following words by Rule 5th: "E'n-gland,"--_Murray's Spelling-Book_, p. 100; "a-no-ther,"--_Ib._, 71; "a-noth-er,"--_Emerson_, 76; "Be-thes-da, Beth-a-ba-ra,"--_Webster_, 141; _Cobb_, 159. LESSON III.--MIXED. 1. Correct the division of the following words, according to their derivation: "ben-der, bles-sing, bras-sy, chaf-fy, chan-ter, clas-per, craf-ty, cur-dy, fen-der, fil-my, fus-ty, glas-sy, graf-ter, gras-sy, gus-ty, ban-ded, mas-sy, mus-ky, rus-ty, swel-ling, tel-ler, tes-ted, thrif-ty, ves-ture."--_Cobb's Standard Spelling-Book_. 2. Correct the division of the following words, so as to give no wrong notion of their derivation and meaning: "barb-er, burn-ish, brisk-et, cank-er, chart-er, cuck-oo, furn-ish, garn-ish, guil-ty, hank-er, lust-y, port-al, tarn-ish, test-ate, test-y, trait-or, treat-y, varn-ish, vest-al, di-urn-al, e-tern-al, in-fern-al, in-tern-al, ma-tern-al, noc-turn-al, pa-tern-al."--_Webster's Elementary Spelling-Book_. 3. Correct the division of the following words, so as to convey no wrong idea of their pronunciation: "ar-mo-ry, ar-te-ry, butch-er-y, cook-e-ry, eb-o-ny, em-e-ry, ev-e-ry, fel-o-ny, fop-pe-ry, flip-pe-ry, gal-le-ry, his-to-ry, liv-e-ry. lot-te-ry, mock-e-ry, mys-te-ry, nun-ne-ry, or-re-ry, pil-lo-ry, quack-e-ry, sor-ce-ry, witch-e-ry."--_Ib._, 41-42. 4. Correct the division of the following words, and give to _n_ before _k_ the sound of _ng_: "ank-le, bask-et, blank-et, buck-le, cack-le, crank-le, crink-le, east-er, fick-le, freck-le, knuck-le, mark-et, monk-ey, port-ress, pick-le, poult-ice, punch-eon, qua-drant, qua-drate, squa-dron, rank-le, shack-le, sprink-le, tink-le, twink-le, wrink-le."--_Cobb's Standard Spelling-Book_. 5. Correct the division of the following words, with a proper regard to Rules 1st and 3d: "a-scribe, bland-ish, bran-chy, clou-dy, dus-ty, drea-ry, eve-ning, faul-ty, fil-thy, fros-ty, gau-dy, gloo-my, heal-thy, hear-ken, hear-ty, hoa-ry, lea-ky, loung-er, mar-shy, migh-ty, mil-ky, naugh-ty, pas-sing, pit-cher, rea-dy, roc-ky, spee-dy, stea-dy, stor-my, thirs-ty, thor-ny, trus-ty, ves-try, wes-tern, weal-thy."--_Emerson's Spelling-Book_, 17-44. CHAPTER III.--OF WORDS. A _Word_ is one or more syllables spoken or written as the sign of some idea, or of some manner of thought. Words are distinguished as _primitive_ or _derivative_, and as _simple_ or _compound_. The former division is called their _species_; the latter, their _figure_. A _primitive_ word is one that is not formed from any simpler word in the language; as, _harm, great, connect_. A _derivative_ word is one that is formed from some simpler word in the language; as, _harmless, greatly, connected, disconnect, unconnected_. A _simple_ word is one that is not compounded, not composed of other words; as, _watch, man, house, tower, never, the, less_. A _compound_ word is one that is composed of two or more simple words; as, _watchman, watchhouse, watchtower, nevertheless_. Permanent compounds are consolidated; as, _bookseller, schoolmaster_: others, which may be called temporary compounds, are formed by the hyphen; as, _good-natured, negro-merchant_. _RULES FOR THE FIGURE OF WORDS_. RULE I.--COMPOUNDS. Words regularly or analogically united, and commonly known as forming a compound, should never be needlessly broken apart. Thus, _steamboat, railroad, red-hot, well-being, new-coined_, are preferable to the phrases, _steam boat, rail road, red hot, well being, new coined_; and _toward us_ is better than the old phrase, _to us ward_. RULE II.--SIMPLES. When the simple words would only form a regular phrase, of the same meaning, the compounding of any of them ought to be avoided. Thus, the compound _instead_ is not to be commended, because the simple phrase, _in stead of_, is exactly like the other phrases, _in lieu of, in place of, in room of_, in which we write no compound. RULE III.--THE SENSE. Words otherwise liable to be misunderstood, must be joined together or written separately, as the sense and construction may happen to require. Thus, a _glass house_ is a house made of glass, but a _glasshouse_ is a house in which glass is made; so a _negro merchant_ is a coloured trader, but a _negro-merchant_ is a man who buys and sells negroes. RULE IV.--ELLIPSES. When two or more compounds are connected in one sentence, none of them should be split to make an ellipsis of half a word. Thus, "_six or seventeen_" should not be said for "_sixteen or seventeen_;" nor ought we to say, "_calf, goat, and sheepskins_" for "_calfskins, goatskins, and sheepskins_" In the latter instance, however, it might be right to separate all the words; as in the phrase, "_soup, coffee_, and _tea_ houses."--_Liberator_, x, 40. RULE V.--THE HYPHEN. When the parts of a compound do not fully coalesce, as _to-day, to-night, to-morrow_; or when each retains its original accent, so that the compound has more than one, or one that is movable, as _first-born, hanger-on, laughter-loving, garlic-eater, butterfly-shell_, the hyphen should be inserted between them. RULE VI.--NO HYPHEN. When a compound has but one accented syllable in pronunciation, as _watchword, statesman, gentleman_, and the parts are such as admit of a complete coalescence, no hyphen should be inserted between them. Churchill, after much attention to this subject, writes thus: "The practical instruction of the _countinghouse_ imparts a more thorough knowledge of _bookkeeping_, than all the fictitious transactions of a mere _schoolbook_, however carefully constructed to suit particular purposes."--_New Gram._, p. vii. But _counting-house_, having more stress on the last syllable than on the middle one, is usually written with the hyphen; and _book-keeping_ and _school-book_, though they may not need it, are oftener so formed than otherwise. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--Words are the least parts of significant language; that is, of language significant in each part; for, to syllables, taken merely as syllables, no meaning belongs. But, to a word, signification of some sort or other, is essential; there can be no word without it; for a sign or symbol must needs represent or signify something. And as I cannot suppose words to represent external things, I have said "A _Word_ is one or more syllables spoken or written as the sign of some _idea_." But of _what_ ideas are the words of our language significant? Are we to say, "Of _all_ ideas;" and to recognize as an English word every syllable, or combination of syllables, to which we know a meaning is attached? No. For this, in the first place, would confound one language with an other; and destroy a distinction which must ever be practically recognized, till all men shall again speak one language. In the next place, it would compel us to embrace among our words an infinitude of terms that are significant only of _local_ ideas, such as men any where or at any time may have had concerning any of the individuals they have known, whether persons, places, or things. But, however important they may be in the eyes of men, the names of particular persons, places, or things, because they convey only particular ideas, do not properly belong to what we call _our language_. Lexicographers do not collect and define proper names, because they are beyond the limits of their art, and can be explained only from history. I do not say that proper names are to be excluded from grammar; but I would show wherein consists the superiority of general terms over these. For if our common words did not differ essentially from proper names, we could demonstrate nothing in science: we could not frame from them any general or affirmative proposition at all; because all our terms would be particular, and not general; and because every individual thing in nature must necessarily be for ever itself only, and not an other. OBS. 2.--Our common words, then, are the symbols neither of external particulars, nor merely of the sensible ideas which external particulars excite in our minds, but mainly of those general or universal ideas which belong rather to the intellect than to the senses. For intellection differs from sensation, somewhat as the understanding of a man differs from the perceptive faculty of a brute; and language, being framed for the reciprocal commerce of human minds, whose perceptions include both, is made to consist of signs of ideas both general and particular, yet without placing them on equal ground. Our general ideas--that is, our ideas conceived as common to many individuals, existing in any part of time, past, present, or future--such, for example, as belong to the words _man, horse, tree, cedar, wave, motion, strength, resist_--such ideas, I say, constitute that most excellent significance which belongs to words primarily, essentially, and immediately; whereas, our particular ideas, such as are conceived only of individual objects, which arc infinite in number and ever fleeting, constitute a significance which belongs to language only secondarily, accidentally, and mediately. If we express the latter at all, we do it either by proper names, of which but very few ever become generally known, or by means of certain changeable limitations which are added to our general terms; whereby language, as Harris observes, "without wandering into infinitude, contrives how to denote things infinite."--_Hermes_, p. 345. The particular manner in which this is done, I shall show hereafter, in Etymology, when I come to treat of articles and definitives. OBS. 3.--If we examine the structure of proper names, we shall find that most of them are compounds, the parts of which have, in very many instances, some general signification. Now a complete phrase commonly conveys some particular notion or conception of the mind; but, in this case, the signification of the general terms is restricted by the other words which are added to them. Thus _smith_ is a more general term than _goldsmith_; and _goldsmith_ is more general than a _goldsmith_; _a goldsmith_, than _the goldsmith_; _the goldsmith_, than _one Goldsmith_; _one Goldsmith_, than _Mr. Goldsmith_; _Mr. Goldsmith_, than _Oliver Goldsmith_. Thus we see that the simplest mode of designating particular persons or objects, is that of giving them _proper names_; but proper names must needs be so written, that they may be known as proper names, and not be mistaken for common terms. I have before observed, that we have some names which are both proper and common; and that these should be written with capitals, and should form the plural regularly. It is surprising that _the Friends_, who are in some respects particularly scrupulous about language, should so generally have overlooked the necessity there is, of _compounding_ their numerical names of the months and days, and writing them uniformly with capitals, as proper names. For proper names they certainly are, in every thing but the form, whenever they are used without the article, and without those other terms which render their general idea particular. And the compound form with a capital, is as necessary for _Firstday, Secondday, Thirdday_, &c., as for _Sunday, Monday, Tuesday_, &c. "The first day of the week,"--"The seventh day of the month,"--"The second month of summer,"--"The second month in the year," &c., are good English phrases, in which any compounding of the terms, or any additional use of capitals, would be improper; but, for common use, these phrases are found too long and too artificial. We must have a less cumbersome mode of specifying the months of the year and the days of the week. What then? Shall we merely throw away the terms of particularity, and, without substituting in their place the form of proper names, apply general terms to particular thoughts, and insist on it that this is right? And is not this precisely what is done by those who reject as heathenish the ordinary names of the months and days, and write "_first day_," for _Sunday_, in stead of "the first day of the week;" or "_second month_," for _February_, in stead of "the second month in the year;" and so forth? This phraseology may perhaps be well understood by those to whom it is familiar, but still it is an abuse of language, because it is inconsistent with the common acceptation of the terms. Example: "The departure of a ship will take place _every sixth day_ with punctuality."--_Philadelphia Weekly Messenger_. The writer of this did not mean, "_every Friday_;" and it is absurd for the Friends so to understand it, or so to write, when that is what they mean. OBS. 4.--In the ordinary business of life, it is generally desirable to express our meaning as briefly as possible; but legal phraseology is always full to the letter, and often redundant. Hence a merchant will write, "Nov. 24, 1837," or, "11 mo. 24th, 1837;" but a conveyancer will have it, "On the twenty-fourth day of November, one thousand eight hundred and thirty-seven;"--or, perhaps, "On the twenty-fourth day of the eleventh month, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and thirty-seven." Accordingly we find that, in common daily use, all the names of the months, except _March, May, June_, and _July_, are abbreviated; thus, _Jan., Feb., Apr., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec_. And sometimes even the Arabic number of the year is made yet shorter; as '37 for 1837; or 1835-6-7, for 1835, 1836, and 1837. In like manner, in constructing tables of time, we sometimes denote the days of the week by the simple initials of their names; as, S. for Sunday, M. for Monday, &c. But, for facility of abbreviation, the numerical names, whether of the months or of the days, are perhaps still more convenient. For, if we please, we may put the simple Arabic figures for them; though it is better to add _d_. for _day_, and _mo._ for _month_: as, 1 d., 2 d., 3 d., &c.;--1 mo., 2 mo., 3 mo., &c.:--or more compactly thus: 1d., 2d., 3d., &c.;--1mo., 2mo., 3mo., &c. But, take which mode of naming we will, our ordinary expression of these things should be in neither extreme, but should avoid alike too great brevity and too great prolixity; and, therefore, it is best to make it a general rule in our literary compositions, to use the full form of proper names for the months and days, and to denote the years by Arabic figures written in full. OBS. 5.--In considering the nature of words, I was once a little puzzled with a curious speculation, if I may not term it an important inquiry, concerning the _principle of their identity_. We often speak of "_the same words_," and of "_different words_;" but wherein does the sameness or the difference of words consist? Not in their pronunciation; for the same word may be differently pronounced; as, _p=at'ron_ or _p=a'tron, m=at'ron_ or _m=a'tron_. Not in their orthography; for the same word may be differently spelled; as, _favour_ or _favor, music_ or _musick, connexion_ or _connection_. Not in their form of presentation; for the same word may be either spoken or written; and speech and writing present what we call _the same words_, in two ways totally different. Not in their meaning; for the same word may have different meanings, and different words may signify precisely the same thing. This sameness of words, then, must consist in something which is to be reconciled with great diversity. Yet every word is itself, and not an other: and every word must necessarily have some property peculiar to itself, by which it may be easily distinguished from every other. Were it not so, language would be unintelligible. But it _is_ so; and, therefore, to mistake one word for an other, is universally thought to betray great ignorance or great negligence, though such mistakes are by no means of uncommon occurrence. But that the question about the identity of words is not a very easy one, may appear from the fact, that the learned often disagree about it in practice; as when one grammarian will have _an_ and _a_ to be two words, and an other will affirm them to be only different forms of one and the same word. OBS. 6.--Let us see, then, if amidst all this diversity we can find that principle of sameness, by which a dispute of this kind ought to be settled. Now, although different words do generally differ in orthography, in pronunciation, and in meaning, so that an entire sameness implies one orthography, one pronunciation, and one meaning; yet some diversity is allowed in each of these respects, so that a sign differing from an other only in one, is not therefore a different word, or a sign agreeing with an other only in one, is not therefore the same word. It follows thence, that the principle of verbal identity, the principle which distinguishes every word from every other, lies in neither extreme: it lies in a narrower compass than in all three, and yet not singly in any one, but jointly in any two. So that signs differing in any two of these characteristics of a word, are different words; and signs agreeing in any two, are the same word. Consequently, if to any difference either of spelling or of sound we add a difference of signification everybody will immediately say, that we speak or write different words, and not the same: thus _dear_, beloved, and _deer_, an animal, are two such words as no one would think to be the same; and, in like manner, _use_, advantage, and _use_, to employ, will readily be called different words. Upon this principle, _an_ and _a_ are different words; yet, in conformity to old usage, and because the latter is in fact but an abridgement of the former, I have always treated them as one and the same article, though I have nowhere expressly called them the same word. But, to establish the principle above named, which appears to me the only one on which any such question can be resolved, or the identity of words be fixed at all, we must assume that every word has one right pronunciation, and only one; one just orthography, and only one; and some proper signification, which, though perhaps not always the same, is always a part of its essence. For when two words of different meaning are spelled or pronounced alike, not to maintain the second point of difference, against the double orthography or the double pronunciation of either, is to confound their identity at once, and to prove by the rule that two different words are one and the same, by first absurdly making them so. OBS. 7.--In no part of grammar is usage more unsettled and variable than in that which relates to the _figure of words_. It is a point of which modern writers have taken but very little notice. Lily, and other ancient Latin grammarians, reckoned both species and figure among the grammatical accidents of nearly all the different parts of speech; and accordingly noticed them, in their Etymology, as things worthy to be thus made distinct topics, like numbers, genders, cases, moods, tenses, &c. But the manner of compounding words in Latin, and also in Greek, is always by consolidation. No use appears to have been made of the _hyphen_, in joining the words of those languages, though the name of the mark is a Greek compound, meaning "_under one_." The compounding of words is one principal means of increasing their number; and the arbitrariness with which that is done or neglected in English, is sufficient of itself to make the number of our words a matter of great uncertainty. Such terms, however, having the advantage of explaining themselves in a much greater degree than others, have little need of definition; and when new things are formed, it is very natural and proper to give them new names of this sort: as, _steamboat, railroad_. The propriety or impropriety of these additions to the language, is not to be determined by dictionaries; for that must be settled by usage before any lexicographer will insert them. And so numerous, after all, are the discrepancies found in our best dictionaries, that many a word may have its day and grow obsolete, before a nation can learn from them the right way of spelling it; and many a fashionable thing may go entirely out of use, before a man can thus determine how to name it. _Railroads_ are of so recent invention that I find the word in only one dictionary; and that one is wrong, in giving the word a hyphen, while half our printers are wrong, in keeping the words separate because _Johnson_ did not compound them. But is it not more important, to know whether we ought to write _railroad_, or _rail-road_, or _rail road_, which we cannot learn from any of our dictionaries, than to find out whether we ought to write _rocklo_, or _roquelo_, or _roquelaur_, or _roquelaure_, which, in some form or other, is found in them all? The duke of Roquelaure is now forgotten, and his cloak is out of fashion. OBS. 8.--No regular phrase, as I have taught in the second rule above, should be needlessly converted into a compound word, either by tacking its parts together with the hyphen, or by uniting them without a hyphen; for, in general, a phrase is one thing, and a word is an other: and they ought to be kept as distinct as possible.[113] But, when a whole phrase takes the relation of an _adjective_, the words must be compounded, and the hyphen becomes necessary; as, "An inexpressibly apt _bottle-of-small-beer_ comparison."--_Peter Pindar_. The occasions for the compounding of words, are in general sufficiently plain, to any one who knows what is intended to be said; but, as we compound words, sometimes with the hyphen, and sometimes without, there is no small difficulty in ascertaining when to use this mark, and when to omit it. "Some settled rule for the use of the hyphen on these occasions, is much wanted. Modern printers have a strange predilection for it; using it on almost every possible occasion. Mr. L. Murray, who has only three lines on the subject, seems inclined to countenance this practice; which is, no doubt, convenient enough for those who do not like trouble. His words are: 'A Hyphen, marked thus - is employed in connecting compounded words: as, Lap-dog, tea-pot, pre-existence, self-love, to-morrow, mother-in-law.' Of his six examples, Johnson, our only acknowledged standard, gives the first and third without any separation between the syllables, _lapdog, preexistence_; his second and fifth as two distinct words each, _tea pot, to morrow_; and his sixth as three words, _mother in law_: so that only his fourth has the sanction of the lexicographer. There certainly can be no more reason for putting a hyphen after the common prefixes, than before the common affixes, _ness, ly_, and the rest."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 374. OBS. 9.--Again: "While it would be absurd, to sacrifice the established practice of all good authors to the ignorance of such readers [as could possibly mistake for a diphthong the two contiguous vowels in such words as _preexistence, cooperate_, and _reenter_]; it would unquestionably be advantageous, to have some principle to guide us in that labyrinth of words, in which the hyphen appears to have been admitted or rejected arbitrarily, or at hap-hazard. Thus, though we find in Johnson, _alms-basket, alms-giver_, with the hyphen; we have _almsdeed, almshouse, almsman_, without: and many similar examples of an unsettled practice might be adduced, sufficient to fill several pages. In this perplexity, is not the pronunciation of the words the best guide? In the English language, every word of more than one syllable is marked by an accent on some particular syllable. Some very long words indeed admit a secondary accent on _another_ syllable; but still this is much inferior, and leaves one leading accent prominent: as in _expos'tulatory_. Accordingly, when a compound has but one accented syllable in pronunciation, as _night'cap, bed'stead, broad'sword_, the two words have coalesced completely into one, and no hyphen should be admitted. On the other hand, when each of the radical words has an accent, as _Chris'tian-name', broad'-shoul'dered_, I think the hyphen should be used. _Good'-na'tured_ is a compound epithet with two accents, and therefore requires the hyphen: in _good nature, good will_, and similar expressions, _good_ is used simply as an adjective, and of course should remain distinct from the noun. Thus, too, when a noun is used adjectively, it should remain separate from the noun it modifies; as, a _gold ring_, a _silver buckle_. When two numerals are employed to express a number, without a conjunction between them, it is usual to connect them by a hyphen; as, _twenty-five, eighty-four_: but when the conjunction is inserted, the hyphen is as improper as it would be between other words connected by the conjunction. This, however, is a common abuse; and we often meet with _five-&-twenty, six-&-thirty_, and the like."--_Ib._, p. 376. Thus far Churchill: who appears to me, however, too hasty about the hyphen in compound numerals. For we write _one hundred, two hundred, three thousand_, &c., without either hyphen or conjunction; and as _five-and-twenty_ is equivalent to _twenty-five_, and virtually but one word, the hyphen, if not absolutely necessary to the sense, is certainly not so very improper as he alleges. "_Christian name_" is as often written without the hyphen as with it, and perhaps as accurately. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. ERRORS IN THE FIGURE, OR FORM, OF WORDS. UNDER RULE I.--OF COMPOUNDS. "Professing to imitate Timon, the man hater."--_Goldsmith's Rome_, p. 161. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the compound term _manhater_ is here made two words. But, according to Rule 1st, "Words regularly or analogically united, and commonly known as forming a compound, should never be needlessly broken apart." Therefore, _manhater_ should be written as one word.] "Men load hay with a pitch fork."--_Webster's New Spelling-Book_, p. 40. "A pear tree grows from the seed of a pear."--_Ib._, p. 33. "A tooth brush is good to brush your teeth."--_Ib._, p. 85. "The mail is opened at the post office."--_Ib._, p. 151. "The error seems to me two fold."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 230. "To pre-engage means to engage before hand."--_Webster's New Spelling-Book_, p. 82. "It is a mean act to deface the figures on a mile stone."--_Ib._, p. 88. "A grange is a farm and farm house."--_Ib._, p. 118. "It is no more right to steal apples or water melons, than money."--_Ib._, p. 118. "The awl is a tool used by shoemakers, and harness makers."--_Ib._, p. 150. "Twenty five cents are equal to one quarter of a dollar."--_Ib._, p. 107. "The blowing up of the Fulton at New York was a terrible disaster."--_Ib._, p. 54. "The elders also, and the bringers up of the children, sent to Jehu."--SCOTT: 2 _Kings_, x, 5. "Not with eye service, as men pleasers."--_Bickersteth, on Prayer_, p. 64. "A good natured and equitable construction of cases."--_Ash's Gram._, p. 138. "And purify your hearts, ye double minded."--_Gurney's Portable Evidences_, p. 115. "It is a mean spirited action to steal; i. e. to steal is a mean spirited action."--_Grammar of Alex. Murray, the schoolmaster_, p. 124. "There is, indeed, one form of orthography which is a kin to the subjunctive mood of the Latin tongue."--_Booth's Introd. to Dict._, p. 71. "To bring him into nearer connexion with real and everyday life."--_Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 459. "The common place, stale declamation of its revilers would be silenced."--_Ib._, i, 494. "She formed a very singular and unheard of project."--_Goldsmith's Rome_, p. 160. "He had many vigilant, though feeble talented, and mean spirited enemies."--ROBERTS VAUX: _The Friend_, Vol. vii, p. 74. "These old fashioned people would level our psalmody," &c.--_Music of Nature_, p. 292. "This slow shifting scenery in the theatre of harmony."--_Ib._, p. 398. "So we are assured from Scripture it self."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 300. "The mind, being disheartened, then betakes its self to trifling."--_R. Johnson's Pref. to Gram. Com._ "Whose soever sins ye remit, they are remitted unto them."--_Beacon_, p. 115: SCOTT, ALGER, FRIENDS: _John_, xx, 23. "Tarry we our selves how we will."--_Walker's English Particles_, p. 161. "Manage your credit so, that you need neither swear your self, nor want a voucher."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 33. "Whereas song never conveys any of the above named sentiments."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 424. "I go on horse back."--_Guy's Gram._, p. 54. "This requires _purity_, in opposition to barbarous, obsolete, or new coined words."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 242; _Gould's_, 234. "May the Plough share shine."--_White's Eng. Verb_, p. 161. "Which way ever we consider it."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 83. "Where e'er the silent (e) a Place obtains, The Voice foregoing, Length and softness gains." --_Brightland's Gr._, p. 15. UNDER RULE II.--OF SIMPLES. "It qualifies any of the four parts of speech abovenamed."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 83. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because _abovenamed_ is here unnecessarily made a compound. But, according to Rule 2d, "When the simple words would only form a regular phrase, of the same meaning, the compounding of any of them ought to be avoided." Therefore, _above_ and _named_ should here have been written as two words.] "After awhile they put us out among the rude multitude."--_Fox's Journal_. Vol. i, p. 169. "It would be ashame, if your mind should falter and give in."--_Collier's Meditations of Antoninus_, p. 94. "They stared awhile in silence one upon another."--_Rasselas_, p. 73. "After passion has for awhile exercised its tyrannical sway."--_Murray's Gram._, ii, 135 and 267. "Though set within the same general-frame of intonation."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 339. "Which do not carry any of the natural vocal-signs of expression."--_Ib._, p. 329. "The measurable constructive-powers of a few associable constituents."--_Ib._, p. 343. "Before each accented syllable or emphatic monosyllabic-word."--_Ib._, p. 364. "One should not think too favourably of oneself."--See _Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 154. "Know ye not your ownselves, how that Jesus Christ is in you."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. i, p. 355. "I judge not my ownself, for I know nothing of my ownself."-- _Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 84. "Though they were in such a rage, I desired them to tarry awhile."--_Josephus_, Vol. v, p. 179. "_A_ instead of _an_ is now used before words beginning with _a_ long."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 31. "John will have earned his wages the next new-year's day."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 82. "A new-year's-gift is a present made on the first day of the year."--See _Johnson, Walker, Webster, et al._ "When he sat on the throne, distributing new-year's-gifts."--STILLINGFLEET, _in Johnson's Dict._ "St. Paul admonishes Timothy to refuse old-wives'- fables."--_Author_. "The world, take it altogether, is but one."-- _Collier's Antoninus_, B. vii, Sec. 9. "In writings of this stamp we must accept of sound instead of sense."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 298. "A male-child, A female-child, Male-descendants, Female-descendants."-- _Goldsbury's C. S. Gram._, p. 13; _Rev. T. Smith's Gram._, p. 15. "Male-servants, Female-servants. Male-relations, Female-relations."-- _Felton's Gram._, p. 15. "Reserved and cautious, with no partial aim, My muse e'er sought to blast another's fame."--_Lloyd_, p. 162. UNDER RULE III.--THE SENSE. "Our discriminations of this matter have been but four footed instincts."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 291. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the term _four footed_ is made two words, as if the instincts were four and footed. But, according to Rule 3d, "Words otherwise liable to be misunderstood, must be joined together, or written separately, as the sense and construction may happen to require." Therefore, _four-footed_, as it here means _quadruped_, or _having four feet_, should be one word.] "He is in the right, (says Clytus,) not to bear free born men at his table."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, Vol. ii, p. 128. "To the short seeing eye of man, the progress may appear little."--_The Friend_, Vol. ix, p. 377. "Knowledge and virtue are, emphatically, the stepping stone to individual distinction."--_Town's Analysis_, p. 5. "A tin peddler will sell tin vessels as he travels."--_Webster's New Spelling-Book_, p. 44. "The beams of a wood-house are held up by the posts and joists."--_Ib._, p. 39. "What you mean by _future tense adjective_, I can easily understand."--_Tooke's Diversions_, Vol. ii, p. 450. "The town has been for several days very well behaved."--_Spectator_, No. 532. "A _rounce_ is the handle of a printing press."--_Webster's' Dict._; also _El. Spelling-Book_, p. 118. "The phraseology we call _thee and thouing_ is not in so common use with us, as the _tutoyant_ among the French."--_Walker's Dict., w. Thy._ "Hunting, and other out door sports, are generally pursued."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 227. "Come unto me, all ye that labour and are heavy laden."--SCOTT, ALGER, FRIENDS: _Matt._, xi, 28. "God so loved the world, that he gave his only begotten Son to save it."--_Barclay's Works_, i, p. 71. See SCOTT'S BIBLE: _John_, iii, 16. "Jehovah is a prayer hearing God: Nineveh repented, and was spared."--_N. Y. Observer_, Vol. x, p. 90. "These are well pleasing to God, in all ranks and relations."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. i, p. 73. "Whosoever cometh any thing near unto the tabernacle."--_Numb._, xvii, 13. "The words coalesce, when they have a long established association."-- _Murray's Gram._, p. 169. "Open to me the gates of righteousness: I will go in to them."--OLD BIBLE: _Ps._, cxviii, 19. "He saw an angel of God coming into him."--See _Acts_, x, 3. "The consequences of any action are to be considered in a two fold light."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 108. "We commonly write two fold, three fold, four fold, and so on up to ten fold, without a hyphen; and, after that, we use one."--_Author._ See _Matt._, xiii, 8. "When the first mark is going off, he cries _turn!_ the glass holder answers _done!_"--_Bowditch's Nav._, p. 128. "It is a kind of familiar shaking hands with all the vices."--_Maturin's Sermons_, p. 170. "She is a good natured woman;" "James is self opinionated;" "He is broken hearted."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 147. "These three examples apply to the _present tense_ construction only."--_Ib._, p. 65. "So that it was like a game of hide and go seek."--_Edward's First Lessons in Grammar_, p. 90. "That lowliness is young ambition's ladder, Whereto the climber upward turns his face."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 97. UNDER RULE IV.--OF ELLIPSES. "This building serves yet for a school and a meeting-house." [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the compound word _schoolhouse_ is here divided to avoid a repetition of the last half. But, according to Rule 4th, "When two or more compounds are connected in one sentence, none of them should be split to make an ellipsis of half a word." Therefore, "_school_" should be "_schoolhouse_;" thus, "This building serves yet for a _schoolhouse_ and a meeting-house."] "Schoolmasters and mistresses of honest friends [are] to be encouraged."--_N. E. Discipline_, p. xv. "We never assumed to ourselves a faith or worship-making-power."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. i, p. 83. "Pot and pearl ashes are made from common ashes."--_Webster's New Spelling-Book_, p. 69. "Both the ten and eight syllable verses are iambics."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 121. "I say to myself, thou, he says to thy, to his self; &c."--_Dr. Murray's Hist. of Europ. Lang._, Vol. ii p. 121. "Or those who have esteemed themselves skilful, have tried for the mastery in two or four horse chariots."--_Zenobia_, Vol. i, p. 152. "I remember him barefooted and headed, running through the streets."--_Castle Rackrent_, p. 68. "Friends have the entire control of the school and dwelling-houses."--_The Friend_, Vol. vii, p. 231. "The meeting is held at the first mentioned place in the first month, at the last in the second, and so on."--_Ib._, p. 167. "Meetings for worship are held at the same hour on first and fourth days."--_Ib._, p. 230. "Every part of it, inside and out, is covered with gold leaf."--_Ib._, p. 404. "The Eastern Quarterly Meeting is held on the last seventh day in second, fifth, eighth, and eleventh month."--_Ib._, p. 87. "Trenton Preparative Meeting is held on the third fifth day in each month, at ten o'clock; meetings for worship at the same hour on first and fifth days."--_Ib._, p. 231. "Ketch, a vessel with two masts, a main and mizzen-mast."--_Webster's Dict._, "I only mean to suggest a doubt, whether nature has enlisted herself as a Cis or Trans-Atlantic partisan?"-- _Jefferson's Notes_, p. 97. "By large hammers, like those used for paper and fullingmills, they beat their hemp."--MORTIMER: _in Johnson's Dict._ "Ant-hill, or Hillock, _n. s._ The small protuberances of earth, in which ants make their nests."--_Ib._ "It became necessary to substitute simple indicative terms called _pro-names_ or _nouns._"--_Enclytica_, p. 16. "Obscur'd, where highest woods, impenetrable To star or sun-light, spread their umbrage broad."--_Milton._ UNDER RULE V.--THE HYPHEN. "_Evilthinking_; a noun, compounded of the noun _evil_ and the imperfect participle _thinking_; singular number;" &c.--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 180. [FORMULE--Not proper, because the word _evilthinking_, which has more than one accented syllable, is here compounded without the hyphen. But, according to Rule 5th, "When the parts of a compound do not fully coalesce, or when each retains its original accent, so that the compound has more than one, or one that is movable, the hyphen should be inserted between them." Therefore, the hyphen should be used in this word; thus, _evil-thinking._] "_Evilspeaking_; a noun, compounded of the noun _evil_ and the imperfect participle _speaking._"--_Ib._ "I am a tall, broadshouldered, impudent, black fellow."--SPECTATOR: _in Johnson's Dict._ "Ingratitude! thou marblehearted fiend."--SHAK.: _ib._ "A popular licence is indeed the manyheaded tyranny."--SIDNEY: _ib._ "He from the manypeopled city flies."--SANDYS: _ib._ "He manylanguaged nations has surveyed."--POPE: _ib._ "The horsecucumber is the large green cucumber, and the best for the table."--MORTIMER: _ib._ "The bird of night did sit, even at noonday, upon the market-place."--SHAK.: _ib._ "These make a general gaoldelivery of souls, not for punishment."--SOUTH: _ib._ "Thy air, thou other goldbound brow, is like the first."--SHAK.: _ib._ "His person was deformed to the highest degree; flatnosed, and blobberlipped."--L'ESTRANGE: _ib._ "He that defraudeth the labourer of his hire, is a bloodshedder."--ECCLUS., xxxiv, 22: _ib._ "Bloodyminded, _adj._ from _bloody_ and _mind._ Cruel; inclined to blood-shed."--See _Johnson's Dict._ "Bluntwitted lord, ignoble in demeanour."--SHAK.: _ib._ "A young fellow with a bobwig and a black silken bag tied to it."--SPECTATOR: _ib._ "I have seen enough to confute all the boldfaced atheists of this age."--BRAMHALL: _ib._ "Before milkwhite, now purple with love's wound."--SHAK: _ib._ "For what else is a redhot iron than fire? and what else is a burning coal than redhot wood?"--NEWTON: _ib._ "Pollevil is a large swelling, inflammation, or imposthume in the horse's poll, or nape of the neck just between the ears."--FARRIER: _ib._ "Quick-witted, brazenfac'd, with fluent tongues, Patient of labours, and dissembling wrongs."--DRYDEN: _ib._ UNDER RULE VI.--NO HYPHEN. "From his fond parent's eye a tear-drop fell."--_Snelling's Gift for Scribblers_, p. 43. [FORMULE--Not proper, because the word _tear-drop_, which has never any other than a full accent on the first syllable, is here compounded with the hyphen. But, according to Rule 6th, "When a compound has but one accented syllable in pronunciation, and the parts are such as admit of a complete coalescence, no hyphen should be inserted between them." Therefore, _teardrop_ should be made a close compound.] "How great, poor jack-daw, would thy sufferings be!"--_Ib._, p. 29. "Placed like a scare-crow in a field of corn."--_Ib._, p. 39. "Soup for the alms-house at a cent a quart."--_Ib._, p. 23. "Up into the watch-tower get, and see all things despoiled of fallacies."--DONNE: _Johnson's Dict., w. Lattice._ "In the day-time she sitteth in a watchtower, and flieth most by night."--BACON: _ib., w. Watchtower._ "In the daytime Fame sitteth in a watch-tower, and flieth most by night."--ID.: _ib., w. Daytime._ "The moral is the first business of the poet, as being the ground-work of his instruction."--DRYDEN: _ib., w. Moral._ "Madam's own hand the mouse-trap baited."--PRIOR: _ib., w. Mouse-trap._ "By the sinking of the air-shaft the air hath liberty to circulate."--RAY: _ib., w. Airshaft._ "The multiform and amazing operations of the air-pump and the loadstone."--WATTS: _ib., w. Multiform._ "Many of the fire-arms are named from animals."--_Ib., w. Musket._ "You might have trussed him and all his apparel into an eel-skin."--SHAK.: _ib., w. Truss._ "They may serve as land-marks to shew what lies in the direct way of truth."--LOCKE: _ib., w. Landmark._ "A pack-horse is driven constantly in a narrow lane and dirty road."--_Id. ib., w. Lane._ "A mill-horse, still bound to go in one circle."--SIDNEY: _ib., w. Mill-horse._ "Of singing birds they have linnets, goldfinches, ruddocks, Canary-birds, black-birds, thrushes, and divers others."--CAREW: _ib., w. Goldfinch._ "Of singing birds, they have linnets, gold-finches, blackbirds, thrushes, and divers others."--ID.: _ib., w. Blackbird._ "Of singing birds, they have linnets, gold-finches, ruddocks, canary birds, blackbirds, thrushes, and divers other."--ID.: _ib., w. Canary bird._ "Cartrage, or Cartridge, a case of paper or parchment filled with gun-powder."--_Johnson's Dict._, 4to. "Deep night, dark night, the silent of the night, The time of night when Troy was set on fire, The tune when screech-owls cry, and ban-dogs howl." SHAKSPEARE: _ib., w. Silent._ "The time when screech-owls cry, and bandogs howl." IDEM.: _ib., w. Bandog._ PROMISCUOUS ERRORS IN THE FIGURE OF WORDS. LESSON I.--MIXED. "They that live in glass-houses, should not throw stones."--_Old Adage._ "If a man profess Christianity in any manner or form soever."--_Watts_, p. 5. "For Cassius is a weary of the world."--SHAKSPEARE: _in Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 67. "By the coming together of more, the chains were fastened on."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 223. "Unto the carrying away of Jerusalem captive in the fifth month."--_Jer._, i, 3. "And the goings forth of the border shall be to Zedad."--_Numbers_, xxxiv, 8. "And the goings out of it shall be at Hazar-enan."--_Ib._, ver. 9. "For the taking place of effects, in a certain particular series."--_Dr. West, on Agency_, p. 39. "The letting go of which was the occasion of all that corruption."--_Dr. J. Owen._ "A falling off at the end always hurts greatly."--_Blair's Lect._, p. 126. "A falling off at the end is always injurious."--_Jamieson's Rhetoric_, p. 127. "As all holdings forth were courteously supposed to be trains of reasoning."--_Dr. Murray's Hist. of Europ. Lang._, Vol. i, p. 333. "Whose goings forth have been from of old, from everlasting."-- _Micah_, v, 2. "Some times the adjective becomes a substantive."-- _Bradley's Gram._, p. 104. "It is very plain, I consider man as visited a new."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. iii, p. 331. "Nor do I any where say, as he falsely insinuates."--_Ib._, p. 331. "Every where, any where, some where, no where."--_Alex. Murray's Gram._, p. 55. "The world hurries off a pace, and time is like a rapid river."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 58. "But to now model the paradoxes of ancient skepticism."--_Brown's Estimate_, Vol. i, p. 102. "The south east winds from the ocean invariably produce rain."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 369. "North west winds from the high lands produce cold clear weather."--_Ib._ "The greatest part of such tables would be of little use to English men."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 155. "The ground floor of the east wing of Mulberry street meeting house was filled."--_The Friend_, vii, 232. "Prince Rupert's Drop. This singular production is made at the glass houses."--_Red Book_, p. 131. "The lights and shades, whose well accorded strife Gives all the strength and colour of our life." --_Murray's Gram._, p. 54; _Fisk's_, 65. LESSON II.--MIXED. "In the twenty and seventh year of Asa king of Judah did Zimri reign seven days in Tirzah."--_1 Kings_, xvi, 15. "In the thirty and first year of Asa king of Judah, began Omri to reign over Israel."--_Ib._, xvi, 23. "He cannot so deceive himself as to fancy that he is able to do a rule of three sum."--_Foreign Quarterly Review_. "The best cod are those known under the name of Isle of Shoals dun fish."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 26. "The soldiers, with down cast eyes, seemed to beg for mercy."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, Vol. ii, p. 142. "His head was covered with a coarse worn out piece of cloth."--_Ib._, p. 124. "Though they had lately received a reinforcement of a thousand heavy armed Spartans."--_Ib._, p. 38. "But he laid them by unopened; and, with a smile, said, 'Business to morrow.'"--_Ib._, p. 7. "Chester monthly meeting is held at Moore's town, the third day following the second second day."--_The Friend_, Vol. vii, p. 124. "Eggharbour monthly meeting is held the first second day."--_Ib._, p. 124. "Little Egg Harbour Monthly Meeting is held at Tuckerton on the second fifth day in each month."--_Ib._, p. 231. "At three o'clock, on first day morning the 24th of eleventh month, 1834," &c.--_Ib._, p. 64. "In less than one-fourth part of the time usually devoted."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 4. "The pupil will not have occasion to use it one-tenth part as much."--_Ib._, p. 11. "The painter dips his paint brush in paint, to paint the carriage."--_Ib._, p. 28. "In an ancient English version of the New-Testament."--_Ib._, p. 74. "The little boy was bare headed."--_Red Book_, p. 36. "The man, being a little short sighted, did not immediately know him."--_Ib._, p. 40. "Picture frames are gilt with gold."--_Ib._, p. 44. "The park keeper killed one of the deer."--_Ib._, p. 44. "The fox was killed near the brick kiln."--_Ib._, p. 46. "Here comes Esther, with her milk pail."--_Ib._, p. 50. "The cabinet maker would not tell us."--_Ib._, p. 60. "A fine thorn hedge extended along the edge of the hill."--_Ib._, p. 65. "If their private interests should be ever so little affected."--_Ib._, p. 73. "Unios are fresh water shells, vulgarly called fresh water clams."--_Ib._, p. 102. "Did not each poet mourn his luckless doom, Jostled by pedants out of elbow room."--_Lloyd_, p. 163. LESSON III.--MIXED. "The captive hovers a-while upon the sad remains."--PRIOR: _in Johnson's Dict., w. Hover._ "Constantia saw that the hand writing agreed with the contents of the letter."--ADDISON: _ib., w. Hand_. "They have put me in a silk night-gown, and a gaudy fool's cap."--ID.: _ib., w. Nightgown_. "Have you no more manners than to rail at Hocus, that has saved that clod-pated, numskull'd ninnyhammer of yours from ruin, and all his family?"--ARBUTHNOT: _ib., w. Ninnyhammer_. "A noble, that is, six, shillings and eightpence, is, and usually hath been paid."--BACON: _ib., w. Noble_. "The king of birds thick feather'd and with full-summed wings, fastened his talons east and west."--HOWELL: _ib., w. Full-summed_. "To morrow. This is an idiom of the same kind, supposing _morrow_ to mean originally _morning_: as, _to night, to day_."--_Johnson's Dict._, 4to. "To-day goes away and to-morrow comes."--_Id., ib., w. Go_, No. 70. "Young children, who are try'd in Go carts, to keep their steps from sliding."--PRIOR: _ib., w. Go-cart_. "Which, followed well, would demonstrate them but goers backward."--SHAK.: _ ib., w. Goer_. "Heaven's golden winged herald late he saw, to a poor Galilean virgin sent."--CRASHAW: _ib., w. Golden_. "My penthouse eye-brows and my shaggy beard offend your sight."--DRYDEN: _ib., w. Penthouse_. "The hungry lion would fain have been dealing with good horse-flesh."-- L'ESTRANGE: _ib., w. Nag_. "A broad brimmed hat ensconced each careful head."--_Snelling's Gift_, p. 63. "With harsh vibrations of his three stringed lute."--_Ib._, p. 42. "They magnify a hundred fold an author's merit."--_Ib._, p. 14. "I'll nail them fast to some oft opened door."--_Ib._, p. 10. "Glossed over only with a saint-like show, still thou art bound to vice."--DRYDEN: in _Johnson's Dict., w. Gloss_. "Take of aqua-fortis two ounces, of quick-silver two drachms."--BACON: _ib., w. Charge_. "This rainbow never appears but when it rains in the sun-shine."--NEWTON: _ib., w. Rainbow_. "Not but there are, who merit other palms; Hopkins and Stern hold glad the heart with Psalms." _British Poets_, Lond., 1800, Vol. vi, p. 405. CHAPTER IV.--OF SPELLING. _Spelling_ is the art of expressing words by their proper letters. This important art is to be acquired rather by means of the spelling-book or dictionary, and by observation in reading, than by the study of written rules; because what is proper or improper, depends chiefly upon usage. The orthography of our language is attended with much uncertainty and perplexity: many words are variously spelled by the best scholars, and many others are not usually written according to the analogy of similar words. But to be ignorant of the orthography of such words as are spelled with uniformity, and frequently used, is justly considered disgraceful. The following rules may prevent some embarrassment, and thus be of service to those who wish to be accurate. _RULES FOR SPELLING._ RULE I.--FINAL F, L, OR S. Monosyllables ending in _f, l_, or _s_, preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant; as _staff, mill, pass--muff, knell, gloss--off, hiss, puss_. EXCEPTIONS.--The words _clef, if_, and _of_, are written with single _f_; and _as, gas, has, was, yes, his, is, this, us, pus_, and _thus_, with single _s_. So _bul_, for the flounder; _nul_, for _no_, in law; _sol_, for _sou_ or _sun_; and _sal_, for _salt_, in chemistry, have but the single _l_. OBS.--Because _sal, salis_, in Latin, doubles not the _l_, the chemists write _salify, salifiable, salification, saliferous, saline, salinous, saliniform, salifying_, &c., with single _l_, contrary to Rule 3d. But in _gas_ they ought to double the _s_; for this is a word of their own inventing. Neither have they any plea for allowing it to form _gases_ and _gaseous_ with the _s_ still single; for so they make it violate two general rules at once. If the singular cannot now be written _gass_, the plural should nevertheless be _gasses_, and the adjective should be _gasseous_, according to Rule 3d. RULE II.--OTHER FINALS. Words ending in any other consonant than _f, l_, or _s_, do not double the final letter; as, _mob, nod, dog, sum, sun, cup, cur, cut, fix, whiz_. EXCEPTIONS.--We double the consonant in _abb, ebb, add, odd, egg, jagg, ragg, inn, err, burr, purr, butt, buzz, fuzz, yarr_, and some proper names. But we have also _ab_ (_from_) and _ad_ (_to_) for prefixes; and _jag, rag, in, bur_, and _but_, are other words that conform to the rule. RULE III.--DOUBLING. Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, when they end with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, or by a vowel after _qu_, double their final consonant before an additional syllable that begins with a vowel: as, _rob, robbed, robber; fop, foppish, foppery; squat, squatter, squatting; thin, thinner, thinnest; swim, swimmer, swimming; commit, committeth, committing, committed, committer, committees; acquit, acquittal, acquittance, acquitted, acquitting, acquitteth_. EXCEPTIONS.--1. X final, being equivalent to _ks_, is never doubled: thus, from _mix_, we have _mixed, mixing_, and _mixer_. 2. When the derivative retains not the accent of the root, the final consonant is not always doubled: as, _prefer', pref'erence, pref'erable; refer', ref'erence, ref'erable_, or _refer'rible; infer', in'ference, in'ferable_, or _infer'rible; transfer'_, a _trans'fer, trans'ferable_, or _transfer'rible_. 3. But letters doubled in Latin, are usually doubled in English, without regard to accent, or to any other principle: as, Britain, _Britan'nic, Britannia_; appeal, _appel'lant_; argil, _argil'laus, argilla'ceous_; cavil, _cav'illous, cavilla'tion_; excel', _ex'cellent, ex'cellence_; inflame', _inflam'mable, inflamma'tion_. See Observations 13 and 14, p. 199. RULE IV.--NO DOUBLING. A final consonant, when it is not preceded by a single vowel, or when the accent is not on the last syllable, should remain single before an additional syllable: as, _toil, toiling; oil, oily; visit, visited; differ, differing; peril, perilous; viol, violist; real, realize, realist; dial, dialing, dialist; equal, equalize, equality; vitriol, vitriolic, vitriolate_. EXCEPTIONS.--1. The final _l_ of words ending in _el_, must be doubled before an other vowel, lest the power of the _e_ be mistaken, and a syllable be lost: as, _travel, traveller; duel, duellist; revel, revelling; gravel, gravelly; marvel, marvellous_. Yet the word _parallel_, having three Ells already, conforms to the rule in forming its derivatives; as, _paralleling, paralleled_, and _unparalleled_. 2. Contrary to the preceding rule, the preterits, participles, and derivative nouns, of the few verbs ending in _al, il_, or _ol_, unaccented,--namely, _equal, rival, vial, marshal, victual, cavil, pencil, carol, gambol_, and _pistol_,--are usually allowed to double the _l_, though some dissent from the practice: as, _equalled, equalling; rivalled, rivalling; cavilled, cavilling, caviller; carolled, carolling, caroller_. 3. When _ly_ follows _l_, we have two Ells of course, but in fact no doubling: as, _real, really; oral, orally; cruel, cruelly; civil, civilly; cool, coolly; wool, woolly_. 4. Compounds, though they often remove the principal accent from the point of duplication, always retain the double letter: as, _wit'snapper, kid'napper,[114] grass'hopper, duck'-legged, spur'galled, hot'spurred, broad'-brimmed, hare'-lipped, half-witted_. So, _compromitted_ and _manumitted_; but _benefited_ is different. RULE V.--FINAL CK. Monosyllables and English verbs end not with _c_, but take _ck_ for double _c_; as, _rack, wreck, rock, attack_: but, in general, words derived from the learned languages need not the _k_, and common use discards it; as, _Italic, maniac, music, public_. EXCEPTIONS.--The words _arc_, part of a circle; _orc_, the name of a fish; _lac_, a gum or resin; and _sac_, or _soc_, a privilege, in old English law, are ended with _c_ only. _Zinc_ is, perhaps, better spelled _zink_; _marc, mark_; _disc, disk_; and _talc, talck_. RULE VI.--RETAINING. Words ending with any double letter, preserve it double before any additional termination, not beginning with the same letter;[115] as in the following derivatives: _wooer, seeing, blissful, oddly, gruffly, equally, shelly, hilly, stiffness, illness, stillness, shrillness, fellness, smallness, drollness, freeness, grassless, passless, carelessness, recklessness, embarrassment, enfeoffment, agreement, agreeable_. EXCEPTIONS.--1. Certain irregular derivatives in _d_ or _t_, from verbs ending in _ee, ll_, or _ss_, (as _fled_ from _flee, sold_ from _sell, told_ from _tell, dwelt_ from _dwell, spelt_ from _spell, spilt_ from _spill, shalt_ from _shall, wilt_ from _will, blest_ from _bless, past_ from _pass_,) are exceptions to the foregoing rule. 2. If the word _pontiff_ is properly spelled with two Effs, its eight derivatives are also exceptions to this rule; for they are severally spelled with one; as, _pontific, pontifical, pontificate_, &c. 3. The words _skillful, skillfully, willful, willfully, chillness, tallness, dullness_, and _fullness_, have generally been allowed to drop the second _l_, though all of them might well be made to conform to the general rule, agreeably to the orthography of Webster. RULE VII.--RETAINING. Words ending with any double letter, preserve it double in all derivatives formed from them by means of prefixes: as, _see, foresee_; _feoff, enfeoff_; _pass, repass_; _press, depress_; _miss, amiss_; _call, recall_; _stall, forestall_; _thrall, inthrall_; _spell, misspell_; _tell, foretell_; _sell, undersell_; _add, superadd_; _snuff, besnuff_; _swell, overswell_. OBSERVATION.--The words _enroll, unroll, miscall, befall, befell, bethrall, reinstall, disinthrall, fulfill_, and _twibill_, are very commonly written with one _l_, and made exceptions to this rule; but those authors are in the right who retain the double letter. RULE VIII.--FINAL LL. Final _ll_ is peculiar to monosyllables and their compounds, with the few derivatives formed from such roots by prefixes; consequently, all other words that end in _l_, must be terminated with a single _l_: as, _cabal, logical, appal, excel, rebel, refel, dispel, extol, control, mogul, jackal, rascal, damsel, handsel, tinsel, tendril, tranquil, gambol, consul_. OBSERVATION.--The words _annul, until, distil, extil_, and _instil_, are also properly spelled with one _l_; for the monosyllables _null, till_, and _still_ are not really their roots, but rather derivatives, or contractions of later growth. Webster, however, prefers _distill, extill_, and _instill_ with _ll_; and some have been disposed to add the other two. RULE IX.--FINAL E. The final _e_ of a primitive word, when this letter is mute or obscure, is generally omitted before an additional termination beginning with a vowel: as, _remove, removal_; _rate, ratable_; _force, forcible_; _true, truism_; _rave, raving_; _sue, suing_; _eye, eying_; _idle, idling_; _centre, centring_. EXCEPTIONS.--1. Words ending in _ce_ or _ge_, retain the _e_ before _able_ or _ous_, to preserve the soft sounds of _c_ and _g_: as, _trace, traceable_; _change, changeable_; _outrage, outrageous_. 2. So, from _shoe_, we write _shoeing_, to preserve the sound of the root; from _hoe, hoeing_, by apparent analogy; and, from _singe, singeing_; from _swinge, swingeing_; from _tinge, tingeing_; that they may not be confounded with _singing, swinging_, and _tinging_. 3. To compounds and prefixes, as _firearms, forearm, anteact, viceagent_, the rule does not apply; and final _ee_ remains double, by Rule 6th, as in _disagreeable, disagreeing_. RULE X.--FINAL E. The final _e_ of a primitive word is generally retained before an additional termination beginning with a consonant: as, _pale, paleness_; _edge, edgeless_; _judge, judgeship_; _lodge, lodgement_; _change, changeful_; _infringe, infringement_. EXCEPTIONS.--1. When the _e_ is preceded by a vowel, it is sometimes omitted; as in _duly, truly, awful, argument_; but much more frequently retained; as in _dueness, trueness, blueness, bluely, rueful, dueful, shoeless, eyeless_. 2. The word _wholly_ is also an exception to the rule, for nobody writes it _wholely_. 3. Some will have _judgment, abridgment_, and _acknowledgment_, to be irreclaimable exceptions; but I write them with the _e_, upon the authority of Lowth, Beattie, Ainsworth, Walker, Cobb, Chalmers, and others: the French "_jugement_," _judgement_, always retains the _e_. RULE XI--FINAL Y. The final _y_ of a primitive word, when preceded by a consonant, is generally changed into _i_ before an additional termination: as, _merry, merrier, merriest, merrily, merriment_; _pity, pitied, pities, pitiest, pitiless, pitiful, pitiable_; _contrary, contrariness, contrarily_. EXCEPTIONS.--1. This rule applies to derivatives, but not to compounds: thus, we write _merciful_, and _mercy-seat_; _penniless_, and _pennyworth_; _scurviness_, and _scurvy-grass_; &c. But _ladyship_ and _goodyship_, being unlike _secretariship_ and _suretiship_; _handicraft_ and _handiwork_,[116] unlike _handygripe_ and _handystroke_; _babyship_ and _babyhood_, unlike _stateliness_ and _likelihood_; the distinction between derivatives and compounds, we see, is too nice a point to have been always accurately observed. 2. Before _ing_ or _ish_, the _y_ is retained to prevent the doubling of _i_: as, _pity, pitying_; _baby, babyish_. 3. Words ending in _ie_, dropping the _e_ by Rule 9th, change the _i_ into _y_, for the same reason: as, _die, dying_; _vie, vying_; _lie, lying_. RULE XII--FINAL Y. The final _y_ of a primitive word, when preceded by a vowel, should not be changed into _i_ before any additional termination: as, _day, days_; _key, keys_; _guy, guys_; _valley, valleys_; _coy, coyly_; _cloy, cloys, cloyed_; _boy, boyish, boyhood_; _annoy, annoyer, annoyance_; _joy, joyless, joyful_. EXCEPTIONS.--1. From _lay, pay, say_, and _stay_, are formed _laid, paid, said_, and _staid_; but the regular words, _layed, payed, stayed_, are sometimes used. 2. _Raiment_, contracted from _arrayment_, is never written with the _y_. 3. _Daily_ is more common than the regular form _dayly_; but _gayly, gayety_, and _gayness_, are justly superseding _gaily_ and _gaiety_. RULE XIII.--IZE AND ISE. Words ending in _ize_ or _ise_ sounded alike, as in _wise_ and _size_, generally take the _z_ in all such as are essentially formed by means of the termination; and the _s_ in monosyllables, and all such as are essentially formed by means of prefixes: as, _gormandise, apologize, brutalize, canonize, pilgrimize, philosophize, cauterize, anathematize, sympathize, disorganize_, with _z_;[117] _rise, arise, disguise, advise, devise, supervise, circumcise, despise, surmise, surprise, comprise, compromise, enterprise, presurmise_, with _s_. EXCEPTIONS.--1. _Advertise, catechise, chastise, criticise_,[118] _exercise, exorcise_, and _merchandise_, are most commonly written with _s_ and _size, assize, capsize, analyze, overprize, detonize_, and _recognize_, with _z_. How many of them are real exceptions to the rule, it is difficult to say. 2. _Prise_, a thing taken, and _prize_, to esteem; _apprise_, to inform, and _apprize_, to _value_, or _appraise_, are often written either way, without this distinction of meaning, which some wish to establish. 3. The want of the foregoing rule has also made many words _variable_, which ought, unquestionably, to conform to the general principle. RULE XIV.--COMPOUNDS. Compounds generally retain the orthography of the simple words which compose them: as, _wherein, horseman, uphill, shellfish, knee-deep, kneedgrass, kneading-trough, innkeeper, skylight, plumtree, mandrill_. EXCEPTIONS.--1. In permanent compounds, or in any derivatives of which, they are not the _roots_, the words _full_ and _all_ drop one _l_; as, _handful, careful, fulfil, always, although, withal_; in temporary compounds, they retain both; as, _full-eyed, chock-full_,[119] _all-wise, save-all_. 2. So the prefix _mis_, (if from _miss_, to err,) drops one _s_; but it is wrong to drop them both, as in Johnson's "_mispell_" and "_mispend_," for _misspell_ and _misspend_. 3. In the names of days, the word _mass_ also drops one _s_; as, _Christmas, Candlemas, Lammas_. 4. The possessive case often drops the apostrophe; as in _herdsman, kitesfoot_. 5. One letter is dropped, if three of the same kind come together: as, _Rosshire, chaffinch_; or else a hyphen is used: as, _Ross-shire, ill-looking, still-life_. 6. _Chilblain, welcome_, and _welfare_, drop one _l_. 7. _Pastime_ drops an _s_. 8. _Shepherd, wherever_, and _whosever_, drop an _e_; and _wherefore_ and _therefore_ assume one. RULE XV.--USAGE. Any word for the spelling of which we have no rule but usage, is written wrong if not spelled according to the usage which is most common among the learned: as, "The brewer grinds his malt before he _brues_ his beer."--_Red Book_, p. 38. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--The foregoing rules aim at no wild and impracticable reformation of our orthography; but, if carefully applied, they will do much to obviate its chief difficulties. Being made variable by the ignorance of some writers and the caprice of others, our spelling is now, and always has been, exceedingly irregular and unsettled. Uniformity and consistency can be attained in no other way, than by the steady application of rules and principles; and these must be made as few and as general as the case will admit, that the memory of the learner may not be overmatched by their number or complexity. Rules founded on the analogy of similar words, and sanctioned by the usage of careful writers, must be taken as our guides; because common practice is often found to be capricious, contradictory, and uncertain. That errors and inconsistencies abound, even in the books which are proposed to the world as _standards_ of English orthography, is a position which scarcely needs proof. It is true, to a greater or less extent, of all the spelling-books and dictionaries that I have seen, and probably of all that have ever been published. And as all authors are liable to mistakes, which others may copy, general rules should have more weight than particular examples to the contrary. "The right spelling of a word may be said to be that which agrees the best with its pronunciation, its etymology, and with the analogy of the particular class of words to which it belongs."--_Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 647. OBS. 2.--I do not deny that great respect is due to the authority of our lexicographers, or that great improvement was made in the orthography of our language when Dr. Johnson put his hand to the work. But sometimes one man's authority may offset an other's; and he that is inconsistent with himself, destroys his own: for, surely, his example cannot be paramount to his principles. Much has been idly said, both for and against the adoption of Johnson's Dictionary, or Webster's, as _the criterion_ of what is right or wrong in spelling; but it would seem that no one man's learning is sufficiently extensive, or his memory sufficiently accurate, to be solely relied on to furnish _a standard_ by which we may in all cases be governed. Johnson was generally right; but, like other men, he was sometimes wrong. He erred sometimes in his _principles_, or in their application; as when he adopted the _k_ in such words as _rhetorick_, and _demoniack_; or when he inserted the _u_ in such words as _governour, warriour, superiour_. Neither of these modes of spelling was ever generally adopted, in any thing like the number of words to which he applied them; or ever will be; though some indiscreet compilers are still zealously endeavouring to impose them upon the public, as the true way of spelling. He also erred sometimes _by accident_, or _oversight_; as when he spelled thus: "_recall_ and _miscal, inthrall_ and _bethral, windfall_ and _downfal, laystall_ and _thumbstal, waterfall_ and _overfal, molehill_ and _dunghil, windmill_ and _twibil, uphill_ and _downhil_." This occasional excision of the letter _l_ is reprehensible, because it is contrary to general analogy, and because both letters are necessary to preserve the sound, and show the derivation of the compound. Walker censures it as a "ridiculous irregularity," and lays the blame of it on the "_printers_," and yet does not venture to correct it! See Johnson's Dictionary, first American edition, quarto; Walker's Pronouncing Dictionary, under the word _Dunghil_; and his Rhyming Dictionary, Introd., p. xv. OBS. 3.--"Dr. Johnson's Dictionary" has been represented by some as having "nearly fixed the external form of our language." But Murray, who quotes this from Dr. Nares, admits, at the same time, that, "The orthography of a great number of English words, is far from being uniform, even amongst writers of distinction."--_Gram._, p. 25. And, after commending this work of Johnson's, as A STANDARD, from which, "it is earnestly to be hoped, that no author will henceforth, on light grounds, be tempted to innovate," he adds, "This Dictionary, however, contains some orthographical inconsistencies which ought to be rectified: such as, _immovable, moveable; chastely, chastness; fertileness, fertily; sliness, slyly; fearlessly, fearlesness; needlessness, needlesly_."--_Ib._ In respect to the final _ck_ and _our_, he also _intentionally departs from_ THE STANDARD _which he thus commends_; preferring, in that, the authority of _Walker's Rhyming Dictionary_, from which he borrowed his rules for spelling. For, against the use of _k_ at the end of words from the learned languages, and against the _u_ in many words in which Johnson used it, we have the authority, not only of general usage now, but of many grammarians who were contemporary with Johnson, and of more than a dozen lexicographers, ancient or modern, among whom is Walker himself. In this, therefore, Murray's practice is right, and his commended standard dictionary, wrong. OBS. 4.--Of words ending in _or_ or _our_, we have about three hundred and twenty; of which not more than forty can now with any propriety be written with the latter termination. Aiming to write according to the best usage of the present day, I insert the _u_ in so many of these words as now seem most familiar to the eye when so written; but I have no partiality for any letters that can well be spared; and if this book should ever, by any good fortune, happen to be reprinted, after _honour, labour, favour, behaviour_, and _endeavour_, shall have become as unfashionable as _authour, errour, terrour_, and _emperour_, are now, let the proof-reader strike out the useless letter not only from these words, but from all others which shall bear an equally antiquated appearance. OBS. 5.--I have suggested the above-mentioned imperfections in _Dr. Johnson's_ orthography, merely to justify the liberty which I take of spelling otherwise; and not with any view to give a preference to that of _Dr. Webster_, who is now contending for the honour of having furnished a more correct _standard_. For the latter author, though right in some things in which the former was wrong, is, on the whole, still more erroneous and inconsistent. In his various attempts at reformation in our orthography, he has spelled many hundreds of words in such a variety of ways, that he knows not at last which of them is right, and which are wrong. But in respect to _definitions_, he has done good service to our literature; nor have his critics been sufficiently just respecting what they call his "innovations." See Cobb's Critical Review of the Orthography of Webster. To omit the _k_ from such words as _publick_, or the _u_ from such as _superiour_, is certainly _no innovation_; it is but ignorance that censures the general practice, under that name. The advocates for Johnson and opponents of Webster, who are now so zealously stickling for the _k_ and the _u_ in these cases, ought to know that they are contending for what was obsolete, or obsolescent, when Dr. Johnson was a boy. OBS. 6.--I have before observed that some of the grammarians who were contemporary with Johnson, did not adopt his practice respecting the _k_ or the _u_, in _publick, critick, errour, superiour_, &c. And indeed I am not sure there were any who did. Dr. Johnson was born in 1709, and he died in 1784. But Brightland's Grammar, which was written during the reign of Queen Anne, who died in 1714, in treating of the letter C, says, "If in any Word the harder Sound precedes (_e_), (_i_), or (_y_), (_k_) is either added or put in its Place; as, _Skill, Skin, Publick_: And tho' the additional (_k_) in the foregoing Word be an _old Way_ of Spelling, yet it is now very justly left off, as being a superfluous Letter; for (_c_) at the End is always hard."--Seventh Edition, Lond., 1746, p. 37. OBS. 7.--The three grammars of Ash, Priestley, and Lowth, all appeared, in their first editions, about one time; all, if I mistake not, in the year 1763; and none of these learned doctors, it would seem, used the mode of spelling now in question. In Ash, of 1799, we have such orthography as this: "Italics, public, domestic, our traffic, music, quick; error, superior, warrior, authors, honour, humour, favour, behaviour." In Priestley, of 1772: "Iambics, dactyls, dactylic, anapæstic, monosyllabic, electric, public, critic; author, emperor's, superior; favour, labours, neighbours, laboured, vigour, endeavour; meagre, hillock, bailiwick, bishoprick, control, travelling." In Lowth, of 1799: "Comic, critic, characteristic, domestic; author, _favor, favored, endeavored, alledging_, foretells." Now all these are words in the spelling of which Johnson and Webster contradict each other; and if they are not all right, surely they would not, on the whole, be made more nearly right, by being conformed to either of these authorities exclusively. For THE BEST USAGE is the ultimate rule of grammar. OBS. 8.--The old British Grammar, written before the American Revolution, and even before "_the learned Mr. Samuel Johnson_" was doctorated, though it thus respectfully quotes that great scholar, does not follow him in the spelling of which I am treating. On the contrary, it abounds with examples of words ending in _ic_ and _or_, and not in _ick_ and _our_, as he wrote them; and I am confident, that, from that time to this, the former orthography has continued to be _more common than his_. Walker, the orthoëpist, who died in 1807, yielded the point respecting the _k_, and ended about four hundred and fifty words with _c_ in his Rhyming Dictionary; but he thought it more of an innovation than it really was. In his Pronouncing Dictionary, he says, "It has been a custom, _within these twenty years_, to omit the _k_ at the end of words, when preceded by _c_. This has introduced a _novelty_ into the language, which is that of ending a word with an unusual letter," &c. "This omission of _k_ is, however, too general to be counteracted, even by the authority of Johnson; but it is to be hoped it will be confined to words from the learned languages."-- _Walker's Principles of Pronunciation_, No. 400. The tenth edition of Burn's Grammar, dated 1810, says, "It has become customary to omit _k_ after _c_ at the end of dissyllables and trisyllables, &c. as _music, arithmetic, logic_; but the _k_ is retained in monosyllables; as, _back, deck, rick_, &c."--P. 25. James Buchanan, of whose English Syntax there had been five American editions in 1792, added no _k_ to such words as _didactic, critic, classic_, of which he made frequent use; and though he wrote _honour, labour_, and the like, with _u_, as they are perhaps most generally written now, he inserted no _u_ in _error, author_, or any of those words in which that letter would now be inconsistent with good taste. OBS. 9.--Bicknell's Grammar, of 1790, treating of the letter _k_, says, "And for the same reason we have _dropt_ it at the end of words after _c_, which is there always hard; as in _publick, logick_, &c. which are more elegantly written _public, logic_."--Part ii, p. 13. Again: "It has heretofore joined with _c_ at the end of words; as _publick, logick_; but, as before observed, being there quite superfluous, it is now left out"--_Ib._, p. 16. Horne Tooke's orthography was also agreeable to the rule which I have given on this subject. So is the usage of David Booth: "Formerly a _k_ was added, as, _rustick, politick, Arithmetick_, &c. but this is now in disuse."--_Booth's Introd. to Dict._, Lond., 1814, p. 80. OBS. 10.--As the authors of many recent spelling-books--Cobb, Emerson, Burhans, Bolles, Sears, Marshall, Mott, and others--are now contending for this "_superfluous letter_," in spite of all the authority against it, it seems proper briefly to notice their argument, lest the student be misled by it. It is summed up by one of them in the following words: "In regard to _k_ after _c_ at the end of words, it may be sufficient to say, that its omission has never been attempted, except in a _small portion_ of the cases _where_ it occurs; and that _it_ tends to an erroneous pronunciation of derivatives, as in _mimick, mimicking_, where, if the _k_ were omitted, _it_ would read mimicing; and as _c_ before _i_ is always sounded like _s, it_ must be pronounced _mimising_. Now, since _it_ is never omitted in monosyllables, _where it_ most frequently occurs, as in _block, clock_, &c., and _can be in a part only_ of polysyllables, it is thought better to preserve it in all cases, by _which_ we have one general rule, in place of several irregularities and exceptions that must follow its partial omission."--_Bolles's Spelling-Book_, p. 2. I need not tell the reader that these two sentences evince great want of care or skill in the art of grammar. But it is proper to inform him, that we have in our language eighty-six monosyllables which end with _ck_, and from them about fifty compounds or derivatives, which of course keep the same termination. To these may be added a dozen or more which seem to be of doubtful formation, such as _huckaback, pickapack, gimcrack, ticktack, picknick, barrack, knapsack, hollyhock, shamrock, hammock, hillock, hammock, bullock, roebuck_. But the verbs on which this argument is founded are only six; _attack, ransack, traffick, frolick, mimick_, and _physick_; and these, unquestionably, must either be spelled with the k, or must assume it in their derivatives. Now that useful class of words which are generally and properly written with final _c_, are about _four hundred and fifty_ in number, and are all of them either adjectives or nouns of regular derivation from the learned languages, being words of more than one syllable, which have come to us from Greek or Latin roots. But what has the doubling of _c_ by _k_, in our native monosyllables and their derivatives, to do with all these words of foreign origin? For the reason of the matter, we might as well double the _l_, as our ancestors did, in _naturall, temporall, spirituall_, &c. OBS. 11.--The learner should observe that some letters incline much to a duplication, while gome others are doubled but seldom, and some, never. Thus, among the vowels, _ee_ and _oo_ occur frequently; _aa_ is used sometimes; _ii_, never--except in certain Latin words, (wherein the vowels are separately uttered,) such as _Horatii, Veii, iidem, genii_. Again, the doubling of _u_ is precluded by the fact that we have a distinct letter called _Double-u_, which was made by joining two Vees, or two Ues, when the form for _u_ was _v_. So, among the consonants, _f, l, and s_, incline more to duplication, than any others. These letters are double, not only at the end of those monosyllables which have but one vowel, as _staff, mill, pass_; but also under some other circumstances. According to general usage, final _f_ is doubled after a single vowel, in almost all cases; as in _bailiff, caitiff, plaintiff, midriff, sheriff, tariff, mastiff_: yet not in _calif_, which is perhaps better written _caliph_. Final _l_, as may be seen by Rule 8th, admits not now of a duplication like this; but, by the exceptions to Rule 4th, it is frequently doubled when no other consonant would be; as in _travelling, grovelling_; unless, (contrary to the opinion of Lowth, Walker, and Webster,) we will have _fillipping, gossipping_, and _worshipping_, to be needful exceptions also. OBS. 12.--Final _s_ sometimes occurs single, as in _alas, atlas, bias_; and especially in Latin words, as _virus, impetus_; and when it is added to form plurals, as _verse, verses_: but this letter, too, is generally doubled at the end of primitive words of more than one syllable; as in _carcass, compass, cuirass, harass, trespass, embarrass_. On the contrary, the other consonants are seldom doubled, except when they come under Rule 3d. The letter _p_, however, is commonly doubled, in some words, even when it forms a needless exception to Rule 4th; as in the derivatives from _fillip, gossip_, and perhaps also _worship_. This letter, too, was very frequently doubled in Greek; whence we have, from the name of Philip of Macedon, the words _Philippic_ and _Philippize_, which, if spelled according to our rule for such derivatives, would, like _galloped_ and _galloper, siruped_ and _sirupy_, have but one _p_. We find them so written in some late dictionaries. But if _fillipped, gossipped_, and _worshipped_, with the other derivatives from the same roots, are just and necessary exceptions to Rule 4th, (which I do not admit,) so are these; and for a much stronger reason, as the classical scholar will think. In our language, or in words purely English, the letters _h, i, j, k, q, v, w, x_, and _y_, are, properly speaking, never doubled. Yet, in the forming of _compounds_, it may possibly happen, that two Aitches, two Kays, or even two Double-ues or Wies, shall come together; as in _withhold, brickkiln, slowwoorm, bayyarn_. OBS. 13.--There are some words--as those which come from _metal, medal, coral, crystal, argil, axil, cavil, tranquil, pupil, papil_--in which the classical scholar is apt to violate the analogy of English derivation, by doubling the letter _l_, because he remembers the _ll_ of their foreign roots, or their foreign correspondents. But let him also remember, that, if a knowledge of etymology may be shown by spelling metallic, metalliferous, metallography, metallurgic, metallurgist, metallurgy, medallic, medallion, crystallize, crystalline, argillous, argillaceous, axillar, axillary, cavillous, cavillation, papillate, papillous, papillary, tranquillity, and pupillary, with double _l_, ignorance of it must needs be implied in spelling metaline, metalist, metaloid, metaloidal, medalist, coralaceous, coraline, coralite, coralinite, coraloid, coraloidal, crystalite, argilite, argilitic, tranquilize, and pupilage, in like manner. But we cannot well double the _l_ in the former, and not in the latter words. Here is a choice of difficulties. Etymology must govern orthography. But what etymology? our own, or that which is foreign? If we say, both, they disagree; and the mere English scholar cannot know when, or how far, to be guided by the latter. If a Latin diminutive, as _papilla_ from _papula_ or _papa, pupillus_ from _pupus_, or _tranquillus_ from _trans_ and _quietus_, happen to double an _l_, must we forever cling to the reduplication, and that, in spite of our own rules to the contrary? Why is it more objectionable to change _pupillaris_ to _pupilary_, than _pupillus_ to _pupil_? or, to change _tranquillitas_ to _tranquility_, than _tranquillus_ to _tranquil_? And since _papilous, pupilage_, and _tranquilize_ are formed from the English words, and not directly from the Latin, why is it not as improper to write them with double _l_, as to write _perilous, vassalage_, and _civilize_, in the same manner? OBS. 14.--If the practice of the learned would allow us to follow the English rule here, I should incline to the opinion, that all the words which I have mentioned above, ought to be written with single _l_. Ainsworth exhibits the Latin word for _coral_ in four forms, and the Greek word in three. Two of the Latin and two of the Greek have the _l_ single; the others double it. He also spells "_coraliticus_" with one _l_, and defines it "A sort of white marble, called _coraline_." [120] The Spaniards, from whose _medalla_, we have _medal_; whose _argil_[121] is _arcilla_, from the Latin _argilla_; and to whose _cavilar_, Webster traces _cavil_; in all their derivatives from these Latin roots, _metallum_, metal--_coralium, corallium, curalium_, or _corallum_, coral--_crystallus_ or _crystallum_, crystal--_pupillus_, pupil--and _tranquillus_, tranquil--follow their own rules, and write mostly with single _l_: as, _pupilero_, a teacher; _metalico_, metalic; _corolina_ (_fem_.) coraline; _cristalino_, crystaline; _crystalizar_, crystalize; _traquilizar_, tranquilize; and _tranquilidad_, tranquility. And if we follow not ours, when or how shall the English scholar ever know why we spell as we do? For example, what can he make of the orthography of the following words, which I copy from our best dictionaries: equip', eq'uipage; wor'ship, wor'shipper;--peril, perilous; cavil, cavillous;[122]--libel, libellous; quarrel, quarrelous;--opal, opaline; metal, metalline;[123]--coral, coralliform; crystal, crystalform;--dial, dialist; medal, medallist;--rascal, rascalion; medal, medallion;--moral, moralist, morality; metal, metallist, metallurgy;--civil, civilize, civility; tranquil, tranquillize, tranquillity;--novel, novelism, novelist, novelize; grovel, grovelling, grovelled, groveller? OBS. 15.--The second clause of Murray's or Walker's 5th Rule for spelling, gives only a single _l_ to each of the derivatives above named.[124] But it also treats in like manner many hundreds of words in which the _l_ must certainly be doubled. And, as neither "the Compiler," nor any of his copiers, have paid any regard to their own principle, neither their doctrine nor their practice can be of much weight either way. Yet it is important to know to what words the rule is, or is not, applicable. In considering this vexatious question about the duplication of _l_, I was at first inclined to admit that, whenever final _l_ has become single in English by dropping the second _l_ of a foreign root, the word shall resume the _ll_ in all derivatives formed from it by adding a termination beginning with a vowel; as, _beryllus, beryl, berylline_. This would, of course, double the _l_ in nearly all the derivatives from _metal, medal_, &c. But what says Custom? She constantly doubles the _l_ in most of them; but wavers in respect to some, and in a few will have it single. Hence the difficulty of drawing a line by which we may abide without censure. _Pu'pillage_ and _pu'pillary_, with _ll_, are according to _Walker's Rhyming Dictionary_; but Johnson spells them _pu'pilage_ and _pu'pilary_, with single _l_; and Walker, in his Pronouncing Dictionary, has _pupilage_ with one _l_, and _pupillary_ with two. Again: both Johnson's and the Pronouncing Dictionary, give us _medallist_ and _metallist_ with _ll_, and are sustained by Webster and others; but Walker, in his Rhyming Dictionary, writes them _medalist_ and _metalist_, with single _l_, like _dialist, formalist, cabalist, herbalist_, and twenty other such words. Further: Webster doubles the _l_ in all the derivatives of _metal, medal, coral, axil, argil_, and _papil_; but writes it single in all those of _crystal, cavil, pupil_, and _tranquil_--except _tranquillity_. OBS. 16.--Dr. Webster also attempts, or pretends, to put in practice the hasty proposition of Walker, to spell with single _l_ all derivatives from words ending in _l_ not under the accent. "No letter," says Walker, "seems to be more frequently doubled improperly than _l_. Why we should write _libelling, levelling, revelling_, and yet _offering, suffering, reasoning_, I am totally at a loss to determine; and, unless _l_ can give a better plea than any other letter in the alphabet, for being doubled in this situation, I must, in the style of Lucian, in his trial of the letter _T_, declare for an expulsion."--_Rhyming Dict._, p. x. This rash conception, being adopted by some men of still less caution, has wrought great mischief in our orthography. With respect to words ending in _el_, it is a good and sufficient reason for doubling the _l_, that the _e_ may otherwise be supposed servile and silent. I have therefore made this termination a general exception to the rule against doubling. Besides, a large number of these words, being derived from foreign words in which the _l_ was doubled, have a second reason for the duplication, as strong as that which has often induced these same authors to double that letter, as noticed above. Such are bordel, chapel, duel, fardel, gabel, gospel, gravel, lamel, label, libel, marvel, model, novel, parcel, quarrel, and spinel. Accordingly we find, that, in his work of expulsion, Dr. Webster has not unfrequently contradicted himself, and conformed to usage, by doubling the _l_ where he probably intended to write it single. Thus, in the words bordeller, chapellany, chapelling, gospellary, gospeller, gravelly, lamellate, lamellar, lamellarly, lamelliform, and spinellane, he has written the _l_ double, while he has grossly corrupted many other similar words by forbearing the reduplication; as, _traveler, groveling, duelist, marvelous_, and the like. In cases of such difficulty, we can never arrive at uniformity and consistency of practice, unless we resort to _principles_, and such principles as can be made intelligible to the _English_ scholar. If any one is dissatisfied with the rules and exceptions which I have laid down, let him study the subject till he can furnish the schools with better. OBS. 17.--We have in our language a very numerous class of adjectives ending in _able_ or _ible_, as _affable, arable, tolerable, admissible, credible, infallible_, to the number of nine hundred or more. In respect to the proper form and signification of some of these, there occurs no small difficulty. _Able_ is a common English word, the meaning of which is much better understood than its origin. Horne Tooke supposes it to have come from the Gothic noun _abal_, signifying _strength_; and consequently avers, that it "has nothing to do with the Latin adjective _habilis, fit_, or _able_, from which our etymologists erroneously derive it."--_Diversions of Purley_, Vol. ii, p. 450. This I suppose the etymologists will dispute with him. But whatever may be its true derivation, no one can well deny that _able_, as a suffix, belongs most properly, if not exclusively, to _verbs_; for most of the words formed by it, are plainly a sort of verbal adjectives. And it is evident that this author is right in supposing that English words of this termination, like the Latin verbals in _bilis_, have, or ought to have, such a signification as may justify the name which he gives them, of "_potential passive adjectives_;" a signification in which the English and the Latin derivatives exactly correspond. Thus _dis'soluble_ or _dissolv'able_ does not mean _able to dissolve_, but _capable of being dissolved_; and _divisible_ or _dividable_ does not mean _able to divide_, but _capable of being divided_. OBS. 18.--As to the application of this suffix to nouns, when we consider the signification of the words thus formed, its propriety may well be doubted. It is true, however, that nouns do sometimes assume something of the nature of verbs, so as to give rise to adjectives that are of a participial character; such, for instance, as _sainted, bigoted, conceited, gifted, tufted_. Again, of such as _hard-hearted, good-natured, cold-blooded_, we have an indefinite number. And perhaps, upon the same principle, the formation of such words as _actionable, companionable, exceptionable, marketable, merchantable, pasturable, treasonable_, and so forth, may be justified, if care be taken to use them in a sense analogous to that of the real verbals. But, surely, the meaning which is commonly attached to the words _amicable, changeable, fashionable, favourable, peaceable, reasonable, pleasurable, seasonable, suitable_, and some others, would never be guessed from their formation. Thus, _suitable_ means _fitting_ or _suiting_, and not _able to suit_, or _capable of being suited_. OBS. 19.--Though all words that terminate in _able_, used as a suffix, are properly reckoned derivatives, rather than compounds, and in the former class the separate meaning of the parts united is much less regarded than in the latter; yet, in the use of words of this formation, it would be well to have some respect to the general analogy of their signification as stated above; and not to make derivatives of the same fashion convey meanings so very different as do some of these. Perhaps it is from some general notion of their impropriety, that several words of this doubtful character have already become obsolete, or are gradually falling into disuse: as, _accustomable, chanceable, concordable, conusable, customable, behoovable, leisurable, medicinable, personable, powerable, razorable, shapable, semblable, vengeable, veritable_. Still, there are several others, yet currently employed, which might better perhaps, for the same reason, give place to more regular terms: as, _amicable_, for _friendly_ or _kind_; _charitable_, for _benevolent_ or _liberal_; _colourable_, for _apparent_ or _specious_; _peaceable_, for _peaceful_ or _unhostile_; _pleasurable_, for _pleasing_ or _delightful_; _profitable_, for _gainful_ or _lucrative_; _sociable_, for _social_ or _affable_; _reasonable_, for _rational_ or _just_. OBS. 20.--In respect to the orthography of words ending in _able_ or _ible_, it is sometimes difficult to determine which of these endings ought to be preferred; as whether we ought to write _tenable_ or _tenible, reversable_ or _reversible, addable_ or _addible_. In Latin, the termination is _bilis_, and the preceding vowel is determined by the _conjugation_ to which the verb belongs. Thus, for verbs of the first conjugation, it is _a_; as, from _arare_, to plough, _arabilis, arable_, tillable. For the second conjugation, it is _i_; as, from _doc=ere_, to teach, _docibilis_, or _docilis, docible_ or _docile_, teachable. For the third conjugation, it is _i_; as, from _vend=ere_, to sell, _vendibilis, vendible_, salable. And, for the fourth conjugation, it is _i_; as, from _sepelire_, to bury, _sepelib~ilis, sep'elible_,[125] buriable. But from _solvo_ and _volvo_, of the third conjugation, we have _ubilis, uble_; as, _solubilis, sol'uble_, solvible or solvable; _volubilis, vol'uble_, rollable. Hence the English words, _rev'oluble, res'oluble, irres'oluble, dis'soluble, indis'soluble_, and _insol'uble_. Thus the Latin verbals in _bilis_, are a sufficient guide to the orthography of all such words as are traceable to them; but the mere English scholar cannot avail himself of this aid; and of this sort of words we have a much greater number than were ever known in Latin. A few we have borrowed from the French: as, _tenable, capable, preferable, convertible_; and these we write as they are written in French. But the difficulty lies chiefly in those which are of English growth. For some of them are formed according to the model of the Latin verbals in _ibilis_; as _forcible, coercible, reducible, discernible_; and others are made by simply adding the suffix _able_; as _traceable, pronounceable, manageable, advisable, returnable_. The last are purely English; and yet they correspond in form with such as come from Latin verbals in _abilis_. OBS. 21.--From these different modes of formation, with the choice of different roots, we have sometimes two or three words, differing in orthography and pronunciation, but conveying the same meaning; as, _divis'ible_ and _divi'dable, des'picable_ and _despi'sable, ref'erable_ and _refer'rible, mis'cible_ and _mix'able, dis'soluble, dissol'vible_, and _dissol'vable_. Hence, too, we have some words which seem to the mere English scholar to be spelled in a very contradictory manner, though each, perhaps, obeys the law of its own derivation; as, _peaceable_ and _forcible, impierceable_ and _coercible, marriageable_ and _corrigible, damageable_ and _eligible, changeable_ and _tangible, chargeable_ and _frangible, fencible_ and _defensible, pref'erable_ and _referrible, conversable_ and _reversible, defendable_ and _descendible, amendable_ and _extendible, bendable_ and _vendible, dividable_ and _corrodible, returnable_ and _discernible, indispensable_ and _responsible, advisable_ and _fusible, respectable_ and _compatible, delectable_ and _collectible, taxable_ and _flexible_. OBS. 22.--The American editor of the _Red Book_, to whom all these apparent inconsistencies seemed real blunders, has greatly exaggerated this difficulty in our orthography, and charged Johnson and Walker with having written all these words and many more, in this contradictory manner, "_without any apparent reason_!" He boldly avers, that, "The perpetual contradictions of the same or like words, _in all the books_, show that the authors had no distinct ideas of what is right, and what is wrong;" and ignorantly imagines, that, "The use of _ible_ rather than _able, in any case_, originated in the necessity of keeping the soft sound of _c_ and _g_, in the derivatives; and if _ible was confined_ to that use, it would be an easy and simple rule."--_Red Book_, p. 170. Hence, he proposes to write _peacible_ for _peaceable, tracible_ for _traceable, changible_ for _changeable, managible_ for _manageable_; and so for all the rest that come from words ending in _ce_ or _ge_. But, whatever advantage there might be in this, his "easy and simple rule" would work a revolution for which the world is not yet prepared. It would make _audible audable, fallible fallable, feasible feasable, terrible terrable, horrible horrable_, &c. No tyro can spell in a worse manner than this, even if he have no rule at all. And those who do not know enough of Latin grammar to profit by what I have said in the preceding observation, may console themselves with the reflection, that, in spelling these difficult words entirely by guess, they will not miss the way more than some have done who pretended to be critics. The rule given by John Burn, for _able_ and _ible_, is less objectionable; but it is rendered useless by the great number of its exceptions. OBS. 23.--As most of the rules for spelling refer to the final letters of our primitive words, it may be proper for the learner to know and remember, that not all the letters of the alphabet can assume that situation, and that some of them terminate words much more frequently than others. Thus, in Walker's Rhyming Dictionary, the letter _a_ ends about 220 words; _b_, 160; _c_, 450; _d_, 1550; _e_, 7000; _f_, 140; _g_, 280; _h_, 400; _i_, 29; _j_, none; _k_, 550; _l_, 1900; _m_, 550; _n_, 3300; _o_, 200; _p_, 450; _q_, none; _r_, 2750; _s_, 3250; _t_, 3100; _u_, 14; _v_, none; _w_, 200; _x_, 100; _y_, 5000; _z_, 5. We have, then, three consonants, _j, q_, and _v_, which never end a word. And why not? With respect to _j_ and _v_, the reason is plain from their history. These letters were formerly identified with _i_ and _u_, which are not terminational letters. The vowel _i_ ends no pure English word, except that which is formed of its own capital _I_; and the few words which end with _u_ are all foreign, except _thou_ and _you_. And not only so, the letter _j_ is what was formerly called _i consonant_; and _v_ is what was called _u consonant_. But it was the initial _i_ and _u_, or the _i_ and _u_ which preceded an other vowel, and not those which followed one, that were converted into the consonants _j_ and _v_. Hence, neither of these letters ever ends any English word, or is ever doubled. Nor do they unite with other consonants before or after a vowel: except that _v_ is joined with _r_ in a few words of French origin, as _livre, manoeuvre_; or with _l_ in some Dutch names, as _Watervleit. Q_ ends no English word, because it is always followed by _u_. The French termination _que_, which is commonly retained in _pique, antique, critique, opaque, oblique, burlesque_, and _grotesque_, is equivalent to _k_; hence we write _packet, lackey, checker, risk, mask_, and _mosk_, rather than _paquet, laquey, chequer, risque, masque_, and _mosque_. And some authors write _burlesk_ and _grotesk_, preferring _k_ to _que_. OBS. 24.--Thus we see that _j, q_, and _v_, are, for the most part, initial consonants only. Hence there is a harshness, if not an impropriety, in that syllabication which some have recently adopted, wherein they accommodate to the ear the division of such words as _maj-es-ty, proj-ect, traj-ect,--eq-ui-ty, liq-ui-date, ex-cheq-uer_. But _v_, in a similar situation, has now become familiar; as in _ev-er-y, ev-i-dence_: and it may also stand with _l_ or _r_, in the division of such words as _solv-ing_ and _serv-ing_. Of words ending in _ive_, Walker exhibits four hundred and fifty--exactly the same number that he spells with _ic_. And Horne Tooke, who derives _ive_ from the Latin _ivus_, (q. d. _vis_,) and _ic_ from the Greek [Greek: _ikos_], (q. d. [Greek: _ischus_]) both implying _power_, has well observed that there is a general correspondence of meaning between these two classes of adjectives--both being of "a potential active signification; as _purgative, vomitive, operative_, &c.; _cathartic, emetic, energetic_, &c."--_Diversions of Purley_, Vol. ii, p. 445. I have before observed, that Tooke spelled all this latter class of words without the final _k_; but he left it to Dr. Webster to suggest the reformation of striking the final _e_ from the former. OBS. 25.--In Dr. Webster's "Collection of Essays and _Fugitiv Peeces_," published in 1790, we find, among other equally ingenious improvements of our orthography, a general omission of the final _e_ in all words ending in _ive_, or rather of all words ending in _ve_, preceded by a short vowel; as, "_primitiv, derivativ, extensiv, positiv, deserv, twelv, proov, luv, hav, giv, liv_." This mode of spelling, had it been adopted by other learned men, would not only have made _v_ a very frequent final consonant, but would have placed it in an other new and strange predicament, as being subject to reduplication. For he that will write _hav, giv_, and _liv_, must also, by a general rule of grammar, write _havving, givving_, and _livving_. And not only so, there will follow also, in the solemn style of the Bible, a change of _givest, livest, giveth_, and _liveth_, into _givvest, livvest, givveth_, and _livveth_. From all this it may appear, that a silent final _e_ is not always quite so useless a thing as some may imagine. With a levity no less remarkable, does the author of the _Red Book_ propose at once two different ways of reforming the orthography of such words as _pierceable, manageable_, and so forth; in one of which, the letter _j_ would be brought into a new position, and subjected sometimes to reduplication. "It would be a useful improvement to change this _c_ into _s_, and _g_ into _j_;" as, _piersable, manajable_, &c. "Or they might assume _i_;" as, _piercibe, managible_, &c.--_Red Book_, p. 170. Now would not this "useful improvement" give us such a word as _allejjable_? and would not one such monster be more offensive than all our present exceptions to Rule 9th? Out upon all such tampering with orthography! OBS. 26.--If any thing could arrest the folly of innovators and dabbling reformers, it would be the history of former attempts to effect improvements similar to theirs. With this sort of history every one would do well to acquaint himself, before he proceeds to disfigure words by placing their written elements in any new predicament. If the orthography of the English language is ever reduced to greater regularity than it now exhibits, the reformation must be wrought by those who have no disposition either to exaggerate its present defects, or to undertake too much. Regard must be had to the origin, as well as to the sounds, of words. To many people, all silent letters seem superfluous; and all indirect modes of spelling, absurd. Hence, as the learner may perceive, a very large proportion of the variations and disputed points in spelling, are such as refer to the silent letters, which are retained by some writers and omitted by others. It is desirable that such as are useless and irregular should be always omitted; and such as are useful and regular always retained. The rules which I have laid down as principles of discrimination, are such as almost every reader will know to be generally true, and agreeable to present usage, though several of them have never before been printed in any grammar. Their application will strike out some letters which are often written, and retain some which are often omitted; but, if they err on either hand, I am confident they err less than any other set of rules ever yet formed for the same purpose. Walker, from whom Murray borrowed his rules for spelling, declares for an expulsion of the second _l_ from _traveller, gambolled, grovelling, equalling, cavilling_, and all similar words; seems more willing to drop an _l_ from _illness, stillness, shrillness, fellness_, and _drollness_, than to retain both in _smallness, tallness, chillness, dullness_, and _fullness_; makes it one of his orthographical aphorisms, that, "Words taken into composition often drop those letters which were superfluous in their simples; as, _Christmas, dunghil, handful_;" and, at the same time, chooses rather to restore the silent _e_ to the ten derivatives from _move_ and _prove_, from which Johnson dropped it, than to drop it from the ten similar words in which that author retained it! And not only so, he argues against the principle of his own aphorism; and says, "It is certainly to be feared that, if this pruning of our words of all the superfluous letters, as they are called, should be much farther indulged, we shall quickly antiquate our most respectable authors, and irreparably maim our language."--_Walker's Rhyming Dict._, p. xvii. OBS. 27.--No attempt to subject our orthography to a system of phonetics, seems likely to meet with general favour, or to be free from objection, if it should. For words are not mere sounds, and in their _orthography_ more is implied than in _phonetics_, or _phonography_. Ideographic forms have, in general, the advantage of preserving the identity, history, and lineage of words; and these are important matters in respect to which phonetic writing is very liable to be deficient. Dr. Johnson, about a century ago, observed, "There have been many schemes offered for the emendation and settlement of our orthography, which, like that of other nations, being formed by chance, or according to the fancy of the earliest writers in rude ages, was at first very various and uncertain, and [is] as yet sufficiently irregular. Of these reformers some have endeavoured to accommodate orthography better to the pronunciation, without considering that this is to measure by a shadow, to take that for a model or standard which is changing while they apply it. Others, less absurdly indeed, but with equal unlikelihood of success, have endeavoured to proportion the number of letters to that of sounds, that every sound may have its own character, and every character a single sound. Such would be the orthography of a new language to be formed by a synod of grammarians upon principles of science. But who can hope to prevail on nations to change their practice, and make all their old books useless? or what advantage would a new orthography procure equivalent to the confusion and perplexity of such an alteration?"--_Johnson's Grammar before Quarto Dict._, p. 4. OBS. 28.--Among these reformers of our alphabet and orthography, of whose schemes he gives examples, the Doctor mentions, first, "_Sir Thomas Smith_, secretary of state to Queen Elizabeth, a man of real learning, and much practised in grammatical disquisitions;" who died in 1597;--next, "_Dr. Gill_, the celebrated master of St. Paul's School in London;" who died in 1635;--then, "_Charles Butler_, a man who did not want an understanding which might have qualified him for better employment;" who died in 1647;--and, lastly, "_Bishop Wilkins_, of Chester, a learned and ingenious critic, who is said to have proposed his scheme, without expecting to be followed;" he died in 1672. OBS. 29.--From this time, there was, so far as I know, no noticeable renewal of such efforts, till about the year 1790, when, as it is shown above on page 134 of my Introduction, _Dr. Webster_, (who was then only "_Noah Webster, Jun._, attorney at law,") attempted to spell all words as they are spoken, without revising the alphabet--a scheme which his subsequent experience before many years led him to abandon. Such a reformation was again attempted, about forty years after, by an other young lawyer, the late lamented _Thomas S. Grimke_, of South Carolina, but with no more success. More recently, phonography, or phonetic writing, has been revived, and to some extent spread, by the publications of _Isaac Pitman_, of Bath, England, and of _Dr. Andrew Comstock_, of Philadelphia. The system of the former has been made known in America chiefly by the lectures and other efforts of _Andrews and Boyle_, of _Dr. Stone_, a citizen of Boston, and of _E. Webster_, a publisher in Philadelphia. OBS. 30.--The pronunciation of words being evidently as deficient in regularity, in uniformity, and in stability, as is their orthography, if not more so, cannot be conveniently made the measure of their written expression. Concerning the principle of writing and printing by sounds alone, a recent writer delivers his opinion thus: "Let me here observe, as something not remote from our subject, but, on the contrary, directly bearing upon it, that I can conceive no [other] method of so effectually defacing and barbarizing our English tongue, no [other] scheme that would go so far to empty it, practically at least and for us, of all the hoarded wit, wisdom, imagination, and history which it contains, to cut the vital nerve which connects its present with the past, as the introduction of the scheme of 'phonetic spelling,' which some have lately been zealously advocating among us; the principle of which is, that all words should be spelt according as they are sounded, that the writing should be, in every case, subordinated to the speaking. The tacit assumption that it ought so to be, is the pervading error running through the whole system."--_R. C. Trench, on the Study of Words_, p. 177. OBS. 31.--The phonographic system of stenography, tachygraphy, or short-hand writing, is, I incline to believe, a very great improvement upon the earlier methods. It is perhaps the most reliable mode of taking down speeches, sermons, or arguments, during their delivery, and reporting them for the press; though I cannot pronounce upon this from any experience of my own in the _practice_ of the art. And it seems highly probable, if it has not been fully proved, that children may at first be taught to read more readily, and with better articulation, from phonetic print, or _phonotypy_, as it has been called, than from books that exhibit words in their current or established orthography. But still it is questionable whether it is not best for them to learn each word at first by its peculiar or ideographic form--the form in which they must ultimately learn to read it, and which indeed constitutes its only _orthography_. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. ERRORS IN SPELLING. UNDER RULE I.--OF FINAL F, L, OR S. "He wil observe the moral law, in hiz conduct."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 320. [FORMULES--1. Not proper, because the word "_wil_" is here spelled with one _l_. But, according to Rule 1st, "Monosyllables ending in _f, l_, or _s_, preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant." Therefore, this _l_ should be doubled; thus, _will_. 2. Not proper again, because the word "_hiz_" is here spelled with _z_. But, according to the exceptions to Rule 1st, "The words _as, gas, has, was, yes, his_, &c., are written with single _s_." Therefore, this _z_ should be _s_; thus, _his_.] "A clif is a steep bank, or a precipitous rock."--See _Rhyming Dict._ "A needy man's budget is ful of schemes."--_Old Adage_. "Few large publications in this country wil pay a printer."--_Noah Webster's Essays_, p. x. "I shal, with cheerfulness, resign my other papers to oblivion."--_Ib._, p. x. "The proposition waz suspended til the next session of the legislature."--_Ib._, p. 362. "Tenants for life wil make the most of lands for themselves."--_Ib._, p. 366. "While every thing iz left to lazy negroes, a state wil never be wel cultivated."--_Ib._, p. 367. "The heirs of the original proprietors stil hold the soil."--_Ib._, p. 349. "Say my annual profit on money loaned shal be six per cent."--_Ib._, p. 308. "No man would submit to the drudgery of business, if he could make money az fast by lying stil."--_Ib._, p. 310. "A man may az wel feed himself with a bodkin, az with a knife of the present fashion."--_Ib._, p. 400. "The clothes wil be ill washed, the food wil be badly cooked; and you wil be ashamed of your wife, if she iz not ashamed of herself."--_Ib._, p. 404. "He wil submit to the laws of the state, while he iz a member of it."--_Ib._, p. 320. "But wil our sage writers on law forever think by tradition?"--_Ib._, p. 318. "Some stil retain a sovereign power in their territories."--_Ib._, p. 298. "They sel images, prayers, the sound of bels, remission of sins, &c."--_Perkins's Theology_, p. 401. "And the law had sacrifices offered every day for the sins of al the people."--_Ib._, p. 406. "Then it may please the Lord, they shal find it to be a restorative."--_Ib._, p. 420. "Perdition is repentance put of til a future day."--_Old Maxim_. "The angels of God, which wil good and cannot wil evil, have nevertheless perfect liberty of wil."--_Perkins's Theology_, p. 716. "Secondly, this doctrine cuts off the excuse of al sin."--_Ib._, p. 717. "Knel, the sound of a bell rung at a funeral."--_Johnson_ and _Walker_. "If gold with dros or grain with chaf you find, Select--and leave the chaf and dros behind."--_Author_. UNDER RULE II.--OF OTHER FINALS. "The mobb hath many heads, but no brains."--_Old Maxim_. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word "_mobb_" is here spelled with double _b_. But, according to Rule 2d, "Words ending in any other consonant than _f, l_, or _s_, do not double the final letter." Therefore, this _b_ should be single: thus, _mob_.] "Clamm, to clog with any glutinous or viscous matter."--_Johnson's Dict._ "Whurr, to pronounce the letter _r_ with too much force."--_Ib._ "Flipp, a mixed liquor, consisting of beer and spirits sweetened."--_Ib._ "Glynn, a hollow between two mountains, a glen."--_Churchill's Grammar_, p. 22. "Lamm, to beat soundly with a cudgel or bludgeon."--_Walker's Dict._ "Bunn, a small cake, a simnel, a kind of sweet bread."--See _ib._ "Brunett, a woman with a brown complexion."--_Ib._ and _Johnson's Dict._ "Wad'sett, an ancient tenure or lease of land in the Highlands of Scotland."--_Webster's Dict._ "To _dodd_ sheep, is to cut the wool away about their tails."--_Ib._ "_In aliquem arietare_, CIC. To run full but at one."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 95. "Neither your policy nor your temper would permitt you to kill me."--_Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 427. "And admitt none but his own offspring to fulfill them."--_Ib._, i, 437. "The summ of all this Dispute is, that some make them Participles," &c.--_Johnson's Gram._ _Com._, p. 352. "As, the _whistling_ of winds, the _buz_ and _hum_ of insects, the _hiss_ of serpents, the _crash_ of falling timber."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 129; _Adam's Lat. Gram._, p. 247; _Gould's_, 238. "Vann, to winnow, or a fan for winnowing."--_Walker's Rhyming Dict._ "Creatures that buz, are very commonly such as will sting."--_Author_ "Begg, buy, or borrow; butt beware how you find."--_Id._ "It is better to have a house to lett, than a house to gett."--_Id._ "Let not your tongue cutt your throat."--_Old Precept_. "A little witt will save a fortunate man."--_Old Adage_. "There is many a slipp 'twixt the cup and the lipp."--_Id._ "Mothers' darlings make but milksopp heroes."--_Id._ "One eye-witness is worth tenn hearsays."--_Id._ "The judge shall jobb, the bishop bite the town, And mighty dukes pack cards for half a crown."--POPE: _in Joh. Dict., w. Pack._ UNDER RULE III.--OF DOUBLING. "Friz, to curl; frized, curled; frizing, curling."--_Webster's Dict._, 8vo. Ed. of 1829. [FORMULE--Not proper, because the words "_frized_" and "_frizing_" are here spelled with the single _z_, of their primitive _friz_. But, according to Rule 3d, "Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, when they end with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double their final consonant before an additional syllable that begins with a vowel." Therefore, this _z_ should be doubled; thus, _frizzed, frizzing_.] "The commercial interests served to foster the principles of Whigism."--_Payne's Geog._, Vol. ii, p. 511. "Their extreme indolence shuned every species of labour."--_Robertson's Amer._, Vol. i, p. 341. "In poverty and stripedness they attend their little meetings."--_The Friend_, Vol. vii, p. 256. "In guiding and controling[126] the power you have thus obtained."--_Abbott's Teacher_, p. 15. "I began, Thou beganest, He began; We began, You began, They began."--_Alex. Murray's Gram._, p. 92. "Why does _began_ change its ending; as, I began, Thou beganest?"--_Ib._, p. 93. "Truth and conscience cannot be controled by any methods of coercion."--_Hints on Toleration_, p. xvi. "Dr. Webster noded, when he wrote 'knit, kniter, and knitingneedle' without doubling the _t_."--See _El. Spelling-Book_, 1st Ed., p. 136. "A wag should have wit enough to know when other wags are quizing him."--_G. Brown_. "Bon'y, handsome, beautiful, merry."--_Walker's Rhyming Dict._ "Coquetish, practicing coquetry; after the manner of a jilt."--_Webster's Dict._ "Potage, a species of food, made of meat and vegetables boiled to softness in water."--See _ib._ "Potager, from potage, a porringer, a small vessel for children's food."--See _ib._, and _Worcester's_. "Compromit, compromited, compromiting; manumit, manumitted, manumitting."--_Webster_. "Inferible; that may be inferred or deduced from premises."--_Red Book_, p. 228. "Acids are either solid, liquid, or gaseous."--_Gregory's Dict., art. Chemistry_. "The spark will pass through the interrupted space between the two wires, and explode the gases."--_Ib._ "Do we sound _gases_ and _gaseous_ like _cases_ and _caseous?_ No: they are more like _glasses_ and _osseous_."--_G. Brown_. "I shall not need here to mention _Swiming_, when he is of an age able to learn."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 12. "Why do lexicographers spell _thinnish_ and _mannish_ with two Ens, and _dimish_ and _ramish_ with one Em, each?"--See _Johnson_ and _Webster_. "_Gas_ forms the plural regularly, _gases_."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 38. "Singular, Gas; Plural, Gases."--_S. W. Clark's Gram._, p. 47. "These are contractions from _sheded, bursted_."--_Hiley's Grammar_, p. 45. "The Present Tense denotes what is occuring at the present time."--_Day's Gram._, p. 36, and p. 61. "The verb ending in _eth_ is of the solemn or antiquated style; as, he loveth, he walketh, he runeth."--_P. Davis's Gram._, p. 34. "Thro' freedom's sons no more remonstrance rings, Degrading nobles and controling kings."--_Murray's Sequel_, p. 292. UNDER RULE IV.--NO DOUBLING. "A bigotted and tyrannical clergy will be feared."--_Brown's Estimate_, Vol. ii, p. 78. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the final _t_ of _bigot_ is here doubled in "_bigotted_." But, according to Rule 4th, "A final consonant, when it is not preceded by a single vowel, or when the accent is not on the last syllable, should remain single before an additional syllable." Therefore, this _t_ should be single; thus, _bigoted_.] "Jacob worshipped his Creator, leaning on the top of his staff."--_Key in Merchant's Gram._, p. 185. "For it is all marvelously destitute of interest."--_Merchant's Criticisms_. "As, box, boxes; church, churches; lash, lashes; kiss, kisses; rebus, rebusses."--_Murray's Gram._, 12mo, p. 42. "Gossipping and lying go hand in hand."--_Old Maxim_. "The substance of the Criticisms on the Diversions of Purley was, with singular industry, gossipped by the present precious secretary of war, in Payne the bookseller's shop."--See _Key_. "Worship makes worshipped, worshipper, worshipping; gossip, gossipped, gossipper, gossipping; fillip, fillipped, fillipper, fillipping."--_Nixon's Parser_, p. 72. "I became as fidgetty as a fly in a milk-jug."--_Blackwood's Mag._, Vol. xl, p. 674. "That enormous error seems to be rivetted in popular opinion."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 364. "Whose mind iz not biassed by personal attachments to a sovereign."--_Ib._, p. 318. "Laws against usury originated in a bigotted prejudice against the Jews."--_Ib._, p. 315. "The most criticcal period of life iz usually between thirteen and seventeen."--_Ib._, p. 388. "Generallissimo, the chief commander of an army or military force."--See _El. Spelling-Book_, p. 93. "Tranquillize, to quiet, to make calm and peaceful."--_Ib._, p. 133. "Pommeled, beaten, bruised; having pommels, as a sword or dagger."--_Webster_ and _Chalmers_. "From what a height does the jeweler look down upon his shoemaker!"--_Red Book_, p. 108. "You will have a verbal account from my friend and fellow traveler."--_Ib._, p. 155. "I observe that you have written the word _counseled_ with one _l_ only."--_Ib._, p. 173. "They were offended at such as combatted these notions."--_Robertson's America_, Vol. ii, p. 437. "From libel, come libeled, libeler, libeling, libelous; from grovel, groveled, groveler, groveling; from gravel, graveled and graveling."--See _Webster's Dict._ "Wooliness, the state of being woolly."--_Ib._ "Yet he has spelled chappelling, bordeller, medallist, metalline, metallist, metallize, clavellated, &c. with _ll_, contrary to his rule."--_Cobb's Review of Webster_, p. 11. "Again, he has spelled cancelation and snively with single _l_, and cupellation, pannellation, wittolly, with _ll_."--_Ib._ "Oilly, fatty, greasy, containing oil, glib."--_Rhyming Dict._ "Medallist, one curious in medals; Metallist, one skilled in metals."--_Johnson, Webster, Worcester, Cobb, et al._ "He is benefitted."--_Town's Spelling-Book_, p. 5. "They traveled for pleasure."--_S. W. Clark's Gram._, p. 101. "Without you, what were man? A groveling herd, In darkness, wretchedness, and want enchain'd." --_Beattie's Minstrel_, p. 40. UNDER RULE V.--OF FINAL CK. "He hopes, therefore, to be pardoned by the critick."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 10. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word "_critick_" is here spelled with a final _k_. But, according to Rule 5th, "Monosyllables and English verbs end not with _c_, but take _ck_ for double _c_; as, rack, wreck, rock, attack: but, in general, words derived from the learned languages need not the _k_, and common use discards it." Therefore, this _k_ should be omitted; thus, _critic_.] "The leading object of every publick speaker should be to persuade."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 153. "May not four feet be as poetick as five; or fifteen feet, as poetick as fifty?"--_Ib._, p. 146. "Avoid all theatrical trick and mimickry, and especially all scholastick stiffness."--_Ib._, p. 154. "No one thinks of becoming skilled in dancing, or in musick, or in mathematicks, or logick, without long and close application to the subject."--_Ib._, p. 152. "Caspar's sense of feeling, and susceptibility of metallick and magnetick excitement were also very extraordinary."--_Ib._, p. 238. "Authorship has become a mania, or, perhaps I should say, an epidemick."--_Ib._, p. 6. "What can prevent this republick from soon raising a literary standard?"--_Ib._, p. 10. "Courteous reader, you may think me garrulous upon topicks quite foreign to the subject before me."--_Ib._, p. 11. "Of the Tonick, Subtonick, and Atoniek elements."--_Ib._, p. 15. "The subtonick elements are inferiour to the tonicks in all the emphatick and elegant purposes of speech."--_Ib._, p. 32. "The nine atonicks, and the three abrupt subtonicks cause an interruption to the continuity of the syllabick impulse."--_Ib._, p. 37. "On scientifick principles, conjunctions and prepositions are but one part of speech."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 120. "That some inferior animals should be able to mimic human articulation, will not seem wonderful."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, Vol. i, p. 2. "When young, you led a life monastick, And wore a vest ecelesiastick; Now, in your age, you grow fantastick."--_Johnson's Dict._ UNDER RULE VI.--OF RETAINING. "Fearlesness, exemption from fear, intrepidity."--_Johnson's Dict._ [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word "_fearlesness_" is here allowed to drop one _s_ of _fearless_. But, according to Rule 6th, "Words ending with any double letter, preserve it double before any additional termination not beginning with the same letter." Therefore, the other _s_ should be inserted; thus, _fearlessness_.] "Dreadlesness; fearlesness, intrepidity, undauntedness."--_Johnson's Dict._ "Regardlesly, without heed; Regardlesness, heedlessness, inattention."--_Ib._ "Blamelesly, innocently; Blamlesness, innocence."--_Ib._ "That is better than to be flattered into pride and carelesness."--TAYLOR: _Joh. Dict._ "Good fortunes began to breed a proud recklesness in them."--SIDNEY: _ib._ "See whether he lazily and listlesly dreams away his time."--LOCKE: _ib._ "It may be, the palate of the soul is indisposed by listlesness or sorrow."--TAYLOR: _ib._ "Pitilesly, without mercy; Pitilesness, unmercifulness."--_Johnson_. "What say you to such as these? abominable, accordable, agreable, &c."--_Tooke's Diversions_, Vol. ii, p. 432. "Artlesly; naturally, sincerely, without craft."--_Johnson_. "A chilness, or shivering of the body, generally precedes a fever."--_Murray's Key_, p. 167. "Smalness; littleness, minuteness, weakness."--_Rhyming Dict._ "Gall-less, a. free from gall or bitterness."--_Webster's Dict._ "Talness; height of stature, upright length with comparative slenderness."--See _Johnson et al_. "Wilful; stubborn, contumacious, perverse, inflexible."--_Id._ "He guided them by the skilfulness of his hands."--_Psal._ lxxviii, 72. "The earth is the Lord's and the fulness thereof."--_Murray's Key_, p. 172. "What is now, is but an amasment of imaginary conceptions."--GLANVILLE: _Joh. Dict._ "Embarrasment; perplexity, entanglement."--See _Littleton's Dict._ "The second is slothfulness, whereby they are performed slackly and carelesly."--_Perkins's Theology_, p. 729. "Instalment; induction into office; part of a large sum of money, to be paid at a particular time."--See _Johnson's Dict._ "Inthralment; servitude, slavery."--_Ib._ "I, who at some times spend, at others spare, Divided between carelesness and care."--_Pope_. UNDER RULE VII.--OF RETAINING. "Shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretels."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 88; _Ingersoll's_, 136; _Fisk's_, 78; _Jaudon's_, 59; _A. Flint's_, 42; _Wright's_, 90; _Bullions's_, 32. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word "_foretels_" does not here retain the double _l_ of _tell_. But, according to Rule 7th, "Words ending with any double letter, preserve it double in all derivatives formed from them by means of prefixes." Therefore, the other _l_ should be inserted; thus, _foretells_.] "There are a few compound irregular verbs, as _befal, bespeak_, &c."--_Ash's Gram._, p. 46. "That we might frequently recal it to our memory."--_Calvin's Institutes_, p. 112. "The angels exercise a constant solicitude that no evil befal us."--_Ib._, p. 107. "Inthral; to enslave, to shackle, to reduce to servitude."--_Walker's Dict._ "He makes resolutions, and fulfils them by new ones."--_Red Book_, p. 138. "To enrol my humble name upon the list of authors on Elocution."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 12. "Forestal; to anticipate, to take up beforehand."--_Walker's Rhym. Dict._ "Miscal; to call wrong, to name improperly."--_Johnson_. "Bethral; to enslave, to reduce to bondage."--See _id._ "Befal; to happen to, to come to pass."--_Rhym. Dict._ "Unrol; to open what is rolled or convolved."--_Johnson_. "Counterrol; to keep copies of accounts to prevent frauds."--See _id._ "As Sisyphus uprols a rock, which constantly overpowers him at the summit."--_Author_. "Unwel; not well, indisposed, not in good health."--See _Red Book_, p. 336. "Undersel; to defeat by selling for less, to sell cheaper than an other."--See _id._, p. 332. "Inwal; to enclose or fortify with a wall."--See _id._, p. 295. "Twibil; an instrument with two bills, or with a point and a blade; a pickaxe, a mattock, a halberd, a battle-axe."--See _Dict._ "What you miscal their folly, is their care."--_Dryden_. "My heart will sigh when I miscal it so."--_Shakspeare_. "But if the arrangement recal one set of ideas more readily than another."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 130. "'Tis done; and since 'tis done, 'tis past recal; And since 'tis past recal, must be forgotten."--_Dryden_. UNDER RULE VIII.--OF FINAL LL. "The righteous is taken away from the evill to come."--_Perkins's Works_, p. 417. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word "_evill_" is here written with final _ll_. But, according to Rule 8th, "Final _ll_ is peculiar to monosyllables and their compounds, with the few derivatives formed from such roots by prefixes; consequently, all other words that end in _l_, must be terminated with a single _l_." Therefore, one _l_ should be here omitted; thus, _evil_.] "Patroll; to go the rounds in a camp or garrison, to march about and observe what passes."--_Webster's Amer. Dict._, 8vo. "Marshall; the chief officer of arms, one who regulates rank and order."--See _Bailey's Dict._ "Weevill; a destructive grub that gets among corn."--See _Rhym. Dict._ "It much excells all other studies and arts."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 217. "It is essentiall to all magnitudes, to be in one place."--_Perkins's Works_, p. 403. "By nature I was thy vassall, but Christ hath redeemed me."--_Ib._, p. 404. "Some, being in want, pray for temporall blessings."--_Ib._, p. 412. "And this the Lord doth, either in temporall or spirituall benefits."--_Ib._, p. 415. "He makes an idoll of them, by setting his heart on them."--_Ib._, p. 416. "This triall by desertion serveth for two purposes."--_Ib._, p. 420. "Moreover, this destruction is both perpetuall and terrible."--_Ib._, p. 726. "Giving to severall men several gifts, according to his good pleasure."--_Ib._, p. 731. "Untill; to some time, place, or degree, mentioned."--See _Red Book_, p. 330. "Annull; to make void, to nullify, to abrogate, to abolish." "Nitric acid combined with argill, forms the nitrate of argill."--_Gregory's Dict., art. Chemistry_. "Let modest Foster, if he will, excell Ten Metropolitans in preaching well."--_Pope_, p. 414. UNDER RULE IX.--OF FINAL E. "Adjectives ending in _able_ signify capacity; as, _comfortable, tenable, improvable_."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 33. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word "_improveable_" here retains the final _e_ of _improve_. But, according to Rule 9th, "The final _e_ of a primitive word is generally omitted before an additional termination beginning with a vowel." Therefore, this _e_ should be omitted; thus, _improvable_.] "Their mildness and hospitality are ascribeable to a general administration of religious ordinances."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 336. "Retrench as much as possible without obscureing the sense."--_James Brown's Amer. Gram._, 1821, p. 11. "Changable, subject to change; Unchangeable, immutable."--_Walker's Rhym. Dict._ "Tameable, susceptive of taming; Untameable, not to be tamed."--_Ib._ "Reconcileable, Unreconcileable, Reconcileableness; Irreconcilable, Irreconcilably, Irreconcilableness."--_Johnson's Dict._ "We have thought it most adviseable to pay him some little attention."-- _Merchants Criticisms_. "Proveable, that may be proved; Reprovable. blameable, worthy of reprehension."--_Walker's Dict._ "Moveable and Immovable, Moveably and Immovably, Moveables and Removal, Moveableness and Improvableness, Unremoveable and Unimprovable, Unremoveably and Removable, Proveable and Approvable, Irreproveable and Reprovable, Unreproveable and Improvable, Unimproveableness and Improvably."--_Johnson's Dict._ "And with this cruelty you are chargable in some measure yourself."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 94. "Mothers would certainly resent it, as judgeing it proceeded from a low opinion of the genius of their sex."--_British Gram., Pref._, p. xxv. "Titheable, subject to the payment of tithes; Saleable, vendible, fit for sale; Loseable, possible to be lost; Sizeable, of reasonable bulk or size."--_Walker's Rhyming Dict._ "When he began this custom, he was puleing and very tender."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 8. "The plate, coin, revenues, and moveables, Whereof our uncle Gaunt did stand possess'd."--_Shak._ UNDER RULE X.--OF FINAL E. "Diversly; in different ways, differently, variously."--_Rhym. Dict._, and _Webster's_. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word "_Diversly_" here omits the final _e_ of its primitive word, _diverse_. But, according to Rule 10th, "The final _e_ of a primitive word is generally retained before an additional termination beginning with a consonant." Therefore, this _e_ should be retained; thus, _Diversely_.] "The event thereof contains a wholsome instruction."--_Bacon's Wisdom of the Ancients_, p. 17. "Whence Scaliger falsly concluded that articles were useless."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 94. "The child that we have just seen is wholesomly fed."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 187. "Indeed, falshood and legerdemain sink the character of a prince."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 5. "In earnest, at this rate of managment, thou usest thyself very coarsly."--_Ib._, p. 19. "To give them an arrangment and diversity, as agreeable as the nature of the subject would admit"--_Murray's Pref. to Ex._, p. vi. "Alger's Grammar is only a trifling enlargment of Murray's little Abridgment."--_Author_. "You ask whether you are to retain or omit the mute _e_ in the word judgment, abridgment, acknowledgment, lodgment, adjudgment, and prejudgment."--_Red Book_, p. 172. "Fertileness, fruitfulness; Fertily, fruitfully, abundantly."--_Johnson's Dict._ "Chastly, purely, without contamination; Chastness, chastity, purity."--_Ib._, and _Walker's_. "Rhymster, _n._ One who makes rhymes; a versifier; a mean poet."--_Johnson_ and _Webster_. "It is therefore an heroical achievment to dispossess this imaginary monarch."--_Berkley's Minute Philos._, p. 151. "Whereby, is not meant the Present Time, as he imagins, but the Time Past."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 344 "So far is this word from affecting the noun, in regard to its definitness, that its own character of definitness or indefinitness, depends upon the name to which it is prefixed."--_Webster's Philosophical Gram._, p. 20. "Satire, by wholsome Lessons, wou'd reclaim, And heal their Vices to secure their Fame." --_Brightland's Gr._, p. 171. UNDER RULE XI.--OF FINAL Y. "Solon's the veryest fool in all the play."--_Dryden, from Persius_, p. 475. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word "_veryest_" here retains the final _y_ of its primitive _very_. But, according to Rule 13th, "The final _y_ of a primitive word, when preceded by a consonant, is generally changed into _i_ before an additional termination." Therefore, this _y_ should be changed to _i_; thus, _veriest_.] "Our author prides himself upon his great slyness and shrewdness."--_Merchant's Criticisms_. "This tense, then, implys also the signification of _Debeo_."--_B. Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 300. "That may be apply'd to a Subject, with respect to something accidental."--_Ib._, p. 133. "This latter accompanys his Note with a distinction."--_Ib._, p. 196. "This Rule is defective, and none of the Annotators have sufficiently supply'd it."--_Ib._, p. 204. "Though the fancy'd Supplement of Sanctius, Scioppius, Vossius, and Mariangelus, may take place."--_Ib._, p. 276. "Yet as to the commutableness of these two Tenses, which is deny'd likewise, they are all one."--_Ib._, p. 311. "Both these Tenses may represent a Futurity implyed by the dependence of the Clause."--_Ib._, p. 332. "Cry, cries, crying, cried, crier, decrial; Shy, shyer, shyest, shyly, shyness; Fly, flies, flying, flier, high-flier; Sly, slyer, slyest, slyly, slyness; Spy, spies, spying, spied, espial; Dry, drier, driest, dryly, dryness."--_Cobb's Dict._ "Cry, cried, crying, crier, cryer, decried, decrier, decrial; Shy, shyly, shily, shyness, shiness; Fly, flier, flyer, high-flyer; Sly, slily, slyly, sliness, slyness; Ply, plyer, plying, pliers, complied, compiler; Dry, drier, dryer, dryly, dryness."--_Webster's Dict._, 8vo. "Cry, crier, decrier, decrial; Shy, shily, shyly, shiness, shyness; Fly, flier, flyer, high-flier; Sly, slily, slyly, sliness, slyness; Ply, pliers, plyers, plying, complier; Dry, drier, dryer, dryly, dryness."--_Chalmers's Abridgement of Todd's Johnson_. "I would sooner listen to the thrumming of a dandyzette at her piano."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 24. "Send her away; for she cryeth after us."--_Felton's Gram._, p. 140. "IVYED, _a._ Overgrown with ivy."--_Todd's Dict._, and _Webster's_. "Some dryly plain, without invention's aid, Write dull receipts how poems may be made."--_Pope_. UNDER RULE XII.--OF FINAL Y. "The gaiety of youth should be tempered by the precepts of age."--_Mur. Key_, p. 175. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word "_gaiety_" does not here retain the final _y_ of the primitive word _gay_. But, according to Rule 12th, "The final _y_ of a primitive word, when preceded by a vowel, should not be changed into _i_ before an additional termination." Therefore, this _y_ should be retained; thus, _gayety_.] "In the storm of 1703, two thousand stacks of chimnies were blown down, in and about London."--See _Red Book_, p. 112. "And the vexation was not abated by the hacknied plea of haste."--_Ib._, p. 142. "The fourth sin of our daies is lukewarmness."--_Perkins's Works_, p. 725. "God hates the workers of iniquity, and destroies them that speak lies."--_Ib._, p. 723. "For, when he laies his hand upon us, we may not fret."--_Ib._, p. 726. "Care not for it; but if thou maiest be free, choose it rather."--_Ib._, p. 736. "Alexander Severus saith, 'He that buieth, must sell: I will not suffer buyers and sellers of offices.'"--_Ib._, p. 737. "With these measures fell in all monied men."--SWIFT: _Johnson's Dict._ "But rattling nonsense in full vollies breaks."--POPE: _ib., w. Volley_. "Vallies are the intervals betwixt mountains."--WOODWARD: _ib._ "The Hebrews had fifty-two journies or marches."--_Wood's Dict._ "It was not possible to manage or steer the gallies thus fastened together."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, Vol. ii, p. 106. "Turkies were not known to naturalists till after the discovery of America."--_See Gregory's Dict._ "I would not have given it for a wilderness of monkies."--See _Key_. "Men worked at embroidery, especially in abbies."--_Constable's Miscellany_, Vol. xxi, p. 101. "By which all purchasers or mortgagees may be secured of all monies they lay out."--TEMPLE: _Johnson's Dict._ "He would fly to the mines and the gallies for his recreation."--SOUTH: _Ib._ "Here pullies make the pond'rous oak ascend."--GAY: _ib._ ------------"You need my help, and you say, Shylock, we would have monies."--SHAKSPEARE: _ib._ UNDER RULE XIII.--OF IZE AND ISE. "Will any able writer authorise other men to revise his works?"--_Author._ [FORMULES.--1. Not proper, because the word "_authorise_" is here written with _s_ in the last syllable, in stead of _z_. But, according to Rule 13th, "Words ending in _ize_ or _ise_ sounded alike, as in _wise_ and _size_, generally take the _z_ in all such as are essentially formed by means of the termination." Therefore, this _s_ should be _z_; thus, _authorize_. 2. Not proper again, because the word "_revize_" is here written with _z_ in the last syllable, in lieu of _s_. But, according to Rule 13th, "Words ending in _ize_ or _ise_ sounded alike, as in _wise_ and _size_, generally take the _s_, in monosyllables, and all such as are essentially formed by means of prefixes." Therefore, this _z_ should be _s_; thus, _revise_.] "It can be made as strong and expressive as this Latinised English."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 295. "Governed by the success or the failure of an enterprize."--_Ib._, Vol. ii, pp. 128 and 259. "Who have patronised the cause of justice against powerful oppressors."--_Ib._, pp. 94 and 228; _Merchant_, p. 199. "Yet custom authorises this use of it."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 148. "They surprize myself, * * * and I even think the writers themselves will be surprized."--_Ib._, Pref., p. xi. "Let the interest rize to any sum which can be obtained."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 310. "To determin what interest shall arize on the use of money."--_Ib._, p. 313. "To direct the popular councils and check a rizing opposition."--_Ib._, p. 335. "Five were appointed to the immediate exercize of the office."--_Ib._, p. 340. "No man ever offers himself [as] a candidate by advertizing."--_Ib._, p. 344. "They are honest and economical, but indolent, and destitute of enterprize."--_Ib._, p. 347. "I would however advize you to be cautious."--_Ib._, p. 404. "We are accountable for whatever we patronise in others."--_Murray's Key_, p. 175. "After he was baptised, and was solemnly admitted into the office."--_Perkins's Works_, p. 732. "He will find all, or most of them, comprized in the Exercises."--_British Gram._, Pref., p. v. "A quick and ready habit of methodising and regulating their thoughts."--_Ib._, p. xviii. "To tyrannise over the time and patience of his reader."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. iii. "Writers of dull books, however, if patronised at all, are rewarded beyond their deserts."--_Ib._, p. v. "A little reflection, will show the reader the propriety and the _reason_ for emphasising the words marked."--_Ib._, p. 163. "The English Chronicle contains an account of a surprizing cure."--_Red Book_, p. 61. "Dogmatise, to assert positively; Dogmatizer, an asserter, a magisterial teacher."--_Chalmers's Dict._ "And their inflections might now have been easily analysed."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, Vol. i, p. 113. "Authorize, disauthorise, and unauthorized; Temporize, contemporise, and extemporize."--_Walkers Dict._ "Legalize, equalise, methodise, sluggardize, womanise, humanize, patronise, cantonize, gluttonise, epitomise, anatomize, phlebotomise, sanctuarise, characterize, synonymise, recognise, detonize, colonise."--_Ibid._ "This BEAUTY Sweetness always must comprize, Which from the Subject, well express'd will rise." --_Brightland's Gr._, p. 164. UNDER RULE XIV.--OF COMPOUNDS. "The glory of the Lord shall be thy rereward."--COMMON BIBLES: _Isa._, lviii, 8. [FORMULE--Not proper, because the compound word "_rereward_" has not here the orthography of the two simple words _rear_ and _ward_, which compose it. But, according to Rule 14th, "Compounds generally retain the orthography of the simple words which compose them." And, the accent being here unfixed, a hyphen is proper. Therefore, this word should be spelled thus, _rear-ward_.] "A mere vaunt-courier to announce the coming of his master."--_Tooke's Diversions_, Vol. i, p. 49. "The parti-coloured shutter appeared to come close up before him."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 233. "When the day broke upon this handfull of forlorn but dauntless spirits."--_Ib._, p. 245. "If, upon a plumbtree, peaches and apricots are ingrafted, no body will say they are the natural growth of the plumbtree."--_Berkley's Minute Philos._, p. 45. "The channel between Newfoundland and Labrador is called the Straits of Bellisle."--_Worcester's Gaz._ "There being nothing that more exposes to Headach." [127]--_Locke, on Education_, p. 6. "And, by a sleep, to say we end the heartach."--SHAK.: _in Joh. Dict._ "He that sleeps, feels not the toothach."--ID., _ibid._ "That the shoe must fit him, because it fitted his father and granfather."--_Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 431. "A single word, mispelt, in a letter, is sufficient to show, that you have received a defective education."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 3. "Which mistatement the committee attributed to a failure of memory."--_Professors' Reasons_, p. 14. "Then he went through the Banquetting-House to the scaffold."-- _Smollett's England_, Vol. iii, p. 345. "For the purpose of maintaining a clergyman and skoolmaster."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 355. "They however knew that the lands were claimed by Pensylvania."--_Ib._, p. 357. "But if you ask a reason, they immediately bid farewel to argument."--_Red Book_, p. 80. "Whom resist stedfast in the faith."--SCOTT: 1 _Peter_, v, 9. "And they continued stedfastly in the apostles' doctrine."--_Acts_, ii, 42. "Beware lest ye also fall from your own stedfastness."--_2 Peter_, iii, 17. "_Galiot_, or _galliott_, a Dutch vessel, carrying a main-mast and a mizen-mast."--_Web. Dict._ "Infinitive, to overflow; Preterit, overflowed; Participle, overflown."--_Cobbett's E. Gram._, (1818,) p. 61. "After they have mispent so much precious Time."--_British Gram._, p. xv. "Some say, two _handsfull_; some, two _handfulls_; and others, two _handfull_."-- _Alex. Murray's Gram._, p. 106. "Lapfull, as much as the lap can contain."--_Webster's Octavo Dict._ "Darefull, full of defiance."-- _Walker's Rhym. Dict._ "The road to the blissfull regions, is as open to the peasant as to the king."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 167. "Mis-spel is _mis-spell_ in every Dictionary which I have seen."--_Barnes's Red Book_. p. 303. "Downfal; ruin, calamity, fall from rank or state."--_Johnson's Dict._ "The whole legislature likewize acts az a court."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 340. "It were better a milstone were hanged about his neck."--_Perkins's Works_, p. 731. "Plum-tree, a tree that produces plums; Hog-plumbtree, a tree."--_Webster's Dict._ "Trisyllables ending in _re_ or _le_, accent the first syllable."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 238. "It happen'd on a summer's holiday, That to the greenwood shade he took his way." --_Churchill's Gr._, p. 135. UNDER RULE XV.--OF USAGE. "Nor are the modes of the Greek tongue more uniform."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 112. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word "_modes_" is here written for _moods_, which is more common among the learned, and usually preferred by Murray himself. But, according to Rule 15th, "Any word for the spelling of which we have no rule but usage, is written wrong if not spelled according to the usage which is most common among the learned." Therefore, the latter form should be preferred; thus, _moods_, and not _modes_.] "If we analize a conjunctive preterite, the rule will not appear to hold."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 118. "No landholder would have been at that expence."--_Ib._, p. 116. "I went to see the child whilst they were putting on its cloaths."--_Ib._, p. 125. "This stile is ostentatious, and doth not suit grave writing."--_Ib._, p. 82. "The king of Israel, and Jehosophat the king of Judah, sat each on his throne."--_Mur. Gram._, p. 165, _twice_; _Merchant's_, 89; _Churchill's_, 300. "The king of Israel, and Jehosaphat the king of Judah, sat each on his throne."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 90; _Harrison's_, 99; _Churchill's_, 138; _Wright's_, 148. "Lisias, speaking of his friends, promised to his father, never to abandon them."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. ii, pp. 121 and 253. "Some, to avoid this errour, run into it's opposite."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 199. "Hope, the balm of life, sooths us under every misfortune."--_Merchants Key_, p. 204. "Any judgement or decree might be heerd and reversed by the legislature."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 340. "A pathetic harang wil skreen from punishment any knave."--_Ib._, p. 341. "For the same reezon, the wimen would be improper judges."--_Ibid._ "Every person iz indulged in worshiping az he pleezes."--_Ib._, p. 345. "Most or all teechers are excluded from genteel company."--_Ib._, p. 362. "The Kristian religion, in its purity, iz the best institution on erth."--_Ib._, p. 364. "Neether clergymen nor human laws hav the leest authority over the conscience."--_Ib._, p. 363. "A gild is a society, fraternity, or corporation."--_Red Book_, p. 83. "Phillis was not able to unty the knot, and so she cut it."--_Ib._, p. 46. "An aker of land is the quantity of one hundred and sixty perches."--_Ib._, p. 93. "Oker is a fossil earth combined with the oxid of some metal."--_Ib._, p. 96. "_Genii_, when denoting ærial spirits: _Geniuses_, when signifying persons of genius."--_Mur.'s Gram._, i, p. 42. "_Genii_, when denoting æriel spirits; _Geniuses_, when signifying persons of genius."--_Frost's Gram._, p. 9. "_Genius_, Plu. _geniuses_, men of wit; but _genii_, ærial beings."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 18. "Aerisius, king of Argos, had a beautiful daughter, whose name was Danæ."--_Classic Tales_, p. 109. "Phæton was the son of Apollo and Clymene."--_Ib._, p. 152. "But, after all, I may not have reached the intended Gaol."--_Buchanan's Syntax_, Pref., p. xxvii. "'Pitticus was offered a large sum.' Better: 'A large sum was offered to Pitticus.'"--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 187. "King Missipsi charged his sons to respect the senate and people of Rome."--See _ib._, p. 161. "For example: Gallileo invented the telescope."--_Ib._, pp. 54 and 67. "Cathmor's warriours sleep in death."--_Ib._, p. 54. "For parsing will enable you to detect and correct errours in composition."--_Ib._, p. 50. "O'er barren mountains, o'er the flow'ry plain, Extends thy uncontroul'd and boundless reign."--_Dryden_. PROMISCUOUS ERRORS IN SPELLING. LESSON I.--MIXED. "A bad author deserves better usage than a bad critick."--POPE: _Johnson's Dict., w. Former_. "Produce a single passage superiour to the speech of Logan, a Mingo chief, delivered to Lord Dunmore, when governour of Virginia."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 247. "We have none synonimous to supply its place."--_Jamieson's Rhetoric_, p. 48. "There is a probability that the effect will be accellerated."--_Ib._, p. 48. "Nay, a regard to sound hath controuled the public choice."--_Ib._, p. 46. "Though learnt from the uninterrupted use of gutterel sounds."--_Ib._, p. 5. "It is by carefully filing off all roughness and inequaleties, that languages, like metals, must be polished."--_Ib._, p. 48. "That I have not mispent my time in the service of the community."--_Buchanan's Syntax_, Pref., p. xxviii. "The leaves of maiz are also called blades."--_Webster's El. Spelling-Book_, p. 43. "Who boast that they know what is past, and can foretel what is to come."--_Robertson's Amer._, Vol. i, p. 360. "Its tasteless dullness is interrupted by nothing but its perplexities."-- _Abbott's Teacher_, p. 18. "Sentences constructed with the Johnsonian fullness and swell."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 130. "The privilege of escaping from his prefatory dullness and prolixity."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. iv. "But in poetry this characteristick of dulness attains its full growth."--_Ib._, p. 72. "The leading characteristick consists in an increase of the force and fullness."--_Ib._, p. 71. "The character of this opening fulness and feebler vanish."--_Ib._, p. 31. "Who, in the fullness of unequalled power, would not believe himself the favourite of heaven?"--_Ib._, p. 181. "They marr one another, and distract him."--_Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 433. "Let a deaf worshipper of antiquity and an English prosodist settle this."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 140. "This phillipic gave rise to my satirical reply in self-defence."-- _Merchant's Criticisms_. "We here saw no inuendoes, no new sophistry, no falsehoods."--_Ib._ "A witty and humourous vein has often produced enemies."--_Murray's Key_, p. 173. "Cry holla! to thy tongue, I pr'ythee: it curvetts unseasonably."--_Shak._ "I said, in my slyest manner, 'Your health, sir.'"--_Blackwood's Mag._, Vol. xl, p. 679. "And attornies also travel the circuit in pursute of business."--_Red Book_, p. 83. "Some whole counties in Virginia would hardly sel for the valu of the dets du from the inhabitants."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 301. "They were called the court of assistants, and exercized all powers legislativ and judicial."--_Ib._, p. 340. "Arithmetic is excellent for the guaging of liquors."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 288. "Most of the inflections may be analysed in a way somewhat similar."--_Ib._, p. 112. "To epithets allots emphatic state, Whilst principals, ungrac'd, like lacquies wait." --_C. Churchill's Ros._, p. 8. LESSON II.--MIXED. "Hence it [less] is a privative word, denoting destitution; as, fatherless, faithless, pennyless."--_Webster's Dict., w. Less._ "_Bay_; red, or reddish, inclining to a chesnut color."--_Same._ "_To mimick_, to imitate or ape for sport; _a mimic_, one who imitates or mimics."--_Ib._ "Counterroil, a counterpart or copy of the rolls; Counterrolment, a counter account."--_Ib._ "Millenium, the thousand years during which Satan shall be bound."--_Ib._ "Millenial, pertaining to the millenium, or to a thousand years."--_Ib._ "Thraldom; slavery, bondage, a state of servitude."--See _Johnson's Dict._ "Brier, a prickly bush; Briery, rough, prickly, full of briers; Sweetbriar, a fragrant shrub."--See _Johnson, Walker, Chalmers, Webster, and others_. "_Will_, in the second and third Persons, barely foretels."--_British Gram._, p. 132. "And therefor there is no Word false, but what is distinguished by Italics."--_Ib._, Pref., p. v. "What should be repeted is left to their Discretion."--_Ib._, p. iv. "Because they are abstracted or seperated from material Substances."--_Ib._, p. ix. "All Motion is in Time, and therefor, where-ever it exists, implies Time as its Concommitant."--_Ib._, p. 140. "And illiterate grown persons are guilty of blameable spelling."--_Ib._, Pref., p. xiv. "They wil always be ignorant, and of ruf uncivil manners."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 346. "This fact wil hardly be beleeved in the northern states."--_Ib._, p. 367. "The province however waz harrassed with disputes."--_Ib._, p. 352. "So little concern haz the legislature for the interest of lerning."--_Ib._, p. 349. "The gentlemen wil not admit that a skoolmaster can be a gentleman."--_Ib._, p. 362. "Such absurd qui-pro-quoes cannot be too strenuously avoided."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 205. "When we say, 'a man looks _slyly_;' we signify, that he assumes a _sly look_."--_Ib._, p. 339. "_Peep_; to look through a crevice; to look narrowly, closely, or slyly."--_Webster's Dict._ "Hence the confession has become a hacknied proverb."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 110. "Not to mention the more ornamental parts of guilding, varnish, &c."--_Tooke's Diversions_, Vol. i, p. 20. "After this system of self-interest had been rivetted."--_Brown's Estimate_, Vol. ii, p. 136. "Prejudice might have prevented the cordial approbation of a bigotted Jew."--SCOTT: _on Luke_, x. "All twinkling with the dew-drop sheen, The briar-rose fell in streamers green."--_Lady of the Lake_, p. 16. LESSON III.--MIXED. "The infinitive mode has commonly the sign _to_ before it."--_Harrison's Gram._, p. 25. "Thus, it is adviseable to write _singeing_, from the verb to _singe_, by way of distinction from _singing_, the participle of the verb to _sing_."--_Ib._, p. 27. "Many verbs form both the preterite tense and the preterite participle irregularly."--_Ib._, p. 28. "Much must be left to every one's taste and judgment."--_Ib._, p. 67. "Verses of different lengths intermixed form a Pindarick poem."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 44. "He'll surprize you."--_Frost's El. of Gram._, p. 88. "Unequalled archer! why was this concealed?"--KNOWLES: _ib._, p. 102. "So gaily curl the waves before each dashing prow."--BYRON: _ib._, p. 104. "When is a dipthong called a proper dipthong?"--_Infant School Gram._, p. 11. "How many _ss_ would goodness then end with? Three."--_Ib._, p. 33. "_Q._ What is a tripthong? _A._ A tripthong is the union of three vowels, pronounced in like manner."--_Bacon's Gram._, p. 7. "The verb, noun, or pronoun, is referred to the preceding terms taken seperately."--_Ib._, p. 47. "The cubic foot of matter which occupies the center of the globe."--_Cardell's Gram._, 18mo, p. 47. "The wine imbibes oxigen, or the acidifying principle, from the air."--_Ib._, p. 62. "Charcoal, sulphur, and niter, make gun powder."--_Ib._, p. 90. "It would be readily understood, that the thing so labeled, was a bottle of Madeira wine."--_Ib._, p. 99. "They went their ways, one to his farm, an other to his merchandize."--_Ib._, p. 130. "A dipthong is the union of two vowels, sounded by a single impulse of the voice."--_Russell's Gram._, p. 7. "The professors of the Mahommedan religion are called Mussulmans."--_Maltby's Gram._, p. 73. "This shews that _let_ is not a sign of the imperative mood, but a real verb."--_Ib._, p. 51. "Those preterites and participles, which are first mentioned in the list, seem to be the most eligible."--_Ib._, p. 47. "Monosyllables, for the most part, are compared by _er_ and _est_; and dyssyllables by _more_ and _most_."--_Ib._, p. 19. "This termination, added to a noun, or adjective, changes it into a verb: as _modern_, to _modernise_; a _symbol_, to _symbolize_."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 24. "An Abridgment of Murray's Grammar, with additions from Webster, Ash, Tooke, and others."--_Maltby's title-page_. "For the sake of occupying the room more advantagously, the subject of Orthography is merely glanced at."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 5. "So contended the accusers of Gallileo."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, 12mo, 1839, p. 380. "Murray says, 'They were _traveling past_ when _we_ met them.'"--_Peirce, ib._, p. 361. "They fulfil the only purposes for which they are designed."--_Ib._, p. 359. "On the fulfillment of the event."--_Ib._, p. 175. "Fullness consists in expressing every idea."--_Ib._, p. 291. "Consistently with fulness and perspicuity."--_Ib._, p. 337. "The word _verriest_ is a gross corruption; as, 'He is the _verriest_ fool on earth.'"--_Wright's Gram._, p. 202. "The sound will recal the idea of the object."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 142. "Formed for great enterprizes."--_Bullions's Prin. of E. Gram._, p. 153. "The most important rules and definitions are printed in large type, _italicised_."--_Hart's Gram._, p. 3. "HAMLETTED, _a._ Accustomed to a hamlet; countrified."-- _Bolles's Dict._, and _Chalmers's_. "Singular, _spoonful, cup-full, coach-full, handful_; plural, _spoonfuls, cup-fulls, coach-fulls, handfuls_."--_Bullions's Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, p. 27. "Between Superlatives and following Names, OF, by Grammatick Right, a Station claims." --_Brightland's Gram._, p. 146. CHAPTER V.--QUESTIONS. ORDER OF REHEARSAL, AND METHOD OF EXAMINATION. [Fist][The student ought to be able to answer with readiness, and in the words of the book, all the following questions on grammar. And if he has but lately commenced the study, it may be well to require of him a general rehearsal of this kind, before he proceeds to the correction of any part of the false grammar quoted in the foregoing chapters. At any rate, he should be master of so many of the definitions and rules as precede the part which he attempts to correct; because this knowledge is necessary to a creditable performance of the exercise. But those who are very quick at reading, may perform it _tolerably_, by consulting the book at the time, for what they do not remember. The answers to these questions will embrace all the main text of the work; and, if any further examination be thought necessary, extemporaneous questions may be framed for the purpose.] LESSON I.--GRAMMAR. 1. What is the name, or title, of this book? 2. What is Grammar? 3. What is an English Grammar? 4. What is English Grammar, in itself? and what knowledge does it imply? 5. If grammar is the art of reading, writing, and speaking, define these actions. What is it, _to read_? 6. What is it, _to write_? 7. What is it, _to speak_? 8. How is grammar to be taught, and by what means are its principles to be made known? 9. What is a perfect definition? 10. What is an example, as used in teaching? 11. What is a rule of grammar? 12. What is an exercise? 13. What was language at first, and what is it now? 14. Of what two kinds does the composition of language consist? and how do they differ? 15. What are the least parts of language? 16. What has discourse to do with sentences? or sentences, with points? 17. In extended compositions, what is the order of the parts, upwards from a sentence? 18. What, then, is the common order of literary division, downwards, throughout? 19. Are all literary works divided exactly in this way? 20. How is Grammar divided? 21. Of what does Orthography treat? 22. Of what does Etymology treat? 23. Of what does Syntax treat? 24. Of what does Prosody treat? PART FIRST, ORTHOGRAPHY. LESSON II.--LETTERS. 1. Of what does Orthography treat? 2. What is a letter? 3. What is an elementary sound of human voice, or speech? 4. What name is given to the sound of a letter? and what epithet, to a letter not sounded? 5. How many letters are there in English? and how many sounds do they represent? 6. In what does a knowledge of the letters consist? 7. What variety is there in the letters? and how are they always the same? 8. What different sorts of types, or styles of letters, are used in English? 9. What are the names of the letters in English? 10. What are their names in both numbers, singular and plural? 11. Into what general classes are the letters divided? 12. What is a vowel? 13. What is a consonant? 14. What letters are vowels? and what, consonants? 15. When are _w_ and _y_ consonants? and when, vowels? 16. How are the consonants divided? 17. What is a semivowel? 18. What is a mute? 19. What letters are reckoned semivowels? and how many of these are aspirates? 20. What letters are called liquids? and why? 21. What letters are reckoned mutes? and which of them are imperfect mutes? LESSON III.--SOUNDS. 1. What is meant, when we speak of the powers of the letters? 2. Are the sounds of a language fewer than its words? 3. How are different vowel sounds produced? 4. What are the vowel sounds in English? 5. How may these sounds be modified in the formation of syllables? 6. Can you form a word upon each by means of an _f_? 7. Will you try the series again with a _p_? 8. How may the vowel sounds be written? and how uttered when they are not words? 9. Which of the vowel sounds form words? and what of the rest? 10. How many and what are the consonant sounds in English? 11. In what series of words may all these sounds be heard? 12. In what series of words may each of them be heard two or three times? 13. What is said of the sounds of _j_ and _x_? 14. What is said of the sounds of _c_ and _g_? 15. What is said of _sc_, or _s_ before _c_? 16. What, of _ce, ci_, and _ch_? 17. What sounds has the consonant _g_? 18. In how many different ways can the letters of the alphabet be combined? 19. What do we derive from these combinations of sounds and characters? LESSON IV.--CAPITALS. 1. What characters are employed in English? 2. Why should the different sorts of letters be kept distinct? 3. What is said of the slanting strokes in Roman letters? 4. For what purpose are _Italics_ chiefly used? 5. In preparing a manuscript, how do we mark these things for the printer? 6. What distinction of form belongs to each of the letters? 7. What is said of small letters? and why are capitals used? 8. What things are commonly exhibited wholly in capitals? 9. How many rules for capitals are given in this book? and what are their titles? 10. What says Rule 1st of _books_? 11. What says Rule 2d of _first words_? 12. What says Rule 3d of _names of Deity_? 13. What says Rule 4th of _proper names_? 14. What says Rule 5th of _titles_? 15. What says Rule 6th of _one capital_? 16. What says Rule 7th of _two capitals_? 17. What says Rule 8th of _compounds_? 18. What says Rule 9th of _apposition_? 19. What says Rule 10th of _personifications_? 20. What says Rule 11th of _derivatives_? 21. What says Rule 12th of _I and O_? 22. What says Rule 13th of _poetry_? 23. What says Rule 14th of _examples_? 24. What says Rule 15th of _chief words_? 25. What says Rule 16th of _needless capitals_? [Now turn to the first chapter of Orthography, and correct the improprieties there quoted for the practical application of these rules.] LESSON V.--SYLLABLES. 1. What is a syllable? 2. Can the syllables of a word be perceived by the ear? 3. Under what names are words classed according to the number of their syllables? 4. Which of the letters can form syllables of themselves? and which cannot? 5. What is a diphthong? 6. What is a proper diphthong? 7. What is an improper diphthong? 8. What is a triphthong? 9. What is a proper triphthong? 10. What is an improper triphthong? 11. How many and what are the diphthongs in English? 12. How many and which of these are so variable in sound that they may be either proper or improper diphthongs? 13. How many and what are the proper diphthongs? 14. How many and what are the improper diphthongs? 15. Are proper triphthongs numerous in our language? 16. How many and what are the improper triphthongs? 17. What guide have we for dividing words into syllables? 18. How many special rules of syllabication are given in this book? and what are their titles, or subjects? 19. What says Rule 1st of _consonants_? 20. What says Rule 2d of _vowels_? 21. What says Rule 3d of _terminations_? 22. What says Rule 4th of _prefixes_? 23. What says Rule 5th of _compounds_? 24. What says Rule 6th of _lines full_? [Now turn to the second chapter of Orthography, and correct the improprieties there quoted for the practical application of these rules.] LESSON VI.--WORDS. 1. What is a word? 2. How are words distinguished in regard to _species_ and _figure_? 3. What is a primitive word? 4. What is a derivative word? 5. What is a simple word? 6. What is a compound word? 7. How do permanent compounds differ from others? 8. How many rules for the figure of words are given in this book? and what are their titles, or subjects? 9. What says Rule 1st of _compounds_? 10. What says Rule 2d of _simples_? 11. What says Rule 3d of _the sense_? 12. What says Rule 4th of _ellipses_? 13. What says Rule 5th of _the hyphen_? 14. What says Rule 6th of _no hyphen_? [Now turn to the third chapter of Orthography, and correct the improprieties there quoted for the practical application of these rules.] LESSON VII.--SPELLING. 1. What is spelling? 2. How is this art to be acquired? and why so? 3. Why is it difficult to learn to spell accurately? 4. Is it then any disgrace to spell words erroneously? 5. What benefit may be expected from the rules for spelling? 6. How many rules for spelling are given in this book? and what are their titles, or subjects? 7. What says Rule 1st of _final f, l_, or _s_? 8. Can you mention the principal exceptions to this rule? 9. What says Rule 2d of _other finals_? 10. Are there any exceptions to this rule? 11. What says Rule 3d of the _doubling_ of consonants? 12. Under what three heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed? 13. What says Rule 4th _against the doubling_ of consonants? 14. Under what four heads are the apparent exceptions to this Rule noticed? 15. What says Rule 5th of _final ck_? 16. What monosyllables, contrary to this rule, end with _c_ only? 17. What says Rule 6th of the _retaining_ of double letters before affixes? 18. Under what three heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed? 19. What says Rule 7th of the _retaining_ of double letters after prefixes? 20. What observation is made respecting exceptions to this rule? LESSON VIII.--SPELLING. 21. What says Rule 8th of _final ll_, and of _final l single_? 22. What words does this rule claim, which might seem to come under Rule 7th? and why? 23. What says Rule 9th of _final e omitted_? 24. Under what three heads are the exceptions, real or apparent, here noticed? 25. What says Rule 10th of _final e retained?_ 26. Under what three heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed? 27. What says Rule 11th of _final y changed?_ 28. Under what three heads are the limits and exceptions to this rule noticed? 29. What says Rule 12th of _final y unchanged?_ 30. Under what three heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed? 31. What says Rule 13th of the terminations _ize_ and _ise?_ 32. Under what three heads are the apparent exceptions to this rule noticed? 33. What says Rule 14th of _compounds?_ 34. Under what seven heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed? 35. What says Rule 15th of _usage_, as a law of spelling? [Now turn to the fourth chapter of Orthography, and correct the improprieties there quoted for the practical application of these rules and their exceptions.] CHAPTER VI.--FOR WRITING. EXERCISES IN ORTHOGRAPHY. [Fist] [The following examples of false orthography are inserted here, and not explained in the general Key, that they may he corrected by the pupil _in writing_. Some of the examples here quoted are less inaccurate than others, but all of them, except a few shown in contrast, are, in some respect or other, erroneous. It is supposed, that every student who can answer the questions contained in the preceding chapter, will readily discern wherein the errors lie, and be able to make the necessary corrections.] EXERCISE I.--CAPITALS. "Alexander the great killed his friend Clitus."--_Harrison's Gram._, p. 68. "The words in italics are parsed in the same manner."--_Maltby's Gram._, p. 69. "It may be read by those who do not understand latin."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. iii, p. 262. "A roman _s_ being added to a word in italics or small capitals."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 215. "This is not simply a gallicism, but a corruption of the French _on_; itself a corruption."-- _Ib._, p. 228. "The Gallicism, '_it is me_,' is perpetually striking the ear in London."--_Ib._, p. 316. "'Almost nothing,' is a common Scotticism, equally improper: it should be, 'scarcely any thing.'"--_Ib._, p. 333. "To use _learn_ for _teach_, is a common Scotticism, that ought to be carefully avoided."--See _ib._, p. 261. "A few observations on the subjunctive mood as it appears in our English bible."--_Wilcox's Gram._, p. 40. "The translators of the bible, have confounded two tenses, which in the original are uniformly kept distinct."--_Ib._, p. 40. "More like heaven on earth, than the holy land would have been."--_Anti-Slavery Mag._, Vol. i, p. 72. "There is now extant a poetical composition, called the golden verses of Pythagoras."-- _Lempriere's Dict._ "Exercise of the Mind upon Theorems of Science, like generous and manly Exercise of the Body, tends to call forth and strengthen Nature's original Vigour."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 295. "O that I could prevail on Christians to melt down, under the warm influence of brotherly love, all the distinctions of methodists, independents, baptists, anabaptists, arians, trinitarians, unitarians, in the glorious name of christians."--KNOX: _Churchill's Gram._, p. 173. "Pythagoras long ago remarked, 'that ability and necessity dwell near each other.'"--_Student's Manual_, p. 285. "The Latin Writers Decency neglect, But modern Readers challenge more Respect." --_Brightland's Gram._, p. 172. EXERCISE II.--SYLLABLES. 1. Correct _Bolles_, in the division of the following words: "Del-ia, Jul-ia, Lyd-ia, heigh-ten, pat-ron, ad-roit, worth-y, fath-er, fath-er-ly, mar-chi-o-ness, i-dent-ic-al, out-ra-ge-ous, ob-nox-i-ous, pro-di-gi-ous, tre-mend-ous, ob-liv-i-on, pe-cul-i-ar."--_Revised Spelling-Book_: New London, 1831. 2. Correct _Sears_, in the division of the following words: "A-quil-a, hear-ty, drea-ry, wor-my, hai-ry, thor-ny, phil-os-o-phy, dis-cov-e-ry, re-cov-e-ry, ad-diti-on, am-biti-on, au-spici-ous, fac-titi-ous, fla-giti-ous, fru-iti-on, sol-stiti-al, ab-o-liti-on."--_Standard Spelling-Book_: "New Haven," 1826. 3. Correct _Bradley_, in the division of the following words: "Jes-ter, rai-ny, forg-e-ry, fin-e-ry, spic-e-ry, brib-e-ry, groc-e-ry, chi-can-e-ry, fer-riage, line-age, cri-ed, tri-ed, sù-ed, slic-ed, forc-ed, pledg-ed, sav-ed, dup-ed, strip-ed, touch-ed, trounc-ed."--_Improved Spelling-Book_: Windsor, 1815. 4. Correct _Burhans_, in the division of the following words: "Boar-der, brigh-ten, cei-ling, frigh-ten, glea-ner, lea-kage, suc-ker, mos-sy, fros-ty, twop-ence, pu-pill-ar-y, crit-i-call-y, gen-er-all-y, lit-er-all-y, log-i-call-y, trag-i-call-y, ar-ti-fici-al, po-liti-call-y, sloth-full-y, spite-full-y, re-all-y, sui-ta-ble, ta-mea-ble, flumm-er-y, nesc-i-ence, shep-her-dess, trav-ell-er, re-pea-ter, re-pressi-on, suc-cessi-on, un-lear-ned."--_Critical Pronouncing Spelling-Book_:[128] Philadelphia, 1823. 5. Correct _Marshall_, in the division of the following words: "Trench-er, trunch-eon, dros-sy, glos-sy, glas-sy, gras-sy, dres-ses, pres-ses, cal-ling, chan-ging, en-chan-ging, con-ver-sing, mois-ture, join-ture, qua-drant, qua-drate, trans-gres-sor, dis-es-teem."--_New Spelling-Book_: New York, 1836. 6. Correct _Emerson_, in the division of the following words: "Dus-ty mis-ty, mar-shy, mil-ky, wes-tern, stor-my, nee-dy, spee-dy, drea-ry, fros-ty, pas-sing, roc-ky, bran-chy, bland-ish, pru-dish, eve-ning, a-noth-er."--_National Spelling-Book_: Boston, 1828. "Two Vowels meeting, each with its full Sound, Always to make Two Syllables are bound."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 64. EXERCISE III.--FIGURE OF WORDS. "I was surprised by the return of my long lost brother."--_Parker's Exercises in English Composition_, p. 5. "Such singular and unheard of clemency cannot be passed over by me in silence."--_Ib._, p. 10. "I perceive my whole system excited by the potent stimulus of sun-shine."--_Ib._, p. 11. "To preserve the unity of a sentence, it is sometimes necessary to employ the case absolute, instead of the verb and conjunction."--_Ib._, p. 17. "Severity and hard hearted opinions accord with the temper of the times."--_Ib._, p. 18. "That poor man was put into the mad house."--_Ib._, p. 22. "This fellow must be put into the poor house."--_Ib._ p. 22. "I have seen the breast works and other defences of earth, that were thrown up."--_Ib._, p. 24. "Cloven footed animals are enabled to walk more easily on uneven ground."--_Ib._, p. 25. "Self conceit blasts the prospects of many a youth."--_Ib._, p. 26. "Not a moment should elapse without bringing some thing to pass."--_Ib._, p. 36. "A school master decoyed the children of the principal citizens into the Roman camp."--_Ib._, p. 39. "The pupil may now write a description of the following objects. A school room. A steam boat. A writing desk. A dwelling house. A meeting house. A paper mill. A grist mill. A wind mill."--_Ib._, p. 45. "Every metaphor should be founded on a resemblance which is clear and striking; not far fetched, nor difficult to be discovered."--_Ib._, p. 49. "I was reclining in an arbour overhung with honey suckle and jessamine of the most exquisite fragrance."--_Ib._, p. 51. "The author of the following extract is speaking of the slave trade."--_Ib._, p. 60. "The all wise and benevolent Author of nature has so framed the soul of man, that he cannot but approve of virtue."--_Ib._, p. 74. "There is something of self denial in the very idea of it."--_Ib._, p. 75. "Age therefore requires a well spent youth to render it happy."--_Ib._, p. 76. "Pearl-ash requires much labour in its extraction from ashes."--_Ib._, p. 91. "_Club_, or _crump, footed_, Loripes; _Rough_, or _leather, footed_, Plumipes."--_Ainsworth's Dict._ "The honey-bags steal from the humble bees, And for night-tapers crop their waxen thighs." --SHAK.: _Joh.'s Dict., w. Glowworm._ "The honeybags steal from the bumblebees, And for night tapers crop their waxen thighs." --SHAK.: _Joh.'s Dict., w. Humblebee._ "The honey bags steal from the humble-bees, And, for night tapers crop their waxen thighs." --_Dodd's Beauties of Shak._, p. 51. EXERCISE IV.--SPELLING. "His antichamber, and room of audience, are little square chambers wainscoted."--ADDISON: _Johnson's Dict., w. Antechamber_. "Nobody will deem the quicksighted amongst them to have very enlarged views of ethicks."--LOCKE: _Ib., w. Quicksighted_. "At the rate of this thick-skulled blunderhead, every plow-jobber shall take upon him to read upon divinity."--L'ESTRANGE: _Ib., m. Blunderhead_. "On the topmast, the yards, and boltsprit would I flame distinctly."--SHAK.: _Ib., w. Bowsprit_. "This is the tune of our catch plaid by the picture of nobody."--ID.: _Ib., w. Nobody_. "Thy fall hath left a kind of blot to mark the fulfraught man."--ID.: _Ib., w. Fulfraught_. "Till blinded by some Jack o'Lanthorn sprite."--_Snelling's Gift_, p. 62. "The beauties you would have me eulogise."--_Ib._, p. 14. "They rail at me--I gaily laugh at them."--_Ib._, p. 13. "Which the king and his sister had intrusted to him withall."--_Josephus_, Vol. v, p. 143. "The terms of these emotions are by no means synonimous."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 336. "Lillied, _adj._ Embellished with lilies."--_Chalmers's Dict._ "They seize the compendious blessing without exertion and without reflexion."--_Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 428. "The first cry that rouses them from their torpour, is the cry that demands their blood."--_Ib._, p. 433. "It meets the wants of elementary schools and deserves to be patronised."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 5. "Whose attempts were paralysed by the hallowed sound."--_Music of Nature_, p. 270. "It would be an amusing investigation to analyse their language."--_Ib._, p. 200. "It is my father's will that I should take on me the hostess-ship of the day."--SHAK.: _in Johnson's Dict._ "To retain the full apprehension of them undiminisht."--_Phil. Museum._, Vol. i, p. 458. "The ayes and noes were taken in the House of Commons."--_Anti-Slavery Mag._, Vol. i, p. 11. "Derivative words are formed by adding letters or syllables to primatives."--_Davenport's Gram._, p. 7. "The minister never was thus harrassed himself."--_Nelson, on Infidelity_, p. 6. "The most vehement politician thinks himself unbiassed in his judgment."--_Ib._, p. 17. "Mistress-ship, _n._ Female rule or dominion."--_Webster's Dict._ "Thus forced to kneel, thus groveling to embrace, The scourge and ruin of my realm and race." --POPE: _Ash's Gram._, p. 83. EXERCISE V.--MIXED ERRORS. "The quince tree is of a low stature; the branches are diffused and crooked."--MILLER: _Johnson's Dict._ "The greater slow worm, called also the blindworm, is commonly thought to be blind, because of the littleness of his eyes."--GREW: _ib._ "Oh Hocus! where art thou? It used to go in another guess manner in thy time."--ARBUTHNOT: _ib._ "One would not make a hotheaded crackbrained coxcomb forward for a scheme of moderation."--ID.: _ib._ "As for you, colonel huff-cap, we shall try before a civil magistrate who's the greatest plotter."--DRYDEN: _ib., w. Huff._ "In like manner, Actions co-alesce with their Agents, and Passions with their Patients."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 263. "These Sentiments are not unusual even with the Philosopher now a days."--_Ib._, p. 350. "As if the Marble were to fashion the Chizzle, and not the Chizzle the Marble."--_Ib._, p. 353. "I would not be understood, in what I have said, to undervalue Experiment."--_Ib._, p. 352. "How therefore is it that they approach nearly to Non-Entity's?"--_Ib._, p. 431. "Gluttonise, modernise, epitomise, barbarise, tyranise."--_Churchill's Gram._, pp. 31 and 42. "Now fair befal thee and thy noble house!"--SHAK.: _ib._, p. 241. "Nor do I think the error above-mentioned would have been so long indulged," &c.--_Ash's Gram._, p. 4. "The editor of the two editions above mentioned was pleased to give this little manuel to the public," &c.--_Ib._, p. 7. "A Note of Admiration denotes a modelation of the voice suited to the expression."--_Ib._, p. 16. "It always has some respect to the power of the agent; and is therefore properly stiled the potential mode."--_Ib._, p. 29. "Both these are supposed to be synonomous expressions."--_Ib._, p. 105. "An expence beyond what my circumstances admit."--DODDRIDGE: _ib._, p. 138. "There are four of them: the _Full-Point_, or _Period_; the _Colon_; the _Semi-Colon_; the _Comma_."--_Cobbett's E. Gram._, N. Y., 1818, p. 77. "There are many men, who have been at Latin-Schools for years, and who, at last, cannot write six sentences in English correctly."--_Ib._, p. 39. "But, figures of rhetorick are edge tools, and two edge tools too."--_Ib._, p. 182. "The horse-chesnut grows into a goodly standard."--MORTIMER: _Johnson's Dict._ "Whereever _if_ is to be used."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 175. "Peel'd, patch'd, and pyebald, linsey-woolsey brothers." --POPE: _Joh. Dict., w., Mummer_. "Peel'd, patch'd, and piebald, linsey-woolsey brothers." --_ID.: ib., w. Piebald_. EXERCISE VI.--MIXED ERRORS. "Pied, _adj._ [from _pie._] Variegated; partycoloured."--_Johnson's Dict._ "Pie, [_pica_, Lat.] A magpie; a party-coloured bird."--_Ib._ "Gluy, _adj._ [from _glue._] Viscous; tenacious; glutinous."--_Ib._ "Gluey, _a._ Viscous, glutinous. Glueyness. _n._ The quality of being gluey."--_Webster's Dict._ "Old Euclio, seeing a crow-scrat[129] upon the muck-hill, returned in all haste, taking it for an ill sign."--BURTON: _Johnson's Dict._ "Wars are begun by hairbrained[130] dissolute captains."--ID.: _ib._ "A carot is a well known garden root."--_Red Book_, p. 60. "Natural philosophy, metaphysicks, ethicks, history, theology, and politicks, were familiar to him."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 209. "The words in Italicks and capitals, are emphatick."--_Ib._, p. 210. "It is still more exceptionable; Candles, Cherrys, Figs, and other sorts of Plumbs, being sold by Weight, and being Plurals."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 135. "If the End of Grammar be not to save that Trouble, and Expence of Time, I know not what it is good for."--_Ib._, p. 161. "_Caulce_, Sheep Penns, or the like, has no Singular, according to Charisius."--_Ib._, p. 194. "These busibodies are like to such as reade bookes with intent onely to spie out the faults thereof"--_Perkins's Works_, p. 741. "I think it every man's indispensible duty, to do all the service he can to his country."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 4. "Either fretting it self into a troublesome Excess, or flaging into a downright want of Appetite."--_Ib._, p. 23. "And nobody would have a child cramed at breakfast."--_Ib._, p. 23. "Judgeship and judgment, lodgable and alledgeable, alledgement and abridgment, lodgment and infringement, enlargement and acknowledgment."--_Webster's Dict._, 8vo. "Huckster, _n. s._ One who sells goods by retail, or in small quantities; a pedler."--_Johnson's Dict._ "He seeks bye-streets, and saves th' expensive coach." --GAY: _ib., w. Mortgage._ "He seeks by-streets, and saves th' expensive coach." --GAY: _ib., w. By-street._ EXERCISE VII.--MIXED ERRORS. "Boys like a warm fire in a wintry day."--_Webster's El. Spelling-Book_, p. 62. "The lilly is a very pretty flower."--_Ib._, p. 62. "The potatoe is a native plant of America."--_Ib._, p. 60. "An anglicism is a peculiar mode of speech among the English."--_Ib._, p. 136. "Black berries and raspberries grow on briars."--_Ib._, p. 150. "You can broil a beef steak over the coals of fire."--_Ib._, p. 38. "Beef'-steak, _n._ A steak or slice of beef for broiling."--_Webster's Dict._ "Beef'steak, _s._ a slice of beef for broiling."--_Treasury of Knowledge._ "As he must suffer in case of the fall of merchandize, he is entitled to the corresponding gain if merchandize rises."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 258. "He is the worshipper of an hour, but the worldling for life."--_Maturin's Sermons_, p. 424. "Slyly hinting something to the disadvantage of great and honest men."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 329. "'Tis by this therefore that I Define the Verb; namely, that it is a Part of Speech, by which something is apply'd to another, as to its Subject."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 255. "It may sometimes throw a passing cloud over the bright hour of gaiety."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 178. "To criticize, is to discover errors; and to crystalize implies to freeze or congele."--_Red Book_, p. 68. "The affectation of using the preterite instead of the participle, is peculiarly aukward; as, he has came."--_Priestley's Grammar_, p. 125. "They are moraly responsible for their individual conduct."--_Cardell's El. Gram._, p. 21. "An engine of sixty horse power, is deemed of equal force with a team of sixty horses."--_Red Book_, p. 113. "This, at fourpence per ounce, is two shillings and fourpence a week, or six pounds, one shining and four pence a year."--_Ib._, p. 122. "The tru meening of _parliament_ iz a meeting of barons or peers."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 276. "Several authorities seem at leest to favor this opinion."--_Ib._, p. 277. "That iz, az I hav explained the tru primitiv meening of the word."--_Ib._, p. 276. "The lords are peers of the relm; that iz, the ancient prescriptiv judges or barons."--_Ib._, p. 274. "Falshood is folly, and 'tis just to own The fault committed; this was mine alone." --_Pope, Odys._, B. xxii, l. 168. EXERCISE VIII--MIXED ERRORS. "A second verb so nearly synonimous with the first, is at best superfluous."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 332. "Indicate it, by some mark opposite [to] the word misspelt."--_Abbott's Teacher_, p. 74. "And succesfully controling the tendencies of mind."--_Ib._, p. 24. "It [the Monastick Life] looks very like what we call Childrens-Play."--[LESLIE'S] _Right of Tythes_, p. 236. "It seems rather lik Playing of Booty, to Please those Fools and Knaves."--_Ib._, Pref., p. vi. "And first I Name Milton, only for his Name, lest the Party should say, that I had not Cousider'd his Performance against Tythes."--_Ib._, p. iv. "His Fancy was too Predominant for his Judgment. His Talent lay so much in Satyr that he hated Reasoning."--_Ib._, p. iv. "He has thrown away some of his Railery against Tythes, and the Church then underfoot."--_Ib._, p. v. "They Vey'd with one another in these things."--_Ib._, p. 220. "Epamanondas was far the most accomplished of the Thebans."--_Cooper's New Gram._, p. 27. "_Whoever_ and _Whichever_, are thus declined. Sing. and Plur. _nom._ whoever, _poss._ whoseever, _obj._ whomever. Sing. and Plu. _nom._ whichever, _poss._ whoseever, _obj._ whichever."--_Ib._, p. 38. "WHEREEVER, _adv._ [_where_ and _ever_.] At whatever place."--_Webster's Dict._ "They at length took possession of all the country south of the Welch mountains."--_Dobson's Comp. Gram._, p. 7. "Those Britains, who refused to submit to the foreign yoke, retired into Wales."--_Ib._, p. 6. "Religion is the most chearful thing in the world."--_Ib._, p. 43. "_Two_ means the number two compleatly, whereas _second_ means only the last of two, and so of all the rest."--_Ib._, p. 44. "Now send men to Joppa, and call for one Simon, whose sirname is Peter."--_Ib._, p. 96. (See _Acts_, x, 5.) "In French words, we use _enter_ instead of _inter_; as, entertain, enterlace, enterprize."--_Ib._, p. 101. "Amphiology, i. e. a speech of uncertain or doubtful meaning."--_Ib._, p. 103. "Surprize; as, hah! hey day! what! strange!"--_Ib._, p. 109. "Names of the letters: ai bee see dee ee ef jee aitch eye jay kay el em en o pee cue ar ess tee you voe double u eks wi zed."--_Rev. W. Allen's Gram._, p. 3. "I, O, and U, at th' End of Words require, The silent (e), the same do's (va) desire." --_Brightland's Gram._, p. 15. EXERCISE IX.--MIXED ERRORS. "_And_ is written for _eacend_, adding, ekeing."--_Dr. Murray's Hist. of Europ. Lang._, Vol. i, p. 222. "The Hindus have changed _ai_ into _e_, sounded like _e_ in _where_."--_Ib._, Vol. ii, p. 121. "And therefor I would rather see the cruelest usurper than the mildest despot."-- _Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 430. "Sufficiently distinct to prevent our marveling."--_Ib._, i, 477. "Possessed of this preheminence he disregarded the clamours of the people."--_Smollett's England_, Vol. iii, p. 222. "He himself, having communicated, administered the sacrament to some of the bye-standers."--_Ib._, p. 222. "The high fed astrology which it nurtured, is reduced to a skeleton on the leaf of an almanac."--_Cardell's Gram._, p. 6. "Fulton was an eminent engineer: he invented steam boats."--_Ib._, p. 30. "Then, in comes the benign latitude of the doctrine of goodwill."--SOUTH: _in Johnson's Dict._ "Being very lucky in a pair of long lanthorn-jaws, he wrung his face into a hideous grimace."--SPECTATOR: _ib._ "Who had lived almost four-and-twenty years under so politick a king as his father."--BACON: _ib., w. Lowness_. "The children will answer; John's, or William's, or whose ever it may be."--_Infant School Gram._, p. 32. "It is found tolerably easy to apply them, by practising a little guess work."--_Cardell's Gram._, p. 91. "For between which two links could speech makers draw the division line?"--_Ib._, p. 50. "The wonderful activity of the rope dancer who stands on his head."--_Ib._, p. 56. "The brilliancy which the sun displays on its own disk, is sun shine."--_Ib._, p. 63. "A word of three syllables is termed a trisyllable."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 23; _Coar's_, 17; _Jaudon's_, 13; _Comly's_, 8; _Cooper's, New Gr._, 8; _Kirkham's_, 20; _Picket's_, 10; _Alger's_, 12; _Blair's_, 1; _Guy's_, 2; _Bolles's Spelling-Book_, 161. See _Johnson's Dict._ "A word of three syllables is termed a trissyllable."--_British Gram._, p. 33; _Comprehensive Gram._, 23; _Bicknell's_, 17; _Allen's_, 31; _John Peirce's_, 149; _Lennie's_, 5; _Maltby's_, 8; _Ingersoll's_, 7; _Bradley's_, 66; _Davenport's_, 7; _Bucke's_, 16; _Bolles's Spelling-Book_, 91. See _Littleton's Lat. Dict._ (1.) "_Will_, in the first Persons, promises or threatens: But in the second and third Persons, it barely foretells."--_British Gram._, p. 132. (2.) "_Will_, in the first Persons, promises or threatens; but in the second and third Persons, it barely foretells."--_Buchanan's Gram._, p. 41. (3.) "_Will_, in the first person, promises, engages, or threatens. In the second and third persons, it merely foretels."--_Jaudon's Gram._, p. 59. (4.) "_Will_, in the first person singular and plural, promises or threatens; in the second and third persons, only foretells."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 41. (5.) "_Will_, in the first person singular and plural, intimates resolution and promising; in the second and third person, only foretels."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 88; _Ingersoll's_, 136; _Fisk's_, 78; _A. Flint's_, 42; _Bullions's_, 32; _Hamlin's_, 41; _Cooper's Murray_, 50. [Fist] _Murray's Second Edition_ has it "_foretells_." (6.) "_Will_, in the first person singular and plural, expresses resolution and promising. In the second and third persons it only foretells."--_Comly's Gram._, p. 38; _E. Devis's_, 51; _Lennie's_, 22. (7.) "_Will_, in the first person, promises. In the second and third persons, it simply foretels."--_Maltby's Gram._, p. 24. (8.) "_Will_, in the first person implies resolution and promising; in the second and third, it foretells."--_Cooper's New Gram._, p. 51. (9.) "_Will_, in the first person singular and plural, promises or threatens; in the second and third persons, only foretels: _shall_, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretels; in the second and third persons, promises, commands, or threatens."--_Adam's Lat. and Eng. Gram._, p. 83. (10.) "In the first person shall _foretels_, and will _promises_ or _threatens_; but in the second and third persons _will_ foretels, and _shall_ promises or threatens."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 65. "If Mævius scribble in Apollo's spight, There are who judge still worse than he can write."--_Pope_. EXERCISE X.--MIXED ERRORS. "I am liable to be charged that I latinize too much."--DRYDEN: in _Johnson's Dict._ "To mould him platonically to his own idea."--WOTTON: _ib._ "I will marry a wife as beautiful as the houries, and as wise as Zobeide."--_Murray's E. Reader_, p. 148. "I will marry a wife, beautiful as the Houries."--_Wilcox's Gram._, p. 65. "The words in italics are all in the imperative mood."--_Maltby's Gram._, p. 71. "Words Italicised, are emphatick, in various degrees."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 173. "Wherever two gg's come together, they are both hard."--_Buchanan's Gram._, p. 5. "But these are rather silent (_o_)'s than obscure (_u_)'s."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 19. "That can be Guest at by us, only from the Consequences."--_Right of Tythes_, p. viii. "He says he was glad that he had Baptized so few; And asks them, Were ye Baptised in the Name of Paul?"--_Ib._, p. ix. "Therefor he Charg'd the Clergy with the Name of Hirelings."--_Ib._, p. viii. "On the fourth day before the first second day in each month."--_The Friend_, Vol. vii, p. 230. "We are not bound to adhere for ever to the terms, or to the meaning of terms, which were established by our ancestors."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 140. "O! learn from him to station quick eyed Prudence at the helm."--_Frosts El. of Gram._, p. 104. "It pourtrays the serene landscape of a retired village."--_Music of Nature_, p. 421. "By stating the fact, in a circumlocutary manner."--_Booth's Introd. to Dict._, p. 33. "Time as an abstract being is a non-entity."--_Ib._, p. 29. "From the difficulty of analysing the multiplied combinations of words."--_Ib._, p. 19. "Drop those letters that are superfluous, as: handful, foretel."--_Cooper's Plain & Pract. Gram._, p. 10. "_Shall_, in the first person, simply foretells."--_Ib._, p. 51. "And the latter must evidently be so too, or, at least, cotemporary, with the act."--_Ib._, p. 60. "The man has been traveling for five years."--_Ib._, p. 77. "I shall not take up time in combatting their scruples."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 320. "In several of the chorusses of Euripides and Sophocles, we have the same kind of lyric poetry as in Pindar."--_Ib._, p. 398. "Until the Statesman and Divine shall unite their efforts in _forming_ the human mind, rather than in loping its excressences, after it has been neglected."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 26. "Where conviction could be followed only by a bigotted persistence in error."--_Ib._, p. 78. "All the barons were entitled to a seet in the national council, in right of their baronys."--_Ib._, p. 260. "Some knowledge of arithmetic is necessary for every lady."--_Ib._, p. 29. "Upon this, [the system of chivalry,] were founded those romances of night-errantry."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 374. "The subject is, the atchievements of Charlemagne and his Peers, or Paladins."--_Ib._, p. 374. "Aye, aye; this slice to be sure outweighs the other."--_Blair's Reader_, p. 31. "In the common phrase, _good-bye, bye_ signifies _passing, going_. The phrase signifies, a good going, a prosperous passage, and is equivalent to _farewell_."--_Webster's Dict._ "Good-by, _adv_.--a contraction of _good be with you_--a familiar way of bidding farewell."--See _Chalmers's Dict._ "Off he sprung, and did not so much as stop to say good bye to you."--_Blair's Reader_, p. 16. "It no longer recals the notion of the action."--_Barnard's Gram._, p. 69. "Good-nature and good-sense must ever join; To err, is human; to forgive, divine."--_Pope, Ess. on Crit._ EXERCISE XI.--MIXED ERRORS. "The practices in the art of carpentry are called planeing, sawing, mortising, scribing, moulding, &c."--_Blair's Reader_, p. 118. "With her left hand, she guides the thread round the spindle, or rather round a spole which goes on the spindle."--_Ib._, p. 134. "Much suff'ring heroes next their honours claim."--POPE: _Johnson's Dict., w. Much_. "Vein healing verven, and head purging dill."--SPENSER: _ib., w. Head_. "An, in old English, signifies _if_; as, '_an_ it please your honor.'"--_Webster's Dict._ "What, then, was the moral worth of these renouned leaders?"--_M'Ilvaine's Lect._, p. 460. "Behold how every form of human misery is met by the self denying diligence of the benevolent."--_Ib._, p. 411. "Reptiles, bats, and doleful creatures--jackalls, hyenas, and lions--inhabit the holes, and caverns, and marshes of the desolate city."--_Ib._, p. 270. "ADAYS, _adv_. On or in days; as, in the phrase, now _adays_."--_Webster's Dict._ "REFEREE, one to whom a thing is referred; TRANSFERREE, the person to whom a transfer is made."--_Ib._ "The Hospitallers were an order of knights who built a hospital at Jerusalem for pilgrims."--_Ib._ "GERARD, Tom, or Tung, was the institutor and first grand master of the knights hospitalers: he died in 1120."--_Biog. Dict._ "I had a purpose now to lead our many to the holy land."--SHAK.: _in Johnson's Dict._ "He turned their heart to hate his people, to deal subtilly with his servants."--_Psalms_, cv, 25. "In Dryden's ode of Alexander's Feast, the line, '_Faln, faln, faln, faln_,' represents a gradual sinking of the mind."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. ii, p. 71. "The first of these lines is marvelously nonsensical."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 117. "We have the nicely chiseled forms of an Apollo and a Venus, but it is the same cold marble still."--_Christian Spect._, Vol. viii, p. 201. "Death waves his mighty wand and paralyses all."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 35. "Fear God. Honor the patriot. Respect virtue."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 216. "Pontius Pilate being Governour of Judea, and Herod being Tetrarch of Galilee."--_Ib._, p. 189. See _Luke_, iii, 1. "AUCTIONEER, _n. s_. The person that manages an auction."--_Johnson's Dict._ "The earth put forth her primroses and days-eyes, to behold him."--HOWEL: _ib._ "_Musselman_, not being a compound of _man_, is _musselmans_ in the plural."--_Lennie's Gram._, p. 9. "The absurdity of fatigueing them with a needless heap of grammar rules."--_Burgh's Dignity_, Vol. i, p. 147. "John was forced to sit with his arms a kimbo, to keep them asunder."--ARBUTHNOT: _Joh. Dict._ "To set the arms a kimbo, is to set the hands on the hips, with the elbows projecting outward."--_Webster's Dict._ "We almost uniformly confine the inflexion to the last or the latter noun."--_Maunder's Gram._, p. 2. "This is all souls day, fellows! Is it not?"--SHAK.: _in Joh. Dict._ "The english physicians make use of troy-weight."--_Johnson's Dict._ "There is a certain number of ranks allowed to dukes, marquisses, and earls."--PEACHAM: _ib., w. Marquis_. "How could you chide the young good natur'd prince, And drive him from you with so stern an air." --ADDISON: _ib., w. Good_, 25. EXERCISE XII.--MIXED ERRORS. "In reading, every appearance of sing-song should be avoided."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 75. "If you are thoroughly acquainted with the inflexions of the verb."--_Ib._, p. 53. "The preterite of _read_ is pronounced _red_."--_Ib._, p. 48. "Humility opens a high way to dignity."--_Ib._, p. 15. "What is intricate must be unraveled."--_Ib._, p. 275. "Roger Bacon invented gun powder, A. D. 1280."--_Ib._, p. 277. "On which ever word we lay the emphasis."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 243; 12mo, p. 195. "Each of the leaders was apprized of the Roman invasion."--_Nixon's Parser_, p. 123. "If I say, 'I _gallopped_ from Islington to Holloway;' the verb is intransitive: if, 'I _gallopped_ my _horse_ from Islington to Holloway;' it is transitive."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 238. "The reasonableness of setting a part one day in seven."--_The Friend_, Vol. iv, p. 240. "The promoters of paper money making reprobated this act."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 196. "There are five compound personal pronouns, which are derived from the five simple personal pronouns by adding to some of their cases the syllable _self_; as, my-self, thy-self, him-self, her-self, it-self."--_Perley's Gram._, p. 16. "Possessives, my-own, thy-own, his-own, her-own, its-own, our-own, your-own, their-own."--_Ib., Declensions_. "Thy man servant and thy maid servant may rest, as well as thou."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 160. "How many right angles has an acute angled triangle?"--_Ib._, p. 220. "In the days of Jorum, king of Israel, flourished the prophet Elisha."--_Ib._, p. 148. "In the days of Jorum, king of Israel, Elisha, the prophet flourished."--_Ib._, p. 133. "Lodgable, _a_. Capable of affording a temporary abode."--_Webster's Octavo Dict._--"Win me into the easy hearted man."--_Johnson's Quarto Dict._ "And then to end life, is the same as to dye."--_Milnes's Greek Gram._, p. 176. "Those usurping hectors who pretend to honour without religion, think the charge of a lie a blot not to be washed out but by blood."--SOUTH: _Joh. Dict._ "His gallies attending him, he pursues the unfortunate."--_Nixon's Parser_, p. 91. "This cannot fail to make us shyer of yielding our assent."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 117. "When he comes to the Italicised word, he should give it such a definition as its connection with the sentence may require."--_Claggett's Expositor_, p. vii. "Learn to distil from your lips all the honies of persuasion."--_Adams's Rhetoric_, Vol. i, p. 31. "To instill ideas of disgust and abhorrence against the Americans."--_Ib._, ii, 300. "Where prejudice has not acquired an uncontroled ascendency."--_Ib._, i, 31. "The uncontrolable propensity of his mind was undoubtedly to oratory."--_Ib._, i, 100. "The Brutus is a practical commentary upon the dialogues and the orator."--_Ib._, i, 120. "The oratorical partitions are a short elementary compendium."--_Ib._, i, 130. "You shall find hundreds of persons able to produce a crowd of good ideas upon any subject, for one that can marshall them to the best advantage."--_Ib._, i, 169. "In this lecture, you have the outline of all that the whole course will comprize."--_Ib._, i, 182. "He would have been stopped by a hint from the bench, that he was traveling out of the record."--_Ib._, i, 289. "To tell them that which should befal them in the last days."--_Ib._, ii, 308. "Where all is present, there is nothing past to recal."--_Ib._, ii, 358. "Whose due it is to drink the brimfull cup of God's eternal vengeance."--_Law and Grace_, p. 36. "There, from the dead, centurions see him rise, See, but struck down with horrible surprize!"--_Savage_. "With seed of woes my heart brimful is charged."--SIDNEY: _Joh. Dict._ "Our legions are brimful, our cause is ripe."--SHAKSPEARE: _ib._ PART II. ETYMOLOGY. ETYMOLOGY treats of the different parts of speech, with their classes and modifications. The _Parts of Speech_ are the several kinds, or principal classes, into which words are divided by grammarians. _Classes_, under the parts of speech, are the particular sorts into which the several kinds of words are subdivided. _Modifications_ are inflections, or changes, in the terminations, forms, or senses, of some kinds of words. CHAPTER I.--PARTS OF SPEECH. The Parts of Speech, or sorts of words, in English, are ten; namely, the Article, the Noun, the Adjective, the Pronoun, the Verb, the Participle, the Adverb, the Conjunction, the Preposition, and the Interjection. 1. THE ARTICLE. An Article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification: as, _The_ air, _the_ stars; _an_ island, _a_ ship. 2. THE NOUN. A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned: as, _George, York, man, apple, truth_. 3. THE ADJECTIVE. An Adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality: as, A _wise_ man; a _new_ book. You _two_ are _diligent_. 4. THE PRONOUN. A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun: as, The boy loves _his_ book; _he_ has long lessons, and _he_ learns _them_ well. 5. THE VERB. A Verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_: as, I _am_, I _rule_, I _am ruled_; I _love_, thou _lovest_, he _loves_. 6. THE PARTICIPLE. A Participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding _ing, d_, or _ed_, to the verb: thus, from the verb _rule_, are formed three participles, two simple and one compound; as, 1. _ruling_, 2. _ruled_, 3. _having ruled_. 7. THE ADVERB. An Adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner: as, They are _now here_, studying _very diligently_. 8. THE CONJUNCTION. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected: as, "Thou _and_ he are happy, _because_ you are good."--_L. Murray_. 9. THE PREPOSITION. A Preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun; as, The paper lies _before_ me _on_ the desk. 10. THE INTERJECTION. An Interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind: as, _Oh! alas! ah! poh! pshaw! avaunt! aha! hurrah!_ OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--The first thing to be learned in the study of this the second part of grammar, is the distribution of the words of the language into those principal sorts, or classes, which are denominated _the Parts of Speech_. This is a matter of some difficulty. And as no scheme which can be adopted, will be in all cases so plain that young beginners will not occasionally falter in its application, the teacher may sometimes find it expedient to refer his pupils to the following simple explanations, which are designed to aid their first and most difficult steps. How can we know to what class, or part of speech, any word belongs? By learning the definitions of the ten parts of speech, and then observing how the word is written, and in what sense it is used. It is necessary also to observe, so far as we can, with what other words each particular one is capable of making sense. 1. Is it easy to distinguish an ARTICLE? If not always easy, it is generally so: _the, an_, and _a_, are the only English words called articles, and these are rarely any thing else. Because _an_ and _a_ have the same import, and are supposed to have the same origin, the articles are commonly reckoned two, but some count them as three. 2. How can we distinguish a NOUN? By means of the article before it, if there is one; as, _the house, an apple, a book_; or, by adding it to the phrase, "_I mentioned_;" as, "I mentioned _peace_;"--"I mentioned _war_;"--"I mentioned _slumber_." Any word which thus makes complete sense, is, in that sense, a noun; because a noun is the _name_ of any thing which can thus be mentioned _by a name_. Of English nouns, there are said to be as many as twenty-five or thirty thousand. 3. How can we distinguish an ADJECTIVE? By putting a noun after it, to see if the phrase will be sense. The noun _thing_, or its plural _things_, will suit almost any adjective; as, A _good_ thing--A _bad_ thing--A _little_ thing--A _great_ thing--_Few_ things--_Many_ things--_Some_ things--_Fifty_ things. Of adjectives, there are perhaps nine or ten thousand. 4. How can we distinguish a PRONOUN? By observing that its noun repeated makes the same sense. Thus, the example of the pronoun above, "The boy loves _his_ book; _he_ has long lessons, and _he_ learns _them_ well,"--very clearly means, "The boy loves _the boy's_ book; _the boy_ has long lessons, and _the boy_ learns _those lessons_ well." Here then, by a disagreeable repetition of two nouns, we have the same sense without any pronoun; but it is obvious that the pronouns form a better mode of expression, because they prevent this awkward repetition. The different pronouns in English are twenty-four; and their variations in declension are thirty-two: so that the number of _words_ of this class, is fifty-six. 5. How can we distinguish a VERB? By observing that it is usually the principal word in the sentence, and that without it there would be no assertion. It is the word which expresses what is affirmed or said of the person or thing mentioned; as, "Jesus _wept_."--"Felix _trembled_."--"The just _shall live_ by faith." It will make sense when inflected with the pronouns; as, I _write_, thou _writ'st_, he _writes_; we _write_, you _write_, they _write_.--I _walk_, thou _walkst_, he _walks_; we _walk_, you _walk_, they _walk_. Of English verbs, some recent grammarians compute the number at eight thousand; others formerly reckoned them to be no more than four thousand three hundred.[131] 6. How can we distinguish a PARTICIPLE? By observing its derivation from the verb, and then placing it after _to be_ or _having_; as, To be _writing_, Having _written_--To be _walking_, Having _walked_--To be _weeping_, Having _wept_--To be _studying_, Having _studied_. Of simple participles, there are twice as many as there are of simple or radical verbs; and the possible compounds are not less numerous than the simples, but they are much less frequently used. 7. How can we distinguish an ADVERB? By observing that it answers to the question, _When? Where? How much?_ or _How_?--or serves to ask it; as, "He spoke fluently." _How_ did he speak? _Fluently_. This word _fluently_ is therefore an adverb: it tells _how_ he spoke. Of adverbs, there are about two thousand six hundred; and four fifths of them end in _ly_. 8. How can we distinguish a CONJUNCTION? By observing what words or terms it joins together, or to what other conjunction it corresponds; as, "_Neither_ wealth _nor_ honor can heal a wounded conscience."--_Dillwyn's Ref._, p. 16. Or, it may be well to learn the whole list at once: _And, as, both, because, even, for, if, that, then, since, seeing, so: Or, nor, either, neither, than, though, although, yet, but, except, whether, lest, unless, save, provided, notwithstanding, whereas._ Of conjunctions, there are these twenty-nine in common use, and a few others now obsolete. 9. How can we distinguish a PREPOSITION? By observing that it will govern the pronoun _them_, and is not a verb or a participle; as, _About_ them--_above_ them--_across_ them--_after_ them--_against_ them--_amidst_ them--_among_ them--_around_ them--_at_ them--_Before_ them--_behind_ them--_below_ them--_beneath_ them--_beside_ them--_between_ them--_beyond_ them--_by_ them--_For_ them--_from_ them--_In_ them--_into_ them, &c. Of the prepositions, there are about sixty now in common use. 10. How can we distinguish an INTERJECTION? By observing that it is an independent word or sound, uttered earnestly, and very often written with the note of exclamation; as _Lo! behold! look! see! hark! hush! hist! mum!_ Of interjections, there are sixty or seventy in common use, some of which are seldom found in books. OBS. 2.--An accurate knowledge of words, and of their changes, is indispensable to a clear discernment of their proper combinations in sentences, according to the usage of the learned. Etymology, therefore, should be taught before syntax; but it should be chiefly taught by a direct analysis of entire sentences, and those so plainly written that the particular effect of every word may be clearly distinguished, and the meaning, whether intrinsic or relative, be discovered with precision. The parts of speech are usually named and defined with reference to the use of words _in sentences_; and, as the same word not unfrequently stands for several different parts of speech, the learner should be early taught to make for himself the proper application of the foregoing distribution, without recurrence to a dictionary, and without aid from his teacher. He who is endeavouring to acquaint himself with the grammar of a language which he can already read and understand, is placed in circumstances very different from those which attend the school-boy who is just beginning to construe some sentences of a foreign tongue. A frequent use of the dictionary may facilitate the progress of the one, while it delays that of the other. English grammar, it is hoped, may be learned directly from this book alone, with better success than can be expected when the attention of the learner is divided among several or many different works. OBS. 3.--Dr. James P. Wilson, in speaking of the classification of words, observes, "The _names_ of the distributive parts should either express, distinctly, the influence, which each class produces on sentences; or some other characteristic trait, by which the respective species of words may be distinguished, without danger of confusion. It is at least probable, that no distribution, sufficiently minute, can ever be made, of the parts of speech, which shall be wholly free from all objection. Hasty innovations, therefore, and crude conjectures, should not be permitted to disturb that course of grammatical instruction, which has been advancing in melioration, by the unremitting labours of thousands, through a series of ages."--_Wilson's Essay on Gram._, p. 66. Again: "The _number_ of the parts of speech may be reduced, or enlarged, at pleasure; and the rules of syntax may be accommodated to such new arrangement. The best grammarians find it difficult, in practice, to distinguish, in some instances, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions; yet their effects are generally distinct. This inconvenience should be submitted to, since a less comprehensive distribution would be very unfavourable to a rational investigation of the meaning of English sentences."--_Ib._, p. 68. Again: "_As_ and _so_ have been also deemed substitutes, and resolved into other words. But if all abbreviations are to be restored to their primitive parts of speech, there will be a general revolution in the present systems of grammar; and the various improvements, which have sprung from convenience, or necessity, and been sanctioned by the usage of ancient times, must be retrenched, and anarchy in letters universally prevail."--_Ib._, p. 114. OBS. 4.--I have elsewhere sufficiently shown why _ten_ parts of speech are to be preferred to any other number, in English; and whatever diversity of opinion there may be, respecting the class to which some particular words ought to be referred, I trust to make it obvious to good sense, that I have seldom erred from the course which is most expedient. 1. _Articles_ are used with appellative nouns, sometimes to denote emphatically the species, but generally to designate individuals. 2. _Nouns_ stand in discourse for persons, things, or abstract qualities. 3. _Adjectives_ commonly express the concrete qualities of persons or things; but sometimes, their situation or number. 4. _Pronouns_ are substitutes for names, or nouns; but they sometimes represent sentences. 5. _Verbs_ assert, ask, or say something; and, for the most part, express action or motion. 6. _Participles_ contain the essential meaning of their verbs, and commonly denote action, and imply time; but, apart from auxiliaries, they express that meaning either adjectively or substantively, and not with assertion. 7. _Adverbs_ express the circumstances of time, of place, of degree, and of manner; the _when_, the _where_, the _how much_, and the _how_. 8. _Conjunctions_ connect, sometimes words, and sometimes sentences, rarely phrases; and always show, either the manner in which one sentence or one phrase depends upon an other, or what connexion there is between two words that refer to a third. 9. _Prepositions_ express the correspondent relations of things to things, of thoughts to thoughts, or of words to words; for these, if we speak truly, must be all the same in expression. 10. _Interjections_ are either natural sounds or exclamatory words, used independently, and serving briefly to indicate the wishes or feelings of the speaker. OBS. 5.--In the following passage, all the parts of speech are exemplified, and each is pointed out by the figure placed over the word:-- 1 2 9 2 5 1 2 3 9 2 1 2 6 "The power of speech is a faculty peculiar to man; a faculty bestowed 9 4 9 4 3 2 9 1 3 8 7 3 on him by his beneficent Creator, for the greatest and most excellent 2 8 10 7 7 5 4 5 4 9 1 3 9 uses; but, alas! how often do we pervert it to the worst of 2 purposes!"--See _Lowth's Gram._, p. 1. In this sentence, which has been adopted by Murray, Churchill, and others, we have the following parts of speech: 1. The words _the, a_, and _an_, are articles. 2. The words _power, speech, faculty, man, faculty, Creator, uses_, and _purposes_, are nouns. 3. The words _peculiar, beneficent, greatest, excellent_, and _worst_, are adjectives. 4. The words _him, his, we_, and _it_, are pronouns. 5. The words _is, do_, and _pervert_, are verbs. 6. The word _bestowed_ is a participle. 7. The words _most, how_, and _often_, are adverbs. 8. The words _and_ and _but_ are conjunctions. 9. The words _of, on, to, by, for, to_, and _of_, are prepositions. 10. The word _alas!_ is an interjection. OBS. 6.--In speaking or writing, we of course bring together the different parts of speech just as they happen to be needed. Though a sentence of ordinary length usually embraces more than one half of them, it is not often that we find them _all_ in so small a compass. Sentences sometimes abound in words of a particular kind, and are quite destitute of those of some other sort. The following examples will illustrate these remarks. (1) ARTICLES: "_A_ square is less beautiful than _a_ circle; and _the_ reason seems to be, that _the_ attention is divided among _the_ sides and angles of _a_ square, whereas _the_ circumference of _a_ circle, being _a_ single object, makes one entire impression."--_Kames, Elements of Criticism_, Vol. i, p. 175. (2.) NOUNS: "A _number_ of _things_ destined for the same _use_, such as _windows, chairs, spoons, buttons_, cannot be too uniform; for, supposing their _figure_ to be good, _utility_ requires _uniformity_."--_Ib._, i, 176. (3.) ADJECTIVES: "Hence nothing _just, proper, decent, beautiful, proportioned_, or _grand_, is _risible_."--_Ib._, i, 229. (4.) PRONOUNS: "_I_ must entreat the courteous reader to suspend _his_ curiosity, and rather to consider _what_ is written than _who they_ are _that_ write it."--_Addison, Spect._, No. 556. (5.) VERBS: "The least consideration _will inform_ us how easy it _is_ to _put_ an ill-natured construction upon a word; and what perverse turns and expressions _spring_ from an evil temper. Nothing _can be explained_ to him who _will_ not _understand_, nor _will_ any thing _appear_ right to the unreasonable."--_Cecil_. (6.) PARTICIPLES: "The Scriptures are an authoritative voice, _reproving, instructing_, and _warning_ the world; and _declaring_ the only means _ordained_ and _provided for escaping_ the awful penalties of sin."--_G. B._ (7.) ADVERBS: "The light of Scripture shines _steadily, purely, benignly, certainly, superlatively_."--_Dr. S. H. Cox._ (8.) CONJUNCTIONS: "Quietness and silence _both_ become _and_ befriend religious exercises. Clamour _and_ violence often hinder, _but_ never further, the work of God."--_Henry's Exposition._ (9.) PREPOSITIONS: "He has kept _among us_, in times of peace, standing armies, _without_ the consent of our legislatures."--_Dec. of Indep._ (10.) INTERJECTIONS: "_Oh_, my dear strong-box! _Oh_, my lost guineas! _Oh_, poor, ruined, beggared old man! _Boo! hoo! hoo!_"--MOLIERE: _Burgh's Art of Speaking_, p. 266. EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. _Parsing_ is the resolving or explaining of a sentence, or of some related word or words, according to the definitions and rules of grammar. Parsing is to grammar what ciphering is to arithmetic. A _Praxis_ is a method of exercise, or a form of grammatical resolution, showing the learner how to proceed. The word is Greek, and literally signifies action, doing, practice, or formal use. PRAXIS I--ETYMOLOGICAL. _In the first Praxis, it is required of the pupil--merely to distinguish and define the different parts of speech. The definitions to be given in the First Praxis, are one, and only one, for each word, or part of speech. Thus_:-- EXAMPLE PARSED. "The patient ox submits to the yoke, and meekly performs the labour required of him." _The_ is an article. 1.[132] An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. _Patient_ is an adjective. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. _Ox_ is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. _Submits_ is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon._ _To_ is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. _The_ is an article. 1. An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. _Yoke_ is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. _And_ is a conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected. _Meekly_ is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. _Performs_ is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon._ _The_ is an article. 1. An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. _Labour_ is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. _Required_ is a participle. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding _ing, d_, or _ed_, to the verb. _Of_ is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. _Him_ is a pronoun. 1. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. LESSON I.--PARSING. "A nimble tongue often trips. The rule of the tongue is a great attainment. The language of truth is direct and plain. Truth is never evasive. Flattery is the food of vanity. A virtuous mind loathes flattery. Vain persons are an easy prey to parasites. Vanity easily mistakes sneers for smiles. The smiles of the world are deceitful. True friendship hath eternal views. A faithful friend is invaluable. Constancy in friendship denotes a generous mind. Adversity is the criterion of friendship. Love and fidelity are inseparable. Few know the value of a friend till they lose him. Justice is the first of all moral virtues. Let justice hold, and mercy turn, the scale. A judge is guilty who connives at guilt. Justice delayed is little better than justice denied. Vice is the deformity of man. Virtue is a source of constant cheerfulness. One vice is more expensive than many virtues. Wisdom, though serious, is never sullen. Youth is the season of improvement."--_Dillwyn's Reflections_, pp. 4-27. "Oh! my ill-chang'd condition! oh, my fate! Did I lose heaven for this?"--_Cowley's Davideis._ LESSON II.--PARSING. "So prone is man to society, and so happy in it, that, to relish perpetual solitude, one must be an angel or a brute. In a solitary state, no creature is more timid than man; in society, none more bold. The number of offenders lessens the disgrace of the crime; for a common reproach is no reproach. A man is more unhappy in reproaching himself when guilty, than in being reproached by others when innocent. The pains of the mind are harder to bear than those of the body. Hope, in this mixed state of good and ill, is a blessing from heaven: the gift of prescience would be a curse. The first step towards vice, is to make a mystery of what is innocent: whoever loves to hide, will soon or late have reason to hide. A man who gives his children a habit of industry, provides for them better than by giving them a stock of money. Our good and evil proceed from ourselves: death appeared terrible to Cicero, indifferent to Socrates, desirable to Cato."--Home's Art of Thinking, pp. 26-53. "O thou most high transcendent gift of age! Youth from its folly thus to disengage."--_Denham's Age_. LESSON III.--PARSING. "Calm was the day, and the scene, delightful. We may expect a calm after a storm. To prevent passion is easier than to calm it."--_Murray's Ex._, p. 5. "Better is a little with content, than a great deal with anxiety. A little attention will rectify some errors. Unthinking persons care little for the future."--See _ib._ "Still waters are commonly deepest. He laboured to still the tumult. Though he is out of danger, he is still afraid."--_Ib._ "Damp air is unwholesome. Guilt often casts a damp over our sprightliest hours. Soft bodies damp the sound much more than hard ones."--_Ib._ "The hail was very destructive. Hail, virtue! source of every good. We hail you as friends."--_Ib._, p. 6. "Much money makes no man happy. Think much, and speak little. He has seen much of the world."--See _ib._ "Every being loves its like. We must make a like space between the lines. Behave like men. We are apt to like pernicious company."--_Ib._ "Give me more love, or more disdain."--_Carew_. "He loved Rachel more than Leah."--_Genesis_. "But how much that more is; he hath no distinct notion."--_Locke_. "And my more having would be as a sauce To make me hunger more."--_Shakspeare_. CHAPTER II.--ARTICLES. An Article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification: as, _The_ air, _the_ stars; _an_ island, _a_ ship. _An_ and _a_, being equivalent in meaning, are commonly reckoned _one and the same_ article. _An_ is used in preference to _a_, whenever the following word begins with a vowel sound; as, _An_ art, _an_ end, _an_ heir, _an_ inch, _an_ ounce, _an_ hour, _an_ urn. _A_ is used in preference to _an_, whenever the following word begins with a consonant sound; as, _A_ man, _a_ house, _a_ wonder, _a_ one, _a_ yew, _a_ use, _a_ ewer. Thus the consonant sounds of _w_ and _y_, even when expressed by other letters, require _a_ and not _an_ before them. A common noun, when taken in its _widest sense_, usually admits no article: as, "A candid temper is proper for _man_; that is, for _all mankind_."--_Murray_. In English, nouns without any article, or other definitive, are often used in a sense _indefinitely partitive_: as, "He took _bread_, and gave thanks."--_Acts_. That is, "_some bread_." "To buy _food_ are thy servants come."--_Genesis_. That is, "_some food_." "There are _fishes_ that have wings, and are not strangers to the airy region."--_Locke's Essay_, p. 322. That is, "_some fishes_." "Words in which nothing but the _mere being_ of any thing is implied, are used without articles: as, 'This is not _beer_, but _water_;' 'This is not _brass_, but _steel_.'"--See _Dr. Johnson's Gram._, p. 5. _An_ or _a_ before the genus, may refer to _a whole species_; and _the_ before the species, may denote that whole species emphatically: as, "_A certain bird_ is termed _the cuckoo_, from _the sound_ which it emits."--_Blair_. But _an_ or _a_ is commonly used to denote individuals as _unknown_, or as not specially distinguished from others: as, "I see _an object_ pass by, which I never saw till now; and I say, 'There goes _a beggar_ with _a long beard_.'"--_Harris_. And _the_ is commonly used to denote individuals as _known_, or as specially distinguished from others: as, "_The man_ departs, and returns a week after; and I say, 'There goes _the beggar_ with _the long beard_.'"--_Id._ The article _the_ is applied to nouns of cither number: as, "_The_ man, _the_ men;" "_The_ good boy, _the_ good boys." _The_ is commonly required before adjectives that are used by ellipsis as nouns: as, "_The young_ are slaves to novelty; _the old_, to custom."--_Ld. Kames._ The article _an_ or _a_ implies _unity_, or _one_, and of course belongs to nouns of the singular number only; as, _A_ man,--_An_ old man,--_A_ good boy. _An_ or _a_, like _one_, sometimes gives a collective meaning to an adjective of number, when the noun following is plural; as, _A few days,--A hundred men,--One hundred pounds sterling_. Articles should be _inserted_ as often as the sense requires them; as, "Repeat the preterit and [_the_] perfect participle of the verb _to abide_."--Error in _Merchant's American School Grammar_, p. 66. _Needless articles_ should be omitted; they seldom fail to pervert the sense: as, "_The_ Rhine, _the_ Danube, _the_ Tanais, _the_ Po, _the_ Wolga, _the_ Ganges, like many hundreds of similar _names_, rose not from any obscure jargon or irrational dialect."--Error in _Dr. Murray's Hist. of Europ. Lang._, Vol. i, p. 327. The articles can seldom be put _one for the other_, without gross impropriety; and of course either is to be preferred to the other, as it better suits the sense: as, "_The_ violation of this rule never fails to hurt and displease _a_ reader."--Error in _Blair's Lectures_, p. 107. Say, "_A_ violation of this rule never fails to displease _the_ reader." CLASSES. The articles are distinguished as the _definite_ and the _indefinite_. I. The _definite article_ is _the_, which denotes some particular thing or things; as, _The_ boy, _the_ oranges. II. The _indefinite article_ is _an_ or _a_, which denotes one thing of a kind, but not any particular one; as, _A_ boy, _an_ orange. MODIFICATIONS.[133] The English articles have no modifications, except that _an_ is shortened into _a_ before the sound of a consonant; as, "In _an_ epic poem, or _a_ poem upon _an_ elevated subject, _a_ writer ought to avoid raising _a_ simile on _a_ low image."--_Ld. Kames._ OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--No other words are so often employed as the articles. And, by reason of the various and very frequent occasions on which these definitives are required, no words are oftener misapplied; none, oftener omitted or inserted erroneously. I shall therefore copiously illustrate both their _uses_ and their _abuses_; with the hope that every reader of this volume will think it worth his while to gain that knowledge which is requisite to the true use of these small but important words. Some parts of the explanation, however, must be deferred till we come to Syntax. OBS. 2.--With the attempts of Tooke, Dalton, Webster, Cardell, Fowle, Wells,[134] Weld, Butler Frazee, Perley, Mulligan, Pinneo, S. S. Greene, and other writers, to _degrade_ the article from its ancient rank among the parts of speech, no judicious reader, duly acquainted with the subject, can, I think, be well pleased. An article is not properly an "_adjective_," as they would have it to be; but it is a word of a peculiar sort--a _customary index_ to the sense of nouns. It serves not merely to show the extent of signification, in which nouns are to be taken, but is often the principal, and sometimes the only mark, by which a word is known to have the sense and construction of a noun. There is just as much reason to deny and degrade the Greek or French article, (or that of any other language,) as the English; and, if those who are so zealous to reform our _the, an_, and _a_ into _adjectives_, cared at all to appear consistent in the view of Comparative or General Grammar, they would either set about a wider reformation or back out soon from the pettiness of this. OBS. 3.--First let it be understood, that _an_ or _a_ is nearly equivalent in meaning to the numeral adjective _one_, but less emphatic; and that _the_ is nearly equivalent in meaning to the pronominal adjective _that_ or _those_, but less emphatic. On _some_ occasions, these adjectives may well be substituted for the articles; but _not generally_. If the articles were generally equivalent to adjectives, or even if they were generally _like_ them, they would _be_ adjectives; but, that adjectives may occasionally supply their places, is no argument at all for confounding the two parts of speech. Distinctions must be made, where differences exist; and, that _a, an_, and _the_, do differ considerably from the other words which they most resemble, is shown even by some who judge "the distinctive name of _article_ to be useless." See _Crombie's Treatise_, Chap. 2. The articles therefore must be distinguished, not only from adjectives, but from each other. For, though both are _articles_, each is an index _sui generis_; the one definite, the other indefinite. And as the words _that_ and _one_ cannot often be interchanged without a difference of meaning, so the definite article and the indefinite are seldom, if ever, interchangeable. To put one for the other, is therefore, in general, to put one _meaning_ for an other: "_A_ daughter of _a_ poor man"--"_The_ daughter of _the_ poor man"--"_A_ daughter of _the_ poor man"--and, "_The_ daughter of _a_ poor man," are four phrases which certainly have four different and distinct significations. This difference between the two articles may be further illustrated by the following example: "That Jesus was _a_ prophet sent from God, is one proposition; that Jesus was _the_ prophet, _the_ Messiah, is an other; and, though he certainly was both _a_ prophet and _the_ prophet, yet _the_ foundations of _the_ proof of these propositions are separate and distinct."--_Watson's Apology_, p. 105. OBS. 4.--Common nouns are, for the most part, names of large classes of objects; and, though what really constitutes the species must always be found entire in every individual, the several objects thus arranged under one general name or idea, are in most instances susceptible of such a numerical distribution as gives rise to an other form of the noun, expressive of plurality; as, _horse, horses_. Proper nouns in their ordinary application, are, for the most part, names of particular individuals; and as there is no plurality to a particular idea, or to an individual person or thing as distinguished from all others, so there is in general none to this class of nouns; and no room for _further restriction by articles_. But we sometimes divert such nouns from their usual signification, and consequently employ them with articles or in the plural form; as, "I endeavoured to retain it nakedly in my mind, without regarding whether I had it from _an Aristotle_ or _a Zoilus, a Newton_ or _a Descartes_."--_Churchill's Gram._, Pref., p. 8. "It is not enough to have _Vitruviuses_, we must also have _Augustuses_ to employ them."--_Bicknell's Gram._, Part ii, p. 61. "_A Daniel_ come to judgment! yea, _a Daniel_!" --SHAK. _Shylock_. "Great Homer, in _th' Achilles_, whom he drew, Sets not that one sole Person in our View." --_Brightland's Gram._, p. 183. OBS. 5.--The article _an_ or _a_ usually denotes one out of several or many; one of a sort of which there are more; any one of that name, no matter which. Hence its effect upon a particular name, or proper noun, is _directly the reverse_ of that which it has upon a common noun. It varies and fixes the meaning of both; but while it restricts that of the latter, it enlarges that of the former. It reduces the general idea of the common noun to any one individual of the class: as, "_A man_;" that is, "_One man_, or _any man_." On the contrary, it extends the particular idea of the proper noun, and makes the word significant of a class, by supposing others to whom it will apply: as, "_A Nero_;" that is, "_Any Nero_, or _any cruel tyrant_." Sometimes, however, this article before a proper name, seems to leave the idea still particular; but, if it really does so, the propriety of using it may be doubted: as, "No, not by _a John the Baptist_ risen from the dead."--_Henry's Expos., Mark_, vi. "It was not solely owing to the madness and depravity of _a Tiberius, a Caligula, a Nero_, or _a Caracalla_, that a cruel and sanguinary spirit, in their day, was so universal."--_M'Ilvaine's Evid._, p. 398. OBS. 6.--With the definite article, the noun is applied, sometimes specifically, sometimes individually, but always _definitely_, always distinctively. This article is demonstrative. It marks either the particular individual, or the particular species,--or, (if the noun be plural,) some particular individuals of the species,--as being distinguished from all others. It sometimes refers to a thing as having been previously mentioned; sometimes presumes upon the hearer's familiarity with the thing; and sometimes indicates a limitation which is made by subsequent words connected with the noun. Such is the import of this article, that with it the singular number of the noun is often more comprehensive, and at the same time more specific, than the plural. Thus, if I say, "_The horse_ is a noble animal," without otherwise intimating that I speak of some particular horse, the sentence will be understood to embrace collectively _that species_ of animal; and I shall be thought to mean, "Horses are noble animals." But if I say, "_The horses_ are noble animals," I use an expression so much more limited, as to include only a few; it must mean some particular horses, which I distinguish from all the rest of the species. Such limitations should be made, whenever there is occasion for them; but needless restrictions displease the imagination, and ought to be avoided; because the mind naturally delights in terms as comprehensive as they may be, if also specific. Lindley Murray, though not uniform in his practice respecting this, seems to have thought it necessary to use the plural in many sentences in which I should decidedly prefer the singular; as, "That _the learners_ may have no doubts."--_Murray's Octavo Gram._, Vol. i, p. 81. "The business will not be tedious to _the scholars_."--_Ib._, 81. "For the information of _the learners_."--_Ib._, 81. "It may afford instruction to _the learners_."--_Ib._, 110. "That this is the case, _the learners_ will perceive by the following examples."--_Ib._, 326. "Some knowledge of it appears to be indispensable to _the scholars_."--_Ib._, 335. OBS. 7.--Proper names of a plural form and signification, are almost always preceded by the definite article; as, "_The Wesleys_,"--"_The twelve Cæsars_,"--"_All the Howards_." So the names of particular nations, tribes, and sects; as, _The Romans, the Jews, the Levites, the Stoics_. Likewise the plural names of mountains; as, _The Alps, the Apennines, the Pyrenees, the Andes_. Of plural names like these, and especially of such as designate tribes and sects, there is a very great number. Like other proper names, they must be distinguished from the ordinary words of the language, and accordingly they are always written with capitals; but they partake so largely of the nature of common nouns, that it seems doubtful to which class they most properly belong. Hence they not only admit, but require the article; while most other proper names are so definite in themselves, that the article, if put before them, would be needless, and therefore improper. "_Nash, Rutledge, Jefferson_, in council great, And _Jay_, and _Laurens_ oped the rolls of fate; _The Livingstons_, fair freedoms generous band, _The Lees, the Houstons_, fathers of the land."--_Barlow_. OBS. 8.--In prose, the definite article is always used before names of rivers, unless the word _river_, be added; as, _The Delaware, the Hudson, the Connecticut_. But if the word _river_ be added, the article becomes needless; as, _Delaware river, Hudson river, Connecticut river_. Yet there seems to be no impropriety in using both; as, _The Delaware river, the Hudson river, the Connecticut river_. And if the common noun be placed before the proper name, the article is again necessary; as, _The river Delaware, the river Hudson, the river Connecticut_. In the first form of expression, however, the article has not usually been resolved by grammarians as relating to the proper name; but these examples, and others of a similar character, have been supposed elliptical: as, "_The_ [river] _Potomac_"--"_The_ [ship] _Constitution_,"--"_The_ [steamboat] _Fulton_." Upon this supposition, the words in the first and fourth forms are to be parsed alike; the article relating to the common noun, expressed or understood, and the proper noun being in apposition with the appellative. But in the second form, the apposition is reversed; and, in the third, the proper name appears to be taken adjectively. Without the article, some names of rivers could not be understood; as, "No more _the Varus_ and _the Atax_ feel The lordly burden of the Latian keel."--_Rowe's Lucan_, B. i. l. 722. OBS. 9.--The definite article is often used by way of eminence, to distinguish some particular individual emphatically, or to apply to him some characteristic name or quality: as, "_The Stagirite_,"--that is, Aristotle; "_The Psalmist_," that is, David; "_Alexander the Great_,"--that is, (perhaps,) Alexander the Great _Monarch_, or Great _Hero_. So, sometimes, when the phrase relates to a collective body of men: as, "_The Honourable, the Legislature_,"--"_The Honourable, the Senate_;"--that is, "The Honourable _Body_, the Legislature," &c. A similar application of the article in the following sentences, makes a most beautiful and expressive form of compliment: "These are the sacred feelings of thy heart, O Lyttleton, _the friend_."--_Thomson_. "The pride of swains Palemon was, _the generous_ and _the rich_."--_Id._ In this last example, the noun _man_ is understood after "_generous_," and again after "_rich_;" for, the article being an index to the noun, I conceive it to be improper ever to construe two articles as having reference to one unrepeated word. Dr. Priestley says, "We sometimes _repeat the article_, when the epithet precedes the substantive; as He was met by _the_ worshipful _the_ magistrates."--_Gram._, p. 148. It is true, we occasionally meet with such fulsome phraseology as this; but the question is, how is it to be explained? I imagine that the word _personages_, or something equivalent, must be understood after _worshipful_, and that the Doctor ought to have inserted a comma there. OBS. 10.--In Greek, there is no article corresponding to our _an_ or _a_, consequently _man_ and _a man_ are rendered alike; the word, [Greek: anthropos] may mean either. See, in the original, these texts: "There was _a man_ sent from God," (_John_, i, 6,) and, "What is _man_, that thou art mindful of him?"--_Heb._, ii, 6. So of other nouns. But the _definite_ article of that language, which is exactly equivalent to our _the_, is a declinable word, making no small figure in grammar. It is varied by numbers, genders, and cases; so that it assumes more than twenty different forms, and becomes susceptible of six and thirty different ways of _agreement_. But this article in English is perfectly simple, being entirely destitute of grammatical modifications, and consequently incapable of any form of grammatical agreement or disagreement--a circumstance of which many of our grammarians seem to be ignorant; since they prescribe a rule, wherein they say, it "_agrees_," "_may agree_," or "_must agree_," with its noun. Nor has the indefinite article any variation of form, except the change from _an_ to _a_, which has been made for the sake of brevity or euphony. OBS. 11.--As _an_ or _a_ conveys the idea of unity, of course it applies to no other than nouns of the singular number. _An eagle_ is one eagle, and the plural word _eagles_ denotes more than one; but what could possibly be meant by "_ans eagles_," if such a phrase were invented? Harris very strangely says, "The Greeks have no article correspondent to _an_ or _a_, but _supply its place by a NEGATION of their article_. And even in English, _where_ the article _a_ cannot be used, as _in_ plurals, _its force is exprest by the same_ NEGATION."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 218. What a sample of grammar is this! Besides several minor faults, we have here a _nonentity_, a NEGATION _of the Greek article_, made to occupy a place in language, and to express _force!_ The force of what? Of a plural _an_ or _a,!_ of such a word as _ans_ or _aes!_ The error of the first of these sentences, Dr. Blair has copied entire into his eighth lecture. OBS. 12.--The following rules of agreement, though found in many English grammars, are not only objectionable with respect to the sense intended, but so badly written as to be scarcely intelligible in any sense: 1. "The article _a_ or _an agrees_ with nouns _in_ the singular number _only, individually, or collectively_: as, A Christian, an infidel, a score, a thousand." 2. "The definite article _the_ may _agree_ with nouns _in the singular_ AND[135] _plural number_: as, The garden, the houses, the stars."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 170; 12mo, 139; _Fish's Murray_, 98; _a Teacher's_, 45. For the purpose of preventing any erroneous construction of the articles, these rules are utterly useless; and for the purpose of syntactical parsing, or the grammatical resolution of this part of speech, they are awkward and inconvenient. The syntax of the articles may be much better expressed in this manner: "_Articles relate to the nouns which they limit_," for, in English, the bearing of the articles upon other words is properly that of simple _relation_, or dependence, according to the sense, and not that of _agreement_, not a similarity of distinctive modifications. OBS. 13.--Among all the works of earlier grammarians, I have never yet found a book which taught correctly the _application_ of the two forms of the indefinite article _an_ or _a_. Murray, contrary to Johnson and Webster, considers _a_ to be the original word, and _an_ the euphonic derivative. He says: "_A_ becomes _an_ before a vowel, and before a silent _h_. But if _the h be_ sounded, _the a only_ is to be used."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 31. To this he adds, in a marginal note, "_A instead of an_ is _now_ used before words beginning with _u_ long. It is used before _one. An_ must be used before _words_ WHERE _the h_ is not silent, if the accent is on the second syllable; as, _an heroic action, an historical account_."--_Ib._ This explanation, clumsy as it is, in the whole conception; broken, prolix, deficient, and inaccurate as it is, both in style and doctrine; has been copied and copied from grammar to grammar, as if no one could possibly better it. Besides several other faults, it contains a palpable misuse of the article itself: "_the h_" which is specified in the second and fifth sentences, is the "_silent h_" of the first sentence; and this inaccurate specification gives us the two obvious solecisms of supposing, "_if the [silent] h be sounded_," and of _locating "words WHERE the [silent] h is not silent!_" In the word _humour_, and its derivatives, the _h_ is silent, by all authority except Webster's; and yet these words require _a_ and not _an_ before them. OBS. 14.--It is the _sound_ only, that governs the form of the article, and not the _letter_ itself; as, "Those which admit of the regular form, are marked with _an_ R."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 101. "_A_ heroic poem, written by Virgil."--_Webster's Dict._ "Every poem of the kind has no doubt _a_ historical groundwork."--_Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 457. "A poet must be _a_ naturalist and _a_ historian."--_Coleridge's Introduction_, p. 111. Before _h_ in an unaccented syllable, either form of the article may be used without offence to the ear; and either may be made to appear preferable to the other, by merely aspirating the letter in a greater or less degree. But as the _h_, though ever so feebly aspirated has _something_ of a consonant sound, I incline to think the article in this case ought to conform to the general principle: as, "_A historical_ introduction has, generally, _a happy_ effect to rouse attention."-- _Blair's Rhet._, p. 311. "He who would write heroic poems, should make his whole life _a heroic_ poem."--See _Life of Schiller_, p. 56. Within two lines of this quotation, the biographer speaks of "_an_ heroic multitude!" The suppression of the sound of _h_ being with Englishmen a very common fault in pronunciation, it is not desirable to increase the error, by using a form of the article which naturally leads to it. "How often do we hear _an air_ metamorphosed into _a hair_, a _hat_ into a _gnat_, and a _hero_ into _a Nero!_"--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 205. Thus: "Neither of them had that bold and adventurous ambition which makes a conqueror _an hero._"--_Bolingbroke, on History_, p. 174. OBS. 15.--Some later grammarians are still more faulty than Murray, in their rules for the application of _an_ or _a_. Thus Sanborn: "The vowels are _a, e, i, o_, and _u_. _An_ should be used before words beginning with _any of these letters_, or with a silent _h._"--_Analytical Gram._, p. 11. "_An_ is used before words beginning with _u_ long or with _h not silent_, when the accent is on the second syllable; as, _an united_ people, _an historical_ account, _an heroic_ action."--_Ib._, p. 85. "_A_ is used when the next word begins with a _consonant; an_, when it begins with a _vowel_ or silent _h_."--_lb._, p. 129. If these rules were believed and followed, they would greatly multiply errors. OBS. 16.--Whether the word _a_ has been formed from _an_, or _an_ from _a_, is a disputed point--or rather, a point on which our grammarians dogmatize differently. This, if it be worth the search, must be settled by consulting some genuine writings of the twelfth century. In the pure Saxon of an earlier date, the words _seldom occur_; and in that ancient dialect _an_, I believe, is used only as a declinable numerical adjective, and _a_ only as a preposition. In the thirteenth century, both forms were in common use, in the sense now given them, as may be seen in the writings of Robert of Gloucester; though some writers of a much later date--or, at any rate, _one_, the celebrated Gawin Douglas, a Scottish bishop, who died of the plague in London, in 1522--constantly wrote _ane_ for both _an_ and _a_: as, "Be not ouer studyous to spy _ane_ mote in myn E, That in gour awin _ane_ ferrye bot can not se." --_Tooke's Diversions_, Vol. i, p. 124. "_Ane_ uthir mache to him was socht and sperit; Bot thare was _nane_ of all the rout that sterit." --_Ib._, Vol. i, p. 160. OBS. 17.--This, however, was a _Scotticism_; as is also the use of _ae_ for _a_: Gower and Chaucer used _an_ and _a_ as we now use them. The Rev. J. M. M'Culloch, in an English grammar published lately in Edinburgh, says, "_A_ and _an_ were originally _ae_ and _ane_, and were probably used at first simply to convey the idea of unity; as, _ae_ man, _ane_ ox."--_Manual of E. Gram._, p. 30. For this idea, and indeed for a great part of his book, he is indebted to Dr. Crombie; who says, "To signify unity, or one of a class, our forefathers employed _ae_ or _ane_; as, _ae_ man, _ane_ ox."--_Treatise on Etym. and Synt._, p. 53. These authors, like Webster, will have _a_ and _an_ to be _adjectives_. Dr. Johnson says, "_A_, an _article_ set before nouns of the singular number; as, _a_ man, _a_ tree. This article has no plural signification. Before a word beginning with a vowel, it is written _an_; as, _an_ ox, _an_ egg; of which _a_ is the contraction."--_Quarto Dict., w. A_. OBS. 18.--Dr. Webster says, "_A_ is also an abbreviation of the Saxon _an_ or _ane, one_, used before words beginning with an articulation; as, _a_ table, _instead_ of _an_ table, or one table. _This is a modern change_; for, in Saxon, _an_ was used before articulations as well as vowels; as, _an tid, a_ time, _an gear_, a year."--_Webster's Octavo Dict., w. A_. A modern change, indeed! By his own showing in other works, it was made long before the English language existed! He says, "_An_, therefore, is the original English adjective or ordinal number _one_; and was never written _a_ until after the Conquest."--_Webster's Philos. Gram._, p. 20; _Improved Gram._, 14. "_The Conquest_," means the Norman Conquest, in 1066; but English was not written till the thirteenth century. This author has long been idly contending, that _an_ or _a_ is not an _article_, but an _adjective_; and that it is not properly distinguished by the term "_indefinite_." Murray has answered him well enough, but he will not be convinced.[136] See _Murray's Gram._, pp. 34 and 35. If _a_ and _one_ were equal, we could not say, "_Such a one_,"--"_What a one_,"--"_Many a one_,"--"_This one thing_;" and surely these are all good English, though _a_ and _one_ here admit no interchange. Nay, _a_ is sometimes found before _one_ when the latter is used adjectively; as, "There is no record in Holy Writ of the institution of _a one_ all-controlling monarchy."--_Supremacy of the Pope Disproved_, p. 9. "If not to _a one_ Sole Arbiter."--_Ib._, p. 19. OBS. 19.--_An_ is sometimes a _conjunction_, signifying _if_; as, "Nay, _an_ thou'lt mouthe, I'll rant as well as thou."--_Shak._ "_An_ I have not ballads made on you all, and sung to fifty tunes, may a cup of sack be my poison."--_Id., Falstaff_. "But, _an_ it were to do again, I should write again."--_Lord Byron's Letters_. "But _an_ it be a long part, I can't remember it."--SHAKSPEARE: _Burgh's Speaker_, p. 136. OBS. 20.--In the New Testament, we meet with several such expressions as the following: "And his disciples were _an hungred_."--SCOTT'S BIBLE: _Matt_, xii, 1. "When he was _an hungred._"--_Ib._ xii, 3. "When he had need and was _an hungered._"--_Ib. Mark_, ii, 25. Alger, the improver of Murray's Grammar, and editor of the Pronouncing Bible, taking this _an_ to be the indefinite article, and perceiving that the _h_ is sounded in _hungered_, changed the particle to _a_ in all these passages; as, "And his disciples were _a hungered_." But what sense he thought he had made of the sacred record, I know not. The Greek text, rendered word for word, is simply this: "_And his disciples hungered_." And that the sentences above, taken either way, are _not good English_, must be obvious to every intelligent reader. _An_, as I apprehend, is here a mere _prefix_, which has somehow been mistaken in form, and erroneously disjoined from the following word. If so, the correction ought to be made after the fashion of the following passage from Bishop M'Ilvaine: "On a certain occasion, our Saviour was followed by five thousand men, into a desert place, where they were _enhungered_."--_Lectures on Christianity_, p. 210. OBS. 21.--The word _a_, when it does not denote one thing of a kind, is not an article, but a genuine _preposition_; being probably the same as the French à, signifying _to, at, on, in_, or _of_: as, "Who hath it? He that died _a_ Wednesday."--_Shak_. That is, _on_ Wednesday. So sometimes before plurals; as, "He carves _a_ Sundays."--_Swift_. That is, _on_ Sundays. "He is let out _a_ nights."--_Id._ That is, _on_ nights--like the following example: "A pack of rascals that walk the streets _on_ nights."--_Id._ "He will knap the spears _a_ pieces with his teeth."--_More's Antid._ That is, _in_ pieces, or _to_ pieces. So in the compound word _now-a-days_, where it means _on_; and in the proper names, Thomas _à_ Becket, Thomas _à_ Kempis, Anthony _à_ Wood, where it means _at_ or _of_. "Bot certainly the daisit blude _now on dayis_ Waxis dolf and dull throw myne unwieldy age."--_Douglas._ OBS. 22.--As a preposition, _a_ has now most generally become a _prefix_, or what the grammarians call an inseparable preposition; as in _abed_, in bed; _aboard_, on board; _abroad_, at large; _afire_, on fire; _afore_, in front; _afoul_, in contact; _aloft_, on high; _aloud_, with loudness; _amain_, at main strength; _amidst_, in the midst; _akin_, of kin; _ajar_, unfastened; _ahead_, onward; _afield_, to the field; _alee_, to the leeward; _anew_, of new, with renewal. "_A-nights_, he was in the practice of sleeping, &c.; but _a-days_ he kept looking on the barren ocean, shedding tears."--_Dr. Murray's Hist. of Europ. Lang._, Vol. ii, p. 162. Compounds of this kind, in most instances, follow verbs, and are consequently reckoned adverbs; as, _To go astray,--To turn aside,--To soar aloft,--To fall asleep_. But sometimes the antecedent term is a noun or a pronoun, and then they are as clearly adjectives; as, "Imagination is like to work better upon sleeping men, than _men awake_."--_Lord Bacon._ "_Man alive_, did you ever make a _hornet afraid_, or catch a _weasel asleep?_" And sometimes the compound governs a noun or a pronoun after it, and then it is a preposition; as, "A bridge is laid _across_ a river."--_Webster's Dict._, "To break his bridge _athwart_ the Hellespont."--_Bacon's Essays._ "Where Ufens glides _along_ the lowly lands, Or the black water of Pomptina stands."--_Dryden._ OBS. 23.--In several phrases, not yet to be accounted obsolete, this old preposition _à_ still retains its place as a separate word; and none have been more perplexing to superficial grammarians, than those which are formed by using it before participles in _ing_; in which instances, the participles are in fact governed by it: for nothing is more common in our language, than for participles of this form to be governed by prepositions. For example, "You have set the cask _a_ leaking," and, "You have set the cask _to_ leaking," are exactly equivalent, both in meaning and construction. "Forty and six years was this temple _in_ building."--_John, ii, 20._ _Building_ is not here a noun, but a participle; and _in_ is here better than _a_, only because the phrase, _a building_, might be taken for an article and a noun, meaning _an edifice_.[137] Yet, in almost all cases, other prepositions are, I think, to be preferred to _à_, if others equivalent to it can be found. Examples: "Lastly, they go about to apologize for the long time their book hath been _a coming_ out:" i.e., _in_ coming out.--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. iii, p. 179. "And, for want of reason, he falls _a railing_::" i.e., _to_ railing.--_Ib._, iii, 357. "That the soul should be this moment busy _a thinking_:" i.e., _at_ or _in_ thinking.--_Locke's Essay_, p. 78. "Which, once set _a going_, continue in the same steps:" i.e., _to_ going.--_Ib._, p. 284. "Those who contend for four per cent, have set men's mouths _a watering_ for money:" i.e., _to_ watering.--LOCKE: _in Johnson's Dict._ "An other falls _a ringing_ a Pescennius Niger:" i.e., _to_ ringing.--ADDISON: _ib._ "At least to set others _a thinking_ upon the subject:" i.e., _to_ thinking.--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 300. "Every one that could reach it, cut off a piece, and fell _a eating_:" i.e., _to_ eating.--_Newspaper._ "To go _a mothering_,[138] is to visit parents on Midlent Sunday."--_Webster's Dict., w. Mothering._ "Which we may find when we come _a fishing_ here."--_Wotton._ "They go _a begging_ to a bankrupt's door."--_Dryden._ "_A hunting_ Chloë went."--_Prior._ "They burst out _a laughing_."--_M. Edgeworth._ In the last six sentences, _a_ seems more suitable than any other preposition would be: all it needs, is an accent to distinguish it from the article; as, _à_. OBS. 24.--Dr. Alexander Murray says, "To be _a_-seeking, is the relic of the Saxon to be _on_ or _an_ seeking. What are you a-seeking? is _different_ from, What are you seeking? It means more fully _the going on_ with the process."--_Hist. Europ. Lang_,, Vol. ii, p. 149. I disapprove of the hyphen in such terms as "_à_ seeking," because it converts the preposition and participle into I know not what; and it may be observed, in passing, that the want of it, in such as "_the going on_," leaves us a loose and questionable word, which, by the conversion of the participle into a noun, becomes a nondescript in grammar. I dissent also from Dr. Murray, concerning the use of the preposition or prefix _a_, in examples like that which he has here chosen. After a _neuter verb_, this particle is unnecessary to the sense, and, I think, injurious to the construction. Except in poetry, which is measured by syllables, it may be omitted without any substitute; as, "I am _a walking_."--_Johnson's Dict., w. A_. "He had one only daughter, and she lay _a_ dying."--_Luke_, viii, 42. "In the days of Noah, while the ark was _a_ preparing."--_1 Pet._, iii, 20. "Though his unattentive thoughts be elsewhere _a_ wandering."--_Locke's Essay_, p. 284. Say--"be wandering elsewhere;" and omit the _a_, in all such cases. "And--when he thinks, good easy man, full surely His greatness is _a_ ripening--nips his root."--_Shak_. OBS. 25.--"_A_ has a peculiar signification, denoting the proportion of one thing to an other. Thus we say, The landlord hath a hundred _a_ year; the ship's crew gained a thousand pounds _a_ man."--_Johnson's Dict._ "After the rate of twenty leagues _a_ day."--_Addison_. "And corn was at two sesterces _a_ bushel."--_Duncan's Cicero_, p. 82. Whether _a_ in this construction is the article or the preposition, seems to be questionable. Merchants are very much in the habit of supplying its place by the Latin preposition _per_, by; as, "Board, at $2 _per_ week."--_Preston's Book-Keeping_, p. 44. "Long lawn, at $12 _per_ piece."--_Dilworth's_, p. 63. "Cotton, at 2s. 6d. _per_ pound."--_Morrison's_, p. 75. "Exchange, at 12d. _per_ livre."--_Jackson's_, p. 73. It is to be observed that _an_, as well as _a_, is used in this manner; as, "The price is one dollar _an_ ounce." Hence, I think, we may infer, that this is not the old preposition _a_, but the article _an_ or _a_, used in the distributive sense of _each_ or _every_, and that the noun is governed by a preposition understood; as, "He demands a dollar _an_ hour;" i. e., a dollar _for each_ hour.--"He comes twice _a_ year:" i. e., twice _in every_ year.--"He sent them to Lebanon, ten thousand _a_ month by courses:" (_1 Kings_, v, 14:) i. e., ten thousand, _monthly_; or, as our merchants say, "_per month_." Some grammarians have also remarked, that, "In mercantile accounts, we frequently see _a_ put for _to_, in a very odd sort of way; as, 'Six bales marked 1 _a_ 6.' The merchant means, 'marked _from_ 1 to 6.' This is taken to be a relic of the Norman French, which was once the law and mercantile language of England; for, in French, _a_, with an accent, signifies _to_ or _at_."--_Emmons's Gram._, p. 73. Modern merchants, in stead of accenting the _a_, commonly turn the end of it back; as, @. OBS. 26.--Sometimes a numeral word with the indefinite article--as _a few, a great many, a dozen, a hundred, a thousand_--denotes an aggregate of several or many taken collectively, and yet is followed by a plural noun, denoting the sort or species of which this particular aggregate is a part: as, "A few small fishes,"--"A great many mistakes,"--"A dozen bottles of wine,"--"A hundred lighted candles,"--"A thousand miles off." Respecting the proper manner of explaining these phrases, grammarians differ in opinion. That the article relates not to the plural noun, but to the numerical word only, is very evident; but whether, in these instances, the words _few, many, dozen, hundred_, and _thousand_, are to be called nouns or adjectives, is matter of dispute. Lowth, Murray, and many others, call them _adjectives_, and suppose a peculiarity of construction in the article;--like that of the singular adjectives _every_ and _one_ in the phrases, "_Every_ ten days,"--"_One_ seven times more."--_Dan._, iii, 19. Churchill and others call them _nouns_, and suppose the plurals which follow, to be always in the objective case governed by _of_, understood: as, "A few [of] years,"--"A thousand [of] doors;"--like the phrases, "A _couple of_ fowls,"--"A _score of_ fat bullocks."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 279. Neither solution is free from difficulty. For example: "There are a great many adjectives."--_Dr. Adam_. Now, if _many_ is here a singular nominative, and the only subject of the verb, what shall we do with _are_? and if it is a plural adjective, what shall we do with _a_ and _great?_ Taken in either of these ways, the construction is anomalous. One can hardly think the word "_adjectives_" to be here in the objective case, because the supposed ellipsis of the word _of_ cannot be proved; and if _many_ is a noun, the two words are perhaps in apposition, in the nominative. If I say, "_A thousand men_ are on their way," the men _are the thousand_, and the thousand _is nothing but the men_; so that I see not why the relation of the terms may not be that of _apposition_. But if _authorities_ are to decide the question, doubtless we must yield it to those who suppose the whole numeral phrase to be taken _adjectively_; as, "Most young Christians have, in the course of _half a dozen_ years, time to read _a great many_ pages."--_Young Christian_, p. 6. "For harbour at _a thousand doors_ they knock'd; Not one of all _the thousand_ but was lock'd."--_Dryden_. OBS. 27.--The numeral words considered above, seem to have been originally adjectives, and such may be their most proper construction now; but all of them are susceptible of being construed as nouns, even if they are not such in the examples which have been cited. _Dozen_, or _hundred_, or _thousand_, when taken abstractly, is unquestionably a noun; for we often speak of _dozens, hundreds_, and _thousands_. _Few_ and _many_ never assume the plural form, because they have naturally a plural signification; and _a few_ or _a great many_ is not a collection so definite that we can well conceive of _fews_ and _manies_; but both are sometimes construed substantively, though in modern English[139] it seems to be mostly by ellipsis of the noun. Example: "The praise of _the judicious few_ is an ample compensation for the neglect of _the illiterate many_."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 278. Dr. Johnson says, the word _many_ is remarkable in Saxon for its frequent use. The following are some of the examples in which he calls it a substantive, or noun: "After him the rascal _many_ ran."--_Spenser_. "O thou fond _many_."--_Shakspeare_. "A care-craz'd mother of a _many_ children."--_Id._ "And for thy sake have I shed _many_ a tear."--_Id._ "The vulgar and the _many_ are fit only to be led or driven."--_South_. "He is liable to a great _many_ inconveniences every moment of his life."--_Tillotson_. "Seeing a great _many_ in rich gowns, he was amazed."--_Addison_. "There parting from the king, the chiefs divide, And wheeling east and west, before their _many_ ride."--_Dryden_. OBS. 28.--"On the principle here laid down, we may account for a peculiar use of the article with the adjective _few_, and some other diminutives. In saying, 'A _few_ of his adherents remained with him;' we insinuate, that they constituted a number sufficiently important to be formed into an aggregate: while, if the article be omitted, as, '_Few_ of his adherents remained with him;' this implies, that he was nearly deserted, by representing them as individuals not worth reckoning up. A similar difference occurs between the phrases: 'He exhibited _a little_ regard for his character;' and 'He exhibited _little_ regard for his character.'"--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 279. The word _little_, in its most proper construction, is an adjective, signifying _small_; as, "He was _little_ of stature."--_Luke_. "Is it not a _little_ one?"--_Genesis_. And in sentences like the following, it is also reckoned an adjective, though the article seems to relate to it, rather than to the subsequent noun; or perhaps it may be taken as relating to them both: "Yet _a little_ sleep, _a little_ slumber, _a little_ folding of the hands to sleep."--_Prov._, vi, 10; xxiv, 33. But by a common ellipsis, it is used as a noun, both with and without the article; as, "_A little_ that a righteous man hath, is better than the riches of many wicked."--_Psalms_, xxxvii, 16. "Better is _little_ with the fear of the Lord, than great treasure and trouble therewith."--_Prov._, xv, 16. "He that despiseth little things, shall perish by _little_ and _little_."--_Ecclesiasticus_. It is also used adverbially, both alone and with the article _a_; as, "The poor sleep _little_."--_Otway_. "Though they are _a little_ astringent."--_Arbuthnot_. "When he had gone _a little_ farther thence."--_Mark_, i, 19. "Let us vary the phrase [in] _a very little_" [degree].--_Kames_, Vol. ii, p. 163. OBS. 29.--"As it is the nature of the articles to limit the signification of a word, they are applicable only to words expressing ideas capable of being individualized, or conceived of as single things or acts; and nouns implying a general state, condition, or habit, must be used without the article. It is not vaguely therefore, but on fixed principles, that the article is omitted, or inserted, in such phrases as the following: 'in terror, in fear, in dread, in haste, in sickness, in pain, in trouble; in _a_ fright, in _a_ hurry, in _a_ consumption; _the_ pain of his wound was great; her son's dissipated life was _a_ great trouble to her."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 127. OBS. 30.--Though _the, an_, and _a_, are the only articles in our language, they are far from being the only definitives. Hence, while some have objected to the peculiar distinction bestowed upon these little words, firmly insisting on throwing them in among the common mass of adjectives; others have taught, that the definitive adjectives--I know not how many--such as, _this, that, these, those, any, other, some, all, both, each, every, either, neither_--"are much more properly articles than any thing else."--_Hermes_, p. 234. But, in spite of this opinion, it has somehow happened, that these definitive adjectives have very generally, and very absurdly, acquired the name of _pronouns_. Hence, we find Booth, who certainly excelled most other grammarians in learning and acuteness, marvelling that the _articles_ "were ever separated from the class of _pronouns_." To all this I reply, that _the, an_, and _a_, are worthy to be distinguished as _the only articles_, because they are not only used with much greater _frequency_ than any other definitives, but are specially restricted to the limiting of the signification of nouns. Whereas the other definitives above mentioned are very often used to supply the place of their nouns; that is, to represent them understood. For, in general, it is only by ellipsis of the noun after it, and not as the representative of a noun going before, that any one of these words assumes the appearance of a pronoun. Hence, they are not pronouns, but adjectives. Nor are they "more properly articles than any thing else;" for, "if the essence of an article be to define and ascertain" the meaning of a noun, this very conception of the thing necessarily supposes the noun to be used with it. OBS. 31.--The following example, or explanation, may show what is meant by definitives. Let the general term be _man_, the plural of which is _men: A man_--one unknown or indefinite; _The man_--one known or particular; _The men_--some particular ones; _Any man_--one indefinitely; _A certain man_--one definitely; _This man_--one near; _That man_--one distant; _These men_--several near; _Those men_--several distant; _Such a man_--one like some other; _Such men_--some like others; _Many a man_--a multitude taken singly; _Many men_--an indefinite multitude taken plurally; _A thousand men_--a definite multitude; _Every man_--all or each without exception; _Each man_--both or all taken separately; _Some man_--one, as opposed to none; _Some men_--an indefinite number or part; _All men_--the whole taken plurally; _No men_--none of the sex; _No man_--never one of the race. EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. PRAXIS II--ETYMOLOGICAL. _In the Second Praxis, it is required of the pupil--to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and to explain the_ ARTICLES _as definite or indefinite. The definitions to be given in the Second Praxis, are two for an article, and one for a noun, an adjective, a pronoun, a verb, a participle, an adverb, a conjunction, a preposition, or an interjection. Thus_:-- EXAMPLE PARSED. "The task of a schoolmaster laboriously prompting and urging an indolent class, is worse than his who drives lazy horses along a sandy road."--_G. Brown_. _The_ is the definite article. 1. An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The definite article is _the_, which denotes some particular thing or things. _Task_ is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. _Of_ is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. _A_ is the indefinite article. 1. An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The indefinite article is _an_ or _a_, which denotes one thing of a kind, but not any particular one. _Schoolmaster_ is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. _Laboriously_ is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. _Prompting_ is a participle. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding _ing, d_, or _ed_, to the verb. _And_ is a conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected. _Urging_ is a participle. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding _ing, d_, or _ed_, to the verb. _An_ is the indefinite article. 1. An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The indefinite article is _an_ or _a_, which denotes one thing of a kind, but not any particular one. _Indolent_ is an adjective. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. _Class_ is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. _Is_ is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_. _Worse_ is an adjective. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. _Than_ is a conjunction. 1, A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected. _He_ is a pronoun. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. _Who_ is a pronoun. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. _Drives_ is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_. _Lazy_ is an adjective. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. _Horses_ is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. _Along_ is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. _A_ is the indefinite article. 1. An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The indefinite article is _an_ or _a_, which denotes one thing of a kind, but not any particular one. _Sandy_ is an adjective. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. _Road_ is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. LESSON I.--PARSING. "The Honourable, the Corporation of the city, granted the use of the common council chamber, for holding the Convention; generously adding the privilege of occupying the rotunda, or the new court-room, if either would better suit the wishes of the committee."--_Journal of Literary Convention_, N. Y., 1830. "When the whole is put for a part, or a part for the whole; the genus for a species, or a species for the genus; the singular number for the plural, or the plural for the singular; and, in general, when any thing less, or any thing more, is put for the precise object meant; the figure is called a Synecdoche."--See _Blair's Rhet._, p. 141. "The truth is, a representative, as an individual, is on a footing with other people; but, as a representative of a State, he is invested with a share of the sovereign authority, and is so far a governor of the people."--See _Webster's Essays_, p. 50. "Knowledge is the fruit of mental labour--the food and the feast of the mind. In the pursuit of knowledge, the greater the excellence of the subject of inquiry, the deeper ought to be the interest, the more ardent the investigation, and the dearer to the mind the acquisition of the truth."--_Keith's Evidences_, p. 15. "Canst thou, O partial Sleep! give thy repose To the wet seaboy in an hour so rude?"--_Shakspeare_. LESSON II.--PARSING. "Every family has a master; (or a mistress--I beg the ladies' pardon;) a ship has a master; when a house is to be built, there is a master; when the highways are repairing, there is a master; every little school has a master: the continent is a great school; the boys are numerous, and full of roguish tricks; and there is no master. The boys in this great school play truant, and there is no person to chastise them."--See _Webster's Essays_, p. 128. "A man who purposely rushes down a precipice and breaks his arm, has no right to say, that surgeons are an evil in society. A legislature may unjustly limit the surgeon's fee; but the broken arm must be healed, and a surgeon is the only man to restore it."--See _ib._, p. 135. "But what new sympathies sprung up immediately where the gospel prevailed! It was made the duty of the whole Christian community to provide for the stranger, the poor, the sick, the aged, the widow, and the orphan."--_M'Ilvaine's Evi._, p. 408. "In the English language, the same word is often employed both as a noun and as a verb; and sometimes as an adjective, and even as an adverb and a preposition also. Of this, _round_ is an example."--See _Churchill's Gram._, p. 24. "The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket, The moss-covered bucket, arose from the well."--_Woodworth_. LESSON III.--PARSING. "Most of the objects in a natural landscape are beautiful, and some of them are grand: a flowing river, a spreading oak, a round hill, an extended plain, are delightful; and even a rugged rock, and a barren heath, though in themselves disagreeable, contribute by contrast to the beauty of the whole."--See _Kames's El. of Crit._, i, 185. "An animal body is still more admirable, in the disposition of its several parts, and in their order and symmetry: there is not a bone, a muscle, a blood-vessel, a nerve, that hath not one corresponding to it on the opposite side; and the same order is carried through the most minute parts."--See _ib._, i, 271. "The constituent parts of a plant, the roots, the stem, the branches, the leaves, the fruit, are really different systems, united by a mutual dependence on each other."--_Ib._, i, 272. "With respect to the form of this ornament, I observe, that a circle is a more agreeable figure than a square, a globe than a cube, and a cylinder than a parallelopipedon. A column is a more agreeable figure than a pilaster; and, for that reason, it ought to be preferred, all other circumstances being equal. An other reason concurs, that a column connected with a wall, which is a plain surface, makes a greater variety than a pilaster."--See _ib._, ii, 352. "But ah! what myriads claim the bended knee! Go, count the busy drops that swell the sea."--_Rogers_. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. ERRORS RESPECTING ARTICLES. LESSON I.--ADAPT THE ARTICLES. "Honour is an useful distinction in life."--_Milnes's Greek Grammar_, p. vii. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the article _an_ is used before _useful_, which begins with the sound of _yu_. But, according to a principle expressed on page 225th, "_A_ is to be used whenever the following word begins with a consonant sound." Therefore, _an_ should here be changed to _a_; thus, "Honour is _a_ useful distinction in life."] "No writer, therefore, ought to foment an humour of innovation."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 55. "Conjunctions require a situation between the things of which they form an union."--_Ib._, p. 83. "Nothing is more easy than to mistake an _u_ for an _a_."--_Tooke's Diversions_, i, 130. "From making so ill an use of our innocent expressions."--_Wm. Penn_. "To grant thee an heavenly and incorruptible crown of glory."--_Sewel's Hist., Ded._, p. iv. "It in no wise follows, that such an one was able to predict."--_Ib._, p. viii. "With an harmless patience they have borne most heavy oppressions,"--_Ib._, p. x. "My attendance was to make me an happier man."--_Spect._, No. 480. "On the wonderful nature of an human mind."--_Ib._, 554. "I have got an hussy of a maid, who is most craftily given to this."--_Ib._, No. 534. "Argus is said to have had an hundred eyes, some of which were always awake."--_Classic Stories_, p. 148. "Centiped, an hundred feet; centennial, consisting of a hundred years."--_Town's Analysis_, p. 19. "No good man, he thought, could be an heretic."--_Gilpin's Lives_, p. 72. "As, a Christian, an infidel, an heathen."--_Ash's Gram._, p. 50. "Of two or more words, usually joined by an hyphen."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 7. "We may consider the whole space of an hundred years as time present."--BEATTIE: _Murray's Gram._, p. 69. "In guarding against such an use of meats and drinks."--_Ash's Gram._, p. 138. "Worship is an homage due from man to his Creator."--_Annual Monitor for_ 1836. "Then, an eulogium on the deceased was pronounced."--_Grimshaw's U. S._, p. 92. "But for Adam there was not found an help meet for him."--_Gen._, ii, 20. "My days are consumed like smoke, and my bones are burned as an hearth."--_Psalms_, cii, 3. "A foreigner and an hired servant shall not eat thereof"--_Exod._, xii, 45. "The hill of God is as the hill of Bashan; an high hill, as the hill of Bashan."--_Psalms_, lxviii, 15. "But I do declare it to have been an holy offering, and such an one too as was to be once for all."--_Wm. Penn_. "An hope that does not make ashamed those that have it."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. i, p. 15. "Where there is not an unity, we may exercise true charity."--_Ib._, i, 96. "Tell me, if in any of these such an union can be found?"--_Brown's Estimate_, ii, 16. "Such holy drops her tresses steeped, Though 'twas an hero's eye that weeped."--_Sir W. Scott_. LESSON II.--INSERT ARTICLES. "This veil of flesh parts the visible and invisible world."--_Sherlock_. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the article _the_ is omitted before _invisible_, where the sense requires it. But, according to a suggestion on page 225th, "Articles should be inserted as often as the sense requires them." Therefore, _the_ should be here supplied; thus, "This veil of flesh parts the visible and the invisible world."] "The copulative and disjunctive conjunctions operate differently on the verb."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. ii, p. 286. "Every combination of a preposition and article with the noun."--_Ib._, i, 44. "_Either_ signifies, 'the one or the other;' _neither_ imports _not either_, that is, 'not one nor the other.'"--_Ib._, i, 56. "A noun of multitude may have a pronoun, or verb, agreeing with it, either of the singular or plural number."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 90. "Copulative conjunctions are, principally, and, as, both, because, for, if, that, then, since, &c."--See _ib._, 28. "The two real genders are the masculine and feminine."--_Ib._, 34. "In which a mute and liquid are represented by the same character, _th_."--_Music of Nature_, p. 481. "They said, John Baptist hath sent us unto thee."--_Luke_, vii, 20. "They indeed remember the names of abundance of places."--_Spect._, No. 474. "Which created a great dispute between the young and old men."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, Vol. ii, p. 127. "Then shall be read the Apostles' or Nicene Creed."--_Com. Prayer_, p. 119. "The rules concerning the perfect tenses and supines of verbs are Lily's."--_King Henry's Gram._, p. iv. "It was read by the high and the low, the learned and illiterate."--_Johnson's Life of Swift_. "Most commonly, both the pronoun and verb are understood."--_Buchanan's Gram._, p. viii. "To signify the thick and slender enunciation of tone."--_Knight, on the Greek Alph._, p. 9. "The difference between a palatial and guttural aspirate is very small."--_Ib._, p. 12. "Leaving it to waver between the figurative and literal sense."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 154. "Whatever verb will not admit of both an active and passive signification."--_Alex. Murray's Gram._, p. 31. "_The_ is often set before adverbs in the comparative or superlative degree."--_Ib._, p. 15; _Kirkham's Gram._, 66. "Lest any should fear the effect of such a change upon the present or succeeding age of writers."--_Fowle's Common School Gram._, p. 5. "In all these measures, the accents are to be placed on even syllables; and every line is, in general, more melodious, as this rule is more strictly observed."--_L. Murray's Octavo Gram_, p. 256; _Jamieson's Rhet._, 307. "How many numbers do nouns appear to have? Two, the singular and plural."--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 8. "How many persons? Three persons--the first, second, and third."--_Ib._, p. 10. "How many cases? Three--the nominative, possessive and objective."--_Ib._, p. 12. "Ah! what avails it me, the flocks to keep, Who lost my heart while I preserv'd sheep." POPE'S WORKS: _British Poets_, Vol. vi, p. 309: Lond., 1800. LESSON III.--OMIT ARTICLES. "The negroes are all the descendants of Africans."--_Morse's Geog_. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the article _the_ before _descendants_, is useless to the construction, and injurious to the sense. But, according to a principle on page 225th, "Needless articles should be omitted; they seldom fail to pervert the sense." Therefore, _the_ should be here omitted; thus, "The negroes are all _descendants_ of Africans."] "A Sybarite was applied as a term of reproach to a man of dissolute manners."--_Morse's Ancient Geog._, p. 4. "The original signification of knave was a boy."--_Webster's El. Spell._, p. 136. "The meaning of these will be explained, for the greater clearness and precision."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 58. "What Sort of a Noun is Man? A Noun Substantive common."--_Buchanan's Gram._, p. 166. "Is _what_ ever used as three kinds of a pronoun?"--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 117. "They delighted in the having done it, as well as in the doing of it."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 344. "Both the parts of this rule are exemplified in the following sentences."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 174. "He has taught them to hope for another and a better world."--_S. L. Knapp_. "It was itself only preparatory to a future, a better, and perfect revelation."--_Keith's Evid._, p. 23. "_Es_ then makes another and a distinct syllable."-- _Brightland's Gram._, p. 17. "The eternal clamours of a selfish and a factious people."--_Brown's Estimate_, i, 74. "To those whose taste in Elocution is but a little cultivated."--_Kirkham's Eloc._, p. 65. "They considered they had but a Sort of a Gourd to rejoice in."--_Bennet's Memorial_, p. 333. "Now there was but one only such a bough, in a spacious and shady grove."--_Bacon's Wisdom_, p. 75. "Now the absurdity of this latter supposition will go a great way towards the making a man easy."--_Collier's Antoninus_ p. 131. "This is true of the mathematics, where the taste has but little to do."--_Todd's Student's Manual_, p. 331. "To stand prompter to a pausing, yet a ready comprehension."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 251. "Such an obedience as the yoked and the tortured negro is compelled to yield to the whip of the overseer."--_Chalmers's Serm._, p. 90. "For the gratification of a momentary and an unholy desire."--_Wayland's Mor. Sci._, p. 288. "The body is slenderly put together; the mind a rambling sort of a thing."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 26. "The only nominative to the verb, is, _the officer_."--_Murray's Gram._, ii, 22. "And though in the general it ought to be admitted, &c."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 376. "Philosophical writing admits of a polished, a neat, and elegant style."--_Ib._, p. 367. "But notwithstanding this defect, Thomson is a strong and a beautiful describer."--_Ib._, p. 405. "So should he be sure to be ransomed, and a many poor men's lives saved."--SHAK.: _Hen._ v. "Who felt the wrong, or fear'd it, took the alarm, Appeal'd to Law, and Justice lent her arm."--_Pope_, p. 406. LESSON IV.--CHANGE ARTICLES. "To enable us to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word."--_Bucke's Gr._, p, 52. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the article _the_ is used to limit the meaning of "repetition," or "too frequent repetition," where _a_ would better suit the sense. But, according to a principle on page 225th, "The articles can seldom be put one for the other, without gross impropriety; and either is of course to be preferred to the other, as it better suits the sense." Therefore, "_the_" should be _a_, which, in this instance, ought to be placed after the adjective; thus, "To enable us to avoid _too frequent a repetition_ of the same word."] "The former is commonly acquired in the third part of the time."--_Burn's Gram._, p. xi. "Sometimes the adjective becomes a substantive, and has another adjective joined to it: as, 'The chief good.'"--_L. Murray's Gram._, i, 169. "An articulate sound is the sound of the human voice, formed by the organs of speech."--_Ib._, i, 2; _Lowth's Gram._, 2; _T. Smith's_, 5. "Tense is the distinction of time: there are six tenses."--_Maunder's Gram._, p. 6. "In this case, the ellipsis of the last article would be improper."--_L. Murray's Gram._, i, p. 218. "Contrast has always the effect to make each of the contrasted objects appear in the stronger light."--_Ib._, i, 349; _Blair's Rhet._, p. 167. "These remarks may serve to shew the great importance of the proper use of the article."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 12; _Murray's_, i, 171. "'Archbishop Tillotson,' says an author of the History of England, 'died in this year.'"--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 107. "Pronouns are used instead of substantives, to prevent the too frequent repetition of them."--_Alex. Murray's Gram._, p. 22. "_That_, as a relative, seems to be introduced to save the too frequent repetition of _who_ and _which_."--_Ib._, p. 23. "A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word."--_L. Murray's Gram._, i, p. 28. "_That_ is often used as a relative, to prevent the too frequent repetition of _who_ and _which_."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 109; _L. Murray's_, i, 53; _Hiley's_, 84. "His knees smote one against an other."--_Logan's Sermons_. "They stand now on one foot, then on another."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 259. "The Lord watch between me and thee, when we are absent one from another."--_Gen._, xxxi, 49. "Some have enumerated ten [parts of speech], making a participle a distinct part."--_L. Murray's Gram_, i, p. 29. "Nemesis rides upon an Hart, because a Hart is a most lively Creature."--_Bacon's Wisdom_, p. 50. "The transition of the voice from one vowel of the diphthong to another."--_Wilson's Essay on Gram._, p. 29. "So difficult it is to separate these two things from one another."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 92. "Without the material breach of any rule."--_Ib._, p. 101. "The great source of a loose style, in opposition to precision, is the injudicious use of those words termed synonymous."--_Ib._, p. 97. "The great source of a loose style, in opposition to precision, is the injudicious use of the words termed _synonymous_."--_Murray's Gram._, i, p. 302. "Sometimes one article is improperly used for another."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 197. "Satire of sense, alas! can Sporus feel? Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel?"--_Pope_, p. 396. LESSON V.--MIXED EXAMPLES. "He hath no delight in the strength of an horse."--_Maturin's Sermons_, p. 311. "The head of it would be an universal monarch."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 98. "Here they confound the material and formal object of faith."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. iii, p. 57. "The Irish and Scotish Celtic are one language; the Welsh, Cornish, and Armorican, are another."--_Dr. Murray's Hist._, Vol. ii, p. 316. "In an uniform and perspicuous manner."--_Ib._, i, 49. "SCRIPTURE, _n._ Appropriately, and by way of distinction, the books of the Old and New Testament; the Bible."--_Webster's Dict._ "In two separate volumes, entitled the Old and the New Testaments."--_Wayland's Mor. Sci._, p. 139. "The Scriptures of the Old and New Testament contain a revelation."--_Ib._ "Q has ever an u after it; which is not sounded in words derived from the French."--_Wilson's Essay_, p. 32. "What should we say of such an one? That he is regenerate? No."--_Hopkins's Prim. Ch._, p. 22. "Some grammarians subdivide vowels into the simple and the compound."--_Murray's Gram._, i, p. 8. "Emphasis has been further distinguished into the weaker and stronger emphasis."--_Ib._, i, 244. "Emphasis has also been divided into superior and the inferior emphasis."--_Ib._, i, 245, "Pronouns must agree with their antecedents, or nouns which they represent, in gender, number, and person."--_Merchant's Gram._, pp. 86, 111, and 130. "The adverb _where_, is often improperly used, for the relative pronoun and preposition."--_Ib._, 94. "The termination _ish_ imports diminution, or lessening the quality."--_Ib._, 79. "In this train all their verses proceed: the one half of the line always answering to the other."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 384. "To an height of prosperity and glory, unknown to any former age."--_Murray's Sequel_, p. 352. "HWILC, who, which, such as, such an one, is declined as follows."--_Gwilt's Saxon Gram._, p. 15. "When a vowel precedes _y_, an _s_ only is required to form a plural."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 40. "He is asked what sort of a word each is, whether a primitive, derivative, or compound."--_British Gram._, p. vii. "It is obvious, that neither the 2d, 3d, nor 4th chapter of Matthew is the first; consequently, there are not _four first_ chapters."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 306. "Some thought, which a writer wants art to introduce in its proper place."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 109. "Groves and meadows are most pleasing in the spring."--_Ib._, p. 207. "The conflict between the carnal and spiritual mind, is often long."--_Gurney's Port. Ev._, p. 146. "A Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful."--_Burke's Title-page_. "Silence, my muse! make not these jewels cheap, Exposing to the world too large an heap."--_Waller_, p. 113. CHAPTER III.--NOUNS. A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned: as, _George, York, man, apple, truth_. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--All words and signs taken _technically_, (that is, independently of their meaning, and merely as things spoken of,) are _nouns_; or, rather, are _things_ read and construed _as nouns_; because, in such a use, they temporarily assume the _syntax_ of nouns: as, "For this reason, I prefer _contemporary_ to _cotemporary_."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 175; _Murray's Gram._, i, p. 368. "I and J were formerly expressed by the same character; as were U and V."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 3. "_Us_ is a personal pronoun."--_Murray_. "_Th_ has two sounds."--_Ib._ "The _'s_ cannot be a contraction of _his_, because _'s_ is put to _female_ [feminine] nouns; as, _Woman's beauty, the Virgin's delicacy_."--_Dr. Johnson's Gram._ "_Their_ and _theirs_ are the possessives likewise of _they_, when _they_ is the plural of _it_."--_Ib._ "Let B be a _now_ or instant."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 103. "In such case, I say that the instant B is the end of the time A B."--_Ib._, 103. "_A_ is sometimes a noun: as, a great _A_."--_Todd's Johnson_. "Formerly _sp_ was cast in a piece, as _st's_ are now."--_Hist. of Printing_, 1770. "I write to others than he will perhaps include in his _we_."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. iii, p. 455. "Here are no fewer than eight _ands_ in one sentence."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 112; _Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 319. "Within this wooden _O_;" i. e., circle.--_Shak._ OBS. 2.--In parsing, the learner must observe the sense and use of each word, and class it accordingly. Many words commonly belonging to other parts of speech are occasionally used as nouns; and, since it is the manner of its use, that determines any word to be of one part of speech rather than of an other, whatever word is used directly as a noun, must of course be parsed as such. 1. Adjectives made nouns: "The _Ancient_ of days did sit."--_Bible_. "Of the _ancients_."--_Swift_. "For such _impertinents_."--_Steele_. "He is an _ignorant_ in it."--_Id._ "In the luxuriance of an unbounded _picturesque_."--_Jamieson_. "A source of _the sublime_;" i. e., of sublimity.--_Burke_. "The vast _immense_ of space:" i. e., immensity.--_Murray_. "There is none his _like._"--_Job_, xli, 33. "A _little_ more than a _little_, is by _much_ too _much_."--_Shakspeare_. "And gladly make _much_ of that entertainment."--_Sidney_. "A covetous man makes _the most_ of what he has."--_L'Estrange_. "It has done _enough_ for me."--_Pope_. "He had _enough_ to do."--_Bacon_. "_All_ withers here; who _most_ possess, are losers by their gain, Stung by full proof, that bad at best, life's idle _all_ is vain." --_Young_. "Nor grudge I thee _the much_ the Grecians give, Nor murm'ring take _the little_ I receive." --_Dryden_. 2. Pronouns made nouns: "A love of seeing the _what_ and _how_ of all about him."--STORY'S LIFE OF FLAXMAN: _Pioneer_, Vol. i, p. 133. "The nameless HE, whose nod is Nature's birth."--_Young_, Night iv. "I was wont to load my _she_ with knacks."--_Shak. Winter's Tale_. "Or any _he_, the proudest of thy sort."--_Shak_. "I am the happiest _she_ in Kent."--_Steele_. "The _shes_ of Italy."--_Shak_. "The _hes_ in birds."--_Bacon_. "We should soon have as many _hes_ and _shes_ as the French."--_Cobbet's E. Gram._, Para. 42. "If, for instance, we call a nation a _she_, or the sun a _he_."--_Ib._, Para. 198. "When I see many _its_ in a page, I always tremble for the writer."--_Ib._, Para. 196. "Let those two questionary petitioners try to do this with their _whos_ and their _whiches_."--SPECT: _Ash's Gr._, p. 131. "Such mortal drugs I have; but Mantua's law Is death to any _he_ that utters them."--_Shak_. 3. Verbs made nouns: "Avaunt all attitude, and _stare_, and _start_ theatric."--_Cowper_. "A _may-be_ of mercy is sufficient."--_Bridge_. "Which _cuts_ are reckoned among the fractures."--_Wiseman_. "The officer erred in granting a _permit_."--"Feel darts and charms, _attracts_ and flames."--_Hudibras_. "You may know by the falling off of the _come_, or sprout."--_Mortimer_. "And thou hast talk'd of _sallies_ and _retires_."--_Shak_. "For all that else did come, were sure to fail; Yet would he further none, but for _avail_."--_Spenser_. 4. Participles made nouns: "For the _producing_ of real happiness."--_Crabb_. "For the _crying_ of the poor and the _sighing_ of the needy, I will arise."--_Bible_. "Surely the _churning_ of milk bringeth forth butter, and the _wringing_ of the nose bringeth forth blood; so the _forcing_ of wrath bringeth forth strife."--_Prov._, xxx, 33. "_Reading, writing_, and _ciphering_, are indispensable to civilized man."--"Hence was invented the distinction between _doing_ and _permitting_."--_Calvin's Inst._, p. 131. "Knowledge of the _past_ comes next."--_Hermes_, p. 113. "I am my _beloved's_, and his desire is toward me."--_Sol. Song_, vii, 10. "Here's--a simple _coming-in_ for one man."--_Shak_. "What are thy rents? What are thy _comings-in_? O Ceremony, show me but thy worth."--_Id._ 5. Adverbs made nouns: "In these cases we examine the _why_, the _what_, and the _how_ of things."--_L'Estrange_. "If a point or _now_ were extended, each of them would contain within itself infinite other points or _nows_."--_Hermes_, p. 101. "The _why_ is plain as way to parish church."--_Shak_. "'Tis Heaven itself that points out _an hereafter_."--_Addison_. "The dread of _a hereafter_."--_Fuller_. "The murmur of the deep _amen_."--_Sir W. Scott_. "For their _whereabouts_ lieth in a mystery."--_Book of Thoughts_, p. 14. Better: "Their _whereabout_ lieth," or, "Their _whereabouts lie_," &c. "Bid them farewell, Cordelia, though unkind; Thou losest _here_, a better _where_ to find."--_Shak_. 6. Conjunctions made nouns: "The _if_, which is here employed, converts the sentence into a supposition."--_Blair's Rhet._ "Your _if_ is the only peacemaker; much virtue is in _if_."--_Shak_. "So his Lordship decreed with a grave solemn tone, Decisive and clear, without one _if_ or _but_-- That whenever the Nose put his spectacles on, By daylight or candlelight--Eyes should be shut."--_Cowper_. 7. Prepositions made nouns: "O, not like me; for mine's beyond _beyond_."--_Shakspeare: Cymb._, iii, 2. "I. e., her longing is _further than beyond_; beyond any thing that desire can be said to be beyond."--_Singer's Notes_. "You whirled them to the back of _beyont_ to look at the auld Roman camp."--_Antiquary_, i. 37. 8. Interjections or phrases made nouns: "Come away from all the _lo-heres_! and _lo-theres_!"--_Sermon_. "Will cuts him short with a '_What then_?'"--_Addison_. "With _hark_ and _whoop_, and wild _halloo_."--_Scott_. "And made a _pish_ at chance and sufferance."--_Shak_. "A single look more marks th' internal wo, Than all the windings of the lengthen'd _oh_."--_Lloyd_. CLASSES. Nouns are divided into two general classes; _proper_ and _common_. I. A _proper noun_ is the name of some particular individual, or people, or group; as, _Adam, Boston_, the _Hudson_, the _Romans_, the _Azores_, the _Alps_. II. A _common noun_ is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things; as, _Beast, bird, fish, insect,--creatures, persons, children_. The particular classes, _collective, abstract_, and _verbal_, or _participial_, are usually included among common nouns. The name of a thing _sui generis_ is also called common. 1. A _collective noun_, or _noun of multitude_, is the name of many individuals together; as, _Council, meeting, committee, flock_. 2. An _abstract noun_ is the name of some particular quality considered apart from its substance; as, _Goodness, hardness, pride, frailty_. 3. A _verbal_ or _participial noun_ is the name of some action, or state of being; and is formed from a verb, like a participle, but employed as a noun: as, "The _triumphing_ of the wicked is short."--_Job_, xx, 5. 4. A thing _sui generis_, (i. e., _of its own peculiar kind_,) is something which is distinguished, not as an individual of a species, but as a sort by itself, without plurality in either the noun or the sort of thing; as, _Galvanism, music, geometry_. OBS. 1.--Through the influence of an article, a proper name sometimes acquires the import of a common noun: as, "He is _the Cicero_ of his age;" that is, _the great orator_. "Many _a fiery Alp_;" that is, _high volcanic mountain_. "Such is the following application of famous names; a Solomon for a wise man, a Croesus for a rich man, a Judas for a traitor, a Demosthenes for an orator, and a Homer for a poet."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 326. "Consideration, like an angel, came, And whipp'd _th' offending Adam_ out of him."--_Shak_. OBS. 2.--A common noun, with the definite article before it, sometimes becomes proper: as, _The Park; the Strand; the Gharmel; the Downs; the United States_. OBS. 3.--The common name of a thing or quality personified, often becomes proper; our conception of the object being changed by the figure of speech: as, "My power," said _Reason_, "is to advise, not to compel."--_Johnson_. "Fair _Peace_ her olive branch extends." For such a word, the form of parsing should be like this: "_Peace_ is a _common noun, personified proper_; of the third person, singular number, feminine gender, and nominative case." Here the construction of the word as a proper noun, and of the _feminine gender_, is the result of the personification, and contrary to the literal usage. MODIFICATIONS. Nouns have modifications of four kinds; namely, _Persons, Numbers, Genders_, and _Cases_. PERSONS. Persons, in grammar, are modifications that distinguish the speaker, the hearer, and the person or thing merely spoken of. There are three persons; the _first_, the _second_, and the _third_. The _first person_ is that which denotes the speaker or writer; as, "_I Paul_ have written it." The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or the person addressed; as, "_Robert_, who did this?" The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of; as, "_James_ loves his book." OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--The distinction of persons is founded on the different relations which the objects mentioned in any discourse may bear to the discourse itself. The speaker or writer, being the mover and maker of the communication, of course stands in the nearest or _first_ of these relations. The hearer or hearers, being personally present and directly addressed, evidently sustain the next or _second_ of these relations; this relation is also that of the reader, when he peruses what is addressed to himself in print or writing. Lastly, whatsoever or whosoever is merely mentioned in the discourse, bears to it that more remote relation which constitutes the _third_ person. The distinction of persons belongs to nouns, pronouns, and finite verbs; and to these it is always applied, either by peculiarity of form or construction, or by inference from the principles of concord. Pronouns are like their antecedents, and verbs are like their subjects, in person. OBS. 2.--Of the persons, numbers, genders, cases, and some other grammatical modifications of words, it should be observed that they belong not exclusively to any one part of speech, but jointly and equally, to two or three. Hence, it is necessary that our _definitions_ of these things be such as will apply to each of them in full, or under all circumstances; for the definitions ought to be as general in their application as are the things or properties defined. Any person, number, gender, case, or other grammatical modification, is really but one and the same thing, in whatever part of speech it may be found. This is plainly implied in the very nature of every form of syntactical agreement; and as plainly contradicted in one half, and probably more, of the definitions usually given of these things. OBS. 3.--Let it be understood, that _persons, in grammar_, are not _words_, but mere forms, relations, or modifications of words; that they are things, thus named by a _figure_; _things_ of the neuter gender, and not living souls. But persons, in common parlance, or in ordinary life, are _intelligent beings_, of one or the other sex. These objects, different as they are in their nature, are continually confounded by the makers of English grammars: as, "The _first_ person is _the person who speaks_."--_Comly's Gram._, p. 17. So Bicknell, of London: "The _first person_ speaks of _himself_; as, _I John take thee Elizabeth_. The _second_ person has the speech directed to _him_, and is supposed to be present; as, _Thou Harry art a wicked fellow_. The _third_ person is spoken of, or described, and supposed to be _absent_; as, _That Thomas is a good man_. And in the same manner the plural pronouns are used, when more than one are spoken of."--_Bicknell's Grammatical Wreath_, p. 50. "The person speaking is the first person; the person spoken to, the second; and the person spoken of, the third."--_Russell's Gram._, p. 16. "The first person is the speaker."--_Parker & Fox's Gram._, Part i, p. 6. "Person is that, which distinguishes a noun, that speaks, one spoken to, or one spoken about."--_S. B. Hall's Gram._, p. 6. "A noun that speaks!" A noun "spoken to!" If ever one of Father Hall's nouns shall speak for itself, or answer when "spoken to," will it not reprove him? And how can the _first person_ be "the _person_ WHO _speaks_," when every word of this phrase is of the _third_ person? Most certainly, _it is not_ HE, nor any one of his sort. If any body can boast of being "_the first person in grammar_," I pray, _Who_ is it? Is it not _I_, even _I_? Many grammarians say so. But nay: such authors know not what the first person in grammar is. The Rev. Charles Adams, with infinite absurdity, makes the three persons in grammar to be never any thing but _three nouns_, which hold a confabulation thus: "Person is defined to be _that_ which distinguishes a _noun that speaks, one spoken to, or one spoken of_. The _noun_ that speaks [,] is the first person; as, _I, James_, was present. The _noun_ that is spoken to, is the second person; as, _James_, were you present? The _noun_ that is spoken of is the third person; as, _James_ was present."--_Adams's System of English Gram._, p. 9. What can be a greater blunder, than to call the first person of a verb, of a pronoun, or even of a noun, "_the noun that speaks?_" What can be more absurd than are the following assertions? "_Nouns_ are _in_ the first person when _speaking_. Nouns are _of_ the second person when _addressed_ or _spoken to_."--_O. C. Felton's Gram._, p. 9. OBS. 4.--An other error, scarcely less gross than that which has just been noticed, is the very common one of identifying the three grammatical persons with certain _words_, called personal pronouns: as, "_I_ is the first person, _thou_ the second, _he, she_ or _it_, the third."--_Smith's Productive Gram._, p. 53. "_I_ is the first person, singular. _Thou_ is the second person, singular. _He, she_, or _it_, is the third person, singular. _We_ is the first person, plural. _Ye_ or _you_ is the second person, plural. _They_ is the third person, plural."--_L. Murray's Grammar_, p. 51; _Ingersoll's_, 54; _D. Adams's_, 37; _A. Flint's_, 18; _Kirkham's_, 98; _Cooper's_, 34; _T. H. Miller's_, 26; _Hull's_, 21; _Frost's_, 13; _Wilcox's_, 18; _Bacon's_, 19; _Alger's_, 22; _Maltby's_, 19; _Perley's_, 15; _S. Putnam's_, 22. Now there is no more propriety in affirming, that "_I is the first person_," than in declaring that _me, we, us, am, ourselves, we think, I write_, or any other word or phrase _of_ the first person, _is_ the first person. Yet Murray has given us no other definitions or explanations of the persons than the foregoing erroneous assertions; and, if I mistake not, all the rest who are here named, have been content to define them only as he did. Some others, however, have done still worse: as, "There are _three_ personal pronouns; so called, because they denote the three persons, _who_ are the subjects of a discourse, viz. 1st. _I, who is_ the person _speaking_; 2d _thou, who is_ spoken to; 3d _he, she_, or _it, who_ is spoken of, and their plurals, _we, ye_ or _you, they_."--_Bingham's Accidence_, 20th Ed., p. 7. Here the two kinds of error which I have just pointed out, are jumbled together. It is impossible to write _worse English_ than this! Nor is the following much better: "Of the personal pronouns there are five, viz. _I_, in the first person, speaking; _Thou_, in the second person, spoken to; and _He, she, it_, in the third person, spoken of."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 25. OBS. 5.--In _written_ language, the _first person_ denotes the writer or author; and the _second_, the reader or person addressed: except when the writer describes not himself, but some one else, as uttering to an other the words which he records. This exception takes place more particularly in the writing of dialogues and dramas; in which the first and second persons are abundantly used, not as the representatives of the author and his reader, but as denoting the fictitious speakers and hearers that figure in each scene. But, in discourse, the grammatical persons may be changed without a change of the living subject. In the following sentence, the three grammatical persons are all of them used with reference to one and the same individual: "Say ye of _Him whom_ the Father hath sanctified and sent into the world, _Thou blasphemest_, because _I said I am_ the _Son_ of _God?_"--_John_, x, 36. OBS. 6.-The speaker seldom refers to himself _by name_, as the speaker; and, of the objects which there is occasion to name in discourse, but comparatively few are such as can ever be supposed to speak. Consequently, _nouns_ are rarely used in the first person; and when they do assume this relation, a pronoun is commonly associated with them: as, "_I John_,"--"_We Britons_." These words I conceive to agree throughout, in person, number, gender, and case; though it must be confessed, that agreement like this is not always required between words in apposition. But some grammarians deny the first person to nouns altogether; others, with much more consistency, ascribe it;[140] while very many are entirely silent on the subject. Yet it is plain that both the doctrine of concords, and the analogy of general grammar, require its admission. The reason of this may be seen in the following examples: "_Themistocles ad te veni_." "I Themistocles have come to you."--_Grant's Latin Gram._, p. 72. "_Adsum Troius �neas_."--_Virgil_. "_Romulus Rex regia arma offero_."--Livy. "_Annibal peto pacem_."--Id. "_Callopius recensui._"--See _Terence's Comedies, at the end_. "_Paul_, an apostle, &c., unto Timothy, _my_ own son in the faith."--_1 Tim._, i, 2. Again, if the word _God_ is of the second person, in the text, "_Thou, God_, seest me," why should any one deny that _Paul_ is of the first person, in this one? "_I Paul_ have written it."--_Philemon_, 19. Or this? "The salutation by the hand of _me Paul_."--_Col._, iv, 18. And so of the plural: "Of _you builders_."--_Acts_, iv, 11. "Of _us the apostles_."--_2 Pet._, iii, 2. How can it be pretended, that, in the phrase, "_I Paul_," _I_ is of the first person, as denoting the speaker, and _Paul_, of some other person, as denoting something or somebody that is _not_ the speaker? Let the admirers of Murray, Kirkham, Ingersoll, R. C. Smith, Comly, Greenleaf, Parkhurst, or of any others who teach this absurdity, answer. OBS. 7.--As, in the direct application of what are called Christian names, there is a kind of familiarity, which on many occasions would seem to indicate a lack of proper respect; so in a frequent and familiar use of the second person, as it is the placing of an other in the more intimate relation of the hearer, and one's self in that of the speaker, there is a sort of assumption which may seem less modest and respectful than to use the third person. In the following example, the patriarch Jacob uses both forms; applying the term _servant_ to himself, and to his brother Esau the term _lord_: "Let _my lord, I_ pray _thee_, pass over before _his servant_: and _I_ will lead on softly."--_Gen._, xxxiii, 14. For when a speaker or writer does not choose to declare himself in the _first_ person, or to address his hearer or reader in the _second_, he speaks of both or either in the _third_. Thus Moses relates what _Moses_ did, and Cæsar records the achievements of _Cæsar_. So Judah humbly beseeches Joseph: "Let _thy servant_ abide in stead of the lad a bondman to _my lord_."--_Gen._, xliv, 33. And Abraham reverently intercedes with God: "Oh! let not _the Lord_ be angry, and I will speak."--_Gen._, xviii, 30. And the Psalmist prays: "_God_ be merciful unto us, and bless us; and cause _his_ face to shine upon us."--_Ps._, lxvii, 1. So, on more common occasions:-- "As will the rest, so _willeth Winchester_."--_Shak_. "Richard of York, how _fares_ our dearest _brother_?"--_Id._[141] OBS. 8.--When inanimate things are spoken to, they are _personified_; and their names are put in the second person, because by the figure the objects are _supposed_ to be capable of hearing: as, "What ailed thee, _O thou sea_, that thou fleddest? _thou Jordan_, that thou wast driven back? _Ye mountains_, that ye skipped like rams; and _ye little hills_, like lambs? Tremble, _thou earth_, at the presence of the Lord, at the presence of the God of Jacob."--_Psalms_, cxiv, 5-7. NUMBERS. Numbers, in grammar, are modifications that distinguish unity and plurality. There are two numbers; the _singular_ and the _plural_. The _singular number_ is that which denotes but one; as, "The _boy learns_." The _plural number_ is that which denotes more than one; as, "The _boys learn_." The plural number _of nouns_ is regularly formed by adding _s_ or _es_ to the singular: as, _book, books; box, boxes; sofa, sofas; hero, heroes_. When the singular ends in a sound which will unite with that of _s_, the plural is generally formed by adding _s only_, and the number of syllables is not increased: as, _pen, pens; grape, grapes_. But when the sound of _s_ cannot be united with that of the primitive word, the regular plural adds _s_ to final _e_, and _es_ to other terminations, and forms a separate syllable: as, _page, pages; fox, foxes_. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--The distinction of numbers serves merely to show whether we speak of one object, or of more. In some languages, as the Greek and the Arabic, there is a _dual_ number, which denotes _two_, or a _pair_; but in ours, this property of words, or class of modifications, extends no farther than to distinguish unity from plurality, and plurality from unity. It belongs to nouns, pronouns, and finite verbs; and to these it is always applied, either by peculiarity of form, or by inference from the principles of concord. Pronouns are like their antecedents, and verbs are like their subjects, in number. OBS. 2.--The most common way of forming the plural of English nouns, is that of simply adding to them an _s_; which, when it unites with a sharp consonant, is always sharp, or hissing; and when it follows a vowel or a flat mute, is generally flat, like _z_: thus, in the words, _ships, skiffs, pits, rocks, depths, lakes, gulfs_, it is sharp; but in _seas, lays, rivers, hills, ponds, paths, rows, webs, flags_, it is flat. The terminations which always make the regular plural in _es_, with increase of syllables, are twelve; namely, _ce, ge, ch_ soft, _che_ soft, _sh, ss, s, se, x, xe, z_, and _ze_: as in _face, faces; age, ages; torch, torches; niche, niches; dish, dishes; kiss, kisses; rebus, rebuses; lens, lenses; chaise, chaises; corpse, corpses; nurse, nurses; box, boxes; axe, axes; phiz, phizzes; maze, mazes._ All other endings readily unite in sound either with the sharp or with the flat _s_, as they themselves are sharp or flat; and, to avoid an increase of syllables, we allow the final _e_ mute to remain mute after that letter is added: thus, we always pronounce as monosyllables the words _babes, blades, strifes, tithes, yokes, scales, names, canes, ropes, shores, plates, doves_, and the like. OBS. 3.--Though the irregular plurals of our language appear considerably numerous when brought together, they are in fact very few in comparison with the many thousands that are perfectly simple and regular. In some instances, however, usage is various in writing, though uniform in speech; an unsettlement peculiar to certain words that terminate in vowels: as, _Rabbis_, or _rabbies; octavos_, or _octavoes; attornies_, or _attorneys_. There are also some other difficulties respecting the plurals of nouns, and especially respecting those of foreign words; of compound terms; of names and titles; and of words redundant or deficient in regard to the numbers. What is most worthy of notice, respecting all these puzzling points of English grammar, is briefly contained in the following observations. OBS. 4.--It is a general rule of English grammar, that all singular nouns ending with a vowel preceded by an other vowel, shall form the plural by simply assuming an _s_: as, _Plea, pleas; idea, ideas; hernia, hernias; bee, bees; lie, lies; foe, foes; shoe, shoes; cue, cues; eye, eyes; folio, folios; bamboo, bamboos; cuckoo, cuckoos; embryo, embryos; bureau, bureaus; purlieu, purlieus; sou, sous; view, views; straw, straws; play, plays; key, keys; medley, medleys; viceroy, viceroys; guy, guys._ To this rule, the plurals of words ending in _quy_, as _alloquies, colloquies, obloquies, soliloquies_, are commonly made exceptions; because many have conceived that the _u_, in such instances, is a mere appendage to the _q_, or is a consonant having the power of _w_, and not a vowel forming a diphthong with the _y_. All other deviations from the rule, as _monies_ for _moneys, allies_ for _alleys, vallies_ for _valleys, chimnies_ for _chimneys_, &c., are now usually condemned as errors. See Rule 12th for Spelling. OBS. 5.--It is also a general principle, that nouns ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant, change the _y_ into _i_, and add _es_ for the plural, without increase of syllables: as, _fly, flies; ally, allies; city, cities; colony, colonies_. So nouns in _i_, (so far as we have any that are susceptible of a change of number,) form the plural regularly by assuming _es_: as, _alkali, alkalies; salmagundi, salinagundies._ Common nouns ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant, are numerous; and none of them deviate from the foregoing rule of forming the plural: thus, _duty, duties_. The termination added is _es_, and the _y_ is changed into _i_, according to the general principle expressed in Rule 11th for Spelling. But, to this principle, or rule, some writers have supposed that _proper nouns_ were to be accounted exceptions. And accordingly we sometimes find such names made plural by the mere addition of an _s_; as, "How come the _Pythagoras'_, [it should be, _the Pythagorases_,] the _Aristotles_, the _Tullys_, the _Livys_, to appear, even to us at this distance, as stars of the first magnitude in the vast fields of ether?"--_Burgh's Dignity_, Vol. i, p. 131. This doctrine, adopted from some of our older grammars, I was myself, at one period, inclined to countenance; (see _Institutes of English Grammar_, p. 33, at the bottom;) but further observation having led me to suspect, there is more _authority_ for changing the _y_ than for retaining it, I shall by-and-by exhibit some examples of this change, and leave the reader to take his choice of the two forms, or principles. OBS. 6.--The vowel _a_, at the end of a word, (except in the questionable term _huzza_, or when silent, as in _guinea_,) has always its Italian or middle sound, as heard in the interjection _aha!_ a sound which readily unites with that of _s_ flat, and which ought, in deliberate speech, to be carefully preserved in plurals from this ending: as, _Canada, the Canadas; cupola, cupolas; comma, commas; anathema, anathemas_. To pronounce the final _a_ flat, as _Africay_ for _Africa_, is a mark of vulgar ignorance. OBS. 7.--The vowel _e_ at the end of a word, is generally silent; and, even when otherwise, it remains single in plurals from this ending; the _es_, whenever the _e_ is vocal, being sounded _eez_, or like the word _ease_: as, _apostrophe, apostrophes; epitome, epitomes; simile, similes_. This class of words being anomalous in respect to pronunciation, some authors have attempted to reform them, by changing the _e_ to _y_ in the singular, and writing _ies_ for the plural: as, _apostrophy, apostrophies; epitomy, epitomies; simily, similies_. A reformation of some sort seems desirable here, and this has the advantage of being first proposed; but it is not extensively adopted, and perhaps never will be; for the vowel sound in question, is not exactly that of the terminations _y_ and _ies_, but one which seems to require _ee_--a stronger sound than that of _y_, though similar to it. OBS. 8.--For nouns ending in open _o_ preceded by a consonant, the regular method of forming the plural seems to be that of adding _es_; as in _bilboes, umboes, buboes, calicoes, moriscoes, gambadoes, barricadoes, fumadoes, carbonadoes, tornadoes, bravadoes, torpedoes, innuendoes, viragoes, mangoes, embargoes, cargoes, potargoes, echoes, buffaloes, volcanoes, heroes, negroes, potatoes, manifestoes, mulattoes, stilettoes, woes_. In words of this class, the _e_ appears to be useful as a means of preserving the right sound of the _o_; consequently, such of them as are the most frequently used, have become the most firmly fixed in this orthography. In practice, however, we find many similar nouns very frequently, if not uniformly, written with _s_ only; as, _cantos, juntos, grottos, solos, quartos, octavos, duodecimos, tyros_. So that even the best scholars seem to have frequently doubted which termination they ought to regard as the _regular_ one. The whole class includes more than one hundred words. Some, however, are seldom used in the plural; and others, never. _Wo_ and _potato_ are sometimes written _woe_ and _potatoe_. This may have sprung from a notion, that such as have the _e_ in the plural, should have it also in the singular. But this principle has never been carried out; and, being repugnant to derivation, it probably never will be. The only English appellatives that are established in _oe_, are the following fourteen: seven monosyllables, _doe, foe, roe, shoe, sloe, soe, toe_; and seven longer words, _rockdoe, aloe, felloe, canoe, misletoe, tiptoe, diploe_. The last is pronounced _dip'-lo-e_ by Worcester; but Webster, Bolles, and some others, give it as a word of two syllables only.[142] OBS. 9.--Established exceptions ought to be enumerated and treated as exceptions; but it is impossible to remember how to write some scores of words, so nearly alike as _fumadoes_ and _grenados, stilettoes_ and _palmettos_, if they are allowed to differ in termination, as these examples do in Johnson's Dictionary. Nay, for lack of a rule to guide his pen, even Johnson himself could not remember the orthography of the common word _mangoes_ well enough to _copy_ it twice without inconsistency. This may be seen by his example from King, under the words _mango_ and _potargo_. Since, therefore, either termination is preferable to the uncertainty which must attend a division of this class of words between the two; and since _es_ has some claim to the preference, as being a better index to the sound; I shall make no exceptions to the principle, that common nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a consonant take _es_ for the plural. Murray says, "_Nouns which_ end in _o_ have sometimes _es_ added, to form the plural; as, cargo, echo, hero, negro, manifesto, potato, volcano, wo: and sometimes only _s_; as, folio, nuncio, punctilio, seraglio."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 40. This amounts to nothing, unless it is to be inferred from his _examples_, that others like them in form are to take _s_ or _es_ accordingly; and this is what I teach, though it cannot be said that Murray maintains the principle. OBS. 10.--Proper names of _individuals_, strictly used as such, have no plural. But when several persons of the same name are spoken of, the noun becomes in some degree common, and admits of the plural form and an article; as, "_The Stuarts, the Cæsars_."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 41. These, however, may still be called _proper nouns_, in parsing; because they are only inflections, peculiarly applied, of certain names which are indisputably such. So likewise when such nouns are used to denote character: as, "_Solomons_, for wise men; _Neros_, for tyrants."--_Ib._ "Here we see it becomes a doubt which of the two _Herculeses_, was the monster-queller."--_Notes to Pope's Dunciad_, iv, 492. The proper names of _nations, tribes_, and _societies_, are generally plural; and, except in a direct address, they are usually construed with the definite article: as, "_The Greeks, the Athenians, the Jews, the Jesuits_." But such words may take the singular form with the indefinite article, as often as we have occasion to speak of an individual of such a people; as, "_A Greek, an Athenian, a Jew, a Jesuit_." These, too, may be called _proper nouns_; because they are national, patrial, or tribal names, each referring to some place or people, and are not appellatives, which refer to actual sorts or kinds, not considered local. OBS. 11.--Proper names, when they form the plural, for the most part form it regularly, by assuming _s_ or _es_ according to the termination: as, _Carolina_, the _Carolinas_; _James_, the _Jameses_. And those which are only or chiefly plural, have, or ought to have, such terminations as are proper to distinguish them as plurals, so that the form for the singular may be inferred: as, "The _Tungooses_ occupy nearly a third of Siberia."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 379. Here the singular must certainly be _a Tungoose_. "The principal tribes are the _Pawnees_, the _Arrapahoes_, and the _Cumanches_, who roam through the regions of the Platte, the Arkansaw, and the Norte."--_Ib._, p. 179. Here the singulars may be supposed to be a _Pawnee_, an _Arrapaho_, and a _Cumanche_. "The Southern or Floridian family comprised the _Cherokees, Creeks, Chickasaws, Choctaws, Seminoles_, and _Natchez_."--_Ib._, p. 179. Here all are regular plurals, except the last; and this probably ought to be _Natchezes_, but Jefferson spells it _Natches_, the singular of which I do not know. Sometimes foreign words or foreign terminations have been improperly preferred to our own; which last are more intelligible, and therefore better: as, _Esquimaux_, to _Esquimaus_; _Knistenaux_, to _Knistenaus_, or _Crees; Sioux_, to _Sious_, or _Dahcotahs; Iroquois_, to _Iroquoys_, or _Hurons_. OBS. 12.--Respecting the plural of nouns ending in _i, o, u_, or _y_, preceded by a consonant, there is in present usage much uncertainty. As any vowel sound may be uttered with an _s_, many writers suppose these letters to require for plurals strictly regular, the _s_ only; and to take _es_ occasionally, by way of exception. Others, (perhaps with more reason,) assume, that the most usual, regular, and proper endings for the plural, in these instances, are _ies, oes, and ues_: as, _alkali, alkalies; halo, haloes; gnu, gnues; enemy, enemies_. This, I think, is right for common nouns. How far proper names are to be made exceptions, because they are proper names, is an other question. It is certain that some of them are not to be excepted: as, for instance, _Alleghany_, the _Alleghanies_; _Sicily_, the Two _Sicilies_; _Ptolemy_, the _Ptolemies_; _Jehu_, the _Jehues_. So the names of tribes; as, The _Missouries_, the _Otoes_, the _Winnebagoes_. Likewise, the _houries_ and the _harpies_; which words, though not strictly proper names, are often written with a capital as such. Like these are _rabbies, cadies, mufties, sophies_, from which some writers omit the _e_. Johnson, Walker, and others, write _gipsy_ and _gipsies_; Webster, now writes _Gipsey_ and _Gipseys_; Worcester prefers _Gypsy_, and probably _Gypsies_: Webster once wrote the plural _gypsies_; (see his _Essays_, p. 333;) and Johnson cites the following line:-- "I, near yon stile, three sallow _gypsies_ met."--_Gay_. OBS. 13.--Proper names in _o_ are commonly made plural by _s_ only. Yet there seems to be the same reason for inserting the _e_ in these, as in other nouns of the same ending; namely, to prevent the _o_ from acquiring a short sound. "I apprehend," says Churchill, "it has been from an erroneous notion of proper names being unchangeable, that some, feeling the necessity of obviating this mispronunciation, have put an apostrophe between the _o_ and the _s_ in the plural, _in stead of an e_; writing _Cato's, Nero's_; and on a similar principle, _Ajax's, Venus's_; thus using the possessive case singular for the nominative or objective plural. Harris says very properly, 'We have our _Marks_ and our _Antonies_: _Hermes_, B. 2, Ch. 4; for which those would have given us _Mark's_ and _Antony's_."--_New Gram._, p. 206. Whatever may have been the motive for it, such a use of the apostrophe is a gross impropriety. "In this quotation, ['From the Socrates's, the Plato's, and the Confucius's of the age,'] the proper names should have been pluralized like common nouns; thus, From the _Socrateses_, the _Platoes_, and the _Confuciuses_ of the age."--_Lennie's Gram._, p. 126; _Bullions's_, 142. OBS. 14.--The following are some examples of the plurals of proper names, which I submit to the judgement of the reader, in connexion with the foregoing observations: "The Romans had their plurals _Marci_ and _Antonii_, as we in later days have our _Marks_ and our _Anthonies_."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 40. "There seems to be more reason for such plurals, as the _Ptolemies, Scipios, Catos_: or, to instance in more modern names, the _Howards, Pelhams, and Montagues_."--_Ib._, 40. "Near the family seat of the _Montgomeries_ of Coil's-field."--_Burns's Poems_, Note, p. 7. "Tryphon, a surname of one of the _Ptolemies_."--_Lempriere's Dict._ "Sixteen of the _Tuberos_, with their wives and children, lived in a small house."--_Ib._ "What are the _Jupiters_ and _Junos_ of the heathens to such a God?"--_Burgh's Dignity_, i, 234. "Also when we speak of more than one person of the same name; as, the _Henries_, the _Edwards_."--_Cobbetts E. Gram._, ¶ 40. "She was descended from the _Percies_ and the _Stanleys_."--_Loves of the Poets_, ii, 102. "Naples, or the _Two Sicilies_."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 273. The word _India_, commonly makes the plural _Indies_, not _Indias_; and, for _Ajaxes_, the poets write _Ajaces_. But Richard Hiley says, "Proper nouns, when pluralized, follow the same rules as common nouns; as, Venus, the _Venuses_; Ajax, the _Ajaxes_; Cato, the _Catoes_; Henry, the _Henries_."--_Hiley's E. Gram._, p. 18. "He ev'ry day from King to King can walk, Of all our _Harries_, all our Edwards talk."--_Pope's Satires_, iv. OBS. 15.--When a name and a title are to be used together in a plural sense, many persons are puzzled to determine whether the name, or the title, or both, should be in the plural form. For example--in speaking of two young ladies whose family name is Bell--whether to call them the _Miss Bells_, the _Misses Bell_, or the _Misses Bells_. To an inquiry on this point, a learned editor, who prefers the last, lately gave his answer thus: "There are two young ladies; of course they are 'the Misses.' Their name is Bell; of course there are two 'Bells.' Ergo, the correct phrase, in speaking of them, is--'the Misses Bells.'"--_N. Y. Com. Adv_. This puts the words in apposition; and there is no question, that it is _formally_ correct. But still it is less agreeable to the ear, less frequently heard, and less approved by grammarians, than the first phrase; which, if we may be allowed to assume that the two words may be taken together as a sort of compound, is correct also. Dr. Priestley says, "When a name has a title prefixed to it, as _Doctor, Miss, Master_, &c., the plural termination affects only the latter of the two words; as, 'The two _Doctor Nettletons_'--'The two _Miss Thomsons_;' though a strict analogy would plead for the alteration of the former word, and lead us to say, 'The two _Doctors Nettleton_'--'The two _Misses Thomson_.'"--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 59. The following quotations show the opinions of some other grammarians: "Two or more nouns in concordance, and forming one complex name, or a name and a title, have the plural termination annexed to the last only; as, 'The _Miss Smiths_'--'The three _Doctor Simpsons_'--'The two _Master Wigginses_.' With a few exceptions, and those not parallel to the examples just given, we almost uniformly, in complex names, confine the inflection to the last or the latter noun."--_Dr. Crombie_. The foregoing opinion from Crombie, is quoted and seconded by Maunder, who adds the following examples: "Thus, Dr. Watts: 'May there not be _Sir Isaac Newtons_ in every science?'--'You must not suppose that the world is made up of _Lady Aurora Granvilles_.'"--_Maunder's Gram._, p. 2. OBS. 16.--These writers do not seem to accord with W. L. Stone, the editor above quoted, nor would his reasoning apply well to several of their examples. Yet both opinions are right, if neither be carried too far. For when the words are in apposition, rather than in composition, the first name or title must be made plural, if it refers to more than one: as, "The _Misses Bell and Brown_,"--"_Messrs. Lambert and Son_,"--"The _Lords Calthorpe and Erskine_,"--"The _Lords Bishops_ of Durham and St. David's,"--"The _Knights Hospitalers_,"--"The _Knights Templars_,"--"The _Knights Baronets_." But this does not prove the other construction, which varies the last word only, to be irregular; and, if it did, there is abundant authority for it. Nor is that which varies the first only, to be altogether condemned, though Dr. Priestley is unquestionably wrong respecting the "_strict analogy_" of which he speaks. The joining of a plural title to one singular noun, as, "_Misses Roy_,"--"_The Misses Bell_,"--"_The two Misses Thomson_," produces a phrase which is in itself the _least analogous_ of the three; but, "_The Misses Jane and Eliza Bell_," is a phrase which nobody perhaps will undertake to amend. It appears, then, that each of these forms of expression may be right in some cases; and each of them may be wrong, if improperly substituted for either of the others. OBS. 17.--The following statements, though erroneous in several particulars, will show the opinions of some other grammarians, upon the foregoing point: "Proper nouns have the plural only when they refer to a race or family; as, _The Campbells_; or to several persons of the same name; as, _The eight Henrys; the two Mr. Sells; the two Miss Browns_; or, without the numeral, _the Miss Roys._ But in addressing letters in which both or all are equally concerned, and also when the names are different, we pluralize the _title_, (Mr. or Miss,) and write, _Misses_ Brown; _Misses_ Roy; _Messrs_, (for Messieurs, Fr.) Guthrie and Tait."_--Lennie's Gram._, p. 7. "If we wish to distinguish the _unmarried_ from the _married_ Howards, we call them _the Miss Howards._ If we wish to distinguish these Misses from other Misses, we call them the _Misses Howard_."--_Fowle's Gram._ "To distinguish several persons of the same name and family from others of a different name and family, the _title_, and not the _proper name_, is varied to express the distinction; as, the _Misses_ Story, the _Messrs._ Story. The elliptical meaning is, the Misses and Messrs, _who are named_ Story. To distinguish _unmarried_ from _married_ ladies, _the proper name_, and not the _title_, should be varied; as, the _Miss_ Clarks. When we mention more than one person of different names, the title should be expressed before each; as, _Miss_ Burns, _Miss_ Parker, and _Miss_ Hopkinson, were present."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 79. In the following examples from Pope's Works, the last word only is varied: "He paragons himself to two _Lord Chancellors_ for law."--Vol. iii, p. 61. "Yearly panegyrics upon the _Lord Mayors_."--_Ib._, p. 83. "Whence hapless Monsieur much complains at Paris Of wrongs from Duchesses and _Lady Maries_."_--Dunciad_, B. ii, L 135. OBS. 18.--The following eleven nouns in _f_, change the _f_ into _v_ and assume _es_ for the plural: _sheaf, sheaves; leaf, leaves; loaf, loaves; leaf, beeves; thief, thieves; calf, calves; half, halves; elf, elves; shelf, shelves; self, selves; wolf, wolves_. Three others in _fe_ are similar: _life, lives; knife, knives; wife, wives._ These are specific exceptions to the general rule for plurals, and not a series of examples coming under a particular rule; for, contrary to the instructions of nearly all our grammarians, there are more than twice as many words of the same endings, which take _s_ only: as, _chiefs, kerchiefs, handkerchiefs, mischiefs, beliefs, misbeliefs, reliefs, bassreliefs, briefs, feifs, griefs, clefs, semibrefs, oafs, waifs, coifs, gulfs, hoofs, roofs, proofs, reproofs, woofs, califs, turfs, scarfs, dwarfs, wharfs, fifes, strifes, safes._ The plural of _wharf_ is sometimes written _wharves_; but perhaps as frequently, and, if so, more accurately, _wharfs_. Examples and authorities: "_Wharf, wharfs_."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 80; _Ward's_, 24; _Goar's_, 26; _Lennie's_, 7; _Bucke's_, 39. "There were not in London so many _wharfs_, or _keys_, for the landing of merchants' goods."--CHILD: _in Johnson's Dict._ "The _wharfs_ of Boston are also worthy of notice."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 37. "Between banks thickly clad with dwelling-houses, manufactories, and _wharfs_."_--London Morn. Chronicle_, 1833. Nouns in _ff_ take _s_ only; as, _skiffs, stuffs, gaffs_. But the plural of _staff_ has hitherto been generally written _staves_; a puzzling and useless anomaly, both in form and sound: for all the compounds of _staff_ are regular; as, _distaffs, whipstaffs, tipstaffs, flagstaffs, quarterstaffs_; and _staves_ is the regular plural of _stave_, a word now in very common use with a different meaning, as every cooper and every musician knows. _Staffs_ is now sometimes used; as, "I saw the husbandmen bending over their _staffs_."--_Lord Carnarvon_. "With their _staffs_ in their hands for very age."--_Hope of Israel_, p. 16. "To distinguish between the two _staffs_."--_Comstock's Elocution_, p. 43. In one instance, I observe, a very excellent scholar has written _selfs_ for _selves_, but the latter is the established plural of _self_: "Self-love would cease, or be dilated, when We should behold as many _selfs_ as men."_--Waller's Poems_, p. 55. OBS. 19.--Of nouns purely English, the following thirteen are the only simple words that form distinct plurals not ending in _s_ or _es_, and four of these are often regular: _man, men; woman, women; child, children; brother, brethren_ or _brothers; ox, oxen; goose, geese; foot, feet; tooth, teeth; louse, lice; mouse, mice; die, dice_ or _dies; penny, pence_ or _pennies; pea, pease_ or _peas_. The word _brethren_ is now applied only to fellow-members of the same church or fraternity; for sons of the same parents we always use _brothers_; and this form is sometimes employed in the other sense. _Dice_ are spotted cubes for gaming; _dies_ are stamps for coining money, or for impressing metals. _Pence_, as _six pence_, refers to the amount of money in value; _pennies_ denotes the corns themselves. "We write _peas_, for two or more individual seeds; but _pease_, for an indefinite number in quantity or bulk."_--Webster's Dict._ This last anomaly, I think, might well enough "be spared; the sound of the word being the same, and the distinction to the eye not always regarded." Why is it not as proper, to write an order for "a bushel of _peas_," as for "a bushel of _beans_?" "_Peas_ and _beans_ may be severed from the ground before they be quite dry."_--Cobbett's E. Gram._, ¶ 31. OBS. 20.--When a compound, ending with any of the foregoing irregular words, is made plural, it follows the fashion of the word with which it ends: as, _Gentleman, gentlemen; bondwoman, bondwomen; foster-child, foster-children; solan-goose, solan-geese; eyetooth, eyeteeth; woodlouse, woodlice_;[143] _dormouse, dormice; half-penny, halfpence, half-pennies_. In this way, these irregularities extend to many words; though some of the metaphorical class, as _kite's-foot, colts-foot, bear's-foot, lion's-foot_, being names of plants, have no plural. The word _man_, which is used the most frequently in this way, makes more than seventy such compounds. But there are some words of this ending, which, not being compounds of _man_, are regular: as, _German, Germans; Turcoman, Turcomans; Mussulman, Mussulmans; talisman, talismans; leman, lemans; caiman, caimans_. OBS. 21.--Compounds, in general, admit but one variation to form the plural, and that must be made in the principal word, rather than in the adjunct; but where the terms differ little in importance, the genius of the language obviously inclines to a variation of the last only. Thus we write _fathers-in-law, sons-in-law, knights-errant, courts-martial, cousins-german, hangers-on, comings-in, goings-out, goings-forth_, varying the first; and _manhaters, manstealers, manslayers, maneaters, mandrills, handfuls, spoonfuls, mouthfuls, pailfuls, outpourings, ingatherings, downsittings, overflowings_, varying the last. So, in many instances, when there is a less intimate connexion of the parts, and the words are written with a hyphen, if not separately, we choose to vary the latter or last: as, _fellow-servants, queen-consorts, three-per-cents, he-goats, she-bears, jack-a-dandies, jack-a-lanterns, piano-fortes_. The following mode of writing is irregular in two respects; first, because the words are separated, and secondly, because both are varied: "Is it unreasonable to say with John Wesley, that '_men buyers_ are exactly on a level with _men stealers_?"--GOODELL'S LECT. II: _Liberator_, ix, 65. According to analogy, it ought to be: "_Manbuyers_ are exactly on a level with _manstealers_." J. W. Wright alleges, that, "The phrase, 'I want two _spoonfuls_ or _handfuls_,' though common, is improperly constructed;" and that, "we should say, 'Two _spoons_ or _hands full_.'"--_Philos. Gram._, p. 222. From this opinion, I dissent: both authority and analogy favour the former mode of expressing the plural of such quantities. OBS. 22.--There is neither difficulty nor uncertainty respecting the proper forms for the plurals of compound nouns in general; but the two irregular words _man_ and _woman_ are often varied at the beginning of the looser kind of compounds, contrary to what appears to be the general analogy of similar words. Of the propriety of this, the reader may judge, when I shall have quoted a few examples: "Besides their _man-servants_ and their _maid-servants_."--_Nehemiah_, vii, 67. "And I have oxen and asses, flocks, and _men-servants_, and _women-servants_."--_Gen._, xxxii, 5. "I gat me _men-singers_, and _women-singers_, and the delights of the sons of men."--_Ecclesiastes_, ii, 8. "And she brought forth a _man-child_, who was to rule all nations with a rod of iron."--_Rev._, xii, 5.--"Why have ye done this, and saved the _men-children_ alive?"--_Exod._, i, 18. Such terms as these, if thought objectionable, may easily be avoided, by substituting for the former part of the compound the separate adjective _male_ or _female_; as, _male child, male children_. Or, for those of the third example, one might say, "_singing men_ and _singing women_," as in _Nehemiah_, vii, 67; for, in the ancient languages, the words are the same. Alger compounds "_singing-men_ and _singing-women_." OBS. 23.--Some foreign compound terms, consisting of what are usually, in the language from which they come, distinct words and different parts of speech, are made plural in English, by the addition of _e_ or _es_ at the end. But, in all such cases, I think the hyphen should be inserted in the compound, though it is the practice of many to omit it. Of this odd sort of words, I quote the following examples from Churchill; taking the liberty to insert the hyphen, which he omits: "_Ave-Maries, Te-Deums, camera-obscuras, agnus-castuses, habeas-corpuses, scire-faciases, hiccius-docciuses, hocus-pocuses, ignis-fatuuses, chef-d'oeuvres, congé-d'élires, flower-de-luces, louis-d'-ores, tête-à-têtes_."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 62. OBS. 24.--Some nouns, from the nature of the things meant, have no plural. For, as there ought to be no word, or inflection of a word, for which we cannot conceive an appropriate meaning or use, it follows that whatever is of such a species that it cannot be taken in any plural sense, must naturally be named by a word which is singular only: as, _perry, cider, coffee, flax, hemp, fennel, tallow, pitch, gold, sloth, pride, meekness, eloquence_. But there are some things, which have in fact neither a comprehensible unity, nor any distinguishable plurality, and which may therefore be spoken of in either number; for the distinction of unity and plurality is, in such instances, merely verbal; and, whichever number we take, the word will be apt to want the other: as, _dregs_, or _sediment; riches_, or _wealth; pains_, or _toil; ethics_, or _moral philosophy; politics_, or _the science of government; belles-lettres_, or _polite literature_. So _darkness_, which in English appears to have no plural, is expressed in Latin by _tenebræ_, in French by _ténèbres_, which have no singular. It is necessary that every noun should be understood to be of one number or the other; for, in connecting it with a verb, or in supplying its place by a pronoun, we must assume it to be either singular or plural. And it is desirable that singulars and plurals should always abide by their appropriate forms, so that they may be thereby distinguished with readiness. But custom, which regulates this, as every thing else of the like nature, does not always adjust it well; or, at least, not always upon principles uniform in themselves and obvious to every intellect. OBS. 25.--Nouns of multitude, when taken collectively, generally admit the regular plural form; which of course is understood with reference to the individuality of the whole collection, considered as one thing: but, when taken distributively, they have a plural signification without the form; and, in this case, their plurality refers to the individuals that compose the assemblage. Thus, a _council_, a _committee_, a _jury_, a _meeting_, a _society_, a _flock_, or a _herd_, is singular; and the regular plurals are _councils, committees, juries, meetings, societies, flocks, herds_. But these, and many similar words, may be taken plurally without the _s_, because a collective noun is the name of many individuals together. Hence we may say, "The _council were_ unanimous."--"The _committee are_ in consultation."--"The _jury were_ unable to agree."--"The _meeting have shown their_ discretion."--"The _society have settled their_ dispute."--"The _flock are_ widely scattered."--"The whole _herd were drowned_ in the sea." The propriety of the last example seems questionable; because _whole_ implies unity, and _were drowned_ is plural. Where a purer concord can be effected, it may be well to avoid such a construction, though examples like it are not uncommon: as, "Clodius was acquitted by _a corrupt jury_, that had palpably taken shares of money before _they gave their_ verdict."--_Bacon_. "And the _whole multitude_ of the people _were praying_ without, at the time of incense."--_Luke_, i, 10. OBS. 26.--Nouns have, in some instances, a unity or plurality of meaning, which seems to be directly at variance with their form. Thus, _cattle_, for beasts of pasture, and _pulse_, for peas and beans, though in appearance singulars only, are generally, if not always, plural; and _summons, gallows, chintz, series, superficies, molasses, suds, hunks, jakes, trapes_, and _corps_, with the appearance of plurals, are generally, if not always, singular. Dr. Webster says that _cattle_ is of both numbers; but wherein the oneness of cattle can consist, I know not. The Bible says, "God made--_cattle after their kind_."--_Gen._, i, 25. Here _kind_ is indeed singular, as if _cattle_ were a natural genus of which one must be _a cattle_; as _sheep_ are a natural genus of which one is _a sheep_: but whether properly expressed so or not, is questionable; perhaps it ought to be, "and cattle after their _kinds_." Dr. Gillies says, in his History of Greece, "_cattle was regarded_ as the most convenient _measure_ of value." This seems to me to be more inaccurate and unintelligible, than to say, "_Sheep was regarded_ as the most convenient _measure_ of value." And what would this mean? _Sheep_ is not singular, unless limited to that number by some definitive word; and _cattle_ I conceive to be incapable of any such limitation. OBS. 27.--Of the last class of words above cited, some may assume an additional _es_, when taken plurally; as, _summonses, gallowses, chintses_: the rest either want the plural, or have it seldom and without change of form. _Corps_, a body of troops, is a French word, which, when singular, is pronounced _c=ore_, and when plural, _c=ores_. But _corpse_, a dead body, is an English word, pronounced _k~orps_, and making the plural in two syllables, _corpses_. _Summonses_ is given in Cobb's Dictionary as the plural of _summons_; but some authors have used the latter with a plural verb: as, "But Love's first _summons_ seldom _are_ obey'd."--_Waller's Poems_, p. 8. Dr. Johnson says this noun is from the verb _to summon_; and, if this is its origin, the singular ought to be _a summon_, and then _summons_ would be a regular plural. But this "singular noun with a plural termination," as Webster describes it, more probably originated from the Latin verb _submoneas_, used in the writ, and came to us through the jargon of law, in which we sometimes hear men talk of "_summonsing_ witnesses." The authorities for it, however, are good enough; as, "_This_ present _summons_."--SHAK.: _Joh. Dict._ "_This summons_ he resolved to disobey."--FELL: _ib._ _Chints_ is called by Cobb a "substantive _plural_" and defined as "cotton _cloths_, made in India;" but other lexicographers define it as singular, and Worcester (perhaps more properly) writes it _chintz_. Johnson cites Pope as speaking of "_a charming chints_," and I have somewhere seen the plural formed by adding es. "Of the Construction of single Words, or _Serieses_ of Words."--_Ward's Gram._, p. 114. Walker, in his Elements of Elocution, makes frequent use of the word "_serieses_," and of the phrase "_series of serieses_." But most writers, I suppose, would doubt the propriety of this practice; because, in Latin, all nouns of the fifth declension, such as _caries, congeries, series, species, superficies_, make their nominative and vocative cases alike in both numbers. This, however, is no rule for writing English. Dr. Blair has used the word _species_ in a plural sense; though I think he ought rather to have preferred the regular English word _kinds_: "The higher _species_ of poetry seldom _admit_ it."--_Rhet._, p. 403. _Specie_, meaning hard money, though derived or corrupted from _species_, is not the singular of that word; nor has it any occasion for a plural form, because we never speak of _a specie_. The plural of _gallows_, according to Dr. Webster, is _gallowses_; nor is that form without other authority, though some say, _gallows_ is of both numbers and not to be varied: "_Gallowses_ were occasionally put in order by the side of my windows."--_Leigh Hunt's Byron_, p. 369. "Who would not guess there might be hopes, The fear of _gallowses_ and ropes, Before their eyes, might reconcile Their animosities a while?"--_Hudibras_, p. 90. OBS. 28.--Though the plural number is generally derived from the singular, and of course must as generally imply its existence, we have examples, and those not a few, in which the case is otherwise. Some nouns, because they signify such things as nature or art has made plural or double; some, because they have been formed from other parts of speech by means of the plural ending which belongs to nouns; and some, because they are compounds in which a plural word is principal, and put last, are commonly used in the plural number only, and have, in strict propriety, no singular. Though these three classes of plurals may not be perfectly separable, I shall endeavour to exhibit them in the order of this explanation. 1. Plurals in meaning and form: _analects, annals,[144] archives, ashes, assets, billiards, bowels, breeches, calends, cates, chops, clothes, compasses, crants, eaves, embers, estovers, forceps, giblets, goggles, greaves, hards_ or _hurds, hemorrhoids, ides, matins, nippers, nones, obsequies, orgies,[145] piles, pincers_ or _pinchers, pliers, reins, scissors, shears, skittles, snuffers, spectacles, teens, tongs, trowsers, tweezers, umbles, vespers, victuals_. 2. Plurals by formation, derived chiefly from adjectives: _acoustics, aeronautics, analytics, bitters, catoptrics, commons, conics, credentials, delicates, dioptrics, economics, ethics, extraordinaries, filings, fives, freshes, glanders, gnomonics, goods, hermeneutics, hustings, hydrodynamics, hydrostatics, hydraulics, hysterics, inwards, leavings, magnetics, mathematics, measles, mechanics, mnemonics, merils, metaphysics, middlings, movables, mumps, nuptials, optics, phonics, phonetics, physics,[146] pneumatics, poetics, politics, riches, rickets, settlings, shatters, skimmings, spherics, staggers, statics, statistics, stays, strangles, sundries, sweepings, tactics, thanks, tidings, trappings, vives, vitals, wages,[147] withers, yellows_. 3. Plurals by composition: _backstairs, cocklestairs, firearms,[148] headquarters, hotcockles, spatterdashes, self-affairs_. To these may be added the Latin words, _aborigines, antipodes, antes, antoeci, amphiscii, anthropophagi, antiscii, ascii, literati, fauces, regalia_, and _credenda_, with the Italian _vermicelli_, and the French _belles-lettres_ and _entremets_. OBS. 29.--There are several nouns which are set down by some writers as wanting the singular, and by others as having it. Of this class are the following: _amends,[149] ancients, awns, bots, catacombs, chives, cloves, cresses, dogsears, downs, dregs,[150] entrails, fetters, fireworks, greens, gyves, hatches, intestines, lees,[151] lungs, malanders, mallows, moderns, oats, orts, pleiads, premises, relics, remains, shackles, shambles,[152] stilts, stairs, tares, vetches_. The fact is, that these words have, or ought to have, the singular, as often as there is any occasion to use it; and the same may, in general terms, be said of other nouns, respecting the formation of _the plural_.[153] For where the idea of unity or plurality comes clearly before the mind, we are very apt to shape the word accordingly, without thinking much about the authorities we can quote for it. OBS. 30.--In general, where both numbers exist in common use, there is some palpable oneness or individuality, to which the article _a_ or _an_ is applicable; the nature of the species is found entire in every individual of it; and a multiplication of the individuals gives rise to plurality in the name. But the nature of a mass, or of an indefinite multitude taken collectively, is not found in individuals as such; nor is the name, whether singular, as _gold_, or plural, as _ashes_, so understood. Hence, though every noun must be of one number or the other, there are many which have little or no need of both. Thus we commonly speak of _wheat, barley, or oats_, collectively; and very seldom find occasion for any other forms of these words. But chafferers at the corn-market, in spite of Cobbett,[154] will talk about _wheats_ and _barleys_, meaning different kinds[155] or qualities; and a gardener, if he pleases, will tell of an _oat_, (as does Milton, in his Lycidas,) meaning a single seed or plant. But, because _wheat_ or _barley_ generally means that sort of grain in mass, if he will mention a single kernel, he must call it a _grain of wheat_ or a _barleycorn_. And these he may readily make plural, to specify any particular number; as, _five grains of wheat_, or _three barleycorns_. OBS. 31.--My chief concern is with general principles, but the illustration of these requires many particular examples--even far more than I have room to quote. The word _amends_ is represented by Murray and others, as being singular as well as plural; but Webster's late dictionaries exhibit _amend_ as singular, and _amends_ as plural, with definitions that needlessly differ, though not much. I judge "_an amends_" to be bad English; and prefer the regular singular, _an amend_. The word is of French origin, and is sometimes written in English with a needless final _e_; as, "But only to make a kind of honourable _amende_ to God."--_Rollin's Ancient Hist._, Vol. ii, p. 24. The word _remains_ Dr. Webster puts down as plural only, and yet uses it himself in the singular: "The creation of a Dictator, even for a few months, would have buried every _remain_ of freedom."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 70. There are also other authorities for this usage, and also for some other nouns that are commonly thought to have no singular; as, "But Duelling is unlawful and murderous, a _remain_ of the ancient Gothic barbarity."--_Brown's Divinity_, p. 26. "I grieve with the old, for so many additional inconveniences, more than their small _remain_ of life seemed destined to undergo."--POPE: _in Joh. Dict._ "A disjunctive syllogism is one whose major _premise_ is disjunctive."--_Hedge's Logic_. "Where should he have this gold? It is some poor fragment, some slender _ort_ of his remainder."--SHAK.: _Timon of Athens_. OBS. 32.--There are several nouns which are usually alike in both numbers. Thus, _deer, folk, fry, gentry, grouse, hose, neat, sheep, swine, vermin_, and _rest_, (i. e. _the rest_, the others, the residue,) are regular singulars, but they are used also as plurals, and that more frequently. Again, _alms, aloes, bellows, means, news, odds, shambles_, and _species_, are proper plurals, but most of them are oftener construed as singulars. _Folk_ and _fry_ are collective nouns. _Folk_ means _people_; _a folk, a people_: as, "The ants are _a people_ not strong;"--"The conies are but _a feeble folk_."--_Prov._, xxx, 25, 26. "He laid his hands on a few sick _folk_, and healed _them_."--_Mark_, vi, 5. _Folks_, which ought to be the plural of _folk_, and equivalent to _peoples_, is now used with reference to a plurality of individuals, and the collective word seems liable to be entirely superseded by it. A _fry_ is a swarm of young fishes, or of any other little creatures living in water: so called, perhaps, because their motions often make the surface _fry_. Several such swarms might properly be called _fries_; but this form can never be applied to the individuals, without interfering with the other. "So numerous _was the fry_."--_Cowper_. "The _fry betake themselves_ to the neighbouring pools."--_Quarterly Review_. "You cannot think more contemptuously of _these gentry_ than _they_ were thought of by the true prophets."--_Watson's Apology_, p. 93. "_Grouse_, a heathcock."--_Johnson_. "The 'squires in scorn will fly the house For better game, and look for _grouse_."--_Swift_. "Here's an English tailor, come hither for stealing out of _a_ French _hose_."--_Shak_. "He, being in love, could not see to garter his _hose_."--_Id._ Formerly, the plural was _hosen_: "Then these men were bound, in their coats, their _hosen_, and their hats."--_Dan._, iii, 21. Of _sheep_, Shakspeare has used the regular plural: "Two hot _sheeps_, marry!"--_Love's Labour Lost_, Act ii, Sc. 1. "Who both by his calf and his lamb will be known, May well kill _a neat_ and _a sheep_ of his own."--_Tusser_. "His droves of asses, camels, herds of _neat_, And flocks of _sheep_, grew shortly twice as great."--_Sandys_. "As a jewel of gold in _a swine's_ snout."--_Prov._, xi, 22. "A herd of _many swine_, feeding."--_Matt._, viii, 30. "An idle person only lives to spend his time, and eat the fruits of the earth, like a _vermin_ or a wolf."--_Taylor_. "The head of a wolf, dried and hanged up, will scare away _vermin_."--_Bacon_. "Cheslip, _a small vermin_ that lies under stones or tiles."--SKINNER: in _Joh. and in Web. Dict._ "This is flour, the _rest is_ bran."--"And the _rest were_ blinded."--_Rom._, xi, 7. "The poor beggar hath a just demand of _an alms_."--_Swift_. "Thine _alms are_ come up for a memorial before God."--_Acts_, x, 4. "The draught of air performed the function of _a bellows_."--_Robertson's Amer._, ii, 223. "As the _bellows do_."--_Bicknell's Gram._, ii, 11. "The _bellows are_ burned."--_Jer._, vi, 29. "Let _a gallows_ be made."--_Esther_, v, 14. "_Mallows are_ very useful in medicine."--_Wood's Dict._ "_News_," says Johnson, "is without the singular, unless it be considered as singular."--_Dict._ "So _is_ good _news_ from a far country."--_Prov._, xxv, 25. "Evil _news rides_ fast, while good _news baits_."--_Milton_. "When Rhea heard _these news_, she fled."--_Raleigh_. "_News were brought_ to the queen."--_Hume's Hist._, iv, 426. "The _news_ I bring _are_ afflicting, but the consolation with which _they_ are attended, ought to moderate your grief."--_Gil Blas_, Vol. ii, p. 20. "Between these two cases there _are_ great _odds_."--_Hooker_. "Where the _odds is_ considerable."--_Campbell_. "Determining on which side the _odds lie_."--_Locke_. "The greater _are the odds_ that he mistakes his author."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 1. "Though thus _an odds_ unequally they meet."--_Rowe's Lucan_, B. iv, l. 789. "Preëminent by so _much odds_."--_Milton_. "To make a _shambles_ of the parliament house."--_Shak_. "The earth has been, from the beginning, a great Aceldama, _a shambles_ of blood."--_Christian's Vade-Mecum_, p. 6. "_A shambles_" sounds so inconsistent, I should rather say, "_A shamble_." Johnson says, the etymology of the word is _uncertain_; Webster refers it to the Saxon _scamel_: it means _a butcher's stall, a meat-market_; and there would seem to be no good reason for the _s_, unless more than one such place is intended. "Who sells his subjects to the _shambles_ of a foreign power."--_Pitt_. "A special idea is called by the schools _a species_."--_Watts_. "He intendeth the care of _species_, or common natures."--_Brown_. "ALOE, (al~o) _n.; plu._ ALOES."--_Webster's Dict._, and _Worcester's_. "But it was _aloe_ itself to lose the reward."-- _Tupper's Crock of Gold_, p. 16. "But high in amphitheatre above, _His_ arms the everlasting _aloes_ threw." --_Campbell_, G. of W., ii, 10. OBS. 33.--There are some nouns, which, though really regular in respect to possessing the two forms for the two numbers, are not free from irregularity in the manner of their application. Thus _means_ is the regular plural of _mean_; and, when the word is put for mediocrity, middle point, place, or degree, it takes both forms, each in its proper sense; but when it signifies things instrumental, or that which is used to effect an object, most writers use _means_ for the singular as well as for the plural:[156] as, "By _this means_"--"By _those means_," with reference to one mediating cause; and, "By _these means_,"--"By _those means_," with reference to more than one. Dr. Johnson says the use of _means_ for _mean_ is not very grammatical; and, among his examples for the true use of the word, he has the following: "Pamela's noble heart would needs gratefully make known the valiant _mean_ of her safety."--_Sidney._ "Their virtuous conversation was a _mean_ to work the heathens' conversion."--_Hooker._ "Whether his wits should by that _mean_ have been taken from him."--_Id._ "I'll devise a _mean_ to draw the Moor out of the way."--_Shak._ "No place will please me so, no _mean_ of death."--_Id._ "Nature is made better by no _mean_, but nature makes that _mean._"--_Id._ Dr. Lowth also questioned the propriety of construing _means_ as singular, and referred to these same authors as authorities for preferring the regular form. Buchanan insists that _means_ is right in the plural only; and that, "The singular should be used as perfectly analogous; by this _mean_, by that _mean_."--_English Syntax_, p. 103. Lord Kames, likewise, appears by his practice to have been of the same opinion: "Of this the child must be sensible intuitively, for it has no other _mean_ of knowledge."--_Elements of Criticism_, Vol. i, p. 357. "And in both the same _mean_ is employed."--_Ib._ ii, 271. Caleb Alexander, too, declares "_this means_," "_that means_." and "_a means_," to be "ungrammatical."--_Gram._, p. 58. But common usage has gone against the suggestions of these critics, and later grammarians have rather confirmed the irregularity, than attempted to reform it. OBS. 34.--Murray quotes sixteen good authorities to prove that means may be singular; but whether it _ought_ to be so or not, is still a disputable point. Principle is for the regular word _mean_, and good practice favours the irregularity, but is still divided. Cobbett, to the disgrace of grammar, says, "_Mean_, as a noun, is _never used in the singular_. It, like some other words, has broken loose from all principle and rule. By universal consent, it _is become always a plural_, whether used with _singular or plural_ pronouns and articles, _or not_."--_E. Gram._, p. 144. This is as ungrammatical, as it is untrue. Both mean and means are sufficiently authorized in the singular: "The prospect which by this mean is opened to you."--_Melmoth's Cicero_. "Faith in this doctrine never terminates in itself, but is _a mean_, to holiness as an end."--_Dr. Chalmers, Sermons_, p. v. "The _mean_ of basely affronting him."--_Brown's Divinity_, p. 19. "They used every _mean_ to prevent the re-establishment of their religion."--_Dr Jamieson's Sacred Hist._, i, p. 20. "As a necessary _mean_ to prepare men for the discharge of that duty."-- _Bolingbroke, on Hist._, p. 153. "Greatest is the power of a _mean_, when its power is least suspected."--_Tupper's Book of Thoughts_, p. 37. "To the deliberative orator the reputation of unsullied virtue is not only useful, as a _mean_ of promoting his general influence, it is also among his most efficient engines of persuasion, upon every individual occasion."--_J. Q. Adams's Lectures on Rhetoric and Oratory_, i, 352. "I would urge it upon you, as the most effectual _mean_ of extending your respectability and usefulness in the world."--_Ib._, ii, 395. "Exercise will be admitted to be a necessary _mean_ of improvement."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 343. "And by _that means_ we have now an early prepossession in their favour."--_Ib._, p. 348. "To abolish all sacrifice by revealing a better _mean_ of reconciliation." --_Keith's Evidences_, p. 46. "As a _mean_ of destroying the distinction." --_Ib._, p. 3. "Which however is by no _mean_ universally the case."-- _Religious World Displayed_, Vol. iii, p. 155. OBS. 35.--Again, there are some nouns, which, though they do not lack the regular plural form, are sometimes used in a plural sense without the plural termination. Thus _manner_ makes the plural _manners_, which last is now generally used in the peculiar sense of behaviour, or deportment, but not always: it sometimes means methods, modes, or ways; as, "At sundry times and in divers _manners_."--_Heb._, i, 1. "In the _manners_ above mentioned."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 100. "There be three _manners_ of trials in England."--COWELL: _Joh. Dict., w. Jury_. "These two _manners_ of representation."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 15. "These are the three primary modes, or _manners_, of expression."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 83. "In arrangement, too, various _manners_ suit various styles."--_Campbell's Phil. of Rhet._, p. 172. "Between the two _manners_."--_Bolingbroke, on Hist._, p. 35. "Here are three different _manners_ of asserting."-- _Barnard's Gram._, p. 59. But _manner_ has often been put for _sorts_, without the _s_; as, "The tree of life, which bare _twelve manner_ of fruits."--_Rev._, xxii, 2. "All _manner_ of men assembled here in arms."--_Shak_. "_All manner_ of outward advantages."--_Atterbury_. Milton used _kind_ in the same way, but not very properly; as, "_All kind_ of living creatures."--_P. Lost_, B. iv, l. 286. This irregularity it would be well to avoid. _Manners_ may still, perhaps, be proper for modes or ways; and _all manner_, if allowed, must be taken in the sense of a collective noun; but for sorts, kinds, classes, or species, I would use neither the plural nor the singular of this word. The word _heathen_, too, makes the regular plural _heathens_, and yet is often used in a plural sense without the _s_; as, "Why do the _heathen_ rage?"--_Psalms_, ii, 1. "Christianity was formerly propagated among the _heathens_."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 217. The word _youth_, likewise, has the same peculiarities. OBS. 36.--Under the present head come names of fishes, birds, or other things, when the application of the singular is extended from the individual to the species, so as to supersede the plural by assuming its construction: as, Sing. "A great _fish_."--_Jonah_, i, 17. Plur. "For the multitude of _fishes_'."--_John_, xxi, 6. "A very great multitude of _fish_."--_Ezekiel_, xlvii, 9.[157] The name of the genus being liable to this last construction, men seem to have thought that the species should follow; consequently, the regular plurals of some very common names of fishes are scarcely known at all. Hence some grammarians affirm, that _salmon, mackerel, herring, perch, tench_, and several others, are alike in both numbers, and ought never to be used in the plural form. I am not so fond of honouring these anomalies. Usage is here as unsettled, as it is arbitrary; and, if the expression of plurality is to be limited to either form exclusively, the regular plural ought certainly to be preferred. But, _for fish taken in bulk_, the singular form seems more appropriate; as, "These vessels take from thirty-eight to forty-five quintals of _cod_ and _pollock_, and six thousand barrels of _mackerel_, yearly."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 28. OBS. 37.--The following examples will illustrate the unsettled usage just mentioned, and from them the reader may judge for himself what is right. In quoting, at second-hand, I generally think it proper to make double references; and especially in citing authorities after Johnson, because he so often gives the same passages variously. But he himself is reckoned good authority in things literary. Be it so. I regret the many proofs of his fallibility. "Hear you this Triton of the _minnows?_"--_Shak_. "The shoal of _herrings_ was of an immense extent."--_Murray's Key_, p. 185. "Buy my _herring_ fresh."--SWIFT: _in Joh. Dict._ "In the fisheries of Maine, _cod, herring, mackerel alewives, salmon_, and other _fish_, are taken."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 23. "MEASE, _n._ The quantity of 500; as, a _mease_ of _herrings_."--_Webster's Dict._ "We shall have plenty of _mackerel_ this season."--ADDISON: _in Joh. Dict._ "_Mackarel_ is the same in both numbers. Gay has improperly _mackarels_."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 208. "They take _salmon_ and _trouts_ by groping and tickling them under the bellies."--CAREW: _in Joh. Dict._ "The pond will keep _trout_ and _salmon_ in their seasonable plight."--_Id., ib., w. Trout_. "Some _fish_ are preserved fresh in vinegar, as _turbot_."--_Id., ib., w. Turbot_. "Some _fish_ are boiled and preserved fresh in vinegar, as _tunny_ and _turbot_."--_Id., ib., w. Tunny_. "Of round _fish_, there are _brit, sprat, barn, smelts_."--_Id., ib., w. Smelt._ "For _sprats_ and _spurlings_ for your house."--TUSSEE: _ib., w. Spurling_. "The coast is plentifully stored with _pilchards, herrings_, and _haddock_."--CAREW: _ib., w. Haddock_. "The coast is plentifully stored with round _fish, pilchard, herring, mackerel_, and _cod_"--_Id., ib., w. Herring_. "The coast is plentifully stored with _shellfish, sea-hedgehogs, scallops, pilcherd, herring_, and _pollock_."--_Id., ib., w. Pollock_. "A _roach_ is _a fish_ of no great reputation for his dainty taste. It is noted that _roaches_ recover strength and grow a fortnight after spawning."--WALTON: _ib., w. Roach_. "A friend of mine stored a pond of three or four acres with _carps_ and _tench_."--HALE: _ib., w. Carp_. "Having stored a very great pond with _carps, tench_, and other _pond-fish_, and only put in two small _pikes_, this pair of tyrants in seven years devoured the whole."--_Id., ib., w. Tench_. "Singular, _tench_; plural, _tenches_."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 78. "The polar bear preys upon _seals, fish_, and the carcasses of _whales_."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 172. "_Trouts_ and _salmons_ swim against the stream."--BACON: _Ward's Gram._, p. 130. "'Tis true no _turbots_ dignify my boards, But _gudgeons, flounders_, what my Thames affords."--_Pope_. OBS. 38.--Prom the foregoing examples it would seem, if fish or fishes are often spoken of without a regular distinction of the grammatical numbers, it is not because the words are not susceptible of the inflection, but because there is some difference of meaning between the mere name of the sort and the distinct modification in regard to number. There are also other nouns in which a like difference may be observed. Some names of building materials, as _brick, stone, plank, joist_, though not destitute of regular plurals, as _bricks, stones, planks, joists_, and not unadapted to ideas distinctly singular, as _a brick, a stone, a plank, a joist_, are nevertheless sometimes used in a plural sense without the _s_, and sometimes in a sense which seems hardly to embrace the idea of either number; as, "Let us make _brick_, and burn _them_ thoroughly."--_Gen._, xi, 3. "And they had _brick_ for _stone_."--_Ib._ "The tale of _bricks_."--_Exod._, v, 8 and 18. "Make _brick_."--_Ib._, v, 16. "From your _bricks_."--_Ib._, v, 19. "Upon altars of _brick_."--_Isaiah_. lxv, 3. "The _bricks_ are fallen down."--_Ib._, ix, 10. The same variety of usage occurs in respect to a few other words, and sometimes perhaps without good reason; as, "Vast numbers of sea _fowl_ frequent the rocky cliffs."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 231. "Bullocks, sheep, and _fowls_."--_Ib._, p. 439. "_Cannon_ is used alike in both numbers."--_Everest's Gram._, p. 48. "_Cannon_ and _shot_ may be used in the singular or plural sense."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 37. "The column in the Place Vendome is one hundred and thirty-four feet high, and is made of the brass of the _cannons_ taken from the Austrians and Prussians."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 249. "As his _cannons_ roar."--_Dryden's Poems_, p. 81. "Twenty _shot_ of his greatest cannon."--CLARENDON: _Joh. Dict._ "Twenty _shots_" would here, I think, be more proper, though the word is not made plural when it means _little balls of lead_. "And _cannons_ conquer armies."--_Hudibras_, Part III, Canto iii, l. 249. "Healths to both kings, attended with the roar Of _cannons_ echoed from th' affrighted shore."--_Waller_, p. 7. OBS. 39.--Of foreign nouns, many retain their original plural; a few are defective; and some are redundant, because the English form is also in use. Our writers have laid many languages under contribution, and thus furnished an abundance of irregular words, necessary to be explained, but never to be acknowledged as English till they conform to our own rules. 1. Of nouns in _a, saliva_, spittle, and _scoria_, dross, have no occasion for the plural; _lamina_, a thin plate, makes _laminæ_; _macula_, a spot, _maculæ_; _minutia_, a little thing, _minutiæ_; _nebula_, a mist, _nebulæ_; _siliqua_, a pod, _siliqiuæ_. _Dogma_ makes _dogmas_ or _dogmata_; _exanthema, exanthemas_ or _exanthemata_; _miasm_ or _miasma, miasms_ or _miasmata_; _stigma, stigmas_ or _stigmata_. 2. Of nouns in _um_, some have no need of the plural; as, _bdellium, decorum, elysium, equilibrium, guaiacum, laudanum, odium, opium, petroleum, serum, viaticum_. Some form it regularly; as, _asylums, compendiums, craniums, emporiums, encomiums, forums, frustums, lustrums, mausoleums, museums, pendulums, nostrums, rostrums, residuums, vacuums_. Others take either the English or the Latin plural; as, _desideratums_ or _desiderata, mediums_ or _media, menstruums_ or _menstrua, memorandums_ or _memoranda, spectrums_ or _spectra, speculums_ or _specula, stratums_ or _strata, succedaneums_ or _succedanea, trapeziums_ or _trapezia, vinculums_ or _vincula_. A few seem to have the Latin plural only: as, _arcanum, arcana; datum, data; effluvium, effluvia; erratum, errata; scholium, scholia_. 3. Of nouns in _us_, a few have no plural; as, _asparagus, calamus, mucus_. Some have only the Latin plural, which usually changes _us_ to _i_; as, _alumnus, alumni; androgynus, androgyni; calculus, calculi; dracunculus, dracunculi; echinus, echini; magus, magi_. But such as have properly become English words, may form the plural regularly in _es_; as, _chorus, choruses_: so, _apparatus, bolus, callus, circus, fetus, focus, fucus, fungus, hiatus, ignoramus, impetus, incubus, isthmus, nautilus, nucleus, prospectus, rebus, sinus, surplus_. Five of these make the Latin plural like the singular; but the mere English scholar has no occasion to be told which they are. _Radius_ makes the plural _radii_ or _radiuses_. _Genius_ has _genii_, for imaginary spirits, and _geniuses_, for men of wit. _Genus_, a sort, becomes _genera_ in Latin, and _genuses_ in English. _Denarius_ makes, in the plural, _denarii_ or _denariuses_. 4. Of nouns in _is_, some are regular; as, _trellis, trellises_: so, _annolis, butteris, caddis, dervis, iris, marquis, metropolis, portcullis, proboscis_. Some seem to have no need of the plural; as, _ambergris, aqua-fortis, arthritis, brewis, crasis, elephantiasis, genesis, orris, siriasis, tennis_. But most nouns of this ending follow the Greek or Latin form, which simply changes _is_ to _=es_: as, _amanuensis, amanuenses; analysis, analyses; antithesis, antitheses; axis, axes; basis, bases; crisis, crises; diæresis, diæreses; diesis, dieses; ellipsis, ellipses; emphasis, emphases; fascis, fasces; hypothesis, hypotheses; metamorphosis, metamorphoses; oasis, oases; parenthesis, parentheses; phasis, phases; praxis, praxes; synopsis, synopses; synthesis, syntheses; syrtis, syrtes; thesis, theses_. In some, however, the original plural is not so formed; but is made by changing _is_ to _~ides_; as, _aphis, aphides; apsis, apsides; ascaris, ascarides; bolis, bolides; cantharis, cantharides; chrysalis, chrysalides; ephemeris, ephemerides; epidermis, epidermides_. So _iris_ and _proboscis_, which we make regular; and perhaps some of the foregoing may be made so too. Fisher writes _Praxises_ for _praxes_, though not very properly. See his _Gram_, p. v. _Eques_, a Roman knight, makes _equites_ in the plural. 5. Of nouns in _x_, there are few, if any, which ought not to form the plural regularly, when used as English words; though the Latins changed _x_ to _ces_, and _ex_ to _ices_, making the _i_ sometimes long and sometimes short: as, _apex, apices_, for _apexes; appendix, appendices_, for _appendixes; calix, calices_, for _calixes_; _calx, calces_, for _calxes; calyx, calyces_, for _calyxes; caudex, caudices_, for _caudexes; cicatrix, cicatrices_, for _cicatrixes; helix, helices_, for _helixes; index, indices_, for _indexes; matrix, matrices_, for _matrixes; quincunx, quincunces_, for _quincunxes; radix, radices_, for _radixes; varix, varices_, for _varixes; vertex, vertices_, for _vertexes; vortex, vortices_, for _vortexes_. Some Greek words in _x_ change that letter to _ges_; as, _larynx, larynges_, for _larinxes; phalanx, phalanges_, for _phalanxes_. _Billet-doux_, from the French, is _billets-doux_ in the plural. 6. Of nouns in _on_, derived from Greek, the greater part always form the plural regularly; as, _etymons, gnomons, ichneumons, myrmidons, phlegmons, trigons, tetragons, pentagons, hexagons, heptagons, octagons, enneagons, decagons, hendecagons, dodecagons, polygons_. So _trihedrons, tetrahedrons, pentahedrons_, &c., though some say, these last may end in _dra_, which I think improper. For a few words of this class, however, there are double plurals in use; as, _automata_ or _atomatons, criteria_ or _criterions, parhelia_ or _parhelions_; and the plural of _phenomenon_ appears to be always _phenomena_. 7. The plural of _legumen_ is _legumens_ or _legumina_; of _stamen, stamens_ or _stamina_: of _cherub, cherubs_ or _cherubim_; of _seraph, seraphs_ or _seraphim_; of _beau, beaus_ or _beaux_; of _bandit, bandits_ or _banditti_. The regular forms are in general preferable. The Hebrew plurals _cherubim_ and _seraphim_, being sometimes mistaken for singulars, other plurals have been formed from them; as, "And over it the _cherubims_ of glory."--_Heb_. ix, 5. "Then flow one of the _seraphims_ unto me."--_Isaiah_, vi, 6. Dr. Campbell remarks: "We are authorized, both by use and by analogy, to say either _cherubs_ and _seraphs_, according to the English idiom, or _cherubim_ and _seraphim_, according to the oriental. The former suits better the familiar, the latter the solemn style. I shall add to this remark," says he, "that, as the words _cherubim_ and _seraphim_ are plural, the terms _cherubims_ and _seraphims_, as expressing the plural, are quite improper."--_Phil. of Rhet._, p. 201. OBS. 40.--When other parts of speech become nouns, they either want the plural, or form it regularly,[158] like common nouns of the same endings; as, "His affairs went on at _sixes_ and _sevens_."--_Arbuthnot_. "Some mathematicians have proposed to compute by _twoes_; _others_, by _fours_; _others_, by _twelves_."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 81. "Three _fourths_, nine _tenths_."--_Ib._, p. 230. "Time's _takings_ and _leavings_."-- _Barton_. "The _yeas_ and _nays_."--_Newspaper_. "The _ays_ and _noes_."--_Ib._ "_Oes_ and _spangles_."--_Bacon_. "The _ins_ and the _outs_."--_Newspaper_."--We find it more safe against _outs_ and _doubles_."--_Printer's Gram._ "His _ands_ and his _ors_."--_Mott_. "One of the _buts_."--_Fowle_. "In raising the mirth of _stupids_."--_Steele_. "_Eatings, drinkings, wakings, sleepings, walkings, talkings, sayings, doings_--all were for the good of the public; there was not such a things as a secret in the town."--LANDON: _Keepsake_, 1833. "Her innocent _forsooths_ and _yesses_."--_Spect._, No. 266. "Henceforth my wooing mind shall be expressed In russet _yeas_ and honest kersey _noes_." --SHAK. See _Johnson's Dict., w. Kersey_. GENDERS. Genders, in grammar, are modifications that distinguish objects in regard to sex. There are three genders; the _masculine_, the _feminine_, and the _neuter_. The _masculine gender_ is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind; as, _man, father, king_. The _feminine gender_ is that which denotes persons or animals of the female kind; as, _woman, mother, queen_. The _neuter gender_ is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female; as, _pen, ink, paper_. Hence, names of males are masculine; names of females, feminine; and names of things inanimate, literally, neuter. Masculine nouns make regular feminines, when their termination is changed to _ess_: as, _hunter, huntress_; _prince, princess_; _lion, lioness_. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--The different genders in grammar are founded on the natural distinction of sex in animals, and on the absence of sex in other things. In English, they belong only to nouns and pronouns; and to these they are usually applied, not arbitrarily, as in some other languages, but agreeably to the order of nature. From this we derive a very striking advantage over those who use the gender differently, or without such rule; which is, that our pronouns are easy of application, and have a fine effect when objects are personified. Pronouns are of the same gender as the nouns for which they stand. OBS. 2.--Many nouns are equally applicable to both sexes; as, _cousin, friend, neighbour, parent, person, servant_. The gender of these is usually determined by the context; and they are to be called masculine or feminine accordingly. To such words, some grammarians have applied the unnecessary and improper term _common gender_. Murray justly observes, "There is no such gender belonging to the language. The business of parsing can be effectually performed, without having recourse to a _common gender_."--_Gram._, 8vo. p. 39. The term is more useful, and less liable to objection, as applied to the learned languages; but with us, whose genders _distinguish objects in regard to sex_, it is plainly a solecism. OBS. 3.--A great many of our grammars define gender to be "_the distinction of sex_," and then speak of a _common gender_, in which the two sexes are left _undistinguished_; and of the _neuter gender_, in which objects are treated as being of _neither sex_. These views of the matter are obviously inconsistent. Not genders, or a gender, do the writers undertake to define, but "gender" as a whole; and absurdly enough, too; because this whole of gender they immediately distribute into certain _other genders_, into genders of gender, or kinds of gender, and these not compatible with their definition. Thus Wells: "Gender is _the distinction_ of objects, with regard to sex. There are four genders;--the _masculine_, the _feminine_, the _common_, and the _neuter_."--_School Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 49. [Those] "Nouns which are applicable _alike to both sexes_, are of the _common_ gender."--_Ib._ This then is manifestly no gender under the foregoing definition, and the term _neuter_ is made somewhat less appropriate by the adoption of a third denomination before it. Nor is there less absurdity in the phraseology with which Murray proposes to avoid the recognition of the _common gender_: "Thus we may say, _Parents_ is a noun of the _masculine and feminine_ gender; _Parent_, if doubtful, is of the _masculine or feminine_ gender; and _Parent_, if the gender is known by the construction, is of the gender so ascertained."--_Gram._, 8vo, p. 39. According to this, we must have _five genders_, exclusive of that which is called _common_; namely, the _masculine_, the _feminine_, the _neuter_, the _androgynal_, and the _doubtful_. OBS. 4.--It is plain that many writers on grammar have had but a confused notion of what a gender really is. Some of them, confounding gender with sex, deny that there are more than two genders, because there are only two sexes. Others, under a like mistake, resort occasionally, (as in the foregoing instance,) to an _androgynal_, and also to a _doubtful_ gender: both of which are more objectionable than the _common gender_ of the old grammarians; though this _common_ "distinction with regard to sex," is, in our language, confessedly, no distinction at all. I assume, that there are in English the three genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter, and no more; and that every noun and every pronoun must needs be of some gender; consequently, of some one of these three. A gender is, literally, a sort, a kind, a sex. But genders, _in grammar_, are attributes of words, rather than of persons, or animals, or things; whereas sexes are attributes, not of words, but of living creatures. He who understands this, will perceive that the absence of sex in some things, is as good a basis for a grammatical distinction, as the presence or the difference of it in others; nor can it be denied, that the neuter, according to my definition, is a gender, is a distinction "in _regard_ to sex," though it does not embrace either of the sexes. There are therefore three genders, and only three. OBS. 5.--Generic names, even when construed as masculine or feminine, often virtually include both sexes; as, "Hast thou given _the horse_ strength? hast thou clothed _his_ neck with thunder? Canst thou make _him_ afraid as a grasshopper? the glory of _his_ nostrils is terrible."--_Job_, xxxix, 19. "Doth _the hawk_ fly by thy wisdom, and stretch _her_ wings toward the south? Doth _the eagle_ mount up at thy command, and make _her_ nest on high?"--_Ib._, ver. 26. These were called, by the old grammarians, _epicene_ nouns--that is, _supercommon_; but they are to be parsed each according to the gender of the pronoun which is put for it. OBS. 6.--The gender of words, in many instances, is to be determined by the following principle of universal grammar. Those terms which are equally applicable to both sexes, (if they are not expressly applied to females,) and those plurals which are known to include both sexes, should be called masculine in parsing; for, in all languages, the masculine gender is considered the most worthy,[159] and is generally employed when both sexes are included under one common term. Thus _parents_ is always masculine, and must be represented by a masculine pronoun, for the gender of a word is a property indivisible, and that which refers to the male sex, always takes the lead in such cases. If one say, "Joseph took _the young child and his mother_ by night, and fled with _them_ into Egypt," the pronoun _them_ will be masculine; but let "_his_" be changed to _its_, and the plural pronoun that follows, will be feminine. For the feminine gender takes precedence of the neuter, but not of the masculine; and it is not improper to speak of a young child without designating the sex. As for such singulars as _parent, friend, neighbour, thief, slave_, and many others, they are feminine when expressly applied to any of the female sex; but otherwise, masculine. OBS. 7.--Nouns of multitude, when they convey the idea of unity or take the plural form, are of the neuter gender; but when they convey the idea of plurality without the form, they follow the gender of the individuals which compose the assemblage. Thus a _congress_, a _council_, a _committee_, a _jury_, a _sort_, or a _sex_, if taken collectively, is neuter; being represented in discourse by the neuter pronoun _it_: and the formal plurals, _congresses, councils, committees, juries, sorts, sexes_, of course, are neuter also. But, if I say, "The committee disgraced _themselves_," the noun and pronoun are presumed to be masculine, unless it be known that I am speaking of a committee of females. Again: "The _fair sex, whose_ task is not to mingle in the labours of public life, have _their_ own part assigned _them_ to act."--_Comly's Gram._, p. 132. Here _sex_, and the three pronouns which have that word for their antecedent, are all feminine. Again: "_Each sex_, dressing _themselves_ in the clothes of the other."--_Wood's Dictionary_, v. _Feast of Purim_. Here _sex_, and the pronoun which follows, are masculine; because, the male sex, as well as the female, is here spoken of plurally. OBS. 8.--To _persons_, of every description, known or unknown, real or imaginary, we uniformly ascribe sex.[160] But, as personality implies intelligence, and sex supposes some obvious difference, a _young child_ may be spoken of with distinction of sex or without, according to the notion of the speaker; as, "I went to see the _child_ whilst they were putting on _its cloaths_."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 125. "Because the _child_ has no idea of any nurse besides _his_ own."--_Ib._, p. 153. To _brute animals_ also, the same distinction is generally applied, though with less uniformity. Some that are very small, have a gender which seems to be merely occasional and figurative; as, "Go to the _ant_, thou sluggard; consider _her_ ways, and be wise."--_Prov._, vi, 6. "The _spider_ taketh hold with _her_ hands, and is in kings' palaces."--_Prov._, xxx, 28. So the _bee_ is usually made feminine, being a little creature of admirable industry and economy. But, in general, irrational creatures whose sex is unknown, or unnecessary to be regarded, are spoken of as neuter; as, "And it became a _serpent_; and Moses fled from before _it_. And the Lord said unto Moses, Put forth thine hand, and take _it_ by the tail. And he put forth his hand and caught _it_, and _it_ became a rod in his hand."--_Exod._, iv, 3, 4. Here, although the word _serpent_ is sometimes masculine, the neuter pronoun seems to be more proper. So of some imaginary creatures: as, "_Phenix_, the fowl which is said to exist single, and to rise again from _its_ own ashes."--_Webster's Dict._ "So shall the _Phoenix_ escape, with no stain on _its_ plumage."--_Dr. Bartlett's Lect._, p. 10. OBS. 9.--But this liberty of representing animals as of no sex, is often carried to a very questionable extent; as, "The _hare_ sleeps with _its_ eyes open."--_Barbauld_. "The _hedgehog_, as soon as _it_ perceives _itself_ attacked, rolls _itself_ into a kind of ball, and presents nothing but _its_ prickles to the foe."--_Blair's Reader_, p. 138. "The _panther_ is a ferocious creature: like the tiger _it_ seizes _its_ prey by surprise."--_Ib._, p. 102. "The _leopard_, in _its_ chace of prey, spares neither man nor beast."--_Ib._, p. 103. "If a man shall steal an _ox_, or a _sheep_, and kill _it_, or sell _it_."--_Exod._, xxii, 1. "A _dog_ resists _its_ instinct to run after a hare, because _it_ recollects the beating _it_ has previously received on that account. The _horse_ avoids the stone at which _it_ once has stumbled."--_Spurzheim, on Education_, p. 3. "The _racehorse_ is looked upon with pleasure; but it is the _warhorse_, that carries grandeur in _its_ idea."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 30. OBS. 10.--The sexes are distinguished _by words_, in four different ways. First, by the use of different terminations: as, _Jew, Jewess; Julius, Julia; hero, heroine_. Secondly, by the use of entirely different names: as, _Henry, Mary; king, queen_. Thirdly, by compounds or phrases including some distinctive term: as, _Mr. Murray, Mrs. Murray; Englishman, Englishwoman; grandfather, grandmother; landlord, landlady; merman, mermaid; servingman, servingmaid; man-servant, maid-servant; schoolmaster, schoolmistress; school-boy, school-girl; peacock, peahen; cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow; he-goat, she-goat; buck-rabbit, doe-rabbit; male elephant, female elephant; male convicts, female convicts_. Fourthly, by the pronouns _he, his, him_, put for nouns masculine; and _she, her, hers_, for nouns feminine: as, "Ask _him_ that fleeth, and _her_ that escapeth, and say, What is done?"--_Jer._, xlviii, 19. "O happy _peasant!_ Oh unhappy _bard!_ _His_ the mere tinsel, _hers_ the rich reward."--_Cowper_. OBS. 11.--For feminine nouns formed by inflection, the regular termination is _ess_; but the manner in which this ending is applied to the original or masculine noun, is not uniform:-- 1. In some instances the syllable _ess_ is simply added: as, _accuser, accuseress; advocate, advocatess; archer, archeress; author, authoress; avenger, avengeress; barber, barberess; baron, baroness; canon, canoness; cit, cittess;[161] coheir, coheiress; count, countess; deacon, deaconess; demon, demoness; diviner, divineress; doctor, doctoress; giant, giantess; god, goddess; guardian, guardianess; Hebrew, Hebrewess; heir, heiress; herd, herdess; hermit, hermitess; host, hostess; Jesuit, Jesuitess; Jew, Jewess; mayor, mayoress; Moabite, Moabitess; monarch, monarchess; pape, papess_; or, _pope, popess; patron, patroness; peer, peeress; poet, poetess; priest, priestess; prior, prioress; prophet, prophetess; regent, regentess; saint, saintess; shepherd, shepherdess; soldier, soldieress; tailor, tailoress; viscount, viscountess; warrior, warrioress_. 2. In other instances, the termination is changed, and there is no increase of syllables: as, _abbot, abbess; actor, actress; adulator, adulatress; adulterer, adulteress; adventurer, adventuress; advoutrer, advoutress; ambassador, ambassadress; anchorite, anchoress_; or, _anachoret, anachoress; arbiter, arbitress; auditor, auditress; benefactor, benefactress; caterer, cateress; chanter, chantress; cloisterer, cloisteress; commander, commandress; conductor, conductress; creator, creatress; demander, demandress; detractor, detractress; eagle, eagless; editor, editress; elector, electress; emperor, emperess_, or _empress; emulator, emulatress; enchanter, enchantress; exactor, exactress; fautor, fautress; fornicator, fornicatress; fosterer, fosteress_, or _fostress; founder, foundress; governor, governess; huckster, huckstress_; or, _hucksterer, hucksteress; idolater, idolatress; inhabiter, inhabitress; instructor, instructress; inventor, inventress; launderer, launderess_, or _laundress; minister, ministress; monitor, monitress; murderer, murderess; negro, negress; offender, offendress; ogre, ogress; porter, portress; progenitor, progenitress; protector, protectress; proprietor, proprietress; pythonist, pythoness; seamster, seamstress; solicitor, solicitress; songster, songstress; sorcerer, sorceress; suitor, suitress; tiger, tigress; traitor, traitress; victor, victress; votary, votaress_. 3. In a few instances the feminine is formed as in Latin, by changing _or_ to _rix_; but some of these have also the regular form, which ought to be preferred: as, _adjutor, adjutrix; administrator, administratrix; arbitrator, arbitratrix; coadjutor, coadjutrix; competitor, competitress_, or _competitrix; creditor, creditrix; director, directress_, or _directrix; executor, executress_, or _executrix; inheritor, inheritress_, or _inheritrix; mediator, mediatress_, or _mediatrix; orator, oratress_, or _oratrix; rector, rectress_, or _rectrix; spectator, spectatress_, or _spectatrix; testator, testatrix; tutor, tutoress_, or _tutress_, or _tutrix; deserter, desertress_, or _desertrice_, or _desertrix_. 4. The following are irregular words, in which the distinction of sex is chiefly made by the termination: _amoroso, amorosa: archduke, archduchess; chamberlain, chambermaid; duke, duchess; gaffer, gammer; goodman, goody; hero, heroine; landgrave, landgravine; margrave, margravine; marquis, marchioness; palsgrave, palsgravine; sakeret, sakerhawk; sewer, sewster; sultan, sultana; tzar, tzarina; tyrant, tyranness; widower, widow_. OBS. 12.--The proper names of persons almost always designate their sex; for it has been found convenient to make the names of women different from those of men. We have also some appellatives which correspond to each other, distinguishing the sexes by their distinct application to each: as, _bachelor, maid; beau, belle; boy, girl; bridegroom, bride; brother, sister; buck, doe; boar, sow; bull, cow; cock, hen; colt, filly; dog, bitch; drake, duck; earl, countess; father, mother; friar, nun; gander, goose; grandsire, grandam; hart, roe; horse, mare; husband, wife; king, queen; lad, lass; lord, lady; male, female; man, woman; master, mistress_; Mister, Missis; (Mr., Mrs.;) _milter, spawner; monk, nun; nephew, niece; papa, mamma; rake, jilt; ram, ewe; ruff, reeve; sire, dam; sir, madam; sloven, slut; son, daughter; stag, hind; steer, heifer; swain, nymph; uncle, aunt; wizard, witch; youth, damsel; young man, maiden_. OBS. 13.--The people of a particular country are commonly distinguished by some name derived from that of their country; as, _Americans, Africans, Egyptians, Russians, Turks_. Such words are sometimes called _gentile names_. There are also adjectives, of the same origin, if not the same form, which correspond with them. "Gentile names are for the most part considered as masculine, and the feminine is denoted by the gentile adjective and the noun _woman_: as, a _Spaniard_, a _Spanish woman_; a _Pole_, or _Polander_, a _Polish woman_. But, in a few instances, we always use a compound of the adjective with _man_ or _woman_: as, an _Englishman_, an _Englishwoman_; a _Welshman_, a _Welshwoman_; an _Irishman_, an _Irishwoman_; a _Frenchman_, a _Frenchwoman_; a _Dutchman_, a _Dutchwoman_: and in these cases the adjective is employed as the collective noun; as, _the Dutch, the French_, &c. A _Scotchman_, and a _Scot_, are both in use; but the latter is not common in prose writers: though some employ it, and these generally adopt the plural, _Scots_, with the definite article, as the collective term."--_Churchill's New Gram._, p. 70. OBS. 14.--The names of things without life, used literally, are always of the neuter gender: as, "When Cleopatra fled, Antony pursued her in a five-oared galley; and, coming along side of her _ship_, entered _it_ without being seen by her."--_Goldsmith's Rome_, p. 160. "The _sun_, high as _it_ is, has _its_ business assigned; and so have the stars."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 138. But inanimate objects are often represented figuratively as having sex. Things remarkable for power, greatness, or sublimity, are spoken of as masculine; as, the _sun, time, death, sleep, fear, anger, winter, war_. Things beautiful, amiable, or prolific, are spoken of as feminine; as, a _ship_, the _moon_, the _earth, nature, fortune, knowledge, hope, spring, peace_. Figurative gender is indicated only by the personal pronouns of the singular number: as, "When we say of the _sun, He_ is setting; or of a _ship, She_ sails well."--_L. Murray_. For these two objects, the _sun_ and a _ship_, this phraseology is so common, that the literal construction quoted above is rarely met with. OBS. 15.--When any inanimate object or abstract quality is distinctly personified, and presented to the imagination in the character of a living and intelligent being, there is necessarily a change of the gender of the word; for, whenever personality is thus ascribed to what is literally neuter, there must be an assumption of one or the other sex: as, "_The Genius of Liberty_ is awakened, and springs up; _she_ sheds her divine light and creative powers upon the two hemispheres. A great _nation_, astonished at seeing _herself_ free, stretches _her_ arms from one extremity of the earth to the other, and embraces the first nation that became so."--_Abbé Fauchet_. But there is an inferior kind of personification, or of what is called such, in which, so far as appears, the gender remains neuter: as, "The following is an instance of personification and apostrophe united: 'O _thou sword_ of the Lord! how long will it be ere _thou_ be quiet? put _thyself_ up into _thy_ scabbard, rest, and be still! How can _it_ be quiet, seeing the Lord hath given _it_ a charge against Askelon, and against the sea-shore? there hath he appointed _it_.'"--_Murray's Gram._, p. 348. See _Jer._, xlvii, 6. OBS. 16.--If what is called personification, does not always imply a change of gender and an ascription of sex, neither does a mere ascription of sex to what is literally of no sex, necessarily imply a personification; for there may be sex without personality, as we see in brute animals. Hence the gender of a brute animal personified in a fable, may be taken literally as before; and the gender which is figuratively ascribed to the _sun_, the _moon_, or a _ship_, is merely metaphorical. In the following sentence, _nature_ is animated and made feminine by a metaphor, while a lifeless object bearing the name of _Venus_, is spoken of as neuter: "Like that conceit of old, which declared that the _Venus of Gnidos_ was not the work of Praxiteles, since _nature herself_ had concreted the boundary surface of _its_ beauty."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. xxv. OBS. 17.--"In personifications regard must be had to propriety in determining the gender. Of most of the passions and moral qualities of man the ancients formed deities, as they did of various other things: and, when these are personified, they are usually made male or female, according as they were gods or goddesses in the pagan mythology. The same rule applies in other cases: and thus the planet Jupiter will be masculine; Venus, feminine: the ocean, _Oce=anus_, masculine: rivers, months, and winds, the same: the names of places, countries, and islands, feminine."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 71. OBS. 18.--These suggestions are worthy of consideration, but, for the gender which ought to be adopted in personifications, there seems to be no absolute general rule, or none which English writers have observed with much uniformity. It is well, however, to consider what is most common in each particular case, and abide by it. In the following examples, the sex ascribed is not that under which these several objects are commonly figured; for which reason, the sentences are perhaps erroneous:-- "_Knowledge_ is proud that _he_ has learn'd so much; _Wisdom_ is humble that _he_ knows no more."--_Cowper_. "But hoary _Winter_, unadorned and bare, Dwells in the dire retreat, and freezes there; There _she_ assembles all her blackest storms, And the rude hail in rattling tempests forms."--_Addison_. "_Her_ pow'r extends o'er all things that have breath, A cruel tyrant, and _her_ name is _Death_."--_Sheffield_. CASES. Cases, in grammar, are modifications that distinguish the relations of nouns or pronouns to other words. There are three cases; the _nominative_, the _possessive_, and the _objective_. The _nominative case_ is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb: as, The _boy_ runs; _I_ run. The subject of a finite verb is that which answers to _who_ or _what_ before it; as, "The boy runs."--_Who_ runs? "The _boy_." Boy is therefore here in the _nominative_ case. The _possessive case_ is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the relation of property: as, The _boy's_ hat; _my_ hat. The possessive case of nouns is formed, in the singular number, by adding to the nominative _s preceded by an apostrophe_; and, in the plural, when the nominative ends in _s_, by adding _an apostrophe only_: as, singular, _boy's_; plural, _boys'_;--sounded alike, but written differently. The _objective case_ is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition: as, I know the _boy_, having seen _him_ at _school_; and he knows _me_. The object of a verb, participle, or preposition, is that which answers to _whom_ or _what_ after it; as, "I know the boy."--I know _whom_? "The boy." _Boy_ is therefore here in the _objective_ case. The nominative and the objective of nouns, are always alike in form, being distinguishable from each other only by their place in a sentence, or by their simple dependence according to the sense. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--The cases, in grammar, are founded on the different relations under which things are represented in discourse; and from which the words acquire correspondent relations; or connexions and dependences according to the sense. In Latin, there are six cases; and in Greek, five. Consequently, the nouns and pronouns of those languages, and also their adjectives and participles, (which last are still farther inflected by the three genders,) are varied by many different terminations unknown to our tongue. In English, those modifications or relations which we call cases, belong only to nouns and pronouns; nor are there ever more than three. Pronouns are not necessarily like their antecedents in case. OBS. 2.--Because the infinitive mood, a phrase, or a sentence, may in some instances be made the subject of a verb, so as to stand in that relation in which the nominative case is most commonly found; very many of our grammarians have deliberately represented all terms used in this manner, as being "_in the nominative case_:" as if, to sustain any one of the relations which are usually distinguished by a particular case, must necessarily constitute that modification itself. Many also will have participles, infinitives, phrases, and sentences, to be occasionally "_in the objective case_:" whereas it must be plain to every reader, that they are, all of them, _indeclinable_ terms; and that, if used in any relation common to nouns or pronouns, they assume that office, as participles, as infinitives, as phrases, or as sentences, and not as _cases_. They no more take the nature of cases, than they become nouns or pronouns. Yet Nixon, by assuming that _of_, with the word governed by it, constitutes a _possessive case_, contrives to give to participles, and even to the infinitive mood, _all three of the cases_. Of the infinitive, he says, "An examination of the first and second methods of parsing this mood, must naturally lead to the inference that _it is a substantive_; and that, if it has the nominative case, it must also have the possessive and objective cases of a substantive. The fourth method proves its [capacity of] being in the possessive case: thus, 'A desire _to learn_;' that is, '_of learning_.' When it follows a participle, or a verb, as by the fifth or [the] seventh method, it is in the objective case. Method sixth is analogous to the Case Absolute of a substantive."--_Nixon's Parser_, p. 83. If the infinitive mood is really a _declinable substantive_, none of our grammarians have placed it in the right chapter; except that bold contemner of all grammatical and literary authority, Oliver B. Peirce. When will the cause of learning cease to have assailants and underminers among those who profess to serve it? Thus every new grammatist, has some grand absurdity or other, peculiar to himself; and what can be more gross, than to talk of English infinitives and participles as being in the _possessive case_? OBS. 3.--It was long a subject of dispute among the grammarians, what number of cases an English noun should be supposed to have. Some, taking the Latin language for their model, and turning certain phrases into cases to fill up the deficits, were for having _six_ in each number; namely, the nominative, the genitive, the dative, the accusative, the vocative, and the ablative. Others, contending that a case in grammar could be nothing else than a terminational inflection, and observing that English nouns have but one case that differs from the nominative in form, denied that there were more than two, the nominative and the possessive. This was certainly an important question, touching a fundamental principle of our grammar; and any erroneous opinion concerning it, might well go far to condemn the book that avouched it. Every intelligent teacher must see this. For what sense could be made of parsing, without supposing an objective case to nouns? or what propriety could there be in making the words, _of_, and _to_, and _from_, govern or compose three different cases? Again, with what truth can it be said, that nouns have _no cases_ in English? or what reason can be assigned for making more than three? OBS. 4.--Public opinion is now clear in the decision, that it is _expedient_ to assign to English nouns three cases, and no more; and, in a matter of this kind, what is expedient for the purpose of instruction, is right. Yet, from the works of our grammarians, may be quoted every conceivable notion, right or wrong, upon this point. Cardell, with Tooke and Gilchrist on his side, contends that English nouns have _no cases_. Brightland averred that they have neither cases nor genders.[162] Buchanan, and the author of the old British Grammar, assigned to them _one_ case only, the possessive, or genitive. Dr. Adam also says, "In English, nouns have _only one case_, namely, the genitive, or possessive case."--_Latin and Eng. Gram._, p. 7. W. B. Fowle has two cases, but rejects the word _case_: "We use the simple term _agent_ for a _noun that acts_, and _object_ for the object of an action."--_Fowle's True Eng. Gram._, Part II, p. 68. Spencer too discards the word _case_, preferring "_form_," that he may merge in one the nominative and the objective, giving to nouns _two_ cases, but neither of these. "Nouns have _two Forms_, called the _Simple_ and [the] _Possessive_."--_Spencer's E. Gram._, p. 30. Webber's Grammar, published at Cambridge in 1832, recognizes but _two_ cases of nouns, declaring the objective to be "altogether superfluous."--P. 22. "Our substantives have no more cases than two."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 14. "A Substantive doth not properly admit of more than two cases: the Nominative, and the Genitive."--_Ellen Devis's Gram._, p. 19. Dr. Webster, in his Philosophical Grammar, of 1807, and in his Improved Grammar, of 1831, teaches the same doctrine, but less positively. This assumption has also had the support of Lowth, Johnson, Priestley, Ash, Bicknell, Fisher, Dalton, and our celebrated Lindley Murray.[163] In Child's or Latham's English Grammar, 1852, it is said, "The cases in the present English are three:--1. Nominative; 2. Objective; 3. Possessive." But this seems to be meant of pronouns only; for the next section affirms, "The _substantives_ in English _have only two_ out of the three cases."--See pp. 79 and 80. Reckless of the current usage of grammarians, and even of self-consistency, both author and reviser will have no objective case of nouns, because this is like the nominative; yet, finding an objective set after "the adjective _like_," they will recognize it as "_a dative_ still existing in English!"--See p. 156. Thus do they forsake their own enumeration of cases, as they had before, in all their declensions, forsaken the new order in which they had at first so carefully set them! OBS. 5.--For the _true_ doctrine of _three_ cases, we have the authority of Murray, in his later editions; of Webster, in his "Plain and Comp. Grammar, grounded on _True Principles_," 1790; also in his "Rudiments of English Grammar," 1811; together with the united authority of Adams, Ainsworth, Alden, Alger, Bacon, Barnard, Bingham, Burr, Bullions, Butler, Churchill, Chandler, Cobbett, Cobbin, Comly, Cooper, Crombie, Davenport, Davis, Fisk, A. Flint, Frost, Guy, Hart, Hiley, Hull, Ingersoll, Jaudon, Kirkham, Lennie, Mack, M'Culloch, Maunder, Merchant, Nixon, Nutting, John Peirce, Perley, Picket, Russell, Smart, R. C. Smith, Rev. T. Smith, Wilcox, and I know not how many others. OBS. 6.--Dearborn, in 1795, recognized _four_ cases: "the nominative, the possessive, the objective, and the absolute."--_Columbian Gram._, pp. 16 and 20. Charles Bucke, in his work misnamed "A Classical Grammar of the English Language," published in London in 1829, asserts, that, "Substantives in English do not vary their terminations;" yet he gives them _four_ cases; "the nominative, the genitive, the accusative, and the vocative." So did Allen, in a grammar much more classical, dated, London, 1813. Hazen, in 1842, adopted "four cases; namely, the nominative, the possessive, the objective, and the independent."--_Hazen's Practical Gram._, p. 35. Mulligan, since, has chosen these four: "Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative."--_Structure of E. Lang._, p. 185. And yet his case after _to_ or _for_ is _not_ "_dative_," but "_accusative!_"-- _Ib._, p. 239. So too, Goodenow, of Maine, makes the cases four: "the _subjective_,[164] the _possessive_, the _objective_, and the _absolute_."--_Text-Book_, p. 31. Goldsbury, of Cambridge, has also four: "the Nominative, the Possessive, the Objective, and the Vocative."--_Com. S. Gram._, p. 13. Three other recent grammarians,--Wells, of Andover,-- Weld, of Portland,--and Clark, of Bloomfield, N. Y.,--also adopt "_four_ cases;--the _nominative_, the _possessive_, the _objective_, and the _independent_."--_Wells's Gram._, p. 57; _Weld's_, 60; _Clark's_, 49. The first of these gentlemen argues, that, "Since a noun or pronoun, used _independently_, cannot at the same time be employed as 'the subject of a verb,' there is a manifest impropriety in regarding it as a _nominative_." It might as well be urged, that a nominative after a verb, or in apposition with an other, is, for this reason, not a _nominative_. He also cites this argument: "'Is there not as much difference between the _nominative_ and [the] _independent_ case, as there is between the _nominative_ and [the] _objective?_ If so, why class them together as _one_ case?'--_S. R. Hall_."--_Wells's School Gram._, p. 51. To this I answer, No. "The nominative is that case which _primely denotes the name_ of any person or thing;" (_Burn's Gram._, p. 36;) and _this only_ it is, that can be absolute, or independent, in English. This scheme of four cases is, in fact, a grave innovation. As authority for it, Wells cites Felton; and bids his readers, "See also Kennion, Parkhurst, Fowle, Flint, Goodenow, Buck, Hazen, Goldsbury, Chapin, S. Alexander, and P. Smith."--Page 57. But is the fourth case of these authors _the same_ as his? Is it a case which "has usually the nominative form," but admits occasionally of "_me_" and "_him_," and embraces objective nouns of "_time, measure, distance, direction_, or _place_?" No. Certainly one half of them, and probably more, give little or no countenance to _such_ an independent case as he has adopted. Parkhurst admitted but three cases; though he thought _two others_ "might be an improvement." What Fowle has said in support of Wells's four cases, I have sought with diligence, and not found. Felton's "independent case" is only what he absurdly calls, "_The noun or pronoun addressed_."-- Page 91. Bucke and Goldsbury acknowledge "_the nominative case absolute_;" and none of the twelve, so far as I know, admit any objective word, or what others call objective, to be independent or absolute, except perhaps Goldsbury. OBS. 7.--S. R. Hall, formerly principal of the Seminary for Teachers at Andover, (but no great grammarian,) in 1832, published a manual, called "The Grammatical Assistant;" in which he says, "There are _at least five cases_, belonging to English nouns, differing as much from _each_ other, as the cases of Latin and Greek nouns. They may be called Nominative, Possessive, Objective, Independent and Absolute."--P. 7. O. B. Peirce will have both nouns and pronouns to be used in _five cases_, which he thus enumerates: "Four simple cases; the Subjective, Possessive, Objective, and the Independent; and the Twofold case."--_Gram._, p. 42. But, on page 56th, he speaks of a "twofold _subjective_ case," "the twofold _objective_ case," and shows how the _possessive_ may be twofold also; so that, without taking any of the Latin cases, or even all of Hall's, he really recognizes as many as seven, if not eight. Among the English grammars which assume all the _six cases_ of the Latin Language, are Burn's, Coar's, Dilworth's, Mackintosh's, Mennye's, Wm. Ward's, and the "Comprehensive Grammar," a respectable little book, published by Dobson of Philadelphia, in 1789, but written by somebody in England. OBS. 8.--Of the English grammars which can properly be said to be _now in use_, a very great majority agree in ascribing to nouns three cases, and three only. This, I am persuaded, is the best number, and susceptible of the best defence, whether we appeal to authority, or to other argument. The disputes of grammarians make no small part of the _history of grammar_; and in submitting to be guided by their decisions, it is proper for us to consider what _degree of certainty_ there is in the rule, and what difference or concurrence there is among them: for, the teaching of any other than the best opinions, is not the teaching of science, come from what quarter it may. On the question respecting the objective case of nouns, Murray and Webster _changed sides with each other_; and that, long after they first appeared as grammarians. Nor was this the only, or the most important instance, in which the different editions of the works of these two gentlemen, present them in opposition, both to themselves and to each other. "What cases are there in English? The _nominative_, which usually stands before a verb; as, the _boy_ writes: The _possessive_, which takes an _s_ with a _comma_, and denotes property; as, _John's_ hat: The _objective_, which follows a verb or preposition; as, he honors _virtue_, or it is an honor to _him_."--_Webster's Plain and Comp. Gram., Sixth Edition_, 1800, p. 9. "But for convenience, the two positions of nouns, one _before_, the other _after_ the verb, are called _cases_. There are then three cases, the _nominative, possessive_, and _objective_."--_Webster's Rudiments of Gram._, 1811, p. 12. "In English therefore names have two cases only, the _nominative_ or simple name, and the _possessive_."-- _Webster's Philosoph. Gram._, 1807, p. 32: also his _Improved Gram._, 1831, p. 24. OBS. 9.--Murray altered his opinion after the tenth or eleventh edition of his duodecimo Grammar. His instructions stand thus: "In English, substantives have but two cases, the nominative, and [the] possessive or genitive."--_Murray's Gram. 12mo, Second Edition_, 1796, p. 35. "For the assertion, that there are in English but two cases of nouns, and three of pronouns, we have the authority of Lowth, Johnson, Priestley, &c. _names which are sufficient_ to decide this point."--_Ib._, p. 36. "In English, substantives have three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the objective."--_Murray's Gram., 12mo, Twenty-third Edition_, 1816, p. 44. "The author of this work _long doubted_ the propriety of assigning to English substantives an _objective case_: but a renewed critical examination of the subject; an examination to which he was prompted by the extensive and increasing demand for the grammar, has produced in his mind _a full persuasion_, that the nouns of our language are entitled to this comprehensive objective case."--_Ib._, p. 46. If there is any credit in changing one's opinions, it is, doubtless, in changing them for the better; but, of all authors, a grammarian has the most need critically to examine his subject before he goes to the printer. "This case was adopted in the _twelfth edition_ of the Grammar."--_Murray's Exercises_, 12mo, N. Y., 1818, p. viii. OBS. 10.--The _possessive case_ has occasioned no less dispute than the objective. On this vexed article of our grammar, custom has now become much more uniform than it was a century ago; and public opinion may be said to have settled most of the questions which have been agitated about it. Some individuals, however, are still dissatisfied. In the first place, against those who have thought otherwise, it is determined, by infinite odds of authority, that there _is such a case_, both of nouns and of pronouns. Many a common reader will wonder, who can have been ignorant enough to deny it. "The learned and sagacious Wallis, to whom every English grammarian owes a tribute of reverence, calls this modification of the noun an _adjective possessive_; I think, with no more propriety than he might have applied the same to the Latin genitive."--_Dr. Johnson's Gram._, p. 5. Brightland also, who gave to _adjectives_ the name of _qualities_, included all possessives among them, calling them "_Possessive Qualities_, or _Qualities of Possession_."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 90. OBS. 11.--This exploded error, William S. Cardell, a few years ago, republished as a novelty; for which, among other pretended improvements of a like sort, he received the ephemeral praise of some of our modern literati. William B. Fowle also teaches the same thing. See his _Common School Gram._, Part II, p. 104. In Felch's Grammar, too, published in Boston in 1837, an attempt is made, to revive this old doctrine; but the author takes no notice of any of the above-named authorities, being probably ignorant of them all. His _reasoning_ upon the point, does not appear to me to be worthy of a detailed answer.[165] That the possessive case of nouns is not an adjective, is demonstrable; because it may have adjectives of various kinds, relating to it: as, "_This old man's_ daughter."--_Shak._ It may also govern an other possessive; as, "_Peter's wife's_ mother."--_Bible_. Here the former possessive is governed by the latter; but, if both were adjectives, they would both relate to the noun _mother_, and so produce a confusion of ideas. Again, nouns of the possessive case have a distinction of number, which adjectives have not. In gender also, there lies a difference. Adjectives, whenever they are varied by gender or number, _agree with their nouns_ in these respects. Not so with possessives; as, "In the _Jews'_ religion."--_Gal._, i. 13. "The _children's_ bread."--_Mark_, vii, 27. "Some _men's_ sins."--_1 Tim._, v, 24. "Other _men's_ sins."--_Ib._, ver. 22. OBS. 12.--Secondly, general custom has clearly determined that the possessive case of _nouns_ is always to be written _with an apostrophe_: except in those few instances in which it is not governed singly by the noun following, but so connected with an other that both are governed jointly; as, "_Cato the Censor's_ doctrine,"--"_Sir Walter Scott's_ Works,"--"_Beaumont_ and _Fletcher's Plays._" This custom of using the apostrophe, however, has been opposed by many. Brightland, and Buchanan, and the author of the British Grammar, and some late writers in the Philological Museum, are among those who have successively taught, that the possessive case should be formed _like the nominative plural_, by adding _s_ when the pronunciation admits the sound, and _es_ when the word acquires an additional syllable. Some of these approve of the apostrophe, and others do not. Thus Brightland gives some examples, which are contrary to his rule, adopting that strange custom of putting the _s_ in Roman, and the name in Italic; "as, King _Charles_'s _Court_, and St. _James_'s _Park._"--_Gram. of the English Tongue_, p. 91. OBS. 13.--"The genitive case, in my opinion," says Dr. Ash, "might be much more properly formed by adding _s_, or when the pronunciation requires it, _es_, without an Apostrophe: as, _men, mens; Ox, Oxes; Horse, Horses; Ass, Asses._"--_Ash's Gram._, p. 23. "To write _Ox's, Ass's, Fox's_, and at the same time pronounce it _Oxes, Asses, Foxes_, is such a departure from the original formation, at least in writing, and such an inconsistent use of the Apostrophe, as cannot be equalled perhaps in any other language."--_Ib._ Lowth, too, gives some countenance to this objection: "It [i.e., _'God's grace'_] was formerly written _'Godis grace;'_ we now always shorten it with an apostrophe; often _very improperly_, when we are obliged to pronounce it fully; as, _'Thomas's_ book,' that is, '_Thomasis_ book,' not '_Thomas his_ book,' as it is commonly supposed."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 17. Whatever weight there may be in this argument, the objection has been overruled by general custom. The convenience of distinguishing, even to the eye alone, the numbers and cases of the noun, is found too great to be relinquished. If the declension of English nouns is ever to be amended, it cannot be done in this way. It is understood by every reader, that the _apostrophic s_ adds a syllable to the noun, whenever it will not unite with the sound in which the nominative ends; as, _torch's_, pronounced _torchiz_. "Yet time ennobles or degrades each line; It brightened _Craggs's_, and may darken thine."--_Pope._ OBS. 14.--The English possessive case unquestionably originated in that form of the Saxon genitive which terminates in _es_, examples of which may be found in almost any specimen of the Saxon tongue: as, "On _Herodes_ dagum,"--"In _Herod's_ days;"--"Of _Aarones_ dohtrum,"--"Of _Aaron's_ daughters."--_Luke_, i, 5. This ending was sometimes the same as that of the plural; and both were changed to _is_ or _ys_, before they became what we now find them. This termination added a syllable to the word; and Lowth suggests, in the quotation above, that the apostrophe was introduced to shorten it. But some contend, that the use of this mark originated in a mistake. It appears from the testimony of Brightland, Johnson, Lowth, Priestley, and others, who have noticed the error in order to correct it, that an opinion was long entertained, that the termination _'s_ was a contraction of the word _his_. It is certain that Addison thought so; for he expressly says it, in the 135th number of the Spectator. Accordingly he wrote, in lieu of the regular possessive, "My paper is _Ulysses his_ bow."--_Guardian_, No. 98. "Of _Socrates his_ rules of prayer."--_Spect._, No. 207. So Lowth quotes Pope: "By _young Telemachus his_ blooming years."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 17.[166] There is also one late author who says, "The _'s_ is a contraction of _his_, and was formerly written in full; as, William Russell _his_ book."--_Goodenow's Gram._, p. 32. This is undoubtedly bad English; and always was so, however common may have been the erroneous notion which gave rise to it. But the apostrophe, whatever may have been its origin, is now the acknowledged distinctive mark of the possessive case of English nouns. The application of the _'s_, frequently to feminines, and sometimes to plurals, is proof positive that it is _not a contraction_ of the pronoun _his_; as, "Now Jove suspends his golden scales in air, Weighs the _men's_ wits against the _Lady's_ hair." --_Pope_, R. of L., C. v, l. 72. OBS. 15.--Many of the old grammarians, and Guy, Pinneo, and Spencer, among the moderns, represent the regular formation of the possessive case as being the same in both numbers, supposing generally in the plural an abbreviation of the word by the omission of the second or syllabic _s_. That is, they suppose that such terms as _eagles' wings, angels' visits_, were written for _eagles's wings, angels's visits_, &c. This odd view of the matter accounts well enough for the fashion of such plurals as _men's, women's, children's_, and makes them regular. But I find no evidence at all of the fact on which these authors presume; nor do I believe that the regular possessive plural was ever, in general, a syllable longer than the nominative. If it ever had been so, it would still be easy to prove the point, by citations from ancient books. The general principle then is, that _the apostrophe forms the possessive case, with an s in the singular, and without it in the plural_; but there are some exceptions to this rule, on either hand; and these must be duly noticed. OBS. 16.--The chief exceptions, or irregularities, in the formation of the possessive _singular_, are, I think, to be accounted mere poetic licenses; and seldom, if ever, to be allowed in prose. Churchill, (closely copying Lowth,) speaks of them thus: "In poetry the _s_ is frequently omitted after proper names ending in _s_ or _x_ as, 'The wrath of _Peleus'_ son.' _Pope._ This is scarcely allowable in prose, though instances of it occur: as, '_Moses'_ minister.' _Josh._, i, 1. _'Phinehas'_ wife.' _1 Sam._, iv, 19. 'Festus came into _Felix'_ room.' _Acts_, xxiv, 27. It was done in prose evidently to avoid the recurrence of a sibilant sound at the end of two following syllables; but this may as readily be obviated by using the preposition _of_, which is now commonly substituted for the possessive case in most instances."--_Churchill's New Gram._, p. 215. In Scott's Bible, Philadelphia, 1814, the texts here quoted are all of them corrected, thus: "_Moses's_ minister,"--"_Phinehas's_ wife,"--"_Felix's_ room." But the phrase, "for _conscience_ sake," (_Rom._, xiii, 5,) is there given without the apostrophe. Alger prints it, "for _conscience'_ sake," which is better; and though not regular, it is a common form for this particular expression. Our common Bibles have this text: "And the weaned child shall put his hand on the _cockatrice'_ den."--_Isaiah_, xi, 8. Alger, seeing this to be wrong, wrote it, "on the _cockatrice-den_."--_Pronouncing Bible._ Dr. Scott, in his Reference Bible, makes this possessive regular, "on the _cockatrice's_ den." This is right. The Vulgate has it, "_in caverna reguli_;" which, however, is not classic Latin. After _z_ also, the poets sometimes drop the _s_: as, "Sad was the hour, and luckless was the day, When first from _Shiraz'_ walls I bent my way."--_Collins._ OBS. 17.--A recent critic, who, I think, has not yet learned to speak or write the possessive case of _his own name_ properly, assumes that the foregoing occasional or poetical forms are the only true ones for the possessive singular of such words. He says, "When the name _does end_ with the sound of _s_ or _z_, (no matter what letter represents the sound,) the possessive form _is made_ by annexing only an apostrophe."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 44. Agreeably to this rule, he letters his work, "_Peirce' Grammar_," and condemns, as bad English, the following examples and all others like them: "James _Otis's_ letters, General _Gates's_ command, General _Knox's_ appointment, Gov. _Meigs's_ promptness, Mr. _Williams's_ oration, The _witness's_ deposition."--_Ib._, p. 60. It is obvious that this gentleman's doctrine and criticism are as contrary to the common practice of all good authors, as they are to the common grammars, which he ridicules. Surely, such expressions as, "_Harris's_ Hermes, _Philips's_ Poems, _Prince's_ Bay, _Prince's_ Island, _Fox's_ Journal, King _James's_ edict, a _justice's_ warrant, _Sphinx's_ riddle, the _lynx's_ beam, the _lass's_ beauty," have authority enough to refute the cavil of this writer; who, being himself wrong, falsely charges the older grammarians, that," their theories vary from the principles of the language correctly spoken or written."--_Ib._, p. 60. A much more judicious author treats this point of grammar as follows: "When the possessive noun is singular, and terminates with an _s_, another _s_ is requisite after it, and the apostrophe must be placed between the two; as, '_Dickens's_ works,'--'_Harris's_ wit.'"--_Day's Punctuation, Third London Edition_, p. 136. The following example, too, is right: "I would not yield to be your _house's_ guest."--_Shakespeare_. OBS. 18.--All _plural_ nouns that differ from the singular without ending in _s_, form the possessive case in the same manner as the singular: as, _man's, men's; woman's, women's j child's, children's; brother's, brothers' or brethren's; ox's, oxen's; goose, geese's_. In two or three words which are otherwise alike in both numbers, the apostrophe ought to follow the _s_ in the plural, to distinguish it from the singular: as, the _sheep's_ fleece, the _sheeps'_ fleeces; a _neat's_ tongue, _neats'_ tongues; a _deer's_ horns, a load of _deers'_ horns. OBS. 19.--Dr. Ash says, "Nouns of the plural number that end in _s_, will not very properly admit of the genitive case."--_Ash's Gram._, p. 54. And Dr. Priestley appears to have been of the same opinion. See his _Gram._, p. 69. Lowth too avers, that the sign of the possessive case is "never added to the plural number ending in _s_."--_Gram._, p. 18. Perhaps he thought the plural sign must involve an other _s_, like the singular. This however is not true, neither is Dr. Ash's assertion true; for the New Testament speaks as properly of "the _soldiers'_ counsel," as of the "_centurion's_ servant;" of "the scribes that were of the _Pharisees'_ part," as of "_Paul's sister's_ son." It would appear, however, that the possessive plural is less frequently used than the possessive singular; its place being much oftener supplied by the preposition _of_ and the objective. We cannot say that either of them is absolutely necessary to the language; but they are both worthy to be commended, as furnishing an agreeable variety of expression. "Then shall _man's_ pride and dulness comprehend His _actions', passions', being's_ use and end."--_Pope_. OBS. 20.--The apostrophe was introduced into the possessive case, at least for the singular number, in some part of the seventeenth century. Its adoption for the plural, appears to have been later: it is not much used in books a hundred years old. In Buchanan's "Regular English Syntax," which was written, I know not exactly when, but near the middle of the eighteenth century, I find the following paragraph: "We have certainly a Genitive Plural, though there has been no Mark to distinguish it. The Warriors Arms, i. e. the Arms of the Warriors, is as much a Genitive Plural, as the Warrior's Arms, for the Arms of the Warrior is a Genitive Singular. To distinguish this Genitive Plural, especially to Foreigners, we might use the Apostrophe reversed, thus, the Warrior`s Arms, the Stone`s End, for the End of the Stones, the Grocer`s, Taylor`s, Haberdasher`s, &c. Company; for the Company of Grocers, Taylors, &c. The Surgeon`s Hall, for the Hall of the Surgeons; the Rider`s Names, for the Names of the Riders; and so of all Plural Possessives."--See _Buchan. Synt._, p. 111. Our present form of the possessive plural, being unknown to this grammarian, must have had a later origin; nor can it have been, as some imagine it was, an abbreviation of a longer and more ancient form. OBS. 21.--The apostrophic _s_ has often been added to nouns _improperly_; the words formed by it not being intended for the possessive singular, but for the nominative or objective plural. Thus we find such authors as Addison and Swift, writing _Jacobus's_ and _genius's_, for _Jacobuses_ and _geniuses_; _idea's, toga's_, and _tunica's_, for _ideas, togas_, and _tunicas_; _enamorato's_ and _virtuoso's_, for _enamoratoes_ and _virtuosoes_. Errors of this kind, should be carefully avoided. OBS. 22.--The apostrophe and _s_ are sometimes added to mere characters, to denote plurality, and not the possessive case; as, two _a_'s, three _b_'s, four 9's. These we cannot avoid, except by using the _names_ of the things: as, two _Aes_, three _Bees_, four _Nines_. "Laced down the sides with little _c_'s."--_Steele_. "Whenever two _gg_'s come together, they are both hard."--_Buchanan_. The names of _c_ and _g_, plural, are _Cees_ and _Gees_. Did these authors _know_ the words, or did they not? To have learned the _names_ of the letters, will be found on many occasions a great convenience, especially to critics. For example: "The pronunciation of these two consecutive _s's_ is hard."--_Webber's Gram._, p. 21. Better: "_Esses_." "_S_ and _x_, however, are exceptions. They are pluralyzed by adding _es_ preceded by a hyphen [-], as the _s-es_; the _x-es_."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 40. Better, use the _names, Ess_ and _Ex_, and pluralize thus: "the _Esses_; the _Exes_." "Make Q's of answers, to waylay What th' other party's like to say." --_Hudibras_, P. III, C. ii, l. 951. Here the cipher is to be read _Kues_, but it has not the meaning of this name merely. It is put either for the plural of _Q._, a _Question_, like D. D.'s, (read _Dee-Dees_,) for _Doctors of Divinity_; or else, more erroneously, for _cues_, the plural of _cue_, a turn which the next speaker catches. OBS. 23.--In the following example, the apostrophe and _s_ are used to give the sound of a _verb's_ termination, to words which the writer supposed were not properly verbs: "When a man in a soliloquy reasons with himself, and _pro's_ and _con's_, and weighs all his designs."--_Congreve_. But here, "_proes_ and _cons_," would have been more accurate. "We put the ordered number of _m's_ into our composing-stick."--_Printer's Gram._ Here "_Ems_" would have done as well. "All measures for _folio's_ and _quarto's_, should be made to _m's_ of the English body; all measures for _octavo's_, to Pica _m's_."--_Ibid._ Here regularity requires, "_folios, quartoes, octavoes_," and "_pica Ems_." The verb _is_, when contracted, sometimes gives to its nominative the same form as that of the possessive case, it not being always spaced off for distinction, as it may be; as, "A _wit's_ a feather, and a chief a rod; An honest _man's_ the noblest work of God." --_Pope, on Man_, Ep. iv, l. 247. OBS. 24.--As the _objective case of nouns_ is to be distinguished from the nominative, only by the sense, relation, and position, of words in a sentence, the learner must acquire a habit of attending to these several things. Nor ought it to be a hardship to any reader to understand that which he thinks worth reading. It is seldom possible to mistake one of these cases for the other, without a total misconception of the author's meaning. The nominative denotes the agent, actor, or doer; the person or thing that is made the subject of an affirmation, negation, question, or supposition: its place, except in a question, is commonly _before_ the verb. The objective, when governed by a verb or a participle, denotes the person on whom, or the thing on which, the action falls and terminates: it is commonly placed _after_ the verb, participle, or preposition, which governs it. Nouns, then, by changing places, may change cases: as, "_Jonathan_ loved _David_;" "_David_ loved _Jonathan_." Yet the case depends not entirely upon position; for any order in which the words cannot be misunderstood, is allowable: as, "Such tricks hath strong imagination."--_Shak._ Here the cases are known, because the meaning is plainly this: "Strong imagination hath such tricks." "To him give all the prophets witness."--_Acts_, x, 43. This is intelligible enough, and more forcible than the same meaning expressed thus: "All the prophets give witness to him." The _order_ of the words never can affect the explanation to be given of them in parsing, unless it change the sense, and form them into a different sentence. THE DECLENSION OF NOUNS. The declension of a noun is a regular arrangement of its numbers and cases. Thus:-- EXAMPLE I.--FRIEND. Sing. Nom. friend, Plur. Nom. friends, Poss. friend's, Poss. friends', Obj. friend; Obj. friends. EXAMPLE II.--MAN. Sing. Nom. man, Plur. Nom. men, Poss. man's, Poss. men's, Obj. man; Obj. men. EXAMPLE III.--FOX. Sing. Nom. fox, Plur. Nom. foxes, Poss. fox's, Poss. foxes', Obj. fox; Obj. foxes. EXAMPLE IV.--FLY. Sing. Nom. fly, Plur. Nom. flies, Poss. fly's, Poss. flies', Obj. fly; Obj. flies. EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. PRAXIS III.--ETYMOLOGICAL. _In the Third Praxis, it is required of the pupil--to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the ARTICLES and NOUNS. The definitions to be given in the Third Praxis, are two for an article, six for a noun, and one for an adjective, a pronoun, a verb, a participle, an adverb, a conjunction, a preposition, or an interjection. Thus_:-- EXAMPLE PARSED. "The writings of Hannah More appear to me more praiseworthy than Scott's." _The_ is the definite article. 1. An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The definite article is _the_, which denotes some particular thing or things. _Writings_ is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb. _Of_ is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. _Hannah More_ is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, feminine gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A proper noun is the name of some particular individual, or people, or group. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The feminine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the female kind. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. _Appear_ is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_. _To_ is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. _Me_ is a pronoun. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. _More_ is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. _Praiseworthy_ is an adjective. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. _Than_ is a conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected. _Scott's_ is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and possessive case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A proper noun is the name of some particular individual, or people, or group. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The possessive case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the relation of property. LESSON I.--PARSING. "The virtue of Alexander appears to me less vigorous than that of Socrates. Socrates in Alexander's place I can readily conceive: Alexander in that of Socrates I cannot. Alexander will tell you, he can subdue the world: it was a greater work in Socrates to fulfill the duties of life. Worth consists most, not in great, but in good actions."--_Kames's Art of Thinking_, p. 70. "No one should ever rise to speak in public, without forming to himself a just and strict idea of what suits his own age and character; what suits the subject, the hearers, the place, the occasion."--_Blair's Rhetoric_, p. 260. "In the short space of little more than a century, the Greeks became such statesmen, warriors, orators, historians, physicians, poets, critics, painters, sculptors, architects, and, last of all, philosophers, that one can hardly help considering that golden period, as a providential event in honour of human nature, to show to what perfection the species might ascend."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 417. "Is genius yours? Be yours a glorious end, Be your king's, country's, truth's, religion's friend."--_Young_. LESSON II.--PARSING. "He that is called in the Lord, being a servant, is the Lord's freeman: likewise also, he that is called, being free, is Christ's servant."--_1 Cor._, vii, 22. "What will remain to the Alexanders, and the Cæsars, and the Jenghizes, and the Louises, and the Charleses, and the Napoleons, with whose 'glories' the idle voice of fame is filled?"--_J. Dymond_. "Good sense, clear ideas, perspicuity of language, and proper arrangement of words and thoughts, will always command attention."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 174. "A mother's tenderness and a father's care are nature's gifts for man's advantage.--Wisdom's precepts form the good man's interest and happiness."--_Murray's Key_, p. 194. "A dancing-school among the Tuscaroras, is not a greater absurdity than a masquerade in America. A theatre, under the best regulations, is not essential to our happiness. It may afford entertainment to individuals; but it is at the expense of private taste and public morals."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 86. "Where dancing sunbeams on the waters played, And verdant alders form'd a quivering shade."--_Pope_. LESSON III.--PARSING. "I have ever thought that advice to the young, unaccompanied by the routine of honest employments, is like an attempt to make a shrub grow in a certain direction, by blowing it with a bellows."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 247. "The Arabic characters for the writing of numbers, were introduced into Europe by Pope Sylvester II, in the eleventh century."--_Constable's Miscellany_. "Emotions raised by inanimate objects, trees, rivers, buildings, pictures, arrive at perfection almost instantaneously; and they have a long endurance, a second view producing nearly the same pleasure with the first."--_Kames's Elements_, i, 108. "There is great variety in the same plant, by the different appearances of its stem, branches, leaves, blossoms, fruit, size, and colour; and yet, when we trace that variety through different plants, especially of the same kind, there is discovered a surprising uniformity."--_Ib._, i, 273. "Attitude, action, air, pause, start, sigh, groan, He borrow'd, and made use of as his own."--_Churchill_. "I dread thee, fate, relentless and severe, With all a poet's, husband's, father's fear!"--_Burns_. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. ERRORS OF NOUNS. LESSON I.--NUMBERS. "All the ablest of the Jewish Rabbis acknowledge it."--_Wilson's Heb. Gram._, p. 7. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word _Rabbi_ is here made plural by the addition of _s_ only. But, according to Observation 12th on the Numbers, nouns in _i_ ought rather to form the plural in _ies_. The capital _R_, too, is not necessary. Therefore, _Rabbis_ should be _rabbies_, with _ies_ and a small _r_.] "Who has thoroughly imbibed the system of one or other of our Christian rabbis."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 378. "The seeming singularitys of reason soon wear off."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 47. "The chiefs and arikis or priests have the power of declaring a place or object taboo."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 460. "Among the various tribes of this family, are the Pottawatomies, the Sacs and Foxes, or Saukis and Ottogamis."--_Ib._, p. 178. "The Shawnees, Kickapoos, Menomonies, Miamis and Delawares, are of the same region."--_Ib._, p. 178. "The Mohegans and Abenaquis belonged also to this family."--_Ib._, p. 178. "One tribe of this family, the Winnebagos, formerly resided near lake Michigan."--_Ib._, p. 179. "The other tribes are the Ioways, the Otoes, the Missouris, the Quapaws."--_Ib._, p. 179. "The great Mexican family comprises the Aztecs, Toltecs, and Tarascos."--_Ib._, p. 179. "The Mulattoes are born of negro and white parents; the Zambos, of Indians and negroes."--_Ib._, p. 165. "To have a place among the Alexanders, the Cæsars, the Lewis', or the Charles', the scourges and butchers of their fellow-creatures."--_Burgh's Dignity_, i, 132. "Which was the notion of the Platonic Philosophers and Jewish rabbii."--_Ib._, p. 248. "That they should relate to the whole body of virtuosos."--_Gobbett's E. Gram._, ¶ 212. "What thank have ye? for sinners also love those that love them."--_Luke_, vi, 32. "There are five ranks of nobility; dukes, marquesses, earls, viscounts, and barons."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 228. "Acts, which were so well known to the two Charles's."--_Payne's Geog._, ii, 511. "Court Martials are held in all parts, for the trial of the blacks."--_Observer_, No. 458. "It becomes a common noun, and may have a plural number; as, the two _Davids_; the two _Scipios_, the two _Pompies_."--_Staniford's Gram._, p. 8. "The food of the rattlesnake is birds, squirrels, hare, rats, and reptiles."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 177. "And let fowl multiply in the earth."--_Genesis_, i, 22. "Then we reached the hill-side where eight buffalo were grazing."--_Martineau's Amer._, i, 202. "_Corset, n._ a pair of bodice for a woman."--_Worcester's Dict._, 12mo. "As the _be's_; the _ce's_, the _doubleyu's_."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 40. "Simplicity is the means between ostentation and rusticity."--_Pope's Pref. to Homer_. "You have disguised yourselves like tipstaves."--_Gil Blas_, i, 111. "But who, that hath any taste, can endure the incessant quick returns of the _also_'s, and the _likewise_'s, and the _moreover_'s, and the _however_'s, and the _notwithstanding_'s?"--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 439. "Sometimes, in mutual sly disguise, Let Aye's seem No's, and No's seem Aye's."--_Gay_, p. 431. LESSON II.--CASES. "For whose name sake, I have been made willing."--_Wm. Penn_. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the noun _name_, which is here meant for the possessive case singular, has not the true form of that case. But, according to a principle on page 258th, "The possessive case of nouns is formed, in the singular number, by adding to the nominative _s preceded by an apostrophe_; and, in the plural, when the nominative ends in _s_, by adding _an apostrophe only_." Therefore, name should be _name's_; thus, "For whose _name's_ sake, I have been made willing."] "Be governed by your conscience, and never ask anybodies leave to be honest."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 105. "To overlook nobodies merit or misbehaviour."--_Ib._, p. 9. "And Hector at last fights his way to the stern of Ajax' ship."--_Coleridge's Introd._, p. 91. "Nothing is lazier, than to keep ones eye upon words without heeding their meaning."-- _Philological Museum_, i, 645. "Sir William Joneses division of the day."--_Ib., Contents_. "I need only refer here to Vosses excellent account of it."--_Ib._, i, 465. "The beginning of Stesichoruses palinode has been preserved."--_Ib._, i, 442. "Though we have Tibulluses elegies, there is not a word in them about Glycera."--_Ib._, p. 446. "That Horace was at Thaliarchuses country-house."--_Ib._, i, 451. "That Sisyphuses foot-tub should have been still in existence."--_Ib._, i, 468. "How every thing went on in Horace's closet, and in Mecenases antechamber."--_Ib._, i, 458. "Who, for elegant brevities sake, put a participle for a verb."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 42. "The countries liberty being oppressed, we have no more to hope."--_Ib._, p. 73. "A brief but true account of this peoples' principles."--_Barclay's Pref._ "As, the Churche's Peace, or the Peace of the Church; Virgil's Eneid, or the Eneid of Virgil"--_British Gram._, p. 93. "As, Virgil's �neid, for the �neid of Virgil; the Church'es Peace, for the Peace of the Church."--_Buchanan's Syntax_, p. 18. "Which, with Hubner's Compend, and Wells' Geographia Classica, will be sufficient."-- _Burgh's Dignity_, i, 155. "Witness Homer's speaking horses, scolding goddesses, and Jupiter enchanted with Venus' girdle."--_Ib._, i, 184. "Dr. Watts' Logic may with success be read and commented on to them."--_Ib._, p. 156. "Potter's Greek, and Kennet's Roman Antiquities, Strauchius' and Helvicus' Chronology."--_Ib._, p. 161. "_Sing_. Alice' friends, Felix' property; _Plur._ The Alices' friends, The Felixes' property."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 46. "Such as Bacchus'es company,"--"at Bacchus'es festivals."--_Ainsworth's Dict., w. Thyrsus._ "Burn's inimitable _Tam o'Shanter_ turns entirely upon such a circumstance."--_Scott's Lay, Notes_, p. 201. "Nominative, Men. Genitive, Mens. Objective, Men."--_Cutler's Gram._, p. 20. "Mens Happiness or Misery is most part of their own making."--_Locke, on Education_, p. 1. "That your Sons Cloths be never made strait, especially about the Breast."--_Ib._, p. 15. "Childrens Minds are narrow and weak."--_Ib._, p. 297. "I would not have little Children much tormented about Punctilio's, or Niceties of Breeding."--_Ib._, p. 90. "To fill his Head with suitable Idea's."--_Ib._, p. 113. "The Burgusdiscius's and the Scheiblers did not swarm in those Days, as they do now."--_Ib._, p. 163. "To see the various ways of dressing--a calve's head!"--_Shenstone_, Brit. Poets, Vol. vii, p. 143. "He puts it on, and for decorum sake Can wear it e'en as gracefully as she."--_Cowper's Task_. LESSON III.--MIXED. "Simon the witch was of this religion too."--_Bunyan's P. P._, p. 123. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the feminine name _witch_ is here applied to a man. But, according to the doctrine of genders, on page 254th, "Names of males are masculine; names of females, feminine;" &c. Therefore, _witch_ should be _wizard_; thus, "Simon the _wizard_," &c.] "Mammodis, n. Coarse, plain India muslins."--_Webster's Dict._ "Go on from single persons to families, that of the Pompeyes for instance."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 142. "By which the ancients were not able to account for phænomenas."--_Bailey's Ovid_, p. vi. "After this I married a wife who had lived at Crete, but a Jew by birth."--_Josephus's Life_, p. 194. "The very heathen are inexcusable for not worshipping him."--_Student's Manual_, p. 328. "Such poems as Camoen's Lusiad, Voltaire's Henriade, &c."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 422. "My learned correspondent writes a word in defence of large scarves."--SPECT.: in _Joh. Dict._ "The forerunners of an apoplexy are dulness, vertigos, tremblings."--ARBUTHNOT: _ib._ "_Vertigo_ changes the _o_ into _~in=es_, making the plural _vertig~in=es_."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 59. "_Noctambulo_ changes the _o_ into _=on=es_, making the plural _noctambul=on=es_."--_Ib._, p. 59. "What shall we say of noctambulos?"--ARBUTHNOT: _in Joh. Dict._ "In the curious fretwork of rocks and grottos."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 220. "_Wharf_ makes the plural _wharves_."--_Smith's Gram._, p. 45; _Merchant's_, 29; _Picket's_, 21; _Frost's_, 8. "A few cent's worth of maccaroni supplies all their wants."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 275. "C sounds hard, like _k_, at the end of a word or syllables."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 4. "By which the virtuosi try The magnitude of every lie."--_Hudibras_. "Quartos, octavos, shape the lessening pyre."--_Pope's Dunciad_, B. i, l. 162. "Perching within square royal rooves."--SIDNEY: _in Joh. Dict._ "Similies should, even in poetry, be used with moderation."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 166. "Similies should never be taken from low or mean objects."--_Ib._, p. 167. "It were certainly better to say, 'The house of lords,' than 'the Lord's house.'"--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 177. "Read your answers. Unit figure? 'Five.' Ten's? 'Six.' Hundreds? 'Seven.'"--_Abbott's Teacher_, p. 79. "Alexander conquered Darius' army."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 58. "Three days time was requisite, to prepare matters."--_Brown's Estimate_, ii, 156. "So we say that Ciceros stile and Sallusts, were not one, nor Cesars and Livies, nor Homers and Hesiodus, nor Herodotus and Theucidides, nor Euripides and Aristophanes, nor Erasmus and Budeus stiles."--_Puttenham's Arte of English Poesie_, iii, 5. "_Lex_ (i.e. _legs_) is no other than our ancestors past participle _læg, laid down_."--_Tooke's Diversions_, ii, 7. "Achaia's sons at Ilium slain for the Atridæ' sake."--_Cowper's Iliad_. "The corpse[167] of half her senate manure the fields of Thessaly."--_Addison's Cato_. "Poisoning, without regard of fame or fear: And spotted corpse are frequent on the bier."--_Dryden_. CHAPTER IV.--ADJECTIVES. An Adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality: as, A _wise_ man; a _new_ book. You _two_ are _diligent_. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--Adjectives have been otherwise called attributes, attributives, qualities, adnouns; but none of these names is any better than the common one. Some writers have classed adjectives with verbs; because, with a neuter verb for the copula, they often form logical predicates: as, "Vices _are contagious_." The Latin grammarians usually class them with nouns; consequently their nouns are divided into nouns substantive and nouns adjective. With us, substantives are nouns; and adjectives form a part of speech by themselves. This is generally acknowledged to be a much better distribution. Adjectives cannot with propriety be called _nouns_, in any language; because they are not _the names_ of the qualities which they signify. They must be _added_ to nouns or pronouns in order to make sense. But if, in a just distribution of words, the term "_adjective nouns_" is needless and improper, the term "_adjective pronouns_" is, certainly, not less so: most of the words which Murray and others call by this name, are not pronouns, but adjectives. OBS. 2.--The noun, or substantive, is a _name_, which makes sense of itself. The adjective is an adjunct to the noun or pronoun. It is a word added to denote quality, situation, quantity, number, form, tendency, or whatever else may characterize and distinguish the thing or things spoken of. Adjectives, therefore, are distinguished _from_ nouns by their _relation to_ them; a relation corresponding to that which qualities bear to things: so that no part of speech is more easily discriminated than the adjective. Again: English adjectives, as such, are all indeclinable. When, therefore, any words usually belonging to this class, are found to take either the plural or the possessive form, like substantive nouns, they are to be parsed as nouns. To abbreviate expression, we not unfrequently, in this manner, convert adjectives into nouns. Thus, in grammar, we often speak of _nominatives, possessives_, or _objectives_, meaning nouns or pronouns of the nominative, the possessive, or the objective case; of _positives, comparatives_, or _superlatives_, meaning adjectives of the positive, the comparative, or the superlative degree; of _infinitives, subjunctives_, or _imperatives_, meaning verbs of the infinitive, the subjunctive, or the imperative mood; and of _singulars, plurals_, and many other such things, in the same way. So a man's _superiors_ or _inferiors_ are persons superior or inferior to himself. His _betters_ are persons better than he. _Others_ are any persons or things distinguished from some that are named or referred to; as, "If you want enemies, excel _others_; if you want friends, let _others_ excel you."--_Lacon_. All adjectives thus taken substantively, become _nouns_, and ought to be parsed as such, unless this word _others_ is to be made an exception, and called a "_pronoun_." "Th' event is fear'd; should we again provoke Our _stronger_, some worse way his wrath may find." --_Milton, P. L._, B. ii, l. 82. OBS. 3.--Murray says, "Perhaps the words _former_ and _latter_ may be properly ranked amongst the demonstrative pronouns, _especially in many of their applications_. The following sentence may serve as an example: 'It was happy for the state, that Fabius continued in the command with Minutius: the _former's_ phlegm was a check upon the _latter's_ vivacity.'"--_Gram._, 8vo, p. 57. This I take to be bad English. _Former_ and _latter_ ought to be adjectives only; except when _former_ means _maker_. And, if not so, it is too easy a way of multiplying pronouns, to manufacture two out of one single anonymous sentence. If it were said, "The deliberation of _the former_ was a seasonable chock upon the fiery temper of _the latter_" the words _former_ and _latter_ would seem to me not to be pronouns, but adjectives, each relating to the noun _commander_ understood after it. OBS. 4.--The sense and relation of words in sentences, as well as their particular form and meaning, must be considered in parsing, before the learner can say, with certainty, to what class they belong. Other parts of speech, and especially nouns and participles, by a change in their construction, may become adjectives. Thus, to denote the material of which a thing is formed, we very commonly make the name of the substantive an adjective to that of the thing: as, A _gold chain_, a _silver spoon_, a _glass pitcher_, a _tin basin_, an _oak plank_, a _basswood slab_, a _whalebone rod_. This construction is in general correct, whenever the former word may be predicated of the latter; as, "The chain is gold."--"The spoon is silver." But we do not write _gold beater_ for _goldbeater_, or _silver smith_ for _silversmith_; because the beater is not gold, nor is the smith silver. This principle, however, is not universally observed; for we write _snowball, whitewash_, and many similar compounds, though the ball is snow and the wash is white; and _linseed oil_, or _Newark cider_, may be a good phrase, though the former word cannot well be predicated of the latter. So in the following examples: "Let these _conversation_ tones be the foundation of public pronunciation."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 334. "A _muslin_ flounce, made very full, would give a very agreeable _flirtation_ air."--POPE: _Priestley's Gram._, p. 79. "Come, calm Content, serene and sweet, O gently guide my _pilgrim_ feet To find thy _hermit_ cell."--_Barbauld_. OBS. 5.--Murray says, "Various nouns placed before other nouns assume the nature of adjectives: as, sea fish, wine vessel, corn field, meadow ground, &c."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 48. This is, certainly, very lame instruction. If there is not palpable error in all his examples, the propriety of them all is at least questionable; and, to adopt and follow out their principle, would be, to tear apart some thousands of our most familiar compounds. "_Meadow ground_" may perhaps be a correct phrase, since the ground is meadow; it seems therefore preferable to the compound word meadow-ground. What he meant by "_wine vessel_" is doubtful: that is, whether a ship or a cask, a flagon or a decanter. If we turn to our dictionaries, Webster has _sea-fish_ and _wine-cask_ with a hyphen, and _cornfield_ without; while Johnson and others have _corn-field_ with a hyphen, and _seafish_ without. According to the rules for the figure of words, we ought to write them _seafish, winecask, cornfield_. What then becomes of the thousands of "adjectives" embraced in the "&c." quoted above? OBS. 6.--The pronouns _he_ and _she_, when placed before or prefixed to nouns merely to denote their gender, appear to be used adjectively; as, "The male or _he_ animals offered in sacrifice."--_Wood's Dict., w. Males_. "The most usual term is _he_ or _she, male_ or _female_, employed as an adjective: as, a _he bear_, a _she bear_; a _male elephant_, a _female elephant_."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 69. Most writers, however, think proper to insert a hyphen in the terms here referred to: as, _he-bear, she-bear_, the plurals of which are _he-bears_ and _she-bears_. And, judging by the foregoing rule of predication, we must assume that this practice only is right. In the first example, the word _he_ is useless; for the term "_male animals_" is sufficiently clear without it. It has been shown in the third chapter, that _he_ and _she_ are sometimes used as nouns; and that, as such, they may take the regular declension of nouns, making the plurals _hes_ and _shes_. But whenever these words are used adjectively to denote gender, whether we choose to insert the hyphen or not, they are, without question, indeclinable, like other adjectives. In the following example, Sanborn will have _he_ to be a noun in the _objective_ case; but I consider it rather, to be an adjective, signifying _masculine_: "(_Philosophy_, I say, and call _it He_; For, whatsoe'er the painter's fancy be, It a male-virtue seems to me.")--_Cowley_, Brit. Poets, Vol. ii, p. 54. OBS. 7.--Though verbs give rise to many adjectives, they seldom, if ever, become such by a mere change of construction. It is mostly by assuming an additional termination, that any verb is formed into an adjective: as in _teachable, moveable, oppressive, diffusive, prohibitory_. There are, however, about forty words ending in _ate_, which, without difference of form, are either verbs or adjectives; as, _aggregate, animate, appropriate, articulate, aspirate, associate, complicate, confederate, consummate, deliberate, desolate, effeminate, elate, incarnate, intimate, legitimate, moderate, ordinate, precipitate, prostrate, regenerate, reprobate, separate, sophisticate, subordinate_. This class of adjectives seems to be lessening. The participials in _ed_, are superseding some of them, at least in popular practice: as, _contaminated_, for _contaminate_, defiled; _reiterated_, for _reiterate_, repeated; _situated_, for _situate_, placed; _attenuated_, for _attenuate_, made thin or slender. _Devote, exhaust_, and some other verbal forms, are occasionally used by the poets, in lieu of the participial forms, _devoted, exhausted_, &c. OBS. 8.--Participles, which have naturally much resemblance to this part of speech, often drop their distinctive character, and become adjectives. This is usually the case whenever they stand immediately _before_ the nouns to which they relate; as, A _pleasing_ countenance, a _piercing_ eye, an _accomplished_ scholar, an _exalted_ station. Many participial adjectives are derivatives formed from participles by the negative prefix _un_, which reverses the meaning of the primitive word; as, _undisturbed, undivided, unenlightened_. Most words of this kind differ of course from participles, because there are no such verbs as _to undisturb, to undivide_, &c. Yet they may be called participial adjectives, because they have the termination, and embrace the form, of participles. Nor should any participial adjective be needlessly varied from the true orthography of the participle: a distinction is, however, observed by some writers, between _past_ and _passed, staid_ and _stayed_; and some old words, as _drunken, stricken, shotten, rotten_, now obsolete as participles, are still retained as adjectives. This sort of words will be further noticed in the chapter on participles. OBS. 9.--Adverbs are generally distinguished from adjectives, by the form, as well as by the construction, of the words. Yet, in instances not a few, the same word is capable of being used both adjectively and adverbially. In these cases, the scholar must determine the part of speech, by the construction alone; remembering that adjectives belong to nouns or pronouns only; and adverbs, to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs, only. The following examples from Scripture, will partially illustrate this point, which will be noticed again under the head of syntax: "Is your father well?"--_Gen._, xliii, 27. "Thou hast well said."--_John_, iv, 17. "He separateth very friends."--_Prov._, xvii, 9. "Esaias is _very_ bold."--_Rom._, x, 20. "For a pretence, ye make _long_ prayer."--_Matt._, xxiii, 14. "They that tarry _long_ at the wine."--_Prov._, xxiii, 30. "It had not _much_ earth."--_Mark_, iv, 5. "For she loved _much_."--_Luke_, vii, 47. OBS. 10.--Prepositions, in regard to their _construction_, differ from adjectives, almost exactly as active-transitive participles differ syntactically from adjectives: that is, in stead of being mere adjuncts to the words which follow them, they govern those words, and refer back to some other term; which, in the usual order of speech, stands before them. Thus, if I say, "A spreading oak," _spreading_ is an adjective relating to oak; if, "A boy spreading hay," _spreading_ is a participle, governing _hay_, and relating to _boy_, because the boy is the agent of the action. So, when Dr. Webster says, "The _off_ horse in a team," _off_ is an adjective, relating to the noun _horse_; but, in the phrase, "A man _off_ his guard," _off_ is a preposition, showing the relation between _man_ and _guard_, and governing the latter. The following are other examples: "From the _above_ speculations."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 194. "An _after_ period of life."--MARSHALL: _in Web. Dict._ "With some other of the _after_ Judaical rites."--_Right of Tythes_, p. 86. "Whom this _beneath_ world doth embrace and hug."--_Shak._ "Especially is _over_ exertion made."--_Journal of Lit. Conv._, p. 119. "To both the _under_ worlds."--_Hudibras_. "Please to pay to A. B. the amount of the _within_ bill." Whether properly used or not, the words _above, after, beneath, over, under, and within_, are here unquestionably made _adjectives_; yet every scholar knows, that they are generally prepositions, though sometimes adverbs. CLASSES. Adjectives may be divided into six classes; namely, _common, proper, numeral, pronominal, participial_, and _compound_. I. A _common adjective_ is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation; as, _Good, bad, peaceful, warlike--eastern, western, outer, inner_. II. A _proper adjective_ is an adjective formed from a proper name; as, _American, English, Platonic, Genoese_. III. A _numeral adjective_ is an adjective that expresses a definite number; as, _One, two, three, four, five, six_, &c. IV. A _pronominal adjective_ is a definitive word which may either accompany its noun, or represent it understood; as, "_All_ join to guard what _each_ desires to gain."--_Pope_. That is, "_All men_ join to guard what _each man_ desires to gain." V. A _participial adjective_ is one that has the form of a participle, but differs from it by rejecting the idea of time; as, "An _amusing_ story,"--"A _lying_ divination." VI. A _compound adjective_ is one that consists of two or more words joined together, either by the hyphen or solidly: as, _Nut-brown, laughter-loving, four-footed; threefold, lordlike, lovesick_. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--This distribution of the adjectives is no less easy to be applied, than necessary to a proper explanation in parsing. How many adjectives there are in the language, it is difficult to say; none of our dictionaries profess to exhibit all that are embraced in some of the foregoing classes. Of the Common Adjectives, there are probably not fewer than six thousand, exclusive of the common nouns which we refer to this class when they are used adjectively. Walker's Rhyming Dictionary contains five thousand or more, the greater part of which may be readily distinguished by their peculiar endings. Of those which end in _ous_, as _generous_, there are about 850. Of those in _y_ or _ly_, as _shaggy, homely_, there are about 550. Of those in _ive_, as _deceptive_, there are about 400. Of those in _al_, as _autumnal_, there are about 550. Of those in _ical_, as _mechanical_, there are about 350. Of those in _able_, as _valuable_, there are about 600. Of those in _ible_, as _credible_, there are about 200. Of those in _ent_, as _different_, there are about 300. Of those in _ant_, as _abundant_, there are about 170. Of those in _less_, as _ceaseless_, there are about 220. Of those in _ful_, as _useful_, there are about 130. Of those in _ory_, as _explanatory_, there are about 200. Of those in _ish_, as _childish_, there are about 100. Of those in _ine_, as _masculine_, there are about 70. Of those in _en_, as _wooden_, there are about 50. Of those in _some_, as _quarrelsome_, there are about 30. These sixteen numbers added together, make 4770. OBS. 2.--The Proper Adjectives are, in many instances, capable of being converted into declinable nouns: as, _European, a European, the Europeans; Greek, a Greek, the Greeks; Asiatic, an Asiatic, the Asiatics_. But with the words _English, French, Dutch, Scotch, Welsh, Irish_, and in general all such as would acquire an additional syllable in their declension, the case is otherwise. The gentile noun has frequently fewer syllables than the adjective, but seldom more, unless derived from some different root. Examples: _Arabic, an Arab, the Arabs; Gallic, a Gaul, the Gauls; Danish, a Dane, the Danes; Moorish, a Moor, the Moors; Polish, a Pole_, or _Polander, the Poles; Swedish, a Swede, the Swedes; Turkish, a Turk, the Turks_. When we say, _the English, the French, the Dutch, the Scotch, the Welsh, the Irish_,--meaning, _the English people, the French people_, &c., many grammarians conceive that _English, French_, &c., are _indeclinable nouns_. But in my opinion, it is better to reckon them _adjectives_, relating to the noun _men_ or _people_ understood. For if these words are nouns, so are a thousand others, after which there is the same ellipsis; as when we say, _the good, the great, the wise, the learned_.[168] The principle would involve the inconvenience of multiplying our nouns of the singular form and a plural meaning, indefinitely. If they are nouns, they are, in this sense, plural only; and, in an other, they are singular only. For we can no more say, _an English, an Irish_, or _a French_, for _an Englishman, an Irishman_, or _a Frenchman_; than we can say, _an old, a selfish_, or _a rich_, for _an old man, a selfish man_, or _a rich man_. Yet, in distinguishing the _languages_, we call them _English, French, Dutch, Scotch, Welsh, Irish_; using the words, certainly, in no plural sense; and preferring always the line of adjectives, where the gentile noun is different: as, _Arabic_, and not _Arab_; _Danish_, and not _Dane_; _Swedish_, and not _Swede_. In this sense, as well as in the former, Webster, Chalmers, and other modern lexicographers, call the words _nouns_; and the reader will perceive, that the objections offered before do not apply here. But Johnson, in his two quarto volumes, gives only two words of this sort, _English_ and _Latin_; and both of these he calls _adjectives_: "ENGLISH, _adj._ Belonging to England; hence English[169] is the language of England." The word _Latin_, however, he makes a noun, when it means a schoolboy's exercise; for which usage he quotes, the following inaccurate example from Ascham: "He shall not use the common order in schools for making of _Latins_." OBS. 3.--Dr. Webster gives us explanations like these: "CHINESE, _n. sing._ and _plu._ A native of China; also the language of China."--"JAPANESE, _n._ A native of Japan; or the language of the inhabitants."--"GENOESE, _n. pl._ the people of Genoa in Italy. _Addison_."--"DANISH, _n._ The language of the Danes."--"IRISH, _n._ 1. A native of Ireland. 2. The language of the Irish; the Hiberno-Celtic." According to him, then, it is proper to say, _a Chinese, a Japanese_, or _an Irish_; but not, _a Genoese_, because he will have this word to be plural only! Again, if with him we call a native of Ireland _an Irish_, will not more than one be _Irishes?_[170] If a native of Japan be _a Japanese_, will not more than one be _Japaneses?_ In short, is it not plain, that the words, _Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, Maltese, Genoese, Milanese_, and all others of like formation, should follow one and the same rule? And if so, what is that rule? Is it not this;--that, like _English, French_, &c., they are always _adjectives_; except, perhaps, when they denote _languages_? There may possibly be some real authority from usage, for calling a native of China _a Chinese_,--of Japan _a Japanese_,--&c.; as there is also for the regular plurals, _Chineses, Japaneses_, &c.; but is it, in either case, good and sufficient authority? The like forms, it is acknowledged, are, on some occasions, mere adjectives; and, in modern usage, we do not find these words inflected, as they were formerly. Examples: "The _Chinese_ are by no means a cleanly people, either in person or dress."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 415. "The _Japanese_ excel in working in copper, iron, and steel."--_Ib._, p. 419. "The _Portuguese_ are of the same origin with the Spaniards."--_Ib._, p. 272. "By whom the undaunted _Tyrolese_ are led."--_Wordsworth's Poems_, p. 122. Again: "Amongst the _Portugueses_, 'tis so much a Fashion, and Emulation, amongst their Children, to _learn_ to _Read_, and Write, that they cannot hinder them from it."--_Locke, on Education_, p. 271. "The _Malteses_ do so, who harden the Bodies of their Children, and reconcile them to the Heat, by making them go stark Naked."--_Idem, Edition of_ 1669, p. 5. "CHINESE, _n. s_. Used elliptically for the language and people of China: plural, _Chineses. Sir T. Herbert_."--_Abridgement of Todd's Johnson_. This is certainly absurd. For if _Chinese_ is used _elliptically_ for the people of China, it is an _adjective_, and does not form the plural, _Chineses_: which is precisely what I urge concerning the whole class. These plural forms ought not to be imitated. Horne Tooke quotes some friend of his, as saying, "No, I will never descend with him beneath even _a Japanese_: and I remember what Voltaire remarks of _that country_."--_Diversions of Purley_, i, 187. In this case, he ought, unquestionably, to have said--"beneath even _a native of Japan_;" because, whether _Japanese_ be a noun or not, it is absurd to call _a Japanese_, "_that country_." Butler, in his Hudibras, somewhere uses the word _Chineses_; and it was, perhaps, in his day, common; but still, I say, it is contrary to analogy, and therefore wrong. Milton, too, has it: "But in his way lights on the barren plains Of Sericana, where Chineses[171] drive With sails and wind their cany _waggons_ light." --_Paradise Lost_, B. iii, l. 437. OBS. 4.--The Numeral Adjectives are of three kinds, namely, _cardinal, ordinal_, and _multiplicative_: each kind running on in a series indefinitely. Thus:-- 1. _Cardinal_; One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, seventeen, eighteen, nineteen, twenty, twenty-one, twenty-two, &c. 2. _Ordinal_; First, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, nineteenth, twentieth, twenty-first, twenty-second, &c. 3. _Multiplicative_; Single or alone, double or twofold, triple or threefold, quadruple or fourfold, quintuple or fivefold, sextuple or sixfold, septuple or sevenfold, octuple or eightfold, &c. But high terms of this series are seldom used. All that occur above decuple or tenfold, are written with a hyphen, and are usually of round numbers only; as, thirty-fold, sixty-fold, hundred-fold. OBS. 5.--A cardinal numeral denotes the whole number, but the corresponding ordinal denotes only the last one of that number, or, at the beginning of a series, the first of several or many. Thus: "_One_ denotes simply the number _one_, without any regard to more; but _first_ has respect to more, and so denotes only the first one of a greater number; and _two_ means the number _two_ completely; but _second_, the last one of _two_: and so of all the rest."--_Burn's Gram._, p. 54. A cardinal number answers to the question, "_How many_?" An ordinal number answers to the question, "_Which one_?" or, "_What one_?" All the ordinal numbers, except _first, second, third_, and the compounds of these, as _twenty-first, twenty-second, twenty-third_, are formed directly from the cardinal numbers by means of the termination _th_. And as the primitives, in this case, are many of them either compound words, or phrases consisting of several words, it is to be observed, that the addition is made to the last term only. That is, of every compound ordinal number, the last term only is ordinal in form. Thus we say, _forty-ninth_, and not _fortieth-ninth_; nor could the meaning of the phrase, _four hundred and fiftieth_, be expressed by saying, _fourth hundredth and fiftieth_; for this, if it means any thing, speaks of three different numbers. OBS. 6.--Some of the numerals are often used as _nouns_; and, as such, are regularly declined: as, _Ones, twoes, threes, fours, fives_, &c. So, _Fifths, sixths, sevenths, eighths, ninths, tenths_, &c. "The _seventy's_ translation."--_Wilson's Hebrew Gram._, p. 32. "I will not do it for _forty's_ sake."--_Gen._, xviii, 29. "I will not destroy it for _twenty's_ sake."--_Ib._, ver. 31. "For _ten's_ sake."--_Ib._, ver. 32. "They sat down in ranks, by _hundreds_, and by _fifties_."--_Mark_, vi, 40. "There are _millions_ of truths that a man is not concerned to know."--_Locke_. With the compound numerals, such a construction is less common; yet the denominator of a fraction may be a number of this sort: as, seven _twenty-fifths_. And here it may be observed, that, in stead of the ancient phraseology, as in 1 Chron., xxiv, 17th, "The _one and twentieth_ to Jachin, the _two and twentieth_ to Gamul, the _three and twentieth_ to Delaiah, the _four and twentieth_ to Maaziah," we now generally say, _the twenty-first, the twenty-second_, &c.; using the hyphen in all compounds till we arrive at _one hundred_, or _one hundredth_, and then first introducing the word _and_; as, _one hundred and one_, or _one hundred and first_, &c. OBS. 7.--The Pronominal Adjectives are comparatively very few; but frequency of use gives them great importance in grammar. The following words are perhaps all that properly belong to this class, and several of these are much oftener something else: _All, any, both, certain, divers, each, either, else, enough, every, few, fewer, fewest, former, first, latter, last, little, less, least, many, more, most, much, neither, no_ or _none, one, other, own, only, same, several, some, such, sundry, that, this, these, those, what, whatever, whatsoever, which, whichever, whichsoever_.[172] Of these forty-six words, seven are always singular, if the word _one_ is not an exception; namely, _each, either, every, neither, one, that, this_: and nine or ten others are always plural, if the word _many_ is not an exception; namely, _both, divers, few, fewer, fewest, many, several, sundry, these, those_. All the rest, like our common adjectives, are applicable to nouns of either number. _Else, every, only, no_, and _none_, are definitive words, which I have thought proper to call pronominal adjectives, though only the last can now with propriety be made to represent its noun understood. "Nor has Vossius, or _any else_ that I know of, observed it."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 279. Say, "or any _one_ else." Dr. Webster explains this word _else_ thus: "ELSE, _a._ or _pron._ [Sax. _elles_] Other; one or something _beside_; as, Who _else_ is coming?"--_Octavo Dict._ "Each and _every_ of them," is an old phrase in which _every_ is used pronominally, or with ellipsis of the word to which it refers; but, in common discourse, we now say, _every one, every man_, &c., never using the word _every_ alone to suggest its noun. _Only_ is perhaps most commonly an adverb; but it is still in frequent use as an adjective; and in old books we sometimes find an ellipsis of the noun to which it belongs; as, "Neither are they the _only_ [verbs] in which it is read."--_Johnson's Grammatical Commentaries_, p. 373. "But I think he is the _only_ [one] of these Authors."--_Ib._, p. 193. _No_ and _none_ seem to be only different forms of the same adjective; the former being used before a noun expressed, and the latter when the noun is understood, or not placed after the adjective; as, "For _none_ of us liveth to himself, and _no_ man dieth to himself."--_Romans_, xiv, 7. _None_ was anciently used for _no_ before all words beginning with a vowel sound; as, "They are sottish children; and they have _none_ understanding."--_Jeremiah_, iv, 22. This practice is now obsolete. _None_ is still used, when its noun precedes it; as, "Fools! who from hence into the notion fall, That _vice_ or _virtue_ there is _none_ at all."--_Pope_. OBS. 8.--Of the words given in the foregoing list as pronominal adjectives, about one third are sometimes used _adverbially_. They are the following: _All_, when it means _totally; any_, for _in any degree; else_, meaning _otherwise; enough_, signifying _sufficiently; first_, for _in the first place; last_, for _in the last place; little_, for _in a small degree; less_, for _in a smaller degree; least_, for _in the smallest degree; much_, for _in a great degree; more_, for _in a greater degree; most_, for _in the greatest degree; no_, or _none_, for _in no degree; only_, for _singly, merely, barely; what_, for _in what degree_, or _in how great a degree_.[173] To these may perhaps be added the word _other_, when used as an alternative to _somehow_; as, "_Somehow_ or _other_ he will be favoured."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 89. Here _other_ seems to be put for _otherwise_; and yet the latter word would not be agreeable in such a sentence. "_Somewhere or other_," is a kindred phrase equally common, and equally good; or, rather, equally irregular and puzzling. Would it not be better, always to avoid both, by saying, in their stead, "_In some way or other_,"--"_In someplace or other?_" In the following examples, however, _other_ seems to be used for _otherwise_, without such a connection: "How is THAT used, _other_ than as a Conjunction?"--_Ainsworth's Gram._, p. 88. "Will it not be receiv'd that they have done 't? --Who dares receive it _other?_"--SHAK.: _Joh. Dict., w. Other_. OBS. 9.--_All_ and _enough, little_ and _much, more_ and _less_, sometimes suggest the idea of quantity so abstractly, that we can hardly consider them as adjuncts to any other words; for which reason, they are, in this absolute sense, put down in our dictionaries as _nouns_. If nouns, however, they are never inflected by cases or numbers; nor do they in general admit the usual adjuncts or definitives of nouns.[174] Thus, we can neither say, _the all_, for _the whole_, nor _an enough_, for _a sufficiency_. And though _a little, the more_, and _the less_, are common phrases, the article does not here prove the following word to be a noun; because the expression may either be elliptical, or have the construction of an adverb: as, "Though _the more_ abundantly I love you, _the less_ I be loved."--_2 Cor._, xii, 15. Dr. Johnson seems to suppose that the partitive use of these words makes them nouns; as, "They have _much of the poetry_ of Mecænas, but _little of his liberality_."--DRYDEN: _in Joh. Dict._ Upon this principle, however, adjectives innumerable would be made nouns; for we can just as well say, "_Some of the poetry_,"--"_Any of the poetry_,"--"_The best of Poetry_," &c. In all such expressions, the name of the thing divided, is understood in the partitive word; for a part of any thing must needs be of the same species as the whole. Nor was this great grammarian sufficiently attentive to adjuncts, in determining the parts of speech. _Nearly all, quite enough, so little, too much, vastly more, rather less_, and an abundance of similar phrases, are familiar to every body; in none of which, can any of these words of quantity, however abstract, be very properly reckoned nouns; because the preceding word is an adverb, and adverbs do not relate to any words that are literally nouns. All these may also be used partitively; as, "_Nearly all of us_." OBS. 10.--The following are some of Dr. Johnson's "_nouns_;" which, in connexion with the foregoing remarks, I would submit to the judgement of the reader: "'Then shall we be news-crammed.'--'_All_ the better; we shall be the more remarkable.'"--SHAK.: _in Joh. Dict._ "_All_ the fitter, Lentulus; our coming is not for salutation; we have business."--BEN JONSON: _ib._ "'Tis _enough_ for me to have endeavoured the union of my country."--TEMPLE: _ib._ "Ye take too _much_ upon you."--NUMBERS: _ib._ "The fate of love is such, that still it sees too _little_ or too _much_."--DRYDEN: _ib._ "He thought not _much_ to clothe his enemies."--MILTON: _ib._ "There remained not so _much_ as one of them."--_Ib., Exod._, xiv, 28. "We will cut wood out of Lebanon, as _much_ as thou shalt need."--_Ib._, _2 Chronicles_. "The matter of the universe was created before the flood; if any _more_ was created, then there must be as _much_ annihilated to make room for it."--BURNET: _ib._ "The Lord do so, and much _more_, to Jonathan."--1 SAMUEL: _ib._ "They that would have _more_ and _more_, can never have _enough_; no, not if a miracle should interpose to gratify their avarice."--L'ESTRANGE: _ib._ "They gathered some _more_, some _less_."--EXODUS: _ib._ "Thy servant knew nothing of this, _less_ or _more_."--1 SAMUEL: _ib._ The first two examples above, Johnson explains thus: "That is, '_Every thing is the better_.'--_Every thing is the fitter_."--_Quarto Dict._ The propriety of this solution may well be doubted; because the similar phrases, "_So much_ the better,"--"_None_ the fitter," would certainly be perverted, if resolved in the same way: _much_ and _none_ are here, very clearly, adverbs. OBS. 11.--Whatever disposition may be made of the terms cited above, there are instances in which some of the same words can hardly be any thing else than nouns. Thus _all_, when it signifies _the whole_, or _every thing_, may be reckoned a noun; as, "Our _all_ is at stake, and irretrievably lost, if we fail of success."--_Addison_. "A torch, snuff and _all_, goes out in a moment, when dipped in the vapour."--_Id._ "The first blast of wind laid it flat on the ground; nest, eagles, and _all_."--_L'Estrange_. "Finding, the wretched _all_ they here can have, But present food, and but a future grave."--_Prior_. "And will she yet debase her eyes on me; On me, whose _all_ not equals Edward's moiety?"--_Shak_. "Thou shalt be _all_ in _all_, and I in thee, Forever; and in me all whom thou lov'st."--_Milton_. OBS. 12.--There are yet some other words, which, by their construction alone, are to be distinguished from the pronominal adjectives. _Both_, when it stands as a correspondent to _and_, is reckoned a conjunction; as, "For _both_ he that sanctifieth, _and_ they who are sanctified, are all of one."--_Heb._, ii, 11. But, in sentences like the following, it seems to be an adjective, referring to the nouns which precede: "Language and manners are _both_ established by the usage of people of fashion."--_Amer. Chesterfield_, p. 83. So _either_, corresponding to _or_, and _neither_, referring to _nor_, are conjunctions, and not adjectives. _Which_ and _what_, with their compounds, _whichever_ or _whichsoever, whatever_ or _whatsoever_, though sometimes put before nouns as adjectives, are, for the most part, relative or interrogative pronouns. When the noun is used after them, they are adjectives; when it is omitted, they are pronouns: as, "There is a witness of God, _which witness_ gives true judgement."--_I. Penington_. Here the word _witness_ might be omitted, and _which_ would become a relative pronoun. Dr. Lowth says, "_Thy, my, her, our, your, their_, are pronominal adjectives."--_Gram._, p. 23. This I deny; and the reader may see my reasons, in the observations upon the declension of pronouns. OBS. 13.--The words _one_ and _other_, besides their primitive uses as adjectives, in which they still remain without inflection, are frequently employed as nouns, or as substitutes for nouns; and, in this substantive or pronominal character, they commonly have the regular declension of nouns, and are reckoned such by some grammarians; though others call them indefinite pronouns, and some, (among whom are Lowth and Comly,) leave them with the pronominal adjectives, even when they are declined in both numbers. Each of them may be preceded by either of the articles; and so general is the signification of the former, that almost any adjective may likewise come before it: as, _Any one, some one, such a one, many a one, a new one, an old one, an other one, the same one, the young ones, the little ones, the mighty ones, the wicked one, the Holy One, the Everlasting One_. So, like the French _on_, or _l'on_, the word _one_, without any adjective, is now very frequently used as a general or indefinite term for any man, or any person. In this sense, it is sometimes, unquestionably, to be preferred to a personal pronoun applied indefinitely: as, "Pure religion, and undefiled before God and the Father, is this, To visit the fatherless and widows in their affliction, and to keep _himself_ [better, _one's self_] unspotted from the world."--_James_, i, 27. But, as its generality of meaning seems to afford a sort of covering for egotism, some writers are tempted to make too frequent a use of it. Churchill ridicules this practice, by framing, or anonymously citing, the following sentence: "If _one_ did but dare to abide by _one's_ own judgement, _one's_ language would be much more refined; but _one_ fancies _one's_ self obliged to follow, whereever the many choose to lead _one_."--See _Churchill's Gram._, p. 229. Here every scholar will concur with the critic in thinking, it would be better to say: "If _we_ did but dare to abide by _our_ own judgement, _our_ language would be much more refined; but _we_ fancy _ourselves_ obliged to follow wherever the many choose to lead _us_."--See _ib._ OBS. 14.--Of the pronominal adjectives the following distribution has been made: "_Each, every_, and _either_, are called _distributives_; because, though they imply all the persons or things that make up a number, they consider them, not as one whole, but as taken separately. _This, that, former, latter, both, neither_, are termed _demonstratives_; because they point out precisely the subjects to which they relate. _This_ has _these_ for its plural; _that_ has _those_. _This_ and _that_ are frequently put in opposition to each other; _this_, to express what is nearer in place or time; _that_, what is more remote. _All, any, one, other, some, such_, are termed _indefinite_. _Another_ is merely _other_ in the singular, with the indefinite article not kept separate from it.[175] _Other_, when not joined with a noun, is occasionally used both in the possessive case, and in the plural number: as, 'Teach me to feel _an other's_ wo, to hide the fault I see; That mercy I to _others_ show, that mercy show to me.'--_Pope_. _Each other_ and _one another_, when used in conjunction, may be termed _reciprocals_; as they are employed to express a reciprocal action; the former, between two persons or things; the latter, _between_[176] more than two. The possessive cases of the personal pronouns have been also ranked under the head of pronominal adjectives, and styled possessives; but for this I see no good reason."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 76. OBS. 15.--The reciprocal terms _each other_ and _one an other_ divide, according to some mutual act or interchangeable relation, the persons or things spoken of, and are commonly of the singular number only. _Each other_, if rightly used, supposes two, and only two, to be acting and acted upon reciprocally; _one an other_, if not misapplied, supposes more than two, under like circumstances, and has an indefinite reference to all taken distributively: as, "Brutus and Aruns killed _each other_." That is, _Each combatant_ killed _the other_. "The disciples were commanded to love _one an other_, and to be willing to wash _one an other's_ feet." That is, _All_ the disciples were commanded to love _mutually_; for both terms, _one_ and _other_, or _one disciple_ and _an other disciple_, must be here understood as taken indefinitely. The reader will observe, that the two terms thus brought together, if taken substantively or pronominally in parsing, must be represented as being of _different cases_; or, if we take them adjectively the noun, which is twice to be supplied, will necessarily be so. OBS. 16.--Misapplications of the foregoing reciprocal terms are very frequent in books, though it is strange that phrases so very common should not be rightly understood. Dr. Webster, among his explanations of the word _other_, has the following: "Correlative to _each_, and applicable to _any number_ of individuals."--_Octavo Dict._ "_Other_ is used as a substitute for a noun, and in this use has the plural number and the sign of the possessive case."--_Ib._ Now it is plain, that the word _other_, as a "correlative to _each_," may be so far "a substitute for a noun" as to take the form of the possessive case singular, and perhaps also the plural; as, "Lock'd in _each other's_ arms they lay." But, that the objective _other_, in any such relation, can convey a plural idea, or be so loosely applicable--"to _any number_ of individuals," I must here deny. If it were so, there would be occasion, by the foregoing rule, to make it plural in form; as, "The ambitious strive to excel _each others_." But this is not English. Nor can it be correct to say of more than two, "They all strive to excel _each other_." Because the explanation must be, "_Each_ strives to excel _other_;" and such a construction of the word _other_ is not agreeable to modern usage. _Each other_ is therefore not equivalent to _one an other_, but nearer perhaps to _the one the other_: as, "The two generals are independent _the one of the other_."--_Voltaire's Charles XII_, p. 67. "And these are contrary _the one to the other_."--_Gal._, v, 17. "The necessary connexion _of the one with the other_."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 304. The latter phraseology, being definite and formal, is now seldom used, except the terms be separated by a verb or a preposition. It is a literal version of the French _l'un l'autre_, and in some instances to be preferred to _each other_; as, "So fellest foes, whose plots have broke their sleep, To take _the one the other_, by some chance."--_Shak_. OBS. 17.--The Greek term for the reciprocals _each other_ and _one an other_, is a certain plural derivative from [Greek: allos], _other_; and is used in three cases, the genitive, [Greek: allælon], the dative, [Greek: allælois], the accusative, [Greek: allælous]: these being all the cases which the nature of the expression admits; and for all these we commonly use the _objective_;--that is, we put _each_ or _one_ before the objective _other_. Now these English terms, taken in a reciprocal sense, seldom, if ever, have any plural form; because the article in _one an other_ admits of none; and _each other_, when applied to two persons or things, (as it almost always is,) does not require any. I have indeed seen, in some narrative, such an example as this: "The two men were ready to cut _each others' throats_." But the meaning could not be, that each was ready to cut "_others' throats_;" and since, between the two, there was but one throat for _each_ to cut, it would doubtless be more correct to say, "_each other's throat_." So Burns, in touching a gentler passion, has an inaccurate elliptical expression: "'Tis when a youthful, loving, modest pair, In _others'_ arms, breathe out the tender tale." --_Cotter's Sat. Night_. He meant, "In _each other's_ arms;" the apostrophe being misplaced, and the metre improperly allowed to exclude a word which the sense requires. Now, as to the plural of _each other_, although we do not use the objective, and say of many, "They love _each others_," there appear to be some instances in which the possessive plural, _each others'_, would not be improper; as, "Sixteen ministers, who meet weekly at _each other's_ houses."--_Johnson's Life of Swift_. Here the singular is wrong, because the governing noun implies a plurality of owners. "The citizens of different states should know _each others characters_."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 35. This also is wrong, because no possessive sign is used. Either write, "_each others' characters_," or say, "_one an other's character_." OBS. 18.--_One_ and _other_ are, in many instances, terms relative and partitive, rather than reciprocal; and, in this use, there seems to be an occasional demand for the plural form. In French, two parties are contrasted by _les uns--les autres_; a mode of expression seldom, if ever imitated in English. Thus: "Il les séparera _les uns_ d'avec _les autres_." That is, "He shall separate them _some_ from _others_;"--or, literally, "_the ones_ from _the others_." Our version is: "He shall separate them _one from an other_."--_Matt._, xxv, 32. Beza has it: "Separabit eos _alteros ab alteris_." The Vulgate: "Separabit eos _ab invicem_." The Greek: "[Greek: Aphoriei autous ap allælon]." To separate many "_one from an other_," seems, literally, to leave none of them together; and this is not, "as a shepherd divideth his sheep from the goats." To express such an idea with perfect propriety, in our language, therefore, we must resort to some other phraseology. In Campbell's version, we read: "And _out of them_ he will separate _the good from the bad_, as a shepherd separateth _the_ sheep from the goats." Better, perhaps, thus: "And he shall separate them, _the righteous from the wicked_, as a shepherd divideth his sheep from the goats." OBS. 19.--Dr. Bullions says, "_One_ and _other_ refer to _the singular only_."--_Eng. Gram._, p. 98. Of _ones_ and _others_ he takes no notice; nor is he sufficiently attentive to usage in respect to the roots. If there is any absurdity in giving a _plural_ meaning to the singulars _one_ and _other_, the following sentences need amendment: "_The one_ preach Christ of contention; but _the other_, of love."--_Philippians_, i, 16. Here "_the one_" is put for "the one _class_," and "_the other_" for "the other _class_;" the ellipsis in the first instance not being a very proper one. "The confusion arises, when _the one_ will put _their_ sickle into _the other's_ harvest."--LESLEY: _in Joh. Dict._ This may be corrected by saying, "_the one party_," or, "_the one nation_," in stead of "_the one_." "It is clear from Scripture, that Antichrist shall be permitted to work false miracles, and that they shall so counterfeit the true, that it will be hard to discern _the one_ from _the other_."--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 93. If in any ease we may adopt the French construction above, "_the ones_ from the _others_," it will be proper here. Again: "I have seen _children_ at a table, who, whatever was there, never asked for any thing, but contentedly took what was given them: and, at an other place, I have seen _others_ cry for every thing they saw; they must be served out of every dish, and that first too. What made this vast difference, but this: That _one was_ accustomed to have what _they_ called or cried for; _the other_ to go without it?"--_Locke, on Education_, p. 55. Here, (with _were_ for _was_,) the terms of contrast ought rather to have been, _the ones--the others_; _the latter--the former_; or, _the importunate--the modest_. "Those nice shades, by which _virtues and vices_ approach _each one another_."--_Murray's Gram._, i, p. 350. This expression should be any thing, rather than what it is. Say, "By which _virtue_ and _vice_ approach _each other_." Or: "By which certain virtues and vices _approximate-- blend--become difficult of distinction_." OBS. 20.--"Most authors have given the name of _pronoun adjectives_, ['pronouns adjective,' or 'pronominal adjectives,'] to _my, mine; our, ours; thy, thine; your, yours; his, her, hers; their, theirs_: perhaps because they are followed by, or refer to, some substantive [expressed or understood after them]. But, were they adjectives, they must either express the quality of their substantive, or limit its extent: adjectives properly so called, do the first; definitive pronouns do the last. All adjectives [that are either singular or plural,] agree with their substantives in _number_; but I can say, 'They are _my books_:' _my_ is singular, and _books_ plural; therefore _my_ is not an adjective. Besides, _my_ does not express the _quality_ of the books, but only ascertains the possessor, the same as the genitive or substantive does, to which it is similar. Examples: 'They are _my_ books;'--'They are _John's_ books;' &c."--_Alex. Murray's Gram._, p. 108. OBS. 21.--To the class of Participial Adjectives, should be referred all such words as the following: (1.) The simple participles made adjectives by position; as. "A _roaring_ lion,"--"A _raging_ bear,"--"A _brawling_ woman,"--"A _flattering_ mouth,"--"An _understanding_ heart,"--"_Burning_ coals,"--"The _hearing_ ear, and the _seeing_ eye."--_Bible_. "A _troubled_ fountain,"--"A _wounded_ spirit,"--"An _appointed_ time."--_Ib._ (2.) Words of a participial appearance, formed from nouns by adding _ed_; as, "The eve thy _sainted_ mother died."--_W. Scott_. "What you write of me, would make me more _conceited_, than what I scribble myself."--_Pope_. (3.) Participles, or participial adjectives, reversed in sense by the prefix _un_; as, _unaspiring, unavailing, unbelieving, unbattered, uninjured, unbefriended_. (4.) Words of a participial form construed elliptically, as if they were nouns; as, "Among the _dying_ and the dead."--"The _called_ of Jesus Christ."--_Rom._, i, 6. "Dearly _beloved_, I beseech you."--_1 Pet._, ii, 11. "The _redeemed_ of the Lord shall return."--_Isaiah_, li, 11. "They talk, to the grief of thy _wounded_."--_Psalms_, lxix, 26: _Margin_. OBS. 22.--In the text, Prov., vii, 26, "She hath cast down many wounded," _wounded_ is a participle; because the meaning is, "_many men wounded_," and not, "_many wounded men_." Our Participial Adjectives are exceedingly numerous. It is not easy to ascertain how many there are of them; because almost any simple participle may be set before a noun, and thus become an adjective: as, "Where _smiling_ spring its earliest visit paid, And _parting_ summer's _ling'ring_ blooms delay'd."--_Goldsmith_. OBS. 23.--Compound Adjectives, being formed at pleasure, are both numerous and various. In their formation, however, certain analogies may be traced: (1.) Many of them are formed by joining an adjective to its noun, and giving to the latter the participial termination _ed_; as, _able-bodied, sharp-sighted, left-handed, full-faced, flat-nosed, thick-lipped, cloven-footed, high-heeled_. (2.) In some, two nouns are joined, the latter assuming _ed_, as above; as, _bell-shaped, hawk-nosed, eagle-sighted, lion-hearted, web-footed_. (3.) In some, the object of an active participle is placed before it; as, _money-getting, time-serving, self-consuming, cloud-compelling, fortune-hunting, sleep-disturbing_. (4.) Some, embracing numerals, form a series, though it is seldom carried far; as, _one-legged, two-legged, three-legged, four-legged_. So, _one-leaved, two-leaved, three-leaved, four-leaved_: or, perhaps better as Webster will have them, _one-leafed, two-leafed, &c_. But, upon the same principle, _short-lived_, should be _short-lifed_, and _long-lived, long-lifed_. (5.) In some, there is a combination of an adjective and a participle; as, _noble-looking, high-sounding, slow-moving, thorough-going, hard-finished, free-born, heavy-laden, only-begotten_. (6.) In some, we find an adverb and a participle united; as, _ever-living, ill-judging, well-pleasing, far-shooting, forth-issuing, back-sliding, ill-trained, down-trodden, above-mentioned_. (7.) Some consist of a noun and a participle which might be reversed with a preposition between them; as, _church-going, care-crazed, travel-soiled, blood-bespotted, dew-sprinkled_. (8.) A few, and those inelegant, terminate with a preposition; as, _unlooked-for, long-looked-for, unthought-of, unheard-of_. (9.) Some are phrases of many words, converted into one part of speech by the hyphen; as, "Where is the _ever-to-be-honoured_ Chaucer?"--_Wordsworth_. "And, with _God-only-knows-how-gotten_ light, Informs the nation what is wrong or right." --_Snelling's Gift for Scribblers_, p. 49. OBS. 24.--Nouns derived from compound adjectives, are generally disapproved by good writers; yet we sometimes meet with them: as, _hard-heartedness_, for hardness of heart, or cruelty; _quick-sightedness_, for quickness of sight, or perspicacity; _worldly-mindedness_, for devotion to the world, or love of gain; _heavenly-mindedness_, for the love of God, or true piety. In speaking of ancestors or descendants, we take the noun, _father, mother, son, daughter_, or _child_; prefix the adjective _grand_; for the second generation; _great_, for the, third; and then, sometimes, repeat the same, for degrees more remote: as, _father, grandfather, great-grandfather, great-great-grandfather_. "What would my _great-grandmother_ say, thought I, could she know that thou art to be chopped up for fuel to warm the frigid fingers of her _great-great-great-granddaughters_!"--_T. H. Bayley_. MODIFICATIONS. Adjectives have, commonly, no modifications but the forms of _comparison_. Comparison is a variation of the adjective, to express quality in different degrees: as, _hard, harder, hardest; soft, softer, softest._ There are three degrees of comparison; the _positive_, the _comparative_, and the _superlative_. The _positive degree_ is that which is expressed by the adjective in its simple form: as, "An elephant is _large_; a mouse, _small_; a lion, _fierce, active, bold_, and _strong_." The _comparative degree_ is that which is _more_ or _less_ than something contrasted with it: as, "A whale is _larger_ than an elephant; a mouse is a much _smaller_ animal than a rat." The _superlative degree_ is that which is _most_ or _least_ of all included with it: as, "The whale is the _largest_ of the animals that inhabit this globe; the mouse is the _smallest_ of all beasts."--_Dr. Johnson._ Those adjectives whose signification does not admit of different degrees, cannot be compared; as, _two, second, all, every, immortal, infinite._ Those adjectives which may be varied in sense, but not in form, are compared by means of adverbs; as, fruitful, _more_ fruitful, _most_ fruitful--fruitful, _less_ fruitful, _least_ fruitful. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--"Some scruple to call the positive a degree of comparison; on the ground, that it does not imply either comparison, or degree. But no quality can exist, without existing in some degree: and, though the positive is very frequently used without reference to any other degree; as it is _the standard_, with which other degrees of the quality are compared, it is certainly an essential object of the comparison. While these critics allow only two degrees, we might in fact with more propriety say, that there are five: 1, the quality in its standard state, or positive degree; as _wise_: 2, in a higher state, or the comparative ascending; _more wise_: 3, in a lower, or the comparative descending; _less wise_: 4, in the highest state, or superlative ascending; _most wise_: 5, in the lowest state, or superlative descending; _least wise._ All grammarians, however, agree about the things themselves, and the forms used to express them; though they differ about the names, by which these forms should be called: and as those names are practically best, which tend least to perplex the learner, I see no good reason here for deviating from what has been established by long custom."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 231. OBS. 2.--Churchill here writes plausibly enough, but it will be seen, both from his explanation, and from the foregoing definitions of the degrees of comparison, that there are but three. The comparative and the superlative may each be distinguishable into the ascending and the descending, as often as we prefer the adverbial form to the regular variation of the adjective itself; but this imposes no necessity of classing and defining them otherwise than simply as the comparative and the superlative. The assumption of two comparatives and two superlatives, is not only contrary to the universal practice of the teachers of grammar; but there is this conclusive argument against it--that the regular method of comparison has no degrees of diminution, and the form which has such degrees, is _no inflection_ of the adjective. If there is any exception, it is in the words, _small, smaller, smallest_, and _little, less, least_. But of the smallness or littleness, considered abstractly, these, like all others, are degrees of increase, and not of diminution. _Smaller_ is as completely opposite to _less small_, as _wiser_ is to _less wise_. _Less_ itself is a comparative descending, only when it diminishes some _other_ quality: _less little_, if the phrase were proper, must needs be nearly equivalent to _greater_ or _more_. Churchill, however, may be quite right in the following remark: "The comparative ascending of an adjective, and the comparative descending of an adjective expressing the opposite quality, are often considered synonymous, by those who do not discriminate nicely between ideas. But _less imprudent_ does not imply precisely the same thing as _more prudent_; or _more brave_, the same as _less cowardly_."--_New Gram._, p. 231. OBS. 3.--The definitions which I have given of the three degrees of comparison, are new. In short, I know not whether any other grammarian has ever given what may justly be called a _definition_, of any one of them. Here, as in most other parts of grammar, loose _remarks_, ill-written and untrue assertions, have sufficed. The explanations found in many English grammars are the following: "The positive state expresses the quality of an object, without any increase or diminution; as, good, wise, great. The comparative degree increases or lessens the positive in signification; as, wiser, greater, less wise. The superlative degree increases or lessens the positive to the highest or [the] lowest degree; as, wisest, greatest, least wise. The simple word, or positive, becomes [the] comparative by adding _r_ or _er_; and the superlative by adding _st_ or _est_, to the end of it. And the adverbs _more_ and _most_, placed before the adjective, have the same effect; as, wise, _more_ wise, _most_ wise."--_Murray's Grammar_, 2d Ed., 1796, p. 47. If a man wished to select some striking example of bad writing--of thoughts ill conceived, and not well expressed--he could not do better than take the foregoing: provided his auditors knew enough of grammar to answer the four simple questions here involved; namely, What is the positive degree? What is the comparative degree? What is the superlative degree? How are adjectives regularly compared? To these questions I shall furnish _direct answers_, which the reader may compare with such as he can derive from the foregoing citation: the last two sentences of which Murray ought to have credited to Dr. Lowth; for he copied them literally, except that he says, "the adverbs _more_ AND _most_," for the Doctor's phrase, "the adverbs _more_ OR _most_." See the whole also in _Kirkham's Grammar_, p. 72; in _Ingersoll's_, p. 35; in _Alger's_, p. 21; in _Bacon's_, p. 18; in _Russell's_, p. 14; in _Hamlin's_, p. 22; in _J. M. Putnam's_, p. 33; in _S. Putnam's_, p. 20; in _R. C. Smith's_, p. 51; in _Rev. T. Smith's_, p. 20. OBS. 4.--In the five short sentences quoted above, there are more errors, than can possibly be enumerated in ten times the space. For example: (1.) If one should say of a piece of iron, "It grows cold or hot very rapidly," _cold_ and _hot_ could not be in the "_positive state_," as they define it: because, either the "quality" or the "object," (I know not which,) is represented by them as "without any increase or diminution;" and this would not, in the present case, be true of either; for iron changes in bulk, by a change of temperature. (2.) What, in the first sentence, is erroneously called "the positive _state_," in the second and the third, is called, "the positive _degree_;" and this again, in the fourth, is falsely identified with "the simple _word_." Now, if we suppose the meaning to be, that "the positive state," "the positive degree," or "the simple word," is "without any increase or diminution;" this is expressly contradicted by three sentences out of the five, and implicitly, by one of the others. (3.) Not one of these sentences is _true_, in the most obvious sense of the words, if in any other; and yet the doctrines they were designed to teach, may have been, in general, correctly gathered from the examples. (4.) The phrase, "_positive in signification_," is not intelligible in the sense intended, without a comma after _positive_; and yet, in an armful of different English grammars which contain the passage, I find not one that has a point in that place. (5.) It is not more correct to say, that the comparative or the superlative degree, "increases or lessens the positive," than it would be to aver, that the plural number increases or lessens the singular, or the feminine gender, the masculine. Nor does the superlative mean, what a certain learned Doctor understands by it--namely, "_the greatest or least possible degree_." If it did, "the _thickest_ parts of his skull," for example, would imply small room for brains; "the _thinnest_," protect them ill, if there were any. (6.) It is improper to say, "_The simple word becomes_ [the] _comparative by adding r or er_; and _the superlative by adding st or est_." The thought is wrong; and nearly all the words are misapplied; as, _simple_ for _primitive, adding_ for _assuming_, &c. (7.) Nor is it very wise to say, "the adverbs _more_ and _most_, placed before the adjective, _have the same effect_:" because it ought to be known, that the effect of the one is very different from that of the other! "_The same effect_," cannot here be taken for any effect previously described; unless we will have it to be, that these words, _more_ and _most_, "become comparative by adding _r_ or _er_; and the superlative by adding _st_ or _est_, to the end of them:" all of which is grossly absurd. (8.) The repetition of the word _degree_, in saying, "The superlative _degree_ increases or lessens the positive to the highest or lowest _degree_," is a disagreeable tautology. Besides, unless it involves the additional error of presenting the same word in different senses, it makes one degree swell or diminish an other _to itself_; whereas, in the very next sentence, this singular agency is forgotten, and a second equally strange takes its place: "The positive _becomes_ the superlative by adding _st_ or _est_, to the end of it;" i. e., to the end of _itself_. Nothing can be more ungrammatical, than is much of the language by which grammar itself is now professedly taught! OBS. 5.--It has been almost universally assumed by grammarians, that the positive degree is _the only standard_ to which the other degrees can refer; though many seem to think, that the superlative always implies or includes the comparative, and is consequently inapplicable when only two things are spoken of. Neither of these positions is involved in any of the definitions which I have given above. The reader may think what he will about these points, after observing the several ways in which each form may be used. In the phrases, "_greater_ than Solomon,"--"_more_ than a bushel,"--"_later_ than one o'clock," it is not immediately obvious that the positives _great, much_, and _late_, are the real terms of contrast. And how is it in the Latin phrases, "_Dulcior melle_, sweeter than honey,"--"_Præstantior auro_, better than gold?" These authors will resolve all such phrases thus: "_greater_, than Solomon _was great_,"--"_more_, than a bushel _is much_," &c. As the conjunction _than_ never governs the objective case, it seems necessary to suppose an ellipsis of some verb after the noun which follows it as above; and possibly the foregoing solution, uncouth as it seems, may, for the English idiom, be the true one: as, "My Father is _greater than I_."--_John_, xiv, 28. That is, "My Father is greater _than I am_;"--or, perhaps, "than I am _great_." But if it appear that _some_ degree of the same quality must always be contrasted with the comparative, there is still room to question whether this degree must always be that which we call the positive. Cicero, in exile, wrote to his wife: "Ego autem hoc _miserior_ sum, quam tu, quæ es _miserrima_, quod ipsa calamitas communis est utriusque nostrùm, sed culpa mea propria est."--_Epist. ad Fam._, xiv, 3. "But in this I am _more wretched_, than thou, who art _most wretched_, that the calamity itself is common to us both, but the fault is all my own." OBS. 6.--In my Institutes and First Lines of English Grammar, I used the following brief definitions: "The _comparative degree_ is that which exceeds the positive; as, _harder, softer, better_." "The _superlative degree_ is that which is not exceeded; as, _hardest, softest, best_." And it is rather for the sake of suggesting to the learner the peculiar _application_ of each of these degrees, than from any decided dissatisfaction with these expressions, that I now present others. The first, however, proceeds upon the common supposition, that the comparative degree of a quality, ascribed to any object, must needs be contrasted with the positive in some other, or with the positive in the same at an other time. This idea may be plausibly maintained, though it is certain that the positive term referred to, is seldom, if ever, allowed to appear. Besides, the comparative or the superlative _may_ appear, and in such a manner as to be, or seem to be, in the point of contrast. Thus: "Objects near our view are apt to be thought _greater than those of a larger size_, that are more remote."--_Locke's Essay_, p. 186. Upon the principle above, the explanation here must be, that the meaning is--"_greater_ than those of a larger size _are thought great._" "The _poor_ man that loveth Christ, is _richer than the richest man_ in the world, that hates him."--_Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress_, p. 86. This must be "_richer_ than the richest man _is rich_." The riches contemplated here, are of different sorts; and the comparative or the superlative of one sort, may be exceeded by either of these degrees of an other sort, though the same epithet be used for both. So in the following instances: "He that is _higher than the highest_ regardeth; and there be _higher than they_."--_Eccl._, v, 8. That is, "He that is higher than the highest _earthly dignitaries_, regardeth; and there are higher _authorities_ than _these._" "_Fairer_ than aught imagined else _fairest_."--_Pollok_. "_Sadder than saddest_ night."--_Byron_. It is evident that the superlative degree is not, in general, that which _cannot be_ exceeded, but that which, in the actual state of the things included, "_is_ not exceeded." Again, as soon as any given comparative or superlative is, by a further elevation or intension of the quality, surpassed and exceeded, that particular degree, whatever it was, becomes merely positive; for the positive degree of a quality, though it commonly includes the very lowest measure, and is understood to exceed nothing, may at any time _equal_ the very highest. There is no paradox in all this, which is not also in the following simple examples: "_Easier_, indeed, I was, but far from _easy_."--_Cowper's Life_, p. 50. "Who canst the _wisest wiser_ make, And babes _as wise_ as they."--_Cowper's Poems_. OBS. 7.--The relative nature of these degrees deserves to be further illustrated. (1.) It is plain, that the greatest degree of a quality in one thing, may be less than the least in an other; and, consequently, that the least degree in one thing, may be greater than the greatest in an other. Thus, the _heaviest_ wood is _less heavy_ than the _lightest_ of the metals; and the _least valuable_ of the metals is perhaps of _more value_ than the _choicest_ wood. (2.) The comparative degree may increase upon itself, and be repeated to show the gradation. Thus, a man may ascend into the air with a balloon, and rise _higher_, and _higher_, and _higher_, and _higher_, till he is out of sight. This is no uncommon form of expression, and the intension is from comparative to comparative. (3.) If a ladder be set up for use, one of its rounds will be _the highest_, and one other will be _the lowest_, or _least high._ And as that which is _highest_, is _higher_ than all the rest, so every one will be _higher_ than all below it. _The higher rounds_, if spoken of generally, and without definite contrast, will be those in the upper half; _the lower rounds_, referred to in like manner, will be those in the lower half, or those not far from the ground. _The highest rounds_, or _the lowest_, if we indulge such latitude of speech, will be those near the top or the bottom; there being, absolutely, or in _strictness_ of language, but _one_ of each. (4.) If _the highest_ round be removed, or left uncounted, the next becomes the _highest_, though not _so high_ as the former. For every one is _the highest_ of the number which it completes. All admit this, till we come to _three_. And, as the third is _the highest of the three_, I see not why the second is not properly _the highest of the two_. Yet nearly all our grammarians condemn this phrase, and prefer "_the higher of the two_." But can they give a _reason_ for their preference? That the comparative degree is implied between the positive and the superlative, so that there must needs be three terms before the latter is applicable, is a doctrine which I deny. And if the second is _the higher of the two_, because it is _higher than the first_; is it not also _the highest of the two_, because it _completes the number?_ (5.) It is to be observed, too, that as our ordinal numeral _first_, denoting the one which begins a series, and having reference of course to more, is an adjective of the superlative degree, equivalent to _foremost_, of which it is perhaps a contraction; so _last_ likewise, though no numeral, is a superlative also. (6.) These, like other superlatives, admit of a looser application, and may possibly include more than one thing at the beginning or at the end of a series: as, "_The last years_ of man are often helpless, like _the first_." (7.) With undoubted propriety, we may speak of _the first two, the last two, the first three, the last three_, &c.; but to say, _the two first, the two last_, &c., with this meaning, is obviously and needlessly inaccurate. "_The two first men_ in the nation," may, I admit, be good English; but it can properly be meant only of _the two most eminent._ In specifying any part of a _series_, we ought rather to place the cardinal number after the ordinal. (8.) Many of the foregoing positions apply generally, to almost all adjectives that are susceptible of comparison. Thus, it is a common saying, "Take _the best first_, and _all_ will be _best_." That is, remove that degree which is now superlative, and the epithet will descend to an other, "_the next best._" OBS. 8.--It is a common assumption, maintained by almost all our grammarians, that the degrees which add to the adjective the terminations _er_ and _est_, as well as those which are expressed by _more_ and _most_, indicate an _increase_, or heightening, of the quality expressed by the positive. If such must needs be their import, it is certainly very improper, to apply them, as many do, to what can be only an approximation to the positive. Thus Dr. Blair: "Nothing that belongs to human nature, is _more universal_ than the relish of beauty of one kind or other."--_Lectures_, p. 16. "In architecture, the Grecian models were long esteemed _the most perfect_."--_Ib._, p. 20. Again: In his reprehension of Capernaum, the Saviour said, "It shall be _more tolerable_ for the land of Sodom, in the day of judgement, than for thee."--_Matt._, xi, 24. Now, although [Greek: anektoteron], _more tolerable_, is in itself a good comparative, who would dare infer from this text, that in the day of judgement Capernaum shall fare _tolerably_, and Sodom, _still better_? There is much reason to think, that the essential nature of these grammatical degrees has not been well understood by those who have heretofore pretended to explain them. If we except those few approximations to sensible qualities, which are signified by such words as _whitish, greenish, &c._, there will be found no actual measure, or inherent degree of any quality, to which the simple form of the adjective is not applicable; or which, by the help of intensive adverbs of a positive character, it may not be made to express; and that, too, without becoming either comparative or superlative, in the technical sense of those terms. Thus _very white, exceedingly white, perfectly white_, are terms quite as significant as _whiter_ and _whitest_, if not more so. Some grammarians, observing this, and knowing that the Romans often used their superlative in a sense merely intensive, as _altissimus_ for _very high_, have needlessly divided our English superlative into two, "_the definite_, and the _indefinite_;" giving the latter name to that degree which we mark by the adverb _very_, and the former to that which alone is properly called the superlative. Churchill does this: while, (as we have seen above,) in naming the degrees, he pretends to prefer "what has been established by long custom."--_New Gram._, p. 231. By a strange oversight also, he failed to notice, that this doctrine interferes with his scheme of _five_ degrees, and would clearly furnish him with _six_: to which if he had chosen to add the "_imperfect degree_" of Dr. Webster, (as _whitish, greenish, &c._,) which is recognized by Johnson, Murray, and others, he might have had _seven_. But I hope my readers will by-and-by believe there is _no need_ of more than _three_. OBS. 9.--The true nature of the Comparative degree is this: it denotes either some _excess_ or some _relative deficiency_ of the quality, when one thing or party is compared with an other, in respect to what is in both: as, "Because the foolishness of God is _wiser_ than men; and the weakness of God is _stronger_ than men."--_1 Cor._, i, 25. "Few languages are, in fact, _more copious_ than the English."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 87. "Our style is _less compact_ than that of the ancients."--_Ib._, p. 88. "They are counted to him _less_ than nothing and vanity."--_Isaiah_, xl, 17. As the comparatives in a long _series_ are necessarily many, and some of them _higher_ than others, it may be asked, "How can the comparative degree, in this case, be merely 'that which exceeds the positive?'" Or, as our common grammarians prompt me here to say, "May not the comparative degree increase or lessen _the comparative_, in signification?" The latter form of the question they may answer for themselves; remembering that the comparative _may advance from the comparative_, step by step, from the second article in the series to the utmost. Thus, three is a higher or greater number than two; but four is higher than three; five, than four; and so on, _ad infinitum_. My own form of the question I answer thus: "The _highest_ of the _higher_ is not _higher_ than the rest are _higher_, but simply _higher_ than they are _high_." OBS. 10.--The true nature of the Superlative degree is this: it denotes, in a quality, _some extreme_ or _unsurpassed extent_. It may be used either absolutely, as being without bounds; or relatively, as being confined within any limits we choose to give it. It is equally applicable to that which is naturally unsurpassable, and to that which stands within the narrowest limits of comparison. The _heaviest_ of _three feathers_ would scarcely be thought a _heavy_ thing, and yet the expression is proper; because the weight, whatever it is, is relatively _the greatest_. The _youngest_ of three persons, may not be _very young_; nor need we suppose the _oldest_ in a whole college to have arrived at _the greatest conceivable age_. What then shall be thought of the explanations which our grammarians have given of this degree of comparison? That of Murray I have already criticised. It is ascribed to him, not upon the supposition that he invented it; but because common sense continues to give place to the authority of his name in support of it. Comly, Russell, Alger, Ingersoll, Greenleaf, Fisk, Merchant, Kirkham, T. Smith, R. C. Smith, Hall, Hiley, and many others, have copied it into their grammars, as being better than any definition they could devise. Murray himself unquestionably took it from some obscure pedagogue among the old grammarians. Buchanan, who long preceded him, has nearly the same words: "The Superlative increases or diminishes the Positive in Signification, to the highest or [the] lowest Degree of all."--_English Syntax_, p. 28. If this is to be taken for a grammatical definition, what definition shall grammar itself bear? OBS. 11.--Let us see whether our later authors have done better. "The _superlative_ expresses a quality in the greatest or [the] least _possible_ degree; as, _wisest, coldest, least wise_."--_Webster's Old Gram._, p. 13. In his later speculations, this author conceives that the termination _ish_ forms the _first_ degree of comparison; as, "Imperfect, _dankish_," Pos. _dank_, Comp. _danker_, Superl. _dankest_. "There are therefore _four_ degrees of comparison."--_Webster's Philosophical Gram._ p. 65. "The _fourth_ denotes the utmost or [the] least degree of a quality; as, _bravest, wisest, poorest, smallest_. This is called the _superlative_ degree."--_Ib._; also his _Improved Gram._, 1831, p. 47. "This degree is called the Superlative degree, from its raising the amount of the quality above that of all others."--_Webber's Gram._, 1832, p. 26. It is not easy to quote, from any source, a worse sentence than this; if, indeed, so strange a jumble of words can be called a sentence. "_From its raising the amount_," is in itself a vicious and untranslatable phrase, here put for "_because it raises the amount_;" and who can conceive of the superlative degree, as "_raising the amount of the quality_ above that of _all other qualities_?" Or, if it be supposed to mean, "above the amount of all other _degrees_," what is this amount? Is it that of one and one, the _positive_ and the _comparative_ added numerically? or is it the sum of all the quantities which these may indicate? Perhaps the author meant, "above the amount of all other _amounts_." If none of these absurdities is here taught, nothing is taught, and the words are nonsense. Again: "The _superlative degree_ increases or diminishes the positive to the highest or [the] lowest degree _of which it is susceptible_."--_Bucke's Classical Gram._, p. 49. "The superlative degree is generally formed by adding _st_ or _est_ to the positive; and denotes _the greatest excess_."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 33. "The Superlative increases or diminishes the Signification of the Positive or Adjective, to a _very high_ or a _very low_ Degree."--_British Gram._, p. 97. What _excess_ of skill, or what _very high degree_ of acuteness, have the _brightest_ and _best_ of these grammarians exhibited? There must be some, if their definitions are _true_. OBS. 12.--The common assertion of the grammarians, that the superlative degree is not applicable to two _objects_,[177] is not only unsupported by any reason in the nature of things, but it is contradicted in practice by almost every man who affirms it. Thus Maunder: "When only two persons or things are spoken of comparatively, to use the superlative is improper: as, 'Deborah, my dear, give those two boys a lump of sugar each; and let Dick's be the largest, because he spoke first.' This," says the critic, "should have been 'larger.'"--_Maunder's Gram._, p. 4. It is true, the comparative _might_ here have been used; but the superlative is clearer, and more agreeable to custom. And how can "_largest_" be wrong, if "_first_" is right? "Let Dick's be the _larger_, because he spoke _sooner_," borders too much upon a different idea, that of _proportion_; as when we say, "_The sooner the better_,"--"_The more the merrier_." So Blair: "When only two things are compared, the comparative degree should be used, and not the superlative."--_Practical Gram._, p. 81. "A Trochee has the _first_ syllable accented, and the _last_ unaccented."--_Ib._, p. 118. "An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the _last_ accented."--_Ibid._ These two examples are found also in _Jamieson's Rhetoric_, p. 305; _Murray's Gram._, p. 253; _Kirkham's_, 219; _Bullions's_, 169; _Guy's_, 120; _Merchant's_, 166. So Hiley: "When _two_ persons or things are compared, the _comparative_ degree must be employed. When _three or more_ persons or things are compared, the _superlative_ must be used."--_Treatise on English Gram._, p. 78. Contradiction in practice: "Thomas is _wiser_ than his brothers."--_Ib._, p. 79. Are not "_three or more persons_" here compared by "the comparative" _wiser_? "In an _Iambus_ the _first_ syllable is unaccented."--_Ib._, p. 123. An iambus has but _two_ syllables; and this author expressly teaches that "_first_" is "superlative."--_Ib._, p. 21. So Sanborn: "The _positive_ degree denotes the _simple_ form of an adjective _without_ any variation of meaning. The _comparative_ degree increases or lessens the meaning _of the positive_, and denotes a comparison _between two_ persons or things. The _superlative_ degree increases or lessens the positive _to the greatest extent_, and denotes a comparison _between more than two_ persons or things."--_Analytical Gram._, p. 30 and p. 86. These pretended definitions of the degrees of comparison embrace not only the absurdities which I have already censured in those of our common grammars, but several new ones peculiar to this author. Of the inconsistency of his doctrine and practice, take the following examples: "Which of two bodies, that move with the same velocity, will exercise the _greatest_ power?"--_Ib._, p. 93; and again, p. 203, "'I was offered a _dollar_;'--'A _dollar_ was offered (to) _me_.' The _first_ form should always be avoided."--_Ib._, p. 127. "Nouns in apposition generally annex the sign of the possessive case to the _last_; as, 'For David my _servant's_ sake.'--'John the _Baptist's_ head.' _Bible_."--_Ib._, p. 197. OBS. 13.--So Murray: "We commonly say, 'This is the _weaker of the two_;' or, 'The _weakest_ of the two;'[178] but the former is the regular mode of expression, because there are _only two_ things compared."--_Octavo Gram._, i, 167. What then of the following example: "Which of _those two persons_ has _most_ distinguished himself?"--_Ib., Key_, ii, 187. Again, in treating of the adjectives _this_ and _that_, the same hand writes thus: "_This_ refers to the _nearest_ person or thing, and _that_ to the _most distant_: as, '_This_ man is _more intelligent_ than _that_.' _This_ indicates the _latter_, or _last_ mentioned; _that_, the _former_, or _first_ mentioned: as, 'Both wealth and poverty are temptations; _that_ tends to excite pride, _this_, discontent.'"--_Murray's Gram._, i, 56. In the former part of this example, the superlative is twice applied where only two things are spoken of; and, in the latter, it is twice made equivalent to the comparative, with a like reference. The following example shows the same equivalence: "_This_ refers to the _last_ mentioned or _nearer_ thing, _that_ to the _first_ mentioned or _more_ distant thing."--_Webber's Gram._, p. 31. So Churchill: "The superlative should not be used, when only two persons or things are compared."--_New Gram._, p. 80. "In the _first_ of these two sentences."--_Ib._, p. 162; _Lowth_, p. 120. According to the rule, it should have been, "In the _former_ of these two sentences;" but this would be here ambiguous, because _former_ might mean _maker_. "When our sentence consists of two members, the _longest_ should, generally, be the concluding one."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 117: and _Jamieson's_, p. 99. "The _shortest_ member being placed _first_, we carry it _more readily_ in our memory as we proceed to the second."--_Ib._, & _Ib._ "Pray consider us, in this respect, as the _weakest_ sex."--_Spect._, No. 533. In this last sentence, the comparative, _weaker_, would perhaps have been better; because, not an absolute, but merely a comparative weakness is meant. So Latham and Child: "It is better, in speaking of only two objects, to use the comparative degree rather than the superlative, even, where we use the article _the_. _This is the better of the two_, is preferable to _this is the best of the two_."--_Elementary Gram._, p. 155. Such is their rule; but very soon they forget it, and write thus: "In this case the relative refers to the _last_ of the two."--_Ib._, p. 163. OBS. 14.--Hyperboles are very commonly expressed by comparatives or superlatives; as, "My _little finger_ shall be _thicker_ than my _father's loins_."--_1 Kings_, xii, 10. "Unto me, who am _less than the least_ of all saints, is this grace given."--_Ephesians_, iii, 8. Sometimes, in thus heightening or lowering the object of his conception, the writer falls into a catachresis, solecism, or abuse of the grammatical degrees; as, "Mustard-seed--which is _less than all the seeds_ that be in the earth."--_Mark_, iv, 31. This expression is objectionable, because mustard-seed is a seed, and cannot be less than itself; though that which is here spoken of, may perhaps have been "_the least of all seeds_:" and it is the same Greek phrase, that is thus rendered in Matt, xiii, 32. Murray has inserted in his Exercises, among "unintelligible and inconsistent words and phrases," the following example from Milton: "And, in the lowest deep, a lower deep Still threat'ning to devour me, opens wide."--_Exercises_, p. 122. For this supposed inconsistency, ho proposes in his Key the following amendment: "And, in the _lower_ deep, _another_ deep Still threat'ning to devour me, opens wide."--_Key_, p. 254. But, in an other part of his book, he copies from Dr. Blair the same passage, with commendation: saying, "The following sentiments of _Satan in Milton_, as strongly as they are described, _contain nothing_ but what is _natural and proper_: 'Me miserable! which way shall I fly Infinite wrath, and infinite despair? Which way I fly is Hell; myself am Hell; And in the lowest _depth_, a lower deep, Still threat'ning to devour me, opens wide, To which the Hell I suffer seems a Heaven.' _P. Lost_, B. iv, l. 73." _Blair's Lectures_, p. 153; _Murray's Grammar_, p. 352. OBS. 15.--Milton's word, in the fourth line above, is _deep_, and not _depth_, as these authors here give it: nor was it very polite in them, to use a phraseology which comes so near to saying, the devil was in the poet. Alas for grammar! accuracy in its teachers has become the most rare of all qualifications. As for Murray's correction above, I see not how it can please any one who chooses to think Hell a place of great depth. A descent into his "_lower_ deep" and "_other_ deep," might be a plunge less horrible than two or three successive slides in one of our western caverns! But Milton supposes the arch-fiend might descend to the lowest _imaginable_ depth of Hell, and there be liable to a still further fall of more tremendous extent. Fall whither? Into the horrid and inconceivable profundity of the _bottomless pit_! What signifies it, to object to his language as "_unintelligible_" if it conveys his idea better than any other could? In no human conception of what is infinite, can there be any real exaggeration. To amplify beyond the truth, is here impossible. Nor is there any superlation which can fix a limit to the idea of more and more in infinitude. Whatever literal absurdity there may be in it, the duplication seems greatly to augment what was even our greatest conception of the thing. Homer, with a like figure, though expressed in the positive degree, makes Jupiter threaten any rebel god, that he shall be thrown down from Olympus, to suffer the burning pains of the Tartarean gulf; not in the centre, but, "As _deep_ beneath th' infernal centre hurl'd, As from that centre to th' ethereal world." --_Pope's Iliad_, B. viii, l. 19. REGULAR COMPARISON. Adjectives are regularly compared, when the comparative degree is expressed by adding _er_, and the superlative, by adding _est_ to them: as, Pos., _great_, Comp., _greater_, Superl., _greatest_; Pos., _mild_, Comp., _milder_, Superl., _mildest_. In the variation of adjectives, final consonants are doubled, final _e_ is omitted, and final _y_ is changed to _i_, agreeably to the rules for spelling: as, _hot, hotter, hottest; wide, wider, widest; happy, happier, happiest_. The regular method of comparison belongs almost exclusively to monosyllables, with dissyllables ending in _w_ or _y_, and such others as receive it and still have but one syllable after the accent: as, _fierce, fiercer, fiercest; narrow, narrower, narrowest; gloomy, gloomier, gloomiest; serene, serener, serenest; noble, nobler, noblest; gentle, gentler, gentlest_. COMPARISON BY ADVERBS. The two degrees of superiority may also be expressed with precisely the same import as above, by prefixing to the adjective the adverbs _more_ and _most_: as, _wise, more wise, most wise; famous, more famous, most famous; amiable, more amiable, most amiable_. The degrees of inferiority are expressed, in like manner, by the adverbs _less_ and _least_: as, _wise, less wise, least wise; famous, less famous, least famous; amiable, less amiable, least amiable_. The regular method of comparison has, properly speaking, no degrees of this kind. Nearly all adjectives that admit of different degrees, may be compared by means of the adverbs; but, for short words, the regular method is generally preferable: as, _quick, quicker, quickest_; rather than, _quick, more quick, most quick_. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--The genius of our language is particularly averse to the lengthening of long words by additional syllables; and, in the comparison of adjectives, _er_ and _est_ always add a syllable to the word, except it end in _le_ after a mute. Thus, _free, freer, freest_, increases syllabically; but _ample, ampler, amplest_, does not. Whether any particular adjective admits of comparison or not, is a matter of reasoning from the sense of the term; by which method it shall be compared, is in some degree a matter of taste; though custom has decided that long words shall not be inflected, and for the shorter, there is generally an obvious bias in favour of one form rather than the other. Dr. Johnson says, "The comparison of adjectives is very uncertain; and being much regulated by commodiousness of utterance, or agreeableness of sound, is not easily reduced to rules. Monosyllables are commonly compared. Polysyllables, or words of more than two syllables, are seldom compared otherwise than by _more_ and _most_. Dissyllables are seldom compared if they terminate in _full, less, ing, ous, ed, id, at, ent, ain, or ive_."--_Gram. of the English Tongue_, p. 6. "When the positive contains but one syllable, the degrees are usually formed by adding _er_ or _est_. When the positive contains two syllables, it is matter of taste which method you shall use in forming the degrees. The ear is, in this case, the best guide. But, when the positive contains more than two syllables, the degrees must be formed by the use of _more_ and _most_. We may say, _tenderer_ and _tenderest, pleasanter_ and _pleasantest, prettier_ and _prettiest_; but who could endure _delicater_ and _delicatest_?"--_Cobbett's E. Gram._, p. 81. _Quiet, bitter, clever, sober_, and perhaps some others like them, are still regularly compared; but such words as _secretest, famousest, virtuousest, powerfullest_, which were used by Milton, have gone out of fashion. The following, though not very commonly used, are perhaps allowable. "Yet these are the two _commonest_ occupations of mankind."--_Philological Museum_, i, 431. "Their _pleasantest_ walks throughout life must be guarded by armed men."--_Ib._, i, 437. "Franklin possessed the rare talent of drawing useful lessons from the _commonest_ occurrences."--_Murray's Sequel_, p. 323. "Unbidden guests are often _welcomest_ when they are gone."--SHAK.: _in Joh. Dict._ "There was a lad, th' _unluckiest_ of his crew, Was still contriving something bad, but new."--KING: _ib._ OBS. 2.--I make a distinction between the regular comparison by _er_ and _est_, and the comparison by adverbs; because, in a grammatical point of view, these two methods are totally different: the meaning, though the same, being expressed in the one case, by an inflection of the adjective; and in the other, by a phrase consisting of two different parts of speech. If the placing of an adverb before an adjective is to be called a grammatical modification or variation of the latter word, we shall have many other degrees than those which are enumerated above. The words may with much more propriety be parsed separately, the degree being ascribed to the adverb--or, if you please, to both words, for both are varied in sense by the inflection of the former. The degrees in which qualities may exist in nature, are infinitely various; but the only degrees with which the grammarian is concerned, are those which our variation of the adjective or adverb enables us to express--including, as of course we must, the state or sense of the primitive word, as one. The reasoning which would make the positive degree to be no degree, would also make the nominative case, or the _casus rectus_ of the Latins, to be no case. OBS. 3.--Whenever the adjective itself denotes these degrees, and is duly varied in form to express them, they properly belong to it; as, _worthy, worthier, worthiest_. (Though no apology can be made for the frequent error of confounding the _degree of a quality_, with the _verbal sign_ which expresses it.) If an adverb is employed for this purpose, that also is compared, and the two degrees thus formed or expressed, are properly its own; as, worthy, _more_ worthy, _most_ worthy. But these same degrees may be yet otherwise expressed; as, worthy, _in a higher degree_ worthy, _in the highest degree_ worthy. Here also the adjective _worthy_ is virtually compared, as before; but only the adjective _high_ is grammatically modified. Again, we may form three degrees with several adverbs to each, thus: Pos., _very truly_ worthy; Comp., _much more truly_ worthy; Sup., _much the most truly_ worthy. There are also other adverbs, which, though not varied in themselves like _much, more, most_, may nevertheless have nearly the same effect upon the adjective; as, worthy, _comparatively_ worthy, _superlatively_ worthy. I make these remarks, because many grammarians have erroneously parsed the adverbs _more_ and _most, less_ and _least_, as parts of the adjective. OBS. 4.--Harris, in his Hermes, or Philosophical Inquiry concerning Universal Grammar, has very unceremoniously pronounced the doctrine of three degrees of comparison, to be _absurd_; and the author of the British Grammar, as he emotes the whole passage without offering any defence of that doctrine, seems to second the allegation. "Mr. Harris observes, that, 'There cannot well be more than two degrees; one to denote simple excess, and one to denote superlative. Were we indeed to introduce more degrees, we ought perhaps to introduce infinite, which is absurd. For why stop at a limited number, when in all subjects, susceptible of intension, the intermediate excesses are in a manner infinite? There are infinite degrees of _more white_ between the first simple _white_ and the superlative _whitest_; the same may be said of _more great, more strong, more minute_, &c. The doctrine of grammarians about _three_ such degrees, which they call the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative, must needs be absurd; both because in their Positive there is no comparison at all, and because their Superlative is a Comparative as much as their Comparative itself.' _Hermes_, p. 197."--_Brit. Gram._, p. 98. This objection is rashly urged. No comparison can be imagined without bringing together as many as two terms, and if the positive is one of these, it is a degree of comparison; though neither this nor the superlative is, for that reason, "_a Comparative_." Why we stop at three degrees, I have already shown: we have three _forms_, and only three. OBS. 5.--"The termination _ish_ may be accounted in some sort a degree of comparison, by which the signification is diminished below the positive, as _black, blackish_, or tending to blackness; _salt, saltish_, or having a little taste of salt:[179] they therefore admit of no comparison. This termination is seldom added but to words expressing sensible qualities, nor often to words of above one syllable, and is scarcely used in the solemn or sublime style."--_Dr. Johnson's Gram._ "The _first_ [degree] denotes a slight degree of the quality, and is expressed by the termination _ish_; as, _reddish, brownish, yellowish_. This may be denominated the _imperfect_ degree of the attribute."--_Dr. Webster's Improved Gram._, p. 47. I doubt the correctness of the view taken above by Johnson, and dissent entirely from Webster, about his "_first degree_ of comparison." Of adjectives in _ish_ we have perhaps a hundred; but nine out of ten of them are derived clearly from _nouns_, as, _boyish, girlish_; and who can prove that _blackish, saltish, reddish, brownish_, and _yellowish_, are not also from the _nouns, black, salt, red, brown_, and _yellow_? or that "a _more reddish_ tinge,"--"a _more saltish_ taste," are not correct phrases? There is, I am persuaded, no good reason for noticing this termination as constituting a degree of comparison. All "double comparisons" are said to be ungrammatical; but, if _ish_ forms a degree, it is such a degree as may be compared again: as, "And seem _more learnedish_ than those That at a greater charge compose."--_Butler_. OBS. 6.--Among the degrees of comparison, some have enumerated that of _equality_; as when we say, "It is _as sweet as_ honey." Here is indeed a comparison, but it is altogether in the _positive_ degree, and needs no other name. This again refutes Harris; who says, that in the positive there is no comparison at all. But further: it is plain, that in this degree there may be comparisons of _inequality_ also; as, "Molasses is _not so sweet_ as honey."--"Civility is _not so slight_ a matter as it is commonly thought."--_Art of Thinking_, p. 92. Nay, such comparisons may equal any superlative. Thus it is said, I think, in the Life of Robert Hall: "Probably no human being ever before suffered _so much_ bodily pain." What a preëminence is here! and yet the form of the adjective is only that of the positive degree. "Nothing _so uncertain_ as general reputation."--_Art of Thinking_, p. 50. "Nothing _so nauseous_ as undistinguishing civility."--_Ib._, p. 88. These, likewise, would be strong expressions, if they were correct English. But, to my apprehension, every such comparison of equality involves a solecism, when, as it here happens, the former term includes the latter. The word _nothing_ is a general negative, and _reputation_ is a particular affirmative. The comparison of equality between them, is therefore certainly improper: because _nothing_ cannot be equal to _something_; and, reputation being something, and of course equal to itself, the proposition is evidently untrue. It ought to be, "Nothing _is more uncertain than_ general reputation." This is the same as to say, "General reputation is _as uncertain as any thing_ that can be named." Or else the former term should exempt the latter; as. "_Nothing else_"--or, "No _other_ thing, is _so uncertain_ as" _this popular honour, public esteem_, or "_general reputation_." And so of all similar examples. OBS. 7.--In all comparisons, care must be taken to adapt the terms to the degree which is expressed by the adjective or adverb. The superlative degree requires that the object to which it relates, be one of those with which it is compared; as, "_Eve_ was _the fairest_ of women." The comparative degree, on the contrary, requires that the object spoken of be not included among those with which it is compared; as, "_Eve_ was _fairer_ than any of _her daughters_." To take the inclusive term here, and say, "_Eve_ was _fairer_ than any _woman_," would be no less absurd, than Milton's assertion, that "Eve was _the fairest_ of _her daughters_:" the former supposes that she was _not a woman_; the latter, that she was _one of her own daughters_. But Milton's solecism is double; he makes Adam _one of his own sons_:-- "Adam the goodliest man of men since born His sons, the fairest of her daughters Eve."--_P. Lost_, B. iv, l. 324. OBS. 8.--"Such adjectives," says Churchill, "as have in themselves a superlative signification, or express qualities not susceptible of degrees, do not properly admit either the comparative or [the] superlative form. Under this rule may be included _all adjectives with a negative prefix_."--_New Gram._, p. 80. Again: "As _immediate_ signifies instant, present with regard to time, Prior should not have written '_more_ immediate.' _Dr. Johnson_."--_Ib._, p. 233. "Hooker has _unaptest_; Locke, _more uncorrupted_; Holder, _more undeceivable_: for these the proper expressions would have been the opposite signs without the negation: _least apt, less corrupted, less deceivable_. Watts speaks of 'a _most unpassable_ barrier.' If he had simply said 'an unpassable barrier,' we should have understood it at once in the strongest sense, as a barrier impossible to be surmounted: but, by attempting to express something more, he gives an idea of something less; we perceive, that his _unpassable_ means _difficult to pass_. This is the mischief of the propensity to exaggeration; which, striving after strength, sinks into weakness."--_Ib._, p. 234. OBS. 9.--The foregoing remarks from Churchill appear _in general_ to have been dictated by good sense; but, if his own practice is right, there must be some exceptions to his rule respecting the comparison of adjectives with a negative prefix; for, in the phrase "_less imprudent_," which, according to a passage quoted before, he will have to be different from "_more prudent_," he himself furnishes an example of such comparison. In fact, very many words of that class are compared by good writers: as, "Nothing is _more unnecessary_."--_Lowth's Gram., Pref._, p. v. "What is yet _more unaccountable_."--ROGERS: _in Joh. Dict._ "It is hard to determine which is _most uneligible_."--_Id., ib._ "Where it appears the _most unbecoming_ and _unnatural_."--ADDISON: _ib._ "Men of the best sense and of the _most unblemished_ lives."--_Id., ib._ "March and September are the _most unsettled_ and _unequable_ of seasons."--BENTLEY: _ib._ "Barcelona was taken by a _most unexpected_ accident."--SWIFT: _ib._ "The _most barren_ and _unpleasant_."--WOODWARD: _ib._ "O good, but _most unwise_ patricians!"--SHAK.: _ib._ "_More unconstant_ than the wind."--_Id., ib._ "We may say _more_ or _less imperfect_."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 168. "Some of those [passions] which act with the _most irresistible_ energy upon the hearts of mankind, are altogether omitted in the catalogue of Aristotle."--_Adams's Rhet._, i, 380. "The wrong of him who presumes to talk of owning me, is _too unmeasured_ to be softened by kindness."--_Channing, on Emancipation_, p. 52. "Which, we are sensible, are _more inconclusive_ than the rest."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 319. "Ere yet the salt of _most unrighteous_ tears Had left the flushing in her galled eyes."--_Shak._ OBS. 10.--Comparison must not be considered a general property of adjectives. It belongs chiefly to the class which I call common adjectives, and is by no means applicable to all of these. _Common adjectives_, or epithets denoting quality, are perhaps more numerous than all the other classes put together. Many of these, and a few that are pronominal, may be varied by comparison; and some _participial_ adjectives may be compared by means of the adverbs. But adjectives formed from _proper names_, all the numerals, and most of the compounds, are in no way susceptible of comparison. All nouns used adjectively, as an _iron_ bar, an _evening_ school, a _mahogany_ chair, a _South-Sea_ dream, are also incapable of comparison. In the title of "His _Most Christian_ Majesty," the superlative adverb is applied to a _proper adjective_; but who will pretend that we ought to understand by it "_the highest degree_" of Christian attainment? It might seem uncourtly to suggest that this is "an abuse of the king's English," I shall therefore say no such thing. Pope compares the word Christian, in the following couplet:-- "Go, purified by flames ascend the sky, My better and _more Christian_ progeny."--_Dunciad_, B. i, l. 227. IRREGULAR COMPARISON. The following adjectives are compared irregularly: _good, better, best; bad, evil_, or _ill, worse, worst; little, less, least; much, more, most; many, more, most_. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--In _English_, and also in _Latin_, most adjectives that denote _place_ or _situation_, not only form the superlative irregularly, but are also either defective or redundant in comparison. Thus: I. The following nine have more than one superlative: _far, farther, farthest, farmost_, or _farthermost; near, nearer, nearest_ or _next; fore, former, foremost_ or _first; hind, hinder, hindmost_ or _hindermost; in, inner, inmost_ or _innermost; out, outer_, or _utter, outmost_ or _utmost, outermost_ or _uttermost; up, upper, upmost_ or _uppermost; low, lower, lowest_ or _lowermost; late, later_ or _latter, latest_ or _last_. II. The following five want the positive: [_aft_, adv.,] _after, aftmost_ or _aftermost_; [_forth_, adv., formerly _furth_,[180]] _further, furthest_ or _furthermost; hither, hithermost; nether, nethermost; under, undermost_. III. The following want the comparative: _front, frontmost; rear, rearmost; head, headmost; end, endmost; top, topmost; bottom, bottommost; mid_ or _middle, midst,[181] midmost_ or _middlemost; north, northmost; south, southmost; east, eastmost; west, westmost; northern, northernmost; southern, southernmost; eastern, easternmost; western, westernmost_. OBS. 2.--Many of these irregular words are not always used as adjectives, but oftener as nouns, adverbs, or prepositions. The sense in which they are employed, will show to what class they belong. The terms _fore_ and _hind, front_ and _rear, right_ and _left, in_ and _out, high_ and _low, top_ and _bottom, up_ and _down, upper_ and _under, mid_ and _after_, all but the last pair, are in direct contrast with each other. Many of them are often joined in composition with other words; and some, when used as adjectives of place, are rarely separated from their nouns: as, _in_land, _out_house, _mid_-sea, _after_-ages. Practice is here so capricious, I find it difficult to determine whether the compounding of these terms is proper or not. It is a case about which he that inquires most, may perhaps be most in doubt. If the joining of the words prevents the possibility of mistaking the adjective for a preposition, it prevents also the separate classification of the adjective and the noun, and thus in some sense destroys the former by making the whole a noun. Dr. Webster writes thus: "FRONTROOM, _n._ A room or apartment in the _forepart_ of a house. BACKROOM, _n._ A room behind the _front room_, or in the _back part_ of the house."--_Octavo Dict._ So of many phrases by which people tell of turning things, or changing the position of their parts; as, _in_side out, _out_side _in; up_side _down, down_side _up_; _wrong_ end _foremost, but_-end _foremost_; _fore_-part _back, fore_-end _aft_; _hind_ side _before, back_side _before_. Here all these contrasted particles seem to be adjectives of place or situation. What grammarians in general would choose to call them, it is hard to say; probably, many would satisfy themselves with calling the whole "_an adverbial phrase_,"--the common way of disposing of every thing which it is difficult to analyze. These, and the following examples from Scott, are a fair specimen of the uncertainty of present usage: "The herds without a keeper strayed, The plough was in _mid-furrow_ staid."--_Lady of the Lake_. "The eager huntsman knew his bound, And in _mid chase_ called off his hound."--_Ibidem_. OBS. 3.--For the chief points of the compass, we have so many adjectives, and so many modes of varying or comparing them, that it is difficult to tell their number, or to know which to choose in practice. (1.) _North, south, east_, and _west_, are familiarly used both as nouns and as adjectives. From these it seems not improper to form superlatives, as above, by adding _most_; as, "From Aroar to Nebo, and the wild of _southmost_ Abarim."--_Milton_. "There are no rivulets or springs in the island of Feror, the _westmost_ of the Canaries."--_White's Nat. Hist._ (2.) These primitive terms may also be compared, in all three of the degrees, by the adverbs _farther_ and _farthest_, or _further_ and _furthest_; as, "Which is yet _farther west_."--_Bacon_. (3.) Though we never employ as separate words the comparatives _norther, souther, easter, wester_, we have _northerly, southerly, easterly_, and _westerly_, which seem to have been formed from such comparatives, by adding _ly_; and these four may be compared by the adverbs _more_ and _most_, or _less_ and _least_: as, "These hills give us a view of the _most easterly, southerly_, and _westerly_ parts of England."--GRAUNT: _in Joh. Dict._ (4.) From these supposed comparatives likewise, some authors form the superlatives _northermost, southermost, eastermost_, and _westermost_; as, "From the _westermost_ part of Oyster bay."--_Dr. Webster's Hist. U. S._, p. 126. "And three miles southward of the _southermost_ part of said bay."--_Trumbull's Hist. of Amer._, Vol. i, p. 88. "Pockanocket was on the _westermost_ line of Plymouth Colony."--_Ib._, p. 44. "As far as the _northermost_ branch of the said bay or river."--_Ib._, p. 127. The propriety of these is at least questionable; and, as they are neither very necessary to the language, nor recognized by any of our lexicographers, I forbear to approve them. (5.) From the four primitives we have also a third series of positives, ending in _ern_; as, _northern, southern, eastern, western_. These, though they have no comparatives of their own, not only form superlatives by assuming the termination _most_, but are sometimes compared, perhaps in both degrees, by a separate use of the adverbs: as, "_Southernmost, a_. Furthest towards the south."--_Webster's Dict._ "Until it shall intersect the _northernmost_ part of the thirty-first degree of north latitude."--_Articles of Peace_. "To the _north-westernmost_ head of Connecticut river."--_Ib._ "Thence through the said lake to the _most north-western_ point thereof."--_Ib._ OBS. 4.--It may be remarked of the comparatives _former_ and _latter_ or _hinder, upper_ and _under_ or _nether, inner_ and _outer_ or _utter, after_ and _hither_; as well as of the Latin _superior_ and _inferior, anterior_ and _posterior, interior_ and _exterior, prior_ and _ulterior, senior_ and _junior, major_ and _minor_; that they cannot, like other comparatives, be construed with the conjunction _than_. After all genuine English comparatives, this conjunction may occur, because it is the only fit word for introducing the latter term of comparison; but we never say one thing is _former_ or _latter, superior_ or _inferior, than_ an other. And so of all the rest here named. Again, no real comparative or superlative can ever need an other superadded to it; but _inferior_ and _superior_ convey ideas that do not always preclude the additional conception of _more_ or _less_: as, "With respect to high and low notes, pronunciation is still _more inferior_ to singing."--_Kames, Elements of Criticism_, Vol. ii, p. 73. "The mistakes which the _most superior_ understanding is apt to fall into."--_West's Letters to a Young Lady_, p. 117. OBS. 5.--Double comparatives and double superlatives, being in general awkward and unfashionable, as well as tautological, ought to be avoided. Examples: "The Duke of Milan, and his _more braver_ daughter, could control thee."--_Shak., Tempest_. Say, "his _more gallant_ daughter." "What in me was purchased, falls upon thee in a _more fairer_ sort."--_Id., Henry IV_. Say, "_fairer_," or, "_more honest_;" for "_purchased_" here means _stolen_. "Changed to a _worser_ shape thou canst not be."--_Id., Hen. VI_. Say, "a _worse_ shape"--or, "an _uglier_ shape." "After the _most straitest_ sect of our religion, I lived a Pharisee."--_Acts_, xxvi, 5. Say, "the _strictest_ sect." "Some say he's mad; others, that _lesser_ hate him, do call it valiant fury."--_Shak_. Say, "others, that hate him _less_." In this last example, _lesser_ is used adverbially; in which construction it is certainly incorrect. But against _lesser_ as an adjective, some grammarians have spoken with more severity, than comports with a proper respect for authority. Dr. Johnson says, "LESSER, _adj_. A barbarous corruption of _less_, formed by the vulgar from the habit of terminating comparatives in _er; afterward adopted by poets, and then by writers of prose, till it has all the authority which a mode originally erroneous can derive from custom_."--_Quarto Dict._ With no great fairness, Churchill quotes this passage as far as the semicolon, and there stops. The position thus taken, he further endeavours to strengthen, by saying, "_Worser_, though _not more barbarous_, offends the ear in a much greater degree, because it has not been so frequently used."--_New Gram._, p. 232. Example: "And God made two great lights; the greater light to rule the day, and the _lesser_ light to rule the night."--_Gen._, i, 16. Kirkham, after making an _imitation_ of this passage, remarks upon it: "_Lesser_ is _as incorrect_ as _badder, gooder, worser_."--_Gram._, p. 77. The judgement of any critic who is ignorant enough to say this, is worthy only of contempt. _Lesser_ is still frequently used by the most tasteful authors, both in verse and prose: as, "It is the glowing style of a man who is negligent of _lesser_ graces."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 189. "Athos, Olympus, �tna, Atlas, made These hills seem things of _lesser_ dignity."--_Byron_. OBS. 6.--The adjective _little_ is used in different senses; for it contrasts sometimes with _great_, and sometimes with _much_. _Lesser_ appears to refer only to size. Hence _less_ and _lesser_ are not always equivalent terms. _Lesser_ means _smaller_, and contrasts only with _greater_. _Less_ contrasts sometimes with _greater_, but oftener with _more_, the comparative of _much_; for, though it may mean _not so large_, its most common meaning is _not so much_. It ought to be observed, likewise, that _less_ is not an adjective of _number_,[182] though not unfrequently used as such. It does not mean _fewer_, and is therefore not properly employed in sentences like the following: "In all verbs, there are no _less_ than three things implied at once."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 81. "_Smaller_ things than three," is nonsense; and so, in reality, is what the Doctor here says. _Less_ is not the proper opposite to _more_, when _more_ is the comparative of _many: few, fewer, fewest_, are the only words which contrast regularly with _many, more, most_. In the following text, these comparatives are rightly employed: "And to the _more_ ye shall give the _more_ inheritance, and to the _fewer_ ye shall give the _less_ inheritance."--_Numbers_, xxxiii, 54. But if writers will continue to use _less_ for _fewer_, so that "_less cattle_," for instance, may mean "_fewer cattle_;" we shall be under a sort of _necessity_ to retain _lesser_, in order to speak intelligibly: as, "It shall be for the sending-forth of oxen, and for the treading of _lesser_ cattle."--_Isaiah_, vii, 25. I have no partiality for the word _lesser_, neither will I make myself ridiculous by flouting at its rudeness. "This word," says Webster, "is a corruption, but [it is] too well established to be discarded. Authors always write the _Lesser_ Asia."--_Octavo Dict._ "By the same reason, may a man punish the _lesser_ breaches of that law."--_Locke_. "When we speak of the _lesser_ differences among the tastes of men."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 20. "In greater or _lesser_ degrees of complexity."--_Burke, on Sublime_, p. 94. "The greater ought not to succumb to the _lesser_."--_Dillwyn's Reflections_, p. 128. "To such productions, _lesser_ composers must resort for ideas."--_Gardiner's Music of Nature_, p. 413. "The larger here, and there the _lesser_ lambs, The new-fall'n young herd bleating for their dams."--_Pope_. OBS. 7.--Our grammarians deny the comparison of many adjectives, from a false notion that they are already superlatives. Thus W. Allen: "Adjectives compounded with the Latin preposition _per_, are already superlative: as, _perfect, perennial, permanent_, &c."--_Elements of E. Gram._, p. 52. In reply to this, I would say, that nothing is really superlative, in English, but what has the form and construction of the superlative; as, "The _most permanent_ of all dyes." No word beginning with _per_, is superlative by virtue of this Latin prefix. "Separate spirits, which are beings that have _perfecter_ knowledge and greater happiness than we, must needs have also a _perfecter_ way of communicating their thoughts than we have."--_Locke's Essay_, B. ii, Ch. 24, §36, This mode of comparison is not now good, but it shows that _perfect_ is no superlative. Thus Kirkham: "The _following_ adjectives, and _many others_, are _always in the superlative degree_; because, by expressing a quality _in the highest degree_, they carry in themselves a superlative signification: _chief, extreme, perfect, right, wrong, honest, just, true, correct, sincere, vast, immense, ceaseless, infinite, endless, unparalleled, universal, supreme, unlimited, omnipotent, all-wise, eternal_." [183]--_Gram._, p. 73. So the Rev. David Blair: "The words _perfect, certain, infinite, universal, chief, supreme, right, true, extreme, superior_, and some others, which express a perfect and superlative sense in themselves, do not admit of comparison."--_English Gram._, p. 81. Now, according to Murray's definition, which Kirkham adopts, none of these words can be at all in the superlative degree. On the contrary, there are several among them, from which true superlatives are frequently and correctly formed. Where are the positives which are here supposed to be "_increased to the highest degree_?" Every real superlative in our language, except _best_ and _worst, most_ and _least, first_ and _last_, with the still more irregular word _next_, is a derivative, formed from some other English word, by adding _est_ or _most_; as, _truest, hindmost_. The propriety or impropriety of comparing the foregoing words, or any of the "_many others_" of which this author speaks, is to be determined according to their meaning, and according to the usage of good writers, and not by the dictation of a feeble pedant, or upon the supposition that if compared they would form "_double superlatives_." OBS. 8.--_Chief_ is from the French word _chef_, the _head: chiefest_ is therefore no more a double superlative than _headmost_: "But when the _headmost_ foes appeared."--_Scott_. Nor are _chief_ and _chiefest_ equivalent terms: "Doeg an Edomite, the _chiefest_ of the herdsmen."--_1 Samuel_, xxi, 7. "The _chief_ of the herdsmen," would convey a different meaning; it would be either the _leader_ of the herdsmen, or the _principal part_ of them. _Chiefest_, however, has often been used where _chief_ would have been better; as, "He sometimes denied admission to the _chiefest_ officers of the army."--_Clarendon_, let us look further at Kirkham's list of _absolute_ "_superlatives_." OBS. 9.--_Extreme_ is from the Latin superlative _extremus_, and of course its literal signification is not really susceptible of increase. Yet _extremest_ has been used, and is still used, by some of the very best writers; as, "They thought it the _extremest_ of evils."--_Bacon_. "That on the sea's _extremest_ border stood."--_Addison_. "How, to _extremest_ thrill of agony."--_Pollok_, B. viii, l. 270. "I go th' _extremest_ remedy to prove."--_Dryden_. "In _extremest_ poverty."--_Swift_. "The hairy fool stood on th' _extremest_ verge of the swift brook, augmenting it with tears."--_Shak_. "While the _extremest_ parts of the earth were meditating submission."--_Atterbury_. "His writings are poetical to the _extremest_ boundaries of poetry."--_Adams's Rhetoric_, i, 87. In prose, this superlative is not now very common; but the poets still occasionally use it, for the sake of their measure; and it ought to be noticed that the simple adjective is _not partitive_. If we say, for the first example, "the _extreme_ of evils;" we make the word a _noun_, and do not convey exactly the same idea that is there expressed. OBS. 10.--_Perfect_, if taken in its strictest sense, must not be compared; but this word, like many others which mean most in the positive, is often used with a certain latitude of meaning, which renders its comparison by the adverbs not altogether inadmissible; nor is it destitute of authority, as I have already shown. (See Obs. 8th, p. 280.) "From the first rough sketches, to the _more perfect_ draughts."--_Bolingbroke, on Hist._, p. 152. "The _most perfect_."--_Adams's Lect. on Rhet._, i, 99 and 136; ii, 17 and 57: _Blair's Lect._, pp. 20 and 399. "The most _beautiful and perfect_ example of analysis."--_Lowth's Gram., Pref._, p. 10. "The plainest, _most perfect_, and most useful manual."--_Bullions's E. Gram., Rev._, p. 7. "Our sight is the _most perfect_, and the most delightful, of all our senses."--_Addison, Spect._, No. 411; _Blair's Lect._, pp. 115 and 194; _Murray's Gram._, i, 322. Here Murray anonymously copied Blair. "And to render natives _more perfect_ in the knowledge of it."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 171; _Murray's Gram._, p. 366. Here Murray copied Campbell, the most accurate of all his masters. Whom did he copy when he said, "The phrases, _more perfect_, and _most perfect_, are improper?"--_Octavo Gram._, p. 168. But if these are wrong, so is the following sentence: "No poet has ever attained a _greater perfection_ than Horace."--_Blair's Lect._, p. 398. And also this: "Why are we brought into the world _less perfect_ in respect to our nature?"--_West's Letters to a Young Lady_, p. 220. OBS. 11.--_Right_ and _wrong_ are not often compared by good writers; though we sometimes see such phrases as _more right_ and _more wrong_, and such words as _rightest_ and _wrongest_: "'Tis always in the _wrongest_ sense."--_Butler_. "A method of attaining the _rightest_ and greatest happiness."--PRICE: _Priestley's Gram._, p. 78. "It is no _more right_ to steal apples, than it is to steal money."--_Webster's New Spelling-Book_, p. 118. There are equivalent expressions which seem preferable; as, _more proper, more erroneous, most proper, most erroneous_. OBS. 12.--_Honest, just, true, correct, sincere_, and _vast_, may all be compared at pleasure. Pope's Essay on Criticism is _more correct_ than any thing this modest pretender can write; and in it, he may find the comparative _juster_, the superlatives _justest, truest, sincerest_, and the phrases, "_So vast_ a throng,"--"_So vast_ is art:" all of which are contrary to his teaching. "_Unjuster_ dealing is used in buying than in selling."--_Butler's Poems_, p. 163. "_Iniquissimam_ pacem _justissimo_ bello antefero."--_Cicero_. "I prefer the _unjustest_ peace before the _justest_ war."--_Walker's English Particles_, p. 68. The poet Cowley used the word _honestest_; which is not now very common. So Swift: "What _honester_ folks never durst for their ears."--_The Yahoo's Overthrow_. So Jucius: "The _honestest_ and ablest men."--_Letter XVIII_. "The sentence would be _more correct_ in the following form."--_Murray's Gram._, i, p. 223. "Elegance is chiefly gained by studying the _correctest_ writers."--_Holmes's Rhetoric_, p. 27. _Honest_ and _correct_, for the sake of euphony, require the adverbs; as, _more honest_, "_most correct_."--_Lowth's Gram., Pref._, p. iv. _Vast, vaster, vastest_, are words as smooth, as _fast, faster, fastest_; and _more vast_ is certainly as good English as _more just_: "Shall mortal man be _more just_ than God?"--_Job_, iv, 17. "Wilt thou condemn him that is _most just_?"--_Ib._, xxxiv, 17. "More wise, more learn'd, _more just_, more-everything."--_Pope. Universal_ is often compared by the adverbs, but certainly with no reënforcement of meaning: as, "One of the _most universal_ precepts, is, that the orator himself should feel the passion."--_Adams's Rhet._, i, 379. "Though not _so universal_."--_Ib._, ii, 311. "This experience is general, though not _so universal_, as the absence of memory in childhood."--_Ib._, ii, 362. "We can suppose no motive which would _more universally_ operate."--_Dr. Blair's Rhet._, p. 55. "Music is known to have been _more universally_ studied."--_Ib._, p. 123. "We shall not wonder, that his grammar has been _so universally_ applauded."--_Walker's Recommendation in Murray's Gram._, ii, 306. "The pronoun _it_ is the _most universal_ of all the pronouns."--_Cutler's Gram._, p. 66. Thus much for one half of this critic's twenty-two "_superlatives_." The rest are simply adjectives that are not susceptible of comparison: they are not "superlatives" at all. A man might just as well teach, that _good_ is a superlative, and not susceptible of comparison, because "_there is none good but one_." OBS. 13.--Pronominal adjectives, when their nouns are expressed, simply relate to them, and have no modifications: except _this_ and _that_, which form the plurals _these_ and _those_; and _much, many_, and a few others, which are compared. Examples: "Whence hath _this_ man _this_ wisdom, and _these_ mighty works?"--_Matt._, xiii, 54. "But _some_ man will say, How are the dead raised up? and with _what_ body do they come?"--_1 Cor._, xv, 35. "The _first_ man Adam was made a living soul; the _last_ Adam was made a quickening spirit."--_Ib._, 45. So, when one pronominal adjective "precedes an other, the former _must be taken_ simply as an adjective;" as, "Those suns are set. O rise _some other_ such!" --_Cowper's Task_, B. ii, l. 252. OBS. 14.--Pronominal adjectives, when their nouns are not expressed, may be parsed as representing them in _person, number, gender_, and _case_; but those who prefer it, may supply the ellipsis, and parse the adjective, _simply as an adjective_. Example: "He threatens _many_, who injures _one_."--_Kames_. Here it may be said, "_Many_ is a pronominal adjective, meaning _many persons_; of the third person, plural number, masculine gender, and objective case." Or those who will take the word simply as an adjective, may say, "_Many_ is a pronominal adjective, of the positive degree, compared _many, more, most_, and relating to _persons_ understood." And so of "_one_," which represents, or relates to, _person_ understood. Either say, "_One_ is a pronominal adjective, not compared," and give the _three definitions_ accordingly; or else say, "One is a pronominal adjective, relating to _person_ understood; of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and objective case," and give the _six definitions_ accordingly. OBS. 15.--_Elder_ for _older_, and _eldest_ for _oldest_, are still frequently used; though the ancient positive, _eld_ for _old_, is now obsolete. Hence some have represented _old_ as having a two-fold comparison; and have placed it, not very properly, among the irregular adjectives. The comparatives _elder_ and _better_, are often used as _nouns_; so are the Latin comparatives _superior_ and _inferior, interior_ and _exterior, senior_ and _junior, major_ and _minor_: as, The _elder's_ advice,--One of the _elders_,--His _betters_,--Our _superiors_,--The _interior_ of the country,--A handsome _exterior_,--Your _seniors_,--My _juniors_,--A _major_ in the army,--He is yet a _minor_. The word _other_, which has something of the nature of a comparative, likewise takes the form of a noun, as before suggested; and, in that form, the reader, if he will, may call it a noun: as, "What do ye more than _others_?"--_Bible_. "God in thus much is bounded, that the evil hath he left unto _an other_; and _that Dark Other_ hath usurped the evil which Omnipotence laid down."--_Tupper's Book of Thoughts_, p. 45. Some call it a pronoun. But it seems to be pronominal, merely by ellipsis of the noun after it; although, unlike a mere adjective, it assumes the ending of the noun, to mark that ellipsis. Perhaps therefore, the best explanation of it would be this: "'_Others_ is a pronominal adjective, having the form of a noun, and put for _other men_; in the third person, plural number, masculine gender, and nominative case." The gender of this word varies, according to that of the contrasted term; and the case, according to the relation it bears to other words. In the following example, it is neuter and objective: "The fibres of this muscle act as those of _others_."--_Cheyne_. Here, "as _those of others_," means, "as _the fibres_ of _other muscles_." OBS. 16.--"Comparatives and superlatives seem sometimes to part with their relative nature, and only to retain their _intensive_, especially those which are formed by the superlative adverb _most_; as, 'A _most learned_ man,'--'A _most brave_ man:' i. e. not the bravest or the most learned man that ever was, but a man possessing bravery or learning in a very eminent degree."--See _Alexander Murray's Gram._, p. 110. This use of the terms of comparison is thought by some not to be very grammatical. OBS. 17.--Contractions of the superlative termination _est_, as _high'st_ for _highest, bigg'st for biggest_, though sometimes used by the poets, are always inelegant, and may justly be considered grammatically improper. They occur most frequently in doggerel verse, like that of _Hudibras_; the author of which work, wrote, in his droll fashion, not only the foregoing monosyllables, but _learned'st_ for _most learned, activ'st_ for _most active, desperat'st_ for _most desperate, epidemical'st_ for _most epidemical_, &c. "And _th' activ'st_ fancies share as loose alloys, For want of equal weight to counterpoise."--_Butler's Poems_. "Who therefore finds the _artificial'st_ fools Have not been chang'd _i th'_ cradle, but the schools."--_Ib._, p. 143. OBS. 18.--Nouns used adjectively are not varied in number to agree with the nouns to which they relate, but what is singular or plural when used substantively, is without number when taken as an adjective: as, "One of the nine _sister_ goddesses."--_Webster's Dict., w. Muse_. "He has money in a _savings_ bank." The latter mode of expression is uncommon, and the term _savings-bank_ is sometimes compounded, but the hyphen does not really affect the nature of the former word. It is doubtful, however, whether a plural noun can ever properly assume the character of an adjective; because, if it is not then really the same as the possessive case, it will always be liable to be thought a false form of that case. What Johnson wrote "_fullers earth_" and "_fullers thistle_;" Chalmers has "_fullers earth_" and "_fuller's thistle_;" Webster, "_fuller's-earth_" and "_fuller's-thistle_;" Ainsworth, "_fuller's earth_" and "_fuller's thistle_;" Walker has only "_fullers-earth_;" Worcester, "_fuller's-earth_;" Cobb, "_fullers earth_;" the Treasury of Knowledge, "_fullers'-earth_." So unsettled is this part of our grammar, that in many such cases it is difficult cult to say whether we ought to use the apostrophe, or the hyphen, or both, or neither. To insert neither, unless we make a close compound, is to use a plural noun adjectively; which form, I think, is the most objectionable of all. See "_All souls day_,"--"_All-fools-day_,"--"_All-saints'-day_," &c., in the dictionaries. These may well be written "_All Souls' Day_" &c. EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. PRAXIS IV.--ETYMOLOGICAL. _In the Fourth Praxis, it is required of the pupil--to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the_ ARTICLES, NOUNS, _and_ ADJECTIVES. _The definitions to be given in the Fourth Praxis, are two for an article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, and one for a pronoun, a verb, a participle, an adverb, a conjunction, a preposition, or an interjection. Thus_:-- EXAMPLE PARSED. "The best and most effectual method of teaching grammar, is precisely that of which the careless are least fond: teach learnedly, rebuking whatsoever is false, blundering, or unmannerly."--_G. Brown_. _The_ is the definite article. 1. An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The definite article is _the_, which denotes some particular thing or things. _Best_ is a common adjective, of the superlative degree; compared irregularly, _good, better, best_. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3. The superlative degree is that which is _most_ or _least_ of all included with it. _And_, is a conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in constructing, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected. _Most_ is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. _Effectual_ is a common adjective, compared by means of the adverbs; _effectual, more effectual, most effectual_; or, _effectual, less effectual, least effectual_. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3. Those adjectives which may be varied in sense, but not in form, are compared by means of adverbs. _Method_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person, is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb. _Of_ is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. _Teaching_ is a participle. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding _ing, d_, or _ed_, to the verb. _Grammar_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. _Is_ is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_. _Precisely_ is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. _That_ is a pronominal adjective, not compared; standing for _that method_, in the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. [See OBS. 14th,] 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A pronominal adjective is a definitive word which may either accompany its noun or represent it understood. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb. _Of_ is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. _Which_ is a pronoun. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. _The_ is the definite article. 1. An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The definite article is _the_, which denotes some particular thing or things. _Careless_ is a common adjective, compared by means of the adverbs; _careless, more careless, most careless_; or, _careless, less careless, least careless_. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3. Those adjectives which may be varied in sense, but not in form, are compared by means of adverbs. _Are_ is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_. _Least_ is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. _Fond_ is a common adjective, compared regularly, _fond, fonder, fondest_; but here made superlative by the adverb _least_. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 8. The superlative degree is that which is _most_ or _least_ of all included with it. _Teach_ is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_. _Learnedly_ is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. _Rebuking_ is a participle. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding _ing, d_, or _ed_, to the verb. _Whatsoever_ is a pronoun. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. _Is_ is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_. _False_ is a common adjective, of the positive degree; compared regularly, _false, falser, falsest_. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3. The positive degree is that which is expressed by the adjective in its simple form. _Blundering_ is a participial adjective, compared by means of the adverbs; _blundering, more blundering, most blundering_; or, _blundering, less blundering, least blundering_. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A participial adjective is one that has the form of a participle, but differs from it by rejecting the idea of time. 3. Those adjectives which may be varied in sense, but not in form, are compared by means of adverbs. _Or_ is a conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected. _Unmannerly_ is a common adjective, compared by means of the adverbs; _unmannerly, more unmannerly, most unmannerly_; or, _unmannerly, less unmannerly, least unmannerly_. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3. Those adjectives which may be varied in sense, but not in form, are compared by means of adverbs. LESSON I.--PARSING. "The noblest and most beneficial invention of which human ingenuity can boast, is that of writing."--_Robertson's America_, Vol. II, p. 193. "Charlemagne was the tallest, the handsomest, and the strongest man of his time; his appearance was truly majestic, and he had surprising agility in all sorts of manly exercises."--_Stories of France_, p. 19. "Money, like other things, is more or less valuable, as it is less or more plentiful."--_Beanie's Moral Science_, p. 378. "The right way of acting, is, in a moral sense, as much a reality, in the mind of an ordinary man, as the straight or the right road."--_Dr. Murray's Hist. Lang._, i, 118. "The full period of several members possesses most dignity and modulation, and conveys also the greatest degree of force, by admitting the closest compression of thought."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 79. "His great master, Demosthenes, in addressing popular audiences, never had recourse to a similar expedient. He avoided redundancies, as equivocal and feeble. He aimed only to make the deepest and most efficient impression; and he employed for this purpose, the plainest, the fewest, and the most emphatic words."--_Ib._, p. 68. "The high eloquence which I have last mentioned, is always the offspring of passion. A man actuated by a strong passion, becomes much greater than he is at other times. He is conscious of more strength and force; he utters greater sentiments, conceives higher designs, and executes them with a boldness and felicity, of which, on other occasions, he could not think himself capable."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 236. "His words bore sterling weight, nervous and strong, In manly tides of sense they roll'd along."--_Churchill_. "To make the humble proud, the proud submiss, Wiser the wisest, and the brave more brave."--_W. S. Landor_. LESSON II.--PARSING. "I am satisfied that in this, as in all cases, it is best, safest, as well as most right and honorable, to speak freely and plainly."--_Channing's Letter to Clay_, p. 4. "The gospel, when preached with the Holy Ghost sent down from heaven, through the wonder-working power of God, can make the proud humble, the selfish disinterested, the worldly heavenly, the sensual pure."--_Christian Experience_, p. 399. "I am so much the better, as I am the liker[184] the best; and so much the holier, as I am more conformable to the holiest, or rather to Him who is holiness itself."--_Bp. Beneridge_. "Whether any thing in Christianity appears to them probable, or improbable; consistent, or inconsistent; agreeable to what they should have expected, or the contrary; wise and good, or ridiculous and useless; is perfectly irrelevant."--_M'Ilvaine's Evidences_, p. 523. "God's providence is higher, and deeper, and larger, and stronger, than all the skill of his adversaries; and his pleasure shall be accomplished in their overthrow, except they repent and become his friends."--_Cox, on Christianity_, p. 445. "A just relish of what is beautiful, proper, elegant, and ornamental, in writing or painting, in architecture or gardening, is a fine preparation for the same just relish of these qualities in character and behaviour. To the man who has acquired a taste so acute and accomplished, every action wrong or improper must be highly disgustful: if, in any instance, the overbearing power of passion sway him from his duty, he returns to it with redoubled resolution never to be swayed a second time."--_Kames, Elements of Criticism_, Vol. i, p. 25. "In grave Quintilian's copious work, we find The justest rules and clearest method join'd."--_Pope, on Crit._ LESSON III.--PARSING. "There are several sorts of scandalous tempers; some malicious, and some effeminate; others obstinate, brutish, and savage. Some humours are childish and silly; some, false, and others, scurrilous; some, mercenary, and some, tyrannical."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 52. "Words are obviously voluntary signs: and they are also arbitrary; excepting a few simple sounds expressive of certain internal emotions, which sounds being the same in all languages, must be the work of nature: thus the unpremeditated tones of admiration are the same in all men."--_Kames, Elements of Crit._, i, 347. "A stately and majestic air requires sumptuous apparel, which ought not to be gaudy, nor crowded with little ornaments. A woman of consummate beauty can bear to be highly adorned, and yet shows best in a plain dress."--_Ib._, p. 279. "Of all external objects a graceful person is the most agreeable. But in vain will a person attempt to be graceful, who is deficient in amiable qualities."--_Ib._, p. 299. "The faults of a writer of acknowledged excellence are more dangerous, because the influence of his example is more extensive; and the interest of learning requires that they should be discovered and stigmatized, before they have the sanction of antiquity bestowed upon them, and become precedents of indisputable authority."--_Dr. Johnson, Rambler_, Vol. ii, No. 93. "Judges ought to be more learned than witty, more reverend than plausible, and more advised than confident; above all things, integrity is their portion and proper virtue."--_Bacon's Essays_, p. 145. "The wisest nations, having the most and best ideas, will consequently have the best and most copious languages."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 408. "Here we trace the operation of powerful causes, while we remain ignorant of their nature; but everything goes on with such regularity and harmony, as to give a striking and convincing proof of a combining directing intelligence."--_Life of W. Allen_, Vol. i, p. 170. "The wisest, unexperienced, will be ever Timorous and loth, with novice modesty, Irresolute, unhardy, unadventurous."--_Milton_. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. ERRORS OF ADJECTIVES. LESSON I.--DEGREES. "I have the real excuse of the honestest sort of bankrupts."--_Cowley's Preface_, p. viii. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the adjective _honestest_ is harshly compared by _est_. But, according to a principle stated on page 283d concerning the regular degrees, "This method of comparison is to be applied only to monosyllables, and to dissyllables of a smooth termination, or such as receive it and still have but one syllable after the accent." Therefore, _honestest_ should be _most honest_; thus, "I have real excuse of the _most honest_ sort of bankrupts."] "The honourablest part of talk, is, to give the occasion."--_Bacon's Essays_, p. 90. "To give him one of his own modestest proverbs."-- _Barclay's Works_, iii, 340. "Our language is now certainly properer and more natural, than it was formerly."--_Bp. Burnet_. "Which will be of most and frequentest use to him in the world."--_Locke, on Education_, p. 163. "The same is notified in the notablest places in the diocese."--_Whitgift_. "But it was the dreadfullest sight that ever I saw."--_Pilgrim's Progress_, p. 70. "Four of the ancientest, soberest, and discreetest of the brethren, chosen for the occasion, shall regulate it."--_Locke, on Church Gov_. "Nor can there be any clear understanding of any Roman author, especially of ancienter time, without this skill."--_Walker's Particles_, p. x. "Far the learnedest of the Greeks."--_Ib._, p. 120. "The learneder thou art, the humbler be thou."--_Ib._, p. 228. "He is none of the best or honestest."-- _Ib._, p. 274. "The properest methods of communicating it to others."-- _Burn's Gram._, Prof, p. viii. "What heaven's great King hath powerfullest to send against us."--_Paradise Lost_. "Benedict is not the unhopefullest husband that I know."--SHAK.: _in Joh. Dict._ "That he should immediately do all the meanest and triflingest things himself."--RAY: _in Johnson's Gram._, p. 6. "I shall be named among the famousest of women."--MILTON'S _Samson Agonistes: ib._ "Those have the inventivest heads for all purposes."--ASCHAM: _ib._ "The wretcheder are the contemners of all helps."--BEN JONSON: _ib._ "I will now deliver a few of the properest and naturallest considerations that belong to this piece."--WOTTON: _ib._ "The mortalest poisons practised by the West Indians, have some mixture of the blood, fat, or flesh of man."--BACON: _ib._ "He so won upon him, that he rendered him one of the faithfulest and most affectionate allies the Medes ever had."--_Rollin_, ii, 71. "'You see before you,' says he to him, 'the most devoted servant, and the faithfullest ally, you ever had.'"--_Ib._, ii, 79. "I chose the flourishing'st tree in all the park."--_Cowley_. "Which he placed, I think, some centuries backwarder than Julius Africanus thought fit to place it afterwards."--_Bolingbroke, on History_, p. 53. "The Tiber, the notedest river of Italy."--_Littleton's Dict._ "To fartherest shores the ambrosial spirit flies." --_Cutler's Gram._, p. 140. ----"That what she wills to do or say, Seems wisest, virtuousest, discreetest, best." --_Milton_, B. viii, l. 550. LESSON II.--MIXED. "During the three or four first years of its existence."--_Taylor's District School_, p. 27. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the cardinal numbers, _three_ and _four_ are put before the ordinal _first_. But, according to the 7th part of Obs. 7th, page 280th, "In specifying any part of a series, we ought to place the cardinal number after the ordinal." Therefore the words _three_ and _four_ should be placed after _first_; thus, "During the _first three_ or _four_ years of its existence."] "To the first of these divisions, my ten last lectures have been devoted."--_Adams's Rhet._, Vol. i, p. 391. "There are in the twenty-four states not less than sixty thousand common schools."--_Taylor's District School_, p. 38. "I know of nothing which gives teachers so much trouble as this want of firmness."--_Ib._, p. 57. "I know of nothing that throws such darkness over the line which separates right from wrong."--_Ib._, p. 58. "None need this purity and simplicity of language and thought so much as the common school instructor."--_Ib._, p. 64. "I know of no periodical that is so valuable to the teacher as the Annals of Education."--_Ib._, p. 67. "Are not these schools of the highest importance? Should not every individual feel the deepest interest in their character and condition?"--_Ib._, p. 78. "If instruction were made a profession, teachers would feel a sympathy for each other."--_Ib._, p. 93. "Nothing is so likely to interest children as novelty and change."--_Ib._, p. 131. "I know of no labour which affords so much happiness as that of the teacher's."--_Ib._, p. 136. "Their school exercises are the most pleasant and agreeable of any that they engage in."--_Ib._, p. 136. "I know of no exercise so beneficial to the pupil as that of drawing maps."--_Ib._, p. 176. "I know of nothing in which our district schools are so defective as they are in the art of teaching grammar."--_Ib._, p. 196. "I know of nothing so easily acquired as history."--_Ib._ p. 206. "I know of nothing for which scholars usually have such an abhorrence, as composition."--_Ib._, p. 210. "There is nothing in our fellow-men that we should respect with so much sacredness as their good name."--_Ib._, p. 307. "Sure never any thing was so unbred as that odious man."--CONGREVE: _in Joh. Dict._ "In the dialogue between the mariner and the shade of the deceast."--_Philological Museum_, i, 466. "These master-works would still be less excellent and finisht"--_Ib._, i, 469. "Every attempt to staylace the language of polisht conversation, renders our phraseology inelegant and clumsy."--_Ib._, i, 678. "Here are a few of the unpleasant'st words that ever blotted paper."--SHAK.: _in Joh. Dict._ "With the most easy, undisobliging transitions."--BROOME: _ib._ "Fear is, of all affections, the unaptest to admit any conference with reason."--HOOKER: _ib._ "Most chymists think glass a body more undestroyable than gold itself."--BOYLE: _ib._ "To part with unhackt edges, and bear back our barge undinted."--SHAK.: _ib._ "Erasmus, who was an unbigotted Roman Catholic, was transported with this passage."--ADDISON: _ib._ "There are no less than five words, with any of which the sentence might have terminated."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 397. "The one preach Christ of contention; but the other, of love."--_Philippians_, i, 16. "Hence we find less discontent and heart-burnings, than where the subjects are unequally burdened."--_Art of Thinking_, p. 56. "The serpent, subtil'st beast of all the field, I knew; but not with human voice indu'd." --MILTON: _Joh. Dict., w. Human._ "How much more grievous would our lives appear, To reach th' eighth hundred, than the eightieth year?" --DENHAM: B. P., ii, 244. LESSON III.--MIXED. "Brutus engaged with Aruns; and so fierce was the attack, that they pierced one another at the same time."--_Lempriere's Dict._ [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the phrase _one another_ is here applied to two persons only, the words _an_ and _other_ being needlessly compounded. But, according to Observation 15th, on the Classes of Adjectives, _each other_ must be applied to two persons or things, and _one an other_ to more than two. Therefore _one another_ should here be _each other_; thus, "Brutus engaged with Aruns; and so fierce was the attack, that they pierced _each other_ at the same time."] "Her two brothers were one after another turned into stone."--_Art of Thinking_, p. 194. "Nouns are often used as adjectives; as, A _gold_-ring, a _silver_-cup."--_Lennie's Gram._, p. 14. "Fire and water destroy one another."--_Wanostrocht's Gram._, p. 82. "Two negatives in English destroy one another, or are equivalent to an affirmative."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 94; _E. Devis's_, 111; _Mack's_, 147; _Murray's_, 198; _Churchill's_, 148; _Putnam's_, 135; _C. Adams's_, 102; _Hamlin's_, 79; _Alger's_, 66; _Fisk's_, 140; _Ingersoll's_, 207; and _many others_. "Two negatives destroy one another, and are generally equivalent to an affirmative."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 191; _Felton's_, 85. "Two negatives destroy one another and make an affirmative."--_J. Flint's Gram._, p. 79. "Two negatives destroy one another, being equivalent to an affirmative."--_Frost's El. of E. Gram._, p. 48. "Two objects, resembling one another, are presented to the imagination."--_Parker's Exercises in Comp._, p. 47. "Mankind, in order to hold converse with each other, found it necessary to give names to objects."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 42. "Words are derived from each other[185] in various ways."--_Cooper's Gram._, p. 108. "There are many other ways of deriving words from one another."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 131. "When several verbs connected by conjunctions, succeed each other in a sentence, the auxiliary is usually omitted except with the first."--_Frost's Gram._, p. 91. "Two or more verbs, having the same nominative case, and immediately following one another, are also separated by commas." [186]--_Murray's Gram._, p. 270; _C. Adams's_, 126; _Russell's_, 113; and others. "Two or more adverbs immediately succeeding each other, must be separated by commas."--_Same Grammars_. "If, however, the members succeeding each other, are very closely connected, the comma is unnecessary."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 273; _Comly's_, 152; _and others_. "Gratitude, when exerted towards one another, naturally produces a very pleasing sensation in the mind of a grateful man."--_Mur._, p. 287. "Several verbs in the infinitive mood, having a common dependence, and succeeding one another, are also divided by commas."--_Comly's Gram._, p. 153. "The several words of which it consists, have so near a relation to each other."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 268; _Comly's_, 144; _Russell's_, 111; _and others_. "When two or more verbs have the same nominative, and immediately follow one another, or two or more adverbs immediately succeed one another, they must be separated by commas."--_Comly's Gram._, p. 145. "Nouns frequently succeed each other, meaning the same thing."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 63. "And these two tenses may thus answer one another."--_Johnson's Gram._ _Com._, p. 322. "Or some other relation which two objects bear to one another."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 149. "That the heathens tolerated each other, is allowed."--_Gospel its own Witness_, p. 76. "And yet these two persons love one another tenderly."--_Murray's E. Reader_, p. 112. "In the six hundredth and first year."--_Gen._, viii, 13. "Nor is this arguing of his but a reiterate clamour."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 250. "In severals of them the inward life of Christianity is to be found."--_Ib._, iii, 272. "Though Alvarez, Despauterius, and other, allow it not to be Plural."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 169. "Even the most dissipate and shameless blushed at the sight."--_Lemp. Dict., w. Antiochus_. "We feel a superior satisfaction in surveying the life of animals, than that of vegetables."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, 172. "But this man is so full fraughted with malice."--_Barclay's Works_, i11, 205. "That I suggest some things concerning the properest means."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 337. "So hand in hand they pass'd, the loveliest pair That ever since in love's embraces met." --_Milton_, P. L., B., iv, l. 321. "Aim at the high'est, without the high'est attain'd Will be for thee no sitting, or not long." --_Id._, P. R., B. iv, l. 106. CHAPTER V.--PRONOUNS. A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun: as, The boy loves _his_ book; _he_ has long lessons, and _he_ learns _them_ well. The pronouns in our language are twenty-four; and their variations are thirty-two: so that the number of _words_ of this class, is fifty-six. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--The word for which a pronoun stands, is called its _antecedent_, because it usually precedes the pronoun. But some have limited the term _antecedent_ to the word represented by a _relative_ pronoun. There can be no propriety in this, unless we will have every pronoun to be a relative, when it stands for a noun which precedes it; and, if so, it should be called something else, when the noun is to be found elsewhere. In the example above, _his_ and _he_ represent _boy_, and _them_ represents _lessons_; and these nouns are as truly the antecedents to the pronouns, as any can be. Yet _his, he_, and _them_, in our most approved grammars, are not called relative pronouns, but personal. OBS. 2.--Every pronoun may be explained as standing for the _name_ of something, for the _thing itself_ unnamed, or for a _former pronoun_; and, with the noun, pronoun, or thing, for which it stands, every pronoun must agree in person, number, and gender. The exceptions to this, whether apparent or real, are very few; and, as their occurrence is unfrequent, there will be little occasion to notice them till we come to syntax. But if the student will observe the use and import of pronouns, he may easily see, that some of them are put _substantively_, for nouns not previously introduced; some, _relatively_, for nouns or pronouns going before; some, _adjectively_, for nouns that must follow them in any explanation which can be made of the sense. These three modes of substitution, are very different, each from the others. Yet they do not serve for an accurate division of the pronouns; because it often happens, that a substitute which commonly represents the noun in one of these ways, will sometimes represent it in an other. OBS. 3.--The pronouns _I_ and _thou_, in their different modifications, stand immediately for persons that are, in general, sufficiently known without being named; (_I_ meaning _the speaker_, and _thou, the hearer_;) their antecedents, or nouns, are therefore generally _understood_. The other personal pronouns, also, are sometimes taken in a general and demonstrative sense, to denote persons or things not previously mentioned; as, "_He_ that hath knowledge, spareth his words."--_Bible_. Here _he_ is equivalent to _the man_, or _the person_. "The care of posterity is most in _them_ that have no posterity."--_Bacon_. Here _them_ is equivalent to _those persons_. "How far do you call _it_ to such a place?"--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 85. Here _it_, according to Priestley, is put for _the distance_. "For the priest's lips should keep knowledge, and _they_ should seek the law at his mouth."--_Malachi_, ii, 7. Here _they_ is put indefinitely for _men_ or _people_. So _who_ and _which_, though called relatives, do not always relate to a noun or pronoun going before them; for _who_ may be a direct substitute for _what person_; and _which_ may mean _which person_, or _which thing_: as, "And he that was healed, wist not _who_ it was."--_John_, v, 13. That is, "_The man who_ was healed, knew not _what person_ it was." "I care not _which_ you take; they are so much alike, one cannot tell _which_ is _which_." OBS. 4.--A pronoun with which a question is asked, usually stands for some person or thing unknown to the speaker; the noun, therefore, cannot occur before it, but may be used after it or in place of it. Examples: "In the grave, _who_ shall give thee thanks?"--_Ps._, vi, 5. Here the word _who_ is equivalent to _what person_, taken interrogatively. "Which of you convinceth me of sin?"--_John_, viii, 46. That is, "_Which man_ of you?" "Master, _what_ shall we do?"--_Luke_, iii, 12. That is, "_What act_, or _thing_?" These solutions, however, convert _which_ and _what_ into _adjectives_: and, in fact, as they have no inflections for the numbers and cases, there is reason to think them at all times essentially such. We call them pronouns, to avoid the inconvenience of supposing and supplying an infinite multitude of ellipses. But _who_, though often equivalent (as above) to an adjective and a noun, is never itself used adjectively; it is always a pronoun. OBS. 5.--In respect to _who_ or _whom_, it sometimes makes little or no difference to the sense, whether we take it as a demonstrative pronoun equivalent to _what person_, or suppose it to relate to an antecedent understood before it: as, "Even so the Son quickeneth _whom_ he will."--_John_, v, 21. That is--"_what persons_ he will," or, "_those persons_ whom he will;" for the Greek word for _whom_, is, in this instance, plural. The former is a shorter explanation of the meaning, but the latter I take to be the true account of the construction; for, by the other, we make _whom_ a double relative, and the object of two governing words at once. So, perhaps, of the following example, which Dr. Johnson cites under the word _who_, to show what he calls its "_disjunctive_ sense:"-- "There thou tellst _of_ kings, and _who_ aspire; _Who_ fall, _who_ rise, _who_ triumph, _who_ do moan."--_Daniel_. OBS. 6.--It sometimes happens that the real antecedent, or the term which in the order of the sense must stand before the pronoun, is not placed antecedently to it, in the order given to the words: as, "It is written, To _whom_ he was not spoken of, _they_ shall see; and they that have not heard, shall understand."--_Romans_, xv, 21. Here the sense is, "_They_ to _whom_ he was not spoken of, shall see." Whoever takes the passage otherwise, totally misunderstands it. And yet the same order of the words might be used to signify, "They shall see _to whom_ (that is, _to what persons_) he was not spoken of." Transpositions of this kind, as well as of every other, occur most frequently in poetry. The following example is from an Essay on Satire, printed with Pope's Works, but written by one of his friends:-- "_Whose_ is the crime, the scandal too be _theirs_; The knave and fool are their own libellers."--_J. Brown._ OBS. 7.--The personal and the interrogative pronouns often stand in construction as the antecedents to other pronouns: as, "_He_ also _that_ is slothful in his work, is brother to _him that_ is a great waster."--_Prov._, xviii. 9. Here _he_ and _him_ are each equivalent to _the man_, and each is taken as the antecedent to the relative which follows it. "For both _he that_ sanctifieth, and _they who_ are sanctified, are all of one: for which cause, _he_ is not ashamed to call _them_ brethren."--_Heb._, ii, 11. Here _he_ and _they_ may be considered the antecedents to _that_ and _who_, of the first clause, and also to _he_ and _them_, of the second. So the interrogative _who_ may be the antecedent to the relative _that_; as, "_Who that_ has any moral sense, dares tell lies?" Here _who_, being equivalent to _what person_, is the term with which the other pronoun agrees. Nay, an interrogative pronoun, (or the noun which is implied in it,) may be the antecedent to a _personal_ pronoun; as, "_Who_ hath first given to Him, and it shall be recompensed to _him_ again?"--_Romans_, xi, 35. Here the idea is, "_What person_ hath first given _any thing_ to _the Lord_, so that it ought to be repaid _him_?" that is, "so that _the gift_ ought to be recompensed from Heaven to _the giver_?" In the following example, the first pronoun is the antecedent to all the rest:-- "And _he that_ never doubted of _his_ state, _He_ may perhaps--perhaps _he_ may--too late."--_Cowper_. OBS. 8.--So the personal pronouns of the _possessive_ case, (which some call adjectives,) are sometimes represented by relatives, though less frequently than their primitives: as, "How different, O Ortogrul, is _thy_ condition, _who_ art doomed to the perpetual torments of unsatisfied desire!"--_Dr. Johnson_. Here _who_ is of the second person, singular, masculine; and represents the antecedent pronoun _thy_: for _thy_ is a pronoun, and not (as some writers will have it) an adjective. Examples like this, disprove the doctrine of those grammarians who say that _my, thy, his, her, its_, and their plurals, _our, your, their_, are adjectives. For, if they were mere adjectives, they could not thus be made antecedents. Examples of this construction are sufficiently common, and sufficiently clear, to settle that point, unless they can be better explained in some other way. Take an instance or two more: "And they are written for _our_ admonition, upon _whom_ the ends of the world are come."--_1 Cor._, x, 11. "Be thou the first true merit to befriend; _His_ praise is lost, _who_ stays till all commend."--_Pope_. CLASSES. Pronouns are divided into three classes; _personal, relative_, and _interrogative_. I. A _personal pronoun_ is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is; as, "Whether _it_[187] were _I_ or _they_, so _we_ preach, and so _ye_ believed."--_1 Cor._, xv, 11. The simple personal pronouns are five: namely, _I_, of the first person; _thou_, of the second person; _he, she_, and _it_, of the third person. The compound personal pronouns are also five: namely, _myself_, of the first person; _thyself_, of the second person; _himself, herself_, and _itself_, of the third person. II. A _relative pronoun_ is a pronoun that represents an antecedent word or phrase, and connects different clauses of a sentence; as, "No people can be great, _who_ have ceased to be virtuous."--_Dr. Johnson._ The relative pronouns are _who, which, what, that, as_, and the compounds _whoever_ or _whosoever, whichever_ or _whichsoever, whatever_ or _whatsoever_.[188] _What_ is a kind of _double relative_, equivalent to _that which_ or _those which_; and is to be parsed, first as antecedent, and then as relative: as, "This is _what_ I wanted; that is to say, _the thing which_ I wanted."--_L. Murray_. III. An _interrogative pronoun_ is a pronoun with which a question is asked; as, "_Who_ touched my clothes?"--_Mark_, v, 30. The interrogative pronouns are _who, which_, and _what_; being the same in form as relatives. _Who_ demands a person's name; _which_, that a person or thing be distinguished from others; _what_, the name of a thing, or a person's occupation and character. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--The pronouns _I_ and _myself, thou_ and _thyself_, with their inflections, are literally applicable to persons only; but, _figuratively_, they represent brutes, or whatever else the human imagination invests with speech and reason. The latter use of them, though literal perhaps in every thing _but person_, constitutes the purest kind of personification. For example: "The _trees_ went forth on a time to anoint a king over them: and they said unto the _olive-tree_, 'Reign _thou_ over _us_.' But the _olive-tree_ said unto them, 'Should _I_ leave _my_ fatness, wherewith by _me_ they honour God and man, and go to be promoted over the trees?'" See _Judges_, ix, from 8 to 16. OBS. 2.--The pronouns _he_ and _himself, she_ and _herself_, with their inflections, are literally applicable to persons and to brutes, and to these only; if applied to lifeless objects, they animate them, and are figurative _in gender_, though literal perhaps in every other respect. For example: "A _diamond_ of beauty and lustre, observing at _his_ side in the same cabinet, not only many other gems, but even a _loadstone_, began to question the latter how _he_ came there--_he, who_ appeared to be no better than a mere flint, a sorry rusty-looking pebble, without the least shining quality to advance _him_ to such honour; and concluded with desiring _him_ to keep _his_ distance, and to pay a proper respect to _his_ superiors."--_Kames's Art of Thinking_, p. 226. OBS. 3.--The pronoun _it_, as it carries in itself no such idea as that of personality, or sex, or life, is chiefly used with reference to things inanimate; yet the word is, in a certain way, applicable to animals, or even to persons; though it does not, in itself, present them as such. Thus we say, "_It_ is _I_;"--"_It_ was _they_;"--"_It_ was _you_;"--"_It_ was your _agent_;"--"_It_ is your _bull_ that has killed one of my oxen." In examples of this kind, the word _it_ is simply demonstrative; meaning, _the thing or subject spoken of_. That subject, whatever it be in itself, may be introduced again after the verb, in any person, number, or gender, that suits it. But, as the verb agrees with the pronoun _it_, the word which follows, can in no sense be made, as Dr. Priestley will have it to be, the _antecedent_ to that pronoun. Besides, it is contrary to the nature of what is primarily demonstrative, to represent a preceding word of any kind. The Doctor absurdly says, "Not only things, but persons, may be the _antecedent_ to this pronoun; as, _Who is it_? _Is it not Thomas_? i. e. _Who is the person_? _Is not he Thomas?_"--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 85. In these examples, the terms are transposed by interrogation; but that circumstance, though it may have helped to deceive this author and his copiers, affects not my assertion. OBS. 4.--The pronoun _who_ is usually applied only to persons. Its application to brutes or to things is improper, unless we mean to personify them. But _whose_, the possessive case of this relative, is sometimes used to supply the place of the possessive case, otherwise wanting, to the relative _which_. Examples: "The mutes are those consonants _whose_ sounds cannot be protracted."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 9. "Philosophy, _whose_ end is, to instruct us in the knowledge of nature."--_Ib._, p. 54; _Campbell's Rhet._, 421. "Those adverbs are compared _whose_ primitives are obsolete."--_Adam's Latin Gram._, p. 150. "After a sentence _whose_ sense is complete in itself, a period is used."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 124. "We remember best those things _whose_ parts are methodically disposed, and mutually connected."--_Beattie's Moral Science_, i, 59. "Is there any other doctrine _whose_ followers are punished?"--ADDISON: _Murray's Gram._, p. 54; _Lowth's_, p. 25. "The question, _whose_ solution I require, Is, what the sex of women most desire."--DRYDEN: _Lowth_, p. 25. OBS. 5.--Buchanan, as well as Lowth, condemns the foregoing use of _whose_, except in grave poetry: saying, "This manner of _personification_ adds an air of dignity to the higher and more solemn kind of poetry, but it is highly improper in the lower kind, or in prose."--_Buchanan's English Syntax_, p. 73. And, of the last two examples above quoted, he says, "It ought to be _of which_, in both places: i. e. The followers _of which_; the solution _of which_."--_Ib._, p. 73. The truth is, that no personification is here intended. Hence it may be better to avoid, if we can, this use of _whose_, as seeming to imply what we do not mean. But Buchanan himself (stealing the text of an older author) has furnished at least one example as objectionable as any of the foregoing: "Prepositions are naturally placed betwixt the Words _whose_ Relation and Dependence each of them is to express."--_English Syntax_, p. 90; _British Gram._, p. 201. I dislike this construction, and yet sometimes adopt it, for want of another as good. It is too much, to say with Churchill, that "this practice is now discountenanced by all correct writers."--_New Gram._, p. 226. Grammarians would perhaps differ less, if they would read more. Dr. Campbell commends the use of _whose_ for _of which_, as an improvement suggested by good taste, and established by abundant authority. See _Philosophy of Rhetoric_, p. 420. "WHOSE, the possessive or genitive case of _who_ or _which_; applied to persons or things."--_Webster's Octavo Dict._ "_Whose_ is well authorized by good usage, as the possessive of _which_."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 69. "Nor is any language complete, _whose_ verbs have not tenses."--_Harris's Hermes_. "--------'Past and future, are the wings On _whose_ support, harmoniously conjoined, Moves the great spirit of human knowledge.'--MS." _Wordsworth's Preface to his Poems_, p. xviii. OBS. 6.--The relative _which_, though formerly applied to persons and made equivalent to _who_, is now confined to brute animals and inanimate things. Thus, "Our Father _which_ art in heaven," is not now reckoned good English; it should be, "Our Father _who_ art in heaven." In this, as well as in many other things, the custom of speech has changed; so that what was once right, is now ungrammatical. The use of _which_ for _who_ is very common in the Bible, and in other books of the seventeenth century; but all good writers now avoid the construction. It occurs seventy-five times in the third chapter of Luke; as, "Joseph, _which_ was the son of Heli, _which_ was the son of Matthat," etc. etc. After a personal term taken by metonymy for a thing, _which_ is not improper; as, "Of the particular _author which_ he is studying."--_Gallaudet_. And as an interrogative or a demonstrative pronoun or adjective, the word _which_ is still applicable to persons, as formerly; as, "_Which_ of you all?"--"_Which_ man of you all?"--"There arose a reasoning among them, _which_ of them should be the greatest."--_Luke_, ix, 46. "Two fair twins--the puzzled Strangers, _which_ is _which_, inquire."--_Tickell_. OBS. 7.--If _which_, as a direct relative, is inapplicable to persons, _who_ ought to be preferred to it in all personifications: as, "The seal is set. Now welcome thou dread power, Nameless, yet thus omnipotent, _which_ here Walk'st in the shadow of the midnight hour." BYRON: _Childe Harold's Pilgrimage_, Cant, iv, st. 138. What sort of personage is here imagined and addressed, I will not pretend to say; but it should seem, that _who_ would be more proper than _which_, though less agreeable in sound before the word _here_. In one of his notes on this word, Churchill has fallen into a strange error. He will have _who_ to represent a _horse!_ and that, in such a sense, as would require _which_ and not _who_, even for a person. As he prints the masculine pronoun in Italics, perhaps he thought, with Murray and Webster, that _which_ must needs be "of the _neuter gender_." [189] He says, "In the following passage, _which_ seems to be used _instead_ of _who_:-- 'Between two horses, _which_ doth bear him best; I have, perhaps, some shallow spirit of judgment' SHAKS., 1 Hen. VI."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 226. OBS. 8.--The pronoun _what_ is usually applied to things only. It has a twofold relation, and is often used (by ellipsis of the noun) both as antecedent and as relative, in the form of a single word; being equivalent to _that which_, or _the thing which,--those which_, or _the things which_. In this double relation, _what_ represents two cases at the same time: as, "He is ashamed of _what_ he has done;" that is, "of what [_thing_ or _action_] he has done;"--or, "of _that_ [thing or action] _which_ he has done." Here are two objectives. The two cases are sometimes alike, sometimes different; for either of them may be the nominative, and either, the objective. Examples: "The dread of censure ought not to prevail _over what is_ proper."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. i, p. 252. "The public ear will not easily _bear what is_ slovenly and incorrect."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 12. "He who buys _what_ he does not need, will often need _what_ he cannot buy."--_Student's Manual_, p. 290. "_What_ is just, is honest; and again, _what_ is honest, is just."--_Cicero_. "He that hath an ear, let him hear _what_ the Spirit saith unto the churches."--_Rev._, ii, 7, 11, 17, 29; iii, 6, 13, 22. OBS. 9.--This pronoun, _what_, is usually of the singular number, though sometimes plural: as, "I must turn to the faults, or _what appear_ such to me."--_Byron_. "All distortions and mimicries, as such, are _what raise_ aversion instead of pleasure."--_Steele_. "Purified indeed from _what appear_ to be its real defects."--_Wordsworth's Pref._, p. xix. "Every single impression, made even by the same object, is distinguishable from _what_ have gone before, and from _what_ succeed."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. i, p. 107. "Sensible people express no thoughts but _what_ make some figure."--_Ib._, Vol. i, p. 399. The following example, which makes _what_ both singular and plural at once, is a manifest solecism: "_What has_ since followed _are_ but natural consequences."--J. C. CALHOUN, _Speech in U. S. Senate_, March 4, 1850. Here _has_ should be _have_; or else the form should be this: "What has since followed, _is_ but _a_ natural _consequence_." OBS. 10.--The common import of this remarkable pronoun, _what_, is, as we see in the foregoing examples, twofold; but some instances occur, in which it does not appear to have this double construction, but to be simply declaratory; and many, in which the word is simply an adjective: as, "_What_ a strange run of luck I have had to-day!"--_Columbian Orator_, p. 293. Here _what_ is a mere adjective; and, in the following examples, a pronoun indefinite:-- "I tell thee _what_, corporal, I could tear her."--_Shak._ "He knows _what's what_, and that's as high As metaphysic wit can fly."--_Hudibras_. OBS. 11.--_What_ is sometimes used both as an adjective and as a relative at the same time, and is placed before the noun which it represents; being equivalent to the adjective _any_ or _all_, and the simple relative _who, which_[190] or _that_: as, "_What_ money we had, was taken away." That is, "_All the_ money _that_ we had, was taken away." "_What_ man but enters, dies." That is, "_Any_ man _who_ enters, dies." "It was agreed that _what_ goods were aboard his vessels, should be landed."--_Mickle's India_, p. 89. "_What_ appearances of worth afterwards succeeded, were drawn from thence."--_Internal Policy of Great Britain_, p. 196. That is, "_All the_ appearances of worth, _which_ afterwards succeeded."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 93. Indeed, this pronoun does not admit of being construed after a noun, as a simple relative: none but the most illiterate ever seriously use it so. _What_ put for _who_ or _which_, is therefore a ludicrous vulgarism; as, "The aspiring youth _what_ fired the Ephesian dome."--_Jester_. The word used as above, however, does not always preclude the introduction of a personal pronoun before the subsequent verb; as,[191] "_What_ god but enters yon forbidden field, Who yields assistance, or but wills to yield, Back to the skies with shame _he_ shall be driven, Gash'd with dishonest wounds, the scorn of heaven."--_Pope's Homer_. OBS. 12.--The compound _whatever_ or _whatsoever_ has the same peculiarities of construction as has the simpler word _what_: as, "Whatever word expresses an affirmation, or assertion, is a verb; or thus, _Whatever_ word, with a noun or pronoun before or after it, makes full sense, is a verb."--_Adam's Latin Gram._, p. 78. That is, "_Any_ word _which_ expresses," &c. "We will certainly do _whatsoever_ thing goeth forth out of our own mouth."--_Jeremiah_, xliv, 17. That is--"_any_ thing, or _every_ thing, _which_." "_Whatever_ sounds are difficult in pronunciation, are, in the same proportion, harsh and painful to the ear."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 121; _Murray's Gram._, p. 325. "_Whatsoever_ things were written aforetime, were written for our learning."--_Romans_, xv, 4. In all these examples, the word _whatever_ or _whatsoever_ appears to be used both adjectively and relatively. There are instances, however, in which the relation of this term is not twofold, but simple: as, "_Whatever_ useful or engaging endowments we possess, virtue is requisite in order to their shining with proper lustre."--_English Reader_, p. 23. Here _whatever_ is simply an adjective. "The declarations contained in them [the Scriptures] rest on the authority of God _himself_; and there can be no appeal from them to any other authority _whatsoever_."--_London Epistle_, 1836. Here _whatsoever_ may be parsed either as an adjective relating to _authority_, or as an emphatic pronoun in apposition with its noun, like _himself_ in the preceding clause. In this general explanatory sense, _whatsoever_ may be applied to persons as well as to things; as, "I should be sorry if it entered into the imagination _of any person whatsoever_, that I was preferred to all other patrons."--_Duncan's Cicero_, p. 11. Here the word _whomsoever_ might have been used. OBS. 13.--But there is an other construction to be here explained, in which _whatever_ or _whatsoever_ appears to be a _double relative_, or a term which includes both antecedent and relative; as, "_Whatever_ purifies, fortifies also the heart."--_English Reader_, p. 23. That is. "_All that purifies_--or, _Everything which_ purifies--fortifies also the heart." "_Whatsoever_ he doeth, shall prosper."--_Psal._, i, 3. That is, "_All that_ he doeth--or, _All the things which he doeth_--shall prosper." This construction, however, may be supposed elliptical. The Latin expression is, "_Omnia quæcumque faciet prosperabuntur_."--_Vulgate_. The Greek is similar: [Greek: "Kai panta hosa an poiæi kateuodothæsetai."]-- _Septuagint_. It is doubtless by some sort of ellipsis which familiarity of use inclines us to overlook, that _what, whatever_, and _whatsoever_, which are essentially adjectives, have become susceptible of this double construction as pronouns. But it is questionable what particular ellipsis we ought here to suppose, or whether any; and certainly, we ought always to avoid the supposing of an ellipsis, if we can.[192] Now if we say the meaning is, "Whatsoever _things_ he doeth, shall prosper;" this, though analogous to other expressions, does not simplify the construction. If we will have it to be, "Whatsoever _things_ he doeth, _they_ shall prosper;" the pronoun _they_ appears to be pleonastic. So is the word _it_, in the text, "_Whatsoever_ he saith unto you, do _it_."--_John_, ii, 5. If we say the full phrase is, "_All things_ whatsoever he doeth, shall prosper;" this presents, to an English ear, a still more obvious pleonasm. It may be, too, _a borrowed idiom_, found nowhere but in translations; as, "_All things whatsoever_ ye shall ask in prayer, believing, ye shall receive."--_Matt._, xxi, 22. From these views, there seems to be some objection to any and every method of parsing the above-mentioned construction as _elliptical_. The learner may therefore say, in such instances, that _whatever_ or _whatsoever_ is a double relative, including both antecedent and relative; and parse it, first as antecedent, in connexion with the latter verb, and then as relative, in connexion with the former. But let him observe that the order of the verbs may be the reverse of the foregoing; as, "Ye are my friends, if ye _do_ whatsoever I _command_ you."--_John_, xv, 14. That is, according to the Greek, "If ye do whatsoever I command _to_ you;" Though it would be better English to say, "If ye do whatsoever I command you _to do_." In the following example, however, it seems proper to recognize an ellipsis; nay, the omissions in the construction of the last line, are as many as three or four;-- "Expatiate with glad step, and choose at will Whate'er bright spoils the florid earth contains, Whate'er the waters, or the liquid air."--_Akenside_. OBS. 14.--As the simple word _who_ differs from _which_ and _what_, in being always a declinable pronoun; so its compounds differ from theirs, in being incapable of either of the double constructions above described. Yet _whoever_ and _whoso_ or _whosoever_, as well as _whichever_ and _whichsoever, whatever_ and _whatsoever_, derive, from the affix which is added, or from the peculiarity of their syntax, an unlimited signification--or a signification which is limited only by the following verb; and, as some general term, such as _any person_, or _all persons_, is implied as the antecedent, they are commonly connected with other words as if they stood for two cases at once: as, "_Whoever_ seeks, shall find." That is, "_Any person who_ seeks, shall find." But as the case of this compound, like that of the simple word _who, whose_, or _whom_, is known and determined by its form, it is necessary, in parsing, to treat this phraseology as being elliptical. The compounds of _who_ do not, therefore, actually stand for two cases, though some grammarians affirm that they do.[193] Example: "The soldiers made proclamation, that they would sell the empire to _whoever_ would purchase it at the highest price."--_Goldsmith's Rome_, p. 231. That is--"to _any man who_ would purchase it." The affix _ever_ or _soever_ becomes unnecessary when the ellipsis is supplied; and this fact, it must be confessed, is a plausible argument against the supposition of an ellipsis. But the supposing of an antecedent understood, is here unavoidable; because the preposition _to_ cannot govern the nominative case, and the word _whoever_ cannot be an objective. And so in all other instances in which the two cases are different: as, "He bids _whoever_ is athirst, to come."--_Jenks's Devotions_, p. 151. "Elizabeth publicly threatened, that she would have the head of _whoever_ had advised it."--HUME: _in Priestley's Gram._, p. 104. OBS. 15.--If it is necessary in parsing to supply the antecedent to _whoever_ or _whosoever_, when two _different_ cases are represented, it is but analogous and reasonable to supply it also when two similar cases occur: as, "_Whoever_ borrows money, _is bound_ in conscience to repay it."--_Paley_. "_Whoever_ is eager to find excuses for vice and folly, _will find_ his own backwardness to practise them much diminished."-- _Chapone_. "_Whoever_ examines his own imperfections, _will cease_ to be fastidious; _whoever_ restrains humour and caprice, _will cease_ to be squeamish."--_Crabb's Synonymes_. In all these examples, we have the word in the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case. And here it is most commonly found. It is always of the third person; and, though its number _may_ be plural; its gender, feminine; its case, possessive or objective; we do not often use it in any of these ways. In some instances, the latter verb is attended with an other pronoun, which represents the same person or persons; as, "And _whosoever_ will, let _him_ take of the water of life freely."--_Rev._, xxii, 17. The case of this compound relative always depends upon what follows it, and not upon what precedes; as, "Or ask of _whomsoever_ he has taught."--_Cowper_. That is--"of _any person whom_ he has taught." In the following text, we have the possessive plural: "_Whosesoever_ sins ye remit, they are remitted unto _them_."--_John_, xx, 23. That is, "_Whatever persons'_ sins." OBS. 16.--In such phraseology as the following, there is a stiffness which ought to be avoided: "For _whomever_ God loves, he loves _them_ in Christ, and no otherways."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. iii, p. 215. Better: "For _all whom_ God loves, he loves in Christ, and no _otherwise_." "When the Father draws, _whomever_ he draws, may come."--_Penington_. Better: "When the Father draws, _all whom_ he draws, (or, _every one whom_ he draws.) may come." A modern critic of immense promise cites the following clause as being found in the Bible: "But he loveth _whomsoever_ followeth after righteousness."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 72. It is lamentable to see the unfaithfulness of this gentleman's quotations. About half of them are spurious; and I am confident that this one is neither Scripture nor good English. The compound relative, being the subject of _followeth_, should be in the nominative case; for the object of the verb _loveth_ is the antecedent _every one_, understood. But the idea may be better expressed, without any ellipsis, thus: "He loveth _every one who_ followeth after righteousness." The following example from the same hand is also wrong, and the author's rule and reasoning connected with it, are utterly fallacious: "I will give the reward to _whomsoever_ will apprehend the rogue."--_Ib._, p. 256. Much better say, "_to any one who_;" but, if you choose the compound word, by all analogy, and all good authority, it must here be _whoever_ or _whosoever_. The shorter compound _whoso_, which occurs very frequently in the Bible, is now almost obsolete in prose, but still sometimes used by the poets. It has the same meaning as _whosoever_, but appears to have been confined to the nominative singular; and _whatso_ is still more rare: as, "_Whoso_ diggeth a pit, shall fall therein."--_Prov._, xxvi, 27. "Which _whoso_ tastes, can be enslaved no more."--_Cowper_. "On their intended journey to proceed, And over night _whatso_ thereto did need."--_Hubbard_. OBS. 17.--The relative _that_ is applied indifferently to persons, to brute animals, and to inanimate things. But the word _that_ is not always a relative pronoun. It is sometimes a pronoun, sometimes an adjective, and sometimes a conjunction. I call it not a demonstrative pronoun and also a relative; because, in the sense in which Murray and others have styled it a "demonstrative adjective _pronoun_," it is a pronominal _adjective_, and it is better to call it so. (1.) It is a _relative pronoun_ whenever it is equivalent to _who, whom_, or _which_: as, "There is not a _just man_ upon earth, _that_ doeth good, and sinneth not"--_Eccl._, vii, 20. "It was diverse from all the _beasts that_ were before it."--_Dan._, vii, 7. "And he had a _name_ written, _that_ no man knew but he himself."--_Rev._, xix, 12. (2.) It is a _pronominal adjective_ whenever it relates to a noun expressed or understood after it: as, "Thus with violence shall _that_ great _city_, Babylon, be thrown down."--_Rev._, xviii, 21. "Behold _that_ [thing] which I have seen."--_Eccl._, v, 18. "And they said, 'What is _that_[194] [matter] to us? See thou to _that_' [matter]."--_Matt._, xxvii, 4. (3.) In its other uses, it is a _conjunction_, and, as such, it most commonly makes what follows it, the purpose, object, or final cause, of what precedes it: as, "I read _that_ I may learn."--_Dr. Adam._ "Ye men of Athens, I perceive _that_ in all things ye are too superstitious."--_St. Paul._ "Live well, _that_ you may die well."--_Anon._ "Take heed _that_ thou speak not to Jacob."--_Genesis._ "Judge not, _that_ ye be not judged."--_Matthew._ OBS. 18.--The word _that_, or indeed any other word, should never be so used as to leave the part of speech uncertain; as, "For in the day _that_ thou eatest thereof, thou shalt surely die."--_Gen._, ii, 17. Here _that_ seems to be a relative _pronoun_, representing _day_, in the third person, singular, neuter; yet, in other respects, it seems to be a _conjunction_, because there is nothing to determine its case. Better: "For in the day _on which_ thou eatest thereof, thou shalt surely die." This mongrel construction of the word _that_, were its justification possible, is common enough in our language to be made good English. But it must needs be condemned, because it renders the character of the term ambiguous, and is such a grammatical difficulty as puts the parser at a dead nonplus. Examples: (1.) "But _at the same time_ THAT men are giving their orders, God on his part is likewise giving his."--_Rollin's Hist._, ii, 106. Here the phrase, "_at the same time that_," is only equivalent to the adverb _while_; and yet it is incomplete, because it means, "_at the same time at which_," or, "_at the very time at which._" (2.) "The author of this work, _at the same time_ THAT he has endeavoured to avoid a plan, _which may be_ too concise or too extensive, defective in its parts or irregular in the disposition of them, has studied to render his _subject_ sufficiently easy, intelligible, and _comprehensive._"--_Murray's Gram., Introd._, p. 1. This sentence, which is no unfair specimen of its author's original style, needs three corrections: 1. For "_at the same time that_," say _while_: 2. Drop the phrase, "_which may be_," because it is at least useless: 3. For "_subject_," read _treatise_, or _compilation._ You will thus have tolerable diction. Again: (3.) "The participles of active verbs _act upon objects_ and govern them in the objective case, in the same manner _that_ the verbs _do_, from which they are derived. _A participle_ in the nature of an adjective, belongs or refers to _nouns_ or _pronouns_ in the same manner _that_ adjectives do; and _when it will admit_ the degrees of comparison, _it is called_ a participial _adjective_."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 38. This is the style of a gentleman of no ordinary pretensions, one who thinks he has produced the best grammar that has ever appeared in our language. To me, however, his work suggests an abundance of questions like these; each of which would palpably involve him in a dilemma: What is here meant by "_objects_," the _words_, or the _things?_ if the former, how are they acted upon? if the latter, how are they governed? If "a _participle_ is called an _adjective_," which is it, an adjective, or a participle? If "_a_ participle refers to _nouns_ or _pronouns_," _how many_ of these are required by the relation? When does a _participle_ "admit the degrees of comparison?" How shall we parse the word _that_ in the foregoing sentences? OBS. 19.--The word _as_, though usually a conjunction or an adverb, has sometimes the construction of a relative pronoun, especially after _such, so many_, or _as many_; and, whatever the antecedent _noun_ may be, this is the _only fit relative_ to follow any of these terms in a restrictive sense. Examples: "We have been accustomed to repose on its veracity with _such_ humble confidence _as_ suppresses curiosity."--_Johnson's Life of Cowley._ "The malcontents made _such_ demands _as_ none but a tyrant could refuse."--_Bolingbroke, on Hist._, Let. 7. "The Lord added to the church daily _such_ [persons] _as_ should be saved."--_Acts_, ii, 47. "And _as many as_ were ordained to eternal life, believed."--_Acts_, xiii, 48. "_As many as_ I love, I rebuke and chasten."--_Rev._, iii, 19. "Know ye not, that _so many_ of us _as_ were baptized into Jesus Christ, were baptized into his death?"--_Rom._, vi, 3. "For _as many_ of you _as_ have been baptized into Christ, have put on Christ."--_Gal._, iii, 27. "A syllable is _so many_ letters _as_ are spoken with one motion of the voice."--_Perley's Gram._, p. 8. "The compound tenses are _such as_ cannot be formed without an auxiliary verb."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 91. "Send him _such_ books _as_ will please him."--_Webster's Improved Gram._, p. 37. "In referring to _such_ a division of the day _as_ is past, we use the imperfect."-- _Murray's Gram._, p. 70. "Participles have _the same_ government _as_ the verbs from which they are derived."--_Ib._, Rule xiv. "Participles have _the same_ government _as_ the verbs _have_ from which they are derived."-- _Sanborn's Gram._, p. 94. In some of these examples, _as_ is in the nominative case, and in others, in the objective; in some, it is of the masculine gender, and in others, it is neuter; in some, it is of the plural number, and in others, it is singular: but in all, it is of the third person; and in all, its person, number, gender, and case, are as obvious as those of any invariable pronoun can be. OBS. 20.--Some writers--(the most popular are Webster, Bullions, Wells, and Chandler--) imagine that _as_, in such sentences as the foregoing, can be made a conjunction, and not a pronoun, if we will allow them to consider the phraseology elliptical. Of the example for which I am indebted to him, Dr. Webster says, "_As_ must be considered as the nominative to _will please_, or we must suppose an ellipsis of several words: as, 'Send him such books as _the books which_ will please him, or as _those which_ will please him.'"--_Improved Gram._, p. 37. This pretended explanation must be rejected as an absurdity. In either form of it, _two_ nominatives are idly imagined between _as_ and its verb; and, I ask, of what is the first one the subject? If you say, "Of _are_ understood," making the phrase, "such books _as the books are_;" does not _as_ bear the same relation to this new verb _are_, that is found in the pronoun _who_, when one says, "Tell him _who_ you _are?_" If so, _as_ is a pronoun still; so that, thus far, you gain nothing. And if you will have the whole explanation to be, "Send him such books _as the books are books which_ will please him;" you multiply words, and finally arrive at nothing, but tautology and nonsense. Wells, not condescending to show his pupils what he would supply after this _as_, thinks it sufficient to say, the word is "followed by an ellipsis of one or more words required to complete the construction; as, 'He was the father of all such as [] handle the harp and organ.'--_Gen._ 4: 21."--_Wells's School Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 164; 3d Ed., p. 172. OBS. 21.--Chandler exhibits the sentence, "_These are not such as are worn_;" and, in parsing it, expounds the words _as_ and _are_, thus; the crotchets being his, not mine: "_as_.... is an _adverb, connecting_ the two sentences in comparing them, [_It is a fault_ of some, that they make _as_ a pronoun, when, in a comparative sentence, it corresponds with _such_, and is immediately followed by a verb, as in the sentence now given. This is probably done _from an ignorance_ of the real nominative to the verb. The sentence _should stand thus_: 'These (_perhaps_ bonnets) are not such (bonnets) _as_ (those bonnets) are (which are) worn.' Then] _are_ .... is the substantive verb, third person, plural number, indicative mood, present tense, and agrees with the noun _bonnets_, understood."--_Chandler's Common School Gram._, p. 162. All this bears the marks of shallow flippancy. No part of it is accurate. "_Are worn_," which the critic unwarrantably divides by his misplaced curves and uncouth impletions, is a passive verb, agreeing with the pronoun _as_. But the text itself is faulty, being unintelligible through lack of a noun; for, of things that _may be_ "_worn_," there are a thousand different sorts. Is it not ridiculous, for a great grammarian to offer, as a model for parsing, what he himself, "_from an ignorance_ of the real nominative," can only interpret with a "_perhaps?_" But the noun which this author supplies, the meaning which he guesses that he had, he here very improperly stows away within a pair of _crotchets_. Nor is it true, that "the sentence _should stand_" as above exhibited; for the tautological correction not only has the very extreme of awkwardness, but still makes _as_ a pronoun, a nominative, belonging after _are_: so that the phrase, "_as are worn_," is only encumbered and perverted by the verbose addition made. So of an other example given by this expounder, in which _as_ is an objective: "He is exactly such a man _as_ I saw."--_Chandler's Com. Sch. Gram._, p. 163. Here _as_ is the object of _saw_. But the author says, "The sentence, however, _should stand_ thus: 'He is exactly such a man _as_ that person _was_ whom I saw.'"--_Ibid._ This inelegant alteration makes _as_ a nominative dependent on _was._ OBS. 22.--The use of _as_ for a relative pronoun, is almost entirely confined to those connexions in which no other relative would be proper; hence few instances occur, of its absolute equivalence to _who, which_, or _that_, by which to establish its claim to the same rank. Examples like the following, however, go far to prove it, if proof be necessary; because _who_ and _which_ are here employed, where _as_ is certainly now required by all good usage: "It is not only convenient, but absolutely needful, that there be certain meetings at certain places and times, _as_ may best suit the convenience of _such, who_ may be most particularly concerned in them."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. i, p. 495. "Which, no doubt, will be found obligatory upon all _such, who_ have a sense and feeling of the mind of the Spirit."--_Ib._, i, p. 578. "Condemning or removing _such_ things, _which_ in themselves are evil."--_Ib._, i, p. 511. In these citations, not only are _who_ and _which_ improperly used for _as_, but the _commas_ before them are also improper, because the relatives are intended to be taken in a restrictive sense. "If there be _such that_ walk disorderly now."--_Ib._, i, p. 488. Here _that_ ought to be _as_; or else _such_ ought to be _persons_, or _those._ "When such virtues, _as which_ still accompany the truth, are necessarily supposed to be wanting."--_Ib._, i, p. 502. Here _which_, and the comma before _as_, should both be expunged. "I shall raise in their minds the same course of thought _as_ has taken possession of my own."--_Duncan's Logic_, p. 61. "The pronoun must be in the same case _as_ the antecedent would be _in_, if substituted for it."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 181. "The verb must therefore have the same construction _as_ it has in the following sentence."--_Murray's Key_, p. 190. Here _as_ is exactly equivalent to the relative _that_, and either may be used with equal propriety. We cannot avoid the conclusion, therefore, that, as the latter word is sometimes a conjunction and sometimes a pronoun, so is the former. OBS. 23.--The relatives _that_ and _as_ have this peculiarity; that, unlike _whom_ and _which_, they never follow the word on which their case depends; nor indeed can any simple relative be so placed, except it be governed by a preposition or an infinitive. Thus, it is said, (John, xiii, 29th,) "Buy those things _that_ we have need _of_;" so we may say, "Buy such things _as_ we have need of." But we cannot say, "Buy those things _of that_ we have need;" or, "Buy such things _of as_ we have need." Though we may say, "Buy those things _of which_ we have need," as well as, "Buy those things _which_ we have need _of_;" or, "Admit those persons of whom we have need," as well as, "Admit those persons _whom_ we have need _of._" By this it appears that _that_ and _as_ have a closer connexion with their antecedents than the other relatives require: a circumstance worthy to have been better remembered by some critics. "Again, _that_ and _as_ are used rather differently. When _that_ is used, the verb must be repeated; as, 'Participles _require_ the same government, _that_ their verbs _require_.'--'James _showed_ the same credulity, _that_ his minister _showed_.' But when _as_ is used, the verb generally may, or may not be repeated; as, 'Participles _require_ the same government _as_ their verbs;' or, '_as_ their verbs _require_.'--'James _showed_ the same credulity as his minister;' or, '_as_ his minister _showed_:' the second nominative _minister_ being parsed as the nominative to the same verb _showed_ understood."--_Nixon's Parser_, p. 140.[195] OBS. 24.--The terminating of a sentence with a preposition, or other small particle, is in general undignified, though perhaps not otherwise improper. Hence the above-named inflexibility in the construction of _that_ and _as_, sometimes induces an ellipsis of the governing word designed; and is occasionally attended with some difficulty respecting the choice of our terms. Examples: "The answer is always in the same case _that_ the interrogative word _is_."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 70. Here is a faulty termination; and with it a more faulty ellipsis. In stead of ending the sentence with _is in_, say, "The answer always _agrees in case with_ the interrogative word." Again: "The relative is of the same person _with_ the antecedent."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 101. This sentence is wrong, because the person of the relative is not really _identical with_ the antecedent. "The relative is of the same person _as_ the antecedent."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 154. Here the writer means--"_as_ the antecedent _is of_." "A neuter verb becomes active, when followed by a noun of the same signification _with_ its own."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 127. Here same is wrong, or else the last three words are useless. It would therefore be improper to say--"of _the same_ signification _as_ its own." The expression ought to be--"of a signification _similar to_ its own." "Ode is, _in Greek_, the same _with_ song or hymn."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 396. _Song_ being no Greek word, I cannot think the foregoing expression accurate, though one might say, "Ode is _identical with_ song or hymn." Would it not be better to say, "Ode is the same _as_ song or hymn?" That is, "Ode is, _literally_, the same _thing that_ song or hymn _is_?" "Treatises of philosophy, ought not to be composed in the same style _with_ orations."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 175. Here neither _with_ nor _as_ can be proper; because _orations_ are not _a style_. Expunge _same_; and say--"in the style _of_ orations." OBS. 25.--Few writers are sufficiently careful in their choice and management of relatives. In the following instance, Murray and others violate a special rule of their own grammars, by using _whom_ for _that_ "after an adjective of the superlative degree:" "Modifying them according to the genius of that tongue, and the established practice of _the best_ speakers and writers _by whom_ it is used."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 1; _Fisk's_, p. 11; _et al._ According to Priestley and himself, the great Compiler is here in an error. The rule is perhaps too stringent; but whoever teaches it, should keep it. If he did not like to say, "_the best_ speakers and writers _that_ it is used _by_;" he ought to have said, "_the best_ speakers and writers _that use it_." Or, rather, he ought to have said _nothing_ after the word "writers;" because the whole relative clause is here weak and useless. Yet how many of the amenders of this grammar have not had perspicacity enough, either to omit the expression, or to correct it according to the author's own rule! OBS. 26.--Relative pronouns are capable of being taken in two very different senses: the one, restrictive of the general idea suggested by the antecedent; the other, _resumptive_ of that idea, in the full import of the term--or, in whatever extent the previous definitives allow. The distinction between these two senses, important as it is, is frequently made to depend solely upon the insertion or the omission of _a comma_. Thus, if I say, "Men who grasp after riches, are never satisfied;" the relative _who_ is taken restrictively, and I am understood to speak _only of the avaricious_. But, if I say, "Men, who grasp after riches, are never satisfied;" by separating the terms _men_ and _who_, I declare _all men_ to be covetous and unsatisfied. For the former sense, the relative _that_ is preferable to _who_; and I shall presently show why. This example, in the latter form, is found in Sanborn's Grammar, page 142d; but whether the author meant what he says, or not, I doubt. Like many other unskillful writers, he has paid little regard to the above-mentioned distinction; and, in some instances, his meaning cannot have been what his words declare: as, "A prism is a solid, whose sides are all parallelograms."--_Analytical Gram._, p. 142. This, as it stands, is no definition of a prism, but an assertion of two things; that a prism is a solid, and that all the sides of a solid are parallelograms. Erase the comma, and the words will describe the prism as a peculiar kind of solid; because _whose_ will then be taken in the restrictive sense. This sense, however, may be conveyed even with a comma before the relative; as, "Some fictitious histories yet remain, _that_ were composed during the decline of the Roman empire."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 374. This does not suggest that there are no other fictitious histories now extant, than such as were composed during the decline of the Roman empire; but I submit it to the reader, whether the word _which_, if here put for _that_, would not convey this idea. OBS. 27.--Upon this point, many philologists are open to criticism; and none more so, than the recent author above cited. By his own plain showing, this grammarian has no conception of the difference of meaning, upon which the foregoing distinction is founded. What marvel, then, that he falls into errors, both of doctrine and of practice? But, if no such difference exists, or none that is worthy of a critic's notice; then the error is mine, and it is vain to distinguish between the restrictive and the resumptive sense of relative pronouns. For example: "The boy that desires to assist his companions, deserves respect."--_G. Brown._ "That boy, who desires to assist his companions, deserves respect."--_D. H. Sanborn._ According to my notion, these two sentences clearly convey two very different meanings; the relative, in the former, being restrictive, but, in the latter, resumptive of the sense of the antecedent. But of the latter example this author says, "The clause, 'who desires to assist his companions,' with the relative who at its head, _explains or tells what boy deserves respect_; and, like a conjunction, connects this clause to the noun _boy_."--_Analytical Gram._, p. 69. He therefore takes it in a restrictive sense, as if this sentence were exactly equivalent to the former. But he adds, "A relative pronoun is resolvable into a personal pronoun and a conjunction. The sentence would then read, 'That boy desires to assist his companions, _and_ he deserves respect.' The relative pronoun governs the nearer verb, and the antecedent the more distant one."--_Ib._, p. 69. Now, concerning the restrictive relative, this doctrine of equivalence does not hold good; and, besides, the explanation here given, not only contradicts his former declaration of the sense he intended, but, with other seeming contradiction, joins the antecedent to the nearer verb, and the substituted pronoun to the more distant. OBS. 28.--Again, the following principles of this author's punctuation are no less indicative of his false views of this matter: "RULE xiv.--Relative pronouns in the nominative or [_the_] objective case, are preceded by commas, when the clause which the relative _connects_ [,] ends a sentence; as, 'Sweetness of temper is a quality, which reflects a lustre on every accomplishment'--B. Greenleaf.' Self [-] denial is the sacrifice [,] which virtue must make.' [_--L. Murray._] The comma is omitted before the relative, when the verb which the antecedent governs, follows the relative clause; as, 'He that suffers by imposture, has too often his virtue more impaired than his fortune.'--_Johnson_." See _Sanborn's Analytical Gram._, p. 269. Such are some of our author's principles--"the essence of modern improvements." His practice, though often wrong, is none the worse for contradicting these doctrines. Nay, his proudest boast is ungrammatical, though peradventure not the less believed: "_No_ [other] _grammar in the language_ probably contains so great a quantity of _condensed and_ useful matter with so little superfluity."--_Sanborn's Preface_, p. v. OBS. 29.--Murray's rule for the punctuation of relatives, (a rule which he chiefly copied from Lowth,) recognizes virtually the distinction which I have made above; but, in assuming that relatives "_generally_" require a comma before them, it erroneously suggests that the resumptive sense is more common than the restrictive. Churchill, on the contrary, as wrongly makes it an essential characteristic of _all_ relatives, "to limit or explain the words to which they refer." See his _New Gram._, p. 74. The fact is, that relatives are so generally restrictive, that not one half of them are thus pointed; though some that do restrict their antecedent, nevertheless admit the point. This may be seen by the first example given us by Murray: "Relative pronouns are connective words, and _generally admit_ a comma before them: as, 'He preaches sublimely, who lives a sober, righteous, and pious life.' But when two members, or _phrases_, [say _clauses_,] are closely connected by a relative, restraining the general notion of the antecedent to a particular sense, _the comma should be omitted_: as, '_Self-denial_ is the _sacrifice which_ virtue must make;' 'A _man who_ is of a detracting spirit, will misconstrue the most innocent _words that_ can be put together.' In the latter example, the assertion is not of 'a man in general,' but of 'a man who is of a detracting spirit;' and therefore _they_ [say _the pronoun and its antecedent_] should not be separated."--_Murray's Gram., Octavo_, p. 273; _Ingersoll's_, 285; _Comly's_, 152. This reasoning, strictly applied, would exclude the comma before _who_ in the first example above; but, as the pronoun does not "closely" or immediately follow its antecedent, the comma is allowed, though it is not much needed. Not so, when the sense is resumptive: as, "The _additions, which_ are very considerable, are chiefly _such as_ are calculated to obviate objections." See _Murray's Gram._, p. ix. Here the comma is essential to the meaning. Without it, _which_ would be equivalent to _that_; with it, which is equivalent to _and they_. But this latter meaning, as I imagine, cannot be expressed by the relative _that_. OBS. 30.--Into the unfortunate example which Sanborn took from Murray, I have inserted the comma for him; not because it is necessary or right, but because his rule requires it: "_Self-denial_ is the _sacrifice_," &c. The author of "a complete system of grammar," might better contradict even Murray, than himself. But why was this text admired? and why have _Greene, Bullions, Hiley, Hart_, and others, also copied it? A _sacrifice_ is something devoted and lost, for the sake of a greater good; and, _if Virtue sacrifice self-denial_, what will she do, but run into indulgence? The great sacrifice which she demands of men, is rather that of their _self-love_. Wm. E. Russell has it, "_Self defence_ is the sacrifice which virtue must make!"--_Russell's Abridgement of Murray's Gram._, p. 116. Bishop Butler tells us, "It is indeed _ridiculous_ to assert, that _self-denial is essential to virtue and piety_; but it would have been nearer the truth, though not strictly the truth itself, to have said, that it is essential to discipline and improvement."--_Analogy of Religion_, p. 123. OBS. 31.--The relative _that_, though usually reckoned equivalent to _who_ or _which_, evidently differs from both, in being more generally, and perhaps more appropriately, taken in the restrictive sense. It ought therefore, for distinction's sake, to be preferred to _who_ or _which_, whenever an antecedent not otherwise limited, is to be restricted by the relative clause; as, "_Men that_ grasp after riches, are never satisfied."--"I love _wisdom that_ is gay and civilized."--_Art of Thinking_, p. 34. This phraseology leaves not the limitation of the meaning to depend solely upon the absence of a pause after the antecedent; because the relative _that_ is seldom, if ever, used by good writers in any other than a restrictive sense. Again: "A man of a polite imagination is let into a great many pleasures _that_ the vulgar are not capable of receiving."--_Addison, Spect._, No. 411. Here, too, according to my notion, _that_ is obviously preferable to _which_; though a great critic, very widely known, has taken some pains to establish a different opinion. The "many pleasures" here spoken of, are no otherwise defined, than as being such as "the vulgar are not capable of receiving." The writer did not mean to deny that the vulgar are capable of receiving a great many pleasures; but, certainly, if _that_ were changed to _which_, this would be the meaning conveyed, unless the reader were very careful to avoid a pause where he would be apt to make one. I therefore prefer Addison's expression to that which Dr. Blair would substitute. OBS. 32.--The style of Addison is more than once censured by Dr. Blair, for the frequency with which the relative _that_ occurs in it, where the learned lecturer would have used which. The reasons assigned by the critic are these: "_Which_ is a much more definitive word than that, being never employed in any other way than as a relative; whereas _that_ is a word of many senses; sometimes a demonstrative pronoun, often a conjunction. In some cases we are indeed obliged to use _that_ for a relative, in order to avoid the ungraceful repetition of _which_ in the same sentence. But when we are laid under no necessity of this kind, _which_ is always the preferable word, and certainly was so in this sentence: '_Pleasures which_ the vulgar are not capable of receiving,' is much better than '_pleasures that_ the vulgar are not capable of receiving.'"--_Blair's Rhetoric_, Lect. xx, p. 200. Now the facts are these: (1.) That _that_ is the more definitive or restrictive word of the two. (2.) That the word _which_ has as many different senses and uses as the word _that_. (3.) That not the repetition of _which_ or _who_ in a series of clauses, but a _needless change_ of the relative, is ungraceful. (4.) That the necessity of using _that_ rather than _which_ or _who_, depends, not upon what is here supposed, but upon the different senses which these words usually convey. (5.) That as there is always some reason of choice, _that_ is sometimes to be preferred; _which_, sometimes; and _who_, sometimes: as, "It is not the man _who_ has merely taught, or _who_ has taught long, or _who_ is able to point out defects in authors, _that_ is capable of enlightening the world in the respective sciences _which_ have engaged his attention; but the man _who_ has taught well."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 7. OBS. 33.--Blair's Rhetoric consists of forty-seven lectures; four of which are devoted to a critical examination of the style of Addison, as exhibited in four successive papers of the Spectator. The remarks of the professor are in general judicious; but, seeing his work is made a common textbook for students of "Belles Lettres," it is a pity to find it so liable to reprehension on the score of inaccuracy. Among the passages which are criticised in the twenty-first lecture, there is one in which the essayist speaks of the effects of _novelty_ as follows: 'It is this _which_ bestows charms on a monster, and makes even the imperfections of nature please us. It is this _that_ recommends variety, where the mind is every instant called off to something new, and the attention not suffered to dwell too long and waste itself on any particular object. It is this, likewise, _that_ improves what is great or beautiful, and makes it afford the mind a double entertainment.'--_Spectator_, No. 412. This passage is deservedly praised by the critic, for its "perspicuity, grace, and harmony;" but, in using different relatives under like circumstances, the writer has hardly done justice to his own good taste. Blair's remark is this: "His frequent use of _that_, instead of _which_, is another peculiarity of his style; but, on this occasion in particular, [it] cannot be much commended, as, 'It is this _which_,' seems, in every view, to be better than, 'It is this _that_,' three times repeated."--_Lect._ xxi, p. 207. What is here meant by "_every view_," may, I suppose, be seen in the corresponding criticism which is noticed in my last observation above; and I am greatly deceived, if, in this instance also, the relative _that_ is not better than _which_, and more agreeable to polite usage. The direct relative which corresponds to the introductory pronoun _it_ and _an other antecedent_, should, I think, be _that_, and not _who_ or _which_: as, "It is not ye _that_ speak."--_Matt._, x, 20. "It is thou, Lord, _who_ hast the hearts of all men in thy hands, _that_ turnest the hearts of any to show me favour."--_Jenks's Prayers_, p. 278. Here _who_ has reference to _thou_ or _Lord_ only; but _that_ has some respect to the pronoun _it_, though it agrees in person and gender with _thou_. A similar example is cited at the close of the preceding observation; and I submit it to the reader, whether the word _that_, as it there occurs, is not the _only fit_ word for the place it occupies. So in the following examples: "There are _Words, which_ are _not Verbs, that_ signify actions and passions, and even things transient."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 100. "It is the universal taste of mankind, which is subject to no such changing modes, _that_ alone is entitled to possess any authority."--_Blair's Rhetoric_, p. 286. OBS. 34.--Sometimes the broad import of an antecedent is _doubly restricted_, first by one relative clause, and then by an other; as, "And all _that dwell upon the earth_, shall worship him, _whose names are not written in the book of life_."--_Rev._, xiii, 8. "And then, like true Thames-Watermen, they abuse every man _that_ passes by, _who_ is better dressed than themselves."--_Brown's Estimate_, Vol. ii, p. 10. Here _and_, or _if he_, would be as good as "_who_;" for the connective only serves to carry the restriction into narrower limits. Sometimes the limit fixed by one clause is _extended_ by an other; as, "There is no evil _that you may suffer_, or _that you may expect to suffer, which_ prayer is not the appointed means to alleviate."--_Bickersteth, on Prayer_, p. 16. Here _which_ resumes the idea of "_evil_," in the extent last determined; or rather, in that which is fixed by either clause, since the limits of both are embraced in the assertion. And, in the two limiting clauses, the same pronoun was requisite, on account of their joint relation; but the clause which assumes a different relation, is rightly introduced by a different pronoun. This is also the case in the following examples: "For there is no condemnation to those _that_ are in Christ Jesus, _who_ walk not after the flesh, but after the Spirit."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. i, p. 432. "I will tell thee the mystery of the woman, and of the beast _that_ carrieth her, _which_ hath the seven heads and ten horns."--_Rev._, xvii, 7. Here the restrictive sense is well expressed by one relative, and the resumptive by an other. When neither of these senses is intended by the writer, _any_ form of the relative must needs be improper: as, "The greatest genius _which runs_ through the arts and sciences, takes a kind of tincture from them, and falls unavoidably into imitation."--_Addison, Spect._, No. 160. Here, as I suppose, _which runs_ should be _in running_. What else can the author have meant? OBS. 35.--Having now, as I imagine, clearly shown the difference between the restrictive and the resumptive sense of a relative pronoun, and the absolute necessity of making such a choice of words as will express that sense only which we intend; I hope the learner will see, by these observations, not merely that clearness requires the occasional use of each of our five relatives, _who, which, what, that_, and _as_; but that this distinction in the meaning, is a very common principle by which to determine what is, and what is not, good English. Thus _that_ and _as_ are appropriately our _restrictive_ relatives, though _who_ and _which_ are sometimes used restrictively; but, in a _resumptive_ sense, _who_ or _which_ is required, and required even after those terms which usually demand _that_ or _as_: thus, "We are vexed at the unlucky chance, and go away dissatisfied. _Such_ impressions, _which_ ought not to be cherished, are a sufficient reason for excluding stories of that kind from the theatre."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 279. Here _which_ is proper to the sense intended; but _such_ requires _as_, when the latter term limits the meaning of the former. In sentences like the following, _who_ or _which_ may be used in lieu of _that_; whether with any advantage or not, the reader may judge: "You seize the critical moment _that_ is favorable to emotion."--_Bair's Rhet._, p. 321. "_An_ historian _that_ would instruct us, must know when to be concise."--_Ib._, p. 359. "Seneca has been censured for the affectation _that_ appears in his style."--_Ib._, p. 367. "Such as the prodigies _that_ attended the death of Julius Cæsar."--_Ib._, p. 401. "By unfolding those principles _that_ ought to govern the taste of every individual."--_Kames's Dedication to El. of Crit._ "But I am sure he has that _that_ is better than an estate."--_Spect._, No. 475. "There are two properties, _that_ characterize and essentially distinguish relative pronouns."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 74. By these examples, it may be seen, that Dr. Blair often forgot or disregarded his own doctrine respecting the use of this relative; though he was oftener led, by the error of that doctrine, to substitute _which_ for _that_ improperly. OBS. 36.--_Whether_ was formerly used as an interrogative pronoun, in which sense it always referred to one of two things; as, "Ye fools and blind! for _whether_ is greater, the gold, or the temple that sanctifieth the gold?"--_Matt._, xxiii, 17. This usage is now obsolete; and, in stead of it, we say, "_Which_ is greater?" But as a disjunctive conjunction, corresponding to _or_, the word _whether_ is still in good repute; as, "Resolve _whether_ you will go _or_ not."--_Webster's Dict._ In this sense of the term, some choose to call _whether_ an _adverb_. OBS. 37.--In the view of some writers, interrogative pronouns differ from relatives chiefly in this; that, as the subject referred to is unknown to the speaker, they do not relate to a _preceding_ noun, but to something which is to be expressed in the answer to the question. It is certain that their _person, number_, and _gender_, are not regulated by an antecedent noun; but by what the speaker supposes or knows of a subject which may, or may not, agree with them in these respects: as, "_What_ lies there?" Answer, "Two _men_ asleep." Here _what_, standing for _what thing_, is of the third person, singular number, and neuter gender; but _men_, which is the term that answers to it, is of the third person, plural, masculine. There is therefore no necessary agreement between the question and the answer, in any of those properties in which a pronoun usually agrees with its noun. Yet some grammarians will have interrogatives to agree with these "_subsequents_," as relatives agree with their _antecedents_. The answer, it must be granted, commonly contains a noun, corresponding in some respects to the interrogative pronoun, and agreeing with it _in case_; but this noun cannot be supposed to control the interrogation, nor is it, in any sense, the word for which the pronoun stands. For every pronoun must needs stand for something that is uttered or conceived by the same speaker; nor can any question be answered, until its meaning is understood. Interrogative pronouns must therefore be explained as direct substitutes for such other terms as one might use in stead of them. Thus _who_ means _what person_? "_Who_ taught that heav'n-directed spire to rise? _The Man of Ross_, each lisping babe replies."--_Pope_. OBS. 38.--In the classification of the pronouns, and indeed in the whole treatment of them, almost all our English grammars are miserably faulty, as well as greatly at variance. In some forty or fifty, which I have examined on this point, the few words which constitute this part of speech, have more than twenty different modes of distribution. (1.) Cardell says, "There is but one kind of pronouns"--_Elements of Gram._, p. 30. (2.) D. Adam's, Greenleaf, Nutting, and Weld, will have two kinds; "_personal_ and _relative_." (3.) Dr. Webster's "Substitutes, or pronouns, are of two kinds:" the one, "called _personal_;" the other, without name or number. See his _Improved Gram._, p. 24. (4.) Many have fixed upon three sorts; "_personal, relative_, and _adjective_;" with a subdivision of the last. Of these is Lindley Murray, in his late editions, with his amenders, Ainsworth, Alger, Bacon, Bullions, Fisk, A. Flint, Frost, Guy, Hall, Kirkham, Lennie, Merchant, Picket, Pond, and S. Putnam. (5.) Kirkham, however, changes the order of the classes; thus, "_personal, adjective_, and _relative_;" and, with ridiculous absurdity, makes _mine, thine, hers, ours, yours_, and _theirs_ to be "_compounds_." (6.) Churchill adopts the plan of "_personal, relative_, and _adjective_ pronouns;" and then destroys it by a valid argument. (7.) Comly, Wilcox, Wells, and Perley, have these three classes; "_personal, relative_, and _interrogative_:" and this division is right. (8.) Sanborn makes the following bull: "The _general_ divisions of pronouns are _into personal, relative, interrogative_, and _several sub-divisions_."--_Analytical Gram._, p. 91. (9.) Jaudon has these three kinds; "_personal, relative_, and _distributive_." (10.) Robbins, these; "_simple, conjunctive_, and _interrogative_." (11.) Lindley Murray, in his early editions, had these four; "_personal, possessive, relative_, and _adjective_." (12.) Bucke has these; "_personal, relative, interrogative_, and _adjective_." (13.) Ingersoll, these; "_personal, adjective, relative_, and _interrogative_." (14.) Buchanan; "_personal, demonstrative, relative_, and _interrogative_." (15.) Coar; "_personal, possessive_ or _pronominal adjectives, demonstrative_, and _relative_." (16.) Bicknell; "_personal, possessive, relative_, and _demonstrative_." (17.) Cobbett; "_personal, relative, demonstrative_, and _indefinite_." (18) M'Culloch; "_personal, possessive, relative_, and _reciprocal_." (19.) Staniford has five; "_personal, relative, interrogative, definitive_, and _distributive_." (20.) Alexander, six; "_personal, relative, demonstrative, interrogative, definitive_, and _adjective_." (21.) Cooper, in 1828, had five; "_personal, relative, possessive, definite_, and _indefinite_." (22.) Cooper, in 1831, six; "_personal, relative, definite, indefinite, possessive_, and _possessive pronominal adjectives_." (23.) Dr. Crombie says: "Pronouns may be divided into _Substantive_, and _Adjective; Personal_, and _Impersonal; Relative_, and _Interrogative_." (24.) Alden has seven sorts; "_personal, possessive, relative, interrogative, distributive, demonstrative_, and _indefinite_." (25.) R. C. Smith has many kinds, and treats them so badly that nobody can count them. In respect to definitions, too, most of these writers are shamefully inaccurate, or deficient. Hence the filling up of their classes is often as bad as the arrangement. For instance, four and twenty of them will have interrogative pronouns to be relatives; but who that knows what a relative pronoun is, can coincide with them in opinion? Dr. Crombie thinks, "that interrogatives are strictly relatives;" and yet divides the two classes with his own hand! MODIFICATIONS. Pronouns have the same modifications as nouns; namely, _Persons, Numbers, Genders_, and _Cases_. Definitions universally applicable have already been given of all these things; it is therefore unnecessary to define them again in this place. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--In the personal pronouns, most of these properties are distinguished by the words themselves; in the relative and the interrogative pronouns, they are ascertained chiefly by means of the antecedent and the verb. Interrogative pronouns, however, as well as the relatives _which, what, as_, and all the compounds of _who, which_, and _what_, are always of the third person. Even in etymological parsing, some regard must be had to the syntactical relations of words. By _modifications_, we commonly mean actual changes in the forms of words, by which their grammatical properties are inherently distinguished; but, in all languages, the distinguishable properties of words are somewhat more numerous than their actual variations of form; there being certain principles of universal grammar, which cause the person, number, gender, or case, of some words, to be inferred from their relation to others; or, what is nearly the same thing, from the sense which is conveyed by the sentence. Hence, if in a particular instance it happen, that some, or even all, of these properties, are without any index in the form of the pronoun itself, they are still to be ascribed in parsing, because they may be easily and certainly discovered from the construction. For example: in the following text, it is just as easy to discern the _genders_ of the pronouns, as the _cases_ of the nouns; and both are known and asserted to be what they are, upon principles of mere inference: "For what knowest _thou_, O _wife_, whether _thou_ shalt save _thy husband_? or how knowest _thou_, O _man_, whether _thou_ shalt save _thy wife_?"--_1 Cor._, vii, 16. Again: "_Who_ betrayed _her_ companion? Not _I_."--_Murray's Key_, p. 211. Here _her_ being of the feminine gender, it is the inference of every reader, that _who_ and _I_ are so too; but whether the word _companion_ is masculine or feminine, is not so obvious. OBS. 2.--The personal pronouns of the first and second persons, are equally applicable to both sexes; and should be considered masculine or feminine, according to the known application of them. [See _Levizac's French Gram._, p. 73.] The speaker and the hearer, being present to each other, of course know the sex to which they respectively belong; and, whenever they appear in narrative or dialogue, we are told who they are. In _Latin_, an adjective or a participle relating to these pronouns, is varied _to agree_ with them in _number, gender_, and _case_. This is a sufficient proof that _ego, I_, and _tu, thou_, are not destitute of gender, though neither the Latin words nor the English are themselves varied to express it:-- "_Miseræ_ hoc tamen unum Exequere, Anna, _mihi: solam_ nam perfidus ille _Te_ colere, arcanos etiam tibi credere sensus; _Sola_ viri molles aditus et tempora nôras."--_Virgil_. OBS. 3.--Many English grammarians, and Murray at their head, deny the first person of nouns, and the gender of pronouns of the first and second persons; and at the same time teach, that, "Pronouns must always agree with their antecedents, _and_ the nouns for which they stand, in _gender, number_, and _person_:" (_Murray's Gr., 2d Ed._, p. 111; _Rev. T. Smith's_, p. 60:) and further, with redundance of expression, that, "The relative is of the same person _with_ the antecedent, and the verb agrees with it accordingly."--_Same_. These quotations form Murray's fifth rule of syntax, as it stands in his early editions.[196] In some of his revisings, the author erased the word _person_ from the former sentence, and changed _with_ to _as_ in the latter. But other pronouns than relatives, agree with their nouns in person; so that his first alteration was not for the better, though Ingersoll, Kirkham, Alger, Bacon, J. Greenleaf, and some others, have been very careful to follow him in it. And why did he never discern, that the above-named principles of his etymology are both of them contradicted by this rule of his syntax, and one of them by his rule as it now stands? It is manifest, that no two words can possibly _agree_ in any property which belongs not to both. Else what _is_ agreement? Nay, no two things in nature, can in any wise agree, accord, or be alike, but by having some quality or accident in common. How strange a contradiction then is this! And what a compliment to learning, that it is still found in well-nigh all our grammars! OBS. 4.--If there were truth in what Murray and others affirm, that "Gender has respect only to the third person singular of the pronouns, _he, she, it_," [197] no two words could ever agree in gender; because there can be no such agreement between any two of the words here mentioned, and the assertion is, that gender has respect to no others. But, admitting that neither the author nor the numerous copiers of this false sentence ever meant to deny that gender has respect to _nouns_, they do deny that it has respect to any other _pronouns_ than these; whereas I affirm that it ought to be recognized as a property of _all_ pronouns, as well as of all nouns. Not that the gender of either is in all instances invariably fixed by the _forms_ of the particular words; but there is in general, if not in every possible case, some principle of grammar, on which the gender of any noun or pronoun in a sentence may be readily ascertained. Is it not plain, that if we know who speaks or writes, who hears or is addressed, we know also the gender of the pronouns which are applied to these persons? The poet of The Task looked upon his mother's picture, and expressed his tender recollections of a deceased parent by way of _address_; and will any one pretend, that the pronouns which he applied to himself and to her, are either of the same gender, or of no gender? If we take neither of these assumptions, must we not say, they are of different genders? In this instance, then, let the parser call those of the first person, masculine; and those of the second, feminine:-- "_My_ mother! when _I_ learned that _thou_ wast dead, Say, wast _thou_ conscious of the tears _I_ shed?"--_Cowper_. OBS. 5.--That the pronouns of the first and second persons are sometimes masculine and sometimes feminine, is perfectly certain; but whether they can or cannot be neuter, is a question difficult to be decided. To things inanimate they are applied only _figuratively_; and the question is, whether the figure always necessarily changes the gender of the antecedent noun. We assume the general principle, that the noun and its pronoun are always of the same gender; and we know that when inanimate objects are personified in the third person, they are usually represented as masculine or feminine, the gender being changed by the figure. But when a lifeless object is spoken to in the second person, or represented as speaking in the first, as the pronouns here employed are in themselves without distinction of gender, no such change can be proved by the mere words; and, if we allow that it would be needless to _imagine_ it where the words do not prove it, the gender of these pronouns must in such cases be neuter, because we have no ground to think it otherwise. Examples: "And Jesus answered and said unto _it_, [the barren _figtree_,] No man eat fruit of _thee_ hereafter forever."--_Mark_, xi, 14. "O _earth_, cover not _thou_ my blood."--_Job_, xvi, 18. "O _thou sword_ of the Lord, how long will it be ere _thou_ be quiet?"--_Jeremiah_, xlvii, 6. In these instances, the objects addressed do not appear to be figuratively invested with the attribute of sex. So likewise with respect to the first person. If, in the following example, _gold_ and _diamond_ are neuter, so is the pronoun _me_; and, if not neuter, of what gender are they? The personification indicates or discriminates no other. "Where thy true treasure? Gold says, 'Not in _me_; And, 'Not in _me_,' the diamond. Gold is poor."--_Young_. THE DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. The declension of a pronoun is a regular arrangement of its numbers and cases. I. SIMPLE PERSONALS. The simple personal pronouns are thus declined:-- I, _of the_ FIRST PERSON, _any of the genders_.[198] Sing. Nom. I, Plur. Nom. we, Poss. my, _or_ mine,[199] Poss. our, _or_ ours, Obj. me; Obj. us. THOU, _of the_ SECOND PERSON, _any of the genders_. Sing. Nom. thou,[200] Plur. Nom. ye, or you, Poss. thy, _or_ thine, Poss. your, _or_ yours, Obj. thee; Obj. you, or ye.[201] HE, _of the_ THIRD PERSON, _masculine gender_. Sing. Nom. he, Plur. Nom. they, Poss. his, Poss. their, _or_ theirs, Obj. him; Obj. them. SHE, _of the_ THIRD PERSON, _feminine gender_. Sing. Nom. she, Plur. Nom. they, Poss. her, _or_ hers, Poss. their, _or_ theirs, Obj. her; Obj. them. IT, _of the_ THIRD PERSON, _neuter gender_. Sing. Nom, it, Plur. Nom. they, Poss. its, Poss. their, _or_ theirs, Obj. it; Obj. them. II. COMPOUND PERSONALS. The word _self_, added to the simple personal pronouns, forms the class of _compound personal pronouns_; which are used when an action reverts upon the agent, and also when some persons are to be distinguished from others: as, sing, _myself_, plur. _ourselves_; sing, _thyself_, plur. _yourselves_; sing, _himself_, plur. _themselves_; sing, _herself_, plur. _themselves_; sing, _itself_, plur. _themselves_. They all want the possessive case, and are alike in the nominative and objective. Thus:-- MYSELF, _of the_ FIRST PERSON,[202] _any of the genders_. Sing. Nom. myself, Plur. Nom. ourselves, Poss. ------, Poss. ---------, Obj. myself; Obj. ourselves. THYSELF, _of the_ SECOND PERSON, _any of the genders_. Sing. Nom. thyself,[203] Plur. Nom. yourselves, Poss. -------, Poss. ----------, Obj. thyself; Obj. yourselves. HIMSELF, _of the_ THIRD PERSON, _masculine gender_. Sing. Nom. himself, Plur. Nom. themselves, Poss. -------, Poss. ----------, Obj. himself; Obj. themselves. HERSELF, _of the_ THIRD PERSON, _feminine gender_. Sing. Nom. herself, Plur. Nom. themselves, Poss. -------, Poss. ----------, Obj. herself; Obj. themselves. ITSELF, _of the_ THIRD PERSON, _neuter gender_. Sing. Nom. itself, Plur. Nom. themselves, Poss. ------, Poss. ----------, Obj. itself; Obj. themselves. III. RELATIVES AND INTERROGATIVES. The relative and the interrogative pronouns are thus declined:-- WHO, _literally applied to persons only_. Sing. Nom. who, Plur. Nom. who, Poss. whose, Poss. whose, Obj. whom; Obj. whom. WHICH, _applied to animals and things_. Sing. Nom. which, Plur. Nom. which, Poss. [204]--, Poss. -----, Obj. which; Obj. which. WHAT, _applied ordinarily to things only_.[205] Sing. Nom. what, Plur. Nom. what, Poss. ----, Poss. ----, Obj. what; Obj. what. THAT, _applied to persons, animals, and things_. Sing. Nom. that, Plur. Nom. that, Poss. ----, Poss. ----, Obj. that; Obj. that. AS, _applied to persons, animals, and things_. Sing. Nom. as, Plur. Nom. as, Poss. ----, Poss. ----, Obj. as; Obj. as. IV. COMPOUND RELATIVES. The compound relative pronouns, _whoever_ or _whosoever, whichever_ or _whichsoever_, and _whatever_ or _whatsoever_[206] are declined in the same manner as the simples, _who which, what_. Thus:-- WHOEVER or WHOSOEVER, _applied only to persons_. Sing. Nom. whoever, Plur. Nom. whoever, Poss. whosever, Poss. whosever, Obj. whomever; Obj. whomever. Sing. Nom. whosoever, Plur. Nom. whosoever, Poss. whosesoever, Poss. whosesoever, Obj. whomsoever; Obj. whomsoever. WHICHEVER or WHICHSOEVER, _applied to persons, animals, and things_. Sing. Nom. whichever, Plur. Nom. whichever, Poss. ---------, Poss. --------, Obj. whichever; Obj. whichever. Sing. Nom. whichsoever, Plur. Nom. whichsoever, Poss. ---------, Poss. --------, Obj. whichsoever; Obj. whichsoever. WHATEVER or WHATSOEVER, _applied ordinarily to things only_. Sing. Nom. whatever, Plur. Nom. whatever, Poss. --------, Poss. --------, Obj. whatever; Obj. whatever. Sing. Nom. whatsoever, Plur. Nom. whatsoever, Poss. ---------, Poss. --------, Obj. whatsoever; Obj. whatsoever. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--Most of the personal pronouns have two forms of the possessive case, in each number: as, _my_ or _mine, our_ or _ours_; _thy_ or _thine, your_ or _yours_; _her_ or _hers, their_ or _theirs_. The former is used before a noun expressed, or when nothing but an adjective intervenes; the latter, when the governing noun is understood, or is so placed that a repetition of it is implied in or after the pronoun: as, "_My_ powers are _thine_; be _thine_ alone The glory of my song."--_Montgomery_. "State what _mine_ and _your_ principles are."--_Legh Richmond, to his Daughters_. Better, perhaps: "State what _my_ principles and _yours_ are;"--"State what _your_ principles and _mine_ are;"--or, "State what are _my_ principles and _your own_." "Resign'd he fell; superior to the dart That quench'd its rage in _yours_ and _Britain's_ heart."--_J. Brown_. "Behold! to _yours_ and _my_ surprise, These trifles to a volume rise."--_Lloyd_, p. 186. OBS. 2.--Possibly, when the same persons or things stand in a joint relation of this kind to different individuals or parties, it may be proper to connect two of the simple possessives to express it; though this construction can seldom, if ever, be necessary, because any such expression as _thy and her sister, my and his duty_, if not erroneous, can mean nothing but _your sister, our duty, &c_. But some examples occur, the propriety of which it is worth while to consider: as, "I am sure it will be a pleasure to you to hear that she proves worthy of her father, worthy of you, and of _your and her_ ancestors."--_Spectator_, No. 525. This sentence is from a version of Pliny's letter to his wife's aunt; and, as the ancestors of the two individuals are here the same, the phraseology may be allowable. But had the aunt commended her niece to Pliny, she should have said, "worthy of you and of _your_ ancestors and _hers_." "Is it _her_ or _his_ honour that is tarnished? It is not _hers_, but _his_."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 175. This question I take to be bad English. It ought to be, "Is it _her_ honour or _his_, that is tarnished?" Her honour and his honour cannot be one and the same thing. This example was framed by Murray to illustrate that idle and puzzling distinction which he and some others make between "possessive adjective pronouns" and "the genitive case of the personal pronouns;" and, if I understand him, the author will here have _her_ and _his_ to be of the former class, and _hers_ and _his_ of the latter. It were a better use of time, to learn how to employ such words correctly. Unquestionably, they are of the same class and the same case, and would be every way equivalent, if the first form were fit to be used elliptically. For example: "The same phrenzy had hindered the Dutch from improving to _their_ and to the common advantage the public misfortunes of France."--_Bolingbroke, on Hist._, p. 309. Here the possessive case _their_ appears to be governed by _advantage_ understood, and therefore it would perhaps be better to say, _theirs_, or _their own_. But in the following instance, _our_ may be proper, because both possessives appear to be governed by one and the same noun:-- "Although 'twas _our_ and _their_ opinion Each other's church was but a Rimmon."--_Hudibras_. OBS. 3.--_Mine_ and _thine_ were formerly preferred to _my_ and _thy_, before all words beginning with a vowel sound; or rather, _mine_ and _thine_ were the original forms,[207] and _my_ and _thy_ were first substituted for them before consonants, and afterwards before vowels: as, "But it was thou, a man _mine_ equal, _my_ guide, and _mine_ acquaintance."--_Psalms_, lv, 13. "_Thy_ prayers and _thine_ alms are come up for a memorial before God."--_Acts_, x, 4. When the Bible was translated, either form appears to have been used before the letter _h_; as, "Hath not _my hand_ made all these things?"--_Acts_, vii, 50. "By stretching forth _thine hand_ to heal."--_Acts_, iv, 30. According to present practice, _my_ and _thy_ are in general to be preferred before all nouns, without regard to the sounds of letters. The use of the other forms, in the manner here noticed, has now become obsolete; or, at least, antiquated, and peculiar to the poets. We occasionally meet with it in modern verse, though not very frequently, and only where the melody of the line seems to require it: as, "Time writes no wrinkle on _thine_ azure brow."--_Byron_. "Deign on the passing world to turn _thine_ eyes."--_Johnson_. "_Mine_ eyes beheld the messenger divine."--_Lusiad_. "_Thine_ ardent symphony sublime and high."--_Sir W. Scott_. OBS. 4.--The possessives _mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs_, usually denote possession, or the relation of property, with an _ellipsis_ of the name of the thing possessed; as, "My sword and _yours_ are kin."--_Shakspeare_. Here _yours_ means _your sword_. "You may imagine what kind of faith _theirs_ was."--_Bacon_. Here _theirs_ means _their faith_. "He ran headlong into his own ruin whilst he endeavoured to precipitate _ours_."--_Bolingbroke_. Here _ours_ means _our ruin_. "Every one that heareth these saying of _mine_."--_Matt._, vii, 26. Here _mine_ means _my sayings_. "Sing unto the Lord, O ye saints of _his_."--_Psalms_, xxx, 4. Here _his_ means _his saints_. The noun which governs the possessive, is here _understood_ after it, being inferred from that which precedes, as it is in all the foregoing instances. "And the man of _thine_, whom I shall not cut off from _mine_ altar, shall be to consume _thine_ eyes, and to grieve _thine_ heart."--_1 Samuel_, ii, 33. Here _thine_, in the first phrase, means _thy men_; but, in the subsequent parts of the sentence, both _mine and thine_ mean neither more nor less than _thy_ and _my_, because there is no ellipsis. _Of_ before the possessive case, governs the noun which is understood after this case; and is always taken in a _partitive_ sense, and not as the sign of the possessive relation: as, "When we say, 'a soldier _of the king's_', we mean, '_one of_ the king's _soldiers_.'"--_Webster's Improved Gram._, p. 29. There is therefore an ellipsis of the word _soldiers_, in the former phrase. So, in the following example, _mine_ is used elliptically for _my feet_; or rather, _feet_ is understood after _mine_, though _mine feet_ is no longer good English, for reasons before stated:-- "Ere I absolve thee, stoop I that on thy neck Levelled with earth tins _foot of mine_ may tread."--_Wordsworth_. OBS. 5.--Respecting the _possessive case_ of the simple personal pronouns, there appears among our grammarians a strange diversity of sentiment. Yet is there but one view of the matter, that has in it either truth or reason, consistency or plausibility. And, in the opinion of any judicious teacher, an erroneous classification of words so common and so important as these, may well go far to condemn any system of grammar in which it is found. A pronoun agrees in person, number, and gender, with the noun _for which it is a substitute_; and, if it is in the possessive case, it is usually governed by _an other noun_ expressed or implied after it. That is, if it denotes possession, it stands for the name of the possessor, and is governed by the name of the thing possessed. Now do not _my, thy, his, her, our, your, their_, and _mine, thine, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs_, all equally denote possession? and do they not severally show by their forms the person, the number, and sometimes also the gender, of whomever or whatever they make to be the possessor? If they do, they are all of them _pronouns_, and nothing else; all found in the _possessive case_, and nowhere else. It is true, that in Latin, Greek, and some other languages, there are not only genitive cases corresponding to these possessives, but also certain declinable adjectives which we render in English by these same words: that is, by _my_ or _mine, our_ or _ours; thy_ or _thine, your_ or _yours_; &c. But this circumstance affords no valid argument for considering any of these English terms to be mere adjectives; and, say what we will, it is plain that they have not the signification of adjectives, nor can we ascribe to them the construction of adjectives, without making their grammatical agreement to be what it very manifestly is not. They never agree, in any respect, with the nouns which _follow_ them, unless it be by mere accident. This view of the matter is sustained by the authority of many of our English grammars; as may be seen by the declensions given by Ash, C. Adams, Ainsworth, R. W. Bailey, Barnard, Buchanan, Bicknell, Blair, Burn, Butler, Comly, Churchill, Cobbett, Dalton, Davenport, Dearborn, Farnum, A. Flint, Fowler, Frost, Gilbert, S. S. Green, Greenleaf, Hamlin, Hiley, Kirkham, Merchant, Murray the schoolmaster, Parkhurst, Picket, Russell, Sanborn, Sanders, R. C. Smith, Wilcox. OBS. 6.--In opposition to the classification and doctrine adopted above, many of our grammarians teach, that _my, thy, this, her, our, your, their_, are adjectives or "adjective pronouns;" and that _mine, thine, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs_, are personal pronouns in the possessive case. Among the supporters of this notion, are D. Adams, Alden, Alger, Allen, Bacon, Barrett, Bingham, Bucke, Bullions, Cutler, Fisk, Frost, (in his small Grammar,) Guy, Hall, Hart, Harrison, Ingersoll, Jaudon, Lennie, Lowth, Miller, L. Murray, Pond, T. Smith, Spear, Spencer, Staniford, Webber, Woodworth. The authority of all these names, however, amounts to little more than that of one man; for Murray pretended to follow Lowth, and nearly all the rest copied Murray. Dr. Lowth says, "_Thy, my, her, our, your, their_, are pronominal adjectives; but _his_, (that is, _he's_,) _her's, our's, your's, their's_, have evidently the form of the possessive case: And, by analogy, _mine, thine_, may be esteemed of the same rank."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 23.[208] But why did he not see, that by the same analogy, and also by the sense and meaning of the words, as well as by their distinctions of person, number, and gender, all the other six are entitled to "the same rank?" Are not the forms of _my, thy, her, our, your, their_, as fit to denote the relation of property, and to be called the possessive case, as _mine, thine, his_, or any others? In grammar, all needless distinctions are reprehensible. And where shall we find a more blamable one than this? It seems to have been based merely upon the false notion, that the possessive case of pronouns ought to be formed like that of nouns; whereas custom has clearly decided that they shall always be different: the former must never be written with an apostrophe; and the latter, never without it. Contrary to all good usage, however, the Doctor here writes "_her's, our's, your's, their's_," each with a needless apostrophe. Perhaps he thought it would serve to strengthen his position; and help to refute what some affirmed, that all these words are adjectives. OBS. 7.--Respecting _mine, thine_, and _his_, Lowth and L. Murray disagree. The latter will have them to be sometimes "_possessive pronouns_," and sometimes "_possessive cases_." An admirable distinction this for a great author to make! too slippery for even the inventor's own hold, and utterly unintelligible to those who do not know its history! In short, these authors disagree also concerning _my, thy, her, our, your, their_; and where two leaders of a party are at odds with each other, and each is in the wrong, what is to be expected from their followers? Perceiving that Lowth was wrong in calling these words "_pronominal adjectives_," Murray changed the term to "_possessive pronouns_," still retaining the class entire; and accordingly taught, in his early editions, that, "There are _four kinds_ of pronouns, viz., the personal, _the possessive, the_ relative, and _the_ adjective pronouns."--_Murray's Gram._, 2d Edition, p. 37. "The Possessive Pronouns are such as principally relate to possession or property. There are seven of them; viz. _my, thy, his, her, our, your, their_. The possessives _his, mine, thine_, may be accounted either _possessive pronouns_, or the _possessive cases_ of their respective personal pronouns."--_Ib._, p. 40. He next idly demonstrates that these seven words may come before nouns of any number or case, without variation; then, forgetting his own distinction, adds, "When they are separated from the noun, all of them, except _his_, vary _their terminations_; as, this hat is _mine_, and the other is _thine_; those trinkets are _hers_; this house is _ours_, and that is _yours; theirs_ is more commodious than _ours_"--_Ib._, p. 40. Thus all his personal pronouns of the possessive case, he then made to be inflections of pronouns of _a different class!_ What are they now? Seek the answer under the head of that gross solecism, "_Adjective Pronouns_." You may find it in one half of our English grammars. OBS. 8.--Any considerable error in the classing of words, does not stand alone; it naturally brings others in its train. Murray's "_Adjective Pronouns_," (which he now subdivides into four little classes, _possessive, distributive, demonstrative_, and _indefinite_,) being all of them misnamed and misplaced in his etymology, have led both him and many others into strange errors in syntax. The _possessives only_ are "pronouns;" and these are pronouns of the possessive _case_. As such, they agree with the _antecedent_ nouns for which they stand, in _person, number_, and _gender_; and are governed, like all other possessives, by the nouns which follow them. The rest are _not pronouns_, but pronominal _adjectives_; and, as such, they relate to nouns expressed or understood _after them_. Accordingly, they have none of the above-mentioned qualities, except that the words _this_ and _that_ form the plurals _these_ and _those_. Or, if we choose to ascribe to a pronominal adjective all the properties of the noun understood, it is merely for the sake of brevity in parsing. The difference, then, between a "pronominal adjective" and an "adjective pronoun," should seem to be this; that the one is _an adjective_, and the other _a pronoun_: it is like the difference between a _horserace_ and a _racehorse_. What can be hoped from the grammarian who cannot discern it? And what can be made of rules and examples like the following? "Adjective _pronouns_ must agree, in number, with _their substantives_: as, '_This_ book, _these_ books; _that_ sort, _those_ sorts; _another_ road, _other_ roads.'"--_Murray's Gram._, Rule viii, _Late Editions; Alger's Murray_, p. 56; _Alden's, 85; Bacon's, 48; Maltby's, 59; Miller's, 66; Merchant's, 81; S. Putnam's, 10; and others_. "Pronominal _adjectives_ must agree with _their nouns_ in gender, number, and person; thus, '_My son_, hear the instructions of _thy_ father.' 'Call the _labourers_, and give them _their_ hire.'"--_Maunder's Gram._, Rule xvii. Here Murray gives a rule for _pronouns_, and illustrates it by _adjectives_; and Maunder, as ingeniously blunders in reverse: he gives a rule for _adjectives_, and illustrates it by _pronouns_. But what do they mean by "_their substantives_," or "_their nouns_?" As applicable to _pronouns_, the phrase should mean _nouns antecedent_; as applicable to _adjectives_, it should mean _nouns subsequent_. Both these rules are therefore false, and fit only to bewilder; and the examples to both are totally inapplicable. Murray's was once essentially right, but he afterwards corrupted it, and a multitude of his admirers have since copied the perversion. It formerly stood thus: "The pronominal adjectives _this_ and _that, &c_. and the numbers[209] _one, two_, &c., must agree in number with their substantives: as, 'This book, these books; that sort, those sorts; one girl, ten girls; another road, other roads.' "--_Murray's Gram._, Rule viii, 2d Ed., 1796. OBS. 9.--Among our grammarians, some of considerable note have contended, that the personal pronouns have but _two cases_, the nominative and the objective. Of this class, may be reckoned Brightland, Dr. Johnson, Fisher, Mennye, Cardell, Cooper, Dr. Jas. P. Wilson, W. B. Fowle. and, according to his late grammars, Dr. Webster. But, in contriving what to make of _my_ or _mine, our_ or _ours, thy_ or _thine, your_ or _yours, his, her_ or _hers, its_, and _their_ or _theirs_, they are as far from any agreement, or even from self-consistency, as the cleverest of them could ever imagine. To the person, the number, the gender, and the case, of each of these words, they either profess themselves to be total strangers, or else prove themselves so, by the absurdities they teach. Brightland calls them "Possessive Qualities, or Qualities of Possession;" in which class he also embraces all _nouns_ of the possessive case. Johnson calls them pronouns; and then says of them, "The possessive _pronouns_, like _other adjectives_, are without _cases_ or change of termination."--_Gram._, p. 6. Fisher calls them "Personal Possessive Qualities;" admits the person of _my, our_, &c.; but supposes _mine, ours_, &c. to supply the place of the _nouns which govern them!_ Mennye makes them one of his three classes of pronouns, "_personal, possessive_, and _relative_;" giving to both forms the rank which Murray once gave, and which Allen now gives, to the first form only. Cardell places them among his "defining adjectives." With Fowle, these, and all other possessives, are "possessive adjectives." Cooper, in his grammar of 1828. copies the last scheme of Murray: in that of 1831, he avers that the personal pronouns "want the possessive case." Now, like Webster and Wilson, he will have _mine, thine, hers, ours, yours_, and _theirs_, to be pronouns of the nominative or the objective case. Dividing the pronouns into six general classes, he makes these the fifth; calling them "Possessive Pronouns," but preferring in a note the monstrous name, "_Possessive Pronouns Substitute_." His sixth class are what he calls, "The Possessive Pronominal _Adjectives_;" namely, "_my, thy, his, her, our, your, their, its, own_, and sometimes _mine_ and _thine_."--_Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram._, p. 43. But all these he has, unquestionably, either misplaced or misnamed; while he tells us, that, "Simplicity of arrangement should be the object of every compiler."--_Ib._, p. 33. Dr. Perley, (in whose scheme of grammar all the pronouns are _nouns_,) will have _my, thy, his, her, its, our, your_, and _their_, to be in the possessive case; but of _mine, thine, hers, ours, yours_, and _theirs_, he says, "These may be called _Desiderative Personal Pronouns_."--_Perley's Gram._, p. 15. OBS. 10.--Kirkham, though he professes to follow Murray, declines the simple personal pronouns as I have declined them; and argues admirably, that _my, thy, his, &c._, are pronouns of the possessive case, because, "They always _stand for nouns in the possessive case_." But he afterwards contradicts both himself and the common opinion of all former grammarians, in referring _mine, thine, hers_, &c., to the class of "_Compound Personal Pronouns._" Nay, as if to outdo even himself in absurdity, he first makes _mine, thine, hers, ours_, &c., to be compounds, by assuming that, "These _pluralizing adjuncts, ne_ and _s_, were, no doubt, formerly detached from the pronouns with which they now coalesce;" and then, because he finds in each of his supposed compounds the signification of a pronoun and its governing noun, reassumes, in parsing them, the very principle of error, on which he condemns their common classification. He says, "They should be parsed _as two words_." He also supposes them to represent the nouns _which govern them_--nouns with which they do not agree in any respect! Thus is he wrong in almost every thing he says about them. See _Kirkham's Gram._, p. 99, p. 101, and p. 104. Goodenow, too, a still later writer, adopts the major part of all this absurdity. He will have _my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their_, for the possessive case of his personal pronouns; but _mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs_, he calls "_compound possessive pronouns_, in the subjective or [the] objective case."--_Text-Book of E. Gram._, p. 33. Thus he introduces a new class, unknown to his primary division of the pronouns, and not included in his scheme of their declension. Fuller, too, in a grammar produced at Plymouth, Mass., in 1822, did nearly the same thing. He called _I, thou, he, she_, and _it_, with their plurals, "_antecedent_ pronouns;" took _my, thy, his, her_, &c., for their _only_ possessive forms in his declension; and, having passed from them by the space of just half his book, added: "Sometimes, to prevent the repetition of the same word, an _antecedent pronoun in the possessive case_, is made to represent, both the pronoun and a noun; as, 'That book is _mine_'--i. e. '_my book_.' MINE is a _compound antecedent pronoun_, and is equivalent to _my_ book. Then parse _my_, and _book_, as though they were both expressed."--_Fuller's Gram._, p. 71. OBS. 11.--Amidst all this diversity of doctrine at the very centre of grammar, who shall so fix its principles that our schoolmasters and schoolmistresses may know _what to believe and teach_? Not he that speculates without regard to other men's views; nor yet he that makes it a merit to follow implicitly "the footsteps of" _one only_. The true principles of grammar are with the learned; and that man is in the wrong, with whom the _most_ learned will not, in general, coincide. Contradiction of falsities, is necessary to the maintenance of truth; correction of errors, to the success of science. But not every man's errors can be so considerable as to deserve correction from other hands than his own. Misinstruction in grammar has for this reason generally escaped censure. I do not wish any one to coincide with me merely through ignorance of what others inculcate. If doctors of divinity and doctors of laws will contradict themselves in teaching grammar, so far as they do so, the lovers of consistency will find it necessary to deviate from their track. Respecting these pronouns, I learned in childhood, from Webster, a doctrine which he now declares to be false. This was nearly the same as Lowth's, which is quoted in the sixth observation above. But, in stead of correcting its faults, this zealous reformer has but run into others still greater. Now, with equal reproach to his etymology, his syntax, and his logic, he denies that our pronouns have any form of the possessive case at all. But grant the obvious fact, that _substitution_ is one thing, and _ellipsis_ an other, and his whole argument is easily overthrown; for it is only by confounding these, that he reaches his absurd conclusion. OBS. 12.--Dr. Webster's doctrine now is, that none of the English pronouns have more than two cases. He says, "_mine, thine, his, hers, yours_, and _theirs_, are _usually considered_ as [being of] the possessive case. But the _three first_ are either attributes, and used with nouns, or they are substitutes. The _three last_ are always substitutes, used in the place of names WHICH ARE UNDERSTOOD."--"That _mine, thine, his_, [_ours_,] _yours, hers_, and _theirs_, do not constitute a possessive case, is demonstrable; for they are constantly used as the nominatives to verbs and as the objectives after verbs and prepositions, as in the following passages. 'Whether it could perform its operations of thinking and memory out of a body organized as _ours is_.'--_Locke_. 'The reason is, that his subject is generally things; _theirs_, on the contrary, _is_ persons.'--_Camp. Rhet._ 'Therefore leave your forest of beasts for _ours_ of brutes, called men.'--_Wycherley to Pope_. It is needless to multiply proofs. We observe these _pretended possessives_ uniformly used as nominatives or objectives.[210] Should it be said that _a noun is understood_; I reply, _this cannot be true_," &c.--_Philosophical Gram._, p. 35; _Improved Gram._, p. 26. Now, whether it be true or not, this very position is expressly affirmed by the Doctor himself, in the citation above; though he is, unquestionably, wrong in suggesting that the pronouns are "used _in the place_ of [those] names WHICH ARE UNDERSTOOD." They are used in the place of other names--the names of _the possessors_; and are governed by those which he here both admits and denies to be "understood." OBS. 13.--The other arguments of Dr. Webster against the possessive case of pronouns, may perhaps be more easily answered than some readers imagine. The first is drawn from the fact that conjunctions connect like cases. "Besides, in three passages just quoted, the word _yours_ is joined by a connective _to a name_ in the same case; 'To ensure _yours_ and _their immortality_.' 'The easiest part of _yours_ and _my design_.' '_My sword_ and _yours_ are kin.' Will any person pretend that the connective here joins different cases?"--_Improved Gram._, p. 28; _Philosophical Gram._, p. 36. I answer, No. But it is falsely assumed that _yours_ is here connected by _and_ to _immortality_, to _design_, or to _sword_; because these words are again severally understood after _yours_: or, if otherwise, the two pronouns alone are connected by _and_, so that the proof is rather, that _their_ and _my_ are in the possessive case. The second argument is drawn from the use of the preposition _of_ before the possessive. "For we say correctly, 'an acquaintance _of yours, ours_, or _theirs_'--_of_ being the sign of the possessive; but if the words in themselves are possessives, then there must be two signs of the same case, which is absurd."--_Improved Gram._, p. 28; _Phil. Gr._, 36. I deny that _of_ is here the sign of the possessive, and affirm that it is taken partitively, in all examples of this sort. "I know my sheep, and am known _of mine_," is not of this kind; because _of_ here means _by_--a sense in which the word is antiquated. In recurring afterwards to this argument, the Doctor misquotes the following texts, and avers that they "are evidently meant to include the _whole number_: 'Sing _to_ the Lord, _all_ ye saints of _his_.'--_Ps._ 30, 4. '_He_ that heareth these sayings _of mine_.'--_Matt._ 7."--_Improved Gram._, p. 29; _Phil. Gr._, 38. If he is right about the meaning, however, the passages are mistranslated, as well as misquoted: they ought to be, "Sing _unto_ the Lord, _O ye his Saints_."--"_Every one_ that heareth _these my sayings_." But when a definitive particle precedes the noun, it is very common with us, to introduce the possessive elliptically after it; and what Dr. Wilson means by suggesting that it is erroneous, I know not: "When the preposition _of_ precedes _mine, ours, yours_, &c. the _errour_ lies, not in this, that there are double possessive cases, but in forming an implication of a noun, which the substitute already denotes, together with the persons."--_Essay on Gram._, p. 110. OBS. 14.--In his Syllabus of English Grammar, Dr. Wilson teaches thus: "_My, our, thy, your, his, her, its, their, whose_, and _whosesoever_ are possessive pronominal _adjectives. Ours, yours, hers_, and _theirs_ are _pronoun substantives_, used either as subjects, or [as] objects; as singulars, or [as] plurals; and are substituted both for [the names of] the possessors, and [for those of the] things possessed. _His, its, whose, mine_, and _thine_, are sometimes used as _such substantives_; but also are at other times _pronominal possessive_ adjectives."--_Wilson's Syllabus_, p. X. Now compare with these three positions, the following three from the same learned author. "In Hebrew, the _adjective_ generally agrees with its noun in gender and number, but _pronouns_ follow the gender of their antecedents, and not of the nouns with which they stand. So in English, _my, thy, his, her, its, our, your_, and _their_, agree with the nouns they represent, in number, gender, and person. But _adjectives_, having no change expressive of number, gender, or case, cannot accord with their nouns."--_Wilson's Essay on Gram._, p. 192. "_Ours, yours, hers_, and _theirs_, are most usually considered possessive cases of personal pronouns; but they are, more probably, possessive substitutes, not adjectives, but _nouns_."--_Ib._, p. 109. "Nor can _mine_ or _thine_, with any more propriety than _ours, yours_, &c. be joined to any noun, as possessive adjectives and possessive cases may."--_Ib._, p. 110. Whoever understands these instructions, cannot but see their inconsistency. OBS. 15.--Murray argues at some length, without naming his opponents, that the words which he assumes to be such, are really personal pronouns standing rightfully in the possessive case; and that, "they should not, on the slight pretence of their differing from nouns, be dispossessed of the right and privilege, which, from time immemorial they have enjoyed."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 53. Churchill as ably shows, that the corresponding terms, which Lowth calls _pronominal adjectives_, and which Murray and others will have to be _pronouns of no case_, are justly entitled to the same rank. "If _mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs_, be the possessive case; _my, thy, her, our, your, their_, must be the same. Whether we say, 'It is _John's_ book,' or, 'The book is _John's_;' _John's_ is not less the possessive case in one instance, than it is in the other. If we say, 'It is _his_ book,' or, 'The book is _his_;' 'It is _her_ book,' or, 'The book is _hers_;' 'It is _my_ book,' or, 'The book is _mine_;' 'It is _your_ book,' or, 'The book is _yours_;' are not these parallel instances? Custom has established it as a law, that this case of the pronoun shall drop its original termination, for the sake of euphony, when it precedes the noun that governs it; retaining it only where the noun is understood: but this certainly makes no alteration in the nature of the word; so that either _my_ is as much a possessive case as _mine_; or _mine_ and _my_ are equally pronominal adjectives."--_Churchill's New Gram._, p. 221. "Mr. Murray considers the phrases, '_our desire_,' '_your intention_,' '_their resignation_,' as instances of plural adjectives _agreeing_ with singular nouns; and consequently exceptions to the general (may we not say _universal_?) rule: but if they [the words _our, your, their_,] be, as is attempted to be proved above, the possessive cases of pronouns, no rule is here violated."--_Ib._, p. 224. OBS. 16.--One strong argument, touching this much-disputed point of grammar, was incidentally noticed in the observations upon antecedents: an adjective cannot give person, number, and gender, to a relative pronoun; because, in our language, adjectives do not possess these qualities; nor indeed in any other, except as they take them by immediate agreement with nouns or pronouns in the same clause. But it is undeniable, that _my, thy, his, her, our, your, their_, do sometimes stand as antecedents, and give person, number, and gender to relatives, which head other clauses. For the learner should remember, that, "When a relative pronoun is used, the sentence is divided into two parts; viz. the _antecedent_ sentence, or that which contains the _antecedent_; and the _relative_ sentence, containing the _relative_."--_Nixon's Parser_, p. 123. We need not here deny, that Terence's Latin, as quoted in the grammars, "Omnes laudare fortunas _meas, qui_ haberem gnatum tali ingeuio præditum," is quite as intelligible syntax, as can literally be made of it in English--"That all would praise _my_ fortunes, _who had_ a son endued with such a genius." For, whether the Latin be good or not, it affords no argument against us, except that of a supposed analogy; nor does the literality of the version prove, at all points, either the accuracy or the sameness of the construction. OBS. 17.--Surely, without some imperative reason, we ought not, in English, to resort to such an assumption as is contained in the following Rule: "Sometimes the relative agrees in person with that pronoun substantive, from which the possessive pronoun adjective is derived; as, Pity _my_ condition, _who am_ so destitute. I rejoice at _thy_ lot, _who art_ so fortunate. We lament _his_ fate, _who is_ so unwary. Beware of _her_ cunning, _who is_ so deceitful. Commiserate _our_ condition, _who are_ so poor. Tremble at _your_ negligence, _who are_ so careless. It shall be _their_ property, _who are_ so diligent. We are rejoicing at _thy_ lot, _who hast_ been so fortunate."--_Nixon's Parser_, p. 142. In his explanation of the last of these sentences, the author says, "_Who_ is a relative pronoun; in the masculine gender, singular number, second person, and agrees with _thee_, implied in the adjective _thy_. RULE.--Sometimes the relative agrees in person, &c. And it is the nominative to the verb _hast been_. RULE.--When no nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the relative is the nominative to the verb."--_Ib._, p. 143. A pupil of G. Brown's would have said, "_Who_ is a relative pronoun, representing '_thy_,' or the person addressed, in the second person, singular number, and masculine gender; according to the rule which says, 'A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender:' and is in the nominative case, being the subject of _hast been_; according to the rule which says, 'A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case.' Because the meaning is--_who hast been_; that is, _thy lot_, or the lot _of thee, who hast been_." OBS. 18.--Because the possessive case of a noun or pronoun is usually equivalent in meaning to the preposition _of_ and the objective case, some grammarians, mistaking this equivalence of meaning for sameness of case, have asserted that all our possessives have a double form. Thus Nixon: "When the particle _of_ comes between two substantives signifying different things, it is not to be considered a preposition, but _the sign of the substantive's being in the possessive case_, equally as if the apostrophic _s_ had been affixed to it; as, 'The skill _of Cæsar_,' or _Cæsar's_ skill.'"--_English Parser_, p. 38. "When the apostrophic _s_ is used, the genitive is the former of the two substantives; as, '_John's_ house:' but when the particle _of_ is used, it is the latter; as, 'The house _of John_.'"--_Ib._, p. 46. The work here quoted is adapted to two different grammars; namely, Murray's and Allen's. These the author doubtless conceived to be the best English grammars extant. And it is not a little remarkable, that both of these authors, as well as many others, teach in such a faulty manner, that their intentions upon this point may be matter of dispute. "When Murray, Allen, and others, say, 'we make use of the particle _of_ to express the _relation_ of the genitive,' the ambiguity of their assertion leaves it in doubt whether or not they considered the substantive which is preceded by _of_ and an other substantive, as in the _genitive_ case."--_Nixon's English Parser_, p. 38. Resolving this doubt according to his own fancy, Nixon makes the possessive case of our personal pronouns to be as follows: "_mine_ or _of me, ours_ or _of us; thine_ or _of thee, yours_ or _of you; his_ or _of him, theirs_ or _of them; hers_ or _of her, theirs_ or _of them; its_ or _of it, theirs_ or _of them_."--_English Parser_, p. 43. This doctrine gives us a form of declension that is both complex and deficient. It is therefore more objectionable than almost any of those which are criticised above. The arguments and authorities on which the author rests his position, are not thought likely to gain many converts; for which reason, I dismiss the subject, without citing or answering them. OBS. 19.--In old books, we sometimes find the word _I_ written for the adverb _ay_, yes: as, "To dye, to sleepe; To sleepe, perchance to dreame; _I_, there's the rub."--_Shakspeare, Old Copies_. The British Grammar, printed in 1784, and the Grammar of Murray the schoolmaster, published some years earlier than Lindley Murray's, say: "We use _I_ as an Answer, in a familiar, careless, or merry Way; as, 'I, I, Sir, I, I;' but to use _ay_, is accounted rude, especially to our Betters." See _Brit. Gram._, p. 198. The age of this rudeness, or incivility, if it ever existed, has long passed away; and the fashion seems to be so changed, that to write or utter _I_ for _ay_, would now in its turn be "accounted _rude_"--the rudeness of ignorance--a false orthography, or a false pronunciation. In the word _ay_, the two sounds of _ah-ee_ are plainly heard; in the sound of _I_, the same elements are more quickly blended. (See a note at the foot of page 162.) When this sound is suddenly repeated, some writers make a new word of it, which must be called an _interjection_: as, "'Pray, answer me a question or two.' '_Ey, ey_, as many as you please, cousin Bridget, an they be not too hard.'"--_Burgh's Speaker_, p. 99. "_Ey, ey_, 'tis so; she's out of her head, poor thing."--_Ib._, p. 100. This is probably a corruption of _ay_, which is often doubled in the same manner: thus, "_Ay, ay_, Antipholus, look strange, and frown."--_Shakspeare_. OBS. 20.--The common fashion of address being nowadays altogether in the plural form, the pronouns _thou, thy, thine, thee_, and _thyself_, have become unfamiliar to most people, especially to the vulgar and uneducated. These words are now confined almost exclusively to the writings of the poets, to the language of the Friends, to the Holy Scriptures, and to the solemn services of religion. They are, however, the _only genuine_ representatives of the second person singular, in English; and to displace them from that rank in grammar, or to present _you, your_, and _yours_, as being literally singular, though countenanced by several late writers, is a useless and pernicious innovation. It is sufficient for the information of the learner, and far more consistent with learning and taste, to say, that the plural is fashionably used _for the singular_, by a figure of syntax; for, in all correct usage of this sort, the _verb_ is plural, as well as the pronoun--Dr. Webster's fourteen authorities to the contrary notwithstanding. For, surely, "_You was_" cannot be considered good English, merely because that number of respectable writers have happened, on some particular occasions, to adopt the phrase; and even if we must needs concede this point, and grant to the Doctor and his converts, that "_You was_ is _primitive_ and _correct_," the example no more proves that _you_ is singular, than that _was_ is plural. And what is one singular irregular preterit, compared with all the verbs in the language? OBS. 21.--In our present authorized version of the Bible, the numbers and cases of the second person are kept remarkably distinct,[211] the pronouns being always used in the following manner: _thou_ for the nominative, _thy_ or _thine_ for the possessive, and _thee_ for the objective, singular; _ye_ for the nominative, _your_ or _yours_ for the possessive, and _you_ for the objective, plural. Yet, before that version was made, fashionable usage had commonly substituted _you_ for _ye_, making the former word nominative as well as objective, and applying it to one hearer as well as to more. And subsequently, as it appears, the religious sect that entertained a scruple about applying _you_ to an individual, fell for the most part into an ungrammatical practice of putting _thee_ for _thou_; making, in like manner, the objective pronoun to be both nominative and objective; or, at least, using it very commonly so in their conversation. Their manner of speaking, however, was not--or, certainly, with the present generation of their successors, _is_ not--as some grammarians represent it to be, that formal and antique phraseology which we call _the solemn style_.[212] They make no more use of the pronoun _ye_, or of the verbal termination _eth_, than do people of fashion; nor do they, in using the pronoun _thou_, or their improper nominative _thee_, ordinarily inflect with _st_ or _est_ the preterits or the auxiliaries of the accompanying verbs, as is done in the solemn style. Indeed, to use the solemn style familiarly, would be, to turn it into burlesque; as when Peter Pindar "_telleth what he troweth._" [213] And let those who think with Murray, that our present version of the Scriptures _is the best standard_ of English grammar,[214] remember that in it they have no warrant for substituting _s_ or _es_ for the old termination _eth_, any more than for ceasing to use the solemn style of the second person familiarly. That version was good in its day, yet it shows but very imperfectly what the English language now is. Can we consistently take for our present standard, a style which does not allow us to use _you_ in the nominative case, or _its_ for the possessive? And again, is not a simplification of the verb as necessary and proper in the familiar use of the second person singular, as in that of the third? This latter question I shall discuss in a future chapter. OBS. 22.--The use of the pronoun _ye_ in the nominative case, is now mostly confined to the solemn style;[215] but the use of it in the objective, which is disallowed in the solemn style, and nowhere approved by our grammarians, is nevertheless _common_ when no emphasis falls upon the word: as, "When you're unmarried, never load _ye_ With jewels; they may incommode _ye_."--_Dr. King_, p. 384. Upon this point, Dr. Lowth observes, "Some writers have used _ye_ as the objective case plural of the pronoun of the second person, very improperly and ungrammatically; [as,] 'The more shame for _ye_; holy men I thought _ye_.' Shak. Hen. VIII. 'But tyrants dread _ye_, lest your just decree Transfer the pow'r, and set the people free.' Prior. 'His wrath, which one day will destroy _ye_ both.' Milt. P. L. ii. 734. Milton uses the same manner of expression in a few other places of his Paradise Lost, and more frequently in his [smaller] poems, _It may, perhaps, be allowed in the comic and burlesque style_, which often imitates a vulgar and incorrect pronunciation; but in the serious and solemn style, _no authority is sufficient_ to justify so manifest a solecism."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 22. Churchill copies this remark, and adds; "Dryden has _you_ as the nominative, and _ye_ as the objective, in the same passage:[216] 'What gain _you_, by forbidding it to tease _ye_? It now can neither trouble _ye_, nor please _ye_.' Was this from a notion, that _you_ and _ye_, thus employed, were more analogous to _thou_ and _thee_ in the singular number?"--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 25. I answer, No; but, more probably, from a notion, that the two words, being now confessedly equivalent in the one case, might as well be made so in the other: just as the Friends, in using _thee_ for _you_, are carelessly converting the former word into a nominative, to the exclusion of _thou_; because the latter has generally been made so, to the exclusion of _ye_. When the confounding of such distinctions is begun, who knows where it will end? With like ignorance, some writers suppose, that the fashion of using the plural for the singular is a sufficient warrant for putting the singular for the plural: as, "The joys of love, are they not doubly _thine, Ye poor!_ whose health, whose spirits ne'er decline?" --_Southwick's Pleas. of Poverty._ "But, _Neatherds_, go look to the kine, Their cribs with fresh fodder supply; The task of compassion be _thine_, For herbage the pastures deny."--_Perfect's Poems_, p. 5. OBS. 23.--When used in a burlesque or ludicrous manner, the pronoun _ye_ is sometimes a mere expletive; or, perhaps, intended rather as an objective governed by a preposition understood. But, in such a construction, I see no reason to prefer it to the regular objective _you_; as, "He'll laugh _ye_, dance _ye_, sing _ye_, vault, look gay, And ruffle all the ladies in his play."--_King_, p. 574. Some grammarians, who will have _you_ to be singular as well as plural, ignorantly tell us, that "_ye_ always means more than one." But the fact is, that when _ye_ was in common use, it was as frequently applied to one person as _you_: thus, "Farewell my doughter lady Margarete, God wotte full oft it grieued hath my mynde, That _ye_ should go where we should seldome mete: Now am I gone, and haue left _you_ behynde."--_Sir T. More_, 1503. In the following example, _ye_ is used for _thee_, the objective singular; and that by one whose knowledge of the English language, is said to have been unsurpassed:-- "Proud Baronet of Nova Scotia! The Dean and Spaniard must reproach _ye_."--_Swift_. So in the story of the Chameleon:-- "'Tis green, 'tis green, Sir, I assure _ye_."--_Merrick_. Thus we have _ye_ not only for the nominative in both numbers, but at length for the objective in both; _ye_ and _you_ being made everywhere equivalent, by very many writers. Indeed this pronoun has been so frequently used for the objective case, that one may well doubt any grammarian's authority to condemn it in that construction. Yet I cannot but think it ill-chosen in the third line below, though right in the first:-- "_Ye_! who have traced the Pilgrim to the scene Which is his last, if in your memories dwell A thought which once was his, if on _ye_ swell A single recollection, not in vain He wore his sandal-shoon, and scallop-shell."--_Byron_. OBS. 24.--The three pronouns of the third person, _he, she_, and _it_, have always formed their plural number after one and the same manner, _they, their_ or _theirs, them_. Or, rather, these plural words, which appear not to be regular derivatives from any of the singulars, have ever been applied alike to them all. But _it_, the neuter pronoun singular, had formerly no variation of cases, and is still alike in the nominative and the objective. The possessive _its_ is of comparatively recent origin. In our common Bible, the word is not found, except by misprint; nor do other writings of the same age contain it. The phrase, _of it_, was often used as an equivalent; as, "And it had three ribs in the mouth _of it_ between the teeth _of it_."--_Dan._, vii, 5. That is--"in _its_ mouth, between _its_ teeth." But, as a possessive case was sometimes necessary, our ancestors used to borrow one; commonly from the masculine, though sometimes from the feminine. This produced what now appears a strange confusion of the genders: as, "_Learning_ hath _his_ infancy, when _it_ is but beginning, and almost childish; then _his_ youth, when _it_ is luxuriant and juvenile; then _his_ strength of years, when _it_ is solid and reduced; and lastly _his_ old age, when _it_ waxeth dry and exhaust."--_Bacon's Essays_, p. 58. "Of beaten work shall the _candlestick_ be made: _his_ shaft, and _his_ branches, _his_ bowls, _his_ knops, and _his_ flowers, shall be of the same."--_Exodus_, xxv, 31. "They came and emptied the _chest_, and took _it_ and carried _it_ to _his_ place again."--_2 Chron._, xxiv, 11. "Look not thou upon the _wine, when_ it is red, when _it_ giveth _his_ colour in the cup, when _it_ moveth _itself_ aright."--_Prov._, xxiii, 31. "The _tree_ is known by _his_ fruit."--_Matt._, xii, 33. "When thou tillest the ground, _it_ shall not henceforth yield unto thee _her_ strength."--_Gen._, iv, 12. "He that pricketh the heart, maketh _it_ to show _her_ knowledge."--_Eccl._, xxii, 19. Shakspeare rarely, if ever, used _its_; and his style is sometimes obscure for the want of it: as, "There is no _vice_ so simple, but assumes Some mark of virtue on _his_ outward parts." --_Merch. of Venice_. "The name of Cassius honours this corruption, And _chastisement_ doth therefore hide _his_ head." --_Jul. Cæs._, Act iv. OBS. 25.--The possessive case of pronouns should never be written with an apostrophe. A few pronominal adjectives taken substantively receive it; but the construction which it gives them, seems to make them nouns: as, _one's, other's_, and, according to Murray, _former's_ and _latter's_. The real pronouns that end in _s_, as _his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs_, though true possessives after their kind, have no occasion for this mark, nor does good usage admit it. Churchill, with equal disregard of consistency and authority, gives it to one of them, and denies it to the rest. Referring to the classification of these words as possessives, and of _my, thy, her, our, your, their_, as adjectives, he says: "It seems as if the termination in _s_ had led to the distinction: but no one will contend, that _ours_ is the possessive case of _our_, or _theirs_ of _their_; though _ours, yours, hers_, and _theirs_, are often very improperly spelt with an apostrophe, a fault not always imputable to the printer; while in _it's_, which is unquestionably the possessive case of _it_, the apostrophe, by a strange perverseness, is almost always omitted."--_Churchill Gram._, p. 222. The charge of strange perverseness may, in this instance, I think, be retorted upon the critic; and that, to the fair exculpation of those who choose to conform to the general usage which offends him. OBS. 26.--Of the compound personal pronouns, this author gives the following account: "_Self_, in the plural _selves_, a noun, is often combined with the personal pronouns, in order to express emphasis, or opposition, or the identity of the subject and [the] object of a verb; and thus forms a pronoun _relative_: as, 'I did it _myself_;' 'he was not _himself_, when he said so;' 'the envious torment _themselves_ more than others.' Formerly _self_ and _selves_ were used simply as nouns, and governed the pronoun, which was kept distinct from _it_ [them] in the possessive case: but since _they_ [the pronoun and the noun] have coalesced into one word, _they_ [the compounds] are used only in the following forms: for the first person, _myself, ourselves_; for the second, _thyself_, or _yourself, yourselves_; for the third, _himself, herself, itself, themselves_: except in the regal style, in which, as generally in the second person, the singular noun is added to the plural pronoun, [making] _ourself_. Each of these is _the same in all three cases._"--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 75. In a note referring to the close of this explanation, he adds: "_Own_ also is often employed with the possessive cases of the personal pronouns by way of emphasis, or opposition; but separately, as an adjective, and not combining with them to form _a relative_: as, 'I did it of _my own_ free will:' 'Did he do it with _his own_ hand?'"--_Ib._, p. 227. OBS. 27.--The preceding instructions, faulty and ungrammatical as they are, seem to be the best that our writers have furnished upon this point. To detect falsities and blunders, is half the grammarian's duty. The pronouns of which the term _self_ or _selves_ forms a part, are used, not for the connecting of different clauses of a sentence, but for the purpose of emphatic distinction in the sense. In calling them "_relatives_," Churchill is wrong, even by his own showing. They have not the characteristics which he himself ascribes to relatives; but are compound personal pronouns, and nothing else. He is also manifestly wrong in asserting, that they are severally "the same in all three cases." From the very nature of their composition, the possessive case is alike impossible to them all. To express ownership with emphasis or distinction, we employ neither these compounds nor any others; but always use the simple possessives with the separate adjective _own_: as, "With _my own_ eyes,"--"By _thy own_ confession,"--"To _his own_ house,"--"For _her own_ father,"--"By _its own_ weight,"--"To save _our own_ lives,"--"For _your own_ sake,"--"In _their own_ cause." OBS. 28.--The phrases, _my own, thy own, his own_, and so forth, Dr. Perley, in his little Grammar, has improperly converted by the hyphen into compound words: calling them the possessive forms of _myself, thyself, himself_, and so forth; as if one set of compounds could constitute the possessive case of an other! And again, as if the making of eight new pronouns for two great nations, were as slight a feat, as the inserting of so many hyphens! The word _own_, anciently written _owen_, is an _adjective_; from an old form of the perfect participle of the verb _to owe_; which verb, according to Lowth and others, once signified _to possess_. It is equivalent to _due, proper_, or _peculiar_; and, in its present use as an adjective, it stands nowhere else than between the possessive case and the name of the thing possessed; as, "The Boy's _Own_ Book,"--"Christ's _own_ words,"--"Solomon's _own_ and only son." Dr. Johnson, while he acknowledges the abovementioned derivation, very strangely calls own a noun substantive; and, with not more accuracy, says: "This is a word of no other use than as it is added to the possessive pronouns, _my, thy, his, our, your, their_."--_Quarto Dict., w. Own_. O. B. Peirce, with obvious untruth, says, "_Own_ is used in combination with a name or substitute, and as a part of it, to constitute it emphatic."--_Gram._, p. 63. He writes it separately, but parses it as a part of the possessive noun or pronoun which precedes it! OBS. 29.--The word _self_ was originally _an adjective_, signifying _same, very_, or _particular_; but, when used alone, it is now generally _a noun_. This may have occasioned the diversity which appears in the formation of the compound personal pronouns. Dr. Johnson, in his great Dictionary, calls _self_ a pronoun; but he explains it as being both adjective and substantive, admitting that, "Its primary signification seems to be that of an adjective."--Again he observes, "_Myself, himself, themselves_, and the rest, may, contrary to the analogy of _my, him, them_, be used as nominatives." _Hisself, itsself_, and _theirselves_, would be more analogical than _himself, itself, themselves_; but custom has rejected the former, and established the latter. When an adjective qualifies the term _self_, the pronouns are written separately in the possessive case; as, _My single self,--My own self,--His own self,--Their own selves_. So, anciently, without an adjective: as, "A man shall have diffused his life, _his self_, and his whole concernments so far, that he can weep his sorrows with an other's eyes."--_South_. "Something valuable for _its self_ without view to anything farther."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 293. "That they would willingly, and of _their selves_ endeavour to keep a perpetual chastity."--_Stat. Ed. VI. in Lowth's Gram._, p. 26. "Why I should either _imploy my self_ in that study or put others upon it."--_Walker's English Particles_, p. xiv. "It is no matter whether you do it by your proctor, or by _your self_."--_Ib._, p. 96. The compound _oneself_ is sometimes written in stead of the phrase _one's self_; but the latter is preferable, and more common. Even _his self_, when written as two words, may possibly be right in some instances; as, "Scorn'd be the wretch that quits his genial bowl, His loves, his friendships, ev'n _his self_, resigns; Perverts the sacred instinct of his soul, And to a ducat's dirty sphere confines." --SHENSTONE: _Brit. Poets_, Vol. vii, p. 107. OBS. 30.--In poetry, and even in some compositions not woven into regular numbers, the simple personal pronouns are not unfrequently used, for brevity's sake, in a reciprocal sense; that is, in stead of the compound personal pronouns, which are the proper reciprocals: as, "Wash _you_, make _you_ clean."--_Isaiah_, i, 16. "I made me great works; I builded _me_ houses; I planted _me_ vineyards; I made _me_ gardens and orchards."--_Ecclesiastes_, ii, 4. "Thou shalt surely clothe _thee_ with them all as with an ornament, and bind them on _thee_ as a bride doeth."--_Isaiah_, xlix, 18. Compare with these the more regular expression: "As a bridegroom decketh _himself_ with ornaments, and as a bride adorneth _herself_ with jewels."--_Isaiah_, lxi, 10. This phraseology is almost always preferable in prose; the other is a poetical license, or peculiarity: as, "I turn _me_ from the martial roar."--_Scott's L. L._, p. 97. "Hush _thee_, poor maiden, and be still."--_Ib._, p. 110. "Firmer he roots _him_ the ruder it blow."--_Ib._, p. 49. OBS. 31.--To accommodate the writers of verse, the word _ever_ is frequently contracted into _e'er_, pronounced like the monosyllable _air_. An easy extension of this license, gives us similar contractions of all the compound relative pronouns; as, _whoe'er_ or _whosoe'er, whose'er_ or _whosesoe'er, whome'er_ or _whomsoe'er, whiche'er_ or _whichsoe'er, whate'er_ or _whatsoe'er_. The character and properties of these compounds are explained, perhaps sufficiently, in the observations upon the _classes_ of pronouns. Some of them are commonly parsed as representing two cases at once; there being, in fact, an ellipsis of the noun, before or after them: as, "Each art he prompts, each charm he can create, _Whate'er_ he gives, _are given_ for you to hate."--_Pope's Dunciad_. OBS. 32.--For a form of parsing the double relative _what_, or its compound _whatever_ or _whatsoever_, it is the custom of some teachers, to suggest equivalent words, and then proceed to explain these, in lieu of the word in question. This is the method of _Russell's Gram._, p. 99; of _Merchants_, p. 110; of _Kirkham's_, p. 111; of _Gilbert's_, p. 92. But it should be remembered that equivalence of meaning is not sameness of grammatical construction; and, even if the construction be the same, to parse other equivalent words, is not really to parse the text that is given. A good parser, with the liberty to supply obvious ellipses, should know how to explain all good English _as it stands_; and for a teacher to pervert good English into false doctrine, must needs seem the very worst kind of ignorance. What can be more fantastical than the following etymology, or more absurd than the following directions for parsing? "_What_ is compounded of _which that_. These words have been contracted and made to coalesce, a part of the orthography of both being still retained: _what--wh[ich--t]hat_; (_which-that_.) Anciently it appeared in the varying forms, _tha qua, qua tha, qu'tha, quthat, quhat, hwat_, and finally _what_."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 111. This bald pedantry of "_tha qua, qua tha_," was secretly borrowed from the grammatical speculations of William S. Cardell:[217] the "_which-that_" notion contradicts it, and is partly of the borrower's own invention. If _what_ is a compound, it was compounded more than a thousand years ago; and, of course, long before any part of the English language existed as such. King Alfred used it, as he found it, in the Saxon form of _hwæt_. The Scotch afterwards spelled it _quhat_. Our English grammarians have _improperly_ called it a compound; and _Kirkham_, still more absurdly, calls the word _others_ a compound, and _mine, thine, ours, yours_, &e. compounds.[218] OBS. 33.--According to this gentleman's notion of things, there is, within the little circle of the word _what_, a very curious play of antecedent parts and parts relative--a dodging contra-dance of _which that_ and _that which_, with _things which_, and so forth. Thus: "When _what_ is a _compound relative_ you must always parse it as _two words_; that is, you must parse the antecedent part _as a noun_, and give it case; the relative part you may _analyze_ like any other relative, giving it a case likewise. Example: 'I will try _what_ (that which) can be found in female delicacy.' Here _that_, the antecedent part of _what_, is in the obj. case, governed by the verb 'will try;' _which_, the relative part, is in the nom. case to 'can be found.' 'I have heard _what_ (i.e. _that which_, or _the thing which_) has been alleged.' "--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 111. Here, we sec, the author's "_which-that_" becomes _that which_, or something else. But this is not a full view of his method. The following vile rigmarole is a further sample of that "_New Systematick Order of Parsing_," by virtue of which he so very complacently and successfully sets himself above all other grammarians: "'From _what_ is recorded, he appears, &c.' _What_ is a comp. rel. pron. including both the antecedent and the relative, and is equivalent to _that which_, or the _thing which.--Thing_, the antecedent part of _what_, is a noun, the name of a thing--com. the name of a species--neuter gender, it has no sex--third person, spoken of--sing. number, it implies but one--and in the obj. case, it is the object of the relation expressed by the prep. 'from,' and gov. by it: RULE 31. (Repeat the Rule, and _every other Rule_ to which I refer.) _Which_, the relative part of _what_, is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--relative, it relates to 'thing' for its antecedent--neut. gender, third person, sing, number, because the antecedent is with which it agrees, according to RULE 14. _Rel. pron_. &c. _Which_ is _in_ the nom. case to the verb 'is recorded,' agreeably to RULE 15. _The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when no nominative comes between it and the verb._"--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 113. OBS. 34.--The distinction which has been made by Murray and others, between etymological parsing and syntactical--or, between that exercise which simply classifies and describes the words of a sentence, and that which adds to this the principles of their construction--is rejected by Kirkham, and also by Ingersoll, Fuller, Smith, Sanborn, Mack, and some others, it being altogether irreconcilable with their several modes of confounding the two main parts of grammar. If such a distinction is serviceable, the want of it is one of the inherent faults of the schemes which they have adopted. But, since "grammar is the art of speaking and writing with _propriety_" who that really values clearness and accuracy of expression, can think the want of them excusable in _models_ prescribed for the exercise of parsing? And is it not better to maintain the distinction above named, than to interlace our syntactical parsing with broken allusions to the definitions which pertain to etymology? If it is, this new mode of parsing, which Kirkham claims to have invented, and Smith pretends to have got from Germany, whatever boast may be made of it, is essentially defective and very immethodical.[219] This remark applies not merely to the forms above cited, respecting the pronoun _what_, but to the whole method of parsing adopted by the author of "_English Grammar in Familiar Lectures_." OBS. 35.--The forms of etymological parsing which I have adopted, being designed to train the pupil, in the first place, by a succession of easy steps, to a rapid and accurate description of the several species of words, and a ready habit of fully defining the technical terms employed in such descriptions, will be found to differ more from the forms of syntactical parsing, than do those of perhaps any other grammarian. The definitions, which constitute so large a portion of the former, being omitted as soon as they are thoroughly learned, give place in the latter, to the facts and principles of syntax. Thus have we fullness in the one part, conciseness in the other, order and distinctness in both. The separation of etymology from syntax, however, though judiciously adopted by almost all grammarians, is in itself a mere matter of convenience. No one will pretend that these two parts of grammar are in their nature _totally_ distinct and independent. Hence, though a due regard to method demands the maintenance of this ancient and still usual division of the subject, we not unfrequently, in treating of the classes and modifications of words, exhibit contingently some of the principles of their construction. This, however, is very different from a purposed blending of the two parts, than which nothing can be more unwise. OBS. 36.--The great peculiarity of the pronoun _what_, or of its compound _whatever_ or _whatsoever_, is a peculiarity of construction, rather than of etymology. Hence, in etymological parsing, it may be sufficient to notice it only as a relative, though the construction be double. It is in fact a relative; but it is one that reverses the order of the antecedent, whenever the noun is inserted with it. But as the noun is usually suppressed, and as the supplying of it is attended with an obvious difficulty, arising from the transposition, we cut the matter short, by declaring the word to have, as it appears to have, a double syntactical relation. Of the foregoing example, therefore--viz., "From _what_ is recorded," &c.,--a pupil of mine, in parsing _etymologically_, would say thus: "_What_ is a relative pronoun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an antecedent word or phrase, and connects different clauses of a sentence. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which denotes the subject of a verb." In parsing _syntactically_, he would say thus: "_What_ is a double relative, including both antecedent and relative, being equivalent to _that which_. As _antecedent_, it is of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case; being governed by _from_; according to the rule which says, 'A Noun or a Pronoun made the object of a preposition, is goverved [sic--KTH] by it in the objective case.' Because the meaning is--_from what_. As _relative_, it is of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case; being the subject of _is recorded_; according to the rule which says, 'A Noun or a Pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case.' Because the meaning is--_what is recorded_." OBS. 37.--The word _what_, when uttered independently as a mark of surprise, or as the prelude to an emphatic question which it does not ask, becomes an interjection; and, as such, is to be parsed merely as other interjections are parsed: as, "_What!_ came the word of God out from you? or came it unto you only?"--_1 Cor._, xiv, 36. "_What!_ know ye not that your body is the temple of the Holy Ghost which is in you, which ye have of God?"--_1 Cor._, vi, 19. "But _what!_ is thy servant a dog, that he should do this great thing?"--_2 Kings_, viii, 13. "_What!_ are you so ambitious of a man's good word, who perhaps in an hour's time shall curse himself to the pit of hell?"--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 152. "_What!_ up and down, carv'd like an apple-tart?"--_Shakspeare_. "_What!_ can you lull the winged winds asleep?"--_Campbell_. EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. PRAXIS V.--ETYMOLOGICAL. _In the Fifth Praxis, it is required of the pupil--to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the_ ARTICLES, NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, and PRONOUNS. _The definitions to be given in the Fifth Praxis, are two for an article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, six for a pronoun, and one for a verb, a participle, an adverb, a conjunction, a preposition, or an interjection. Thus_:-- EXAMPLE PARSED. "Nay but, O man, who art thou that repliest against God? Shall the thing formed say to him that formed it, Why hast thou made me thus."--_Rom._, ix, 20. _Nay_ is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. _But_ is a conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected. _O_ is an interjection. 1. An interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind. _Man_ is a common noun, of the second person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or the person addressed. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb. _Who_ is an interrogative pronoun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun with which a question is asked. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb. _Art_ is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_. _Thou_ is a personal pronoun, of the second person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. 3. The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or the person addressed. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb. _That_ is a relative pronoun, of the second person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an antecedent word or phrase, and connects different clauses of a sentence. 3. The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or the person addressed. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb. _Repliest_ is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_. _Against_ is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. _God_ is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known, or mentioned. 2. A proper noun is the name of some particular individual, or people, or group. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. _Shall_ is a verb, auxiliary to _say_, and may be taken with it. _The_ is the definite article. 1. An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The definite article is _the_, which denotes some particular thing or things. _Thing_ is a common noun of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb. _Formed_ is a participle. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding _ing, d_, or _ed_, to the verb. _Say_, or _shall say_, is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_. _To_ is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. _Him_ is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and objective case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. _That_ is a relative pronoun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an antecedent word or phrase, and connects different clauses of a sentence. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb. _Formed_ is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_. _It_ is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. _Why_ is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. _Hast_ is a verb, auxiliary to _made_, and may be taken with it. _Thou_ is a personal pronoun, of the second person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. 3. The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or the person addressed. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb. _Made_, or _hast made_, is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_. _Me_ is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. 3. The first person is that which denotes the speaker or writer. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. _Thus_ is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. LESSON I.--PARSING. "Every man has undoubtedly an inward perception of the celestial goodness by which he is quickened. But, if to obtain some ideas of God, it be not necessary for us to go beyond ourselves, what an unpardonable indolence it is in those who will not descend into themselves that they may find him?"--_Calvin's Institutes_, B. i, Ch. 5. "Jesus answered, If I honour myself, my honour is nothing: it is my Father that honoureth me; of whom ye say, that he is your God: yet ye have not known him; but I know him."--_John_, viii, 54. "What! have ye not houses to eat and to drink in? or despise ye the church of God, and shame them that have not? What shall I say to you? shall I praise you in this? I praise you not."--_1 Cor._, xi, 22. "We know not what we ought to wish for, but He who made us, knows."--_Burgh's Dignity_, Vol. ii, p. 20. "And who is he that will harm you, if ye be followers of that which is good?"--_1 Peter_, iii, 13. "For we dare not make ourselves of the number, or compare ourselves with some that commend themselves: but they, measuring themselves by themselves, and comparing themselves among themselves, are not wise."--_2 Cor._, x, 12. "Whatever is humane, is wise; whatever is wise, is just; whatever is wise, just, and humane, will be found the true interest of states."--_Dr. Rush, on Punishments_, p. 19. "But, methinks, we cannot answer it to ourselves, as-well-as to our Maker, that we should live and die ignorant of ourselves, and thereby of him, and of the obligations which we are under to him for ourselves."--_William Penn_. "But where shall wisdom be found? and where is the place of understanding? The depth saith, 'It is not in me;' and the sea saith, 'It is not with me.' Destruction and death say, 'We have heard the fame thereof with our ears.'"--See _Job_, xxviii, 12, 14, 22; and _Blair's Lect._, p. 417. "I still had hopes, my latest hours to crown, Amidst these humble bow'rs to lay me down."--_Goldsmith_. "Why dost thou then suggest to me distrust, Knowing who I am, as I know who thou art?"--_Milton_, P. R. LESSON II.--PARSING. "I would, methinks, have so much to say for myself, that if I fell into the hands of him who treated me ill, he should be sensible when he did so: his conscience should be on my side, whatever became of his inclination."--_Steele, Spect._, No. 522. "A boy should understand his mother tongue well before he enters upon the study of a dead language; or, at any rate, he should be made perfect master of the meaning of all the words which are necessary to furnish him with a translation of the particular author which he is studying."--_Gallaudet, Lit. Conv._, p. 206. "No discipline is more suitable to man, or more congruous to the dignity of his nature, than that which refines his taste, and leads him to distinguish, in every subject, what is regular, what is orderly, what is suitable, and what is fit and proper."--_Kames's El. of Crit._, i, 275. "Simple thoughts are what arise naturally; what the occasion or the subject suggests unsought; and what, when once suggested, are easily apprehended by all. Refinement in writing, expresses a less natural and [less] obvious train of thought."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 184. "Where the story of an epic poem is founded on truth, no circumstances must be added, but such as connect naturally with what are known to be true: history may be supplied, but it must not be contradicted."--See _Kames's El. of Crit._, ii, 280. "Others, I am told, pretend to have been once his friends. Surely they are their enemies, who say so; for nothing can be more odious than to treat a friend as they have treated him. But of this I cannot persuade myself, when I consider the constant and eternal aversion of all bad writers to a good one."--_Cleland, in Defence of Pope_. "From side to side, he struts, he smiles, he prates, And seems to wonder what's become of Yates."--_Churchill_. "Alas! what sorrows gloom'd that parting day, That call'd them from their native walks away!"--_Goldsmith_. LESSON III.--PARSING. "It is involved in the nature of man, that he cannot be indifferent to an event that concerns him or any of his connexions: if it be fortunate, it gives him joy; if unfortunate, it gives him sorrow."--_Kames's El. of Crit._, i, 62. "I knew a man who had relinquished the sea for a country life: in the corner of his garden he reared an artificial mount with a level summit, resembling most accurately a quarter-deck, not only in shape, but in size; and here he generally walked."--_Ib._, p. 328. "I mean, when we are angry with our Maker. For against whom else is it that our displeasure is pointed, when we murmur at the distribution of things here, either because our own condition is less agreeable than we would have it, or because that of others is more prosperous than we imagine they deserve?"--_Archbishop Seeker_. "Things cannot charge into the soul, or force us upon any opinions about them; they stand aloof and are quiet. It is our fancy that makes them operate and gall us; it is we that rate them, and give them their bulk and value."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 212. "What is your opinion of truth, good-nature, and sobriety? Do any of these virtues stand in need of a good word; or are they the worse for a bad one? I hope a diamond will shine ne'er the less for a man's silence about the worth of it."--_Ib._, p. 49. "Those words which were formerly current and proper, have now become obsolete and barbarous. Alas! this is not all: fame tarnishes in time too; and men grow out of fashion, as well as languages."--_Ib._, p. 55. "O Luxury! thou curs'd by Heaven's decree, How ill exchang'd are things like these for thee."--_Goldsmith_. "O, then, how blind to all that truth requires, Who think it freedom when a part aspires!"--_Id._ IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. ERRORS OF PRONOUNS. LESSON I.--RELATIVES. "At the same time that we attend to this pause, every appearance of sing-song and tone must be carefully guarded against."--_Murray's English Reader_, p. xx. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word _that_ had not clearly the construction either of a pronoun or of a conjunction. But, according to Observation 18th, on the Classes of Pronouns, "The word _that_, or indeed any other word, should never be so used as to leave the part of speech uncertain." Therefore, the expression should be altered: thus, "_While_ we attend to this pause, every appearance of _singsong_ must be carefully _avoided_."] "For thou shalt go to all that I shall send thee."--_Jeremiah_, i, 7; _Gurney's Obs._, p. 223. "Ah! how happy would it have been for me, had I spent in retirement these twenty-three years that I have possessed my kingdom."--See _Sanborn's Gram._, p. 242. "In the same manner that relative pronouns and their antecedents are usually parsed."--_Ib._, p. 71. "Parse or mention all the other nouns in the parsing examples, in the same manner that you do the word in the form of parsing."--_Ib._, p. 8. "The passive verb will always be of the person and number that the verb _be_ is, of which it is in part composed."--_Ib._, p. 53. "You have been taught that a verb must always be of the same person and number that its nominative is."--_Ib._, p. 68. "A relative pronoun, also, must always be of the same person, number, and even gender that its antecedent is."--_Ib._, p. 68. "The subsequent is always in the same case that the word is, which asks the question."--_Ib._, p. 95. "_One_ sometimes represents an antecedent noun in the same definite manner that personal pronouns do."--_Ib._, p. 98. "The mind being carried forward to the time that an event happens, easily conceives it to be present."--_Ib._, p. 107. "_Save_ and _saving_ are parsed in the same manner that _except_ and _excepting_ are."--_Ib._, p. 123. "Adverbs describe, qualify, or modify the meaning of a verb in the same manner that adjectives do nouns."--_Ib._, p. 16. "The third person singular of verbs, is formed in the same manner, that the plural number of nouns is."--_Ib._, p. 41. "He saith further: 'that the apostles did not anew baptize such persons, that had been baptized with the baptism of John.'"--_Barclay's Works_, i, 292. "For we which live, are always delivered unto death for Jesus' sake."--_2 Cor._, iv, 11. "For they, which believe in God, must be careful to maintain good works."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 431. "Nor yet of those which teach things which they ought not, for filthy lucre's sake."--_Ib._, i, 435. "So as to hold such bound in heaven, whom they bind on earth, and such loosed in heaven, whom they loose on earth."--_Ib._, i, 478. "Now, if it be an evil to do any thing out of strife; then such things that are seen so to be done, are they not to be avoided and forsaken?"--_Ib._, i, 522. "All such who satisfy themselves not with the superficies of religion."--_Ib._, ii, 23. "And he is the same in substance, what he was upon earth, both in spirit, soul and body."--_Ib._, iii, 98. "And those that do not thus, are such, to whom the Church of Rome can have no charity."--_Ib._, iii, 204. "Before his book he placeth a great list of that he accounts the blasphemous assertions of the Quakers."--_Ib._, iii, 257. "And this is that he should have proved."--_Ib._, iii, 322. "Three of which were at that time actual students of philosophy in the university."--_Ib._, iii, 180. "Therefore it is not lawful for any whatsoever * * * to force the consciences of others."--_Ib._, ii, 13. "What is the cause that the former days were better than these?"--_Eccl._, vii, 10. "In the same manner that the term _my_ depends on the name _books_."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 54. "In the same manner as the term _house_ depends on the relative _near_."--_Ib._, p. 58. "James died on the day that Henry returned."--_Ib._, p. 177. LESSON II.--DECLENSIONS. "_Other_ makes the plural _others_, when it is found without it's substantive."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 12. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the pronoun _it's_ is written with an apostrophe. But, according to Observation 25th, on the Declensions of Pronouns, "The possessive case of pronouns should never be written with an apostrophe." Therefore, this apostrophe should be omitted; thus, "_Other_ makes the plural _others_, when it is found without its substantive."] "But _his, her's, our's, your's, their's_, have evidently the form of the possessive case."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 23. "To the Saxon possessive cases, _hire, ure, eower, hira_, (that is, _her's, our's, your's, their's_,) we have added the _s_, the characteristic of the possessive case of nouns."--_Ib._, p. 23. "Upon the name of Jesus Christ our Lord, both their's and our's."--FRIENDS' BIBLE: _1 Cor._, i, 2. "In this Place _His_ Hand is clearly preferable either to Her's or It's." [220]--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 59. "That roguish leer of your's makes a pretty woman's heart ake."--ADDISON: _in Joh. Dict._ "Lest by any means this liberty of your's become a stumbling-block."--FRIENDS' BIBLE: _1 Cor._, viii, 9. "First person: Sing. I, mine, me; Plur. we, our's, us."--_Wilbur and Livingston's Gram._, p. 16. "Second person: Sing. thou, thine, thee; Plur. ye or you, your's, you."--_Ib._ "Third person: Sing. she, her's, her; Plur. they, their's, them."--_Ib._ "So shall ye serve strangers in a land that is not your's."--SCOTT ET AL.: _Jer._, v, 19. "Second person, Singular: Nom. thou or you, Poss. thine or yours, Obj. thee or you."--_Frost's El. of E. Gram._, p. 13. "Second person, Dual: Nom. Gyt, ye two; Gen. Incer, of ye two; Dat. Inc, incrum, to ye two; Acc. Inc, ye two; Voc. Eala inc, O ye two; Abl. Inc, incrum, from ye two."--_Gwill's Saxon Gram._, p. 12. "Second person, Plural; Nom. Ge, ye; Gen. Eower, of ye; Dat. Eow, to ye; Acc. Eow, ye; Voc. Eala ge, O ye; Abl. Eow, from ye."--_Ib._ (_written in_ 1829.) "These words are, _mine, thine, his, her's, our's, your's, their's_, and _whose_."--_Cardell's Essay_, p. 88. "This house is _our's_, and that is _your's. Their's_ is very commodious."--_Ib._, p. 90. "And they shall eat up thine harvest, and thy bread: they shall eat up thy flocks and thine herds."--_Jeremiah_, v, 17. "_Whoever_ and _Whichever_ are thus declined. _Sing._ and _Plu. nom._ whoever, _poss._ whoseever, _obj._ whomever. _Sing._ and _Plu. nom._ whichever, _poss._ whoseever, _obj._ whichever."--_Cooper's Plain and Practical Gram._, p. 38. "The compound personal pronouns are thus declined; _Sing. N._ Myself, _P._ my-own, _O._ myself; _Plur. N._ ourselves, _P._ our-own, _O._ ourselves. _Sing. N._ Thyself or yourself, _P._ thy-own or your-own, _O._ thyself or yourself;" &c.--_Perley's Gram._, p. 16. "Every one of us, each for hisself, laboured how to recover him."--SIDNEY: _in Priestley's Gram._, p. 96. "Unless when ideas of their opposites manifestly suggest their selves."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 49. "It not only exists in time, but is time its self."--_Ib._, p. 75. "A position which the action its self will palpably deny."--_Ib._, p. 102. "A difficulty sometimes presents its self."--_Ib._, p. 165. "They are sometimes explanations in their selves."--_Ib._, p. 249. "Our's, Your's, Their's, Her's, It's."--_S. Barrett's Gram._, p. 24. "Their's the wild chace of false felicities: His, the compos'd possession of the true." --_Murray's E. Reader_, p. 216. LESSON III.--MIXED. "It is the boast of Americans, without distinction of parties, that their government is the most free and perfect, which exists on the earth."--_Dr. Allen's Lectures_, p. 18. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the relative _which_ is here intended to be taken in a restrictive sense. But, according to Observation 26th, on the Classes of Pronouns, (and others that follow it,) the word _who_ or _which_, with a comma before it, does not usually limit the preceding term. Therefore, _which_ should be _that_, and the comma should be omitted; thus,--"that their government is the most free and perfect _that_ exists on the earth."] "Children, who are dutiful to their parents, enjoy great prosperity."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 69. "The scholar, who improves his time, sets an example worthy of imitation."--_Ib._, p. 69. "Nouns and pronouns, which signify the same person, place, or thing, agree in case."--_Cooper's Gram._, p. 115. "An interrogative sentence is one, which asks a question."--_Ib._, p. 114. "In the use of words and phrases, which in point of time relate to each other, a _due regard_ to _that relation_ should be _observed_."--_Ib._, p. 146; see _L. Murray_'s Rule xiii. "The same observations, which have been made respecting the effect of the article and participle, appear to be applicable to the pronoun and participle."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 193. "The reason that they have not the same use of them in reading, may be traced to the very defective and erroneous method, in which the art of reading is taught."--_Ib._, p. 252. "Since the time that reason began to exert her powers, thought, during our waking hours, has been active in every breast, without a moment's suspension or pause."--_Murray's Key_, p. 271; _Merchant's Gram._, p. 212. "In speaking of such who greatly delight in the same."--_Notes to Dunciad_, 177. "Except such to whom the king shall hold out the golden sceptre, that he may live."--_Esther_, iv, 11.--"But the same day that Lot went out of Sodom, it rained fire and brimstone from heaven, and destroyed them all."--_Luke_, xvii, 29. "In the next place I will explain several cases of nouns and pronouns which have not yet come under our notice."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 129. "Three natural distinctions of time are all which can exist."--_Rail's Gram._, p. 15. "We have exhibited such only as are obviously distinct; and which seem to be sufficient, and not more than sufficient."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 68; _Hall's_, 14. "This point encloses a part of a sentence which may be omitted without materially injuring the connexion of the other members."--_Hall's Gram._, p. 39. "Consonants are letters, which cannot be sounded without the aid of a Vowel."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 9. "Words are not simple sounds, but sounds, which convey a meaning to the mind."--_Ib._, p. 16. "Nature's postures are always easy; and which is more, nothing but your own will can put you out of them."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 197. "Therefore ought we to examine our ownselves, and prove our ownselves."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 426. "Certainly it had been much more natural, to have divided Active Verbs into _Immanent_, or such whose Action is terminated in it self, and _Transient_, or such whose Action is terminated in something without it self."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 273. "This is such an advantage which no other lexicon will afford."--DR. TAYLOR: _in Pike's Lex._, p. iv. "For these reasons, such liberties are taken in the Hebrew tongue with those words as are of the most general and frequent use."--_Pike's Heb. Lexicon_, p. 184. "At the same time that we object to the laws, which the antiquarian in language would impose upon us, we must enter our protest against those authors, who are too fond of innovations."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 136. CHAPTER VI.--VERBS. A Verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_: as, I _am_, I _rule_, I _am ruled_; I _love_, thou _lovest_, he _loves_. VERBS are so called, from the Latin _Verbum_, a _Word_; because the verb is that word which most essentially contains what is said in any clause or sentence. An English verb has four CHIEF TERMS, or PRINCIPAL PARTS, ever needful to be ascertained in the first place; namely, the _Present_, the _Preterit_, the _Imperfect Participle_, and the _Perfect Participle_. The _Present_ is that form of the verb, which is the root of all the rest; the verb itself; or that simple term which we should look for in a dictionary: as, _be, act, rule, love, defend, terminate_. The _Preterit_ is that simple form of the verb, which denotes time past; and which is always connected with some noun or pronoun, denoting the subject of the assertion: as, _I was, I acted, I ruled, I loved, I defended_. The _Imperfect Participle_ is that which ends commonly[221] in _ing_, and implies a _continuance_ of the being, action, or passion: as, _being, acting, ruling, loving, defending, terminating_. The _Perfect Participle_ is that which ends commonly in _ed_ or _en_, and implies a _completion_ of the being, action, or passion: as, _been, acted, ruled, loved_. CLASSES. Verbs are divided, with respect to their _form_, into four classes; _regular_ and _irregular, redundant_ and _defective_. I. A _regular verb_ is a verb that forms the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming _d_ or _ed_; as, _love, loved, loving, loved_. II. An _irregular verb_ is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming _d_ or _ed_; as, _see, saw, seeing, seen_. III. A _redundant verb_ is a verb that forms the preterit or the perfect participle in two or more ways, and so as to be both regular and irregular; as, _thrive, thrived_ or _throve, thriving, thrived_ or _thriven_. IV. A _defective verb_ is a verb that forms no participles, and is used in but few of the moods and tenses; as, _beware, ought, quoth_. Verbs are divided again, with respect to their _signification_, into four classes; _active-transitive, active-intransitive, passive_, and _neuter_. I. An _active-transitive_ verb is a verb that expresses an action which has some person or thing for its object; as, "Cain _slew Abel_."--"Cassius _loved Brutus_." II. An _active-intransitive_ verb is a verb that expresses an action which has no person or thing for its object; as, "John _walks_."--"Jesus _wept_." III. A. _passive verb_ is a verb that represents its subject, or what the nominative expresses, as being acted upon; as, "I _am compelled_."--"Cæsar _was slain_." IV. A _neuter verb_ is a verb that expresses neither action nor passion, but simply being, or a state of being; as, "There _was_ light."--"The babe _sleeps_." OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--So various have been the views of our grammarians, respecting this complex and most important part of speech, that almost every thing that is contained in any theory or distribution of the English verbs, may be considered a matter of opinion and of dispute. Nay, the essential nature of a verb, in Universal Grammar, has never yet been determined by any received definition that can be considered unobjectionable. The greatest and most acute philologists confess that a faultless definition of this part of speech, is difficult, if not impossible, to be formed. Horne Tooke, at the close of his Diversions of Purley, cites with contempt nearly a dozen different attempts at a definition, some Latin, some English, some French; then, with the abruptness of affected disgust, breaks off the catalogue and the conversation together, leaving his readers to guess, if they can, what he conceived a verb to be. He might have added some scores of others, and probably would have been as little satisfied with any one of them. A definition like that which is given above, may answer in some degree the purpose of distinction; but, after all, we must judge what is, and what is not a verb, chiefly from our own observation of the sense and use of words.[222] OBS. 2.--Whether _participles_ ought to be called verbs or not, is a question that has been much disputed, and is still variously decided; nor is it possible to settle it in any way not liable to some serious objections. The same may perhaps be said of all the forms called _infinitives_. If the essence of a verb be made to consist in affirmation, predication, or assertion, (as it is in many grammars,) neither infinitives nor participles can be reckoned verbs, without a manifest breach of the definition. Yet are the former almost universally treated as verbs, and by some as the only pure verbs; nor do all deny them this rank, who say that affirmation is _essential_ to a verb. Participles, when unconnected with auxiliaries, are most commonly considered a separate part of speech; but in the formation of many of our moods and tenses, we take them as _constituent parts of the verb_. If there is absurdity in this, there is more in undertaking to avoid it; and the inconvenience should be submitted to, since it amounts to little or nothing in practice. With auxiliaries, then, participles _are verbs_: without auxiliaries, they are _not verbs_, but form a separate part of speech. OBS. 3.--The number of verbs in our language, amounts unquestionably to four or five thousand; some say, (perhaps truly,) to eight thousand. All these, whatever be the number, are confessedly _regular_ in their formation, except about two hundred. For, though the catalogues in our grammars give the number somewhat variously, all the irregular, redundant, and defective verbs, put together, are _commonly_ reckoned fewer than two hundred. I admit, in all, two hundred and nineteen. The regular verbs, therefore, are vastly more numerous than those which deviate from the stated form. But, since many of the latter are words of very frequent occurrence, the irregular verbs appear exceedingly numerous in practice, and consequently require a great deal of attention. The defective verbs being very few, and most of these few being mere auxiliaries, which are never parsed separately, there is little occasion to treat them as a distinct class; though Murray and others have ranked them so, and perhaps it is best to follow their example. The redundant verbs, which are regular in one form and irregular in an other, being of course always found written either one way or the other, as each author chooses, may be, and commonly have been, referred in parsing to the class of regular or irregular verbs accordingly. But, as their number is considerable, and their character peculiar, there may be some advantage in making them a separate class. Besides, the definition of an irregular verb, as given in any of our grammars, seems to exclude all such as _may_ form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming _d_ or _ed_. OBS. 4.--In most grammars and dictionaries, verbs are divided, with respect to their signification, into three classes only; _active, passive_, and _neuter_. In such a division, the class of _active_ verbs includes those only which are _active-transitive_, and all the _active-intransitive_ verbs are called _neuter_. But, in the division adopted above, _active-intransitive_ verbs are made a distinct class; and those only are regarded as neuter, which imply a state of existence without action. When, therefore, we speak of verbs without reference to their regimen, we may, if we please, apply the simple term active to all those which express _action_, whether _transitive_ or _intransitive_. "We _act_ whenever we _do_ any thing; but we _may act_ without _doing_ any thing."--_Crabb's Synonymes_. OBS. 5.--Among the many English grammars in which verbs are divided, as above mentioned, into _active, passive_, and _neuter_, only, are those of the following writers: Lowth, Murray, Ainsworth, Alden, Allen, Alger, Bacon, Bicknell, Blair, Bullions, (at first,) Charles Adams, Bucke, Cobbett, Cobbin, Dilworth, A. Flint, Frost, (at first,) Greenleaf, Hall, Johnson,[223] Lennie, Picket, Pond, Sanborn, R. C. Smith, Rev. T. Smith, and Wright. These authors, and many more, agree, that, "A _verb neuter_ expresses neither action nor passion, but being, or a state of being."--_L. Murray_. Yet, according to their scheme, such words as _walk, run, fly, strive, struggle, wrestle, contend_, are verbs _neuter_. In view of this palpable absurdity, I cannot but think it was a useful improvement upon the once popular scheme of English grammar, to make active-intransitive verbs a distinct class, and to apply the term _neuter_ to those few only which accord with the foregoing definition. This had been done before the days of Lindley Murray, as may be seen in Buchanan's English Syntax, p. 56, and in the old British Grammar, p. 153, each published many years before the appearance of his work;[224] and it has often been done since, and is preferred even by many of the professed admirers and followers of Murray; as may be seen in the grammars of Comly, Fisk, Merchant, Kirkham, and others. OBS. 6.--Murray himself quotes this improved distribution, and with some appearance of approbation; but strangely imagines it must needs be _inconvenient_ in practice. Had he been a schoolmaster, he could hardly have so judged. He says, "Verbs have been distinguished by some writers, into the following kinds:-- "1st. _Active-transitive_, or those which denote an action that passes from the agent to some object: as, Cæsar conquered Pompey. "2d. _Active-intransitive_, or those which express that kind of action, which has no effect upon any thing beyond itself: as, Cæsar walked. "3d. _Passive_, or those which express, not action, but passion, whether pleasing or painful: as, Portia was loved; Pompey was conquered. "4th. _Neuter_, or those which express an attribute that consists neither in action nor passion: as, Cæsar stood. "This appears to be an orderly arrangement. But if the class of _active-intransitive_ verbs were admitted, _it would rather perplex_ than assist the learner: for the difference between verbs active and neuter, as transitive and intransitive is easy and obvious: but the difference between verbs absolutely neuter and [those which are] intransitively active, is not always clear. It is, indeed, often _very difficult_, if not impossible to be ascertained."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 60.[225] OBS. 7.--The following note, from a book written on purpose to apply the principles of Murray's Grammar, and of Allen's, (the two best of the foregoing two dozen,) may serve as an offset to the reason above assigned for rejecting the class of active-intransitive verbs: "It is possible that some teachers may look upon the nice distinction here made, between the active _transitive_ and the active _intransitive verbs_, as totally unnecessary. They may, perhaps, rank the latter with the neuter verbs. The author had his choice of difficulties: on the one hand, he was aware that his arrangement might not suit the views of the above-mentioned persons; and, on the other, he was so sensible of the inaccuracy of their system, and of its clashing with the definitions, as well as rules, laid down in almost every grammar, that he was unwilling to bring before the public a work containing so well-known and manifest an error. Of what use can Murray's definition of the _active_ verb be, to one who endeavours to prove the propriety of thus assigning an epithet to the various parts of speech, in the course of parsing? He says, 'A verb active expresses an action, and necessarily implies an agent, and an object acted upon.' In the sentence, 'William hastens away,' the active intransitive verb _hastens_ has indeed an _agent_, 'William,' but where is the _object_? Again, he says, 'Active verbs govern the objective case;' although it is clear it is not the _active_ meaning of the verb which requires the objective case, but the _transitive_, and that only. He adds, 'A verb neuter expresses _neither action, nor passion_, but being, or a state of being;' and the accuracy of this definition is borne out by the assent of perhaps every other grammarian. If, with this clear and forcible definition before our eyes, we proceed to class _active_ intransitive verbs with neuter verbs, and direct our pupils to prove such a classification by reciting Murray's definition of the _neuter_ verb, we may indeed expect from a thinking pupil the remonstrance which was actually made to a teacher on that system, while parsing the verb '_to run_.' 'Sir,' asks the boy, 'does not _to run_ imply action, for it always makes me perspire?'"--_Nixon's English Parser_, p. 9. OBS. 8.--For the consideration of those classical scholars who may think we are bound by the authority of _general usage_, to adhere to the old division of verbs into active, passive, and neuter, it may be proper to say, that the distribution of the verbs in Latin, has been as much a matter of dispute among the great grammarians of that language, as has the distribution of English verbs, more recently, among ourselves; and often the points at issue were precisely the same.[226] To explain here the different views of the very old grammarians, as Charisius, Donatus, Servius, Priscian; or even to notice the opinions of later critics, as Sanctius, Scioppius, Vossius, Perizonius; might seem perhaps a needless departure from what the student of mere English grammar is concerned to know. The curious, however, may find interesting citations from all these authors, under the corresponding head, in some of our Latin grammars. See _Prat's Grammatica Latina_, 8vo, London, 1722. It is certain that the division of _active_ verbs, into _transitive_ and _intransitive_--or, (what is the same thing,) into "_absolute_ and _transitive_"--or, into "_immanent_ and _transient_"--is of a very ancient date. The notion of calling _passive_ verbs _transitive_, when used in their ordinary and proper construction, as some now do, is, I think, a _modern_ one, and no small error. OBS. 9.--Dr. Adam's distribution of verbs, is apparently the same as the first part of Murray's; and his definitions are also in nearly the same words. But he adds, "The verb _Active_ is also called _Transitive_, when the action _passeth over_ to the object, or hath an effect on some other thing; as, _scribo literas_, I write letters: but when the action is confined within the agent, and _passeth not over_ to any object, it is called _Intransitive_; as, _ambulo_, I walk; _curro_, I run: [fist] which are likewise called _Neuter Verbs_."--_Adam's Latin and English Gram._, p. 79. But he had just before said, "A _Neuter_ verb properly expresses neither action nor passion, but _simply the being, state, or condition_ of things; as, _dormio_, I sleep; _sedeo_, I sit."--_Ibid._ Verbs of motion or action, then, must needs be as improperly called neuter, in Latin, as in English. Nor is this author's arrangement orderly in other respects; for he treats of "_Deponent_ and _Common_ Verbs," of "_Irregular_ Verbs," of "_Defective_ Verbs," and of "_Impersonal_ Verbs," none of which had he mentioned in his distribution. Nor are the late revisers of his grammar any more methodical. OBS. 10.--The division of our verbs into _active-transitive, active-intransitive, passive_, and _neuter_, must be understood to have reference not only to their _signification_ as of themselves, but also to their _construction_ with respect to the government of an objective word after them. The latter is in fact their most important distinction, though made _with reference_ to a different part of speech. The classical scholar, too, being familiar with the forms of Latin and Greek verbs, will doubtless think it a convenience, to have the arrangement as nearly correspondent to those ancient forms, as the nature of our language will admit. This is perhaps the strongest argument for the recognition of the class of _passive verbs_ in English. Some grammarians, choosing to parse the passive participle separately, reject this class of verbs altogether; and, forming their division of the rest with reference to the construction alone, make but two classes, _transitive_ and _intransitive_. Such is the distribution adopted by C. Alexander, D. Adams, Bingham, Chandler, E. Cobb, Harrison, Nutting, and John Peirce; and supported also by some British writers, among whom are McCulloch and Grant. Such too was the distribution of Webster, in his Plain and Comprehensive Grammar, as published in 1800. He then taught: "We have no _passive_ verb in the language; and those which are called _neuter_ are mostly _active_."--Page 14. But subsequently, in his Philosophical, Abridged, and Improved Grammars, he recognized "a more natural and comprehensive division" of verbs, "_transitive, intransitive, and passive_."--_Webster's Rudiments_, p. 20. This, in reality, differs but little from the old division into _active, passive_, and _neuter_. In some grammars of recent date, as Churchill's, R. W. Bailey's, J. R. Brown's, Butler's, S. W. Clark's, Frazee's, Hart's, Hendrick's, Perley's, Pinneo's, Weld's, Wells's, Mulligan's, and the _improved_ treatises of Bullions and Frost, verbs are said to be of _two_ kinds only, _transitive_ and _intransitive_; but these authors allow to transitive verbs a "passive form," or "passive voice,"--absurdly making all passive verbs transitive, and all neuters intransitive, as if _action_ were expressed by both. For this most faulty classification, Dr. Bullions pretends the authority of "Mr. Webster;" and Frazee, that of "Webster, Bullions, and others."--_Frazee's Gram._, Ster. Ed., p. 30. But if Dr. Webster ever taught the absurd doctrine _that passive verbs are transitive_, he has contradicted it far too much to have any weight in its favour. OBS. 11.--Dalton makes only two classes; and these he will have to be _active_ and _passive_: an arrangement for which he might have quoted Scaliger, Sanctius, and Scioppius. Ash and Coar recognize but two, which they call _active_ and _neuter_. This was also the scheme of Bullions, in his Principles of E. Gram., 4th Edition, 1842. Priestley and Maunder have two, which they call _transitive_ and _neuter_; but Maunder, like some named above, will have transitive verbs to be susceptible of an active and a passive voice, and Priestley virtually asserts the same. Cooper, Day, Davis, Hazen, Hiley, Webster, Wells, (in his 1st Edition,) and Wilcox. have three classes; _transitive, intransitive_, and _passive_. Sanders's Grammar has _three_; "_Transitive, Intransitive_, and _Neuter_;" and two voices, both _transitive!_ Jaudon has four: _transitive, intransitive, auxiliary_, and _passive_. Burn has four; _active, passive, neuter_, and _substantive_. Cardell labours hard to prove that all verbs are _both active and transitive_; and for this, had he desired their aid, he might have cited several ancient authorities.[227] Cutler avers, "_All verbs are active_;" yet he divides them "into _active transitive, active intransitive_, and _participial verbs_."--_Grammar and Parser_, p. 31. Some grammarians, appearing to think all the foregoing modes of division useless, attempt nothing of the kind. William Ward, in 1765, rejected all such classification, but recognized three voices; "Active, Passive, and Middle; as, _I call, I am called, I am calling_." Farnum, in 1842, acknowledged the first two of these voices, but made no division of verbs into classes. OBS. 12.--If we admit the class of _active-intransitive_ verbs, that of verbs _neuter_ will unquestionably be very small. And this refutes Murray's objection, that the learner will "_often_" be puzzled to know which is which. Nor can it be of any consequence, if he happen in some instances to decide wrong. To _be_, to _exist_, to _remain_, to _seem_, to _lie_, to _sleep_, to _rest_, to _belong_, to _appertain_, and perhaps a few more, may best be called _neuter_; though some grammarians, as may be inferred from what is said above, deny that there are any neuter verbs in any language. "Verba Neutra, ait Sanctius, nullo pacto esse possunt; quia, teste Aristotele, omnis motus, actio, vel passio, nihil medium est."--_Prat's Latin Gram._, p. 117. John Grant, in his Institutes of Latin Grammar, recognizes in the verbs of that language the distinction which Murray supposes to be so "very difficult" in those of our own; and, without falling into the error of Sanctius, or of Lily,[228] respecting neuter verbs, judiciously confines the term to such as are neuter in reality. OBS. 13.--Active-transitive verbs, in English, generally require, that the agent or doer of the action be expressed _before_ them in the nominative case, and the object or receiver of the action, _after_ them in the objective; as, "Cæsar _conquered_ Pompey." Passive verbs, which are never primitives, but always derived from active-transitive verbs, (in order to form sentences of like import from natural opposites in voice and sense,) reverse this order, change the cases of the nouns, and denote that the subject, named before them, is affected by the action; while the agent follows, being introduced by the preposition _by_: as, "Pompey _was conquered_ by Cæsar." But, as our passive verb always consists of two or more separable parts, this order is liable to be varied, especially in poetry; as, "How many things _by season seasoned are_ To their right praise and true perfection!"--_Shakspeare_. "Experience _is by industry achieved_, And _perfected by_ the swift _course_ of time."--_Id._ OBS. 14.--Most active verbs may be used either transitively or intransitively. Active verbs are transitive whenever there is any person or thing expressed or clearly implied on which the action terminates; as, "I _knew_ him well, and every truant _knew_."--_Goldsmith_. When they do not govern such an object, they are intransitive, whatever may be their power on other occasions; as, "The grand elementary principles of pleasure, by which he _knows_, and _feels_, and _lives_, and _moves_."--_Wordsworth's Pref._, p. xxiii. "The Father _originates_ and _elects_. The Son _mediates_ and _atones_. The Holy Spirit _regenerates_ and _sanctifies_."--_Gurney's Portable Evidences_, p. 66. "Spectators _remark_, judges _decide_, parties _watch_."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 271. "In a sermon, a preacher _may explain, demonstrate, infer, exhort, admonish, comfort_."--_Alexander's E. Gram._, p. 91. OBS. 15.--Some verbs may be used in either an active or a neuter sense. In the sentence, "Here I rest," _rest_ is a neuter verb; but in the sentence, "Here I rest my hopes," _rest_ is an active-transitive verb, and governs _hopes_. And a few that are always active in a grammatical sense, as necessarily requiring an object after them, do not always indicate such an exertion of force as we commonly call _action_. Such perhaps are the verbs to _have_, to _possess_, to _owe_, to _cost_; as, "They _have_ no wine."--"The house _has_ a portico."--"The man _possesses_ no real estate."--"A son _owes_ help and honour to his father."--_Holyday_. "The picture _cost_ a crown."--_Wright_, p. 181. Yet possibly even these may be sometimes rather active-intransitive; as, "I can bear my part; 'tis my occupation: _have_ at it with you."--_Shakspeare_. "Kings _have_ to deal with their neighbours."--_Bacon_. "She will let her instructions enter where folly now _possesses_."--_Shakspeare._ "Thou hast deserv'd more love than I can show; But 'tis thy fate to give, and mine to _owe_."--_Dryden_. OBS. 16.--An active-intransitive verb, followed by a preposition and its object, will sometimes admit of being put into the passive form: the object of the preposition being assumed for the nominative, and the preposition itself being retained with the verb, as an adverb: as, (_Active_,) "They _laughed_ at him."--(_Passive_,) "He _was laughed at_." "For some time the nonconformists _were connived at_."--_Robertson's America_, Vol. ii, p. 414. "Every man _shall be dealt_ equitably with."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 212. "If a church _would be looked up to_, it must stand high."--_Parker's Idea_, p. 15. OBS. 17.--In some instances, what is commonly considered the active form of the verb, is used in a passive sense; and, still oftener, as we have no other passive form that so well denotes continuance, we employ the participle in _ing_ in that sense also: as, "I'll teach you all what's _owing_ to your Queen."--_Dryden_. That is--what is _due_, or _owed_. "The books continue _selling_; i.e. _upon the sale_, or _to be sold_."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 111. "So we say the brass is _forging_; i.e. _at the forging_, or _in_ [_being forged_."]--_Ib._ "They are to _blame_; i.e. to _be blamed._"--_Ib._ Hence some grammarians seem to think, that in our language the distinction between active and passive verbs is of little consequence: "Mr. Grant, however, observes, p. 65, 'The component parts of the English verb, or name of action, are few, simple, and natural; they, consist of three words, as _plough, ploughing, ploughed_. Now these words, and their inflections, may be employed either actively or passively. Actively, 'They _plough_ the fields; they _are ploughing_ the fields; they _ploughed_, or _have ploughed_, the fields.' Passively, 'The fields _plough_ well; the fields _are ploughing_; the fields _are ploughed_.' This passive use of the present tense and participle is, however, restricted to what he denominates 'verbs of _external, material_, or _mechanical action_;' and not to be extended to verbs of _sensation_ and _perception_; e.g. _love, feel, see, &c_."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 40. MODIFICATIONS. Verbs have modifications of four kinds; namely, _Moods, Tenses, Persons_ and _Numbers_. MOODS. Moods [229] are different forms of the verb, each of which expresses the being, action, or passion, in some particular manner. There are five moods; the _Infinitive_, the _Indicative_, the _Potential_, the _Subjunctive_, and the _Imperative_. The _Infinitive mood_ is that form of the verb, which expresses the being, action, or passion, in an unlimited manner, and without person or number: as, "To _die_,--to _sleep_;--To _sleep_!--perchance, to _dream!_" The _Indicative mood_ is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing: as, I _write_; you _know_: or asks a question; as, "Do you _know?_"--"_Know_ ye not?" The _Potential mood_ is that form of the verb which expresses the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity, of the being, action, or passion: as, "I _can walk_; he _may ride_; we _must go_." The _Subjunctive mood_ is that form of the verb, which represents the being, action, or passion, as conditional, doubtful, and contingent: as, "If thou _go_, see that thou _offend_ not."--"See thou _do_ it not."--_Rev._, xix, 10. The _Imperative mood_ is that form of the verb which is used in commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting: as, "_Depart_ thou."--"Be _comforted_."--"_Forgive_ me."--"_Go_ in peace." OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--The _Infinitive_ mood is so called in opposition to the other moods, in which the verb is said to be _finite_. In all the other moods, the verb has a strict connexion, and necessary agreement in person and number, with some subject or nominative, expressed or understood; but the infinitive is the mere verb, without any such agreement, and has no power of completing sense with a noun. In the nature of things, however, all being, action, or passion, not contemplated abstractly as a _thing_, belongs to something that is, or acts, or is acted upon. Accordingly infinitives have, in most instances, a _reference_ to some subject of this kind; though their grammatical dependence connects them more frequently with some other term. The infinitive mood, in English, is distinguished by the preposition to; which, with a few exceptions, immediately precedes it, and may be said to govern it. In dictionaries, and grammars, _to_ is often used as a mere _index_, to distinguish verbs from the other parts of speech. But this little word has no more claim to be ranked as a part of the verb, than has the conjunction _if_, which is the sign of the subjunctive. It is the nature of a preposition, to show the relation of different things, thoughts, or words, to each other; and this "sign of the infinitive" may well be pursued separately as a preposition, since in most instances it manifestly shows the relation between the infinitive verb and some other term. Besides, by most of our grammarians, the present tense of the infinitive mood is declared to be the _radical form_ of the verb; but this doctrine must be plainly untrue, upon the supposition that this tense is a compound. OBS. 2.--The _Indicative_ mood is so called because its chief use is, to _indicate_, or declare positively, whatever one wishes to say. It is that form of the verb, which we always employ when we affirm or deny any thing in a direct and independent manner. It is more frequently used, and has a greater number of tenses, than any other mood; and is also, in our language, the only one in which the principal verb is varied in termination. It is not, however, on all occasions, confined to its primary use; else it would be simply and only declarative. But we use it sometimes interrogatively, sometimes conditionally; and each of these uses is different from a simple declaration. Indeed, the difference between a question and an assertion is practically very great. Hence some of the old grammarians made the form of inquiry a separate mood, which they called the _Interrogative Mood_. But, as these different expressions are distinguished, not by any difference of form in the verb itself, but merely by a different order, choice, or delivery of the words, it has been found most convenient in practice, to treat them as one mood susceptible of different senses. So, in every conditional sentence, the _prot'asis_, or condition, differs considerably from the _apod'osis_, or principal clause, even where both are expressed as facts. Hence some of our modern grammarians, by the help of a few connectives, absurdly merge a great multitude of Indicative or Potential expressions in what they call the _Subjunctive Mood_. But here again it is better to refer still to the Indicative or Potential mood whatsoever has any proper sign of such mood, even though it occur in a dependent clause. OBS. 3.--The _Potential_ mood is so called because the leading idea expressed by it, is that of the _power_ of performing some action. This mood is known by the signs _may, can, must, might, could, would_, and _should_. Some of these auxiliaries convey other ideas than that of power in the agent; but there is no occasion to explain them severally here. The potential mood, like the indicative, may be used in asking a question; as, "_Must_ I _budge_? _must_ I _observe_ you? _must_ I _stand_ and _crouch_ under your testy humour?"--_Shakspeare_. No question can be asked in any other mood than these two. By some grammarians, the potential mood has been included in the subjunctive, because its meaning is often expressed in Latin by what in that language is called the subjunctive. By others, it has been entirely rejected, because all its tenses are compound, and it has been thought the words could as well be parsed separately. Neither of these opinions is sufficiently prevalent, or sufficiently plausible, to deserve a laboured refutation. On the other hand, James White, in his Essay on the English Verb, (London, 1761,) divided this mood into the following five: "the _Elective_," denoted by _may_ or _might_; "the _Potential_," by _can_ or _could_; "the _Determinative_" by _would_; "the _Obligative_," by _should_; and "the _Compulsive_," by _must_. Such a distribution is needlessly minute. Most of these can as well be spared as those other "moods, _Interrogative, Optative, Promissive, Hortative, Precative_, &c.", which Murray mentions only to reject. See his _Octavo Gram._, p. 68. OBS. 4.--The _Subjunctive_ mood is so called because it is always _subjoined_ to an other verb. It usually denotes some doubtful contingency, or some supposition contrary to fact. The manner of its dependence is commonly denoted by one of the following conjunctions; _if, that, though, lest, unless_. The indicative and potential moods, in all their tenses, may be used in the same dependent manner, to express any positive or potential condition; but this seems not to be a sufficient reason for considering them as parts of the subjunctive mood. In short, the idea of a "subjunctive mood in the indicative form," (which is adopted by Chandler, Frazee, Fisk, S. S. Greene, Comly, Ingersoll, R. C. Smith, Sanborn, Mack, Butler, Hart, Weld, Pinneo, and others,) is utterly inconsistent with any just notion of what a mood is; and the suggestion, which we frequently meet with, that the regular indicative or potential mood may be _thrown into the subjunctive_ by merely prefixing a conjunction, is something worse than nonsense. Indeed, no mood can ever be made _a part of an other_, without the grossest confusion and absurdity. Yet, strange as it is, some celebrated authors, misled by an _if_, have tangled together three of them, producing such a snarl of tenses as never yet can have been understood without being thought ridiculous. See _Murray's Grammar_, and others that agree with his late editions. OBS. 5.--In regard to the number and form of the tenses which should constitute the _subjunctive mood_ in English, our grammarians are greatly at variance; and some, supposing its distinctive parts to be but elliptical forms of the indicative or the potential,[230] even deny the existence of such a mood altogether. On this point, the instructions published by Lindley Murray, however commended and copied, are most remarkably vague and inconsistent.[231] The early editions of his Grammar gave to this mood _six tenses_, none of which had any of the personal inflections; consequently there was, in all the tenses, _some difference_ between it and the indicative. His later editions, on the contrary, make the subjunctive exactly like the indicative, except in the present tense, and in the choice of auxiliaries for the second-future. Both ways, he goes too far. And while at last he restricts the _distinctive form_ of the subjunctive to narrower bounds than he ought, and argues against, "If thou _loved_, If thou _knew_," &c., he gives to this mood not only the last five tenses of the indicative, but also all those of the potential, with its multiplied auxiliaries; alleging, "that as the indicative mood _is converted_ into the subjunctive, by the expression of a condition, motive, wish, supposition, &c.[232] being superadded to it, so the potential mood may, in like manner, _be turned into_ the subjunctive."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 82. According to this, the subjunctive mood of every regular verb embraces, in one voice, as many as one hundred and thirty-eight different expressions; and it may happen, that in one single tense a verb shall have no fewer than fifteen different forms in each person and number. Six times fifteen are ninety; and so many are the several phrases which now compose Murray's pluperfect tense of the subjunctive mood of the verb _to strow_--a tense which most grammarians very properly reject as needless! But this is not all. The scheme not only confounds the moods, and utterly overwhelms the learner with its multiplicity, but condemns as bad English what the author himself once adopted and taught for the imperfect tense of the subjunctive mood, "If thou _loved_, If thou _knew_," &c., wherein he was sustained by Dr. Priestley, by Harrison, by Caleb Alexander, by John Burn, by Alexander Murray, the schoolmaster, and by others of high authority. Dr. Johnson, indeed, made the preterit subjunctive like the indicative; and this may have induced the author to change his plan, and inflect this part of the verb with _st_. But Dr. Alexander Murray, a greater linguist than either of them, very positively declares this to be wrong: "When such words as _if, though, unless, except, whether_, and the like, are used before verbs, they lose their terminations of _est, eth_, and _s_, in those persons which commonly have them. No speaker of good English, expressing himself conditionally, says, Though thou _fallest_, or Though he _falls_, but, Though thou _fall_, and Though he _fall_; nor, Though thou _camest_, but, Though, or although, thou _came_."--_History of European Languages_, Vol. i, p. 55. OBS. 6.--Nothing is more important in the grammar of any language, than a knowledge of the _true forms_ of its verbs. Nothing is more difficult in the grammar of our own, than to learn, in this instance and some others, what forms we ought to prefer. Yet some authors tell us, and Dr. Lowth among the rest, that our language is wonderfully simple and easy. Perhaps it is so. But do not its "simplicity and facility" appear greatest to those who know least about it?--i.e., least of its grammar, and least of its history? In citing a passage from the eighteenth chapter of Ezekiel, Lord Kames has taken the liberty to change the word _hath_ to _have_ seven times in one sentence. This he did, upon the supposition that the subjunctive mood has a perfect tense which differs from that of the indicative; and for such an idea he had the authority of Dr. Johnson's Grammar, and others. The sentence is this: "But if he _be_ a robber, a shedder of blood; if he _have_ eaten upon the mountains, and defiled his neighbour's wife; if he _have_ oppressed the poor and needy, _have_ spoiled by violence, _have_ not restored the pledge, _have lift_ up his eyes to idols, _have_ given forth upon usury, and _have_ taken increase: shall he live? he shall not live."--_Elements of Criticism_, Vol. ii, p. 261. Now, is this good English, or is it not? One might cite about half of our grammarians in favour of this reading, and the other half against it; with Murray, the most noted of all, first on one side, and then on the other. Similar puzzles may be presented concerning three or four other tenses, which are sometimes ascribed, and sometimes denied, to this mood. It seems to me, after much examination, that the subjunctive mood in English should have _two tenses_, and no more; the _present_ and the _imperfect_. The present tense of this mood naturally implies contingency and futurity, while the imperfect here becomes an _aorist_, and serves to suppose a case as a mere supposition, a case contrary to fact. Consequently the foregoing sentence, if expressed by the subjunctive at all, ought to be written thus: "But if he _be_ a robber, a shedder of blood; if he _eat_ upon the mountains, and _defile_ his neighbour's wife; if he _oppress_ the poor and needy, _spoil_ by violence, _restore_ not the pledge, _lift_ up his eyes to idols, _give_ forth upon usury, and _take_ increase; shall he live? he shall not live." OBS. 7.--"Grammarians _generally_ make a present and a past time under the subjunctive mode."--_Cobbett's E. Gram._, ¶ 100. These are the tenses which are given to the subjunctive by _Blair_, in his "_Practical Grammar_." If any one will give to this mood _more_ tenses than these, the five which are adopted by _Staniford_, are perhaps the least objectionable: namely, "_Present_, If thou love, or do love; _Imperfect_, If thou loved, or did love; _Perfect_, If thou have loved; _Pluperfect_, If thou had loved; _Future_, If thou should or would love."--_Staniford's Gram._, p. 22. But there are no sufficient reasons for even this extension of its tenses.--Fisk, speaking of this mood, says: "Lowth restricts it entirely to the present tense."--"Uniformity on this point is highly desirable."--"On this subject, we adopt the opinion of Dr. Lowth."--_English Grammar Simplified_, p. 70. His desire of uniformity he has both heralded and backed by a palpable misstatement. The learned Doctor's subjunctive mood, in the second person singular, is this: "_Present time_. Thou love; AND, Thou _mayest_ love. _Past time_. Thou _mightest_ love; AND, Thou _couldst_, &c. love; and have loved."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 38. But Fisk's subjunctive runs thus: "_Indic. form_, If thou lovest; _varied form_, If thou love." And again: "_Present tense_, If thou art, If thou be; _Imperfect tense_, If thou wast, If thou wert."--_Fisk's Grammar Simplified_, p. 70. His very definition of the subjunctive mood is illustrated _only by the indicative_; as, "If thou _walkest_."--"I will perform the operation, if he _desires_ it."--_Ib._, p. 69. Comly's subjunctive mood, except in some of his early editions, stands thus: "_Present tense_, If thou lovest; _Imperfect tense_, If thou lovedst or loved; _First future tense_, If thou (shalt) love."--_Eleventh Ed._, p. 41. This author teaches, that the indicative or potential, when preceded by an _if_, "should be _parsed_ in the subjunctive mood."--_Ib._, p. 42. Of what is in fact the true subjunctive, he says: "_Some writers_ use the singular number in the present tense of the subjunctive mood, without any variation; as, 'if I _love_, if thou _love_, if he _love_.' But this usage _must be ranked amongst the anomalies_ of our language."--_Ib._, p. 41. Cooper, in his pretended "_Abridgment of Murray's Grammar, Philad._, 1828," gave to the subjunctive mood the following form, which contains all six of the tenses: "2d pers. If thou love, If thou do love, If thou loved, If thou did love, If thou have loved, If thou had loved, If thou shall (or will) love, If thou shall (or will) have loved." This is almost exactly what Murray at first adopted, and afterwards rejected; though it is probable, from the abridger's preface, that the latter was ignorant of this fact. Soon afterwards, a perusal of Dr. Wilson's Essay on Grammar dashed from the reverend gentleman's mind the whole of this fabric; and in his "Plain and Practical Grammar, Philad., 1831," he acknowledges but four moods, and concludes some pages of argument thus: "From the above considerations, it will appear _to every sound grammarian_, that our language does not admit a subjunctive mode, at least, separate and distinct from the indicative and potential."--_Cooper's New Gram._, p. 63. OBS. 8.--The true _Subjunctive_ mood, in English, is virtually rejected by some later grammarians, who nevertheless acknowledge under that name a greater number and variety of forms than have ever been claimed for it in any other tongue. All that is peculiar to the Subjunctive, all that should constitute it a distinct mood, they represent as an archaism, an obsolete or antiquated mode of expression, while they willingly give to it every form of both the indicative and the potential, the two other moods which sometimes follow an _if_. Thus Wells, in his strange entanglement of the moods, not only gives to the subjunctive, as well as to the indicative, a "Simple" or "Common Form," and a "Potential Form;" not only recognizes in each an "Auxiliary Form," and a "Progressive Form;" but encumbers the whole with distinctions of style,--with what he calls the "Common Style," and the "Ancient Style;" or the "Solemn Style," and the "Familiar Style:" yet, after all, his own example of the Subjunctive, "Take heed, lest any man _deceive_ you," is obviously different from all these, and not explainable under any of his paradigms! Nor is it truly consonant with any part of his theory, which is this: "The subjunctive of all verbs except _be_, takes _the same form as the indicative_. Good writers were formerly much accustomed to _drop_ the personal termination in the _subjunctive present_, and write 'If he _have_,' 'If he _deny_,' etc., for 'If he _has_,' 'If he _denies_,' etc.; but this termination is now _generally retained_, unless _an auxiliary is understood_. Thus, 'If he _hear_,' may properly be used for 'If he _shall hear_' or 'If he _should hear_,' but not for 'If he _hears_.'"--_Wells's School Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 83; 3d Ed., p. 87. Now every position here taken is demonstrably absurd. How could "good writers" indite "much" bad English by _dropping_ from the subjunctive an indicative ending which never belonged to it? And how can a needless "auxiliary" be "_understood_," on the principle of equivalence, where, by awkwardly changing a mood or tense, it only helps some grammatical theorist to convert good English into bad, or to pervert a text? The phrases above may all be right, or all be wrong, according to the correctness or incorrectness of their application: when each is used as best it may be, there is no exact equivalence. And this is true of half a dozen more of the same sort; as, "If he _does hear_,"--"If he _do hear_,"--"If he is _hearing_,"--"If he _be hearing_,"--"If he _shall be hearing_,"--"If he _should be hearing_." OBS. 9.--Similar to Wells's, are the subjunctive forms of Allen H. Weld. Mistaking _annex_ to signify _prefix_, this author teaches thus: "ANNEX _if, though, unless, suppose, admit, grant, allow_, or any word implying a _condition_, to each tense of the _Indicative and Potential modes_, to form the subjunctive; as, If thou lovest or love. If he loves, or love. Formerly it was customary to _omit the terminations_ in the second and third persons of the present tense of the Subjunctive mode. But now the terminations are _generally retained_, except when the ellipsis of _shall_ or _should_ is implied; as, If he obey, i. e., if he _shall_, or _should_ obey."--_Weld's Grammar, Abridged Edition_, p. 71. Again: "_In general_, the form of the verb in the Subjunctive, _is the same as that of the Indicative_; but an _elliptical form_ in the second and third _person_ [persona] singular, is used in the following instances: (1.) _Future contingency_ is expressed by the _omission of the Indicative termination_; as, If he go, for, if he _shall_ go. Though he slay me, i.e., though he _should_ slay me. (2.) _Lest_ and _that_ annexed to a command are followed by the _elliptical form_ of the Subjunctive; as, Love not sleep [,] lest thou _come_ to poverty. (3.) _If_ with _but_ following it, when futurity is denoted, requires the _elliptical form_; as, If he _do_ but _touch_ the hills, they shall smoke."--_Ib._, p. 126. As for this scheme, errors and inconsistencies mark every part of it. First, the rule for forming the subjunctive is false, and is plainly contradicted _by all that is true_ in the examples: "_If thou love_," or, "_If he love_" contains not the form of the indicative. Secondly, no terminations have ever been "generally" omitted from, or retained in, the form of the subjunctive present; because that part of the mood, as commonly exhibited, is well known to be made of the _radical verb_, without inflection. One might as well talk of suffixes for the imperative, "_Love_ thou," or "_Do_ thou love." Thirdly, _shall_ or _should_ can never be really implied in the subjunctive present; because the supposed ellipsis, needless and unexampled, would change the tense, the mood, and commonly also the meaning. "If he _shall_," properly implies a condition of _future certainty_; "If he _should_," a supposition of _duty_: the true subjunctive suggests neither of these. Fourthly, "the ellipsis of _shall_, or _should_," is most absurdly called above, "the omission of the _Indicative termination_." Fifthly, it is very strangely supposed, that to omit what pertains to the _indicative_ or the _potential_ mood, will produce an "elliptical form of _the Subjunctive_." Sixthly, such examples as the last, "If he _do_ but _touch_ the hills," having the auxiliary _do_ not inflected as in the indicative, disprove the whole theory. OBS. 10.--In J. B. Chandler's grammars, are taken nearly the same views of the "Subjunctive or Conditional Mood," that have just been noticed. "This mood," we are told, "is _only_ the indicative _or_ potential mood, with the word _if_ placed before the nominative case."--_Gram. of_ 1821, p. 48; _Gram. of_ 1847, p. 73. Yet, of even _this_, the author has said, in the former edition, "It would, perhaps, be _better to abolish the use_ of the subjunctive mood entirely. _Its use_ is a continual source of dispute among grammarians, and of perplexity to scholars."--Page 33. The suppositive verb _were_,--(as, "_Were_ I a king,"--"If I _were_ a king,"--) which this author formerly rejected, preferring _was_, is now, after six and twenty years, replaced in his own examples; and yet he still attempts to _disgrace it_, by falsely representing it as being only "the indicative _plural_" very grossly misapplied! See _Chandler's Common School Gram._, p. 77. OBS. 11.--The _Imperative_ mood is so called because it is chiefly used in _commanding_. It is that brief form of the verb, by which we directly urge upon others our claims and wishes. But the nature of this urging varies according to the relation of the parties. We command inferiors; exhort equals; entreat superiors; permit whom we will;--and all by this same imperative form of the verb. In answer to a request, the imperative implies nothing more than permission. The will of a superior may also be urged imperatively by the indicative, future. This form is particularly common in solemn prohibitions; as, "Thou _shalt not kill_. * * * Thou _shalt not steal_."--_Exodus_, xx, 13 and 15. Of the ten commandments, eight are negative, and all these are indicative in form. The other two are in the imperative mood: "_Remember_ the sabbath day to keep it holy. _Honour_ thy father and thy mother."--_Ib._ But the imperative form may also be negative: as, "_Touch not; taste not; handle not_."--_Colossians_, ii, 21. TENSES. Tenses are those modifications of the verb, which distinguish time. There are six tenses; the _Present_, the _Imperfect_, the _Perfect_, the _Pluperfect_, the _First-future_, and the _Second-future_. The _Present tense_ is that which expresses what _now exists_, or _is taking_ place: as, "I _hear_ a noise; somebody _is coming_." The _Imperfect tense_ is that which expresses what _took place_, or _was occurring_, in time fully past: as, "I _saw_ him yesterday, and _hailed_ him as he _was passing_." The _Perfect tense_ is that which expresses what _has taken_ place, within some period of time not yet fully past: as, "I _have seen_ him to-day; something _must have detained_ him." The _Pluperfect tense_ is that which expresses what _had taken_ place, at some past time mentioned: as, "I _had seen_ him, when I met you." The _First-future tense_ is that which expresses what _will take_ place hereafter: as, "I _shall see_ him again, and I _will inform_ him." The _Second-future tense_ is that which expresses what _will have taken_ place, at some future time mentioned: as, "I _shall have seen_ him by tomorrow noon." OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--The terms here defined are the names usually given to those parts of the verb to which they are in this work applied; and though some of them are not so strictly appropriate as scientific names ought to be, it is thought inexpedient to change them. In many old grammars, and even in the early editions of Murray, the three past tenses are called the _Preterimperfect, Preterperfect_, and _Preterpluperfect_. From these names, the term _Preter_, (which is from the Latin preposition _præter_, meaning _beside, beyond_, or _past_,) has been well dropped for the sake of brevity.[233] OBS. 2.--The distinctive epithet _Imperfect_, or _Preterimperfect_, appears to have been much less accurately employed by the explainers of our language, than it was by the Latin grammarians from whom it was borrowed. That tense which passes in our schools for the _Imperfect_, (as, I _slept, did sleep_, or _was sleeping_,) is in fact, so far as the indicative mood is concerned, _more completely past_, than that which we call the _Perfect_. Murray indeed has attempted to show that the name is right; and, for the sake of consistency, one could wish he had succeeded. But every scholar must observe, that the simple preterit, which is the first form of this tense, and is never found in any other, as often as the sentence is declarative, tells what _happened_ within some period of time _fully past_, as _last week, last year_; whereas the perfect tense is used to express what _has happened_ within some period of time _not yet fully past_, as _this week, this year_. As to the completeness of the action, there is no difference; for what _has been done_ to-day, is as _completely done_, as what _was achieved_ a year ago. Hence it is obvious that the term _Imperfect_ has no other applicability to the English tense so called, than what it may have derived from the participle in _ing_, which we use in translating the Latin imperfect tense: as, _Dormiebam, I was sleeping; Legebam, I was reading; Docebam, I was teaching_. And if for this reason the whole English tense, with all its variety of forms in the different moods, "may, with propriety, be denominated _imperfect_;" surely, the participle itself should be so denominated _a fortiori_: for it always conveys this same idea, of "_action not finished_," be the tense of its accompanying auxiliary what it may. OBS. 3.--The tenses do not all express time with equal precision; nor can the whole number in any language supersede the necessity of adverbs of time, much less of dates, and of nouns that express periods of duration. The tenses of the indicative mood, are the most definite; and, for this reason, as well as for some others, the explanations of all these modifications of the verb, are made with particular reference to that mood. Some suppose the compound or participial form, as _I am writing_, to be more definite in time, than the simple form, as _I write_, or the emphatic form, as _I do write_; and accordingly they divide all the tenses into _Indefinite_ and _Definite_. Of this division Dr. Webster seems to claim the invention; for he gravely accuses Murray of copying it unjustly from him, though the latter acknowledges in a note upon his text, it "is, _in part_, taken from Webster's Grammar."--_Murray's Octavo Gram._, p. 73. The distribution, as it stands in either work, is not worth quarrelling about: it is evidently more cumbersome than useful. Nor, after all, is it true that the compound form is more definite in time than the other. For example; "Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, _was always betraying_ his unhappiness."--_Art of Thinking_, p. 123. Now, if _was betraying_ were a more definite tense than _betrayed_, surely the adverb "_always_" would require the latter, rather than the former. OBS. 4.--The present tense, of the indicative mood, expresses not only what is now actually going on, but general truths, and customary actions: as, "Vice _produces_ misery."--"He _hastens_ to repent, who _gives_ sentence quickly."--_Grant's Lat. Gram._, p. 71. "Among the Parthians, the signal _is given_ by the drum, and not by the trumpet."--_Justin_. Deceased authors may be spoken of in the present tense, because they seem to live in their works; as, "Seneca _reasons_ and _moralizes_ well."--_Murray_. "Women _talk_ better than men, from the superior shape of their tongues: an ancient writer _speaks_ of their loquacity three thousand years ago."--_Gardiner's Music of Nature_, p. 27. OBS. 5.--The text, John, viii, 58, "Before Abraham _was_, I _am_," is a literal Grecism, and not to be cited as an example of pure English: our idiom would seem to require, "Before Abraham _was_, I _existed_." In animated narrative, however, the present tense is often substituted for the past, by the figure _enallage_. In such cases, past tenses and present may occur together; because the latter are used merely to bring past events more vividly before us: as, "Ulysses _wakes_, not knowing where he _was_."--_Pope_. "The dictator _flies_ forward to the cavalry, beseeching them to dismount from their horses. They _obeyed_; they _dismount, rush_ onward, and for vancouriers _show_ their bucklers."--_Livy_. On this principle, perhaps, the following couplet, which Murray condemns as bad English, may be justified:-- "Him portion'd maids, apprentic'd orphans blest, The young who _labour_, and the old who _rest_." See _Murray's Key_, R. 13. OBS. 6.--The present tense of the subjunctive mood, and that of the indicative when preceded by _as soon as, after, before, till_, or _when_, is generally used with reference to future time; as, "If he _ask_ a fish, will he give him a serpent?"--_Matt._, vii, 10. "If I _will_ that he _tarry_ till I _come_, what is that to thee? Follow thou me."--_John_, xxi, 22. "When he _arrives_, I will send for you." The imperative mood has but one tense, and that is always present with regard to the giving of the command; though what is commanded, must be done in the future, if done at all. So the subjunctive may convey a present supposition of what the will of an other may make uncertain: as, "If thou _count_ me therefore a partner, _receive_ him as myself."--_St. Paul to Philemon_, 17. The perfect indicative, like the present, is sometimes used with reference to time that is relatively future; as, "He will be fatigued before he _has walked_ a mile."--"My lips shall utter praise, when thou _hast taught_ me thy statutes."--_Psalms_, cxix, 171. "Marvel not at this: for the hour is coming, in the which all that _are_ in the graves, shall hear his voice, and shall come forth; they that _have done_ good, unto the resurrection of life; and they that _have done_ evil, unto the resurrection of damnation."--_John_, v, 28. OBS. 7.--What is called the _present_ infinitive, can scarcely be said to express any particular time.[234] It is usually dependent on an other verb, and therefore relative in time. It may be connected with any tense of any mood: as, "I _intend to do_ it; I _intended to do_ it; I _have intended to do_ it; I _had intended to do_ it;" &c. For want of a better mode of expression, we often use the infinitive to denote futurity, especially when it seems to be taken adjectively; as, "The time _to come_,"--"The world _to come_,"--"Rapture yet _to be_." This, sometimes with the awkward addition of _about_, is the only substitute we have for the Latin future participle in _rus_, as _venturus, to come_, or _about to come_. This phraseology, according to Horne Tooke, (see _Diversions of Purley_, Vol. ii, p. 457,) is no fitter than that of our ancestors, who for this purpose used the same preposition, but put the participle in _ing_ after it, in lieu of the radical verb, which we choose to employ: as, "Generacions of eddris, who shewide to you to fle fro wraththe _to comynge?_"--_Matt._, iii, 7. Common Version: "O generation of vipers! who hath warned you to flee from the wrath _to come_?" "Art thou that art _to comynge_, ether abiden we another?"--_Matt._, xi, 3. Common Version: "Art thou he that _should come_, or do we look for another?" "Sotheli there the ship was _to puttyng out_ the charge."--_Dedis_, xxi, 3. Common Version: "For there the ship was _to unlade_ her burden."--_Acts_, xxi, 3. Churchill, after changing the names of the two infinitive tenses to "_Future imperfect_" and "_Future perfect_," adds the following note: "The tenses of the infinitive mood are usually termed _present_ and _preterperfect_: but this is certainly improper; for they are so completely future, that what is called the present tense of the infinitive mood is often employed simply to express futurity; as, 'The life _to come_.'"--_New Gram._, p. 249. OBS. 8.--The pluperfect tense, when used conditionally, in stead of expressing what actually _had taken place_ at a past time, almost always implies that the action thus supposed _never was performed_; on the contrary, if the supposition be made in a _negative form_, it suggests that the event _had occurred_: as, "Lord, if thou _hadst been here_, my brother _had not died_."--_John_, xi, 32. "If I _had not come_ and spoken unto them, they _had not had_ sin; but now they have no cloak for their sin."--_John_, xv, 22. "If thou _hadst known_, even thou, at least in this thy day, the things which belong unto thy peace! But now they are hid from thine eyes."--_Luke_, xix, 42. The supposition is sometimes indicated by a mere transposition of the verb and its subject; in which case, the conjunction _if_ is omitted; as, "_Had ye believed_ Moses, ye would have believed me."--_John_, v, 46. "_Had I but fought_ as wont, one thrust _Had laid_ De Wilton in the dust."--_Scott_ OBS. 9.--In the language of prophecy we find the past tenses very often substituted for the future, especially when the prediction is remarkably clear and specific. Man is a creature of present knowledge only; but it is certain, that He who sees the end from the beginning, has sometimes revealed to him, and by him, things deep in futurity. Thus the sacred seer who is esteemed the most eloquent of the ancient prophets, more than _seven hundred years_ before the events occurred, spoke of the vicarious sufferings of Christ as of things already past, and even then described them in the phraseology of historical facts: "Surely he _hath borne_ our griefs, _and carried_ our sorrows: yet we _did esteem_ him stricken, smitten of God, and afflicted. But he _was wounded_ for our transgressions; he _was bruised_ for our iniquities: the chastisement of our peace _was_ upon him; and by his stripes we are healed."--_Isaiah_, liii, 4 and 5. Multiplied instances of a similar application of the past tenses to future events, occur in the Bible, especially in the writings of this prophet. PERSONS AND NUMBERS. The person and number of a verb are those modifications in which it agrees with its subject or nominative. In each number, there are three persons; and in each person, two numbers: thus, _Singular._ _Plural._ 1st per. I love, 1st per. We love, 2d per. Thou lovest, 2d per. You love, 3d per. He loves; 3d per. They love. Definitions universally applicable have already been given of all these things; it is therefore unnecessary to define them again in this place. Where the verb is varied, the second person singular is regularly formed by adding _st_ or _est_ to the first person; and the third person singular, in like manner, by adding _s_ or _es_: as, I _see_, thou _seest_, he _sees_; I _give_, thou _givest_, he _gives_; I _go_, thou _goest_, he _goes_; I _fly_, thou _fliest_, he _flies_; I _vex_, thou _vexest_, he _vexes_; I _lose_, thou _losest_, he _loses._ Where the verb is not varied to denote its person and number, these properties are inferred from its subject or nominative: as, If I _love_, if thou _love_, if he _love_; if we _love_, if you _love_, if they _love_. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--It is considered a principle of Universal Grammar, that a finite verb must agree with its subject or nominative in person and number. Upon this principle, we ascribe to every such verb the person and number of the nominative word, whether the verb itself be literally modified by the relation or not. The doctrine must be constantly taught and observed, in every language in which the verbs have _any variations_ of this kind. But suppose an instance, of a language in which all the verbs were entirely destitute of such inflections; the principle, as regards that language, must drop. Finite verbs, in such a case, would still relate to their subjects, or nominatives, agreeably to the sense; but they would certainly be rendered incapable of adding to this relation any agreement or disagreement. So the concords which belong to adjectives and participles in Latin and Greek, are rejected in English, and there remains to these parts of speech nothing but a simple relation to their nouns according to the sense. And by the fashionable substitution of _you_ for _thou_, the concord of English verbs with their nominatives, is made to depend, in common practice, on little more than one single terminational _s_, which is used to mark one person of one number of one tense of one mood of each verb. So near does this practice bring us to the dropping of what is yet called a universal principle of grammar.[235] OBS. 2.--In most languages, there are in each tense, through all the moods of every verb, six different terminations to distinguish the different persons and numbers. This will be well understood by every one who has ever glanced at the verbs as exhibited in any Latin, Greek, French, Spanish, or Italian grammar. To explain it to others, a brief example shall be given: (with the remark, that the Latin pronouns, here inserted, are seldom expressed, except for emphasis:) "_Ego amo_, I love; _Tu amas_, Thou lovest; _Ille amat_, He loves; _Nos amamus_, We love; _Vos amatis_, You love; _Illi amant_, They love." Hence it may be perceived, that the paucity of variations in the English verb, is a very striking peculiarity of our language. Whether we are gainers or losers by this simplicity, is a question for learned idleness to discuss. The common people who speak English, have far less inclination to add new endings to our verbs, than to drop or avoid all the remains of the old. Lowth and Murray tell us, "This scanty provision of terminations _is sufficient_ for all the purposes of discourse;" and that, "_For this reason_, the plural termination _en_, (they _loven_, they _weren_,) formerly in use, was laid aside as _unnecessary_, and has long been obsolete."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 31; _Murray's_, 63. OBS. 3.--Though modern usage, especially in common conversation, evidently inclines to drop or shun all unnecessary suffixes and inflections, still it is true, that the English verb in some of its parts, varies its termination, to distinguish, or agree with, the different persons and numbers. The change is, however, principally confined to the second and third persons singular of the present tense of the indicative mood, and to the auxiliaries _hast_ and _has_ of the perfect. In the ancient biblical style, now used only on solemn occasions, the second person singular is distinguished through all the tenses of the indicative and potential moods. And as the use of the pronoun _thou_ is now mostly confined to the solemn style, the terminations of that style are retained in connexion with it, through all the following examples of the conjugation of verbs. In the plural number, there is no variation of ending, to denote the different persons; and the verb in the three persons plural, (with the two exceptions _are_ and _were_, from _am_ and _was_,) is the same as in the first person singular. Nor does the use of _you_ for the singular, warrant its connexion with any other than the plural form of the verb. This strange and needless confusion of the numbers, is, in all languages that indulge it, a practical inconvenience. It would doubtless have been much better, had _thou_ and _you_ still kept their respective places--the one, nominative singular--the other, objective plural--as they appear in the Bible. But as the English verb is always attended by a noun or a pronoun, expressing the subject of the affirmation, no ambiguity arises from the want of particular terminations in the verb, to distinguish the different persons and numbers. OBS. 4.--Although our language, in its ordinary use, exhibits the verbs in such forms only, as will make, when put together, but a very simple conjugation; there is probably no other language on earth, in which it would be so difficult for a learned grammarian to fix, settle, and exhibit, to the satisfaction of himself and others, the principles, paradigms, rules, and exceptions, which are necessary for a full and just exhibition of this part of speech. This difficulty is owing, partly to incompatibilities or unsettled boundaries between the solemn and the familiar style; partly to differences in the same style between ancient usage and modern; partly to interfering claims of new and old forms of the preterit and the perfect participle; partly to the conflicting notions of different grammarians respecting the subjunctive mood; and partly to the blind tenacity with which many writers adhere to rugged derivatives, and prefer unutterable contractions to smooth and easy abbreviations. For example: a clergyman says to a lucky gamester, (1.) "_You dwell_ in a house which _you_ neither _planned_ nor _built_." A member of the Society of Friends would say, (2.) "_Thou dwellst_ in a house which _thou_ neither _planned_ nor _built_." Or, if not a scholar, as likely as not, (3.) "_Thee dwells_ in a house which _thee_ neither _planned_ nor _built_." The old or solemn style would b3, (4.) "_Thou dwellest_ in a house which _thou_ neither _plannedst_ nor _buildedst_." Some untasteful and overgrammatical poet will have it, (5.) "_Thou dwell'st_ in halls _thou_ neither _plann'dst_ nor _build'dst_." The doctrine of Murray's Grammar, and of most others, would require, (6.) "_Thou dwellest_ in a house which _thou_ neither _plannedst_ nor _builtest_." Or, (according to this author's method of avoiding unpleasant sounds,) the more complex form, (7.) "_Thou dost dwell_ in a house which _thou_ neither _didst plan_ nor _didst build_." Out of these an other poet will make the line, (8.) "_Dost dwell_ in halls which _thou_ nor _plann'dst_ nor _built'st_." An other, more tastefully, would drop the _st_ of the preterit, and contract the present, as in the second instance above: thus, (9.) "_Thou dwellst_ in halls _thou_ neither _planned_ nor _built_, And _revelst_ there in riches won by guilt." OBS. 5.--Now let all these nine different forms of saying the same thing, by the same verbs, in the same mood, and the same two tenses, be considered. Let it also be noticed, that for these same verbs within these limits, there are yet other forms, of a complex kind; as, "_You do dwell_," or, "_You are dwelling_;" used in lieu of, "_Thou dost dwell_," or, "_Thou art dwelling_:" so, "_You did plan_," or, "_You were planning_;" used in lieu of, "_Thou didst plan_," or, "_Thou wast planning_." Take into the account the opinion of Dr. Webster and others, that, "_You was planning_," or, "_You was building_," is a still better form for the singular number; and well "established by national usage, both here and in England."--_Improved Gram._, p. 25. Add the less inaccurate practice of some, who use _was_ and _did_ familiarly with _thou_; as, "_Thou was planning, did thou build?_" Multiply all this variety tenfold, with a view to the other moods and tenses of these three verbs, _dwell, plan_, and _build_; then extend the product, whatever it is, from these three common words, to _all_ the verbs in the English language. You will thus begin to have some idea of the difficulty mentioned in the preceding observation. But this is only a part of it; for all these things relate only to the second person singular of the verb. The double question is, Which of these forms ought to be approved and taught for that person and number? and which of them ought to be censured and rejected as bad English? This question is perhaps as important, as any that can arise in English grammar. With a few candid observations by way of illustration, it will be left to the judgement of the reader. OBS. 6.--The history of _youyouing_ and _thoutheeing_ appears to be this. Persons in high stations, being usually surrounded by attendants, it became, many centuries ago, a species of court flattery, to address individuals of this class, in the plural number, as if a great man were something more than one person. In this way, the notion of greatness was agreeably _multiplied_, and those who laid claim to such honour, soon began to think themselves insulted whenever they were addressed with any other than the plural pronoun.[236] Humbler people yielded through fear of offence; and the practice extended, in time, to all ranks of society: so that at present the customary mode of familiar as well as complimentary address, is altogether plural; both the verb and the pronoun being used in that form.[237] This practice, which confounds one of the most important distinctions of the language, affords a striking instance of the power of fashion. It has made propriety itself _seem_ improper. But shall it be allowed, in the present state of things, to confound our conjugations and overturn our grammar? Is it right to introduce it into our paradigms, as the only form of the second person singular, that modern usage acknowledges? Or is it expedient to augment by it that multiplicity of other forms, which must either take this same place or be utterly rejected? With due deference to those grammarians who have adopted one or the other of these methods, the author of this work answers all these questions decidedly in the negative. It is not to be denied, that the use of the plural _for the singular_ is now so common as to form the _customary mode_ of address to individuals of every rank. The Society of Friends, or Quakers, however, continue to employ the singular number in familiar discourse; and custom, which has now destroyed the compliment of the plural, has removed also the supposed opprobrium of the singular, and placed it on an equality with the plural in point of respect. The singular is universally employed in reference to the Supreme Being; and is generally preferred in poetry. It is the language of Scripture, and of the Prayer-Book; and is consistently retained in nearly all our grammars; though not always, perhaps, consistently treated. OBS. 7.--Whatever is fashionable in speech, the mere disciples of fashion will always approve; and, probably, they will think it justifiable to despise or neglect all that is otherwise. These may be contented with the sole use of such forms of address as, "_You, you, sir_;"--"_You, you, madam_." But the literati who so neglect all the services of religion, as to forget that these are yet conducted in English independently of all this fashionable youyouing, must needs be poor judges of what belongs to their own justification, either as grammarians or as moral agents. A fashion by virtue of which millions of youths are now growing up in ignorance of that form of address which, in their own tongue, is most appropriate to poetry, and alone adapted to prayer, is perhaps not quite so light a matter as some people imagine. It is at least so far from being a good reason for displacing that form from the paradigms of our verbs in a grammar, that indeed no better needs be offered for tenaciously retaining it. Many children may thus learn at school what all should know, and what there is little chance for them to learn elsewhere. Not all that presume to minister in religion, are well acquainted with what is called the solemn style. Not all that presume to explain it in grammars, do know what it is. A late work, which boasted the patronage of De Witt Clinton, and through the influence of false praise came nigh to be imposed by a law of New York on all the common schools of that State; and which, being subsequently sold in Philadelphia for a great price, was there republished under the name of the "National School Manual;" gives the following account of this part of grammar: "In the solemn and poetic styles, the second person singular, in both the above tenses, is thou; and the second person plural, is ye, _or you_. The verb, to agree with the second person singular, changes its termination. Thus: 2d person, sing. Pres. Tense, Thou walkest, _or Thou walketh_. Imperfect Tense, Thou walkedst. In the third person singular, _in the above styles_, the verb has sometimes _a different_ termination; as, Present Tense, He, she, or _it walks_ or walketh. The _above form of inflection_ may be applied _to all verbs_ used in the solemn _or_ poetic _styles_; but for ordinary purposes, I have supposed it proper to employ the form of the verb, adopted in common conversation, as least perplexing to young minds."--_Bartlett's Common School Manual_, Part ii, p. 114. What can be hoped from an author who is ignorant enough to think "_Thou walketh_" is good English? or from one who tells us, that "_It walks_" is of the solemn style? or from one who does not know that _you_ is never a _nominative_ in the style of the Bible? OBS. 8.--Nowhere on earth is fashion more completely mistress of all the tastes and usages of society, than in France. Though the common French Bible still retains the form of the second person singular, which in that language is shorter and perhaps smoother than the plural; yet even that sacred book, or at least the New Testament, and that by different persons, has been translated into more fashionable French, and printed at Paris, and also at New York, with the form of address everywhere plural; as, "Jesus anticipated him, saying, 'What _do you think_, Simon? of whom do the kings of the earth take taxes and tribute?'"--_Matt._, xvii, 24. "And, going to prayers, they said, '0 Lord, _you who know_ the hearts of all men, show which of these two _you have chosen_.'"--_Acts_, i, 24. This is one step further in the progress of politeness, than has yet been taken in English. The French grammarians, however, as far as I can perceive, have never yet disturbed the ancient order of their conjugations and declensions, by inserting the plural verb and pronoun in place of the singular; and, in the familiarity of friendship, or of domestic life, the practice which is denominated _tutoyant_, or _thoutheeing_, is far more prevalent in France than in England. Also, in the prayers of the French, the second person singular appears to be yet generally preserved, as it is in those of the English and the Americans. The less frequent use of it in the familiar conversation of the latter, is very probably owing to the general impression, that it cannot be used with propriety, except in the solemn style. Of this matter, those who have laid it aside themselves, cannot with much modesty pretend to judge for those who have not; or, if they may, there is still a question how far it is right to lay it aside. The following lines are a sort of translation from Horace; and I submit it to the reader, whether it is comely for a Christian divine to be less reverent toward God, than a heathen poet; and whether the plural language here used, does not lack the reverence of the original, which is singular:-- "Preserve, Almighty Providence! Just what _you gave_ me, competence."--_Swift_. OBS. 9.--The terms, _solemn style, familiar style, modern style, ancient style, legal style, regal style, nautic style, common style_, and the like, as used in grammar, imply no certain divisions of the language; but are designed merely to distinguish, in a general way, the _occasions_ on which some particular forms of expression may be considered proper, or the _times_ to which they belong. For what is grammatical sometimes, may not be so always. It would not be easy to tell, definitely, in what any one of these styles consists; because they all belong to one language, and the number or nature of the peculiarities of each is not precisely fixed. But whatever is acknowledged to be peculiar to any one, is consequently understood to be improper for any other: or, at least, the same phraseology cannot belong to styles of an opposite character; and words of general use belong to no particular style.[238] For example: "So then it is not of him that _willeth_, nor of him that _runneth_, but of God that _showeth_ mercy."--_Rom._, ix, 16. If the termination _eth_ is not obsolete, as some say it is, all verbs to which this ending is added, are of the solemn style; for the common or familiar expression would here be this; "So then it is not of him that _wills_, nor of him that _runs_, but of God that _shows_ mercy." Ben Jonson, in his grammar, endeavoured to arrest this change of _eth_ to _s_; and, according to Lindley Murray, (_Octavo Gram._, p. 90,) Addison also injudiciously disapproved it. In spite of all such objections, however, some future grammarian will probably have to say of the singular ending _eth_, as Lowth and Murray have already said of the plural _en_: "It was laid aside as unnecessary." OBS. 10.--Of the origin of the personal terminations of English verbs, that eminent etymologist Dr. Alexander Murray, gives the following account: "The readers of our modern tongue may be reminded, that the terminations, _est, eth_, and _s_, in our verbs, as in _layest, layeth_, and _laid'st_, or _laidest_; are the faded _remains of the pronouns_ which were formerly joined to the verb itself, and placed the language, in respect of concise expression, on a level with the Greek, Latin, and Sanscrit, its sister dialects."--_History of European Languages_, Vol. i, p. 52. According to this, since other signs of the persons and numbers are now employed with the verb, it is not strange that there should appear a tendency to lay aside such of these endings as are least agreeable and least necessary. Any change of this kind will of course occur first in the familiar style. For example: "Thou _wentest_ in to men uncircumcised, and _didst eat_ with them."--_Acts_, xi, 3. "These things write I unto thee, that thou _mayst_ know how thou _oughtest_ to behave thyself in the house of God."--_1 Tim._, iii, 15. These forms, by universal consent, are now of the solemn style; and, consequently, are really good English in no other. For nobody, I suppose, will yet pretend that the inflection of our preterits and auxiliaries by _st_ or _est_, is entirely _obsolete_;[239] and surely no person of any literary taste ever uses the foregoing forms familiarly. The termination _est_, however, has _in some instances_ become obsolete; or has faded into _st_ or _t_, even in the solemn style. Thus, (if indeed, such forms ever were in good use,) _diddest_ has become _didst; havest, hast; haddest, hadst; shallest, shalt; willest, wilt_; and _cannest, canst. Mayest, mightest, couldest, wouldest_, and _shouldest_, are occasionally found in books not ancient; but _mayst, mightst, couldst, wouldst_, and _shouldst_, are abundantly more common, and all are peculiar to the solemn style. _Must, burst, durst, thrust, blest, curst, past, lost, list, crept, kept, girt, built, felt, dwelt, left, bereft_, and many other verbs of similar endings, are seldom, if ever, found encumbered with an additional _est_. For the rule which requires this ending, has always had many exceptions that have not been noticed by grammarians.[240] Thus Shakspeare wrote even in the present tense, "Do as thou _list_," and not "Do as thou _listest_." Possibly, however, _list_ may here be reckoned of the subjunctive mood; but the following example from Byron is certainly in the indicative:-- "And thou, who never yet of human wrong _Lost_ the unbalanced scale, great Nemesis!"--_Harold_, C. iv, st. 132. OBS. 11.--Any phraseology that is really obsolete, is no longer fit to be imitated even in the solemn style; and what was never good English, is no more to be respected in that style, than in any other. Thus: "Art not thou that Egyptian, _which_ before these days _madest_ an uproar, and _leddest_ out into the wilderness four thousand men that were murderers?"--_Acts_, xxi, 38. Here, (I think,) the version ought to be, "Art not thou that Egyptian, _who_ a while ago _made_ an uproar, and _led_ out into the wilderness four thousand men, that were murderers?" If so, there is in this no occasion to make a difference between the solemn and the familiar style. But what is the familiar form of expression for the texts cited before? The fashionable will say, it is this: "_You went_ in to men uncircumcised, and _did eat_ with them."--"I write these things to _you_, that _you may know_ how _you ought_ to behave _yourself_ in the house of God." But this is not _literally_ of the singular number: it is no more singular, than _vos_ in Latin, or _vous_ in French, or _we_ used for _I_ in English, is singular. And if there remains to us any other form, that is both singular and grammatical, it is unquestionably the following: "_Thou went_ in to men uncircumcised, and _did eat_ with them."--"I write these things to _thee_, that thou _may know_ how _thou ought_ to behave _thyself_ in the house of God." The acknowledged doctrine of all the teachers of English grammar, that the inflection of our auxiliaries and preterits by _st_ or _est_ is peculiar to "the solemn style," leaves us no other alternative, than either to grant the propriety of here dropping the suffix for the familiar style, or to rob our language of any familiar use of the pronoun _thou_ forever. Who, then, are here the neologists, the innovators, the impairers of the language? And which is the greater _innovation_, merely to drop, on familiar occasions, or _when it suits our style_, one obsolescent verbal termination,--a termination often dropped _of old_ as well as now,--or to strike from the conjugations of all our verbs one sixth part of their entire scheme?[241] "O mother myn, that cleaped _were_ Argyue, Wo worth that day that thou me _bare_ on lyue."--_Chaucer_. OBS. 12.--The grammatical propriety of distinguishing from the solemn style both of the forms presented above, must be evident to every one who considers with candour the reasons, analogies, and authorities, for this distinction. The support of the latter is very far from resting solely on the practice of a particular sect; though this, if they would forbear to corrupt the pronoun while they simplify the verb, would deserve much more consideration than has ever been allowed it. Which of these modes of address is the more grammatical, it is useless to dispute; since fashion rules the one, and a scruple of conscience is sometimes alleged for the other. A candid critic will consequently allow all to take their choice. It is enough for him, if he can demonstrate to the candid inquirer, what phraseology is in any view allowable, and what is for any good reason reprehensible. That the use of the plural for the singular is ungrammatical, it is neither discreet nor available to affirm; yet, surely, it did not originate in any regard to grammar rules. Murray the schoolmaster, whose English Grammar appeared some years before that of Lindley Murray, speaks of it as follows: "_Thou_, the second person singular, though _strictly grammatical_, is seldom used, except in addresses to God, in poetry, and by the people called Quakers. In all other cases, a _fondness for foreign manners_,[242] and the power of custom, have given a sanction to the use of _you_, for the second person singular, though _contrary to grammar_,[243] and attended with this particular inconveniency, that a plural verb must be used to agree with the pronoun in number, and both applied to a _single person_; as, _you are_, or _you were_,--not _you wast_, or _you was_."--_Third Edition_, Lond., 1793, p. 34. This author everywhere exhibits the auxiliaries, _mayst, mightst, couldst, wouldst_, and _shouldst_, as words of one syllable; and also observes, in a marginal note, "Some writers begin to say, '_Thou may, thou might_,' &c."--_Ib._, p. 36. Examples of this are not very uncommon: "Thou _shall_ want ere I want."--_Old Motto; Scott's Lay_, Note 1st to Canto 3. "Thyself the mournful tale _shall_ tell."--_Felton's Gram._, p. 20. "One sole condition would I dare suggest, That _thou would save_ me from my own request."--_Jane Taylor_. OBS. 13.--In respect to the second person singular, the grammar of Lindley Murray makes no distinction between the solemn and the familiar style; recognizes in no way the fashionable substitution of _you_ for _thou_; and, so far as I perceive, takes it for granted, that every one who pretends to speak or write grammatically, must always, in addressing an individual, employ the singular pronoun, and inflect the verb with _st_ or _est_, except in the imperative mood and the subjunctive present. This is the more remarkable, because the author was a valued member of the Society of Friends; and doubtless his own daily practice contradicted his doctrine, as palpably as does that of every other member of the Society. And many a schoolmaster, taking that work for his text-book, or some other as faulty, is now doing precisely the same thing. But what a teacher is he, who dares not justify as a grammarian that which he constantly practices as a man! What a scholar is he, who can be led by a false criticism or a false custom, to condemn his own usage and that of every body else! What a casuist is he, who dares pretend conscience for practising that which he knows and acknowledges to be wrong! If to speak in the second person singular without inflecting our preterits and auxiliaries, is a censurable corruption of the language, the Friends have no alternative but to relinquish their scruple about the application of _you_ to one person; for none but the adult and learned can ever speak after the manner of ancient books: children and common people can no more be brought to speak agreeably to any antiquated forms of the English language, than according to the imperishable models of Greek and Latin. He who traces the history of our vernacular tongue, will find it has either simplified or entirely dropped several of its ancient terminations; and that the _st_ or _est_ of the second person singular, _never was adopted_ in any thing like the extent to which our modern grammarians have attempted to impose it. "Thus becoming unused to inflections, we lost the perception of their meaning and nature."--_Philological Museum_, i, 669. "You cannot make a whole people all at once talk in a different tongue from that which it has been used to talk in: you cannot force it to unlearn the words it has learnt from its fathers, in order to learn a set of newfangled words out of [a grammar or] a dictionary."--_Ib._, i, 650. Nor can you, in this instance, restrain our poets from transgressing the doctrine of Lowth and Murray:-- "Come, thou pure Light,--which first in Eden _glowed._ And _threw_ thy splendor round man's calm abode."--_Alonzo Lewis_. OBS. 14.--That which has passed away from familiar practice, may still be right in the solemn style, and may there remain till it becomes obsolete. But no obsolescent termination has ever yet been recalled into the popular service. This is as true in other languages as in our own: "In almost every word of the Greek," says a learned author, "we meet with contractions and abbreviations; but, I believe, the flexions of no language allow of extension or amplification. In our own we may write _sleeped_ or _slept_, as the metre of a line or the rhythm of a period may require; but by no license may we write _sleepeed._"--_Knight, on the Greek Alphabet_, 4to, p. 107. But, if after contracting _sleeped_ into _slept_, we add an _est_ and make _sleptest_, is there not here an extension of the word from one syllable to two? Is there not an amplification that is at once novel, disagreeable, unauthorized, and unnecessary? Nay, even in the regular and established change, as of _loved_ to _lovedst_, is there not a syllabic increase, which is unpleasant to the ear, and unsuited to familiar speech? Now, to what extent do these questions apply to the verbs in our language? Lindley Murray, it is presumed, had no conception of that extent; or of the weight of the objection which is implied in the second. With respect to a vast number of our most common verbs, he himself never knew, nor does the greatest grammarian now living know, in what way he ought to form the simple past tense in the second person singular, otherwise than by the mere uninflected preterit with the pronoun _thou_. Is _thou sleepedst_ or _thou sleptest, thou leavedst_ or _thou leftest, thou feeledst_ or _thou feltest, thou dealedst_ or _thou dealtest, thou tossedst_ or _thou tostest, thou losedst_ or _thou lostest, thou payedst_ or _thou paidest, thou layedst_ or _thou laidest_, better English than _thou slept, thou left, thou felt, thou dealt, thou tossed, thou lost, thou paid, thou laid?_ And, if so, of the two forms in each instance, which is the right one? and why? The Bible has "_saidst_" and "_layedst_;" Dr. Alexander Murray, "_laid'st_" and "_laidest!_" Since the inflection of our preterits has never been orderly, and is now decaying and waxing old, shall we labour to recall what is so nearly ready to vanish away? "Tremendous Sea! what time _thou lifted_ up Thy waves on high, and with thy winds and storms Strange pastime _took_, and _shook_ thy mighty sides Indignantly, the pride of navies fell."--_Pollok_, B. vii, l. 611. OBS. 15.--Whatever difficulty there is in ascertaining the true form of the preterit itself, not only remains, but is augmented, when _st_ or _est_ is to be added for the second person of it. For, since we use sometimes one and sometimes the other of these endings; (as, said_st_, saw_est_, bid_st_, knew_est_, loved_st_, went_est_;) there is yet need of some rule to show which we ought to prefer. The variable formation or orthography of verbs in the simple past tense, has always been one of the greatest difficulties that the learners of our language have had to encounter. At present, there is a strong tendency to terminate as many as we can of them in _ed_, which is the only regular ending. The pronunciation of this ending, however, is at least threefold; as in _remembered, repented, relinquished._ Here the added sounds are, first _d_, then _ed_, then _t_; and the effect of adding _st_, whenever the _ed_ is sounded like _t_, will certainly be a perversion of what is established as the true pronunciation of the language. For the solemn and the familiar pronunciation of _ed_ unquestionably differ. The present tendency to a regular orthography, ought rather to be encouraged than thwarted; but the preferring of _mixed_ to _mixt, whipped_ to _whipt, worked_ to _wrought, kneeled_ to _knelt_, and so forth, does not make _mixedst, whippedst, workedst, kneeledst_, and the like, any more fit for modern English, than are _mixtest, whiptest, wroughtest, kneltest, burntest, dweltest, heldest, giltest_, and many more of the like stamp. And what can be more absurd than for a grammarian to insist upon forming a great parcel of these strange and crabbed words for which he can quote no good authority? Nothing; except it be for a poet or a rhetorician to huddle together great parcels of consonants which no mortal man can utter,[244] (as _lov'dst, lurk'dst, shrugg'dst_,) and call them "_words_." Example: "The clump of _subtonick_ and _atonick_ elements at the termination of _such words_ as the following, is frequently, to the no small injury of articulation, particularly slighted: couldst, wouldst, hadst, prob'st, _prob'dst_, hurl'st, _hurl'dst_, arm'st, _arm'dst_, want'st, _want'dst_, burn'st, _burn'dst_, bark'st, _bark'dst_, bubbl'st, _bubbl'dst, troubbl'st, troubbl'dst._"--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 42. The word _trouble_ may receive the additional sound of _st_, but this gentleman does not here _spell_ so accurately as a great author should. Nor did they who penned the following lines, write here as poets should:-- "Of old thou _build'st_ thy throne on righteousness." --_Pollok's C. of T._, B. vi, l. 638. "For though thou _work'dst_ my mother's ill." --_Byron's Parasina_. "Thou thyself _doat'dst_ on womankind, admiring." --_Milton's P. R._, B. ii, l. 175. "But he, the sev'nth from thee, whom thou _beheldst_." --_Id., P. L._, B. xi, l. 700. "Shall build a wondrous ark, as thou _beheldst_." --_Id., ib._, B. xi, l. 819. "Thou, who _inform'd'st_ this clay with active fire!" --_Savage's Poems_, p. 247. "Thy valiantness was mine, thou _suck'dst_ it from me." --_Shak., Coriol._, Act iii. "This cloth thou _dipp'dst_ in blood of my sweet boy." --_Id., Henry VI_, P. i. "Great Queen of arms, whose favour Tydeus won; As thou _defend'st_ the sire, defend the son." --_Pope, Iliad_, B. x, l. 337. OBS. 16.--Dr. Lowth, whose popular little Grammar was written in or about 1758, made no scruple to hem up both the poets and the Friends at once, by a criticism which I must needs consider more dogmatical than true; and which, from the suppression of what is least objectionable in it, has become, her hands, the source of still greater errors: "_Thou_ in the polite, and even _in the familiar style, is disused_, and the plural _you_ is employed instead of it; we say, _you have_, not _thou hast._ Though in this case, we apply _you_ to a single person, yet the verb too _must agree with it in the plural number_; it must necessarily be, _you have_, not _you hast._ _You was_ is an enormous solecism,[245] and yet authors of the first rank have inadvertently fallen into it. * * * On the contrary, the solemn style admits not of you for a single person. This _hath led_ Mr. Pope into _a great impropriety_ in the beginning of his Messiah:-- 'O thou my voice inspire, Who _touch'd_ Isaiah's hallow'd lips with fire!' The solemnity of the style would not admit of _you_ for _thou_, in the pronoun; nor the measure of the verse _touchedst_, or _didst touch_, in the verb, as it _indispensably ought to be_, in the one or the other of those two forms; _you_, who _touched_, or _thou_, who _touchedst_, or _didst touch._ 'Just of _thy_ word, in every thought sincere; Who _knew_ no wish, but what the world might hear.'--Pope. It ought to be _your_ in the first line, or _knewest_ in the second. In order to avoid this _grammatical inconvenience_, the two distinct forms of _thou_ and _you_, are often used promiscuously by our modern poets, in the same paragraph, and even in the same sentence, very inelegantly and improperly:-- 'Now, now, I seize, I clasp _thy_ charms; And now _you burst_, ah cruel! from my arms.'--Pope." --_Lowth's English Gram._, p. 34. OBS. 17.--The points of Dr. Lowth's doctrine which are not sufficiently true, are the following: First, it is not true, that _thou_, in the familiar style, is _totally disused_, and the plural _you_ employed universally in its stead; though Churchill, and others, besides the good bishop, seem to represent it so. It is now nearly two hundred years since the rise of the Society of Friends: and, whatever may have been the practice of others before or since, it is certain, that from their rise to the present day, there have been, at every point of time, many thousands who made no use of _you_ for _thou_; and, but for the clumsy forms which most grammarians hold to be indispensable to verbs of the second person singular, the beautiful, distinctive, and poetical words, _thou, thyself, thy, thine_, and _thee_, would certainly be in no danger yet of becoming obsolete. Nor can they, indeed, at any rate, become so, till the fairest branches of the Christian Church shall wither; or, what should seem no gracious omen, her bishops and clergy learn to _pray in the plural number_, for fashion's sake. Secondly, it is not true, that, "_thou_, who _touch'd_," ought _indispensably_ to be, "_thou_, who _touchedst_, or _didst touch_." It is far better to dispense with the inflection, in such a case, than either to impose it, or to resort to the plural pronoun. The "grammatical inconvenience" of dropping the _st_ or _est_ of a preterit, even in the solemn style, cannot be great, and may be altogether imaginary; that of imposing it, except in solemn prose, is not only real, but is often insuperable. It is not very agreeable, however, to see it added to some verbs, and dropped from others, in the same sentence: as, "Thou, who _didst call_ the Furies from the abyss, And round Orestes _bade_ them howl and hiss." --_Byron's Childe Harold_, Canto iv, st. 132. "Thou _satt'st_ from age to age insatiate, And _drank_ the blood of men, and _gorged_ their flesh." --_Pollok's Course of Time_, B. vii, l. 700. OBS. 18.--We see then, that, according to Dr. Lowth and others, _the only good English_ in which one can address an individual on any ordinary occasion, is _you_ with a plural verb; and that, according to Lindley Murray and others, _the only good English_ for the same purpose, is _thou_ with a verb inflected with _st_ or _est_. Both parties to this pointed contradiction, are more or less in the wrong. The respect of the Friends for those systems of grammar which deny them the familiar use of the pronoun _thou_, is certainly not more remarkable, than the respect of the world for those which condemn the substitution of the plural _you_. Let grammar be a true record of existing facts, and all such contradictions must vanish. And, certainly, these great masters here contradict each other, in what every one who reads English, ought to know. They agree, however, in requiring, as indispensable to grammar, what is not only inconvenient, but absolutely impossible. For what "the measure of verse _will not admit_," cannot be used in poetry; and what may possibly be crowded into it, will often be far from ornamental. Yet our youth have been taught to spoil the versification of Pope and others, after the following manner: "Who _touch'd_ Isaiah's hallow'd lips with fire." Say, "Who _touchedst_ or _didst touch_."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 180. "For thee that ever _felt_ another's wo." Say, "_Didst feel_."--_Ib._ "Who _knew_ no wish but what the world might hear." Say, "Who _knewest_ or _didst know_."--_Ib._ "Who all my sense _confin'd_." Say, "_Confinedst_ or _didst confine_."--_Ib._, p. 186. "Yet _gave_ me in this dark estate." Say, "_Gavedst_ or _didst give_."--_Ib._ "_Left_ free the human will."--_Pope_. Murray's criticism extends not to this line, but by the analogy we must say, "_Leavedst_ or _leftest_." Now it would be easier to fill a volume with such quotations, and such corrections, than to find sufficient authority to prove one such word as _gavedst, leavedst_, or _leftest_, to be really good English. If Lord Byron is authority for "_work'dst_," he is authority also for dropping the _st_, even where it might be added:-- ----"Thou, who with thy frown _Annihilated_ senates." --_Childe Harold's Pilgrimage_, Canto iv, st. 83. OBS. 19.--According to Dr. Lowth, as well as Coar and some others, those preterits in which _ed_ is sounded like _t_, "admit the change of _ed_ into _t_; as, _snacht, checkt, snapt, mixt_, dropping also one of the double letters, _dwelt, past_."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 46. If this principle were generally adopted, the number of our regular verbs would be greatly diminished, and irregularities would be indefinitely increased. What confusion the practice must make in the language, especially when we come to inflect this part of the verb with _st_ or _est_, has already been suggested. Yet an ingenious and learned writer, an able contributor to the Philological Museum, published at Cambridge, England, in 1832; tracing the history of this class of derivatives, and finding that after the _ed_ was contracted in pronunciation, several eminent writers, as Spenser, Milton, and others, adopted in most instances a contracted form of orthography; has seriously endeavoured to bring us back to their practice. From these authors, he cites an abundance of such contractions as the following: 1. "Stowd, hewd, subdewd, joyd, cald, expeld, compeld, spoild, kild, seemd, benumbd, armd, redeemd, staind, shund, paynd, stird, appeard, perceivd, resolvd, obeyd, equald, foyld, hurld, ruind, joynd, scatterd, witherd," and others ending in _d_. 2. "Clapt, whipt, worshipt, lopt, stopt, stampt, pickt, knockt, linkt, puft, stuft, hist, kist, abasht, brusht, astonisht, vanquisht, confest, talkt, twicht," and many others ending in _t_. This scheme divides our regular verbs into three classes; leaving but very few of them to be written as they now are. It proceeds upon the principle of accommodating our orthography to the familiar, rather than to the solemn pronunciation of the language. "This," as Dr. Johnson observes, "is to measure by a shadow." It is, whatever show of learning or authority may support it, a pernicious innovation. The critic says, "I have not ventured to follow the example of Spenser and Milton throughout, but have merely attempted to revive the old form of the preterit in _t_."--_Phil. Museum_, Vol. i, p. 663. "We ought not however to stop here," he thinks; and suggests that it would be no small improvement, "to write _leveld_ for _levelled, enameld_ for _enamelled, reformd_ for _reformed_," &c. OBS. 20.--If the multiplication of irregular preterits, as above described, is a grammatical error of great magnitude; the forcing of our old and well-known irregular verbs into regular forms that are seldom if ever used, is an opposite error nearly as great. And, in either case, there is the same embarrassment respecting the formation of the second person. Thus _Cobbett_, in his English Grammar in a Series of Letters, has dogmatically given us a list of _seventy_ verbs, which, he says, are, "by some persons, _erroneously deemed irregular_;" and has included in it the words, _blow, build, cast, cling, creep, freeze, draw, throw_, and the like, to the number of _sixty_; so that he is really right in no more than one seventh part of his catalogue. And, what is more strange, for several of the irregularities which he censures, his own authority may be quoted from the early editions of this very book: as, "For you could have _thrown_ about seeds."--Edition of 1818, p. 13. "For you could have _throwed_ about seeds."--Edition of 1832, p. 13. "A tree is _blown_ down."--Ed. of 1818, p. 27. "A tree is _blowed_ down."--Ed. of 1832, p. 25. "It _froze_ hard last night. Now, what was it that _froze_ so hard?"--Ed. of 1818, p. 38. "It _freezed_ hard last night. Now, what was it that _freezed_ so hard?"--Ed. of 1832, p. 35. A whole page of such contradictions may be quoted from this one grammarian, showing that _he did not know_ what form of the preterit he ought to prefer. From such an instructor, who can find out what is good English, and what is not? Respecting the inflections of the verb, this author says, "There are three persons; _but, our verbs have no variation in their spelling, except for the third person singular_."--_Cobbett's E. Gram._, ¶ 88. Again: "Observe, however, that, in our language, there is no very great use in this distinction of modes; because, for the most part, our little _signs_ do the business, and _they never vary in the letters of which they are composed_."--_Ib._, ¶ 95. One would suppose, from these remarks, that Cobbett meant to dismiss the pronoun _thou_ entirely from his conjugations. Not so at all. In direct contradiction to himself, he proceeds to inflect the verb as follows: "I work, _Thou workest_, He works; &c. I worked, _Thou workedst_, He worked; &c. I shall or will work, _Thou shalt or wilt work_, He shall or will work;" &c.--_Ib._, ¶ 98. All the _compound_ tenses, except the future, he rejects, as things which "can only serve to fill up a book." OBS. 21.--It is a common but erroneous opinion of our grammarians, that the unsyllabic suffix _st_, wherever found, is a modern contraction of the syllable _est_. No writer, however, thinks it always necessary to remind his readers of this, by inserting the sign of contraction; though English books are not a little disfigured by questionable apostrophes inserted for no other reason. Dr. Lowth says, "The nature of our language, the accent and pronunciation of it, inclines [incline] us to contract even all our regular verbs: thus _loved, turned_, are commonly pronounced in one syllable _lov'd, turn'd_: and the second person, which was originally in three syllables, _lovedest, turnedest_, is [say _has_] now become a dissyllable, _lovedst, turnedst_."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 45; _Hiley's_, 45; _Churchill's_, 104. See also _Priestley's Gram._, p. 114; and _Coar's_, p. 102. This latter doctrine, with all its vouchers, still needs confirmation. What is it but an idle conjecture? If it were _true_, a few quotations might easily prove it; but when, and by whom, have any such words as _lovedest, turnedest_, ever been used? For aught I see, the simple _st_ is as complete and as old a termination for the second person singular of an English verb, as _est_; indeed, it appears to be _older_: and, for the preterit, it is, and (I believe) _always has been_, the _most_ regular, if not the _only_ regular, addition. If _sufferedest, woundedest_, and _killedest_, are words more regular than _sufferedst, woundedst, killedst_, then are _heardest, knewest, slewest, sawest, rannest, metest, swammest_, and the like, more regular than _heardst, knewst, slewst, sawst, ranst, metst, swamst, satst, saidst, ledst, fledst, toldst_, and so forth; but not otherwise.[246] So, in the solemn style, we write _seemest, deemest, swimmest_, like _seemeth, deemeth, swimmeth_, and so forth; but, when we use the form which has no increase of syllables, why is an apostrophe more necessary in the second person, than in the third?--in _seemst, deemst, swimst_, than in _seems, deems, swims_? When final _e_ is dropped from the verb, the case is different; as, "Thou _cutst_ my head off with a golden axe, And _smil'st_ upon the stroke that murders me."--_Shakspeare_. OBS. 22.--Dr. Lowth supposes the verbal termination _s_ or _es_ to have come from a contraction of _eth_. He says, "Sometimes, by the rapidity of our pronunciation, the vowels are shortened or lost; and the consonants, which are thrown together, do not coalesce with one another, and are therefore changed into others of the same organ, or of a kindred species. This occasions a farther deviation from _the regular form_: thus, _loveth, turneth_, are contracted into _lov'th, turn'th_, and these, for easier pronunciation, _immediately_ become _loves, turns_."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 46; _Hiley's_, 45. This etymology may possibly be just, but certainly such contractions as are here spoken of, were not very common in Lowth's age, or even in that of Ben Jonson, who resisted the _s_. Nor is the sound of sharp _th_ very obviously akin to flat _s_. The change would have been less violent, if _lov'st_ and _turnst_ had become _loves_ and _turns_; as some people nowadays are apt to change them, though doubtless this is a grammatical error: as, "And wheresoe'er thou _casts_ thy view." --_Cowley_. "Nor thou that _flings_ me floundering from thy back." --_Bat. of Frogs and Mice_, 1,123. "Thou _sitt'st_ on high, and _measures_ destinies." --_Pollok, Course of Time_, B. vi, 1, 668. OBS. 23.--Possibly, those personal terminations of the verb which do not form syllables, are mere contractions or relics of _est_ and _eth_, which are syllables; but it is perhaps not quite so easy to prove them so, as some authors imagine. In the oldest specimens given by Dr. Johnson in his History of the English Language,--specimens bearing a much earlier date than the English language can claim,--even in what he calls "Saxon in its highest state of purity," both _st_ and _th_ are often added to verbs, without forming additional syllables, and without any sign of contraction. Nor were verbs of the second person singular always inflected of old, in those parts to which _est_ was afterwards very commonly added. Examples: "Buton ic wat thæt thu _hoefst_ thara wæpna."--_King Alfred_. "But I know that thou _hast_ those weapons." "Thæt thu _oncnawe_ thara worda sothfæstnesse. of tham the thu _geloered eart_."--_Lucæ_, i, 4. "That thou _mightest know_ the certainty of those things wherein thou _hast been instructed_."--_Luke_, i, 4. "And thu _nemst_ his naman Johannes."--_Lucæ_, i, 13. "And his name _schal be clepid_ Jon."--_Wickliffe's Version_. "And thou _shalt call_ his name John."--_Luke_, i, 13. "And he ne _drincth_ win ne beor."--_Lucæ_, i, 15. "He _schal_ not _drinke_ wyn ne sydyr."--_Wickliffe_. "And _shall drink_ neither wine nor strong drink."--_Luke_, i, 15. "And nu thu _bist_ suwigende. and thu _sprecan_ ne _miht_ oth thone dæg the thas thing _gewurthath_. fortham thu minum wordum ne _gelyfdest_. tha _beoth_ on hyra timan _gefyllede_."--_Lucæ_, i, 20. "And lo, thou _schalt_ be doumbe, and thou _schalt_ not mowe _speke_, til into the day in which these thingis _schulen be don_, for thou _hast_ not _beleved_ to my wordis, whiche _schulen be fulfild_ in her tyme."--_Wickliffe_. "And, behold, thou _shalt_ be dumb, and not able to speak, until the day _that_[247] these things _shall be performed_, because thou _believest_ not my words, which _shall be fulfilled_ in their season."--_Luke_, i, 20. "In chaungyng of her course, the chaunge _shewth_ this, Vp _startth_ a knaue, and downe there _falth_ a knight." --_Sir Thomas More_. OBS. 24.--The corollary towards which the foregoing observations are directed, is this. As most of the peculiar terminations by which the second person singular is properly distinguished in the solemn style, are not only difficult of utterance, but are quaint and formal in conversation; the preterits and auxiliaries of our verbs are seldom varied in familiar discourse, and the present is generally simplified by contraction, or by the adding of _st_ without increase of syllables. A distinction between the solemn and the familiar style has long been admitted, in the pronunciation of the termination _ed_, and in the ending of the verb in the third person singular; and it is evidently according to good taste and the best usage, to admit such a distinction in the second person singular. In the familiar use of the second person singular, the verb is usually varied only in the present tense of the indicative mood, and in the auxiliary _hast_ of the perfect. This method of varying the verb renders the second person singular analogous to the third, and accords with the practice of the most intelligent of those who retain the common use of this distinctive and consistent mode of address. It disencumbers their familiar dialect of a multitude of harsh and useless terminations, which serve only, when uttered, to give an uncouth prominency to words not often emphatic; and, without impairing the strength or perspicuity of the language, increases its harmony, and reduces the form of the verb in the second person singular nearly to the same simplicity as in the other persons and numbers. It may serve also, in some instances, to justify the poets, in those abbreviations for which they have been so unreasonably censured by Lowth, Murray, and some other grammarians: as, "And thou their natures _knowst_, and _gave_ them names, Needless to thee repeated."--_Milton_, P. L., Book vii, line 494. OBS. 25.--The writings of the Friends, being mostly of a grave cast, afford but few examples of their customary manner of forming the verb in connexion with the pronoun _thou_, in familiar discourse. The following may serve to illustrate it: "Suitable to the office thou _layst_ claim to."--R. BARCLAY'S _Works_, Vol. i, p. 27. "Notwithstanding thou _may have_ sentiments opposite to mine."--THOMAS STORY. "To devote all thou _had_ to his service;"--"If thou _should come_;"--"What thou _said_;"--"Thou kindly _contributed_;"--"The epistle which thou _sent_ me;"--"Thou _would_ perhaps _allow_;"--"If thou _submitted_;"--"Since thou _left_;"--"_Should_ thou _act_;"--"Thou _may be_ ready;"--"That thou _had met_;"--"That thou _had intimated_;"--"Before thou _puts_" [putst];--"What thou _meets_" [meetst];--"If thou _had made_;"--"I observed thou _was_;"--"That thou _might put_ thy trust;"--"Thou _had been_ at my house."--JOHN KENDALL. "Thou _may be plundered_;"--"That thou _may feel_;"--"Though thou _waited_ long, and _sought_ him;"--"I hope thou _will bear_ my style;"--"Thou also _knows_" [knowst];--"Thou _grew_ up;"--"I wish thou _would_ yet _take_ my counsel."--STEPHEN CRISP. "Thou _manifested_ thy tender regard, _stretched_ forth thy delivering hand, and _fed_ and _sustained_ us."--SAMUEL FOTHERGILL. The writer has met with thousands that used the second person singular in conversation, but never with any one that employed, on ordinary occasions, all the regular endings of the solemn style. The simplification of the second person singular, which, to a greater or less extent, is everywhere adopted by the Friends, and which is here defined and explained, removes from each verb eighteen of these peculiar terminations; and, (if the number of English verbs be, as stated by several grammarians, 8000,) disburdens their familiar dialect of 144,000 of these awkward and useless appendages.[248] This simplification is supported by usage as extensive as the familiar use of the pronoun _thou_; and is also in accordance with the canons of criticism: "The _first_ canon on this subject is, All words and phrases which are remarkably harsh and unharmonious, and not absolutely necessary, should be rejected." See _Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric_, B. ii, Ch. ii, Sec. 2, Canon Sixth, p. 181. See also, in the same work, (B. hi, Ch. iv, Sec. 2d,) an _express defence_ of "those elisions whereby the sound is improved;" especially of the suppression of the "feeble vowel in the last syllable of the preterits of our regular verbs;" and of "such abbreviations" as "the eagerness of conveying one's sentiments, the rapidity and ease of utterance, necessarily produce, in the dialect of conversation."--Pages 426 and 427. Lord Kames says, "That the English tongue, originally harsh, is at present much softened by dropping many _redundant consonants_, is undoubtedly true; that it is not capable of being further mellowed without suffering in its force and energy, will scarce be thought by any one who possesses an ear."--_Elements of Criticism_, Vol. ii, p. 12. OBS. 26.--The following examples are from a letter of an African Prince, translated by Dr. Desaguillier of Cambridge, England, in 1743, and published in a London newspaper: "I lie there too upon the bed _thou presented_ me;"--"After _thou_ left me, in thy swimming house;"--"Those good things _thou presented_ me;"--"When _thou spake_ to the Great Spirit and his Son." If it is desirable that our language should retain this power of a simple literal version of what in others may be familiarly expressed by the second person singular, it is clear that our grammarians must not continue to dogmatize according to the letter of some authors hitherto popular. But not every popular grammar condemns such phraseology as the foregoing. "I improved, Thou _improvedst_, &c. This termination of the second person preterit, on account of its harshness, _is seldom used_, and especially in the irregular verbs."--_Harrison's Gram._, p. 26. "The termination _est_, annexed to the preter tenses of verbs, is, at best, a very harsh one, when it is contracted, according to our general custom of throwing out the _e_; as _learnedst_, for _learnedest_; and especially, if it be again contracted into one syllable, _as it is commonly pronounced_, and made _learndst._ * * * I believe a writer or speaker would have recourse to any periphrasis rather than say _keptest_, or _keptst_. * * * Indeed this harsh termination _est_ is _generally quite dropped in common conversation_, and sometimes by the poets, in writing."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 115. The fact is, it never was added with much uniformity. Examples: "But like the hell hounde _thou waxed_ fall furious, expressing thy malice when _thou_ to honour _stied_."--FABIAN'S CHRONICLE, V. ii, p. 522: in _Tooke's Divers._, T. ii, p. 232. "Thou from the arctic regions came. Perhaps Thou noticed on thy way a little orb, Attended by one moon--her lamp by night." --_Pollok_, B. ii, l. 5. "'So I believ'd.'--No, Abel! to thy grief, So thou _relinquish'd_ all that was belief." --_Crabbe, Borough_, p. 279. OBS. 27.--L. Murray, and his numerous copyists, Ingersoll, Greenleaf, Kirkham, Fisk, Flint, Comly, Alger, and the rest; though they insist on it, that the _st_ of the second person can never be dispensed with, except in the imperative mood and some parts of the subjunctive; are not altogether insensible of that monstrous harshness which their doctrine imposes upon the language. Some of them tell us to avoid this by preferring the auxiliaries _dost_ and _didst_: as _dost burst_, for _burstest; didst check_, for _checkedst._ This recommendation proceeds on the supposition that _dost_ and _didst_ are smoother syllables than _est_ and _edst_; which is not true: _didst learn_ is harsher than either _learnedst_ or _learntest_; and all three of them are intolerable in common discourse. Nor is the "_energy_, or _positiveness_," which grammarians ascribe to these auxiliaries, always appropriate. Except in a question, _dost_ and _didst_, like _do, does_, and _did_, are usually signs of _emphasis_; and therefore unfit to be substituted for the _st, est_, or _edst_, of an unemphatic verb. Kirkham, who, as we have seen, graces his Elocution with such unutterable things, as "_prob'dst, hurl'dst, arm'dst, want'dst, burn'dst, bark'dst, bubbl'dst, troubbl'dst_," attributes the use of the plural for the singular, to a design of avoiding the raggedness of the latter. "In order to avoid the disagreeable harshness of sound, occasioned by the frequent recurrence of the termination _est, edst_, in the adaptation of our verbs to the nominative _thou_, a _modern innovation_ which substitutes _you_ for _thou_, in familiar style, has generally been adopted. This innovation contributes greatly to the harmony of our colloquial style. _You_ was formerly restricted to the plural number; but now it is employed to represent either a singular or a plural noun."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 99. A modern innovation, forsooth! Does not every body know it was current four hundred years ago, or more? Certainly, both _ye_ and _you_ were applied in this manner, to the great, as early as the fourteenth century. Chaucer sometimes used them so, and he died in 1400. Sir T. More uses them so, in a piece dated 1503. "O dere cosyn, Dan Johan, she sayde, What eyleth _you_ so rathe to aryse?"--_Chaucer_. Shakspeare most commonly uses _thou_, but he sometimes has _you_ in stead of it. Thus, he makes Portia say to Brutus: "_You_ suddenly arose, and walk'd about, Musing, and sighing, with _your_ arms across; And when I ask'd _you_ what the matter was, _You_ star'd upon me with ungentle looks."--_J. Cæsar_, Act ii, Sc. 2. OBS. 28.--"There is a natural tendency in all languages to throw out the rugged parts which improper consonants produce, and to preserve those which are melodious and agreeable to the ear."--_Gardiner's Music of Nature_, p. 29. "The English tongue, so remarkable for its grammatical simplicity, is loaded with a great variety of dull unmeaning terminations. Mr. Sheridan attributes this defect, to an utter inattention to what is easy to the organs of speech and agreeable to the ear; and further adds, that, 'the French having been adopted as the language of the court, no notice was taken, of the spelling or pronunciation of our words, until the reign of queen Anne.' So little was spelling attended to in the time of Elizabeth, that Dr. Johnson informs us, that on referring to Shakspeare's will, to determine how his name was spelt, he was found to have written it himself [in] no _less_ [fewer] than three different ways."--_Ib._, p. 477. In old books, our participial or verbal termination _ed_, is found written in about a dozen different ways; as, _ed, de, d, t, id, it, yd, yt, ede, od, ud_. For _est_ and _eth_, we find sometimes the consonants only; sometimes, _ist_ or _yst, ith_ or _yth_; sometimes, for the latter, _oth_ or _ath_; and sometimes the ending was omitted altogether. In early times also the _th_ was an ending for verbs of the third person plural, as well as for those of the third person singular;[249] and, in the imperative mood, it was applied to the second person, both singular and plural: as, "_Demith_ thyself, that demist other's dede; And trouthe the shall deliver, it's no drede."--_Chaucer_. OBS. 29.--It must be obvious to every one who has much acquaintance with the history of our language, that this part of its grammar has always been quite as unsettled as it is now; and, however we may wish to establish its principles, it is idle to teach for absolute certainty that which every man's knowledge may confute. Let those who desire to see our forms of conjugation as sure as those of other tongues, study to exemplify in their own practice what tends to uniformity. The best that can be done by the author of a grammar, is, to exhibit usage, as it has been, and as it is; pointing out to the learner what is most fashionable, as well as what is most orderly and agreeable. If by these means the usage of writers and speakers cannot be fixed to what is fittest for their occasions, and therefore most grammatical, there is in grammar no remedy for their inaccuracies; as there is none for the blunders of dull opinionists, none for the absurdities of Ignorance stalled in the seats of Learning. Some grammarians say, that, whenever the preterit of an irregular verb is like the present, it should take _edst_ for the second person singular. This rule, (which is adopted by Walker, in his Principles, No. 372,) gives us such words as _cast-edst, cost-edst, bid-dedst, burst-edst, cut-tedst, hit-tedst, let-tedst, put-tedst, hurt-edst, rid-dedst, shed-dedst_, &c. But the rule is groundless. The few examples which may be adduced from ancient writings, in support of this principle, are undoubtedly formed in the usual manner from regular preterits now obsolete; and if this were not the case, no person of taste could think of employing, on any occasion, derivatives so uncouth. Dr. Johnson has justly remarked, that "the chief defect of our language, is ruggedness and asperity." And this defect, as some of the foregoing remarks have shown, is peculiarly obvious, when even the regular termination of the second person singular is added to our preterits. Accordingly, we find numerous instances among the poets, both ancient and modern, in which that termination is omitted. See Percy's Reliques of Ancient Poetry, everywhere. "Thou, who of old the prophet's eye _unsealed_."--_Pollok_. "Thou _saw_ the fields laid bare and waste."--_Burns_.[250] OBS. 30.--With the familiar form of the second person singular, those who constantly put _you_ for _thou_ can have no concern; and many may think it unworthy of notice, because Murray has said nothing about it: others will hastily pronounce it bad English, because they have learned at school some scheme of the verb, which implies that this must needs be wrong. It is this partial learning which makes so much explanation here necessary. The formation of this part of speech, form it as you will, is _central to grammar_, and cannot but be very important. Our language can never entirely drop the pronoun _thou_, and its derivatives, _thy, thine, thee, thyself_, without great injury, especially to its poetry. Nor can the distinct syllabic utterance of the termination _ed_ be now generally practised, except in solemn prose. It is therefore better, not to insist on those old verbal forms against which there are so many objections, than to exclude the pronoun of the second person singular from all such usage, whether familiar or poetical, as will not admit them. It is true that on most occasions _you_ may be substituted for _thou_, without much inconvenience; and so may _we_ be substituted for _I_, with just as much propriety; though Dr. Perley thinks the latter usage "is not to be encouraged."--_Gram._, p. 28. Our authors and editors, like kings and emperors, are making _we_ for _I_ their most common mode of expression. They renounce their individuality to avoid egotism. And when all men shall have adopted this enallage, the fault indeed will be banished, or metamorphosed, but with it will go an other sixth part of every English conjugation. The pronouns in the following couplet are put for the first person singular, the second person singular, and the second person plural; yet nobody will understand them so, but by their antecedents: "Right trusty, and so forth--_we_ let _you_ to know _We_ are very ill used by _you mortals_ below."--_Swift._ OBS. 31.--It is remarkable that some, who forbear to use the plural for the singular in the second person, adopt it without scruple, in the first. The figure is the same in both; and in both, sufficiently common. Neither practice is worthy to be made more general than it now is. If _thou_ should not be totally sacrificed to what was once a vain compliment, neither should _I_, to what is now an occasional, and perhaps a vain assumption. Lindley Murray, who does not appear to have used _you_ for _thou_, and who was sometimes singularly careful to periphrase [sic--KTH] and avoid the latter, nowhere in his grammar speaks of himself in the first person singular. He is often "the _Compiler_;" rarely, "the _Author_;" generally, "We:" as, "_We_ have distributed these parts of grammar, in the mode which _we_ think most correct and intelligible."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 58. "_We_ shall not pursue this subject any further."--_Ib._, p. 62. "_We_ shall close these remarks on the tenses."--_Ib._, p. 76. "_We_ presume no solid objection can be made."--_Ib._, p. 78. "The observations which _we_ have made."--_Ib._, p. 100. "_We_ shall produce a remarkable example of this beauty from Milton."--_Ib._, p. 331. "_We_ have now given sufficient openings into this subject."--_Ib._, p. 334. This usage has authority enough; for it was not uncommon even among the old Latin grammarians; but he must be a slender scholar, who thinks the pronoun _we_ thereby becomes _singular._ What advantage or fitness there is in thus putting _we_ for _I_, the reader may judge. Dr. Blair did not hesitate to use _I_, as often as ho had occasion; neither did Lowth, or Johnson, or Walker, or Webster: as, "_I_ shall produce a remarkable example of this beauty from Milton."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 129. "_I_ have now given sufficient openings into this subject."--_Ib._, p. 131. So in Lowth's Preface: "_I_ believe,"--"_I_ am persuaded,"--"_I_ am sure,"--"_I_ think,"--"_I_ am afraid,"--"_I_ will not take upon _me_ to say." OBS. 32.--Intending to be critical without hostility, and explicit without partiality, I write not for or against any sect, or any man; but to teach all who desire to know _the grammar_ of our tongue. The student must distinctly understand, that it is necessary to speak and write differently, according to the different circumstances or occasions of writing. Who is he that will pretend that the solemn style of the Bible may be used in familiar discourse, without a mouthing affectation? In preaching, or in praying, the ancient terminations of _est_ for the second person singular and _eth_ for the third, as well as _ed_ pronounced as a separate syllable for the preterit, are admitted to be generally in better taste than the smoother forms of the familiar style: because the latter, though now frequently heard in religious assemblies, are not so well suited to the dignity and gravity of a sermon or a prayer. In grave poetry also, especially when it treats of scriptural subjects, to which _you_ put for _thou_ is obviously unsuitable, the personal terminations of the verb, though from the earliest times to the present day they have usually been contracted and often omitted by the poets, ought still perhaps to be considered grammatically necessary, whenever they can be uttered, agreeably to the notion of our tuneless critics. The critical objection to their elision, however, can have no very firm foundation while it is admitted by some of the objectors themselves, that, "Writers _generally_ have recourse to this mode of expression, that they may avoid harsh terminations."-- _Irving's Elements of English Composition_, p. 12. But if writers of good authority, such as Pope, Byron, and Pollok, have sometimes had recourse to this method of simplifying the verb, even in compositions of a grave cast, the elision may, with tenfold stronger reason, be admitted in familiar writing or discourse, on the authority of general custom among those who choose to employ the pronoun _thou_ in conversation. "But thou, false Arcite, never _shall_ obtain," &c. --_Dryden, Fables_. "These goods _thyself can_ on thyself bestow." --_Id., in Joh. Dict._ "What I show, _thy self may_ freely on thyself bestow." --_Id., Lowth's Gram._, p. 26. "That thou _might_ Fortune to thy side engage." --_Prior_. "Of all thou ever _conquered_, none was left." --_Pollok_, B. vii, l. 760. "And touch me trembling, as thou _touched_ the man," &c. --_Id._, B. x, l. 60. OBS. 33.--Some of the Friends (perhaps from an idea that it is less formal) misemploy _thee_ for _thou_; and often join it to the third person of the verb in stead of the second. Such expressions as, _thee does, thee is, thee has, thee thinks_, &c., are double solecisms; they set all grammar at defiance. Again, many persons who are not ignorant of grammar, and who employ the pronoun aright, sometimes improperly sacrifice concord to a slight improvement in sound, and give to the verb the ending of the third person, for that of the second. Three or four instances of this, occur in the examples which have been already quoted. See also the following, and many more, in the works of the poet Burns; who says of himself, "Though it cost the schoolmaster some thrashings, I made an excellent English scholar; and, by the time I was ten or eleven years of age, I was a critic in substantives, VERBS, and particles:"--"But when thou _pours_;"--"There thou _shines_ chief;"--"Thou _clears_ the head;"--"Thou _strings_ the nerves;"--"Thou _brightens_ black despair;"--"Thou _comes_;"--"Thou _travels_ far;"--"Now _thou's turned_ out;"--"Unseen thou _lurks_;"--"O thou pale orb that silent _shines_." This mode of simplifying the verb, confounds the persons; and, as it has little advantage in sound, over the regular contracted form of the second person, it ought to be avoided. With this author it may be, perhaps, a Scotticism: as, "Thou _paints_ auld nature to the nines, In thy sweet Caledonian lines."--_Burns to Ramsay_. "Thou _paintst old_ nature," would be about as smooth poetry, and certainly much better English. This confounding of the persons of the verb, however, is no modern peculiarity. It appears to be about as old as the use of _s_ for _th_ or _eth_. Spenser, the great English poet of the sixteenth century, may be cited in proof: as, "Siker, _thou's_ but a lazy loord, And _rekes_ much of thy swinke."--_Joh. Dict., w. Loord_. OBS. 34.--In the solemn style, (except in poetry, which usually contracts these forms,) the second person singular of the present indicative, and that of the irregular preterits, commonly end in _est_, pronounced as a separate syllable, and requiring the duplication of the final consonant, according to Rule 3d for Spelling: as, I _run_, thou _runnest_; I _ran_, thou _rannest_. But as the termination _ed_, in solemn discourse, constitutes a syllable, the regular preterits form the second person singular by assuming _st_, without further increase of syllables: as, I _loved_, thou _lovedst_; not, "_lovedest_," as Chandler made it in his English Grammar, p. 41, Edition of 1821; and as Wells's rule, above cited, if literally taken, would make it. _Dost_ and _hast_, and the three irregular preterits, _wast, didst_, and _hadst_, are permanently contracted; though _doest_ and _diddest_ are sometimes seen in old books. _Saidst_ is more common, and perhaps more regular, than _saidest. Werest_ has long been contracted into _wert_: "I would thou _werest_ either cold or hot."--_W. Perkins_, 1608.[251] The auxiliaries _shall_ and _will_ change the final _l_ to _t_, and become _shalt_ and _wilt_. To the auxiliaries, _may, can, might, could, would_, and _should_, the termination _est_ was formerly added; but they are now generally written with _st_ only, and pronounced as monosyllables, even in solemn discourse. Murray, in quoting the Scriptures, very often charges _mayest_ to _mayst, mightest_ to _mightst_, &c. Some other permanent contractions are occasionally met with, in what many grammarians call the solemn style; as _bidst_ for _biddest, fledst_ for _fleddest, satst_ for _sattest_: "Riding sublime, thou _bidst_ the world adore, And humblest nature with thy northern blast." --_Thomson_. "Fly thither whence thou _fledst_." --_Milton, P. L._, B. iv, l. 963. "Unspeakable, who _sitst_ above these heavens." --_Id., ib._, B. v, l. 156. "Why _satst_ thou like an enemy in wait?" --_Id., ib._, B. iv, l. 825. OBS. 35.--The formation of the third person singular of verbs, is _now_ precisely the same as that of the plural number of nouns: as, _love, loves; show, shows; boast, boasts; fly, flies; reach, reaches_. This form began to be used about the beginning of the sixteenth century. The ending seems once to have been _es_, sounded as _s_ or _z_: as, "And thus I see among these pleasant thynges Eche care _decayes_, and yet my sorrow _sprynges_."--_Earl of Surry_. "With throte yrent, he _roares_, he _lyeth_ along."--_Sir T. Wyat_. "He _dyeth_, he is all dead, he _pantes_, he _restes_."--_Id._, 1540. In all these instances, the _e_ before the _s_ has become improper. The _es_ does not here form a syllable; neither does the _eth_, in "_lyeth_" and "_dyeth_." In very ancient times, the third person singular appears to have been formed by adding _th_ or _eth_ nearly as we now add _s_ or _es_[252] Afterwards, as in our common Bible, it was formed by adding _th_ to verbs ending in _e_, and _eth_ to all others; as, "For he that _eateth_ and _drinketh_ unworthily, _eateth_ and _drinketh_ damnation to himself."--_1 Cor._, xi, 29. "He _quickeneth_ man, who is dead in trespasses and sins; he _keepeth_ alive the quickened soul, and _leadeth_ it in the paths of life; he _scattereth, subdueth_, and _conquereth_ the enemies of the soul."--_I. Penington_. This method of inflection, as now pronounced, always adds a syllable to the verb. It is entirely confined to the solemn style, and is little used. _Doth, hath_, and _saith_, appear to be permanent contractions of verbs thus formed. In the days of Shakspeare, both terminations were common, and he often mixed them, in a way which is not very proper now: as, "The quality of mercy is not strained; It _droppeth_, as the gentle rain from heaven Upon the place beneath: it is twice bless'd; It _blesseth_ him that _gives_, and him that _takes_." --_Merchant of Venice_. OBS. 36.--When the second person singular is employed in familiar discourse, with any regard to correctness, it is usually formed in a manner strictly analogous to that which is now adopted in the third person singular. When the verb ends with a sound which will unite with that of _st_ or _s_, the second person singular is formed by adding _s_ only, and the third, by adding _s_ only; and the number of syllables is not increased: as, I _read_, thou _readst_, he _reads_; I _know_, thou _knowst_, he _knows_; I _take_, thou _takest_, he _takes_; I _free_, thou _freest_, he _frees_. For, when the verb ends in mute _a_, no termination renders this _a_ vocal in the familiar style, if a synæresis can take place. To prevent their readers from ignorantly assuming the pronunciation of the solemn style, the poets have generally marked such words with an apostrophe: as, "Look what thy soul holds dear, imagine it To lie the way thou _go'st_, not whence thou _com'st_."--_Shak_. OBS. 37.--But when the verb ends in a sound which will not unite with that of _st_ or _s_, the second and third persons are formed by adding _est_ and _es_; or, if the first person end in mute _e_, the _st_ and _s_ render that _e_ vocal; so that the verb acquires an additional syllable: as, I _trace_, thou _tracest_, he _traces_; I _pass_, thou _passest_, he _passes_; I _fix_, thou _fixest_, he _fixes_; I _preach_, thou _preachest_, he _preaches_; I _blush_, thou _blushest_, he _blushes_; I _judge_, thou _judgest_, he _judges_. But verbs ending in _o_ or _y_ preceded by a consonant, do not exactly follow either of the foregoing rules. In these, _y_ is changed into _i_; and, to both _o_ and _i, est_ and _es_ are added without increase of syllables: as, I _go_, thou _goest_, he _goes_; I _undo_, thou _undoest_,[253] he _undoes_; I _fly_, thou _fliest_, he _flies_; I _pity_, thou _pitiest_, he _pities_. Thus, in the following lines, _goest_ must be pronounced like _ghost_; otherwise, we spoil the measure of the verse: "Thou _goest_ not now with battle, and the voice Of war, as once against the rebel hosts; Thou _goest_ a Judge, and _findst_ the guilty bound; Thou _goest_ to prove, condemn, acquit, reward."--_Pollok_, B. x. In solemn prose, however, the termination is here made a separate syllable: as, I _go_, thou _goëst_, he _goëth_; I _undo_, thou _undoëst_, he _undoëth_; I _fly_, thou _fliëst_, he _fliëth_; I _pity_, thou _pitiëst_, he _pitiëth_. OBS. 38.--The auxiliaries _do, dost, does_,--(pronounced _doo, dust, duz_; and not as the words _dough, dosed, doze_,--) _am, art, is,--have, hast, has_,--being also in frequent use as principal verbs of the present tense, retain their peculiar forms, with distinction of person and number, when they help to form the compound tenses of other verbs. The other auxiliaries are not varied, or ought not to be varied, except in the solemn style. Example of the familiar use: "That thou _may_ be found truly owning it."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. i, p. 234. OBS. 39.--The only regular terminations that are added to English verbs, are _ing, d_ or _e, st_ or _est, s_ or _es, th_ or _eth_[254] _Ing_, and _th_ or _eth_, always add a syllable to the verb; except in _doth, hath, saith_.[255] The rest, whenever their sound will unite with that of the final syllable of the verb, are usually added without increasing the number of syllables; otherwise, they are separately pronounced. In solemn discourse, however, _ed_ and _est_ are by most speakers uttered distinctly in all cases; except sometimes when a vowel precedes: as in _sanctified, glorified_, which are pronounced as three syllables only. Yet, in spite of this analogy, many readers will have _sanctifiest_ and _glorifiest_ to be words of four syllables. If this pronunciation is proper, it is only so in solemn prose. The prosody of verse will show how many syllables the poets make: as, "Thou _diedst_, a most rare boy, of melancholy!" --_Shak., Cymb._, Act iv, sc. 2. "Had not a voice thus warn'd me: What thou _seest_, What there thou _seest_, fair creature, is thyself." --_Milton_, B. iv, l. 467. "By those thou _wooedst_ from death to endless life." --_Pollok_, B. ix, l. 7. "Attend: that thou art happy, owe to God; That thou _continuest_ such, owe to thyself" --_Milton_, B. v, l. 520. OBS. 40.--If the grave and full form of the second person singular must needs be supposed to end rather with the syllable _est_ than with _st_ only, it is certain that this form may be _contracted_, whenever the verb ends in a sound which will unite with that of _st_. The poets generally employ the briefer or contracted forms; but they seem not to have adopted a uniform and consistent method of writing them. Some usually insert the apostrophe, and, after a single vowel, double the final consonant before _st_; as, _hold'st, bidd'st, said'st, ledd'st, wedd'st, trimm'st, may'st, might'st_, and so forth: others, in numerous instances, add _st_ only, and form permanent contractions; as, _holdst, bidst, saidst, ledst, wedst, trimst, mayst, mightst_, and so forth. Some retain the vowel _e_, in the termination of certain words, and suppress a preceding one; as, _quick'nest, happ'nest, scatt'rest, rend'rest, rend'redst, slumb'rest, slumb'redst_: others contract the termination of such words, and insert the apostrophe; as, _quicken'st, happen'st, scatter'st, render'st, render'dst, slumber'st, slumber'dst_. The nature and idiom of our language, "the accent and pronunciation of it," incline us to abbreviate or "contract even all our regular verbs;" so as to avoid, if possible, an increase of syllables in the inflection of them. Accordingly, several terminations which formerly constituted distinct syllables, have been either wholly dropped, or blended with the final syllables of the verbs to which they are added. Thus the plural termination _en_ has become entirely obsolete; _th_ or _eth_ is no longer in common use; _ed_ is contracted in pronunciation; the ancient _ys_ or _is_, of the third person singular, is changed to _s_ or _es_, and is usually added without increase of syllables; and _st_ or _est_ has, in part, adopted the analogy. So that the proper mode of forming these contractions of the second person singular, seems to be, to add _st_ only; and to insert no apostrophe, unless a vowel is suppressed from the verb to which this termination is added: as, _thinkst, sayst, bidst, sitst, satst, lov'st, lov'dst, slumberst, slumber'dst_. "And know, for that thou _slumberst_ on the guard, Thou shalt be made to answer at the bar."--_Cotton_. OBS. 41.--Ho man deserves more praise for his attention to English pronunciation, than John Walker. His Pronouncing Dictionary was, for a long period, the best standard of orthoëpy, that our schools possessed. But he seems to me to have missed a figure, in preferring such words as _quick'nest, strength'nest_, to the smoother and more regular forms, _quickenst, strengthenst_. It is true that these are rough words, in any form you can give them; but let us remember, that needless apostrophes are as rough to the eye, as needless _st_'s to the ear. Our common grammarians are disposed to encumber the language with as many of both as they can find any excuse for, and vastly more than can be sustained by any good argument. In words that are well understood to be contracted in pronunciation, the apostrophe is now less frequently used than it was formerly. Walker says, "This contraction of the participial _ed_, and the verbal _en_, is so fixed an idiom of our pronunciation, that to alter it, would be to alter the sound of the whole language. It must, however, be regretted that it subjects our tongue to some of the most hissing, snapping, clashing, grinding sounds that ever grated the ears of a Vandal; thus, _rasped, scratched, wrenched, bridled, fangled, birchen, hardened, strengthened, quickened_, &c. almost frighten us when written as they are actually pronounced, as _rapt, scratcht, wrencht, bridl'd, fangl'd, birch'n, strength'n'd, quick'n'd_, &c.; they become still more formidable when used contractedly in the solemn style, which never ought to be the case; for here instead of _thou strength'n'st_ or _strength'n'd'st, thou quick'n'st_ or _quick'n'd'st_, we ought to pronounce _thou strength'nest_ or _strength'nedst, thou quick'nest_ or _quick'nedst_, which are sufficiently harsh of all conscience."--_Principles_, No. 359. Here are too many apostrophes; for it does not appear that such words as _strengthenedest_ and _quickenedest_ ever existed, except in the imagination of certain grammarians. In solemn prose one may write, _thou quickenest, thou strengthenest_, or _thou quickenedst, thou strengthenedst_; but, in the familiar style, or in poetry, it is better to write, _thou quickenst, thou strengthenst, thou quickened, thou strengthened_. This is language which it is possible to utter; and it is foolish to strangle ourselves with strings of rough consonants, merely because they are insisted on by some superficial grammarians. Is it not strange, is it not incredible, that the same hand should have written the two following lines, in the same sentence? Surely, the printer has been at fault. "With noiseless foot, thou _walkedst_ the vales of earth"-- "Most honourable thou _appeared_, and most To be desired."--_Pollok's Course of Time_, B. ix, l. 18, and l. 24. OBS. 42.--It was once a very common practice, to retain the final _y_, in contractions of the preterit or of the second person of most verbs that end in _y_, and to add the consonant terminations _d, st_, and _dst_, with an apostrophe before each; as, _try'd_ for _tried, reply'd_ for _replied, try'st_ for _triest, try'dst_ for _triedst_. Thus Milton:-- "Thou following _cry'dst_ aloud, Return, fair Eve; Whom _fly'st_ thou? whom thou _fly'st_, of him thou art." --_P. L._, B. iv, l. 481. This usage, though it may have been of some advantage as an index to the pronunciation of the words, is a palpable departure from the common rule for spelling such derivatives. That rule is, "The final _y_ of a primitive word, when preceded by a consonant, is changed into _i_ before an additional termination." The works of the British poets, except those of the present century, abound with contractions like the foregoing; but late authors, or their printers, have returned to the rule; and the former practice is wearing out and becoming obsolete. Of regular verbs that end in _ay, ey_, or _oy_, we have more than half a hundred; all of which usually retain the _y_ in their derivatives, agreeably to an other of the rules for spelling. The preterits of these we form by adding _ed_ without increase of syllables; as, _display, displayed; survey, surveyed; enjoy, enjoyed_. These also, in both tenses, may take _st_ without increase of syllables; as, _display'st, display'dst_; _survey'st, survey'dst; enjoy'st, enjoy'dst_. All these forms, and such as these, are still commonly considered contractions, and therefore written with the apostrophe; but if the termination _st_ is sufficient of itself to mark the second person singular, as it certainly is considered to be as regards one half of them, and as it certainly was in the Saxon tongue still more generally, then for the other half there is no need of the apostrophe, because nothing is omitted. _Est_, like _es_, is generally a syllabic termination; but _st_, like _s_, is not. As signs of the third person, the _s_ and the _es_ are always considered equivalent; and, as signs of the second person, the _st_ and the _est_ are sometimes, and ought to be always, considered so too. To all verbs that admit the sound, we add the _s_ without marking it as a contraction for _es_; and there seems to be no reason at all against adding the _st_ in like manner, whenever we choose to form the second person without adding a syllable to the verb. The foregoing observations I commend to the particular attention of all those who hope to write such English as shall do them honour--to every one who, from a spark of literary ambition, may say of himself, ---------"I twine My hopes of being remembered in my line With my land's language."--_Byron's Childe Harold_, Canto iv, st. 9. THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. The conjugation of a verb is a regular arrangement of its moods, tenses, persons, numbers, and participles. There are four PRINCIPAL PARTS in the conjugation of every simple and complete verb; namely, the _Present_, the _Preterit_, the _Imperfect Participle_, and the _Perfect Participle_.[256] A verb which wants any of these parts, is called _defective_; such are most of the auxiliaries. An _auxiliary_ is a short verb prefixed to one of the principal parts of an other verb, to express some particular mode and time of the being, action, or passion. The auxiliaries are _do, be, have, shall, will, may, can_, and _must_, with their variations. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--The _present_, or the verb in the present tense, is radically the same in all the moods, and is the part from which all the rest are formed. The present infinitive is commonly considered _the root_, or _simplest form_, of the English verb. We usually place the _preposition_ TO _before_ it; but never when with an auxiliary it forms a compound tense that is not infinitive: there are also some other exceptions, which plainly show, that the word _to_ is neither a part of the verb, as Cobbett, R. C. Smith, S. Kirkham, and Wells, say it is; nor a part of the infinitive mood, as Hart and many others will have it to be, but a distinct _preposition_. (See, in the _Syntax_ of this work, Observations on Rule 18th.) The preterit and the perfect participle are regularly formed by adding _d_ or _ed_, and the imperfect participle, by adding _ing_, to the present. OBS. 2.--The moods and tenses, in English, are formed partly by inflections, or changes made in the verb itself, and partly by the combination of the verb or its participle, with a few short verbs, called _auxiliaries_, or _helping verbs_. This view of the subject, though disputed by some, is sustained by such a preponderance both of authority and of reason, that I shall not trouble the reader with any refutation of those who object to it. Murray the schoolmaster observes, "In the English language, the times and modes of verbs are expressed in a perfect, easy, and beautiful manner, by the aid of a few little words called _auxiliaries_, or _helping verbs_. The possibility of a thing is expressed by _can_ or _could_; the liberty to do a thing, by _may_ or _might_; the inclination of the will, by _will_ or _would_; the necessity of a thing, by _must_ or _ought, shall_ or _should_. The preposition _to_ is never expressed after the helping verbs, except after _ought_."--_Alex. Murray's Gram._, p. 112. See nearly the same words in _Buchanan's English Syntax_, p. 36; and in _the British Gram._, p. 125. OBS. 3.--These authors are wrong in calling _ought_ a helping verb, and so is Oliver B. Peirce, in calling "_ought to_," and "_ought to have_" auxiliaries; for no auxiliary ever admits the preposition _to_ after it or into it: and Murray of Holdgate is no less in fault, for calling _let_ an auxiliary; because no mere auxiliary ever governs the objective case. The sentences, "He _ought_ to _help_ you," and, "_Let_ him _help_ you," severally involve two different moods: they are equivalent to, "It _is his duty_ to _help_ you;"--"_Permit_ him _to help_ you." Hence _ought_ and _let_ are not auxiliaries, but principal verbs. OBS. 4.--Though most of the auxiliaries are defective, when compared with other verbs; yet these three, _do, be_, and _have_, being also principal verbs, are complete: but the participles of _do_ and _have_ are not used as auxiliaries; unless _having_, which helps to form the third or "compound perfect" participle, (as _having loved_,) may be considered such. The other auxiliaries have no participles. OBS. 5.--English verbs are principally conjugated by means of auxiliaries; the only tenses which can be formed by the simple verb, being the present and the imperfect; as, I _love_, I _loved_. And even here an auxiliary is usually preferred in questions and negations; as, "_Do_ you love?"--"You _do_ not _love_." "_Did_ he _love_?"--"He _did_ not _love_." "_Do_ I not yet _grieve_?"--"_Did_ she not _die_?" All the other tenses, even in their simplest form, are compounds. OBS. 6.--Dr. Johnson says, "_Do_ is sometimes used superfluously, as _I_ do _love, I_ did _love_; simply for _I love_, or _I loved_; but this is considered as a _vitious_ mode of speech."--_Gram., in 4to Dict._, p. 8. He also somewhere tells us, that these auxiliaries "are not proper before _be_ and _have_;" as, "_I do be_," for _I am_; "_I did have_," for _I had_. The latter remark is generally true, and it ought to be remembered;[257] but, in the _imperative mood, be_ and _have_ will perhaps admit the emphatic word _do_ before them, in a colloquial style: as, "Now _do be_ careful;"--"_Do have_ a little discretion." Sanborn repeatedly puts _do_ before _be_, in this mood: as, "_Do_ you _be. Do_ you _be_ guarded. _Do_ thou _be. Do_ thou _be_ guarded."--_Analytical Gram._, p. 150. "_Do_ thou _be_ watchful."--_Ib._, p. 155. In these instances, he must have forgotten that he had elsewhere said positively, that, "_Do_, as an auxiliary, _is never used_ with the verb _be_ or _am_."--_Ib._, p. 112. In the other moods, it is seldom, if ever, proper before _be_; but it is sometimes used before _have_, especially with a negative: as, "Those modes of charity which _do not have_ in view the cultivation of moral excellence, are essentially defective."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 428. "Surely, the law of God, whether natural or revealed, _does not have_ respect merely to the external conduct of men."--_Stuart's Commentary on Romans_, p. 158. "And each day of our lives _do we have_ occasion to see and lament it."--_Dr. Bartlett's Lecture on Health_, p. 5. "Verbs, in themselves considered, _do not have_ person and number."--_R. C. Smith's New Gram._, p. 21. [This notion of Smith's is absurd. Kirkham taught the same as regards "person."] In the following example, _does he_ is used for _is_,--the auxiliary _is_,--and perhaps allowably: "It is certain from scripture, that the same person _does_ in the course of life many times offend and _be_ forgiven."--_West's Letters to a Young Lady_, p. 182. OBS. 7.--In the compound tenses, there is never any variation of ending for the different persons and numbers, except in the _first auxiliary_: as, "Thou _wilt have finished_ it;" not, "Thou _wilt hast finishedst_ it;" for this is nonsense. And even for the former, it is better to say, in the familiar style, "Thou _will have finished_ it;" for it is characteristic of many of the auxiliaries, that, unlike other verbs, they are not varied by _s_ or _eth_, in the third person singular, and never by _st_ or _est_, in the second person singular, except in the solemn style. Thus all the auxiliaries of the potential mood, as well as _shall_ and _will_ of the indicative, are without inflection in the third person singular, though _will_, as a principal verb, makes _wills_ or _willeth_, as well as _willest_, in the indicative present. Hence there appears a tendency in the language, to confine the inflection of its verbs to _this tense only_; and to the auxiliary _have, hast, has_, which is essentially present, though used with a participle to form the perfect. _Do, dost, does_, and _am, art, is_, whether used as auxiliaries or as principal verbs, are always of the indicative present. OBS. 8.--The word _need_,--(though, as a principal verb and transitive, it is unquestionably both regular and complete,--having all the requisite parts, _need, needed, needing, needed_,--and being necessarily inflected in the indicative present, as, I _need_, thou _needst_ or _needest_, he _needs_ or _needeth_,--) is so frequently used without inflection, when placed before an other verb to express a necessity of the being, action, or passion, that one may well question whether it has not become, under these circumstances, an _auxiliary_ of the potential mood; and therefore proper to be used, like all the other auxiliaries of this mood, without change of termination. I have not yet knowingly used it so myself, nor does it appear to have been classed with the auxiliaries, by any of our grammarians, except Webster.[258] I shall therefore not presume to say now, with positiveness, that it deserves this rank; (though I incline to think it does;) but rather quote such instances as have occurred to me in reading, and leave the student to take his choice, whether to condemn as bad English the uninflected examples, or to justify them in this manner. "He that can swim, _need_ not despair to fly."--_Johnson's Rasselas_, p. 29. "One therefore _needs_ not expect to do it."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 155. "In so doing I should only record some vain opinions of this age, which a future one _need_ not know."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 345. "That a boy _needs_ not be kept at school."--LISDSEY: _in Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 164. "No man _need_ promise, unless he please."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 312. "What better reason _needs_ be given?"--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 51. "He _need_ assign no other reason for his conduct."--_Wayland, ib._, p. 214. "Sow there is nothing that a man _needs_ be ashamed of in all this."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 45. "No notice _need_ be taken of the advantages."--_Walker's Rhyming Dict._, Vol. ii, p. 304. "Yet it _needs_ not be repeated."--_Bicknell's Gram._, Part ii, p. 51. "He _need_ not be anxious."--_Greenleaf's Gram. Simplified_, p. 38. "He _needs_ not be afraid."--_Fisk's Gram. Simplified_, p. 124. "He who will not learn to spell, _needs_ not learn to write."--_Red Book_, p. 22. "The heeder _need_ be under no fear."--_Greenleaf's Gram._, p. 38.[259] "More _need_ not be said about it."--_Cobbett's E. Gram._, ¶ 272. "The object _needs_ not be expressed."--_Booth's Introduct. to Dict._, p. 37. "Indeed, there _need_ be no such thing."--_Fosdick's De Sacy_, p. 71. "This _needs_ to be illustrated."--_Ib._, p. 81. "And no part of the sentence _need_ be omitted."--_Parkhurst's Grammar for Beginners_, p. 114. "The learner _needs_ to know what sort of words are called verbs."--_Ib._, p. 6. "No one _need_ be apprehensive of suffering by faults of this kind."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 171. "The student who has bought any of the former copies _needs_ not repent."--_Dr. Johnson, Adv. to Dict._ "He _need_ not enumerate their names."--_Edward's First Lessons in Grammar_, p. 38. "A quotation consisting of a word or two only _need_ not begin with a capital."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 383. "Their sex is commonly known, and _needs_ not to be marked."--_Ib._, p. 72; _Murray's Octavo Gram._, 51. "One _need_ only open Lord Clarendon's history, to find examples every where."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 108. "Their sex is commonly known, and _needs_ not be marked."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 21; _Murray's Duodecimo Gram._, p. 51. "Nobody _need_ be afraid he shall not have scope enough."--LOCKE: _in Sanborn's Gram._, p. 168. "No part of the science of language, _needs to be ever_ uninteresting to the pursuer."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. vii. "The exact amount of knowledge is not, and _need_ not be, great."--_Todd's Student's Manual_, p. 44. "He _needs to_ act under a motive which is all-pervading."--_Ib._, p. 375. "What _need_ be said, will not occupy a long space."--_Ib._, p. 244. "The sign TO _needs_ not always be used."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 96. "Such as he _need_ not be ashamed of."--_Snelling's Gift for Scribblers_, p. 23. "_Needst_ thou--_need_ any one on earth--despair?"--_Ib._, p. 32. "Take timely counsel; if your dire disease Admits no cure, it _needs_ not to displease."--_Ib._, p. 14. OBS. 9.--If _need_ is to be recognized as an auxiliary of the potential mood, it must be understood to belong to two tenses; the present and the perfect; like _may, can_, and _must_: as, "He _need_ not _go_, he _need_ not _have gone_; Thou _need_ not _go, Thou need_ not _have gone_;" or, in the solemn style, "Thou _needst_ not go, Thou _needst_ not _have gone_." If, on the contrary, we will have it to be always a principal verb, the distinction of time should belong to itself, and also the distinction of person and number, in the parts which require it: as, "He _needs_ not go. He _needed_ not go; Thou _needst_ not go, Thou _needed_ not go;" or, in the solemn style, "Thou _needest_ not go, Thou _neededst_ not go." Whether it can be right to say, "He _needed_ not _have gone_," is at least questionable. From the observations of Murray, upon relative tenses, under his thirteenth rule of syntax, it seems fair to infer that he would have judged this phraseology erroneous. Again, "He _needs_ not _have gone_," appears to be yet more objectionable, though for the same reason. And if, "He _need_ not _have gone_," is a correct expression, _need_ is clearly proved to be an _auxiliary_, and the three words taken together must form the potential perfect. And so of the plural; for the argument is from the connexion of the tenses, and not merely from the tendency of auxiliaries to reject inflection: as, "They need not _have been_ under great concern about their public affairs."--_Hutchinson's History_, i, 194, From these examples, it may be seen that an auxiliary and a principal verb have some essential difference; though these who dislike the doctrine of compound tenses, pretend not to discern any. Take some further citations; a few of which are erroneous in respect to time. And observe also that the regular verb sometimes admits the preposition _to_ after it: "' There is great dignity in being waited for,' said one who had the habit of tardiness, and who _had_ not much else of which he _need_ be vain."--_Students Manual_, p. 64. "But he _needed_ not _have gone_ so far for more instances."-- _Johnson's Gram._ _Com._, p. 143. "He _need_ not _have said_, 'perhaps the virtue.'"--_Sedgwick's Economy_, p. 196. "I _needed_ not _to ask_ how she felt."--_Abbott's Young Christian_, p. 84. "It _need_ not _have been_ so."--_Ib._, p. 111. "The most unaccommodating politician _need_ not absolutely _want_ friends."--_Hunts Feast of the Poets_, p. iii. "Which therefore _needs_ not be introduced with much precaution."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 326. "When an obscurer term _needs_ to be explained by one that is clearer."--_Ib._, p. 367. "Though, if she had died younger, she _need_ not _have known it_."--_West's Letters_, p. 120. "Nothing _need_ be said, but that they were the _most perfect_ barbarisms."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 470. "He _need_ not go."--_Goodenow's Gram._, p. 36. "He _needed_ but use the word _body_."--LOCKE: _in Joh. Dict._ "He _need_ not be required to use them."--_Parker's Eng. Composition_, p. 50. "The last consonant of _appear_ need not be doubled."--_Dr. Webster_. "It _needs_ the less _to be inforced_."--_Brown's Estimate_, ii, 158. "Of these pieces of his, we _shall not need to give_ any particular account."--_Seneca's Morals_, p. vi "And therefore I _shall need say_ the less of them."--_Scougal_, p. 1101. "This compounding of words _need_ occasion no surprise."--_Cardell's Essay on Language_, p. 87. "Therefore stay, thou _needst_ not to be gone."--_Shakspeare_. "Thou _need_ na _start_ awa sae hasty."--_Burns, Poems_, p. 15. "Thou _need_ na _jouk_ behint the hallan."--_Id., ib._, p. 67. OBS. 10.--The auxiliaries, except _must_, which is invariable, have severally two forms in respect to tense, or time; and when inflected in the second and third persons singular, are usually varied in the following manner:-- TO DO. PRESENT TENSE; AND SIGN OF THE INDICATIVE PRESENT. _Sing_. I do, thou dost, he does; _Plur_. We do, you do, they do. IMPERFECT TENSE; AND SIGN of THE INDICATIVE IMPERFECT. _Sing_. I did, thou didst, he did; _Plur_. We did, you did, they did. TO BE. PRESENT TENSE; AND SIGN OF THE INDICATIVE PRESENT. _Sing_. I am, thou art, he is; _Plur_. We are, you are, they are. IMPERFECT TENSE; AND SIGN OF THE INDICATIVE IMPERFECT. _Sing_. I was, thou wast, he was; _Plur_. We were, you were; they were. TO HAVE. PRESENT TENSE; BUT SIGN OF THE INDICATIVE PERFECT. _Sing_. I have, thou hast, he has; _Plur_. We have, you have, they have. IMPERFECT TENSE; BUT SIGN OF THE INDICATIVE PLUPERFECT. _Sing_. I had, thou hadst, he had; _Plur_. We had, you had, they had. SHALL AND WILL. These auxiliaries have distinct meanings, and, as signs of the future, they are interchanged thus: PRESENT TENSE; BUT SIGNS OF THE INDICATIVE FIRST-FUTURE. 1. Simply to express a future action or event:-- _Sing_. I shall, thou wilt, he will; _Plur_. We shall, you will, they will. 2. To express a promise, command, or threat:-- _Sing_.: I will, thou shalt, he shall; _Plur_. We will, you shall, they shall. IMPERFECT TENSE; BUT, AS SIGNS, AORIST, OR INDEFINITE. 1. Used with reference to duty or expediency:-- _Sing._ I should, thou shouldst, he should; _Plur._ We should, you should, they should. 2. Used with reference to volition or desire:-- _Sing._ I would, thou wouldst, he would; _Plur._ We would, you would, they would. MAY. PRESENT TENSE; AND SIGN OF THE POTENTIAL PRESENT. _Sing._ I may, thou mayst, he may; _Plur._ We may, you may, they may. IMPERFECT TENSE; AND SIGN OF THE POTENTIAL IMPERFECT. _Sing._ I might, thou mightst, he might; _Plur._ We might, you might, they might. CAN. PRESENT TENSE; AND SIGN OF THE POTENTIAL PRESENT. _Sing._ I can, thou canst, he can; _Plur._ We can, you can, they can. IMPERFECT TENSE; AND SIGN OF THE POTENTIAL IMPERFECT. _Sing._ I could, thou couldst, he could; _Plur._ We could, you could, they could. MUST. PRESENT TENSE; AND SIGN OF THE POTENTIAL PRESENT. _Sing._ I must, thou must, he must; _Plur._ We must, you must, they must. If must is ever used in the sense of the Imperfect tense, or Preterit, the form is the same as that of the Present: this word is entirely invariable. OBS. 11.--Several of the auxiliaries are occasionally used as mere expletives, being quite unnecessary to the sense: as, 1. DO and DID: "And it is night, wherein all the beasts of the forest _do_ creep forth."--_Psalms_, civ, 20. "And ye, that on the sands with printless foot _do_ chase the ebbing Neptune, and _do_ fly him when he comes back."--_Shak._ "And if a man _did_ need a poison now."--_Id._ This needless use of do and did is now avoided by good writers. 2. SHALL, SHOULD, and COULD: "'Men _shall_ deal unadvisedly sometimes, which after-hours give leisure to repent of.' I _should_ advise you to proceed. I _should_ think it would succeed. He, it _should_ seem, thinks otherwise."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 65. "I _could_ wish you to go."--_Ib._, p. 71. 3. WILL, &c. The following are nearly of the same character, but not exactly: "The isle is full of noises; sometimes a thousand twanging instruments _will_ hum about mine ears."--_Shak._ "In their evening sports she _would_ steal in amongst them."--_Barbauld_. "His listless length at noontide _would_ he stretch."--_Gray_. OBS. 12.--As our old writers often formed the infinitive in _en_, so they sometimes dropped the termination of the perfect participle. Hence we find, in the infancy of the language, _done_ used for _do_, and _do_ for _done_; and that by the same hand, with like changes in other verbs: as, "Thou canst nothing _done_."--_Chaucer_. "As he was wont to _done_."--_Id._ "The treson that to women hath be _do_."--_Id._ "For to _ben_ honourable and free."--_Id._ "I am sworn to _holden_ it secre."--_Id._ "Our nature God hath to him _unyte_."--_Douglas_. "None otherwise negligent than I you saie haue I not _bee_."--_Id._ See _W. Allen's E. Gram._, p. 97. "But netheless the thynge is _do_, That fals god was soone _go_."--GOWER: _H. Tooke_, Vol. i, p. 376. OBS. 13.--"_May_ is from the Anglo-Saxon, _mægan_, to be able. In the parent language also, it is used as an auxiliary. It is exhibited by Fortescue, as a principal verb; 'They shall _may_ do it:' i. e. they shall be able (to) do it."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 70. "_May not_, was formerly used for _must not_; as, 'Graces for which we _may not_ cease to sue.' Hooker."--_Ib._, p. 91. "_May_ frequently expresses doubt of the fact; as, 'I _may_ have the book in my library, but I think I have not.' It is used also, to express doubt, or a consequence, with a future signification; as, 'I _may_ recover the use of my limbs, but I see little probability of it.'--'That they _may_ receive me into their houses.' _Luke_, xvi, 4."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 247. In these latter instances, the potential present is akin to the subjunctive. Hence Lowth and others improperly call "I _may love_," &c. the subjunctive mood. Others, for the same reason, and with as little propriety, deny that we have any subjunctive mood; alleging an ellipsis in every thing that bears that name: as, "'If it (_may_) _be_ possible, live peaceably with all men.' Scriptures."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 61. _May_ is also a sign of wishing, and consequently occurs often in prayer: as, "_May_ it be thy good pleasure;"--"O that it _may_ please thee;"--"_Mayst_ thou be pleased." Hence the potential is akin also to the imperative: the phrases, "Thy will be done,"--"_May_ thy will be done,"--"Be thy will done,"--"_Let_ thy will be done,"--are alike in meaning, but not in mood or construction. OBS. 14.--_Can_, to be able, is etymologically the same as the regular verbs _ken_, to see, and _con_, to learn; all of them being derived from the Saxon _connan_ or _cunnan_, to know: whence also the adjective cunning, which was formerly a participle. In the following example _will_ and _can_ are principal verbs: "In evil, the best condition is, not to _will_; the second, not to _can_."--_Ld. Bacon_. "That a verb which signifies knowledge, may also signify power, appears from these examples: _Je ne saurois, I should not know how_, (i. e. _could_ not.) [Greek: Asphalisasthe hos oidate], Strengthen it as you _know how_, (i. e. as you _can_.) _Nescio_ mentiri, I _know not how to_ (i.e. _I cannot_) lie."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 71. _Shall_, Saxon _sceal_, originally signified to _owe_; for which reason _should_ literally means _ought_. In the following example from Chaucer, _shall_ is a principal verb, with its original meaning: "For, by the faith I _shall_ to God, I wene, Was neuer straungir none in hir degre."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 64. OBS. 15.--_Do_ and _did_ are auxiliary only to the present infinitive, or the radical verb; as, _do throw, did throw_: thus the mood of _do throw_ or _to throw_ is marked by _do_ or _to_. _Be_, in all its parts, is auxiliary to either of the simple participles; as, _to be throwing, to be thrown; I am throwing, I am thrown_: and so, through the whole conjugation. _Have_ and _had_, in their literal use, are auxiliary to the perfect participle only; as, _have thrown, had thrown. Have_ is from the Saxon _habban_, to possess; and, from the nature of the perfect participle, the tenses thus formed, suggest in general a completion of the action. The French idiom is similar to this: as, _J'ai vu_, I have seen. _Shall_ and _should, will_ and _would, may_ and _might, can_ and _could, must_, and also _need, (if we call the last a helping verb,) are severally auxiliary to both forms of the infinitive, and to these only: as, shall throw, shall have thrown; should throw, should have thrown_; and so of all the rest. OBS. 16.--The form of the indicative pluperfect is sometimes used in lieu of the potential pluperfect; as, "If all the world could have seen it, the wo _had been_ universal."--_Shakspeare_. That is,--"_would have been_ universal." "I _had been drowned_, but that the shore was shelvy and shallow."--_Id._ That is,--"I _should have been drowned_." This mode of expression may be referred to the figure _enallage_, in which one word or one modification is used for an other. Similar to this is the use of _were_ for _would be_: "It _were_ injustice to deny the execution of the law to any individual;" that is, "it _would_ be injustice."--_Murray's Grammar_, p. 89. In some instances, _were_ and _had been_ seem to have the same import; as, "Good _were_ it for that man if he had never been born."--_Mark_, xiv, 21. "It _had been_ good for that man if he had not been born."--_Matt._, xxvi, 24. In prose, all these licenses are needless, if not absolutely improper. In poetry, their brevity may commend them to preference; but to this style, I think, they ought to be confined: as, "That _had been_ just, replied the reverend bard; But done, fair youth, thou ne'er _hadst met_ me here."--_Pollok_. "The keystones of the arch!--though all were o'er, For us repeopled _were_ the solitary shore."--_Byron_. OBS. 17.--With an adverb of comparison or preference, as _better, rather, best, as lief_, or _as lieve_, the auxiliary _had_ seems sometimes to be used before the infinitive to form the potential imperfect or pluperfect: as, "He that loses by getting, _had better lose_ than get."--_Penn's Maxims_. "Other prepositions _had better have been substituted_."-- _Priestley's Gram._, p. 166. "I had as lief say."--LOWTH: _ib._, p. 110. "It compels me to think of that which I _had rather forget_."-- _Bickersteth, on Prayer_, p. 25. "You _had much better say_ nothing upon the subject."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 147. "I _had much rather show_ thee what hopes thou hast before thee."--_Baxter_. "I _had rather speak_ five words with my understanding, than ten thousand words in an unknown tongue."--_1 Cor._, xiv, 19. "I knew a gentleman in America who told me _how much rather he had be_ a woman than the man he is."--_Martineau's Society in America_, Vol. i, p. 153. "I _had as lief go_ as not."-- _Webster's Dict., w. Lief_. "I _had as lieve_ the town crier spoke my lines."--SHAK.: _Hamlet_. "We _had best leave_ nature to her own operations."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. i, p. 310. "What method _had he best take_?"--_Harris's Hermes_, p. ix. These are equivalent to the phrases, _might better lose--might_ better have been substituted--_would_ as lief say--_would_ rather forget--_might_ much better say--_would_ much rather show--_would_ rather speak--how much rather he _would_ be--_would_ as lief go--_should_ best leave--_might_ he best take; and, for the sake of regularity, these latter forms ought to be preferred, as they sometimes are: thus, "For my own part, I _would rather look_ upon a tree in all its luxuriancy."--_Addison, Spect._, No. 414; _Blair's Rhet._, p. 223. The following construction is different: "Augustus _had like to_ have been slain."--_S. Butler_. Here _had_ is a principal verb of the indicative imperfect. The following examples appear to be positively erroneous: "Much that was said, _had better remained_ unsaid."--_N. Y. Observer_. Say, "_might better have remained_." "A man that is lifting a weight, if he put not sufficient strength to it, _had as good_ put none at all."--_Baxter_. Say, "_might as well put_." "You _were better pour_ off the first infusion, and use the latter."--_Bacon_. Say, "_might better pour_;" or, if you prefer it, "_had better pour._" Shakspeare has an expression which is still worse:-- "Or, by the worth of mine eternal soul, Thou _hadst been better have been born_ a dog."--_Beauties_, p. 295. OBS. 18.--The form of conjugating the active verb, is often called the _Active Voice_, and that of the passive verb, the _Passive Voice_. These terms are borrowed from the Latin and Greek grammars, and, except as serving to diversify expression, are of little or no use in English grammar. Some grammarians deny that there is any propriety in them, with respect to any language. De Sacy, after showing that the import of the verb does not always follow its form of voice, adds: "We must, therefore, carefully distinguish the Voice of a Verb from its signification. To facilitate the distinction, I denominate that an _Active_ Verb which contains an Attribute in which the action is considered as performed by the Subject; and that a _Passive_ Verb which contains an Attribute in which the action is considered as suffered by the Subject, and performed upon it by some agent. I call that voice a _Subjective_ Voice which is generally appropriated to the Active Verb, and that an _Objective_ Voice which is generally appropriated to the Passive Verb. As to the Neuter Verbs, if they possess a peculiar form, I call it a Neuter Voice."--_Fosdick's Translation_, p. 99. OBS. 19.--A recognition of the difference between actives and passives, in our original classification of verbs with respect to their signification,-- a principle of division very properly adopted in a great majority of our grammars and dictionaries, but opinionately rejected by Webster, Bolles, and sundry late grammarians,--renders it unnecessary, if not improper, to place Voices, the Active Voice and the Passive, among the _modifications_ of our verbs, or to speak of them as such in the conjugations. So must it be in respect to "a Neuter Voice," or any other distinction which the classification involves. The significant characteristic is not overlooked; the distinction is not neglected as nonessential; but it is transferred to a different category. Hence I cannot exactly approve of the following remark, which "the Rev. W. Allen" appears to cite with approbation: "'The distinction of active or passive,' says the accurate Mr. Jones, '_is not essential_ to verbs. In the infancy of language, it was, in all probability, not known. In Hebrew, the difference but imperfectly exists, and, in the early periods of it, probably did not exist at all. In Arabic, the only distinction which obtains, arises from the vowel points, a late invention compared with the antiquity of that language. And in our own tongue, the names of _active_ and _passive_ would have remained unknown, if they had not been learnt in Latin.'"--_Allen's Elements of English Gram._, p. 96. OBS. 20.--By _the conjugation_ of a verb, some teachers choose to understand nothing more than the naming of its principal parts; giving to the arrangement of its numbers and persons, through all the moods and tenses, the name of _declension._ This is a misapplication of terms, and the distinction is as needless, as it is contrary to general usage. Dr. Bullions, long silent concerning principal parts, seems now to make a singular distinction between "_conjugating_" and "_conjugation._" His _conjugations_ include the moods, tenses, and inflections of verbs; but he teaches also, with some inaccuracy, as follows: "The principal parts of the verb are the _Present indicative_, the _Past indicative_ and the _Past participle._ The mentioning of these parts is called CONJUGATING THE VERB."--_Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, 1849, p. 80. OBS. 21.--English verbs having but very few inflections to indicate to what part of the scheme of moods and tenses they pertain, it is found convenient to insert in our conjugations the preposition _to_, to mark the infinitive; personal _pronouns_, to distinguish the persons and numbers; the conjunction _if_, to denote the subjunctive mood; and the adverb _not_, to show the form of negation. With these additions, or indexes, a verb may be conjugated in _four ways_:-- 1. Affirmatively; as, I write, I do write, or, I am writing; and so on. 2. Negatively; as, I write not, I do not write, or, I am not writing. 3. Interrogatively; as, Write I? Do I write? or, Am I writing? 4. Interrogatively and negatively; as, Write I not? Do I not write? or, Am I not writing? 1. SIMPLE FORM, ACTIVE OR NEUTER. The simplest form of an English conjugation, is that which makes the present and imperfect tenses without auxiliaries; but, even in these, auxiliaries are required for the potential mood, and are often preferred for the indicative. FIRST EXAMPLE. _The regular active verb LOVE, conjugated affirmatively_. PRINCIPAL PARTS. _Present. Preterit. Imperfect Participle. Perfect Participle._ Love. Loved. Loving. Loved. INFINITIVE MOOD.[260] The infinitive mood is that form of the verb, which expresses the being, action, or passion, in an unlimited manner, and without person or number. It is used only in the present and perfect tenses. PRESENT TENSE. This tense is the _root_, or _radical verb_; and is usually preceded by the preposition _to_, which shows its relation to some other word: thus, To love. PERFECT TENSE. This tense prefixes the auxiliary _have_ to the perfect participle; and, like the infinitive present, is usually preceded by the preposition _to_: thus, To have loved. INDICATIVE MOOD. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. It is used in all the tenses. PRESENT TENSE. The present indicative, in its simple form, is essentially the same as the present infinitive, or radical verb; except that the verb _be_ has _am_ in the indicative. 1. The simple form of the present tense is varied thus:-- _Singular_. _Plural_. 1st person, I love, 1st person. We love, 2d person, Thou lovest, 2d person, You love, 3d person, He loves; 3d person, They love. 2. This tense may also be formed by prefixing the auxiliary _do_ to the verb: thus, _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I do love, 1. We do love, 2. Thou dost love, 2. You do love, 3. He does love; 3. They do love. IMPERFECT TENSE. This tense, in its simple form is _the preterit_; which, in all regular verbs, adds _d_ or _ed_ to the present, but in others is formed variously. 1. The simple form of the imperfect tense is varied thus:-- _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I loved, 1. We loved, 2. Thou lovedst, 2. You loved, 3. He loved; 3. They loved. 2. This tense may also be formed by prefixing the auxiliary _did_ to the present: thus, _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I did love, 1. We did love, 2. Thou didst love, 2. You did love, 3. He did love; 3. They did love. PERFECT TENSE. This tense prefixes the auxiliary _have_ to the perfect participle: thus, _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved, 3. He has loved; 3. They have loved. IMPERFECT TENSE. This tense prefixes the auxiliary _had_ to the perfect participle: thus, _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved, 3. He had loved; 3. They had loved. FIRST-FUTURE TENSE. This tense prefixes the auxiliary _shall_ or _will_ to the present: thus, 1. Simply to express a future action or event:-- _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I shall love, 1. We shall love, 2. Thou wilt love, 2. You will love, 3. He will love; 3. They will love; 2. To express a promise, volition, command, or threat:-- _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I will love, 1. We will love, 2. Thou shalt love, 2. You shall love, 3. He shall love; 3. They shall love. SECOND-FUTURE TENSE. This tense prefixes the auxiliaries _shall have_ or _will have_ to the perfect participle: thus, _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved, 2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. You will have loved, 3. He will have loved; 3. They will have loved. OBS.--The auxiliary _shall_ may also be used in the second and third persons of this tense, when preceded by a conjunction expressing condition or contingency; as, "_If_ he _shall have completed_ the work by midsummer."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 80. So, with the conjunctive adverb _when_; as, "Then cometh the end, _when_ he _shall have delivered_ up the kingdom to God, even the Father; _when_ he _shall have put_ down all rule and all authority and power."--_1 Cor._, xv, 24. And perhaps _will_ may here be used in the first person to express a promise, though such usage, I think, seldom occurs. Professor Fowler has given to this tense, first, the "_Predictive_" form, as exhibited above, and then a form which he calls "_Promissive_," and in which the auxiliaries are varied thus: "Singular. 1. I _will_ have taken. 2. Thou _shalt_ have taken, you _shall_ have taken. 3. He _shall_ have taken. Plural. 1. We _will_ have taken. 2. Ye _or_ you _shall_ have taken. 3. He [say _They_,] _shall_ have taken."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, 8vo., N. Y., 1850, p. 281. But the other instances just cited show that such a form is not always promissory. POTENTIAL MOOD. The potential mood is that form of the verb, which expresses the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity of the being, action, or passion. It is used in the first four tenses; but the potential _imperfect_ is properly an _aorist_: its time is very indeterminate; as, "He _would be_ devoid of sensibility were he not greatly satisfied."--_Lord Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. i, p. 11. PRESENT TENSE. This tense prefixes the auxiliary _may, can_, or _must_, to the radical verb: thus, _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I may love, 1. We may love, 2. Thou mayst love, 2. You may love, 3. He may love; 3. They may love. IMPERFECT TENSE. This tense prefixes the auxiliary _might, could, would_, or _should_, to the radical verb: thus, _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I might love, 1. We might love, 2. Thou mightst love, 2. You might love, 3. He might love; 3. They might love. PERFECT TENSE. This tense prefixes the auxiliaries, _may have, can have_, or _must have_, to the perfect participle: thus, _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 2. Thou mayst have loved, 2. You may have loved, 3. He may have loved; 3. They may have loved. PLUPERFECT TENSE. This tense prefixes the auxiliaries, _might have, could have, would have_, or _should have_, to the perfect participle: thus, _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I might have loved, 1. We might have loved, 2. Thou mightst have loved, 2. You might have loved, 3. He might have loved; 3. They might have loved. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. The subjunctive mood is that form of the verb, which represents the being, action, or passion, as conditional, doubtful, or contingent. This mood is generally preceded by a conjunction; as, _if, that, though, lest, unless, except_. But sometimes, especially in poetry, it is formed by a mere placing of the verb before the nominative; as, "_Were I_," for, "_If I were_;"--"_Had he_," for, "_If he had_;"--"_Fall we_" for, "_If we fall_;"--"_Knew they_," for, "_If they knew_." It does not vary its termination at all, in the different persons.[261] It is used in the present, and sometimes in the imperfect tense; rarely--and perhaps never _properly_--in any other. As this mood can be used only in a dependent clause, the _time_ implied in its tenses is always relative, and generally indefinite; as, "It shall be in eternal restless change, Self-fed, and self-consum'd: _if this fail_, The pillar'd firmament is rottenness."--_Milton, Comus_, l. 596. PRESENT TENSE. This tense is generally used to express some condition on which a future action or event is affirmed. It is therefore erroneously considered by some grammarians, as an elliptical form of the future. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. If I love, 1. If we love, 2. If Thou love, 2. If you love, 3. If He love; 3. If they love. OBS.--In this tense, the auxiliary _do_ is sometimes employed; as, "If thou _do prosper_ my way."--_Genesis_, xxiv, 42. "If he _do_ not _utter_ it."--_Leviticus_, v, 1. "If he _do_ but _intimate_ his desire."--_Murray's Key_, p. 207. "If he _do promise_, he will certainly perform."--_Ib._, p. 208. "An event which, if it ever _do occur_, must occur in some future period."--_Hiley's Gram._, (3d Ed., Lond.,) p. 89. "If he _do_ but _promise_, thou art safe."--_Ib._, 89. "Till old experience _do attain_ To something like prophetic strain."--MILTON: _Il Penseroso_. These examples, if they are right, prove the tense to be _present_, and not _future_, as Hiley and some others suppose it to be. IMPERFECT TENSE. This tense, like the imperfect of the potential mood, with which it is frequently connected, is properly an aorist, or indefinite tense; for it may refer to time past, present, or future: as, "If therefore perfection _were_ by the Levitical priesthood, what further need _was_ there that an other priest _should rise_?"--_Heb._, vii, 11. "They must be viewed _exactly_ in the same light, as if the intention to purchase _now existed_."--_Murray's Parsing Exercises_, p. 24. "If it _were_ possible, they _shall deceive_ the very elect."--_Matt._, xxiv, 24. "If the whole body _were_ an eye, where _were_ the hearing?"--_1 Corinthians_, xii, 17. "If the thankful _refrained_, it _would be_ pain and grief to them."--_Atterbury_. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. If I loved, 1. If we loved, 2. If thou loved, 2. If you loved, 3. If he loved; 3. If they loved. OBS.--In this tense, the auxiliary _did_ is sometimes employed. The subjunctive may here be distinguished from the indicative, by these circumstances; namely, that the time is indefinite, and that the supposition is always contrary to the fact: as, "Great is the number of those who might attain to true wisdom, if they _did not already think_ themselves wise."--_Dillwyn's Reflections_, p. 36. This implies that they _do think_ themselves wise; but an indicative supposition or concession--(as, "Though they _did not think_ themselves wise, they were so--") accords with the fact, and with the literal time of the tense,--here time past. The subjunctive imperfect, suggesting the idea of what is not, and known by the sense, is sometimes introduced without any of the _usual signs_; as, "In a society of perfect men, _where all understood_ what was morally right, and _were determined_ to act accordingly, it is obvious, that human laws, or even human organization to enforce God's laws, would be altogether unnecessary, and could serve no valuable purpose."--PRES. SHANNON: _Examiner_, No. 78. IMPERATIVE MOOD. The imperative mood is that form of the verb, which is used in commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting. It is commonly used only in the second person of the present tense. PRESENT TENSE. _Singular._ 2. Love [thou,] _or_ Do thou love; _Plural._ 2. Love [ye _or_ you,] _or_ Do you love. OBS.--In the Greek language, which has three numbers, the imperative mood is used in the second and third persons of them all; and has also several different tenses, some of which cannot be clearly rendered in English. In Latin, this mood has a distinct form for the third person, both singular and plural. In Italian, Spanish, and French, the first person plural is also given it. Imitations of some of these forms are occasionally employed in English, particularly by the poets. Such imitations must be referred to this mood, unless by ellipsis and transposition we make them out to be something else; and against this there are strong objections. Again, as imprecation on one's self is not impossible, the first person singular may be added; so that this mood _may possibly have_ all the persons and numbers. Examples: "_Come we_ now to his translation of the Iliad."--_Pope's Pref. to Dunciad_. "_Proceed we_ therefore in our subject."--_Ib._ "_Blessed be he_ that blesseth thee."--_Gen._, xxvii, 29. "Thy _kingdom come_."--_Matt._, vi, 10. "But _pass we_ that."--_W. Scott_. "Third person: _Be he, Be they_."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 92. "My soul, _turn_ from them--_turn we_ to survey," &c.--_Goldsmith_. "Then _turn we_ to her latest tribune's name."--_Byron_. "Where'er the eye could light these words you read: 'Who _comes_ this way--_behold_, and _fear_ to sin!'"--_Pollok_. "_Fall he_ that must, beneath his rival's arms, And _live the rest_, secure of future harms."--_Pope_. "_Cursed be I_ that did so!--All the _charms_ Of Sycorax, toads, beetles, bats, _light_ on you!"--_Shakspeare_. "_Have done_ thy charms, thou hateful wither'd hag!"--_Idem_. PARTICIPLES. 1. _The Imperfect_. 2. _The Perfect_. 3. _The Preperfect_. Loving. Loved. Having loved. SYNOPSIS OF THE FIRST EXAMPLE. FIRST PERSON SINGULAR. IND. I love _or_ do love, I loved _or_ did love, I have loved. I had loved, I shall _or_ will love, I shall _or_ will have loved. POT. I may, can, _or_ must love; I might, could, would, _or_ should love; I may, can, _or_ must have loved; I might, could, would, _or_ should have loved. SUBJ. If I love, If I loved. SECOND PERSON SINGULAR. IND. Thou lovest _or_ dost love, Thou lovedst _or_ didst love, Thou hast loved, Thou hadst loved, Thou shalt _or_ wilt love, Thou shalt _or_ wilt have loved. POT. Thou mayst, canst, _or_ must love; Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, _or_ shouldst love; Thou mayst, canst, _or_ must have loved; Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst _or_ shouldst have loved. SUBJ. If thou love, If thou loved. IMP. Love [thou,] _or_ Do thou love. THIRD PERSON SINGULAR. IND. He loves _or_ does love, He loved _or_ did love, He has loved, He had loved, He shall _or_ will love, He shall _or_ will have loved. POT. He may, can, _or_ must love; He might, could, would, _or_ should love; He may, can, _or_ must have loved; He might, could, would, _or_ should have loved. SUBJ. If he love, If he loved. FIRST PERSON PLURAL. IND. We love _or_ do love, We loved _or_ did loved, We have loved, We had loved, We shall _or_ will love, We shall _or_ will have loved. POT. We may, can, _or_ must love, We might, could, would, _or_ should love; We may, can, _or_ must have loved; We might, could, would, _or_ should have loved. SUBJ. If we love, If we loved. SECOND PERSON PLURAL. IND. You love _or_ do love, You loved _or_ did love, You have loved, You had loved, You shall _or_ will love, You shall _or_ will have loved. POT. You may, can, _or_ must love; You might, could, would, _or_ should love; You may, can, _or_ must have loved; You might, could, would, _or_ should have loved. SUBJ. If you love, If you loved. IMP. Love [ye _or_ you,] _or_ Do you love. THIRD PERSON PLURAL. IND. They love _or_ do love, They loved _or_ did love, They have loved, They had loved, They shall _or_ will love, They shall _or_ will have loved. POT. They may, can, _or_ must love; They might, could, would, _or_ should love; They may, can, _or_ must have loved; They might, could, would, _or_ should have loved. SUBJ. If they love, If they loved. FAMILIAR FORM WITH 'THOU.' NOTE.--In the familiar style, the second person singular of this verb, is usually and more properly formed thus: IND. Thou lov'st _or_ dost love, Thou loved _or_ did love, Thou hast loved, Thou had loved, Thou shall _or_ will love, Thou shall _or_ will have loved. POT. Thou may, can, _or_ must love; Thou might, could, would, _or_ should love; Thou may, can, _or_ must have loved; Thou might, could, would, _or_ should have loved. SUBJ. If thou love, If thou loved. IMP. Love [thou,] _or_ Do thou love. SECOND EXAMPLE. _The irregular active verb SEE, conjugated affirmatively._ PRINCIPAL PARTS. _Present_. _Preterit_. _Imp. Participle_. _Perf. Participle_. See. Saw. Seeing. Seen. INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. To See. PERFECT TENSE. To have seen. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. _Singular_. 1. I see, 2. Thou seest, 3. He sees; _Plural_. 1. We see, 2. You see, 3. They see. IMPERFECT TENSE. _Singular_. 1. I saw, 2. Thou sawest, 3. He saw; _Plural_. 1. We saw, 2. You saw, 3. They saw. PERFECT TENSE. _Singular_. 1. I have seen, 2. Thou hast seen, 3. He has seen; _Plural_. 1. We have seen, 2. You have seen, 3. They have seen. PLUPERFECT TENSE. _Singular_. 1. I had seen, 2. Thou hadst seen, He had seen; _Plural_. 1. We had seen, 2. You had seen, 3. They had seen. FIRST-FUTURE TENSE. _Singular_. 1. I shall see, 2. Thou wilt see, He will see; _Plural_. 1. We shall see, 2. You will see, 3. They will see. SECOND-FUTURE TENSE. _Singular_. 1. I shall have seen, 2. Thou wilt have seen, 3. He will have seen; _Plural_. 1. We shall have seen, 2. You will have seen, 3. They will have seen. POTENTIAL MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. _Singular_. 1. I may see, 2. Thou mayst see, 3. He may see; _Plural_. 1. We may see, 2. You may see, 3. They may see. IMPERFECT TENSE. _Singular_. 1. I might see, 2. Thou mightst see, 3. He might see; _Plural_. 1. We might see, 2. You might see, 3. They might see. PERFECT TENSE. _Singular_. 1. I may have seen, 2. Thou mayst have seen, 3. He may have seen; _Plural._ 1. We may have seen, 2. You may have seen, 3. They may have seen. PLUPERFECT TENSE. _Singular_. 1. I might have seen, 2. Thou mightst have seen, 3. He might have seen; _Plural_. 1. We might have seen, 2. You might have seen, 3. They might have seen. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. _Singular_. 1. If I see, 2. If thou see, 3. If he see; _Plural_. 1. If we see, 2. If you see, 3. If they see. IMPERFECT TENSE. _Singular_. 1. If I saw, 2. If thou saw, 3. If he saw; _Plural_. 1. If we saw, 2. If you saw, 3. If they saw. IMPERATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. _Singular._ 2. See [thou,] _or_ Do thou see; _Plural._ 2. See [ye _or_ you,] _or_ Do you see. PARTICIPLES. 1. _The Imperfect_. 2. _The Perfect_. 3. _The Preperfect_. Seeing. Seen. Having seen. NOTES. NOTE I--The student ought to be able to rehearse the form of a verb, not only according to the order of the entire conjugation, but also according to the synopsis of the several persons and numbers. One sixth part of the paradigm, thus recited, gives in general a fair sample of the whole: and, in class recitations, this mode of rehearsal will save much time: as, IND. I see _or_ do see, I saw _or_ did see, I have seen, I had seen, I shall _or_ will see, I shall _or_ will have seen. POT. I may, can, _or_ must see; I might, could, would, _or_ should see; I may, can, _or_ must have seen; I might, could, would, _or_ should have seen. SUBJ. If I see, If I saw. NOTE II.--In the familiar style, the second person singular of this verb is usually and more properly formed thus: IND. Thou seest _or_ dost see, Thou saw _or_ did see, Thou hast seen, Thou had seen, Thou shall _or_ will see, Thou shall _or_ will have seen. POT. Thou may, can, _or_ must see; Thou might, could, would, _or_ should see; Thou may, can, _or_ must have seen; Thou might, could, would, _or_ should have seen. SUBJ. If thou see, If thou saw. IMP. See [thou,] _or_ Do thou see. THIRD EXAMPLE. _The irregular neuter verb BE, conjugated affirmatively_. PRINCIPAL PARTS. _Present._ _Preterit._ _Imp. Participle._ _Perf. Participle._ Be. Was. Being. Been. INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. To be. PERFECT TENSE. To have been. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. _Singular._ _Plural._ 1. I am, 1. We are, 2. Thou art, 2. You are, 3. He is; 3. They are. IMPERFECT TENSE. _Singular._ _Plural._ 1. I was, 1. We were, 2. Thou wast, (_or_ wert,)[262] 2. You were, 3. He was; 3. They were. PERFECT TENSE. _Singular._ _Plural._ 1. I have been, 1. We have been, 2. Thou hast been, 2. You have been, 3. He has been; 3. They have been. PLUPERFECT TENSE. _Singular._ _Plural._ 1. I had been, 1. We had been, 2. Thou hadst been, 2. You had been, 3. He had been; 3. They had been. FIRST-FUTURE TENSE. _Singular._ _Plural._ 1. I shall be, 1. We shall be, 2. Thou wilt be, 2. You will be, 3. He will be; 3. They will be. SECOND-FUTURE TENSE. _Singular._ _Plural._ 1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been, 2. Thou wilt have been, 2. You will have been, 3. He will have been; 3. They will have been. POTENTIAL MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. _Singular._ _Plural._ 1. I may be, 1. We may be, 2. Thou mayst be, 2. You may be, 3. He may be, 3. They may be. IMPERFECT TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I might be, 1. We might be, 2. Thou mightst be, 2. You might be, 3. He might be; 3. They might be. PERFECT TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I may have been, 1. We may have been, 2. Thou mayst have been, 2. You may have been, 3. He may have been; 3. They may have been. PLUPERFECT TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I might have been, 1. We might have been, 2. Thou mightst have been, 2. You might have been, 3. He might have been; 3. They might have been. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. If I be, 1. If we be, 2. If thou be, 2. If you be, 3. If he be; 3. If they be. IMPERFECT TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. If I were,[263] 1. If we were, 2. If thou were, _or_ wert,[264] 2. If you were, 3. If he were; If they were. IMPERATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. _Singular_. 2. Be [thou,] _or_ Do thou be; _Plural_. 2. Be [ye _or_ you,] _or_ Do you be. PARTICIPLES. 1. _The Imperfect_. 2. _The Perfect_. 3. _The Preperfect_. Being. Been. Having been. FAMILIAR FORM WITH 'THOU.' NOTE.--In the familiar style, the second person singular of this verb, is usually and more properly formed thus: IND. Thou art, Thou was, Thou hast been, Thou had been, Thou shall _or_ will be, Thou shall _or_ will have been. POT. Thou may, can, _or_ must be; Thou might, could, would, _or_ should be; Thou may, can, _or_ must have been; Thou might, could, would, _or_ should have been. SUBJ. If thou be, If thou were. IMP. Be [thou,] _or_ Do thou be. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--It appears that _be_, as well as _am_, was formerly used for the indicative present: as, "I be, Thou beest, He be; We be, Ye be, They be." See _Brightland's Gram._, p. 114. Dr. Lowth, whose Grammar is still preferred at Harvard University, gives both forms, thus: "I am, Thou art, He is; We are, Ye are, They are. Or, I be, Thou beest, He _is_; We be, Ye be, They be." To the third person singular, he subjoins the following example and remark: "'I think it _be_ thine indeed, for thou liest in it.' Shak. Hamlet. _Be_, in the singular number of this time and mode, especially in the third person, is obsolete; and _is become_ somewhat antiquated _in the plural_."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 36. Dr. Johnson gives this tense thus: "_Sing_. I am; thou art; he is; _Plur_. We are, _or_ be; ye are, _or_ be; they are, _or_ be." And adds, "The plural _be_ is now little in use."--_Gram. in Johnson's Dict._, p. 8. The Bible commonly has _am, art, is_, and _are_, but not always; the indicative _be_ occurs in some places: as, "We _be_ twelve brethren."--_Gen._, xlii, 32. "What _be_ these two olive branches?"--_Zech._, iv, 12. Some traces of this usage still occur in poetry: as, "There _be_ more things to greet the heart and eyes In Arno's dome of Art's most princely shrine, Where Sculpture with her rainbow sister vies; There _be_ more marvels yet--but not for mine." --_Byron's Childe Harold_, Canto iv, st. 61. OBS. 2.--Respecting the verb _wert_, it is not easy to determine whether it is most properly of the indicative mood only, or of the subjunctive mood only, or of both, or of neither. The _regular_ and _analogical_ form for the indicative, is "Thou _wast_;" and for the subjunctive, "If thou _were_." Brightland exhibits, "I _was_ or _were_, Thou _wast_ or _wert_, He _was_ or _were_," without distinction of mood, for the three persons singular; and, for the plural, _were_ only. Dr. Johnson gives us, for the indicative, "Thou wast, _or_ wert;" with the remark, "_Wert_ is properly of the _conjunctive_ mood, and ought not to be used in the indicative."--_Johnson's Gram._, p. 8. In his conjunctive (or subjunctive) mood, he has, "Thou _beest_," and "Thou _wert_." So Milton wrote, "If thou _beest_ he."--_P. Lost_, B. i, l. 84. Likewise Shakspeare: "If thou _beest_ Stephano."--_Tempest_. This inflection of _be_ is obsolete: all now say, "If thou _be_." But _wert_ is still in use, to some extent, _for both moods_; being generally placed by the grammarians in the subjunctive only, but much oftener written for the indicative: as, "Whate'er thou art or _wert_."--_Byron's Harold_, Canto iv, st. 115. "O thou that _wert_ so happy!"--_Ib._, st. 109. "Vainly _wert_ thou wed."--_Ib._, st. 169. OBS. 3.--Dr. Lowth gave to this verb, BE, that form of the subjunctive mood, which it now has in most of our grammars; appending to it the following examples and questions: "'Before the sun, Before the Heavens, thou _wert_.'--_Milton_. 'Remember what thou _wert_.'--_Dryden_. 'I knew thou _wert_ not slow to hear.'--_Addison_. 'Thou who of old _wert_ sent to Israel's court.'--_Prior_. 'All this thou _wert_.'--_Pope_. 'Thou, Stella, _wert_ no longer young.'--_Swift_. Shall we, in deference to these great authorities," asks the Doctor, "allow _wert_ to be the same with _wast_, and common to the indicative and [the] subjunctive mood? or rather abide by the practice of our best ancient writers; the propriety of the language, which requires, as far as may be, distinct forms, for different moods; and the analogy of formation in each mood; I _was_, thou _wast_; I _were_, thou _wert_? all which conspire to make _wert_ peculiar to the subjunctive mood."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 37; _Churchill's_, p. 251. I have before shown, that several of the "best ancient writers" _did not inflect_ the verb _were_, but wrote "_thou were_;" and, surely, "the analogy of formation," requires that the subjunctive _be not inflected_. Hence "the propriety which requires distinct forms," requires not _wert_, in either mood. Why then should we make this contraction of the old indicative form _werest_, a _solitary exception_, by fixing it in the subjunctive only, and that in opposition to the best authorities that ever used it? It is worthier to take rank with its kindred _beest_, and be called an _archaism_. OBS. 4.--The chief characteristical difference between the indicative and the subjunctive mood, is, that in the latter the verb is _not inflected at all_, in the different persons: IND. "Thou _magnifiest_ his work." SUBJ. "Remember that thou _magnify_ his work."--_Job_, xxxvi, 24. IND. "He _cuts_ off, _shuts_ up, and _gathers_ together." SUBJ. "If he _cut_ off, and _shut_ up, or _gather_ together, then who can hinder him?"--_Job_, xl, 10. There is also a difference of meaning. The Indicative, "If he _was_," admits the fact; the Subjunctive, "If he _were_," supposes that he was not. These moods may therefore be distinguished by the sense, even when their forms are alike: as, "Though _it thundered_, it did not rain."--"Though _it thundered_, he would not hear it." The indicative assumption here is, "Though it _did thunder_," or, "Though there _was thunder_;" the subjunctive, "Though it _should thunder_," or, "Though there _were_ thunder." These senses are clearly different. Writers however are continually confounding these moods; some in one way, some in an other. Thus S. R. Hall, the teacher of a _Seminary for Teachers_: "SUBJ. _Present Tense_. 1. If I be, _or_ am, 2. If thou be, _or_ art, 3. If he be, _or_ is; 1. If we be, _or_ are, 2. If ye _or_ you be, _or_ are, 3. If they be, _or_ are. _Imperfect Tense_. 1. If I were, _or_ was, 2. If thou wert, _or_ wast, 3. If he were, _or_ was; 1. If we were, 2. If ye _or_ you were, 3. If they were."--_Hall's Grammatical Assistant_, p. 11. Again: "SUBJ. _Present Tense_. 1. If I love, 2. If thou _lovest_, 3. If he love," &c. "The remaining tenses of this _mode_, are, _in general_, similar to the correspondent tenses of the Indicative _mode, only_ with the conjunction prefixed."--_Ib._, p. 20. Dr. Johnson observes, "The indicative and conjunctive moods are by modern writers frequently confounded; or rather the conjunctive is wholly neglected, when some convenience of versification does not invite its revival. It is used among the purer writers of former times; as, 'Doubtless thou art our father, though Abraham _be_ ignorant of us, and Israel _acknowledge_ us not.'"--_Gram. in Joh. Dict._, p. 9. To neglect the subjunctive mood, or to confound it with the indicative, is to augment several of the worst faults of the language. II. COMPOUND OR PROGRESSIVE FORM. Active and neuter verbs may also be conjugated, by adding the Imperfect Participle to the auxiliary verb BE, through all its changes; as, "I _am writing_ a letter."--"He _is sitting_ idle."--"They _are going_." This form of the verb denotes a _continuance_ of the action or state of being, and is, on many occasions, preferable to the simple form of the verb. FOURTH EXAMPLE. _The irregular active verb READ, conjugated affirmatively, in the Compound Form._ PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE SIMPLE VERB. _Present._ _Preterit._ _Imp. Participle._ _Perf. Participle._ R=ead. R~ead. R=eading. R~ead. INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. To be reading. PERFECT TENSE. To have been reading. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. _Singular._ _Plural._ 1. I am reading, 1. We are reading, 2. Thou art reading, 2. You are reading, 3. He is reading; 3. They are reading. IMPERFECT TENSE. _Singular._ _Plural._ 1. I was reading, 1. We were reading, 2. Thou wast reading, 2. You were reading, 3. He was reading; 3. They were reading. PERFECT TENSE. _Singular._ _Plural._ 1. I have been reading, 1. We have been reading, 2. Thou hast been reading, 2. You have been reading, 3. He has been reading; 3. They have been reading. PLUPERFECT TENSE. _Singular._ _Plural._ 1. I had been reading, 1. We had been reading, 2. Thou hadst been reading, 2. You had been reading, 3. He had been reading; 3. They had been reading. FIRST-FUTURE TENSE. _Singular._ _Plural._ 1. I shall be reading, 1. We shall be reading, 2. Thou wilt be reading, 2. You will be reading, 3. He will be reading; 3. They will be reading. SECOND-FUTURE TENSE. _Singular._ _Plural._ 1. I shall have been reading, 1. We shall have been reading, 2. Thou wilt have been reading, 2. You will have been reading, 3. He will have been reading; 3. They will have been reading. POTENTIAL MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I may be reading, 1. We may be reading, 2. Thou mayst be reading, 2. You may be reading, 3. He may be reading; 3. They may be reading. IMPERFECT TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I might be reading, 1. We might be reading, 2. Thou mightst be reading, 2. You might be reading, 3. He might be reading; 3. They might be reading. PERFECT TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I may have been reading, 1. We may have been reading, 2. Thou mayst have been reading, 2. You may have been reading, 3. He may have been reading; 3. They may have been reading. PLUPERFECT TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I might have been reading, 1. We might have been reading, 2. Thou mightst have been reading, 2. You might have been reading, 3. He might have been reading; 3. They might have been reading. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. If I be reading, 1. If we be reading, 2. If thou be reading, 2. If you be reading, 3. If he be reading; 3. If they be reading. IMPERFECT TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. If I were reading, 1. If we were reading, 2. If thou were reading, 2. If you were reading, 3. If he were reading; 3. If they were reading. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Sing. 2. Be [thou] reading, _or_ Do thou be reading; Plur. 2. Be [ye or you] reading, _or_ Do you be reading. PARTICIPLES. 1. _The Imperfect_. 2. _The Perfect_. 3. _The Preperfect_. Being reading. --------- Having been reading. FAMILIAR FORM WITH 'THOU.' NOTE.--In the familiar style, the second person singular of this verb, is usually and more properly formed thus: IND. Thou art reading, Thou was reading, Thou hast been reading, Thou had been reading, Thou shall _or_ will be reading, Thou shall _or_ will have been reading. POT. Thou may, can, _or_ must be reading; Thou might, could, would, _or_ should be reading; Thou may, can, _or_ must have been reading; Thou might, could, would, _or_ should have been reading. SUBJ. If thou be reading, If thou were reading. IMP. Be [thou,] reading, _or_ Do thou be reading. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--Those verbs which, in their simple form, imply continuance, do not admit the compound form: thus we say, "I _respect_ him;" but not, "I _am respecting_ him." This compound form seems to imply that kind of action, which is susceptible of intermissions and renewals. Affections of the mind or heart are supposed to last; or, rather, actions of this kind are complete as soon as they exist. Hence, _to love, to hate, to desire, to fear, to forget, to remember_, and many other such verbs, are _incapable_ of this method of conjugation.[265] It is true, we often find in grammars such models, as, "I _was loving_, Thou _wast loving_, He _was loving_," &c. But this language, to express what the authors intend by it, is not English. "He _was loving_," can only mean, "He was _affectionate_:" in which sense, loving is an adjective, and susceptible of comparison. Who, in common parlance, has ever said, "He _was loving me_," or any thing like it? Yet some have improperly published various examples, or even whole conjugations, of this spurious sort. See such in _Adam's Gram._, p. 91; _Gould's Adam_, 83; _Bullions's English Gram._, 52; _his Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, 92; _Chandler's New Gram._, 85 and 86; _Clark's_, 80; _Cooper's Plain and Practical_, 70; _Frazee's Improved_, 66 and 69; _S. S. Greene's_, 234; _Guy's_, 25; _Hallock's_, 103; _Hart's_, 88; _Hendrick's_, 38; _Lennie's_, 31; _Lowth's_, 40; _Harrison's_, 34; _Perley's_, 36; _Pinneo's Primary_, 101. OBS. 2.--Verbs of this form have sometimes a passive signification; as, "The books _are now selling_."--_Allen's Gram._, p. 82. "As the money _was paying_ down."--_Ainsworth's Dict., w._ As. "It requires no motion in the organs whilst it _is forming_."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 8. "Those works _are long forming_ which must always last."--_Dr. Chetwood_. "While the work of the temple _was carrying_ on."--_Dr. J. Owen_. "The designs of Providence _are carrying on_."--_Bp. Butler_. "A scheme, which _has been carrying_ on, and _is_ still _carrying_ on."--_Id., Analogy_, p. 188. "We are permitted to know nothing of what _is transacting_ in the regions above us."--_Dr. Blair_. "While these things _were transacting_ in Germany."--_Russell's Modern Europe_, Part First, Let. 59. "As he _was carrying_ to execution, he demanded to be heard."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, Vol. i, p. 163. "To declare that the action _was doing_ or done."--_Booth's Introd._, p. 28. "It _is doing_ by thousands now."--_Abbott's Young Christian_, p. 121. "While the experiment _was making_, he was watching every movement."--_Ib._, p. 309. "A series of communications from heaven, which _had been making_ for fifteen hundred years."--_Ib._, p. 166. "Plutarch's Lives _are re-printing_."--_L. Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 64. "My Lives _are reprinting_."--DR. JOHNSON: _Worcester's Univ. and Crit. Dict._, p. xlvi. "All this _has been transacting_ within 130 miles of London."--BYRON: _Perley's Gram._, p. 37. "When the heart _is corroding_ by vexations."--_Student's Manual_, p. 336. "The padlocks for our lips _are forging_."--WHITTIER: _Liberator_, No. 993. "When his throat _is cutting_."--_Collier's Antoninus_. "While your story _is telling_."--_Adams's Rhet._, i, 425. "But the seeds of it _were sowing_ some time before."--_Bolingbroke, on History_, p. 168. "As soon as it was formed, nay even whilst it _was forming_."--_Ib._, p. 163. "Strange schemes of private ambition _were formed and forming_ there."--_Ib._, p. 291. "Even when it _was making and made_."--_Ib._, 299. "Which have been made and _are making_."--HENRY CLAY: _Liberator_, ix, p. 141. "And they are in measure _sanctified_, or _sanctifying_, by the power thereof."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 537. "Which _is_ now _accomplishing_ amongst the uncivilized countries of the earth."--_Chalmers, Sermons_, p. 281. "Who _are ruining_, or _ruined_, [in] this way."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 155. "Whilst they _were undoing_."--_Ibid._ "Whether he was employing fire to consume [something,] or _was_ himself _consuming_ by fire."--_Crombie, on Etym. and Syntax_, p. 148. "At home, the greatest exertions _are making_ to promote its progress."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. iv. "With those [sounds] which _are uttering_."--_Ib._, p. 125. "Orders _are now concerting_ for the dismissal of all officers of the Revenue marine."--_Providence Journal_, Feb. 1, 1850. Expressions of this kind are condemned by some critics, under the notion that the participle in _ing_ must never be passive; but the usage is unquestionably of far better authority, and, according to my apprehension, in far better taste, than the more complex phraseology which some late writers adopt in its stead; as, "The books _are_ now _being sold_."--"In all the towns about Cork, the whiskey shops _are being closed_, and soup, coffee, and tea houses [are] _establishing_ generally."--_Dublin Evening Post_, 1840. OBS. 3.--The question here is, Which is the most correct expression, "While the bridge _was building_,"--"While the bridge was _a_ building,"--or, "While the bridge _was being built_?" And again, Are they all wrong? If none of these is right, we must reject them all, and say, "While _they were building_ the bridge;"--"While the bridge _was in process of erection_;"--or resort to some other equivalent phrase. Dr. Johnson, after noticing the compound form of active-intransitives, as, "I _am going_"--"She _is dying_,"--"The tempest _is raging_,"--"I _have been walking_," and so forth, adds: "There is another manner of using the active participle, which gives it a _passive_ signification:[266] as, The grammar is now printing, _Grammatica jam nunc chartis imprimitur_. The brass is forging, _�ra excuduntur_. This is, in my opinion," says he, "a _vitious_ expression, probably corrupted from a phrase more pure, but now somewhat obsolete: The book is _a_ printing, The brass is _a_ forging; _a_ being properly _at_, and _printing_ and _forging_ verbal nouns signifying action, according to the analogy of this language."--_Gram. in Joh. Dict._, p. 9. OBS. 4.--_A_ is certainly sometimes a _preposition_; and, as such, it may govern a participle, and that without converting it into a "_verbal noun_." But that such phraseology ought to be preferred to what is exhibited with so many authorities, in a preceding paragraph, and with an example from Johnson among the rest, I am not prepared to concede. As to the notion of introducing a new and more complex passive form of conjugation, as, "The bridge is _being built_," "The bridge _was being built_," and so forth, it is one of the most absurd and monstrous innovations ever thought of. Yet some two or three men, who seem to delight in huge absurdities, declare that this "modern _innovation_ is _likely to supersede_" the simpler mode of expression. Thus, in stead of, "The work _is now publishing_," they choose to say, "The work is _now being published_."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 82. This is certainly no better English than, "The work _was being published, has been being published, had been being published, shall or will be being published, shall or will have been being published_;" and so on, through all the moods and tenses. What a language shall we have when our verbs are thus conjugated! OBS. 5.--A certain _Irish_ critic, who even outdoes in rashness the above-cited American, having recently arrived in New York, has republished a grammar, in which he not only repudiates the passive use of the participle in _ing_, but denies the usual passive form of the present tense, "_I am loved, I am smitten_" &c., as taught by Murray and others, to be good English; and tells us that the true form is, "_I am being loved, I am being smitten_," &c. See the 98th and 103d pages of _Joseph W. Wright's Philosophical Grammar_, (_Edition of_ 1838,) _dedicated_ "TO COMMON SENSE!" [267] But both are offset, if not refuted, by the following observations from a source decidedly better: "It has lately become common to use the present participle passive [,] to express the suffering of an action as _continuing_, instead of the participle in _-ing_ in the passive sense; thus, instead of, 'The house _is building_,' we now very frequently hear, 'The house _is being built_.' This mode of expression, besides being awkward, is incorrect, and _does not express the idea intended_. This will be obvious, I think, from the following considerations. "1. The expression, '_is being_,' is equivalent to '_is_,' and expresses no more; just as, '_is loving_,' is equivalent to, '_loves_.' Hence, '_is being built_,' is precisely equivalent to, '_is built_.' "2. '_Built_,' is a perfect participle; and therefore cannot, in any connexion, express an action, or the suffering of an action, _now in progress_. The verb _to be_, signifies _to exist_; '_being_,' therefore, is equivalent to '_existing_.' If then we substitute the synonyme, the nature of the expression will be obvious; thus, 'the house is _being built_,' is, in other words, 'the house is _existing built_,' or more simply as before, 'the house _is built_;' plainly importing an action not progressing, but now _existing in a finished state_. "3. If the expression, '_is being built_,' be a correct form of the present indicative passive, then it must be equally correct to say in the perfect, '_has been being built_;' in the past perfect, '_had been being built_;' in the present infinitive,'_to be being built_;' in the perfect infinitive,'_to have been being built_;' and in the present participle, '_being being built_;' which all will admit to be expressions as incorrect as they are inelegant, but precisely analogous to that which now begins to prevail."--_Bullions's Principles of English Gram._, p. 58. OBS. 6.--It may be replied, that the verbs _to be_ and _to exist_ are not always synonymous; because the former is often a mere auxiliary, or a mere copula, whereas the latter always means something positive, as _to be in being, to be extant_. Thus we may speak of a thing as _being destroyed_, or may say, it _is annihilated_; but we can by no means speak of it as _existing destroyed_, or say, it _exists annihilated_. The first argument above is also nugatory. These drawbacks, however, do not wholly destroy the force of the foregoing criticism, or at all extenuate the obvious tautology and impropriety of such phrases as, _is being, was being_, &c. The gentlemen who affirm that this new form of conjugation "_is being introduced_ into the language," (since they allow participles to follow possessive pronouns) may very fairly be asked, "What evidence have you of _its being being introduced_?" Nor can they, on their own principles, either object to the monstrous phraseology of this question, or tell how to better it![268] OBS. 7.--D. H. Sanborn, an other recent writer, has very emphatically censured this innovation, as follows: "English and American writers have of late introduced a new kind of phraseology, which has become quite prevalent in the periodical and popular publications of the day. Their intention, doubtless, is, to supersede the use of the verb in the _definite form_, when it has a passive signification. They say, 'The ship is _being_ built,'--'time is _being wasted_,"--'the work is _being advanced_,' instead of, 'the ship is _building_, time is _wasting_, the work is _advancing_.' Such a phraseology is a solecism too palpable to receive any favor; it is at war with the practice of the most distinguished writers in the English language, such as Dr. Johnson and Addison. "When an individual says, 'a house is being burned,' he declares that a house is _existing, burned_, which is impossible; for _being_ means existing, and _burned, consumed by fire_. The house ceases to exist as such, after it is consumed by fire. But when he says, 'a house _is burning_,' we understand that it is _consuming by fire_; instead of inaccuracy, doubt, and ambiguity, we have a form of expression perfectly intelligible, beautiful, definite, and appropriate."--_Sanborn's Analytical Gram._, p. 102. OBS. 8.--Dr. Perley speaks of this usage thus: "An attempt has been made of late to introduce a kind of passive participial voice; as, 'The temple is being built.' This ought not to be encouraged. For, besides being an innovation, it is less convenient than the use of the present participle in the passive sense. _Being built_ signifies action _finished_; and how can, _Is being built_, signify an _action unfinished?"--Perley's Gram._, p. 37. OBS. 9.--The question now before us has drawn forth, on either side, a deal of ill scholarship and false logic, of which it would be tedious to give even a synopsis. Concerning the import of some of our most common words and phrases, these ingenious masters,--Bullions, Sanborn, and Perley,--severally assert some things which seem not to be exactly true. It is remarkable that critics can err in expounding terms so central to the language, and so familiar to all ears, as "_be, being, being built, burned, being burned, is, is burned, to be burned_," and the like. _That to be_ and _to exist_, or their like derivatives, such as _being_ and _existing, is_ and _exists_, cannot always explain each other, is sufficiently shown above; and thereby is refuted Sanborn's chief argument, that, "_is being burned_," involves the contradiction of "_existing, burned_," or "_consumed by fire_." According to his reasoning, as well as that of Bullions, _is burned_ must mean _exists consumed; was burned, existed consumed_; and thus our whole passive conjugation would often be found made up of bald absurdities! That this new _unco-passive_ form conflicts with the older and better usage of taking the progressive form sometimes passively, is doubtless a good argument against the innovation; but that "Johnson and Addison" are fit representatives of the older "practice" in this case, may be doubted. I know not that the latter has anywhere made use of such phraseology; and one or two examples from the former are scarcely an offset to his positive verdict against the usage. See OBS. 3rd, above. OBS. 10.--As to what is called "_the present_ or _the imperfect participle passive_,"--as, "_being burned_," or "_being burnt_,"--if it is rightly interpreted in _any_ of the foregoing citations, it is, beyond question, very improperly _thus_ named. In participles, _ing_ denotes _continuance_: thus _being_ usually means _continuing to be; loving, continuing to love; building, continuing to build_,--or (as taken passively) _continuing to be built_: i. e., (in words which express the sense more precisely and certainly,) _continuing to be in process of construction_. What then is "being built," but "_continuing to be built_," the same, or nearly the same, as "_building_" taken passively? True it is, that _built_, when alone, being a perfect participle, does not mean "_in process of construction_," but rather, "_constructed_" which intimates _completion_; yet, in the foregoing passive phrases, and others like them, as well as in all examples of this unco-passive voice, continuance of the passive state being first suggested, and cessation of the act being either regarded as future or disregarded, the imperfect participle passive is for the most part received as equivalent to the simple imperfect used in a passive sense. But Dr. Bullions, who, after making "_is being built_ precisely equivalent to _is built_," classes the two participles differently, and both erroneously,--the one as a "_present_ participle," and the other, of late, as a "_past_,"--has also said above, "'_Built_,' is a _perfect_ participle: and THEREFORE cannot, in _any connexion_, express an action, or the suffering of an action, _now in progress_." And Dr. Perley, who also calls the compound of _being_ a "_present_ participle," argues thus: "_Being built_ signifies an _action, finished_; and how can _Is being built_, signify an _action unfinished_?" To expound a _passive_ term _actively_, or as "signifying _action_," is, at any rate, a near approach to absurdity; and I shall presently show that the fore-cited notion of "a perfect participle," now half abandoned by Bullions himself, has been the seed of the very worst form of that ridiculous neology which the good Doctor was opposing. OBS. 11.--These criticisms being based upon the _meaning_ of certain participles, either alone or in phrases, and the particular terms spoken of being chiefly meant to represent _classes_, what is said of them may be understood of their _kinds_. Hence the appropriate _naming_ of the kinds, so as to convey no false idea of any participle's import, is justly brought into view; and I may be allowed to say here, that, for the first participle passive, which begins with "_being_," the epithet "_Imperfect_" is better than "_Present_," because this compound participle denotes, not always what is _present_, but always _the state_ of something by which an action is, _or was, or will be, undergone or undergoing--a state continuing_, or so regarded, though perhaps the action causative may be ended--or sometimes perhaps imagined only, and not yet really begun. With a marvellous instability of doctrine, for the professed systematizer of different languages and grammars, Dr. Bullions has recently changed his names of the second and third participles, in both voices, from "_Perfect_" and "_Compound Perfect_," to "_Past_" and "_Perfect_." His notion now is, that, "_The Perfect_ participle is always compound; as, _Having finished, Having been finished_."--_Bullions's Analyt. and Pract. Grammar_, 1849, p. 77. And what was the "_Perfect_" before, in his several books, is now called the "_Past_;" though, with this change, he has deliberately made an other which is repugnant to it: this participle, being the basis of three tenses always, and of all the tenses sometimes, is now allowed by the Doctor to lend the term "_perfect_" to the three,--"_Present-perfect, Past-perfect, Future-perfect,"_--even when itself is named otherwise! OBS. 12.--From the erroneous conception, that a perfect participle must, in every connexion, express "_action finished_," _action past_,--or perhaps from only a moiety of this great error,--the notion that such a participle cannot, in connexion with an auxiliary, constitute a passive verb of the _present tense_,--J. W. Wright, above-mentioned, has not very unnaturally reasoned, that, "The expression, '_I am loved_,' which Mr. Murray has employed to exhibit the passive conjugation of the _present tense_, may much more _feasibly_ represent _past_ than _present_ time."--See _Wright's Philosophical Gram._, p. 99. Accordingly, in his own paradigm of the passive verb, he has formed _this_ tense solely from what he calls the participle _present_, thus: "I _am being smitten_, Thou _art being smitten_," &c.--_Ib._, p. 98. His "_Passed Tense_," too, for some reason which I do not discover, he distinguishes above the rest by a _double form_, thus: "I _was smitten, or being smitten_; Thou _wast smitten, or being smitten_;" &c.--P. 99. In his opinion, "Few will object to _the propriety of_ the more familiar phraseology, '_I am in the_ ACT,--or, _suffering_ the ACTION _of_ BEING SMITTEN;' and yet," says he, "in substance and effect, it is wholly the same as, '_I am being smitten_,' which is THE TRUE FORM of the verb in the _present_ tense of the _passive voice!_"--_Ibid._ Had we not met with some similar expressions of English or American blunderers, "the _act_ or _action of being smitten_," would be accounted a downright Irish bull; and as to this ultra notion of neologizing all our passive verbs, by the addition of "_being_,"--with the author's cool talk of "_the presentation of this theory, and_ [_the_] _consequent suppression of that hitherto employed_,"--there is a transcendency in it, worthy of the most sublime aspirant among grammatical newfanglers. OBS. 13.--But, with all its boldness of innovation, Wright's Philosophical Grammar is not a little _self-contradictory_ in its treatment of the passive verb. The entire "suppression" of the usual form of its present tense, did not always appear, even to this author, quite so easy and reasonable a matter, as the foregoing citations would seem to represent it. The passive use of the participle in _ing_, he has easily disposed of: despite innumerable authorities for it, one false assertion, of seven syllables, suffices to make it quite impossible.[269] But the usual passive form, which, with some show of truth, is accused of not having always precisely the same meaning as the progressive used passively,--that is, of not always denoting _continuance in the state of receiving continued action_,--and which is, for that remarkable reason, judged worthy of _rejection_, is nevertheless admitted to have, in very many instances, a conformity to this idea, and therefore to "belong [thus far] to the present tense."--P. 103. This contradicts to an indefinite extent, the proposition for its rejection. It is observable also, that the same examples, '_I am loved_' and 'I _am smitten_,'--the same "_tolerated, but erroneous forms_," (so called on page 103,) that are given as specimens of what he would reject,--though at first pronounced "_equivalent_ in grammatical construction," censured for the same pretended error, and proposed to be changed alike to "_the true form_" by the insertion of "_being_,"--are subsequently declared to "belong to" different classes and different tenses. "_I am loved_," is referred to that "numerous" class of verbs, which "_detail_ ACTION _of prior, but retained, endured, and continued existence_; and therefore, in this sense, _belong to the present tense_." But "_I am smitten_," is idly reckoned of an opposite class, (said by Dr. Bullions to be "perhaps the greater number,") whose "ACTIONS described are neither _continuous_ in their nature, nor _progressive_ in their duration; but, on the contrary, _completed_ and _perfected_; and [which] are consequently descriptive of _passed_ time and ACTION."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 103. Again: "In what instance soever this latter form and signification _can_ be introduced, _their import should be, and, indeed, ought to be, supplied by the perfect tense construction_:--for example, '_I am smitten_,' [should] be, '_I have been smitten_.'"--_Ib._ Here is self-contradiction indefinitely extended _in an other way_. Many a good phrase, if not every one, that the author's first suggestion would turn to the unco-passive form, his present "_remedy_" would about as absurdly convert into "the perfect tense." OBS. 14.--But Wright's inconsistency, about this matter, ends not here: it runs through all he says of it; for, in this instance, error and inconsistency constitute his whole story. In one place, he anticipates and answers a question thus: "To what tense do the constructions, 'I am pleased;' 'He is expected;' '_I am smitten_;' 'He is bound;' belong?" "We answer:--_So far as_ these and like constructions are applicable to the delineation of _continuous_ and _retained_ ACTION, they express _present_ time; and must be treated accordingly."--P. 103. This seems to intimate that even, "_I am smitten_," and its likes, as they stand, may have some good claim to be of the present tense; which suggestion is contrary to several others made by the author. To expound this, or any other passive term, _passively_, never enters his mind: with him, as with sundry others, "ACTION," "_finished_ ACTION," or "_progressive_ ACTION," is all any _passive_ verb or participle ever means! No marvel, that awkward perversions of the forms of utterance and the principles of grammar should follow such interpretation. In Wright's syntax a very queer distinction is apparently made between a passive verb, and the participle chiefly constituting it; and here, too, through a fancied ellipsis of "_being_" before the latter, most, if not all, of his other positions concerning passives, are again disastrously overthrown by something worse--a word "_imperceptibly understood_." "'_I am smitten_;' '_I was smitten_;' &c., are," he says, "the _universally acknowledged forms_ of the VERBS in these tenses, in the passive voice:--not of the _PARTICIPLE_. In all verbal constructions of the character of which we have hitherto treated, (see page 103) _and, where_ the ACTIONS described are _continuous_ in their _operations_,--the participle BEING is _imperceptibly omitted, by ellipsis_."--P. 144. OBS. 15.--Dr. Bullions has stated, that, "The present participle active, and the present participle passive, are _not counterparts_ to each other in signification; [,] the one signifying the present doing, and the other the present suffering of an action, [;] for the latter _always intimates the present being of an_ ACT, _not in progress, but completed_."--_Prin. of Eng. Gram._, p. 58. In this, he errs no less grossly than in his idea of the "_action_ or the suffering" expressed by "a _perfect_ participle," as cited in OBS. 5th above; namely, that it must have _ceased_. Worse interpretation, or balder absurdity, is scarcely to be met with; and yet the reverend Doctor, great linguist as he should be, was here only trying to think and tell the common import of a very common sort of _English_ participles; such as, "_being loved_" and "_being seen_." In grammar, "_an act_," that has "_present being_," can be nothing else than an act now doing, or "_in progress_;" and if, "_the present being of an_ ACT _not in progress_," were here a possible thought, it surely could not be intimated by any _such_ participle. In Acts, i, 3 and 4, it is stated, that our Saviour showed himself to the apostles, "alive after his passion, by many infallible proofs, _being seen_ of them forty days, and _speaking_ of the things _pertaining_ to the kingdom of God; and, _being assembled_ together with them commanded them that they should not depart from Jerusalem." Now, of these misnamed "_present_ participles," we have here one "_active_," one "_passive_," and two others--(one in each form--) that are _neuter_; but _no present time_, except what is in the indefinite date of "_pertaining_." The events are past, and were so in the days of St. Luke. Yet each of the participles denotes _continuance_: not, indeed, in or to the _present time_, but _for a time_. "_Being seen_" means _continuing to be seen_; and, in this instance, the period of the continuance was "forty days" of time past. But, according to the above-cited "_principle of English Grammar_," so long and so widely inculcated by "the Rev. Peter Bullions, D. D., Professor of Languages," &c.,--a central principle of interpretation, presumed by him to hold "_always_"--this participle must intimate "_the present being of an act, not in progress, but completed_;"--that is, "_the present being of" the apostles' act in formerly seeing the risen Saviour_! OBS. 16.--This grammarian has lately taken a deal of needless pains to sustain, by a studied division of verbs into two classes, similar to those which are mentioned in OBS. 13th above, a part of the philosophy of J. W. Wright, concerning our usual form of passives in the present tense. But, as he now will have it, that the two voices sometimes tally as counterparts, it is plain that he adheres but partially to his former erroneous conception of a perfect or "past" participle, and the terms which hold it "in any connexion." The awkward substitutes proposed by the Irish critic, he does not indeed countenance; but argues against them still, and, in some respects, very justly. The doctrine now common to these authors, on this point, is the highly important one, that, in respect to half our verbs, what we commonly take for the passive present, _is not such_--that, in "the _second_ class, (perhaps the greater number,) the _present-passive_ implies that _the act expressed by the active voice has ceased_. Thus, 'The house is built.' * * * Strictly speaking, then," says the Doctor, "the PAST PARTICIPLE with the verb TO BE _is not the present tense in the passive voice of verbs thus used_; that is, this form does not express passively the _doing_ of the act."--_Bullions's Analyt. and Pract. Grammar_, Ed. of 1849, p. 235. Thus far these two authors agree; except that Wright seems to have avoided the incongruity of _calling_ that "_the present-passive_" which he _denies_ to be such. But the Doctor, approving none of this practitioner's "remedies," and being less solicitous to provide other treatment than expulsion for the thousands of present passives which both deem spurious, adds, as from the chair, this verdict: "These verbs either _have no present-passive_, or it is made by annexing the participle in _ing_, in its passive sense, to the verb _to be_; as, 'The house _is building_.'"--_Ib._, p. 236. OBS. 17.--It would seem, that Dr. Bullions thinks, and in reality Wright also, that nothing can be a present passive, but what "_expresses passively the_ DOING _of the act_." This is about as wise, as to try to imagine every active verb to _express actively the receiving of an act_! It borders exceedingly hard upon absurdity; it very much resembles the nonsense of "_expressing receptively the giving of something_!" Besides, the word "DOING," being used substantively, does not determine well what is here meant; which is, I suppose, _continuance_, or an _unfinished state_ of the act received--an idea which seems adapted to the participle in _ing_, but which it is certainly no fault of a participle ending in _d, t_, or _n_, not to suggest. To "_express passively the doing of the act_," if the language means any thing rational, may be, simply to say, that the act _is_ or _was done_. For "_doings_" are, as often as any-wise, "_things done_," as _buildings_ are _fabrics built_; and "_is built_," and "_am smitten_," the gentlemen's choice examples of _false passives_, and of "_actions finished_,"--though neither of them necessarily intimates either continuance or cessation of the act suffered, or, if it did, would be the less or the more passive or present,--may, in such a sense, "express _the doing_ of the act," if any passives can:--nay, the "finished act" has such completion as may be stated with degrees of progress or of frequency; as, "The house _is partly built_."--"I _am oftener smitten_." There is, undoubtedly, some difference between the assertions, "The house _is building_,"--and, "The house _is partly built_;" though, for practical purposes, perhaps, we need not always be very nice in choosing between them. For the sake of variety, however, if for nothing else, it is to be hoped, the doctrine above-cited, which limits half our passive verbs of the present tense, _to the progressive form only_, will not soon be generally approved. It impairs the language more than unco-passives are likely ever to corrupt it. OBS. 18.--"No _startling novelties_ have been introduced," says the preface to the "Analytical and Practical Grammar of the English Language." To have shunned all shocking innovations, is only to have exercised common prudence. It is not pretended, that any of the Doctor's errors here remarked upon, or elsewhere in this treatise, will _startle_ any body; but, if errors exist, even in plausible guise, it may not be amiss, if I tell of them. To suppose every verb or participle to be either "_transitive_" or "_intransitive_," setting all _passives_ with the former sort, all _neuters_ with the latter; (p. 59;)--to define the _transitive_ verb or participle as expressing always "_an act_ DONE _by one person or thing to another_;" (p. 60;)--to say, after making passive verbs transitive, "The object of a transitive verb is in the _objective case_," and, "A verb that does not make sense with an objective after it, is intransitive;" (p. 60;)--to insist upon a precise and almost universal _identity of "meaning_" in terms so obviously _contrasted_ as are the two voices, "active" and "passive;" (pp. 95 and 235;)--to allege, as a general principle, "that whether we use the active, or the passive voice, _the meaning is the same_, except in some cases in the present tense;" (p. 67;)--to attribute to the forms naturally opposite in voice and sense, that sameness of meaning which is observable only in certain _whole sentences_ formed from them; (pp. 67, 95, and 235;)--to assume that each "VOICE is a particular _form of the verb_," yet make it include _two cases_, and often a preposition before one of them; (pp. 66, 67, and 95;)--to pretend from the words, "The PASSIVE VOICE represents the subject of the verb as _acted upon_," (p. 67,) that, "_According to the_ DEFINITION, the passive voice expresses, passively, _the same thing_ that the active does actively;" (p. 235;)--to affirm that, "'Cæsar _conquered_ Gaul,' and 'Gaul _was conquered_ by Cæsar,' express _precisely the same idea_,"--and then say, "It will be felt at once that the expressions, 'Cæsar _conquers_ Gaul,' and 'Gaul _is conquered_ by Cæsar,' _do not express the same thing_;" (p. 235;)--to deny that passive verbs or neuter are worthy to constitute a distinct class, yet profess to find, in one single tense of the former, such a difference of meaning as warrants a general division of verbs in respect to it; (_ib._;)--to announce, in bad English, that, "_In regard to this matter_ [,] there are evidently Two CLASSES of verbs; namely, those _whose_ present-passive expresses precisely the same thing, passively, as the active voice does actively, and those _in which it_ does not:" (_ib._;)--to do these several things, as they have been done, is, to set forth, not "novelties" only, but errors and inconsistencies. OBS. 19.--Dr. Bullions still adheres to his old argument, that _being_ after its own verb must be devoid of meaning; or, in his own words, "that _is being built_, if it mean anything, can mean nothing more than _is built_, which is not the idea intended to be expressed."--_Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, p. 237. He had said, (as cited in OBS. 5th above,) "The expression, '_is being_,' is equivalent to _is_, and expresses _no more_; just as, '_is loving_,' is equivalent to '_loves_.' Hence, '_is being built_,' is precisely equivalent to '_is built_.'"--_Principles of E. Gram._, p. 58. He has now discovered "that _there is no progressive form_ of the verb _to be_, and no need of it:" and that, "hence, _there is no such expression_ in English as _is being_."--_Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, p. 236. He should have noticed also, that "_is loving_" is not an authorized "equivalent to _loves_;" and, further, that the error of saying "_is being built_," is only in the relation of the _first two words_ to each other. If "_is being_," and "_is loving_," are left unused for the same reason, the truth may be, that _is_ itself, like _loves_, commonly denotes "_continuance_;" and that _being_ after it, in stead of being necessary or proper, can only be awkwardly tautologous. This is, in fact, THE GRAND OBJECTION to the new phraseology--"_is being practised_"--"_am being smitten_"--and the like. Were there no danger that petty writers would one day seize upon it with like avidity, an other innovation, exactly similar to this in every thing but tense--similar in awkwardness, in tautology, in unmistakeableness--might here be uttered for the sake of illustration. Some men conceive, that "The _perfect_ participle is always compound; as, _having seen, having written_;"--and that the simple word, _seen_ or _written_, had originally, and still ought to have, only a passive construction. For such views, they find authorities. Hence, in lieu of the common phrases, "_had we seen_," "_we have written_," they adopt such English as this; "_Had we having seen_ you, we should have stopped."--"_We have having written_ but just now, to our correspondent." Now, "_We are being smitten_," is no better grammar than this;--and no worse: "The idea intended" is in no great jeopardy in either case. OBS. 20.--J. R. Chandler, of Philadelphia, in his Common School Grammar of 1847, has earnestly undertaken the _defence_ of this new and much-mooted passive expression: which he calls "_the Definite Passive Voice_," or "_the Passive Voice of the Definite Form_." He admits it, however, to be a form that "does not _sound well_,"--a "_novelty_ that strikes the ear unpleasantly;" but he will have the defect to be, not in the tautologous conceit of "_is being_," "_was being_," "_has been being_," and the like, but in everybody's organ of hearing,--supposing all ears corrupted, "from infancy," to a distaste for correct speech, by "the habit of _hearing_ and using words _ungrammatically_!"--See p. 89. Claiming this new form as "_the true passive_," in just contrast with the progressive active, he not only rebukes all attempts "to evade" the use of it, "by some real or supposed _equivalent_," but also declares, that, "The attempt to deprive the transitive definite verb of [this] _its passive voice_, is _to strike at the foundation of the language_, and _to strip it of one of its most important qualities_; that of making both actor and sufferer, each in turn and at pleasure, the subject of conversation."--_Ibid._ Concerning _equivalents_, he evidently argues fallaciously; for he urges, that the using of them "_does not dispense with the necessity of the definite passive voice_."--P. 88. But it is plain, that, of the many fair substitutes which may in most cases be found, if any one is preferred, this form, and all the rest, are of course rejected for the time. OBS. 21.--By Chandler, as well as others, this new passive form is justified only on the supposition, that the simple participle in _ing_ can never with propriety be used passively. No plausible argument, indeed, can be framed for it, without the assumption, that the simpler form, when used in the same sense, _is ungrammatical_. But this is, in fact, a begging of the main question; and that, in opposition to abundant authority for the usage condemned. (See OBS. 3d, above.) This author pretends that, "_The RULE of all grammarians_ declares the verb _is_, and a _present participle_ (_is building_, or _is writing_), to be in the active voice" only.--P. 88. (I add the word "_only_," but this is what he means, else he merely quibbles.) Now in this idea he is wrong, and so are the several grammarians who support the principle of this imaginary "_RULE_." The opinion of critics in general would be better represented by the following suggestions of the Rev. W. Allen: "When the English verb does not signify _mental affection_, the distinction of voice is often disregarded: thus we say, _actively_, they _were selling_ fruit; and, _passively_, the books _are_ now _selling_. The same remark applies to the participle used as a noun: as, actively, _drawing_ is an elegant amusement, _building_ is expensive; and, passively, his _drawings_ are good, this is a fine _building_."--_Allen's Elements of E. Gram._, p. 82. OBS. 22.--Chandler admits, that, "When it is said, 'The house is _building_,' the meaning is easily obtained; though," he strangely insists, "_it is exactly opposite to the assertion_."--P. 89. He endeavours to show, moreover, by a fictitious example made for the purpose, that the progressive form, if used in both voices, will be liable to ambiguity. It may, perhaps, be so in some instances; but, were there weight enough in the objection to condemn the passive usage altogether, one would suppose there might be found, somewhere, _an actual example or two_ of the abuse. Not concurring with Dr. Bullions in the notion that the active voice and the passive usually "express precisely the same thing," this critic concludes his argument with the following sentence: "There is an _important difference_ between _doing_ and _suffering_; and that _difference is grammatically shown_ by the appropriate use of the active and passive voices of a verb."--_Chandler's Common School Gram._, p. 89. OBS. 23.--The opinion given at the close of OBS. 2d above, was first published in 1833. An opposite doctrine, with the suggestion that it is "_improper_ to say, '_the house is building_,' instead of 'the house _is being built_,'"--is found on page 64th of the Rev. David Blair's Grammar, of 1815,--"Seventh Edition," with a preface dated, "_October 20th_, 1814." To any grammarian who wrote at a period much earlier than that, the question about _unco-passives_ never occurred. Many critics have passed judgement upon them since, and so generally with reprobation, that the man must have more hardihood than sense, who will yet disgust his readers or hearers with them.[270] That "This new form has been used by _some respectable writers_," we need not deny; but let us look at the given "_instances of it_: 'For those who _are being educated_ in our seminaries.' R. SOUTHEY.--'It _was being uttered_.' COLERIDGE.--'The foundation _was being laid_.' BRIT. CRITIC."--_English Grammar with Worcester's Univ. and Crit. Dict._, p. xlvi. Here, for the first example, it would be much better to say, "For those who _are educated_," [271]--or, "who _are receiving their education_;" for the others, "It _was uttering_,"--"_was uttered_,"--or, "_was in uttering_."--"The foundation _was laying_,"--"_was laid_,"--or, "_was about being laid_." Worcester's opinion of the "new form" is to be inferred from his manner of naming it in the following sentence: "Within a few years, a _strange and awkward_ neologism has been introduced, by which the _present passive participle_ is substituted, in such cases as the above, for the participle in _ing_."--_Ibid._ He has two instances more, in each of which the phrase is linked with an expression of disapprobation; "' It [[Greek: tetymmenos]] signifies properly, though _in uncouth English_, one who _is being beaten_.' ABP. WHATELY.--'The bridge _is being built_, and other phrases of the like kind, _have_ pained the eye.' D. BOOTH."--_Ibid._[272] OBS. 24.--Richard Hiley, in the third edition of his Grammar, published in London, in 1840, after showing the passive use of the participle in _ing_, proceeds thus: "No ambiguity arises, we presume, from the use of the participle in this manner. To avoid, however, affixing a passive signification to the participle in _ing_, an attempt has lately been made to substitute the passive participle in its place. Thus instead of 'The house was _building_,' 'The work _imprinting_,' we sometimes hear, 'The house was _being built_,' 'The work is _being printed_.' But this mode is _contrary to the English idiom_, and has not yet obtained the sanction of reputable authority."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 30. OBS. 25.--Professor Hart, of Philadelphia, whose English Grammar was first published in 1845, justly prefers the usage which takes the progressive form occasionally in a passive sense; but, in arguing against the new substitute, he evidently remoulds the early reasoning of Dr. Bullions, errors and all; a part of which he introduces thus: "I know the correctness of this mode of expression has lately been very much assailed, and an attempt, to some extent successful, has been made [,] to introduce the form [,] _'is being built.'_ But, in the first place, the old mode of expression is a well established usage of the language, being found in our best and most correct writers. Secondly, _is being built_ does not convey the idea intended, [;] namely [,] that of _progressive action. Is being_, taken together, means simply _is_, just as _is writing_ means _writes_; therefore, _is being built_ means _is built_, a perfect and not a progressive ACTION. Or, if _being_ [and] _built_ be taken together, _they signify an_ ACTION COMPLETE, and the phrase means, as before, _the house is_ (EXISTS) _being built_."--_Hart's Gram._, p. 76. The last three sentences here are liable to many objections, some of which are suggested above. OBS. 26.--It is important, that the central phraseology of our language be so understood, as not to be _misinterpreted with credit_, or falsely expounded by popular critics and teachers. Hence errors of _exposition_ are the more particularly noticed in these observations. In "_being built_," Prof. Hart, like sundry authors named above, finds nothing but "ACTION COMPLETE." Without doubt, Butler interprets better, when he says, "'The house _is built_,' denotes an _existing state_, rather than a _completed action_." But this author, too, in his next three sentences, utters as many errors; for he adds: "The name of the agent _cannot be expressed_ in phrases of this kind. We _cannot say_, 'The house is built _by John_.' When we say, 'The house is built by mechanics,' we _do not express an existing state_."--_Butler's Practical Gram._, p. 80. Unquestionably, "_is built by mechanics_," expresses _nothing else_ than the "_existing state_" of being "built by mechanics," together with an affirmation:--that is, the "existing state" of receiving the action of mechanics, is affirmed of "the house." And, in my judgement, one may very well say, "_The house is built by John_;" meaning, "_John is building the house._" St. Paul says, "Every house _is builded by_ SOME MAN."--_Heb._, iii, 4. In this text, the common "name of the agent" is "expressed." OBS. 27.--Wells and Weld, whose grammars date from 1846, being remarkably chary of finding anything wrong in "respectable writers," hazard no opinion of their own, concerning the correctness or incorrectness of either of the usages under discussion. They do not always see absurdity in the approbation of opposites; yet one should here, perhaps, count them with the majorities they allow. The latter says, "The participle in _ing_ is sometimes used passively; as, forty and six years was this temple in _building_; not in _being built_."--_Weld's English Gram._, 2d Ed., p. 170. Here, if he means to suggest, that "_in being built_" would "not" be good English, he teaches very erroneously; if his thought is, that this phrase would "not" express the sense of the former one, "_in building_," he palpably contradicts his own position! But he proceeds, in a note, thus: "The form of expression, _is being built, is being committed_, &c., is almost universally condemned by grammarians; but it is _sometimes_ met with in respectable writers. It occurs most frequently in newspaper paragraphs, and in hasty compositions."--_Ibid._ Wells comments thus: "Different opinions have long existed among critics respecting this passive use of the imperfect participle. Many respectable writers substitute the compound passive participle; as, 'The house is _being built_;' 'The book is _being printed_.' But the prevailing practice of the best authors is in favor of the _simple form_; as, 'The house _is building_.'"--_Wells's School Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 148; 113th Ed., p. 161.[273] OBS. 28.--S. W. Clark, in the second edition of his Practical Grammar, stereotyped and published in New York in 1848, appears to favour the insertion of "_being_" into passive verbs; but his instructions are so obscure, so often inaccurate, and so incompatible one with an other, that it is hard to say, with certainty, what he approves. In one place, he has this position: "The Passive Voice of a verb is formed by adding the _Passive Participle_ of that verb, to the verb _be_. EXAMPLES--To _be_ loved. I _am_ feared. They _are_ worshipped."--Page 69. In an other, he has this: "When the Subject is to be represented as receiving the action, _the Passive Participle_ should be used. EXAMPLE--Henry's _lesson_ is BEING RECITED."--P. 132. Now these two positions utterly confound each other; for they are equally general, and "_the Passive Participle_" is first one thing, and then an other. Again, he has the following assertions, both false: "The Present (or First) Participle _always_ ends in _ing_, and is _limited to the Active Voice_. The Past (or Second) Participle of Regular Verbs ends in _d_ or _ed_, and is _limited to the Passive Voice_."--P. 131. Afterwards, in spite of the fancied limitation, he acknowledges the passive use of the participle in _ing_, and that there is "_authority_" for it; but, at the same time, most absurdly supposes the word to predicate "_action_," and also to be _wrong_: saying, "_Action_ is _sometimes_ predicated of a _passive_ subject. EXAMPLE--'The _house is building_,.. for.. 'The _house is being built_,'.. which means.. The house _is becoming built_." On this, he remarks thus: "This is one of the instances in which _Authority_ is against _Philosophy_. For an _act_ cannot _properly_ be predicated of a _passive agent_. Many good writers _properly reject_ this idiom. 'Mansfield's prophecy _is being realized_.'--MICHELET'S LUTHER."--_Clark's Practical Gram._, p. 133. It may require some study to learn from this _which idiom it is_. that these "many good writers reject:" but the grammarian who can talk of "_a passive agent_," without perceiving that the phrase is self-contradictory and absurd, may well be expected to entertain a "Philosophy" which is against "Authority," and likewise to prefer a ridiculous innovation to good and established usage. OBS. 29.--As most verbs are susceptible of both forms, the simple active and the compound or progressive, and likewise of a transitive and an intransitive sense in each; and as many, when taken intransitively, may have a meaning which is scarcely distinguishable from that of the passive form; it often happens that this substitution of the imperfect participle passive for the simple imperfect in _ing_, is quite needless, even when the latter is not considered passive. For example: "See by the following paragraph, how widely the bane _is being circulated!_"--_Liberator_, No. 999, p. 34. Here _is circulating_ would be better; and so would _is circulated_. Nor would either of these much vary the sense, if at all; for "_circulate_" may mean, according to Webster, "_to be diffused_," or, as Johnson and Worcester have it, "_to be dispersed_." See the second marginal note on p. 378. OBS. 30.--R. G. Parker appears to have formed a just opinion of the "modern innovation," the arguments for which are so largely examined in the foregoing observations; but the "principle" which he adduces as "conclusive" against it, if _principle_ it can be called, has scarcely any bearing on the question; certainly no more than has the simple assertion of one reputable critic, that our participle in _ing_ may occasionally be used passively. "Such expressions as the following," says he, "have recently become very common, not only in the periodical publications of the day, but are likewise finding favor with popular writers; as, 'The house _is being built_.' 'The street _is being paved_.' 'The actions that _are_ now _being performed_,' &c. 'The patents _are being prepared_.' The usage of the best writers does not sanction these expressions; and Mr. Pickbourn lays down the following principle, which is conclusive upon the subject. '_Whenever the participle_ in _ing_ is joined by an auxiliary verb to a nominative capable of the action, it is taken actively; but, when joined to one incapable of the action, it becomes passive. If we say, _The man are building a house_, the participle _building_ is evidently used in an active sense; _because_ the men are capable of the action. But when we say, _The house is building_, or, _Patents are preparing_, the participles _building_ and _preparing_ must necessarily be understood in a passive sense; because neither the house nor the patents are capable of action.'--See Pickbourn on the English Verb, pp. 78-80."--_Parker's Aids to English Composition_, p. 105. Pickbourn wrote his Dissertation before the question arose which he is here supposed to decide. Nor is he right in assuming that the common Progressive Form, of which he speaks, must be either _active-transitive_ or _passive_: I have shown above that it may be _active-intransitive_, and perhaps, in a few instances, _neuter_. The class of the verb is determined by something else than the mere _capableness_ of the "_nominative_." III. FORM OF PASSIVE VERBS. Passive verbs, in English, are always of a compound form; being made from active-transitive verbs, by adding the Perfect Participle to the auxiliary verb BE, through all its changes: thus from the active-transitive verb _love_, is formed the passive verb _be loved_. FIFTH EXAMPLE. The regular passive verb BE LOVED, conjugated affirmatively. PRINCIPAL PARTS or THE ACTIVE VERB. _Present_. _Preterit_. _Imp. Participle_. _Perf. Participle_. Love. Loved. Loving. Loved. INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. To be loved. PERFECT TENSE. To have been loved. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I am loved, 1. We are loved, 2. Thou art loved, 2. You are loved, 3. He is loved; 3. They are loved. IMPERFECT TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I was loved, 1. We were loved, 2. Thou wast loved, 2. You were loved, 3. He was loved; 3. They were loved. PERFECT TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I have been loved, 1. We have been loved, 2. Thou hast been loved, 2. You have been loved, 3. He has been loved; 3. They have been loved. PLUPERFECT TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I had been loved, 1. We had been loved, 2. Thou hadst been loved, 2. You had been loved, 3. He had been loved; 3. They had been loved. FIRST-FUTURE TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I shall be loved, 1. We shall be loved, 2. Thou wilt be loved, 2. You will be loved, 3. He will be loved; 3. They will be loved. SECOND-FUTURE TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I shall have been loved, 1. We shall have been loved, 2. Thou wilt have been loved, 2. You will have been loved, 3. He will have been loved; 3. They will have been loved. POTENTIAL MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I may be loved, 1. We may be loved, 2. Thou mayst be loved, 2. You may be loved, 3. He may be loved; 3. They may be loved. IMPERFECT TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I might be loved, 1. We might be loved, 2. Thou mightst be loved, 2. You might be loved, 3. He might be loved; 3. They might be loved. PERFECT TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I may have been loved, 1. We may have been loved, 2. Thou mayst have been loved, 2. You may have been loved, 3. He may have been loved; 3. They may have been loved. PLUPERFECT TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I might have been loved, 1. We might have been loved, 2. Thou mightst have been loved, 2. You might have been loved, 3. He might have been loved; 3. They might have been loved. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. If I be loved, 1. If we be loved, 2. If thou be loved, 2. If you be loved, 3. If he be loved; 3. If they be loved. IMPERFECT TENSE. _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. If I were loved, 1. If we were loved, 2. If thou were loved, 2. If you were loved, 3. If he were loved; 3. If they were loved. IMPERATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. _Singular_. 2. Be [thou] loved, _or_ Do thou be loved; _Plural_. 2. Be [ye or you] loved, _or_ Do you be loved. PARTICIPLES. 1. _The Imperfect_. 2. _The Perfect_. 3. _The Preperfect_. Being loved. Loved. Having been loved. FAMILIAR FORM WITH 'THOU.' NOTE.--In the familiar style, the second person singular of this verb, is usually and more properly formed thus: IND. Thou art loved, Thou was loved, Thou hast been loved, Thou had been loved, Thou shall or will be loved, Thou shall or will have been loved. POT. Thou may, can, _or_ must be loved; Thou might, could, would, _or_ should be loved; Thou may, can, _or_ must have been loved; Thou might, could, would, _or_ should have been loved. SUBJ. If thou be loved, If thou were loved. IMP. Be [thou] loved, or Do thou be loved. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--A few active-intransitive verbs, that signify mere motion, change of place, or change of condition, may be put into this form, with a _neuter_ signification; making not _passive_ but _neuter_ verbs, which express nothing more than the state which results from the change: as, "_I am come_."--"She _is gone_."--"He _is risen_."--"They _are fallen_." These are what Dr. Johnson and some others call "_neuter_ passives;" a name which never was very proper, and for which we have no frequent use. OBS. 2.--Most neuter verbs of the passive form, such as, "_am grown, art become, is lain, are flown, are vanished, are departed, was sat, were arrived_," may now be considered errors of conjugation, or perhaps of syntax. In the verb, _to be mistaken_, there is an irregularity which ought to be particularly noticed. When applied to _persons_, this verb is commonly taken in a _neuter_ sense, and signifies, _to be in error, to be wrong_; as, "I _am mistaken_, thou _art mistaken_, he _is mistake_." But, when used of _things_, it is a proper passive verb, and signifies, _to be misunderstood_, or _to be taken wrong_; as, "The sense of the passage _is mistaken_; that is, not rightly understood." See _Webster's Dict., w. Mistaken_. "I have known a shadow across a brook _to be mistaken_ for a footbridge." OBS. 3.--Passive verbs may be easily distinguished from neuter verbs of the same form, by a reference to the agent or instrument, common to the former class, but not to the latter. This frequently is, and always may be, expressed after _passive_ verbs; but never is, and never can be, expressed after _neuter_ verbs: as, "The thief has been caught _by the officer_."-- "Pens are made _with a knife_." Here the verbs are passive; but, "_I am not yet ascended_," (John, xx, 17,) is not passive, because it does not convey the idea of being ascended _by_ some one's agency. OBS. 4.--Our ancient writers, after the manner of the French, very frequently employed this mode of conjugation in a neuter sense; but, with a very few exceptions, present usage is clearly in favour of the auxiliary _have_ in preference to _be_, whenever the verb formed with the perfect participle is not passive; as, "They _have_ arrived,"--not, "They _are_ arrived." Hence such examples as the following, are not now good English: "All these reasons _are_ now ceased."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 157. Say, "_have now_ ceased." "Whether he _were_ not got beyond the reach of his faculties."--_Ib._, p. 158. Say, "_had_ not got." "Which _is_ now grown wholly obsolete."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 330. Say, "_has_ now grown." "And when he _was_ entered into a ship."--_Bible_. Say, "_had_ entered."-- "What _is_ become of decency and virtue?"--_Murray's Key_, p. 196. Say, "_has_ become." OBS. 5.--Dr. Priestley says, "It seems _not to have been determined_ by the English grammarians, whether the _passive_ participles of verbs neuter require the auxiliary _am_ or _have_ before them. The French, in this case, confine themselves strictly to the former. 'What _has become_ of national liberty?' Hume's History, Vol. 6. p. 254. The French would say, _what is become_; and, in this instance, perhaps, with more propriety."-- _Priestley's Gram._, p. 128. It is no marvel that those writers who have not rightly made up their minds upon this point of English grammar, should consequently fall into many mistakes. The perfect participle of a neuter verb is not "_passive_," as the doctor seems to suppose it to be; and the mode of conjugation which he here inclines to prefer, is a mere _Gallicism_, which is fast wearing out from our language, and is even now but little countenanced by good writers. OBS. 6.--There are a few verbs of the passive form which seem to imply that a person's own mind is the agent that actuates him; as, "The editor _is rejoiced_ to think," &c.--_Juvenile Keepsake_. "I _am resolved_ what to do."--_Luke_, xvi, 4. "He _was resolved_ on going to the city to reside."--_Comly's Gram._, p. 114. "James _was resolved_ not to indulge himself."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 220. "He _is inclined_ to go."--"He _is determined_ to go."--"He _is bent_ on going." These are properly passive verbs, notwithstanding there are active forms which are nearly equivalent to most of them; as, "The editor _rejoices_ to think."--"I _know_ what to do."--"He _had resolved_ on going."--"James _resolved_ not to indulge himself." So in the phrase, "I _am ashamed_ to beg," we seem to have a passive verb of this sort; but, the verb _to ashame_ being now obsolete, _ashamed_ is commonly reckoned an _adjective_. Yet we cannot put it before a noun, after the usual manner of adjectives. _To be indebted_, is an other expression of the same kind. In the following example, "_am remember'd_" is used for _do remember_, and, in my opinion, _inaccurately_: "He said mine eyes were black, and my hair black; And, now I _am remember'd_, scorn'd at me."--_Shakspeare_. IV. FORM OF NEGATION. A verb is conjugated _negatively_, by placing the adverb _not_ after it, or after the first auxiliary; but the infinitive and participles take the negative first: as, Not to love, Not to have loved; Not loving, Not loved, Not having loved. FIRST PERSON SINGULAR. IND. I love not, _or_ I do not love; I loved not, _or_ I did not love; I have not loved; I had not loved; I shall not, _or_ will not, love; I shall not, _or_ will not, have loved. POT. I may, can, _or_ must not love; I might, could, would, _or_ should not love; I may, can, _or_ must not have loved; I might, could, would, _or_ should not have loved, SUBJ. If I love not, If I loved not. SECOND PERSON SINGULAR. SOLEMN STYLE:--IND. Thou lovest not, _or_ Thou dost not love; Thou lovedst not, _or_ Thou didst not love; Thou hast not loved; Thou hadst not loved; Thou shalt not, _or_ wilt not, love; Thou shalt not, _or_ wilt not, have loved. POT. Thou mayst, canst, _or_ must not love; Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, _or_ shouldst not love; Thou mayst, canst, _or_ must not have loved; Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, _or_ shouldst not have loved. SUBJ. If thou love not, If thou loved not. IMP. Love [thou] not, _or_ Do thou not love. FAMILIAR STYLE:--IND. Thou lov'st not, _or_ Thou dost not love; Thou loved not, _or_ Thou did not love; Thou hast not loved; Thou had not loved; Thou shall not, _or_ will not, love; Thou shall not, _or_ will not, have loved. POT. Thou may, can, _or_ must not love; Thou might, could, would, _or_ should not love; Thou may, can, _or_ must not have loved; Thou might, could, would, _or_ should not have loved. SUBJ. If thou love not, If thou loved not. IMP. Love [thou] not, _or_ Do [thou] not love. THIRD PERSON SINGULAR. IND. He loves not, _or_ He does not love; He loved not, _or_ He did not love; He has not loved; He had not loved; He shall not, _or_ will not, love; He shall not, _or_ will not, have loved. POT. He may, can, _or_ must not love; He might, could, would, _or_ should not love; He may, can, _or_ must not have loved; He might, could, would, _or_ should not have loved. SUBJ. If he love not, If he loved not. V. FORM OF QUESTION. A verb is conjugated _interrogatively_, in the indicative and potential moods, by placing the nominative after it, or after the first auxiliary: as, FIRST PERSON SINGULAR. IND. Love I? _or_ Do I love? Loved I? _or_ Did I love? Have I loved? Had I loved? Shall I love? Shall I have loved? POT. May, can, _or_ must I love? Might, could, would, _or_ should I love? May, can, _or_ must I have loved? Might, could, would, _or_ should I have loved? SECOND PERSON SINGULAR. SOLEMN STYLE:--IND. Lovest thou? _or_ Dost thou love? Lovedst thou? _or_ Didst thou love? Hast thou loved? Hadst thou loved? Wilt thou love? Wilt thou have loved? POT. Mayst, canst, _or_ must thou love? Mightst, couldst, wouldst, _or_ shouldst thou love? Mayst, canst, _or_ must thou have loved? Mightst, couldst, wouldst, _or_ shouldst thou have loved? FAMILIAR STYLE:--IND. Lov'st thou? _or_ Dost thou love? Loved thou? _or_ Did thou love? Hast thou loved? Had thou loved? Will thou love? Will thou have loved? POT. May, can, _or_ must thou love? Might, could, would, _or_ should thou love? May, can, _or_ must thou have loved? Might, could, would, _or_ should thou have loved? THIRD PERSON SINGULAR. IND. Loves he? _or_ Does he love? Loved he? _or_ Did he love? Has he loved? Had he loved? Shall _or_ will he love? Will he have loved? POT. May, can, _or_ must he love? Might, could, would, _or_ should he love? May, can, _or_ must he have loved? Might, could, would, _or_ should he have loved? VI. FORM OF QUESTION WITH NEGATION. A verb is conjugated _interrogatively and negatively_, in the indicative and potential moods, by placing the nominative and the adverb _not_ after the verb, or after the first auxiliary: as, FIRST PERSON PLURAL. IND. Love we not? _or_ Do we not love? Loved we not? _or_ Did we not love? Have we not loved? Had we not loved? Shall we not love? Shall we not have loved? POT. May, can, _or_ must we not love? Might, could, would, _or_ should we not love? May, can, _or_ must we not have loved? Might, could, would, _or_ should we not have loved? SECOND PERSON PLURAL. IND. See ye not? _or_ Do you not see? Saw ye not? _or_ Did you not see? Have you not seen? Had you not seen? Will you not see? Will you not have seen? POT. May, can, _or_ must you not see? Might, could, would, _or_ should you not see? May, can, _or_ must you not have seen? Might, could, would, _or_ should you not have seen? THIRD PERSON PLURAL. IND. Are they not loved? Were they not loved? Have they not been loved? Had they not been loved? Shall _or_ will they not be loved? Will they not have been loved? May, can, _or_ must they not be loved? Might, could, would, _or_ should they not be loved? May, can, _or_ must they not have been loved? Might, could, would, _or_ should they not have been loved? OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--In a familiar question or negation, the compound or auxiliary form of the verb is, in general, preferable to the simple: as, "No man lives to purpose, who _does not live_ for posterity."--_Dr. Wayland_. It is indeed so much more common, as to seem the only proper mode of expression: as, "_Do I say_ these things as a man?"--"_Do you think_ that we excuse ourselves?"--"_Do you not know_ that a little leaven _leavens_ the whole lump?"--"_Dost thou revile?_" &c. But in the solemn or the poetic style, though either may be used, the simple form is more dignified, and perhaps more graceful: as, "_Say I_ these things as a man?"--_1 Cor._, ix, 8. "_Think ye_ that we excuse ourselves?"--_2 Cor._, xii, 19. "_Know ye not_ that a little leaven _leaveneth_ the whole lump?"--_1 Cor._, v, 6. "_Revilest thou_ God's high priest?"--_Acts_. "King Agrippa, _believest thou_ the prophets?"--_Ib._ "_Understandest thou_ what thou readest?"--_Ib._ "Of whom _speaketh_ the prophet this?"--_Id._ "And the man of God said, Where _fell it?_"--_2 Kings_, vi, 6. "What! _heard ye not_ of lowland war?"--_Sir W. Scott, L. L._ "_Seems he not_, Malise, like a ghost?"--_Id., L. of Lake_. "Where _thinkst thou_ he is now? _Stands he_, or _sits he?_ Or _does he walk?_ or _is he_ on his horse?"--_Shak., Ant. and Cleop._ OBS. 2.--In interrogative sentences, the auxiliaries _shall_ and _will_ are not always capable of being applied to the different persons agreeably to their use in simple declarations: thus, "_Will_ I go?" is a question which there never can be any occasion to ask in its literal sense; because none knows better than I, what my will or wish is. But "_Shall_ I go?" may properly be asked; because _shall_ here refers to _duty_, and asks to know what is agreeable to the will of an other. In questions, the first person generally requires _shall_; the second, _will_; the third admits of both: but, in the second-future, the third, used interrogatively, seems to require _will_ only. Yet, in that figurative kind of interrogation which is sometimes used to declare a negative, there may be occasional exceptions to these principles; as, "_Will I eat_ the flesh of bulls, or drink the blood of goats?"--_Psalms_, 1, 13. That is, _I will not eat_, &c. OBS. 3.--_Cannot_ is not properly one word, but two: in parsing, the adverb must be taken separately, and the auxiliary be explained with its principal. When power is denied, _can_ and _not_ are now _generally united_--perhaps in order to prevent ambiguity; as, "I _cannot_ go." But when the power is affirmed, and something else is denied, the words are written separately; as, "The Christian apologist _can not merely_ expose the utter baseness of the infidel assertion, but he has positive ground for erecting an opposite and confronting assertion in its place."--_Dr. Chalmers._ The junction of these terms, however, is not of much importance to the sense; and, as it is plainly contrary to analogy, some writers,--(as Dr. Webster, in his late or "improved" works; Dr. Bullions, in his; Prof. W. C. Fowler, in his new "English Grammar," 8vo; R. C. Trench, in his "Study of Words;" T. S. Pinneo, in his "revised" grammars; J. R. Chandler, W. S. Cardell, O. B. Peirce,--) always separate them. And, indeed, why should we write, "I _cannot_ go, Thou _canst not_ go, He _cannot_ go?" Apart from the custom, we have just as good reason to join _not_ to _canst_ as to _can_; and sometimes its union with the latter is a gross error: as, "He _cannot only_ make a way to escape, but with the injunction to duty can infuse the power to perform."--_Maturin's Sermons_, p. 287. The fear of ambiguity never prevents us from disjoining _can_ and _not_ whenever we wish to put a word between them: as, "Though the waves thereof toss themselves, yet _can_ they _not_ prevail; though they roar, yet _can_ they _not_ pass over it."--_Jeremiah_, v, 22. "Which then I _can_ resist _not_."--_Byron's Manfred_, p. 1. "_Can_ I _not_ mountain maiden spy, But she must bear the Douglas eye?"--_Scott_. OBS. 4.--In negative questions, the adverb _not_ is sometimes placed before the nominative, and sometimes after it: as, "Told _not I_ thee?"--_Numb._, xxiii, 26. "Spake _I not_ also to thy messengers?"--_Ib._, xxiv, 12. "_Cannot I_ do with you as this potter?"--_Jer._, xviii, 6. "Art _not thou_ a seer?"--_2 Sam._, xv, 27. "Did _not Israel_ know?"--_Rom._, x, 19. "Have _they not_ heard?"--_Ib._, 18. "Do _not they_ blaspheme that worthy name?"--_James_, ii, 7. This adverb, like every other, should be placed where it will sound most agreeably, and best suit the sense. Dr. Priestley imagined that it could not properly come before the nominative. He says, "When the nominative case is put after the verb, on account of _an_ interrogation, _no other word_ should be interposed between them. [EXAMPLES:] 'May _not we_ here say with Lucretius?'--Addison on Medals, p. 29. May _we not_ say? 'Is _not it_ he.' [?] Smollett's Voltaire, Vol 18, p. 152. Is _it not_ he. [?]"--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 177. OBS. 5.--In grave discourse, or in oratory, the adverb _not_ is spoken as distinctly as other words; but, _ordinarily_, when placed before the nominative, it is rapidly slurred over in utterance and the _o_ is not heard. In fact, it is _generally_ (though inelegantly) contracted in familiar conversation, and joined to the auxiliary: as, IND. Don't they do it? Didn't they do it? Haven't they done it? Hadn't they done it? Shan't, _or_ won't they do it? Won't they have done it? POT. Mayn't, can't, _or_ mustn't they do it? Mightn't, couldn't, wouldn't, _or_ shouldn't they do it? Mayn't, can't, _or_ mustn't they have done it? Mightn't, couldn't, wouldn't, _or_ shouldn't they have done it? OBS. 6.--Well-educated people commonly utter their words with more distinctness and fullness than the vulgar, yet without adopting ordinarily the long-drawn syllables of poets and orators, or the solemn phraseology of preachers and prophets. Whatever may be thought of the grammatical propriety of such contractions as the foregoing, no one who has ever observed how the English language is usually spoken, will doubt their commonness, or their antiquity. And it may be observed, that, in the use of these forms, the distinction of persons and numbers in the verb, is almost, if not entirely, dropped. Thus _don't_ is used for _dost not_ or _does not_, as properly as for _do not_; and, "_Thou can't_ do it, or _shan't_ do it," is as good English as, "_He can't_ do it, or _shan't_ do it." _Will_, according to Webster, was anciently written _woll_: hence _won't_ acquired the _o_, which is long in Walker's orthoëpy. _Haven't_, which cannot be used for _has not_ or _hast not_, is still further contracted by the vulgar, and spoken _ha'nt_, which serves for all three. These forms are sometimes found in books; as, "WONT, a contraction of _woll not_, that is, _will not_."--_Webster's Dict._ "HA'NT, a contraction of _have not_ or _has not_."--_Id._ "WONT, (w=ont _or_ w~unt,) A contraction of _would not_:-- used for _will_ not."--_Worcester's Dict._ "HAN'T, (hänt or h=ant,) A vulgar contraction for _has not_, or _have not_."--_Id._ In the writing of such contractions, the apostrophe is not always used; though some think it necessary for distinction's sake: as, "Which is equivalent, because what _can't_ be done _won't_ be done."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 312. IRREGULAR VERBS. An _irregular verb_ is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming _d_ or _ed_; as, _see, saw, seeing, seen_. Of this class of verbs there are about one hundred and ten, beside their several derivatives and compounds. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--Regular verbs form their preterits and perfect participles, by adding _d_ to final _e_, and _ed_ to all other terminations; the final consonant of the verb being sometimes doubled, (as in _dropped_,) and final _y_ sometimes changed into _i_, (as in _cried_,) agreeably to the rules for spelling in such cases. The verb _hear, heard, hearing, heard_, adds _d_ to _r_, and is therefore irregular. _Heard_ is pronounced _h~erd_ by all our lexicographers, except _Webster_: who formerly wrote it _heerd_, and still pronounces it so; alleging, in despite of universal usage against him, that it is written "more correctly _heared_."--_Octavo Dict._, 1829. Such pronunciation would doubtless require this last orthography, "_heared_;" but both are, in fact, about as fanciful as his former mode of spelling, which ran thus: "_Az_ I had _heerd_ suggested by _frends_ or indifferent _reeders_."--_Dr. Webster's Essays, Preface_, p. 10. OBS. 2.--When a verb ends in a sharp consonant, _t_ is sometimes improperly substituted for _ed_, making the preterit and the perfect participle irregular in spelling, when they are not so in sound; as, _distrest_ for _distressed, tost_ for _tossed, mixt_ for _mixed, cract_ for _cracked_. These contractions are now generally treated as _errors_ in writing; and the verbs are accordingly (with a few exceptions) accounted regular. Lord Kames commends Dean Swift for having done "all in his power to restore the syllable _ed_;" says, he "possessed, if any man ever did, the true genius of the English tongue;" and thinks that in rejecting these ugly contractions, "he well deserves to be imitated."--_Elements of Criticism_, Vol. ii, p. 12. The regular orthography is indeed to be preferred in all such cases; but the writing of _ed_ restores no syllable, except in solemn discourse; and, after all, the poems of Swift have so very many of these irregular contractions in _t_, that one can hardly believe his lordship had ever read them. Since the days of these critics still more has been done towards the restoration of the _ed_, in orthography, though not in sound; but, even at this present time, our poets not unfrequently write, _est_ for _essed_ or _ess'd_, in forming the preterits or participles of verbs that end in the syllable _ess_. This is an ill practice, which needlessly multiplies our redundant verbs, and greatly embarrasses what it seems at first to simplify: as, "O friend! I know not which way I must look For comfort, being, as I am, _opprest_, To think that now our life is only _drest_ For show."--_Wordsworth's Poetical Works_, 8vo, p. 119. OBS. 3.--When the verb ends with a smooth consonant, the substitution of _t_ for _ed_ produces an irregularity in sound as well as in writing. In some such irregularities, the poets are indulged for the sake of rhyme; but the best speakers and writers of prose prefer the regular form, wherever good use has sanctioned it: thus _learned_ is better than _learnt; burned_, than _burnt; penned_, than _pent; absorbed_, than _absorbt; spelled_, than _spelt; smelled_, than _smelt_. So many of this sort of words as are allowably contracted, belong to the class of redundant verbs, among which they may be seen in a subsequent table. OBS. 4.--Several of the irregular verbs are variously used by the best authors; redundant forms are occasionally given to some verbs, without sufficient authority; and many preterits and participles which were formerly in good use, are now obsolete, or becoming so. The _simple_ irregular verbs in English are about one hundred and ten, and they are nearly all monosyllables. They are derived from the Saxon, in which language they are also, for the most part, irregular. OBS. 5.--The following alphabetical list exhibits the simple irregular verbs, as they are _now generally_ used. In this list, those preterits and participles which are supposed to be preferable, and best supported by authorities, are placed first. Nearly all compounds that follow the form of their simple verbs, or derivatives that follow their primitives, are here purposely omitted. _Welcome_ and _behave_ are always regular, and therefore belong not here. Some words which are obsolete, have also been omitted, that the learner might not mistake them for words in present use. Some of those which are placed last, are now little used. LIST OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS. _Imperfect Perfect_ _Present. Preterit. Participle. Participle_. Arise, arose, arising, arisen. Be, was, being, been. Bear, bore _or_ bare, bearing, borne _or_ born.[274] Beat, beat, beating, beaten _or_ beat. Begin, began _or_ begun,[275] beginning, begun. Behold, beheld, beholding, beheld. Beset, beset, besetting, beset. Bestead, bestead, besteading, bestead.[276] Bid, bid _or_ bade, bidding, bidden _or_ bid. Bind, bound, bing, bound. Bite, bit, biting, bitten _or_ bit. Bleed, bled, bleeding, bled. Break, broke,[277] breaking, broken. Breed, bred, breeding, bred. Bring, brought, bringing, brought. Buy, bought, buying, bought. Cast, cast, casting, cast. Chide, chid, chiding, chidden _or_ chid. Choose, chose, choosing, chosen. Cleave,[278] cleft _or_ clove, cleaving, cleft _or_ cloven. Cling, clung, clinging, clung. Come, came, coming, come. Cost, cost, costing, cost. Cut, cut, cutting, cut. Do, did, doing, done. Draw, drew, drawing, drawn. Drink, drank, drinking, drunk, _or_ drank.[279] Drive, drove, driving, driven. Eat, ate _or_ ~eat, eating, eaten _or_ eat. Fall, fell, falling, fallen. Feed, fed, feeding, fed. Feel, felt, feeling, felt. Fight, fought, fighting, fought. Find, found, finding, found. Flee, fled, fleeing, fled. Fling, flung, flinging, flung. Fly, flew, flying, flown. Forbear, forbore, forbearing, forborne. Forsake, forsook, forsaking, forsaken. Get, got, getting, got _or_ gotten. Give, gave, giving, given. Go, went, going, gone. Grow, grew, growing, grown. Have, had, having, had. Hear, heard, hearing, heard. Hide, hid, hiding, hidden _or_ hid. Hit, hit, hitting, hit. Hold, held, holding, held _or_ holden.[280] Hurt, hurt, hurting, hurt.[281] Keep, kept,[282] keeping, kept. Know, knew, knowing, known. Lead, led, leading, led. Leave, left, leaving, left. Lend, lent, lending, lent. Let, let, letting, let Lie,[283] lay, lying, lain. Lose, lost, losing, lost. Make, made, making, made. Meet, met, meeting, met. Outdo, outdid, outdoing, outdone. Put, put, putting, put. Read, r~ead, reading, r~ead. Rend, rent, rending, rent.[284] Rid, rid, ridding, rid. Ride, rode, riding, ridden _or_ rode. Ring, rung _or_ rang, ringing, rung. Rise, rose, rising, risen. Run, ran _or_ run, running, run. Say, said, saying, said.[285] See, saw, seeing, seen. Seek, sought, seeking, sought. Sell, sold, selling, sold. Send, sent, sending, sent. Set, set, setting, set. Shed, shed, shedding, shed. Shoe, shod, shoeing, shod.[286] Shoot, shot, shooting, shot. Shut, shut, shutting, shut. Shred, shred, shredding, shred. Shrink, shrunk _or_ shrank, shrinking, shrunk _or_ shrunken. Sing, sung _or_ sang,[287] singing, sung. Sink, sunk _or_ sank, sinking, sunk. Sit, sat, sitting, sat.[288] Slay, slew, slaying, slain. Sling, slung, slinging, slung. Slink, slunk _or_ slank, slinking, slunk. Smite, smote, smiting, smitten _or_ smit. Speak, spoke, speaking, spoken. Spend, spent, spending, spent. Spin, spun, spinning, spun. Spit, spit _or_ spat, spitting, spit _or_ spitten. Spread, spread, spreading, spread. Spring, sprung _or_ sprang, springing, sprung. Stand, stood, standing, stood. Steal, stole, stealing, stolen. Stick, stuck, sticking, stuck. Sting, stung, stinging, stung. Stink, stunk _or_ stank, stinking, stunk. Stride, strode _or_ strid, striding, stridden _or_ strid.[289] Strike, struck, striking, struck _or_ stricken. Swear, swore, swearing, sworn. Swim, swum _or_ swam, swimming, swum. Swing, swung _or_ swang, swinging, swung. Take, took, taking, taken. Teach, taught, teaching, taught. Tear, tore, tearing, torn. Tell, told, telling, told. Think, thought, thinking, thought. Thrust, thrust, thrusting, thrust. Tread, trod, treading, trodden _or_ trod. Wear, wore, wearing, worn. Win, won, winning, won. Write, wrote, writing, written.[290] REDUNDANT VERBS. A _redundant verb_ is a verb that forms the preterit or the perfect participle in two or more ways, and so as to be both regular and irregular; as, _thrive, thrived_ or _throve, thriving, thrived_ or _thriven_. Of this class of verbs, there are about ninety-five, beside sundry derivatives and compounds. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--Those irregular verbs which have more than one form for the preterit or for the perfect participle, are in some sense redundant; but, as there is no occasion to make a distinct class of such as have double forms that are never regular, these redundancies are either included in the preceding list of the simple irregular verbs, or omitted as being improper to be now recognized for good English. Several examples of the latter kind, including both innovations and archaisms, will appear among the improprieties for correction, at the end of this chapter. A few old preterits or participles may perhaps be accounted good English in the solemn style, which are not so in the familiar: as, "And none _spake_ a word unto him."--_Job_, ii, 13. "When I _brake_ the five loaves."--_Mark_, viii, 19. "And he _drave_ them from the judgement-seat."--_Acts_, xviii, 16. "Serve me till I have eaten and _drunken_."--_Luke_, xvii, 8. "It was not possible that he should be _holden_ of it."--_Acts_, ii, 24. "Thou _castedst_ them down into destruction."--_Psal._, lxxiii, 18. "Behold, I was _shapen_ in iniquity."--_Ib._, li, 5. "A meat-offering _baken_ in the oven."--_Leviticus_, ii, 4. "With _casted_ slough, and fresh celerity."--SHAK., _Henry V_. "Thy dreadful vow, _loaden_ with death."--ADDISON: _in Joh. Dict._ OBS. 2.--The verb _bet_ is given in Worcester's Dictionary, as being always regular: "BET, _v. a._ [_i_. BETTED; _pp_. BETTING, BETTED.] To wager; to lay a wager or bet. SHAK."--_Octavo Dict._ In Ainsworth's Grammar, it is given as being always irregular: "_Present_, Bet; _Imperfect_, Bet; _Participle_, Bet."--Page 36. On the authority of these, and of some others cited in OBS. 6th below, I have put it with the redundant verbs. The verb _prove_ is redundant, if _proven_, which is noticed by Webster, Bolles, and Worcester, is an admissible word. "The participle _proven_ is used in Scotland and in some parts of the United States, and sometimes, though rarely, in England.--'There is a mighty difference between _not proven_ and _disproven_.' DR. TH. CHALMERS. 'Not _proven_.' QU. REV."--_Worcester's Universal and Critical Dict._ The verbs _bless_ and _dress_ are to be considered redundant, according to the authority of Worcester, Webster, Bolles, and others. Cobbett will have the verbs, _cast, chide, cling, draw, grow, shred, sling, slink, spring, sting, stride, swim, swing_, and _thrust_, to be always regular; but I find no sufficient authority for allowing to any of them a regular form; and therefore leave them, where they always have been, in the list of simple irregulars. These fourteen verbs are a part of the long list of _seventy_ which this author says, "are, by some persons, _erroneously_ deemed irregular." Of the following _nine_ only, is his assertion true; namely, _dip, help, load, overflow, slip, snow, stamp, strip, whip_. These nine ought always to be formed regularly; for all their irregularities may well be reckoned obsolete. After these deductions from this most erroneous catalogue, there remain forty-five other very common verbs, to be disposed of contrary to this author's instructions. All but two of these I shall place in the list of _redundant_ verbs; though for the use of _throwed_ I find no written authority but his and William B. Fowle's. The two which I do not consider redundant are _spit_ and _strew_, of which it may be proper to take more particular notice. OBS. 3.--_Spit_, to stab, or to put upon a spit, is regular; as, "I _spitted frogs_, I crushed a heap of emmets."--_Dryden. Spit_, to throw out saliva, is irregular, and most properly formed thus: _spit, spit, spitting, spit. "Spat_ is obsolete."--_Webster's Dict._ It is used in the Bible; as, "He _spat_ on the ground, and made clay of the spittle."--_John_, ix, 6. L. Murray gives this verb thus: "Pres. _Spit_; Imp. _spit, spat_; Perf. Part. _spit, spitten_." NOTE: "_Spitten_ is nearly obsolete."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 106. Sanborn has it thus: "Pres. _Spit_; Imp. _spit_; Pres. Part. _spitting_; Perf. Part. _spit, spat_."--_Analytical Gram._, p. 48. Cobbett, at first, taking it in the form, "to _spit_, I _spat, spitten_," placed it among the seventy which he so erroneously thought should be made regular; afterwards he left it only in his list of irregulars, thus: "to _spit_, I _spit, spitten_."--_Cobbett's E. Gram._, of 1832, p. 54. Churchill, in 1823, preferring the older forms, gave it thus: "_Spit, spat_ or _spit, spitten_ or _spit_."--_New Gram._, p. 111. NOTE:--"Johnson gives _spat_ as the preterimperfect, and _spit_ or _spitted_ as the participle of this verb, when it means to pierce through with a pointed instrument: but in this sense, I believe, it is always regular; while, on the other hand, the regular form is now never used, when it signifies to eject from the mouth; though we find in _Luke_, xviii, 32, 'He shall be _spitted_ on.'"--_Churchill's New Gram._, p. 264. This text ought to have been, "He shall be _spit_ upon." OBS. 4.--_To strew_ is in fact nothing else than an other mode of spelling the verb _to strow_; as _shew_ is an obsolete form for _show_; but if we pronounce the two forms differently, we make them different words. Walker, and some others, pronounce them alike, _stro_; Sheridan, Jones, Jameson, and Webster, distinguish them in utterance, _stroo_ and _stro_. This is convenient for the sake of rhyme, and perhaps therefore preferable. But _strew_, I incline to think, is properly a regular verb only, though Wells and Worcester give it otherwise: if _strewn_ has ever been proper, it seems now to be obsolete. EXAMPLES: "Others cut down branches from the trees, and _strewed_ them in the way."--_Matt._, xxi, 8. "Gathering where thou hast not _strewed_."--_Matt._, xxv, 24. "Their name, their years, _spelt_ by th' unletter'd _muse_, The place of fame and elegy supply; And many _a holy text_ around she _strews_, _That teach_ the rustic moralist to die."--_Gray_. OBS. 5.--The list which I give below, prepared with great care, exhibits the redundant verbs, as they are now generally used, or as they may be used without grammatical impropriety.[291] Those forms which are supposed to be preferable, and best supported by authorities, are placed first. No words are inserted here, but such as some modern authors countenance. L. Murray recognizes _bereaved, catched, dealed, digged, dwelled, hanged, knitted, shined, spilled_; and, in his early editions, he approved of _bended, builded, creeped, weaved, worked, wringed_. His two larger books now tell us, "The Compiler _has not inserted_ such verbs as _learnt, spelt, spilt_, &c. which are improperly terminated by _t_, instead of _ed_."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 107; _Duodecimo_, p. 97. But if he did not, in all his grammars, insert, "_Spill, spilt_, R. _spilt_, R.," (pp. 106, 96,) preferring the irregular form to the regular, somebody else has done it for him. And, what is remarkable, many of his _amenders_, as if misled by some evil genius, have contradicted themselves in precisely the same way! Ingersoll, Fisk, Merchant, and Hart, republish exactly the foregoing words, and severally become "_The Compiler_" of the same erroneous catalogue! Kirkham prefers _spilt_ to _spilled_, and then declares the word to be "_improperly_ terminated by _t_ instead of _ed_."--_Gram._, p. 151. Greenleaf, who condemns _learnt_ and _spelt_, thinks _dwelt_ and _spilt_ are "the _only established_ forms;" yet he will have _dwell_ and _spill_ to be "_regular_" verbs, as well as "_irregular!_"--_Gram. Simp._, p. 29. Webber prefers _spilled_ to _spilt_; but Picket admits only the latter. Cobbett and Sanborn prefer _bereaved, builded, dealed, digged, dreamed, hanged_, and _knitted_, to _bereft, built, dealt, dug, dreamt, hung_, and _knit_. The former prefers _creeped_ to _crept_, and _freezed_ to _froze_; the latter, _slitted_ to _slit, wringed_ to _wrung_; and both consider, "_I bended_," "_I bursted_" and "_I blowed_," to be good modern English. W. Allen acknowledges _freezed_ and _slided_; and, like Webster, prefers _hove_ to _hoven_: but the latter justly prefers _heaved_ to both. EXAMP.: "The supple kinsman _slided_ to the helm."--_New Timon_. "The rogues _slided_ me into the river."--_Shak_. "And the sand _slided_ from beneath my feet."-- DR. JOHNSON: _in Murray's Sequel_, p. 179. "Wherewith she _freez'd_ her foes to congeal'd stone."--_Milton's Comus_, l. 449. "It _freezed_ hard last night. Now, what was it that _freezed_ so hard?"--_Emmons's Gram._, p. 25. "Far hence lies, ever _freez'd_, the northern main."--_Savage's Wanderer_, l. 57. "Has he not taught, _beseeched_, and shed abroad the Spirit unconfined?"--_Pollok's Course of Time_, B. x, l. 275. OBS. 6.--D. Blair supposes _catched_ to be an "erroneous" word and unauthorized: "I _catch'd_ it," for "I _caught_ it," he sets down for a "_vulgarism_."--_E. Gram._, p. 111. But _catched_ is used by some of the most celebrated authors. Dearborn prefers the regular form of _creep_: "creep, creeped _or_ crept, creeped _or_ crept."--_Columbian Gram._, p. 38. I adopt no man's opinions implicitly; copy nothing without examination; but, _to prove all my decisions to be right_, would be an endless task. I shall do as much as ought to be expected, toward showing that they are so. It is to be remembered, that the _poets_, as well as the _vulgar_, use some forms which a _gentleman_ would be likely to avoid, unless he meant to quote or imitate; as, "So _clomb_ the first grand thief into God's fold; So since into his church lewd hirelings climb." --_Milton, P. L._, B. iv, l. 192. "He _shore_ his sheep, and, having packed the wool, Sent them unguarded to the hill of wolves." --_Pollok, C. of T._, B. vi, l. 306. ------"The King of heav'n Bar'd his red arm, and launching from the sky His _writhen_ bolt, not shaking empty smoke, Down to the deep abyss the flaming felon _strook_." --_Dryden_. OBS. 7.--The following are examples in proof of some of the forms acknowledged below: "Where etiquette and precedence _abided_ far away."--_Paulding's Westward-Ho!_ p. 6. "But there were no secrets where Mrs. Judith Paddock _abided_."--_Ib._, p. 8. "They _abided_ by the forms of government established by the charters."--_John Quincy Adams, Oration_, 1831. "I have _abode_ consequences often enough in the course of my life."--_Id., Speech_, 1839. "Present, _bide_, or _abide_; Past, _bode, or abode_."--_Coar's Gram._, p. 104. "I _awaked_ up last of all."--_Ecclus._, xxxiii, 16. "For this are my knees _bended_ before the God of the spirits of all flesh."--_Wm. Penn_. "There was never a prince _bereaved_ of his dependencies," &c.--_Bacon_. "Madam, you have _bereft_ me of all words."--_Shakspeare_. "Reave, _reaved or reft_, reaving, _reaved or reft_. _Bereave_ is similar."--_Ward's Practical Gram._, p. 65. "And let them tell their tales of woful ages, long ago _betid_."--_Shak_. "Of every nation _blent_, and every age."--_Pollok, C. of T._, B vii, p. 153. "Rider and horse,--friend, foe,--in one red burial _blent!_"--_Byron, Harold_, C. iii, st. 28. "I _builded_ me houses."--_Ecclesiastes_, ii, 4. "For every house is _builded_ by some man; but he that _built_ all things is God."--_Heb_. iii, 4. "What thy hands _builded_ not, thy wisdom gained."--_Milton's P. L._, X, 373. "Present, _bet_; Past, _bet_; Participle, _bet_."-- _Mackintosh's Gram._, p. 197; _Alexander's_, 38. "John of Gaunt loved him well, and _betted_ much upon his head."--SHAKSPEARE: _Joh. Dict, w. Bet_. "He lost every earthly thing he _betted_."--PRIOR: _ib._ "A seraph _kneeled_."--_Pollok, C. T._, p. 95. "At first, he declared he himself would be _blowed_, Ere his conscience with such a foul crime he would load." --_J. R. Lowell_. "They are _catched_ without art or industry."--_Robertson's Amer._,-Vol. i, p. 302. "Apt to be _catched_ and dazzled."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 26. "The lion being _catched_ in a net."--_Art of Thinking_, p. 232. "In their self-will they _digged_ down a wall."--_Gen._, xlix, 6. "The royal mother instantly _dove_ to the bottom and brought up her babe unharmed."-- _Trumbull's America_, i, 144. "The learned have _diven_ into the secrets of nature."--CARNOT: _Columbian Orator_, p. 82. "They have _awoke_ from that ignorance in which they had slept."--_London Encyclopedia_. "And he _slept_ and _dreamed_ the second time."--_Gen._, xli, 5. "So I _awoke_."--_Ib._, 21. "But he _hanged_ the chief baker."--_Gen._, xl, 22. "Make as if you _hanged_ yourself."--ARBUTHNOT: _in Joh. Dict._ "_Graven_ by art and man's device."--_Acts_, xvii, 29. "_Grav'd_ on the stone beneath yon aged thorn."--_Gray_. "That the tooth of usury may be _grinded_."--_Lord Bacon_. "MILN-EE, The hole from which the _grinded_ corn falls into the chest below."--_Glossary of Craven_, London, 1828. "UNGRUND, Not _grinded_."-- _Ibid._ "And he _built_ the inner court with three rows of _hewed_ stone."--_1 Kings_, vi, 36. "A thing by which matter is _hewed_."--_Dr. Murray's Hist. of Europ. Lang._, Vol. i, p. 378. "SCAGD or SCAD _meaned_ distinction, dividing."--_Ib._, i, 114. "He only _meaned_ to acknowledge him to be an extraordinary person."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 12. "_The_ determines what particular thing is _meaned_."--_Ib._, p. 11. "If Hermia _mean'd_ to say Lysander lied."--_Shak_. "As if I _meaned_ not the first but the second creation."--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 289. "From some stones have rivers _bursted_ forth."--_Sale's Koran_, Vol. i, p. 14. "So move we on; I only _meant_ To show the reed on which you _leant_."--_Scott, L. L._, C. v, st. 11. OBS. 8.--_Layed, payed_, and _stayed_, are now less common than _laid, paid_, and _staid_; but perhaps not less correct, since they are the same words in a more regular and not uncommon orthography: "Thou takest up that [which] thou _layedst_ not down."--FRIENDS' BIBLE, SMITH'S, BRUCE'S: _Luke_, xix, 21. Scott's Bible, in this place, has "_layest_," which is wrong in tense. "Thou _layedst_ affliction upon our loins."--FRIENDS' BIBLE: _Psalms_, lxvi, 11. "Thou _laidest_ affliction upon our loins."--SCOTT'S BIBLE, _and_ BRUCE'S. "Thou _laidst_ affliction upon our loins."--SMITH'S BIBLE, Stereotyped by J. Howe. "Which gently _lay'd_ my knighthood on my shoulder."--SINGER'S SHAKSPEARE: _Richard II_, Act i, Sc. 1. "But no regard was _payed_ to his remonstrance."--_Smollett's England_, Vol. iii, p. 212. "Therefore the heaven over you is _stayed_ from dew, and the earth is _stayed_ from her fruit."--_Haggai_, i, 10. "STAY, _i_. STAYED _or_ STAID; _pp_. STAYING, STAYED _or_ STAID."--_Worcester's Univ. and Crit. Dict._ "Now Jonathan and Ahimaaz _stayed_ by En-rogel."--_2 Sam._, xvii, 17. "This day have I _payed_ my vows."--FRIENDS' BIBLE: _Prov_, vii, 14. Scott's Bible has "_paid_." "They not only _stayed_ for their resort, but discharged divers."--HAYWARD: _in Joh. Dict._ "I _stayed_ till the latest grapes were ripe."--_Waller's Dedication_. "_To lay_ is regular, and has in the past time and participle _layed_ or _laid_."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 54. "To the flood, that _stay'd_ her flight."--_Milton's Comus_, l. 832. "All rude, all waste, and desolate is _lay'd_."--_Rowe's Lucan_, B. ix, l. 1636. "And he smote thrice, and _stayed_."--_2 Kings_, xiii, 18. "When Cobham, generous as the noble peer That wears his honours, _pay'd_ the fatal price Of virtue blooming, ere the storms were _laid_."--_Shenstone_, p. 167. OBS. 9.--By the foregoing citations, _lay, pay_, and _stay_, are clearly proved to be redundant. But, in nearly all our English grammars, _lay_ and _pay_ are represented as being always irregular; and _stay_ is as often, and as improperly, supposed to be always regular. Other examples in proof of the list: "I _lit_ my pipe with the paper."--_Addison_. "While he whom learning, habits, all prevent, Is largely _mulct_ for each impediment."--_Crabbe, Bor._, p. 102. "And then the chapel--night and morn to pray, Or _mulct_ and threaten'd if he kept away."--_Ib._, p. 162. "A small space is formed, in which the breath is _pent_ up."--_Gardiner's Music of Nature_, p. 493. "_Pen_, when it means to write, is always regular. Boyle has _penned_ in the sense of confined."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 261. "So far as it was now _pled_."--ANDERSON: _Annals of the Bible_, p. 25. "_Rapped_ with admiration."--HOOKER: _Joh. Dict._ "And being _rapt_ with the love of his beauty."--_Id., ib._ "And _rapt_ in secret studies."--SHAK.: _ib._ "I'm _rapt_ with joy."--ADDISON: _ib._ "_Roast_ with fire."--FRIENDS' BIBLE: _Exod._, xii, 8 and 9. "_Roasted_ with fire."--SCOTT'S BIBLE: _Exod._, xii, 8 and 9. "Upon them hath the light _shined_."--_Isaiah_, ix, 2. "The earth _shined_ with his glory."--_Ezekiel_, xliii, 2. "After that he had _showed_ wonders."--_Acts_, vii, 36. "Those things which God before had _showed_."--_Acts_, iii, 18. "As shall be _shewed_ in Syntax."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 28. "I have _shown_ you, that the _two first_ may be dismissed."--_Cobbett's E. Gram._, ¶ 10. "And in this struggle were _sowed_ the seeds of the revolution."--_Everett's Address_, p. 16. "Your favour _showed_ to the performance, has given me boldness."--_Jenks's Prayers, Ded_. "Yea, so have I _strived_ to preach the gospel."--_Rom._, xv, 20. "Art thou, like the adder, _waxen_ deaf?"--_Shakspeare. "Hamstring'd_ behind, unhappy Gyges died."--_Dryden_. "In Syracusa was I born and _wed_."--_Shakspeare_. "And thou art _wedded_ to calamity."--_Id._ "I saw thee first, and _wedded_ thee."--_Milton_. "Sprung the rank weed, and _thrived_ with large increase."--_Pope_. "Some errors never would have _thriven_, had it not been for learned refutation."--_Book of Thoughts_, p. 34. "Under your care they have _thriven_."--_Junius_, p. 5. "Fixed by being rolled closely, compacted, _knitted_."--_Dr. Murray's Hist._, Vol. i, p. 374. "With kind converse and skill has _weaved_."--_Prior_. "Though I shall be _wetted_ to the skin."--_Sandford and Merton_, p. 64. "I _speeded_ hither with the very extremest inch of possibility."--_Shakspeare_. "And pure grief _shore_ his old thread in twain."--_Id._ "And must I ravel out my _weaved-up_ follies?"--_Id., Rich. II_. "Tells how the drudging Goblin _swet_."--_Milton's L'Allegro_. "Weave, wove or _weaved_, weaving, wove, _weaved_, or woven."--_Ward's Gram._, p. 67. "Thou who beneath the frown of fate hast stood, And in thy dreadful agony _sweat_ blood."--_Young_, p. 238. OBS. 10.--The verb to _shake_ is now seldom used in any other than the irregular form, _shake, shook, shaking, shaken_; and, in this form only, is it recognized by our principal grammarians and lexicographers, except that Johnson improperly acknowledges _shook_ as well as _shaken_ for the perfect participle: as, "I've _shook_ it off."--DRYDEN: _Joh. Dict._ But the regular form, _shake, shaked, shaking, shaked_, appears to have been used by some writers of high reputation; and, if the verb is not now properly redundant, it formerly was so. Examples regular: "The frame and huge foundation of the earth _shak'd_ like a coward."--SHAKSPEARE: _Hen. IV_. "I am he that is so _love-shaked_."--ID.: _As You Like it_. "A sly and constant knave, not to be _shak'd_."--ID.: _Cymbeline: Joh. Dict._ "I thought he would have _shaked_ it off."--TATTLER: _ib._ "To the very point I _shaked_ my head at."--_Spectator_, No. 4. "From the ruin'd roof of _shak'd_ Olympus."--_Milton's Poems_. "None hath _shak'd_ it off."--_Walker's English Particles_, p. 89. "They _shaked_ their heads."--_Psalms_, cix, 25. Dr. Crombie says, "Story, in his Grammar, has, _most unwarrantably_, asserted, that the Participle of this Verb should be _shaked_."--ON ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX, p. 198. Fowle, on the contrary, pronounces _shaked_ to be right. See _True English Gram._, p. 46. OBS. 11.--All former lists of our irregular and redundant verbs are, in many respects, defective and erroneous; nor is it claimed for those which are here presented, that they are absolutely perfect. I trust, however, they are much nearer to perfection, than are any earlier ones. Among the many individuals who have published schemes of these verbs, none have been more respected and followed than Lowth, Murray, and Crombie; yet are these authors' lists severally faulty in respect to as many as sixty or seventy of the words in question, though the whole number but little exceeds two hundred, and is commonly reckoned less than one hundred and eighty. By Lowth, eight verbs are made redundant, which I think are now regular only: namely, _bake, climb, fold, help, load, owe, wash_. By Crombie, as many: to wit, _bake, climb, freight, help, lift, load, shape, writhe_. By Murray, two: _load_ and _shape_. With Crombie, and in general with the others too, twenty-seven verbs are always irregular, which I think are sometimes regular, and therefore redundant: _abide, beseech, blow, burst, creep, freeze, grind, lade, lay, pay, rive, seethe, shake, show, sleep, slide, speed, string, strive, strow, sweat, thrive, throw, weave, weep, wind, wring_. Again, there are, I think, more than twenty redundant verbs which are treated by Crombie,--and, with one or two exceptions, by Lowth and Murray also,--as if they were always regular: namely, _betide, blend, bless, burn, dive, dream, dress, geld, kneel, lean, leap, learn, mean, mulct, pass, pen, plead, prove, reave, smell, spell, stave, stay, sweep, wake, whet, wont_. Crombie's list contains the auxiliaries, which properly belong to a different table. Erroneous as it is, in all these things, and more, it is introduced by the author with the following praise, in bad English: "_Verbs, which_ depart from this rule, are called Irregular, _of which_ I believe the subsequent enumeration to be _nearly complete_."--TREATISE ON ETYM. AND SYNT., p. 192. OBS. 12.--Dr. Johnson, in his Grammar of the English Tongue, recognizes two forms which would make _teach_ and _reach_ redundant. But _teached_ is now "obsolete," and _rought_ is "old," according to his own Dictionary. Of _loaded_ and _loaden_, which he gives as participles of _load_, the regular form only appears to be now in good use. For the redundant forms of many words in the foregoing list, as of _abode_ or _abided, awaked_ or _awoke, besought_ or _beseeched, caught_ or _catched, hewed_ or _hewn, mowed_ or _mown, laded_ or _laden, seethed_ or _sod, sheared_ or _shore, sowed_ or _sown, waked_ or _woke, wove_ or _weaved_, his authority may be added to that of others already cited. In Dearborn's Columbian Grammar, published in Boston in 1795, the year in which Lindley Murray's Grammar first appeared in York, no fewer than thirty verbs are made redundant, which are not so represented by Murray. Of these I have retained nineteen in the following list, and left the other eleven to be now considered always regular. The thirty are these: "bake, _bend, build, burn_, climb, _creep, dream_, fold, freight, _geld, heat, heave_, help, _lay, leap_, lift, _light_, melt, owe, _quit_, rent, rot, _seethe, spell, split, strive_, wash, _weave, wet, work_." See _Dearborn's Gram._, p. 37-45. LIST OF THE REDUNDANT VERBS. _Imperfect_ _Present. Preterit. Participle. Perfect Participle_. Abide, abode _or_ abided, abiding, abode _or_ abided. Awake, awaked _or_ awoke, awaking, awaked _or_ awoke. Belay, belayed _or_ belaid, belaying, belayed _or_ belaid. Bend, bent _or_ bended, bending, bent _or_ bended. Bereave, bereft _or_ bereaved, bereaving, bereft _or_ bereaved. Beseech, besought _or_ beseeched, beseeching, besought _or_ beseeched. Bet, betted _or_ bet, betting, betted _or_ bet. Betide, betided _or_ betid, betiding, betided _or_ betid. Bide, bode _or_ bided, biding, bode _or_ bided. Blend, blended _or_ blent, blending, blended _or_ blent. Bless, blessed _or_ blest, blessing, blessed _or_ blest. Blow, blew _or_ blowed, blowing, blown _or_ blowed. Build, built _or_ builded, building, built _or_ builded. Burn, burned _or_ burnt, burning, burned _or_ burnt. Burst, burst _or_ bursted, bursting, burst _or_ bursted. Catch, caught _or_ catched, catching, caught _or_ catched. Clothe, clothed _or_ clad, clothing, clothed _or_ clad. Creep, crept _or_ creeped, creeping, crept _or_ creeped. Crow, crowed _or_ crew, crowing, crowed. Curse, cursed _or_ curst, cursing, cursed _or_ curst. Dare, dared _or_ durst, daring, dared. Deal, dealt _or_ dealed, dealing, dealt _or_ dealed. Dig, dug _or_ digged, digging, dug _or_ digged. Dive, dived _or_ dove, diving, dived _or_ diven. Dream, dreamed _or_ dreamt, dreaming, dreamed _or_ dreamt. Dress, dressed _or_ drest, dressing, dressed _or_ drest. Dwell, dwelt _or_ dwelled, dwelling, dwelt _or_ dwelled. Freeze, froze _or_ freezed, freezing, frozen _or_ freezed. Geld, gelded _or_ gelt, gelding, gelded _or_ gelt. Gild, gilded _or_ gilt, gilding, gilded _or_ gilt. Gird, girded _or_ girt, girding, girded _or_ girt. Grave, graved, graving, graved _or_ graven. Grind, ground _or_ grinded, grinding, ground _or_ grinded. Hang, hung _or_ hanged, hanging, hung _or_ hanged. Heat, heated _or_ het, heating, heated _or_ het. Heave, heaved _or_ hove, heaving, heaved _or_ hoven. Hew, hewed, hewing, hewed _or_ hewn. Kneel, kneeled _or_ knelt, kneeling, kneeled _or_ knelt. Knit, knit _or_ knitted, knitting, knit _or_ knitted. Lade, laded, lading, laded _or_ laden. Lay, laid _or_ layed, laying, laid _or_ layed. Lean, leaned _or_ leant, leaning, leaned _or_ leant. Leap, leaped _or_ leapt, leaping, leaped _or_ leapt.[292] Learn, learned _or_ learnt, learning, learned _or_ learnt. Light, lighted _or_ lit, lighting, lighted _or_ lit. Mean, meant _or_ meaned, meaning, meant _or_ meaned. Mow, mowed, mowing, mowed _or_ mown. Mulct, mulcted _or_ mulct, mulcting, mulcted _or_ mulct. Pass, passed _or_ past, passing, passed _or_ past. Pay, paid _or_ payed, paying, paid _or_ payed. Pen, penned _or_ pent, penning, penned _or_ pent. (to coop,) Plead, pleaded _or_ pled, pleading, pleaded _or_ pled. Prove, proved, proving, proved _or_ proven. Quit, quitted _or_ quit, quitting, quitted _or_ quit.[293] Rap, rapped _or_ rapt, rapping, rapped _or_ rapt. Reave, reft _or_ reaved, reaving, reft _or_ reaved. Rive, rived, riving, riven _or_ rived. Roast, roasted _or_ roast, roasting, roasted _or_ roast. Saw, sawed, sawing, sawed _or_ sawn. Seethe, seethed _or_ sod, seething, seethed _or_ sodden. Shake, shook _or_ shaked, shaking, shaken _or_ shaked. Shape, shaped, shaping, shaped _or_ shapen. Shave, shaved, shaving, shaved _or_ shaven. Shear, sheared _or_ shore, shearing, sheared _or_ shorn. Shine, shined _or_ shone, shining, shined _or_ shone. Show, showed, showing, showed _or_ shown. Sleep, slept _or_ sleeped, sleeping, slept _or_ sleeped. Slide, slid _or_ slided, sliding, slidden, slid, _or_ slided. Slit, slitted _or_ slit, slitting, slitted _or_ slit. Smell, smelled _or_ smelt, smelling, smelled _or_ smelt. Sow, sowed, sowing, sowed _or_ sown. Speed, sped _or_ speeded, speeding, sped _or_ speeded. Spell, spelled _or_ spelt, spelling, spelled _or_ spelt. Spill, spilled _or_ spilt, spilling, spilled _or_ spilt. Split, split _or_ splitted, splitting, split _or_ splitted.[294] Spoil, spoiled _or_ spoilt, spoiling, spoiled _or_ spoilt. Stave, stove _or_ staved, staving, stove _or_ staved. Stay, staid _or_ stayed, staying, staid _or_ stayed. String, strung _or_ stringed, stringing, strung _or_ stringed. Strive, strived _or_ strove, striving, strived _or_ striven. Strow, strowed, strowing, strowed _or_ strown. Sweat, sweated _or_ sweat, sweating, sweated _or_ sweat. Sweep, swept _or_ sweeped, sweeping, swept _or_ sweeped. Swell, swelled, swelling, swelled _or_ swollen. Thrive, thrived _or_ throve, thriving, thrived _or_ thriven. Throw, threw _or_ throwed, throwing, thrown _or_ throwed. Wake, waked _or_ woke, waking, waked _or_ woke. Wax, waxed, waxing, waxed _or_ waxen. Weave, wove _or_ weaved, weaving, woven _or_ weaved. Wed, wedded _or_ wed, wedding, wedded _or_ wed. Weep, wept _or_ weeped, weeping, wept _or_ weeped. Wet, wet _or_ wetted, wetting, wet _or_ wetted. Whet, whetted _or_ whet, whetting, whetted _or_ whet.[295] Wind, wound _or_ winded, winding, wound _or_ winded. Wont, wont _or_ wonted, wonting, wont _or_ wonted. Work, worked _or_ wrought, working, worked _or_ wrought. Wring, wringed _or_ wrung, wringing, wringed _or_ wrung.[296] DEFECTIVE VERBS. A _defective verb_ is a verb that forms no participles, and is used in but few of the moods and tenses; as, _beware, ought, quoth_. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. When any of the principal parts of a verb are wanting, the tenses usually derived from those parts are also, of course, wanting. All the auxiliaries, except _do, be_, and _have_, if we compare them with other verbs, are defective; but, _as auxiliaries_, they lack nothing; for no complete verb is used throughout as an auxiliary, except _be_. And since an auxiliary differs essentially from a principal verb, the propriety of referring _may, can, must_, and _shall_, to the class of defective verbs, is at least questionable. In parsing there is never any occasion to _call_ them defective verbs, because they are always taken together with their principals. And though we may technically say, that their participles are "_wanting_," it is manifest that none are _needed_. OBS. 2. _Will_ is sometimes used as a principal verb, and as such it is regular and complete; _will, willed, willing, willed_: as, "His Majesty _willed_ that they should attend."--_Clarendon_. "He _wills_ for them a happiness of a far more exalted and enduring nature."--_Gurney_. "Whether thou _willest_ it to be a minister to our pleasure."--_Harris_. "I _will_; be thou clean."--_Luke_, v, 13. "Nevertheless, not as I _will_, but as thou _will_."--_Matt._, xxvi, 39. "To _will_ is present with me."--_Rom._, vii, 18. But _would_ is sometimes also a principal verb; as, "What _would_ this man?"--_Pope_. "Would God that all the Lord's people were prophets."--_Numb._, xi, 29. "And Israel _would_ none of me."--_Psalm_, lxxxi, 11. If we refer this indefinite preterit to the same root, _will_ becomes redundant; _will, willed_ or _would, willing, willed_. In respect to time, _would_ is less definite than _willed_, though both are called preterits. It is common, and perhaps best, to consider them distinct verbs. The latter only can be a participle: as, "How rarely does it meet with this time's guise, When man was _will'd_ to love his enemies!"--_Shakspeare_. OBS. 3. The remaining defective verbs are only five or six questionable terms, which our grammarians know not well how else to explain; some of them being now nearly obsolete, and others never having been very proper. _Begone_ is a needless coalition of _be_ and _gone_, better written separately, unless Dr. Johnson is right in calling the compound an _interjection_: as, "Begone! the goddess cries with stern disdain, Begone! nor dare the hallow'd stream to stain!"--_Addison_. _Beware_ also seems to be a needless compound of _be_ and the old adjective _ware_, wary, aware, cautious. Both these are, of course, used only in those forms of expression in which _be_ is proper; as, "_Beware_ of dogs, _beware_ of evil workers, _beware_ of the concision."--_Philippians_, iii, 2. "But we _must beware_[297] of carrying our attention to this beauty too far."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 119. These words were formerly separated: as, "Of whom _be_ thou _ware_ also."--_1 Tim._, iv, 15. "They _were ware_ of it."--FRIENDS' BIBLE, and ALGER'S: _Acts_, xiii, 6. "They were _aware_ of it."--SCOTT'S BIBLE: ib. "And in an hour _that_ he is not _ware_ of him."--_Johnson's Dict., w. Ware_. "And in an hour that he is not _aware_ of."--COMMON BIBLES: _Matt._, xxiv, 50. "Bid her well _be ware_ and still erect."--MILTON: _in Johnson's Dict._ "That even Silence _was took_ ere she _was ware_."--_Id., Comus_, line 558. The adjective _ware_ is now said to be "_obsolete_;" but the propriety of this assertion depends upon that of forming such a defective verb. What is the use of doing so? "This to disclose is all thy guardian can; _Beware_ of all, but most _beware_ of man."--_Pope_. The words written separately will always have the same meaning, unless we omit the preposition _of_, and suppose the compound to be a _transitive_ verb. In this case, the argument for compounding the terms appears to be valid; as, "_Beware_ the public _laughter_ of the town; Thou springst a-leak already in thy crown."--_Dryden_. OBS. 4. The words _ought_ and _own_, without question, were originally parts of the redundant verb _to owe_; thus: _owe, owed_ or _ought, owing, owed_ or _own_. But both have long been disjoined from this connexion, and hence _owe_ has become regular. _Own_, as now used, is either a pronominal adjective, as, "my _own_ hand," or a regular verb thence derived, as, "to _own_ a house." _Ought_, under the name of a _defective verb_, is now generally thought to be properly used, in this one form, in all the persons and numbers of the present and the imperfect tense of the indicative and subjunctive moods. Or, if it is really of one tense only, it is plainly an aorist; and hence the time must be specified by the infinitive that follows: as, "He _ought_ to _go_; He _ought_ to _have gone_." "If thou _ought_ to _go_; If thou _ought_ to _have gone_." Being originally a preterit, it never occurs in the infinitive mood, and is entirely invariable, except in the solemn style, where we find _oughtest_ in both tenses; as, "How thou _oughtest_ to _behave_ thyself."--_1 Tim._, iii, 15. "Thou _oughtest_ therefore to _have put_ my money to the exchangers."--_Matt._, xxiv, 27. We never say, or have said, "He, she, or it, _oughts_ or _oughteth_." Yet we manifestly use this verb in the present tense, and in the third person singular; as, "Discourse _ought always to begin_ with a clear proposition."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 217. I have already observed that some grammarians improperly call _ought_ an auxiliary. The learned authors of Brightland's Grammar, (which is dedicated to Queen Anne,) did so; and also affirmed that _must_ and _ought_ "have only the _present time_," and are alike _invariable_. "It is _now_ quite obsolete to say, _thou oughtest_; for _ought_ now changes its ending no more than _must_."--_Brightland's Gram._, (approved by _Isaac Bickerstaff, Esq._,) p. 112. "_Do, will_, and _shall, must_, OUGHT, and _may_, _Have, am_, or _be_, this Doctrine will display."--_Ib._, p. 107. OBS. 5.--_Wis_, preterit _wist_, to know, to think, to suppose, to imagine, appears to be now nearly or quite obsolete; but it may be proper to explain it, because it is found in the Bible: as, "I _wist_ not, brethren, that he was the high priest."--_Acts_, xxiii, 5. "He himself '_wist_ not that his face shone.'"--_Life of Schiller_, p. iv. _Wit_, to know, and _wot_, knew, are also obsolete, except in the phrase _to wit_; which, being taken abstractly, is equivalent to the adverb _namely_, or to the phrase, _that is to say_. The phrase, "_we do you to wit_," (in 2 Cor., viii, 1st,) means, "we _inform_ you." Churchill gives the present tense of this verb three forms, _weet, wit_, and _wot_; and there seems to have been some authority for them all: as, "He was, _to weet_, a little roguish page."--_Thomson_. "But little _wotteth_ he the might of the means his folly despiseth."--_Tupper's Book of Thoughts_, p. 35. _To wit_, used alone, to indicate a thing spoken of, (as the French use their infinitive, _savoir, à savoir_, or the phrase, _c'est à savoir_,) is undoubtedly an elliptical expression: probably for, "_I give you to wit_;" i. e., "I give you _to know_." _Trow_, to think, occurs in the Bible; as, "I _trow_ not."--_N. Test_. And Coar gives it as a defective verb; and only in the first person singular of the present indicative, "_I trow_." Webster and Worcester mark the words as obsolete; but Sir W. Scott, in the Lady of the Lake, has this line: "Thinkst thou _he trow'd_ thine omen ought?"--_Canto_ iv, stanza 10. _Quoth_ and _quod_, for _say, saith_, or _said_, are obsolete, or used only in ludicrous language. Webster supposes these words to be equivalent, and each confined to the first and third persons of the present and imperfect tenses of the indicative mood. Johnson says, that, "_quoth you_," as used by Sidney, is irregular; but Tooke assures us, that "The _th_ in _quoth_, does not designate the third person."--_Diversions of Purley_, Vol. ii, p. 323. They are each invariable, and always placed before the nominative: as, _quoth I, quoth he_. "Yea, so sayst thou, (_quod_ Tröylus,) alas!"--_Chaucer_. "I feare, _quod_ he, it wyll not be."--_Sir T. More_. "Stranger, go! Heaven be thy guide! _Quod_ the beadsman of Nith-side."--_Burns_. OBS. 6.--_Methinks_, (i. e., _to_ me _it_ thinks,) for I think, or, it seems to me, with its preterit _methought_, (i. e., _to_ me _it_ thought,) is called by Dr. Johnson an "ungrammatical word." He imagined it to be "a Norman corruption, the French being apt to confound _me_ and _I_."--_Joh. Dict._ It is indeed a puzzling anomaly in our language, though not without some Anglo-Saxon or Latin parallels; and, like its kindred, "me _seemeth_," or "_meseems_," is little worthy to be countenanced, though often used by Dryden, Pope, Addison, and other good writers. Our lexicographers call it an _impersonal verb_, because, being compounded with an objective, it cannot have a nominative expressed. It is nearly equivalent to the adverb _apparently_; and if impersonal, it is also defective; for it has no participles, no "_methinking_," and no participial construction of "_methought_;" though Webster's American Dictionary, whether quarto or octavo, absurdly suggests that the latter word may be used as a participle. In the Bible, we find the following text: "_Me thinketh_ the running of the foremost is like the running of Ahimaaz."--_2 Sam._, xviii, 27. And Milton improperly makes _thought_ an impersonal verb, apparently governing the separate objective pronoun _him_; as, "_Him thought_ he by the brook of Cherith stood." --_P. R._, B. ii, l. 264. OBS. 7.--Some verbs from the nature of the subjects to which they refer, are chiefly confined to the third person singular; as, "It _rains_; it _snows_; it _freezes_; it _hails_; it _lightens_; it _thunders_." These have been called _impersonal verbs_; because the neuter pronoun it, which is commonly used before them, does not seem to represent any noun, but, in connexion with the verb, merely to express a state of things. They are however, in fact, neither impersonal nor defective. Some, or all of them, may possibly take some other nominative, if not a different person; as, "The _Lord rained_ upon Sodom, and upon Gomorrah, brimstone and fire."--_Gen._, xix, 24. "The _God_ of glory _thundereth_."--_Psalms_, xxix, 3. "_Canst thou thunder_ with a voice like him?"--_Job_, xl, 9. In short, as Harris observes, "The doctrine of Impersonal Verbs has been justly rejected by the best grammarians, both ancient and modern."--_Hermes_, p. 175. OBS. 8.--By some writers, words of this kind are called _Monopersonal Verbs_; that is, verbs of _one person_. This name, though not very properly compounded, is perhaps more fit than the other; but we have little occasion to speak of these verbs as a distinct class in our language. Dr. Murray says, "What is called an impersonal verb, is not so; for _lic-et, juv-at_, and _oport-et_, have _Tha, that thing_, or _it_, in their composition."--_History of European Languages_, Vol. ii, p. 146. _Ail, irk_, and _behoove_, are regular verbs and transitive; but they are used only in the third person singular: as, "What _ails_ you?"--"It _irks_ me."--"It _behooves_ you." The last two are obsolescent, or at least not in very common use. In Latin, _passive_ verbs, or neuters of the passive form, are often used impersonally, or without an obvious nominative; and this elliptical construction is sometimes imitated in English, especially by the poets: as, "Meanwhile, ere thus _was sinn'd_ and _judg'd_ on earth, Within the gates of Hell sat Sin and Death." --_Milton, P. L._, B. x, l. 230. "Forthwith on all sides to his aid _was run_ By angels many and strong, who interpos'd." --_Id._, B. vi, l. 335. LIST OF THE DEFECTIVE VERBS. _Present. Preterit._ Beware, ------ Can, could. May, might. Methinks, methought. Must, must.[298] Ought, ought.[298] Shall, should, Will[299] would. Quoth, quoth. Wis, wist.[300] Wit, wot. EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. PRAXIS VI--ETYMOLOGICAL. _In the Sixth Praxis, it is required of the pupil--to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the_ ARTICLES, NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, PRONOUNS, _and_ VERBS. _The definitions to be given in the Sixth Praxis, are two for an article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, six for a pronoun, seven for a verb finite, five for an infinitive, and one for a participle, an adverb, a conjunction, a preposition, or an interjection. Thus_:-- EXAMPLE PARSED. "The freedom of choice seems essential to happiness; because, properly speaking, that is riot our own which is imposed upon us."--_Dillwyn's Reflections_, p. 109. _The_ is the definite article. 1. An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The definite article is _the_, which denotes some particular thing or things. _Freedom_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb. _Of_ is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. _Choice_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is; the name of any person, place, or thing, that can he known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. _Seems_ is a regular neuter verb, from _seem, seemed, seeming, seemed_; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon. 2. A regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming _d_ or _ed_. 3. A neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither action nor passion, but simply being, or a state of being. 4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5. The present tense is that which expresses what now exists, or is taking place. 6. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one. _Essential_ is a common adjective, compared by means of the adverbs; _essential, more essential, most essential_; or, _essential, less essential, least essential_. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3. Those adjectives which may be varied in sense, but not in form, are compared by means of adverbs. _To_ is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. _Happiness_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. _Because_ is a conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected. _Properly_ is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. _Speaking_ is a participle. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding _ing, d_, or _ed_, to the verb. _That_ is a pronominal adjective, not compared; standing for _that thing_, in the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. [See OBS. 14th, p. 290.] 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A pronominal adjective is a definitive word which may either accompany its noun, or represent it understood. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb. _Is_ is an irregular neuter verb, from _be, was, being, been_; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon._ 2. An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming _d_ or _ed._ 3. A neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither action nor passion, but simply being, or a state of being. 4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5. The present tense is that which expresses what now exists, or is taking place. 6. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one. _Not_ is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. _Our_ is a personal pronoun, of the first person, plural number, masculine gender, and possessive case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. 3. The first person is that which denotes the speaker or writer. 4. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The possessive case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the relation of property. _Own_ is a pronominal adjective, not compared. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A pronominal adjective is a definitive word which may either accompany its noun, or represent it understood. 3. Those adjectives whose signification does not admit of different degrees cannot be compared. _Which_ is a relative pronoun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an antecedent word or phrase, and connects different clauses of a sentence. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb. _Is imposed_ is a regular passive verb, from the active verb, _impose, imposed, imposing, imposed_,--passive, _to be imposed_; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_. 2. A regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming _d_ or _ed_. 3. A passive verb is a verb that represents the subject, or what the nominative expresses, as being acted upon. 4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5. The present tense is that which expresses what now exists, or is taking place. 6. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one. _Upon_ is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. _Us_ is a personal pronoun, of the first person, plural number, masculine gender, and objective case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. 3. The first person is that which denotes the speaker or writer. 4. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. LESSON I.--PARSING. "He has desires after the kingdom, and mates no question but it shall be his; he wills, runs, strives, believes, hopes, prays, reads scriptures, observes duties, and regards ordinances."--_Penington_, ii, 124. "Wo unto you, lawyers! for ye have taken away the key of knowledge: ye enter not in yourselves, and them that were entering in ye hindered."--_Luke_, xi, 52. "Above all other liberties, give me the liberty to know, to utter, and to argue freely, according to my conscience."--_Milton_. "Eloquence is to be looked for only in free states. Longinus illustrates this observation with a great deal of beauty. 'Liberty,' he remarks, 'is the nurse of true genius; it animates the spirit, and invigorates the hopes, of men; it excites honourable emulation, and a desire of excelling in every art.'"--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 237. "None of the faculties common to man and the lower animals, conceive the idea of civil liberty, any more than that of religion."--_Spurzheim, on Education_, p. 259. "Whoever is not able, or does not dare, to think, or does not feel contradictions and absurdities, is unfit for a refined religion and civil liberty."--_Ib._, p. 258. "The too great number of journals, and the extreme partiality of their authors, have much discredited them. A man must have great talents to please all sorts of readers; and it is impossible to please all authors, who, generally speaking, cannot bear with the most judicious and most decent criticisms."--_Formey's Belles-Lettres_, p. 170. "Son of man, I have broken the arm of Pharaoh king of Egypt; and, lo, it shall not be bound up to be healed, to put a roller to bind it, to make it strong to hold the sword."--_Ezekiel_, xxx, 21. "Yet he was humble, kind, forgiving, meek, Easy to be entreated, gracious, mild; And, with all patience and affection, taught, Rebuked, persuaded, solaced, counselled, warned."--_Pollok_, B. ix. LESSON II.--PARSING. "What is coming, will come; what is proceeding onward, verges towards completion."--_Dr. Murray's Europ. Lang._, i, 324. "Sir, if it had not been for the art of printing, we should now have had no learning at all; for books would have perished faster than they could have been transcribed."--_Dr. Johnson's Life_, iii, 400. "Passionate reproofs are like medicines given scalding hot: the patient cannot take them. If we wish to do good to those whom we rebuke, we should labour for meekness of wisdom, and use soft words and hard arguments."--_Dodd_. "My prayer for you is, that God may guide you by his counsel, and in the end bring you to glory: to this purpose, attend diligently to the dictates of his good spirit, which you may hear within you; for Christ saith, 'He that dwelleth with you, shall be in you.' And, as you hear and obey him, he will conduct you through this troublous world, in ways of truth and righteousness, and land you at last in the habitations of everlasting rest and peace with the Lord, to praise him for ever and ever."--_T. Gwin_. "By matter, we mean, that which is tangible, extended, and divisible; by mind, that which perceives, reflects, wills, and reasons. These properties are wholly dissimilar and admit of no comparison. To pretend that mind is matter, is to propose a contradiction in terms; and is just as absurd, as to pretend that matter is mind."--_Gurney's Portable Evidence_, p. 78. "If any one should think all this to be of little importance, I desire him to consider what he would think, if vice had, essentially, and in its nature, these advantageous tendencies, or if virtue had essentially the direct contrary ones."--_Butler_, p. 99. "No man can write simpler and stronger English than the celebrated Boz, and this renders us the more annoyed at those manifold vulgarities and slipshod errors, which unhappily have of late years disfigured his productions."--LIVING AUTHORS OF ENGLAND: _The Examiner_, No. 119. "Here Havard, all serene, in the same strains, Loves, hates, and rages, triumphs, and complains."--_Churchill_, p. 3. "Let Satire, then, her proper object know, And ere she strike, be sure she strike a foe."--_John Brown_. LESSON III.--PARSING. "The Author of nature has as truly directed that vicious actions, considered as mischievous to society, should be punished, and has as clearly put mankind under a necessity of thus punishing them, as he has directed and necessitated us to preserve our lives by food."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 88. "An author may injure his works by altering, and even amending, the successive editions: the first impression sinks the deepest, and with the credulous it can rarely be effaced; nay, he will be vainly employed who endeavours to eradicate it."--_Werter_, p. 82. "It is well ordered, that even the most innocent blunder is not committed with impunity; because, were errors licensed where they do no hurt, inattention would grow into habit, and be the occasion of much hurt."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 285. "The force of language consists in raising complete images; which have the effect to transport the reader, as by magic, into the very place of the important action, and to convert him as it were into a spectator, beholding every thing that passes."--_Id., ib._, ii, 241. "An orator should not put forth all his strength at the beginning, but should rise and grow upon us, as his discourse advances."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 309. "When a talent is given to any one, an account is open with the giver of it, who appoints a day in which he will arrive and 'redemand his own with usury.'"--_West's Letters to a Young Lady_, p. 74. "Go, and reclaim the sinner, instruct the ignorant, soften the obdurate, and (as occasion shall demand) cheer, depress, repel, allure, disturb, assuage, console, or terrify."--_Jerningham's Essay on Eloquence_, p. 97. "If all the year were playing holydays, To sport would be as tedious as to work: But when they seldom come, they wish'd-for come, And nothing pleaseth but rare accidents." --_Shak., Hen. V_. "The man that once did sell the lion's skin While the beast liv'd, was kill'd with hunting him." --_Id., Joh. Dict., w. Beast_. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. ERRORS OF VERBS. LESSON I.--PRETERITS. "In speaking on a matter which toucht their hearts."--_Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 441. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the verb _toucht_ is terminated in _t_. But, according to Observation 2nd, on the irregular verbs, _touch_ is regular. Therefore, this _t_ should be changed to _ed_; thus, "In speaking on a matter which _touched_ their hearts."] "Though Horace publisht it some time after."--_Ib._, i, 444. "The best subjects with which the Greek models furnisht him."--_Ib._, i, 444. "Since he attacht no thought to it."--_Ib._, i, 645. "By what slow steps the Greek alphabet reacht its perfection."--_Ib._, i, 651. "Because Goethe wisht to erect an affectionate memorial."--_Ib._, i, 469. "But the Saxon forms soon dropt away."--_Ib._, i, 668. "It speaks of all the towns that perisht in the age of Philip."--_Ib._, i, 252. "This enricht the written language with new words."--_Ib._, i, 668. "He merely furnisht his friend with matter for laughter."--_Ib._, i, 479. "A cloud arose and stopt the light."--_Swift's Poems_, p. 313. "She slipt _zpadillo_ in her breast."--_Ib._, p. 371. "I guest the hand."--_Ib._, p. 372. "The tyrant stript me to the skin: My skin he flay'd, my hair he cropt; At head and foot my body lopt."--_Ib., On a Pen_, p. 338. "I see the greatest owls in you, That ever screecht or ever flew."--_Ib._, p. 403. "I sate with delight, from morning till night."--_Ib._, p. 367. "Dick nimbly skipt the gutter."--_Ib._, p. 375. "In at the pantry door this morn I slipt."--_Ib._, p. 369. "Nobody living ever toucht me but you."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 92. "_Present_, I ship; _Past_, I shipped or shipt; _Participle_, shipped or shipt."--_Murray the schoolmaster. Gram._, p. 31. "Then the king arose, and tare his garments."--_2 Sam._, xiii, 31. "When he lift up his foot, he knew not where he should set it next."--_Bunyan_. "He lift up his spear against eight hundred, whom he slew at one time."--2 SAM.: _in Joh. Dict._ "Upon this chaos rid the distressed ark."--BURNET: _ib._ "On whose foolish honesty, my practices rid easy."--SHAK.: _ib._ "That form of the first or primogenial Earth, which rise immediately out of chaos."--BURNET: _ib._ "Sir, how come it you have holp to make this rescue?"--SHAK.: _in Joh. Dict._ "He sware he had rather lose all his father's images than that table."--PEACHAM: _ib._ "When our language dropt its ancient terminations."--_Dr. Murray's Hist._, ii, 5. "When themselves they vilify'd."--_Milton_, P. L., xi, 515. "But I choosed rather to do thus."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 456. "When he plead against the parsons."-- _School History_, p. 168. "And he that saw it, bear record."--_Cutler's Gram._, p. 72. "An irregular verb has one more variation, as drive, drivest, drives, drivedst, drove, driving, driven."--REV. MATT. HARRISON, _on the English Language_, p. 260. "Beside that village Hannibal pitcht his camp."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 79. "He fetcht it even from Tmolus."-- _Ib._, p. 114. "He supt with his morning gown on."--_Ib._, p. 285. "There stampt her sacred name."--_Barlow's Columbiad_, B. i, l. 233. "Fixt on the view the great discoverer stood, And thus addrest the messenger of good."--_Barlow_, B, i, l. 658. LESSON II.--MIXED. "Three freemen were being tried at the date of our last information."--_Newspaper_. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the participle _being_ is used after its own verb _were_. But, according to Observation 4th, on the compound form of the conjugation, this complex passive form is an absurd innovation. Therefore, the expression should be changed; thus, "Three freemen _were on trial_"--or, "_were receiving their trial_--at the date of our last information."] "While the house was being built, many of the tribe arrived."--_Ross Cox's Travels_, p. 102. "But a foundation has been laid in Zion, and the church is being built upon it."--_The Friend_, ix, 377. "And one fourth of the people are being educated."--_East India Magazine_. "The present, or that which is now being done."--_Beck's Gram._, p. 13. "A new church, called the Pantheon, is just being completed in an expensive style."--_G. A. Thompson's Guatemala_, p. 467. "When I last saw him, he was grown considerably."--_Murray's Key_, p. 223; _Merchants_, 198. "I know what a rugged and dangerous path I am got into."--_Duncan's Cicero_, p. 83. "You were as good preach case to one on the rack."--_Locke's Essay_, p. 285. "Thou hast heard me, and art become my salvation."--_Psal._, cxviii, 21. "While the Elementary Spelling-Book was being prepared for the press."--_L. Cobb's Review_, p. vi. "Language is become, in modern times, more correct and accurate."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 16. "If the plan have been executed in any measure answerable to the author's wishes."--_Robbins's Hist._, p. 3. "The vial of wrath is still being poured out on the seat of the beast."--_Christian Experience_, p. 409. "Christianity was become the generally adopted and established religion of the whole Roman Empire."--_Gurney's Essays_, p. 35. "Who wrote before the first century was elapsed."--_Ib._, p. 13. "The original and analogical form is grown quite obsolete."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 56. "Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, are perished."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 149. "The poems were got abroad and in a great many hands."--_Pref. to Waller_. "It is more harmonious, as well as more correct, to say, 'the bubble is almost bursted.'"--_Cobbett's E. Gram._, ¶ 109. "I drave my suitor from his mad humour of love."--_Shak_. "Se viriliter expedivit. (_Cicero_.) He hath plaid the man."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 214. "Wilt thou kill me, as thou diddest the Egyptian yesterday."--FRIENDS' BIBLE: _Acts_, vii, 28. "And we, methoughts, look'd up t'him from our hill."--_Cowley's Davideis_, B. iii, l. 386. "I fear thou doest not think as much of best things as thou oughtest."--_Memoir of M. C. Thomas_, p. 34. "When this work was being commenced."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 10. "Exercises and Key to this work are being prepared."--_Ib._, p. 12. "James is loved, or being loved by John."--_Ib._, p. 64. "Or that which is being exhibited."--_Ib._, p. 77. "He was being smitten."--_Ib._, p. 78. "In the passive state we say, 'I am being loved.'"--_Ib._, p. 80. "Subjunctive Mood: If I am being smitten, If thou art being smitten, If he is being smitten."--_Ib._, p. 100. "I will not be able to convince you how superficial the reformation is."--_Chalmers's Sermons_, p. 88. "I said to myself, I will be obliged to expose the folly."--_Chazotte's Essay_, p. 3. "When Clodius, had he meant to return that day to Rome, must have been arrived."--_Adams's Rhetoric_, i, 418. "That the fact has been done, is being done, or shall or will be done."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, pp. 347 and 356. "Am I being instructed?"--_Wright's Gram._, p. 70. "I am choosing him."--_Ib._, p. 112. "John, who was respecting his father, was obedient to his commands."--_Barrett's Revised Gram._, p. 69. "The region echos to the clash of arms."--_Beattie's Poems_, p. 63. "And sitt'st on high, and mak'st creation's top Thy footstool; and behold'st below thee, all." --_Pollok_, B. vi, l. 663. "And see if thou can'st punish sin, and let Mankind go free. Thou fail'st--be not surprised." --_Id._, B. ii, l. 118. LESSON III.--MIXED. "What follows, had better been wanting altogether."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 201. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the phrase _had better been_, is used in the sense of the potential pluperfect. But, according to Observation 17th, on the conjugations, this substitution of one form for another is of questionable propriety. Therefore, the regular form should here be preferred; thus, "What follows, _might better have been_ wanting altogether."] "This member of the sentence had much better have been omitted altogether."--_Ib._, p. 212. "One or [the] other of them, therefore, had better have been omitted."--_Ib._, p. 212. "The whole of this last member of the sentence had better have been dropped."--_Ib._, p. 112. "In this case, they had much better be omitted."--_Ib._, p. 173. "He had better have said, 'the _productions_'"--_Ib._, p. 220. "The Greeks have ascribed the origin of poetry to Orpheus, Linus, and Musæus."--_Ib._, p. 377. "It has been noticed long ago, that all these fictitious names have the same number of syllables."--_Phil. Museum_, i, 471. "When I found that he had committed nothing worthy of death, I have determined to send him."--_Acts_, xxv, 25. "I had rather be a door-keeper in the house of my God."--_Ps._, lxxxiv, 10. "As for such, I wish the Lord open their eyes."--_Barclay's Works_, iii. 263. "It would a made our passidge over the river very difficult."-- _Walley, in_ 1692. "We should not a been able to have carried our great guns."--_Id._ "Others would a questioned our prudence, if wee had."--_Id._ See _Hutchinson's Hist. of Mass._, i, 478. "Beware thou bee'st not BEC�SAR'D; i.e. Beware that thou dost not dwindle into a mere Cæsar."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 183. "Thou raisedest thy voice to record the stratagems of needy heroes."--ARBUTHNOT: _in Joh. Dict., w. Scalade_. "Life hurrys off apace: thine is almost up already."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 19. "'How unfortunate has this accident made me!' crys such a one."--_Ib._, p. 60. "The muse that soft and sickly wooes the ear."--_Pollok_, i, 13. "A man were better relate himself to a statue."--_Bacon._ "I heard thee say but now, thou lik'dst not that."--_Shak._ "In my whole course of wooing, thou cried'st, _Indeed!_"--_Id._ "But our ears are grown familiar with _I have wrote, I have drank_, &c., which are altogether as ungrammatical."-- _Lowth's Gram._, p. 63; _Churchill's_, 114. "The court was sat before Sir Roger came."--_Addison, Spect._, No. 122. "She need be no more with the jaundice possest."--_Swift's Poems_, p. 346. "Besides, you found fault with our victuals one day that you was here."--_Ib._, p. 333. "If spirit of other sort, So minded, have o'erleap'd these earthy bounds."--_Milton, P. L._, B. iv, l. 582. "It should have been more rational to have forborn this."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. iii, p. 265. "A student is not master of it till he have seen all these."--_Dr. Murray's Life_, p. 55. "The said justice shall summons the party."--_Brevard's Digest._ "Now what is become of thy former wit and humour?"--_Spect._, No. 532. "Young stranger, whither wand'rest thou?"--_Burns_, p. 29. "SUBJ.: _Pres._ If I love, If thou lovest, If he love. _Imp._ If I loved, If thou lovedst, If he loved."--_Merchant's Gram._, p. 51. "SUBJ.: If I do not love, If thou dost not love, If he does not love;" &c.--_Ib._, p. 56. "If he have committed sins, they shall be forgiven him."--_James_, v, 15. "Subjunctive Mood of the verb _to call_, second person singular: If Thou callest. If Thou calledst. If Thou hast called. If Thou hadst called. If Thou call. If Thou shalt or wilt have called."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 41. "Subjunctive Mood of the verb _to love_, second person singular: If thou love. If thou do love. If thou lovedst. If thou didst love. If thou hast loved. If thou hadst loved. If thou shalt or wilt love. If thou shalt or wilt have loved."--_Bullions's E. Gram._, p. 46. "I was; thou wast, or you was; he, she, or it was: We, you or ye, they, were."--_White, on the English Verb_, p. 51. "I taught, thou taughtedst, he taught."--_Coar's English Gram._, p. 66. "We say, _if it rains, suppose it rains_, lest _it should rain_, unless _it rains_. This manner of speaking is called the SUBJUNCTIVE mode."--_Weld's Gram._, 2d Ed., p. 72; Abridged Ed., 59. "He is arrived at what is deemed the age of manhood."--_Priestley's Gram._, 163. "He had much better have let it alone."--_Tooke's Diversions_, i, 43. "He were better be without it."--_Locke, on Education_, p. 105. "Hadest not thou been by."--_Beauties of Shak._, p. 107. "I learned geography. Thou learnedest arithmetick. He learned grammar."--_Fuller's Gram._, p. 34. "Till the sound is ceased."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 126. "Present, die; Preterit, died; Perf. Participle, dead."--_British Gram._, p. 158; _Buchanan's_, 58; _Priestley's_, 48; _Ash's_, 45; _Fisher's_, 71; _Bicknell's_, 73. "Thou bowed'st thy glorious head to none, feared'st none." --_Pollok_, B. viii, l. 603. "Thou look'st upon thy boy as though thou guessedst it." --_N. A. Reader_, p. 320. "As once thou slept'st, while she to life was form'd" --_Milt., P. L._, B. xi, l. 369. "Who finds the partridge in the puttock's nest, But may imagine how the bird was dead?" --SHAK.: _Joh. Dict._ "Which might have well becom'd the best of men." --_Id., Ant. and Cleop._ CHAPTER VII.--PARTICIPLES. A Participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding _ing, d_, or _ed_, to the verb: thus, from the verb _rule_, are formed three participles, two simple and one compound; as, 1. _ruling_, 2. _ruled_, 3. _having ruled_. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--Almost all verbs and participles seem to have their very essence in _motion_, or _the privation of motion_--in _acting_, or _ceasing to act_. And to all motion and rest, _time_ and _place_ are necessary concomitants; nor are the ideas of _degree_ and _manner_ often irrelevant. Hence the use of _tenses_ and of _adverbs_. For whatsoever comes to pass, must come to pass _sometime_ and _somewhere_; and, in every event, something must be affected _somewhat_ and _somehow_. Hence it is evident that those grammarians are right, who say, that "_all participles imply time_." But it does not follow, that the _English_ participles _divide_ time, like the tenses of a verb, and _specify_ the period of action; on the contrary, it is certain and manifest, that they do not. The phrase, "_men labouring_," conveys no other idea than that of _labourers at work_; it no more suggests the _time_, than the _place, degree_, or _manner_, of their work. All these circumstances require _other words_ to express them; as, "Men _now here awkwardly_ labouring _much_ to little purpose." Again: "_Thenceforward_ will men, _there_ labouring _hard_ and _honourably_, be looked down upon by dronish lordlings." OBS. 2.--Participles retain the _essential meaning_ of their verbs; and, _like verbs_, are either _active-transitive, active-intransitive, passive_, or _neuter_, in their signification. For this reason, many have classed them with the verbs. But their _formal meaning_ is obviously different. They convey no affirmation, but usually relate to nouns or pronouns, _like adjectives_, except when they are joined with auxiliaries to form the compound tenses of their verbs; or when they have in part the nature of substantives, like the Latin gerunds. Hence some have injudiciously ranked them with the adjectives. The most discreet writers have commonly assigned them a separate place among the parts of speech; because, in spite of all opposite usages, experience has shown that it is expedient to do so. OBS. 3.--According to the doctrine of Harris, all words denoting the _attributes_ of things, are either verbs, or participles, or adjectives. Some attributes have their essence in motion: as, _to walk, to run, to fly, to strike, to live_; or, _walking, running, flying, striking, living_. Others have it in the privation of motion: as, _to stop, to rest, to cease, to die_; or, _stopping, resting, ceasing, dying_. And there are others which have nothing to do with either motion or its privation; but have their essence in the quantity, quality, or situation of things; as, _great_ and _small, white_ and _black, wise_ and _foolish, eastern_ and _western_. These last terms are adjectives; and those which denote motion or its privation, are either verbs or participles, according to their formal meaning; that is, according to their manner of attribution. See _Hermes_, p. 95. Verbs commonly say or affirm something of their subjects; as, "_The babe wept_." Participles suggest the action or attribute without affirmation; as, "_A babe weeping_,"--"_An act regretted_." OBS. 4.--A verb, then, being expressive of some attribute, which it ascribes to the thing or person named as its subject; of time, which it divides and specifies by the tenses; and also, (with the exception of the infinitive,) of an assertion or affirmation; if we take away the affirmation and the distinction of tenses, there will remain the attribute and the general notion of time; and these form the essence of an English participle. So that a participle is something less than a verb, though derived immediately from it; and something more than an adjective, or mere attribute, though its manner of attribution is commonly the same. Hence, though the participle by rejecting the idea of time may pass almost insensibly into an adjective, and become truly a participial adjective; yet the participle and the adjective are by no means one and the same part of speech, as some will have them to be. There is always an essential difference in their meaning. For instance: there is a difference between _a thinking man_ and _a man thinking_; between _a bragging fellow_ and _a fellow bragging_; between _a fast-sailing ship_ and _a ship sailing fast_. A thinking man, a bragging fellow, or a fast-sailing ship, is contemplated as being habitually or permanently such; a man thinking, a fellow bragging, or a ship sailing fast, is contemplated as performing a particular act; and this must embrace a period of _time_, whether that time be specified or not. John Locke was a _thinking man_; but we should directly contradict his own doctrine, to suppose him _always thinking_. OBS. 5.--The English participles are all derived from the _roots_ of their respective verbs, and do not, like those of some other languages, take their names from the _tenses_. On the contrary, they are reckoned among the principal parts in the conjugation of their verbs, and many of the tenses are formed from them. In the compound forms of conjugation, they are found alike _in all the tenses_. They do not therefore, of themselves, express any particular time; but they denote the state of the being, action, or passion, in regard to its progress or completion. This I conceive to be their principal distinction. Respecting the participles in _Latin_, it has been matter of dispute, whether those which are called the _present_ and the _perfect_, are really so in respect to time or not. Sanctius denies it. In _Greek_, the distinction of tenses in the participles is more apparent, yet even here the time to which they refer, does not always correspond to their names. See remarks on the Participles in the _Port Royal Latin and Greek Grammars_. OBS. 6.--Horne Tooke supposes our participles in _ed_ to express time past, and those in _ing_ to have no signification of time. He says, "I did not mean to deny the adsignification of time to _all_ the participles; though I continue to withhold it from that which is called the _participle present_."--_Diversions of Purley_, Vol. ii, p. 415. Upon the same point, he afterwards adds, "I am neither new nor singular; for Sanctius both asserted and proved it by numerous instances in the Latin. Such as, 'Et _abfui proficiscens_ in Græciam.' _Cicero_. 'Sed postquam amans _accessit_ pretium _pollicens_.' _Terent_. 'Ultro ad cam _venies indicans_ te amare.' _Terent_. 'Turnum _fugientem_ hæc terra videbit.' _Virg_."--_Tooke's Div._, ii, 420. Again: "And thus I have given you my opinion concerning what is called the _present participle_. Which I think improperly so called; because I take it to be merely the simple verb _adjectived_, without any adsignification of _manner_ or _time_."--_Tooke's Div._, Vol. ii, p. 423. OBS. 7.--I do not agree with this author, either in limiting participles in _ed_ to time past, or in denying all signification of time to those in _ing_; but I admit that what is commonly called the _present participle_, is not very properly so denominated, either in English or in Latin, or perhaps in any language. With us, however, this participle is certainly, in very many instances, something else than "merely the simple verb _adjectived_." For, in the first place, it is often of a complex character, as _being loved, being seen_, in which two verbs are "_adjectived_" together, and that by different terminations. Yet do these words as perfectly coalesce in respect to time, as to everything else; and _being loved_ or _being seen_ is confessedly as much a "_present_" participle, as _being_, or _loving_, or _seeing_--neither form being solely confined to what now is. Again, our participle in _ing_ stands not only for the present participle of the Latin or Greek grammarians, but also for the Latin gerund, and often for the Greek infinitive used substantively; so that by this ending, the English verb is not only _adjectived_, but also _substantived_, if one may so speak. For the participle when governed by a preposition, partakes not of the qualities "of a verb and an _adjective_," but rather of those of a verb and a _noun_. CLASSES. English verbs, not defective, have severally three participles;[301] which have been very variously denominated, perhaps the most accurately thus: the _Imperfect_, the _Perfect_, and the _Preperfect_. Or, as their order is undisputed, they may he conveniently called the _First_, the _Second_, and the _Third_. I. The _Imperfect participle_ is that which ends commonly in _ing_, and implies a continuance of the being, action, or passion: as, _being, acting, ruling, loving, defending, terminating_. II. The _Perfect participle_ is that which ends commonly in _ed_ or _en_, and implies a _completion_ of the being, action, or passion: as, _been, acted, ruled, loved, defended, terminated_. III. The _Preperfect participle_ is that which takes the sign _having_, and implies a _previous completion_ of the being, action, or passion: as, _having loved, having seen, having written; having been loved, having been writing, having been written_. The _First_ or _Imperfect_ Participle, when simple, is always formed by adding _ing_ to the radical verb; as, _look, looking_: when compound, it is formed by prefixing _being_ to some other simple participle; as, _being reading, being read, being completed_. The _Second_ or _Perfect_ Participle is always simple, and is regularly formed by adding _d_ or _ed_ to the radical verb: those verbs from which it is formed otherwise, are either irregular or redundant. The _Third_ or _Preperfect_ Participle is always compound, and is formed by prefixing _having_ to the perfect, when the compound is double, and _having been_ to the perfect or the imperfect, when the compound is triple: as, _having spoken, having been spoken, having been speaking_. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--Some have supposed that both the simple participles denote present _time_; some have supposed that the one denotes present, and the other, past time; some have supposed that the first denotes no time, and the second time past; some have supposed that neither has any regard to time; and some have supposed that both are of _all_ times. In regard to the distinction of _voice_, or the manner of their signification, some have supposed the one to be active, and the other to be passive; some have supposed the participle in _ing_ to be active or neuter, and the other active or passive; and some have supposed that either of them may be active, passive, or neuter. Nor is there any more unanimity among grammarians, in respect to the compounds. Hence several different names have been loosely given to each of the participles: and sometimes with manifest impropriety; as when Buchanan, in his conjugations, calls _being_, "Active,"--and _been, having been, having had_, "Passive." Learned men may differ in opinion respecting the nature of words, but grammar can never well deserve the name of _science_, till at least an ordinary share of reason and knowledge appears in the language of those who teach it. OBS. 2.--The FIRST participle has been called the Present, the Progressive, the Imperfect, the Simple Imperfect, the Indefinite, the Active, the Present Active, the Present Passive, the Present Neuter, and, in the passive voice, the Preterimperfcct, the Compound Imperfect, the Compound Passive, the Passive. The SECOND, which, though it is always but _one word_, some authors treat as being _two participles_, or _three_, has been called the Perfect, the Preter, the Preterperfect, the Imperfect, the Simple Perfect, the Past, the Simple Past, the First Past, the Preterit, the Passive, the Present Passive, the Perfect Active, the Past Active, the Auxiliary Perfect, the Perfect Passive, the Perfect Neuter, the Simple Perfect Active, the Simple Perfect Passive. The THIRD has been called the Compound, the Compound Active, the Compound Passive, the Compound Perfect, the Compound Perfect Active, the Compound Perfect Passive, the Compound Preter, the Present, the Present Perfect, the Past, the Second Past, the Past Compound, the Compound Past, the Prior-perfect, the Prior-present, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, the Preterperfect, the Preperfect.[302] In teaching others to speak and write well, it becomes us to express our doctrines in the most suitable terms; but the application of a name is of no great consequence, so that the thing itself be rightly understood by the learner. Grammar should be taught in a style at once neat and plain, clear and brief. Upon the choice of his terms, the writer of this work has bestowed much reflection; yet he finds it impossible either to please everybody, or to explain, without intolerable prolixity, all the reasons for preference. OBS. 3.--The participle in _ing_ represents the action or state as _continuing_ and ever _incomplete_; it is therefore rightly termed the IMPERFECT participle: whereas the participle in _ed_ always, or at least usually, has reference to the action as _done_ and _complete_; and is, by proper contradistinction, called the PERFECT participle. It is hardly necessary to add, that the terms _perfect_ and _imperfect_, as thus applied to the English participles, have no reference to _time_, or to those _tenses_ of the verb which are usually (but not very accurately) named by these epithets. The terms _present_ and _past_, which some still prefer to _imperfect_ and _perfect_, do denote _time_, and are in a kind of oblique contradistinction; but how well they apply to the participles, may be seen by the following texts: "God _was_ in Christ, _reconciling_ the world unto himself."--"We pray you in Christ's stead, _be_ ye _reconciled_ to God."--ST. PAUL: _2 Cor._, v, 19, 20. Here _reconciling_ refers to the death of Christ, and _reconciled_, to the desired conversion of the Corinthians; and if we call the former a _present_ participle, and the latter a _past_, (as do Bullions, Burn, Clark, Felton, S. S. Greene, Lennie, Pinneo, and perhaps others,) we nominally reverse the order of time in respect to the events, and egregiously misapply both terms. OBS. 4.--Though the participle in _ing_ has, by many, been called the _Present_ participle, it is as applicable to past or future, as to present time; otherwise, such expressions as, "I _had been writing_,"--"I _shall be writing_," would be solecisms. It has also been called, almost as frequently, the _Active_ participle. But it is not always active, even when derived from an active verb; for such expressions as, "The goods are _selling_,"--"The ships are now _building_," are in use, and not without good authority: as, "And hope to allay, by rational discourse, the pains of his joints _tearing_ asunder."--_Locke's Essay_, p. 285. "Insensible of the designs now _forming_ by Philip."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, ii, 48. "The improved edition now _publishing_."--BP. HALIFAX: _Pref. to Butler_. "The present tense expresses an action now _doing_."--_Emmons's Gram._, p. 40. The distinguishing characteristic of this participle is, that it denotes an unfinished and progressive state of the being, action, or passion; it is therefore properly denominated the IMPERFECT participle. If the term were applied with reference to _time_, it would be no more objectionable than the word _present_, and would be equally supported by the usage of the _Greek_ linguists. I am no more inclined to "_innovation_," than are the pedants who, for the choice here made, have ignorantly brought the false charge against me. This name, authorized by Beattie and Pickbourn, is approved by Lindley Murray,[303] and adopted by several of the more recent grammarians. See the works of Dr. Crombie, J. Grant, T. O. Churchill, R. Hiley, B. H. Smart, M. Harrison, and W. G. Lewis, published in London; and J. M. M'Culloch's Grammar, published in Edinburgh; also some American grammars, as E. Hazen's, N. Butler's, D. B. Tower's, W. H. Wells's, the Sanderses'. OBS. 5.--The participle in _ed_, as is mentioned above, usually denotes a _completion_ of the being, action, or passion, and should therefore be denominated the PERFECT participle. But this completion may be spoken of as present, past, or future; for the participle itself has no tenses, and makes no distinction of time, nor should the name be supposed to refer to the perfect tense. The conjugation of any passive verb, is a sufficient proof of all this: nor is the proof invalidated by resolving verbs of this kind into their component parts. Of the participles in _ed_ applied to _present_ time, the following is an example: "Such a course would be less likely to produce injury to health, than the _present course pursued_ at our colleges."--_Literary Convention_, p. 118. Tooke's notion of grammatical time, appears to have been in several respects a strange one: he accords with those who call this a _past_ participle, and denies to the other not only the name and notion of _a tense_, but even the _general idea_ of time. In speaking of the old participial termination _and_ or _ende_,[304] which our Anglo-Saxon ancestors used where we write _ing_, he says, "I do not allow that there are any _present_ participles, or any _present tense_ of the verb." [305]--_Diversions of Purley_, Vol. ii, p. 41. OBS. 6.--The _Perfect_ participle of transitive verbs, being used in the formation of passive verbs, is sometimes called the _Passive_ participle. It usually has in itself a passive signification, except when it is used in forming the compound tenses of the active verb. Hence the difference between the sentences, "I have written a letter," and, "I have a letter written;" the former being equivalent to _Scripsi literas_, and the latter to _Sunt mihi literæ scriptæ_. But there are many perfect participles which cannot with any propriety be called passive. Such are all those which come from intransitive or neuter verbs; and also those which so often occur in the tenses of verbs not passive. I have already noticed some instances of this misnomer; and it is better to preclude it altogether, by adhering to the true name of this Participle, THE PERFECT. Nor is that entirely true which some assert, "that this participle in the _active_ is only found in combination;" that, "Whenever it stands alone to be parsed as a participle, it is passive."--_Hart's English Gram._, p. 75. See also _Bullions's Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, p. 77; and _Greene's Analysis, or Gram._, p. 225. "Rebelled," in the following examples, cannot with any propriety be called a _passive_ participle: "_Rebelled_, did I not send them terms of peace, Which not my justice, but my mercy asked?"--_Pollok_, x, 253. "Arm'd with thy might, rid Heav'n of these _rebell'd_, To their prepar'd ill mansion driven down."--_Milton_, vi, 737. OBS. 7.--The third participle has most generally been called the _Compound_, or the _Compound perfect_. The latter of these terms seems to be rather objectionable on account of its length; and against the former it may be urged that, in the compound forms of conjugation, the first or imperfect participle is a compound: as, _being writing, being seen_. Dr. Adam calls _having loved_ the _perfect_ participle _active_, which he says must be rendered in Latin by the _pluperfect_ of the subjunctive; as, he having loved, _quum amavisset_; (_Lat. and Eng. Gram._, p. 140;) but it is manifest that the perfect participle of the verb _to love_, whether active or passive, is the simple word _loved_, and not this compound. Dr. Adam, in fact, if he denies this, only contradicts himself; for, in his paradigms of the English Active Voice, he gives the participles as two only, and both simple, thus: "_Present_, Loving; _Perfect_, Loved:"--"_Present_, Having; _Perfect_, Had." So of the Neuter Verb: "_Present_, Being; _Perfect_, Been."--_Ib._, pp. 81 and 82. His scheme of either names or forms is no model of accuracy. On the very next page, unless there is a misprint in several editions, he calls the _Second_ participle the "_imperfect_;" saying, "The whole of the passive voice in English is formed by the auxiliary verb _to be_, and the participle _imperfect_; as, _I am loved, I was loved, &c_." Further: "In many verbs," he adds, "the _present_ participle also is used in a passive sense; as, _These things are doing, were doing_, &c.; _The house is building, was building_, &c."--_Ib._, p. 83. N. Butler, in his Practical Grammar, of 1845, names, and counts, and orders, the participles very oddly: "Every verb," he says, "has _two_ participles--the _imperfect_ and the _perfect_."--P. 78. Yet, for the verb _love_, he finds these six: two "IMPERFECT, _Loving_ and _Being loved_;" two "PERFECT, _Having loved_, and _Having been loved_;" one "AUXILIARY PERFECT, _Loved_," of the "_Active Voice_;" and one "PASSIVE, _Loved_," of the "_Passive Voice_." Many old writers erroneously represent the participle in _ing_ as always active, and the participle in _ed_ or _en_ as always passive; and some, among whom is Buchanan, making no distinction between the simple perfect _loved_ and the compound _having loved_, place the latter with the former, and call it passive also. The absurdity of this is manifest: for _having loved_ or _having seen_ is active; _having been_ or _having sat_ is neuter; and _having been loved_ or _having been seen_ is passive. Again, the triple compound, _having been writing_, is active; and _having been sitting_ is neuter; but if one speak of goods as _having been selling_ low, a similar compound is passive. OBS. 8.--Now all the compound participles which begin with _having_ are essentially alike; and, as a class of terms, they ought to have a name adapted to their nature, and expressive of their leading characteristic. _Having loved_ differs from the simple participle _loved_, in signification as well as in form; and, if this participle is to be named with reference to its _meaning_, there is no more suitable term for it than the epithet PREPERFECT,--a word which explains itself, like _prepaid_ or _prerequisite_. Of the many other names, the most correct one is PLUPERFECT,--which is a term of very nearly the same meaning. Not because this compound is really of the pluperfect _tense_, but because it always denotes being, action, or passion, that is, or was, or will be, _completed before_ the doing or being of something else; and, of course, when the latter thing is represented as past, the participle must correspond to the pluperfect tense of its verb; as, "_Having explained_ her views, it was necessary she should expatiate on the vanity and futility of the enjoyments promised by Pleasure."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 181. Here _having explained_ is exactly equivalent to _when she had explained_. Again: "I may say, _He had commanded_, and we obeyed; or, _He having commanded_, we obeyed."--_Fetch's Comprehensive Gram._, p. ix. Here the two phrases in Italics correspond in import, though not in construction. OBS. 9.--_Pluperfect_ is a derivative contracted from the Latin _plusquam-perfectum_, and literally signifies _more than complete_, or _beyond the perfect_; i. e., (as confirmed by use,) _antecedently finished_, or _completed before_. It is the usual name of our fourth tense; is likewise applicable to a corresponding tense in other tongues; and is a word familiar to every scholar. Yet several grammarians,--too ready, perhaps, for innovation,--have shown their willingness to discard it altogether. Bullions, Butler, Hiley, Perley, Wells, and some others, call the English _pluperfect tense_, the _past-perfect_, and understand either epithet to mean--"_completed at or before_ a certain _past_ time;" (_Bullions's E. Gram._, p. 39;) that is--"_finished or past, at_ some _past_ time."--_Butler's Pract. Gram._, p. 72. The relation of the _tense_ is _before the past_, but the epithet _pluperfect_ is not necessarily limited to this relation, any more than what is _perfect_ is necessarily past. Butler has urged, that, "_Pluperfect_ does not mean _completed before_," but is only "a technical name of a particular tense;" and, arguing from this erroneous assumption, has convinced himself, "It would be as correct to call this the _second future_ participle, as the _pluperfect_."--_Ib._, p. 79. The technical name, as limited to the past, is _preterpluperfect_, from the older term _præteritum plusquam perfectum_; so _preterperfect_, from _præteritum perfectum_, i. e. _past perfect_, is the name of an _other_ tense, now called the _perfect_: wherefore the substitution of _past-perfect_ for _pluperfect_ is the less to be commended. There may be a convenience in having the name of the tense to differ from that of the participle, and this alone induces me to prefer _preperfect_ to _pluperfect_ for the name of the latter. OBS. 10.--From the participle in _ed_ or _en_, we form three tenses, which the above-named authors call _perfect_;--"the _present-perfect_, the _past-perfect_, and the _future-perfect_;"--as, _have seen, had seen, will have seen_. Now it is, doubtless, the _participle_, that gives to these their _perfectness_; while diversity in the auxiliaries makes their difference of time. Yet it is assumed by Butler, that, in general, the simple participle in _ed_ or _en_, "does not denote an action _done_ and _completed_," and is not to be called _perfect_; (p. 80;)--that, "If we wish to express by a participle, an action _completed at any time_, we use the compound form, and _this is_ THE _perfect participle_;" (p. 79;)--that, "_The characteristic_ of the participle in _ed_ is, that it implies the _reception_ of an action;" (p. 79;)--that, hence, it should be called _the passive_, though it "is _usually_ called the _perfect_ participle;" (p. 79;)--that, "The use of _this participle_ in the _perfect tenses_ of the active voice should not be taken into consideration in giving it a name or a definition;" (p. 80;)--that its _active, neuter_, or _intransitive_ use is not a primitive idiom of the language, but the result of a gradual _change_ of the term from the passive to the active voice; (p. 80;)--that, "the participle _has changed_ its mode of signification, so that, instead of being passive, it is now active in sense;" (p. 105;)--that, "having changed its original meaning so entirely, it should not be considered _the same_ participle;" (p. 78;)--that, "in such cases, it is a _perfect_ participle," and, "for the sake of distinction [,] this may be called the _auxiliary perfect_ participle."--_Ib._ These speculations I briefly throw before the reader, without designing much comment upon them. It will be perceived that they are, in several respects, contradictory one to an other. The author himself names the participle in reference to a usage which he says, "should not be taken into consideration;" and names it absurdly too; for he calls that "the _auxiliary_," which is manifestly the _principal_ term. He also identifies as one what he professes to distinguish as two. OBS. 11.--Participles often become _adjectives_, and are construed before nouns to denote quality. The terms so converted form the class of _participial adjectives_. Words of a participial form may be regarded as adjectives, under the following circumstances: 1. When they reject the idea of time, and denote something customary or habitual, rather than a transient act or state; as, "A _lying_ rogue,"--i.e., one that is addicted to lying. 2. When they admit adverbs of comparison; as, "A _more learned_ man." 3. When they are compounded with something that does not belong to the verb; as, "_unfeeling, unfelt_:" there is no verb _to unfeel_, therefore these words cannot be participles. Adjectives are generally placed before their nouns; participles, after them. The words beginning with _un_, in the following lines may be classed with participial adjectives: "No king, no subject was; unscutcheoned all; Uncrowned, unplumed, unhelmed, unpedigreed; Unlaced, uncoroneted, unbestarred." --_Pollok, C. of T._, B. viii, l. 89. OBS. 12.--Participles in _ing_ often become _nouns_. When preceded by an article, an adjective or a noun or pronoun of the possessive case, they are construed as nouns; and, if wholly such, have neither adverbs nor active regimen: as, "He laugheth at the _shaking_ of a spear."--_Job_, xli, 29. "There is _no searching_ of _his understanding_."--_Isaiah_, xl, 28. "In _their setting_ of their threshold by ray threshold."--_Ezekiel_, xliii, 8. "That any man should make _my glorying_ void."--_1 Cor._, ix, 15. The terms so converted form the class of _verbal_ or _participial_ nouns. But some late authors--(J. S. Hart, S. S. Greene, W. H. Wells, and others--) have given the name of participial nouns to many _participles_,--such participles, often, as retain all their verbal properties and adjuncts, and merely partake of some syntactical resemblance to nouns. Now, since the chief characteristics of such words are from the verb, and are incompatible with the specific nature of a noun, it is clearly improper to call them _nouns_. There are, in the popular use of participles, certain mixed constructions which are reprehensible; yet it is the peculiar nature of a _participle_, to participate the properties of other parts of speech,--of the verb and adjective,--of the verb and noun,--or sometimes, perhaps, of all three. A participle immediately preceded by a preposition, is not converted into a noun, but remains a participle, and therefore retains its adverb, and also its government of the objective case; as, "I thank you _for helping him so seasonably_." Participles in this construction correspond with the Latin gerund, and are sometimes called _gerundives_. OBS. 13.--To distinguish the participle from the participial noun, the learner should observe the following four things: 1. Nouns take articles and adjectives before them; participles, as such, do not. 2. Nouns may govern the possessive case before them, but not the objective after them; participles may govern the objective case, but not so properly the possessive. 3. Nouns, if they have adverbs, require the hyphen; participles take adverbs separately, as do their verbs. 4. Participial nouns express actions as things, and are sometimes declined like other nouns; participles usually refer actions to their agents or recipients, and have in English no grammatical modifications of any kind. OBS. 14.--To distinguish the perfect participle from the preterit of the same form, observe _the sense_, and see which of the auxiliary forms will express it: thus, _loved_ for _being loved_, is a participle; but _loved_ for _did love_, is a preterit verb. So _held_ for _did hold, stung_ for _did sting, taught_ for _did teach_, and the like, are irregular verbs; but _held_ for _being held, stung_ for _being stung, taught_ for _being taught_, and the like, are perfect participles. OBS. 15.--Though the English participles have no inflections, and are consequently incapable of any grammatical agreement or disagreement, those which are simple, are sometimes elegantly taken in a plural sense, with the apparent construction of _nouns_; but, under these circumstances, they are in reality neither nouns nor participles, but participial adjectives construed elliptically, as other adjectives often are, and relating to plural nouns understood. The ellipsis is sometimes of a singular noun, though very rarely, and much less properly. Examples: "To them who are _the called_ according to his purpose."--_Rom._, x, 28. That is--"the called _ones_ or _persons_." "God is not the God of _the dead_, but of _the living_."--_Matt._, xxii, 32. "Neither is it found in the land of _the living_."--_Job_, xxviii, 13. "_The living, the living, he_ shall praise thee, as I do this day."--_Isaiah_, xxxviii, 19. "Till we are made fit to live and reign with him and _all his redeemed_, in the heavenly glory forever."--_Jenks's Prayers_, p. 18. "_Ye blessed_ of my Father, come, _ye just_, Enter the joy eternal of your Lord."--_Pollok_, B. x, l. 591. "Depart from me, _ye cursed_, into the fire Prepared eternal in the gulf of Hell."--_Id._, B. x, l. 449. EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. PRAXIS VII.--ETYMOLOGICAL. _In the Seventh Praxis it is required of the pupil--to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the_ ARTICLES, NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, PRONOUNS, VERBS, and PARTICIPLES. _The definitions to be given in the Seventh Praxis, are two for an article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, six for a pronoun, seven for a verb finite, five for an infinitive, two for a participle,--and one for an adverb, a conjunction, a preposition, or an interjection. Thus_:-- EXAMPLE PARSED. "Religion, rightly understood and practised, has the purest of all joys attending it." _Religion_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb. _Rightly_ is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. _Understood_ is a perfect participle, from the irregular active-transitive verb, _understand, understood, understanding, understood_. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding _ing, d_, or _ed_, to the verb. 2. The perfect participle is that which ends commonly in _ed_ or _en_, and implies a completion of the being, action, or passion. _And_ is a conjunction. 1. A conjunction, is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected. _Practised_ is a perfect participle, from the regular active-transitive verb, _practise, practised, practising, practised_. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding _ing, d_, or _ed_, to the verb. 2. The perfect participle is that which ends commonly in _ed_ or _en_, and implies a completion of the being, action, or passion. _Has_ is an irregular active-transitive verb, from _have, had, having, had_; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_. 2. An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming _d_ or _ed_. 3. An active-transitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has some person or thing for its object. 4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5. The present tense is that which expresses what now exists, or is taking place. 6. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one. _The_ is the definite article. 1. An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The definite article is _the_, which denotes some particular thing or things. _Purest_ is a common adjective, of the superlative degree; compared regularly, _pure, purer, purest_. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3. The superlative degree is that which is _most_ or _least_ of all included with it. _Of_ is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. _All_ is a pronominal adjective, not compared. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A pronominal adjective is a definitive word which may either accompany its noun or represent it understood. 3. Those adjectives whose signification does not admit of different degrees, cannot be compared. _Joys_ is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. _Attending_ is an imperfect participle, from the regular active-transitive verb, _attend, attended, attending, attended_. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding _ing, d_, or _ed_, to the verb. 2. The imperfect participle is that which ends commonly in _ing_, and implies a continuance of the being, action, or passion. _It_ is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. LESSON I.--PARSING. "A Verb is a word whereby something or other is represented as existing, possessing, acting, or being acted upon, at some particular time, past, present, or future; and this in various manners."--_White, on the English Verb_, p. 1. "Error is a savage, lurking about on the twilight borders of the circle illuminated by truth, ready to rush in and take possession, the moment her lamp grows dim."--_Beecher_. "The science of criticism may be considered as a middle link, connecting the different parts of education into a regular chain."--_Ld. Kames, El. of Crit._, p. xxii. "When I see a man walking, a tree growing, or cattle grazing, I cannot doubt but that these objects are really what they appear to be. Nature determines us to rely on the veracity of our senses; for otherwise they could not in any degree answer their end, that of laying open things existing and passing around us."--_Id., ib._, i, 85. "But, advancing farther in life, and inured by degrees to the crooked ways of men; pressing through the crowd, and the bustle of the world; obliged to contend with this man's craft, and that man's scorn; accustomed, sometimes, to conceal their sentiments, and often to stifle their feelings; they become at last hardened in heart, and familiar with corruption."--BLAIR: _Murray's Sequel_, p. 140. "Laugh'd at, he laughs again; and stricken hard, Turns to his stroke his adamantine scales, That fear no discipline of human hands."--_Cowper's Task_, p. 47. LESSON II.--PARSING. "Thus shame and remorse united in the ungrateful person, and indignation united with hatred in the hearts of others, are the punishments provided by nature for injustice."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. i, p. 288. "Viewing man as under the influence of novelty, would one suspect that custom also should influence him?--Human nature, diversified with many and various springs of action, is wonderfully, and, indulging the expression, intricately constructed."--_Id., ib._, i, 325. "Dryden frequently introduces three or four persons speaking upon the same subject, each throwing out his own notions separately, without regarding what is said by the rest."--_Id., ib._, ii, 294. "Nothing is more studied in Chinese gardens, than to raise wonder and surprise. Sometimes one is led insensibly into a dark cavern, terminating unexpectedly in a landscape enriched with all that nature affords the most delicious."--_Id., ib._, ii, 334. "The answer to the objection here implied, is obvious, even on the supposition of the questions put being answered in the affirmative."--_Prof. Vethake._ "As birds flying, so will the Lord of hosts defend Jerusalem; defending also, he will deliver it; and, passing over, he will preserve it."--_Isaiah_, xxxi, 5. "Here, by the bonds of nature feebly held, Minds combat minds, repelling and repell'd."--_Goldsmith._ "Suffolk first died, and York, all haggled over, Comes to him where in gore he lay insteeped."--_Shakspeare._ LESSON III.--PARSING. "Every change in the state of things is considered as an effect, indicating the agency, characterizing the kind, and measuring the degree, of its cause."--_Dr. Murray, Hist. of En. L._, i, 179. "Having loved his own who were in the world, he loved them unto the end. And supper being ended, (the devil having now put it into the heart of Judas Iscariot, Simon's son, to betray him,) Jesus, knowing that the Father had given all things into his hand, and that he had come from God and was going to God, arose from supper, and laid aside his coat, and, taking a towel, girded himself: then he poured some water into a basin, and began to wash the disciples' feet, and to wipe them with the towel with which he was girded."--See _John_, xiii. "Spiritual desertion is naturally and judicially incurred by sin. It is the withdrawal of that divine unction which enriches the acquiescent soul with moral power and pleasure. The subtraction leaves the mind enervated, obscured, confused, degraded, and distracted."--HOMO: _N. Y. Observer._ "Giving no offence in any thing, but in all things approving ourselves as the ministers of God: as unknown, and yet well known; as dying, and, behold, we live; as chastened, and not killed; as sorrowful, yet always rejoicing; as poor, yet making many rich; as having nothing, and yet possessing all things."--_2 Cor._, vi. "O may th' indulgence of a father's love, Pour'd forth on me, be doubled from above."--_Young_. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. ERRORS OF PARTICIPLES. [Fist] [As the principles upon which our participles ought to be formed, were necessarily anticipated in the preceding chapter on verbs, the reader must recur to that chapter for the doctrines by which the following errors are to be corrected. The great length of that chapter seemed a good reason for separating these examples from it, and it was also thought, that such words as are erroneously written for participles, should, for the sake of order, be chiefly noticed in this place. In many of these examples, however, the participle is not really a separate part of speech, but is in fact taken with an auxiliary to form some compound tense of its verb.] LESSON I.--IRREGULARS. "Many of your readers have mistook that passage."--_Steele, Spect._, No. 544. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the preterit verb _mistook_ is here used for the perfect participle. But, according to the table of irregular verbs, we ought to say, _mistake, mistook, mistaking, mistaken_; after the form of the simple verb, _take, took, taking, taken_. Therefore, the sentence should be amended thus: "Many of your readers have _mistaken_ that passage."] "Had not my dog of a steward ran away."--_Addison, Spect._ "None should be admitted, except he had broke his collar-bone thrice."--_Spect._, No. 474. "We could not know what was wrote at twenty."--_Pref. to Waller_. "I have wrote, thou hast wrote, he has wrote; we have wrote, ye have wrote, they have wrote."--_Ash's Gram._, p. 62. "As if God had spoke his last words there to his people."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 462. "I had like to have came in that ship myself."--_N. Y. Observer_, No. 453. "Our ships and vessels being drove out of the harbour by a storm."--_Hutchinson's Hist. of Mass._, i, 470. "He will endeavour to write as the ancient author would have wrote, had he writ in the same language."--_Bolingbroke, on Hist._, i, 68. "When his doctrines grew too strong to be shook by his enemies."--_Atterbury_. "The immortal mind that hath forsook Her mansion."--_Milton_. "Grease that's sweaten from the murderer's gibbet, throw into the flame."--_Shak., Macbeth_. "The court also was chided for allowing such questions to be put."--_Col. Stone, on Freemasonry_, p. 470. "He would have spoke."-- _Milton, P. L._, B. x, 1. 517. "Words interwove with sighs found out their way."--_Id., ib._, i, 621. "Those kings and potentates who have strove."--_Id., Eiconoclast_, xvii. "That even Silence was took."--_Id., Comus_, l. 557. "And envious Darkness, ere they could return, had stole them from me."--_Id., Comus_, 1. 195. "I have chose this perfect man."--_Id., P. R._, B. i, l. 165. "I will scarce think you have swam in a gondola."--_Shak., As You Like It_. "The fragrant brier was wove between."--_Dryden, Fables_. "Then finish what you have began."--_Id., Poems_, ii, 172. "But now the years a numerous train have ran."--_Pope's Odyssey_, B. xi, l. 555. "Repeats your verses wrote on glasses."--_Prior_. "Who by turns have rose."--_Id._ "Which from great authors I have took."--_Id., Alma_. "Ev'n there he should have fell."--_Id., Solomon._ "The sun has rose, and gone to bed, Just as if Partridge were not dead."--_Swift_. "And though no marriage words are spoke, They part not till the ring is broke."--_Id., Riddles_. LESSON II.--REGULARS. "When the word is stript of all the terminations."--_Dr. Murray's Hist. of En. L._, i, 319. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the participle _stript_ is terminated in _t_. But, according to Observation 2d, on the irregular verbs, _stript_ is regular. Therefore, this _t_ should be changed to _ed_; and the final _p_ should be doubled, according to Rule 3d for Spelling: thus, "When the word is _stripped_ of all the terminations."] "Forgive him, Tom; his head is crackt."--_Swift's Poems_, p. 397. "For 'tis the sport, to have the engineer hoist with his own petar."--_Hamlet_, Act 3. "As great as they are, I was nurst by their mother."--_Swift's Poems_, p. 310. "If he should now be cry'd down since his change."--_Ib._, p. 306. "Dipt over head and ears--in debt."--_Ib._, p. 312. "We see the nation's credit crackt."--_Ib._, p. 312. "Because they find their pockets pickt."--_Ib._, p. 338. "O what a pleasure mixt with pain!"--_Ib._, p. 373. "And only with her Brother linkt."--_Ib._, p. 387. "Because he ne'er a thought allow'd, That might not be confest."--_Ib._, p. 361. "My love to Sheelah is more firmly fixt."--_Ib._, p. 369. "The observations annext to them will be intelligible."--_Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 457. "Those eyes are always fixt on the general principles."--_Ib._, i, 458. "Laborious conjectures will be banisht from our commentaries."--_Ib._, i, 459. "Tiridates was dethroned, and Phraates was reestablisht in his stead."--_Ib._, i, 462. "A Roman who was attacht to Augustus."--_Ib._, i, 466. "Nor should I have spoken of it, unless Baxter had talkt about two such."--_Ib._, i, 467. "And the reformers of language have generally rusht on."--_Ib._, i, 649. "Three centuries and a half had then elapst since the date."--_Ib._, i, 249. "Of such criteria, as has been remarkt already, there is an abundance."--_Ib._, i, 261. "The English have surpast every other nation in their services."--_Ib._, i, 306. "The party addrest is next in dignity to the speaker."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 66. "To which we are many times helpt."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 13. "But for him, I should have lookt well enough to myself."--_Ib._, p. 88. "Why are you vext, Lady? why do frown?"--_Milton, Comus_, l. 667. "Obtruding false rules prankt in reason's garb."--_Ib._, l. 759. "But, like David equipt in Saul's armour, it is encumbered and oppressed."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 378. "And when their merchants are blown up, and crackt, Whole towns are cast away in storms, and wreckt." --_Butler_, p. 163. LESSON III.--MIXED. "The lands are holden in free and common soccage." --_Trumbull's Hist_, i, 133. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the participle _holden_ is not in that form which present usage authorizes. But, according to the table of irregular verbs, the four parts of the verb _to hold_, as now used, are _hold, held, holding, held_. Therefore, _holden_ should be _held_; thus, "The lands are _held_ in free and common soccage."] "A stroke is drawed under such words."--_Cobbett's E. Grammar_, Edition of 1832, ¶ 154. "It is striked even, with a strickle."--_Walkers Particles_, p. 115. "Whilst I was wandring, without any care, beyond my bounds."--_Ib._, p. 83. "When one would do something, unless hindred by something present."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 311. "It is used potentially, but not so as to be rendred by these signs."--_Ib._, p. 320. "Now who would dote upon things hurryed down the stream thus fast?"--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 89. "Heaven hath timely try'd their growth."--_Milton, Comus_, l. 970. "O! ye mistook, ye should have snatcht his wand."--_Ib._, p. 815. "Of true virgin here distrest."--_Ib._, p. 905. "So that they have at last come to be substitute in the stead of it."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 339. "Though ye have lien among the pots."--_Psal._, lxviii, 13. "And, lo, in her mouth was an olive-leaf pluckt off."--FRIENDS' BIBLE, and BRUCE'S: _Gen._, viii, 11. "Brutus and Cassius Are rid like madmen, through the gates of Rome."--_Shak_. "He shall be spitted on."--_Luke_, xviii, 32. "And are not the countries so overflown still situate between the tropics?"--_Bentley's Sermons_. "Not trickt and frounc't as she was wont, But kercheft in a comely cloud."--_Milton, Il Penseroso_, l. 123. "To satisfy his rigor, Satisfy'd never."--_Id., P. L._, B. x, l. 804. "With him there crucify'd."--_Id., P. L._, B. xii, l. 417. "Th' earth cumber'd, and the wing'd air darkt with plumes."--_Id., Comus_, l. 730. "And now their way to Earth they had descry'd."--_Id., P. L._, B. x, l. 325. "Not so thick swarm'd once the soil Bedropt with blood of Gorgon."--_Ib._, B. x, l. 527. "And in a troubled sea of passion tost."--_Ib._, B. x, l. 718. "The cause, alas, is quickly guest."--_Swift's Poems_, p. 404. "The kettle to the top was hoist"--_Ib._, p. 274. "In chains thy syllables are linkt."--_Ib._, p. 318. "Rather than thus be overtopt, Would you not wish their laurels cropt?"--_Ib._, p. 415. "The hyphen, or conjoiner, is a little line, drawed to connect words, or parts of words."--_Cobbett's E. Gram._, 1832, ¶ 150. "In the other manners of dependence, this general rule is sometimes broke."--_Joh. Gram. Com._, p. 334. "Some intransitive verbs may be rendered transitive by means of a preposition prefixt to them."--_Grant's Lat. Gram._, p. 66. "Whoever now should place the accent on the first syllable of _Valerius_, would set every body a-laughing."--_Walker's Dict._ "Being mocked, scourged, spitted on, and crucified."--_Gurney's Essays_, p. 40. "For rhyme in Greece or Rome was never known, Till by barbarian deluges o'erflown."--_Roscommon_. "In my own Thames may I be drownded, If e'er I stoop beneath a crown'd-head."--_Swift_. CHAPTER VIII.--ADVERBS. An Adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner: as, They are _now here_, studying _very diligently_. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--Adverbs briefly express what would otherwise require several words: as _Now_, for _at this time_;--_Here_, for _in this place_;--_Very_, for _in a high degree_;--_Diligently_, for _in an industrious manner_. Thus the meaning of almost any adverb, may be explained by some phrase beginning with a preposition and ending with a noun. OBS. 2.--There are several customary combinations of short words, which are used adverbially, and which some grammarians do not analyze in parsing; _as, not at all, at length, in fine, in full, at least, at present, at once, this once, in vain, no doubt, on board_. But all words that convey distinct ideas, and rightly retain their individuality, ought to be taken separately in parsing. With the liberty of supposing a few ellipses, an ingenious parser will seldom find occasion to speak of "adverbial phrases." In these instances, _length, doubt, fine_, and _board_, are unquestionably nouns; _once_, too, is used as a noun; _full_ and _all_ may be parsed either as nouns, or as adjectives whose nouns are understood; _at least_, is, _at the least measure; at present_, is, _at the present time_; and _in vain_, is, _in a vain course, or manner._ OBS. 3.--A phrase is a combination of two or more separable parts of speech, the _parsing_ of which of course implies their separation. And though the division of our language into words, and the division of its words into parts of speech, have never yet been made exactly to correspond, it is certainly desirable to bring them as near together as possible. Hence such terms as _everywhere, anywhere, nowadays, forever, everso, to-day, to-morrow, by-and-by, inside-out, upside-down_, if they are to be parsed simply as adverbs, ought to be compounded, and not written as phrases. OBS. 4--Under nearly all the different classes of words, some particular instances may be quoted, in which other parts of speech seem to take the nature of adverbs, so as either to become such, or to be apparently used _for_ them. (1.) ARTICLES: "This may appear incredible, but it is not _the_ less true."--_Dr. Murray's Hist._, i, 337. "The other party was _a_ little coy."--_D. Webster._ (2.) NOUNS: "And scrutiny became _stone_[306] blind."--_Cowper._ "He will come _home to-morrow._"--_Clark._ "They were travelling _post_ when he met them."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 69. "And with a vengeance sent from Media _post_ to Egypt."--_Milton, P. L._, B. iv, l. 170. "That I should care _a groat_ whether he likes the work or not."--_Kirkham._ "It has snowed terribly all night, and is _vengeance_ cold."--_Swift._ (3.) ADJECTIVES: "Drink _deep_, or taste not."--_Pope._ "A place _wondrous_ deep."--_Webster's Dict._ "That fools should be so _deep_ contemplative."--_Shak._ "A man may speak _louder_ or _softer_ in the same key; when he speaks _higher_ or _lower_, he changes his key."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 116. (4.) PRONOUNS: "_What_ am I eased?"--_Job._ "_What_ have I offended thee?"--_Gen._, xx, 9. "He is _somewhat_ arrogant."--_Dryden._ (5.) VERBS: "_Smack_ went the whip, round went the wheels."--_Cowper._ "For then the farmers came _jog, jog_, along the miry road."--_Id._ "_Crack!_ went something on deck."--_Robinson Crusoe._ "Then straight went the yard _slap_ over their noddle."--Arbuthnot. (6.) PARTICIPLES: "Like medicines given _scalding_ hot."--_Dodd._ "My clothes are almost _dripping_ wet."--"In came Squire South, stark, _staring_ mad."--_Arbuthnot._ "An _exceeding_ high mountain."--_Matt._, iv, 8. "How sweet, how _passing_ sweet, the hour to me!"--_Ch. Observer._ "When we act _according_ to our duty."--_Dr. Johnson._ "A man was famous _according_ as he had lifted up axes upon the thick trees."--_Psal._, lxxiv, 5. (7.) CONJUNCTIONS: "Look, _as_ I blow this feather from my face."--_Shak._ "Not at all, or _but_ very gently."--_Locke._ "He was _but_ born to try the lot of man."--_Pope._ (8.) PREPOSITIONS: "They shall go _in_ and _out._"--_Bible._ "From going _to_ and _fro_ in the earth, and walking _up_ and _down_ in it."--_Ib._ These are actually _adverbs_, and not prepositions, because they govern nothing. (9.) INTERJECTIONS are never used as adverbs, though the Greek grammarians refer them nearly all to this class. The using of other words for adverbs, (i. e., the adverbial use of any words that we do not actually call adverbs,) may be referred to the figure _enallage_:[307] as, "_Tramp, tramp_, across the land they speed, _Splash, splash_, across the sea."--_Burger._ OBS. 5.--As other parts of speech seem sometimes to take the nature of adverbs, so adverbs sometimes, either really or apparently, assume the nature of other parts of speech. (1.) Of NOUNS: as, "A committee is not needed merely to say _Yes_ or _No_; that will do very little good; _the yes_ or _the no_ must be accompanied and supported by reasons."--_Dr. M'Cartee._ "Shall I tell you _why?_ Ay, sir, and _wherefore_; for, they say, every _why_ hath a _wherefore._"--_Shak._ (2.) Of ADJECTIVES: as, "Nebuchadnezzar invaded the country, and reduced it to an _almost_ desert."--_Wood's Dict., w. Moab._ "The _then_ bishop of London, Dr. Laud, attended on his Majesty."--_Clarendon._ "With _upward_ speed his agile wings he spread."--_Prior._ "She lights the _downward_ heaven, and rises there."--_Dryden._ (3.) Of PRONOUNS: as, "He liked the ground _whereon_ she trod."--_Milton._ "_Wherein_ have you been galled by the king?"--_Shak._ "O how unlike the place from _whence_ they fell!"--_Par. Lost_, B. i, l. 75. Here _whereon_ is exactly equivalent in sense to _on which; wherein_, to _in what_; and _whence_, to _which_: but none of them are actually reckoned pronouns. (4.) Of VERBS: as, "If he be hungry, more than wanton, bread alone will _down._"--_Locke._ "To _down_ proud hearts that would not willing die."--_Sidney._ "She never could _away_ with me."--_Shak._ "_Away_, and glister like the god of war."--_Id._ "_Up_, get ye out of this place."--_Gen._, xix, 14. (5.) Of CONJUNCTIONS: as, "I, _even_ I, am he."--_Isaiah_, xliii, 25. "If I will that he tarry _till_ I come."--_John_, xxi, 22. "I will go and see him _before_ I die."--_Gen._, xlv, 28. "Before I go _whence_ I shall not return."--_Job_, x, 21. (6) Of PREPOSITIONS: as, "Superior to any that are dug _out_ the ground."--_Eames's Lect._, p. 28. "Who act _so counter_ heavenly mercy's plan."--_Burns._ Better perhaps, "_out of_" and "_counter to._" (7.) Of INTERJECTIONS: as, "_Up, up_, Glentarkin! rouse thee, ho!"--_Scott._ "_Down, down_, cried Mar, your lances _down!_"--_Id._ "_Off!_ or I fly for ever from thy sight."--_Smith._ OBS. 6.--In these last examples, _up_, and _down_, and _off_, have perhaps as much resemblance to imperative verbs, as to interjections; but they need not be referred to either of these classes, because by supplying a verb we may easily parse them as adverbs. I neither adopt the notion of Horne Tooke, that the same word cannot belong to different parts of speech, nor refer every word to that class to which it may at first sight appear to belong; for both of these methods are impracticable and absurd. The essential nature of each part of speech, and every important peculiarity of its individual terms, it is hoped, will be sufficiently explained in some part or other of this work; but, as the classification of words often depends upon their _construction_, some explanations that go to determine the parts of speech, must be looked for under the head of Syntax. OBS. 7.--The proper classification, or subdivision, of adverbs, though it does not appear to have been discovered by any of our earlier grammarians, is certainly very clearly indicated by the meaning and nature of the words themselves. The four important circumstances of any event or assertion, are the _when_, the _where_, the _how-much_, and the _how_; or the _time_, the _place_, the _degree_, and the _manner_. These four are the things which we usually express by adverbs. And seldom, if ever, do we find any adverb the notion of which does not correspond to that of _sometime, somewhere, somewhat_, or _somehow_. Hence, the general classes of this sort of words ought to be formed under these four heads. The classification heretofore most commonly adopted in English grammar, has every fault which the spirit of awkwardness could possibly give it. The head of it is this: "Adverbs, _though very numerous_, may be reduced to _certain_ classes, the _chief_ of which are _those of_ Number, Order, Place, Time, Quantity, Manner or Quality, Doubt, Affirmation, Negation, Interrogation, and Comparison."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 115; _Comly's_, 66; _Kirkham's_, 86; _R. C. Smith's_, 34; _Hall's_, 26; _and others_. CLASSES. Adverbs may be reduced to four general classes; namely, adverbs of _time_, of _place_, of _degree_, and of _manner_. Besides these, it is proper to distinguish the particular class of _conjunctive_ adverbs. I. Adverbs of _time_ are those which answer to the question, _When? How long? How soon?_ or, _How often?_ including these which ask. OBS.--Adverbs of time may be subdivided as follows:-- 1. Of time present; as, _Now, yet, to-day, nowadays, presently, instantly, immediately, straightway, directly, forthwith_. 2. Of time past; as, _Already, just now, lately, recently, yesterday, formerly, anciently, once, heretofore, hitherto, since, till now, long ago, erewhile, erst_. 3. Of time to come; as, _To-morrow, hereafter, henceforth, henceforward, by-and-by, soon, erelong, shortly_. 4. Of time relative; as, _When, then, first, just, before, after, while, whilst, meanwhile, as, till, until, seasonably, betimes, early, late, whenever, afterward, afterwards, otherwhile, otherwhiles_. 5. Of time absolute; as, _Always, ever, never, aye, eternally, forever, perpetually, continually, incessantly, endlessly, evermore, everlastingly_. 6. Of time repeated; as, _Often, oft, again, occasionally, frequently, sometimes, seldom, rarely, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, annually, once, twice, thrice_, or _three times_. Above this, we use only the phrases _four times, five times, six times, &c_. Whether these ought to be reckoned adverbs, or not, is questionable: _times_, for _repetitions_, or _instances_, may be supposed a noun; but such phrases often appear to be used adverbially. II. Adverbs of _place_ are those which answer to the question, _Where? Whither? Whence?_ or, _Whereabout?_ including these which ask. OBS.--Adverbs of place may be subdivided as follows:-- 1. Of place in which; as, _Where, here, there, yonder, above, below, about, around, somewhere, anywhere, elsewhere, otherwhere, everywhere, nowhere, wherever, wheresoever, within, without, whereabout, whereabouts, hereabout, hereabouts, thereabout, thereabouts_. 2. Of place to which; as, _Whither, hither, thither, in, up, down, back, forth, aside, ashore, abroad, aloft, home, homewards, inwards, upwards, downwards, backwards, forwards_. _Inward, homeward, upward, downward, backward_, and _forward_, are also adverbs, as well as adjectives; but some critics, for distinction's sake, choose to use these only as adjectives. 3. Of place from which; as, _Whence, hence, thence, away, out, off, far, remotely_. 4. Of the order of place; as, _First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, &c_. Thus, _secondly_ means _in the second place_; _thirdly, in the third place_; &c. For order, or rank, implies place, though it may consist of relative degrees. III. Adverbs of _degree_ are those which answer to the question, _How much? How little?_ or, to the idea of _more or less_. OBS.--Adverbs of degree may be subdivided as follows:-- 1. Of excess or abundance; as, _Much, more, most, too, very, greatly, far, besides; chiefly, principally, mainly, mostly, generally; entirely, full, fully, completely, perfectly, wholly, totally, altogether, all, quite, clear, stark; exceedingly, excessively, extravagantly, intolerably; immeasurably, inconceivably, infinitely_. 2. Of equality or sufficiency; as, _Enough, sufficiently, competently, adequately, proportionally, equally, so, as, even, just, exactly, precisely_. 3. Of deficiency or abatement; as, _Little, less, least, scarcely, hardly, scantly, scantily merely, barely, only, but, partly, partially, nearly, almost, well-nigh, not quite_. 4. Of quantity in the abstract; as, _How_, (meaning, _in what degree_,) _however, howsoever, everso, something, anything, nothing, a groat, a sixpence, a sou-markee_, and other nouns of quantity used adverbially. IV. Adverbs of _manner_ are those which answer to the question, _How?_ or, by affirming, denying, or doubting, show _how_ a subject is regarded. OBS.--Adverbs of manner may be subdivided as follows:-- 1. Of manner from quality; as, _Well, ill, wisely, foolishly, justly, wickedly_, and many others formed by adding _ly_ to adjectives of quality. _Ly_ is a contraction of _like_; and is the most common termination of English adverbs. When added to nouns, it forms adjectives; but some few of these are also used adverbially; as, _daily, weekly, monthly_, which denote time. 2. Of affirmation or assent; as, _Yes, yea, ay, verily, truly, indeed, surely, certainly, doubtless, undoubtedly, assuredly, certes, forsooth,[308] amen_. 3. Of negation; as, _No, nay, not, nowise, noway, noways, nohow_. 4. Of doubt or uncertainty; as, _Perhaps, haply, possibly, perchance, peradventure, may-be_. 5. Of mode or way; as, _Thus, so, how, somehow, nohow, anyhow, however, howsoever, like, else, otherwise, across, together, apart, asunder, namely, particularly, necessarily, hesitatingly, trippingly, extempore, headlong, lengthwise_. V. _Conjunctive adverbs_ are those which perform the office of conjunctions, and serve to connect sentences, as well as to express some circumstance of time, place, degree, or the like. This class embraces a few words not strictly belonging to any of the others: as, (1.) The adverbs of cause; _why, wherefore, therefore_; but the last two of these are often called conjunctions. (2.) The pronominal compounds; _herein, therein, wherein_, &c.; in which the former term is a substitute, and virtually governed by the enclitic particle. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--Conjunctive adverbs often relate equally to two verbs in different clauses, on which account it is the more necessary to distinguish them from others; as, "And they feared _when_ they heard that they were Romans,"--_Acts_, xvi, 38. Here _when_ is a conjunctive adverb of time, and relates equally to _feared_ and to _heard_. "The right of coming on the shore for their purposes in general, _as_ and _when_ they please."--_Holroyd_. Here _as_ is a conjunctive adverb of manner, and _when_, of time; both relating equally to _coming_ and to _please_. OBS. 2.--The following words are the most frequently used as conjunctive adverbs: _after, again, also, as, before, besides, consequently, else, ere, even, furthermore, hence, how, however, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, since, so, still, till, then, thence, therefore, too, until, when, where, wherefore, whither_, and _while_, or _whilst_. OBS. 3.--Adverbs of _time, place_, and _manner_, are generally connected with verbs or participles; those of _degree_ are more frequently placed before adjectives or adverbs: the latter, however, sometimes denote the measure of actions or effects; as, "And I wept _much_"--_Rev._, v, 4. "And Isaac trembled _very exceedingly_"--_Gen._, xxvii, 33. "Writers who had felt _less_, would have said _more_"--_Fuller_. "Victors and vanquished, in the various field, Nor _wholly_ overcome, nor _wholly_ yield."--_Dryden_. OBS. 4.--The adverbs _here, there_, and _where_, when compounded with prepositions, have the force of pronouns, or of pronominal adjectives: as, _Hereby_, for _by this; thereby_, for _by that_; _whereby_, for _by which_, or _by what_. The prepositions which may be subjoined in this manner, are only the short words, _at, by, for, from, in, into, of, on, to, unto, under, upon_, and _with_. Compounds of this kind, although they partake of the nature of pronouns with respect to the nouns going before, are still properly reckoned adverbs, because they relate as such to the verbs which follow them; as, "You take my life, when you do take the means _whereby_ I live."--_Shak_. Here _whereby_ is a conjunctive adverb, representing _means_, and relating to the verb _live_.[309] This mode of expression is now somewhat antiquated, though still frequently used by good authors, and especially by the poets. OBS. 5--The adverbs, _when, where, whither, whence, how, why, wherefore, wherein, whereof, whereby_, and other like compounds of _where_, are sometimes used as _interrogatives_; but, as such, they still severally belong to the classes under which they are placed in the foregoing distribution, except that words of interrogation are not at the same time connectives. These adverbs, and the three pronouns, _who, which_, and _what_, are the only interrogative words in the language; but questions may be asked without any of them, and all have other uses than to ask questions. OBS. 6.--The conjunctive adverbs, _when, where, whither, whence, how_, and _why_, are sometimes so employed as to partake of the nature of _pronouns_, being used as a sort of _special relatives_, which refer back to antecedent nouns of _time, place, manner_, or _cause_, according to their own respective meanings; yet being adverbs, because they relate as such, to the verbs which follow them: as, "In the _day when_ God shall judge the secrets of men."--_Rom._, ii, 16. "In a _time when_ thou mayest be found."--_Psal._, xxxii, 6. "I sought for some time what I at length found here, a _place where_ all real wants might be easily supplied."--_Dr. Johnson_. "To that _part_ of the mountain _where_ the declivity began to grow craggy."--_Id._ "At _Canterbury, whither_ some voice had run before."--_Wotton_. "Look unto the _rock whence_ ye are hewn, and to the hole of the _pit whence_ ye are digged."--_Isaiah_, li, 1. "We may remark three different _sources whence_ it arises."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 163. "I'll tell you a _way how_ you may live your time over again."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 108. "A crude account of the _method how_ they perceive truth."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 404. "The _order how_ the Psalter is appointed to be read."--_Common Prayer_. "In the same reasoning we see the _cause, why_ no substantive is susceptible of these comparative degrees."--_Hermes_, p. 201. "There seems no _reason why_ it should not work prosperously."--_Society in America_, p. 68. "There are strong _reasons why_ an extension of her territory would be injurious to her."--_Ib._ "An other _reason why_ it deserved to be more studied."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 123. "The _end why_ God hath ordained faith, is, that his free grace might be glorified."--_Goodwin_. OBS. 7.--The direct use of adverbs for pronouns, is often, if not generally, inelegant; and, except the expression may be thereby agreeably shortened, it ought to be considered ungrammatical. The following examples, and perhaps also some of the foregoing, are susceptible of improvement: "Youth is _the time, when_ we are young."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 120. Say rather, "Youth is _that part of life which_ succeeds to childhood." "The boy gave a satisfactory _reason why_ he was tardy."--_Ibid._ Say rather, "The boy gave a satisfactory reason _for his tardiness_." "The several _sources from whence_ these pleasures are derived."--_Murray's Key_, p. 258. Say rather--"sources from _which_" "In _cases where_ it is only said, that a question has been asked."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 117. Say, "In _those_ cases _in which_." "To the false rhetoric of the _age when_ he lived."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 415. Say rather--"of the age _in which_ he lived." OBS. 8.--When a conjunctive adverb is equivalent to both an antecedent and a relative, the construction seems to be less objectionable, and the brevity of the expression affords an additional reason for preferring it, especially in poetry: as, "But the Son of man hath not _where_ to lay his head."--_Matt._, viii, 20. "There might they see _whence_ Po and Ister came."--_Hoole's Tasso._ "Tell _how_ he formed your shining frame."--_Ogilvie._ "The wind bloweth _where_ it listeth, and thou hearest the sound thereof, but canst not tell _whence_ it cometh, and _whither_ it goeth."--_John_, iii, 8. In this construction, the adverb is sometimes preceded by a preposition; the noun being, in fact, _understood_: as, "Sinks, like a sea-weed, _into whence_ she rose."--_Byron._ "Here Machiavelli's earth return'd _to whence_ it rose."--_Id._ OBS. 9.--The conjunctive adverb _so_, very often expresses the sense of some word or phrase going before; as, "Wheresoever the speech is corrupted, _so_ is the mind."--_Seneca's Morals_, p. 267. That is, the mind is _also corrupted_. "I consider grandeur and sublimity, as terms synonymous, or nearly _so_."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 29. The following sentence is grossly wrong, because the import of this adverb was not well observed by the writer: "We have now come to _far the most complicated_ part of speech; and one which is sometimes rendered _still more so_, than the nature of our language requires."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 38. _So_, in some instances, repeats the import of a preceding _noun_, and consequently partakes the nature of a _pronoun_; as, "We think our fathers _fools_, so wise we grow; Our wiser sons, no doubt, will think us _so_."--_Pope, on Crit._ OBS. 10.--"_Since_ is often improperly used for _ago_: as, 'When were you in France?--Twenty years _since_.' It ought to be, 'Twenty years _ago_.' _Since_ may be admitted to supply the place of _ago that_: it being equally correct to say, 'It is twenty years _since_ I was in France;' and, 'It is twenty years _ago, that_ I was in France.'"--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 337. The difference between _since_ and _ago_ is clearly this: the former, being either a preposition or a conjunctive adverb, cannot with strict propriety be used _adjectively_; the latter, being in reality an old participle, naturally comes after a noun, in the sense of an adjective; as, _a year ago, a month ago, a week ago_. "_Go, ago, ygo, gon, agon, gone, agone_, are all used indiscriminately by our old English writers as the past participle of the verb _to go_."--_Tooke's Diversions_, Vol. i, p. 376. "Three days _agone_, I fell sick."--_1 Samuel_, xxx, 13. MODIFICATIONS. Adverbs have no modifications, except that a few are compared, after the manner of adjectives: as, _soon, sooner, soonest; often, oftener, oftenest;[310] long, longer, longest; fast, faster, fastest_. The following are irregularly compared: _well, better, best; badly_ or _ill, worse, worst; little less, least; much, more, most; far, farther, farthest; forth, further, furthest. Rath, rather, rathest_, is now used only in the comparative. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--Most adverbs that are formed from adjectives by the addition of _ly_, will admit the comparative adverbs _more and most, less_ and _least_, before them:, as, _wisely, more wisely, most wisely; culpably, less culpably, least culpably_. This is virtually a comparison of the latter adverb, but the grammatical inflection, or degree, belongs only to the former; and the words being written separately, it is certainly most proper to parse them separately, ascribing the degree of comparison to the word which expresses it. As comparison does not belong to adverbs in general, it should not be mentioned in parsing, except in the case of those few which are varied by it. OBS. 2.--In the works of Milton, and occasionally in those of some other poets of his age,[311] adverbs of two syllables, ending in _ly_, are not only compared regularly like adjectives of the same ending, but are used in the measure of iambic verse as if they still formed only two syllables. Examples:-- "But God hath _wiselier_ arm'd his vengeful ire." --_P. Lost_, B. x, l. 1022. "Destroyers _rightlier_ call'd and plagues of men." --_Ib._, B. xi, l. 699. "And on his quest, where _likeliest_ he might find." --_Ib._, B. ix, l. 414. "Now _amplier_ known thy Saviour and thy Lord." --_Ib._, B. xii, l. 544. "Though thou wert _firmlier_ fasten'd than a rock." --_Sam. Agon._, l. 1398. "Not rustic, as before, but _seemlier_ clad." --_P. Reg._, B. ii, l. 299. -------------------------"Whereof to thee anon _Plainlier_ shall be reveal'd." --_Paradise Lost_, B. xii, l. 150. ------------"To show what coast thy sluggish erare Might _easiliest_ harbour in." --_Shakspeare, Cymb._, Act IV. "Shall not myself be _kindlier_ mov'd than thou art?" --_Id., Tempest_, Act V. "But _earthlier_ happy is the rose distill'd." --_Id., M. S. N. Dream_, Act I. OBS. 3.--The usage just cited is clearly analogical, and has the obvious advantage of adding to the flexibility of the language, while it also multiplies its distinctive forms. If carried out as it might be, it would furnish to poets and orators an ampler choice of phraseology, and at the same time, obviate in a great measure the necessity of using the same words both adjectively and adverbially. The words which are now commonly used in this twofold character, are principally monosyllables; and, of adjectives, monosyllables are the class which we oftenest compare by _er_ and _est_: next to which come dissyllables ending in _y_; as, _holy, happy, lovely_. But if to any monosyllable we add _ly_ to form an adverb, we have of course a dissyllable ending in _y_; and if adverbs of this class may be compared regularly, after the manner of adjectives, there can be little or no occasion to use the primitive word otherwise than as an adjective. But, according to present usage, few adverbs are ever compared by inflection, except such words as may also be used adjectively. For example: _cleanly, comely, deadly, early, kindly, kingly, likely, lively, princely, seemly, weakly_, may all be thus compared; and, according to Johnson and Webster, they may all be used either adjectively or adverbially. Again: _late, later, latest_, is commonly contrasted in both senses, with _early, earlier, earliest_; but if _lately, latelier, lateliest_, were adopted in the adverbial contrast, _early_ and _late, earlier_ and _later, earliest_ and _latest_, might be contrasted as adjectives only. OBS. 4.--The using of adjectives for adverbs, is _in general_ a plain violation of grammar. Example: "_To_ is a preposition, governing the verb _sell_, in the infinitive mood, _agreeable_ to Rule 18, which says, The preposition TO governs the infinitive mood."--_Comly's Gram._, p. 137. Here _agreeable_ ought to be _agreeably_; an adverb, relating to the participle _governing_. Again, the using of adverbs for adjectives, is a fault as gross. Example: "Apprehending the nominative to be put _absolutely._"-- _Murray's Gram._, p. 155. Here _absolutely_ ought to be _absolute_; an adjective, relating to the word _nominative_. But, _in poetry_, there is not only a frequent substitution of quality for manner, in such a way that the adjective may still be parsed adjectively; but sometimes also what _appears_ to be (whether right or wrong) a direct use of adjectives for adverbs, especially in the higher degrees of comparison: as, "_Firmer_ he roots him the _ruder_ it blow." --_Scott, L. of L._, C. ii, st. 19. "True ease in writing comes from art, not chance, As those move _easiest_ who have learn'd to dance." --_Pope, Ess. on Crit._ "And also now the sluggard _soundest_ slept." --_Pollok, C. of T._, B. vi, l. 257. "In them is _plainest_ taught, and _easiest_ learnt, What makes a nation happy, and keeps it so." --_Milton, P. R._, B. iv, l. 361. OBS. 5.--No use of words can be _right_, that actually confounds the parts of speech; but in many instances, according to present practice, the same words may be used either adjectively or adverbially. _Firmer_ and _ruder_ are not adverbs, but adjectives. In the example above, they may, I think, be ranked with the instances in which quality is poetically substituted for manner, and be parsed as relating to the pronouns which follow them. A similar usage occurs in Latin, and is considered elegant. _Easiest_, as used above by Pope, may perhaps be parsed upon the same principle; that is, as relating to _those_, or to _persons_ understood before the verb _move_. But _soundest, plainest_, and _easiest_, as in the latter quotations, cannot be otherwise explained than as being adverbs. _Plain_ and _sound_, according to our dictionaries, are used both adjectively and adverbially; and, if their superlatives are not misapplied in these instances, it is because the words are adverbs, and regularly compared as such. _Easy_, though sometimes used adverbially by reputable writers, is presented by our lexicographers as an adjective only; and if the latter are right, Milton's use of _easiest_ in the sense and construction of _most easily_, must be considered an error in grammar. And besides, according to his own practice, he ought to have preferred _plainliest_ to _plainest_, in the adverbial sense of _most plainly_. OBS. 6.--Beside the instances already mentioned, of words used both adjectively and adverbially, our dictionaries exhibit many primitive terms which are to be referred to the one class or the other, according to their construction; as, _soon, late, high, low, quick, slack, hard, soft, wide, close, clear, thick, full, scant, long, short, clean, near, scarce, sure, fast_; to which may as well be added, _slow, loud_, and _deep_; all susceptible of the regular form of comparison, and all regularly convertible into adverbs in _ly_; though _soonly_ and _longly_ are now obsolete, and _fastly_, which means _firmly_, is seldom used. In short, it is, probably, from an idea, that no adverbs are to be compared by _er_ and _est_ unless the same words may also be used adjectively, that we do not thus compare _lately, highly, quickly, loudly_, &c., after the example of Milton. But, however custom may sanction the adverbial construction of the foregoing simple terms, the distinctive form of the adverb is in general to be preferred, especially in prose. For example: "The more it was complained of, the _louder_ it was praised."--_Daniel Webster, in Congress_, 1837. If it would seem quaint to say, "The _loudlier_ it was praised," it would perhaps be better to say, "The _more loudly_ it was praised;" for our critics have not acknowledged _loud_ or _louder_ to be an adverb. Nor have _slow_ and _deep_ been so called. Dr. Johnson cites the following line to illustrate the latter as an _adjective_: "Drink hellebore, my boy! drink _deep_, and scour thy brain. DRYDEN." --_Joh. Dict., w. Deep_. "Drink hellebore, my boy! drink deep, and _purge_ thy brain." --_Dryd. IV. Sat. of Persius_. OBS. 7.--In some instances, even in prose, it makes little or no difference to the sense, whether we use adjectives referring to the nouns, or adverbs of like import, having reference to the verbs: as, "The whole conception is conveyed _clear_ and _strong_ to the mind."--_Blair's Rhet._, p, 138. Here _clear_ and _strong_ are adjectives, referring to _conception_; but we might as well say, "The whole conception is conveyed _clearly_ and _strongly_ to the mind." "Against a power that exists _independent_ of their own choice."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 46. Here we might as well say, "exists _independently_;" for the independence of the power, in whichever way it is expressed, is nothing but _the manner_ of its _existence_. "This work goeth _fast_ on and prospereth."--_Ezra_. "Skill comes so _slow_, and life so _fast_ doth fly."--_Davies_. Dr. Johnson here takes _fast_ and _slow_ to be adjectives, but he might as well have called them adverbs, so far as their meaning or construction is concerned. For what here qualifies the things spoken of, is nothing but _the manner_ of their _motion_; and this might as well be expressed by the words, _rapidly, slowly, swiftly_. Yet it ought to be observed, that this does not prove the equivalent words to be adverbs, and not adjectives. Our philologists have often been led into errors by the argument of equivalence. EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. PRAXIS VIII.--ETYMOLOGICAL. _In the Eighth Praxis, it is required of the pupil--to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the_ ARTICLES, NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, PRONOUNS, VERBS, PARTICIPLES, _and_ ADVERBS. _The definitions to be given in the Eighth Praxis, are two for an article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, six for a pronoun, seven for a verb finite, five for an infinitive, two for a participle, two (and sometimes three) for an adverb,--and one for a conjunction, a preposition, or an interjection. Thus_:-- EXAMPLE PARSED. "When was it that Rome attracted most strongly the admiration of mankind?"--_R. G. Harper._ _When_ is an adverb of time. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree or manner. 2. Adverbs of time are those which answer to the question, _When? How long? How soon?_ or, _How often?_ including these which ask. _Was_ is an irregular neuter verb, from _be, was, being, been_; found in the indicative mood, imperfect tense, third person, and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_. 2. An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming _d_ or _ed_. 3. A neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither action nor passion, but simply being, or a state of being. 4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5. The imperfect tense is that which expresses what took place, or was occurring, in time fully past. 6. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one. _It_ is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb. _That_ is a conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected. _Rome_ is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, personified feminine, and nominative case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A proper noun is the name of some particular individual, or people, or group. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The feminine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the female kind. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb. _Attracted_ is a regular active-transitive verb, from _attract, attracted, attracting, attracted_; found in the indicative mood, imperfect tense, third person, and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_. 2. A regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming _d_ or _ed_. 3. An active-transitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has some person or thing for its object. 4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5. The imperfect tense is that which expresses what took place, or was occurring, in time fully past. 6. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one. _Most_ is an a adverb of degree, compared, _much, more, most_, and found in the superlative. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. 2. Adverbs of degree are those which answer to the question, _How much? How little?_ or to the idea of _more or less_. 3. The superlative degree is that which is _most_ or _least_ of all included with it. _Strongly_ is an adverb of manner. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. 2. Adverbs of manner are those which answer to the question, _How?_ or, by affirming, denying, or doubting, show _how_ a subject is regarded. _The_ is the definite article. 1. An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The definite article is _the_, which denotes some particular thing or things. _Admiration_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. _Of_ is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. _Mankind_ is a common noun, collective, of the third person, conveying the idea of plurality, masculine gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A collective noun, or noun of multitude, is the name of many individuals together. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. LESSON I.--PARSING. "Wisely, therefore, is it ordered, and agreeably to the system of Providence, that we should have nature for our instructor."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 358. "It is surprising, how quickly, and for the most part how correctly, we judge of character from external appearance."--_Id., ib._, i, 359. "The members of a period connected by proper copulatives, glide smoothly and gently along, and are a proof of sedateness and leisure in the speaker."--_Id., ib._, ii, 33. "Antithesis ought only to be occasionally studied, when it is naturally demanded by the comparison or opposition of objects."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 102. "Did men always think clearly, and were they at the same time fully masters of the language in which they write, there would be occasion for few rules."--_Ib._, 102. "Rhetoric, or oratory, is the art of speaking justly, methodically, floridly, and copiously, upon any subject, in order to touch the passions, and to persuade."--_Bradley's Literary Guide_, p. 155. "The more closely we follow the natural order of any subject we may be investigating, the more satisfactorily and explicitly will that subject be opened to our understanding."--_Gurney's Essays_, p. 160. "Why should we doubt of that, whereof our sense Finds demonstration from experience? Our minds are here, and there, below, above; Nothing that's mortal, can so swiftly move."--_Denham_. LESSON II.--PARSING. "If we can discern particularly and precisely what it is, which is most directly obedience or disobedience to the will and commands of God; what is truly morally beautiful, or really and absolutely deformed; the question concerning liberty, as far as it respects ethics, or morality, will be sufficiently decided."--_West, on Agency_, p. xiii. "Thus it was true, historically, individually, philosophically, and universally, that they did not like to retain God in their knowledge."--_Cox, on Christianity_, p. 327. "We refer to Jeremiah Evarts and Gordon Hall. They had their imperfections, and against them they struggled discreetly, constantly, successfully, until they were fitted to ascend to their rest."--_N. Y. Observer_, Feb. 2d, 1833. "Seek not proud riches; but such as thou mayst get justly, use soberly, distribute cheerfully and leave contentedly."--_Ld. Bacon._ "There are also some particularly grievous sins, of which conscience justly accuses us; sins committed more or less presumptuously and willingly, deliberately and repeatedly."--_Bickersteth, on Prayer_, p. 59. "And herein I apprehend myself now to suffer wrongfully, being slanderously reported, falsely accused, shamefully and despitefully used, and hated without a cause."--_Jenks's Prayers_, p. 173. "Of perfect knowledge, see, the dawning light Foretells a noon most exquisitely bright! Here, springs of endless joy are breaking forth! There, buds the promise of celestial worth!"--_Young._ LESSON III--PARSING. "A true friend unbosoms freely, advises justly, assists readily, adventures boldly, takes all patiently, defends courageously, and continues a friend unchangeably."--_Penn's Maxims._ "That mind must be wonderfully narrow, that is wholly wrapped up in itself; but this is too visibly the character of most human minds."--_Burgh's Dignity_, ii, 35. "There is not a man living, who wishes more sincerely than I do, to see a plan adopted for the abolition of slavery; but there is only one proper and effectual mode by which it can be accomplished, and that is, by legislative authority."--_Geo. Washington_, 1786. "Sloth has frequently and justly been denominated the rust of the soul. The habit is easily acquired; or, rather, it is a part of our very nature to be indolent."--_Student's Manual_, p. 176. "I am aware how improper it is to talk much of my wife; never reflecting how much more improper it is to talk much of myself."--_Home's Art of Thinking_, p. 89. "Howbeit whereinsoever any is bold, (I speak foolishly,) I am bold also. Are they Hebrews? so am I. Are they Israelites? so am I. Are they the seed of Abraham? so am I. Are they ministers of Christ? (I speak as a fool,) I am more."--_2 Cor._, xi. "Oh, speak the wondrous man! how mild, how calm, How greatly humble, how divinely good, How firm establish'd on eternal truth."--_Thomson_. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. ERRORS RESPECTING ADVERBS. "We can much easier form the conception of a fierce combat."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 167. [FORMULE--Not proper, because the adjective _easier_ is used as an adverb, to qualify the verb _can form._ But, according to Observation 4th on the Modifications of Adverbs, "The using of adjectives for adverbs, is in general a plain violation of grammar." Therefore, _easier_ should be _more easily_; thus, "We can much _more easily_ form the conception of a fierce combat."] "When he was restored, agreeable to the treaty, he was a perfect savage."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 235. "How I shall acquit myself suitable to the importance of the trial."--_Duncan's Cic._, p. 85. "Can any thing show your holiness how unworthy you treat mankind?"--_Spect._, No. 497. "In what other [language,] consistent with reason and common sense, can you go about to explain it to him?"--_Lowth's Gram., Pref._, p. viii. "Agreeable to this rule, the short vowel Sheva has two characters."--_Wilson's Hebrew Gram._, p. 46. "We shall give a remarkable fine example of this figure."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 347. "All of which is most abominable false."--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 431. "He heaped up great riches, but passed his time miserable."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, ii, 202. "He is never satisfied with expressing any thing clearly and simple."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 96. "Attentive only to exhibit his ideas clear and exact, he appears dry."--_Ib._, p. 100. "Such words as have the most liquids and vowels, glide the softest."--_Ib._, p. 129. "The simplest points, such as are easiest apprehended."--_Ib._, p. 312. "Too historical, to be accounted a perfect regular epic poem."--_Ib._, p. 441. "Putting after them the oblique case, agreeable to the French construction."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 108. "Where the train proceeds with an extreme slow pace."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 151. "So as scarce to give an appearance of succession."--_Ib._, i, 152. "That concord between sound and sense, which is perceived in some expressions independent of artful pronunciation."--_Ib._, ii, 63. "Cornaro had become very corpulent, previous to the adoption of his temperate habits."--_Hitchcock, on Dysp._, p. 396. "Bread, which is a solid and tolerable hard substance."--_Sandford and Merton_, p. 38. "To command every body that was not dressed as fine as himself."--_Ib._, p, 19. "Many of them have scarce outlived their authors."--_Pref. to Lily's Gram._, p. ix. "Their labour, indeed, did not penetrate very deep."--_Wilson's Heb. Gram._, p. 30. "The people are miserable poor, and subsist on fish."--_Hume's Hist._, ii, 433. "A scale, which I took great pains, some years since, to make."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 81. "There is no truth on earth so well established as the truth of the Bible."--_Taylor's District School_, p. 288. "I know of no work so much wanted as the one Mr. Taylor has now furnished."--DR. NOTT: _ib._, p. ii. "And therefore their requests are seldom and reasonable."--_Taylor_: _ib._, p. 58. "Questions are easier proposed than rightly answered."--_Dillwyn's Reflections_, p. 19. "Often reflect on the advantages you possess, and on the source from whence they are all derived."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 374. "If there be no special Rule which requires it to be put forwarder."--_Milnes's Greek Gram._, p. 234. "The Masculine and Neuter have the same Dialect in all Numbers, especially when they end the same."--_Ib._, p. 259. "And children are more busy in their play Than those that wisely'st pass their time away."--_Butler_, p. 163. CHAPTER IX.--CONJUNCTIONS. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected: as, "Thou _and_ he are happy, _because_ you are good."--_Murray_. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--Our connective words are of four kinds; namely, relative pronouns, conjunctive adverbs,[312] conjunctions, and prepositions. These have a certain resemblance to one another, so far as they are all of them _connectives_; yet there are also characteristical differences by which they may in general be easily distinguished. Relative pronouns represent antecedents, and stand in those relations which we call cases; conjunctive adverbs assume the connective power in addition to their adverbial character, and consequently sustain a double relation; conjunctions, (except the introductory correspondents,) join words or sentences together, showing their relation either to each other or to something else; prepositions, though naturally subject themselves to something going before, assume the government of the terms which follow them, and in this they differ from all the rest. OBS. 2.--Conjunctions do not express any of the real objects of the understanding, whether things, qualities, or actions, but rather the several modes of connexion or contrast under which these objects are contemplated. Hence conjunctions were said by Aristotle and his followers to be in themselves "devoid of signification;" a notion which Harris, with no great propriety, has adopted in his faulty definition[313] of this part of speech. It is the office of this class of particles, to link together words, phrases, or sentences, that would otherwise appear as loose shreds, or unconnected aphorisms; and thus, by various forms of dependence, to give to discourse such continuity as may fit it to convey a connected train of thought or reasoning. The skill or inability of a writer may as strikingly appear in his management of these little connectives, as in that of the longest and most significant words in the language. "The current is often evinced by the straws, And the course of the wind by the flight of a feather; So a speaker is known by his _ands_ and his _ors_, Those stitches that fasten his patchwork together."--_Robert F. Mott_. OBS. 3.--Conjunctions sometimes connect entire sentences, and sometimes particular words or phrases only. When one whole sentence is closely linked with an other, both become clauses or members of a more complex sentence; and when one word or phrase is coupled with an other, both have in general a common dependence upon some other word in the same sentence. In etymological parsing, it may be sufficient to name the conjunction as such, and repeat the definition above; but, in syntactical parsing, the learner should always specify the terms connected. In many instances, however, he may conveniently abbreviate his explanation, by parsing the conjunction as connecting "what precedes and what follows;" or, if the terms are transposed, as connecting its own clause to the second, to the third, or to some other clause in the context. OBS. 4.--However easy it may appear, for even the young parser to _name the terms_ which in any given instance are connected by the conjunction, and of course to know for himself _what these terms are_,--that is, to know what the conjunction does or does not, connect,--it is certain that a multitude of grammarians and philosophers, great and small, from Aristotle down to the latest modifier of Murray, or borrower from his text, have been constantly contradicting one an other, if not themselves, in relation to this matter. Harris avers, that "the Conjunction connects, _not Words, but Sentences_;" and frames his definition accordingly. See _Hermes_, p. 237. This doctrine is true of some of the conjunctions, but it is by no means true of them all. He adds, in a note, "Grammarians have usually considered the Conjunction as connecting rather single Parts of Speech, than whole Sentences, and that too with the addition of like with like, Tense with Tense, Number with Number, Case with Case, &c. This _Sanctius_ justly explodes."--_Ib._, p. 238. If such has been the usual doctrine of the grammarians, they have erred on the one side, as much as our philosopher, and his learned authorities, on the other. For, in this instance, Harris's quotations of Latin and Greek writers, prove only that Sanctius, Scaliger, Apollonius, and Aristotle, held the same error that he himself had adopted;--the error which Latham and others now inculcate, that, "There are always _two propositions_ where there is one Conjunction."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, 8vo, 1850, p. 557. OBS. 5.--The common doctrine of L. Murray and others, that, "Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of verbs, and cases of nouns and pronouns," is not only badly expressed, but is pointedly at variance with their previous doctrine, that, "Conjunctions very often unite sentences, when they appear to unite only words; as in the following instances: 'Duty _and_ interest forbid vicious indulgences;' 'Wisdom _or_ folly governs us.' Each of these forms of expression," they absurdly say, "contains two sentences."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 124; _Smith's_, 95; _Fisk's_, 84; _Ingersoll's_, 81. By "_the same moods, tenses_, or _cases_," we must needs here understand some _one mood, tense_, or _case_, in which the connected words _agree_; and, if the conjunction has any thing to do with this agreement, or sameness of mood, tense, or case, it must be because words only, and not sentences, are connected by it. Now, _if, that, though, lest, unless_, or any other conjunction that introduces the subjunctive, will almost always be found to connect different moods, or rather to subjoin one sentence to another in which there is a different mood. On the contrary, _and, as, even, than, or_, and _nor_, though they may be used to connect sentences, do, in very many instances, connect words only; as, "The _king and queen_ are an amiable pair."--_Murray._ "And a being of _more than human_ dignity stood before me."--_Dr. Johnson._ It cannot be plausibly pretended, that _and_ and _than_, in these two examples, connect clauses or sentences. So _and_ and _or_, in the examples above, connect the nouns only, and not "sentences:" else our common rules for the agreement of verbs or pronouns with words connected, are nothing but bald absurdities. It is idle to say, that the construction and meaning are not _what they appear to be_; and it is certainly absurd to contend, that conjunctions always connect sentences; or always, words only. One author very strangely conceives, that, "Conjunctions may be said either always to connect words only, or always to connect sentences, _according to the view which may be taken of them_ in analyzing."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 77. OBS. 6.--"Several words belonging to other parts of speech, are occasionally used as conjunctions. Such are the following: _provided, except_, verbs; _both_, an adjective; _either, neither, that_, pronouns; _being, seeing_, participles; _before, since, for_, prepositions. I will do it, _provided_ you lend some help. Here _provided_ is a conjunction, that connects the two sentences. 'Paul said, _Except_ these abide in the ship, ye cannot be saved.' Here _except_ is a conjunction. _Excepting_ is also used as a participle and conjunction. '_Being_ this reception of the gospel was so anciently foretold.'--_Bishop Pearson._ '_Seeing_ all the congregation are holy.'--_Bible_. Here _being_ and _seeing_ are used as conjunctions."--_Alexander's Gram_:, p. 50. 'The foregoing remark, though worthy of some attention, is not altogether accurate. _Before_, when it connects sentences, is not a conjunction, but a conjunctive adverb. _Provided_, as cited above, resembles not the verb, but the perfect participle. _Either_ and _neither_, when they are not conjunctions, are pronominal adjectives, rather than pronouns. And, to say, that, "words _belonging to other parts of speech_, are used as _conjunctions_," is a sort of solecism, which leaves the learner in doubt to what class they _really_ belong. _Being_, and _being that_, were formerly used in the sense of _because, since, or seeing that_; (Lat. _cum, quoniam_, or _quando_;) but this usage is now obsolete. So there is an uncommon or obsolete use of _without_, in the sense of _unless_, or _except_; (Lat. _nisi_;) as, "He cannot rise _without_ he be helped." _Walker's Particles_, p. 425. "Non potest _nisi_ adjutus exsurgere."--_Seneca._ CLASSES. Conjunctions are divided into two general classes, _copulative_ and _disjunctive_; and a few of each class are particularly distinguished from the rest, as being _corresponsive_. I. A _copulative conjunction_ is a conjunction that denotes an addition, a cause, a consequence, or a supposition: as, "He _and_ I shall not dispute; _for, if_ he has any choice, I shall readily grant it." II. A _disjunctive conjunction_ is a conjunction that denotes opposition of meaning: as, "_Though_ he were dead, _yet_ shall he live."--_St. John's Gospel_. "Be not faithless, _but_ believing."--_Id._ III. The _corresponsive conjunctions_ are those which are used in pairs, so that one refers or answers to the other: as, "John came _neither_ eating _nor_ drinking."--_Matt._, xi, 18. "But _if_ I cast out devils by the Spirit of God, _then_ the kingdom of God is come unto you."--_Ib._, xii, 28. OBS.--Not all terms which stand in the relation of correspondents, or corresponsives, are therefore to be reckoned _conjunctions_; nor are both words in each pair always of the same part of speech: some are adverbs; one or two are adjectives; and sometimes a conjunction answers to a preceding adverb. But, if a word is seen to be the mere precursor, index, introductory sign, or counterpart, of a conjunction, and has no relation or import which should fix it in any other of the ten classes called parts of speech, it is, clearly, a conjunction,--a _corresponding_ or _corresponsive_ conjunction. It is a word used _preparatively_, "to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected." LIST OF THE CONJUNCTIONS. 1. The Copulatives; _And, as, both, because, even, for, if, that, then, since, seeing, so_. 2. The Disjunctives; _Or, nor, either, neither, than, though, although, yet, but, except, whether, lest, unless, save, provided, notwithstanding, whereas_. 3. The Corresponsives; _Both--and; as--as; as--so; if--then; either--or_; _neither--nor; whether--or; though_, or _although--yet_. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--By some writers, the words, _also, since, too, then, therefore_, and _wherefore_, are placed among the copulative conjunctions; and _as, so, still, however_, and _albeit_, among the disjunctive; but Johnson and Webster have marked most of these terms as _adverbs_ only. It is perhaps of little moment, by which name they are called; for, in some instances, conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs do not differ very essentially. _As, so, even, then, yet_, and _but_, seem to belong sometimes to the one part of speech, and sometimes to the other. I call them adverbs when they chiefly express time, manner, or degree; and conjunctions when they appear to be mere connectives. _As, yet_, and _but_, are generally conjunctions; but _so, even_, and _then_, are almost always adverbs. _Seeing_ and _provided_, when used as connectives, are more properly conjunctions than any thing else; though Johnson ranks them with the adverbs, and Webster, by supposing many awkward ellipses, keeps them with the participles. Examples: "For these are not drunken, as ye suppose, _seeing_ it is but the third hour of the day."--_Acts_, ii, 15. "The senate shall have power to adjourn themselves, _provided_ such adjournment shall not exceed two days at a time."--_Constitution of New Hampshire_. OBS. 2.--_Since_, when it governs a noun after it, is a preposition: as, "Hast thou commanded the morning _since thy days_?"--_Job_. _Albeit_ is equivalent in sense to _although_, and is properly a conjunction; but this old compound is now nearly or quite obsolete. _As_ is sometimes a relative pronoun, sometimes a conjunctive adverb, and sometimes a copulative conjunction. Example of the last: "We present ourselves _as_ petitioners." If _as_ is ever disjunctive, it is not so here; nor can we parse it as an adverb, because it comes between two words that are essentially in apposition. The equivalent Latin term _quasi_ is called an adverb, but, in such a case, not very properly: as, "Et colles _quasi_ pulverem pones;"--"And thou shalt make the hills _as_ chaff."--_Isaiah_, xli, 15. So _even_, which in English is frequently a sign of emphatic repetition, seems sometimes to be rather a conjunction than an adverb: as, "I, _even_ I, am the Lord."--_Isaiah_, xliii, 11. OBS. 3.--_Save_ and _saving_, when they denote exception, are not adverbs, as Johnson denominates them, or a verb and a participle, as Webster supposes them to be, or prepositions, as Covell esteems them, but disjunctive conjunctions; and, as such, they take the same case after as before them; as, "All the conspirators, _save_ only _he_, did that they did, in envy of great Cæsar."--_Shak._ "All this world's glory seemeth vain, and all their shows but shadows, _saving she_."--_Spenser_. "Israel burned none of them, _save Hazor_ only."--_Joshua_. xi, 13. "And none of them was cleansed, _saving Naaman_ the Syrian."--_Luke_, iv, 27. _Save_ is not here a transitive verb, for Hazor was not _saved_ in any sense, but utterly destroyed; nor is Naaman here spoken of as _being saved by an other leper_, but as being cleansed when others were not. These two conjunctions are now little used; and therefore the propriety of setting the nominative after them and treating them as conjunctions, is the more apt to be doubted. The Rev. Matt. Harrison, after citing five examples, four of which have the nominative with _save_, adds, without naming the part of speech, or assigning any reason, this decision, which I think erroneous: "In all these passages, _save_ requires after it the objective case." His five examples are these: "All, _save_ I, were at rest, and enjoyment."-- _Frankenstein_. "There was no stranger with us, in the house, _save we_ two."--_1 Kings_, iii, 18. "And nothing wanting is, _save she_, alas!" --DRUMMOND _of Hawthornden_. "When all slept sound, _save she_, who bore them both." --ROGERS, _Italy_, p. 108. "And all were gone, _save him_, who now kept guard." --_Ibid._, p. 185. OBS. 4.--The conjunction _if_ is sometimes used in the Bible to express, not a supposition of what follows it, but an emphatic negation: as, "I have sworn in my wrath, _if_ they shall enter into my rest."--_Heb._, iv, 3. That is, _that they shall not enter_. The same peculiarity is found in the Greek text, and also in the Latin, and other versions. _Or_, in the obsolete phrase, "_or ever_," is not properly a conjunction, but a conjunctive adverb of time, meaning _before_. It is supposed to be a corruption of _ere_: as, "I was set up from everlasting, from the beginning, _or ever_ the earth was."--_Prov._, viii, 23. "And we, _or ever_ he come near, are ready to kill him."--_Acts_, xxiii, 15. This term derives no support from the original text. OBS. 5.--There are some peculiar phrases, or combinations of words, which have the force of conjunctions, and which it is not very easy to analyze satisfactorily in parsing: as, "And _for all_ there were so many, yet was not the net broken."--_John_, xxi, 11. Here _for all_ is equivalent to _although_, or _notwithstanding_; either of which words would have been more elegant. _Nevertheless_ is composed of three words, and is usually reckoned a conjunctive adverb; but it might as well be called a disjunctive conjunction, for it is obviously equivalent to _yet, but_, or _notwithstanding_; as, "I am crucified with Christ: _nevertheless_ I live; _yet not_ I, _but_ Christ liveth in me."--_Gal._, ii, 20. Here, for _nevertheless_ and _but_, we have in the Greek the same particle [Greek: de]. "Each man's mind has some peculiarity, _as well as_ his face."--_Locke_. "Relative pronouns, _as well as_ conjunctions, serve to connect sentences."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 124. Here the first _as_ corresponds to the second, but _well_ not being used in the literal sense of an adverb, some judicious grammarians take the whole phrase as a conjunction. It is, however, susceptible of division: as, "It is adorned with admirable pieces of sculpture, _as well_ modern _as_ ancient."--_Addison_. OBS. 6.--So the phrases, _for as much as, in as much as, in so much that_, if taken collectively, have the nature of conjunctions; yet they contain within themselves correspondent terms and several different parts of speech. The words are sometimes printed separately, and sometimes partly together. Of late years, _forasmuch, inasmuch, insomuch_, have been usually compounded, and called adverbs. They might as well, perhaps, be called conjunctions, as they were by some of our old grammarians; for two conjunctions sometimes come together: as, "Answering their questions, _as if_[314] it were a matter that needed it."--_Locke_. "These should be at first gently treated, _as though_ we expected an imposthumation,"--_Sharp_. "But there are many things which we must acknowledge to be true, _notwithstanding that_ we cannot comprehend them."--_Beattie's Moral Science_, p. 211. "There is no difference, _except that_ some are heavier than others."--"We may be playful, _and yet_ innocent; grave, _and yet_ corrupt."--_Murray's Key_, p. 166. OBS. 7.--Conjunctions have no grammatical modifications, and are consequently incapable of any formal agreement or disagreement with other words; yet their import as connectives, copulative or disjunctive, must be carefully observed, lest we write or speak them improperly. Example of error: "Prepositions are _generally set before_ nouns _and_ pronouns."--_Wilbur's Gram._, p. 20. Here _and_ should be _or_; because, although a preposition usually governs a noun _or_ a pronoun, it seldom governs both at once. And besides, the assertion above seems very naturally to mean, that nouns and pronouns _are generally preceded_ by prepositions--as gross an error as dullness could invent! L. Murray also says of prepositions: "They are, _for the most_ part, put before nouns _and_ pronouns."--_Gram._, p. 117. So Felton: "They generally stand before nouns _and_ pronouns."--_Analytic and Prac. Gram._, p. 61. The blunder however came originally from Lowth, and out of the following admirable enigma: "Prepositions, _standing by themselves in construction_, are put before nouns _and_ pronouns; _and_ sometimes after verbs; but _in this sort of composition_ they are _chiefly prefixed_ to verbs: as, _to outgo, to overcome_."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 66. OBS. 8.--The opposition suggested by the disjunctive particle _or_, is sometimes merely nominal, or verbal: as, "That object is a triangle, _or_ figure contained under three right lines."--_Harris_. "So if we say, that figure is a sphere, _or_ a globe, _or_ a ball."--_Id., Hermes_, p. 258. In these cases, the disjunction consists in nothing but an alternative of words; for the terms connected describe or name the same thing. For this sense of _or_, the Latins had a peculiar particle, _sive_, which they called _Subdisjunctiva_, a _Subdisjunctive_: as, "Alexander _sive_ Paris; Mars _sive_ Mavors."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 258. In English, the conjunction _or_ is very frequently equivocal: as, "They were both more ancient than Zoroaster _or_ Zerdusht."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 250; _Murray's Gram._, p. 297. Here, if the reader does not happen to know that _Zoroaster_ and _Zerdusht_ mean the same person, he will be very likely to mistake the sense. To avoid this ambiguity, we substitute, (in judicial proceedings,) the Latin adverb _alias, otherwise_; using it as a conjunction subdisjunctive, in lieu of _or_, or the Latin _sive_: as, "Alexander, _alias_ Ellick."--"Simson, _alias_ Smith, _alias_ Baker."--_Johnson's Dict._ EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. PRAXIS IX.--ETYMOLOGICAL. _In the Ninth Praxis, it is required of the pupil--to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the_ ARTICLES, NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, PRONOUNS, VERBS, PARTICIPLES, ADVERBS, _and_ CONJUNCTIONS. _The definitions to be given in the Ninth Praxis, are two for an article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, six for a pronoun, seven for a verb finite, five for an infinitive, two for a participle, two (and sometimes three) for an adverb, two for a conjunction,--and one for a preposition, or an interjection. Thus_:-- EXAMPLE PARSED. "If thou hast done a good deed, boast not of it."--_Maxims_. _If_ is a copulative conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected. 2. A copulative conjunction is a conjunction that denotes an addition, a cause, a consequence, or a supposition. _Thou_ is a personal pronoun, of the second person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. 3. The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or the person addressed. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb. _Hast done_ is an irregular active-transitive verb, from _do, did, doing, done_; found in the indicative mood, perfect tense, second person, and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_ or _to be acted upon_. 2. An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming _d_ or _ed_. 3. An active-transitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has some person or thing for its object. 4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5. The perfect tense is that which expresses what has taken place, within some period of time not yet fully past. 6. The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or the person addressed. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one. _A_ is the indefinite article. 1. An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The indefinite article is _an_ or _a_, which denotes one thing of a kind, but not any particular one. _Good_ is a common adjective, of the positive degree; compared irregularly, _good, better, best_. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3. The positive degree is that which is expressed by the adjective in its simple form. _Deed_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle or preposition. _Boast_ is a regular active-intransitive verb, from _boast, boasted, boasting, boasted_; found in the imperative mood, present tense, second person, and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_ or _to be acted upon_. 2. A regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming _d_ or _ed_. 3. An active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has no person or thing for its object. 4. The imperative mood is that form of the verb, which is used in commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting. 5. The present tense is that which expresses what now exists, or is taking place. 6. The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or the person addressed. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one. _Not_ is an adverb or manner, expressing negation. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. 2. Adverbs of manner are those which answer to the question, _How?_ or, by affirming, denying, or doubting, show _how_ a subject is regarded. _Of_ is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. _It_ is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. LESSON I.--PARSING. "In all gratifications, disgust ever lies nearest to the highest pleasures; and therefore let us not marvel, if this is peculiarly the case in eloquence. By glancing at either poets or orators, we may easily satisfy ourselves, that neither a poem nor an oration which aims continually at what is fine, showy, and sparkling, can please us long. Wherefore, though we may wish for the frequent praise of having expressed ourselves well and properly, we should not covet repeated applause for being bright and splendid."--CICERO, _de Oratore_. "The foundation of eloquence, as well as of every other high attainment, is practical wisdom. For it happens in oratory, as in life, that nothing is more difficult, than to discern what is proper and becoming. Through lack of such discernment, gross faults are very often committed. For neither to all ranks, fortunes, and ages, nor to every time, place, and auditory, can the same style either of language or of sentiment be adapted. In every part of a discourse, as in every part of life, we must consider what is suitable and decent; and this must be determined with reference both to the matter in question, and to the personal character of those who speak and those who hear."--CICERO, _Orator ad Brutum_. "So spake th' Omnipotent, and with his words All seem'd well pleas'd; all seem'd, but were not all."--_Milton_. LESSON II.--PARSING. "A square, though not more regular than a hexagon or an octagon, is more beautiful than either: for what reason, but that a square is more simple, and the attention is less divided?"--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 175. "We see the material universe in motion; but matter is inert; and, so far as we know, nothing can move it but mind: therefore God is a spirit. We do not mean that his nature is the same as that of our soul; for it is infinitely more excellent. But we mean, that he possesses intelligence and active power in supreme perfection; and, as these qualities do not belong to matter, which is neither active nor intelligent, we must refer them to that which is not matter, but mind."--_Beattie's Moral Science_, p. 210. "Men are generally permitted to publish books, and contradict others, and even themselves, as they please, with as little danger of being confuted, as of being understood."--_Boyle_. "Common reports, if ridiculous rather than dangerous, are best refuted by neglect."--_Kames's Thinking_, p. 76. "No man is so foolish, but that he may give good counsel at a time; no man so wise, but he may err, if he take no counsel but his own."--_Ib._, p. 97. "Young heads are giddy, and young hearts are warm, And make mistakes for manhood to reform."--_Cowper_. LESSON III.--PARSING. "The Nouns denote substances, and those either natural, artificial, or abstract. They moreover denote things either general, or special, or particular. The Pronouns, their substitutes, are either prepositive, or subjunctive."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 85. "In a thought, generally speaking, there is at least one capital object considered as acting or as suffering. This object is expressed by a substantive noun: its action is expressed by an active verb; and the thing affected by the action is expressed by an other substantive noun: its suffering, or passive state, is expressed by a passive verb; and the thing that acts upon it, by a substantive noun. Beside these, which are the capital parts of a sentence, or period, there are generally underparts; each of the substantives, as well as the verb, may be qualified: time, place, purpose, motive, means, instrument, and a thousand other circumstances, may be necessary to complete the thought."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 34. "Yet those whom pride and dullness join to blind, To narrow cares and narrow space confined, Though with big titles each his fellow greets, Are but to wits, as scavengers to streets."--_Mallet_. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. ERRORS RESPECTING CONJUNCTIONS. "A Verb is so called from the Latin _verbum_, or _word._"--_Bucke's Classical Gram._, p. 56. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the conjunction _or_, connecting _verbum_ and _word_, supposes the latter to be _Latin_. But, according to Observation 7th, on the Classes of Conjunctions, "The import of connectives, copulative or disjunctive, must be carefully observed, lest we write or speak them improperly." In this instance, _or_ should be changed to _a_; thus, "A _Verb_ is so called from the Latin _verbum, a word_" that is, "which means, _a word_."] "References are often marked by letters and figures."--_Gould's Adam's Gram._, p. 283. (1.) "A Conjunction is a word which joins words and sentences together."--_Lennie's E. Gram._, p. 51; _Bullions's_, 70; _Brace's_, 57. (2.) "A conjunction is used to connect words and sentences together."--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 37. (3.) "A conjunction is used to connect words and sentences."--_Maunders Gram._, p. 1. (4.) "Conjunctions are words used to join words and sentences."--_Wilcox's Gram._, p. 3. (5.) "A Conjunction is a word used to connect words and sentences."-- _M'Culloch's Gram._, p. 36; _Hart's_, 92; _Day's_, 10. (6.) "A Conjunction joins words and sentences together."--_Mackintosh's Gram._, p. 115; _Hiley's_, 10 and 53. (7.) "The Conjunction joins words and sentences together."--_L. Murray's Gram._, 2d Edition, p. 28. (8.) "Conjunctions connect words and sentences to each other."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 35. (9.) "Conjunctions connect words and sentences."--_Wilcox's Gram._, p. 80; _Wells's_, 1st Ed., 159 and 168. (10.) "The conjunction is a part of speech used to connect words and sentences."--_Weld's Gram._, 2d Ed., p. 49. (11.) "A conjunction is a word used to connect words and sentences together."-- _Fowler's E. Gram._, §329. (12.) "Connectives are words which unite words and sentences in construction."--_Webster's Philos. Gram._, p. 123; _Improved Gram._, 81. "English Grammar is miserably taught in our district schools; the teachers know but little or nothing about it."--_Taylor's District School_, p. 48. "Least, instead of preventing, you draw on Diseases."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 40. "The definite article _the_ is frequently applied to adverbs in the comparative and superlative degree."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 33; _Ingersoll's_, 33; _Lennie's_, 6; _Bullions's_, 8; _Fisk's_, 53, and others. "When nouns naturally neuter are converted into masculine and feminine."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 38. "This form of the perfect tense represents an action completely past, and often at no great distance, but not specified."--_Ib._, p. 74. "The Conjunction Copulative serves to connect or to continue a sentence, by expressing an addition, a supposition, a cause, &c."--_Ib._, p. 123. "The Conjunction Disjunctive serves, not only to connect and continue the sentence, but also to express opposition of meaning in different degrees."--_Ib._, p. 123. "Whether we open the volumes of our divines, philosophers, historians, or artists, we shall find that they abound with all the terms necessary to communicate their observations and discoveries."--_Ib._, p. 138. "When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun, or pronoun, and a plural one, the verb is made to agree with the plural noun and pronoun."--_Ib._, p. 152: _R. G. Smith, Alger, Gomly, Merchant, Picket, et al._ "Pronouns must always agree with their antecedents, and the nouns for which they stand, in gender and number."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 154. "Verbs neuter do not act upon, or govern, nouns and pronouns."--_Ib._, p. 179. "And the auxiliary both of the present and past imperfect times."--_Ib._, p. 72. "If this rule should not appear to apply to every example, which has been produced, nor to others which might be adduced."--_Ib._, p. 216. "An emphatical pause is made, after something has been said of peculiar moment, and on which we desire to fix the hearer's attention."--_Ib._, p. 248; _Hart's Gram._, 175. "An imperfect phrase contains no assertion, or does not amount to a proposition or sentence."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 267. "The word was in the mouth of every one, but for all that, the subject may still be a secret."--_Ib._, p. 213. "A word it was in the mouth of every one, but for all that, as to its precise and definite idea, this may still be a secret."--_Harris's Three Treatises_, p. 5. "It cannot be otherwise, in regard that the French prosody differs from that of every other country in Europe."--_Smollett's Voltaire_, ix, 306. "So gradually as to allow its being engrafted on a subtonic."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 255. "Where the Chelsea or Maiden bridges now are."--_Judge Parker_. "Adverbs are words joined to verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs."--_Smith's Productive Gram._, p. 92. "I could not have told you, who the hermit was, nor on what mountain he lived."--_Bucke's Classical Gram._, p. 32. "_Am_, or _be_ (for they are the same) naturally, or in themselves signify _being_."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 113. "Words are distinct sounds, by which we express our thoughts and ideas."--_Infant School Gram._, p. 13. "His fears will detect him, but he shall not escape."--_Comly's Gram._, p. 64. "_Whose_ is equally applicable to persons or things."--WEBSTER _in Sanborn's Gram._, p. 95. "One negative destroys another, or is equivalent to an affirmative."-- _Bullions, Eng. Gram._, p. 118. "No sooner does he peep into The world, but he has done his do."--_Hudibras_. CHAPTER X.--PREPOSITIONS. A Preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun: as, "The paper lies _before_ me _on_ the desk." OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--The relations of things to things in nature, or of words to words in discourse, are infinite in number, if not also in variety. But just classification may make even infinites the subjects of sure science. Every _relation_ of course implies more objects, and more terms, than one; for any one thing, considered merely in itself, is taken independently, abstractly, irrelatively, as if it had no relation or dependence. In all correct language, the grammatical relation of the _words_ corresponds exactly to the relation of the _things_ or _ideas_ expressed; for the relation of words, is their dependence, or connexion, _according to the sense._ This relation is oftentimes immediate, as of one word to an other, without the intervention of a preposition; but it is seldom, if ever, reciprocally equal; because dependence implies subordination; and mere adjunction is a sort of inferiority. OBS. 2.--To a preposition, the _prior_ or _antecedent_ term may be a noun, an adjective, a pronoun, a verb, a participle, or an adverb; and the _subsequent_ or _governed_ term may be a noun, a pronoun, a pronominal adjective, an infinitive verb, or a participle. In some instances, also, as in the phrases, _in vain, on high, at once, till now, for ever, by how much, until then, from thence, from above_, we find adjectives used elliptically, and adverbs substantively, after the preposition. But, in phrases of an adverbial character, what is elsewhere a preposition often becomes an adverb. Now, if prepositions are concerned in expressing the various relations of so many of the different parts of speech, multiplied, as these relations must be, by that endless variety of combinations which may be given to the terms; and if the sense of the writer or speaker is necessarily mistaken, as often as any of these relations are misunderstood, or their terms misconceived; how shall we estimate the importance of a right explanation, and a right use, of this part of speech? OBS. 3.--The grammarian whom Lowth compliments, as excelling all others, in "acuteness of investigation, perspicuity of explication, and elegance of method;" and as surpassing all but Aristotle, in the beauty and perfectness of his philological analysis; commences his chapter on conjunctions in the following manner: "Connectives are the subject of what follows; which, _according_ as they connect _either Sentences or Words_, are called by the different _Names_ of _Conjunctions_ OR _Prepositions._ Of these Names, that of the Preposition is taken from a _mere accident_, as _it_ commonly stands in connection before _the Part, which it connects._ The name of the Conjunction, as is evident, has reference to its essential character. Of these two we shall consider the Conjunction _first_, because it connects, _not Words_, but Sentences."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 237. OBS. 4.--In point of order, it is not amiss to treat conjunctions before prepositions; though this is not the method of Lowth, or of Murray. But, to any one who is well acquainted with these two parts of speech, the foregoing passage cannot but appear, in three sentences out of the four, both defective in style and erroneous in doctrine. It is true, that conjunctions generally connect sentences, and that prepositions as generally express relations between particular words: but it is true also, that conjunctions _often_ connect words only; and that prepositions, by governing antecedents, relatives, or even personal pronouns, may serve to subjoin sentences to sentences, as well as to determine the relation and construction of the particular words which they govern. Example: "The path seems now plain and even, _but_ there are asperities and pitfalls, _over which_ Religion only can conduct you."--_Dr. Johnson._ Here are three simple sentences, which are made members of one compound sentence, by means of _but_ and _over which_; while two of these members, clauses, or subdivisions, contain particular words connected by _and._ OBS. 5.--In one respect, the preposition is the _simplest_ of all the parts of speech: in our common schemes of grammar, it has neither classes nor modifications. Every connective word that governs an object after it, is called a preposition, _because it does so_; and in etymological parsing, to name the preposition as such, and define the name, is, perhaps, all that is necessary. But in syntactical parsing, in which we are to omit the definitions, and state the construction, we ought to explain what terms the preposition connects, and to give a rule adapted to this office of the particle. It is a palpable defect in nearly all our grammars, that their syntax contains NO SUCH RULE. "Prepositions govern the objective case," is a rule for _the objective case_, and not for the syntax of _prepositions._ "Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them," is the principle for the latter; a principle which we cannot neglect, without a shameful lameness in our interpretation;--that is, when we pretend to parse syntactically. OBS. 6.--Prepositions and their objects very often precede the words on which they depend, and sometimes at a great distance. Of this we have an example, at the opening of Milton's Paradise Lost; where "_Of_," the first word, depends upon "_Sing_," in the sixth line below; for the meaning is--"_Sing of man's first disobedience_," &c. To find the terms of the relation, is to find the _meaning_ of the passage; a very useful exercise, provided the words have a meaning which is worth knowing. The following text has for centuries afforded ground of dispute, because it is doubtful in the original, as well as in many of the versions, whether the preposition _in_ (i. e., "_in the regeneration_") refers back to _have followed_, or forward to the last verb _shall sit_: "Verily I say unto you that ye who have followed me, _in_ the regeneration, when the Son of man shall sit _in_ the throne of his glory, ye also shall sit upon twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Israel."--_Matt._, xix, 28. The second _in_ is manifestly wrong: the Greek word is [Greek: epi], _on_ or _upon_; i. e., "_upon_ the throne of his glory." OBS. 7.--The prepositions have, from their own nature, or from custom, such an _adaptation_ to particular terms and relations, that they can seldom be used one for an other without manifest impropriety. Example of error: "Proper seasons should be allotted _for_ retirement."--_Murray's Key_, p. 173. We do not say "_allotted for_," but "_allotted to_:" hence _for_ is either wrong in itself or misplaced. Such errors always vex an intelligent reader. He sees the terms mismatched, the intended connection doubtful, the sense obscured, and wishes the author could have valued his own meaning enough to have made it intelligible;--that is, (to speak technically,) enough to have made it a certain clew to his syntax. We can neither parse nor correct what we do not understand. Did the writer mean, "Proper seasons should be _allotted to_ retirement?"--or, "Proper _seasons for_ retirement should be allotted?"--or, "Seasons _proper for_ retirement should be alloted?" [sic--KTH] Every expression is incorrigibly bad, the meaning of which cannot be known. Expression? Nay, expression it is not, but only a mock utterance or an abortive attempt at expression. OBS. 8.--Harris observes, in substance, though in other words, that almost all the prepositions were originally formed to denote relations of place; that this class of relations is primary, being that which natural bodies maintain at all times one to an other; that in the continuity of place these bodies form the universe, or visible whole; that we have some prepositions to denote the _contiguous_ relation of bodies, and others for the _detached_ relation; and that both have, by _degrees_, been extended from local relations, to the relations of subjects incorporeal. He appears also to assume, that, in such examples as the following,--"Caius _walketh with_ a staff; "--"The statue _stood upon_ a pedestal;"--"The river _ran over_ a sand;"--"He _is going_ to Turkey;"--"The sun _is risen_ above the hills;"--"These figs _came from_ Turkey;"--the antecedent term of the relation is not the verb, but the noun or pronoun before it. See _Hermes_, pp. 266 and 267. Now the true antecedent is, unquestionably, that word which, in the order of the sense, the preposition should immediately follow: and a verb, a participle, or an adjective, may sustain this relation, just as well as a substantive. "_The man spoke of colour_," does not mean, "_The man of colour spoke_;" nor does, "_The member from Delaware replied_," mean, "_The member replied from Delaware_" OBS. 9.--To make this matter more clear, it may be proper to observe further, that what I call the order of the sense, is not always that order of the words which is fittest to express the sense of a whole period; and that the true antecedent is that word to which the preposition, and its object would naturally be subjoined, were there nothing to interfere with such an arrangement. In practice it often happens, that the preposition and its object cannot be placed immediately after the word on which they depend, and which they would naturally follow. For example: "She hates the means _by which_ she lives." That is, "She hates the means which she _lives by_." Here we cannot say, "She hates the means she _lives by which_;" and yet, in regard to the preposition _by_, this is really the order of the sense. Again: "Though thou shouldest bray a fool _in a mortar among wheat with a pestle_, yet will not his foolishness depart from him."--_Prov._, xxvii, 23. Here is no transposition to affect our understanding of the prepositions, yet there is a liability to error, because the words which immediately precede some of them, are not their true antecedents: the text does not really speak of "_a mortar among wheat_" or of "_wheat with a pestle_." To what then are the _mortar_, the _wheat_, and the _pestle_, to be mentally subjoined? If all of them, to any one thing, it must be to the _action_ suggested by the verb _bray_, and not to its object _fool_; for the text does not speak of "_a fool with a pestle_," though it does _seem_ to speak of "_a fool in a mortar_, and _among wheat_." Indeed, in this instance, as in many others, the verb and its object are so closely associated that it makes but little difference in regard to the sense, whether you take both of them together, or either of them separately, as the antecedent to the preposition. But, as the instrument of an action is with the agent rather than with the object, if you will have the substantives alone for antecedents, the natural order of the sense must be supposed to be this: "Though _thou with_ a pestle shouldest bray a, _fool in_ a mortar [and] _among_ wheat, yet will not his _foolishness from_ him depart." This gives to each of the prepositions an antecedent different from that which I should assign. Sanborn observes, "There seem to be _two kinds_ of relation expressed by prepositions,--an _existing_ and a _connecting_ relation."--_Analyt. Gram._, p. 225. The latter, he adds, "_is the most important_."--_Ib._, p. 226. But it is the former that admits nothing but _nouns_ for antecedents. Others besides Harris may have adopted this notion, but I have never been one of the number, though a certain author scruples not to charge the error upon me. See _O. B Peirce's Gram._, p. 165. OBS. 10.--It is a very common error among grammarians, and the source of innumerable discrepancies in doctrine, as well as one of the chief means of maintaining their interminable disputes, that they suppose _ellipses_ at their own pleasure, and supply in every given instance just what words their fancies may suggest. In this work, I adopt for myself, and also recommend to others, the contrary course of avoiding on all occasions the supposition of any _needless_ ellipses. Not only may the same preposition govern more than one object, but there may also be more than one antecedent word, bearing a joint relation to that which is governed by the preposition. (1.) Examples of joint objects: "There is an inseparable connection BETWEEN _piety and virtue_."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 171. "In the conduct of Parmenio, a mixture OF _wisdom and folly_ was very conspicuous."--_Ib._, p. 178. "True happiness is an enemy TO _pomp and noise_"--_Ib._, p. 171. (2.) Examples of joint antecedents: "In unity consist the _welfare and security_ OF every society."--_Ib._, p. 182. "It is our duty to be _just and kind_ TO our fellow--creatures, and to be _pious and faithful_ TO Him that made us."--_Ib._, p. 181. If the author did not mean to speak of being _pious to God_ as well as _faithful to Him_, he has written incorrectly: a comma after _pious_, would alter both the sense and the construction. So the text, "For I am meek, and lowly in heart," is commonly perverted in our Bibles, for want of a comma after _meek_. The Saviour did not say, he was _meek in heart_: the Greek may be _very literally_ rendered thus: "For gentle am I, and humble in heart." OBS. 11.--Many writers seem to suppose, that no preposition can govern more than one object. Thus L. Murray, and his followers: "The ellipsis of the _preposition_, as well as of the verb, is seen in the following instances: 'He went into the abbeys, halls, and public buildings;' that is, 'He went into the abbeys, he went into the halls, and he went into the public buildings.'--'He also went through all the streets, and lanes of the city;' that is, 'Through all the streets, and through all the lanes,' &c."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 219. See the same interpretations in _Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 155; _Merchant's_, 100; _Picket's_, 211; _Alger's_, 73; _Fish's_, 147; _Guy's_, 91; _Adams's_, 82; _R. C. Smith's_, 183; _Hamlin's_, 105; _Putnam's_, 139; _Weld's_, 292. Now it is plain, that in neither of these examples is there any such ellipsis at all. Of the three prepositions, the first governs three nouns; the second, two; and the third, one only. But the last, (which is _of_,) has two antecedents, _streets_ and _lanes_, the comma after _streets_ being wrong; for the author does not speak of all the streets in the world, but of _all the streets and lanes_ of a particular city. Dr. Ash has the same example without the comma, and supposes it only an ellipsis of the preposition _through_, and even that supposition is absurd. He also furnished the former example, to show an ellipsis, not of the verb _went_, but only of the preposition _into_; and in this too he was utterly wrong. See _Ash's Gram._, p. 100. Bicknell also, whose grammar appeared five years before Murray's, confessedly copied the same examples from Ash; and repeated, not the verb and its nominative, but only the prepositions _through_ and _into_, agreeably to Ash's erroneous notion. See his _Grammatical Wreath_, Part i, p. 124. Again the principles of Murray's supposed ellipses, are as inconsistent with each other, as they are severally absurd. Had the author explained the second example according to his notion of the first, he should have made it to mean, '_He also went_ through all the streets _of the city_, and _he also went_ through all the lanes _of the city_.' What a pretty idea is this for a principle of grammar! And what a multitude of admirers are pretending to carry it out in parsing! One of the latest writers on grammar says, that, "_Between him and me_" signifies, "_Between him, and between me_!"--_Wright's Philosophical Gram._, p. 206. And an other absurdly resolves a simple sentence into a compound one, thus: "'There was a difficulty between John, and his brother.' That is, there was a difficulty between John, and _there was a difficulty between_ his brother."--_James Brown's English Syntax_, p. 127; and again, p. 130. OBS. 12.--Two prepositions are not unfrequently connected by a conjunction, and that for different purposes, thus: (1.) To express two different relations at once; as, "The picture of my travels _in and around_ Michigan."--_Society in America_, i, 231. (2.) To suggest an alternative in the relation affirmed; as, "The action will be fully accomplished _at or before_ the time."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 72. Again: "The First Future Tense represents the action as yet to come, _either with or without_ respect to the precise time."--_Ib._; and _Felton's Gram._, p. 23. _With_ and _without_ being direct opposites, this alternative is a thing of course, and the phrase is an idle truism. (3.) To express two relations so as to affirm the one and deny the other; as, "Captain, yourself are the fittest to live and reign not _over_, but next and immediately _under_ the people."--_Dryden_. Here, perhaps, "_the people_" may be understood after _over_. (4.) To suggest a mere alternative of words; as, "NEGATIVELY, adv. _With or by_ denial."--_Webster's Dict._ (5.) To add a similar word, for aid or force; as, "Hence adverbs of time were necessary, _over and above_ the tenses."--See _Murray's Gram._, p. 116. "To take effect _from and after_ the first day of May."--_Newspaper_. OBS. 13.--In some instances, two prepositions come directly together, so as jointly to express a sort of compound relation between what precedes the one and what follows the other: as, "And they shall sever the wicked _from among_ the just."--_Matt._, xiii, 49. "Moses brought out all the rods _from before_ the Lord."--_Numb._, xvii, 9. "Come out _from among_ them."--_2 Cor._, vi, 17. "From Judea, and _from beyond_ Jordan."--_Matt_. iv, 25. "Nor a lawgiver _from between_ his feet."--_Gen._, xlix, 10. Thus the preposition _from_, being itself adapted to the ideas of motion and separation, easily coincides with any preposition of place, to express this sort of relation; the terms however have a limited application, being used only between _a verb_ and _a noun_, because the relation itself is between _motion_ and _the place_ of its beginning: as, "The sand _slided from beneath_ my feet."--_Dr. Johnson_. In this manner, we may form _complex prepositions_ beginning with _from_, to the number _of about_ thirty; as, _from amidst, from around, from before, from behind_, &c. Besides these, there are several others, of a more questionable character, which are sometimes referred to the same class; as, _according to, as to, as for, because of, instead of, off of, out of, over against_, and _round about_. Most or all of these are sometimes resolved in a different way, upon the assumption that the former word is an adverb; yet we occasionally find some of them compounded by the hyphen: as, "Pompey's lieutenants, Afranius and Petreius, who lay _over-against_ him, decamp suddenly."--_Rowe's Lucan_, Argument to B. iv. But the common fashion is, to write them separately; as, "One thing is set _over against_ an other."--_Bible_. OBS. 14.--It is not easy to fix a principle by which prepositions may in all cases be distinguished from adverbs. The latter, we say, do not govern the objective case; and if we add, that the former do _severally_ require some object after them, it is clear that any word which precedes a preposition, must needs be something else than a preposition. But this destroys all the doctrine of the preceding paragraph, and admits of no such thing as a _complex preposition_; whereas that doctrine is acknowledged, to some extent or other, by every one of our grammarians, not excepting even those whose counter-assertions leave no room for it. Under these circumstances, I see no better way, than to refer the student to the definitions of these parts of speech, to exhibit examples in all needful variety, and then let him judge for himself what disposition ought to be made of those words which different grammarians parse differently. OBS. 15.--If our prepositions were to be divided into classes, the most useful distinction would be, to divide them into _Single_ and _Double_. The distinction which some writers make, who divide them into "_Separable_ and _Inseparable_," is of no use at all in parsing, because the latter are mere syllables; and the idea of S. R. Hall, who divides them into "_Possessive_ and _Relative_," is positively absurd; for he can show us only _one_ of the former kind, and that one, (the word _of_,) is not always such. A _Double Preposition_, if such a thing is admissible, is one that consists of two words which in syntactical parsing must be taken together, because they jointly express the relation between two other terms; as, "The waters were dried up _from off_ the earth."--_Gen._, viii, 13. "The clergy kept this charge _from off_ us."--_Leslie, on Tithes_, p. 221. "Confidence in an unfaithful man in time of trouble, is like a broken tooth, and a foot _out of_ joint."--_Prov._, xxv, 19. "The beam _out of_ the timber shall answer it."--_Hab._, ii, 11. _Off_ and _out_ are most commonly adverbs, but neither of them can be called an adverb here. OBS. 16.--Again, if _according to_ or _as to_ is a preposition, then is _according_ or _as_ a preposition also, although it does not of itself govern the objective case. _As_, thus used, is called a conjunction by some, an adverb by others. Dr. Webster considers _according_ to be always a participle, and expressly says, "It is never a preposition."--_Octavo Dict._ The following is an instance in which, if it is not a preposition, it is a participle: "This is a construction _not according_ to the rules of grammar."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. ii, p. 22. But _according to_ and _contrary to_ are expressed in Latin and Greek by single prepositions; and if _to_ alone is the preposition in English, then both _according_ and _contrary_ must, in many instances, be _adverbs_. Example: "For dost thou sit as judging me _according to_ the law, and _contrary_ to law command me to be smitten?" (See the Greek of Acts, xxiii, 3.) _Contrary_, though literally an adjective, is often made either an adverb, or a part of a complex preposition, unless the grammarians are generally in error respecting it: as, "Ha dares not act _contrary to_ his instructions."-- _Murray's Key_, p. 179. OBS. 17.--J. W. Wright, with some appearance of analogy on his side, but none of usage, everywhere adds _ly_ to the questionable word _according_; as, "We are usually estimated _accordingly to_ our company."-- _Philosophical Gram._, p. 127. "_Accordingly to_ the forms in which they are employed."--_Ib._, p. 137. "_Accordingly to_ the above principles, the _adjective_ ACCORDING (or _agreeable_) is frequently, but improperly, substituted for the adverb ACCORDINGLY (or _agreeably_.)"--_Ib._, p. 145. The word _contrary_ he does not notice; but, on the same principle, he would doubtless say, "He dares not act _contrarily_ to his instructions." We say indeed, "He acted _agreeably_ to his instructions;"--and not, "He acted _agreeable_ to his instructions." It must also be admitted, that the adverbs _accordingly_ and _contrarily_ are both of them good English words. If these were adopted, where the character of _according_ and _contrary_ is disputable, there would indeed be no longer any occasion to call these latter either adverbs or prepositions. But the fact is, that _no good writers have yet preferred them_, in such phrases; and the adverbial ending _ly_ gives an additional syllable to a word that seems already quite too long. OBS. 18.--_Instead_ is reckoned an adverb by some, a preposition by others; and a few write _instead-of_ with a needless hyphen. The best way of settling the grammatical question respecting this term, is, to write the noun _stead_ as a separate word, governed by _in_. Bating the respect that is due to anomalous usage, there would be more propriety in compounding _in quest of, in lieu of_, and many similar phrases. For _stead_ is not always followed by _of_, nor always preceded by _in_, nor always made part of a compound. We say, _in our stead, in your stead, in their stead_, &c.; but _lieu_, which has the same meaning as _stead_, is much more limited in construction. Examples: "In _the stead_ of sinners, He, a divine and human person, suffered."--_Barnes's Notes_. "Christ suffered in _the place_ and _stead_ of sinners."--_Ib._ "_For_, in its primary sense, is _pro, loco alterius_, in _the stead_ or _place_ of _another_."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 65. "If it may stand him more in _stead_ to lie." --_Milt., P. L._, B. i, l. 473. "But here thy sword can do thee little _stead_." --_Id., Comus_, l. 611. OBS. 19.--_From forth_ and _from out_ are two poetical phrases, apparently synonymous, in which there is a fanciful transposition of the terms, and perhaps a change of _forth_ and _out_ from adverbs to prepositions. Each phrase is equivalent in meaning to _out of_ or _out from. Forth_, under other circumstances, is never a preposition; though _out_, perhaps, may be. We speak as familiarly of going _out doors_, as of going _up stairs_, or _down cellar_. Hence _from out_ may be parsed as a complex preposition, though the other phrase should seem to be a mere example of hyperbaton: "I saw _from out_ the wave her structures rise."--_Byron_. "Peeping _from forth_ their alleys green."--_Collins_. OBS. 20.--"_Out of_ and _as to_," says one grammarian, "are properly prepositions, although they are double words. They may be called _compound_ prepositions."--_Cooper's Gram._, p. 103. I have called the _complex_ prepositions _double_ rather than _compound_, because several of the single prepositions are compound words; as, _into, notwithstanding, overthwart, throughout, upon, within, without_. And even some of these may follow the preposition _from_; as, "If he shall have removed _from within_ the limits of this state." But _in_ and _to, up_ and _on, with_ and _in_, are not always compounded when they come together, because the sense may positively demand that the former be taken as an adverb, and the latter only as a preposition: as, "I will come _in to_ him, and will sup with him."--_Rev._, iii, 20. "A statue of Venus was set _up on_ Mount Calvary."--_M'Ilvaine's Lectures_, p. 332. "The troubles which we meet _with in_ the world."--_Blair_. And even two prepositions may be brought together without union or coalescence; because the object of the first one may be expressed or understood _before_ it: as, "The man whom you spoke _within_ the street;"--"The treatment you complain _of on_ this occasion;"--"The house that you live _in in_ the summer;"--"Such a dress as she had _on in_ the evening." OBS. 21.--Some grammarians assume, that, "Two prepositions in immediate succession require a noun to be _understood_ between them; as, 'Hard by, a cottage chimney smokes, _From betwixt_ two aged oaks.'--'The mingling notes came softened _from below_.'"--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 105. This author would probably understand here--"From _the space_ betwixt two aged oaks;"--"came softened from _the region_ below _us_." But he did not consider all the examples that are included in his proposition; nor did he rightly regard even those which he cites. The doctrine will be found a very awkward one in practice; and an other objection to it is, that most of the ellipses which it supposes, are entirely imaginary. If there were truth in his assumption, the compounding of prepositions would be positively precluded. The terms _over-against_ and _round-about_ are sometimes written with the hyphen, and perhaps it would be well if all the complex prepositions were regularly compounded; but, as I before suggested, such is not the present fashion of writing them, and the general usage is not to be controlled by what any individual may think. OBS. 22.--Instances may, doubtless, occur, in which the object of a preposition is suppressed by ellipsis, when an other preposition follows, so as to bring together two that do not denote a compound relation, and do not, in any wise, form one complex preposition. Of such suppression, the following is an example; and, I think, a double one: "They take pronouns _after instead of before_ them."--_Fowler, E. Gram._, §521. This may be interpreted to mean, and probably does mean--"They take pronouns after _them_ in _stead_ of _taking them_ before them." OBS. 23.--In some instances, the words _in, on, of, for, to, with_, and others commonly reckoned prepositions, are used after infinitives or participles, in a sort of _adverbial_ construction, because they do not govern any objective; yet not exactly in the usual sense of adverbs, because they evidently express the relation between the verb or participle and a nominative or objective going before. Examples: "Houses are built to live _in_, and not to look _on_; therefore let use be preferred before uniformity, except where both may be had."--_Ld. Kames_. "These are not mysteries for ordinary readers to be let _into_."--ADDISON: _Joh. Dict., w. Let._ "Heaven is worth dying _for_, though earth is not worth living _for_."--_R. Hall_. "What! have ye not houses to eat and to drink _in_?"--_1 Cor._, xi, 22. This is a very peculiar idiom of our language; and if we say, "Have ye not houses _in which_ to eat and to drink?" we form _an other_ which is not much less so. Greek: "[Greek: Mæ gar oikias ouk echete eis to esthiein kai pinein];" Latin: "Num enim domos non habetis ad manducandum et bibendum?"--_Leusden_. "N'avez vous pas des maisons pour manger et pour boire?"--_French Bible_.[315] OBS. 24.--In OBS. 10th, of Chapter Fourth, on Adjectives, it was shown that words of _place_, (such as, _above, below, beneath, under_, and the like,) are sometimes set before nouns in the character of adjectives, and not of prepositions: as, "In the _above_ list,"--"From the _above_ list."--_Bullions', E. Gram._, p. 70. To the class of adjectives also, rather than to that of adverbs, may some such words be referred, when, without governing the objective case, they are put _after_ nouns to signify place: as, "The _way_ of life is _above_ to the wise, that he may depart from _hell beneath_."--_Prov._, xv, 24. "Of any thing that is in _heaven above_, or that is in the _earth beneath_."--_Exod._, xx, 4. "Say first, of _God above_ or _man below_, What can we reason but from what we know?"--_Pope_. LIST OF THE PREPOSITIONS. The following are the principal prepositions, arranged alphabetically: _Aboard, about, above, across, after, against, along, amid_ or _amidst, among_ or _amongst, around, at, athwart;--Bating, before, behind, below, beneath, beside or besides, between_ or _betwixt, beyond, by;--Concerning;--Down, during;--Ere, except, excepting;--For, from;--In, into;--Mid_ or _midst;--Notwithstanding;--Of, off,[316] on, out, over, overthwart;--Past, pending;--Regarding, respecting, round;--Since;--Through, throughout, till, to, touching, toward_ or _towards;--Under, underneath, until, unto, up, upon;--With, within, without_. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--Grammarians differ considerably in their tables of the English prepositions. Nor are they all of one opinion, concerning either the characteristics of this part of speech, or the particular instances in which the acknowledged properties of a preposition are to be found. Some teach that, "Every preposition requires an _objective case_ after it."--_Lennie_, p. 50; _Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram._, p. 69. In opposition to this, I suppose that the preposition _to_ may take an _infinitive verb_ after it; that _about_ also may be a preposition, in the phrase, "_about to write_;" that _about, above, after, against, by, for, from, in, of_, and some other prepositions, may govern _participles_, as such; (i. e. without making them nouns, or cases;) and, lastly, that after a preposition an _adverb_ is sometimes construed substantively, and yet is indeclinable; as, _for once, from afar, from above, at unawares_. OBS. 2.--The writers just quoted, proceed to say: "When a _preposition does not govern_ an objective case, it becomes an adverb; as, 'He rides _about_.' But in such phrases as, _cast up, hold out, fall on_, the words _up, out_, and _on_, must be considered as _a part_ of the _verb_, rather than as prepositions or adverbs."--_Lennie's Prin. of E. Gram._, p. 50; _Bullions's_, p. 59; _his Analyt. and P. Gram._, p. 109. Both these sentences are erroneous: the one, more particularly so, in expression; the other, in doctrine. As the preposition is chiefly distinguished by its regimen, it is absurd to speak of it as governing nothing; yet it does not always govern the objective case, for participles and infinitives have no cases. _About, up, out_, and _on_, as here cited, are all of them _adverbs_; and so are all other particles that thus qualify verbs, without governing any thing. L. Murray grossly errs when ha assumes that, "The distinct component parts of such phrases as, _to cast up, to fall on, to bear oat, to give over, &c._, are _no guide_ to the sense of the whole." Surely, "to cast _up_" is to cast _somehow_, though the meaning of the phrase may be "_to compute_." By this author, and some others, all _such adverbs_ are absurdly called _prepositions_, and are also as absurdly declared to be _parts_ of the preceding verbs! See _Murray's Gram._, p. 117; _W. Allen's_, 179; _Kirkham's_, 95; _R. G. Smith's_, 93; _Fisk's_, 86; _Butler's_, 63; _Wells's_, 146. OBS. 3--In comparing the different English grammars now in use, we often find the primary distinction of the parts of speech, and every thing that depends upon it, greatly perplexed by the _fancied ellipses_, and _forced constructions_, to which their authors resort. Thus Kirkham: "Prepositions are sometimes erroneously called adverbs, when their nouns are understood. 'He rides _about_;' that is, about the _town, country_, or _something_ else. 'She was _near_ [the _act_ or _misfortune_ of] falling;' 'But do not _after_ [that _time_ or _event_] lay the blame on me.' 'He came _down_ [the _ascent_] from the hill;' 'They lifted him _up_ [the _ascent_] out of the pit.' 'The angels _above_;'--above _us_--'Above these lower _heavens_, to us invisible, or dimly seen.'"--_Gram._, p. 89. The errors of this passage are almost as numerous as the words; and those to which the doctrine leads are absolutely innumerable. That _up_ and _down_, with verbs of motion, imply ascent and descent, as _wisely_ and _foolishly_ imply wisdom and folly, is not to be denied; but the grammatical bathos of coming "_down [the ascent] from the hill" of science_, should startle those whose faces are directed upward! _Downward ascent_ is a movement worthy only of Kirkham, and his Irish rival, Joseph W. Wright. The _brackets_ here used are Kirkham's, not mine. OBS. 4.--"Some of the _prepositions_," says L. Murray, "have the _appearance and effect_ of conjunctions: as, '_After_ their prisons were thrown open,' &c. '_Before_ I die;' 'They made haste to be prepared _against_ their friends arrived:' but if the noun _time_, which is _understood_, be added, they will lose their _conjunctive form_: as, 'After [_the time when_] their prisons,' &c."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 119. Here, _after, before_, and _against_, are neither conjunctions nor prepositions, but conjunctive _adverbs of time_, referring to the verbs which follow them, and also, when the sentences are completed, to others antecedent. The awkward addition of "_the time when_," is a sheer perversion. If _after, before_, and the like, can ever be adverbs, they are so here, and not conjunctions, or prepositions. OBS. 5.--But the great Compiler proceeds: "The _prepositions, after, before, above, beneath_, and several others, sometimes _appear to be adverbs_, and may be _so considered_: as, 'They had their reward soon _after_;' 'He died not long _before_;' 'He dwells _above_;' but if the nouns _time_ and _place_ be added, they will lose their adverbial form: as, 'He died not long _before that time_,' &c."--_Ib._ Now, I say, when any of the foregoing words "_appear_ to be adverbs," they _are_ adverbs, and, if adverbs, then not prepositions. But to consider prepositions to be adverbs, as Murray here does, or seems to do; and to suppose "the NOUNS _time_ AND _place_" to be understood in the several examples here cited, as he also does, or seems to do; are singly such absurdities as no grammarian should fail to detect, and together such a knot of blunders, as ought to be wondered at, even in the Compiler's humblest copyist. In the following text, there is neither preposition nor ellipsis: "Above, below, without, within, around, Confus'd, unnumber'd multitudes are found."--_Pope, on Fame_. OBS. 6.--It comports with the name and design of this work, which is a broad synopsis of grammatical criticism, to notice here one other absurdity; namely, the doctrine of "_sentential nouns_." There is something of this in several late grammars: as, "The prepositions, after, before, ere, since, till, and until, frequently govern _sentential_ nouns; and after, before, since, notwithstanding, and some others, frequently govern a noun or pronoun _understood_. A preposition governing a sentential noun, is, by Murray and others, considered a _conjunction_; and a preposition governing a noun understood, an _adverb_."--J. L. PARKHURST: _in Sanborn's Gram._, p. 123. "Example: 'He will, _before he dies_, sway the sceptre.' _He dies_ is a sentential noun, third person, singular number; and is governed by _before_; _before he dies_, being equivalent in meaning to _before his death_."--_Sanborn, Gram._, p. 176. "'_After they had waited_ a long time, they departed.' After _waiting_."--_Ib._ This last solution supposes the phrase, "_waiting a long time_," or at least the participle _waiting_, to be a _noun_; for, upon the author's principle of equivalence, "_they had waited_," will otherwise be a "_sentential_" _participle_--a thing however as good and as classical as the other! OBS. 7.--If a preposition can ever be justly said to take a sentence for its object, it is chiefly in certain ancient expressions, like the following: "For _in that_ he died, he died unto sin once; but _in that_ he liveth, he liveth unto God."--_Rom._, vi, 10. "My Spirit shall not always strive with man, _for that_ he also is flesh."--_Gen._, vi, 3. "For, _after that_, in the wisdom of God, the world by wisdom knew not God, it pleased God by the foolishness of preaching to save them that believe."--_1 Cor._, i, 21. Here, _in, for_, and _after_, are all followed by the word _that_; which Tooke, Webster, Frazee, and some others, will have to be "a substitute," or "pronoun," representing the sentence which follows it, and governed by the preposition. But _that_, in this sense, is usually, and perhaps more properly, reckoned a conjunction. And if we take it so, _in, for_, and _after_, (unless the latter be an adverb,) must either be reckoned conjunctions also, or be supposed to govern sentences. The expressions however are little used; because "_in that_" is nearly equivalent to _as_; "_for that_" can be better expressed by _because_; and "_after that_," which is equivalent to [Greek: epeide], _postquam_, may well be rendered by the term, _seeing that_, or _since_. "_Before that_ Philip called thee," is a similar example; but "_that_" is here needless, and "_before_" may be parsed as a conjunctive adverb of time. I have one example more: "But, _besides that_ he attempted it formerly with no success, it is certain the Venetians keep too watchful an eye," &c.--_Addison_. This is good English, but the word "_besides_" if it be not a conjunction, may as well be called an adverb, as a preposition. OBS. 8.--There are but few words in the list of prepositions, that are not sometimes used as being of some other part of speech. Thus _bating, excepting, concerning, touching, respecting, during, pending_, and a part of the compound _notwithstanding_, are literally participles; and some writers, in opposition to general custom, refer them always to their original class. Unlike most other prepositions, they do not refer to _place_, but rather to _action, state_, or _duration_; for, even as prepositions, they are still allied to participles. Yet to suppose them always participles, as would Dr. Webster and some others, is impracticable. Examples: "They speak _concerning_ virtue."--_Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram._, p. 69. Here _concerning_ cannot be a participle, because its antecedent term is a _verb_, and the meaning is, "they _speak_ of virtue." "They are bound _during life_." that is, _durante vitâ_, life continuing, or, as long as life lasts. So, "_Notwithstanding this_," i.e., "_hoc non obstante_," this not hindering. Here the nature of the construction seems to depend on the order of the words. "Since he had succeeded, _notwithstanding them_, peaceably to the throne."--_Bolingbroke, on Hist._, p. 31. "This is a correct English idiom, Dr. Lowth's _criticism_, to the contrary _notwithstanding_."--_Webster's Improved Gram._, p. 85. In the phrase, "_notwithstanding them_," the former word is clearly a preposition governing the latter; but Dr. Webster doubtless supposed the word "_criticism_" to be in the nominative case, put absolute with the participle: and so it would have been, had he written _not withstanding_ as two words, like "_non obstante_;" but the compound word _notwithstanding_ is not a participle, because there is no verb _to notwithstand_. But _notwithstanding_, when placed before a nominative, or before the conjunction _that_, is a conjunction, and, as such, must be rendered in Latin by _tamen_, yet, _quamvis_, although, or _nihilominus_, nevertheless. OBS. 9.--_For_, when it signifies _because_, is a conjunction: as, "Boast not thyself of to-morrow; _for_ thou knowest not what a day may bring forth."--_Prov._, xxvii, 1. _For_ has this meaning, and, according to Dr. Johnson, is a conjunction, when it precedes _that_; as, "Yet _for that_ the worst men are most ready to remove, I would wish them chosen by discretion of wise men."--_Spenser._ The phrase, as I have before suggested, is almost obsolete; but Murray, in one place, adopts it from Dr. Beattie: "For _that_ those parts of the verb are not properly called tenses."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 75. How he would have parsed it, does not appear. But both words are connectives. And, from the analogy of those terms which serve as links to other terms, I should incline to take _for that, in that, after that_, and _besides that_, (in which a known conjunction is put last,) as complex conjunctions; and also, to take _as for, as to_, and _because of_, (in which a known preposition is put last,) as complex prepositions. But there are other regular and equivalent expressions that ought in general to be preferred to any or all of these. OBS. 10.--Several words besides those contained in the list above, are (or have been) occasionally employed in English as prepositions: as, _A_, (chiefly used before participles,) _abaft, adown, afore, aloft, aloof, alongside, anear, aneath, anent, aslant, aslope, astride, atween, atwixt, besouth, bywest, cross, dehors, despite, inside, left-hand, maugre, minus, onto, opposite, outside, per, plus, sans, spite, thorough, traverse, versus, via, withal, withinside_. OBS. 11.--Dr. Lowth says, "The particle _a_ before participles, in the phrases _a_ coming, _a_ going, _a_ walking, _a_ shooting, &c. and before nouns, as _a_-bed, _a_-board, _a_-shore, _a_-foot, &c. seems to be _a true and genuine preposition_, a little disguised by familiar use and quick pronunciation. Dr. Wallis supposes it to be the preposition _at_. I rather think it is the preposition _on_."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 65; _Churchill's_, 268. There is no need of supposing it to be either. It is not from _on_; for in Saxon it sometimes accompanied _on_: as in the phrase, "_on á weoruld_;" that is, "_on to ages_;" or, as Wickliffe rendered it, "_into worldis_;" or, as our version has it, "_for ever_." See _Luke_, i, 55. This preposition was in use long before either _a_ or _an_, as an article, appeared in its present form in the language; and, for ought I can discover, it may be as old as either _on_ or _at_. _An_, too, is found to have had at times the sense and construction of _in_ or _on_; and this usage is, beyond doubt, older than that which makes it an article. _On_, however, was an exceedingly common preposition in Saxon, being used almost always where we now put _on, in, into, upon_, or _among_, and sometimes, for _with_ or _by_; so, sometimes, where _a_ was afterwards used: thus, "What in the Saxon Gospel of John, is, 'Ic wylle gan _on_ fixoth,' is, in the English version, 'I go _a_ fishing.' Chap, xxi, ver. 3." See _Lowth's Gram._, p. 65; _Churchill's_, 269. And _a_ is now sometimes equivalent to _on_; as, "He would have a learned University make Barbarisms a purpose."--_Bentley, Diss. on Phalaris_, p. 223. That is,--"_on_ purpose." How absurdly then do some grammarians interpret the foregoing text!--"I go _on_ a fishing."--_Alden's Gram._, p. 117. "I go _on_ a fishing voyage or business."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 221; _Merchant's_, 101. "It may not be improper," says Churchill in another place, "to observe here, that the preposition _on_, is too frequently pronounced as if it were the vowel _a_, in ordinary conversation; and this corruption _is_ [has] become so prevalent, that I have even met with 'laid it _a oneside_' in a periodical publication. It should have been '_on one side_,' if the expression were meant to be particular; '_aside_,' if general."--_New Gram._, p. 345. By these writers, _a_ is also supposed to be sometimes a corruption of _of_: as, "Much in the same manner, Thomas _of_ Becket, by very frequent and familiar use, became Thomas _à_ Becket; and one _of the_ clock, or perhaps _on the_ clock, is written one o'clock, but pronounced one _a_ clock. The phrases with _a_ before a participle are out of use in the solemn style; but still prevail in familiar discourse. They are established by long usage, and good authority; and there seems to be no reason, why they should be utterly rejected."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 66. "Much in the same manner, John _of_ Nokes, and John _of_ Styles, become John _a_ Nokes, and John _a_ Styles: and one _of the_ clock, or rather _on the_ clock, is written one _o_'clock, but pronounced one _a_ clock. The phrases with a before participles, are out of use in the solemn style; but still prevail in familiar discourse."--_Churchill's New Gram._, p. 269. OBS. 12.--The following are _examples_ of the less usual prepositions, _a_, and others that begin with _a_: "And he set--three thousand and six hundred overseers to set the people a work."--_2 Chron._, ii, 18. "Who goeth _a_ warfare any time at his own charges?"--_1 Cor._, ix, 7. "And the mixed multitude that was among them fell _a_ lusting."--_Num._, xi, 4. "And sweet Billy Dimond, _a_ patting his hair up." --_Feast of the Poets_, p. 17. "The god fell _a_ laughing to see his mistake." --_Ib._, p. 18. "You'd have thought 'twas the bishops or judges _a_ coming." --_Ib._, p. 22. "A place on the lower deck, _abaft_ the mainmast."--_Gregory's Dict._ "A moment gazed _adown_ the dale."--_Scott, L. L._, p. 10. "_Adown_ Strath-Gartney's valley broad."--_Ib._, p. 84. "For _afore_ the harvest, when the bud is perfect," &c.--_Isaiah_, xviii, 5. "Where the great luminary _aloof_ the vulgar constellations thick,"--See _Milton's Paradise Lost_, B. iii, l. 576. "The great luminary _aloft_ the vulgar constellations thick."--_Johnson's Dict., w. Aloft_. "Captain Falconer having previously gone _alongside_, the Constitution."--_Newspaper_. "Seventeen ships sailed for New England, and _aboard_ these above fifteen hundred persons."--_Robertson's Amer._, ii, 429. "There is a willow grows _askant_ the brook:" Or, as in some editions: "There is a willow grows _aslant_ the brook."--SHAK., _Hamlet_, Act iv, 7. "_Aslant_ the dew-bright earth."--_Thomson_. "Swift as meteors glide _aslope_ a summer eve."--_Fenton_. "_Aneath_ the heavy rain."--_James Hogg_, "With his magic spectacles _astride_ his nose."--_Merchant's Criticisms_. "_Atween_ his downy wings be furnished, there." --_Wordsworth's Poems_, p. 147. "And there a season _atween_ June and May." --_Castle of Indolence_, C. i, st. 2. OBS. 13.--The following are examples of rather unusual prepositions beginning with _b, c_, or _d_; "Or where wild-meeting oceans boil _besouth_ Magellan."--_Burns_. "Whereupon grew that _by-word_, used by the Irish, that they dwelt _by-west_ the law, _which_ dwelt beyond the river _of the_ Barrow."--DAVIES: in _Joh. Dict._ Here Johnson calls _by-west_ a noun substantive, and Webster, as improperly, marks it for an adverb. No hyphen is needed in _byword_ or _bywest_. The first syllable of the latter is pronounced _be_, and ought to be written so, if "_besouth_" is right. "From Cephalonia _cross_ the surgy main Philætius late arrived, a faithful swain." --_Pope, Odys._, B. xx, l. 234. "And _cross_ their limits cut a sloping way, Which the twelve signs in beauteous order sway." --_Dryden's Virgil_. "A fox was taking a walk one night _cross_ a village."--_L'Estrange_. "The enemy had cut down great trees _cross_ the ways."--_Knolles_. "DEHORS, prep. [Fr.] Without: as, '_dehors_ the land.' Blackstone."--_Worcester's Dict._, 8vo. "You have believed, _despite_ too our physical conformation."--_Bulwer_. "And Roderick shall his welcome make, _Despite_ old spleen, for Douglas' sake." --_Scott, L. L._, C. ii, st. 26. OBS. 14.--The following quotations illustrate further the list of unusual prepositions: "And she would be often weeping _inside_ the room while George was amusing himself without."--_Anna Ross_, p. 81. "Several nuts grow closely together, _inside_ this prickly covering."--_Jacob Abbot_. "An other boy asked why the peachstone was not _outside_ the peach."--_Id._ "As if listening to the sounds _withinside_ it."--_Gardiner's Music of Nature_, p. 214. "Sir Knight, you well might mark the mound, _Left hand_ the town."--_Scott's Marmion_. "Thus Butler, _maugre_ his wicked intention, sent them home again."--_Sewel's Hist._, p. 256. "And, _maugre_ all that can be said in its favour."--_Stone, on Freemasonry_, p. 121. "And, _maugre_ the authority of Sterne, I even doubt its benevolence."--_West's Letters_, p. 29. "I through the ample air in triumph high Shall lead Hell captive _maugre_ Hell." --_Milton's P. L._, B. iii, l. 255. "When Mr. Seaman arose in the morning, he found himself _minus_ his coat, vest, pocket-handkerchief, and tobacco-box."--_Newspaper_. "Throw some coals _onto_ the fire."--FORBY: _Worcester's Dict., w. Onto_. "Flour, at $4 _per_ barrel."--_Preston's Book-Keeping_. "Which amount, _per_ invoice, to $4000."--_Ib._ "_To Smiths_ is the substantive _Smiths, plus_ the preposition _to_."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, §33. "The Mayor of Lynn _versus_ Turner."--_Cowper's Reports_, p. 86. "Slaves were imported from Africa, _via_ Cuba."--_Society in America_, i, 327. "_Pending_ the discussion of this subject, a memorial was presented."--_Gov. Everett_. "Darts his experienced eye and soon _traverse_ The whole battalion views their order due."--_Milton_. "Because, when _thorough_ deserts vast And regions desolate they past."--_Hudibras_. OBS. 15.--_Minus_, less, _plus_, more, _per_, by, _versus_, towards, or against, and _viâ_, by the way of, are Latin words; and it is not very consistent with the _purity_ of our tongue, to use them as above. _Sans_, without, is French, and not now heard with us. _Afore_ for _before, atween_ for _between, traverse_ for _across, thorough_ for _through_, and _withal_ for _with_, are obsolete. _Withal_ was never placed before its object, but was once very common at the end of a sentence. I think it not properly a preposition, but rather an adverb. It occurs in Shakspeare, and so does _sans_; as, "I did laugh, _sans_ intermission, an hour by his dial." --_As You Like It_. "I pr'ythee, _whom_ doth he trot _withal_?" --_Ib._ "_Sans_ teeth, _sans_ eyes, _sans_ taste, _sans_ every thing." --_Ib._ OBS. 16.--Of the propriety and the nature of such expressions as the following, the reader may now judge for himself: "In consideration of what passes sometimes _within-side of_ those vehicles."--_Spectator_, No. 533. "Watch over yourself, and let nothing throw you _off from_ your guard."--_District School_, p. 54. "The windows broken, the door _off from_ the hinges, the roof open and leaky."--_Ib._, p. 71. "He was always a shrewd observer of men, _in and out of_ power."--_Knapp's Life of Burr_, p. viii. "Who had never been broken _in to_ the experience of sea voyages."--_Timothy Flint_. "And there came a fire _out from before_ the Lord."--_Leviticus_, ix, 24. "Because eight readers _out of_ ten, it is believed, forget it."--_Brown's Estimate_, ii, 32. "Fifty days after the _Passover_, and _their coming out of_ Egypt."--_Watts's Script. Hist._, p. 57. "As the mountains are _round about_ Jerusalem, so the Lord is _round about_ his people."--_Psal._, cxxv, 2. "Literally, 'I proceeded _forth from out of_ God and am come.'"--_Gurney's Essays_, p. 161. "But he that came _down from_ (or _from out of_) heaven."--_Ibid._ "Here none the last funereal rights receive; To be cast _forth the camp_, is all their friends can give." --_Rowe's Lucan_, vi, 166. EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. PRAXIS X.--ETYMOLOGICAL. _In the Tenth Praxis, it is required of the pupil--to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the_ ARTICLES, NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, PRONOUNS, VERBS, PARTICIPLES, ADVERBS, CONJUNCTIONS, _and_ PREPOSITIONS. _The definitions to be given in the Tenth Praxis, are, two for an article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, six for a pronoun, seven for a verb finite, five for an infinitive, two for a participle, two (and sometimes three) for an adverb, two for a conjunction, one for a preposition, and one for an interjection. Thus_:-- EXAMPLE PARSED. "Never adventure on too near an approach to what is evil."--_Maxims_. _Never_ is an adverb of time. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. 2. Adverbs of time are those which answer to the question, _When? How long? How soon?_ or, _How often?_ including these which ask. _Adventure_ is a regular active-intransitive verb, from _adventure, adventured, adventuring, adventured_; found in the imperative mood, present tense, second person, singular (or it may be plural) number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_. 2. A regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming _d_ or _ed_. 3. An active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses an action that has no person or thing for its object. 4. The imperative mood is that form of the verb which is used in commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting. 5. The present tense is that which expresses what now exists, or is taking place. 6. The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or the person addressed. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one. _On_ is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. _Too_ is an adverb of degree. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. 2. Adverbs of decree are those which answer to the question, _How much? How little?_ or to the idea of _more or less_. _Near_ is a common adjective, of the positive degree; compared, _near, nearer, 2.[sic--KTH] nearest_ or _next_. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3. The positive degree is that which is expressed by the adjective in its simple form. _An_ is the indefinite article. 1. An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The indefinite article is _an_ or _a_, which denotes one thing of a kind, but not any particular one. _Approach_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. _To_ is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. _What_ is a relative pronoun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an antecedent word or phrase, and connects different clauses of a sentence. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or stats of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb. _Is_ is an irregular neuter verb, from be, was, being, been; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon. 2. An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed. 3. A neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither action nor passion, but simply being, or a state of being. 4. The indicative mood is that form of a verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5. The present tense is that which expresses what now exists, or is taking place. 6. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one. _Evil_ is a common adjective, of the positive degree; compared irregularly, bad, evil, or ill, worse, worst. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3. The positive degree is that which is expressed by the adjective in its simple form. LESSON I.--PARSING. "My Lord, I do here, in the name of all the learned and polite persons of the nation, complain to your Lordship, as first minister, that our language is imperfect; that its daily improvements are by no means in proportion to its daily corruptions; that the pretenders to polish and refine it, have chiefly multiplied abuses and absurdities; and that, in many instances, it offends against every part of grammar."--_Dean Swift, to the Earl of Oxford_. "Swift must be allowed to have been a good judge of this matter; to which he was himself very attentive, both in his own writings, and in his remarks upon those of his friends: He is one of the most correct, and perhaps [he is] the best, of our prose writers. Indeed the justness of this complaint, _as_ far as I can find, _hath_ never yet been questioned; and yet no effectual method _hath_ hitherto been taken to redress the grievance which was the object of it."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. iv. "The only proper use to be made of the blemishes which occur in the writings of such authors, [as Addison and Swift--authors whose 'faults are overbalanced by high beauties'--] is, to point out to those who apply themselves to the study of composition, some of the rules which they ought to observe for avoiding such errors; and to render them sensible of the necessity of strict attention to language and style."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 233. "Thee, therefore, and with thee myself I weep, For thee and me I mourn in anguish deep."--_Pope's Homer_. LESSON II.--PARSING. "The southern corner of Europe, comprehended between the thirty-sixth and fortieth degrees of latitude, bordering on Epirus and Macedonia towards the north, and on other sides surrounded by the sea, was inhabited, above eighteen centuries before the Christian era, by many small tribes of hunters and shepherds, among whom the Pelasgi and Hellenes were the most numerous and powerful."--_Gillies, Gr._, p. 12. "In a vigorous exertion of memory, ideal presence is exceedingly distinct: thus, when a man, entirely occupied with some event that made a deep impression, forgets himself, he perceives every thing as passing before him, and has a consciousness of presence, similar to that of a spectator."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 88. "Each planet revolves about its own axis in a given time; and each moves round the sun, in an orbit nearly circular, and in a time proportioned to its distance. Their velocities, directed by an established law, are perpetually changing by regular accelerations and retardations."--_Ib._, i, 271. "You may as well go about to turn the sun to ice by fanning in his face with a peacock's feather."--_Shak_. "_Ch. Justice_. I sent for you, when there were matters against you for your life, to come speak with me. _Falstaff_. As I was then advised by my learned counsel in the laws of this land-service, I did not come."--_Id._, 2. Hen. IV, Act i, Sc. 2. "It is surprising to see the images of the mind stamped upon the aspect; to see the cheeks take the die of the passions and appear in all the colors of thought."--_Collier_. ----------"Even from out thy slime The monsters of the deep are made."--_Byron_. LESSON III.--PARSING. "With a mind weary of conjecture, fatigued by doubt, sick of disputation, eager for knowledge, anxious for certainty, and unable to attain it by the best use of my reason in matters of the utmost importance, I _have_ long ago turned my thoughts to an impartial examination of the proofs on which revealed religion is grounded, and I am convinced of its truth."--_Bp. Watson's Apology_, p. 69. "The sceptre shall not depart from Judah, nor a lawgiver from between his feet, until Shiloh come; and unto him shall the gathering of the people be."--_Gen._, xlix, 10. "Again, ye have heard that it hath been said by them of old time, thou shalt not forswear thyself, but shalt perform unto the Lord thine oaths. But I say unto you, Swear not at all: neither by heaven; for it is God's throne: nor by the earth; for it is his footstool: neither by Jerusalem; for it is the city of the great King. Neither shalt thou swear by thy head; because thou canst not make one hair white or black."--_Matt._, v, 33--36. "Refined manners, and polite behaviour, must not be deemed altogether artificial: men who, inured to the sweets of society, cultivate humanity, find an elegant pleasure in preferring others, and making them happy, of which the proud, the selfish, scarcely have a conception."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 105. "Bacchus, that first from out the purple grape Crush'd the sweet poison of misused wine."--_Milton_. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. ERRORS RESPECTING PREPOSITIONS. "Nouns are often formed by participles."--_L. Murray's Index, Octavo Gram._, ii, 290. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the relation here intended, between _are formed_ and _participles_, is not well signified by the preposition by. But, according to Observation 7th, on this part of speech, "The prepositions have, from their own nature, or from custom, such an adaptation to particular terms and relations, that they can seldom be used one for an other without manifest impropriety." This relation would be better expressed by _from_; thus, "Nouns are often formed _from_ participles."] "What tenses are formed on the perfect participle?"--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 104. "Which tense is formed on the present?"--_Ibid._ "When a noun or pronoun is placed before a participle, independently on the rest of the sentence," &c.--_Ib._, p. 150; _Murray_, 145; and others. "If the addition consists in two or more words."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 176; _Ingersoll's_, 177. "The infinitive mood is often made absolute, or used independently on the rest of the sentence."--_Mur._, p. 184; _Ing._, 244; and others. "For the great satisfaction of the reader, we shall present him with a variety of false constructions."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 189. "For your satisfaction, I shall present you with a variety of false constructions."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 258. "I shall here present you with a scale of derivation."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 81. "These two manners of representation in respect of number."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 15; _Churchill's_, 57; "There are certain adjectives, which seem to be derived without any variation from verbs."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 89. "Or disqualify us for receiving instruction or reproof of others."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 253. "For being more studious than any other pupil of the school."--_Ib._, p. 226. "From misunderstanding the directions, we lost our way."--_Ib._, p. 201. "These people reduced the greater part of the island to their own power."--_Ib._, p. 261.[317] "The principal accent distinguishes one syllable in a word from the rest."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 236. "Just numbers are in unison to the human mind."--_Ib._, p. 298. "We must accept of sound instead of sense."--_Ib._, p. 298. "Also, instead for _consultation_, he uses _consult_."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 143. "This ablative seems to be governed of a preposition understood."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 268. "That my father may not hear on't by some means or other."--_Ib._, p. 257. "And besides, my wife would hear on't by some means."--_Ib._, p. 81. "For insisting in a requisition is so odious to them."--_Robertson's Amer._, i, 206. "Based in the great self-evident truths of liberty and equality."--_Scholar's Manual_. "Very little knowledge of their nature is acquired by the spelling book."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 21. "They do not cut it off: except in a few words; as, _due, duly_, &c."--_Ib._, p. 24. "Whether passing in such time, or then finished."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 31. "It hath disgusted hundreds of that confession."--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 269. "But they have egregiously fallen in that inconveniency."--_Ib._, iii, 73. "For is not this to set nature a work?"--_Ib._, i, 270. "And surely that which should set all its springs a-work, is God."--ATTERBURY: _in Blair's Rhet._, p. 298. "He could not end his treatise without a panegyric of modern learning."--TEMPLE: _ib._, p. 110. "These are entirely independent on the modulation of the voice."--_Walker's Elocution_, p. 308. "It is dear of a penny. It is cheap of twenty pounds."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 274. "It will be despatched, in most occasions, without resting."--_Locke_. "'0, the pain the bliss in dying.'"--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 129. "When [he is] presented with the objects or the facts."--_Smith's Productive Gram._, p. 5. "I will now present you with a synopsis."--_Ib._, p. 25. "The conjunction disjunctive connects sentences, by expressing opposition of meaning in various degrees."--_Ib._, p. 38. "I shall now present you with a few lines."--_Bucke's Classical Gram_, p. 13. "Common names of Substantives are those, which stand for things generally."--_Ib._, p. 31. "Adjectives in the English language admit no variety in gender, number, or case whatever, except that of the degrees of comparison."--_Ib._, p. 48. "Participles are adjectives formed of verbs."--_Ib._, p. 63. "I do love to walk out of a fine summer's evening."--_Ib._, p. 97. "An _Ellipsis_, when applied to grammar, is the elegant omission of one or more words in a sentence."--_Merchant's Gram._, p. 99. "The prefix _to_ is generally placed before verbs in the infinitive mood, but before the following verbs it is properly omitted; (viz.) _bid, make, see, dare, need, hear, feel_, and _let_; as, He _bid_ me _do_ it; He _made_ me _learn_; &c."--_Ib., Stereotype Edition_, p. 91; _Old Edition_, 85. "The infinitive sometimes follows _than_, after a comparison; as, I wish nothing more, _than to know_ his fate."--_Ib._, p. 92. See _Murray's Gram._, 8vo, i, 184. "Or by prefixing the adverbs _more_ or _less_, in the comparative, and _most_ or _least_, in the superlative."--_Merchant's Gram._, p. 36. "A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun."--_Ib._, p. 17; _Comly_, 15. "In monosyllables the Comparative is regularly formed by adding _r_ or _er_."--_Perley's Gram._, p. 21. "He has particularly named these, in distinction to others."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. vi. "To revive the decaying taste of antient Literature."--_Ib._, p. xv. "He found the greatest difficulty of writing."--HUME: _in Priestley's Gram._, p. 159. "And the tear that is wip'd with a little address May be followed perhaps with a smile." _Webster's American Spelling-Book_, p. 78; and _Murray's E. Reader_, p. 212. CHAPTER XI--INTERJECTIONS. An Interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind: as, _Oh! alas! ah! poh! pshaw! avaunt! aha! hurrah!_ OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--Of pure interjections but few are admitted into books. Unimpassioned writings reject this part of speech altogether. As words or sounds of this kind serve rather to indicate feeling than to express thought, they seldom have any definable signification. Their use also is so variable, that there can be no very accurate classification of them. Some significant words, perhaps more properly belonging to other classes, are sometimes ranked with interjections, when uttered with emotion and in an unconnected manner; as, _strange! prodigious! indeed!_ Wells says, "_Other parts of speech_, used by way of exclamation, are _properly regarded as interjections_; as, _hark! surprising! mercy!_"--_School Gram._, 1846, p. 110. This is an evident absurdity; because it directly confounds the classes which it speaks of as being different. Nor is it right to say, "_Other parts of speech_ are frequently used _to perform the office_ of interjections."--_Wells_, 1850, p. 120. OBS. 2.--The word _interjection_ comes to us from the Latin name _interjectio_, the root of which is the verb _interjicio_, to throw between, to interject. Interjections are so called because they are usually thrown in between _the parts of discourse_, without any syntactical connexion with other words. Dr. Lowth, in his haste, happened to describe them as a kind of natural sounds "thrown in between the parts _of a sentence_;" and this strange blunder has been copied into almost every definition that has been given of the Interjection since. See Murray's Grammar and others. Webster's Dictionary defines it as, "A word thrown in between _words connected in construction_;" but of all the parts of speech none are less frequently found in this situation. OBS. 3.--The following is a fair sample of "Smith's _New Grammar_,"--i.e., of "English Grammar on the _Productive System_,"--a new effort of quackery to scarf up with cobwebs the eyes of common sense: "Q. When I exclaim, 'Oh! I have ruined my friend,' 'Alas! I fear for life,' _which words_ here appear to be thrown in _between the sentences_, to express passion or feeling? Ans. _Oh! Alas!_ Q. What does _interjection_ mean? Ans. _Thrown between_. Q. What name, then, shall we give such words as _oh! alas! &c._? Ans. INTERJECTIONS. Q. What, then, are interjections? Ans. Interjections are words thrown in _between the parts of sentences_, to express the passions or sudden feelings of the speaker. Q. How may an interjection generally be known? Ans. By _its taking_ an exclamation _point_ after it: [as,] '_Oh!_ I have alienated my friend.'"--_R. C. Smith's New Gram._, p. 39. Of the interjection, this author gives, in his examples for parsing, _fifteen_ other instances; but nothing can be more obvious, than that not more than one of the whole fifteen stands either "between sentences" or between the parts of any sentence! (See _New Gram._, pp. 40 and 96.) Can he be a competent grammarian, who does not know the meaning of _between_; or who, knowing it, misapplies so very plain a word? OBS. 4.--The Interjection, which is idly claimed by sundry writers to have been the first of words at the origin of language, is now very constantly set down, among the parts of speech, as the last of the series. But, for the name of this the last of the ten sorts of words, some of our grammarians have adopted the term _exclamation_. Of the old and usual term _interjection_, a recent writer justly says, "This name is preferable to that of _exclamation_, for some exclamations are not interjections, and some interjections are not exclamations."--GIBBS: _Fowler's E. Gram._, §333. LIST OF THE INTERJECTIONS. The following are the principal interjections, arranged according to the emotions which they are generally intended to indicate:--1. Of joy; _eigh! hey! io!_--2. Of sorrow; _oh! ah! hoo! alas! alack! lackaday! welladay!_ or _welaway!_--3. Of wonder; _heigh! ha! strange! indeed!_--4. Of wishing, earnestness, or vocative address; (often with a noun or pronoun in the nominative absolute;) _O!_--5. Of praise; _well-done! good! bravo!_--6. Of surprise with disapproval; _whew! hoity-toity! hoida! zounds! what!_--7. Of pain or fear; _oh! ooh! ah! eh! O dear!_--8. Of contempt; _fudge! pugh! poh! pshaw! pish! tush! tut! humph!_--9. Of aversion; _foh! faugh! fie! fy! foy!_[318]--10. Of expulsion; _out! off! shoo! whew! begone! avaunt! aroynt!_--11. Of calling aloud; _ho! soho! what-ho! hollo! holla! hallo! halloo! hoy! ahoy!_--12. Of exultation; _ah! aha! huzza! hey! heyday! hurrah!_--13. Of laughter; _ha, ha, ha; he, he, he; te-hee, te-hee._--14. Of salutation; _welcome! hail! all-hail!_--15. Of calling to attention; _ho! lo! la! law![319] look! see! behold! hark!_--16. Of calling to silence; _hush! hist! whist! 'st! aw! mum!_--17. Of dread or horror; _oh! ha! hah! what!_--18. Of languor or weariness; _heigh-ho! heigh-ho-hum!_--19. Of stopping; _hold! soft! avast! whoh!_--20. Of parting; _farewell! adieu! good-by! good-day!_--21. Of knowing or detecting; _oho! ahah! ay-ay!_--22. Of interrogating; _eh? ha? hey?_[320] OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--With the interjections, may perhaps be reckoned _hau_ and _gee_, the imperative words of teamsters driving cattle; and other similar sounds, useful under certain circumstances, but seldom found in books. Besides these, and all the foregoing, there are several others, too often heard, which are unworthy to be considered parts of a cultivated language. The frequent use of interjections savours more of thoughtlessness than of sensibility. Philosophical writing and dispassionate discourse exclude them altogether. Yet are there several words of this kind, which in earnest utterance, animated poetry, or impassioned declamation, are not only natural, but exceedingly expressive: as, "Lift up thy voice, _O_ daughter of Gallim; cause it to be heard unto Laish, _O_ poor Anathoth."--_Isaiah_, x, 30. "_Alas, alas_, that great city Babylon, that mighty city! for in one hour is thy judgement come."--_Rev._, xviii, 10. "_Ah me!_ forbear, returns the queen, forbear; _Oh!_ talk not, talk not of vain beauty's care." --_Odyssey_, B. xviii, l. 310. OBS. 2.--Interjections, being in general little else than mere natural voices or cries, must of course be adapted to the sentiments which are uttered with them, and never carelessly confounded one with an other when we express them on paper. The adverb _ay_ is sometimes improperly written for the interjection _ah_; as, _ay me!_ for _ah me!_ and still oftener we find _oh_, an interjection of sorrow, pain, or surprise,[321] written in stead of _O_, the proper sign of wishing, earnestness, or vocative address: as, "_Oh_ Happiness! our being's end and aim!" --_Pope, Ess. Ep._ iv, l. 1. "And peace, _oh_ Virtue! peace is all thy own." --_Id., ib., Ep._ iv, l. 82. "_Oh_ stay, O pride of Greece! Ulysses, stay! O cease thy course, and listen to our lay!" --_Odys._, B. xii, 1 222. OBS. 3.--The chief characteristics of the interjection are independence, exclamation, and the want of any definable signification. Yet not all the words or signs which we refer to this class, will be found to coincide in all these marks of an interjection. Indeed the last, (the want of a rational meaning,) would seem to exclude them from the language; for _words_ must needs be significant of something. Hence many grammarians deny that mere sounds of the voice have any more claim to be reckoned among the parts of speech, than the neighing of a horse, or the lowing of a cow. There is some reason in this; but in fact the reference which these sounds have to the feelings of those who utter them, is to some extent instinctively understood; and does constitute a sort of significance, though we cannot really define it. And, as their use in language, or in connexion with language, makes it necessary to assign them a place in grammar, it is certainly more proper to treat them as above, than to follow the plan of the Greek grammarians, most of whom throw all the interjections into the class of _adverbs_. OBS. 4.--Significant words uttered independently, after the manner of interjections, ought in general, perhaps, to be referred to their original classes; for all such expressions may be supposed elliptical: as, "_Order!_ gentlemen, _order!_" i.e., "Come to order,"--or, "Keep order." "_Silence!_" i.e., "Preserve silence." "_Out! out!_" i.e., "Get out,"--or, "Clear out!" (See Obs. 5th and 6th, upon Adverbs.) "Charge, Chester, charge! _On_, Stanley, _on_! Were the last words of Marmion."--_Scott_. OBS. 5.--In some instances, interjections seem to be taken substantively and made nouns; as, "I may sit in a corner, and cry _hey-ho_ for a husband."--_Shak_. So, according to James White, in his Essay on the Verb, is the word _fie_, in the following example: "If you deny me, _fie_ upon your law."--SHAK.: _White's Verb_, p. 163. EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. PRAXIS XI.--ETYMOLOGICAL. _In the Eleventh Praxis, it is required of the pupil--to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and_ ALL _their classes and modifications. The definitions to be given in the Eleventh Praxis, are, two for an article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, six for a pronoun, seven for a verb finite, five for an infinitive, two for a participle, two (and sometimes three) for an adverb, two for a conjunction, one for a preposition, and two for an interjection. Thus_:-- EXAMPLE PARSED. "O! sooner shall the earth and stars fall into chaos!"--_Brown's Inst._, p. 92. _O_ is an interjection, indicating earnestness. 1. An interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind. 2. The interjection of wishing, earnestness, or vocative address, is _O_. _Sooner_ is an adverb of time, of the comparative degree; compared, _soon, sooner, soonest_. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. 2. Adverbs of time are those which answer to the question, _When? How long? How soon?_ or, _How often?_ including these which ask. 3. The comparative degree is that which is more or less than something contrasted with it. _Shall_ is an auxiliary to _fall_. 1. An auxiliary is a short verb prefixed to one of the principal parts of an other verb, to express some particular mode and time of the being, action, or passion. _The_ is the definite article. 1. An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The definite article is _the_, which denotes some particular thing or things. _Earth_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb. _And_ is a copulative conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected. 2. A copulative conjunction is a conjunction that denotes an addition, a cause, a consequence, or a supposition. _Stars_ is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb. _Fall_, or _Shall fall_, is an irregular active-intransitive verb, from _fall, fell, falling, fallen_; found in the indicative mood, first-future tense, third person, and plural number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_. 2. An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming _d_ or _ed_. 3. An active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has no person or thing for its object. 4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5. The first-future tense is that which expresses what will take place hereafter. 6. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 7. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. _Into_ is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. _Chaos_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. LESSON I.--PARSING. "Ah! St. Anthony preserve me!--Ah--ah--eh--eh!--Why--why--after all, your hand is not so co-o-o-old, neither. Of the two, it is rather warmer than my own. Can it be, though, that you are not dead?" "Not I."--MOLIERE: _in Burgh's Speaker_, p. 232. "I'll make you change your cuckoo note, you old philosophical humdrum, you--[_Beats him_]--I will--[_Beats him_]. I'll make you say somewhat else than, 'All things are doubtful; all things are uncertain;'--[_Beats him_]--I will, you old fusty pedant." "Ah!--oh!--ehl--What, beat a philosopher!--Ah!--oh!--eh!"--MOLIERE: _ib._, p. 247. "What! will these hands never be clean?--No more of that, my lord; no more of that. You mar all with this starting." * * * "Here is the smell of blood still.--All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand. Oh! oh! oh!"--_Shak., Macbeth_, Act V, Sc. 1. "Ha! at the gates what grisly forms appear! What dismal shrieks of laughter wound the ear!"--_Merry._ LESSON II.--PARSING. "Yet this may be the situation of some now known to us.--O frightful thought! O horrible image! Forbid it, O Father of mercy! If it be possible, let no creature of thine ever be the object of that wrath, against which the strength of thy whole creation united, would stand but as the moth against the thunderbolt!"--_Burgh's Speaker_, p. 289. "If it be so, our God, whom we serve, is able to deliver us from the burning fiery furnace; and he will deliver us out of thine hand, O king. But if not, be it known unto thee, O king, that we will not serve thy gods, nor worship the golden image which thou hast set up."--_Daniel_, iii, 17 and 18. "Grant me patience, just Heaven!--Of all the cants which are canted in this canting world--though the cant of hypocrites may be the worst--the cant of criticism is the most tormenting!"--_Sterne_. "Ah, no! Achilles meets a shameful fate, Oh! how unworthy of the brave and great."--_Pope_. LESSON III.--PARSING. "O let not thy heart despise me! thou whom experience has not taught that it is misery to lose that which it is not happiness to possess."--_Dr. Johnson_. "Disguise thyself as thou wilt, still, Slavery! still thou art a bitter draught; and though thousands in all ages have been made to drink of thee, thou art no less bitter on that account."--_Sterne_. "Put it out of the power of truth to give you an ill character; and if any body reports you not to be an honest or a good man, let your practice give him the lie. This is all very feasible."--_Antoninus_. "Oh that men should put an enemy into their mouths to steal away their brains! that we should, with joy, pleasance, revel, and applause, transform ourselves into beasts!"--_Shakspeare_. "All these afar off stood, crying, Alas! Alas! and wept, and gnashed their teeth, and groaned; And with the owl, that on her ruins sat, Made dolorous concert in the ear of Night."--_Pollok_. "Snatch'd in thy prime! alas, the stroke were mild, Had my frail form obey'd the fate's decree! Blest were my lot, O Cynthio! O my child! Had Heaven so pleas'd, and I had died for thee!"--_Shenstone_. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. ERRORS RESPECTING INTERJECTIONS. "Of chance or change, oh let not man complain."--_Bucke's Classical Gram._, p. 85. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the interjection _oh_, a sign of sorrow, pain, or surprise, is here used to indicate mere earnestness. But, according to the list of interjections, or OBS. 2d under it, the interjection of wishing, earnestness, or vocative address, is _O_, and not _oh_. Therefore, _oh_ should here be _O_; thus, "Of chance or change, _O_ let not man complain."--_Beattie's Minstrel_, B. ii, l. 1.] "O thou persecutor! Oh ye hypocrites."--_Merchant's Gram._, p. 99; _et al_. "Oh! thou, who touchedst Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire."--_Ib._, (_Key_,) p. 197. "Oh! happy we, surrounded by so many blessings."--_Ib._, (_Exercises_,) p. 138. "Oh! thou, who art so unmindful of thy duty."--_Ib._, (_Key_,) p. 196. "If I am wrong, oh teach my heart To find that better way."--_Pope's Works_. "Heus! evocate hue Davum. _Ter_. Hoe! call Davus out hither."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 155. "It was represented by an analogy, (Oh, how inadequate!) which was borrowed from the religion of paganism."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 281. "Oh that Ishmael might live before thee!"--ALGER'S BIBLE: _Gen._, xvii, 18. "And he said unto him, Oh let not the Lord be angry, and I will speak."--FRIENDS' BIBLE: _Gen._, xviii, 30. "And he said, Oh let not the Lord be angry."--ID., and SCOTT'S: _ib._, ver. 32. "Oh, my lord, let thy servant, I pray thee, speak a word."--FRIENDS' BIBLE, and ALGER'S: _Gen._, xliv, 18. "Oh, Virtue! how amiable thou art! I fear, alas! for my life."--_Fisk's Gram._, p. 89. "Ay me, they little know How dearly I abide that boast so vain."--_Milton's P. L._, B. iv, l. 86. "Oh! that I had digged myself a cave."--FLETCHER: _in Bucke's Gram._, p. 78. "O, my good lord! thy comfort comes too late."--SHAK.: _ib._, p. 78. "The vocative takes no article; it is distinguished thus: _O Pedro_, Oh Peter! _O Dios_, Oh God!"--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 43. "Oh, o! But, the relative is always the same."--_Cobbett's Eng. Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 127. "Oh, oh! But, the relative is always the same."--_Id._, Edition of 1832, p. 116. "Ah hail, ye happy men!"--_Jaudon's Gram._, p. 116. "Oh that I had wings like a dove!"--FRIENDS' BIBLE, and ALGER'S: _Ps._, lv, 6. "Oh Glorious hope! O Blessed abode!"--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 183. "Alas, Friends, how joyous is your presence."--_Rev. T. Smith's Gram._, p. 87. "Oh, blissful days! Ah me! how soon ye pass!"--_Parker and Fox's Gram._, Part I, p. 16; Part III, p. 29. "Oh golden days! oh bright unvalued hours! What bliss (did ye but know that bliss) were yours!"--_Barbauld_. "Ay me! what perils do eviron The man that meddles with cold iron."--_Hudibras_. CHAPTER XII.--QUESTIONS. ORDER OF REHEARSAL, AND METHOD OF EXAMINATION. PART SECOND, ETYMOLOGY. [Fist] [The following questions refer almost wholly to the main text of the Etymology of this work, and are such as every student should be able to answer with readiness and accuracy, before he proceeds to any subsequent part of the study or the exercises of English grammar.] LESSON I.--PARTS OF SPEECH. 1. Of what does Etymology treat? 2. What is meant by the term, "_Parts of Speech?_" 3. What are _Classes_, under the parts of speech? 4. What are _Modifications?_ 5. How many and what are the parts of speech? 6. What is an article? 7. What is a noun? 8. What is an adjective? 9. What is a pronoun? 10. What is a verb? 11. What is a participle? 12. What is an adverb? 13. What is a conjunction? 14. What is a preposition? 15. What is an interjection? LESSON II.--PARSING. 1. What is _Parsing?_ and what relation does it bear to grammar? 2. What is a _Praxis?_ and what is said of the word? 3. What is required of the pupil in the FIRST PRAXIS? 4. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 5. How is the following example parsed? "The patient ox submits to the yoke, and meekly performs the labour required of him." [Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the _First Chapter_, or the _First Praxis_.] LESSON III.--ARTICLES. 1. What is an ARTICLE? 2. Are _an_ and _a_ different articles, or the same? 3. When ought _an_ to be used, and what are the examples? 4. When should _a_ be used, and what are the examples? 5. What form of the article do the sounds of _w_ and _y_ require? 6. Can you repeat the alphabet, with _an_ or _a_ before the name of each letter? 7. Will you name the ten parts of speech, with _an_ or _a_ before each name? 8. When does a common noun not admit an article? 9. How is the sense of nouns commonly made indefinitely partitive? 10. Does the mere being of a thing demand the use of articles? 11. Can articles ever be used when we mean to speak of a whole species? 12. But how does _an_ or _a_ commonly limit the sense? 13. And how does _the_ commonly limit the sense? 14. Which number does _the_ limit, the singular or the plural? 15. When is _the_ required before adjectives? 16. Why is _an_ or _a_ not applicable to plurals? 17. What is said of _an_ or _a_ before an adjective of number? 18. When, or how often, should articles be inserted? 19. What is said of needless articles? 20. What is the effect of putting one article for the other, and how shall we know which to choose? 21. How are the two articles distinguished in grammar? 22. Which is the definite article, and what does it denote? 23. Which is the indefinite article, and what does it denote? 24. What modifications have the articles? LESSON IV.--PARSING. 1. What is required of the pupil in the SECOND PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "The task of a schoolmaster laboriously prompting and urging an indolent class, is worse than his who drives lazy horses along a sandy road." [Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the _Second Chapter_, or the _Second Praxis_; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the five lessons of _bad English_, with which the Second Chapter concludes.] LESSON V.--NOUNS. 1. What is a NOUN, and what are the examples given? 2. Into what general classes are nouns divided? 3. What is a proper noun? 4. What is a common noun? 5. What particular classes are included among common nouns? 6. What is a collective noun? 7. What is an abstract noun? 8. What is a verbal or participial noun? 9. What modifications have nouns? 10. What are _Persons_, in grammar? 11. How many persons are there, and what are they called? 12. What is the first person? 13. What is the second person? 14. What is the third person? 15. What are _Numbers_, in grammar? 16. How many numbers are there, and what are they called? 17. What is the singular number? 18. What is the plural number? 19. How is the plural number of nouns regularly formed? 20. How is the regular plural formed without increase of syllables? 21. How is the regular plural formed when the word gains a syllable? LESSON VI--NOUNS. 1. What are _Genders_, in grammar? 2. How many genders are there, and what are they called? 3. What is the masculine gender? 4. What is the feminine gender? 5. What is the neuter gender? 6. What nouns, then, are masculine? what, feminine? and what, neuter? 7. What inflection of English nouns regularly changes their gender? 8. On what are the different genders founded, and to what parts of speech do they belong? 9. When the noun is such as may be applied to either sex, how is the gender usually determined? 10. What principle of universal grammar determines the gender when both sexes are taken together? 11. What is said of the gender of nouns of multitude? 12. Under what circumstances is it common to disregard the distinction of sex? 13. In how many ways are the sexes distinguished in grammar? 14. When the gender is figurative, how is it indicated? 15. What are _Cases_, in grammar? 16. How many cases are there, and what are they called? 17. What is the nominative case? 18. What is the subject of a verb? 19. What is the possessive case? 20. How is the possessive case of nouns formed? 21. What is the objective case? 22. What is the object of a verb, participle, or preposition? 23. What two cases of nouns are alike in form, and how are they distinguished? 24. What is the declension of a noun? 25. How do you decline the nouns, _friend, man, fox_, and _fly?_ LESSON VII--PARSING. 1. What is required of the pupil in the THIRD PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example to be parsed? "The writings of Hannah More appear to me more praise-worthy than Scott's." [Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the _Third Chapter_, or the _Third Praxis_; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the three lessons of _bad English_, with which the Third Chapter concludes.] LESSON VIII.--ADJECTIVES. 1. What is an ADJECTIVE, and what are the examples given? 2. Into what classes may adjectives be divided? 3. What is a common adjective? 4. What is a proper adjective? 5. What is a numeral adjective? 6. What is a pronominal adjective? 7. What is a participial adjective? 8. What is a compound adjective? 9. What modifications have adjectives? 10. What is comparison, in grammar? 11. How many and what are the degrees of comparison? 12. What is the positive degree? 13. What is the comparative degree? 14. What is the superlative degree? 15. What adjectives cannot be compared? 16. What adjectives are compared by means of adverbs? 17. How are adjectives regularly compared? 18. What principles of spelling must be observed in the comparing of adjectives? 19. To what adjectives is the regular method of comparison, by _er_ and _est_, applicable? 20. Is there any other method of expressing the degrees of comparison? 21. How are the degrees of diminution, or inferiority, expressed? 22. Has the regular method of comparison any degrees of this kind? 23. Do we ever compare by adverbs those adjectives which can be compared by _er_ and _est_? 24. How do you compare _good? bad, evil_, or _ill? little? much? many?_ 25. How do you compare _far? near? fore? hind? in? out? up? low? late?_ 26. What words want the positive? 27. What words want the comparative? LESSON IX.--PARSING. 1. What is required of the pupil in the FOURTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "The best and most effectual method of teaching grammar, is precisely that of which the careless are least fond: teach learnedly, rebuking whatsoever is false, blundering, or unmannerly." [Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the _Fourth Chapter_, or the _Fourth Praxis_; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the three lesons of _bad English_, with which the Fourth Chapter concludes.] LESSON X.--PRONOUNS. 1. What is a PRONOUN, and what is the example given? 2. How many pronouns are there? 3. How are pronouns divided? 4. What is a personal pronoun? 5. How many and what are the simple personal pronouns? 6. How many and what are the compound personal pronouns? 7. What is a relative pronoun? 8. Which are the relative pronouns? 9. What peculiarity has the relative _what_? 10. What is an interrogative pronoun? 11. Which are the interrogative pronouns? 12. Do _who, which_, and _what_, all ask the same question? 13. What modifications have pronouns? 14. Why are not these things defined under the head of pronouns? 15. What is the declension of a pronoun? 16. How do you decline the pronoun _I? Thou? He? She? It?_ 17. What is said of the compound personal pronouns? 18. How do you decline the pronoun _Myself? Thyself? Himself? Herself? Itself?_ 19. Are the interrogative pronouns declined like the simple relatives? 20. How do you decline _Who? Which? What? That? As?_ 21. Have the compound relative pronouns any declension? 22. How do you decline _Whoever? Whosoever? Whichever? Whichsoever? Whatever? Whatsoever?_ LESSON XI.--PARSING. 1. What is required of the pupil in the FIFTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "Nay but, O man, who art thou that repliest against God? Shall the thing formed say to him that formed it, Why hast thou made me thus?" [Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the _Fifth Chapter_, or the _Fifth Praxis_; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the three lessons of _bad English_, with which the Fifth Chapter concludes.] LESSON XII.--VERBS. 1. What is a VERB, and what are the examples given? 2. Why are verbs called by that name? 3. Respecting an English verb, what things are to be sought in the first place? 4. What is _the Present_? 5. What is _the Preterit_? 6. What is _the Imperfect Participle_? 7. What is the _Perfect Participle_? 8. How are verbs divided, with respect to their form? 9. What is a regular verb? 10. What is an irregular verb? 11. What is a redundant verb? 12. What is a defective verb? 13. How are verbs divided, with respect to their signification? 14. What is an active-transitive verb? 15. What is an active-intransitive verb? 16. What is a passive verb? 17. What is a neuter verb? 18. What modifications have verbs? 19. What are _Moods_, in grammar? 20. How many moods are there, and what are they called? 21. What is the infinitive mood? 22. What is the indicative mood? 23. What is the potential mood? 24. What is the subjunctive mood? 25. What is the imperative mood? LESSON XIII.--VERBS. 1. What are _Tenses_, in grammar? 2. How many tenses are there, and what are they called? 3. What is the present tense? 4. What is the imperfect tense? 5. What is the perfect tense? 6. What is the pluperfect tense? 7. What is the first-future tense? 8. What is the second-future tense? 9. What are the _Person_ and _Number_ of a verb? 10. How many persons and numbers belong to verbs? 11. Why are not these things defined under the head of verbs? 12. How are the second and third persons singular distinctively formed? 13. How are the person and number of a verb ascertained, where no peculiar ending is employed to mark them? 14. What is the conjugation of a verb? 15. What are the PRINCIPAL PARTS in the conjugation of a verb? 16. What is a verb called which wants some of these parts? 17. What is an auxiliary, in grammar? 18. What verbs are used as auxiliaries? 19. What are the inflections of the verb _do_, in its simple tenses? 20. What are the inflections of the verb _be_, in its simple tenses? 21. What are the inflections of the verb _have_, in its simple tenses? 22. What are the inflections and uses of _shall_ and _will_? 23. What are the inflections and uses of _may_? 24. What are the inflections and uses of _can_? 25. What are the uses of _must_, which is uninflected? 26. To what style is the inflecting of _shall, will, may, can, should, would, might_, and _could_, now restricted? LESSON XIV.--VERBS. 1. What is the simplest form of an English conjugation? 2. What is the first example of conjugation? 3. What are the principal parts of the verb LOVE? 4. How many and what tenses has the _infinitive_ mood?--the _indicative_?--the _potential_?--the _subjunctive_?--the _imperative_? 9. What is the verb LOVE in the _Infinitive_, present?--perfect?-- _Indicative_, present?--imperfect?--perfect?--pluperfect?--first-future?-- second-future?--_Potential_, present?--imperfect?--perfect?--pluperfect?-- _Subjunctive_, present?--imperfect?--_Imperative_, present? 24. What are its participles? LESSON XV.--VERBS. 1. What is the synopsis of the verb LOVE, in the first person singular?--second person singular, solemn style?--third person singular?--first person plural?--second person plural?--third person plural? 7. If the second person singular of this verb be used familiarly, how should it be formed? LESSON XVI.--VERBS. 1. What is the second example of conjugation? 2. What are the principal parts? 3. How is the verb SEE conjugated throughout? 4. How do you form a synopsis of the verb _see_, with the pronoun _I? thou? he? we? you? they?_ LESSON XVII.--VERBS. 1. What is the third example of conjugation? 2. What are the principal parts? 3. How is the verb BE conjugated? 4. How do you form a synopsis of the verb _be_, with the nominative _I? thou? he? we? you? they? the man? the men?_ LESSON XVIII.--VERBS. 1. What is the compound form of conjugating active or neuter verbs? 2. What peculiar meaning does this form convey? 3. What is the fourth example of conjugation? 4. What are the principal parts of the simple verb READ? 5. How is the verb READ conjugated in the compound form? 6. How do you form a synopsis of the verb BE READING, with the nominative _I? thou? he? we? you? they? the boy? the boys?_ LESSON XIX.--VERBS. 1. How are passive verbs formed? 2. What is the fifth example of conjugation? 3. How is the passive verb BE LOVED conjugated throughout? 4. How do you form a synopsis of the verb BE LOVED, with the nominative _I? thou? he? we? you? they? the child? the children?_ LESSON XX.--VERBS. 1. How is a verb conjugated negatively? 2. How is the form of negation exemplified by the verb _love_ in the first person singular? 3. What is the form of negation for the solemn style, second person singular? 4. What is the form for the familiar style? 5. What is the negative form of the verb _love_ with the pronoun _he_? 6. How is the verb conjugated interrogatively? 7. What is the interrogative form of the verb _love_ with the pronoun _I_? 8. What is the form of question in the solemn style, with this verb in the second person singular? 9. How are such questions asked in the familiar style? 10. What is the interrogative form of the verb _love_ with the pronoun _he_? 11. How is a verb conjugated interrogatively and negatively? 12. How is the negative question exemplified in the first person plural? 13. How is the negative question exemplified in the second person plural? 14. How is the like synopsis formed in the third person plural? LESSON XXI.--VERBS. 1. What is an irregular verb? 2. How many simple irregular verbs are there? 3. What are the principal parts of the following verbs: Arise, be, bear, beat, begin, behold, beset, bestead, bid, bind, bite, bleed, break, breed, bring, buy, cast, chide, choose, cleave, cling, come, cost, cut, do, draw, drink, drive, eat, fall, feed, feel, fight, find, flee, fling, fly, forbear, forsake, get, give, go, grow, have, hear, hide, hit, hold, hurt, keep, know, lead, leave, lend, let, lie, lose, make, meet, outdo, put, read, rend, rid, ride, ring, rise, run, say, see, seek, sell, send, set, shed, shoe, shoot, shut, shred, shrink, sing, sink, sit, slay, sling, slink, smite, speak, spend, spin, spit, spread, spring, stand, steal, stick, sting, stink, stride, strike, swear, swim, swing, take, teach, tear, tell, think, thrust, tread, wear, win, write? LESSON XXII.--VERBS. 1. What is a redundant verb? 2. How many redundant verbs are there? 3. What are the principal parts of the following verbs: Abide, awake, belay, bend, bereave, beseech, bet, betide, blend, bless, blow, build, burn, burst, catch, clothe, creep, crow, curse, dare, deal, dig, dive, dream, dress, dwell, freeze, geld, gild, gird, grave, grind, hang, heave, hew, kneel, knit, lade, lay, lean, leap, learn, light, mean, mow, mulet, pass, pay, pen, plead, prove, quit, rap, reave, rive, roast, saw, seethe, shake, shape, shave, shear, shine, show, sleep, slide, slit, smell, sow, speed, spell, spill, split, spoil, stave, stay, string, strive, strow, sweat, sweep, swell, thrive, throw, wake, wax, weave, wed, weep, wet, whet, wind, wont, work, wring? 4. What is a defective verb? 5. What verbs are defective? LESSON XXIII.--PARSING. 1. What is required of the pupil in the SIXTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "The freedom of choice seems essential to happiness; because, properly speaking, that is not our own which is imposed upon us." [Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the _Sixth Chapter_, or the _Sixth Praxis_; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the three lessons of _bad English_, with which the Sixth Chapter concludes.] LESSON XXIV.--PARTICIPLES. 1. What is a PARTICIPLE, and how is it generally formed? 2. How many kinds of participles are there, and what are they called? 3. What is the imperfect participle? 4. What is the perfect participle? 5. What is the preperfect participle? 6. How is the first or imperfect participle formed? 7. How is the second or perfect participle formed? 8. How is the third or preperfect participle formed? 9. What are the participles of the following verbs, according to the simplest form of conjugation: Repeat, study, return, mourn, seem, rejoice, appear, approach, suppose, think, set, come, rain, stand, know, deceive? LESSON XXV.--PARSING. 1. What is required of the pupil in the SEVENTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed: "Religion, rightly understood and practised, has the purest of all joys attending it." [Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the _Seventh Chapter_, or the _Seventh Praxis_; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the three lessons of _bad English_, with which the Seventh Chapter concludes.] LESSON XXVI.--ADVERBS. 1. What is an ADVERB, and what is the example given? 2. To what general classes may adverbs be reduced? 3. What are adverbs of time? 4. What are adverbs of place? 5. What are adverbs of degree? 6. What are adverbs of manner? 1. What are conjunctive adverbs? 8. Are all the conjunctive adverbs included in the first four classes? 9. How may the adverbs of time be subdivided? 10. How may the adverbs of place be subdivided? 11. How may the adverbs of degree be subdivided? 12. How may the adverbs of manner be subdivided? 13. What modifications have adverbs? 14. How do we compare _well, badly_ or _ill, little, much, far_, and _forth_? 15. Of what degree is the adverb _rather_? 16. What is said of the comparison of adverbs by _more_ and _most, less_ and _least_? LESSON XXVII.--PARSING. 1. What is required of the pupil in the EIGHTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "When was it that Rome attracted most strongly the admiration of mankind?" [Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the _Eighth Chapter_, or the _Eighth Praxis_; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the lesson of _bad English_, with which the Eighth Chapter concludes.] LESSON XXVIII.--CONJUNCTIONS. 1. What is a CONJUNCTION, and what is the example given? 2. Have we any connective words besides the conjunctions? 3. How do relative pronouns differ from other connectives? 4. How do conjunctive adverbs differ from other connectives? 5. How do conjunctions differ from other connectives? 6. How do prepositions differ from other connectives? 7. How are the conjunctions divided? 8. What is a copulative conjunction? 9. What is a disjunctive conjunction? 10. What are corresponsive conjunctions? 11. Which are the copulative conjunctions? 12. Which are the disjunctive conjunctions? 13. Which are the corresponsive conjunctions? LESSON XXIX.--PARSING. 1. What is required of the pupil in the NINTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "If thou hast done a good deed, boast not of it." [Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the _Ninth Chapter_, or the _Ninth Praxis_; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the lesson of _bad English_, with which the Ninth Chapter concludes.] LESSON XXX.--PREPOSITIONS. 1. What is a PREPOSITION, and what is the example given? 2. Are the prepositions divided into classes? 3. Have prepositions any grammatical modifications? 4. How are the prepositions arranged in the list? 5. What are the prepositions beginning with _a_?--with _b_?--with _c_?--with _d_?--with _e_?--with _f_?--with _i_?--with _m_?--with _n_?--with _o_?--with _p_?--with _r_?--with _s_?--with _t_?--with _u_?--with _w_? 21. Does this list contain all the words that are ever used in English as prepositions? LESSON XXXI.--PARSING. 1. What is required of the pupil in the TENTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "Never adventure on too near an approach to what is evil?" [Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the _Tenth Chapter_, or the _Tenth Praxis_; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the lesson of _bad English_, with which the Tenth Chapter concludes.] LESSON XXXII.--INTERJECTIONS. 1. What is an INTERJECTION, and what are the examples given? 2. Why are interjections so called? 3. How are the interjections arranged in the list? 4. What are the interjections of joy?--of praise?--of sorrow?--of wonder?--of wishing or earnestness?--of pain or fear?--of contempt?--of aversion?--of calling aloud?--of exultation?--of laughter?--of salutation?--of calling to attention?--of calling to silence?--of surprise or horror?--of languor?--of stopping?--of parting?--of knowing or detecting?--of interrogating? LESSON XXXIII.--PARSING. 1. What is required of the pupil in the ELEVENTH PRAXIS? How many definitions are here given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "O! sooner shall the earth and stars fall into chaos!" [Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the _Eleventh Chapter_, or the _Eleventh Praxis_; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the lesson of _bad English_, with which the Eleventh Chapter concludes.] CHAPTER XIII.--FOR WRITING. EXERCISES IN ETYMOLOGY. [When the pupil has become familiar with the different parts of speech, and their classes and modifications, and has been sufficiently exercised in etymological parsing and correcting, he should write out the following exercises; for speech and writing afford us different modes of testing the proficiency of students, and exercises in both are necessary to a complete course of English Grammar.] EXERCISE I.--ARTICLES. 1. Prefix the definite article to each of the following nouns: path, paths; loss, losses; name, names; page, pages; want, wants; doubt, doubts; votary, votaries. 2. Prefix the indefinite article to each of the following nouns: age, error, idea, omen, urn, arch, bird, cage, dream, empire, farm, grain, horse, idol, jay, king, lady, man, novice, opinion, pony, quail, raven, sample, trade, uncle, vessel, window, youth, zone, whirlwind, union, onion, unit, eagle, house, honour, hour, herald, habitation, hospital, harper, harpoon, ewer, eye, humour. 3. Insert the definite article rightly in the following phrases: George Second--fair appearance--part first--reasons most obvious--good man--wide circle--man of honour--man of world--old books--common people--same person--smaller piece--rich and poor--first and last--all time--great excess--nine muses--how rich reward--so small number--all ancient writers--in nature of things--much better course. 4. Insert the indefinite article rightly in each of the following phrases: new name--very quick motion--other sheep--such power--what instance--great weight--such worthy cause--to great difference--high honour--humble station--universal law--what strange event--so deep interest--as firm hope--so great wit--humorous story--such person--few dollars--little reflection. EXERCISE II.--NOUNS. 1. Write the plurals of the following nouns: town, country, case, pin, needle, harp, pen, sex, rush, arch, marsh, monarch, blemish, distich, princess, gas, bias, stigma, wo, grotto, folio, punctilio, ally, duty, toy, money, entry, valley, volley, half, dwarf, strife, knife, roof, muff, staff, chief, sheaf, mouse, penny, ox, foot, erratum, axis, thesis, criterion, bolus, rebus, son-in-law, pailful, man-servant, fellow-citizen. 2. Write the feminines corresponding to the following nouns: earl, friar, stag, lord, duke, marquis, hero, executor, nephew, heir, actor, enchanter, hunter, prince, traitor, lion, arbiter, tutor, songster, abbot, master, uncle, widower, son, landgrave. 3. Write the possessive case singular, of the following nouns: table, leaf, boy, torch, park, porch, portico, lynx, calf, sheep, wolf, echo, folly, cavern, father-in-law, court-martial, precipice, countess, lordship. 4. Write the possessive case plural, of the following nouns: priest, tutor, scholar, mountain, city, courtier, judge, citizen, woman, servant, writer, grandmother. 5. Write the possessive case, both singular and plural, of the following nouns: body, fancy, lady, attorney, negro, nuncio, life, brother, deer, child, wife, goose, beau, envoy, distaff, hero, thief, wretch. EXERCISE III.--ADJECTIVES. 1. Annex a suitable noun to each of the following adjectives, without repeating any word: good, great, tall, wise, strong, dark, dangerous, dismal, drowsy, twenty, true, difficult, pale, livid, ripe, delicious, stormy, rainy, convenient, heavy, disastrous, terrible, necessary. Thus--good _manners_, &c. 2. Place a suitable adjective before each of the following nouns, without repeating any word: man, son, merchant, work, fence, fear, poverty, picture, prince, delay, suspense, devices, follies, actions. Thus--_wise_ man, &c. 3. Write the forms in which the following adjectives are compared by inflection, or change of form: black, bright, short, white, old, high, wet, big, few, lovely, dry, fat, good, bad, little, much, many, far, true, just, vast. 4. Write the forms in which the following adjectives are compared, using the adverbs of increase: delightful, comfortable, agreeable, pleasant, fortunate, valuable, wretched, vivid, timid, poignant, excellent, sincere, honest, correct. 5. Write the forms in which the following adjectives are compared, using the comparative adverbs of inferiority or diminution: objectionable, formidable, forcible, comely, pleasing, obvious, censurable, prudent, imprudent, imperfect, pleasant, unpleasant. EXERCISE IV.--PRONOUNS. 1. Write the nominative plural of the following pronouns: I, thou, he, she, it, who, which, what, that, as. 2. Write the objective singular of the following pronouns: I, thou, he, she, it, who, which, what, that, as. 3. Write the following words in their customary and proper forms: he's, her's, it's, our's, your's, their's, who's, myself, hisself, theirselves. 4. Write together in declension the following pronouns, according to the agreement of each two: I myself, thou thyself, he himself, she herself it itself. 5. Rewrite the following sentences, and make them good English: "Nor is the criminal binding any thing: but was, his self, being bound."--_Wrights Gram._, p. 193. "The writer surely did not mean, that the work was preparing its self."--_Ib._ "_May_, or _can_, in its self, denotes possibility."--_Ib._, p. 216. "Consequently those in connection with the remaining pronouns respectively, should be written,--he, _his self_;--she, _her self_;--ye or you, _your selves_; they, _their selves_."--_Ib._, p. 154. "Lest their beacons be lost to the view, and their selves wrecked on the shoals of destruction."--_Ib._, p. 155. "In the regal style, as generally in the second person, the singular noun is added to the plural pronoun, _ourself_."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 78. "Each has it's peculiar advantages."--_Ib._, p. 283. "Who his ownself bare our sins in his own body on the tree."--_The Friend_, iv, 302. "It is difficult to look inwardly on oneself."--_Journal of N. Y. Lit. Convention_. p. 287. EXERCISE V.--VERBS. 1. Write the four principal parts of each of the following verbs: slip, thrill, caress, force, release, crop, try, die, obey, delay, destroy, deny, buy, come, do, feed, lie, say, huzza, pretend, deliver, arrest. 2. Write the following preterits, each in its appropriate form: exprest, stript, dropt, jumpt, prest, topt, whipt, linkt, propt, fixt, crost, stept, distrest, gusht, confest, snapt, skipt, kist, discust, tackt. 3. Write the following verbs in the indicative mood, present tense, second person singular: move, strive, please, reach, confess, fix, deny, survive, know, go, outdo, close, lose, pursue, defend, surpass, conquer, deliver, enlighten, protect, polish. 4. Write the following verbs in the indicative mood, present tense, third person singular: leave, seem, search, impeach, fear, redress, comply, bestow, do, woo, sue, view, allure, rely, beset, release, be, bias, compel, degrade, efface, garnish, handle, induce. 5. Write the following verbs in the subjunctive mood, present tense, in the three persons singular: serve, shun, turn, learn, find, wish, throw, dream, possess, detest, disarm, allow, pretend, expose, alarm, deprive, transgress. EXERCISE VI.--VERBS. 1. Write a synopsis of the first person singular of the active verb _amuse_, conjugated affirmatively. 2. Write a synopsis of the second person singular of the neuter verb _sit_, conjugated affirmatively in the solemn style. 3. Write a synopsis of the third person singular of the active verb _speak_, conjugated affirmatively in the compound form. 4. Write a synopsis of the first person plural of the passive verb _be reduced_, conjugated affirmatively. 5. Write a synopsis of the second person plural of the active verb _lose_, conjugated negatively. 6. Write a synopsis of the third person plural of the neuter verb _stand_, conjugated interrogatively. 7. Write a synopsis of the first person singular of the active verb _derive_, conjugated interrogatively and negatively. EXERCISE VII.--PARTICIPLES. 1. Write the simple imperfect participles of the following verbs: belong, provoke, degrade, impress, fly, do, survey, vie, coo, let, hit, put, defer, differ, remember. 2. Write the perfect participles of the following verbs: turn, burn, learn, deem, crowd, choose, draw, hear, lend, sweep, tear, thrust, steal, write, delay, imply, exist. 3. Write the preperfect participles of the following verbs: depend, dare, deny, value, forsake, bear, set, sit, lay, mix, speak, sleep, allot. 4. Write the following participles each in its appropriate form: dipt, deckt, markt, equipt, ingulft, embarrast, astonisht, tost, embost, absorpt, attackt, gasht, soakt, hackt. 5. Write the regular participles which are now generally preferred to the following irregular ones: blent, blest, clad, curst, diven, drest, graven, hoven, hewn, knelt, leant, leapt, learnt, lit, mown, mulct, past, pent, quit, riven, roast, sawn, sodden, shaven, shorn, sown, striven, strown, sweat, swollen, thriven, waxen. 6. Write the irregular participles which are commonly preferred to the following regular ones: abided, bended, builded, bursted, catched, creeped, dealed, digged, dwelled, freezed, grinded, knitted, layed, meaned, payed, reaved, slided, speeded, splitted, stringed, sweeped, throwed, weaved, weeped, winded. EXERCISE VIII.--ADVERBS, &c. 1. Compare the following adverbs: soon, often, long, fast, near, early, well, badly _or_ ill, little, much, far, forth. 2. Place the comparative adverbs of increase before each of the following adverbs: purely, fairly, sweetly, earnestly, patiently, completely, fortunately, profitably, easily. 3. Place the comparative adverbs of diminution before each of the following adverbs: secretly, slily, liberally, favourably, powerfully, solemnly. 4. Insert suitable conjunctions in place of the following dashes: Love--fidelity are inseparable. Be shy of parties--factions. Do well--boast not. Improve time--it flies. There would be few paupers--no time were lost. Be not proud--thou art human. I saw--it was necessary. Wisdom is better--wealth. Neither he--I can do it. Wisdom--folly governs us. Take care--thou fall. Though I should boast--am I nothing. 5. Insert suitable prepositions in place of the following dashes: Plead--the dumb. Qualify thyself--action--study. Think often--the worth--time. Live--peace--all men. Keep--compass. Jest not--serious subjects. Take no part--slander. Guilt starts--its own shadow. Grudge not--giving. Go not--sleep--malice. Debate not--temptation. Depend not--the stores--others. Contend not--trifles. Many fall--grasping--things--their reach. Be deaf--detraction. 6. Correct the following sentences, and adapt the interjections to the emotions expressed by the other words: Aha! aha! I am undone. Hey! io! I am tired. Ho! be still. Avaunt! this way. Ah! what nonsense. Heigh-ho! I am delighted. Hist! it is contemptible. Oh! for that sympathetic glow! Ah! what withering phantoms glare! PART III. SYNTAX. Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government, and arrangement, of words in sentences. The _relation_ of words is their reference to other words, or their dependence according to the sense. The _agreement_ of words is their similarity in person, number, gender, case, mood, tense, or form. The _government_ of words is that power which one word has over an other, to cause it to assume some particular modification. The _arrangement_ of words is their collocation, or relative position, in a sentence. CHAPTER I.--SENTENCES. A _Sentence_ is an assemblage of words, making complete sense, and always containing a nominative and a verb; as, "Reward sweetens labour." The _principal parts_ of a sentence are usually three; namely, the SUBJECT, or nominative,--the attribute, or finite VERB,--and the case put after, or the OBJECT[322] governed by the verb: as, "_Crimes deserve punishment_." The _other_ or _subordinate parts_ depend upon these, either as primary or as secondary _adjuncts_; as, "_High_ crimes _justly_ deserve _very severe_ punishments." Sentences are usually said to be of two kinds, _simple_ and _compound_.[323] A _simple sentence_ is a sentence which consists of one single assertion, supposition, command, question, or exclamation; as, "David and Jonathan loved each other."--"If thine enemy hunger."--"Do violence to no man."--"Am I not an apostle?"--_1 Cor._, ix, 1. "What immortal glory shall I have acquired!"--HOOKE: _Mur. Seq._, p. 71. A _compound sentence_ is a sentence which consists of two or more simple ones either expressly or tacitly connected; as, "Send men to Joppa, _and_ call for Simon, _whose_ surname is Peter; _who_ shall tell thee words, _whereby_ thou and all thy house shall be saved."--_Acts_, xi, 13. "The more the works of Cowper are read, the more his readers will find reason to admire the variety and the extent, the graces and the energy, of his literary talents."--HAYLEY: _Mur. Seq._, p. 250. A _clause_, or _member_, is a subdivision of a compound sentence; and is itself a sentence, either simple or compound: as, "If thine enemy be hungry, give him bread to eat; if he be thirsty, give him water to drink."--_Prov._, xxv, 21.[324] A _phrase_ is two or more words which express some relation of different ideas, but no entire proposition; as, "By the means appointed."--"To be plain with you."--"Having loved his own." Words that are omitted by _ellipsis_, and that are necessarily understood in order to complete the construction, (and only such,) must be supplied in parsing. The _leading principles_ to be observed in the construction of sentences, are embraced in the following twenty-four rules, which are arranged, as nearly as possible, in the order of the parts of speech. THE RULES OF SYNTAX. RULE I.--ARTICLES. Articles relate to the nouns which they limit. RULE II.--NOMINATIVES. A Noun or a Pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case. RULE III.--APPOSITION. A Noun or a personal Pronoun used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same case. RULE IV.--POSSESSIVES. A Noun or a Pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thing possessed. RULE V.--OBJECTIVES. A Noun or a Pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case. RULE VI.--SAME CASES. A Noun or a Pronoun put after a verb or participle not transitive, agrees in case with a preceding noun or pronoun referring to the same thing. RULE VII.--OBJECTIVES. A Noun or a Pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case. RULE VIII.--NOM. ABSOLUTE. A Noun or a Pronoun is put absolute in the nominative, when its case depends on no other word. RULE IX.--ADJECTIVES. Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns. RULE X.--PRONOUNS. A Pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender. RULE XI--PRONOUNS. When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the Pronoun must agree with it in the plural number. RULE XII.--PRONOUNS. When a Pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by _and_, it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together. RULE XIII.--PRONOUNS. When a Pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by _or_ or _nor_, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together. RULE XIV.--FINITE VERBS. Every finite Verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, in person and number. RULE XV.--FINITE VERBS. When the nominative is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the Verb must agree with it in the plural number. RULE XVI.--FINITE VERBS. When a Verb has two or more nominatives connected by _and_, it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together. RULE XVII.--FINITE VERBS. When a Verb has two or more nominatives connected by _or_ or _nor_, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together. RULE XVIII.--INFINITIVES. The Infinitive Mood is governed in general by the preposition TO, which commonly connects it to a finite verb. RULE XIX.--INFINITIVES. The active verbs, _bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see_, and their participles, usually take the Infinitive after them without the preposition TO. RULE XX.--PARTICIPLES. Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by prepositions. RULE XXI.--ADVERBS. Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs. RULE XXII.--CONJUNCTIONS. Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences. RULE XXIII.--PREPOSITIONS. Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them. RULE XXIV.--INTERJECTIONS. Interjections have no dependent construction; they are put absolute, either alone, or with other words. GENERAL OR CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS ON SYNTAX. OBS. 1.--An explanation of the relation, agreement, government, and arrangement, of words in sentences, constitutes that part of grammar which we call _Syntax_. But many grammarians, representing this branch of their subject as consisting of two parts only, "_concord_ and _government_" say little or nothing of the _relation_ and _arrangement_ of words, except as these are involved in the others. The four things are essentially different in their nature, as may be seen by the definitions given above, yet not so distinct in practice that they can well be made the basis of any perfect division of the rules of syntax. I have therefore, on this occasion, preferred the order of the parts of speech; each of which will form a chapter in the Syntax of this work, as each forms a chapter in the Etymology. OBS. 2.--_Agreement_ and _concord_ are one and the same thing. _Relation_ and _agreement_, though different, may yet coincide, and be taken together. The latter is moreover naturally allied to the former. Seven of the ten parts of speech are, with a few exceptions, incapable of any agreement; of these the _relation_ and _use_ must be explained in parsing; and all _requisite agreement_ between any of the rest, is confined to words that _relate_ to each other. For one word may _relate_ to an other and not _agree_ with it; but there is never any _necessary agreement_ between words that have not a _relation_ one to the other, or a connexion according to the sense. Any similarity happening between unconnected words, is no syntactical concord, though it may rank the terms in the same class etymologically. OBS. 3.--From these observations it may be seen, that the most important and most comprehensive principle of English syntax, is the simple _Relation_ of words, according to the sense. To this head alone, ought to be referred all the rules of construction by which our articles, our nominatives, our adjectives, our participles, our adverbs, our conjunctions, our prepositions, and our interjections, are to be parsed. To the ordinary syntactical use of any of these, no rules of concord, government, or position, can at all apply. Yet so defective and erroneous are the schemes of syntax which are commonly found in our English grammars, that _no rules_ of simple relation, none by which any of the above-named parts of speech can be consistently parsed, are in general to be found in them. If there are any exceptions to this censure, they are very few, and in treatises still marked with glaring defects in regard to the syntax of some of these parts of speech. OBS. 4.--Grammarians, of course, do not utter falsehoods intentionally; but it is lamentable to see how often they pervert doctrine by untruths uttered ignorantly. It is the design of this pandect, to make every one who reads it, an intelligent judge of the _perversions_, as well as of the true doctrines, of English grammar. The following citations will show him the scope and parts which have commonly been assigned to our syntax: "The construction of sentences depends principally upon the _concord_ or _agreement_, and the _regimen_ or _government_, of words."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 68; _Churchill's_, 120. "Words in sentences have a _twofold relation_ to one another; namely, that of _Concord_ or Agreement; and that of _Government_ or Influence."--_Dr. Adam's Latin and English Grammar_, p. 151. "The third part of Grammar is SYNTAX, which treats of the _agreement and construction_ of words in a sentence."--_E. G. Greene's Grammatical Text-Book_, p. 15. "Syntax principally consists of two parts, _Concord_ and _Government_."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 142; _Ingersoll's_, 170; _Alger's_, 51; _R. C. Smith's_, 119; and many others. "Syntax consists of two parts, _Concord_ and _Government_."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 175; _Wright's_, 124. "The Rules of Syntax may all be included under three heads, _Concord, Government_, and _Position_."--_Bullions's E. Gram._, p. 87. "_Position_ means the _place_ which a word occupies in a sentence."--_Ib._ "These rules may be mostly ranked under the two heads of _agreement_ and _government_; the remainder may be termed _miscellaneous_."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 92. "Syntax treats of the agreement, government and proper arrangement of words in _a sentence_."--_Frost's El. of Gram._, p. 43. This last-named author, in touching the text of my books, has often _corrupted_ it, as he does here; but my definitions of _the tenses_ he copied without marring them much. The borrowing occurred as early as 1828, and I add this notice now, lest any should suppose _me_ the plagiarist. OBS. 5.--Most of our English grammars have _more_ rules of syntax than are needed, and yet are very deficient in _such_ as are needed. To say, as some do, that articles, adjectives, and participles, _agree_ with nouns, is to teach Greek or Latin syntax, and not English. To throw, as Nutting does, the whole syntax of adverbs into a remark on _such a rule of agreement_, is to choose disorder for its own sake. To say, with Frost, Hall, Smith, Perley, Kirkham, Sanborn, Rand, and others, "The nominative case _governs_ the verb in number and person," and again, "A verb must _agree_ with its nominative case in number and person," is to confound the meaning of _government_ and _agreement_, to say the same thing in different words, and to leave the subject of a verb still without a rule: for rules of government are applicable only to the words governed, and nothing ever agrees with that which governs it.[325] To say, with Murray and others, "Participles have the same government as the verbs from which they are derived," is to say nothing by which either verbs or participles may be parsed, or any of their errors corrected: those many grammarians, therefore, who make this their only rule for participles, leave them all without any syntax. To say, with Murray, Alger, and others, "Adverbs, _though they have no government of case, tense, &c._, require an appropriate _situation_ in the sentence," is to squander words at random, and leave the important question unanswered, "To what do adverbs relate?" To say again, with the same gentlemen, "Conjunctions connect _the same moods and tenses of verbs, and cases_ of nouns and pronouns," is to put an ungrammatical, obscure, and useless assertion, in the place of an important rule. To say merely, "Prepositions govern the objective case," is to rest all the syntax of prepositions on a rule that never applies to them, but which is meant only for one of the constructions of the objective case. To say, as many do, "Interjections _require_ the objective case of a pronoun of the first person after them, and the nominative case of the second," is to tell what is utterly false as the words stand, and by no means true in the sense which the authors intend. Finally, to suppose, with Murray, that, "the Interjection _does not require a distinct, appropriate rule_," is in admirable keeping with all the foregoing quotations, and especially with his notion of what it _does_ require; namely, "the _objective case_ of the first person:" but who dares deny that the following exclamation is good English? "_O_ wretched _we!_ why were we hurried down This lubric and adulterate age!"--_Dryden_. OBS. 6.--The _truth_ of any doctrine in science, can be nothing else than its conformity to facts, or to the nature of things; and chiefly by what he knows of the things themselves, must any one judge of what others say concerning them. Erroneous or inadequate views, confused or inconsistent statements, are the peculiar property of those who advance them; they have, in reality, no relationship to science itself, because they originate in ignorance; but all science is knowledge--it is knowledge methodized. What general rules are requisite for the syntactical parsing of the several parts of speech in English, may be seen at once by any one who will consider for a moment the usual construction of each. The correction of false syntax, in its various forms, will require more--yes, five times as many; but such of these as answer only the latter purpose, are, I think, better reserved for notes under the principal rules. The doctrines which I conceive most worthy to form the leading canons of our syntax, are those which are expressed in the twenty-four rules above. If other authors prefer more, or fewer, or different principles for their chief rules, I must suppose, it is because they have studied the subject less. Biased, as we may be, both by our knowledge and by our ignorance, it is easy for men to differ respecting matters of _expediency_; but that clearness, order, and consistency, are both _expedient_, and _requisite_, in didactic compositions, is what none can doubt. OBS. 7.--Those English grammarians who tell us, as above, that syntax is divided into _parts_, or included under a certain number of _heads_, have almost universally contradicted themselves by treating the subject without any regard to such a division; and, at the same time, not a few have somehow been led into the gross error of supposing broad principles of concord or government where no such things exist. For example, they have invented general RULES like these: "The adjective _agrees_ with its noun in number, case, and gender."--_Bingham's English Gram._, p. 40. "Interjections _govern_ the nominative case, and sometimes the objective: as, '_O thou! alas me!_'"--_Ib._, p. 43. "Adjectives _agree_ with their nouns in number."--_Wilbur and Livingston's Gram._, p. 22. "Participles _agree_ with their nouns in number."--_Ib._, p. 23. "Every adjective _agrees in number_ with some substantive expressed or understood."-- _Hiley's Gram._, Rule 8th, p. 77. "The article THE _agrees_ with nouns in either number: as, _The wood, the woods_."--_Bucke's Classical Grammar of the English Language_, p. 84. "O! oh! ah! _require_ the accusative case of a pronoun in the first person after them: as '_Ah me!_' But when the second person is used, _it requires_ a nominative case: as, '_O thou!_'"--_Ib._, p. 87. "Two or more Nominatives in the singular number, connected by the Conjunction _or, nor_, EITHER, NEITHER, _govern_ a singular Verb. But Pronouns singular, of different persons, joined by _or_, EITHER, _nor_, NEITHER, _govern_ a plural Verb."--_Ib._, p. 94. "One Nominative frequently _governs_ many Verbs."--_Ib._, p. 95. "Participles are sometimes _governed_ by the article."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 192. "An adverb, an adjective, or a participle, may involve in itself the force of _a preposition, and govern_ the objective case."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 99. "The nominative case _governs_ the verb." [326]--_Greenleaf's Gram._, p. 32; _Kirkham's_, 176; and others. "The nominative case _comes before_ the verb."--_Bingham's Gram._, p. 38; _Wilbur and Livingston's_, 23. "The Verb TO BE, _always governs_ a Nominative, _unless it be_ of the Infinitive Mood."--_Buchanan's Syntax_, p. 94. "A verb in the infinitive mood _may be governed_ by a verb, noun, adjective, participle, or pronoun."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 187. Or, (as a substitute for the foregoing rule,) say, according to this author: "A verb in the infinitive mood, _refers_ to some noun or pronoun, as its subject or actor."--_Ib._, p. 188. Now what does he know of English grammar, who supposes any of these rules to be worthy of the place which they hold, or have held, in the halls of instruction? OBS. 8.--It is a very common fault with the compilers of English grammars, to join together in the same rule the syntax of different parts of speech, uniting laws that must ever be applied separately in parsing. For example: "RULE XI. Articles and adjectives _relate to nouns_ expressed or understood; and the adjectives _this, that, one, two_, must agree in number with the nouns to which they relate."--_Comly's Gram._, p. 87. Now, in parsing an _article_, why should the learner have to tell all this story about _adjectives_? Such a mode of expressing the rule, is certainly in bad taste; and, after all, the syntax of adjectives is not here comprised, for they often relate to pronouns. "RULE III. Every adjective and participle _belongs_ to some noun or pronoun expressed or understood."--_Frost's El. of Gram._, p. 44. Here a compiler who in his etymology supposes participles to be _verbs_, allows them no other construction than that of _adjectives_. His rule implicitly denies that they can either be parts of their verbs in the formation of _tenses_, or be governed by prepositions in the character of _gerunds_. To suppose that a _noun_ may govern the objective case, is both absurd in itself, and contrary to all authority; yet, among his forty-nine rules, this author has the following: "RULE XXV. A participial _noun_ is sometimes governed by a preposition, and _may govern an objective case_; as, 'George is too fond of _wasting time_ in trifles.'"--_Frost's El. of Gram._, p. 47. Here again is the fault of which I am speaking, two rules in one; and this fault is combined with an other still worse. _Wasting_ is a participle, governed by _of_; and _time_ is a _noun_, governed by _wasting_. The latter is a declinable word, and found in the objective case; the former is indeclinable, and found in no case. It is an error to suppose that cases are the only things which are susceptible of being governed; nor is the brief rule, "Prepositions govern the objective case," so very clear a maxim as never to be misapprehended. If the learner infer from it, that _all_ prepositions must necessarily govern the objective case, or that the objective case _is always_ governed by a preposition, he will be led into a great mistake. OBS. 9.--This error of crowding things together, is still more conspicuous in the following examples: "RULE IV. Every article, adjective, and participle, _must qualify_ some noun, or pronoun, either expressed or understood."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 94. "RULE IX. The objective case is governed by a transitive verb or a preposition, usually coming before it."--_Ib._, p. 98. Here an author who separates participles from verbs, has attempted first to compress the entire syntax of three different parts of speech into one short rule; and, secondly, to embrace all the forms of dependence, incident to objective nouns and pronouns, in an other as short. This brevity is a poor exchange for the order and distribution which it prevents--especially as none of its objects are here reached. Articles do not relate to pronouns, unless the obsolete phrase _the which_ is to be revived;[327] participles have other constructions than those which adjectives admit; there are exceptions to the rules which tie articles to nouns, and adjectives to nouns or pronouns; and the objective case may not only be governed by a participle, but may be put in apposition with an other objective. The objective case in English usually stands for the Latin genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative; hence any rule that shall embrace the whole construction of this one case, will be the sole counterpart to four fifths of all the rules in any code of Latin syntax. For I imagine the construction of these four oblique cases, will be found to occupy at least that proportion of the syntactical rules and notes in any Latin grammar that can be found. Such rules, however, are often placed under false or equivocal titles;[328] as if they contained the construction of the _governing_ words, rather than that of the _governed_. And this latter error, again, has been transferred to most of our English grammars, to the exclusion of any rule for the proper construction of participles, of adverbs, of conjunctions, of prepositions, or of interjections. See the syntax of Murray and his copyists, whose treatment of these parts of speech is noticed in the fifth observation above. OBS. 10.--It is doubtless most convenient, that, in all rules for the construction of _cases_, nouns and pronouns be taken together; because the very same doctrines apply equally well to both, and a case is as distinct a thing in the mind, as a part of speech. This method, therefore, I have myself pursued; and it has indeed the authority of all grammarians--not excepting those who violate its principles by adopting two special rules for the relative pronoun, which are not needed. These special rules, which I shall notice again hereafter, may be seen in Murray's Rule 6th, which is double, and contains them both. The most complex rule that I have admitted, is that which embraces the government of objectives by verbs and participles. The regimen by verbs, and the regimen by participles, may not improperly be reckoned distinct principles; but the near alliance of participles to their verbs, seems to be a sufficient reason for preferring one rule to two, in this instance. OBS. 11.--An other common fault in the treatment of this part of grammar, is the practice of making many of the rules _double_, or even _triple_, in their form. Of L. Murray's twenty-two rules, for instance, there are six which severally consist of two distinct paragraphs; and one is composed of three such parts, with examples under each. Five others, though simple in their form, are complex in their doctrine, and liable to the objections which have been urged above against this characteristic. These twelve, therefore, I either reject entirely from my catalogue, or divide and simplify to fit them for their purpose. In short, by comparing the twenty-two rules which were adopted by this popular grammarian, with the twenty-four which are given in this work, the reader may see, that twelve of the former have pleased me too little to have any place at all among the latter, and that none of the remaining ten have been thought worthy to be copied without considerable alteration. Nor are the rules which I adopt, more nearly coincident with those of any other writer. I do not proffer to the schools the second-hand instructions of a mere compiler. In his twenty-two rules, independently of their examples, Hurray has used six hundred and seventeen words, thus giving an average of twenty-eight to each rule; whereas in the twenty-four rules which are presented above, the words are but four hundred and thirty-six, making the average less than nineteen. And yet I have not only divided some of his propositions and extended others, but, by rejecting what was useless or erroneous, and filling up the deficiencies which mark his code, I have delivered twice the amount of doctrine in two thirds of the space, and furnished eleven important rules which are not contained in his grammar. Thus much, in this place, to those who so frequently ask, "Wherein does your book differ from Murray's?" OBS. 12.--Of all the systems of syntax, or of grammar, which it has been my fortune to examine, a book which was first published by Robinson and Franklin of New York in 1839, a fair-looking duodecimo volume of 384 pages, under the brief but rather ostentatious title, "THE GRAMMAR _of the English Language_" is, I think, the most faulty,--the most remarkable for the magnitude, multitude, and variety, of its strange errors, inconsistencies, and defects. This singular performance is the work of _Oliver B. Peirce_, an itinerant lecturer on grammar, who dates his preface at "Rome, N. Y., December 29th, 1838." Its leading characteristic is boastful innovation; it being fall of acknowledged "contempt for the works of other writers."--P. 379. It lays "claim to _singularity_" as a merit, and boasts of a new thing under the sun--"in a theory RADICALLY NEW, a Grammar of the English Language; something which I believe," says the author, "has NEVER BEFORE BEEN FOUND."--P. 9. The old scholastic notion, that because Custom is the arbitress of speech, novelty is excluded from grammar, this hopeful reformer thoroughly condemns; "repudiating this sentiment to the full extent of it," (_ib._) and "writing his theory as though he had never seen a book, entitled an English Grammar."--_Ib._ And, for all the ends of good learning, it would have been as well or better, if he never had. His passion for novelty has led him not only to abandon or misapply, in an unprecedented degree, the usual terms of the art, but to disregard in many instances its most unquestionable principles, universal as well as particular. His parts of speech are the following ten: "Names, Substitutes, _Asserters_, Adnames, Modifiers, Relatives, Connectives, Interrogatives, Repliers, and Exclamations."--_The Gram._, p. 20. His _names_ are nouns; his _substitutes_ are pronouns, and any adjectives whose nouns are not expressed; his _asserters_ are verbs and participles, though the latter assert nothing; his _adnames_ are articles, adjectives whose nouns or pronouns are expressed, and adverbs that relate to adjectives; his _modifiers_ are such adverbs as "modify the sense or sound of a whole sentence;" his _relatives_ are prepositions, some of which _govern no object_; his _connectives_ are conjunctions, with certain adverbs and phrases; his _interrogatives_ and _repliers_ are new parts of speech, very lamely explained; his _exclamations_ are interjections, and "_phrases used independently_; as, O hapless choice!"--_The Gram._, p. 22. In parsing, he finds a world of "_accommodatives_;" as, "John is _more than five years_ older than William."--_Ib._ p. 202. Here he calls the whole phrase "_more than five years_" "a secondary _adname_" i. e., _adjective_. But, in the phrase, "_more than five years_ afterwards," he would call the same words "a secondary _modifier_;" i. e., _adverb_.--_Ib._, p. 203. And, in the phrase, "_more than five years_ before the war," he would call them "a secondary _relative_;" i. e., _preposition_.--_Ib._, p. 204. And so of other phrases innumerable. His cases are five, two of which are new, "the _Independent_" and "the _Twofold_ case." His "_independent_ case" is sometimes the nominative in form, as "_thou_" and "_she_;" (p. 62;) sometimes the objective, as, "_me_" and "_him_;" (p. 62 and p. 199;) sometimes erroneously supposed to be the subject of a finite verb; while _his nominative_ is sometimes as erroneously said to have _no_ verb. His code of syntax has two sorts of rules, Analytical and Synthetical. The former are professedly seventeen in number; but, many of them consisting of two, three, or four distinct parts, their real number is more properly thirty-four. The latter are reckoned forty-five; but if we count their separate parts, they are fifty-six: and these with the others make _ninety_. I shall not particularize their faults. All of them are whimsically conceived and badly written. In short, had the author artfully designed to turn English grammar into a subject of contempt and ridicule, by as ugly a caricature of it as he could possibly invent, he could never have hit the mark more exactly than he has done in this "_new theory_"--this rash production, on which he so sincerely prides himself. Alone as he is, in well-nigh all his opinions, behold how prettily he talks of "COMMON SENSE, the only sure foundation of any theory!" and says, "On this imperishable foundation--this rock of eternal endurance--I rear my superstructure, _the edifice of scientific truth_, the temple of Grammatical consistency!"--_Peirce's Preface_, p. 7. OBS. 13.--For the teaching of different languages, it has been thought very desirable to have "a Series of grammars, Greek, Latin, English, &c., all, so far as general principles are concerned, upon the same plan, and as nearly in the same words as the genius of the languages would permit."--See _Bullions's Principles of E. Gram._, 2d Ed., pp. iv and vi. This scheme necessarily demands a minute comparison not only of the several languages themselves, but also of the various grammars in which their principles, whether general or particular, are developed. For by no other means can it be ascertained to what extent uniformity of this kind will be either profitable to the learner, or consistent with truth. Some books have been published, which, it is pretended, are thus accommodated to one an other, and to the languages of which they treat. But, in view of the fact, that the Latin or the Greek grammars now extant, (to say nothing of the French, Spanish, and others,) are almost as various and as faulty as the English, I am apprehensive that this is a desideratum not soon to be realized,--a design more plausible in the prospectus, than feasible in the attempt. At any rate, the grammars of different languages must needs differ as much as do the languages themselves, otherwise some of their principles will of course be false; and we have already seen that the nonobservance of this has been a fruitful source of error in respect to English syntax. The achievement, however, is not altogether impossible, if a man of competent learning will devote to it a sufficient degree of labour. But the mere revising or altering of some one grammar in each language, can scarcely amount to any thing more than a pretence of improvement. Waiving the pettiness of compiling upon the basis of an other man's compilation, the foundation of a good grammar for any language, must be both deeper and broader than all the works which Professor Bullions has selected to build upon: for the Greek, than Dr. Moor's "_Elementa Linguæ, Græcæ_;" for the Latin, than Dr. Adam's "_Rudiments of Latin and English Grammar_;" for the English, than Murray's "_English Grammar_," or Lennie's "_Principles of English Grammar_;" which last work, in fact, the learned gentleman preferred, though he pretends to have mended the code of Murray. But, certainly, Lennie never supposed himself a copyist of Murray; nor was he to much extent an imitator of him, either in method or in style. OBS. 14.--We have, then, in this new American form of "_The Principles of English Grammar_," Lennie's very compact little book, altered, enlarged, and bearing on its title-page (which is otherwise in the very words of Lennie) an other author's name, and, in its early editions, the false and self-accusing inscription, "(ON THE PLAN OF MURRAY'S GRAMMAR.)" And this work, claiming to have been approved "by the most competent judges," now challenges the praise not only of being "better adapted to the use of academies and schools _than any yet published_" but of so presenting "_the rules and principles of general grammar_, as that they may apply to, and be in perfect harmony with, _the grammars of the dead languages_"-- _Recommendations_, p. iv. These are admirable professions for a critical author to publish; especially, as every rule or principle of General Grammar, condemning as it must whoever violates it, cannot but "be in _perfect harmony_ with" every thing that is true. In this model for all grammars, Latin, Greek, &c., the doctrines of punctuation, of abbreviations, and of capital letters, and also sections on the rhetorical divisions of a discourse, the different kinds of composition, the different kinds of prose composition, and the different kinds of poetry, are made _parts of the Syntax_; while his hints for correct and elegant writing, and his section on the composition of letters and themes, which other writers suppose to belong rather to syntax, are here subjoined as _parts of Prosody_. In the exercises for parsing appended to his _Etymology_, the Doctor furnishes _twenty-five Rules of Syntax_, which, he says, "are not intended to be committed to memory, but to be used as directions to the beginner in parsing the exercises under them."--_E. Gram._, p. 75. Then, for his syntax proper, he copies from Lennie, with some alterations, _thirty-four other rules_, nine of which are double, and all are jumbled together by both authors, without any regard to the distinction of concord and government, so common in the grammars of the dead languages, and even, so far as I can discover, without any principle of arrangement whatever. They profess indeed to have placed those rules first, which are eaisest [sic--KTH] to learn, and oftenest to be applied; but the syntax of _articles_, which even on this principle should have formed the first of the series, is placed by Lennie as the thirty-fourth rule, and by his amender as the thirty-second. To all this complexity the latter adds _twenty-two Special Rules_, with an abundance of "_Notes_" "_Observations_" and "_Remarks_" distinguished by these titles, on some principle which no one but the author can understand. Lastly, his _method of syntactical parsing_ is not only mixed up with etymological questions and answers, but his _directions_ for it, with their _exemplification_, are perplexingly at variance with his own _specimen_ of the performance. See his book, pages 131 and 133. So much for this grand scheme. OBS. 15.--Strictures like the foregoing, did they not involve the defence of grammar itself, so as to bear upon interests more important than the success or failure of an elementary book, might well be withheld through motives of charity, economy, and peace. There is many a grammar now extant, concerning which a truly critical reader may know more at first sight, than ever did he that made it. What such a reader will be inclined to rate beneath criticism, an other perhaps will confidently pronounce above it. If my remarks are just, let the one approve them for the other's sake. For what becomes of the teaching of grammar, when that which is received as the most excellent method, must be exempted from censure by reason of its utter worthlessness? And what becomes of Universal Syntax, when the imperfect systems of the Latin and Greek grammars, in stead of being amended, are modelled to the grossest faults of what is worthless in our own?[329] OBS. 16.--What arrangement of Latin or Greek syntax may be best in itself, I am not now concerned to show. Lily did not divide his, as others have divided the subject since; but first stated briefly his _three concords_, and then proceeded to what he called _the construction_ of the several parts of speech, taking them in their order. The three concords of Lily are the following: (1.) Of the _Nominative and Verb_; to which the accusative before an infinitive, and the collective noun with a plural verb, are reckoned exceptions; while the agreement of a verb or pronoun with two or more nouns, is referred to the figure _syllepsis_. (2.) Of the _Substantive and Adjective_; under which the agreement of participles, and of some pronouns, is placed in the form of a note. (3.) Of the _Relative and Antecedent_; after which the two special rules for the _cases_ of relatives are given as underparts. Dr. Adam divided his syntax into two parts; of Simple Sentences, and of Compound Sentences. His three concords are the following: (1.) Of one _Substantive with an Other_; which construction is placed by Lily and many others among the figures of syntax, and is called _apposition_. (2.) Of an _Adjective with a Substantive_; under which principle, we are told to take adjective pronouns and participles. (3.) Of a _Verb with a Nominative_; under which, the collective noun with a verb of either number, is noticed in an observation. The construction of relatives, of conjunctions, of comparatives, and of words put absolute, this author reserves for the second part of his syntax; and the agreement of plural verbs or pronouns with joint nominatives or antecedents, which Ruddiman places in an observation on his _four concords_, is here absurdly reckoned a part of the construction of conjunctions. Various divisions and subdivisions of the Latin syntax, with special dispositions of some particular principles of it, may be seen in the elaborate grammars of Despauter, Prat, Ruddiman, Grant, and other writers. And here it may be proper to observe, that, the mixing of syntax with etymology, after the manner of Ingersoll, Kirkham, R. W. Green, R. C. Smith, Sanborn, Felton, Hazen, Parkhurst, Parker and Fox, Weld, and others, is a modern innovation, pernicious to both; either topic being sufficiently comprehensive, and sufficiently difficult, when they are treated separately; and each having, in some instances, employed the pens of able writers almost to the exclusion of the other. OBS. 17.--The syntax of any language must needs conform to the peculiarities of its etymology, and also be consistent with itself; for all will expect better things of a scholar, than to lay down positions in one part of his grammar, that are irreconcilable with what he has stated in an other. The English language, having few inflections, has also few concords or agreements, and still fewer governments. Articles, adjectives, and participles, which in many other languages agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case, have usually, in English, no modifications in which they _can agree_ with their nouns. Yet _Lowth_ says, "The adjective in English, having no variation of gender and number, _cannot but agree_ with the substantive in these respects."--_Short Introd. to Gram._, p. 86. What then is the _agreement_ of words? Can it be anything else than their _similarity_ in some common property or modification? And is it not obvious, that no two things in nature can at all _agree_, or _be alike_, except in some quality or accident which belongs to each of them? Yet how often have _Murray_ and others, as well as _Lowth_, forgotten this! To give one instance out of many: "_Gender_ has respect only to the third person singular of the pronouns, _he, she, it_."--_Murray, J. Peirce, Flint, Lyon, Bacon, Russell, Fisk, Maltby, Alger, Miller, Merchant, Kirkham_, and other careless copyists. Yet, according to these same gentlemen, "Gender is _the distinction of nouns_, with regard to sex;" and, "Pronouns _must always agree_ with their antecedents, _and the nouns_ for which they stand, in gender." Now, not one of these three careless assertions can possibly be reconciled with either of the others! OBS. 18.--_Government_ has respect only to nouns, pronouns, verbs, participles, and prepositions; the other five parts of speech neither govern nor are governed. The _governing_ words may be either nouns, or verbs, or participles, or prepositions; the words _governed_ are either nouns, or pronouns, or verbs, or participles. In parsing, the learner must remember that the rules of government are not to be applied to the _governing_ words, but to those which _are governed_; and which, for the sake of brevity, are often technically named after the particular form or modification assumed; as, _possessives, objectives, infinitives, gerundives_. These are the only things in English, that can properly be said to be subject to government; and these are always so, in their own names; unless we except such infinitives as stand in the place of nominatives. _Gerundives_ are participles governed by prepositions; but, there being little or no occasion to distinguish these from other participles, we seldom use this name. The Latin _Gerund_ differs from a participle, and the English _Gerundive_ differs from a participial noun. The participial noun may be the subject or the object of a verb, or may govern the possessive case before it, like any other noun; but the true English gerundive, being essentially a participle, and governing an object after it, like any other participle, is itself governed only by a preposition. At least, this is its usual and allowed construction, and no other is acknowledged to be indisputably right. OBS. 19.--The simple _Relations_ of words in English, (or those several _uses_ of the parts of speech which we may refer to this head,) are the following nine: (1.) Of Articles to nouns, by Rule 1st; (2.) Of Nominatives to verbs, by Rule 2d; (3.) Of Nominatives absolute or independent, by Rule 8th; (4.) Of Adjectives to nouns or pronouns, by Rule 9th; (5.) Of Participles to nouns or pronouns, by Rule 20th; (6.) Of Adverbs to verbs, participles, &c., by Rule 21st; (7.) Of Conjunctions as connecting words, phrases, or sentences, by Rule 22nd; (8.) Of Prepositions as showing the relations of things, by Rule 23d; (9.) Of Interjections as being used independently, by Rule 24th. OBS. 20.--The syntactical _Agreements_ in English, though actually much fewer than those which occur in Latin, Greek, or French, may easily be so reckoned as to amount to double, or even triple, the number usually spoken of by the old grammarians. The twenty-four rules above, embrace the following ten heads, which may not improperly be taken for so many distinct concords: (1.) Of a Noun or Pronoun in direct apposition with another, by Rule 3d; (2.) Of a Noun or Pronoun after a verb or participle not transitive, by Rule 6th; (3.) Of a Pronoun with its antecedent, by Rule 10th; (4.) Of a Pronoun with a collective noun, by Rule 11th; (5.) Of a Pronoun with joint antecedents, by Rule 12th; (6.) Of a Pronoun with disjunct antecedents, by Rule 13th; (7.) Of a Verb with its nominative, by Rule 14th; (8.) Of a Verb with a collective noun, by Rule 15th; (9.) Of a Verb with joint nominatives, by Rule 16th; (10.) Of a Verb with disjunct nominatives, by Rule 17th. To these may be added two other _special_ concords, less common and less important, which will be explained in _notes_ under the rules: (11.) Of one Verb with an other, in mood, tense, and form, when two are connected so as to agree with the same nominative; (12.) Of Adjectives that imply unity or plurality, with their nouns, in number. OBS. 21.--Again, by a different mode of reckoning them, the concords or the _general principles_ of agreement, in our language, may be made to be only three or four; and some of these much _less general_, than they are in other languages: (1.) _Words in apposition agree in case_, according to Rule 3d; of which principle, Rule 6th may be considered a modification. (2.) _Pronouns agree, with their nouns, in person, number, and gender_, according to Rule 10th; of which principle, Rules 11th, 12th, and 13th, may be reckoned modifications. (3.) _Verbs agree with their nominatives, in person and number_, according to Rule 14th; of which principle Rules 15th, 16th, and 17th, and the occasional agreement of one verb with an other, may be esteemed mere modifications. (4.) _Some adjectives agree with their nouns in number_. These make up the twelve concords above enumerated. OBS. 22.--The rules of _Government_ in the best Latin grammars are about sixty; and these are usually distributed (though not very properly) under three heads; "1. Of Nouns. 2. Of Verbs. 3. Of Words indeclinable."-- _Grant's Lat. Gram._, p. 170. "Regimen est triplex: 1. Nominum. 2. Verborum. 3. Vocum indeclinabilium."--_Ruddiman's Gram._, p. 138. This division of the subject brings all the _titles_ of the rules wrong. For example, if the rule be, "Active verbs govern the accusative case," this is not properly "the government of _verbs_" but rather the government _of the accusative_ by verbs. At least, such titles are _equivocal_, and likely to mislead the learner. The governments in English are only seven, and these are expressed, perhaps with sufficient distinctness, in six of the foregoing rules: (1.) Of Possessives by nouns, in Rule 4th; (2.) Of Objectives by verbs, in Rule 5th; (3.) Of Objectives by participles, in Rule 5th; (4.) Of Objectives by prepositions, in Rule 7th; (5.) Of Infinitives by the preposition _to_, in Rule 18th; (6.) Of Infinitives by the verbs _bid, dare_, &c., in Rule 19th; (7.) Of Participles by prepositions, in Rule 20th. OBS. 23.--The _Arrangement_ of words, (which will be sufficiently treated of in the observations hereafter to be made on the several rules of construction,) is an important part of syntax, in which not only the beauty but the propriety of language is intimately concerned, and to which particular attention should therefore be paid in composition. But it is to be remembered, that the mere collocation of words in a sentence never affects the method of parsing them: on the contrary, the same words, however placed, are always to be parsed in precisely the same way, so long as they express precisely the same meaning. In order to show that we have parsed any part of an inverted or difficult sentence rightly, we are at liberty to declare the meaning by any arrangement which will make the construction more obvious, provided we retain both the sense and all the words unaltered; but to drop or alter any word, is to pervert the text under pretence of resolving it, and to make a mockery of parsing. Grammar rightly learned, enables one to understand both the sense and the construction of whatsoever is rightly written; and he who reads what he does not understand, reads to little purpose. With great indignity to the muses, several pretenders to grammar have foolishly taught, that, "In parsing poetry, in order to _come at the meaning_ of the author, the learner will find it necessary to transpose his language."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 166. See also the books of _Merchant, Wilcox, O. B. Peirce, Hull, Smith, Felton_, and others, to the same effect. To what purpose can he _transpose_ the words of a sentence, who does not first see what they mean, and how to explain or parse them as they stand? OBS. 24.--Errors innumerable have been introduced into the common modes of parsing, through a false notion of what constitutes a _simple sentence_. Lowth, Adam, Murray, Gould, Smith, Ingersoll, Comly, Lennie, Hiley, Bullions, Wells, and many others, say, "A simple sentence has in it _but one subject_, and _one finite verb_: as, 'Life is short.'"--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 141. In accordance with this assertion, some assume, that, "Every nominative _has its own verb_ expressed or understood;" and that, "Every verb (except in the infinitive mood and participle) _has its own nominative_ expressed or understood."--_Bullions's E. Gram._, p. 87. The adopters of these dogmas, of course think it right to _supply_ a nominative whenever they do not find a separate one expressed for every finite verb, and a verb whenever they do not find a separate one expressed for every nominative. This mode of interpretation not only precludes the agreement of a verb with two or more nominatives, so as to render nugatory two of the most important rules of these very gentlemen's syntax; but, what is worse, it perverts many a plain, simple, and perfect sentence, to a form which its author did not choose, and a meaning which he never intended. Suppose, for example, the text to be, "A good constitution and good laws make good subjects."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 152. Does not the verb _make_ agree with _constitution_ and _laws_, taken conjointly? and is it not a _perversion_ of the sentence to interpret it otherwise? Away then with all this _needless subaudition!_ But while we thus deny that there can be a true ellipsis of what is not necessary to the construction, it is not to be denied that there _are_ true ellipses, and in some men's style very many. The assumption of O. B. Peirce, that no correct sentence is elliptical, and his impracticable project of a grammar founded on this principle, are among the grossest of possible absurdities. OBS. 25.--Dr. Wilson says, "There may be several subjects to the same verb, several verbs to the same subject, or several objects to the same verb, and the sentence be simple. But when the sentence remains simple, the same verb must be differently affected by its several adjuncts, or the sense liable to be altered by a separation. If the verb or the subject _be_ affected in the same manner, or the sentence _is_ resolvable into more, it is compounded. Thus, 'Violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red, mixed in due proportion, produce white,' is a simple sentence, for the subject is indivisible. But, 'Violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red, are refrangible rays of light,' is a compound sentence, and may be separated into seven."--_Essay on Gram._, p. 186. The propriety of the distinction here made, is at least questionable; and I incline to consider the second example a simple sentence, as well as the first; because what the writer calls a separation into seven, involves a change of _are_ to _is_, and of _rays_ to _ray_, as well as a sevenfold repetition of this altered predicate, "_is a refrangible ray of light_." But the parser, in interpreting the words of others, and expounding the construction of what is written, has no right to alter anything in this manner. Nor do I admit that he has a right to insert or repeat anything _needlessly_; for the nature of a sentence, or the syntax of some of its words, may often be altered without change of the sense, or of any word for an other: as, "'A wall seven feet high;' that is, 'A wall _which is_ seven feet high.'"--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 109. "'He spoke and acted prudently;' that is, 'He spoke _prudently_, and _he_ acted prudently.'"--_Ibid._ '"He spoke and acted wisely;' that is, 'He spoke _wisely_, and _he_ acted wisely.'"--_Murray's Gram._, p. 219; _Alger's_, 70: _R. C. Smith's_, 183; _Weld's_, 192; and others. By this notion of ellipsis, the connexion or joint relation of words is destroyed. OBS. 26.--Dr. Adam, who thought the division of sentences into simple and compound, of sufficient importance to be made the basis of a general division of syntax into two parts, has defined a simple sentence to be, "that which has but one nominative, and one finite verb;" and a compound sentence, "that which has more than one nominative, or one finite verb." And of the latter he gives the following erroneous and self-contradictory account: "A compound sentence is made up of two or more simple sentences or _phrases_, and is commonly called a _Period_. The parts of which a compound sentence consists, are called _Members_ or _Clauses_. In every compound sentence there are either several subjects and one attribute, or several attributes and one subject, or both several subjects and several attributes; that is, there are either several nominatives applied to the same verb, or several verbs applied to the same nominative, or both. Every verb marks a judgment or attribute, and every attribute must have a subject. There must, therefore, be in every sentence or period, as many propositions as there are verbs of a finite mode. Sentences are compounded by means of relatives and conjunctions; as, Happy is the man _who_ loveth religion, and practiseth virtue."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 202; _Gould's_, 199; and others. OBS. 27.--Now if every compound sentence consists of such parts, members, or clauses, as are in themselves sentences, either simple or compound, either elliptical or complete; it is plain, in the first place, that the term "phrases" is misapplied above, because a phrase is properly only a part of some simple sentence. And if "a simple sentence is that which has but one nominative and one finite verb," and "a compound sentence is made up of two or more simple sentences," it follows, since "all sentences are either simple or compound," that, _in no sentence, can there be_ "either several nominatives applied to the same verb, or several verbs applied to the same nominative." What, therefore, this author regarded as _the characteristic_ of all compound sentences, is, according to his own previous positions, utterly impossible to any sentence. Nor is it less repugnant to his subsequent doctrine, that, "Sentences are compounded by means of _relatives_ and _conjunctions_;" for, according to his notion, "A conjunction is an indeclinable word, which serves to join _sentences_ together."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 149. It is assumed, that, "In every _sentence_ there must be a verb and a nominative expressed or understood."--_Ib._, p. 151. Now if there happen to be two nominatives to one verb, as when it was said, "Even the _winds_ and the _sea_ obey him;" this cannot be anything more than a simple sentence; because one single verb is a thing indivisible, and how can we suppose it to form the most essential part of two different sentences at once? OBS. 28.--The distinction, or real difference, between those simple sentences in which two or more nominatives or verbs are taken conjointly, and those compound sentences in which there is an ellipsis of some of the nominatives or verbs, is not always easy to be known or fixed; because in many instances, a supposed _ellipsis_, without at all affecting the sense, may obviously change the construction, and consequently the nature of the sentence. For example: "And they all forsook him, and [they all] fled."--_Mark_, xiv, 50. Some will say, that the words in brackets are here _understood_. I may deny it, because they are needless; and nothing needless can form a true ellipsis. To the supplying of useless words, if we admit the principle, there may be no end; and the notion that conjunctions join sentences only, opens a wide door for it. For example: "And that man was perfect and upright, and one that feared God, and eschewed evil."--_Job_, i, 1. No additional words will make this clause any plainer, and none are really necessary to the construction; yet some grammarians will parse it with the following impletions, or more: "And that man was _a_ perfect _man_, and _he was an_ upright _man_, and _he was_ one _man_ that feared God, and _that_ eschewed evil _things_." It is easy to see how this liberty of interpretation, or of interpolation, will change simple sentences to compound sentences, as well as alter the nature and relation of many particular words; and at the same time, it takes away totally those peculiarities of construction by which Dr. Adam and others would recognize a sentence as being compound. What then? are there not two kinds of sentences? Yes, truly; but these authors are wrong in their notions and definitions of both. Joint nominatives or joint verbs may occur in either; but they belong primarily to some simple sentences, and only for that reason are found in any that are compound. A sentence, too, may possibly be made compound, when a simple one would express the whole meaning as well or better; as, "And [David] smote the Philistines from Geba _until thou come_ to Gazer."--_2 Sam._, v, 25. Here, if we omit the words in Italics, the sentence will become simple, not elliptical. THE ANALYZING OF SENTENCES. To analyze a sentence, is, to resolve it into some species of constituent parts, but most properly into words, its first significant elements, and to point out their several relations and powers in the given connexion. The component parts of a sentence are _members, clauses, phrases_, or _words_. Some sentences, which are short and simple, can only be divided into their words; others, which are long and complex, may be resolved into parts again and again divisible. Of analysis applicable to sentences, there are several different methods; and, so far as their difference may compatibly aid the application of different principles of the science of grammar, there may be an advantage in the occasional use of each. FIRST METHOD OF ANALYSIS. _Sentences not simple may be reduced to their constituent members, clauses, or simple sentences; and the means by which these are united, may be shown. Thus_:-- EXAMPLE ANALYZED. "Even the Atheist, who tells us that the universe is self-existent and indestructible--even he, who, instead of seeing the traces of a manifold wisdom in its manifold varieties, sees nothing in them all but the exquisite structures and the lofty dimensions of materialism--even he, who would despoil creation of its God, cannot look upon its golden suns, and their accompanying systems, without the solemn impression of a magnificence that fixes and overpowers him."--DR. CHALMERS, _Discourses on Revelation and Astronomy_, p. 231. ANALYSIS.--This is a compound sentence, consisting of three complex members, which are separated by the two dashes. The three members are united in one sentence, by a suspension of the sense at each dash, and by two virtual repetitions of the subject, "_Atheist_" through the pronoun "_he_," put in the same case, and representing this noun. The sense mainly intended is not brought out till the period ends. Each of the three members is complex, because each has not only a relative clause, commencing with "_who_," but also an antecedent word which makes sense with "_cannot look_," &c. The first of these relative clauses involves also a subordinate, supplementary clause,--"_the universe is self-existent and indestructible_"--introduced after the verb "_tells_" by the conjunction "_that_." The last phrase, "_without the solemn impression_," &c., which is subjoined by "_without_" to "_cannot look_," embraces likewise a subordinate, relative clause,--"_that fixes and overpowers him_,"--which has two verbs; the whole, antecedent and all, being but an adjunct of an adjunct, yet an essential element of the sentence. SECOND METHOD OF ANALYSIS. _Simple sentences, or the simple members of compound sentences, may be resolved into their PRINCIPAL and their SUBORDINATE PARTS; the subject, the verb, and the case put after or governed by the verb, being first pointed out as THE PRINCIPAL PARTS; and the other words being then detailed as ADJUNCTS to these, according to THE SENSE, or as adjuncts to adjuncts. Thus_:-- EXAMPLE ANALYZED. "Fear naturally quickens the flight of guilt. Rasselas could not catch the fugitive, with his utmost efforts; but, resolving to weary, by perseverance, him whom he could not surpass in speed, he pressed on till the foot of the mountain stopped his course."--DR. JOHNSON, _Rasselas_, p. 23. ANALYSIS.--The first period here is a simple sentence. Its principal parts are--_Fear, quickens, flight_; _Fear_ being the subject, _quickens_ the verb, and _flight_ the object. _Fear_ has no adjunct; _naturally_ is an adjunct of _quickens_; _the_ and _of guilt_ are adjuncts of _flight_. The second period is composed of several clauses, or simple members, united. The first of these is also a simple sentence, having, three principal parts--_Rasselas, could catch_, and _fugitive_; the subject, the verb, and its object, in their order. _Not_ is added to _could catch_, reversing the meaning; _the_ is an adjunct to _fugitive_; _with_ joins its phrase to _could not catch_; but _his_ and _utmost_ are adjuncts of _efforts_. The word _but_ connects the two chief members as parts of one sentence. "_Resolving to weary_" is an adjunct to the pronoun _he_, which stands before _pressed_. "_By perseverance_," is an adjunct to _weary_. _Him_ is governed by _weary_, and is the antecedent to _whom_. "_Whom he could not surpass in speed_," is a relative clause, or subordinate simple member, having three principal parts--_he, could surpass_, and _whom. Not_ and _in speed_ are adjuncts to the verb _could surpass_. "_He pressed on_" is an other simple member, or sentence, and the chief clause here used, the others being subjoined to this. Its principal parts are two, _he_ and _pressed_; the latter taking the particle _on_ as an adjunct, and being intransitive. The words dependent on the nominative _he_, (to wit, _resolving_, &c.,) have already been mentioned. _Till_ is a conjunctive adverb of time, connecting the concluding clause to _pressed on_. "_The foot of the mountain stopped his course_," is a subordinate clause and simple member, whose principal parts are--the subject _foot_, the verb _stopped_, and the object _course_. The adjuncts of _foot_ are _the_ and _of the mountain_; the verb in this sentence has no adjunct but _course_, which is better reckoned a principal word; lastly, _his_ is an adjunct to _course_, and governed by it. THIRD METHOD OF ANALYSIS. _Sentences may be partially analyzed by a resolution into their SUBJECTS and their PREDICATES, a method which some late grammarians have borrowed from the logicians; the grammatical subject with its adjuncts, being taken for the logical subject; and the finite verb, which some call the grammatical predicate[330] being, with its subsequent case and the adjuncts of both, denominated the predicate, or the logical predicate. Thus_:-- EXAMPLE ANALYZED. "Such is the emptiness of human enjoyment, that we are always impatient of the present. Attainment is followed by neglect, and possession, by disgust. Few moments are more pleasing than those in which the mind is concerting measures for a new undertaking. From the first hint that wakens the fancy, to the hour of actual execution, all is improvement and progress, triumph and felicity."--DR. JOHNSON, _Rambler_. ANALYSIS.--Here the first period is a compound sentence, containing two clauses,--which are connected by _that_. In the first clause, _emptiness_ is the grammatical subject, and "_the emptiness of human enjoyment_" is the logical. _Is_ some would call the grammatical predicate, and "Such is," or _is such_, the logical; but the latter consists, as the majority teach, of "the copula" _is_, and "the attribute," or "predicate," _such_. In the second clause, (which explains the import of "_Such_,") the subject is _we_; which is unmodified, and in which therefore the logical form and the grammatical coincide and are the same. _Are_ may here be called the grammatical predicate; and "_are always impatient of the present_," the logical. The second period, too, is a compound sentence, having two clauses, which are connected by _and_. _Attainment_ is the subject of the former; and, "_is followed by neglect_" is the predicate. In the latter, _possession_ alone is the subject; and, "[_is followed_] _by disgust_," is the predicate; the verb _is followed_ being understood at the comma. The third period, likewise, is a compound, having three parts, with the two connectives _than_ and _which_. Here we have _moments_ for the first grammatical subject, and _Few moments_ for the logical; then, _are_ for the grammatical predicate, and _are more pleasing_ for the logical: or, if we choose to say so, for "the copula and the attribute." "_Than those_," is an elliptical member, meaning, "than _are_ those _moments_," or, "than those _moments are pleasing_;" both subject and predicate are wholly suppressed, except that _those_ is reckoned a part of the logical subject. _In which_ is an adjunct of _is concerting_, and serves well to connect the members, because _which_ represents _those_, i.e. _those moments._ _Mind_, or _the mind_, is the next subject of affirmation; and _is concerting_, or, "_is concerting measures for a new undertaking_," is the predicate or matter affirmed. Lastly, the fourth period, like the rest, is compound. The phrases commencing with _From_ and _to_, describe a period of time, and are adjuncts of the verb _is._ The former contains a subordinate relative clause, of which _that_ (representing _hint_) is the subject, and _wakens_, or _wakens the fancy_, the predicate. Of the principal clause, the word _all_, taken as a noun, is the subject, whether grammatical or logical; and "the copula," or "grammatical predicate," _is_, becomes, with its adjuncts and the nominatives following, the logical predicate. FOURTH METHOD OF ANALYSIS. _All syntax is founded on the_ RELATION _of words one to an other, and the_ CONNEXION _of clauses and phrases, according to_ THE SENSE. _Hence sentences may be, in some sort, analyzed, and perhaps profitably, by the tracing of such relation or connexion, from link to link, through a series of words, beginning and ending with such as are somewhat remote from each other, yet within the period. Thus_:-- EXAMPLES ANALYZED. 1. "Swift would say, 'The thing has not life enough in it to keep it sweet;' Johnson, 'The creature possesses not vitality sufficient to preserve it from putrefaction.'"--MATT. HARRISON, _on the English Language_, p. 102. ANALYSIS.--What is the general sense of this passage? and what, the chain of connexion between the words _Swift_ and _putrefaction_? The period is designed to show, that Swift preferred words of Saxon origin; and Johnson, of Latin. It has in contrast two coördinate members, tacitly connected: the verb _would say_ being understood after _Johnson_, and perhaps also the particle _but_, after the semicolon. _Swift_ is the subject of _would say_; and _would say_ introduces the clause after it, as what would be said. _The_ relates to _thing_; _thing_ is the subject of _has_; _has_, which is qualified by _not_, governs _life_; _life_ is qualified by the adjective _enough_, and by the phrase, _in it_; _enough_ is the prior term of _to_; _to_ governs _keep_; _keep_ governs _it_, which stands for _the thing_; and _it_, in lieu of _the thing_, is qualified by _sweet_. The chief members are connected either by standing in contrast as members, or by _but_, understood before _Johnson._ _Johnson_ is the subject of _would say_, understood: and this _would say_, again introduces a clause, as what would be said. _The_ relates to _creature_; _creature_ is the subject of _possesses_; _possesses_, which is qualified by _not_, governs _vitality_; _vitality_ is qualified by _sufficient_; _sufficient_ is the prior term of _to_; _to_ governs _preserve_; _preserve_ governs _it_, and is the prior term of _from_; and _from_ governs _putrefaction._ 2. "There is one Being to whom we can look with a perfect conviction of finding that security, which nothing about us can give, and which nothing about us can take away."--GREENWOOD; _Wells's School Gram._, p. 192.[331] ANALYSIS.--What is the general structure of this passage? and what, the chain of connexion "between the words _away_ and _is?"_ The period is a complex sentence, having four clauses, all connected together by relatives; the second, by _whom_, to the first and chief clause, _"There is one Being;"_ the third and the fourth, to the second, by _which_ and _which_; but the last two, having the same antecedent, _security_, and being coördinate, are also connected one to the other by _and._ As to "the chain of connexion," _Away_ relates to _can take_; _can take_ agrees with its nominative _nothing_, and governs _which_; _which_ represents _security_; _security_ is governed by _finding_; _finding_ is governed by _of_; _of_ refers back to _conviction_; _conviction_ is governed by _with_; _with_ refers back to _can look_; _can look_ agrees with _we_, and is, in sense, the antecedent of _to_; _to_ governs _whom_; _whom_ represents _Being_; and _Being_ is the subject of _is._ FIFTH METHOD OF ANALYSIS. _The best and most thorough method of analysis is that of_ COMPLETE SYNTACTICAL PARSING; _a method which, for the sake of order and brevity, should ever be kept free from all mixture of etymological definitions or reasons, but which may be preceded or followed by any of the foregoing schemes of resolution, if the teacher choose to require any such preliminary or subsidiary exposition. This method is fully illustrated in the Twelfth Praxis below._ OBSERVATIONS ON METHODS OF ANALYSIS. OBS. 1.--The almost infinite variety in the forms of sentences, will sometimes throw difficulty in the way of the analyzer, be his scheme or his skill what it may. The last four or five observations of the preceding series have shown, that the distinction of sentences as _simple_ or _compound_, which constitutes the chief point of the First Method of Analysis above, is not always plain, even to the learned. The definitions and examples which I have given, will make it _generally_ so; and, where it is otherwise, the question or puzzle, it is presumed, cannot often be of much practical importance. If the difference be not obvious, it can hardly be a momentous error, to mistake a phrase for an elliptical clause, or to call such a clause a phrase. OBS. 2.--The Second Method above is, I think, easier of application than any of the rest; and, if other analysis than the regular method of parsing seem desirable, this will probably be found as useful as any. There is, in many of our popular grammars, some recognition of the principles of this analysis--some mention of "the _principal parts_ of a sentence," in accordance with what are so called above,--and also, in a few, some succinct account of the parts called "_adjuncts_;" but there seems to have been no prevalent practice of applying these principles, in any stated or well-digested manner. Lowth, Murray, Alger, W. Allen, Hart, Hiley, Ingersoll, Wells, and others, tell of these "PRINCIPAL PARTS;"--Lowth calling them, "the _agent_, the _attribute_, and the _object_;" (_Gram._, p. 72;)--Murray, and his copyists, Alger, Ingersoll, and others, calling them, "the _subject_, the _attribute_, and the _object_;"--Hiley and Hart calling them, "the _subject_ or _nominative_, the _attribute_ or _verb_, and the _object_;"--Allen calling them, "the _nominative_, the _verb_, and (if the verb is active,) the _accusative_ governed by the verb;" and also saying, "The nominative is sometimes called the _subject_; the verb, the _attribute_; and the accusative, the _object_;"--Wells calling them, "the _subject_ or _nominative_, the _verb_, and the _object_;" and also recognizing the "_adjuncts_," as a species which "embraces all the words of a simple sentence [,] except the _principal parts_;"--yet not more than two of them all appearing to have taken any thought, and they but little, about the formal _application_ of their common doctrine. In Allen's English Grammar, which is one of the best, and likewise in Wells's, which is equally prized, this reduction of all connected words, or parts of speech, into "the principal parts" and "the adjuncts," is fully recognized; the adjuncts, too, are discriminated by Allen, as "either primary or secondary," nor are their more particular species or relations overlooked; but I find no method prescribed for the analysis intended, except what Wells adopted in his early editions but has since changed to an other or abandoned, and no other allusion to it by, Allen, than this Note, which, with some appearance of intrusion, is appended to his "Method of Parsing the Infinitive Mood:"--"The pupil _may now begin_ to analyse [_analyze_] the sentences, by distinguishing the principal words and their adjuncts."--_W. Allen's E. Gram._, p. 258. OBS. 3.--These authors in general, and many more, tell us, with some variation of words, that the agent, subject, or nominative, is that of which something is said, affirmed, or denied; that the attribute, verb, or predicate, is that which is said, affirmed, or denied, of the subject; and that the object, accusative, or case sequent, is that which is introduced by the finite verb, or affected by the action affirmed. Lowth says, "In English the nominative case, denoting the agent, usually goes before the verb, or attribution; and the objective case, denoting the object, follows the verb active."--_Short Introd._, p. 72. Murray copies, but not literally, thus: "The nominative denotes the subject, and usually goes before the verb [,] or attribute; and the word _or phrase_, denoting the object, follows the verb: as, 'A wise man governs his passions.' Here, a _wise man_ is the subject; _governs_, the attribute, or thing affirmed; and _his passions_, the object."--_Murray's Octavo_, p. 142; _Duodecimo_, 116. To include thus the adjuncts with their principals, as the logicians do, is _here_ manifestly improper; because it unites what the grammatical analyzer is chiefly concerned to separate, and tends to defeat the main purpose for which "THE PRINCIPAL PARTS" are so named and distinguished. OBS. 4.--The Third Method of Analysis, described above, is an attempt very briefly to epitomize the chief elements of a great scheme,--to give, in a nutshell, the substance of what our grammarians have borrowed from the logicians, then mixed with something of their own, next amplified with small details, and, in some instances, branched out and extended to enormous bulk and length. Of course, they have not failed to set forth the comparative merits of this scheme in a sufficiently favourable light. The two ingenious gentlemen who seem to have been chiefly instrumental in making it popular, say in their preface, "The rules of syntax contained in this work result directly from the analysis of propositions, and of compound sentences; and for this reason the student should make himself perfectly familiar with the sections relating to _subject_ and _predicate_, and should be able readily to analyze sentences, whether simple or compound, and to explain their structure and connection. * * * This exercise _should always precede_ the more minute and subsidiary labor of parsing. If the latter be conducted, as it often is, independently of previous analysis, the _principal advantage_ to be derived from the study of language, as an intellectual exercise, will inevitably be lost."--_Latin Grammar of Andrews and Stoddard_, p. vi. N. Butler, who bestows upon this subject about a dozen duodecimo pages, says in his preface, "The rules for the analysis of sentences, which is a _very useful and interesting_ exercise, have been taken from Andrews' and Stoddard's Latin Grammar, some changes and additions being made."--_Butler's Practical Gram._, p. iv.[332] OBS. 5.--Wells, in the early copies of his School Grammar, as has been hinted, adopted a method of analysis similar to the _Second_ one prescribed above; yet referred, even from the first, to "Andrews and Stoddard's Latin Grammar," and to "De Sacy's General Grammar," as if these were authorities for what he then inculcated. Subsequently, _he changed his scheme_, from that of _Parts Principal_ and _Adjuncts_, to one of _Subjects_ and _Predicates_, "either grammatical or logical," also "either simple or compound;"--to one resembling Andrews and Stoddard's, yet differing from it, often, as to what constitutes a "grammatical predicate;"--to one resenbling [sic--KTH] the _Third Method_ above, yet differing from it, (as does Andrews and Stoddard's,) in taking the logical subject and predicate before the grammatical. "The chapter on Analysis," said he then, "has been Revised and enlarged with great care, and will be found to embody all the most important principles on this subject [.] _which_ are contained in the works of De Sacy, Andrews and Stoddard, Kühner, Crosby, and Crane. It is gratifying to observe that the attention of teachers is now so generally directed _to this important mode_ of investigating the structure of our language, _in connection with_ the ordinary exercises of _etymological_ and syntactical parsing."--_Wells's School Gram._, New Ed., 1850, p. iv. OBS. 6.--In view of the fact, that Wells's chief mode of sentential analysis had just undergone an almost total metamorphosis, a change plausible perhaps, but of doubtful utility,--that, up to the date of the words just cited, and afterwards, so far and so long as any copies of his early "Thousands" remain in use, the author himself has earnestly directed attention to a method which he now means henceforth to abandon,--in this view, the praise and gratulation expressed above seem singular. If it has been found practicable, to slide "the attention of teachers," and their approbation too, adroitly over from one "important mode of investigating the structure of our language," to an other;--if "it is gratifying to observe," that the direction thus given to public opinion sustains itself so well, and "is so generally" acquiesced in;--if it is proved, that the stereotyped praise of one system of analysis may, without alteration, be so transferred to an other, as to answer the double purpose of commending and superseding;--it is not improbable that the author's next new plates will bear the stamp of yet _other_ "most important principles" of analysis. This process is here recommended to be used "_in connection with_ the ordinary exercises of _etymological_ and syntactical parsing,"--exercises, which, in Wells's Grammar, are generally, and very improperly, commingled; and if, to these, may be profitably conjoined either his present or his former scheme of analysis, it were well, had he somewhere put them together and shown how. OBS. 7.--But there are other passages of the School Grammar, so little suited to this notion of "_connection_" that one can hardly believe the word ought to be taken in what seems its only sense. "Advanced classes should attend less to the common _Order of Parsing_, and more to the _Analysis_ of language."--_Wells's Grammar_, "3d Thousand," p. 125; "113th Thousand," p. 132. This implies, what is probably true of the etymological exercise, that parsing is more rudimental than the other forms of analysis. It also intimates, what is not so clear, that pupils rightly instructed must advance from the former to the latter, as to something more worthy of their intellectual powers. The passage is used with reference to either form of analysis adopted by the author. So the following comparison, in which Parsing is plainly disparaged, stands permanently at the head of "the chapter on Analysis," to commend first one mode, and then an other: "It is particularly desirable that pupils _should pass as early as practicable from the formalities_ of common PARSING, to the _more important_ exercise of ANALYZING critically the structure of language. The mechanical routine of technical parsing is peculiarly liable to become monotonous and dull, while the _practice of explaining the various relations and offices of words in a sentence_, is adapted to call the mind of the learner into constant and vigorous action, and can hardly fail of exciting the deepest interest,"--_Wells's Gram._, 3d Th., p. 181; 113th Th., p. 184. OBS. 8.--An ill scheme of _parsing_, or an ill use of a good one, is almost as unlucky in grammar, as an ill method of _ciphering_, or an ill use of a good one, would be in arithmetic. From the strong contrast cited above, one might suspect that, in selecting, devising, or using, a technical process for the exercising of learners in the principles of etymology and syntax, this author had been less fortunate than the generality of his fellows. Not only is it implied, that parsing is no critical analysis, but even what is set _in opposition_ to the "mechanical routine," may very well serve for _a definition_ of Syntactical Parsing--"_the practice of explaining the various relations and offices of words in a sentence_!" If this "practice," well ordered, can be at once interesting and profitable to the learner, so may parsing. Nor, after all, is even this author's mode of parsing, defective though it is in several respects, less "important" to the users of his book, or less valued by teachers, than the analysis which he sets above it. OBS. 9.--S. S. Greene, a public teacher in Boston, who, in answer to a supposed "demand for a _more philosophical plan_ of teaching the English language," has entered in earnest upon the "Analysis of Sentences," having devoted to one method of it more than the space of two hundred duodecimo pages, speaks of analysis and of parsing, thus: "The resolving of a sentence into its elements, or of any complex element into the parts which compose it, is called _analysis_."--_Greene's Analysis_, p. 14. "Parsing consists in naming a part of speech, giving its modifications, relation, agreement or dependence, and the rule for its construction. _Analysis_ consists in pointing out the words or groups of words which constitute the elements of a sentence. Analysis _should precede_ parsing."--_Ib._, p. 26. "A large proportion of the elements of sentences are not single words, but combinations or groups of words. These groups perform the office of the _substantive_, the _adjective_, or the _adverb_, and, in some one of these relations, enter in as the component parts of a sentence. The pupil who learns to determine the elements of a sentence, _must, therefore, learn the force of these combinations before_ he separates them into the single words which compose them. _This advantage_ is wholly lost in the ordinary methods of parsing."--_Ib._, p. 3. OBS. 10.--On these passages, it may be remarked in the first place, that the distinction attempted between analysis and parsing is by no means clear, or well drawn. Nor indeed could it be; because parsing is a species of analysis. The first assertion would be just as true as it is now, were the former word substituted for the latter: thus, "The resolving of a sentence into its elements, or of any complex element into the _parts_ which compose it, is called _parsing_." Next, the "_Parsing_" spoken of in the second sentence, is _Syntactical_ Parsing only; and, without a limitation of the species, neither this assertion nor the one concerning precedence is sufficiently true. Again, the suggestion, that, "_Analysis_ consists in _pointing out_ the words or groups of words which _constitute the elements_ of a sentence," has nothing distinctive in it; and, without some idea of the author's peculiar system of "elements," previously impressed upon the mind, is scarcely, if at all, intelligible. Lastly, that a pupil must _understand_ a sentence,--or, what is the same thing, "_learn the force of the words combined_,"--before he can be sure of parsing each word rightly, is a very plain and certain truth; but what "advantage" over parsing this truth gives to the lesser analysis, which deals with "groups," it is not easy to discover. If the author had any clear idea of "_this advantage_," he has conveyed no such conception to his readers. OBS. 11.--Greene's Analysis is the most expanded form of the Third Method above.[333] Its nucleus, or germinating kernel, was the old partition of _subject_ and _predicate_, derived from the art of logic. Its chief principles may be briefly stated thus: Sentences, which are simple, or complex, or compound, are made up of _words, phrases_, and _clauses_--three grand classes of elements, called the _first_, the _second_, and the _third_ class. From these, each sentence must have two elements; the _Subject_, or Substantive element, and the _Predicate_, or Predicative element, which are principal; and a sentence _may_ have five, the subordinates being the Adjective element, the Objective element, and the Adverbial element. The five elements have sundry modifications and subdivisions. Each of the five may, like a sentence, be simple, or complex, or compound; and each may be of any of the three grand classes. The development of this scheme forms a volume, not small. The system is plausible, ingenious, methodical, mostly true, and somewhat elaborate; but it is neither very useful nor very accurate. It seems too much like a great tree, beautiful, symmetrical, and full of leaves, but raised or desired only for fruit, yet bearing little, and some of that little not of good quality, but knurly or bitter. The chief end of a grammar, designed for our tongue, is, to show what is, and what is not, good English. To this end, the system in question does not appear to be well adapted. OBS. 12.--Dr. Bullions, the projector of the "Series of Grammars, English, Latin, and Greek, all _on the same plan_," inserted in his Latin Grammar, of 1841, a short sketch of the new analysis by "subjects and predicates," "grammatical and logical," the scheme used by Andrews and Stoddard; but his English Grammar, which appeared in 1834, was too early for this "new and improved method of investigating" language. In his later English Grammar, of 1849, however, paying little regard to _sameness of "plan_" or conformity of definitions, he carefully devoted to this matter the space of fifteen pages, placing the topic, not injudiciously, in the first part of his syntax, and referring to it thus in his Preface: "The subject of ANALYSIS, wholly omitted in the former work, is here introduced in its proper place; and to an extent in accordance with its importance."-- _Bullions, Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, p. 3. OBS. 13.--In applying any of the different methods of analysis, as a school exercise, it will in general perhaps be best to use each _separately_; the teacher directing which one is to be applied, and to what examples. The selections prepared for the stated praxes of this work, will be found as suitable as any. Analysis of sentences is a central and essential matter in the teaching or the study of grammar; but the truest and the most important of the sentential analyses is _parsing_; which, because it is a method distinguished by a technical name of its own, is not commonly denominated analysis. The relation which other methods should bear to _parsing_, is, as we have seen, variously stated by different authors. _Etymological_ parsing and _Syntactical_ are, or ought to be, distinct exercises. The former, being the most simple, the most elementary, and also requisite to be used before the pupil is prepared for the latter, should, without doubt, take precedence of all the rest, and be made familiar in the first place. Those who say, "_Analysis should precede parsing_," will scarcely find the application of other analysis practicable, till this is somewhat known. But _Syntactical Parsing_ being, when complete in form, the most thorough process of grammatical resolution, it seems proper to have introduced the other methods before it, as above. It can hardly be said that any of these are _necessary_ to this exercise, or to one an other; yet in a full course of grammatical instruction, each may at times be usefully employed. OBS. 14.--Dr. Bullions suggests, that, "_Analysis_ should precede _Syntactical parsing_, because, till we know the parts and elements of a sentence, we can not understand their relations, nor intelligently combine them into one consistent whole."--_Analytical and Pract. Gram._, p. 114. This reason is entirely fictitious and truthless; for the _words_ of a sentence are intuitively known to be its "parts and elements;" and, to "_understand_ their relations," is as necessary to one form of analysis as to another; but, "intelligently to _combine_ them," is no part of the parser's duty: this belongs to the _writer_; and where he has not done it, he must be criticised and censured, as one that knows not well what he says. In W. Allen's Grammar, as in Wells's, Syntactical parsing and Etymological are not divided. Wells intersperses his "Exercises in Parsing," at seven points of his Syntax, and places "the chapter on Analysis," at the end of it. Allen treats first of the several parts of grammar, didactically; then presents a series of exercises adapted to the various heads of the whole. At the beginning of these, are fourteen "Methods of Parsing," which show, successively, the properties and construction of his nine parts of speech; and, _at the ninth method_, which resolves _infinitives_, it is proposed that the pupil begin to apply a method of analysis similar to the Second one above. EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. PRAXIS XII.--SYNTACTICAL. _The grand clew to all syntactical parsing is THE SENSE; and as any composition is faulty which does not rightly deliver the authors meaning, so every solution of a word or sentence is necessarily erroneous, in which that meaning is not carefully noticed and literally preserved. In all complete syntactical parsing, it is required of the pupil--to distinguish the different parts of speech and their classes; to mention their modifications in order; to point out their relation, agreement, or government; and to apply the Rules of Syntax. Thus_:-- EXAMPLE PARSED. "A young man studious to know his duty, and honestly bent on doing it, will find himself led away from the sin or folly in which the multitude thoughtlessly indulge themselves; but, ah! poor fallen human nature! what conflicts are thy portion, when inclination and habit--a rebel and a traitor--exert their sway against our only saving principle!"--_G. Brown_. _A_ is the indefinite article: and relates to _man_, or _young man_; according to Rule 1st, which says, "Articles relate to the nouns which they limit." Because the meaning is--_a man--a young man_. _Young_ is a common adjective, of the positive degree, compared regularly, _young, younger, youngest_: and relates to _man_; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is--_young man_. _Man_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case: and is the subject of _will find_; according to Rule 2d, which says, "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case." Because the meaning is--_man will find_. _Studious_ is a common adjective, compared by means of the adverbs; _studious, more studious, most studious_; or, _studious, less studious, least studious_: and relates to _man_; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is--_man studious_. _To_ is a preposition: and shows the relation between _studious_ and _know_; according to Rule 23d, which says, "Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them." Because the meaning is--_studious to know_. _Know_ is an irregular active-transitive verb, from _know, knew, knowing, known_; found in the infinitive mood, present tense--no person, or number: and is governed by _to_; according to Rule 18th, which says, "The infinitive mood is governed in general by the preposition TO, which commonly connects it to a finite verb." Because the meaning is--_to know_. _His_ is a personal pronoun, representing _man_, in the third person, singular number, and masculine gender; according to Rule 10th, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender:" and is in the possessive case, being governed by _duty_; according to Rule 4th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thing possessed." Because the meaning is--_his duty_;--i. e., the young _man's duty_. _Duty_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case: and is governed by _know_; according to Rule 5th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is--to _know_ his _duty_. _And_ is a copulative conjunction: and connects the phrase which follows it, to that which precedes; according to Rule 22d, which says, "Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences." Because the meaning is--studious to know his duty, _and_ honestly bent, &c. _Honestly_ is an adverb of manner: and relates to _bent_; according to Rule 21st, which says, "Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs." Because the meaning is--_honestly bent_. _Bent_ is a perfect participle, from the redundant active-transitive verb, _bend, bent_ or _bended, bending, bent_ or _bended_: and relates to _man_; according to Rule 20th, which says, "Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by prepositions." Because the meaning is--_man bent_. _On_ is a preposition: and shows the relation between _bent_ and _doing_; according to Rule 23d, which says, "Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them." Because the meaning is--_bent on doing_. _Doing_ is an imperfect participle, from the irregular active-transitive verb, _do, did, doing, done_: and is governed by on; according to Rule 20th, which says, "Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by prepositions." Because the meaning is--_on doing_. _It_ is a personal pronoun, representing _duty_, in the third person, singular number, and neuter gender; according to Rule 10th, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender:" and is in the objective case, being governed by _doing_; according to Rule 5th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is--_doing it_;--i. e., doing _his duty_. _Will find_ is an irregular active-transitive verb, from _find, found, finding, found_; found in the indicative mood, first-future tense, third person, and singular number: and agrees with its nominative _man_; according to Rule 14th, which says, "Every finite verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, in person and number." Because the meaning is--_man will find_. _Himself_ is a compound personal pronoun, representing man, in the third person, singular number, and masculine gender; according to Rule 10th, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender;" and is in the objective case, being governed by _will find_; according to Rule 5th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is--_will find himself_;--i. e., his own mind or person. _Led_ is a perfect participle, from the irregular active-transitive verb, _lead, led, leading, led_: and relates to _himself_; according to Rule 20th, which says, "Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by prepositions." Because the meaning is--_himself led_. _Away_ is an adverb of place: and relates to _led_; according to Rule 21st, which says, "Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs." Because the meaning is--_led away_. _From_ is a preposition: and shows the relation between _led_ and _sin or folly_; according to Rule 23d, which says, "Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them." Because the meaning is--_led from sin or folly_. _The_ is the definite article: and relates to _sin_ and _folly_; according to Rule 1st, which says, "Articles relate to the nouns which they limit." Because the meaning is--_the sin or folly_. _Sin_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case: and is governed by _from_; according to Rule 7th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is--_from sin_. _Or_ is a disjunctive conjunction: and connects _sin_ and _folly_; according to Rule 22d, which says, "Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences." Because the meaning is--_sin or folly_. _Folly_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case; and is connected by _or_ to _sin_, and governed by the same preposition _from_; according to Rule 7th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is--_from sin or folly_. _In_ is a preposition: and shows the relation between _indulge_ and _which_; according to Rule 23d, which says, "Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them." Because the meaning is--_indulge in which_--or, _which they indulge in_. _Which_ is a relative pronoun, representing _sin or folly_, in the third person, singular number, and neuter gender; according to Rule 13th, which says, "When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by _or_ or _nor_, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together:" and is in the objective case, being governed by _in_; according to Rule 7th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is--_in which_;--i. e., _in which sin or folly_. _The_ is the definite article: and relates to _multitude_; according to Rule 1st, which says, "Articles relate to the nouns which they limit." Because the meaning is--_the multitude_. _Multitude_ is a common noun, collective, of the third person, conveying the idea of plurality, masculine gender, and nominative case: and is the subject of _indulge_; according to Rule 2d, which says, "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case." Because the meaning is--_multitude indulge_. _Thoughtlessly_ is an adverb of manner: and relates to _indulge_; according to Rule 21st, which says, "Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs." Because the meaning is--_thoughtlessly indulge_. _Indulge_ is a regular active-transitive verb, from _indulge, indulged, indulging, indulged_; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and plural number: and agrees with its nominative multitude; according to Rule 15th, which says, "When the nominative is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the verb must agree with it in the plural number." Because the meaning is--_multitude indulge_. _Themselves_ is a compound personal pronoun, representing _multitude_, in the third person, plural number, and masculine gender; according to Rule 11th, which says, "When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the pronoun must agree with it in the plural number:" and is in the objective case, being governed by _indulge_; according to Rule 5th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is--_indulge themselves_;--i. e., the individuals of the multitude indulge themselves. _But_ is a disjunctive conjunction: and connects what precedes and what follows; according to Rule 22d, which says, "Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences." Because the meaning is--A young man, &c., _but_, ah! &c. _Ah_ is an interjection, indicating sorrow: and is used independently; according to Rule 24th, which says, "Interjections have no dependent construction; they are put absolute, either alone, or with other words." Because the meaning is--_ah!_--unconnected with the rest of the sentence. _Poor_ is a common adjective, of the positive degree, compared regularly, _poor, poorer, poorest_: and relates to _nature_; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is--_poor human nature_. _Fallen_ is a participial adjective, compared (perhaps) by adverbs: and relates to _nature_; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is--_fallen nature_. _Human_ is a common adjective, not compared: and relates to _nature_; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is--_human nature_. _Nature_ is a common noun, of the second person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case: and is put absolute by direct address; according to Rule 8th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun is put absolute in the nominative, when its case depends on no other word." Because the meaning is--_poor fallen human nature!_--the noun being unconnected with any verb. _What_ is a pronominal adjective, not compared: and relates to _conflicts_; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is--_what conflicts_. _Conflicts_ is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, neuter gender, and nominative case: and is the subject of _are_; according to Rule 2d, which says, "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case." Because the meaning is--_conflicts are_. _Are_ is an irregular neuter verb, from _be, was, being, been_; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and plural number: and agrees with its nominative _conflicts_; according to Rule 14th, which says, "Every finite verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, in person and number." Because the meaning is--_conflicts are_. _Thy_ is a personal pronoun, representing _nature_, in the second person, singular number, and neuter gender; according to Rule 10th, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender:" and is in the possessive case, being governed by _portion_; according to Rule 4th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thing possessed." Because the meaning is--_thy portion_. _Portion_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case: and is put after _are_, in agreement with _conflicts_; according to Rule 6th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun put after a verb or participle not transitive, agrees in case with a preceding noun or pronoun referring to the same thing." Because the meaning is--_conflicts are thy portion_. _When_ is a conjunctive adverb of time: and relates to the two verbs, _are_ and _exert_; according to Rule 21st, which says, "Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs." Because the meaning is--what conflicts _are_ thy portion, _when_ inclination and habit _exert_, &c. _Inclination_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case: and is one of the subjects of _exert_; according to Rule 2d, which says, "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case." Because the meaning is--_inclination and habit exert_. _And_ is a copulative conjunction: and connects _inclination_ and _habit_; according to Rule 22d, which says, "Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences." Because the meaning is--_inclination and habit_. _Habit_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case: and is one of the subjects of _exert_; according to Rule 2d, which says, "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case." Because the meaning is--_inclination and habit exert_. _A_ is the indefinite article: and relates to _rebel_; according to Rule 1st, which says, "Articles relate to the nouns which they limit." Because the meaning is--_a rebel_. _Rebel_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case: and is put in apposition with _inclination_; according to Rule 3d, which says, "A noun or a personal pronoun used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same case." Because the meaning is--_inclination, a rebel_. _And_ is a copulative conjunction: and connects _rebel_ and _traitor_; according to Rule 22d, which says, "Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences." Because the meaning is--_a rebel and a traitor_. _A_ is the indefinite article: and relates to _traitor_; according to Rule 1st, which says, "Articles relate to the nouns which they limit." Because the meaning is--_a traitor_. _Traitor_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case: and is put in apposition with _habit_; according to Rule 3d, which says, "A noun or a personal pronoun used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same case." Because the meaning is--_habit, a traitor_. _Exert_ is a regular active-transitive verb, from _exert, exerted, exerting, exerted_; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and plural number: and agrees with its two nominatives _inclination and habit_; according to Rule 16th, which says, "When a verb has two or more nominatives connected by _and_, it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together." Because the meaning is--_inclination and habit exert_. _Their_ is a personal pronoun, representing _inclination and habit_, in the third person, plural number, and neuter gender; according to Rule 12th, which says, "When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by _and_, it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together:" and is in the possessive case, being governed by _sway_; according to Rule 4th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thing possessed." Because the meaning is--_their sway_;--i. e., the sway of inclination and habit. _Sway_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case; and is governed by _exert_; according to Rule 5th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is--_exert sway_. _Against_ is a preposition: and shows the relation between _exert_ and _principle_; according to Rule 23d, which says, "Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them." Because the meaning is--_exert against principle_. _Our_ is a personal pronoun, representing _the speakers_, in the first person, plural number, and masculine gender; according to Rule 10th, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender:" and is in the possessive case, being governed by _principle_; according to Rule 4th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thing possessed." Because the meaning is--_our principle_;--i. e., the _speakers_' principle. _Only_ is a pronominal adjective, not compared: and relates to _principle_; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is--_only principle_. _Saving_ is a participial adjective, compared by adverbs when it means _frugal_, but not compared in the sense here intended: and relates to _principle_; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is--_saving principle_. _Principle_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case: and is governed by _against_; according to Rule 7th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is--_against principle_. LESSON I.--ARTICLES. "In English heroic verse, the capital pause of every line, is determined by the sense to be after the fourth, the fifth, the sixth or the seventh syllable."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 105. "When, in considering the structure of a tree or a plant, we observe how all the parts, the roots, the stem, the bark, and the leaves, are suited to the growth and nutriment of the whole; when we survey all the parts and members of a living animal; or when we examine any of the curious works of art--such as a clock, a ship, or any nice machine; the pleasure which we have in the survey, is wholly founded on this sense of beauty."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 49. "It never can proceed from a good taste, to make a teaspoon resemble the leaf of a tree; for such a form is inconsistent with the destination of a teaspoon."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 351. "In an epic poem, a history, an oration, or any work of genius, we always require a fitness, or an adjustment of means to the end which the author is supposed to have in view."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 50. "Rhetoric, Logic, and Grammar, are three arts that should always walk hand in hand. The first is the art of speaking eloquently; the second, that of thinking well; and the third, that of speaking with propriety."--_Formey's Belles-Lettres_, p. 114. "Spring hangs her infant blossoms on the trees, Rock'd in the cradle of the western breeze."--_Cowper_. LESSON II.--NOUNS. "There goes a rumour that I am to be banished. And let the sentence come, if God so will. The other side of the sea is my Father's ground, as well as this side."--_Rutherford_. "Gentlemen, there is something on earth greater than arbitrary or despotic power. The lightning has its power, and the whirlwind has its power, and the earthquake has its power. But there is something among men more capable of shaking despotic power than lightning, whirlwind, or earthquake; that is--the threatened indignation of the whole civilized world."--_Daniel Webster_. "And Isaac sent away Jacob; and he went to Padan Aram, unto Laban, son of Bethuel the Syrian, and brother of Rebecca, Jacob's and Esau's mother."--See _Gen._, xxviii, 5. "The purpose you undertake is dangerous." "Why that is certain: it is dangerous to take a cold, to sleep, to drink; but I tell you, my Lord fool, out of this nettle danger, we pluck this flower safety."--_Shakespeare_. "And towards the Jews alone, one of the noblest charters of liberty on earth--_Magna Charta_, the Briton's boast--legalized an act of injustice."--_Keith's Evidences_, p. 74. "Were Demosthenes's Philippics spoken in a British assembly, in a similar conjuncture of affairs, they would convince and persuade at this day. The rapid style, the vehement reasoning, the disdain, anger, boldness, freedom, which perpetually animate them, would render their success infallible over any modern assembly. I question whether the same can be said of Cicero's orations; whose eloquence, however beautiful, and however well suited to the Roman taste, yet borders oftener on declamation, and is more remote from the manner in which we now expect to hear real business and causes of importance treated."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 248. "In fact, every attempt to present on paper the splendid effects of impassioned eloquence, is like gathering up dewdrops, which appear jewels and pearls on the grass, but run to water in the hand; the essence and the elements remain, but the grace, the sparkle, and the form, are gone."--_Montgomery's Life of Spencer_. "As in life true dignity must be founded on character, not on dress and appearance; so in language the dignity of composition must arise from sentiment and thought, not from ornament."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 144. "And man, whose heaven-erected face the smiles of love adorn, Man's inhumanity to man makes countless thousands mourn." --_Burns_. "Ah wretched man! unmindful of thy end! A moment's glory! and what fates attend." --_Pope, Iliad_, B. xvii, l. 231. LESSON III.--ADJECTIVES. "Embarrassed, obscure, and feeble sentences, are generally, if not always, the result of embarrassed, obscure, and feeble thought."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 120. "Upon this ground, we prefer a simple and natural, to an artificial and affected style; a regular and well-connected story, to loose and scattered narratives; a catastrophe which is tender and pathetic, to one which leaves us unmoved."--_Ib._, p. 23. "A thorough good taste may well be considered as a power compounded of natural sensibility to beauty, and of improved understanding."--_Ib._, p. 18. "Of all writings, ancient or modern, the sacred Scriptures afford us the highest instances of the sublime. The descriptions of the Deity, in them, are wonderfully noble; both from the grandeur of the object, and the manner of representing it."--_Ib._, p. 36. "It is not the authority of any one person, or of a few, be they ever so eminent, that can establish one form of speech in preference to another. Nothing but the general practice of good writers and good speakers can do it."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 107. "What other means are there to attract love and esteem so effectual as a virtuous course of life? If a man be just and beneficent, if he be temperate, modest, and prudent, he will infallibly gain the esteem and love of all who know him."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 167. "But there are likewise, it must be owned, people in the world, whom it is easy to make worse by rough usage, and not easy to make better by any other."--_Abp. Seeker_. "The great comprehensive truth written in letters of living light on every page of our history--the language addressed by every past age of New England to all future ages, is this: Human happiness has no perfect security but freedom;--freedom, none but virtue;--virtue, none but knowledge: and neither freedom, nor virtue, nor knowledge, has any vigour or immortal hope, except in the principles of the Christian faith, and in the sanctions of the Christian religion."--_President Quincy_. "For bliss, as thou hast part, to me is bliss; Tedious, unshared with thee, and odious soon." --_P. Lost_, B. ix, l. 880. LESSON IV.--PRONOUNS. "There is but one governor whose sight we cannot escape, whose power we cannot resist: a sense of His presence and of duty to Him, will accomplish more than all the laws and penalties which can be devised without it."--_Woodbridge, Lit. C._, p. 154. "Every voluntary society must judge who shall be members of their body, and enjoy fellowship with them in their peculiar privileges."--_Watts_. "Poetry and impassioned eloquence are the only sources from which the living growth of a language springs; and even if in their vehemence they bring down some mountain rubbish along with them, this sinks to the bottom, and the pure stream flows along over it."--_Philological Museum_, i, 645. "This use is bounded by the province, county, or district, which gives name to the dialect, and beyond which its peculiarities are sometimes unintelligible, and always ridiculous."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 163. "Every thing that happens, is both a cause and an effect; being the effect of what goes before, and the cause of what follows."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 297. "Withhold not good from them to whom it is due, when it is in the power of thine hand to do it."--_Prov._, iii, 27. "Yet there is no difficulty at all in ascertaining the idea. * * * By reflecting upon that which is myself now, and that which was myself twenty years ago, I discern they are not two, but one and the same self."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 271. "If you will replace what has been long expunged from the language, and extirpate what is firmly rooted, undoubtedly you yourself become an innovator."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 167; _Murray's Gram._, 364. "To speak as others speak, is one of those tacit obligations, annexed to the condition of living in society, which we are bound in conscience to fulfill, though we have never ratified them by any express promise; because, if they were disregarded, society would be impossible, and human happiness at an end."--See _Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 139. "In England _thou_ was in current use until, perhaps, near the commencement of the seventeenth century, though it was getting to be regarded as somewhat disrespectful. At Walter Raleigh's trial, Coke, when argument and evidence failed him, insulted the defendant by applying to him the term _thou_. 'All that Lord Cobham did,' he cried, 'was at _thy_ instigation, _thou_ viper! for I _thou_ thee, _thou_ traitor!'"--_Fowler's E. Gram._, §220. "Th' Egyptian crown I to your hands remit; And with it take his heart who offers it."--_Shakspeare_. LESSON V.--VERBS. "Sensuality contaminates the body, depresses the understanding, deadens the moral feelings of the heart, and degrades man from his rank in the creation."--_Murray's Key_, ii, p. 231. "When a writer reasons, we look only for perspicuity; when he describes, we expect embellishment; when he divides, or relates, we desire plainness and simplicity."--_Blair's_ _Rhet._, p. 144. "Livy and Herodotus are diffuse; Thucydides and Sallust are succinct; yet all of them are agreeable."--_Ib._, p. 178. "Whenever petulant ignorance, pride, malice, malignity, or envy, interposes to cloud or sully his fame, I will take upon me to pronounce that the eclipse will not last long."--_Dr. Delany_. "She said she had nothing to say, for she was resigned, and I knew all she knew that concerned us in this world; but she desired to be alone, that in the presence of God only, she might without interruption do her last duty to me."--_Spect._, No. 520. "Wisdom and truth, the offspring of the sky, are immortal; while cunning and deception, the meteors of the earth, after glittering for a moment, must pass away."--_Robert Hall_. "See, I have this day set thee over the nations, and over the kingdoms, to root out, and to pull down, and to destroy, and to throw down, to build, and to plant."--_Jeremiah_, i, 10. "God might command the stones to be made bread, or the clouds to rain it; but he chooses rather to leave mankind to till, to sow, to reap, to gather into barns, to grind, to knead, to bake, and then to eat."--_London Quarterly Review_. "Eloquence is no invention of the schools. Nature teaches every man to be eloquent, when he is much in earnest. Place him in some critical situation, let him have some great interest at stake, and you will see him lay hold of the most effectual means of persuasion."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 235. "It is difficult to possess great fame and great ease at the same time. Fame, like fire, is with difficulty kindled, is easily increased, but dies away if not continually fed. To preserve fame alive, every enterprise ought to be a pledge of others, so as to keep mankind in constant expectation."--_Art of Thinking_, p. 50. "Pope, finding little advantage from external help, resolved thenceforward to direct himself, and at twelve formed a plan of study which he completed with little other incitement than the desire of excellence."--_Johnson's Lives of Poets_, p. 498. "Loose, then, from earth the grasp of fond desire, Weigh anchor, and some happier clime explore."--_Young_. LESSON VI.--PARTICIPLES. "The child, affrighted with the view of his father's helmet and crest, and clinging to the nurse; Hector, putting off his helmet, taking the child into his arms, and offering up a prayer for him; Andromache, receiving back the child with a smile of pleasure, and at the same instant bursting into tears; form the most natural and affecting picture that can possibly be imagined."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 435. "The truth of being, and the truth of knowing are one; differing no more than the direct beam and the beam reflected."--_Ld. Bacon_. "Verbs denote states of being, considered as beginning, continuing, ending, being renewed, destroyed, and again repeated, so as to suit any occasion."--_William Ward's Gram._, p. 41. "We take it for granted, that we have a competent knowledge and skill, and that we are able to acquit ourselves properly, in our own native tongue; a faculty, solely acquired by use, conducted by habit, and tried by the ear, carries us on without reflection."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. vi. "I mean the teacher himself; who, stunned with the hum, and suffocated with the closeness of his school-room, has spent the whole day in controlling petulance, exciting indifference to action, striving to enlighten stupidity, and labouring to soften obstinacy."--_Sir W. Scott_. "The inquisitive mind, beginning with criticism, the most agreeable of all amusements, and finding no obstruction in its progress, advances far into the sensitive part of our nature; and gains imperceptibly a thorough knowledge of the human heart, of its desires, and of every motive to action."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 42. "They please, are pleased; they give to get esteem; Till, seeming blest, they grow to what they seem."--_Goldsmith_. LESSON VII.--ADVERBS. "How cheerfully, how freely, how regularly, how constantly, how unweariedly, how powerfully, how extensively, he communicateth his convincing, his enlightening, his heart-penetrating, warming, and melting; his soul-quickening, healing, refreshing, directing, and fructifying influence!"--_Brown's Metaphors_, p. 96. "The passage, I grant, requires to be well and naturally read, in order to be promptly comprehended; but surely there are very few passages worth comprehending, either of verse or prose, that can be promptly understood, when they are read unnaturally and ill."--_Thelwall's Lect_. "They waste life in what are called good resolutions--partial efforts at reformation, feebly commenced, heartlessly conducted, and hopelessly concluded."--_Maturin's Sermons_, p. 262. "A man may, in respect of grammatical purity, speak unexceptionably, and yet speak obscurely and ambiguously; and though we cannot say, that a man may speak properly, and at the same time speak unintelligibly, yet this last case falls more naturally to be considered as an offence against perspicuity, than as a violation of propriety."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 104. "Ye are witnesses, and God also, how holily and justly and unblamably we behaved ourselves among you that believe."--_1 Thes._, ii, 10. "The question is not, whether they know what is said of Christ in the Scriptures; but whether they know it savingly, truly, livingly, powerfully."--_Penington's Works_, iii, 28. "How gladly would the man recall to life The boy's neglected sire! a mother too, That softer friend, perhaps more gladly still, Might he demand them at the gates of death!"--_Cowper_. LESSON VIII.--CONJUNCTIONS. "Every person's safety requires that he should submit to be governed; for if one man may do harm without suffering punishment, every man has the same right, and no person can be safe."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 38. "When it becomes a practice to collect debts by law, it is a proof of corruption and degeneracy among the people. Laws and courts are necessary, to settle controverted points between man and man; but a man should pay an acknowledged debt, not because there is a law to oblige him, but because it is just and honest, and because he has promised to pay it."--_Ib._, p. 42. "The liar, and only the liar, is invariably and universally despised, abandoned, and disowned. It is therefore natural to expect, that a crime thus generally detested, should be generally avoided."--_Hawkesworth_. "When a man swears to the truth of his tale, he tacitly acknowledges that his bare word does not deserve credit. A swearer will lie, and a liar is not to be believed even upon his oath; nor is he believed, when he happens to speak the truth."--_Red Book_, p. 108. "John Adams replied, 'I know Great Britain has determined on her system, and that very determination determines me on mine. You know I have been constant and uniform in opposition to her measures. The die is now cast. I have passed the Rubicon. Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish with my country, is my unalterable determination.'"--SEWARD'S _Life of John Quincy Adams_, p. 26. "I returned, and saw under the sun that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happen to them all."--_Ecclesiastes_, ix, 11. "Little, alas! is all the good I can; A man oppress'd, dependent, yet a man."--_Pope, Odys._, B. xiv, p. 70. LESSON IX.--PREPOSITIONS. "He who legislates only for a party, is engraving his name on the adamantine pillar of his country's history, to be gazed on forever as an object of universal detestation."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 401. "The Greek language, in the hands of the orator, the poet, and the historian, must be allowed to bear away the palm from every other known in the world; but to that only, in my opinion, need our own yield the precedence."--_Barrow's Essays_, p. 91. "For my part, I am convinced that the method of teaching which approaches most nearly to the method of investigation, is incomparably the best; since, not content with serving up a few barren and lifeless truths, it leads to the stock on which they grew."--_Burke, on Taste_, p. 37. Better--"on which _truths grow_." "All that I have done in this difficult part of grammar, concerning the proper use of prepositions, has been to make a few general remarks upon the subject; and then to give a collection of instances, that have occurred to me, of the improper use of some of them."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 155. "This is not an age of encouragement for works of elaborate research and real utility. The genius of the trade of literature is necessarily unfriendly to such productions."--_Thelwall's Lect._, p. 102. "At length, at the end of a range of trees, I saw three figures seated on a bank of moss, with a silent brook creeping at their feet."--_Steele_. "Thou rather, with thy sharp and sulph'rous bolt, Splitst the unwedgeable and gnarled oak."--_Shakspeare_. LESSON X.--INTERJECTIONS. "Hear the word of the Lord, O king of Judah, that sittest upon the throne of David; thou, and thy servants, and thy people, that enter in by these gates: thus saith the Lord, Execute ye judgement and righteousness, and deliver the spoiled out of the hand of the oppressor."--_Jeremiah_, xxii, 2, 3. "Therefore, thus saith the Lord concerning Jehoiakim the son of Josiah king of Judah, They shall not lament for him, saying, Ah my brother! or, Ah sister! they shall not lament for him, saying, Ah lord! or, Ah his glory! He shall be buried with the burial of an ass, drawn and cast forth beyond the gates of Jerusalem."--_Jer._, xxii, 18, 19. "O thou afflicted, tossed with tempest, and not comforted, behold, I will lay thy stones with fair colours, and lay thy foundations with sapphires."--_Isaiah_, liv, 11. "O prince! O friend! lo! here thy Medon stands; Ah! stop the hero's unresisted hands." --_Pope, Odys._, B. xxii, l. 417. "When, lo! descending to our hero's aid, Jove's daughter Pallas, war's triumphant maid!" --_Ib._, B. xxii, l. 222. "O friends! oh ever exercised in care! Hear Heaven's commands, and reverence what ye hear!" --_Ib._, B. xii, l. 324. "Too daring prince! ah, whither dost thou run? Ah, too forgetful of thy wife and you!" --_Pope's Iliad_, B. vi, l. 510. CHAPTER II.--ARTICLES. In this chapter, and those which follow it, the Rules of Syntax are again exhibited, in the order of the parts of speech, with Examples, Exceptions, Observations, Notes, and False Syntax. The Notes are all of them, in form and character, subordinate rules of syntax, designed for the detection of errors. The correction of the False Syntax placed under the rules and notes, will form an _oral exercise_, similar to that of parsing, and perhaps more useful.[334] RULE I.--ARTICLES. Articles relate to the nouns which they limit:[335] as, "At _a_ little distance from _the_ ruins of _the_ abbey, stands _an_ aged elm." "See _the_ blind beggar dance, _the_ cripple sing, _The_ sot _a_ hero, lunatic _a_ king."--_Pope's Essay_, Ep. ii, l. 268. EXCEPTION FIRST. The definite article used _intensively_, may relate to an _adjective_ or _adverb_ of the comparative or the superlative degree; as, "A land which was _the mightiest_."--_Byron_. "_The farther_ they proceeded, _the greater_ appeared their alacrity."--_Dr. Johnson_. "He chooses it _the rather_"--_Cowper_. See Obs. 10th, below. EXCEPTION SECOND. The indefinite article is sometimes used to give a collective meaning to what seems a _plural adjective of number_; as, "Thou hast _a few_ names even in Sardis."--_Rev._, iii, 4. "There are _a thousand_ things which crowd into my memory."--_Spectator_, No. 468. "The centurion commanded _a hundred_ men."--_Webster_. See Etymology, Articles, Obs. 26. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE I. OBS. 1.--The article is a kind of _index_, usually pointing to some noun; and it is a general, if not a universal, principle, that no one noun admits of more than one article. Hence, two or more articles in a sentence are signs of two or more nouns; and hence too, by a very convenient ellipsis, an article before an adjective is often made to relate to a noun understood; as, "_The_ grave [_people_] rebuke _the_ gay [_people_], and _the_ gay [_people_] mock _the_ grave" [_people_].--_Maturin's Sermons_, p. 103. "_The_ wise [_persons_] shall inherit glory."--_Prov._, iii, 35. "_The_ vile [_person_] will talk villainy."--_Coleridge's Lay Sermons_, p. 105: see _Isaiah_, xxxii, 6. "The testimony of the Lord is sure, making wise _the_ simple" [_ones_].--_Psal._, xix, 7. "_The_ Old [_Testament_] and the New Testament are alike authentic."--"_The_ animal [_world_] and the vegetable world are adapted to each other."--"_An_ epic [_poem_] and a dramatic poem are the same in substance."--_Ld. Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 274. "The neuter verb is conjugated like _the_ active" [_verb_].--_Murray's Gram._, p. 99. "Each section is supposed to contain _a_ heavy [_portion_] and a light portion; _the_ heavy [_portion_] being the accented syllable, and _the_ light [_portion_] _the_ unaccented" [_syllable_].--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 364. OBS. 2.--Our language does not, like the French, _require a repetition_ of the article before every noun in a series; because the same article may serve to limit the signification of several nouns, provided they all stand in the same construction. Hence the following sentence is bad English: "The understanding and language have a strict connexion."--_Murray's Gram._, i, p. 356. The sense of the former noun only was meant to be limited. The expression therefore should have been, "_Language and the understanding_ have a strict connexion," or, "The understanding _has_ a strict connexion _with language_." In some instances, one article _seems_ to limit the sense of several nouns that are not all in the same construction, thus: "As it proves a greater or smaller obstruction to _the speaker's_ or _writer's aim_."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 200. That is--"to _the_ aim of _the_ speaker or _the_ writer." It is, in fact, the possessive, that limits the other nouns; for, "_a man's foes_" means, "_the_ foes of _a_ man;" and, "_man's wisdom_," means, "_the_ wisdom of man." The governing noun cannot have an article immediately before it. Yet the omission of articles, when it occurs, is not properly _by ellipsis_, as some grammarians declare it to be; for there never can be a proper ellipsis of an article, when there is not also an ellipsis of its noun. Ellipsis supposes the omitted words to be necessary to the construction, when they are not so to the sense; and this, it would seem, cannot be the case with a mere article. If such a sign be in any wise necessary, it ought to be used; and if not needed in any respect, it cannot be said to be _understood_. The definite article being generally required before adjectives that are used by ellipsis as nouns, we in this case repeat it before every term in a series; as, "They are singled out from among their fellows, as _the_ kind, _the_ amiable, _the_ sweet-tempered, _the_ upright."--_Dr. Chalmers_. "_The_ great, _the_ gay, shall they partake The heav'n that thou alone canst make?"--_Cowper_. OBS. 3.--The article precedes its noun, and is never, by itself, placed after it; as, "Passion is _the_ drunkenness of _the_ mind."--_Southey_. When an _adjective_ likewise precedes the noun, the article is usually placed before the adjective, that its power of limitation may extend over that also; as, "_A concise_ writer compresses his thoughts into _the fewest_ possible words."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 176. "_The private_ path, _the secret_ acts of men, If noble, far _the noblest_ of their lives."--_Young_. OBS. 4.--The relative position of the article and the adjective is seldom a matter of indifference. Thus, it is good English to say, "_both the men_," or, "_the two men_;" but we can by no means say, "_the both men_" or, "_two the men_." Again, the two phrases, "_half a dollar_," and "_a half dollar_," though both good, are by no means equivalent. Of the pronominal adjectives, some exclude the article; some precede it; and some follow it, like other adjectives. The word _same_ is seldom, if ever used without the definite article or some stronger definitive before it; as, "On _the same_ day,"--"in _that same_ hour,"--"_These same_ gentlemen." After the adjective _both_, the definite article _may_ be used, but it is generally _unnecessary_, and this is a sufficient reason for omitting it: as, "The following sentences will fully exemplify, to the young grammarian, _both the parts_ of this rule."--_Murray's Gram._, i, p. 192. Say, "_both parts_." The adjective _few_ may be used either with or without an article, but not with the same import: as, "_The few_ who were present, were in the secret;" i. e., All then present knew the thing. "_Few_ that were present, were in the secret;" i.e., Not many then present knew the thing. "When I say, 'There were _few_ men with him,' I speak diminutively, and mean to represent them as inconsiderable; whereas, when I say, 'There were _a few_ men with him,' I evidently intend to make the most of them."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 171. See Etymology, Articles, Obs. 28. OBS. 5.--The pronominal adjectives which exclude the article, are _any, each, either, every, much, neither, no_, or _none, some, this, that, these, those_. The pronominal adjectives which precede the article, are _all, both, many, such_, and _what_; as, "_All the_ world,"--"_Both the_ judges,"--"_Many a_[336] mile,"--"_Such a_ chasm,"--"_What a_ freak." In like manner, any adjective of quality, when its meaning is limited by the adverb _too, so, as_, or _how_, is put before the article; as, "_Too great a_ study of strength, is found to betray writers into a harsh manner."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 179. "Like _many an_ other poor wretch, I now suffer _all the_ ill consequences of _so foolish an_ indulgence." "_Such a_ gift is _too small a_ reward for _so great a_ labour."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 95. "Here flows _as clear a_ stream as any in Greece. _How beautiful a_ prospect is here!"--_Bicknell's Gram._, Part ii, p. 52. The pronominal adjectives which follow the article, are _few, former, first, latter, last, little, one, other_, and _same_; as, "An author might lean either to _the one [style]_ or to _the other_, and yet be beautiful."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 179. _Many_, like _few_, sometimes follows the article; as, "_The many_ favours which we have received."--"In conversation, for _many a man_, they say, _a many men_."--_Johnson's Dict._ In this order of the words, _a_ seems awkward and needless; as, "Told of _a many_ thousand warlike French."--_Shak._ OBS. 6.--When the adjective is preceded by any other adverb than _too, so, as_, or _how_, the article is almost always placed before the adverb: as, "One of _the_ most complete models;"--"_An_ equally important question;"--"_An_ exceedingly rough passage;"--"_A_ very important difference." The adverb _quite_, however, may be placed either before or after the article, though perhaps with a difference of construction: as, "This is _quite a_ different thing;"--or, "This is _a quite different_ thing." "Finding it _quite an_ other thing;"--or, "Finding it _a quite other_ thing."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 153. Sometimes _two adverbs_ intervene between the article and the adjective; as, "We had a _rather more_ explicit account of the Novii."--_Philol. Museum_, i, 458. But when an other adverb follows _too, so, as_, or _how_, the three words should be placed either before the article or after the noun; as, "Who stands there in _so purely poetical_ a light."--_Ib._, i, 449. Better, perhaps: "_In a light so purely poetical_." OBS. 7.--The definitives _this, that_, and some others, though they supersede the article _an_ or _a_, may be followed by the adjective _one_; for we say, "_this one thing_," but not, "_this a thing_." Yet, in the following sentence, _this_ and _a_ being separated by other words, appear to relate to the same noun: "For who is able to judge _this_ thy so great _a_ people?"--_1 Kings_, iii, 9. But we may suppose the noun _people_ to be understood after _this_. Again, the following example, if it is not wrong, has an ellipsis of the word _use_ after the first _a_: "For highest cordials all their virtue lose, By _a_ too frequent and too bold _a_ use."--_Pomfret_. OBS. 8.--When the adjective is placed _after_ the noun, the article generally retains its place before the noun, and is not repeated before the adjective: as, "_A_ man _ignorant_ of astronomy;"--"_The_ primrose _pale_." In _Greek_, when an adjective is placed after its noun, if the article is applied to the noun, it is repeated before the adjective; as, "[Greek: Hæ polis hæ megalæ,]"--"_The_ city _the_ great;" i.e., "The great city." [337] OBS. 9.--Articles, according to their own definition and nature, come _before_ their nouns; but the definite article and an adjective seem sometimes to be placed after the noun to which they both relate: as, "Section _the Fourth_;"--"Henry _the Eighth_." Such examples, however, may possibly be supposed elliptical; as, "Section, _the fourth division_ of the chapter;"--"Henry, _the eighth king_ of that name:" and, if they are so, the article, in _English_, can never be placed after its noun, nor can two articles ever properly relate to one noun, in any particular construction of it. Priestley observes, "Some writers affect to _transpose_ these words, and place the numeral adjective first; [as,] '_The first Henry_.' Hume's History, Vol. i, p. 497. This construction is common with this writer, but there seems to be a _want of dignity_ in it."--_Rudiments of E. Gram._, p. 150. Dr. Webster cites the word _Great_, in "_Alexander the Great_" as a _name_, or _part_ of a name; that is, he gives it as an instance of "_cognomination_." See his _American Dict._, 8vo. And if this is right, the article may be said to relate to the epithet only, as it appears to do. For, if the word is taken substantively, there is certainly no ellipsis; neither is there any transposition in putting it last, but rather, as Priestley suggests, in putting it first. OBS. 10.--The definite article is often prefixed to _comparatives_ and _superlatives_; and its effect is, as Murray observes, (in the words of Lowth,) "to mark the degree _the more_ strongly, and to define it _the more_ precisely: as, '_The more_ I examine it, _the better_ I like it.' 'I like this _the least_ of any.'"--_Murray's Gram._, p. 33; _Lowth's_, 14. "For neither if we eat, are we _the better_; neither if we eat not, are we _the worse_."--_1 Cor._, viii, 8. "One is not _the more_ agreeable to me for loving beef, as I do; nor _the less_ agreeable for preferring mutton."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. ii, p. 365. "They are not the men in the nation, _the most_ difficult to be replaced."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 148. In these instances, the article seems to be used _adverbially_, and to relate only to the _adjective_ or _adverb_ following it. (See observation fourth, on the Etymology of Adverbs.) Yet none of our grammarians have actually reckoned _the_ an adverb. After the _adjective_, the noun might perhaps be supplied; but when the word _the_ is added to an _adverb_, we must either call it an adverb, or make an exception to Rule 1st above: and if an exception is to be made, the brief form which I have given, cannot well be improved. For even if a noun be understood, it may not appear that the article relates to it, rather than to the degree of the quality. Thus: "_The_ deeper the well, _the_ clearer the water." This Dr. Ash supposes to mean, "The deeper _well_ the well _is_, the clearer _water_ the water _is_."--_Ash's Gram._, p. 107. But does the text specify a _particular_ "deeper well" or "clearer water?" I think not. To what then does _the_ refer, but to the proportionate degree of _deeper_ and _clearer_? OBS. 11.--The article the is sometimes elegantly used, after an idiom common in the French language, in lieu of a possessive pronoun; as, "He looked him full in _the_ face; i. e. in _his_ face."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 150. "Men who have not bowed _the knee_ to the image of Baal."--_Rom._, xi, 4. That is, _their knees_. OBS. 12.--The article _an_ or _a_, because it implies unity, is applicable to nouns of the singular number only; yet a collective noun, being singular in form, is sometimes preceded by this article even when it conveys the idea of plurality and takes a plural verb: as, "There _are_ a very great _number_ [of adverbs] ending in _ly_."--_Buchanan's Syntax_, p. 63. "A _plurality_ of them _are_ sometimes felt at the same instant."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. i, p. 114. In support of this construction, it would be easy to adduce a great multitude of examples from the most reputable writers; but still, as it seems not very consistent, to take any word plurally after restricting it to the singular, we ought rather to avoid this if we can, and prefer words that literally agree in number: as, "Of adverbs there _are_ very _many_ ending in _ly_"--"_More than one_ of them _are_ sometimes felt at the same instant." The word _plurality_, like other collective nouns, is literally singular: as, "To produce the latter, a _plurality_ of objects _is_ necessary."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. i, p. 224. OBS. 13.--Respecting the form of the indefinite article, present practice differs a little from that of our ancient writers. _An_ was formerly used before all words beginning with _h_, and before several other words which are now pronounced in such a manner as to require _a_: thus, we read in the Bible, "_An_ help,"--"_an_ house,"--"_an_ hundred,"--"_an_ one,"--"_an_ ewer,"--"_an_ usurer;" whereas we now say, "_A_ help,"--"_a_ house,"--"_a_ hundred,"--"_a_ one,"--"_a_ ewer,"--"_a_ usurer." OBS. 14.--Before the word _humble_, with its compounds and derivatives, some use _an_, and others, _a_; according to their practice, in this instance, of sounding or suppressing the aspiration. Webster and Jameson sound the _h_, and consequently prefer _a_; as, "But _a humbling_ image is not always necessary to produce that effect."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 205. "O what a blessing is _a humble_ mind!"--_Christian Experience_, p. 342. But Sheridan, Walker, Perry, Jones, and perhaps a majority of fashionable speakers, leave the _h_ silent, and would consequently say, "_An humbling_ image,"--"_an humble_ mind,"--&c. OBS. 15.--An observance of the principles on which the article is to be repeated or not repeated in a sentence, is of very great moment in respect to accuracy of composition. These principles are briefly stated in the notes below, but it is proper that the learner should know the reasons of the distinctions which are there made. By a repetition of the article before several adjectives in the same construction, a repetition of the noun is implied; but without a repetition of the article, the adjectives, in all fairness of interpretation, are confined to one and the same noun: as, "No figures will render _a cold_ or _an empty_ composition interesting."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 134. Here the author speaks of a cold composition and an empty composition as different things. "_The_ metaphorical and _the_ literal meaning _are_ improperly mixed."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 339. Here the verb are has two nominatives, one of which is expressed, and the other understood. "But _the_ third and _the_ last of these [forms] are seldom used."--_Adam's Lat. Gram._, p. 186. Here the verb "_are used_" has two nominatives, both of which are understood; namely, "the third _form_," and "the last _form_." Again: "_The original and present_ signification _is_ always retained."--_Dr. Murray's Hist. of Lang._, Vol. ii, p. 149. Here _one signification_ is characterized as being both original and present. "_A loose and verbose manner_ never _fails_ to create disgust."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 261. That is, _one manner_, loose and verbose. "To give _a_ short and yet clear and plain answer to this proposition."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. i, p. 533. That is, _one answer, short, clear, and plain_; for the conjunctions in the text connect nothing but the adjectives. OBS. 16.--To avoid repetition, even of the little word _the_, we sometimes, with one article, join _inconsistent_ qualities to a _plural noun_;--that is, when the adjectives so differ as to individualize the things, we sometimes make the noun plural, in stead of repeating the article: as, "_The_ north and south _poles_;" in stead of, "_The_ north and _the_ south _pole_."--"_The_ indicative and potential _moods_;" in stead of "_The_ indicative and _the_ potential _mood_."--"_The_ Old and New _Testaments_;" in stead of, "_The_ Old and _the_ New _Testament_." But, in any such case, to repeat the article when the noun is made plural, is a huge blunder; because it implies a repetition of the plural noun. And again, not to repeat the article when the noun is singular, is also wrong; because it forces the adjectives to coalesce in describing one and the same thing. Thus, to say, "_The_ north and south _pole_" is certainly wrong, unless we mean by it, _one pole_, or _slender stick of wood_, pointing north and south; and again, to say, "_The_ north and _the_ south _poles_," is also wrong, unless we mean by it, _several poles at the north_ and _others at the south_. So the phrase, "_The_ Old and New _Testament_" is wrong, because we have not _one Testament that is both Old and New_; and again, "_The_ Old and _the_ New _Testaments_," is wrong, because we have not several _Old Testaments and several New ones_: at least we have them not in the Bible. OBS. 17.--Sometimes a noun that _admits no article_, is preceded by adjectives that do not describe the same thing; as, "Never to jumble _metaphorical and plain language_ together."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 146. This means, "_metaphorical language_ and _plain language_;" and, for the sake of perfect clearness, it would perhaps be better to express it so. "For as _intrinsic and relative beauty_ must often be blended in the same building, it becomes a difficult task to attain _both_ in any perfection."--_Karnes, El. of Crit._, Vol. ii, p. 330. That is, "_intrinsic beauty_ and _relative beauty_" must often be blended; and this phraseology would be better. "In correspondence to that distinction of _male and female sex_."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 74. This may be expressed as well or better, in half a dozen other ways; for the article may be added, or the noun may be made plural, with or without the article, and before or after the adjectives. "They make no distinction between causes of civil and criminal jurisdiction."-- _Adams's Rhet._, Vol. i, p. 302. This means--"between causes of civil and _causes_ of criminal jurisdiction;" and, for the sake of perspicuity, it ought to have been so written,--or, still better, _thus_: "They make no distinction between civil causes and criminal." NOTES TO RULE I. NOTE I.--When the indefinite article is required, _a_ should always be used before the sound of a consonant, and _an_, before that of a vowel; as, "With the talents of _an_ angel, a man may be _a_ fool."--_Young_. NOTE II.--The article _an_ or _a_ must never be so used as to relate, or even seem to relate, to a plural noun. The following sentence is therefore faulty: "I invited her to spend a day in viewing _a seat and gardens._"--_Rambler_, No. 34. Say, "a seat and _its_ gardens." NOTE III.--When nouns are joined in construction, with different adjuncts, different dependence, or positive contrast, the article, if it belong at all to the latter, must be repeated. The following sentence is therefore inaccurate: "She never considered the quality, but merit of her visitors."--_Wm. Penn_. Say, "_the_ merit." So the article in brackets is absolutely necessary to the sense and propriety of the following phrase, though not inserted by the learned author: "The Latin introduced between the Conquest and [_the_] reign of Henry the Eighth."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, 8vo, 1850, p. 42. NOTE IV.--When adjectives are connected, and the qualities belong to things individually different, though of the same name, the article should be repeated: as, "_A_ black and _a_ white horse;"--i. e., _two horses_, one black and the other white. "_The_ north and _the_ south line;"--i. e., _two lines_, running east and west. NOTE V.--When adjectives are connected, and the qualities all belong to the same thing or things, the article should not be repeated: as, "_A_ black and white horse;"--i. e., _one_ horse, _piebald_. "_The_ north and south line;"--i. e., _one line_, running north and south, like a meridian. NOTE VI.--When two or more individual things of the same name are distinguished by adjectives that cannot unite to describe the same thing, the article must be added to each if the noun be singular, and to the first only if the noun follow them in the plural: as, "_The_ nominative and _the_ objective _case_;" or, "_The_ nominative and objective _cases_."--"_The_ third, _the_ fifth, _the_ seventh, and _the_ eighth _chapter_;" or, "_The_ third, fifth, seventh, and eighth _chapters_." [338] NOTE VII.--When two phrases of the same sentence have any special correspondence with each other, the article, if used in the former, is in general required also in the latter: as, "For ye know neither _the_ day nor _the_ hour."--_Matt._, xxv, 13. "Neither _the_ cold nor _the_ fervid are formed for friendship."--_Murray's Key_, p. 209. "The vail of the temple was rent in twain, from _the_ top to _the_ bottom."--_Matt._, xxvii, 51. NOTE VIII.--When a special correspondence is formed between individual epithets, the noun which follows must not be made plural; because the article, in such a case, cannot be repeated as the construction of correspondents requires. Thus, it is improper to say, "Both _the_ first and second _editions_" or, "Both _the_ first and _the_ second _editions_" for the accurate phrase, "Both _the_ first and _the_ second _edition_;" and still worse to say, "Neither _the_ Old nor New _Testaments_" or, "Neither _the_ Old nor _the_ New _Testaments_" for the just expression, "Neither _the_ Old nor _the_ New _Testament_." Yet we may say, "Neither _the old_ nor _the new statutes_" or, "Both _the early_ and _the late editions_;" for here the epithets severally apply to more than one thing. NOTE IX.--In a series of three or more terms, if the article is used with any, it should in general be added either to every one, or else to the first only. The following phrase is therefore inaccurate: "Through their attention to the helm, the sails, or rigging."--_Brown's Estimate_, Vol. i, p. 11. Say, "_the_ rigging." NOTE X.--As the article _an_ or _a_ denotes "_one thing of a kind_," it should not be used as we use _the_, to denote emphatically a _whole kind_; and again, when the species is said to be _of the genus_, no article should be used to limit the latter. Thus some will say, "_A jay_ is a sort of _a bird_;" whereas they ought to say, "_The jay_ is a sort _of bird_." Because it is absurd to suggest, that _one jay_ is _a sort_ of _one bird_. Yet we may say, "_The jay_ is _a bird_," or, "_A jay_ is _a bird_;" because, as every species is one under the genus, so every individual is one under both. NOTE XI.--The article should not be used before the names of virtues, vices, passions, arts, or sciences, in their general sense; before terms that are strictly limited by other definitives; or before any noun whose signification is sufficiently definite without it: as, "_Falsehood_ is odious."--"_Iron_ is useful."--"_Beauty_ is vain."--"_Admiration_ is useless, when it is not supported by _domestic worth_"--_Webster's Essays_, p. 30. NOTE XII.--When titles are mentioned merely as titles; or names of things, merely as names or words; the article should not be used before them: as, "He is styled _Marquis_;" not, "_the_ Marquis," or, "_a_ Marquis,"--"Ought a teacher to call his pupil _Master_?"--"_Thames_ is derived from the Latin name _Tam~esis_." NOTE XIII.--When a comparison or an alternative is made with two nouns, if both of them refer to the same subject, the article should not be inserted before the latter; if to different subjects, it should not be omitted: thus, if we say, "He is a better teacher than poet," we compare different qualifications of the same man; but if we say, "He is a better teacher than _a_ poet," we speak of different men, in regard to the same qualification. NOTE XIV.--The definite article, or some other definitive, (as _this, that, these, those_,) is generally required before the antecedent to the pronoun _who_ or _which_ in a restrictive clause; as, "All _the men who_ were present, agreed to it."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 145. "The _thoughts which_ passion suggests are always plain and obvious ones."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 468. "The _things which_ are impossible with men, are possible with God."--_Luke_, xviii, 27. See Etymology, Chap. V, Obs. 26th, &c., on Classes of Pronouns. NOTE XV.--The article is generally required in that construction which converts a participle into a verbal or participial noun; as, "_The completing of_ this, by _the working-out of_ sin inherent, must be by the power and spirit of Christ in the heart."--_Wm. Penn_. "They shall be _an abhorring_ unto all flesh."--_Isaiah_, lxvi, 24. "For _the dedicating of_ the altar."--_Numb._, vii, 11. NOTE XVI.--The article should not be added to any participle that is not taken in all other respects as a noun; as, "For _the_ dedicating the altar."--"He made a mistake in _the_ giving out the text." Expunge _the_, and let _dedicating_ and _giving_ here stand as participles only; for in the construction of nouns, they must have not only a definitive before them, but the preposition _of_ after them. NOTE XVII.--The false syntax of articles properly includes every passage in which there is any faulty insertion, omission, choice, or position, of this part of speech. For example: "When the verb is _a_ passive, the agent and object change places."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 73. Better: "When the verb is _passive_, the agent and _the_ object change places." "Comparisons used by the sacred poets, are generally short."--_Russell's Gram._, p. 87. Better: "_The_ comparisons," &c. "Pronoun means _for noun_, and _is used_ to _avoid the_ too frequent repetition of _the_ noun."--_Infant School Gram._, p. 89. Say rather: "_The_ pronoun _is put_ for _a_ noun, and is used to _prevent_ too frequent a repetition of the noun." Or: "_The word_ PRONOUN means _for noun_; and _a pronoun_ is used to prevent too frequent a repetition of _some_ noun." IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE I. [Fist][The examples of False Syntax placed under the rules and notes, are to be corrected _orally_ by the pupil, according to the formules given, or according to others framed in like manner, and adapted to the several notes.] EXAMPLES UNDER NOTE I.--AN OR A. "I have seen an horrible thing in the house of Israel."--_Hosea_, vi, 10. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the article _an_ is used before _horrible_, which begins with the sound of the consonant _h_. But, according to Note 1st, under Rule 1st, "When the indefinite article is required, _a_ should always be used before the sound of a consonant, and _an_, before that of a vowel." Therefore, _an_ should be _a_; thus, "I have seen _a_ horrible thing in the house of Israel."] "There is an harshness in the following sentences."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 188. "Indeed, such an one is not to be looked for."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 27. "If each of you will be disposed to approve himself an useful citizen."--_Ib._, p. 263. "Land with them had acquired almost an European value."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 325. "He endeavoured to find out an wholesome remedy."--_Neef's Method of Ed._, p. 3. "At no time have we attended an Yearly Meeting more to our own satisfaction."--_The Friend_, v, 224. "Addison was not an humourist in character."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 303. "Ah me! what an one was he?"--_Lily's Gram._, p. 49. "He was such an one as I never saw."--_Ib._ "No man can be a good preacher, who is not an useful one."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 283. "An usage which is too frequent with Mr. Addison."--_Ib._, p. 200. "Nobody joins the voice of a sheep with the shape of an horse."--_Locke's Essay_, p. 298. "An universality seems to be aimed at by the omission of the article."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 154. "Architecture is an useful as well as a fine art."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 335. "Because the same individual conjunctions do not preserve an uniform signification."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 78. "Such a work required the patience and assiduity of an hermit."--_Johnson's Life of Morin_. "Resentment is an union of sorrow with malignity."--_Rambler_, No. 185. "His bravery, we know, was an high courage of blasphemy."--_Pope_. "Hyssop; a herb of bitter taste."--_Pike's Heb. Lex._, p. 3. "On each enervate string they taught the note To pant, or tremble through an Eunuch's throat."--_Pope_. UNDER NOTE II.--AN OR A WITH PLURALS. "At a sessions of the court in March, it was moved," &c.--_Hutchinson's Hist. of Mass._, i, 61. "I shall relate my conversations, of which I kept a memoranda."--_Duchess D'Abrantes_, p. 26. "I took another dictionary, and with a scissors cut out, for instance, the word ABACUS."--_A. B. Johnson's Plan of a Dict._, p. 12. "A person very meet seemed he for the purpose, of a forty-five years old."--_Gardiner's Music of Nature_, p. 338. "And it came to pass about an eight days after these sayings."--_Luke_, ix, 28." There were slain of them upon a three thousand men."--_1 Mac._, iv, 15." Until I had gained the top of these white mountains, which seemed another Alps of snow."--_Addison, Tat._, No. 161. "To make them a satisfactory amends for all the losses they had sustained."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, p. 187. "As a first fruits of many more that shall be gathered."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 506. "It makes indeed a little amends, by inciting us to oblige people."--_Sheffield's Works_, ii, 229. "A large and lightsome backstairs leads up to an entry above."--_Ib._, p. 260. "Peace of mind is an honourable amends for the sacrifices of interest."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 162; _Smith's_, 138. "With such a spirit and sentiments were hostilities carried on."--_Robertson's America_, i, 166. "In the midst of a thick woods, he had long lived a voluntary recluse."--_G. B_. "The flats look almost like a young woods."--_Morning Chronicle_. "As we went on, the country for a little ways improved, but scantily."--_Essex County Freeman_, Vol. ii, No. 11. "Whereby the Jews were permitted to return into their own country, after a seventy years captivity at Babylon."--_Rollin's An. Hist._, Vol. ii, p. 20. "He did riot go a great ways into the country."--_Gilbert's Gram._, p. 85. "A large amends by fortune's hand is made, And the lost Punic blood is well repay'd."--_Rowe's Lucan_, iv, 1241. UNDER NOTE III.--NOUNS CONNECTED. "As where a landscape is conjoined with the music of birds and odour of flowers."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 117. "The last order resembles the second in the mildness of its accent, and softness of its pause."--_Ib._, ii, 113. "Before the use of the loadstone or knowledge of the compass."--_Dryden_. "The perfect participle and imperfect tense ought not to be confounded."--_Murray's Gram._, ii, 292. "In proportion as the taste of a poet, or orator, becomes more refined."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 27. "A situation can never be intricate, as long as there is an angel, devil, or musician, to lend a helping hand."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 285. "Avoid rude sports: an eye is soon lost, or bone broken."--"Not a word was uttered, nor sign given."--_Brown's Inst._, p. 125. "I despise not the doer, but deed."--_Ibid._ "For the sake of an easier pronunciation and more agreeable sound."--_Lowth_. "The levity as well as loquacity of the Greeks made them incapable of keeping up the true standard of history."-- _Bolingbroke, on Hist._, p. 115. UNDER NOTE IV.--ADJECTIVES CONNECTED. "It is proper that the vowels be a long and short one."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 327. "Whether the person mentioned was seen by the speaker a long or short time before."--_Ib._, p. 70; _Fisk's_, 72. "There are three genders, Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter."--_Adam's Lat. Gram._, p. 8. "The numbers are two; Singular and Plural."--_Ib._, p. 80; _Gould's_, 77. "The persons are three; First, Second, [and] Third."--_Adam, et al_. "Nouns and pronouns have three cases; the nominative, possessive, and objective."--_Comly's Gram._, p. 19; _Ingersoll's_, 21. "Verbs have five moods; namely, the Indicative, Potential, Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive."-- _Bullions's E. Gram._, p. 35; _Lennie's_, 20. "How many numbers have pronouns? Two, the singular and plural."--_Bradley's Gram._, p. 82. "To distinguish between an interrogative and exclamatory sentence."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 280; _Comly's_, 163; _Ingersoll's_, 292. "The first and last of which are compounded members."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 123. "In the last lecture, I treated of the concise and diffuse, the nervous and feeble manner."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 183. "The passive and neuter verbs, I shall reserve for some future conversation."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 69. "There are two voices; the Active and Passive."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 59; _Gould's_, 87. "Whose is rather the poetical than regular genitive of _which_."--_Dr. Johnson's Gram._, p. 7. "To feel the force of a compound, or derivative word."--_Town's Analysis_, p. 4. "To preserve the distinctive uses of the copulative and disjunctive conjunctions."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 150; _Ingersoll's_, 233. "E has a long and short sound in most languages."-- _Bicknell's Gram._, Part ii, p. 13. "When the figurative and literal sense are mixed and jumbled together."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 151. "The Hebrew, with which the Canaanitish and Phoenician stand in connection."--CONANT: _Fowler's E. Gram._, 8vo, 1850, p. 28. "The languages of Scandinavia proper, the Norwegian and Swedish."--_Fowler, ib._, p. 31. UNDER NOTE V.--ADJECTIVES CONNECTED. "The path of truth is a plain and a safe path"--_Murray's Key_, p. 236. "Directions for acquiring a just and a happy elocution."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 144. "Its leading object is to adopt a correct and an easy method."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 9. "How can it choose but wither in a long and a sharp winter."--_Cowley's Pref._, p. vi. "Into a dark and a distant unknown."--_Chalmers, on Astronomy_, p. 230. "When the bold and the strong enslaved his fellow man."--_Chazotte's Essay_, p. 21. "We now proceed to consider the things most essential to an accurate and a perfect sentence." --_Murray's Gram._, p. 306. "And hence arises a second and a very considerable source of the improvement of taste."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 18. "Novelty produces in the mind a vivid and an agreeable emotion."--_Ib._, p. 50. "The deepest and the bitterest feeling still is, the separation."-- _Dr. M'Rie_. "A great and a good man looks beyond time."--_Brown's Institutes_, p. 125. "They made but a weak and an ineffectual resistance." --_Ib._ "The light and the worthless kernels will float."--_Ib._ "I rejoice that there is an other and a better world."--_Ib._ "For he is determined to _revise_ his work, and present to the publick another and a better edition."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 7. "He hoped that this title would secure him an ample and an independent authority."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 172: see _Priestley's_, 147. "There is however another and a more limited sense."--_Adams's Rhet._, Vol. ii, p. 232. UNDER NOTE VI.--ARTICLES OR PLURALS. "This distinction forms, what are called the diffuse and the concise styles."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 176. "Two different modes of speaking, distinguished at first by the denominations of the Attic and the Asiatic manners."--_Adams's Rhet._, Vol. i, p. 83. "But the great design of uniting the Spanish and the French monarchies under the former was laid."-- _Bolingbroke, on History_, p. 180. "In the solemn and the poetic styles, it [_do_ or _did_] is often rejected."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 68. "They cannot be at the same time in the objective and the nominative cases."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 151; _Ingersoll's_, 239; _R. G. Smith's_, 127. "They are named the POSITIVE, the COMPARATIVE, and the SUPERLATIVE degrees."--_Smart's Accidence_, p. 27. "Certain Adverbs are capable of taking an Inflection, namely, that of the comparative and the superlative degrees."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, 8vo, 1850, §321. "In the subjunctive mood, the present and the imperfect tenses often carry with them a future sense."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 187; _Fisk's_, 131. "The imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, and the first future tenses of this mood, are conjugated like the same tenses of the indicative."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 145. "What rules apply in parsing personal pronouns of the second and third person?"--_Ib._, p. 116. "Nouns are sometimes in the nominative or objective case after the neuter verb to be, or after an active-intransitive or passive verb."--_Ib._, p. 55. "The verb varies its endings in the singular in order to agree in form with the first, second, and third person of its nominative."--_Ib._, p. 47. "They are identical in effect, with the radical and the vanishing stresses."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 339. "In a sonnet the first, fourth, fifth, and eighth line rhyme to each other: so do the second, third, sixth, and seventh line; the ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth line; and the tenth, twelfth, and fourteenth line."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 311. "The iron and the golden ages are run; youth and manhood are departed."--_Wright's Athens_, p. 74. "If, as you say, the iron and the golden ages are past, the youth and the manhood of the world."--_Ib._ "An Exposition of the Old and New Testament."--_Matthew Henry's Title-page_. "The names and order of the books of the Old and New Testament."--_Friends' Bible_, p. 2; _Bruce's_, p. 2; et al. "In the second and third person of that tense."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 81. "And who still unites in himself the human and the divine natures."--_Gurney's Evidences_, p. 59. "Among whom arose the Italian, the Spanish, the French, and the English languages."--_L. Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 111. "Whence arise these two, the singular and the plural Numbers."--_Burn's Gram._, p. 32. UNDER NOTE VII.--CORRESPONDENT TERMS. "Neither the definitions, nor examples, are entirely the same with his."--_Ward's Pref. to Lily's Gram._, p. vi. "Because it makes a discordance between the thought and expression."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 24. "Between the adjective and following substantive."--_Ib._ ii, 104. "Thus, Athens became both the repository and nursery of learning."--_Chazotte's Essay_, p. 28. "But the French pilfered from both the Greek and Latin."--_Ib._, p. 102. "He shows that Christ is both the power and wisdom of God."--_The Friend_, x, 414. "That he might be Lord both of the dead and living."--_Rom._, xiv, 9. "This is neither the obvious nor grammatical meaning of his words."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 209. "Sometimes both the accusative and infinitive are understood."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 155; _Gould's_, 158. "In some cases we can use either the nominative or accusative promiscuously."--_Adam_, p. 156; _Gould_, 159. "Both the former and latter substantive are sometimes to be understood."--_Adam_, p. 157; _Gould_, 160. "Many whereof have escaped both the commentator and poet himself."--_Pope_. "The verbs must and ought have both a present and past signification."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 108. "How shall we distinguish between the friends and enemies of the government?"--_Webster's Essays_, p. 352. "Both the ecclesiastical and secular powers concurred in those measures."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 260. "As the period has a beginning and end within itself it implies an inflexion."--_Adams's Rhet._, ii, 245. "Such as ought to subsist between a principal and accessory."--_Kames, on Crit._, ii, 39. UNDER NOTE VIII.--CORRESPONDENCE PECULIAR. "When both the upward and the downward slides occur in pronouncing a syllable, they are called a _Circumflex_ or _Wave_."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, pp. 75 and 104. "The word _that_ is used both in the nominative and objective cases."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 69. "But all the other moods and tenses of the verbs, both in the active and passive voices, are conjugated at large."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 81. "Some writers on Grammar object to the propriety of admitting the second future, in both the indicative and subjunctive moods."--_Ib._, p. 82. "The same conjunction governing both the indicative and the subjunctive moods, in the same sentence, and in the same circumstances, seems to be a great impropriety."--_Ib._, p. 207. "The true distinction between the subjunctive and the indicative moods in this tense."--_Ib._, p. 208. "I doubt of his capacity to teach either the French or English languages."--_Chazotte's Essay_, p. 7. "It is as necessary to make a distinction between the active transitive and the active intransitive forms of the verb, as between the active and passive forms."--_Nixon's Parser_, p. 13. UNDER NOTE IX.--A SERIES OF TERMS. "As comprehending the terms uttered by the artist, the mechanic, and husbandman."--_Chazotte's Essay_, p. 24. "They may be divided into four classes--the Humanists, Philanthropists, Pestalozzian and the Productive Schools."--_Smith's New Gram._, p. iii. "Verbs have six tenses, the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, and the First and Second Future tenses."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 138; _L. Murray's_, 68; _R. C. Smith's_, 27; _Alger's_, 28. "_Is_ is an irregular verb neuter, indicative mood, present tense, and the third person singular."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. ii, p. 2. "_Should give_ is an irregular verb active, in the potential mood, the imperfect tense, and the first person plural."--_Ibid._ "_Us_ is a personal pronoun, first person plural, and in the objective case."--_Ibid._ "_Them_ is a personal pronoun, of the third person, the plural number, and in the objective case."--_Ibid._ "It is surprising that the Jewish critics, with all their skill in dots, points, and accents, never had the ingenuity to invent a point of interrogation, of admiration, or a parenthesis."--_Wilson's Hebrew Gram._, p. 47. "The fifth, sixth, seventh, and the eighth verse."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 263. "Substitutes have three persons; the First, Second, and the Third."--_Ib._, p. 34. "_John's_ is a proper noun, of the masculine gender, the third person, singular number, possessive case, and governed by _wife_, by Rule I."--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 48. "Nouns in the English language have three cases; the nominative, the possessive, and objective."--_Barrett's Gram._, p. 13; _Alexander's_, 11. "The Potential [mood] has four [tenses], viz. the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, and Pluperfect."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 96. "Where Science, Law, and Liberty depend, And own the patron, patriot, and the friend."--_Savage, to Walpole_. UNDER NOTE X.--SPECIES AND GENUS. "A pronoun is a part of speech put for a noun."--_Paul's Accidence_, p. 11. "A verb is a part of speech declined with mood and tense."--_Ib._, p. 15. "A participle is a part of speech derived of a verb."--_Ib._, p. 38. "An adverb is a part of speech joined to verbs to declare their signification."--_Ib._, p. 40. "A conjunction is a part of speech that joineth sentences together."--_Ib._, p. 41. "A preposition is a part of speech most commonly set before other parts."--_Ib._, p. 42. "An interjection is a part of speech which betokeneth a sudden motion or passion of the mind."--_Ib._, p. 44. "An enigma or riddle is also a species of allegory."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 151; _Murray's Gram._, 343. "We may take from the Scriptures a very fine example of an allegory."--_Ib._: _Blair_, 151; _Mur._, 341. "And thus have you exhibited a sort of a sketch of art."--HARRIS: _in Priestley's Gram._, p. 176. "We may 'imagine a subtle kind of a reasoning,' as Mr. Harris acutely observes."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 71. "But, before entering on these, I shall give one instance of a very beautiful metaphor, that I may show the figure to full advantage."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 143. "Aristotle, in his Poetics, uses metaphor in this extended sense, for any figurative meaning imposed upon a word; as a whole put for the part, or a part for a whole; the species for the genus, or a genus for the species."--_Ib._, p. 142. "It shows what kind of an apple it is of which we are speaking."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 69. "Cleon was another sort of a man."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, Vol. i, p. 124. "To keep off his right wing, as a kind of a reserved body."--_Ib._, ii, 12. "This part of speech is called a verb."--_Mack's Gram._, p. 70. "What sort of a thing is it?"--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 20. "What sort of a charm do they possess?"--_Bullions's Principles of E. Gram._, p. 73. "Dear Welsted, mark, in dirty hole, That painful animal, a Mole."--_Note to Dunciad_, B. ii, l. 207. UNDER NOTE XI.--ARTICLES NOT REQUISITE. "Either thou or the boys were in the fault."--_Comly's Key, in Gram._, p. 174. "It may, at the first view, appear to be too general."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 222; _Ingersoll's_, 275. "When the verb has a reference to future time."--_Ib.: M._, p. 207; _Ing._, 264. "No; they are the language of imagination rather than of a passion."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 165. "The dislike of the English Grammar, which has so generally prevailed, can only be attributed to the intricacy of syntax."--_Russell's Gram._, p. iv. "Is that ornament in a good taste?"--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 326. "There are not many fountains in a good taste."--_Ib._, ii, 329. "And I persecuted this way unto the death."--_Acts_, xxii, 4. "The sense of the feeling can, indeed, give us the idea of extension."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 196. "The distributive adjective pronouns, _each, every, either_, agree with the nouns, pronouns, and verbs, of the singular number only."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 165; _Lowth's_, 89. "Expressing by one word, what might, by a circumlocution, be resolved into two or more words belonging to the other parts of speech."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 84. "By the certain muscles which operate all at the same time."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 19. "It is sufficient here to have observed thus much in the general concerning them."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 112. "Nothing disgusts us sooner than the empty pomp of language."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 319. UNDER NOTE XII.--TITLES AND NAMES. "He is entitled to the appellation of a gentleman."--_Brown's Inst._, p. 126. "Cromwell assumed the title of a Protector."--_Ib._ "Her father is honoured with the title of an Earl."--_Ib._ "The chief magistrate is styled a President."--_Ib._ "The highest title in the state is that of the Governor."--_Ib._ "That boy is known by the name of the Idler."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 205. "The one styled the Mufti, is the head of the ministers of law and religion."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 360. "Banging all that possessed them under one class, he called that whole class _a tree_."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 73. "For the oak, the pine, and the ash, were names of whole classes of objects."--_Ib._, p. 73. "It is of little importance whether we give to some particular mode of expression the name of a trope, or of a figure."--_Ib._, p. 133. "The collision of a vowel with itself is the most ungracious of all combinations, and has been doomed to peculiar reprobation under the name of an hiatus."--_J. Q. Adams's Rhet._, Vol. ii, p. 217. "We hesitate to determine, whether the _Tyrant_ alone, is the nominative, or whether the nominative includes the spy."--_Cobbett's E. Gram._, ¶ 246. "Hence originated the customary abbreviation of _twelve months_ into a _twelve-month_; _seven nights_ into _se'night_; _fourteen nights_ into a _fortnight_."--_Webster's Improved Gram._, p. 105. UNDER NOTE XIII.--COMPARISONS AND ALTERNATIVES. "He is a better writer than a reader."--_W. Allen's False Syntax, Gram._, p. 332. "He was an abler mathematician than a linguist."--_Ib._ "I should rather have an orange than apple."--_Brown's Inst._, p. 126. "He was no less able a negotiator, than a courageous warrior."--_Smollett's Voltaire_, Vol. i, p. 181. "In an epic poem we pardon many negligences that would not be permitted in a sonnet or epigram."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. i, p. 186. "That figure is a sphere, or a globe, or a ball."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 258. UNDER NOTE XIV.--ANTECEDENTS TO WHO OR WHICH. "Carriages which were formerly in use, were very clumsy."--_Inst._, p. 126. "The place is not mentioned by geographers who wrote at that time."--_Ib._ "Questions which a person asks himself in contemplation, ought to be terminated by points of interrogation."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 279; _Comly's_, 162; _Ingersoll's_, 291. "The work is designed for the use of persons, who may think it merits a place in their Libraries."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo., p. iii. "That persons who think confusedly, should express themselves obscurely, is not to be wondered at."--_Ib._, p. 298. "Grammarians who limit the number to two, or at most to three, do not reflect."--_Ib._, p. 75. "Substantives which end in _ian_, are those that signify profession."--_Ib._, p. 132. "To these may be added verbs, which chiefly among the poets govern the dative."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 170; _Gould's_, 171. "Consonants are letters, which cannot be sounded without the aid of a vowel."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 9. "To employ the curiosity of persons who are skilled in grammar."--_Murray's Gram., Pref._, p. iii. "This rule refers only to nouns and pronouns, which have the same bearing or relation."--_Ib._, i, p. 204. "So that things which are seen, were not made of things which do appear."--_Heb._, xi, 3. "Man is an imitative creature; he may utter sounds, which he has heard."--_Wilson's Essay on Gram._, p. 21. "But men, whose business is wholly domestic, have little or no use for any language but their own."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 5. UNDER NOTE XV.--PARTICIPIAL NOUNS. "Great benefit may be reaped from reading of histories."--_Sewel's Hist._, p. iii. "And some attempts were made towards writing of history."--_Bolingbroke, on Hist._, p. 110. "It is Invading of the Priest's Office for any other to Offer it."--_Right of Tythes_, p. 200. "And thus far of forming of verbs."--_Walker's Art of Teaching_, p. 35. "And without shedding of blood is no remission."--_Heb._, ix, 22. "For making of measures we have the best method here in England."--_Printer's Gram._ "This is really both admitting and denying, at once."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 72. "And hence the origin of making of parliaments."--_Brown's Estimate_, Vol. i, p. 71. "Next thou objectest, that having of saving light and grace presupposes conversion. But that I deny: for, on the contrary, conversion presupposeth having light and grace."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. i, p. 143. "They cried down wearing of rings and other superfluities as we do."--_Ib._, i, 236. "Whose adorning, let it not be that outward adorning of plaiting the hair, and of wearing of gold, or of putting on of apparel."--_1 Peter_, iii, 3. "In spelling of derivative Words, the Primitive must be kept whole."--_British Gram._, p. 50; _Buchanan's Syntax_, 9. "And the princes offered for dedicating of the altar."--_Numbers_, vii, 10. "Boasting is not only telling of lies, but also many unseemly truths."--_Sheffield's Works_, ii, 244. "We freely confess that forbearing of prayer in the wicked is sinful."--_Barclay_, i, 316. "For revealing of a secret, there is no remedy."--_Inst. E. Gram._, p. 126. "He turned all his thoughts to composing of laws for the good of the state."--_Rollin's Ancient Hist._, Vol. ii, p. 38. UNDER NOTE XVI.--PARTICIPLES, NOT NOUNS. "It is salvation to be kept from falling into a pit, as truly as to be taken out of it after the falling in."--_Barclay_, i, 210. "For in the receiving and embracing the testimony of truth, they felt eased."--_Ib._, i, 469. "True regularity does not consist in the having but a single rule, and forcing every thing to conform to it."--_Philol. Museum_, i, 664. "To the man of the world, this sound of glad tidings appears only an idle tale, and not worth the attending to."--_Life of Tho. Say_, p. 144. "To be the deliverer of the captive Jews, by the ordering their temple to be re-built," &c.--_Rollin_, ii, 124. "And for the preserving them from being defiled."--_N. E. Discipline_, p. 133. "A wise man will avoid the showing any excellence in trifles."--_Art of Thinking_, p. 80. "Hirsutus had no other reason for the valuing a book."--_Rambler_, No. 177; _Wright's Gram._, p. 190. "To the being heard with satisfaction, it is necessary that the speaker should deliver himself with ease."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 114. "And to the being well heard, and clearly understood, a good and distinct articulation contributes more, than power of voice."--_Ib._, p. 117. "_Potential_ means the having power or will; As, If you _would_ improve, you _should_ be still." --_Tobitt's Gram._, p. 31. UNDER NOTE XVII.--VARIOUS ERRORS. "For the same reason, a neuter verb cannot become a passive."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 74. "The period is the whole sentence complete in itself."--_Ib._, p. 115. "The colon or member is a chief constructive part, or greater division of a sentence."--_Ib._ "The semicolon or half member, is a less constructive part or subdivision, of a sentence or member."--_Ib._ "A sentence or member is again subdivided into commas or segments."--_Ib._, p. 116. "The first error that I would mention, is, a too general attention to the dead languages, with a neglect of our own."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 3. "One third of the importations would supply the demands of people."--_Ib._, p. 119. "And especially in grave stile."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 72. "By too eager pursuit, he ran a great risk of being disappointed."--_Murray's Key, Octavo Gram._, Vol. ii, p. 201. "Letters are divided into vowels and consonants."--_Murray's Gram._, i, p. 7; _and others_. "Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels."--_Ib._, i, 8; _and others_. "The first of these forms is most agreeable to the English idiom."--_Ib._, i, 176. "If they gain, it is a too dear rate."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 504. "A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to prevent a too frequent repetition of it."--_Maunder's Gram._, p. 1. "This vulgar error might perhaps arise from a too partial fondness for the Latin."--_Dr. Ash's Gram., Pref._, p. iv. "The groans which a too heavy load extorts from her."--_Hitchcock, on Dyspepsy_, p. 50. "The numbers [of a verb] are, of course, singular and plural."--_Bucke's Gram._ p. 58. "To brook no meanness, and to stoop to no dissimulation, are the indications of a great mind."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 236. "This mode of expression rather suits familiar than grave style."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 198. "This use of the word rather suits familiar and low style."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 134. "According to the nature of the composition the one or other may be predominant."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 102. "Yet the commonness of such sentences prevents in a great measure a too early expectation of the end."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 411. "An eulogy or a philippie may be pronounced by an individual of one nation upon the subject of another."--_Adams's Rhet._, i, 298. "A French sermon, is for most part, a warm animated exhortation."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 288. "I do not envy those who think slavery no very pitiable a lot."--_Channing, on Emancipation_, p. 52. "The auxiliary and principal united, constitute a tense."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 75. "There are some verbs which are defective with respect to persons."--_Ib._, i, 109. "In youth, the habits of industry are most easily acquired."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 235. "Apostrophe (') is used in place of a letter left out."--_Bullions's Eng. Gram._, p. 156. CHAPTER III.--CASES, OR NOUNS. The rules for the construction of Nouns, or Cases, are seven; hence this chapter, according to the order adopted above, reviews the series of rules from the second rule to the eighth, inclusively. Though _Nouns_ are here the topic, all these seven rules apply alike to _Nouns and to Pronouns_; that is, to all the words of our language which are susceptible of _Cases_. RULE II.--NOMINATIVES. A Noun or a Pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case: as, "The _Pharisees_ also, _who_ were covetous, heard all these things; and _they_ derided him."--_Luke_, xvi, 14. "But where the _meekness_ of self-knowledge veileth the front of self-respect, there look _thou_ for the man whom _none_ can know but _they_ will honour."--_Book of Thoughts_, p. 66. "Dost _thou_ mourn Philander's fate? _I_ know _thou_ sayst it: says thy _life_ the same?" --_Young_, N. ii, l. 22. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE II. OBS. 1.--To this rule, there are _no exceptions_; and nearly all nominatives, or far the greater part, are to be parsed by it. There are however _four_ different ways of disposing of the nominative case. _First_, it is generally _the subject of a verb_, according to Rule 2d. _Secondly_, it may be put _in apposition_ with an other nominative, according to Rule 3d. _Thirdly_, it may be put after a verb or a participle _not transitive_, according to Rule 6th. _Fourthly_, it may be put _absolute_, or may help to form a _phrase that_ is _independent_ of the rest of the sentence, according to Rule 8th. OBS. 2.--The subject, or nominative, is generally placed _before_ the verb; as, "_Peace dawned_ upon his mind."--_Johnson_. "_What is written_ in the law?"--_Bible_. But, in the following nine cases, the subject of the verb is usually placed _after_ it, or after the first auxiliary: 1. When a question is asked without an interrogative pronoun in the nominative case; as, "_Shall mortals be_ implacable?"--_Hooke_. "What _art thou doing_?"--_Id._ "How many loaves _have ye_?"--_Bible_. "_Are they_ Israelites? so _am I_."--_Ib._ 2. When the verb is in the imperative mood; as, "_Go thou_"--"_Come ye_" But, with this mood, the pronoun is very often omitted and understood; as, "Philip saith unto him, _Come_ and _see_"--_John_, i, 46. "And he saith unto them, _Be_ not _affrighted_."--_Mark_, xvi, 5. 3. When an earnest wish, or other strong feeling, is expressed; as, "_May she be_ happy!"--"How _were we struck_!"--_Young_. "Not as the world giveth, _give I_ unto you."--_Bible_. 4. When a supposition is made without the conjunction _if_; as, "_Had they known_ it;" for, "_If_ they had known it."--"_Were it_ true;" for, "_If_ it were true."--"_Could we draw_ by the covering of the grave;" for, "_If_ we could draw," &c. 5. When _neither_ or _nor_, signifying _and not_, precedes the verb; as, "This was his fear; _nor was his apprehension_ groundless."--"Ye shall not eat of it, _neither shall ye touch_ it."--_Gen._, iii, 3. 6. When, for the sake of emphasis, some word or words are placed before the verb, which more naturally come after it; as, "Here _am I_."--"Narrow _is_ the _way_."--"Silver and gold _have I_ none; but such as I have, _give I_ thee."--_Bible_. 7. When the verb has no regimen, and is itself emphatical; as, "_Echo_ the _mountains_ round."--_Thomson_. "After the Light Infantry _marched_ the _Grenadiers_, then _followed_ the _Horse_."--_Buchanan's Syntax_, p. 71. 8. When the verbs, _say, answer, reply_, and the like, introduce the parts of a dialogue; as, "'Son of affliction,' _said Omar_, 'who art thou?' 'My name,' _replied_ the _stranger_, 'is Hassan.'"--_Dr. Johnson_. 9. When the adverb _there_ precedes the verb; as, "There _lived_ a _man_."--_Montgomery_. "In all worldly joys, there _is_ a secret _wound_."--_Owen_. This use of _there_, the general introductory adverb of place, is idiomatic, and somewhat different from the use of the same word in reference to a particular locality; as, "Because _there_ was not much water _there_."--_John_, iii, 23. OBS. 3.--In exclamations, and some other forms of expression, a few verbs are liable to be suppressed, the ellipsis being obvious; as, "How different [is] this from the philosophy of Greece and Rome!"--DR. BEATTIE: _Murray's Sequel_, p. 127. "What a lively picture [is here] of the most disinterested and active benevolence!"--HERVEY: _ib._, p. 94. "When Adam [spake] thus to Eve."--MILTON: _Paradise Lost_, B. iv, l. 610. OBS. 4.--Though we often use nouns in the nominative case to show whom we address, yet the imperative verb takes no other nominative of the second person, than the simple personal pronoun, _thou, ye_, or _you_, expressed or understood. It would seem that some, who ought to know better, are liable to mistake for the subject of such a verb, the noun which we put absolute in the nominative by direct address. Of this gross error, the following is an example: "_Study boys_. In this sentence," (says its author,) "_study_ is a verb of the second person, plural number, and agrees with its nominative case, _boys_--according to the rule: A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person. _Boys_ is a noun _of_ the second person, plural number, masculine gender, in the nominative case to the verb study."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 17.[339] Now the fact is, that this laconic address, of three syllables, is written wrong; being made bad English for want of a comma between the two words. Without this mark, _boys_ must be an objective, governed by _study_; and with it, a nominative, put absolute by direct address. But, in either case, _study_ agrees with _ye_ or _you_ understood, and has not the noun for its subject, or nominative. OBS. 5.--Some authors say, and if the first person be no exception, say truly: "The nominative case to a verb, unless it be a pronoun, is always of the _third_ person."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 141. But W. B. Fowle will have all pronouns to be _adjectives_. Consequently all his verbs, of every sort, agree with nouns "expressed or understood." This, and every other absurd theory of language, can easily be made out, by means of a few perversions, which may be called corrections, and a sufficient number of interpolations, made under pretence of filling up ellipses. Thus, according to this author, "They fear," means, "They _things spoken of_ fear."--_True Eng. Gram._, p, 33. And, "_John, open_ the door," or, "_Boys, stop_ your noise," admits no comma. And, "Be grateful, ye children," and, "Be ye grateful children," are, in his view, every way equivalent: the comma in the former being, in his opinion, needless. See _ib._, p. 39. OBS. 6.--Though the nominative and objective cases of nouns do not differ in form, it is nevertheless, in the opinion of many of our grammarians, improper to place any noun in both relations at once, because this produces a confusion in the syntax of the word. Examples: "He then goes on to declare that there _are_, and distinguish _of_, four _manners_ of saying _Per se_."--_Walker's Treatise of Particles_, p. xii. Better: "He then proceeds to show, that _per se_ is susceptible of four different senses." "In just allegory _and_ similitude there is always a propriety, or, if you choose to call it, _congruity_, in the literal sense, as well as a distinct meaning or sentiment suggested, which is called the figurative sense."--_Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric_, p. 291. Better: "In just allegory _or_ similitude, there is always a propriety--or, if you choose to call it _so, a congruity_--in the literal sense," &c. "It must then be meant of his sins who _makes_, not of his who _becomes_, the convert."--_Atterbury's Sermons_, i, 2. Better: "It must then be meant of his sins who _makes the convert_, not of his who _becomes converted_." "Eye _hath_ not _seen_, nor ear _heard_, neither _have entered_ into the heart of man, _the things_ which God hath prepared for them that love him."--_1 Cor._, ii, 9. A more regular construction would be: "Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither _hath it_ entered into the heart of man to _conceive_, the things which God hath prepared for them that love him." The following example, from Pope, may perhaps be conceded to the poet, as an allowable ellipsis of the words "_a friend_," after _is_: "In who obtain defence, or who defend; In him who _is_, or him who _finds, a friend_." --_Essay on Man_, Ep. iv, l. 60. Dr. Lowth cites the last three examples, without suggesting any forms of correction; and says of them, "There seems to be an impropriety in these sentences, in which the same noun stands in a double capacity, performing at the same time the offices _both of the_ nominative and objective case."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 73. He should have said--"_of both the_ nominative and _the_ objective case." Dr. Webster, citing the line, "In him who is, and him who finds, a friend," adds, "Lowth condemns this use of the noun in the nominative and objective at the same time; but _without reason_, as the cases are not distinguished in English."--_Improved Gram._, p. 175. OBS. 7.--In Latin and Greek, the accusative before the infinitive, is often reckoned _the subject_ of the latter verb; and is accordingly parsed by a sort of exception to the foregoing rule--or rather, to that general rule of concord which the grammarians apply to the verb and its nominative. This construction is translated into English, and other modern tongues, sometimes literally, or nearly so, but much oftener, by a nominative and a finite verb. Example: "_[Greek: Eipen auton phonæthænai]_."--_Mark_, x, 49. "Ait illum vocari."--_Leusden_. "Jussit eum vocari."--_Beza_. "Præcepit illum vocari."--_Vulgate_. "He commanded him to be called."--_English Bible_. "He commanded that he should be called."--_Milnes's Gr. Gram._, p. 143. "Il dit qu'on l'appelât."--_French Bible_. "He bid that somebody should call him." "Il commanda qu'on le fît venir."--_Nouveau Test._, Paris, 1812. "He commanded that they should _make him come_;" that is, "_lead him_, or _bring him_." "Il commanda qu'on l'appelât."--_De Sacy's N. Test_. OBS. 8.--In English, the objective case before the infinitive mood, although it may truly denote the agent of the infinitive action, or the subject of the infinitive passion, is nevertheless taken as the object of the preceding verb, participle, or preposition. Accordingly our language does not admit a literal translation of the above-mentioned construction, except the preceding verb be such as can be interpreted transitively. "_Gaudeo te val=ere_," "I am glad that thou art well," cannot be translated more literally; because, "I am glad thee to be well," would not be good English. "_Aiunt regem advent=are_," "They say the king is coming," may be otherwise rendered "They _declare_ the king to be coming;" but neither version is entirely literal; the objective being retained only by a change of _aiunt, say_, into such a verb as will govern the noun. OBS. 9.--The following sentence is a literal imitation of the Latin accusative before the infinitive, and for that reason it is not good English: "But experience teacheth us, _both these opinions to be_ alike ridiculous."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. i, p. 262. It should be, "But experience _teaches us, that both these opinions are_ alike ridiculous." The verbs _believe, think, imagine_, and others expressing _mental action_, I suppose to be capable of governing nouns or pronouns in the objective case, and consequently of being interpreted transitively. Hence I deny the correctness of the following explanation: "RULE XXIV. The objective case precedes the infinitive mode; [as,] 'I _believe_ your _brother to be_ a good man.' Here _believe_ does not govern brother, in the objective case, because it is not the object after it. _Brother_, in the objective case, third person singular, precedes the neuter verb _to be_, in the infinitive mode, present time, third person singular."--_S. Barrett's Gram._, p. 135. This author teaches that, "The _infinitive mode agrees_ with the objective case in number and person."--_Ibid._ Which doctrine is denied; because the infinitive has no number or person, in any language. Nor do I see why the noun _brother_, in the foregoing example, may not be both the object of the active verb _believe_, and the subject of the neuter infinitive _to be_, at the same time; for the subject of the infinitive, if the infinitive can be said to have a subject, is not necessarily in the nominative case, or necessarily independent of what precedes. OBS. 10.--There are many teachers of English grammar, who still adhere to the principle of the Latin and Greek grammarians, which refers the accusative or objective to the latter verb, and supposes the former to be intransitive, or to govern only the infinitive. Thus Nixon: "The objective case is frequently put before the infinitive mood, as its subject; as, 'Suffer _me_ to depart.'" [340]--_English Parser_, p. 34. "When an objective case stands before an infinitive mood, as 'I understood _it_ to be him,' 'Suffer _me_ to depart,' such objective should be parsed, not as governed by the preceding verb, but as the objective case before the infinitive; that is, _the subject_ of it. The reason of this is--the former verb can govern one object only, and that is (in such sentences) the infinitive mood; the intervening objective being the subject of the infinitive following, and not governed by the former verb; as, in that instance, it _would be governing_ two objects."--_Ib., Note._[341] OBS. 11.--The notion that one verb governs an other in the infinitive, just as a transitive verb governs a noun, and so that it cannot also govern an objective case, is not only contradictory to my scheme of parsing the infinitive mood, but is also false in itself, and repugnant to the principles of General Grammar. In Greek and Latin, it is certainly no uncommon thing for a verb to govern two cases at once; and even the accusative before the infinitive is sometimes governed by the preceding verb, as the objective before the infinitive naturally is in English. But, in regard to construction, every language differs more or less from every other; hence each must have its own syntax, and abide by its own rules. In regard to the point here in question, the reader may compare the following examples: "[Greek: Echo anagkæn exelthein]."--_Luke_, xiv, 18. "Habeo necesse exire."--_Leusden_. English: "I have _occasion to go_ away." Again: "[Greek: O echon hota akouein, akoueto]."--_Luke_, xiv, 35. "Habens aures audiendi, audiat."--_Leusden_. "Qui habet aures ad audiendum, audiat."--_Beza_. English: "He that hath _ears to hear_, let _him hear_." But our most frequent use of the infinitive after the objective, is in sentences that must not be similarly constructed in Latin or Greek;[342] as, "And he commanded the _porter to watch_."--_Mark_, xiii, 34. "And he delivered _Jesus to be crucified_."--_Mark_, xv, 15. "And they led _him_ out _to crucify him_."--_Mark_, xv, 20. "We heard _him say_."--_Mark_, xiv, 58. "That I might make _thee know_."--_Prov._, xxii, 21. OBS. 12.--If our language does really admit any thing like the accusative before the infinitive, in the sense of a positive subject at the head of a clause, it is only in some prospective descriptions like the following: "Let certain studies be prescribed to be pursued during the freshman year; _some_ of these to be attended to by the whole class; with regard to others, a _choice_ to be allowed; _which_, when made by the student, (the parent or guardian sanctioning it,) to be binding during the freshman year: the same _plan_ to be adopted with regard to the studies of the succeeding years."--GALLAUDET: _Journal of the N. Y. Literary Convention_, p. 118. Here the four words, _some, choice, which_, and _plan_, may appear to a Latinist to be so many objectives, or accusatives, placed before infinitives, and used to describe that state of things which the author would promote. If objectives they are, we may still suppose them to be governed by _let, would have_, or something of the kind, understood: as, "_Let_ some of these be attended to;" or, "Some of these _I would have_ to be attended to," &c. The relative _which_ might with more propriety be made nominative, by changing "_to_ be binding" to "_shall_ be binding;" and as to the rest, it is very doubtful whether they are not now nominatives, rather than objectives. The infinitive, as used above, is a mere substitute for the Latin future participle; and any English noun or pronoun put absolute with a participle, is in the nominative case. English relatives are rarely, if ever, put absolute in this manner: and this may be the reason why the construction of _which_, in the sentence above, seems awkward. Besides, it is certain that the other pronouns are sometimes put absolute with the infinitive; and that, in the nominative case, not the objective: as, "And _I to be_ a corporal in his field, And wear his colours like a tumbler's hoop! What? _I! I love! I sue! I seek_ a wife!"--_Shak., Love's Labour Lost_. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE II. THE SUBJECT OF A FINITE VERB. "The whole need not a physician, but them that are sick."--_Bunyan's Law and Gr._, p. iv. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the objective pronoun _them_ is here made the subject of the verb _need_, understood. But, according to Rule 2d, "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case." Therefore, _them_ should be _they_; thus, "The whole need not a physician, but they that are sick."] "He will in no wise cast out whomsoever cometh unto him."--_Robert Hall_ "He feared the enemy might fall upon his men, whom he saw were off their guard."--_Hutchinson's Massachusetts_, ii, 133. "Whomsoever shall compel thee to go a mile, go with him twain."--_Dymond's Essays_, p. 48. "The idea's of the author have been conversant with the faults of other writers."--_Swift's T. T._, p. 55. "You are a much greater loser than me by his death."--_Swift to Pope_, l. 63. "Such peccadillo's pass with him for pious frauds."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. iii, p. 279. "In whom I am nearly concerned, and whom I know would be very apt to justify my whole procedure."--_Ib._, i, 560. "Do not think such a man as me contemptible for my garb."--_Addison._ "His wealth and him bid adieu to each other."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 107. "So that, 'He is greater than _me_,' will be more grammatical than, 'He is greater than _I_.'"--_Ib._, p. 106. "The Jesuits had more interests at court than him."--SMOLLETT: in _Pr. Gram._, p. 106.[343] "Tell the Cardinal that I understand poetry better than him."--_Id., ib._ "An inhabitant of Crim Tartary was far more happy than him."--_Id., ib._ "My father and him have been very intimate since."--_Fair American_, ii, 53. "Who was the agent, and whom the object struck or kissed?"--_Infant School Gram._, p. 32. "To find the person whom he imagined was concealed there."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 225. "He offered a great recompense to whomsoever would help him."--HUME: in _Pr. Gram._, p. 104. "They would be under the dominion, absolute and unlimited, of whomsoever might exercise the right of judgement."--_Gov. Haynes's Speech_, in 1832. "They had promised to accept whomsoever should be born in Wales."--_Stories by Croker_. "We sorrow not as them that have no hope."--_Maturin's Sermons_, p. 27. "If he suffers, he suffers as them that have no hope."--_Ib._, p. 32. "We acknowledge that he, and him only, hath been our peacemaker."--_Gratton_. "And what can be better than him that made it?"--_Jenks's Prayers_, p. 329. "None of his school-fellows is more beloved than him."--_Cooper's Gram._, p. 42. "Solomon, who was wiser than them all."--_Watson's Apology_, p. 76. "Those whom the Jews thought were the last to be saved, first entered the kingdom of God."--_Eleventh Hour, Tract_, No. 4. "A stone is heavy, and the sand weighty; but a fool's wrath is heavier than them both."--_Prov._, xxvii, 3. "A man of business, in good company, is hardly more insupportable than her they call a notable woman."--_Steele, Sped_. "The king of the Sarmatians, whom we may imagine was no small prince, restored him a hundred thousand Roman prisoners."--_Life of Antoninus_, p. 83. "Such notions would be avowed at this time by none but rosicrucians, and fanatics as mad as them."--_Bolingbroke's Ph. Tr._, p. 24. "Unless, as I said, Messieurs, you are the masters, and not me."--BASIL HALL: _Harrison's E. Lang._, p. 173. "We had drawn up against peaceable travellers, who must have been as glad as us to escape."--BURNES'S TRAVELS: _ibid._ "Stimulated, in turn, by their approbation, and that of better judges than them, she turned to their literature with redoubled energy."--QUARTERLY REVIEW: _Life of H. More: ibid._ "I know not whom else are expected."--SCOTT'S PIRATE: _ibid._ "He is great, but truth is greater than us all."--_Horace Mann, in Congress_, 1850. "Him I accuse has entered."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, §482: see _Shakspeare's Coriolanus_, Act V, sc. 5. "Scotland and thee did each in other live." --_Dryden's Po._, Vol. ii, p. 220. "We are alone; here's none but thee and I." --_Shak._, 2 Hen. VI. "Me rather had, my heart might feel your love, Than my unpleas'd eye see your courtesy." --_Idem: Joh. Dict._ "Tell me, in sadness, whom is she you love?" --_Id., Romeo and Juliet_, A. I, sc. 1. "Better leave undone, than by our deeds acquire Too high a fame, when him we serve's away." --_Shak., Ant. and Cleop._ RULE III.--APPOSITION. A Noun or a personal Pronoun used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same case: as, "But it is really _I_, your old _friend and neighbour., Piso_, late a _dweller_ upon the Coelian hill, who am now basking in the warm skies of Palmyra."--_Zenobia._ "But _he_, our gracious _Master_, kind as just, Knowing our frame, remembers we are dust."--_Barbauld_. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE III. OBS. 1--_Apposition_ is that peculiar relation which one noun or pronoun bears to an other, when two or more are placed together in the same case, and used to designate the same person or thing: as, "_Cicero_ the _orator_;"--"The _prophet Joel_;"--"_He_ of Gath, _Goliah_;"--"Which _ye yourselves_ do know;"--"To make _him king_;"--"To give his _life_ a _ransom_ for many;"--"I made the _ground_ my _bed_;"--"_I_, thy _schoolmaster_;"--"_We_ the _People_ of the United States." This placing-together of nouns and pronouns in the same case, was reckoned by the old grammarians a _figure of syntax_; and from them it received, in their elaborate detail of the grammatical and rhetorical figures, its present name of _apposition_. They reckoned it a species of _ellipsis_, and supplied between the words, the participle _being_, the infinitive _to be_, or some other part of their "_substantive verb_:" as, "Cicero _being_ the orator;"--"To make him _to be_ king;"--"I _who am_ thy schoolmaster." But the later Latin grammarians have usually placed it among their regular concords; some calling it the first concord, while others make it the last, in the series; and some, with no great regard to consistency, treating it both as a figure and as a regular concord, at the same time. OBS. 2.--Some English grammarians teach, "that the words in the cases preceding and following the verb _to be_, may be said to be _in apposition_ to each other."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 181; _R. C. Smith's_, 155; _Fisk's_, 126; _Ingersoll's_, 146; _Merchant's_, 91. But this is entirely repugnant to the doctrine, that apposition is a _figure_; nor is it at all consistent with the original meaning of the word _apposition_; because it assumes that the literal reading, when the supposed ellipsis is supplied, is _apposition_ still. The old distinction, however, between apposition and same cases, is _generally_ preserved in our grammars, and is worthy ever to be so. The rule for _same cases_ applies to all nouns or pronouns that are put after verbs or participles not transitive, and that are made to agree in case with other nouns or pronouns going before, and meaning the same thing. But some teachers who observe this distinction with reference to the neuter verb _be_, and to certain passive verbs of _naming, appointing_, and the like, absurdly break it down in relation to other verbs, neuter or active-intransitive. Thus Nixon: "Nouns in apposition are in the same case; as, '_Hortensius_ died a _martyr_;' '_Sydney_ lived the shepherd's _friend_.'"--_English Parser_, p. 55. It is remarkable that _all_ this author's examples of "_nominatives in apposition_," (and he gives eighteen in the exercise,) are precisely of this sort, in which there is really _no apposition at all_. OBS. 3.--In the exercise of parsing, rule third should be applied only to the _explanatory term_; because the case of the _principal term_ depends on its relation to the rest of the sentence, and comes under some other rule. In certain instances, too, it is better to waive the analysis which _might_ be made under rule third, and to take both or all the terms together, under the rule for the main relation. Thus, the several proper names which distinguish an individual, are always in apposition, and should be taken together in parsing; as, _William Pitt--Marcus Tullius Cicero_. It may, I think, be proper to include with the personal names, some titles also; as, _Lord Bacon--Sir Isaac Newton_. William E. Russell and Jonathan Ware, (two American authors of no great note,) in parsing the name of "_George Washington_," absurdly take the former word as an _adjective_ belonging to the latter. See _Russell's Gram._, p. 100; and _Ware's_, 17. R. C. Smith does the same, both with honorary titles, and with baptismal or Christian names. See his _New Gram._, p. 97. And one English writer, in explaining the phrases, "_John Wickliffe's influence_," "_Robert Bruce's exertions_," and the like, will have the first nouns to be governed by the last, and the intermediate ones to be distinct possessives _in apposition_ with the former. See _Nixon's English Parser_, p. 59. Wm. B. Fowle, in his "True English Grammar," takes all titles, all given names, all possessives, and all pronouns, to be adjectives. According to him, this class embraces more than half the words in the language. A later writer than any of these says, "The proper noun is _philosophically_ an adjective. Nouns common or proper, of similar or dissimilar import, _may be parsed as adjectives_, when they become qualifying or distinguishing words; as, _President_ Madison,--_Doctor_ Johnson,--_Mr_. Webster,--_Esq_. Carleton,--_Miss_ Gould,--_Professor_ Ware,--_lake_ Erie,--the _Pacific_ ocean,--_Franklin_ House,--_Union_ street."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 134. I dissent from all these views, at least so far as not to divide a _man's name_ in parsing it. A person will sometimes have such a multitude of names, that it would be a flagrant waste of time, to parse them all separately: for example, that wonderful doctor, _Paracelsus_, who called himself, "_Aureolus Philippus Theophrastus Bombastus Paracelsus de Hoenheim_."--_Univ. Biog. Dict._ OBS. 4.--A very common rule for apposition in Latin, is this: "Substantives signifying the same thing, agree in case."--_Adam's Latin Gram._, p. 156. The same has also been applied to our language: "Substantives denoting the same person or thing, agree in case."--_Bullions's E. Gram._, p. 102. This rule is, for two reasons, very faulty: first, because the apposition of _pronouns_ seems not to be included it; secondly, because two nouns that are not in the same case, do sometimes "signify" or "denote" the same thing. Thus, "_the city of London_," means only _the city London_; "_the land of Egypt_," is only Egypt; and "_the person of Richard_" is _Richard himself_. Dr. Webster defines _apposition_ to be, "The placing of two nouns in the same case, without a connecting word between them."--_Octavo Dict._ This, too, excludes the pronouns, and has exceptions, both various and numerous. In the first place, the apposition may be of more than two nouns, without any connective; as, "_Ezra_ the _priest_, the _scribe_ of the law."--_Ezra_, vii, 21. Secondly, two nouns connected by a conjunction, may both be put in apposition with a preceding noun or pronoun; as, "God hath made that same _Jesus_, whom ye have crucified, both _Lord_ and _Christ_."--_Acts_, ii, 36. "Who made _me_ a _judge_ or a _divider_ over you."--_Luke_, xii, 14. Thirdly, the apposition may be of two nouns immediately connected by _and_, provided the two words denote but one person or thing; as, "This great _philosopher and statesman_ was bred a printer." Fourthly, it may be of two words connected by _as_, expressing the idea of a partial or assumed identity; as, "Yet count _him_ not _as_ an _enemy_, but admonish _him as_ a _brother_."--_2 Thess._, iii, 15. "So that _he, as God_, sitteth in the temple of God."--_Ib._, ii, 4. Fifthly, it may perhaps be of two words connected by _than_; as, "He left _them_ no more _than_ dead _men_."--_Law and Grace_, p. 28. Lastly, there is a near resemblance to apposition, when two equivalent nouns are connected by _or_; as, "The back of the hedgehog is covered with _prickles, or spines_."--_Webster's Dict._ OBS. 5.--To the rule for apposition, as I have expressed it, there are properly _no exceptions_. But there are many puzzling examples of construction under it, some of which are but little short of exceptions; and upon such of these as are most likely to embarrass the learner, some further observations shall be made. The rule supposes the first word to be the principal term, with which the other word, or subsequent noun or pronoun, is in apposition; and it generally is so: but the explanatory word is sometimes placed first, especially among the poets; as, "From bright'ning fields of ether fair disclos'd, _Child_ of the sun, refulgent _Summer_ comes."--_Thomson_. OBS. 6.--The pronouns of the _first_ and _second_ persons are often placed before nouns merely to distinguish their person; as, "_I John_ saw these things."--_Bible_. "But what is this to _you receivers?_"--_Clarkson's Essay on Slavery_, p. 108. "His praise, _ye brooks_, attune."--_Thomson_. In this case of apposition, the words are in general closely united, and either of them may be taken as the explanatory term. The learner will find it easier to parse _the noun_ by rule third; or _both nouns_, if there be two: as, "_I_ thy _father-in-law Jethro_ am come unto thee."--_Exod._, xviii, 6. There are many other examples, in which it is of no moment, which of the terms we take for the principal; and to all such the rule may be applied literally: as, "Thy _son Benhadad king_ of Syria hath sent me to thee."--_2 Kings_, viii, 9. OBS. 7.--When two or more nouns of the _possessive case_ are put in apposition, the possessive termination added to one, denotes the case of both or all; as, "For _Herodias_' sake, his _brother Philip's wife_"--_Matt._, xiv, 3; Mark, vi, 17. Here _wife_ is in apposition with _Herodias_', and _brother_ with _Philip's_; consequently all these words are reckoned to be in the possessive case. The Greek text, which is better, stands essentially thus: "For the sake of Herodias, the wife of Philip his brother." "For _Jacob_ my _servant's_ sake, and _Israel_ mine _elect_."--_Isaiah_, xlv, 4. Here, as _Jacob_ and _Israel_ are only different names for the same person or nation, the four nouns in Italics are, according to the rule, all made possessives by the one sign used; but the construction is not to be commended: it would be better to say, "For _the_ sake _of_ Jacob my servant, and Israel mine elect." "With _Hyrcanus_ the high _priest's_ consent."--_Wood's Dict., w. Herod_. "I called at _Smith's_, the _bookseller_; or, at _Smith_ the _bookseller's_."-- _Bullions's E. Gram._, p. 105. Two words, each having the possessive sign, can never be in apposition one with the other; because that sign has immediate reference to the governing noun expressed or understood after it; and if it be repeated, separate governing nouns will be implied, and the apposition will be destroyed.[344] OBS. 8.--If the foregoing remark is just, the apposition of two nouns in the possessive case, requires the possessive sign to be added to that noun which immediately precedes the governing word, whether expressed or understood, and positively excludes it from the other. The sign of the case is added, sometimes to the former, and sometimes to the latter noun, but never to both: or, if added to both, the two words are no longer in apposition. Example: "And for that reason they ascribe to him a great part of his _father Nimrod's_, or _Belus's_ actions."--_Rollin's An. Hist._, Vol. ii, p. 6. Here _father_ and _Nimrod's_ are in strict apposition; but if _actions_ governs _Belus's_, the same word is implied to govern _Nimrod's_, and the two names are not in apposition, though they are in the same case and mean the same person. OBS. 9.--Dr. Priestley says, "Some would say, 'I left the parcel at _Mr. Smith's_, the _bookseller_;' others, 'at _Mr. Smith_ the _bookseller's_;' and perhaps others, at '_Mr. Smith's_ the _bookseller's_.' The last of these forms is most agreeable to the Latin idiom, but the first seems to be more natural in ours; and if the addition consist [_consists_, says Murray,] of two or more words, _the case seems to be very clear_; as, 'I left the parcel at _Mr. Smith's_ the _bookseller_ and _stationer_;' i. e. at Mr. Smith's, _who is a_ bookseller and stationer."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 70. Here the examples, if rightly pointed, _would all be right_; but the ellipsis supposed, not only destroys the apposition, but converts the explanatory noun into a nominative. And in the phrase, "_at Mr. Smiths, the bookseller's_," there is no apposition, except that of _Mr_. with _Smith's_; for the governing noun _house_ or _store_ is understood as clearly after the one possessive sign as after the other. Churchill imagines that in Murray's example, "I reside at _Lord Stormont's_, my old _patron_ and _benefactor_," the last two nouns are in the nominative after "_who was_" understood; and also erroneously suggests, that their joint apposition with _Stormont's_ might be secured, by saying, less elegantly, "I reside at Lord _Stormont's_, my old patron and _benefactor's_."-- _Churchill's New Gram._, p. 285. Lindley Murray, who tacitly takes from Priestley all that is quoted above, except the term "_Mr._," and the notion of an ellipsis of "_who is_," assumes each of the three forms as an instance of apposition, but pronounces the first only to be "correct and proper." If, then, the first is elliptical, as Priestley suggests, and the others are ungrammatical, as Murray pretends to prove, we cannot have in reality any such construction as the apposition of two possessives; for the sign of the case cannot possibly be added in more than these three ways. But Murray does not adhere at all to his own decision, as may be seen by his subsequent remarks and examples, on the same page; as, "The _emperor Leopold's_;"--"_Dionysius_ the _tyrant's_;"--"For _David_ my _servant's_ sake;"--"Give me here _John_ the _Baptist's_ head;"--"_Paul_ the _apostle's_ advice." See _Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 176; _Smith's New Gram._, p. 150; and others. OBS. 10.--An explanatory noun without the possessive sign, seems sometimes to be put in apposition with a _pronoun of the possessive case_; and, if introduced by the conjunction _as_, it may either precede or follow the pronoun: thus, "I rejoice in _your_ success _as_ an _instructer_."-- _Sanborn's Gram._, p. 244. "_As_ an _author_, his 'Adventurer' is _his_ capital work."--_Murray's Sequel_, p. 329. "Thus shall mankind _his_ guardian care engage, The promised _father_ of a future age."--_Pope_. But possibly such examples may be otherwise explained on the principle of ellipsis; as, [_He being_] "the promised _father_," &c. "As [_he was_] an _author_," &c. "As [_you are_] an _instructer_." OBS. 11.--When a noun or pronoun _is repeated_ for the sake of emphasis, or for the adding of an epithet, the word which is repeated may properly be said to be in apposition with that which is first introduced; or, if not, the repetition itself implies sameness of case: as, "They have forsaken _me_, the _fountain_ of living waters, and hewed them out _cisterns_, broken _cisterns_, that can hold no water."--_Jer._, ii, 13. "I find the total of their hopes and fears _Dreams_, empty _dreams_."--_Cowper's Task_, p. 71. OBS. 12.--A noun is sometimes put, as it were, in apposition to a _sentence_; being used (perhaps elliptically) to sum up the whole idea in one emphatic word, or short phrase. But, in such instances, the noun can seldom be said to have any positive relation that may determine its case; and, if alone, it will of course be in the nominative, by reason of its independence. Examples: "He permitted me to consult his library--a _kindness_ which I shall not forget."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 148. "I have offended reputation--a most unnoble _swerving_."--_Shakspeare_. "I want a hero,--an uncommon _want_."--_Byron_. "Lopez took up the sonnet, and after reading it several times, frankly acknowledged that he did not understand it himself; a _discovery_ which the poet probably never made before."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 280. "In Christian hearts O for a pagan zeal! A needful, but opprobrious _prayer!_"--_Young_, N. ix, l. 995. "Great standing _miracle_, that Heav'n assign'd Its only thinking thing this turn of mind."--_Pope_. OBS. 13.--A _distributive term_ in the singular number, is frequently construed in apposition with a comprehensive plural; as, "_They_ reap vanity, _every one_ with his neighbour."--_Bible_. "Go _ye every man_ unto his city."--_Ibid._ So likewise with two or more singular nouns which are taken conjointly; as, "The _Son and Spirit_ have _each_ his proper office."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 163. And sometimes a _plural_ word is emphatically put after a series of particulars comprehended under it; as, "Ambition, interest, glory, _all_ concurred."--_Letters on Chivalry_, p. 11. "Royalists, republicans, churchmen, sectaries, courtiers, patriots, _all parties_ concurred in the illusion."--_Hume's History_, Vol. viii, p. 73. The foregoing examples are plain, but similar expressions sometimes require care, lest the distributive or collective term be so placed that its construction and meaning may be misapprehended. Examples: "We have _turned every one_ to his own way."--_Isaiah_, liii, 6. Better: "_We have every one_ turned to his own way." "For in many things we _offend all_."--_James_, iii, 2. Better: "For in many things _we all_ offend." The latter readings doubtless convey the _true sense_ of these texts. To the relation of apposition, it may be proper also to refer the construction of a singular noun taken in a distributive sense and repeated after _by_ to denote order; as, "_They_ went out _one_ by one."--_Bible_. "Our whole _company, man_ by man, ventured in."--_Goldsmith_. "To examine a _book, page_ by page; to search a _place, house_ by house."--_Ward's Gram._, p. 106. So too, perhaps, when the parts of a thing explain the whole; as, "But those that sleep, and think not on their sins, Pinch _them, arms, legs, backs, shoulders, sides_, and _shins_." --_Shak_. OBS. 14.--To express a reciprocal action or relation, the pronominal adjectives _each other_ and _one an other_ are employed: as, "They love _each other_;"--"They love _one an other_." The words, separately considered, are singular; but, taken together, they imply plurality; and they can be properly construed only after plurals, or singulars taken conjointly. _Each other_ is usually applied to two persons or things; and _one an other_, to more than two. The impropriety of applying them otherwise, is noticed elsewhere; (see, in Part II, Obs. 15th, on the Classes of Adjectives;) so that we have here to examine only their relations of case. The terms, though reciprocal and closely united, are seldom or never in the same construction. If such expressions be analyzed, _each_ and _one_ will generally appear to be in the nominative case, and _other_ in the objective; as, "They love _each other_;" i. e. _each_ loves _the other_. "They love _one an other_;" i. e. any or every _one_ loves any or every _other_. _Each_ and _one_ (--if the words be taken as cases, and not adjectively--) are properly in agreement or apposition with _they_, and _other_ is governed by the verb. The terms, however, admit of other constructions; as, "Be ye helpers _one_ of an _other_."--_Bible_. Here _one_ is in apposition with _ye_, and _other_ is governed by _of_. "Ye are _one_ an _other's_ joy."--_Ib._ Here _one_ is in apposition with _ye_, and _other's_ is in the possessive case, being governed by _joy_. "Love will make you _one_ an _other's_ joy." Here _one_ is in the objective case, being in apposition with _you_, and _other's_ is governed as before. "_Men's_ confidence in _one an other_;"--"_Their_ dependence _one_ upon _an other_." Here the word _one_ appears to be in apposition with the possessive going before; for it has already been shown, that words standing in that relation _never take the possessive sign_. But if its location after the preposition must make it objective, the whole object is the complex term, "_one an other_." "Grudge not _one_ against _an other_."--_James_, v, 9. "Ne vous plaignez point _les uns des autres_."--_French Bible_. "Ne suspirate _alius_ adversus _alium_."--_Beza_. "Ne ingemiscite adversus _alii alios."--Leusden_. "[Greek: Mæ stenazete kat hallælon]."--_Greek New Testament_. OBS. 15.--The construction of the Latin terms _alius alium, alii alios_, &c., with that of the French _l'un l'autre, l'un de l'autre_, &c., appears, at first view, sufficiently to confirm the doctrine of the preceding observation; but, besides the frequent use, in Latin and Greek, of a reciprocal adverb to express the meaning of one an other or each other, there are, from each of these languages, some analogical arguments for taking the English terms together as compounds. The most common term in Greek for _one an other_, ([Greek: Hallælon], dat. [Greek: hallælois, ais, ois], acc. [Greek: hallælous]: ab [Greek: hallos], _alius_,) is a single derivative word, the case of which is known by its termination; and _each other_ is sometimes expressed in Latin by a compound: as, "Et osculantes se _alterutrum_, fleverunt pariter."--_Vulgate_. That is: "And kissing _each other_, they wept together." As this text speaks of but two persons, our translators have not expressed it well in the common version: "And they kissed _one an other_, and wept _one_ with _an other_"--_1 Sam._, xx, 41. _Alter-utrum_ is composed of a nominative and an accusative, like _each-other_; and, in the nature of things, there is no reason why the former should be compounded, and the latter not. Ordinarily, there seems to be no need of compounding either of them. But some examples occur, in which it is not easy to parse _each other_ and _one an other_ otherwise than as compounds: as, "He only recommended this, and not the washing of _one another's_ feet."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. iii, p. 143. "The Temple late two brother sergeants saw, Who deem'd _each other oracles_ of law."--_Pope_, B. ii, Ep. 2.[345] OBS. 16.--The _common_ and the _proper_ name of an object are very often associated, and put in apposition; as, "_The river Thames_,"--"_The ship Albion_,"--"_The poet Cowper_"--"_Lake Erie_,"--"_Cape May_"--"_Mount Atlas_." But, in English, the proper name of a place, when accompanied by the common name, is generally put in the objective case, and preceded by _of_; as, "The city _of_ New York,"--"The land _of_ Canaan,"--"The island _of_ Cuba,"--"The peninsula _of_ Yucatan." Yet in some instances, even of this kind, the immediate apposition is preferred; as, "That the _city Sepphoris_ should be subordinate to the _city Tiberias_."--_Life of Josephus_, p. 142. In the following sentence, the preposition _of_ is at least needless: "The law delighteth herself in the number _of_ twelve; and the number _of_ twelve is much respected in holy writ."--_Coke, on Juries_. Two or three late grammarians, supposing _of_ always to indicate a possessive relation between one thing and an other, contend that it is no less improper, to say, "The city _of_ London, the city _of_ New Haven, the month _of_ March, the islands _of_ Cuba and Hispaniola, the towns _of_ Exeter and Dover," than to say, "King _of_ Solomon, Titus _of_ the Roman Emperor, Paul _of_ the apostle, or, Cicero _of_ the orator."--See _Barrett's Gram._, p. 101; _Emmons's_, 16. I cannot but think there is some mistake in their mode of finding out what is proper or improper in grammar. Emmons scarcely achieved two pages more, before he forgot his criticism, and adopted the phrase, "in the city _of_ New Haven."--_Gram._, p. 19. OBS. 17.--When an object acquires a new name or character from the action of a verb, the new appellation is put in apposition with the object of the active verb, and in the nominative after the passive: as, "They named the _child John_;"--"The child was named _John_."--"They elected _him president_;"--"He was elected _president_." After the active verb, the acquired name must be parsed by Rule 3d; after the passive, by Rule 6th. In the following example, the pronominal adjective _some_, or the noun _men_ understood after it, is the direct object of the verb _gave_, and the nouns expressed are in apposition with it: "And he gave _some, apostles_; and _some, prophets_; and _some, evangelists_; and _some, pastors_ and _teachers_"--_Ephesians_, iv, 11. That is, "He _bestowed some_ [men] as _apostles_; and _some_ as _prophets_; and _some_ as _evangelists_; and _some_ as _pastors_ and _teachers_." The common reader might easily mistake the meaning and construction of this text in two different ways; for he might take _some_ to be either a _dative case_, meaning _to some persons_, or an adjective to the nouns which are here expressed. The punctuation, however, is calculated to show that the nouns are in apposition with _some_, or _some men_, in what the Latins call the _accusative, case_. But the version ought to be amended by the insertion of _as_, which would here be an express sign of the apposition intended. OBS. 18.--Some authors teach that words in apposition must agree in person, number, and gender, as well as in case; but such agreement the following examples show not to be always necessary: "The _Franks, a people_ of Germany."--_W. Allen's Gram._ "The Kenite _tribe_, the _descendants_ of Hobab."--_Milman's Hist. of the Jews_. "But how can _you_ a _soul_, still either hunger or thirst?"--_Lucian's Dialogues_, p. 14. "Who seized the wife of _me_ his _host_, and fled."--_Ib._, p. 16. "Thy gloomy _grandeurs_ (Nature's most august. Inspiring _aspect_!) claim a grateful verse."--_Young_, N. ix, l. 566. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE III. ERRORS OF WORDS IN APPOSITION. "Now, therefore, come thou, let us make a covenant, I and thou."--_Gen._, xxxi, 44. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the pronouns I and thou, of the nominative case, are here put in apposition with the preceding pronoun _us_, which is objective. But, according to Rule 3d, "A noun or a personal pronoun, used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same case." Therefore, _I_ and _thou_ should be _thee_ and _me_; (the first person, in our idiom, being usually put last;) thus, "Now, therefore, come thou, let us make a covenant, thee and me."] "Now, therefore, come thou, we will make a covenant, thee and me."--_Variation of Gen._ "The word came not to Esau, the hunter, that stayed not at home; but to Jacob, the plain man, he that dwelt in tents."--_Wm. Penn_. "Not to every man, but to the man of God, (i. e.) he that is led by the spirit of God."--_Barclays Works_, i, 266. "For, admitting God to be a creditor, or he to whom the debt should be paid, and Christ he that satisfies or pays it on behalf of man the debtor, this question will arise, whether he paid that debt as God, or man, or both?"--_Wm. Penn._ "This Lord Jesus Christ, the heavenly Man, the Emmanuel, God with us, we own and believe in: he whom the high priests raged against," &c.--_George Fox_. "Christ, and Him crucified, was the Alpha and Omega of all his addresses, the fountain and foundation of his hope and trust."--_Experience of Paul_, p. 399. "'Christ and Him crucified' is the head, and only head, of the church."--_Denison's Sermon_. "But if 'Christ and Him crucified' are the burden of the ministry, such disastrous results are all avoided."--_Ib._ "He never let fall the least intimation, that himself, or any other person, whomsoever, was the object of worship."--_Hannah Adams's View_, p. 250. "Let the elders that rule well, be counted worthy of double honour, especially they who labour in the word and doctrine."--_1 Tim._, v, 17. "Our Shepherd, him who is styled King of saints, will assuredly give his saints the victory."--_Sermon_. "It may seem odd to talk of _we subscribers_"--_Fowlers True Eng. Gram._, p. 20. "And they shall have none to bury them, them, their wives, nor their sons, nor their daughters; for I will pour their wickedness upon them."--_Jeremiah_, xiv, 16. "Yet I supposed it necessary to send to you Epaphroditus, my brother, and companion in labour, and fellow-soldier, but your messenger, and he that ministered to my wants."--_Philippians_, ii, 25. "Amidst the tumult of the routed train, The sons of false Antimachus were slain; He, who for bribes his faithless counsels sold, And voted Helen's stay for Paris' gold." --_Pope, Iliad_, B. xi. l. 161. "See the vile King his iron sceptre bear-- His only praise attends the pious Heir; He, in whose soul the virtues all conspire, The best good son, from the worst wicked sire." --DR. LOWTH: _Union Poems_, p. 19. "Then from thy lips poured forth a joyful song To thy Redeemer!--yea, it poured along In most melodious energy of praise, To God, the Saviour, he of ancient days." --_Arm Chair_, p. 15. RULE IV.--POSSESSIVES. A Noun or a Pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thing possessed: as, "_God's_ mercy prolongs _man's_ life."--_Allen_. "_Theirs_ is the vanity, the learning _thine_; Touched by _thy_ hand, again _Rome's_ glories shine."--_Pope_. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE IV. OBS. 1.--Though the _ordinary_ syntax of the possessive case is sufficiently plain and easy, there is perhaps, among all the puzzling and disputable points of grammar, nothing more difficult of decision, than are some questions that occur respecting the right management of this case. That its usual construction is both clearly and properly stated in the foregoing rule, is what none will doubt or deny. But how many and what exceptions to this rule ought to be allowed, or whether any are justly demanded or not, are matters about which there may be much diversity of opinion. Having heretofore published the rule without any express exceptions, I am not now convinced that it is best to add any; yet are there three different modes of expression which might be plausibly exhibited in that character. Two of these would concern only the parser; and, for that reason, they seem not to be very important. The other involves the approval or reprehension of a great multitude of very common expressions, concerning which our ablest grammarians differ in opinion, and our most popular digest plainly contradicts itself. These points are; _first_, the apposition of possessives, and the supposed ellipses which may affect that construction; _secondly_, the government of the possessive case after _is, was_, &c., when the ownership of a thing is simply affirmed or denied; _thirdly_, the government of the possessive by a participle, as such--that is, while it retains the government and adjuncts of a participle. OBS. 2.--The apposition of one possessive with an other, (as, "For _David_ my _servant's_ sake,") might doubtless be consistently made a formal exception to the direct government of the possessive by its controlling noun. But this apposition is only a sameness of construction, so that what governs the one, virtually governs the other. And if the case of any noun or pronoun is known and determined by the rule or relation of apposition, there can be no need of an exception to the foregoing rule for the purpose of parsing it, since that purpose is already answered by rule third. If the reader, by supposing an ellipsis which I should not, will resolve any given instance of this kind into something else than apposition, I have already shown him that some great grammarians have differed in the same way before. Useless ellipses, however, should never be supposed; and such _perhaps_ is the following: "At Mr. Smith's [_who is_] the bookseller."--See _Dr. Priestley's Gram._, p. 71. OBS. 3.--In all our Latin grammars, the verb _sum, fui, esse_, to be, is said (though not with strict propriety) sometimes to _signify_ possession, property, or duty, and in that sense to govern the genitive case: as, "_Est regis_;"--"It is the king's."--"_Hominis est errare_;"--"It is man's to err."--"_Pecus est Melib&oelig;i_;"--"The flock is Meliboeus's." And sometimes, with like import, this verb, expressed or understood, may govern the dative; as, "_Ego_ [sum] _dilecto meo, et dilectus meus_ [est] _mihi_."--_Vulgate_. "I am my beloved's, and my beloved is mine."--_Solomon's Song_, vi, 3. Here, as both the genitive and the dative are expressed in English by the possessive, if the former are governed by the verb, there seems to be precisely the same reason from the nature of the expression, and an additional one from analogy, for considering the latter to be so too. But all the annotators upon the Latin syntax suggest, that the genitive thus put after _sum_ or _est_, is really governed, not by the verb, but by some _noun understood_; and with this idea, of an ellipsis in the construction, all our English grammarians appear to unite. They might not, however, find it very easy to tell by what noun the word _beloved's_ or _mine_ is governed, in the last example above; and so of many others, which are used in the same way: as, "There shall nothing die of all that is the _children's_ of Israel."--_Exod._, ix, 4. The Latin here is, "Ut nihil omnino pereat ex his _quæ pertinent ad_ filios Israel."--_Vulgate_. That is,--"of all those _which belong to_ the children of Israel." "For thou art _Freedom's_ now--and _Fame's_, One of the few, the immortal names, That were not born to die."--HALLECK: _Marco Bozzaris_. OBS. 4.--Although the possessive case is always intrinsically an _adjunct_ and therefore incapable of being used or comprehended in any sense that is positively abstract; yet we see that there are instances in which it is used with a certain degree of abstraction,--that is, with an actual separation from the name of the thing possessed; and that accordingly there are, in the simple personal pronouns, (where such a distinction is most needed,) two different forms of the case; the one adapted to the concrete, and the other to the abstract construction. That form of the pronoun, however, which is equivalent in sense to the concrete and the noun, is still the possessive case, and nothing more; as, "All _mine_ are _thine_, and _thine_ are _mine_."--_John_, xvii, 10. For if we suppose this equivalence to prove such a pronoun to be something more than the possessive case, as do some grammarians, we must suppose the same thing respecting the possessive case of a noun, whenever the relation of ownership or possession is simply affirmed or denied with such a noun put last: as, "For all things are _yours_; and ye are _Christ's_; and Christ is _God's_."--_1 Cor._, iii, 21. By the second example placed under the rule, I meant to suggest, that the possessive case, when placed before or after this verb, (_be_,) _might_ be parsed as being governed by the nominative; as we may suppose "_theirs_" to be governed by "_vanity_," and "_thine_" by "_learning_," these nouns being the names of the things possessed. But then we encounter a difficulty, whenever a _pronoun_ happens to be the nominative; as, "Therefore glorify God in your body, and in your spirit, _which are God's_"--_1 Cor._, vi, 20. Here the common resort would be to some ellipsis; and yet it must be confessed, that this mode of interpretation cannot but make some difference in the sense: as, "_If ye be Christ's_, then are ye Abraham's seed."--_Gal._, iii, 29. Here some may think the meaning to be, "_If ye be Christ's seed_, or _children_." But a truer version of the text would be, "If ye _are of Christ_, then are ye Abraham's seed."--"Que si vous _êtes à Christ_, vous êtes done la posterité d'Abraham."--_French Bible_. OBS. 5.--Possession is the having of something, and if the possessive case is always an adjunct, referring either directly or indirectly to that which constitutes it a possessive, it would seem but reasonable, to limit the government of this case to that part of speech which is understood _substantively_--that is, to "the _name_ of the thing possessed." Yet, in violation of this restriction, many grammarians admit, that a _participle_, with the regimen and adjuncts of a participle, may govern the possessive case; and some of them, at the same time, with astonishing inconsistency, aver, that the possessive case before a participle converts the latter into a noun, and necessarily deprives it of its regimen. Whether participles are worthy to form an exception to my rule or not, this palpable contradiction is one of the gravest faults of L. Murray's code of syntax. After copying from Lowth the doctrine that a participle with an _article_ before it becomes a noun, and must drop the government and adjuncts of a participle, this author informs us, that the same principles are applicable to the _pronoun_ and participle: as, "Much depends on _their observing of_ the rule, and error will be the consequence of _their neglecting of_ it;" in stead of, "_their observing the rule_," and "_their neglecting it_." And this doctrine he applies, with yet more positiveness, to the _noun_ and participle; as if the error were still more glaring, to make an active participle govern a possessive _noun_; saying, "We shall perceive this _more clearly_, if we substitute a noun for the pronoun: as, 'Much depends upon _Tyro's observing of_ the rule,' &c.; which is the same as, 'Much depends on Tyro's _observance_ of the rule.' But, as this construction sounds rather _harshly_, it would, in general, be better to express the sentiment in the following, or some other form: 'Much depends on the _rule's being observed_; and error will be the consequence of _its being neglected_? or--'_on observing the rule_; and--_of neglecting it_.'"--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 193; _Ingersoll's_, 199; and others. OBS. 6.--Here it is assumed, that "_their observing the rule_," or "_Tyro's observing the rule_," is an ungrammatical phrase; and, several different methods being suggested for its correction, a preference is at length given to what is perhaps not less objectionable than the original phrase itself. The last form offered, "_on observing the rule_," &c., is indeed correct enough in itself; but, as a substitute for the other, it is both inaccurate and insufficient. It merely omits the possessive case, and leaves the action of the participle undetermined in respect to the agent. For the possessive case before a real participle, denotes not the possessor of something, as in other instances, but the agent of the action, or the subject of the being or passion; and the simple question here is, whether this extraordinary use of the possessive case is, or is not, such an idiom of our language as ought to be justified. Participles may become nouns, if we choose to use them substantively; but can they govern the possessive case before them, while they govern also the objective after them, or while they have a participial meaning which is qualified by adverbs? If they can, Lowth, Murray, and others, are wrong in supposing the foregoing phrases to be ungrammatical, and in teaching that the possessive case before a participle converts it into a noun; and if they cannot, Priestley, Murray, Hiley, Wells, Weld, and others, are wrong in supposing that a participle, or a phrase beginning with a participle, may properly govern the possessive case. Compare Murray's seventh note under his Rule 10th, with the second under his Rule 14th. The same contradiction is taught by many other compilers. See _Smith's New Grammar_, pp. 152 and 162; _Comly's Gram._, 91 and 108; _Ingersoll's_, 180 and 199. OBS. 7.--Concerning one of the forms of expression which Murray approves and prefers, among his corrections above, the learned doctors Lowth and Campbell appear to have formed very different opinions. The latter, in the chapter which, in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, he devotes to disputed points in syntax, says: "There is only one other observation of Dr. Lowth, on which, before I conclude this article, I must beg leave to offer some remarks. 'Phrases like the following, though very common, are improper: Much depends upon the _rule's being observed_; and error will be the consequence of _its being neglected_. For here _is_ a noun _and_ a pronoun representing it, each in the possessive case, that is, under the government of another noun, but without other noun to govern it: for _being observed_, and _being neglected_, are not nouns: nor can you supply the place of the possessive case by the preposition _of_ before the noun or pronoun.'[346] For my part," continues Campbell, "notwithstanding what is here very speciously urged, I am not satisfied that there is any fault in the phrases censured. They appear to me to be perfectly in the idiom of our tongue, and such as on some occasions could not easily be avoided, unless by recurring to circumlocution, an expedient which invariably tends to enervate the expression."--_Philosophy of Rhetoric_, B. ii, Ch. iv, p. 234. OBS. 8.--Dr. Campbell, if I understand his argument, defends the foregoing expressions against the objections of Dr. Lowth, not on the ground that participles as such may govern the possessive case, but on the supposition that as the simple active participle may become a noun, and in that character govern the possessive case, so may the passive participle, and with equal propriety, notwithstanding it consists of two or more words, which must in this construction be considered as forming "one compound noun." I am not sure that he means to confine himself strictly to this latter ground, but if he does, his position cannot be said in any respect to contravene my rule for the possessive case. I do not, however, agree with him, either in the opinion which he offers, or in the negative which he attempts to prove. In view of the two examples, "Much depends upon the _rule's being observed_," and, "Much depends upon _their observing of the rule_," he says: "Now, although I allow both _the_ modes of expression to be good, I think the first _simpler and better_ than the second." Then, denying all faults, he proceeds: "Let us consider whether the former be liable to _any objections_, which do not equally affect the latter." But in his argument, he considers only the objections offered by Lowth, which indeed he sufficiently refutes. Now to me there appear to be other objections, which are better founded. In the first place, the two sentences are not equivalent in meaning; hence the preference suggested by this critic and others, is absurd. Secondly, a compound noun formed of two or three words without any hyphen, is at best such an anomaly, as we ought rather to avoid than to prefer. If these considerations do not positively condemn the former construction, they ought at least to prevent it from displacing the latter; and seldom is either to be preferred to the regular noun, which we can limit by the article or the possessive at pleasure: as, "Much depends on _an observance_ of the rule."--"Much depends on _their observance_ of the rule." Now these two sentences are equivalent to the two former, but not to each other; and, _vice versa_: that is, the two former are equivalent to these, but not to each other.[347] OBS. 9.--From Dr. Campbell's commendation of Lowth, as having "given some excellent directions for preserving a proper distinction between the noun and the gerund,"--that is, between the participial noun and the participle,--it is fair to infer that he meant to preserve it himself; and yet, in the argument above mentioned, he appears to have carelessly framed one ambiguous or very erroneous sentence, from which, as I imagine, his views of this matter have been misconceived, and by which Murray and all his modifiers have been furnished with an example wherewith to confound this distinction, and also to contradict themselves. The sentence is this: "Much will depend on _your pupil's composing_, but more on _his reading_ frequently."--_Philos. of Rhet._, p. 235. Volumes innumerable have gone abroad, into our schools and elsewhere, which pronounce this sentence to be "correct and proper." But after all, what does it mean? Does the adverb "_frequently_" qualify the verb "_will depend_" expressed in the sentence? or "_will depend_" understood after _more_? or both? or neither? Or does this adverb qualify the action of "_reading_?" or the action of "_composing_?" or both? or neither? But _composing_ and _reading_, if they are mere _nouns_, cannot properly be qualified by any adverb; and, if they are called participles, the question recurs respecting the possessives. Besides, _composing_, as a participle, is commonly _transitive_; nor is it very fit for a noun, without some adjunct. And, when participles become nouns, their government (it is said) falls upon _of_, and their adverbs are usually converted into adjectives; as, "Much will depend on your _pupil's composing of themes_; but more, on _his frequent reading_." This may not be the author's meaning, for the example was originally composed as a mere mock sentence, or by way of "_experiment_;" and one may doubt whether its meaning was ever at all thought of by the philosopher. But, to make it a respectable example, some correction there must be; for, surely, no man can have any clear idea to communicate, which he cannot better express, than by imitating this loose phraseology. It is scarcely more correct, than to say, "Much will depend on _an author's using_, but more on _his learning_ frequently." Yet is it commended as a _model_, either entire or in part, by Murray, Ingersoll, Fisk, R. C. Smith, Cooper, Lennie, Hiley, Bullions, C. Adams, A. H. Weld, and I know not how many other school critics. OBS. 10.--That singular notion, so common in our grammars, that a participle and its adjuncts may form "_one name_" or "_substantive phrase_," and so govern the possessive case, where it is presumed the participle itself could not, is an invention worthy to have been always ascribed to its true author. For this doctrine, as I suppose, our grammarians are indebted to Dr. Priestley. In his grammar it stands thus: "When an _entire clause_ of a sentence, beginning with a participle of the present tense, is used as one name, or to express one idea, or circumstance, the noun on which it depends may be put in the genitive case. Thus, instead of saying, _What is the meaning of this lady holding up her train_, i. e. _what is the meaning of the lady in holding up her train_, we may say, _What is the meaning of this_ lady's _holding up her train_; just as we say, _What is the meaning of this lady's dress_, &c. So we may either say, _I remember_ it being _reckoned a great exploit_; or, perhaps more elegantly, _I remember_ its being _reckoned_, &c."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 69. Now, to say nothing of errors in punctuation, capitals, &c., there is scarcely any thing in all this passage, that is either conceived or worded properly. Yet, coining from a Doctor of Laws, and Fellow of the Royal Society, it is readily adopted by Murray, and for his sake by others; and so, with all its blunders, the vain gloss passes uncensured into the schools, as a rule and model for elegant composition. Dr. Priestley pretends to appreciate the difference between participles and participial nouns, but he rather contrives a fanciful distinction in the sense, than a real one in the construction. His only note on this point,--a note about the "_horse running to-day_," and the "_horse's running_ to-day,"--I shall leave till we come to the syntax of participles. OBS. 11.--Having prepared the reader to understand the origin of what is to follow, I now cite from L. Murray's code a paragraph which appears to be contradictory to his own doctrine, as suggested in the fifth observation above; and not only so, it is irreconcilable with any proper distinction between the participle and the participial noun. "When an _entire clause_ of a sentence, beginning with a participle of the present tense, is used as _one name_, or to express one idea or circumstance, the _noun on which it depends_ may be put in the _genitive_ case; thus, _instead_ of saying, 'What is the reason of this _person dismissing_ his servant so hastily?' _that is_, 'What is the reason of this person, _in_ dismissing his servant so hastily?' we _may_ say, and _perhaps_ ought to say, 'What is the reason of this _person's_ dismissing of his servant _so hastily?_' Just as we say, 'What is the reason of this person's _hasty dismission_ of his servant?' So also, we say, 'I remember it being reckoned a great exploit;' or more properly, 'I remember _its_ being reckoned,' &c. The following sentence is _correct and proper_: 'Much will depend on _the pupil's composing_, but more on _his reading_ frequently.' It would not be accurate to say, 'Much will depend on the _pupil composing_.' &c. We also properly say; 'This will be the effect _of the pupil's composing_ frequently;' instead of, '_Of the pupil composing_ frequently.' The _participle_, in such constructions, _does the office_ of a substantive; and it should therefore have a CORRESPONDENT REGIMEN."--_Murray's Gram._, Rule 10th, Note 7; _Ingersoll's_, p. 180; _Fisk's_, 108; _R. C. Smith's_, 152; _Alger's_, 61; _Merchant's_, 84. See also _Weld's Gram._, 2d Ed., p. 150; "Abridged Ed.," 117.[348] OBS. 12.--Now, if it were as easy to prove that a participle, as such, or (what amounts to the same thing) a phrase beginning with a participle, ought never to govern the possessive case, as it is to show that every part and parcel of the foregoing citations from Priestley, Murray, and others, is both weakly conceived and badly written, I should neither have detained the reader so long on this topic, nor ever have placed it among the most puzzling points of grammar. Let it be observed, that what these writers absurdly call "_an entire_ CLAUSE _of a sentence_," is found on examination to be some _short_ PHRASE, the participle with its adjuncts, or even the participle alone, or with a single adverb only; as, "holding up her train,"--"dismissing his servant so hastily,"--"composing,"--"reading frequently,"--"composing frequently." And each of these, with an opposite error as great, they will have to be "_one name_," and to convey but "_one idea_;" supposing that by virtue of this imaginary oneness, it may govern the possessive case, and signify something which a "lady," or a "person," or a "pupil," may consistently _possess_. And then, to be wrong in every thing, they suggest that any noun on which such a participle, with its adjuncts, "depends, _may be put_ in the _genitive case_;" whereas, such a change is seldom, if ever, admissible, and in our language, no participle _ever can depend_ on any other than the nominative or the objective case. Every participle so depending is an adjunct to the noun; and every possessive, in its turn, is an adjunct to the word which governs it. In respect to construction, no terms differ more than a participle which governs the possessive case, and a participle which does not. These different constructions the contrivers of the foregoing rule, here take to be equivalent in meaning; whereas they elsewhere pretend to find in them quite different significations. The meaning is sometimes very different, and sometimes very similar; but seldom, if ever, are the terms convertible. And even if they were so, and the difference were nothing, would it not be better to adhere, where we can, to the analogy of General Grammar? In Greek and Latin, a participle may agree with a noun in the genitive case; but, if we regard analogy, that genitive must be Englished, not by the possessive case, but by _of_ and the objective; as, "[Greek: 'Epeì dokim`æn zæteîte toû 'en 'emoì laloûntos Christoû.]"--"Quandoquidem experimentum quæritis in me loquentis Christi."--_Beza_. "Since ye seek a proof of _Christ speaking_ in me."--_2 Cor._, xiii, 3. We might here, perhaps, say, "of _Christ's speaking_ in me," but is not the other form better? The French version is, "Puisque vous cherchez une preuve _que Christ parle_ par moi;" and this, too, might be imitated in English: "Since ye seek a proof _that Christ speaks_ by me." OBS. 13.--As prepositions very naturally govern any of our participles except the simple perfect, it undoubtedly seems agreeable to our idiom not to disturb this government, when we would express the subject or agent of the being, action, or passion, between the preposition and the participle. Hence we find that the doer or the sufferer of the action is usually made its possessor, whenever the sense does not positively demand a different reading. Against this construction there is seldom any objection, if the participle be taken entirely as a noun, so that it may be called a participial noun; as, "Much depends _on their observing of_ the rule."--_Lowth, Campbell_, and _L. Murray_. On the other hand, the participle after the objective is unobjectionable, if the noun or pronoun be the leading word in sense; as, "It would be idle to profess an apprehension of serious _evil resulting_ in any respect from the utmost _publicity being given_ to its contents."--_London Eclectic Review_, 1816. "The following is a beautiful instance of the _sound_ of words _corresponding_ to motion."--_Murray's Gram._, i, p. 333. "We shall discover many _things partaking_ of both those characters."--_West's Letters_, p. 182. "To a _person following_ the vulgar mode of omitting the comma."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 365. But, in comparing the different constructions above noticed, writers are frequently puzzled to determine, and frequently too do they err in determining, which word shall be made the adjunct, and which the leading term. Now, wherever there is much doubt which of the two forms ought to be preferred, I think we may well conclude that both are wrong; especially, if there can easily be found for the idea an other expression that is undoubtedly clear and correct. Examples: "These appear to be instances of the present _participle being used_ passively."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 64. "These are examples of the past _participle being applied_ in an active sense."--_Ib._, 64. "We have some examples of _adverbs being used_ for substantives."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 134; _Murray's_, 198; _Ingersoll's_, 206; _Fisk's_, 140; _Smith's_, 165. "By a _noun, pronoun_, or _adjective, being prefixed_ to the substantive."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 39; also _Ingersoll's, Fisk's, Alger's, Maltby's, Merchant's, Bacon's_, and others. Here, if their own rule is good for any thing, these authors ought rather to have preferred the possessive case; but strike out the word _being_, which is not necessary to the sense, and all question about the construction vanishes. Or if any body will justify these examples as they stand, let him observe that there are others, without number, to be justified on the same principle; as, "Much depends _on the rule being observed_."--"Much will depend _on the pupil composing frequently_." Again: "Cyrus did not wait for the _Babylonians coming_ to attack him."--_Rollin_, ii, 86. "Cyrus did not wait for the _Babylonians' coming_ to attack him." That is--"for _their_ coming," and not, "for _them_ coming;" but much better than either: "Cyrus did not wait for the Babylonians _to come and_ attack him." Again: "To prevent his _army's being_ enclosed and hemmed in."--_Rollin_, ii, 89. "To prevent his _army being_ enclosed and hemmed in." Both are wrong. Say, "To prevent his _army from being_ enclosed and hemmed in." Again: "As a sign of _God's fulfilling_ the promise."--_Rollin_, ii, 23. "As a sign of _God fulfilling_ the promise." Both are objectionable. Say, "As a sign _that God would fulfill_ the promise." Again: "There is affirmative evidence for _Moses's being_ the author of these books."--_Bp. Watson's Apology_, p. 28. "The first argument you produce against _Moses being_ the author of these books."--_Ib._, p. 29. Both are bad. Say,--"for _Moses as being_ the author,"--"against _Moses as being_ the author," &c. OBS. 14.--Now, although thousands of sentences might easily be quoted, in which the possessive case is _actually_ governed by a participle, and that participle not taken in every respect as a noun; yet I imagine, there are, of this kind, few examples, if any, the meaning of which might not be _better expressed_ in some other way. There are surely none among all the examples which are presented by Priestley, Murray, and others, under their rule above. Nor would a thousand such as are there given, amount to any proof of the rule. They are all of them _unreal_ or _feigned_ sentences, made up for the occasion, and, like most others that are produced in the same way, made up badly--made up after some ungrammatical model. If a gentleman could possibly demand a _lady's meaning_ in such an act as _the holding-up of her train_, he certainly would use none of Priestley's three questions, which, with such ridiculous and uninstructive pedantry, are repeated and expounded by Latham, in his Hand-Book, §481; but would probably say, "Madam, _what do you mean_ by holding up your train?" It was folly for the doctor to ask _an other person_, as if an other could _guess_ her meaning better than he. The text with the possessive is therefore not to be corrected by inserting a hyphen and an _of_, after Murray's doctrine before cited; as, "What is the meaning of this _lady's holding-up of_ her train?" Murray did well to reject this example, but as a specimen of English, his own is no better. The question which he asks, ought to have been, "_Why did this person dismiss_ his servant so hastily?" Fisk has it in the following form: "What is the reason of this _person's dismissing his servant_ so hastily?"--_English Grammar Simplified_, p. 108. This amender of grammars omits the _of_ which Murray and others scrupulously insert to govern the noun _servant_, and boldly avows at once, what their rule implies, that, "Participles are sometimes used both as verbs and as nouns at the same time; as, 'By the _mind's changing the object_,' &c."--_Ib._, p. 134; so _Emmons's Gram._, p. 64. But he errs as much as they, and contradicts both himself and them. For one ought rather to say, "By the _mind's changing of_ the object;" else _changing_, which "does the office of a noun," has not truly "a correspondent regimen." Yet _of_ is useless after _dismissing_, unless we take away the _adverb_ by which the participle is prevented from becoming a noun. "Dismissing _of_ his servant so _hastily_," is in itself an ungrammatical phrase; and nothing but to omit either the preposition, or the two adverbs, can possibly make it right. Without the latter, it may follow the possessive; but without the former, our most approved grammars say it cannot. Some critics, however, object to the _of_, because _the dismissing_ is not _the servant's_ act; but this, as I shall hereafter show, is no valid objection: they stickle for a false rule. OBS. 15.--Thus these authors, differing from one an other as they do, and each contradicting himself and some of the rest, are, as it would seem, all wrong in respect to the whole matter at issue. For whether the phrase in question be like Priestley's, or like Murray's, or like Fisk's, it is still, according to the best authorities, unfit to govern the possessive case; because, in stead of being a substantive, it is something more than a participle, and yet they take it substantively. They form this phrase in many different fashions, and yet each man of them pretends that what he approves, is just like the construction of a regular noun: "_Just as we say_, 'What is the reason of this person's _hasty dismission of_ his servant.'"--_Murray, Fisk, and others. "Just as we say_, 'What is the meaning of this lady's _dress_,' &c."--_Priestley_. The meaning of a _lady's dress_, forsooth! The illustration is worthy of the doctrine taught. "_An entire clause of a sentence_" substantively possessed, is sufficiently like "_the meaning of a lady's dress, &c._" Cobbett despised _andsoforths_, for their lack of meaning; and I find none in this one, unless it be, "_of tinsel and of fustian_." This gloss therefore I wholly disapprove, judging the position more tenable, to deny, if we consequently must, that either a phrase or a participle, as such, can consistently govern the possessive case. For whatever word or term gives rise to the direct relation of property, and is rightly made to govern the possessive case, ought in reason to be a _noun_--ought to be the name of some substance, quality, state, action, passion, being, or thing. When therefore other parts of speech assume this relation, they naturally _become nouns_; as, "Against the day of _my burying_."--_John_, xii, 7. "Till the day of _his showing_ unto Israel."--_Luke_, i, 80. "By _my own showing_."--_Cowper, Life_, p. 22. "By a fortune of _my own getting_."--_Ib._ "Let _your yea_ be yea, and _your nay_ nay."--_James_, v, 12. "Prate of _my whereabout_."--_Shah_. OBS. 16.--The government of possessives by "_entire clauses_" or "_substantive phrases_," as they are sometimes called, I am persuaded, may best be disposed of, in almost every instance, by charging the construction with impropriety or awkwardness, and substituting for it some better phraseology. For example, our grammars abound with sentences like the following, and call them good English: (1.) "So we may either say, 'I remember _it being_ reckoned a great exploit;' or perhaps more elegantly, 'I remember _its being_ reckoned a great exploit.'"--_Priestley, Murray, and others_. Here both modes are wrong; the latter, especially; because it violates a general rule of syntax, in regard to the case of the noun _exploit_. Say, "I remember _it_ was reckoned a great exploit." Again: (2.) "We also properly say, 'This will be the effect of the _pupil's composing_ frequently.'"--_Murray's Gram._, p. 179; _and others_. Better, "This will be the effect, _if the pupil compose_ frequently." But this sentence is _fictitious_, and one may doubt whether good authors can be found who use _compose_ or _composing_ as being intransitive. (3.) "What can be the reason of the _committee's having delayed_ this business?"--_Murray's Key_, p. 223. Say, "_Why have the committee_ delayed this business?" (4.) "What can be the cause of the _parliament's neglecting_ so important a business?"--_Ib._, p. 195. Say, "_Why does the parliament neglect_ so important a business?" (5.) "The time of _William's making_ the experiment, at length arrived."--_Ib._, p. 195. Say, "The time _for William to make_ the experiment, at length arrived." (6.) "I hope this is the last time of _my acting_ so imprudently."--_Ib._, p. 263. Say, "I hope _I shall never again act_ so imprudently." (7.) "If I were to give a reason for _their looking so well_, it would be, that they rise early."--_Ib._, p. 263. Say, "I should attribute _their healthful appearance_ to their early rising." (8.) "The tutor said, that diligence and application to study were necessary to _our becoming_ good scholars."--_Cooper's Gram._, p. 145. Here is an anomaly in the construction of the noun _scholars_. Say, "The tutor said, that _diligent application_ to study was necessary to our _success in learning_." (9.) "The reason of _his having acted_ in the manner he did, was not fully explained."--_Murray's Key_, p. 263. This author has a very singular mode of giving "STRENGTH" to weak sentences. The faulty text here was. "The reason why he _acted_ in the manner he did, was not fully explained."--_Murray's Exercises_, p. 131. This is much better than the other, but I should choose to say. "The reason of _his conduct_ was not fully explained." For, surely, the "one idea or circumstance" of his "having acted in the manner in _which_ he did act," may be quite as forcibly named by the one word _conduct_, as by all this verbiage, this "substantive phrase," or "entire clause," of such cumbrous length. OBS. 17.--The foregoing observations tend to show, that the government of possessives by participles, is in general a construction little to be commended, if at all allowed. I thus narrow down the application of the principle, but do not hereby determine it to be altogether wrong. There are other arguments, both for and against the doctrine, which must be taken into the account, before we can fully decide the question. The double construction which may be given to infinitive verbs; the Greek idiom which allows to such verbs an article before them and an objective after them; the mixed character of the Latin gerund, part noun, part verb; the use or substitution of the participle in English for the gerund in Latin;--all these afford so many reasons by analogy, for allowing that our participle--except it be the perfect--since it participates the properties of a verb and a noun, as well as those of a verb and an adjective, may unite in itself a double construction, and be taken substantively in one relation, and participially in an other. Accordingly some grammarians so define it; and many writers so use it; both parties disregarding the distinction between the participle and the participial noun, and justifying the construction of the former, not only as a proper participle after its noun, and as a gerundive after its preposition; not only as a participial adjective before its noun, and as a participial noun, in the regular syntax of a noun; but also as a mixed term, in the double character of noun and participle at once. Nor are these its only uses; for, after an auxiliary, it is the main verb; and in a few instances, it passes into a preposition, an adverb, or something else. Thus have we from the verb a single derivative, which fairly ranks with about half the different parts of speech, and takes distinct constructions even more numerous; and yet these authors scruple not to make of it a hybridous thing, neither participle nor noun, but constructively both. "But this," says Lowth, "is inconsistent; let it be either the one or the other, and abide by its proper construction."--_Gram._, p. 82. And so say I--as asserting the general principle, and leaving the reader to judge of its exceptions. Because, without this mongrel character, the participle in our language has a multiplicity of uses unparalleled in any other; and because it seldom happens that the idea intended by this double construction may not be otherwise expressed more elegantly. But if it sometimes seem proper that the gerundive participle should be allowed to govern the possessive case, no exception to my rule is needed for the _parsing_ of such possessive; because whatever is invested with such government, whether rightly or wrongly, is assumed as "the name of something possessed." OBS. 18.--The reader may have observed, that in the use of participial nouns, the distinction of _voice_ in the participle is sometimes disregarded. Thus, "Against the day of my _burying_," means, "Against the day of my _being buried._" But in this instance the usual noun _burial_ or _funeral_ would have been better than either: "Against the day of _my burial_." I. e., "In diem _funerationis meæ._"--_Beza_. "In diem _sepulturæ meæ_."--_Leusden_. "[Greek: 'Eis t`æn hæméran toû entaphiasmoû mou.]"--_John_, xii, 7. In an other text, this noun is very properly used for the Greek infinitive, and the Latin gerund; as, "_For my burial._"--_Matt._, xxvi, 12. "Ad _funerandum_ me."--_Beza_. "Ad _sepeliendum_ me."--_Leusden_. Literally: "_For burying me._" "[Greek: Pròs tò entaphiásai me.]" Nearly: "_For to have me buried._" Not all that is allowable, is commendable; and if either of the uncompounded terms be found a fit substitute for the compound participial noun, it is better to dispense with the latter, on account of its dissimilarity to other nouns: as, "Which only proceed upon the _question's being begged._"--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. iii, p. 361. Better, "Which only proceed upon _a begging of the question._" "The _king's having conquered_ in the battle, established his throne."--_Nixon's Parser_, p. 128. Better, "The king's _conquering_ in the battle;" for, in the participial noun, the distinction of _tense_, or of previous _completion_, is as needless as that of voice. "The _fleet's having sailed_ prevented mutiny."--_Ib._, p. 78. Better, "The _sailing of the fleet_,"--or, "The _fleet's sailing_" &c. "The _prince's being murdered_ excited their pity."--_Ibid._ Better, "The _prince's murder_ excited their _indignation_." OBS. 19.--In some instances, as it appears, not a little difficulty is experienced by our grammarians, respecting the addition or the omission of the possessive sign, the terminational apostrophic _s_, which in nouns is the ordinary index of the possessive case. Let it be remembered that every possessive is governed, or ought to be governed, by some noun expressed or understood, except such as (without the possessive sign) are put in apposition with others so governed; and for every possessive termination there must be a separate governing word, which, if it is not expressed, is shown by the possessive sign to be understood. The possessive sign itself _may_ and _must_ be omitted in certain cases; but, because it can never be inserted or discarded without suggesting or discarding a governing noun, it is never omitted _by ellipsis_, as Buchanan, Murray, Nixon, and many others, erroneously teach. The four lines of Note 2d below, are sufficient to show, in every instance, when it must be used, and when omitted; but Murray, after as many octavo pages on the point, still leaves it perplexed and undetermined. If a person knows what he means to say, let him express it according to the Note, and he will not fail to use just as many apostrophes and Esses as he ought. How absurd then is that common doctrine of ignorance, which Nixon has gathered from Allen and Murray, his chief oracles! "If _several_ nouns in the _genitive_ case, are immediately connected by a _conjunction_, the apostrophic _s_ is annexed _to the last_, but _understood to the rest_; as, Neither _John_ (i. e. John's) nor _Eliza's_ books."--_English Parser_, p. 115. The author gives fifteen other examples like this, all of them bad English, or at any rate, not adapted to the sense which he intends! OBS. 20.--The possessive case generally comes _immediately before_ the governing noun, expressed or understood; as, "All _nature's_ difference keeps all _nature's_ peace."--_Pope_. "Lady! be _thine_ (i. e., _thy walk_) the _Christian's_ walk."--_Chr. Observer._ "Some of _�schylus's_ [plays] and _Euripides's_ plays are opened in this manner."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 459. And in this order one possessive sometimes governs an other: as, "_Peter's wife's mother_;"--"_Paul's sister's son_."--_Bible_. But, to this general principle of arrangement, there are some exceptions: as, 1. When the governing noun has an adjective, this may intervene; as, "_Flora's_ earliest _smells_."--_Milton_. "Of _man's_ first disobedience."--_Id._ In the following phrase from the Spectator, "Of _Will's_ last _night's_ lecture," it is not very clear, whether _Will's_ is governed by _night's_ or by _lecture_; yet it violates a general principle of our grammar, to suppose the latter; because, on this supposition, two possessives, each having the sign, will be governed by one noun. 2. When the possessive is affirmed or denied; as, "The book is _mine_, and not _John's_." But here the governing noun _may be supplied_ in its proper place; and, in some such instances, it _must_ be, else a pronoun or the verb will be the only governing word: as, "Ye are _Christ's_ [disciples, or people]; and Christ is _God's_" [son].--_St. Paul_. Whether this phraseology is thus elliptical or not, is questionable. See Obs. 4th, in this series. 3. When the case occurs without the sign, either by apposition or by connexion; as, "In her _brother Absalom's_ house."--_Bible_. "_David_ and _Jonathan's_ friendship."--_Allen_. "_Adam_ and _Eve's_ morning hymn."--_Dr. Ash_. "Behold the heaven, and the heaven of heavens, is the _Lord's_ thy _God_."--_Deut._,, x, 14. "For _peace_ and _quiet's_ sake."--_Cowper_. "To the beginning of _King James_ the _First's_ reign."--_Bolingbroke, on Hist._, p. 32. OBS. 21--The possessive case is in general (though not always) equivalent to the preposition _of_ and _the objective_; as, "_Of_ Judas Iscariot, _Simon's_ son."--_John_, xiii, 2. "_To_ Judas Iscariot, the son _of Simon_."--_Ib._, xiii, 26. On account of this one-sided equivalence, many grammarians erroneously reckon the latter to be a "_genitive case_" as well as the former. But they ought to remember, that the preposition is used more frequently than the possessive, and in a variety of senses that cannot be interpreted by this case; as, "_Of_ some _of_ the books _of_ each _of_ these classes _of_ literature, a catalogue will be given at the end _of_ the work."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 178. Murray calls this a "laborious mode of expression," and doubtless it might be a little improved by substituting _in_ for the third _of_; but my argument is, that the meaning conveyed cannot be expressed by possessives. The notion that _of_ forms a genitive case, led Priestley to suggest, that our language admits a "_double genitive_;" as, "This book _of_ my _friend's_."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 71. "It is a discovery _of Sir Isaac Newton's_."--_Ib._, p. 72. "This exactness _of his_."--STERNE: _ib._ The doctrine has since passed into nearly all our grammars; yet is there no double case here, as I shall presently show. OBS. 22.--Where the governing noun cannot be easily mistaken, it is often omitted by ellipsis: as, "At the alderman's" [_house_];--"St. Paul's" [_church_];--"A book of my brother's" [_books_];--"A subject of the emperor's" [_subjects_];--"A friend of mine;" i. e., _one of my friends_. "Shall we say that Sacrificing was a pure invention of _Adam's_, or of _Cain_ or _Abel's?_"--_Leslie, on Tythes_, p. 93. That is--of Adam's _inventions_, or of Cain or Abel's _inventions_. The Rev. David Blair, unable to resolve this phraseology to his own satisfaction, absurdly sets it down among what he calls "ERRONEOUS OR VULGAR PHRASES." His examples are these: "A poem of Pope's;"--"A soldier of the king's;"--"That is a horse of my father's."--_Blair's Practical Gram._, p. 110, 111. He ought to have supplied the plural nouns, _poems, soldiers, horses_. This is the true explanation of all the "double genitives" which our grammarians discover; for when the first noun is _partitive_, it naturally suggests more or other things of the same kind, belonging to this possessor; and when such is not the meaning, this construction is improper. In the following example, the noun _eyes_ is understood after _his_: "Ev'n _his_, the _warrior's eyes_, were forced to yield, That saw, without a tear, Pharsalia's field." --_Rowe's Lucan_, B. viii, l. 144. OBS. 23.--When two or more nouns of the possessive form are in any way connected, they usually refer to things individually different but of the same name; and when such is the meaning, the governing noun, which we always suppress somewhere to avoid tautology, is _understood_ wherever the sign is added without it; as, "A _father's_ or _mother's sister_ is an aunt."--_Dr. Webster_. That is, "A _father's sister_ or a mother's sister is an aunt." "In the same commemorative acts of the senate, _were thy name_, thy _father's_, thy _brother's_, and the _emperor's_."--_Zenobia_, Vol. i, p. 231. "From Stiles's pocket into _Nokes's_" [pocket]. --_Hudibras_, B. iii, C. iii, l. 715. "Add _Nature's, Custom's, Reason's_, Passion's strife." --_Pope, Brit. Poets_, Vol. vi, p. 383. It will be observed that in all these examples the governing noun is singular; and, certainly, it must be so, if, with more than one possessive sign, we mean to represent each possessor as having or possessing but one object. If the noun be made plural where it is expressed, it will also be plural where it is implied. It is good English to say, "A _father's_ or _mother's sisters_ are aunts;" but the meaning is, "A father's _sisters_ or a mother's sisters are aunts." But a recent school critic teaches differently, thus: "When different things of the same name belong to different possessors, the sign should be annexed to each; as, _Adams's, Davies's_, and _Perkins'_ Arithmetics; i. e., _three different books_."--_Spencer's Gram._, p. 47. Here the example is fictitious, and has almost as many errors as words. It would be much better English to say, "_Adams's, Davies's, and Perkins's Arithmetic_;" though the objective form with _of_ would, perhaps, be still more agreeable for these peculiar names. Spencer, whose Grammar abounds with useless repetitions, repeats his note elsewhere, with the following illustrations: "E. g. _Olmstead's_ and _Comstock's_ Philosophies. _Gould's Adam's_ Latin Grammar."--_Ib._, p. 106. The latter example is no better suited to his text, than "_Peter's wife's mother_;" and the former is fit only to mean, "Olmstead's _Philosophies_ and Comstock's Philosophies." To speak of the two books only, say," Olmstead's _Philosophy_ and Comstock's." OBS. 24.--The possessive sign is sometimes annexed to that part of a compound name, which is, of itself, in the objective case; as, "At his _father-in-law's_ residence." Here, "_At the residence of his father-in-law_," would be quite as agreeable; and, as for the plural, one would hardly think of saying, "Men's wedding parties are usually held at their _fathers-in-law's_ houses." When the compound is formed with _of_, to prevent a repetition of this particle, the possessive sign is sometimes added as above; and yet the hyphen is not commonly inserted in the phrase, as I think it ought to be. Examples: "The duke of Bridgewater's canal;"--"The bishop of Landaff's excellent book;"--"The Lord mayor of London's authority;"--"The captain of the guard's house."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 176. "The Bishop of Cambray's writings on eloquence."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 345. "The bard of Lomond's lay is done."--_Queen's Wake_, p. 99. "For the kingdom of God's sake."--_Luke_, xviii, 29. "Of the children of Israel's half."--_Numbers_, xxxi, 30. From these examples it would seem, that the possessive sign has a less intimate alliance with the possessive case, than with the governing noun; or, at any rate, a dependence less close than that of the objective noun which here assumes it. And since the two nouns here so intimately joined by _of_, cannot be explained separately as forming two cases, but must be parsed together as _one name_ governed in the usual way, I should either adopt some other phraseology, or write the compound terms with hyphens, thus: "The _Duke-of-Bridgewater's_ canal;"--"The _Bishop-of-Landaff's_ excellent book;"--"The _Bard-of- Lomond's_ lay is done." But there is commonly some better mode of correcting such phrases. With deference to Murray and others, "_The King of Great Britain's prerogative_," [349] is but an untoward way of saying, "_The prerogative of the British King_;" and, "_The Lord mayor of London's authority_," may quite as well be written, "_The authority of London's Lord Mayor_." Blair, who for brevity robs the _Arch_bishop of half his title, might as well have said, "_Fenelon's_ writings on eloquence." "_Propter regnum Dei_," might have been rendered, "For the kingdom _of God_;"--"For _the sake of_ the kingdom of God;"--or, "For the sake of _God's_ kingdom." And in lieu of the other text, we might say, "Of the _Israelites'_ half." OBS. 25.--"Little explanatory circumstances," says Priestley, "are particularly awkward between the _genitive case_, and the word which usually follows it; as, 'She began to extol the farmer's, _as she called him_, excellent understanding.' Harriet Watson, Vol. i, p. 27."--_Priestley's Gram._, p 174. Murray assumes this remark, and adds respecting the example, "It ought to be, 'the excellent understanding of the farmer, as she called him.' "--_Murray's Gram._, p. 175. Intersertions of this kind are as uncommon as they are uncouth. Murray, it seems, found none for his Exercises, but made up a couple to suit his purpose. The following might have answered as well for an other: "Monsieur D'acier observes, that Zeno's (the Founder of the Sect,) opinion was Fair and Defensible in these Points."--_Colliers Antoninus_, p. ii. OBS. 26.--It is so usual a practice in our language, to put the possessive sign always and only where the two terms of the possessive relation meet, that this ending is liable to be added to any adjunct which can be taken as a part of the former noun or name; as, (1.) "The _court-martial's_ violent proceedings." Here the plural would be _courts-martial_; but the possessive sign must be at the end. (2.) "In _Henry the Eighth's_ time."--_Walker's Key, Introd._, p. 11. This phrase can be justified only by supposing the adjective a part of the name. Better, "In the time of Henry the Eighth." (3.) "And strengthened with a _year or two's age_."--_Locke, on Education_, p. 6. Here _two's_ is put for _two years_; and, I think, improperly; because the sign is such as suits the former noun, and not the plural. Better, "And strengthened with _a year's age or more_." The word _two_ however is declinable as a noun, and possibly it may be so taken in Locke's phrase. (4.) "This rule is often infringed, by the _case absolute's not being properly distinguished_ from certain forms of expression apparently _similar_ to it."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 155; _Fisk's_, 113; _Ingersoll's_, 210. Here the possessive sign, being appended to a distinct adjective, and followed by nothing that can be called a noun, is employed as absurdly as it well can be. Say, "This rule is often infringed by an improper use of the nominative absolute;" for this is precisely what these authors mean. (5.) "The participle is distinguished from the adjective by the _former's expressing the idea of time_, and the _latter's denoting only a quality_"--_Murray's Gram._, p. 65; _Fisk's_, 82; _Ingersoll's_, 45; _Emmons's_, 64; _Alger's_, 28. This is liable to nearly the same objections. Say, "The participle differs from an adjective by expressing the idea of time, whereas the adjective denotes only a quality." (6.) "The relatives _that_ and _as_ differ from _who_ and _which_ in the _former's not being immediately joined_ to the governing word."--_Nixon's Parser_, p. 140. This is still worse, because _former's_, which is like a singular noun, has here a plural meaning; namely, "in _the former terms' not being_," &c. Say--"in _that the former never follow_ the governing word." OBS. 27.--The possessive termination is so far from being liable to suppression _by ellipsis_, agreeably to the nonsense of those interpreters who will have it to be "_understood_" wherever the case occurs without it, that on the contrary it is sometimes retained where there is an actual suppression of the noun to which it belongs. This appears to be the case whenever the pronominal adjectives _former_ and _latter_ are inflected, as above. The inflection of these, however, seems to be needless, and may well be reckoned improper. But, in the following line, the adjective elegantly takes the sign; because there is an ellipsis of both nouns; _poor's_ being put for _poor man's_, and the governing noun _joys_ being understood after it: "The _rich man's joys_ increase, the _poor's decay_."--_Goldsmith_. So, in the following example, _guilty's_ is put for _guilty person's_: "Yet, wise and righteous ever, scorns to hear The fool's fond wishes, or the _guilty's_ prayer." --_Rowe's Lucan_, B. v, l. 155. This is a poetical license; and others of a like nature are sometimes met with. Our poets use the possessive case much more frequently than prose writers, and occasionally inflect words that are altogether invariable in prose; as, "Eager that last great chance of war he waits, Where _either's_ fall determines _both their_ fates." --_Ibid._, B. vi, l. 13. OBS. 28.--To avoid a concurrence of hissing sounds, the _s_ of the possessive singular is sometimes omitted, and the apostrophe alone retained to mark the case: as, "For _conscience'_ sake."--_Bible_. "_Moses'_ minister."--_Ib._ "_Felix'_ room."--_Ib._ "_Achilles'_ wrath."--_Pope_. "_Shiraz'_ walls."--_Collins_. "_Epicurus'_ sty."--_Beattie_. "_Douglas'_ daughter."--_Scott_. "For _Douglas'_ sake."--_Ib._ "To his _mistress'_ eyebrow."--_Shak_. This is a sort of poetic license, as is suggested in the 16th Observation upon the Cases of Nouns, in the Etymology. But in prose the elision should be very sparingly indulged; it is in general less agreeable, as well as less proper, than the regular form. Where is the propriety of saying, _Hicks' Sermons, Barnes' Notes, Kames' Elements, Adams' Lectures, Josephus' Works_, while we so uniformly say, in _Charles's reign, St. James's Palace_, and the like? The following examples are right: "At Westminster and _Hicks's Hall_."--_Hudibras_. "Lord _Kames's_ Elements of Criticism."--_Murray's Sequel_, p. 331. "Of _Rubens's_ allegorical pictures."--_Hazlitt_. "With respect to _Burns's_ early education."--_Dugald Stewart_. "_Isocrates's_ pomp;"--"_Demosthenes's_ life."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 242. "The repose of _Epicurus's_ gods."--_Wilson's Heb. Gram._, p. 93. "To _Douglas's_ obscure abode."--_Scott, L. L._, C. iii, st. 28. "Such was the _Douglas's_ command."--_Id., ib._, C. ii, st. 36. OBS. 29.--Some of our grammarians, drawing broad conclusions from a few particular examples, falsely teach as follows: "When a singular noun ends in _ss_, the apostrophe only is added; as, 'For _goodness'_ sake:' except the word _witness_; as, 'The _witness's_ testimony.' When a noun in the possessive case ends in _ence_, the _s_ is omitted, but the apostrophe is retained; as, 'For _conscience'_ sake.'"--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 49; _Hamlin's_, 16; _Smith's New Gram._, 47.[350] Of principles or inferences very much like these, is the whole system of "_Inductive Grammar_" essentially made up. But is it not plain that _heiress's, abbess's, peeress's, countess's_, and many other words of the same form, are as good English as _witness's_? Did not Jane West write justly, "She made an attempt to look in at the dear _dutchess's_?"--_Letters to a Lady_, p. 95. Does not the Bible speak correctly of "_an ass's head_," sold at a great price?--_2 Kings_, vi, 25. Is Burns also wrong, about "_miss's fine lunardi_," and "_miss's bonnet?_"--_Poems_, p. 44. Or did Scott write inaccurately, whose guide "Led slowly through the _pass's_ jaws?"--_Lady of the Lake_, p. 121. So much for the _ss_; nor is the rule for the termination _ence_, or (as Smith has it) _nce_, more true. _Prince's_ and _dunce's_ are as good possessives as any; and so are the following: "That vice should triumph, virtue vice obey; This sprung some doubt of _Providence's_ sway."--_Parnell_. "And sweet _Benevolence's_ mild command."--_Lord Lyttleton_. "I heard the _lance's_ shivering crash, As when the whirlwind rends the ash."--_Sir Walter Scott_. OBS. 30.--The most common rule now in use for the construction of the possessive case, is a shred from the old code of Latin grammar: "One substantive governs _another_, signifying a different thing, _in_ the possessive or genitive case."--_L. Murray's Rule X_. This canon not only leaves occasion for an additional one respecting pronouns of the possessive case, but it is also obscure in its phraseology, and too negligent of the various modes in which nouns may come together in English. All nouns used adjectively, and many that are compounded together, seem to form exceptions to it. But who can limit or enumerate these _exceptions?_ Different combinations of nouns have so often little or no difference of meaning, or of relation to each other, and so frequently is the very same vocal expression written variously by our best scholars, and ablest lexicographers, that in many ordinary instances it seems scarcely possible to determine who or what is right. Thus, on the authority of Johnson, one might write, _a stone's cast_, or _stone's throw_; but Webster has it, _stones-cast_, or _stones-throw_; Maunder, _stonecast, stonethrow_; Chalmers, _stonescast_; Worcester, _stone's-cast_. So Johnson and Chalmers write _stonesmickle_, a bird; Webster has it, _stone's-mickle_; yet, all three refer to Ainsworth as their authority, and his word is _stone-smickle_: Littleton has it _stone-smich_. Johnson and Chalmers write, _popeseye_ and _sheep's eye_; Walker, Maunder, and Worcester, _popeseye_ and _sheep's-eye_; Scott has _pope's-eye_ and _sheepseye_; Webster, _pope's-eye_ and _sheep's-eye, bird-eye_, and _birds-eye._ Ainsworth has _goats beard_, for the name of a plant; Johnson, _goatbeard_; Webster, _goat-beard_ and _goats-beard._ Ainsworth has _prince's feather_, for the amaranth; Johnson, Chalmers, Walker, and Maunder, write it _princes-feather_; Webster and Worcester, _princes'-feather_; Bolles has it _princesfeather_: and here they are all wrong, for the word should be _prince's-feather._ There are hundreds more of such terms; all as uncertain in their orthography as these. OBS. 31.--While discrepances like the foregoing abound in our best dictionaries, none of our grammars supply any hints tending to show which of these various forms we ought to prefer. Perhaps the following suggestions, together with the six Rules for the Figure of Words, in Part First, may enable the reader to decide these questions with sufficient accuracy. (1.) Two short radical nouns are apt to unite in a permanent compound, when the former, taking the sole accent, expresses the main purpose or chief characteristic of the thing named by the latter; as, _teacup, sunbeam, daystar, horseman, sheepfold, houndfish, hourglass._ (2.) Temporary compounds of a like nature may be formed with the hyphen, when there remain two accented syllables; as, _castle-wall, bosom-friend, fellow-servant, horse-chestnut, goat-marjoram, marsh-marigold._ (3.) The former of two nouns, if it be not plural, may be taken adjectively, in any relation that differs from apposition and from possession; as, "The _silver_ cup,"--"The _parent_ birds,"--"My _pilgrim_ feet,"--"Thy _hermit_ cell,"--"Two _brother_ sergeants." (4.) The possessive case and its governing noun, combining to form a literal name, may be joined together without either hyphen or apostrophe: as, _tradesman, ratsbane, doomsday, kinswoman, craftsmaster._ (5.) The possessive case and its governing noun, combining to form a _metaphorical_ name, should be written with both apostrophe and hyphen; as, _Job's-tears, Jew's-ear, bear's-foot, colts-tooth, sheep's-head, crane's-bill, crab's-eyes, hound's-tongue, king's-spear, lady's-slipper, lady's-bedstraw_, &c. (6.) The possessive case and its governing noun, combining to form an adjective, whether literal or metaphorical, should generally be written with both apostrophe and hyphen; as, "_Neats-foot_ oil,"--"_Calfs-foot_ jelly,"--"A _carp's-tongue_ drill,"--"A _bird's-eye_ view,"--"The _states'-rights'_ party,"--"A _camel's-hair_ shawl." But a triple compound noun may be formed with one hyphen only: as, "In doomsday-book;" (--_Joh. Dict._;) "An _armsend-lift._" Cardell, who will have all possessives to be adjectives, writes an example thus: "John's camel's hair girdle."--_Elements of Eng. Gram._, p. 39. That is as if John's camel had a hair girdle! (7.) When the possessive case and its governing noun merely help to form a regular phrase, the compounding of them in any fashion may be reckoned improper; thus the phrases, _a day's work, at death's door, on New Year's Day, a new year's gift, All Souls' Day, All Saints' Day, All Fools' Day, the saints' bell, the heart's blood, for dog's meat_, though often written otherwise, may best stand as they do here. OBS. 32.--The existence of a permanent compound of any two words, does not necessarily preclude the use of the possessive relation between the same words. Thus, we may speak of _a horse's shoe_ or _a goat's skin_, notwithstanding there are such words as horseshoe and goatskin. E.g., "That preach ye upon the _housetops._"--ALGER'S BIBLE: _Matt._, x, 27. "Unpeg the basket on the _house's top._"--_Beauties of Shak._, p. 238. Webster defines _frostnail_, (which, under the word _cork_, he erroneously writes _frost nail_,) "A nail driven into a _horse-shoe_, to prevent _the horse_ from slipping on ice." Worcester has it, "A nail driven into a _horse's shoe_, to prevent _his slipping on the ice._" Johnson, "A nail with a _prominent head driven_ into the _horse's shoes_, that it may pierce the ice." Maunder, "A nail with a _sharp head driven_ into the _horses' shoes_ in frosty weather." None of these descriptions is very well written. Say rather, "A _spur-headed_ nail driven into a _horse's shoe_ to prevent _him from_ slipping." There is commonly some difference, and sometimes a very great one, between the compound noun and the possessive relation, and also between the radical compound and that of the possessive. Thus a _harelip_ is not a _hare's lip_, nor is a _headman_ a _headsman_, or _heart-ease heart's-ease._ So, according to the books, a _cat-head_, a _cat's-head_, and a _cat's head_, are three very different things; yet what Webster writes, _cat-tail_, Johnson, _cats-tail_, Walker and others, _cats-tail_, means but the same thing, though not a _cat's tail._ Johnson's "_kingspear, Jews-ear, lady-mantle, and lady-bedstraw_," are no more proper, than Webster's "_bear's-wort, lion's foot, lady's mantle, and lady's bed-straw._" All these are wrong. OBS. 33.--Particular examples, both of proper distinction, and of blind irregularity, under all the heads above suggested, may be quoted and multiplied indefinitely, even from our highest literary authorities; but, since nothing can be settled but by the force of _principles_, he who would be accurate, must resort to rules,--must consider what is analogical, and, in all doubtful cases, give this the preference. But, in grammar, particular analogies are to be respected, as well as those which are more general. For example, the noun _side_, in that relation which should seem to require the preceding noun to be in the possessive case, is usually compounded with it, the hyphen being used where the compound has more than two syllables, but not with two only; as, _bedside, hillside, roadside, wayside, seaside, river-side, water-side, mountain-side._ Some instances of the separate construction occur, but they are rare: as, "And her maidens walked along by the _river's side._"--_Exodus_, ii, 5. After this noun also, the possessive preposition _of_ is sometimes omitted; as, "On this _side_ the river;"(--_Bible_;) "On this _side_ Trent."--_Cowell_. Better, "On this _side of_ the river," &c. "Blind Bartimeus sat by the _highway side_, begging."--_Mark_, x, 46. Here Alger more properly writes "_highway-side._" In Rev., xiv, 20th, we have the unusual compound, "_horse-bridles._" The text ought to have been rendered, "even unto the _horses' bridles._" Latin, "usque ad frænos equorum." Greek, "[Greek: achri ton chalinon ton hippon]." OBS. 34.--Correlatives, as father and son, husband and wife, naturally possess each other; hence such combinations as _father's son_, and _son's father_, though correct enough in thought, are redundant in expression. The whole and a part are a sort of correlatives, but the whole seems to possess its parts, more properly than any of the parts, the whole. Yet we seldom put the whole in the possessive case before its part, or parts, but rather express the relation by _of_; as, "a quarter _of_ a dollar," rather than, "a _dollar's_ quarter." After the noun _half_, we usually suppress this preposition, if an article intervene; as, "_half a dollar_," rather than, "half _of_ a dollar," or "a _dollar's_ half." So we may say, "_half the way_," for "half _of_ the way;" but we cannot say, "_half us_" for "half _of_ us." In the phrase, "_a half dollar_," the word _half_ is an adjective, and a very different meaning is conveyed. Yet the compounds _half-pint_ and _half-penny_ are sometimes used to signify, the _quantity_ of _half a pint_, the _value_ of _half a penny_. In weight, measure, or time, the part is sometimes made possessive of the whole; as, "a _pound's_ weight, a _yard's_ length, an _hour's_ time." On the contrary, we do not say, "_weight's_ pound, _length's_ yard, or _time's_ hour;" nor yet, "a pound _of_ weight, a yard _of_ length;" and rarely do we say, "an hour _of_ time." _Pound_ and _yard_ having other uses, we sometimes say, "a pound _in_ weight, a yard _in_ length;" though scarcely, "an hour _in_ time." OBS. 35.--Between a portion of time and its correlative action, passion, or being, the possessive relation is interchangeable; so that either term may be the principal, and either, the adjunct: as, "_Three years'_ hard work," or, "Three years _of hard work_." Sometimes we may even put either term in either form; as, "During the _ten years'_ war,"--"During the ten years _of war_,"--"During the war _of ten years_,"--"During the _war's_ ten years." Hence some writers, not perceiving why either word should make the other its governed adjunct, place both upon a par, as if they were in apposition; as, "Three _days time_."--_Brown's Estimate_, Vol. ii, p. 156. "By a few _years preparation_."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 341. "Of forty _years planting_."--_Wm. Penn_. "An account, of five _years standing_." If these phrases were correct, it would also be correct to say, "_one day time_,"--"_one year preparation_,"--"_one year planting_,"--"_of one year standing_;" but all these are manifestly bad English; and, by analogy, so are the others. OBS. 36.--Any noun of weight, measure, or time, put immediately before an other, if it be not in the possessive case, will naturally be understood _adjectively_; as, "No person can, by words only, give to an other an adequate idea of a _pound weight_, or [a] _foot rule_."--_Gregory's Dict._ This phraseology can, with propriety, refer only to the weight or the rule with which we weigh or measure; it cannot signify _a pound in weight_, or _a foot in length_, though it is very probable that the author intended the latter. When the noun _times_ is used before an other noun by way of multiplication, there may be supposed an ellipsis of the preposition _of_ between the two, just as when we divide by the word _half_; as, "An hour is sixty _times the length_ of a minute."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 48. "Thirty seconds are _half the length_ of a minute." That is,--"half _of_ the length,"--"sixty times _of_ the length." NOTES TO RULE IV. NOTE I.--In the syntax of the possessive case, its appropriate form, singular or plural, should be observed, agreeably to the sense and declension of the word. Thus, write _John's, men's, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs_; and not, _Johns, mens', her's, it's, our's, your's, their's_. NOTE II.--When nouns of the possessive case are connected by conjunctions or put in apposition, the sign of possession must always be annexed to such, and such only, as immediately precede the governing noun, expressed or understood; as, "_John_ and _Eliza's_ teacher is a man of more learning than _James's_ or _Andrew's_"--"For _David_ my _servant's_ sake."--_Bible_. "For my sake and the _gospel's_."--_Ib._ "Lost in _love's_ and _friendship's_ smile."--_Scott_. NOTE III.--The relation of property may also be expressed by the preposition _of_ and the objective; as, "_The will of man_," for "_man's will_." Of these forms, we should adopt that which will render the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable; and, by the use of both, avoid an unpleasant repetition of either. NOTE IV.--A noun governing the possessive plural, should not, by a forced agreement, be made plural, when its own sense does not require it; as, "For _our parts_,"--"Were I in _your places_:" for we may with propriety say, "_Our part, your place_, or _your condition_;" as well as, "_Our desire, your intention, their resignation_."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 169. A noun taken figuratively may also be singular, when the literal meaning would require the plural: such expressions as, "_their face_,"--"_their neck_,"--"_their hand_,"--"_their head_,"--"_their heart_,"--"_our mouth_,"--"_our life_,"--are frequent in the Scriptures, and not improper. NOTE V.--The possessive case should not be needlessly used before a participle that is not taken in other respects as a noun. The following phrase is therefore wrong: "Adopted by the Goths in _their_ pronouncing the Greek."--_Walker's Key_, p. 17. Expunge _their_. Again: "Here we speak of _their_ becoming both in form and signification passive."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 226. Say rather, "Here we speak of _them as becoming passive_, both in form and signification." IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE IV. EXAMPLES UNDER NOTE I.--THE POSSESSIVE FORM. "Mans chief good is an upright mind." See _Brown's Institutes of E. Gram._, p. 179. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the noun _mans_, which is intended for the possessive singular of _man_, has _not_ the appropriate form of that case and number. But, according to Note 1st under Rule 4th, "In the syntax ef the possessive case, its appropriate form, singular or plural, should be observed, agreeably to the sense and declension of the word." Therefore, _mans_ should be maris, with the apostrophe before the _s_; thus, "_Man's_ chief good is an upright mind."] "The translator of Mallets History has the following note,"--_Webster's Essays_, p. 263. "The act, while it gave five years full pay to the officers, allowed but one year's pay to the privates."--_Ib._, p. 184. "For the study of English is preceded by several years attention to Latin and Greek."--_Ib._, p. 7. "The first, the Court Baron, is the freeholders or freemens court."--_Coke, Litt._, p. 74. "I affirm, that Vaugelas' definition labours under an essential defect."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 163. "I affirm, that Vangelas's definition labours under an essential defect."--_Murray's Octavo Gram._, Fourth Amer. Ed., Vol. ii, p. 360.[351] "There is a chorus in Aristophane's plays."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 480. "It denotes the same perception in my mind as in their's."--_Duncan's Logic_, p. 65. "This afterwards enabled him to read Hicke's Saxon Grammar."--_Life of Dr. Murray_, p. 76. "I will not do it for tens sake."--_Dr. Ash's Gram._, p. 56. "I arose, and asked if those charming infants were her's."--_Werter_, p. 21. "They divide their time between milliners shops and taverns."--_Brown's Estimate_, Vol. i, p. 65. "The angels adoring of Adam is also mentioned in the Talmud."--_Sale's Koran_, p. 6. "Quarrels arose from the winners insulting of those who lost."--_Ib._, p. 171. "The vacancy, occasioned by Mr. Adams' resignation."--_Adams's Rhet._, Vol. i, p. vii. "Read for instance Junius' address, commonly called his letter to the king."--_Ib._, i, 225. "A perpetual struggle against the tide of Hortensius' influence."--_Ib._, ii, 23. "Which, for distinction sake, I shall put down severally."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 302. "The fifth case is in a clause signifying the matter of ones fear."--_Ib._, p. 312. "And they took counsel, and bought with them the potters' field."--ALGER'S BIBLE: _Matt._, xxvii, 7. "Arise for thy servant's help, and redeem them for thy mercy's sake."--_Jenks's Prayers_, p. 265. "Shall not their cattle, and their substance, and every beast of their's be ours?"--SCOTT'S BIBLE: _Gen._, xxxiv, 23. "And every beast of their's, be our's?"--FRIENDS' BIBLE: _ib._ "It's regular plural, _bullaces_, is used by Bacon."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 213. "Mordecai walked every day before the court of the womens house."--SCOTT'S BIBLE: _Esther_, ii, 11. "Behold, they that wear soft clothing are in king's houses."--IB. and FRIENDS' BIBLE: _Matt._, xi, 8: also _Webster's Imp. Gram._, p. 173. "Then Jethro, Moses' father-in-law, took Zipporah, Moses' wife, and her two sons; and Jethro, Moses' father-in-law, came, with his sons and his wife, unto Moses."--ALGER'S BIBLE, and THE FRIENDS': _Exod._, xviii, 2--6. "King James' translators merely revised former translations."--_Rev. B. Frazee's Gram._, p. 137. "May they be like corn on houses tops."--_White, on the English Verb._, p. 160. "And for his Maker's image sake exempt." --_Par. Lost_, B. xi, l. 514. "By all the fame acquir'd in ten years war." --_Rowe's Lucan_, B. i, l. 674. "Nor glad vile poets with true critics gore." --_Pope's Dunicad_, [sic--KTH] p. 175. "Man only of a softer mold is made, Not for his fellow's ruin, but their aid." --_Dryden's Poems_, p. 92. UNDER NOTE II.--POSSESSIVES CONNECTED. "It was necessary to have both the physician, and the surgeon's advice."--_Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram._, p. 140. "This out-side fashionableness of the Taylor on Tire-woman's making."--_Locke, on Education_, p. 49. "Some pretending to be of Paul's party, others of Apollos, others of Cephas, and others, pretending yet higher, to be of Christ's."--_Woods Dict., w. Apollos_. "Nor is it less certain that Spenser's and Milton's spelling agrees better with our pronunciation."-- _Philol. Museum_, i, 661. "Law's, Edwards', and Watts' surveys of the Divine Dispensations."--_Burgh's Dignity_, Vol. i, p. 193. "And who was Enoch's Saviour, and the Prophets?"--_Bayly's Works_, p. 600. "Without any impediment but his own, or his parents or guardians will."--_Literary Convention_, p. 145. "James relieves neither the boy[352] nor the girl's distress."--_Nixon's Parser_, p. 116. "John regards neither the master nor the pupil's advantage."--_Ib._, p. 117. "You reward neither the man nor the woman's labours."--_Ib._ "She examines neither James nor John's conduct."-- _Ib._ "Thou pitiest neither the servant nor the master's injuries."--_Ib._ "We promote England or Ireland's happiness."--_Ib._ "Were Cain and Abel's occupation the same?"--_Brown's Inst._, p. 179. "Were Cain's and Abel's occupations the same?"--_Ib._ "What was Simon's and Andrew's employment?"-- _Author_. "Till he can read himself Sanctii Minerva with Scioppius and Perizonius's Notes."--_Locke, on Education_, p. 295. "And love's and friendship's finely--pointed dart Falls blunted from each indurated heart."--_Goldsmith_. UNDER NOTE III.--CHOICE OF FORMS. "But some degree of trouble is all men's portion."--_Murray's Key_, p. 218; _Merchant's_, 197. "With his father's and mother's names upon the blank leaf."--_Corner-Stone_, p. 144. "The general, in the army's name, published a declaration."--HUME: in _Priestley's Gram._, p. 69. "The Commons' vote."--_Id, ib._ "The Lords' house."--_Id., ib._ "A collection of writers faults."--SWIFT: _ib._, p. 68. "After ten years wars."--_Id., ib._ "Professing his detestation of such practices as his predecessors."--_Notes to the Dunciad_. "By that time I shall have ended my years office."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 104. "For Herodias' sake, his brother Philip's wife."--_Mark_, vi, 17. "For Herodias's sake, his brother Philip's wife."--_Murray's Key_, p. 194. "I endure all things for the elect's sakes, that they may also obtain salvation."--FRIENDS' BIBLE: _2 Tim._, ii, 10. "For the elects' sakes."--SCOTT'S BIBLE. "For the elect's sake."--ALGER'S BIBLE, and BRUCE'S. "He was Louis the Sixteenth's son's heir."--_W. Allen's Exercises, Gram._, p. 329. "The throne we honour is the choice of the people."--"An account of the proceedings of the court of Alexander."--"An excellent tutor of a person of fashion's child!"--_Gil Bias_, Vol. 1, p. 20. "It is curious enough, that this sentence of the Bishop is, itself, ungrammatical!"--_Cobbett's E. Gram._, ¶ 201. "The troops broke into Leopold the emperor's palace."--_Nixon's Parser_, p. 59. "The meeting was called by Eldon the judge's desire."--_Ibid._ "Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation was that of fishermen."--_Brace's Gram._, p. 79. "The venerable president of the Royal Academy's debility has lately increased."--_Maunder's Gram._, p. 12. UNDER NOTE IV.--NOUNS WITH POSSESSIVES PLURAL. "God hath not given us our reasons to no purpose."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. i, p. 496. "For our sakes, no doubt, this is written."--_1 Cor._, ix, 10. "Are not health and strength of body desirable for their own sakes?"--_Hermes_, p. 296; _Murray's Gram._, 289. "Some sailors who were boiling their dinners upon the shore."--_Day's Sandford and Merton_, p. 99. "And they in their turns were subdued by others."--_Pinnock's Geography_, p. 12. "Industry on our parts is not superseded by God's grace."--_Arrowsmith_. "Their Healths perhaps may be pretty well secur'd."--_Locke, on Education_, p. 51. "Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 211. "It were to be wished, his correctors had been as wise on their parbs."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 60. "The Arabs are commended by the ancients for being most exact to their words, and respectful to their kindred."--_Sale's Koran_. "That is, as a reward of some exertion on our parts."--_Gurney's Evidences_, p. 86. "So that it went ill with Moses for their sakes."--_Psalms_, cvi, 32. "All liars shall have their parts in the burning lake."--_Watts_, p. 33. "For our own sakes as well as for thine."--_Pref. to Waller's Poems_, p. 3. "By discover- ing their abilities to detect and amend errors."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. 11, p. iv. "This world I do renounce; and, in your sights, Shake patiently my great affliction off."--_Beauties of Shak._, p. 286 "If your relenting angers yield to treat, Pompey and thou, in safety, here may meet."--_Rowe's Lucan_, B. iii, l. 500. UNDER NOTE Y.--POSSESSIVES WITH PARTICIPLES. "This will encourage him to proceed without his acquiring the prejudice."--_Smith's Gram._, p. 5. "And the notice which they give of an action's being completed or not completed."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 72; _Alger's_, 30. "Some obstacle or impediment that prevents its taking place."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 38; _Alex. Murray's_, 37. "They have apostolical authority for their so frequently urging the seeking of the Spirit."--_The Friend_, Vol. xii, p. 54. "Here then is a wide field for reason's exerting its powers in relation to the objects of taste."-- _Blair's Rhet._, p. 18. "Now this they derive altogether from their having a greater capacity of imitation and description."--_Ib._, p. 51. "This is one clear reason of their paying a greater attention to that construction." --_Ib._, p. 123. "The dialogue part had also a modulation of its own, which was capable of its being set to notes."--_Ib._, p. 471. "What is the reason of our being often so frigid and unpersuasive in public discourse?"--_Ib._, p. 334. "Which is only a preparation for his leading his forces directly upon us."--_Ib._, p. 264. "The nonsense about _which's_ relating to things only, and having no declension, needs no refutation."--_Fowle's True E. Gram._, p. 18. "Who, upon his breaking it open, found nothing but the following inscription."--_Rollin_, Vol. ii, p. 33. "A prince will quickly have reason to repent his having exalted one person so high."--_Id._, ii, 116. "Notwithstanding it's being the immediate subject of his discourse."-- _Churchill's Gram._, p. 294. "With our definition of its being synonymous with time."--_Booth's Introd._, p. 29. "It will considerably increase the danger of our being deceived."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 293. "His beauties can never be mentioned without their suggesting his blemishes also."-- _Blair's Rhet._, p. 442. "No example has ever been adduced of a man's conscientiously approving of an action, because of its badness."--_Gurney's Evidences_, p. 90. "The last episode of the angel's shewing Adam the fate of his posterity, is happily imagined."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 452. "And the news came to my son, of his and the bride being in Dublin."--_Castle Rackrent_, p. 44. "There is no room for the mind's exerting any great effort."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 32. "One would imagine, that these criticks never so much as heard of Homer's having written first."--_Pope's Preface to Homer_. "Condemn the book, for its not being a geography."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 317. "There will be in many words a transition from their being the figurative to their being the proper signs of certain ideas."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 322. "The doctrine of the Pope's being the only source of ecclesiastical power."--_Religious World_, ii, 290. "This has been the more expedient from the work's being designed for the benefit of private learners."--_Murray's Exercises, Introd._, p. v. "This was occasioned by the Grammar's having been _set up_, and not admitting of enlargement."--_Ib., Advertisement_, p. ix. RULE V.--OBJECTIVES. A Noun or a Pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case: as, "I found _her_ assisting _him_"--"Having finished the _work_, I submit _it_." "Preventing _fame_, misfortune lends him _wings_, And Pompey's self his own sad _story_ brings." --_Rowe's Lucan_, B. viii, l. 66. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE V. OBS. 1.--To this rule there are no exceptions; but to the old one adopted by Murray and others, "Active verbs govern the objective case," there are more than any writer will ever think it worth his while to enumerate. In point of brevity, the latter has the advantage, but in nothing else; for, as a general rule for NOUNS AND PRONOUNS, this old brief assertion is very defective; and, as a rule for "THE SYNTAX OF VERBS," under which head it has been oftener ranked, it is entirely useless and inapplicable. As there are four different constructions to which the nominative case is liable, so there are four in which the objective may be found; and two of these are common to both; namely, _apposition_, and _sameness of_ case. Every objective is governed by some _verb_ or _participle_, according to Rule 5th, or by some _preposition_, according to Rule 7th; except such as are put in _apposition_ with others, according to Rule 3d, or after an infinitive or a participle _not transitive_, according to Rule 6th: as, "Mistaking _one_ for the _other_, they took _him_, a sturdy _fellow_, called _Red Billy_, to be _me_." Here is every construction which the objective case can have; except, perhaps, that in which, as an expression of time, place, measure, or manner, it is taken after the fashion of an _adverb_, the governing preposition being suppressed, or, as some say, no governing word being needed. Of this exception, the following quotations may serve for examples: "It holds on by a single button round my neck, _cloak-fashion_"--EDGEWORTH'S _Castle Rackrent_. p. 17. A man quite at leisure to parse all his words, would have said, "_in the fashion of a cloak_." Again: "He does not care the _rind of a lemon_ for her all the while."--_Ib._, p. 108. "We turn our eyes _this way or that way_."--_Webster's Philos. Gram._, p. 172; _Frazee's Gram._, 157. Among his instances of "_the objective case restrictive_," or of the noun "used in the objective, without a governing word," Dr. Bullions gives this: "Let us go _home_" But, according to the better opinion of Worcester, _home_ is here an _adverb_, and not a noun. See Obs. 6th on Rule 7th. OBS. 2.--The objective case _generally follows_ the governing word: as, "And Joseph knew his _brethren_, but they knew not him"--_Gen._, xlii, 8. But when it is emphatic, it often precedes the nominative; as, "_Me_ he restored to mine office, and _him_ he hanged."--_Gen._, xli, 13. "_John_ have I beheaded."--_Luke_, ix, 9. "But _me_ ye have not always."--_Matt._, xxvi, 11. "_Him_ walking on a sunny hill he found."--_Milton_. In poetry, the objective is sometimes placed between the nominative and the verb; as, "His daring foe securely _him_ defied."--_Milton_. "Much he the _place_ admired, the person more."--_Id._ "The broom its yellow _leaf_ shed."--_Langhorne_. If the nominative be a pronoun which cannot be mistaken for an objective, the words may possibly change places; as, "_Silver_ and _gold_ have I none."--_Acts_, iii, 6. "Created _thing_ nought valued _he_ nor shunn'd."--_Milton_, B. ii, l. 679. But such a transposition of _two nouns_ can scarcely fail to render the meaning doubtful or obscure; as, "This _pow'r_ has praise, that virtue scarce can warm, Till fame supplies the universal charm."--_Dr. Johnson_. A relative or an interrogative pronoun is commonly placed at the head of its clause, and of course it precedes the verb which governs it; as, "I am Jesus, _whom_ thou persecutest."--_Acts_, ix, 5. "_Which_ of the prophets have not your fathers persecuted?"--_Ib._, vii, 52. "Before their Clauses plac'd, by settled use, The Relatives these Clauses introduce."--_Ward's Gram._, p. 86. OBS. 3.--Every active-transitive verb or participle has some _noun_ or _pronoun_ for its object, or some _pronominal adjective_ which assumes the relation of the objective case. Though verbs are often followed by the infinitive mood, or a dependent clause, forming a part of the logical predicate; yet these terms, being commonly introduced by a connecting particle, do not form _such an object_ as is contemplated in our definition of a transitive verb. Its government of the _objective_, is the only proper criterion of this sort of verb. If, in the sentence, "Boys _love_ to play," the former verb is transitive, as several respectable grammarians affirm; why not also in a thousand others; as, "Boys _like_ to play;"--"Boys _delight_ to play;"--"Boys _long_ to play;"--"The boys _seem_ to play;"--"The boys _cease_ to play;"--"The boys _ought_ to play;"--"The boys _go out_ to play;"--"The boys _are gone out_ to play;"--"The boys _are allowed_ to play;" and the like? The construction in all is precisely the same, and the infinitive may follow one kind of verb just as well as an other. How then can the mere addition of this mood make _any_ verb transitive? or where, on such a principle, can the line of distinction for transitive verbs be drawn? The infinitive, _in fact_, is governed by the preposition _to_; and the preceding verb, if it has no other object, is intransitive. It must, however, be confessed that some verbs which thus take the infinitive after them, cannot otherwise be intransitive; as, "A great mind _disdains to hold_ any thing by courtesy."--_Johnson's Life of Swift_. "They _require to be distinguished_ by a comma."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 272. OBS. 4.--A transitive verb, as I have elsewhere shown, may both govern the objective case, and be followed by an infinitive also; as, "_What_ have I _to do_ with thee?"--_John_, ii, 4. This question, as one would naturally take it, implies, "I have _nothing to do_ with thee;" and, by analogy, _what_ is governed by _have_, and not by _do_; so that the latter verb, though not commonly intransitive, appears to be so here. Indeed the infinitive mood is often used without an objective, when every other part of the same verb would require one. Maunder's rule is, "Transitive verbs and participles govern _either_ the objective case _or_ the infinitive _mode_."--_Comprehensive Gram._, p. 14. Murray teaches, not only that, "The _infinitive mood_ does the office of a substantive in the objective case; as, 'Boys love _to play_;'" but that, "The _participle_ with its adjuncts, may be considered as a substantive phrase _in the objective case_, governed by the preposition or verb; as, 'He studied to avoid _expressing himself too severely_.'"--See his _Octavo Gram._, pp. 184 and 194. And again: "_Part of a sentence_, as well as a noun or pronoun, may be said to be _in the objective case_, or to be put objectively, _governed_ by the active verb; as, 'We sometimes see _virtue in distress_, but we should consider _how great will be her ultimate reward_.' Sentences or phrases under this circumstance, may be termed _objective sentences_ or _phrases_."--_Ib._, p. 180. OBS. 5.--If we admit that sentences, parts of sentences, infinitives, participles with their adjuncts, and other phrases, as well as nouns and pronouns, may be _"in the objective case;"_ it will be no easy matter, either to define this case, or to determine what words do, or do not, govern it.[353] The construction of infinitives and participles will be noticed hereafter. But on one of Murray's examples, I would here observe, that the direct use of the infinitive for an objective noun is a manifest _Grecism_; as, "For to will is present with me; but _to perform_ that which is good, I find not."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 184. That is, "_the performance of_ that which is good, I find not." Or perhaps we may supply a noun after the verb, and take this text to mean, "But to perform that which is good, I find not _the ability_." Our Bible has it, "But _how_ to perform that which is good. I find not;" as if _the manner_ in which he might do good, was what the apostle found not: but Murray cites it differently, omitting the word _how_, as we see above. All active verbs to which something is subjoined by _when, where, whence, how_, or _why_, must be accounted intransitive, unless we suppose them to govern such nouns of time, place, degree, manner, or cause, as correspond to these connectives; as, "I _know why_ she blushed." Here we might supply the noun _reason_, as, "I know the _reason why_ she blushed;" but the word is needless, and I should rather parse _know_ as being intransitive. As for "_virtue in distress_," if this is an "_objective phrase_," and not to be analyzed, we have millions of the same sort; but, if one should say, "_Virtue in distress_ excites pity," the same phrase would demonstrate the absurdity of Murray's doctrine, because the two nouns here take _two different cases_. OBS. 6.--The word _that_, which is often employed to introduce a dependent clause, is, by some grammarians, considered as a _pronoun_, representing the clause which follows it; as, "I know _that_ Messias cometh."--_John_, iv, 25. This text they would explain to mean, "_Messias cometh_, I know _that_;" and their opinion seems to be warranted both by the origin and by the usual import of the particle. But, in conformity to general custom, and to his own views of the practical purposes of grammatical analysis, the author has ranked it with the conjunctions. And he thinks it better, to call those verbs intransitive, which are followed by _that_ and a dependent clause, than to supply the very frequent ellipses which the other explanation supposes. To explain it as a conjunction, connecting an active-transitive verb and its object, as several respectable grammarians do, appears to involve some inconsistency. If _that_ is a conjunction, it connects what precedes and what follows; but a transitive verb should exercise a direct government, without the intervention of a conjunction. On the other hand, the word _that_ has not, in any such sentence, the inherent nature of a pronoun. The transposition above, makes it only a _pronominal adjective_; as, "Messias cometh, I know _that fact_." And in many instances such a solution is impracticable; as, "The people sought him, and came unto him, and stayed him, _that_ he should not depart from them."--_Luke_, iv, 42. Here, to prove _that_ to be a pronoun, the disciples of Tooke and Webster must resort to more than one imaginary ellipsis, and to such inversion as will scarcely leave the sense in sight. OBS. 7.--In some instances the action of a transitive verb gives to its direct object an additional name, which is also in the objective case, the two words being in apposition; as, "Thy saints proclaim _thee king_."--_Cowper_. "And God called the _firmament Heaven_."--_Bible_. "Ordering them to make _themselves masters_ of a certain steep eminence."--_Rollin_, ii, 67. And, in such a construction, the direct object is sometimes placed before the verb; though the name which results from the action, cannot be so placed: as, "And _Simon_ he surnamed _Peter_."--_Mark_, iii, 15. "_Him_ that overcometh will I make a _pillar_ in the temple of my God."--_Rev._, iii, 12. Some grammarians seem not to have considered this phraseology as coming within the rule of apposition. Thus Webster: "We have some verbs which govern two words in the objective case; as, 'Did I request thee, maker, from my clay To mold _me man_?'--_Milton_, 10, 744. 'God seems to have made _him what_ he was.'--_Life of Cowper_."[354]--_Philosophical Gram._, p. 170. _Improved Gram._, p. 120. See also _Weld's Gram._, 2d Ed., p. 154; "Abridged Ed.," p. 119; and _Fowler's E. Gram._, §450. So Murray: "Some of our verbs _appear to govern two words_ in the objective case; as, 'The Author of my being formed _me man_.'--'They desired me to call _them brethren_.'--'He seems to have made _him what_ he was.' "--_Octavo Gram._, p. 183. Yet this latter writer says, that in the sentence, "They appointed _me executor_," and others like it," the verb _to be_ is _understood_."--_Ib._, p. 182. These then, according to his own showing, are instances of apposition; but I pronounce then such, without either confounding same cases with apposition, or making the latter a species of ellipsis. See Obs. 1st and 2d, under Rule 3d. OBS. 8.--In general, if not always, when a verb is followed by two objectives which are neither in apposition nor connected by a conjunction, one of them is governed by a preposition understood; as, "I paid [to] _him_ the _money_"--"They offered [to] _me_ a _seat_"--"He asked [of] _them_ the _question_"--"I yielded, and unlock'd [to] _her_ all my _heart_."--_Milton_. In expressing such sentences passively, the object of the preposition is sometimes erroneously assumed for the nominative; as, "_He_ was paid _the money_," in stead of, "The _money_ was paid [to] _him_."--"_I_ was offered _a seat_," in stead of, "_A seat_ was offered [to] _me_." This kind of error is censured by Murray more than once, and yet he himself has, in very many instances, fallen into it. His first criticism on it, is in the following words: "We sometimes meet with such expressions as these: 'They were asked a question;' 'They were offered a pardon;' 'He hath been left a great estate by his father.' In these _phrases_, verbs passive are made to govern the objective case. This license _is not to be approved_. The expressions should be: 'A question was put to them;' 'A pardon was offered to them;' 'His father left him a great estate.'"--_L. Murray's Octavo Gram._, p. 183. See Obs. 12, below. OBS. 9.--In the Latin syntax, verbs of _asking_ and _teaching_ are said to govern two accusatives; as, "_Posce Deum veniam_, Beg pardon of God."--_Grant's Latin Gram._, p. 207. "_Docuit me grammaticam_, He taught me grammar."--_Grant, Adam, and others_. And again: "When a verb in the active voice governs two cases, in the passive it retains the latter case; as, _Doceor grammaticam_, I am taught grammar."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 177. These writers however suggest, that in reality the _latter_ accusative is governed, not by the verb, but by a preposition understood. "'_Poscere deos veniam_ is 'to ask the gods _for_ pardon.'"--_Barnes's Philological Gram._, p. 116. In general the English idiom _does not coincide_ with what occurs in Latin under these rules. We commonly insert a preposition to govern one or the other of the terms. But we sometimes leave to the verb the objective of the person, and sometimes that of the thing; and after the two verbs _ask_ and _teach_, we sometimes _seem_ to leave both: as, "When thou dost _ask me blessing_, I'll kneel down, and _ask of thee forgiveness_."-- _Shakspeare_. "In long journeys, _ask_ your _master leave_ to give ale to the horses."--_Swift_. "And he _asked them of_ their _welfare_."--_Gen._, xliii, 27. "They _asked of him_ the parable."--_Mark_, iv, 10. ("_Interrogârunt eum de parabolâ_."--_Beza_.) "And asking _them questions_"--_Luke_, ii, 46. "But _teach them_ thy _sons_."--_Deut._, iv, 9. "_Teach them_ diligently _unto_ thy _children_"--_Ib._, vi, 7. '"Ye shall _teach them_ your _children_."--_Ib._, xi, 19. "Shall any _teach God knowledge_?"--_Job_, xxi, 22. "I will _teach you_ the _fear_ of the Lord."--_Psal_, xxxiv, 11. "He will _teach us of_ his ways."--_Isaiah_, ii, 3; _Micah_, iv, 2. "Let him that _is taught in_ the _word_, communicate."--_Gal._, vi, 6. OBS. 10.--After a careful review of the various instances in which more than one noun or pronoun may possibly be supposed to be under the government of a single active verb in English, I incline to the opinion that none of our verbs ought to be parsed as actually governing two cases, except such as are followed by two objectives connected by a conjunction. Consequently I do not admit, that any passive verb can properly govern an objective noun or pronoun. Of the ancient Saxon dative case, and of what was once considered the government of two cases, there yet appear some evident remains in our language; as, "Give _him bread_ to eat."--"Bread shall be given _him_"--_Bible_. But here, by almost universal consent, the indirect object is referred to the government of a "preposition understood;" and in many instances this sort of ellipsis is certainly no elegance: as, "Give [_to_] truth and virtue the _same arms which_ you give [_to_] vice and falsehood, and the former are likely to prevail."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 235. The questionable expression, "_Ask me blessing_," if interpreted analogically, must mean, "Ask _for_ me _a_ blessing," which is more correct and explicit; or, if _me_ be not supposed a dative, (and it does not appear to be so, above,) the sentence is still wrong, and the correction must be, "Ask _of_ me _a_ blessing," or, "Ask _my_ blessing." So, "Ask your _master leave_," ought rather to be, "Ask _of_ your master leave," "Ask your master _for_ leave," or, "Ask your _master's_ leave." The example from Mark ought to be, "They asked _him about_ the parable." Again, the elliptical sentence, "Teach them thy sons," is less perspicuous, and therefore less accurate, than the full expression, "Teach them _to_ thy sons." _To teach_ is to tell things _to_ persons, or to instruct persons _in_ things; _to ask_ is to request or demand things _of_ or _from_ persons, or to interrogate or solicit persons _about_ or _for_ things. These verbs cannot be proved to govern two cases in English, because it is more analogical and more reasonable to supply a preposition, (if the author omits it,) to govern one or the other of the objects. OBS. 11.--Some writers erroneously allow passive verbs to govern the objective in English, not only where they imagine our idiom to coincide with the Latin, but even where they know that it does not. Thus Dr. Crombie: "Whatever is put in the accusative case after the verb, must be the nominative to it in the passive voice, while the other case is retained under the government of the verb, and cannot become its nominative. Thus, 'I persuade you _to_ this or _of_ this, '_Persuadeo hoc tibi_. Here, the person persuaded is expressed in the dative case, and cannot, therefore, be the nominative to the passive verb. We must, therefore, say, _Hoc tibi persuadetur_, 'You are persuaded _of_ this;' not, _Tu persuaderis_. 'He trusted me _with_ this affair,' or 'He believed me _in_ this,' _Hoc mihi credidit_.--Passively, _Hoc mihi creditum est_. 'I told you this,' _Hoc tibi dixi_. 'YOU WERE TOLD THIS,' _Hoc tibi dictum est_; not, _Tu dictus es_." [No, surely: for, '_Tu dictus es_,' means, 'You were called,' or, 'Thou art reputed;'--and, if followed by any case, it must be the _nominative_.'] "It is the more necessary to attend to this rule, and to these distinctions, as the idioms of the two languages do not always concur. Thus, _Hoc tibi dictum est_, means not only 'This was told _to_ you,' but 'YOU WERE TOLD THIS.' _Liber mihi apatre promissus est_, means both 'A book was promised (_to_) me by my father,' and 'I WAS PROMISED A BOOK.' _Is primum rogatua est sententiam_, 'He was first asked _for_ his opinion,' and 'An opinion was first asked _of_ him;' in which last the accusative of the person becomes, in Latin, the nominative in the passive voice." See _Grants Latin Gram._, p. 210. OBS. 12.--Murray's _second_ censure upon passive government, is this: "The following sentences, which give [to] the passive voice the regimen of an active verb, _are very irregular, and by no means to be imitated_. 'The bishops and abbots _were allowed their seats_ in the house of lords.' 'Thrasea _was forbidden the presence_ of the emperor.' 'He _was shown_ that very _story_ in one of his own books.'[355] These sentences should have been: 'The bishops and abbots were allowed _to have_ (or _to take_) their seats in the house of lords;' or, 'Seats in the house of lords were allowed _to_ the bishops and abbots:' 'Thrasea was forbidden _to approach_ the presence of the emperor;' or, 'The presence of the emperor was forbidden _to_ Thrasea:' 'That very story was shown _to_ him in one of his own books.'"--_Octavo Gram._, p. 223. See Obs. 8, above. One late grammarian, whose style is on the whole highly commendable for its purity and accuracy, forbears to condemn the phraseology here spoken of; and, though he does not expressly defend and justify it, he seems disposed to let it pass, with the license of the following canon. "For convenience, it may be well to state it as a rule, that--_Passive verbs govern an objective, when the nominative to the passive verb is not the proper object of the active voice_."--_Barnard's Analytic Gram._, p. 134. An other asserts the government of two cases by very many of our active verbs, and the government of one by almost any passive verb, according to the following rules: "Verbs of teaching, giving, and some others of a similar nature, govern two objectives, the one of a person and the other of a thing; as, He taught _me grammar_: His tutor gave _him a lesson_: He promised _me a reward_. A passive verb may govern an objective, when the words immediately preceding and following it, do not refer to the same thing; as, Henry _was offered a dollar_ by his father to induce him to remain."--_J. M. Putnam's Gram._, pp. 110 and 112. OBS. 13.--The common dogmas, that an active verb must govern an object, and that a neuter or intransitive verb must not, amount to nothing as directions to the composer; because the classification of verbs depends upon this very matter, whether they have, or have not, an object after them; and no general principle has been, or can be, furnished beforehand, by which their fitness or unfitness for taking such government can be determined. This must depend upon usage, and usage must conform to the sense intended. Very many verbs--probably a vast majority--govern an object sometimes, but not always: many that are commonly intransitive or neuter, are not in all their uses so; and many that are commonly transitive, have sometimes no apparent regimen. The distinction, then, in our dictionaries, of verbs active and neuter, or transitive and intransitive, serves scarcely any other purpose, than to show how the presence or absence of the objective case, affects the meaning of the word. In some instances the signification of the verb seems almost merged in that of its object; _as, to lay hold, to make use, to take care_. In others, the transitive character of the word is partial; as, "He _paid_ my _board_; I _told you so_." Some verbs will govern any objective whatever; as, _to name, to mention_. What is there that _cannot be named or mentioned?_ Others again are restricted to one noun, or to a few; as, _to transgress a law, or rule_. What can be transgressed, but a law, a limit, or _something_ equivalent? Some verbs will govern a kindred noun, or its pronoun, but scarcely any other; as, "He _lived_ a virtuous _life_."--"Hear, I pray you, this _dream which I have dreamed_"--_Gen._, xxxvii, 6. "I will also command the clouds that they _rain_ no _rain_ upon it."--_Isaiah_, v, 6. OBS. 14.--Our grammarians, when they come to determine what verbs are properly transitive, and what are not so, do not in all instances agree in opinion. In short, plain as they think the matter, they are much at odds. Many of them say, that, "In the phrases, 'To dream a dream,' 'To live a virtuous life,' 'To run a race,' 'To walk a horse,' 'To dance a child,' the verbs assume a transitive character, and in these cases may be denominated active."--See _Guy's Gram._, p. 21; _Murray's_, 180; _Ingersoll's_, 183; _Fisk's_, 123; _Smith's_, 153. This decision is undoubtedly just; yet a late writer has taken a deal of pains to find fault with it, and to persuade his readers, that, "No verb is active in _any sense_, or under _any construction_, that will not, in _every sense_, permit the objective case of a personal pronoun after it."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 174. Wells absurdly supposes, "An _intransitive_ verb may be used to govern an objective."--_Gram._, p. 145. Some imagine that verbs of mental action, such as _conceive, think, believe_, &c., are not properly transitive; and, if they find an object after such a verb, they choose to supply a preposition to govern it: as, "I conceived it (_of_ it) in that light."--_Guy's Gram._, p. 21. "Did you conceive (of) him to be me?"--_Ib._, p. 28. With this idea, few will probably concur. OBS. 15.--We sometimes find the pronoun _me_ needlessly thrown in after a verb that either governs some other object or is not properly transitive, at least, in respect to this word; as, "It ascends _me_ into the brain; dries _me_ there all the foolish, dull, and crudy vapours."--_Shakspeare's Falstaff_. "Then the vital commoners and inland petty spirits muster _me_ all to their captain, the heart."--_Id._ This is a faulty relic of our old Saxon dative case. So of the second person; "Fare _you_ well, Falstaff."--_Shak_. Here _you_ was written for the objective case, but it seems now to have become the nominative to the verb _fare_. "Fare thee well."--_W. Scott_. "Farewell _to_ thee."--_Id._ These expressions were once equivalent in syntax; but they are hardly so now; and, in lieu of the former, it would seem better English to say, "Fare _thou_ well." Again: "Turn _thee_ aside to thy right hand or to thy left, and lay _thee hold_ on one of the young men, and take _thee_ his armour."--_2 Sam._, ii, 21. If any modern author had written this, our critics would have guessed he had learned from some of the Quakers to misemploy _thee_ for _thou_. The construction is an imitation of the French reciprocal or reflected verbs. It ought to be thus: "Turn _thou_ aside to thy right hand or to thy left, and _lay hold_ on one of the young men, and take _to thyself_ his armour." So of the third person: "The king soon found reason to repent _him_ of his provoking such dangerous enemies."--HUME: _Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 180. Here both of the pronouns are worse than useless, though Murray discerned but one error. "Good Margaret, _run thee_ into the parlour; There thou shalt find my cousin Beatrice."--SHAK.: _Much Ado_. NOTES TO RULE V. NOTE I.--Those verbs or participles which require a regimen, or which signify action that must terminate transitively, should not be used without an object; as, "She _affects_ [kindness,] in order to _ingratiate_ [herself] with you."--"I _must caution_ [you], at the same time, against a servile imitation of any author whatever."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 192. NOTE II.--Those verbs and participles which do not admit an object, or which express action that terminates in themselves, or with the doer, should not be used transitively; as, "The planters _grow_ cotton." Say _raise, produce, or cultivate_. "Dare you speak lightly of the law, or move that, in a criminal trial, judges should advance one step beyond _what_ it permits them _to go_?"--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 278. Say,--"beyond _the point to which_ it permits them to go." NOTE III.--No transitive verb or participle should assume a government to which its own meaning is not adapted; as, "_Thou_ is a pronoun, a word used _instead_ of a noun--personal, it _personates_ 'man.'"--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 131. Say, "It _represents man_." "Where _a string_ of such sentences _succeed each other_."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 168. Say, "Where _many_ such sentences _come in succession_." NOTE IV.--The passive verb should always take for its subject or nominative the direct object of the active-transitive verb from which it is derived; as, (Active,) "They denied me this privilege." (Passive,) "This _privilege_ was denied _me_;" not, "_I_ was denied this _privilege_:" for _me_ may be governed by _to_ understood, but _privilege_ cannot, nor can any other regimen be found for it. NOTE V.--Passive verbs should never be made to govern the objective case, because the receiving of an action supposes it to terminate on the subject or nominative.[356] Errors: "Sometimes it _is made use of_ to give a small degree of emphasis."--_L. Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 197. Say, "Sometimes it _is used_," &c. "His female characters _have been found fault with_ as insipid."--_Hazlitt's Lect._, p. 111. Say,--"have been _censured_;" or,--"have been _blamed, decried, dispraised_, or _condemned_." NOTE VI.--The perfect participle, as such, should never be made to govern any objective term; because, without an active auxiliary, its signification is almost always passive: as, "We shall set down the characters _made use of_ to represent all the elementary sounds."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 5; _Fisk's_, 34. Say,--"the characters _employed_, or _used_." NOTE VII.--As the different cases in English are not always distinguished by their form, care must be taken lest their construction be found equivocal, or ambiguous; as, "And we shall always _find our sentences acquire_ more vigour and energy when thus retrenched."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 111. Say, "We shall always find _that_ our sentences acquire more vigour," &c.; or, "We shall always find our sentences _to_ acquire more vigour and energy when thus retrenched." NOTE VIII.--In the language of our Bible, rightly quoted or printed, _ye_ is not found in the objective case, nor _you_ in the nominative; scriptural texts that preserve not this distinction of cases, are consequently to be considered inaccurate. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE V. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.--THE OBJECTIVE FORM. "Who should I meet the other day but my old friend!"--_Spectator_, No. 32. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the pronoun _who_ is in the nominative case, and is used as the object of the active-transitive verb _should meet_. But, according to Rule 5th, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case." Therefore, _who_ should be _whom_; thus, "_Whom_ should I meet," &c.] "Let not him boast that puts on his armour, but he that takes it off."--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 262. "Let none touch it, but they who are clean."--_Sale's Koran_, 95. "Let the sea roar, and the fullness thereof; the world, and they that dwell therein."--_Psalms_, xcviii, 7. "Pray be private, and careful who you trust."--_Mrs. Goffe's Letter_. "How shall the people know who to entrust with their property and their liberties?"-- _District School_, p. 301. "The chaplain entreated my comrade and I to dress as well as possible."--_World Displayed_, i, 163. "He that cometh unto me, I will in no wise cast out."--_Tract_, No. 3, p. 6. "Who, during this preparation, they constantly and solemnly invoke."--_Hope of Israel_, p. 84. "Whoever or whatever owes us, is Debtor; whoever or whatever we owe, is Creditor."--_Marsh's Book-Keeping_, p. 23. "Declaring the curricle was his, and he should have who he chose in it."--_Anna Ross_, p. 147. "The fact is, Burke is the only one of all the host of brilliant contemporaries who we can rank as a first-rate orator."--_The Knickerbocker, May_, 1833. "Thus you see, how naturally the Fribbles and the Daffodils have produced the Messalina's of our time:"--_Brown's Estimate_, ii, 53. "They would find in the Roman list both the Scipio's."--_Ib._, ii, 76. "He found his wife's clothes on fire, and she just expiring."--_New-York Observer_. "To present ye holy, unblameable, and unreproveable in his sight."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 353. "Let the distributer do his duty with simplicity; the superintendent, with diligence; he who performs offices of compassion, with cheerfulness."--_Stuart's Romans_, xii, 9. "If the crew rail at the master of the vessel, who will they mind?"--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 106. "He having none but them, they having none but hee."--DRAYTON'S _Polyolbion_. "Thou, nature, partial nature, I arraign! Of thy caprice maternal I complain!"--_Burns's Poems_, p. 50. "Nor knows he who it is his arms pursue With eager clasps, but loves he knows not who."--_Addison's_, p. 218. UNDER NOTE I.--OF VERBS TRANSITIVE. "When it gives that sense, and also connects, it is a conjunction."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 116. "Though thou wilt not acknowledge, thou canst not deny the fact."--_Murray's Key_, p. 209. "They _specify_, like many other adjectives, and _connect_ sentences."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 114. "The violation of this rule tends so much to perplex and obscure, that it is safer to err by too many short sentences."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 312. "A few _Exercises_ are subjoined to each important definition, for him to _practice_ upon as he proceeds in committing."--_Nutting's Gram._, 3d Ed., p. vii. "A verb signifying actively governs the accusative."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 171; _Gould's_, 172; _Grant's_, 199; and others. "Or, any word that will _conjugate_, is a verb."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 44. "In these two concluding sentences, the author, hastening to finish, appears to write rather carelessly."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 216. "He simply reasons on one side of the question, and then finishes."--_Ib._, p. 306. "Praise to God teaches to be humble and lowly ourselves."--ATTERBURY: _ib._, p. 304. "This author has endeavored to surpass."--_Green's Inductive Gram._, p. 54. "Idleness and plezure fateeg az soon az bizziness."--_Noah Webster's Essays_, p. 402. "And, in conjugating, you must pay particular attention to the manner in which these signs are applied."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 140. "He said Virginia would have emancipated long ago."--_The Liberator_, ix, 33. "And having in a readiness to revenge all disobedience."--_2 Cor._, x, 6. "However, in these cases, custom generally determines."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 50. "In proof, let the following cases demonstrate."--_Ib._, p. 46. "We must surprise, that he should so speedily have forgotten his first principles."--_Ib._, p. 147. "How should we surprise at the expression, 'This is a _soft_ question!'"--_Ib._, p. 219. "And such as prefer, can parse it as a possessive adjective."--_Goodenow's Gram._, p. 89. "To assign all the reasons, that induced to deviate from other grammarians, would lead to a needless prolixity."--_Alexander's Gram._, p. 4. "The Indicative mood simply indicates or declares."--_Farnum's Gram._, p. 33. UNDER NOTE II.--OF VERBS INTRANSITIVE. "In his seventh chapter he expatiateth himself at great length."--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 350. "He quarrelleth my bringing some testimonies of antiquity, agreeing with what I say."--_Ib._, iii, 373. "Repenting him of his design."--_Hume's Hist._, ii, 56. "Henry knew, that an excommunication could not fail of operating the most dangerous effects."--_Ib._, ii, 165. "The popular lords did not fail to enlarge themselves on the subject."--_Mrs. Macaulay's Hist._, iii, 177. "He is always master of his subject; and seems to play himself with it."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 445. "But as soon as it comes the length of disease, all his secret infirmities shew themselves."--_Ib._, p. 256. "No man repented him of his wickedness."--_Jeremiah_, viii, 6. "Go thee one way or other, either on the right hand, or on the left."--_Ezekiel_, xxi, 16. "He lies him down by the rivers side."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 99. "My desire has been for some years past, to retire myself to some of our American plantations."--_Cowley's Pref. to his Poems_, p. vii. "I fear me thou wilt shrink from the payment of it."--_Zenobia_, i, 76. "We never recur an idea, without acquiring some combination."--_Rippingham's Art of Speaking_, p. xxxii. "Yet more; the stroke of death he must abide, Then lies him meekly down fast by his brethren's side."--_Milton_. UNDER NOTE III.--OF VERBS MISAPPLIED. "A parliament forfeited all those who had borne arms against the king."--_Hume's Hist._, ii, 223. "The practice of forfeiting ships which had been wrecked."--_Ib._, i, 500. "The nearer his military successes approached him to the throne."--_Ib._, v, 383. "In the next example, _you_ personifies _ladies_, therefore it is plural."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 103. "The first _its_ personates vale; the second _its_ represents stream."--_Ib._, p. 103. "Pronouns do not always avoid the repetition of nouns."--_Ib._, p. 96. "_Very_ is an adverb of comparison, it compares the adjective _good_."--_Ib._, p. 88. "You will please to commit the following paragraph."--_Ib._, p. 140. "Even the Greek and Latin passive verbs require an auxiliary to conjugate some of their tenses."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 100. "The deponent verbs, in Latin, require also an auxiliary to conjugate several of their tenses."--_Ib._, p. 100. "I have no doubt he made as wise and true proverbs, as any body has done since."--_Ib._, p. 145. "A uniform variety assumes as many set forms as Proteus had shapes."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 72. "When words in apposition follow each other in quick succession."--_Nixon's Parser_, p. 57. "Where such sentences frequently succeed each other."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 349. "Wisdom leads us to speak and act what is most proper."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 99; _Murray's Gram._, i, 303. "_Jul_. Art thou not Romeo, and a Montague? _Rom_. Neither, fair saint, if either thee dislike."--_Shak_. UNDER NOTE IV.--OF PASSIVE VERBS. "We too must be allowed the privilege of forming our own laws."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 134. "For we are not only allowed the use of all the ancient poetic feet," &c.--_Ib._, p. 259; _Kirkham's Elocution_, 143; _Jamieson's Rhet._, 310. "By what code of morals am I denied the right and privilege?"--_Dr. Bartlett's Lect._, p. 4. "The children of Israel have alone been denied the possession of it."--_Keith's Evidences_, p. 68. "At York fifteen hundred Jews were refused all quarter."--_Ib._, p. 73. "He would teach the French language in three lessons, provided he was paid fifty-five dollars in advance."--_Chazotte's Essay_, p. 4. "And when he was demanded of the Pharisees, when the kingdom of God should come."--_Luke_, xvii, 20. "I have been shown a book."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 392. "John Horne Tooke was refused admission only because he had been in holy orders."--_Diversions of Purley_, i, 60. "Mr. Horne Tooke having taken orders, he was refused admission to the bar."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 145. "Its reference to place is lost sight of."--_Bullions's E. Gram._, p. 116. "What striking lesson are we taught by the tenor of this history?"--_Bush's Questions_, p. 71. "He had been left, by a friend, no less than eighty thousand pounds."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 112. "Where there are many things to be done, each must be allowed its share of time and labour."--_Johnson's Pref. to Dict._, p. xiii. "Presenting the subject in a far more practical form than it has been heretofore given."--_Kirkham's Phrenology_, p. v. "If a being of entire impartiality should be shown the two companies."--_Scott's Pref. to Bible_, p. vii. "He was offered the command of the British army."--_Grimshaw's Hist._, p. 81. "Who had been unexpectedly left a considerable sum."--_Johnson's Life of Goldsmith_. "Whether a maid or a widow may be granted such a privilege."--_Spectator_, No. 536. "Happily all these affected terms have been denied the public suffrage."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 199. "Let him next be shewn the parsing table."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. viii. "Thence, he may be shown the use of the Analyzing Table."--_Ib._, p. ix. "Pittacus was offered a great sum of money."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 228. "He had been allowed more time for study."--_Ib._, p. 229. "If the walks were a little taken care of that lie between them."--_Addison's Spect._, No. 414. "Suppose I am offered an office or a bribe."--_Pierpont's Discourse_, Jan. 27, 1839. "Am I one chaste, one last embrace deny'd? Shall I not lay me by his clay-cold side?" --_Rowe's Lucan_, B. ix, l. 103. UNDER NOTE V.--PASSIVE VERBS TRANSITIVE. "The preposition _to_ is made use of before nouns of place, when they follow verbs and participles of motion."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 203; _Ingersoll's_, 231; _Greenlef's_, 35; _Fisk's_, 143; _Smith's_, 170; _Guy's_, 90; _Fowler's_, 555. "They were refused entrance into the house."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 204. "Their separate signification has been lost sight of."--_Horne Tooke_, ii, 422. "But, whenever _ye_ is made use of, it must be in the nominative, and never in the objective, case."--_Cobbett's E. Gram._, 58. "It is said, that more persons than one are paid handsome salaries, for taking care to see acts of parliament properly worded."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 334. "The following Rudiments of English Grammar, have been made use of in the University of Pennsylvania."--DR. ROGERS: _in Harrison's Gram._, p. 2. "It never should be lost sight of."--_Newman's Rhetoric_, p. 19. "A very curious fact hath been taken notice of by those expert metaphysicians."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 281. "The archbishop interfered that Michelet's lectures might be put a stop to."--_The Friend_, ix, 378. "The disturbances in Gottengen have been entirely put an end to."--_Daily Advertiser_. "Besides those that are taken notice of in these exceptions."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 6. "As one, two, or three auxiliary verbs are made use of."--_Ib._, p. 24. "The arguments which have been made use of."--_Addison's Evidences_, p. 32. "The circumstance is properly taken notice of by the author."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 217. "Patagonia has never been taken possession of by any European nation."--_Cumming's Geog._, p. 62. "He will be found fault withal no more, i. e. not hereafter."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 226. "The thing was to be put an end to somehow."--_Leigh Hunt's Byron_, p. 15. "In 1798, the Papal Territory was taken possession of by the French."--_Pinnock's Geog._, p. 223. "The idea has not for a moment been lost sight of by the Board."--_Common School Journal_, i, 37. "I shall easily be excused the labour of more transcription."--_Johnson's Life of Dryden_. "If I may be allowed that expression."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 259, and 288. "If without offence I may be indulged the observation."--_Ib._, p. 295. "There are other characters, which are frequently made use of in composition."-- _Murray's Gram._, p. 280; _Ingersoll's_, 293. "Such unaccountable infirmities might be in many, perhaps in most, cases got the better of."--_Seattle's Moral Science_, i, 153. "Which ought never to be had recourse to."--_Ib._, i, 186. "That the widows may be taken care of."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 499. "Other cavils will yet be taken notice of."--_Pope's Pref. to Homer_. "Which implies, that all Christians are offered eternal salvation."--_West's Letters_, p. 149. "Yet even the dogs are allowed the crumbs which fall from their master's table."--_Campbell's Gospels, Matt._, xv. 27. "For we say the light within must be taken heed unto."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 148. "This sound of a is taken notice of in Steele's Grammar."--_Walker's Dict._, p. 22. "One came to be paid ten guineas for a pair of silver buckles."--_Castle Rackrent_, p. 104. "Let him, therefore, be carefully shewn the application of the several questions in the table."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 8, "After a few times, it is no longer taken notice of by the hearers."--_Sheridan's Lect._, p. 182. "It will not admit of the same excuse, nor be allowed the same indulgence, by people of any discernment."--_Ibid._ "Inanimate things may be made property of."--_Beanie's M. Sci._, p. 355. "And, when he's bid a liberaller price, Will not be sluggish in the work, nor nice."--_Butler's Poems_, p. 162. UNDER NOTE VI.--OF PERFECT PARTICIPLES. "All the words made use of to denote spiritual and intellectual things, are in their origin metaphors."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 380. "A reply to an argument commonly made use of by unbelievers."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 293. "It was heretofore the only form made use of in the preter tenses."--_Dr. Ash's Gram._, p. 47. "Of the points, and other characters made use of in writing."--_Ib._, p. xv. "If _thy_ be the personal pronoun made use of."--_Walker's Dict._ "The Conjunction is a word made use of to connect sentences."--_Burn's Gram._, p. 28. "The points made use of to answer these purposes are the four following."--_Harrison's Gram._, p. 67. "_Incense_ signifies perfumes exhaled by fire, and made use of in religious ceremonies."--_Murray's Key_, p. 171. "In most of his orations, there is too much art; even carried the length of ostentation."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 246. "To illustrate the great truth, so often lost sight of in our times."--_Common School Journal_, I, 88. "The principal figures, made use of to affect the heart, are Exclamation, Confession, Deprecation, Commination, and Imprecation."--_Formey's Belles-Lettres_, p. 133. "Disgusted at the odious artifices made use of by the Judge."--_Junius_, p. 13. "The whole reasons of our being allotted a condition, out of which so much wickedness and misery would in fact arise."--_Butler's Analogy_ p. 109. "Some characteristieal circumstance being generally invented or laid hold of."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 246. "And _by_ is likewise us'd with Names that shew The Means made use of, or the Method how."--_Ward's Gram._, p. 105. UNDER NOTE VII.--CONSTRUCTIONS AMBIGUOUS. "Many adverbs admit of degrees of comparison as well as adjectives."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 133. "But the author, who, by the number and reputation of his works, formed our language more than any one, into its present state, is Dryden."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 180. "In some States, Courts of Admiralty have no juries, nor Courts of Chancery at all."--_Webster's Essays_, p, 146. "I feel myself grateful to my friend."--_Murray's Key_, p. 276. "This requires a writer to have, himself, a very clear apprehension of the object he means to present to us."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 94. "Sense has its own harmony, as well as sound."--_lb._, p. 127. "The apostrophe denotes the omission of an _i_ which was formerly inserted, and made an addition of a syllable to the word."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 67. "There are few, whom I can refer to, with more advantage than Mr. Addison."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 139. "DEATH, in _theology_, [is a] perpetual separation from God, and eternal torments."--_Webster's Dict._ "That could inform the _traveler_ as well as the old man himself!"--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 345. UNDER NOTE VIII.--YE AND YOU IN SCRIPTURE. "Ye daughters of Rabbah, gird ye with sackcloth."--ALGER'S BIBLE: _Jer._, xlix, 3. "Wash ye, make you clean."--_Brown's Concordance, w. Wash_. "Strip ye, and make ye bare, and gird sackcloth upon your loins."--ALGER'S BIBLE: _Isaiah_, xxxii, 11. "You are not ashamed that you make yourselves strange to me."--FRIENDS' BIBLE: _Job_, xix, 3. "You are not ashamed that ye make yourselves strange to me."--ALGER'S BIBLE: _ib._ "If you knew the gift of God."--_Brown's Concordance, w. Knew_. "Depart from me, ye workers of iniquity, I know ye not."--_Penington's Works_, ii, 122. RULE VI.--SAME CASES. A Noun or a Pronoun put after a verb or participle not transitive, agrees in case with a preceding noun or pronoun referring to the same thing: as, "_It_ is _I_."--"_These_ are _they_."--"The _child_ was named _John_."--"_It_ could not be _he_."--"The _Lord_ sitteth _King_ forever."--_Psalms_, xxix, 10. "What war could ravish, commerce could bestow, And _he_ return'd a _friend, who_ came a _foe_." --_Pope_, Ep. iii, l. 206. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE VI. OBS. 1.--Active-transitive verbs, and their imperfect and preperfect participles, always govern the objective case; but active-intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs, and their participles, take the same case after as before them, when both words refer to the same thing. The latter are rightly supposed _not to govern_[357] any case; nor are they in general followed by any noun or pronoun. But, because they are not transitive, some of them become connectives to such words as are in the same case and signify the same thing. That is, their finite tenses may be followed by a nominative, and their infinitives and participles by a nominative or an objective, _agreeing_ with a noun or a pronoun which precedes them. The cases are the same, because the person or thing is one; as, "_I_ am _he_."--"_Thou_ art _Peter_."--"Civil _government_ being the sole _object_ of forming societies, its administration must be conducted by common consent."--_Jefferson's Notes_, p. 129. Identity is both the foundation and the characteristic of this construction. We chiefly use it to affirm or deny, to suggest or question, the _sameness_ of things; but sometimes _figuratively_, to illustrate the relations of persons or things by comparison:[358] as, "_I_ am the true _vine_, and my _Father_ is the _husbandman_."--_John_, xv, 1. "_I_ am the _vine, ye_ are the _branches_."--_John_, xv, 5. Even the names of direct opposites, are sometimes put in the same case, under this rule; as, "By such a change thy _darkness_ is made _light_, Thy _chaos order_, and thy _weakness might_."--_Cowper_, Vol. i, p. 88. OBS. 2.--In this rule, the terms _after_ and _preceding_ refer rather to the order of the sense and construction, than to the mere _placing_ of the words; for the words in fact admit of various positions. The proper subject of the verb is the nominative _to_ it, or _before_ it, by Rule 2d; and the other nominative, however placed, is understood to be that which comes _after_ it, by Rule 6th. In general, however, the proper subject _precedes_ the verb, and the other word _follows_ it, agreeably to the literal sense of the rule. But when the proper subject is placed after the verb, as in certain instances specified in the second observation under Rule 2d, the explanatory nominative is commonly introduced still later; as, "But be _thou_ an _example_ of the believers."--_1 Tim_. iv, 12. "But what! is thy _servant_ a _dog_?"--_2 Kings_, viii, 13. "And so would I, were _I Parmenio_."--_Goldsmith_. "O Conloch's daughter! is _it thou_?"--_Ossian_. But in the following example, on the contrary, there is a transposition of the entire lines, and the verb agrees with the two nominatives in the latter: "To thee _were_ solemn _toys_ or empty _show_, The _robes_ of pleasure and the _veils_ of wo."--_Dr. Johnson_. OBS. 3.--In interrogative sentences, the terms are usually transposed,[359] or both are placed after the verb; as, "Am _I_ a _Jew_?"--_John_, xviii, 35. "Art _thou_ a _king_ then?"--_Ib._, ver. 37. "_What_ is _truth_?"--_Ib._, ver. 38. "_Who_ art _thou_?"--_Ib._, i, 19. "Art _thou Elias_?"--_Ib._, i, 21. "Tell me, Alciphron, is not _distance_ a _line_ turned endwise to the eye?"--_Berkley's Dialogues_, p. 161. "Whence, and _what_ art _thou_, execrable shape?"--_Milton_. "Art _thou_ that traitor _angel_? art _thou he_?"--_Idem_. OBS. 4.--In a declarative sentence also, there may be a rhetorical or poetical transposition of one or both of the terms: as, "And I _thy victim_ now remain."--_Francis's Horace_, ii, 45. "To thy own dogs a _prey_ thou shalt be made."--_Pope's Homer_, "I was eyes to the blind, and _feet_ was _I_ to the lame."--_Job_, xxix, 15. "Far other _scene_ is _Thrasymenè_ now."--_Byron_. In the following sentence, the latter term is palpably misplaced: "It does not clearly appear at first _what the antecedent is_ to _they_."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 218. Say rather: "It does not clearly appear at first, _what is the antecedent_ to [the pronoun] _they_." In examples transposed like the following, there is an elegant ellipsis of the verb to which the pronoun is nominative; as, _am, art_, &c. "When pain and anguish wring the brow, A ministering _angel thou_."--_Scott's Marmion._ "The forum's champion, and the people's chief, Her new-born _Numa thou_--with reign, alas! too brief."--_Byron_. "For this commission'd, I forsook the sky-- Nay, cease to kneel--thy _fellow-servant I_."--_Parnell._ OBS. 5.--In some peculiar constructions, both words naturally come _before_ the verb; as, "I know not _who she_ is."--"_Who_ did you say _it_ was?"--"I know not how to tell thee _who I_ am."--_Romeo_. "Inquire thou whose _son_ the _stripling_ is."--_1 Sam._, xvii, 56. "Man would not be the creature _which he_ now is."--_Blair_. "I could not guess _who it_ should be."--_Addison_. And they are sometimes placed in this manner by _hyberbaton_ [sic--KTH], or transposition; as, "Yet _he it_ is."--_Young_. "No contemptible _orator he_ was."--_Dr. Blair_. "_He it_ is to whom I shall give a sop."--_John_, xiii, 26. "And a very noble _personage Cato_ is."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 457. "_Clouds they_ are without water."--_Jude_, 12. "Of worm or serpent kind _it something_ looked, But monstrous, with a thousand snaky heads."--_Pollok_, B. i, l. 183. OBS. 6.--As infinitives and participles have no nominatives of their own, such of them as are not transitive in their nature, may take _different_ cases after them; and, in order to determine what _case_ it is that follows them, the learner must carefully observe what preceding word denotes the same person or thing, and apply the principle of the rule accordingly. This word being often remote, and sometimes understood, the _sense_ is the only clew to the construction. Examples: "_Who_ then can bear the thought of being an _outcast_ from his presence?"--_Addison_. Here _outcast_ agrees with _who_, and not with _thought_. "_I_ cannot help being so passionate an _admirer_ as I am."--_Steele_. Here _admirer_ agrees with _I_. "To recommend _what_ the soberer part of mankind look upon to be a _trifle_."--_Steele_. Here _trifle_ agrees with _what_ as relative, the objective governed by _upon_. "_It_ would be a romantic _madness_, for a _man_ to be a _lord_ in his closet."--_Id._ Here _madness_ is in the nominative case, agreeing with _it_; and _lord_, in the objective, agreeing with _man_. "To _affect_ to be a _lord_ in one's closet, would be a romantic _madness_." In this sentence also, _lord_ is in the objective, after _to be_; and _madness_, in the nominative, after _would be._ "'My dear _Tibullus!_' If that will not do, Let _me_ be _Horace_, and be _Ovid you_."--_Pope_, B. ii, Ep. ii, 143. OBS. 7.--An active-intransitive or a neuter participle in _ing_, when governed by a preposition, is often followed by a noun or a pronoun the case of which depends not on the preposition, but on the case which goes before. Example: "The _Jews_ were in a particular manner ridiculed _for being_ a credulous _people_."--_Addison's Evidences_, p. 28. Here _people_ is in the nominative case, agreeing with _Jews_. Again: "The learned pagans ridiculed the _Jews_ for _being_ a credulous _people_." Here _people_ is in the objective case, because the preceding noun _Jews_ is so. In both instances the preposition _for_ governs the participle _being_, and nothing else. "The atrocious crime of _being_ a young _man_, I shall neither attempt to palliate _or_ deny."--PITT: _Bullions's E. Gram._, p. 82; _S. S. Greene's_, 174. Sanborn has this text, with "_nor_" for "_or_."--_Analytical Gram._, p. 190. This example has been erroneously cited, as one in which the case of the noun after the participle is _not determined_ by its relation to any other word. Sanborn absurdly supposes it to be "in the _nominative independent_." Bullions as strangely tells us, "it may correctly be called the _objective indefinite_"--like _me_ in the following example: "He was not sure of _its being me_."--_Bullions's E. Gram._, p. 82. This latter text I take to be _bad English_. It should be, "He was not sure _of it as being me_;" or, "He was not sure _that it was I."_ But, in the text above, there is an evident transposition. The syntactical order is this: "_I_ shall neither deny _nor_ attempt to palliate the atrocious crime of being a young _man_." The words _man_ and _I_ refer to the same person, and are therefore in the same case, according to the rule which I have given above. OBS. 8.--S. S. Greene, in his late Grammar, improperly denominates this case after the participle _being_, "the _predicate-nominative_," and imagines that it necessarily remains a nominative even when the possessive case precedes the participle. If he were right in this, there would be an important exception to Rule 6th above. But so singularly absurd is his doctrine about "_abridged predicates_," that in general the _abridging_ shows an _increase_ of syllables, and often a conversion of good English into bad. For example: "_It_ [the predicate] remains _unchanged in the nominative_, when, with the participle of the copula, _it_ becomes _a verbal noun_, limited by the possessive case of the subject; as, 'That he was a foreigner prevented his election,'='_His_ being a _foreigner_ prevented his election.'"--_Greene's Analysis_, p. 169. Here the number of syllables is unaltered; but _foreigner_ is very improperly called "a verbal noun," and an example which only lacks a comma, is changed to what Wells rightly calls an "_anomalous expression_," and one wherein that author supposes _foreigner_ and _his_ to be necessarily in the same case. But Greene varies this example into other "_abridged forms_," thus: "I knew _that he was a foreigner_," = "I knew _his being_, or _of his being a foreigner_." "The fact _that he was a foreigner_, = _of his being a foreigner_, was undeniable." "_When he was first called a foreigner_, = _on his being first called a foreigner_, his anger was excited."--_Ib._, p. 171. All these changes _enlarge_, rather than abridge, the expression; and, at the same time, make it questionable English, to say the least of it. OBS. 9.--In some examples, the adverb _there_ precedes the participle, and we evidently have nothing by which to determine the case that follows; as, "These judges were twelve in number. Was this _owing to there being_ twelve primary _deities_ among the Gothic nations?"--_Webster's Essays_, p. 263. Say rather: "Was this _because there were_ twelve primary deities among the Gothic nations?" "How many are injured by Adam's fall, that know nothing of _there ever being_ such a man in the world!"--_Barclay's Apology_, p. 185. Say rather,--"_who know not that there ever was_ such a man in the world!" OBS. 10.--In some other examples, we find a possessive before the participle, and a doubtful case after it; as, "This our Saviour himself was pleased to make use of as the strongest argument of _his_ being the promised _Messiah_"--_Addison's Evidences_, p. 81. "But my chief affliction consisted in _my_ being singled out from all the other boys, by a lad about fifteen years of age, as a proper _object_ upon whom he might let loose the cruelty of his temper."--_Cowper's Memoir_, p. 13. "[Greek: Tou patros [ontos] onou euthus hypemnæsthæ]. He had some sort of recollection of his _father's_ being an ass"--_Collectanea Græca Minora, Notæ_, p. 7. This construction, though not uncommon, is anomalous in more respects than one. Whether or not it is worthy to form an exception to the rule of _same cases_, or even to that of _possessives_, the reader may judge from the observations made on it under the latter. I should rather devise some way to avoid it, if any can be found--and I believe there can; as, "This our Saviour himself was pleased to _advance_ as the strongest _proof that he was_ the promised Messiah."--"But my chief affliction consisted in _this, that I was_ singled out," &c. The story of the mule is, "_He seemed to recollect on a sudden that his father was an ass_." This is the proper meaning of the Greek text above; but the construction is different, the Greek nouns being genitives in apposition. OBS. 11.--A noun in the nominative case sometimes follows a finite verb, when the equivalent subject that stands before the verb, is not a noun or pronoun, but a phrase or a sentence which supplies the place of a nominative; as, "That the barons and freeholders derived their authority from kings, is wholly a _mistake_."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 277. "To speak of a slave as a member of civil society, may, by some, be regarded a _solecism_."--_Stroud's Sketch_, p. 65. Here _mistake_ and _solecism_ are as plainly nominatives, as if the preceding subjects had been declinable words. OBS. 12.--When a noun is put after an abstract infinitive that is not transitive, it appears necessarily to be in the objective case,[360] though not governed by the verb; for if we supply any noun to which such infinitive may be supposed to refer, it must be introduced before the verb by the preposition _for_: as, "To be an _Englishman_ in London, a _Frenchman_ in Paris, a _Spaniard_ in Madrid, is no easy matter; and yet it is necessary."--_Home's Art of Thinking_, p. 89. That is, "_For a traveller_ to be an _Englishman_ in London," &c. "It is certainly as easy to be a _scholar_, as a _gamester_."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 425. That is, "It is as easy _for a young man_ to be a _scholar, as it is for him to be a gamester_." "To be an eloquent _speaker_, in the proper sense of the _word_, is far from being a common or easy _attainment._"--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 337. Here _attainment_ is in the nominative, after _is_--or, rather after _being_, for it follows both; and _speaker_, in the objective after _to be_. "It is almost as hard a thing [for a _man_] to be a poet in despite of fortune, as it is [for _one_ to be a _poet_] in despite of nature."--_Cowley's Preface to his Poems_, p. vii. OBS. 13.--Where precision is necessary, loose or abstract infinitives are improper; as, "But _to be precise_, signifies, that _they_ express _that idea_, and _no more_."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 94; _Murray's Gram._, 301; _Jamieson's Rhet._, 64. Say rather: "But, _for an author's words to be precise_, signifies, that they express _his exact_ idea, and _nothing_ more _or less_." OBS. 14.--The principal verbs that take the same case after as before them, except those which are passive, are the following: to be, to stand, to sit, to lie, to live, to grow, to become, to turn, to commence, to die, to expire, to come, to go, to range, to wander, to return, to seem, to appear, to remain, to continue, to reign. There are doubtless some others, which admit of such a construction; and of some of these, it is to be observed, that they are sometimes transitive, and govern the objective: as, "To _commence_ a suit."--_Johnson_. "O _continue_ thy loving kindness unto them."--_Psalms_, xxxvi, 10. "A feather will _turn_ the scale."--_Shak._ "_Return_ him a trespass offering."--_1 Samuel_. "For it _becomes_ me so to speak."--_Dryden_. But their construction with like cases is easily distinguished by the sense; as, "When _I_ commenced _author_, my aim was to amuse."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 286. "_Men_ continue men's _destroyers_."--_Nixon's Parser_, p. 56. "'Tis most just, that thou turn rascal"--_Shak., Timon of Athens_. "He went out _mate_, but _he_ returned _captain_."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 182. "After this event _he_ became _physician_ to the king."--_Ib._ That is, "When I _began to be_ an author," &c. "Ev'n mean _self-love_ becomes, by force divine, The _scale_ to measure others' wants by thine."--_Pope_. OBS. 15.--The common instructions of our English grammars, in relation to the subject of the preceding rule, are exceedingly erroneous and defective. For example: "The verb TO BE, has _always_ a nominative case after it, _unless it be_ in the infinitive mode."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 77. "The verb TO BE _requires_ the same case after it as before it."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 142. "The verb TO BE, through all its variations, _has_ the same case after it, _expressed or understood_, as _that_ which _next_ precedes it."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 181; _Alger's_, 62; _Merchant's_, 91; _Putnam's_, 116; _Smith's_, 97; and many others. "The verb TO BE has _usually_ the same case after it, as that which _immediately_ precedes it."--_Hall's Gram._, p. 31. "_Neuter verbs have_ the same case after them, as that which _next_ precedes them."--_Folker's Gram._, p. 14. "Passive verbs _which signify naming_, and others of a _similar nature_, have the same case _before and after_ them."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 182. "A Noun or Pronoun used in predication with a verb, is in the Independent Case. EXAMPLES--'Thou art a _scholar_.' 'It is _I_.' 'God is _love_.'"--_S. W. Clark's Pract. Gram._, p. 149. So many and monstrous are the faults of these rules, that nothing but very learned and reverend authority, could possibly impose such teaching anywhere. The first, though written by Lowth, is not a whit wiser than to say, "The preposition _to_ has _always_ an infinitive mood after it, _unless it be_ a preposition." And this latter absurdity is even a better rule for all infinitives, than the former for all predicated nominatives. Nor is there much more fitness in any of the rest. "The verb TO BE, _through all_," or even _in any_, of its parts, has neither "_always_" nor _usually_ a case "_expressed_ or _understood_" after it; and, even when there is a noun or a pronoun put after it, the case is, in very many instances, not to be determined by that which "_next_" or "_immediately_" precedes the verb. Examples: "A _sect of freethinkers_ is a _sum_ of ciphers."--_Bentley_. "And _I_ am this _day_ weak, though anointed _king_."--_2 Sam._, iii, 39. "_What_ made _Luther_ a great _man_, was _his_ unshaken _reliance_ on God."--_Kortz's Life of Luther_, p. 13. "The devil offers his service; _He_ is sent with a positive _commission_ to be a lying _spirit_ in the mouth of all the prophets."--_Calvin's Institutes_, p. 131. It is perfectly certain that in these four texts, the words _sum, king, reliance_, and _spirit_, are _nominatives_, after the verb or participle; and not _objectives_, as they must be, if there were any truth in the common assertion, "that the two cases, which, in the construction of the sentence, are _the next_ before and after it, must always be alike."--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 98. Not only may the nominative before the verb be followed by an objective, but the nominative after it may be preceded by a possessive; as, "Amos, the herdsman of _Tekoa_, was not a _prophet's_ son."--"It is the _king's_ chapel, and it is the _king's_ court."--_Amos_, vii, 13. How ignorant then must that person be, who cannot see the falsity of the instructions above cited! How careless the reader who overlooks it! NOTES TO RULE VI. NOTE I.--The putting of a noun in an unknown case after a participle or a participial noun, produces an anomaly which it seems better to avoid; for the cases ought to be _clear_, even in exceptions to the common rules of construction. Examples: (1.) "WIDOWHOOD, _n._ The state _of being a widow_."--_Webster's Dict._ Say rather, "WIDOWHOOD, _n._ The state of a widow."--_Johnson, Walker, Worcester_. (2.) "I had a suspicion of the _fellow's_ being a _swindler_/" Say rather, "I had a suspicion _that the fellow was a swindler_." (3.) "To prevent _its_ being a dry _detail_ of terms."--_Buck_. Better, "To prevent it _from_ being a dry detail of terms." [361] NOTE II.--The nominative which follows a verb or participle, ought to accord in signification, either literally or figuratively, with the preceding term which is taken for a sign of the same thing. Errors: (1.) "_To be convicted_ of bribery, was then a crime altogether unpardonable."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 265. To be convicted of a crime, is not the crime itself; say, therefore, "_Bribery_ was then a _crime_ altogether unpardonable." (2.) "The second person is the _object_ of the Imperative."--_Murray's Gram., Index_, ii, 292. Say rather, "The second person is the _subject_ of the imperative;" for the _object_ of a verb is the word governed by it, and not its nominative. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE VI. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.--OF PROPER IDENTITY. "Who would not say, 'If it be _me_,' rather than, If it be _I_?"--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 105. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the pronoun _me_,--which comes after the neuter verb _be_, is in the objective case, and does not agree with the pronoun _it_, the verb's nominative,[362] which refers to the same thing. But, according to Rule 6th, "A noun or a pronoun put after a verb or participle not transitive, agrees in case with a preceding noun or pronoun referring to the same thing." Therefore, _me_ should be _I_; thus, "Who would not say, 'If it be _I_,' rather than, 'If it be _me_?'"] "Who is there? It is me."--_Priestley, ib._, p. 104. "It is him."--_Id., ib._, 104. "Are these the houses you were speaking of? Yes, they are them."--_Id., ib._, 104. "It is not me you are in love with."--_Addison's Spect._, No. 290; _Priestley's Gram._, p. 104; and _Campbell's Rhet._, p. 203. "It cannot be me."--SWIFT: _Priestley's Gram._, p. 104. "To that which once was thee."--PRIOR: _ib._, 104. "There is but one man that she can have, and that is me."--CLARISSA: _ib._, 104. "We enter, as it were, into his body, and become, in some measure, him."--ADAM SMITH: _ib._, p. 105. "Art thou proud yet? Ay, that I am not thee."--_Shak., Timon_. "He knew not whom they were."--_Milnes, Greek Gram._, p. 234. "Who do you think me to be?"--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 108. "Whom do men say that I, the Son of man, am?"--_Matt._, xvi, 13. "But whom say ye that I am?"--_Ib._, xvi, 15.--"Whom think ye that I am? I am not he."--_Acts_, xiii, 25. "No; I am mistaken; I perceive it is not the person whom I supposed it was."--_Winter in London_, ii, 66. "And while it is Him I serve, life is not without value."--_Zenobia_, i, 76. "Without ever dreaming it was him."--_Life of Charles XII_, p. 271. "Or he was not the illiterate personage whom he affected to be."--_Montgomery's Lect._ "Yet was he him, who was to be the greatest apostle of the Gentiles."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 540. "Sweet was the thrilling ecstacy; I know not if 'twas love, or thee."--_Queen's Wake_, p. 14. "Time was, when none would cry, that oaf was me."--_Dryden, Prol._ "No matter where the vanquish'd be, nor whom."--_Rowe's Lucan_, B. i, l. 676. "No, I little thought it had been him."--_Life of Oration_. "That reverence and godly fear, whose object is 'Him who can destroy both body and soul in hell.'"--_Maturin's Sermons_, p. 312. "It is us that they seek to please, or rather to astonish."--_West's Letters_, p. 28. "Let the same be she that thou hast appointed for thy servant Isaac."--_Gen._, xxiv, 14. "Although I knew it to be he."--_Dickens's Notes_, p. 9. "Dear gentle youth, is't none but thee?"--_Dorset's Poems_, p. 4. "Whom do they say it is?"--_Fowler's E. Gram._, §493. "These are her garb, not her; they but express Her form, her semblance, her appropriate dress."--_Hannah More_. UNDER NOTE I.--THE CASE DOUBTFUL. "I had no knowledge of there being any connexion between them."--_Stone, on Freemasonry_, p. 25. "To promote iniquity in others, is nearly the same as being the actors of it ourselves."--_Murray's Key_, p. 170. "It must arise from feeling delicately ourselves."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 330; _Murray's Gram._, 248. "By reason of there not having been exercised a competent physical power for their enforcement."--_Mass. Legislature_, 1839. "PUPILAGE, _n._ The state of being a scholar."--_Johnson, Walker, Webster, Worcester_. "Then the other part's being the definition would make it include all verbs of every description."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 343. "John's being my friend,[363] saved me from inconvenience."--_Ib._, p. 201. "William's having become a judge, changed his whole demeanor."--_Ib._, p. 201. "William's having been a teacher, was the cause of the interest which he felt."--_Ib._, p. 216. "The being but one among many stifleth the chidings of conscience."--_Book of Thoughts_, p. 131. "As for its being esteemed a close translalation [sic--KTH], I doubt not many have been led into that error by the shortness of it."--_Pope's Pref. to Homer_. "All presumption of death's being the destruction of living beings, must go upon supposition that they are compounded, and so discerptible."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 63. "This argues rather their being proper names."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 382. "But may it not be retorted, that its being a gratification is that which excites our resentment?"--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 145. "Under the common notion, of its being a system of the whole poetical art."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 401. "Whose time or other circumstances forbid their becoming classical scholars."--_Literary Convention_, p. 113. "It would preclude the notion of his being a merely fictitious personage."--_Philological Museum_, i, 446. "For, or under pretence of their being heretics or infidels."--_The Catholic Oath_; Geo. III, 31st. "We may here add Dr. Home's sermon on Christ's being the Object of religious Adoration."--_Relig. World_, Vol. ii, p. 200. "To say nothing of Dr. Priestley's being a strenuous advocate," &c.--_Ib._, ii, 207. "By virtue of Adam's being their public head."--_Ib._, ii, 233. "Objections against there being any such moral plan as this."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 57. "A greater instance of a man's being a blockhead."--_Spect._, No. 520. "We may insure or promote its being a happy state of existence to ourselves."--_Gurney's Evidences_, p. 86. "By its often falling a victim to the same kind of unnatural treatment."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 41. "Their appearing foolishness is no presumption against this."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 189. "But what arises from their being offences; _i. e_. from their being liable to be perverted."--_Ib._, p. 185. "And he entered into a certain man's house, named Justus, one that worshipped God."--_Acts_, xviii, 7. UNDER NOTE II.--OF FALSE IDENTIFICATION. "But to be popular, he observes, is an ambiguous word."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 307. "The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is often the nominative case to a verb."--_L. Murray's Index, Octavo Gram._, Vol. ii, p. 290. "When any person, in speaking, introduces his own name, it is the first person; as, 'I, James, of the city of Boston.'"--_R. C. Smith's New Gram._, p. 43. "The name of the person spoken to, is the second person; as, 'James, come to me.'"--_Ibid._ "The name of the person or thing spoken of, or about, is the third person; as, 'James has come.'"--_Ibid._ "The object [of a passive verb] is always its subject or nominative case."--_Ib._, p. 62. "When a noun is in the nominative case to an active verb, it is the actor."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 44. "And the person commanded, is its nominative."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 120. "The first person is that who speaks."--_Pasquier's Lévizac_, p. 91. "The Conjugation of a Verb is its different variations or inflections throughout the Moods and Tenses."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 80. "The first person is the speaker. The second person is the one spoken to. The third person is the one spoken of."--_Parker and Fox's Gram._, Part i, p. 6; _Hiley's_, 18. "The first person is the one that speaks, or the speaker."--_Sanborn's Gram._, pp. 23 and 75. "The second person is the one that is spoken to, or addressed."--_Ibid._ "The third person is the one that is spoken of, or that is the topic of conversation."--_Ibid._ "_I_, is the first person Singular. _We_, is the first person Plural."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 51; _Alger's, Ingersoll's_, and _many others_. "_Thou_, is the second person Singular. _Ye_ or _you_, is the second person Plural."--_Ibid._ "_He, she_, or _it_, is the third person Singular. _They_, is the third person Plural."--_Ibid._ "The nominative case is the actor, or subject of the verb."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 43. "The noun _John_ is the actor, therefore John is in the nominative case."--_Ibid._ "The actor is always the nominative case."--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 62. "The nominative case is always the agent or actor."--_Mack's Gram._, p. 67. "Tell the part of speech each name is."--_J. Flint's Gram._, p. 6. "What number is _boy_? Why? What number is _pens_? Why?"--_Ib._, p. 27. "The speaker is the first person, the person spoken to, the second person, and the person or thing spoken of, is the third person."--_Ib._, p. 26. "What nouns are masculine gender? All males are masculine gender."--_Ib._, p. 28. "An interjection is a sudden emotion of the mind."--_Barrett's Gram._, p. 62. RULE VII.--OBJECTIVES. A Noun or a Pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case: as, "The temple of _fame_ stands upon the _grave_: the flame that burns upon its _altars_, is kindled from the _ashes_ of great _men_"--_Hazlitt_. "Life is His gift, from _whom_ whate'er life needs, With ev'ry good and perfect _gift_, proceeds."--_Cowper_, Vol. i, p. 95. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE VII. OBS. 1.--To this rule there are no exceptions; for prepositions, in English, govern no other case than the objective.[364] But the learner should observe that most of our prepositions may take the _imperfect participle_ for their object, and some, the _pluperfect_, or _preperfect_; as, "_On opening_ the trial they accused him _of having defrauded_ them."--"A quick wit, a nice judgment, &c., could not raise this man _above being received_ only upon the foot _of contributing_ to mirth and diversion."--_Steele_. And the preposition _to_ is often followed by an _infinitive verb_; as, "When one sort of wind is said _to whistle_, and an other _to roar_; when a serpent is said _to hiss_, a fly _to buzz_, and falling timber _to crash_; when a stream is said _to flow_, and hail _to rattle_; the analogy between the word and the thing signified, is plainly discernible."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 55. But let it not be supposed that participles or infinitives, when they are governed by prepositions, are therefore in the _objective case_; for case is no attribute of either of these classes of words: they are indeclinable in English, whatever be the relations they assume. They are governed _as participles_, or _as infinitives_, and not _as cases_. The mere fact of government is so far from _creating_ the modification governed, that it necessarily presupposes it to exist, and that it is something cognizable in etymology. OBS. 2.--The brief assertion, that, "Prepositions govern the objective case," which till very lately our grammarians have universally adopted as their sole rule for both terms, the governing and the governed,--the preposition and its object,--is, in respect to both, somewhat exceptionable, being but partially and lamely applicable to either. It neither explains the connecting nature of the preposition, nor applies to all objectives, nor embraces all the terms which a preposition may govern. It is true, that prepositions, when they introduce declinable words, or words that have cases, always govern the objective; but the rule is liable to be misunderstood, and is in fact often misapplied, as if it meant something more than this. Besides, in no other instance do grammarians attempt to parse both the governing word and the governed, by one and the same rule. I have therefore placed the _objects_ of this government here, where they belong in the order of the parts of speech, expressing the rule in such terms as cannot be mistaken; and have also given, in its proper place, a distinct rule for the construction of the preposition itself. See Rule 23d. OBS. 3.--Prepositions are sometimes _elliptically_ construed with _adjectives_, the real object of the relation being thought to be some objective noun understood: as, _in vain, in secret, at first, on high_; i. e. _in a vain manner, in secret places, at the first time, on high places_. Such phrases usually imply time, place, degree, or manner, and are equivalent to adverbs. In parsing, the learner may supply the ellipsis. OBS. 4.--In some phrases, a preposition seems to govern a _perfect participle_; but these expressions are perhaps rather to be explained as being elliptical: as, "To give it up _for lost_;"--"To take that _for granted_ which is disputed."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 109. That is, perhaps, "To give it up for _a thing_ lost;"--"To take that for _a thing_ granted," &c. In the following passage the words _ought_ and _should_ are employed in such a manner that it is difficult to say to what part of speech they belong: "It is that very character of _ought_ and _should_ which makes justice a law to us; and the same character is applicable to propriety, though perhaps more faintly than to justice."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. i, p. 286. The meaning seems to be, "It is that very character of _being owed_ and _required, that_ makes justice a law to us;" and this mode of expression, as it is more easy to be _parsed_, is perhaps more grammatical than his Lordship's. But, as preterits are sometimes put by _enallage_ for participles, a reference of them to this figure may afford a mode of explanation in parsing, whenever they are introduced by a preposition, and not by a nominative: as, "A kind of conquest Cæsar made here; but made not here his brag Of, _came_, and _saw_, and _overcame_"--_Shak., Cymb._, iii, 1. That is,--"of _having come_, and _seen_, and _overcome_." Here, however, by assuming that a _sentence_ is the object of the preposition, we may suppose the pronoun _I_ to be understood, as _ego_ is in the bulletin referred to, "_Veni, vidi, vici_." For, as a short sentence is sometimes made the subject of a verb, so is it sometimes made the object of a preposition; as, "Earth's highest station ends _in, 'here he lies;'_ And '_dust to dust_,' concludes her noblest song."--_Young_. OBS. 5.--In some instances, prepositions precede _adverbs_; as, _at once, at unawares, from thence, from above, till now, till very lately, for once, for ever_. Here the adverb, though an indeclinable word, appears to be made _the object_ of the preposition. It is in fact used substantively, and governed by the preposition. The term _forever_ is often written as one word, and, as such, is obviously an adverb. The rest are what some writers would call _adverbial phrases_; a term not very consistent with itself, or with the true idea of _parsing_. If different parts of speech are to be taken together as having the nature of an adverb, they ought rather to coalesce and be united; for the verb to _parse_, being derived from the Latin _pars_, a _part_, implies in general a distinct recognition of the elements or words of every phrase or sentence. OBS. 6.--Nouns of _time, measure, distance_, or _value_, have often so direct a relation to verbs or adjectives, that the prepositions which are supposed to govern them, are usually suppressed; as, "We rode _sixty miles_ that day." That is,--"_through_ sixty miles _on_ that day." "The country is not a _farthing_ richer."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 122. That is,--"richer _by_ a farthing." "The error has been copied _times_ without number."--_Ib._, p. 281. That is,--"_on_ or _at_ times _innumerable_." "A row of columns _ten feet_ high, and a row _twice that height_, require different proportions." _Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 344. That is,--"high _to_ ten feet," and, "a row _of_ twice that height." "_Altus sex pedes_, High _on_ or _at_ six feet."--_Dr. Murray's Hist of Europ. Lang._, ii, 150. All such nouns are in the _objective case_, and, in parsing them, the learner may supply the ellipsis;[365] or, perhaps it might be as well, to say, as do B. H. Smart and some others, that the noun is an objective of time, measure, or value, taken _adverbially_, and relating directly to the verb or adjective qualified by it. Such expressions as, "A board of six feet _long_,"--"A boy _of_ twelve years _old_," are wrong. Either strike out the _of_, or say, "A board of six feet _in length_,"--"A boy of twelve years _of age_;" because this preposition is not suited to the adjective, nor is the adjective fit to qualify the time or measure. OBS. 7.--After the adjectives _like, near_, and _nigh_, the preposition _to_ or _unto_ is often understood;[366] as, "It is _like_ [_to_ or _unto_] silver."--_Allen_. "How _like_ the former."--_Dryden_. "_Near_ yonder copse."--_Goldsmith_. "_Nigh_ this recess."--_Garth_. As similarity and proximity are _relations_, and not _qualities_, it might seem proper to call _like, near_, and _nigh_, prepositions; and some grammarians have so classed the last two. Dr. Johnson seems to be inconsistent in calling _near_ a preposition, in the phrase, "_So near_ thy heart," and an adjective, in the phrase, "Being _near_ their master." See his _Quarto Dict._ I have not placed them with the prepositions, for the following four reasons: (1.) Because they are sometimes _compared_; (2.) Because they sometimes have _adverbs_ evidently relating to them; (3.) Because the preposition _to_ or _unto_ is sometimes expressed after them; and (4.) Because the words which _usually_ stand for them in the learned languages, are clearly _adjectives_.[367] But _like_, when it expresses similarity of _manner_, and _near_ and _nigh_, when they express proximity of _degree_, are _adverbs_. OBS. 8.--The word _worth_ is often followed by an objective, or a participle, which it appears to govern; as, "If your arguments produce no conviction, they are _worth_ nothing to me."--_Beattie_. "To reign is _worth_ ambition."--_Milton_. "This is life indeed, life _worth_ preserving."--_Addison_. It is not easy to determine to what part of speech _worth_ here belongs. Dr. Johnson calls it an _adjective_, but says nothing of the _object_ after it, which some suppose to be governed by _of_ understood. In this supposition, it is gratuitously assumed, that _worth_ is equivalent to _worthy_, after which _of_ should be expressed; as, "Whatsoever is _worthy of_ their love, is _worth_ their anger."--_Denham_. But as _worth_ appears to have no certain characteristic of an adjective, some call it a _noun_, and suppose a double ellipsis; as, "'My knife is worth a shilling;' i. e. 'My knife is _of the_ worth of a shilling.'"--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 163. "'The book is worth that sum;' that is, 'The book is (_the_) worth (_of_) that _sum_;' 'It is worth _while_;' that is, 'It is (_the_) worth (_of the_) while.'"--_Nixon's Parser_, p. 54. This is still less satisfactory;[368] and as the whole appears to be mere guess-work, I see no good reason why _worth_ is not a _preposition_, governing the noun or participle.[369] If an _adverb_ precede _worth_, it may as well be referred to the foregoing verb, as when it occurs before any other preposition: as, "It _is richly worth_ the money."--"It _lies directly before_ your door." Or if we admit that an adverb sometimes relates to this word, the same thing may be as true of other prepositions; as, "And this is a lesson which, to the greatest part of mankind, is, I think, _very well worth_ learning."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 303. "He sees let down from the ceiling, _exactly over_ his head, a glittering sword, hung by a single hair."--_Murray's E. Reader_, p. 33. See Exception 3d to Rule 21st. OBS. 9.--Both Dr. Johnson and Horne Tooke, (who never agreed if they could help it,) unite in saying that _worth_, in the phrases, "Wo _worth_ the man,"--"Wo _worth_ the day," and the like, is from the imperative of the Saxon verb _wyrthan_ or _weorthan_, to _be_; i. e., "Wo _be_ [_to_] the man," or, "Wo _betide_ the man," &c. And the latter affirms, that, as the preposition _by_ is from the imperative of _beon_, to _be_, so _with_, (though admitted to be sometimes from _withan_, to join,) is often no other than this same imperative verb _wyrth_ or _worth_: if so, the three words, _by, with_, and _worth_, were originally synonymous, and should now be referred at least to one and the same class. The _dative case_, or oblique object, which they governed as _Saxon verbs_, becomes their proper object, when taken as _English prepositions_; and in this also they appear to be alike. _Worth_, then, when it signifies _value_, is a common noun; but when it signifies _equal in value to_, it governs an objective, and has the usual characteristics of a preposition. Instances may perhaps be found in which _worth_ is an adjective, meaning _valuable_ or _useful_, as in the following lines: "They glow'd, and grew more intimate with God, _More worth to_ men, more joyous to themselves." --_Young_, N. ix, l. 988. In one instance, the poet Campbell appears to have used the word _worthless_ as a preposition: "Eyes a mutual soul confessing, Soon you'll make them grow Dim, and _worthless your possessing_, Not with age, but woe!" OBS. 10.--After verbs of _giving, paying, procuring_, and some others, there is usually an ellipsis of _to_ or _for_ before the objective of the person; as, "Give [_to_] _him_ water to drink."--"Buy [_for_] _me_ a knife."--"Pay [_to_] _them_ their wages." So in the exclamation, "Wo is _me_!" meaning, "Wo is _to_ me!" This ellipsis occurs chiefly before the personal pronouns, and before such nouns as come between the verb and its direct object; as, "Whosoever killeth you, will think that he doeth [_to_] _God_ service."--_John_, xvi, 2. "Who brought [_to_] her _masters_ much gain by soothsaying."--_Acts_, xvi, 16. "Because he gave not [_to_] _God_ the glory."--_Ib._, xii, 23. "Give [_to_] _me_ leave to allow [_to_] _myself_ no respite from labour."--_Spect._, No. 454. "And the sons of Joseph, which were born [_to_] _him_ in Egypt, were two souls."--_Gen._, xlvi, 27. This elliptical construction of a few objectives, is what remains to us of the ancient Saxon dative case. If the order of the words be changed, the preposition must be inserted; as, "Pray do my service _to_ his majesty."--_Shak_. The doctrine inculcated by several of our grammarians, that, "Verbs of _asking, giving, teaching_, and _some others_, are often employed to govern two objectives," (_Wells_, §215,) I have, under a preceding rule, discountenanced; preferring the supposition, which appears to have greater weight of authority, as well as stronger support from reason, that, in the instances cited in proof of such government, a preposition is, in fact, understood. Upon this question of ellipsis, depends, in all such instances, our manner of parsing one of the objective words. OBS. 11.--In _dates_, as they are usually written, there is much abbreviation; and several nouns of place and time are set down in the objective case, without the prepositions which govern them: as, "New York, Wednesday, 20th October, 1830."--_Journal of Literary Convention_. That is, "_At_ New York, _on_ Wednesday, _the_ 20th _day of_ October, _in the year_ 1830." NOTE TO RULE VII. An objective noun of time or measure, if it qualifies a subsequent adjective, must not also be made an adjunct to a preceding noun; as, "To an infant _of_ only two or three years _old_."--_Dr. Wayland_. Expunge _of_, or for _old_ write _of age_. The following is right: "The vast army of the Canaanites, _nine hundred chariots strong_, covered the level plain of Esdraelon."--_Milman's Jews_, Vol. i, p. 159. See Obs. 6th above. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE VII. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.--OF THE OBJECTIVE IN FORM. "But I do not remember who they were for."--_Abbott's Teacher_, p. 265. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the pronoun _who_ is in the nominative case, and is made the object of the preposition _for_. But, according to Rule 7th, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case." Therefore, _who_ should be _whom_; thus, "But I do not remember _whom_ they were for."] "But if you can't help it, who do you complain of?"--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 137. "Who was it from? and what was it about?"--_Edgeworth's Frank_, p. 72. "I have plenty of victuals, and, between you and I, something in a corner."--_Day's Sandford and Merton_. "The upper one, who I am now about to speak of."--_Hunt's Byron_, p. 311. "And to poor we, thine enmity's most capital."--_Beauties of Shakspeare_, p. 201. "Which thou dost confess, were fit for thee to use, as they to claim."--_Ib._, p. 196. "To beg of thee, it is my more dishonour, than thou of them."--_Ib._, p. 197. "There are still a few who, like thou and I, drink nothing but water."--_Gil Blas_, Vol. i, p. 104. "Thus, I _shall_ fall; Thou _shalt_ love thy neighbour; He _shall_ be rewarded, express no resolution on the part of _I, thou, he_."--_Lennie's E. Gram._, p. 22; _Bullions's_, 32. "So saucy with the hand of she here--What's her name?"--_Shak., Ant. and Cleop._, Act iii, Sc. 11. "All debts are cleared between you and I."--_Id., Merchant of Venice_, Act iii, Sc. 2. "Her price is paid, and she is sold like thou."--_Milman's Fall of Jerusalem_. "Search through all the most flourishing era's of Greece."--_Brown's Estimate_, ii, 16. "The family of the Rudolph's had been long distinguished."--_The Friend_, Vol. v, p. 54. "It will do well enough for you and I."--_Castle Rackrent_, p. 120. "The public will soon discriminate between him who is the sycophant, and he who is the teacher."--_Chazotte's Essay_, p. 10. "We are still much at a loss who civil power belongs to."--_Locke_. "What do you call it? and who does it belong to?"--_Collier's Cebes_. "He had received no lessons from the Socrates's, the Plato's, and the Confucius's of the age."--_Hatter's Letters_. "I cannot tell who to compare them to."--_Bunyan's P. P._, p. 128. "I see there was some resemblance betwixt this good man and I."--_Pilgrim's Progress_, p. 298. "They by that means have brought themselves into the hands and house of I do not know who."--_Ib._, p. 196. "But at length she said there was a great deal of difference between Mr. Cotton and we."--_Hutchinson's Mass._, ii, 430. "So you must ride on horseback after we." [370]--MRS. GILPIN: _Cowper_, i, 275. "A separation must soon take place between our minister and I."--_Werter_, p. 109. "When she exclaimed on Hastings, you, and I."--_Shakspeare_. "To who? to thee? What art thou?"--_Id._ "That they should always bear the certain marks who they came from."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 221. "This life has joys for you and I, And joys that riches ne'er could buy."--_Burns_. UNDER THE NOTE--OF TIME OR MEASURE. "Such as almost every child of ten years old knows."--_Town's Analysis_, p. 4. "One winter's school of four months, will carry any industrious scholar, of ten or twelve years old, completely through this book."--_Ib._, p. 12. "A boy of six years old may be taught to speak as correctly, as Cicero did before the Roman Senate."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 27. "A lad of about twelve years old, who was taken captive by the Indians."--_Ib._, p. 235. "Of nothing else but that individual white figure of five inches long which is before him."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 288. "Where lies the fault, that boys of eight or ten years old, are with great difficulty made to understand any of its principles."--_Guy's Gram._, p. v. "Where language of three centuries old is employed."--_Booth's Introd. to Dict._, p. 21. "Let a gallows be made of fifty cubits high."--_Esther_, v. 14. "I say to this child of nine years old bring me that hat, he hastens and brings it me."--_Osborn's Key_, p. 3. "He laid a floor twelve feet long, and nine feet wide; that is, over the extent _of_ twelve feet long, and _of_ nine feet wide."--_Merchants School Gram._, p. 95. "The Goulah people are a tribe of about fifty thousand strong."--_Examiner_, No. 71. RULE VIII.--NOM. ABSOLUTE. A Noun or a Pronoun is put absolute in the nominative, when its case depends on no other word: as, _"He failing, who shall meet success?"_--"Your _fathers_, where are they? and the _prophets_, do they live forever?"--_Zech._, i, 5. "Or _I_ only and _Barnabas_, have not we power to forbear working?"--_1 Cor._, ix, 6. "Nay but, O man, who art thou that repliest against God?"--_Rom._, ix, 20. "O rare _we!_"--_Cowper_. "Miserable _they!_"--_Thomson_. "The _hour_ conceal'd, and so remote the _fear_, Death still draws nearer, never seeming near."--_Pope_. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE VIII. OBS. 1.--Many grammarians make an idle distinction between the nominative _absolute_ and the nominative _independent_, as if these epithets were not synonymous; and, at the same time, they are miserably deficient in directions for disposing of the words so employed. Their two rules do not embrace more than one half of those _frequent_ examples in which the case of the noun or pronoun depends on no other word. Of course, the remaining half cannot be parsed by any of the rules which they give. The lack of a comprehensive rule, like the one above, is a great and glaring defect in all the English grammars that the author has seen, except his own, and such as are indebted to him for such a rule. It is proper, however, that the different forms of expression which are embraced in this general rule, should be discriminated, one from an other, by the scholar: let him therefore, in parsing any nominative absolute, tell _how it is put so_; whether with a _participle_, by direct _address_, by _pleonasm_, or by _exclamation_. For, in discourse, a noun or a pronoun is put absolute in the nominative, after _four modes_, or under the following _four circumstances_: (of which Murray's "case absolute," or "nominative absolute," contains only the first:) I. When, _with a participle_, it is used to express a cause, or a concomitant fact; as, "I say, _this being so_, the _law being broken_, justice takes place."--_Law and Grace_, p. 27. _"Pontius Pilate being_ governor of Judea, and _Herod being_ tetrarch of Galilee, and his _brother_ Philip tetrarch of Iturea." &c.--_Luke_, iii, 1. "I _being_ in the way, the Lord led me to the house of my master's brethren."--_Gen._, xxiv, 27. ---------"While shame, _thou looking on_, Shame to be overcome or overreach'd, Would utmost vigor raise."--_Milton, P. L._, B. ix, 1, 312. II. When, _by direct address_, it is put in the second person, and set off from the verb, by a comma or an exclamation point; as, "At length, _Seged_, reflect and be wise."--_Dr. Johnson._ "It may be, _drunkard, swearer, liar, thief_, thou dost not think of this."--_Law and Grace_, p. 27. "_This said_, he form'd thee, _Adam!_ thee, O _man!_ _Dust_ of the ground, and in thy nostrils breath'd The breath of life."--_Milton's Paradise Lost_, B. vii, l. 524. III. When, by _pleonasm_, it is introduced abruptly for the sake of emphasis, and is not made the subject or the object of any verb; as, "_He_ that hath, to him shall be given."--_Mark_, iv, 25. "_He_ that is holy, let him be holy still."--_Rev._, xxii, 11. "_Gad_, a troop shall overcome him."--_Gen._, xlix, 19. "The _north_ and the _south_, thou hast created them."--_Psalms_, lxxxix, 12. "And _they_ that have believing masters, let them not despise them."--_1 Tim._, vi, 2. "And the _leper_ in whom the plague is, his clothes shall be rent, and his head bare."--_Levit._, xiii, 45. "_They_ who serve me with adoration,--I am in them, and they [are] in me."--R. W. EMERSON: _Liberator_, No. 996. -------------------------"What may this mean, That thou, dead corse, again in complete steel, Revisitst thus the glimpses of the moon, Making night hideous; and, we fools of nature,[371] So horribly to shake our disposition With thoughts beyond the reaches of our souls?"--_Shak. Hamlet._ IV. When, _by mere exclamation_, it is used without address, and without other words expressed or implied to give it construction; as, "And the Lord passed by before him, and proclaimed, _the Lord, the Lord God_, merciful and gracious, long-suffering, and abundant in goodness and truth." _Exodus_, xxxiv, 6. "O _the depth_ of the riches both of the wisdom and knowledge of God!"--_Rom._, xi, 33. "I should not like to see her limping back, Poor _beast_!"--_Southey_. "Oh! deep enchanting prelude to repose, The dawn of bliss, the _twilight_ of our woes!"--_Campbell_. OBS. 2.--The nominative put absolute with a participle, is often equivalent to a dependent clause commencing with _when, while, if, since_, or _because_. Thus, "I being a child," may be equal to, "When I was a child," or, "Because I was a child." Here, in lieu of the nominative, the Greeks used the genitive case, and the Latins, the ablative. Thus, the phrase, "[Greek: Kai hysteræsantos oinou]," "_And the wine failing_," is rendered by Montanus, "_Et deficiente vino_;" but by Beza, "_Et cum defecisset vinum_;" and in our Bible, "_And when they wanted wine_."--_John_, ii, 3. After a noun or a pronoun thus put absolute, the participle _being_ is frequently understood, especially if an adjective or a like case come after the participle; as, "They left their bones beneath unfriendly skies, His worthless absolution [_being_] all the prize." --_Cowper_, Vol. i, p. 84. "Alike in ignorance, _his reason_ [------] _such_, Whether he thinks too little or too much."--_Pope, on Man_. OBS. 3.--The case which is put absolute in addresses or invocations, is what in the Latin and Greek grammars is called _the Vocative_. Richard Johnson says, "The only use of the Vocative Case, is, to call upon a Person, or a thing put Personally, which we speak to, to give notice to what we direct our Speech; and this is therefore, properly speaking, the _only Case absolute or independent_ which we may make use of without respect to any other Word."--_Gram. Commentaries_, p. 131. This remark, however, applies not justly to our language; for, with us, the vocative case, is unknown, or not distinguished from the nominative. In English, all nouns of the second person are either put absolute in the nominative, according to Rule 8th, or in apposition with their own pronouns placed before them, according to Rule 3d: as, "This is the stone which was set at nought of _you builders_."--_Acts_, iv, 11. "How much rather ought _you receivers_ to be considered as abandoned and execrable!"--_Clarkson's Essay_, p. 114. "Peace! _minion_, peace! it boots not me to hear The selfish counsel of _you hangers-on_." --_Brown's Inst._, p. 189. "Ye _Sylphs_ and _Sylphids_, to your chief give ear; _Fays, Faries, Genii, Elves_, and Dæmons, hear!" --_Pope, R. L._, ii, 74. OBS. 4.--The case of nouns used in exclamations, or in mottoes and abbreviated sayings, often depends, or may be conceived to depend, on something _understood_; and, when their construction can be satisfactorily explained on the principle of ellipsis, they are _not put absolute_, unless the ellipsis be that of the participle. The following examples may perhaps be resolved in this manner, though the expressions will lose much of their vivacity: "A _horse_! a _horse_! my _kingdom_ for a horse!"--_Shak._ "And he said unto his father, My _head_! my _head_!"--_2 Kings_, iv, 19. "And Samson said, With the jaw-bone of an ass, _heaps_ upon heaps, with the jaw of an ass, have I slain a thousand men."--_Judges_, xv, 16. "Ye have heard that it hath been said, An _eye_ for an eye, and a _tooth_ for a tooth."--_Matt._, v, 38. "_Peace_, be still."--_Mark_, iv, 39. "One God, _world_ without end. Amen."--_Com. Prayer_. "_My fan_, let others say, who laugh at toil; _Fan! hood! glove! scarf!_ is her laconic style."--_Young_. OBS. 5.--"Such Expressions as, _Hand to Hand, Face to Face, Foot to Foot_, are of the nature of Adverbs, and are of elliptical Construction: For the Meaning is, _Hand_ OPPOSED _to Hand_, &c."--_W. Ward's Gram._, p. 100. This learned and ingenious author seems to suppose the former noun to be here put absolute with a participle understood; and this is probably the best way of explaining the construction both of that word and of the preposition that follows it. So Samson's phrase, "_heaps upon heaps_," may mean, "heaps _being piled_ upon heaps;" and Scott's, "_man to man_, and _steel to steel_," may be interpreted, "_man being opposed_ to man, and _steel being opposed_ to steel:" "Now, man to man, and steel to steel, A chieftain's vengeance thou shalt feel."--_Lady of the Lake_. OBS. 6.--Cobbett, after his own hasty and dogmatical manner, rejects the whole theory of nominatives absolute, and teaches his "soldiers, sailors, apprentices, and ploughboys," that, "The supposition, that there can be a noun, or pronoun, which has reference to _no_ verb, and _no preposition_, is certainly a mistake."--_Cobbett's E. Gram._, ¶ 201. To sustain his position, he lays violent hands upon the plain truth, and even trips himself up in the act. Thus: "For want of a little thought, as to the matter immediately before us, some grammarians have found out '_an absolute case_,' as they call it; and Mr. Lindley Murray gives an instance of it in these words: '_Shame being lost_, all virtue is lost.' The full meaning of this sentence is this: '_It being_, or _the state of things being such, that_ shame _is_ lost, all virtue is lost.'"--_Cobbett's E. Gram._, ¶ 191. Again: "There must, you will bear in mind, always be a verb expressed or understood. One would think, that this was not the case in [some instances: as,] '_Sir_, I beg you to give me a bit of bread.' The sentence which follows the _Sir_, is complete; but the _Sir_ appears to stand wholly without connexion. However, the full meaning is this: 'I beg you, _who are a Sir_, to give me a bit of bread.' Now, if you take time to reflect a little on this matter, you will never be puzzled for a moment by those detached words, to suit which grammarians have invented _vocative cases_ and _cases absolute_, and a great many other appellations, with which they puzzle themselves, and confuse and bewilder and torment those who read their books."--_Ib._, Let. xix, ¶¶ 225 and 226. All this is just like Cobbett. But, let his admirers reflect on the matter as long as they please, the two _independent_ nominatives _it_ and _state_, in the text, "_It being_, or the state of things _being_ such," will forever stand a glaring confutation both of his doctrine and of his censure: "the _case absolute_" is there still! He has, in fact, only converted the single example into a double one! OBS. 7.--The Irish philologer, J. W. Wright, is even more confident than Cobbett, in denouncing "_the case absolute_;" and more severe in his reprehension of "Grammarians in general, and Lowth and Murray in particular," for entertaining the idea of such a case. "Surprise must cease," says he, "on an acquaintance with the fact, that persons who imbibe such fantastical doctrine _should be destitute of sterling information_ on the subject of English grammar.--The English language is a stranger to this case. We speak thus, with confidence, conscious of the justness of _our_ opinion:--an opinion, not precipitately formed, but one which is the result of mature and deliberate inquiry. '_Shame being lost_, all virtue is lost:' The meaning of this is,--'_When_ shame _is being lost_, all virtue is lost.' Here, the words _is being lost_ form _the true present tense_ of the passive voice; in which voice, all verbs, thus expressed, are _unsuspectedly_ situated: thus, agreeing with the noun _shame_, as the nominative of the first member of the sentence."--_Wright's Philosophical Gram._, p. 192. With all his deliberation, this gentleman has committed one oversight here, which, as it goes to contradict his scheme of the passive verb, some of his sixty venerable commenders ought to have pointed out to him. My old friend, the "Professor of _Elocution_ in Columbia College," who finds by this work of "superior excellence," that "the nature of the _verb_, the most difficult part of grammar, has been, at length, _satisfactorily explained_," ought by no means, after his "very attentive examination" of the book, to have left this service to me. In the clause, "all virtue _is lost_," the passive verb "_is lost_" has the form which Murray gave it--the form which, till within a year or two, _all men_ supposed to be the only right one; but, according to this new philosophy of the language, all men have been as much in error in this matter, as in their notion of the nominative absolute. If Wright's theory of the verb is correct, the only just form of the foregoing expression is, "all virtue _is being lost_." If this central position is untenable, his management of the nominative absolute falls of course. To me, the inserting of the word _being_ into all our passive verbs, seems the most monstrous absurdity ever broached in the name of grammar. The threescore certifiers to the accuracy of that theory, have, I trow, only recorded themselves as so many _ignoramuses_; for there are more than threescore myriads of better judgements against them. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE VIII. NOUNS OR PRONOUNS PUT ABSOLUTE. "Him having ended his discourse, the assembly dispersed."--_Brown's Inst._, p. 190. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the pronoun _him_, whose case depends on no other word, is in the objective case. But, according to Rule 8th, "A noun or a pronoun is put absolute in the nominative, when its case depends on no other word." Therefore, _him_ should be _he_; thus, "_He_ having ended his discourse, the assembly dispersed."] "Me being young, they deceived me."--_Inst. E. Gram._, p. 190. "Them refusing to comply, I withdrew."--_Ib._ "Thee being present, he would not tell what he knew."--_Ib._ "The child is lost; and me, whither shall I go?"--_Ib._ "Oh! happy us, surrounded with so many blessings."--_Murray's Key_, p. 187; _Merchant's_, 197; _Smith's New Gram._, 96; _Farnum's_, 63. "'Thee, too! Brutus, my son!' cried Cæsar, overcome."--_Brown's Inst._, p. 190. "Thee! Maria! and so late! and who is thy companion?"--_New-York Mirror_, Vol. x, p. 353. "How swiftly our time passes away! and ah! us, how little concerned to improve it!"--_Comly's Gram., Key_, p. 192. "There all thy gifts and graces we display, Thee, only thee, directing all our way." CHAPTER IV.--ADJECTIVES. The syntax of the English Adjective is fully embraced in the following brief rule, together with the exceptions, observations, and notes, which are, in due order, subjoined. RULE IX.--ADJECTIVES. Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns: as, "_Miserable_ comforters are ye _all_"--_Job_, xvi, 2. "_No worldly_ enjoyments are _adequate_ to the _high_ desires and powers of an _immortal_ spirit."--_Blair_. "Whatever faction's _partial_ notions are, _No_ hand is wholly _innocent_ in war." --_Rowe's Lucan_, B. vii, l. 191. EXCEPTION FIRST. An adjective sometimes relates to a _phrase_ or _sentence_ which is made the subject of an intervening verb; as, "_To insult the afflicted_, is _impious_"--_Dillwyn_. "_That he should refuse_, is not _strange_"--"_To err_ is _human_." _Murray_ says, "_Human_ belongs to its substantive 'nature' understood."--_Gram._, p. 233. From this I dissent. EXCEPTION SECOND. In combined arithmetical numbers, one adjective often relates _to an other_, and the whole phrase, to a subsequent noun; as, "_One thousand four hundred and fifty-six_ men."--"Six dollars and _eighty-seven and a half_ cents for _every five_ days' service."--"In the _one hundred and twenty-second_ year."--"_One seven_ times more than it was wont to be heated."--_Daniel_, iii, 19. EXCEPTION THIRD. With an infinitive or a participle denoting being or action in the abstract, an adjective is sometimes also taken _abstractly_; (that is, without reference to any particular noun, pronoun, or other subject;) as, "To be _sincere_, is to be _wise, innocent_, and _safe_."--_Hawkesworth_. "_Capacity_ marks the abstract quality of being _able_ to receive or hold."--_Crabb's Synonymes_. "Indeed, the main secret of being _sublime_, is to say great things in few and plain words."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 215. "Concerning being _free_ from sin in heaven, there is no question."--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 437. Better: "Concerning _freedom_ from sin," &c. EXCEPTION FOURTH. Adjectives are sometimes substituted for their corresponding abstract nouns; (perhaps, in most instances, _elliptically_, like Greek neuters;) as, "The sensations of _sublime_ and _beautiful_ are not always distinguished by very distant boundaries."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 47. That is, "of _sublimity_ and _beauty_." "The faults opposite to _the sublime_ are chiefly two: _the frigid_, and _the bombast_"--_Ib._, p. 44. Better: "The faults opposite to _sublimity_, are chiefly two; _frigidity_ and _bombast_." "Yet the ruling character of the nation was that of _barbarous_ and _cruel_."--_Brown's Estimate_, ii, 26. That is, "of _barbarity_ and _cruelty_." "In a word, _agreeable_ and _disagreeable_ are qualities of the objects we perceive," &c.--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 99. "_Polished_, or _refined_, was the idea which the author had in view."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 219. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE IX. OBS. 1.--Adjectives often relate to nouns or pronouns _understood_; as, "A new sorrow recalls _all_ the _former_" [sorrows].--_Art of Thinking_, p. 31. [The place] "_Farthest_ from him is best."--_Milton, P. L._ "To whom they all gave heed, from the _least_ [person] to the _greatest_" [person].--_Acts_, viii, 10. "The Lord your God is God of gods, and Lord of lords, a great God, a _mighty_ [God], and a _terrible_" [God].--_Deut._, x, 17. "Every one can distinguish an _angry_ from a _placid_, a _cheerful_ from a _melancholy_, a _thoughtful_ from a _thoughtless_, and a _dull_ from a penetrating, countenance."--_Beattie's Moral Science_, p. 192. Here the word _countenance_ is understood seven times; for eight different countenances are spoken of. "He came unto his _own_ [possessions], and his _own_ [men] received him not."--_John_, i, 11. The _Rev. J. G. Cooper_, has it: "He came unto his own (_creatures_,) and his own (_creatures_) received him not."--_Pl. and Pract. Gram._, p. 44. This ambitious editor of Virgil, abridger of Murray, expounder of the Bible, and author of several "new and improved" grammars, (of different languages,) should have understood this text, notwithstanding the obscurity of our version. "[Greek: Eis ta idia ælthe. kai oi idioi auton ou parelabon]."--"In _propria_ venit, et _proprii_ eum non receperunt."--_Montanus_. "Ad _sua_ venit, et sui eum non exceperunt."--_Beza_. "Il est venu _chez soi_; et _les siens_ ne l'ont point reçu."--_French Bible_. Sometimes the construction of the adjective involves an ellipsis of _several words_, and those perhaps the principal parts of the clause; as, "The sea appeared to be agitated more than [in that degree _which_ is] _usual_."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 217. "During the course of the sentence, the scene should be changed as little as [in the least] _possible_" [degree].--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 107; _Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 312. "Presumptuous man! the reason wouldst thou find, Why [_thou art_] form'd so _weak_, so _little_, and so _blind_" --_Pope_. OBS. 2.--Because _qualities_ belong only to _things_, most grammarians teach, that, "_Adjectives_ are capable of being added _to nouns only_."--_Buchanan's Syntax_, p. 26. Or, as Murray expresses the doctrine: "Every adjective, and every adjective pronoun, _belongs to a substantive_, expressed or understood."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 161. "The adjective _always_ relates to a _substantive_."--_Ib._, p. 169. This teaching, which is alike repugnant to the true _definition_ of an adjective, to the true _rule_ for its construction, and to _all the exceptions_ to this rule, is but a sample of that hasty sort of induction, which is ever jumping to false conclusions for want of a fair comprehension of the facts in point. The position would not be tenable, even if all our _pronouns_ were admitted to be _nouns_, or "_substantives_;" and, if these two parts of speech are to be distinguished, the consequence must be, that Murray supposes a countless number of unnecessary and absurd _ellipses._ It is sufficiently evident, that in the construction of sentences, adjectives often relate immediately to _pronouns_, and only through them to the nouns which they represent. Examples: "I should like to know who has been carried off, except _poor dear me_."--_Byron_. "To _poor us_ there is not much hope remaining."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p 204. "It is the final pause _which alone_, on many occasions, marks the difference between prose and verse."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 260. "And sometimes after _them both_."--_Ib._, p. 196. "All men hail'd _me happy_."--_Milton_. "To receive _unhappy me_."--_Dryden_. "Superior to _them all_."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 419. "_They_ returned to their own country, _full_ of the discoveries which they had made."--_Ib._, p. 350. "_All ye_ are brethren."--_Matt._, xxiii, 8. "And _him only_ shalt thou serve."--_Matt._, iv, 10. "Go _wiser thou_, and in thy scale of sense Weigh thy opinion against Providence."--_Pope_. OBS. 3.--When an adjective follows a finite verb, and is not followed by a noun, it generally relates to the subject of the verb; as, "_I_ am _glad_ that the _door_ is made _wide_."--"An unbounded _prospect_ doth not long continue _agreeable_."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 244. "Every thing which is _false, vicious_, or _unworthy_, is _despicable_ to him, though all the world should approve it."--_Spectator_, No. 520. Here _false, vicious_, and _unworthy_, relate to _which_; and _despicable_ relates to _thing_. The practice of Murray and his followers, of supplying a "substantive" in all such cases, is absurd. "When the Adjective forms the _Attribute_ of a Proposition, it belongs to the noun [or pronoun] which serves as the _Subject_ of the Proposition, and cannot be joined to any other noun, since it is of the Subject that we affirm the quality expressed by this Adjective."--_De Sacy, on General Gram._, p. 37. In some peculiar phrases, however, such as, _to fall short of, to make bold with, to set light by_, the adjective has such a connexion with the verb, that it may seem questionable how it ought to be explained in parsing. Examples: (1.) "This latter mode of expression falls _short_ of the force and vehemence of the former."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 353. Some will suppose the word _short_ to be here used _adverbially_, or to qualify _falls_ only; but perhaps it may as well be parsed as an adjective, forming a predicate with "_falls_," and relating to "_mode_," the nominative. (2.) "And that I have made so _bold_ with thy glorious Majesty."--_Jenks's Prayers_, p. 156. This expression is perhaps elliptical: it may mean, "that I have made _myself_ so bold," &c. (3.) "Cursed be he that _setteth light_ by his father or his mother: and all the people shall say, Amen."--_Deut._, xxvii, 16. This may mean, "that setteth light _esteem_ or _estimation_," &c. OBS. 4.--When an adjective follows an infinitive or a participle, the noun or pronoun to which it relates, is sometimes before it, and sometimes after it, and often considerably remote; as, "A real gentleman cannot but practice those virtues _which_, by an intimate knowledge of mankind, he has found to be _useful_ to them."--"He [a melancholy enthusiast] thinks _himself_ obliged in duty to be _sad_ and _disconsolate_."--_Addison_. "He is scandalized at _youth_ for being _lively_, and at _childhood_ for being playful."--_Id._ "But growing _weary_ of one who almost walked him out of breath, _he_ left him for Horace and Anacreon."--_Steele._ OBS. 5.--Adjectives preceded by the definite article, are often used, by _ellipsis_, as _nouns_; as, _the learned_, for _learned men_. Such phrases usually designate those classes of persons or things, which are characterized by the qualities they express; and this, the reader must observe, is a use quite different from that _substitution_ of adjectives for nouns, which is noticed in the fourth exception above. In _our_ language, the several senses in which adjectives may thus be taken, are not distinguished with that clearness which the inflections of other tongues secure. Thus, _the noble, the vile, the excellent_, or _the beautiful_, may be put for three extra constructions: first, for _noble persons, vile persons_, &c.; secondly, for _the noble man, the vile man_, &c.; thirdly, for the abstract qualities, _nobility, vileness, excellence, beauty_. The last-named usage forms an exception to the rule; in the other two the noun is understood, and should be supplied by the parser. Such terms, if elliptical, are most commonly of the plural number, and refer to the word _persons_ or _things_ understood; as, "_The careless_ and _the imprudent, the giddy_ and _the fickle, the ungrateful_ and _the interested_, everywhere meet us."--_Blair_. Here the noun _persons_ is to be six times supplied. "Wherever there is taste, _the witty_ and _the humorous_ make themselves perceived."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 21. Here the author meant, simply, the qualities _wit_ and _humour_, and he ought to have used these words, because the others are equivocal, and are more naturally conceived to refer to persons. In the following couplet, the noun _places_ or _things_ is understood after "_open_," and again after "_covert_," which last word is sometimes misprinted "_coverts_:" "Together let us beat this ample field, Try what _the open_, what _the covert_, yield."--_Pope, on Man._ OBS. 6.--The adjective, in English, is generally placed immediately _before its noun_; as, "_Vain_ man! is grandeur given to _gay_ attire?"--_Beattie_. Those adjectives which relate to _pronouns_, most commonly follow them; as, "They left _me weary_ on a grassy turf."--_Milton._ But to both these general rules there are many exceptions; for the position of an adjective may be varied by a variety of circumstances, not excepting the mere convenience of emphasis: as, "And Jehu said, Unto _which_ of _all us_?"--_2 Kings_, ix, 5. In the following instances the adjective is placed _after the word_ to which it relates: 1. When other words depend on the adjective, or stand before it to qualify it; as, "A mind _conscious of right_,"--"A wall _three feet thick_,"--"A body of troops _fifty thousand strong_." 2. When the quality results from an action, or receives its application through a verb or participle; as, "Virtue renders _life happy_."--"He was in Tirzah, drinking _himself drunk_ in the house of Arza."--_1 Kings_, xvi, 9. "All men agree to call _vinegar sour, honey sweet_, and _aloes bitter_."--_Burke, on Taste_, p. 38. "God made _thee perfect_, not _immutable_."--_Milton_. 3. When the quality excites admiration, and the adjective would thus be more clearly distinctive; as, "Goodness _infinite_,"--"Wisdom _unsearchable_."--_Murray_. 4. When a verb comes between the adjective and the noun; as, "Truth stands _independent_ of all external things."--_Burgh_. "Honour is not _seemly_ for a fool."--_Solomon_. 5. When the adjective is formed by means of the prefix _a_; as, _afraid, alert, alike, alive, alone, asleep, awake, aware, averse, ashamed, askew_. To these may be added a few other words; as, _else, enough, extant, extinct, fraught, pursuant_. 6. When the adjective has the nature, but not the form, of a participle; as, "A queen _regnant_,"--"The prince _regent_,"--"The heir _apparent_,"--"A lion, not _rampant_, but _couchant_ or _dormant_"--"For the time then _present_." OBS. 7.--In some instances, the adjective may _either precede or follow_ its noun; and the writer may take his choice, in respect to its position: as, 1. In _poetry_--provided the sense be obvious; as, ------------------"Wilt thou to the _isles Atlantic_, to the _rich Hesperian clime_, Fly in the train of Autumn?" --_Akenside, P. of I._, Book i, p. 27. -----------------------------"Wilt thou fly With laughing Autumn to _the Atlantic isles_, And range with him th' _Hesperian field_?" --_Id. Bucke's Gram._, p. 120. 2. When technical usage favours one order, and common usage an other; as, "A notary _public_," or, "A _public_ notary;"--"The heir _presumptive_," or, "The _presumptive_ heir."--See _Johnson's Dict._, and _Webster's_. 3. When an adverb precedes the adjective; as, "A Being _infinitely_ wise," or, "An _infinitely wise_ Being." Murray, Comly, and others, here approve only the former order; but the latter is certainly not ungrammatical. 4. When several adjectives belong to the same noun; as, "A woman, _modest, sensible_, and _virtuous_," or, "A _modest, sensible_, and _virtuous_ woman." Here again, Murray, Comly, and others, approve only the former order; but I judge the latter to be quite as good. 5. When the adjective is emphatic, it may be _foremost_ in the sentence, though the natural order of the words would bring it last; as, "_Weighty_ is the anger of the righteous."--_Bible_. "_Blessed_ are the pure in heart."--_Ib._ "_Great_ is the earth, _high_ is the heaven, _swift_ is the sun in his course."--_1 Esdras_, iv, 34. "_The more laborious_ the life is, _the less populous_ is the country."--_Goldsmith's Essays_, p. 151. 6. When the adjective and its noun both follow a verb as parts of the predicate, either may possibly come before the other, yet the arrangement is _fixed by the sense intended_: thus there is a great difference between the assertions, "We call the _boy good_," and, "We call the _good boy_" OBS. 8.--By an ellipsis of the noun, an adjective with a preposition before it, is sometimes equivalent to an adverb; as, _"In particular;"_ that is, _"In a particular manner;"_ equivalent to _particularly_. So _"in general"_ is equivalent to _generally_. It has already been suggested, that, in parsing, the scholar should here supply the ellipsis. See Obs. 3d, under Rule vii. OBS. 9.--Though English adjectives are, for the most part, incapable of any _agreement_, yet such of them as denote unity or plurality, ought in general to have nouns of the same number: as, _this man, one man, two men, many men_.[372] In phrases of this form, the rule is well observed; but in some peculiar ways of numbering things, it is commonly disregarded; for certain nouns are taken in a plural sense without assuming the plural termination. Thus people talk of many _stone_ of cheese,--many _sail_ of vessels,--many _stand_ of arms,--many _head_ of cattle,--many _dozen_ of eggs,--many _brace_ of partridges,--many _pair_ of shoes. So we read in the Bible of "two hundred _pennyworth_ of bread," and "twelve _manner_ of fruits." In all such phraseology, there is, in regard to the _form_ of the latter word, an evident disagreement of the adjective with its immediate noun; but sometimes, (where the preposition _of_ does not occur,) expressions that seem somewhat like these, may be elliptical: as when historians tell of _many thousand foot_ (soldiers), or _many hundred horse_ (troops). To denote a collective number, a singular adjective may precede a plural one; as, "_One_ hundred men,"--"_Every_ six weeks." And to denote plurality, the adjective many may, in like manner, precede _an_ or _a_ with a singular noun; as, "The Odyssey entertains us with _many a wonderful adventure_, and _many a landscape_ of nature."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 436." There _starts up many_ a writer."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 306. "Full _many a flower is born_ to blush unseen, And waste its sweetness on the desert air."--_Gray_. OBS. 10.--Though _this_ and _that_ cannot relate to plurals, many writers do not hesitate to place them before singulars taken conjointly, which are equivalent to plurals; as, "_This power and will_ do necessarily produce that which man is empowered to do."--_Sale's Koran_, i, 229. "_That sobriety and self-denial_ which are essential to the support of virtue."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 218. "_This modesty and decency_ were looked upon by them as a law of nature."--_Rollin's Hist._, ii, 45. Here the plural forms, _these_ and _those_, cannot be substituted; but the singular may be repeated, if the repetition be thought necessary. Yet, when these same pronominal adjectives are placed _after_ the nouns to suggest the things again, they must be made plural; as, "_Modesty and decency_ were thus carefully guarded, for _these_ were looked upon as being enjoined by the law of nature." OBS. 11.--In prose, the use of adjectives for adverbs is improper; but, in poetry, an adjective relating to the noun or pronoun, is sometimes elegantly used in stead of an adverb qualifying the verb or participle; as; "_Gradual_ sinks the breeze Into a perfect calm."--_Thomson's Seasons_, p. 34. "To Thee I bend the knee; to Thee my thoughts _Continual_ climb."--_Ib._, p. 48. "As on he walks _Graceful_, and crows defiance."--_Ib._, p. 56. "As through the falling glooms _Pensive_ I stray."--_Ib._, p. 80. "They, _sportive_, wheel; or, sailing down the stream, Are snatch'd _immediate_ by the quick-eyed trout."--_Ib._, p. 82. "_Incessant_ still you flow."--_Ib._, p. 91. "The shatter'd clouds _Tumultuous_ rove, the interminable sky _Sublimer_ swells."--_Ib._, p. 116. In order to determine, in difficult cases, whether an adjective or an adverb is required, the learner should carefully attend to the definitions of these parts of speech, and consider whether, in the case in question, _quality_ is to be expressed, or _manner_: if the former, an adjective is always proper; if the latter, an adverb. That is, in this case, the adverb, though not always required in poetry, is specially requisite in prose. The following examples will illustrate this point: "She looks _cold_;"--"She looks _coldly_ on him."--"I sat _silent_;"--"I sat _silently_ musing."--"Stand _firm_; maintain your cause _firmly_." See _Etymology_, Chap, viii, Obs. 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th, on the Modifications of Adverbs. OBS. 12.--In English, an adjective and its noun are often taken as a sort of compound term, to which other adjectives may be added; as, "An _old man_; a _good_ old man; a very _learned, judicious_, good old man."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 169; _Brit. Gram._, 195; _Buchanan's_, 79. "Of an _other determinate positive new_ birth, subsequent to baptism, we know nothing."--_West's Letters_, p. 183. When adjectives are thus accumulated, the subsequent ones should convey such ideas as the former may consistently qualify, otherwise the expression will be objectionable. Thus the ordinal adjectives, _first, second, third, next_, and _last_, may qualify the cardinal numbers, but they cannot very properly be qualified by them. When, therefore, we specify any part of a series, the cardinal adjective ought, by good right, to follow the ordinal, and not, as in the following phrase, be placed before it: "In reading the _nine last chapters_ of John."--_Fuller_. Properly speaking, there is but one last chapter in any book. Say, therefore, "the _last nine_ chapters;" for, out of the twenty-one chapters in John, a man may select several different nines. (See _Etymology_, Chap, iv, Obs. 7th, on the Degrees of Comparison.) When one of the adjectives merely qualifies the other, they should be joined together by a hyphen; as, "A _red-hot_ iron."--"A _dead-ripe_ melon." And when both or all refer equally and solely to the noun, they ought either to be connected by a conjunction, or to be separated by a comma. The following example is therefore faulty: "It is the business of an epic poet, to form a _probable interesting_ tale."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 427. Say, "probable _and_ interesting;" or else insert a comma in lieu of the conjunction. "Around him wide a sable army stand, A _low-born, cell-bred, selfish, servile band_." --_Dunciad_, B. ii, l. 355. OBS. 13.--Dr. Priestley has observed: "There is a remarkable ambiguity in the use of the negative adjective _no_; and I do not see," says he, "how it can be remedied in any language. If I say, '_No laws are better than the English_,' it is only my known sentiments that can inform a person whether I mean to praise, or dispraise _them_."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 136. It may not be possible to remove the ambiguity from the phraseology here cited, but it is easy enough to avoid the form, and say in stead of it, "_The English laws are worse than none_," or, "_The English laws are as good as any_;" and, in neither of these expressions, is there any ambiguity, though the other may doubtless be taken in either of these senses. Such an ambiguity is sometimes used on purpose: as when one man says of an other, "He is no small knave;" or, "He is no small fool." "There liv'd in primo Georgii (they record) A worthy member, _no small fool, a lord_."--_Pope_, p. 409. NOTES TO RULE IX. NOTE I.--Adjectives that imply unity or plurality, must agree with their nouns in number: as, "_That sort, those sorts_;"--"_This hand, these hands_." [373] NOTE II.--When the adjective is necessarily plural, or necessarily singular, the noun should be made so too: as, "_Twenty pounds_" not, "Twenty _pound_;"--"_Four feet_ long," not, "_Four foot_ long;"--"_One session_" not, "One _sessions_." NOTE III.--The reciprocal expression, _one an other_, should not be applied to two objects, nor _each other_, or _one the other_, to more than two; as, "Verse and prose, on some occasions, run into _one another_, like light and shade."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 377; _Jamieson's_, 298. Say, "into _each other_" "For mankind have always been butchering _each other_"--_Webster's Essays_, p. 151. Say, "_one an other_" See _Etymology_, Chap, iv, Obs. 15th, 16th, 17th, and 18th, on the Classes of Adjectives. NOTE IV.--When the comparative degree is employed with _than_, the latter term of comparison should _never include_ the former; nor the former the latter: as, "_Iron is more useful_ than _all the metals_"--"_All the metals are less useful_ than _iron_." In either case, it should be, "all the other metals," NOTE V.--When the superlative degree is employed, the latter term of comparison, which is introduced by _of_, should _never exclude_ the former; as, "A fondness for show, is, of all _other_ follies, the most vain." Here the word _other_ should be expunged; for this latter term must _include_ the former: that is, the fondness for show must be one of the follies of which it is the vainest. NOTE VI.--When equality is denied, or inequality affirmed, neither term of the comparison should _ever include_ the other; because every thing must needs be equal to itself, and it is absurd to suggest that a part surpasses the whole: as, "_No writings whatever_ abound _so much_ with the bold and animated figures, _as the sacred books_."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 414. Say, "No _other_ writings whatever;" because the sacred books are "_writings_" See _Etymology_, Chap, iv, Obs. 6th, on Regular Comparison. NOTE VII.--Comparative terminations, and adverbs of degree, should not be applied to adjectives that are not susceptible of comparison; and all double comparatives and double superlatives should be avoided: as, "_So universal_ a complaint:" say rather, "_So general_."--"Some _less nobler_ plunder:" say, "_less noble_"--"The _most straitest_ sect:" expunge _most_. See _Etymology_, Chap, iv, from Obs. 5th to Obs. 13th, on Irregular Comparison.[374] NOTE VIII.--When adjectives are connected by _and, or_, or _nor_, the shortest and simplest should in general be placed first; as, "He is _older_ and _more respectable_ than his brother." To say, "_more respectable_ and _older_" would be obviously inelegant, as possibly involving the inaccuracy of "_more older_." NOTE IX.--When one adjective is superadded to an other without a conjunction expressed or understood, the most distinguishing quality must be expressed next to the noun, and the latter must be such as the former may consistently qualify; as, "An _agreeable young_ man," not, "A _young agreeable_ man."--"The art of speaking, like _all other practical_ arts, may be facilitated by rules,"--_Enfield's Speaker_, p. 10. Example of error: "The Anglo-Saxon language possessed, for the _two first_ persons, a _Dual_ number."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, 1850, p. 59. Say, "the _first two_ persons;" for the _second_ of three can hardly be one of the _first_; and "_two first_" with the _second_ and _third_ added, will clearly make _more_ than three. See Obs. 12th, above. NOTE X.--In prose, the use of adjectives for adverbs, is a vulgar error; the adverb alone being proper, when _manner_ or _degree_ is to be expressed, and not _quality_; as, "He writes _elegant_;" say, "_elegantly_."--"It is a _remarkable_ good likeness;" say, "_remarkably good_." NOTE XI.--The pronoun _them_ should never be used as an adjective, in lieu of _those_: say, "I bought _those_ books;" not, "_them_ books." This also is a vulgar error, and chiefly confined to the conversation of the unlearned.[375] NOTE XII.--When the pronominal adjectives, _this_ and _that_, or _these_ and _those_, are contrasted; _this_ or _these_ should represent the latter of the antecedent terms, and _that_ or _those_ the former: as, "And, reason raise o'er instinct as you can, In _this_ 'tis God directs, in _that_ 'tis man."--_Pope_. "Farewell my friends! farewell my foes! My peace with _these_, my love with _those_!"--_Burns_. NOTE XIII.--The pronominal adjectives _either_ and _neither_, in strict propriety of syntax, relate to two things only; when more are referred to, _any_ and _none_, or _any one_ and _no one_, should be used in stead of them: as, "_Any_ of the three," or, "_Any one_ of the three;" not, "_Either_ of the three."--"_None_ of the four," or, "_No one_ of the four;" not, "_Neither_ of the four." [376] NOTE XIV.--The adjective _whole_ must not be used in a plural sense, for _all_; nor _less_, in the sense of _fewer_; nor _more_ or _most_, in any ambiguous construction, where it may be either an adverb of degree, or an adjective of number or quantity: as, "Almost the _whole_ inhabitants were present."--HUME: see _Priestley's Gram._, p. 190.[377] Say, "Almost _all_ the inhabitants." "No _less_ than three dictionaries have been published to correct it."--_Dr. Webster_. Say, "No _fewer_." "This trade enriched some _people more_ than them."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 215. This passage is not clear in its import: it may have either of two meanings. Say, "This trade enriched some _other_ people, _besides_ them." Or, "This trade enriched some _others_ more than _it did them_." NOTE XV.--Participial adjectives retain the termination, but not the government of participles; when, therefore, they are followed by the objective case, a preposition must be inserted to govern it: as, "The man who is most _sparing of_ his words, is generally most _deserving of_ attention." NOTE XVI.--When the figure of any adjective affects the syntax and sense of the sentence, care must be taken to give to the word or words that form, simple or compound, which suits the true meaning and construction. Examples: "He is _forehead bald_, yet he is clean."--FRIENDS' BIBLE: _Lev._, xiii, 41. Say, "_forehead-bald._,"--ALGER'S BIBLE, and SCOTT'S. "From such phrases as, '_New England scenery_,' convenience requires the _omission_ of the hyphen."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 89. This is a false notion. Without the hyphen, the phrase properly means, "_New scenery in England_;" but _New-England scenery_ is scenery in New England. "'_Many coloured wings_,' means _many wings which are coloured_; but '_many-coloured wings_' means _wings of many colours_."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 116. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE IX. EXAMPLES UNDER NOTE I.--AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. "I am not recommending these kind of sufferings to your liking."--BP. SHERLOCK: _Lowth's Gram._, p. 87. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the adjective _these_ is plural, and does not agree with its noun _kind_, which is singular. But, according to Note 1st under Rule 9th: "Adjectives that imply unity or plurality, must agree with their nouns in number." Therefore, _these_ should be _this_; thus, "I am not recommending _this_ kind of sufferings."] "I have not been to London this five years."--_Webster's Philos. Gram._, p. 152. "These kind of verbs are more expressive than their radicals."--_Dr. Murray's Hist. of Lang._, Vol. ii, p. 163. "Few of us would be less corrupted than kings are, were we, like them, beset with flatterers, and poisoned with that vermin."--_Art of Thinking_, p. 66. "But it seems this literati had been very ill rewarded for their ingenious labours."--_Roderick Random_, Vol. ii, p. 87. "If I had not left off troubling myself about those kind of things."--_Swift_. "For these sort of things are usually join'd to the most noted fortune."--_Bacon's Essays_, p. 101. "The nature of that riches and long-suffering is, to lead to repentance."--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 380. "I fancy they are these kind of gods, which Horace mentions."--_Addison, on Medals_, p. 74. "During that eight days they are prohibited from touching the skin."--_Hope of Israel_, p. 78. "Besides, he had not much provisions left for his army."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, i, 86. "Are you not ashamed to have no other thoughts than that of amassing wealth, and of acquiring glory, credit, and dignities?"--_Ib._, p. 192. "It distinguisheth still more remarkably the feelings of the former from that of the latter."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. i, p. xvii. "And this good tidings of the reign shall be published through all the world."--_Campbell's Gospels, Matt._, xxiv, 14. "This twenty years have I been with thee."--_Gen._, xxxi, 38. "In these kind of expressions some words seem to be understood."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 179. "He thought these kind of excesses indicative of greatness."--_Hunt's Byron_, p. 117. "These sort of fellows are very numerous."--_Spect._, No. 486. "Whereas these sort of men cannot give account of their faith."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 444. "But the question is, whether that be the words."--_Ib._, iii, 321. "So that these sort of Expressions are not properly Optative."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 276. "Many things are not that which they appear to be."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 176. "So that every possible means are used."--_Formey's Belles-Lettres_, p. iv. "We have strict statutes, and most biting laws, Which for this nineteen years we have let sleep."--_Shak_. "They could not speak; and so I left them both, To bear this tidings to the bloody king."--_Id., Richard III_. UNDER NOTE II.--OF FIXED NUMBERS. "Why, I think she cannot be above six foot two inches high."--_Spect._, No. 533. "The world is pretty regular for about forty rod east and ten west."--_Ib._, No. 535. "The standard being more than two foot above it."--BACON: _Joh. Dict., w. Standard_. "Supposing (among other Things) he saw two Suns, and two Thebes."--_Bacon's Wisdom_, p. 25. "On the right hand we go into a parlour thirty three foot by thirty nine."--_Sheffield's Works_, ii, 258. "Three pound of gold went to one shield."--_1 Kings_, x, 17. "Such an assemblage of men as there appears to have been at that sessions."--_The Friend_, x, 389. "And, truly, he hath saved me this pains."--_Barclay's Works_, ii, 266. "Within this three mile may you see it coming."--SHAK.: _Joh. Dict., w. Mile_. "Most of the churches, not all, had one or more ruling elder."--_Hutchinson's Hist. of Mass._, i, 375. "While a Minute Philosopher, not six foot high, attempts to dethrone the Monarch of the universe."--_Berkley's Alciphron_, p. 151. "The wall is ten foot high."--_Harrison's Gram._, p. 50. "The stalls must be ten foot broad."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 201. "A close prisoner in a room twenty foot square, being at the north side of his chamber, is at liberty to walk twenty foot southward, not to walk twenty foot northward."--LOCKE: _Joh. Dict., w. Northward_. "Nor, after all this pains and industry, did they think themselves qualified."--_Columbian Orator_, p. 13. "No less than thirteen _gypsies_ were condemned at one Suffolk assizes, and executed."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 333. "The king was petitioned to appoint one, or more, person, or persons."--MACAULAY: _Priestley's Gram._, p. 194. "He carries weight! he rides a race! 'Tis for a thousand pound!"--_Cowper's Poems_, i, 279. "They carry three tire of guns at the head, and at the stern there are two tire of guns."--_Joh. Dict., w. Galleass_. "The verses consist of two sort of rhymes."--_Formey's Belles-Lettres_, p. 112. "A present of 40 camel's load of the most precious things of Syria."--_Wood's Dict._, Vol. i, p. 162. "A large grammar, that shall extend to every minutiæ."--_S. Barrett's Gram._, Tenth Ed., Pref., p. iii. "So many spots, like næves on Venus' soil, One jewel set off with so many foil."--_Dryden_. "For, of the lower end, two handful It had devour'd, it was so manful."--_Hudibras_, i, 365. UNDER NOTE III.--OF RECIPROCALS. "That _shall_ and _will_ might be substituted for one another."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 131. "We use not _shall_ and _will_ promiscuously for one another."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 110. "But I wish to distinguish the three high ones from each other also."--_Fowle's True Eng. Gram._, p. 13. "Or on some other relation, which two objects bear to one another."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 142. "Yet the two words lie so near to one another in meaning, that in the present case, any one of them, perhaps, would have been sufficient."--_Ib._, p. 203. "Both orators use great liberties with one another."--_Ib._, p. 244. "That greater separation of the two sexes from one another."--_Ib._, p. 466. "Most of whom live remote from each other."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 39. "Teachers like to see their pupils polite to each other."--_Webster's El. Spelling-Book_, p. 28. "In a little time, he and I must keep company with one another only."--_Spect._, No. 474. "Thoughts and circumstances crowd upon each other."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 32. "They cannot see how the ancient Greeks could understand each other."--_Literary Convention_, p. 96. "The spirit of the poet, the patriot, and the prophet, vied with each other in his breast."--_Hazlitt's Lect._, p. 112. "Athamas and Ino loved one another."--_Classic Tales_, p. 91. "Where two things are compared or contrasted to one another."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 119. "Where two things are compared, or contrasted, with one another."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 324. "In the classification of words, almost all writers differ from each other."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. iv. "I will not trouble thee, my child. Farewell; We'll no more meet; no more see one another."--_Shak. Lear_. UNDER NOTE IV.--OF COMPARATIVES. "Errours in Education should be less indulged than any."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. iv. "This was less his case than any man's that ever wrote."--_Pref. to Waller_. "This trade enriched some people more than it enriched them." [378]--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 215. "The Chaldee alphabet, in which the Old Testament has reached us, is more beautiful than any ancient character known."--_Wilson's Essay_, p. 5. "The Christian religion gives a more lovely character of God, than any religion ever did."--_Murray's Key_, p. 169. "The temple of Cholula was deemed more holy than any in New Spain."--_Robertson's America_, ii, 477. "Cibber grants it to be a better poem of its kind than ever was writ."--_Pope_. "Shakspeare is more faithful to the true language of nature, than any writer."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 468. "One son I had--one, more than all my sons, the strength of Troy."--_Cowper's Homer_. "Now Israel loved Joseph more than all his children, because he was the son of his old age."--_Gen._, xxxvii, 3. UNDER NOTE V.--OF SUPERLATIVES. "Of all other simpletons, he was the greatest."--_Nutting's English Idioms_. "Of all other beings, man has certainly the greatest reason for gratitude."--_Ibid., Gram._, p. 110. "This lady is the prettiest of all her sisters."--_Peyton's Elements of Eng. Lang._, p. 39. "The relation which, of all others, is by far the most fruitful of tropes, I have not yet mentioned."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 141. "He studied Greek the most of any nobleman."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 231. "And indeed that was the qualification of all others most wanted at that time."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, ii, 35. "Yet we deny that the knowledge of him, as outwardly crucified, is the best of all other knowledge of him."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 144. "Our ideas of numbers are of all others the most accurate and distinct."--_Duncan's Logic_, p. 35. "This indeed is of all others the case when it can be least necessary to name the agent."--_J. Q. Adams's Rhet._, i, 231. "The period, to which you have arrived, is perhaps the most critical and important of any moment of your lives."--_Ib._, i, 394. "Perry's royal octavo is esteemed the best of any pronouncing Dictionary yet known."--_Red Book_, p. x. "This is the tenth persecution, and of all the foregoing, the most bloody."--_Sammes's Antiquities_, Chap. xiii. "The English tongue is the most susceptible of sublime imagery, of any language in the world."--See _Bucke's Gram._, p. 141. "Homer is universally allowed to have had the greatest Invention of any writer whatever."--_Pope's Preface to Homer_. "In a version of this particular work, which most of any other seems to require a venerable antique cast."--_Ib._ "Because I think him the best informed of any naturalist who has ever written."-- _Jefferson's Notes_, p. 82. "Man is capable of being the most social of any animal."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 145. "It is of all others that which most moves us."--_Ib._, p. 158. "Which of all others, is the most necessary article."--_Ib._, p. 166. "Quoth he 'this gambol thou advisest, Is, of all others, the unwisest.'"--_Hudibras_, iii, 316. UNDER NOTE VI.--INCLUSIVE TERMS. "Noah and his family outlived all the people who lived before the flood."--_Webster's El. Spelling-Book_, p. 101. "I think it superior to any work of that nature we have yet had."--_Dr. Blair's Rec. in Murray's Gram._, Vol. ii, p. 300. "We have had no grammarian who has employed so much labour and judgment upon our native language, as the author of these volumes."--_British Critic, ib._, ii, 299. "No persons feel so much the distresses of others, as they who have experienced distress themselves."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo., p. 227. "Never was any people so much infatuated as the Jewish nation."--_Ib._, p. 185; _Frazee's Gram._, p. 135. "No tongue is so full of connective particles as the Greek."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 85. "Never sovereign was so much beloved by the people."--_Murray's Exercises_, R. xv, p. 68. "No sovereign was ever so much beloved by the people."--_Murray's Key_, p. 202. "Nothing ever affected her so much as this misconduct of her child."--_Ib._, p. 203; _Merchant's_, 195. "Of all the figures of speech, none comes so near to painting as metaphor."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 142; _Jamieson's_, 149. "I know none so happy in his metaphors as Mr. Addison."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 150. "Of all the English authors, none is so happy in his metaphors as Addison."--_Jamieson's, Rhet._, p. 157. "Perhaps no writer in the world was ever so frugal of his words as Aristotle."--_Blair_, p. 177; _Jamieson_, 251. "Never was any writer so happy in that concise spirited style as Mr. Pope."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 403. "In the harmonious structure and disposition of periods, no writer whatever, ancient or modern, equals Cicero."--_Blair_, 121; _Jamieson_, 123. "Nothing delights me so much as the works of nature."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 150. "No person was ever so perplexed as he has been to-day."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 216. "In no case are writers so apt to err as in the position of the word _only_."--_Maunder's Gram._, p. 15. "For nothing is so tiresome as perpetual uniformity."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 102. "No writing lifts exalted man so high, As sacred and soul-moving poesy."--_Sheffield_. UNDER NOTE VII.--EXTRA COMPARISONS. "How much more are ye better than the fowls!"--_Luke_, xii, 24. "Do not thou hasten above the Most Highest."--_2 Esdras_, iv, 34. "This word _peer_ is most principally used for the nobility of the realm."--_Cowell_. "Because the same is not only most universally received," &c.--_Barclay's Works_, i, 447. "This is, I say, not the best and most principal evidence."--_Ib._, iii, 41. "Offer unto God thanksgiving, and pay thy vows unto the Most Highest."--_The Psalter_, Ps. 1, 14. "The holy place of the tabernacle of the Most Highest."--_Ib._, Ps. xlvi, 4. "As boys should be educated with temperance, so the first greatest lesson that should be taught them is to admire frugality."--_Goldsmith's Essays_, p. 152. "More universal terms are put for such as are more restricted."--_Brown's Metaphors_, p. 11. "This was the most unkindest cut of all."--_Dodd's Beauties of Shak._, p. 251; _Singer's Shak._, ii, 264. "To take the basest and most poorest shape."--_Dodd's Shak._, p. 261. "I'll forbear: and am fallen out with my more headier will."--_Ib._, p. 262. "The power of the Most Highest guard thee from sin."--_Percival, on Apostolic Succession_, p. 90. "Which title had been more truer, if the dictionary had been in Latin and Welch."--VERSTEGAN: _Harrison's E. Lang._, p. 254. "The waters are more sooner and harder frozen, than more further upward, within the inlands."--_Id., ib._ "At every descent, the worst may become more worse."--H. MANN: _Louisville Examiner_, 8vo, Vol. i, p. 149. "Or as a moat defensive to a house Against the envy of less happier lands."--_Shakspeare_. "A dreadful quiet felt, and worser far Than arms, a sullen interval of war."--_Dryden_. UNDER NOTE VIII.--ADJECTIVES CONNECTED. "It breaks forth in its most energetick, impassioned, and highest strain."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 66. "He has fallen into the most gross and vilest sort of railing."--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 261. "To receive that more general and higher instruction which the public affords."--_District School_, p. 281. "If the best things have the perfectest and best operations."--HOOKER: _Joh. Dict._ "It became the plainest and most elegant, the most splendid and richest, of all languages."--See _Bucke's Gram._, p. 140. "But the most frequent and the principal use of pauses, is, to mark the divisions of the sense."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 331; _Murray's Gram._, 248. "That every thing belonging to ourselves is the perfectest and the best."--_Clarkson's Prize Essay_, p. 189. "And to instruct their pupils in the most thorough and best manner."--_Report of a School Committee_. UNDER NOTE IX.--ADJECTIVES SUPERADDED. "The Father is figured out as an old venerable man."--_Dr. Brownlee's Controversy_. "There never was exhibited such another masterpiece of ghostly assurance."--_Id._ "After the three first sentences, the question is entirely lost."--_Spect._, No, 476. "The four last parts of speech are commonly called particles."--_Alex. Murray's Gram._, p. 14. "The two last chapters will not be found deficient in this respect."--_Student's Manual_, p. 6. "Write upon your slates a list of the ten first nouns."--_Abbott's Teacher_, p. 85. "We have a few remains of other two Greek poets in the pastoral style, Moschus and Bion."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 393. "The nine first chapters of the book of Proverbs are highly poetical."--_Ib._, p. 417. "For of these five heads, only the two first have any particular relation to the sublime."--_Ib._, p. 35. "The resembling sounds of the two last syllables give a ludicrous air to the whole."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 69. "The three last are arbitrary."--_Ib._, p. 72. "But in the phrase 'She hangs the curtains,' the verb _hangs_ is a transitive active verb."--_Comly's Gram._, p. 30. "If our definition of a verb, and the arrangement of transitive or intransitive active, passive, and neuter verbs, are properly understood."--_Ib._, 15th Ed., p. 30. "These two last lines have an embarrassing construction."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 160. "God was provoked to drown them all, but Noah and other seven persons."--_Wood's Dict._, ii, 129. "The _six first_ books of the �neid are extremely beautiful."--_Formey's Belles-Lettres_, p. 27. "A few more instances only can be given here."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 131. "A few more years will obliterate every vestige of a subjunctive form."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 46. "Some define them to be verbs devoid of the two first persons."--_Crombie's Treatise_, p. 205. "In such another Essay-tract as this."--_White's English Verb_, p. 302. "But we fear that not such another man is to be found."--REV. ED. IRVING: _on Horne's Psalms_, p. xxiii. "Oh such another sleep, that I might see But such another man!"--SHAK., _Antony and Cleopatra_. UNDER NOTE X.--ADJECTIVES FOR ADVERBS. "_The_ is an article, relating to the noun _balm_, agreeable to Rule 11."--_Comly's Gram._, p. 133. "_Wise_ is an adjective relating to the noun _man's_, agreeable to Rule 11th."--_Ibid._, 12th Ed., often. "To whom I observed, that the beer was extreme good."--_Goldsmith's Essays_, p. 127. "He writes remarkably elegant."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 152. "John behaves truly civil to all men."--_Ib._, p. 153. "All the sorts of words hitherto considered have each of them some meaning, even when taken separate."--_Beattie's Moral Science_, i, 44. "He behaved himself conformable to that blessed example."--_Sprat's Sermons_, p. 80. "Marvellous graceful."--_Clarendon, Life_, p. 18. "The Queen having changed her ministry suitable to her wisdom."--_Swift, Exam._, No. 21. "The assertions of this author are easier detected."--_Swift_: censured in _Lowth's Gram._, p. 93. "The characteristic of his sect allowed him to affirm no stronger than that."--_Bentley: ibid._ "If one author had spoken nobler and loftier than an other."--_Id., ib._ "Xenophon says express."--_Id., ib._ "I can never think so very mean of him."--_Id., ib._ "To convince all that are ungodly among them, of all their ungodly deeds, which they have ungodly committed."--_Jude_, 15th: _ib._ "I think it very masterly written."--_Swift to Pope_, Let. 74: _ib._ "The whole design must refer to the golden age, which it lively represents."--_Addison, on Medals: ib._ "Agreeable to this, we read of names being blotted out of God's book."--BURDER: approved in _Webster's Impr. Gram._, p. 107; _Frazee's_, 140; _Maltby's_, 93. "Agreeable to the law of nature, children are bound to support their indigent parents."--_Webster's Impr. Gram._, p. 109. "Words taken independent of their meaning are parsed as nouns of the neuter gender."--_Maltby's Gr._, 96. "Conceit in weakest bodies strongest works."--_Beaut. of Shak._, p. 236. UNDER NOTE XI.--THEM FOR THOSE. "Though he was not known by them letters, or the name Christ."--_Wm. Bayly's Works_, p. 94. "In a gig, or some of them things."--_Edgeworth's Castle Rackrent_, p. 35. "When cross-examined by them lawyers."--_Ib._, p. 98. "As the custom in them cases is."--_Ib._, p. 101. "If you'd have listened to them slanders."--_Ib._, p. 115. "The old people were telling stories about them fairies, but to the best of my judgment there's nothing in it."--_Ib._, p. 188. "And is it not a pity that the Quakers have no better authority to substantiate their principles than the testimony of them old Pharisees?"--_Hibbard's Errors of the Quakers_, p. 107. UNDER NOTE XII.--THIS AND THAT. "Hope is as strong an incentive to action, as fear: this is the anticipation of good, that of evil."--_Brown's Institutes_, p. 135. "The poor want some advantages which the rich enjoy; but we should not therefore account those happy, and these miserable."--_Ib._ "Ellen and Margaret fearfully, Sought comfort in each other's eye; Then turned their ghastly look each one, This to her sire, that to her son." _Scott's Lady of the Lake_, Canto ii, Stanza 29. "Six youthful sons, as many blooming maids, In one sad day beheld the Stygian shades; These by Apollo's silver bow were slain, Those Cynthia's arrows stretched upon the plain." --_Pope, Il._, xxiv, 760. "Memory and forecast just returns engage, This pointing back to youth, that on to age." --See _Key_. UNDER NOTE XIII.--EITHER AND NEITHER. "These make the three great subjects of discussion among mankind; truth, duty, and interest. But the arguments directed towards either of them are generically distinct."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 318. "A thousand other deviations may be made, and still either of them may be correct in principle. For these divisions and their technical terms, are all arbitrary."--_R. W. Green's Inductive Gram._, p. vi. "Thus it appears, that our alphabet is deficient, as it has but seven vowels to represent thirteen different sounds; and has no letter to represent either of five simple consonant sounds."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 19. "Then neither of these [five] verbs can be neuter."--_Oliver B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 343. "And the _asserter_ is in neither of the four already mentioned."--_Ib._, p. 356. "As it is not in either of these four."--_Ib._, p. 356. "See whether or not the word comes within the definition of either of the other three simple cases."--_Ib._, p. 51. "Neither of the ten was there."--_Frazee's Gram._, p. 108. "Here are ten oranges, take either of them."--_Ib._, p. 102. "There are three modes, by either of which recollection will generally be supplied; inclination, practice, and association."--_Rippingham's Art of Speaking_, p. xxix. "Words not reducible to either of the three preceding heads."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, 8vo, 1850, pp. 335 and 340. "Now a sentence may be analyzed in reference to either of these [four] classes."--_Ib._, p. 577. UNDER NOTE XIV.--WHOLE, LESS, MORE, AND MOST. "Does not all proceed from the law, which regulates the whole departments of the state?"--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 278. "A messenger relates to Theseus the whole particulars."--_Kames. El. of Crit._, Vol. ii, p. 313. "There are no less than twenty dipthhongs [sic--KTH] in the English language."--_Dr. Ash's Gram._, p. xii. "The Redcross Knight runs through the whole steps of the Christian life."--_Spectator_ No. 540. "There were not less than fifty or sixty persons present."--_Teachers' Report._ "Greater experience, and more cultivated society, abate the warmth of imagination, and chasten the manner of expression."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 152; _Murray's Gram._, i, 351. "By which means knowledge, much more than oratory, is become the principal requisite."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 254. "No less than seven illustrious cities disputed the right of having given birth to the greatest of poets."--_Lemp. Dict., n. Homer._ "Temperance, more than medicines, is the proper means of curing many diseases."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 222. "I do not suppose, that we Britons want genius, more than our neighbours."--_Ib._, p. 215. "In which he saith, he has found no less than twelve untruths."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 460. "The several places of rendezvous were concerted, and the whole operations fixed."--HUME: see _Priestley's Gram._, p. 190. "In these rigid opinions the whole sectaries concurred."--_Id., ib._ "Out of whose modifications have been made most complex modes."--LOCKE: _Sanborn's Gram._, p. 148. "The Chinese vary each of their words on no less than five different tones."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 58. "These people, though they possess more shining qualities, are not so proud as he is, nor so vain as she."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 211. "'Tis certain, we believe ourselves more, after we have made a thorough Inquiry into the Thing."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 244. "As well as the whole Course and Reasons of the Operation."--_Ib._ "Those rules and principles which are of most practical advantage."--_Newman's Rhet._, p. 4. "And there shall be no more curse."--_Rev._, xxii, 3. "And there shall be no more death."--_Rev._, xxi, 4. "But in recompense, we have more pleasing pictures of ancient manners."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 436. "Our language has suffered more injurious changes in America, since the British army landed on our shores, than it had suffered before, in the period of three centuries."--_Webster's Essays_, Ed. of 1790, p. 96. "The whole conveniences of life are derived from mutual aid and support in society."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. i, p. 166. UNDER NOTE XV.--PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES. "To such as think the nature of it deserving their attention."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 84. "In all points, more deserving the approbation of their readers."--_Keepsake_, 1830. "But to give way to childish sensations was unbecoming our nature."--_Lempriere's Dict., n. Zeno._ "The following extracts are deserving the serious perusal of all."--_The Friend_, Vol. v, p. 135. "No inquiry into wisdom, however superficial, is undeserving attention."--_Bulwer's Disowned_, ii, 95. "The opinions of illustrious men are deserving great consideration."--_Porter's Family Journal_, p. 3. "And resolutely keeps its laws, Uncaring consequences."--_Burns's Works_, ii, 43. "This is an item that is deserving more attention."--_Goodell's Lectures._ "Leave then thy joys, unsuiting such an age, To a fresh comer, and resign the stage."--_Dryden._ UNDER NOTE XVI.--FIGURE OF ADJECTIVES. "The tall dark mountains and the deep toned seas."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 278. "O! learn from him To station quick eyed Prudence at the helm."--ANON.: _Frost's El. of Gram._, p. 104. "He went in a one horse chaise."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 113. "It ought to be, 'in a one horse chaise.'"--_Dr. Crombie's Treatise_, p. 334. "These are marked with the above mentioned letters."--_Folker's Gram._, p. 4. "A many headed faction."--_Ware's Gram._, p. 18. "Lest there should be no authority in any popular grammar for the perhaps heaven inspired effort."--_Fowle's True English Gram._, Part 2d, p. 25. "Common metre stanzas consist of four Iambic lines; one of eight, and the next of six syllables. They were formerly written in two fourteen syllable lines."--_Goodenow's Gram._, p. 69. "Short metre stanzas consist of four Iambic lines; the third of eight, and the rest of six syllables."--_Ibid._ "Particular metre stanzas consist of six Iambic lines; the third and sixth of six syllables, the rest of eight."--_Ibid._ "Hallelujah metre stanzas consist of six Iambic lines; the last two of eight syllables, and the rest of six."--_Ibid._ "Long metre stanzas are merely the union of four Iambic lines, of ten syllables each."--_Ibid._ "A majesty more commanding than is to be found among the rest of the Old Testament poets."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 418. "You sulphurous and thought executed fires, Vaunt couriers to oak cleaving thunderbolts, Singe my white head! And thou, all shaking thunder Strike flat the thick rotundity o' the world!"--_Beauties of Shak._, p. 264. CHAPTER V.--PRONOUNS. The rules for the agreement of Pronouns with their antecedents are four; hence this chapter extends from the tenth rule to the thirteenth, inclusively. The _cases_ of Pronouns are embraced with those of nouns, in the seven rules of the third chapter. RULE X.--PRONOUNS. A Pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender:[379] as, "This is the friend _of whom I spoke_; he has just arrived."--"This is the book _which I_ bought; it is an excellent work."--"_Ye_, therefore, _who_ love mercy, teach _your_ sons to love _it_ too."--_Cowper._ "Speak _thou, whose_ thoughts at humble peace repine, Shall Wolsey's wealth with Wolsey's end be _thine_?"--_Dr. Johnson_. EXCEPTION FIRST. When a pronoun stands for some person or thing _indefinite_, or _unknown to the speaker_, this rule is not _strictly_ applicable; because the person, number, and gender, are rather assumed in the pronoun, than regulated by an antecedent: as, "I do not care _who_ knows it."--_Steele_. "_Who_ touched me? Tell me _who_ it was."--"We have no knowledge how, or by _whom_, it is inhabited."--ABBOT: _Joh. Dict._ EXCEPTION SECOND. The neuter pronoun _it_ may be applied to a young child, or to other creatures masculine or feminine by nature, when they are not obviously distinguishable with regard to sex; as, "Which is the real friend to the _child_, the person who gives _it_ the sweetmeats, or the person who, considering only _its_ health, resists _its_ importunities?"--_Opis._ "He loads the _animal_ he is showing me, with so many trappings and collars, that I cannot distinctly view _it_"--_Murray's Gram._, p. 301. "The _nightingale_ sings most sweetly when _it_ sings in the night."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 52. EXCEPTION THIRD. The pronoun _it_ is often used without a definite reference to any antecedent, and is sometimes a mere expletive, and sometimes the representative of an action expressed afterwards by a verb; as, "Whether she grapple _it_ with the pride of philosophy."--_Chalmers._ "Seeking to lord _it_ over God's heritage."--_The Friend_, vii, 253. "_It_ is not for kings, O Lemuel, _it_ is not for kings _to drink_ wine, nor for princes strong drink."--_Prov._, xxxi, 4. "Having no temptation to _it_, God cannot _act unjustly_ without defiling his nature."--_Brown's Divinity_, p. 11. "Come, and trip _it_ as you go, On the light fantastic toe."--_Milton._ EXCEPTION FOURTH. A singular antecedent with the adjective _many_, sometimes admits a plural pronoun, but never in the same clause; as, "Hard has been the fate of _many_ a great _genius_, that while _they_ have conferred immortality on others, _they_ have wanted themselves some friend to embalm their names to posterity."--_Welwood's Pref. to Rowe's Lucan._ "In Hawick twinkled _many a light_, Behind him soon _they_ set in night."--_W. Scott._ EXCEPTION FIFTH. When a plural pronoun is put by enallagè for the singular, it does not agree with its noun in number, because it still requires a plural verb; as, "_We_ [Lindley Murray] _have followed_ those authors, who appear to have given them the most natural and intelligible distribution."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 29. "_We shall close our_ remarks on this subject, by introducing the sentiments of Dr. Johnson respecting it."--_Ib._ "My lord, _you know_ I love _you_"--_Shakspeare._ EXCEPTION SIXTH. The pronoun sometimes disagrees with its antecedent in one sense, because it takes it in an other; as, "I have perused Mr. Johnson's _Grammatical Commentaries_, and find _it_[380] a very laborious, learned, and useful Work."--_Tho. Knipe_, D. D. "_Lamps_ is of the plural number, because _it_ means more than one."--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 8. "_Man_ is of the masculine gender, because _it_ is the name of a male."--_Ib._ "The _Utica Sentinel_ says _it_ has not heard whether the wounds are dangerous."--_Evening Post_. (Better: "The _editor_ of the Utica Sentinel says, _he_ has not heard," &c.) "There is little _Benjamin_ with _their_ ruler."--_Psalms_, lxviii, 27. "_Her_ end when _emulation_ misses, _She_ turns to envy, stings, and hisses."--_Swift's Poems_, p. 415. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE X. OBS. 1.--Respecting a pronoun, the main thing is, that the reader perceive clearly _for what it stands_; and next, that he do not misapprehend _its relation of case_. For the sake of completeness and uniformity in parsing, it is, I think, expedient to apply the foregoing rule not only to those pronouns which have obvious antecedents expressed, but also to such as are not accompanied by the nouns for which they stand. Even those which are put for persons or things unknown or indefinite, may be said to agree with whatever is meant by them; that is, with such nouns as their own properties indicate. For the reader will naturally understand something by every pronoun, unless it be a mere expletive, and without any antecedent. For example: "It would depend upon _who_ the forty were."--_Trial at Steubenville_, p. 50. Here _who_ is an indefinite relative, equivalent to _what persons_; of the third person, plural, masculine; and is in the nominative case after were, by Rule 6th. For the full construction seems to be this: "It would depend upon _the persons who_ the forty were." So _which_, for _which person_, or _which thing_, (if we call it a pronoun rather than an adjective,) may be said to have the properties of the noun _person_ or _thing_ understood; as, "His notions fitted things so well, That _which_ was _which_ he could not tell."--_Hudibras_. OBS. 2.--The pronoun _we_ is used by the speaker or writer to represent himself and others, and is therefore plural. But it is sometimes used, by a sort of fiction, in stead of the singular, to intimate that the speaker or writer is not alone in his opinions; or, perhaps more frequently, to evade the charge of egotism; for this modest assumption of plurality seems most common with those who have something else to assume: as, "And so lately as 1809, Pope Pius VII, in excommunicating his 'own dear son,' Napoleon, whom he crowned and blessed, says: '_We_, unworthy as _we_ are, represent the God of peace.'"--_Dr. Brownlee_. "The coat fits _us_ as well as if _we_ had been melted and poured into it."--_Prentice_. Monarchs sometimes prefer _we_ to _I_, in immediate connexion with a singular noun; as, "_We Alexander_, Autocrat of all the Russias."--"_We the Emperor_ of China," &c.--_Economy of Human Life_, p. vi. They also employ the anomalous compound _ourself_, which is not often used by other people; as, "Witness _ourself_ at Westminster, 28 day of April, in the tenth year of _our_ reign. CHARLES." "_Cæs._ What touches _us ourself_, shall be last serv'd." --_Shak., J. C._, Act iii, Sc. 1. "_Ourself_ to hoary Nestor will repair." --_Pope, Iliad_, B. x, l. 65. OBS. 3.--The pronoun _you_, though originally and properly plural, is now generally applied alike to one person or to more. Several observations upon this fashionable substitution of the plural number for the singular, will be found in the fifth and sixth chapters of Etymology. This usage, however it may seem to involve a solecism, is established by that authority against which the mere grammarian has scarcely a right to remonstrate. Alexander Murray, the schoolmaster, observes, "When language was plain and simple, the English always said _thou_, when speaking to a single person. But when an affected politeness, and a fondness for continental manners and customs began to take place, persons of rank and fashion said _you_ in stead of _thou_. The innovation gained ground, and custom gave sanction to the change, and stamped it with the authority of law."--_English Gram._, Third Edition, 1793, p. 107. This respectable grammarian acknowledged both _thou_ and _you_ to be of the second person singular. I do not, however, think it necessary or advisable to do this, or to encumber the conjugations, as some have done, by introducing the latter pronoun, and the corresponding form of the verb, as singular.[381] It is manifestly better to say, that the plural is used _for the singular_, by the figure _Enallagè_. For if _you_ has literally become singular by virtue of this substitution, _we_ also is singular for the same reason, as often as it is substituted for _I_; else the authority of innumerable authors, editors, compilers, and crowned, heads, is insufficient to make it so. And again, if _you_ and the corresponding form of the verb are _literally of the second person singular_, (as Wells contends, with an array of more than sixty names of English grammarians to prove it,) then, by their own rule of concord, since _thou_ and its verb are still generally retained in the same place by these grammarians, a verb that agrees with one of these nominatives, must also agree with the other; so that _you hast_ and _thou have, you seest_ and _thou see_, may be, so far as appears from _their_ instructions, as good a concord as can be made of these words! OBS. 4.--The putting of you for thou has introduced the anomalous compound _yourself_, which is now very generally used in stead of _thyself_. In this instance, as in the less frequent adoption of _ourself_ for _myself_, Fashion so tramples upon the laws of grammar, that it is scarcely possible to frame an intelligible exception in her favour. These pronouns are essentially singular, both in form and meaning; and yet they cannot be used with _I_ or _thou_, with _me_ or _thee_, or with any verb that is literally singular; as, "_I ourself am._" but, on the contrary, they must be connected only with such plural terms as are put for the singular; as, "_We ourself are_ king."--"Undoubtedly _you yourself become_ an innovator."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 364; _Campbell's Rhet._, 167. "Try touch, or sight, or smell; try what you will, _You_ strangely _find_ nought but _yourself_ alone." --_Pollok, C. of T._, B. i, l. 162. OBS. 5.--Such terms of address, as _your Majesty, your Highness, your Lordship, your Honour_, are sometimes followed by verbs and pronouns of the second person plural, substituted for the singular; and sometimes by words literally singular, and of the third person, with no other figure than a substitution of _who_ for _which_: as, "Wherein _your Lordship, who shines_ with so much distinction in the noblest assembly in the world, peculiarly _excels_"--_Dedication of Sale's Koran_. "We have good cause to give _your Highness_ the first place; _who_, by a continued series of favours _have obliged_ us, not only while _you moved_ in a lower orb, but since the Lord hath called _your Highness_ to supreme authority."--_Massachusetts to Cromwell_, in 1654. OBS. 6.--The general usage of the French is like that of the English, _you_ for _thou_; but Spanish, Portuguese, or German politeness requires that the third person be substituted for the second. And when they would be very courteous, the Germans use also the plural for the singular, as _they_ for _thou_. Thus they have a fourfold method of addressing a person: as, _they_, denoting the highest degree of respect; _he_, a less degree; _you_, a degree still less; and _thou_, none at all, or absolute reproach. Yet, even among them, the last is used as a term of endearment to children, and of veneration to God! _Thou_, in English, still retains its place firmly, and without dispute, in all addresses to the Supreme Being; but in respect to the _first person_, an observant clergyman has suggested the following dilemma: "Some men will be pained, if a minister says _we_ in the pulpit; and others will quarrel with him, if he says _I_."--_Abbott's Young Christian_, p. 268. OBS. 7.--Any extensive perversion of the common words of a language from their original and proper use, is doubtless a matter of considerable moment. These changes in the use of the pronouns, being some of them evidently a sort of complimentary fictions, some religious people have made it a matter of conscience to abstain from them, and have published their reasons for so doing. But the _moral objections_ which may lie against such or any other applications of words, do not come within the grammarian's province. Let every one consider for himself the moral bearing of what he utters: not forgetting the text, "But I say unto you, that _every idle word_ that men shall speak, they shall give account thereof in the day of judgement: for _by thy words_ thou shalt be justified, and _by thy words_ thou shalt be condemned."--_Matt._, xii, 36 and 37. What scruples this declaration _ought to_ raise, it is not my business to define. But if such be God's law, what shall be the reckoning of those who make no conscience of uttering continually, or when they will, not idle words only, but expressions the most absurd, insignificant, false, exaggerated, vulgar, indecent, injurious, wicked, sophistical, unprincipled, ungentle, and perhaps blasphemous, or profane? OBS. 8.--The agreement of pronouns with their antecedents, it is necessary to observe, is liable to be controlled or affected by several of the figures of rhetoric. A noun used figuratively often suggests two different senses, the one literal, and the other tropical; and the agreement of the pronoun must be sometimes with this, and sometimes with that, according to the nature of the trope. If the reader be unacquainted with tropes and figures, he should turn to the explanation of them in Part Fourth of this work; but almost every one knows something about them, and such as must here be named, will perhaps be made sufficiently intelligible by the examples. There seems to be no occasion to introduce under this head more than four; namely, personification, metaphor, metonymy, and synecdoche. OBS. 9.--When a pronoun represents the name of an inanimate object _personified_, it agrees with its antecedent in the figurative, and not in the literal sense; as, "There were others whose crime it was rather to neglect _Reason_ than to disobey _her_."--_Dr. Johnson_. "_Penance_ dreams her life away."--_Rogers_. "Grim _Darkness_ furls _his_ leaden shroud."--_Id._ Here if the pronoun were made neuter, the personification would be destroyed; as, "By the progress which _England_ had already made in navigation and commerce, _it_ was now prepared for advancing farther."--_Robertson's America_, Vol. ii, p. 341. If the pronoun _it_ was here intended to represent England, the feminine _she_ would have been much better; and, if such was not the author's meaning, the sentence has some worse fault than the agreement of a pronoun with its noun in a wrong sense. OBS. 10.--When the antecedent is applied _metaphorically_, the pronoun usually agrees with it in its literal, and not in its figurative sense; as, "Pitt was the _pillar which_ upheld the state."--"The _monarch_ of mountains rears _his_ snowy head."--"The _stone which_ the builders rejected."--_Matt._, xxi, 42. According to this rule, _which_ would be better than _whom_, in the following text: "I considered the horns, and, behold, there came up among them an other _little horn_, before _whom_ there were three of the first horns plucked up by the roots."--_Daniel_, vii, 8. In _Rom._, ix, 33, there is something similar: "Behold, I lay in Sion a _stumbling-stone_ and _rock_ of offence: and whosoever believeth _on him_ shall not be ashamed." Here the _stone_ or _rock_ is a metaphor for _Christ_, and the pronoun _him_ may be referred to the sixth exception above; but the construction is not agreeable, because it is not regular: it would be more grammatical, to change _on him_ to _thereon_. In the following example, the noun "_wolves_," which literally requires _which_, and not _who_, is used metaphorically for _selfish priests_; and, in the relative, the figurative or personal sense is allowed to prevail: "_Wolves_ shall succeed for teachers, grievous _wolves_, _Who_ all the sacred mysteries of Heaven To their own vile advantages shall turn." --_Milton, P. L._, B. xii, l. 508. This seems to me somewhat forced and catachrestical. So too, and worse, the following; which makes a _star_ rise and _speak_: "So _spake_ our _Morning Star_ then in _his rise_, And _looking_ round on every side _beheld_ A pathless desert, dusk with horrid shades." --_Id., P. R._, B. i, l. 294. OBS. 11.--When the antecedent is put by _metonymy_ for a noun of different properties, the pronoun sometimes agrees with it in the figurative, and sometimes in the literal sense; as, "When _Israel_ was a child, then I loved _him_, and called my son out of Egypt. As they called _them_, so _they_ went from them: [i. e., When Moses and the prophets called the _Israelites_, they often refused to hear:] _they_ sacrificed unto Baalim, and burnt incense to graven images. I taught _Ephraim_ also to go, taking _them_ by _their_ arms; but _they_ knew not that I healed _them_."--_Hosea_, xi, 1, 2, 3. The mixture and obscurity which are here, ought not to be imitated. The name of a man, put for the nation or tribe of his descendants, may have a pronoun of either number, and a nation may be figuratively represented as feminine; but a mingling of different genders or numbers ought to be avoided: as, "_Moab_ is spoiled, and gone up out of _her_ cities, and _his_ chosen young men are gone down to the slaughter."--_Jeremiah_, xlviii, 15. "The wolf, who [say _that_] from the nightly fold, Fierce drags the bleating _prey_, ne'er drunk _her_ milk, Nor wore _her_ warming fleece."--_Thomson's Seasons_. "That each may fill the circle mark'd by _Heaven_, _Who_ sees with equal eye, as God of all, A hero perish or a sparrow fall."--_Pope's Essay on Man_. "And _heaven_ behold _its_ image in his breast."--_Ib._ "Such fate to suffering _worth_ is given, _Who_ long with wants and woes has striven."--_Burns_. OBS. 12.--When the antecedent is put by _synecdoche_ for more or less than it literally signifies, the pronoun agrees with it in the figurative, and not in the literal sense; as, "A dauntless _soul_ erect, _who_ smiled on death."--_Thomson_ "But to the generous still improving _mind_, _That_ gives the hopeless heart to sing for joy, To _him_ the long review of ordered life Is inward rapture only to be felt."--_Id. Seasons_. OBS. 13.--Pronouns usually _follow_ the words which they represent; but this order is sometimes reversed: as, "_Whom_ the cap fits, let _him_ put it on."--"Hark! _they_ whisper; angels say," &c.--_Pope_. "_Thou, O Lord_, art a God full of compassion."--_Old Test_. And in some cases of apposition, the pronoun naturally comes first; as, "_I Tertius_"--"_Ye lawyers_." The pronoun _it_, likewise, very often precedes the clause or phrase which it represents; as, "Is _it_ not manifest, that the generality of people speak and write very badly?"--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 160; _Murray's Gram._, i, 358. This arrangement is too natural to be called a transposition. The most common form of the real inversion is that of the antecedent and relative in poetry; as, "_Who_ stops to plunder at this signal hour, The birds shall tear _him_, and the dogs devour." --POPE: _Iliad_, xv, 400. OBS. 14.--A pronoun sometimes represents a _phrase_ or a _sentence_; and in this case the pronoun is always in the third person singular neuter: as, "Surely the Lord is in this place, and I knew _it_ not."--_Gen._, xxviii, 10. "Yet men can go on to vilify or disregard Christianity; _which_ is to talk and act as if they had a demonstration of its falsehood."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 269. "When _it_ is asked wherein personal identity consists, the answer should be the same as if _it_ were asked, wherein consists similitude or equality."--_Ib._, p. 270. "Also, that the soul be without knowledge, _it_ is not good."--_Prov._, xix, 2. In this last example, the pronoun is not really necessary. "That the soul be without knowledge, _is_ not good."--_Jenks's Prayers_, p. 144. Sometimes an infinitive verb is taken as an antecedent; as, "He will not be able _to think_, without _which it_ is impertinent _to read_; nor _to act_, without _which it_ is impertinent _to think_."--_Bolingbroke, on History_, p. 103. OBS. 15.--When a pronoun follows two words, having a neuter verb between them, and both referring to the same thing, it may represent either of them, but not often with the same meaning: as, 1. "I am the man, who command." Here, _who command_ belongs to the subject _I_, and the meaning is, "I who command, am the man." (The latter expression places the relative nearer to its antecedent, and is therefore preferable.) 2. "I am the man who commands." Here, _who commands_ belongs to the predicate _man_, and the meaning is, "I am the commander." Again: "I perceive thou art a pupil, _who possessest_ good talents."--_Cooper's Pl. and Pract. Gram._, p. 136. Here the construction corresponds not to the perception, which is, of the pupil's talents. Say, therefore, "I perceive thou art a _pupil possessing_ (or, _who possesses_) good talents." OBS. 16.--After the expletive _it_, which may be employed to introduce a noun or a pronoun of any person, number, or gender, the above-mentioned distinction is generally disregarded; and the relative is most commonly made to agree with the latter word, especially if this word be of the first or the second person: as, "_It_ is no more _I that do it_."--_Rom._, vii, 20. "For _it_ is not _ye that speak_."--_Matt._, x, 20. The propriety of this construction is questionable. In the following examples, the relative agrees with the _it_, and not with the subsequent nouns: "_It_ is the combined _excellencies_ of all the denominations _that_ gives to her her winning beauty and her powerful charms."--_Bible Society's Report_, 1838, p. 89. "_It_ is _purity and neatness_ of expression _which is_ chiefly to be studied."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 271. "_It_ is _not the difficulty_ of the language, but on the contrary the _simplicity and facility_ of it, _that occasions_ this neglect."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. vi. "_It_ is _a wise head and a good heart that constitutes_ a great man."--_Child's Instructor_, p. 22. OBS. 17.--The pronoun _it_ very frequently refers to something mentioned subsequently in the sentence; as, "_It_ is useless _to complain_ of what is irremediable." This pronoun is a necessary expletive at the commencement of any sentence in which the verb is followed by a phrase or a clause which, by transposition, might be made the subject of the verb; as, "_It is impossible_ _to please every one_."--_W. Allen's Gram._ "_It_ was requisite _that the papers should be_ sent."--_Ib._ The following example is censured by the Rev. Matt. Harrison: "_It is really curious, the course_ which balls will sometimes take."--_Abernethy's Lectures_. "This awkward expression," says the critic, "might have been avoided by saying, 'The course which balls will sometimes take is really curious.'"--_Harrison, on the English Language_, p. 147. If the construction is objectionable, it may, in this instance, be altered thus: "It is really curious, _to observe_ the course which balls will sometimes take!" So, it appears, we may avoid a _pleonasm_ by an _addition_. But he finds a worse example: saying, "Again, in an article _from_ the 'New Monthly,' No. 103, we meet with the same form of expression, _but with an aggravated aspect_:--'It is incredible, the number of apothecaries' shops, presenting themselves.' It would be quite as easy to say, 'The number of apothecaries' shops, presenting themselves, is incredible.' "--_Ib._, p. 147. This, too, may take an infinitive, "_to tell_," or "_to behold_;" for there is no more extravagance in doubting one's eyes, than in declaring one's own statement "incredible." But I am not sure that the original form is not allowable. In the following line, we seem to have something like it: "It curled not Tweed alone, that breeze."--_Sir W. Scott_. OBS. 18.--_Relative_ and _interrogative_ pronouns are placed at or near the beginning of their own clauses; and the learner must observe that, through all their cases, they almost invariably retain this situation in the sentence, and are found before their verbs even when the order of the construction would reverse this arrangement: as, "He _who_ preserves me, to _whom_ I owe my being, _whose_ I am, and _whom_ I serve, is eternal."--_Murray_, p. 159. "He _whom_ you seek."--_Lowth_. "The good must merit God's peculiar care; But _who_, but God, can tell us _who_ they are?"--_Pope_. OBS. 19.--A _relative_ pronoun, being the representative of some antecedent word or phrase, derives from this relation its person, number, and gender, but not its case. By taking an other relation of case, it helps to form an other clause; and, by retaining the essential meaning of its antecedent, serves to connect this clause to that in which the antecedent is found. No relative, therefore, can ever be used in an independent simple sentence, or be made the subject of a subjunctive verb, or be put in apposition with any noun or pronoun; but, like other connectives, this pronoun belongs at the head of a clause in a compound sentence, and excludes conjunctions, except when two such clauses are to be joined together, as in the following example: "I should be glad, at least, of an easy companion, _who_ may tell me his thoughts, _and_ to _whom_ I may communicate mine."--_Goldsmith's Essays_, p. 196. OBS. 20.--The two _special_ rules commonly given by the grammarians, for the construction of relatives, are not only unnecessary,[382] but faulty. I shall notice them only to show my reasons for discarding them. With whom they originated, it is difficult to say. Paul's Accidence has them, and if Dean Colet, the supposed writer, did not take them from some earlier author, they must have been first taught by _him_, about the year 1510; and it is certain that they have been copied into almost every grammar published since. The first one is faulty, because, "_When there cometh no nominative case between the relative and the verb, the relative shall_ [not always] _be the nominative case to the verb_;" as may be seen by the following examples: "Many are the works of human industry, _which_ to begin and finish are [say _is_] hardly granted to the same man."--_Dr. Johnson's Adv. to Dict._ "They aim at his removal; _which_ there is reason to fear they will effect."--"_Which_ to avoid, I cut them off."--_Shak., Hen. IV_. The second rule is faulty, because, "_When there cometh a nominative case between the relative and the verb, the relative shall_ [not always] _be such case as the verb will have after it_;" as may be seen by the following examples: "The author has not advanced any instances, _which_ he does not think _are_ pertinent."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 192. "_Which_ we have reason to think _was_ the case with the Greek and Latin."--_Ib._, 112. "Is this your son, _who_ ye say _was born_ blind?"--_John_, ix, 19. The case of the relative cannot be accurately determined by any rules of mere location. It may be nominative to a verb afar off, or it may be objective with a verb immediately following; as, "_Which_ I do not find that there ever _was_."--_Knight, on the Greek Alphabet_, p. 31. "And our chief reason for believing _which_ is that our ancestors did so before us."--_Philological Museum_, i, 641. Both these particular rules are useless, because the general rules for the cases, as given in chapter third above, are applicable to relatives, sufficient to all the purpose, and not liable to any exceptions. OBS. 21.--In syntactical parsing, each word, in general, is to be resolved by some _one_ rule; but the parsing of a pronoun commonly requires _two_; one for its agreement with the noun or nouns for which it stands, and an other for its case. The rule of agreement will be one of the four which are embraced in this present chapter; and the rule for the case will be one of the seven which compose chapter third. So that the whole syntax of pronouns requires the application of eleven different rules, while that of nouns or verbs is embraced in six or seven, and that of any other part of speech, in one only. In respect to their cases, relatives and interrogatives admit of every construction common to nouns, or to the personal pronouns, except apposition. This is proved by the following examples: 1. Nominatives by Rule 2d: "I _who_ write;--Thou _who_ writest;--He _who_ writes;--The animal _which_ runs."--_Dr. Adam_. "He _that spareth_ his rod, hateth his son."--_Solomon_. "He _who_ does any thing _which_ he knows is wrong, ventures on dangerous ground."--"_What_ will become of us without religion?"--_Blair_. "Here I determined to wait the hand of death; _which_, I hope, when at last it comes, _will fall_ lightly upon me."--_Dr. Johnson_. "_What is_ sudden and unaccountable, _serves_ to confound."--_Crabb_. "They only are wise, _who are_ wise to salvation."--_Goodwin_. 2. Nominatives by Rule 6th: (i.e., words parsed as nominatives after the verbs, though mostly transposed:) "_Who_ art thou?"--_Bible_. "_What_ were we?"--_Ib._ "Do not tell them _who_ I am."--"Let him be _who_ he may, he is not the honest fellow _that_ he seemed."--"The general conduct of mankind is neither _what_ it was designed, nor _what_ it ought to be." 3. Nominatives absolute by Rule 8th: "There are certain bounds to imprudence, _which being transgressed_, there remains no place for repentance in the natural course of things."--_Bp. Butler_. "_Which being so_, it need not be any wonder, why I should."--_Walker's Particles, Pref._, p. xiv. "He offered an apology, _which not being admitted_, he became submissive."--_Murray's Key_, p. 202. This construction of the relative is a Latinism, and very seldom used by the best _English_ writers. 4. Possessives by Rule 4th: "The chief man of the island, _whose_ name was Publius."--_Acts_. "Despair, a cruel tyrant, from _whose_ prisons none can escape."--_Dr. Johnson_. "To contemplate on Him _whose_ yoke is easy and _whose_ burden is light."--_Steele_. 5. Objectives by Rule 5th: "Those _whom_ she persuaded."--_Dr. Johnson_. "The cloak _that_ I left at Troas."--_St. Paul_. "By the things _which_ he suffered."--_Id._ "A man _whom_ there is reason to suspect."--"_What_ are we to do?"--_Burke_. "Love refuses nothing _that_ love sends."--_Gurnall_. "The first thing, says he, is, to choose some maxim or point of morality; to inculcate _which_, is to be the design of his work."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 421. "_Whomsoever_ you please to appoint."--_Lowth_. "_Whatsover_ [sic--KTH] he doeth, shall prosper."--_Bible_. "_What_ we are afraid to do before men, we should be afraid to think before God."--_Sibs_. "Shall I hide from Abraham that thing _which_ I do?"--_Gen._, xviii, 32. "Shall I hide from Abraham _what_ I am going to do?"--"Call imperfection _what_ thou fanciest such."--_Pope_. 6. Objectives by Rule 6th: (i.e., pronouns parsed as objectives after neuter verbs, though they stand before them:) "He is not the man _that_ I took him to be."--"_Whom_ did you suppose me to be?"--"If the lad ever become _what_ you wish him to be." 7. Objectives by Rule 7th: "To _whom_ shall we go?"--_Bible_. "The laws by _which_ the world is governed, are general."--_Bp. Butler_. "_Whom_ he looks upon as his defender."--_Addison_. "That secret heaviness of heart _which_ unthinking men are subject to."--_Id._ "I cannot but think the loss of such talents as the man of _whom_ I am speaking was master of, a more melancholy instance."--_Steele_. "Grammar is the solid foundation upon _which_ all other science rests."--_Buchanan's Eng. Synt._, p. xx. OBS. 22.--In familiar language, the relative of the objective case is frequently understood; as, "The man [_whom_] I trust."--_Cowper_. "Here is the letter [_which_] I received." So in the following sentences: "This is the man they hate. These are the goods they bought. Are these the Gods they worship? Is this the woman you saw?"--_Ash's Gram._, p. 96. This ellipsis seems allowable only in the familiar style. In grave writing, or deliberate discourse, it is much better to express this relative. The omission of it is often attended with some obscurity; as, "The next error [_that_] I shall mention [,] is a capital one."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 157. "It is little [_that_] we know of the divine perfections."--_Scougal_, p. 94. "The faith [_which_] we give to memory, may be thought, on a superficial view, to be resolvable into consciousness, as well as that [_which_] we give to the immediate impressions of sense."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 53. "We speak that [_which_] we do know, and testify that [_which_] we have seen."--_John_, iii, 11. The omission of a relative in the nominative case, is almost always inelegant; as, "This is the worst thing [_that_] could happen."--"There were several things [_which_] brought it upon me."--_Pilgrim's Progress_, p. 162. The latter ellipsis may occur after _but_ or _than_, and it is also sometimes allowed in poetry; as, [There is] "No person of reflection but [who] must be sensible, that an incident makes a stronger impression on an eye-witness, than when heard at second hand."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 257. "In this 'tis God directs, in that 'tis man."--_Pope, on Man_. "Abuse on all he lov'd, or lov'd him, spread."--_Id., to Arbuthnot_. "There's nothing blackens like the ink of fools."--_Id., to Augustus_. OBS. 23.--The _antecedent_ is sometimes suppressed, especially in poetry; as, "Who will, may be a judge."--_Churchill_. "How shall I curse [_him_ or _them_] whom God hath not cursed?"--_Numbers_, xxiii, 8. "There are, indeed, [some persons] who seem disposed to extend her authority much farther."--_Campbell's Philosophy of Rhet._, p. 187. [He] "Who lives to nature, rarely can be poor; [He] Who lives to fancy, never can be rich."--_Young_. "Serious should be an author's final views; [They] Who write for pure amusement, ne'er amuse."--_Id._ OBS. 24.--_Which_, as well as _who_, was formerly applied to persons; as, "Our _Father which_ art in heaven."--_Bible_. "Pray for _them which_ despitefully use you."--_Luke_, vi, 28. And, as to the former example here cited, some British critics, still preferring the archaism, have accused "The Americans" of "poor criticism," in that they "have changed _which_ into _who_, as being more consonant to the rules of Grammar." Falsely imagining, that _which_ and _who_, with the same antecedent, can be of different _genders_, they allege, that, "The use of the _neuter_ pronoun carried with it a certain vagueness and sublimity, not inappropriate in reminding us that our worship is addressed to a Being, infinite, and superior to all distinctions applicable to material objects."--_Men and Manners in America_: quoted and endorsed by the REV. MATT. HARRISON, in his treatise on the English Language, p. 191. This is all fancy; and, in my opinion, absurd. It is just like the religious prejudice which could discern "a singular propriety" in "the double superlative _most highest_."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 28. But _which_ may still be applied to a young child, if sex and intelligence be disregarded; as, "The _child which_ died." Or even to adults, when they are spoken of without regard to a distinct personality or identity; as, "_Which_ of you will go?"--"Crabb knoweth not _which_ is _which_, himself or his parodist."--_Leigh Hunt_. OBS. 25.--A proper name taken merely as a name, or an appellative taken in any sense not strictly personal, must be represented by _which_, and not by _who_; as, "Herod--_which_ is but an other name for cruelty."--"In every prescription of duty, God proposeth himself as a rewarder; _which_ he is only to those that please him."--_Dr. J. Owen_. _Which_ would perhaps be more proper than _whom_, in the following passage: "They did not destroy the _nations_, concerning _whom_ the Lord commanded them."--_Psalms_, cvi, 34. Dr. Blair has preferred it in the following instance: "My lion and my pillar are sufficiently interpreted by the mention of _Achilles_ and the _minister, which_ I join to them."--_Lectures_, p. 151. He meant, "_whose names I connect with theirs_;" and not, that he joined the _person_ of Achilles to a lion, or that of a minister to a pillar. OBS. 26.--When two or more relative clauses pertain to the same antecedent, if they are connected by a conjunction, the same relative ought to be employed in each, agreeably to the doctrine of the seventh note below; but if no conjunction is expressed or understood between them, the pronouns ought rather to be different; as, "There are many things _that_ you can speak of, _which_ cannot be seen."--_R W. Green's Gram._, p. 11. This distinction is noticed in the fifth chapter of Etymology, Obs. 29th, on the Classes of Pronouns. Dr. Priestley says, "Whatever relative _be_ used, in a _series_ of clauses, relating to the same antecedent, the same ought to be used in them all. 'It is remarkable, that _Holland_, against _which_ the war was undertaken, _and that_, in the very beginning, was reduced to the brink of destruction, lost nothing.'--_Universal History_, Vol. 25, p. 117. It ought to have been, _and which in the very beginning_."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 102. L. Murray, (as I have shown in the Introduction, Ch. x, ¶ 22,) assumes all this, without references; adding as a salvo the word "_generally_," which merely impairs the certainty of the rule:--"the same relative ought _generally_ to be used in them all."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 155. And, of _who_ and _that_, Cobbett says: "Either may do; but both _never_ ought to be relatives of the same antecedent in the same sentence."--_Gram._, ¶ 202. The inaccuracy of these rules is as great as that of the phraseology which is corrected under them. In the following sentence, the first relative only is restrictive, and consequently the other may be different: "These were the officers _that_ were called _Homotimoi_, and _who_ signalized themselves afterwards so gloriously upon all occasions."--_Rollin's Hist._, ii, 62. See also in _Rev._, x, 6th, a similar example without the conjunction. OBS. 27.--In conversation, the possessive pronoun _your_ is sometimes used in a droll way, being shortened into _your_ in pronunciation, and nothing more being meant by it, than might be expressed by the article _an_ or _a_: as, "Rich honesty dwells, like _your_ miser, sir, in a poor house; as, _your_ pearl in _your_ foul oyster."--_Shakspeare_. NOTES TO RULE X. NOTE 1.--A pronoun should not be introduced in connexion with words that belong more properly to the antecedent, or to an other pronoun; as, "And then there is good use for _Pallas her_ glass."--_Bacon's Wisdom_, p. 22. Say--"for _Pallas's_ glass." "My _banks they_ are furnish'd with bees, Whose murmur invites one to sleep."--_Shenstone_, p. 284. This last instance, however, is only an example of _pleonasm_; which is allowable and frequent in _animated discourse_, but inelegant in any other. Our grammarians have condemned it too positively. It occurs sundry times in the Bible; as, "Know ye that the LORD _he_ is God."--_Psalms_, c, 3. NOTE II.--A change of number in the second person, or even a promiscuous use of _ye_ and _you_ in the same case and the same style, is inelegant, and ought to be avoided; as, "_You_ wept, and I for _thee_"--"Harry, said my lord, don't cry; I'll give _you_ something towards _thy_ loss."--_Swift's Poems_, p. 267. "_Ye_ sons of sloth, _you_ offspring of darkness, awake from your sleep."--_Brown's Metaphors_, p. 96. Our poets have very often adopted the former solecism, to accommodate their measure, or to avoid the harshness of the old verb in the second person singular: as, "_Thy_ heart is yet blameless, O fly while _you may_!"--_Queen's Wake_, p. 46. "Oh! Peggy, Peggy, when _thou_ goest to brew, Consider well what _you're_ about to do."--_King's Poems_, p. 594. "As in that lov'd Athenian bower, You _learn'd_ an all-commanding power, Thy mimic soul, O nymph endear'd! Can well recall what then it heard."--_Collins, Ode to Music._ NOTE III.--The relative _who_ is applied only to persons, and to animals or things personified; and _which_, to brute animals and inanimate things spoken of literally: as, "The _judge who_ presided;"--"The old _crab who_ advised the young one;"--"The _horse which_ ran away;"--"The _book which_ was given me." NOTE IV.--Nouns of multitude, unless they express persons directly as such, should not be represented by the relative _who_: to say, "The _family whom_ I visited," would hardly be proper; _that_ would here be better. When such nouns are strictly of the neuter gender, _which_ may represent them; as, "The _committees which_ were appointed." But where the idea of rationality is predominant, _who_ or _whom_ seems not to be improper; as, "The conclusion of the Iliad is like the exit of a great man out of _company whom_ he has entertained magnificently."--_Cowper._ "A law is only the expression of the desire of a _multitude who_ have power to punish."--_Brown's Philosophy of the Mind._ NOTE V.--In general, the pronoun must so agree with its antecedent as to present the same idea, and never in such a manner as to confound the name with the thing signified, or any two things with each other. Examples: "_Jane_ is in the nominative case, because _it_ leads the sentence."--_Infant School Gram._, p. 30. Here _it_ represents _the word "Jane"_ and not _the person Jane._ "What mark or sign is put after _master_ to show that _he_ is in the possessive case? Spell _it_"--_Ib._, p. 32. Here _the word "master"_ is most absurdly confounded with _the man_; and that to accommodate grammar to a child's comprehension! NOTE VI.--The relative _that_ may be applied either to persons or to things. In the following cases, it is more appropriate than _who, whom_, or _which_; and ought to be preferred, unless it be necessary to use a preposition before the relative:--(1.) After an adjective of the superlative degree, when the relative clause is restrictive;[383] as, "He was the _first that_ came."--"He was the _fittest_ person _that_ could then be found."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 422. "The Greeks were the _greatest_ reasoners _that_ ever appeared in the world."--BEATTIE: _Murray's Gram._, p. 127. (2.) After the adjective _same_, when the relative clause is restrictive; as, "He is the _same_ man _that_ you saw before."-- _Priestley's Gram._, p. 101; _Murray's_, 156; _Campbell's Rhet._, 422. (3.) After the antecedent _who_; as, "Who that is a sincere friend to it, can look with indifference upon attempts to shake the foundation of the fabric?"--_Washington._ (4.) After two or more antecedents that demand a relative adapted both to persons and to things; as, "He spoke largely of the _men and things that_ he had seen."--"When some particular _person_ or _thing_ is spoken of, _that_ ought to be more distinctly marked."-- _Murray's Gram._, p. 51. (5.) After an unlimited antecedent which the relative clause is designed to restrict; as, "_Thoughts that_ breathe, and _words that_ burn."--_Gray_. "Music _that accords_ with the present tone of mind, is, on that account, doubly agreeable."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 311. "For Theocritus descends sometimes into _ideas that_ are gross and mean."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 393. (6.) After any antecedent introduced by the expletive _it_; as, "_It_ is _you that_ suffer."--"It was I, and not he, _that_ did it."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 142. "It was not he[384] _that_ they were so angry with."--_Murray's Exercises_, R. 17. "_It_ was not _Gavius_ alone _that_ Verres meant to insult."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 325. (7.) And, in general, wherever the propriety of _who_ or _which_ is doubtful; as, "The little _child that_ was placed in the midst." NOTE VII.--When two or more relative clauses connected by a conjunction have a similar dependence in respect to the antecedent, the same pronoun must be employed in each; as, "O thou, _who_ art, and _who_ wast, and _who_ art to come!"--"And they shall spread them before the sun, and the moon, and all the host of heaven, _whom_ they have loved, and _whom_ they have served, and after _whom_ they have walked, and _whom_ they have sought, and _whom_ they have worshiped."--_Jer._, viii, 2. NOTE VIII.--The relative, and the preposition governing it, should not be omitted, when they are necessary to the sense intended, or to a proper connexion of the parts of the sentence; as, "He is still in the situation you saw him." Better thus: "He is still in the situation in _which_ you saw him." NOTE IX.--After certain nouns, of time, place, manner, or cause, the conjunctive adverbs _when, where, whither, whence, how_, and _why_, are a sort of special relatives; but no such adverb should be used where a preposition and a relative pronoun would better express the relation of the terms: as, "A cause _where_ justice is so much concerned." Say, "A cause _in which_." See Etymology, Obs. 6th, 7th, and 8th, on the Classes of Adverbs. NOTE X.--Where a pronoun or a pronominal adjective will not express the meaning clearly, the noun must be repeated, or inserted in stead of it: as, "We see the beautiful variety of colour in the rainbow, and are led to consider the cause of _it_." Say,--"the cause of _that variety_;" because the _it_ may mean _the variety, the colour_, or _the rainbow_. NOTE XI.--To prevent ambiguity or obscurity, the relative should, in general, be placed as near as possible to the antecedent. The following sentence is therefore faulty: "He is like a beast of prey, that is void of compassion." Better thus: "He that is void of compassion, is like a beast of prey." NOTE XII.--The pronoun _what_ should never be used in stead of the conjunction _that_; as, "Think no man so perfect but _what_ he may err." This is a vulgar fault. Say,--"but _that_ he may err." NOTE XIII.--A pronoun should never be used to represent an _adjective_,--except the pronominal adjectives, and others taken substantively; because a pronoun can neither express a concrete quality as such, nor convert it properly into an abstract: as, "Be _attentive_; without _which_ you will learn nothing." Better thus: "Be attentive; _for without attention_ you will learn nothing." NOTE XIV.--Though the relative which may in some instances stand for a phrase or a sentence, it is seldom, if ever, a fit representative of an indicative assertion; as, "The man opposed me, _which_ was anticipated."-- _Nixon's Parser_, p. 127. Say,--"_but his opposition_ was anticipated." Or: "The man opposed me, _as_ was anticipated." Or:--"_as I expected he would_." Again: "The captain disobeys orders, _which_ is punished."--_Ib._, p. 128. This is an other factitious sentence, formed after the same model, and too erroneous for correction: none but a conceited grammatist could ever have framed such a construction. NOTE XV.--The possessive pronouns, _my, thy, his, her, its_, &c., should be inserted or repeated as often as the sense or construction of the sentence requires them; their omission, like that of the articles, can scarcely in any instance constitute a proper ellipsis: as, "Of Princeton and vicinity."--Say, "Of Princeton and _its_ vicinity." "The man and wife."--Say, "The man and _his_ wife." "Many verbs vary both their signification and construction."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 170; _Gould's_, 171. Say,--"and _their_ construction." NOTE XVI.--In the correcting of any discord between the antecedent and its pronoun, if the latter for any sufficient reason is most proper as it stands, the former must be changed to accord with it: as, "Let us discuss what relates to _each particular_ in _their_ order:--_its_ order."-- _Priestley's Gram._, p. 193. Better thus: "Let us discuss what relates to _the several particulars_, in _their_ order." For the order of things implies plurality. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE X. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.--OF AGREEMENT "The subject is to be joined with his predicate."--BP. WILKINS: _Lowth's Gram._, p. 42. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the pronoun _his_ is of the masculine gender, and does not correctly represent its antecedent noun _subject_, which is of the third person, singular, _neuter_. But, according to Rule 10th, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender." Therefore, _his_ should be _its_; thus, "The subject is to be joined with _its_ predicate."] "Every one must judge of their own feelings."--_Byron's Letters_. "Every one in the family should know their duty."--_Wm. Penn_. "To introduce its possessor into 'that way in which it should go.'"--_Infant School Gram._, p. v. "Do not they say, every true believer has the Spirit of God in them?"--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 388. "There is none in their natural state righteous, no not one."--_Wood's Dict. of Bible_, ii, 129. "If ye were of the world, the world would love his own."--_John_, xv, 19. "His form had not yet lost all her original brightness."--_Milton_. "No one will answer as if I were their friend or companion."--_Steele_, Spect., No. 534. "But in lowliness of mind let each esteem other better than themselves."-- _Philippians_, ii, 3. "And let none of you imagine evil in your hearts against his neighbour."--_Zechariah_, viii, 17. "For every tree is known by his own fruit."--_Luke_, vi, 44. "But she fell to laughing, like one out of their right mind."--_Castle Rackrent_, p. 51. "Now these systems, so far from having any tendency to make men better, have a manifest tendency to make him worse."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 128. "And nobody else would make that city their refuge any more."--_Josephus's Life_, p. 158. "What is quantity, as it respects syllables or words? It is that time which is occupied in pronouncing it."--_Bradley's Gram._, p. 108. "In such expressions the adjective so much resembles an adverb in its meaning, that they are usually parsed as such."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 103. "The tongue is like a race-horse; which runs the faster the less weight it carries."--ADDISON: _Joh. Dict.; Murray's Key_, Rule 8. "As two thoughtless boys were trying to see which could lift the greatest weight with their jaws, one of them had several of his firm-set teeth wrenched from their sockets."--_Newspaper_. "Everybody nowadays publishes memoirs; everybody has recollections which they think worthy of recording."--_Duchess D'Abrantes_, p. 25. "Every body trembled for themselves or their friends."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, i, 171. "A steed comes at morning: no rider is there; But its bridle is red with the sign of despair."--_Campbell_. UNDER NOTE I.--PRONOUNS WRONG OR NEEDLESS. "Charles loves to study; but John, alas! he is very idle."--_Merchant's School Gram._, p. 22. "Or what man is there of you, whom if his son ask bread, will he give him a stone?"--_Matt._, vii, 9. "Who, in stead of going about doing good, they are perpetually intent upon doing mischief."-- _Tillotson_. "Whom ye delivered up, and denied him in the presence of Pontius Pilate."--_Acts_, iii, 13. "Whom, when they had washed, they laid her in an upper chamber."--_Acts_, ix, 37. "Then Manasseh knew that the Lord he was God."--_2 Chron._, xxxiii, 13. "Whatever a man conceives clearly, he may, if he will be at the trouble, put it into distinct propositions, and express it clearly to others."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 293. "But to that point of time which he has chosen, the painter being entirely confined, he cannot exhibit various stages of the same action."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 52. "It is without any proof at all what he subjoins."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 301. "George Fox his Testimony concerning Robert Barclay."--_Ib._, i, 111. "According to the author of the Postscript his advice."--_Ib._, iii, 263. "These things seem as ugly to the Eye of their Meditations, as those �thiopians pictur'd in Nemesis her Pitcher."--_Bacon's Wisdom of the Ancients_, p. 49. "Moreover, there is always a twofold Condition propounded with Sphynx her �nigma's."--_Ib._, p. 73. "Whoever believeth not therein, they shall perish."--_Sale's Koran_, p. 20. "When, at Sestius his entreaty, I had been at his house."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 59. "There high on Sipylus his shaggy brow, She stands, her own sad monument of woe." --_Pope's Homer_, B. xxiv, l. 777. UNDER NOTE II.--CHANGE OF NUMBER. "So will I send upon you famine, and evil beasts, and they shall bereave thee."--_Ezekiel_, v, 17. "Why do you plead so much for it? why do ye preach it up?"--_Barclay's Works_, i, 180. "Since thou hast decreed that I shall bear man, your darling."--_Edward's First Lesson in Gram._, p. 106. "You have my book and I have thine; i.e. thy book."--_Chandler's Gram._, 1821, p. 22. "Neither art thou such a one as to be ignorant of what you are."--_Bullions, Lat. Gram._, p. 70. "Return, thou backsliding Israel, saith the Lord, and I will not cause mine anger to fall upon you."--_Jeremiah_, iii, 12. "The Almighty, unwilling to cut thee off in the fullness of iniquity, has sent me to give you warning."--_Art of Thinking_, p. 278. "Wert thou born only for pleasure? were you never to do any thing?"--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 63. "Thou shalt be required to go to God, to die, and give up your account."--BARNES'S NOTES: _on Luke_, xii, 20. "And canst thou expect to behold the resplendent glory of the Creator? would not such a sight annihilate you?"--_Milton_. "If the prophet had commanded thee to do some great thing, would you have refused?"--_Common School Journal_, i, 80. "Art thou a penitent? Evince your sincerity by bringing forth fruits meet for repentance."--_Christian's Vade-Mecum_, p. 117. "I will call thee my dear son: I remember all your tenderness."-- _Classic Tales_, p. 8. "So do thou, my son: open your ears, and your eyes."--_Wright's Athens_, p. 33. "I promise you, this was enough to discourage thee."--_Pilgrim's Progress_, p. 446. "Ere you remark an other's sin, Bid thy own conscience look within."--_Gay_. "Permit that I share in thy woe, The privilege can you refuse?"--_Perfect's Poems_, p. 6. "Ah! Strephon, how can you despise Her who without thy pity dies?"--_Swift's Poems_, p. 340. "Thy verses, friend, are Kidderminster stuff, And I must own, you've measur'd out enough."--_Shenstone._ "This day, dear Bee, is thy nativity; Had Fate a luckier one, she'd give it ye."--_Swift._ UNDER NOTE III.--WHO AND WHICH. "Exactly like so many puppets, who are moved by wires."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 462. "They are my servants, which I brought forth out of the land of Egypt."--_Leviticus_, xxv, 42. "Behold I and the children which God hath given me."--_Heb._, ii, 13; _Webster's Bible, and others._ "And he sent Eliakim which was over the household, and Shebna the scribe."--_2 Kings_, xix, 2. "In a short time the streets were cleared of the corpses who filled them."--_M'Ilvaine's Led._, p. 411. "They are not of those which teach things which they ought not, for filthy lucre's sake."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 435. "As a lion among the beasts of the forest, as a young lion among the flocks of sheep; who, if he go through, both treadeth down and teareth in pieces."--_Micah_, v, 8. "Frequented by every fowl whom nature has taught to dip the wing in water."--_Rasselas_, p. 10. "He had two sons, one of which was adopted by the family of Maximus."--_Lempriere, w. �mytius_. "And the ants, who are collected by the smell, are burned by fire."--_The Friend_, xii, 49. "They being the agents, to which this thing was trusted."--_Nixon's Parser_, p. 139. "A packhorse who is driven constantly forwards and backwards to market."--LOCKE: _Joh. Dict._ "By instructing children, the affection of which will be increased."--_Nixon's Parser_, p. 136. "He had a comely young woman which travelled with him."--_Hutchinson's Hist._, i, 29. "A butterfly, which thought himself an accomplished traveller, happened to light upon a beehive."--_Inst._, p. 143. "It is an enormous elephant of stone, who disgorges from his uplifted trunk a vast but graceful shower."--_Zenobia_, i, 150. "He was met by a dolphin, who sometimes swam before him, and sometimes behind him."--_Edward's First Lessons in Gram._, p. 34. "That Cæsar's horse, who, as fame goes, Had corns upon his feet and toes, Was not by half so tender-hooft, Nor trod upon the ground so soft."--_Hudibras_, p. 6. UNDER NOTE IV.--NOUNS OF MULTITUDE. "He instructed and fed the crowds who surrounded him."--_Murray's Exercises_, p. 52. "The court, who gives currency to manners, ought to be exemplary."--_Ibid._ "Nor does he describe classes of sinners who do not exist."--_Anti-Slavery Magazine_, i, 27. "Because the nations among whom they took their rise, were not savage."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 113. "Among nations who are in the first and rude periods of society."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 60. "The martial spirit of those nations, among whom the feudal government prevailed."--_Ib._, p. 374. "France who was in alliance with Sweden."--_Smollett's Voltaire_, vi, 187. "That faction in England who most powerfully opposed his arbitrary pretensions."--_Mrs. Macaulay's Hist._, iii, 21. "We may say, the crowd, _who_ was going up the street.'"--_Cobbett's Gram._, ¶ 204. "Such members of the Convention who formed this Lyceum, as have subscribed this Constitution."--_New-York Lyceum._ UNDER NOTE V.--CONFUSION OF SENSES. "The possessor shall take a particular form to show its case."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 53. "Of which reasons the principal one is, that no Noun, properly so called, implies its own Presence."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 76. "Boston is a proper noun, which distinguishes it from other cities."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 22. "Conjunction means union, or joining together. It is used to join or unite either words or sentences."--_Ib._, p. 20. "The word _interjection_ means _thrown among_. It is interspersed among other words to express sudden or strong emotion."--_Ib._, p. 21. "_In deed_, or in very deed, may better be written separately, as they formerly were."--_Cardell's Gram._, 12mo, p. 89. "_Alexander_, on the contrary, is a particular name, and is restricted to distinguish him alone."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 25. "As an indication that nature itself had changed her course."--_Hist. of America_, p. 9. "Of removing from the United States and her territories the free people of colour."--_Jenifer_. "So that _gh_ may be said not to have their proper sound."--_Webster's El. Spelling-Book_, p. 10. "Are we to welcome the loathsome harlot, and introduce it to our children?"--_Maturin's Sermons_, p. 167. "The first question is this, 'Is reputable, national, and present use, which, for brevity's sake, I shall hereafter simply denominate good use, always uniform in her decisions?"--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 171. "Time is always masculine, on account of its mighty efficacy. Virtue is feminine from its beauty, and its being the object of love."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 37; _Blair's_, 125; _Sanborn's_, 189; _Emmons's_, 13; _Putnam's_, 25; _Fisk's_, 57; _Ingersoll's_, 26; _Greenleaf's_, 21. See also _Blair's Rhet._, p. 76. "When you speak to a person or thing, it is in the second person."--_Bartlett's Manual_, Part ii, p. 27. "You now know the noun, for it means name."--_Ibid._ "_T_. What do you see? _P_. A book. _T_. Spell it."--_R. W. Green's Gram._, p. 12. "_T_. What do you see now? _P_. Two books. _T_. Spell them."--_Ibid._ "If the United States lose her rights as a nation."--_Liberator_, Vol. ix, p. 24. "When a person or thing is addressed or spoken to, it is in the second person."--_Frost's El. of Gram._, p. 7. "When a person or thing is spoken of, it is in the third person."--_Ibid._ "The ox, that ploughs the ground, has the same plural termination also, _oxen_."--_Bucke's Classical Gram._, p. 40. "Hail, happy States! thine is the blissful seat, Where nature's gifts and art's improvements meet." EVERETT: _Columbian Orator_, p. 239. UNDER NOTE VI.--THE RELATIVE THAT. (1.) "This is the most useful art which men possess."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 275. "The earliest accounts which history gives us concerning all nations, bear testimony to these facts."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 379; _Jamieson's_, 300. "Mr. Addison was the first who attempted a regular inquiry" [into the pleasures of taste.]--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 28. "One of the first who introduced it was Montesquieu."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 125. "Massillon is perhaps the most eloquent writer of sermons which modern times have produced."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 289. "The greatest barber who ever lived, is our guiding star and prototype."--_Hart's Figaro_, No. 6. (2.) "When prepositions are subjoined to nouns, they are generally the same which are subjoined to the verbs, from which the nouns are derived."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 157. "The same proportions which are agreeable in a model, are not agreeable in a large building."--_Kames, EL of Crit._, ii, 343. "The same ornaments, which we admire in a private apartment, are unseemly in a temple."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 128. "The same whom John saw also in the sun."--_Milton. P. L._, B. iii, l. 623. (3.) "Who can ever be easy, who is reproached with his own ill conduct?"--_Thomas à Kempis_, p. 72. "Who is she who comes clothed in a robe of green?"--_Inst._, p. 143. "Who who has either sense or civility, does not perceive the vileness of profanity?" (4.) "The second person denotes the person or thing which is spoken to."--_Compendium in Kirkham's Gram._ "The third person denotes the person or thing which is spoken of."--_Ibid._ "A passive verb denotes action received or endured by the person or thing which is its nominative."--_Ibid, and Gram._, p. 157. "The princes and states who had neglected or favoured the growth of this power."--_Bolingbroke, on History_, p. 222. "The nominative expresses the name of the person, or thing which acts, or which is the subject of discourse."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 19. (5.) "Authors who deal in long sentences, are very apt to be faulty."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 108. "Writers who deal in long sentences, are very apt to be faulty."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 313. "The neuter gender denotes objects which are neither male nor female."--_Merchant's Gram._, p. 26. "The neuter gender denotes things which have no sex."--_Kirkham's Compendium_. "Nouns which denote objects neither male nor female, are of the neuter gender."--_Wells's Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 49. "Objects and ideas which have been long familiar, make too faint an impression to give an agreeable exercise to our faculties."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 50. "Cases which custom has left dubious, are certainly within the grammarian's province."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 164. "Substantives which end in _ery_, signify action or habit."--_Ib._, p. 132. "After all which can be done to render the definitions and rules of grammar accurate," &c.--_Ib._, p. 36. "Possibly, all which I have said, is known and taught."--_A. B. Johnson's Plan of a Dict._, p. 15. (6.) "It is a strong and manly style which should chiefly be studied."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 261. "It is this which chiefly makes a division appear neat and elegant."--_Ib._, p. 313. "I hope it is not I with whom he is displeased."--_Murray's Key_, R. 17. "When it is this alone which renders the sentence obscure."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 242. "This sort of full and ample assertion, _'it is this which_,' is fit to be used when a proposition of importance is laid down."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 197. "She is the person whom I understood it to have been." _See Murray's Gram._, p. 181. "Was it thou, or the wind, who shut the door?"--_Inst._, p. 143. "It was not I who shut it."--_Ib._ (7.) "He is not the person who it seemed he was."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 181; _Ingersoll's_, p. 147. "He is really the person who he appeared to be."--_Same_. "She is not now the woman whom they represented her to have been."--_Same_. "An only child, is one who has neither brother nor sister; a child alone, is one who is left by itself"--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 98; _Jamieson's_, 71; _Murray's Gram._ 303. UNDER NOTE VII.--RELATIVE CLAUSES CONNECTED. (1.) "A Substantive, or Noun, is the name of a thing; of whatever we conceive in any way to subsist, or of which we have any notion."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 14. (2.) "A Substantive or noun is the name of any thing that exists, or of which we have any notion."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 27; _Alger's_, 15; _Bacon's_, 9; _E. Dean's_, 8; _A. Flint's_, 10; _Folker's_, 5; _Hamlin's_, 9; _Ingersoll's_, 14; _Merchant's_, 25; _Pond's_, 15; _S. Putnam's_, 10; _Rand's_, 9; _Russell's_, 9; _T. Smith's_, 12; and others. (3.) "A substantive or noun is the name of any person, place, or thing that exists, or of which we can have an idea."--_Frost's El. of E. Gram._, p. 6. (4.) "A noun is the name of anything that exists, or of which we form an idea."--_Hallock's Gram._, p. 37. (5.) "A Noun is the name of any person, place, object, or thing, that exists, or which we may conceive to exist."--_D. C. Allen's Grammatic Guide_, p. 19. (6.) "The name of every thing that exists, or of which we can form any notion, is a noun."--_Fisk's Murray's Gram._, p. 56. (7.) "An allegory is the representation of some one thing by an other that resembles it, and which is made to stand for it."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 341. (8.) "Had he exhibited such sentences as contained ideas inapplicable to young minds, or which were of a trivial or injurious nature."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. ii, p. v. (9.) "Man would have others obey him, even his own kind; but he will not obey God, that is so much above him, and who made him."--_Penn's Maxims_. (10.) "But what we may consider here, and which few Persons have taken Notice of, is," &c.--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 117. (11.) "The Compiler has not inserted such verbs as are irregular only in familiar writing or discourse, and which are improperly terminated by _t_, instead of _ed_."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 107; _Fisk's_, 81; _Hart's_, 68; _Ingersoll's_, 104; _Merchant's_, 63. (12.) "The remaining parts of speech, which are called the indeclinable parts, or that admit of no variations, will not detain us long."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 84. UNDER NOTE VIII.--THE RELATIVE AND PREPOSITION. "In the temper of mind he was then."--_Addison, Spect._, No. 54. "To bring them into the condition I am at present."--_Spect._, No. 520. "In the posture I lay."--_Swift's Gulliver_. "In the sense it is sometimes taken."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 527. "Tools and utensils are said to be _right_, when they serve for the uses they were made."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 99. "If, in the extreme danger I now am, I do not imitate the behaviour of those," &c.--_Goldsmith's Greece_, i, 193. "News was brought, that Darius was but twenty miles from the place they then were."--_Ib._, ii, 113. "Alexander, upon hearing this news, continued four days in the place he then was."--_Ib._, ii, 113. "To read, in the best manner it is now taught."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 246. "It may be expedient to give a few directions as to the manner it should be studied."--_Hallock's Gram._, p. 9. "Participles are words derived from verbs, and convey an idea of the acting of an agent, or the suffering of an object, with the time it happens."--_Alex. Murray's Gram._, p. 50. "Had I but serv'd my God with half the zeal I serv'd my king, he would not in mine age Have left me naked to mine enemies."--_Beauties of Shak._, p. 173. UNDER NOTE IX.--ADVERBS FOR RELATIVES. "In compositions where pronunciation has no place."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 101. "They framed a protestation, where they repeated their claims."--_Hume's Hist_. "Which have reference to Substances, where Sex never had existence."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 43. "Which denote substances where sex never had existence."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 38; _Fisk's_, 57. "There is no rule given how truth may be found out."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 160. "The nature of the objects whence they are taken."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 165. "That darkness of character, where we can see no heart."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 236. "The states where they negotiated."--_Formey's Belles-Lettres_, p. 159. "Till the motives whence men act be known."--_Beattie's Moral Science_, p. 262. "He assigns the principles whence their power of pleasing flows."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 19. "But I went on, and so finished this History in that form as it now appears."--_Sewel's Preface_, p. v. "By prepositions we express the cause why, the instrument by which, wherewith, or the manner how a thing is done."--_Alex. Murray's Gram._, p. 128; _John Burn's_, 121. "They are not such in the language whence they are derived."--_Town's Analysis_, p. 13. "I find it very hard to persuade several, that their passions are affected by words from whence they have no ideas."--_Burke, on the Sublime_, p. 95. "The known end, then, why we are placed in a state of so much affliction, hazard, and difficulty, is our improvement in virtue and piety."--_Butler's Anal._, p. 109. "Yet such his acts, as Greeks unborn shall tell, And curse the battle where their fathers fell." --_Pope, Il._, B. x, I. 61. UNDER NOTE X.--REPEAT THE NOUN. "Youth may be thoughtful, but it is not very common."--_Webster's El. Spelling-Book_, p. 85. "A proper name is that given to one person or thing."--_Bartlett's School Manual_, ii, 27. "A common name is that given to many things of the same sort."--_Ibid._ "This rule is often violated; some instances of which are annexed."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 149; _Ingersoll's_, 237. "This is altogether careless writing. It renders style often obscure, always embarrassed and inelegant."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 106. "Every inversion which is not governed by this rule, will be disrelished by every one of taste."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 62. "A proper diphthong is that in which both the vowels are sounded."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 9; _Alger's_, 11; _Bacon's_, 8; _Merchant's_, 9; _Hiley's_, 3; and others. "An improper Diphthong is one in which only one of the two Vowels is sounded."--_Lennie's Gram._, p. 5. "Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and his descendants, are called Hebrews."--_Wood's Dict._ "Every word in our language, of more than one syllable, has one of them distinguished from the rest in this manner."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 236. "Two consonants proper to begin a word must not be separated; as, fa-ble, sti-fle. But when they come between two vowels, and are such as cannot begin a word, they must be divided; as, ut-most, un-der."--_Ib._, p. 22. "Shall the intellect alone feel no pleasures in its energy, when we allow them to the grossest energies of appetite and sense?"--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 298; _Murray's Gram._, 289. "No man hath a propensity to vice as such: on the contrary, a wicked deed disgusts him, and makes him abhor the author."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 66. "The same that belong to nouns, belong also to pronouns."--_Greenleaf's Gram._, p. 8. "What is Language? It is the means of communicating thoughts from one to another."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 15. "A simple word is that which is not made up of more than one."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 4; _Gould's_, p. 4. "A compound word is that which is made up of two or more words."--_Ib._ "When a conjunction is to be supplied, it is called Asyndeton."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 235. UNDER NOTE XI.--PLACE OF THE RELATIVE. "It gives a meaning to words, which they would not have."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 244. "There are many words in the English language, that are sometimes used as adjectives, and sometimes as adverbs."--_Ib._, p. 114. "Which do not more effectually show the varied intentions of the mind, than the auxiliaries do which are used to form the potential mood."--_Ib._, p. 67. "These accents make different impressions on the mind, which will be the subject of a following speculation."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 108. "And others very much differed from the writer's words, to whom they were ascribed."--_Pref. to Lily's Gram._, p. xii. "Where there is nothing in the sense which requires the last sound to be elevated, an easy fall will be proper."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 250; _Bullions's E. Gram._, 167. "There is an ellipsis of the verb in the last clause, which, when you supply, you find it necessary to use the adverb not."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 176; _Murray's Gram._, 368. "_Study_ is singular number, because its nominative _I_ is, with which it agrees."--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 22. "John is the person, or, thou art who is in error."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 136. "For he hath made him to be sin for us, who knew no sin."--_2 Cor._, v, 21. "Take that of me, my friend, who have the power To seal the accuser's lips."--_Beauties of Shakspeare_, p. 268. UNDER NOTE XII.--WHAT FOR THAT. "I had no idea but what the story was true."--_Browns Inst._, p. 144. "The post-boy is not so weary but what he can whistle."--_Ib._ "He had no intimation but what the men were honest."--_Ib._ "Neither Lady Haversham nor Miss Mildmay will ever believe, but what I have been entirely to blame."--See _Priestley's Gram._, p. 93. "I am not satisfied, but what the integrity of our friends is more essential to our welfare than their knowledge of the world."--_Ibid._ "There is, indeed, nothing in poetry, so entertaining or descriptive, but what a didactic writer of genius may be allowed to introduce in some part of his work."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 401. "Brasidas, being bit by a mouse he had catched, let it slip out of his fingers: 'No creature, (says he,) is so contemptible but what may provide for its own safety, if it have courage.'"--PLUTARCH: _Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. i, p. 81. UNDER NOTE XIII.--ADJECTIVES FOR ANTECEDENTS. "In narration, Homer is, at all times, remarkably concise, which renders him lively and agreeable."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 435. "It is usual to talk of a nervous, a feeble, or a spirited style; which are plainly the characters of a writer's manner of thinking."--_Ib._, p. 92. "It is too violent an alteration, if any alteration were necessary, which none is."--_Knight, on the Greek Alphabet_, p. 134. "Some men are too ignorant to be humble, without which, there can be no docility."--_Berkley's Alciphron_, p. 385. "Judas declared him innocent; which he could not be, had he in any respect deceived the disciples."--_Porteus_. "They supposed him to be innocent, which he certainly was not."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 50; _Emmons's_, 25. "They accounted him honest, which he certainly was not."--_Fetch's Comp. Gram._, p. 89. "Be accurate in all you say or do; for it is important in all the concerns of life."--_Brown's Inst._, p. 145. "Every law supposes the transgressor to be wicked; which indeed he is, if the law is just."--_Ib._ "To be pure in heart, pious, and benevolent, which all may be, constitutes human happiness."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 232. "To be dexterous in danger, is a virtue; but to court danger to show it, is weakness."--_Penn's Maxims_. UNDER NOTE XIV.--SENTENCES FOR ANTECEDENTS. "This seems not so allowable in prose; which the following erroneous examples will demonstrate."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 175. "The accent is laid upon the last syllable of a word; which is favourable to the melody."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 86. "Every line consists of ten syllables, five short and five long; from which there are but two exceptions, both of them rare."--_Ib._, ii, 89. "The soldiers refused obedience, which has been explained."--_Nixon's Parser_, p. 128. "Cæsar overcame Pompey, which was lamented."--_Ib._ "The crowd hailed William, which was expected."--_Ib._ "The tribunes resisted Scipio, which was anticipated."--_Ib._ "The censors reproved vice, which was admired."--_Ib._ "The generals neglected discipline, which has been proved."--_Ib._ "There would be two nominatives to the verb was, which is improper."--_Adam's Lat. Gram._, p. 205; _Gould's_, 202. "His friend bore the abuse very patiently; which served to increase his rudeness: it produced, at length, contempt and insolence."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 50; _Emmons's_, 25. "Almost all compounded sentences, are more or less elliptical; some examples of which may be seen under the different parts of speech."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 217; _Guy's_, 90; _R G. Smith's_, 180; _Ingersoll's_, 153; _Fisk's_, 144; _J. M. Putnam's_, 137; _Weld's_, 190, _Weld's Imp. Ed._, 214. UNDER NOTE XV.--REPEAT THE PRONOUN. "In things of Nature's workmanship, whether we regard their internal or external structure, beauty and design are equally conspicuous."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 269. "It puzzles the reader, by making him doubt whether the word ought to be taken in its proper or figurative sense."--_Ib._, ii, 231. "Neither my obligations to the muses, nor expectations from them, are so great."--_Cowley's Preface_. "The Fifth Annual Report of the Anti-Slavery Society of Ferrisburgh and vicinity."--_Liberator_, ix, 69. "Meaning taste in its figurative as well as proper sense."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 360. "Every measure in which either your personal or political character is concerned."--_Junius_, Let. ix. "A jealous, righteous God has often punished such in themselves or offspring."--_Extracts_, p. 179. "Hence their civil and religious history are inseparable."--_Milman's Jews_, i, 7. "Esau thus carelessly threw away both his civil and religious inheritance."--_Ib._, i, 24. "This intelligence excited not only our hopes, but fears likewise."--_Jaudon's Gram._, p. 170. "In what manner our defect of principle and ruling manners have completed the ruin of the national spirit of union."--_Brown's Estimate_, i, 77. "Considering her descent, her connexion, and present intercourse."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 85. "His own and wife's wardrobe are packed up in a firkin."--_Parker and Fox's Gram._, Part i, p. 73. UNDER NOTE XVI.--CHANGE THE ANTECEDENT. "The sound of _e_ and _o_ long, in their due degrees, will be preserved, and clearly distinguished."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 242. "If any person should be inclined to think," &c., "the author takes the liberty to suggest to them," &c.--_Ib., Pref._, p. iv. "And he walked in all the ways of Asa his father; he turned not aside from it."--_1 Kings_, xxii, 43. "If ye from your hearts forgive not every one his brother their trespasses."--_Matt._, xviii, 35. "Nobody ever fancied they were slighted by him, or had the courage to think themselves his betters."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 8. "And Rebekah took goodly raiment of her eldest son Esau, which were with her in the house, and put them upon Jacob her younger son."--_Gen._, xxvii, 15. "Where all the attention of man is given to their own indulgence."-- _Maturin's Sermons_, p. 181. "The idea of a _father_ is a notion superinduced to the substance, or man--let man be what it will."--_Locke's Essay_, i, 219. "Leaving every one to do as they list."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 460. "Each body performed his part handsomely."--_J. Flint's Gram._, p. 15. "This block of marble rests on two layers of stone, bound together with lead, which, however, has not prevented the Arabs from forcing out several of them."--_Parker and Fox's Gram._, Part i, p. 72. "Love gives to every power a double power, Above their functions and their offices."--_Shakspeare_. RULE XI.--PRONOUNS. When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the Pronoun must agree with it in the plural number: as, "The _council_ were divided in _their_ sentiments."--"The Christian _world_ are beginning to awake out of _their_ slumber."--_C. Simeon_. "Whatever Adam's _posterity_ lost through him, that and more _they_ gain in Christ."--_J. Phipps_. "To this, one pathway gently-winding leads, Where march a train with baskets on their heads." --_Pope, Iliad_, B. xviii, l. 657. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XI. OBS. 1.--The collective noun, or noun of multitude, being a name that signifies many, may in general be taken in either of two ways, according to the intention of the user: that is, either with reference to the _aggregate_ as one thing, in which sense it will accord with the neuter pronoun _it_ or _which_; or with reference to the _individuals_, so as to accord with a plural pronoun _they, their, them_, or _who_, masculine, or feminine, as the individuals of the assemblage may happen to be. The noun itself, being literally singular both in form and in fact, has not unfrequently some article or adjective before it that implies unity; so that the interpretation of it in a plural sense by the pronoun or verb, was perhaps not improperly regarded by the old grammarians as an example of the figure _syllepsis_:.as, "Liberty should reach every individual of _a people_, as _they_ all share one common nature."--_Spectator_, No. 287. "Thus urg'd the chief; _a generous troop appears_, _Who spread their_ bucklers and _advance their_ spears." --_Pope, Iliad_, B. xi, l. 720. OBS. 2.--Many of our grammarians say, "When a noun of multitude is preceded by a definitive word, which clearly limits the sense to an aggregate with an idea of unity, it requires a verb and pronoun to agree with it in the singular number."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 153; _Ingersoll's_, 249; Fisk's, 122; _Fowler's_, 528. But this principle, I apprehend, cannot be sustained by an appeal to general usage. The instances in practice are not few, in which both these senses are clearly indicated with regard to the same noun; as, "_Each House_ shall keep a journal of _its_ proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in _their_ judgement require secrecy."--_Constitution of the United States_, Art. i, Sec. 5. "I mean _that part_ of mankind _who are known_ by the name of women's men, or beaux."--_Addison, Spect._, No. 536. "A _set_ of men _who are_ common enough in the world."--_Ibid._ "It is vain for _a people_ to expect to be free, unless _they_ are first willing to be virtuous."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 397. "For _this people's_ heart is waxed gross, and _their_ ears are dull of hearing, and _their_ eyes _they_ have closed."--_Matt._, xiii, 15. "_This enemy_ had now enlarged _their_ confederacy, and made _themselves_ more formidable than before."--_Life of Antoninus_, p. 62. "Thus from the tents the fervent _legion swarms_; So loud _their_ clamour, and so keen _their_ arms." --_Pope, Iliad_, B. xvi, l. 320. OBS. 3.--Most collective nouns of the neuter gender, may take the regular plural form, and be represented by a pronoun in the third person, plural, neuter; as, "The _nations_ will enforce _their_ laws." This construction comes under Rule 10th, as does also the singular, "The _nations_ will enforce _its_ laws;" for, in either case, the agreement is entirely literal. Half of Murray's Rule 4th is therefore needless. To Rule 11th above, there are properly no exceptions; because the number of the pronoun is itself the index to the sense in which the antecedent is therein taken. It does not follow, however, but that there may be violations of the rule, or of the notes under it, by the adoption of one number when the other would be more correct, or in better taste. A collection of things inanimate, as a fleet, a heap, a row, a tier, a bundle, is seldom, if ever, taken distributively, with a plural pronoun. For a further elucidation of the construction of collective nouns, see Rule 15th, and the observations under it. NOTES TO RULE XI. NOTE I.--A collective noun conveying the idea of unity, requires a pronoun in the third person, singular, neuter; as, "When a legislative _body_ makes laws, _it_ acts for _itself_ only; but when _it_ makes grants or contracts, _it_ acts as a party."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 40. "A civilized _people_ has no right to violate _its_ solemn obligations, because the other party is uncivilized."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 314. NOTE II.--When a collective noun is followed by two or more words which must each in some sense agree with it, uniformity of number is commonly preferable to diversity, and especially to such a mixture as puts the singular both before and after the plural; as, "_That_ ingenious nation _who have done_ so much honour to modern literature, _possesses_, in an eminent degree, the talent of narration."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 364. Better: _"which has done."_ IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XI. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.--THE IDEA OF PLURALITY. "The jury will be confined till it agrees on a verdict."--_Brown's Inst._, p. 145. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the pronoun _it_ is of the singular number, and does not correctly represent its antecedent _jury_, which is a collective noun conveying rather the idea of plurality. But, according to Rule 11th, "When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the pronoun must agree with it in the plural number." Therefore, it should be _they_; thus, "The jury will be confined till _they_ agree on a verdict."] "And mankind directed its first cares towards the needful."--_Formey's Belles-Lettres_, p. 114. "It is difficult to deceive a free people respecting its true interest."--_Life of Charles XII_, p. 67. "All the virtues of mankind are to be counted upon a few fingers, but his follies and vices are innumerable."--_Swift_. "Every sect saith, 'Give me liberty:' but give it him, and to his power, he will not yield it to any body else."--_Oliver Cromwell_. "Behold, the people shall rise up as a great lion, and lift up himself as a young lion."--_Numbers, xxiii_, 24. "For all flesh had corrupted his way upon the earth."--_Gen._, vi, 12. "There happened to the army a very strange accident, which put it in great consternation."--_Goldsmith_. UNDER NOTE I.--THE IDEA OF UNITY. "The meeting went on in their business as a united body."--_Foster's Report_, i, 69. "Every religious association has an undoubted right to adopt a creed for themselves."--_Gould's Advocate_, iii, 405. "It would therefore be extremely difficult to raise an insurrection in that State against their own government."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 104. "The mode in which a Lyceum can apply themselves in effecting a reform in common schools."--_New York Lyceum_. "Hath a nation changed their gods, which are yet no gods?"--_Jeremiah_, ii, 11. "In the holy scriptures each of the twelve tribes of Israel is often called by the name of the patriarch, from whom they descended."--_J. Q. Adams's Rhet._, ii, 331. UNDER NOTE II.--UNIFORMITY OF NUMBER. "A nation, by the reparation of their own wrongs, achieves a triumph more glorious than any field of blood can ever give."--_J. Q. Adams_. "The English nation, from which we descended, have been gaining their liberties inch by inch."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 45. "If a Yearly Meeting should undertake to alter its fundamental doctrines, is there any power in the society to prevent their doing so?"--_Foster's Report_, i, 96. "There is a generation that curseth their father, and doth not bless their mother."--_Proverbs_, xxx, 11. "There is a generation that are pure in their own eyes, and yet is not washed from their filthiness."--_Ib._, xxx, 12. "He hath not beheld iniquity in Jacob, neither hath he seen perverseness in Israel: the Lord his God is with him, and the shout of a king is among them."--_Numb._, xxiii, 21. "My people hath forgotten me, they have burnt incense to vanity."--_Jer._, xviii, 15. "When a quarterly meeting hath come to a judgment respecting any difference, relative to any monthly meeting belonging to them," &c.--_Extracts_, p. 195; _N. E. Discip._, p. 118. "The number of such compositions is every day increasing, and appear to be limited only by the pleasure or conveniency of the writer."--_Booth's Introd. to Dict._, p. 37. "The church of Christ hath the same power now as ever, and are led by the same Spirit into the same practices."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 477. "The army, whom the chief had thus abandoned, pursued meanwhile their miserable march."--_Lockhart's Napoleon_, ii, 165. RULE XII.--PRONOUNS. When a Pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by _and_, it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together: as, "_Minos_ and _Thales_ sung to the lyre the laws which _they_ composed."--STRABO: _Blair's Rhet._, p. 379. "_Saul_ and _Jonathan_ were lovely and pleasant in _their_ lives, and in _their_ death _they_ were not divided."--_2 Sam._, i, 23. "_Rhesus_ and _Rhodius_ then unite their rills, Caresus roaring down the stony hills."--_Pope, Il._, B. xii, l. 17. EXCEPTION FIRST. When two or more antecedents connected by and serve merely to describe one person or thing, they are either in apposition or equivalent to one name, and do not require a plural pronoun; as, "This great _philosopher_ and _statesman_ continued in public life till _his_ eighty-second year."--"The same _Spirit, light_, and _life, which enlighteneth_, also sanctifieth, and there is not an other."--_Penington_. "My _Constantius and Philetus_ confesseth me two years older when I writ _it_."--_Cowley's Preface_. "Remember these, O _Jacob_ and _Israel_! for _thou_ art my servant."--_Isaiah_, xliv, 21. "In that _strength_ and _cogency which renders_ eloquence powerful."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 252. EXCEPTION SECOND. When two antecedents connected by _and_ are emphatically distinguished, they belong to different propositions, and, if singular, do not require a plural pronoun; as, "The _butler_, and not the _baker_, was restored to _his_ office."--"The _good man_, and the _sinner too_, shall have _his_ reward."--"_Truth_, and _truth only_, is worth seeking for _its_ own sake."--"It is _the sense_ in which the word is used, and _not the letters_ of which it is composed, _that determines_ what is the part of speech to which it belongs."--_Cobbett's Gram._, ¶ 130. EXCEPTION THIRD. When two or more antecedents connected by _and_ are preceded by the adjective _each, every_, or _no_, they are taken separately, and do not require a plural pronoun; as, "_Every plant_ and _every tree_ produces others after _its_ own kind."--"It is the cause of _every reproach_ and _distress_ which _has attended_ your government."--_Junius_, Let. xxxv. But if the latter be a collective noun, the pronoun may be plural; as, "_Each minister_ and _each church_ act according to _their_ own impressions."--_Dr. M'Cartee_. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XII. OBS. 1.--When the antecedents are of _different persons_, the first person is preferred to the second, and the second to the third; as, "_John_, and _thou_, and _I_, are attached to _our_ country."--"_John_ and _thou_ are attached to _your_ country."--"The Lord open some light, and show both _you_ and _me our_ inheritance!"--_Baxter_. "_Thou_ and thy _sons_ with thee _shall bear_ the iniquity of _your_ priesthood."--_Numbers_, xviii, 1. "For all are friends in heaven; all faithful friends; And many friendships in the days of Time Begun, are lasting here, and growing still: So grows _ours_ evermore, both _theirs and mine_." --_Pollok, C. of T._, B. v, l. 335. OBS 2.--The _gender_ of pronouns, except in the third person singular, is distinguished only by their antecedents. In expressing that of a pronoun which has antecedents of _different_ genders, the masculine should be preferred to the feminine, and the feminine to the neuter. The parser of English should remember, that this is a principle of General Grammar. OBS 3.--When two words are taken separately as nominatives, they ought not to be united in the same sentence as antecedents. In the following example, therefore, _them_ should be _it_: "The first has a lenis, and the other an asper over _them_."--_Printer's Gram._, p. 246. Better thus: "The first has a lenis _over it_, and the other an asper." OBS. 4.--Nouns that stand as nominatives or antecedents, are sometimes taken conjointly when there is no conjunction expressed; as, "The historian, the orator, the philosopher, _address themselves_ primarily to the understanding: _their_ direct aim is, to inform, to persuade, to instruct."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 377. The copulative _and_ may here be said to be understood, because the verb and the pronouns are plural; but it seems better _in general_, either to introduce the connective word, or to take the nouns disjunctively: as, "They have all the copiousness, the fervour, the inculcating method, that _is_ allowable and graceful in an orator; perhaps too much of it for a writer."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 343. To this, however, there may be exceptions,--cases in which the plural form is to be preferred,--especially in poetry; as, "Faith, justice, heaven itself, now quit their hold, When to false fame the captive heart is sold."--_Brown, on Satire_. OBS. 5.--When two or more antecedents connected by _and_ are nominally alike, one or more of them may be _understood_; and, in such a case, the pronoun must still be plural, as agreeing with all the nouns, whether expressed or implied: as, "But intellectual and moral culture ought to go hand in hand; _they_ will greatly help each other."--_Dr. Weeks_. Here _they_ stands for _intellectual culture_ and _moral culture_. The following example is incorrect: "The Commanding and Unlimited _mode_ may be used in an absolute sense, or without a name or substitute on which _it_ can depend."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 80. Change _it_ to _they_, or _and_ to _or_. See Note 6th to Rule 16th. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XII. PRONOUNS WITH ANTECEDENTS CONNECTED BY AND. "Discontent and sorrow manifested itself in his countenance."--_Brown's Inst._, p. 146. [FORMULE--Not proper, because the pronoun _itself_ is of the singular number, and does not correctly represent its two antecedents _discontent_ and _sorrow_, which are connected by _and_, and taken conjointly. But, according to Rule 12th, "When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by _and_, it must agree with then, jointly in the plural, because they are taken together." Therefore, _itself_ should be _themselves_; thus, "Discontent and sorrow manifested _themselves_ in his countenance."] "Both conversation and public speaking became more simple and plain, such as we now find it."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 59. "Idleness and ignorance, if it be suffered to proceed, &c."--JOHNSON: _Priestley's Gram._, p. 186. "Avoid questions and strife; it shows a busy and contentious disposition."--_Wm. Penn_. "To receive the gifts and benefits of God with thanksgiving, and witness it blessed and sanctified to us by the word and prayer, is owned by us."--_Barclays Works_, i, 213. "Both minister and magistrate are compelled to choose between his duty and his reputation."--_Junius_, p. 9. "All the sincerity, truth, and faithfulness, or disposition of heart or conscience to approve it, found among rational creatures, necessarily originate from God."--_Brown's Divinity_, p. 12. "Your levity and heedlessness, if it continue, will prevent all substantial improvement."--_Brown's Inst._, p. 147. "Poverty and obscurity will oppress him only who esteems it oppressive."--_Ib._ "Good sense and refined policy are obvious to few, because it cannot be discovered but by a train of reflection."--_Ib._ "Avoid haughtiness of behaviour, and affectation, of manners: it implies a want of solid merit."--_Ib._ "If love and unity continue, it will make you partakers of one an other's joy."--_Ib._ "Suffer not jealousy and distrust to enter: it will destroy, like a canker, every germ of friendship."--_Ib._ "Hatred and animosity are inconsistent with Christian charity; guard, therefore, against the slightest indulgence of it."--_Ib._ "Every man is entitled to liberty of conscience, and freedom of opinion, if he does not pervert it to the injury of others."--_Ib._ "With the azure and vermilion Which is mix'd for my pavilion."--_Byron's Manfred_, p. 9. RULE XIII.--PRONOUNS. When a Pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by _or_ or _nor_, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together: as; "_James_ or _John_ will favour us with _his_ company."--"Neither _wealth_ nor _honour_ can secure the happiness of _its_ votaries." "What _virtue_ or what mental _grace_, But men unqualified and base Will boast _it_ their possession?"--_Cowper, on Friendship_. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XIII. OBS. 1.--When two or more singular antecedents are connected by _or_ or _nor_, the pronoun which represents them, ought in general to be singular, because _or_ and _nor_ are disjunctives; and, to form a complete concord, the nouns ought also to be of the same person and gender, that the pronoun may agree in all respects with each of them. But when _plural_ nouns are connected in this manner, the pronoun will of course be plural, though it still agrees with the antecedents singly; as, "Neither _riches_ nor _honours_ ever satisfy _their_ pursuers." Sometimes, when different numbers occur together, we find the plural noun put last, and the pronoun made plural after both, especially if this noun is a mere substitute for the other; as, "What's justice to a man, or laws, That never comes within _their_ claws."--_Hudibras_. OBS. 2.--When antecedents of different persons, numbers, or genders, are connected by _or_ or _nor_, they cannot very properly be represented by any pronoun that is not applicable to each of them. The following sentences are therefore inaccurate; or at least they contradict the teachings of their own authors: "Either _thou or I_ am greatly mistaken, in _our_ judgment on this subject."--_Murray's Key_, p. 184 "Your character, which _I, or any other writer_, may now value _ourselves_ by (upon) drawing."--SWIFT: _Lowth's Gram._, p. 96. "Either _you or I_ will be in _our_ place in due time."--_Coopers Gram._, p. 127. But different pronouns may be so connected as to refer to such antecedents taken separately; as, "By requiring greater labour from such _slave or slaves_, than _he or she or they_ are able to perform."--_Prince's Digest_. Or, if the gender only be different, the masculine may involve the feminine by implication; as, "If a man smite the eye of his _servant_, or the eye of his _maid_, that it perish, he shall let _him_ go free for _his_ eye's sake."--_Exodus_, xxi, 26. OBS. 3.--It is however very common to resort to the plural number in such instances as the foregoing, because our plural pronouns are alike in all the genders; as, "When either _man or woman_ shall separate _themselves_ to vow a vow of a Nazarite."--_Numbers_, vi, 2. "Then shalt thou bring forth _that man or that woman_ unto thy gates, and shalt stone them with stones, till _they_ die."--_Deut._, xvii, 5. "Not on outward charms could _he or she_ build _their_ pretensions to please."--_Opie, on Lying_, p. 148. "Complimenting either _man or woman_ on agreeable qualities which _they_ do not possess, in hopes of imposing on _their_ credulity."--_Ib._, p. 108. "_Avidien_, or his _wife_, (no matter which,) _sell their_ presented partridges and fruits."--_Pope_, Sat. ii, l. 50. "Beginning with Latin _or_ Greek hexameter, _which are_ the same."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 79. "Did ever _Proteus, Merlin_, any _witch_, Transform _themselves_ so strangely as the rich?" --_Pope_, Ep. i, l. 152. OBS. 4.--From the observations and examples above, it may be perceived, that whenever there is a difference of person, number, or gender, in antecedents connected disjunctively, there is an inherent difficulty respecting the form of the pronoun personal. The best mode of meeting this inconvenience, or of avoiding it by a change of the phraseology, may be different on different occasions. The disjunctive connexion of explicit pronouns is the most correct, but it savours too much of legal precision and wordiness to be always eligible. Commonly an ingenious mind may invent some better expression, and yet avoid any syntactical anomaly. In Latin, when nouns are connected by the conjunctions which correspond to _or_ or _nor_, the pronoun or verb is so often made plural, that no such principle as that of the foregoing Rule, or of Rule 17th, is taught by the common grammars of that language. How such usage can be logically right, however, it is difficult to imagine. Lowth, Murray, Webster, and most other English grammarians, teach, that, "The conjunction disjunctive has an effect contrary to that of the copulative; and, as the verb, noun, or pronoun, is referred to the preceding terms taken separately, it must be in the singular number."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 75; _L. Murray's_, 151; _Churchill's_, 142; _W. Allen's_, 133; _Lennie's_, 83; _and many others_. If there is any allowable exception to this principle, it is for the adoption of the plural when the concord cannot be made by any one pronoun singular; as, "If I value my friend's _wife or son_ upon account of _their_ connexion with him."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 73. "Do not drink wine nor strong drink, _thou nor thy sons_ with thee, when _ye_ go into the tabernacle of the congregation."--_Levit._, x, 8. These examples, though they do not accord with the preceding rule, seem not to be susceptible of any change for the better. There are also some other modes of expression, in which nouns that are connected disjunctively, may afterwards be represented together; as "_Foppery_ is a sort of folly much more contagious THAN _pedantry_; but as _they_ result alike from affectation, _they_ deserve alike to be proscribed."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 217. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XIII. PRONOUNS WITH ANTECEDENTS CONNECTED BY OR OR NOR. "Neither prelate nor priest can give their flocks any decisive evidence that you are lawful pastors."--_Dr. Brownlee_. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the pronoun _their_ is of the plural number, and does not correctly represent its two antecedents _prelate_ and _priest_, which are connected by _nor_, and taken disjunctively. But, according to Rule 13th, "When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by _or_ or _nor_, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together." Therefore, _their_ should be _his_; thus, "Neither prelate nor priest can give _his_ flocks any decisive evidence that you are lawful pastors."] "And is there a heart of parent or of child, that does not beat and burn within them?"--_Maturin's Sermons_, p. 367. "This is just as if an eye or a foot should demand a salary for their service to the body."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 178. "If thy hand or thy foot offend thee, cut them off, and cast them from thee."--_Matt._, xviii, 8. "The same might as well be said of Virgil, or any great author, whose general character will infallibly raise many casual additions to their reputation."--_Pope's Pref. to Homer_. "Either James or John, one of them, will come."--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 37. "Even a rugged rock or barren heath, though in themselves disagreeable, contribute by contrast to the beauty of the whole."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 185. "That neither Count Rechteren nor Monsieur Mesnager had behaved themselves right in this affair."--_Spect._, No. 481. "If an Aristotle, a Pythagoras, or a Galileo, suffer for their opinions, they are 'martyrs.'"--_Gospel its own Witness_, p. 80. "If an ox gore a man or a woman, that they die; then the ox shall be surely stoned."--_Exodus_, xxi, 28. "She was calling out to one or an other, at every step, that a Habit was ensnaring them."--DR. JOHNSON: _Murray's Sequel_, 181. "Here is a Task put upon Children, that neither this Author, nor any other have yet undergone themselves."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 162. "Hence, if an adjective or participle be subjoined to the verb, when of the singular number, they will agree both in gender and number with the collective noun."--_Adam's Lat. Gram._, p. 154; _Gould's_, 158. "And if you can find a diphthong, or a triphthong, be pleased to point them out too."--_Bucke's Classical Gram._, p. 16. "And if you can find a diphthong, or a triphthong, a trissyllable, or a polysyllable, point them respectively out."--_Ib._, p. 25. "The false refuges in which the atheist or the sceptic have intrenched themselves."--_Christian Spect._, viii, 185. "While the man or woman thus assisted by art expects their charms will be imputed to nature alone."--_Opie_, 141. "When you press a watch, or pull a clock, they answer your question with precision; for they repeat exactly the hour of the day, and tell you neither more nor less than you desire to know."--_Bolingbroke, on History_, p. 102. "Not the Mogul, or Czar of Muscovy, Not Prester John, or Cham of Tartary, Are in their houses Monarch more than I." --KING: _Brit. Poets_, Vol. iii, p. 613. CHAPTER VI.--VERBS. In this work, the syntax of Verbs is embraced in six consecutive rules, with the necessary exceptions, notes, and observations, under them; hence this chapter extends from the fourteenth to the twentieth rule in the series. RULE XIV.--FINITE VERBS. Every finite Verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, in person and number: as, "I _know_; thou _knowst_, or _knowest_; he _knows_, or _knoweth_"--"The bird _flies_; the birds _fly_." "Our fathers' fertile _fields_ by slaves _are till'd_, And _Rome_ with dregs of foreign lands _is fill'd_." --_Rowe's Lucan_, B. vii, l. 600. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XIV. OBS. 1.--To this general rule for the verb, there are properly _no exceptions_;[385] and all the special rules that follow, which prescribe the concord of verbs in particular instances, virtually accord with it. Every _finite verb_, (that is, every verb _not in the infinitive mood_,) must have some noun, pronoun, or phrase equivalent, known as the _subject_ of the being, action, or passion;[386] and with this subject, whether expressed or understood, the verb must agree in person and number. The infinitive mood, as it does not unite with a nominative to form an assertion, is of course exempt from any such agreement. These may be considered principles of Universal Grammar. The Greeks, however, had a strange custom of using a plural noun of the neuter gender, with a verb of the third person singular; and in both Greek and Latin, the infinitive mood with an accusative before it was often equivalent to a finite verb with its nominative. In English we have _neither of these usages_; and plural nouns, even when they denote no absolute plurality, (as _shears, scissors, trowsers, pantaloons, tongs_,) require plural verbs or pronouns: as, "Your _shears come_ too late, to clip the bird's wings."--SIDNEY: _Churchill's Gram._, p. 30. OBS. 2.--When a book that bears a plural title, is spoken of as one thing, there is sometimes presented an _apparent exception_ to the foregoing rule; as, "The _Pleasures_ of Memory _was published_ in the year 1792, and became at once popular."--_Allan Cunningham_. "The '_Sentiments_ of a Church-of-England Man' _is written_ with great coolness, moderation, ease, and perspicuity."--_Johnson's Life of Swift_. "The '_Pleasures_ of Hope' _is_ a splendid poem; _it_ was written for perpetuity."--_Samuel L. Knapp_. In these instances, there is, I apprehend, either an agreement of the verb, by the figure _syllepsis_, with the mental conception of the thing spoken of; or an improper ellipsis of the common noun, with which each sentence ought to commence; as, "The _poem_ entitled,"--"The _work_ entitled," &c. But the plural title sometimes controls the form of the verb; as, "My Lives are reprinting."--_Dr. Johnson_. OBS. 3.--In the figurative use of the present tense for the past or imperfect, the vulgar have a habit of putting the third person singular with the pronoun _I_; as, "_Thinks I_ to myself."--_Rev. J. Marriott_. "O, _says I_, Jacky, are you at that work?"--_Day's Sandford and Merton_. "Huzza! huzza! Sir Condy Rackrent forever, was the first thing _I hears_ in the morning."--_Edgeworth's Castle Rackrent_, p. 97. This vulgarism is to be avoided, not by a simple omission of the terminational _s_, but rather by the use of the literal preterit: as, "_Thought_ I to myself;"--"O, _said_ I;"--"The first thing I _heard_." The same mode of correction is also proper, when, under like circumstances, there occurs a disagreement in number; as, "After the election was over, there _comes shoals_ of people from all parts."--_Castle Rackrent_, p. 103. "Didn't ye hear it? _says they_ that were looking on."--_Ib._, p. 147. Write, "there _came_,"--"_said they_." OBS. 4.--It has already been noticed, that the article _a_, or a singular adjective, sometimes precedes an arithmetical number with a plural noun; as, "_A thousand years_ in thy sight _are_ but as yesterday."--_Psalms_, xc, 4. So we might say, "_One_ thousand years _are_,"--"_Each_ thousand years _are_"--"_Every_ thousand years _are_," &c. But it would not be proper to say, "A thousand years _is_," or, "Every thousand years _is_;" because the noun _years_ is plainly plural, and the anomaly of putting a singular verb after it, is both needless and unauthorized. Yet, to this general rule for the verb, the author of a certain "English Grammar _on the Productive System_," (a strange perversion of Murray's compilation, and a mere catch-penny work, now extensively used in New England,) is endeavouring to establish, by his own bare word, the following exception: "_Every_ is sometimes associated with a plural noun, in which case the verb must be singular; as, 'Every hundred years _constitutes_ a century.'"--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 103. His _reason_ is this; that the phrase containing the nominative, "_signifies a single period of time_, and is, therefore, _in reality_ singular."--_Ib._ Cutler also, a more recent writer, seems to have imbibed the same notion; for he gives the following sentence as an example of "false construction: Every hundred years _are_ called a century."--_Cutler's Grammar and Parser_, p. 145. But, according to this argument, no plural verb could ever be used with any _definite number_ of the parts of time; for any three years, forty years, or threescore years and ten, are as single a period of time, as "every hundred years," "every four years," or "every twenty-four hours." Nor is it true, that, "_Every_ is sometimes associated with a plural noun;" for "_every years_" or "_every hours_," would be worse than nonsense. I, therefore, acknowledge no such exception; but, discarding the principle of the note, put this author's pretended _corrections_ among my quotations of _false syntax_. OBS. 5.--Different verbs always have different subjects, expressed or understood; except when two or more verbs are connected in the same construction, or when the same word is repeated for the sake of emphasis. But let not the reader believe the common doctrine of our grammarians, respecting either the ellipsis of nominatives or the ellipsis of verbs. In the text, "The man was old and crafty," Murray sees no connexion of the ideas of age and craftiness, but thinks the text a _compound sentence_, containing two nominatives and two verbs; i.e., "The man was old, and _the man was_ crafty." [387] And all his other instances of "the ellipsis of the verb" are equally fanciful! See his _Octavo Gram._, p. 219; _Duodecimo_, 175. In the text, "God loves, protects, supports, and rewards the rights," there are four verbs in _the same construction_, agreeing with the same nominative, and governing the same object; but Buchanan and others expound it, "God loves, and God protects, and God supports, and God rewards the righteous."--_English Syntax_, p. 76; _British Gram._, 192. This also is fanciful and inconsistent. If the nominative is here "_elegantly understood_ to each verb," so is the objective, which they do not repeat. "And again," they immediately add, "the _verb_ is often understood to its noun or nouns; as, He dreams of gibbets, halters, racks, daggers, &c. i.e. He dreams of gibbets, and he dreams of halters, &c."--_Same works and places_. In none of these examples is there any occasion to suppose an ellipsis, if we admit that two or more words _can_ be connected in the same construction! OBS. 6.--Verbs in the imperative mood commonly agree with the pronoun _thou, ye_, or _you_, understood after them; as, "_Heal [ye_] the sick, _cleanse [ye_] the lepers, _raise [ye_] the dead, _cast [ye_] out devils."--_Matt._, x, 8. "_Trust_ God and _be doing_, and _leave_ the rest with him."--_Dr. Sibs_. When the doer of a thing must first proceed to the place of action, we sometimes use _go_ or _come_ before an other verb, without any conjunction between the two; as, "Son, _go work_ to-day in my vineyard."--_Matt._, xxi, 28. "_Come see_ a man who [has] told me all things that ever I did."--_John_, iv, 29. "He ordered his soldiers to _go murder_ every child about Bethlehem, or near it."--_Wood's Dict. of Bible, w. Herod_. "Take a present in thine hand, and _go meet_ the man of God."--_2 Kings_, viii, 8. "I will _go see_ if he be at home."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 169. OBS. 7.--The _place_ of the verb has reference mainly to that of the subject with which it agrees, and that of the object which it governs; and as the arrangement of these, with the instances in which they come before or after the verb, has already been noticed, the position of the latter seems to require no further explanation. See Obs. 2d under Rule 2d, and Obs. 2d under Rule 5th. OBS. 8.--The infinitive mood, a phrase, or a sentence, (and, according to some authors, the participle in _ing_, or a phrase beginning with this participle,) is sometimes the proper subject of a verb, being equivalent to a nominative of the third person singular; as, "To play _is_ pleasant."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 80. "To write well, _is_ difficult; to speak eloquently, _is_ still more difficult."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 81. "To take men off from prayer, _tends_ to irreligiousness, _is granted_."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 214. "To educate a child perfectly, _requires_ profounder thought, greater wisdom, than to govern a state."--_Channing's Self-Culture_, p. 30. "To determine these points, _belongs_ to good sense."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 321. "How far the change would contribute to his welfare, _comes_ to be considered."--_Id., Sermons_. "That too much care does hurt in any of our tasks, _is_ a doctrine so flattering to indolence, that we ought to receive it with extreme caution."--_Life of Schiller_, p. 148. "That there is no disputing about taste, _is_ a saying so generally received as to have become a proverb."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 360. "For what purpose they embarked, _is_ not yet known."--"To live in sin and yet to believe the forgiveness of sin, _is_ utterly impossible."--_Dr. J. Owen_. "There shallow draughts intoxicate the brain, But drinking largely _sobers_ us again."--_Pope_. OBS. 9.--The same meaning will be expressed, if the pronoun _it_ be placed before the verb, and the infinitive, phrase, or santance, after it; as, "_It_ is pleasant _to play_,"--"_It_ is difficult _to write well_;" &c. The construction of the following sentences is rendered defective by the omission of this pronoun: "Why do ye that which [_it_] is not lawful to do on the sabbath days?"--_Luke_, vi, 2. "The show-bread, which [_it_] is not lawful to eat, but for the priests only."--_Ib._, vi, 4. "We have done that which [_it_] was our duty to do."--_Ib._, xvii, 10. Here the relative _which_ ought to be in the objective case, governed by the infinitives; but the omission of the word _it_ makes this relative the nominative to _is_ or _was_, and leaves _to do_ and _to eat_ without any regimen. This is not ellipsis, but error. It is an accidental gap into which a side piece falls, and leaves a breach elsewhere. The following is somewhat like it, though what falls in, appears to leave no chasm: "From this deduction, [_it_] _may be easily seen_ how it comes to pass, that personification makes so great a figure."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 155. "Whether the author had any meaning in this expression, or what it was, [_it_] _is not easy_ to determine."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 298. "That warm climates should accelerate the growth of the human body, and shorten its duration, [_it_] _is very reasonable_ to believe."--_Ib._, p. 144. These also need the pronoun, though Murray thought them complete without it. OBS. 10.--When the infinitive mood is made the subject of a finite verb, it is most commonly used to express action or state in the abstract; as, "_To be_ contents his natural desire."--_Pope_. Here _to be_ stands for simple _existence_; or if for the existence _of the Indian_, of whom the author speaks, that relation is merely implied. "_To define ridicule_, has puzzled and vexed every critic."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 300. Here "_to define_" expresses an action quite as distinct from any agent, as would the participial noun; as, "The _defining of_ ridicule," &c. In connexion with the infinitive, a concrete quality may also be taken as an abstract; as, "_To be good_ is _to be happy_." Here _good_ and _happy_ express the quality of _goodness_ and the state of _happiness_ considered abstractly; and therefore these adjectives do not relate to any particular noun. So also the passive infinitive, or a perfect participle taken in a passive sense; as, "_To be satisfied with a little_, is the greatest wisdom."--"_To appear discouraged_, is the way to become so." Here the _satisfaction_ and the _discouragement_ are considered abstractly, and without reference to any particular person. (See Obs. 12th and 13th on Rule 6th.) So too, apparently, the participles _doing_ and _suffering_, as well as the adjective _weak_, in the following example: "Fallen Cherub, to be _weak_ is miserable, _Doing_ or _suffering_."--_Milton's Paradise Lost_. OBS. 11.--When the action or state is to be expressly limited to one class of beings, or to a particular person or thing, without making the verb finite; the noun or pronoun may be introduced before the infinitive by the preposition _for_: as, "_For men to search_ their own glory, is not glory."--_Prov._, xxv, 27. "_For a prince to be reduced_ by villany [sic--KTH] to my distressful circumstances, is calamity enough."--_Translation of Sallust_. "_For holy persons to be humble_, is as hard, as _for a prince to submit_ himself to be guided by tutors."--TAYLOR: _Priestley's Gram._, p. 132; _Murray's_, 184. But such a limitation is sometimes implied, when the expression itself is general; as, "_Not to know me_, argues thyself unknown."--_Milton_. That is, "_For thee_ not to know me." The phrase is put far, "_Thy ignorance of me_;" for an other's ignorance would be no argument in regard to the individual addressed. "_I, to bear this_, that never knew but better, _is_ some burden."--_Beauties of Shak._, p. 327. Here the infinitive _to bear_, which is the subject of the verb _is_, is limited in sense by the pronoun _I_, which is put absolute in the nominative, though perhaps _improperly_; because, "_For me to bear this_," &c., will convey the same meaning, in a form much more common, and perhaps more grammatical. In the following couplet, there is an ellipsis of the infinitive; for the phrase, "fool with fool," means, "_for_ fool _to contend_ with fool," or, "for one fool to contend with an other:" "Blockheads with reason wicked wits abhor, But _fool with fool_ is barb'rous civil war." --_Pope, Dunciad_, B. iii, l. 175. OBS. 12.--The objective noun or pronoun thus introduced by _for_ before the infinitive, was erroneously called by Priestley, "_the subject of the affirmation_;" (_Gram._, p. 132;) and Murray, Ingersoll, and others, have blindly copied the blunder. See _Murray's Gram._, p. 184; _Ingersoll's_, 244. Again, Ingersoll says, "The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is sometimes the subject of a verb, _and is, therefore, its_ NOMINATIVE."--_Conversations on English Gram._, p. 246. To this erroneous deduction, the phraseology used by Murray and others too plainly gives countenance: "The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is sometimes put _as the nominative case_ to the verb."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 144; _Fisk's_, 123; _Kirkham's_, 188; _Lennie's_, 99; _Bullions's_, 89; and many more. Now the objective before the infinitive may not improperly be called _the subject_ of this form of the verb, as the nominative is, of the finite; but to call it "the subject _of the affirmation_," is plainly absurd; because no infinitive, in English, ever expresses an affirmation. And again, if a whole phrase or sentence is made the subject of a _finite_ verb, or of an affirmation, no one word contained in it, can singly claim this title. Nor can the whole, by virtue of this relation, be said to be "in the _nominative case_;" because, in the nature of things, neither phrases nor sentences are capable of being declined by cases. OBS. 13.--Any phrase or sentence which is made the subject of a finite verb, must be taken in the sense of _one thing_, and be spoken of as _a whole_; so that the verb's agreement with it, in the third person singular, is not an exception to Rule 14th, but a construction in which the verb may be parsed by that rule. For any one thing merely spoken of, is of the third person singular, whatever may be the nature of its parts. Not every phrase or sentence, however, is fit to be made the subject of a verb;--that is, if its own import, and not the mere expression, is the thing whereof we affirm. Thus Dr. Ash's example for this very construction, "a _sentence_ made the subject of a verb," is, I think, a palpable solecism: "The King and Queen appearing in public _was_ the cause of my going."--_Ash's Gram._, p. 52. What is here before the verb _was_, is _no_ "_sentence_;" but a mere phrase, and such a one as we should expect to see used independently, if any regard were had to its own import. The Doctor would tell us what "was _the cause_ of his going:" and here he has two nominatives, which are equivalent to the plural _they_; q.d., "_They_ appearing in public _was_ the cause." But such a construction is not English. It is an other sample of the false illustration which grammar receives from those who _invent_ the proof-texts which they ought to _quote_. OBS. 14.--One of Murray's examples of what he erroneously terms "_nominative sentences_," i.e., "sentences or clauses constituting the subject of an affirmation," is the following: "A desire to excel others in learning and virtue [,] _is_ commendable."--_Gram._, 8vo, p. 144. Here the verb _is_ agrees regularly with the noun _desire_, and with that only; the whole text being merely a simple sentence, and totally irrelevant to the doctrine which it accompanies.[388] But the great "Compiler" supposes the adjuncts of this noun to be parts of the nominative, and imagines the verb to agree with all that precedes it. Yet, soon after, he expends upon the ninth rule of Webster's Philosophical Grammar a whole page of useless criticism, to show that the adjuncts of a noun are not to be taken as parts of the nominative; and that, when objectives are thus subjoined, "the assertion grammatically respects the first nouns only."--_Ib._, p. 148. I say _useless_, because the truth of the doctrine is so very plain. Some, however, may imagine an example like the following to be an exception to it; but I do not, because I think the true nominative suppressed: "By force they could not introduce these gods; For _ten to one_ in former days _was_ odds."--_Dryden's Poems_, p. 38. OBS. 15.--Dr. Webster's ninth rule is this: "When the nominative consists of several words, and the last of the names is in the plural number, the verb is commonly in the plural also; as, 'A part of the exports _consist_ of raw silk.' 'The number of oysters _increase_.' GOLDSMITH. 'Such as the train of our ideas _have lodged_ in our memories.' LOCKE. 'The greater part of philosophers _have acknowledged_ the excellence of this government.' ANACHARSIS."--_Philos. Gram._, p. 146; _Impr. Gram._, 100. The last of these examples Murray omits; the second he changes thus: "A number of men and women _were_ present." But all of them his reasoning condemns as ungrammatical. He thinks them wrong, upon the principle, that the verbs, being plural, do not agree with the first nouns only. Webster, on the contrary, judges them all to be right; and, upon this same principle, conceives that his rule must be so too. He did not retract or alter the doctrine after he saw the criticism, but republished it verbatim, in his "Improved Grammar," of 1831. Both err, and neither convinces the other. OBS. 16.--In this instance, as Webster and Murray both teach erroneously, whoever follows either, will be led into many mistakes. The fact is, that some of the foregoing examples, though perhaps not all, are perfectly right; and hundreds more, of a similar character, might be quoted, which no true grammarian would presume to condemn. But what have these to do with the monstrous absurdity of supposing objective adjuncts to be "parts of the actual nominative?" The words, "_part," "number," "train_" and the like, are _collective nouns_; and, as such, they often have plural verbs in agreement with them. To say, "A _number_ of men and women _were_ present," is as correct as to say, "A very great _number_ of our words _are_ plainly derived from the Latin."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 86. Murray's criticism, therefore, since it does not exempt these examples from the censure justly laid upon Webster's rule, will certainly mislead the learner. And again the rule, being utterly wrong in principle, will justify blunders like these: "The truth of the narratives _have_ never been disputed;"--"The virtue of these men and women _are_ indeed exemplary."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 148. In one of his notes, Murray suggests, that the article _an_ or _a_ before a collective noun must confine the verb to the singular number; as, "_A great number_ of men and women _was_ collected."--_Ib._, p. 153. But this doctrine he sometimes forgot or disregarded; as, "But if _a number_ of interrogative or exclamatory sentences _are thrown_ into one general group."--_Ib._, p. 284; _Comly_, 166; _Fisk_, 160; _Ingersoll_, 295. OBS. 17.--Cobbett, in a long paragraph, (the 245th of his English Grammar,) stoutly denies that any _relative pronoun_ can ever be the nominative to a verb; and, to maintain this absurdity, he will have the relative and its antecedent to be always alike in _case_, the only thing in which they are always independent of each other. To prove his point, he first frames these examples: "The men _who are_ here, the man _who is_ here; the cocks _that crow_, the cock _that crows_;" and then asks, "Now, if the relative be the nominative, why do the verbs _change_, seeing that here is no change in the relative?" He seems ignorant of the axiom, that two things severally equal to a third, are also equal to each other: and accordingly, to answer his own question, resorts to a new principle: "The verb is continually varying. Why does it vary? Because it _disregards the relative_ and goes and finds the antecedent, and accommodates its number to that."--_Ibid._ To this wild doctrine, one erratic Irishman yields a full assent; and, in one American grammatist, we find a partial and unintentional concurrence with it.[389] But the fact is, the relative agrees with the antecedent, and the verb agrees with the relative: hence all three of the words are alike in person and number. But between the case of the relative and that of the antededent [sic--KTH], there never is, or can be, in our language, any sort of connexion or interference. The words belong to different clauses; and, if both be nominatives, they must be the subjects of different verbs: or, if the noun be sometimes put absolute in the nominative, the pronoun is still left to its own verb. But Cobbett concludes his observation thus: "You will observe, therefore, that, when I, in the etymology and syntax as relating to relative pronouns, speak of relatives as being in the nominative case, I mean, that they relate to nouns or to personal pronouns, _which are in that case_. The same observation applies _to the other cases_."--_Ib._, ¶ 245. This suggestion betrays in the critic an unaccountable ignorance of his subject. OBS. 18.--Nothing is more certain, than that the relatives, _who, which, what, that_, and _as_, are often nominatives, and the only subjects of the verbs which follow them: as, "The Lord will show _who are_ his, and _who is_ holy."--_Numbers_, xvi, 5. "Hardly is there any person, but _who_, on such occasions, _is disposed_ to be serious."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 469. "Much of the merit of Mr. Addison's Cato depends upon that moral turn of thought _which distinguishes_ it."--_Ib._, 469. "Admit not a single word but _what is_ necessary."--_Ib._, p. 313. "The pleader must say nothing but _what is_ true; and, at the same time, he must avoid saying any thing _that will hurt_ his cause."--_Ib._, 313. "I proceed to mention such _as appear_ to me most material."--_Ib._, p. 125. After _but_ or _than_, there is sometimes an ellipsis of the relative, and perhaps also of the antecedent; as, "There is no heart _but must feel_ them."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 469. "There is no one _but must be_ sensible of the extravagance."--_Ib._, p. 479. "Since we may date from it a more general and a more concerted opposition to France _than there had been_ before."--_Bolingbroke, on Hist._, p. 213. That is, "than _what_ there had been before;"--or, "than _any opposition which_ there had been before." "John has more fruit _than can be gathered_ in a week."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, pp. 196 and 331. I suppose this sentence to mean, "John has more fruit than _what_ can be gathered in a week." But the author of it denies that it is elliptical, and seems to suppose that _can be gathered_ agrees with _John_. Part of his comment stands thus: "The above sentence--'John has more fruit than can be gathered in a week'--in every respect full and _perfect_--must, to be _grammatical_! according to _all_ the 'old theories,' stand, John has more fruit than _that fruit is which, or which fruit_ can be gathered in a week!!!"--_Ib._, 331. What shall be done with the headlong critic who thus mistakes exclamation points for arguments, and multiplies his confidence in proportion to his fallacies and errors? OBS. 19.--In a question, the nominative _I_ or _thou_ put after the verb, controls the agreement, in preference to the interrogative _who, which_, or _what_, put before it; as, "_Who am I? What am I? Who art thou? What art thou?_" And, by analogy, this seems to be the case with all plurals; as, "_Who are we? Who are you? Who are they? What are these_?" But sometimes the interrogative pronoun is the only nominative used; and then the verb, whether singular or plural, must agree with this nominative, in the third person, and not, as Cobbett avers, with an antecedent understood: as, "_Who is_ in the house? _Who are_ in the house? _Who strikes_ the iron? _Who strike_ the iron? _Who was_ in the street? _Who were_ in the street?"--_Cobbett's Gram._, ¶ 245. All the interrogative pronouns may be used in either number, but, in examples like the following, I imagine the singular to be more proper than the plural: "_What have become_ of our previous customs?"--_Hunt's Byron_, p. 121. "And _what have become_ of my resolutions to return to God?"--_Young Christian_, 2d Ed., p. 91. When two nominatives of different properties come after the verb, the first controls the agreement, and neither the plural number nor the most worthy person is always preferred; as, "_Is it I? Is it thou? Is it they_?" OBS. 20.--The verb after a relative sometimes has the appearance of disagreeing with its nominative, because the writer and his reader disagree in their conceptions of its mood. When a relative clause is subjoined to what is itself subjunctive or conditional, some writers suppose that the latter verb should be put in the subjunctive mood; as, "If there be any intrigue _which stand_ separate and independent."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 457. "The man also would be of considerable use, who should vigilantly attend to every illegal practice _that were beginning_ to prevail."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 171. But I have elsewhere shown, that relatives, in English, are not compatible with the subjunctive mood; and it is certain, that no other mood than the indicative or the potential is commonly used after them. Say therefore, "If there be any intrigue _which stands_," &c. In assuming to himself the other text, Murray's says, "_That_ man also would be of considerable use, who should vigilantly attend to every illegal practice that _was_ beginning to prevail."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 366. But this seems too positive. The potential imperfect would be better: viz., "that _might begin_ to prevail." OBS. 21.--The termination _st_ or _est_, with which the second person singular of the verb is formed in the indicative present, and, for the solemn style, in the imperfect also; and the termination _s_ or _es_, with which the third person singular is formed in the indicative present, and only there; are signs of the mood and tense, as well as of the person and number, of the verb. They are not applicable to a future uncertainty, or to any mere supposition in which we would leave the time indefinite and make the action hypothetical; because they are commonly understood to fix the time of the verb to the present or the past, and to assume the action as either doing or done. For this reason, our best writers have always omitted those terminations, when they intended to represent the action as being doubtful and contingent as well as conditional. And this omission constitutes the whole _formal_ difference between the indicative and the subjunctive mood. The _essential_ difference has, by almost all grammarians, been conceived to extend somewhat further; for, if it were confined strictly within the limits of the literal variation, the subjunctive mood would embrace only two or three words in the whole formation of each verb. After the example of Priestley, Dr. Murray, A. Murray, Harrison, Alexander, and others, I have given to it all the persons of the two simple tenses, singular and plural; and, for various reasons, I am decidedly of the opinion, that these are its most proper limits. The perfect and pluperfect tenses, being past, cannot express what is really contingent or uncertain; and since, in expressing conditionally what may or may not happen, we use the subjunctive present as embracing the future indefinitely, there is no need of any formal futures for this mood. The comprehensive brevity of this form of the verb, is what chiefly commends it. It is not an elliptical form of the future, as some affirm it to be; nor equivalent to the indicative present, as others will have it; but a _true subjunctive_, though its distinctive parts are chiefly confined to the second and third persons singular of the simple verb: as, "Though _thou wash_ thee with nitre."--_Jer._, ii, 22. "It is just, O great king! that a _murderer perish_."--_Corneille_. "This single _crime_, in my judgment, _were_ sufficient to condemn him."--_Duncan's Cicero_, p. 82. "Beware that _thou bring_ not my son thither."--BIBLE: _Ward's Gram._, p. 128. "See [that] _thou tell_ no man."--_Id., ib._ These examples can hardly be resolved into any thing else than the subjunctive mood. NOTES TO RULE XIV. NOTE I.--When the nominative is a relative pronoun, the verb must agree with it in person and number, according to the pronoun's agreement with its true antecedent or antecedents. Example of error: "The second book [of the �neid] is one of the greatest masterpieces _that ever was executed_ by any hand."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 439. Here the true antecedent is _masterpieces_, and not the word _one_; but _was executed_ is singular, and "by any _hand_" implies but one agent. Either say, "It is one of the greatest _masterpieces that_ ever _were executed_;" or else, "It is _the greatest masterpiece that ever was executed by any hand_." But these assertions differ much in their import. NOTE II.--"The adjuncts of the nominative do not control its agreement with the verb; as, Six months' _interest was_ due. The _progress_ of his forces _was_ impeded."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 131. "The _ship_, with all her furniture, was destroyed."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 150. "All _appearances_ of modesty _are_ favourable and prepossessing."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 308. "The _power_ of relishing natural enjoyments _is_ soon gone."--_Fuller, on the Gospel_, p. 135. "_I_, your master, _command_ you (not _commands_)"-- _Latham's Hand-Book_, p. 330.[390] NOTE III.--Any phrase, sentence, mere word, or other sign, taken as one whole, and made the subject of an assertion, requires a verb in the third person singular; as, "To lie _is_ base."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 154. "When, to read and write, _was_ of itself an honorary distinction."--_Hazlitt's Lect._, p. 40. "To admit a God and then refuse to worship him, _is_ a modern and inconsistent practice."--_Fuller, on the Gospel_, p. 30. "_We is_ a personal pronoun."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 227. "_Th has_ two sounds."--_Ib._, p. 161. "The _'s is annexed_ to each."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 89. "_Ld. stands_ for _lord_."--_Webster's American Dict._, 8vo. NOTE IV.--The pronominal adjectives, _each, one,[391] either_, and _neither_, are always in the third person singular; and, when they are the leading words in their clauses, they require verbs and pronouns to agree with them accordingly: as, "_Each_ of you _is_ entitled to _his_ share."--"Let no _one_ deceive _himself_." NOTE V.--A neuter or a passive verb between two nominatives should be made to agree with that which precedes it;[392] as, "Words _are_ wind:" except when the terms are transposed, and the proper subject is put after the verb by _question_ or _hyperbaton_; as, "His pavilion _were_ dark _waters_ and thick _clouds_ of the sky."--_Bible_. "Who _art thou_?"--_Ib._ "The wages of sin _is death_."--_Ib. Murray, Comly_, and others. But, of this last example, Churchill says, "_Wages are_ the subject, of which it is affirmed, that _they are_ death."--_New Gram._, p. 314. If so, _is_ ought to be _are_; unless Dr. Webster is right, who imagines _wages_ to be _singular_, and cites this example to prove it so. See his _Improved Gram._, p. 21. NOTE VI.--When the verb cannot well be made singular, the nominative should be made plural, that they may agree: or, if the verb cannot be plural, let the nominative be singular. Example of error: "For _every one_ of them _know_ their several duties."--_Hope of Israel_, p. 72. Say, "For _all_ of them know their several duties." NOTE VII.--When the verb has different forms, that form should be adopted, which is the most consistent with present and reputable usage in the style employed: thus, to say familiarly, "The clock _hath stricken_;"--"Thou _laughedst_ and _talkedst_, when thou _oughtest_ to have been silent;"--"He _readeth_ and _writeth_, but he _doth_ not cipher," would be no better, than to use _don't, won't, can't, shan't_, and _didn't_, in preaching. NOTE VIII.--Every finite verb not in the imperative mood, should have a separate nominative expressed; as, "_I came, I saw, I conquered_:" except when the verb is repeated for the sake of emphasis, or connected to an other in the same construction, or put after _but_ or _than_; as, "Not an eminent orator has lived _but is_ an example of it."--_Ware_. "Where more is meant _than meets_ the ear."--_Milton's Allegro_. (See Obs. 5th and Obs. 18th above.) "They _bud, blow, wither, fall_, and _die_."--_Watts_. "That evermore his teeth they _chatter, Chatter, chatter, chatter_ still."--_Wordsworth_. NOTE IX.--A future contingency is best expressed by a verb in the subjunctive present; and a mere supposition, with indefinite time, by a verb in the subjunctive imperfect; but a conditional circumstance assumed as a fact, requires the indicative mood:[393] as, "If thou _forsake_ him, he will cast thee off forever."--_Bible_. "If it _were_ not so, I would have told you."--_Ib._ "If thou _went_, nothing would be gained."--"Though he _is_ poor, he is contented."--"Though he _was_ rich, yet for your sakes he became poor."--_2 Cor._, viii, 9. NOTE X.--In general, every such use or extension of the subjunctive mood, as the reader will be likely to mistake for a discord between the verb and its nominative, ought to be avoided as an impropriety: as, "We are not sensible of disproportion, till the difference between the quantities compared _become_ the most striking circumstance."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 341. Say rather, "_becomes_;" which is indicative. "Till the general preference of certain forms _have been declared_."--_Priestley's Gram., Pref._, p. xvii. Say, "_has been declared_;" for "_preference_" is here the nominative, and Dr. Priestley himself recognizes no other subjunctive tenses than the present and the imperfect; as, "If thou _love_, If thou _loved_."--_Ib._, p. 16. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XIV. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.--VERB AFTER THE NOMINATIVE. "Before you left Sicily, you was reconciled to Verres."--_Duncan's Cicero_, p. 19. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the passive verb _was reconciled_ is of the singular number, and does not agree with its nominative _you_, which is of the second person plural. But, according to Rule 14th, "Every finite verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, in person and number." Therefore, _was reconciled_ should be _were reconciled_; thus, "Before you left Sicily, you _were reconciled_ to Verres."] "Knowing that you was my old master's good friend."--_Spect._, No. 517. "When the judge dare not act, where is the loser's remedy?"--_Webster's Essays_, p. 131. "Which extends it no farther than the variation of the verb extend."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, Vol. i, p. 211. "They presently dry without hurt, as myself hath often proved."--_Roger Williams_. "Whose goings forth hath been from of old, from everlasting."--_Keith's Evidences_. "You was paid to fight against Alexander, not to rail at him."--_Porter's Analysis_, p. 70. "Where more than one part of speech is almost always concerned."--_Churchill's Gram., Pref._, p. viii. "Nothing less than murders, rapines, and conflagrations, employ their thoughts."--_Duncan's Cicero_, p. 175. "I wondered where you was, my dear."--_Lloyd's Poems_, p. 185. "When thou most sweetly sings."--_Drummond of Hawthornden_. "Who dare, at the present day, avow himself equal to the task?"--_Music of Nature_, p. 11. "Every body are very kind to her, and not discourteous to me."--_Byron's Letters_. "As to what thou says respecting the diversity of opinions."--_The Friend_, Vol. ix, p. 45. "Thy nature, immortality, who knowest?"--_Everest's Gram._, p. 38. "The natural distinction of sex in animals gives rise to what, in grammar, is called genders."--_Ib._, p. 51. "Some pains has likewise been taken."--_Scott's Pref. to Bible_. "And many a steed in his stables were seen."--_Penwarne's Poems_, p. 108. "They was forced to eat what never was esteemed food."--_Josephus's Jewish War_, B. i, Ch. i, §7. "This that yourself hath spoken, I desire that they may take their oaths upon."--_Hutchinson's Mass._, ii, 435. "By men whose experience best qualify them to judge."--_Committee on Literature, N. Y. Legislature_. "He dare venture to kill and destroy several other kinds of fish."--_Johnson's Dict, w. Perch_. "If a gudgeon meet a roach, He dare not venture to approach."--SWIFT: _Ib., w. Roach_. "Which thou endeavours to establish unto thyself."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 164. "But they pray together much oftener than thou insinuates."--_Ib._, i, 215. "Of people of all denominations, over whom thou presideth."--_The Friend_, Vol. v, p. 198. "I can produce ladies and gentlemen whose progress have been astonishing."--_Chazotte, on Teaching Lang._, p. 62. "Which of these two kinds of vice are more criminal?"--_Brown's Estimate_, ii, 115. "Every twenty-four hours affords to us the vicissitudes of day and night."--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 103. "Every four years adds another day."--_Ib._ "Every error I could find, Have my busy muse employed."--_Swift's Poems_, p. 335. "A studious scholar deserve the approbation of his teacher."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 226. "Perfect submission to the rules of a school indicate good breeding."--_Ib._, p. 37. "A comparison in which more than two is concerned."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 114. "By the facilities which artificial language afford them."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 16. "Now thyself hath lost both lop and top."--SPENSER: _Joh. Dict., w. Lop._ "Glad tidings is brought to the poor."--_Campbell's Gospels: Luke_, vii, 23. "Upon which, all that is pleasurable, or affecting in elocution, chiefly depend."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 129. "No pains has been spared to render this work complete."--_Bullions, Lat. Gram., Pref._, p. iv. "The United States contains more than a twentieth part of the land of this globe."--DE WITT CLINTON: _Cobb's N. Amer. Reader_, p. 173. "I am mindful that myself is (or am) strong."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, § 500. "Myself _is_ (not _am_) weak; thyself _is_ (not _art_) weak."--_Ib._, §479. "How pale each worshipful and reverend guest Rise from a clergy or a city feast!"--_Pope_, Sat. ii, l. 75. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.--VERB BEFORE THE NOMINATIVE. "Where was you born? In London."--_Buchanan's Syntax_, p. 133. "There is frequent occasions for commas."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 281. "There necessarily follows from thence, these plain and unquestionable consequences."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 191. "And to this impression contribute the redoubled effort."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 112. "Or if he was, was there no spiritual men then?"--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 86. "So by these two also is signified their contrary principles."--_Ib._, iii, 200. "In the motions made with the hands, consist the chief part of gesture in speaking."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 336. "Dare he assume the name of a popular magistrate?"--_Duncan's Cicero_, p. 140. "There was no damages as in England, and so Scott lost his wager."--_Byron_. "In fact there exists such resemblances."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 64. "To him giveth all the prophets witness."--_Crewdson's Beacon_, p. 79. "That there was so many witnesses and actors."--_Addison's Evidences_, p. 37. "How does this man's definitions stand affected?"--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 136. "Whence comes all the powers and prerogatives of rational beings?"--_Ib._, p. 144. "Nor does the Scriptures cited by thee prove thy intent."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 155. "Nor do the Scripture cited by thee prove the contrary."--_Ib._, i, 211. "Why then cite thou a Scripture which is so plain and clear for it?"--_Ib._, i, 163. "But what saith the Scriptures as to respect of persons among Christians?"--_Ib._, i, 404. "But in the mind of man, while in the savage state, there seems to be hardly any ideas but what enter by the senses."--_Robertson's America_, i, 289. "What sounds have each of the vowels?"--_Griscom's Questions_. "Out of this has grown up aristocracies, monarchies, despotisms, tyrannies."--_Brownson's Elwood_, p. 222. "And there was taken up, of fragments that remained to them, twelve baskets."-- _Luke_, ix, 17. "There seems to be but two general classes."--_Day's Gram._, p. 3. "Hence arises the six forms of expressing time."--_Ib._, p. 37. "There seems to be no other words required."--_Chandler's Gram._, p. 28. "If there is two, the second increment is the syllable next the last."--_Bullions, Lat. Gram._, 12th Ed., p. 281. "Hence arises the following advantages."--_Id., Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, 1849, p. 67. "There is no data by which it can be estimated."--_J. C. Calhoun's Speech_, March 4, 1850. "To this class belong the Chinese [language], in which we have nothing but naked roots."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, 8vo, 1850, p. 27. "There was several other grotesque figures that presented themselves."-- _Spect._, No. 173. "In these consist that sovereign good which ancient sages so much extol."--_Percival's Tales_, ii, 221. "Here comes those I have done good to against my will."--_Shak., Shrew_. "Where there is more than one auxiliary."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 80. "On me to cast those eyes where shine nobility." --SIDNEY: _Joh. Dict._ "Here's half-pence in plenty, for one you'll have twenty." --_Swift's Poems_, p. 347. "Ah, Jockey, ill advises thou, I wis, To think of songs at such a time as this." --_Churchill_, p. 18. UNDER NOTE I.--THE RELATIVE AND VERB. "Thou who loves us, wilt protect us still."--_Alex. Murray's Gram._, p. 67. "To use that endearing language, Our Father, who is in heaven"--_Bates's Doctrines_, p. 103. "Resembling the passions that produceth these actions."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 157. "Except _dwarf, grief, hoof, muff_, &c. which takes _s_ to make the plural."--_Ash's Gram._, p. 19. "As the cattle that goeth before me and the children be able to endure."-- _Gen._ xxxiii, 14 "Where is the man who dare affirm that such an action is mad?"--_Werter_. "The ninth book of Livy affords one of the most beautiful exemplifications of historical painting, that is any where to be met with."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 360. "In some studies too, that relate to taste and fine writing, which is our object," &c.--_Ib._, p. 349. "Of those affecting situations, which makes man's heart feel for man."--_Ib._, p. 464. "We see very plainly, that it is neither Osmyn, nor Jane Shore, that speak."--_Ib._, p. 468. "It should assume that briskness and ease, which is suited to the freedom of dialogue."--_Ib._, p. 469. "Yet they grant, that none ought to be admitted into the ministry, but such as is truly pious."--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 147. "This letter is one of the best that has been written about Lord Byron."--_Hunt's Byron_, p. 119. "Thus, besides what was sunk, the Athenians took above two hundred ships."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, i, 102. "To have made and declared such orders as was necessary."--_Hutchinson's Hist._, i, 470. "The idea of such a collection of men as make an army."--_Locke's Essay_, p. 217. "I'm not the first that have been wretched."--_Southern's In. Ad._, Act 2. "And the faint sparks of it, which is in the angels, are concealed from our view."--_Calvin's Institutes_, B. i, Ch. 11. "The subjects are of such a nature, as allow room for much diversity of taste and sentiment."--_Blair's Rhet., Pref._, p. 5. "It is in order to propose examples of such perfection, as are not to be found in the real examples of society."--_Formey's Belles-Lettres_, p. 16. "I do not believe that he would amuse himself with such fooleries as has been attributed to him."--_Ib._, p. 218. "That shepherd, who first taughtst the chosen seed."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 238. "With respect to the vehemence and warmth which is allowed in popular eloquence."-- _Blair's Rhet._, p. 261. "Ambition is one of those passions that is never to be satisfied."--_Home's Art of Thinking_, p. 36. "Thou wast he that leddest out and broughtest in Israel."--_2 Samuel_, v, 2; and _1 Chron._, xi, 2. "Art thou the man of God that camest from Judah?"--_1 Kings_, xiii, 14. "How beauty is excell'd by manly grace And wisdom, which alone is truly fair."--_Milton_, B. iv, l. 490. "What art thou, speak, that on designs unknown, While others sleep, thus range the camp alone?"--_Pope, Il._, x, 90. UNDER NOTE II.--NOMINATIVE WITH ADJUNCTS. "The literal sense of the words are, that the action had been done."--_Dr. Murray's Hist. of Lang._, i, 65. "The rapidity of his movements were beyond example."--_Wells's Hist._, p. 161. "Murray's Grammar, together with his Exercises and Key, have nearly superseded every thing else of the kind."--EVAN'S REC.: _Murray's Gram._, 8vo, ii, 305. "The mechanism of clocks and watches were totally unknown."--HUME: _Priestley's Gram._, p. 193. "The _it_, together with the verb _to be_, express states of being."--_Cobbett's Eng. Gram._, ¶ 190. "Hence it is, that the profuse variety of objects in some natural landscapes, neither breed confusion nor fatigue."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 266. "Such a clatter of sounds indicate rage and ferocity."--_Music of Nature_, p. 195. "One of the fields make threescore square yards, and the other only fifty-five."--_Duncan's Logic_, p. 8. "The happy effects of this fable is worth attending to."--_Bailey's Ovid_, p. x. "Yet the glorious serenity of its parting rays still linger with us."--_Gould's Advocate_. "Enough of its form and force are retained to render them uneasy."--_Maturin's Sermons_, p. 261. "The works of nature, in this respect, is extremely regular."--_Dr. Pratt's Werter_. "No small addition of exotic and foreign words and phrases have been made by commerce."--_Bicknell's Gram._, Part ii, p. 10. "The dialect of some nouns are taken notice of in the notes."--_Milnes, Greek Gram._, p. 255. "It has been said, that a discovery of the full resources of the arts, afford the means of debasement, or of perversion."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. xxvii. "By which means the Order of the Words are disturbed."--_Holmes's Rhet._, B. i, p. 57. "The twofold influence of these and the others require the asserter to be in the plural form."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 251. "And each of these afford employment."--_Percival's Tales_, Vol. ii, p. 175. "The pronunciation of the vowels are best explained under the rules relative to the consonants."--_Coar's Gram._, p. 7. "The judicial power of these courts extend to all cases in law and equity."--_Hall and Baker's School Hist._, p. 286. "One of you have stolen my money."--_Rational Humorist_, p. 45. "Such redundancy of epithets, instead of pleasing, produce satiety and disgust."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 256. "It has been alleged, that a compliance with the rules of Rhetoric, tend to cramp the mind."--_Hiley's Gram._, 3d Ed., p. 187. "Each of these are presented to us in different relations"--_Hendrick's Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 34. "The past tense of these verbs, _should, would, might, could_, are very indefinite with respect to time."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, 2d Ed., p. 33; 5th Ed., p. 31. "The power of the words, which are said to govern this mood, are distinctly understood."--_Chandler's Gram._, Ed. of 1821, p. 33. "And now, at length, the fated term of years The world's desire have brought, and lo! the God appears." --_Dr. Lowth, on "the Genealogy of Christ."_ "Variety of Numbers still belong To the soft Melody of Ode or Song." --_Brightland's Gram._, p. 170. UNDER NOTE III.--COMPOSITE OR CONVERTED SUBJECTS. "Many are the works of human industry, which to begin and finish are hardly granted to the same man."--_Johnson, Adv. to Dict._ "To lay down rules for these are as inefficacious."--_Dr. Pratt's Werter_, p. 19. "To profess regard, and to act _differently_, discover a base mind."--_Murray's Key_, ii, p. 206. See also _Bullions's E. Gram._, 82 and 112; _Lennie's_, 58. "To magnify to the height of wonder things great, new, and admirable, extremely please the mind of man."--_Fisher's Gram._, p. 152. "In this passage, _according as_ are used in a manner which is very common."--_Webster's Philosophical Gram._, p. 183. "A _cause de_ are called a preposition; _a cause que_, a conjunction."--DR. WEBSTER: _Knickerbocker_, 1836. "To these are given to speak in the name of the Lord."--_The Friend_, vii, 256. "While _wheat_ has no plural, _oats_ have seldom any singular."--_Cobbett's E. Gram._ ¶ 41. "He cannot assert that _ll_ are inserted in _fullness_ to denote the sound of _u_."--_Cobb's Review of Webster_, p. 11. "_ch_ have the power of _k_."--_Gould's Adam's Gram._, p. 2. "_ti_, before a vowel, and unaccented, have the sound of _si_ or _ci_."--_Ibid._ "In words derived from the French, as _chagrin, chicanery_, and _chaise, ch_ are sounded like _sh_."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 10. "But in the word _schism, schismatic_, &c., the _ch_ are silent."--_Ibid._ "_Ph_ are always sounded like _f_, at the beginning of words."--_Bucke's Gram._ "_Ph_ have the sound of _f_ as in _philosophy_."--_Webster's El. Spelling-Book_, p. 11. "_Sh_ have one sound only as in _shall_."--_Ib._ "_Th_ have two sounds."--_Ib._ "_Sc_ have the sound of _sk_, before _a, o, u_, and _r_."--_Ib._ "Aw, have the sound of _a_ in hall."--_Bolles's Spelling-Book_, p. vi. "Ew, sound like _u_."--_Ib._ "Ow, when both sounded, have the sound of _ou_."--_Ib._ "Ui, when both pronounced in one syllable sound like _wi_ in _languid_."--_Ib._ "_Ui_ three several Sorts of Sound express, As _Guile, rebuild, Bruise_ and _Recruit_ confess." --_Brightland's Gram._, p. 34. UNDER NOTE IV.--EACH, ONE, EITHER, AND NEITHER. "When each of the letters which compose this word, have been learned."--_Dr. Weeks, on Orthog._, p. 22. "As neither of us deny that both Homer and Virgil have great beauties."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 21. "Yet neither of them are remarkable for precision."--_Ib._, p. 95. "How far each of the three great epic poets have distinguished themselves."--_Ib._, p. 427. "Each of these produce a separate agreeable sensation."--_Ib._, p. 48. "On the Lord's day every one of us Christians keep the sabbath."--_Tr. of Irenæus_. "And each of them bear the image of purity and holiness."--_Hope of Israel_, p. 81. "Were either of these meetings ever acknowledged or recognized?"--_Foster's Report_, i, 96. "Whilst neither of these letters exist in the Eugubian inscription."--_Knight, on Greek Alph._, p. 122. "And neither of them are properly termed indefinite."--_Wilson's Essay on Gram._, p. 88. "As likewise of the several subjects, which have in effect each their verb."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 120. "Sometimes when the word ends in _s_, neither of the signs are used."--_Alex. Murray's Gram._, p. 21. "And as neither of these manners offend the ear."--_Walker's Dict., Pref._, p. 5. "Neither of these two Tenses are confined to this signification only."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 339. "But neither of these circumstances are intended here."--_Tooke's Diversions_, ii, 237. "So that all are indebted to each, and each are dependent upon all."--_Am. Bible Society's Rep._, 1838, p. 89. "And yet neither of them express any more action in this case than they did in the other."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 201. "Each of these expressions denote action."--_Hallock's Gram._, p. 74. "Neither of these moods seem to be defined by distinct boundaries."--_Butler's Practical Gram._, p. 66. "Neither of these solutions are correct."-- _Bullions, Lat. Gram._, p. 236. "Neither bear any sign of case at all."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, 8vo, 1850, §217. "Each in their turn like Banquo's monarchs stalk."--_Byron_. "And tell what each of them by th'other lose."--_Shak., Cori._, iii, 2. UNDER NOTE V.--VERB BETWEEN TWO NOMINATIVES. "The quarrels of lovers is a renewal of love."--_Adam's Lat. Gram._, p. 156; _Alexander's_, 49; _Gould's_, 159; _Bullions's_, 206. "Two dots, one placed above the other, is called _Sheva_."--_Dr. Wilson's Heb. Gram._, p. 43. "A few centuries, more or less, is a matter of small consequence."--_Ib._ p. 31. "Pictures were the first step towards the art of writing. Hieroglyphicks was the second step."--_Parker's English Composition_, p. 27. "The comeliness of youth are modesty and frankness; of age, condescension and dignity."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 166. "Merit and good works is the end of man's motion."--_Lord Bacon_. "Divers philosophers hold that the lips is parcel of the mind."--_Shakspeare_. "The clothing of the natives were the skins of wild beasts."--_Indian Wars_, p. 92. "Prepossessions in favor of our nativ town, is not a matter of surprise."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 217. "Two shillings and six pence is half a crown, but not a half crown."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 150; _Bicknell's_, ii, 53. "Two vowels, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and uniting in one sound, is called a dipthong."--_Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram._, p. 1. "Two or more sentences united together is called a Compound Sentence."--_P. E. Day's District School Gram._, p. 10. "Two or more words rightly put together, but not completing an entire proposition, is called a Phrase."--_Ibid._ "But the common Number of Times are five."--_The British Grammar_, p. 122. "Technical terms, injudiciously introduced, is another source of darkness in composition."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 107. "The United States is the great middle division of North America."--_Morse's Geog._, p. 44. "A great cause of the low state of industry were the restraints put upon it."--HUME: _Murray's Gram._, p. 145; _Ingersoll's_, 172; _Sanborn's_, 192; _Smith's_, 123; and others. "Here two tall ships becomes the victor's prey."--_Rowe's Lucan_, B. ii, l. 1098. "The expenses incident to an outfit is surely no object."--_The Friend_, Vol. iii., p. 200. "Perhaps their loves, or else their sheep, Was all that did their silly thoughts so busy keep."--_Milton_. UNDER NOTE VI.--CHANGE THE NOMINATIVE. "Much pains has been taken to explain all the kinds of words."--_Infant School Gram._ p. 128. "Not less [_time_] than three years are spent in attaining this faculty."--_Music of Nature_, p. 28. "Where this night are met in state Many a friend to gratulate His wish'd presence."--_Milton's Comus_. l. 948. "Peace! my darling, here's no danger, Here's no oxen near thy bed."--_Watts._ "But every one of these are mere conjectures, and some of them very unhappy ones."--_Coleridge's Introduction_, p. 61. "The old theorists, calling the Interrogatives and Repliers, _adverbs_, is only a part of their regular system of naming words."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 374. "Where a series of sentences occur, place them in the order in which the facts occur."--_Ib._, p. 264. "And that the whole in conjunction make a regular chain of causes and effects."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 275. "The origin of the Grecian, and Roman republics, though equally involved in the obscurities and uncertainties of fabulous events, present one remarkable distinction."--_Adam's Rhet._, i, 95. "In these respects, mankind is left by nature an unformed, unfinished creature."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 144. "The scripture are the oracles of God himself."--HOOKER: _Joh. Dict., w. Oracle_. "And at our gates are all manner of pleasant fruits."--_Solomon's Song_, vii, 13. "The preterit of _pluck, look_, and _toss_ are, in speech, pronounced _pluckt, lookt, tosst_."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, 1850, §68. "Severe the doom that length of days impose, To stand sad witness of unnumber'd woes!"--_Melmoth_. UNDER NOTE VII.--ADAPT FORM TO STYLE. 1. _Forms not proper for the Common or Familiar Style_. "Was it thou that buildedst that house?"--_Inst._, p. 151. "That boy writeth very elegantly."--_Ib._ "Couldest not thou write without blotting thy book?"--_Ib._ "Thinkest thou not it will rain to-day?"--_Ib._ "Doth not your cousin intend to visit you?"--_Ib._ "That boy hath torn my book."--_Ib._ "Was it thou that spreadest the hay?"--_Ib._ "Was it James, or thou, that didst let him in?"--_Ib._ "He dareth not say a word."--_Ib._ "Thou stoodest in my way and hinderedst me."--_Ib._ "Whom see I?--Whom seest thou now?--Whom sees he?--Whom lovest thou most?--What dost thou to-day?--What person seest thou teaching that boy?--He hath two new knives.--Which road takest thou?--What child teaches he?"--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 66. "Thou, who makest my shoes, sellest many more."--_Ib._, p. 67. "The English language hath been much cultivated during the last two hundred years. It hath been considerably polished and refined."--_Lowth's Gram., Pref._, p. iii. "This _stile_ is ostentatious, and doth not suit grave writing."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 82. "But custom hath now appropriated _who_ to persons, and _which_ to things."--_Ib._, p. 97. "The indicative mood sheweth or declareth; as, _Ego amo_, I love: or else asketh a question; as, _Amas tu_? Dost thou love?"--_Paul's Accidence_, Ed. of 1793, p. 16. "Though thou canst not do much for the cause, thou mayst and shouldst do something."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 143. "The support of so many of his relations, was a heavy task; but thou knowest he paid it cheerfully."--_Murray's Key_, R. 1, p. 180. "It may, and often doth, come short of it."--_Campbell's Rhetoric_, p. 160. "'Twas thou, who, while thou seem'dst to chide, To give me all thy pittance tried."--_Mitford's Blanch_, p. 78. 2. _Forms not proper for the Solemn or Biblical Style_. "The Lord has prepaid his throne in the heavens; and his kingdom rules over all."--See _Key_. "Thou answer'd them, O Lord our God: thou was a God that forgave them, though thou took vengeance of their inventions."--See _Key_. "Then thou spoke in vision to thy Holy One, and said, I have laid help upon one that is mighty."--See _Key_. "So then, it is not of him that wills, nor of him that rules, but of God that shows mercy; who dispenses his blessings, whether temporal or spiritual, as seems good in his sight."--See _Key_. "Thou, the mean while, was blending with my thought; Yea, with my life, and life's own secret joy."--_Coleridge_. UNDER NOTE VIII.--EXPRESS THE NOMINATIVE. "Who is here so base, that would be a bondman?"--_Beauties of Shakspeare_, p. 249. "Who is here so rude, that would not be a Roman?"--_Ib._ "There is not a sparrow falls to the ground without his notice."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 300. "In order to adjust them so, as shall consist equally with the perspicuity and the strength of the period."--_Ib._, p. 324; _Blair's Rhet._, 118. "But, sometimes, there is a verb comest in."--_Cobbett's English Gram._, ¶248. "Mr. Prince has a genius would prompt him to better things."--_Spectator_, No. 466. "It is this removes that impenetrable mist."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 362. "By the praise is given him for his courage."--_Locke, on Education_, p. 214. "There is no man would be more welcome here."--_Steele, Spect._, No. 544. "Between an antecedent and a consequent, or what goes before, and immediately follows."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 141. "And as connected with what goes before and follows."-- _Ib._, p. 354. "There is no man doth a wrong for the wrong's sake."--_Lord Bacon_. "All the various miseries of life, which people bring upon themselves by negligence and folly, and might have been avoided by proper care, are instances of this."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 108. "Ancient philosophers have taught many things in favour of morality, so far at least as respect justice and goodness towards our fellow-creatures."--_Gospel its own Witness_, p. 56. "Indeed, if there be any such, have been, or appear to be of us, as suppose, there is not a wise man among us all, nor an honest man, that is able to judge betwixt his brethren; we shall not covet to meddle in their matter."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 504. "There were that drew back; there were that made shipwreck of faith: yea, there were that brought in damnable heresies."--_Ib._, i, 466. "The nature of the cause rendered this plan altogether proper, and in similar situations is fit to be imitated."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 274. "This is an idiom to which our language is strongly inclined, and was formerly very prevalent."-- _Churchill's Gram._, p. 150. "His roots are wrapped about the heap, and seeth the place of stones."--_Job_, viii, 17. "New York, Fifthmonth 3d, 1823. "Dear friend, Am sorry to hear of thy loss; but hope it may be retrieved. Should be happy to render thee any assistance in my power. Shall call to see thee to-morrow morning. Accept assurances of my regard. A. B." "New York, May 3d, P. M., 1823. "Dear Sir, Have just received the kind note favoured me with this morning; and cannot forbear to express my gratitude to you. On further information, find have not lost so much as at first supposed; and believe shall still be able to meet all my engagements. Should, however, be happy to see you. Accept, dear sir, my most cordial thanks. C. D."--See _Brown's Institutes_, p. 151. "Will martial flames forever fire thy mind, And never, never be to Heaven resign'd?"--_Pope, Odys._, xii, 145. UNDER NOTE IX.--APPLICATION OF MOODS. _First Clause of the Note.--For the Subjunctive Present._ "He will not be pardoned, unless he repents."--_Brown's Institutes_, p. 191. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the verb _repents_, which is here used to express a future contingency, is in the indicative mood. But, according to the first clause of Note 9th to Rule 14th, "A future contingency is best expressed by a verb in the subjunctive present." Therefore, _repents_ should be _repent_; thus, "He will not be pardoned, unless he _repent_."] "If thou findest any kernelwort in this marshy meadow, bring it to me."--_Neef's Method of Teaching_, p. 258. "If thou leavest the room, do not forget to shut that drawer."--_Ib._, p. 246. "If thou graspest it stoutly, thou wilt not be hurt."--_Ib._, p. 196. "On condition that he comes, I will consent to stay."--_Murray's Exerc._, p. 74. "If he is but discreet, he will succeed."--_Inst._, p. 191. "Take heed that thou speakest not to Jacob."--_Ib._ "If thou castest me off, I shall be miserable."-- _Ib._ "Send them to me, if thou pleasest."--_Ib._ "Watch the door of thy lips, lest thou utterest folly."--_Ib._ "Though a liar speaks the truth, he will hardly be believed."--_Common School Manual_, ii, 124. "I will go unless I should be ill."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 300. "If the word or words understood are supplied, the true construction will be apparent."-- _Murray's Exercises in Parsing_, p. 21. "Unless thou shalt see the propriety of the measure, we shall not desire thy support."--_Murray's Key_, p. 209. "Unless thou shouldst make a timely retreat, the danger will be unavoidable."--_Ib._, p. 209. "We may live happily, though our possessions are small."--_Ib._, p. 202. "If they are carefully studied, they will enable the student to parse all the exercises."--_Ib., Note_, p. 165. "If the accent is fairly preserved on the proper syllable, this drawling sound will never be heard."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 242. "One phrase may, in point of sense, be equivalent to another, though its grammatical nature is essentially different."--_Ib._, p. 108. "If any man obeyeth not our word by this epistle, note that man."--_Dr. Webster's Bible_. "Thy skill will be the greater, if thou hittest it."--_Putnam's Analytical Reader_, p. 204. "Thy skill will be the greater if thou hit'st it."--_Cobb's N. A. Reader_, p. 321. "We shall overtake him though he should run."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 113; _Murray's_, 207; _Smith's_, 173. "We shall be disgusted if he gives us too much."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 388. "What is't to thee, if he neglect thy urn, Or without spices lets thy body burn?"--DRYDEN: _Joh. Dict., w. What._ _Second Clause of Note IX.--For the Subjunctive Imperfect._ "And so would I, if I was he."--_Brown's Institutes_, p. 191. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the verb _was_, which is here used to express a mere supposition, with indefinite time, is in the indicative mood. But, according to the second clause of Note 9th to Rule 14th, "A mere supposition, with indefinite time, is best expressed by a verb in the subjunctive imperfect." Therefore, _was_ should be _were_; thus, "And so would I, if I _were_ he."] "If I was a Greek, I should resist Turkish despotism."--_Cardell's Elements of Gram._, p. 80. "If he was to go, he would attend to your business."--_Ib._, p. 81. "If thou feltest as I do, we should soon decide."--_Inst._, p. 191. "Though thou sheddest thy blood in the cause, it would but prove thee sincerely a fool."--_Ib._ "If thou lovedst him, there would be more evidence of it."--_Ib._ "If thou couldst convince him, he would not act accordingly."--_Murray's Key_, p. 209. "If there was no liberty, there would be no real crime."--_Formey's Belles-Lettres_, p. 118. "If the house was burnt down, the case would be the same."--_Foster's Report_, i, 89. "As if the mind was not always in action, when it prefers any thing!"--_West, on Agency_, p. 38. "Suppose I was to say, 'Light is a body.'"--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 78. "If either oxygen or azote was omitted, life would be destroyed."--_Gurney's Evidences_, p. 155. "The verb _dare_ is sometimes used as if it was an auxiliary."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 132. "A certain lady, whom I could name, if it was necessary."--_Spectator_, No. 536. "If the _e_ was dropped, _c_ and _g_ would assume their hard sounds."--_Buchanan's Syntax_, p. 10. "He would no more comprehend it, than if it was the speech of a Hottentot."--_Neef's Sketch_, p. 112. "If thou knewest the gift of God," &c.--_John_, iv, 10. "I wish I was at home."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 260. "Fact alone does not constitute right; if it does, general warrants were lawful."--_Junius_, Let. xliv, p. 205. "Thou look'st upon thy boy as though thou guessest it."--_Putnam's Analytical Reader_, p. 202. "Thou look'st upon thy boy as though thou guessedst it."--_Cobb's N. A. Reader_, p. 320. "He fought as if he had contended for life."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 92. "He fought as if he had been contending for his life."--_Ib._, 92. "The dewdrop glistens on thy leaf, As if thou seem'st to shed a tear; As if thou knew'st my tale of grief, Felt all my sufferings severe."--_Alex. Letham_. _Last Clause of Note IX.--For the Indicative Mood._ "If he know the way, he does not need a guide."--_Brown's Institutes_, p. 191. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the verb _know_, which is used to express a conditional circumstance assumed as a fact, is in the subjunctive mood. But, according to the last clause of Note 9th to Rule 14th, "A conditional circumstance assumed as a fact, requires the indicative mood." Therefore, _know_ should be _knows_; thus, "If he _knows_ the way, he does not need a guide."] "And if there be no difference, one of them must be superfluous, and ought to be rejected."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 149. "I cannot say that I admire this construction, though it be much used."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 172. "We are disappointed, if the verb do not immediately follow it."--_Ib._, p. 177. "If it were they who acted so ungratefully, they are doubly in fault."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 223. "If art become apparent, it disgusts the reader."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 80. "Though perspicuity be more properly a rhetorical than a grammatical quality, I thought it better to include it in this book."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 238. "Although the efficient cause be obscure, the final cause of those sensations lies open."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 29. "Although the barrenness of language, and the want of words be doubtless one cause of the invention of tropes."--_Ib._, p. 135. "Though it enforce not its instructions, yet it furnishes us with a greater variety."--_Ib._, p. 353. "In other cases, though the idea be one, the words remain quite separate"--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 140. "Though the Form of our language be more simple, and has that peculiar Beauty."--_Buchanan's Syntax_, p. v. "Human works are of no significancy till they be completed."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 245. "Our disgust lessens gradually till it vanish altogether."--_Ib._, i, 338. "And our relish improves by use, till it arrive at perfection."--_Ib._, i, 338. "So long as he keep himself in his own proper element."--COKE: _ib._, i, 233. "Whether this translation were ever published or not I am wholly ignorant."--_Sale's Koran_, i, 13. "It is false to affirm, 'As it is day, it is light,' unless it actually be day."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 246. "But we may at midnight affirm, 'If it be day, it is light.'"--_Ibid._ "If the Bible be true, it is a volume of unspeakable interest."--_Dickinson_. "Though he were a son, yet learned he obedience by the things which he suffered."--_Heb._, v, 8. "If David then call him Lord, how is he his son?"--_Matt._, xxii, 45. "'Tis hard to say, if greater want of skill Appear in writing or in judging ill."--_Pope, Ess. on Crit._ UNDER NOTE X.--FALSE SUBJUNCTIVES. "If a man have built a house, the house is his."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 286. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the verb _have built_, which extends the subjunctive mood into the perfect tense, has the appearance of disagreeing with its nominative _man_. But, according to Note 10th to Rule 14th, "Every such use or extension of the subjunctive mood, as the reader will be likely to mistake for a discord between the verb and its nominative, ought to be avoided as an impropriety." Therefore, _have built_ should be _has built_; thus, "If a man _has built_ a house, the house is his."] "If God have required them of him, as is the fact, he has time."--_Ib._, p. 351. "Unless a previous understanding to the contrary have been had with the Principal."--_Berrian's Circular_, p. 5. "O if thou have Hid them in some flowery cave."--_Milton's Comus_, l. 239. "O if Jove's will Have linked that amorous power to thy soft lay."--_Milton, Sonnet_ 1. "SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD: If thou love, If thou loved, If thou have loved, If thou had loved, If thou shall or will love, If thou shall or will have loved."--_L. Murray's Gram._, 2d Ed., p. 71; _Cooper's Murray_, 58; _D. Adams's Gram._, 48; and others. "Till religion, the pilot of the soul, have lent thee her unfathomable coil."--_Tupper's Thoughts_, p. 170. "Whether nature or art contribute most to form an orator, is a trifling inquiry."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 338. "Year after year steals something from us; till the decaying fabric totter of itself, and crumble at length into dust."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 225. "If spiritual pride have not entirely vanquished humility."--_West's Letters_, p. 184. "Whether he have gored a son, or have gored a daughter."--_Exodus_, xxi, 31. "It is doubtful whether the object introduced by way of simile, relate to what goes before, or to what follows."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 45. "And bridle in thy headlong wave, Till thou our summons answer'd have."--_Milt., Comus_, l. 887. RULE XV.--FINITE VERBS. When the nominative is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the Verb must agree with it in the plural number: as, "The _council were divided_."--"The _college_ of cardinals _are_ the electors of the pope."--_Murray's Key_, p. 176. "Quintus Curtius relates, that a _number_ of them _were drowned_ in the river Lycus."--_Home's Art of Thinking_, p. 125. "Yon _host come_ learn'd in academic rules." --_Rowe's Lucan_, vii, 401. "While heaven's high _host_ on hallelujahs _live_." --_Young's N. Th._, iv, 378. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XV. OBS. 1.--To this rule there are _no exceptions_; because, the collective noun being a name which even in the singular number "signifies _many_," the verb which agrees with it, can never properly be singular, unless the collection be taken literally as one aggregate, and not as "conveying the idea of plurality." Thus, the collective noun singular being in general susceptible of two senses, and consequently admitting two modes of concord, the form of the verb, whether singular or plural, becomes the principal index to the particular sense in which the nominative is taken. After such a noun, we can use either a singular verb, agreeing with it literally, strictly, formally, according to Rule 14th; as, "The whole _number_ WAS two thousand and six hundred;" or a plural one, agreeing with it figuratively, virtually, ideally, according to Rule 15th; as, "The whole _number_ WERE two thousand and six hundred."--_2 Chron._, xxvi, 12. So, when the collective noun is an antecedent, the relative having in itself no distinction of the numbers, its verb becomes the index to the sense of all three; as, "Wherefore lift up thy prayer for the _remnant that_ IS _left._"--_Isaiah_, xxxvii, 4. "Wherefore lift up thy prayer for the _remnant that_ ARE _left_."--_2 Kings_, xix, 4. Ordinarily the word _remnant_ conveys no idea of plurality; but, it being here applied to persons, and having a meaning to which the mere singular neuter noun is not well adapted, the latter construction is preferable to the former. The Greek version varies more in the two places here cited; being plural in Isaiah, and singular in Kings. The Latin Vulgate, in both, is, "_pro reliquiis quæ repertæ sunt_:" i.e., "for the _remains_, or _remnants_, that are found." OBS. 2.--Dr. Adam's rule is this: "A collective noun may be joined with a verb either of the singular or of the plural number; as, _Multitudo stat_, or _stant_; the multitude stands, or stand."--_Latin and English Gram._ To this doctrine, Lowth, Murray, and others, add: "Yet not without regard to the _import of the word_, as conveying _unity or plurality of idea_."--_Lowth_, p. 74; _Murray_, 152. If these latter authors mean, that collective nouns are permanently divided in import, so that some are invariably determined to the idea of unity, and others to that of plurality, they are wrong in principle; for, as Dr. Adam remarks, "A collective noun, when joined with a verb singular, expresses many considered as one whole; but when joined with a verb plural, it signifies many separately, or as individuals."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 154. And if this alone is what their addition means, it is entirely useless; and so, for all the purposes of parsing, is the singular half of the rule itself. Kirkham divides this rule into two, one for "unity of idea," and the other for "plurality of idea," shows how each is to be applied in parsing, according to his "_systematick order_;" and then, turning round with a gallant tilt at his own work, condemns both, as idle fabrications, which it were better to reject than to retain; alleging that, "The existence of such a thing as 'unity or plurality of idea,' as applicable to nouns of this class, is _doubtful_."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 59.[394] How then shall a plural verb or pronoun, after a collective noun, be parsed, seeing it does not agree with the noun by the ordinary rule of agreement? Will any one say, that every such construction is _bad English_? If this cannot be maintained, rules eleventh and fifteenth of this series are necessary. But when the noun conveys the idea of unity or takes the plural form, the verb or pronoun has no other than a literal agreement by the common rule; as, "A _priesthood_, such _as_ Baal's _was_ of old, A _people_, such _as_ never _was_ till now."--_Cowper_. OBS. 3.--Of the construction of the verb and collective noun, a late British author gives the following account: "Collective nouns are substantives _which_ signify _many in the singular number_. Collective nouns are of two sorts: 1. Those which cannot become plural like other substantives; as, nobility, mankind, &c. 2. Those which can be made plural by the usual rules for a substantive; as, 'A multitude, multitudes; a crowd, crowds;' &c. Substantives which imply plurality in the singular number, and consequently have no other plural, generally require a plural verb. They are cattle, cavalry, clergy, commonalty, gentry, laity, mankind, nobility, peasantry people, populace, public, rabble, &c. [;] as, 'The public _are_ informed.' Collective nouns which form a regular plural, such as, number, numbers; multitude, multitudes; have, like all other substantives, a singular verb, when they are in the singular number; and a plural verb, when they are in the plural number; as, 'A number of people _is_ assembled; Numbers _are_ assembled.'--'The fleet _was_ dispersed; a _part_ of it _was_ injured; the several _parts are_ now collected.'"-- _Nixon's Parser_, p. 120. To this, his main text, the author appends a note, from which the following passages are extracted: "There are few persons acquainted with Grammar, who may not have noticed, in many authors as well as speakers, an irregularity in supposing collective nouns to have, at one time, a singular meaning, and consequently to require a singular verb; and, at an other time, to have a plural meaning, and therefore to require a plural verb. This irregularity appears to have arisen from the want of a clear idea of the nature of a collective noun. This defect the author has endeavoured to supply; and, upon his definition, he has founded the two rules above. It is allowed on all sides that, hitherto, no satisfactory rules have been produced to enable the pupil to ascertain, with any degree of certainty, when a collective noun should have a singular verb, and when a plural one. A rule that simply tells its examiner, that when a collective noun in the nominative case conveys the idea of unity, its verb should be singular; and when it implies plurality, its verb should be plural, is of very little value; for such a rule will prove the _pupil's being in the right_, whether he _should_ put the verb in the singular or the plural."--_Ibid._ OBS. 4.--The foregoing explanation has many faults; and whoever trusts to it, or to any thing like it, will certainly be very much misled. In the first place, it is remarkable that an author who could suspect in others "the _want of a clear idea_ of the nature of a collective noun," should have hoped to supply the defect by a definition so ambiguous and ill-written as is the one above. Secondly, his subdivision of this class of nouns into two sorts, is both baseless and nugatory; for that plurality which has reference to the individuals of an assemblage, has no manner of connexion or affinity with that which refers to more than one such aggregate; nor is there any interference of the one with the other, or any ground at all for supposing that the absence of the latter is, has been, or ought to be, the occasion for adopting the former. Hence, thirdly, his two rules, (though, so far as they go, they seem not untrue in themselves,) by their limitation under this false division, exclude and deny the true construction of the verb with the greater part of our collective nouns. For, fourthly, the first of these rules rashly presumes that any collective noun which in the singular number implies a plurality of individuals, is consequently destitute of any other plural; and the second accordingly supposes that no such nouns as, council, committee, jury, meeting, society, assembly, court, college, company, army, host, band, retinue, train, multitude, number, part, half, portion, majority, minority, remainder, set, sort, kind, class, nation, tribe, family, race, and a hundred more, can ever be properly used with a plural verb, except when they assume the plural form. To prove the falsity of this supposition, is needless. And, finally, the objection which this author advances against the common rules, is very far from proving them useless, or not greatly preferable to his own. If they do not in every instance enable the student to ascertain with certainty which form of concord he ought to prefer, it is only because no rules can possibly tell a man precisely when he ought to entertain the idea of unity, and when that of plurality. In some instances, these ideas are unavoidably mixed or associated, so that it is of little or no consequence which form of the verb we prefer; as, "Behold, the _people_ IS _one_, and _they have all_ one language."--_Gen._, xi, 6. "Well, if a king's a lion, at the least The _people_ ARE a many-headed _beast_."--_Pope_, Epist. i, l. 120. OBS. 5.--Lindley Murray says, "On many occasions, _where_ a noun of multitude is used, it is very difficult to decide, whether the verb should be in the singular, or in the plural number; and this difficulty has induced some grammarians to cut the knot at once, and to assert that every noun of multitude must always be considered as conveying the idea of unity."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 153. What these occasions, or who these grammarians, are, I know not; but it is certain that the difficulty here imagined does not concern the application of such rules as require the verb and pronoun to conform to the sense intended; and, where there is no apparent impropriety in adopting either number, there is no occasion to raise a scruple as to which is right. To cut knots by dogmatism, and to tie them by sophistry, are employments equally vain. It cannot be denied that there are in every multitude both a unity and a plurality, one or the other of which must be preferred as the principle of concord for the verb or the pronoun, or for both. Nor is the number of nouns small, or their use unfrequent, which, according to our best authors, admit of either construction: though Kirkham assails and repudiates _his own rules_, because, "Their application is quite limited."--_Grammar in Familiar Lectures_, p. 59. OBS. 6.--Murray's doctrine seems to be, not that collective nouns are generally susceptible of two senses in respect to number, but that some naturally convey the idea of unity, others, that of plurality, and a few, either of these senses. The last, which are probably ten times more numerous than all the rest, he somehow merges or forgets, so as to speak of _two classes_ only: saying, "Some nouns of multitude certainly convey to the mind an idea of plurality, others, that of a whole as one thing, and others again, sometimes that of unity, and sometimes that of plurality. On this ground, it is warrantable, and consistent with the nature of things, to apply a plural verb and pronoun _to the one class_, and a singular verb and pronoun _to the other_. We shall immediately perceive the _impropriety_ of the following constructions: 'The clergy _has_ withdrawn _itself_ from the temporal courts;' 'The assembly _was_ divided in _its_ opinion;' &c."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 153. The simple fact is, that _clergy, assembly_, and perhaps every other collective noun, may sometimes convey the idea of unity, and sometimes that of plurality; but an "_opinion_" or a voluntary "_withdrawing_" is a _personal_ act or quality; _wherefore_ it is here more consistent to adopt the plural sense and construction, in which alone we take the collection as individuals, or persons. OBS. 7.--Although a uniformity of number is generally preferable to diversity, in the construction of words that refer to the same collective noun: and although many grammarians deny that any departure from such uniformity is allowable; yet, if the singular be put first, a plural pronoun may sometimes follow without obvious impropriety: as, "So Judah _was_ carried away out of _their_ land."--_2 Kings_, xxv, 21. "Israel is reproved and threatened for _their_ impiety and idolatry."--_Friends' Bible, Hosea_, x. "There _is_ the enemy _who wait_ to give us battle."--_Murray's Introductory Reader_, p. 36. When the idea of plurality predominates in the author's mind, a plural verb is sometimes used _before_ a collective noun that has the singular article _an_ or _a_; as, "There _are a sort_ of authors, _who seem_ to take up with appearances."-- _Addison_. "Here _are a number_ of facts or incidents leading to the end in view."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 296. "There _are a great number_ of exceedingly good writers among the French."--_Maunder's Gram._, p. 11. "There in the forum _swarm a numerous train_, The subject of debate a townsman slain." --_Pope, Iliad_, B. xviii, l. 578. OBS. 8.--Collective nouns, when they are merely _partitive_ of the plural, like the words _sort_ and _number_ above, are usually connected with a plural verb, even though they have a singular definitive; as, "And _this sort of_ adverbs commonly _admit_ of Comparison."--_Buchanan's English Syntax_, p. 64. Here, perhaps, it would be better to say, "_Adverbs of this sort_ commonly admit of comparison." "_A part_ of the exports _consist_ of raw silk."--_Webster's Improved Gram._, p. 100. This construction is censured by Murray, in his octavo Gram., p. 148; where we are told, that the verb should agree with the first noun only. Dr. Webster alludes to this circumstance, in _improving_ his grammar, and admits that, "A part of the exports _consists_, seems to be more correct."--_Improved Gram._, p. 100. Yet he retains his original text, and obviously thinks it a light thing, that, "in some cases," his rules or examples "may not be vindicable." (See Obs. 14th, 15th, and 16th, on Rule 14th, of this code.) It would, I think, be better to say, "The exports consist _partly_ of raw silk." Again: "_A multitude_ of Latin words _have_, of late, been poured in upon us."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 94. Better, perhaps: "_Latin words, in great multitude_, have, of late, been poured in upon us." So: "For _the bulk_ of _writers_ are very apt to confound them with each other."--_Ib._, p. 97. Better: "For _most writers_ are very apt to confound them with each other." In the following example, (here cited as _Kames_ has it, _El. of Crit._, ii, 247,) either the verb _is_, or the phrase, "_There are some moveless men_" might as well have been used: "There _are a sort_ of men, whose visages Do cream and mantle like a standing pond."--_Shak._ OBS. 9.--Collections of _things_ are much less frequently and less properly regarded as individuals, or under the idea of plurality, than collections of _persons_. This distinction may account for the difference of construction in the two clauses of the following example; though I rather doubt whether a plural verb ought to be used in the former: "The _number_ of commissioned _officers_ in the guards _are_ to the marching regiments as one to eleven: the _number_ of _regiments_ given to the guards, compared with those given to the line, _is_ about three to one."--_Junius_, p. 147. Whenever the multitude is spoken of with reference to a personal act or quality, the verb ought, as I before suggested, to be in the plural number; as, "The public _are informed_."--"The plaintiff's counsel _have assumed_ a difficult task."--"The committee _were instructed_ to prepare a remonstrance." "The English nation _declare_ they are grossly injured by _their_ representatives."--_Junius_, p. 147. "One particular class of men _are_ permitted to call _themselves_ the King's friends."--_Id._, p. 176. "The Ministry _have_ realized the compendious ideas of Caligula."--_Id._, p. 177. It is in accordance with this principle, that the following sentences have plural verbs and pronouns, though their definitives are singular, and perhaps ought to be singular: "So depraved _were that people_ whom in their history we so much admire."--HUME: _M'Ilvaine's Lect._, p. 400. "Oh, _this people have sinned_ a great sin, and have made them gods of gold."--_Exodus_, xxxii, 31. "_This people_ thus gathered _have_ not wanted those trials."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 460. The following examples, among others, are censured by Priestley, Murray, and the copyists of the latter, without sufficient discrimination, and for a reason which I think fallacious; namely, "because the ideas they represent seem not to be sufficiently divided in the mind:"--"The court of Rome _were_ not without solicitude."--_Hume_. "The house of Lords _were_ so much influenced by these reasons."--_Id._ See _Priestley's Gram._, p. 188; _Murray's_, 152; _R. C. Smith's_, 129; _Ingersoll's_, 248; and others. OBS. 10.--In general, a collective noun, unless it be made plural in form, no more admits a plural adjective before it, than any other singular noun. Hence the impropriety of putting _these_ or _those_ before _kind_ or _sort_; as, "_These kind_ of knaves I know."--_Shakspeare_. Hence, too, I infer that _cattle_ is not a collective noun, as Nixon would have it to be, but an irregular plural which has no singular; because we can say _these cattle_ or _those cattle_, but neither a bullock nor a herd is ever called _a cattle, this cattle_, or _that cattle_. And if "_cavalry, clergy, commonalty_," &c., were like this word, they would all be plurals also, and not "substantives which imply plurality in the singular number, and consequently have no other plural." Whence it appears, that the writer who most broadly charges others with not understanding the nature of a collective noun, has most of all misconceived it himself. If there are not _many clergies_, it is because _the clergy_ is one body, with one Head, and not because it is in a particular sense many. And, since the forms of words are not necessarily confined to things that exist, who shall say that the plural word _clergies_, as I have just used it, is not good English? OBS. 11.--If we say, "_these people_," "_these gentry_," "_these folk_," we make _people, gentry_, and _folk_, not only irregular plurals, but plurals to which there are no correspondent singulars; but by these phrases, we must mean certain individuals, and not more than one people, gentry, or folk. But these names are sometimes collective nouns singular; and, as such, they may have verbs of either number, according to the sense; and may also form regular plurals, as _peoples_, and _folks_; though we seldom, if ever, speak of _gentries_; and _folks_ is now often irregularly applied to persons, as if one person were _a folk_. So _troops_ is sometimes irregularly, if not improperly, put for _soldiers_, as if a soldier were _a troop_; as, "While those gallant _troops_, by _whom_ every hazardous, every laborious service is performed, are left to perish."--_Junius_, p. 147. In Genesis, xxvii, 29th, we read, "Let _people_ serve thee, and nations bow down to thee." But, according to the Vulgate, it ought to be, "Let _peoples_ serve thee, and nations bow down to thee;" according to the Septuagint, "Let _nations_ serve thee, and _rulers_ bow down to thee." Among Murray's "instances of false syntax," we find the text, "This people draweth near to me with their mouth," &c.--_Octavo Gram._, Vol. ii, p. 49. This is corrected in his Key, thus: "_These_ people _draw_ near to me with their mouth."--_Ib._, ii, 185. The Bible has it: "This people _draw near me_ with their mouth."--_Isaiah_, xxix, 13. And again: "This people _draweth nigh unto_ me with their mouth.,"--_Matt._, xv, 8. Dr. Priestley thought it ought to be, "This people _draws_ nigh unto me with their _mouths_."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 63. The second evangelist omits some words: "This people _honoureth_ me with their lips, but _their heart_ is far from me."--_Mark_, vii, 6. In my opinion, the plural verb is here to be preferred; because the pronoun _their_ is plural, and the worship spoken of was a personal rather than a national act. Yet the adjective _this_ must be retained, if the text specify the Jews as a people. As to the words _mouth_ and _heart_, they are to be understood figuratively of _speech_ and _love_; and I agree not with Priestley, that the plural number must necessarily be used. See Note 4th to Rule 4th. OBS. 12.--In making an assertion concerning a number or quantity with some indefinite excess or allowance, we seem sometimes to take for the subject of the verb what is really the object of a preposition; as, "In a sermon, there _may be_ from three to five, or six heads."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 313. "In those of Germany, there _are_ from eight to twelve professors."-- _Dwight, Lit. Convention_, p. 138. "About a million and a half _was subscribed_ in a few days."--_N. Y. Daily Advertiser_. "About one hundred feet of the Muncy dam _has been swept off_."--_N. Y. Observer_. "Upwards of one hundred thousand dollars _have been appropriated_."--_Newspaper_. "But I fear there _are_ between twenty and thirty of them."--_Tooke's Diversions_, ii, 441. "Besides which, there _are_ upwards of fifty smaller islands."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 30. "On board of which _embarked_ upwards of three hundred passengers."--_Robertson's Amer._, ii, 419. The propriety of using _above_ or _upwards of_ for _more than_, is questionable, but the practice is not uncommon. When there is a preposition before what seems at first to be the subject of the verb, as in the foregoing instances, I imagine there is an ellipsis of the word _number, amount, sum_ or _quantity_; the first of which words is a collective noun and may have a verb either singular or plural: as, "In a sermon, there may be _any number_ from three to five or six heads." This is awkward, to be sure; but what does the Doctor's sentence _mean_, unless it is, that there _may be an optional number_ of heads, varying from three to six? OBS. 13.--Dr. Webster says, "When an aggregate amount is expressed by the plural names of the particulars composing that amount, the verb may be in the singular number; as, 'There _was_ more than a hundred and fifty thousand pounds sterling.' _Mavor's Voyages_." To this he adds, "However repugnant to the principles of grammar this may seem at first view, the practice is correct; for the affirmation is not made of the individual parts or divisions named, the _pounds_, but of the entire sum or amount."--_Philosophical Gram._, p. 146; _Improved Gram._, p. 100. The fact is, that the Doctor here, as in some other instances, deduces a false rule from a correct usage. It is plain that either the word _more_, taken substantively, or the noun to which it relates as an adjective, is the only nominative to the verb _was_. Mavor does not affirm that there _were_ a hundred and fitly thousand pounds; but that there _was more_--i.e., more _money_ than so many pounds _are_, or _amount to_. Oliver B. Peirce, too. falls into a multitude of strange errors respecting the nature of _more than_, and the construction of other words that accompany these. See his "Analytical Rules," and the manner in which he applies them, in "_The Grammar_," p. 195 _et seq._ OBS. 14.--Among certain educationists,--grammarians, arithmeticians, schoolmasters, and others,--there has been of late not a little dispute concerning the syntax of the phraseology which we use, or should use, in expressing _multiplication_, or in speaking of _abstract numbers_. For example: is it better to say, "Twice one _is_ two," or, "Twice one _are_ two?"--"Two times one _is_ two," or, "Two times one _are_ two?"--"Twice two _is_ four," or, "Twice two _are_ four?"--"Thrice one _is_ or _are_, three?"--"Three times one _is_, or _are_, three?"--"Three times naught _is_, or _are_, naught?"--"Thrice three _is_, or _are_, nine?"--"Three times four _is_, or _are_, twelve?"--"Seven times three _make_, or _makes_, twenty-one?"--"Three times his age _do_ not, or _does_ not, equal mine?"--"Three times the quantity _is_ not, or _are_ not, sufficient?"--"Three quarters of the men were discharged; and three quarters of the money _was_, or _were_, sent back?"--"As 2 _is_ to 4, so _is_ 6 to 12;" or, "As two _are_ to four, so _are_ six to twelve?" OBS. 15.--Most of the foregoing expressions, though all are perhaps intelligible enough in common practice, are, in some respect, difficult of analysis, or grammatical resolution. I think it possible, however, to frame an argument of some plausibility in favour of every one of them. Yet it is hardly to be supposed, that any _teacher_ will judge them all to be alike justifiable, or feel no interest in the questions which have been raised about them. That the language of arithmetic is often defective or questionable in respect to grammar, may be seen not only in many an ill choice between the foregoing variant and contrasted modes of expression, but in sundry other examples, of a somewhat similar character, for which it may be less easy to find advocates and published arguments. What critic will not judge the following phraseology to be faulty? "4 times two units _is_ 8 units, and 4 times 5 tens _is_ twenty tens."--_Chase's Common School Arithmetic_, 1848, p. 42. Or this? "1 time 1 is l. 2 times 1 are 2; 1 time 4 is 4, 2 times 4 are 8."--_Ray's Arithmetic_, 1853. Or this? "8 and 7 _is_ 15, 9's out leaves 6; 3 and 8 _is_ 11, 9's out leaves 2."--_Babcock's Practical Arithmetic_, 1829, p. 22. Or this again? "3 times 3 _is_ 9, and 2 we had to carry _is_ 11."--_Ib._, p. 20. OBS. 16.--There are several different opinions as to what constitutes the grammatical subject of the verb in any ordinary English expression of multiplication. Besides this, we have some variety in the phraseology which precedes the verb; so that it is by no means certain, either that the multiplying terms are always of the same part of speech, or that the true nominative to the verb is not essentially different in different examples. Some absurdly teach, that an abstract number is necessarily expressed by "_a singular noun_," with only a singular meaning; that such a number, when multiplied, is always, of itself the subject of the assertion; and, consequently, that the verb must be singular, as agreeing only with this "singular noun." Others, not knowing how to parse separately the multiplying word or words and the number multiplied, take them both or all together as "the grammatical subject" with which the verb must agree. But, among these latter expounders, there are two opposite opinions on the very essential point, whether this "_entire expression_" requires a singular verb or a plural one:--as, whether we ought to say, "Twice one _is_ two," or, "Twice one _are_ two;"--"Twice two _is_ four," or, "Twice two _are_ four;"--"Three times one _is_ three," or, "Three times one _are_ three;"--"Three times three _is_ nine," or, "Three times three _are_ nine." Others, again, according to Dr. Bullions, and possibly according to their own notion, find the grammatical subject, sometimes, if not generally, in the multiplying term only; as, perhaps, is the case with those who write or speak as follows: "If we say, 'Three times one _are_ three,' we make '_times_' the subject of the verb."--_Bullions, Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, 1849, p. 39. "Thus, 2 times 1 _are_ 2; 2 times 2 _are_ four; 2 times 3 _are_ 6."--_Chase's C. S. Arith._, p. 43. "Say, 2 times O _are_ O; 2 times 1 _are_ 2."--_Robinson's American Arith._, 1825, p. 24. OBS. 17.--Dr. Bullions, with a strange blunder of some sort in almost every sentence, propounds and defends his opinion on this subject thus: "Numeral _adjectives_, being _also names_ of numbers, are often used as nouns, and so have the inflection and construction of nouns: thus, by _twos_, by _tens_, by _fifties_. _Two_ is an even number. Twice _two_ is four. Four _is_ equal to twice two. In some arithmetics the language employed in the operation of multiplying--such as 'Twice two _are_ four, twice three _are_ six'--is incorrect. It should be, 'Twice two _is_ four,' &c.; for the word _two_ is used as a singular noun--the name of a number. The adverb '_twice_' is _not in construction with it_, and consequently does not make it plural. The meaning is, 'The number two taken twice is equal to four.' For the same reason we should say, 'Three times _two_ is six,' because the meaning is, 'Two taken three times _is_ six.' If we say, 'Three times one _are_ three,' we make '_times_' the subject of the verb, whereas the subject of the verb really is '_one_,' and '_times_' is in the _objective of number_ (§828). 2:4:: 6:12, should be read, 'As 2 _is_ to 4, so _is_ 6 to 12;' not 'As two _are_ to four, so _are_ six to twelve.' But when numerals denoting more than one, are used as adjectives, with a substantive expressed or understood, they must have a plural construction."--_Bullions, Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, 1849, p. 39. OBS. 18.--Since nouns and adjectives are different parts of speech, the suggestion, that, "Numeral _adjectives_ are _also names_, or _nouns_," is, upon the very face of it, a flat absurdity; and the notion that "the name of a number" above unity, conveys only and always the idea of unity, like an ordinary "singular noun," is an other. A number in arithmetic is most commonly an _adjective_ in grammar; and it is always, in form, an expression that tells _how many_, or--"denotes _how many things_ are spoken of."--_Chase_, p. 11. But the _name_ of a number is also a number, whenever it is _not made plural_ in form. Thus _four_ is a number, but _fours_ is not; so _ten_ is a number, but _tens_ is not. Arithmetical numbers, which run on to infinity, severally _consist_ of a _definite idea of how many_; each is a _precise count_ by the unit; _one_ being the beginning of the series, and the measure of every successive step. Grammatical numbers are only the verbal forms which distinguish one thing from more of the same sort. Thus the word _fours_ or _tens_, unless some arithmetical number be prefixed to it, signifies nothing but a mere plurality which repeats indefinitely the collective idea of _four_ or _ten_. OBS. 19.--All actual _names_ of numbers calculative, except _one_, (for _naught_, though it fills a place among numbers, is, in itself, a mere negation of number; and such terms as _oneness, unity, duality_, are not used in calculation,) are _collective nouns_--a circumstance which seems to make the discussion of the present topic appropriate to the location which is here given it under Rule 15th. Each of them denotes a particular aggregate _of units_. And if each, as signifying one whole, may convey the idea of unity, and take a singular verb; each, again, as denoting so many units, may quite as naturally take a plural verb, and be made to convey the idea of plurality. For the mere abstractness of numbers, or their separation from all "_particular objects_," by no means obliges us to limit them always to the construction with verbs singular. If it is right to say, "Two _is_ an even number;" it is certainly no error to say, "Two _are_ an even number." If it is allowable to say, "As 2 _is_ to 4, so _is_ 6 to 12;" it is as well, if not better, to say, "As two _are_ to four, so _are_ six to twelve." If it is correct to say, "Four _is_ equal to twice two;" it is quite as grammatical to say, "Four _are_ equal to twice two." Bullions bids say, "Twice two _is_ four," and, "Three times two _is_ six;" but I very much prefer to say, "Twice two _are_ four," and, "Three times two _are_ six." The Doctor's reasoning, whereby he condemns the latter phraseology, is founded only upon false assumptions. This I expect to show; and more--that the word which he prefers, is wrong. OBS. 20.--As to what constitutes the subject of the verb in multiplication, I have already noticed _three different opinions_. There are yet three or four more, which must not be overlooked in a general examination of this grammatical dispute. Dr. Bullions's notion on this point, is stated with so little consistency, that one can hardly say what it is. At first, he seems to find his nominative in the multiplicand, "used as a singular noun;" but, when he ponders a little on the text, "_Twice two is four_," he finds the leading term not to be the word "_two_," but the word "_number_," understood. He resolves, indeed, that no one of the four words used, "is in construction with" any of the rest; for he thinks, "The meaning is, '_The number_ two _taken_ twice is _equal to_ four.'" Here, then, is a _fourth opinion_ in relation to the subject of the verb: it must be "_number_" understood. Again, it is conceded by the same hand, that, "When numerals denoting more than one, are used as adjectives, with a substantive expressed or understood, they must have a plural construction." Now who can show that this is not the case in general with the numerals of multiplication? To explain the syntax of "_Twice two are four_," what can be more rational than to say, "The sense is, 'Twice two _units_, or _things_, are four?'" Is it not plain, that twice two things, of any sort, are four things of that same sort, and only so? Twice two duads are how many? Answer: _Four duads_, or _eight units_. Here, then, is a _fifth opinion_,--and a very fair one too,--according to which we have for the subject of the verb, not "_two_" nor "_twice_" nor "_twice two_," nor "_number_," understood before "_two_," but the plural noun "_units_" or "_things"_ implied in or after the multiplicand. OBS. 21.--It is a doctrine taught by sundry grammarians, and to some extent true, that a neuter verb between two nominatives "may agree with either of them." (See Note 5th to Rule 14th, and the footnote.) When, therefore, a person who knows this, meets with such examples as, "Twice one _are_ two;"--"Twice one unit _are_ two units;"--"Thrice one _are_ three;"--he will of course be apt to refer the verb to the nominative which follows it, rather than to that which precedes it; taking the meaning to be, "_Two are_ twice one;"--"_Two units are_ twice one unit;"--"_Three are_ thrice one." Now, if such is the sense, the construction in each of these instances is right, because it accords with such sense; the interpretation is right also, because it is the only one adapted to such a construction; and we have, concerning the subject of the verb, a _sixth opinion_,--a very proper one too,--that it is found, not where it is most natural to look for it, in the expression of the _factors_, but in a noun which is either uttered or implied in the _product_. But, no doubt, it is better to avoid this construction, by using such a verb as may be said to agree with the number multiplied. Again, and lastly, there may be, touching all such cases as, "Twice _one are_ two," a _seventh opinion_, that the subject of the verb is the product taken _substantively_, and not as a numeral _adjective_. This idea, or the more comprehensive one, that all abstract numbers are nouns substantive, settles nothing concerning the main question, What form of the verb is required by an abstract number above unity? If the number be supposed an adjective, referring to the implied term _units_, or _things_, the verb must of course be plural; but if it be called a _collective noun_, the verb only follows and fixes "the idea of plurality," or "the idea of unity," as the writer or speaker chooses to adopt the one or the other. OBS. 22.--It is marvellous, that four or five monosyllables, uttered together in a common simple sentence, could give rise to all this diversity of opinion concerning the subject of the verb; but, after all, the chief difficulty presented by the phraseology of multiplication, is that of ascertaining, not "the grammatical subject of the verb," but the grammatical relation between the multiplier and the multiplicand--the true way of parsing the terms _once, twice, three times_, &c., but especially the word _times_. That there must be some such relation, is obvious; but what is it? and how is it to be known? To most persons, undoubtedly, "_Twice two_," and, "_Three times two_," seem to be _regular phrases_, in which the words cannot lack syntactical connexion; yet Dr. Bullions, who is great authority with some thinkers, denies all immediate or direct relation between the word "_two_," and the term before it, preferring to parse both "_twice_" and "_three times_" as adjuncts to the participle "_taken_," understood. He says, "The adverb '_twice_' is not in construction with '_two_,' and consequently does not make it plural." His first assertion here is, in my opinion, untrue; and the second implies the very erroneous doctrine, that the word _twice_, if it relate to a singular term, _will "make it plural_." From a misconception like this, it probably is, that some who ought to be very accurate in speech, are afraid to say, "Twice one _is_ two," or, "Thrice one _is_ three," judging the singular verb to be wrong; and some there are who think, that "_usage_ will not permit" a careful scholar so to speak. Now, analysis favours the singular form here; and it is contrary to a plain principle of General Grammar, to suppose that a _plural_ verb can be demanded by any phrase which is made _collectively_ the subject of the assertion. (See Note 3d, and Obs. 13th, 14th, 15th, and 16th, under Rule 14th.) _Are_ is, therefore, _not required here_; and, if allowable, it is so only on the supposition that the leading nominative is put after it. OBS. 23.--In Blanchard's small Arithmetic, published in 1854, the following inculcations occur: "When we say, 3 times 4 trees are 12 trees, we have reference to the _objects_ counted; but in saying 3 times 4 _is_ twelve, we mean, that 3 times the _number_ 4, _is the number_ 12. Here we use 4 and 12, not as numeral _adjectives_, but as _nouns_, the _names_ of particular _numbers_, and as such, each conveys the idea of _unity_, and _the entire expression_ is the subject of _is_, and conveys the _idea of unity_."--P. iv. Here we have, with an additional error concerning "the entire expression," a repetition of Dr. Bullions's erroneous assumption, that the name of a particular number, as being "a singular noun," must "convey the idea of unity," though the number itself be a distinct plurality. These men talk as if there were an absurdity in affirming that "the number 4" is _plural_! But, if _four_ be taken as only one thing, how can _three_ multiply this one thing into _twelve_? It is by no means proper to affirm, that, "_Every_ four, taken three times, _is_, or _are_, twelve;" for three instances, or "_times_," of the _figure_ 4, or of the _word four_, are only three 4's, or three verbal _fours_. And is it not _because_ "_the number_ 4" _is plural--is in itself four units_--and because the word _four_, or the figure 4, conveys explicitly the _idea of this plurality_, that the multiplication table is true, where it says, "3 times 4 _are_ 12?" It is not right to say, "Three times one quaternion is twelve;" nor is it quite unobjectionable to say, with Blanchard "3 _times the number_ 4, _is the number_ 12." Besides, this pretended interpretation explains nothing. The syntax of the shorter text, "3 times 4 _is_ 12," is in no way justified or illustrated by it. Who does not perceive that _the four_ here spoken of must be four _units_, or four _things_ of some sort; and that no _such_ "four," multiplied by 3, or _till_ "3 _times_," can "convey the idea of unity," or match a singular verb? Dr. Webster did not so conceive of this "abstract number," or of "the entire expression" in which it is multiplied; for he says, "Four times four _amount_ to sixteen."--_American Dict., w. Time._ OBS. 24.--In fact no phrase of multiplication is of such a nature that it can, with any plausibility be reckoned a composite subject of the verb. _Once, twice_, and _thrice_, are adverbs; and each of them may, in general, be parsed as relating directly to the multiplicand. Their construction, as well as that of the plural verb, is agreeable to the Latin norm; as, when Cicero says of somebody, "Si, _bis bina_ quot _essent_, didicisset,"--"If he had learned how many _twice two are_."--See _Ainsworth's Dict., w. Binus._ The phrases, "_one time_," for _once_, and "_two times_" for _twice_, seem puerile expressions: they are not often used by competent teachers. _Thrice_ is a good word, but more elegant than popular. Above _twice_, we use the phrases, _three times, four times_, and the like, which are severally composed of a numeral adjective and the noun _times_. If these words were united, as some think they ought to be, the compounds would be _adverbs_ of _time repeated_; as, _threetimes, fourtimes_, &c., analogous to _sometimes_. Each word would answer, as each phrase now does, to the question, _How often?_ These expressions are taken by some as having a direct adverbial relation to the terms which they qualify; but they are perhaps most commonly explained as being dependent on some preposition understood. See Obs. 1st on Rule 5th, and Obs. 6th on Rule 7th. OBS. 25.--In multiplying one only, it is evidently best to use a singular verb: as, "Twice _naught_ is naught;"--"Three times _one is_ three." And, in multiplying any number above _one_, I judge a plural verb to be necessary: as, "Twice _two are_ four;"--"Three times _two are six_;" because this number must be just _so many_ in order to give the product. Dr. Bullions says, "We should say, 'Three times two _is_ six,' because the meaning is, 'Two _taken_ three times _is_ six.'" This is neither reasoning, nor explanation, nor good grammar. The relation between "_two_" and "_three_," or the syntax of the word "_times_," or the propriety of the _singular verb_, is no more apparent in the latter expression than in the former. It would be better logic to affirm, "We should say, 'Three times two _are_ six;' because the meaning is, 'Two (_units_), taken _for, to_, or _till_ three times, are six.'" The preposition _till_, or _until_, is sometimes found in use before an expression of _times numbered_; as, "How oft shall I forgive? _till_ seven times? I say not unto thee, _Until_ seven times; but, _Until_ seventy times seven."--_Matt._, xviii, 21. But here is still a difficulty with repect to the _multiplying_ term, or the word "_times_." For, unless, by an unallowable ellipsis, "_seventy times seven_," is presumed to mean, "seventy times _of_ seven," the preposition _Until_ must govern, not this noun "_times._" expressed, but an other, understood after "_seven_;" and the meaning must be, "Thou shalt forgive him until _seventy-times_ seven times;" or--"until seven _times taken for, to_, or _till_, seventy times." OBS. 26.--With too little regard to consistency. Dr. Bullions suggests that when "we make '_times_' the subject of the verb," it is not "really" such, but "is in _the objective of number_." He is, doubtless, right in preferring to parse this word as an objective case, rather than as a nominative, in the construction to which he alludes; but to call it an "objective of _number_," is an uncouth error, a very strange mistake for so great a grammarian to utter: there being in grammar no such thing as "_the objective of number_:" nothing of the sort, even under his own "Special Rule," to which he refers us for it! And, if such a thing there were, so that a _number_ could be "_put in the objective case without a governing word_," (see his §828,) the plural word _times_, since it denotes no particular aggregate of units, could never be an example of it. It is true that _times_, like _days, weeks_, and other nouns of _time_, may be, and often is, in the objective case without a governing word _expressed_; and, in such instances, it may be called the objective of _repetition_, or of _time repeated_. But the construction of the word appears to be such as is common to many nouns of time, of value, or of measure; which, in their relation to other words, seem to resemble adverbs, but which are usually said to be governed by prepositions understood: as, "Three _days_ later;" i.e., "Later _by_ three days."--"Three _shillings_ cheaper;" i.e., "Cheaper _by_ three shillings."--"Seven _times_ hotter;" i.e., "Hotter _by_ seven times."--"Four _feet_ high;" i.e., "High _to_ four feet."--"Ten _years_ old;" i.e., "Old _to_ ten years."--"Five _times_ ten;" i.e., "Ten _by_ five times;" or, perhaps, "Ten _taken till_ five times." NOTE TO RULE XV. A collective noun conveying the idea of unity, requires a verb in the third person, singular; and generally admits also the regular plural construction: as, "His _army was_ defeated."--"His _armies were_ defeated." IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XV. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.--THE IDEA OF PLURALITY. "The gentry is punctilious in their etiquette." [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the verb _is_ is of the singular number, and does not correctly agree with its nominative _gentry_, which is a collective noun conveying rather the idea of plurality. But, according to Rule 15th, "When the nominative is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the verb must agree with it in the plural number." Therefore, _is_ should be _are_; thus, "The gentry _are_ punctilious in their etiquette."] "In France the peasantry goes barefoot, and the middle sort makes use of wooden shoes."--HARVEY: _Priestley's Gram._, p. 188. "The people rejoices in that which should cause sorrow."--See _Murray's Exercises_, p. 49. "My people is foolish, they have not known me."--_Jer._, iv, 22; _Lowth's Gram._, p. 75. "For the people speaks, but does not write."--_Philological Museum_, i, 646. "So that all the people that was in the camp, trembled."--_Exodus_, xix, 16. "No company likes to confess that they are ignorant."--_Student's Manual_, p. 217. "Far the greater part of their captives was anciently sacrificed."--_Robertson's America_, i, 339. "Above one half of them was cut off before the return of spring."--_Ib._, ii, 419. "The other class, termed Figures of Thought, supposes the words to be used in their proper and literal meaning."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 133; _Murray's Gram._, 337. "A multitude of words in their dialect approaches to the Teutonic form, and therefore afford excellent assistance."--_Dr. Murray's Hist of Lang._, i, 148. "A great majority of our authors is defective in manner."--_James Brown's Crit._ "The greater part of these new-coined words has been rejected."--_Tooke's Diversions_, ii, 445. "The greater part of the words it contains is subject to certain modifications and inflections."--_The Friend_, ii, 123. "While all our youth prefers her to the rest."--_Waller's Poems_, p. 17. "Mankind is appointed to live in a future state."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 57. "The greater part of human kind speaks and acts wholly by imitation."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 169. "The greatest part of human gratifications approaches so nearly to vice."--_Ibid._ "While still the busy world is treading o'er The paths they trod five thousand years before."--_Young._ UNDER THE NOTE.--THE IDEA OF UNITY. "In old English this species of words were numerous."--_Dr. Murray's Hist. of Lang._, ii, 6. "And a series of exercises in false grammar are introduced towards the end."--_Frost's El. of E. Gram._, p. iv. "And a jury, in conformity with the same idea, were anciently called _homagium_, the homage, or manhood."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 296. "With respect to the former, there are indeed plenty of means."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 319. "The number of school districts have increased since the last year."--_Governor Throop_, 1832. "The Yearly Meeting have purchased with its funds these publications."--_Foster's Reports_, i, 76. "Have the legislature power to prohibit assemblies?"--_Wm. Sullivan_. "So that the whole number of the streets were fifty."--_Rollin's Ancient Hist._, ii, 8. "The number of inhabitants were not more than four millions."--SMOLLETT: see _Priestley's Gram._, p. 193. "The House of Commons were of small weight."--HUME: _Ib._, p. 188. "The assembly of the wicked have enclosed me."--_Psal._ xxii, 16; _Lowth's Gram._, p. 75. "Every kind of convenience and comfort are provided."--_Com. School Journal_, i, 24. "Amidst the great decrease of the inhabitants of Spain, the body of the clergy have suffered no diminution; but has rather been gradually increasing."--_Payne's Geog._, ii, 418. "Small as the number of inhabitants are, yet their poverty is extreme."--_Ib._, ii, 417. "The number of the names were about one hundred and twenty."--_Ware's Gram._, p. 12; see _Acts_, i, 15. RULE XVI.--FINITE VERBS. When a Verb has two or more nominatives connected by _and_, it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together: as, "True rhetoric _and_ sound logic _are_ very nearly allied."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 11. "Aggression and injury in no case _justify_ retaliation."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 406. "Judges and senates _have been bought_ for gold, Esteem _and_ love _were_ never to be sold."--_Pope_. EXCEPTION FIRST. When two nominatives connected by _and_ serve merely to describe one person or thing, they are either in apposition or equivalent to one name, and do not require a plural verb; as, "Immediately _comes a hue and cry_ after a gang of thieves."--_L'Estrange_. "The _hue and cry_ of the country _pursues_ him."--_Junius_, Letter xxiii. "Flesh and blood [i. e. man, or man's nature,] _hath not revealed_ it unto thee."--_Matt._, xvi, 17." Descent and fall to us _is_ adverse."--_Milton, P. L._, ii, 76. "This _philosopher_ and _poet was banished_ from his country."--"Such a _Saviour_ and _Redeemer is_ actually _provided_ for us."--_Gurney's Essays_, p. 386. "Let us then declare what great things our _God and Saviour has done_ for us."--_Dr. Scott_, on Luke viii. "_Toll, tribute_, and _custom, was paid_ unto them."--_Ezra_, iv, 20. "Whose icy _current_ and compulsive _course_ Ne'er _feels_ retiring ebb, but _keeps_ due on."--_Shakspeare_. EXCEPTION SECOND. When two nominatives connected by _and_, are emphatically distinguished, they belong to different propositions, and, if singular, do not require a plural verb; as, "_Ambition_, and not the _safety_ of the state, _was concerned_."--_Goldsmith_. "_Consanguinity_, and not _affinity, is_ the ground of the prohibition."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 324. "But a _modification_, and oftentimes a total _change, takes_ place."--_Maunder. "Somewhat_, and, in many circumstances, a great _deal_ too, _is put_ upon us."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 108. "_Disgrace_, and perhaps _ruin, was_ the certain consequence of attempting the latter."--_Robertson's America_, i, 434. "_Ay_, and _no_ too, _was_ no good divinity."--_Shakespeare. "Love_, and _love only_, is the loan for love."--_Young_. EXCEPTION THIRD. When two or more nominatives connected by _and_ are preceded by the adjective _each, every, or no_, they are taken separately, and do not require a plural verb; as, "When _no part_ of their substance, and _no one_ of their properties, _is_ the same."--_Bp. Butler_. "Every limb and feature _appears_ with its respective grace."--_Steele_. "Every person, and every occurrence, _is beheld_ in the most favourable light."--_Murray's Key_, p. 190. "Each worm, and each insect, _is_ a marvel of creative power." "Whose every look and gesture _was_ a joke To clapping theatres and shouting crowds."--_Young_. EXCEPTION FOURTH. When the verb separates its nominatives, it agrees with that which precedes it, and is understood to the rest; as, "The _earth is_ the Lord's, and the _fullness_ thereof."--_Murray's Exercises_, p. 36. "_Disdain forbids_ me, and my _dread_ of shame."--_Milton_. "------Forth in the pleasing spring, Thy _beauty walks_, thy _tenderness_, and _love_."--_Thomson_. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XVI. OBS. 1.--According to Lindley Murray, (who, in all his compilation, from whatever learned authorities, refers us to _no places_ in any book but his own.) "Dr. Blair observes, that 'two or more substantives, joined by a copulative, _must always require_ the verb or pronoun to which they refer, to be _placed_ in the plural number:' and this," continues the great Compiler, "is the _general sentiment_ of English grammarians."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 150. The same thing is stated in many other grammars: thus, _Ingersoll_ has the very same words, on the 238th page of his book; and _R. C. Smith_ says, "Dr. Blair _very justly_ observes," &c.--_Productive Gram._, p. 126. I therefore doubt not, the learned rhetorician has somewhere made some such remark: though I can neither supply the reference which these gentlemen omit, nor vouch for the accuracy of their quotation. But I trust to make it very clear, that so many grammarians as hold this sentiment, are no great readers, to say the least of them. Murray himself acknowledges _one_ exception to this principle, and unconsciously furnishes examples of one or two more; but, in stead of placing the former in his Grammar, and under the rule, where the learner would be likely to notice it, he makes it an obscure and almost unintelligible note, in the _margin of his Key_, referring by an asterisk to the following correction: "Every man and every woman _was_ numbered."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, Vol. ii. p. 190. To justify this phraseology, he talks thus: "_Whatever number_ of nouns may be connected _by a conjunction with the pronoun_ EVERY, this _pronoun_ is as applicable to _the whole mass_ of them, as to any _one of the nouns_; and _therefore_ the verb is correctly put in the singular number, and _refers to the whole_ separately and individually considered."--_Ib._ So much, then, for "_the pronoun_ EVERY!" But, without other exceptions, what shall be done with the following texts from Murray himself? "The flock, _and_ not the fleece, _is_, or _ought_ to be the object of the shepherd's care."--_Ib._, ii, 184. "This prodigy of learning, this scholar, critic, _and_ antiquary, _was_ entirely destitute of breeding and civility."--_Ib._, ii, 217. And, in the following line, what conjunction appears, or what is the difference between "horror" and "black despair." that the verb should be made plural? "What black despair, what horror, _fill_ his _mind_!"--_Ib._, ii, 183. "What black despair, what horror _fills_ his _heart_!"--_Thomson_.[395] OBS. 2.--Besides the many examples which may justly come under the four exceptions above specified, there are several questionable but customary expressions, which have some appearance of being deviations from this rule, but which may perhaps be reasonably explained on the principle of ellipsis: as, "All work and no play, _makes_ Jack a dull boy."--"Slow and steady often _outtravels_ haste."--_Dillwyn's Reflections_, p. 23. "Little and often _fills_ the purse."--_Treasury of Knowledge_, Part i, p. 446. "Fair and softly _goes_ far." These maxims, by universal custom, lay claim to a singular verb; and, for my part, I know not how they can well be considered either real exceptions to the foregoing rule, or real inaccuracies under it; for, in most of them, the words connected are not _nouns_; and those which are so, may not be nominatives. And it is clear, that every exception must have some specific character by which it may be distinguished; else it destroys the rule, in stead of confirming it, as known exceptions are said to do. Murray appears to have thought the singular verb _wrong_; for, among his examples for parsing, he has, "Fair and softly _go_ far," which instance is no more entitled to a plural verb than the rest. See his _Octavo Gram._, Vol. ii, p. 5. Why not suppose them all to be elliptical? Their meaning may be as follows: "_To have_ all work and no play, _makes_ Jack a dull boy."--"_What is_ slow and steady, often _outtravels_ haste."--"To _put in_ little and often, _fills_ the purse."--"_What proceeds_ fair and softly, _goes_ far." The following line from Shakspeare appears to be still more elliptical: "Poor and content _is_ rich, and rich enough."--_Othello_. This may be supposed to mean, "_He who is_ poor and content," &c. In the following sentence again, we may suppose an ellipsis of the phrase _To have_, at the beginning; though here, perhaps, to have pluralized the verb, would have been as well: "One eye on death and one full fix'd on heaven, _Becomes_ a mortal and immortal man."--_Young_. OBS. 3.--The names of two persons are not unfrequently used jointly as the name of their story; in which sense, they must have a singular verb, if they have any; as, "Prior's _Henry and Emma contains_ an other beautiful example."--_Jamieson's Rhetoric_, p. 179. I somewhat hesitate to call this an exception to the foregoing rule, because here too the phraseology may be supposed elliptical. The meaning is, "Prior's _little poem, entitled_, 'Henry and Emma,' contains," &c.;--or, "Prior's _story of_ Henry and Emma contains," &c. And, if the first expression is only an abbreviation of one of these, the construction of the verb _contains_ may be referred to Rule 14th. See Exception 1st to Rule 12th, and Obs. 2d on Rule 14th. OBS. 4.--The conjunction _and_, by which alone we can with propriety connect different words to make them joint nominatives or joint antecedents, is sometimes suppressed and _understood_; but then its effect is the same, as if it were inserted; though a singular verb might sometimes be quite as proper in the same sentences, because it would merely imply a disjunctive conjunction or none at all: as, "The high breach of trust, the notorious corruption, _are stated_ in the strongest terms."--_Junius_, Let. xx. "Envy, self-will, jealousy, pride, often _reign_ there."--_Abbott's Corner Stone_, p. 111. (See Obs. 4th on Rule 12th.) "Art, empire, earth itself, to change _are_ doomed."--_Beattie_. "Her heart, her mind, her love, _is_ his alone."--_Cowley_. In all the foregoing examples, a singular verb might have been used without impropriety; or the last, which is singular, might have been plural. But the following couplet evidently requires a plural verb, and is therefore correct as the poet wrote it; both because the latter noun is plural, and because the conjunction _and_ is understood between the two. Yet a late grammarian, perceiving no difference between the joys of sense and the pleasure of reason, not only changes "_lie_" to "_lies_," but uses the perversion for a _proof text_, under a rule which refers the verb to the first noun only, and requires it to be singular. See _Oliver B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 250. "Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense. _Lie_ in three words--health, peace, and competence." --_Pope's Ess._, Ep. iv, l. 80. OBS. 5.--When the speaker changes his nominative to take a stronger expression, he commonly uses no conjunction; but, putting the verb in agreement with the noun which is next to it, he leaves the other to an implied concord with its proper form of the same verb: as, "The man whose _designs_, whose _whole conduct, tends_ to reduce me to subjection, that man is at war with me, though not a blow has yet been given, nor a sword drawn."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 265. "All _Greece_, all the barbarian _world, is_ too narrow for this man's ambition."--_Ibid._ "This _self-command_, this _exertion_ of reason in the midst of passion, _has_ a wonderful effect both to please and to persuade."--_Ib._, p. 260. "In the mutual influence of body and soul, there _is a wisdom_, a _wonderful wisdom_, which we cannot fathom."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 150. If the principle here stated is just, Murray has written the following models erroneously: "Virtue, honour, nay, even self-interest, _conspire_ to recommend the measure."--_Ib._, p. 150. "Patriotism, morality, every public and private consideration, _demand_ our submission to just and lawful government."--_Ibid._ In this latter instance, I should prefer the singular verb _demands_; and in the former, the expression ought to be otherwise altered, thus. "Virtue, honour, _and_ interest, all _conspire_ to recommend the measure." Or thus: "Virtue, honour--nay, even self-interest, _recommends_ the measure." On this principle, too, Thomson was right, and this critic wrong, in the example cited at the close of the first observation above. This construction is again recurred to by Murray, in the second chapter of his Exercises; where he explicitly condemns the following sentence because the verb is singular: "Prudence, policy, nay, his own true interest, strongly _recommends_ the line of conduct proposed to him."--_Octavo Gram._, Vol. ii, p. 22. OBS. 6.--When two or more nominatives are in apposition with a preceding one which they explain, the verb must agree with the first word only, because the others are adjuncts to this, and not joint subjects to the verb; as, "Loudd, the ancient Lydda and Diospolis, _appears_ like a place lately ravaged by fire and sword."--_Keith's Evidences_, p. 93. "Beattie, James,--a philosopher and poet,--_was born_ in Scotland, in the year 1735."--_Murray's Sequel_, p. 306. "For, the quantity, the length, and shortness of our syllables, _is_ not, by any means, so fixed."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 124. This principle, like the preceding one, persuades me again to dissent from Murray, who corrects or _perverts_ the following sentence, by changing _originates_ to _originate_: "All that makes a figure on the great theatre of the world; the employments of the busy, the enterprises of the ambitious, and the exploits of the warlike; the virtues which form the happiness, and the crimes which occasion the misery of mankind; _originates_ in that silent and secret recess of thought, which is hidden from every human eye."--See _Murray's Octavo Gram._, Vol. ii, p. 181; or his _Duodecimo Key_, p. 21. The true subject of this proposition is the noun _all_, which is singular; and the other nominatives are subordinate to this, and merely explanatory of it. OBS. 7.--Dr. Webster says, "_Enumeration_ and addition of numbers are _usually_ expressed in the singular _number_; [as,] two and two _is_ four; seven and nine _is_ sixteen; that is, _the sum of_ seven and nine _is_ sixteen. But modern usage inclines to reject the use of the verb in the singular number, in these and similar phrases."--_Improved Gram._, p. 106. Among its many faults, this passage exhibits a virtual contradiction. For what "_modern usage_ inclines to reject," can hardly be the fashion in which any ideas "_are usually expressed_." Besides, I may safely aver, that this is a kind of phraseology which all correct usage always did reject. It is not only a gross vulgarism, but a plain and palpable violation of the foregoing rule of syntax; and, as such it must be reputed, if the rule has any propriety at all. What "_enumeration_" has to do with it, is more than I can tell. But Dr. Webster once admired and commended this mode of speech, as one of the "wonderful proofs of ingenuity in the _framers_ of language;" and laboured to defend it as being "correct upon principle;" that is, upon the principle that "_the sum of_" is understood to be the subject of the affirmation, when one says, "Two _and_ two _is_ four," in stead of, "Two and two _are_ four."--See _Webster's Philosophical Gram._, p. 153. This seems to me a "wonderful proof" of _ignorance_ in a very learned man. OBS. 8.--In Greek and Latin, the verb frequently agrees with the nearest nominative, and is understood to the rest; and this construction is sometimes imitated in English, especially if the nouns follow the verb: as, "[Greek: Nuni do MENEI pistis, elpis agape, ta tria tanta]."--"Nunc vero _manet_ fides, spes, charitas; tria hæc."--"Now _abideth_ faith, hope, charity; these three."--_1 Cor._, xiii, 13. "And now _abideth_ confession, prayer, and praise, these three; but the greatest of these is praise."--ATTERBURY: _Blair's Rhet._, p. 300. The propriety of this usage, so far as our language is concerned, I doubt. It seems to open a door for numerous deviations from the foregoing rule, and deviations of such a sort, that if they are to be considered exceptions, one can hardly tell why. The practice, however, is not uncommon, especially if there are more nouns than two, and each is emphatic; as, "Wonderful _was_ the patience, fortitude, self-denial, _and_ bravery of our ancestors."--_Webster's Hist. of U. S._, p. 118. "It is the very thing I would have you make out: for therein _consists_ the form, and use, and nature of language."--_Berkley's Alciphron_, p. 161. "There _is_ the proper noun, and the common noun. There _is_ the singular noun, and the plural noun."--_Emmons's Gram._, p. 11. "From him _proceeds_ power, sanctification, truth, grace, and every other blessing we can conceive."--_Calvin's Institutes_, B. i, Ch. 13. "To what purpose _cometh_ there to me incense from Sheba, _and_ the sweet cane from a far country?"--_Jer._, vi, 20. "For thine _is_ the kingdom, _and_ the power, _and_ the glory, forever."--_Matt._, vi, 13. In all these instances, the plural verb might have been used; and yet perhaps the singular may be justified on the ground that there is a distinct and emphatic enumeration of the nouns. Thus, it would be proper to say, "Thine _are_ the kingdom, the power, and the glory;" but this construction seems less emphatic than the preceding, which means, "For thine is the kingdom, _thine is_ the power, and _thine is_ the glory, forever;" and this repetition is still more emphatic, and perhaps more proper, than the elliptical form. The repetition of the conjunction "_and_," in the original text as above, adds time and emphasis to the reading, and makes the singular verb more proper than it would otherwise be; for which reason, the following form, in which the Rev. Dr. Bullions has set the sentence down for bad English, is in some sort a _perversion_ of the Scripture: "Thine is the kingdom, the power, and the glory."--_Bullions's E. Gram._, p. 141. OBS. 9.--When the nominatives are of different _persons_, the verb agrees with the first person in preference to the second, and with the second in preference to the third; for _thou_ and _I_, or _he, thou_, and _I_, are equivalent to _we_; and _thou_ and _he_ are equivalent to you: as, "Why speakest thou any more of thy matters? I have said, _thou and Ziba divide_ the land."--_2 Sam._, xix. 29. That is, "divide _ye_ the land." "And _live thou_ and thy _children_ of the rest."--_2 Kings_, iv, 7. "That _I_ and thy _people have found_ grace in thy sight."--_Exodus_, xxxiii, 16. "_I_ and my _kingdom are_ guiltless."--_2 Sam._, iii, 28. "_I_, and _you_, and _Piso_ perhaps too, _are_ in a state of dissatisfaction."--_Zenobia_, i, 114. "Then _I_, and _you_, and _all_ of us, _fell_ down, Whilst bloody treason flourish'd over _us_."--_Shak., J. Cæsar_. OBS. 10.--When two or more nominatives connected by _and_ are of the same form but distinguished by adjectives or possessives, one or more of them may be omitted by ellipsis, but the verb must be plural, and agree with them all; as, "A literary, a scientific, a wealthy, and a poor man, _were assembled_ in one room."--_Peirce's Gram._, p. 263. Here four different men are clearly spoken of. "Else the rising and the falling emphasis _are_ the same."--_Knowles's Elocutionist_, p. 33. Here the noun _emphasis_ is understood after _rising_. "The singular and [the] plural form _seem_ to be confounded."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 22. Here the noun _form_ is presented to the mind twice; and therefore the article should have been repeated. See Obs. 15th on Rule 1st. "My farm and William's _are_ adjacent to each other."--_Peirce's Gram._, p. 220. Here the noun _farm_ is understood after the possessive _William's_, though the author of the sentence foolishly attempts to explain it otherwise. "Seth's, Richard's and Edmund's _farms_ are those which their fathers left them."--_Ib._, p. 257. Here the noun _farms_ is understood after _Seth's_, and again after _Richard's_; so that the sentence is written wrong, unless each man has more than one farm. "_Was_ not Demosthenes's style, and his master Plato's, perfectly Attic; and yet none more lofty?"--_Milnes's Greek Gram._, p. 241. Here _style_ is understood after _Plato's_; wherefore _was_ should rather be _were_, or else _and_ should be changed to _as well as_. But the text, as it stands, is not much unlike some of the exceptions noticed above. "The character of a fop, and of a rough warrior, _are_ no where more successfully contrasted."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. i, p. 236. Here the ellipsis is not very proper. Say, "the character of a fop, and _that_ of a rough warrior," &c. Again: "We may observe, that the eloquence of the bar, of the legislature, and of public assemblies, _are_ seldom _or ever_ found united _to high perfection in_ the same person."--_J. Q. Adams's Rhet._, Vol. i, p. 256. Here the ellipsis cannot so well be avoided by means of the pronominal adjective _that_, and therefore it may be thought more excusable; but I should prefer a repetition of the nominative: as, "We may observe, that the eloquence of the bar, _the eloquence_ of the legislature, and _the eloquence_ of public assemblies, are seldom _if ever_ found united, _in any high degree_, in the same person." OBS. 11.--The conjunction _as_, when it connects nominatives that are in _apposition_, or significant of the same person or thing, is commonly placed at the beginning of a sentence, so that the verb agrees with its proper nominative following the explanatory word: thus, "_As a poet, he holds_ a high rank."--_Murray's Sequel_, p. 355. "_As a poet, Addison claims_ a high praise."--_Ib._, p. 304. "_As a model_ of English prose, his _writings merit_ the greatest praise."--_Ib._, p. 305. But when this conjunction denotes a _comparison_ between different persons or things signified by two nominatives, there must be two verbs expressed or understood, each agreeing with its own subject; as, "Such _writers_ as _he [is,] have_ no reputation worth any man's envy." [396] "Such _men_ as _he [is] be_ never at heart's ease Whiles they behold a greater than themselves."--_Shakspeare_. OBS. 12.--When two nominatives are connected by _as well as, but_, or _save_, they must in fact have two verbs, though in most instances only one is expressed; as, "Such is the mutual dependence of words in sentences, that several _others_, as well as [is] the _adjective, are_ not to be used alone."--_Dr. Wilson's Essay_, p. 99. "The Constitution was to be the one fundamental law of the land, to which _all_, as well _States_ as _people_, should submit."--W. I. BOWDITCH: _Liberator_, No. 984. "As well those which history, as those which experience _offers_ to our reflection."-- _Bolingbroke, on History_, p. 85. Here the words "_offers to our reflection_" are understood after "_history_." "_None_ but _He_ who discerns futurity, _could have foretold_ and described all these things."--_Keith's Evidences_, p. 62. "That there _was_ in those times no other _writer_, of any degree of eminence, save _he_ himself."--_Pope's Works_, Vol. iii, p. 43. "I do entreat you not a man depart, Save _I_ alone, till Antony have spoke."--_Shak., J. Cæsar_. OBS. 13.--Some grammarians say, that _but_ and _save_, when they denote exception, should govern the objective case as _prepositions_. But this idea is, without doubt, contrary to the current usage of the best authors, either ancient or modern. Wherefore I think it evident that these grammarians err. The objective case of _nouns_ being like the nominative, the point can be proved only by the _pronouns_; as, "There is none _but he_ alone."--_Perkins's Theology_, 1608. "There is none other _but he_."--_Mark_, xii, 32. (This text is good authority as regards the _case_, though it is incorrect in an other respect: it should have been, "There is _none but_ he," or else, "There is _no other than he_.") "No man hath ascended up to heaven, _but he_ that came down from heaven."--_John_, iii, 13. "Not that any man hath seen the father, _save he_ which is of God."--_John_, vi, 46. "Few can, _save he_ and _I_."--_Byron's Werner_. "There is none justified, _but he_ that is in measure sanctified."--_Isaac Penington_. _Save_, as a conjunction, is nearly obsolete. OBS. 14.--In Rev., ii, 17th, we read, "Which no man knoweth, _saving he_ that receiveth it;" and again, xiii, 17th, "That no man might buy or sell, _save he_ that had the mark." The following text is inaccurate, but not in the construction of the nominative _they_: "All men cannot receive this saying, _save they_ to whom it is given."--_Matt._, xix, 11. The version ought to have been, "_Not all_ men can receive this saying, _but they only_ to whom it is given:" i.e., "they only _can receive it_, to whom _there is given power to receive it_." Of _but_ with a nominative, examples may be multiplied indefinitely. The following are as good as any: "There is no God _but He_."--_Sale's Koran_, p. 27. "The former none _but He_ could execute."--_Maturin's Sermons_, p. 317. "There was nobody at home _but I_."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 95. "A fact, of which as none _but he_ could be conscious, [so] none _but he_ could be the publisher of it."--_Pope's Works_, Vol. iii, p. 117. "Few _but they_ who are involved in the vices, are involved in the irreligion of the times."--_Brown's Estimate_, i, 101. "I claim my right. No Grecian prince but _I_ Has power this bow to grant, or to deny." --_Pope, Odys._, B. xxi, l. 272. "Thus she, and none _but she_, the insulting rage Of heretics oppos'd from age to age." --_Dryden's Poems_, p. 98. In opposition to all these authorities, and many more that might be added, we have, with now and then a text of false syntax, the absurd opinion of perhaps _a score or two_ of our grammarians; one of whom imagines he has found in the following couplet from Swift, an example to the purpose; but he forgets that the verb _let_ governs the _objective_ case: "Let _none but him_ who rules the thunder, Attempt to part these twain asunder." --_Perley's Gram._, p. 62. OBS. 15.--It is truly a wonder, that so many professed critics should not see the absurdity of taking _but_ and _save_ for "_prepositions_," when this can be done only by condemning the current usage of nearly all good authors, as well as the common opinion of most grammarians; and the greater is the wonder, because they seem to do it innocently, or to teach it childishly, as not knowing that they cannot justify both sides, when the question lies between opposite and contradictory principles. By this sort of simplicity, which approves of errors, if much practised, and of opposites, or essential contraries, when authorities may be found for them, no work, perhaps, is more strikingly characterized, than the popular School Grammar of W. H. Wells. This author says, "The use of _but_ as a preposition is _approved_ by J. E. Worcester, John Walker, R. C. Smith, Picket, Hiley, Angus, Lynde, Hull, Powers, Spear, Farnum, Fowle, Goldsbury, Perley, Cobb, Badgley, Cooper, Jones, Davis, Beall, Hendrick, Hazen, and Goodenow."--_School Gram._, 1850, p. 178. But what if all these authors do prefer, "_but him_," and "_save him_," where ten times as many would say, "_but he_," "_save he_?" Is it therefore difficult to determine which party is right? Or is it proper for a grammarian to name sundry authorities on both sides, excite doubt in the mind of his reader, and leave the matter _unsettled_? "The use of _but_ as a preposition," he also states, "is _discountenanced_ by G. Brown, Sanborn, Murray, S. Oliver, and several other grammarians. (See also an able article in the Mass. Common School Journal, Vol. ii, p. 19.)"--_School Gram._, p. 178. OBS. 16.--Wells passes no censure on the use of nominatives after _but_ and _save_; does not intimate which case is fittest to follow these words; gives no false syntax under his rule for the regimen of prepositions; but inserts there the following brief remarks and examples: "REM. 3.--The word _save_ is frequently used to perform the office of a preposition; as, 'And all desisted, all _save him_ alone.'--_Wordsworth_." "REM. 4.--_But_ is sometimes employed as a preposition, in the sense of _except_; as, 'The boy stood on the burning deck, Whence all _but him_ had fled.'--_Hemans_."--_Ib._, p. 167. Now, "BUT," says Worcester, as well as Tooke and others, was "originally _bot_, contracted from _be out_;" and, if this notion of its etymology is just, it must certainly be followed by the nominative case, rather than by the objective; for the imperative _be_ or _be out_ governs no case, admits no additional term but a nominative--an obvious and important fact, quite overlooked by those who call _but_ a preposition. According to Allen H. Weld, _but_ and _save_ "are _commonly_ considered _prepositions_," but "are _more commonly_ termed _conjunctions_!" This author repeats Wells's examples of "_save him_," and "_but him_," as being _right_; and mixes them with opposite examples of "_save he_," "_but he_," "_save I_," which he thinks to be _more right_!--_Weld's Gram._, p. 187. OBS. 17.--Professor Fowler, too, an other author remarkable for a facility of embracing incompatibles, contraries, or dubieties, not only condemns as "false syntax" the use of _save_ for an exceptive conjunction. (§587. ¶28,) but cites approvingly from Latham the following very strange absurdity: "One and the same word, in one and the same sentence, may be a Conjunction or [a] Preposition, as the case may be: [as] All fled _but_ John."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, 8vo, 1850, § 555. This is equivalent to saying, that "one and the same sentence" _may be two different sentences_; may, without error, be understood in two different senses; may be rightly taken, resolved, and parsed in two different ways! Nay, it is equivalent to a denial of the old logical position, that "It is impossible for a thing _to be_ and _not be_ at the same time;" for it supposes "_but_," in the instance given, to be at once both a conjunction and _not_ a conjunction, both a preposition and _not_ a preposition, "_as the case may be_!" It is true, that "one and the same word" may sometimes be differently parsed _by different grammarians_, and possibly even an adept may doubt who or what is right. But what ambiguity of construction, or what diversity of interpretation, proceeding from the same hand, can these admissions be supposed to warrant? The foregoing citation is a boyish attempt to justify different modes of parsing the same expression, on the ground that the expression itself is equivocal. "All fled _but John_," is thought to mean equally well, "All fled _but he_," and, "All fled _but him_;" while these latter expressions are erroneously presumed to be alike good English, and to have a difference of meaning corresponding to their difference of construction. Now, what is equivocal, or ambiguous, being therefore erroneous, is to be _corrected_, rather than parsed in any way. But I deny both the ambiguity and the difference of meaning which these critics profess to find among the said phrases. "_John fled not, but all the rest fled_," is virtually what is told us in each of them; but, in the form, "All fled but _him_," it is told ungrammatically; in the other two, correctly. OBS. 18.--In Latin, _cum_ with an ablative, sometimes has, or is supposed to have, the force of the conjunction _et_ with a nominative; as, "Dux _cum_ aliquot principibus capiuntur."--LIVY: _W. Allen's Gram._, p. 131. In imitation of this construction, some English writers have substituted _with_ for _and_, and varied the verb accordingly; as, "A long course of time, _with_ a variety of accidents and circumstances, _are_ requisite to produce those revolutions."--HUME: _Allen's Gram._, p. 131; _Ware's_, 12; _Priestley's_, 186. This phraseology, though censured by Allen, was expressly approved by Priestley, who introduced the present example, as his proof text under the following observation: "It is not necessary that the two _subjects of an affirmation_ should stand in the very same construction, to require the verb to be in the plural number. If one of them be made to depend upon the other _by a connecting particle_, it may, _in some cases_, have the same force, as if it were independent of it."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 186. Lindley Murray, on the contrary, condemns this doctrine, and after citing the same example with others, says: "It is however, proper to observe that these modes of expression do not appear to be warranted by _the just principles_ of construction."-- _Octavo Gram._, p. 150. He then proceeds to prove his point, by alleging that the preposition governs the objective case in English, and the ablative in Latin, and that what is so governed, cannot be the nominative, or any part of it. All this is true enough, but still some men who know it perfectly well, will now and then write as if they did not believe it. And so it was with the writers of Latin and Greek. They sometimes wrote bad syntax; and the grammarians have not always seen and censured their errors as they ought. Since the preposition makes its object only an adjunct of the preceding noun, or of something else, I imagine that any construction which thus assumes two different cases as joint nominatives or joint antecedents, must needs be inherently faulty. OBS. 19.--Dr. Adam simply remarks, "The plural is sometimes used after the preposition _cum_ put for _et_; as, _Remo cum fratre Quirinus jura dabunt_. Virg."--_Latin and English Gram._, p. 207; _Gould's Adam's Latin Gram._, p. 204; _W. Allen's English Gram._, 131. This example is not fairly cited; though many have adopted the perversion, as if they knew no better. Alexander has it in a worse form still: "Quirinus, cum fratre, jura dabunt."--_Latin Gram._, p. 47. Virgil's words are, "_Cana_ FIDES, _et_ VESTA, _Remo cum fratre Quirinus, Jura dabunt_."--_�neid_, B. i, l. 296. Nor is _cum_ here "put for _et_," unless we suppose also an antiptosis of _Remo fratre_ for _Remus frater_; and then what shall the literal meaning be, and how shall the rules of syntax be accommodated to such changes? Fair examples, that bear upon the point, may, however, be adduced from good authors, and in various languages; but the question is, are they _correct_ in syntax? Thus Dr. Robertson: "The palace of Pizarro, _together with_ the houses of several of his adherents, _were_ pillaged by the soldiers."-- _Hist. of Amer._, Vol. ii, p. 133. To me, this appears plainly ungrammatical; and, certainly, there are ways enough in which it may be corrected. First, with the present connective retained, "_were_" ought to be _was_. Secondly, if _were_ be retained, "_together with_" ought to be changed to _and_, or _and also_. Thirdly, we may well change both, and say, "The palace of Pizarro, _as well as_ the houses of several of his adherents, _was_ pillaged by the soldiers." Again, in Mark, ix, 4th, we read: "And there appeared _unto them_ Elias, _with_ Moses; and _they_ were talking with Jesus." If this text meant that _the three disciples_ were talking with Jesus, it would be right as it stands; but St. Matthew has it, "And, behold, there appeared unto them _Moses and Elias, talking_ with him;" and our version in Luke is, "And, behold, there talked with him two men, which were Moses and Elias."--Chap. ix, 30. By these corresponding texts, then, we learn, that the pronoun _they_, which our translators inserted, was meant for "_Elias with Moses_;" but the Greek verb for "_appeared_," as used by Mark, is _singular_, and agrees only with Elias. "[Greek: _Kai ophthæ autois Aelias sun Mosei, kai hæsan syllalountes to Iæsoy_.]"--"Et _apparuit_ illis Elias cum Mose, et erant colloquentes Jesu."--_Montanus_. "Et _visus est_ eis Elias cum Mose, qui colloquebantur cum Jesu."--_Beza_. This is as discrepant as our version, though not so ambiguous. The French Bible avoids the incongruity: "Et iis virent paroître _Moyse et Elie_, qui s'entretenoient avec Jésus." That is, "And there appeared to them _Moses and Elias_, who were talking with Jesus." Perhaps the closest and best version of the Greek would be, "And there appeared to them Elias, with Moses;[397] and _these two_ were talking with Jesus." There is, in our Bible, an other instance of the construction now in question; but it has no support from the Septuagint, the Vulgate, or the French: to wit, "The second [lot came forth] to Gedaliah, _who with_ his brethren and sons _were_ twelve."--_1 Chron._, xxv, 9. Better: "_and he_, his brethren, and _his_ sons, were twelve." OBS. 20.--Cobbett, who, though he wrote several grammars, was but a very superficial grammarian, seems never to have doubted the propriety of putting _with_ for _and_; and yet he was confessedly not a little puzzled to find out when to use a singular, and when a plural verb, after a nominative with such "a sort of addition made to it." The 246th paragraph of his English Grammar is a long and fruitless attempt to fix a rule for the guidance of the learner in this matter. After dashing off a culpable example, "Sidmouth, _with_ Oliver the _spye_, have brought Brandreth to the block;" or, as his late editions have it, "The _Tyrant, with_ the _Spy, have_ brought _Peter_ to the block." He adds: "We hesitate which to employ, the singular or the plural verb; that is to say, _has_ or _have_. The meaning must be our guide. If we mean, that the act has been done by the Tyrant himself, and that the spy has been a mere involuntary agent, then we ought to use the singular; but if we believe that the spy has been a co-operator, an associate, an accomplice, then we must use the plural verb." Ay, truly; but must we not also, in the latter case, use _and_, and not _with_? After some further illustrations, he says: "When _with_ means _along with, together with, in Company with_, and the like, it is nearly the same as _and_; and then the plural verb must be used: [as,] 'He, with his brothers, _are_ able to do much.' Not, '_is_ able to do much.' If the pronoun be used instead of _brothers_, it will be in the objective case: 'He, _with_ them, _are_ able to do much.' But this is _no impediment_ to the including of the noun (represented by _them_) in the nominative." I wonder what would be an impediment to the absurdities of such a dogmatist! The following is his last example: "'Zeal, with discretion, _do_ much;' and not '_does_ much;' for we mean, on the contrary, that it _does nothing_. It is the meaning that must determine which of the numbers we ought to employ." This author's examples are all fictions of his own, and such of them as here have a plural verb, are wrong. His rule is also wrong, and contrary to the best authority. St. Paul says to Timothy, "Godliness _with_ contentment _is_ great gain:"--_1 Tim._, vi, 6. This text is right; but Cobbett's principle would go to prove it erroneous. Is he the only man who has ever had a right notion of its _meaning_? or is he not rather at fault in his interpretations? OBS. 21.--There is one other apparent exception to Rule 16th, (or perhaps a real one,) in which there is either an ellipsis of the preposition _with_, or else the verb is made singular because the first noun only is its true subject, and the others are explanatory nominatives to which the same verb must be understood in the plural number; as, "_A torch_, snuff and all, _goes out_ in a moment, when dipped in the vapour."--ADDISON: _in Johnson's Dict., w. All_. "Down _comes_ the _tree_, nest, eagles, and all."--See _All, ibidem_. Here _goes_ and _comes_ are necessarily made singular, the former agreeing with _torch_ and the latter with _tree_; and, if the other nouns, which are like an explanatory parenthesis, are nominatives, as they appear to me to be, they must be subjects of _go_ and _come_ understood. Cobbett teaches us to say, "The bag, _with_ the guineas and dollars in it, _were_ stolen," and not, _was_ stolen. "For," says he, "if we say _was_ stolen, it is possible for us to mean, that the _bag only_ was stolen,"--_English Gram._, ¶ 246. And I suppose he would say, "The bag, guineas, dollars, and all, _were_ stolen," and not, "_was_ stolen;" for here a rule of syntax might be urged, in addition to his false argument from the sense. But the meaning of the former sentence is, "The bag was stolen, with the guineas and dollars in it;" and the meaning of the latter is, "The bag was stolen, guineas, dollars, and all." Nor can there be any doubt about the meaning, place the words which way you will; and whatever, in either case, may be the true construction of the words in the parenthetical or explanatory phrase, they should not, I think, prevent the verb from agreeing with the first noun only. But if the other nouns intervene without affecting this concord, and without a preposition to govern them, it may be well to distinguish them in the punctuation; as, "The bag, (guineas, dollars, and all,) was stolen." NOTES TO RULE XVI. NOTE I.--When the conjunction _and_ between two nominatives appears to require a plural verb, but such form of the verb is not agreeable, it is better to reject or change the connective, that the verb may stand correctly in the singular number; as, "There _is_ a peculiar force _and_ beauty in this figure."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 224. Better: "There is a peculiar force, _as well as a peculiar_ beauty, in this figure." "What _means_ this restless stir and commotion of mind?"--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 242. Better: "What means this restless stir, _this_ commotion of mind?" NOTE II.--When two subjects or antecedents are connected, one of which is taken affirmatively, and the other negatively, they belong to different propositions; and the verb or pronoun must agree with the affirmative subject, and be understood to the other: as "Diligent _industry_, and not mean savings, _produces_ honourable competence."--"Not a loud _voice_ but strong _proofs bring_ conviction."--"My _poverty_, but not my will, _consents_."--_Shakespeare_. NOTE III.--When two subjects or antecedents are connected by _as well as, but_, or _save_, they belong to different propositions; and, (unless one of them is preceded by the adverb _not_,) the verb and pronoun must agree with the former and be understood to the latter: as, "_Veracity_, as well as justice, _is_ to be our rule of life."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 283. "The lowest _mechanic_, as well as the richest citizen, _may boast_ that thousands of _his_ fellow-creatures are employed for _him_."--_Percival's Tales_, ii, 177. "These _principles_, as well as every just rule of criticism, _are founded_ upon the sensitive part of our nature."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. i, p. xxvi. "_Nothing_ but wailings _was_ heard."--"_None_ but thou _can aid_ us."--"No mortal _man_, save he," &c., "_had e'er survived_ to say _he_ saw."--_Sir W. Scott_. NOTE IV.--When two or more subjects or antecedents are preceded by the adjective _each, every_, or _no_, they are taken separately; and, (except _no_ be followed by a plural noun,) they require the verb and pronoun to be in the singular number: as, "No rank, no honour, no fortune, no condition in life, _makes_ the guilty mind happy."--"Every phrase and every figure _which_ he uses, _tends_ to render the picture more lively and complete."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 179. "And every sense, and every heart, _is_ joy."--_Thomson_. "Each beast, each insect, happy in _its_ own."--_Pope_. NOTE V.--When any words or terms are to be taken conjointly as subjects or antecedents, the conjunction _and_, (in preference to _with, or, nor_, or any thing else,) must connect them. The following sentence is therefore inaccurate; _with_ should be _and_; or else _were_ should be _was_: "One of them, [the] wife of Thomas Cole, _with_ her husband, _were_ shot down, the others escaped."--_Hutchinson's Hist._, Vol. ii, p. 86. So, in the following couplet, _or_ should be _and_, or else _engines_ should be _engine_: "What if the head, the eye, _or_ ear repined, To serve mere _engines_ to the ruling mind?"--_Pope_. NOTE VI.--Improper omissions must be supplied; but when there occurs a true ellipsis in the construction of joint nominatives or joint antecedents, the verb or pronoun must agree with them in the plural, just as if all the words were expressed: as, "The _second_ and the _third Epistle_ of John _are_ each but one short chapter."--"The metaphorical and the literal meaning _are_ improperly mixed."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 339. "The Doctrine of Words, separately consider'd, and in a Sentence, _are_ Things distinct enough."--_Brightland's Gram._, Pref., p. iv. Better perhaps: "The doctrine of words separately considered, and _that of words_ in a sentence, _are_ things distinct enough." "The _Curii's_ and the _Camilli's_ little _field_, To vast extended territories _yield_."--_Rowe's Lucan_, B. i, l. 320. NOTE VII.--Two or more distinct subject phrases connected by _and_, require a plural verb, and generally a plural noun too, if a nominative follow the verb; as, "_To be wise in our own eyes, to be wise in the opinion of the world_, and _to be wise in the sight of our Creator_, are three things so very different, as rarely to coincide."--_Blair_. "'_This picture of my friend_,' and '_This picture of my friend's_,' suggest very different ideas."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 71; _Murray's_, i, 178. "Read of this burgess--on the stone _appear_, How worthy he! how virtuous! and how dear!"--_Crabbe_. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XVI. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.--THE VERB AFTER JOINT NOMINATIVES. "So much ability and merit is seldom found."--_Murray's Key_, 12mo, p. 18; _Merchant's School Gram._, p. 190. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the verb _is_ is in the singular number, and does not correctly agree with its two nominatives, _ability_ and _merit_, which are connected by _and_, and taken conjointly. But, according to Rule 16th, "When a verb has two or more nominatives connected by _and_, it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together." Therefore, _is_ should be _are_; thus, "So much ability and merit _are_ seldom found." Or: "So much ability and _so much_ merit _are_ seldom found."] "The syntax and etymology of the language is thus spread before the learner."--_Bullions's English Gram._, 2d Edition, Rec., p. iii. "Dr. Johnson tells us, that in English poetry the accent and the quantity of syllables is the same thing."--_J. Q. Adams's Rhet._, ii, 213. "Their general scope and tendency, having never been clearly apprehended, is not remembered at all."--_Murray's Gram._, i, p. 126. "The soil and sovereignty was not purchased of the natives."--_Knapp's Lect. on Amer. Lit._, p. 55. "The boldness, freedom, and variety of our blank verse, is infinitely more favourable than rhyme, to all kinds of sublime poetry."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 40. "The vivacity and sensibility of the Greeks seems to have been much greater than ours."--_Ib._, p. 253. "For sometimes the Mood and Tense is signified by the Verb, sometimes they are signified of the Verb by something else.'"--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 254. "The Verb and the Noun making a complete Sense, which the Participle and the Noun does not."--_Ib._, p. 255. "The growth and decay of passions and emotions, traced through all their mazes, is a subject too extensive for an undertaking like the present."--_Kames El. of Crit._, i, 108. "The true meaning and etymology of some of his words was lost."--_Knight, on the Greek Alph._, p. 37. "When the force and direction of personal satire is no longer understood."--_Junius_, p. 5. "The frame and condition of man admits of no other principle."--_Brown's Estimate_, ii, 54. "Some considerable time and care was necessary."--_Ib._, ii 150. "In consequence of this idea, much ridicule and censure has been thrown upon Milton."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 428. "With rational beings, nature and reason is the same thing."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 111. "And the flax and the barley was smitten."--_Exod._, ix, 31. "The colon, and semicolon, divides a period, this with, and that without a connective."--_J. Ware's Gram._, p. 27. "Consequently wherever space and time is found, there God must also be."--_Sir Isaac Newton_. "As the past tense and perfect participle of _love_ ends in _ed_, it is regular."--_Chandler's Gram._, p. 40; New Edition, p. 66. "But the usual arrangement and nomenclature prevents this from being readily seen."--_Butler's Practical Gram._, p. 3. "_Do_ and _did_ simply implies opposition or emphasis."--_Alex. Murray's Gram._, p. 41. "_I_ and _another_ make _we_, plural: _Thou_ and _another_ is as much as _ye_: _He, she_, or _it_ and _another_ make _they_"--_Ib._, p. 124. "I and another, is as much as (we) the first Person Plural; Thou and another, is as much as (ye) the second Person Plural; He, she, or it, and another, is as much as (they) the third Person Plural."--_British Gram._, p. 193; _Buchanan's Syntax_, p. 76. "God and thou art two, and thou and thy neighbour are two."--_The Love Conquest_, p. 25. "Just as _an_ and _a_ has arisen out of the numeral _one_."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, 8vo. 1850, §200. "The tone and style of each of them, particularly the first and the last, is very different."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 246. "Even as the roebuck and the hart is eaten."--_Deut._, xiii, 22. "Then I may conclude that two and three makes not five."--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 354. "Which at sundry times thou and thy brethren hast received from us."--_Ib._, i, 165. "Two and two is four, and one is five."--POPE: _Lives of the Poets_, p. 490. "Humility and knowledge with poor apparel, excels pride and ignorance under costly array."--_Day's Gram., Parsing Lesson_, p. 100. "A page and a half has been added to the section on composition."--_Bullions's E. Gram._, 5th Ed., Pref., p. vii. "Accuracy and expertness in this exercise is an important acquisition."--_Ib._, p. 71. "Woods and groves are of thy dressing, Hill and dale doth boast thy blessing."--_Milton's Poems_, p. 139. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.--THE VERB BEFORE JOINT NOMINATIVES. "There is a good and a bad, a right and a wrong in taste, as in other things."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 21. "Whence has arisen much stiffness and affectation."--_Ib._, p. 133. "To this error is owing, in a great measure, that intricacy and harshness, in his figurative language, which I before remarked."--_Ib._, p. 150; _Jamieson's Rhet._, 157. "Hence, in his Night Thoughts, there prevails an obscurity and hardness in his style."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 150. "There is, however, in that work much good sense, and excellent criticism."--_Ib._, p. 401. "There is too much low wit and scurrility in Plautus."--_Ib._, p. 481. "There is too much reasoning and refinement; too much pomp and studied beauty in them."--_Ib._, p. 468. "Hence arises the structure and characteristic expression of exclamation."--_Rush on the Voice_, p. 229. "And such pilots is he and his brethren, according to their own confession."--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 314. "Of whom is Hymeneus and Philetus: who concerning the truth have erred."--_2 Tim._, ii, 17. "Of whom is Hymeneus and Alexander; whom I have delivered unto Satan."--_1 Tim._, i, 20. "And so was James and John, the sons of Zebedee."--_Luke_, v, 10. "Out of the same mouth proceedeth blessing and cursing."--_James_, iii, 10. "Out of the mouth of the Most High proceedeth not evil and good."--_Lam._, iii, 38. "In which there is most plainly a right and a wrong."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 215. "In this sentence there is both an actor and an object."--_Smith's Inductive Gram._, p. 14. "In the breast-plate was placed the mysterious Urim and Thummim."--_Milman's Jews_, i, 88. "What is the gender, number, and person of those in the first?"--_Smith's Productive Gram._, p. 19. "There seems to be a familiarity and want of dignity in it."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 150. "It has been often asked, what is Latin and Greek?"--_Literary Convention_, p. 209. "For where does beauty and high wit But in your constellation meet?"--_Hudibras_, p. 134. "Thence to the land where flows Ganges and Indus."--_Paradise Lost_, B. ix, l. 81. "On these foundations seems to rest the midnight riot and dissipation of modern assemblies."--_Brown's Estimate_, ii, 46. "But what has disease, deformity, and filth, upon which the thoughts can be allured to dwell?"--_Johnson's Life of Swift_, p. 492. "How is the gender and number of the relative known?"--_Bullions, Practical Lessons_, p. 32. "High rides the sun, thick rolls the dust, And feebler speeds the blow and thrust."--_Sir W. Scott_. UNDER NOTE I.--CHANGE THE CONNECTIVE. "In every language there prevails a certain structure and analogy of parts, which is understood to give foundation to the most reputable usage."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 90. "There runs through his whole manner, a stiffness and affectation, which renders him very unfit to be considered a general model."--_Ib._, p. 102. "But where declamation and improvement in speech is the sole aim"--_Ib._, p. 257. "For it is by these chiefly, that the train of thought, the course of reasoning, and the whole progress of the mind, in continued discourse of all kinds, is laid open."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 103. "In all writing and discourse, the proper composition and structure of sentnences is of the highest importance."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 101. "Here the wishful look and expectation of the beggar naturally leads to a vivid conception of that which was the object of his thoughts."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 386. "Who say, that the outward naming of Christ, and signing of the cross, puts away devils."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 146. "By which an oath and penalty was to be imposed upon the members."--_Junius_, p. 6. "Light and knowledge, in what manner soever afforded us, is equally from God."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 264. "For instance, sickness and untimely death is the consequence of intemperance."--_Ib._, p. 78. "When grief, and blood ill-tempered vexeth him."--_Beauties of Shakspeare_, p. 256. "Does continuity and connexion create sympathy and relation in the parts of the body?"--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 111. "His greatest concern, and highest enjoyment, was to be approved in the sight of his Creator."--_Murray's Key_, p. 224. "Know ye not that there is a prince and a great man fallen this day in Israel?"--_2 Sam_, iii, 38. "What is vice and wickedness? No rarity, you may depend on it."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 107. "There is also the fear and apprehension of it."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 87. "The apostrophe and _s_, ('s,) is an abbreviation for _is_, the termination of the old English genitive."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 17. "_Ti, ce_, and _ci_, when followed by a vowel, usually has the sound of _sh_; as in _partial, special, ocean_."--_Weld's Gram._, p. 15. "Bitter constraint and sad occasion dear Compels me to disturb your season due."--_Milton's Lycidas_. "Debauches and excess, though with less noise, As great a portion of mankind destroys."--_Waller_, p. 55. UNDER NOTE II.--AFFIRMATION WITH NEGATION. "Wisdom, and not wealth, procure esteem."--_Brown's Inst._, p. 156. "Prudence, and not pomp, are the basis of his fame."--_Ib._ "Not fear, but labour have overcome him."--_Ib._ "The decency, and not the abstinence, make the difference."--_Ib._ "Not her beauty, but her talents attracts attention."--_Ib._ "It is her talents, and not her beauty, that attracts attention."--_Ib._ "It is her beauty, and not her talents that attract attention."--_Ib._ "His belly, not his brains, this impulse give: He'll grow immortal; for he cannot live."--_Young, to Pope_. UNDER NOTE III.--AS WELL AS, BUT, OR SAVE. "Common sense as well as piety tell us these are proper."--_Family Commentary_, p. 64. "For without it the critic, as well as the undertaker, ignorant of any rule, have nothing left but to abandon themselves to chance."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 42. "And accordingly hatred as well as love are extinguished by long absence."--_Ib._, i, 113. "But at every turn the richest melody as well as the sublimest sentiments are conspicuous."--_Ib._, ii, 121. "But it, as well as the lines immediately subsequent, defy all translation."--_Coleridge's Introduction_, p. 96. "But their religion, as well as their customs, and manners, were strangely misrepresented."--BOLINGBROKE, ON HISTORY, p. 123; _Priestley's Gram._, p. 192; _Murray's Exercises_, p. 47. "But his jealous policy, as well as the fatal antipathy of Fonseca, were conspicuous."--_Robertson's America_, i, 191. "When their extent as well as their value were unknown."--_Ib._, ii, 138. "The Etymology, as well as the Syntax, of the more difficult parts of speech are reserved for his attention [at a later period]."--_Parker and Fox's E. Gram._, Part i, p. 3. "What I myself owe to him, no one but myself know."--See _Wright's Athens_, p. 96. "None, but thou, O mighty prince! canst avert the blow."--_Inst._, p. 156. "Nothing, but frivolous amusements, please the indolent."--_Ib._ "Nought, save the gurglings of the rill, were heard."--_G. B._ "All songsters, save the hooting owl, was mute."--_G. B._ UNDER NOTE IV.--EACH, EVERY, OR NO. "Give every word, and every member, their due weight and force."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 110. "And to one of these belong every noun, and every third person of every verb."--_Wilson's Essay on Gram._, p. 74. "No law, no restraint, no regulation, are required to keep him in bounds."--_Literary Convention_, p. 260. "By that time, every window and every door in the street were full of heads."--_N. Y. Observer_, No. 503. "Every system of religion, and every school of philosophy, stand back from this field, and leave Jesus Christ alone, the solitary example"--_The Corner Stone_, p. 17. "Each day, and each hour, bring their portion of duty."--_Inst._, p. 156. "And every one that was in distress, and every one that was in debt, and every one that was discontented, gathered themselves unto him."--_1 Sam._, xxii, 2. "Every private Christian and member of the church ought to read and peruse the Scriptures, that they may know their faith and belief founded upon them."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 340. "And every mountain and island were moved out of their places."--_Rev._, vi, 14. "No bandit fierce, no tyrant mad with pride, No cavern'd hermit rest self-satisfied." UNDER NOTE V.--WITH, OR, &c. FOR AND. "The side A, with the sides B and C, compose the triangle."--_Tobitt's Gram._, p. 48; _Felch's_, 69; _Ware's_, 12. "The stream, the rock, or the tree, must each of them stand forth, so as to make a figure in the imagination."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 390. "While this, with euphony, constitute, finally, the whole."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 293. "The bag, with the guineas and dollars in it, were stolen."--_Cobbett's E. Gram._, ¶246. "Sobriety, with great industry and talent, enable a man to perform great deeds."--_Ib._, ¶245. "The _it_, together with the verb _to be_, express states of being."--_Ib._, ¶190. "Where Leonidas the Spartan king, with his chosen band, fighting for their country, were cut off to the last man."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. i, p. 203. "And Leah also, with her children, came near and bowed themselves."--_Gen._, xxxiii, 7. "The First or Second will, either of them, by themselves coalesce with the Third, but not with each other."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 74. "The whole must centre in the query, whether Tragedy or Comedy are hurtful and dangerous representations?"--_Formey's Belles-Lettres_, p. 215. "Grief as well as joy are infectious: the emotions they raise in the spectator resemble them perfectly."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 157. "But in all other words the _Qu_ are both sounded."--_Ensell's Gram._, p. 16. "_Qu_ (which are always together) have the sound of _ku_ or _k_, as in _queen, opaque_."-- _Goodenow's Gram._, p. 45. "In this selection the _ai_ form distinct syllables."--_Walker's Key_, p. 290. "And a considerable village, with gardens, fields, &c., extend around on each side of the square."-- _Liberator_, Vol. ix, p. 140. "Affection, or interest, guide our notions and behaviour in the affairs of life; imagination and passion affect the sentiments that we entertain in matters of taste."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 171. "She heard none of those intimations of her defects, which envy, petulance, or anger, produce among children."--_Rambler_, No. 189. "The King, with the Lords and Commons, constitute an excellent form of government."--_Crombie's Treatise_, p. 242. "If we say, 'I am the man, who commands you,' the relative clause, with the antecedent _man_, form the predicate."--_Ib._, p. 266. "The spacious firmament on high, With all the blue ethereal sky, And spangled heav'ns, a shining frame, Their great Original proclaim." --ADDISON. _Murray's Key_, p. 174; _Day's Gram._, p. 92; _Farnum's_, 106. UNDER NOTE VI.--ELLIPTICAL CONSTRUCTIONS. "There is a reputable and a disreputable practice."--_Adams's Rhet._, Vol. i, p. 350. "This and this man was born in her."--_Milton's Psalms_, lxxxvii. "This and that man was born in her."--_Psal._ lxxxvii, 5. "This and that man was born there."--_Hendrick's Gram._, p. 94. "Thus _le_ in _l~ego_ and _l~egi_ seem to be sounded equally long."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 253; _Gould's_, 243. "A distinct and an accurate articulation forms the groundwork of good delivery."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 25. "How is vocal and written language understood?"--_C. W. Sanders, Spelling-Book_, p. 7. "The good, the wise, and the learned man is an ornament to human society."--_Bartlett's Reader_. "On some points, the expression of song and speech is identical."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 425. "To every room there was an open and secret passage."--_Johnson's Rasselas_, p. 13. "There iz such a thing az tru and false taste, and the latter az often directs fashion, az the former."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 401. "There is such a thing as a prudent and imprudent institution of life, with regard to our health and our affairs"--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 210. "The lot of the outcasts of Israel and the dispersed of Judah, however different in one respect, have in another corresponded with wonderful exactness."--_Hope of Israel_, p. 301. "On these final syllables the radical and vanishing movement is performed."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 64. "To be young or old, good, just, or the contrary, are physical or moral events."--SPURZHEIM: _Felch's Comp. Gram._, p. 29. "The eloquence of George Whitfield and of John Wesley was of a very different character each from the other."--_Dr. Sharp_. "The affinity of _m_ for the series _b_, and of _n_ for the series _t_, give occasion for other Euphonic changes."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, §77. "Pylades' soul and mad Orestes', was In these, if we believe Pythagoras"--_Cowley's Poems_, p. 3. UNDER NOTE VII.--DISTINCT SUBJECT PHRASES. "To be moderate in our views, and to proceed temperately in the pursuit of them, is the best way to ensure success."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 206. "To be of any species, and to have a right to the name of that species, is all one."--_Locke's Essay_, p. 300. "With whom to will and to do is the same."--_Jamieson's Sacred History_, Vol. ii, p. 22. "To profess, and to possess, is very different things."--_Inst._, p. 156. "To do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly with God, is duties of universal obligation."--_Ib._ "To be round or square, to be solid or fluid, to be large or small, and to be moved swiftly or slowly, is all equally alien from the nature of thought."--_Ib._ "The resolving of a sentence into its elements or parts of speech and stating the Accidents which belong to these, is called PARSING."--_Bullion's Pract. Lessons_, p. 9. "To spin and to weave, to knit and to sew, was once a girl's employment; but now to dress and catch a beau, is all she calls enjoyment."--_Lynn News_, Vol. 8, No. 1. RULE XVII.--FINITE VERBS. When a Verb has two or more nominatives connected by _or_ or _nor_, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together: as, "Fear _or_ jealousy _affects_ him."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 133. "Nor eye, _nor_ listening ear, an object _finds_: creation sleeps."--_Young_. "Neither character _nor_ dialogue _was_ yet understood."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 151. "The wife, where danger _or_ dishonour _lurks_, Safest and seemliest by her husband stays."--_Milton, P. L._, ix, 267. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XVII. OBS. 1.--To this rule, so far as its application is practicable, there are properly no exceptions; for, _or_ and _nor_ being disjunctive conjunctions, the nominatives are of course to assume the verb separately, and as agreeing with each. Such agreement seems to be positively required by the alternativeness of the expression. Yet the ancient grammarians seldom, if at all, insisted on it. In Latin and Greek, a plural verb is often employed with singular nominatives thus connected; as, "Tunc nec mens mini, nec color Certa sede _manent_."--HORACE. See _W. Allen's Gram._, p. 133. [Greek: "Ean de adelphos æ adelphæ lumnoi huparchosi, kai leipomenoi osi tæs ephæmerou trophæs."]--_James_, ii. 15. And the best scholars have sometimes _improperly_ imitated this construction in English; as, "Neither Virgil nor Homer _were_ deficient in any of the former beauties."--DRYDEN'S PREFACE: _Brit. Poets_, Vol. iii, p. 168. "Neither Saxon nor Roman _have availed_ to add any idea to his [Plato's] categories."--R. W. EMERSON: _Liberator_, No. 996. "He comes--nor want _nor_ cold his course _delay_: Hide, blushing Glory! hide Pultowa's day."--_Dr. Johnson_. "No monstrous height, _or_ breadth, _or_ length, _appear_; The whole at once is bold and regular."--_Pope, on Crit._, l. 250. OBS. 2.--When two collective nouns of the singular form are connected by _or_ or _nor_, the verb may agree with them in the plural number, because such agreement is adapted to each of them, according to Rule 15th; as, "Why _mankind_, or such a _part_ of mankind, are placed in this condition."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 213. "But neither the _Board_ of Control nor the _Court_ of Directors _have_ any scruples about sanctioning the abuses of which I have spoken."--_Glory and Shame of England_, Vol. ii, p. 70. OBS. 3.--When a verb has nominatives of different persons or numbers, connected by _or_ or _nor_, an explicit concord with each is impossible; because the verb cannot be of different persons or numbers at the same time; nor is it so, even when its form is made the same in all the persons and numbers: thus, "I, thou, [or] he, _may affirm_; we, ye, or they, _may affirm_."--_Beattie's Moral Science_, p. 36. Respecting the proper management of the verb when its nominatives thus disagree, the views of our grammarians are not exactly coincident. Few however are ignorant enough, or rash enough, to deny that there may be an implicit or implied concord in such cases,--a _zeugma_ of the verb in English, as well as of the verb or of the adjective in Latin or Greek. Of this, the following is a brief example: "But _he nor I feel_ more."--_Dr. Young_, Night iii, p. 35. And I shall by-and-by add others--enough, I hope, to confute those false critics who condemn all such phraseology. OBS. 4.--W. Allen's rule is this: "If the nominatives are of different numbers or persons, the verb agrees with _the last_; as, he _or_ his _brothers were_ there; neither _you nor I am_ concerned."--_English Gram._, p. 133. Lindley Murray, and others, say: (1.) "When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun, of different _persons_, are disjunctively connected, the verb must agree with that person which is placed _nearest to it_: as, 'I or thou _art_ to blame;' 'Thou or I _am_ in fault;' 'I, or thou, or he, _is_ the author of it;' 'George or I _am_ the person.' But it would be better to say; 'Either I am to blame, or thou art,' &c. (2.) When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun, _or_ pronoun, and a plural one, the verb is made to agree with the _plural_ noun _and_ pronoun: as, 'Neither poverty nor riches _were_ injurious to him;' 'I or they _were_ offended by it.' But in this case, the plural noun _or_ pronoun, when _it_ can conveniently be _done_, should be placed next to the verb."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 151; _Smith's New Gram._, 128; _Alger's Gram._, 54; _Comly's_, 78 and 79; _Merchant's_, 86; _Picket's_, 175; and many more. There are other grammarians who teach, that the verb must agree with the nominative which is placed next to it, whether this be singular or plural; as, "Neither the servants nor the master _is_ respected;"--"Neither the master nor the servants _are_ respected."--_Alexander Murray's Gram._, p. 65. "But if neither the writings nor the author _is_ in existence, the Imperfect should be used."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 107. OBS. 5.--On this point, a new author has just given us the following precept and criticism: "Never connect by _or_, or _nor_, two or more names or substitutes that have the same _asserter_ [i.e. _verb_] depending on them for sense, if when taken separately, they require different forms of the _asserters_. Examples. 'Neither you nor I _am concerned_. Either he _or_ thou _wast_ there. Either they _or_ he is faulty.' These examples are as erroneous as it would be to say, 'Neither _you am_ concerned, nor am I.' 'Either he _wast_ there, or thou wast.' 'Either _they is_ faulty, or he is.' The sentences should stand thus--'Neither of us _is_ concerned,' or, 'neither _are you_ concerned, nor _am I_.' 'Either _he was_ there, or _thou wast_.' 'Either _they are_ faulty, or _he is_. They are, however, in all their impropriety, writen [sic--KTH] according to the principles of Goold Brown's _grammar!_ and the theories of most of the former writers."--_Oliver B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 252. We shall see by-and-by who is right. OBS. 6.--Cobbett also--while he approves of such English as, "_He, with them, are_ able to do much," for, "_He and they are_ able to do much"--condemns expressly every possible example in which the verb has not a full and explicit concord with each of its nominatives, if they are connected by _or_ or _nor_. His doctrine is this: "If nominatives of different _numbers_ present themselves, we must not give them a verb which _disagrees_ with either the one or the other. We must not say: 'Neither the halter _nor_ the bayonets _are_ sufficient to prevent us from obtaining our rights.' We must avoid this bad grammar by using a different form of words: as, 'We are to be prevented from obtaining our rights by neither the halter nor the bayonets.' And, why should we _wish_ to write bad grammar, if we can express our meaning in good grammar?"--_Cobbett's E. Gram._, ¶ 242. This question would have more force, if the correction here offered did not convey a meaning _widely different_ from that of the sentence corrected. But he goes on: "We cannot say, 'They or I _am_ in fault; I, or they, or he, _is_ the author of it; George or I _am_ the person.' Mr. Lindley Murray says, that we _may_ use these phrases; and that we have only to take care that the verb agree with that person which is _placed nearest_ to it; but, he says also, that it would be _better_ to avoid such phrases by giving a different turn to our words. I do not like to leave any thing to chance or to discretion, when we have a _clear principle_ for our guide."--_Ib._, ¶ 243. This author's "clear principle" is merely his own confident assumption, that every form of figurative or implied agreement, every thing which the old grammarians denominated _zeugma_, is at once to be condemned as a solecism. He is however supported by an other late writer of much greater merit. See _Churchill's New Gram._, pp. 142 and 312. OBS. 7.--If, in lieu of their fictitious examples, our grammarians would give us actual quotations from reputable authors, their instructions would doubtless gain something in accuracy, and still more in authority. "_I or they were offended by it_," and, "_I, or thou, or he, is the author of it_," are expressions that I shall not defend. They imply an _egotistical_ speaker, who either does not know, or will not tell, whether he is _offended_ or not,--whether he _is the author_ or not! Again, there are expressions that are unobjectionable, and yet not conformable to any of the rules just quoted. That nominatives may be correctly connected by _or_ or _nor_ without an express agreement of the verb with each of them, is a point which can be proved to as full certainty as almost any other in grammar; Churchill, Cobbett, and Peirce to the contrary notwithstanding. But with which of the nominatives the verb shall expressly agree, or to which of them it may most properly be understood, is a matter not easy to be settled by any _sure_ general rule. Nor is the lack of such a rule a very important defect, though the inculcation of a false or imperfect one may be. So judged at least the ancient grammarians, who noticed and named almost every possible form of the zeugma, without censuring any as being ungrammatical. In the Institutes of English Grammar, I noted first the usual form of this concord, and then the allowable exceptions; but a few late writers, we see, denounce every form of it, exceptions and all: and, standing alone in their notions of the figure, value their own authority more than that of all other critics together. OBS. 8.--In English, as in other languages, when a verb has discordant nominatives connected disjunctively, it most commonly agrees expressly with that which is nearest, and only by implication, with the more remote; as, "When some word or words _are_ dependent on the attribute."--_Webster's Philos. Gram._, p. 153. "To the first of these qualities, dulness or refinements _are_ dangerous enemies."--_Brown's Estimate_, Vol. ii, p. 15. "He hazards his own life with that of his enemy, and one or both _are_ very _honorably_ murdered."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 235. "The consequence is, that they frown upon everyone whose faults or negligence _interrupts_ or _retards_ their lessons."--_W. C. Woodbridge: Lit. Conv._, p. 114. "Good intentions, or at least sincerity of purpose, _was_ never denied her."--_West's Letters_, p. 43. "Yet this proves not that either he or we _judge_ them to be the rule."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 157. "First clear yourselves of popery before you or thou _dost throw_ it upon us."--_Ib._, i, 169. "_Is_ the gospel or glad tidings of this salvation brought nigh unto all?"--_Ib._, i, 362. "Being persuaded, that either they, or their cause, _is_ naught."--_Ib._, i, 504. "And the reader may judge whether he or I _do_ most fully acknowledge man's fall."--_Ib._, iii, 332. "To do justice to the Ministry, they have not yet pretended that any one, or any two, of the three Estates, _have_ power to make a new law, without the concurrence of the third."--_Junius_, Letter xvii. "The forest, or hunting-grounds, _are_ deemed the property of the tribe."--_Robertson's America_, i, 313. "Birth or titles _confer_ no preëminence."--_Ib._, ii, 184. "Neither tobacco nor hides _were_ imported from Caraccas into Spain."--_Ib._, ii, 507. "The keys or seed-vessel of the maple _has_ two large side-wings."--_The Friend_, vii, 97. "An example or two _are_ sufficient to illustrate the general observation."--_Dr. Murray's Hist. of Lang._, i, 58. "Not thou, nor those thy factious arts engage, _Shall_ reap that harvest of rebellious rage."--_Dryden_, p. 60. OBS. 9.--But when the remoter nominative is the principal word, and the nearer one is expressed parenthetically, the verb agrees literally with the former, and only by implication, with the latter; as, "One example, (or ten,) _says_ nothing against it."--_Leigh Hunt_. "And we, (or future ages,) _may_ possibly _have_ a proof of it."--_Bp. Butler_. So, when the alternative is merely in the _words_, not in the _thought_, the former term is sometimes considered the principal one, and is therefore allowed to control the verb; but there is always a harshness in this mixture of different numbers, and, to render such a construction tolerable, it is necessary to read the latter term like a parenthesis, and make the former emphatic: as, "A _parenthesis_, or brackets, _consists_ of two angular strokes, or hooks, enclosing one or more words."--_Whiting's Reader_, p. 28. "To show us that our own _schemes_, or prudence, _have_ no share in our advancements."--_Addison_. "The Mexican _figures_, or picture-writing, _represent_ things, not words; _they_ exhibit images to the eye, not ideas to the understanding."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 243; _English Reader_, p. xiii. "At Travancore, _Koprah_, or dried cocoa-nut kernels, _is_ monopolized by government."--_Maunder's Gram._, p. 12. "The _Scriptures_, or Bible, _are_ the only authentic source."--_Bp. Tomline's Evidences_. "Nor foes nor fortune _take_ this power away; And is my Abelard less kind than _they_?"--_Pope_, p. 334. OBS. 10.--The English adjective being indeclinable, we have no examples of some of the forms of zeugma which occur in Latin and Greek. But adjectives differing in _number_, are sometimes connected without a repetition of the noun; and, in the agreement of the verb, the noun which is understood, is less apt to be regarded than that which is expressed, though the latter be more remote; as, "There _are one or two_ small _irregularities_ to be noted."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 63. "There _are one or two persons_, and but one or two."--_Hazlitt's Lectures_. "There _are one or two_ others."--_Crombie's Treatise_, p. 206. "There _are one or two_."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 319. "There _are one or more_ seminaries in every province."--_H. E. Dwight: Lit. Conv._, p. 133. "Whether _one or more_ of the clauses _are_ to be considered the nominative case."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 150. "So that, I believe, there _is_ not _more_ than _one_ genuine example extant."--_Knight, on the Greek Alphabet_, p. 10. "There _is_, properly, no _more_ than _one_ pause or rest in the sentence."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 329; _Blair's Rhet._, p. 125. "Sometimes a small _letter or two is_ added to the capital."--_Adam's Lat. Gram._, p. 223; _Gould's_, 283. Among the examples in the seventh paragraph above, there is one like this last, but with a plural verb; and if either is objectionable, _is_ should here be _are_. The preceding example, too, is such as I would not imitate. To L. Murray, the following sentence seemed false syntax, because _one_ does not agree with _persons_: "He saw _one or more persons_ enter the garden."--_Murray's Exercises_, Rule 8th, p. 54. In his Key, he has it thus: "He saw one _person_, or _more than one_, enter the garden."--_Oct. Gram._, Vol. ii, p. 189. To me, this stiff _correction_, which many later grammarians have copied, seems worse than none. And the effect of the principle may be noticed in Murray's style elsewhere; as, "When a _semicolon, or more than one_, have preceded."--_Octavo Gram._, i, p. 277; _Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 288. Here a ready writer would be very apt to prefer one of the following phrases: "When a semicolon _or two_ have preceded,"--"When _one or two semicolons_ have preceded,"--"When _one or more semicolons_ have preceded." It is better to write by guess, than to become systematically awkward in expression. OBS. 11.--In Greek and Latin, the pronoun of the first person, according to our critics, is _generally_[398] placed first; as, "[Greek: Ego kai su ta dikaia poiæsomen]. Xen."--_Milnes's Gr. Gram._, p. 120. That is, "_Ego et tu justa faciemus_." Again: "_Ego et Cicero valemus_. Cic."--_Buchanan's Pref._, p. x; _Adam's Gram._, 206; _Gould's_, 203. "I and Cicero are well."--_Ib._ But, in English, a modest speaker usually gives to others the precedence, and mentions himself last; as, "He, or thou, or I, must go."--"Thou and I will do what is right."--"Cicero and I are well."--_Dr. Adam_.[399] Yet, in speaking of himself and his _dependants_, a person most commonly takes rank before them; as, "Your inestimable letters supported _myself, my wife_, and _children_, in adversity."--_Lucien Bonaparte, Charlemagne_, p. v. "And I shall be destroyed, _I_ and _my house_."--_Gen._, xxxiv, 30. And in acknowledging a fault, misfortune, or censure, any speaker may assume the first place; as, "Both _I and thou_ are in the fault."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 207. "Both _I and you_ are in fault."--_Buchanan's Syntax_, p. ix. "Trusty did not do it; _I and Robert_ did it."--_Edgeworth's Stories_. "With critic scales, weighs out the partial wit, What _I_, or _you_, or _he_, or _no one_ writ." --_Lloyd's Poems_, p. 162. OBS. 12.--According to the theory of this work, verbs themselves are not unfrequently connected, one to an other, by _and, or_, or _nor_; so that two or more of them, being properly in the same construction, may be parsed as agreeing with the same nominative: as, "So that the blind and dumb [_man_] both _spake_ and _saw_."--_Matt._, xii, 22. "That no one _might buy_ or _sell_."--_Rev._, xiii, 17. "Which _see_ not, nor _hear_, nor _know_."--_Dan._, v, 23. We have certainly very many examples like these, in which it is neither convenient nor necessary to suppose an ellipsis of the nominative before the latter verb, or before all but the first, as most of our grammarians do, whenever they find two or more finite verbs connected in this manner. It is true, the nominative may, in most instances, be repeated without injury to the sense; but this fact is no proof of such an ellipsis; because many a sentence which is not incomplete, may possibly take additional words without change of meaning. But these authors, (as I have already suggested under the head of conjunctions,) have not been very careful of their own consistency. If they teach, that, "Every finite verb has its own separate nominative, either expressed or implied," which idea Murray and others seem to have gathered from Lowth; or if they say, that, "Conjunctions really unite sentences, when they appear to unite only words," which notion they may have acquired from Harris; what room is there for that common assertion, that, "Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of verbs," which is a part of Murray's eighteenth rule, and found in most of our grammars? For no agreement is usually required between verbs that have separate nominatives; and if we supply a nominative wherever we do not find one for each verb, then in fact no two verbs will ever be connected by any conjunction. OBS. 13.--What agreement there must be, between verbs that are in the same construction, it is not easy to determine with certainty. Some of the Latin grammarians tell us, that certain conjunctions connect "sometimes similar moods and tenses, and sometimes similar moods but different tenses." See _Prat's Grammatica Latina, Octavo_, Part ii, p. 95. Ruddiman, Adam, and Grant, omit the concord of tenses, and enumerate certain conjunctions which "couple like cases and moods." But all of them acknowledge some exceptions to their rules. The instructions of Lindley Murray and others, on this point, may be summed up in the following canon: "When verbs are connected by a conjunction, they must either agree in mood, tense, and form, or have separate nominatives expressed." This rule, (with a considerable exception to it, which other authors had not noticed.) was adopted by myself in the Institutes of English Grammar, and also retained in the Brief Abstract of that work, entitled, The First Lines of English Grammar. It there stands as the thirteenth in the series of principal rules; but, as there is no occasion to refer to it in the exercise of parsing, I now think, a less prominent place may suit it as well or better. The principle may be considered as being less certain and less important than most of the usual rules of syntax: I shall therefore both modify the expression of it, and place it among the notes of the present code. See Notes 5th and 6th below. OBS. 14.--By the agreement of verbs with each other in _form_, it is meant, that the simple form and the compound, the familiar form and the solemn, the affirmative form and the negative, or the active form and the passive, are not to be connected without a repetition of the nominative. With respect to _our_ language, this part of the rule is doubtless as important, and as true, as any other. A thorough agreement, then, in mood, tense, and form, is _generally_ required, when verbs are connected by _and, or_, or _nor_; and, under each part of this concord, there may be cited certain errors which ought to be avoided, as will by-and-by be shown. But, at the same time, there seem to be many allowable violations of the rule, some or other of which may perhaps form exceptions to every part of it. For example, the _tense_ may be varied, as it often is in Latin; thus, "As the general state of religion _has been, is_, or _shall be_, affected by them."--_Butlers Analogy_, p. 241. "Thou art righteous, O Lord, which _art_, and _wast_, and _shall be_, because thou hast judged thus."--_Rev._, xvi, 5. In the former of these examples, a repetition of the nominative would not be agreeable; in the latter, it would perhaps be an improvement: as, "_who_ art, and _who_ wast, and _who_ shalt be." (I here change the pronoun, because the relative _which_ is not now applied as above.) "This dedication may serve for almost any book, that _has been_, or _shall be_ published."--_Campbell's Rhet._ p. 207; _Murray's Gram._, p. 222. "It ought to be, '_has been, is_, or _shall be_, published.'"--_Crombie's Treatise_, p. 383. "Truth and good sense _are_ firm, and _will establish_ themselves."--_Blair's Rhet._ p. 286. "Whereas Milton _followed_ a different plan, and _has given_ a tragic conclusion to a poem otherwise epic in its form."--_Ib._, p. 428. "I am certain, that such _are not_, nor ever _were_, the tenets of the church of England."--_West's Letters_, p. 148. "They _deserve_, and _will meet with_, no regard."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 109. "Whoever thinks a faultless piece to see, Thinks what ne'er _was_, nor _is_, nor e'er _shall be_." --_Pope, on Crit._ OBS. 15.--So verbs differing in _mood_ or _form_ may sometimes agree with the same nominative, if the simplest verb be placed first--rarely, I think, if the words stand in any other order: as, "One _may be_ free from affectation and _not have_ merit"--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 189. "There _is_, and _can be_, no other person."--_Murray's Key_. 8vo. p. 224. "To see what _is_, and _is allowed_ to be, the plain natural rule."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 284. "This great experiment _has worked_, and _is working_, well, every way well"--BRADBURN: _Liberator_, ix. 162. "This edition of Mr. Murray's works on English Grammar, _deserves_ a place in Libraries, and _will not fail_ to obtain it."--BRITISH CRITIC: _Murray's Gram._, 8vo, ii, 299. "What nothing earthly _gives_, or _can destroy_."--_Pope_. "Some _are_, and _must be_, greater than the rest."--_Id._ OBS. 16.--Since most of the tenses of an English verb are composed of two or more words, to prevent a needless or disagreeable repetition of auxiliaries, participles, and principal verbs, those parts which are common to two or more verbs in the same sentence, are generally expressed to the first, and understood to the rest; or reserved, and put last, as the common supplement of each; as, "To which they _do_ or _can extend_."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 77. "He _may_, as any one _may_, if he _will, incur_ an infamous execution from the hands of civil justice."--_Ib._, p. 82. "All that has usurped the name of virtue, and [_has_] deceived us by its semblance, must be a mockery and a delusion."--_Dr. Chalmers_. "Human praise, and human eloquence, may acknowledge it, but the Discerner of the heart never will" [_acknowledge it_].--_Id._ "We use thee not so hardly, as prouder livers do" [_use thee_].--_Shak._ "Which they might have foreseen and [_might have_] avoided."--_Butler_. "Every sincere endeavour to amend, shall be assisted, [_shall be_] accepted, and [_shall be_] rewarded."--_Carter_. "Behold, I thought, He will surely come out to me, and [_will_] stand and [_will_] call on the name of the Lord his God, and [_will_] strike his hand over the place, and [_will_] recover the leper."--_2 Kings_, v, 11. "They mean to, and will, hear patiently."--_Salem Register_. That is, "They mean to _hear patiently_, and _they_ will hear patiently." "He can create, and he destroy."--_Bible_. That is,--"and he _can_ destroy." "Virtue _may be assail'd_, but never _hurt_, _Surpris'd_ by unjust force, but not _inthrall'd_."--_Milton_. "Mortals whose pleasures are their only care, First wish to be _imposed on_, and then _are_."--_Cowper_. OBS. 17.--From the foregoing examples, it may be seen, that the complex and divisible structure of the English moods and tenses, produces, when verbs are connected together, a striking peculiarity of construction in our language, as compared with the nearest corresponding construction in Latin or Greek. For we can connect different auxiliaries, participles, or principal verbs, without repeating, and apparently without connecting, the other parts of the mood or tense. And although it is commonly supposed that these parts are necessarily understood wherever they are not repeated, there are sentences, and those not a few, in which we cannot express them, without inserting also an additional nominative, and producing distinct clauses; as, "_Should_ it not _be taken_ up and _pursued_?"--_Dr. Chalmers_. "Where thieves _do_ not _break_ through nor _steal_."--_Matt._, vi, 20. "None present _could_ either _read_ or _explain_ the writing-."--_Wood's Dict._, Vol. i, p. 159. Thus we sometimes make a single auxiliary an index to the mood and tense of more than one verb. OBS. 18.--The verb _do_, which is sometimes an auxiliary and sometimes a principal verb, is thought by some grammarians to be also fitly made a _substitute_ for other verbs, as a pronoun is for nouns; but this doctrine has not been taught with accuracy, and the practice under it will in many instances be found to involve a solecism. In this kind of substitution, there must either be a true ellipsis of the principal verb, so that _do_ is only an auxiliary; or else the verb _do_, with its _object_ or _adverb_, if it need one, must exactly correspond to an action described before; so that to speak of _doing this_ or _thus_, is merely the shortest way of repeating the idea: as, "He _loves_ not plays, as thou _dost_. Antony."--_Shak._ That is, "as thou _dost love plays._" "This fellow is wise enough _to play the fool_; and, _to do that_ well, craves a kind of wit."--_Id._ Here, "_to do that_," is, "_to play the fool_." "I will not _do it_, if I find thirty there."--_Gen._, xviii, 30. Do what? Destroy the city, as had been threatened. Where _do_ is an auxiliary, there is no real substitution; and, in the other instances, it is not properly the verb _do_, that is the substitute, but rather the word that follows it--or perhaps, both. For, since every action consists in _doing something_ or in _doing somehow_, this general verb _do_, with _this, that, it, thus_, or _so_, to identify the action, may assume the import of many a longer phrase. But care must be taken not to substitute this verb for any term to which it is not equivalent; as, "The _a_ is certainly to be sounded as the English _do_."--_Walker's Dict., w. A_. Say, "as the English _sound it_;" for _do_ is here absurd, and grossly solecistical. "The duke had not behaved with that loyalty with which he ought to have _done_."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 111; _Murray's_, i, 212; _Churchill's_, 355; _Fisk's_, 137; _Ingersoll's_, 269. Say, "with which he ought to have _behaved_;" for, to have _done_ with loyalty is not what was meant--far from it. Clarendon wrote the text thus: "The Duke had not behaved with that loyalty, _as_ he ought to have done." This should have been corrected, not by changing _"as"_ to _"with which"_, but by saying--"with that loyalty _which_ he ought to have _observed;"_ or, "_which would have become him"_. OBS. 19.--It is little to the credit of our grammarians, to find so many of them thus concurring in the same obvious error, and even making bad English worse. The very examples which have hitherto been given to prove that _do_ may be a substitute for other verbs, are _none of them in point_, and all of them have been constantly and shamefully _misinterpreted._ Thus: "They [_do_ and _did_] sometimes also supply the place of _another verb_, and make the repetition of it, in the same or a subsequent sentence, unnecessary: as, 'You attend not to your studies as he _does_;' (i. e. as he _attends_, &c.) 'I shall come if I can; but if I _do not_, please to excuse me;' (i. e. if I _come_ not.)"--_L. Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 88; _R. C. Smith's_, 88; _Ingersoll's_, 135; _Fisk's_, 78; _A. Flint's_, 41; _Hiley's_, 30. This remark, but not the examples, was taken from _Lowths Gram._, p. 41. Churchill varies it thus, and retains Lowth's example: "It [i. e., _do_] is used also, to supply the _place of another verb_, in order to avoid the repetition of it: as, 'He _loves_ not plays, As thou _dost_, Antony.' SHAKS."--_New Gram._, p. 96. Greenleaf says, "To prevent the repetition of _one or more verbs_, in the same, or [a] following sentence, we frequently make use of _do_ AND _did_; as, 'Jack learns the English language as fast as Henry _does_;' that is, 'as fast as Henry _learns_.' 'I shall come if I can; but if I _do_ not, please to excuse me;' that is, 'if I _come_ not.'"--_Gram. Simplified_, p. 27. Sanborn says, "_Do_ is also used _instead of another verb_, and not unfrequently instead of both _the verb and its object_; as, 'he _loves work_ as well as you _do_;' that is, as well as you _love work_."--_Analyt. Gram._, p. 112. Now all these interpretations are wrong; the word _do, dost_, or _does_, being simply an auxiliary, after which the principal verb (with its object where it has one) is _understood_. But the first example is _bad English_, and its explanation is still worse. For, "_As he attends_, &c.," means, "As _he_ attends _to your studies!_" And what good sense is there in this? The sentence ought to have been, "You do not attend to your studies, as he does _to his_." That is--"as he does _attend_ to his _studies_." This plainly shows that there is, in the text, no real substitution of _does_ for _attends_. So of all other examples exhibited in our grammars, under this head: there is nothing to the purpose, in any of them; the common principle of _ellipsis_ resolves them all. Yet, strange to say, in the latest and most learned of this sort of text-books, we find the same sham example, fictitious and solecistical as it is, still blindly repeated, to show that "_does_" is not in its own place, as an auxiliary, but "supplies the place of another verb."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, 8vo. 1850. p. 265. NOTES TO RULE XVII. NOTE I.--When a verb has nominatives of different persons or numbers,[400] connected by _or_ or _nor_, it must agree with the nearest, (unless an other be the principal term,) and must be understood to the rest, in the person and number required; as, "Neither you nor I _am_ concerned."--_W. Allen_. "That neither they nor ye also _die_."--_Numb._, xviii, 3. "But neither god, nor shrine, nor mystic rite, Their city, nor her walls, his soul _delight_." --_Rowe's Lucan_, B. x, l. 26. NOTE II.--But, since all nominatives that require different forms of the verb, virtually produce separate clauses or propositions, it is better to complete the concord whenever we conveniently can, by expressing the verb or its auxiliary in connexion with each of them; as, "Either thou _art_ to blame, or I _am_."--_Comly's Gram._, p. 78. "Neither _were_ their numbers, nor _was_ their destination, known."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 134. So in clauses connected by _and_: as, "But declamation _is_ idle, and _murmurs_ fruitless."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 82. Say,--"and murmurs _are_ fruitless." NOTE III.--In English, the speaker should always mention himself last; unless his own superior dignity, or the confessional nature of the expression, warrant him in taking the precedence: as, "_Thou or I_ must go."--"He then addressed his discourse to _my father and me_."--"_Ellen and I_ will seek, apart, the refuge of some forest cell."--_Scott_. See Obs. 11th above. NOTE IV.--Two or more distinct subject phrases connected by _or_ or _nor_, require a singular verb; and, if a nominative come after the verb, that must be singular also: as, "That a drunkard should be poor, _or_ that a fop should be ignorant, _is_ not strange."--"To give an affront, or to take one tamely, _is_ no _mark_ of a great mind." So, when the phrases are unconnected: as, "To spread suspicion, to invent calumnies, to propagate scandal, _requires_ neither labour nor courage."--_Rambler_, No. 183. NOTE V.--In general, when _verbs_ are connected by _and, or_, or _nor_, they must either agree in mood, tense, and form, or the simplest in form must be placed first; as, "So Sennacherib king of Assyria _departed_, and _went_ and _returned_, and _dwelt_ at Nineveh."--_Isaiah_, xxxvii, 37. "For if I _be_ an offender, or _have committed_ any thing worthy of death, I refuse not to die."--_Acts_, xxv, 11. NOTE VI.--In stead of conjoining discordant verbs, it is in general better to repeat the nominative or insert a new one; as, "He was greatly heated, and [_he] drank_ with avidity."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 201. "A person may be great or rich by chance; but _cannot be_ wise or good, without taking pains for it."--_Ib._, p. 200. Say,--"but _no one can be_ wise or good, without taking pains for it." NOTE VII.--A mixture of the forms of the solemn style and the familiar, is inelegant, whether the verbs refer to the same nominative or have different ones expressed; as, "What _appears_ tottering and in hazard of tumbling, _produceth_ in the spectator the painful emotion of fear."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 356. "And the milkmaid _singeth_ blithe, And the mower _whets_ his sithe."--_Milton's Allegro_, l. 65 and 66. NOTE VIII.--To use different moods under precisely the same circumstances, is improper, even if the verbs have separate nominatives; as, "Bating that one _speak_ and an other _answers_, it is quite the same."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 368. Say,--"that one _speaks_;" for both the speaking and the answering are assumed as facts. NOTE IX.--When two terms are connected, which involve different forms of the same verb, such parts of the compound tenses as are not common to both forms, should be inserted in full: except sometimes after the auxiliary _do_; as, "And then he _falls_, as I _do_."--_Shak_. That is, "as I _do fall_." The following sentences are therefore faulty: "I think myself highly obliged _to make_ his fortune, as he _has_ mine."--_Spect._, No. 474. Say,--"as he _has made_ mine." "Every attempt to remove them, _has_, and likely _will prove_ unsuccessful."--_Gay's Prosodical Gram._, p. 4. Say,--"_has proved_, and likely _will prove_, unsuccessful." NOTE X.--The verb _do_ must never be substituted for any term to which its own meaning is not adapted; nor is there any use in putting it for a preceding verb that is equally short: as, "When we see how confidently men rest on groundless surmises in reference to their own souls, we cannot wonder that they _do it_ in reference to others."--_Simeon_. Better:--"that they _so rest_ in reference to _the souls of_ others;" for this repeats the idea with more exactness. NOTE XI.--The preterit should not be employed to form the compound tenses of the verb; nor should the perfect participle be used for the preterit or confounded with the present. Thus: say, "To have _gone_," not, "To have _went_;" and, "I _did_ so," not, "I _done_ so;" or, "He _saw_ them," not, "He _seen_ them." Again: say not, "It was _lift_ or _hoist_ up;" but, "It was _lifted_ or _hoisted_ up." NOTE XII.--Care should be taken, to give every verb or participle its appropriate form, and not to confound those which resemble each other; as, _to flee_ and _to fly, to lay_ and _to lie, to sit_ and _to set, to fall_ and _to fell_, &c. Thus: say, "He _lay_ by the fire;" not, "He _laid_ by the fire;"--"He _has become_ rich;" not, "He _is become_ rich;"--"I _would_ rather _stay_;" not, "I _had_ rather _stay_." NOTE XIII.--In the syntax of words that express time, whether they be verbs, adverbs, or nouns, the order and fitness of time should be observed, that the tenses may be used according to their import. Thus: in stead of, "I _have seen_ him _last week_;" say, "I _saw_ him _last week_;"--and, in stead of, "I _saw_ him _this week_;" say, "I _have seen_ him _this week_." So, in stead of, "I _told_ you _already_;" or, "I _have told_ you _before_;" say, "I _have told_ you _already_;"--"I _told_ you _before_." NOTE XIV.--Verbs of commanding, desiring, expecting, hoping, intending, permitting, and some others, in all their tenses, refer to actions or events, relatively present or future: one should therefore say, "I hoped you _would come_;" not, "I hoped you _would have come_;"--and, "I intended _to do_ it;" not, "I intended _to have done_ it;"--&c. NOTE XV.--Propositions that are as true now as they ever were or will be, should generally be expressed in the present tense: as, "He seemed hardly to know, that two and two _make_ four;" not, "_made_."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 65. "He will tell you, that whatever _is, is_ right." Sometimes the present tense is improper with the conjunction _that_, though it would be quite proper without it; as, "Others said, _That_ it _is_ Elias. And others said, _That_ it _is_ a prophet."--_Mark_, vi, 15. Here _That_ should be omitted, or else _is_ should be _was_. The capital _T_ is also improper. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XVII. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.--NOMINATIVES CONNECTED BY OR. "We do not know in what either reason or instinct consist."--_Rambler_, No. 41. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the verb _consist_ is of the plural number, and does not correctly agree with its two nominatives, _reason_ and _instinct_, which are connected by _or_, and taken disjunctively. But, according to Rule 17th, "When a verb has two or more nominatives connected by _or_ or _nor_, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together." Therefore, _consist_ should be _consists_; thus, "We do not know in what either reason or instinct _consists_."] "A noun or a pronoun joined with a participle, constitute a nominative case absolute."--_Bicknell's Gram._, Part ii, p. 50. "The relative will be of that case, which the verb or noun following, or the preposition going before, use to govern."--_Dr. Adam's Gram._, p. 203. "Which the verb or noun following, or the preposition going before, usually govern."--_Gould's Adam's Gram._, p. 200.[401] "In the different modes of pronunciation which habit or caprice give rise to."--_Knight, on the Greek Alphabet_, p. 14. "By which he, or his deputy, were authorized to cut down any trees in Whittlebury forest."--_Junius_, p. 251. "Wherever objects were to be named, in which sound, noise, or motion were concerned, the imitation by words was abundantly obvious."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 55. "The pleasure or pain resulting from a train of perceptions in different circumstances, are a beautiful contrivance of nature for valuable purposes."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 262. "Because their foolish vanity or their criminal ambition represent the principles by which they are influenced, as absolutely perfect."--_Life of Madame De Stael_, p. 2. "Hence naturally arise indifference or aversion between the parties."--_Brown's Estimate_, ii, 37. "A penitent unbeliever, or an impenitent believer, are characters no where to be found."--_Tract_, No. 183. "Copying whatever is peculiar in the talk of all those whose birth or fortune entitle them to imitation."--_Rambler_, No. 194. "Where love, hatred, fear, or contempt, are often of decisive influence."--_Duncan's Cicero_, p. 119. "A lucky anecdote, or an enlivening tale relieve the folio page."--_D'Israeli's Curiosities_, Vol. i, p. 15. "For outward matter or event, fashion not the character within."--_Book of Thoughts_, p. 37. "Yet sometimes we have seen that wine, or chance, have warmed cold brains."--_Dryden's Poems_, p. 76. "Motion is a Genus; Flight, a Species; this Flight or that Flight are Individuals."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 38. "When _et, aut, vel, sine_, or _nec_, are joined to different members of the same sentence."--_Adam's Lat. and Eng. Gram._, p. 206; _Gould's Lat. Gram._, 203; _Grant's_, 266. "Wisdom or folly govern us."--_Fisk's English Gram._, 84. "_A_ or _an_ are styled indefinite articles."--_Folker's Gram._, p. 4. "A rusty nail, or a crooked pin, shoot up into prodigies."--_Spectator_, No. 7. "Are either the subject or the predicate in the second sentence modified?"--_Fowler's E. Gram._, 8vo, 1850, p. 578, §589. "Praise from a friend, or censure from a foe, Are lost on hearers that our merits know." --_Pope, Iliad_, B. x, l. 293. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.--NOMINATIVES CONNECTED BY NOR. "Neither he nor she have spoken to him."--_Perrin's Gram._, p. 237. "For want of a process of events, neither knowledge nor elegance preserve the reader from weariness."--JOHNSON: _in Crabb's Syn._, p. 511. "Neither history nor tradition furnish such information."--_Robertson's Amer._, Vol. i, p. 2. "Neither the form nor power of the liquids have varied materially."--_Knight, on the Greek Alph._, p. 16. "Where neither noise nor motion are concerned."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 55. "Neither Charles nor his brother were qualified to support such a system."--_Junius_, p. 250. "When, therefore, neither the liveliness of representation, nor the warmth of passion, serve, as it were, to cover the trespass, it is not safe to leave the beaten track."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 381. "In many countries called Christian, neither Christianity, nor its evidence, are fairly laid before men."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 269. "Neither the intellect nor the heart are capable of being driven."--_Abbott's Teacher_, p. 20. "Throughout this hymn, neither Apollo nor Diana are in any way connected with the Sun or Moon."--_Coleridge's Introd._, p. 199. "Of which, neither he, nor this Grammar, take any notice."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 346. "Neither their solicitude nor their foresight extend so far."--_Robertson's Amer._, Vol. i, p. 287. "Neither Gomara, nor Oviedo, nor Herrera, consider Ojeda, or his companion Vespucci, as the first discoverers of the continent of America."--_Ib._, Vol. i, p. 471. "Neither the general situation of our colonies, nor that particular distress which forced the inhabitants of Boston to take up arms, have been thought worthy of a moment's consideration."--_Junius_, p. 174. "Nor War nor Wisdom yield our Jews delight, They will not study, and they dare not fight." --_Crabbe's Borough_, p. 50. "Nor time nor chance breed such confusions yet, Nor are the mean so rais'd, nor sunk the great." --_Rowe's Lucan_, B. iii, l. 213. UNDER NOTE I.--NOMINATIVES THAT DISAGREE. "The definite article _the_, designates what particular thing or things is meant."--_Merchant's School Gram._, p. 23 and p. 33. "Sometimes a word or words necessary to complete the grammatical construction of a sentence, is not expressed, but omitted by ellipsis."--_Burr's Gram._, p. 26. "Ellipsis, or abbreviations, is the wheels of language."--_Maunder's Gram._, p. 12. "The conditions or tenor of none of them appear at this day."--_Hutchinson's Hist. of Mass._, Vol. i, p. 16. "Neither men nor money were wanting for the service."--_Ib._, Vol. i, p. 279. "Either our own feelings, or the representation of those of others, require frequent emphatic distinction."--_Barber's Exercises_, p. 13. "Either Atoms and Chance, or Nature are uppermost: now I am for the latter part of the disjunction,"--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 181. "Their riches or poverty are generally proportioned to their activity or indolence."--_Ross Cox's Narrative_. "Concerning the other part of him, neither you nor he seem to have entertained an idea."--_Bp. Horne_. "Whose earnings or income are so small."--_N. E. Discipline_, p. 130. "Neither riches nor fame render a man happy."--_Day's Gram._, p. 71. "The references to the pages, always point to the first volume, unless the Exercises or Key are mentioned."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. ii, p. 283. UNDER NOTE II.--COMPLETE THE CONCORD. "My lord, you wrong my father; nor he nor I are capable of harbouring a thought against your peace."--_Walpole_. "There was no division of acts; no pauses or interval between them; but the stage was continually full; occupied either by the actors, or the chorus."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 463. "Every word ending in B, P, F, as also many in V, are of this order."--_Dr. Murray's Hist. of Lang._, i, 73. "As proud as we are of human reason, nothing can be more absurd than the general system of human life and human knowledge."--_Bolingbroke, on Hist._, p. 347. "By which the body of sin and death is done away, and we cleansed."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 165. "And those were already converted, and regeneration begun in them."--_Ib._, iii, 433. "For I am an old man, and my wife well stricken in years."--_Luke_, i, 18. "Who is my mother, or my brethren?"--_Mark_, iii, 33. "Lebanon is not sufficient to burn, nor the beasts thereof sufficient for a burnt-offering."--_Isaiah_, xl, 16. "Information has been obtained, and some trials made."--_Society in America_, i, 308. "It is as obvious, and its causes more easily understood."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 84. "All languages furnish examples of this kind, and the English as many as any other."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 157. "The winters are long, and the cold intense."--_Morse's Geog._, p. 39. "How have I hated instruction, and my heart despised reproof!"--_Prov._, v, 12. "The vestals were abolished by Theodosius the Great, and the fire of Vesta extinguished."--_Lempriere, w. Vestales_. "Riches beget pride; pride, impatience."--_Bullions's Practical Lessons_, p. 89. "Grammar is not reasoning, any more than organization is thought, or letters sounds."--_Enclytica_, p. 90. "Words are implements, and grammar a machine."--_Ib._, p. 91. UNDER NOTE III.--PLACE OF THE FIRST PERSON. "I or thou art the person who must undertake the business proposed."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 184. "I and he were there."--_Dr. Ash's Gram._, p. 51. "And we dreamed a dream in one night, I and he."--_Gen._, xli, 11. "If my views remain the same as mine and his were in 1833."--GOODELL: _Liberator_, ix, 148. "I and my father were riding out."--_Inst._, p. 158. "The premiums were given to me and George."--_Ib._ "I and Jane are invited."--_Ib._ "They ought to invite me and my sister."--_Ib._ "I and you intend going."--_Guy's Gram._, p. 55. "I and John are going to Town."--_British Gram._, p. 193. "I, and he are sick. I, and thou are well."--_James Brown's American Gram._, Boston Edition of 1841, p. 123. "I, and he is. I, and thou art. I, and he writes."--_Ib._, p. 126. "I, and they are well. I, thou, and she were walking."--_Ib._, p. 127. UNDER NOTE IV.--DISTINCT SUBJECT PHRASES. "To practise tale-bearing, or even to countenance it, are great injustice."--_Brown's Inst._, p. 159. "To reveal secrets, or to betray one's friends, are contemptible perfidy."--_Ib._ "To write all substantives with capital letters, or to exclude them from adjectives derived from proper names, may perhaps be thought offences too small for animadversion; but the evil of innovation is always something."--_Dr. Barrow's Essays_, p. 88. "To live in such families, or to have such servants, are blessings from God."--_Family Commentary_, p. 64. "How they portioned out the country, what revolutions they experienced, or what wars they maintained, are utterly unknown."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, Vol. i, p. 4. "To speak or to write perspicuously and agreeably, are attainments of the utmost consequence to all who purpose, either by speech or writing, to address the public."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 11. UNDER NOTE V.--MAKE THE VERBS AGREE. "Doth he not leave the ninety and nine, and goeth into the mountains, and seeketh that which is gone astray?"--_Matt._, xviii, 12. "Did he not fear the Lord, and besought the Lord, and the Lord repented him of the evil which he had pronounced?"--_Jer._, xxvi, 19. "And dost thou open thine eyes upon such an one, and bringest me into judgement with thee?"--_Job_, xiv, 3. "If any man among you seem to be religious, and bridleth not his tongue, but deceiveth his own heart, this man's religion is vain."--_James_, i, 26. "If thou sell aught unto thy neighbour, or buyest aught of thy neighbour's hand, ye shall not oppress one an other."--_Leviticus_, xxv, 14. "And if thy brother that dwelleth by thee, shall have become poor, and be sold to thee, thou shalt not compel him to serve as a bond servant."--WEBSTER'S BIBLE: _Lev._, xxv, 39. "If thou bring thy gift to the altar, and there rememberest that thy brother hath aught against thee," &c.--_Matt._, v, 23. "Anthea was content to call a coach, and crossed the brook."--_Rambler_, No. 34. "It is either totally suppressed, or appears in its lowest and most imperfect form."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 23. "But if any man be a worshiper of God, and doeth his will, him he heareth."--_John_, ix, 31. "Whereby his righteousness and obedience, death and sufferings without, become profitable unto us, and is made ours."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 164. "Who ought to have been here before thee, and object, if they had aught against me."--_Acts_, xxiv, 19. "Yes! thy proud lords, unpitied land, shall see That man hath yet a soul, and dare be free."--_Campbell_. UNDER NOTE VI.--USE SEPARATE NOMINATIVES. "_H_ is only an aspiration or breathing; and sometimes at the beginning of a word is not sounded at all."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 4. "Man was made for society, and ought to extend his good will to all men."--_Ib._, p. 12; _Murray's_, i, 170. "There is, and must be, a supreme being, of infinite goodness, power, and wisdom, who created and supports them."--_Beattie's Moral Science_, p. 201. "Were you not affrighted, and mistook a spirit for a body?"--_Watson's Apology_, p. 122. "The latter noun or pronoun is not governed by the conjunction _than_ or _as_, but agrees with the verb, or is governed by the verb or the preposition, expressed or understood."-- _Murray's Gram._, p. 214; _Russell's_, 103; _Bacon's_, 51; _Alger's_, 71; _R. C. Smith's_, 179. "He had mistaken his true interests, and found himself forsaken."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 201. "The amputation was exceedingly well performed, and saved the patient's life."--_Ib._, p. 191. "The intentions of some of these philosophers, nay, of many [,] might have been, and probably were good."--_Ib._, p. 216. "This may be true, and yet will not justify the practice."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 33. "From the practice of those who have had a liberal education, and are therefore presumed to be best acquainted with men and things."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 161. "For those energies and bounties which created and preserve the universe."--_J. Q. Adams's Rhet._, i, 327. "I shall make it once for all and hope it will be afterwards remembered."--_Blair's Lect._, p. 45. "This consequence is drawn too abruptly, and needed more explanation."--_Ib._, p. 229. "They must be used with more caution, and require more preparation."-- _Ib._, p. 153. "The apostrophe denotes the omission of an _i_, which was formerly inserted, and made an addition of a syllable to the word."-- _Priestley's Gram._, p. 67. "The succession may be rendered more various or more uniform, but in one shape or an other is unavoidable."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i. 253. "It excites neither terror nor compassion, nor is agreeable in any respect."--_Ib._, ii, 277. "Cheap vulgar arts, whose narrowness affords No flight for thoughts, but poorly stick at words."--_Denham_. UNDER NOTE VII.--MIXTURE OF DIFFERENT STYLES. "Let us read the living page, whose every character delighteth and instructs us."--_Maunder's Gram._, p. 5. "For if it be in any degree obscure, it puzzles, and doth not please."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 357. "When a speaker addresseth himself to the understanding, he proposes the instruction of his hearers."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 13. "As the wine which strengthens and refresheth the heart."--_H. Adams's View_, p. 221. "This truth he wrappeth in an allegory, and feigns that one of the goddesses had taken up her abode with the other."--_Pope's Works_, iii, 46. "God searcheth and understands the heart."--_Thomas à Kempis_. "The grace of God, that brings salvation hath appeared to all men."--_Barclays Works_, i, 366. "Also we speak not in the words, which man's wisdom teaches; but which the Holy Ghost teacheth."--_Ib._, i, 388. "But he hath an objection, which he urgeth, and by which he thinks to overturn all."--_Ib._, iii, 327. "In that it gives them not that comfort and joy which it giveth unto them who love it."--_Ib._, i, 142. "Thou here misunderstood the place and misappliedst it."--_Ib._, iii, 38. "Like the barren heath in the desert, which knoweth not when good comes."--_Friends' Extracts_, p. 128; _N. E. Discip._, p. 75. "It speaketh of the time past, but shews that something was then doing, but not quite finished."--_E. Devis's Gram._, p. 42. "It subsists in spite of them; it advanceth unobserved."--PASCAL: _Addison's Evidences_, p. 17. "But where is he, the Pilgrim of my song?-- Methinks he cometh late and tarries long."--_Byron_, Cant. iv, St. 164. UNDER NOTE VII.--CONFUSION OF MOODS. "If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them is gone astray, &c."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 227 with 197. "As a speaker advances in his discourse, especially if it be somewhat impassioned, and increases in energy and earnestness, a higher and louder tone will naturally steal upon him."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 68. "If one man esteem a day above another, and another esteemeth every day alike; let every man be fully persuaded in his own mind."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 439. "If there be but one body of legislators, it is no better than a tyranny; if there are only two, there will want a casting voice."--_Addison, Spect._, No. 287. "Should you come up this way, and I am still here, you need not be assured how glad I shall be to see you."--_Ld. Byron_. "If he repent and becomes holy, let him enjoy God and heaven."--_Brownson's Elwood_, p. 248. "If thy fellow approach thee, naked and destitute, and thou shouldst say unto him, 'Depart in peace; be you warmed and filled;' and yet shouldst give him not those things that are needful to him, what benevolence is there in thy conduct?"--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 108. "Get on your nightgown, lost occasion calls us. And show us to be watchers." --_Beauties of Shakspeare_, p. 278. "But if it climb, with your assisting hands, The Trojan walls, and in the city stands." --_Dryden's Virgil_, ii, 145. --------------------------"Though Heaven's king Ride on thy wings, and thou with thy compeers, Us'd to the yoke, draw'st his triumphant wheels." --_Milton, P. L._, iv, l. 973. "Us'd to the yoke, _draw'dst_ his triumphant wheels." --_Lowth's Gram._, p. 106. UNDER NOTE IX.--IMPROPER ELLIPSES. "Indeed we have seriously wondered that Murray should leave some things as he has."--_Education Reporter_. "Which they neither have nor can do."--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 73. "The Lord hath, and doth, and will reveal his will to his people, and hath and doth raise up members of his body," &c.--_Ib._, i, 484. "We see then, that the Lord hath, and doth give such."--_Ib._, i, 484. "Towards those that have or do declare themselves members."--_Ib._, i, 494. "For which we can, and have given our sufficient reasons."--_Ib._, i, 507. "When we mention the several properties of the different words in sentences, in the same manner as we have those of _William's_, above, what is the exercise called?"--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 12. "It is, however to be doubted whether this peculiarity of the Greek idiom, ever has or will obtain extensively in the English."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 47. "Why did not the Greeks and Romans abound in auxiliary words as much as we?"--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 111. "Who delivers his sentiments in earnest, as they ought to be in order to move and persuade."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 151. UNDER NOTE X.--DO, USED AS A SUBSTITUTE. "And I would avoid it altogether, if it could be done."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 36. "Such a sentiment from a man expiring of his wounds, is truly heroic, and must elevate the mind to the greatest height that can be done by a single expression."--_Ib._, i, 204. "Successive images making thus deeper and deeper impressions, must elevate more than any single image can do."--_Ib._, i, 205. "Besides making a deeper impression than can be done by cool reasoning."--_Ib._, ii, 273. "Yet a poet, by the force of genius alone, can rise higher than a public speaker can do."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 338. "And the very same reason that has induced several grammarians to go so far as they have done, should have induced them to go farther."--_Priestley's Gram., Pref._, p. vii. "The pupil should commit the first section perfectly, before he does the second part of grammar."-- _Bradley's Gram._, p. 77. "The Greek _ch_ was pronounced hard, as we now do in _chord_."--_Booth's Introd. to Dict._, p. 61. "They pronounce the syllables in a different manner from what they do at other times."-- _Murray's Eng. Reader_, p. xi. "And give him the formal cool reception that Simon had done."--_Dr. Scott, on Luke_, vii. "I do not say, as some have done."--_Bolingbroke, on Hist._, p. 271. "If he suppose the first, he may do the last."--_Barclay's Works_, ii, 406. "Who are now despising Christ in his inward appearance, as the Jews of old did him in his outward."--_Ib._, i, 506. "That text of Revelations must not be understood, as he doth it."-- _Ib._, iii, 309. "Till the mode of parsing the noun is so familiar to him, that he can do it readily."--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 13. "Perhaps it is running the same course which Rome had done before."--_Middleton's Life of Cicero_. "It ought even on this ground to be avoided; which may easily be done by a different construction."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 312. "These two languages are now pronounced in England as no other nation in Europe does besides."--_Creighton's Dict._, p. xi. "Germany ran the same risk that Italy had done."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 211: see _Priestley's Gram._, p. 196. UNDER NOTE XI.--PRETERITS AND PARTICIPLES. "The Beggars themselves will be broke in a trice."--_Swift's Poems_, p. 347. "The hoop is hoist above his nose."--_Ib._, p. 404. "My heart was lift up in the ways of the Lord. 2 CHRON."--_Joh. Dict., w. Lift_. "Who sin so oft have mourned, Yet to temptation ran."--_Burns_. "Who would not have let them appeared."--_Steele_. "He would have had you sought for ease at the hands of Mr. Legality."--_Pilgrim's Progress_, p. 31. "From me his madding mind is start, And wooes the widow's daughter of the glen."--SPENSER: _Joh. Dict., w. Glen_. "The man has spoke, and still speaks."--_Ash's Gram._, p. 54. "For you have but mistook me all this while."--_Beauties of Shak._, p. 114. "And will you rent our ancient love asunder."--_Ib._, p. 52. "Mr. Birney has plead the inexpediency of passing such resolutions."-- _Liberator_, Vol. xiii, p. 194. "Who have wore out their years in such most painful Labours."--_Littleton's Dict., Pref_. "And in the conclusion you were chose probationer."--_Spectator_, No. 32. "How she was lost, took captive, made a slave; And how against him set that should her save."--_Bunyan_. UNDER NOTE XII.--VERBS CONFOUNDED. "But Moses preferred to wile away his time."--_Parker's English Composition_, p. 15. "His face shown with the rays of the sun."--_Calvin's Inst._, 4to, p. 76. "Whom they had sat at defiance so lately."-- _Bolingbroke, on Hist._, p. 320. "And when he was set, his disciples came unto him."--_Matt._, v, 1. "When he was set down on the judgement-seat."-- _Ib._, xxvii, 19. "And when they had kindled a fire in the midst of the hall, and were set down together, Peter sat down among them."--_Luke_, xxii, 55. "So after he had washed their feet, and had taken his garments, and was set down again, he said unto them, Know ye what I have done to you?"--_John_, xiii, 12. "Even as I also overcame, and am set down with my Father in his throne."--_Rev._, iii, 21. "We have such an high priest, who is set on the right hand of the throne of the Majesty in the heavens."-- _Heb._, viii, 1. "And is set down at the right hand of the throne of God."--_Ib._, xii, 2.[402] "He sat on foot a furious persecution."-- _Payne's Geog._, ii, 418. "There layeth an obligation upon the saints, to help such."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 389. "There let him lay."--_Byron's Pilgrimage_, C. iv, st. 180. "Nothing but moss, and shrubs, and stinted trees, can grow upon it."--_Morse's Geog._, p. 43. "Who had lain out considerable sums purely to distinguish themselves."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, i, 132. "Whereunto the righteous fly and are safe."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 146. "He raiseth from supper, and laid aside his garments."--_Ib._, i, 438. "Whither--Oh! whither shall I fly?"--_Murray's English Reader_, p. 123. "Flying from an adopted murderer."--_Ib._, p. 122. "To you I fly for refuge."--_Ib._, p. 124. "The sign that should warn his disciples to fly from approaching ruin."--_Keith's Evidences_, p. 62. "In one she sets as a prototype for exact imitation."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. xxiii. "In which some only bleat, bark, mew, winnow, and bray, a little better than others."--_Ib._, p. 90. "Who represented to him the unreasonableness of being effected with such unmanly fears."--_Rollin's Hist._, ii, 106. "Thou sawedst every action."--_Guy's School Gram._, p. 46. "I taught, thou taughtedst, he or she taught."--_Coar's Gram._, p. 79. "Valerian is taken by Sapor and flead alive, A. D. 260."--_Lempriere's Chron. Table, Dict._, p. xix. "What a fine vehicle is it now become for all conceptions of the mind!"--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 139. "What are become of so many productions?" --_Volney's Ruins_, p. 8. "What are become of those ages of abundance and of life?"--_Keith's Evidences_, p. 107. "The Spartan admiral was sailed to the Hellespont."--_Goldsmiths Greece_, i, 150. "As soon as he was landed, the multitude thronged about him."--_Ib._, i, 160. "Cyrus was arrived at Sardis."--_Ib._, i, 161. "Whose year was expired."--_Ib._, i, 162. "It had better have been, 'that faction which.'"--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 97. "This people is become a great nation."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 153; _Ingersoll's_, 249. "And here we are got into the region of ornament."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 181. "The ungraceful parenthesis which follows, had far better have been avoided."--_Ib._, p. 215. "Who forced him under water, and there held him until drounded."--_Indian Wars_, p. 55. "I had much rather be myself the slave, And wear the bonds, than fasten them on him."--_Cowper_. UNDER NOTE XIII.--WORDS THAT EXPRESS TIME. "I had finished my letter before my brother arrived."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 139. "I had written before I received his letter."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 82. "From what has been formerly delivered."--_Ib._, p. 182. "Arts were of late introduced among them."--_Ib._, p. 245. "I am not of opinion that such rules can be of much use, unless persons saw them exemplified."--_Ib._, p. 336. "If we use the noun itself, we should say, 'This composition is John's.' "--_Murray's Gram._, p. 174. "But if the assertion referred to something, that is not always the same, or supposed to be so, the past tense must be applied."--_Ib._, p. 191. "They told him, that Jesus of Nazareth passeth by."--_Luke_, xviii, 37. "There is no particular intimation but that I continued to work, even to the present moment."--_R. W. Green's Gram._, p. 39. "Generally, as was observed already, it is but hinted in a single word or phrase."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 36. "The wittiness of the passage was already illustrated."--_Ib._, p. 36. "As was observed already."--_Ib._, p. 56. "It was said already in general."--_Ib._, p. 95. "As I hinted already."--_Ib._, p. 134. "What I believe was hinted once already."--_Ib._, p. 148. "It is obvious, as hath been hinted formerly, that this is but an artificial and arbitrary connexion."--_Ib._, p. 282. "They have done anciently a great deal of hurt."--_Bolingbroke, on Hist._, p. 109. "Then said Paul, I knew not, brethren, that he is the High Priest."--_Dr. Webster's Bible_: Acts, xxiii, 5. "Most prepositions originally denote the relation of place, and have been thence transferred to denote by similitude other relations."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 65; _Churchill's_, 116. "His gift was but a poor offering, when we consider his estate."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 194. "If he should succeed, and should obtain his end, he will not be the happier for it."--_Murray's Gram._, i, p. 207. "These are torrents that swell to-day, and have spent themselves by to-morrow."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 286. "Who have called that wheat to-day, which they have called tares to-morrow."--_Barclay's Works_, iii. 168. "He thought it had been one of his tenants."--_Ib._, i, 11. "But if one went unto them from the dead, they will repent."--_Luke_, xvi, 30. "Neither will they be persuaded, though one rose from the dead."--_Ib., verse_ 31. "But it is while men slept that the archenemy has always sown his tares."--_The Friend_, x, 351. "Crescens would not fail to have exposed him."--_Addison's Evidences_, p. 30. "Bent was his bow, the Grecian hearts to wound; Fierce as he mov'd, his silver shafts resound." --_Pope, Iliad_, B. i, l. 64. UNDER NOTE XIV.--VERBS OF COMMANDING, &c. "Had I commanded you to have done this, you would have thought hard of it."--_G. B._ "I found him better than I expected to have found him."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 126. "There are several smaller faults, which I at first intended to have enumerated."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 246. "Antithesis, therefore, may, on many occasions, be employed to advantage, in order to strengthen the impression which we intend that any object should make."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 168. "The girl said, if her master would but have let her had money, she might have been well long ago."--See _Priestley's Gram._, p. 127. "Nor is there the least ground to fear, that we should be cramped here within too narrow limits."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 163; _Murray's Gram._, i, 360. "The Romans, flushed with success, expected to have retaken it."--_Hooke's Hist._, p. 37. "I would not have let fallen an unseasonable pleasantry in the venerable presence of Misery, to be entitled to all the wit that ever Rabelais scattered."--STERNE: _Enfield's Speaker_, p. 54. "We expected that he would have arrived last night."--_Inst._ p. 192. "Our friends intended to have met us."--_Ib._ "We hoped to have seen you."--_Ib._ "He would not have been allowed to have entered."--_Ib._ UNDER NOTE XV.--PERMANENT PROPOSITIONS. "Cicero maintained that whatsoever was useful was good."--"I observed that love constituted the whole moral character of God."--_Dwight_. "Thinking that one gained nothing by being a good man."--_Voltaire_. "I have already told you that I was a gentleman."--_Fontaine_. "If I should ask, whether ice and water were two distinct species of things."--_Locke_. "A stranger to the poem would not easily discover that this was verse."--_Murray's Gram._, 12mo, p. 260. "The doctor affirmed, that fever always produced thirst."--_Inst._, p. 192. "The ancients asserted, that virtue was its own reward."--_Ib._ "They should not have repeated the error, of insisting that the infinitive was a mere noun."--_Diversions of Purley_, Vol. i, p. 288. "It was observed in Chap. III. that the distinctive _or_ had a double use."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 154. "Two young gentlemen, who have made a discovery that there was no God."--_Swift_. RULE XVIII.--INFINITIVES. The Infinitive Mood is governed in general by the preposition TO, which commonly connects it to a finite verb: as, "I desire TO _learn_."--_Dr. Adam_. "Of me the Roman people have many pledges, which I must strive, with my utmost endeavours, TO _preserve_, TO _defend_, TO _confirm_, and TO _redeem_."--_Duncan's Cicero_, p. 41. "What if the foot, ordain'd the dust TO _tread_, Or hand TO _toil_, aspir'd TO _be_ the head?"--_Pope_. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XVIII. OBS. 1.--No word is more variously explained by grammarians, than this word TO, which is put before the verb in the infinitive mood. Johnson, Walker, Scott, Todd, and some other lexicographers, call it an _adverb_; but, in explaining its use, they say it denotes certain _relations_, which it is not the office of an adverb to express. (See the word in _Johnson's Quarto Dictionary_.) D. St. Quentin, in his Rudiments of General Grammar, says, "_To_, before a verb, is an _adverb_;" and yet his "Adverbs are words that are joined to verbs or adjectives, and express some _circumstance_ or _quality_." See pp. 33 and 39. Lowth, Priestley, Fisher, L. Murray, Webster, Wilson, S. W. Clark, Coar, Comly, Blair, Felch, Fisk, Greenleaf, Hart, Weld, Webber, and others, call it a _preposition_; and some of these ascribe to it the government of the verb, while others do not. Lowth says, "The _preposition_ TO, placed before the verb, _makes_ the infinitive mood."--_Short Gram._, p. 42. "Now this," says Horne Tooke, "is manifestly not so: for TO placed before the verb _loveth_, will not make the infinitive mood. He would have said more truly, that TO placed before some _nouns_, makes _verbs_."--_Diversions of Purley_, Vol. i, p. 287. OBS. 2.--Skinner, in his _Canones Etymologici_, calls this TO "an _equivocal article_,"--_Tooke_, ib., i, 288. Nutting, a late American grammarian, says: "The _sign_ TO is no other than the Greek article _to_; as, _to agapan_ [, to love]; or, as some say, it is the Saxon _do_"--_Practical Gram._, p. 66. Thus, by suggesting two false and inconsistent derivations, though he uses not the name _equivocal article_, he first makes the word an _article_, and then _equivocal_--equivocal in etymology, and of course in meaning.[403] Nixon, in his English Parser, supposes it to be, _unequivocally_, the Greek article [Greek: to], _the_. See the work, p. 83. D. Booth says, "_To_ is, by us, applied to Verbs; but it was the neuter Article (_the_) among the Greeks."--_Introd. to Analyt. Dict._, p. 60. According to Horne Tooke, "Minshew also distinguishes between the preposition TO, and the _sign_ of the infinitive TO. Of the former he is silent, and of the latter he says: 'To, as _to_ make, _to_ walk, _to_ do, a Græco articulo [Greek: to].' But Dr. Gregory Sharpe is persuaded, that our language has taken it from the _Hebrew_. And Vossius derives the correspondent Latin preposition AD from the same source."--_Diversions of Purley_, Vol. i, p. 293. OBS. 3.--Tooke also says, "I observe, that Junius and Skinner and Johnson, have not chosen to give the slightest hint concerning the derivation of TO."--_Ibid._ But, certainly, of his _adverb_ TO, Johnson gives this hint: "TO, Saxon; _te_, Dutch." And Webster, who calls it not an adverb, but a preposition, gives the same hint of the source from which it comes to us. This is as much as to say, it is etymologically the old Saxon preposition _to_--which, truly, it is--the very same word that, for a thousand years or more, has been used before nouns and pronouns to govern the objective case. Tooke himself does not deny this; but, conceiving that almost all particles, whether English or any other, can be traced back to ancient verbs or nouns, he hunts for the root of this, in a remoter region, where he pretends to find that _to_ has the same origin as _do_; and though he detects the former in a _Gothic noun_, he scruples not to identify it with an _auxiliary verb_! Yet he elsewhere expressly denies, "that _any_ words change their nature by use, so as to belong sometimes to one part of speech, and sometimes to another."--_Div. of Pur._, Vol. i, p. 68. OBS 4.--From this, the fair inference is, that he will have both _to_ and _do_ to be "_nouns substantive_" still! "Do (the _auxiliary_ verb, as it has been called) is derived from the same root, and is indeed the same word as TO."--_Ib._, Vol. i, p. 290. "Since FROM means _commencement_ or _beginning_, TO must mean _end_ or _termination_."--_Ib._, i, 283. "The preposition TO (in Dutch written TOE and TOT, a little nearer to the original) is the Gothic substantive [Gothic: taui] or [Gothic: tauhts], i. e. _act, effect, result, consummation._ Which Gothic substantive is indeed itself no other than the past participle of the verb [Gothic: taujan], _agere_. And what is _done_, is _terminated, ended, finished_."--_Ib._, i, 285. No wonder that Johnson, Skinner, and Junius, gave no hint of _this_ derivation: it is not worth the ink it takes, if it cannot be made more sure. But in showing its bearing on the verb, the author not unjustly complains of our grammarians, that: "Of all the points which they endeavour to _shuffle over_, there is none in which they do it more grossly than in this of the infinitive."--_Ib._, i, 287. OBS. 5.--Many are content to call the word TO a _prefix_, a _particle_, a _little word_, a _sign of the infinitive_, a _part of the infinitive_, a _part of the verb_, and the like, without telling us whence it comes, how it differs from the preposition _to_, or to what part of speech it belongs. It certainly is not what we usually call a _prefix_, because we never _join it to_ the verb; yet there are three instances in which it becomes such, before a noun: viz., _to-day, to-night, to-morrow_. If it is a "_particle_," so is any other preposition, as well as every small and invariable word. If it is a "_little word_," the whole bigness of a preposition is unquestionably found in it; and no "_word_" is so small but that it must belong to some one of the ten classes called parts of speech. If it is a "_sign of the infinitive_," because it is used before no other mood; so is it a _sign of the objective case_, or of what in Latin is called the dative, because it precedes no other case. If we suppose it to be a "_part of the infinitive_," or a "_part of the verb_," it is certainly no _necessary_ part of either; because there is no verb which may not, in several different ways, be properly used in the infinitive without it. But if it be a part of the infinitive, it must be a _verb_, and ought to be classed with the _auxiliaries_. Dr. Ash accordingly placed it among the auxiliaries; but he says, (inaccurately, however,) "The auxiliary _sign seems_ to have the nature of _adverbs._"--_Grammatical Institutes_, p. 33. "The auxiliary [signs] _are, to, do, did, have, had, shall, will, may, can, must, might_," &c.--_Ib._, p. 31. OBS. 6.--It is clear, as I have already shown, that the word _to_ may be a _sign_ of the infinitive, and yet not be a _part_ of it. Dr. Ash supposes, it may even be a part of the _mood_, and yet not be a part of the _verb_. How this can be, I see not, unless the mood consists in something else than either the form or the parts of the verb. This grammarian says, "In parsing, every word should be considered as a _distinct part of speech_: for though two or more words may be united to form a mode, a tense, or a comparison; yet it seems quite improper to unite two or more words to make a noun, a verb, an adjective, &c."--_Gram. Inst._, p. 28. All the auxiliaries, therefore, and the particle _to_ among them, he parses separately; but he follows not his own advice, to make them distinct parts of speech; for he calls them all _signs_ only, and signs are not one of his ten parts of speech. And the participle too, which is one of the ten, and which he declares to be "no part of the verb," he parses separately; calling it a verb, and not a participle, as often as it accompanies any of his auxiliary signs. This is certainly a greater impropriety than there can be in supposing an auxiliary and a participle to constitute a verb; for the mood and tense are the properties of the compound, and ought not to be ascribed to the principal term only. Not so with the preposition _to_ before the infinitive, any more than with the conjunction _if_ before the subjunctive. These may well be parsed as separate parts of speech; for these moods are sometimes formed, and are completely distinguished in each of their tenses, without the adding of these signs. OBS. 7.--After a careful examination of what others have taught respecting this disputed point in grammar, I have given, in the preceding rule, that explanation which I consider to be the most correct and the most simple, and also as well authorized as any. Who first parsed the infinitive in this manner, I know not; probably those who first called the _to_ a _preposition_; among whom were Lowth and the author of the old British Grammar. The doctrine did not originate with me, or with Comly, or with any American author. In Coar's English Grammar, published in London in 1796. the phrase _to trample_ is parsed thus: "_To_--A preposition, serving for a sign of the infinitive mood to the verb _Trample_--A verb neuter, infinitive mood, present tense, _governed by the preposition_ TO before it. RULE. The preposition _to_ before a verb, is the sign of the infinitive mood." See the work, p. 263. This was written by a gentleman who speaks of his "long habit of teaching the Latin Tongue," and who was certainly partial enough to the principles of Latin grammar, since he adopts in English the whole detail of Latin cases. OBS 8.--In Fisher's English Grammar, London, 1800, (of which there had been many earlier editions,) we find the following rule of syntax: "When two principal _Verbs_ come together, the latter of them expresses an unlimited Sense, with the Preposition _to_ before it; as _he loved to learn; I chose to dance_: and is called the _infinitive Verb_, which may also follow a Name or Quality; as, _a Time to sing; a Book delightful to read_." That this author supposed the infinitive to be _governed_ by _to_, and not by the preceding verb, noun, or adjective, is plain from the following note, which he gives in his margin: "The Scholar will best understand this, by being told that _infinite_ or _invariable Verbs_, having neither Number, Person, nor Nominative Word belonging to them, are known or _governed by the Preposition_ TO coming before them. The Sign _to_ is often understood; as, Bid Robert and his company (_to_) tarry."--_Fisher's New Gram._, p. 95. OBS. 9.--The forms of parsing, and also the rules, which are given in the early English grammars, are so very defective, that it is often impossible to say positively, what their authors did, or did not, intend to teach. Dr. Lowth's specimen of "grammatical resolution" contains four infinitives. In his explanation of the first, the preposition and the verb are parsed separately, as above; except that he says nothing about government. In his account of the other three, the two words are taken together, and called a "_verb_, in the infinitive _mode_." But as he elsewhere calls the particle _to_ a preposition, and nowhere speaks of any thing else as governing the infinitive, it seems fair to infer, that he conceived the verb to be the regimen of this preposition.[404] If such was his idea, we have the learned Doctor's authority in opposition to that of his professed admirers and copyists. Of these, Lindley Murray is doubtless the most famous. But Murray's twelfth rule of syntax, while it expressly calls _to_ before the infinitive a _preposition_, absurdly takes away from it this regimen, and leaves us a preposition that _governs nothing_, and has apparently nothing to do with the _relation_ of the terms between which it occurs. OBS. 10.--Many later grammarians, perceiving the absurdity of calling _to_ before the infinitive a _preposition_ without supposing it to govern the verb, have studiously avoided this name; and have either made the "_little word_" a supernumerary part of speech, or treated it as no part of speech at all. Among these, if I mistake not, are Allen, Lennie, Bullions, Alger, Guy, Churchill, Hiley, Nutting, Mulligan, Spencer, and Wells. Except Comly, the numerous modifiers of Murray's Grammar are none of them more consistent, on this point, than was Murray himself. Such of them as do not follow him literally, either deny, or forbear to affirm, that _to_ before a verb is a _preposition_; and consequently either tell us not what it is, or tell us falsely; some calling it "_a part of the verb_," while they neither join it to the verb as a prefix, nor include it among the auxiliaries. Thus Kirkham: "_To_ is not a preposition when _joined to_ a verb in this mood; thus, _to_ ride, _to_ rule; but it should be parsed _with the verb_, and _as a part_ of it."--_Gram. in Familiar Lect._, p. 137. So R. C. Smith: "This little word _to_ when _used before_ verbs in this manner, is not a preposition, but forms a part of the verb, and, in parsing, should be so considered."--_Productive Gram._, p. 65. How can that be "_a part_ of the verb," which is _a word_ used _before_ it? or how is _to_ "joined to the verb," or made a part of it, in the phrase, "_to_ ride?" But Smith does not abide by his own doctrine; for, in an other part of his book, he adopts the phraseology of Murray, and makes _to_ a preposition: saying, "The _preposition_ TO, though generally used before the latter verb, is sometimes properly omitted; as, 'I heard him say it;' instead of '_to_ say it.'"--_Productive Gram._, p. 156. See _Murray's Rule_ 12th. OBS. 11.--Most English grammarians have considered the word _to_ as a part of the infinitive, a part _of the verb_; and, like the teachers of Latin, have referred the government of this mood to a preceding verb. But the rule which they give, is partial, and often inapplicable; and their exceptions to it, or the heterogeneous parts into which some of them divide it, are both numerous and puzzling. They teach that at least half of the ten different parts of speech "_frequently_ govern the infinitive:" if so, there should be a distinct rule for each; for why should the government of one part of speech be made an exception to that of an other? and, if this be done, with respect to the infinitive, why not also with respect to the objective case? In all instances to which their rule is applicable, the rule which I have given, amounts to the same thing; and it obviates the necessity for their numerous exceptions, and the embarrassment arising from other constructions of the infinitive not noticed in them. Why then is the simplest solution imaginable still so frequently rejected for so much complexity and inconsistency? Or how can the more common rule in question be suitable for a child, if its applicability depends on a relation between the two verbs, which the preposition _to_ sometimes expresses, and sometimes does not? OBS. 12.--All authors admit that in some instances, the sign _to_ is "superfluous and improper," the construction and government appearing complete without it; and the "Rev. Peter Bullions, D. D., Professor of Languages in the Albany Academy," has recently published a grammar, in which he adopts the common rule, "One verb governs _another_ in the infinitive mood; as, _I desire to learn_;" and then remarks, "The infinitive after a verb is governed by it _only when the attribute expressed by the infinitive is either the subject or_ [the] _object of the other verb_. In such expressions as '_I read to learn_,' the infinitive is _not governed_ by 'I read,' but depends on the phrase '_in order to_' understood."--_Bullions's Prin. of E. Gram._, p. 110. But, "_I read 'in order to' to learn_," is not English; though it might be, if either _to_ were any thing else than a preposition: as, "Now _set to to learn_ your lesson." This broad exception, therefore, which embraces well-nigh half the infinitives in the language, though it contains some obvious truth, is both carelessly stated, and badly resolved. The single particle _to_ is quite sufficient, both to govern the infinitive, and to connect it to any antecedent term which can make sense with such an adjunct. But, in fact, the reverend author must have meant to use the "_little word_" but once; and also to deny that it is a preposition; for he elsewhere says expressly, though, beyond question, erroneously, "A preposition should never be used before the infinitive."--_Ib._, p. 92. And he also says, "The _Infinitive_ mood expresses _a thing_ in a general manner, without distinction of number, person, _or time_, and commonly has TO _before_ it."--_Ib._, Second Edition, p. 35. Now if TO is "_before_" the mood, it is certainly not _a part_ of it. And again, if this mood had no distinction of "_time_," our author's two tenses of it, and his own two special rules for their application, would be as absurd as is his notion of its government. See his _Obs. 6 and 7, ib._, p. 124. OBS. 13.--Richard Hiley, too, a grammarian of perhaps more merit, is equally faulty in his explanation of the infinitive mood. In the first place, he absurdly says, "TO _before the infinitive mood_, is considered as forming _part of the verb_; but in _every other_ situation it is a preposition."--_Hiley's Gram._, Third Edition, p. 28. To teach that a "_part of the verb_" stands "_before the mood_," is an absurdity manifestly greater, than the very opposite notion of Dr. Ash, that what is _not a part of the verb_, may yet be included _in the mood_. There is no need of either of these false suppositions; or of the suggestion, doubly false, that _to_ "in _every other_ situation, is a preposition." What does _preposition_ mean? Is _to_ a preposition when it is placed _after_ a verb, and _not_ a preposition when it is placed _before_ it? For example: "I rise _to shut to_ the door."--See _Luke_, xiii, 25. OBS. 14.--In his syntax, this author further says, "When two verbs come together, the latter _must be in the infinitive mood, when it denotes the object_ of the former; as, 'Study _to improve_.'" This is his _Rule_. Now look at his _Notes_. "1. When the latter verb _does not express_ the object, _but the end_, or something remote, the word _for_, or the words _in order to_, are understood; as, 'I read _to learn_;' that is, 'I read _for_ to learn,' or, '_in order_ [TO] _to_ learn.' The word _for_, however, is never, in such instances, expressed in good language. 2. The infinitive is _frequently governed_ by adjectives, substantives, and participles; but in _this instance_ also, a preposition is understood, though _never expressed_; as, 'Eager _to learn_;' that is, 'eager _for_ to learn;' or, '_for_ learning;' 'A desire _to improve_;' that is, '_for to improve_.'"--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 89. Here we see the origin of some of Bullions's blunders. _To_ is so small a word, it slips through the fingers of these gentlemen. Words utterly needless, and worse than needless, they foist into our language, in instances beyond number, to explain infinitives that occur at almost every breath. Their students must see that, "_I read to learn_," and, "_I study to improve_," with countless other examples of either sort, are very _different constructions_, and not to be parsed by the same rule! And here the only government of the infinitive which Hiley affirms, is immediately contradicted by the supposition of a needless _for_ "understood." OBS. 15.--In all such examples as, "I _read_ to _learn_,"--"I _strive_ to _learn_"--"Some _eat_ to _live_,"--"Some _live_ to _eat_,"--"She _sings_ to _cheer_ him,"--"I _come_ to _aid_ you,"--"I _go_ to _prepare_ a place for you,"--_the action_ and _its purpose_ are connected by the word _to_; and if, in the countless instances of this kind, the former verbs _do not govern_ the latter, it is not because the phraseology is elliptical, or ever was elliptical,[405] but because in no case is there any such government, except in the construction of those verbs which take the infinitive after them without the preposition _to_. Professor Bullions will have the infinitive to be governed by a finite verb, "when the _attribute expressed by the infinitive is the subject_ of the other verb." An infinitive may be made _the subject_ of a finite verb; but this grammarian has mistaken the established meaning of _subject_, as well as of _attribute_, and therefore written nonsense. Dr. Johnson defines his _adverb_ TO, "A particle coming between two verbs, and noting the second as the _object_ of the first." But of all the words which, according to my opponents and their oracles, govern the infinitive, probably not more than a quarter are such verbs as usually _have an object_ after them. Where then is the propriety of their notion of infinitive government? And what advantage has it, even where it is least objectionable? OBS. 16.--Take for an example of this contrast the terms, "Strive to enter in--many will seek to enter in."--_Luke_, xiii, 24. Why should it be thought more eligible to say, that the verb _strive_ or _will seek_ governs the infinitive verb _to enter_; than to say, that _to_ is a preposition, showing the relation between _strive_ and _enter_, or between _will seek_ and _enter_, and governing the latter verb? (See the exact and only needful form for parsing any such term, in the _Twelfth Praxis_ of this work.) None, I presume, will deny, that in the Greek or the Latin of these phrases, the finite verbs govern the infinitive; or that, in the French, the infinitive _entrer_ is governed first by one preposition, and then by an other. "_Contendite intrare--multi quærent intrare_."--_Montanus_. "Efforcez-vous _d'_entrer--plusieurs chercheront _à_ y entrer."--_French Bible_. In my opinion, _to_ before a verb is as fairly a preposition as the French _de_ or _à_; and it is the main design of these observations, while they candidly show the reader what others teach, _to prove it so_. The only construction which makes it any thing else, is that which puts it after a verb or a participle, in the sense of an adverbial supplement; as, "The infernal idol is bowed down _to_."--_Herald of Freedom_. "Going _to_ and _fro_."--_Bible_. "At length he came _to_."--"Tell him to heave _to_."--"He was ready to set _to_." With singular absurdness of opinion, some grammarians call _to_ a preposition, when it thus _follows_ a verb and governs nothing, who resolutely deny it that name, when it _precedes_ the verb, and _requires it to be in the infinitive mood_, as in the last two examples. Now, if this is not _government_, what is? And if _to_, without government, is not an _adverb_, what is? See Obs. 2d on the List of Prepositions. OBS. 17.--The infinitive thus admits a simpler solution in English, than in most other languages; because we less frequently use it without a preposition, and seldom, if ever, allow any variety in this connecting and governing particle. And yet in no other language has its construction given rise to a tenth part of that variety of absurd opinions, which the defender of its true syntax must refute in ours. In French, the infinitive, though frequently placed in immediate dependence on an other verb, may also be governed by several different prepositions, (as, _à, de, pour, sans, après_,) according to the sense.[406] In Spanish and Italian, the construction is similar. In Latin and Greek, the infinitive is, for the most part, immediately dependent on an other verb. But, according to the grammars, it may stand for a noun, in all the six cases; and many have called it an _indeclinable noun_. See the Port-Royal Latin and Greek grammars; in which several peculiar constructions of the infinitive are referred to the government of a _preposition_--constructions that occur frequently in Greek, and sometimes even in Latin. OBS. 18.--It is from an improper extension of the principles of these "learned languages" to ours, that much of the false teaching which has so greatly and so long embarrassed this part of English grammar, has been, and continues to be, derived. A late author, who supposes every infinitive to be virtually _a noun_, and who thinks he finds in ours _all the cases_ of an English noun, not excepting the possessive, gives the following account of its origin and nature: "This mood, with almost all its properties and uses, has been adopted into our language from the ancient Greek and Latin tongues. * * * The definite article [Greek: tò] [,] _the_, which they [the Greeks] used before the infinitive, to mark, in an especial manner, its nature of a substantive, _is evidently the same word_ that we use before our infinitive; thus, '_to_ write,' signifies _the_ writing; that is, the action of writing;--and when a verb governs an infinitive, it only governs it _as in the objective case_."--_Nixon's English Parser_, p. 83. But who will believe, that our old Saxon ancestors borrowed from Greek or Latin what is now our construction of the very _root_ of the English verb, when, in all likelihood, they could not read a word in either of those languages, or scarcely knew the letters in their own, and while it is plain that they took not thence even the inflection of a _single branch_ of any verb whatever? OBS. 19.--The particle _to_, being a very common preposition in the Saxon tongue, has been generally used before the English infinitive, ever since the English language, or any thing like it, existed. And it has always _governed the verb_, not indeed "as in the _objective case_," for no verb is ever declined by cases, but simply as the _infinitive mood_. In the Anglo-Saxon version of the Gospels, which was made as early as the eleventh century, the infinitive mood is sometimes expressed in this manner, and sometimes by the termination _on_ without the preposition. Dr. Johnson's History of the English Language, prefixed to his large Dictionary, contains, of this version, and of Wickliffe's, the whole of the first chapter of Luke; except that the latter omits the first four verses, so that the numbers for reference do not correspond. Putting, for convenience, English characters for the Saxon, I shall cite here three examples from each; and these, if he will, the reader may compare with the 19th, the 77th, and the 79th verse, in our common Bible. SAXON: "And ic eom asend with the _sprecan_. and the this _bodian_."--_Lucæ_, i, 19. WICKLIFFE: "And Y am sent to thee _to speke_ and _to evangelise_ to thee these thingis."--_Luk_, i, 15. SAXON: "_To syllene_ his folce hæle gewit on hyra synna forgyfnesse."--_Lucæ_, i, 77. WICKLIFFE: "_To geve_ science of heelth to his puple into remissioun of her synnes."--_Luk_, i, 73. SAXON: "_Onlyhtan_ tham the on thystrum and on deathes sceade sittath. ure fet _to gereccenne_ on sibbe weg."--_Lucæ_, i, 79. WICKLIFFE: "_To geve_ light to them that sitten in derknessis, and in schadowe of deeth, _to dresse_ oure feet into the weye of pees."--_Luk_, i, 75. "In Anglo-Saxon," says Dr. Latham, "the dative of the infinitive verb ended in _-nne_, and was preceded by the preposition _to_: as, To lufienne = _ad amandum_ [= _to loving_, or _to love_]; To bærnenne = _ad urendum_ [= _to burning_, or _to burn_]; To syllanne = _ad dandum_ [= _to giving_, or _to give_]."--_Hand-Book_, p. 205. OBS. 20.--Such, then, has ever been the usual construction of the _English_ infinitive mood; and a wilder interpretation than that which supposes _to_ an _article_, and says, "_to write_ signifies _the writing_," cannot possibly be put upon it. On this supposition, "I am going _to write_ a letter," is a pure Grecism; meaning, "I am going _the writing_ a letter," which is utter nonsense. And further, the infinitive in Greek and Latin, as well as in Saxon and English, is always in fact governed as a _mood_, rather than as a _case_, notwithstanding that the Greek article in any of its four different cases may, in some instances, be put before it; for even with an article before it, the Greek infinitive usually retains its regimen as a verb, and is therefore not "a _substantive_," or noun. I am well aware that some learned critics, conceiving that the essence of the verb consists in predication, have plainly denied that the infinitive is a verb; and, because it may be made the subject of a finite verb, or may be governed by a verb or a preposition, have chosen to call it "a mere noun substantive." Among these is the erudite Richard Johnson, who, with so much ability and lost labour, exposed, in his Commentaries, the errors and defects of Lily's Grammar and others. This author adduces several reasons for his opinion; one of which is the following: "Thirdly, it is found to have a Preposition set before it, an other _sure sign of a Substantive_; as, '_Ille nihil præter loqui, et ipsum maledicè et malignè, didicit_.' Liv. l. 45, p. 888. [That is, "He learned nothing _but to speak_, and that slanderously and maliciously."] '_At si quis sibi beneficium dat, nihil interest inter dare et accipere_.' Seneca, de Ben. l. 5, c. 10." [That is, "If any one bestows a benefit on himself, there is no difference _between give and take_;" [407]--or, "_between bestowing_ and _receiving_."]--See _Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 342. But I deny that a preposition is a "sure sign of a substantive." (See Obs. 2d on the Prepositions, and also Obs. 1st on the List of Prepositions, in the tenth chapter of Etymology.) And if we appeal to philological authorities, to determine whether infinitives are nouns or verbs, there will certainly be found more for the latter name, than the former; that is, more in number, if not in weight; though it must be confessed, that many of the old Latin grammarians did, as Priscian tells us, consider the infinitive a noun, calling it _Nomen Verbi_, the Name of the Verb.[408] If we appeal to reasons, there are more also of these;--or at least as many, and most of them better: as, 1. That the infinitive is often transitive; 2. That it has tenses; 3. That it is qualified by adverbs, rather than by adjectives; 4. That it is never declined like a noun; 5. That the action or state expressed by it, is not commonly abstract, though it may be so sometimes; 6. That in some languages it is _the root_ from which all other parts of the verb are derived, as it is in English. OBS. 21.--So far as I know, it has not yet been denied, that _to_ before a _participle_ is a preposition, or that a preposition before a participle _governs_ it; though there are not a few who erroneously suppose that participles, by virtue of such government, are necessarily converted into _nouns_. Against this latter idea, there are many sufficient reasons; but let them now pass, because they belong not here. I am only going to prove, in this place, that _to_ before the infinitive is _just such a word_ as it is before the participle; and this can be done, call either of them what you will. It is plain, that if the infinitive and the participle are ever _equivalent to each other_, the same word _to_ before them both must needs be equivalent _to itself_. Now I imagine there are some examples of each equivalence; as, "When we are habituated _to doing_ [or _to do_] any thing wrong, we become blinded by it."--_Young Christian_, p. 326. "The lyre, or harp, was best adapted _to accompanying_ [or _to accompany_] their declamations."--_Music of Nature_, p. 336. "The new beginner should be accustomed _to giving_ [or _to give_] all the reasons for each part of speech."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 88. "Which, from infecting our religion and morals, fell _to corrupt_ [say, _to corrupting_] our language."--SWIFT: _Blair's Rhet._, p. 108. Besides these instances of _sameness in the particle_, there are some cases of _constructional ambiguity_, the noun and the verb having the same form, and the _to_ not determining which is meant: as, "He was inclined _to sleep_."--"It must be a bitter experience, to be more accustomed _to hate_ than _to love_." Here are _double_ doubts for the discriminators: their "_sign of the infinitive_" fails, or becomes uncertain; _because they do not know it from a preposition_. Cannot my opponents see in these examples an argument against the distinction which they attempt to draw between _to_ and _to_? An other argument as good, is also afforded by the fact, that our ancestors often used the participle after _to_, in the very same texts in which we have since adopted the infinitive in its stead; as, "And if yee wolen resceyue, he is Elie that is _to comynge_."--_Matt._, xi, 14. "Ihesu that delyueride us fro wraththe _to comynge_."--_1 Thes._, i, 10. These, and seventeen other examples of the same kind, may be seen in _Tooke's Diversions of Purley_, Vol. ii. pp. 457 and 458. OBS. 22.--Dr. James P. Wilson, speaking of the English infinitive, says:--"But if the appellation of _mode_ be denied it, it is then a _verbal noun_. This is indeed _its truest character_, because _its idea ever represents_ an _object of approach_. _To_ supplies the defect of a termination characteristic of the infinitive, precedes it, and marks it either as _that, towards which_ the preceding verb is directed;[409] or it signifies _act_, and shows the word to import an action. When the infinitive is the expression of an _immediate_ action, which it must be, after the verbs, _bid, can, dare, do, feel, hear, let, make, may, must, need, see, shall_, and _will_, the _preposition_ TO is omitted."--_Essay on Grammar_, p. 129. That the truest character of the infinitive is that of a verbal noun, is not to be conceded, in weak abandonment of all the reasons for a contrary opinion, until it can be shown that the action or being expressed by it, must needs assume a _substantive_ character, in order to be "that _towards which_ the preceding verb is directed." But this character is manifestly not supposable of any of those infinitives which, according to the foregoing quotation, must follow other verbs without the intervention of the preposition _to_: as, "Bid him _come_;"--"He can _walk_." And I see no reason to suppose it, where the relation of the infinitive to an other word is _not_ "_immediate_" but marked by the preposition, as above described. For example: "And he laboured till the going-down of the sun TO _deliver_ him."--_Dan._, vi, 14. Here _deliver_ is governed by _to_, and connected by it to the finite verb _laboured_; but to tell us, it is to be understood _substantively_ rather than _actively_, is an assumption as false, as it is needless. OBS. 23.--To deny to the infinitive the appellation of _mood_, no more makes it a _verbal noun_, than does the Doctor's solecism about what "ITS IDEA _ever represents_." "The infinitive therefore," as Horne Tooke observes, "appears plainly to be what the Stoics called it, _the very verb itself_, pure and uncompounded."--_Diversions of Purley_, Vol. i, p. 286. Not indeed as including the particle _to_, or as it stands in the English perfect tense, but as it occurs in the _simple root_. But I cited Dr. Wilson, as above, not so much with a design of animadverting again on this point, as with reference to the _import_ of the particle _to_; of which he furnishes a twofold explanation, leaving the reader to take which part he will of the contradiction. He at first conceives it to convey in general the idea of "_towards_," and to mark the infinitive as a term "_towards which_" something else "_is directed_." If this interpretation is the true one, it is plain that _to_ before a verb is no other than the common preposition _to_; and this idea is confirmed by its ancient usage, and by all that is certainly known of its derivation. But if we take the second solution, and say, "it signifies _act_," we make it not a preposition, but either a noun or a verb; and then the question arises, _Which of these is it_? Besides, what sense can there be, in supposing _to go_ to mean _act go_, or to be equivalent to _do go_.[410] OBS. 24.--Though the infinitive is commonly made an adjunct to some finite verb, yet it may be connected to almost all the other parts of speech, or even to an other infinitive. The preposition _to_ being its only and almost universal index, we seldom find any other preposition put before this; unless the word _about_, in such a situation, is a preposition, as I incline to think it is.[411] Anciently, the infinitive was sometimes preceded by _for_ as well as _to_; as, "I went up to Jerusalem _for to_ worship."--_Acts_, xxiv, 11. "What went ye out _for to_ see?"--_Luke_, vii, 26. "And stood up _for to_ read."--_Luke_, iv, 16. Here modern usage rejects the former preposition: the idiom is left to the uneducated. But it seems practicable to subjoin the infinitive to every one of the ten parts of speech, except the article: as, 1. To a noun; as, "If there is any _precept to obtain_ felicity."--_Hawkesworth_. "It is high _time to awake_ out of sleep."--_Rom._, xiii, 11. "To flee from the _wrath to come_."--_Matt._, iii, 7. 2. To an adjective; as, "He seemed _desirous to speak_, yet _unwilling to offend_."--_Hawkesworth_. "He who is the _slowest to promise_, is _the quickest to perform_."--_Art of Thinking_, p. 35. 3. To a pronoun; as, "I discovered _him to be_ a scholar."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 166. "Is it lawful for _us to give_ tribute to Cæsar?"--_Luke_, xx, 22. "Let me desire _you to reflect_ impartially."--BLAIR: _Murray's Eng. Reader_, p. 77. "Whom hast thou then or _what t' accuse_?"--_Milton_, P. L., iv, 67. 4. To a finite verb; as, "Then Peter _began to rebuke_ him."--_Matt._, xvi, 22. "The Son of man _is come to seek and to save_ that which was lost."--_Luke_, xix, 10. 5. To an other infinitive; as, "_To go to enter_ into Egypt."--_Jer._, xli, 17. "We are not often willing _to wait to consider_."--_J. Abbott_. "For what had he _to do to chide_ at me?"--_Shak._ 6. To a participle; as, "Still _threatening to devour_ me."--_Milton_. "Or as a thief _bent to unhoard_ the cash of some rich burgher."--_Id._ 7. To an adverb; as, "She is old _enough to go_ to school."--"I know not _how to act_."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 106. "Tell me _when to come_, and _where to meet_ you."--"He hath not _where to lay_ his head." 8. To a conjunction; as, "He knows better _than to trust_ you."--"It was so hot _as to melt_ these ornaments."--"Many who praise virtue, do no more _than praise_ it."--_Dr. Johnson_. 9. To a preposition; as, "I was _about to write_."--_Rev._, x, 4. "Not _for to hide_ it in a hedge."--_Burns's Poems_, p. 42. "Amatum iri, To be _about to be loved_."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 95.[412] 10. To an interjection; as, "_O to forget_ her!"--_Young's Night Thoughts_. OBS. 25.--The infinitive is the mere verb, without affirmation, without person or number, and therefore without the agreement peculiar to a finite verb. (See Obs. 8th on Rule 2d.) But, in most instances, it is not without _limitation_ of the being, action, or passion, to some particular person or persons, thing or things, that are said, supposed, or denied, to be, to act, or to be acted upon. Whenever it is not thus limited, it is taken _abstractly_, and has some resemblance to a noun: because it then suggests the being, action, or passion alone: though, even then, the active infinitive may still govern the objective case; and it may also be easy to _imagine_ to whom or to what the being, action, or passion, naturally pertains. The uses of the infinitive are so many and various, that it is no easy matter to classify them accurately. The following are unquestionably _the chief_ of the things for which it may stand: 1. For the _supplement_ to an other verb, to complete the sense; as, "Loose him, and _let_ him _go_."--_John_, xi, 44. "They that _go to seek_ mixed wine."--_Prov._, xxiii, 30. "His hands _refuse_ to _labour_."--_Ib._, xxi, 25. "If you _choose to have_ those terms."--_Tooke's D. P._, ii, 374. "How our old translators first _struggled to express_ this."--_Ib._, ii, 456. "To any one who _will please to examine_ our language."--_Ib._, ii, 444. "They _are forced to give up_ at last."--_Ib._, ii, 375. "Which _ought to be done_."--_Ib._, ii, 451. "Which _came to pass_."--_Acts_, xi, 28. "I _dare engage to make_ it out."--_Swift_. 2. For the _purpose_, or _end_, of that to which it is added; as, "Each has employed his time and pains _to establish_ a criterion."--_Tooke's D. P._, ii, 374. "I shall not stop now, _to assist_ in their elucidation."--_Ib._, ii, 75. "Our purposes are not endowed with words _to make_ them known."--_Ib._, ii, 74. [A] "TOOL is some instrument taken up _to work_ with."--_Ib._, ii, 145. "Labour not _to be_ rich."--_Prov._, xxiii, 4. "I flee unto thee _to hide_ me."--_Ps._, cxliii, 9. "Evil shall hunt the violent man _to overthrow_ him."--_Ib._, cxl, 11. 3. For the _object_ of an affection or passion; as, "He _loves to ride_."--"I _desire to hear_ her _speak_ again."--_Shale._ "If we _wish to avoid_ important error."--_Tooke's D. P._, ii, 3. "Who _rejoice to do_ evil."--_Prov._, ii, 14. "All agreeing in _earnestness to see_ him."--_Shak_. "Our _curiosity_ is raised _to know_ what lies beyond."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 335. 4. For the _cause_ of an affection or passion; as, "I rejoice _to hear_ it."--"By which I hope _to have laid_ a foundation," &c.--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 34. "For he made me mad, _to see_ him _shine_ so brisk, and _smell_ so sweet."--_Beauties of Shak._, p. 118. "Thou didst eat strange flesh, which some did die _to look_ on."--_Ib._, p. 182. "They grieved _to see_ their best allies at variance."--_Rev. W. Allen's Gram._, p. 165. 5. For the _subject_ of a proposition, or the chief term in such subject; as, "_To steal_ is sinful."--"_To do_ justice and judgement, is more acceptable to the Lord than sacrifice."--_Prov._, xxi, 3. "_To do_ RIGHT, is, to do that which is ordered to be done."--_Tooke's D. P._, ii, 7. "_To go_ to law to plague a neighbour, has in it more of malice, than of love to justice."--_Seattle's Mor. Sci._, i, 177. 6. For the _predicate_ of a proposition, or the chief term in such predicate; as, "To enjoy is _to obey_."--_Pope_. "The property of rain is _to wet_, and fire, _to burn_."--_Beauties of Shak._, p. 15. "To die is _to be banished_ from myself."--_Ib._, p. 82. "The best way is, _to slander_ Valentine."--_Ib._, p. 83. "The highway of the upright is _to depart_ from evil."--_Prov._, xvi, 17. 7. For a _coming event_, or what _will_ be; as, "A mutilated structure soon _to fall_."--_Cowper._ "He being dead, and I speedily _to follow_ him."--_Tooke's D. P._, ii, 111. "She shall rejoice in time _to come_."--_Prov._, xxxi, 25. "Things present, or things _to come_."--_1 Cor._, iii, 22. 8. For a _necessary event_, or what _ought_ to be; as, "It is _to be remembered_."--"It is never _to be forgotten_."--_Tooke's D. P._, ii, 2. "An oversight much _to be deplored_."--_Ib._, ii, 460. "The sign is not _to be used_ by itself, or _to stand_ alone; but is _to be joined_ to some other term."--_Ib._, ii, 372. "The Lord's name is _to be praised_."--_Ps._, cxiii, 3. 9. For what is _previously suggested_ by another word; as, "I have _faith to believe_."--"The glossarist _did well_ here _not to yield_ to his inclination."--_Tooke's D. P._, ii, 329. "It is a good _thing to give_ thanks unto the Lord."--_Ps._, xcii, 1. "_It_ is _as sport_ to a fool _to do_ mischief."--_Prov._, x, 23. "They have the _gift to know_ it."--_Shak._ "We have no remaining _occupation_ but _to take_ care of the public."--_Art of Thinking_, p. 52. 10. For a term of _comparison_ or _measure_; as, "He was so much affected as _to weep_."--"Who could do no less than _furnish_ him."--_Tooke's D. P._, ii, 408. "I shall venture no farther than _to explain_ the nature and convenience of these abbreviations."--_Ib._, ii, 439. "I have already said enough _to show_ what sort of operation that is."--_Ib._, ii, 358. OBS. 26.--After dismissing all the examples which may fairly be referred to one or other of the ten heads above enumerated, an observant reader may yet find _other uses_ of the infinitive, and those so dissimilar that they can hardly be reduced to any one head or rule; except that all are governed by the preposition to, which points towards or to the verb; as, "A great altar _to see to_."--_Joshua_, xxii, 10. "[Greek: Bomon megan tou idein]."--_Septuagint_. That is, "An altar _great to behold_." "Altare infinitæ magnitudinis."--_Vulgate_. "Un fort grand autel."--_French Bible_. "Easy _to be entreated_."--_Jos._, iii, 17. "There was none _to help_."--_Ps._, cvii, 12. "He had rained down manna upon them _to eat_."--_Ps._, lxxviii, 24. "Remember his commandments _to do_ them."--_Ps._, viii, 18. "Preserve thou those that are appointed _to die_."--_Ps._, lxxix, 11. "As coals to burning coals, and as wood to fire; so is a contentious man _to kindle_ strife."--_Prov._, xxvi, 21. "These are far beyond the reach and power of any kings _to do_ away."--_Tooke's D. P._, ii, 126. "I know not indeed what _to do_ with those words."--_Ib._, ii, 441. "They will be as little able _to justify_ their innovation."--_Ib._, ii, 448. "I leave you _to compare_ them."--_Ib._, ii, 458. "There is no occasion _to attribute_ it."--_Ib._, ii, 375. "There is no day for me _to look_ upon."--_Beauties of Shak._, p. 82. "Having no external thing _to lose._"--_Ib._, p. 100. "I'll never be a gosling _to obey_ instinct."--_Ib._, p. 200. "Whereto serves mercy, but _to confront_ the visage of offence?"--_Ib._, p. 233. "If things do not go _to suit_ him."--_Liberator_, ix, 182. "And, _to be_ plain, I think there is not half a kiss _to choose_, who loves an other best."--_Shak._, p. 91. "But _to return_ to R. Johnson's instance of _good man_."--_Tooke's D. P._, ii, 370. Our common Bibles have this text: "And a certain woman cast a piece of a millstone upon Abimelech's head, and _all to break_ his skull."--_Judges_, ix, 53. Perhaps the interpretation of this may be, "and _so as completely to break_ his skull." The octavo edition stereotyped by "the Bible Association of Friends in America," has it, "and _all-to brake_ his skull." This, most probably, was supposed by the editors to mean, "and _completely broke_ his skull;" but _all-to_ is no proper compound word, and therefore the change is a perversion. The Septuagint, the Vulgate, and the common French version, all accord with the simple indicative construction, "and _broke_ his skull." OBS. 27.--According to Lindley Murray, "The infinitive mood is often _made absolute_, or used independently _on_ [say _of_] the rest of the sentence, supplying the place of the conjunction _that_ with the potential mood: as, '_To confess_ the truth, I was in fault;' '_To begin_ with the first;' '_To proceed_;' '_To conclude_;' that is, 'That I may confess,' &c."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 184; _Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 244. Some other compilers have adopted the same doctrine. But on what ground the _substitution_ of one mood for the other is imagined, I see not. The reader will observe that this potential mood is here just as much "_made absolute_," as is the infinitive; for there is nothing expressed to which the conjunction _that_ connects the one phrase, or the preposition _to_ the other. But possibly, in either case, there may be an ellipsis of some antecedent term; and surely, if we imagine the construction to be complete without any such term, we make the conjunction the more anomalous word of the two. Confession of the truth, is here the aim of speaking, but not of what is spoken. The whole sentence may be, "_In order_ to confess the truth, _I admit that_ I was in fault." Or, "_In order_ that I may confess the truth, _I admit that_ I was in fault." I do not deny, that the infinitive, or a phrase of which the infinitive is a part, is sometimes put _absolute_; for, if it is not so in any of the foregoing examples, it appears to be so in the following: "For every object has several faces, _so to speak_, by which it may be presented to us."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 41. "_To declare_ a thing shall be, long before it is in being, and then _to bring about_ the accomplishment of that very thing, according to the same declaration; this, or nothing, is the work of God."--_Justin Martyr_. "_To be_, or _not to be_;--that is the question."--_Shakspeare_. "_To die;--to sleep;--To sleep_! perchance, _to dream_!"--_Id., Hamlet_. OBS. 28.--The infinitive usually _follows_ the word on which it depends, or to which the particle _to_ connects it; but this order is sometimes reversed: as, "To beg I am ashamed."--_Luke_, xvi, 3. "To keep them no longer in suspense, [I say plainly,] Sir Roger de Coverly is dead."--_Addison_. "To suffer, as to do, Our strength is equal."--_Milton_. "To catch your vivid scenes, too gross her hand."--_Thomson_. OBS. 29.--Though, in respect to its syntax, the infinitive is oftener connected with a verb, a participle, or an adjective, than with a noun or a pronoun, it should never be so placed that the reader will be liable to mistake the _person_ to whom, or the _thing_ to which, the being, action, or passion, pertains. Examples of error: "This system will require a long time to be executed as it should be."--_Journal of N. Y. Lit. Convention_, 1830, p. 91. It is not the _time_, that is to be executed; therefore say, "This system, to be executed as it should be, will require a long time." "He spoke in a _manner distinct enough to be heard_ by the whole assembly."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 192. This implies that the orator's _manner_ was _heard_! But the grammarian interprets his own meaning, by the following alternative: "Or--_He spoke distinctly enough to be heard_ by the whole assembly."--_Ibid._ This suggests that the man himself was heard. "When they hit upon a figure that pleases them, they are loth to part with it, and frequently continue it so long, as to become tedious and intricate."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 341. Is it the _authors_, or their _figure_, that becomes tedious and intricate? If the latter, strike out, "_so long, as to become_," and say, "_till it becomes_." "Facts are always of the greatest consequence _to be remembered_ during the course of the pleading."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 272. The rhetorician here meant: "The facts stated in an argument, are always those parts of it, which it is most important that the hearers should be made to remember." OBS. 30.--According to some grammarians, "The Infinitive of the verb _to be_, is often _understood_; as, 'I considered it [_to be_] necessary to send the dispatches.'"--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 166. In this example, as in thousands more, of various forms, the verb _to be_ may be inserted without affecting the sense; but I doubt the necessity of supposing an ellipsis in such sentences. The adjective or participle that follows, always relates to the preceding objective; and if a noun is used, it is but an other objective in apposition with the former: as, "I considered _it_ an _imposition_." The verb _to be_, with the perfect participle, forms the passive infinitive; and the supposition of such an ellipsis, extensively affects one's mode of parsing. Thus, "He considered himself _insulted_," "I will suppose the work _accomplished_," and many similar sentences, might be supposed to contain passive infinitives. Allen says, "In the following construction, the words in _italics_ are (elliptically) passive infinitives; I saw the bird _caught_, and the hare _killed_; we heard the letters _read_."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 168. Dr. Priestley observes, "There is a remarkable ambiguity in the use of the participle _preterite_, as the same word may express a thing either doing, or done; as, I went to see the child _dressed_."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 125. If the Doctor's participle is ambiguous, I imagine that Allen's infinitives are just as much so. "The _participle_ which we denominate _past_, often means an action _whilst performing_: thus, I saw the _battle fought_, and the _standard lowered_."--_Wilson's Essay_, p. 158. Sometimes, especially in familiar conversation, an infinitive verb is suppressed, and the sign of it retained; as, "They might have aided us; they ought _to_" [have aided us].--_Herald of Freedom_. "We have tried to like it, but it's hard _to_."--_Lynn News_. OBS. 31.--After the verb _make_, some writers insert the verb _be_, and suppress the preposition _to_; as, "He _must make_ every syllable, and even every letter, in the word which he pronounces, _be heard_ distinctly."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 329; _Murray's E. Reader_, p. 9. "You _must make_ yourself _be heard_ with pleasure and attention."--_Duncan's Cicero_, p. 84. "To _make_ himself _be heard_ by all."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 328. "To _make_ ourselves _be heard_ by one."--_Ibid._ "Clear enough to _make_ me _be_ understood."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 198. In my opinion, it would be better, either to insert the _to_, or to use the participle only; as, "The information which he possessed, _made_ his company _to be_ courted."--_Dr. M'Rie_. "Which will both show the importance of this rule, and _make_ the application of it _to be_ understood."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 103. Or, as in these brief forms: "To _make_ himself _heard_ by all."--"Clear enough to _make_ me _understood_." OBS. 32.--In those languages in which the infinitive is distinguished as such by its termination, this part of the verb may be used alone as the subject of a finite verb; but in English it is always necessary to retain the sign _to_ before an abstract infinitive, because there is nothing else to distinguish the verb from a noun. Here we may see a difference between our language and the French, although it has been shown, that in their government of the infinitive they are in some degree analogous:--"HA�R est un tourment; AIMER est un besoin de l'âme."--_M. de Ségur. "To hate_ is a torment; _to love_ is a requisite of the soul." If from this any will argue that _to_ is not here a preposition, the same argument will be as good, to prove that _for_ is not a preposition when it governs the objective case; because that also may be used without any antecedent term of relation: as, "They are by no means points of equal importance, _for me to be deprived_ of your affections, and _for him to be defeated_ in his prosecution."--_Anon., in W. Allen's Gram._, p. 166. I said, the sign _to_ must _always_ be put before an abstract infinitive: but possibly a _repetition_ of this sign may not always be necessary, when several such infinitives occur in the same construction: as, "But, _to fill_ a heart with joy, _restore_ content to the afflicted, or _relieve_ the necessitous, these fall not within the reach of their five senses."--_Art of Thinking_, p. 66. It may be too much to affirm, that this is positively ungrammatical; yet it would be as well or better, to express it thus: "But _to relieve_ the necessitous, _to restore_ content to the afflicted, _and to fill_ a heart with joy, these full not within the reach of their five senses." OBS. 33.--In the use of the English infinitive, as well as of the participle in _ing_, the distinction of _voice_ is often disregarded; the active form being used in what, with respect to the noun before it, is a passive sense: as, "There's no time _to waste_."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 82. "You are _to blame_."--_Ib._ "The humming-bird is delightful _to look_ upon."--_Ib._ "What pain it was _to drown_."--_Shak._ "The thing's _to do_."--_Id._ "When deed of danger was _to do_."--_Scott_. "The evil I bring upon myself, is the hardest _to bear_."--_Home's Art of Thinking_, p. 27. "Pride is worse _to bear_ than cruelty."--_Ib._, p. 37. These are in fact active verbs, and not passive. We may suggest agents for them, if we please; as, "There is no time _for us_ to waste." That the simple participle in _ing_ may be used passively, has been proved elsewhere. It seems sometimes to have no distinction of voice; as, "What is worth _doing_, is worth _doing well_."--_Com. Maxim._ This is certainly much more agreeable, than to say, "What is worth _being done_, is worth _being done well_." In respect to the voice of the infinitive, and of this participle, many of our grammarians are obviously hypercritical. For example: "The active voice should not be used for the passive; as, I have work _to do_: a house _to sell, to let_, instead of _to be done, to be sold, to be let_."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 220. "Active verbs are often used improperly with a passive signification, as, 'the house is _building_, lodgings to _let_, he has a house to _sell_, nothing is _wanting_;' in stead of 'the house is _being built_, lodgings to _be lett_, he has a house to _be_ sold, nothing is _wanted_.'"--_Blair's Gram._, p. 64. In punctuation, orthography, and the use of capitals, here are more errors than it is worth while to particularize. With regard to such phraseology as, "The house _is being built_," see, in Part II, sundry Observations on the Compound Form of Conjugation. To say, "I have work _to do_,"--"He has a house _to sell_,"--or, "We have lodgings _to let_," is just as good English, as to say, "I have meat _to eat_."--_John_, iv, 32. And who, but some sciolist in grammar, would, in all such instances, prefer the passive voice? IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XVIII. INFINITIVES DEMANDING THE PARTICLE TO. "William, please hand me that pencil."--_R. C. Smith's New Gram._, p. 12. [FORMULE--Not proper, because the infinitive verb _hand_ is not preceded by the preposition _to_. But, according to Rule 18th, "The preposition _to_ governs the infinitive mood, and commonly connects it to a finite verb." Therefore, _to_ should be here inserted; thus, "William, please _to_ hand me that pencil."] "Please insert points so as to make sense."--_Davis's Gram._, p. 123. "I have known Lords abbreviate almost the half of their words."--_Cobbett's English Gram._, ¶ 153. "We shall find the practice perfectly accord with the theory."--_Knight, on the Greek Alphabet_, p. 23. "But it would tend to obscure, rather than elucidate the subject."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 95. "Please divide it for them as it should be."--_Willett's Arith._, p. 193. "So as neither to embarrass, nor weaken the sentence."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 116; _Murray's Gram._, 322. "Carry her to his table, to view his poor fare,[413] and hear his heavenly discourse."--SHERLOCK: _Blair's Rhet._, p. 157; _Murray's Gram._, 347. "That we need not be surprised to find this hold in eloquence."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 174. "Where he has no occasion either to divide or explain."--_Ib._, p. 305. "And they will find their pupils improve by hasty and pleasant steps."--_Russell's Gram._, Pref., p. 4. "The teacher however will please observe," &c.--_Infant School Gram._, p. 8. "Please attend to a few rules in what is called syntax."--_Ib._, p. 128. "They may dispense with the laws to favor their friends, or secure their office."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 39. "To take back a gift, or break a contract, is a wanton abuse."--_Ib._, p. 41. "The legislature has nothing to do, but let it bear its own price."--_Ib._, p. 315. "He is not to form, but copy characters."--_Rambler_, No. 122. "I have known a woman make use of a shoeing-horn."--_Spect._, No. 536. "Finding this experiment answer, in every respect, their wishes."--_Sandford and Merton_, p. 51. "In fine let him cause his argument conclude in the term of the question."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. iii, p. 443. "That he permitted not the winds of heaven Visit her face too roughly."--_Shakspeare, Hamlet_. RULE XIX.--INFINITIVES. The active verbs, _bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see_, and their participles, usually take the Infinitive after them without the preposition _to_: as, "If he _bade_ thee _depart_, how _darest_ thou _stay_?"--"I _dare_ not _let_ my mind _be_ idle as I walk in the streets."--_Cotton Mather_. "Thy Hector, wrapt in everlasting sleep, Shall neither _hear_ thee _sigh_, nor _see_ thee _weep_." --_Pope's Homer_. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XIX. OBS. 1.--Respecting the syntax of the infinitive mood when the particle _to_ is not expressed before it, our grammarians are almost as much at variance, as I have shown them to be, when they find the particle employed. Concerning _verbs governed by verbs_, Lindley Murray, and some others, are the most clear and positive, where their doctrine is the most obviously wrong; and, where they might have affirmed with truth, that the former verb _governs the latter_, they only tell us that "the preposition TO _is sometimes properly omitted_,"--or that such and such verbs "_have commonly other verbs following them_ without the sign TO."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 183; _Alger's_, 63; _W. Allen's_, 167, and others. If these authors meant, that the preposition _to_ is omitted _by ellipsis_, they ought to have said so. Then the many admirers and remodellers of Murray's Grammar might at least have understood him alike. Then, too, any proper definition of _ellipsis_ must have proved both them and him to be clearly wrong about this construction also. If the word _to_ is really "understood," whenever it is omitted after _bid, dare, feel_, &c., as some authors, affirm, then is it here the governing word, if anywhere; and this nineteenth rule, however common, is useless to the parser.[414] Then, too, does no English verb ever govern the infinitive without governing also a _preposition_, "expressed or understood." Whatever is omitted by ellipsis, and truly "_understood_," really belongs to the grammatical construction; and therefore, if inserted, it cannot be actually _improper_, though it may be unnecessary. But all our grammarians admit, that _to_ before the infinitive is sometimes "superfluous _and improper_."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 183. I imagine, there cannot be any proper ellipsis of _to_ before the infinitive, except in some forms of comparison; because, wherever else it is necessary, either to the sense or to the construction, it ought to be inserted. And wherever the _to_ is rightly used, it is properly the governing word; but where it cannot be inserted without _impropriety_, it is absurd to say, that it is "_understood_." The infinitive that is put after such a verb or participle as excludes the preposition _to_, is governed by this verb or participle, if it is governed by any thing: as, "To make them _do, undo, eat, drink, stand, move, Talk, think_, and _feel_, exactly as he chose."--_Pollok_, p. 69. OBS. 2.--Ingersoll, who converted Murray's Grammar into "_Conversations_," says, "I will just remark to you that the verbs in the infinitive mood, that follow _make, need, see, bid, dare, feel, hear, let_, and their participles, are _always_ GOVERNED by them."--_Conv. on Eng. Gram._, p. 120. Kirkham, who pretended to turn the same book into "_Familiar Lectures_," says, "_To_, the sign of the infinitive mood, is _often understood_ before the verb; as, 'Let me proceed;' that is, Let me _to_ proceed."--_Gram. in Fam. Lect._, p. 137. The lecturer, however, does not suppose the infinitive to be here governed by the preposition _to_, or the verb _let_, but rather by the pronoun _me_. For, in an other place, he avers, that the infinitive may be governed by a noun or a pronoun; as, "Let _him do_ it."--_Ib._, p. 187. Now if the government of the infinitive is to be referred to the objective noun or pronoun that intervenes, none of those verbs that take the infinitive after them without the preposition, will usually be found to govern it, except _dare_ and _need_; and if _need_, in such a case, is an _auxiliary_, no government pertains to that. R. C. Smith, an other modifier of Murray, having the same false notion of ellipsis, says, "_To_, the usual sign of this mood, is _sometimes understood_; as, 'Let me go,' instead of, 'Let me _to_ go.'"--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 65. According to Murray, whom these men profess to follow, _let_, in all these examples, is _an auxiliary_, and the verb that follows it, is not in the _infinitive_ mood, but in the _imperative_. So they severally contradict their oracle, and all are wrong, both he and they! The disciples pretend to correct their master, by supposing "_Let me to go_," and "_Let me to proceed_," good English! OBS. 3.--It is often impossible to say _by what_ the infinitive is governed, according to the instructions of Murray, or according to any author who does not parse it as I do. Nutting says, "The infinitive _mode_ sometimes follows the comparative conjunctions, _as, than_, and _how_, WITHOUT GOVERNMENT."--_Practical Gram._, p. 106. Murray's uncertainty[415] may have led to some part of this notion, but the idea that _how_ is a "comparative conjunction," is a blunder entirely new. Kirkham is so puzzled by "the language of that eminent philologist," that he bolts outright from the course of his guide, and runs he knows not whither; feigning that other able writers have well contended, "that this mood IS NOT GOVERNED by any particular word." Accordingly he leaves his pupils at liberty to "_reject the idea of government_, as applied to the verb in this mood;" and even frames a rule which refers it always "To some noun or pronoun, as its subject or actor."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 188. Murray teaches that the object of the active verb sometimes governs the infinitive that follows it: as, "They have a _desire_ to improve."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 184. To what extent, in practice, he would carry this doctrine, nobody can tell; probably to every sentence in which this object is the antecedent term to the preposition _to_, and perhaps further: as, "I _have_ a _house_ to _sell_"--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 106. "I _feel_ a _desire_ to _excel_." "I _felt_ my _heart_ within me _die_."--_Merrick_. OBS. 4.--Nutting supposes that the objective case before the infinitive always governs it wherever it denotes the agent of the infinitive action; as, "He commands _me_ to _write_ a letter."--_Practical Gram._, p. 96. Nixon, on the contrary, contends, that the finite verb, in such a sentence, can govern only one object, and that this object is the infinitive. "The objective case preceding it," he says, "is the subject or agent of that infinitive, and not governed by the preceding verb." His example is, "Let _them_ go."--_English Parser_, p. 97. "In the examples, 'He is endeavouring _to persuade_ them _to learn_,'--'It is pleasant _to see_ the sun,'--the pronoun _them_, the adjective _pleasant_, and the participle _endeavouring_, I consider as _governing_ the following verb in the infinitive mode."--_Cooper's Plain and Pract. Gram._, p. 144. "Some erroneously say that pronouns govern the infinitive mode in such examples as this: 'I expected _him_ to be present.' We will change the expression: 'He was expected to be present.' _All will admit_ that _to be_ is governed by _was expected_. The same verb that governs it in the passive voice, governs it in the active."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 144. So do our _professed grammarians_ differ about the government of the infinitive, even in _the most common_ constructions of it! Often, however, it makes but little difference in regard to the sense, which of the two words is considered the governing or antecedent term; but where the preposition is excluded, the construction seems to imply some immediate influence of the finite verb upon the infinitive. OBS. 5.--The _extent_ of this influence, or of such government, has never yet been clearly determined. "This _irregularity_," says _Murray_, "extends only to _active or neuter_ verbs: ['active _and_ neuter verbs,' says _Fisk_:] for all the verbs above mentioned, when made _passive_, require the preposition _to_ before the following verb: as, 'He was seen _to_ go;' 'He was heard _to_ speak;' 'They were bidden _to_ be upon their guard.'"--_Murray's Gram._, p. 183. Fisk adds with no great accuracy "In the _past_ and _future_ tenses of the active voice also, these verbs generally require the sign _to_, to be prefixed to the following verbs; as, 'You _have dared to proceed_ without authority;' 'They _will_ not _dare to attack_ you.'"--_Gram. Simplified_, p. 125. What these gentlemen here call "_neuter verbs_," are only the two words _dare_ and _need_, which are, in most cases, active, though not always transitive; unless the infinitive itself can make them so--an inconsistent doctrine of theirs which I have elsewhere refuted. (See Obs. 3rd on Rule 5th.) These two verbs take the infinitive after them without the preposition, only when they are intransitive; while all the rest seem to have this power, only when they are transitive. If there are any exceptions, they shall presently be considered. A more particular examination of the construction proper for the infinitive after each of these eight verbs, seems necessary for a right understanding of the rule. OBS. 6.--Of the verb BID. This verb, in any of its tenses, when it commands an action, usually governs an object and also an infinitive, which come together; as, "Thou _bidst_ the _world adore_."--_Thomson_. "If the prophet _had bid thee do_ some great thing."--_2 Kings_, v, 13. But when it means, _to promise_ or _offer_, the infinitive that follows, must be introduced by the preposition _to_; as, "He _bids_ fair _to excel_ them all"--"Perhaps no person under heaven _bids_ more unlikely _to_ be saved."--_Brown's Divinity_, p. vii. "And each _bade_ high _to_ win him."--GRANVILLE: _Joh. Dict._ After the compound _forbid_, the preposition is also necessary; as, "Where honeysuckles _forbid_ the sun _to_ enter."--_Beauties of Shak._. p. 57. In poetry, if the measure happens to require it, the word _to_ is sometimes allowed after the simple verb _bid_, denoting a command; as, "_Bid_ me _to_ strike my dearest brother dead, _To_ bring my aged father's hoary head."--_Rowe's Lucan_, B. i, l. 677. OBS. 7.--Of the verb DARE. This verb, when used intransitively, and its irregular preterit _durst_, which is never transitive, usually take the infinitive after them without _to_; as, "I _dare do_ all that may become a man: Who _dares do_ more, is none."--_Shakspeare_. "If he _durst steal_ any thing adventurously."--_Id._ "Who _durst defy_ th' Omnipotent to arms."--_Milton_. "Like one who _durst_ his destiny _control_."--_Dryden_. In these examples, the former verbs have some resemblance to auxiliaries, and the insertion of the preposition _to_ would be improper. But when we take away this resemblance, by giving _dare_ or _dared_, an objective case, the preposition is requisite before the infinitive; as, "Time! I _dare thee to_ discover Such a youth or such a lover."--_Dryden_. "He _dares me to_ enter the lists."--_Fisk's Gram._, p. 125. So when _dare_ itself is in the infinitive mood, or is put after an auxiliary, the preposition is not improper; as, "And _let_ a private man _dare to say_ that it will."--_Brown's Estimate_, ii, 147. "_Would_ its compiler _dare to affront_ the Deity?"--_West's Letters_, p. 151. "What power so great, _to dare to disobey?_"--_Pope's Homer_. "Some _would_ even _dare_ to die."--_Bible_. "What _would dare to molest_ him?"--_Dr. Johnson_. "_Do_ you _dare to prosecute_ such a creature as Vaughan?"--_Junius_, Let. xxxiii. Perhaps these examples might be considered good English, either with or without the _to_; but the last one would be still better thus: "_Dare_ you _prosecute_ such a creature as Vaughan?" Dr. Priestley thinks the following sentence would have been better with the preposition inserted: "Who _have dared defy_ the worst."--HARRIS: _Priestley's Gram._, p. 132. _To_ is sometimes used after the simple verb, in the present tense; as, "Those whose words no one _dares to_ repeat."--_Opie, on Lying_, p. 147. "_Dare_ I _to_ leave of humble prose the shore?" --_Young_, p. 377. "Against heaven's endless mercies pour'd, how _dar'st_ thou _to_ rebel?" --_Id._, p. 380. "The man who _dares to_ be a wretch, deserves still greater pain." --_Id._, p. 381. OBS. 8.--Of the verb FEEL. This verb, in any of its tenses, may govern the infinitive without the sign _to_; but it does this, only when it is used transitively, and that in regard to a bodily perception: as, "I _feel_ it _move_."--"I _felt_ something _sting_ me." If we speak of feeling any mental affection, or if we use the verb intransitively, the infinitive that follows, requires the preposition; as, "I _feel_ it _to_ be my duty."--"I _felt_ ashamed _to_ ask."--"I _feel_ afraid _to_ go alone."--"I _felt_ about, _to_ find the door." One may say of what is painful to the body, "I _feel_ it _to_ be severe." OBS. 9.--Of the verb HEAR. This verb is often intransitive, but it is usually followed by an objective case when it governs the infinitive; as. "To _hear_ a _bird sing_."--_Webster_. "You have never _heard me say_ so." For this reason, I am inclined to think that those sentences in which it appears to govern the infinitive alone, are elliptical; as, "I _have heard tell_ of such things."--"And I _have heard say_ of thee, that thou canst understand a dream to interpret it."--_Gen_, xli, 15. Such examples may be the same as. "I have heard _people_ tell,"--"I have heard _men_ say," &c. OBS. 10.--Of the verb LET. By many grammarians this verb has been erroneously called an _auxiliary_ of the optative mood; or, as Dr. Johnson terms it, "a _sign_ of the _optative_ mood:" though none deny, that it is sometimes also a principal verb. It is, in fact, always a principal verb; because, as we now apply it, it is always transitive. It commonly governs an objective noun or pronoun, and also an infinitive without the sign _to_; as, "Rise up, _let us go_."--_Mark_. "Thou _shalt let it rest_."--_Exodus_. But sometimes the infinitive coalesces with it more nearly than the objective, so that the latter is placed after both verbs; as, "The solution _lets go_ the _mercury_."--_Newton_. "One _lets slip_ out of his account a good _part_ of that duration."--_Locke_. "Back! on _your_ lives; _let_ be, said he, my _prey_."--_Dryden_. The phrase, _let go_, is sometimes spoken for, _let go your hold_; and _let be_, for _let him be, let it be_, &c. In such instances, therefore, the verb _let_ is not really intransitive. This verb, even in the passive form, may have the infinitive after it without the preposition to; as, "Nothing _is let slip_."--_Walker's English Particles_, p. 165. "They _were let go_ in peace."--_Acts_, xv, 33. "The stage was never empty, nor the curtain _let fall_."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 459. "The pye's question was wisely _let fall_ without a reply."--_L'Estrange_. With respect to other passives, Murray and Fisk appear to be right; and sometimes the preposition is used after this one: as, "There's a letter for you, sir, if your name be Horatio, as I _am let to know_ it is."--_Shakspeare_. _Let_, when used intransitively, required the preposition _to_ before the following infinitive; as, "He would not _let_ [i. e. _forbear_] _to counsel_ the king."--_Bacon_. But this use of _let_ is now obsolete. OBS. 11.--Of the verb MAKE. This verb, like most of the others, never immediately governs an infinitive, unless it also governs a noun or a pronoun which is the immediate _subject_ of such infinitive; as, "You _make me blush_."--"This only _made_ the _youngster laugh_"--_Webster's Spelling-Book_. "Which soon _made_ the young _chap hasten_ down."--_Ib._ But in very many instances it is quite proper to insert the preposition where this verb is transitive; as, "He _maketh_ both the deaf _to_ hear, and the dumb _to_ speak."--_Mark_, vii, 37. "He _makes_ the excellency of a sentence _to_ consist in four things."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 122; _Jamieson's_, 124. "It is this that _makes_ the observance of the dramatic unities _to_ be of consequence."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 464. "In _making_ some tenses of the English verb _to_ consist of principal and auxiliary."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 76. "When _make_ is intransitive, it has some qualifying word after it, besides the sign of the infinitive; as,--I think he _will make out_ to pay his debts." Formerly, the preposition _to_ was almost always inserted to govern the infinitive after _make_ or _made_; as, "Lest I _make_ my brother _to_ offend."--_1 Cor._, viii, 13. "He _made_ many _to_ fall."--_Jer._, xlvi, 16. Yet, in the following text, it is omitted, even where the verb is meant to be _passive_: "And it was lifted up from the earth, and _made stand_ upon the feet as a man."--_Dan._, vii, 4. This construction is improper, and not free from ambiguity; because _stand_ may be a noun, and _made_, an active verb governing it. There may also be uncertainty in the meaning, where the insertion of the preposition leaves none in the construction; for _made_ may signify either _created_ or _compelled_, and the infinitive after it, may denote either the _purpose_ of creation, or the _effect_ of any temporary compulsion: as, "We are _made to be serviceable_ to others."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 167. "Man _was made to mourn_."--_Burns_. "Taste _was never made to cater_ for vanity."--_Blair_. The primitive word _make_ seldom, if ever, produces a construction that is thus equivocal. The infinitive following it without _to_, always denotes the effect of the making, and not the purpose of the maker; as, "He _made_ his son Skjöld _be received_ there as king."--_North. Antiq._, p. 81. But the same meaning may be conveyed when the _to_ is used; as, "The fear of God is freedom, joy, and peace; And _makes_ all ills that vex us here _to_ cease."--_Waller_, p. 56. OBS. 12.--Of the verb NEED. I incline to think, that the word _need_, whenever it is rightly followed by the infinitive without _to_, is, in reality an _auxiliary_ of the potential mood; and that, like _may, can_, and _must_, it may properly be used, in both the present and the perfect tense, without personal inflection: as, "He _need_ not _go_, He _need_ not _have gone_;" where, if _need_ is a principal verb, and governs the infinitive without _to_, the expressions must be, "He _needs_ not _go_, He _needed_ not _go_, or, He _has_ not _needed go_." But none of these three forms is agreeable; and the last two are never used. Wherefore, in stead of placing in my code of false syntax the numerous examples of the former kind, with which the style of our grammarians and critics has furnished me, I have exhibited many of them, in contrast with others, in the eighth and ninth observations on the Conjugation of Verbs; in which observations, the reader may see what reasons there are for supposing the word _need_ to be sometimes an auxiliary and sometimes a principal verb. Because no other author has yet intentionally recognized the propriety of this distinction, I have gone no farther than to show on what grounds, and with what authority from usage, it might be acknowledged. If we adopt this distinction, perhaps it will be found that the regular or principal verb _need_ always requires, or, at least, always admits, the preposition _to_ before the following infinitive; as, "They _need_ not _to_ be specially indicated."--_Adams's Rhet._, i, 302. "We _need_ only _to_ remark."--_Ib._, ii, 224. "A young man _needed_ only _to_ ask himself," &c.--_Ib._, i, 117. "Nor is it conceivable to me, that the lightning of a Demosthenes _could need to_ be sped upon the wings of a semiquaver."--_Ib._, ii, 226. "But these people _need to_ be informed."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 220. "No man _needed_ less _to_ be informed."--_Ib._, p. 175. "We _need_ only _to_ mention the difficulty that arises."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 362. "_Can_ there _need to_ be argument to prove so plain a point?"--_Graham's Lect_. "Moral instruction _needs to_ have a more prominent place."--_Dr. Weeks_. "Pride, ambition, and selfishness, _need to_ be restrained."--_Id._ "Articles are sometimes omitted, where they _need to_ be used."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 197. "Whose power _needs_ not _to_ be dreaded."--_Wilson's Hebrew Gram._, p. 93. "A workman that _needeth_ not _to_ be ashamed."--_2 Tim._, ii, 15. "The small boys _may have needed to_ be managed according to the school system."--_T. D. Woolsey_. "The difficulty of making variety consistent, _needs_ not _to_ disturb him."--_Rambler_, No. 122. "A more cogent proof _needs_ not _to_ be introduced."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 66. "No person _needs to_ be informed, that _you_ is used in addressing a single person."--_Wilcox's Gram._, p. 19. "I hope I _need_ not _to_ advise you further."--_Shak., All's Well_. "Nor me, nor other god, thou _needst to_ fear, For thou to all the heavenly host art dear."--_Congreve_. OBS. 13.--If _need_ is ever an auxiliary, the essential difference between an auxiliary and a principal verb, will very well account for the otherwise puzzling fact, that good writers sometimes inflect this verb, and sometimes do not; and that they sometimes use _to_ after it, and sometimes do not. Nor do I see in what other way a grammarian can treat it, without condemning as bad English a great number of very common phrases which he cannot change for the better. On this principle, such examples as, "He _need_ not _proceed_," and "He _needs_ not _to_ proceed," may be perfectly right in either form; though Murray, Crombie,[416] Fisk, Ingersoll, Smith, C. Adams, and many others, pronounce both these forms to be wrong; and unanimously, (though contrary to what is perhaps the best usage,) prefer, "He _needs_ not _proceed_."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 180. OBS. 14.--On questions of grammar, the _practice of authors_ ought to be of more weight, than the _dogmatism of grammarians_; but it is often difficult to decide well by either; because errors and contradictions abound in both. For example: Dr. Blair says, (in speaking of the persons represented by _I_ and _thou_,) "Their sex _needs_ not _be_ marked."--_Rhet._, p. 79. Jamieson abridges the work, and says, "_needs_ not _to_ be marked."--_Gram. of Rhet._, p. 28. Dr. Lowth also says, "_needs_ not _be_ marked."--_Gram._, p. 21. Churchill enlarges the work, and says, "_needs_ not _to_ be marked."--_New Gram._, p. 72. Lindley Murray copies Lowth, and says, "_needs_ not _be_ marked."--_Gram._, 12mo, 2d Ed., p. 39; 23d Ed., p. 51; and perhaps all other editions. He afterwards enlarges his own work, and says, "_needs_ not _to_ be marked."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 51. But, according to Greenleaf they all express the idea ungrammatically; the only true form being, "Their sex _need_ not _be marked_." See _Gram. Simplified_, p. 48. In the two places in which the etymology and the syntax of this verb are examined, I have cited from proper sources more than twenty examples in which _to_ is used after it, and more than twenty others in which the verb is not inflected in the third person singular. In the latter, _need_ is treated as an auxiliary; in the former, it is a principal verb, of the regular construction. If the principal verb _need_ can also govern the infinitive without _to_, as all our grammarians have supposed, then there is a third form which is unobjectionable, and my pupils may take their choice of the three. But still there is a fourth form which nobody approves, though the hands of some great men have furnished us with examples of it: as, "A figure of thought _need_ not _to_ detort the words from their literal sense."--_J. Q. Adams's Lectures_, Vol. ii, p. 254. "Which a man _need_ only _to_ appeal to his own feelings immediately to evince."--_Clarkson's Prize-Essay on Slavery_, p. 106. OBS. 15.--Webster and Greenleaf seem inclined to justify the use of _dare_, as well as of _need_, for the third person singular. Their doctrine is this: "In _popular practice_ it is used in the third person, without the personal termination. Thus, instead of saying, 'He _dares_ not do it;' WE _generally_ say, 'He _dare_ not do it.' In like manner, _need_, when an active verb, is regular in its inflections; as, 'A man _needs_ more prudence.' But _when intransitive_, it drops the personal terminations in the present tense, and is followed by a verb without the prefix _to_; as, 'A man _need_ not _be_ uneasy.'"--_Greenleaf s Grammar Simplified_, p. 38; _Webster's Philosophical Gram._, p. 178; _Improved Gram._, 127. Each part of this explanation appears to me erroneous. In _popular practice_, one shall oftener hear, "He _dares n't_ do it," or even, "_You dares n't_ do it," than, "_He dare not_ do it." But it is only in the trained practice of the schools, that he shall ever hear, "He _needs n't_ do it," or, "He _needs not_ do it." If _need_ is sometimes used without inflection, this peculiarity, or the disuse of _to_ before the subsequent infinitive, is not a necessary result of its "_intransitive_" character. And as to their latent _nominative_, "whereof there _is_ no _account_," or, "whereof there _needs_ no _account_;" their _fact_, of which "there _is_ no _evidence_," or of which "there _needs_ no _evidence_;" I judge it a remarkable phenomenon, that authors of so high pretensions, could find, in these _transpositions_, a nominative to "_is_," but none to "_needs_!" See a marginal note under Rule 14th, at p. 570. OBS. 16.--Of the verb SEE. This verb, whenever it governs the infinitive without _to_, governs also an objective noun or pronoun; as, "_See me do_ it."--"I _saw him do_ it."--_Murray_. Whenever it is intransitive, the following infinitive must be governed by _to_; as, "I _will see to have_ it done."--_Comly's Gram._, p. 98; _Greenleaf's_, 38. "How _could_ he _see to do_ them?"--_Beauties of Shak._, p. 43. In the following text, _see_ is transitive, and governs the infinitive; but the two verbs are put so far apart, that it requires some skill in the reader to make their relation apparent: "When ye therefore _shall see_ the abomination of desolation, spoken of by Daniel the prophet, _stand_ in the holy place," &c.--_Matt._, xxiv, 15. An other scripturist uses the _participle_, and says--"_standing_ where it ought not," &c.--_Mark_, xiii, 14. The Greek word is the same in both; it is a participle, agreeing with the noun for _abomination_. Sometimes the preposition _to_ seems to be admitted on purpose to protract the expression: as, "Tranio, I _saw_ her coral lips _to move_, And with her breath she did perfume the air."--_Shak_. OBS 17.--A few other verbs, besides the eight which are mentioned in the foregoing rule and remarks, sometimes have the infinitive after them without _to_. W. Allen teaches, that, "The sign _to_ is _generally_ omitted," not only after these eight, but also after eight others; namely, "_find, have, help, mark, observe, perceive, watch_, and the old preterit _gan_, for _began_; and _sometimes_ after _behold_ and _know_."--_Elements of Gram._, p. 167. Perhaps he may have found _some instances_ of the omission of the preposition after all these, but in my opinion his rule gives a very unwarrantable extension to this "irregularity," as Murray calls it. The usage belongs only to particular verbs, and to them not in all their applications. Other verbs of the same import do not in general admit the same idiom. But, by a license for the most part peculiar to the poets, the preposition _to_ is occasionally omitted, especially after verbs equivalent to those which exclude it; as, "And _force_ them _sit_."--_Cowper's Task_, p. 46. That is, "And _make_ them _sit_." According to Churchill, "To use _ought_ or _cause_ in this manner, is a Scotticism: [as,] 'Won't you _cause_ them _remove_ the hares?'--'You _ought_ not _walk_.' SHAK."--_New Gram._, p. 317. The verbs, _behold, view, observe, mark, watch_, and _spy_, are only other words for _see_; as, "There might you _behold_ one joy _crown_ an other."--_Shak_. "There I sat, _viewing_ the silver stream _glide_ silently towards the tempestuous sea."--_Walton_. "I _beheld_ Satan as lightning _fall_ from heaven."--_Luke_, x, 18. "Thy drowsy nurse hath sworn she did them _spy Come_ tripping to the room where thou didst lie."--_Milton_. ------"Nor with less dread the loud Ethereal trumpet from on high '_gan blow_."--_Id., P. L._, vi, 60. OBS. 18.--After _have, help_, and _find_, the infinitive sometimes occurs without the preposition _to_, but much oftener with it; as, "When enumerating objects which we wish to _have appear_ distinct."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 222. "Certainly, it is heaven upon earth, to _have_ a man's mind _move_ in charity, _rest_ in Providence, and _turn_ upon the poles of truth."--_Ld. Bacon_. "What wilt thou _have_ me _to_ do?"--_Acts_, ix, 6. "He will _have_ us _to_ acknowledge him."--_Scougal_, p. 102. "I _had to walk_ all the way."--_Lennie's Gram._, p. 85. "Would you _have_ them _let go_ then? No."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 248. According to Allen's rule, this question is ambiguous; but the learned author explains it in Latin thus: "Placet igitur eos _dimitti_? Minimé." That is, "Would you have them _dismissed_ then? No." Had he meant, "Would you have them _to_ let go then?" he would doubtless have said so. Kirkham, by adding _help_ to Murray's list, enumerates nine verbs which he will have to exclude the sign of the infinitive; as, "_Help_ me _do_ it."--_Gram._, p. 188. But good writers sometimes use the particle _to_ after this verb; as, "And Danby's matchless impudence _helped to_ support the knave."--DRYDEN: _Joh. Dict., w. Help_. Dr. Priestley says, "It must, I suppose, be according to the _Scotch_ idiom that Mrs. Macaulay omits it after the verb _help_: 'To _help carry_ on the new measures of the court.' _History_, Vol. iv, p. 150."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 133. "You will _find_ the difficulty _disappear_ in a short time."--_Cobbett's English Gram._, ¶ 16. "We shall always _find_ this distinction _obtain_."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 245. Here the preposition _to_ might have been inserted with propriety. Without it, a plural noun will render the construction equivocal. The sentence, "You will find the _difficulties disappear_ in a short time," will probably be understood to mean, "You will find _that_ the difficulties disappear in a short time." "I do not _find_ him _reject_ his authority."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 167. Here too the preposition might as well have been inserted. But, as this use of the infinitive is a sort of Latinism, some critics would choose to say, "I do not find _that he rejects_ his authority." "Cyrus was extremely glad to find _them have_ such sentiments of religion."--_Rollin_, ii, 117. Here the infinitive may be varied either by the participle or by the indicative; as, "to find _them having_," or, "to find _they had_." Of the three expressions, the last, I think, is rather the best. OBS. 19.--When two or more infinitives are connected in the same construction, one preposition sometimes governs them both or all; a repetition of the particle not being always necessary, unless we mean to make the terms severally emphatical. This fact is one evidence that _to_ is not a necessary part of each infinitive verb, as some will have it to be. Examples: "Lord, suffer me first TO _go_ and _bury_ my father."--_Matt._, viii, 21. "To _shut_ the door, means, TO _throw_ or _cast_ the door to."--_Tooke's D. P._, ii, 105. "Most authors expect the printer TO _spell, point_, and _digest_ their copy, that it may be intelligible to the reader."--_Printer's Grammar_. "I'll not be made a soft and dull-eyed fool, To _shake_ the head, _relent_, and _sigh_, and _yield_."--_Shak_. OBS. 20.--An infinitive that explains an other, may sometimes be introduced without the preposition _to_; because, the former having it, the construction of the latter is made the same by this kind of apposition: as, "The most accomplished way of using books at present is, TO _serve_ them as some do lords; _learn_ their _titles_, and, then _brag_ of their acquaintance."--SWIFT: _Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 166. OBS. 21.--After _than_ or _as_, the sign of the infinitive is sometimes required, and sometimes excluded; and in some instances we can either insert it or not, as we please. The latter term of a comparison is almost always more or less elliptical; and as the nature of its ellipsis depends on the structure of the former term, so does the necessity of inserting or of omitting the sign of the infinitive. Examples: "No desire is more universal than [_is the desire_] to be exalted and honoured."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 197. "The difficulty is not so great to die for a friend, as [_is the difficulty_] to find a friend worth dying for."--_Id., Art of Thinking_, p. 42. "It is no more in one's power to love or not to love, than [_it is in one's power_] to be in health or out of order."--_Ib._, p. 45. "Men are more likely to be praised into virtue, than [_they are likely_] to be railed out of vice."--_Ib._, p. 48. "It is more tolerable to be always alone, than [_it is tolerable_] never to be so."--_Ib._, p. 26. "Nothing [_is_] more easy than to do mischief [_is easy_]: nothing [is] more difficult than to suffer without complaining" [_is difficult_].--_Ib._, p. 46. Or: "than [_it is easy_] to do mischief:" &c., "than [_it is difficult_] to suffer," &c. "It is more agreeable to the nature of most men to follow than [_it is agreeable to their nature_] to lead."--_Ib._, p. 55. In all these examples, the preposition _to_ is very properly inserted; but what excludes it from the former term of a comparison, will exclude it from the latter, if such governing verb be understood there: as, "You no more heard me _say_ those words, than [_you heard me_] _talk_ Greek." It may be equally proper to say, "We choose rather to lead than _follow_," or, "We choose rather to lead than _to_ follow."--_Art of Thinking_, p. 37. The meaning in either case is, "We choose to lead rather than _we choose to_ follow." In the following example, there is perhaps an ellipsis of _to_ before _cite_: "I need do nothing more than _simply cite_ the explicit declarations," &c.--_Gurney's Peculiarities_, p. 4. So in these: "Nature did no more than _furnish_ the power and means."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 147. "To beg, than _work_, he better understands; Or we perhaps might take him off thy hands." --_Pope's Odyssey_, xvii, 260. OBS. 22.--It has been stated, in Obs. 16th on Rule 17th, that good writers are apt to shun a repetition of any part common to two or more verbs in the same sentence; and among the examples there cited is this: "They mean _to_, and will, hear patiently."--_Salem Register_. So one might say, "Can a man arrive at excellence, who has no desire _to_?"--"I do not wish to go, nor expect _to_."--"Open the door, if you are going _to_." Answer: "We want _to_, and try _to_, but can't." Such ellipses of the infinitive after _to_, are by no means uncommon, especially in conversation; nor do they appear to me to be always reprehensible, since they prevent repetition, and may contribute to brevity without obscurity. But Dr. Bullions has lately thought proper to _condemn_ them; for such is presumed to have been the design of the following note: "_To_, the sign of the infinitive, should never be used for the infinitive itself. Thus, 'I have not written, and I do not intend _to_,' is a colloquial vulgarism for, 'I have not written, and I do not intend _to write_.'"--_Bullions's Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, p. 179. His "Exercises to be corrected," here, are these: "Be sure to write yourself and tell him to. And live as God designed me to."--_Ib._, 1st Ed., p. 180. It being manifest, that _to_ cannot "be used _for_"--(that is, _in place of_--)what is implied _after_ it, this is certainly a very awkward way of hinting "there should never be an ellipsis of the infinitive after _to_." But, from the false syntax furnished, this appears to have been the meaning intended. The examples are severally faulty, but not for the reason suggested--not because "_to_" is used for "_write_" or "_live_"--not, indeed, for any one reason common to the three--but because, in the first, "_to write_" and "_have not written_," have nothing in common which we can omit; in the second, the mood of "_tell_" is doubtful, and, without a comma after "yourself," we cannot precisely know the meaning; in the third, the mood, the person, and the number of "_live_," are all unknown. See Note 9th to Rule 17th, above; and Note 2d to the General Rule, below. OBS. 23.--Of some infinitives, it is hard to say whether they are transitive or intransitive; as, "Well, then, let us proceed; we have other forced marches to _make_; other enemies to _subdue_; more laurels to _acquire_; and more injuries to _avenge_."--BONAPARTE: _Columbian Orator_, p. 136. These, without ellipsis, are intransitive; but relatives may be inserted. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XIX. INFINITIVES AFTER BID, DARE, FEEL, HEAR, LET, &c. "I dare not to proceed so hastily, lest I should give offence."--_Murray's Exercises_, p. 63. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the preposition _to_ is inserted before _proceed_, which follows the active verb _dare_. But, according to Rule 19th, "The active verbs, _bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see_, and their participles, usually take the infinitive after them without the preposition _to_;" and this is an instance in which the finite verb should immediately govern the infinitive. Therefore, the _to_ should be omitted; thus, "I _dare_ not _proceed_ so hastily," &c.] "Their character is formed, and made appear."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 115. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the preposition _to_ is not inserted between _made_ and _appear_, the verb _is made_ being passive. But, according to Obs. 5th and 10th on Rule 19th, those verbs which in the active form govern the infinitive without _to_, do not so govern it when they are made passive, except the verb _let_. Therefore, _to_ should be here inserted; thus, "Their character is formed, and made _to_ appear."] "Let there be but matter and opportunity offered, and you shall see them quickly to revive again."--_Wisdom of the Ancients_, p. 53. "It has been made appear, that there is no presumption against a revelation."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 252. "MANIFEST, _v. t_. To reveal; to make to appear; to show plainly."--_Webster's American Dict._ "Let him to reign like unto good Aurelius, or let him to bleed like unto Socrates."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 169. "To sing I could not; to complain I durst not."--_S. Fothergill_. "If T. M. be not so frequently heard pray by them."--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 132. "How many of your own church members were never heard pray?"--_Ib._, iii, 133. "Yea, we are bidden pray one for another."--_Ib._, iii, 145. "He was made believe that neither the king's death, nor imprisonment would help him."--_Sheffield's Works_, ii, 281. "I felt a chilling sensation to creep over me."--_Inst._, p. 188. "I dare to say he has not got home yet."--_Ib._ "We sometimes see bad men to be honoured."--_Ib._ "I saw him to move."--_Felch's Comprehensive Gram._, p. 62. "For see thou, ah! see thou a hostile world to raise its terrours."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 167. "But that he make him to rehearse so."--_Lily's Gram._, p. xv. "Let us to rise."--_Fowle's True Eng. Gram._, p. 41. "Scripture, you know, exhorts us to it; Bids us to 'seek peace, and ensue it.'"--_Swift's Poems_, p. 336. "Who bade the mud from Dives' wheel To spurn the rags of Lazarus? Come, brother, in that dust we'll kneel, Confessing Heaven that ruled it thus."--_Christmas Book_. CHAPTER VII--PARTICIPLES. The true or regular syntax of the English Participle, as a part of speech distinct from the verb, and not converted into a noun or an adjective, is twofold; being sometimes that of simple _relation_ to a noun or a pronoun that precedes it, and sometimes that of _government_, or the state of _being governed_ by a preposition. In the former construction, the participle resembles an adjective; in the latter, it is more like a noun, or like the infinitive mood: for the participle after a preposition is governed _as a participle_, and not as a case.[417] To these two constructions, some add three others less regular, using the participle sometimes as the _subject_ of a finite verb, sometimes as the _object_ of a transitive verb, and sometimes as a _nominative_ after a neuter verb. Of these five constructions, the first two, are the legitimate uses of this part of speech; the others are occasional, modern, and of doubtful propriety. RULE XX.--PARTICIPLES. Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by prepositions: as, "Elizabeth's tutor, at one time _paying_ her a visit, found her _employed_ in _reading_ Plato."--_Hume_. "I have no more pleasure in _hearing_ a man _attempting_ wit and _failing_, than in _seeing_ a man _trying_ to leap over a ditch and tumbling into it."--_Dr. Johnson_. "Now, _rais'd_ on Tyre's sad ruins, Pharaoh's pride Soar'd high, his legions _threat'ning_ far and wide."--_Dryden_. EXCEPTION FIRST. A participle sometimes relates to a preceding _phrase_ or _sentence_, of which it forms no part; as, "I then quit the society; _to withdraw and leave them to themselves_, APPEARING to me a duty."--"It is almost exclusively on the ground we have mentioned, that we have heard _his being continued in office_ DEFENDED."--_Professors' Reasons_, p. 23. (Better, "_his continuance_ in office," or, "_the continuing of him_ in office." See Obs. 18th on Rule 4th.) "But _ever to do ill_ our sole delight, As _being_ the contrary to his high will."--_Milton_. EXCEPTION SECOND. With an infinitive denoting being or action in the abstract, a participle is sometimes also taken _abstractly_; (that is, without reference to any particular noun, pronoun, or other subject;) as, "To seem _compelled_, is disagreeable."--"To keep always _praying_ aloud, is plainly impossible."--"It must be disagreeable to be left pausing[418] on a word which does not, by itself, produce any idea."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 323. "To praise him is to serve him, and fulfill, _Doing_ and _suffering_, his unquestion'd will." --_Cowper_, Vol. i, p. 88. EXCEPTION THIRD. The participle is often used irregularly in English, as a substitute for the infinitive mood, to which it is sometimes equivalent without irregularity; as, "I saw him _enter_, or _entering_"--_Grant's Lat. Gram._, p. 230. "He is afraid of _trying_, or _to try_."--_Ibid._ Examples irregular: "Sir, said I, if the case stands thus, 'tis dangerous _drinking_:" i.e., to drink.--_Collier's Tablet of Cebes_. "It will be but ill _venturing_ thy soul upon that:" i.e., to venture.--_Bunyan's Law and Grace_, p. 27. "_Describing_ a past event as present, has a fine effect in language:" i.e., to describe.--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 93. "In English likewise it deserves _remarking_:" i.e., to be remarked.--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 232. "Bishop Atterbury deserves _being particularly mentioned_:" i.e., to be particularly mentioned.--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 291. "This, however, is in effect no more than _enjoying_ the sweet that predominates:" i.e., to enjoy.--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 43. "Habits are soon assum'd; but when we strive To strip them off, 'tis being _flay'd_ alive."--_Cowper_, Vol. i, p. 44 EXCEPTION FOURTH. An other frequent irregularity in the construction of participles, is the practice of treating them essentially as nouns, without taking from them the regimen and adjuncts of participles; as, "_Your having been well educated will be_ a great recommendation."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 171. (Better: "_Your excellent education_"--or, "_That you have been well educated_, will be," &c.) "It arises from _sublimity's expressing grandeur_ in its highest degree."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 29. "Concerning _the separating_ by a circumstance, _words_ intimately connected."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. ii, p. 104. "As long as there is any hope of _their keeping pace_ with them."--_Literary Convention_, p. 114. "Which could only arise from _his knowing the secrets_ of all hearts."--_West's Letters to a Young Lady_, p. 180. "But this again is _talking_ quite at random."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 146. "_My being here_ it is, that holds thee hence."--_Shak._ "Such, but by foils, the clearest lustre see, And deem _aspersing others, praising thee_."--_Savage, to Walpole_. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XX. OBS. 1.--To this rule, I incline to think, there are _properly_ no other exceptions than the first two above; or, at least, that we ought to avoid, when we can, any additional anomalies. Yet, not to condemn with unbecoming positiveness what others receive for good English, I have subjoined two items more, which include certain other irregularities now very common, that, when examples of a like form occur, the reader may _parse them as exceptions_, if he does not choose _to censure them as errors_. The mixed construction in which participles are made to govern the possessive case, has already been largely considered in the observations on Rule 4th. Murray, Allen, Churchill, and many other grammarians, great and small, admit that participles may be made the subjects or the objects of verbs, while they retain the nature, government, and adjuncts, of participles; as, "Not _attending_ to this rule, is the cause of a very common error."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 200; _Comly's Gram._, 188; _Weld's Gram._, 2d Ed., 170. "_Polite_ is employed to signify their being _highly civilized_.'"--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 219. "One abhors _being_ in debt."--_Ib._, p. 98; _Jamieson's Rhet._, 71; _Murray's Gram._, 144. "Who affected _being_ a fine gentleman so unmercifully."--_Spect._, No. 496. "The minister's _being attached_ to the project, prolonged their debate."--_Nixon's Parser_, p. 78. "It finds [i.e., _the mind_ finds,] that _acting thus_ would gratify one passion; _not acting_, or _acting otherwise_, would gratify another."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 109. "But further, _cavilling_ and _objecting_ upon any subject _is_ much easier than _clearing up_ difficulties."--_Bp. Butler's Charge to the Clergy of Durham_, 1751. OBS. 2.--W. Allen observes, "The use of the participle as a nominative, is one of the _peculiarities_ of our language."--_Elements of Gram._, p. 171. He might have added, that the use of the participle as an objective governed by a verb, as a nominative after a verb neuter, or as a word governing the possessive, is also one of the peculiarities of our language, or at least an idiom adopted by no few of its recent writers. But whether any one of these four modern departures from General Grammar ought to be countenanced by us, as an idiom that is either elegant or advantageous, I very much doubt. They are all however sufficiently common in the style of reputable authors; and, however questionable their character, some of our grammarians seem mightily attached to them all. It becomes me therefore to object with submission. These mixed and irregular constructions of the participle, ought, in my opinion, to be _generally_ condemned as false syntax; and for this simple reason, that the ideas conveyed by them may _generally_, if not always, be expressed more briefly, and more elegantly, by other phraseology that is in no respect anomalous. Thus, for the examples above: "_Inattention_ to this rule, is the cause of a very common error."--"_Polite_ is employed to signify a _high degree of civilization_;" or, "_that they are_ highly civilized."--"One abhors _debt_."--"Who affected _the_ fine gentleman so unmercifully."--"The minister's _partiality_ to the project, prolonged their debate."--"It finds [i.e., _the mind_ finds,] that _to act thus_, would gratify one passion; _and that not to act_, or _to act otherwise_, would gratify another."--"But further, _to cavil and object_, upon any subject, is much easier than _to clear up_ difficulties." Are not these expressions much better English than the foregoing quotations? And if so, have we not reason to conclude that the adoption of participles in such instances is erroneous and ungrammatical? OBS. 3.--In Obs. 17th on Rule 4th, it was suggested, that in English the participle, without governing the possessive case, is turned to a greater number and variety of uses, than in any other language. This remark applies mainly to the participle in _ing_. Whether it is expedient to make so much of one sort of derivative, and endeavour to justify every possible use of it which can be plausibly defended, is a question well worthy of consideration. We have already converted this participle to such a multiplicity of purposes, and into so many different parts of speech, that one can well-nigh write a chapter in it, without any other words. This practice may have added something to the copiousness and flexibility of the language, but it certainly has a tendency to impair its strength and clearness. Not every use of participles is good, for which there may be found precedents in good authors. One may run to great excess in the adoption of such derivatives, without becoming absolutely unintelligible, and without violating any rule of our common grammars. For example, I may say of somebody, "This very superficial grammatist, supposing empty criticism about the adoption of proper phraseology to be a show of extraordinary erudition, was displaying, in spite of ridicule, a very boastful turgid argument concerning the correction of false syntax, and about the detection of false logic in debate." Now, in what other language than ours, can a string of words anything like the following, come so near to a fair and literal translation of this long sentence? "This exceeding trifling witling, considering ranting criticising concerning adopting fitting wording being exhibiting transcending learning, was displaying, notwithstanding ridiculing, surpassing boasting swelling reasoning, respecting correcting erring writing, and touching detecting deceiving arguing during debating." Here are _not all_ the uses to which our writers apply the participle in _ing_, but there would seem to be enough, without adding others that are less proper. OBS. 4.--The active participles, _admitting, allowing, considering, granting, speaking, supposing_, and the like, are frequently used in discourse so independently, that they either relate to nothing, or to the pronoun _I_ or _we_ understood; as, "_Granting_ this to be true, what is to be inferred from it?"--_Murray's Gram._, p. 195. This may be supposed to mean, "_I_, granting this to be true, _ask_ what is to be inferred from it?" "The very chin was, _modestly speaking_, as long as my whole face."--_Addison_. Here the meaning may be, "_I_, modestly speaking, _say_." So of the following examples: "_Properly speaking_, there is no such thing as chance."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 172. "Because, _generally speaking_, the figurative sense of a word is derived from its proper sense."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 190. "But, _admitting_ that two or three of these offend less in their morals than in their writings, must poverty make nonsense sacred?"--_Pope's Works_, Vol. iii, p. 7. Some grammarians suppose such participles to be put absolute in themselves, so as to have no reference to any noun or pronoun; others, among whom are L. Murray and Dr. James P. Wilson, suppose them to be put absolute with a pronoun understood. On the former supposition, they form an other exception to the foregoing rule; on the latter, they do not: the participle relates to the pronoun, though both be independent of the rest of the sentence. If we supply the ellipsis as above, there is nothing put absolute. OBS. 5.--Participles are almost always placed after the words on which their construction depends, and are distinguished from adjectives by this position; but when other words depend on the participle, or when several participles have the same construction, the whole phrase may come before the noun or pronoun: as, "_Leaning_ my head upon my hand, _I_ began to figure to myself the miseries of confinement."--_Sterne_. "_Immured_ in cypress shades, a _sorcerer_ dwells."--_Milton_. "_Brib'd, bought, and bound_, they banish shame and fear; Tell you they're stanch, and have a soul sincere."--_Crabbe_. OBS. 6.--When participles are compounded with something that does not belong to the verb, they become _adjectives_; and, as such, they cannot govern an object after them. The following construction is therefore inaccurate: "When Caius did any thing _unbecoming_ his dignity."--_Jones's Church History_, i, 87. "Costly and gaudy attire, _unbecoming_ godliness."--_Extracts_, p. 185. Such errors are to be corrected by Note 15th to Rule 9th, or by changing the particle _un_ to _not_: as, "Unbecoming _to_ his dignity;" or, "_Not_ becoming his dignity." OBS. 7.--An imperfect or a preperfect participle, preceded by an article, an adjective, or a noun or pronoun of the possessive case, becomes a _verbal_ or _participial noun_; and, as such, it cannot with strict propriety, govern an object after it. A word which may be the object of the participle in its proper construction, requires the preposition _of_, to connect it with the verbal noun; as, 1. THE PARTICIPLE: "_Worshiping_ idols, the Jews sinned."--"_Thus worshiping_ idols,--_In worshiping_ idols,--or, _By worshiping_ idols, they sinned." 2. THE VERBAL NOUN: "_The worshiping of_ idols,--_Such worshiping of_ idols,--or, _Their worshiping of_ idols, was sinful."--"_In the worshiping of_ idols, there is sin." OBS. 8.--It is commonly supposed that these two modes of expression are, in very many instances, equivalent to each other in meaning, and consequently interchangeable. How far they really are so, is a question to be considered. Example: "But if candour be _a confounding of_ the distinctions between sin and holiness, _a depreciating of_ the excellence of the latter, and at the same time _a diminishing of_ the evil of the former; then it must be something openly at variance with the letter and the spirit of revelation."--_The Friend_, iv, 108. Here the nouns, _distinctions, excellence_, and _evil_, though governed by _of_, represent the _objects_ of the forenamed actions; and therefore they might well be governed by _confounding, depreciating_, and _diminishing_, if these were participles. But if, to make them such, we remove the article and the preposition, the construction forsakes our meaning; for _be confounding, (be) depreciating_, and _(be) diminishing_, seem rather to be verbs of the compound form; and our uncertain nominatives after _be_, thus disappear in the shadow of a false sense. But some sensible critics tell us, that this preposition _of_ should refer rather to the _agent_ of the preceding action, than to its _passive object_; so that such a phrase as, "_the teaching of boys_," should signify rather the instruction which boys give, than that which they receive. If, for the sake of this principle, or for any other reason, we wish to avoid the foregoing phraseology, the meaning may be expressed thus: "But if _your_ candour _confound_ the distinctions between sin and holiness; _if it depreciate_ the excellence of the latter, and at the same time _diminish_ the evil of the former; then it must be something openly at variance with the letter and the spirit of revelation." OBS. 9.--When the use of the preposition produces ambiguity or harshness, let a better expression be sought. Thus the sentence, "He mentions _Newton's writing of_ a commentary," is not entirely free from either of these faults. If the preposition be omitted, the word _writing_ will have a double construction, which is inadmissible, or at least objectionable. Some would say, "He mentions _Newton writing_ a commentary." This, though not uncommon, is still more objectionable because it makes the leading word in sense the adjunct in construction. The meaning may be correctly expressed thus: "He mentions _that Newton wrote_ a commentary." "Mr. Dryden makes a very handsome observation on _Ovid's writing a letter_ from Dido to �neas."--_Spect._, No. 62; _Campbell's Rhet._, p. 265; _Murray's Key_, ii, 253. Here the word _writing_ is partly a noun and partly a participle. If we make it wholly a noun, by saying, "on _Ovid's writing of_ a letter," or wholly a participle, by saying, "on _Ovid writing_ a letter;" it may be doubted, whether we have effected any improvement. And again, if we adopt Dr. Lowth's advice, "Let it be either the one or the other, and abide by its proper construction;" we must make some change; and therefore ought perhaps to say; "on _Ovid's conceit of writing_ a letter from Dido to �neas." This is apparently what Addison meant, and what Dryden remarked upon; the latter did not speak of the letter itself, else the former would have said, "on _Ovid's letter_ from Dido to �neas." OBS. 10.--When a needless possessive, or a needless article, is put before the participle, the correction is to be made, not by inserting _of_, but by expunging the article, according to Note 16th to Rule 1st, or the possessive, according to Note 5th to Rule 4th. Example: "By _his_ studying the Scriptures he became wise."--_Lennie's Gram._, p. 91. Here _his_ serves only to render the sentence incorrect; yet this spurious example is presented by Lennie to _prove_ that a participle may take the possessive case before it, when the preposition _of_ is not admissible after it. So, in stead of expunging one useless word, our grammarians _often_ add an other and call the twofold error a _correction_; as, "For _his_ avoiding _of_ that precipice, he is indebted to his friend's care."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 201. Or worse yet: "_It was from our_ misunderstanding _of_ the directions _that_ we lost our way."--_Ibid._ Here, not _our_ and _of_ only, but four other words, are worse than useless. Again: "By _the_ exercising _of_ our judgment, it is improved. Or thus: By _exercising_ our judgment, it is improved."--_Comly's Key in his Gram._, 12th Ed., p. 188. Each of these pretended corrections is wrong in more respects than one. Say, "By exercising our _judgement, we improve it_" Or, "Our _judgement_ is improved by _being exercised_" Again: "_The loving of_ our enemies is a divine _command_; Or, _loving our enemies_ [is a divine command]."--_Ibid._ Both of these are also wrong. Say, "'_Love your enemies_,' is a divine command." Or, "_We are divinely commanded to love_ our enemies." Some are apt to jumble together the active voice and the passive, and thus destroy the unity even of a short sentence; as, "By _exercising_ our memories, they _are improved_."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 226 and 195. "The error _might have been avoided_ by _repeating_ the substantive."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 172. "By _admitting_ such violations of established grammatical distinctions, confusion _would be introduced_."--_Ib._, p. 187. In these instances, we have an active participle without an agent; and this, by the preposition _by_, is made an adjunct to a passive verb. Even the participial noun of this form, though it actually drops the distinction of voice, is awkward and apparently incongruous in such a relation. OBS. 11.--When the verbal noun necessarily retains any adjunct of the verb or participle, it seems proper that the two words be made a compound by means of the hyphen: as, "Their hope shall be as the _giving-up_ of the ghost."--_Job_, xi, 20. "For if the _casting-away_ of them be the reconciling of the world."--_Rom._, xi, 15. "And the _gathering-together_ of the waters called he seas."--_Gen._, i, 10. "If he should offer to stop the _runnings-out_ of his justice."--_Law and Grace_, p. 26. "The _stopping-short_ before the usual pause in the melody, aids the impression that is made by the description of the stone's _stopping-short_.'"--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 106. I do not find these words united in the places referred to, but this is nevertheless their true figure. Our authors and printers are lamentably careless, as well as ignorant, respecting _the figure of words_: for which part of grammar, see the whole of the third chapter, in Part First of this work; also observations on the fourth rule of syntax, from the 30th to the 35th. As certain other compounds may sometimes be broken by _tmesis_, so may some of these; as, "Not forsaking the _assembling_ of ourselves _together_, as the manner of some is."--_Heb._, x, 23. Adverbs may relate to participles, but nouns require adjectives. The following phrase is therefore inaccurate: "For the more _easily_ reading of large numbers." Yet if we say, "For reading large numbers _the more easily_," the construction is different, and not inaccurate. Some calculator, I think, has it, "For the more _easily_ reading large numbers." But Hutton says, "For the more _easy_ reading _of_ large numbers."--_Hutton's Arith._, p. 5; so _Babcock's_, p. 12. It would be quite as well to say, "For the _greater ease in_ reading large numbers." OBS. 12.--Many words of a participial form are used directly as nouns, without any article, adjective, or possessive case before them, and without any object or adjunct after them. Such is commonly the construction of the words _spelling, reading, writing, ciphering, surveying, drawing, parsing_, and many other such _names_ of actions or exercises. They are rightly put by Johnson among "_nouns_ derived from _verbs_;" for, "The [name of the] action is the same with the participle present, as _loving, frighting, fighting, striking_."--_Dr. Johnson's Gram._, p. 10. Thus: "I like _writing_."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 171. "He supposed, with them, that _affirming_ and _denying_ were operations of the mind."--_Tooke's Diversions_, i, 35. "'Not rendering,' said Polycarp the disciple of John, 'evil for evil, or _railing_ for _railing_, or _striking_ for _striking_, or _cursing_ for _cursing_."--_Dymond, on War_. Against this practice, there is seldom any objection; the words are wholly nouns, both in sense and construction. We call them _participial_ nouns, only because they resemble participles in their derivation; or if we call them _verbal_ nouns, it is because they are derived from verbs. But we too frequently find those which retain the government and the adjuncts of participles, used as nouns before or after verbs; or, more properly speaking, used as mongrels and nondescripts, a doubtful species, for which there is seldom any necessity, since the infinitive, the verbal or some other noun, or a clause introduced by the conjunction _that_, will generally express the idea in a better manner: as, "_Exciting_ such disturbances, is unlawful." Say rather, "_To excite_ such disturbances,--_The exciting of_ such disturbances,--_The excitation of_ such disturbances,--or, _That one should excite_ such disturbances, is unlawful." OBS. 13.--Murray says, "The word _the_, before the _active participle_, in the following sentence, and in all others of a similar construction, is improper, and should be omitted: '_The_ advising, or _the_ attempting, to excite such disturbances, is unlawful.' It should be, '_Advising_ or _attempting_ to excite disturbances.'"--_Octavo Gram._, p. 195. But, by his own showing, "the present participle, with the definite article _the_ before it, becomes a _substantive_."--_Ib._, p. 192. And substantives, or nouns, by an other of his notes, can govern the infinitive mood, just as well as participles; or just as well as the verbs which he thinks would be very proper here; namely, "To _advise_ or _attempt_ to excite such disturbances."--_Ib._, p. 196. It would be right to say, "_Any advice_, or _attempt_, to excite such disturbances, is unlawful." And I see not that he has improved the text at all, by expunging the article. _Advising_ and _attempting_, being disjunct nominatives to _is_, are nothing but nouns, whether the article be used or not; though they are rather less obviously such without it, and therefore the change is for the worse. OBS. 14.--Lennie observes, "When _a preposition_"--(he should have said, When _an other_ preposition--) "follows the participle, _of_ is inadmissible; as, _His_ depending _on_ promises proved his ruin. _His_ neglecting _to_ study when young, rendered him ignorant all his life."--_Prin. of E. Gram._, 5th Ed., p. 65; 13th Ed., 91. Here _on_ and _to_, of course, exclude _of_; but the latter may be changed to _of_, which will turn the infinitive into a noun: as, "_His_ neglecting _of study_," &c. "_Depending_" and "_neglecting_," being equivalent to _dependence_ and _neglect_, are participial nouns, and not "participles." Professor Bullions, too, has the same faulty remark, examples and all; (for his book, of the same title, is little else than a gross plagiarism from Lennie's;) though he here forgets his other erroneous doctrines, that, "A _preposition_ should never be used before the infinitive," and that, "Active verbs do not admit a preposition after them." See _Bullions's Prin. of E. Gram._, pp. 91, 92, and 107. OBS. 15.--The participle in _ing_ is, on many occasions, equivalent to the infinitive verb, so that the speaker or writer may adopt either, just as he pleases: as, "So their gerunds are sometimes found _having_ [or _to have_] an absolute or apparently neuter signification."--_Grant's Lat. Gram._, p. 234. "With tears that ceas'd not _flowing_" [or _to flow_].--_Milton_. "I would willingly have him _producing_ [_produce_, or _to produce_] his credentials."--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 273. There are also instances, and according to my notion not a few, in which the one is put _improperly_ for the other. The participle however is erroneously used for the infinitive much oftener than the infinitive for the participle. The lawful uses of both are exceedingly numerous; though the syntax of the participle, strictly speaking, does not include its various _conversions_ into other parts of speech. The principal instances of _regular_ equivalence between infinitives and participles, may be reduced to the following heads: 1. After the verbs _see, hear_, and _feel_, the participle in _ing_, relating to the objective, is often equivalent to the infinitive governed by the verb; as, "I saw him _running_"--"I heard it _howling_."--_W. Allen_. "I feel the wind _blowing_." Here the verbs, _run, howl_, and _blow_, might be substituted. 2. After intransitive verbs signifying _to begin_ or _to continue_, the participle in _ing_, relating to the nominative, may be used in stead of the infinitive connected to the verb; as, "The ass began _galloping_ with all his might."--_Sandford and Merton_. "It commenced _raining_ very hard."--_Silliman_. "The steamboats commenced _running_ on Saturday."--_Daily Advertiser_. "It is now above three years since he began _printing_."--_Dr. Adam's Pref. to Rom. Antiq._ "So when they continued _asking_ him."--_John_, viii, 7. Greek, "[Greek: Os epemenon erotontes auton.]" Latin, "Cum ergo perseverarent _interrogantes_ eum."--_Vulgate_. "Cùm autem perseverarent eum _interrogare_."--_Beza_. "Then shall ye continue _following_ the Lord your God."--_1 Sam._, xii, 14. "Eritis _sequentes_ Dominum Deum vestrum."--_Vulgate_. "As she continued _praying_ before the Lord."--_1 Sam._, i, 12. "Cùm ilia _multiplicaret preces_ coram Domino."--_Vulgate_. "And they went on _beating down_ one an other."--_2 Sam._, xiv, 16. "Make the members of them go on _rising_ and _growing_ in their importance."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 116. "Why do you keep _teasing_ me?" 3. After _for, in, of_, or _to_, and perhaps some other prepositions, the participle may in most cases be varied by the infinitive, which is governed by _to_ only; as, "We are better fitted _for receiving_ the tenets and _obeying_ the precepts of that faith which will make us wise unto salvation."--_West's Letters_, p. 51. That is--"_to receive_ the tenets and _obey_ the precepts." "Men fit _for fighting_, practised _in fighting_, proud _of fighting_, accustomed _to fighting_."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 172. That is, "fit _to fight_," &c. "What is the right path, few take the trouble _of inquiring_."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo. ii, 235. Better, perhaps:--"few take the trouble _to inquire_." OBS. 16.--One of our best grammarians says, "The infinitive, in the following sentences, _should be exchanged_ for the participle: 'I am weary _to bear_ them.' Is. i, 14. 'Hast thou, spirit, perform'd _to point_ the tempest?' Shak."--_Allen's Gram._, p. 172. This suggestion implies, that the participle would be here not only equivalent to the infinitive in sense, but better in expression. It is true, the preposition _to_ does not well express the relation between _weary_ and _bear_; and, doubtless, some regard should be had to the meaning of this particle, whenever it is any thing more than an index of the mood. But the critic ought to have told us how he would make these corrections. For in neither case does the participle alone appear to be a fit substitute for the infinitive, either with or without the _to_; and the latter text will scarcely bear the participle at all, unless we change the former verb; as, "Hast thou, spirit, _done pointing_ the tempest?" The true meaning of the other example seems somewhat uncertain. The Vulgate has it, _"Laboravi sustinens_," "I have laboured _bearing_ them;" the French Bible, "_Je suis las de les souffrir_," "I am tired of _bearing_ them;" the Septuagint, "[Greek: Ouketi anæso tas hamartias humon,]" "I will no more forgive your sins." OBS. 17.--In the following text, the infinitive is used improperly, nor would the participle in its stead make pure English: "I will not reprove thee for thy sacrifices or thy burnt-offerings, _to have been_ continually before me."--_Ps. 1. 8._ According to the French version, _"to have been"_ should be _"which are;"_ but the Septuagint and the Vulgate take the preceding noun for the nominative, thus: "I will not reprove thee for thy sacrifices, _but thy burnt-offerings are_ continually before me." OBS. 18.--As the preposition _to_ before the infinitive shows the latter to be "_that towards which_ the preceding verb is directed," verbs of _desisting, omitting, preventing_, and _avoiding_, are generally found to take the participle after them, and not the infinitive; because, in such instances, the direction of effort seems not to be so properly _to_, or _towards_, as _from_ the action.[419] Where the preposition _from_ is inserted, (as it most commonly is, after some of these verbs.) there is no irregularity in the construction of the participle; but where the participle immediately follows the verb, it is perhaps questionable whether it ought to be considered the object of the verb, or a mere participle relating to the nominative which precedes. If we suppose the latter, the participle may be parsed by the common rule; if the former, it must be referred to the third exception above. For example: 1. After verbs of DESISTING; as, "The Cryer used to proclaim, DIXERUNT, i. e. They _have done speaking._"--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 132. "A friend is advised to _put off making_ love to Lalage."--_Philological Museum_, i, 446. "He _forbore doing_ so, on the ground of expediency."--_The Friend_, iv, 35. "And yet architects never _give over attempting_ to reconcile these two incompatibles."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 338. "Never to _give over seeking_ and _praying_ for it."--_N. Y. Observer._ "Do not _leave off seeking._"--_President Edwards._ "Then Satan _hath done flattering_ and _comforting._"--_Baxter._ "The princes _refrained talking._"--_Job_, xxix, 9. "Principes _cessabant loqui._"--_Vulgate._ Here it would be better to say, "The princes refrained _from_ talking." But Murray says, "_From_ seems to be superfluous after _forbear_: as, 'He could not forbear from appointing the pope,' &c."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 203. But _"forbear to appoint"_ would be a better correction; for this verb is often followed by the infinitive; as, _"Forbear to insinuate."_--_West's Letters_, p. 62. "And he _forbare to go_ forth."--_1 Sam._, xxiii, 13. The reader will observe, that, _"never to give over"_ or _"not to leave off,"_ is in fact the same thing as to continue; and I have shown by the analogy of other languages, that after verbs of continuing the participle is not an object of government; though possibly it may be so, in these instances, which are somewhat different. 2. After verbs of OMITTING; as, "He _omits giving_ an account of them."--_Tooke's Diversions of Purley_, i, 251. I question the propriety of this construction; and yet, _"omits to give"_ seems still more objectionable. Better, "He _omits all account_ of them." Or, "He _neglects to give_, or _forbears to give_, any account of them." L. Murray twice speaks of apologizing, "for the use he has made of his predecessors' labours, and for _omitting to insert_ their names."--_Octavo Gram., Pref._, p. vii; and _Note_, p. 73. The phrase, _"omitting to insert,"_ appears to me a downright solecism; and the pronoun _their_ is ambiguous, because there are well-known names both for the _men_ and for their _labours_, and he ought not to have omitted either species wholly, as he did. "Yet they absolutely _refuse doing so_, one with another."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 264. Better, _"refuse to do so."_ "I had as repeatedly _declined_ going."--_Leigh Hunt's Byron_, p. 15. 3. After verbs of PREVENTING; as, "Our sex are happily _prevented from engaging_ in these turbulent scenes."--_West's Letters to a Lady_, p. 74. "To prevent our frail natures _from deviating_ into bye paths [write _by-paths_] of error."--_Ib._, p. 100. "Prudence, prevents our speaking or acting improperly."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 99; _Murray's Gram._, p. 303; _Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 72. This construction, though very common, is palpably wrong: because its most natural interpretation is, "Prudence improperly prevents our speech or action." These critics ought to have known enough to say, "Prudence prevents _us from_ speaking or acting improperly." "This, however, doth not _hinder_ pronunciation _to borrow_ from singing."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 70. Here the infinitive is used, merely because it does not sound well to say, _"from borrowing from singing;"_ but the expression might very well be changed thus, _"from being indebted to singing."_ "'This by no means _hinders_ the book _to be_ a useful one.'--_Geddes._ It should be, _'from being.'_"--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 318. 4. After verbs of AVOIDING: as, "He might have _avoided treating_ of the origin of ideas."--_Tooke's Diversions_, i, 28. "We may _avoid talking_ nonsense on these subjects."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 281. "But carefully _avoid being_ at any time ostentatious and affected."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 233. "Here I cannot _avoid mentioning_[420] the assistance I have received."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. iv. "It is our duty to _avoid leading_ others into temptation,"--_West's Letters_, p. 33. "Nay, such a garden should in some measure _avoid imitating_ nature."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 251. "I can promise no entertainment to those who _shun thinking_."--_Ib._, i, 36. "We cannot _help being_ of opinion."--ENCYC. BRIT. _Murray's Gram._, p. 76. "I cannot _help being_ of opinion."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 311. "I cannot _help mentioning_ here one character more."--_Hughes. Spect._, No. 554. "These would sometimes very narrowly _miss being catched_ away."--_Steele_. "Carleton very narrowly _escaped being taken_."--_Grimshaw's Hist._, p. 111. Better, "escaped _from_ being taken;"--or, "_escaped capture_." OBS. 19.--In sentences like the following, the participle seems to be improperly made _the object_ of the verb: "I intend _doing_ it."--"I remember _meeting_ him." Better, "I intend _to do_ it."--"I remember _to have met_ him." According to my notion, it is an error to suppose that verbs in general may govern participles. If there are any proper instances of such government, they would seem to be chiefly among verbs of _quitting_ or _avoiding_. And even here the analogy of General Grammar gives countenance to a different solution; as, "They _left beating of_ Paul."--_Acts_, xxi, 32. Better, "They _left beating_ Paul;"--or, "They _quit beating_ Paul." Greek, "[Greek: Epausanto tuptontes ton Paulon.]" Latin, "Cessaverunt _percutientes_ Paulum."--_Montanus_. "Cessarunt _coedere_ Paulum."--_Beza_. "Cessaverunt _percutere_ Paulum."--_Vulgate_. It is true, the English participle in _ing_ differs in some respects from that which usually corresponds to it in Latin or Greek; it has more of a substantive character, and is commonly put for the Latin gerund. If this difference does not destroy the argument from analogy, the opinion is still just, that _left_ and _quit_ are here _intransitive_, and that the participle _beating_ relates to the pronoun _they_. Such is unequivocally the construction of the Greek text, and also of the literal Latin of Arias Montanus. But, to the mere English grammarian, this method of parsing will not be apt to suggest itself: because, at first sight, the verbs appear to be transitive, and the participle in _ing_ has nothing to prove it an adjunct of the nominative, and not the object of the verb--unless, indeed, the mere fact that it is a participle, is proof of this. OBS. 20.--Our great Compiler, Murray, not understanding this construction, or not observing what verbs admit of it, or require it, has very unskillfully laid it down as a rule, that, "The participle with its adjuncts, may be considered as a _substantive phrase_ in the objective case, governed by the preposition or verb, _expressed or understood_: as, 'By _promising much and performing but little_, we become despicable.' 'He studied to avoid _expressing himself too severely_.'"--_Octavo Gram._, p. 194.[421] This very popular author seems never to have known that participles, as such, may be governed in English by prepositions. And yet he knew, and said, that "prepositions do not, _like articles and pronouns_, convert the participle itself into the nature of a substantive."--_Ibid._ This he avouches in the same breath in which he gives that "nature" to a participle and its adverb! For, by a false comma after _much_, he cuts his first "_substantive phrase_" absurdly in two; and doubtless supposes a false ellipsis of _by_ before the participle _performing_. Of his method of resolving the second example, some notice has already been taken, in Observations 4th and 5th on Rule 5th. Though he pretends that the whole phrase is in the objective case, "the truth is, the assertion grammatically affects the first word only;" which in one aspect he regards as a noun, and in an other as a participle: whereas he himself, on the preceding page, had adopted from Lowth a different doctrine, and cautioned the learner against treating words in _ing_, "as if they were of an _amphibious_ species, partly nouns and partly _verbs_;" that is, "partly nouns and partly _participles_;" for, according to Murray, Lowth, and many others, participles are verbs. The term, "_substantive phrase_," itself a solecism, was invented merely to cloak this otherwise bald inconsistency. Copying Lowth again, the great Compiler defines a phrase to be "two or more words rightly put together;" and, surely, if we have a well-digested system of grammar, whatsoever words are rightly put together, may be regularly parsed by it. But how can one indivisible word be consistently made two different parts of speech at once? And is not this the situation of every transitive participle that is made either the _subject_ or the _object_ of a verb? Adjuncts never alter either the nature or the construction of the words on which they depend; and participial nouns differ from participles in both. The former express actions _as things_; the latter generally attribute them to their agents or recipients. OBS. 21.--The Latin gerund is "a kind of verbal noun, partaking of the nature of a participle."--_Webster's Dict._ "A gerund is a participial noun, of the neuter gender, and singular-number, declinable like a substantive, having no vocative, construed like a substantive, and governing the case of its verb."--_Grant's Lat. Gram._, p. 70. In the Latin gerund thus defined, there is an appearance of ancient classical authority for that "amphibious species" of words of which so much notice has already been taken. Our participle in _ing_, when governed by a preposition, undoubtedly corresponds very nearly, both in sense and construction, to this Latin gerund; the principal difference being, that the one is declined, like a noun, and the other is not. The analogy, however, is but lamely maintained, when we come to those irregular constructions in which the participle is made a half-noun in English. It is true, the gerund of the nominative case may be made the subject of a verb in Latin; but we do not translate it by the English participle, but rather by the infinitive, or still oftener by the verb with the auxiliary _must_: as, "_Vivendum est mihi rectè_, I must live well."--_Grant's L. Gram._, p. 232. This is better English than the nearer version, "Living correctly is necessary for me;" and the exact imitation, "Living is to me correctly," is nonsense. Nor does the Latin gerund often govern the genitive like a noun, or ever stand as the direct object of a transitive verb, except in some few doubtful instances about which the grammarians dispute. For, in fact, to explain this species of words, has puzzled the Latin grammarians about as much as the English; though the former do not appear to have fallen into those palpable self-contradictions which embarrass the instructions of the latter. OBS. 22.--Dr. Adam says, "The gerund in English becomes a substantive, by _prefixing_ the article to it, and then it is always to be construed with the preposition _of_; as, 'He is employed _in writing_ letters,' or, 'in _the writing of_ letters:' but it is improper to say, 'in _the writing_ letters,' or, 'in _writing of_ letters.'"--_Latin and English Gram._, p. 184. This doctrine is also taught by Lowth, Priestley, Murray, Comly, Chandler, and many others; most of whom extend the principle to all participles that govern the possessive case; and they might as well have added all such as are made either the subjects or the objects of verbs, and such as are put for nominatives after verbs neuter. But Crombie, Allen, Churchill, S. S. Greene, Hiley, Wells, Weld, and some others, teach that participles may perform these several offices of a substantive, without dropping the regimen and adjuncts of participles. This doctrine, too, Murray and his copyists absurdly endeavour to reconcile with the other, by resorting to the idle fiction of "_substantive phrases_" endued with all these powers: as, "_His being at enmity with Cæsar_ was the cause of perpetual discord."--_Crombie's Treatise_, p. 237; _Churchill's Gram._, p. 141. "Another fault is _allowing it to supersede_ the use of a point."-- _Churchill's Gram._, p. 372. "To be sure there is a possibility of some ignorant _reader's confounding the two vowels_ in pronunciation."--_Ib._, p. 375. It is much better to avoid all such English as this. Say, rather, "_His enmity with Cæsar_ was the cause of perpetual discord."--"An other fault is _the allowing of_ it to _supersede_ the use of a point."--"To be sure, there is a possibility _that_ some ignorant _reader may confound_ the two vowels, in pronunciation." OBS. 23.--In French, the infinitive is governed by several different prepositions, and the gerundive by one only, the preposition _en_,--which, however, is sometimes suppressed; as, "_en passant, en faisant,--il alloit courant_."--_Traité des Participes_, p. 2. In English, the gerundive is governed by several different prepositions, and the infinitive by one only, the preposition _to_,--which, in like manner, is sometimes suppressed; as, "_to pass, to do,--I saw him run_." The difficulties in the syntax of the French participle in _ant_, which corresponds to ours in _ing_, are apparently as great in themselves, as those which the syntax of the English word presents; but they result from entirely different causes, and chiefly from the liability there is of confounding the participle with the verbal adjective, which is formed from it. The confounding of it with the gerundive is now, in either language, of little or no consequence, since in modern French, as well as in English, both are indeclinable. For this reason, I have framed the syntactical rule for participles so as to include under that name the gerund, or gerundive, which is a participle governed by a preposition. The great difficulty with us, is, to determine whether the participle ought, or ought not, to be allowed to assume _other_ characteristics of a noun, without dropping those of a participle, and without becoming wholly a noun. The liability of confounding the English participle with the verbal or participial adjective, amounts to nothing more than the occasional misnaming of a word in parsing; or perhaps an occasional ambiguity in the style of some writer, as in the following citation: "I am resolved, 'let the newspapers say what they please of _canvassing_ beauties, _haranguing_ toasts, and _mobbing_ demireps,' not to believe one syllable."--_Jane West's Letters to a Young Lady_, p. 74. From these words, it is scarcely possible to find out, even with the help of the context whether these three sorts of ladies are spoken of as the canvassers, haranguers, and mobbers, or as being canvassed, harangued, and mobbed. If the prolixity and multiplicity of these observations transcend the reader's patience, let him consider that the questions at issue cannot be settled by the brief enunciation of loose individual opinions, but must be examined in the light of _all the analogies and facts_ that bear upon them. So considerable are the difficulties of properly distinguishing the participle from the verbal adjective in French, that that indefatigable grammarian, Girault Du Vivier, after completing his _Grammaire des Grammaires_ in two large octavo volumes, thought proper to _enlarge_ his instructions on this head, and to publish them in a separate book, (_Traité des Participes_,) though we have it on his own authority, that the rule for participles had already given rise to a greater number of dissertations and particular treatises than any other point in French grammar. OBS. 24.--A participle construed after the nominative or the objective case, is not in general equivalent to a verbal noun governing the possessive. There is sometimes a nice distinction to be observed in the application of these two constructions. For the leading word in sense, should not be made the adjunct in construction. The following sentences exhibit a disregard to this principle, and are both inaccurate: "He felt his _strength's_ declining."--"He was sensible of his _strength_ declining." In the former sentence, the noun _strength_ should be in the objective case, governed by _felt_; and in the latter, it should rather be in the possessive, governed by _declining_. Thus: "He felt his _strength_ declining;" i.e., "_felt it decline_."--"He was sensible of his _strength's_ declining;" i.e., "_of its decline_." These two sentences state the same fact, but, in construction, they are very different; nor does it appear, that where there is no difference of meaning, the two constructions are properly interchangeable. This point has already been briefly noticed in Obs. 12th and 13th on Rule 4th. But the false and discordant instructions which our grammarians deliver respecting possessives before participles; their strange neglect of this plain principle of reason, that the leading word in sense ought to be made the leading or governing word in the construction; and the difficulties which they and other writers are continually falling into, by talking their choice between two errors, in stead of avoiding both: these, as well as their suggestions of sameness or difference of import between the participle and the participial noun, require some farther extension of my observations in this place. OBS. 25.--Upon the classification of words, as parts of speech, distinguished according to their natures and uses, depends the whole scheme of grammatical science. And it is plain, that a bad distribution, or a confounding of such things as ought to be separated, must necessarily be attended with inconveniences to the student, for which no skill or learning in the expounder of such a system can ever compensate. The absurdity of supposing with Horne Tooke, that the same word can never be used so differently as to belong to different parts of speech, I have already alluded to more than once. The absolute necessity of classing words, not according to their derivation merely, but rather according to their sense and construction, is too evident to require any proof. Yet, different as are the natures and the uses of _verbs, participles_, and _nouns_, it is no uncommon thing to find these three parts of speech confounded together; and that too to a very great extent, and by some of our very best grammarians, without even an attempt on their part to distinguish them. For instances of this glaring fault and perplexing inconsistency, the reader may turn to the books of W. Allen and T. O. Churchill, two of the best authors that have ever written on English grammar. Of the participle the latter gives no formal definition, but he represents it as "_a form_, in which _the action_ denoted by _the verb_ is capable of being joined _to a noun_ as _its quality_, or accident."--_Churchill's New Gram._, p. 85. Again he says, "That the participle is _a mere mode of the verb_ is manifest, if our definition of a verb be admitted."--_Ib._, p. 242. While he thus identifies the participle with the verb, this author scruples not to make what he calls the imperfect participle perform all the offices of a _noun_: saying, "Frequently too it is used as a noun, admits a preposition or an article before it, becomes a plural by taking _s_ at the end, and governs a possessive case: as, 'He who has _the comings_ in of a prince, may be ruined _by his_ own _gaming_, or his _wife's squandering_.'"--_Ib._, p. 144. The plural here exhibited, if rightly written, would have the _s_, not at the end, but in the middle; for _comings-in_, (an obsolete expression for _revenues_,) is not two words, but one. Nor are _gaming_ and _squandering_, to be here called participles, but nouns. Yet, among all his rules and annotations, I do not find that Churchill any where teaches that participles _become nouns_ when they are used substantively. The following example he exhibits for the express purpose of showing that the nominatives to "_is_" and "_may be_" are not nouns, but participles: "_Walking is_ the best exercise, though riding _may be_ more pleasant."--_Ib._, p. 141. And, what is far worse, though his book is professedly an amplification of Lowth's brief grammar, he so completely annuls the advice of Lowth concerning the distinguishing of participles from participial nouns, that he not only misnames the latter when they are used correctly, but approves and adopts well-nigh all the various forms of error, with which the mixed and irregular construction of participles has filled our language: of these forms, there are, I think, not fewer than a dozen. OBS. 26.--Allen's account of the participle is no better than Churchill's--and no worse than what the reader may find in many an English Grammar now in use. This author's fault is not so much a lack of learning or of comprehension, as of order and discrimination. We see in him, that it is possible for a man to be well acquainted with English authors, ancient as well as modern, and to read Greek and Latin, French and Saxon, and yet to falter miserably in describing the nature and uses of the English participle. Like many others, he does not acknowledge this sort of words to be one of the parts of speech; but commences his account of it by the following absurdity: "The participles _are adjectives_ derived from the verb; as, _pursuing, pursued, having pursued_."--_Elements of E. Gram._, p. 62. This definition not only confounds the participle with the participial adjective, but merges the whole of the former species in a part of speech of which he had not even recognized the latter as a subdivision: "An adjective shows the _quality_ of a thing. Adjectives may be reduced to five classes: 1. Common--2. Proper--3. Numeral--4. Pronominal--5. Compound."--_Ib._, p. 47. Now, if "participles are adjectives," to which of these five classes do they belong? But there are participial or verbal adjectives, very many; a sixth class, without which this distribution is false and incomplete: as, "a _loving_ father; an _approved_ copy." The participle differs from these, as much as it does from a noun. But says our author, "Participles, as simple adjectives, belong to _a noun_; as, a _loving_ father; an _approved_ copy;--as parts of the verb, they have the same government _as_ their verbs have; as, his father, _recalling the pleasures_ of past years, joined their party."--_Ib._, p. 170. What confusion is this! a complete jumble of adjectives, participles, and "parts of verbs!" Again: "Present participles are often construed as substantives; as, early _rising_ is conducive to health; I like _writing_; we depend on _seeing_ you."--_Ib._, p. 171. Here _rising_ and _writing_ are nouns; but _seeing_ is a participle, because it is active and governs _you_, Compare this second jumble with the definition above. Again he proceeds: "To participles thus used, many of our best authors prefix the article; as, '_The being chosen_ did not prevent disorderly behaviour.' Bp. Tomline. '_The not knowing how to pass_ our vacant hours.' Seed."--_Ib._, p. 171. These examples I take to be bad English. Say rather, "The _state of election_ did not prevent disorderly behaviour."--"The _want of some entertainment for_ our vacant hours." The author again proceeds: "If a noun limits the meaning of a participle thus used, that noun is put in the genitive; as, your _father's coming_ was unexected."--_Ib._, p. 171. Here _coming_ is a noun, and no participle at all. But the author has a marginal note, "A possessive pronoun is equivalent to a genitive;" (_ibid._;) and he means to approve of possessives before active participles: as, "Some of these irregularities arise from _our having received the words_ through a French medium."--_Ib._, p. 116. This brings us again to that difficult and apparently unresolvable problem, whether participles as such, by virtue of their mixed gerundive character, can, or cannot, govern the possessive case; a question, about which, the more a man examines it, the more he may doubt. OBS. 27.--But, before we say any thing more about the government of this case, let us look at our author's next paragraph on participles: "An active participle, preceded by _an article_ or by _a genitive_, is elegantly followed by the preposition _of_, before the substantive which follows it; as, _the_ compiling _of_ that book occupied several years; _his_ quitting _of_ the army was unexpected."--_Allen's Gram._, p. 171. Here the participial nouns _compiling_ and _quitting_ are improperly called active participles, from which they are certainly as fairly distinguished by the construction, as they can be by any means whatever. And this complete distinction the author considers at least an elegance, if not an absolute requisite, in English composition. And he immediately adds: "When this construction produces _ambiguity_, the expression _must be varied_."--_Ib._, p. 171. This suggestion is left without illustration; but it doubtless refers to one of Murray's remarks, in which it is said: "A phrase in which the article precedes the _present participle_ and the possessive preposition follows it, will not, in every instance, convey the same meaning as would be conveyed by the participle without the article and preposition. 'He expressed the pleasure he had _in the hearing of_ the philosopher,' is _capable of a different sense_ from, 'He expressed the pleasure he had _in hearing_ the philosopher.'"--_Murray's Octavo Gram._, p. 193; _R. C. Smith's Gram._, 161; _Ingersoll's_, 199; and others. Here may be seen a manifest difference between the verbal or participial noun, and the participle or gerund; but Murray, in both instances, absurdly calls the word _hearing_ a "present participle;" and, having robbed the former sentence of a needful comma, still more absurdly supposes it ambiguous: whereas the phrase, "in the hearing _of the philosopher_," means only, "in the _philosopher's_ hearing;" and not, "in hearing the philosopher," or, "in hearing _of_ the philosopher." But the true question is, would it be right to say, "He expressed the pleasure he had in the _philosopher's_ hearing _him_?" For here it would be _equivocal_ to say, "in the philosopher's hearing _of_ him;" and some aver, that _of_ would be wrong, in any such instance, even if the sense were clear. But let us recur to the mixed example from Allen, and compare it with his own doctrines. To say, "from _our_ having received _of_ the words through a French medium," would certainly be no elegance; and if it be not an ambiguity, it is something worse. The expression, then, "must be varied." But varied how? Is it right without the _of_, though contrary to the author's rule for elegance? OBS. 28.--The observations which have been made on this point, under the rule for the possessive case, while they show, to some extent, the inconsistencies in doctrine, and the improprieties of practice, into which the difficulties of the mixed participle have betrayed some of our principal grammarians, bring likewise the weight of much authority and reason against the custom of blending without distinction the characteristics of nouns and participles in the same word or words; but still they may not be thought sufficient to prove this custom to be altogether wrong; nor do they pretend to have fully established the dogma, that such a construction is in no instance admissible. They show, however, that possessives before participles are _seldom_ to be approved; and perhaps, in the present instance, the meaning might be quite as well expressed by a common substantive, or the regular participial noun: as, "Some of these irregularities arise from _our reception of_ the words--or _our receiving of_ the words--through a French medium." But there are some examples which it is not easy to amend, either in this way, or in any other; as, "The miscarriages of youth have very much proceeded from _their being imprudently indulged_, or _left_ to themselves."--_Friends' N. E. Discipline_, p. 13. And there are instances too, of a similar character, in which the possessive case cannot be used. For example: "Nobody will doubt of _this being_ a sufficient proof."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 66. "But instead of _this being_ the fact of the case, &c."--_Butlers Analogy_, p. 137. "There is express historical or traditional evidence, as ancient as history, of the _system_ of religion _being taught_ mankind by revelation."--_Ibid._ "From _things_ in it _appearing_ to men foolishness."--_Ib._, p. 175. "As to the consistency of the _members_ of our society _joining_ themselves to those called free-masons."--_N. E. Discip._, p. 51. "In _either of these cases happening_, the _person charging_ is at liberty to bring the matter before the church, who are the only _judges_ now _remaining_."--_Ib._, p. 36; _Extracts_, p. 57. "Deriving its efficacy from the _power of God fulfilling_ his purpose."--_Religious World_, Vol. ii, p. 235. "We have no idea of any certain _portion of time intervening_ between the time of the action and the time of speaking of it."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 33: _Murray's_, i, 70; _Emmons's_, 41; and others. The following example therefore, however the participle may seem to be the leading word in sense, is unquestionably wrong; and that in more respects than one: "The reason and time of the _Son of God's becoming_ man."--_Brown's Divinity_, p. xxii. Many writers would here be satisfied with merely omitting the possessive sign; as does Churchill, in the following example: "The chief cause of this appears to me to lie in _grammarians having considered_ them solely as the signs of tense."--_New Gram._, p. 243. But this sort of construction, too, whenever the noun before the participle is not the leading word in sense, is ungrammatical. In stead, therefore, of stickling for choice between two such errors, we ought to adopt some better expression; as, "The reason and time of the _Saviour's incarnation_."--"The chief cause of this appears to me to _be, that_ grammarians _have_ considered them solely as signs of tense." OBS. 29.--It is certain that the noun or pronoun which "limits the meaning of a participle," cannot always be "put in the _genitive_" or _possessive_ case; for the sense intended sometimes positively forbids such a construction, and requires the objective: as, "A syllable consists of one or more _letters forming_ one sound."--_Allen's Gram._, p. 29. The word _representing_ or _denoting_ would here be better than _forming_, because the letters do not, strictly speaking, _form_ the sound. But chiefly let it be noticed, that the word _letters_ could not with any propriety have been put in the possessive case. Nor is it always necessary or proper, to prefer that case, where the sense may be supposed to admit it; as, "'The example which Mr. Seyer has adduced, of the _gerund governing_ the genitive of the agent.' Dr. Crombie."--_Grant's Lat. Gram._, p. 237. "Which possibly might have been prevented by _parents doing_ their duty."--_N. E. Discipline_, p. 187. "As to the seeming contradiction of _One being_ Three, and _Three_ One."--_Religious World_, Vol. ii, p. 113. "You have watched _them climbing_ from chair to chair."--PIERPONT: _Liberator_, Vol. x, p. 22. "Whether the world came into being as it is, by an intelligent _Agent forming_ it thus, or not."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 129. "In the farther supposition of necessary _agents being_ thus rewarded and punished."--_Ib._, p. 140. "He grievously punished the _Israelites murmuring_ for want of water."--_Leslie, on Tythes_, p. 21. Here too the words, _gerund, parents, One, Three, them, Agent, agents_, and _Israelites_, are rightly put in the objective case; yet doubtless some will think, though I do not, that they might as well have been put in the possessive. Respectable writers sometimes use the latter case, where the former would convey the same meaning, and be more regular; as, "Which is used, as active verbs often are, without its _regimen's_ being expressed."--_Grant's Lat. Gram._, p. 302. Omit the apostrophe and _s_; and, if you please, the word _being_ also. "The daily instances of _men's_ dying around us."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 113. Say rather,--"of _men_ dying around us." "To prevent _our_ rashly engaging in arduous or dangerous enterprises."--_Brown's Divinity_, p. 17. Say, "To prevent _us from_," &c. The following example is manifestly inconsistent with itself; and, in my opinion, the three possessives are all wrong: "The kitchen too now begins to give 'dreadful note of preparation;' not from _armourers_ accomplishing the knights, but from the _shop maid's_ chopping _force meat_, the _apprentice's_ cleaning knives, and the _journeyman's_ receiving a practical lesson in the art of waiting at table."--_West's Letters to a Lady_, p. 66. It should be--"not from _armorers_ accomplishing the knights, but from the _shopmaid_ chopping _forcemeat_, the _apprentice_ cleaning knives, and the _journeyman_ receiving," &c. The nouns are the principal words, and the participles are adjuncts. They might be separated by commas, if semicolons were put where the commas now are. OBS. 30.--Our authors, good and bad, critics and no critics, with few exceptions, write sometimes the objective case before the participle, and sometimes the possessive, under precisely the same circumstances; as, "We should, presently, be sensible of the _melody_ suffering."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 122. "We should, presently, be sensible of the _melody's_ suffering."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 327. "We _shall_ presently be sensible of the _melody_ suffering."--_Murray's Exercises_, 8vo, p. 60. "We shall presently be sensible of the _melody's_ suffering."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 195. "And I explain what is meant by the nominative _case governing_ the verb, and by the _verb agreeing_ with its nominative case."--_Rand's Gram._, p. 31. "Take the verb _study_, and speak of _John's studying_ his lesson, at different times."--_Ib._, p. 53. "The following are examples of the nominative _case being used_ instead of the objective."--_J. M. Putnam's Gram._, p. 112. "The following are examples of an _adverb's qualifying_ a whole sentence."--_Ib._, p. 128. "Where the noun is the name of a _person_, the cases may also be distinguished by the _nominative's_ answering to WHO, and the _objective_ to WHOM."--_Hart's Gram._, p. 46. "This depends chiefly on _their_ being more or less emphatic; and on the vowel _sound_ being long or short."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 182. "When they speak of a _monosyllable_ having the grave or the acute accent."--_Walker's Key_, p. 328. Here some would erroneously prefer the possessive case before "_having_;" but, if any amendment can be effected it is only by inserting _as_ there. "The _event of Maria's loving_ her brother."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 55. "Between that and the _man being_ on it."--_Ib._, p. 59. "The fact of _James placing_ himself."--_Ib._, p. 166. "The event of the _persons' going_."--_Ib._, p. 165. Here _persons'_ is carelessly put for _person's_, i.e., _James's_: the author was _parsing_ the puerile text, "James went into a store and placed himself beside Horatio."--_Ib._, p. 164. And I may observe, in passing, that Murray and Blair are both wrong in using commas with the adverb _presently_ above. OBS. 31.--It would be easy to fill a page with instances of these two cases, the objective and the possessive, used, as I may say, indiscriminately; nor is there any other principle by which we can determine which of them is right, or which preferable, than that the leading word in sense ought not to be made the adjunct in the construction, and that the participle, if it remain such, ought rather to relate to its noun, as being the adjunct, than to govern it in the possessive, as being the principal term. To what extent either of these cases may properly be used before the participle, or in what instances either of them may be preferable to the other, it is not very easy to determine. Both are used a great deal too often, filling with blemishes the style of many authors: the possessive, because the participle is not the name of any thing that can be possessed; the objective, because no construction can be right in which the relation of the terms is not formed according to the sense. The former usage I have already criticised to a great extent. Let one example suffice here: "There can be no objection to a _syllable's being long_, on the ground of _its not being so long_, or so much protracted, as some other long syllables are."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 242. Some would here prefer _syllable_ to _syllable's_, but none would be apt to put _it_ for _its_, without some other change. The sentence may be amended thus: "There can be no objection to a _syllable as being long_, on the ground _that it is not so long_ as some other syllables." OBS. 32.--It should be observed, that the use of _as_ between the participle and the noun is _very often_ better than either the adoption of the possessive sign, or the immediate connexion of the two words; as, "Another point constantly brought into the investigation now, is that of military _success as forming_ a claim to civil position."--_Boston Daily Advertiser_. Concerning examples like the following, it may be questioned, whether the objective is proper or not; whether the possessive would be preferable or not; or whether a better construction than either may not be found: "There is scarce an instance of any _one being chosen_ for a pattern."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. ii, p. 338. "Instead of its _authenticity being shaken_, it has been rendered more sure than ever."-- _West's Letters_, p. 197. "When there is no longer a possibility of a proper _candidate being nominated_ by either party."--_Liberator_, Vol. x. p. 9. "On the first _stone being thrown_, it was returned by a fire of musketry."--_Ib._, p. 16. "To raise a cry about an innocent _person being circumvented_ by bribery."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 276. "Whose principles forbid _them taking_ part in the administration of the government."-- _Liberator_, Vol. x, p. 15. "It can have no other ground than some such imagination, as that of our gross _bodies being_ ourselves."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 150. "In consequence of this _revelation being made_."--_Ib._, p. 162. If such relations between the participle and the objective be disapproved, the substitution of the possessive case is liable to still stronger objections; but both may be avoided, by the use of the nominative or otherwise: thus, "_Scarcely is_ any one _ever_ chosen for a pattern."-- "_Its authenticity, in stead of being shaken_, has been rendered more sure than ever."--"When there is no longer a possibility _that_ a proper candidate _will be_ nominated by either party."--"_As soon as_ the first stone _was_ thrown, _there_ was returned a fire of musketry."--"To raise a cry, _as if_ an innocent person _had been_ circumvented by bribery."-- "Whose principles forbid them _to take_ part in the administration of the government."--"It can have no other ground than some such imagination, as that our gross bodies _are_ ourselves."--"In consequence of this revelation _which is_ made." OBS. 33.--A recent grammarian quotes Dr. Crombie thus: "Some _late writers_ have discarded a phraseology which appears unobjectionable, and substituted one that seems less correct; and instead of saying, 'Lady _Macbeth's_ walking in her sleep is an incident full of tragic horror,' would say, 'Lady _Macbeth_ walking in her sleep is an incident full of tragic horror.' This seems to me an idle affectation of the Latin idiom, less precise than the common mode of expression, and less consonant with the genius of our language; for, ask what was an incident full of tragic horror, and, according to this phraseology, the answer must be, _Lady Macbeth_; whereas the meaning is, not that _Lady Macbeth_, but her _walking in her sleep_, is an incident full of tragic horror. This phraseology also, in many instances, conveys not the intended idea; for, as Priestley remarks, if it is said, 'What think you of my _horse's running_ to-day?' it is implied that the horse did actually run. If it is said, 'What think you of my _horse running_ to-day?' it is intended to ask whether it be proper for my horse to run to-day. This distinction, though frequently neglected, deserves attention; for it is obvious that ambiguity may arise from using the latter only of these phraseologies to express both meanings."-- _Maunder's Compendious Eng. Gram._, p. 15. (See _Crombie's Treatise_, p. 288-290.) To this, before any comment is offered, let me add an other quotation: "RULE. _A noun before the present participle is put in the possessive case_; as, Much will depend on the _pupil's composing_ frequently. Sometimes, however, the sense forbids it to be put in the possessive case; thus, What do you think of my _horse running_ to-day? means, Do you think I should let him run? but, What do you think of my _horse's running_? means, he _has_ run, do you think he ran well?"-- _Lennie's Gram._, p. 91; _Brace's Gram._, 94. See _Bullions's Gram._, p. 107; _Hiley's_, 94; _Murray's_, 8vo. 195: _Ingersoll's_, 201: and many others. OBS. 34.--Any phraseology that conveys not the intended idea, or that involves such an absurdity as that of calling a lady an "incident" is doubtless sufficiently reprehensible; but, compared with a rule of grammar so ill-devised as to mislead the learner nine times in ten, an occasional ambiguity or solecism is a mere trifle. The word _walking_, preceded by a possessive and followed by a preposition, as above, is clearly a _noun_, and not a participle; but these authors probably intend to justify the use of possessives before _participles_, and even to hold all phraseology of this kind "unobjectionable." If such is not their design, they write as badly as they reason; and if it is, their doctrine is both false and inconsistent. That a verbal noun may govern the possessive case, is certainly no proof that a participle may do so too; and, if these parts of speech are to be kept distinct the latter position must be disallowed: each must "abide by its own construction," as says Lowth. But the practice which these authors speak of, as an innovation of "some late writers," and "an idle affectation of the Latin idiom," is in fact a practice as different from the blunder which they quote, or feign, as their just correction of that blunder is different from the thousand errors or irregularities which they intend to shelter under it. To call a lady an "incident," is just as far from any Latin idiom, as it is from good English; whereas the very thing which they thus object to at first, they afterwards approve in this text: "What think you of my _horse running_ to-day?" This phraseology corresponds with "_the Latin idiom_;" and it is this, that, in fact, they begin with pronouncing to be "less correct" than, "What think you of my _horse's running_ to-day?" OBS. 35.--Between these expressions, too, they pretend to fix a distinction of signification; as, if "the _horse's running_ to-day," must needs imply a past action, though, (they suppose,) "the _pupil's composing_ frequently," or, "the _horse running_ to-day," signifies a _future_ one. This distinction of time is altogether _imaginary_; and the notion, that to prefer the possessive case before participles, is merely to withstand an error of "_some late writers_," is altogether false. The instructions above cited, therefore, determine nothing rightly, except the inaccuracy of one very uncommon form of expression. For, according to our best grammarians, the simple mode of correction there adopted will scarcely be found applicable to any other text. It will not be right where the participle happens to be transitive, or even where it is qualified by an adverb. From their subsequent examples, it is plain that these gentlemen think otherwise; but still, who can understand what they mean by "_the common mode of expression_?" What, for instance, would they substitute for the following very inaccurate expression from the critical belles-lettres of Dr. Blair? "A _mother accusing_ her son, and _accusing_ him of such actions, _as having_ first _bribed_ judges to condemn her husband, and _having_ afterwards _poisoned_ him, _were circumstances_ that naturally raised strong prejudices against Cicero's client."--_Blair's Lectures_, p. 274. Would they say. "A _mother's accusing her son_, &c., _were circumstances_," &c.? Is this their "common mode of expression?" and if it is, do they not make "common" what is no better English than the Doctor's? If, to accuse a son, and to accuse him greatly, can be considered different circumstances of the same prosecution, the sentence may be corrected thus: "A _mother's_ accusing _of_ her son, and _her charging of_ him _with_ such actions, as _those of_ having first bribed judges to condemn her husband, and having afterwards poisoned him, were circumstances that naturally raised strong prejudices against Cicero's client." OBS. 36.--On several occasions, as in the tenth and twelfth observations on Rule 4th, and in certain parts of the present series, some notice has been taken of the equivalence or difference of meaning, real or supposed, between the construction of the possessive, and that of an other case, before the participle; or between the participial and the substantive use of words in _ing_. Dr. Priestley, to whom, as well as to Dr. Lowth, most of our grammarians are indebted for some of their doctrines respecting this sort of derivatives, pretends to distinguish them, both as constituting different parts of speech, and as conveying different meanings. In one place, he says, "When a word ending in _ing_ is preceded by an article, it seems to be used as a _noun_; and therefore _ought not to govern an other word_, without the intervention of a preposition."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 157. And in an other: "Many nouns are derived from verbs, and end in _ing_, like participles of the present tense. The difference between these nouns and participles is often overlooked, and the accurate distinction of the two senses not attended to. If I say, What think you of my _horse's running_ to-day, I use the NOUN _running_, and suppose the horse to have actually run; for it is the same thing as if I had said, What think you of _the running of_ my horse. But if I say, What think you of my _horse running_ to-day, I use the PARTICIPLE, and I mean to ask, whether it be proper that my horse should run or not: which, therefore, supposes that he had not then run."--_Ib._, p. 122. Whatever our other critics say about the _horse running_ or the _horse's running_, they have in general borrowed from Priestley, with whom the remark originated, as it here stands. It appears that Crombie, Murray, Maunder, Lennie, Bullions, Ingersoll, Barnard, Hiley, and others, approve the doctrine thus taught, or at least some part of it; though some of them, if not all, thereby contradict themselves. ODS. 37.--By the two examples here contrasted, Priestley designed to establish a distinction, not for these texts only, but for _all similar expressions_--a distinction both of the noun from the participle, and of the different senses which he supposed these two constructions to exhibit. In all this, there is a complete failure. Yet with what remarkable ductility and implicitness do other professed critics take for granted what this superficial philologer so hastily prescribes! By acknowledging with reference to such an application of them, that the two constructions above are both _good English_, our grammarians do but the more puzzle their disciples respecting the choice between them; just as Priestley himself was puzzled, when he said, "So we _may either say_, I remember _it being reckoned_, a great exploit; or, _perhaps more elegantly_, I remember _its being reckoned_, &c."--_Gram._, p. 70. Murray and others omit this "_perhaps_," and while they allow both forms to be good, decidedly prefer the latter; but neither Priestley, nor any of the rest, ever pretended to discern in these a difference of signification, or even of parts of speech. For my part, in stead of approving either of these readings about the "_great exploit_," I have rejected both, for reasons which have already been given; and now as to the first two forms of the _horserace question_, so far as they may strictly be taken for models, I cannot but condemn them also, and for the same reasons: to which reasons may be joined the additional one, that neither expression is well adapted to the sense which the author himself gives to it in his interpretation. If the Doctor designed to ask, "Do you think my horse ran well to-day?" or, "Do you think it proper for my horse to run to-day?" he ought to have used one or the other of these unequivocal and unobjectionable expressions. There is in fact between the others, no such difference of meaning as he imagines; nor does he well distinguish "the NOUN _running_" from the PARTICIPLE _runnning_; because he apparently allows the word, in both instances, to be qualified by the adverb _to-day_.[422] OBS. 38.--It is clear, that the participle in _ing_ partakes sometimes the nature of its verb and _an adjective_; so that it relates to a noun, like an adjective, and yet implies time, and, if transitive, governs an object, like a verb: as, "Horses _running_ a race." Hence, by dropping what here distinguishes it as a participle, the word may become an adjective, and stand before its noun; as, "A _running_ brook." So, too, this participle sometimes partakes the nature of its verb and _a noun_; so that it may be governed by a preposition, like a noun, though in itself it has no cases or numbers, but is indeclinable: as "In _running_ a race." Hence, again, by dropping what distinguishes it as a participle, it may become a noun; as, "_Running_ is a safer sport than _wrestling_." Now, if to a participle we prefix something which makes it an adjective, we also take away its regimen, by inserting a preposition; as, "A doctrine _un_deserving _of_ praise,"--"A man _un_compromising _in_ his principles." So, if we put before it an article, an adjective, or a possessive, and thus give to the participle a substantive character or relation, there is reason to think, that we ought, in like manner, to take away its regimen, and its adverb too, if it have any, and be careful also to distinguish this noun from the participial adjective; as, "_The_ running _of_ a race,"--"_No_ racing _of_ horses,"--"_Your_ deserving _of_ praise."--"A _man's_ compromising _of_ his principles." With respect to the articles, or any adjectives, it seems now to be generally conceded, that these are signs of _substantives_; and that, if added to participles, they must cause them to be taken, in all respects, _substantively_. But with respect to possessives before participles, the common practice of our writers very extensively indulges the mixed construction of which I have said so much, and concerning the propriety of which, the opinions of our grammarians are so various, so confused, and so self-contradictory. OBS. 39.--Though the participle with a nominative or an objective before it, is not _in general_, equivalent to the verbal noun or the mixed participle with a possessive before it; and though the significations of the two phrases are often so widely different as to make it palpably absurd to put either for the other; yet the instances are not few in which it makes little or no difference _to the sense_, which of the two forms we prefer, and therefore, in these instances, I would certainly choose the more simple and regular construction; or, where a better than either can readily be found, reject both. It is also proper to have some regard to the structure of other languages, and to the analogy of General Grammar. If there be "some late writers" who are chargeable with "an idle affectation of the Latin idiom," there are perhaps more who as idly affect what they suppose "consonant with the genius of our language." I allude to those who would prefer the possessive case in a text like the following: "Wherefore is this noise of the _city being_ in an uproar?"'--_1 Kings_, i, 41. "Quid sibi vult clamor civitatis tumultuantis?"--_Vulgate_. "[Greek: _Gis hæ phonæ tæs poleos æchousæs_];"--_Septuagint_. Literally: "What [_means_] the clamour of the _city resounding_?" "Que veut dire ce bruit de la ville qui est ainsi émue?"--_French Bible_. Literally: "What means this noise of the _city which is so moved_?" Better English: "What means this noise _with which the city rings_?" In the following example, there is a seeming imitation of the foregoing Latin or Greek construction; but it may well be doubted whether it would be any improvement to put the word "_disciples_" in the possessive case; nor is it easy to find a third form which would be better than these: "Their difficulties will not be increased by the intended _disciples having ever resided_ in a Christian country."--_West's Letters_, p. 119. OBS. 40.--It may be observed of these different relations between participles and other words, that _nouns_ are much more apt to be put in the nominative or the objective case, than are _pronouns_. For example: "There is no more of moral principle in the way of _abolitionists nominating_ their own candidates, than in that of _their voting_ for those nominated by others."--GERRIT SMITH: _Liberator_, Vol. X, p. 17. Indeed, a pronoun of the nominative or the objective case is hardly ever used in such a relation, unless it be so obviously the leading word in sense, as to preclude all question about the construction.[423] And this fact seems to make it the more doubtful, whether it be proper to use nouns in that manner. But it may safely be held, that if the noun can well be considered the leading word in sense, we are at least under no _necessity_ of subjecting it to the government of a mere participle. If it be thought desirable to vary the foregoing example, it may easily be done, thus: "There is no more of moral principle _to prevent abolitionists_ from nominating their own candidates, than _to prevent them from_ voting for those nominated by others." The following example is much like the preceding, but less justifiable: "We see comfort, security, strength, pleasure, wealth, and prosperity, all flowing from _men combining together_; and misery, weakness, and poverty, ensuing from _their acting separately_ or in opposition to each other."--_West's Letters_, p. 133. Say rather,--"from _men's combining-together_," or, "from _the just combination of men in society_;" and,--"from their _separate action_, or _their_ opposition to _one an other_." Take an other example: "If _illorum_ be governed here of _negotii_, it must be in this order, _gratia negotii illorum videndi_; and this is, for the sake of their _business_ being seen, and not, for the sake of _them_ being seen."--_Johnson's Grammatical Commentaries_, p. 352. Here the learned critic, in disputing Perizonius's resolution of the phrase, "_illorum videndi gratiâ_" has written disputable English. But, had he _affected the Latin idiom_, a nearer imitation of it would have been,--"for the sake of their _business's being seen_, and not for the sake of _their being seen_." Or nearer still,--"for the sake of _seeing of their business_, and not, for the sake of _seeing of them_." An elegant writer would be apt to avoid all these forms, and say,--"for the sake of _seeing their business_;" and,--"_for the sake of seeing them_;" though the former phrase, being but a version of bad Latin, makes no very good sense in any way. OBS. 41.--Idioms, or peculiarities of expression, are never to be approved or valued, but according to their convenience, utility, or elegance. By this rule, some phrases that are not positively barbarous, may yet be ungrammatical, and a construction that is sometimes allowable, may yet be quite unworthy to be made or reckoned, "the common mode of expression." Thus, in Latin, the infinitive verb is occasionally put for a noun, and taken to signify a property possessed; as, "_Tuum scire_, [thy to know,] the same as _tua scientia_, thy knowledge. Pers."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 153. So, in English, the participle in _ing_ is often taken substantively, when it does not actually become a substantive or noun; as, "Thy _knowing_ this,"--"Our _doing_ so."--_West_. Such forms of speech, because they are idiomatical, seldom admit of any literal translation, and are never naturalized by any transfer from one language or dialect into an other; nor is it proper for grammarians to justify them, in vernacular speech, except as figures or anomalies that ought not to be generally imitated. It cannot be truly affirmed, that the genius of our language ever requires that participles, as such, should assume the relations of a noun, or govern the possessive case; nor, on the other hand, can it be truly denied, that very excellent and learned writers do sometimes make use of such phraseology. Without disrespect to the many users and approvers of these anomalies, I set down for bad English every mixed construction of the participle, for which the language can furnish an equivalent expression that is more simple and more elegant. The extent to which these comparative barbarisms now abound in English books, and the ridiculous fondness for them, which has been shown by some writers on English grammar, in stead of amounting to any argument in their favour, are in fact, plain proofs of the necessity of an endeavour to arrest so obvious and so pernicious an innovation. OBS. 42.--A late author observes as follows: "That the English gerund, participle, or verbal noun, in _ing_, has both an active and a passive signification, there can be little doubt.[424] Whether the Latin gerund has precisely a similar import, or whether it is only active, it may be difficult, and, indeed, after all, it is not of much moment, to ascertain."--_Grant's Latin Gram._, p. 234. The gerund in Latin most commonly governs the case of its own verb, as does the active participle, both in Latin and English: as, "Efferor studio _patres vestros videndi_. Cic. de sen. 23."--_Lily's Gram._, p. 96. That is, "I am transported, with a desire of _seeing your fathers_." But sometimes we find the gerund taken substantively and made to govern the genitive. Or,--to adopt the language of an old grammarian:--"Interdum _non invenustè_ additur gerundiis in _di_ etiam genitivus pluralis: ut, 'Quum _illorum videndi_ gratiâ me in forum contulissem.'--'_Novarum_ [qui] _spectandi_ faciunt copiam.' Ter. Heaut. prol. 29."--_Lily's Gram._, p. 97. That is, "To gerunds in _di_ there is sometimes _not inelegantly_ added a genitive plural: as, 'When, for the sake _of seeing of them_, I went into the forum.'--'Who present an opportunity of _attending of new ones_:' i.e., new comedies." Here the _of_ which is inserted after the participle to mark the genitive case which is added, forms rather an error than an elegance, though some English writers do now and then adopt this idiom. The gerund thus governing the genitive, is not analogous to our participle governing the possessive; because this genitive stands, not for _the subject_ of the being or action, but for what would otherwise be _the object_ of the gerund, or of the participle, as may be seen above. The objection to the participle as governing the possessive, is, that it retains its object or its adverb; for when it does not, it becomes fairly a noun, and the objection is removed. R. Johnson, like many others, erroneously thinks it a noun, even when it governs an objective, and has merely a preposition before it; as, "For the sake _of seeing them_. Where _seeing_ (says he) is a Substantive."--_Gram. Com._, p. 353. OBS. 43.--If the Latin gerund were made to govern the genitive of the _agent_, and allowed at the same time to retain its government as a gerund, it would then correspond in every thing but declension, to the English participle when made to govern both the possessive case and the objective. But I have before observed that no such analogy appears. The following example has been quoted by Seyer, as a proof that the gerund may govern the genitive of the agent: "_Cujus autem in dicendo aliquid reprehensum est_--Cic."--_Grant's Lat. Gram._, p. 236. That is, (as I understand it,) "But in _whose speaking_ something is reprehended." This seems to me a case in point; though Crombie and Grant will not allow it to be so. But a single example is not sufficient. If the doctrine is true, there must be others. In this solitary instance, it would be easier to doubt the accuracy even of Cicero, than to approve the notion of these two critics, that _cujus_ is here governed by _aliquid_, and not by the gerund. "Here," says Grant, "I am inclined to concur in opinion with Dr. Crombie, whose words I take the liberty to use, 'That, _for the sake of euphony_, the gerund is sometimes found governing the genitive of the patient, or _subject_ [say _object_] of the action, is unquestionable: thus, _studio videndi patrum vestrorum_. [That is, literally, _By a desire of seeing of your fathers_.] But I recollect no example, where the gerund is joined with a possessive adjective, or genitive of a noun substantive, where the person is not the patient, but the agent; as, _dicendum meum, ejus dicendum, cujus dicendum_. [That is, _my speaking, his speaking, whose speaking_.] In truth, these phraseologies appear to me, not only repugnant to the idiom of the language, but also unfavourable to precision and perspicuity.'"--_Grant's Latin Gram._, 8vo, p. 236. OBS. 44.--Of that particular distinction between the participle and the participial noun, which depends on the insertion or omission of the article and the preposition _of_, a recent grammarian of considerable merit adopts the following views: "This double nature of the participle has led to much irregularity in its use. Thus we find, 'indulging which,' 'indulging _of_ which,' '_the_ indulging which,' and '_the_ indulging _of_ which,' used indiscriminately. Lowth very properly instructs us, either to use both the article and the preposition with the participle; as, '_the_ indulging _of_ which:' or to reject both; as, 'indulging which:' thus keeping the verbal and substantive forms distinct. But he is wrong, as Dr. Crombie justly remarks, in considering these two modes of expression as perfectly similar. Suppose I am told, 'Bloomfield spoke warmly of the pleasure he had _in hearing_ Fawcet:' I understand at once, that the eloquence of Fawcet gave Bloomfield great pleasure. But were it said, 'Bloomfield spoke warmly of the pleasure he had _in the hearing of_ Fawcet:' I should be led to conclude merely that the orator was within hearing, when the poet spoke of the pleasure he felt from something, about which I have no information. Accordingly Dr. Crombie suggests as a general rule, conducive at least to perspicuity, and perhaps to elegance; that, when the noun connected with the participle is active, or doing something, the article should be inserted before the participle, and the preposition after it; and, when the noun is passive, or represents the object of an action, both the article and the preposition should be omitted:[425] agreeably to the examples just adduced. It is true, that when the noun following the participle denotes something incapable of the action the participle expresses, no mistake can arise _from using_ either form: as, 'The middle condition seems to be the most advantageously situate for _the gaining of_ wisdom. Poverty turns our thoughts too much upon _the supplying of_ our wants; and riches, upon _enjoying_ our superfluities.' _Addison, Spect._, 464. Yet I cannot think it by any means a commendable practice, thus to jumble together different forms; and indeed it is certainly better, as _the two modes of expression have different significations_, to confine each to its distinct and proper use, agreeably to Dr. Crombie's rule, even when no mistake could arise _from interchanging_ them."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 319. OBS. 45.--The two modes of expression which these grammarians would thus apply constantly to different uses, on the supposition that they have always different significations, _are the same_ that Lindley Murray and his copyists suppose to be _generally equivalent_, and concerning which it is merely admitted by the latter, that they do "_not in every instance_ convey the same meaning." (See Obs. 27th above.) If Dr. Lowth considered them "as _perfectly similar_," he was undoubtedly very wrong in this matter: though not more so than these gentlemen, who resolve to interpret them as being perfectly and constantly dissimilar. Dr. Adam says, "There are, both in Latin and [in] English, substantives derived from the verb, which so much resemble the Gerund in their signification, that _frequently_ they may be substituted in its place. They are generally used, however, in a more undetermined sense than the Gerund, and in English, have the article _always_[426] prefixed to them. Thus, with the gerund, _Detector legendo Ciceronem_, I am delighted _with reading_ Cicero. But with the substantive, _Delector lectione Ciceronis_, I am delighted with _the reading of_ Cicero."--_Lat. and Eng. Gram._, p. 142. "Gerunds are so called because they, as it were, signify the thing _in gerendo_, (anciently written _gerundo_,) _in doing_; and, along with the action, convey an idea of the agent."--_Grant's Lat. Gram._, p. 70; _Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 353. "_The reading of Cicero_," does not necessarily signify an action of which Cicero is the _agent_, as Crombie, Churchill, and Hiley choose to expound it; and, since the gerundive construction of words in _ing_ ought to have a definite reference to the agent or subject of the action or being, one may perhaps amend even some of their own phraseology above, by preferring the participial noun: as, "No mistake can arise _from the using of_ either form."--"And riches [turn our thoughts too much] _upon the enjoying of_ our superfluities."--"Even when no mistake could arise _from the interchanging of_ them." Where the agent of the action plainly appears, the gerundive form is to be preferred on account of its brevity; as, "By _the_ observing _of_ truth, you will command respect;" or, "By _observing_ truth, &c."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 189. Here the latter phraseology is greatly preferable, though this author did not perceive it. "I thought nothing was to be done by me before _the giving of_ you thanks."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 63. Say,--"before _giving_ you thanks;" for otherwise the word _thanks_ has no proper construction, the pronoun alone being governed by _of_--and here again is an error; for "_you_" ought to be the object of _to_. OBS. 46.--In Hiley's Treatise, a work far more comprehensive than the generality of grammars, "the _established principles_ and _best usages_ of the English" Participle are so adroitly summed up, as to occupy only two pages, one in Etymology, and an other in Syntax. The author shows how the participle differs from a verb, and how from an adjective; yet he neither makes it a separate part of speech, nor tells us with what other it ought to be included. In lieu of a general rule for the parsing of _all participles_, he presents the remark, "Active transitive participles, like their verbs, govern the objective case; as, 'I am desirous of _hearing him_;' '_Having praised them_, he sat down.'"--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 93. This is a rule by which one may parse the _few objectives_ which are governed by participles; but, for the usual construction of _participles themselves_, it is no rule at all; neither does the grammar, full as it is, contain any. "_Hearing_" is here governed by _of_, and "_Having praised_" relates to _he_; but this author teaches neither of these facts, and the former he expressly contradicts by his false definition of a preposition. In his first note, is exhibited, in two parts, the false and ill-written rule which Churchill quotes from Crombie. (1.) "When the noun, _connected with the participle_, is _active or doing_ something, the _participle must have_ an article before it, and the preposition _of_ after it; as, 'In _the hearing of_ the philosopher;' or, 'In the philosopher's _hearing_;' 'By _the preaching of_ Christ;' or, 'By Christ's _preaching_.' In these instances," says Hiley, "the words _hearing_ and _preaching_ are _substantives_." If so, he ought to have corrected this rule, which twice calls them _participles_; but, in stead of doing that, he blindly adds, by way of alternative, two examples which expressly contradict what the rule asserts. (2.) "But when the noun represents the _object_ of an _action_, the article and the preposition _of_ must be _omitted_; as, 'In _hearing_ the philosopher.'"--_Ib._, p. 94. If this principle is right, my second note below, and most of the corrections under it, are wrong. But I am persuaded that the adopters of this rule did not observe how common is the phraseology which it condemns; as, "For if _the casting-away of them_ be _the reconciling of the world_, what shall _the receiving of them_ be, but life from the dead?"--_Rom._, xi, 15. Finally, this author rejects the _of_ which most critics insert when a possessive precedes the verbal noun; justifies and prefers the mixed or double construction of the participle; and, consequently, neither wishes nor attempts to distinguish the participle from the verbal noun. Yet he does not fail to repeat, with some additional inaccuracy, the notion, that, "What do you think of my _horse's running_? is different _to_ [say _from_,] What do you think of my _horse running_?"--_Ib._, p. 94. OBS. 47.--That English books in general, and the style of even our best writers, should seldom be found exempt from errors in the construction of participles, will not be thought wonderful, when we consider the multiplicity of uses to which words of this sort are put, and the strange inconsistencies into which all our grammarians have fallen in treating this part of syntax. It is useless, and worse than useless, to teach for grammar any thing that is not true; and no doctrine can be true of which one part palpably oversets an other. What has been taught on the present topic, has led me into a multitude of critical remarks, designed both for the refutation of the principles which I reject, and for the elucidation and defence of those which are presently to be summed up in notes, or special rules, for the correction of false syntax. If my decisions do not agree with the teaching of our common grammarians, it is chiefly because these authors contradict themselves. Of this sort of teaching I shall here offer but one example more, and then bring these strictures to a close: "When present participles are preceded by an article, or pronoun adjective, they become nouns, and must not be followed by objective pronouns, or nouns without a preposition; as, _the reading of many books wastes the health_. But such nouns, like all others, may be used without an article, being sufficiently discovered by the following preposition; as, _he was sent to prepare the way, by preaching of repentance_. Also an article, or pronoun adjective, may precede a clause, used as a noun, and commencing with a participle; as, _his teaching children was necessary_."--_Dr. Wilson's Syllabus of English Gram._, p. xxx. Here the last position of the learned doctor, if it be true, completely annuls the first; or, if the first be true, the last must needs be false, And, according to Lowth, L. Murray, and many others, the second is as bad as either. The bishop says, concerning this very example, that by the use of the preposition _of_ after the participle _preaching_, "the phrase is rendered _obscure_ and _ambiguous_: for the obvious meaning of it, in its present form, is, 'by preaching _concerning_ repentance, or on that subject;' whereas the sense intended is, 'by publishing the covenant of repentance, and declaring repentance to be a condition of acceptance with God.'"--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 82. "It ought to be, 'by _the_ preaching _of_ repentance;' or, by _preaching_ repentance."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 193. NOTES TO RULE XX. NOTE I.--Active participles have the same government as the verbs from which they are derived; the preposition _of_, therefore, should never be used after the participle, when the verb does not require it. Thus, in phrases like the following, _of_ is improper: "Keeping _of_ one day in seven;"--"By preaching _of_ repentance;"--"They left beating _of_ Paul." NOTE II.--When a transitive participle is converted into a noun, _of_ must be inserted to govern the object following; as, "So that there was _no withstanding of_ him."--_Walker's Particles_. p. 252. "The cause of their salvation doth not so much arise from _their embracing of_ mercy, as from _God's exercising of_ it"--_Penington's Works_, Vol. ii, p. 91. "Faith is _the receiving of_ Christ with the whole soul."--_Baxter_. "In _thy pouring-out of_ thy fury upon Jerusalem."--_Ezekiel_, ix, 8. NOTE III.--When the insertion of the word _of_, to complete the conversion of the transitive participle into a noun, produces ambiguity or harshness, some better phraseology must be chosen. Example: "Because the action took _place prior to the taking place of_ the other past action."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 140. Here the words _prior_ and _place_ have no regular construction; and if we say, "_prior_ to the taking _of place of_ the other," we make the jumble still worse. Say therefore, "Because the action took place _before_ the other past action;"--or, "Because the action took place _previously_ to the other past action." NOTE IV.--When participles become nouns, their adverbs should either become adjectives, or be taken as parts of such nouns, written as compound words: or, if neither of these methods be agreeable, a greater change should be made. Examples of error: 1. "_Rightly_ understanding a sentence, depends very much on a knowledge of its grammatical construction."--_Comly's Gram._, 12th Ed., p. 8. Say, "_The right_ understanding _of_ a sentence," &c. 2. "Elopement is a running _away_, or private departure."--_Webster's El. Spelling-Book_. p. 102. Write "_running-away_" as one word. 3. "If they [Milton's descriptions] have any _faults_, it is their _alluding too frequently_ to matters of learning, and to fables of antiquity."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 451. Say, "If they have any _fault_, it is _that they allude_ too frequently," &c. NOTE V.--When the participle is followed by an adjective, its conversion into a noun appears to be improper; because the construction of the adjective becomes anomalous, and its relation doubtful: as, "When we speak of _'ambition's being restless_' or, _'a disease's being deceitful_.'"--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 346; _Kirkham's_, p. 224. This ought to be, "When we speak of _ambition as_ being restless, or a _disease as_ being deceitful;" but Dr. Blair, from whom the text originally came, appears to have written it thus: "When we speak of _ambition's_ being restless, or a _disease_ being deceitful."--LECT. xvi, p. 155. This is _inconsistent with itself_; for one noun is possessive, and the other, objective. NOTE VI.--When a compound participle is converted into a noun, the hyphen seems to be necessary, to prevent ambiguity; but such compound nouns are never elegant, and it is in general better to avoid them, by some change in the expression. Example: "Even as _the being healed_ of a wound, presupposeth the plaster or salve: but not, on the contrary; for the application of the plaster presupposeth not _the being healed_."--_Barclays Works_, Vol. i, p. 143. The phrase, "_the being healed_" ought to mean only, _the creature healed_; and not, _the being-healed_, or _the healing received_, which is what the writer intended. But the simple word _healing_ might have been used in the latter sense; for, in participial nouns, the distinction of _voice_ and of _tense_ are commonly disregarded. NOTE VII.--A participle should not be used where the infinitive mood, the verbal noun, a common substantive, or a phrase equivalent, will better express the meaning. Examples: 1. "But _placing_ an accent on the second syllable of these words, would entirely derange them."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 239. Say rather, "But, _to place_ an accent--But _the_ placing _of_ an accent--or, But an _accent placed_ on the second syllable of these words, would entirely derange them." 2. "To require _their being_ in that case."--_Ib._, Vol. ii, p. 21. Say, "To require _them_ to be in that case." 3. "She regrets not having read it."--_West's Letters_, p. 216. Say, "She regrets _that she has not_ read it." Or, "She _does not regret that she has_ read it." For the text is equivocal, and admits either of these senses. NOTE VIII.--A participle used for a nominative after _be, is, was_, &c., produces a construction which is more naturally understood to be a compound form of the verb; and which is therefore not well adapted to the sense intended, when one tells what something is, was, or may be. Examples: 1. "Whose business _is shoeing_ animals."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 365. Say, "Whose business _it_ is, _to shoe_ animals;"--or, "Whose business is _the_ shoeing _of_ animals." 2. "This _was in fact converting_ the deposite to his own use."--_Murray's Key_, ii, p. 200. Say rather, "This was in fact _a_ converting _of_ the deposite to his own use."--_Ib._ NOTE IX.--Verbs of _preventing_ should be made to govern, not the participle in _ing_, nor what are called substantive phrases, but the objective case of a noun or pronoun; and if a participle follow, it ought to be governed by the preposition _from_: as, "But the admiration due to so eminent a poet, must not _prevent us from remarking_ some other particulars in which he has failed."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 438. Examples of error: 1. "I endeavoured to prevent _letting him_ escape"--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 150. Say,--"to prevent _his escape_." 2. "To prevent _its being connected_ with the nearest noun."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 367. Say, "To prevent _it from_ being connected," &c. 3. "To prevent _it bursting_ out with open violence."--_Robertson's America_, Vol. ii, p. 146. Say, "To prevent it _from_ bursting out," &c. 4. "To prevent _their injuring or murdering of_ others."--_Brown's Divinity_, p. 26. Say rather, "To prevent _them from_ injuring or murdering _others_." NOTE X.--In the use of participles and of verbal nouns, the leading word in sense should always be made the leading or governing word in the construction; and where there is reason to doubt whether the possessive case or some other ought to come before the participle, it is better to reject both, and vary the expression. Examples: "Any person may easily convince himself of the truth of this, by listening to _foreigners conversing_ in a language [which] he does not understand."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 361. "It is a relic of the ancient _style abounding_ with negatives."--_Ib._, p. 367. These forms are right; though the latter might be varied, by the insertion of "_which abounds_" for "_abounding_." But the celebrated examples before cited, about the "_lady holding up_ her train," or the "_lady's holding up_ her train,"--the "_person dismissing_ his servant," or the "_person's dismissing_ his servant,"--the "_horse running_ to-day," or the "_horse's running_ to-day,"--and many others which some grammarians suppose to be interchangeable, are equally bad in both forms. NOTE XI.--Participles, in general, however construed, should have a clear reference to the proper subject of the being, action, or passion. The following sentence is therefore faulty: "By _establishing_ good laws, our _peace_ is secured."--_Russell's Gram._, p. 88; _Folker's_, p. 27. Peace not being the _establisher_ of the laws, these authors should have said, "By _establishing_ good laws, _we_ secure our peace." "_There will be no danger_ of _spoiling_ their faces, or of _gaining_ converts."--_Murray's Key_, ii, p. 201. This sentence is to me utterly unintelligible. If the context were known, there might possibly be some sense in saying, "_They_ will be in no danger of spoiling their faces," &c. "The law is annulled, in the very _act of its being made_."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 267. "The _act of_ MAKING _a law_," is a phrase intelligible; but, "the _act of its_ BEING MADE," is a downright solecism--a positive absurdity. NOTE XII.--A needless or indiscriminate use of participles for nouns, or of nouns for participles, is inelegant, if not improper, and ought therefore to be avoided. Examples: "_Of_ denotes possession or _belonging_."-- _Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 118; _Ingersoll's_, 71. "The preposition _of_, frequently implies possession, property, or _belonging to_."--_Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram._, p. 137. Say, "_Of_ frequently denotes possession, or _the relation of property_." "England perceives the folly _of the denying of_ such concessions."--_Nixon's Parser_, p. 149. Expunge _the_ and the last _of_, that _denying_ may stand as a participle. NOTE XIII.--Perfect participles being variously formed, care should be taken to express them agreeably to the best usage, and also to distinguish them from the preterits of their verbs, where there is any difference of form. Example: "It would be well, if all writers who endeavour to be accurate, would be careful to avoid a corruption at present so prevalent, of saying, _it was wrote_, for, _it was written; he was drove_, for, _he was driven; I have went_, for, _I have gone_, &c., in all which instances a verb is absurdly used to supply the proper participle, without any necessity from the want of such word."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 186. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XX. EXAMPLES UNDER NOTE I.--EXPUNGE OF. "In forming of his sentences, he was very exact."--_Error noticed by Murray_, Vol. i, p. 194. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the preposition _of_ is used after the participle _forming_, whose verb does not require it. But, according to Note 1st under Rule 20th, "Active participles have the same government as the verbs from which they are derived; the preposition _of_, therefore, should not be used after the participle, when the verb does not require it." Therefore, _of_ should be omitted; thus, "In forming his sentences, he was very exact."] "For not believing of which I condemn them"--_Barclay's Works_, iii. 354. "To prohibit his hearers from reading of that book."--_Ib._, i, 223. "You will please them exceedingly, in crying down of ordinances."--MITCHELL: _ib._, i, 219. "The war-wolf subsequently became an engine for casting of stones,"--_Constable's Miscellany_, xxi, 117. "The art of dressing of hides and working in leather was practised."--_Ib._, xxi, 101. "In the choice they had made of him, for restoring of order."--_Rollin's Hist._, ii, 37. "The Arabians exercised themselves by composing of orations and poems."--_Sale's Koran_, p. 17. "Behold, the widow-woman was there gathering of sticks."--_1 Kings_, xvii, 10. "The priests were busied in offering of burnt-offerings."--_2 Chron._, xxxv, 14. "But Asahel would not turn aside from following of him."--_2 Sam._, ii, 21. "He left off building of Ramah, and dwelt in Tirzah."--_1 Kings_, xv, 21. "Those who accuse us of denying of it, belie us."--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 280. "And breaking of bread from house to house."--_Ib._, i, 192. "Those that set about repairing of the walls."--_Ib._, i, 459. "And secretly begetting of divisions."--_Ib._, i, 521. "Whom he had made use of in gathering of his church."--_Ib._, i, 535. "In defining and distinguishing of the acceptions and uses of those particles."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 12. "In punishing of this, we overthrow The laws of nations, and of nature too."--_Dryden_, p. 92. UNDER NOTE II.--ARTICLES REQUIRE OF. "The mixing them makes a miserable jumble of truth and fiction."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 357. "The same objection lies against the employing statues."--_Ib._, ii, 358. "More efficacious than the venting opulence upon the Fine Arts."--_Ib._, Vol. i, p. viii. "It is the giving different names to the same object."--_Ib._, ii, 19. "When we have in view the erecting a column."--_Ib._, ii, 56. "The straining an elevated subject beyond due bounds, is a vice not so frequent."--_Ib._, i, 206. "The cutting evergreens in the shape of animals is very ancient."--_Ib._, ii, 327. "The keeping juries, without meet, drink or fire, can be accounted for only on the same idea."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 301. "The writing the verbs at length on his slate, will be a very useful exercise."--_Beck's Gram._, p. 20. "The avoiding them is not an object of any moment."--_Sheridan's Lect._, p. 180. "Comparison is the increasing or decreasing the Signification of a Word by degrees."--_British Gram._, p. 97. "Comparison is the Increasing or Decreasing the Quality by Degrees."--_Buchanan's English Syntax_, p. 27. "The placing a Circumstance before the Word with which it is connected, is the easiest of all Inversion."--_Ib._, p. 140. "What is emphasis? It is the emitting a stronger and fuller sound of voice," &c.--_Bradley's Gram._, p. 108. "Besides, the varying the terms will render the use of them more familiar."--_Alex. Murray's Gram._, p. 25. "And yet the confining themselves to this true principle, has misled them!"--_Horne Tooke's Diversions_, Vol. i, p. 15. "What is here commanded, is merely the relieving his misery."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 417. "The accumulating too great a quantity of knowledge at random, overloads the mind instead of adorning it."--_Formey's Belles-Lettres_, p. 5. "For the compassing his point."--_Rollin's Hist._, ii, 35. "To the introducing such an inverted order of things."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 95. "Which require only the doing an external action."--_Ib._, p. 185. "The imprisoning my body is to satisfy your wills."--GEO. FOX: _Sewel's Hist._, p. 47. "Who oppose the conferring such extensive command on one person."--_Duncan's Cicero_, p. 130. "Luxury contributed not a little to the enervating their forces."--_Sale's Koran_, p. 49. "The keeping one day of the week for a sabbath."--_Barclay's Works_, i. 202. "The doing a thing is contrary to the forbearing of it."--_Ib._, i, 527. "The doubling the Sigma is, however, sometimes regular."--_Knight, on the Greek Alphabet_, p. 29. "The inserting the common aspirate too, is improper."--_Ib._, p. 134. "But in Spenser's time the pronouncing the _ed_ seems already to have been something of an archaism."--_Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 656. "And to the reconciling the effect of their verses on the eye."--_Ib._, i, 659. "When it was not in their power to hinder the taking the whole."--_Brown's Estimate_, ii, 155. "He had indeed given the orders himself for the shutting the gates."--_Ibid._ "So his whole life was a doing the will of the Father."--_Penington_, iv, 99. "It signifies the suffering or receiving the action expressed."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 37. "The pretended crime therefore was the declaring himself to be the Son of God."--_West's Letters_, p. 210. "Parsing is the resolving a sentence into its different parts of speech."--_Beck's Gram._, p. 26. UNDER NOTE II.--ADJECTIVES REQUIRE OF. "There is no expecting the admiration of beholders."--_Baxter_. "There is no hiding you in the house."--_Shakspeare_. "For the better regulating government in the province of Massachusetts."--_British Parliament_. "The precise marking the shadowy boundaries of a complex government."--_J. Q. Adams's Rhet._, Vol. ii, p. 6. "[This state of discipline] requires the voluntary foregoing many things which we desire, and setting ourselves to what we have no inclination to."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 115. "This amounts to an active setting themselves against religion."--_Ib._, p. 264. "Which engaged our ancient friends to the orderly establishing our Christian discipline."--_N. E. Discip._, p. 117. "Some men are so unjust that there is no securing our own property or life, but by opposing force to force."--_Brown's Divinity_, p. 26. "An Act for the better securing the Rights and Liberties of the Subject."--_Geo._ III, 31st. "Miraculous curing the sick is discontinued."--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 137. "It would have been no transgressing the apostle's rule."--_Ib._, p. 146. "As far as consistent with the proper conducting the business of the House."--_Elmore, in Congress_, 1839. "Because he would have no quarrelling at the just condemning them at that day."--_Law and Grace_, p. 42. "That transferring this natural manner--will ensure propriety."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 372. "If a man were porter of hell-gate, he should have old turning the key."--_Macbeth_, Act ii, Sc. 3. UNDER NOTE II.--POSSESSIVES REQUIRE OF. "So very simple a thing as a man's wounding himself."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 97; _Murray's Gram._, p. 317. "Or with that man's avowing his designs."--_Blair_, p. 104; _Murray_, p. 308; _Parker and Fox, Part III_, p. 88. "On his putting the question."--_Adams's Rhet._, Vol. ii, p. 111. "The importance of teachers' requiring their pupils to read each section many times over."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 169. "Politeness is a kind of forgetting one's self in order to be agreeable to others."--_Ramsay's Cyrus_. "Much, therefore, of the merit, and the agreeableness of epistolary writing, will depend on its introducing us into some acquaintance with the writer."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 370; _Mack's Dissertation in his Gram._, p. 175. "Richard's restoration to respectability, depends on his paying his debts."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 176. "Their supplying ellipses where none ever existed; their parsing words of sentences already full and perfect, as though depending on words understood."--_Ib._, p. 375. "Her veiling herself and shedding tears," &c., "her upbraiding Paris for his cowardice," &c.--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 433. "A preposition may be known by its admitting after it a personal pronoun, in the objective case."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 28; _Alger's_, 14; _Bacon's_, 10; _Merchant's_, 18; and others. "But this forms no just objection to its denoting time."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 65. "Of men's violating or disregarding the relations which God has placed them in here."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 164. "Success, indeed, no more decides for the right, than a man's killing his antagonist in a duel."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 295. "His reminding them."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 123. "This mistake was corrected by his preceptor's causing him to plant some beans."--_Ib._, p. 235. "Their neglecting this was ruinous."--_Frost's El. of Gram._, p. 82. "That he was serious, appears from his distinguishing the others as 'finite.'"--_Felch's Gram._, p. 10. "His hearers are not at all sensible of his doing it."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 119. UNDER NOTE III.--CHANGE THE EXPRESSION. "An allegory is the saying one thing, and meaning another; a double-meaning or dilogy is the saying only one thing, but having two in view."--_Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 461. "A verb may generally be distinguished, by its making sense with any of the personal pronouns, or the word _to_ before it."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 28; _Alger's_, 13; _Bacon's_, 10; _Comly's_, and many others. "A noun may, in general, be distinguished by its taking an article before it, or by its making sense of itself."--_Merchant's Gram._, p. 17; _Murray's_, 27; &c. "An Adjective may usually be known by its making sense with the addition of the word _thing_: as, a _good_ thing; a _bad_ thing."--_Same Authors_. "It is seen in the objective case, from its denoting the object affected by the act of leaving."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 44. "It is seen in the possessive case, from its denoting the _possessor_ of something."--_Ibid._ "The name man is caused by the adname _whatever_ to be twofold subjective case, from its denoting, of itself, one person as the subject of the two remarks."--_Ib._, p. 56. "_When_, as used in the last line, is a connective, from its joining that line to the other part of the sentence."--_Ib._, p. 59. "From their denoting reciprocation."--_Ib._, p. 64. "To allow them the making use of that liberty."--_Sale's Koran_, p. 116. "The worst effect of it is, the fixing on your mind a habit of indecision."--_Todd's Student's Manual_, p. 60. "And you groan the more deeply, as you reflect that there is no shaking it off."--_Ib._, p. 47. "I know of nothing that can justify the having recourse to a Latin translation of a Greek writer."--_Coleridge's Introduction_, p. 16. "Humour is the making others act or talk absurdly."--_Hazlitt's Lectures_. "There are remarkable instances of their not affecting each other."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 150. "The leaving Cæsar out of the commission was not from any slight."--_Life of Cicero_, p. 44. "Of the receiving this toleration thankfully I shall say no more."--_Dryden's Works_, p. 88. "Henrietta was delighted with Julia's working lace so very well."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 255. "And it is from their representing each two different words that the confusion has arisen."--_Booth's Introd._, p. 42. "�schylus died of a fracture of his skull, caused by an eagle's letting fall a tortoise on his head."--_Biog. Dict._ "He doubted their having it."--_Felch's Comp. Gram._, p. 81. "The making ourselves clearly understood, is the chief end of speech."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 68. "There is no discovering in their countenances, any signs which are the natural concomitants of the feelings of the heart."--_Ib._, p. 165. "Nothing can be more common or less proper than to speak of a _river's emptying itself_."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 186. "Our not using the former expression, is owing to this."--_Bullions's E. Gram._, p. 59. UNDER NOTE IV.--DISPOSAL OF ADVERBS. "To this generally succeeds the division, or the laying down the method of the discourse."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 311. "To the pulling down of strong holds."--_2 Cor._, x, 4. "Can a mere buckling on a military weapon infuse courage?"--_Brown's Estimate_, i, 62. "Living expensively and luxuriously destroys health."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 234. "By living frugally and temperately, health is preserved."--_Ibid._ "By living temperately, our health is promoted."--_Ib._, p. 227. "By the doing away of the necessity."--_The Friend_, xiii, 157. "He recommended to them, however, the immediately calling of the whole community to the church."--_Gregory's Dict., w. Ventriloquism_. "The separation of large numbers in this manner certainly facilitates the reading them rightly."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 303. "From their merely admitting of a twofold grammatical construction."--_Philol. Museum_, i. 403. "His gravely lecturing his friend about it."--_Ib._, i, 478. "For the blotting out of sin."--_Gurney's Evidences_, p. 140. "From the not using of water."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 189. "By the gentle dropping in of a pebble."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 125. "To the carrying on a great part of that general course of nature."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 127. "Then the not interposing is so far from being a ground of complaint."--_Ib._, p. 147. "The bare omission, or rather the not employing of what is used."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 180; _Jamieson's_, 48. "Bringing together incongruous adverbs is a very common fault."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 329. "This is a presumptive proof of its not proceeding from them."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 186. "It represents him in a character to which the acting unjustly is peculiarly unsuitable."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 372. "They will aim at something higher than merely the dealing out of harmonious sounds."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 65. "This is intelligible and sufficient; and going farther seems beyond the reach of our faculties."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 147. "Apostrophe is a turning off from the regular course of the subject."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 348; _Jamieson's Rhet._, 185. "Even Isabella was finally prevailed upon to assent to the sending out a commission to investigate his conduct."--_Life of Columbus_. "For the turning away of the simple shall slay them."--_Prov._, i, 32. "Thick fingers always should command Without the stretching out the hand."--_King's Poems_, p. 585. UNDER NOTE V.--PARTICIPLES WITH ADJECTIVES. "Is there any Scripture speaks of the light's being inward?"--_Barclay's Works_, i, 367. "For I believe not the being positive therein essential to salvation."--_Ib._, iii, 330. "Our not being able to act an uniform right part without some thought and care."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 122. "Upon supposition of its being reconcileable with the constitution of nature."--_Ib._, p. 128. "Upon account of its not being discoverable by reason or experience."--_Ib._, p. 170. "Upon account of their being unlike the known course of nature."--_Ib._, p. 171. "Our being able to discern reasons for them, gives a positive credibility to the history of them."--_Ib._, p. 174. "From its not being universal."--_Ib._, p. 175. "That they may be turned into the passive participle in _dus_ is no decisive argument in favour of their being passive."--_Grant's Lat. Gram._, p. 233. "With the implied idea of St. Paul's being then _absent_ from the Corinthians."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 123. "On account of its becoming gradually weaker, until it finally dies away into silence."--_Ib._, p. 32. "Not without the author's being fully aware."--_Ib._, p. 84. "Being witty out of season, is one sort of folly."--_Sheffield's Works_, ii. 172. "Its being generally susceptible of a much stronger evidence."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 102. "At least their being such rarely enhanceth our opinion, either of their abilities or of their virtues."--_Ib._, p. 162. "Which were the ground of our being one."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 513. "But they may be distinguished from it by their being intransitive."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 60. "To distinguish the higher degree of our persuasion of a thing's being possible."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 234. "His being idle, and dishonest too, Was that which caus'd his utter overthrow."--_Tobitt's Gram._, p. 61. UNDER NOTE VI.--COMPOUND VERBAL NOUNS. "When it denotes being subjected to the exertion of another."--_Booth's Introd._, p. 37. "In a passive sense, it signifies being subjected to the influence of the action."--_Felch's Comp. Gram._, p. 60. "The being abandoned by our friends is very deplorable."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, i, 181. "Without waiting for their being attacked by the Macedonians."--_Ib._, ii, 97. "In progress of time, words were wanted to express men's being connected with certain conditions of fortune."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 135. "Our being made acquainted with pain and sorrow, has a tendency to bring us to a settled moderation."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 121. "The chancellor's being attached to the king secured his crown; The general's having failed in this enterprise occasioned his disgrace; John's having been writing a long time had wearied him."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 66; _Sanborn's_, 171; _Cooper's_, 96; _Ingersoll's_, 46; _Fisk's_, 83; _and others_. "The sentence should be, 'John's having been writing a long time has wearied him.'"--_Wright's Gram._, p. 186. "Much depends on this rule's being observed."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 195. "He mentioned a boy's having been corrected for his faults; The boy's having been corrected is shameful to him."--_Alger's Gram._, p. 65; _Merchant's_, 93. "The greater the difficulty of remembrance is, and the more important the being remembered is to the attainment of the ultimate end."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 90. "If the parts in the composition of similar objects were always in equal quantity, their being compounded would make no odds."--_Ib._, p. 65. "Circumstances, not of such importance as that the scope of the relation is affected by their being known."--_Ib._, p. 379. "A passive verb expresses the receiving of an action or the being acted upon; as, 'John is beaten'"--_Frost's El. of Gram._, p. 16. "So our Language has another great Advantage, namely its not being diversified by Genders."--_Buchanan's Gram._, p. 20. "The having been slandered is no fault of Peter."--_Frost's El. of Gram._, p. 82. "Without being Christ's friends, there is no being justified."--_William Penn_. "Being accustomed to danger, begets intrepidity, i.e. lessens fear."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 112. "It is, not being affected so and so, but acting, which forms those habits."--_Ib._, p. 113. "In order to our being satisfied of the truth of the apparent paradox."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 164. "Tropes consist in a word's being employed to signify something that is different from its original and primitive meaning."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 132; _Jamieson's_, 140; _Murray's Gram._, 337; _Kirkham's_, 222. "A _Trope_ consists in a word's being employed," &c.--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 133. "The scriptural view of our being saved from punishment."--_Gurney's Evidences_, p. 124. "To submit and obey, is not a renouncing a being led by the Spirit."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 542. UNDER NOTE VII.--PARTICIPLES FOR INFINITIVES, &C. "Teaching little children is a pleasant employment."--_Bartlett's School Manual_, ii, 68. "Denying or compromising principles of truth is virtually denying their divine Author."--_Reformer_, i, 34. "A severe critic might point out some expressions that would bear being retrenched."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 206. "Never attempt prolonging the pathetic too much."--_Ib._, p. 323. "I now recollect having mentioned a report of that nature."-- _Whiting's Reader_, p. 132. "Nor of the necessity which there is for their being restrained in them."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 116. "But doing what God commands, because he commands it, is obedience, though it proceeds from hope or fear."--_Ib._, p. 124. "Simply closing the nostrils does not so entirely prevent resonance."--_Music of Nature_, p. 484. "Yet they absolutely refuse doing so."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 264. "But Artaxerxes could not refuse pardoning him."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, i, 173. "Doing them in the best manner is signified by the name of these arts."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 360. "Behaving well for the time to come, may be insufficient." --_Butler's Analogy_, p. 198. "The compiler proposed publishing that part by itself."--_Dr. Adam, Rom. Antiq._, p. v. "To smile upon those we should censure, is bringing guilt upon ourselves."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 108. "But it would be doing great injustice to that illustrious orator to bring his genius down to the same level."--_Ib._, p. 28. "Doubting things go ill, often hurts more than to be sure they do."--_Beauties of Shak._, p. 203. "This is called straining a metaphor."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 150; _Murray's Gram._, i, 341. "This is what Aristotle calls giving manners to the poem."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 427. "The painter's being entirely confined to that part of time which he has chosen, deprives him of the power of exhibiting various stages of the same action."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 195. "It imports retrenching all superfluities, and pruning the expression."-- _Blair's Rhet._, p. 94; _Jamieson's_, 64; _Murray's Gram._, p. 301; _Kirkham's_, 220. "The necessity for our being thus exempted is further apparent."--_West's Letters_, p. 40. "Her situation in life does not allow of her being genteel in every thing."--_Ib._, p. 57. "Provided you do not dislike being dirty when you are invisible."--_Ib._, p. 58. "There is now an imperious necessity for her being acquainted with her title to eternity."--_Ib._, p. 120. "Discarding the restraints of virtue, is misnamed ingenuousness."--_Ib._, p. 105. "The legislature prohibits opening shop of a Sunday."--_Ib._, p. 66. "To attempt proving that any thing is right."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 256. "The comma directs making a pause of a second in duration, or less."--_Ib._, p. 280. "The rule which directs putting other words into the place of it, is wrong."--_Ib._, p. 326. "They direct calling the specifying adjectives or adnames adjective pronouns."-- _Ib._, p. 338. "William dislikes attending court."--_Frost's El. of Gram._, p. 82. "It may perhaps be worth while remarking that Milton makes a distinction."--_Philological Museum_, i, 659. "Professing regard, and acting differently, discover a base mind."--_Murray's Key_, p. 206; _Bullions's E. Gram._, pp. 82 and 112; _Lennie's_, 58. "Professing regard and acting indifferently, discover a base mind."--_Weld's Gram., Improved Edition_, p. 59. "You have proved beyond contradiction, that acting thus is the sure way to procure such an object."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 92. UNDER NOTE VIII.--PARTICIPLES AFTER BE, IS, &C. "Irony is expressing ourselves in a manner contrary to our thoughts."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 353; _Kirkham's_, 225; _Goldsbury's_, 90. "Irony is saying one thing and meaning the reverse of what that expression would represent."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 303. "An Irony is dissembling or changing the proper signification of a word or sentence to quite the contrary."--_Fisher's Gram._, p. 151. "Irony is expressing ourselves contrary to what we mean."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 280. "This is in a great Measure delivering their own Compositions."--_Buchanan's Gram._, p. xxvi. "But purity is using rightly the words of the language."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 59. "But the most important object is settling the English quantity."--_Walker's Key_. p. 17. "When there is no affinity, the transition from one meaning to another is taking a very wide step."-- _Campbell's Rhet._, p. 293. "It would be losing time to attempt further to illustrate it."--_Ib._, p. 79. "This is leaving the sentence too bare, and making it to be, if not nonsense, hardly sense."--_Cobbett's Gram._, ¶220. "This is requiring more labours from every private member."--_West's Letters_, p. 120. "Is not this using one measure for our neighbours, and another for ourselves?"--_Ib._, p. 200. "Is it not charging God foolishly, when we give these dark colourings to human nature?"--_Ib._, p. 171. "This is not enduring the cross as a disciple of Jesus Christ, but snatching at it like a partizan of Swift's Jack."--_Ib._, p. 175. "What is Spelling? It is combining letters to form syllables and words."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 18. "It is choosing such letters to compose words," &c.--_Ibid._ "What is Parsing? (1.) It is describing the nature, use, and powers of words."--_Ib._, pp. 22 and 192. (2.) "For parsing is describing the words of a sentence as they are used."--_Ib._, p. 10. (3.) "Parsing is only describing the nature and relations of words as they are used."--_Ib._, p. 11. (4.) "Parsing, let the pupil understand and remember, is describing facts concerning words; or representing them in their offices and relations as they are."--_Ib._, p. 34. (5.) "Parsing is resolving and explaining words according to the rules of grammar."--_Ib._, p. 326. (6.) "Parsing a word, remember, is enumerating and describing its various relations and qualities, and its grammatical relations to other words in the sentence."--_Ib._, p. 325. (7.) "For parsing a word is enumerating and describing its various properties and relations _to the_ sentence."--_Ib._, p. 326. (8.) "Parsing a noun is telling of what person, number, gender, and case, it is; and also telling all its grammatical relations in a sentence with respect to other words."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 16. (9.) "Parsing any part of speech is telling all its properties and relations."--_Ibid._ (10.) "Parsing is resolving a sentence into its elements."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, 1850, §588. "The highway of the righteous is, departing from evil."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 168. "Besides, the first step towards exhibiting truth should be removing the veil of error."--_Ib._, p. 377. "Punctuation is dividing sentences and the words of sentences, by pauses."--_Ib._, p. 280. "Another fault is using the preterimperfect _shook_ instead of the participle _shaken_"--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 259. "Her employment is drawing maps."--_Alger's Gram._, p. 65. "Going to the play, according to his notion, is leading a sensual life, and exposing ones self to the strongest temptations. This is begging the question, and therefor requires no answer."--_Formey's Belles-Lettres_, p. 217. "It is overvaluing ourselves to reduce every thing to the narrow measure of our capacities."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 193; _Ingersoll's_, 199. "What is vocal language? It is speaking; or expressing ideas by the human voice."--_Sanders, Spelling-Book_, p. 7. UNDER NOTE IX.--VERBS OF PREVENTING. "The annulling power of the constitution prevented that enactment's becoming a law."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 267. "Which prevents the manner's being brief."--_Ib._, p. 365. "This close prevents their bearing forward as nominatives."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 153. "Because this prevents its growing drowzy."--_Formey's Belles-Lettres_, p. 5. "Yet this does not prevent his being great."--_Ib._, p. 27. "To prevent its being insipid."--_Ib._, p. 112. "Or whose interruptions did not prevent its being continued."--_Ib._, p. 167. "This by no means prevents their being also punishments."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 123. "This hinders not their being also, in the strictest sense, punishments."--_Ibid._, "The noise made by the rain and wind prevented their being heard."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, Vol. i, p. 118. "He endeavoured to prevent its taking effect."--_Ib._, i, 128. "So sequestered as to prevent their being explored."--_West's Letters_, p. 62. "Who prevented her making a more pleasant party."--_Ib._, p. 65. "To prevent our being tossed about by every wind of doctrine."--_Ib._, p. 123. "After the infirmities of age prevented his bearing his part of official duty."--_Religious World_, ii, 193. "To prevent splendid trifles passing for matters of importance."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 310. "Which prevents his exerting himself to any good purpose."--_Beattie's Moral Science_, i, 146. "The want of the observance of this rule, very frequently prevents our being punctual in our duties."--_Student's Manual_, p. 65. "Nothing will prevent his being a student, and his possessing the means of study."--_Ib._, p. 127. "Does the present accident hinder your being honest and brave?"--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 51. "The e is omitted to prevent two es coming together."--_Fowle's Gram._, p. 34. "A pronoun is used for or in place of a noun.--to prevent repeating the noun."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 13. "Diversity in the style relieves the ear, and prevents it being tired with the too frequent recurrence of the rhymes."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 166. "Diversity in the style relieves the ear, and prevents its being tired," &c.--_Murray's Gram._, i. p. 362. "Timidity and false shame prevent our opposing vicious customs."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 236; _Sanborn's Gram._, 171; _Merchant's_, 205. "To prevent their being moved by such."-- _Campbell's Rhet._, p. 155. "Some obstacle or impediment, that prevents its taking place."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 38. "Which prevents our making a progress towards perfection."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 4. "This method of distinguishing words, must prevent any regular proportion of time being settled."--_Ib._, p. 67. "That nothing but affectation can prevent its always taking place."--_Ib._, p. 78. "This did not prevent John's being acknowledged and solemnly inaugurated Duke of Normandy."--HENRY: _Webster's Philos. Gram._, p. 182; his _Improved Gram._, 130; _Sanborn's Gram._, 189; _Fowler's_, 8vo, 1850, p. 541. UNDER NOTE X.--THE LEADING WORD IN SENSE. "This would preclude the possibility of a _nouns'_ or any other word's ever being in the possessive case."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 338. "A great part of our pleasure arises from the plan or story being well conducted."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 18, "And we have no reason to wonder at this being the case."--_Ib._, p. 249. "She objected only, as Cicero says, to Oppianicus having two sons by his present wife."--_Ib._, p. 274. "The Britons being subdued by the Saxons, was a necessary consequence of their having called in these Saxons, to their assistance."--_Ib._, p. 329. "What he had there said, concerning the Saxons expelling the Britons, and changing the customs, the religion, and the language of the country, is a clear and good reason for our present language being Saxon rather than British."--_Ib._, p. 230. "The only material difference between them, besides the one being short and the other being prolonged, is, that a metaphor always explains itself by the words that are connected with it."--_Ib._, p. 151; _Murray's Gram._, p. 342. "The description of Death's advancing to meet Satan, on his arrival."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 156. "Is not the bare fact of God being the witness of it, sufficient ground for its credibility to rest upon?"--_Chalmers, Serm._, p. 288. "As in the case of one entering upon a new study."--_Beattie's Moral Science_, i, 77. "The manner of these affecting the copula is called the imperative mode."--BP. WILKINS: _Lowth's Gram._, p. 43. "We are freed from the trouble, by our nouns having no diversity of endings."--_Buchanan's Syntax_, p. 20. "The Verb is rather indicative of the actions being _doing_, or _done_, than _the time when_, but indeed the ideas are undistinguishable."--_Booth's Introd._, p. 69. "Nobody would doubt of this being a sufficient proof."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 66. "Against the doctrine here maintained, of conscience being, as well as reason, a natural faculty."--_Beattie's M. Sci._, i, 263. "It is one cause of the Greek and English languages being much more easy to learn, than the Latin."--_Bucke's Classical Gram._, p. 25. "I have not been able to make out a solitary instance of such being the fact."--_Liberator_, x, 40. "An angel's forming the appearance of a hand, and writing the king's condemnation on the wall, checked their mirth, and filled them with terror."--_Wood's Dict., w. Belshazzar_. "The prisoners' having attempted to escape, aroused the keepers."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 357. "I doubt not, in the least, of this having been one cause of the multiplication of divinities in the heathen world."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 155. "From the general rule he lays down, of the verbs being the parent word of all language."--_Diversions of Purley_, Vol. i, p. 227. "He was accused of himself being idle."--_Felch's Comp. Gram._, p. 52. "Our meeting is generally dissatisfied with him so removing."--_Wm. Edmondson_. "The spectacle is too rare of men's deserving solid fame while not seeking it."--_Prof. Bush's Lecture on Swedenborg_. "What further need was there of an other priest rising?"--See _Key_. UNDER NOTE XI.--REFERENCE OF PARTICIPLES. "Viewing them separately, different emotions are produced."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 344. "But leaving this doubtful, another objection occurs."--_Ib._, ii, 358. "Proceeding from one particular to another, the subject grew under his hand."--_Ib._, i, 27. "But this is still an interruption, and a link of the chain broken."--_Ib._, ii, 314. "After some days hunting, Cyrus communicated his design to his officers."--_Rollin_, ii, 66. "But it is made, without the appearance of making it in form."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 358. "These would have had a better effect disjoined thus."--_Ib._, p. 119; _Murray's Gram._, i, 309. "An improper diphthong has but one of the vowels sounded."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 9; _Alger's_, 12; _Merchant's_, 9; _Smith's_, 118; _Ingersoll's_, 4. "And being led to think of both together, my view is rendered unsteady."-- _Blair's Rhet._, p. 95; _Murray's Gram._, 302; _Jamieson's Rhet._, 66. "By often doing the same thing, it becomes habitual."--_Murray's Key_, p. 257. "They remain with us in our dark and solitary hours, no less than when surrounded with friends and cheerful society."--_Ib._, p. 238. "Besides shewing what is right, the matter may be further explained by pointing out what is wrong."--_Lowth's Gram., Pref._, p. viii. "The former teaches the true pronunciation of words, comprising accent, quantity, emphasis, pause, and tone."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol., i, p. 235. "Persons may be reproved for their negligence, by saying; 'You have taken great care indeed.'"--_Ib._, i, 354. "The words preceding and following it, are in apposition to each other."--_Ib._, ii, p. 22. "Having finished his speech, the assembly dispersed."--_Cooper's Pract. Gram._, p. 97. "Were the voice to fall at the close of the last line, as many a reader is in the habit of doing."-- _Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 101. "The misfortunes of his countrymen were but negatively the effects of his wrath, by depriving them of his assistance."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 299. "Taking them as nouns, this construction may be explained thus."--_Grant's Latin Gram._, p. 233. "These have an active signification, those which come from neuter verbs being excepted."--_Ib._, p. 233. "From the evidence of it not being universal."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 84. "And this faith will continually grow, by acquainting ourselves with our own nature."--_Channing's Self-Culture_, p. 33. "Monosyllables ending with any consonant but _f, l_, or _s_, and preceded by a single vowel, never double the final consonant; excepting add, ebb," &c.--_Murray's Gram._, p. 23; _Picket's_, 10; _Merchant's_, 13; _Ingersoll's_, 8; _Fisk's_, 44; _Blair's_, 7. "The relation of being the object of the action is expressed by the change of the Noun _Maria_ to _Mariam_"--_Booth's Introd._, p. 38. "In analyzing a proposition, it is first to be divided into its logical subject and predicate."--_Andrews and Stoddard's Latin Gram._, p. 254. "In analyzing a simple sentence, it should first be resolved into its logical subject and logical predicate."--_Wells's School Gram._, 113th Ed., p. 189. UNDER NOTE XII.--OF PARTICIPLES AND NOUNS. "The discovering passions instantly at their birth, is essential to our well being."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 352. "I am now to enter on considering the sources of the pleasures of taste."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 28. "The varieties in using them are, indeed many."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 319. "Changing times and seasons, removing and setting up kings, belong to Providence alone."--_Ib., Key_, ii, p. 200. "Adhering to the partitions seemed the cause of France, accepting the will that of the house of Bourbon."--_Bolingbroke, on Hist._, p. 246. "Another source of darkness in composing is, the injudicious introduction of technical words and phrases."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 247. "These are the rules of grammar, by the observing of which, you may avoid mistakes."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 192; _Merchant's_, 93; _Fisk's_, 135; _Ingersoll's_, 198. "By the observing of the rules you may avoid mistakes."--_Alger's Gram._, p. 65. "By the observing of these rules he succeeded."--_Frost's El. of Gram._, p. 82. "Being praised was his ruin."--_Ibid._ "Deceiving is not convincing."-- _Ibid._ "He never feared losing a friend."--_Ibid._ "Making books is his amusement."--_Alger's Gram._, p. 65. "We call it declining a noun."-- _Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 22. "Washington, however, pursued the same policy of neutrality, and opposed firmly, taking any part in the wars of Europe."--_Hall and Baker's School Hist._, p. 294. "The following is a note of Interrogation, or asking a question (?)."--_Infant School Gram._, p. 132. "The following is a note of Admiration, or expressing wonder (!)."--_Ib._ "Omitting or using the article _a_ forms a nice distinction in the sense."--_Murray's Gram._, ii, 284. "Placing the preposition before the word it governs is more graceful."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 150. "Assistance is absolutely necessary to their recovery, and retrieving their affairs."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 197. "Which termination, [_ish_,] when added to adjectives, imports diminution, or lessening the quality."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 131; _Kirkham's_, 172. "After what is said, will it be thought refining too much to suggest, that the different orders are qualified for different purposes?"--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 114. "Who has nothing to think of but killing time."--_West's Letters_, p. 58. "It requires no nicety of ear, as in the distinguishing of tones, or measuring time."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 65. "The _Possessive Case_ denotes possession, or belonging to."--_Hall's Gram._, p. 7. UNDER NOTE XIII.--PERFECT PARTICIPLES. "Garcilasso was master of the language spoke by the Incas."--_Robertson's Amer._, ii, 459. "When an interesting story is broke off in the middle."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 244. "Speaking of Hannibal's elephants drove back by the enemy."--_Ib._, ii, 32. "If Du Ryer had not wrote for bread, he would have equalled them."--_Formey's Belles-Lettres_, p. 166. "Pope describes a rock broke off from a mountain, and hurling to the plain."--_Kames_, ii, 106. "I have wrote _or_ have written, Thou hast wrote _or_ hast written. He hath or has wrote, _or_ hath or has written;" &c.--_Dr. Ash's Gram._, p. 47; _Maltby's_, 47. "This was spoke by a pagan."--_Webster's Improved Gram._, p. 174. "But I have chose to follow the common arrangement."--_Ib._, p. 10. "The language spoke in Bengal."--_Ib._, p. 78. "And sound Sleep thus broke off, with suddain Alarms, is apt enough to discompose any one."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 32. "This is not only the Case of those Open Sinners, before spoke of."--_Right of Tythes_, p. 26. "Some Grammarians have wrote a very perplexed and difficult doctrine on Punctuation."--_Ensell's Gram._, p. 340. "There hath a pity arose in me towards thee."--_Sewel's Hist., fol._, p. 324. "Abel is the only man that has underwent the awful change of death."--_Juvenile Theatre_, p. 4. "Meantime, on Afric's glowing sands, Smote with keen heat, the Trav'ler stands."--_Union Poems_, p. 88. CHAPTER VIII.--ADVERBS. The syntax of an Adverb consists in its simple relation to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or whatever else it qualifies; just as the syntax of an English Adjective, (except in a few instances,) consists in its simple relation to a noun or a pronoun. RULE XXI.--ADVERBS. Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs: as, "Any passion that _habitually_ discomposes our temper, or unfits us for _properly_ discharging the duties of life, has _most certainly_ gained a _very_ dangerous ascendency."--_Blair_. "_How_ bless'd this happy hour, should he appear, Dear to us all, to me _supremely_ dear!"--_Pope's Homer_. EXCEPTION FIRST. The adverbs _yes, ay_, and _yea_, expressing a simple affirmation, and the adverbs _no_ and _nay_, expressing a simple negation, are always independent. They generally answer a question, and are equivalent to a whole sentence. Is it clear, that they ought to be called adverbs? _No_. "Can honour set to a leg? _No_. Or an arm? _No_. Or take away the grief of a wound? _No_. Honour hath no skill in surgery then? _No_."--SHAK.: _First Part of Hen. IV_, Act v, 1. EXCEPTION SECOND. The word _amen_, which is commonly called an adverb, is often used independently at the beginning or end of a declaration or a prayer; and is itself a prayer, meaning, _So let it be_: as, "Surely, I come quickly. _Amen_: Even so, come Lord Jesus."--_Rev._, xxii, 20. When it does not stand thus alone, it seems in general to be used substantively; as, "The strangers among them stood on Gerizim, and echoed _amen_ to the blessings."--_Wood's Dict._ "These things saith the _Amen_."--_Rev._, iii, 14 EXCEPTION THIRD. An adverb before a preposition seems sometimes to relate to the latter, rather than to the verb or participle to which the preposition connects its object; as, "This mode of pronunciation runs _considerably beyond_ ordinary discourse."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 334. "Yea, _all along_ the times of the apostasy, this was the thing that preserved the witnesses."--_Penington's Works_, Vol. iv, p. 12. [See Obs. 8th on Rule 7th.] "_Right against_ the eastern gate, Where the great sun begins his state."--_Milton, L'Allegro_. EXCEPTION FOURTH. The words _much, little, far_, and _all_, being originally adjectives, are sometimes preceded by the negative _not_, or (except the last) by such an adverb as _too, how, thus, so_, or _as_, when they are taken substantively; as, "_Not all_ that glitters, is gold."--"_Too much_ should not be offered at once."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 140. "_Thus far_ is consistent."--_Ib._, p. 161. "_Thus far_ is right."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 101. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXI. OBS. 1.--On this rule of syntax, Dr. Adam remarks, "Adverbs sometimes likewise qualify _substantives_;" and gives Latin examples of the following import: "Homer _plainly_ an orator:"--"_Truly_ Metellus;"--"_To-morrow_ morning." But this doctrine is not well proved by such imperfect phrases, nor can it ever be very consistently admitted, because it destroys the characteristic difference between an adjective and an adverb. _To-morrow_ is here an adjective; and as for _truly_ and _plainly_, they are not such words as can make sense with nouns. I therefore imagine the phrases to be elliptical: "_Verè Metellus_," may mean, "_This is truly_ Metellus;" and "_Homerus planè orator_," "Homer _was plainly_ an orator." So, in the example, "Behold an Israelite _indeed_," the true construction seems to be, "Behold, _here is indeed_ an Israelite;" for, in the Greek or Latin, the word _Israelite_ is a nominative, thus: "_Ecce verè Israëlita_."--_Beza_; also _Montanus_. "[Greek: Ide alæthos 'Israaelitæs.]"--_Greek Testament. Behold_ appears to be here an interjection, like _Ecce_. If we make it a transitive verb, the reading should be, "Behold a _true_ Israelite;" for the text does not mean, "_Behold indeed_ an Israelite." At least, this is not the meaning in our version. W. H. Wells, citing as authorities for the doctrine, "Bullions, Allen and Cornwell, Brace, Butler, and Webber," has the following remark: "There are, however, certain forms of expression in which _adverbs_ bear a special relation to _nouns_ or _pronouns_; as, 'Behold I, _even I_, do bring a flood of waters.'--_Gen._ 6: 17. 'For our gospel came not unto you in _word only_, but also in power.'--1 _Thes._ 1: 5."--_Wells's School Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 156; late Ed., 168. And again, in his Punctuation, we find this: "When, however, the intervening word is an _adverb_, the comma is more commonly omitted; as, 'It is _labor only_ which gives a relish to pleasure.'"--_Ib._, p. 176. From all this, the doctrine receives no better support than from Adam's suggestion above considered. The word "_only_" is often an _adjective_, and wherever its "special relation" is to a noun or a pronoun, it can be nothing else. "_Even_," when it introduces a word repeated with emphasis, is a _conjunction_. OBS. 2.--When participles become nouns, their adverbs are not unfrequently left standing with them in their original relation; as, "For the fall and _rising again_ of many in Israel."--_Luke_, ii, 34. "To denote the _carrying forward_ of the action."--_Barnard's Gram._, p. 52. But in instances like these, _the hyphen_ seems to be necessary. This mark would make the terms _rising-again_ and _carrying-forward_ compound nouns, and not participial nouns with adverbs relating to them. "There is no _flying hence_, nor _tarrying here_."--_Shak., Macbeth_. "What! in ill thoughts again? men must endure Their _going hence_, ev'n as their _coming hither_."--_Id._ OBS. 3.--Whenever any of those words which are commonly used adverbially, are made to relate directly to nouns or pronouns, they must be reckoned _adjectives_, and parsed by Rule 9th. Examples: "The _above_ verbs."--_Dr. Adam_. "To the _above_ remarks."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 318. "The _above instance_."--_Ib._, p. 442. "After the _above_ partial illustration."--_Dr. Murray's Hist. of Lang._, ii, 62. "The _above explanation_."--_Cobbett's Gram._, ¶ 22. "For _very_ age."--_Zech._, viii, 4. "From its _very_ greatness."--_Phil. Museum_, i, 431. "In his _then_ situation."--_Johnson's Life of Goldsmith_. "This was the _then_ state of Popery."--_Id., Life of Dryden_, p. 185. "The servant becomes the master of his _once_ master."--_Shillitoe_. "Time _when_ is put in the ablative, time how _long_ is put in the accusative."--_Adam's Lat. Gram._, p. 201; _Gould's_, 198. "Nouns signifying the time _when_ or how _long_, may be put in the objective case without a preposition."--_Wilbur and Livingston's Gram._, p. 24. "I hear the _far-off_ curfew sound."--_Milton_. "Far on the _thither_ side."--_Book of Thoughts_, p. 58. "My _hither_ way."--"Since my _here_ remain in England."--_Shak._ "But short and _seldom_ truce."--_Fell_. "An _exceeding_ knave."--_Pope_. "According to my _sometime_ promise."--_Zenobia_, i, 176. "Thine _often_ infirmities."--_Bible_. "A _far_ country."--_Ib._ "_No_ wine,"--"_No_ new thing,"--"_No_ greater joy."--_Ib._ "Nothing _else_."--_Blair_. "_Tomorrow_ noon."--_Scott_. "Calamity _enough_."--_Tr. Sallust_. "For thou _only_ art holy."--_Rev._, xv, 4. OBS. 4.--It is not my design to justify any uncouth substitution of adverbs for adjectives; nor do I affirm that all the foregoing examples are indisputably good English, though most of them are so; but merely, that the words, when they are thus used, _are adjectives_, and not adverbs. Lindley Murray, and his copyists, strongly condemn some of these expressions, and, by implication, most or all of them; but both he and they, as well as others, have repeatedly employed at least one of the very models they censure. They are too severe on all those which they specify. Their objections stand thus; "_Such expressions_ as the following, though not destitute of authority, _are very inelegant_, and do _not suit the idiom_ of our language; 'The _then_ ministry,' for, 'the ministry of that time;' 'The _above_ discourse,' for, 'the preceding discourse.'"--_Murray's Gram._, i, p. 198; _Crombie's_, 294; _Ingersoll's_, 206. "The following phrases are also exceptionable: 'The _then_ ministry;' 'The _above_ argument.'"--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 190. "Adverbs used as adjectives, as, 'The _above_ statement;' 'The _then_ administration;' should be avoided."--_Barnard's Gram._, p. 285. "_When_ and _then_ must not be used for nouns _and pronouns_; thus, 'Since _when_,' 'since _then_,' 'the _then_ ministry,' ought to be, 'Since _which time_,' 'since _that time_,' 'the ministry _of that period_.'"--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 96. Dr. Priestley, from whom Murray derived many of his critical remarks, noticed these expressions; and, (as I suppose,) _approvingly_; thus, "Adverbs are often put for adjectives, agreeably to the idiom of the Greek tongue: [as,] 'The action was _amiss_.'--'The _then_ ministry.'--'The idea is _alike_ in both.'--Addison. 'The _above_ discourse.'--Harris."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 135. Dr. Johnson, as may be seen above, thought it not amiss to use _then_ as Priestley here cites it; and for such a use of _above_, we may quote the objectors themselves: "To support the _above_ construction."--_Murray's Gram._, i, p. 149; _Ingersoll's_, p. 238. "In all the _above_ instances."--_Mur._, p. 202; _Ing._, 230. "To the _above_ rule."--_Mur._, p. 270; _Ing._, 283. "The same as the _above_."--_Mur._, p. 66; _Ing._, 46. "In such instances as the _above_."--_Mur._, p. 24; _Ing._, 9; _Kirkham_, 23.[427] OBS. 5.--When words of an adverbial character are used after the manner of _nouns_, they must be parsed as nouns, and not as adverbs; as, "The Son of God--was not _yea_ and _nay_, but in him was _yea_."--_Bible_. "For a great _while_ to come."--_Ib._ "On this _perhaps_, this _peradventure_ infamous for lies."--_Young_. "From the extremest _upward_ of thine head."--_Shak_. "There are _upwards_ of fifteen millions of inhabitants."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 266. "Information has been derived from _upwards_ of two hundred volumes."--_Worcester's Hist._, p. v. "An eternal _now_ does always last"--_Cowley_. "Discourse requires an animated _no_."--_Cowper_. "Their hearts no proud _hereafter_ swelled."--_Sprague_. An adverb after a preposition is used substantively, and governed by the preposition; though perhaps it is not necessary to call it a common noun: as, "For _upwards_ of thirteen years."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. xvi. "That thou mayst curse me them _from thence_."--_Numb._, xxiii, 27. "Yet _for once_ we'll try."--_Dr. Franklin_. But many take such terms together, calling them "_adverbial phrases_." Allen says, "Two adverbs sometimes come together; as, 'Thou hast kept the good wine _until now_.'"--_Gram._, p. 174. But _until_ is here more properly a preposition, governing _now_. OBS. 6.--It is plain, that when words of an adverbial form are used either adjectively or substantively, they cannot be parsed by the foregoing rule, or explained as having the ordinary relation of _adverbs_; and if the unusual relation or character which they thus assume, be not thought sufficient to fix them in the rank of adjectives or nouns, the parser may describe them as adverbs used adjectively, or substantively, and apply the rule which their assumed construction requires. But let it be remembered, that adverbs, as such, neither relate to nouns, nor assume the nature of cases: but express the time, place, degree, or manner, of actions or qualities. In some instances in which their construction may seem not to be reconcilable with the common rule, there may be supposed an ellipsis of a verb or a participle:[428] as, "From Monday to Saturday _inclusively_."--_Webster's Dict._ Here, the Doctor ought to have used a comma after _Saturday_; for the adverb relates, not to that noun, but to the word _reckoned_, understood. "It was well said by Roscommon, '_too faithfully is pedantically_.'"--_Com. Sch. Journal_, i, 167. This saying I suppose to mean, "_To do a thing_ too faithfully, is, _to do it_ pedantically." "And, [_I say] truly_, if they had been mindful of that country from whence they came out, they might have had opportunity to have returned."--_Heb._, xi, 15. OBS 7.--To abbreviate expressions, and give them vivacity, verbs of self-motion (such as _go, come, rise, get_, &c.) are sometimes suppressed, being suggested to the mind by an emphatic adverb, which seems to be put _for the verb_, but does in fact relate to it understood; as, "I'll _hence_ to London, on a serious matter."--_Shak_. Supply "_go_." "I'll _in_. I'll _in_. Follow your friend's counsel. I'll _in_"--_Id._ Supply "_get_." "_Away_, old man; give me thy hand; _away_."--_Id._ Supply "_come_." "Love hath wings, and will _away_"--_Waller_. Supply "_fly_." "_Up, up_, Glentarkin! rouse thee, ho!"--_Scott_. Supply "_spring_." "Henry the Fifth is crowned; _up_, vanity!" Supply "_stand_." "_Down_, royal state! all you sage counsellors, _hence_!"--_Shak._ Supply "_fall_," and "_get you_." "But _up_, and enter now into full bliss."--_Milton_. Supply "_rise_." OBS. 8.--We have, on some occasions, a singular way of expressing a transitive action imperatively, or emphatically, by adding the preposition _with_ to an adverb of direction; as, _up with it, down with it, in with it, out with it, over with it, away with it_, and the like; in which construction, the adverb seems to be used elliptically as above, though the insertion of the verb would totally enervate or greatly alter the expression. Examples: "She _up with_ her fist, and took him on the face."--_Sydney, in Joh. Dictionary_. "_Away with_ him!"--_Acts_, xxi, 36. "_Away with_ such a fellow from the earth."--_Ib._, xxii, 22. "The calling of assemblies I cannot _away with_"--_Isaiah_, i, 13. "_Hence with_ denial vain, and coy excuse."--_Milton's Comus_. Ingersoll says, "Sometimes a whole phrase is used as an interjection, and we call such _interjectional phrases_: as, _out upon him!--away with him!--Alas, what wonder!_ &c."--_Conversations on Gram._, p. 79. This method of lumping together several different parts of speech under the notion of one, and calling the whole an "_adverbial phrase_," a "_substantive phrase_," or an "_interjectional phrase_," is but a forced put, by which some grammarians would dodge certain difficulties which they know not how to meet. It is directly repugnant to the idea of _parsing_; for the parser ever deals with the parts of speech as such, and not with whole phrases in the lump. The foregoing adverbs when used imperatively, have some resemblance to interjections; but, in some of the examples above cited, they certainly are not used in this manner. OBS. 9.--A _conjunctive adverb_ usually relates to two verbs at the same time, and thus connects two clauses of a compound sentence; as, "And the rest will I set in order _when_ I come,"--_1 Cor._, xi, 34. Here _when_ is a conjunctive adverb of time, and relates to the two verbs _will set_ and _come_; the meaning being, "And the rest will I set in order _at the time at which_ I come." This adverb _when_ is often used erroneously in lieu of a nominative after _is_, to which construction of the word, such an interpretation as the foregoing would not be applicable; because the person means to tell, not _when_, but _what_, the thing is, of which he speaks: as, "Another cause of obscurity is _when_ the structure of the sentence is too much complicated, or too artificial; or _when_ the sense is too long suspended by parentheses."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 246. Here the conjunction _that_ would be much better than _when_, but the sentence might advantageously spare them both; thus, "An other cause of obscurity is too much _complication_, too artificial _a structure_ of the sentence, or too long _a suspension_ of the sense by _parenthesis_." OBS. 10.--For the _placing_ of adverbs, no definite general rule can be given; yet is there no other part of speech so liable to be misplaced. Those which relate to adjectives, or to other adverbs, with very few exceptions, immediately precede them; and those which belong to compound verbs, are commonly placed after the first auxiliary; or, if they be emphatical, after the whole verb. Those which relate to simple verbs, or to simple participles, are placed sometimes before and sometimes after them. Examples are so very common, I shall cite but one: "A man may, in respect to grammatical purity, speak _unexceptionably_, and yet speak _obscurely_, or _ambiguously_; and though we cannot say, that a man may speak _properly_, and at the same time speak _unintelligibly_, yet this last case falls _more naturally_ to be considered as an offence against perspicuity, than as a violation of propriety."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 239. OBS. 11.--Of the infinitive verb and its preposition _to_, some grammarians say, that they must never be separated by an adverb. It is true, that the adverb is, in general, more elegantly placed before the preposition than after it; but, possibly, the latter position of it may sometimes contribute to perspicuity, which is more essential than elegance: as, "If any man refuse _so to implore_, and _to so receive_ pardon, let him die the death."--_Fuller, on the Gospel_, p. 209. The latter word _so_, if placed like the former, might possibly be understood in a different sense from what it now bears. But perhaps it would be better to say. "If any man refuse so to implore, and _on such terms_ to receive pardon, let him die the death." "Honour teaches us _properly_ to respect ourselves."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 252. Here it is not quite clear, to which verb the adverb "_properly_" relates. Some change of the expression is therefore needful. The right to place an adverb sometimes between _to_ and its verb, should, I think, be conceded to the poets: as, "Who dared _to nobly stem_ tyrannic pride."--BURNS: _C. Sat. N._ OBS. 12.--The adverb _no_ is used independently, only when it is equivalent to a whole sentence. This word is sometimes an adverb of _degree_; and as such it has this peculiarity, that it can relate only to comparatives: as, "_No_ more,"--"_No_ better,"--"_No_ greater,"--"_No_ sooner." When _no_ is set before a noun, it is clearly an _adjective_, corresponding to the Latin _nullus_; as, "_No_ clouds, _no_ vapours intervene."--_Dyer_. Dr. Johnson, with no great accuracy, remarks, "It seems an _adjective_ in these phrases, _no_ longer, _no_ more, _no_ where; though sometimes it may be so commodiously changed to _not_, that it seems an adverb; as, 'The days are yet _no_ shorter.'"--_Quarto Dict._ And his first example of what he calls the "_adverb_ NO" is this: "'Our courteous Antony, Whom ne'er the word of _no_ woman heard speak.' SHAKSPEARE."--_Ibid._ Dr. Webster says, "When it precedes _where_, as in _no where_, it may be considered as adverbial, though originally an adjective."--_Octavo Dict._ The truth is, that _no_ is an adverb, whenever it relates to an adjective; an adjective, whenever it relates to a noun; and a noun, whenever it takes the relation of a case. Thus, in what Johnson cites from Shakspeare, it is a noun, and not an adverb; for the meaning is, that a woman never heard Antony speak the word _of no_--that is, _of negation_. And there ought to be a comma after this word, to make the text intelligible. To read it thus: "_the word of no woman_," makes _no_ an adjective. So, to say, "There are _no abler critics_ than these," is a very different thing from saying, "There are _critics no abler_ than these;" because _no_ is an adjective in the former sentence, and an adverb in the latter. _Somewhere, nowhere, anywhere, else-where_, and _everywhere_, are adverbs of place, each of which is composed of the noun _where_ and an _adjective_; and it is absurd to write a part of them as compound words, and the rest as phrases, as many authors do. OBS. 13.--In some languages, the more negatives one crowds into a sentence, the stronger is the negation; and this appears to have been formerly the case in English, or in what was anciently the language of Britain: as, "He _never_ yet _no_ vilanie _ne_ sayde in alle his lif unto _no_ manere wight."--_Chaucer_. "_Ne_ I _ne_ wol _non_ reherce, yef that I may."--_Id._ "Give _not_ me counsel; _nor_ let _no_ comforter delight mine ear."--_Shakspeare_. "She _cannot_ love, _nor_ take _no_ shape _nor_ project of affection."--_Id._ Among people of education, this manner of expression has now become wholly obsolete; though it still prevails, to some extent, in the conversation of the vulgar. It is to be observed, however, that the _repetition_ of an independent negative word or clause yet strengthens the negation; as, "_No, no, no_."--"_No, never_."--"_No, not_ for an hour."--_Gal._, ii, 5. "There is _none_ righteous, _no, not_ one."--_Rom._, iii, 10. But two negatives in the same clause, if they have any bearing on each other, destroy the negation, and render the meaning weakly affirmative; as, "_Nor_ did they _not_ perceive their evil plight."--_Milton_. That is, they _did_ perceive it. "'His language, though inelegant, is _not ungrammatical_;' that is, it _is_ grammatical."-- _Murray's Gram._, p. 198. The term _not only_, or _not merely_, being a correspondent to _but_ or _but also_, may be followed by an other negative without this effect, because the two negative words have no immediate bearing on each other; as, "Your brother is _not only not_ present, and _not_ assisting in prosecuting your injuries, _but_ is now actually with Verres."--_Duncan's Cicero_, p, 19. "In the latter we have _not merely nothing_, to denote what the point should be; _but no_ indication, that any point at all is wanting."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 373. So the word _nothing_, when taken positively for nonentity, or that which does not exist, may be followed by an other negative; as, "First, seat him somewhere, and derive his race, Or else conclude that _nothing_ has _no_ place."--_Dryden_, p. 95. OBS. 14.--The common rule of our grammars, "Two negatives, in English, destroy each other, or are equivalent to an affirmative," is far from being _true_ of all possible examples. A sort of informal exception to it, (which is mostly confined to conversation,) is made by a familiar transfer of the word _neither_ from the beginning of the clause to the end of it; as, "But here is _no_ notice taken of that _neither_"--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 336. That is, "But _neither_ is _any_ notice here taken of that." Indeed a negation may be repeated, by the same word or others, as often as we please, if no two of the terms in particular contradict each other; as, "He will _never_ consent, _not_ he, _no, never, nor_ I _neither_." "He will _not_ have time, _no, nor_ capacity _neither_."--_Bolingbroke, on Hist._, p. 103. "Many terms and idioms may be common, which, nevertheless, have _not_ the general sanction, _no, nor_ even the sanction of those that use them."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 160; _Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 358. And as to the equivalence spoken of in the same rule, such an expression as, "He did _not_ say _nothing_," is in fact only a vulgar solecism, take it as you will; whether for, "He did _not_ say _anything_," or for, "He _did_ say _something_." The latter indeed is what the contradiction amounts to; but double negatives must be shunned, whenever they _seem_ like blunders. The following examples have, for this reason, been thought objectionable; though Allen says, "Two negatives destroy each other, or _elegantly_ form an affirmation."--_Gram._, p. 174. ------------"_Nor_ knew I _not_ To be both will and deed created free." --_Milton, P. L._, B. v., l. 548. "_Nor_ doth the moon _no_ nourishment exhale From her moist continent to higher orbs." --_Ib._, B. v, l. 421. OBS. 15.--Under the head of _double negatives_, there appears in our grammars a dispute of some importance, concerning the adoption of _or_ or _nor_, when any other negative than _neither_ or _nor_ occurs in the preceding clause or phrase: as, "We will _not_ serve thy gods, _nor_ worship the golden image."--_Dan._, iii., 18. "Ye have _no_ portion, _nor_ right, _nor_ memorial in Jerusalem."--_Neh._, ii, 20. "There is _no_ painsworthy difficulty _nor_ dispute about them."--_Horne Tooke, Div._, Vol. i, p. 43. "So as _not_ to cloud that principal object, _nor_ to bury it."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 115; _Murray's Gram._, p. 322. "He did _not_ mention Leonora, _nor_ her father's death."--_Murray's Key_, p. 264. "Thou canst _not_ tell whence it cometh, _nor_ whither it goeth."--_Ib._, p. 215. The form of this text, in John iii, 8th. is--"But canst not tell whence it cometh, _and_ whither it goeth;" which Murray inserted in his exercises as bad English. I do not see that the copulative _and_ is here ungrammatical; but if we prefer a disjunctive, ought it not to be _or_ rather than _nor_? It appears to be the opinion of some, that in ail these examples, and in similar instances innumerable, _nor_ only is proper. Others suppose, that _or_ only is justifiable; and others again, that either _or_ or _nor_ is perfectly correct. Thus grammar, or what should be grammar, differs in the hands of different men! The principle to be settled here, must determine the correctness or incorrectness of a vast number of very common expressions. I imagine that none of these opinions is warrantable, if taken in all that extent to which each of them has been, or may be, carried. OBS. 16.--It was observed by Priestley, and after him by Lindley Murray, from whom others again have copied the remark: "Sometimes the particles _or_ and _nor_, may, either of them, be used with nearly equal propriety; [as,] 'The king, whose character was not sufficiently vigorous, _nor_ decisive, assented to the measure.'--_Hume. Or_ would perhaps have been better, but _nor_ seems to repeat the negation in the former part of the sentence, and therefore gives more emphasis to the expression."-- _Priestley's Gram._, p. 138; _Murray's_, i, 212; _Ingersoll's_, 268; _R. C. Smith's_, 177. The conjunction _or_ might doubtless have been used in this sentence, but _not with the same meaning_ that is now conveyed; for, if that connective had been employed, the adjective _decisive_ would have been qualified by the adverb _sufficiently_, and would have seemed only an alternative for the former epithet, _vigorous_. As the text now stands, it not only implies a distinction between vigour of character and decision of character, but denies the latter to the king absolutely, the former, with qualification. If the author had meant to suggest such a distinction, and also to qualify his denial of both, he ought to have said--"not sufficiently vigorous, _nor sufficiently_ decisive." With this meaning, however, he might have used _neither_ for _not_; or with the former, he might have used _or_ for _nor_, had he transposed the terms--"was not decisive, _or_ sufficiently vigorous." OBS. 17.--In the tenth edition of John Burn's Practical Grammar, published at Glasgow, in 1810, are the following suggestions: "It is not uncommon to find the conjunctions _or_ and _nor_ used indiscriminately; but if there be any real distinction in the proper application of them, it is to be wished that it were settled. It is attempted thus:--Let the conjunction _or_ be used simply to connect the members of a sentence, or to mark distribution, opposition, or choice, without any preceding negative particle; and _nor_ to mark the subsequent part of a negative sentence, with some negative particle in the preceding part of it. Examples of OR: 'Recreation of one kind _or_ other is absolutely necessary to relieve the body _or_ mind from too constant attention to labour or study.'--'After this life, succeeds a state of rewards _or_ punishments.'--'Shall I come to you with a rod, _or_ in love?' Examples of NOR: 'Let no man be too confident, _nor_ too diffident of his own abilities.'--'Never calumniate any man, _nor_ give the least encouragement to calumniators.'--'There is _not_ a Christian duty to which providence has not annexed a blessing, _nor_ any affliction for which a remedy is not provided.' If the above distinction be just, the following passage seems to be faulty: 'Seasons return, but _not_ to me returns Day, _or_ the sweet approach of ev'n _or_ morn, _Or_ sight of vernal bloom, _or_ summer's rose, _Or_ flocks, _or_ herds, _or_ human face divine.' _Milton, P. L._, B. iii, l. 40.--"_Burn's Gr._, p. 108. OBS. 18.--T. O. Churchill, whose Grammar first appeared in London in 1823, treats this matter thus: "As _or_ answers to _either, nor_, a compound of _not or [ne or_] by contraction, answers to _neither_, a similar compound of _not either [ne either_]. The latter however does not constitute that double use of the negative, in which one, agreeably to the principles of philosophical grammar, destroys the other; for a part of the first word, _neither_, cannot be understood before the second, _nor_: and for the same reason a part of it could not be understood before _or_, which is sometimes improperly used in the second clause; while the whole of it, _neither_, would be obviously improper before _or_. On the other hand, when _not_ is used in the first clause, _nor_ is improper in the second; since it would involve the impropriety of understanding _not_ before a compound of _not_ [or _ne_] with _or_. 'I shall _not_ attempt to convince, _nor_ to persuade you.--What will you _not_ attempt?--To convince, _nor_ to persuade you.' The impropriety of _nor_ in this answer is clear: but the answer should certainly repeat the words not heard, or not understood."--_Churchill's New Gram._, p. 330. OBS. 19.--"It is probable, that the use of _nor_ after _not_ has been introduced, in consequence of such improprieties as the following: 'The injustice of inflicting death for crimes, when _not_ of the most heinous nature, _or_ attended with extenuating circumstances.' Here it is obviously not the intention of the writer, to understand the negative in the last clause: and, if this were good English, it would be not merely allowable to employ _nor_ after _not_, to show the subsequent clause to be negative as well as the preceding, but it would always be necessary. In fact, however, the sentence quoted is faulty, in not repeating the adverb _when_ in the last clause; 'or _when_ attended:' which would preclude the negative from being understood in it; for, if an adverb, conjunction, or auxiliary verb, preceding a negative, be understood in the succeeding clause, the negative is understood also; if it be repeated, the negative must be repeated likewise, or the clause becomes affirmative."--_Ib._, p. 330. OBS. 20.--This author, proceeding with his remarks, suggests forms of correction for several other common modes of expression, which he conceives to be erroneous. For the information of the student, I shall briefly notice a little further the chief points of his criticism, though he teaches some principles which I have not thought it necessary always to observe in writing. "'And seemed _not_ to understand ceremony, _or_ to despise it.' _Goldsmith_. Here _either_ ought to be inserted before _not_. 'It is _not_ the business of virtue, to extirpate the affections of the mind, but to regulate them.' _Addison_. The sentence ought to have been: 'It is the business of virtue, _not_ to extirpate the affections of the mind, but to regulate them.' 'I do _not_ think, that he was averse to the office; _nor_ do I believe, that it was unsuited to him.' How much better to say: 'I do not think, that he was averse to the office, _or_ that it was unsuited to him!' For the same reason _nor_ cannot follow _never_, the negative in the first clause affecting all the rest."--_Ib._ p. 332. "_Nor_ is sometimes used improperly after _no_: [as,] 'I humbly however trust in God, that I have hazarded _no_ conjecture, _nor_ have given any explanation of obscure points, inconsistent with the general sense of Scripture, which must be our guide in all dubious passages.' _Gilpin_. It ought to be: '_and_ have given _no_ explanation;' or, 'I have _neither_ hazarded any conjecture, _nor_ given any explanation.' The use of _or_ after _neither_ is as common, as that of _nor_ after _no_ or _not_.[429] '_Neither_ the pencil _or_ poetry are adequate.' _Coxe_. Properly, '_Neither_ the pencil _nor_ poetry _is_ adequate.' 'The vow of poverty _allowed_ the Jesuits individually, to have _no_ idea of wealth.' _Dornford_. We cannot _allow_ a _nonentity_. It should be: 'did _not_ allow, to have _any_ idea.'"--_Ib._, p. 333. OBS. 21.--Thus we see that Churchill wholly and positively condemns _nor_ after _not, no_, or _never_; while Burn totally disapproves of _or_, under the same circumstances. Both of these critics are wrong, because each carries his point too far; and yet it may not be right, to suppose both particles to be often equally good. Undoubtedly, a negation may be repeated in English without impropriety, and that in several different ways: as, "There is _no_ living, _none_, if Bertram be away."--_Beauties of Shak._, p. 3. "Great men are _not_ always wise, _neither_ do the aged [always] understand judgement."--_Job_, xxxii, 9. "Will he esteem thy riches? _no, not_ gold, _nor_ all the forces of strength."--_Job_, xxxiv. 19. Some sentences, too, require _or_, and others _nor_, even when a negative occurs in a preceding clause; as, "There was _none_ of you that convinced Job, _or_ that answered his words."--_Job_, xxxii, 12. "How much less to him that accepteth _not_ the persons of princes _nor_ regardeth the rich more than the poor."--_Job_, xxxiv, 19. "This day is holy unto the Lord your God; mourn _not, nor_ weep."--_Neh._, viii, 9. "Men's behaviour should be like their apparel, _not_ too straight _or_ point-de-vise, but free for exercise."--_Ld. Bacon_. Again, the mere repetition of a simple negative is, on some occasions, more agreeable than the insertion of any connective; as, "There is _no_ darkness, _nor_ shadow of death, where the workers of iniquity may hide themselves."--_Job_, xxxiv, 22. Better: "There is _no_ darkness, _no_ shadow of death, _wherein_ the workers of iniquity may hide themselves." "_No_ place _nor any_ object appears to him void of beauty."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 255. Better: "_No_ place, _no_ object, appears to him void of beauty." That passage from Milton which Burn supposes to be faulty, and that expression of Addison's which Churchill dislikes, are, in my opinion, not incorrect as they stand; though, doubtless, the latter admits of the variation proposed. In the former, too, _or_ may twice be changed to _nor_, where the following nouns are nominatives; but to change it throughout, would not be well, because the other nouns are objectives governed by _of_: "Seasons return, but _not_ to me returns Day, _nor_ the sweet approach of ev'n _or_ morn, _Nor_ sight of vernal bloom, _or_ summer's rose, _Or_ flocks, _or_ herds, _or_ human face divine." OBS. 22.--_Ever_ and _never_ are directly opposite to each other in sense, and yet they are very frequently confounded and misapplied, and that by highly respectable writers; as, "Seldom, or _never_ can we expect," &c.--_Blair's Lectures_, p. 305. "And seldom, or _ever_, did any one rise, &c."--_Ib._, p. 272. "Seldom, or _never_, is[430] there more than one accented syllable in any English word."--_Ib._, p. 329. "Which that of the present seldom or _ever_ is understood to be."--_Dr. Murray's Hist. of Lang._, Vol. ii, p. 120. Here _never_ is right, and _ever_ is wrong. It is _time_, that is here spoken of; and the affirmative _ever_, meaning _always_, or _at any time_, in stead of being a fit alternative for _seldom_, makes nonsense of the sentence, and violates the rule respecting the order and fitness of time: unless we change _or_ to _if_, and say, "seldom, _if_ ever." But in sentences like the following, the adverb appears to express, not time, but _degree_; and for the latter sense _ever_ is preferable to _never_, because the degree ought to be possible, rather than impossible: "_Ever so_ little of the spirit of martyrdom is always a more favourable indication to civilization, than _ever so_ much dexterity of party management, or _ever so_ turbulent protestation of immaculate patriotism."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 411. "Now let man reflect but _never so_ little on himself."--_Burlamaqui, on Law_, p. 29. "Which will _not_ hearken to the voice of charmers, charming _never so_ wisely."--_Ps._, lviii, 5. The phrase _ever so_, (which ought, I think, to be written as _one word_,) is now a very common expression to signify _in whatsoever degree_; as, "_everso_ little,"--"_everso_ much,"--"_everso_ wise,"--"_everso_ wisely." And it is manifestly this, and not time, that is intended by the false phraseology above;--"a form of speech handed down by the best writers, but lately accused, I think with justice, of solecism. * * * It can only be defended by supplying a very harsh and unprecedented ellipsis."--_Johnson's Dict., w. Never_. OBS. 23.--Dr. Lowth seconds this opinion of Johnson, respecting the phrase, "_never so wisely_," and says, "It should be, '_ever_ so wisely;' that is, '_how_ wisely _soever_.'" To which he adds an other example somewhat different: "'Besides, a slave would _not_ have been admitted into that society, had he had _never such_ opportunities.' Bentley."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 109. This should be, "had he had _everso excellent_ opportunities." But Churchill, mistaking the common explanation of the meaning of _everso_ for the manner of parsing or resolving it, questions the propriety of the term, and thinks it easier to defend the old phrase _never so_; in which he supposes _never_ to be an adverb of time, and not to relate to _so_, which is an adverb of degree; saying, "'Be it _never_ so true,' is resolvable into, 'Be it so true, _as never any thing was_.'[431] 'I have had _never_ so much trouble on this occasion,' may be resolved into, 'I _have never had_ so much trouble, _as_ on this occasion:' while, 'I have had _ever_ so much trouble on this occasion, cannot be resolved, without supplying some very harsh and unprecedented ellipsis indeed."--_New Gram._, p. 337, Why not? I see no occasion at all for supposing any ellipsis. _Ever_ is here an adverb of degree, and relates to _so_; or, if we take _everso_ as one word, this too is an adverb of degree, and relates to _much_: because the meaning is--"_everso much_ trouble." But the other phraseology, even as it stands in Churchill's explanations, is a solecism still; nor can any resolution which supposes _never_ to be here an adverb of time, be otherwise. We cannot call that a grammatical resolution, which makes a different sense from that which the writer intended: as, "A slave would not have been admitted into that society, had he _never_ had such opportunities." This would be Churchill's interpretation, but it is very unlike what Bentley says above. So, 'I have _never had so much_ trouble,' and, 'I have had _everso much_ trouble,' are very different assertions. OBS. 24.--On the word _never_, Dr. Johnson remarks thus: "It seems in some phrases to have the sense of an _adjective_, [meaning,] _not any_; but in reality it is _not ever_: [as,] 'He answered him to _never_ a word.' MATTHEW, xxvii, 14."--_Quarto Dict._ This mode of expression was formerly very common, and a contracted form of it is still frequently heard among the vulgar: as, "Because he'd _ne'er_ an other tub."--_Hudibras_, p. 102. That is, "Because he had _no_ other tub." "Letter nor line know I _never_ a one."--_Scott's Lay of L. M._, p. 27. This is what the common people pronounce "_ne'er a one_," and use in stead of _neither_ or _no one_. In like manner they contract _ever a one_ into "_e'er a one_;" by which they mean _either_ or _any one_. These phrases are the same that somebody--(I believe it is _Smith_, in his Inductive Grammar--) has ignorantly written "_ary one_" and "_nary one_" calling them vulgarisms.[432] Under this mode of spelling, the critic had an undoubted right to think the terms unauthorized! In the compounds of _whoever_ or _whoe'er, whichever_ or _whiche'er, whatever_ or _whate'er_, the word _ever_ or _e'er_, which formerly stood separate, appears to be an adjective, rather than an adverb; though, by becoming part of the pronoun, it has now technically ceased to be either. OBS. 25.--The same may be said of _soever_ or _soe'er_, which is considered as only a part of an other word even when it is written separately; as, "On _which_ side _soever_ I cast my eyes." In Mark, iii, 28th, _wherewithsoever_ is commonly printed as two words; but Alger, in his Pronouncing Bible, more properly makes it one. Dr. Webster, in his grammars, calls _soever_ a WORD; but, in his dictionaries, he does not _define_ it as such. "The word _soever_ may be interposed between the attribute and the name; 'how clear soever this idea of infinity,'--'how remote soever it may seem.'--LOCKE."--_Webster's Philosophical Gram._, p. 154; _Improved Gram._, p. 107. "SOEVER, _so_ and _ever_, found in compounds, as in _whosoever, whatsoever, wheresoever_. See these words."--_Webster's Dict._, 8vo. OBS. 26.--The word _only_, (i.e., _onely_, or _onelike_,) when it relates to a noun or a pronoun, is a definitive adjective, meaning _single, alone, exclusive of others_; as, "The _only_ man,"--"The _only_ men,"--"Man _only_,"--"Men _only_,"--"He _only_,"--"They _only_." When it relates to a verb or a participle, it is an adverb of manner, and means _simply, singly, merely, barely_; as, "We fancy that we hate flattery, when we _only_ hate the manner of it."--_Art of Thinking_, p. 38. "A disinterested love of one's country can _only_ subsist in small republics."--_Ib._, p. 56. When it stands at the head of a clause, it is commonly a connective word, equivalent to _but_, or _except that_; in which sense, it must be called a conjunction, or at least a conjunctive adverb, which is nearly the same thing; as, "_Only_ they would that we should remember the poor."--_Gal._, ii, 10. "For these signs are prepositions, _only_ they are of more constant use than the rest."--_Ward's Gram._, p. 129. OBS. 27.--Among our grammarians, the word "_only_" often passes for an adverb, when it is in fact an adjective. Such a mistake in this single word, has led Churchill to say of the adverb in general, "_It's_ place is for the most part before adjectives, _after nouns_, and after verbs;" &c.--_New Gram._, p. 147. But, properly, the placing of adverbs has nothing to do with "nouns," because adverbs do not relate to nouns. In this author's example, "His _arm only_ was bare," there is no adverb; and, where he afterwards speaks of the latitude allowable in the placing of adverbs, alleging, "It is indifferent whether we say, 'He bared his _arm only_;' or, 'He bared _only_ his arm,'" the word _only_ is an adjective, in one instance, if not in both. With this writer, and some others, the syntax of an adverb centres mainly in the suggestion, that, "_It's_ propriety and force depend on _it's_ position."--_Ib._, p. 147. Illustration: "Thus people commonly say; '_I only_ spoke three words:' which properly implies, that _I_, and _no other person_, spoke three words: when the intention of the speaker requires: 'I spoke _only three_ words; that is, _no more than three_ words.'"--_Ib._, p. 327. One might just as well say, "I spoke three words _only_." But the interpretation above is hypercritical, and contrary to that which the author himself gives in his note on the other example, thus: "Any other situation of the adverb would make a difference. 'He _only_ bared his arm;' would imply, that he did _nothing more than_ bare his arm. '_Only_ he bared his arm;' must refer to a preceding part of the sentence, stating something, to which the act of baring his arm was an exception; as, 'He did it in the same manner, _only_ he bared his arm.' If _only_ were placed immediately before _arm_; as, '_He_ bared his _only arm_;' it would be an adjective, and signify, that he had but one arm."--_Ib._, p. 328. Now are not, "_I only spoke three words_," and, "_He only bared his arm_," analogous expressions? Is not the former as good English as the latter? _Only_, in both, is most naturally conceived to belong to the verb; but either may be read in such a manner as to make it an adjective belonging to the pronoun. OBS. 28.--The term _not but_ is equivalent to two negatives that make an affirmative; as, "_Not but_ that it is a wide place."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 89. "_Non_ quo _non_ latus locus sit."--_Cic. Ac._, iv, 12. It has already been stated, that _cannot but_ is equal to _must_; as, "It is an affection which _cannot but_ be productive of some distress."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 461. It seems questionable, whether _but_ is not here an adverb, rather than a conjunction. However this may be, by the customary (but faulty) omission of the negative before _but_, in some other sentences, that conjunction has acquired the adverbial sense of _only_; and it may, when used with that signification, be called an _adverb_. Thus, the text, "He hath _not_ grieved me _but_ in part." (_2 Cor._, ii, 5,) might drop the negative _not_, and still convey the same meaning: "He hath grieved me _but_ in part;" i.e., "_only_ in part." In the following examples, too, _but_ appears to be an adverb, like _only_: "Things _but_ slightly connected should not be crowded into one sentence."--_Murray's Octavo Gram., Index_. "The assertion, however, serves _but_ to show their ignorance."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 96. "Reason itself _but_ gives it edge and power."--_Pope_. "Born _but_ to die, and reasoning _but_ to err."--_Id._ OBS. 29.--In some constructions of the word _but_, there is a remarkable ambiguity; as, "There _cannot be but one_ capital musical pause in a line."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 92. "A line _admits but one_ capital pause."--_Ibid._ Thus does a great critic, in the same paragraph, palpably contradict himself, and not perceive it. Both expressions are equivocal. He ought rather to have said: "A line admits _no more than_ one capital pause."--"There cannot be _more than_ one capital musical pause in a line." Some would say--"admits _only_ one"--"there can be _only one_." But here, too, is some ambiguity; because _only_ may relate either to _one_, or to the preceding verb. The use of _only_ for _but_ or _except that_, is not noticed by our lexicographers; nor is it, in my opinion, a practice much to be commended, though often adopted by men that pretend to write grammatically: as, "Interrogative pronouns are the same as _relative_, ONLY their antecedents cannot be determined till the answer is _given to the question_."--_Comly's Gram._, p. 16. "A diphthong is always long; as, _Aurum, Cæsar_, &c. ONLY _præ_, in composition before a vowel is commonly short."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 254; _Gould's_, 246. OBS. 30.--It is said by some grammarians, that, "The adverb _there_ is often used as an _expletive_, or as a word that adds nothing to the sense; in which case, it precedes the verb and the nominative; as, '_There_ is a person at the door.'"--_Murray's Gram._, p. 197; _Ingersoll's_, 205; _Greenleaf's_, 33; _Nixon's Parser_, p. 53. It is true, that in our language the word _there_ is thus used idiomatically, as an introductory term, when we tell what is taking, or has taken, _place_; but still it is a regular adverb _of place_, and relates to the verb agreeably to the common rule for adverbs. In some instances it is even repeated in the same sentence, because, in its introductory sense, it is always unemphatical; as, "Because _there_ was pasture _there_ for their flocks."--_1 Chron._, iv, 41. "If _there_ be indistinctness or disorder _there_, we can have no success."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 271. "_There, there_ are schools adapted to every age."--_Woodbridge, Lit. Conv._, p. 78. The import of the word is more definite, when emphasis is laid upon it; but this is no good reason for saying, with Dr. Webster, that it is "without signification," when it is without emphasis; or, with Dr. Priestley, that it "seems to have no meaning whatever, except it be thought to give a small degree of emphasis."--_Rudiments of E. Gram._, p. 135. OBS. 31.--The noun _place_ itself is just as loose and variable in its meaning as the adverb _there_. For example; "_There_ is never any difference;" i.e., "No difference ever takes _place_." Shall we say that "_place_," in this sense, is not a noun of place? To _take place_, is, to occur _somewhere_, or _anywhere_; and the unemphatic word _there_ is but as indefinite in respect to place, as these other adverbs of place, or as the noun itself. S. B. Goodenow accounts it a _great error_, to say that _there_ is an adverb of place, when it is thus indefinite; and he chooses to call it an "_indefinite pronoun_," as, "'What is _there_ here?'--'_There_ is no peace.'--'What need was _there_ of it?'" See his _Gram._, p. 3 and p. 11. In treating of the various classes of adverbs, I have admitted and shown, that _here, there_, and _where_, have sometimes the nature of pronouns, especially in such compounds as _hereof, thereof, whereof_; but in this instance, I see not what advantage there is in calling _there_ a "pronoun:" we have just as much reason to call _here_ and _where_ pronouns--and that, perhaps, on all occasions. Barnard says, "In the sentence, '_There_ is one glory of the sun,' &c., the adverb _there_ qualifies the verb _is_, and seems to have the force of an affirmation, like _truly_"--_Analytical Gram._, p. 234. But an adverb of the latter kind may be used with the word _there_, and I perceive no particular similarity between them: as, "_Verily there_ is a reward for the righteous."--_Psal._, lviii, 11. "_Truly there_ is a glory of the sun." OBS. 32.--There is a vulgar error of substituting the adverb _most_ for _almost_, as in the phrases, "_most all_,"--"_most anywhere_,"--"_most every day_,"--which we sometimes hear for "_almost all_,"--"_almost anywhere_,"--"_almost every day_." The fault is gross, and chiefly colloquial, but it is sometimes met with in books; as, "But thinking he had replied _most_ too rashly, he said, 'I won't answer your question.'"--_Wagstaff's History of Friends_, Vol. i, p. 207. NOTES TO RULE XXI. NOTE I.--Adverbs must be placed in that position which will render the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable. Example of error: "We are in no hazard of mistaking the sense of the author, though every word which he uses _be not precise_ and exact."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 95; _Jamieson's_, 66. Murray says,--"though every word which he uses _is not precise_ and exact."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 302. Better:--"though _not every word_ which he uses, _is precise_ and exact." NOTE II.--Adverbs should not be needlessly used for adjectives; nor should they be employed when quality is to be expressed, and not manner: as, "That the _now_ copies of the original text are entire."--_S. Fisher_. Say, "the _present_ copies," or, "the _existing_ copies." "The arrows of calumny fall _harmlessly_ at the feet of virtue."--_Murray's Key_, p. 167; _Merchant's Gram._, 186; _Ingersoll's_, 10; _Kirkham's_, 24. Say, "fall _harmless_;" as in this example: "The impending black cloud, which is regarded with so much dread, may pass by _harmless_."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 262. NOTE III.--With a verb of motion, most grammarians prefer _hither, thither_, and _whither_, to _here, there_, and _where_, which are in common use, and perhaps allowable, though not so good; as, "Come _hither_, Charles,"--or, "Come _here_." NOTE IV.--"To the adverbs _hence, thence_, and _whence_, the preposition _from_ is frequently (though not with strict propriety) prefixed; as, _from hence, from whence_."--See _W. Allen's Gram._, p. 174. Some critics, however, think this construction allowable, notwithstanding the former word is implied in the latter. See _Priestley's Gram._, p. 134; and _L. Murray's_, p. 198. It is seldom elegant to use any word needlessly. NOTE V.--The adverb _how_ should not be used before the conjunction _that_, nor in stead of it; as, "He said _how_ he would go."--"Ye see _how that_ not many wise men are called." Expunge _how_. This is a vulgar error. Somewhat similar is the use of _how_ for _lest_ or _that not_; as, "Be cautious _how_ you offend him, i.e., _that_ you _do not_ offend him."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 175. NOTE VI.--The adverb _when, while_, or _where_, is not fit to follow the verb _is_ in a definition, or to introduce a clause taken substantively; because it expresses identity, not of being, but of time or place: as, "_Concord_, is _when_ one word agrees with another in some accidents."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 151; _Gould's_, 155. Say, "Concord is _the agreement of_ one word with _an other_ in some _accident or_ accidents." NOTE VII.--The adverb _no_ should not be used with reference to a _verb_ or a _participle_. Such expressions as, "Tell me whether you will _go_ or _no_," are therefore improper: _no_ should be _not_; because the verb _go_ is understood after it. The meaning is, "Tell me whether you will go or _will not go_;" but nobody would think of saying, "Whether you will go or _no go_." NOTE VIII.--A negation, in English, admits but one negative word; because two negatives in the same clause, usually contradict each other, and make the meaning affirmative. The following example is therefore ungrammatical: "For my part, I love him not, _nor_ hate him _not_."--_Beauties of Shakspeare_, p. 16. Expunge the last _not_, or else change _nor_ to _and_. NOTE IX.--The words _ever_ and _never_ should be carefully distinguished according to their sense, and not confounded with each other in their application. Example: "The Lord reigneth, be the earth _never so_ unquiet."--_Experience of St. Paul_, p. 195. Here, I suppose, the sense to require _everso_, an adverb of degree: "Be the earth _everso_ unquiet." That is,--"unquiet _in whatever degree_." NOTE X.--Adverbs that end in _ly_, are in general preferable to those forms which, for want of this distinction, may seem like adjectives misapplied. Example: "There would be _scarce_ any such thing in nature as a folio."--_Addison_. Better:--"_scarcely_." IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XXI. EXAMPLES UNDER NOTE I.--THE PLACING OF ADVERBS. "All that is favoured by good use, is not proper to be retained."--_Murray's Gram._, ii, p. 296. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the adverb _not_ is not put in the most suitable place. But, according to Note 1st under Rule 21st, "Adverbs must be placed in that position which will render the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable." The sentence will be improved by placing _not_ before _all_; thus, "_Not all_ that is favoured by good use, is proper to be retained."] "Every thing favoured by good use, [is] not on that account worthy to be retained."--_Ib._, i, 369; _Campbell's Rhet._, p. 179. "Most men dream, but all do not."--_Beattie's Moral Science_, i, 72. "By hasty composition, we shall acquire certainly a very bad style."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 191. "The comparisons are short, touching on one point only of resemblance."--_Ib._, p. 416. "Having had once some considerable object set before us."--_Ib._, p. 116. "The positive seems improperly to be called a degree."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 69; _Gould's_, 68. "In some phrases the genitive is only used."--_Adam_, 159; _Gould_, 161. "This blunder is said actually to have occurred."--_Smith's Inductive Gram._, p. 5. "But every man is not called James, nor every woman Mary."--_Buchanan's Gram._, p. 15. "Crotchets are employed for the same purpose nearly as the parenthesis."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 167. "There is still a greater impropriety in a double comparative."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 78. "We have often occasion to speak of time."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 39. "The following sentence cannot be possibly understood."--_Ib._, p. 104. "The words must be generally separated from the context."--_Comly's Gram._, p. 155. "Words ending in _ator_ have the accent generally on the penultimate."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 239. "The learned languages, with respect to voices, moods, and tenses, are, in general, differently constructed from the English tongue."--_Ib._, i, 101. "Adverbs seem originally to have been contrived to express compendiously in one word, what must otherwise have required two or more."--_Ib._, i, 114. "But it is only so, when the expression can be converted into the regular form of the possessive case."--_Ib._, i, 174. "Enter, (says he) boldly, for here too there are gods."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 8. "For none work for ever so little a pittance that some cannot be found to work for less."--_Sedgwick's Economy_, p. 190. "For sinners also lend to sinners, to receive as much again."--_Luke_, vi, 34. "They must be viewed exactly in the same light."--_Murray's Gram._, ii, 24. "If he does but speak to display his abilities, he is unworthy of attention."--_Ib., Key_, ii, 207. UNDER NOTE II.--ADVERBS FOR ADJECTIVES. "Motion upwards is commonly more agreeable than motion downwards."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 48. "There are but two ways possibly of justification before God."--_Dr. Cox, on Quakerism_, p. 413. "This construction sounds rather harshly."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 194; _Ingersoll's_, 199. "A clear conception in the mind of the learner, of regularly and well-formed letters."--_Com. School Journal_, i, 66. "He was a great hearer of * * * Attalus, Sotion, Papirius, Fabianus, of whom he makes often mention."--_Seneca's Morals_, p. 11. "It is only the Often doing of a thing that makes it a Custom."--_Divine Right of Tythes_, p. 72. "Because W. R. takes oft occasion to insinuate his jealousies of persons and things."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 570. "Yet often touching will wear gold."--_Beauties of Shak._, p. 18. "Uneducated persons frequently use an adjective, when they ought to use an adverb: as, 'The country looks _beautiful_;' instead of _beautifully_."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 84. "The adjective is put absolutely, or without its substantive."--_Ash's Gram._, p. 57. "A noun or pronoun in the second person, may be put absolutely in the nominative case."--_Harrison's Gram._, p. 45. "A noun or pronoun, when put absolutely with a participle," &c.--_Ib._, p. 44; _Jaudon's Gram._, 108. "A verb in the infinitive mood absolute, stands independently of the remaining part of the sentence."--_Wilbur and Livingston's Gram._, p. 24. "At my return lately into England, I met a book intituled: 'The Iron Age.'"--_Cowley's Preface_, p. v. "But he can discover no better foundation for any of them, than the practice merely of Homer and Virgil."--_Kames, El. of Criticism, Introd._, p. xxv. UNDER NOTE III--HERE FOR HITHER, &c. "It is reported that the governour will come here to-morrow."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 196. "It _has been_ reported that the governour will come here to-morrow."--_Ib., Key_, p. 227. "To catch a prospect of that lovely land where his steps are tending."--_Maturin's Sermons_, p. 244. "Plautus makes one of his characters ask another where he is going with that Vulcan shut up in a horn; that is, with a lanthorn in his hand."--_Adams's Rhet._ ii, 331. "When we left Cambridge, we intended to return there in a few days."--_Anonym_. "Duncan comes here to-night."--_Shak., Macbeth_. "They talked of returning here last week."--_J. M. Putnam's Gram._, p. 116. UNDER NOTE IV.--FROM HENCE, &c. "From hence he concludes that no inference can be drawn from the meaning of the word, that a _constitution_ has a higher authority than a law or statute."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 67. "From whence we may likewise date the period of this event."--_Murray's Key_, ii, p. 202. "From hence it becomes evident, that LANGUAGE, taken in the most comprehensive view, implies certain Sounds, having certain Meanings."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 315. "They returned to the city from whence they came out."--_Alex. Murray's Gram._, p. 135. "Respecting ellipses, some grammarians differ strangely in their ideas; and from thence has arisen a very whimsical diversity in their systems of grammar."--_Author_. "What am I and from whence? i.e. what am I, and from whence _am_ I?"--_Jaudon's Gram._, p. 171. UNDER NOTE V.--THE ADVERB HOW. "It is strange how a writer, so accurate as Dean Swift, should have stumbled on so improper an application of this particle."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 112. "Ye know how that a good while ago God made choice among us," &c.--_Acts_, xv, 7. "Let us take care _how_ we sin; i.e. _that_ we _do not_ sin."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 135. "We see by these instances, how prepositions may be necessary to connect those words, which in their signification are not naturally connected."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 118. "Know ye not your own selves, how that Jesus Christ is in you, except ye be reprobates?"--_2 Cor._, xiii, 5. "That thou mayest know how that the earth is the Lord's."--_Exod._, ix, 29. UNDER NOTE VI.--WHEN, WHILE, OR WHERE. "Ellipsis is when one or more words are wanting, to complete the sense."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 235; _Gould's_, p. 229; _B. F. Fisk's Greek Gram._. 184. "Pleonasm is when a word more is added than is absolutely necessary to express the sense."--_Same works_. "Hyst~eron prot~eron is when that is put in the former part of the sentence, which, according to the sense, should be in the latter."--_Adam_, p. 237; _Gould_, 230. "Hysteron proteron, _n._ A rhetorical figure when that is said last which was done first."--_Webster's Dict._ "A Barbarism is when a foreign or strange word is _made use_ of."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 242; _Gould's_, 234. "A Solecism is when the rules of Syntax are transgressed."--_Iidem, ib._ "An Idiotism is when the manner of expression peculiar to one language is used in another."--_Iid., ib._ "Tautology is when we either uselessly repeat the same words, or repeat the same sense in different words."--_Adam_, p. 243; _Gould_, 238. "Bombast is when high sounding words are used without meaning, or upon a trifling occasion."--_Iid., ib._ "Amphibology is when, by the ambiguity of the construction, the meaning may be taken in two different senses."--_Iid., ib._ "Irony is when one means the contrary of what is said."--_Adam_, p. 247; _Gould_, 237. "The Periphrasis, or Circumlocution, is when several words are employed to express what might be expressed in fewer."--_Iid., ib._ "Hyperbole is when a thing is magnified above the truth,"--_Adam_, p. 249; _Gould_, 240. "Personification is when we ascribe life, sentiments, or actions, to inanimate beings, or to abstract qualities."--_Iid., ib._ "Apostrophe, or Address, is when the speaker breaks off from the series of his discourse, and addresses himself to some person present or absent, living or dead, or to inanimate nature, as if endowed with sense and reason."--_Iid., ib._ "A Simile or Comparison is when the resemblance between two objects, whether _real_ or _imaginary_, is expressed in form."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 223. "Simile, or Comparison, is when one thing is illustrated or heightened by comparing it to another."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 250; _Gould's_, 240. "Antithesis, or Opposition, is when things contrary or different are contrasted, to make them appear in the more striking light."--_Iid., ib._ "Description, or Imagery, [is] when any thing is painted in a lively manner, as if done before our eyes."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 250. "Emphasis is when a particular stress is laid on some word in a sentence."--_Ib._ "Epanorthosis, or Correction, is when the speaker either recalls or corrects what he had last said."--_Ib._ "Paralepsis, or Omission, is when one pretends to omit or pass by, what he at the same time declares."--_Ib._ "Incrementum, or Climax in sense, is when one member rises above another to the highest."--_Ib._, p. 251. "A Metonymy is where the cause is put for the effect, or the effect for the cause; the container for the thing contained; or the sign for the thing signified."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 223. "Agreement is when one word is like another in number, case, gender, or person."--_Frost's Gram._, p. 43; _Greenleaf's_, 32. "Government is when one word causes another to be in some particular number, person, or case."--_Webster's Imp. Gram._, p. 89; _Greenleaf's_, 32; _Frost's_, 43. "Fusion is while some solid substance is converted into a fluid by heat."--_B._ "A Proper Diphthong is where both the Vowels are sounded together; as, _oi_ in _Voice, ou_ in _House_."-- _Fisher's Gram._, p. 10. "An Improper Diphthong is where the Sound of but one of the two Vowels is heard; as _e_ in _People_."--_Ib._, p. 11. UNDER NOTE VII.--THE ADVERB NO FOR NOT. "An adverb is joined to a verb to show how, or whether or no, or when, or where one is, does, or suffers."--_Buchanan's Syntax_, p. 62. "We must be immortal, whether we will or no."--_Maturin's Sermons_, p. 33. "He cares not whether the world was made for Cæsar or no."--_American Quarterly Review_. "I do not know whether they are out or no."--_Byron's Letters_. "Whether it can be proved or no, is not the thing."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 84. "Whether or no he makes use of the means commanded by God."--_Ib._,, p. 164. "Whether it pleases the world or no, the care is taken."-- _L'Estrange's Seneca_, p. 5. "How comes this to be never heard of nor in the least questioned, whether the Law was undoubtedly of Moses's writing or no?"--_Bp. Tomline's Evidences_, p. 44. "Whether he be a sinner or no, I know not."--_John_, ix, 25. "Can I make men live, whether they will or no?"--_Shak._ "Can hearts, not free, be try'd whether they serve Willing or no, who will but what they must?"--_Milton, P. L._ UNDER NOTE VIII.--OF DOUBLE NEGATIVES. "We need not, nor do not, confine the purposes of God."--_Bentley_. "I cannot by no means allow him that."--_Idem_. "We must try whether or no we cannot increase the Attention by the Help of the Senses."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 263. "There is nothing more admirable nor more useful."--_Horne Tooke_, Vol. i, p. 20. "And what in no time to come he can never be said to have done, he can never be supposed to do."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 345. "No skill could obviate, nor no remedy dispel, the terrible infection."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, i, 114. "Prudery cannot be an indication neither of sense nor of taste."--_Spurzheim, on Education_, p. 21. "But that scripture, nor no other, speaks not of imperfect faith."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 172. "But this scripture, nor none other, proves not that faith was or is always accompanied with doubting."--_Ibid._ "The light of Christ is not nor cannot be darkness."--_Ib._, p. 252. "Doth not the Scripture, which cannot lie, give none of the saints this testimony?"--_Ib._, p. 379. "Which do not continue, nor are not binding."--_Ib._, Vol. iii. p. 79. "It not being perceived directly no more than the air."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 331. "Let's be no Stoics, nor no stocks, I pray."--_Shak., Shrew_. "Where there is no marked nor peculiar character in the style."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 175. "There can be no rules laid down, nor no manner recommended."--_Sheridan's Lect._, p. 163. "_Bates_. 'He hath not told his thought to the king?' _K. Henry_. 'No; nor it is not meet he should.'"--_Shak_. UNDER NOTE IX.--EVER AND NEVER. "The prayer of Christ is more than sufficient both to strengthen us, be we never so weak; and to overthrow all adversary power, be it never so strong."--_Hooker_. "He is like to have no share in it, or to be ever the better for it."--_Law and Grace_, p. 23. "In some parts of Chili, it seldom or ever rains."--_Willetts's Geog_. "If Pompey shall but never so little seem to like it."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 346. "Latin: 'Si Pompeius _paulum_ modò ostenderit sibi placere.' _Cic_. i, 5."--_Ib._ "Though never such a power of dogs and hunters pursue him."--_Walker, ib._ "Latin: '_Quamlibet_ magnâ canum et venantium urgente vi.' _Plin_. l. 18, c. 16."--_Ib._ "Though you be never so excellent."--_Walker, ib._ "Latin: '_Quantumvis_ licet excellas.' _Cic. de Amic_."--_Ib._ "If you do amiss never so little."--_Walker, ib._ "Latin: 'Si _tantillum_ peccâssis.' _Plaut. Rud._ 4, 4"--_Ib._ "If we cast our eyes never so little down."--_Walker, ib._ "Latin: 'Si _tantulum_ oculos dejecerimus.' _Cic. 7. Ver_."--_Ib._ "A wise man scorneth nothing, be it never so small or homely."--_Book of Thoughts_, p. 37. "Because they have seldom or ever an opportunity of learning them at all."--_Clarkson's Prize-Essay_, p. 170. "We seldom or ever see those forsaken who trust in God."--_Atterbury_. "Where, playing with him at bo-peep, He solved all problems, ne'er so deep."--_Hudibras_. UNDER NOTE X.--OF THE FORM OF ADVERBS. "One can scarce think that Pope was capable of epic or tragic poetry; but within a certain limited region, he has been outdone by no poet."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 403. "I, who now read, have near finished this chapter."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 82. "And yet, to refine our taste with respect to beauties of art or of nature, is scarce endeavoured in any seminary of learning."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. i, p. viii. "By the Numbers being confounded, and the Possessives wrong applied, the Passage is neither English nor Grammar."--_Buchanan's Syntax_, p. 123. "The letter G is wrong named _jee_."--_Creighton's Dict._, p. viii. "Last; Remember that in science, as in morals, authority cannot make right, what, in itself, is wrong."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 194. "They regulate our taste even where we are scarce sensible of them."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 96. "Slow action, for example, is imitated by words pronounced slow."--_Ib._, ii, 257. "Sure, if it be to profit withal, it must be in order to save."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 366. "Which is scarce possible at best."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 67. "Our wealth being near finished."--HARRIS: _Priestley's Gram._, p. 80. CHAPTER IX.--CONJUNCTIONS. The syntax of Conjunctions consists, not (as L. Murray and others erroneously teach) in "their power of determining the mood of verbs," or the "cases of nouns and pronouns," but in the simple fact, that they link together such and such terms, and thus "mark the connexions of human thought."--_Beattie_. RULE XXII.--CONJUNCTIONS. Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences: as, "Let there be no strife, I pray thee, between me _and_ thee, _and_ between my herdmen _and_ thy herdmen; _for_ we are brethren."--_Gen._, xiii, 8. "Ah! _if_ she lend not arms _as well as_ rules. What can she more _than_ tell us we are fools?"--_Pope._ EXCEPTION FIRST. The conjunction _that_ sometimes serves merely to introduce a sentence which is made the subject or the object of a finite verb;[433] as, "_That_ mind is not matter, is certain." "_That_ you have wronged me, doth appear in this."--_Shak._ "_That_ time is mine, O Mead! to thee, I owe."--_Young_. EXCEPTION SECOND. When two corresponding conjunctions occur, in their usual order, the former should generally be parsed as referring to the latter, which is more properly the connecting word; as, "_Neither_ sun _nor_ stars in many days appeared."--_Acts_, xxvii, 20. "_Whether_ that evidence has been afforded [_or_ not,] is a matter of investigation."--_Keith's Evidences_, p. 18. EXCEPTION THIRD. _Either_, corresponding to _or_, and _neither_, corresponding to _nor_ or _not_, are sometimes transposed, so as to repeat the disjunction or negation at the end of the sentence; as, "Where then was their capacity of standing, _or_ his _either_?"--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 359. "It is _not_ dangerous _neither_."--_Bolingbroke, on Hist._, p. 135. "He is very tall, but _not_ too tall _neither._"--_Spect._, No. 475. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXII. OBS. 1.--Conjunctions that connect particular _words_, generally join similar parts of speech in a common dependence on some other term. Hence, if the words connected be such as have _cases_, they will of course be in the same case; as, "For _me_ and _thee_"--_Matt._, xvii, 27. "Honour thy _father_ and thy _mother_."--_Ib._, xviii, 19. Here the latter noun or pronoun is connected by _and_ to the former, and governed by the same preposition or verb. Conjunctions themselves have no government, unless the questionable phrase "_than whom_" may be reckoned an exception. See Obs. 17th below, and others that follow it. OBS. 2.--Those conjunctions which connect _sentences_ or _clauses_, commonly unite one sentence or clause to an other, either as an additional assertion, or as a condition, a cause, or an end, of what is asserted. The conjunction is placed _between_ the terms which it connects, except there is a transposition, and then it stands before the dependent term, and consequently at the beginning of the whole sentence: as, "He taketh away the first, _that_ he may establish the second."--_Heb._, x, 9. "_That_ he may establish the second, he taketh away the first." OBS. 3.--The term that follows a conjunction, is in some instances a _phrase_ of several words, yet not therefore a whole clause or member, unless we suppose it elliptical, and supply what will make it such: as, "And whatsoever ye do, do it heartily, AS _to the Lord_, AND _not unto men_"--_Col._, iii, 23. If we say, this means, "as _doing it_ to the Lord, and not _as doing it_ unto men," the terms are still mere phrases; but if we say, the sense is, "as _if ye did it_ to the Lord, and not _as if ye did it_ unto men," they are clauses, or sentences. Churchill says, "The office of the conjunction is, to connect one _word_ with an other, or one _phrase_ with an other."--_New Gram._, p. 152. But he uses the term _phrase_ in a more extended sense than I suppose it will strictly bear: he means by it, a _clause_, or _member_; that is, a sentence which forms a part of a greater sentence. OBS. 4.--What is the office of this part of speech, according to Lennie, Bullions, Brace, Hart, Hiley, Smith, M'Culloch, Webster, Wells, and others, who say that it "joins _words_ and _sentences_ together," (see Errors on p. 434 of this work,) it is scarcely possible to conceive. If they imagine it to connect "_words_" on the one side, to "_sentences_" on the other; this is plainly absurd, and contrary to facts. If they suppose it to join sentence to sentence, by merely connecting word to word, in a joint relation; this also is absurd, and self-contradictory. Again, if they mean, that the conjunction sometimes connects word with word, and sometimes, sentence with sentence; _this sense they have not expressed_, but have severally puzzled their readers by an ungrammatical use of the word "_and_." One of the best among them says, "In _the sentence_, 'He _and_ I must go,' the word _and_ unites _two sentences_, and thus _avoids_ an unnecessary repetition; thus instead of saying, 'He must go,' 'I must go,' we connect _the words He, I_, as the same thing is affirmed of _both_, namely, _must go_."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 53. Here is the incongruous suggestion, that _by connecting words only_, the conjunction in fact _connects sentences_; and the stranger blunder concerning _those words_, that "the same thing is affirmed of _both_, namely, [_that they_] _must go_." Whereas it is plain, that nothing is affirmed of either: for "_He and I must go_," only affirms of _him_ and _me_, that "_we must go_." And again it is plain, that _and_ here connects nothing but the two pronouns; for no one will say, that, "_He and I must go together_" is a compound sentence, capable of being resolved into two simple sentences; and if, "_He and I must go_," is compound because it is equivalent to, "He must go, and I must go;" so is, "_We must go_," for the same reason, though it has but one nominative and one verb. "_He and I_ were present," is rightly given by Hiley as an example of _two pronouns_ connected together by _and_. (See _his Gram._, p. 105.) But, of _verbs_ connected to each other, he absurdly supposes the following to be examples: "He spake, _and_ it was done."--"I know it, _and_ I can prove it."--"Do you say so, _and_ can you prove it?"--_Ib._ Here _and_ connects _sentences_, and not particular _words_. OBS. 5.--Two or three conjunctions sometimes come together; as, "What rests, _but that_ the mortal sentence pass?"--_Milton_. "_Nor yet that_ he should offer himself often."--_Heb._, ix, 25. These may be severally parsed as "connecting what precedes and what follows," and the observant reader will not fail to notice, that such combinations of connecting particles are sometimes required by the sense; but, since nothing that is needless, is really proper, conjunctions should not be unnecessarily accumulated: as, "_But_ AND _if_ that evil servant say in his heart," &c.--_Matt._, xxiv, 48. Greek, "[Greek: Ean de eipæ o kakos donlos ekeinos,]" &c. Here is no _and_. "_But_ AND _if_ she depart."--_1 Cor._, vii, 11. This is almost a literal rendering of the Greek, "[Greek: Ean de kai choristhæ.]"--yet either _but_ or _and_ is certainly useless. "In several cases," says Priestley, "we content ourselves, now, with fewer conjunctive particles than our ancestors _did_ [say _used_]. Example: '_So_ AS _that_ his doctrines were embraced by great numbers.' _Universal Hist._, Vol. 29, p. 501. _So that_ would have been much easier, and better."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 139. Some of the poets have often used the word _that_ as an expletive, to fill the measure of their verse; as, "When _that_ the poor have cried, Cæsar hath wept."--_Shakspeare_. "If _that_ he be a dog, beware his fangs."--_Id._ "That made him pine away and moulder, As though _that_ he had been no soldier."--_Butler's Poems_, p. 164. OBS. 6.--W. Allen remarks, that, "_And_ is sometimes introduced to engage our attention to a following word or phrase; as, 'Part pays, _and_ justly, the deserving steer.' [_Pope._] 'I see thee fall, _and_ by Achilles' hand.' [_Id._]"--_Allen's E. Gram._, p. 184. The like idiom, he says, occurs in these passages of Latin: "'Forsan et hæc olim meminisse juvabit.' _Virg_. 'Mors _et_ fugacem persequitur virum.' _Hor_."--_Allen's Gram._, p. 184. But it seems to me, that _and_ and _et_ are here regular connectives. The former implies a repetition of the preceding verb: as, "Part pays, _and justly pays_, the deserving steer."--"I see thee fall, _and fall by Achilles' hand_." The latter refers back to what was said before: thus, "Perhaps it will _also_ hereafter delight you to recount these evils."--"_And_ death pursues the man that flees." In the following text, the conjunction is more like an expletive; but even here it suggests an extension of the discourse then in progress: "Lord, _and_ what shall this man do?"--_John_, xxi, 21. "[Greek: Kurie, outos de ti;]"--"Domine, hic _autem_ quid?"--_Beza_. OBS. 7.--The conjunction _as_ often unites words that are in _apposition_, or in _the same case_; as, "He offered _himself_ AS a _journeyman_."--"I assume _it_ AS a _fact_."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 94. "In an other example of the same kind, the _earth_, AS a common _mother_, is animated to give refuge against a father's unkindness."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol ii, p. 168. "And then to offer _himself_ up AS a _sacrifice_ and _propitiation_ for them."--_Scougal_, p. 99. So, likewise, when an intransitive verb takes the same case after as before it, by Rule 6th; as, "_Johnson_ soon after engaged AS _usher_ in a school."--_L. Murray_. "_He_ was employed AS _usher_." In all these examples, the case that follows _as_, is determined by that which precedes. If after the verb "_engaged_" we supply _himself, usher_ becomes objective, and is in apposition with the pronoun, and not in agreement with _Johnson_: "He engaged _himself_ as _usher_." One late writer, ignorant or regardless of the analogy of General Grammar, imagines this case to be an "objective governed by the conjunction _as_," according to the following rule: "The conjunction _as_, when it takes the meaning of _for_, or _in the character of_, governs the objective case; as, Addison, _as_ a _writer_ of prose, is highly distinguished."--_J. M. Putnam's Gram._, p. 113. S. W. Clark, in his grammar published in 1848, sets _as_ in his list of _prepositions_, with this example: "'That England can spare from her service such men _as_ HIM.'--_Lord Brougham_."--_Clark's Practical Gram._, p. 92. And again: "When the second term of a _Comparison of equality_ is a Noun, or Pronoun, the _Preposition_ AS is commonly used. Example--'He hath died to redeem such a rebel _as_ ME.'--_Wesley_." Undoubtedly, Wesley and Brougham here erroneously supposed the _as_ to connect _words only_, and consequently to require them to be in the same case, agreeably to OBS. 1st, above; but a moment's reflection on the sense, should convince any one, that the construction requires the nominative forms _he_ and _I_, with the verbs _is_ and _am_ understood. OBS. 8.--The conjunction _as_ may also be used between an adjective or a participle and the noun to which the adjective or participle relates; as, "It does not appear that brutes have the least reflex sense of _actions_ AS _distinguished_ from events; or that will and design, which constitute the very nature of _actions_ AS _such_, are at all an object of their perception."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 277. OBS. 9.--_As_ frequently has the force of a _relative pronoun_, and when it evidently sustains the relation of a case, it ought to be called, and generally _is_ called, a pronoun, rather than a conjunction; as, "Avoid such _as are_ vicious,"--_Anon_. "But as many _as received_ him," &c.--_John_, i, 12. "We have reduced the terms into as small a number _as was_ consistent with perspicuity and distinction."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. ix. Here _as_ represents a noun, and while it serves to connect the two parts of the sentence, it is also the subject of a verb. These being the true characteristics of a relative pronoun, it is proper to refer the word to that class. But when a clause or a sentence is the antecedent, it is better to consider the _as_ a conjunction, and to supply the pronoun _it_, if the writer has not used it; as, "He is angry, _as [it] appears_ by this letter." Horne Tooke says, "The truth is, that AS is _also an article_; and (however and whenever used in English) means the same as _It_, or _That_, or _Which_."--_Diversions of Purley_, Vol. i, p. 223. But what definition he would give to _"an article_," does not appear. OBS. 10.--In some examples, it seems questionable whether _as_ ought to be reckoned a pronoun, or ought rather to be parsed as a conjunction after which a nominative is understood; as, "He then read the conditions _as follow_."--"The conditions are _as follow_."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 106. "The principal evidences on which this assertion is grounded, are _as follow_."--_Gurney's Essays_, p. 166. "The Quiescent verbs are _as follow_."--_Pike's Heb. Lex._, p. 184. "The other numbers are duplications of these, and proceed _as follow_"--_Dr. Murray's Hist. of Lang._, Vol. ii, p. 35. "The most eminent of the kennel are bloodhounds, which lead the van, and are _as follow_."--_Steele, Tattler_, No. 62. "His words are _as follow_."--_Spect._, No. 62. "The words are _as follow_."--_Addison, Spect._, No. 513. "The objections that are raised against it as a tragedy, are _as follow_."--_Gay, Pref. to What d' ye call it_. "The particulars are _as follow_."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 93. "The principal interjections in English are _as follow_."--_Ward's Gram._, p. 81. In all these instances, one may suppose the final clause to mean, "as _they here_ follow;"--or, supposing _as_ to be a pronoun, one may conceive it to mean, "_such_ as follow." But some critical writers, it appears, prefer the singular verb, "_as follows_" Hear Campbell: "When a verb is used _impersonally_, it ought undoubtedly to be in the singular number, whether the neuter pronoun be expressed or understood: and when no nominative in the sentence can regularly be construed with the verb, it ought to be considered as impersonal. For this reason, analogy as well as usage _favour_ [say _favours_] this mode of expression, 'The conditions of the agreement were _as follows_;' and not '_as follow_.' A few late writers have inconsiderately adopted this last form through a mistake of the construction. For the same reason we ought to say, 'I shall consider his censures so far only as _concerns_ my friend's conduct;' and not 'so far as _concern_.'"--_Philosophy of Rhet._, p. 229. It is too much to say, at least of one of these sentences, that there is no nominative with which the plural verb can be regularly construed. In the former, the word _as_ may be said to be a plural nominative; or, if we will have this to be a conjunction, the pronoun _they_, representing _conditions_, may be regularly supplied, as above. In the latter, indeed, _as_ is not a pronoun; because it refers to "_so far_," which is not a noun. But the sentence is _bad English_; because the verb _concern_ or _concerns_ is improperly left without a nominative. Say therefore, 'I shall consider his censures so far only as _they concern_ my friend's conduct;'--or, 'so far only as _my friend's conduct is concerned_.' The following is an other example which I conceive to be wrong; because, with an adverb for its antecedent, _as_ is made a nominative: "They ought therefore to be uttered _as quickly as is_ consistent with distinct articulation."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 76. Say rather, "They ought therefore to be uttered _with as much rapidity_ as is consistent with distinct articulation." OBS. 11.--Lindley Murray was so much puzzled with Tooke's notion of _as_, and Campbell's doctrine of the _impersonal verb_, that he has expressly left his pupils to hesitate and doubt, like himself, whether one ought to say "_as follows_" or "_as follow_," when the preceding noun is plural; or--to furnish an alternative, (if they choose it,) he shows them at last how they may _dodge the question_, by adopting some other phraseology. He begins thus: "_Grammarians_ differ in opinion, respecting the propriety of the following modes of expression: 'The arguments advanced were nearly _as follows_;' 'the positions were, _as appears_, incontrovertible.'"-- _Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 146. Then follows a detail of suggestions from Campbell and others, all the quotations being anonymous, or at least without definite references. Omitting these, I would here say of the two examples given, that they are not parallel instances. For, "_as follows_," refers to what the arguments were,--to the things themselves, considered plurally, and immediately to be exhibited; wherefore the expression ought rather to have been, "_as follow_," or, "_as they here follow_." But, "_as appears_" means "_as it appears_," or "_as the case now appears_;" and one of these plain modes of expression would have been much preferable, because the _as_ is here evidently nothing but a conjunction. OBS. 12.--"The diversity of sentiment on this subject," says L. Murray, "and the respectability of the different opponents, will naturally induce _the readers_ to pause and reflect, before they decide."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 147. The equivalent expressions by means of which he proposes to evade at last the dilemma, are the following: "The arguments advanced were nearly such as follow;"--"The arguments advanced were nearly of the following nature;"--"The following are nearly the arguments which were advanced;"-- "The arguments advanced were nearly those which follow:"--"These, or nearly these, were the arguments advanced;"--"The positions were such as appear incontrovertible;"--"It appears that the positions were incontrovertible;" --"That the positions were incontrovertible, is apparent;"--"The positions were apparently incontrovertible;"--"In appearance, the positions were incontrovertible."--_Ibid._ If to shun the expression will serve our turn, surely here are ways enough! But to those who "pause and reflect" with the intention _to decide_, I would commend the following example: "Reconciliation was offered, on conditions as moderate as _were_ consistent with a permanent union."--_Murray's Key_, under Rule 1. Here Murray supposes "_was_" to be wrong, and accordingly changes it to "_were_," by the Rule, "A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person." But the amendment is a pointed rejection of Campbell's "impersonal verb," or verb which "has no nominative;" and if the singular is not right here, the rhetorician's respectable authority vouches only for a catalogue of errors. Again, if this verb must be _were_ in order to agree with its nominative, it is still not clear that _as_, is, or ought to be, the nominative; because the meaning may perhaps be better expressed thus:--"on conditions as moderate _as any that were_ consistent with a permanent union." OBS. 13.--A late writer expresses his decision of the foregoing question thus: "Of all the different opinions on a grammatical subject, which have arisen in the literary world, there scarcely appears one more indefensible than that of supposing _as follows_ to be an impersonal verb, and to be correctly used in such sentences as this. 'The conditions were _as follows_.' Nay, we are told that, "A few late writers have adopted this form, 'The conditions were as follow,' _inconsiderately_;" and, to prove this charge of inconsiderateness, the following sentence is brought forward: 'I shall consider his censure [_censures_ is the word used by Campbell and by Murray] so far only _as concern_ my friend's conduct.' which should be, it is added, '_as concerns_, and not _as concern_.' If analogy, simplicity, or syntactical authority, is of any value in our resolution of the sentence, 'The conditions were as follows,' the word _as_ is as evident a relative as language can afford. It is undoubtedly equivalent to _that_ or _which_, and relates to its antecedent _those_ or _such_ understood, and should have been the nominative to the verb _follow_; the sentence, in its present form, being inaccurate. The second sentence is by no means a parallel one. The word _as_ is a conjunction; and though it has, as a relative, a reference to its antecedent _so_, yet in its capacity of a mere conjunction, it cannot possibly be the nominative case to any verb. It should be, '_it concerns_.' Whenever _as_ relates to an _adverbial_ antecedent; as in the sentence, '_So_ far _as_ it concerns me,' it is merely a conjunction; but when it refers to an _adjective_ antecedent; as in the sentence, 'The business is _such as_ concerns me;' it must be a relative, and susceptible of case, whether its antecedent is expressed or understood; being, in fact, the nominative to the verb _concerns_."--_Nixon's Parser_, p. 145. It will be perceived by the preceding remarks, that I do not cite what is here said, as believing it to be in all respects well said, though it is mainly so. In regard to the point at issue, I shall add but one critical authority more: "'The circumstances were as _follows_.' Several grammarians and critics have approved this phraseology: I am inclined, however, to concur with those who prefer '_as follow_.'"--_Crombie, on Etym. and Synt._, p. 388. OBS. 14.--The conjunction _that_ is frequently understood; as, "It is seldom [_that_] their counsels are listened to."--_Robertson's Amer._, i, 316. "The truth is, [_that_] grammar is very much neglected among us."--_Lowth's Gram., Pref._, p. vi. "The Sportsman believes [_that_] there is Good in his Chace [chase.]"--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 296. "Thou warnst me [_that_] I have done amiss; I should have earlier looked to this."--_Scott_. OBS. 15.--After _than_ or _as_, connecting the terms of a comparison, there is usually an ellipsis of some word or words. The construction of the words employed may be seen, when the ellipsis is supplied; as, "They are stronger _than we_" [are.]--_Numb._, xiii. 31. "Wisdom is better _than weapons_ of war" [are.]--_Eccl._, ix, 18. "He does nothing who endeavours to do more _than_ [what] _is allowed_ to humanity."--_Dr. Johnson_. "My punishment is greater _than_ [what] _I can bear_."--_Gen._, iv, 13. "Ralph gave him more _than I_" [gave him.]--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 351. "Ralph gave him more _than_ [he gave] _me_."_--Ibid._ "Revelation, surely, was never intended for such _as he_" [is.]--_Campbell's Four Gospels_, p. iv. "Let such as _him_ sneer if they will."--_Liberator_, Vol. ix, p. 182. Here _him_ ought to be _he_, according to Rule 2d, because the text speaks of such as _he is_ or _was_. "'You were as innocent of it _as me_:' 'He did it _as well as me_.' In both places it ought to be _I_: that is, _as I was, as I did_."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 352. "Rather let such poor souls _as you_ and _I_ Say that the holidays are drawing nigh."--_Swift_. OBS. 16.--The doctrine above stated, of ellipses after _than_ and _as_, proceeds on the supposition that these words _are conjunctions_, and that they connect, not particular words merely, but sentences, or clauses. It is the common doctrine of nearly all our grammarians, and is doubtless liable to fewer objections than any other theory that ever has been, or ever can be, devised in lieu of it. Yet _as_ is not always a conjunction; nor, when it is a conjunction, does it always connect sentences; nor, when it connects sentences, is there always an ellipsis; nor, when there is an ellipsis, is it always quite certain what that ellipsis is. All these facts have been made plain, by observations that have already been bestowed on the word: and, according to some grammarians, the same things may severally be affirmed of the word _than_. But most authors consider _than_ to be always a conjunction, and generally, if not always, to connect _sentences_. Johnson and Webster, in their dictionaries, mark it for an _adverb_; and the latter says of it, "This word signifies also _then_, both in English and Dutch."--_Webster's Amer. Dict._, 8vo, _w. Than_. But what he means by "_also_," I know not; and surely, in no English of this age, is _than_ equivalent to _then_, or _then_ to _than_. The ancient practice of putting _then_ for _than_, is now entirely obsolete;[434] and, as we have no other term of the same import, most of our expositors merely explain _than_ as "a particle used in comparison."--_Johnson, Worcester, Maunder_. Some absurdly define it thus: "THAN, _adv_. Placed in comparison."--_Walker_, (Rhym. Dict.,) _Jones, Scott_. According to this definition, _than_ would be a _participle_! But, since an express comparison necessarily implies a connexion between different terms, it cannot well be denied that _than_ is a connective word; wherefore, not to detain the reader with any profitless controversy, I shall take it for granted that this word is always a conjunction. That it always connects sentences, I do not affirm; because there are instances in which it is difficult to suppose it to connect anything more than particular words: as, "Less judgement _than_ wit is more sail _than_ ballast."--_Penn's Maxims_. "With no less eloquence _than_ freedom. 'Pari eloquentiâ _ac_ libertate.' _Tacitus_."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 200. "Any comparison between these two classes of writers, cannot be other _than_ vague and loose."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 347. "This _far more than_ compensates all those little negligences."--_Ib._, p. 200. "Remember Handel? Who that was not born Deaf as the dead to harmony, forgets, Or can, _the more than Homer_ of his age?"--_Cowper_. OBS. 17.--When any two declinable words are connected by _than_ or _as_, they are almost always, according to the true idiom of our language, to be put in the _same case_, whether we suppose an ellipsis in the construction of the latter, or not; as, "My _Father_ is greater than _I_."--_Bible_. "What do _ye_ more than _others_?"--_Matt._, v, 47. "More _men_ than _women_ were there."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 114. "Entreat _him_ as a _father_, and the younger _men_ as _brethren_."--_1 Tim._, v, 1. "I would that all _men_ were even as _I_ myself."--_1 Cor._, vii, 7. "Simon, son of Jonas, lovest thou me more than these?"--_John_, xxi, 15. This last text is manifestly _ambiguous_; so that some readers will doubt whether it means--"more than _thou lovest these_," or--"more than _these love me_." Is not this because there is an _ellipsis_ in the sentence, and such a one as may be variously conceived and supplied? The original too is ambiguous, but not for the same reason: "[Greek: Simon Iona, agapas me pleion touton];"--And so is the Latin of the Vulgate and of Montanus: "Simon Jona, diligis me _plus his_?" Wherefore Beza expressed it differently: "Simon _fili Jonæ_, diligis me plus _quâm hi_?" The French Bible has it: "Simon, fils de Jona, m'aimes-tu plus que _ne font_ ceux-ci?" And the expression in English should rather have been, "Lovest thou me more than _do_ these?" OBS. 18.--The comparative degree, in Greek, is said to govern the genitive case; in Latin, the ablative: that is, the genitive or the ablative is sometimes put after this degree without any connecting particle corresponding to _than_, and without producing a compound sentence. We have examples in the phrases, "[Greek: pleion touton]" and "_plus his_," above. Of such a construction our language admits no real example; that is, no exact parallel. But we have an imitation of it in the phrase _than whom_, as in this hackneyed example from Milton: "Which, when Beëlzebub perceived, _than whom_, Satan except, none higher sat," &c.--_Paradise Lost_, B. ii, l. 300. The objective, _whom_, is here preferred to the nominative, _who_, because the Latin ablative is commonly rendered by the former case, rather than by the latter: but this phrase is no more explicable according to the usual principles of English grammar, than the error of putting the objective case for a version of the ablative absolute. If the imitation is to be judged allowable, it is to us _a figure of syntax_--an obvious example of _Enallagè_, and of that form of Enallagè, which is commonly called _Antiptosis_, or the putting of one case for an other. OBS. 19.--This use of _whom_ after _than_ has greatly puzzled and misled our grammarians; many of whom have thence concluded that _than_ must needs be, at least in this instance, a _preposition_,[435] and some have extended the principle beyond this, so as to include _than which, than whose_ with its following noun, and other nominatives which they will have to be objectives; as, "I should seem guilty of ingratitude, _than which_ nothing is more shameful." See _Russell's Gram._, p. 104. "Washington, _than whose fame_ naught earthly can be purer."--_Peirce's Gram._, p. 204. "You have given him more than _I_. You have sent her as much as _he_."--_Buchanan's Eng. Syntax_, p. 116. These last two sentences are erroneously called by their author, "_false syntax_;" not indeed with a notion that _than_ and _as_ are prepositions, but on the false supposition that the preposition _to_ must necessarily be understood between them and the pronouns, as it is between the preceding verbs and the pronouns _him_ and _her_. But, in fact, "You have given him more than _I_," is perfectly good English; the last clause of which plainly means--"more than I _have given him_." And, "You have sent her as much as _he_," will of course be understood to mean--"as much as he _has sent her_;" but here, because the auxiliary implied is different from the one expressed, it might have been as well to have inserted it: thus, "_You have_ sent her as much as _he has_." "She reviles you as much as _he_," is also good English, though found, with the foregoing, among Buchanan's examples of "false syntax." OBS. 20.--Murray's twentieth Rule of syntax avers, that, "When the qualities of different things are compared, the latter noun or pronoun is _not governed_ by the conjunction _than_ or _as_, but agrees with the verb," &c.--_Octavo Gram._, p. 214; _Russell's Gram._, 103; _Bacon's_, 51; _Alger's_, 71; _Smith's_, 179; _Fisk's_, 138. To this rule, the great Compiler and most of his followers say, that _than whom_ "is an exception." or "_seems to form_ an exception;" to which they add, that, "the phrase is, however, avoided by the best modern writers."--_Murray_, i, 215. This latter assertion Russell conceives to be untrue: the former he adopts; and, calling _than whom_ "an exception to the general rule," says of it, (with no great consistency,) "Here the conjunction _than_ has certainly the force of a preposition, and supplies its place by governing the relative."--_Russell's Abridgement of Murray's Gram._, p. 104. But this is hardly an instance to which one would apply the maxim elsewhere adopted by Murray: "_Exceptio probat regulam_."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 205. To ascribe to a conjunction the governing power of a preposition, is a very wide step, and quite too much like straddling the line which separates these parts of speech one from the other. OBS. 21.--Churchill says, "If there be no ellipsis to supply, as sometimes happens when a pronoun relative occurs after _than_; the relative is to be put in the _objective case absolute_: as, 'Alfred, _than whom_ a greater king never reigned, deserves to be held up as a model to all future sovereigns.'"--_New Gram._, p. 153. Among his Notes, he has one with reference to this "_objective case absolute_," as follows: "It is not governed by the conjunction, for on no other occasion does a conjunction govern any case; or by any word understood, for we can insert no word, or words, that will reconcile the phrase with any other rule of grammar: and if we employ a pronoun personal instead of the relative, as _he_, which will admit of being resolved elliptically, it must be put in the nominative case."--_Ib._, p. 352. Against this gentleman's doctrine, one may very well argue, as he himself does against that of Murray, Russell, and others; that on no other occasion do we speak of putting "the objective case absolute;" and if, agreeably to the analogy of our own tongue, our distinguished authors would condescend to say _than who_,[436] surely nobody would think of calling this an instance of the nominative case absolute,--except perhaps one swaggering _new theorist_, that most pedantic of all scoffers, Oliver B. Peirce. OBS. 22.--The sum of the matter is this: the phrase, _than who_, is a more regular and more analogical expression than _than whom_; but both are of questionable propriety, and the former is seldom if ever found, except in some few grammars; while the latter, which is in some sort a Latinism, may be quoted from many of our most distinguished writers. And, since that which is irregular cannot be parsed by rule, if out of respect to authority we judge it allowable, it must be set down among the _figures_ of grammar; which are, all of them, intentional deviations from the ordinary use of words. One late author treats the point pretty well, in this short hint: "After the conjunction _than_, contrary to analogy, _whom_ is used in stead of _who_."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 106. An other gives his opinion in the following note: "When _who_ immediately follows _than_, it is used _improperly_ in the objective case; as, 'Alfred, _than whom_ a greater king never reigned;'--_than whom_ is not grammatical. It ought to be, _than who_; because _who_ is the nominative to _was_ understood.--_Than whom_ is as bad a phrase as 'he is taller _than him_.' It is true that some of our best writers have used _than whom_; but it is also true, that they have used _other_ phrases which we have rejected as ungrammatical; then why not reject this too?"--_Lennie's Grammar_, Edition of 1830, p. 105. OBS. 23.--On this point. Bullions and Brace, two American copyists and plagiarists of Lennie, adopt opposite notions. The latter copies the foregoing note, without the last sentence; that is, without admitting that "_than whom_" has ever been used by good writers. See _Brace's Gram._, p. 90. The former says, "The relative _usually_ follows _than_ in the objective case, _even when the nominative goes before_; as, 'Alfred, than whom a greater king never reigned.' This anomaly it is difficult to explain. Most probably, _than_, at first had the force of a preposition, which it now retains only when followed by the relative."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, of 1843, p. 112. Again: "_A relative_ after _than_ is put in the objective case; as, 'Satan, than _whom_ none higher sat.' This anomaly has not been satisfactorily explained. In this case, some regard _than_ as a preposition. _It_ is probably only a case of simple _enallagé_"--_Bullions, Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, of 1849, p. 191. Prof. Fowler, in his great publication, of 1850, says of this example, "The expression should be, Satan, than _who_ None higher sat."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, §482, Note 2. Thus, by one single form of _antiptosis_, have our grammarians been as much divided and perplexed, as were the Latin grammarians by a vast number of such changes; and, since there were some among the latter, who insisted on a total rejection of the figure, there is no great presumption in discarding, if we please, the very little that remains of it in English. OBS. 24.--Peirce's _new theory_ of grammar rests mainly on the assumption, that no correct sentence ever is, or can be, in any wise, _elliptical_. This is one of the "Two GRAND PRINCIPLES" on which the author says his "work is based."--_The Grammar_, p. 10. The other is, that grammar cannot possibly be taught without a thorough reformation of its nomenclature, a reformation involving a change of most of the names and technical terms heretofore used for its elucidation. I do not give precisely his own words, for one half of this author's system is expressed in such language as needs to be translated _into English_ in order to be generally understood; but this is precisely his meaning, and in words more intelligible. In what estimation he holds these two positions, may be judged from the following assertion: "_Without these grand points_, no work, whatever may be its pretensions, can be A GRAMMAR of the LANGUAGE."--_Ib._ It follows that no man who does not despise every other book that is called a grammar, can entertain any favourable opinion of Peirce's. The author however is tolerably consistent. He not only scorns to appeal, for the confirmation of his own assertions and rules, to the judgement or practice of any other writer, but counsels the learner to "spurn the idea of quoting, either as proof or for defence, the authority of any man." See p. 13. The notable results of these important premises are too numerous for detail even in this general pandect. But it is to be mentioned here, that, according to this theory, a nominative coming after _than_ or _as_, is in general to be accounted a _nominative absolute_; that is, a nominative which is independent of any verb; or, (as the ingenious author himself expresses it,) "A word in the subjective case following another subjective, and immediately preceded by _than, as_, or _not_, may be used _without an_ ASSERTER immediately depending on it for sense."--_Peirce's Gram._, p. 195. See also his "_Grammatical Chart_, Rule I, Part 2." OBS. 25.--"Lowth, Priestley, Murray, and most grammarians say, that hypothetical, conditional, concessive, or exceptive conjunctions; as, _if, lest, though, unless, except_; _require_, or _govern_ the subjunctive mood. But in this they are certainly wrong: for, as Dr. Crombie rightly observes, the verb is put in the subjunctive mood, because the mood expresses contingency, _not because it follows the conjunction_: for these writers themselves allow, that the same conjunctions are to be followed by the indicative mood, when the verb is not intended to express a contingency. In the following sentence: '_Though_ he _be_ displeased at it, I will bolt my door; and _let_ him break it open _if_ he _dare_:' may we not as well affirm, that _and_ governs the imperative mood, as that _though_ and _if_ govern the subjunctive?"--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 321. OBS. 26.--In the list of _correspondents_ contained in Note 7th below, there are some words which ought not to be called _conjunctions_, by the parser; for the relation of a word as the proper correspondent to an other word, does not necessarily determine its part of speech. Thus, _such_ is to be parsed as an adjective; _as_, sometimes as a pronoun; _so_, as a conjunctive adverb. And _only, merely, also_, and _even_, are sometimes conjunctive adverbs; as, "_Nor_ is this _only_ a matter of convenience to the poet, it is _also_ a source of gratification to the reader."-- _Campbell's Rhet._, p. 166. _Murray's, Gram._, i, 362. Professor Bullions will have it, that these adverbs may relate to _nouns_--a doctrine which I disapprove. He says "_Only, solely, chiefly, merely, too, also_, and perhaps _a few others_, are sometimes _joined to substantives_; as, 'Not _only_ the men, but the women _also_ were present.'"--_English Gram._, p. 116. _Only_ and _also_ are here, I think, conjunctive adverbs; but it is not the office of adverbs to qualify nouns; and, that these words are adjuncts to the nouns _men_ and _women_, rather than the verb _were_, which is once expressed and once understood, I see no sufficient reason to suppose. Some teachers imagine, that an adverb of this kind qualifies the _whole clause_ in which it stands. But it would seem, that the relation of such words to verbs, participles, or adjectives, according to the common rule for adverbs, is in general sufficiently obvious: as, "The perfect tense not _only refers_ to what is past, but _also conveys_ an allusion to the present time."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 70. Is there any question about the true mode of parsing "_only_" and "_also_" here? and have they not in the other sentence, a relation similar to what is seen here? NOTES TO RULE XXII. NOTE I.--When two terms connected are each to be extended and completed in sense by a third, they must both be such as will make sense with it. Thus, in stead of saying, "He has made alterations and additions to the work," say, "He has made alterations _in_ the work, and additions _to it_;" because the relation between _alterations_ and _work_ is not well expressed by _to_. NOTE II.--In general, any two terms which we connect by a conjunction, should be the same in kind or quality, rather than different or heterogeneous. Example: "The assistance was welcome, and seasonably afforded."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 249. Better: "The assistance was welcome, and _it was_ seasonably afforded." Or: "The assistance was _both seasonable and welcome_." NOTE III.--The conjunctions, copulative or disjunctive, affirmative or negative, must be used with a due regard to their own import, and to the true idiom of the language. Thus, say, "The general bent _or_ turn of the language _is_ towards the other form;" and not, with Lowth and Churchill, "The general bent _and_ turn of the language _is_ towards the other form."--_Short Introd._, p. 60; _New Gram._, p. 113. So, say, "I cannot deny _that_ there are perverse jades;" and not, with Addison, "I cannot deny _but_ there are perverse jades."--_Spect._, No. 457. Again, say, "I feared _that_ I should be deserted;" not, "_lest_ I should be deserted." NOTE IV.--After _else, other,[437] otherwise, rather_, and all English _comparatives_, the latter term of an exclusive comparison should be introduced by the conjunction _than_--a word which is appropriated to this use solely: as, "Style is nothing _else than_ that sort of expression which our thoughts most readily assume."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 92. "What we call fables or parables are no _other than_ allegories."--_Ib._, p. 151; _Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 243. "We judge _otherwise_ of them _than_ of ourselves."--_R. Ainsworth_. "The premeditation should be of things _rather than_ of words."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 262. "Is not the life _more than_ meat?"--_Com. Bible_. "Is not life a _greater_ gift _than_ food?"--_Campbell's Gospels_. NOTE V.--Relative pronouns, being themselves a species of connective words, necessarily exclude conjunctions; except there be two or more relative clauses to be connected together; that is, one to the other. Example of error: "The principal and distinguishing excellence of Virgil, _and which_, in my opinion, he possesses beyond _all poets_, is tenderness."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 439. Better: "The principal and distinguishing excellence of Virgil, _an excellence_ which, in my opinion, he possesses beyond all _other_ poets, is tenderness." NOTE VI.--The word _that_, (as was shown in the fifth chapter of Etymology,) is often made a pronoun in respect to what precedes it, and a conjunction in respect to what follows it--a construction which, for its anomaly, ought to be rejected. For example: "_In the mean time_ THAT the Muscovites were complaining to St. Nicholas, Charles returned thanks to God, and prepared for new victories."--_Life of Charles XII_. Better thus: "_While_ the Muscovites were _thus_ complaining to St. Nicholas, Charles returned thanks to God, and prepared for new victories." NOTE VII.--The words in each of the following pairs, are the proper _correspondents_ to each other; and care should be taken, to give them their right place in the sentence: 1. To _though_, corresponds _yet_; as, "_Though_ he were dead, _yet_ shall he live."--_John_, xi, 25. 2. To _whether_, corresponds _or_; as, "_Whether_ it be greater _or_ less."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 77. 3. To _either_, corresponds _or_; as, "The constant indulgence of a declamatory manner, is not favourable _either_ to good composition, _or_ [to] good delivery."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 334. 4. To _neither_, corresponds _nor_; as, "John the Baptist came _neither_ eating bread _nor_ drinking wine."--_Luke_, vii, 33. "Thou shalt _neither_ vex a stranger _nor_ oppress him."--_Exod._, xxii, 21. 5. To _both_, corresponds _and_; as, "I am debtor _both_ to the Greeks _and_ to the Barbarians, _both_ to the wise _and_ to the unwise."--_Rom._, i, 14. 6. To _such_, corresponds _as_; (the former being a pronominal adjective, and the latter a relative pronoun;) as, "An assembly _such as_ earth saw never."--_Cowper_. 7. To _such_, corresponds _that_; with, a finite verb following, to express a consequence: as, "The difference is _such that_ all will perceive it." 8. To _as_, corresponds _as_; with an adjective or an adverb, to express equality of degree: as, "And he went out from his presence a leper _as_ white _as_ snow."--_2 Kings_. v. 27. 9. To _as_, corresponds _so_; with two verbs, to express proportion or sameness: as, "_As_ two are to four, _so_ are six to twelve."--"_As_ the tree falls, _so_ it must lie." 10. _So_ is used before _as_; with an adjective or an adverb, to limit the degree by comparison: as, "How can you descend to a thing _so_ base _as_ falsehood?" 11. _So_ is used before _as_; with a negative preceding, to deny equality of degree: as, "No lamb was e'er _so_ mild _as_ he."--_Langhorne_. "Relatives are not _so_ useful in language _as_ conjunctions."--BEATTIE: _Murray's Gram._, p. 126. 12. To _so_, corresponds _as_; with an infinitive following, to express a consequence: as, "We ought, certainly, to read blank verse _so as_ to make every line sensible to the ear"--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 332. 13. To _so_, corresponds _that_; with a finite verb following, to express a consequence: as, "No man was _so_ poor _that_ he could not make restitution."--_Milman's Jews_, i, 113. "_So_ run _that_ ye may obtain."--_1 Cor._, ix, 24. 14. To _not only_, or _not merely_, corresponds _but, but also_, or _but even_; as, "In heroic times, smuggling and piracy were deemed _not only_ not infamous, _but_ [even] absolutely honourable."--_Maunder's Gram._, p. 15. "These are questions, _not_ of prudence _merely, but_ of morals _also_."--_Dymond's Essay_, p. 82. NOTE VIII.--"When correspondent conjunctions are used, the verb, or phrase, that precedes the first, applies [also] to the second; but no word following the former, can [by virtue of this correspondence,] be understood after the latter."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 353. Such ellipses as the following ought therefore in general to be avoided: "Tones are different both from emphasis and [_from_] pauses."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, i, 250. "Though both the intention and [_the_] purchase are now past."--_Ib._, ii, 24. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XXII. EXAMPLES UNDER NOTE I.--TWO TERMS WITH ONE. "The first proposal was essentially different and inferior to the second."--_Inst._, p. 171. [FORMULE,--Not proper, because the preposition _to_ is used with joint reference to the two adjectives _different_ and _inferior_, which require different prepositions. But, according to Note 1st under Rule 22d, "When two terms connected are each to be extended and completed in sense by a third, they must both be such as will make sense with it." The sentence may be corrected thus: "The first proposal was essentially different from the second, and inferior _to it_."] "A neuter verb implies the state a subject is in, without acting upon, or being acted upon, by another."--_Alex. Murray's Gram._, p. 30. "I answer, you may and ought to use stories and anecdotes."--_Student's Manual_, p. 220. "ORACLE, n. Any person or place where certain decisions are obtained."--_Webster's Dict._ "Forms of government may, and must be occasionally, changed."--_Ld. Lyttelton_. "I have, and pretend to be a tolerable judge."--_Spect._, No. 555. "Are we not lazy in our duties, or make a Christ of them?"--_Baxter's Saints' Rest_. "They may not express that idea which the author intends, but some other which only resembles, or is a-kin to it."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 94. "We may, we ought therefore to read them with a distinguishing eye."--_Ib._, p. 352. "Compare their poverty, with what they might, and ought to possess."--_Sedgwick's Econ._, p. 95. "He is a much better grammarian than they are."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 211. "He was more beloved, but not so much admired as Cinthio."--ADDISON, ON MEDALS: _in Priestly's Gram._, p. 200. "Will it be urged, that the four gospels are as old, or even older than tradition?"--_Bolingb. Phil. Es._, iv, §19. "The court of Chancery frequently mitigates, and breaks the teeth of the common law."--_Spectator_, No. 564; _Ware's Gram._, p. 16. "Antony, coming along side of her ship, entered it without seeing or being seen by her."--_Goldsmith's Rome_, p. 160. "In candid minds, truth finds an entrance, and a welcome too."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 168. "In many designs, we may succeed and be miserable."--_lb._, p. 169. "In many pursuits, we embark with pleasure, and land sorrowfully."--_Ib._, p. 170. "They are much greater gainers than I am by this unexpected event."--_lb._, p. 211. UNDER NOTE II.--HETEROGENEOUS TERMS. "Athens saw them entering her gates and fill her academies."--_Chazotte's Essay_, p. 30. "We have neither forgot his past, nor despair of his future success."--_Duncan's Cicero_, p. 121. "Her monuments and temples had long been shattered or crumbled into dust."--_Lit. Conv._, p. 15. "Competition is excellent, and the vital principle in all these things."--DR. LIEBER: _ib._, p. 64. "Whether provision should or not be made to meet this exigency."--_Ib._, p. 128. "That our Saviour was divinely inspired, and endued with supernatural powers, are positions that are here taken for granted."--_Murray's Gram._, i. 206. "It would be much more eligible, to contract or enlarge their extent, by explanatory notes and observations, than by sweeping away our ancient landmarks, and setting up others."--_Ib._, i. p. 30. "It is certainly much better, to supply the defects and abridge superfluities, by occasional notes and observations, than by disorganizing, or altering a system which has been so long established."--_Ib._, i, 59. "To have only one tune, or measure, is not much better than having none at all"--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 126. "Facts too well known and obvious to be insisted on."--_Ib._, p. 233. "In proportion as all these circumstances are happily chosen, and of a sublime kind."--_Ib._, p. 41. "If the description be too general, and divested of circumstances."--_Ibid._ "He gained nothing further than to be commended."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 210. "I cannot but think its application somewhat strained, and out of place."--VETHAKE: _Lit. Conv._, p. 29. "Two negatives in the same clause, or referring to the same thing, destroy each other, and leave the sense affirmative."--_Maunders Gram._, p. 15. "Slates are stone and used to cover roofs of houses."--_Webster's El. Spelling-Book_, p. 47. "Every man of taste, and possessing an elevated mind, ought to feel almost the necessity of apologizing for the power he possesses."--_Influence of Literature_. Vol. ii, p, 122. "They very seldom trouble themselves with Enquiries, or making useful observations of their own."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 376. "We've both the field and honour won; The foe is profligate, and run."--_Hudibras_, p. 93. UNDER NOTE III.--IMPORT OF CONJUNCTIONS. "_The_ is sometimes used before adverbs in the comparative and superlative degree."--_Lennie's Gram._, p. 6; _Bullions's_, 8; _Brace's_, 9. "The definite article _the_ is frequently applied to adverbs in the comparative and superlative degree."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 33; _Ingersoll's_, 33; _Lowth's_, 14; _Fisk's_, 53; _Merchant's_, 24; and others. "Conjunctions usually connect verbs in the same mode or tense."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 137. "Conjunctions connect verbs in the same style, and usually in the same mode, tense, or form."--_Ib._ "The ruins of Greece and Rome are but the monuments of her former greatness."--_Day's Gram._, p. 88. "In many of these cases, it is not improbable, but that the articles were used originally."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 152. "I cannot doubt but that these objects are really what they appear to be."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 85. "I question not but my reader will be as much pleased with it."--_Spect._, No. 535. "It is ten to one but my friend Peter is among them."--_Ib._, No. 457. "I doubt not but such objections as these will be made."--_Locke, on Education_, p. 169. "I doubt not but it will appear in the perusal of the following sheets."--_Buchanan's Syntax_, p. vi. "It is not improbable, but that, in time, these different constructions may be appropriated to different uses."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 156. "But to forget or to remember at pleasure, are equally beyond the power of man."--_Idler_, No. 72. "The nominative case follows the verb, in interrogative and imperative sentences."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, Vol. ii, p. 290. "Can the fig-tree, my brethren, bear olive berries? either a vine, figs?"--_James_, iii, 12. "Whose characters are too profligate, that the managing of them should be of any consequence."--_Swift, Examiner_, No. 24. "You that are a step higher than a philosopher, a divine; yet have too much grace and wit than to be a bishop."--_Pope, to Swift_, Let. 80. "The terms rich or poor enter not into their language."--_Robertson's America_, Vol. i, p. 314. "This pause is but seldom or ever sufficiently dwelt upon."--_Music of Nature_, p. 181. "There would be no possibility of any such thing as human life and human happiness."--_Butler's Anal._, p. 110. "The multitude rebuked them, because they should hold their peace."--_Matt._, xx, 21. UNDER NOTE IV.--OF THE CONJUNCTION THAN. "A metaphor is nothing else but a short comparison."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 243; _Gould's_, 236. "There being no other dictator here but use."-- _Campbell's Rhet._, p. 167. "This Construction is no otherwise known in English but by supplying the first or second Person Plural."--_Buchanan's Syntax_, p. xi. "Cyaxares was no sooner in the throne, but he was engaged in a terrible war."--_Rollin's Hist._, ii, 62. "Those classics contain little else but histories of murders."--_Am. Museum_, v, 526. "Ye shall not worship any other except God."--_Sale's Koran_, p. 15. "Their relation, therefore, is not otherwise to be ascertained but by their place."-- _Campbell's Rhet._, p. 260. "For he no sooner accosted her, but he gained his point."--_Burder's Hist._, i, 6. "And all the modern writers on this subject have done little else but translate them."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 336. "One who had no other aim, but to talk copiously and plausibly."-- _Ib._, p. 317. "We can refer it to no other cause but the structure of the eye."--_Ib._, p. 46. "No more is required but singly an act of vision."-- _Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 171. "We find no more in its composition, but the particulars now mentioned."--_ Ib._, i, 48. "He pretends not to say, that it hath any other effect but to raise surprise."--_Ib._, ii, 61. "No sooner was the princess dead, but he freed himself."--_Johnson's Sketch of Morin_. "_Ought_ is an imperfect verb, for it has no other modification besides this one."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 113. "The verb is palpably nothing else but the tie."--_Neef's Sketch_, p. 66. "Does he mean that theism is capable of nothing else except being opposed to polytheism or atheism?"--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 104. "Is it meant that theism is capable of nothing else besides being opposed to polytheism, or atheism?"--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 307. "There is no other method of teaching that of which any one is ignorant, but by means of something already known"--DR. JOHNSON: _Murray's Gram._, i, 163; _Ingersoll's_, 214. "O fairest flower, no sooner blown but blasted!"-- _Milton's Poems_, p, 132. "Architecture and gardening cannot otherwise entertain the mind, but by raising certain agreeable emotions or feelings."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 318. "Or, rather, they are nothing else but nouns."--_British Gram._, p. 95. "As if religion were intended For nothing else but to be mended."--_Hudibras_, p. 11. UNDER NOTE V.--RELATIVES EXCLUDE CONJUNCTIONS. "To prepare the Jews for the reception of a prophet mightier than him, and whose shoes he was not worthy to bear."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 214. "Has this word which represents an action an object after it, and on which it terminates?"--_Osborn's Key_, p. 3. "The stores of literature lie before him, and from which he may collect, for use, many lessons of wisdom."-- _Knapp's Lectures_, p. 31. "Many and various great advantages of this Grammar, and which are wanting in others, might be enumerated."-- _Greenleaf's Gram._, p. 6. "About the time of Solon, the Athenian legislator, the custom is said to have been introduced, and which still prevails, of writing in lines from left to right."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 19. "The fundamental rule of the construction of sentences, and into which all others might be resolved, undoubtedly is, to communicate, in the clearest and most natural order, the ideas which we mean to transfuse into the minds of others."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 120; _Jamieson's_, 102. "He left a son of a singular character, and who behaved so ill that he was put in prison."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 221. "He discovered some qualities in the youth, of a disagreeable nature, and which to him were wholly unaccountable."--_Ib._, p. 213. "An emphatical pause is made, after something has been said of peculiar moment, and on which we want ['desire' _M_.] to fix the hearer's attention."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 331; _Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 248. "But we have duplicates of each, agreeing in movement, though differing in measure, and which make different impressions on the ear."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 259. UNDER NOTE VI.--OF THE WORD THAT. "It will greatly facilitate the labours of the teacher, at the same time that it will relieve the pupil of many difficulties."--_Frost's El. of E. Gram._, p. 4. "At the same time that the pupil is engaged in the exercises just mentioned, it will be a proper time to study the whole Grammar in course."--_Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram._, Revised Ed., p. viii. "On the same ground that a participle and auxiliary are allowed to form a tense."--BEATTIE: _Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 76. "On the same ground that the voices, moods, and tenses, are admitted into the English tongue."--_Ib._, p. 101. "The five examples last mentioned, are corrected on the same principle that the preceding examples are corrected."--_Ib._, p. 186; _Ingersoll's Gram._, 254. "The brazen age began at the death of Trajan, and lasted till the time that Rome was taken by the Goths."--_Gould's Lat. Gram._, p. 277. "The introduction to the Duodecimo Edition, is retained in this volume, for the same reason that the original introduction to the Grammar, is retained in the first volume."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, Vol. ii, p. iv. "The verb must also be of the same person that the nominative case is."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 16. "The adjective pronoun _their_, is plural for the same reason that _who_ is."--_Ib._, p. 84. "The Sabellians could not justly be called Patripassians, in the same sense that the Noetians were so called."--_Religious World_, Vol. ii, p. 122. "This is one reason that we pass over such smooth language, without suspecting that it contains little or no meaning."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 298. "The first place that both armies came in sight of each other was on the opposite banks of the river Apsus."--_Goldsmith's Rome_, p. 118. "At the very time that the author gave him the first book for his perusal."--_Campbell's Rhetoric, Preface_, p. iv. "Peter will sup at the time that Paul will dine."--_Fosdick's De Sacy_, p. 81. "Peter will be supping at the time that Paul will enter."--_Ibid._ "These, at the same time that they may serve as models to those who may wish to imitate them, will give me an opportunity to cast more light upon the principles of this book."--_Ib._, p. 115. "Time was, like thee, they life possest, And time shall be, that thou shalt rest." --PARNELL; _Mur. Seq._, p. 241. UNDER NOTE VII.--OF THE CORRESPONDENTS. "Our manners should neither be gross, nor excessively refined."--_Merchant's Gram._, p. 11. "A neuter verb expresses neither action or passion, but being, or a state of being."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 342. "The old books are neither _English_ grammars, or _grammars_, in any sense of the English Language."--_Ib._, p. 378. "The author is apprehensive that his work is not yet as accurate and as much simplified as it may be."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 7. "The writer could not treat some topicks as extensively as was desirable."--_Ib._, p. 10. "Which would be a matter of such nicety, as no degree of human wisdom could regulate."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 26. "No undertaking is so great or difficult which he cannot direct."--_Duncan's Cic._, p. 126. "It is a good which neither depends on the will of others, nor on the affluence of external fortune."--_Harris's Hermes_, 299; _Murray's Gram._, i, 289. "Not only his estate, his reputation too has suffered by his misconduct."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 150; _Ingersoll's_, 238. "Neither do they extend as far as might be imagined at first view."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 350. "There is no language so poor, but it hath two or three past tenses."--_Ib._, p. 82. "As far as this system is founded in truth, language appears to be not altogether arbitrary in its origin."--_Ib._, p. 56. "I have not that command of these convulsions as is necessary."--_Spect._, No. 474. "Conversation with such who know no arts which polish life."--_Ib._, No. 480. "And which can be neither very lively or very forcible."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 78. "To that degree as to give proper names to rivers."--_Dr. Murray's Hist of Lang._, i, 327. "In the utter overthrow of such who hate to be reformed."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 443. "But still so much of it is retained, as greatly injures the uniformity of the whole."--_Priestley's Gram., Pref._, p. vii. "Some of them have gone to that height of extravagance, as to assert," &c.--_Ib._, p. 91. "A teacher is confined--not more than a merchant, and probably not as much."--_Abbott's Teacher_, p. 27. "It shall not be forgiven him, neither in this world, neither in the world to come."--_Matt._, xii, 32. "Which no body presumes, or is so sanguine to hope."--_Swift, Drap. Let._ v. "For the torrent of the voice, left neither time or power in the organs, to shape the words properly."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 118. "That he may neither unnecessarily waste his voice by throwing out too much, or diminish his power by using too little."--_Ib._, p. 123. "I have retained only such which appear most agreeable to the measures of Analogy."--_Littleton's Dict., Pref._ "He is both a prudent and industrious man."--_Day's Gram._, p. 70. "Conjunctions either connect words or sentences."--_Ib._, pp. 81 and 101. "Such silly girls who love to chat and play, Deserve no care, their time is thrown away."--_Tobitt's Gram._, p. 20. "Vice is a monster of so frightful mien, As to be hated needs but to be seen."--POPE: _Mur. Gram._, ii, 17. "Justice must punish the rebellious deed: Yet punish so, as pity shall exceed."--DRYDEN: _in Joh. Dict._ UNDER NOTE VIII.--IMPROPER ELLIPSES. "_That, whose_, and _as_ relate to either persons or things."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 93. "_Which_ and _what_, as adjectives, relate either to persons or things."--_Ib._, p. 70. "Whether of a public or private nature."-- _Adam's Rhet._, i, 43. "Which are included both among the public and private wrongs."--_Ib._, i, 308. "I might extract both from the old and new testament numberless examples of induction."--_Ib._, ii, 66. "Many verbs are used both in an active and neuter signification."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 30; _Alger's_, 26; _Guy's_, 21; _Murray's_, 60. "Its influence is likely to be considerable, both on the morals, and taste of a nation."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 373. "The subject afforded a variety of scenes, both of the awful and tender kind."--_Ib._, p. 439. "Restlessness of mind disqualifies us, both for the enjoyment of peace, and the performance of our duty."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 166; _Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 10. "Adjective Pronouns are of a mixed nature, participating the properties both of pronouns and adjectives."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 55; _Merchant's_, 43; _Flint's_, 22. "Adjective Pronouns have the nature both of the adjective and the pronoun."--_Frost's El. of Gram._, p. 15. "Pronominal adjectives are a kind of compound part of speech, partaking the nature both of pronouns and adjectives."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 36. "Nouns are used either in the singular or plural number."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 11. "The question is not, whether the nominative or accusative ought to follow the particles _than_ and _as_; but, whether these particles are, in such particular cases, to be regarded as conjunctions or prepositions."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 204. "In English many verbs are used both as transitives and intransitives."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 83. "He sendeth rain both on the just and unjust."--_Guy's Gram._, p. 56. "A foot consists either of two or three syllables."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 118. "Because they participate the nature both of adverbs and conjunctions."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 116. "Surely, Romans, what I am now about to say, ought neither to be omitted nor pass without notice."--_Duncan's Cicero_, p. 196. "Their language frequently amounts, not only to bad sense, but _non_-sense."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 14. "Hence arises the necessity of a social state to man both for the unfolding, and exerting of his nobler faculties."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 147. "Whether the subject be of the real or feigned kind."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 454. "Not only was liberty entirely extinguished, but arbitrary power felt in its heaviest and most oppressive weight."--_Ib._, p. 249. "This rule is applicable also both to verbal Critics and Grammarians."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 144. "Both the rules and exceptions of a language must have obtained the sanction of good usage."--_Ib._, p. 143. CHAPTER X.--PREPOSITIONS. The syntax of Prepositions consists, not solely or mainly in their power of governing the objective case, (though this alone is the scope which most grammarians have given it,) but in their adaptation to the other terms between which they express certain relations, such as appear by the sense of the words uttered. RULE XXIII.--PREPOSITIONS. Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them: as; "He came _from_ Rome _to_ Paris, _in_ the company _of_ many eminent men, and passed _with_ them _through_ many cities"--_Analectic Magazine_. "Ah! who can tell the triumphs _of_ the mind, _By_ truth illumin'd, and _by_ taste refin'd?"--_Rogers_. EXCEPTION FIRST. The preposition _to_, before an abstract infinitive, and at the head of a phrase which is made the subject of a verb, has no proper antecedent term of relation; as, "_To_ learn to die, is the great business of life."--_Dillwyn_. "Nevertheless, _to_ abide in the flesh, is more needful for you."--ST. PAUL: _Phil._, i, 24. "_To_ be reduced to poverty, is a great affliction." "Too much _to_ know, is, to know nought but fame; And every godfather can give a name."--_Shakspeare_. EXCEPTION SECOND. The preposition _for_, when it introduces its object before an infinitive, and the whole phrase is made the subject of a verb, has properly no antecedent term of relation; as, "_For_ us to learn to die, is the great business of life."--"Nevertheless, _for_ me to abide in the flesh, is more needful for you."--"_For_ an old man to be reduced to poverty is a very great affliction." "_For_ man to tell how human life began, Is hard; for who himself beginning knew?"--_Milton_. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXIII. OBS. 1.--In parsing any ordinary preposition, the learner should name the _two terms_ of the relation, and apply the foregoing rule, after the manner prescribed in Praxis 12th of this work. The principle is simple and etymological, being implied in the very definition of a preposition, yet not the less necessary to be given as a rule of syntax. Among tolerable writers, the prepositions exhibit more errors than any other equal number of words. This is probably owing to the careless manner in which they are usually slurred over in parsing. But the parsers, in general, have at least this excuse, that their text-books have taught them no better; they therefore call the preposition _a preposition_, and leave its use and meaning unexplained. OBS. 2.--If the learner be at any loss to discover the true terms of relation, let him ask and answer _two questions_: first, with the interrogative _what_ before the preposition, to find the antecedent; and then, with the same pronoun after the preposition, to find the subsequent term. These questions answered according to the sense, will always give the true terms. For example: "They dashed that rapid torrent through."--_Scott_. Ques. _What_ through? Ans. "_Dashed through_." Ques. Through _what?_ Ans. "_Through that torrent_." For the meaning is--"They dashed through that rapid torrent." If one term is perfectly obvious, (as it almost always is,) find the other in this way; as, "Day unto day uttereth speech, and night unto night showeth knowledge."--_Psal._, xix, 2. Ques. _What_ unto day? Ans. "_Uttereth unto day_." Ques. _What_ unto night? Ans. "_Showeth unto night_" For the meaning is--"Day uttereth speech unto day, and night showeth knowledge unto night." To parse rightly, is, to understand rightly; and what is well expressed, it is a shame to misunderstand or misinterpret. But sometimes the position of the two nouns is such, that it may require some reflection to find either; as, "Or that choice plant, so grateful to the nose, Which _in_ I know not what far country grows."--_Churchill_, p. 18. OBS. 3.--When a preposition _begins_ or _ends_ a sentence or clause, the terms of relation, if both are given, are transposed; as, "To a studious _man_, action is a relief."--_Burgh_. That is, "Action is a relief _to_ a studious man." "_Science_ they [the ladies] do not _pretend_ TO."--_Id._ That is, "They do not pretend _to_ science." "Until I have done that _which_ I _have spoken_ to thee OF."--_Gen._, xxviii, 15. The word governed by the preposition is always the subsequent term of the relation, however it may be placed; and if this be a relative pronoun, the transposition is permanent. The preposition, however, may be put before any relative, except _that_ and _as_; and this is commonly thought to be its most appropriate place: as, "Until I have done that _of which_ I have spoken to thee," Of the placing of it last, Lowth says, "This is an idiom _which_ our language is strongly inclined _to_;" Murray and others, "This is an idiom _to which_ our language is strongly inclined:" while they all add, "it prevails in common conversation, and suits very well with the familiar style in writing; but the placing of the preposition before the relative, is more graceful, as well as more perspicuous, and agrees much better with the solemn and elevated style."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 95; _Murray's_, 8vo, p. 200; _Fisk's_, 141; _R. C. Smiths_, 167; _Ingersoll's_, 227; _Churchill's_. 150. OBS. 4.--The terms of relation between which a preposition may be used, are very various. The _former_ or _antecedent_ term may be a noun, an adjective, a pronoun, a verb, a participle, or an adverb: and, in some instances, we find not only one preposition put before an other, but even a conjunction or an interjection used on this side; as, "_Because_ OF offences."--"_Alas_ FOR him!"--The _latter_ or _subsequent_ term, which is the word governed by the preposition, may be a noun, a pronoun, a pronominal adjective, an infinitive verb, or an imperfect or preperfect participle: and, in some instances, prepositions appear to govern adverbs, or even whole phrases. See the observations in the tenth chapter of Etymology. OBS. 5.--Both terms of the relation are usually expressed; though either of them may, in some instances, be left out, the other being given: as, (1.) THE FORMER--"All shall know me, [_reckoning_] FROM the least to the greatest."--_Heb._, viii, 11. [_I say_] "IN a word, it would entirely defeat the purpose."--_Blair_. "When I speak of reputation, I mean not only [_reputation_] IN regard to knowledge, but [_reputation_] IN regard to the talent of communicating knowledge."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 163; _Murray's Gram._, i, 360. (2.) THE LATTER--"Opinions and ceremonies [_which_] they would die FOR."--_Locke_. "IN [_those_] who obtain defence, or [_in those_] who defend."--_Pope_. "Others are more modest than [_what_] this comes TO."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 66. OBS. 6.--The only proper exceptions to the foregoing rule, are those which are inserted above, unless the abstract infinitive used as a predicate is also to be excepted; as, "In both, to reason right, is _to_ submit."--_Pope_. But here most if not all grammarians would say, the verb "_is_" is the antecedent term, or what their syntax takes to govern the infinitive. The relation, however, is not such as when we say, "He _is to submit_;" that is, "He _must submit_, or _ought to submit_;" but, perhaps, to insist on a different mode of parsing the more separable infinitive or its preposition, would be a needless refinement. Yet some regard ought to be paid to the different relations which the infinitive may bear to this finite verb. For want of a due estimate of this difference, the following sentence is, I think, very faulty: "The great business of this life _is to prepare_, and _qualify us_, for the enjoyment of a better."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 373. If the author meant to tell what our great business in this life is, he should rather have said: "The great business of this life is, to prepare and qualify _ourselves_ for the enjoyment of a better." OBS. 7.--In relation to the infinitive, Dr. Adam remarks, that, "_To_ in English is often taken _absolutely_; as, _To_ confess the truth; _To_ proceed; _To_ conclude."--_Latin and Eng. Gram._, p. 182. But the assertion is not entirely true; nor are his examples appropriate; for what he and many other grammarians call the _infinitive absolute_, evidently depends on something _understood_; and the preposition is, surely, in no instance independent of what follows it, and is therefore never entirely absolute. Prepositions are not to be supposed to have no antecedent term, merely because they stand at the head of a phrase or sentence which is made the subject of a verb; for the phrase or sentence itself often contains that term, as in the following example: "_In_ what way mind acts upon matter, is unknown." Here _in_ shows the relation between _acts_ and _way_; because the expression suggests, that mind _acts_ IN _some way_ upon matter. OBS. 8.--The second exception above, wherever it is found applicable, cancels the first; because it introduces an antecedent term before the preposition _to_, as may be seen by the examples given. It is questionable too, whether both of them may not also be cancelled in an other way; that is, by transposition and the introduction of the pronoun _it_ for the nominative: as, "_It_ is a great _affliction_, TO _be reduced_ to poverty."--"_It_ is _hard_ FOR _man_ to tell how human life began."--"Nevertheless _it_ is more needful for you, THAT _I should abide_ in the flesh." We cannot so well say, "It is more needful _for you_, FOR _me to abide_ in the flesh;" but we may say, "It is, _on your account_, more needful FOR _me to abide_ in the flesh." If these, and other similar examples, are not to be accounted additional instances in which _to_ and _for_, and also the conjunction that, are without any proper antecedent terms, we must suppose these particles to show the relation between what precedes and what follows them. OBS. 9.--The preposition (as its name implies) _precedes_ the word which it governs. Yet there are some exceptions. In the familiar style, a preposition governing a relative or an interrogative pronoun, is often separated from its object, and connected with the other term of relation; as, "_Whom_ did he speak _to_?" But it is more dignified, and in general more graceful, to place the preposition before the pronoun; as, "_To whom_ did he speak?" The relatives _that_ and _as_, if governed by a preposition, must always precede it. In some instances, the pronoun must be supplied in parsing; as, "To set off the banquet [_that_ or _which_] he gives notice _of_."--_Philological Museum_, i, 454. Sometimes the objective word is put first because it is emphatical; as, "_This_ the great understand, _this_ they pique themselves _upon_."--_Art of Thinking_, p. 66. Prepositions of more than one syllable, are sometimes put immediately after their objects, especially in poetry; as, "Known all the _world over_."--_Walker's Particles_ p. 291. "The thing is known all _Lesbos over_."--_Ibid._ "Wild Carron's lonely _woods among_."--_Langhorne_. "Thy deep _ravines_ and _dells along_."--_Sir W. Scott_. OBS. 10.--Two prepositions sometimes come together; as, "Lambeth is _over against_ Westminster abbey."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 118. "And _from before_ the lustre of her face, White break the clouds away."--_Thomson_. "And the meagre fiend Blows mildew _from between_ his shrivell'd lips."--_Cowper_. These, in most instances, though they are not usually written as compounds, appear naturally to coalesce in their syntax, as was observed in the tenth chapter of Etymology, and to express a sort of compound relation between the other terms with which they are connected. When such is their character, they ought to be taken together in parsing; for, if we parse them separately, we must either call the first an adverb, or suppose some very awkward ellipsis. Some instances however occur, in which an object may easily be supplied to the former word, and perhaps ought to be; as, "He is at liberty to sell it _at_ [a price] _above_ a fair remuneration."-- _Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 258. "And I wish they had been at the bottom of the ditch I pulled you out of, _instead of_ [being] _upon_ my back."--_Sandford and Merton_, p. 29. In such examples as the following, the first preposition, _of_, appears to me to govern the plural noun which ends the sentence; and the intermediate ones, _from_ and _to_, to have both terms of their relation _understood_: "Iambic verse consists _of from_ two _to_ six feet; that is, _of from_ four _to_ twelve syllables."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 119. "Trochaic verse consists _of from_ one to three feet."--_Ibid._ The meaning is--"Iambic verse consists _of feet_ varying in number from two to six; or (it consists) _of syllables_ varying from four to twelve."--"Trochaic verse consists _of feet_ varying from one _foot_ to three _feet_." OBS. 11.--One antecedent term may have several prepositions depending on it, with one object after each, or more than one after any, or only one after both or all; as, "A declaration _for_ virtue and _against_ vice."--_Butler's Anal._, p. 157. "A positive law _against_ all fraud, falsehood, _and_ violence, and _for_, or _in_ favour _of_, all justice _and_ truth." "For _of_ him, and _through_ him, and _to_ him, are all things."--_Bible_. In fact, not only may the relation be simple in regard to all or any of the words, but it may also be complex in regard to all or any of them. Hence several different prepositions, whether they have different antecedent terms or only one and the same, may refer either jointly or severally to one object or to more. This follows, because not only may either antecedents or objects be connected by conjunctions, but prepositions also admit of this construction, with or without a connecting of their antecedents. Examples: "They are capable _of_, and placed _in_, different stations in the society of mankind."--_Butler's Anal._, p. 115. "Our perception _of_ vice _and_ ill desert arises _from_, and is the result _of_, a comparison _of_ actions _with_ the nature _and_ capacities _of_ the agent."--_Ib._, p. 279. "And the design _of_ this chapter is, _to_ inquire how far this is the case; how far, _over and above_ the moral nature which God has given us, _and_ our natural notion _of_ him, as righteous governor _of_ those his creatures _to_ whom he has given this nature; I say, how far, _besides_ this, the principles _and_ beginnings _of_ a moral government _over_ the world may be discerned, _notwithstanding and amidst_ all the confusion _and_ disorder _of_ it."--_Ib._, p. 85. OBS. 12.--The preposition _into_, expresses a relation produced by motion or change; and _in_, the same relation, without reference to motion as having produced it: hence, "to walk _into_ the garden," and, "to walk _in_ the garden," are very different in meaning. "It is disagreeable to find a word split _into_ two by a pause."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 83. This appears to be right in sense, but because brevity is desirable in unemphatic particles, I suppose most persons would say, "split _in_ two." In the Bible we have the phrases, "rent _in_ twain,"--"cut _in_ pieces,"--"brake _in_ pieces the rocks,"--"brake all their bones _in pieces_,"--"brake them _to_ pieces,"--"broken _to_ pieces,"--"pulled _in_ pieces." In all these, except the first, _to_ may perhaps be considered preferable to _in_; and _into_ would be objectionable only because it is longer and less simple. "Half of them dare not shake the snow from off their cassocks, lest they shake themselves _to_ pieces."--SHAK.: _Kames_, ii, 246. OBS. 13.--_Between_, or _betwixt_, is used in reference to two things or parties; _among_, or _amongst, amid_, or _amidst_, in reference to a greater number, or to something by which an other may be surrounded: as, "Thou pendulum _betwixt_ a smile and tear."--_Byron_. "The host _between the_ mountain and the shore."--_Id._ "To meditate _amongst_ decay, and stand a ruin _amidst_ ruins."--_Id._ In the following examples, the import of these prepositions is not very accurately regarded; "The Greeks wrote in capitals, and left no spaces between their words."--_Wilson's Essay_, p. 6. This construction may perhaps be allowed, because the spaces by which words are now divided, occur severally _between_ one word and an other; but the author might as well have said, "and left no spaces _to distinguish_ their words." "There was a hunting match agreed upon _betwixt_ a lion, an ass, and a fox."--_L'Estrange_. Here _by_ or _among_ would, I think, be better than _betwixt_, because the partners were more than two. "_Between_ two _or more_ authors, different readers will differ, exceedingly, as to the preference in point of merit."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 162; _Jamieson's_, 40; _Murray's Gram._, i, 360. Say, "_Concerning_ two or more authors," because _between_ is not consistent with the word _more_. "Rising _one among another_ in the greatest confusion and disorder."--_Spect._, No. 476. Say, "Rising _promiscuously_," or, "Rising _all at once_;" for _among_ is not consistent with the distributive term _one an other_. OBS. 14.--Of two prepositions coming together between the same terms of relation, and sometimes connected in the same construction, I have given several plain examples in this chapter, and in the tenth chapter of Etymology, a very great number, all from sources sufficiently respectable. But, in many of our English grammars, there is a stereotyped remark on this point, originally written by Priestley, which it is proper here to cite, as an other specimen of the Doctor's hastiness, and of the blind confidence of certain compilers and copyists: "Two different prepositions _must be improper_ in the same construction, and in the same sentence: [as,] _The combat_ between _thirty Britons_, against _twenty English_. Smollett's Voltaire, Vol. 2, p. 292."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 156. Lindley Murray and others have the same remark, with the example altered thus: "The combat _between_ thirty _French against_ twenty English."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 200; _Smith's New Gram._, 167: _Fisk's_, 142; _Ingersoll's_, 228. W. Allen has it thus: "Two different prepositions in the _same construction_ are improper; as, a combat _between twenty_ French _against thirty_ English."--_Elements of E. Gram._, p. 179. He gives the odds to the latter party. Hiley, with no expense of thought, first takes from Murray, as he from Priestley, the useless remark, "Different relations, and different senses, must be expressed by different prepositions;" and then adds, "_One relation_ must not, _therefore_, be expressed by two different prepositions in the same clause; thus, 'The combat _between thirty_ French _against thirty_ English,' should be, 'The combat _between thirty_ French _and thirty_ English.'"--_Hiley's E. Gram._, p 97. It is manifest that the error of this example is not in the use of _two prepositions_, nor is there any truth or fitness in the note or notes made on it by all these critics; for had they said, "The combat _of_ thirty French _against_ twenty English," there would still be two prepositions, but where would be the impropriety, or where the sameness of construction, which they speak of? _Between_ is incompatible with _against_, only because it requires two parties or things for its own regimen; as, "The combat _between_ thirty _Frenchmen and_ twenty _Englishmen_." This is what Smollett should have written, to make sense with the word "_between_." OBS. 15.--With like implicitness, Hiley excepted, these grammarians and others have adopted from Lowth an observation in which the learned doctor has censured quite too strongly the joint reference of different prepositions to the same objective noun: to wit, "Some writers separate the preposition from its noun, in order to connect different prepositions to the same noun; as, 'To suppose the zodiac and planets to be efficient _of_, and antecedent _to_, themselves.' Bentley, Serm. 6. This [construction], whether in the familiar or the solemn style, is _always inelegant_; and _should never be admitted_, but in forms of law, and the like; where fullness and exactness of expression must take _place_ of every other consideration."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 96; _Murray's_, i, 200; _Smith's_, 167; _Fisk's_, 141; _Ingersoll's_, 228; _Alger's_, 67; _Picket's_, 207. Churchill even goes further, both strengthening the censure, and disallowing the exception: thus, "This, whether in the solemn or in the familiar style, is _always_ inelegant, and should _never be admitted_. It is an _awkward shift_ for avoiding the repetition of a word, _which might be accomplished without it_ by any person who has the least command of language."--_New Gram._, p. 341. Yet, with all their command of language, not one of these gentlemen has told us how the foregoing sentence from Bentley may be _amended_; while many of their number not only venture to use different prepositions before the same noun, but even to add a phrase which puts that noun in the nominative case: as, "Thus, the time of the infinitive may be _before, after_, or _the same as_, the time of the governing verb, according as the _thing_ signified by the infinitive is supposed to be _before, after_, or _present with_, the _thing_ denoted by the governing verb."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 191; _Ingersoll's_, 260; _R. C. Smith's_, 159. OBS. 16.--The structure of this example not only contradicts palpably, and twice over, the doctrine cited above, but one may say of the former part of it, as Lowth, Murray, and others do, (in no very accurate English,) of the text 1 Cor., ii, 9: "There seems to be an impropriety in this sentence, in which the same noun serves in a double capacity, performing at the same time the _offices both of the nominative and objective cases_."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 224. See also _Lowth's Gram._, p. 73; _Ingersoll's_, 277; _Fisk's_, 149; _Smith's_, 185. Two other examples, exactly like that which is so pointedly censured above, are placed by Murray under his thirteenth rule for the comma; and these likewise, with all faithfulness, are copied by Ingersoll, Smith, Alger, Kirkham, Comly, Russell, and I know not how many more. In short, not only does this rule of their punctuation include the construction in question; but the following exception to it, which is remarkable for its various faults, or thorough faultiness, is applicable to _no other_: "Sometimes, when the _word_ with which the _last_ preposition _agrees_, is _single_, it is better to _omit_ the comma before it: as, 'Many states were in alliance _with_, and under the protection _of_ Rome.'"--_Murray's Gram._, p. 272; _Smith's_, 190; _Ingersoll's_, 284; _Kirkham's_, 215; _Alger's_, 79; _Alden's_, 149; _Abel Flint's_, 103; _Russell's_, 115. But the blunders and contradictions on this point, end not here. Dr. Blair happened most unlearnedly to say, "What is called splitting of particles, or separating a preposition from the noun which it governs, is _always to be avoided_. As if I should say, 'Though virtue borrows no assistance from, yet it may often be accompanied by, the advantages of fortune.'"--_Lect. XII_, p. 112. This too, though the author himself did not _always_ respect the rule, has been thought worthy to be copied, or stolen, with all its faults! See _Jamieson's Rhetoric_, p. 93; and _Murray's Octavo Gram._, p. 319. OBS. 17.--Dr. Lowth says, "The noun _aversion_, (that is, a turning away,) as likewise the adjective _averse_, seems to require the preposition _from_ after it; and not so properly to admit of _to_, or _for_, which are often used with it."--_Gram._, p. 98. But this doctrine has not been adopted by the later grammarians: "The words _averse_ and _aversion_ (says Dr. Campbell) are more properly construed with _to_ than with _from_. The examples in favour of the latter preposition, are beyond comparison outnumbered by those in favour of the former."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 201; _Fisk's_, 142; _Ingersoll's_, 229. This however must be understood only of mental aversion. The expression of Milton, "On the coast _averse from_ entrance," would not be improved, if _from_ were changed to _to_. So the noun _exception_, and the verb to _except_, are sometimes followed by _from_, which has regard to the Latin particle _ex_, with which the word commences; but the noun at least is much more frequently, and perhaps more properly, followed by _to_. Examples: "Objects of horror must be _excepted from_ the foregoing theory."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 268. "_From_ which there are but two _exceptions_, both of them rare."--_Ib._, ii. 89. "_To_ the rule that fixes the pause after the fifth portion, there is one _exception_, and no more."--_Ib._, ii, 84. "No _exception_ can be taken _to_ the justness of the figure."--_Ib._, ii, 37. "Originally there was no _exception_ from the rule."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 58. "_From_ this rule there is mostly an _exception_."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 269. "But _to_ this rule there are many _exceptions._"--_Ib._, i. 240. "They are not to be regarded as exceptions _from_ the rule,"--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 363. OBS. 18.--After correcting the example. "He _knows_ nothing _on_ [of] it," Churchill remarks, "There seems to be a strange perverseness among the _London vulgar_ in perpetually substituting _on_ for _of_, and _of_ for _on_."--_New Gram._, p. 345. And among the expressions which Campbell censures under the name of _vulgarism_, are the following: "'Tis my humble request you will be particular in speaking _to_ the following points."--_Guardian_, No. 57. "The preposition ought to have been _on_. Precisely of the same stamp is the _on't_ for _of it_, so much used by one class of writers."--_Philosophy of Rhet._, p. 217. So far as I have observed, the use of _of_ for _on_ has never been frequent; and that of _on_ for _of_, or _on't_ for _of it_, though it may never have been a polite custom, is now a manifest _archaism_, or imitation of ancient usage. "And so my young Master, whatever comes _on't_, must have a Wife look'd out for him."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 378. In Saxon, _on_ was put for more than half a dozen of our present prepositions. The difference between _of_ and _on_ or _upon_, appears in general to be obvious enough; and yet there are some phrases in which it is not easy to determine which of these words ought to be preferred: as, "Many things they cannot _lay hold on_ at once."--HOOKER: _Joh. Dict._ "Uzzah put forth his hand to the ark of God, and _took hold of_ it."--2 SAM.: _ib._ "Rather thou shouldst _lay hold upon_ him."--BEN JONSON: _ib._ "Let them find courage to _lay hold on_ the occasion."--MILTON: _ib._ "The hand is fitted to _lay hold of_ objects."--RAY: _ib._ "My soul _took hold on_ thee."--ADDISON: _ib._ "To _lay hold of_ this safe, this only method of cure."--ATTERBURY: _ib._ "And _give_ fortune no more _hold_ of him."--DRYDEN: _ib._ "And his laws _take_ the surest _hold of_ us."--TILLOTSON: _ib._ "It will then be impossible you can _have_ any _hold upon_ him."--SWIFT: _ib._ "The court of Rome gladly _laid hold on_ all the opportunities."--_Murray's Key_, ii, p. 198. "Then did the officer _lay hold of_ him and execute him."--_Ib._, ii, 219. "When one can _lay hold upon_ some noted fact."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 311. "But when we would _lay_ firm _hold of_ them."--_Ib._, p. 28. "An advantage which every one is glad to _lay hold of_."--_Ib._, p. 75. "To have _laid_ fast _hold of_ it in his mind."--_Ib._, p. 94. "I would advise them to lay aside their common-places, and to _think_ closely _of_ their subject."--_Ib._, p. 317. "Did they not _take hold of_ your fathers?"--_Zech._, i, 6. "Ten men shall _take hold of_ the skirt of one that is a Jew."--_Ib._, viii, 23. "It is wrong to say, either 'to _lay_ hold _of_ a thing,' or 'to _take_ hold _on_ it.'"--_Blair's Gram._, p. 101. In the following couplet, _on_ seems to have been preferred only for a rhyme: "Yet, lo! in me what authors have to _brag on_! Reduc'd at last to hiss in my own dragon."--_Pope_. OBS. 19.--In the allowable uses of prepositions, there may perhaps be some room for choice; so that what to the mind of a critic may not appear the fittest word, may yet be judged not positively ungrammatical. In this light I incline to view the following examples: "Homer's plan is still more defective, _upon_ another account."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 299. Say--"_on an other_ account." "It was almost eight _of the_ clock before I could leave that variety of objects."--_Spectator_, No. 454. Present usage requires--"eight _o_'clock." "The Greek and Latin writers had a considerable advantage _above_ us."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 114. "The study of oratory has this advantage _above_ that of poetry."--_Ib._, p. 338. "A metaphor has frequently an advantage _above_ a formal comparison."-- _Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 150. This use of _above_ seems to be a sort of Scotticism: an Englishman, I think, would say--"advantage _over_ us," &c. "Hundreds have all these crowding upon them from morning _to_ night."-- _Abbott's Teacher_, p. 33. Better--"from morning _till_ night." But Horne Tooke observes, "We apply TO indifferently to _place_ or _time_; but TILL to _time_ only, and never to _place_. Thus we may say, 'From morn TO night th' eternal larum rang;' or, 'From morn TILL night.' &c."--_Diversions of Purley_, i, 284. NOTES TO RULE XXIII. NOTE I.--Prepositions must be chosen and employed agreeably to the usage and idiom of the language, so as rightly to express the relations intended. Example of error: "By which we arrive _to_ the last division."--_Richard W. Green's Gram._, p. vii. Say,--"arrive _at_." NOTE II.--Those prepositions which are particularly adapted in meaning to _two objects_, or to _more_, ought to be confined strictly to the government of such terms only as suit them. Example of error: "What is _Person_? It is the _medium of_ distinction _between_ the _speaker_, the _object_ addressed or spoken _to_, and the _object_ spoken _of_."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 34. "_Between three_" is an incongruity; and the text here cited is bad in several other respects. NOTE III.--An _ellipsis_ or _omission_ of the preposition is inelegant, except where long and general use has sanctioned it, and made the relation sufficiently intelligible. In the following sentence, _of_ is needed: "I will not flatter you, that all I see in you is _worthy love_."-- _Shakspeare_. The following requires _from_: "Ridicule _is banished France_, and is losing ground in England."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 106. NOTE IV.--The _insertion_ of a preposition is also inelegant, when the particle is needless, or when it only robs a transitive verb of its proper regimen; as, "The people of England may congratulate _to_ themselves."--DRYDEN: _Priestley's Gram._, p. 163. "His servants ye are, _to_ whom ye obey."--_Rom._, vi, 16. NOTE V.--The preposition and its object should have that position in respect to other words, which will render the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable. Examples of error: "Gratitude is a forcible and active principle in good and generous minds."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 169. Better: "In good and generous minds, gratitude is a forcible and active principle." "By a single stroke, he knows how to reach the heart."-- _Blair's Rhet._, p. 439. Better: "He knows how to reach the heart by a single stroke." IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XXIII. EXAMPLES UNDER NOTE I.--CHOICE OF PREPOSITIONS. "You have bestowed your favours to the most deserving persons."--_Swift, on E. Tongue_. [FORMULE.--Not proper because the relation between _have bestowed_ and _persons_ is not correctly expressed by the preposition _to_. But, according to Note 1st under Rule 23d, "Prepositions must be chosen and employed agreeably to the usage and idiom of the language, so as rightly to express the relations intended." This relation would be better expressed by _upon_; thus, "You have bestowed your favours _upon_ the most deserving persons."] "But to rise beyond that, and overtop the crowd, is given to few."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 351. "This also is a good sentence, and gives occasion to no material remark."--_Ib._, p. 201. "Though Cicero endeavours to give some reputation of the elder Cato, and those who were his cotemporaries."--_Ib._, p. 245. "The change that was produced on eloquence, is beautifully described in the Dialogue."--_Ib._, p. 249. "Without carefully attending to the variation which they make upon the idea."--_Ib._, p. 367. "All of a sudden, you are transported into a lofty palace."--_Hazlitt's Lect._, p. 70. "Alike independent on one another."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 398. "You will not think of them as distinct processes going on independently on each other,"--_Channing's Self-Culture_, p. 15. "Though we say, to _depend on, dependent on_, and _independent on_, we say, _independently of_."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 348. "Independently on the rest of the sentence."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 78; _Guy's_, 88; _Murray's_, i, 145 and 184; _Ingersoll's_, 150; _Frost's_, 46; _Fisk's_, 125; _Smith's New Gram._, 156; _Gould's Lat. Gram._, 209; _Nixon's Parser_, 65. "Because they stand independent on the rest of the sentence."--_Fisk's Gram._, p. 111. "When a substantive is joined with a participle in English independently in the rest of the sentence."--_Adam's Lat. and Eng. Gram., Boston Ed. of 1803_, p. 213; _Albany Ed. of 1820_, p. 166. "Conjunction, comes of the two Latin words _con_, together, and _jungo_, to join."--_Merchant's School Gram._, p. 19. "How different to this is the life of Fulvia!"--_Addison's Spect._, No. 15. "_Loved_ is a participle or adjective, derived of the word _love_."--_Dr. Ash's Gram._, p. 27. "But I would inquire at him, what an office is?"--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 463. "For the capacity is brought unto action."--_Ib._, iii, 420. "In this period, language and taste arrive to purity."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 94. "And should you not aspire at distinction in the republick of letters."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 13. "Delivering you up to the synagogues, and in prisons."--_Keith's Evidences_, p. 55. "One that is kept from falling in a ditch, is as truly saved, as he that is taken out of one."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 312. "The best on it is, they are but a sort of French Hugonots."--_Addison, Spect._, No. 62. "These last Ten Examples are indeed of a different Nature to the former."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 333. "For the initiation of students in the principles of the English language."--ANNUAL REVIEW: _Murray's Gram._, ii, 299. "Richelieu profited of every circumstance which the conjuncture afforded,"--_Bolingbroke, on Hist._, p. 177. "In the names of drugs and plants, the mistake in a word may endanger life."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 165. "In order to the carrying on its several parts into execution."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 192. "His abhorrence to the superstitious figure."--HUME: _Priestley's Gram._, p. 164. "Thy prejudice to my cause."--DRYDEN: _ib._, p. 164. "Which is found among every species of liberty."--HUME: _ib._, p. 169. "In a hilly region to the north of Jericho."--_Milman's Jews_, Vol. i, p. 8. "Two or more singular nouns, coupled with AND, require a verb and pronoun in the plural."--_Lennie's Gram._, p. 83. "Books should to one of these four ends conduce, For wisdom, piety, delight, or use."--_Denham_, p. 239. UNDER NOTE II.--TWO OBJECTS OR MORE. "The Anglo-Saxons, however, soon quarrelled between themselves for precedence."--_Constable's Miscellany_, xx, p. 59. "The distinctions between the principal parts of speech are founded in nature."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 7. "I think I now understand the difference between the active, passive, and neuter verbs."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 124. "Thus a figure including a space between three lines, is the real as well as nominal essence of a triangle."--_Locke's Essay_, p. 303. "We must distinguish between an imperfect phrase, a simple sentence, and a compound sentence."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 117; _Murray's_, i, 267; _Ingersoll's_, 280; _Guy's_, 97. "The Jews are strictly forbidden by their law, to exercise usury among one another."--_Sale's Koran_, p. 177. "All the writers have distinguished themselves among one another."--_Addison_. "This expression also better secures the systematic uniformity between the three cases."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 98. "When a disjunctive occurs between two or more Infinitive Modes, or clauses, the verb must be singular."-- _Jaudon's Gram._, p. 95. "Several nouns or pronouns together in the same case, not united by _and_, require a comma between each."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 115. "The difference between the several vowels is produced by opening the mouth differently, and placing the tongue in a different manner for each."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 2. "Thus feet composed of syllables, being pronounced with a sensible interval between each, make a more lively impression than can be made by a continued sound."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. ii, p. 32. "The superlative degree implies a comparison between three or more."--_Smith's Productive Gram._, p. 51. "They are used to mark a distinction between several objects."--_Levizac's Gram._, p. 85. UNDER NOTE III.--OMISSION OF PREPOSITIONS. "This would have been less worthy notice."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 197. "But I passed it, as a thing unworthy my notice."--_Werter_. "Which, in compliment to me, perhaps, you may, one day, think worthy your attention."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 81. "To think this small present worthy an introduction to the young ladies of your very elegant establishment."-- _Ib._, p. iv. "There are but a few miles portage."--_Jefferson's Notes on Virginia_, p. 17. "It is worthy notice, that our mountains are not solitary."--_Ib._, p. 26. "It is of about one hundred feet diameter."-- _Ib._, 33. "Entering a hill a quarter or half a mile."--_Ib._, p. 47. "And herself seems passing to that awful dissolution, whose issue is not given human foresight to scan."--_Ib._, p. 100. "It was of a spheroidical form, of about forty feet diameter at the base, and had been of about twelve feet altitude."--_Ib._, p. 143. "Before this it was covered with trees of twelve inches diameter, and round the base was an excavation of five feet depth and width."--_Ibid._ "Then thou mayest eat grapes thy fill at thine own pleasure."--_Deut._, xxiii, 24. "Then he brought me back the way of the gate of the outward sanctuary."--_Ezekiel_, xliv, 1. "They will bless God that he has peopled one half the world with a race of freemen."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 94. "What use can these words be, till their meaning is known?"--_Town's Analysis_, p. 7. "The tents of the Arabs now are black, or a very dark colour."--_The Friend_, Vol. v, p. 265. "They may not be unworthy the attention of young men."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 157. "The pronoun that is frequently applied to persons, as well as things."-- _Merchant's Gram._, p. 87. "And _who_ is in the same case that _man_ is."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 148. "He saw a flaming stone, apparently about four feet diameter."--_The Friend_, vii, 409. "Pliny informs us, that this stone was the size of a cart."--_Ibid._ "Seneca was about twenty years of age in the fifth year of Tiberius, when the Jews were expelled Rome."--_Seneca's Morals_, p. 11. "I was prevented[438] reading a letter which would have undeceived me."--_Hawkesworth, Adv._, No. 54. "If the problem can be solved, we may be pardoned the inaccuracy of its demonstration."--_Booth's Introd._, p. 25. "The army must of necessity be the school, not of honour, but effeminacy."--_Brown's Estimate_, i. 65. "Afraid of the virtue of a nation, in its opposing bad measures."--_Ib._, i, 73. "The uniting them in various ways, so as to form words, would be easy."--_Music of Nature_, p. 34. "I might be excused taking any more notice of it."--_Watson's Apology_, p. 65. "Watch therefore; for ye know not what hour your Lord doth come."--_Matt._, xxiv, 42. "Here, not even infants were spared the sword."--_M'Ilvaine's Lectures_, p. 313. "To prevent men turning aside to corrupt modes of worship."--_Calvin's Institutes_, B. I, Ch. 12, Sec. 1. "God expelled them the Garden of Eden."--_Burder's Hist._, Vol. i, p. 10. "Nor could he refrain expressing to the senate the agonies of his mind"--_Art of Thinking_, p. 123. "Who now so strenuously opposes the granting him any new powers."--_Duncan's Cicero_, p. 127. "That the laws of the censors have banished him the forum."--_Ib._, p. 140. "We read not that he was degraded his office any other way."--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 149. "To all whom these presents shall come, Greeting."--_Hutchinson's Mass._, i, 459. "On the 1st, August, 1834."--_British Act for the Abolition of Slavery_. "Whether you had not some time in your life Err'd in this point which now you censure him."--_Shak_. UNDER NOTE IV.--OF NEEDLESS PREPOSITIONS. "And the apostles and elders came together to consider of this matter."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 481. "And the apostles and elders came together for to consider of this matter."--_Acts_, xv, 6. "Adjectives in our Language have neither Case, Gender, nor Number; the only Variation they have is by Comparison."--_Buchanan's Gram._, p. 27. "'It is to you, that I am indebted for this privilege;' that is, 'to you am I indebted;' or, 'It is to you to whom I am indebted.'"--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 232. "_Books_ is a noun, of the third person, plural number, of neuter gender,"-- _Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 15. "_Brother's_ is a common substantive, of the masculine gender, the third person, the singular number, and in the possessive case."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 229. "_Virtue's_ is a common substantive, of the third person, the singular number, and in the possessive case."--_Ib._, i, 228. "When the authorities on one side greatly preponderate, it is in vain to oppose the prevailing usage."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 173; _Murray's Gram._, i, 367. "A captain of a troop of banditti, had a mind to be plundering of Rome."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 51. "And, notwithstanding of its Verbal power, we have added the _to_ and other signs of exertion."--_Booth's Introd._, p. 28. "Some of these situations are termed CASES, and are expressed by additions to the Noun instead of by separate words."--_Ib._, p. 33. "Is it such a fast that I have chosen, that a man should afflict his soul for a day, and to bow down his head like a bulrush?"--_Bacon's Wisdom_, p. 65. "And this first emotion comes at last to be awakened by the accidental, instead of, by the necessary antecedent."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 17. "At about the same time, the subjugation of the Moors was completed."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 269. "God divided between the light and between the darkness."-- _Burder's Hist._, i, 1. "Notwithstanding of this, we are not against outward significations of honour."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 242. "Whether these words and practices of Job's friends, be for to be our rule."--_Ib._, i, 243. "Such verb cannot admit of an objective case after it."--_Lowth's Gram._, "For which God is now visibly punishing of these Nations."--_Right of Tythes_, "In this respect, Tasso yields to no poet, except to Homer."--_Blair's Rhet._, "Notwithstanding of the numerous panegyrics on the ancient English liberty."--HUME: _Priestley's Gram._, "Their efforts seemed to anticipate on the spirit, which became so general afterwards."--_Id., ib._, p. 167. UNDER NOTE V.--THE PLACING OF THE WORDS. "But how short are my expressions of its excellency!"--_Baxter_. "There is a remarkable union in his style, of harmony with ease."--_Blair's Rhet._, "It disposes in the most artificial manner, of the light and shade, for viewing every thing to the best advantage."--"Aristotle too holds an eminent rank among didactic writers for his brevity."--"In an introduction, correctness should be carefully studied in the expression."--"Precision is to be studied, above all things in laying down a method."--"Which shall make the impression on the mind of something that is one, whole and entire."--"At the same time, there are some defects which must be acknowledged in the Odyssey."--"Beauties, however, there are, in the concluding books, of the tragic kind."--"These forms of conversation by degrees multiplied and grew troublesome."--_Spectator_, No. 119. "When she has made her own choice, for form's sake, she sends a congé-d'-élire to her friends."--"Let us endeavour to establish to ourselves an interest in him who holds the reins of the whole creation in his hand."--"Let us endeavour to establish to ourselves an interest in him, who, in his hand, holds the reins of the whole creation."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 53. "The most frequent measure next to this in English poetry is that of eight syllables."--_Blair's Gram._, "To introduce as great a variety as possible of cadences."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, "He addressed several exhortations to them suitable to their circumstances."--_Murray's Key_, ii, "Habits must be acquired of temperance and self-denial."--"In reducing the rules prescribed to practice."--_Murray's Gram._, "But these parts must be so closely bound together as to make the impression upon the mind, of one object, not of many."--_Blair's Rhet._, "Errors are sometimes committed by the most distinguished writer, with respect to the use of _shall_ and _will_"--_Butler's Pract. Gram._, CHAPTER XI--INTERJECTIONS. Interjections, being seldom any thing more than natural sounds or short words uttered independently, can hardly be said to have any _syntax_; but since some rule is necessary to show the learner how to dispose of them in parsing, a brief axiom for that purpose, is here added, which completes our series of rules: and, after several remarks on this canon, and on the common treatment of Interjections, this chapter is made to embrace _Exercises_ upon all the other parts of speech, that the chapters in the Key may correspond to those of the Grammar. RULE XXIV.--INTERJECTIONS. Interjections have no dependent construction; they are put absolute, either alone, or with other words: as, "_O!_ let not thy heart despise me."--_Dr. Johnson_. "_O_ cruel _thou_!"--_Pope, Odys._, B. xii, l. 333. "Ah wretched _we_, poets of earth!"--_Cowley_, "_Ah Dennis! Gildon ah!_ what ill-starr'd rage Divides a friendship long confirm'd by age?" _Pope, Dunciad_, B. iii, OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXIV. OBS. 1.--To this rule, there are properly _no exceptions_. Though interjections are sometimes uttered in close connexion with other words, yet, being mere signs of passion or of feeling, they seem not to have any strict grammatical relation, or dependence according to the sense. Being destitute alike of relation, agreement, and government, they must be used independently, if used at all. Yet an emotion signified in this manner, not being causeless, may be accompanied by some object, expressed either by a nominative absolute, or by an adjective after _for_: as, "_Alas!_ poor _Yorick!_"--_Shak_. Here the grief denoted by _alas_, is certainly _for Yorick_; as much so, as if the expression were, "Alas _for_ poor Yorick!" But, in either case, _alas_, I think, has no dependent construction; neither has _Yorick_, in the former, unless we suppose an ellipsis of some governing word. OBS. 2.--The interjection _O_ is common to many languages, and is frequently uttered, in token of earnestness, before nouns or pronouns put absolute by direct address; as, "Arise, _O Lord; O God_, lift up thine hand."--_Psalms_, x, 12. "_O ye_ of little faith!"--_Matt._, vi, 30. The Latin and Greek grammarians, therefore, made this interjection the _sign_ of the _vocative case_; which case is the same as the nominative put absolute by address in English. But this particle is no positive index of the vocative; because an independent address may be made without that sign, and the _O_ may be used where there is no address: as, "_O_ scandalous want! _O_ shameful omission!"--"Pray, _Sir_, don't be uneasy."--_Burgh's Speaker_, p. 86. OBS. 3.--Some grammarians ascribe to two or three of our interjections the power of governing sometimes the nominative case, and sometimes the objective. First, NIXON; in an exercise entitled, "NOMINATIVE GOVERNED BY AN INTERJECTION," thus: "The interjections O! Oh! and Ah! _require_ after them the nominative case of a _substantive_ in the _second_ person; as, 'O thou _persecutor!_'--'O Alexander! thou hast slain thy friend.' _O_ is an interjection, _governing_ the nominative case _Alexander_."--_English Parser_, Again, under the title, "OBJECTIVE CASE GOVERNED BY AN INTERJECTION," he says: "The interjections O! Oh! and Ah! _require_ after them the objective case of a _substantive_ in the _first_ or _third_ person; as, 'Oh _me!_' 'Oh the _humiliations_!' _Oh_ is an interjection, _governing_ the objective case _humiliations_."--These two rules are in fact contradictory, while each of them absurdly suggests that _O, oh_, and _ah_, are used only with nouns. So J. M. PUTNAM: "Interjections sometimes _govern_ an objective case; as, _Ah me! O_ the tender _ties! O_ the soft _enmity! O me_ miserable! _O_ wretched _prince! O_ cruel _reverse_ of fortune! When an address is made, the interjection does not perform the office of government."--_Putnam's Gram._, So KIRKHAM; who, under a rule quite different from these, extends the doctrine of government to _all_ interjections: "According to the genius of the English language, transitive verbs and prepositions _require_ the objective case of a noun or pronoun after them; and this requisition is all that is meant by _government_, when we say that these parts of speech _govern the objective_ case. THE SAME PRINCIPLE APPLIES TO THE INTERJECTION. 'Interjections _require_ the objective case of a pronoun of the first person after them; but the nominative of a noun or pronoun of the second or third person; as, Ah _me_! Oh _thou_! O my _country!_' To say, then, that interjections _require_ particular cases after them, is synonymous with saying, that they _govern_ those cases; and this office of the interjection is in _perfect accordance_ with that which it performs in the Latin, and many other languages."--_Kirkham's Gram._, According to this, every interjection has as much need of an object after it, as has a transitive verb or a preposition! The rule has, certainly, _no_ "accordance" with what occurs in Latin, or in any other language; it is wholly a fabrication, though found, in some shape or other, in well-nigh all English grammars. OBS. 4.--L. MURRAY'S doctrine on this point is thus expressed: "The interjections _O! Oh!_ and _Ah! require_ the objective case of a pronoun in the first person after them, as, 'O me! oh me! Ah me!' But the nominative case in the second person: as, 'O thou persecutor!' 'Oh ye hypocrites!' 'O thou, who dwellest,' &c."--_Octavo Gram._, INGERSOLL copies this most faulty note literally, adding these words to its abrupt end,--i. e., to its inexplicable "&c." used by Murray; "because the first person _is governed by a preposition_ understood: as, 'Ah _for_ me!' or, '_O what will become of_ me!' &c., and the second person is in the _nominative independent_, there being a direct address."--_Conversations on E. Gram._, So we see that this grammarian and Kirkham, both modifiers of Murray, understand their master's false verb "_require_" very differently. LENNIE too, in renouncing a part of Murray's double or threefold error, "_Oh! happy us!_" for, "_O_ happy _we!_" teaches thus: "Interjections sometimes _require_ the objective case after them, but they never _govern_ it. In the first edition of this grammar," says he, "I followed Mr. Murray and others, in leaving _we_, in the exercises to be turned into _us_; but that it should be _we_, and not _us_, is obvious; because it is the nominative to _are_ understood; thus, _Oh_ happy _are we_, or, _Oh we are_ happy, (being) surrounded with so many blessings."--_Lennie's Gram., Fifth Edition, Twelfth_, Here is an other solution of the construction of this pronoun of the first person, contradictory alike to Ingersoll's, to Kirkham's, and to Murray's; while _all are wrong_, and this among the rest. The word should indeed be _we_, and not _us_; because we have both analogy and good authority for the former case, and nothing but the false conceit of sundry grammatists for the latter. But it is a _nominative absolute_, like any other nominative which we use in the same exclamatory manner. For the first person may just as well be put in the nominative absolute, by exclamation, as any other; as, "Behold _I_ and the _children_ whom God hath given me!"--_Heb._, "Ecce _ego_ et _pueri_ quos mihi dedit Deus!"--_Beza_. "O brave _we!_"--_Dr. Johnson, often_. So Horace: "O _ego_ lævus," &c.--_Ep. ad Pi._, 301. "Ah! luckless _I!_ who purge in spring my spleen-- Else sure the first of bards had Horace been." --_Francis's Hor._, ii, 209. OBS. 5.--Whether Murray's remark above, on "_O! Oh!_ and _Ah!_" was originally designed for a _rule of government_ or not, it is hardly worth any one's while to inquire. It is too lame and inaccurate every way, to deserve any notice, but that which should serve to explode it forever. Yet no few, who have since made English grammars, have copied the text literally; as they have, for the public benefit, stolen a thousand other errors from the same quarter. The reader will find it, with little or no change, in Smith's New Grammar, p. 96 and 134; Alger's, 56; Allen's, 117; Russell's, 92; Blair's, 100, Guy's, 89; Abel Flint's, 59; A Teacher's, 43, Picket's, 210; Cooper's[439] Murray, 136; Wilcox's, 95; Bucke's, 87; Emmons's, 77; and probably in others. Lennie varies it _indefinitely_, thus: "RULE. The interjections _Oh!_ and _Ah!_ &c. _generally_ require the objective case of the first personal pronoun, _and_ the nominative of the second; as, Ah _me!_ O _thou_ fool! O _ye_ hypocrites!"--_Lennie's Gram._, p. 110; _Brace's_, 88. M'Culloch, after Crombie, thus: "RULE XX. Interjections are joined with the objective case of the pronoun of the first person, and with the nominative of the pronoun of the second; as, Ah me! O ye hypocrites."--_Manual of E. Gram._, p. 145; and _Crombie's Treatise_, p. 315; also _Fowler's E. Language_, p. 563. Hiley makes it a note, thus: "The interjections. O! Oh! Ah! _are followed by_ the objective case of a pronoun of the first person; as, _'Oh me!' 'Ah me!'_ but by the nominative case of the pronoun in the second person; as, '_O thou_ who dwellest.' "--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 82. This is what the same author elsewhere calls "THE GOVERNMENT OF INTERJECTIONS;" though, like some others, he had set it in the "Syntax of PRONOUNS." See _Ib._, p. 108. Murray, in forming his own little "Abridgment," omitted it altogether. In his other grammars, it is still a mere note, standing where he at first absurdly put it, under his rule for the agreement of pronouns with their antecedents. By many of his sage amenders, it has been placed in the catalogue of principal rules. But, that it is no adequate rule for interjections, is manifest; for, in its usual form, it is limited to _three_, and none of these can ever, with any propriety, be parsed by it. Murray himself has not used it in any of his forms of parsing. He conceived, (as I hinted before in Chapter 1st,) that, "The syntax of the Interjection is of _so very limited a nature_, that it _does not require_ a distinct, appropriate rule."--_Octavo Gram._, i. 224. OBS. 6.--Against this remark of Murray's, a good argument may be drawn from the ridiculous use which has been made of his own suggestion in the other place. For, though that suggestion never had in it the least shadow of truth, and was never at all applicable either to the three interjections, or to pronouns, or to cases, or to the persons, or to any thing else of which it speaks, it has not only been often copied literally, and called a "RULE" of syntax, but many have, yet more absurdly, made it a _general canon_ which imposes on all interjections a syntax that belongs to none of them. For example: "_An interjection must be followed_ by the objective case of a pronoun in the first person; _and_ by a nominative of the second person; as--_Oh me! ah me! oh thou! AH hail, ye_ happy men!"--_Jaudon's Gram._, p. 116. This is as much as to say, that every interjection must have a pronoun or two after it! Again: "_Interjections must be followed_ by the objective case of the pronoun in the first person; as, O _me!_ Ah _me!_ and by the nominative case of the second person; as, O _thou_ persecutor! Oh _ye_ hypocrites!"--_Merchant's Murray_, p. 80; _Merchant's School Gram._, p. 99. I imagine there is a difference between O and _oh_,[440] and that this author, as well as Murray, in the first and the last of these examples, has misapplied them both. Again: "_Interjections require_ the objective case of a pronoun of the first person, and the nominative case of the second; as, _Ah me! O thou_"--_Frost's El. of E. Gram._, p. 48. This, too, is general, but equivocal; as if one case or both were necessary to each interjection! OBS. 7.--Of _nouns_, or of the _third person_, the three rules last cited say nothing;[441] though it appears from other evidence, that their authors supposed them applicable at least to _some nouns_ of the _second person_. The supposition however was quite needless, because each of their grammars contains an other Rule, that, "When an address is made, the noun or pronoun is in the nominative case _independent_;" which, by the by, is far from being universally true, either of the noun or of the pronoun. Russell imagines, "The words _depending_ upon interjections, have so near a resemblance to those in a direct address, that they may very properly be classed under the same general head," and be parsed as being, "in the nominative case _independent_." See his "_Abridgment of Murray's Grammar_," p. 91. He does not perceive that _depending_ and _independent_ are words that contradict each other. Into the same inconsistency, do nearly all those gentlemen fall, who ascribe to interjections a control over cases. Even Kirkham, who so earnestly contends that what any words _require_ after them they must necessarily _govern_, forgets his whole argument, or justly disbelieves it, whenever he parses any noun that is uttered with an interjection. In short, he applies his principle to nothing but the word _me_ in the phrases, "_Ah me!_" "_Oh me!_" and "_Me miserable!_" and even these he parses falsely. The second person used in the vocative, or the nominative put absolute by direct address, whether an interjection be used or not, he rightly explains as being "in the nominative case independent;" as, "O _Jerusalem, Jerusalem!_"--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 130. "O _maid_ of Inistore!"--_Ib._, p. 131. But he is wrong in saying that, "Whenever a noun is of the second person, it is in the nominative case independent;" (_Ib._, p. 130;) and still more so, in supposing that, "The principle contained in the note" [which tells what interjections _require_,] "_proves_ that every noun of the second person is in the nominative case."--_Ib._, p. 164. A falsehood proves nothing but the ignorance or the wickedness of him who utters it. He is wrong too, as well as many others, in supposing that this nominative independent is not a nominative absolute; for, "The vocative is [_generally_, if not _always_,] absolute."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 142. But that nouns of the second person are not always absolute or independent, nor always in the nominative case, or the vocative, appears, I think, by the following example: "This is the stone which was set at nought _of you builders_."--_Acts_, iv, II. See Obs. 3d on Rule 8th. OBS. 8.--The third person, when uttered in exclamation, with an interjection before it, is parsed by Kirkham, not as being governed by the interjection, either in the nominative case, according to his own argument and own rule above cited, or in the objective, according to Nixon's notion of the construction; nor yet as being put absolute in the nominative, as I believe it generally, if not always is; but as being "the nominative to a verb understood; as, 'Lo,' _there is_ 'the poor _Indian_!' '0, the _pain_' _there is!_ 'the _bliss_' _there is_ 'IN dying!'"--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 129. Pope's text is, "_Oh_ the pain, the bliss _of_ dying!" and, in all that is here changed, the grammarian has perverted it, if not in all that he has added. It is an other principle of Kirkham's Grammar, though a false one, that, "Nouns have but two persons, the second and [the] third."--P. 37. So that, these two being disposed of agreeably to his own methods above, which appear to include the second and third persons of pronouns also, there remains to him nothing but the objective of the pronoun of the first person to which he can suppose his other rule to apply; and I have shown that there is no truth in it, even in regard to this. Yet, with the strongest professions of adhering to the principles, and even to "the language" of Lindley Murray, this gentleman, by copying somebody else in preference to "that eminent philologist," has made himself one of those by whom Murray's erroneous remark on _O, oh_, and _ah_, with pronouns of the first and second persons, is not only stretched into a rule for all interjections, but made to include nouns of the second person, and both nouns and pronouns of the third person: as, "Interjections require the objective case of a pronoun of the first person after them, but the nominative of a noun or pronoun of the second or third person; as, 'Ah! _me_; Oh! _thou_; O! _virtue_!'"--_Kirkham's Gram._, 2d Ed., p. 134; Stereotype Ed., p. 177. See the same rule, with examples and punctuation different, in his _Stereotype Edition_, p. 164; _Comly's Gram._, 116; _Greenleaf's_, 36; and _Fisk's_, 144. All these authors, except Comly, who comes much nearest to the thing, profess to present to us "_Murray's Grammar Simplified_;" and this is a sample of their work of _simplification_!--an ignorant piling of errors on errors! "O imitatores servum pecus! ut mihi sæpe Bilem, sæpe jocum vestri movêre tumultus!"--_Horace_. OBS. 9.--Since so many of our grammarians conceive that interjections require or govern cases, it may be proper to cite some who teach otherwise. "Interjections, in English, have no government."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 111. "Interjections have no government, or admit of no construction."--_Coar's Gram._, p. 189. "Interjections have no connexion with other word's."--_Fuller's Gram._, p. 71. "The interjection, in a grammatical sense, is totally unconnected with every other word in a sentence. Its arrangement, of course, is altogether arbitrary, and cannot admit of any theory."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 83. "Interjections cannot properly have either concord or government. They are only mere sounds excited by passion, and have no just connexion with any other part of a sentence. Whatever case, therefore, is joined with them, must depend on some other word understood, except the vocative, which is always placed absolutely."--_Adam's Latin Gram._, p. 196; _Gould's_, 193. If this is true of the Latin language, a slight variation will make it as true of ours. "Interjections, and phrases resembling them, are taken absolutely; as, _Oh_, world, _thy slippery turns_! But the phrases Oh _me_! and Ah _me_! frequently occur."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 188. This passage is, in several respects, wrong; yet the leading idea is true. The author entitles it, "SYNTAX OF INTERJECTIONS," yet absurdly includes in it I know not what _phrases_! In the phrase, "_thy slippery turns!_" no word is absolute, or "taken absolutely" but this noun "_turns_;" and this, without the least hint of its _case_, the learned author will have us to understand to be absolute, because the phrase _resembles an interjection!_ But the noun "_world_" which is also absolute, and which still more resembles an interjection, he will have to be so for a different reason--because it is in what he chooses to call the _vocative case_. But, according to custom, he should rather have put his interjection absolute _with_ the noun, and written it, "_O world_," and not, "_Oh, world_." What he meant to do with "_Oh me!_ and _Ah me!_" is doubtful. If any phrases come fairly under his rule, these are the very ones; and yet he seems to introduce them as exceptions! Of these, it can hardly be said, that they "_frequently_ occur." Lowth notices only the latter, which he supposes elliptical. The former I do not remember to have met with more than three or four times; except in grammars, which in this case are hardly to be called authorities: "_Oh! me_, how fared it with me then?"--_Job Scott_. "_Oh me!_ all the horse have got over the river, what shall we do?"--WALTON: _Joh. Dict._ "But when he was first seen, _oh me!_ What shrieking and what misery!"--_Wordsworth's Works_, p. 114. OBS. 10.--When a declinable word not in the nominative absolute, follows an interjection, as part of an imperfect exclamation, its construction (if the phrase be good English) depends on something understood; as, "Ah _me!_"--that is, "Ah! _pity_ me;" or, "Ah! _it grieves_ me;" or, as some will have it, (because the expression in Latin is "_Hei mihi!_") "Ah _for_ me!"--_Ingersoll_. "Ah! _wo is to_ me."--_Lowth_. "Ah! _sorrow is to_ me."--_Coar_. So of "_oh me!_" for, in these expressions, if not generally, _oh_ and _ah_ are exactly equivalent the one to the other. As for "_O me_" it is now seldom met with, though Shakspeare has it a few times. From these examples, O. B. Peirce erroneously imagines the "independent case" of the pronoun _I_ to be _me_, and accordingly parses the word without supposing an ellipsis; but in the plural he makes that case to be _we_, and not _us_. So, having found an example of "Ah _Him!_" which, according to one half of our grammarians, is bad English, he conceives the independent case of _he_ to be _him_; but in the plural, and in both numbers of the words _thou_ and _she_, he makes it the nominative, or the same in form as the nominative. So builds he "the temple of Grammatical consistency!"--P. 7. Nixon and Cooper must of course approve of "_Ah him!_" because they assume that the interjection _ah_ "_requires_" or "_governs_" the objective case of the third person. Others must condemn the expression, because they teach that _ah_ requires the nominative case of this person. Thus Greenleaf sets down for false syntax, "O! happy _them_, surrounded with so many blessings!"--_Gram. Simplified_, p. 47. Here, undoubtedly, the word should be _they_; and, by analogy, (if indeed the instances are analogous,) it would seem more proper to say, "Ah _he!_" the nominative being our only case absolute. But if any will insist that "_Ah him!_" is good English, they must suppose that _him_ is governed by something understood; as, "Ah! I _lament_ him;" or, "Ah! _I mourn for_ him." And possibly, on this principle, the example referred to may be most correct as it stands, with the pronoun in the objective case: "_Ah Him!_ the first great martyr in this great cause."--D. WEBSTER: _Peirce's Gram._, p. 199. OBS. 11.--If we turn to the Latin syntax, to determine by analogy what case is used, or ought to be used, after our English interjections, in stead of finding a "perfect accordance" between that syntax and the rule for which such accordance has been claimed, we see at once an utter repugnance, and that the pretence of their agreement is only a sample of Kirkham's unconscionable pedantry. The rule, in all its modifications, is based on the principle, that the choice of _cases_ depends on the distinction of _persons_--a principle plainly contrary to the usage of the Latin classics, and altogether untrue. In Latin, some interjections are construed with the nominative, the accusative, or the vocative; some, only with the dative; some, only with the vocative. But, in English, these four cases are all included in two, the nominative and the objective; and, the case independent or absolute being necessarily the nominative, it follows that the objective, if it occur after an interjection, must be the object of something which is capable of governing it. If any disputant, by supposing ellipses, will make objectives of what I call nominatives absolute, so be it; but I insist that interjections, in fact, never "require" or "govern" one case more than an other. So Peirce, and Kirkham, and Ingersoll, with pointed self-contradiction, may continue to make "the independent case," whether vocative or merely exclamatory, the subject of a verb, expressed or understood; but I will content myself with endeavouring to establish a syntax not liable to this sort of objection. In doing this, it is proper to look at all the facts which go to show what is right, or wrong. "_Lo, the poor Indian!_" is in Latin, "_Ecce pauper Indus!_" or, "_Ecce pauperem Indum!_" This use of either the nominative or the accusative after _ecce_, if it proves any thing concerning the case of the word _Indian_, proves it doubtful. Some, it seems, pronounce it an objective. Some, like Murray, say nothing about it. Following the analogy of our own language, I refer it to the nominative absolute, because there is nothing to determine it to be otherwise. In the examples. "_Heu me miserum!_ Ah _wretch_ that I am!"--(_Grant's Latin Gram._, p. 263.) and "_Miser ego homo!_ O wretched _man_ that I am!"--(_Rom._, vii, 24,) if the word _that_ is a relative pronoun, as I incline to think it is, the case of the nouns _wretch_ and _man_ does not depend on any other words, either expressed or implied. They are therefore nominatives absolute, according to Rule 8th, though the Latin words may be most properly explained on the principle of ellipsis. OBS. 12.--Of some impenetrable blockhead, Horace, telling how himself was vexed, says: "_O te_, Bollane, cerebri Felicem! aiebam tacitus."--_Lib._ i, _Sat._ ix, 11. Literally: "_O thee_, Bollanus, happy of brain! said I to myself." That is, "O! _I envy_ thee," &c. This shows that _O_ does not "require the nominative case of the second person" after it, at least, in Latin. Neither does _oh_ or _ah_: for, if a governing word be suggested, the objective may be proper; as, "Whom did he injure? Ah! _thee_, my boy?"--or even the possessive; as, "Whose sobs do I hear? Oh! _thine_, my child?" Kirkham tells us truly, (Gram., p. 126,) that the exclamation "_O my_" is frequently heard in conversation. These last resemble Lucan's use of the genitive, with an ellipsis of the governing noun: "_O miseræ sortis!_" i.e., "_O_ [men] _of miserable lot!_" In short, all the Latin cases as well as all the English, may possibly occur after one or other of the interjections. I have instanced all but the ablative, and the following is literally an example of that, though the word _quanto_ is construed adverbially: "Ah, _quanto_ satius est!"--_Ter. And._, ii, 1. "Ah, _how much_ better it is!" I have also shown, by good authorities, that the nominative of the first person, both in English and in Latin, may be properly used after those interjections which have been supposed to require or govern the objective. But how far is analogy alone a justification? Is "_O thee_" good English, because "_O te_" is good Latin? No: nor is it bad for the reason which our grammarians assign, but because our best writers never use it, and because _O_ is more properly the sign of the vocative. The literal version above should therefore be changed; as, "O Bollanus, _thou_ happy numskull! said I to myself." OBS. 13--Allen Fisk, "author of Adam's Latin Grammar Simplified," and of "Murray's English Grammar Simplified," sets down for "_False Syntax_" not only that hackneyed example, "Oh! happy we," &c., but, "O! You, who love iniquity," and, "Ah! you, who hate the light."--_Fisk's E. Gram._, p. 144. But, to imagine that either _you_ or _we_ is wrong here, is certainly no sing of a great linguist; and his punctuation is very inconsistent both with his own rule of syntax and with common practice. An interjection set off by a comma or an exclamation point, is of course put absolute _singly_, or by itself. If it is to be read as being put absolute with something else, the separation is improper. One might just as well divide a preposition from its object, as an interjection from the case which it is supposed to govern. Yet we find here not only such a division as Murray sometimes improperly adopted, but in one instance a total separation, with a capital following; as, "O! You, who love iniquity," for, "O you who love iniquity!" or "O ye," &c. If a point be here set between the two pronouns, the speaker accuses all his hearers of loving iniquity; if this point be removed, he addresses only such as do love it. But an interjection and a pronoun, each put absolute singly, one after the other, seem to me not to constitute a very natural exclamation. The last example above should therefore be, "Ah! you hate the light." The first should be written, "_O_ happy we!" OBS. 14.--In other grammars, too, there are many instances of some of the errors here pointed out. R. C. Smith knows no difference between _O_ and _oh_; takes "_Oh!_ happy _us_" to be accurate English; sees no impropriety in separating interjections from the pronouns which he supposes them to "govern;" writes the same examples variously, even on the same page; inserts or omits commas or exclamation points at random; yet makes the latter the means by which interjections are to be known! See his _New Gram._, pp. 40, 96 and 134. Kirkham, who lays claim to "a new system of punctuation," and also stoutly asserts the governing power of interjections, writes, and rewrites, and finally stereotypes, in one part of his book. "Ah me! _Oh_ thou! O my country!" and in an other, "Ah! me; _Oh!_ thou; O! virtue." See Obs. 3d and Obs. 8th above. From such hands, any thing "_new_" should be received with caution: this last specimen of his scholarship has more errors than words. OBS. 15.--Some few of our interjections seem to admit of a connexion with other words by means of a preposition or the conjunction _that_ as, "O _to_ forget her!"--_Young_. "O _for_ that warning voice!"--_Milton_. "O _that_ they were wise!"--_Deut._, xxxii, 29. "O _that_ my people had hearkened unto me!"--_Ps._, lxxxi, 13, "Alas _for_ Sicily!"--_Cowper_. "O _for_ a world in principle as chaste As this is gross and selfish!"--_Id._ "Hurrah _for_ Jackson!"--_Newspaper_. "A bawd, sir, fy _upon_ him!"--SHAK.: _Joh. Dict._ "And fy _on_ fortune, mine avowed foe!"--SPENCER: _ib._ This connexion, however, even if we parse all the words just as they stand, does not give to the interjection itself any dependent construction. It appears indeed to refute Jamieson's assertion, that, "The interjection is _totally unconnected_ with every other word in a sentence;" but I did not quote this passage, with any averment of its accuracy; and, certainly, many nouns which are put absolute themselves, have in like manner a connexion with words that are not put absolute: as, "O _Lord_ God of hosts, hear my prayer; give ear, O _God_ of Jacob. Selah."--_Ps._, lxxxiv, 8. But if any will suppose, that in the foregoing examples something else than the interjection must be the antecedent term to the preposition or the conjunction, they may consider the expressions elliptical: though it must be confessed, that much of their vivacity will be lost, when the supposed ellipses are supplied: as, "O! _I desire_ to forget her."--"O! _how I long_ for that warning voice!"--"O! _how I wish_ that they were wise!"--"Alas! I _wail_ for Sicily."--"Hurrah! _I shout_ for Jackson."--"Fy! _cry out_ upon him." Lindley Murray has one example of this kind, and if his punctuation of it is not bad in all his editions, there must be an ellipsis in the expression: "O! _for_ better times."--_Octavo Gram._, ii, 6; _Duodecimo Exercises_, p. 10. He also writes it thus: "O. _for_ better times."--_Octavo Gram._, i, 120; _Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 47. According to common usage, it should be, "O for better times!" OBS. 16.--The interjection may be placed at the _beginning_ or the _end_ of a simple sentence, and sometimes _between_ its less intimate parts; but this part of speech is seldom, if ever, allowed to interrupt the connexion of any words which are closely united in sense. Murray's definition of an interjection, as I have elsewhere shown, is faulty, and directly contradicted by his example: "O virtue! how amiable thou art!"--_Octavo Gram._, i, 28 and 128; ii. 2. This was a favourite sentence with Murray, and he appears to have written it uniformly in this fashion; which, undoubtedly, is altogether right, except that the word _"virtue"_ should have had a capital Vee, because the quality is here personified. OBS. 17.--Misled by the false notion, that the term _interjection_ is appropriate only to what is "thrown in between the parts of a _sentence_," and perceiving that this is in fact but rarely the situation of this part of speech, a recent critic, (to whom I should owe some acknowledgements, if he were not wrong in every thing in which he charges me with error,) not only denounces this name as "_barbarous_," preferring Webster's loose term, "_exclamation_;" but avers, that, "The words called _interjection_ should _never_ be so used--should _always stand alone_; as, 'Oh! virtue, how amiable thou art.' 'Oh? Absalom, my son.' G. Brown," continues he, "drags one into the middle of a sentence, _where it never belonged_; thus, 'This enterprise, _alas_! will never compensate us for the trouble and expense with which it has been attended.' If G. B. meant the _enterprize_ of studying grammar, in the old theories, his sentiment is very appropriate; but his _alas_! he should have known enough to have put into the right place:--before the sentence representing the fact that excites the emotion expressed by _alas_! See on the Chart part 3, of RULE XVII. An _exclamation_ must _always precede_ the phrase or sentence describing the fact that excites the emotion to be expressed by the _exclamation_; as: Alas! I have alienated my friend! _Oh!_ Glorious hope of bliss secure!"--_Oliver B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 375. "O Glorious hope of bliss secure!"--_Ib._, p. 184. "O _glorious_ hope!"--_Ib._, p. 304. OBS. 18.--I see no reason to believe, that the class of words which have always, and almost universally, been called _interjections_, can ever be more conveniently explained under any other name; and, as for the term _exclamation_, which is preferred also by Cutler, Felton, Spencer, and S. W. Clark, it appears to me much less suitable than the old one, because it is less specific. Any words uttered loudly in the same breath, are _an exclamation_. This name therefore is too general; it includes other parts of speech than interjections; and it was but a foolish whim in Dr. Webster, to prefer it in his dictionaries. When David "cried _with a loud voice_, O my son Absalom! O Absalom, my son, my son!" [442] he uttered _two_ exclamations, but they included all his words. He did not, like my critic above, set off his first word with an interrogation point, or any other point. But, says Peirce, "These words are _used in exclaiming_, and are what all know them to be, _exclamations_; as I call them. May I not _call_ them what they _are_?"--_Ibid._ Yes, truly. But to _exclaim_ is to _cry out_, and consequently every _outcry_ is an _exclamation_; though there are two chances to one, that _no interjection_ at all be used by the bawler. As good an argument, or better, may be framed against every one of this gentleman's professed improvements in grammar; and as for his punctuation and orthography, any reader may be presumed capable of seeing that they are not fit to be proposed as models. OBS. 19.--I like my position of the word "_alas_" better than that which Peirce supposes to be its only right place; and, certainly, his rule for the location of words of this sort, as well as his notion that they must stand alone, is as false, as it is new. The obvious misstatement of Lowth, Adam, Gould, Murray, Churchill, Alger, Smith, Guy, Ingersoll, and others, that, "Interjections are words thrown in between the parts of _a sentence_," I had not only excluded from my grammars, but expressly censured in them. It was not, therefore, to prop any error of the old theorists, that I happened to set one interjection "_where_" according to this new oracle, "_it never belonged_." And if any body but he has been practically misled by their mistake, it is not I, but more probably some of the following authors, here cited for his refutation: "I fear, _alas!_ for my life."--_Fisk's Gram._, p. 89. "I have been occupied, _alas_! with trifles."--_Murray's Gr., Ex. for Parsing_, p. 5; _Guy's_, p. 56. "We eagerly pursue pleasure, but, _alas!_ we often mistake the road."--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 40, "To-morrow, _alas!_ thou _mayest_ be comfortless!"--_Wright's Gram._, p. 35. "Time flies, _O!_ how swiftly."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 226. "My friend, _alas!_ is dead."--_J. Flint's Gram._, p. 21. "But _John, alas! he_ is very idle."--_Merchant's Gram._, p. 22. "For pale and wan he was, _alas_ the while!"--SPENSER: _Joh. Dict._ "But yet, _alas! O_ but yet, _alas!_ our haps be but hard haps."--SYDNEY: _ib._ "Nay, (what's incredible,) _alack!_ I _hardly_ hear a woman's clack."--SWIFT: _ib._ "Thus life is spent (_oh fie_ upon't!) In being touch'd, and crying--Don't!"--_Cowper_, i, 231. "For whom, _alas!_ dost thou prepare The sweets that I was wont to share"--_Id._, i, 203. "But here, _alas!_ the difference lies."--_Id._, i. 100. "Their names, _alas_! in vain reproach an age," &c.--_Id._, i, 88. "What nature, _alas!_ has denied," &c.--_Id._, i, 235. "A. _Hail_ Sternhold, then; and Hopkins, _hail!_ B. Amen."--_Id._, i 25. "These Fate reserv'd to grace thy reign divine, Foreseen by me, but _ah!_ withheld from mine!"--_Pope, Dun._, iii, 215. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX PROMISCUOUS. [Fist] [The following examples of bad grammar, being similar in their character to others already exhibited, are to be corrected, by the pupil, according to formules previously given.] LESSON I.--ANY PARTS OF SPEECH. "Such an one I believe yours will be proved to be."--PEET: _Farnum's Gram._, p. 1. "Of the distinction between the imperfect and the perfect tenses, it may be observed," &c.--_Ainsworth's Gram._, p. 122. "The subject is certainly worthy consideration."--_Ib._, p. 117. "By this means all ambiguity and controversy is avoided on this point."--_Bullions, Principles of Eng. Gram., 5th Ed., Pref._, p. vi. "The perfect participle in English has both an active and passive signification."--_Ib._, p. 58. "The old house is at length fallen down."--_Ib._, p. 78. "The king, with the lords and commons, constitute the English form of government."--_Ib._, p. 93. "The verb in the singular agrees with the person next it."--_Ib._, p. 95. "Jane found Seth's gloves in James' hat."--_Felton's Gram._, p. 15. "Charles' task is too great."--_Ibid._, 15. "The conjugation of a verb is the naming, in regular order, its several modes tenses, numbers and persons."--_Ib._, p. 24. "The long remembered beggar was his guest."--_Ib._, 1st Ed., p. 65. "Participles refer to nouns and pronouns."--_Ib._, p. 81. "F has an uniform sound in every position except in _of_."--_Hallock's Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 15. "There are three genders; the masculine, the feminine and neuter."--_Ib._, p. 43. "When _so that_ occur together, sometimes the particle _so_ is taken as an adverb."--_Ib._, p. 124. "The definition of the articles show that they modify the words to which they belong."--_Ib._, p. 138. "The auxiliaries _shall, will_, or _should_ is implied."--_Ib._, p. 192. "Single rhyme trochaic omits the final short syllable."--_Ib._, p. 244. "Agreeable to this, we read of names being blotted out of God's book,"--BURDER: _ib._, p. 156; _Webster's Philos. Gram._, 155; _Improved Gram._, 107. "The first person is the person speaking."--_Goldsbury's Common School Gram._, p. 10. "Accent is the laying a peculiar stress of the voice on a certain letter or syllable in a word."--_Ib._, Ed. of 1842, p. 75. "Thomas' horse was caught."--_Felton's Gram._, p. 64. "You was loved."--_Ib._, p. 45. "The nominative and objective end the same."--_Rev. T. Smith's Gram._, p. 18. "The number of pronouns, like those of substantives, are two, the singular and the plural."--_Ib._, p. 22. "_I_ is called the pronoun of the _first_ person, which is the person speaking."--_Frost's Practical Gram._, p. 32. "The essential elements of the phrase is an intransitive gerundive and an adjective."--_Hazen's Practical Gram._, p. 141. "Being rich is no justification for such impudence."--_Ib._, p. 141. "His having been a soldier in the revolution is not doubted."--_Ib._, p. 143. "Catching fish is the chief employment of the inhabitants. The chief employment of the inhabitants is catching fish."--_Ib._, p. 144. "The cold weather did not prevent the work's being finished at the time specified."--_Ib._, p. 145. "The former viciousness of that man caused his being suspected of this crime."--_Ib._, p. 145. "But person and number applied to verbs means, certain terminations."--_Barrett's Gram._, p. 69. "Robert fell a tree."--_Ib._, p. 64. "Charles raised up."--_Ib._, p. 64. "It might not be an useless waste of time."--_Ib._, p. 42. "Neither will you have that _implicit faith_ in the writings and works of others which characterise the vulgar,"--_Ib._, p. 5. "_I_, is the first person, because it denotes the speaker."--_Ib._, p. 46. "I would refer the student to Hedges' or Watts' Logic."--_Ib._, p. 15. "Hedge's, Watt's, Kirwin's, and Collard's Logic."--_Parker and Fox's Gram._, Part III, p. 116. "Letters are called vowels which make a full and perfect sound of themselves."--_Cutler's Gram._, p. 10. "It has both a singular and plural construction."--_Ib._, p. 23. "For he beholdest thy beams no more."--_Ib._, p. 136. "To this sentiment the Committee has the candour to incline, as it will appear by their summing up."--_Macpherson's Ossian, Prelim. Disc._, p. xviii. "This is reducing the point at issue to a narrow compass."--_Ib._, p. xxv. "Since the English sat foot upon the soil."--_Exiles of Nova Scotia_, p. 12. "The arrangement of its different parts are easily retained by the memory."--_Hiley's Gram._, 3d Ed., p. 262. "The words employed are the most appropriate which could have been selected."--_Ib._, p. 182. "To prevent it launching!"--_Ib._, p. 135. "Webster has been followed in preference to others, where it differs from them."--_Frazee's Gram._, p. 8. "Exclamation and Interrogation are often mistaken for one another."--_Buchanan's E. Syntax_, p. 160. "When all nature is hushed in sleep, and neither love nor guilt keep their vigils."--_Felton's Gram._, p. 96. "When all nature's hushed asleep, Nor love, nor guilt, their vigils keep."--_Ib._, p. 95. LESSON II.--ANY PARTS OF SPEECH. "A VERSIFYER and POET are two different Things."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 163. "Those Qualities will arise from the well expressing of the Subject."--_Ib._, p. 165. "Therefore the explanation of _network_, is taken no notice of here."--_Mason's Supplement_, p. vii. "When emphasis or pathos are necessary to be expressed."--_Humphrey's Punctuation_, p. 38. "Whether this mode of punctuation is correct, and whether it be proper to close the sentence with the mark of admiration, may be made a question."--_Ib._, p. 39. "But not every writer in those days were thus correct."--_Ib._, p. 59. "The sounds of A, in English orthoepy, are no less than four."--_Ib._, p. 69. "Our present code of rules are thought to be generally correct."-- _Ib._, p. 70. "To prevent its running into another."--_Humphrey's Prosody_, p. 7. "Shakespeare, perhaps, the greatest poetical genius which England has produced."--_Ib._, p. 93. "This I will illustrate by example; but prior to which a few preliminary remarks may be necessary."--_Ib._, p. 107. "All such are entitled to two accents each, and some of which to two accents nearly equal."--_Ib._, p. 109. "But some cases of the kind are so plain that no one need to exercise his judgment therein."--_Ib._, p. 122. "I have forbore to use the word."--_Ib._, p. 127. "The propositions, 'He may study,' 'He might study,' 'He could study,' affirms an ability or power to study."--_Hallock's Gram. of_ 1842, p. 76. "The divisions of the tenses has occasioned grammarians much trouble and perplexity."--_Ib._, p. 77. "By adopting a familiar, inductive method of presenting this subject, it may be rendered highly attractive to young learners."--_Wells's Sch. Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 1; 3d, 9; 113th, 11. "The definitions and rules of different grammarians were carefully compared with each other."--_Ib., Preface_, p. iii. "So as not wholly to prevent some sounds issuing."--_Sheridan's Elements of English_, p. 64. "Letters of the Alphabet not yet taken notice of."--_Ib._, p. 11. "IT _is sad_, IT _is strange_, &c., seems to express only that _the thing_ is sad, strange, &c."--_The Well-Wishers' Gram._, p. 68. "THE WINNING is easier than THE PRESERVING a conquest."--_Ib._, p. 65. "The United States finds itself the owner of a vast region of country at the West."--_Horace Mann in Congress_, 1848. "One or more letters placed before a word is a Prefix."--_S. W. Clark's Pract. Gram._, p. 42. "One or more letters added to a word is a Suffix."--_Ib._, p. 42. "Two-thirds of my hair has fallen off."--_Ib._, p. 126. "'Suspecting,' describes 'we,' by expressing, incidentally, an act of 'we.'"--_Ib._, p. 130. "Daniel's predictions are now being fulfilled."--_Ib._, p. 136. "His being a scholar, entitles him to respect."--_Ib._, p. 141. "I doubted his having been a soldier."--_Ib._, p. 142. "Taking a madman's sword to prevent his doing mischief, cannot be regarded as robbing him."--_Ib._, p. 129. "I thought it to be him; but it was not him."--_Ib._, p. 149. "It was not me that you saw."--_Ib._, p. 149. "Not to know what happened before you was born, is always to be a boy."--_Ib._, p. 149. "How long was you going? Three days."--_Ib._, 158. "The qualifying Adjective is placed next the Noun."--_Ib._, p. 165. "All went but me."--_Ib._, p. 93. "This is parsing their own language, and not the author's."--_Wells's School Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 73. "Nouns which denote males, are of the masculine gender."--_Ib._, p. 49. "Nouns which denote females, are of the feminine gender."--_Ib._, p. 49. "When a comparison is expressed between more than two objects of the same class, the superlative degree is employed."--_Ib._, p. 133. "Where _d_ or _t_ go before, the additional letter _d_ or _t_, in this contracted form, coalesce into one letter with the radical _d_ or _t_."--_Dr. Johnson's Gram._, p. 9. "Write words which will show what kind of a house you live in--what kind of a book you hold in your hand--what kind of a day it is."--_Weld's Gram._, p. 7. "One word or more is often joined to nouns or pronouns to modify their meaning."--_Ib., 2d Ed._, p. 30. "_Good_ is an adjective; it explains the quality or character of every person or thing to which it is applied."--_Ib._, p. 33; _Abridg._, 32. "A great public as well as private advantage arises from every one's devoting himself to that occupation which he prefers, and for which he is specially fitted."--WAYLAND: _Wells's Gram._, p. 121; _Weld's_, 180. "There was a chance of his recovering his senses. Not thus: 'There was a chance of him recovering his senses.' MACAULEY."--See _Wells's Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 121; 113th, 135. "This may be known by its not having any connecting word immediately preceding it."--_Weld's Gram., 2d Edition_, p. 181. "There are _irregular_ expressions occasionally to be met with, which usage or custom rather than analogy, sanction."--_Ib._, p. 143. "He added an anecdote of Quinn's relieving Thomson from prison."--_Ib._, p. 150. "The daily labor of her hands procure for her all that is necessary."--_Ib._, p. 182. "Its being _me_, need make no change in your determination."--_Hart's Gram._, p. 128. "The classification of words into what is called the Parts of Speech."--_Weld's Gram._, p. 5. "Such licenses may be explained under what is usually termed Figures."--_Ib._, p. 212. "Liberal, not lavish, is kind nature's hands."--_Ib._, p. 196. "They fall successive and successive live."--_Ib._, p. 213. LESSON III.--ANY PARTS OF SPEECH. "A figure of Etymology is the intentional deviation in the usual form of a word."--_Weld's Gram., 2d Edition_, p. 213. "A figure of Syntax is the intentional deviation in the usual construction of a word."--_Ib._, 213. "Synecdoche is putting the name of the whole of anything for a part or a part for the whole."--_Ib._, 215. "Apostrophe is turning off from the regular course of the subject to address some person or thing."--_Ib._, 215. "Even young pupils will perform such exercises with surprising interest and facility, and will unconsciously gain, in a little time, more knowledge of the structure of Language than he can acquire by a drilling of several years in the usual routine of parsing."--_Ib., Preface_, p. iv. "A few Rules of construction are employed in this Part, to guide in the exercise of parsing."--_Ibidem_. "The name of every person, object, or thing, which can be thought of, or spoken of, is a noun."--_Ib._, p. 18; _Abridged Ed._, 19. "A dot, resembling our period, is used between every word, as well as at the close of the verses."--_W. Day's Punctuation_, p. 16; _London_, 1847. "Casting types in matrices was invented by Peter Schoeffer, in 1452."--_Ib._, p. 23. "On perusing it, he said, that, so far from it showing the prisoner's guilt, it positively established his innocence."--_Ib._, p. 37. "By printing the _nominative_ and _verb_ in _Italic_ letters, the reader will be able to distinguish them at a glance."--_Ib._, p. 77. "It is well, no doubt, to avoid using unnecessary words."--_Ib._, p. 99. "Meeting a friend the other day, he said to me, 'Where are you going?'"--_Ib._, p. 124. "John was first denied _apples_, then he was promised _them_, then he was offered _them_."--_Lennie's Gram._, 5th Ed., p. 62. "He was denied admission."--_Wells's School Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 146. "They were offered a pardon."--_Pond's Murray_, p. 118; _Wells_, 146. "I was this day shown a new potatoe."--DARWIN: _Webster's Philos. Gram._, p. 179; _Imp. Gram._, 128; _Frazee's Gram._, 153; _Weld's_, 153. "Nouns or pronouns which denote males are of the masculine gender."--_S. S. Greene's Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 211. "There are three degrees of comparison--the positive, comparative, and superlative."--_Ib._, p. 216; _First Les._, p. 49. "The first two refer to direction; the third, to locality."--_Ib., Gr._, p. 103. "The following are some of the verbs which take a direct and indirect object."--_Ib._, p. 62. "I was not aware of his being the judge of the Supreme Court."--_Ib._, p. 86. "An indirect question may refer to either of the five elements of a declarative sentence."--_Ib._, p. 123. "I am not sure _that he will be present_ = _of his being present_."--_Ib._, p. 169. "We left on Tuesday."--_Ib._, p. 103. "He left, as he told me, before the arrival of the steamer."--_Ib._, p. 143. "We told him _that he must leave_ = We told him _to leave_."--_Ib._, p. 168. "Because he was unable to persuade the multitude, he left in disgust."--_Ib._, p. 172. "He _left_, and _took_ his brother with him."--_Ib._, p. 254. "This stating, or declaring, or denying any thing, is called the indicative mode, or manner of speaking."--_Weld's Gram._, 2d Ed., p. 72; _Abr. Ed._, 59. "This took place at our friend Sir Joshua Reynold's."--_Weld's Gram._, 2d Ed., p. 150; _Imp. Ed._, 154. "The manner of a young lady's employing herself usefully in reading will be the subject of another paper."--_Ib._, 150; or 154. "Very little time is necessary for Johnson's concluding a treaty with the bookseller."--_Ib._, 150; or 154. "My father is not now sick, but if he _was_ your services would be welcome."--_Chandler's Grammar_, 1821, p. 54. "When we begin to write or speak, we ought previously to fix in our minds a clear conception of the end to be aimed at."--_Blair's Rhetoric_, p. 193. "Length of days are in her right hand, and in her left hand riches and honor."--_Bullions's Analytical and Practical Grammar_, 1849, p. 59. "The active and passive present express different ideas."--_Ib._, p. 235. "An _Improper Diphthong_, or Digraph, is a diphthong in which only one of the vowels are sounded."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, 8vo, 1850, §115. "The real origin of the words are to be sought in the Latin."--_Ib._, §120. "What sort of an alphabet the Gothic languages possess, we know; what sort of alphabet they require, we can determine."--_Ib._, §127. "The Runic Alphabet whether borrowed or invented by the early Goths, is of greater antiquity than either the oldest Teutonic or the Moeso-Gothic Alphabets."--_Ib._, §129. "Common to the Masculine and the Neuter Genders."--_Ib._, §222. "In the Anglo-Saxon _his_ was common to both the Masculine and Neuter Genders."--_Ib._, §222. "When time, number, or dimension are specified, the adjective follows the substantive."--_Ib._, §459. "Nor pain, nor grief, nor anxious fear Invade thy bounds."--_Ib._, §563. "To Brighton the Pavilion lends a _lath and plaster_ grace."--_Ib._, §590. "From this consideration nouns have been given but one person, the THIRD."--_D. C. Allen's Grammatic Guide_, p. 10. "For it seems to guard and cherish Even the wayward dreamer--I."--_Home Journal_. EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. PRAXIS XIII.--SYNTACTICAL. _In the following Lessons, are exemplified most of the Exceptions, some of the Notes, and many of the Observations, under the preceding Rules of Syntax; to which Exceptions, Notes, or Observations, the learner may recur, for an explanation of whatsoever is difficult in the parsing, or peculiar in the construction, of these examples or others._ LESSON I.--PROSE. "_The_ higher a bird flies, _the_ more out of danger he is; and _the_ higher a Christian soars above the world, _the_ safer are his comforts."--_Sparke_. "_In_ this point of view, and _with_ this explanation, _it_ is supposed by some grammarians, that our language contains _a_ few Impersonal Verbs; that is, _verbs_ which declare the existence of some action or state, but _which_ do not refer to any animate being, or any determinate particluar subject."--_L. Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 109. "Thus in England and France, a great landholder possesses _a_ hundred _times_ the property that is necessary for the subsistence of a family; and each landlord has perhaps _a_ hundred families dependent on him for subsistence."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 87. "_It_ is as possible to become _pedantick_ by fear of pedantry, as to be _troublesome_ by ill timed civility."--_Johnson's Rambler_, No. 173. "_To_ commence _author, is_ to claim praise; and no man can justly aspire to honour, but at the hazard of disgrace."--_Ib._, No. 93. "_For_ ministers to be silent in the cause of Christ, _is_ to renounce it; and to fly _is_ to desert it."--SOUTH: _Crabb's Synonymes_, p. 7. "Such instances shew how much _the sublime_ depends upon a just selection of circumstances; and _with_ how great care every circumstance must be avoided, which _by_ bordering _in the least_ upon _the mean_, or even upon _the gay_ or _the trifling_, alters the tone of the emotion."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 43. "This great poet and philosopher, _the_ more _he_ contemplated the nature of the Deity, _found_ that _he_ waded _but the_ more out of his depth, and that _he_ lost _himself_ in the thought _instead_ of finding an end to it."--_Addison_. "_Odin, which_ in Anglo-Saxon was _Woden_, was the supreme god of the Goths, answering to the Jupiter of the Greeks."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 262. "Because confidence, that _charm_ and _cement_ of intimacy, _is_ wholly wanting in the intercourse."--_Opie, on Lying_, p. 146. "Objects of hearing may be compared together, as also _of_ taste, _of_ smell, and _of_ touch: but the chief _fund_ of comparison _are objects_ of sight."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. ii, p. 136. "The various relations of the various Objects exhibited by this (I mean relations of _near_ and _distant, present_ and _absent, same_ and _different, definite_ and _indefinite_, &c.) made it necessary that _here there_ should not be one, but many Pronouns, such as _He, This, That, Other, Any, Some_, &c."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 72. "Mr. Pope's Ethical Epistles _deserve_ to be mentioned with signal honour, _as_ a _model_, next to _perfect, of_ this kind of poetry."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 402. "The knowledge _of why_ they so exist, must be the last act of favour _which_ time and toil will bestow."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 253. "_It_ is unbelief, and _not faith, that_ sinks the sinner into despondency.--Christianity disowns such characters."--_Fuller, on the Gospel_, p. 141. "That God created the universe, [and] that men are accountable for their actions, _are frequently mentioned_ by logicians, as instances of the mind judging." LESSON II.--PROSE. "_To_ censure works, _not men, is_ the just _prerogative_ of criticism, and accordingly all personal censure is here avoided, unless _where necessary_ to illustrate some general proposition."--_Kames, El. of Crit., Introduction_, p. 27. "_There remains_ to show by examples the manner of treating subjects, so as to give them a ridiculous appearance."--_Ib._, Vol. i, p. 303. "The making of poetry, _like_ any other _handicraft_, may be learned by industry."--_Macpherson's Preface to Ossian_, p. xiv. "Whatever is found more strange or beautiful than _was expected_, is judged to be more strange or beautiful than it is in reality."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. i, p. 243. "Thus the body of an animal, and of a plant, _are composed_ of certain great vessels; these[,] of _smaller_; and these again[,] of still _smaller_, without end, _as_ far as we can discover."--_Id., ib._, p. 270. "This cause of beauty, is too extensive to be handled _as a branch_ of any other subject: for _to_ ascertain with accuracy even the proper meaning of words, _not to talk_ of their figurative power, _would require_ a large volume; _an_ useful _work_ indeed, but not to be attempted without a large stock of time, study, and reflection."--_Id._, Vol. ii, p. 16. "O the hourly _dangers_ that we here walk _in_! Every sense, and member, _is_ a snare; every creature, and every duty, _is_ a snare to us."--_Baxter, Saints's Rest_. "_For_ a man _to give_ his opinion of what he sees _but_ in part, _is_ an unjustifiable _piece_ of rashness and folly."--_Addison_. "_That_ the sentiments thus prevalent among the early Jews _respecting_ the divine authority of the Old Testament were correct, _appears_ from the testimony of Jesus Christ and his apostles."--_Gurney's Essays_, p. 69. "So in Society we are not our _own_, but Christ's, and the church's, to good works and services, yet all in love."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. i, p. 84. "He [_Dr. Johnson_] sat up in his bed, _clapped_ his hands, _and cried, 'O brave we_!'--a peculiar _exclamation_ of _his_ when he rejoices."-- _Boswell's Life of Johnson_, Vol. iii, p. 56. "Single, double, and treble emphasis _are_ nothing but examples of antithesis."--_Knowles's Elocutionist_, p. xxviii. "The curious _thing, and what_, I would almost say, _settles_ the point, _is_, that we do _Horace_ no service, even according to our view of the matter, by rejecting the scholiast's explanation. No two eggs can be _more like each other_ than Horace's _Malthinus_ and Seneca's _Mecenas_."-- _Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 477. "_Acting, conduct, behaviour_, abstracted from all regard to what is, in fact and event, the consequence of _it, is itself_ the natural object of this moral discernment, as speculative truth _and_ [say _or_] falsehood is _of_ speculative reason."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 277. "_To_ do what is _right_, with unperverted faculties, _is_ ten _times easier_ than to undo what is wrong."--_Porter's Analysis_, p. 37. "Some _natures the_ more _pains_ a man takes to reclaim them, _the_ worse they are."--L'ESTRANGE: _Johnson's Dict., w. Pains_. "Says _John Milton_, in that impassioned speech for the Liberty of Unlicensed Printing, where every word leaps with intellectual life, '_Who_ kills a man, _kills_ a reasonable creature, God's image; but _who_ destroys a good book, _kills_ reason itself, kills the image of God, as it were, in the eye. Many a man lives a burden upon the earth; but a good book is the precious life-blood of a master spirit, embalmed and treasured up on purpose for a life beyond life!'"--_Louisville Examiner_, June, 1850. LESSON III.--PROSE. "The philosopher, the saint, or the hero--_the_ wise, _the_ good, or the great man--very often lies hid and concealed in a plebeian, _which_ a proper education might have disinterred and _brought_ to light."--_Addison_. "The _year before_, he had so used the matter, that _what_ by force, _what_ by policy, he had taken from the Christians _above_ thirty small castles."--_Knolles_. "_It_ is an important truth, that religion, vital _religion_, the _religion_ of the heart, is the most powerful auxiliary of reason, in waging war with the passions, and promoting that sweet composure which constitutes the peace of God."--_Murray's Key_, p. 181. "_Pray, sir, be pleased_ to take the part of _us beauties_ and _fortunes_ into your consideration, and do not let us _be flattered_ out of our senses. _Tell_ people that _we_ fair _ones_ expect honest plain answers, as well as other folks."--_Spectator_, No. 534. "_Unhappy it_ would be _for_ us, _did_ not uniformity _prevail_ in morals: _that_ our actions should uniformly be directed to what is _good_ and against what is _ill_, is the greatest _blessing_ in society; and _in_ order to uniformity of action, uniformity of sentiment is indispensable."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. ii, p. 366. "Thus the pleasure of all the senses is _the same_ in _all, high_ and _low, learned_ and _unlearned_."--_Burke, on Taste_, p. 39. "_Upwards_ of eight millions of acres _have_, I believe, been thus disposed of."--_Society in America_, Vol. i, p. 333. "The Latin Grammar comes _something_ nearer, but yet does not hit the mark _neither_."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 281. "_Of_ the like nature is the following inaccuracy of _Dean Swift's_."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 105. "Thus, Sir, I have given _you_ my own opinion, relating to this weighty affair, as well as _that_ of a great majority of both houses here."--_Ib._ "A foot is just _twelve_ times as long as an _inch_; and an hour is sixty _times_ the _length_ of a minute."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 48. "What can we expect, who come _a gleaning_, not after the first reapers, but after the _very_ beggars?"--_Cowley's Pref. to Poems_, p. x. "In our _Lord's being betrayed_ into the hands of the chief-priests and scribes, by Judas Iscariot; in _his being_ by them _delivered_ to the Gentiles; in _his being mocked, scourged, spitted on_, [say _spit upon_,] and _crucified_; and in his _rising_ from the dead after three days; there was much that was singular, complicated, and not to be easily calculated on before hand."--_Gurney's Essays_, p. 40. "To be _morose, implacable, inexorable_, and _revengeful_, is one of the greatest degeneracies of human nature."--_Dr. J. Owen_. "Now, says _he_, if tragedy, which is in its nature _grand_ and _lofty_, will not admit of this, _who can forbear laughing_ to hear the historian Gorgias Leontinus styling Xerxes, that cowardly Persian king, _Jupiter_; and vultures, living _sepulchres_?"--_Holmes's Rhetoric?_, Part II, p. 14. "O let thy all-seeing eye, and not the eye of the world, be the star to steer my course _by_; and let thy blessed favour, more than the liking of any sinful men, be ever my study and delight."--_Jenks's Prayers_, p. 156. LESSON IV.--PROSE. "O _the Hope_ of Israel, _the Saviour thereof_ in time of trouble, why _shouldest thou_ be as a _stranger_ in the land, and as a way-faring _man_, that turneth aside to tarry for a night?"--_Jeremiah_, xiv, 8. "When once the long-suffering of God waited in the days of Noah, while the ark was _a preparing, wherein_ few, _that_ is, eight souls, were saved."--_1 Peter_, iii, 20. "Mercy and truth _are_ met together; righteousness and peace have kissed _each other_."--_Psalms_, lxxxv, 10. "But _in vain_ they do worship me, teaching for doctrines the commandments of men."--_Matt._, xv, 9. "Knowest thou not this _of old_, since man was placed upon the earth, that the _triumphing_ of the _wicked_ is short, and the joy of the hypocrite _but_ for a moment?"--_Job_, xx, 4, 5. "For now we _see_ through a glass darkly; but _then, face_ to _face_: now I _know_ in part; but then shall I know even as also I am known."--_1 Cor._, xiii, 12. "For then the _king of Babylon's_ army besieged Jerusalem: and Jeremiah the _Prophet_ was shut up in the court of the prison which was in the _king of Judah's_ house."--_Jer._, xxxii, 2. "For Herod had laid hold on John, and _bound_ him, and _put_ him in prison, for _Herodias'_ sake, his _brother_ Philip's _wife_."--_Matt._, xiv, 3. "And now I have sent a cunning man, endued with understanding, _of Huram_ my _father's_, the _son_ of a woman of the daughters of Dan."--_2 Chron._, ii, 13. "Bring no _more_ vain oblations: incense is an abomination unto me; the new moons and sabbaths, the _calling_ of assemblies, I _cannot away with: it_ is iniquity _even_ the solemn _meeting_."--_Isaiah_, i, 13. "For I have heard the voice of the daughter of Zion, that bewaileth herself, that spreadeth her hands, _saying_, Woe is _me_ now! for my soul is wearied _because_ of murderers."--_Jer._, iv, 31. "She saw men portrayed upon the wall, the _images_ of the Chaldeans portrayed with vermilion, girded with girdles upon their loins, exceeding in dyed attire upon their heads, all of them princes _to_ look _to, after_ the manner of the Babylonians of Chaldea, the _land_ of their nativity."--_Ezekiel_, xxiii, 15. "And on them _was written_ according to all the words which the Lord spake with you in the mount, out of the midst of the fire, in the day of the assembly."--_Deut._, ix, 10. "And he charged them that they _should tell no man_: but _the_ more he charged them, so much _the_ more a great _deal_ they published it."--_Mark_, vii, 36. "The results which God has connected with actions, will inevitably occur, all the created _power_ in the universe to the contrary _notwithstanding_."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 5. "Am _I_ not an _apostle_? am _I_ not _free_? have I not seen Jesus Christ our Lord? are not _ye_ my _work_ in the Lord? If I be not an apostle unto others, yet doubtless I am _to_ you; for the _seal_ of _mine_ apostleship are _ye_ in the Lord."--_1 Cor._, ix, 1, 2. "Not _to insist_ upon this, _it_ is evident, that formality is a term of general import. It implies, that in religious exercises of all kinds _the_ outward and [the] inward man _are_ at diametrical variance."--_Chapman's Sermons to Presbyterians_, p. 354. LESSON V.--VERSE. "_See_ the sole bliss Heaven _could_ on all _bestow_, Which _who but_ feels, can taste, _but_ thinks, can know; Yet, poor with fortune, and with learning blind, _The bad_ must miss, _the good_, untaught, will find."--_Pope_. "There _are, who, deaf_ to mad Ambition's call, Would shrink to hear th' obstreperous trump of fame; Supremely _blest_, if to their portion fall Health, competence, and peace."--_Beattie_. "High stations _tumult_, but _not bliss_, create; None think _the great_ unhappy, but _the great_. Fools gaze and _envy_: envy darts a sting, Which makes a swain as _wretched_ as a king."--_Young_. "Lo, earth receives him from the bending skies! _Sink_ down, _ye mountains_; and, _ye valleys, rise_; With heads declin'd, _ye cedars_, homage _pay_; _Be_ smooth, _ye rocks; ye_ rapid _floods, give_ way."--_Pope_. "Amid the forms which this full world presents _Like rivals to his_ choice, what human breast E'er doubts, before the _transient and minute_, To prize the _vast_, the _stable_, and _sublime_?"--_Akenside_. "Now fears in dire vicissitude invade; The rustling brake _alarms_, and quiv'ring _shade_: _Nor_ light nor darkness brings his _pain_ relief; One shows the plunder, and one hides the thief."--_Johnson_. "If Merab's choice could have complied with _mine_, Merab, my elder comfort, had been _thine_: And _hers_, at _last_, should have with _mine_ complied, Had I not _thine_ and Michael's heart descried."--_Cowley_. "The people have _as much_ a negative voice To hinder _making_ war without their choice, As kings of making laws in parliament: '_No money' is_ as _good_ as '_No assent_.'"--_Butler_. "Full _many a gem_ of purest ray serene The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear; Full _many a flower_ is born to blush unseen, And waste its sweetness on the desert air."--_Gray_. "_Oh fool_! to think God hates the worthy _mind_, The lover and the love of human kind, _Whose_ life is healthful, and _whose_ conscience clear, Because _he_ wants _a_ thousand pounds _a_ year."--_Pope_. "O _Freedom_! sovereign _boon_ of Heav'n, Great _charter_, with our being given; For _which_ the patriot and the sage Have plann'd, have bled thro' ev'ry age!"--_Mallet_. LESSON VI.--VERSE. "Am I to set my life upon a throw, Because a bear is rude and surly? _No_."--_Cowper_. "_Poor, guiltless I_! and can I choose but _smile_, When every coxcomb knows me by my style?"--_Pope_. "Remote from man, with God he pass'd his days, _Prayer_ all his _business_, all his _pleasure praise_."--_Parnell_. "These are _thy_ blessings, _Industry_! rough power; _Whom_ labour still attends, and _sweat_, and _pain_."--_Thomson_. "_What ho! thou genius_ of the clime, _what ho_! Liest thou _asleep_ beneath these hills of snow?"--_Dryden_. "_What_! canst thou not forbear me _half an hour_? Then _get_ thee gone, and _dig_ my grave thyself."--_Shak_. "Then palaces and lofty domes arose; _These_ for devotion, and for pleasure _those_."--_Blackmore_. "'Tis very dangerous, _tampering_ with a muse; The profit's small, and you have much to lose."--_Roscommon_. "_Lucretius English'd_! 't was a work _might shake_ The power of English verse to undertake."--_Otway_. "_The best_ may slip, and _the_ most _cautious fall_; He's _more_ than _mortal_, that ne'er err'd _at all_."--_Pomfret_. "_Poets_ large _souls_ heaven's noblest stamps do bear, _Poets_, the watchful angels' darling care."--_Stepney_. "Sorrow breaks reasons, and reposing hours; Makes the night _morning_, and the noon-tide _night_."--_Shak._ "Nor then the solemn nightingale _ceas'd warbling_."--_Milton_. "And O, poor hapless _nightingale_, thought I, How _sweet_ thou singst, how _near_ the deadly _snare_!"--_Id._ "He calls for _famine_, and the meagre fiend Blows mildew _from between his_ shrivell'd lips."--_Cowper_. "If o'er their lives a refluent _glance_ they cast, Theirs is _the present_ who can praise _the past_."--_Shenstone_. "Who wickedly is _wise_, or madly _brave, Is but the more_ a fool, the _more_ a knave."--_Pope_. "Great _eldest-born_ of Dullness, blind and bold! _Tyrant!_ more cruel than Procrustes old; Who, to his iron bed, by torture, fits, Their nobler _part_, the _souls_ of suffering wits."--_Mallet_. "Parthenia, _rise_.--What voice alarms my ear? _Away_. Approach not. Hah! _Alexis_ there!"--_Gay_. "Nor is it _harsh_ to make, nor _hard_ to find A country _with--ay_, or without mankind."--_Byron_. "A _frame_ of adamant, a _soul_ of fire, _No_ dangers fright him, and _no_ labours tire."--_Johnson_. "Now _pall_ the tasteless _meats_, and joyless _wines_, And _luxury_ with sighs _her slave resigns_."--_Id._ "_Seems?_ madam; nay, it is: I know not _seems_-- For I have that within which passes show."--_Hamlet_. "_Return? said_ Hector, fir'd with stern disdain: _What! coop_ whole armies in our walls again?"--_Pope_. "He whom the fortune of the field shall cast _From forth_ his chariot, _mount_ the next in haste."--_Id._ "_Yet here, Laertes? aboard, aboard, for_ shame!"--_Shak_. "_Justice_, most gracious _Duke; O grant me_ justice!"--_Id._ "But what a _vengeance_ makes thee _fly_ From me too, as thine enemy?"--_Butler_. "Immortal _Peter_! first of monarchs! He His stubborn _country_ tam'd, _her_ rocks, _her_ fens, _Her_ floods, _her_ seas, _her_ ill-submitting sons."--_Thomson_. "O arrogance! Thou liest, thou thread, thou thimble, Thou yard, three-quarters, half-yard, quarter, nail, Thou flea, thou nit, thou winter-cricket, thou:-- Brav'd in mine own house with a skein of thread! Away, thou rag, thou quantity, thou remnant; Or I shall so be-mete thee with thy yard, As thou shalt think on prating whilst thou liv'st." SHAK.: _Taming of the Shrew_, Act IV, Sc 3. CHAPTER XII.--GENERAL REVIEW. This twelfth chapter of Syntax is devoted to a series of lessons, methodically digested, wherein are reviewed and reapplied, mostly in the order of the parts of speech, all those syntactical principles heretofore given which are useful for the correction of errors. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX FOR A GENERAL REVIEW. [Fist][The following examples of false syntax are arranged for a General Review of the doctrines contained in the preceding Rules and Notes. Being nearly all of them exact quotations, they are also a sort of syllabus of verbal criticism on the various works from which they are taken. What corrections they are supposed to need, may be seen by inspection of the twelfth chapter of the Key. It is here expected, that by recurring to the instructions before given, the learner who takes them as an oral exercise, will ascertain for himself the proper form of correcting each example, according to the particular Rule or Note under which it belongs. When two or more errors occur in the same example, they ought to be corrected successively, in their order. The erroneous sentence being read aloud as it stands, the pupil should say, "_first_, Not proper, because, &c." And when the first error has thus been duly corrected by a brief and regular syllogism, either the same pupil or an other should immediately proceed, and say, "_Secondly_, Not proper _again_, because," &c. And so of the third error, and the fourth, if there be so many. In this manner, a class may be taught to speak in succession without any waste of time, and, after some practice, with a near approach to the PERFECT ACCURACY which is the great end of grammatical instruction. When time cannot be allowed for this regular exercise, these examples may still be profitably rehearsed by a more rapid process, one pupil reading aloud the quoted false grammar, and an other responding to each example, by reading the intended correction from the Key.] LESSON I.--ARTICLES. "And they took stones, and made an heap."--_Com. Bibles; Gen._, xxxi, 46. "And I do know a many fools, that stand in better place."--_Beauties of Shak._, p. 44. "It is a strong antidote to the turbulence of passion, and violence of pursuit."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. i, p. xxiii. "The word _news_ may admit of either a singular or plural application."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 39. "He has earned a fair and a honorable reputation."--_Ib._, p. 140. "There are two general forms, called the solemn and familiar style."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 109. "Neither the article nor preposition may be omitted."--_Wright's Gram._, p 190. "A close union is also observable between the Subjunctive and Potential Moods."--_Ib._, p. 72. "We should render service, equally, to a friend, neighbour, and an enemy."--_Ib._, p. 140. "Till an habit is obtained of aspirating strongly."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 49. "There is an uniform, steady use of the same signs."--_Ib._, p. 163. "A traveller remarks the most objects he sees."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 72. "What is the name of the river on which London stands? The Thames."--"We sometimes find the last line of a couplet or triplet stretched out to twelve syllables."--_Adam's Lat. and Eng. Gram._, p. 282. "Nouns which follow active verbs, are not in the nominative case."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 14. "It is a solemn duty to speak plainly of wrongs, which good men perpetrate."--_Channing's Emancip._, p. 71. "Gathering of riches is a pleasant torment."--_Treasury of Knowledge, Dict._, p. 446. "It [the lamentation of Helen for Hector] is worth the being quoted."--_Coleridge's Introd._, p. 100. "_Council_ is a noun which admits of a singular and plural form."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 137. "To exhibit the connexion between the Old and the New Testaments."--_Keith's Evidences_, p. 25. "An apostrophe discovers the omission of a letter or letters."--_Guy's Gram_, p. 95. "He is immediately ordained, or rather acknowledged an hero."--_Pope, Preface to the Dunciad_. "Which is the same in both the leading and following State."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 86. "Pronouns, as will be seen hereafter, have a distinct nominative, possessive, and objective case."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 15. "A word of many syllables is called polysyllable."--_Beck's Outline of E. Gram._, p. 4. "Nouns have two numbers, singular and plural."--_Ib._, p. 6. "They have three genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter."--_Ib._, p. 6. "They have three cases, nominative, possessive, and objective."--_Ib._, p. 6. "Personal Pronouns have, like Nouns, two numbers, singular and plural. Three genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter. Two cases, nominative and objective."--_Ib._, p. 10. "He must be wise enough to know the singular from plural."--_Ib._, p. 20. "Though they may be able to meet the every reproach which any one of their fellows may prefer."--_Chalmers, Sermons_, p. 104. "Yet for love's sake I rather beseech thee, being such an one as Paul the aged."--_Ep. to Philemon_, 9. "Being such one as Paul the aged."--_Dr. Webster's Bible_. "A people that jeoparded their lives unto the death."--_Judges_, v, 18. "By preventing the too great accumulation of seed within a too narrow compass."--_The Friend_, Vol. vii, p. 97. "Who fills up the middle space between the animal and intellectual nature, the visible and invisible world."--_Addison, Spect._, No. 519. "The Psalms abound with instances of an harmonious arrangement of the words."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 339. "On another table were an ewer and vase, likewise of gold."--_N. Y. Mirror_, xi, 307. "_Th_ is said to have two sounds sharp, and flat."--_Wilson's Essay on Gram._, p. 33. "Section (§) is used in subdividing of a chapter into lesser parts."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 152. "Try it in a Dog or an Horse or any other Creature."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 46. "But particularly in learning of Languages there is least occasion for poseing of Children."--_Ib._, p. 296. "What kind of a noun is _river_, and why?"--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 10. "Is _William's_ a proper or common noun?"--_Ib._, p. 12. "What kind of an article, then, shall we call _the_?"--_Ib._, p. 13. "Each burns alike, who can, or cannot write, Or with a rival's or an eunuch's spite."--_Pope, on Crit._, l. 30. LESSON II.--NOUNS, OR CASES. "And there is stamped upon their Imaginations Idea's that follow them with Terror and Affrightment."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 251. "There's not a wretch that lives on common charity, but's happier than me."--VENICE PRESERVED: _Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 63. "But they overwhelm whomsoever is ignorant of them."--_Common School Journal_, i,115. "I have received a letter from my cousin, she that was here last week."--_Inst._, p. 129. "Gentlemens Houses are seldom without Variety of Company."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 107. "Because Fortune has laid them below the level of others, at their Masters feet."--_Ib._, p. 221. "We blamed neither John nor Mary's delay."--_Nixon's Parser_, p. 117. "The book was written by Luther the reformer's order."--_Ib._, p. 59. "I saw on the table of the saloon Blair's Sermons, and somebody else (I forget who's) sermons, and a set of noisy children."--_Lord Byron's Letters_. "Or saith he it altogether for our sakes?"--_1 Cor._, ix, 10. "He was not aware of the duke's being his competitor."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 190. "It is no condition of a word's being an adjective, that it must be placed before a noun."--FOWLE: _ib._, p. 190. "Though their Reason corrected the wrong Idea's they had taken in."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 251. "It was him, who taught me to hate slavery."--_Morris, in Congress_, 1839. "It is him and his kindred, who live upon the labour of others."--_Id., ib._ "Payment of Tribute is an Acknowledgment of his being King to whom we think it Due."--_Right of Tythes_, p. 161. "When we comprehend what we are taught."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 14. "The following words, and parts of words, must be taken notice of."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 96. "Hence tears and commiseration are so often made use of."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 269. "JOHN-A-NOKES, _n. s._ A fictitious name, made use of in law proceedings."--_Chalmers, Eng. Dict._ "The construction of Matter, and Part taken hold of."--_B. F. Fisk's Greek Gram._, p. x. "And such other names, as carry with them the Idea's of some thing terrible and hurtful."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 250. "Every learner then would surely be glad to be spared the trouble and fatigue"--_Pike's Hebrew Lexicon_, p. iv. "'Tis not the owning ones Dissent from another, that I speak against."--_Locke, on Ed._, p 265. "A man that cannot Fence will be more careful to keep out of Bullies and Gamesters Company, and will not be half so apt to stand upon Punctilio's."--_Ib._, p. 357. "From such Persons it is, one may learn more in one Day, than in a Years rambling from one Inn to another."--_Ib._, p. 377. "A long syllable is generally considered to be twice the length of a short one."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 117. "_I_ is of the first person, and singular number; _Thou_ is second per. sing.; _He, She_, or _It_, is third per. sing.; _We_ is first per. plural; _Ye_ or _You_ is second per. plural; _They_ is third per. plural."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 46. "This actor, doer, or producer of the action, is the nominative."--_Ib._, p. 43. "No Body can think a Boy of Three or Seven Years old, should be argued with, as a grown Man."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 129. "This was in one of the Pharisees' houses, not, in Simon the leper's."--_Hammond_. "Impossible! it can't be me."--_Swift_. "Whose grey top shall tremble, Him descending."--_Dr. Bentley_. "What gender is _woman_, and why?"--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 8. "What gender, then, is _man_, and why?"--_Ibid._ "Who is _I_; who do you mean when you say _I?"--R. W. Green's Gram._, p. 19. "It [Parnassus] is a pleasant air, but a barren soil."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 311. "You may, in three days time, go from Galilee to Jerusalem."--_Josephus_, Vol. 5, p. 174. "And that which is left of the meat-offering shall be Aaron's and his sons."--SCOTT'S BIBLE, and BRUCE'S: _Lev._, ii, 10. See also ii, 3. "For none in all the world, without a lie, Can say that this is mine, excepting I."--_Bunyan_. LESSON III.--ADJECTIVES "When he can be their Remembrancer and Advocate every Assises and Sessions."--_Right of Tythes_, p. 244. "Doing, denotes all manner of action; as, to dance, to play, to write, to read, to teach, to fight, &c."--_Buchanan's Gram._, p. 33. "Seven foot long,"--"eight foot long,"--"fifty foot long."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 205. "Nearly the whole of this twenty-five millions of dollars is a dead loss to the nation."--_Fowler, on Tobacco_, p. 16. "Two negatives destroy one another."--_R. W. Green's Gram._, p. 92. "We are warned against excusing sin in ourselves, or in each other."--_The Friend_, iv, 108. "The Russian empire is more extensive than any government in the world."--_School Geog_. "You will always have the Satisfaction to think it the Money of all other the best laid out."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 145. "There is no one passion which all mankind so naturally give into as pride."--_Steele, Spect._, No. 462. "O, throw away the worser part of it."--_Beauties of Shak._, p 237. "He showed us a more agreeable and easier way."--_Inst._, p. 134. "And the four last [are] to point out those further improvements."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 52; _Campbell's_, 187. "Where he has not distinct and, different clear Idea's."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 353. "Oh, when shall we have such another Rector of Laracor!"--_Hazlitt's Lect_. "Speech must have been absolutely necessary previous to the formation of society."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 2. "Go and tell them boys to be still."--_Inst._, p. 135. "Wrongs are engraved on marble; benefits, on sand: these are apt to be requited; those, forgot."--_B_. "Neither of these several interpretations is the true one."--_B_. "My friend indulged himself in some freaks unbefitting the gravity of a clergyman."--_B_. "And their Pardon is All that either of their Impropriators will have to plead."--_Right of Tythes_, p. 196. "But the time usually chosen to send young Men abroad, is, I think, of all other, that which renders them least capable of reaping those Advantages."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 372. "It is a mere figment of the human imagination, a rhapsody of the transcendent unintelligible."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 120. "It contains a greater assemblage of sublime ideas, of bold and daring figures, than is perhaps any where to be met with."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 162. "The order in which the two last words are placed, should have been reversed."--_Ib._, p. 204. "The _orders_ in which the two last words are placed, should have been reversed."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 310. "In Demosthenes, eloquence _shown_ forth with higher splendour, than perhaps in any that ever bore the name of an orator."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 242. "The circumstance of his being poor is decidedly favorable."-- _Student's Manual_, p. 286. "The temptations to dissipation are greatly lessened by his being poor."--_Ib._, p. 287. "For with her death that tidings came."--_Beauties of Shak._, p. 257. "The next objection is, that these sort of authors are poor."--_Cleland_. "Presenting Emma as Miss Castlemain to these acquaintance."--_Opie's Temper_. "I doubt not but it will please more than the opera."--_Spect._, No. 28. "The world knows only two, that's Rome and I."--_Ben Jonson_. "I distinguish these two things from one another."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 29. "And in this case, mankind reciprocally claim, and allow indulgence to each other."--_Sheridan's Lect._, p. 29. "The six last books are said not to have received the finishing hand of the author."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 438. "The best executed part of the work, is the first six books."--_Ib._, p. 447. "To reason how can we be said to rise? So many cares attend the being wise."--_Sheffield_. LESSON IV.--PRONOUNS. "Once upon a time a goose fed its young by a pond side."--_Goldsmith's Essays_, p. 175. "If either [work] have a sufficient degree of merit to recommend them to the attention of the public."--_Walker's Rhyming Dict._, p. iii. "Now W. Mitchell his deceit is very remarkable."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 264 "My brother, I did not put the question to thee, for that I doubted of the truth of your belief."--_Bunyan's P. P._, p. 158. "I had two elder brothers, one of which was a lieutenant-colonel."--_Robinson Crusoe_, p. 2. "Though _James_ is here the object of the action, yet, he is in the nominative case."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 64. "Here, _John_ is the actor; and is known to be the nominative, by its answering to the question, 'Who struck Richard?'"--_Ib._, p. 43. "One of the most distinguished privileges which Providence has conferred on mankind, is the power of communicating their thoughts to one another."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 9. "With some of the most refined feelings which belong to our frame."--_Ib._, p. 13. "And the same instructions which assist others in composing, will assist them in judging of, and relishing, the beauties of composition."--_Ib._, p. 12. "To overthrow all which had been yielded in favour of the army."--_Mrs. Macaulay's Hist._, i, 335. "Let your faith stand in the Lord God who changes not, and that created all, and gives the increase of all."--_Friends' Advices_, 1676. "For it is, in truth, the sentiment or passion, which lies under the figured expression, that gives it any merit."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 133. "Verbs are words which affirm the being, doing, or suffering of a thing, together with the time it happens."--_Al. Murray's Gram._, p. 29. "The Byass will always hang on that side, that nature first placed it."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 177. "They should be brought to do the things are fit for them."--_Ib._, p. 178. "Various sources whence the English language is derived."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. ii, p. 286. "This attention to the several cases, when it is proper to omit and when to redouble the copulative, is of considerable importance."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 113. "Cicero, for instance, speaking of the cases where killing another is lawful in self defence, uses the following words."--_Ib._, p. 156. "But there is no nation, hardly any person so phlegmatic, as not to accompany their words with some actions and gesticulations, on all occasions, when they are much in earnest."--_Ib._, p. 335. "_William's_ is said to be governed by _coat_, because it follows _William's_"--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 12. "There are many occasions in life, in which silence and simplicity are true wisdom."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 197. "In choosing umpires, the avarice of whom is excited."--_Nixon's Parser_, p. 153. "The boroughs sent representatives, which had been enacted."--_Ib._, p. 154. "No man believes but what there is some order in the universe."--_Anon._ "The moon is orderly in her changes, which she could not be by accident."--_Id._ "Of Sphynx her riddles, they are generally two kinds."--_Bacons Wisdom_, p. 73. "They must generally find either their Friends or Enemies in Power."--_Brown's Estimate_, Vol. ii, p. 166. "For of old, every one took upon them to write what happened in their own time."--_Josephus's Jewish War, Pref._, p. 4. "The Almighty cut off the family of Eli the high priest, for its transgressions."--See _Key_. "The convention then resolved themselves into a committee of the whole."--_Inst._, p. 146. "The severity with which this denomination was treated, appeared rather to invite than to deter them from flocking to the colony."--_H. Adams's View_, p. 71. "Many Christians abuse the Scriptures and the traditions of the apostles, to uphold things quite contrary to it."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 461. "Thus, a circle, a square, a triangle, or a hexagon, please the eye, by their regularity, as beautiful figures."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 46. "Elba is remakable [sic--KTH] for its being the place to which Bonaparte was banished in 1814."--See _Sanborn's Gram._, p. 190. "The editor has the reputation of his being a good linguist and critic."--See _ib._ "'Tis a Pride should be cherished in them."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 129. "And to restore us the Hopes of Fruits, to reward our Pains in its season."--_Ib._, p. 136. "The comick representation of Death's victim relating its own tale."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 103. "As for Scioppius his Grammar, that doth wholly concern the Latin Tongue."--DR. WILKINS: _Tooke's D. P._, i, 7. "And chiefly thee, O Spirit, who dost prefer Before all temples the upright heart and pure, Instruct me, for thou knowest."--_Bucke's Classical Gram._, p. 45. LESSON V.--VERBS. "And there was in the same country shepherds, abiding in the field."--SCOTT'S BIBLE: _Luke_, ii. 8. "Whereof every one bear twins."--COM. BIBLE: _Sol. Song_, iv, 2. "Whereof every one bare twins."--ALGER'S BIBLE: _ib._ "Whereof every one beareth twins."--SCOTT'S BIBLE: _ib._ "He strikes out of his nature one of the most divine principles, that is planted in it."--_Addison, Spect._, No. 181. "_Genii_, denote ærial spirits."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 40. "In proportion as the long and large prevalence of such corruptions have been obtained by force."--BP. HALIFAX: _Brier's Analogy_, p. xvi. "Neither of these are fix'd to a Word of a general Signification, or proper Name."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 95. "Of which a few of the opening lines is all I shall give."--_Moore's Life of Byron_. "The riches we had in England was the slow result of long industry and wisdom."--DAVENANT: _Webster's Imp. Gram._, p. 21; _Phil. Gram._, 29. "The following expression appears to be correct:--'Much publick thanks _is_ due.'"--_Wright's Gram._, p. 201. "He hath been enabled to correct many mistakes."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. x. "Which road takest thou here?"--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 106. "Learnest thou thy lesson?"--_Ib._, p. 105. "Learned they their pieces perfectly?"--_Ibid._ "Thou learnedst thy task well."--_Ibid._ "There are some can't relish the town, and others can't away with the country."--WAY OF THE WORLD: _Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 304. "If thou meetest them, thou must put on an intrepid mien."--_Neef's Method of Ed._, p. 201. "Struck with terror, as if Philip was something more than human."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 265. "If the personification of the form of Satan was admissible, it should certainly have been masculine."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 176. "If only one follow, there seems to be a defect in the sentence."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 104. "Sir, if thou have borne him hence, tell me where thou hast laid him."--_John_, xx, 15. "Blessed be the people that know the joyful sound."--_Psalms_, lxxxix, 15. "Every auditory take in good part those marks of respect and awe, which are paid them by one who addresses them."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 308. "Private causes were still pleaded [in the forum]: but the public was no longer interested; nor any general attention drawn to what passed there."--_Ib._, p. 249. "Nay, what evidence can be brought to show, that the Inflection of the Classic tongues were not originally formed out of obsolete auxiliary words?"--_Murray's Gram._, i, p. 112. "If the student reflects, that the principal and the auxiliary forms but one verb, he will have little or no difficulty, in the proper application of the present rule."--_Ib._, p. 183. "For the sword of the enemy and fear is on every side."--_Jeremiah_, vi, 26. "Even the Stoics agree that nature and certainty is very hard to come at."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 71. "His politeness and obliging behaviour was changed."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 186. "His politeness and obliging behaviour were changed."--_Hume's Hist._, Vol. vi, p. 14. "War and its honours was their employment and ambition."--_Goldsmith_. "Does _a_ and _an_ mean the same thing?"--_R. W. Green's Gram._, p. 15. "When a number of words _come_ in between the discordant parts, the ear does not detect the error."--_Cobbett's Gram._, ¶ 185. "The sentence should be, 'When a number of words _comes_ in,' &c."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 170. "The nature of our language, the accent and pronunciation of it, inclines us to contract even all our regular verbs."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 45. "The nature of our language, together with the accent and pronunciation of it, incline us to contract even all our Regular Verbs."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 45. "Prompt aid, and not promises, are what we ought to give."--_Author_. "The position of the several organs therefore, as well as their functions are ascertained."--_Medical Magazine_, 1833, p. 5. "Every private company, and almost every public assembly, afford opportunities of remarking the difference between a just and graceful, and a faulty and unnatural elocution."--_Enfield's Speaker_, p. 9. "Such submission, together with the active principle of obedience, make up the temper and character in us which answers to his sovereignty."-- _Butler's Analogy_, p. 126. "In happiness, as in other things, there is a false and a true, an imaginary and a real."--_Fuller, on the Gospel_, p. 134. "To confound things that differ, and to make a distinction where there is no difference, is equally unphilosophical."--_Author_. "I know a bank whereon the wild thyme blows, Where ox-lips and the nodding violet grows."--_Beaut. of Shak._, p. 51. LESSON VI.--VERBS. "Whose business or profession prevent their attendance in the morning."--_Ogilby_. "And no church or officer have power over one another."--LECHFORD: _in Hutchinson's Hist._, i, 373. "While neither reason nor experience are sufficiently matured to protect them."--_Woodbridge_. "Among the Greeks and Romans, every syllable, or the far greatest number at least, was known to have a fixed and determined quantity."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 383. "Among the Greeks and Romans, every syllable, or at least by far the greatest number of syllables, was known to have a fixed and determined quantity."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 303. "Their vanity is awakened and their passions exalted by the irritation, which their self-love receives from contradiction."--_Influence of Literature_, Vol. ii. p. 218. "I and he was neither of us any great swimmer."--_Anon_. "Virtue, honour, nay, even self-interest, _conspire_ to recommend the measure."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 150. "A correct plainness, and elegant simplicity, is the proper character of an introduction."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 308. "In syntax there is what grammarians call concord or agreement, and government."--_Infant School Gram._, p. 128. "People find themselves able without much study to write and speak the English intelligibly, and thus have been led to think rules of no utility."-- _Webster's Essays_, p. 6. "But the writer must be one who has studied to inform himself well, who has pondered his subject with care, and addresses himself to our judgment, rather than to our imagination."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 353. "But practice hath determined it otherwise; and has, in all the languages with which we are much acquainted, supplied the place of an interrogative mode, either by particles of interrogation, or by a peculiar order of the words in the sentence."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 84. "If the Lord have stirred thee up against me, let him accept an offering."--_1 Sam._, xxvi, 19. "But if the priest's daughter be a widow, or divorced, and have no child, and is returned unto her father's house, as in her youth, she shall eat of her father's meat."--_Levit._, xxii, 13. "Since we never have, nor ever shall study your sublime productions."--_Neef's Sketch_, p. 62. "Enabling us to form more distinct images of objects, than can be done with the utmost attention where these particulars are not found."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. i, p. 174. "I hope you will consider what is spoke comes from my love."--_Shak., Othello_. "We will then perceive how the designs of emphasis may be marred,"--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 406. "I knew it was Crab, and goes me to the fellow that whips the dogs."--SHAK: _Joh. Dict., w._ ALE. "The youth was being consumed by a slow malady."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 192. "If all men thought, spoke, and wrote alike, something resembling a perfect adjustment of these points may be accomplished."-- _Ib._, p. 240. "If you will replace what has been long since expunged from the language."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 167; _Murray's Gram._, i, 364. "As in all those faulty instances, I have now been giving."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 149. "This mood has also been improperly used in the following places."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 184. "He [Milton] seems to have been well acquainted with his own genius, and to know what it was that nature had bestowed upon him."--_Johnson's Life of Milton_. "Of which I already gave one instance, the worst, indeed, that occurs in all the poem."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 395. "It is strange he never commanded you to have done it."--_Anon_. "History painters would have found it difficult, to have invented such a species of beings."--ADDISON: see _Lowth's Gram._, p. 87. "Universal Grammar cannot be taught abstractedly, it must be done with reference to some language already known."--_Lowth's Preface_, p. viii. "And we might imagine, that if verbs had been so contrived, as simply to express these, no more was needful."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 82. "To a writer of such a genius as Dean Swift, the plain style was most admirably fitted."--_Ib._, p. 181. "Please excuse my son's absence."--_Inst._, p. 188. "Bid the boys to come in immediately."--_Ib._ "Gives us the secrets of his Pagan hell, Where ghost with ghost in sad communion dwell." --_Crabbe's Bor._, p. 306. "Alas! nor faith, nor valour now remain; Sighs are but wind, and I must bear my chain." --_Walpole's Catal._, p. 11. LESSON VII.--PARTICIPLES. "Of which the Author considers himself, in compiling the present work, as merely laying of the foundation-stone."--_Blair's Gram._, p. ix. "On the raising such lively and distinct images as are here described."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 89. "They are necessary to the avoiding Ambiguities."-- _Brightland's Gram._, p. 95. "There is no neglecting it without falling into a dangerous error."--_Burlamaqui, on Law_, p. 41. "The contest resembles Don Quixote's fighting windmills."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 67. "That these verbs associate with verbs in all the tenses, is no proof of their having no particular time of their own."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 190. "To justify my not following the tract of the ancient rhetoricians."-- _Blair's Rhet._, p. 122. "The putting letters together, so as to make words, is called spelling."--_Infant School Gram._, p. 11. "What is the putting vowels and consonants together called?"--_Ib._, p. 12. "Nobody knows of their being charitable but themselves."--_Fuller, on the Gospel_, p. 29. "Payment was at length made, but no reason assigned for its having been so long postponed."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 186; _Kirkham's_, 194; _Ingersoll's_, 254. "Which will bear being brought into comparison with any composition of the kind."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 396. "To render vice ridiculous, is doing real service to the world."--_Ib._, p. 476. "It is copying directly from nature; giving a plain rehearsal of what passed, or was supposed to pass, in conversation."--_Ib._, p. 433. "Propriety of pronunciation is giving to every word that sound, which the most polite usage of the language appropriates to it."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 200. "To occupy the mind, and prevent our regretting the insipidity of an uniform plain."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. ii, p. 329. "There are a hundred ways of any thing happening."--_Steele_. "Tell me, signor, what was the cause of Antonio's sending Claudio to Venice, yesterday."--_Bucke's Gram._, p 90. "Looking about for an outlet, some rich prospect unexpectedly opens to view."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 334. "A hundred volumes of modern novels may be read, without acquiring a new idea"--_Webster's Essays_, p. 29. "Poetry admits of greater latitude than prose, with respect to coining, or, at least, new compounding words."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 93. "When laws were wrote on brazen tablets enforced by the sword."--_Notes to the Dunciad_. "A pronoun, which saves the naming a person or thing a second time, ought to be placed as near as possible to the name of that person or thing."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 49. "The using a preposition in this case, is not always a matter of choice."--_Ib._, ii, 37. "To save multiplying words, I would be understood to comprehend both circumstances."--_Ib._, i, 219. "Immoderate grief is mute: complaining is struggling for consolation."--_Ib._, i, 398. "On the other hand, the accelerating or retarding the natural course, excites a pain."--_Ib._, i, 259. "Human affairs require the distributing our attention."--_Ib._, i, 264. "By neglecting this circumstance, the following example is defective in neatness."--_Ib._, ii, 29. "And therefore the suppressing copulatives must animate a description."--_Ib._, ii, 32. "If the laying aside copulatives give force and liveliness, a redundancy of them must render the period languid."--_Ib._, ii, 33. "It skills not asking my leave, said Richard."--_Scott's Crusaders_. "To redeem his credit, he proposed being sent once more to Sparta."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, i, 129. "Dumas relates his having given drink to a dog."--_Dr. Stone, on the Stomach_, p. 24. "Both are, in a like way, instruments of our receiving such ideas from external objects."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 66. "In order to your proper handling such a subject."--_Spectator_, No. 533. "For I do not recollect its being preceded by an open vowel."--_Knight, on the Greek Alphabet_, p. 56. "Such is setting up the form above the power of godliness."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 72. "I remember walking once with my young acquaintance."-- _Hunt's Byron_, p 27. "He [Lord Byron] did not like paying a debt."--_Ib._, p. 74. "I do not remember seeing Coleridge when I was a child."--_Ib._, p. 318. "In consequence of the dry rot's having been discovered, the mansion has undergone a thorough repair."--_Maunder's Gram._, p. 17. "I would not advise the following entirely the German system."--DR. LIEBER: _Lit. Conv._, p. 66. "Would it not be making the students judges of the professors?"--_Id., ib._, p. 4. "Little time should intervene between their being proposed and decided upon."--PROF. VETHAKE: _ib._, p. 39. "It would be nothing less than finding fault with the Creator."--_Ib._, p. 116. "Having once been friends is a powerful reason, both of prudence and conscience, to restrain us from ever becoming enemies."--_Secker_. "By using the word as a conjunction, the ambiguity is prevented."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 216. "He forms his schemes the flood of vice to stem, But preaching Jesus is not one of them."--_J. Taylor_. LESSON VIII.--ADVERBS. "Auxiliaries cannot only be inserted, but are really understood,"--_Wright's Gram._, p 209. "He was since a hired Scribbler in the Daily Courant."--_Notes to the Dunciad_, ii, 299. "In gardening, luckily, relative beauty need never stand in opposition to intrinsic beauty."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 330. "I doubt much of the propriety of the following examples."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 44. "And [we see] how far they have spread one of the worst Languages possibly in this part of the world."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 341. "And in this manner to merely place him on a level with the beast of the forest."--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 5. "Where, ah! where, has my darling fled?"--_Anon_. "As for this fellow, we know not from whence he is."--_John_, ix, 29. "Ye see then how that by works a man is justified, and not by faith only."--_James_, ii, 24. "The _Mixt_ kind is where the poet speaks in his own person, and sometimes makes other characters to speak."--_Adam's Lat. Gram._, p. 276; _Gould's_, 267. "Interrogation is, when the writer or orator raises questions and returns answers."--_Fisher's Gram._, p. 154. "Prevention is, when an author starts an objection which he foresees may be made, and gives an answer to it."--_Ib._, p. 154. "Will you let me alone, or no?"--_Walker's Particles_, p. 184. "Neither man nor woman cannot resist an engaging exterior."-- _Chesterfield_, Let. lix. "Though the Cup be never so clean."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 65. "Seldom, or ever, did any one rise to eminence, by being a witty lawyer."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 272. "The second rule, which I give, respects the choice of subjects, from whence metaphors, and other figures, are to be drawn."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 144. "In the figures which it uses, it sets mirrors before us, where we may behold objects, a second time, in their likeness."--_Ib._, p. 139. "Whose Business is to seek the true measures of Right and Wrong, and not the Arts how to avoid doing the one, and secure himself in doing the other."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 331. "The occasions when you ought to personify things, and when you ought not, cannot be stated in any precise rule."--_Cobbett's Eng. Gram._, ¶ 182. "They reflect that they have been much diverted, but scarce can say about what."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 151. "The eyebrows and shoulders should seldom or ever be remarked by any perceptible motion."--_Adams's Rhet._, ii, 389. "And the left hand or arm should seldom or never attempt any motion by itself."--_Ib._, ii, 391. "Every speaker does not propose to please the imagination."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 104. "And like Gallio, they care little for none of these things."--_The Friend_, Vol. x, p. 351. "They may inadvertently be imitated, in cases where the meaning would be obscure."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 272. "Nor a man cannot make him laugh."--_Shak_. "The Athenians, in their present distress, scarce knew where to turn."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, i, 156. "I do not remember where ever God delivered his oracles by the multitude."--_Locke_. "The object of this government is twofold, outwards and inwards."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 553. "In order to rightly understand what we read."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 313. "That a design had been formed, to forcibly abduct or kidnap Morgan."--_Stone, on Masonry_, p. 410. "But such imposture can never maintain its ground long."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 10. "But sure it is equally possible to apply the principles of reason and good sense to this art, as to any other that is cultivated among men."--_Ibid._ "It would have been better for you, to have remained illiterate, and to have been even hewers of wood."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 374. "Dissyllables that have two vowels, which are separated in the pronunciation, have always the accent on the first syllable."--_Ib._, i, 238. "And they all turned their backs without almost drawing a sword."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 224. "The principle of duty takes naturally place of every other."--_Ib._, i, 342. "All that glitters is not gold."--_Maunder's Gram._, p. 13. "Whether now or never so many myriads of ages hence."--_Pres. Edwards_. "England never did, nor never shall, Lie at the proud foot of a conqueror."--_Beaut. of Shak._, p. 109. LESSON IX.--CONJUNCTIONS. "He readily comprehends the rules of Syntax, and their use and applicability in the examples before him."--_Greenleaf's Gram._, p. 6. "The works of �schylus have suffered more by time, than any of the ancient tragedians."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 470. "There is much more story, more bustle, and action, than on the French theatre."--_Ib._, p. 478. "Such an unremitted anxiety and perpetual application as engrosses our whole time and thoughts, are forbidden."--SOAME JENYNS: _Tract_, p. 12. "It seems to be nothing else but the simple form of the adjective."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 49. "But when I talk of _Reasoning_, I do not intend any other, but such as is suited to the Child's Capacity."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 129. "Pronouns have no other use in language, but to represent nouns."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p 83. "The speculative relied no farther on their own judgment, but to choose a leader, whom they implicitly followed."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. i, p. xxv. "Unaccommodated man is no more but such a poor, bare, forked animal as thou art."--_Beaut. of Shak._, p. 266. "A Parenthesis is a clause introduced into the body of a sentence obliquely, and which may be omitted without injuring the grammatical construction."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 280; _Ingersoll's_, 292; _Smith's_, 192; _Alden's_, 162; _A. Flint's_, 114; _Fisk's_, 158; _Cooper's_, 187; _Comly's_, 163. "A Caret, marked thus ^ is placed where some word happens to be left _out in_ writing, and which _is inserted over_ the line."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 282; _Ingersoll's_, 293; _and others_. "At the time that I visit them they shall be cast down."--_Jer._, vi, 15. "Neither our virtues or vices are all our own."--DR. JOHNSON: _Sanborn's Gram._, p. 167. "I could not give him an answer as early as he had desired."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 200. "He is not as tall as his brother."--_Nixon's Parser_, p. 124. "It is difficult to judge when Lord Byron is serious or not."--_Lady Blessington_. "Some nouns are both of the second and third declension."--_Gould's Lat. Gram._, p. 48. "He was discouraged neither by danger or misfortune."--_Wells's Hist._, p. 161. "This is consistent neither with logic nor history."--_The Dial_, i, 62. "Parts of Sentences are simple and compound."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 114. "English verse is regulated rather by the number of syllables than of feet."--_Ib._, p. 120. "I know not what more he can do, but pray for him."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 140. "Whilst they are learning, and apply themselves with Attention, they are to be kept in good Humour."--_Ib._, p. 295. "A man cannot have too much of it, nor too perfectly."--_Ib._, p. 322. "That you may so run, as you may obtain; and so fight, as you may overcome."--_Wm. Penn_. "It is the case of some, to contrive false periods of business, because they may seem men of despatch."--_Lord Bacon_. "'A tall man and a woman.' In this sentence there is no ellipsis; the adjective or quality respect only the man."--_Dr. Ash's Gram._, p. 95. "An abandonment of the policy is neither to be expected or desired."--_Pres. Jackson's Message_, 1830. "Which can be acquired by no other means but frequent exercise in speaking."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 344. "The chief and fundamental rules of syntax are common to the English as well as the Latin tongue."--_Ib._, p. 90. "Then I exclaim, that my antagonist either is void of all taste, or that his taste is corrupted in a miserable degree."-- _Ib._, p. 21. "I cannot pity any one who is under no distress of body nor of mind."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 44. "There was much genius in the world, before there were learning or arts to refine it."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 391. "Such a Writer can have little else to do, but to new model the Paradoxes of ancient Scepticism."--_Brown's Estimate_, i, 102. "Our ideas of them being nothing else but a collection of the ordinary qualities observed in them."--_Duncan's Logic_, p. 25. "A _non-ens_ or a negative can neither give pleasure nor pain."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 63. "So as they shall not justle and embarrass one another."--_Blair's Lectures_, p. 318. "He firmly refused to make use of any other voice but his own."-- _Goldsmith's Greece_, i, 190. "Your marching regiments, Sir, will not make the guards their example, either as soldiers or subjects."--_Junius, Let_. 35. "Consequently, they had neither meaning, or beauty, to any but the natives of each country."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 161. "The man of worth, and has not left his peer, Is in his narrow house for ever darkly laid."--_Burns_. LESSON X.--PREPOSITIONS. "These may be carried on progressively above any assignable limits."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 296. "To crowd in a single member of a period different subjects, is still worse than to crowd them into one period."--_Ib._, ii, 27. "Nor do we rigidly insist for melodious prose."--_Ib._, ii, 76. "The aversion we have at those who differ from us."--_Ib._, ii, 365. "For we cannot bear his shifting the scene every line."--LD. HALIFAX: _ib._, ii, 213. "We shall find that we come by it the same way."--_Locke_. "To this he has no better defense than that."--_Barnes's Bed Book_, p. 347. "Searching the person whom he suspects for having stolen his casket."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 479. "Who are elected as vacancies occur by the whole Board."--_Lit. Convention_, p. 81. "Almost the only field of ambition of a German, is science."--DR. LIEBER: _ib._, p. 66. "The plan of education is very different to the one pursued in the sister country."--DR. COLEY, _ib._, p. 197. "Some writers on grammar have contended that adjectives relate to, and modify the action of verbs."--_Wilcox's Gram._, p. 61. "They are therefore of a mixed nature, participating of the properties both of pronouns and adjectives."-- _Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 57. "For there is no authority which can justify the inserting the aspirate or doubling the vowel."--_Knight, on Greek Alph._, p. 52. "The distinction and arrangement between active, passive, and neuter verbs."--_Wright's Gram_, p. 176. "And see thou a hostile world _to_ spread its delusive snares."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 167. "He may be precaution'd, and be made see, how those joyn in the Contempt."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 155. "The contenting themselves now in the want of what they wish'd for, is a vertue."--_Ib._, p. 185. "If the Complaint be of something really worthy your notice."--_Ib._, p. 190. "True Fortitude I take to be the quiet Possession of a Man's self, and an undisturb'd doing his Duty."--_Ib._, p. 204. "For the custom of tormenting and killing of Beasts will, by degrees, harden their Minds even towards Men."--_Ib._, p. 216. "Children are whip'd to it, and made spend many Hours of their precious time uneasily in Latin."--_Ib._, p. 289. "The ancient rhetoricians have entered into a very minute and particular detail of this subject; more particular, indeed, than any other that regards language."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 123. "But the one should not be omitted without the other."--_Bullions's Eng. Gram._, p. 108. "In some of the common forms of speech, the relative pronoun is usually omitted."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 218; _Weld's_, 191. "There are a great variety of causes, which disqualify a witness from being received to testify in particular cases."--_J. Q. Adams's Rhet._, ii, 75. "Aside of all regard to interest, we should expect that," &c.--_Webster's Essays_, p. 82. "My opinion was given on a rather cursory perusal of the book."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 202. "And the next day, he was put on board his ship."--_Ib._, ii, 201. "Having the command of no emotions but of what are raised by sight."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 318. "Did these moral attributes exist in some other being beside himself."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 161. "He did not behave in that manner out of pride or contempt of the tribunal."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, i, 190. "These prosecutions of William seem to have been the most iniquitous measures pursued by the court."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 199; _Priestley's Gram._, 126. "To restore myself into the good graces of my fair critics."--_Dryden_. "Objects denominated beautiful, please not in virtue of any one quality common to them all."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 46. "This would have been less worthy notice, had not a writer or two of high rank lately adopted it."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 197. "A Grecian youth, with talents rare, Whom Plato's philosophic care," &c.--_Felton's Gram._, p. 145. LESSON XI.--PROMISCUOUS. "To excel, is become a much less considerable object."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 351. "My robe, and my integrity to heaven, is all I now dare call mine own."--_Beauties of Shak._, p. 173. "So thou the garland wear'st successively."--_Ib._, p. 134. "For thou the garland wears successively."--_Enfield's Speaker_, p. 341. "If that thou need'st a Roman's, take it forth."--_Ib._, p. 357. "If that thou be'st a Roman, take it forth."--_Beauties of Shak._, p. 256. "If thou provest this to be real, thou must be a smart lad, indeed."--_Neef's Method of Teaching_, p. 210. "And another Bridge of four hundred Foot in Length."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 242. "_Metonomy_ is putting one name for another on account of the near relation there is between them."--_Fisher's Gram._, p. 151. "An _Antonomasia_ is putting an appellative or common name for a proper name."--_Ib._, p. 153. "Its being me needs make no difference in your determination."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 89. "The first and second page are torn."--_Ib._, p. 145. "John's being from home occasioned the delay."--_Ib._, p. 81. "His having neglected opportunities of improvement, was the cause of his disgrace."--_Ib._, p. 81. "He will regret his having neglected opportunities of improvement when it may be too late."--_Ib._, p. 81. "His being an expert dancer does not entitle him to our regard."--_Ib._, p. 82.[443] "Cæsar went back to Rome to take possession of the public treasure, which his opponent, by a most unaccountable oversight, had neglected taking with him."--_Goldsmith's Rome_, p. 116. "And Cæsar took out of the treasury, to the amount of three thousand pound weight of gold, besides an immense quantity of silver."--_Ibid._ "Rules and definitions, which should always be clear and intelligible as possible, are thus rendered obscure."--_Greenleaf's Gram._, p. 5. "So much both of ability and merit is seldom found."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 179. "If such maxims, and such practices prevail, what is become of decency and virtue?"--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 78. "Especially if the subject require not so much pomp."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 117. "However, the proper mixture of light and shade, in such compositions; the exact adjustment of all the figurative circumstances with the literal sense; have ever been considered as points of great nicety."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 343. "And adding to that hissing in our language, which is taken so much notice of by foreigners."--ADDISON: DR. COOTE: _ib._, i, 90. "Speaking impatiently to servants, or any thing that betrays unkindness or ill-humour, is certainly criminal."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 183; _Merchant's_, 190. "There is here a fulness and grandeur of expression well suited to the subject."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 218. "I single Strada out among the moderns, because he had the foolish presumption to censure Tacitus."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 262. "I single him out among the moderns, because," &c.--_Bolingbroke, on Hist._, p. 116. "This is a rule not always observed, even by good writers, as strictly as it ought to be."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 103. "But this gravity and assurance, which is beyond boyhood, being neither wisdom nor knowledge, do never reach to manhood."--_Notes to the Dunciad_. "The regularity and polish even of a turnpike-road has some influence upon the low people in the neighbourhood."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 358. "They become fond of regularity and neatness; which is displayed, first upon their yards and little enclosures, and next within doors."--_Ibid._ "The phrase, _it is impossible to exist_, gives us the idea of it's being impossible for men, or any body to exist."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 85. "I'll give a thousand pound to look upon him."--_Beauties of Shak._, p. 151. "The reader's knowledge, as Dr. Campbell observes, may prevent his mistaking it."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 172; _Crombie's_, 253. "When two words are set in contrast or in opposition to one another, they are both emphatic."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 243. "The number of persons, men, women, and children, who were lost in the sea, was very great."--_Ib._, ii, 20. "Nor is the resemblance between the primary and resembling object pointed out"--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 179. "I think it the best book of the kind which I have met with."--DR. MATHEWS: _Greenleaf's Gram._, p. 2. "Why should not we their ancient rites restore, And be what Rome or Athens were before."--_Roscommon_, p. 22. LESSON XII.--TWO ERRORS. "It is labour only which gives the relish to pleasure."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 234. "Groves are never as agreeable as in the opening of the spring."--_Ib._, p. 216. "His 'Philosophical Inquiry into the origin of our Ideas on the Sublime and Beautiful' soon made him known to the literati."--_Biog. Rhet., n. Burke_. "An awful precipice or tower whence we look down on the objects which lie below."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 30. "This passage, though very poetical, is, however, harsh and obscure; owing to no other cause but this, that three distinct metaphors are crowded together."--_Ib._, p. 149. "I propose making some observations."--_Ib._, p. 280. "I shall follow the same method here which I have all along pursued."--_Ib._, p. 346. "Mankind never resemble each other so much as they do in the beginnings of society."--_Ib._, p. 380. "But no ear is sensible of the termination of each foot, in reading an hexameter line."--_Ib._, p. 383. "The first thing, says he, which either a writer of fables, or of heroic poems, does, is, to choose some maxim or point of morality."--_Ib._, p. 421. "The fourth book has been always most justly admired, and abounds with beauties of the highest kind."--_Ib._, p. 439. "There is no attempt towards painting characters in the poem."--_Ib._, p. 446. "But the artificial contrasting of characters, and the introducing them always in pairs, and by opposites, gives too theatrical and affected an air to the piece."--_Ib._, p. 479. "Neither of them are arbitrary nor local."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, p. xxi. "If crowding figures be bad, it is still worse to graft one figure upon another."--_Ib._, ii, 236. "The crowding withal so many objects together, lessens the pleasure."--_Ib._, ii, 324. "This therefore lies not in the putting off the Hat, nor making of Compliments."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 149. "But the Samaritan Vau may have been used, as the Jews did the Chaldaic, both for a vowel and consonant."--_Wilson's Essay_, p. 19. "But if a solemn and familiar pronunciation really exists in our language, is it not the business of a grammarian to mark both?"--_Walker's Dict., Pref._, p. 4. "By making sounds follow each other agreeable to certain laws."--_Music of Nature_, p. 406. "If there was no drinking intoxicating draughts, there could be no drunkards."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 178. "Socrates knew his own defects, and if he was proud of any thing, it was in the being thought to have none."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, i, 188. "Lysander having brought his army to Ephesus, erected an arsenal for building of gallies."--_Ib._, i, 161. "The use of these signs are worthy remark."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 94. "He received me in the same manner that I would you."--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 113. "Consisting both of the direct and collateral evidence."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 224. "If any man or woman that believeth have widows, let them relieve them, and let not the church be charged."--_1 Tim._, v, 16. "For mens sakes are beasts bred."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 131. "From three a clock there was drinking and gaming."--_Ib._, p. 141. "Is this he that I am seeking of, or no?"--_Ib._, p. 248. "And for the upholding every one his own opinion, there is so much ado."--_Sewel's Hist._, p. 809. "Some of them however will be necessarily taken notice of."--_Sale's Koran_, p. 71. "The boys conducted themselves exceedingly indiscreet."--_Merchant's Key_, p. 195. "Their example, their influence, their fortune, every talent they possess, dispense blessings on all around them."--_Ib._, p. 197; _Murray's Key_, ii, 219. "The two _Reynolds_ reciprocally converted one another"--_Johnson's Lives_, p. 185. "The destroying the two last Tacitus calls an attack upon virtue itself."--_Goldsmith's Rome_, p. 194. "Monies is your suit."--_Beauties of Shak._, p. 38. "_Ch_, is commonly sounded like _tch_; as in church; but in words derived from the Greek, has the sound of _k_."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 11. "When one is obliged to make some utensil supply purposes to which they were not originally destined."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 222. "But that a being baptized with water, is a washing away of sin, thou canst not from hence prove."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 190. "Being but spoke to one, it infers no universal command."--_Ibid._ "For if the laying aside Copulatives gives Force and Liveliness, a Redundancy of them must render the Period languid."--_Buchanan's Syntax_, p. 134. "James used to compare him to a cat, who always fell upon her legs."--ADAM'S HIST. OF ENG.: _Crombie_, p. 384. "From the low earth aspiring genius springs, And sails triumphant born on eagles wings."--_Lloyd_, p. 162. LESSON XIII.--TWO ERRORS. "An ostentatious, a feeble, a harsh, or an obscure style, for instance, are always faults."--_Blair's Rhet._ p. 190. "Yet in this we find the English pronounce perfectly agreeable to rule."--_Walker's Dict._, p. 2. "But neither the perception of ideas, nor knowledge of any sort, are habits, though absolutely necessary to the forming of them."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 111. "They were cast: and an heavy fine imposed upon them."--_Goldsmiths Greece_, ii, 30. "Without making this reflection, he cannot enter into the spirit, nor relish the composition of the author."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 450. "The scholar should be instructed relative to finding his words."--_Osborn's Key_, p. 4. "And therefore they could neither have forged, or reversified them."--_Knight, on the Greek Alph._, p. 30. "A dispensary is the place where medicines are dispensed."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 172. "Both the connexion and number of words is determined by general laws."--_Neef's Sketch_, p. 73. "An Anapsest has the two first syllables unaccented, and the last accented: as, 'Contravene, acquiésce.'"--_Murray's Gram._, i, 254. "An explicative sentence is, when a thing is said to be or not to be, to do or not to do, to suffer or not to suffer, in a direct manner."--_Ib._, i, 141; _Lowth's_, 84. "BUT is a _conjunction_, in all cases when it is neither an adverb nor preposition."--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 109. "He wrote in the king Ahasuerus' name, and sealed it with the king's ring."--_Esther_, viii, 10. "Camm and Audland were departed the town before this time."--_Sewel's Hist._, p. 100. "Previous to their relinquishing the practice, they must be convinced."--_Dr. Webster, on Slavery_, p. 5. "Which he had thrown up previous to his setting out."--_Grimshaw's Hist. U. S._, p. 84. "He left him to the value of an hundred drachmas in Persian money."--_Spect._, No. 535. "All which the mind can ever contemplate concerning them, must be divided between the three."--_Cardell's Philad. Gram._, p. 80. "Tom Puzzle is one of the most eminent immethodical disputants of any that has fallen under my observation."--_Spect._, No. 476. "When you have once got him to think himself made amends for his suffering, by the praise is given him for his courage."--_Locke, on Ed_. §115. "In all matters where simple reason, and mere speculation is concerned."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 136. "And therefore he should be spared the trouble of attending to any thing else, but his meaning."--_Ib._, p. 105. "It is this kind of phraseology which is distinguished by the epithet _idiomatical_, and hath been originally the spawn, partly of ignorance, and partly of affectation."--_Campbell's Rhet._ p. 185. Murray has it--"and _which has_ been originally," &c.--_Octavo Gram._ i, 370. "That neither the letters nor inflection are such as could have been employed by the ancient inhabitants of Latium."--_Knight, Gr. Alph_. p. 13, "In cases where the verb is intended to be applied to any one of the terms."--_Murray's Gram._,, 150. "But this people which know not the law, are accursed."--_John_, vii, 49. "And the magnitude of the chorusses have weight and sublimity."--_Music of Nature_, p. 428. "Dare he deny but there are some of his fraternity guilty?"--_Barclays Works_, i, 327. "Giving an account of most, if not all the papers had passed betwixt them."--_Ib._, i, 235. "In this manner, both as to parsing and correcting, all the rules of syntax should be treated, proceeding regularly according to their order."--_Murray's Exercises_, 12mo, p. x. "Ovando was allowed a brilliant retinue and a body guard."--_Sketch of Columbus_. "Is it I or he whom you requested to go?"--_Kirkham's Gram., Key_, p. 226. "Let thou and I go on."--_Bunyan's P. P._, p. 158. "This I no-where affirmed; and do wholly deny."--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 454. "But that I deny; and remains for him to prove."--_Ibid._ "Our country sinks beneath the yoke; It weeps, it bleeds, and each new day a gash Is added to her wounds."--SHAKSPEARE: _Joh. Dict., w. Beneath_. "Thou art the Lord who didst choose Abraham, and broughtest him forth out of Ur of the Chaldees."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 189. "He is the exhaustless fountain, from which emanates all these attributes, that exists throughout this wide creation."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, 1st Ed., p. 155. "I am he who have communed with the son of Neocles; I am he who have entered the gardens of pleasure."--_Wright's Athens_, p. 66. "Such was in ancient times the tales received, Such by our good forefathers was believed." --_Rowe's Lucan_, B. ix, l. 605. LESSON XIV.--TWO ERRORS. "The noun or pronoun that stand before the active verb, may be called the agent."--_Alex. Murray's Gram._, p. 121. "Such seems to be the musings of our hero of the grammar-quill, when he penned the first part of his grammar."--_Merchant's Criticisms_. "Two dots, the one placed above the other [:], is called Sheva, and represents a very short _e_."--_Wilson's Hebrew Gram._, p. 43. "Great has been, and is, the obscurity and difficulty, in the nature and application of them."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 184. "As two is to four, so is four to eight."--_Everest's Gram._, p. 231. "The invention and use of it [arithmetic] reaches back to a period so remote as is beyond the knowledge of history."--_Robertson's America_, i, 288. "What it presents as objects of contemplation or enjoyment, fills and satisfies his mind."--_Ib._, i, 377. "If he dare not say they are, as I know he dare not, how must I then distinguish?"--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 311. "He was now grown so fond of solitude that all company was become uneasy to him."--_Life of Cicero_, p. 32. "Violence and spoil is heard in her; before me continually is grief and wounds."--_Jeremiah_, vi, 7. "Bayle's Intelligence from the Republic of Letters, which make eleven volumes in duodecimo, are truly a model in this kind."--_Formey's Belles-Lettres_, p. 68. "To render pauses pleasing and expressive, they must not only be made in the right place, but also accompanied with a proper tone of voice."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 249. "The opposing the opinions, and rectifying the mistakes of others, is what truth and sincerity sometimes require of us."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 211. "It is very probable that this assembly was called, to clear some doubt which the king had, about the lawfulness of the Hollanders' throwing off the monarchy of Spain, and withdrawing, entirely, their allegiance to that crown."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 195. "Naming the cases and numbers of a noun in their order is called declining it."--_Frost's El. of Gram._, p. 10. "The embodying them is, therefore, only collecting such component parts of words."--_Town's Analysis_, p. 4. "The one is the voice heard at Christ's being baptized; the other, at his being transfigured."--_Barclays Works_, i, 267. "Understanding the literal sense would not have prevented their condemning the guiltless."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 168. "As if this were taking the execution of justice out of the hand of God, and giving it to nature."--_Ib._, p. 194. "They will say, you must conceal this good opinion of yourself; which yet is allowing the thing, though not the showing it."--_Sheffield's Works_, ii, 244. "So as to signify not only the doing an action, but the causing it to be done."--_Pike's Hebrew Lexicon_, p. 180. "This, certainly, was both dividing the unity of God, and limiting his immensity."--_Calvin's Institutes_, B. i, Ch. 13. "Tones being infinite in number, and varying in almost every individual, the arranging them under distinct heads, and reducing them to any fixed and permanent rules, may be considered as the last refinement in language."--_Knight, on Gr. Alph._, p. 16. "The fierce anger of the Lord shall not return, until he have done it, and until he have performed the intents of his heart."--_Jeremiah_, xxx, 24. "We seek for more heroic and illustrious deeds, for more diversified and surprising events."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 373. "We distinguish the Genders, or the Male and Female Sex, four different Ways."--_Buchanan's Gram._, p. 20. "Thus, ch and g, are ever hard. It is therefore proper to retain these sounds in Hebrew names, which have not been modernised, or changed by public use."--_Wilson's Essay on Gram._, p. 24. "The Substantive or noun is the name of any thing conceived to subsist, or of which we have any notion."--_Lindley Murray's Gram._, 2d Ed., p. 26. "The SUBSTANTIVE, or NOUN; being the name of any thing conceived to subsist, or of which we have any notion."--_Dr. Lowth's Gram._, p. 6. "The _Noun_ is the name of any thing that exists, or of which we have, or can form, an idea."--_Maunders Gram._, p. 1. "A noun is the name of any thing in existence, or of which we can form an idea."--_Ib._, p. 1. (See False Syntax under Note 7th to Rule 10th.) "The next thing to be taken Care of, is to keep him exactly to speaking of Truth."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 254. "The material, vegetable, and animal world, receive this influence according to their several capacities."--_The Dial_, i, 59. "And yet, it is fairly defensible on the principles of the schoolmen; if that can be called principles which consists merely in words."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 274. "Art thou so bare and full of wretchedness, And fears to die? famine is in thy cheeks, Need and oppression starveth in thy eyes."--_Beaut. of Shak._, p. 317. LESSON XV.--THREE ERRORS. "The silver age is reckoned to have commenced on the death of Augustus, and continued to the end of Trajan's reign."--_Gould's Lat. Gram._, p. 277. "Language is become, in modern times, more correct, indeed, and accurate."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 65. "It is evident, that words are most agreeable to the ear which are composed of smooth and liquid sounds, where there is a proper intermixture of vowels and consonants."--_Ib._, p. 121. See _Murray's Gram._, i, 325. "It would have had no other effect, but to add a word unnecessarily to the sentence."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 194. "But as rumours arose of the judges having been corrupted by money in this cause, these gave occasions to much popular clamour, and had thrown a heavy odium on Cluentius."--_Ib._, p. 273. "A Participle is derived of a verb, and partakes of the nature both of the verb and the adjective."--_Dr. Ash's Gram._, p. 39; _E. Devis's_, 9. "I will have learned my grammar before you learn your's."--_Wilbur and Liv. Gram._, p. 14. "There is no earthly object capable of making such various and such forcible impressions upon the human mind as a complete speaker."--_Perry's Dict., Pref._ "It was not the carrying the bag which made Judas a thief and an hireling."--_South_. "As the reasonable soul and flesh is one man, so God and man is one Christ."--_Athanasian Creed_. "And I will say to them which were not my people, Thou art my people; and they shall say, Thou art my God."--_Hosea_, ii, 23. "Where there is nothing in the sense which requires the last sound to be elevated or emphatical, an easy fall, sufficient to show that the sense is finished, will be proper."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 250. "Each party produces words where the letter _a_ is sounded in the manner they contend for."--_Walker's Dict._, p. 1. "To countenance persons who are guilty of bad actions, is scarcely one remove from actually committing them."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 233. "'To countenance persons who are guilty of bad actions,' is part of a sentence, which is the nominative case to the verb 'is.'"--_Ibid._ "What is called splitting of particles, or separating a preposition from the noun which it governs, is always to be avoided."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 112; _Jamieson's_, 93. See _Murray's Gram._, i, 319. "There is, properly, no more than one pause or rest in the sentence, falling betwixt the two members into which it is divided."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 125; _Jamieson's_, 126; _Murray's Gram._, i, 329. "Going barefoot does not at all help on the way to heaven."--_Steele, Spect._, No. 497. "There is no Body but condemns this in others, though they overlook it in themselves."--_Locke, on Ed._, §145. "In the same sentence, be careful not to use the same word too frequently, nor in different senses."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 296. "Nothing could have made her so unhappy, as marrying a man who possessed such principles."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 200. "A warlike, various, and a tragical age is best to write of, but worst to write in."--_Cowley's Pref._, p. vi. "When thou instances Peter his baptizing Cornelius."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 188. "To introduce two or more leading thoughts or agents, which have no natural relation to, or dependence on one another."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 313. "Animals, again, are fitted to one another, and to the elements where they live, and to which they are as appendices."--_Ibid._ "This melody, or varying the sound of each word so often, is a proof of nothing, however, but of the fine ear of that people."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 5. "They can each in their turns be made use of upon occasion."--_Duncan's Logic_, p. 191. "In this reign lived the poet Chaucer, who, with Gower, are the first authors who can properly be said to have written English."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 144. "In the translating these kind of expressions, consider the IT IS, as if it were _they_, or _they are_."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 179. "The chin has an important office to perform; for upon its activity we either disclose a polite or vulgar pronunciation."--_Music of Nature_, p. 27. "For no other reason, but his being found in bad company."--_Webster's Amer. Spelling-Book_, p. 96. "It is usual to compare them in the same manner as Polisyllables."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 77. "The infinitive mood is recognised easier than any others, because the preposition _to_ precedes it."--_Bucke's Gram._, p, 95. "Prepositions, you recollect, connect words as well as conjunctions: how, then, can you tell the one from the other?"--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 38. "No kind of work requires so nice a touch, And if well finish'd, nothing shines so much" --_Sheffield, Duke of Buck._ LESSON XVI--THREE ERRORS. "It is the final pause which alone, on many occasions, marks the difference between prose and verse; which will be evident from the following arrangement of a few poetical lines."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 260. "I shall do all I can to persuade others to take the same measures for their cure which I have."--GUARDIAN: see _Campbell's Rhet._, p. 207. "I shall do all I can, to persuade others to take the same measures for their cure which I have taken."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 215. "It is the nature of extreme self-lovers, as they will set an house on fire, and [or _an_] it were but to roast their eggs."--_Ld. Bacon_. "Did ever man struggle more earnestly in a cause where both his honour and life are concerned?"--_Duncan's Cicero_, p. 15. "So the rests and pauses, between sentences and their parts, are marked by points."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 114. "Yet the case and mode is not influenced by them, but determined by the nature of the sentence."--_Ib._, p. 113. "By not attending to this rule, many errors have been committed: a number of which is subjoined, as a further caution and direction to the learner."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 114. "Though thou clothest thyself with crimson, though thou deckest thee with ornaments of gold, though thou rentest thy face with painting, in vain shalt thou make thyself fair."--_Jeremiah_, iv, 30. "But that the doing good to others will make us happy, is not so evident; feeding the hungry, for example, or clothing the naked."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 161. "There is no other God but him, no other light but his."--_William Penn_. "How little reason to wonder, that a perfect and accomplished orator, should be one of the characters that is most rarely found?"--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 337. "Because they neither express doing nor receiving an action."--_Infant School Gram._, p. 53. "To find the answers, will require an effort of mind, and when given, will be the result of reflection, showing that the subject is understood."--_Ib._, p. vii. "To say, that 'the sun rises,' is trite and common; but it becomes a magnificent image when expressed as Mr. Thomson has done."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 137. "The declining a word is the giving it different endings."--_Ware's Gram._, p. 7. "And so much are they for every one's following their own mind."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 462. "More than one overture for a peace was made, but Cleon prevented their taking effect."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, i, 121. "Neither in English or in any other language is this word, and that which corresponds to it in other languages, any more an article, than _two, three, four_."--DR. WEBSTER: _Knickerbocker of 1836_. "But the most irksome conversation of all others I have met within the neighbourhood, has been among two or three of your travellers."--_Spect._, No. 474. "Set down the two first terms of supposition under each other in the first place."--_Smiley's Arithmetic_, p. 79. "It is an useful rule too, to fix our eye on some of the most distant persons in the assembly."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 328. "He will generally please most, when pleasing is not his sole nor chief aim."--_Ib._, p. 336. "At length, the consuls return to the camp, and inform them they could receive no other terms but that of surrendering their arms, and passing under the yoke."--_Ib._, p. 360. "Nor is mankind so much to blame, in his choice thus determining him."--SWIFT: _Crombie's Treatise_, p 360. "These forms are what is called Number."--_Fosdick's De Sacy_, p. 62. "In languages which admit but two Genders, all Nouns are either Masculine or Feminine, even though they designate beings which are neither male or female."--_Ib._, p. 66. "It is called a _Verb_ or _Word_ by way of eminence, because it is the most essential word in a sentence, without which the other parts of speech can form no complete sense."--_Gould's Adam's Gram._, p. 76. "The sentence will consist of two members, which are commonly separated from one another by a comma."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 7. "Loud and soft in speaking, is like the _fortè_ and _piano_ in music, it only refers to the different degrees of force used in the same key; whereas high and low imply a change of key."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 116. "They are chiefly three: the acquisition of knowledge; the assisting the memory to treasure up this knowledge; or the communicating it to others."--_Ib._, p. 11. "These kind of knaves I know, which in this plainness, Harbour more craft, and more corrupter ends, Than twenty silly ducking observants."--_Beauties of Shak._, p. 261. LESSON XVII.--MANY ERRORS. "A man will be forgiven, even great errors, in a foreign language; but in his own, even the least slips are justly laid hold of, and ridiculed."--_American Chesterfield_, p 83. "_Let_ does not only express permission; but praying, exhorting, commanding."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 41. "_Let_, not only expresses permission, but entreating, exhorting, commanding."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 88; _Ingersoll's_, 135. "That death which is our leaving this world, is nothing else but putting off these bodies."--_Sherlock_. "They differ from the saints recorded both in the Old and New Testaments."--_Newton_. "The nature therefore of relation consists in the referring or comparing two things one to another; from which comparison, one or both comes to be denominated"--_Locke's Essay_, i, 220. "It is not credible, that there hath been any one who through the whole course of their lives will say, that they have kept themselves undefiled with the least spot or stain of sin."--_Witsius_. "If acting conformably to the will of our Creator;--if promoting the welfare of mankind around us;--if securing our own happiness;--are objects of the highest moment:--then we are loudly called upon to cultivate and extend the great interests of religion and virtue"--_Murray's Gram._, i, 278; _Comly's_, 163; _Ingersoll's_, 291. "By the verb being in the plural number, it is supposed that it has a plural nominative, which is not the case. The only nominative to the verb, is, _the officer_: the expression _his guard_, are in the objective case, governed by the preposition _with_; and they cannot consequently form the nominative, or any part of it. The prominent subject, and the true nominative of the verb, and to which the verb peculiarly refers, is _the officer_."--_Murray's Parsing_, Cr. 8vo, ii, 22. "This is another use, that, in my opinion, contributes rather to make a man learned than wise; and is neither capable of pleasing the understanding, or imagination."--ADDISON: _Churchill's Gram._, p. 353. "The work is a dull performance; and is capable of pleasing neither the understanding, nor the imagination."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 210. "I would recommend the Elements of English Grammar, by Mr. Frost. Its plan is after Murray, but his definitions and language is simplified as far as the nature of the subject will admit, to meet the understanding of children. It also embraces more copious examples and exercises in Parsing than is usual in elementary treatises."--_Hall's Lectures on School-Keeping_, 1st Ed., p. 37. "More rain falls in the first two summer months, than in the first two winter ones: but it makes a much greater show upon the earth, in these than in those; because there is a much slower evaporation."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 189. See _Priestley's Gram._, p. 90. "They often contribute also to the rendering some persons prosperous though wicked: and, which is still worse, to the rewarding some actions though vicious, and punishing other actions though virtuous."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 92. "From hence, to such a man, arises naturally a secret satisfaction and sense of security, and implicit hope of somewhat further."--_Ib._, p. 93. "So much for the third and last cause of illusion that was taken notice of, arising from the abuse of very general and abstract terms, which is the principal source of all the nonsense that hath been vented by metaphysicians, mystagogues, and theologians."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 297. "As to those animals whose use is less common, or who on account of the places which they inhabit, fall less under our observation, as fishes and birds, or whom their diminutive size removes still further from our observation, we generally, in English, employ a single Noun to designate both Genders, Masculine and Feminine."--_Fosdick's De Sacy_, p. 67. "Adjectives may always be distinguished by their being the word, or words, made use of to describe the quality, or condition, of whatever is mentioned."--_Emmons's Gram._, p. 20. "Adverb signifies a word added to a verb, participle, adjective, or other adverb, to describe or qualify their qualities."--_Ib._, p. 64. "The joining together two such grand objects, and the representing them both as subject, at one moment, to the command of God, produces a noble effect."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 37. "Twisted columns, for instance, are undoubtedly ornamental; but as they have an appearance of weakness, they always displease when they are made use of to support any part of a building that is massy, and that seems to require a more substantial prop."--_Ib._, p. 40. "Upon a vast number of inscriptions, some upon rocks, some upon stones of a defined shape, is found an Alphabet different from the Greeks, Latins, and Hebrews, and also unlike that of any modern nation."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, 8vo, 1850, p. 176. LESSON XVIII--MANY ERRORS. "'The empire of Blefuscu is an island situated to the northeast side of Lilliput, from whence it is parted only by a channel of 800 yards wide.' _Gulliver's Travels_. The ambiguity may be removed thus:--'from whence it is parted by a channel of 800 yards wide only.'"--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 44. "The nominative case is usually the agent or doer, and always the subject of the verb."--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 47. "There is an originality, richness, and variety in his [Spenser's] allegorical personages, which almost vies with the splendor of the ancient mythology."--_Hazlitt's Lect._, p. 68. "As neither the Jewish nor Christian revelation have been universal, and as they have been afforded to a greater or less part of the world at different times; so likewise, at different times, both revelations have had different degrees of evidence."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 210. "Thus we see, that killing a man with a sword or a hatchet, are looked upon as no distinct species of action: but if the point of the sword first enter the body, it passes for a distinct species, called _stabbing_."--_Locke's Essay_, p. 314. "If a soul sin, and commit a trespass against the Lord, and lie unto his neighbour in that which was delivered him to keep, or hath deceived his neighbour, or have found that which was lost, and lieth concerning it, and sweareth falsely; in any of all these that a man doeth, sinning therein, then it shall be," &c.--_Lev._, vi, 2. "As the doing and teaching the commandments of God is the great proof of virtue, so the breaking them, and the teaching others to break them, is the great proof of vice."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 281. "In Pope's terrific maltreatment of the latter simile, it is neither true to mind or eye."--_Coleridge's Introd._, p. 14. "And the two brothers were seen, transported with rage and fury, endeavouring like Eteocles and Polynices to plunge their swords into each other's hearts, and to assure themselves of the throne by the death of their rival."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, i, 176. "Is it not plain, therefore, that neither the castle, the planet, nor the cloud, which you see here, are those real ones, which you suppose exist at a distance?"--_Berkley's Alciphron_, p 166. "I have often wondered how it comes to pass, that every Body should love themselves best, and yet value their neighbours Opinion about themselves more than their own."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 226. "VIRTUE ([Greek: Aretahe], Virtus) as well as most of its Species, are all Feminine, perhaps from their Beauty and amiable appearance."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 55. "Virtue, with most of its Species, are all Feminine, from their Beauty and amiable Appearance; and so Vice becomes Feminine of Course, as being Virtue's natural opposite."--_British Gram._, p. 97. "Virtue, with most of its Species, is Feminine, and so is Vice, for being Virtue's opposite."--_Buchanan's Gram._, p. 22. "From this deduction, may be easily seen how it comes to pass, that personification makes so great a figure in all compositions, where imagination or passion have any concern."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 155. "An Article is a word prefixed to a substantive to point them out, and to show how far their signification extends."--_Folker's Gram._, p. 4. "All men have certain natural, essential, and inherent rights--among which are, the enjoying and defending life and liberty; acquiring, possessing, and protecting property; and, in a word, of seeking and obtaining happiness."--_Constitution of New Hampshire_. "From Grammarians who form their ideas, and make their decisions, respecting this part of English Grammar, on the principles and construction of languages, which, in these points, do not suit the peculiar nature of our own, but differ considerably from it, we may naturally expect grammatical schemes that are not very perspicuous, or perfectly consistent, and which will tend more to perplex than inform the learner."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 68; _Hall's_, 15. "There are, indeed, very few who know how to be idle and innocent, or have a relish of any pleasures that are not criminal; every diversion they take, is at the expense of some one virtue or another, and their very first step out of business is into vice or folly."--ADDISON: _Blair's Rhet._, p. 201.[444] "Hail, holy love! thou word that sums all bliss! Gives and receives all bliss: fullest when most Thou givest; spring-head of all felicity!" --_Pollok, C. of T._, B. v, 1, 193. CHAPTER XIII.--GENERAL RULE. The following comprehensive canon for the correction of all sorts of nondescript errors in syntax, and the several critical or general notes under it, seem necessary for the completion of my design; which is, to furnish a thorough exposition of the various faults against which the student of English grammar has occasion to be put upon his guard. GENERAL RULE OF SYNTAX. In the formation of sentences, the consistency and adaptation of all the words should be carefully observed; and a regular, clear, and correspondent construction should be preserved throughout. CRITICAL NOTES TO THE GENERAL RULE. CRITICAL NOTE I.--OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Words that may constitute different parts of speech, must not be left doubtful as to their classification, or to what part of speech they belong. CRITICAL NOTE II.--OF DOUBTFUL REFERENCE. The reference of words to other words, or their syntactical relation according to the sense, should never be left doubtful, by any one who means to be understood. CRITICAL NOTE III.--OF DEFINITIONS. A definition, in order to be perfect, must include the whole thing, or class of things, which it pretends to define, and exclude every thing which comes not under the name. CRITICAL NOTE IV.--OF COMPARISONS. A comparison is a form of speech which requires some similarity or common property in the things compared; without which, it becomes a solecism. CRITICAL NOTE V.--OF FALSITIES. Sentences that convey a meaning manifestly false, should be changed, rejected, or contradicted; because they distort language from its chief end, or only worthy use; which is, to state facts, and to tell the truth. CRITICAL NOTE VI.--OF ABSURDITIES. Absurdities, of every kind, are contrary to grammar, because they are contrary to reason, or good sense, which is the foundation of grammar. CRITICAL NOTE VII.--OF SELF-CONTRADICTION. Every writer or speaker should be careful not to contradict himself; for what is self-contradictory, is both null in argument, and bad in style. CRITICAL NOTE VIII.--OF SENSELESS JUMBLING. To jumble together words without care for the sense, is an unpardonable negligence, and an abuse of the human understanding. CRITICAL NOTE IX.--OF WORDS NEEDLESS. Words that are entirely needless, and especially such as injure or encumber the expression, ought in general to be omitted. CRITICAL NOTE X.--OF IMPROPER OMISSIONS. Words necessary to the sense, or even to the melody or beauty of a sentence, ought seldom, if ever, to be omitted. CRITICAL NOTE XI.--OF LITERARY BLUNDERS. Grave blunders made in the name of learning, are the strongest of all certificates against the books which contain them unreproved. CRITICAL NOTE XII.--OF PERVERSIONS. Proof-texts in grammar, if not in all argument, should be quoted literally; and even that which needs to be corrected, must never be perverted. CRITICAL NOTE XIII.--OF AWKWARDNESS. Awkwardness, or inelegance of expression, is a reprehensible defect in style, whether it violate any of the common rules of syntax or not. CRITICAL NOTE XIV.--OF IGNORANCE. Any use of words that implies ignorance of their meaning, or of their proper orthography, is particularly unscholarlike; and, in proportion to the author's pretensions to learning, disgraceful. CRITICAL NOTE XV.--OF SILLINESS. Silly remarks and idle truisms are traits of a feeble style, and, when their weakness is positive, or inherent, they ought to be entirely omitted. CRITICAL NOTE XVI.--OF THE INCORRIGIBLE. Passages too erroneous for correction, may be criticised, orally or otherwise, and then passed over without any attempt to amend them.[445] GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE SYNTAX. OBS. 1.--In the foregoing code of syntax, the author has taken the parts of speech in their order, and comprised all the general principles of relation, agreement, and government, in twenty-four leading Rules. Of these rules, eight--(namely, the 1st, of _Articles_; the 4th, of _Possessives_; the 9th, of _Adjectives_; the 20th, of _Participles_; the 21st, of _Adverbs_; the 22d, of _Conjunctions_; the 23d, of _Prepositions_; and the 24th, of _Interjections_--) are used only in parsing. The remaining sixteen, because they embrace principles that are sometimes violated in practice, answer the double purpose of parsing and correcting. The Exceptions, of which there are thirty-two, (all occasionally applicable in parsing,) belong to nine different rules, and refer to all the parts of speech, except nouns and interjections. The Notes, of which there are one hundred and fifty-two, are subordinate rules of syntax, not designed to be used in parsing, but formed for the exposition and correction of so many different forms of false grammar. The Observations, of which there are, in this part of the work, without the present series, four hundred and ninety-seven, are designed not only to defend and confirm the doctrines adopted by the author, but to explain the arrangement of words, and whatever is difficult or peculiar in construction. OBS. 2.--The rules in a system of syntax may be more or less comprehensive, as well as more or less simple or complex; consequently they may, without deficiency or redundance, be more or less numerous. But either complexity or vagueness, as well as redundance or deficiency, is a fault; and, when all these faults are properly avoided, and the two great ends of methodical syntax, _parsing_ and _correcting_, are duly answered, perhaps the requisite number of syntactical rules, or grammatical canons, will no longer appear very indeterminate. In the preceding chapters, the essential principles of English syntax are supposed to be pretty fully developed; but there are yet to be exhibited some forms of error, which must be corrected under other heads or maxims, and for the treatment of which the several dogmas of this chapter are added. Completeness in the system, however, does not imply that it must have shown the pupil how to correct every form of language that is amiss: for there may be in composition many errors of such a nature that no rule of grammar can show, either what should be substituted for the faulty expression, or what fashion of amendment may be the most eligible. The inaccuracy may be gross and obvious, but the correction difficult or impossible. Because the sentence may require a change throughout; and a total change is not properly a correction; it is a substitution of something new, for what was, perhaps, in itself incorrigible. OBS. 3.--The notes which are above denominated _Critical_ or _General_, are not all of them obviously different in kind from the other notes; but they all are such as could not well have been placed in any of the earlier chapters of the book. The _General Rule of Syntax_, since it is not a canon to be used in parsing, but one that is to be applied only in the correcting of false syntax, might seem perhaps to belong rather to this order of notes; but I have chosen to treat it with some peculiar distinction, because it is not only more comprehensive than any other rule or note, but is in one respect more important; it is the rule which will be cited for the correction of the greatest number and variety of errors. Being designed to meet every possible form of inaccuracy in the mere construction of sentences,--or, at least, every corrigible solecism by which any principle of syntax can be violated,--it necessarily includes almost all the other rules and notes. It is too broad to convey very definite instruction, and therefore ought not in general to be applied where a more particular rule or note is clearly applicable. A few examples, not properly fitting under any other head, will serve to show its use and application: such examples are given, in great abundance, in the false syntax below. If, in some of the instances selected, this rule is applied to faults that might as well have been corrected by some other, the choice, in such cases, is deemed of little or no importance. OBS. 4.--The imperfection of _ancient_ writing, especially in regard to division and punctuation, has left the syntactical relation of words, and also the sense of passages, in no few instances, uncertain; and has consequently made, where the text has been thought worthy of it, an abundance of difficult work for translators, critics, and commentators. Rules of grammar, now made and observed, as they ought to be, may free the compositions of this, or a future age, from similar embarrassments; and it is both just and useful, to test our authors by them, criticising or correcting their known blunders according to the present rules of accurate writing. But the readers and expounders of what has come to us from remote time, can be rightly guided only by such principles and facts as have the stamp of creditable antiquity. Hence there are, undoubtedly, in books, some errors and defects which have outlived the _time in which_, and the _authority b which_, they might have been corrected. As we have no right to make a man say that which he himself never said or intended to say, so we have in fact none to fix a positive meaning upon his language, without knowing for a certainty what he meant by it. Reason, or good sense, which, as I have suggested, is the foundation of grammar and of all good writing, is indeed a perpetual as well as a universal principle; but, since the exercises of our reason must, from the very nature of the faculty, be limited to what we know and understand, we are not competent to the positive correction, or to the sure translation, of what is obscure and disputable in the standard books of antiquity. OBS. 5.--Let me cite an example: "For all this I considered in my heart, even to declare all this, that the righteous, and the wise, and their works, are in the hand of God: no man knoweth either love or hatred _by_ all _that is_ before them. All _things come_ alike to all."-- _Ecclesiastes_, ix, 1. Here is, doubtless, _one_ error which any English scholar may point out or correct. The pronoun "_them_" should be _him_, because its intended antecedent appears to be "_man_," and not "_the righteous and the wise_," going before. But are there not _other_ faults in the version? The common French Bible, in this place, has the following import: "Surely I have applied my heart to all that, and to unfold all this; _to wit_, that the righteous and the wise, and their actions, _are_ in the hand of God and love and hatred; _and that_ men know nothing of all _that which is_ before them. All _happens_ equally to all." The Latin Vulgate gives this sense: "All these things have I considered in my heart, that I might understand them accurately: the righteous and the wise, and their works, are in the hand of God; and yet man doth not know, whether by love or by hatred lie may be worthy: but all things in the future are kept uncertain, so that all may happen alike to the righteous man and to the wicked." In the Greek of the Septuagint, the introductory members of this passage are left at the end of the preceding chapter, and are literally thus: "that all this I received into my heart, and my heart understood all this." The rest, commencing a new chapter, is as follows: "For the righteous and the wise and their works _are_ in the hand of God, and indeed both love and hatred man knoweth not: all things before their face _are_ vanity to all." Now, which of these several readings is the nearest to what Solomon meant by the original text, or which is the farthest from it, and therefore the most faulty, I leave it to men more learned than myself to decide; but, certainly, there is no _inspired authority_ in any of them, but _in so far as they convey the sense which he really intended_. And if his meaning had not been, by some imperfection in the oldest expression we have of it, _obscured and partly lost_, there could be neither cause nor excuse for these discrepancies. I say this with no willingness to depreciate the general authority of the Holy Scriptures, which are for the most part clear in their import, and very ably translated into English, as well as into other languages. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER THE GENERAL RULE. LESSON I.--ARTICLES. (1.) "An article is a part of speech placed before nouns."--_Comly's Gram._, p. 11. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the article _an_ is here inconsistent with the term "_part of speech_;" for the text declares one thing of a kind to be the whole kind. But, according to the General Rule of Syntax, "In the formation of sentences, the consistency and adaptation of all the words should be carefully observed; and a regular, clear, and correspondent construction should be preserved throughout." The sentence may be corrected in two ways, thus: "_The_ article is a part of speech placed before nouns;"--or better, "_An_ article is a word placed before nouns." [446]] (2.) "An article is a part of speech used to limit nouns."--_Gilbert's Gram._, p. 19. (3.) "An article is a part of speech set before nouns to fix their vague Signification."--_Ash's Gram._, p. 18. (4.) "An adjective is a part of speech used to describe a noun."--_Gilbert's Gram._, p. 19. (5.) "A pronoun is a part of speech used instead of a noun."--_Ibid._; and _Weld's Gram._, pp. 30 and 50; _Abridg._, pp. 29 and 46. (6.) "A Pronoun is a Part of Speech which is often used instead of a Noun Substantive common, and supplies the Want of a Noun proper."--_British Gram._, p. 102; _Buchanan's Gram._, p. 29. (7.) "A verb is a part of speech, which signifies _to be, to do, or to be acted upon_"--_Merchant's School Gram._, p. 17. (8.) "A verb is a part of speech, which signifies _to be, to act, or to receive an action_."--_Comly's Gram._, p. 11. (9.) "A verb is a part of speech by which any thing is asserted."--_Weld's Gram_, p. 50; _Abridg._, 46 and 58. (10.) "A verb is a part of speech which expresses action, or existence, in a direct manner."--_Gilbert's Gram._, p. 20. (11.) "A participle is a part of speech derived from a verb, and expresses action or existence in an indirect manner."--_Ibid._ (12.) "A Participle is a Part of Speech derived from a Verb, and denotes being, doing, or suffering, and implies Time, as a Verb does."--_British Gram._, p. 139; _Buchanan's_, p. 46. "An adverb is a part of speech used to add to the meaning of verbs, adjectives, and participles."--_Gilbert's Gram._, p. 20. (14.) "An adverb is an indeclinable part of speech, added to a verb, adjective, or other adverb, to express some circumstance, quality, or manner of their signification."-- _Adam's Gram._, p. 142; _Gould's_, 147. (15.) "An Adverb is a part of speech joined to a verb, an Adjective, a Participle, and sometimes to another Adverb, to express the quality or circumstance of it."--_Ash's Gram._, p. 47, (16.) "An Adverb is a part of speech joined to a Verb, Adjective, Participle, and sometimes to another Adverb, to express some circumstances respecting it."--_Beck's Gram._, p. 23. (17.) "An Adverb is a Part of Speech which is joined to a Verb, Adjective, Participle, or to another Adverb to express some Modification, or Circumstance, Quality, or Manner of their Signification."--_Buchanan's Gram._, p. 61. (18.) "An Adverb is a part of speech added to a Verb (whence the name), and sometimes even to another word."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 76. (19.) "A conjunction is a part of speech used to connect words and sentences."--_Gilbert's Gram._, p. 20; _Weld's_, 51. (20.) "A Conjunction is a part of speech that joins words or sentences together."--_Ash's Gram._, p. 43. (21.) "A Conjunction is that part of speech which connect sentences, or parts of sentences or single words."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 41. (22.) "A Conjunction is a part of speech, that is used principally to connect sentences, so as, out of two, three, or more, sentences, to make one."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 28. (23.) "A Conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly used to connect sentences, joining two or more simple sentences into one compound sentence: it sometimes connects only words."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 118. (24.) "A Conjunction is a Part of Speech which joins Sentences together, and shews the Manner of their Dependance upon one another."--_British Gram._, p. 163; _Buchanan's_, p. 64; _E. Devis's_. 103. (25.) "A preposition is a part of Speech used to show the relation between other words."--_Gilbert's Gram._, p. 20. (26.) "A Preposition is a part of speech which serves to connect words and show the relation between them."--_Frost's El. of Gram._, p. 42. (27.) "A _preposition_ is a part of speech used to connect words and show their relation."--_Weld's Gram._, p. 51; _Abridg_. 47. (28.) "A preposition is that part of speech which shows the position of persons or things, or the relation that one noun or pronoun bears toward another."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 40. (29.) "A Preposition is a Part of Speech, which being added to any other Parts of Speech serves to shew their State, Relation or Reference to each other."--_British Gram._, p. 165; _Buchanan's_, p. 65. (30.) "An interjection is a part of speech used to express sudden passion or emotion."--_Gilbert's Gram._, p. 20. (31.) "An interjection is a part of speech used in giving utterance to some sudden feeling or emotion."-- _Weld's Gram._, pp. 49 and 51; _Abridg._, 44 and 47. (32.) "An Interjection is that part of speech which denotes any sudden affection or emotion of the mind."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 42. (33) "An Interjection is a Part of Speech thrown into discourse, and denotes some sudden Passion or Emotion of the Soul."--_British Gram._, p. 172; _Buchanan's_, p. 67. (34.) "A scene might tempt some peaceful sage To rear him a lone hermitage." --_Union Poems_, p. 89. (35.) "Not all the storms that shake the pole Can e'er disturb thy halcyon soul, And smooth th' unaltered brow." --_Day's Gram._, p. 78; _E. Reader_, 230. LESSON II.--NOUNS. "The thrones of every monarchy felt the shock."--_Frelinghuysen_. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the plural noun _thrones_ has not a clear and regular construction, adapted to the author's meaning. But, according to the General Rule of Syntax, "In the formation of sentences the consistency and adaptation of all the words should be carefully observed; and a regular, clear, and correspondent construction should be preserved throughout." The sentence may be corrected thus: "The _throne_ of every monarchy felt the shock."] "These principles ought to be deeply impressed upon the minds of every American."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 44. "The word _church_ and _shire_ are radically the same."--_Ib._, p. 256. "They may not, in their present form, be readily accommodated to every circumstance belonging to the possessive cases of nouns."--_L. Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 53. "_Will_, in the second and third person, only foretels."--_Ib._, p. 88. "Which seem to form the true distinction between the subjunctive and the indicative moods."--_Ib._, p. 208. "The very general approbation, which this performance of Walker has received from the public."--_Ib._, p. 241. "Lest she carry her improvements this way too far."--CAMPBELL: _ib._, p. 371. "Charles was extravagant, and by this means became poor and despicable."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 189. "We should entertain no prejudices against simple and rustic persons."--_Ib._, p. 205. "These are indeed the foundations of all solid merit."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 175. "And his embellishment, by means of musical cadence, figures, or other parts of speech."--_Ib._, p. 175. "If he is at no pains to engage us by the employment of figures, musical arrangement, or any other art of writing."--_Ib._, p. 181. "The most eminent of the sacred poets are, the Author of the book of Job, David and Isaiah."--_Ib._, p. 418. "Nothing, in any poet, is more beautifully described than the death of old Priam."--_Ib._, p. 439. "When two vowels meet together, and are sounded at one breath, they are called _diphthongs_."--_Infant School Gram._, p. 10. "How many _ss_ would goodness then end with? Three."--_Ib._, p. 33. "_Birds_ is a noun, the name of a thing or creature."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 53. "Adam gave names to every living creature."--_Bicknell's Gram._, Part ii, p. 5. "The steps of a stair ought to be accommodated to the human figure."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. ii, p. 337. "Nor ought an emblem more than a simile to be founded on low or familiar objects."--_Ib._, Vol. ii. p. 357. "Whatever the Latin has not from the Greek, it has from the Goth."--_Tooke's Diversions_, Vol. ii, p. 450. "The mint and secretary of state's offices are neat buildings."--_The Friend_, Vol. iv, p. 266. "The scenes of dead and still life are apt to pall upon us."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 407. "And Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus, the angelical and the subtle doctors, are the brightest stars in the scholastic constellation."--_Literary Hist._, p. 244. "The English language has three methods of distinguishing the sex."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 38; _Ingersoll's_, 27; _Alger's_, 16; _Bacon's_, 13; _Fisk's_, 58; _Greenleaf's_, 21. "The English language has three methods of distinguishing sex."--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 44. "In English there are the three following methods of distinguishing sex."--_Jaudon's Gram._, p. 26. "There are three ways of distinguishing the sex."--_Lennie's Gram._, p. 10; _Picket's_, 26; _Bullions's_, 10. "There are three ways of distinguishing sex."--_Merchant's School Gram._, p. 26. "Gender is distinguished in three ways."--_Maunder's Gram._, p. 2. "Neither discourse in general, nor poetry in particular, can be called altogether imitative arts."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 51. "Do we for this the gods and conscience brave, That one may rule and make the rest a slave?" --_Rowe's Lucan_, B. ii, l. 96. LESSON III.--ADJECTIVES. "There is a deal of more heads, than either heart or horns."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 234. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the adjective _more_ has not a clear and regular construction, adapted to the author's meaning. But, according to the General Rule of Syntax, "In the formation of sentences, the consistency and adaptation of all the words should be carefully observed; and a regular, clear, and correspondent construction should be preserved throughout." The sentence may be corrected thus: "There is a deal _more_ of heads, than _of_ either heart or horns."] "For, of all villains, I think he has the wrong name."--_Bunyan's P. P._, p. 86. "Of all the men that I met in my pilgrimage, he, I think bears the wrong name."--_Ib._, p. 84. "I am surprized to see so much of the distribution, and technical terms of the Latin grammar, retained in the grammar of our tongue."--_Priestley's Gram., Pref._, p. vi. "Nor did the Duke of Burgundy bring him the smallest assistance."--HUME: _Priestley's Gram._, p. 178. "Else he will find it difficult to make one obstinate believe him."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 243. "Are there any adjectives which form the degrees of comparison peculiar to themselves?"--_Infant School Gram._, p. 46. "Yet the verbs are all of the indicative mood."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 33. "The word _candidate_ is in the absolute case."--_L. Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 155. "An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the latter accented."--_Russell's Gram._, p. 108; _Smith's New Gram._, 188. "A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the two latter unaccented."--_L. Murray_, p. 253; _Bullions's E. Gram._, 170; _Smith's_, 188; _Kirkham's_, 219; _Guy's_, 120; _Blair's_, 118; _Merchant's_, 167; _Russell's_, 109. "It is proper to begin with a capital the first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or any other piece of writing."--_L. Murray_, p. 284; _R. C. Smith's New Gram._, 192; _Ingersoll's_, 295; _Comly's_, 166; _Merchant's_, 14; _Greenleaf's_, 42; _D. C. Allen's_, 85; _Fisk's_, 159; _Bullions's_, 158; _Kirkham's_, 219; _Hiley's_, 119; _Weld's Abridged_, 16; _Bullions's Analyt. and Pract._, 16; _Fowler's E. Gr._, 674. "Five and seven make twelve, and one makes thirteen."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 227. "I wish to cultivate a farther acquaintance with you."--_Ib._, p. 272. "Let us consider the proper means to effect our purpose."--_Ib._, p. 276. "Yet they are of such a similar nature, as readily to mix and blend."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 48. "The Latin is formed on the same model, but more imperfect."--_Ib._, p. 83. "I know very well how much pains have been taken."--_Sir W. Temple_. "The management of the breath requires a good deal of care."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 331. "Because the mind, during such a momentary stupefaction, is in a good measure, if not totally, insensible."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. i, p. 222. "Motives alone of reason and interest are not sufficient."--_Ib._, Vol. i, p. 232. "To render the composition distinct in its parts, and striking on the whole,"--_Ib._, Vol. ii, p. 333. "_A_ and _an_ are named indefinite because they denote some one thing of a kind."--_Maunder's Gram._, p. 1. "_The_ is named definite, because it points out some particular thing."--_Ibid._ "So much depends upon the proper construction of sentences, that, in every sort of composition, we cannot be too strict in our attention to it."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 103. "All sort of declamation and public speaking, was carried on by them."--_Ib._, p. 123. "The first has on many occasions, a sublimity to which the latter never attains."--_Ib._, p. 440. "When the words _therefore, consequently, accordingly_, and the like are used in connexion with other conjunctions, they are adverbs."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 88. "Rude nations make little or no allusions to the productions of the arts."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 10. "While two of her maids knelt on either side of her."--_Mirror_, xi, 307. "The third personal pronouns differ from each other in meaning and use, as follows."--_Bullions, Lat. Gram._, p. 65. "It was happy for the state, that Fabius continued in the command with Minucius: the former's phlegm was a check upon the latter's vivacity."--_L. Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 57. "If it should be objected that the words must and ought, in the preceding sentences, are all in the present tense."--_Ib._, p. 108. "But it will be well if you turn to them, every now and then."--_Buckets Classical Gram._, p. 6. "That every part should have a dependence on, and mutually contribute to support each other."--_Rollin's Hist._, ii, 115. "The phrase, '_Good, my Lord_,' is not common, and low."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 110. "That brother should not war with brother, And worry and devour each other."--_Cowper_. LESSON IV.--PRONOUNS. "If I can contribute to your and my country's glory."--_Goldsmith_. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the pronoun _your_ has not a clear and regular construction, adapted to the author's meaning. But, according to the General Rule of Syntax, "In the formation of sentences, the consistency and adaptation of all the words should be carefully observed; and a regular, clear, and correspondent construction should be preserved throughout." The sentence, having a doubtful or double meaning, may be corrected in two ways, thus: "If I can contribute to our country's glory;"--or, "If I can contribute to your _glory_ and _that of my country_."] "As likewise of the several subjects, which have in effect each their verb."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 120. "He is likewise required to make examples himself."--_J. Flint's Gram._, p. 3. "If the emphasis be placed wrong, we shall pervert and confound the meaning wholly."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 242. "If the emphasis be placed wrong, we pervert and confound the meaning wholly."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 330. "It was this that characterized the great men of antiquity; it is this, which must distinguish moderns who would tread in their steps."--_Ib._, p. 341. "I am a great enemy to implicit faith, as well the Popish as Presbyterian, who in that are much what alike."--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 280. "Will he thence dare to say the apostle held another Christ than he that died?"--_Ib._, iii, 414. "What need you be anxious about this event?"--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 188. "If a substantive can be placed after the verb, it is active."--_Alex. Murray's Gram._, p. 31 "When we see bad men honoured and prosperous in the world, it is some discouragement to virtue."--_L. Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 224. "It is a happiness to young persons, when they are preserved from the snares of the world, as in a garden enclosed."--_Ib._, p. 171. "The court of Queen Elizabeth, which was but another name for prudence and economy."-- _Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 24. "It is no wonder if such a man did not shine at the court of Queen Elizabeth, who was but another name for prudence and economy. Here which ought to be used, and not who."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 99; _Fowler's_, §488. "Better thus; Whose name was but another word for prudence, &c."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 157; _Fish's_, 115; Ingersoll's, 221; Smith's, 133; and others. "A Defective verb is one that wants some of its parts. They are chiefly the Auxiliary and Impersonal verbs."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 31; _Old Editions_, 32. "Some writers have given our moods a much greater extent than we have assigned to them."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 67. "The Personal Pronouns give information which no other words are capable of conveying."--_M'Culloch's Gram._, p. 37, "When the article _a, an_, or _the_ precedes the participle, it also becomes a noun."-- _Merchant's School Gram._, p. 93. "There is a preference to be given to some of these, which custom and judgment must determine."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 107. "Many writers affect to subjoin to any word the preposition with which it is compounded, or the idea of which it implies."--_Ib._, p. 200; _Priestley's Gram._, 157. "Say, dost thou know Tectidius?--Who, the wretch Whose lands beyond the Sabines largely stretch?" --_Dryden's IV Sat. of Pers._ LESSON V.--VERBS. "We would naturally expect, that the word _depend_, would require _from_ after it."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 201. "A dish which they pretend to be made of emerald."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 198. "For the very nature of a sentence implies one proposition to be expressed."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 106. "Without a careful attention to the sense, we would be naturally led, by the rules of syntax, to refer it to the rising and setting of the sun."--_Ib._, p. 105. "For any rules that can be given, on this subject, are very general."--_Ib._, p. 125. "He is in the right, if eloquence were what he conceives it to be."--_Ib._, p. 234. "There I would prefer a more free and diffuse manner."--_Ib._, p. 178. "Yet that they also agreed and resembled one another, in certain qualities."--_Ib._, p. 73. "But since he must restore her, he insists to have another in her place."--_Ib._, p. 431. "But these are far from being so frequent or so common as has been supposed."--_Ib._, p. 445. "We are not misled to assign a wrong place to the pleasant or painful feelings." _Kames, El. of Crit._, Introd., p. xviii. "Which are of greater importance than is commonly thought."--Vol. ii, p. 92. "Since these qualities are both coarse and common, lets find out the mark of a man of probity."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 40. "Cicero did what no man had ever done before him, draw up a treatise of consolation for himself."--_Life of Cicero_. "Then there can be no other Doubt remain of the Truth."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 245. "I have observed some satirists use the term."--_Bullions's Prin. of E. Gram._, p. 79. "Such men are ready to despond, or commence enemies."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 83. "Common nouns express names common to many things."--_Infant School Gram._, p. 18. "To make ourselves be heard by one to whom we address ourselves."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 328. "That, in reading poetry, he may be the better able to judge of its correctness, and relish its beauties."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 252. "On the stretch to comprehend, and keep pace with the author."-- _Blair's Rhet._, p. 150. "For it might have been sold for more than three hundred pence, and have been given to the poor."--_Mark_, xiv, 5. "He is a beam that is departed, and left no streak of light behind."--OSSIAN: _Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 262. "No part of this incident ought to have been represented, but reserved for a narrative."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 294. "The rulers and people debauching themselves, brings ruin on a country."--_Ware's Gram._, p. 9. "When _Doctor, Miss, Master, &c._, is prefixed to a name, the last of the two words is commonly made plural; as, the _Doctor Nettletons_--the two _Miss Hudsons_."--_Alex. Murray's Gram._, p. 106. "Wherefore that field was called, The field of blood, unto this day."--_Matt._, xxvii, 8. "To comprehend the situations of other countries, which perhaps may be necessary for him to explore."--_Brown's Estimate_, ii, 111. "We content ourselves, now, with fewer conjunctive particles than our ancestors did."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 139. "And who will be chiefly liable to make mistakes where others have been mistaken before them."--_Ib._, p. 156. "The voice of nature and revelation unites."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, 3d Ed., p. 307. "This adjective you see we can't admit, But changed to _worse_, will make it just and fit." --_Tobitt's Gram._, p. 63. LESSON VI.--PARTICIPLES. "Its application is not arbitrary, depending on the caprice of readers."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, Vol. i, p. 246. "This is the more expedient, from the work's being designed for the benefit of private learners."--_Ib._, Vol. ii, p. 161. "A man, he tells us, ordered by his will, to have erected for him a statue."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 106. "From some likeness too remote, and laying too far out of the road of ordinary thought."--_Ib._, p. 146. "Money is a fluid in the commercial world, rolling from hand to hand."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 123. "He pays much attention to learning and singing songs."--_Ib._ p. 246. "I would not be understood to consider singing songs as criminal."--"It is a decided case by the Great Master of writing."--_Preface to Waller_, p. 5. "Did they ever bear a testimony against writing books?"--_Bates's Misc. Repository_. "Exclamations are sometimes mistaking for interrogations."--_Hist. of Printing_, 1770. "Which cannot fail proving of service."--_Smith's Printer's Gram._ "Hewn into such figures as would make them easily and firmly incorporated."--BEATTIE: _Murray's Gram._, i, 126. "Following the rule and example are practical inductive questions."--_J. Flint's Gram._, p. 3. "I think there will be an advantage in my having collected examples from modern writings."--_Priestley's Gram._, Pref., p. xi. "He was eager of recommending it to his fellow-citizens."--HUME: p. 160. "The good lady was careful of serving me of every thing."--"No revelation would have been given, had the light of nature been sufficient in such a sense, as to render one not wanting and useless."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 155. "Description, again is the raising in the mind the conception of an object by means of some arbitrary or instituted symbols."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 52. "Disappointing the expectation of the hearers, when they look for our being done."--_Ib._ p. 326. "There is a distinction which, in the use of them, is deserving of attention."--_Maunder's Gram._, p. 15. "A model has been contrived, which is not very expensive, and easily managed."--_Education Reporter_. "The conspiracy was the more easily discovered, from its being known to many."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 191. "That celebrated work had been nearly ten years published, before its importance was at all understood."--_Ib._ p. 220. "The sceptre's being ostensibly grasped by a female hand, does not reverse the general order of Government."--_West's Letters to a Lady_, p. 43. "I have hesitated signing the Declaration of Sentiments."--_Liberator_, x, 16. "The prolonging of men's lives when the world needed to be peopled, and now shortening them when that necessity hath ceased to exist."--_Brown's Divinity_, p. 7. "Before the performance commences, we have displayed the insipid formalities of the prelusive scene."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 23. "It forbade the lending of money, or sending goods, or in any way embarking capital in transactions connected with that foreign traffic."--LORD BROUGHAM: _B. and F. Anti-Slavery Reporter_, Vol. ii, p. 218. "Even abstract ideas have sometimes conferred upon them the same important prerogative."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 171. "Like other terminations, _ment_ changes _y_ into _i_, when preceded by a consonant."--_Walker's Rhyming Dict._, p. xiii; _Murray's Gram._, p. 24: _Ingersoll's_, 11. "The term _proper_ is from being _proper_, that is, _peculiar_ to the individual bearing the name. The term _common_ is from being _common_ to every individual comprised in the class."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, 8vo, 1850, §139. "Thus oft by mariners are shown (Unless the men of Kent are liars) Earl Godwin's castles overflown, And palace-roofs, and steeple-spires." --_Swift_, p. 313. LESSON VII.--ADVERBS. "He spoke to every man and woman there."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 220; _Fisk's_, 147. "Thought and language act and react upon each other mutually."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 120; _Murray's Exercises_, 133. "Thought and expression act upon each other mutually."--See _Murray's Key_, p. 264. "They have neither the leisure nor the means of attaining scarcely any knowledge, except what lies within the contracted circle of their several professions."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 359. "Before they are capable of understanding but little, or indeed any thing of many other branches of education."--_Olney's Introd. to Geog._, p. 5. "There is not more beauty in one of them than in another."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 275. "Which appear not constructed according to any certain rule."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 47. "The vehement manner of speaking became not so universal."--_Ib._, p. 61. "All languages, however, do not agree in this mode of expression."--_Ib._, p. 77. "The great occasion of setting aside this particular day."--ATTERBURY: p. 294. "He is much more promising now than formerly."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. ii, p. 4. "They are placed before a participle, independently on the rest of the sentence."--_Ib._, Vol. ii, p. 21. "This opinion appears to be not well considered."--_Ib._, Vol. i, p. 153; _Ingersoll's_, 249. "Precision in language merits a full explication; and the more, because distinct ideas are, perhaps, not commonly formed about it."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 94. "In the more sublime parts of poetry, he [Pope] is not so distinguished."--_Ib._, p. 403. "How far the author was altogether happy in the choice of his subject, may be questioned."--_Ib._, p. 450. "But here also there is a great error in the common practice."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 7. "This order is the very order of the human mind, which makes things we are sensible of, a means to come at those that are not so."--_Formey's Belles-Lettres, Foreman's Version_, p. 113. "Now, Who is not Discouraged, and Fears Want, when he has no money?"--_Divine Right of Tythes_, p. 23. "Which the Authors of this work, consider of but little or no use."--_Wilbur and Livingston's Gram._, p. 6. "And here indeed the distinction between these two classes begins not to be clear."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 152. "But this is a manner which deserves not to be imitated."--_Ib._, p. 180. "And in this department a person never effects so little, as when he attempts too much."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 173; _Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 367. "The verb that signifies merely being, is neuter."--_Dr. Ash's Gram._, p. 27. "I hope not much to tire those whom I shall not happen to please."--_Rambler_, No. 1. "Who were utterly unable to pronounce some letters, and others very indistinctly."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 32. "The learner may point out the active, passive, and neuter verbs in the following examples, and state the reasons why."--_C. Adams's Gram._, p. 27. "These words are most always conjunctions."--_S. Barrett's Revised Gram._, p. 73. "How fluent nonsense trickles from his tongue! How sweet the periods, neither said, nor sung!"--_Dunciad_. LESSON VIII.--CONJUNCTIONS. "Who at least either knew not, nor loved to make, a distinction."--_Dr. Murray's Hist. of Europ. Lang._, i, 322. "It is childish in the last degree, if this become the ground of estranged affection."--_L. Murray's Key_, ii, 228. "When the regular or the irregular verb is to be preferred, p. 107."--_Murray's Index, Gram._, ii, 296. "The books were to have been sold, as this day."--_Priestley's E. Gram._, p. 138. "Do, an if you will."--_Beauties of Shak._, p. 195. "If a man had a positive idea of infinite, either duration or space, he could add two infinites together."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 174. "None shall more willingly agree and advance the same nor I."--EARL OF MORTON: _Robertson's Scotland_, ii, 428. "That it cannot be but hurtful to continue it."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 192. "A conjunction joins words and sentences."--_Beck's Gram._, pp. 4 and 25. "The copulative conjunction connects words and sentences together and continues the sense."--_Frost's El. of Gram._, p. 42. "The Conjunction Copulative serves to connect or continue a sentence, by expressing an addition, a supposition, a cause, &c."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, i, 123. "All Construction is either true or apparent; or in other Words just and figurative."--_Buchanan's Syntax_, p. 130; _British Gram._, 234. "But the divine character is such that none but a divine hand could draw."--_The Friend_, Vol. v, p. 72. "Who is so mad, that, on inspecting the heavens, is insensible of a God?"--CICERO:--_Dr. Gibbons_. "It is now submitted to an enlightened public, with little desire on the part of the Author, than its general utility."--_Town's Analysis_, 9th Ed., p. 5. "This will sufficiently explain the reason, that so many provincials have grown old in the capital without making any change in their original dialect."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 51. "Of these they had chiefly three in general use, which were denominated accents, and the term used in the plural number."--_Ib._, p. 56. "And this is one of the chief reasons, that dramatic representations have ever held the first rank amongst the diversions of mankind."--_Ib._, p. 95. "Which is the chief reason that public reading is in general so disgusting."--_Ib._, p. 96. "At the same time that they learn to read."--_Ib._, p. 96. "He is always to pronounce his words exactly with the same accent that he speaks them."--_Ib._, p. 98. "In order to know what another knows, and in the same manner that he knows it."--_Ib._, p. 136. "For the same reason that it is in a more limited state assigned to the several tribes of animals."--_Ib._, p. 145. "Were there masters to teach this, in the same manner as other arts are taught."--_Ib._, p. 169. "Whose own example strengthens all his laws; And is himself that great Sublime he draws."--_Pope, on Crit._, l. 680. LESSON IX.--PREPOSITIONS. "The word _so_ has, sometimes, the same meaning with _also, likewise, the same_."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 137. "The verb _use_ relates not to pleasures of the imagination, but to the terms of fancy and imagination, which he was to employ as synonymous."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 197. "It never can view, clearly and distinctly, above one object at a time."--_Ib._, p. 94. "This figure [Euphemism] is often the same with the Periphrasis."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 247; _Gould's_, 238. "All the between time of youth and old age."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 83. "When one thing is said to act upon, or do something to another."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 70. "Such a composition has as much of meaning in it, as a mummy has life."--_Journal of Lit. Convention_, p. 81. "That young men of from fourteen to eighteen were not the best judges."--_Ib._, p. 130. "This day is a day of trouble, and of rebuke, and blasphemy."--_2 Kings_, xix, 3. "Blank verse has the same pauses and accents with rhyme."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 119. "In prosody, long syllables are distinguished by ([=]), and short ones by what is called _breve_ ([~])."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 22. "Sometimes both articles are left out, especially in poetry."--_Ib._, p. 26. "In the following example, the pronoun and participle are omitted: [_He being_] 'Conscious of his own weight and importance, the aid of others was not solicited.'"--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 221. "He was an excellent person; a mirror of ancient faith in early youth."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 172. "The carrying on its several parts into execution."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 192. "Concord, is the agreement which one word has over another, in gender, number, case, and person."--_Folker's Gram._, p. 3. "It might perhaps have given me a greater taste of its antiquities."--ADDISON: _Priestley's Gram._, p. 160. "To call of a person, and to wait of him."--_Priestley, ib._, p. 161. "The great difficulty they found of fixing just sentiments."--HUME: _ib._, p. 161. "Developing the difference between the three."--_James Brown's first American Gram._, p. 12. "When the substantive singular ends in _x, ch_ soft, _sh, ss_, or _s_, we add _es_ in the plural."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 40. "We shall present him with a list or specimen of them."--_Ib._, p. 132. "It is very common to hear of the evils of pernicious reading, of how it enervates the mind, or how it depraves the principles."--_Dymond's Essays_, p. 168. "In this example, the verb 'arises' is understood before 'curiosity' and 'knowledge.'"--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 274; _Ingersoll's_, 286; _Comly's_, 155; and others. "The connective is frequently omitted between several words."--_Wilcox's Gram._, p. 81. "He shall expel them from before you, and drive them from out of your sight."--_Joshua_, xxiii, 5. "Who makes his sun shine and his rain to descend upon the just and the unjust."--_M'Ilvaine's Lectures_, p. 411. LESSON X.--MIXED EXAMPLES. "This sentence violates the rules of grammar."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, Vol. ii, pp. 19 and 21. "The words _thou_ and _shalt_ are again reduced to short quantities."--_Ib._, Vol. i, p. 246. "Have the greater men always been the most popular? By no means."--DR. LIEBER: _Lit. Conv._, p. 64. "St. Paul positively stated that, 'he who loves one another has fulfilled the law.'"--_Spurzheim, on Education_, p. 248. "More than one organ is concerned in the utterance of almost every consonant."--_M'Culloch's Gram._, p. 18. "If the reader will pardon my descending so low."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 20. "To adjust them so, as shall consist equally with the perspicuity and the grace of the period."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 118: _Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 324. "This class exhibits a lamentable want of simplicity and inefficiency."--_Gardiner's Music of Nature_, p. 481. "Whose style flows always like a limpid stream, where we see to the very bottom."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 93. "Whose style flows always like a limpid stream, through which we see to the very bottom."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 293. "We make use of the ellipsis." [447]--_Ib._, p. 217. "The ellipsis of the article is thus used."--_Ib._, p. 217. "Sometimes the ellipsis is improperly applied to nouns of different numbers: as, 'A magnificent house and gardens.'"--_Ib._, p. 218. "In some very emphatic expressions, the ellipsis should not be used."--_Ib._, 218. "The ellipsis of the adjective is used in the following manner."--_Ib._, 218. "The following is the ellipsis of the pronoun."--_Ib._, 218. "The ellipsis of the verb is used in the following instances."--_Ib._, p. 219. "The ellipsis of the adverb is used in the following manner."--_Ib._, 219. "The following instances, though short, contain much of the ellipsis."--_Ib._, 220. "If no emphasis be placed on any words, not only will discourse be rendered heavy and lifeless, but the meaning often ambiguous."--_Ib._, 242. See _Hart's Gram._, p. 172. "If no emphasis be placed on any words, not only is discourse, rendered heavy and lifeless, but the meaning left often ambiguous."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 330; _Murray's Eng. Reader_, p. xi. "He regards his word, but thou dost not regard it."--_Bullions's E. Gram._, p. 129; _his Analytical and Practical Gram._, p. 196. "He regards his word, but thou dost not: i.e. dost not regard it."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 219; _Parker and Fox's_, p. 96; _Weld's_, 192. "I have learned my task, but you have not; i.e. have not learned."--_Ib., Mur._, 219; &c. "When the omission of words would obscure the sentence, weaken its force, or be attended with an impropriety, they must be expressed."--_Ib._, p. 217; _Weld's Gram._ 190. "And therefore the verb is correctly put in the singular number, and refers to the whole separately and individually considered."--_Murray's Gram._ 8vo, ii, 24 and 190. "I understood him the best of all who spoke on the subject."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 192. "I understood him better than any other who spoke on the subject."--_Ibid._, "The roughness found on our entrance into the paths of virtue and learning, grow smoother as we advance."--_Ib._, p. 171. "The roughnesses," &c.--_Murray's Key_, 12mo, p 8. "Nothing promotes knowledge more than steady application, and a habit of observation."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 265. "Virtue confers supreme dignity on man: and should be his chief desire."--_Ib._, p. 192; _and Merchant's_, 192. "The Supreme author of our being has so formed the soul of man, that nothing but himself can be its last, adequate, and proper happiness."--_Addison, Spect._, No. 413; _Blair's Rhet._, p. 213. "The inhabitants of China laugh at the plantations of our Europeans; because, they say, any one may place trees in equal rows and uniform figures."--_Ad., Spect._, No. 414; _Blair's Rhet._, p. 222. "The divine laws are not reversible by those of men."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 167. "In both of these examples, the relative and the verb _which was_, are understood."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 273; _Comly's_, 152; _Ingersoll's_, 285. "The Greek and Latin languages, though, for many reasons, they cannot be called dialects of one another, are nevertheless closely connected."--_Dr. Murray's Hist. of European Lang._, Vol. ii, p. 51. "To ascertain and settle which, of a white rose or a red rose, breathes the sweetest fragrance."--_J. Q. Adams, Orat._, 1831. "To which he can afford to devote much less of his time and labour."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 254. "Avoid extremes; and shun the fault of such, Who still are pleas'd too little or too much." --_Pope, on Crit._, 1, 384. LESSON XI.--BAD PHRASES. "He had as good leave his vessel to the direction of the winds."--SOUTH: _in Joh. Dict._ "Without good nature and gratitude, men had as good live in a wilderness as in society."--L'ESTRANGE: _ib._ "And for this reason such lines almost never occur together."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 385. "His being a great man did not make him a happy man."--_Crombie's Treatise_, p. 288. "Let that which tends to the making cold your love be judged in all."--_S. Crisp_. "It is worthy the observing, that there is no passion in the mind of man so weak but it mates and masters the fear of death."--_Bacon's Essays_, p. 4. "Accent dignifies the syllable on which it is laid, and makes it more distinguished by the ear than the rest."--_Sheridan's Lect._, p. 80; _Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 244. "Before he proceeds to argue either on one side or other."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 313. "The change in general of manners throughout all Europe."--_Ib._, p. 375. "The sweetness and beauty of Virgil's numbers, throughout his whole works."--_Ib._, p. 440. "The French writers of sermons study neatness and elegance in laying down their heads."--_Ib._, p. 13. "This almost never fails to prove a refrigerant to passion."--_Ib._, p. 321. "At least their fathers, brothers, and uncles, cannot, as good relations and good citizens, dispense with their not standing forth to demand vengeance."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, Vol. i, p. 191. "Alleging, that their crying down the church of Rome, was a joining hand with the Turks."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 239. "To which is added the Assembly of Divines Catechism."--_New-England Primer_, p. 1. "This treachery was always present in both their thoughts."--_Dr. Robertson_. "Thus far both their words agree." ("_Convenient adhuo utriusqus verba_. Plaut.")--_Walker's Particles_, p. 125. "Aparithmesis, or Enumeration, is the branching out into several parts of what might be expressed in fewer words."--_Gould's Gram_, p. 241. "Aparithmesis, or Enumeration, is when what might be expressed in a few words, is branched out into several parts."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 251. "Which may sit from time to time where you dwell or in the neighbouring vicinity."--_Taylor's District School_, 1st Ed., p. 281. "Place together a large and a small sized animal of the same species."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 235. "The weight of the swimming body is equal to that of the weight, of the quantity of fluid displaced by it."--_Percival's Tales_, ii, 213. "The Subjunctive mood, in all its tenses, is similar to that of the Optative."--_Gwilt's Saxon Gram._, p. 27. "No other feeling of obligation remains, except that of fidelity."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, 1st Ed., p. 82. "Who asked him, 'What could be the reason, that whole audiences should be moved to tears, at the representation of some story on the stage.'"--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 175. "Art not thou and you ashamed to affirm, that the best works of the Spirit of Christ in his saints are as filthy rags?"--_Barclay's Works_, i, 174. "A neuter verb becomes active, when followed by a noun of the same signification with its own."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 127. "But he has judged better, in omitting to repeat the article _the_."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 194. "Many objects please us as highly beautiful, which have almost no variety at all."--_Ib._, p. 46. "Yet notwithstanding, they sometimes follow them."--_Emmons's Gram._, p. 21. "For I know of nothing more material in all the whole Subject, than this doctrine of Mood and Tense."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 292. "It is by no means impossible for an errour to be got rid of or supprest."-- _Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 642. "These are things of the highest importance to the growing age."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 250. "He had better have omitted the word _many_."--_Blair's Rhet._ p. 205. "Which had better have been separated."--_Ib._, p. 225. "Figures and metaphors, therefore, should, on no occasion be stuck on too profusely."--_Ib._, p. 144; _Jamieson's Rhet._, 150. "Metaphors, as well as other figures, should on no occasion, be stuck on too profusely."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 338; _Russell's_, 136. "Something like this has been reproached to Tacitus."--BOLINGBROKE: _Priestley's Gram._, p. 164. "O thou, whom all mankind in vain withstand, Each of whose blood must one day stain thy hand!" --_Sheffield's Temple of Death_. LESSON XII.--TWO ERRORS.[448] "Pronouns are sometimes made to precede the things which they represent."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 160. "Most prepositions originally denote the relation of place."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 65. "_Which_ is applied to inferior animals and things without life."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 24; _Pract. Lessons_, 30. "What noun do they describe or tell the kind?"--_Infant School Gram._, p. 41. "Iron cannon, as well as brass, is now universally cast solid."--_Jamieson's Dict._ "We have philosophers, eminent and conspicuous, perhaps, beyond any nation."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 251. "This is a question about words alone, and which common sense easily determines."--_Ib._, p. 320. "The low [pitch of the voice] is, when he approaches to a whisper."--_Ib._, p. 328. "Which, as to the effect, is just the same with using no such distinctions at all."--_Ib._, p. 33. "These two systems, therefore, differ in reality very little from one another."--_Ib._, p. 23. "It were needless to give many instances, as they occur so often."--_Ib._, p. 109. "There are many occasions when this is neither requisite nor would be proper."--_Ib._, p. 311. "Dramatic poetry divides itself into the two forms, of comedy or tragedy."--_Ib._, p. 452. "No man ever rhymed truer and evener than he."--_Pref. to Waller_, p. 5. "The Doctor did not reap a profit from his poetical labours equal to those of his prose."--_Johnson's Life of Goldsmith_. "We will follow that which we found our fathers practice."--_Sale's Koran_, i, 28. "And I would deeply regret having published them."--_Infant School Gram._, p. vii. "Figures exhibit ideas in a manner more vivid and impressive, than could be done by plain language."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 222. "The allegory is finely drawn, only the heads various."--_Spect._, No. 540. "I should not have thought it worthy a place here."--_Crombie's Treatise_, p. 219. "In this style, Tacitus excels all writers, ancient and modern."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 261. "No author, ancient or modern, possesses the art of dialogue equal to Shakspeare."--_Ib._, ii, 294. "The names of every thing we hear, see, smell, taste, and feel, are nouns."--_Infant School Gram._, p. 16. "What number are these boys? these pictures? &c."--_Ib._, p. 23. "This sentence is faulty, somewhat in the same manner with the last."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 230. "Besides perspicuity, he pursues propriety, purity, and precision, in his language; which forms one degree, and no inconsiderable one, of beauty."--_Ib._, p. 181. "Many critical terms have unfortunately been employed in a sense too loose and vague; none more so, than that of the sublime."--_Ib._, p. 35. "Hence, no word in the language is used in a more vague signification than beauty."--_Ib._, p. 45. "But, still, he made use only of general terms in speech."--_Ib._, p. 73. "These give life, body, and colouring to the recital of facts, and enable us to behold them as present, and passing before our eyes."--_Ib._, p. 360. "Which carried an ideal chivalry to a still more extravagant height than it had risen in fact."--_Ib._, p. 374. "We write much more supinely, and at our ease, than the ancients."--_Ib._, p. 351. "This appears indeed to form the characteristical difference between the ancient poets, orators, and historians, compared with the modern."--_Ib._, p. 350. "To violate this rule, as is too often done by the English, shews great incorrectness."-- _Ib._, p. 463. "It is impossible, by means of any study to avoid their appearing stiff and forced."--_Ib._, p. 335. "Besides its giving the speaker the disagreeable appearance of one who endeavours to compel assent."--_Ib._, p. 328. "And, on occasions where a light or ludicrous anecdote is proper to be recorded, it is generally better to throw it into a note, than to hazard becoming too familiar."--_Ib._, p. 359. "The great business of this life is to prepare, and qualify us, for the enjoyment of a better."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 373. "In some dictionaries, accordingly, it was omitted; and in others stigmatized as a barbarism."-- _Crombie's Treatise_, p. 322. "You cannot see, or think of, a thing, unless it be a noun."--_Mack's Gram._, p. 65. "The fleet are all arrived and moored in safety."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 185. LESSON XIII.--TWO ERRORS. "They have each their distinct and exactly-limited relation to gravity."--_Hasler's Astronomy_, p 219. "But in cases which would give too much of the hissing sound, the omission takes place even in prose."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 175. "After _o_ it [the _w_] is sometimes not sounded at all; sometimes like a single _u_."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 3. "It is situation chiefly which decides _of_ the fortunes and characters of men."--HUME: _Priestley's Gram._, p. 159. "It is situation chiefly which decides the fortune (or, _concerning_ the fortune) and characters of men."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 201. "The vice of covetousness is what enters deeper into the soul than any other."--_Ib._, p. 167; _Ingersoll's_, 193; _Fisk's_, 103; _Campbell's Rhet._, 205. "Covetousness, of all vices, enters the deepest into the soul."--_Murray_, 167; _and others_. "Covetousness is what of all vices enters the deepest into the soul."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 205. "The vice of covetousness is what enters deepest into the soul of any other."--_Guardian_, No. 19. "_Would_ primarily denotes inclination of will; and _should_, obligation; but they both vary their import, and are often used to express simple event."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 43; _Murray's_, 89; _Fisk's_, 78; _Greenleaf's_, 27. "But they both vary their import, and are often used to express simple events."--_Comly's Gram._, p. 39; _Ingersoll's_, 137. "But they vary their import, and are often used to express simple event."--_Abel Flint's Gram._, p 42. "A double conjunctive, in two correspondent clauses of a sentence, is sometimes made use of: as, '_Had_ he done this, he _had_ escaped.'"--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 213; _Ingersoll's_, 269. "The pleasures of the understanding are preferable to those of the imagination, or of sense."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 191. "Claudian, in a fragment upon the wars of the giants, has contrived to render this idea of their throwing the mountains, which is in itself so grand, burlesque, and ridiculous."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 42. "To which not only no other writings are to be preferred, but even in divers respects not comparable."-- _Barclay's Works_, i, 53. "To distinguish them in the understanding, and treat of their several natures, in the same cool manner as we do with regard to other ideas."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 137. "For it has nothing to do with parsing, or analyzing, language."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 19. Or: "For it has nothing to do with parsing, or analyzing, language."--_Ib., Second Edition_, p. 16. "Neither was that language [the Latin] ever so vulgar in Britain."--SWIFT: see _Blair's Rhet._, p. 228. "All that I propose is to give some openings into the pleasures of taste."--_Ib._, p. 28. "But it would have been better omitted in the following sentences."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 210. "But I think it had better be omitted in the following sentence."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 162. "They appear, in this case, like excrescences jutting out from the body, which had better have been wanted."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 326. "And therefore, the fable of the Harpies, in the third book of the �neid, and the allegory of Sin and Death, in the second book of Paradise Lost, had been better omitted in these celebrated poems."--_Ib._, p. 430. "Ellipsis is an elegant Suppression (or the leaving out) of a Word, or Words in a Sentence."--_British Gram._, p. 234; _Buchanan's_, p. 131. "The article _a_ or _an_ had better be omitted in this construction."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 67. "Now suppose the articles had not been left out in these passages."--_Burke's Gram._, p. 27. "To give separate names to every one of those trees, would have been an endless and impracticable undertaking."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 72. "_Ei_, in general, sounds the same as long and slender _a_."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 12. "When a conjunction is used apparently redundant it is called Polysyndeton."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 236; _Gould's_, 229. "_Each, every, either, neither_, denote the persons or things which make up a number, as taken separately or distributively."-- _M'Culloch's Gram._, p. 31. "The Principal Sentence must be expressed by verbs in the Indicative, Imperative, or Potential Modes."--_Clark's Pract. Gram._, p. 133. "Hence he is diffuse, where he ought to have been pressing."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 246. "All manner of subjects admit of explaining comparisons."--_Ib._, p. 164; _Jamieson's Rhet._, 161. "The present or imperfect participle denotes action or being continued, but not perfected."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 78. "What are verbs? Those words which express what the nouns do"--_Fowle's True Eng. Gram._, p. 29. "Of all those arts in which the wise excel, Nature's chief masterpiece is writing well." --_J. Sheffield, Duke of Buck_. "Such was that muse whose rules and practice tell Nature's chief masterpiece is writing well." --_Pope, on Criticism_. LESSON XIV.--THREE ERRORS. "In some words the metaphorical sense has justled out the original sense altogether, so that in respect of it they are become obsolete."-- _Campbell's Rhet._, p. 323. "Sure never any mortal was so overwhelmed with grief as I am at this present."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 138. "All languages differ from each other in their mode of inflexion."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, Pref., p. v. "Nouns and verbs are the only indispensable parts of speech--the one to express the subject spoken of, and the other the predicate or what is affirmed of it."--_M'Culloch's Gram._, p. 36. "The words in italics of the three latter examples, perform the office of substantives."--_L. Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 66. "Such a structure of a sentence is always the mark of careless writing."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 231. "Nothing is frequently more hurtful to the grace or vivacity of a period, than superfluous dragging words at the conclusion."--_Ib._, p. 205. "When its substantive is not joined to it, but referred to, or understood."-- _Lowth's Gram._, p. 24. "Yet they have always some substantive belonging to them, either referred to, or understood."--_Ib._, 24. "Because they define and limit the extent of the common name, or general term, to which they either refer, or are joined.'"--_Ib._, 24. "Every new object surprises, terrifies, and makes a strong impression on their mind."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 136. "His argument required to have been more fully unfolded, in order to make it be distinctly apprehended, and to give it its due force."--_Ib._, p. 230. "Participles which are derived from active verbs, will govern the objective case, the same as the verbs from which they are derived"--_Emmons's Gram._, p. 61. "Where, contrary to the rule, the nominative _I_ precedes, and the objective case _whom_ follows the verb."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 181. "The same conjunction governing both the indicative and the subjunctive moods, in the same sentence, and in the same circumstances, seems to be a great impropriety."--_Ib._, p. 207; _Smith's New Gram._, 173: see _Lowth's Gram._, p. 105; _Fisk's_, 128; and _Ingersoll's_, 266. "A nice discernment, and accurate attention to the best usage, are necessary to direct us, on these occasions."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 170. "The Greeks and Romans, the former especially, were, in truth, much more musical nations than we; their genius was more turned to delight in the melody of speech."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 123. "When the sense admits it, the sooner a circumstance is introduced, the better, that the more important and significant words may possess the last place, quite disencumbered."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, i, p. 309; _Parker and Fox's_, Part III, p. 88. "When the sense admits it, the sooner they are despatched, generally speaking, the better; that the more important and significant words may possess the last place, quite disencumbered."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 118. See also _Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 101. "Thus we find it, both in the Greek and Latin tongues."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 74. "A train of sentences, constructed in the same manner, and with the same number of members, should never be allowed to succeed one another."--_Ib._, p. 102; _Murray's Gram._, 8vo, Vol. i, p. 306; _Parker and Fox's Gram._, Part III, p. 86. "I proceed to lay down the rules to be observed in the conduct of metaphors, and which are much the same for tropes of every kind."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 143. "By a proper choice of words, we may produce a resemblance of other sounds which we mean to describe."--_Ib._, p. 129; _Murray's Gram._, 8vo, Vol. i, p. 331. "The disguise can almost never be so perfect, but it is discovered."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 259. "The sense admits of no other pause than after the second syllable 'sit,' which therefore must be the only pause made in the reading."--_Ib._, p. 333. "Not that I believe North America to be peopled so late as the twelfth century, the period of Madoc's migration."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 212. "Money and commodities will always flow to that country, where they are most wanted and will command the most profit."--_Ib._, p. 308. "That it contains no visible marks, of articles, which are the most important of all others, to a just delivery."-- _Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 13. "And of virtue, from its beauty, we call it a fair and favourite maid."--_Mack's Gram._, p. 66. "The definite article may agree with nouns in the singular and plural number."--_Infant School Gram._, p. 130. LESSON XV.--MANY ERRORS. (1.) "A compound word is included under the head of derivative words."-- _Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 23. (2.) "An Apostrophe, marked thus ' is used to abbreviate or shorten a word. Its chief use is to show the genitive case of nouns."--_Ib._, p. 281.[449] (3.) "A Hyphen, marked thus - is employed in connecting compounded words. It is also used when a word is divided."-- _Ib._, p. 282. (4.) "The Acute Accent, marked thus ´: as, '_Fáncy_.' The Grave thus ` as, '_Fàvour_'"--_Ib._, p. 282. (5.) "The stress is laid on long and short syllables indiscriminately. In order to distinguish the one from the other, some writers of dictionaries have placed the grave on the former, and the acute on the latter."--_Ib._, 282. (6.) "A Diæresis, thus marked ¨, consists of two points placed over one of the two vowels that would otherwise make a diphthong, and parts them into syllables."--_Ib._, 282. (7.) "A Section marked thus §, is the division of a discourse, or chapter, into less parts or portions."--_Ib._, 282. (8.) "A Paragraph ¶ denotes the beginning of a new subject, or a sentence not connected with the foregoing. This character is chiefly used in the Old and in the New Testaments."--_Ib._, 282. (9.) "A Quotation " ". Two inverted commas are generally placed at the beginning of a phrase or a passage, which is quoted or transcribed from the speaker or author in his own words; and two commas in their direct position, are placed at the conclusion."--_Ib._, 282. (10.) "A Brace is used in poetry at the end of a triplet or three lines, which have the same rhyme. Braces are also used to connect a number of words with one common term, and are introduced to prevent a repetition in writing or printing."--_Ib._, p. 283. (11.) "Two or three asterisks generally denote the omission of some letters in a word, or of some bold or indelicate expression, or some defect in the manuscript."--_Ib._, 283. (12.) "An Ellipsis ---- is also used, when some letters in a word, or some words in a verse, are omitted."--_Ib._, 283. (13.) "An Obelisk, which is marked thus [dagger], and Parallels thus ||, together with the letters of the Alphabet, and figures, are used as references to the margin, or bottom of the page."--_Ib._, 283. (14.) "A note of interrogation should not be employed, in cases where it is only said a question has been asked, and where the words are not used as a question. 'The Cyprians asked me why I wept.'"--_Ib._, p. 279; _Comly_, 163; _Ingersoll_, 291; _Fisk_, 157; _Flint_, 113. (15.) "A point of interrogation is improper after sentences which are not questions, but only expressions of admiration, or of some other emotion."--_Same authors and places_. (16.) "The parenthesis incloses in the body of a sentence a member inserted into it, which is neither necessary to the sense, nor at all affects the construction."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 124. (17.) "Simple members connected by relatives, and comparatives, are for the most part distinguished by a comma." [450]--_Ib._, p. 121. (18.) "Simple members of sentences connected by comparatives, are, for the most part, distinguished by a comma."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p 272; _Alden's_, 148; _Ingersoll's_, 284. See the same words without the last two commas, in _Comly's Gram._, p. 149; _Alger's_, 79; _Merchant's Murray_, 143:--and this again, with a _different sense_, made by a comma before "_connected_," in _Smith's New Gram._, 190; _Abel Flint's_, 103. (19.) "Simple members of sentences connected by comparatives, are for the most part distinguished by the comma."--_Russell's Gram._, p. 115. (20.) "Simple members of sentences, connected by comparatives, should generally be distinguished by a comma."--_Merchant's School Gram._, p. 150. (21.) "Simple members of sentences connected by _than_ or _so_, or that express contrast or comparison, should, generally, be divided by a comma."--_Jaudon's Gram._, p. 185. (22.) "Simple members of sentences, connected by comparatives, if they be long, are separated by a comma."--_Cooper's New Gram._, p. 195. See the same without the first comma, in _Cooper's Murray_, p. 183. (23.) "Simple members of sentences connected by comparatives, and phrases placed in opposition to, or in contrast with, each other, are separated by commas."--_Bullions_, p. 153; _Hiley_, 113. (24.) "On which ever word we lay the emphasis, whether on the first, second, third, or fourth, it strikes out a different sense."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 243. (25.) "To inform those who do not understand sea phrases, that, 'We tacked to the larboard, and stood off to sea,' would be expressing ourselves very obscurely."--_Ib._, p. 296; _and Hiley's Gram._, p. 151. (26.) "Of dissyllables, which are at once nouns and verbs, the verb has commonly the accent on the latter, and the noun, on the former syllable."--_Murray_, p. 237. (27.) "And this gives our language a superior advantage to most others, in the poetical and rhetorical style."--_Id. ib._, p. 38; _Ingersoll_, 27; _Fisk_, 57. (28.) "And this gives the English an advantage above most other languages in the poetical and rhetorical style."--_Lowth's Gram_, p. 19. (29.) "The second and third scholar may read the same sentence; and as many, as it is necessary to learn it perfectly to the whole."--_Osborn's Key_, p. 4. (30.) "Bliss is the name in subject as a king, In who obtain defence, or who defend." --_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 178. LESSON XVI.--MANY ERRORS. "The Japanese, the Tonquinese, and the Corceans, speak different languages from one another, and from the inhabitants of China, but use, with these last people, the same written characters; a proof that the Chinese characters are like hieroglyphics, independent of language."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 18. "The Japanese, the Tonquinese, and the Corceans, who speak different languages from one another, and from the inhabitants of China, use, however, the same written characters with them; and by this means correspond intelligibly with each other in writing, though ignorant of the language spoken in their several countries; a plain proof," &c.--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 67. "The curved line is made square instead of round, for the reason beforementioned."--_Knight, on the Greek Alphabet_, p. 6. "Every one should content himself with the use of those tones only that he is habituated to in speech, and to give none other to emphasis, but what he would do to the same words in discourse. Thus whatever he utters will be done with ease, and appear natural."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 103. "Stops, or pauses, are a total cessation of sound during a perceptible, and in numerous compositions, a measurable space of time."--_Ib._, p. 104. "Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total cessation of the voice during a perceptible, and, in many cases, a measurable space of time."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 248; _English Reader_, p. 13; _Goldsbury's Gr._, 76; _Kirkham's_, 208; _Felton's_, 133; _et al._ "Nouns which express a small one of the kind are called _Diminutive Nouns_; as, lambkin, hillock, satchel, gosling, from lamb, hill, sack, goose."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, 1837, p. 9. "What is the cause that nonsense so often escapes being detected, both by the writer and by the reader?"--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. xi, and 280. "An Interjection is a word used to express sudden emotion. They are so called, because they are generally thrown in between the parts of a sentence without reference to the structure of the other parts of it."--_M'Culloch's Gram._, p. 36. "_Ought_ (in duty bound) _oughtest, oughtedst_, are it's only inflections."--_Mackintosh's Gram._, p. 165. "But the arrangment, government, agreement, and dependence of one word upon another, are referred to our reason."--_Osborn's Key, Pref._, p. 3. "_Me_ is a personal pronoun, first person singular, and the accusative case."--_Guy's Gram._, p. 20. "The substantive _self_ is added to a pronoun; as, herself, himself, &c.; and when thus united, is called a reciprocal pronoun."--_Ib._, p. 18. "One cannot avoid thinking that our author had done better to have begun the first of these three sentences, with saying, _it is novelty which bestows charms on a monster_, &c."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 207. "The idea which they present to us of nature's resembling art, of art's being considered as an original, and nature as a copy,[451] seems not very distinct nor well brought out, nor indeed very material to our author's purpose."--_Ib._, p. 220. "The present construction of the sentence, has plainly been owing to hasty and careless writing."--_Ib._, p. 220. "Adverbs serve to modify, or to denote some circumstance of an action, or of a quality, relative to its time, place, order, degree, and the other properties of it, which we have occasion to specify."--_Ib._, p. 84. "The more that any nation is improved by science, and the more perfect their language becomes, we may naturally expect that it will abound more with connective particles."--_Ib._, p. 85. "Mr. Greenleaf's book is by far the best adapted for learners of any that has yet appeared on the subject."--DR. FELTUS and BP. ONDERDONK: _Greenleaf's Gram._, p. 2. "Punctuation is the art of marking in writing the several pauses, or rests, between sentences, and the parts of sentences, according to their proper quantity or proportion, as they are expressed in a just and accurate pronunciation."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 114. "A compound sentence must be resolved into simple ones, and separated by commas."--_Greenleaf's Gram._, p. 41; _Allen Fisk's_, 155.[452] "Simple sentences should be separated from each other by commas, unless such sentences are connected by a conjunction: as, 'Youth is passing away, age is approaching and death is near.'"--_Hall's Gram._, p. 36. "_V_ has the sound of flat _f_, and bears the same relation to it, as _b_ does to _p, d_ to _t_, hard _g_ to _k_, and _z_ to _s_. It has one uniform sound."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 17; _Fisk's_, 42. "_V_ is flat _f_, and bears the same relation to it as _b_ does to _p, d_ to _t_, hard _g_ to _k_, and _z_ to _s_. It is never irregular."--_Walker's Dict._, p. 52. "_V_ has the sound of flat _f_; and bears the same relation to it as _z_ does to _s_. It has one uniform sound."--_Greenleaf's Gram._, p. 20. "The author is explaining the distinction, between the powers of sense and imagination in the human mind."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, Vol. i, p. 343. [The author is endeavouring] "to explain a very abstract point, the distinction between the powers of sense and imagination in the human mind."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 164. "HE (Anglo-Saxon _he_) is a Personal pronoun, of the Third Person, Masculine Gender (Decline he), of the singular number, in the nominative case."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, 8vo, 1850, §589. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER THE CRITICAL NOTES. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE I.--OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. "The passive voice denotes a being acted upon."--_Maunders Gram._, p. 6. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the term "_being acted upon_" as here used, suggests a doubt concerning its classification in parsing. But, according to Critical Note 1st, "Words that may constitute different parts of speech, must not be left doubtful as to their classification, or to what part of speech they belong." Therefore, the phraseology should be altered; thus, "The passive voice denotes _an action received_." Or; "The passive voice denotes _the receiving of an_ action."] "Milton, in some of his prose works, has very finely turned periods."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 127; _Jamieson's_, 129. "These will be found to be all, or chiefly, of that class."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 32. "All appearances of an author's affecting harmony, are disagreeable."--_Ib._, p. 127; _Jamieson_, 128. "Some nouns have a double increase, that is, increase by more syllables than one; as, _iter, itin~eris_."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 255; _Gould's_, 241. "The powers of man are enlarged by advancing cultivation."--_Gurney's Essays_, p. 62. "It is always important to begin well; to make a favourable impression at first setting out."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 307. "For if one take a wrong method at first setting out, it will lead him astray in all that follows."--_Ib._, 313. "His mind is full of his subject, and his words are all expressive."--_Ib._, 179. "How exquisitely is this all performed in Greek!"--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 422. "How little is all this to satisfy the ambition of an immortal soul!"-- _Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 253. "So as to exhibit the object in its full and most striking point of view."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 41. "And that the author know how to descend with propriety to the plain, as well as how to rise to the bold and figured style."--_Ib._, p. 401. "The heart can only answer to the heart."--_Ib._, p. 259. "Upon its first being perceived."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 229. "Call for Samson, that he may make us sport."--_Judges_, xvi, 25. "And he made them sport."--_Ibid._ "The term _suffer_ in this definition is used in a technical sense, and means simply the receiving of an action, or the being acted upon."--_Bullions_, p. 29. "The Text is what is only meant to be taught in Schools."--_Brightland, Pref._, p. ix. "The perfect participle denotes action or being perfected or finished."-- _Kirkham's Gram._, p. 78. "From the intricacy and confusion which are produced by their being blended together."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 66. "This very circumstance of a word's being employed antithetically, renders it important in the sentence."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 121. "It [the pronoun _that_] is applied to both persons and things."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 53. "Concerning us, as being every where evil spoken of."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. ii, p. vi. "Every thing beside was buried in a profound silence."--_Steele_. "They raise more full conviction than any reasonings produce."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 367. "It appears to me no more than a fanciful refinement."--_Ib._, p. 436. "The regular resolution throughout of a complete passage."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. vii. "The infinitive is known by its being immediately preceded by the word _to_."--_Maunders Gram._, p. 6. "It will not be gaining much ground to urge that the basket, or vase, is understood to be the capital."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. ii, p. 356. "The disgust one has to drink ink in reality, is not to the purpose where the subject is drinking ink figuratively."--_Ib._, ii, 231. "That we run not into the extreme of pruning so very close."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 111. "Being obliged to rest for a little on the preposition by itself."--_Ib._, p. 112; _Jamieson's Rhet._, 93. "Being obliged to rest a little on the preposition by itself."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 319. "Our days on the earth are as a shadow, and there is none abiding."--_1 Chron._, xxix, 15. "There maybe a more particular expression attempted, of certain objects, by means of resembling sounds."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 129; _Jamieson's_, 130; _Murray's Gram._, 331. "The right disposition of the shade, makes the light and colouring strike the more."--_Blair's Rhet._, 144. "I observed that a diffuse style inclines most to long periods."--_Ib._, p. 178. "Their poor Arguments, which they only Pickt up and down the Highway "--_Divine Right of Tythes_, p. iii. "Which must be little, but a transcribing out of their writings."--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 353. "That single impulse is a forcing out of almost all the breath."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 254. "Picini compares modulation to the turning off from a road."--_Gardiner's Music of Nature_, p. 405. "So much has been written, on and off, of almost every subject."--_The Friend_, ii, 117. "By reading books written by the best authors, his mind became highly improved."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 201. "For I never made the being richly provided a token of a spiritual ministry."--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 470. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE II.--OF DOUBTFUL REFERENCE. "However disagreeable, we must resolutely perform our duty."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 171. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the adjective _disagreeable_ appears to relate to the pronoun _we_, though such a relation was probably not intended by the author. But, according to Critical Note 2d, "The reference of words to other words, or their syntactical relation according to the sense, should never be left doubtful, by any one who means to be understood." The sentence may be amended thus: "However disagreeable _the task_, we must resolutely perform our duty."] "The formation of verbs in English, both regular and irregular, is derived from the Saxon."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 47. "Time and chance have an influence on all things human, and on nothing more remarkably than on language."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 180. "Time and chance have an influence on all things human, and on nothing more remarkable than on language."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 47. "Archytases being a virtuous man, who happened to perish once upon a time, is with him a sufficient ground," &c.--_Philological Museum_, i, 466. "He will be the better qualified to understand, with accuracy, the meaning of a numerous class of words, in which they form a material part."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 120. "We should continually have the goal in view, which would direct us in the race."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 172. "But [Addison's figures] seem to rise of their own accord from the subject, and constantly embellish it."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 150; _Jamieson's_, 157. "As far as persons and other animals and things that we can see go, it is very easy to distinguish Nouns."--_Cobbett's Gram._, ¶14. "Dissyllables ending in _y, e_ mute, or accented on the last syllable, may be sometimes compared like monosyllables."--_Frost's El. of Gram._, p. 12. "Admitting the above objection, it will not overrule the design."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 140. "These philosophical innovators forget, that objects are like men, known only by their actions."--_Dr. Murray's Hist. of Lang._, i, 326. "The connexion between words and ideas is arbitrary and conventional, owing to the agreement of men among themselves."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 1. "The connexion between words and ideas may, in general, be considered as arbitrary and conventional, owing to the agreement of men among themselves."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 53. "A man whose inclinations led him to be corrupt, and had great abilities to manage and multiply and defend his corruptions."--_Swift_. "They have no more control over him than any other men."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, 1st Ed., p. 372. "His old words are all true English, and numbers exquisite."--_Spectator_, No. 540. "It has been said, that not only Jesuits can equivocate."--_Murray's Exercises_, 8vo, p. 121. "It has been said, that Jesuits can not only equivocate."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 253. "The nominative of the first and second person in Latin is seldom expressed."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 154; _Gould's_, 157. "Some words are the same in both numbers."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 40; _Ingersoll's_, 18; _Fisk's_, 59; _Kirkham's_, 39; _W. Allen's_, 42; et al. "Some nouns are the same in both numbers."--_Merchant's Gram._, p. 29; _Smith's_, 45; et al. "Others are the same in both numbers; as, _deer, swine_, &c."--_Frost's El. of Gram._, p. 8. "The following list denotes the sounds of the consonants, being in number twenty-two."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 6; _Fisk's_, 36. "And is the ignorance of these peasants a reason for others to remain ignorant; or to render the subject a less becoming inquiry?"--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 293; _Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 288. "He is one of the most correct, and perhaps the best, of our prose writers."--_Lowth's Gram., Pref._, p. iv., "The motions of a vortex and a whirlwind are perfectly similar."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 131. "What I have been saying throws light upon one important verse in the Bible, which I should like to have read."--_Abbott's Teacher_, p. 182. "When there are any circumstances of time, place, or other limitations, which the principal object of our sentence requires to have connected with it."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 115; _Jamieson's Rhet._, 98; _Murray's Gram._, i, 322. "Interjections are words used to express emotion, affection, or passion, and imply suddenness."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 77. "But the genitive is only used to express the measure of things in the plural number."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 200; _Gould's_, 198. "The buildings of the institution have been enlarged; the expense of which, added to the increased price of provisions, renders it necessary to advance the terms of admission."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 183. "These sentences are far less difficult than complex."--_S. S. Greene's Analysis, or Grammar_, 1st Ed., p. 179. "Far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife, Their sober wishes never learn'd to stray."--_Gray's Elegy_. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE III.--OF DEFINITIONS. (1.) "_Definition_ is such a description of things as exactly describes the thing and that thing only."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 135. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because this definition of a _definition_ is not accurately adapted to the thing. But, according to Critical Note 3d, "A definition, in order to be perfect, must include the whole thing, or class of things, which it pretends to define, and exclude every thing which comes not under the name." [453] The example may be amended thus: "A definition is a _short and lucid_ description of a _thing, or species, according to its nature and properties._"] (2.) "Language, in general, signifies the expression of our ideas by certain articulate sounds, which are used as the signs of those ideas."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 53. (3.) "A WORD is an articulate _sound_ used by common consent as the sign of an idea,"--_Bullions, Analyt. and Pract. Gr._, p. 17. (4.) "A word is a sound, or combination of sounds, which is used in the expression of thought"--_Hazen's Gram._, p. 12. (5.) "_Words_ are articulate sounds, used as _signs_ to convey our ideas."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 5. (6.) "A _word_ is a number of letters used together to represent some idea."--_Hart's E. Gram._, p. 28. (7.) "A _Word_ is a combination of letters, used as the sign of an idea."--_S. W. Clark's Practical Gram._, p. 9. (8.) "A _word_ is a letter or a combination of letters, used as the sign of an idea."--_Wells's School Gram._, p. 41. (9.) "Words are articulate sounds, by which ideas are communicated."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 28. (10.) "Words are certain articulate sounds used by common consent as signs of our ideas."--_Bullions, Principles of E. Gram._, p. 6; _Lat. Gram._, 6; see _Lowth, Murray, Smith, et al._ (11.) "Words are sounds used as signs of our ideas."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 30. (12.) "Orthography means _word-making_ or _spelling_.'"--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 19; _Smith's New Gram._, p. 41. (13.) "A vowel is a letter, the name of which constitutes a full, open sound."--_Hazen's Gram._, p. 10; _Lennie's, 5; Brace's, 7._ (14.) "Spelling is the art of reading by naming the letters singly, and rightly dividing words into their syllables. Or, in writing, it is the expressing of a word by its proper letters."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 5; _Churchill's_, 20. (15.) "Spelling is the art of rightly dividing words into their syllables, or of expressing a word by its proper letters."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 21; _Ingersoll's, 6; Merchant's, 10; Alger's, 12; Greenleaf's, 20_; and others. (16) "Spelling is the art of expressing words by their proper letters; or of rightly dividing words into syllables."--_Comly's Gram._, p. 8. (17.) "Spelling is the art of expressing a word by its proper letters, and rightly dividing it into syllables."--_Bullions's Princ. of E. Gram._, p. 2. (18.) "Spelling is the art of expressing a word by its proper letters."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 23; _Sanborn's_, p. 259. (19.) "A syllable is a sound either simple or compounded, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and constituting a word or part of a word."--_Lowth_, p. 5; _Murray_, 21; _Ingersoll_, 6; _Fisk_, 11; _Greenleaf_, 20: _Merchant_, 9; _Alger_, 12; _Bucke_, 15; _Smith_, 118; _et al_. (20.) "A Syllable is a complete Sound uttered in one Breath."--_British Gram._, p. 32; _Buchanan's_, 5. (21.) "A syllable is a distinct sound, uttered by a single impulse of the voice."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 20. (22.) "A Syllable is a distinct sound forming the whole of a word, or so much of it as can be sounded at once."--_Bullions, E. Gr._, p. 2. (23.) "A _syllable_ is a word, or part of a word, or as much as can be sounded at once."--_Picket's Gram._, p. 10. (24.) "A diphthong is the union of two Vowels, both of which are pronounced as one: as in bear and beat."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 15. (25.) "A diphthong consists of two vowels, forming one syllable; as, _ea_, in _beat_."--_Guy's Gram._, p. 2. (26.) "A triphthong consists of three vowels forming one syllable; as, _eau_ in _beauty_."--_Ib._ (27.) "But the Triphthong is the union of three Vowels, pronounced as one."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 15. (28.) "What is a Noun Substantive? A Noun Substantive is the thing itself; as, a Man, a Boy."--_British Gram._, p. 85; _Buchanan's_, 26. (29.) "An adjective is a word added to nouns to describe them."--_Maunder's Gram._, p. 1. (30.) "An adjective is a word joined to a noun, to describe or define it."--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 51. (31.) "An adjective is a word used to describe or define a noun."--_Wilcox's Gram._, p. 2. (32.) "The adjective is added to the noun, to express the quality of it"--_Murray's Gram._, 12mo, 2d Ed., p. 27; _Lowth_, p. 6. (33.) "An adjective expresses the quality of the noun to which it is applied; and may generally be known by its making sense in connection with it; as, 'A _good_ man,' 'A _genteel_ woman.'"--_Wright's Gram._, p. 34. (34.) "An adverb is a word used to modify the sense of other words."--_Wilcox's Gram._, p. 2. (35.) "An adverb is a word joined to a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, to modify or denote some circumstance respecting it."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 66; _Lat. Gram._, 185. (36.) "A Substantive or Noun is a name given to every object which the senses can perceive; the understanding comprehend; or the imagination entertain."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 34. (37.) "GENDER means the distinction of nouns with regard to sex."--_Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram._, 2d Ed., p. 9. (38.) "Gender is a distinction of nouns with regard to sex."--_Frost's Gram._, p. 7. (39.) "Gender is a distinction of nouns in regard to sex."--_Perley's Gram._, p. 10. (40.) "Gender is the distinction of nouns, in regard to sex."--_Cooper's Murray_, 24; _Practical Gram._, 21. (41.) "Gender is the distinction of nouns with regard to sex."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 37; _Alger's_, 16; _Bacon's_, 12; _R. G. Greene's_, 16; _Bullions, Prin._, 5th Ed., 9; _his New Gr._, 22; _Fisk's_, 19; _Hull's_, 9; _Ingersoll's_, 15. (42.) "Gender is the distinction of sex."--_Alden's Gram._, p. 9; _Comly's_, 20; _Dalton's_, 11; _Davenport's_, 15; _J. Flint's_, 28; A. _Flint's_, 11; _Greenleaf's_, 21; _Guy's_, 4; _Hart's_, 36; _Hiley's_, 12; _Kirkham's_, 34; _Lennie's_, 11; _Picket's_, 25; _Smith's_, 43; _Sanborn's_, 25; _Wilcox's_, 8. (43.) "Gender is the distinction of Sex, or the Difference betwixt Male and Female."--_British Gram._, p. 94; _Buchanan's_, 18. (44.) "Why are nouns divided into genders? To distinguish their sexes."--_Fowle's True Eng. Gram._, p. 10. (45.) "What is meant by _Gender?_ The different sexes."--_Burn's Gram._, p. 34. (46) "Gender, in grammar, is a difference of termination, to express distinction of sex."--_Webster's Philos. Gram._, p 30; _Improved Gram._, 22. (47.) "Gender signifies a distinction of nouns, according to the different sexes of things they denote."--_Coar's Gram._, p. 2. (48.) "Gender is the distinction occasioned by sex. Though there are but two sexes, still nouns necessarily admit of four distinctions[454] of gender."--_Hall's Gram._, p. 6. (49.) "Gender is a term which is employed for the distinction of nouns with regard to sex and species."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 41. (50.) "Gender is a Distinction of Sex."--_Fisher's Gram._, p. 53. (51.) "GENDER marks the distinction of Sex."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 37. (52.) "_Gender_ means the kind, or sex. There are four genders."--_Parker and Fox's, Part I_, p. 7. (53.) "Gender is a property of the noun which distinguishes sex."--_Weld's Gram._, 2d Ed., p. 57. (54.) "Gender is a property of the noun or pronoun by which it distinguishes sex."--_Weld's Grammar Abridged_, p. 49. (55.) "Case is the state or condition of a noun with respect to the other words in a sentence."--_Bullion's, E. Gram._, p. 16; _his Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, p. 31. (56.) "_Case_ means the different state or situation of nouns with regard to other words."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 55. (57.) "The cases of substantives signify their different terminations, which serve to express the relation of one thing to another."--_L. Murray's Gram._, 12mo, 2d Ed., p. 35. (58.) "Government is the power which one _part of speech_ has over _another_, when it causes it or requires it to be of some particular person, number, gender, case, style, or mode."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 126; see _Murray's Gram._, 142; _Smith's_, 119; _Pond's_, 88; _et al_. (59.) "A simple sentence is a sentence which contains only one nominative case and one verb to agree with it."--_Sanborn, ib._; see _Murray's Gram., et al_. (60.) "Declension means putting a noun through the different cases."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 58. (61.) "Zeugma is when two or more substantives have a verb in common, which is applicable only to one of them."--_B. F. Fisk's Greek Gram._, p. 185. (62.) "An Irregular Verb is that which has its passed tense and perfect participle terminating differently; as, smite, smote, smitten."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 92. (63.) "_Personal_ pronouns are employed as substitutes for nouns that denote _persons_."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 23. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE IV.--OF COMPARISONS. "We abound more in vowel and diphthong sounds, than most languages."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 89. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the terms _we_ and _languages_, which are here used to form a comparison, express things which are totally unlike. But, according to Critical Note 4th, "A comparison is a form of speech which requires some similarity or common property in the things compared; without which, it becomes a solecism." Therefore, the expression ought to be changed; thus, "_Our language abounds_ more in vowel and diphthong sounds, than most _other tongues_." Or: "We abound more in vowel and _diphthongal_ sounds, than most _nations_."] "A line thus accented, has a more spirited air, than when the accent is placed on any other syllable."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. ii, p. 86. "Homer introduceth his deities with no greater ceremony than as mortals; and Virgil has still less moderation."--_Ib._, Vol. ii, p. 287. "Which the more refined taste of later writers, who had far inferior genius to them, would have taught them to avoid."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 28. "The poetry, however, of the Book of Job, is not only equal to that of any other of the sacred writings, but is superior to them all, except those of Isaiah alone."--_Ib._, p. 419. "On the whole, Paradise Lost is a poem that abounds with beauties of every kind, and that justly entitles its author to a degree of fame not inferior to any poet."--_Ib._, p. 452. "Most of the French writers compose in short sentences; though their style in general, is not concise; commonly less so than the bulk of English writers, whose sentences are much longer."--_Ib._, p. 178. "The principles of the Reformation were deeper in the prince's mind than to be easily eradicated."--HUME: _Cobbett's E. Gram._, ¶217. "Whether they do not create jealousy and animosity more hurtful than the benefit derived from them."--DR. J. LEO WOLF: _Lit. Conv._, p. 250. "The Scotch have preserved the ancient character of their music more entire than any other country."--_Music of Nature_, p. 461. "When the time or quantity of one syllable exceeds the rest, that syllable readily receives the accent."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 277. "What then can be more obviously true than that it should be made as just as we can?"--_Dymond's Essays_, p. 198. "It was not likely that they would criminate themselves more than they could avoid."--_Clarkson's Hist., Abridged_, p. 76. "Their understandings were the most acute of any people who have ever lived."--_Knapp's Lectures_, p32. "The patentees have printed it with neat types, and upon better paper than was done formerly."--_Lily's Gram., Pref._, p. xiii. "In reality, its relative use is not exactly like any other word."--_Felch's Comprehensive Gram._, p. 62. "Thus, instead of two books, which are required, (the grammar and the exercises,) the learner finds both in one, for a price at least not greater than the others."--_Bullions's E. Gram._, Recom., p. iii; _New Ed._, Recom., p. 6. "They are not improperly regarded as pronouns, though in a sense less strict than the others"--_Ib._, p. 199. "We have had the opportunity, as will readily be believed, of becoming conversant with the case much more particularly, than the generality of our readers can be supposed to have had."--_The British Friend_, 11mo, 29th, 1845. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE V.--OF FALSITIES. "The long sound of _i_ is compounded of the sound of _a_, as heard in _ball_, and that of _e_, as heard in _be_."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 3. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the sentence falsely teaches, that the long sound of _i_ is that of the diphthong heard in _oil_ or _boy_. But, according to Critical Note 5th, "Sentences that convey a meaning manifestly false, should be changed, rejected, or contradicted; because they distort language from its chief end, or only worthy use; which is, to state facts, and to tell the truth." The error may be corrected thus: "The long sound of _i_ is _like a very quick union_ of the sound of _a_, as heard in _bar_, and that of _e_, as heard in _be_."] "The omission of a word necessary to grammatical propriety, is called ELLIPSIS."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 45. "Every substantive is of the third person."--_Alexander Murray's Gram._, p. 91. "A noun, when the subject is spoken _to_, is in the second person; and when spoken _of_, it is in the third person; but never in the first."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 17. "With us, no substantive nouns have gender, or are masculine and feminine, except the proper names of male and female creatures."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 156. "Apostrophe is a little mark signifying that something is shortened; as, for William his hat, we say, William's hat."--_Infant School Gram._, p. 30. "When a word beginning with a vowel is coupled with one beginning with a consonant, the indefinite article must be repeated; thus, 'Sir Matthew Hale was _a_ noble and _an_ impartial judge;' 'Pope was _an_ elegant and _a_ nervous writer.'"--_Maunder's Gram._, p. 11. "_W_ and _y_ are consonants, when they begin a word or syllable; but in every other situation they are vowels."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 7: _Bacon, Comly, Cooper, Fish, Ingersoll, Kirkham, Smith, et al_. "_The_ is used before all adjectives and substantives, let them begin as they will."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 26. "Prepositions are also prefixed to words in such manner, as to coalesce with them, and to become a part of them."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 66. "But _h_ is entirely silent at the beginning of syllables not accented, as _historian_."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 5. "Any word that will make sense with _to_ before it, is a verb."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 44. "Verbs do not, in reality, express actions; but they are intrinsically the mere _names_ of actions."--_Ib._, p. 37. "The nominative is the actor or subject, and the active verb is the action performed by the nominative."--_Ib._, p. 45. "If, therefore, only one creature or thing acts, only one action, at the same instant, can be done; as, the _girl writes_."--_Ib._, 45. "The verb _writes_ denotes but one action, which the girl performs; therefore the verb _writes_ is of the singular number."--_Ib._, 45. "And when I say, Two men _walk_, is it not equally apparent, that _walk_ is plural, because it expresses _two_ actions?"--_Ib._, p. 47. "The subjunctive mood is formed by adding a conjunction to the indicative mood."--_Beck's Gram._, p. 16. "The possessive case should always be distinguished by the apostrophe."-- _Frost's El. of Gram._, Rule 44th, p. 49. "'At these proceedings of the commons,'--Here _of_ is the sign of the genitive or possessive case, and _commons_ is of that case, governed of proceedings."--_Alex. Murray's Gram._, p. 95. "Here let it be observed again that, strictly speaking, no verbs have numbers nor persons, neither have nouns nor pronouns persons, when they refer to irrational creatures and inanimate things."--_S. Barrett's Gram._, p. 136. "The noun or pronoun denoting the person or thing addressed or spoken to, is in the nominative case independent."--_Frost's El. of Gram._, Rule 8th, p. 44. "Every noun, when addressed, becomes of the second person, and is in the nominative case absolute; as--'_Paul_, thou art beside thyself.'"--_Jaudon's Gram._, Rule 19th, p. 108. "Does the Conjunction join Words together? No; only Sentences."--_British Gram._, p. 103. "No; the Conjunction only joins sentences together."--_Buchanan's Gram._, p. 64. "Every Genitive has a Noun to govern it, expressed or understood; as, St. James's, _Palace_ is understood; therefore one Genitive cannot govern another."--_Ib._, p. 111. "Every adjective, and every adjective pronoun, belongs to a substantive, expressed or understood."-- _Murray's Gram._, p. 161; _Bacon's_, 48; _Alger's_, 57; _et al_. "Every adjective qualifies a substantive expressed or understood."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 97. "Every adjective belongs to some noun expressed or understood."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 36. "Adjectives belong to the nouns which they describe."--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 137. "Adjectives must agree with the nouns, which they qualify."--_Fisk's Murray_, p. 101. "The Adjective must agree with its Substantive in Number."--_Buchanan's Gram._, p. 94. "Every adjective and participle belongs to some noun or pronoun expressed or understood."--_Frost's El. of Gram._, p. 44. "Every Verb of the Infinitive Mood, supposes a verb before it expressed or understood."--_Buchanan's Gram._, p. 94. "Every Adverb has its Verb expressed or understood."--_Ib._, p. 94. "Conjunctions which connect Sentence to Sentence, are always placed betwixt the two Propositions or Sentences which they unite."--_Ib._, p. 88. "The words _for all that_, seem to be too low."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 213. "_For all that_ seems to be too low and vulgar."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 139. "The reader, or hearer, then, understands from _and_, that he is to add something."--_J. Brown's E. Syntax_, p. 124. "But _and_ never, never connects one _thing_ with another thing, nor one _word_ with another word."--_Ib._, p. 122. "'Six, and six are twelve.' Here it is affirmed that, _six is twelve_!"--_Ib._, p. 120. "'John, and his wife have six children.' This is an instance of gross _catachresis_. It is here affirmed that John has six children, and that his wife has six children."--_Ib._, p. 122. "Nothing which is not right can be great."--_Murray's Exercises_, 8vo, p. 146: see _Rambler_, No. 185. "Nothing can be great which is not right."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 277. "The highest degree of reverence should be paid to youth."--_Ib._, p. 278. "There is, in many minds, neither knowledge nor understanding."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 151; _Russell's_, 84; _Alger's_, 54; _Bacon's_, 47; _et al_. "Formerly, what we call the objective cases of our pronouns, were employed in the same manner as our present nominatives are."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 164. "As it respects a choice of words and expressions, no rules of grammar can materially aid the learner."--_S. S. Greene's Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 202. "Whatever exists, or is conceived to exist, is a Noun."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, 8vo, 1850, §137. "As all men are not brave, _brave_ is itself comparative."--_Ib._, §190. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE VI.--OF ABSURDITIES. (1.) "And sometimes two unaccented syllables follow each other."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 384. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the phrase, "_follow each other_," is here an absurdity; it being impossible for two things to "follow each other," except they alternate, or whirl round. But, according to Critical Note 6th, "Absurdities, of every kind, are contrary to grammar; because they are contrary to reason, or good sense, which is the foundation of grammar." Therefore, a different expression should here be chosen; thus: "And sometimes two unaccented syllables _come together_." Or: "And sometimes _one_ unaccented _syllable follows an_ other."] (2.) "What nouns frequently succeed each other?"--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 65. (3.) "Words are derived from one another in various ways."--_Ib._, p. 288; _Merchant's Gram._, 78; _Weld's_, 2d Edition, 222. (4.) "Prepositions are derived from the two Latin words _præ_ and _pono_, which signify before and place."--_Mack's Gram._, p. 86. (5.) "He was sadly laughed at for such conduct."--_Bullion's E. Gram._, p. 79. (6.) "Every adjective pronoun belongs to some noun or pronoun expressed or understood."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 212. (7.) "If he [Addison] fails in anything, it is in want of strength and precision, which renders his manner not altogether a proper model."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 187. (8.) "Indeed, if Horace be deficient in any thing, it is in this, of not being sufficiently attentive to juncture and connexion of parts."--_Ib._, p. 401. (9.) "The pupil is now supposed to be acquainted with the nine sorts of speech, and their most usual modifications."--_Taylor's District School_, p. 204. (10.) "I could see, hear, taste, and smell the rose."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 156. (11.) "The triphthong _iou_ is sometimes pronounced distinctly in two syllables; as in bilious, various, abstemious."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 13; _Walker's Dict._, Prin. 292, p. 37. (12.) "The diphthong _aa_ generally sounds like a short in proper names; as in Balaam, Canaan, Isaac; but not in Baal, Gaal."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 10. (13.) "Participles are sometimes governed by the article; for the present participle, with the definite article _the_ before it, becomes a substantive."--_Ib._, p. 192. (14.) "Words ending with _y_, preceded by a consonant, form the plurals of nouns, the persons of verbs, verbal nouns, past participles, comparatives and superlatives, by changing _y_ into _i_."--_Walker's Rhyming Dict._, p. viii; _Murray's Gram._, 23; _Merchant's Murray_, 13; _Fisk's_, 44; _Kirkham's_, 23; _Greenleaf's_, 20; _Wright's Gram._, 28; _et al_. (15.) "But _y_ preceded by a vowel, _in such instances as the above_, is not changed; as boy, boys."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 24; _Merchant's, Fisk's, Kirkham's, Greenleaf's, et al_. (16.) "But when _y_ is preceded by a vowel, it is very rarely[455] changed in the additional syllable: as coy, coyly."--_Murray's Gram. again_, p. 24; _Merchant's_, 14; _Fisk's_, 45; _Greenleaf's_, 20; _Wright's_, 29; _et al_. (17.) "But when _y_ is preceded by a vowel, _in such instances_, it is very rarely changed into _i_; as coy, COYLESS."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 24. (18.) "Sentences are of a twofold nature: Simple and Compound."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 123. (19.) "The neuter pronoun _it_ is applied to all nouns and pronouns: as, _It_ is _he; it_ is _she; it_ is _they; it_ is the _land_."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 92. (20.) "_It is_ and _it was_, are often used in a plural construction; as, '_It was_ the heretics who first began to rail.'"--_Merchant's Gram._, p. 87. (21.) "_It is_ and _it was_, are often, after the manner of the French, used in a plural construction, and by some of our best writers: as, '_It was_ the _heretics that_ first began to rail.' Smollett."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 190; _Murray's_, 158; _Smith's_, 134; _Ingersoll's_, 210; _Fisk's_, 115; _et al_. (22.) "_w_ and _y_, as consonants, have one sound."--_Town's Spelling-Book_, p. 9. (23.) "The conjunction _as_ is frequently used as a relative."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 93. (24.) "When several clauses succeed each other, the conjunction may be omitted with propriety."--_Merchant's Gram._, p. 97. (25.) "If, however, the members succeeding each other, are very closely connected, the comma is unnecessary: as, 'Revelation tells us how we may attain happiness.'"--_Murray's Gram._, p. 273; _Merchant's_, 151; _Russell's_, 115; _Comly's_, 152; _Alger's_, 80; _Smith's_, 190; _et al_. (26.) "The mind has difficulty in passing readily through so many different views given it, in quick succession, of the same object."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 149. (27.) "The mind has difficulty in passing readily through many different views of the same object, presented in quick succession."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 341. (28.) "Adjective pronouns are a kind of adjectives which point out nouns by some distinct specification."--_Kirkham's Gram., the Compend, or Table_. (29.) "A noun of multitude conveying plurality of idea[456], must have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the plural."--_Ib._, pp. 59 and 181: see also _Lowth's Gram._, p. 74; _L. Murray's_, 152; _Comly's_, 80; _Lennie's_, 87; _Alger's_, 54; _Jaudon's_, 96; _Alden's_, 81; _Parker and Fox's_, I, 76; II, 26; _and others_. (30.) "A noun or pronoun signifying possession, is governed by the noun it possesses."--_Greenleaf's Gram._, p. 35. (31.) "A noun signifying possession, is governed by the noun which it possesses."--_Wilbur and Livingston's Gram._, p. 24. (32.) "A noun or pronoun in the possessive case is governed by the noun it possesses."--_Goldsbury's Gram._, p. 68. (33.) "The possessive case is governed by the person or thing possessed; as, 'this is _his_ book.'"--_P. E. Day's Gram._, p. 81. (34.) "A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the noun which it possesses."--_Kirkham's Gram., Rule_ 12th, pp. 52 and 181; _Frazer's Gram._, 1844, p. 25; _F. H. Miller's_, 21. (35.) "Here the boy is represented as acting. He is, therefore, in the nominative case."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 41. (36.) "Some of the auxiliaries are themselves principal verbs, as: _have, do, will_, and _am_, or _be_."--_Cooper's Grammars, both_, p. 50. (37.) "Nouns of the male kind are masculine. Those of the female kind are feminine."--_Beck's Gram._, p. 6. (38.) "'To-day's lesson is longer than yesterday's:' here _to-day_ and _yesterday_ are substantives."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 114; _Ingersoll's_, 50; _et al._ (39.) "In this example, _to-day_ and _yesterday_ are nouns in the possessive case."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 88. (40.) "An Indian in Britain would be much surprised to stumble upon an elephant feeding at large in the open fields."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. i, p. 219. (41.) "If we were to contrive a new language, we might make any articulate sound the sign of any idea: there would be no impropriety in calling oxen _men_, or rational beings by the name of _oxen_."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 139. (42.) "All the parts of a sentence should correspond to each other."--_Ib._, p. 222; _Kirkham's_, 193; _Ingersoll's_, 275; _Goldsbury's_, 74; _Hiley's_, 110; _Weld's_, 193; _Alger's_, 71; _Fisk's_, 148; _S. Putnam's_, 95; _Merchant's_, 101; _Merchant's Murray_, 95. (43.) "Full through his neck the weighty falchion sped, Along the pavement roll'd the mutt'ring head." --_Odyssey_, xxii, 365. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE VII.--OF SELF-CONTRADICTION. (1.) "Though the construction will not admit of a _plural verb_, the sentence would certainly stand better thus: 'The king, the lords, and the commons, _form_ an excellent constitution.'"--_Murray's Gram._, p. 151; _Ingersoll's_, 239. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the first clause here quoted is contradicted by the last. But, according to Critical Note 7th, "Every writer or speaker should be careful not to contradict himself; for what is self-contradictory, is both null in argument, and bad in style." The following change may remove the discrepance: "Though 'The king _with_ the lords and commons,' _must have a singular rather than_ a plural verb, the sentence would certainly stand better thus: 'The king, the lords, _and_ the commons, _form_ an excellent constitution.'"] (2.) "_L_ has always a soft liquid sound; as in love, billow, quarrel. It is sometimes mute: as in half, talk, psalm."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 14; _Fisk's_, 40. (3.) "_L_ has always a soft liquid sound; as in _love, billow_. It is often silent; as in _half, talk, almond_."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 22. (4.) "The words _means_ and _amends_, though formerly used in the singular, as well as in the plural number, are now, by polite writers, restricted to the latter. Our most distinguished modern authors say, 'by _this means_,' as well as, by _these means_.'"--_Wright's Gram._, p. 150. (5.) "'A friend exaggerates a man's virtues: an enemy inflames his crimes.' Better thus: 'A friend exaggerates a man's virtues: an enemy his crimes.'"--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 325. "A friend exaggerates a man's virtues, an enemy inflames his crimes"--_Key_, Vol. ii, p. 173. (6.) "The auxiliary _have_, in the perfect tense of the subjunctive mood, should be avoided."--_Merchant's Gram._, p. 97. "Subjunctive Mood, Perfect Tense. If I _have_ loved, If thou hast loved," &c.--p. 51. (7.) "There is also an impropriety in governing both the indicative and subjunctive moods, with the same conjunction; as, '_If_ a man _have_ a hundred sheep, and _if_ one of them _be_ gone astray,' &c. It should be, and one of them _is_ gone astray, &c."--_Ib._, p. 97. (8.) "The rising series of contrasts convey inexpressible dignity and energy to the conclusion."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 79. (9.) "A groan or a shriek is instantly understood, as a language extorted by distress, a language which no art can counterfeit, and which conveys a meaning that words are utterly inadequate to express."--_Porter's Analysis_, p. 127. "A groan or shriek speaks to the ear, as the language of distress, with far more thrilling effect than words. Yet these may be counterfeited by art."--_Ib._, p. 147. (10.) "These words [_book_ and _pen_] cannot be put together in such a way as will constitute plurality."--_James Brown's English Syntax_, p. 125. (11.) "Nor can the real _pen_, and the real _book_ be expressed in two words in such a manner as will constitute _plurality_ in _grammar._"--_Ibid._ (12.) "_Our_ is an adjective pronoun of the possessive kind. Decline it."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 227. (13.) "_This_ and _that_, and likewise their Plurals, are always opposed to each other in a Sentence."--_Buchanan's Syntax_, p. 103. "When _this_ or _that_ is used alone, i.e. not opposed to each other, _this_ is written or spoken of Persons or Things immediately present, and as it were before our Eyes, or nearest with relation to Place or Time. _That_ is spoken or written of Persons or Things passed, absent and distant in relation to Time and Place."--_Ibid._ (14.) "Active and neuter verbs may be conjugated by adding their present participle to the auxiliary verb _to be_, through all its variations."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 159. "_Be_ is an auxiliary whenever it is placed before the perfect participle of another verb, but in every other situation, it is a _principal_ verb."--_Ib._, p. 155. (15.) "A verb in the imperative mood, is always of the second person."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 136. "The verbs, according to an idiom of our language, or the poet's license, are used in the _imperative_, agreeing with a nominative of the first or third person."--_Ib._, p. 164. (16.) "Personal Pronouns are distinguished from the relative, by their denoting the _person_ of the nouns for which they stand."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 97. "Pronouns of the first person, do not agree in person with the nouns they represent."--_Ib._, p. 98. (17.) "Nouns have three cases, nominative, possessive, and objective."--_Beck's Gram._, p. 6. "Personal pronouns have, like nouns, two cases, nominative and objective."--_Ib._, p. 10. (18.). "In some instances the preposition suffers no change, but becomes an adverb merely by its application: as, 'He was _near_ falling.'"--_Murray's Gram._, p. 116. (19.) "Some nouns are used only in the plural; as, _ashes, literati, minutiæ_, SHEEP, DEER."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 43. "Some nouns are the same in both numbers, as, _alms, couple_, DEER, _series, species, pair_, SHEEP."--_Ibid._ "Among the inferior parts of speech there are some _pairs_ or _couples_"--_Ib._, p. 94. (20.) "Concerning the pronominal _adjectives_, that _can_ and _can not, may_ and _may not_, represents _its_ noun."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 336. (21.) "The _article a_ is in a few instances employed in the sense of a _preposition_; as, Simon Peter said I go _a_ [to] fishing."--_Weld's Gram._, 2d Ed., p. 177; Abridg., 128. "'To go a fishing;' i.e. to go _on_ a fishing voyage or business."--_Weld's Gram._, p. 192. (22.) "So also verbs, really transitive, are used intransitively, when they have no object."--_Bullions's Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, p. 60. (23.) "When first young Maro, in his boundless mind, A work t' outlast immortal Rome design'd." --_Pope, on Crit._, l. 130. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE VIII.--OF SENSELESS JUMBLING. "Number distinguishes them [viz., _nouns_], as one, or many, of the same kind, called the singular and plural."--_Dr. Blair's Lectures on Rhetoric_, p. 74. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the words of this text appear to be so carelessly put together, as to make nothing but jargon, or a sort of scholastic balderdash. But, according to Critical Note 8th, "To jumble together words without care for the sense, is an unpardonable negligence, and an abuse of the human understanding." I think the learned author should rather have said: "_There are two numbers_ called the singular and _the_ plural, _which_ distinguish nouns as _signifying either_ one _thing_, or many of the same kind."] "Here the noun _James Munroe_ is addressed, he is spoken to, it is here a noun of the second person."--_Mack's Gram._, p. 66. "The number and case of a verb can never be ascertained until its nominative is known."--_Emmons's Gram._, p. 36. "A noun of multitude, or signifying many, may have the verb and pronoun agreeing with it either in the singular or plural number; yet not without regard to the import of the word, as conveying unity or plurality of idea."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 75; _Murray's_, 152; _Alger's_, 54; _Russell's_, 55; _Ingersoll's_, 248; _et al._ "To express the present and past imperfect of the active and neuter verb, the auxiliary _do_ is sometimes used: I _do_ (now) love; I _did_ (then) love."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 40. "If these are perfectly committed, they will be able to take twenty lines for a lesson on the second day; and may be increased each day."--_Osborn's Key_, p. 4. "When _c_ is joined with _h (ch)_, they are generally sounded in the same manner: as in Charles, church, cheerfulness, and cheese. But foreign words (except in those derived from the French, as _chagrin, chicanery_, and _chaise_, in which _ch_ are sounded like _sh_) are pronounced like _k_; as in Chaos, character, chorus, and chimera."--_Bucke's Classical Gram._, p. 10. "Some substantives, naturally neuter, are, by a figure of speech, converted into the masculine or feminine gender."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 37; _Comly's_, 20; _Bacon's_, 13; _A Teacher's_, 8; _Alger's_, 16; _Lennie's_, 11; _Fisk's_, 56; _Merchant's_, 27; _Kirkham's_, 35; _et al._ "Words in the English language may be classified under ten general heads, the names of which classes are usually termed the ten parts of speech."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 14. "'Mercy is the true badge of nobility.' _Nobility_ is a noun of multitude, mas. and fem. gender, third person, sing. and in the obj. case, and governed by 'of:' RULE 31."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 161. "gh, are either silent, or have the sound of f, as in laugh."--_Town's Spelling-Book_, p. 10. "As many people as were destroyed, were as many languages or dialects lost and blotted out from the general catalogue."--_Chazotte's Essay_, p. 25. "The _grammars_ of some languages contain a greater number of _the_ moods, than _others_, and exhibit _them_ in different forms."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo. Vol. i, p. 95. "A COMPARISON OR SIMILE, is, _when_ the resemblance between two objects _is expressed in form_, and _generally pursued_ more fully than the nature of a metaphor admits."--_Ib._, p. 343. "In _some dialects_, the word _what_ is improperly used for _that_, and sometimes we find it in _this sense_ in writing."--_Ib._, p. 156; _Priestley's Gram._, 93; _Smith's_, 132; _Merchant's_, 87; _Fisk's_, 114; _Ingersoll's_, 220; _et al._ "Brown makes great ado concerning the adname principles of preceding works, in relation to the _gender_ of pronouns."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 323. "The nominative precedes and performs the action of the verb."--_Beck's Gram._, p. 8. "The Primitive are those which cannot receive more simple forms than those which they already possess."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 28. "The long sound [of _i_] is always marked by the _e_ final in monosyllables; as, thin, thine; except give, live."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 13; _Fisk's_, 39; _et al._ "But the third person or thing spoken of being absent, and in many respects unknown, it is necessary that it should be marked by a distinction of gender."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 21; _L. Murray's_, 51; _et al._ "Each of the diphthongal letters was doubtless, originally heard in pronouncing the words which contain them. Though this is not the case at present, with respect to many of them, these combinations still retain the name of diphthongs; but, to distinguish them, they are marked by the term _improper_."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 9; _Fisk's_, 37; _et al._ "A Mode is the form of, or manner of using a verb, by which the being, action, or passion is expressed "--_Alex. Murray's Gram._, p. 32. "The word _that_ is a demonstrative pronoun when it is followed immediately by a substantive, to which it is either joined, or refers, and which it limits or qualifies."--_Lindley Murray's Gram._, p. 54. "The guiltless woe of being past, Is future glory's deathless heir."--_Sumner L. Fairfield._ UNDER CRITICAL NOTE IX.--OF WORDS NEEDLESS. "A knowledge of grammar enables us to express ourselves better in conversation and in writing composition."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 7. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word _composition_ is here needless. But, according to Critical Note 9th, "Words that are entirely needless, and especially such as injure or encumber the expression, ought in general to be omitted." The sentence would be better without this word, thus: "A knowledge of grammar enables us to express ourselves better in conversation and in writing."] "And hence we infer, that there is no other dictator here but use."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 42. "Whence little else is gained, except correct spelling and pronunciation."--_Town's Spelling-Book_, p. 5. "The man who is faithfully attached to religion, may be relied on, with humble confidence."--_Merchants School Gram._, p. 76. "Shalt thou build me an house for me to dwell in?"--_2 Sam._, vii, 5. "The house was deemed polluted which was entered into by so abandoned a woman."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 279. "The farther that he searches, the firmer will be his belief."--_Keith's Evidences_, p. 4. "I deny not, but that religion consists in these things."--_Barclays Works_, i, 321. "Except the king delighted in her, and that she were called by name."--_Esther_, ii, 14. "The proper method of reading these lines, is to read them according as the sense dictates."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 386. "When any words become obsolete, or at least are never used, except as constituting part of particular phrases, it is better to dispense with their service entirely, and give up the phrases."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 185; _Murray's Gram._, p. 370. "Those savage people seemed to have no element but that of war."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 211. "_Man_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and in the nominative case."--_J. Flint's Gram._, p. 33. "The orator, according as circumstances require, will employ them all."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 247. "By deferring our repentance, we accumulate our sorrows."--_Murray's Key_, ii, p. 166. "There is no doubt but that public speaking became early an engine of government."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 245. "The different meaning of these two first words may not at first occur."--_Ib._, p. 225. "The sentiment is well expressed by Plato, but much better by Solomon than him."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 214; _Ingersoll's_, 251; _Smith's_, 179; _et al_. "They have had a greater privilege than we have had."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 211. "Every thing should be so arranged, as that what goes before may give light and force to what follows."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 311. "So as that his doctrines were embraced by great numbers."--UNIV. HIST.: _Priestley's Gram._, p. 139. "They have taken another and a shorter cut."--SOUTH: _Joh. Dict._ "The Imperfect Tense of a regular verb is formed from the present by adding _d_ or _ed_ to the present; as, 'I _loved_.'"--_Frost's El. of Gram._, p. 32. "The pronoun _their_ does not agree in gender or number with the noun 'man,' for which it stands."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 182. "This mark denotes any thing of wonder, surprise, joy, grief, or sudden emotion."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 19. "We are all accountable creatures, each for himself."--_Murray's Key_, p. 204; _Merchant's_, 195. "If he has commanded it, then I must obey."--_Smith's New Gram._, pp. 110 and 112. "I now present him with a form of the diatonic scale."--_Dr. John Barber's Elocution_, p. xi. "One after another of their favourite rivers have been reluctantly abandoned."--_Hodgson's Tour_. "_Particular_ and _peculiar_ are words of different import from each other."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 196. "Some adverbs admit rules of comparison: as Soon, sooner, soonest."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 76. "From having exposed himself too freely in different climates, he entirely lost his health."--_Murray's Key_. p. 200. "The Verb must agree with its Nominative before it in Number and Person."--_Buchanan's Syntax_, p. 93. "Write twenty short sentences containing only adjectives."--_Abbot's Teacher_, p. 102. "This general inclination and tendency of the language seems to have given occasion to the introducing of a very great corruption."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 60. "The second requisite of a perfect sentence, is its _Unity_."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 311. "It is scarcely necessary to apologize for omitting to insert their names."--_Ib._, p. vii. "The letters of the English Language, called the English Alphabet, are twenty-six in number."--_Ib._, p. 2; _T. Smith's_, 5; _Fisk's_, 10; _Alger's_, 9; _et al_. "A writer who employs antiquated or novel phraseology, must do it with design: he cannot err from inadvertence as he may do it with respect to provincial or vulgar expressions."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 56. "The _Vocative_ case, in some Grammars, is wholly omitted; why, if we must have cases, I could never understand the propriety of."--_Bucke's Classical Gram._, p. 45. "Active verbs are conjugated with the auxiliary verb _I have_; passive verbs are conjugated with the auxiliary verb _I am_."--_Ib._, p. 57. "What word, then, may _and_ be called? A Conjunction."--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 37. "Have they ascertained the person who gave the information?"--_Bullions's E. Gram._, p. 81. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE X.--OF IMPROPER OMISSIONS. "All qualities of things are called adnouns, or adjectives."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 10. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because this expression lacks two or three words which are necessary to the sense intended. But according to Critical Note 10th, "Words necessary to the sense, or even to the melody or beauty of a sentence, ought seldom, if ever, to be omitted." The sentence may be amended thus: "All _words signifying concrete_ qualities of things, are called adnouns, or adjectives."] "The--signifies the long or accented syllable, and the breve indicates a short or unaccented syllable."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 118. "Whose duty is to help young ministers."--_N. E. Discipline_, p. 78. "The passage is closely connected with what precedes and follows."--_Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 255 "The work is not completed, but soon will be."--_Smith's Productive Gram._, p. 113. "Of whom hast thou been afraid or feared?"--_Isaiah_, lvii, 11. "There is a God who made and governs the world."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 263. "It was this made them so haughty."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, Vol. ii, p. 102. "How far the whole charge affected him is not easy to determine."-- _Ib._, i, p. 189. "They saw, and worshipped the God, that made them."-- _Bucke's Gram._, p. 157. "The errors frequent in the use of hyperboles, arise either from overstraining, or introducing them on unsuitable occasions."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 256. "The preposition _in_ is set before countries, cities, and large towns; as, 'He lives _in_ France, _in_ London, or _in_ Birmingham.' But before villages, single houses, and cities which are in distant countries, _at_ is used; as, 'He lives _at_ Hackney.'"--_Ib._, p. 204; _Dr. Ash's Gram._, 60; _Ingersoll's_, 232; _Smith's_, 170; _Fisk's_, 143; _et al._ "And, in such recollection, the thing is not figured as in our view, nor any image formed."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. i, p. 86. "Intrinsic and relative beauty must be handled separately."--_Ib._, Vol. ii, p. 336. "He should be on his guard not to do them injustice, by disguising, or placing them in a false light."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 272. "In that work, we are frequently interrupted by unnatural thoughts."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 275. "To this point have tended all the rules I have given."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 120. "To these points have tended all the rules which have been given."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 356. "Language, as written, or oral, is addressed to the eye, or to the ear."--_Lit. Conv._, p. 181. "He will learn, Sir, that to accuse and prove are very different."--_Walpole_. "They crowded around the door so as to prevent others going out."--_Abbott's Teacher_, p. 17. "One person or thing is singular number; more than one person or thing is plural number."--_John Flint's Gram._, p. 27. "According to the sense or relation in which nouns are used, they are in the NOMINATIVE or POSSESSIVE CASE, thus, _nom_. man; _poss_. man's."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 11. "Nouns or pronouns in the possessive case are placed before the nouns which govern them, to which they belong."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 130. "A teacher is explaining the difference between a noun and verb."--_Abbott's Teacher_, p. 72. "And therefore the two ends, or extremities, must directly answer to the north and south pole."--HARRIS: _Joh. Dict., w. Gnomon_. "_Walks_ or _walketh, rides_ or _rideth, stands_ or _standeth_, are of the third person singular."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 47. "I grew immediately roguish and pleasant to a degree, in the same strain."--SWIFT: _Tattler_, 31. "An Anapæst has the first syllables unaccented, and the last accented."-- _Blair's Gram._, p. 119. "An Anapæst has the first two syllables unaccented, and the last accented."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 219; _Bullions's Principles_, 170. "An Anapæst has the two first syllables unaccented, and the last accented."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 254; _Jamieson's Rhet._, 305; _Smith's New Gram._, 188; _Guy's Gram._, 120; _Merchant's_, 167; _Russell's_, 109; _Picket's_, 226. "But hearing and vision differ not more than words spoken and written."--_Wilson's Essay on Gram._, p. 21. "They are considered by some prepositions."--_Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram._, p. 102. "When those powers have been deluded and gone astray."--_Philological Museum_, i, 642. "They will soon understand this, and like it."--_Abbott's Teacher_, p. 92. "They have been expelled their native country Romagna."--_Leigh Hunt, on Byron_, p. 18. "Future time is expressed two different ways."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 80; _Gould's_, 78. "Such as the borrowing from history some noted event."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. ii, p. 280. "Every Verb must agree with its Nominative in Number and Person."--_Burke's Gram._, p. 94. "We are struck, we know not how, with the symmetry of any thing we see."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 268. "Under this head, I shall consider every thing necessary to a good delivery."-- _Sheridan's Lect._, p. 26. "A good ear is the gift of nature; it may be much improved, but not acquired by art."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 298. "'Truth,' A noun, neuter, singular, the nominative."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 73. "'Possess,' A verb transitive, present, indicative active,--third person plural."--_Ibid._, 73. "_Fear_ is a noun, neuter, singular, and is the nominative to (or subject of) _is_."--_Id., ib._, p. 133. "_Is_ is a verb, intrans., irregular--am, was, been; it is in the present, indicative, third person singular, and agrees with its nominative _fear_. Rule 1. 'A verb agrees,' &c."--_Ibid._, 133. "_Ae_ in _Gælic_, has the sound of long _a_."--_Wells's School Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 29. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE XI.--OF LITERARY BLUNDERS. "Repeat some [adverbs] that are composed of the article _a_ and nouns."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 89. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the grammatist here mistakes for the article _a_, the prefix or preposition _a_; as in "_aside, ashore, afoot, astray_," &c. But, according to Critical Note 11th, "Grave blunders made in the name of learning, are the strongest of all certificates against the books which contain them unreproved." The error should be corrected thus: "Repeat some adverbs that are composed of the _prefix a, or preposition a_, and nouns."] "Participles are so called, because derived from the Latin word _participium_, which signifies _to partake_."--_Merchant's School Gram._, p. 18. "The possessive _follows_ another noun, and is known by the sign of '_s_ or _of_."--_Beck's Gram._, p. 8. "Reciprocal pronouns are formed by adding _self_ or _selves_ to the possessive; as, _myself, yourselves_."-- _Ib._, p. 10. "The word _self_, and its plural _selves_, must be considered nouns, as they occupy the places of nouns, and stand for the names of them."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 61. "The Dactyl, _rolls round_, expresses beautifully the majesty of the sun in his course."--_Webster's Philos. Gram._, p. 231; _Webster's Imp. Gram._, p. 165; _Frazee's Imp. Gram._, p. 192. "Prepositions govern the objective case; as, John learned his lesson."--_Frazee's Gram._, p. 153. "Prosody primarily signified punctuation; and as the name implies, related to stopping _by the way_."--_Hendrick's Gram._, p. 103. "On such a principle of forming modes, there would be as many modes as verbs; and instead of four modes, we should have forty-three thousand, which is the number of verbs in the English language, according to Lowth."--_Hallock's Gram._, p. 76. "The following phrases are elliptical: 'To let _out_ blood.' 'To go a hunting:' that is,' To go on a hunting excursion.'"--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 129. "In Rhyme, the last syllable of every two lines has the same sound."--_Id., Practical Lessons_, p. 129. "The possessive case plural, ending in _es_, has the apostrophe, but omits the _s_; as, _Eagles'_ wings."--_Weld's Gram._, p. 62; _Abridg._, p. 54. "Horses (plural) -mane, [should be written] horses' mane."--_Weld', ib._, pp. 62 and 54. "W takes its written form from the union of two _v_'s, this being the form of the Roman capital letter which we call _V_."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, 1850, p. 157. "In the sentence, 'I saw the lady who sings,' what _word_ do I say sings?"--_J. Flint's Gram._, p. 12. "In the sentence, 'this is the pen which John made,' what _word_ do I say John made?"--_Ibid._ "'That we fall into _no_ sin:' _no_, an adverb used idiomatically, instead of we do not fall into any sin."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 54. "'That _all_ our doings may be ordered by thy governance:' _all_, a pronoun used for _the whole_."--_Ibid._ "'Let him be made _to_ study.' What causes the sign _to_ to be expressed before _study?_ Its being used in the passive voice after _be made_."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 145. "The following Verbs have neither Preter-Tense nor Passive-participle, viz. Cast, cut, cost, shut, let, bid, shed, hurt, hit, put, &c."-- _Buchanan's Gram._, p. 60. "The agreement, which _every_ word has with _the_ others in person, gender, _and_ case, is called CONCORD; and that power which one _person of speech_ has over _another_, in respect to ruling its case, mood, or _tense_, is called GOVERNMENT."--_Bucke's Classical Gram._, p. 83. "The word _ticks_ tells what the noun _watch_ does."-- _Sanborn's Gram._, p. 15. "_Breve_ ([~]) _marks a short_ vowel or syllable, and the dash (--) a long."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 157; _Lennie_, 137. "Charles, you, by your diligence, make easy work of the task given you by your preceptor.' The first _you_ is used in the nom. poss. and obj. case."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 103. "_Ouy_ in _bouy_ is a proper tripthong. _Eau_ in flambeau is an improper tripthong."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 255. "'While I of things to come, As past rehearsing, sing.' POLLOK. That is, 'While I sing of things which are to come, as one sings of things which are past rehearsing.'"--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 169. "A simple sentence has in it but one nominative, and one neuter verb."--_Folker's Gram._, p. 14. "An Irregular Verb is that which has its passed tense and perfect participle terminating differently; as, smite, smote, smitten."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 92. "But when the antecedent is used in a general sense, a comma is properly inserted before the relative; as, 'There is no _charm_ in the female sex, _which_ can supply the place of virtue.'"--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 213. "Two capitals in this way denote the plural number; L. D. _Legis Doctor_; LL. D. _Legum Doctor_."--_Gould's Lat. Gram._, p. 274. "Was any person besides the mercer present? Yes, both he and his clerk."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 188. "_Adnoun_, or _Adjective_, comes from the Latin, _ad_ and _jicio_, to _add to_."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 69. "Another figure of speech, proper only to animated and warm composition, is what some critical writers call vision; when, _in place_ of relating _some thing that is past_, we use the _present tense_, and describe _it_ as actually _passing_ before our eyes. _Thus Cicero_, in his fourth oration against Cataline: 'I seem to myself to behold this city, the ornament of the earth, and the capital of all nations, suddenly involved in one conflagration. I see before me the slaughtered heaps of citizens lying unburied in the midst of their ruined country. The furious countenance of Cethegus rises to my view, while with a savage joy he is triumphing in _your_ miseries.'"--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 171. "Vision is another figure of speech, which is proper only in animated and warm composition. It is produced when, _instead_ of relating _something that is past_, we use the present tense," &c.-- _Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 352. "When several verbs follow one another, having the same nominative, the auxiliary is frequently _omitted after the first_ through an ellipsis, and understood _to the rest_; as, 'He has gone and left me;' that is, 'He has gone, and _has_ left me.' "--_Comly's Gram._, p. 94. "When I use the word _pillar_ as supporting an edifice, I employ it literally."--_Hiley's Gram._, 3d Ed., p. 133. "The conjunction _nor_ is often used for _neither_; as, 'Simois _nor_ Xanthus shall be wanting there.'"--_Ib._, p. 129. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE XII.--OF PERVERSIONS. "In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, Vol. i, p. 330; _Hallock's Gram._, p. 179; _Melmoth, on Scripture_, p. 16. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because this reading is false in relation to the word "_heavens_;" nor is it usual to put a comma after the word "_beginning_." But, according to Critical Note 12th, "Proof-tests in grammar, if not in all argument, should be quoted literally; and even that which needs to be corrected, must never be perverted." The authorized text is this: "In the beginning God created the _heaven_ and the earth."--_Gen._, i, 1.] "Canst thou, by searching, find out the Lord?"--_Murray's Gram._, p. 335. "Great is the Lord, just and true are thy ways, thou king of saints."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 171; _L. Murray's_, 168; _Merchant's_, 90; _R. C. Smith's_, 145; _Ingersoll's_, 194; _Ensell's_, 330; _Fisk's_, 104; _et al_. "Every one that saith unto me, Lord, Lord, shall not enter into the kingdom of heaven."--_Alex. Murray's Gram._, p. 137. "Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 211; _Bullions's_, 111 and 113; _Everest's_, 230; _Smith's_, 177; _et al_. "Whose foundation was overflown with a flood."--FRIENDS' BIBLE: _Job_, xxii, 16. "Take my yoke upon ye, for my yoke is easy."--_The Friend_, Vol. iv, p. 150. "I will to prepare a place for you."--_Weld's E. Gram._, 2d Ed., p. 67. "Ye who are dead hath he quickened."--_lb._, p. 189; Imp. Ed., 195. "Go, flee thee away into the land of Judea."--_Hart's Gram._, p. 115. "Hitherto shalt thou come, and no farther."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 222. "Thine is the day and night."--_Brown's Concordance_, p. 82. "Faith worketh patience; and patience, experience; and experience, hope."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 282. "Soon shall the dust return to dust, and the soul, to God who gave it. BIBLE."--_Ib._, p. 166. "For, in the end, it biteth like a serpent, and stingeth like an adder. It will lead thee into destruction, and cause thee to utter perverse things. Thou wilt be like him who lieth down in the midst of the sea. BIBLE."--_Ib._, p. 167. "The memory of the just shall be honored: but the name of the wicked shall rot. BIBLE."--_Ib._, p. 168. "He that is slow in anger, is better than the mighty. He that ruleth his spirit, is better than he that taketh a city. BIBLE."--_Ib._, p. 72. "The Lord loveth whomsoever he correcteth; as the father correcteth the son in whom he delighteth. BIBLE."--_Ib._, p. 72. "The first future tense represents what is to take place hereafter. G. B."--_Ib._, p. 366. "Teach me to feel another's wo; [and] To hide what faults I see."--_Ib._, p. 197. "Thy speech bewrayeth thee; for thou art a Gallilean."--_Murray's Ex._, ii, p. 118. "Thy speech _betrays_ thee; for thou art a Gallilean."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 250. "Strait is the gate, and narrow the way, that leads to life eternal."--_Ib., Key_, p. 172. "Straight is the gate," &c.--_Ib., Ex._, p. 36. "'Thou buildest the wall, that thou _mayst_ be their king.' _Neh._, vi, 6."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 210. "'There is forgiveness with thee, that thou _mayst_ be feared.' _Psalms_, cxxx, 4."--_Ib._, p. 210. "But yesterday, the word, _Cesar_, might Have stood against the world."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 316. "The northeast spends its rage. THOMSON."--_Joh. Dict., w. Effusive._ "Tells how the drudging goblet swet. MILTON."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 263. "And to his faithful servant hath in place _Bore_ witness gloriously. SAM. AGON."--_Ib._, p. 266. "Then, if thou fallest, O Cromwell, Thou fallest a blessed martyr."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 190. "I see the dagger-crest of Mar, I see the _Morays'_ silver star, _Waves_ o'er the cloud of Saxon war, That up the lake _came_ winding far!--SCOTT."--_Merchant's School Gram._, p. 143. "Each _bird, and_ each insect, _is_ happy in its _kind_."--_Ib._, p. 85. "_They who are_ learning to _compose and_ arrange _their_ sentences with accuracy and order, _are_ learning, at the same time, to think with accuracy and order. BLAIR."--_Ib._, p. 176; _L. Murray's Gram._, Title-page, 8vo and 12mo. "We, then, as workers together with _you_, beseech you also, that ye receive not the grace of God in vain."--_James Brown's Eng. Syntax_, p. 129. "And on the _bounty_ of thy goodness calls."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 246. "Knowledge dwells In heads replete with thoughts of other men; Wisdom, in minds _retentive_ to their own. COWPER."--_Merchant's School Gram._, p. 172. "_Oh!_ let me listen to the _word_ of life. THOMSON."--_Ib._, p. 155. "Save that from yonder ivy-mantled _bower_, &c. GRAY'S ELEGY."--_Tooke's Div. of Purley_, Vol. i, p. 116. "_Weigh_ the _mens_ wits against the _ladies hairs_. POPE."--_Dr. Johnson's Gram._, p. 6. "_Weigh_ the men's wits against the _women's hairs_. POPE."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 214. "_Prior_ to the publication of Lowth's _excellent little grammar_, the grammatical study of our _own_ language, formed no part of the ordinary method of instruction. HILEY'S PREFACE."--_Dr. Bullions's E. Gram._, 1843, p. 189. "Let there be no strife betwixt me and thee."--_Weld's Gram._, p. 143. "What! canst thou not bear with me half an hour?--SHARP." --_Ib._, p. 185. "Till then who knew the force of those dire dreams.--MILTON." --_Ib._, p. 186. "In words, as fashions, the rule will hold, Alike fantastic, if too new or old:" --_Murray's Gram._, p. 136. "Be not the first, by whom the new _is_ tried, Nor yet the last, to lay the old aside." --_Bucke's Gram._, p. 104. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE XIII.--OF AWKWARDNESS. "They slew Varus, who was he that I mentioned before."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 194. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the phrase, "_who was he that_," is here prolix and awkward. But, according to Critical Note 13th, "Awkwardness, or inelegance of expression, is a reprehensible defect in style, whether it violate any of the common rules of syntax or not." This example may be improved thus: "They slew Varus, _whom_ I mentioned before."] "Maria rejected Valerius, who was he that she had rejected before."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 174. "The English in its substantives has but two different terminations for cases."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 18. "Socrates and Plato were wise; they were the most eminent philosophers of Greece."--_Ib._, p. 175; _Murray's Gram._, 149; _et al._ "Whether one person or more than one, were concerned in the business, does not yet appear."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 184. "And that, consequently, the verb and pronoun agreeing with it, cannot with propriety, be ever used in the plural number."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 153; _Ingersoll's_, 249; _et al._ "A second help may be the conversing frequently and freely with those of your own sex who are like minded."--_John Wesley_. "Four of the semi-vowels, namely, _l, m, n, r_, are also distinguished by the name of _liquids_, from their readily uniting with other consonants, and flowing as it were into their sounds."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 8; _Churchill's_, 5; _Alger's_, 11; _et al._ "Some conjunctions have _their_ correspondent conjunctions _belonging to them_: so that, _in_ the subsequent member of the sentence the _latter answers_ to the former."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 109: _Adam's_, 209; _Gould's_, 205; _L. Murray's_, 211; _Ingersoll's_, 268; _Fisk's_, 137; _Churchill's_, 153; _Fowler's_, 562; _et al._ "The mutes are those consonants, whose sounds cannot be protracted. The _semi-vowels, such whose_ sounds can be continued _at pleasure, partaking_ of the nature of vowels, from _which_ they derive their name."--_Murray's Gram._, p 9; _et al._ "The pronoun of the third person, of the masculine and feminine gender, is sometimes used as a noun, and regularly declined: as, 'The _hes_ in birds.' BACON. 'The _shes_ of Italy.' SHAK."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 73. "The following _examples_ also _of_ separation of a preposition from the word which it governs, _is_ improper _in common writings_."--_C. Adams's Gram._, p. 103. "The word _whose_ begins likewise to be restricted to persons, but _it_ is not _done_ so generally but that good writers, and even in prose, use it when speaking of things."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 99; _L. Murray's_, 157; _Fisk's_, 115; _et al._ "There are new and surpassing wonders present themselves to our views."--_Sherlock_. "Inaccuracies are often found in the way wherein the degrees of comparison are applied and construed."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 202. "Inaccuracies are often found in the way in which the degrees of comparison are applied and construed."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 167; _Smith's_, 144; _Ingersoll's_, 193; _et al._ "The connecting circumstance is placed too remotely, to be either perspicuous or agreeable."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 177. "Those tenses are called simple tenses, which are formed of the principal without an auxiliary verb."--_Ib._, p. 91. "The nearer _that_ men approach to _each other_, the more numerous are their points of contact and the greater will be their pleasures or their pains."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 275. "This is the machine that he is the inventor of."--_Nixon's Parser_, p. 124. "To give this sentence the interrogative form, it should be expressed thus."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 279. "Never employ those words which may be susceptible of a sense different from the sense you intend to be conveyed."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 152. "Sixty pages are occupied in explaining what would not require more than ten or twelve to be explained according to the ordinary method."--_Ib., Pref._, p. ix. "The present participle in _-ing_ always expresses an action, or the suffering of an action, or the being, state, or condition of a thing as _continuing_ and _progressive_."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 57. "The _Present participle of all active verbs[457]_ has an active signification; as, James _is building_ the house. _In many of these_, however, _it has also_ a passive _signification_; as, _the_ house _was building when the wall fell_."--_Id., ib._, 2d or 4th Ed., p. 57. "Previous to parsing this sentence, it may be analyzed to the young pupil by such questions as the following, viz."--_Id., ib._, p. 73. "Subsequent to that period, however, attention has been paid to this important subject."--_Ib._, New Ed., p. 189; _Hiley's Preface_, p. vi. "A definition of a word is an explanation in what sense the word is used, or what idea or object we mean by it, and which may be expressed by any one or more of the properties, effects, or circumstances of that object, so as sufficiently to distinguish it from other objects."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 245. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE XIV.--OF IGNORANCE. "What is an Asserter? It is _the part of speech_ which asserts."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 20. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the term "_Asserter_" which is here put for _Verb_, is both ignorantly misspelled, and whimsically misapplied. But, according to Critical Note 14th, "Any use of words that implies ignorance of their meaning, or of their proper orthography, is particularly unscholarlike; and, in proportion to the author's pretensions to learning, disgraceful." The errors here committed might have been avoided thus: "What is _a verb_? It is _a word_ which signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_." Or thus: "What is an _assertor_? Ans. 'One who affirms positively; an affirmer, supporter, or vindicator.'--_Webster's Dict._"] "Virgil wrote the �nead."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 56. "Which, to a supercilious or inconsiderate Japaner, would seem very idle and impertinent."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 225. "Will not a look of disdain cast upon you, throw you into a foment?"--_Life of Th. Say_, p. 146. "It may be of use to the scholar, to remark in this place, that though only the conjunction _if_ is affixed to the verb, any other conjunction proper for the subjunctive mood, may, with equal propriety, be occasionally annexed."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 93. "When proper names have an article annexed to them, they are used as common names."--_Ib._, p. 36; _Ingersoll's_, 25; _et al._ "When a proper noun has an article annexed to it, it is used as a common noun."--_Merchant's Gram._, p. 25. "Seeming to disenthral the death-field of its terrors."--_Ib._, p. 109. "For the same reason, we might, without any disparagement to the language, dispense with the terminations of our verbs in the singular."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 50. "It diminishes all possibility of being misunderstood."--_Abbott's Teacher_, p. 175. "Approximation to excellence is all that we can expect."--_Ib._, p. 42. "I have often joined in singing with musicianists at Norwich."--_Music of Nature_, p. 274. "When not standing in regular prosic order."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 281. "Disregardless of the dogmas and edicts of the philosophical umpire."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 75. "Others begin to talk before their mouths are open, affixing the mouth-closing M to most of their words--as M-yes for Yes."--_Music of Nature_, p. 28. "That noted close of his, _esse videatur_, exposed him to censure among his cotemporaries."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 127. "OWN. Formerly, a man's _own_ was what he _worked for, own_ being a past participle of a verb signifying to _work_."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 71. "As [requires] so: expressing a comparison of quality: as, '_As_ the one dieth, _so_ dieth the other.'"--_Murray's Gram._, p. 212; _R. C. Smith's_, 177; _and many others_. "To obey our parents is a solemn duty."--_Parker and Fox's Gram._, Part I, p. 67. "Most all the political papers of the kingdom have touched upon these things."--H. C. WRIGHT: _Liberator_, Vol. xiv, p. 22. "I shall take leave to make a few observations upon the subject."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. iii. "His loss I have endeavoured to supply, as far as additional vigilance and industry would allow."--_Ib._, p. xi. "That they should make vegetation so exhuberant as to anticipate every want."--_Frazee's Gram._, p. 43. "The quotors " " which denote that one or more words are extracted from another author."--_Day's District School Gram._, p. 112. "Ninevah and Assyria were two of the most noted cities of ancient history."--_Ib._, p. 32 and p. 88. "Ninevah, the capital of Assyria, _is_ a celebrated ancient city."--_Ib._, p. 88. "It may, however, be rendered definite by introducing some definition of time; as, yesterday, last week, &c."--_Bullions's E. Gram._, p. 40. "The last is called heroic measure, and is the same that is used by Milton, Young, Thompson, Pollock, &c."--_Id., Practical Lessons_, p. 129. "Perrenial ones must be sought in the delightful regions above."--_Hallock's Gram._, p. 194. "Intransitive verbs are those which are inseperable from the effect produced."--_Cutler's Gram._, p. 31. "Femenine gender, belongs to women, and animals of the female kind."--_Ib._, p. 15. "_Woe!_ unto you scribes and pharasees."--_Day's Gram._, p. 74. "A pyrrick, which has both its syllables short."--_Ib._, p. 114. "What kind of Jesamine? a Jesamine in flower, or a flowery Jesamine."--_Barrett's Gram._, 10th Ed., p. 53. "_Language_, derived from 'linguæ,' the tongue, is the _faculty_ of communicating our thoughts to _each_ other, by proper words, used by common consent, as signs of our ideas."--_Ib._, p. 9. "Say _none_, not _nara_"--_Staniford's Gram._, p. 81. "ARY ONE, for either."--_Pond's Larger Gram._, p. 194. (See Obs. 24th, on the Syntax of Adverbs, and the Note at the bottom of the page.) "Earth loses thy _patron_ for ever and aye; O sailor boy! sailor boy! peace to thy soul." --_S. Barrett's Gram._, 1837, p. 116. "His brow was sad, his eye beneath, Flashed like a halcyon from its sheath." --_Liberator_, Vol. 12, p. 24. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE XV.--OF SILLINESS AND TRUISMS. "Such is the state of man, that he is never at rest."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 57. [FORMULE.--This is a remark of no wisdom or force, because it would be nearer the truth, to say, "Such is the state of man, that he _must often_ rest," But, according to Critical Note 15th, "Silly remarks and idle truisms are traits of a feeble style, and when their weakness is positive, or inherent, they ought to be entirely omitted." It is useless to attempt a correction of this example, for it is not susceptible of any form worth preserving.] "Participles belong to the nouns or pronouns to which they relate."--_Wells's Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 153. "Though the measure is mysterious, it is worthy of attention."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 221. "Though the measure is _mysterious_, it is not unworthy your attention."--_Kirkham's Gram._, pp. 197 and 227. "The inquietude of his mind made his station and wealth far from being enviable."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 250. "By rules so general and comprehensive as these are [,] the clearest ideas are conveyed."--_Ib._, p. 273. "The mind of man cannot be long without some food to nourish the activity of its thoughts."--_Ib._, p. 185. "Not having known, or not having considered, the measures proposed, he failed of success."--_Ib._, p. 202. "Not having known or considered the subject, he made a crude decision."--_Ib._, p. 275. "Not to exasperate him, I spoke only a very few words."--_Ib._, p. 257. "These are points too trivial, to be noticed. They are objects with which I am totally unacquainted."--_Ib._, p. 275. "Before we close this section, it may afford instruction to the learners, to be informed, more particularly than they have been."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 110. "The articles are often properly omitted: when used, they should be justly applied, according to their distinct nature."--_Ib._, p. 170; _Alger's_, 60. "Any thing, which is done now, is supposed to be done at the present time."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 34. "Any thing which was done yesterday is supposed to be done in past time."--_Ib._, 34. "Any thing which may be done hereafter, is supposed to be done in future time."--_Ib._, 34. "When the mind compares two things in reference to each other, it performs the operation of comparing."--_Ib._, p. 244. "The persons, with whom you dispute, are not of your opinion."--_Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram._, p. 124. "But the preposition _at_ is _always used_ when it _follows the neuter Verb_ in the same Case: as, 'I have been _at_ London.'"--_Dr. Ash's Gram._, p. 60. "But the preposition _at_ is _generally used_ after the neuter verb _to be_: as, 'I have been _at_ London.'"--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 203; _Ingersoll's_, 231; _Fisk's_, 143; _et al._ "The article _the_ has sometimes a _different_ effect, in distinguishing a person by an epithet."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 172. "The article _the_ has, sometimes, a fine effect, in distinguishing a person by an epithet."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 151. "Some nouns have plurals belonging only to themselves."--_Infant School Gram._, p. 26. "Sentences are either simple or compound."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 68. "All sentences are either simple or compound."--_Gould's Adam's Gram._, p. 155. "The definite article _the_ belongs to nouns in the singular or plural number."--_Kirkham's Gram._, Rule 2d, p. 156. "Where a riddle is not intended, it is _always a fault_ in allegory to be _too dark_."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 151; _Murray's Gram._, 343. "There may be an _excess in too many_ short sentences _also_; by _which_ the sense is split and broken."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 101. "Are there any nouns you cannot see, hear, or feel, but only think of? Name such a noun."--_Infant School Gram._, p. 17. "_Flock_ is of the singular number, it denotes but one flock--and in the nominative case, it is the _active agent_ of the verb."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 58. "The article THE _agrees_ with nouns of the _singular or plural_ number."--_Parker and Fox's Gram._, p. 8. "The admiral bombarded Algiers, which has been continued."--_Nixon's Parser_, p. 128. "The world demanded freedom, which might have been expected."--_Ibid._ "The past tense represents an action as past and finished, either with or without respect to the time when."--_Felton's Gram._, p. 22. "That boy rode the _wicked_ horse."--_Butler's Practical Gram._, p. 42. "The snake _swallowed itself_."--_Ib._, p. 57. "_Do_ is sometimes used when _shall or should_ is omitted; as, 'if thou _do_ repent.'"--_Ib._, p. 85. "SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. This mood _has the tenses of the indicative_."--_Ib._, p. 87. "As _nouns never speak_, they are never in the first person."--_Davis's Practical Gram._, p. 148. "Nearly _all parts_ of speech are _used more or less_ in an _elliptical sense_."--_Day's District School Gram._, p. 80. "RULE. No word in a period can have any greater _extension_ than the _other_ words _or sections_ in the same sentence _will give_ it."--_Barrett's Revised Gram._, p. 38 and p. 43. "Words used exclusively as Adverbs, should not be used as adjectives."--_Clark's Practical Gram._, p. 166. "Adjectives used in Predication, should not take the Adverbial form."--_Ib._, pp. 167 and 173. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE XVI.--OF THE INCORRIGIBLE. "And this state of things belonging to the painter governs it in the possessive case."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 195; _Ingersoll's_, 201; _et al._ [FORMULE.--This composition is incorrigibly bad. The participle "_belonging_" which seems to relate to "_things_," is improperly meant to qualify "_state_." And the "_state of things_," (which _state_ really belongs _only to the things_,) is absurdly supposed to belong to a _person_--i. e., "_to the painter_." Then this _man_, to whom the "state of things" is said to belong, is forthwith called "_it_," and nonsensically declared to be "in the possessive case." But, according to Critical Note 16th, "Passages too erroneous for correction, may be criticised, orally or otherwise, and then passed over without any attempt to amend them." Therefore, no correction is attempted here.] "Nouns or pronouns, following the verb _to be_; or the words _than, but, as_; or that answer the question _who?_ have the same case _after as preceded_ them."--_Beck's Gram._, p. 29. "The common gender is _when_ the noun may be either masculine or feminine."--_Frost's Gram._, p. 8. "The possessive is generally pronounced the same as if the _s_ were added."--_Alden's Gram._, p. 11. "For, assuredly, as soon as men _had got_ beyond simple interjections, and began to communicate _themselves_ by discourse, they would be under a necessity of assigning names to the objects they _saw around_ them, _which_ in grammatical language, _is called the invention_ of substantive nouns."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 72. "Young children will learn to form letters as _soon_, if not _readier, than they_ will when older."--_Taylor's District School_, p. 159. "This comparing words with one another, constitutes what is called the _degrees_ of comparison."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 29. "Whenever a noun is _immediately annexed_ to a _preceding neuter_ verb, it _expresses either_ the same notion _with_ the verb, or denotes only _the_ circumstance of the _action."_--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 73. "Two or more nouns or pronouns joined _singular_ together by the conjunction _and, must have verbs_ agreeing with them in the plural number."--_Infant School Gram._, p. 129. "Possessive and demonstrative pronouns agree with their nouns in number and case; as, 'my brother,' 'this slate, 'these slates.'"--_Ib._, p. 130. "Participles which have no relation to time are used either as adjectives or as substantives."--_Maunder's Gram._, p. 1. "They are in use only in some of their times and modes; and in some of them are a composition of times of several defective verbs, having the same signification."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 59. "When _words_ of the possessive case _that are_ in apposition, _follow one another_ in quick succession, the possessive sign should be annexed to the _last only_, and _understood_ to the rest; as, 'For David, my servant's sake.'"--_Comly's Gram._, p. 92. "_By this order_, the first nine _rules_ accord with _those_ which respect the _rules_ of concord; and the _remainder include_, though _they_ extend beyond the _rules_ of government."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 143. "_Own_ and _self_, in the plural _selves_, are _joined_ to the possessives, _my, our, thy, your, his, her, their_; as, _my own_ hand, _myself, yourselves_; both of them expressing emphasis or opposition, as, 'I did it _my own self_,' that is, _and_ no one else; the latter also forming the reciprocal pronoun, as, 'he hurt _himself_.'"--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 25. "A _flowing_ copious style, therefore, is required _in_ all public speakers; _guarding_, at the _same time_, against such a degree of _diffusion_, as renders _them_ languid and tiresome; _which_ will always _prove the case_, when they _inculcate_ too much, and present the _same thought_ under _too many_ different views."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 177. "As sentences should be cleared of redundant words, so also of redundant members. As every word ought to present a new idea, so every member ought to contain a new thought. Opposed to _this_, stands the fault we sometimes meet with, of the _last_ member of a period _being_ no other than _the_ echo of the _former_, or _the_ repetition of it in _somewhat_ a different form." [458]--_Ib._, p. 111. "_Which_ always refers grammatically to the substantive _immediately preceding_: [as,] 'It is folly to pretend, by heaping up treasures, to arm ourselves against the accidents of _life, which_ nothing can protect us against, but the good providence of our heavenly Father.'"--_Murray's Gram._, p. 311; _Maunder's_, p. 18; _Blair's Rhet._, p. 105. "The English _adjectives_, having but a very limited syntax, _is classed_ with _its_ kindred _article_, the _adjective pronoun_, under the eighth rule."--_L. Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 143. "When a _substantive_ is put _absolutely_, and does _not agree_ with the following verb, it _remains independent on_ the participle, and _is called_ the _case_ absolute, or the _nominative_ absolute."--_Ib._, p. 195. "It will, doubtless, _sometimes_ happen, that, on _this occasion_, as well as on many _other occasions_, a strict adherence to grammatical rules, _would_ render _the_ language stiff and formal: but when _cases of this sort_ occur, it is better to give the expression a _different_ turn, than to violate _grammar_ for the sake of _ease_, or even of _elegance_."--_Ib._, p. 208. "Number, which distinguishes _objects_ as _singly_ or _collectively_, must have been coeval with the very infancy of language"--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 25. "The article _a_ or _an_ agrees with nouns _in_ the singular number _only, individually_ or _collectively_."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 170; _and others_. "No language is perfect _because it is_ a human invention."--_Parker and Fox's Grammar_, Part III, p. 112. "The _participles_, or as they may properly be termed, _forms_ of the verb in the _second infinitive_, usually _precedes another_ verb, and _states_ some fact, or event, from which an _inference_ is drawn _by that verb_; as, 'the sun _having arisen_, they departed.'"--_Day's Grammar_, 2nd Ed., p. 36. "They must describe _what has happened_ as having done so in the past _or the present_ time, or as _likely to occur_ in the future."--_The Well-Wishers' Grammar, Introd._, p. 5. "Nouns are either male, female, or neither."--_Fowle's Common School Grammar_, Part Second, p. 12. "Possessive _Adjectives_ express possession, and distinguish _nouns_ from _each_ other by showing _to what_ they belong; as, _my hat, John's_ hat."--_Ib._, p. 31. PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX. LESSON I.--VARIOUS RULES. "What is the reason that our language is less refined than that of Italy, Spain, or France?"--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 185. "What is the reason that our language is less refined than that of France?"--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 152. "'I believe your Lordship will agree with me, in the reason why our language is less refined than those of Italy, Spain, or France.' DEAN SWIFT. Even in this short sentence, we may discern an inaccuracy--'why our language is less refined than _those_ of Italy, Spain, or France;' putting the pronoun _those_ in the plural, when the antecedent substantive to which it refers is in the singular, _our language_."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 228. "The sentence might have been made to run much better in this way; 'why our language is less refined than the Italian, Spanish, or French.'"--_Ibid._ "But when arranged in an entire sentence, which they must be to make a complete sense, they show it still more evidently."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 65. "This is a more artificial and refined construction than that, in which the common connective is simply made use of."--_Ib._, p. 127. "We shall present the reader with a list of Prepositions, which are derived from the Latin and Greek languages."--_Ib._, p. 120. "Relatives comprehend the meaning of a pronoun and conjunction copulative."--_Ib._, p. 126. "Personal pronouns being used to supply the place of the noun, are not employed in the same part of the sentence as the noun which they represent."--_Ib._, p. 155; _R. C. Smith's Gram._, 131. "There is very seldom any occasion for a substitute in the same part where the principal word is present."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 155. "We hardly consider little children as persons, because that term gives us the idea of reason and reflection."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 98; _Murray's_, 157; _Smith's_, 133; _and others_. "The occasion of exerting each of these qualities is different."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 95; _Murray's Gram._, 302; _Jamieson's Rhet._, 66. "I'll tell you who time ambles withal, who time trots withal, who time gallops withal and who he stands still withal. I pray thee, who doth he trot withal?"--_Shakspeare_. "By greatness, I do not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the largeness of a whole view."--_Addison_. "The question may then be put, What does he more than mean?"--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 103. "The question might be put, what more does he than only mean?"--_Ib._, p. 204. "He is surprised to find himself got to so great a distance, from the object with which he at first set out."--_Ib._, p. 108. "He is surprised to find himself at so great a distance from the object with which he sets out."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 313. "Few precise rules can be given, which will hold without exception in all cases."--_Ib._, p. 267; _Lowth's Gram._, p. 115. "Versification is the arrangement of a certain number of syllables according to certain laws."--_Dr. Johnson's Gram._, p. 13. "Versification is the arrangement of a certain number and variety of syllables, according to certain laws."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 252; R. C. Smith's, 187; and others. "Charlotte, the friend of Amelia, to whom no one imputed blame, was too prompt in her own vindication."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 273. "Mr. Pitt, joining the war party in 1793, the most striking and the most fatal instance of this offence, is the one which at once presents itself."--_Brougham's Sketches_, Vol. i, p. 57. "To the framing such a sound constitution of mind."--_The American Lady_, p. 132. "'I beseech you,' said St. Paul to his Ephesian converts, 'that ye walk worthy the vocation wherewith ye are called.'"--_Ib._, p. 208. "So as to prevent its being equal to that."--_Booth's Introd._, p. 88. "When speaking of an action's being performed."--_Ib._, p. 89. "And, in all questions of an action's being so performed, _est_ is added to the second person."--_Ib._, p. 72. "No account can be given of this, than that custom has blinded their eyes."--_Dymond's Essays_, p. 269. "Design, or chance, make other wive; But nature did this match contrive."--_Waller_, p. 24. LESSON II.--VARIOUS RULES. "I suppose each of you think it is your own nail."--_Abbott's Teacher_, p. 58. "They are useless, from their being apparently based upon this supposition."--_Ib._, p. 71. "The form and manner, in which this plan may be adopted, is various."--_Ib._, p. 83. "Making intellectual effort, and acquiring knowledge, are always pleasant to the human mind."--_Ib._, p. 85. "This will do more than the best lecture which ever was delivered."--_Ib._, p. 90. "Doing easy things is generally dull work."--_Ib._, p. 92. "Such is the tone and manner of some teachers."--_Ib._, p. 118. "Well, the fault is, being disorderly at prayer time."--_Ib._, p. 153. "Do you remember speaking on this subject in school?"--_Ib._, p. 154. "The course above recommended, is not trying lax and inefficient measures."--_Ib._, p. 156. "Our community is agreed that there is a God."--_Ib._, p. 163. "It prevents their being interested in what is said."--_Ib._, p. 175. "We will also suppose that I call another boy to me, who I have reason to believe to be a sincere Christian."--_Ib._, p. 180. "Five minutes notice is given by the bell."--_Ib._, p. 211. "The Annals of Education gives notice of it."--_Ib._, p. 240. "Teacher's meetings will be interesting and useful."--_Ib._, p. 243. "She thought an half hour's study would conquer all the difficulties."--_Ib._, p. 257. "The difference between an honest and an hypocritical confession."--_Ib._, p. 263. "There is no point of attainment where we must stop."--_Ib._, p. 267. "Now six hours is as much as is expected of teachers."--_Ib._, p. 268. "How much is seven times nine?"--_Ib._, p. 292. "Then the reckoning proceeds till it come to _ten hundred_."--_Frost's Practical Gram._, p. 170. "Your success will depend on your own exertions; see, then, that you are diligent."--_Ib._, p. 142. "Subjunctive Mood, Present Tense: If I am known, If thou art known. If he is known: etc."--_Ib._, p. 91. "If I be loved, If thou be loved, If he be loved;" &c.--_Ib._, p. 85. "An Interjection is a word used to express sudden emotion. They are so called, because they are generally thrown in between the parts of a sentence without any reference to the structure of the other parts of it."--_Ib._, p. 35. "The Cardinals are those which simplify or denote number; as one, two, three."--_Ib._, p. 31. "More than one organ is concerned in the utterance of almost every consonant."--_Ib._, p. 21. "To extract from them all the Terms we make use in our Divisions and Subdivisions of the Art."--_Holmes's Rhetoric_, Pref. "And there was written therein lamentations, and mourning, and woe."--_Ezekiel_, ii, 10. "If I were to be judged as to my behaviour, compared with that of John's."--_Josephus_, Vol. 5, p. 172. "When the preposition _to_ signifies _in order to_, it used to be preceded by _for_, which is now almost obsolete; What went ye out _for to_ see."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 132. "This makes the proper perfect tense, which, in English, is always expressed by the help of the auxiliary verb, 'I have written.'"--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 82. "Indeed, in the formation of character, personal exertion is the first, the second, and the third virtues."--_Sanders, Spelling-Book_, p. 93. "The reducing them to the condition of the beasts that perish."--_Dymond's Essays_, p. 67. "Yet this affords no reason to deny that the nature of the gift is not the same, or that both are not divine."--_Ib._, p. 68. "If God have made known his will."--_Ib._, p. 98. "If Christ have prohibited them, [i.e., oaths,] nothing else can prove them right."--_Ib._, p. 150 "That the taking them is wrong, every man who simply consults his own heart, will know."--_Ib._, p. 163. "These evils would be spared the world, if one did not write."--_Ib._, p. 168. "It is in a great degree our own faults."--_Ib._, p. 200. "It is worthy observation that lesson-learning is nearly excluded."--_Ib._, p. 212. "Who spares the aggressor's life even to the endangering his own."--_Ib._, p. 227. "Who advocates the taking the life of an aggressor."--_Ib._, p. 229. "And thence up to the intentionally and voluntary fraudulent."--_Ib._, p. 318. "'And the contention was so great among them, that they departed asunder, one from _an_other.'--_Acts_, xv. 39."--_Rev. Matt. Harrison's English Lang._, p. 235. "Here the man is John, and John is the man; so the words are _the imagination and the fancy_, and _the imagination and the fancy_ are the _words_."--_Harrison's E. Lang._, p. 227. "The article, which is here so emphatic in the Greek, is lost sight of in our translation."--_Ib._, p. 223. "We have no less than thirty pronouns."--_Ib._, p. 166. "It will admit of a pronoun being joined to it."--_Ib._, p. 137. "From intercourse and from conquest, all the languages of Europe participate with each other."--_Ib._, p. 104. "It is not always necessity, therefore, that has been the cause of our introducing terms derived from the classical languages."--_Ib._, p. 100. "The man of genius stamps upon it any impression that he pleases."--_Ib._, p. 90. "The proportion of names ending in _son_ preponderate greatly among the Dano-Saxon population of the North."--_Ib._, p. 43. "As a proof of the strong similarity between the English and the Danish languages."--_Ib._, p. 37. "A century from the time that Hengist and Horsa landed on the Isle of Thanet."--_Ib._, p. 27. "I saw the colours waving in the wind, And they within, to mischief how combin'd."--_Bunyan_. LESSON III.--VARIOUS RULES. "A ship expected: of whom we say, _she_ sails well."--_Ben Jonson's Gram._, Chap. 10. "Honesty is reckoned little worth."--_Paul's Accidence_, p. 58. "Learn to esteem life as it ought."--_Economy of Human Life_, p. 118. "As the soundest health is less perceived than the lightest malady, so the highest joy toucheth us less deep than the smallest sorrow."--_Ib._, p. 152. "Being young is no apology for being frivolous."--_Whiting's Elementary Reader_, p. 117. "The porch was the same width with the temple."--_Milman's Jews_, Vol. i. p. 208. "The other tribes neither contributed to his rise or downfall."--_Ib._, Vol. i. p. 165. "His whole laws and religion would have been shaken to its foundation."--_Ib._, Vol. i. p. 109. "The English has most commonly been neglected, and children taught only the Latin syntax."--_Lily's Gram., Pref._, p. xi. "They are not taken notice of in the notes."--_Ib._, p. x. "He walks in righteousness, doing what he would be done to."--_S. Fisher's Works_, p. 14. "They stand independently on the rest of the sentence."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 151. "My uncle, with his son, were in town yesterday."--_Lennie's Gram._, p. 142. "She with her sisters are well."--_Ib._, p. 143. "His purse, with its contents, were abstracted from his pocket."--_Ib._, p. 143. "The great constitutional feature of this institution being, that directly the acrimony of the last election is over, the acrimony of the next begins."--_Dickens's Notes_, p. 27. "His disregarding his parents' advice has brought him into disgrace."--_Farnum's Pract. Gram._, 2d Ed., p. 19. "Error: Can you tell me the reason of his father making that remark?--_Ib._, p. 93. Cor.: Can you tell me the reason of his father's making that remark?"--See _Farnum's Gram._, Rule 12th. p. 76. "Error: What is the reason of our teacher detaining us so long?--_Ib._, p. 76. Cor.: What is the reason of our _teacher's_ detaining us so long?"--See _Ib._ "Error: I am certain of the boy having said so. Correction: I am certain of the _boy's_ having said so."--_Exercises in Farnum's Gram._, p. 76. "_Which_ means any thing or things before-named; and _that_ may represent any person or persons, thing or things, which have been speaking, spoken to or spoken of."--_Dr. Perley's Gram._, p. 9. "A certain number of syllables connected, form a foot. They are called _feet_, because it is by their aid that the voice, as it were, steps along."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 252; _C. Adams's_, 121. "Asking questions with a principal verb--as, _Teach I? Burns he_, &c. are barbarisms, and carefully to be avoided."--_Alex. Murray's Gram._, p. 122. "Tell whether the 18th, 19th, 20th, 21st, 22d, or 23d Rules are to be used, and repeat the Rule."--_Parker and Fox's Gram._, Part I, p. 4. "The resolution was adopted without much deliberation, which caused great dissatisfaction."--_Ib._, p. 71. "The man is now taken much notice of by the people thereabouts."--_Edward's First Lessons in Gram._, p. 42. "The sand prevents their sticking to one another."--_Ib._, p. 84. "Defective Verbs are those which are used only in some of their moods and tenses."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 108; _Guy's_, 42; _Russell's_, 46; _Bacon's_, 42; _Frost's_, 40; _Alger's_, 47; _S. Putnam's_, 47; _Goldsbury's_, 54; _Felton's_, 59; and _others_. "Defective verbs are those which want some of their moods and tenses."--_Lennie's Gram._, p. 47; _Bullions, E. Gram._, 65; _Practical Lessons_, 75. "Defective Verbs want some of their parts."--_Bullions, Lat. Gram._, p. 78. "A Defective verb is one that wants some of its parts."--_Bullions, Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, 1849, p. 101. "To the irregular verbs are to be added the defective; which are not only for the most part irregular, but also wanting in some of their parts."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 59. "To the irregular verbs are to be added the defective; which are not only wanting in some of their parts, but are, when inflected, irregular."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 112. "When two or more nouns succeed each other in the possessive case."--_Farnum's Gram._, 2d Ed., pp. 20 and 63. "When several short sentences succeed each other."--_Ib._, p. 113. "Words are divided into ten Classes, and are called PARTS OF SPEECH."--_Ainsworth's Gram._, p. 8. "A Passive Verb has its _agent_ or _doer_ always in the objective case, and is governed by a preposition."--_Ib._, p. 40. "I am surprised at your negligent attention." _Ib._, p. 43. "SINGULAR: Thou lovest or you love. _You_ has always a plural verb."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 43. "How do you know that _love_ is the first person? _Ans_. Because _we_ is the first personal pronoun."--_Id., ib._, p. 47; _Lennie's Gram._, p. 26. "The lowing herd wind slowly round the lea."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 96. "Iambic verses have every second, fourth, and other even syllables accented."--_Ib._, p. 170. "Contractions are often made in poetry, which are not allowable in prose."--_Ib._, p. 179. "Yet to their general's voice they all obeyed."--_Ib._, p. 179. "It never presents to his mind but one new subject at the same time."--_Felton's Gram._, 1st edition, p. 6. "When the name of a quality is abstracted, that is separated from its substance, it is called an abstract noun."--_Ib._, p. 9. "Nouns are in the _first_ person when speaking."--_Ib._, p. 9. "Which of the two brothers are graduates?"--_Hallock's Gram._, p. 59. "I am a linen draper bold, as you and all the world doth know."--_Ib._, p. 60. "O the bliss, the pain of dying!"--_Ib._, p. 127. "This do; take you censers, Korah, and all his company."--_Numbers_, xvi, 6. "There are two participles,--the _present_ and _perfect_; as, _reading, having read_. Transitive verbs have an _active_ and _passive_ participle. Examples: ACTIVE, _Present_, Loving; _Perfect_, Having loved: PASSIVE, _Present_, Loved _or_ being loved; _Perfect_, Having been loved."--_S. S. Greene's Analysis_, 1st Ed., p. 225. "O heav'n, in my connubial hour decree This man my spouse, or such a spouse as he."--_Pope_. LESSON IV.--VARIOUS RULES. "The _Past Tenses_ represent a conditional past fact or event, and of which the speaker is uncertain."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 89. "Care also should be taken that they are not introduced too abundantly."--_Ib._, p. 134. "Till they are become familiar to the mind."--_Ib._, Pref., p. v. "When once a particular arrangement and phraseology are become familiar to the mind."--_Ib._, p. vii. "I have furnished the student with the plainest and most practical directions which I could devise."--_Ib._, p. xiv. "When you are become conversant with the Rules of Grammar, you will then be qualified to commence the study of Style."--_Ib._, p. xxii. "_C_ has a soft sound like _s_ before _e, i_, and _y_, generally."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 10. "_G_ before _e, i_, and _y_, is soft; as in genius, ginger, Egypt."--_Ib._, p. 12. "_C_ before _e, i_, and _y_, generally sounds soft like _s_."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 4. "_G_ is soft before _e, i_, and _y_, as in genius, ginger, Egypt."--_Ib._, p. 4. "As a perfect Alphabet must always contain as many letters as there are elementary sounds in the language, the English Alphabet is therefore both defective and redundant."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 5. "Common Nouns are the names given to a whole class or species, and are applicable to every individual of that class."--_Ib._, p. 11. "Thus an adjective has always a noun either expressed or understood."--_Ib._, p. 20. "First, let us consider emphasis; by _this_, is meant a _stronger_ and _fuller_ sound of voice, by which we distinguish _the accented syllable_ of some word, on _which_ we _design to lay_ particular stress, _and to shew_ how _it effects_ the rest of the sentence."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 330. "By emphasis is meant a _stronger_ and _fuller_ sound of voice, by which we distinguish some word or words on which we _design to lay_ particular stress, _and to show_ how _they affect_ the rest of the sentence."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 242. "Such a simple question as this: 'Do you ride to town to-day,' is capable of _no fewer than_ four different acceptations, _according as_ the emphasis is differently placed _on the words_."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 330; _Murray's Gram._, p. 242. "Thus, _bravely_, or 'in a brave manner,' is derived from _brave-like_."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 51. "In the same manner, the different parts of speech are formed from each other generally by means of some affix."--_Ib._, p. 60. "Words derived from each other, are always, more or less, allied in signification."--_Ib._, p. 60. "When a noun of multitude conveys unity of idea the verb and pronoun should be singular. But when it conveys plurality of idea, the verb and pronoun must be plural."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 71. "They have spent their whole time to make the sacred chronology agree with that of the profane."--_Ib._, p. 87. "'I have studied my lesson, but you _have_ not;' that is, 'but you have not _studied_ it.'"--_Ib._, p. 109. "When words follow each other in pairs, there is a comma between each pair."--_Ib._, p. 112; _Bullions_, 152; _Lennie_, 132. "When words follow each other in pairs, the pairs should be marked by the comma."--_Farnum's Gram._, p. 111. "His 'Studies of Nature,' is deservedly a popular work."--_Univ. Biog. Dict., n. St. Pierre_. "'Here lies _his_ head, a _youth_ to fortune and to fame unknown.' 'Youth,' here is in the _possessive_ (the sign being omitted), and is _in apposition_ with his.' The meaning is, 'the head of him, a youth.' &c."--_Hart's E. Gram._, p. 124. "The pronoun I, and the interjection O, should be written with a capital."--_Weld's E. Gram._, 2d Ed., p. 16. "The pronoun _I_ always should be written with a capital letter."--_Ib._, p. 68. "He went from England to York."--_Ib._, p. 41. "An adverb is a part of speech joined to verbs, adjectives and other adverbs, to modify their meaning."--_Ib._, p. 51; "_Abridged Ed._," 46. "_Singular_, signifies 'one person or thing.' _Plural_, (Latin _plus_,) signifies 'more than one.'"--_Weld's Gram._, p. 55. "When the present ends in e, _d_ only is added to form the Imperfect and Perfect participle."--_Ib._, p. 82. "SYN�RESIS is the contraction of two syllables into one; as, _Seest_ for _see-est, drowned_ for _drown-ed_"--_Ib._, p. 213. "Words ending in _ee_ drop the final _e_ on receiving an additional syllable beginning with _e_; as, _see, seest, agree, agreed_."--_Ib._, p, 227. "Monosyllables in _f, l_, or _s_, preceded by a single vowel are doubled; as, staff, grass, mill."--_Ib._, p. 226. "Words ending _ie_ drop the _e_ and take _y_; as die, _dying_."--_Ib._, p. 226. "One number may be used for another; as, _we_ for _I, you_ for _thou_."--_S. S. Greene's Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 198. "STR~OB´ILE, _n._ A pericarp made up of scales that lie over each other. SMART."--_Worcester's Univ. and Crit. Dict._ "Yet ever from the clearest source have ran Some gross allay, some tincture of the man."--_Dr. Lowth_. LESSON V.--VARIOUS RULES. "The possessive case is always followed by the noun which is the name of the thing possessed, expressed or understood."--_Felton's Gram._, p. 61; _Revised Edition_, pp. 64 and 86. "Hadmer of Aggstein was as pious, devout, and praying a Christian, as were Nelson, Washington, or Jefferson; or as are Wellington, Tyler, Clay, or Polk."--H. C. WRIGHT: _Liberator_, Vol. xv, p. 21. "A word in the possessive case is not an independent noun, and cannot stand by its self."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 130. "Mary is not handsome, but she is good-natured, which is better than beauty."--_St. Quentin's Gram._, p. 9. "After the practice of joining words together had ceased, notes of distinction were placed at the end of every word."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 267; _Hallock's_, 224. "Neither Henry nor Charles dissipate his time."--_Hallock's Gram._, p. 166. "'He had taken from the Christians' abode thirty small castles.'--_Knowles._"--_Ib._, p. 61. "In _whatever_ character Butler was admitted, is unknown."--_Ib._, p. 62. "How is the agent of a passive, and the object of an active verb often left?"--_Ib._, p. 88. "By _subject_ is meant the word of which something is declared of its object."--_Chandler's Gram._, 1821, p. 103. "Care should also be taken that an intransitive verb is not used instead of a transitive: as, I lay, (the bricks) for, I lie down; I raise the house, for I rise; I sit down, for, I set the chair down, &c."--_Ib._, p. 114. "On them depend the duration of our Constitution and our country."--_J. C. Calhoun at Memphis_. "In the present sentence neither the sense nor the measure require _what_."--_Chandler's Gram._, 1821, p. 164. "The Irish thought themselves oppress'd by the Law that forbid them to draw with their Horses Tails."--_Brightland's Gram._, Pref., p. iii. "So _willingly_ are adverbs, qualifying deceives."--_Cutler's Gram._, p. 90. "Epicurus for experiment sake confined himself to a narrower diet than that of the severest prisons."--_Ib._, p. 116. "Derivative words are such as are compounded of other words, as common-wealth, good-ness, false-hood."--_Ib._, p. 12. "The distinction here insisted on is as old as Aristotle, and should not be lost sight of."--_Hart's Gram._, p. 61. "The Tenses of the Subjunctive and the Potential Moods."--_Ib._, p. 80. "A triphthong is a union of three vowels uttered in like manner: as, _uoy_ in buoy."--_P. Davis's Practical Gram._, p. xvi. "Common nouns are the names of a species or kind."--_Ib._, p. 8. "The superlative degree is a comparison between three or more."--_Ib._, p. 14. "An adverb is a word or phrase serving to give an additional idea of a verb, and adjective, article, or another adverb."--_Ib._, p. 36. "When several nouns in the possessive case succeed each other, each showing possession of the same noun, it is only necessary to add the sign of the possessive to the last: as, He sells men, women, and _children's_ shoes. Dog. cat, and _tiger's_ feet are digitated."--_Ib._, p. 72. "A rail-road is making _should be_ A rail-road is _being made_. A school-house is building, _should be_ A school-house is _being_ built."--_Ib._, p. 113. "Auxiliaries are not of themselves verbs; they resemble in their character and use those terminational or other inflections in other languages, _which we are obliged to use in ours_ to express the action in the mode, tense, &c., desired."--_Ib._, p. 158. "Please hold my horse while I speak to my friend."--_Ib._, p. 159. "If I say, 'Give me _the_ book,' I ask for some _particular_ book."--_Butler's Practical Gram._, p. 39. "There are five men here."--_Ib._, p. 134. "In the active the object may be omitted; in the passive the name of the agent may be omitted."--_Ib._, p. 63. "The Progressive and the Emphatic forms give in each case a different shade of meaning to the verb."--_Hart's Gram._, p. 80. "_That_ is a Kind of a Redditive Conjunction, when it answers to _so_ and _such._"--_W. Ward's Gram._, p. 152. "He attributes to negligence your failing to succeed in that business."--_Smart's Accidence_, p. 36. "Does _will_ and _go_ express but _our_ action?"--_S. Barrett's Revised Gram._, p. 58. "Language is the _principle_ vehicle of thought. G. BROWN."--_James Brown's English Syntax_, p. 3. "_Much_ is applied to things weighed or measured; _many_, to those that are numbered. _Elder_ and _eldest_, to persons only; _older_ and _oldest_, either to persons or things."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 20; _Pract. Les._, 25. "If there are any old maids still extant, while mysogonists are so rare, the fault must be attributable to themselves."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 286. "The second method used by the Greeks, has never been the practice of any part of Europe."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 64. "Neither consonant, nor vowel, are to be dwelt upon beyond their common quantity, when they close a sentence."--_Sheridan's Rhetorical Gram._, p. 54. "IRONY is a mode of speech expressing a _sense contrary_ to that which the speaker or writer intends to convey."--_Wells's School Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 196; 113th Ed., p. 212. "IRONY is _the intentional_ use of words _in a sense contrary_ to that which the writer or speaker _intends_ to convey."--_Weld's Gram._, 2d Ed., p. 215; Imp. Ed., 216. "The persons speaking, or spoken to, are supposed to be present."--_Wells_, p. 68. "The persons speaking and spoken to are supposed to be present."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 51. "A _Noun_ is a word used to express the _name_ of an object."--_Wells's School Gram._, pp. 46 and 47. "A _syllable_ is a word, or such a part of a word as is uttered by one articulation."--_Weld's English Gram._, p. 15; "_Abridged Ed._," p. 16. "Thus wondrous fair; thyself how wondrous then! Unspeakable, who sits above these heavens." --_Cutler's Gram._, p. 131. "And feel thy sovereign vital lamp; but thou Revisitest not these eyes, that roll in vain." --_Felton's Gram._, p. 133. "Before all temples the upright and pure." --_Butler's Gram._, p. 195. "In forest wild, in thicket, break or den." --_Cutler's Gram._, p. 130. "The rogue and fool by fits is fair and wise; And e'en the best, by fits, what they despise." --_Pope's Ess._, iii, 233. CHAPTER XIV.--QUESTIONS. ORDER OF REHEARSAL, AND METHOD OF EXAMINATION. PART THIRD, SYNTAX. [Fist][The following questions, which embrace nearly all the important particulars of the foregoing code of Syntax, are designed not only to direct and facilitate class rehearsals, but also to develop the acquirements of those who may answer them at examinations more public.] LESSON I.--DEFINITIONS. 1. Of what does Syntax treat? 2. What is the _relation_ of words? 3. What is the _agreement_ of words? 4. What is the _government_ of words? 5. What is the _arrangement_ of words? 6. What is a _sentence_? 7. How many and what are the _principal parts_ of a sentence? 8. What are the other parts called? 9. How many kinds of sentences are there? 10. What is a _simple_ sentence? 11. What is a _compound sentence_? 12. What is a _clause_, or _member_? 13. What is a _phrase_? 14. What words must be supplied in parsing? 15. How are the leading principles of syntax presented? 16. In what order are the rules of syntax arranged in this work? LESSON II.--THE RULES. 1. To what do articles relate? 2. What case is employed as the subject of a finite verb? 3. What agreement is required between words in apposition? 4. By what is the possessive case governed? 5. What case does an active-transitive verb or participle govern? 6. What case is put after a verb or participle not transitive? 7. What case do prepositions govern? 8. When, and in what case, is a noun or pronoun put absolute in English? 9. To what do adjectives relate? 10. How does a pronoun agree with its antecedent? 11. How does a pronoun agree with a collective noun? 12. How does a pronoun agree with joint antecedents? 13. How does a pronoun agree with disjunct antecedents? LESSON III.--THE RULES. 14. How does a finite verb agree with its subject, or nominative? 15. How does a verb agree with a collective noun? 16. How does a verb agree with joint nominatives? 17. How does a verb agree with disjunctive nominatives? 18. What governs the infinitive mood? 19. What verbs take the infinitive after them without the preposition _to_? 20. What is the regular construction of participles, as such? 21. To what do adverbs relate? 22. What do conjunctions connect? 23. What is the use of prepositions? 24. What is the syntax of interjections? LESSON IV.--THE RULES. 1. What are the several titles, or subjects, of the twenty-four rules of syntax? 2. What says Rule 1st of _Articles_? 3. What says Rule 2d of _Nominatives_? 4. What says Rule 3d of _Apposition_? 5. What says Rule 4th of _Possessives_? 6. What says Rule 5th of _Objectives_? 7. What says Rule 6th of _Same Cases_? 8. What says Rule 7th of _Objectives_? 9. What says Rule 8th of the _Nominative Absolute_? 10. What says Rule 9th of _Adjectives_? 11. What says Rule 10th of _Pronouns_? 12. What says Rule 11th of _Pronouns_? 13. What says Rule 12th of _Pronouns_? 14. What says Rule 13th of _Pronouns_? 15. What says Rule 14th of _Finite Verbs_? 16. What says Rule 15th of _Finite Verbs_? 17. What says Rule 16th of _Finite Verbs_? 18. What says Rule 17th of _Finite Verbs_? 19. What says Rule 18th of _Infinitives_? 20. What says Rule 19th of _Infinitives_? 21. What says Rule 20th of _Participles_? 22. What says Rule 21st of _Adverbs_? 23. What says Rule 22d of _Conjunctions_? 24. What says Rule 23d of _Prepositions_? 25. What says Rule 24th of _Interjections_? LESSON V.--THE ANALYZING OF SENTENCES. 1. What is it, "to analyze a sentence?" 2. What are the component parts of a sentence? 3. Can all sentences be divided into clauses? 4. Are there different methods of analysis, which may be useful? 5. What is the first method of analysis, according to this code of syntax? 6. How is the following example analyzed by this method? "Even the Atheist, who tells us that the universe is self-existent and indestructible--even he, who, instead of seeing the traces of a manifold wisdom in its manifold varieties, sees nothing in them all but the exquisite structures and the lofty dimensions of materialism--even he, who would despoil creation of its God, cannot look upon its golden suns, and their accompanying systems, without the solemn impression of a magnificence that fixes and overpowers him." 7. What is the second method of analysis? 8. How is the following example analyzed by this method? "Fear naturally quickens the flight of guilt. Rasselas could not catch the fugitive, with his utmost efforts; but, resolving to weary, by perseverance, him whom he could not surpass in speed, he pressed on till the foot of the mountain stopped his course." 9. What is the third method of analysis? 10. How is the following example analyzed by this method? "Such is the emptiness of human enjoyment, that we are always impatient of the present. Attainment is followed by neglect, and possession, by disgust. Few moments are more pleasing than those in which the mind is concerting measures for a new undertaking. From the first hint that wakens the fancy, to the hour of actual execution, all is improvement and progress, triumph and felicity." 11. What is the fourth method of analysis? 12. How are the following sentences analyzed by this method? (1.) "Swift would say, 'The thing has not life enough in it to keep it sweet;' Johnson, 'The creature possesses not vitality sufficient to preserve it from putrefaction.'" (2.) "There is one Being to whom we can look with a perfect conviction of finding that security, which nothing about us can give, and which nothing about us can take away." 13. What is said of the fifth method of analysis? [Now, if the teacher choose to make use of any other method of analysis than full syntactical parsing, he may direct his pupils to turn to the next selection of examples, or to any other accurate sentences, and analyze them according to the method chosen.] LESSON VI.--OF PARSING. 1. Why is it necessary to observe _the sense_, or _meaning_, of what we parse? 2. What is required of the pupil in syntactical parsing? 3. How is the following long example parsed in Praxis XII? "A young man studious to know his duty, and honestly bent on doing it, will find himself led away from the sin or folly in which the multitude thoughtlessly indulge themselves; but, ah! poor fallen human nature! what conflicts are thy portion, when inclination and habit--a rebel and a traitor--exert their sway against our only saving principle!" [Now parse, in like manner, and with no needless deviations from the prescribed forms, the ten lessons of the _Twelfth Praxis_; or such parts of those lessons as the teacher may choose.] LESSON VII.--THE RULES. 1. In what chapter are the rules of syntax first presented? 2. In what praxis are these rules first applied in parsing? 3. Which of the ten parts of speech is left without any rule of syntax? 4. How many and which of the ten have but one rule apiece? 5. Then, of the twenty-four rules, how many remain for the other three parts,--nouns, pronouns, and verbs? 6. How many of these seventeen speak of _cases_, and therefore apply equally to nouns and pronouns? 7. Which are these seven? 8. How many rules are there for the agreement of pronouns with their antecedents, and which are they? 9. How many rules are there for finite verbs, and which are they? 10. How many are there for infinitives, and which are they? 11. What ten chapters of the foregoing code of syntax treat of the ten parts of speech in their order? 12. Besides the rules and their examples, what sorts of matters are introduced into these chapters? 13. How many of the twenty-four rules of syntax are used both in parsing and in correcting? 14. Of what use are those which cannot be violated in practice? 15. How many such rules are there among the twenty-four? 16. How many and what parts of speech are usually parsed by such rules only? LESSON VIII.--THE NOTES. 1. What is the essential character of the _Notes_ which are placed under the rules of syntax? 2. Are the different forms of false construction as numerous as these notes? 3. Which exercise brings into use the greater number of grammatical principles, parsing or correcting? 4. Are the principles or doctrines which are applied in these different exercises usually the same, or are they different? 5. In etymological parsing, we use about seventy _definitions_; can these be used also in the correcting of errors? 6. For the correcting of false syntax, we have a hundred and fifty-two _notes_; can these be used also in parsing? 7. How many of the rules have no such notes under them? 8. What order is observed in the placing of these notes, if some rules have many, and others few or none? 9. How many of them are under the rule for _articles_? 10. How many of them refer to the construction of _nouns_? 11. How many of them belong to the syntax of _adjectives_? 12. How many of them treat of _pronouns_? 13. How many of them regard the use of _verbs_? 14. How many of them pertain to the syntax of _participles_? 15. How many of them relate to the construction of _adverbs_? 16. How many of them show the application of _conjunctions_? 17. How many of them expose errors in the use of _prepositions_? 18. How many of them speak of _interjections_? [Now correct orally the examples of _False Syntax_ placed under the several Rules and Notes; or so many texts under each head as the teacher may think sufficient.] LESSON IX.--THE EXCEPTIONS. 1. In what exercise can there be occasion to cite and apply the _Exceptions_ to the rules of syntax? 2. Are there exceptions to all the rules, or to how many? 3. Are there exceptions in reference to all the parts of speech, or to how many of the ten? 4. Do articles always relate to nouns? 5. Can the subject of a finite verb be in any other case than the nominative? 6. Are words in apposition always supposed to be in the same case? 7. Is the possessive case always governed by the name of the thing possessed? 8. Can an active-transitive verb govern any other case than the objective? 9. Can a verb or participle not transitive take any other case after it than that which precedes it? 10. Can a preposition, in English, govern any other case than the objective? 11. Can "the case absolute," in English, be any other than the nominative? 12. Does every adjective "belong to a substantive, expressed or understood," as Murray avers? 13. Can an adjective ever relate to any thing else than a noun or pronoun? 14. Can an adjective ever be used without relation to any noun, pronoun, or other subject? 15. Can an adjective ever be substituted for its kindred abstract noun? 16. Are the person, number, and gender of a pronoun always determined by an antecedent? 17. What pronoun is sometimes applied to animals so as not to distinguish their sex? 18. What pronoun is sometimes an expletive, and sometimes used with reference to an infinitive following it? LESSON X.--THE EXCEPTIONS. 19. Does a singular antecedent ever admit of a plural pronoun? 20. Can a pronoun agree with its antecedent in one sense and not in an other? 21. If the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, must the pronoun always be plural? 22. If there are two or more antecedents connected by _and_, must the pronoun always be plural? 23. If there are antecedents connected by _or_ or _nor_, is the pronoun always to take them separately? 24. Must a finite verb always agree with its nominative in number and person? 25. If the nominative is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, must the verb always be plural? 26. If there are two or more nominatives connected by _and_, must the verb always be plural? 21. If there are nominatives connected by _or_ or _nor_, is the verb always to refer to them separately? 28. Does the preposition _to_ before the infinitive always govern the verb? 29. Can the preposition _to_ govern or precede any other mood than the infinitive? 30. Is the preposition _to_ "understood" after _bid, dare, feel_, and so forth, where it is "superfluous and improper?" 31. How many and what exceptions are there to rule 20th, concerning participles? 32. How many and what exceptions are there to the rule for adverbs? 33. How many and what exceptions are there to the rule for conjunctions? 34. How many and what exceptions are there to the rule for prepositions? 35. Is there any exception to the 24th rule, concerning interjections? LESSON XI.--THE OBSERVATIONS. 1. How many of the ten parts of speech in English are in general incapable of any agreement? 2. Can there be a syntactical relation of words without either agreement or government? 3. Is there ever any needful agreement between unrelated words? 4. Is the mere relation of words according to the sense an element of much importance in English syntax? 5. What parts of speech have no other syntactical property than that of simple relation? 6. What rules of relation are commonly found in grammars? 7. Of what parts is syntax commonly said to consist? 8. Is it common to find in grammars, the rules of syntax well adapted to their purpose? 9. Can you specify some that appear to be faulty? 10. Wherein consists _the truth_ of grammatical doctrine, and how can one judge of what others teach? 11. Do those who speak of syntax as being divided into two parts, Concord and Government, commonly adhere to such division? 12. What false concords and false governments are cited in Obs. 7th of the first chapter? 13. Is it often expedient to join in the same rule such principles as must always be applied separately? 14. When one can condense several different principles into one rule, is it not expedient to do so? 15. Is it ever convenient to have one and the same rule applicable to different parts of speech? 16. Is it ever convenient to have rules divided into parts, so as to be double or triple in their form? 17. What instance of extravagant innovation is given in Obs. 12th of the first chapter? LESSON XII.--THE OBSERVATIONS. 18. Can a uniform series of good grammars, Latin, Greek, English, &c., be produced by a mere revising of one defective book for each language? 19. Whose are "The Principles of English Grammar" which Dr. Bullions has republished with alterations, "on the plan of Murray's Grammar?" 20. Can praise and success entitle to critical notice works in themselves unworthy of it? 21. Do the Latin grammarians agree in their enumeration of the concords in Latin? 22. What is said in Obs. 16th, of the plan of mixing syntax with etymology? 23. Do not the principles of etymology affect those of syntax? 24. Can any words agree, or disagree, except in something that belongs to each of them? 25. How many and what parts of speech are concerned in government? 26. Are rules of government to be applied to the governing words, or to the governed? 27. What are gerundives? 28. How many and what are the principles of syntax which belong to the head of simple relation? 29. How many agreements, or concords, are there in English syntax? 30. How many rules of government are there in the best Latin grammars? 31. What fault is there in the usual distribution of these rules? 32. How many and what are the governments in English syntax? 33. Can the parsing of words be varied by any transposition which does not change their import? 34. Can the parsing of words be affected by the parser's notion of what constitutes a simple sentence? 35. What explanation of simple and compound sentences is cited from Dr. Wilson, in Obs. 25? 36. What notion had Dr. Adam of simple and compound sentences? 37. Is this doctrine consistent either with itself or with Wilson's? 38. How can one's notion of _ellipsis_ affect his mode of parsing, and his distinction of sentences as simple or compound? LESSON XIII.--ARTICLES. 1. Can one noun have more than one article? 2. Can one article relate to more than one noun? 3. Why cannot the omission of an article constitute a proper ellipsis? 4. What is the position of the article with respect to its noun? 5. What is the usual position of the article with respect to an adjective and a noun? 6. Can the relative position of the article and adjective be a matter of indifference? 7. What adjectives exclude, or supersede, the article? 8. What adjectives precede the article? 9. What four adverbs affect the position of the article and adjective? 10. Do other adverbs come between the article and the adjective? 11. Can any of the definitives which preclude _an_ or _a_, be used with the adjective _one_? 12. When the adjective follows its noun, where stands the article? 13. Can the article in English, ever be placed after its noun? 14. What is the effect of the word _the_ before comparatives and superlatives? 15. What article may sometimes be used in lieu of a possessive pronoun? 16. Is the article _an_ or _a_ always supposed to imply unity? 17. Respecting _an_ or _a_, how does present usage differ from the usage of ancient writers? 18. Can the insertion or omission of an article greatly affect the import of a sentence? 19. By a repetition of the article before two or more adjectives, what other repetition is implied? 20. How do we sometimes avoid such repetition? 21. Can there ever be an implied repetition of the noun when no article is used? LESSON XIV.--NOUNS, OR CASES. 1. In how many different ways can the nominative case be used? 2. What is the usual position of the nominative and verb, and when is it varied? 3. With what nominatives of the second person, does the imperative verb agree? 4. Why is it thought improper to put a noun in two cases at once? 5. What case in Latin and Greek is reckoned _the subject_ of the infinitive mood? 6. Can this, in general, be literally imitated in English? 7. Do any English authors adopt the Latin doctrine of the accusative (or objective) before the infinitive? 8. Is the objective, when it occurs before the infinitive in English, usually governed by some verb, participle, or preposition? 9. What is our nearest approach to the Latin construction of the accusative before the infinitive? 10. What is _apposition_, and from whom did it receive this name? 11. Is there a construction of like cases, that is not apposition? 12. To which of the apposite terms is the rule for apposition to be applied? 13. Are words in apposition always to be parsed separately? 14. Wherein are the common rule and definition of apposition faulty? 15. Can the explanatory word ever be placed first? 16. Is it ever indifferent, which word be called the principal, and which the explanatory term? 17. Why cannot two nouns, each having the possessive sign, be put in apposition with each other? 18. Where must the sign of possession be put, when two or more possessives are in apposition? 19. Is it compatible with apposition to supply between the words a relative and a verb; as, "At Mr. Smith's [_who is_] the bookseller?" 20. How can a noun be, or seem to be, in apposition with a possessive pronoun? 21. What construction is produced by the _repetition_ of a noun or pronoun? 22. What is the construction of a noun, when it emphatically repeats the idea suggested by a preceding sentence? LESSON XV.--NOUNS, OR CASES. 23. Can words differing in number be in apposition with each other? 24. What is the usual construction of _each other_ and _one an other_? 25. Is there any argument from analogy for taking _each other_ and _one an other_ for compounds? 26. Do we often put proper nouns in apposition with appellatives? 27. What preposition is often put between nouns that signify the same thing? 28. When is an active verb followed by two words in apposition? 29. Does apposition require any other agreement than that of case? 30. What three modes of construction appear like exceptions to Rule 4th? 31. In the phrase, "For _David_ my servant's sake," which word is governed by _sake_, and which is to be parsed by the rule of apposition? 32. In the sentence, "It is _man's_ to err," what is supposed to govern _man's_? 33. Does the possessive case admit of any abstract sense or construction? 34. Why is it reasonable to limit the government of the possessive to nouns only, or to words taken substantive? 35. Does the possessive case before a real participle denote the possessor of something? 36. What two great authors differ in regard to the correctness of the phrases, "_upon the rule's being observed_," and "_of its being neglected_?" 37. Is either of them right in his argument? 38. Is the distinction between the participial noun and the participle well preserved by Murray and his amenders? 39. Who invented the doctrine, that a participle and its adjuncts may be used as "_one name_" and in that capacity govern the possessive? 40. Have any popular authors adopted this doctrine? 41. Is the doctrine well sustained by its adopters, or is it consistent with the analogy of general grammar? 42. When one doubts whether a participle ought to be the governing word or the adjunct,--that is, whether he ought to use the possessive case before it or the objective,--what shall he do? 43, What is objected to the sentences in which participles govern the possessive case, and particularly to the examples given by Priestley, Murray, and others, to prove such a construction right? 44. Do the teachers of this doctrine agree among themselves? 45. How does the author of this work generally dispose of such government? 46. Does he positively determine, that the participle should _never_ be allowed to govern the possessive case? LESSON XVI.--NOUNS, OR CASES. 47. Are the distinctions of voice and of time as much regarded in participial nouns as in participles? 48. Why cannot an omission of the possessive sign be accounted a true _ellipsis_? 49. What is the usual position of the possessive case, and what exceptions are there? 50. In what other form can the meaning of the possessive case be expressed? 51. Is the possessive often governed by what is not expressed? 52. Does every possessive sign imply a separate governing noun? 53. How do compounds take the sign of possession? 54. Do we put the sign of possession always and only where the two terms of the possessive relation meet? 55. Can the possessive sign be ever rightly added to a separate adjective? 56. What is said of the omission of _s_ from the possessive singular on account of its hissing sound? 57. What errors do Kirkham, Smith, and others, teach concerning the possessive singular? 58. Why is Murray's rule for the possessive case objectionable? 59. Do compounds embracing the possessive case appear to be written with sufficient uniformity? 60. What rules for nouns coming together are inserted in Obs. 31st on Rule 4th? 61. Does the compounding of words necessarily preclude their separate use? 62. Is there a difference worth notice, between such terms or things as _heart-ease_ and _heart's-ease_; a _harelip_ and a _hare's lip_; a _headman_ and a _headsman_; a _lady's-slipper_ and a _lady's slipper_? 63. Where usage is utterly unsettled, what guidance should be sought? 64. What peculiarities are noticed in regard to the noun _side_? 65. What peculiarities has the possessive case in regard to correlatives? 66. What is remarked of the possessive relation between time and action? 67. What is observed of nouns of weight, measure, or time, coming immediately together? LESSON XVII.--NOUNS, OR CASES. 68. Are there any exceptions or objections to the old rule, "Active verbs govern the objective case?" 69. Of how many different constructions is the objective case susceptible? 70. What is the usual position of the objective case, and what exceptions are there? 71. Can any thing but the governing of an objective noun or pronoun make an active verb transitive? 72. In the sentence, "What _have_ I to _do_ with thee?" how are _have_ and _do_ to be parsed? 73. Can infinitives, participles, phrases, sentences, and parts of sentences, be really "in the objective case?" 74. In the sentence, "I _know why_ she blushed," how is _know_ to be parsed? 75. In the sentence, "I _know that_ Messias cometh," how are _know_ and _that_ to be parsed? 76. In the sentence, "And _Simon_ he surnamed _Peter_", how are _Simon_ and _Peter_ to be parsed? 77. In such sentences as, "I paid _him_ the _money_,"--"He asked _them_ the _question_," how are the two objectives to be parsed? 78. Does any verb in English ever govern two objectives that are not coupled? 79. Are there any of our passive verbs that can properly govern the objective case? 80. Is not our language like the Latin, in respect to verbs governing two cases, and passives retaining the latter? 81. How do our grammarians now dispose of what remains to us of the old Saxon dative case? 82. Do any reputable writers allow passive verbs to govern the objective case? 83. What says Lindley Murray about this passive government? 84. Why is the position, "Active verbs govern the objective case," of no use to the composer? 85. On what is the construction of _same cases_ founded? 86. Does this construction admit of any variety in the position of the words? 87. Does an ellipsis of the verb or participle change this construction into apposition? 88. Is it ever right to put both terms before the verb? 89. What kinds of words can take different cases after them? 90. Can a participle which is governed by a preposition, have a case after it which is governed by neither? 91. How is the word _man_ to be parsed in the following example? "The atrocious _crime of being_ a young _man_, I shall neither attempt to palliate, nor deny." LESSON XVIII.--NOUNS, OR CASES. 92. In what kinds of examples do we meet with a doubtful case after a participle? 93. Is the case after the verb reckoned doubtful, when the subject going before is a sentence, or something not declinable by cases? 94. In the sentence, "It is certainly as easy to be a _scholar_, as a _gamester_," what is the case of _scholar_ and _gamester_, and why? 95. Are there any verbs that sometimes connect like cases, and sometimes govern the objective? 96. What faults are there in the rules given by _Lowth, Murray, Smith_, and others, for the construction of _like cases_? 97. Can a preposition ever govern any thing else than a noun or a pronoun? 98. Is every thing that a preposition governs, necessarily supposed to have cases, and to be in the objective? 99. Why or wherein is the common rule, "Prepositions govern the objective case," defective or insufficient? 100. In such phrases as _in vain, at first, in particular_, how is the adjective to be parsed? 101. In such expressions as, "I give it up _for lost_,"--"I take it _for granted_," how is the participle to be parsed? 102. In such phrases as, _at once, from thence, till now_, how is the latter word to be parsed? 103. What peculiarity is there in the construction of nouns of time, measure, distance, or value? 104. What is observed of the words _like, near_, and _nigh_? 105. What is observed of the word _worth_? 106. According to Johnson and Tooke, what is _worth_, in such phrases as, "Wo _worth_ the day?" 107. After verbs of _giving, paying_, and the like, what ellipsis is apt to occur? 108. What is observed of the nouns used in dates? 109. What defect is observable in the common rules for "the case absolute," or "the nominative independent?" 110. In how many ways is the nominative case put absolute? 111. What participle is often understood after nouns put absolute? 112. In how many ways can nouns of the second person be employed? 113. What is said of nouns used in exclamations, or in mottoes and abbreviated sayings? 114. What is observed of such phrases as, "_hand to hand_,"--"_face to face_?" 115. What authors deny the existence of "the case absolute?" LESSON XIX.--ADJECTIVES. 1. Does the adjective frequently relate to what is not uttered with it? 2. What is observed of those rules which suppose every adjective to relate to some noun? 3. To what does the adjective usually relate, when it stands alone after a finite verb? 4. Where is the noun or pronoun, when an adjective follows an infinitive or a participle? 5. What is observed of adjectives preceded by _the_ and used elliptically? 6. What is said of the position of the adjective? 7. In what instances is the adjective placed after its noun? 8. In what instances may the adjective either precede or follow the noun? 9. What are the construction and import of the phrases, _in particular, in general_, and the like? 10. What is said of adjectives as agreeing or disagreeing with their nouns in number? 11. What is observed of _this_ and _that_ as referring to two nouns connected? 12. What is remarked of the use of adjectives for adverbs? 13. How can one determine whether an adjective or an adverb is required? 14. What is remarked of the placing of two or more adjectives before one noun? 15. How can one avoid the ambiguity which Dr. Priestley notices in the use of the adjective _no_? LESSON XX.--PRONOUNS. 1. Can such pronouns as stand for things not named, be said to agree with the nouns for which they are substituted? 2. Is the pronoun _we_ singular when it is used in lieu of _I_? 3. Is the pronoun _you_ singular when used in lieu of _thou_ or _thee_? 4. What is there remarkable in the construction of _ourself_ and _yourself_? 5. Of what person, number, and gender, is the relative, when put after such terms of address as, _your Majesty, your Highness, your Lordship, your Honour_? 6. How does the English fashion of putting _you_ for _thou_, compare with the usage of the French, and of other nations? 7. Do any imagine these fashionable substitutions to be morally objectionable? 8. What figures of rhetoric are liable to affect the agreement of pronouns with their antecedents? 9. How does the pronoun agree with its noun in cases of personification? 10. How does the pronoun agree with its noun in cases of metaphor? 11. How does the pronoun agree with its noun in cases of metonymy? 12. How does the pronoun agree with its noun in cases of synecdoche? 13. What is the usual position of pronouns, and what exceptions are there? 14. When a pronoun represents a phrase or sentence, of what person, number, and gender is it? 15. Under what circumstances can a pronoun agree with either of two antecedents? 16. With what does the relative agree when an other word is introduced by the pronoun _it_? 17. In the sentence, "_It_ is useless to complain," what does _it_ represent? 18. How are relative and interrogative pronouns placed? 19. What are the chief constructional peculiarities of the relative pronouns? 20. Why does the author discard the two special rules commonly given for the construction of relatives? LESSON XXI.--PRONOUNS. 21. To what part of speech is the greatest number of rules applied in parsing? 22. Of the twenty-four rules in this work, how many are applicable to pronouns? 23. Of the seven rules for cases, how many are applicable to relatives and interrogatives? 24. What is remarked of the ellipsis or omission of the relative? 25. What is said of the suppression of the antecedent? 26. What is noted of the word _which_, as applied to persons? 27. What relative is applied to a proper noun taken merely as a name? 28. When do we employ the same relative in successive clauses? 29. What odd use is sometimes made of the pronoun _your_? 30. Under what _figure_ of syntax did the old grammarians rank the plural construction of a noun of multitude? 31. Does a collective noun with a singular definitive before it ever admit of a plural verb or pronoun? 32. Do collective nouns generally admit of being made literally plural? 33. When joint antecedents are of different persons, with which person does the pronoun agree? 34. When joint antecedents differ in gender, of what gender is the pronoun? 35. Why is it wrong to say, "The first has a lenis, _and_ the other an asper over _them_?" 36. Can nouns without _and_ be taken jointly, as if they had it? 37. Can singular antecedents be so suggested as to require a plural pronoun, when only one of them is uttered? 38. Why do singular antecedents connected by _or_ or _nor_ appear to require a singular pronoun? 39. Can different antecedents connected by _or_ be accurately represented by differing pronouns connected in the same way? 40. Why are we apt to use a plural pronoun after antecedents of different genders? 41. Do the Latin grammars teach the same doctrine as the English, concerning nominatives or antecedents connected disjunctively? LESSON XXII.--VERBS. 1. What is necessary to every finite verb? 2. What is remarked of such examples as this: "The _Pleasures_ of Memory _was_ published in 1702?" 3. What is to be done with "_Thinks I_ to myself," and the like? 4. Is it right to say with Smith, "Every hundred _years constitutes_ a century?" 5. What needless ellipses both of nominatives and of verbs are commonly supposed by our grammarians? 6. What actual ellipsis usually occurs with the imperative mood? 7. What is observed concerning the place of the verb? 8. What besides a noun or a pronoun may be made the subject of a verb? 9. What is remarked of the faulty omission of the pronoun _it_ before the verb? 10 When an infinitive phrase is made the subject of a verb, do the words remain adjuncts, or are they abstract? 11. How can we introduce a noun or pronoun before the infinitive, and still make the whole phrase the subject of a finite verb? 12. Can an objective before the infinitive become "the subject of the affirmation?" 13. In making a phrase the subject of a verb, do we produce an exception to Rule 14th? 14. Why is it wrong to say, with Dr. Ash, "The king and queen appearing in public _was_ the cause of my going?" 15. What inconsistency is found in Murray, with reference to his "_nominative sentences_?" 16. What is Dr. Webster's ninth rule of syntax? 17. Why did Murray think all Webster's examples under this rule bad English? 18. Why are both parties wrong in this instance? 19. What strange error is taught by Cobbett, and by Wright, in regard to the relative and its verb? 20. Is it demonstrable that verbs often agree with relatives? 21. What is observed of the agreement of verbs in interrogative sentences? 22. Do we ever find the subjunctive mood put after a relative pronoun? 23. What is remarked of the difference between the indicative and the subjunctive mood, and of the limits of the latter? LESSON XXIII.--VERBS. 24. In respect to collective nouns, how is it generally determined, whether they convey the idea of plurality or not? 25. What is stated of the rules of Adam, Lowth, Murray, and Kirkham, concerning collective nouns? 26. What is Nixon's notion of the construction of the verb and collective noun? 27. Does this author appear to have gained "a _clear idea_ of the nature of a collective noun?" 28. What great difficulty does Murray acknowledge concerning "nouns of multitude?" 29. Does Murray's notion, that collective nouns are of different sorts, appear to be consistent or warrantable? 30. Can words that agree with the same collective noun, be of different numbers? 31. What is observed of collective nouns used partitively? 32. Which are the most apt to be taken plurally, collections of persons, or collections of things? 33. Can a collective noun, as such, take a plural adjective before it? 34. What is observed of the expressions, _these people, these gentry, these folk_? 35. What is observed of sentences like the following, in which there seems to be no nominative: "There _are_ from eight to twelve professors?" 36. What rule does Dr. Webster give for such examples as the following: "There _was_ more than a hundred and fifty thousand pounds?" 37. What grammarians teach, that two or more nouns connected by _and_, "always require the verb or pronoun to which they refer, to be in the plural number?" 38. Does Murray acknowledge or furnish any exceptions to this doctrine? 39. On what principle can one justify such an example as this: "_All work and no play, makes_ Jack a dull boy?" 40. What is remarked of instances like the following: "Prior's _Henry and Emma contains_ an other beautiful example?" 41. What is said of the suppression of the conjunction _and_? 42. When the speaker changes his nominative, to take a stronger one, what concord has the verb? 43. When two or more nominatives connected by _and_ explain a preceding one, what agreement has the verb? 44. What grammarian approves of such expressions as, "Two and two _is_ four?" 45. What is observed of verbs that agree with the nearest nominative, and are understood to the rest? 46. When the nominatives connected are of different persons, of what person is the verb? LESSON XXIV.--VERBS. 47. What is the syntax of the verb, when one of its nominatives is expressed, and an other or others implied? 48. What is the syntax of the verb, when there are nominatives connected by _as_? 49. What is the construction when two nominatives are connected by _as well as, but_, or _save_? 50. Can words connected by _with_ be properly used as joint nominatives? 51. Does the analogy of other languages with ours prove any thing on this point? 52. What does Cobbett say about _with_ put for _and_? 53. What is the construction of such expressions as this: "A torch, _snuff_ and _all, goes_ out in a moment?" 54. Does our rule for the verb and disjunct nominatives derive confirmation from the Latin and Greek syntax? 55. Why do collective nouns singular, when connected by _or_ or _nor_, admit of a plural verb? 56. In the expression, "_I, thou, or he, may affirm_," of what person and number is the verb? 57. Who says, "the verb agrees with _the last nominative_?" 58. What authors prefer "_the nearest person_," and "_the plural number_?" 59. What authors prefer "the _nearest nominative_, whether singular or plural?" 60. What author declares it improper ever to connect by _or_ or _nor_ any nominatives that require different forms of the verb? 61. What is Cobbett's "_clear principle_" on this head? 62. Can a zeugma of the verb be proved to be right, in spite of these authorities? 63. When a verb has nominatives of different persons or numbers, connected by _or_ or _nor_, with which of them does it _commonly_ agree? 64. When does it agree with the remoter nominative? 65. When a noun is implied in an adjective of a different number, which word is regarded in the formation of the verb? 66. What is remarked concerning the place of the pronoun of the first person singular? 67. When verbs are connected by _and, or_, or _nor_, do they necessarily agree with the same nominative? 68. Why is the thirteenth rule of the author's Institutes and First Lines not retained as a rule in this work? 69. Are verbs often connected without agreeing in mood, tense, and form? LESSON XXV.--VERBS. 70. What particular convenience do we find in having most of our tenses composed of separable words? 71. Is the connecting of verbs elliptically, or by parts, anything peculiar to our language? 72. What faults appear in the teaching of our grammarians concerning _do_ used as a "substitute for other verbs?" 73. What notions have been entertained concerning the word _to_ as used before the infinitive verb? 74. How does Dr. Ash parse _to_ before the infinitive? 75. What grammarians have taught that the preposition _to_ governs the infinitive mood? 76. Does Lowth agree with Murray in the anomaly of supposing _to_ a preposition that governs nothing? 77. Why do those teach just as inconsistently, who forbear to call the _to_ a preposition? 78. What objections are there to the rule, with its exceptions, "One verb governs an other in the infinitive mood?" 79. What large exception to this rule has been recently discovered by Dr. Bullions? 80. Are the countless examples of this exception truly elliptical? 81. Is the infinitive ever governed by a preposition in French, Spanish, or Italian? 82. What whimsical account of the English infinitive is given by Nixon? 83. How was the infinitive expressed in the Anglo-Saxon of the eleventh century? 84. What does Richard Johnson infer from the fact that the Latin infinitive is sometimes governed by a preposition? 85. What reasons can be adduced to show that the infinitive is not a noun? 86. How can it be proved that _to_ before the infinitive is a preposition? 87. What does Dr. Wilson say of the character and _import_ of the infinitive? 88. To what other terms can the infinitive be connected? 89. What is the infinitive, and for what things may it stand? 90. Do these ten heads embrace all the uses of the infinitive? 91. What is observed of Murray's "_infinitive made absolute_?" 92. What is said of the position of the infinitive? 93. Is the infinitive ever liable to be misplaced? LESSON XXVI.--VERBS. 94. What is observed of the frequent ellipses of the verb _to be_, supposed by Allen and others? 95. What is said of the suppression of _to_ and the insertion of _be_; as, "To make himself _be_ heard?" 96. Why is it necessary to use the sign _to_ before an abstract infinitive, where it shows no relation? 97. What is observed concerning the distinction of _voice_ in the simple infinitive and the first participle? 98. What do our grammarians teach concerning the omission of _to_ before the infinitive, after _bid, dare, feel_, &c.? 99. How do Ingersoll, Kirkham, and Smith, agree with their master Murray, concerning such examples as, "_Let me go_?" 100. What is affirmed of the difficulties of parsing the infinitive according to the code of Murray? 101. How do Nutting, Kirkham, Nixon, Cooper, and Sanborn, agree with Murray, or with one an other, in pointing out what governs the infinitive? 102. What do Murray and others mean by "_neuter verbs_," when they tell us that the taking of the infinitive without _to_ "extends only to active and neuter verbs?" 103. How is the infinitive used after _bid_? 104. How, after _dare_? 105. How, after _feel_? 106. How, after _hear_? 107. How, after _let_? 108. How, after _make_? 109. How, after _need_? 110. Is _need_ ever an auxiliary? 111. What errors are taught by Greenleaf concerning _dare_ and _need_ or _needs_? 112. What is said of _see_, as governing the infinitive? 113. Do any other verbs, besides these eight, take the infinitive after them without _to_? 114. How is the infinitive used after _have, help_, and _find_? 115. When two or more infinitives occur in the same construction, must _to_ be used with each? 116. What is said of the sign _to_ after _than_ or _as_? LESSON XXVII.--PARTICIPLES. 1. What questionable uses of participles are commonly admitted by grammarians? 2. Why does the author incline to condemn these peculiarities? 3. What is observed of the multiplicity of uses to which the participle in _ing_ may be turned? 4. What is said of the participles which some suppose to be put absolute? 5. How are participles placed? 6. What is said of the transitive use of such words as _unbecoming_? 7. What distinction, in respect to government, is to be observed between a participle and a participial noun? 8. What shall we do when _of_ after the participial noun is objectionable? 9. What is said of the correction of those examples in which a needless article or possessive is put before the participle? 10. What is stated of the retaining of adverbs with participial nouns? 11. Can words having the form of the first participle be nouns, and clearly known to be such, when they have no adjuncts? 12. What strictures are made on Murray, Lennie, and Bullions, with reference to examples in which an infinitive follows the participial noun? 13. In what instances is the first participle equivalent to the infinitive? 14. What is said of certain infinitives supposed to be erroneously put for participles? 15. What verbs take the participle after them, and not the infinitive? 16. What is said of those examples in which participles seem to be made the objects of verbs? 17. What is said of the teaching of Murray and others, that, "The participle with its adjuncts may be considered as a _substantive phrase_?" 18. How does the English participle compare with the Latin gerund? 19. How do Dr. Adam and others suppose "the gerund in English" to become a "substantive," or noun? 20. How does the French construction of participles and infinitives compare with the English? LESSON XXVIII.--PARTICIPLES. 21. What difference does it make, whether we use the possessive case before words in _ing_, or not? 22. What is said of the distinguishing or confounding of different parts of speech, such as verbs, participles, and nouns? 23. With how many other parts of speech does W. Allen confound the participle? 24. How is the distinguishing of the participle from the verbal noun inculcated by Allen, and their difference of meaning by Murray? 25. Is it pretended that the authorities and reasons which oppose the mixed construction of participles, are sufficient to prove such usage altogether inadmissible? 26. Is it proper to teach, in general terms, that the noun or pronoun which limits the meaning of a participle should be put in the possessive case? 27. What is remarked of different cases used indiscriminately before the participle or verbal noun? 28. What say Crombie and others about this disputable phraseology? 29. What says Brown of this their teaching? 30. How do Priestley and others pretend to distinguish between the participial and the substantive use of verbals in _ing_? 31. What does Brown say of this doctrine? 32. If when a participle becomes an adjective it drops its regimen, should it not also drop it on becoming a noun? 33. Where the sense admits of a choice of construction in respect to the participle, is not attention due to the analogy of general grammar? 34. Does it appear that nouns before participles are less frequently subjected to their government than pronouns? 35. Why must a grammarian discriminate between idioms, or peculiarities, and the common mode of expression? 36. Is the Latin gerund, like the verbal in _ing_, sometimes active, sometimes passive; and when the former governs the genitive, do we imitate the idiom in English? 37. Is it agreed among grammarians, that the Latin gerund may govern the genitive of the agent? 38. What distinction between the participial and the substantive use of verbals in _ing_ do Crombie and others propose to make? 39. How does this accord with the views of Murray, Lowth, Adam, and Brown?. 40. How does Hiley treat the English participle? 41. What further is remarked concerning false teaching in relation to participles? LESSON XXIX.--ADVERBS. 1. What is replied to Dr. Adam's suggestion, "Adverbs sometimes qualify substantives?" 2. Do not adverbs sometimes relate to participial nouns? 3. If an adverbial word relates directly to a noun or pronoun, does not that fact constitute it an adjective? 4. Are such expressions as, "the _then_ ministry," "the _above_ discourse," good English, or bad--well authorized, or not? 5. When words commonly used as adverbs assume the construction of nouns, how are they to be parsed? 6. Must not the parser be careful to distinguish adverbs used substantively or adjectively, from such as may be better resolved by the supposing of an ellipsis? 7. How is an adverb to be parsed, when it seems to be put for a verb? 8. How are adverbs to be parsed in such expressions as, "_Away with him?_" 9. What is observed of the relation of conjunctive adverbs, and of the misuse of _when_? 10. What is said in regard to the placing of adverbs? 11. What suggestions are made concerning the word _no_? 12. What is remarked of two or more negatives in the same sentence? 13. Is that a correct rule which says, "Two negatives, in English, destroy each other, or are equivalent to an affirmative?" 14. What is the dispute among grammarians concerning the adoption of _or_ or _nor_ after _not_ or _no_? 15. What fault is found with the opinion of Priestley, Murray, Ingersoll, and Smith, that "either of them may be used with nearly equal propriety?" 16. How does John Burn propose to settle this dispute? 17. How does Churchill treat the matter? 18. What does he say of the manner in which "the use of _nor_ after _not_ has been introduced?" 19. What other common modes of expression are censured by this author under the same head? 20. How does Brown review these criticisms, and attempt to settle the question? 21. What critical remark is made on the misuse of _ever_ and _never_? 22. How does Churchill differ from Lowth respecting the phrase, "_ever so wisely_," or "_never so wisely?_" 23. What is observed of _never_ and _ever_ as seeming to be adjectives, and being liable to contraction? 24. What strictures are made on the classification and placing of the word _only_? 25. What is observed of the term _not but_, and of the adverbial use of _but_? 26. What is noted of the ambiguous use of _but_ or _only_? 27. What notions are inculcated by different grammarians about the introductory word _there_? LESSON XXX.--CONJUNCTIONS. 1. When two declinable words are connected by a conjunction, why are they of the same case? 2. What is the power, and what the position, of a conjunction that connects sentences or clauses? 3. What further is added concerning the terms which conjunctions connect? 4. What is remarked of two or more conjunctions coming together? 5. What is said of _and_ as supposed to be used to call attention? 6. What relation of case occurs between nouns connected by _as_? 7. Between what other related terms can _as_ be employed? 8. What is _as_ when it is made the subject or the object of a verb? 9. What questions are raised among grammarians, about the construction of _as follow_ or _as follows_, and other similar phrases? 10. What is said of Murray's mode of treating this subject? 11. Has Murray written any thing which goes to show whether _as follows_ can be right or not, when the preceding noun is plural? 12. What is the opinion of Nixon, and of Crombie? 13. What conjunction is frequently understood? 14. What is said of ellipsis after _than_ or _as_? 15. What is suggested concerning the character and import of _than_ and _as_? 16. Does _than_ as well as _as_ usually take the same case after it that occurs before it? 17. Is the Greek or Latin construction of the latter term in a comparison usually such as ours? 18. What inferences have our grammarians made from the phrase _than whom_? 19. Is _than_ supposed by Murray to be capable of governing any other objective than _whom_? 20. What grammarian supposes _whom_ after _than_ to be "in the objective case _absolute_?" 21. How does the author of this work dispose of the example? 22. What notice is taken of O. B. Peirce's Grammar, with reference to his manner of parsing words after _than_ or _as_? 23. What says Churchill about the notion that certain conjunctions govern the subjunctive mood? 24. What is said of the different parts of speech contained in the list of correspondents? LESSON XXXI.--PREPOSITIONS. 1. What is said of the parsing of a preposition? 2. How can the terms of relation which pertain to the preposition be ascertained? 3. What is said of the transposition of the two terms? 4. Between what parts of speech, as terms of the relation, can a preposition be used? 5. What is said of the ellipsis of one or the other of the terms? 6. Is _to_ before the infinitive to be parsed just as any other preposition? 7. What is said of Dr. Adam's "_To_ taken _absolutely_?" 8. What is observed in relation to the exceptions to Rule 23d? 9. What is said of the placing of prepositions? 10. What is told of two prepositions coming together? 11. In how many and what ways does the relation of prepositions admit of complexity? 12. What is the difference between _in_ and _into_? 13. What notice is taken of the application of _between, betwixt, among, amongst, amid, amidst_? 14. What erroneous remark have Priestley, Murray, and others, about two prepositions "in the same construction?" 15. What false doctrine have Lowth, Murray, and others, about the separating of the preposition from its noun? 16. What is said of the prepositions which follow _averse_ and _aversion, except_ and _exception_? 17. What is remarked concerning the use of _of, to, on_, and _upon_? 18. Can there be an inelegant use of prepositions which is not positively ungrammatical? LESSON XXXII.--INTERJECTIONS. 1. Are all interjections to be parsed as being put absolute? 2. What is said of _O_ and the vocative case? 3. What do Nixon and Kirkham erroneously teach about cases governed by interjections? 4. What say Murray, Ingersoll, and Lennie, about interjections and cases? 5. What is shown of the later teaching to which Murray's erroneous and unoriginal remark about "_O, oh_, and _ah_," has given rise? 6. What notice is taken of the application of the rule for "_O, oh_, and _ah_," to nouns of the second person? 7. What is observed concerning the further extension of this rule to nouns and pronouns of the third person? 8. What authors teach that interjections are put absolute, and have no government? 9. What is the construction of the pronoun in "_Ah me!_" "_Ah him!_" or any similar exclamation? 10. Is the common rule for interjections, as requiring certain cases after them, sustained by any analogy from the Latin syntax? 11. Can it be shown, on good authority, that _O_ in Latin may be followed by the nominative of the first person or the accusative of the second? 12. What errors in the construction and punctuation of interjectional phrases are quoted from Fisk, Smith, and Kirkham? 13. What is said of those sentences in which an interjection is followed by a preposition or the conjunction _that_? 14. What is said of the place of the interjection? 15. What says O. B. Peirce about the name and place of the interjection? 16. What is offered in refutation of Peirce's doctrine? [Now parse the six lessons of the _Thirteenth Praxis_; taking, if the teacher please, the Italic or difficult words only; and referring to the exceptions or observations under the rules, as often as there is occasion. Then proceed to the correction of the eighteen lessons of _False Syntax_ contained in Chapter Twelfth, or the General Review.] LESSON XXXIII.--GENERAL RULE. 1. Why were the general rule and the general or critical notes added to the foregoing code of syntax? 2. What is the general rule? 3. How many are there of the general or critical notes? 4. What says Critical Note 1st of _the parts of speech_? 5. What says Note 2d of _the doubtful reference_ of words? 6. What says Note 3d of _definitions_? 7. What says Note 4th of _comparisons_? 8. What says Note 5th of _falsities_? 9. What says Note 6th of _absurdities_? 10. What says Note 7th of _self-contradiction_? 11. What says Note 8th of _senseless jumbling_? 12. What says Note 9th of _words needless_? 13. What says Note 10th of _improper omissions_? 14. What says Note 11th of _literary blunders_? 15. What says Note 12th of _literary perversions_? 16. What says Note 13th of _literary awkwardness_? 17. What says Note 14th of _literary ignorance_? 18. What says Note 15th of _literary silliness_? 19. What says Note 16th of _errors incorrigible_? 20. In what place are the rules, exceptions, notes, and observations, in the foregoing system of syntax, enumerated and described? 21. What suggestions are made in relation to the number of rules or notes, and the completeness of the system? 22. What is remarked on the place and character of the critical notes and the general rule? 23. What is noted in relation to the unamendable imperfections sometimes found in ancient writings? [Now correct--(or at least read, and compare with the Key--) the sixteen lessons of _False Syntax_, arranged under appropriate heads, for the application of the General Rule; the sixteen others adapted to the Critical Notes; and the five concluding ones, for which the rules are various.] CHAPTER XV.--FOR WRITING. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. [Fist][When the pupil has been sufficiently exercised in _syntactical parsing_, and has corrected _orally_, according to the formulas given, all the examples of false syntax designed for oral exercises, or so many of them as may be deemed sufficient; he should write out the following exercises, correcting them according to the principles of syntax given in the rules, notes, and observations, contained in the preceding chapters; but omitting or varying the references, because his corrections cannot be ascribed to the books which contain these errors.] EXERCISE I.--ARTICLES. "They are institutions not merely of an useless, but of an hurtful nature."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 344. "Quintilian prefers the full, the copious, and the amplifying style."--_Ib._, p. 247. "The proper application of rules respecting style, will always be best learned by the means of the illustration which examples afford."--_Ib._, p. 224. "He was even tempted to wish that he had such an one."--_Infant School Gram._, p. 41. "Every limb of the human body has an agreeable and disagreeable motion."--_Kames, El. of Crit._ i, 217. "To produce an uniformity of opinion in all men."--_Ib._, ii. 365. "A writer that is really an humourist in character, does this without design."--_Ib._, i. 303. "Addison was not an humourist in character."--_Ib._, i. 303. "It merits not indeed the title of an universal language."--_Ib._, i. 353. "It is unpleasant to find even a negative and affirmative proposition connected."--_Ib._, ii. 25. "The sense is left doubtful by wrong arrangement of members."--_Ib._, ii. 44. "As, for example, between the adjective and following substantive."--_Ib._, ii. 104. "Witness the following hyperbole, too bold even for an Hotspur."--_Ib._, 193. "It is disposed to carry along the good and bad properties of one to another."--_Ib._, ii. 197. "What a kind of a man such an one is likely to prove, is easy to foresee."--_Locke, on Education_, p. 47. "In propriety there cannot be such a thing as an universal grammar, unless there were such a thing as an universal language."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 47. "The very same process by which he gets at the meaning of any ancient author, carries him to a fair and a faithful rendering of the scriptures of the Old and New Testament."--_Chalmers, Sermons_, p. 16. "But still a predominancy of one or other quality in the minister is often visible."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 19. "Among the ancient critics, Longinus possessed most delicacy; Aristotle, most correctness."--_Ib._, p. 20. "He then proceeded to describe an hexameter and pentameter verse."--_Ward's Preface to Lily_, p. vi. "And Alfred, who was no less able a negotiator than courageous a warrior, was unanimously chosen King."--_Pinnock's Geog._, p. 271. "An useless incident weakens the interest which we take in the action."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 460. "This will lead into some detail; but I hope an useful one."--_Ib._, p. 234. "When they understand how to write English with due Connexion, Propriety, and Order, and are pretty well Masters of a tolerable Narrative Stile, they may be advanced to writing of Letters."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 337. "The Senate is divided into the Select and Great Senate."--_Hewitt's Student-Life in Germany_, p. 28. "We see a remains of this ceremonial yet in the public solemnities of the universities."--_Ib._, p. 46. "Where an huge pollard on the winter fire, At an huge distance made them all retire."--_Crabbe, Borough_, p. 209. EXERCISE II.--NOUNS, OR CASES. "Childrens Minds are narrow, and weak, and usually susceptible but of one Thought at once."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 297. "Rather for Example sake, than that ther is any Great Matter in it."--_Right of Tythes_, p. xvii. "The more that any mans worth is, the greater envy shall he be liable to."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 461. "He who works only for the common welfare is the most noble, and no one, but him, deserves the name."-- _Spurzheim, on Ed._, p. 182. "He then got into the carriage, to sit with the man, whom he had been told was Morgan."--_Stone, on Masonry_, p. 480. "But, for such footmen as thee and I are, let us never desire to meet with an enemy."--_Bunyan's P. P._, p. 153. "One of them finds out that she is Tibulluses Nemesis."--_Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 446. "He may be employed in reading such easy books as Corderius, and some of Erasmus' Colloques, with an English translation."--_Burgh's Dignity_, Vol. i, p. 150. "For my preface was to show the method of the priests of Aberdeen's procedure against the Quakers."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. i, p. 235. "They signify no more against us, than Cochlæus' lies against Luther."--_Ib._, i, 236. "To justify Moses his doing obeisance to his father in law."--_Ib._, i, 241. "Which sort of clauses are generally included between two comma's."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 306. "Between you and I, she is but a cutler's wife."--_Goldsmith's Essays_, p. 187. "In Edward the third, King of England's time."--_Jaudon's Gram._, p. 104. "The nominative case is the agent or doer."--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 11. "_Dog_ is in the nominative case, because it is the agent, actor, or doer."--_Ib._ "The actor or doer is considered the naming or leading noun."--_Ib._ "The radical form of the principal verb is made use of."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 24. "They would have the same right to be taken notice of by grammarians."--_Ib._, p. 30. "I shall not quarrel with the friend of twelve years standing."-- _Liberator_, ix, 39. "If there were none living but him, John would be against Lilburne, and Lilburne against John."--_Biog. Dict., w. Lilburne_. "When a personal pronoun is made use of to relate to them."--_Cobbett's Eng. Gram._, ¶ 179. "The town was taken in a few hours time."--_Goldsmith's Rome_, p. 120. "You must not employ such considerations merely as those upon which the author here rests, taken from gratitude's being the law of my nature."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 296. "Our author's second illustration, is taken from praise being the most disinterested act of homage."--_Ib._, p. 301. "The first subdivision concerning praise being the most pleasant part of devotion, is very just and well expressed."--_Ib._ "It was a cold thought to dwell upon its disburdening the mind of debt."--_Ib._ "The thought which runs through all this passage, of man's being the priest of nature, and of his existence being calculated chiefly for this end, that he might offer up the praises of the mute part of the creation, is an ingenious thought and well expressed."--_Ib._, p. 297. "The mayor of Newyork's portrait."--_Ware's English Grammar_, p. 9. "Calm Temperance, whose blessings those partake Who hunger, and who thirst, for scribbling sake." --_Pope, Dunciad_, i, 50. EXERCISE III.--ADJECTIVES. "Plumb down he drops ten thousand fathom deep."--_Milton, P. L._, B. ii, 1, 933. "In his Night Thoughts, there is much energy of expression: in the three first, there are several pathetic passages."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 403. "Learn to pray, to pray greatly and strong."--_The Dial_, Vol. ii, p. 215. "The good and the bad genius are struggling with one another."-- _Philological Museum_, i, 490. "The definitions of the parts of speech, and application of syntax, should be given almost simultaneous."--_Wilbur and Livingston's Gram._, p. 6. "I had studied grammar previous to his instructing me."--_Ib._, p. 13. "So difficult it is to separate these two things from one another."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 92. "New words should never be ventured upon, except by such whose established reputation gives them some degree of dictatorial power over language."--_Ib._, p. 94. "The verses necessarily succeed each other."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 142. "They saw that it would be practicable to express, in writing, the whole combinations of sounds which our words require."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 68. "There are some Events, the Truth of which cannot appear to any, but such whose Minds are first qualify'd by some certain Knowledge."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 242. "These Sort of Feet are in Latin called Iambics."--_Fisher's Gram._, p. 134. "And the Words are mostly so disposed, that the Accents may fall on every 2d, 4th, 6th, 8th, and 10th Syllables."--_Ib._, p. 135. "If the verse does not sound well and harmonious to the ear."--_Ib._, p. 136. "I gat me men-singers and women-singers, and the delights of the sons of men, as musical instruments, and that of all sorts."--_Ecclesiastes_, ii, 8. "No people have so studiously avoided the collision of consonants as the Italians."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 183. "And these two subjects must destroy one another."--_Ib._, p. 42. "Duration and space are two things in some respects the most like, and in some respects the most unlike to one another."--_Ib._, p. 103. "Nothing ever affected him so much, as this misconduct of his friend."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 155. "To see the bearing of the several parts of speech on each other."--_Greenleaf's Gram._, p. 2. "Two or more adjectives following each other, either with or without a conjunction, qualify the same word."--_Bullion's E. Gram._, p. 75. "The two chapters which now remain, are by far the most important of any."-- _Student's Manual_, p. 293. "That has been the subject of no less than six negotiations."--_Pres. Jackson's Message_, 1830. "His gravity makes him work cautious."--_Steele, Spect._, No. 534. "Grandeur, being an extreme vivid emotion, is not readily produced in perfection but by reiterated impressions."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 203. "Every object appears less than when viewed separately and independent of the series."--_Ib._, ii, 14. "An Organ is the best of all other musical instruments."--_Dilworth's English Tongue_, p. 94. "Let such teach others who themselves excel, And censure freely who have written well."--_Pope, on Crit._, l. 15. EXERCISE IV.--PRONOUNS. "You had musty victuals, and he hath holp to eat it."--SHAK.: _Joh. Dict., w. Victuals_. "Sometime am I all wound with adders, who, with cloven tongues, do hiss me into madness."--_Beauties of Shak._, p. 68. "When a letter or syllable is transposed, it is called METATHESIS."--_Adam's Lat. Gram._, p. 275. "When a letter or syllable is added to the beginning of a word, it is called PROSTHESIS."--_Ib._ "If a letter or syllable be taken from the beginning of a word, it is called APH�RESIS."--_Ib._ "We can examine few, or rather no Substances, so far, as to assure ourselves that we have a certain Knowledge of most of its Properties."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 244. "Who do you dine with?"--_Fisher's Gram._, p. 99. "Who do you speak to?"--_Shakspeare_. "All the objects of prayer are calculated to excite the most active and vivid sentiments, which can arise in the heart of man."--_Adams's Rhet._, i, 328. "It has been my endeavour to furnish you with the most useful materials, which contribute to the purposes of eloquence."--_Ib._, ii, 28. "All paraphrases are vicious: it is not translating, it is commenting."--_Formey's Belles-Lettres_, p. 163. "Did you never bear false witness against thy neighbour?"--SIR W. DRAPER: _Junius_, p. 40. "And they shall eat up thine harvest and thy bread: they shall eat up thy flocks and thine herds."--_Jer._, v, 17. "He was the spiritual rock who miraculously supplied the wants of the Israelites."-- _Gurney's Evidences_, p. 53. "To cull from the mass of mankind those individuals upon which the attention ought to be most employed."-- _Rambler_, No. 4. "His speech contains one of the grossest and most infamous calumnies which ever was uttered."--_Merchant's Gram. Key_, p. 198. "STROMBUS, i. m. A shell-fish of the sea, that has a leader whom they follow as their king. Plin."--_Ainsworth's Dict._, 4to. "Whomsoever will, let him come"--MORNING STAR: _Lib._, xi, 13. "Thy own words have convinced me (stand a little more out of the sun if you please) that thou hast not the least notion of true honour."--_Fielding_. "Whither art going, pretty Annette? Your little feet you'll surely wet."--_L. M. Child_. "Metellus, who conquered Macedon, was carried to the funeral pile by his four sons, one of which was the prætor."--_Kennett's Roman Ant._, p. 332. "That not a soldier which they did not know, should mingle himself among them."-- _Josephus_, Vol. v, p. 170. "The Neuter Gender denotes objects which are neither males nor females."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 37. "And hence it is, that the most important precept, which a rhetorical teacher can inculcate respecting this part of discourse, is negative."--_Adams's Rhet._, ii, 97. "The meanest and most contemptible person whom we behold, is the offspring of heaven, one of the children of the Most High."-- _Scougal_, p. 102. "He shall sit next to Darius, because of his wisdom, and shall be called Darius his cousin."--_1 Esdras_, iii, 7. "In 1757, he published his 'Fleece;' but he did not long survive it."--_L. Murray, Seq._, p. 252. "The sun upon the calmest sea Appears not half so bright as thee."--_Prior_. EXERCISE V.--VERBS. "The want of connexion here, as well as in the description of the prodigies that accompanied the death of Cæsar, are scarce pardonable."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. i, p. 38. "The causes of the original beauty of language, considered as significant, which is a branch of the present subject, will be explained in their order."--_Ib._, Vol. ii, p. 6. "Neither of these two Definitions do rightly adjust the Genuine signification of this Tense."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 280. "In the earnest hope that they may prove as beneficial to other teachers as they have to the author."--_John Flint's Gram._, p. 3. "And then an example is given showing the manner in which the pupil should be required to classify."--_Ib._, p. 3. "_Qu_ in English words are equivalent to _kw_."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 258. "_Qu_ has the power of _kw_, therefore quit doubles the final consonant in forming its preterite."--_Ib._, p. 103. "The word pronoun or substantive can be substituted, should any teacher prefer to do it"--_Ib._, p. 132. "The three angles of a right-angled triangle were equal to two right angles in the days of Moses, as well as now."--GOODELL: _Liberator_, Vol. xi, p. 4. "But now two paces of the vilest earth is room enough."--_Beaut. of Shak._, p. 126. "Latin and French, as the World now goes, is by every one acknowledged to be necessary."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 351. "These things, that he will thus learn by sight, and have by roat in his Memory, is not all, I confess, that he is to learn upon the Globes."--_Ib._, p. 321. "Henry: if John shall meet me, I will hand him your note."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 261. "They pronounce the syllables in a different manner from what they do at other times."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 329. "Cato reminded him of many warnings he had gave him."--_Goldsmith's Rome_, i, 114. "The Wages is small. The Compasses is broken."--_Fisher's Gram._, p. 95. "Prepare thy heart for prayer, lest thou temptest God."--_Life of Luther_, p. 83. "That a soldier should fly is a shameful thing."--_Adam's Lat. Gram._, p. 155. "When there is two verbs which are together."--_Woodworth's Gram._, p. 27. "Interjections are words used to express some passion of the mind; and is followed by a note of admiration!"--_Infant School Gram._, p. 126. "And the king said, If he be alone, there is tidings in his mouth."--_2 Samuel_, xviii, 25. "The opinions of the few must be overruled, and submit to the opinions of the many."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 56. "One of the principal difficulties which here occurs, has been already hinted."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 391. "With milky blood the heart is overflown."--_Thomson, Castle of Ind_. "No man dare solicit for the votes of hiz nabors."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 344. "Yet they cannot, and they have no right to exercise it."--_Ib._, p. 56. "In order to make it be heard over their vast theatres."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 471. "Sometimes, however, the relative and its clause is placed before the antecedent and its clause."--_Bullions, Lat. Gram._, p. 200. "Here thou, great Anna! whom three realms obey, Does sometimes counsel take--and sometimes tea." --_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 321. EXERCISE VI.--PARTICIPLES. "On the other hand, the degrading or vilifying an object, is done successfully by ranking it with one that is really low."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 50. "The magnifying or diminishing objects by means of comparison, proceeds from the same cause."--_Ib._, i, 239. "Gratifying the affection will also contribute to my own happiness."--_Ib._, i, 53. "The pronouncing syllables in a high or a low tone."--_Ib._, ii, 77. "The crowding into one period or thought different figures of speech, is not less faulty than crowding metaphors in that manner."--_Ib._, ii, 234. "To approve is acknowledging we ought to do a thing; and to condemn is owning we ought not to do it."--_Burlamaqui, on Law_, p. 39. "To be provoked that God suffers men to act thus, is claiming to govern the word in his stead."--_Secker_. "Let every subject be well understood before passing on to another."--_Infant School Gram._, p. 18. "Doubling the _t_ in _bigotted_ is apt to lead to an erroneous accentuation of the word on the second syllable."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 22. "Their compelling the man to serve was an act of tyranny."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 54. "One of the greatest misfortunes of the French tragedy is, its being always written in rhyme."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 469. "Horace entitles his satire 'Sermones,' and seems not to have intended rising much higher than prose put into numbers."--_Ib._, p. 402. "Feeding the hungry, clothing the naked, comforting the afflicted, yield more pleasure than we receive from those actions which respect only ourselves."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 238. "But when we attempt to go a step beyond this, and inquire what is the cause of regularity and variety producing in our minds the sensation of beauty, any reason we can assign is extremely imperfect."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 29. "In an author's writing with propriety, his being free of the two former faults seems implied."--_Ib._, p. 94. "To prevent our being carried away by that torrent of false and frivolous taste."--_Ib._, p. 12. "When we are unable to assign the reasons of our being pleased."--_Ib._, p. 15. "An adjective will not make good sense without joining it to a noun."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 12. "What is said respecting sentences being inverted?"--_Ib._, p. 71. "Though he admits of all the other cases, made use of by the Latins."--_Bicknell's Gram._, p. viii. "This indeed, is accounting but feebly for its use in this instance."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 148. "The knowledge of what passes in the mind is necessary for the understanding the Principles of Grammar."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 73. "By _than's_ being used instead of as, it is not asserted that the former has as much fruit as the latter."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 207. "Thus much for the Settling your Authority over your Children."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 58. EXERCISE VII.--ADVERBS. "There can scarce be a greater Defect in a Gentleman, than not to express himself well either in Writing or Speaking."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 335. "She seldom or ever wore a thing twice in the same way."--_Castle Rackrent_, p. 84. "So can I give no reason, nor I will not."--_Beauties of Shak._, p. 45. "Nor I know not where I did lodge last night."--_Ib._, p. 270. "It is to be presumed they would become soonest proficient in Latin."--_Burn's Gram._, p. xi. "The difficulty of which has not been a little increased by that variety."--_Ward's Pref. to Lily's Gram._, p. xi. "That full endeavours be used in every monthly meeting to seasonably end all business or cases that come before them."--_N. E. Discipline_, p. 44. "In minds where they had scarce any footing before."--_Spectator_, No. 566. "The negative form is when the adverb _not_ is used."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 61. "The interrogative form is when a question is asked."--_Ibid._ "The finding out the Truth ought to be his whole Aim."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 239. "Mention the first instance when _that_ is used in preference to _who, whom_, or _which_."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 96. "The plot was always exceeding simple. It admitted of few incidents."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 470. "Their best tragedies make not a deep enough impression on the heart."--_Ib._, p. 472. "The greatest genius on earth, not even a Bacon, can be a perfect master of every branch."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 13. "The verb OUGHT is only used in the indicative [and subjunctive moods]."--_Dr. Ash's Gram._, p. 70. "It is still a greater deviation from congruity, to affect not only variety in the words, but also in the construction."-- _Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 28. "It has besides been found that, generally, students attend those lectures more carefully for which they pay."--_Dr. Lieber, Lit. Conv._, p. 65. "This book I obtained through a friend, it being not exposed for sale."--_Woolsey, ib._, p. 76. "Here there is no manner of resemblance but in the word _drown_."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 163. "We have had often occasion to inculcate, that the mind passeth easily and sweetly along a train of connected objects."--_Ib._, ii, 197. "Observe the periods when the most illustrious persons flourished."--_Worcester's Hist._, p. iv. "For every horse is not called Bucephalus, nor every dog Turk."--_Buchanan's Gram._, p. 15. "One can scarce avoid smiling at the blindness of a certain critic."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 257. "Provided always, that we run not into the extreme of pruning so very close, so as to give a hardness and dryness to style."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 92; _Blair's_, 111. "Agreement is when one word is like another in number, case, gender or person."--_Frost's Gram._, p. 43. "Government is when one word causes another to be in some particular number, person or case."--_Ibid._ "It seems to be nothing more than the simple form of the adjective, and to imply not either comparison or degree."--_Murray's Gram._, 2d Ed., p. 47. EXERCISE VIII.--CONJUNCTIONS. "The Indians had neither cows, horses, oxen, or sheep."--_Olney's Introd. to Geog._, p. 46. "Who have no other object in view, but, to make a show of their supposed talents."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 344. "No other but these, could draw the attention of men in their rude uncivilized state."--_Ib._, p. 379. "That he shall stick at nothing, nor nothing stick with him."--_Pope_. "To enliven it into a passion, no more is required but the real or ideal presence of the object."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 110. "I see no more to be made of it but to-rest upon the final cause first mentioned."--_Ib._, i, 175. "No quality nor circumstance contributes more to grandeur than force."--_Ib._, i, 215. "It being a quotation, not from a poet nor orator, but from a grave author, writing an institute of law."--_Ib._, i, 233. "And our sympathy cannot be otherwise gratified but by giving all the succour in our power."--_Ib._, i, 362. "And to no verse, as far as I know, is a greater variety of time necessary."--_Ib._, ii, 79. "English Heroic verse admits no more but four capital pauses."--_Ib._, ii, 105. "The former serves for no other purpose but to make harmony."--_Ib._, 231. "But the plan was not perhaps as new as some might think it."--_Literary Conv._, p. 85. "The impression received would probably be neither confirmed or corrected."--_Ib._, p. 183. "Right is nothing else but what reason acknowledges."--_Burlamaqui, on Law_, p. 32. "Though it should be of no other use but this."--BP. WILKINS: _Tooke's D. P._, ii, 27. "One hope no sooner dies in us but another rises up."--_Spect._, No. 535. "This rule implies nothing else but the agreement of an adjective with a substantive."--_Adams Latin Gram._, p. 156; _Gould's_, 129. "There can be no doubt but the plan of exercise pointed out at page 132, is the best that can be adopted."--_Blair's Gram._, p. viii. "The exertions of this gentleman have done more than any other writer on the subject."--DR. ABERCROMBIE: _Rec. in Murray's Gram._, Vol. ii, p. 306. "No accidental nor unaccountable event ought to be admitted."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 273. "Wherever there was much fire and vivacity in the genius of nations."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 5. "I aim at nothing else but your safety."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 90. "There are pains inflicted upon man for other purposes except warning."--_Wayland's Moral Sci._, p. 122. "Of whom we have no more but a single letter remaining."--_Campbell's Pref. to Matthew_. "The publisher meant no more but that W. Ames was the author."--_Sewel's History, Preface_, p. xii. "Be neether bashful, nor discuver uncommon solicitude."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 403. "They put Minos to death, by detaining him so long in a bath, till he fainted."-- _Lempriere's Dict._ "For who could be so hard-hearted to be severe?"-- _Cowley_. "He must neither be a panegyrist nor a satirist."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 353. "No man unbiassed by philosophical opinions, thinks that life, air, or motion, are precisely the same things."--_Dr. Murray's Hist. of Lang._, i, 426. "Which I had no sooner drank, but I found a pimple rising in my forehead."--ADDISON: _Sanborn's Gram._, p. 182. "This I view very important, and ought to be well understood."--_Osborn's Key_, p. 5. "So that neither emphases, tones, or cadences should be the same."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 5. "You said no more but that yourselves must be The judges of the scripture sense, not we."--_Dryden_, p. 96. EXERCISE IX.--PREPOSITIONS. "To be entirely devoid of relish for eloquence, poetry, or any of the fine arts, is justly construed to be an unpromising symptom of youth."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 14. "Well met, George, for I was looking of you."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 441. "There is another fact worthy attention."--_Channing's Emancip._, p. 49. "They did not gather of a Lord's-day, in costly temples."--_The Dial_, No. ii, p. 209. "But certain ideas have, by convention between those who speak the same language, been agreed to be represented by certain articulate sounds."--_Adams's Rhet._, ii, 271. "A careful study of the language is previously requisite, in all who aim at writing it properly."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 91. "He received his reward in a small place, which he enjoyed to his death."--_Notes to the Dunciad_, B. ii, l. 283. "Gaddi, the pupil of Cimabue, was not unworthy his master."--_Literary History_, p. 268. "It is a new, and picturesque, and glowing image, altogether worthy the talents of the great poet who conceived it."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 100. "If the right does exist, it is paramount his title."--_Angell, on Tide Waters_, p. 237. "The most appropriate adjective should be placed nearest the noun."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 194. "Is not Mr. Murray's octavo grammar more worthy the dignified title of a 'Philosophical Grammar?'"--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 39. "If it shall be found unworthy the approbation and patronage of the literary public."--_Perley's Gram._, p. 3. "When the relative is preceded by two words referring to the same thing, its proper antecedent is the one next it."--_Bullions's E. Gram._, p. 101. "The magistrates commanded them to depart the city."--_Sewel's Hist._, p. 97. "Mankind act oftener from caprice than reason."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 272. "It can never view, clearly and distinctly, above one object at a time."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 65. "The theory of speech, or systematic grammar, was never regularly treated as a science till under the Macedonian kings."--_Knight, on Greek Alph._, p. 106. "I have been at London a year, and I saw the king last summer."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 198. "This is a crucifying of Christ, and a rebelling of Christ."--_Waldenfield_. "There is another advantage worthy our observation."--_Bolingbroke, on Hist._, p. 26. "Certain conjunctions also require the subjunctive mood after them, independently on the sense."--_Grant's Lat. Gram._, p. 77. "If the critical reader will think proper to admit of it at all."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 191. "It is the business of an epic poet to copy after nature."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 427. "Good as the cause is, it is one from which numbers have deserted."-- _Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 222. "In respect of the images it will receive from matter."--_Spectator_, No. 413. "Instead of following on to whither morality would conduct it."--_Dymond's Essays_, p. 85. "A variety of questions upon subjects on which their feelings, and wishes, and interests, are involved."--_Ib._, p. 147. "In the Greek, Latin, Saxon, and German tongues, some of these situations are termed CASES, and are expressed by additions to the Noun instead of by separate words and phrases."--_Booth's Introd._, p. 33. "Every teacher is bound during three times each week, to deliver a public lecture, gratis."--_Howitt's Student-Life in Germany_, p. 35. "But the professors of every political as well as religious creed move amongst each other in manifold circles."--_Ib._, p. 113. EXERCISE X.--PROMISCUOUS. "The inseparable Prepositions making no Sense alone, they are used only in Composition."--_Buchanan's Gram._, p. 66. "The English Scholar learns little from the two last Rules."--_Ib., Pref._, p. xi. "To prevent the body being stolen by the disciples."--_Watson's Apology_, p. 123. "To prevent the Jews rejoicing at his death."--_Wood's Dict._, p. 584. "After he had wrote the chronicles of the priesthood of John Hyrcanus."--_Whiston's Josephus_, v, 195. "Such words are sometimes parsed as a direct address, than which, nothing could be farther from the truth."--_Goodenow's Gram._, p. 89. "The signs of the tenses in these modes are as follows."--_C. Adams's Gram._, p. 33. "The signs of the tenses in the Potential mode are as follows."--_Ibid._ "And, if more promiscuous examples be found necessary, they may be taken from Mr. Murray's English Exercises."-- _Nesbit's Parsing_, p. xvi. "_One_ is a numeral adjective, the same as _ten_."--_Ib._, p. 95. "Nothing so much distinguishes a little mind as to stop at words."--MONTAGUE: _Letter-Writer_, p. 129. "But I say, again, What signifies words?"--_Id., ib._ "Obedience to parents is a divine command, given in both the Old and the New Testaments."--_Nesbit's Parsing_, p. 207. "A Compound Subject is a union of several Subjects to all which belong the same Attribute."--_Fosdick's De Sacy, on General Gram._, p. 22. "There are other languages in which the Conjunctive does not prevent our expressing the subject of the Conjunctive Proposition by a Pronoun."--_Ib._, p. 58. "This distinction must necessarily be expressed by language, but there are several different modes of doing it."--_Ib._, p. 64. "This action may be considered with reference to the person or thing upon whom the action falls."--_Ib._, p. 97. "There is nothing in the nature of things to prevent our coining suitable words."--_Barnard's Gram._, p. 41. "What kind of a book is this?"--_Ib._, p. 43. "Whence all but him had fled."--_Ib._, p. 58. "Person is a distinction between individuals, as speaking, spoken to, or spoken of."--_Ib._, p. 114. "He repented his having neglected his studies at college."--_Emmons's Gram._, p. 19. "What avails the taking so much medicine, when you are so careless about taking cold?"--_Ib._, p. 29. "Active transitive verbs are those where the action passes from the agent to the object."--_Ib._, p. 33. "Active intransitive verbs, are those where the action is wholly confined to the agent or actor."--_Ibid._ "Passive verbs express the receiving, or suffering, the action."--_Ib._, p. 34. "The pluperfect tense expresses an action or event that passed prior or before some other period of time specified in the sentence."--_Ib._, p. 42. "There is no doubt of his being a great statesman."--_Ib._, p. 64. "Herschell is the fartherest from the sun of any of the planets."--_Fuller's Gram._, p. 66. "There has not been introduced into the foregoing pages any reasons for the classifications therein adopted."--_Ib._, p. 80. "There must be a comma before the verb, as well as between each nominative case."--_Ib._, p. 98. "_Yon_, with _former_ and _latter_, are also adjectives."--_Brace's Gram._, p. 17. "You was."--_Ib._, p. 32. "If you was."--_Ib._, p. 39. "Two words which end in _ly_ succeeding each other are indeed a little offensive to the ear."--_Ib._, p. 85; _Lennie's Gram._, p. 102. "Is endless life and happiness despis'd? Or both wish'd here, where neither can be found?"--_Young_, p. 124. EXERCISE XI.--PROMISCUOUS. "Because any one of them is placed before a noun or pronoun, as you observe I have done in every sentence."--_Rand's Gram._, p. 74. "_Might accompany_ is a transitive verb, because it expresses an action which effects the object _me_."--_Gilbert's Gram._, p. 94. "_Intend_ is an intransitive verb because it expresses an action which does not effect any object."--_Ib._, p. 93. "Charles and Eliza were jealous of one another."--_J. M. Putnam's Gram._, p. 44. "Thus _one another_ include both nouns."--_Ibid._ "When the antecedent is a child, _that_ is elegantly used in preference to _who, whom_, or _which_."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 94. "He can do no more in words, but make out the expression of his will."--_Bp. Wilkins_. "The form of the first person plural of the imperative, _love we_, is grown obsolete."-- _Lowth's Gram._, p. 38. "Excluding those verbs which are become obsolete."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 47. "He who sighs for pleasure, the voice of wisdom can never reach, nor the power of virtue touch."--_Wright's Athens_, p. 64. "The other branch of wit in the thought, is that only which is taken notice of by Addison."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 312. "When any measure of the Chancellor was found fault with."--_Professors' Reasons_, p. 14. "_Whether_ was formerly made use of to signify interrogation."-- _Murray's Gram._, p. 54. "Under the article of _Pronouns_ the following words must be taken notice of."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 95. "In a word, we are afforded much pleasure, to be enabled to bestow our most unqualified approbation on this excellent work."--_Wright's Gram., Rec._, p. 4. "For Recreation is not being Idle, as every one may observe."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 365. "In the easier valuing and expressing that sum."--_Dilworth's Arith._, p. 3. "Addition is putting together of two or more numbers."-- _Alexander's Arith._, p. 8. "The reigns of some of our British Queens may fairly be urged in proof of woman being capable of discharging the most arduous and complicated duties of government."--_West's Letters to Y. L._, p. 43. "What is the import of that command to love such an one as ourselves?"--_Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 206. "It should seem then the grand question was, What is good?"--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 297. "The rectifying bad habits depends upon our consciousness of them."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 32. "To prevent our being misled by a mere name."-- _Campbell's Rhet._, p. 168. "I was refused an opportunity of replying in the latter review."--_Fowle's True English Gram._, p. 10. "But how rare is such generosity and excellence as Howard displayed!"--_M'Culloch's Gram._, p. 39. "The noun is in the Nominative case when it is the name of the person or thing which acts or is spoken of."--_Ib._, p. 54. "The noun is in the Objective case when it is the name of the person or thing which is the object or end of an action or movement."--_Ib._, p. 54. "To prevent their being erased from your memory."--_Mack's Gram._, p. 17. "Pleonasm, is when a superfluous word is introduced abruptly."--_Ib._, p. 69. "Man feels his weakness, and to numbers run, Himself to strengthen, or himself to shun."--_Crabbe, Borough_, p. 137. EXERCISE XII.--TWO ERRORS. "Independent on the conjunction, the sense requires the subjunctive mood."--_Grant's Latin Gram._, p. 77. "A Verb in past time without a sign is Imperfect tense."--_C. Adams's Gram._, p. 33. "New modelling your household and personal ornaments is, I grant, an indispensable duty."--_West's Letters to Y. L._, p. 58. "For grown ladies and gentlemen learning to dance, sing, draw, or even walk, is now too frequent to excite ridicule."--_Ib._, p. 123. "It is recorded that a physician let his horse bleed on one of the evil days, and it soon lay dead."--_Constable's Miscellany_, xxi. 99. "As to the apostrophe, it was seldom used to distinguish the genitive case till about the beginning of the present century, and then seems to have been introduced by mistake."--_Dr. Ash's Gram._, p. 23. "One of the relatives only varied to express the three cases."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 24. "What! does every body take their morning draught of this liquor?"--_Collier's Cebes_. "Here, all things comes round, and bring the same appearances a long with them."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 103. "Most commonly both the relative and verb are elegantly left out in the second member."--_Buchanan's Gram._, p. ix. "A fair receipt of water, of some thirty or forty foot square."--_Bacon's Essays_, p. 127. "The old know more indirect ways of outwiting others, than the young."--_Burgh's Dignity_, i, 60. "The pronoun singular of the third person hath three genders."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 21. "The preposition _to_ is made use of before nouns of place, when they follow verbs and participles of motion."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 203. "It is called, understanding human nature, knowing the weak sides of men, &c."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 284. "Neither of which are taken notice of by this Grammar."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 279. "But certainly no invention is entitled to such degree of admiration as that of language."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 54. "The Indians, the Persians, and Arabians, were all famous for their tales."--_Ib._, p. 374. "Such a leading word is the preposition and the conjunction."-- _Felch's Comp. Gram._, p. 21. "This, of all others, is the most encouraging circumstance in these times."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 37. "The putting any constraint on the organs of speech, or urging them to a more rapid action than they can easily perform in their tender state, must be productive of indistinctness in utterance."--_Ib._, p. 35. "Good articulation is the foundation of a good delivery, in the same manner as the sounding the simple notes in music, is the foundation of good singing."--_Ib._, p. 33. "The offering praise and thanks to God, implies our having a lively and devout sense of his excellencies and of his benefits."--ATTERBURY: _Blair's Rhet._, p. 295. "The pause should not be made till the fourth or sixth syllable."--_Blair, ib._, p. 333. "Shenstone's pastoral ballad, in four parts, may justly be reckoned one of the most elegant poems of this kind, which we have in English."--_Ib._, p. 394. "What need Christ to have died, if heaven could have contained imperfect souls?"--_Baxter_. "Every person is not a man of genius, nor is it necessary that he should."--_Seattle's Moral Science_, i, 69. "They were alarmed from a quarter where they least expected."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, ii, 6. "If thou more murmur'st, I will rend an oak, And peg thee in his knotty intrails."--SHAK.: _White's Verb_, p. 94. EXERCISE XIII.--TWO ERRORS. "In consequence of this, much time and labor are unprofitably expended, and a confusion of ideas introduced into the mind, which, by never so wise a method of subsequent instruction, it is very difficult completely to remove."--_Grenville's Gram._, p. 3. "So that the restoring a natural manner of delivery, would be bringing about an entire revolution, in its most essential parts."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 170. "'Thou who loves us, will protect us still:' here _who_ agrees with _thou_, and is nominative to the verb loves."--_Alex. Murray's Gram._, p. 67. "The Active voice signifies action; the Passive, suffering, or being the object of an action."--_Adam's Latin Gram._, p. 80; _Gould's_, 77. "They sudden set upon him, fearing no such thing."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 252. "_That_ may be used as a pronoun, an adjective, and a conjunction, depending on the office which it performs in the sentence."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 110. "This is the distinguishing property of the church of Christ from all other antichristian assemblies or churches."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 533. "My lords, the course which the legislature formerly took with respect to the slave-trade, appears to me to be well deserving the attention both of the government and your lordships."--BROUGHAM: _Antislavery Reporter_, Vol. ii, p. 218. "We speak that we do know, and testify that we have seen."--_John_, iii, 11. "This is a consequence I deny, and remains for him to prove."--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 329. "To back this, He brings in the Authority of Accursius, and Consensius Romanus, to the latter of which he confesses himself beholding for this Doctrine."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 343. "The compound tenses of the second order, or those in which the participle present is made use of."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 24. "To lay the accent always on the same syllable, and the same letter of the syllable, which they do in common discourse."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 78. "Though the converting the _w_ into a _v_ is not so common as the changing the _v_ into a _w_."--_Ib._, p. 46. "Nor is this all; for by means of accent, the times of pauses also are rendered quicker, and their proportions more easily to be adjusted and observed."--_Ib._, p. 72. "By mouthing, is meant, dwelling upon syllables that have no accent: or prolonging the sounds of the accented syllables, beyond their due proportion of time."--_Ib._, p. 76. "Taunt him with the license of ink; if thou thou'st him thrice, it shall not be amiss."--SHAK.: _Joh. Dict., w. Thou_. "The eye that mocketh at his father, and despiseth to obey his mother, the ravens of the valley shall pick it out, and the young eagles shall eat it."--_Prov._, xxx, 17. "Copying, or merely imitating others, is the death of arts and sciences."--_Spurzheim, on Ed._, p. 170. "He is arrived at that degree of perfection, as to surprise all his acquaintance."--_Ensell's Gram._, p. 296. "Neither the King _nor_ Queen are gone."--_Buchanan's E. Syntax_, p. 155. "_Many_ is pronounced as if it were wrote _manny_."--_Dr. Johnson's Gram., with Dict._, p. 2. "And as the music on the waters float, Some bolder shore returns the soften'd note." --_Crabbe, Borough_, p. 118. EXERCISE XIV.--THREE ERRORS. "It appears that the Temple was then a building, because these Tiles must be supposed to be for the covering it."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 281. "It was common for sheriffs to omit or excuse the not making returns for several of the boroughs within their counties."--_Brown's Estimate_, Vol. ii, p. 132. "The conjunction _as_ when it is connected with the pronoun, such, many, or same, is sometimes called a relative pronoun."--_Kirkham's Gram., the Compend_. "Mr. Addison has also much harmony in his style; more easy and smooth, but less varied than Lord Shaftesbury."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 127; _Jamieson's_, 129. "A number of uniform lines having all the same pause, are extremely fatiguing; which is remarkable in French versification."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. ii, p. 104. "Adjectives qualify or distinguish one noun from another."--_Fowle's True Eng. Gram._, p. 13. "The words _one, other_, and _none_, are used in both numbers."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 107. "A compound word is made up of two or more words, usually joined by an hyphen, as summer-house, spirit-less, school-master."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 7. "There is an inconvenience in introducing new words by composition which nearly resembles others in use before; as, _disserve_, which is too much like _deserve_."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 145. "For even in that case, the trangressing the limits in the least, will scarce be pardoned."--_Sheridan's Lect._, p. 119. "What other are the foregoing instances but describing the passion another feels."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 388. "'Two and three are five.' If each _substantive_ is to be taken separately as a subject, then 'two _is_ five,' and 'three _is_ five.'"--_Goodenow's Gram._, p. 87. "The article _a_ joined to the simple _pronoun other_ makes _it_ the compound _another_."-- _Priestley's Gram._, p. 96. "The _word another_ is composed of the indefinite _article prefixed_ to the _word other_."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 57; et al. "In relating things that were formerly expressed by another person, we often meet with modes of expression similar to the following."--_Ib._, p. 191. "Dropping one l prevents the recurrence of three very near each other."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 202. "Sometimes two or more genitive cases succeed each other; as, 'John's wife's father.'"--_Dalton's Gram._, p. 14. "Sometimes, though rarely, two nouns in the possessive case immediately succeed each other, in the following form: 'My friend's wife's sister.'"--_Murray's Gram._, p. 45. EXERCISE XV.--MANY ERRORS. "Number is of a two fold nature,--Singular and Plural: and comprehends, accordingly to its application, the distinction between them."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 37. "The former, Figures of Words, are commonly called Tropes, and _consists_ in a word's being employed to signify something, _which_ is different from its original and primitive meaning."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 337. "The former, figures of words, are commonly called tropes, and _consist_ in a word's being employed to signify something _that_ is different from its original and primitive meaning."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 132. "A particular number of connected syllables are called feet, or measured paces."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 118. "Many poems, and especially songs, are written in the dactyl or anapæstic measure, some consisting of eleven or twelve syllables, and some of less."--_Ib._, p. 121. "A Diphthong makes always a long Syllable, unless one of the vowels be droped."-- _British Gram._, p. 34. "An Adverb is generally employed as an attributive, to denote some peculiarity or manner of action, with respect to the time, place, or order, of the noun or circumstance to which it is connected."-- _Wright's Definitions, Philos. Gram._, pp. 35 and 114. "A Verb expresses the action, the suffering or enduring, or the existence or condition of a noun."--_Ib._, pp. 35 and 64. "These three adjectives should be written our's, your's, their's."--_Fowle's True Eng. Gram._, p. 22. "Never was man so teized, or suffered half the uneasiness as I have done this evening."-- _Tattler_, No. 160; _Priestley's Gram._, p. 200; _Murray's_, i, 223. "There may be reckoned in English four different cases, or relations of a substantive, called the subjective, the possessive, the objective, and the absolute cases."--_Goodenow's Gram._, p. 31. "To avoid the too often repeating the Names of other Persons or Things of which we discourse, the words _he, she, it, who, what_, were invented."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 85. "Names which denote a number of the same things, are called nouns of multitude."--_Infant School Gram._, p. 21. "But lest he should think, this were too slightly a passing over his matter, I will propose to him to be considered these things following."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. iii, p. 472. "In the pronunciation of the letters of the Hebrew proper names, we find nearly the same rules prevail as in those of Greek and Latin."--_Walker's Key_, p. 223. "The distributive pronominal adjectives _each, every, either_, agree with _the_ nouns, _pronouns, and_ verbs of the singular number only."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 89. "_Having treated_ of the different _sorts_ of _words_, and _their_ various modifications, _which is_ the first part of Etymology, _it_ is now proper to explain the _methods_ by which _one word_ is derived from another."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 130. EXERCISE XVI.--MANY ERRORS. "A Noun with its Adjectives (or any governing Word with its Attendants) is one compound Word, whence the Noun and Adjective so joined, do often admit another Adjective, and sometimes a third, and so on; as, a Man, an old Man, a very good old Man, a very learned, judicious, sober Man."--_British Gram._, p. 195; _Buchanan's_, 79. "A substantive _with_ its adjective _is_ reckoned as one _compounded_ word; whence _they_ often take _another_ adjective, and sometimes a third, and so on: as, 'An old man; a good old man; a very learned, judicious, good old man.'"--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 169; _Ingersoll's_, 195; _and others_. "But though this elliptical style _be_ intelligible, and _is_ allowable in conversation _and_ epistolary _writing_, yet in all _writings_ of a serious or dignified kind, _is_ ungraceful."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 112. "There is no talent _so useful_ towards rising in the world, _or which_ puts men more out of the reach of fortune, than that quality generally possessed by the dullest sort of people, and is, in common language, called discretion."--SWIFT: _Blair's Rhet._, p. 113. "Which to allow, is just as reasonable as to own, that 'tis the greatest ill of a body to be in the utmost _manner_ maimed or distorted; but _that_ to lose the use _only_ of one limb, or to be impaired in some single organ or member, is no ill worthy the least notice."-- SHAFTESBURY: _ib._, p. 115; _Murray's Gram._, p. 322. "If the singular nouns _and_ pronouns, which _are joined_ together by a copulative conjunction, _be_ of _several_ persons, in _making_ the plural pronoun _agree_ with them in person, the second person takes _place of_ the third, and the _first of_ both."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 151; _et al_. "'The painter * * * cannot exhibit various stages of the same action.' _In_ this sentence we see that _the_ painter _governs_, or agrees with, the verb _can_, as _its nominative_ case."--_Ib._, p. 195. "It expresses _also_ facts _which_ exist _generally_, at _all times_, general truths, attributes _which_ are permanent, habits, customary actions, and the like, without the reference to a specific time."--_Ib._, p. 73; _Webster's Philos. Gram._, p. 71. "The different species of animals may therefore be considered, as so many different nations speaking different languages, _that have_ no commerce with _each_ other; each of _which_ consequently understands _none_ but _their_ own."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 142. "It is also important to _understand and_ apply the principles of grammar in our common conversation; not only because _it_ enables us to make our language _understood by educated_ persons, but because it furnishes the readiest evidence _of our_ having received a good education _ourselves_."--_Frost's Practical Gram._, p. 16. EXERCISE XVII.--MANY ERRORS. "This faulty Tumour in Stile is like an huge unpleasant Rock in a Champion Country, that's difficult to be transcended."--_Holmes's Rhet._, Book ii, p. 16. "For there are no Pelops's, nor Cadmus's, nor Danaus's dwell among us."--_Ib._, p. 51. "None of these, except _will_, is ever used as a principal verb, but as an auxiliary to some principal, either expressed or understood."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 134. "Nouns which signify either the male or female are common gender."--_Perley's Gram._, p. 11. "An Adjective expresses the kind, number, or quality of a noun."--_Parker and Fox's Gram._, Part I, p. 9. "There are six tenses; the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, the Future, and the Future Perfect tenses."--_Ib._, p. 18. "_My_ refers to the first person singular, either gender. _Our_ refers to the first person plural, either gender. _Thy_ refers to the second person singular, either gender. _Your_ refers to the second person plural, either gender. _Their_ refers to the third person plural, either gender."--_Parker and Fox's Gram._, Part II, p. 14. "Good use, which for brevity's sake, shall hereafter include reputable, national, and present use, is not always uniform in her decisions."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 44. "Nouns which denote but one object are considered in the singular number."--_Edward's First Lessons in Gram._, p. 35. "If, therefore, the example of Jesus should be plead to authorize accepting an invitation to dine on the sabbath, it should be plead just as it was."--_Barnes's Notes: on Luke_, xiv, 1. "The teacher will readily dictate what part may be omitted, the first time going through it."--_Ainsworth's Gram._, p. 4. "The contents of the following pages have been drawn chiefly, with various modifications, from the same source which has supplied most modern writers on this subject, viz. LINDLEY MURRAY'S GRAMMAR."--_Felton's Gram._, p. 3. "The term _person_ in grammar distinguishes between the speaker, the person or thing spoken to, and the person or thing spoken of."--_Ib._, p. 9. "In my father's garden grow the Maiden's Blush and the Prince' Feather."--_Felton, ib._, p. 15. "A preposition is a word used to connect words with one another, and show the relation between them. They generally stand before nouns and pronouns."--_Ib._, p. 60. "Nouns or pronouns addressed are always either in the second person, singular or plural."--_Hallock's Gram._, p. 54. "The plural MEN not ending in s, is the reason for adding the apostrophie's."--_T. Smith's Gram._, p. 19. "_Pennies_ denote real coin; _pence_, their value in computation."-- _Hazen's Gram._, p. 24. "We commence, first, with _letters_, which is termed _Orthography_; secondly, with _words_, denominated _Etymology_; thirdly, with _sentences_, styled _Syntax_; fourthly, with _orations_ and _poems_, called _Prosody_."--_Barrett's Gram._, p. 22. "Care must be taken, that sentences of proper construction and obvious import be not rendered obscure by the too free use of the ellipsis."--_Felton's Grammar, Stereotype Edition_, p. 80. EXERCISE XVIII.--PROMISCUOUS. "Tropes and metaphors so closely resemble _each_ other that it is not always easy, nor is it important to _be able_ to distinguish the _one_ from the _other_."--_Parker and Fox, Part III_, p. 66. "With regard to _relatives_, it may be further observed, that obscurity often arises from _the_ too frequent repetition of them, particularly of the pronouns WHO, and THEY, and THEM, and THEIRS. When we find _these personal pronouns_ crowding too fast upon us, we have often no method left, but to throw the whole sentence into some other form."--_Ib._, p. 90; _Murray's Gram._, p. 311; _Blair's Rhet._, p. 106. "Do scholars acquire any valuable knowledge, by learning to repeat long strings of words, without any definite ideas, or _several jumbled_ together like rubbish in a corner, and apparently with no application, _either for_ the improvement of mind _or of_ language?"-- _Cutler's Gram., Pref._, p. 5. "The being officiously good natured and civil are things so uncommon in the world, that one cannot hear a man make professions of them without being surprised, or at least, suspecting the disinterestedness of his intentions."--FABLES: _Cutler's Gram._, p. 135. "Irony is the intentional use of words to express a sense contrary to that which the speaker or writer means to convey."--_Parker and Fox's Gram._, Part III, p. 68. "The term _Substantive_ is derived from _substare_, to _stand_, to _distinguish it_ from an adjective, which cannot, like the noun, stand alone."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 11. "They have two numbers, _like nouns_, the singular and plural; and three persons in each number, namely, _I_, the first person, represents the speaker. _Thou_, the second person, represents the person spoken to. _He, she, it_, the third person, represents the person or thing spoken of."--_Ib._, p. 23. "_He, She, It_, is the Third Person singular; but _he with others, she with others_, or _it with others_, make each of them _they_, which is the Third Person plural."--_White, on the English Verb_, p. 97. "The words _had I been_, that is, the Third Past Tense of the Verb, marks the Supposition, as referring itself, not to the Present, but to some former period of time."--_Ib._, p. 88. "A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid a too frequent repetition of the same word."--_Frazee's Improved Gram._, p. 122. "That which he cannot use, and dare not show, And would not give--why longer should he owe?"--_Crabbe_. PART IV. PROSODY. Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, figures, and versification. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--The word _prosody_, (from the Greek--[Greek: pros], _to_, and [Greek: dæ], _song_,) is, with regard to its derivation, exactly equivalent to _accent_, or the Latin _accentus_, which is formed from _ad, to_, and _cantus, song_: both terms, perhaps, originally signifying a _singing with_, or _sounding to_, some instrument or voice. PROSODIA, as a Latin word, is defined by Littleton, "Pars Grammaticæ quæ docet _accentus, h. e._ rationem atollendi et depremendi syllabas, tum quantitatem carundem." And in English, "_The art of_ ACCENTING, _or the rule of pronouncing syllables truly_, LONG _or_ SHORT."--_Litt. Dict._, 4to. This is a little varied by Ainsworth thus: "_The rule of_ ACCENTING, _or pronouncing syllables truly, whether_ LONG _or_ SHORT."--_Ains. Dict._, 4to. Accent, in English, belongs as much to prose as to poetry; but some deny that in Latin it belongs to either. There is also much difficulty about the import of the word; since some prosodists identify _accent_ with _tone_; some take it for the _inflections_ of voice; some call it the _pitch_ of vocal sounds; and some, like the authors just cited, seem to confound it with _quantity_,--"LONG _or_ SHORT." [459] OBS. 2.--"_Prosody_," says a late writer, "strictly denotes only that _musical tone_ or _melody_ which accompanies speech. But the usage of modern grammarians justifies an extremely general application of the term."--_Frost's Practical Grammar_, p. 160. This remark is a note upon the following definition: "PROSODY is that part of grammar which treats of the structure of Poetical Composition."--_Ibid._ Agreeably to this definition, Frost's Prosody, with all the generality the author claims for it, embraces only a brief account of Versification, with a few remarks on "Poetical License." Of Pronunciation and the Figures of Speech, he takes no notice; and Punctuation, which some place with Orthography, and others distinguish as one of the chief parts of grammar, he exhibits as a portion of Syntax. Not more comprehensive is this part of grammar, as exhibited in the works of several other authors; but, by Lindley Murray, R. C. Smith, and some others, both Punctuation and Pronunciation are placed here; though no mention is made of the former in their subdivision of Prosody, which, they not very aptly say, "consists of _two_ parts, Pronunciation and Versification." Dr. Bullions, no less deficient in method, begins with saying, "PROSODY consists of two parts; Elocution and Versification;" (_Principles of E. Gram._, p. 163;) and then absurdly proceeds to treat of it under the following _six_ principal heads: viz., Elocution, Versification, Figures of Speech, Poetic License, Hints for Correct and Elegant Writing, and Composition. OBS. 3.--If, in regard to the subjects which may be treated under the name of _Prosody_, "the usage of _modern_ grammarians justifies an extremely general application of the term," such an application is certainly not _less_ warranted by the usage of _old_ authors. But, by the practice of neither, can it be _easily_ determined how many and what things _ought_ to be embraced under this head. Of the different kinds of verse, or "the structure of Poetical Compostion," some of the old prosodists took little or no notice; because they thought it their chief business, to treat of syllables, and determine the orthoëpy of words. The Prosody of Smetius, dated 1509, (my edition of which was published in Germany in 1691,) is in fact a _pronouncing dictionary_ of the Latin language. After a brief abstract of the old rules of George Fabricius concerning quantity and accent, it exhibits, in alphabetic order, and with all their syllables marked, about twenty-eight thousand words, with a poetic line quoted against each, to prove the pronunciation just. The Prosody of John Genuensis, an other immense work, concluded by its author in 1286, improved by Badius in 1506, and printed at Lyons in 1514, is also mainly a _Latin dictionary_, with derivations and definitions as in other dictionaries. It is a folio volume of seven hundred and thirty closely-printed pages; six hundred of which are devoted to the vocabulary, the rest to orthography, accent, etymology, syntax, figures, points--almost everything _but versification_. Yet this vast sum of grammar has been entitled _Prosody_--"_Prosodia seu Catholicon_"--"_Catholicon seu Universale Vocabularium ac Summa Grammatices_."--See pp. 1 and 5. CHAPTER I--PUNCTUATION. Punctuation is the art of dividing literary composition, by points, or stops, for the purpose of showing more clearly the sense and relation of the words; and of noting the different pauses and inflections required in reading. The following are the principal points, or marks; namely, the Comma [,], the Semicolon [;], the Colon [:], the Period [.], the Dash [--], the Eroteme, or Note of Interrogation [?], the Ecphoneme, or Note of Exclamation [!], and the Curves, or Marks of Parenthesis, [()]. The Comma denotes the shortest pause; the Semicolon, a pause double that of the comma; the Colon, a pause double that of the semicolon; and the Period, or Full Stop, a pause double that of the colon. The pauses required by the other four, vary according to the structure of the sentence, and their place in it. They may be equal to any of the foregoing. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--The pauses that are made in the natural flow of speech, have, in reality, no definite and invariable proportions. Children are often told to pause at a comma while they might count _one_; at a semicolon, _one, two_; at a colon, _one, two, three_; at a period, _one, two, three, four_. This may be of some use, as teaching them to observe the necessary stops, that they may catch the sense; but the standard itself is variable, and so are the times which good sense gives to the points. As a final stop, the period is immeasurable; and so may be the pause after a question or an exclamation. OBS. 2.--The first four points take their names from the parts of discourse, or of a sentence, which are distinguished by them. The _Period_, or _circuit_, is a complete _round_ of words, often consisting of several clauses or members, and always bringing out full sense at the close. The _Colon_, or _member_, is the greatest division or _limb_ of a period, and is the chief constructive part of a compound sentence. The _Semicolon, half member_, or _half limb_, is the greatest division of a colon, and is properly a smaller constructive part of a compound sentence. The _Comma_, or _segment_, is a small part of a clause _cut off_, and is properly the least constructive part of a compound sentence. A _simple sentence_ is sometimes a whole period, sometimes a chief member, sometimes a half member, sometimes a segment, and sometimes perhaps even less. Hence it may require the period, the colon, the semicolon, the comma, or even no point, according to the manner in which it is used. A sentence whose relatives and adjuncts are all taken in a restrictive sense, may be considerably complex, and yet require no division by points; as, "Thank him who puts me loath to this revenge On you who wrong me not for him who wrong'd."--_Milton_. OBS. 3.--The system of punctuation now used in English, is, in its main features, common to very many languages. It is used in Latin, French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Dutch, German, and perhaps most of the tongues in which books are now written or printed. The Germans, however, make less frequent use of the comma than we; and the Spaniards usually mark a question or an exclamation _doubly_, inverting the point at the beginning of the sentence. In Greek, the difference is greater: the colon, expressed by the upper dot alone, is the only point between the comma and the period; the ecphoneme, or note of exclamation, is hardly recognized, though some printers of the classics have occasionally introduced it; and the eroteme, or note of interrogation, retains in that language its pristine form, which is that of our semicolon. In Hebrew, a full stop is denoted by a heavy colon, or something like it; and this is the only pointing adopted, when the vowel points and the accents are not used. OBS. 4.--Though the points in use, and the principles on which they ought to be applied, are in general well fixed, and common to almost all sorts of books; yet, through the negligence of editors, the imperfections of copy, the carelessness of printers, or some other means, it happens, that different editions and different versions of the same work are often found pointed very variously. This circumstance, provided the sense is still preserved, is commonly thought to be of little moment. But all _writers_ will do well to remember, that they owe it to their readers, to show them at once how they mean to be read; and since the punctuation of the early printers was unquestionably very _defective_, the republishers of ancient books should not be over scrupulous about an exact imitation of it; they may, with proper caution, correct obvious faults. OBS. 5.--The precise origin of the points, it is not easy to trace in the depth of antiquity. It appears probable, from ancient manuscripts and inscriptions, that the period is the oldest of them; and it is said by some, that the first system of punctuation consisted in the different positions of this dot alone. But after the adoption of the small letters, which improvement is referred to the ninth century, both the comma and the colon came into use, and also the Greek note of interrogation. In old books, however, the comma is often found, not in its present form, but in that of a straight stroke, drawn up and down obliquely between the words. Though the colon is of Greek origin, the practice of writing it with two dots we owe to the Latin authors, or perhaps to the early printers of Latin books. The semicolon was first used in Italy, and was not adopted in England till about the year 1600. Our marks for questions and exclamations were also derived from the same source, probably at a date somewhat earlier. The curves of the parenthesis have likewise been in use for several centuries. But the clash is a more recent invention: Lowth, Ash, and Ward,--Buchanan, Bicknell, and Burn,--though they name all the rest, make no mention of this mark; but it appears by their books, that they all occasionally _used_ it. OBS. 6--Of the _colon_ it may be observed, that it is now much less frequently used than it was formerly; its place being usurped, sometimes by the semicolon, and sometimes by the period. For this ill reason, some late grammarians have discarded it altogether. Thus Felton: "The COLON is now so seldom used by good writers, that rules for its use are unnecessary."--_Concise Manual of English Gram._, p. 140. So Nutting: "It will be noticed, that the _colon_ is omitted in this system; because it is omitted by the majority of the writers of the present age; three points, with the dash, being considered sufficient to mark the different lengths of the pauses."--_Practical Grammar_, p. 120. These critics, whenever they have occasion to copy such authors as Milton and Pope, do not scruple to mutilate their punctuation by putting semicolons or periods for all the colons they find. But who cannot perceive, that without the colon, the semicolon becomes an absurdity? It can no longer be a _semicolon_, unless the half can remain when the whole is taken away! The colon, being the older point of the two, and once very fashionable, is doubtless on record in more instances than the semicolon; and, if now, after both have been in common use for some hundreds of years, it be found out that only one is needed, perhaps it would be more reasonable to prefer the former. Should public opinion ever be found to coincide with the suggestions of the two authors last quoted, there will be reason to regret that Caxton, the old English typographer of the fifteenth century, who for a while successfully withstood, in his own country, the introduction of the semicolon, had not the power to prevent it forever. In short, to leave no literary extravagance unbroached, the latter point also has not lacked a modern impugner. "One of the greatest improvements in punctuation," says Justin Brenan, "is the rejection of the eternal semicolons of our ancestors. In latter times, the semicolon has been gradually disappearing, not only from the newspapers, but from books."--_Brenan's "Composition and Punctuation familiarly Explained"_, p. 100; London, 1830. The colon and the semicolon are both useful, and, not unfrequently, necessary; and all correct writers will, I doubt not, continue to use both. OBS. 7--Since Dr. Blair published his emphatic caution against too frequent a use of _parentheses_, there has been, if not an abatement of the kind of error which he intended to censure, at least a diminution in the use of the _curves_, the sign of a parenthesis. These, too, some inconsiderate grammarians now pronounce to be out of vogue. "The parenthesis is now generally exploded as a deformity."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 362. "The Parenthesis, () has become nearly obsolete, except in mere references, and the like; its place, by modern writers, being usually supplied by the use of the comma, and the dash."--_Nutting's Practical Gram._, p. 126; _Frazee's Improved Grammar_, p. 187. More use may have been made of the curves than was necessary, and more of the parenthesis itself than was agreeable to good taste; but, the sign being well adapted to the construction, and the construction being sometimes sprightly and elegant, there are no good reasons for wishing to discard either of them; nor is it true, that the former "has become nearly obsolete." OBS. 8--The name _parenthesis_ is, which literally means a _putting-in-between_, is usually applied both to the _curves_, and to the incidental _clause_ which they enclose. This twofold application of the term involves some inconvenience, if not impropriety. According to Dr. Johnson, the enclosed "_sentence_" alone is the _parenthesis_; but Worcester, agreeably to common usage, defines the word as meaning also "the _mark_ thus ()." But, as this sign consists of two distinct parts, two corresponding curves, it seems more natural to use a plural name: hence L. Murray, when he would designate the sign only, adopted a plural expression; as, "_the parenthetical characters_,"--"_the parenthetical marks_." So, in another case, which is similar: "the _hooks_ in which words are included," are commonly called _crotchets_ or _brackets_; though Bucke, in his Classical Grammar, I know not why, calls the two "[ ] a _Crotchet_;" (p. 23;) and Webster, in his octavo Dictionary, defines a "_Bracket_, in printing," as Johnson does a "_Crotchet_" by a plural noun: "_hooks_; thus, [ ]." Again, in his grammars, Dr. Webster rather confusedly says: "The parenthesis () and hooks [] include a remark or clause, not essential to the sentence in construction."--_Philosophical Gram._, p. 219; _Improved Gram._, p. 154. But, in his Dictionary, he forgets both the hooks and the parenthesis that are here spoken of; and, with still worse confusion or inaccuracy, says: "The _parenthesis_ is usually included in _hooks_ or curved lines, thus, ()." Here he either improperly calls these regular little curves "_hooks_," or erroneously suggests that both the hooks and the curves are usual and appropriate signs of "_the parenthesis_." In Garner's quarto Dictionary, the French word _Crochet_, as used by printers, is translated, "_A brace, a crotchet, a parenthesis_;" and the English word _Crotchet_ is defined, "The _mark_ of a _parenthesis_, in printing, thus [ ]." But Webster defines _Crotchet_, "In printing, a _hook_ including words, a _sentence_ or a _passage_ distinguished from the rest, thus []." This again is both ambiguous and otherwise inaccurate. It conveys no clear idea of what a crotchet is. _One_ hook _includes_ nothing. Therefore Johnson said: "_Hooks_ in which words are included [thus]." But if each of the hooks is a crotchet, as Webster suggests, and almost every body supposes, then both lexicographers are wrong in not making the whole expression plural: thus, "_Crotchets_, in printing, are angular _hooks_ usually including some explanatory words." But is this all that Webster meant? I cannot tell. He may be understood as saying also, that a _Crotchet_ is "_a sentence_ or _a passage_ distinguished from the rest, thus [];" and doubtless it would be much better to call a hint thus marked, a _crotchet_, than to call it _a parenthesis_, as some have done. In Parker and Fox's Grammar, and also in Parker's Aids to English Composition, the term _Brackets_ only is applied to these angular hooks; and, contrary to all usage of other authors, so far as I know, the name of _Crotchets_ is there given to the _Curves_. And then, as if this application of the word were general, and its propriety indisputable, the pupil is simply told: "The _curved lines_ between which a parenthesis is enclosed are called _Crotchets_."--_Gram._, Part III, p. 30; _Aids_, p. 40. "Called _Crotchets_" by whom? That not even Mr. Parker himself knows them by that name, the following most inaccurate passage is a proof: "The _note_ of admiration _and_ interrogation, as also the _parenthesis_, the _bracket_, and the reference marks, [are noted in the margin] in the same manner as the apostrophe."--_Aids_, p. 314. In some late grammars, (for example, _Hazen's_ and _Day's_,) the parenthetic curves are called "_the Parentheses_" From this the student must understand that it always takes _two parentheses_ to make _one parenthesis!_ If then it is objectionable, to call the two marks "_a parenthesis_," it is much more so, to call each of them by that name, or both "_the parentheses_." And since Murray's phrases are both entirely too long for common use, what better name can be given them than this very simple one, _the Curves_? OBS. 9.--The words _eroteme_ and _ecphoneme_, which, like _aposteme_ and _philosopheme_, are orderly derivatives from Greek roots[460], I have ventured to suggest as fitter names for the two marks to which they are applied as above, than are any of the long catalogue which other grammarians, each choosing for himself have presented. These marks have not unfrequently been called "_the interrogation_ and the _exclamation_;" which names are not very suitable, because they have other uses in grammar. According to Dr. Blair, as well as L. Murray and others, interrogation and exclamation are "passionate _figures_" of rhetoric, and oftentimes also plain "unfigured" expressions. The former however are frequently and more fitly called by their Greek names _erotesis_ and _ecphonesis_, terms to which those above have a happy correspondence. By Dr. Webster and some others, all _interjections_ are called "_exclamations_;" and, as each of these is usually followed by the mark of emotion, it cannot but be inconvenient to call both by the same name. OBS. 10.--For things so common as the marks of asking and exclaiming, it is desirable to have simple and appropriate _names_, or at least some settled mode of denomination; but, it is remarkable, that Lindley Murray, in mentioning these characters six times, uses six different modes of expression, and all of them complex: (1.) "Notes of Interrogation and Exclamation." (2.) "The point of Interrogation,?"--"The point of Exclamation,!" (3.) "The Interrogatory Point."--"The Exclamatory Point." (4.) "A note of interrogation,"--"The note of exclamation." (5.) "The interrogation and exclamation points." (6.) "The points of Interrogation and Exclamation."--_Murray, Flint, Ingersoll, Alden, Pond_. With much better taste, some writers denote them uniformly thus: (7.) "The Note of Interrogation,"--"The Note of Exclamation."--_Churchill, Hiley_. In addition to these names, all of which are too long, there may be cited many others, though none that are unobjectionable: (8.) "The Interrogative sign,"--"The Exclamatory sign."--_Peirce, Hazen_. (9.) "The Mark of Interrogation,"--"The Mark of Exclamation."--_Ward, Felton, Hendrick_. (10.) "The Interrogative point,"--"The Exclamation point."--_T. Smith, Alger_. (11.) "The interrogation point,"--"The exclamation point."--_Webster, St. Quentin, S. Putnam_. (12.) "A Note of Interrogation,"--"A Note of Admiration."--_Coar, Nutting_. (13.) "The Interrogative point,"--"The Note of Admiration, or of vocation."--_Bucke_. (14.) "Interrogation (?),"--"Admiration (!) or Exclamation."--_Lennie, Bullions_. (15.) "A Point of Interrogation,"--"A Point of Admiration or Exclamation."--_Buchanan_. (16.) "The Interrogation Point (?),"--"The Admiration Point (!)."--_Perley_. (17.) "An interrogation (?),"--"An exclamation (!)."--_Cutler_. (18.) "The interrogator?"--"The exclaimor!"--_Day's Gram._, p. 112. [The putting of "_exclaimor_" for _exclaimer_, like this author's changing of _quoters_ to "_quotors_," as a name for the guillemets, is probably a mere sample of ignorance.] (19.) "Question point,"--"Exclamation point."--_Sanborn_, p. 272. SECTION I.--THE COMMA. The Comma is used to separate those parts of a sentence, which are so nearly connected in sense, as to be only one degree removed from that close connexion which admits no point. RULE I.--SIMPLE SENTENCES. A simple sentence does not, in general, admit the comma; as, "The weakest reasoners are the most positive."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 202. "Theology has not hesitated to make or support a doctrine by the position of a comma."--_Tract on Tone_, p. 4. "Then pain compels the impatient soul to seize On promis'd hopes of instantaneous ease."--_Crabbe_. EXCEPTION.--LONG SIMPLE SENTENCES. When the nominative in a long simple sentence is accompanied by inseparable adjuncts, or when several words together are used in stead of a nominative, a comma should be placed immediately before the verb; as, "Confession of sin without amendment, obtains no pardon."--_Dillwyn's Reflections_, p. 6. "To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real defect in character."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 268. "O that the tenor of my just complaint,[461] Were sculpt with steel in rocks of adamant!"--_Sandys_. RULE II.--SIMPLE MEMBERS. The simple members of a compound sentence, whether successive or involved, elliptical or complete, are generally divided by the comma; as, 1. "Here stand we both, and aim we at the best."--_Shak._ 2. "I, that did never weep, now melt in woe."--_Id._ 3. "Tide life, tide death, I come without delay."--_Id._ 4. "I am their mother, who shall bar me from them?"--_Id._ 5. "How wretched, were I mortal, were my state!"--_Pope_. 6. "Go; while thou mayst, avoid the dreadful fate."--_Id._ 7. "Grief aids disease, remember'd folly stings, And his last sighs reproach the faith of kings."--_Johnson_. EXCEPTION I.--RESTRICTIVE RELATIVES. When a relative immediately follows its antecedent, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be introduced _before_ it; as, "For the things _which_ are seen, are temporal; but the things _which_ are not seen, are eternal."--_2 Cor._, iv, 18. "A letter is a character _that_ expresses a sound without any meaning."--_St. Quentin's General Gram._, p. 3. EXCEPTION II.--SHORT TERMS CLOSELY CONNECTED. When the simple members are short, and closely connected by a conjunction or a conjunctive adverb, the comma is generally omitted; as, "Honest poverty is better _than_ wealthy fraud."--_Dillwyn's Ref._, p. 11. "Let him tell me _whether_ the number of the stars be even or odd."--TAYLOR: _Joh. Dict., w. Even_. "It is impossible _that_ our knowledge of words should outstrip our knowledge of things."--CAMPBELL: _Murray's Gram._, p 359. EXCEPTION III.--ELLIPTICAL MEMBERS UNITED. When two simple members are immediately united, through ellipsis of the relative, the antecedent, or the conjunction _that_, the comma is not inserted; as, "Make an experiment on the first man you meet."--_Berkley's Alciphron_, p. 125. "Our philosophers do infinitely despise and pity whoever shall propose or accept any other motive to virtue."--_Ib._, p. 126. "It is certain we imagine before we reflect."--_Ib._, p. 359. "The same good sense that makes a man excel, Still makes him doubt he ne'er has written well."--_Young_. RULE III.--MORE THAN TWO WORDS. When more than two words or terms are connected in the same construction, or in a joint dependence on some other term, by conjunctions expressed or understood, the comma should be inserted after every one of them but the last; and, if they are nominatives before a verb, the comma should follow the last also:[462] as, 1. "Who, to the enraptur'd heart, and ear, and eye, Teach beauty, virtue, truth, and love, and melody."--_Beattie_. 2. "Ah! what avails * * * * * * * * * All that art, fortune, enterprise, can bring, If envy, scorn, remorse, or pride, the bosom wring?"--_Id._. 3. "Women are soft, mild, pitiful, and flexible; Thou, stern, obdurate, flinty, rough, remorseless."--_Shak_. 4. "She plans, provides, expatiates, triumphs there."--_Young_. 5. ----"So eagerly the Fiend O'er bog, or steep, through strait, rough, dense, or rare, With head, hands, wings, or feet, pursues his way, And swims, or sinks, or wades, or creeps, or flies."--_Milton_. RULE IV.--ONLY TWO WORDS. When only two words or terms are connected by a conjunction, they should not be separated by the comma; as, "It is a _stupid and barbarous_ way to extend dominion by arms; for true power is to be got by _arts and industry_"--_Spectator_, No. 2. "_Despair and anguish_ fled the struggling soul."--_Goldsmith._ EXCEPTION I.--TWO WORDS WITH ADJUNCTS. When the two words connected have several adjuncts, or when one of them has an adjunct that relates not to both, the comma is inserted; as, "I shall spare no pains to make their instruction agreeable, and their diversion useful."--_Spectator_, No. 10. "_Who_ is applied to persons, or things personified."--_Bullions._ "With listless eyes the dotard views the store, He views, and wonders that they please no more."--_Johnson_. EXCEPTION II.--TWO TERMS CONTRASTED. When two connected words or phrases are contrasted, or emphatically distinguished, the comma is inserted; as, "The vain are easily obliged, and easily disobliged."--_Kames_. "Liberal, not lavish, is kind Nature's hand."--_Beattie_. "'Tis certain he could write, and cipher too."--_Goldsmith_. EXCEPTION III.--ALTERNATIVE OF WORDS. When there is merely an alternative of names, or an explanatory change of terms, the comma is usually inserted; as, "We saw a large opening, or inlet."--_W. Allen_. "Have we not power to lead about a sister, a wife, as well as other apostles?"--_Cor._, ix, 5. EXCEPTION IV.--CONJUNCTION UNDERSTOOD. When the conjunction is understood, the comma is inserted; and, if two separated words or terms refer alike to a third term, the second requires a second comma: as, "Reason, virtue, answer one great aim."--_L. Murray, Gram._, p. 269. "To him the church, the realm, their pow'rs consign."--_Johnson_. "She thought the isle that gave her birth. The sweetest, wildest land on earth."--_Hogg_. RULE V.--WORDS IN PAIRS. When successive words are joined in pairs by conjunctions, they should be separated in pairs by the comma; as, "Interest and ambition, honour and shame, friendship and enmity, gratitude and revenge, are the prime movers in public transactions."--_W. Allen_. "But, whether ingenious or dull, learned or ignorant, clownish or polite, every innocent man, without exception, has as good a right to liberty as to life."--_Beattie's Moral Science_, p. 313. "Then say how hope and fear, desire and hate, O'erspread with snares the crowded maze of fate."--_Dr. Johnson_. RULE VI.--WORDS PUT ABSOLUTE. Nouns or pronouns put absolute, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma; as, "The prince, _his father being dead_, succeeded."--"_This done_, we parted."--"_Zaccheus_, make haste and come down."--"_His proctorship in Sicily_, what did it produce?"--_Cicero_. "Wing'd with his fears, on foot he strove to fly, _His steeds too distant_, and _the foe too nigh_" --_Pope, Iliad_, xi, 440. RULE VII.--WORDS IN APPOSITION. Words in apposition, (especially if they have adjuncts,) are generally set off by the comma; as, "He that now calls upon thee, is Theodore, _the hermit of Teneriffe_."--_Johnson_. "LOWTH, _Dr. Robert, bishop of London_, born in 1710, died in 1787."--_Biog. Dict._ "HOME, _Henry, lord Kames_."--_Ib._ "What next I bring shall please thee, be assur'd, Thy _likeness_, thy fit _help_, thy other _self_, Thy _wish_ exactly to thy heart's desire."--_Milton, P. L._, viii, 450. "And he, their prince, shall rank among my peers."--_Byron_. EXCEPTION I.--COMPLEX NAMES. When several words, in their common order, are used as one compound name, the comma is not inserted; as, "Dr. Samuel Johnson,"--"Publius Gavius Cosanus." EXCEPTION II.--CLOSE APPOSITION. When a common and a proper name are closely united, the comma is not inserted; as, "The brook Kidron,"--"The river Don,"--"The empress Catharine,"--"Paul the Apostle." EXCEPTION III.--PRONOUN WITHOUT PAUSE. When a pronoun is added to an other word merely for emphasis and distinction, the comma is not inserted; as, "Ye men of Athens,"--"I myself,"--"Thou flaming minister,"--"You princes." EXCEPTION IV.--NAMES ACQUIRED. When a name acquired by some action or relation, is put in apposition with a preceding noun or pronoun, the comma is not inserted; as, "I made the _ground_ my _bed_;"--"To make _him king_;"--"_Whom_ they revered as _God_;"--"With _modesty_ thy _guide_."--_Pope._ RULE VIII.--ADJECTIVES. Adjectives, when something depends on them, or when they have the import of a dependent clause, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma; as, 1. ----------------------------"Among the roots Of hazel, _pendent o'er the plaintive stream_, They frame the first foundation of their domes."--_Thomson_. 2. -------------------------"Up springs the lark, _Shrill-voic'd_ and _loud_, the messenger of morn."--_Id._ EXCEPTION.--ADJECTIVES RESTRICTIVE. When an adjective immediately follows its noun, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be used before it; as, ----"And on the coast _averse_ From entrance or cherubic watch."--_Milton, P. L._, B. ix, l. 68. RULE IX.--FINITE VERBS. Where a finite verb is understood, a comma is generally required; as, "From law arises security; from security, curiosity; from curiosity, knowledge."--_Murray_. "Else all my prose and verse were much the same; This, prose on stilts; that, poetry fallen lame."--_Pope_. EXCEPTION.--VERY SLIGHT PAUSE. As the semicolon must separate the clauses when the comma is inserted by this rule, if the pause for the omitted verb be very slight, it may be left unmarked, and the comma be used for the clauses; as, "When the profligate speaks of piety, the miser of generosity, the coward of valour, and the corrupt of integrity, they are only the more despised by those who know them."--_Comstock's Elocution_, p. 132. RULE X.--INFINITIVES. The infinitive mood, when it follows a verb from which it must be separated, or when it depends on something remote or understood, is generally, with its adjuncts, set off by the comma; as, "One of the greatest secrets in composition is, _to know_ when to be simple."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 151. "To confess the truth, I was much in fault."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 271. "The Governor of all--has interposed, Not seldom, his avenging arm, _to smite_ The injurious trampler upon nature's law."--_Cowper_. RULE XI.--PARTICIPLES. Participles, when something depends on them, when they have the import of a dependent clause, or when they relate to something understood, should, with their adjuncts, he set off by the comma; as, 1. "Law is a rule of civil conduct, _prescribed_ by the supreme power in a state, _commanding_ what is right, and _prohibiting_ what is wrong."--BLACKSTONE: _Beattie's Moral Science_, p. 346. 2. "Young Edwin, _lighted by the evening star, Lingering and list'ning_ wander'd down the vale."--_Beattie_. 3. "_United_, we stand; _divided_, we fall."--_Motto_. 4. "_Properly speaking_, there is no such thing as chance." EXCEPTION.--PARTICIPLES RESTRICTIVE. When a participle immediately follows its noun, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be used before it; as, "A man _renown'd for repartee_, Will seldom scruple to make free With friendship's finest feeling."--_Cowper_. RULE XII.--ADVERBS. Adverbs, when they break the connexion of a simple sentence, or when they have not a close dependence on some particular word in the context, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma; as, "We must not, _however_, confound this gentleness with the artificial courtesy of the world."--"_Besides_, the mind must be employed."--_Gilpin_. "_Most unquestionably_, no fraud was equal to all this."--_Lyttelton_. "But, _unfortunately for us_, the tide was ebbing already." "When buttress and buttress, _alternately_, Seem framed of ebon and ivory."--_Scott's Lay_, p. 33. RULE XIII.--CONJUNCTIONS. Conjunctions, when they are separated from the principal clauses that depend on them, or when they introduce examples, are generally set off by the comma; _as_, "_But_, by a timely call upon Religion, the force of Habit was eluded."--_Johnson_. "They know the neck that joins the shore and sea, _Or_, ah! how chang'd that fearless laugh would be."--_Crabbe_. RULE XIV.--PREPOSITIONS. Prepositions and their objects, when they break the connexion of a simple sentence, or when they do not closely follow the words on which they depend, are generally set off by the comma; as, "Fashion is, _for the most part_, nothing but the ostentation of riches."--"_By reading_, we add the experience of others to our own." "In vain the sage, _with retrospective eye_, Would from th' apparent What conclude the Why."--_Pope_. RULE XV.--INTERJECTIONS. Interjections that require a pause, though more commonly emphatic and followed by the ecphoneme, are sometimes set off by the comma; as, "For, _lo_, I will call all the families of the kingdoms of the north."--_Jeremiah_, i, 15. "_O_, 'twas about something you would not understand."--_Columbian Orator_, p. 221. "_Ha, ha!_ you were finely taken in, then!"--_Aikin_. "_Ha, ha, ha!_ A facetious gentleman, truly!"--_Id._ "_Oh_, when shall Britain, conscious of her claim, Stand emulous of Greek and Roman fame?"--_Pope_. RULE XVI.--WORDS REPEATED. A word emphatically repeated, is generally set off by the comma; as, "Happy, happy, happy pair!"--_Dryden_. "Ay, ay, there is some comfort in that."--_Shak_. "Ah! no, no, no."--_Dryden_. "The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket, The moss-covered bucket, which hung in the well!"--_Woodworth_. RULE XVII.--DEPENDENT QUOTATIONS. A quotation, observation, or description, when it is introduced in close dependence on a verb, (as, _say, reply, cry_, or the like,) is generally separated from the rest of the sentence by the comma; as, "'The book of nature,' said he, 'is before thee.'"--_Hawkesworth_. "I say unto all, Watch."--_Mark_. "'The boy has become a man,' means, 'he has _grown to be_ a man.' 'Such conduct becomes a man,' means, 'such conduct _befits_ him.'"--_Hart's Gram._, p. 116. "While man exclaims, 'See all things for my use!' 'See man for mine!' replies a pamper'd goose."--_Pope_. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE PUNCTUATION.--ERRORS CONCERNING THE COMMA. UNDER RULE I.--OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. "Short, simple sentences should not be separated by a comma."--_Felton's Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 135; 3d Ed., Stereotyped, p. 137. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because a needless comma is put after _short_, the sentence being simple. But, according to Rule 1st for the Comma, "A simple sentence does not, in general, admit the comma." Therefore, this comma should be omitted; thus, "Short simple sentences should not be separated by a comma." Or, much better: "_A_ short simple _sentence_ should _rarely be divided_ by _the_ comma." For such sentences, combined to form a period, _should generally be separated_; and even a single one may have some phrase that must be set off.] "A regular and virtuous education, is an inestimable blessing."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 174. "Such equivocal expressions, mark an intention to deceive."--_Ib._, p. 256. "They are, _This_ and _that_, with their plurals _these_ and _those_."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 26; _Practical Lessons_, p. 3. "A nominative case and a verb, sometimes make a complete sentence; as, He sleeps."--_Felton's Gram._, p. 78. "_Tense_, expresses the action connected with certain relations of time; _mood_, represents it as farther modified by circumstances of contingency, conditionally, &c."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 37. "The word Noun, means name."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 14. "The present, or active participle, I explained then."--_Ib._, p. 97. "Are some verbs used, both transitively and intransitively?"--_Cooper's Pt. and Pract. Gram._, p. 54. "Blank verse, is verse without rhyme."--_Hallock's Gram._, p. 242. "A distributive adjective, denotes each one of a number considered separately."--_Ib._, p. 51. "And may at last my weary age, Find out the peaceful hermitage." --_Murray's Gr._, 12mo, p. 205; 8vo, 255. UNDER THE EXCEPTION CONCERNING SIMPLE SENTENCES. "A noun without an Article to limit it is taken in its widest sense."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 8; _Practical Lessons_, p. 10. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because no comma is here set before the verb _is taken_. But, according to the Exception to Rule 1st for the Comma, "When the nominative in a long simple sentence is accompanied by inseparable adjuncts, or when several words together are used in stead of a nominative, a comma should be placed immediately before the verb." Therefore, a comma should be here inserted; thus, "A noun without an article to limit it, is taken in its widest sense."--_Lennie's Gram._, p. 6.] "To maintain a steady course amid all the adversities of life marks a great mind."--_Day's District School Gram._, p. 84. "To love our Maker supremely and our neighbor as ourselves comprehends the whole moral law."--_Ibid._ "To be afraid to do wrong is true courage."--_Ib._, p. 85. "A great fortune in the hands of a fool is a great misfortune."--_Bullions, Practical Lessons_, p. 89. "That he should make such a remark is indeed strange."--_Farnum, Practical Gram._, p. 30. "To walk in the fields and groves is delightful."--_Id., ib._ "That he committed the fault is most certain."--_Id., ib._ "Names common to all things of the same sort or class are called _Common nouns_; as, _man, woman, day_."--_Bullions, Pract. Les._, p. 12. "That it is our duty to be pious _admits_ not of any doubt."--_Id., E. Gram._, p. 118. "To endure misfortune with resignation is the characteristic of a great mind,"--_Id., ib._, p. 81. "The assisting of a friend in such circumstances was certainly a duty."--_Id., ib._, 81. "That a life of virtue is the safest is certain."--_Hallock's Gram._, p. 169. "A collective noun denoting the idea of unity should be represented by a pronoun of the singular number."--_Ib._, p. 167. UNDER RULE II.--OF SIMPLE MEMBERS. "When the sun had arisen the enemy retreated."--_Day's District School Gram._, p. 85. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because no comma here separates the two simple members which compose the sentence. But, according to Rule 2d, "The simple members of a compound sentence, whether successive or involved, elliptical or complete, are generally divided by the comma." Therefore, a comma should be inserted after _arisen_; thus, "When the sun had arisen, the enemy retreated."] "If he _become_ rich he may be less industrious."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 118. "The more I study grammar the better I like it."--_Id., ib._, p. 127. "There is much truth in the old adage that fire is a better servant than master."--_Id., ib._, p. 128. "The verb _do_, when used as an auxiliary gives force or emphasis to the expression."--_Day's Gram._, p. 39. "Whatsoever it is incumbent upon a man to do it is surely expedient to do well."--_J. Q. Adams's Rhetoric_, Vol. i, p. 46. "The soul which our philosophy divides into various capacities, is still one essence."--_Channing, on Self-Culture_, p. 15. "Put the following words in the plural and give the rule for forming it."--_Bullions, Practical Lessons_, p. 19. "We will do it if you wish."--_Id., ib._, p. 29. "He who does well will be rewarded."--_Id., ib._, 29. "That which is always true is expressed in the present tense."--_Id., ib._, p. 119. "An observation which is always true must be expressed in the present tense."--_Id., Prin. of E. Gram._, p. 123. "That part of orthography which treats of combining letters to form syllables and words is called SPELLING."--_Day's Gram._, p. 8. "A noun can never be of the first person except it is in apposition with a pronoun of that person."--_Ib._, p. 14. "When two or more singular nouns or pronouns refer to the same object they require a singular verb and pronoun."--_Ib._, p. 80. "James has gone but he will return in a few days."--_Ib._, 89. "A pronoun should have the same person, number, and gender as the noun for which it stands."--_Ib._, 89 and 80. "Though he is out of danger he is still afraid."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 80. "She is his inferior in sense but his equal in prudence."--_Ib._, p. 81. "The man who has no sense of religion is little to be trusted."--_Ib._, 81. "He who does the most good has the most pleasure."--_Ib._, 81. "They were not in the most prosperous circumstances when we last saw them."--_Ib._, 81. "If the day continue pleasant I shall return."--_Felton's Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 22; Ster. Ed., 24. "The days that are past are gone for ever."--_Ib._, pp. 89 and 92. "As many as are friendly to the cause will sustain it."--_Ib._, 89 and 92. "Such as desire aid will receive it."--_Ib._, 89 and 92. "Who gave you that book which you prize so much?"--_Bullions, Pract. Lessons_, p. 32. "He who made it now preserves and governs it."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 83. "Shall he alone, whom rational we call, Be pleased with nothing if not blessed with all?" --_Felton's Gram._, p. 126. UNDER THE EXCEPTIONS CONCERNING SIMPLE MEMBERS. "Newcastle is the town, in which Akenside was born."--_Bucke's Classical Gram._, p. 54. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because a needless comma here separates the restrictive relative _which_ from its antecedent _town_. But, according to Exception 1st to Rule 2d, "When a relative immediately follows its antecedent, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be introduced before it." Therefore, this comma Should be omitted; thus, "Newcastle is the town in which Akenside was born."] "The remorse, which issues in reformation, is true repentance."--_Campbell's Philos. of Rhet._, p. 255. "Men, who are intemperate, are destructive members of community."--_Alexander's Gram._, p. 93. "An active-transitive verb expresses an action, which extends to an object."--_Felton's Gram._, pp. 16 and 22. "They, to whom much is given, will have much to answer for."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 188. "The prospect, which we have, is charming."--_Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram._, p. 143. "He is the person, who informed me of the matter."--_Ib._, p. 134; _Cooper's Murray_, 120. "These are the trees, that produce no fruit."--_Ib._, 134; and 120. "This is the book, which treats of the subject."--_Ib._, 134; and 120. "The proposal was such, as pleased me."--_Cooper, Pl. and Pr. Gram._, p. 134. "Those, that sow in tears, shall reap in joy."--_Id., ib._, pp. 118 and 124; and _Cooper's Murray_, p. 141. "The pen, with which I write, makes too large a mark."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 71. "Modesty makes large amends for the pain, it gives the persons, who labour under it, by the prejudice, it affords every worthy person in their favour."--_Ib._, p. 80. "Irony is a figure, whereby we plainly intend something very different from what our words express."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 108. "Catachresis is a figure, whereby an improper word is used instead of a proper one."--_Ib._, p. 109. "The man, whom you met at the party, is a Frenchman."--_Frost's Practical Gram._, p. 155. UNDER RULE III.--OF MORE THAN TWO WORDS. "John, James and Thomas are here: that is, John _and_ James, &c."--_Cooper's Plain and Practical Grammar_, p. 153. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because no comma is here used after _James_, or after _Thomas_, or again after _John_, in the latter clause; the three nouns being supposed to be in the same construction, and all of them nominatives to the verb _are_. But, according to Rule 3d for the Comma, "When more than two words or terms are connected in the same construction, or in a joint dependence on some other term, by conjunctions expressed or understood, the comma should be inserted after every one of them but the last; and, if they are nominatives before a verb, the comma should follow the last also." Therefore, the comma should be inserted after each; thus, "John, James, and Thomas, are here: that is, John, _and_ James, and Thomas, are here."][463] "Adverbs modify verbs adjectives and other adverbs."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 97. "To Nouns belong Person, Gender, Number and Case."--_Id., Practical Lessons_, p. 12. "Wheat, corn, rye, and oats are extensively cultivated."--_Id., ib._, p. 13. "In many, the definitions, rules and leading facts are prolix, inaccurate and confused."--_Finch's Report on Gram._, p. 3. "Most people consider it mysterious, difficult and useless."--_Ib._, p. 3. "His father and mother, and uncle reside at Rome."--_Farnum's Gram._, p. 11. "The relative pronouns are _who, which_ and _that_."--_Bullions, Practical Lessons_, p. 29. "_That_ is sometimes a demonstrative, sometimes a relative and sometimes a conjunction."--_Id., ib._, p. 33. "Our reputation, virtue, and happiness greatly depend on the choice of our companions."--_Day's Gram._, p. 92. "The spirit of true religion is social, kind and cheerful."--_Felton's Gram._, p. 81. "_Do, be, have_ and _will_ are sometimes principal verbs."--_Ib._, p. 26. "John and Thomas and Peter reside at Oxford."--_Webster, Philos. Gram._, p. 142; _Improved Gram._, p. 96. "The most innocent pleasures are the most rational, the most delightful and the most durable."--_Id., ib._, pp. 215 and 151. "Love, joy, peace and blessedness are reserved for the good."--_Id., ib._, 215 and 151. "The husband, wife and children, suffered extremely."--_Murray's Gram._, 4th Am. Ed., 8vo, p. 269. "The husband, wife, and children suffer extremely."--_Sanborn's Analytical Gram._, p. 268. "He, you, and I have our parts assigned us."--_Ibid._ "He moaned, lamented, tugged and tried, Repented, promised, wept and sighed."--_Felton's Gr._, p. 108. UNDER RULE IV.--OF ONLY TWO WORDS. "Disappointments derange, and overcome, vulgar minds."--_Murray's Exercises_, p. 15. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the two verbs here connected by _and_, are needlessly separated from each other, and from their object following. But, according to Rule 4th, "When only two words or terms are connected by a conjunction, they should not be separated by the comma." Therefore, these two commas should be omitted; thus, "Disappointments derange and overcome vulgar minds."] "The hive of a city, or kingdom, is in the best condition, when there is the least noise or buzz in it."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 171. "When a direct address is made, the noun, or pronoun, is in the nominative case independent."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 88. "The verbs _love_ and _teach_, make _loved_, and _taught_, in the imperfect and participle."--_Ib._, p. 97. "Neither poverty, nor riches were injurious to him."--_Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram._, p. 133. "Thou, or I am in fault."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 136. "A verb is a word that expresses action, or being."--_Day's District School Gram._, pp. 11 and 61. "The Objective Case denotes the object of a verb, or a preposition."--_Ib._, pp. 17 and 19. "Verbs of the second conjugation may be either transitive, or intransitive."--_Ib._, p. 41. "Verbs of the fourth conjugation may be either transitive, or intransitive."--_Ib._, 41. "If a verb does not form its past indicative by adding _d_, or _ed_ to the indicative present, it is said to be _irregular_."--_Ib._, 41. "The young lady is studying rhetoric, and logic."--_Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram._, p. 143. "He writes, and speaks the language very correctly."--_Ib._, p. 148. "Man's happiness, or misery, is, in a great measure, put into his own hands."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 183. "This accident, or characteristic of nouns, is called their _Gender_."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, 1843, p. 195. "Grant that the powerful still the weak controul; Be Man the Wit, and Tyrant of the whole." --POPE: _Brit. Poets_, vi, 375. UNDER EXCEPTION I.--TWO WORDS WITH ADJUNCTS. "Franklin is justly considered the ornament of the new world and the pride of modern philosophy."--_Day's District School Gram._, p. 88. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the words _ornament_ and _pride_, each of which has adjuncts, are here connected by _and_ without a comma before it. But, according to Exception 1st to Rule 4th, "When the two words connected have several adjuncts, or when one of them has an adjunct that relates not to both, the comma is inserted." Therefore, a comma should be set before _and_; thus, "Franklin is justly considered the ornament of the New World, and the pride of modern philosophy."] "Levity and attachment to worldly pleasures, destroy the sense of gratitude to him."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 183. "In the following Exercise, point out the adjectives and the substantives which they qualify."--_Bullions, Practical Lessons_, p. 100. "When a noun or pronoun is used to explain or give emphasis to a preceding noun or pronoun."--_Day's Gram._, p. 87. "Superior talents and _briliancy_ of intellect do not always constitute a great man."--_Ib._, p. 92. "A word that makes sense after an _article_ or the phrase _speak of_, is a noun."--_Bullions, Practical Lessons_, p. 12. "All feet used in poetry, are reducible to eight kinds; four of two syllables and four of three."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 123. "He would not do it himself nor let me do it."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 113.[464] "The old writers give examples of the subjunctive mode and give other modes to explain what is meant by the words in the subjunctive."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 352. UNDER EXCEPTION II.--TWO TERMS CONTRASTED. "We often commend as well as censure imprudently."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 214. "It is as truly a violation of the right of property, to take little as to take much; to purloin a book, or a penknife, as to steal money; to steal fruit as to steal a horse; to defraud the revenue as to rob my neighbour; to overcharge the public as to overcharge my brother; to cheat the postoffice as to cheat my friend."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, 1st Edition, p. 254. "The classification of verbs has been and still is a vexed question."--_Bullions, E. Grammar_, Revised Edition, p. 200. "Names applied only to individuals of a sort or class and not common to all, are called _Proper Nouns_."--_Id., Practical Lessons_, p. 12. "A hero would desire to be loved as well as to be reverenced."--_Day's Gram._, p. 108. "Death or some worse misfortune now divides them."--_Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram._, p. 133. "Alexander replied, 'The world will not permit two suns nor two sovereigns.'"--_Goldsmith's Greece_, Vol. ii, p. 113. "From nature's chain, whatever link you strike, Tenth or ten thousandth, breaks the chain alike." --_Felton's Gram._, p. 131. UNDER EXCEPTION III.--ALTERNATIVE OF WORDS. "_Metre_ or _Measure_ is the number of poetical feet which a verse contains."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 123. "The _Cæsura_ or _division_, is the pause which takes place in a verse, and which divides it into two parts."--_Ib._, 123. "It is six feet or one fathom deep."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 113. "A BRACE is used in poetry at the end of a triplet or three lines which rhyme together."--_Felton's Gram._, p. 142. "There are four principal kinds of English verse or poetical feet."--_Ib._, p. 143. "The period or full stop denotes the end of a complete sentence."--_Sanborn's Analytical Gram._, p. 271. "The scholar is to receive as many _jetons_ or counters as there are words in the sentence."--_St. Quentin's Gram._, p. 16. "_That_ [thing] or _the thing which_ purifies, fortifies also the heart."--_Peirce's Gram._, p. 74. "_That thing_ or _the thing which_ would induce a laxity in public or private morals, or indifference to guilt and wretchedness, should be regarded as the deadly Sirocco."--_Ib._, 74. "What is elliptically _what thing_ or _that thing which_."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 99. "_Demonstrate_ means _show_ or _point out precisely_."--_Ib._, p. 139. "_The_ man or _that_ man, who endures to the end, shall be saved."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 73. UNDER EXCEPTION IV.--A SECOND COMMA. "Reason, passion answer one great end."--_Bullions's E. Gram._, p. 152; _Hiley's_, p. 112. "Reason, virtue answer one great aim."--_Cooper's Pl. and Pract. Gram._, p. 194; _Butler's_, 204. "Every good gift, and every perfect gift is from above."--_Felton's Gram._, p. 90. "Every plant, and every tree produces others after its kind."--_Day's Gram._, p. 91. "James, and not John was paid for his services."--_Ib._, 91. "The single dagger, or obelisk [Dagger] is the second."--_Ib._, p. 113. "It was I, not he that did it."--_St. Quentin's Gram._, p. 152. "Each aunt, (and) each cousin hath her speculation."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 139. "'I shall see you _when_ you come,' is equivalent to 'I shall see you _then_, or _at that time_ when you come.'"--_Butler's Pract. Gram._, p. 121. "Let wealth, let honour wait the wedded dame, August her deed, and sacred be her fame."--_Pope_, p. 334. UNDER RULE V.--OF WORDS IN PAIRS. "My hopes and fears, joys and sorrows centre in you."--B. GREENLEAF: _Sanborn's Gram._, p. 268. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because no comma here separates the second pair of nominatives from the verb. But, according to Rule 5th, "When successive words are joined in pairs by conjunctions, they should be separated in pairs by the comma." Therefore, an other comma should be inserted after _sorrows_; thus, "My hopes and fears, joys and sorrows, centre in you."] "This mood implies possibility, or liberty, will, or obligation."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 113. "Substance is divided into Body, and Spirit into Extended and Thinking."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 253. "These consonants, [_d_ and _t_,] like _p_, and _b, f_, and _v, k_, and hard _g_, and _s_, and _z_, are letters of the same organ."--_Walkers Dict._, p. 41: _Principles_, No. 358. "Neither fig nor twist pigtail nor cavendish have passed my lips since, nor ever shall they again."--_Boston Cultivator_, Vol. vii, p. 36. "The words WHOEVER, or WHOSOEVER, WHICHEVER, or WHICHSOEVER, and WHATEVER, or WHATSOEVER are called COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS."--_Day's Gram._, p. 23. "Adjectives signifying profit or disprofit, likeness or unlikeness govern the dative."--_Bullions, Lat. Gram._, 12th Ed., 215. UNDER RULE VI.--OF WORDS ABSOLUTE. "Thy rod and thy staff they comfort me."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 135. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because no comma is here set after _staff_, which, with the noun _rod_, is put absolute by pleonasm. But, according to Rule 6th, "Nouns or pronouns put absolute, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma." Therefore, a comma should be here inserted; thus, "Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me."--_Psalm_ xxiii, 4.] "Depart ye wicked."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 70. "He saith to his mother, Woman behold thy son."--_Gurney's Portable Evidences_, p. 44. "Thou God seest me."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 9; _Practical Lessons_, p. 13. "Thou, God seest me."--_Id., E. Gram._, Revised Ed., p. 195. "John write me a letter. Henry go home."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 356. "John; write a letter. Henry; go home."--_Ib._, p. 317. "Now, G. Brown; let us reason together."--_Ib._, p. 326. "Smith: You say on page 11, the objective case denotes the object."--_Ib._, p. 344. "Gentlemen: will you always speak as you mean?"--_Ib._, p. 352. "John: I sold my books to William for his brothers."--_Ib._, p. 47. "Walter and Seth: I will take my things, and leave yours."--_Ib._, p. 69. "Henry: Julia and Jane left their umbrella, and took yours."--_Ib._, p. 73. "John; harness the horses and go to the mine for some coal. William; run to the store for a few pounds of tea."--_Ib._, p. 160. "The king being dead the parliament was dissolved."--_Chandler's Gram._, p. 119. "Cease fond nature, cease thy strife, And let me languish into life."--_Bullions's E. Gram._, p. 173. "Forbear great man, in arms renown'd, forbear."--_Ib._, p. 174. "Eternal sunshine of the spotless mind, Each prayer accepted and each wish resign'd."--_Hiley's Gr._, p. 123. UNDER RULE VII.--WORDS IN APPOSITION. "We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice," &c.--_Hallock's Gram._, p. 200. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because no comma is here set after the pronoun _We_, with which the word _people_, which has adjuncts, is in apposition. But, according to Rule 7th, "Words in apposition, (especially if they have adjuncts,) are generally set off by the comma." Therefore, an other comma should be here inserted; thus, "We, the people of the United States," &c.] "The Lord, the covenant God of his people requires it."--_Anti-Slavery Magazine_, Vol. i, p. 73. "He as a patriot deserves praise."--_Hallock's Gram._, p. 124. "Thomson the watchmaker and jeweller from London, was of the party."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 128. "Every body knows that the person here spoken of by the name of _the conqueror_, is William duke of Normandy."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 33. "The words _myself, thyself, himself, herself_, and their plurals _ourselves, yourselves_, and _themselves_ are called Compound Personal Pronouns."--_Day's Gram._, p. 22. "For who to dumb forgetfulness a prey, This pleasing anxious being e'er resign'd, Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day, Nor cast one longing, ling'ring look behind?"--_U. Poems_, p. 68. UNDER EXCEPTIONS CONCERNING APPOSITION. "Smith and Williams' store; Nicholas, the emperor's army."--_Day's Gram._, p. 17. "He was named William, the conqueror."--_Ib._, p. 80. "John, the Baptist, was beheaded."--_Ib._, p. 87. "Alexander, the coppersmith, did me great harm."--_Hart's Gram._, p. 126. "A nominative in immediate apposition; as, 'The boy, _Henry_, speaks.'"--_Smart's Accidence_, p. 29. "A noun objective can be in apposition with some other; as, 'I teach the boy, _Henry_.'"--_Ib._, p. 30. UNDER RULE VIII.--OF ADJECTIVES. "But he found me, not singing at my work ruddy with health vivid with cheerfulness; but pale and dejected, sitting on the ground, and chewing opium." [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the phrases, "_ruddy with health_," and "_vivid with cheerfulness_," which begin with adjectives, are not here _commaed_. But, according to Rule 8th, "Adjectives, when something depends on them, or when they have the import of a dependent clause, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma." Therefore, two other commas should be here inserted; thus, "But he found me, not singing at my work, ruddy with health, vivid with cheerfulness; but pale," &c.--_Dr. Johnson_.] "I looked up, and beheld an inclosure beautiful as the gardens of paradise, but of a small extent."--See _Key._ "_A_ is an article, indefinite and belongs to '_book_.'"--_Bullions, Practical Lessons_, p. 10. "The first expresses the rapid movement of a troop of horse over the plain eager for the combat."--_Id., Lat. Gram._, p. 296. "He [, the Indian chieftain, King Philip,] was a patriot, attached to his native soil; a prince true to his subjects and indignant of their wrongs; a soldier daring in battle firm in adversity patient of fatigue, of hunger, of every variety of bodily suffering and ready to perish in the cause he had espoused."--See _Key_. "For thee, who mindful of th' unhonour'd dead Dost in these lines their artless tale relate." --_Union Poems_, p. 68. "Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest: Some Cromwell guiltless of his country's blood." --_Day's Gram._, p. 117. "Idle after dinner in his chair Sat a farmer ruddy, fat, and fair." --_Hiley's Gram._, p. 125. UNDER THE EXCEPTION CONCERNING ADJECTIVES. "When an attribute becomes a title, or is emphatically applied to a name, it follows it; as Charles, the Great; Henry, the First; Lewis, the Gross."--_Webster's Philos. Gram._, p. 153; _Improved Gram._, p. 107. "Feed me with food, convenient for me."--_Cooper's Practical Gram._, p. 118. "The words and phrases, necessary to exemplify every principle progressively laid down, will be found strictly and exclusively adapted to the illustration of the principles to which they are referred."--_Ingersoll's Gram., Pref._, p. x. "The _Infinitive Mode_ is that form of the verb which expresses action or being, unlimited by person, or number."--_Day's Gram._, p. 35. "A man, diligent in his business, prospers."--_Frost's Practical Gram._, p. 113. "O wretched state! oh bosom, black as death!" --_Hallock's Gram._, p. 118. "O, wretched state! O, bosom, black as death!" --_Singer's Shak._, Vol. ii, p. 494. UNDER RULE IX.--OF FINITE VERBS. "The Singular denotes _one_; the Plural _more_ than one."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 12; _Pract. Lessons_, p. 16; _Lennie's Gram._, p. 7. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because no comma is here set after _Plural_, where the verb _denotes_ is understood. But, according to Rule 9th, "Where a finite verb is understood, a comma is generally required." Therefore, a comma should be inserted at the place mentioned; thus, "The Singular denotes _one_; the Plural, _more_ than one."] "The _comma_ represents the shortest pause; the _semicolon_ a pause longer than the comma; the _colon_ longer than the semicolon; and the _period_ longer than the colon."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 111. "The comma represents the shortest pause; the semicolon a pause double that of the comma; the colon, double that of the semicolon; and the period, double that of the colon."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 151; _Pract. Lessons_, p. 127. "Who is applied only to persons; which to animals and things; what to things only; and that to persons, animals, and things."--_Day's Gram._, p. 23. "_A_ or _an_ is used before the singular number only; _the_ before either singular or plural."--_Bullions, Practical Lessons_, p. 10. "Homer was the greater genius; Virgil the better artist."--_Day's Gram._, p. 96. "Homer was the greater genius, Virgil the better artist."--POPE'S PREFACE: _British Poets_, Vol. vi, p. viii. "Words are formed of syllables; syllables of letters."--_St. Quentin's General Gram._, p. 2. "The Conjugation of an active verb is styled the ACTIVE VOICE; and that of a passive verb the PASSIVE VOICE."--_Frost's El. of E. Gram._, p. 19. "The CONJUGATION of an active verb is styled the ACTIVE VOICE, and that of a passive verb the PASSIVE VOICE."--_Smith's New. Gram._, p. 171. "The possessive is sometimes called the genitive case; and the objective the accusative."--_L. Murray's Gram._, 12mo, p. 44. "Benevolence is allied to few vices; selfishness to fewer virtues."--_Kames, Art of Thinking_, p. 40. "Orthography treats of Letters, Etymology of Words, Syntax of Sentences, and Prosody of Versification."--_Hart's English Gram._, p. 21. "Earth praises conquerors for shedding blood; Heaven those that love their foes, and do them good."--See _Key_. UNDER RULE X.--OF INFINITIVES. "His business is to observe the agreement or disagreement of words."--_Bullions, E. Grammar_, Revised Edition, p. 189. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because no comma here divides _to observe_ from the preceding verb. But, according to Rule 10th, "The infinitive mood, when it follows a verb from which it must be separated, or when it depends on something remote or understood, is generally, with its adjuncts, set off by the comma." Therefore, a comma should be inserted after _is_; thus, "His business is, to observe the agreement or disagreement of words."] "It is a mark of distinction to be made a member of this society."-- _Farnum's Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 25; 2d Ed., p. 23. "To distinguish the conjugations let the pupil observe the following rules."--_Day's D. S. Gram._, p. 40. "He was now sent for to preach before the Parliament."-- _Life of Dr. J. Owen_, p. 18. "It is incumbent on the young to love and honour their parents."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 83. "It is the business of every man to prepare for death."--_Id., ib._, 83. "It argued the sincerest candor to make such an acknowledgement."--_Id., ib._, p. 115. "The proper way is to complete the construction of the first member, and leave that of the second understood."--_Ib., ib._, p. 125. "ENEMY is a name. It is a term of distinction given to a certain person to show the character in which he is represented."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 23. "The object of this is to preserve the soft sound of _c_ and _g_."--_Hart's Gram._, p. 29. "The design of grammar is to facilitate the _reading, writing_, and _speaking_ of a language."--_Barrett's Gram._, 10th Ed., Pref., p. iii. "Four kinds of type are used in the following pages to indicate the portions that are considered more or less elementary."--_Hart's Gram._, p. 3. UNDER RULE XI.--OF PARTICIPLES. "The chancellor being attached to the king secured his crown."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 114. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the phrase, "being attached to the king," is not _commaed_. But, according to Rule 11th, "Participles, when something depends on them, when they have the import of a dependent clause, or when they relate to something understood, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma." Therefore, two commas should be here inserted; thus, "The chancellor, being attached to the king, secured his crown."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 66.] "The officer having received his orders, proceeded to execute them."-- _Day's Gram._, p. 108. "Thus used it is in the present tense."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, Revised Ed., p. 33. "The _Imperfect_ tense has three distinct forms corresponding to those of the present tense."--_Id., ib._, p. 40. "Every possessive case is governed by some noun denoting the thing possessed."--_Id., ib._, p. 87. "The word _that_ used as a conjunction is preceded by a comma."--_Id., ib._, p. 154. "His narrative being composed upon such good authority, deserves credit."--_Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram._, p. 97. "The hen being in her nest, was killed and eaten there by the eagle."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo. p. 252. "Pronouns being used instead of nouns are subject to the same modifications."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 92. "When placed at the beginning of words they are consonants."--_Hallock's Gram._, p. 14. "Man starting from his couch, shall sleep no more."--_Ib._, p. 222. "_His_ and _her_ followed by a noun are possessive pronouns: not followed by a noun they are personal pronouns."--_Bullions, Practical Lessons_, p. 33. "He with viny crown advancing, First to the lively pipe his hand addressed."--_Id., E. Gram._, p. 83. UNDER THE EXCEPTION CONCERNING PARTICIPLES. "But when they convey the idea of many, acting individually, or separately, they are of the plural number."--_Day's Gram._, p. 15. "Two or more singular antecedents, connected by _and_ require verbs and pronouns of the plural number."--_Ib._, pp. 80 and 91. "Words ending in _y_, preceded by a consonant, change _y_ into _i_ when a termination is added."--_Butlers Gram._, p. 11. "A noun, used without an article to limit it, is generally taken in its widest sense."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 30. "Two nouns, meaning the same person or thing, frequently come together."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 89. "Each one must give an account to God for the use, or the abuse of the talents, committed to him."--_Coopers Pl. and Pract. Gram._, p. 133. "Two vowels, united in one sound, form a diphthong."--_Frost's El. of Gram._, p. 6. "Three vowels, united in one sound, form a triphthong."--_Ib._ "Any word, joined to an adverb, is a secondary adverb."--_Barrett's Revised Gram._, p. 68. "The person, spoken to, is put in the Second person. The person, spoken of, in the Third person."--_Cutler's Gram._, p. 14. "A man, devoted to his business, prospers."--_Frost's Pr. Gram._, p. 113. UNDER RULE XII.--OF ADVERBS. "So in indirect questions; as, 'Tell me _when_ he will come.'"--_Butler's Gram._, p. 121. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the adverb _So_ is not set off by the comma. But according to Rule 12th, "Adverbs, when they break the connexion of a simple sentence, or when they have not a close dependence on some particular word in the context, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma." Therefore, a comma should be inserted after _So_; thus, "So, in indirect questions; as," &c.] "Now when the verb tells what one person or thing does to another, the verb is transitive."--_Bullions, Pract. Les._, p 37. "Agreeably to your request I send this letter."--_Id., E. Gram._, p. 141. "There seems therefore, to be no good reason for giving them a different classification."--_Id., E. Gram._, p. 199. "Again the kingdom of heaven is like unto a merchantman, seeking goodly pearls."--ALGER'S BIBLE: _Matt._, xiii, 45. "Again the kingdom of heaven is like unto a net, that was cast into the sea."--_Ib, ib._, verse 47. "_Cease_ however, is used as a transitive verb by our best writers."--_Webster's Philos. Gram._, p. 171. "Time admits of three natural divisions, namely: Present, Past, and Future."--_Day's Gram._, p. 37. "There are three kinds of comparison, namely: regular, irregular, and adverbial."--_Ib._, p. 31. "There are five Personal Pronouns namely: _I, thou, he, she_, and _it_."--_Ib._, p. 22. "Nouns have three cases, viz. the Nominative, Possessive, and Objective."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 16; _P. Lessons_, p. 19. "Hence in studying Grammar, we have to study words."--_Frazee's Gram._, p. 18. "Participles like Verbs relate to Nouns and Pronouns."--_Miller's Ready Grammarian_, p. 23. "The time of the participle like that of the infinitive is estimated from the time of the leading verb."--_Bullions, Lat. Gram._, p. 97. "The dumb shall sing the lame his crutch forego, And leap exulting like the bounding roe."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 123. UNDER RULE XIII.--OF CONJUNCTIONS. "But he said, Nay; lest while ye gather up the tares, ye root up also the wheat with them."--FRIENDS' BIBLE, and SMITH'S: _Matt._, xiii, 29. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because no comma is inserted after _lest_. But, according to Rule 13th, "Conjunctions, when they are separated from the principal clauses that depend on them, or when they introduce examples, are generally set off by the comma." Therefore, a comma should be put after the word _lest_; thus, "But he said, Nay; lest, while ye gather up the tares, ye root up also the wheat with them."--SCOTT'S BIBLE, ALGER'S, BRUCE'S.] "Their intentions were good; but wanting prudence, they missed the mark at which they aimed."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, Vol. ii, p. 221. "The verb _be_ often separates the name from its attribute; as war is expensive."-- _Webster's Philos. Gram._, p. 153. "_Either_ and _or_ denote an alternative; as 'I will take _either_ road at your pleasure.'"--_Ib._, p. 63; _Imp. Gram._, 45. "_Either_ is also a substitute for a name; as '_Either_ of the roads is good.'"--_Webster, both Grams._, 63 and 45. "But alas! I fear the consequence."--_Day's Gram._, p. 74. "Or if he ask a fish, will he for a fish give him a serpent?"--_Scott's Bible, and Smith's_. "Or if he shall ask an egg, will he offer him a scorpion?"--_Smiths Bible_. "The infinitive sometimes performs the office of a nominative case, as 'To enjoy is to obey.'--POPE."--_Cutler's Gram._, p. 62. "The plural is commonly formed by adding _s_ to the singular, as _book, books_."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 12. "As 'I _were_ to blame, if I did it.'"--_Smart's Accidence_, p. 16. "Or if it be thy will and pleasure Direct my plough to find a treasure."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 124. "Or if it be thy will and pleasure, Direct my plough to find a treasure."--_Hart's Gram._, p. 185. UNDER RULE XIV.--OF PREPOSITIONS. "Pronouns agree with the nouns for which they stand in gender, number, and person."--_Butler's Practical Gram._, pp. 141 and 148; _Bullions's Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, p. 150. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the preposition _in_ has not the comma before it, as the text requires. But, according to Rule 14th, "Prepositions and their objects, when they break the connexion of a simple sentence, or when they do not closely follow the words on which they depend, are generally set off by the comma." Therefore, a comma should be here inserted; thus, "Pronouns agree with the nouns for which they stand, in gender, number, and person." Or the words may be transposed, and the comma set before _with_; thus, "Pronouns agree _in_ gender, number, and person, _with_ the nouns for which they stand."] "In the first two examples the antecedent is _person_, or something equivalent; in the last it is _thing_."--_Butler_, ib., p. 53. "In what character he was admitted is unknown."--_Ib._, p. 55. "To what place he was going is not known."--_Ib._, p. 55. "In the preceding examples _John, Cæsar_, and _James_ are the subjects."--_Ib._, p. 59. "_Yes_ is generally used to denote assent in _the_ answer to a question."--_Ib._, p. 120. "_That_ in its origin is the passive participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb _thean, to take_"--_Ib._, p. 127. "But in all these sentences _as_ and _so_ are _adverbs_."--_Ib._, p. 127. "After an interjection or exclamatory sentence is placed the mark of exclamation."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 116. "Intransitive verbs from their nature can have no distinction of voice."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 30. "To the inflection of verbs belong Voices, Moods, Tenses, Numbers, and Persons."--_Id._, ib., p. 33; _Pract. Lessons_, p. 41. "_As_ and _so_ in the antecedent member of a comparison are properly adverbs."--_Id., E. Gram._, p. 113. "In the following Exercise point out the words in apposition."--_Id., P. Lessons_, p. 103. "In the following Exercise point out the noun or pronoun denoting the possessor."-- _Id., ib._, p. 105. "_Its_ is not found in the Bible except by misprint."--_Hallock's Gram._, p. 68. "No one's interest is concerned except mine."--_Ib._, p. 70. "In most of the modern languages there are four concords."--_St. Quentin's Gen. Gram._, p. 143. "In illustration of these remarks let us suppose a case."--_Hart's Gram._, p. 104. "On the right management of the emphasis depends the life of pronunciation."-- _Ib._, p. 172; _Murray's_, 8vo, p. 242. UNDER RULE XV.--OF INTERJECTIONS. "Behold he is in the desert."--SCOTT'S BIBLE: _Matt._, xxiv, 26. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the interjection _Behold_, which has usually a comma after it in Scripture, has here no point. But, according to Rule 15th, "Interjections that require a pause, though more commonly emphatic and followed by the ecphoneme, are sometimes set off by the comma." In this instance, a comma should be used; thus, "Behold, he is in the desert."--_Common Bible_.] "And Lot said unto them, Oh not so my Lord."--SCOTT'S BIBLE: _Gen._, xix, 18. "Oh let me escape thither, (is it not a little one?) and my soul shall live."--SCOTT: _Gen._, xix, 20. "Behold! I come quickly.--BIBLE."--_Day's Gram._, p. 74. "Lo! I am with you always."--_Day's Gram._, pp. 10 and 73. "And lo! I am with you always."--_Ib._, pp. 78 and 110. "And lo, I am with you alway."--SCOTT'S BIBLE, and BRUCE'S: _Matt._, xxviii, 20. "Ha! ha! ha! how laughable that is."--_Bullions, Pract. Les._, p. 83. "Interjections of _Laughter_,--Ha! he! hi! ho!"--_Wright's Gram._, p. 121. UNDER RULE XVI.--OF WORDS REPEATED. "Lend lend your wings! I mount! I fly!"--_Example varied_. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the repeated word _lend_ has here no comma. But, according to Rule 16th, "A word emphatically repeated, is generally set off by the comma." In this instance, a comma is required after the former _lend_, but not after the latter; thus, "Lend, lend your wings! I mount! I fly!"--_Pope's Poems_, p. 317. ] "To bed to bed to bed. There is a knocking at the gate. Come come come. What is done cannot be undone. To bed to bed to bed."--See _Burgh's Speaker_, p. 130. "I will roar, that the duke shall cry, Encore encore let him roar let him roar once more once more."--See ib., p. 136. "Vital spark of heav'nly flame, Quit oh quit this mortal frame."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 126. "Vital spark of heav'nly flame, Quit, oh quit, this mortal frame!"--_Bullions, E. Gr._, p. 172. "O the pleasing pleasing Anguish, When we love, and when we languish."--_Ward's Gram._, p. 161. "Praise to God immortal praise For the love that crowns our days!"--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 124. UNDER RULE XVII.--OF DEPENDENT QUOTATIONS. "Thus, of an infant, we say '_It_ is a lovely creature.'"--_Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram._, p. 12. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because no comma is here inserted between _say_ and the citation which follows. But, according to Rule 17th, "A quotation, observation, or description, when it is introduced in close dependence on a verb, (as, _say, reply, cry_, or the like.) is generally separated from the rest of the sentence by the comma." Therefore, a comma should be put after _say_; as, "Thus, of an infant, we say, '_It_ is a lovely creature.'"] "No being can state a falsehood in saying _I am_; for no one can utter it, if it is not true."--_Cardell's Gram._, 18mo, p. 118. "I know they will cry out against this and say 'should he pay, means if he should pay.'"--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 352. "For instance, when we say '_the house is building_,' the advocates of the new theory ask, 'building _what_?' We might ask in turn, when you say 'the field ploughs well,' ploughs _what_? 'Wheat sells well,' sells _what_? If _usage_ allows us to say 'wheat _sells_ at a dollar' in a sense that is not active, why may it not also allow us to say 'wheat _is selling_ at a dollar' in a sense that is not active?"--_Hart's English Gram._, p. 76. "_Man_ is accountable, equals _mankind_ are accountable."--_S. Barrett's Revised Gram._, p. 37. "Thus, when we say 'He may be reading,' _may_ is the real verb; the other parts are verbs by name only."--_Smart's English Accidence_, p. 8. "Thus we say _an apple, an hour_, that two vowel sounds may not come together."--_Ib._, p. 27. "It would be as improper to say _an unit_, as to say _an youth_; to say _an one_, as to say _an wonder_."--_Ib._, p. 27. "When we say 'He died for the truth,' _for_ is a preposition."--_Ib._, p. 28. "We do not say 'I might go yesterday,' but 'I might have gone yesterday.'"--_Ib._, p. 11. "By student, we understand one who has by matriculation acquired the rights of academical citizenship; but, by bursché, we understand one who has already spent a certain time at the university."--_Howitt's Student-Life in Germany_, p. 27. SECTION II.--THE SEMICOLON. The Semicolon is used to separate those parts of a compound sentence, which are neither so closely connected as those which are distinguished by the comma, nor so little dependent as those which require the colon. RULE I.--COMPLEX MEMBERS. When two or more complex members, or such clauses as require the comma in themselves, are constructed into a period, they are generally separated by the semicolon: as, "In the regions inhabited by angelic natures, unmingled felicity forever blooms; joy flows there with a perpetual and abundant stream, nor needs any mound to check its course."--_Carter_. "When the voice rises, the gesture naturally ascends; and when the voice makes the falling inflection, or lowers its pitch, the gesture follows it by a corresponding descent; and, in the level and monotonous pronunciation of the voice, the gesture seems to observe a similar limitation, by moving rather in the horizontal direction, without much varying its elevation."--_Comstock's Elocution_, p. 107. "The wide, the unbounded prospect lies before me; But shadows, clouds, and darkness, rest upon it."--_Addison_. RULE II.--SIMPLE MEMBERS. When two or more simple members, or such clauses as complete their sense without subdivision, are constructed into a period; if they require a pause greater than that of the comma, they are usually separated by the semicolon: as, "Straws swim upon the surface; but pearls lie at the bottom."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 276. "Every thing grows old; every thing passes away; every thing disappears."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 115. "Alexander asked them the distance of the Persian capital; what forces the king of Persia could bring into the field; what the Persian government was; what was the character of the king; how he treated his enemies; what were the most direct ways into Persia."--_Whelpley's Lectures_, p. 175. "A longer care man's helpless kind demands; That longer care contracts more lasting bands."--_Pope_. RULE III.--OF APPOSITION, &C. Words in apposition, in disjunct pairs, or in any other construction, if they require a pause greater than that of the comma, and less than that of the colon, may be separated by the semicolon: as, "Pronouns have three cases; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 51. "Judge, judgement; lodge, lodgement; acknowledge, acknowledgement."--_Butler's Gram._, p. 11. "Do not the eyes discover humility, pride; cruelty, compassion; reflection, dissipation; kindness, resentment?"--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 159. "This rule forbids parents to lie to children, and children to parents; instructors to pupils, and pupils to instructors; the old to the young, and the young to the old; attorneys to jurors, and jurors to attorneys; buyers to sellers, and sellers to buyers."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 304. "_Make, made; have, had; pay, paid; say, said; leave, left; Dream, dreamt; mean, meant; reave_ and _bereave_ have _reft_." --_Ward's Gr._, p. 66. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE PUNCTUATION.--ERRORS CONCERNING THE SEMICOLON. UNDER RULE I.--OF COMPLEX MEMBERS. "The buds spread into leaves, and the blossoms swell to fruit, but they know not how they grow, nor who causes them to spring up from the bosom of the earth."--_Day's E. Gr._, p. 72. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the two chief members which compose this period, are separated only by the comma after "_fruit_." But, according to Rule 1st for the Semicolon, "When two or more complex members, or such clauses as require the comma in themselves, are constructed into a period, they are generally separated by the semicolon." Therefore, the pause after "_fruit_" should be marked by a semicolon.] "But he used his eloquence chiefly against Philip, king of Macedon, and, in several orations, he stirred up the Athenians to make war against him."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 84. "For the sake of euphony, the _n_ is dropped before a consonant, and because most words begin with a consonant, this of course is its more common form.'"--_Ib._, p. 192. "But if I say 'Will _a_ man be able to carry this burden?' it is manifest the idea is entirely changed, the reference is not to number, but to the species, and the answer might be 'No; but a horse will.'"--_Ib._, p. 193. "In direct discourse, a noun used by a speaker or writer to designate himself, is said to be of the _first_ person--used to designate the person addressed, it is said to be of the _second_ person, and when used to designate a person or thing spoken of, it is said to be of the _third_ person."--_Ib._, p. 195. "Vice stings us, even in our pleasures, but virtue consoles us, even in our pains."--_Day's Gram._, p. 84. "Vice is infamous though in a prince, and virtue honorable though in a peasant."--_Ib._, p. 72. "Every word that is the name of a person or thing, is a _Noun_, because 'A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing.'"--_Bullions, Pract. Les._, p. 83. "This is the sword, with which he did the deed, And that the shield by which he was defended."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 56. UNDER RULE II.--OF SIMPLE MEMBERS. "A deathlike paleness was diffused over his countenancee [sic--KTH], a chilling terror convulsed his frame; his voice burst out at intervals into broken accents."--_Principles of Eloquence_, p. 73. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the first pause in this sentence is not marked by a suitable point. But, according to Rule 2d for the Semicolon, "When two or more simple members, or such clauses as complete their sense without subdivision, are constructed into a period; if they require a pause greater than that of the comma, they are usually separated by the semicolon." Therefore, the comma after "_countenance_" should be changed to a semicolon.] "The Lacedemonians never traded--they knew no luxury--they lived in houses built of rough materials--they lived at public tables--fed on black broth, and despised every thing effeminate or luxurious."--_Whelpley's Lectures_, p. 167. "Government is the agent. Society is the principal."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, 1st Ed., p. 377. "The essentials of speech were anciently supposed to be sufficiently designated by the _Noun_ and the _Verb_, to which was subsequently added, the _Conjunction_"--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 191. "The first faint gleamings of thought in its mind are but the reflections from the parents' own intellect,--the first manifestations of temperament are from the contagious parental fountain,--the first aspirations of soul are but the warmings and promptings of the parental spirit."--_Jocelyn's Prize Essay_, p. 4. "_Older_ and _oldest_ refer to maturity of age, _elder_ and _eldest_ to priority of right by birth. _Farther_ and _farthest_ denote place or distance: _Further_ and _furthest_, quantity or addition."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 148. "Let the divisions be _natural_, such as obviously suggest themselves to the mind, and as may aid your main design, and be easily remembered."--_Goldsbury's Manual of Gram._, p. 91. "Gently make haste, of labour not afraid: A hundred times consider what you've said."--_Dryden's Art of Poetry_. UNDER RULE III.--OF APPOSITION, &c. (1.) "Adjectives are divided into two classes: _Adjectives denoting quality_, and _Adjectives denoting number_."--_Frost's Practical Gram._, p. 31. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the colon after the word "_classes_," is not the most suitable sign of the pause required. But according to Rule 3d for the Semicolon, "Words in apposition, in disjunct pairs, or in any other construction if they require a pause greater than that of the comma, and less than that of the colon, maybe separated by the semicolon." In this case, the semicolon should have been preferred to the colon.] (2.) "There are two classes of adjectives--_qualifying_ adjectives, and _limiting_ adjectives."--_Butler's Practical Gram._, p. 33. (3.) "There are three Genders, the _Masculine_, the _Feminine_, and the _Neuter_."-- _Frost's Pract. Gram._, p. 51; _Hiley's Gram._, p. 12; _Alger's_, 16; _S. Putnam's_, 14: _Murray's_, 8vo, 37; _and others_. (4.) "There are three genders: the MASCULINE, the FEMININE, and the NEUTER."--_Murray's Gram._, 12mo. p. 39; _Jaudon's_, 25. (5.) "There are three genders: The _Masculine_, the _Feminine_, and the _Neuter_."--_Hendrick's Gram._, p. 15. (6.) "The Singular denotes ONE, and the Plural MORE THAN ONE."--_Hart's Gram._, p. 40. (7.) "There are three Cases viz., the _Nominative_, the _Possessive_, and the _Objective_"--_Hendrick's Gram._, p. 7. (8.) "Nouns have three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the objective."-- _Kirkham's Gram._, p. 41. (9.) "In English, nouns have three cases--the nominative, the possessive, and the objective."--_R. C. Smith's New Gram._, p. 47. (10.) "Grammar is divided into four parts, namely, ORTHOGRAPHY, ETYMOLOGY, SYNTAX, PROSODY."--_Ib._, p. 41. (11) "It is divided into four parts, viz. ORTHOGRAPHY, ETYMOLOGY, SYNTAX, and PROSODY."--_L. Murray's Grammars all; T. Smith's Gram._, p. 5. (12.) "It is divided into four parts: viz. Orthography--Etymology--Syntax--Prosody."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 3. (13.) "It is divided into four parts, namely, Orthography. Etymology, Syntax and Prosody."--_Day's Gram._, p. 5. (14.) "It is divided into four parts: viz. _Orthography, Etymology, Syntax_ and _Prosody_."--_Hendrick's Gram._, p. 11. (15.) "Grammar is divided into four parts: viz. Orthography, Etymology. Syntax and Prosody."--_Chandler's Gram._, p, 13. (16.) "It is divided into four parts: Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody."--_Cooper's Pl. and Pract. Gram._, p. 1; _Frost's Pract. Gram._, 19. (17.) "English grammar has been usually divided into four parts, viz: Orthography, Etymology, Syntax and Prosody."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 13. (18.) "Temperance leads to happiness, intemperance to misery."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 137 _Hart's_, 180. (19.) "A friend exaggerates a man's virtues, an enemy his crimes."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 137 (20.) "A friend exaggerates a man's virtues: an enemy his crimes."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo., p. 325 (21.) "Many writers use a _plural noun_ after the second of two numeral adjectives, thus, 'The first and second pages are torn.'"--_Bullions, E. Gram._, 5th Ed., p. 145 (22.) "Of these, the Latin has six, the Greek, five, the German, four, the Saxon, six, the French, three, &c."--_Id., ib._, p. 196. "In (_ing_) it ends, when _doing_ is express'd, In _d, t, n_, when _suffering's_ confess'd." --_Brightland's Gram._, p. 93. MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR. "In old books _i_ is often used for _j, v_ for _u, vv_ for _w_, and _ii_ or _ij_ for _y_."--_Hart's E. Gram._, p. 22. "The forming of letters into words and syllables is also called _Spelling_."--_Ib._, p. 21. "Labials are formed chiefly by the _lips_, dentals by the _teeth_, palatals by the _palate_, gutturals by the _throat_, nasals by the _nose_, and linguals by the _tongue_."--_Ib._, p. 25. "The labials are _p, b, f, v_; the dentals _t, d, s, z_; the palatals _g_ soft and _j_; the gutturals _k, q_, and _c_ and _g_ hard; the nasals _m_ and _n_; and the linguals _l_ and _r_."--_Ib._, p. 25. "Thus, 'the man _having finished_ his letter, will carry it to the post office.'"--_Ib._, p. 75. "Thus, in the sentence 'he had a dagger _concealed_ under his cloak,' _concealed_ is passive, signifying _being_ concealed; but in the former combination, it goes to make up a form, the force of which is active."--_Ib._, p. 75. "Thus, in Latin, 'he had concealed the dagger' would be '_pugionem abdiderat_;' but 'he had the dagger concealed' would be '_pugionem abditum habebat_.'"-- _Ib._, p. 75. "_Here_, for instance, means 'in this place,' _now_, 'at this time,' &c."--_Ib._, p. 90. "Here _when_ both declares the _time_ of the action, and so is an adverb, and also _connects_ the two verbs, and so is a conjunction."--_Ib._, p. 91. "These words were all no doubt originally other parts of speech, viz.: verbs, nouns, and adjectives."--_Ib._, p. 92. "The principal parts of a sentence are the subject, the attribute, and the object, in other words the nominative, the verb, and the objective."-- _Ib._, p. 104. "Thus, the adjective is connected with the noun, the adverb with the verb or adjective, pronouns with their antecedents, &c."--_Ib._, p. 104. "_Between_ refers to two, _among_ to more than two."--_Ib._, p. 120. "_At_ is used after a verb of _rest, to_ after a verb of motion."--_Ib._, p. 120. "Verbs are of three kinds, Active, Passive, and Neuter."--_Lennie's Gram._, p. 19; _Bullions, Prin._, 2d Ed., p. 29 "Verbs are divided into two classes: Transitive and Intransitive."--_Hendrick's Gram._, p. 28 "The Parts of Speech in the English language are nine, viz. The Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition. Interjection and Conjunction."--_Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram._, p. 7 "Of these the Noun, Pronoun, and Verb are declined, the rest are indeclinable."--_Id., ib._, p. 7; _Practical Lessons_, p. 9. "The first expression is called the 'Active form.' The second the 'Passive form.'"--_Welds Gram._, 2d Ed., p. 83; Abridged, p. 66. "O 'tis a godlike privilege to save, And he that scorns it is himself a slave."--_Cowper_, Vol. i., p. 123 SECTION III.--THE COLON. The Colon is used to separate those parts of a compound sentence, which are neither so closely connected as those which are distinguished by the semicolon, nor so little dependent as those which require the period. RULE I.--ADDITIONAL REMARKS. When the preceding clause is complete in itself, but is followed by some additional remark or illustration, especially if no conjunction is used, the colon is generally and properly inserted: as, "Avoid evil doers: in such society, an honest man may become ashamed of himself."--"See that moth fluttering incessantly round the candle: man of pleasure, behold thy image!"--_Art of Thinking_, p. 94. "Some things we can, and others we cannot do: we can walk, but we cannot fly."--_Beanie's Moral Science_, p. 112. "Remember Heav'n has an avenging rod: To smite the poor, is treason against God."--_Cowper_. RULE II.--GREATER PAUSES. When the semicolon has been introduced, or when it must be used in a subsequent member, and a still greater pause is required within the period, the colon should be employed: as, "Princes have courtiers, and merchants have partners; the voluptuous have companions, and the wicked have accomplices: none but the virtuous can have friends."--"Unless the truth of our religion be granted, a Christian must be the greatest monster in nature: he must at the same time be eminently wise, and notoriously foolish; a wise man in his practice, and a fool in his belief: his reasoning powers must be deranged by a constant delirium, while his conduct never swerves from the path of propriety."--_Principles of Eloquence_, p. 80. "A decent competence we fully taste; It strikes our sense, and gives a constant feast: More we perceive by dint of thought alone; The rich must labour to possess their own."--_Young_. RULE III.--INDEPENDENT QUOTATIONS. A quotation introduced without a close dependence on a verb or a conjunction, is generally preceded by the colon; as, "In his last moments, he uttered these words: 'I fall a sacrifice to sloth and luxury.'"--"At this the king hastily retorted: 'No put-offs, my lord; answer me presently.'"--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 367. "The father addressed himself to them to this effect: 'O my sons, behold the power of unity!'"-- _Rippingham's Art of Speaking_, p. 85. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE PUNCTUATION.--ERRORS CONCERNING THE COLON. UNDER RULE I.--ADDITIONAL REMARKS. "_Of_ is a preposition, it expresses the relation between _fear_ and _Lord_."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 133. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the additional remark in this sentence is not sufficiently separated from the main clause, by the comma after the word _preposition_. But, according to Rule 1st for the Colon, "When the preceding clause is complete in itself, but is followed by some additional remark or illustration, especially if no conjunction is used, the colon is generally and properly inserted." Therefore, the colon should here be substituted for the comma.] "Wealth and poverty are both temptations to man; _that_ tends to excite pride, _this_ discontentment."--_Id., ib._, p. 93; see also _Lennie's Gram._, p. 81; _Murray's_, 56; _Ingersoll's_ 61; _Alger's_, 25; _Merchant's_, 44; _Hart's_, 137; _et al_. "Religion raises men above themselves, irreligion sinks them beneath the brutes; _this_ binds them down to a poor pitiable speck of perishable earth, _that_ opens for them a prospect in the skies."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 98; _Lennie's Gram._, p. 81. "Love not idleness, it destroys many."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 71. "Children, obey your parents; honour thy father and mother, is the first commandment with promise."--_Bullions, Pract. Lessons_, p. 88. "Thou art my hiding place, and my shield, I hope in thy promises."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 56. "The sun shall not smite me by day nor the moon by night. The Lord will preserve from evil. He will save my soul.--BIBLE."--_Ib._, p. 57. "Here Greece is assigned the highest place in the class of objects among which she is numbered--the nations of antiquity--she is one of them."--_Lennie's Gram._, p. 79. "From short (as usual) and disturb'd repose I wake; how happy they who wake no more!"--_Hallock's Gram._, p. 216. UNDER RULE II.--GREATER PAUSES. "A taste _of_ a thing, implies actual enjoyment of it; but a taste for it, implies only capacity for enjoyment; as, 'When we have had a true taste of the pleasures of virtue, we can have no relish _for_ those of vice.'"--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 147. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the pause after _enjoyment_ is marked only by a semicolon. But, according to Rule 2d for the Colon, "When the semicolon has been introduced, or when it must be used in a subsequent member, and a still greater pause is required within the period, the colon should be employed." Therefore, the second semicolon here should be changed to a colon.] "The Indicative mood simply declares a thing; as, He _loves_; He is _loved_; Or, it asks a question; as, _Lovest_ thou me?"--_Id., ib._, p. 35; _Pract. Lessons_, p. 43; _Lennie's Gr._, p. 20. "The Indicative Mood simply indicates or declares a thing: as, 'He _loves_, he is _loved_:' or it asks a question: as, 'Does he love?' 'Is he loved?'"--_L. Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 63; 12mo, p. 63. "The Imperfect (or Past) tense represents an action or event indefinitely as past; as, Cæsar _came_, and _saw_, and _conquered_; or it represents the action definitely as unfinished and continuing at a certain time, now entirely past; as, My father _was coming_ home when I met him."--_Bullions, P. L._, p. 45; _E. Gr._, 39. "Some nouns have no plural; as, _gold, silver, wisdom, health_; others have no singular; as, _ashes, shears, tongs_; others are alike in both numbers; as, _sheep, deer, means, news_"--_Day's School Gram._, p. 15. "The same verb may be transitive in one sense, and intransitive in another; thus, in the sentence, 'He believes my story,' _believes_ is transitive; but in this phrase, 'He believes in God,' it is intransitive."--_Butler's Gram._, p. 61. "Let the divisions be _distinct_; one part should not include another, but each should have its proper place, and be of importance in that place, and all the parts well fitted together and united, should present a whole."--_Goldsbury's C. S. Gram._, p. 91. "In the use of the transitive verb there are always _three_ things implied,--the _actor_, the _act_, and the _object_ acted upon. In the use of the intransitive there are only _two_--the _subject_ or thing spoken of, and the _state_, or _action_ attributed to it."--_Bullions, E. Gram._ "Why labours reason? instinct were as well; Instinct far better; what can choose, can err." --_Brit. Poets_, Vol. viii. UNDER RULE III.--INDEPENDENT QUOTATIONS. "The sentence may run thus; 'He is related to the same person, and is governed by him.'"--_Hart's Gram._ [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the semicolon is here inserted, in an unusual manner, before a quotation not closely dependent. But, according to Rule 3d for the Colon, "A quotation introduced without a close dependence on a verb or a conjunction, is generally preceded by the colon." Therefore, the colon should be here preferred.] "Always remember this ancient proverb, 'Know thyself.'"--_Hallock's Gram._ "Consider this sentence. The boy runs swiftly."--_Frazee's Gram._, Stereotype Ed. 1st Ed. "The comparative is used thus; 'Greece was more polished than any _other_ nation of antiquity.' The same idea is expressed by the superlative when the word _other_ is left out. Thus, 'Greece was the most polished nation of antiquity'"--_Bullions, E. Gram._ see _Lennie's Gram._ "Burke, in his speech on the Carnatic war, makes the following allusion to the well known fable of Cadmus's sowing dragon's teeth;--'Every day you are fatigued and disgusted with this cant, the Carnatic is a country that will soon recover, and become instantly as prosperous as ever. They think they are talking to innocents, who believe that by the sowing of dragon's teeth, men may come up ready grown and ready made.'"--_Hiley's Gram._, see also _Hart's_. "For sects he car'd not, 'they are not of us, Nor need we, brethren, their concerns discuss.'"--_Crabbe_. "Habit with him was all the test of truth, 'It must be right: I've done it from my youth.' Questions he answered in as brief a way, 'It must be wrong--it was of yesterday.'"--_Id., Borough_. MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR. "This would seem to say, 'I doubt nothing save one thing, namely, that he will fulfil his promise;' whereas, that is the very thing not doubted."--_Bullions, E. Gram._. "The common use of language requires that a distinction be made between _morals_ and _manners_, the former depend upon internal dispositions, the latter on outward and visible accomplishments."--_Beattie's Moral Science_. "Though I detest war in each particular fibre of my heart yet I honor the Heroes among our fathers who fought with bloody hand: Peacemakers in a savage way they were faithful to their light; the most inspired can be no more, and we, with greater light, do, it may be, far less."--_Parker's Idea of a Church_. "The Article _the_, like _a_, must have a substantive joined with it, whereas _that_, like _one_, may have it understood; thus, speaking of books, I may select one, and say, 'give me that;' but not, 'give me _the_;' 'give me _one_;' but not 'give me _a_.'"--_Bullions's E. Gram._. "The Present tense has three distinct forms--the _simple_; as, I read; the _emphatic_; as, I do read; and the _progressive_; as, I am reading'."--_Ib._. "The tenses in English are usually reckoned six. The _Present_, the _Imperfect_, the _Perfect_, the _Pluperfect_, the _Future_, and the _Future Perfect_."--_Ib._. "There are three participles, the Present or Active, the Perfect or Passive, and the Compound Perfect; as, _loving, loved, having loved._"--_L. Murray's Gram._, 2d Edition; _Alger's_; _Fisk's_; _Bacon's_. "The Participles are three, the Present, the Perfect, and the Compound Perfect; as, _loving, loved, having loved_."--_Hart's Gram._. "_Will_ is conjugated regularly, when it is a principal verb, as, present, I will, past, I willed, &c."--_Frazee's Gram._, Ster. Ed.; Old Ed. "And both sounds of _x_ are compound, one is that of _gz_, and the other, that of _ks_"--_Ib._, Ster. Ed. "The man is happy: he is benevolent: he is useful."--_Cooper's Murray_; _Pl. and Pract. Gr._ "The Pronoun stands instead of the noun; as, The man is happy; _he_ is benevolent; _he_ is useful.'"--_L. Murray's Gram._, 2d Ed. "A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word: as, 'The man is happy,' '_he_ is benevolent,' '_he_ is useful.'"--_Ib._. "A pronoun is a word, used in the room of a noun, or as a substitute for one or more words, as: the man is happy; _he_ is benevolent; _he_ is useful."--_Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram., his Abridg. of Mur._ "A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class of beings, or things, as: animal; tree; insect; fish; fowl"--_Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram._ "Nouns have three persons: the first; the second; and the third."--_Ib._ "(Eve) so saying, her rash hand in evil hour Forth reaching to the fruit; she pluck'd, she ate Earth felt the wound: and nature from her seat, Sighing through all her works, gave signs of wo, That all was lost."--_Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram._ SECTION IV.--THE PERIOD. The Period, or Full Stop, is used to mark an entire and independent sentence, whether simple or compound. RULE I.--DISTINCT SENTENCES. When a sentence, whether long or short, is complete in respect to sense, and independent in respect to construction, it should be marked with the period: as, "Every deviation from truth is criminal. Abhor a falsehood. Let your words be ingenuous. Sincerity possesses the most powerful charm."--"The force of a true individual is felt through every clause and part of a right book; the commas and dashes are alive with it."--_R. W. Emerson_. "By frequent trying, TROY was won. All things, by trying, may be done."--_Lloyd_, p. 184. RULE II.--ALLIED SENTENCES. The period is often employed between two sentences which have a general connexion, expressed by a personal pronoun, a conjunction, or a conjunctive adverb: as, "The selfish man languishes in his narrow circle of pleasures. _They_ are confined to what affects his own interests. _He_ is obliged to repeat the same gratifications, till they become insipid. _But_ the man of virtuous sensibility moves in a wider sphere of felicity."--_Blair_. "And whether we shall meet again, I know not. _Therefore_ our everlasting farewell take."--_Shak._, J. C. RULE III.--ABBREVIATIONS. The period is generally used after abbreviations, and very often to the exclusion of other points; but, as in this case it is not a constant sign of pause, other points may properly follow it, if the words written in full would demand them: as, A. D. for _Anno Domini_;--Pro tem. for _pro tempore_;--Ult. for _ultimo_;--i.e. for _id est_, that is;--Add., Spect, No. 285; i.e., _Addison, in the Spectator, Number 285th_. "Consult the statute; 'quart.' I think, it is, 'Edwardi sext.,' or 'prim. et quint. Eliz.'"--_Pope_, p. 399. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--It seems to be commonly supposed, whether correctly or not, that short sentences which are in themselves distinct, and which in their stated use must be separated by the period, may sometimes be rehearsed as examples, in so close succession as not to require this point: as, "But if thou wilt enter into life, keep the commandments. He saith unto him, Which? Jesus said, Thou shalt do no murder, Thou shalt not commit adultery, Thou shalt not steal, Thou shalt not bear false witness, Honour thy father and thy mother: and, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself."--SCOTT, ALGER, AND OTHERS: _Matt._, xix, 17, 18, 19. "The following sentences exemplify the possessive pronouns:--'_My_ lesson is finished; _Thy_ books are defaced; He loves _his_ studies; She performs _her_ duty; We own _our_ faults; _Your_ situation is distressing; I admire _their_ virtues.'"--_L. Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 55. What mode of pointing is best adapted to examples like these, is made a very difficult question by the great diversity of practice in such cases. The semicolon, with guillemets, or the semicolon and a dash, with the quotation marks, may sometimes be sufficient; but I see no good reason why the _period_ should not in general be preferred to the comma, the semicolon, or the colon, where full and distinct sentences are thus recited. The foregoing passage of Scripture I have examined in five different languages, ten different translations, and seventeen different editions which happened to be at hand. In these it is found pointed in twelve different ways. In Leusden's, Griesbach's, and Aitton's Greek, it has nine colons; in Leusden's Latin from Montanus, eight; in the common French version, six; in the old Dutch, five; in our Bibles, usually one, but not always. In some books, these commandments are mostly or wholly divided by periods; in others, by colons; in others, by semicolons; in others, as above, by commas. The first four are negative, or prohibitory; the other two, positive, or mandatory. Hence some make a greater pause after the fourth, than elsewhere between any two. This greater pause is variously marked by the semicolon, the colon, or the period; and the others, at the same time, as variously, by the comma, the semicolon, or the colon. Dr. Campbell, in his Four Gospels, renders and points the latter part of this passage thus: "Jesus answered, 'Thou shalt not commit murder. Thou shalt not commit adultery. Thou shalt not steal. Thou shalt not give false testimony. Honour thy father and mother; and love thy neighbour as thyself." But the corresponding passage in Luke, xviii 20, he exhibits thus: "Thou knowest the commandments. Do not commit adultery; do not commit murder; do not steal; do not give false testimony; honour thy father and thy mother." This is here given as present advice, _referring to_ the commandments, but not actually _quoting_ them; and, in this view of the matter, semicolons, not followed by capitals may be right. See the common reading under Rule XIV for Capitals, on page 166. OBS. 2.--Letters written for _numbers_, after the manner of the Romans, though read as words, are never words in themselves; nor are they, except perhaps in one or two instances, abbreviations of words. C, a hundred, comes probably from _Centum_; and M, a thousand, is the first letter of _Mille_; but the others, I, V, X, L, D, and the various combinations of them all, are direct numerical signs, as are the Arabic figures. Hence it is not really necessary that the period should be set after them, except at the end of a sentence, or where it is suitable as a sign of pause. It is, however, and always has been, a prevalent custom, to mark numbers of this kind with a period, as if they were abbreviations; as, "While pope Sixtus V. who succeeded Gregory XIII. fulminated the thunder of the church against the king of Navarre."--_Smollet's Eng._, iii, 82. The period is here inserted where the reading requires only the comma; and, in my opinion, the latter point should have been preferred. Sometimes, of late, we find other points set after this period; as, "Otho II., surnamed the Bloody, was son and successor of Otho I.; he died in 983."--_Univ. Biog. Dict._ This may be an improvement on the former practice, but double points are not _generally_ used, even where they are proper; and, if the period is not indispensable, a simple change of the point would perhaps sooner gain the sanction of general usage. OBS. 3.--Some writers, judging the period to be wrong or needless in such cases, omit it, and insert only such points as the reading requires; as, "For want of doing this, Judge Blackstone has, in Book IV, Chap. 17, committed some most ludicrous errors."--_Cobbett's Gram._, Let. XIX, ¶ 251. To insert points needlessly, is as bad a fault as to omit them when they are requisite. In Wm. Day's "Punctuation Reduced to a System," (London, 1847,) we have the following obscure and questionable RULE: "_Besides denoting a grammatical pause_, the _full point_ is used to mark _contractions_, and is requisite after _every abbreviated word_, as well as after _numeral letters._"--Page 102. This seems to suggest that both a pause and a contraction may be denoted by the same point. But what are properly called "_contractions_," are marked not by the period, but by the apostrophe, which is no sign of pause; and the confounding of these with words "_abbreviated_," makes this rule utterly absurd. As for the period "after _numeral letters_," if they really needed it at all, they would need it _severally_, as do the abbreviations; but there are none of them, which do not uniformly dispense with it, when not final to the number; and they may as well dispense with it, in like manner, whenever they are not final to the sentence. OBS. 4.--Of these letters, Day gives this account: "_M._ denotes _mille_, 1,000; _D., dimidium mille_, half a thousand, or 500; _C. centum_, 100; _L._ represents the lower half of _C._, and expresses 50; _X._ resembles _V._ _V._, the one upright, the other inverted, and signifies 10; _V._ stands for 5, because its sister letter U is the fifth vowel; and _I._ signifies 1, probably because it is the plainest and simplest letter in the alphabet."--_Day's Punctuation_, p. 103. There is some fancy in this. Dr. Adam says, "The letters employed for this purpose [i.e., to express _numbers_.] were C. I. L. V. X."--_Latin and Eng. Gram._, p. 288. And again: "A thousand is marked thus CI[C-reverserd], which in later times was _contracted_ into M. _Five hundred_ is marked thus, I[C-reversed], or by _contraction_, D."--_Ib._ Day inserts periods thus: "IV. means 4; IX., 9; XL., 40; XC., 90; CD., 400; CM., 900."--Page 703. And again: "4to., _quarto_, the fourth of a sheet of paper; 8vo., _octavo_, the eighth part of a sheet of paper; 12mo., _duodecimo_, the twelfth of a sheet of paper; N. L., 8°., 9'., 10''., North latitude, eight degrees, nine minutes, ten seconds."--Page 104. But IV may mean 4, without the period; 4to or 8vo has no more need of it than 4th or 8th; and N. L. 8° 9' 10'' is an expression little to be mended by commas, and not at all by additional periods. OBS. 5.--To allow the period of abbreviation to supersede all other points wherever it occurs, as authors generally have done, is sometimes plainly objectionable; but, on the other hand, to suppose double points to be always necessary wherever abbreviations or Roman numbers have pauses less than final, would sometimes seem more nice than wise, as in the case of Biblical and other references. A concordance or a reference Bible pointed on this principle, would differ greatly from any now extant. In such references, _numbers_ are very frequently pointed with the period, with scarcely any regard to the pauses required in the reading; as, "DIADEM, Job 29. 14. Isa. 28. 5. and 62. 3. Ezek. 21. 26."--_Brown's Concordance_. "Where no vision is, the people perish, Prov. xxix. 18. Acts iv. 12. Rom. x. 14."--_Brown's Catechism_, p. 104. "What I urge from 1. Pet. 3. 21. in my Apology."--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 498. "I. Kings--II. Kings."--_Alger's Bible_, p. iv. "Compare iii. 45. with 1. Cor. iv. 13."--_Scott's Bible, Pref. to Lam. Jer._ "Hen. v. A. 4. Sc. 5."--_Butler's Gram._, p. 41. "See Rule iii. Rem. 10."--_Ib._, p. 162. Some set a _colon_ between the number of the chapter and that of the verse; which mark serves well for distinction, where both numbers are in Arabic figures: as, "'He that formed the eye, shall he not see?'--Ps. 94: 9."--_Wells's Gram._, p. 126. "He had only a lease-hold title to his service. Lev. 25: 39, Exod. 21: 2."--_True Amer._, i. 29. Others adopt the following method which seems preferable to any of the foregoing: "Isa. Iv, 3; Ezek. xviii, 20; Mic. vi, 7."--_Gurney's Essays_, p. 133. Churchill, who is uncommonly nice about his punctuation, writes as follows: "_Luke_. vi, 41, 42. See also Chap. xv, 8; and _Phil._, iii. 12."--_New Gram._, p. 353. OBS. 6.--Arabic figures used as ordinals, or used for the numeral adverbs, _first_, or _firstly, secondly, thirdly, &c._, are very commonly pointed with the period, even where the pause required after them is less than a full stop; as, "We shall consider these words, 1. as expressing _resolution_; and 2. as expressing _futurity_."--_Butler's Gram._, p. 106. But the period thus followed by a small letter, has not an agreeable appearance, and some would here prefer the comma, which is, undoubtedly, better suited to the pause, A fitter practice, however, would be, to change the expression thus: "We shall consider these words, 1st, as expressing _resolution_; and, 2dly, as expressing _futurity_." OBS. 7.--Names vulgarly shortened, then written as they are spoken, are not commonly marked with a period; as, _Ben_ for _Benjamin_. "O RARE BEN JOHNSON!"--_Biog. Dict._ "From whence the inference is plain, Your friend MAT PRIOR wrote with pain." --LLOYD: _B. P._, Vol. viii, p. 188. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE PUNCTUATION.--ERRORS CONCERNING THE PERIOD. UNDER RULE I.--DISTINCT SENTENCES. "The third person is the position of the name spoken of; as, Paul and Silas were imprisoned, the earth thirsts, the sun shines."--_Frazee's Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 21; Ster. Ed., p. 23. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because three totally distinct sentences are here thrown together as examples, with no other distinction than what is made by two commas. But, according to Rule 1st for the Period, "When a sentence, whether long or short, is complete in respect to sense, and independent in respect to construction, it should be marked with the period." Therefore, these commas should be periods; and, of course, the first letter of each example must be a capital.] "Two and three and four make nine; if he were here, he would assist his father and mother, for he is a dutiful son; they live together, and are happy, because they enjoy each other's society; they went to Roxbury, and tarried all night, and came back the next day."--_Goldsbury's Parsing Lessons in his Manual of E. Gram._, p. 64. "We often resolve, but seldom perform; she is wiser than her sister; though he is often advised, yet he does not reform; reproof either softens or hardens its object; he is as old as his classmates, but not so learned; neither prosperity, nor adversity, has improved him; let him that standeth, take heed lest he fall; he can acquire no virtue, unless he make some sacrifices."--_Ibid._ "Down from his neck, with blazing gems array'd, Thy image, lovely Anna! hung portray'd, Th' unconscious figure, smiling all serene, Suspended in a golden chain was seen,"--_S. Barrett's E. Gr._, p. 92. UNDER RULE II.--ALLIED SENTENCES. "This life is a mere prelude to another, which has no limits, it is a little portion of duration. As death leaves us, so the day of judgment will find us."--_Merchant's School Gram._, p. 76. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the pause after _limits_, which is sufficient for the period, is marked only by the comma. But, according to Rule 2d, "The period is often employed between two sentences which have a general connexion, expressed by a personal pronoun, a conjunction, or a conjunctive adverb." It would improve the passage, to omit the first comma, change the second to a period, and write the pronoun _it_ with a capital. _Judgment_ also might be bettered with an _e_, and _another_ is properly two words.] "He went from Boston to New York; he went from Boston; he went to New York; in walking across the floor, he stumbled over a chair."--_Goldsbury's Manual of E. Gram._, p. 62. "I saw him on the spot, going along the road, looking towards the house; during the heat of the day, he sat on the ground, under the shade of a tree."--_Id., ib._ "George came home, I saw _him_ yesterday, here; the word him, can extend only to the individual _George_"--_S. Barrett's E. Gram._, 10th Ed., p. 45. "Commas are often used now, where parentheses were formerly; I cannot, however, esteem this an improvement."--See the _Key_. "Thou, like a sleeping, faithless sentinel Didst let them pass unnoticed, unimproved, And know, for that thou slumb'rest on the guard, Thou shalt be made to answer at the bar For every fugitive." --_Hallock's Gram._, p. 222; _Enfield's Sp._, p. 380. UNDER RULE III.--OF ABBREVIATIONS. "The term pronoun (Lat _pronomen_) strictly means a word used for, or instead of a noun."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 198. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the syllable here put for the word _Latin_, is not marked with a period. But, according to Rule 3d, "The period is generally used after abbreviations, and very often to the exclusion of other points; but, as in this case it is not a constant sign of pause, other points may properly follow it, if the words written in full would demand them." In this instance, a period should mark the abbreviation, and a comma be set after _of_. By analogy, _in stead_ is also more properly two words than one.] "The period is also used after abbreviations; as, A. D. P. S. G. W. Johnson."--_Butler's Pract. Gram._, p. 211. "On this principle of classification, the later Greek grammarians divided words into eight classes or parts of speech, viz: the Article, Noun, Pronoun, Verb, Participle, Adverb, Preposition, and Conjunction."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 191. "'_Metre_ is not confined to verse: there is a tune in all good prose; and Shakspeare's was a sweet one.'--_Epea Pter_, II, 61. Mr. H. Tooke's idea was probably just, agreeing with Aristotle's, but not accurately expressed."--_Churchill's New Gram._, p. 385. "Mr. J. H. Tooke was educated at Eton and at Cambridge, in which latter college he took the degree of A. M; being intended for the established church of England, he entered into holy orders when young, and obtained the living of Brentford, near London, which he held ten or twelve years."--_Div. of Purley_, 1st Amer. Edition, Vol. i, p. 60. "I, nor your plan, nor book condemn, But why your name, and why A. M!"--_Lloyd_. MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR. "If thou _turn_ away thy foot from the sabbath, &c. _Isaiah_. lviii. 7."--_Butler's Gram._, p. 67. "'He that hath eeris of herynge, _here he_. _Wiclif_. Matt xi."--_Butler's Gram._, p. 76. "See General Rules for Spelling, iii., v., and vii."--_Butler's Gram._, p. 81. "'False witnesses _did_ rise up.' _Ps_. xxxv. ii."--_Butlers Gram._, p. 105. "An _explicative_ sentence is used for explaining. An _interrogative_ sentence for enquiring. An _imperative_ sentence for commanding."--_S. Barrett's Prin. of Language_, p. 87. "In October, corn is gathered in the field by men, who go from hill to hill with baskets, into which they put the ears; Susan labors with her needle for a livelihood; notwithstanding his poverty, he is a man of integrity."--_Goldsbury's Parsing, Manual of E. Gram._, p. 62. "A word of one syllable, is called a monosyllable. A word of two syllables; a dissyllable. A word of three syllables; a trissyllable. A word of four or more syllables; a polysyllable."--_Frazee's Improved Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 15. "A word of one syllable, is called a monosyllable. A word of two syllables, a dissyllable. A word of three syllables, a trissyllable. A word of four or more syllables, a polysyllable."--_Frazee's Improved Gram._, Ster. Ed., p. 17. "If I say, '_if it did not rain_, I would take a walk;' I convey the idea that it _does rain_, at the time of speaking, _If it rained_, or _did it rain_, in the present time, implies, it does not rain; _If it did not rain_, or _did it not rain_, in present time, implies that _it does rain_; thus in this peculiarity, an _affirmative_ sentence always implies a _negation_, and a _negative sentence_ an _affirmation_."--_Frazee's Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 61; Ster. Ed., 62. "_If I were loved_, and, _were I loved_, imply, I am _not_ loved; _if I were not loved_, and, _were I not loved_, imply, I am loved; a negative sentence implies an affirmation; and an affirmative sentence implies a negation, in these forms of the subjunctive."--_Ib._, Old Ed., p. 73; Ster. Ed., 72. "What is Rule III.?"--_Hart's Gram._, p. 114. "How is Rule III. violated?"--_Ib._, p. 115. "How do you parse 'letter' in the sentence, 'James writes a _letter'? Ans._--'Letter is a noun com., of the MASC. gend., in the 3d p., sing. num., and _objective case_, and is governed by the verb 'writes,' according to Rule III., which says. 'A transitive verb,' &c."--_Ib._, p. 114.[465] "Creation sleeps. 'T is as the general pulse Of life stood still, and nature made a pause; An awful pause! prophetic of her end, And let her prophecy be soon fulfilled; Fate drop the curtain; I can lose no more."--_Hallock's Gram._, p. 216. SECTION V.--THE DASH. The Dash is mostly used to denote an unexpected or emphatic pause, of variable length; but sometimes it is a sign of faltering, or of the irregular stops of one who hesitates in speaking: as, "Then, after many pauses, and inarticulate sounds, he said: 'He was very sorry for it, was extremely concerned it should happen so--but--a--it was necessary--a--' Here lord E------ stopped him short, and bluntly demanded, if his post were destined for an other."--See _Churchill's Gram._, p. 170. RULE I.--ABRUPT PAUSES. A sudden interruption, break, or transition, should be marked with the dash; as, 1. "'I must inquire into the affair; and if'--'And _if_!' interrupted the farmer." 2. "Whom I--But first 't is fit the billows to restrain."--_Dryd. Virg._ 3. "HERE LIES THE GREAT--False marble! where? Nothing but sordid dust lies here."--_Young_. RULE II.--EMPHATIC PAUSES. To mark a considerable pause, greater than the structure or the sentence or the points inserted would seem to require, the dash may be employed; as, 1. "I pause for a reply.--None?--Then none have I offended.--I have done no more to Cæsar, than you should do to Brutus."--SHAKSPEARE: _Enfields Speaker_, p. 182. 2. "Tarry a little. There is something else.-- This bond--doth give thee here--no jot of blood." --ID.: _Burgh's Sp._, p. 167. 3. "It thunders;--but it thunders to preserve."--_Young_. 4. "Behold the picture!--Is it like?--Like whom?"--_Cowper_. RULE III.--FAULTY DASHES. Dashes needlessly inserted, or substituted for other stops more definite, are in general to be treated as errors in punctuation; as, "Here Greece stands by _itself_ as opposed to the _other_ nations of antiquity--She was none of the _other nations_--She was more polished than they."--_Lennie's Gram._, p. 78. "Here Greece stands by _herself_, as opposed to the _other_ nations of antiquity. She was none of the _other nations_: She was more polished than they."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 114. If this colon is sufficient, the capital after it is needless: a period would, perhaps, be better. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--The dash does not appear to be always a rhetorical stop, or always intended to lengthen the pause signified by an other mark before it. As one instance of a different design, we may notice, that it is now very often employed between a text and a reference;--i.e., between a quotation and the name of the author of the book quoted;--in which case, as Wm. Day suggests, "it serves as a _connecting mark_ for the two."--_Day's Punctuation_, p. 131. But this usage, being comparatively recent, is, perhaps, not so general or so necessary, that a neglect of it may properly be censured as false punctuation. OBS. 2.--An other peculiar use of the dash, is its application to _side-titles_, to set them off from other words in the same line, as is seen often in this Grammar as well as in other works. Day says of this, "When the _substance_ of a paragraph is given as a side-head, a dash is _necessary_ to _connect_ it with its relative matter."--_Ibid._ Wilson also approves of this usage, as well as of the others here named; saying, "The dash should be inserted between a title and the subject-matter, and also between the subject-matter, and the authority from which it is taken, when they occur in the same paragraph."--_Wilson's Punctuation_, Ed. of 1850, p. 139. OBS. 3.--The dash is often used to signify the omission of something; and, when set between the two extremes of a series of numbers, it may represent all the intermediate ones; as, "Page 10-15;" i. e., "Page 10, 11, 12, &c. to 15."--"Matt, vi, 9-14." IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE PUNCTUATION.--ERRORS CONCERNING THE DASH. UNDER RULE I.--ABRUPT PAUSES. "And there is something in your very strange story, that resembles ... Does Mr. Bevil know your history particularly?"--See _Key_. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the abrupt pause after _resembles_ is here marked by three periods. But, according to Rule 1st for the Dash. "A sudden interruption, break, or transition, should be marked with the dash." Therefore, the dash should be preferred to these points.] "Sir, Mr. Myrtle, Gentlemen! You are friends; I am but a servant. But."--See _Key_. "Another man now would have given plump into this foolish story; but I? No, no, your humble servant for that."--See _Key_. "Do not plunge thyself too far in anger lest thou hasten thy trial; which if Lord have mercy on thee for a hen!"--See _Key_. "But ere they came, O, let me say no more! Gather the sequel by that went before."--See _Key_. UNDER RULE II.--EMPHATIC PAUSES. "_M_, Malvolio; _M_, why, that begins my name." [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the pauses after _M_ and _Malvolio_ seem not to be sufficiently indicated here. But, according to Rule 2d for the Dash, "To mark a considerable pause, greater than the structure of the sentence or the points inserted would seem to require, the dash may be employed." Therefore, a dash may be set after the commas and the semicolon, in this sentence.] "Thus, by the creative influence of the Eternal Spirit, were the heavens and the earth finished in the space of six days, so admirably finished, an unformed chaos changed into a system of perfect order and beauty, that the adorable Architect himself pronounced it very good, and all the sons of God shouted for joy."--See _Key_. "If I were an American, as I am an Englishman, while a foreign troop remained in my country, I NEVER would lay down my arms; NEVER, NEVER, NEVER."--_Columbian Orator_, p. 265. "Madam, yourself are not exempt in this, Nor your son Dorset, Buckingham, nor you."--See _Key_. UNDER RULE III.--FAULTY DASHES. "--You shall go home directly, Le Fevre, said my uncle Toby, to my house,--and we'll send for a doctor to see what's the matter,--and we'll have an apothecary,--and the corporal shall be your nurse;--and I'll be your servant, Le Fevre."--STERNE: _Enfield's Speaker_, p. 306. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because all the dashes here quoted, except perhaps the last, are useless, or obviously substituted for more definite marks. But, according to Rule 3d, "Dashes needlessly inserted, or substituted for other stops more definite, are in general to be treated as errors in punctuation." Therefore, the first of these should be simply expunged; the second, third, and fourth, with their commas, should be changed to semicolons; and the last, with its semicolon, may well be made a colon.] "He continued--Inferior artists may be at a stand, because they want materials."--HARRIS: _Enfield's Speaker_, p. 191. "Thus, then, continued he--The end in other arts is ever distant and removed."--_Id., ib._ "The nouns must be coupled with _and_, and when a pronoun is used it must be plural, as in the example--When the nouns are _disjoined_ the pronoun must be singular."--_Lennie's Gram._, 5th Ed., p. 57. "_Opinion_ is a noun or substantive common,--of the singular number,--neuter gender,--nominative case,--and third person."--_Wright's Philos. Gram._, p. 228. "The mountain--thy pall and thy prison--may keep thee; I shall see thee no more; but till death I will weep thee." --_Felton's Gram._, p. 146. MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR "If to accommodate man and beast, heaven and earth; if this be beyond me, 'tis not possible.--What consequence then follows? or can there be any other than this--if I seek an interest of my own, detached from that of others; I seek an interest which is chimerical, and can never have existence."--HARRIS: _Enfield's Speaker_, p. 139. "Again--I must have food and clothing--Without a proper genial warmth, I instantly perish--Am I not related, in this view, to the very earth itself? To the distant sun, from whose beams I derive vigour?"--_Id., ib._, p. 140. "Nature instantly ebb'd again--the film returned to its place--the pulse flutter'd--stopp'd--went on--throbb'd--stopp'd again--mov'd--stopp'd--shall I go on?--No."--STERNE: _ib._, p. 307. "Write ten nouns of the masculine gender. Ten of the feminine. Ten of the neuter. Ten indefinite in gender."--_Pardon Davis's Gram._, p. 9. "The Infinitive Mode has two tenses--the Indicative, six--the Potential, two--the Subjunctive, six, and the Imperative, one."--_Frazee's Gram._, Ster. Ed., p. 39; 1st Ed., 37. "Now notice the following sentences. John runs,--boys run--thou runnest."--_Ib._, Ster. Ed., p. 50; 1st Ed., p. 48. "The Pronoun sometimes stands for a name--sometimes for an adjective--a sentence--a part of a sentence--and, sometimes for a whole series of propositions."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, 1st Ed., 12mo, p. 321. "The self-applauding bird, the peacock, see-- Mark what a sumptuous pharisee is he!"--_Cowper_, i, 49. SECTION VI.--THE EROTEME. The Eroteme, or Note of Interrogation, is used to designate a question. RULE I.--QUESTIONS DIRECT. Questions expressed directly as such, if finished, should always be followed by the note of interrogation; as, "Was it possible that virtue so exalted should be erected upon injustice? that the proudest and the most ambitious of mankind should be the great master and accomplished pattern of humility? that a doctrine so pure as the Gospel should be the work of an uncommissioned pretender? that so perfect a system of morals should be established on blasphemy?"--_Jerningham's Essay_, p. 81. "In life, can love be bought with gold? Are friendship's pleasures to be sold?"--_Johnson_. RULE II.--QUESTIONS UNITED. When two or more questions are united in one compound sentence, the comma, semicolon, or dash, is sometimes used to separate them, and the eroteme occurs after the last only; as, 1. "When--under what administration--under what exigencies of war or peace--did the Senate ever before deal with such a measure in such a manner? Never, sir, never."--_D. Webster, in Congress_, 1846. 2. "Canst thou, and honour'd with a Christian name, Buy what is woman-born, and feel no shame; Trade in the blood of innocence, and plead Expedience as a warrant for the deed?"--_Cowper_. 3. "Truths would you teach, or save a sinking land? All fear, none aid you, and few understand."--_Pope_. RULE III.--QUESTIONS INDIRECT. When a question is mentioned, but not put directly as a question, it loses both the quality and the sign of interrogation; as, "The Cyprians asked me _why I wept_."--_Murray_. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--The value of the eroteme as a sign of pause, is stated very differently by different grammarians; while many of the vast multitude, by a strange oversight, say nothing about it. It is unquestionably _variable_, like that of the dash, or of the ecphoneme. W. H. Wells says, "The comma requires a momentary pause; the semicolon, a pause somewhat longer than the comma; the colon, a pause somewhat longer than the semicolon; and the period, a full stop. The note of interrogation, or the note of exclamation, _may take the place of_ EITHER _of these_, and accordingly requires a pause of the same length as the point for which it is substituted."--_Wells's School Gram._, p. 175. This appears to be accurate in idea, though perhaps hardly so in language. Lindley Murray has stated it thus: "The interrogation and exclamation points are _intermediate_ as to their quantity or time, and may be equivalent in that respect to a semicolon, a colon, or a period, as the sense may require."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 280. But Sanborn, in regard to his "_Question Point_," awkwardly says: "_This pause_ is generally _some longer_ than that of a period."--_Analytical Gram._, p. 271. Buchanan, as long ago as 1767, taught as follows: "The Pause after the two Points of Interrogation and Admiration ought to be equal to that of the Period, or a Colon at least."--_English Syntax_, p. 160. And J. S. Hart avers, that, "A question is reckoned as equal to a complete sentence, and the mark of interrogation as equal to a period."--_Hart's English Gram._, p. 166. He says also, that, "the first word after a note of interrogation should begin with a capital."--_Ib._, p. 162. In some instances, however, he, like others, has not adhered to these exceptionable principles, as may be seen by the false grammar cited below. OBS. 2.--Sometimes a series of questions may be severally complete in sense, so that each may require the interrogative sign, though some or all of them may be so united in construction, as not to admit either a long intermediate pause or an initial capital; as, "Is there no honor in generosity? nor in preferring the lessons of conscience to the impulses of passion? nor in maintaining the supremacy of moral principle, and in paying reverence to Christian truth?"--_Gannett_. "True honour is manifested in a steady, uniform train of actions, attended by justice, and directed by prudence. Is this the conduct of the duellist? will justice support him in robbing the community of an able and useful member? and in depriving the poor of a benefactor? will it support him in preparing affliction for the widow's heart? in filling the orphan's eyes with tears?"--_Jerningham's Essay_, p. 113. But, in this latter example, perhaps, commas might be substituted for the second and fourth erotemes; and the word _will_ might, in both instances, begin with a capital. OBS. 3.--When a question is mentioned in its due form, it commonly retains the sign of interrogation, though not actually asked by the writer; and, except perhaps when it consists of some little interrogative word or phrase, requires the initial capital: as, "To know when this point ought to be used, do not say:[,] 'Is a question asked?' but, 'Does the sentence ask a question?'"--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 368. "They put their huge inarticulate question, 'What do you mean to do with us?' in a manner audible to every reflective soul in the kingdom."--_Carlyle's Past and Present_, p. 16. "An adverb may be generally known, by its answering to the question, How? how much? when? or where? as, in the phrase, 'He reads _correctly_,' the answer to the question, How does he read? is _correctly_."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 28. This passage, which, without ever arriving at great accuracy, has been altered by Murray and others in ways innumerable, is everywhere exhibited with five interrogation points. But, as to capitals and commas, as well as the construction of words, it would seem no easy matter to determine what impression of it is nearest right. In Flint's Murray it stands thus: "An adverb may generally be known by its answering the question, How? How much? When? or Where? As in the phrase, 'He reads _correctly_. The answer to the question, 'How does he read?' is, '_correctly_.'" Such questions, when the pause is slight, do not, however, in all cases, require capitals: as, "_Rosal_. Which of the visors was it, that you wore? _Biron_. Where? when? what visor? why demand you this?" _Shakspeare, Love's Labour Lost_, Act V, Sc. 2. OBS. 4.--A question is sometimes put in the form of a mere declaration; its interrogative character depending solely on the eroteme, and the tone, or inflection of voice, adopted in the utterance: as, "I suppose, Sir, you are his apothecary?"--SWIFT: _Burgh's Speaker_, p. 85. "I hope, you have, upon no account, promoted sternutation by hellebore?"--_Id., ib._ "This priest has no pride in him?"--SINGER'S SHAK., _Henry_ VIII, ii, 2. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE PUNCTUATION.--ERRORS CONCERNING THE EROTEME. UNDER RULE I.--QUESTIONS DIRECT. "When will his ear delight in the sound of arms."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, 12mo, p. 59. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because here is a finished question with a period set after it. But, according to Rule 1st for the Eroteme, "Questions expressed directly as such, if finished, should always be followed by the note of interrogation." Therefore, the eroteme, or note of interrogation, should here be substituted for the period.] "When shall I, like Oscar, travel in the light of my steel."--_Ib._, p. 59. "Will Henry call on me while he shall be journeying South."--_Peirce, ib._, p. 133. "An Interrogative Pronoun is one that is used in asking a question; as, '_who_ is he, and _what_ does he want?'"--_Day's School Gram._, p. 21. "_Who_ is generally used when we would inquire for some unknown person or persons; as, _who_ is that man."--_Ib._, p. 24. "Our fathers, where are they, and the prophets, do they live forever?"--_Ib._, p. 109. "It is true, that some of our best writers have used _than whom_; but it is also true, that they have used _other_ phrases which we have rejected as ungrammatical: then why not reject this too.--The sentences in the Exercises [with _than who_] are correct as they stand."--_Lennie's Gram._, 5th Ed., 1819, p. 79. "When the perfect participle of an active-intransitive verb is annexed to the neuter verb _to be_? What does the combination form?"--_Hallock's Gram._, p. 88. "Those adverbs which answer to the question _where, whither_ or _whence_, are called adverbs of _place_."--_Ib._, p. 116. "Canst thou, by searching, find out God; Canst thou find out the Almighty to perfection; It is high as heaven, what canst thou do? deeper than hell, what canst thou know?"--_Blair's Rhet._ p. 132. "Where, where, for shelter shall the guilty fly, When consternation turns the good man pale."--_Ib._, p. 222. UNDER RULE II.--QUESTIONS UNITED. "Who knows what resources are in store? and what the power of God may do for thee?" [FORMULE.--Not proper, because an eroteme is set after _store_, where a comma would be sufficient. But, according to Rule 2d for the Eroteme, "When two or more questions are united in one compound sentence, the comma, semicolon, or dash, is sometimes used to separate them, and the eroteme occurs after the last only." Therefore, the comma should here be preferred, as the author probably wrote the text. See _Key_.] "The Lord is not a man that he should lie, neither the son of man that he should repent. Hath he said it? and shall he not do it? Hath he spoken it? and shall he not make it good?"--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 353; 12mo, 277; _Hiley's_, 139; _Hart's_, 181. "_Hath the Lord said it? and shall he not do it? Hath he spoken it? and shall he not make it good_?"--_Lennie's Gram._, p. 113; _Bullions's_, 176. "Who calls the council, states the certain day? Who forms the phalanx, and who points the way." --_Brit. Poets_, vi, 376. UNDER RULE III.--QUESTIONS INDIRECT. "To be, or not to be?--that is the question."--_Enfield's Sp._, p. 367; _Kirkham's Eloc._, 123.[466] [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the note of interrogation is here set after an expression which has neither the form nor the nature of a direct question. But, according to Rule 3d for the Eroteme, "When a question is mentioned, but not put directly as a question, it loses both the quality and the sign of interrogation." Therefore, the semicolon, which seems adapted to the pause, should here be preferred.] "If it be asked, why a pause should any more be necessary to emphasis than to an accent? or why an emphasis alone, will not sufficiently distinguish the members of sentences from each other, without pauses, as accent does words? the answer is obvious; that we are pre-acquainted with the sound of words, and cannot mistake them when distinctly pronounced, however rapidly; but we are not pre-acquainted with the meaning of sentences, which must be pointed out to us by the reader or speaker."--_Sheridan's Rhet. Gram._, p. lvi. "Cry, By your Priesthood tell me what you are?" --POPE: _British Poets_, London, 1800, Vol. vi, p. 411. MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR. "Who else can he be. Where else can he go."--_S. Barrett's Gram._, 1845, p. 71. "In familiar language _here, there_ and _where_ are used for _hither, thither_ and _whither_."--_N. Butler's Gram._, p. 183. "Take, for instance, this sentence, 'Indolence undermines the foundation of virtue.'"--_Hart's Gram._, p. 106. "Take, for instance, the sentence before quoted. '_Indolence_ undermines the foundation of virtue.'"--_Ib._, p. 110. "Under the same head are considered such sentences as these, '_he_ that heareth, let him hear,' 'Gad, a troop shall overcome him,' &c."--_Ib._, p. 108. "TENSES are certain modifications of the verb which point out the distinctions of time."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 38; _Pract. Les._, p. 44. "Calm was the day and the scene delightful."--_Id. E. Gr._, p. 80. "The capital letters used by the Romans to denote numbers, were C. I. L. V. X. which are therefore called Numeral Letters. I, denotes _one_; V, _five_: X, _ten_; L, _fifty_; and C, a hundred."--_Id., Lat. Gram._, p. 56. "'I shall have written;' viz, at or before some future time or event."--_Id., ib._, p. 89. "In Latin words the liquids are _l_ and _r_ only. In Greek words _l, r, m, n_."--_Id., ib._, p. 277. "Each legion was divided into ten cohorts, each cohort into three maniples, and each maniple into two centuries."--_Id., ib._, p. 300. "Of the Roman literature previous to A. U. 514 scarcely a vestige remains."--_Id., ib._, p. 312. "And that, which He delights in must be happy. But when!--or where!--This world was made for Cæsar." --_Burgh's Sp._, p. 122. "And that which he delights in must be happy. But when, or where? This world was made for Cæsar." --_Enfield's Sp._, p. 321. "Look next on greatness. Say, where greatness lies? Where but among the heroes and the wise." --_Burgh's Sp._, p. 91. "Look next on greatness! say where greatness lies. Where, but among the heroes and the wise?" --_Essay on Man_, p. 51. "Look next on Greatness; say where Greatness lies: Where, but among the Heroes and the Wise?" --_Brit. Poets_, vi, 380. SECTION VII--THE ECPHONEME. The Ecphoneme, or Note of Exclamation, is used to denote a pause with some strong emotion of admiration, joy, grief, or other feeling; and, as a sign of great wonder, it is sometimes, though not very elegantly, repeated: as, "Grammatical consistency!!! What a gem!"--_Peirce's Gram._, p. 352. RULE I.--INTERJECTIONS, &c. Emphatic interjections, and other expressions of great emotion, are generally followed by the note of exclamation; as, "Hold! hold! Is the devil in you? Oh! I am bruised all over."--MOLIERE: _Burgh's Speaker_, p. 250. "And O! till earth, and seas, and heav'n decay, Ne'er may that fair creation fade away!"--_Dr. Lowth_. RULE II.--INVOCATIONS. After an earnest address or solemn invocation, the note of exclamation is now generally preferred to any other point; as, "Whereupon, O king Agrippa! I was not disobedient unto the heavenly vision."--_Acts_, xxvi, 19. "Be witness thou, immortal Lord of all! Whose thunder shakes the dark aërial hall."--_Pope_. RULE III.--EXCLAMATORY QUESTIONS. Words uttered with vehemence in the form of a question, but without reference to an answer, should be followed by the note of exclamation; as, "How madly have I talked!"--_Young_. "An Author! 'Tis a venerable name! How few deserve it, and what numbers claim!" --_Id., Br. Po._, viii, 401. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE PUNCTUATION.--ERRORS CONCERNING THE ECPHONEME. UNDER RULE I.--OF INTERJECTIONS, &c. (1.) "O that he were wise."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 111. [FORMULE. Not proper, because this strong wish, introduced by "O," is merely marked with a period. But, according to Rule 1st for the Ecphoneme, "Emphatic interjections, and other expressions of great emotion, are generally followed by the note of exclamation." Therefore, the pause after this sentence, should be marked with the latter sign; and, if the "O" be read with a pause, the same sign may be there also.] (2.) "O that his heart was tender."--_Exercises, ib._, p. 111. (3.) "_Oh_, what a sight is here!"--_Lennie's Gram._, p. 48. (4.) "Oh! what a sight is here."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 71; (Obs. 2;) _Pract. Les._, p. 83. (5.) "O virtue! How amiable thou art."--_Id._,, p. 71; _Pract. Les._, p. 82. (6.) "O _virtue_! how amiable thou art."--_Day's Gram._, p. 109. (7.) "O, virtue! how amiable thou art."--_S. Putnam's Gram._, p. 53. (8.) "_Oh!_ virtue, how amiable thou art!"--_Hallock's Gram._, p. 191; _O. B. Peirce's_, 375. (9.) "_O_ virtue! how amiable thou art!"--_Hallock's Gram._, p. 126. (10.) "Oh! that I had been more diligent."--_Hart's Gram._, p. 167; see _Hiley's_, 117. (11.) "O! the humiliation to which vice reduces us."--_Farnum's Gram._, p. 12; _Murray's Ex._, p. 5. (12.) "O! that he were more prudent."--_Farnum's Gram._, p. 81. (13.) "Ah! me."--_P. Davis's Gram._, p. 79. (14.) "Ah me!"--_Ib._, p. 122. (15.) "Lately alas I knew a gentle boy," _&c.--The Dial_, Vol. i, p. 71. (16.) "Wo is me Alhama."--_Wells's School Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 190. (17.) "Wo is me, Alhama."--_Ibid._, "113th Thousand," p. 206. UNDER RULE II.--OF INVOCATIONS. "Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, O _maid_ of Inistore."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 131; _Cooper's Plain and Practical Gram._, p. 158. [FORMULE--Not proper, because the emphatic address in this sentence, is marked with a period after it. But, according to Rule 2d for the Ecphoneme, "After an earnest address or solemn invocation, the note of exclamation is now generally preferred to any other point." Therefore, this period should be changed to the latter sign.] "Cease a little while, O wind; stream, be thou silent a while; let my voice be heard around. Let my wanderer hear me. Salgar, it is Colma who calls. Here is the tree, and the rock. Salgar, my love, I am here. Why delayest thou thy coming? Lo, the calm moon comes forth. The flood is bright in the vale."--See _Key_. "Ah, stay not, stay not, guardless and alone; Hector, my lov'd, my dearest, bravest son."--See _Key_. UNDER RULE III.--EXCLAMATORY QUESTIONS. "How much better is wisdom than gold."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 153; _Hiley_, p. 113. [FORMULE--Not proper, because this exclamatory sentence is pointed with a period at the end. But, according to Rule 3d for the Ecphoneme, "Words uttered with vehemence in the form of a question, but without reference to an answer, should be followed by the note of exclamation." Therefore, this period should be changed to the latter sign.] "O virtue! how amiable art thou."--_Flint's Murray_, p. 51. "At that hour, O how vain was all sublunary happiness."--_Day's Gram._, p. 74. "Alas! how few and transitory are the joys which this world affords to man."--_Ib._, p. 12. "Oh! how vain and transitory are all things here below."--_Ib._, p. 110. "And oh! what change of state, what change of rank, In that assembly everywhere was seen."--_Day's Gram._, p. 12. "And O! what change of state! what change of rank! In that assembly every where was seen!"--_Pollok_, B. ix, l. 781. MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR. "O shame! where is thy blush."--_S. Barren's Principles of Language_, p. 86. "O _shame_, where is thy blush; _John_, give me my hat."--_Ib._, p. 98. "What! is Moscow in flames."--_Ib._, p. 86. "Ah! what happiness awaits the virtuous."--_Ib._, 86. "Ah, welladay,--do what we can for him, said Trim, maintaining his point,--the poor soul will die."--STERNE: _Enfield's Speaker_, p. 306. "A well o'day! do what we _can_ for him, said Trim, maintaining his point: the poor soul will _die_"--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 340. "Will John _return_ to-morrow."--_S. Barrett's Gram._, Tenth Ed., p. 55. "_Will not_ John _return_ to-morrow."--_Ib._, 55. "John! _return_ to-morrow; Soldiers! _stand_ firm."--_Ib._, 55. "If _mea_ which means _my_ is an adjective in _Latin_, why may not _my_ be so called _in_ English, and if _my_ is an adjective, why not _Barrett's_"--_Ib._, p. 50. "Oh? Absalom, my son."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 375. "Oh! STAR-EYED SCIENCE!! whither hast thou fled?"--_Ib._, p. 366. "Why do you tolerate your own inconsistency, by calling it the present tense!"--_Ib._, p. 360. "Thus the declarative mode may be used in asking a question; as, _what_ man _is_ frail."--_Ib._, p. 358. "What connexion has motive wish, or supposition, with the term subjunctive!"--_Ib._, p. 348. "A grand reason, truly! for calling it a golden key."--_Ib._, p. 347. "What '_suffering_'! the man who can say this, must be '_enduring._'"--_Ib._, p. 345. "What is Brown's Rule! in relation to this matter?"--_Ib._, p. 334. "_Alas!_ how short is life." "_Thomas_, study your book."--_Day's District School Gram._, p. 109. "As, '_alas!_' how short is life; _Thomas_, study your book.'"--_Ib._, p. 82. "Who can tell us who they are."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 178. "Lord have mercy on my son; for he is a lunatic, etc."--_Felton's Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 138; Ster. Ed., 140. "O, ye wild groves, O, where is now your bloom!"--_Ib._, p. 88; Ster. Ed., 91. "O who of man the story will unfold!" --_Farnum's Gr._, 2d Ed., p. 104. "Methought I heard Horatio say to-morrow. Go to I will not hear of it--to-morrow." --_Hallock's Gr._, 1st Ed., p. 221. "How his eyes languish? how his thoughts adore That painted coat which Joseph never wore?" --_Love of Fame_, p. 66. SECTION VIII.--THE CURVES. The Curves, or Marks of Parenthesis, are used to distinguish a clause or hint that is hastily thrown in between the parts of a sentence to which it does not properly belong; as, "Their enemies (and enemies they will always have) would have a handle for exposing their measures."--_Walpole_. "To others do (the law is not severe) What to thyself thou wishest to be done."--_Beattie_. OBS.--The incidental clause should be uttered in a lower tone, and faster than the principal sentence. It always requires a pause as great as that of a comma, or greater. RULE I.--THE PARENTHESIS. A clause that breaks the unity of a sentence or passage too much to be incorporated with it, and only such, should be inclosed within curves, as a parenthesis; as, "For I know that in me, (that is, in my flesh,) dwelleth no good thing."--_Rom._, vii, 18. "Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) Virtue alone is happiness below."--_Pope_. RULE II.--INCLUDED POINTS. The curves do not supersede other stops; and, as the parenthesis terminates with a pause equal to that which precedes it, the same point should be included, except when the sentences differ in form: as, 1. "Now for a recompense in the same, (I speak as unto my children,) be ye also enlarged."--_2 Cor._, vi, 13. 2. "Man's thirst of happiness declares it is: (For nature never gravitates to nought:) That thirst unquench'd, declares it is not here."--_Young_. 3. "Night visions may befriend: (as sung above:) Our waking dreams are fatal. How I dreamt Of things impossible! (could sleep do more?) Of joys perpetual in perpetual change!"--_Young_. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE PUNCTUATION.--ERRORS CONCERNING THE CURVES. UNDER RULE I.--OF THE PARENTHESIS. "Another is composed of the indefinite article _an_, which, etymologically means _one_ and _other_, and denotes _one other_."--_Hallock's Gram._, p. 63. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the parenthetic expression, "which etymologically means _one_," is not sufficiently separated from the rest of the passage. But, according to Rule 1st for the Curves, "A clause that breaks the unity of a sentence or passage too much to be incorporated with it, and only such, should be enclosed within curves, as a parenthesis." Therefore, the curves should be here inserted; and also, by Rule 2d, a comma at the word _one_.] "Each mood has its peculiar Tense, Tenses (or Times)."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 58. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the expression, "or Times," which has not the nature of a parenthesis, is here marked with curves. But, according to Rule 1st for the Curves, "A clause that breaks the unity of a sentence or passage too much to be incorporated with it, _and only such_, should be enclosed within curves, as a parenthesis." Therefore, these marks should be omitted; and a comma should be set after the word "_Tenses_," by Rule 3d.] "In some very ancient languages, as the Hebrew, which have been employed chiefly for expressing plain sentiments in the plainest manner, without aiming at any elaborate length or harmony of periods, this pronoun [the relative] occurs not so often."--_L. Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 127. "Before I shall say those Things, (O conscript Fathers) about the Public Affairs, which are to be spoken at this Time; I shall lay before you, in few Words, the Motives of the Journey, and the Return."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 149. "Of well-chose Words some take not care enough. And think they should be (like the Subject) rough." --_Ib._, p. 173. "Then having shewed his wounds, _he'd_ sit (him) down." --_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 32. UNDER RULE II.--OF INCLUDED POINTS. "Then Jael smote the Nail into his Temples, and fastened it to the Ground: (for he was fast asleep and weary) so he died. OLD TEST."--_Ward's Gram._, p. 17. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because this parenthesis is not marked as terminating with a pause equal to that which precedes it. But, according to Rule 2d above, "The curves do not supersede other stops; and, as the parenthesis terminates with a pause equal to that which precedes it, the same point should be included, except when the sentences differ in form." Therefore, a colon should be inserted within the curve after _weary_.] "Every thing in the Iliad has manners (as Aristotle expresses it) that is, every thing is acted or spoken."--_Pope, Pref. to Homer_, p. vi. "Those nouns, that end in _f._ or _fe_ (except some few I shall mention presently), form plurals by changing those letters into _ves_: as, thief, _thieves_; wife, _wives_."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 35. "_As_, requires _as_; (expressing equality) Mine is as good as yours. _As_,--so; (expressing equality) As the stars, so shall thy seed be. _So,--as_; (with a negative expressing inequality) He is not so wise as his brother. _So.--that_; (expressing consequence) I am so weak that I cannot walk."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 113; _Pract. Les._, p. 112. "A captious question, sir (and yours is one,) Deserves an answer similar, or none."--_Cowper_, ii. 228. MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR. "Whatever words the verb TO BE serves to unite referring to the same thing, must be of the same case; §61, as, _Alexander_ is a _student_."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 75. "When the objective is a relative or interrogative, it comes before the verb that governs it. §40, R. 9. (Murray's 6th rule is unnecessary.)"--_Id., ib._, p. 90. "It is generally improper (except in poetry,) to omit the antecedent to a relative; and always to omit a relative when of the nominative case."--_Id., ib._, p. 130. "In every sentence there must be a _verb_ and a _nominative_ (or subject) expressed or understood."--_Id., ib._, p. 87; _Pract. Lessons_, p. 91. "Nouns and pronouns, and especially words denoting time, are often governed by prepositions understood; or are used to restrict verbs or adjectives without a governing word, §50. Rem. 6 and Rule; as, He gave (to) me a full account of the whole affair."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 80. "When _should_ is used instead of _ought_, to express _present_ duty, §20, 4, it may be followed by the present; as, 'You _should_ study that you _may_ become learned.'"--_Id., ib._, p. 123. "The indicative present is frequently used after the words, _when, till, before, as soon as, after_, to express the relative time of a future action; (§24, I, 4,) as, 'When he _comes_, he will be welcome.'"--_Id., ib._, p. 124. "The relative is parsed by stating its gender, number, case, and antecedent, (the gender and number being always the same as those of the antecedent) thus, 'The boy who.' '_Who_' is a relative pronoun, masculine, singular, the nominative, and refers to '_boy_' as its antecedent."--_Bullions, Pract. Les._, p. 31. "Now, now, I seize, I clasp _thy_ charms, And now _you_ burst; ah! cruel from my arms." Here is an unnecessary change from the second person singular to the second plural. It would have been better thus, "Now, now I seize, I clasp _your_ charms, And now _you_ burst; ah! cruel from my arms." --_J. Burn's Gram._, p. 193. SECTION IX.--THE OTHER MARKS. There are also several other marks, which are occasionally used for various purposes, as follow:-- I. ['] The APOSTROPHE usually denotes either the possessive case of a noun, or the elision of one or more letters of a word: as, "The _girl's_ regard to her _parents'_ advice;"--_'gan, lov'd, e'en, thro'_; for _began, loved, even, through_. It is sometimes used in pluralizing a mere letter or sign; as, Two _a's_--three _6's_.[467] II. [-] The HYPHEN connects the parts of many compound words, especially such as have two accents; as, _ever-living_. It is also frequently inserted where a word is divided into syllables; as, _con-tem-plate_. Placed at the end of a line, it shows that one or more syllables of a word are can led forward to the next line. III. ["] The DI�RESIS, or DIALYSIS, placed over either of two contiguous vowels, shows that they are not a diphthong; as, _Danäe, aërial_. IV. ['] The ACUTE ACCENT marks the syllable which requires the principal stress in pronunciation; as, _e'qual, equal'ity_. It is sometimes used in opposition to the grave accent, to distinguish a close or short vowel; as, "_Fáncy_:" (_Murray_:) or to denote the rising inflection of the voice; as, "Is it _hé?_" V. [`] The GRAVE ACCENT is used in opposition to the acute, to distinguish an open or long vowel; as, "_Fàvour_:" (_Murray_:) or to denote the falling inflection of the voice; as, "_Yès_; it is _hè_" It is sometimes placed over a vowel to show that it is not to be suppressed in pronunciation; as, "Let me, though in humble speech, Thy refinèd maxims teach."--_Amer. Review_, May, 1848. VI. [^] The CIRCUMFLEX generally denotes either the broad sound of _a_ or an unusual sound given to some other vowel; as in _âll, hêir, machîne_. Some use it to mark a peculiar _wave_ of the voice, and when occasion requires, reverse it; as, "If you said _s=o_, then I said _sô_." VII. [[~]] The BREVE, or STENOTONE, is used to denote either the close, short, _shut_ sound of a vowel, or a syllable of short quantity; as, _l~ive_, to have life,--_r~av'en_, to devour,[468]--_c~al~am~us_, a reed. VIII. [=] The MACRON, or MACROTONE,[469] is used to denote either the open, long, _primal_ sound of a vowel, or a syllable of long quantity; as, _l=ive_, having life,--_r=a'ven_, a bird,--_=e'qu=ine_, of a horse. IX. [----] or [* * * *] or [....] The ELLIPSIS, or SUPPRESSION, denotes the omission of some letters or words: as, _K--g_, for _King; c****d_, for _coward; d....d_, for _damned_. X. [^] The CARET, used only in writing, shows where to insert words or letters that have been accidentally omitted. XI [{}] The BRACE serves to unite a triplet; or, more frequently, to connect several terms with something to which they are all related. XII. [§] The SECTION marks the smaller divisions of a book or chapter; and, with the help of numbers, serves to abridge references. XIII. [¶] The PARAGRAPH (chiefly used in the Bible) denotes the commencement of a new subject. The parts of discourse which are called paragraphs, are, in general, sufficiently distinguished by beginning a new line, and carrying the first word a little forwards or backwards. The paragraphs of books being in some instances numbered, this character may occasionally be used, in lieu of the word _paragraph_, to shorten references. XIV. [""] The GUILLEMETS, or QUOTATION POINTS, distinguish words that are exhibited as those of an other author or speaker. A quotation within a quotation, is usually marked with single points; which, when both are employed, are placed within the others: as, "And again he saith, 'Rejoice, ye Gentiles, with his people.'"--_Rom._, xv, 10. XV. [[]] The CROTCHETS, or BRACKETS, generally inclose some correction or explanation, but sometimes the sign or subject to be explained; as, "He [Mr. Maurice] was of a different opinion."--_Allen's Gram._, p. 213. XVI. [Fist] The INDEX, or HAND, points out something remarkable, or what the reader should particularly observe. XVII. [*] The ASTERISK, or STAR, [Dagger] the OBELISK, or DAGGER, [Double dagger] the DIESIS, or DOUBLE DAGGER, and [||] the PARALLELS, refer to marginal notes. The SECTION also [§], and the PARAGRAPH [¶], are often used for marks of reference, the former being usually applied to the fourth, and the latter to the sixth note on a page; for, by the usage of printers, these signs are commonly introduced in the following order: 1, *; 2, [Dagger]; 3, [Double dagger]; 4, §; 5, ||; 6, ¶; 7, **; 8, [Dagger][Dagger]; &c. Where many references are to be made, the _small letters_ of the alphabet, or the _numerical figures_, in their order, may be conveniently used for the same purpose. XVIII. [[Asterism]] The ASTERISM, or THREE STARS, a sign not very often used, is placed before a long or general note, to mark it as a note, without giving it a particular reference. XIX. [,] The CEDILLA is a mark borrowed from the French, by whom it is placed under the letter _c_, to give it the sound of _s_, before _a_ or _o_; as in the words, "façade," "Alençon." In Worcester's Dictionary, it is attached to three other letters, to denote their soft sounds: viz., "[,G] as J; [,S] as Z; [,x] as gz." [Fist][Oral exercises in punctuation should not be confined to the correction of errors. An application of its principles to points rightly inserted, is as easy a process as that of ordinary syntactical parsing, and perhaps as useful. For this purpose, the teacher may select a portion of this grammar, or of any well-pointed book, to which the foregoing rules and explanations may be applied by the pupil, as reasons for the points that occur.] IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE PUNCTUATION.--MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR. "The principal stops are the following:-- The Comma (,) the semicolon (;) the colon (:) the period, or fall stop (.) the note of interrogation (?) the note of exclamation (!) the parenthesis () and the dash (--) [.]"--_Bullions, E. Gram., p. 151; Pract. Les._, p. 127. "The modern punctuation in Latin is the same as in English. The marks employed, are the _Comma_ (,); _Semicolon_ (;); _Colon_ (:); _Period_ (.); _Interrogation_ (?); _Exclamation_ (!)."--_Bullions, Lat. Gram._, p. 3. "Plato reproving a young man for playing at some childish game; you chide me, says the youth, for a trifling fault. Custom, replied the philosopher, is no trifle. And, adds Montagnie, he was in the right; for our vices begin in infancy."--_Home's Art of Thinking_, (N. Y. 1818,) p. 54. "A merchant at sea asked the skipper what death his father died? 'My father,' says the skipper, my grandfather, and my great-grandfather, were all drowned. 'Well,' replies the merchant, and are not you afraid of being drowned too?'"--_Ib._, p. 135. "The use of inverted comma's derives from France, where one Guillemet was the author of them; [and] as an acknowledgement for the improvement his countrymen call them after his name GUILLEMETS."--_History of Printing_, (London, 1770,) p. 266. "This, however, is seldem [sic--KTH] if ever done unless the word following the possessive begins with _s_; thus we do not say, 'the prince' feather,' but, 'the prince's feather.'"--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 17. "And this phrase must mean _the feather of the prince_ but _princesfeather_ written as one word is the name of a plant: a species of amaranth."--See _Key_. "Böëthius soon had the satisfaction of obtaining the highest honour his country could bestow."--_Ingersoll's Gram._ 12mo., p. 279. "Boethius soon had," &c.--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, Vol. ii., p. 83. "When an example, a quotation, or a speech is introduced, it is separated from the rest of the sentence either by a semicolon or a colon; as, 'The scriptures give us an amiable representation of the Deity, in these words; _God is love._'"--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 116. "Either the colon or semicolon may be used when an example, a quotation, or a speech is introduced; as, 'Always remember this ancient maxim; _Know thyself._' 'The scriptures give us an amiable representation of the Deity, in these words: _God is love._'"--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 155. "The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon [, must begin with a capital]; as, always remember this ancient maxim: '_Know_ thyself.'"-- _Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 159; _Lennie's Gram._, p. 106. [Lennie has _"Always"_ with a capital.] "The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon, or _when it is_ in a direct form: as, 'Always remember this ancient maxim: _Know thyself_.' 'Our great lawgiver says, Take up thy cross daily, and follow me.'"--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 284. "8. The first word of a quotation, _introduced after a colon_, or _when it is_ in a direct form. EXAMPLES.--'Always remember this ancient maxim, 'Know thyself.' 'Our great Lawgiver says, Take up thy cross daily, and follow me.'"--_Weld's Gram., Abridged._, p. 17 "Tell me in whose house do you live."--_N. Butler's Gram._, p. 55. "He, that acts wisely, deserves praise."--_Ib._, p. 50 "He, who steals my purse, steals trash."--_Ib._, p. 51. "The antecedent is sometimes omitted, as, 'Who steals my purse, steals trash;' that is, _he_ who, or _person_ who."--_Ib._, p. 51. "Thus, 'Whoever steals my purse steals trash;' 'Whoever does no good does harm.'"--_Ib._, p. 53 "Thus, 'Whoever sins will suffer.' This means that any one without exception who sins will suffer."--_Ib._, p. 53. "Letters form syllables, syllables words, words sentences, and sentences, combined and connected form discourse."--_Cooper's Plain and Practical Gram._, p. 1. "A letter which forms a perfect sound, when uttered by itself, is called a vowel, as: _a, e, i_."--_Ib._, p. 1. "A proper noun is the name of an individual, as: John; Boston: Hudson; America."--_Ib._, p. 17. "Many men have been capable of doing a wise thing, more a cunning thing, but very few a generous thing."--_P. Davis's Gram._, p. 96. "In the place of an ellipsis of the verb a comma must be inserted."--_Ib._, p. 121. "A common noun unlimited by an article is sometimes understood in its broadest acceptation: thus, '_Fishes_ swim' is understood to mean _all_ fishes. '_Man_ is mortal,' _all_ men."--_Ib._, p. 13. "Thus those sounds formed principally by the throat are called _gutturals_. Those formed principally by the palate are called _palatals_. Those formed by the teeth, _dentals_--those by the lips, _labials_--those by the nose, _nasals_, &c."--_P. Davis's Gram._, p. 113. "Some adjectives are compared irregularly; as, _Good, better, best. Bad, worse, worst. Little, less, least._"--_Felton's Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 63; Ster. Ed., p. 66. "Under the fourth head of grammar, therefore, four topics will be considered, viz. PUNCTUATION, ORTHOEPY, FIGURES, and VERSIFICATION."-- _Hart's Gram._, p. 161. "Direct her onward to that peaceful shore, Where peril, pain and death are felt no more!" _Falconer's Poems_, p. 136; _Barrett's New Gram._, p. 94 BAD ENGLISH BADLY POINTED. LESSON I.--UNDER VARIOUS RULES. "Discoveries of such a character are sometimes made in grammar also, and such, too, is often their origin and their end."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 191. "_Traverse_, (to cross.) To deny what the opposite party has alleged. To traverse an indictment, &c. is to deny it."--_Id., ib._, p. 216. "The _Ordinal_ [numerals] denote the _order_ or _succession_ in which any number of persons or things is mentioned, as _first, second, third, fourth_, &c."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 22. "Nouns have three persons, FIRST, SECOND, and THIRD. The First person is the speaker, the Second is the one spoken to, the Third is the one spoken of."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 44. "Nouns have three cases, NOMINATIVE, POSSESSIVE, and OBJECTIVE. The relation indicated by the case of a noun includes three ideas, viz: those of _subject, object_, and _ownership_."--_Ib._, p. 45. "In speaking of animals that are of inferior size, or whose sex is not known or not regarded, they are often considered as without sex: thus, we say of a _cat 'it_ is treacherous,' of an infant '_it_ is beautiful,' of a _deer 'it_ was killed.'"--_Ib._, p. 39. "When _this_ or _these, that_ or _those_, refers to a preceding sentence; _this_, or _these_, refers to the latter member or term; _that_, or _those_, to the former."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 136; see _Lowth's Gram._, p. 102. "The rearing of them [i. e. of plants] became his first care, their fruit his first food, and marking their kinds his first knowledge."--_N. Butler's Gram._, p. 44. "After the period used with abbreviations we should employ other points, if the construction demands it; thus, after Esq. in the last example, there should be, besides a period, a comma."--_Ib._, p. 212. "In the plural, the verb is the same in all the persons; and hence the principle in _Rem._ 5, under Rule iii. [that the first or second person takes precedence,] is not applicable to verbs."--_Ib._, p. 158. "Rex and Tyrannus are of very different characters. The one rules his people by laws to which they consent; the other, by his absolute will and power: _that_ is called freedom, this, _tyranny_."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 190. "A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, which can be known, or mentioned, as: George; London; America; goodness; charity."--_Cooper's Plain and Pract. Gram._, p. 17. "Etymology treats of the classification of words; their various modifications and derivations."--_Day's School Gram._, p. 9. "To punctuate correctly implies a thorough acquaintance with the meaning of words and phrases, as well as of all their corresponding connexions"--_W. Day's Punctuation_, p. 31. "All objects which belong to neither the male nor female kind are called neuter."--_Weld's Gram._, 2d Ed., p. 57. "All objects, which belong to neither the male nor female kind, are said to be of the neuter gender."--_Weld's Gram., Abridged_, p. 51. "The Analysis of the Sounds in the English language presented in the preceding statements are sufficiently exact for the purpose in hand. Those who wish to pursue it further can consult Dr. Rush's admirable work, 'The Philosophy of the Human Voice.'"--_Fowlers E. Gram._, 1850, §65. "Nobody confounds the name of _w_ or _y_ with their sound or phonetic import."--_Ib._, §74. "Order is Heaven's first law; and this confest, Some are and must be, greater than the rest."--_Ib._, p. 96. LESSON II.--UNDER VARIOUS RULES. "In adjectives of one syllable, the Comparative is formed by adding _-er_ to the positive; and the Superlative by adding _-est_; as, _sweet, sweeter, sweetest_."--_Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram._, p. 19. "In monosyllables the comparative is formed by adding _er_ or _r_ to the positive, and the superlative by adding _est_ or _st_; as, _tall, taller, tallest; wise, wiser, wisest_."--_Id., Pract. Les._, p. 24. "By this method the confusion and unnecessary labor occasioned by studying grammars in these languages, constructed on different principles is avoided, the study of one is rendered a profitable introduction to the study of another, and an opportunity is furnished to the enquiring student of comparing the languages in their grammatical structure, and seeing at once wherein they agree, and wherein they differ."--_Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram._, Pref. to 5th Ed., p. vii. "No larger portion should be assigned for each recitation than the class can easily master, and till this is done, a new portion should not be given out."--_Id., ib._, p. viii. "The acquisitions made in every new lesson should be rivetted and secured by repeated _revisals_."--_Id., ib._, p. viii. "The personal pronouns may be parsed briefly thus; _I_, the first personal pronoun, masculine (or feminine), singular, the nominative. _His_, the third personal pronoun, masculine, singular, the possessive, &c."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 23: _Pract. Les._, p. 28. "When the male and female are expressed by distinct terms; as, _shepherd, shepherdess_, the masculine term has also a general meaning, expressing both male and female, and is always to be used when the office, occupation, profession, &c., and not the sex of the individual, is chiefly to be expressed. The feminine term is used only when the discrimination, of sex is indispensably necessary. Thus, when it is said 'the Poets of this country are distinguished by correctness of taste,' the term 'Poet' clearly includes both male and female writers of poetry."--_Id., E. Gram._, p. 12; _his Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, 24. "Nouns and pronouns, connected by conjunctions, must be in the same cases."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 78. "Verbs, connected by conjunctions, must be in the same moods and tenses, and, when in the subjunctive present, they must be in the same form."--_Ib._, p. 112. "This will habituate him to reflection--exercise his judgment on the meaning of the author, and without any great effort on his part, impress indelibly on his memory, the rules which he is required to give. After the exercises under the rule have been gone through as directed in the note page 96, they may be read over again in a corrected state the pupil making an emphasis on the correction made, or they may be presented in writing at the next recitation."--_Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram._, 2d Ed. Revised and Cor., p. viii. "Man, but for _that_, no action _could_ attend And but for _this_, be _thoughtful_ to no end." --_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, Pref. p. 5. LESSON III.--UNDER VARIOUS RULES. "'Johnson the bookseller and stationer,' indicates that the bookseller and the stationer are epithets belonging to the same person; 'the bookseller and the stationer' would indicate that they belong to different persons."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 127. "_Past_ is an adjective; _passed_, the past tense or perfect participle of the verb, and they ought not, as is frequently done, to be confounded with each other."--_Id., ib._, p. 148. "Not only the nature of the thoughts and sentiments, but the very selection and arrangement of the words, gives English poetry a character, which separates it widely from common prose."--_Id., ib._, p. 178. "Men of sound, discriminating, and philosophical minds--men prepared for the work by long study, patient investigation, and extensive acquirements, have labored for ages to improve and perfect it, and nothing is hazarded in asserting, that should it be unwisely abandoned, it will be long before another equal in beauty, stability and usefulness, be produced in its stead."--_Id., ib._, p. 191. "The Article _The_, on the other hand, is used to restrict, and is therefore termed _Definite_. Its proper office is to call the attention to a particular individual or class, or to any number of such, and is used with nouns in either the singular or plural number."--_Id., ib._, p. 193. "Hence also the infinitive mood, a participle, a member of a sentence, or a proposition, forming together the subject of discourse, or the object of a verb or preposition, and being the name of an act or circumstance, are in construction, regarded as nouns, and are usually called 'substantive phrases;' as '_To play_ is pleasant,' '_His being an expert dancer_ is no recommendation,' 'Let your motto be _Honesty is the best policy_.'"--_Id., ib._, p. 194. "In accordance with his definition, Murray has divided verbs into three classes, _Active, Passive_, and _Neuter_, and includes in the first class _transitive_ verbs only, and in the last all verbs used intransitively"--_Id., ib._, p. 200. "Moreover, as the name of the speaker or the person spoken to is seldom expressed, (the pronouns _I_ and _thou_ being used in its stead,) a noun is very seldom in the first person, not often in the second, and almost never in either, unless it be a proper noun, or a common noun personified."--_Bullions, Pract. Les._, p. 13. "In using the above exercises it will save much time, which is all important, if the pupil be taught to say every thing belonging to the nouns in the fewest words possible, and to say them always in the same order as above."--_Id., ib._, p. 21. "In any phrase or sentence the adjectives qualifying a noun may generally be found by prefixing the phrase 'What kind of,' to the noun in the form of a question; as, What kind of a horse? What kind of a stone? What kind of a way? The word containing the answer to the question is an adjective."--_Id., ib._, p. 22. "In the following exercise let the pupil first point out the nouns, and then the adjectives; and tell how he knows them to be so."--_Id., ib._, p. 23. "In the following sentences point out the improper ellipsis. Show why it is improper, and correct it."--_Id., ib._, p. 124. "SINGULAR PRONOUNS. PLURAL PRONOUNS. 1. I--am being smitten. 1. We--are being smitten. 2. Thou--art being smitten. 2. Ye _or_ you--are being smitten. 3. He--is being smitten. 3. They--are being smitten." _Wright's Philos. Gram._, p. 98. CHAPTER II--UTTERANCE. Utterance Is the art or act of vocal expression. It includes the principles of articulation, of pronunciation, and of elocution. SECTION I.--OF ARTICULATION. Articulation is the forming of words; by the voice, with reference to their component letters and sounds. ARTICLE I.--OF THE DEFINITION. Articulation differs from pronunciation, in having more particular regard to the elements of words, and in not embracing accent[470]. A recent author defines it thus: "ARTICULATION is the act of forming, with the organs of speech, the elements of vocal language."--_Comstock's Elocution_, p. 16. And again: "A good articulation is the _perfect_ utterance of the elements of vocal language."--_Ibid._ An other describes it more elaborately thus: "ARTICULATION, in language, is the forming of the human voice, accompanied by the breath, in some few consonants, into the simple and compound sounds, called vowels, consonants, and diphthongs, by the assistance of the organs of speech; and the uniting of those vowels, consonants, and diphthongs, together, so as to form syllables and words, and constitute spoken language."--_Bolles's Dict., Introd._, p. 7. ARTICLE II--OF GOOD ARTICULATION. Correctness in articulation is of such importance, that without it speech or reading becomes not only inelegant, but often absolutely unintelligible. The opposite faults are mumbling, muttering, mincing, lisping, slurring, mouthing, drawling, hesitating, stammering, misreading, and the like. "A good articulation consists in giving every letter in a syllable its due proportion of sound, according to the most approved custom of pronouncing it; and in making such a distinction between the syllables of which words are composed, that the ear shall without difficulty acknowledge their number; and perceive, at once, to which syllable each letter belongs. Where these points are not observed, the articulation is proportionably defective."--_Sheridan's Rhetorical Grammar_, p. 50. Distinctness of articulation depends, primarily, upon the ability to form the simple elements, or sounds of letters, by the organs of speech, in the manner which the custom of the language demands; and, in the next place, upon the avoidance of that precipitancy of utterance, which is greater than the full and accurate play of the organs will allow. If time be not given for the full enunciation of any word which we attempt to speak, some of the syllables will of course be either lost by elision or sounded confusedly. Just articulation gives even to a feeble voice greater power and reach than the loudest vociferation can attain without it. It delivers words from the lips, not mutilated, distorted, or corrupted, but as the acknowledged sterling currency of thought;--"as beautiful coins newly issued from the mint, deeply and accurately impressed, perfectly finished, neatly struck by the proper organs, distinct, sharp, in due succession, and of due weight."--_Austin's Chironomia_, p. 38. OBS.--The principles of articulation constitute the chief exercise of all those who are learning either to speak or to read. So far as they are specifically taught in this work, they will be found in those sections which treat of the powers of the letters. SECTION II.--OF PRONUNCIATION. Pronunciation, as distinguished from elocution, or delivery, is the utterance of words taken separately. The correct pronunciation of words, or that part of grammar which teaches it, is frequently called _Orthoëpy_. Pronunciation, or orthoëpy, requires a knowledge of the just powers of the letters in all their combinations; of the distinction of quantity in vowels and syllables; and of the force and seat of the accent. ARTICLE I--OF THE POWERS OF LETTERS. The JUST POWERS of the letters, are those sounds which are given to them by the best readers. These are to be learned, as reading is learned, partly from example, and partly from such books as show or aid the pronunciation of words. It is to be observed, however, that considerable variety, even in the powers of the letters, is produced by the character and occasion of what is uttered. It is noticed by Walker, that, "Some of the vowels, when neither under the accent, nor closed by a consonant, have a longer or a shorter, an opener or a closer sound, according to the solemnity or familiarity, the deliberation or rapidity of our delivery."--_Pronouncing Dict., Preface_, p. 4. In cursory speech, or in such reading as imitates it, even the best scholars utter many letters with quicker and obscurer sounds than ought ever to be given them in solemn discourse. "In public speaking," says Rippingham, "every word should be uttered, as though it were spoken singly. The solemnity of an oration justifies and demands such scrupulous distinctness. That careful pronunciation which would be ridiculously pedantic in colloquial intercourse, is an essential requisite of good elocution."--_Art of Public Speaking_, p. xxxvii. ARTICLE II--OF QUANTITY. QUANTITY, or TIME in pronunciation, is the measure of sounds or syllables in regard to their duration; and, by way of distinction, is supposed ever to determine them to be either _long_ or _short_.[471] The absolute time in which syllables are uttered, is very variable, and must be different to suit different subjects, passions, and occasions; but their relative length or shortness may nevertheless be preserved, and generally must be, especially in reciting poetry. Our long syllables are chiefly those which, having sounds naturally capable of being lengthened at pleasure, are made long by falling under some stress either of accent or of emphasis. Our short syllables are the weaker sounds, which, being the less significant words, or parts of words, are uttered without peculiar stress. OBS.--As quantity is chiefly to be regarded in the utterance of poetical compositions, this subject will be farther considered under the head of Versification. ARTICLE III.--OF ACCENT. ACCENT, as commonly understood, is the peculiar stress which we lay upon some particular syllable of a word, whereby that syllable is distinguished from and above the rest; as, _gram'-mar, gram-ma'-ri-an_. Every word of more than one syllable, has one of its syllables accented; and sometimes a compound word has two accents, nearly equal in force; as, _e'ven-hand'ed, home'-depart'ment_.[472] Besides the _chief_ or _primary_ accent, when the word is long, for the sake of harmony or distinctness, we often give a _secondary_ or less forcible accent to an other syllable; as, to the last of _tem'-per-a-ture'_, and to the second of _in dem'-ni-fi-ca'-tion_. "Accent seems to be regulated, in a great measure, by etymology. In words from the Saxon, the accent is generally on the root; in words from the learned languages, it is generally on the termination; and if to these we add the different accent we lay on some words, to distinguish them from others, we seem to have the three great principles of accentuation; namely, the radical, the terminational, and the distinctive."--_Walker's Principles_, No. 491; _L. Murray's Grammar_, 8vo, p. 236. A full and open pronunciation of the long vowel sounds, a clear articulation of the consonants, a forcible and well-placed accent, and a distinct utterance of the unaccented syllables, distinguish the elegant speaker. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--The pronunciation of the English language is confessedly very difficult to be mastered. Its rules and their exceptions are so numerous, that few become thoroughly acquainted with any general system of them. Nor, among the different systems which have been published, is there any which is worthy in all respects to be accounted a STANDARD. And, if we appeal to custom, the custom even of the best speakers is far from an entire uniformity. Perhaps the most popular directory on this subject is Walker's Critical Pronouncing Dictionary. The "Principles of English Pronunciation," which this author has furnished, occupy fifty-six closely-printed octavo pages, and are still insufficient for the purpose of teaching our orthoëpy by rule. They are, however, highly valuable, and ought to be consulted by every one who wishes to be master of this subject. In its vocabulary, or stock of words, this Dictionary is likewise deficient. Other lexicographers have produced several later works, of high value to the student; and, though no one has treated the subject of pronunciation so elaborately as did Walker, some may have given the results of their diligence in a form more useful to the generality of their consulters. Among the good ones, is the Universal and Critical Dictionary of Joseph E. Worcester. OBS. 2.--Our modern accentuation of Greek or Latin words is regulated almost wholly by the noted rule of Sanctius, which Walker has copied and Englished in the Introduction to his Key, and of which the following is a new version or paraphrase, never before printed: RULE FOR THE ACCENTING OF LATIN. _One_ syllable has stress of course, And words of _two_ the _first_ enforce; In _longer_ words the _penult_ guides, Its _quantity_ the point decides; If _long_, 'tis _there_ the accent's due, If _short_, accent the _last but two_; For accent, in a Latin word, Should ne'er go higher than the third. This rule, or the substance of it, has become very important by long and extensive use; but it should be observed, that stress on monosyllables is more properly _emphasis_ than _accent_; and that, in English, the accent governs quantity, rather than quantity the accent. SECTION III.--OF ELOCUTION. Elocution is the graceful utterance of words that are arranged into sentences, and that form discourse. Elocution requires a knowledge, and right application, of emphasis, pauses, inflections, and tones. ARTICLE I--OF EMPHASIS. EMPHASIS is the peculiar stress of voice which we lay upon some particular word or words in a sentence, which are thereby distinguished from the rest as being more especially significant.[473] As accent enforces a syllable, and gives character to a word; so emphasis distinguishes a word, and often determines the import of a sentence. The right placing of accent, in the utterance of words, is therefore not more important, than the right placing of emphasis, in the utterance of sentences. If no emphasis be used, discourse becomes vapid and inane; if no accent, words can hardly be recognized as English. "Emphasis, besides its other offices, is the great regulator of quantity. Though the quantity of our syllable is fixed, in words separately pronounced, yet it is mutable, when [the] words are [ar]ranged in[to] sentences; the long being changed into short, the short into long, according to the importance of the words with regard to meaning: and, as it is by emphasis only, that the meaning can be pointed out, emphasis must be the regulator of the quantity."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 246.[474] "Emphasis changes, not only the quantity of words and syllables, but also, in particular cases, the sent of the accent. This is demonstrable from the following examples: 'He shall _in_crease, but I shall _de_crease.' 'There is a difference between giving and _for_giving.' 'In this species of composition, _plaus_ibility is much more essential than _prob_ability.' In these examples, the emphasis requires the accent to be placed on syllables to which it does not commonly belong."--_Ib._, p. 247. In order to know what words are to be made emphatic, the speaker or reader must give constant heed to _the sense_ of what he utters; his only sure guide, in this matter, being a just conception of the force and spirit of the sentiment which he is about to pronounce. He must also guard against the error of multiplying emphatic words too much; for, to overdo in this way, defeats the very purpose for which emphasis is used. To manage this stress with exact propriety, is therefore one of the surest evidences both of a quick understanding, and of a delicate and just taste. ARTICLE II.--OF PAUSES. Pauses are cessations in utterance, which serve equally to relieve the speaker, and to render language intelligible and pleasing. Pauses are of three kinds: first, _distinctive_ or _sentential_ pauses,--such as form the divisions required by the sense; secondly, _emphatic_ or _rhetorical_ pauses,--such as particularly call the hearer's attention to something which has been, or is about to be, uttered; and lastly, _poetical_ or _harmonic_ pauses,--such as are peculiar to the utterance of metrical compositions. The duration of the distinctive pauses should be proportionate to the degree of connexion between the parts of the discourse. The shortest are long enough for the taking of some breath; and it is proper, thus to relieve the voice at every stop, if needful. This we may do, slightly at a comma, more leisurely at a semicolon, still more so at a colon, and completely at a period. Pauses, whether in reading or in public discourse, ought always to be formed after the manner in which we naturally form them in ordinary, sensible conversation; and not after the stiff, artificial manner which many acquire at school, by a mere mechanical attention to the common punctuation. Forced, unintentional pauses, which accidentally divide words that ought to be spoken in close connexion, are always disagreeable; and, whether they arise from exhaustion of breath, from a habit of faltering, or from unacquaintance with the text, they are errors of a kind utterly incompatible with graceful elocution. Emphatic or rhetorical pauses, the kind least frequently used, may be made immediately before, or immediately after, something which the speaker thinks particularly important, and on which he would fix the attention of his audience. Their effect is similar to that of a strong emphasis; and, like this, they must not be employed too often. The harmonic pauses, or those which are peculiar to poetry, are of three kinds: the _final pause_, which marks the end of each line; the _cæsural_ or _divisional pause_, which commonly divides the line near the middle; and the _minor rests_, or _demi-cæsuras_, which often divide it still further. In the reading of poetry, these pauses ought to be observed, as well as those which have reference to the sense; for, to read verse exactly as if it were prose, will often rob it of what chiefly distinguishes it from prose. Yet, at the same time, all appearance of singsong, or affected tone, ought to be carefully guarded against. ARTICLE III.--OF INFLECTIONS. INFLECTIONS are those peculiar variations of the human voice, by which a continuous sound is made to pass from one note, key, or pitch, into an other. The passage of the voice from a lower to a higher or shriller note, is called the _rising_ or _upward_ inflection. The passage of the voice from a higher to a lower or graver note, is called tbe _falling_ or _downward_ inflection. These two opposite inflections may be heard in the following examples: 1. The rising, "Do you mean to _gó_?" 2. The falling, "_When_ will you _gò_?" In general, questions that may be answered by _yes_ or _no_, require the rising inflection; while those which demand any other answer, must be uttered with the falling inflection. These slides of the voice are not commonly marked in writing, or in our printed books; but, when there is occasion to note them, we apply the acute accent to the former, and the grave accent to the latter.[475] A union of these two inflections upon the same syllable, is called a _circumflex_, a _wave_, or a "_circumflex inflection_." When the slide is first downward and then upward, it is called the _rising circumflex_, or "the _gravo-acute circumflex_;" when first upward and then downward, it is denominated the _falling circumflex_, or "the _acuto-grave circumflex_." Of these complex inflections of the voice, the emphatic words in the following sentences may be uttered as examples: "And it shall go _h~ard_ but I will _ûse_ the information."--"_�_! but he _pa~used_ upon the brink." When a passage is read without any inflection, the words are uttered in what is called a _monotone_; the voice being commonly pitched at a grum note, and made to move for the time, slowly and gravely, on a perfect level. "Rising inflections are far more numerous than falling inflections; the former constitute the main body of oral language, while the latter are employed for the purposes of emphasis, and in the formation of cadences. Rising inflections are often emphatic; but their emphasis is weaker than that of falling inflections."--_Comstock's Elocution_, p. 50. "Writers on Elocution have given numerous rules for the regulation of inflections; but most of these rules are better calculated to make _bad_ readers than good ones. Those founded on the construction of sentences might, perhaps, do credit to a _mechanic_, but they certainly do none to an _elocutionist_."--_Ib._, p. 51. "The reader should bear in mind that a falling inflection gives more importance to a word than a rising inflection. Hence it should never be employed merely for the sake of _variety_; but for _emphasis_ and _cadences_. Neither should a rising inflection be used for the sake of mere '_harmony_,' where a falling inflection would better express the meaning of the author. The _sense_ should, in _all_ cases, determine the direction of inflections."--_Ib._ _Cadence_ is a fall of the voice, which has reference not so much to pitch as to force, though it may depress both; for it seems to be generally contrasted with emphasis,[476] and by some is reprehended as a fault. "Support your voice steadily and firmly," says Rippingham, "and pronounce the concluding words of the sentence with force and vivacity, rather than with a languid cadence."--_Art of Speaking_, p. 17. The pauses which L. Murray denominates the suspending and the closing pause, he seems to have discriminated chiefly by the inflections preceding them, if he can be said to have distinguished them at all. For he not only teaches that the former may sometimes be used at the close of a sentence, and the latter sometimes where "the sense is not completed;" but, treating cadence merely as a defect, adds the following caution: "The closing pause must not be confounded with that fall of the voice, or _cadence_, with which many readers uniformly finish a sentence. Nothing is more destructive of propriety and energy than this habit. The tones and inflections of the voice at the close of a sentence, ought to be diversified, according to the general nature of the discourse, and the particular construction and meaning of the sentence."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 250; 12mo, p. 200. ARTICLE IV.--OF TONES. Tones are those modulations of the voice which depend upon the feelings of the speaker. They are what Sheridan denominates "the language of emotions." And it is of the utmost importance, that they be natural, unaffected, and rightly adapted to the subject and to the occasion; for upon them, in a great measure, depends all that is pleasing or interesting in elocution. "How much of the propriety, the force, and [the] grace of discourse, must depend on these, will appear from this single consideration; that to almost every sentiment we utter, more especially to every strong emotion, nature has adapted some peculiar tone of voice; insomuch, that he who should tell another that he was angry, or much grieved, in a tone that did not suit such emotions, instead of being believed, would be laughed at."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 333. "The different passions of the mind must be expressed by different tones of the voice. _Love_, by a soft, smooth, languishing voice; _anger_, by a strong, vehement, and elevated voice; _joy_, by a quick, sweet, and clear voice; _sorrow_, by a low, flexible, interrupted voice; _fear_, by a dejected, tremulous, hesitating voice; _courage_, by a full, bold, and loud voice; and _perplexity_, by a grave and earnest voice. In _exordiums_, the voice should be low, yet clear; in _narrations_, distinct; in _reasoning_, slow; in _persuasions_, strong: it should thunder in _anger_, soften in _sorrow_, tremble in _fear_, and melt in _love_."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 121. OBS.--Walker observes, in his remarks on the nature of Accent and Quantity, "As to the tones of the passions, which are so many and various, these, in the opinion of one of the best judges in the kingdom, are _qualities_ of sound, occasioned by certain vibrations of the organs of speech, independent _on_ [say _of_] high, low, loud, soft, quick, slow, forcible, or feeble: which last may not improperly be called different _quantities_ of sound."--_Walker's Key_, p. 305. CHAPTER III.--FIGURES. A Figure, in grammar, is an intentional deviation from the ordinary spelling, formation, construction, or application, of words. There are, accordingly, figures of Orthography, figures of Etymology, figures of Syntax, and figures of Rhetoric. When figures are judiciously employed, they both strengthen and adorn expression. They occur more frequently in poetry than in prose; and several of them are merely poetic licenses. SECTION I.--FIGURES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. A Figure of Orthography is an intentional deviation from the ordinary or true spelling of a word. The principal figures of Orthography are two; namely, _Mi-me'-sis_ and _Ar'-cha-ism_. EXPLANATIONS. I. _Mimesis_ is a ludicrous imitation of some mistake or mispronunciation of a word, in which the error is mimicked by a false spelling, or the taking of one word for another; as, "_Maister_, says he, have you any _wery_ good _weal_ in you _vâllet?_"--_Columbian Orator_, p. 292. "Ay, he was _porn_ at Monmouth, captain Gower."--_Shak._ "I will _description_ the matter to you, if you be _capacity_ of it."--_Id._ "_Perdigious!_ I can hardly stand." --LLOYD: _Brit. Poets_, Vol. viii, p. 184. II. An _Archaism_ is a word or phrase expressed according to ancient usage, and not according to our modern orthography; as, "_Newe grene chese of smalle clammynes comfortethe a hotte stomake._"--T. PAYNEL: _Tooke's Diversions_, ii, 132. "He _hath holpen_ his servant Israel."--_Luke_, i, 54. "With him was rev'rend Contemplation _pight_, Bow-bent with _eld_, his beard of snowy hue."--_Beattie_. OBS.--Among the figures of this section, perhaps we might include the foreign words or phrases which individual authors now and then adopt in writing English; namely, the _Scotticisms_, the _Gallicisms_, the _Latinisms_, the _Grecisms_, and the like, with which they too often garnish their English style. But these, except they stand as foreign quotations, in which case they are exempt from our rules, are in general offences against the _purity_ of our language; and it may therefore be sufficient, just to mention them here, without expressly putting any of them into the category of grammatical figures. SECTION II.--FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. A Figure of Etymology is an intentional deviation from the ordinary formation of a word. The principal figures of Etymology are eight; namely, _A-phoer'-e-sis, Pros'-the-sis, Syn'-co-pe, A-poc'-o-pe, Par-a-go'-ge, Di-oer'-e-sis, Syn-oer'-e-sis_, and _Tme'-sis_. EXPLANATIONS. I. _Aphæresis_ is the elision of some of the initial letters of a word: as, _'gainst_, for _against_; _'gan_, for _began_; _'neath_, for _beneath_; _'thout_, for _without_. II. _Prosthesis_ is the prefixing of an expletive syllable to a word: as, _a_down, for _down_; _ap_paid, for _paid_; _be_strown, for _strown_; _ev_anished, for _vanished_; _y_clad, for _clad_. III. _Syn'copè_ is the elision of some of the middle letters of a word: as, _med'cine_, for _medicine_; _e'en_, for _even_; _o'er_, for _over_; _conq'ring_, for _conquering_; _se'nnight_, for _sevennight_. IV. _Apoc'opè_ is the elision of some of the final letters of a word: as, _tho'_ for _though_; _th'_, for _the_; _t'other_, for _the other_; _thro'_, for _through_. V. _Parago'gè_ is the annexing of an expletive syllable to a word: as, _Johnny_, for _John_; _deary_, for _dear_; _withouten_, for _without_. VI. _Diæresis_ is the separating of two vowels that might be supposed to form a diphthong: as, _coöperate_, not _cooperate_; _aëronaut_, not _æronaut_; _or'thoëpy_, not _orthoepy_. VII. _Synæresis_ is the sinking of two syllables into one: as, _seest_, for _sëest_; _tacked_, for _tack-ed_; _drowned_, for _drown-ed_; _spoks't_, for _spok-est_; _show'dst_, for _show-edst_; _'tis_, for _it is_; _I'll_, for _I will_. VIII. _Tmesis_ is the inserting of a word between the parts of a compound, or between two words which should be united if they stood together: as, "On _which_ side _soever_."--_Rolla_. "_To_ us _ward_;" "_To_ God _ward_."--_Bible_. "The _assembling_ of ourselves _together_."--_Id._ "With _what_ charms _soe'er_ she will."--_Cowper_. "So _new_ a _fashion'd_ robe."--_Shak._ "Lament the _live_ day _long_."--_Burns_. OBS.--In all our pronunciation, except that of the solemn style, such verbal or participial terminations as can be so uttered, are usually sunk by _synæresis_ into mere modifications of preceding syllables. The terminational consonants, if not uttered with one vowel, must be uttered with an other. When, therefore, a vowel is entirely suppressed in pronunciation, (whether retained in writing or not,) the consonants connected with it, necessarily fall into an other syllable: thus, _tried, triest, sued, suest, loved, lovest, mov'd, mov'st_, are monosyllables; and _studied, studiest, studi'dst, argued, arguest, argu'dst_, are dissyllables; except in solemn discourse, in which the _e_ is generally retained and made vocal. SECTION III.--FIGURES OF SYNTAX. A Figure of Syntax is an intentional deviation from the ordinary construction of words. The principal figures of Syntax are five; namely, _El-lip'-sis, Ple'-o-nasm, Syl-lep'-sis, En-al'-la-ge_, and _Hy-per'-ba-ton._ EXPLANATIONS. I. _Ellipsis_ is the omission of some word or words which are necessary to complete the construction, but not necessary to convey the meaning. Such words are said, in technical phrase, to be _understood_;[477] because they are received as belonging to the sentence, though they are not uttered. Of compound sentences, a vast many are more or less elliptical; and sometimes, for brevity's sake, even the most essential parts of a simple sentence, are suppressed;[478] as, "But more of this hereafter."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 77. This means, "But _I shall say_ more of this hereafter." "Prythee, peace."--_Shak._ That is, "_I pray_ thee, _hold thou thy_ peace." There may be an omission of any of the parts of speech, or even of a whole clause, when this repeats what precedes; but the omission of mere articles or interjections can scarcely constitute a proper ellipsis, because these parts of speech, wherever they are really necessary to be recognized, ought to be expressed. EXAMPLES OF ELLIPSIS SUPPLIED. 1. Of the ARTICLE:--"A man and [_a_] woman."--"The day, [_the_] month, and [_the_] year."--"She gave me an apple and [_a_] pear, for a fig and [_an_] orange."--_Jaudon's Gram._, p. 170. 2. Of the NOUN:--"The common [_law_] and the statute law."--"The twelve [_apostles_]."--"The same [_man_] is he."--"One [_book_] of my books."--"A dozen [_bottles_] of wine."--"Conscience, I say; not thine own [_conscience_], but [_the conscience_] of the other."--_1 Cor._, x, 29. "Every moment subtracts _from_ [_our lives_] what it adds _to_ our lives."--_Dillwyn's Ref._, p. 8. "Bad actions mostly lead to worse" [_actions_].--_Ib._, p. 5. 3. Of the ADJECTIVE:--"There are subjects proper for the one, and not [_proper_] for the other."--_Kames._ "A just weight and [_a just_] balance are the Lord's."--_Prov._, xvi, 11. True ellipses of the adjective alone, are but seldom met with. 4. Of the PRONOUN:--"Leave [_thou_] there thy gift before the altar, and go [_thou_] thy way; first be [_thou_] reconciled to thy brother, and then come [_thou_] and offer [_thou_] thy gift,"--_Matt._, v, 24. "Love [_ye_] your enemies, bless [_ye_] them that curse you, do [_ye_] good to them that hate you."--_Ib._, v. 44. "Chastisement does not always immediately follow error, but [_it_] sometimes comes when [_it is_] least expected."-- _Dillwyn, Ref._, p. 31. "Men generally put a greater value upon the favours [_which_] they bestow, than upon those [_which_] they receive."--_Art of Thinking_, p. 48. "Wisdom and worth were all [_that_] he had."--_Allen's Gram._, p. 294. 5. Of the VERB:--"The world is crucified unto me, and I [_am crucified_] unto the world."--_Gal._, vi, 14. "Hearts should not [_differ_], though heads may, differ."--_Dillwyn_, p. 11. "Are ye not much better than they" [_are_]?--_Matt._, vi, 26. "Tribulation worketh patience; and patience [_worketh_] experience; and experience [_worketh_] hope."--_Romans_, v, 4. "Wrongs are engraved on marble; benefits [_are engraved_] on sand."--_Art of Thinking_, p. 41. "To whom thus Eve, yet sinless" [_spoke_].--_Milton_. 6. Of the PARTICIPLE:--"That [_being_] o'er, they part."--"Animals of various natures, some adapted to the wood, and some [_adapted_] to the wave."--_Melmoth, on Scripture_, p. 13. "His knowledge [_being_] measured to his state and place, His time [_being_] a moment, and a point [_being_] his space."--_Pope_. 7. Of the ADVERB:--"He can do this independently of me, if not [_independently_] of you." "She shows a body rather than a life; A statue, [_rather_] than a breather." --_Shak., Ant. and Cleo._, iii, 3. 8. Of the CONJUNCTION:--"But the fruit of the Spirit is love, [_and_] joy, [_and_] peace, [_and_] long suffering, [_and_] gentleness, [_and_] goodness, [_and_] faith, [_and_] meekness, [_and_] temperance."--_Gal._, v, 22. The repetition of the conjunction is called _Polysyndeton_; and the omission of it, _Asyndeton_. 9. Of the PREPOSITION:--"It shall be done [_on_] this very day."--"We shall set off [_at_] some time [_in_] next month."--"He departed [_from_] this life."--"He gave [_to_] me a book."--"We walked [_through_] a mile."--"He was banished [_from_] the kingdom."--_W. Allen_. "He lived like [_to_] a prince."--_Wells_. 10. Of the INTERJECTION:--"Oh! the frailty, [_oh!_] the wickedness of men."--"Alas for Mexico! and [_alas_] for many of her invaders!" 11. Of PHRASES or CLAUSES:--"The active commonly do more than they are bound to do; the indolent [_commonly do_] less" [_than they are bound to do_].--"Young men, angry, mean less than they say; old men, [_angry, mean_] more" [_than they say_].--"It is the duty of justice, not to injure men; [_it is the duty_] of modesty, not to offend them."--_W. Allen_. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--Grammarians in general treat of ellipsis without _defining_ it; and exhibit such rules and examples as suppose our language to be a hundred-fold more elliptical than it really is.[479] This is a great error, and only paralleled by that of a certain writer elsewhere noticed, who denies the existence of all ellipsis whatever. (See Syntax, Obs. 24th on Rule 22d.) Some have defined this figure in a way that betrays a very inaccurate notion of what it is: as, "ELLIPSIS is _when_ one or more words are wanting _to complete the sense_."--_Adam's Lat. and Eng. Gram._, p. 235; _Gould's_, 229. "ELLIPSIS is the omission of one or more words necessary _to complete the sense_."--_Bullions, Lat. Gram._, p. 265. These definitions are decidedly worse than none; because, if they have any effect, they can only mislead. They absurdly suggest that every elliptical sentence lacks a part of its own meaning! Ellipsis is, in fact, the mere omission or absence of certain _suggested words_; or of words that may be spared from utterance, _without defect in the sense_. There never can be an ellipsis of any thing which is either unnecessary to the construction or necessary to the sense; for to say what we mean and nothing more, never can constitute a deviation from the ordinary grammatical construction of words. As a figure of Syntax, therefore, the _ellipsis_ can only be of such words as are so evidently suggested to the reader, that the writer is as fully answerable for them as if he had written them. OBS. 2.--To suppose an ellipsis where there is none, or to overlook one where it really occurs, is to pervert or mutilate the text, in order to accommodate it to the parser's or reader's ignorance of the principles of syntax. There never can be either a general uniformity or a self-consistency in our methods of parsing, or in our notions of grammar, till the true nature of an ellipsis is clearly ascertained; so that the writer shall distinguish it from a _blundering omission_ that impairs the sense, and the reader or parser be barred from an _arbitrary insertion_ of what would be cumbrous and useless. By adopting loose and extravagant ideas of the nature of this figure, some pretenders to learning and philosophy have been led into the most whimsical and opposite notions concerning the grammatical construction of language. Thus, with equal absurdity, _Cardell_ and _Sherman_, in their _Philosophic Grammars_, attempt to confute the doctrines of their predecessors, by supposing _ellipses_ at pleasure. And while the former teaches, that prepositions do not govern the objective case, but that every verb is transitive, and governs at least two objects, expressed or _understood_, its own and that of a preposition: the latter, with just as good an argument, contends that no verb is transitive, but that every objective case is governed by a preposition expressed or _understood_. A world of nonsense for lack of a _definition!_ II. PLEONASM is the introduction of superfluous words; as, "But of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, thou shalt not eat _of it_."--_Gen._, ii, 17. This figure is allowable only, when, in animated discourse, it abruptly introduces an emphatic word, or repeats an idea to impress it more strongly; as, "_He_ that hath ears to hear, let him hear."--_Bible_. "All ye inhabitants of the world, and _dwellers on the earth_."--_Id._ "There shall not be left one stone upon another _that shall not be thrown down_."--_Id._ "I know thee _who thou art_."--_Id._ A Pleonasm, as perhaps in these instances, is sometimes impressive and elegant; but an unemphatic repetition of the same idea, is one of the worst faults of bad writing. OBS.--Strong passion is not always satisfied with saying a thing once, and in the fewest words possible; nor is it natural that it should be. Hence repetitions indicative of intense feeling may constitute a beauty of the highest kind, when, if the feeling were wanting, or supposed to be so, they would be reckoned intolerable tautologies. The following is an example, which the reader may appreciate the better, if he remembers the context: "At her feet he bowed, he fell, he lay down; at her feet he bowed, he fell; where he bowed, there he fell down dead."--_Judges_, v, 27. III. SYLLEPSIS is agreement formed according to the figurative sense of a word, or the mental conception of the thing spoken of, and not according to the literal or common use of the term; it is therefore in general connected with some figure of rhetoric: as "The _Word_ was made flesh, and dwelt amongst us, and we beheld _his_ glory."--_John_, i, 14. "Then Philip went down to the _city_ of Samaria, and preached Christ unto _them_."--_Acts_, viii, 5. "The _city_ of London _have_ expressed _their_ sentiments with freedom and firmness."--_Junius_, p. 159. "And I said [to backsliding _Israel_,] after _she_ had done all these things, Turn _thou_ unto me; but _she_ returned not: and _her_ treacherous _sister Judah_ saw it."--_Jer._, iii, 7. "And he surnamed them _Boanerges, which is_, The sons of thunder."--_Mark_, iii, 17. "While _Evening_ draws _her_ crimson curtains round."--_Thomson_, p. 63. "The _Thunder_ raises _his_ tremendous voice."--_Id._, p. 113. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--To the parser, some explanation of that agreement which is controlled by tropes, is often absolutely necessary; yet, of our modern grammarians, none appear to have noticed it; and, of the oldest writers, few, if any, have given it the rank which it deserves among the figures of syntax. The term _Syllepsis_ literally signifies _conception, comprehension_, or _taking-together_. Under this name have been arranged, by the grammarians and rhetoricians, many different forms of unusual or irregular agreement; some of which are quite too unlike to be embraced in the same class, and not a few, perhaps, too unimportant or too ordinary to deserve any classification as figures. I therefore omit some forms of expression which others have treated as examples of _Syllepsis_, and define the term with reference to such as seem more worthy to be noticed as deviations from the ordinary construction of words. Dr. Webster, allowing the word two meanings, explains it thus: "SYLLEPSIS, _n._ [_Gr._ syllæpsis.] 1. In _grammar_, a figure by which we conceive the sense of words otherwise than the words import, and construe them according to the intention of the author; otherwise called _substitution_.[480] 2. The agreement of a verb or adjective, not with the word next to it, but with the most worthy in the sentence."--_American Dict._ OBS. 2.--In short, _Syllepsis_ is a _conception_ of which grammarians have _conceived_ so variously, that it has become doubtful, what definition or what application of the term is now the most appropriate. Dr. Prat, in defining it, cites one notion from Sanctius, and adds an other of his own, thus: "SYLLEPSIS, id est, _Conceptio_, est quoties Generibus, aut Numeris videntur voces discrepare. Sanct. l. 4. c. 10. Vel sit Comprehensio indignioris sub digniore."--_Prat's Lat. Gram._, Part ii, p. 164. John Grant ranks it as a mere form or species of _Ellipsis_, and expounds it thus: "_Syllepsis_ is _when_ the adjective or verb, joined to different substantives, agrees with the more worthy."--_Institutes of Lat. Gram._, p. 321. Dr. Littleton describes it thus: "SYLLLEPSIS [sic--KTH],--A Grammatical figure _where_ two Nominative Cases singular of different persons are joined to a Verb plural."--_Latin Dict._, 4to. By Dr. Morell it is explained as follows: "SYLLEPSIS,--A grammatical figure, _where_ one is put for many, and many for one, Lat. _Conceptio_."--_Morell's Ainsworth's Dict._, 4to, Index Vitand. IV. _Enállagè_ is the use of one part of speech, or of one modification, for an other. This figure borders closely upon solecism; and, for the stability of the language, it should be sparingly indulged. There are, however, several forms of it which can appeal to good authority: as, 1. "_You know_ that _you are_ Brutus, that _say_ this."--_Shak._ 2. "They fall _successive_[ly], and _successive_[ly] rise."--_Pope_. 3. "Than _whom_ [who] a fiend more fell is nowhere found."--_Thomson_. 4. "Sure some disaster has _befell_" [befallen].--_Gay_. 5. "So furious was that onset's shock, Destruction's gates at once _unlock_" [unlocked].--_Hogg_. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--_Enallage_ is a Greek word, signifying _commutation, change_, or _exchange. "Enallage_, in a general sense, is the change of words, or of their accidents, one for another."--_Grant's Latin Gram._, p. 322. The word _Antimeria_, which literally expresses _change of parts_, was often used by the old grammarians as synonymous with _Enallage_; though, sometimes, the former was taken only for the substitution of one _part of speech_ for an other, and the latter, only, or more particularly, for a change of _modification_--as of mood for mood, tense for tense, or number for number. The putting of one _case_ for an other, has also been thought worthy of a particular name, and been called _Antiptosis_. But _Enallage_, the most comprehensive of these terms, having been often of old applied to all such changes, reducing them to one head, may well be now defined as above, and still applied, in this way, to all that we need recognize as figures. The word _Enallaxis_, preferred by some, is of the same import. "ENALLAXIS, so called by _Longinus_, or ENALLAGE, is an _Exchange_ of _Cases, Tenses, Persons, Numbers_, or _Genders_."--_Holmes's Rhet._, Book i, p. 57. "An ENALLAXIS changes, when it pleases, Tenses, or Persons, Genders, Numbers, Cases."--_Ib._, B. ii, p. 50. OBS. 2.--Our most common form of _Enallage_ is that by which a single person is addressed in the plural number. This is so fashionable in our civil intercourse, that some very polite grammarians improperly dispute its claims to be called a _figure_; and represent it as being more ordinary, and even more literal than the regular phraseology; which a few of them, as we have seen, would place among the _archaisms_. The next in frequency, (if indeed it can be called a different form,) is the practice of putting _we_ for _I_, or the plural for the singular in the _first person_. This has never yet been claimed as literal and regular syntax, though the usages differ in nothing but commonness; both being honourably authorized, both still improper on some occasions, and, in both, the _Enallage_ being alike obvious. Other varieties of this figure, not uncommon in English, are the putting of adjectives for adverbs, of adverbs for nouns, of the present tense for the preterit, and of the preterit for the perfect participle. But, in the use of such liberties, elegance and error sometimes approximate so nearly, there is scarcely an obvious line between them, and grammarians consequently disagree in making the distinction. OBS. 3.--Deviations of this kind are, _in general_, to be considered solecisms; otherwise, the rules of grammar would be of no use or authority. _Despauter_, an ancient Latin grammarian, gave an improper latitude to this figure, or to a species of it, under the name of _Antiptosis_; and _Behourt_ and others extended it still further. But _Sanctius_ says, "_Antiptosi grammaticorum nihil imperitius, quod figmentum si esset verum, frustra quæreretur, quem casum verba regerent_." And the _Messieurs De Port Royal_ reject the figure altogether. There are, however, some changes of this kind, which the grammarian is not competent to condemn, though they do not accord with the ordinary principles of construction. V. _Hyperbaton_ is the transposition of words; as, "He wanders _earth around_."--_Cowper_ "_Rings the world_ with the vain stir."--_Id. "Whom_ therefore ye ignorantly worship, _him declare I_ unto you."--_Acts_, xvii, 23. "'_Happy_', says _Montesquieu, 'is that nation_ whose annals are tiresome.'"--_Corwin, in Congress_, 1847. This figure is much employed in poetry. A judicious use of it confers harmony, variety, strength, and vivacity upon composition. But care should be taken lest it produce ambiguity or obscurity, absurdity or solecism. OBS.--A confused and intricate arrangement of words, received from some of the ancients the name of _Syn'chysis_, and was reckoned by them among the figures of grammar. By some authors, this has been improperly identified with _Hyper'baton_, or elegant inversion; as may be seen under the word _Synchysis_ in Littleton's Dictionary, or in Holmes's Rhetoric, at page 58th. _Synchysis_ literally means _confusion_, or _commixtion_; and, in grammar, is significant only of some poetical jumble of words, some verbal _kink_ or _snarl_, which cannot be grammatically resolved or disentangled: as, "_Is piety_ thus _and_ pure _devotion_ paid?" --_Milton, P. L._, B. xi, l. 452. "An ass will with his long ears fray The flies that tickle him away; But man delights to have _his ears Blown maggots in by_ flatterers." --_Butler's Poems_, p. 161. SECTION IV.--FIGURES OF RHETORIC. A Figure of Rhetoric is an intentional deviation from the ordinary application of words. Several of this kind of figures are commonly called _Tropes_, i.e., _turns_; because certain words are turned from their original signification to an other.[481] Numerous departures from perfect simplicity of diction, occur in almost every kind of composition. They are mostly founded on some similitude or relation of things, which, by the power of imagination, is rendered conducive to ornament or illustration. The principal figures of Rhetoric are sixteen; namely, _Sim'-i-le, Met'-a-phor, Al'-le-gor-y, Me-ton'-y-my, Syn-ec'-do-che, Hy-per'-bo-le, Vis'-ion, A-pos'-tro-phe, Per-son'-i-fi-ca'-tion, Er-o-te'-sis, Ec-pho-ne'-sis, An-tith'-e-sis, Cli'-max, I'-ro-ny, A-poph'-a-sis_, and _On-o-ma-to-poe'-ia._ EXPLANATIONS. I. A _Simile_ is a simple and express comparison; and is generally introduced by _like, as_, or _so_: as, "Such a passion is _like falling in love with a sparrow flying over your head_; you have but one glimpse of her, and she is out of sight."--_Colliers Antoninus_. "Therefore they shall be _as the morning cloud_, and _as the early dew_ that passeth away; _as the chaff_ that is driven with the whirlwind out of the floor, and _as the smoke_ out of the chimney."--_Hosea_, xiii. "At first, _like thunder's distant tone_, The rattling din came rolling on."--_Hogg_. "Man, _like the generous vine_, supported lives; The strength he gains, is from th' embrace he gives."--_Pope_. OBS.--Comparisons are sometimes made in a manner sufficiently intelligible, without any express term to point them out. In the following passage, we have a triple example of what seems the _Simile_, without the usual sign--without _like, as_, or _so_: "Away with all tampering with such a question! Away with all trifling with the man in fetters! _Give a hungry man a stone, and tell what beautiful houses are made of it;--give ice to a freezing man, and tell him of its good properties in hot weather;--throw a drowning man a dollar, as a mark of your good will_;--but do not mock the bondman in his misery, by giving him a Bible when he cannot read it."--FREDERICK DOUGLASS: _Liberty Bell_, 1848. II. A _Metaphor_ is a figure that expresses or suggests the resemblance of two objects by applying either the name, or some attribute, adjunct, or action, of the one, directly to the other; as, 1. "The LORD is my _rock_, and my _fortress_."--_Psal._, xviii 1. 2. "His eye was _morning's brightest ray_."--_Hogg_. 3. "An _angler_ in the _tides_ of fame."--_Id., Q. W._ 4. "Beside him _sleeps_ the warrior's bow."--_Langhorne_. 5. "Wild fancies in his moody brain _Gambol'd unbridled_ and unbound."--_Hogg, Q. W._ 6. "Speechless, and fix'd in all the _death_ of wo."--_Thomson_. OBS.--A _Metaphor_ is commonly understoood [sic--KTH] to be only the tropical use of some _single word_, or _short phrase_; but there seem to be occasional instances of one _sentence_, or _action_, being used metaphorically to represent an other. The following extract from the London Examiner has several figurative expressions, which perhaps belong to this head: "In the present age, nearly all people are critics, even to the pen, and treat the gravest writers with a sort of _taproom_ familiarity. If they are dissatisfied, _they throw a short and spent cigar in the face of the offender_; if they are pleased, _they lift the candidate off his legs, and send him away with a hearty slap on the shoulder_. Some of the shorter, when they are bent to mischief, _dip a twig in the gutter, and drag it across our polished boots_: on the contrary, when they are inclined to be gentle and generous, _they leap boisterously upon our knees, and kiss us_ with bread-and-butter in their mouths."--WALTER SAVAGE LANDOR. III. An _Allegory_ is a continued narration of fictitious events, designed to represent and illustrate important realities. Thus the Psalmist represents the _Jewish nation_ under the symbol of a _vine_: "Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt: thou hast cast out the heathen, and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it, and didst cause it to take deep root; and it filled the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars."--_Psalms_, lxxx, 8-10. OBS.--The _Allegory_, agreeably to the foregoing definition of it, includes most of those similitudes which in the Scriptures are called _parables_; it includes also the better sort of _fables_. The term _allegory_ is sometimes applied to a _true history_ in which something else is intended, than is contained in the words literally taken. See an instance in _Galatians_, iv, 24. In the _Scriptures_, the term _fable_ denotes an idle and groundless story: as, in _1 Timothy_, iv, 7; and _2 Peter_, i, 16. It is now commonly used in a better sense. "A _fable_ may be defined to be an analogical narrative, intended to convey some moral lesson, in which irrational animals or objects are introduced as speaking."--_Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 280. IV. A _Metonymy_ is a change of names between things related. It is founded, not on resemblance, but on some such relation as that of _cause_ and _effect_, of _progenitor_ and _posterity_, of _subject_ and _adjunct_, of _place_ and _inhabitant_, of _container_ and _thing contained_, or of _sign_ and _thing signified_: as, (1.) "God is our _salvation_;" i.e., _Saviour_. (2.) "Hear, O _Israel_;" i.e. O _ye descendants of_ Israel. (3.) "He was the _sigh_ of her secret soul;" i.e., the _youth_ she loved. (4.) "They smote the _city_;" i.e., the _citizens_. (5.) "My son, give me thy _heart_;" i.e., _affection_. (6.) "The _sceptre_ shall not depart from Judah;" i.e., _kingly power_. (7.) "They have _Moses and the prophets_;" i.e., _their writings_. See _Luke_, xvi, 29. V. _Synecdoche_, (that is, _Comprehension_,) is the naming of a part for the whole, or of the whole for a part; as, (1.) "This _roof_ [i.e., house] protects you." (2.) "Now the _year_ [i.e., summer] is beautiful." (3.) "A _sail_ [i.e., a ship or vessel] passed at a distance." (4.) "Give us this day our daily _bread_;" i.e., food. (5.) "Because they have taken away _my Lord_, [i.e., the body of Jesus,] and I know not where they have laid him."--_John_. (6.) "The same day there were added unto them about three thousand _souls_;" i.e., persons.--_Acts_. (7.) "There went out a decree from Cæsar Augustus, that all _the world_ [i.e., the Roman empire] should be taxed."--_Luke_, ii, 1. VI. _Hyperbole_ is extravagant exaggeration, in which the imagination is indulged beyond the sobriety of truth; as, "My little finger _shall be thicker_ than my father's loins."--_2 Chron._, x, 10. "When I washed my _steps with butter_, and the rock poured me out _rivers of oil_."--_Job_, xxix, 6. "The sky _shrunk upward with unusual dread_, And trembling Tiber _div'd beneath his bed_."--_Dryden_. VII. _Vision_, or _Imagery_, is a figure by which the speaker represents the objects of his imagination, as actually before his eyes, and present to his senses; as, "I see the dagger-crest of Mar! I see the Moray's silver star Wave o'er the cloud of Saxon war, That up the lake comes winding far!"--_Scott, L. L._, vi, 15. VIII. _Apostrophe_ is a turning from the regular course of the subject, into an animated address; as, "Death is swallowed up in victory. O Death! where is thy sting? O Grave! where is thy victory?"--_1 Cor._, xv, 55. IX. _Personification_ is a figure by which, in imagination, we ascribe intelligence and personality to unintelligent beings or abstract qualities; as, 1. "The _Worm_, aware of his intent, Harangued him thus, right eloquent."--_Cowper_. 2. "Lo, steel-clad _War_ his gorgeous standard rears!"--_Rogers_. 3. "Hark! _Truth_ proclaims, thy triumphs cease!"--_Idem_. X. _Erotesis_ is a figure in which the speaker adopts the form of interrogation, not to express a doubt, but, in general, confidently to assert the reverse of what is asked; as, "Hast thou an arm like God? or canst thou thunder with a voice like him?"--_Job_, xl, 9. "He that planted the ear, shall he not hear? he that formed the eye, shall he not see?"--_Psalms_, xciv, 9. XI. _Ecphonesis_ is a pathetic exclamation, denoting some violent emotion of the mind; as, "O liberty!--O sound once delightful to every Roman ear!--O sacred privilege of Roman citizenship!--once sacred--now trampled upon."--_Cicero_. "And I said, O that I had wings like a dove! for then would I fly away, and be at rest."--_Psalms_, lv, 6. XII. _Antithesis_ is a placing of things in opposition, to heighten their effect by contrast; as, "I will talk of things _heavenly_, or things _earthly_; things _moral_, or things _evangelical_; things _sacred_, or things _profane_; things _past_, or things _to come_; things _foreign_, or things _at home_; things more _essential_, or things _circumstantial_; provided that all be done to our profit."--_Bunyan, P. P._, p. 90. "Contrasted faults through all his manners reign; Though _poor, luxurious_; though _submissive, vain_; Though _grave_, yet _trifling_; _zealous_, yet _untrue_; And e'en _in penance, planning sins_ anew."--_Goldsmith_. XIII. _Climax_ is a figure in which the sense is made to advance by successive steps, to rise gradually to what is more and more important and interesting, or to descend to what is more and more minute and particular; as, "And besides this, giving all diligence, add to your faith, virtue; and to virtue, knowledge; and to knowledge, temperance; and to temperance, patience; and to patience, godliness; and to godliness, brotherly kindness; and to brotherly kindness, charity."--_2 Peter_, i, 5. XIV. _Irony_ is a figure in which the speaker sneeringly utters the direct reverse of what he intends shall be understood; as, "We have, to be sure, great reason to believe the modest man would not ask him for a debt, when he pursues his life."--_Cicero_. "No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom shall die with you."--_Job_, xii, 2. "They must esteem learning _very much_, when they see its professors used with such little ceremony!"--_Goldsmith's Essays_, p. 150. XV. _Apophasis_, or _Paralipsis_,[482] is a figure in which the speaker or writer pretends to omit what at the same time he really mentions; as, "I Paul have written it with mine own hand, I will repay it; albeit _I do not say to thee_, how thou owest unto me even thine own self besides."--_Philemon_, 19. XVI. _Onomatopoeia_ is the use of a word, phrase, or sentence, the sound of which resembles, or intentionally imitates, the sound of the thing signified or spoken of: as, "Of a knocking at the door, _Rat a tat tat_."--J. W. GIBBS: _in Fowler's Gram._, p. 334. "_Ding-dong! ding-dong!_ Merry, merry, go the bells, _Ding-dong! ding-dong_!"--_H. K. White_. "Bow'wow _n._ The loud bark of a dog. _Booth_."--_Worcester's Dict._ This is often written separately; as, "_Bow wow_."--_Fowler's Gram._, p. 334. The imitation is better with three sounds: "_Bow wow wow_." The following verses have been said to exhibit this figure: "But when loud surges lash the sounding shore, The hoarse rough verse should like the torrent roar." --_Pope, on Crit._, l. 369. OBS.--The whole number of figures, which I have thought it needful to define and illustrate in this work, is only about thirty. These are the _chief_ of what have sometimes been made a very long and minute catalogue. In the hands of some authors, Rhetoric is scarcely anything else than a detail of figures; the number of which, being made to include almost every possible form of expression, is, according to these authors, not less than two hundred and forty. Of their _names_, John Holmes gives, in his index, two hundred and fifty-three; and he has not all that might be quoted, though he has more than there are of the forms named, or the figures themselves. To find a learned name for every particular mode of expression, is not necessarily conducive to the right use of language. It is easy to see the inutility of such pedantry; and Butler has made it sufficiently ridiculous by this caricature: "For all a rhetorician's rules Teach nothing but to name his tools."--_Hudibras_, P. i, C. i, l. 90. SECTION V.--EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. PRAXIS XIV.--PROSODICAL. _In the Fourteenth Praxis, are exemplified the several Figures of Orthography, of Etymology, of Syntax, and of Rhetoric, which the parser may name and define_; _and by it the pupil may also be exercised in relation to the principles of Punctuation, Utterance, Analysis, or whatever else of Grammar, the examples contain_. LESSON I.--FIGURES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. MIMESIS AND ARCHAISM. "I _ax'd_ you what you had to sell. I am fitting out a _wessel_ for _Wenice_, loading her with _warious keinds_ of _prowisions_, and _wittualling_ her for a long _woyage_; and I want several _undred_ weight of _weal, wenison_, &c., with plenty of _inyons_ and _winegar_, for the _preserwation_ of _ealth_."--_Columbian Orator_, p. 292. "God bless you, and lie still quiet (_says_ I) a bit longer, for my _shister's_ afraid of ghosts, and would die on the spot with the fright, _was_ she to see you come to life all on a sudden this way without the least preparation."--_Edgeworth's Castle Rackrent_, p. 143. "None [else are] so desperately _evill_, as they that may _bee_ good and will not: or have _beene_ good and are not."--_Rev. John Rogers_, 1620. "A Carpenter finds his work as _hee_ left it, but a Minister shall find his _sett_ back. You need preach continually."--_Id._ "Here _whilom ligg'd_ th' Esopus of his age, But call'd by Fame, in soul _ypricked_ deep."--_Thomson_. "It was a fountain of Nepenthe rare, Whence, as Dan Homer sings, huge _pleasaunce_ grew."--_Id._ LESSON II.--FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. APH�RESIS, PROSTHESIS, SYNCOPE, APOCOPE, PARAGOGE, DI�RESIS, SYN�RESIS, AND TMESIS. "Bend _'gainst_ the steepy hill thy breast, Burst down like torrent from its crest."--_Scott_. "_'Tis_ mine to teach _th'_ inactive hand to reap Kind nature's bounties, _o'er_ the globe _diffus'd_."--_Dyer_. "Alas! alas! how impotently true _Th' aërial_ pencil forms the scene anew."--_Cawthorne_. "Here a deformed monster _joy'd_ to won, Which on fell rancour ever was _ybent_."--_Lloyd_. "_Withouten_ trump was proclamation made."--_Thomson_. "The gentle knight, who saw their rueful case, Let fall _adown_ his silver beard some tears. 'Certes,' quoth he, 'it is not _e'en_ in grace, _T'_ undo the past and eke your broken years."--_Id._ "Vain _tamp'ring_ has but _foster'd_ his disease; _'Tis desp'rate_, and he sleeps the sleep of death."--_Cowper_. "'I have a pain upon my forehead here'-- 'Why _that's_ with watching; _'twill_ away again.'"--_Shakspeare_. "I'll to the woods, among the happier brutes; Come, _let's_ away; hark! the shrill horn resounds."--_Smith_. "_What_ prayer and supplication _soever_ be made."--_Bible_. "By the grace of God, we have had our conversation in the world, and more abundantly _to_ you _ward_."--_Ib._ LESSON III.--FIGURES OF SYNTAX. FIGURE I.--ELLIPSIS. "And now he faintly kens the bounding fawn, And [--] villager [--] abroad at early toil."--_Beattie_. "The cottage curs at [--] early pilgrim bark."--_Id._ "'Tis granted, and no plainer truth appears, Our most important [--] are our earliest years."--_Cowper_. "To earn her aid, with fix'd and anxious eye, He looks on nature's [--] and on fortune's course."--_Akenside_. "For longer in that paradise to dwell, The law [--] I gave to nature him forbids."--_Milton_. "So little mercy shows [--] who needs so much."--_Cowper_. "Bliss is the same [--] in subject, as [--] in king; In [--] who obtain defence, and [--] who defend."--_Pope_. "Man made for kings! those optics are but dim That tell you so--say rather, they [--] for him."--_Cowper_. "Man may dismiss compassion from his heart, But God will never [-------]."--_Id._ "Vigour [--] from toil, from trouble patience grows."--_Beattie_. "Where now the rill melodious, [--] pure, and cool, And meads, with life, and mirth, and beauty crown'd?"--_Id._ "How dead the vegetable kingdom lies! How dumb the tuneful [------------]!"--_Thomson_. "Self-love and Reason to one end aspire, Pain [--] their aversion, pleasure [--] their desire; But greedy that its object would devour, This [--] taste the honey, and not wound the flower."--_Pope_. LESSON IV.--FIGURES OF SYNTAX. FIGURE II.--PLEONASM. "_According_ to their deeds, _accordingly_ he will _repay_, fury to his adversaries, _recompense_ to his enemies; to the islands he will repay recompense."--_Isaiah_, lix, 18. "Open to me, my sister, my love, my dove, my undefiled: for my head is filled with dew, _and my locks with the drops of the night_."--_Song of Sol._, v, 2. "Thou hast chastised me, _and I was chastised_, as a bullock unaccustomed to the yoke: turn thou me, _and I shall be turned_; for thou art the Lord my God."--_Jer._, xxxi, 18. "Consider the _lilies_ of the field how _they grow_."--_Matt._, vi, 28. "_He_ that glorieth, let _him_ glory in the Lord."--_2 Cor._, x, 17. "_He_ too is witness, noblest of the train That wait on man, the flight-performing horse."--_Cowper_. FIGURE III.--SYLLEPSIS. "'Thou art Simon the son of Jona: thou shalt be called _Cephas:' which_ is, by interpretation a stone."--_John_, i, 42. "Thus saith the Lord of hosts, 'Behold, I will break the bow of _Elam_, the chief of _their_ might.'"--_Jer._, xlix, 35. "Behold, I lay in Sion a _stumbling-stone_ and _rock_ of offence: and whosoever believeth on _him_ shall not be ashamed."--_Rom._, ix, 33. "Thus _Conscience_ pleads _her_ cause within the breast, Though long rebell'd against, not yet suppressed."--_Cowper_. "_Knowledge_ is proud that _he_ has learn'd so much; _Wisdom_ is humble that _he_ knows no more."--_Id._ "For those the _race_ of Israel oft forsook _Their_ living _strength_, and unfrequented left _His_ righteous altar, bowing lowly down To bestial gods."--_Milton, Paradise Lost_, B. i, l. 432. LESSON V.--FIGURES OF SYNTAX. FIGURE IV.--ENALLAGE. "Let me tell _you_, Cassius, _you_ yourself _Are_ much condemned to have an itching palm, To sell and mart _your_ offices for gold."--_Shakspeare_. "Come, Philomelus; let us _instant_ go, O'erturn his bow'rs, and lay his castle low."--_Thomson_. "Then palaces shall rise; the joyful son Shall finish what the short-liv'd sire _begun_"--_Pope_. "Such was that temple built by Solomon, Than _whom_ none richer reign'd o'er Israel."--_Author_. "He spoke: with fatal eagerness we _burn_, And _quit_ the shores, undestin'd to return."--_Day_. "Still as he pass'd, the nations he _sublimes_."--_Thomson_. "Sometimes, with early morn, he mounted _gay_."--_Id._ "'I've lost a day'--the prince who nobly cried, _Had been_ an emperor without his crown."--_Young_. FIGURE V.--HYPERBATON. "Such resting found _the sole_ of unblest feet."--_Milton_. "Yet, though successless, _will the toil_ delight."--_Thomson_. "Where, 'midst the changeful scen'ry ever new, Fancy a thousand wondrous _forms_ descries."--_Beattie_. "Yet so much bounty is in God, such grace, That who advance his glory, not their own, _Them_ he himself to glory will advance."--_Milton_. "No quick _reply_ to dubious questions make; Suspense and caution still prevent mistake."--_Denham_. LESSON VI.--FIGURES OF RHETORIC. FIGURE I.--SIMILE. "Human greatness is short and transitory, _as the odour of incense in the fire_."--_Dr. Johnson_. "Terrestrial happiness is of short continuance: _the brightness of the flame is wasting its fuel, the fragrant flower is passing away in its own odours_."--_Id._ "Thy nod is _as the earthquake that shakes the mountains_; and thy smile, _as the dawn of the vernal day_."--_Id._ "_Plants rais'd with tenderness are seldom strong_; Man's coltish disposition asks the thong; And, without discipline, the fav'rite child, _Like a neglected forester_, runs wild."--_Cowper_. "As turns a flock of geese, and, on the green, Poke out their foolish necks in awkward spleen, (Ridiculous in rage!) to _hiss_, not _bite, So war their quills_, when sons of _dullness_ write."--_Young_. "Who can unpitying see the flowery race, Shed by the morn, their new-flush'd bloom resign, Before th' unbating beam? _So fade the fair_, When fevers revel through their azure veins."--_Thomson_. FIGURE II.--METAPHOR. "Cathmon, thy name is a pleasant _gale_."--_Ossian_. "Rolled into himself he flew, wide on the _bosom of winds_. The old _oak felt_ his departure, and _shook_ its whistling _head_."--_Id._ "Carazan gradually lost the inclination to do good, as he acquired the power; as the _hand of time_ scattered _snow_ upon his head, the _freeziny influence_ [sic--KTH] extended to his bosom."--_Hawkesworth_. "The sun _grew weary_ of gilding the palaces of Morad; _the clouds of sorrow_ gathered round his head; and _the tempest of hatred_ roared about his dwelling."--_Dr. Johnson_. LESSON VII.--FIGURES OF RHETORIC. FIGURE III.--ALLEGORY. "But what think ye? A certain man had two sons; and he came to the first, and said, 'Son, go work to-day in my vineyard.' He answered and said, 'I will not;' but afterward he repented, and went. And he came to the second, and said likewise. And he answered and said, 'I go, sir;' and went not. Whether of them twain did the will of his father? They say unto him, 'The first.'"--_Matt._, xxi, 28-31. FIGURE IV.--METONYMY. "Swifter than a whirlwind, flies the leaden _death_."--_Hervey_. "'Be all the dead forgot,' said Foldath's bursting _wrath_. 'Did not I fail in the field?'"--_Ossian_. "Their _furrow_ oft the stubborn glebe has broke."--_Gray_. "Firm in his love, resistless in his hate, His arm is _conquest_, and his frown is _fate_."--_Day_. "At length the _world_, renew'd by calm repose, Was strong for toil; the dappled morn arose."--_Parnell_. "What modes of sight betwixt each wide extreme, The mole's dim curtain and the lynx's _beam_! Of hearing, from the _life_ that fills the flood, To _that_ which warbles through the vernal wood!"--_Pope_. FIGURE V.--SYNECDOCHE. "'Twas then his _threshold_ first receiv'd a guest."--_Parnell_. "For yet by swains alone the world he knew, Whose _feet_ came wand'ring o'er the nightly dew."--_Id._ "Flush'd by the spirit of the genial _year_, Now from the virgin's cheek a fresher bloom Shoots, less and less, the live carnation round."--_Thomson_. LESSON VIII.--FIGURES OF RHETORIC. FIGURE VI.--HYPERBOLE. "I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice; his spear, the blasted fir; his shield the rising moon; he sat on the shore, like a cloud of mist on the hill."--_Ossian_. "At which the universal host up sent A shout, that tore Hell's concave, and beyond Frighted the reign of Chaos and old Night."--_Milton_. "Will all great Neptune's ocean wash this blood Clean from my hand? No; this my hand will rather The multitudinous seas incarnadine, Making the green one red!"--_Shakspeare_. FIGURE VII.--VISION. "How mighty is their defence who reverently trust in the arm of God! How powerfully do they contend who fight with lawful weapons! Hark! 'Tis the voice of eloquence, pouring forth the living energies of the soul; pleading, with generous indignation and holy emotion, the cause of injured humanity against lawless might, and reading the awful destiny that awaits the oppressor!--I see the stern countenance of despotism overawed! I see the eye fallen, that kindled the elements of war! I see the brow relaxed, that scowled defiance at hostile thousands! I see the knees tremble, that trod with firmness the embattled field! Fear has entered that heart which ambition had betrayed into violence! The tyrant feels himself a man, and subject to the weakness of humanity!--Behold! and tell me, is that power contemptible which can thus find access to the sternest hearts?"--_Author_. FIGURE VIII.--APOSTROPHE. "Yet still they breathe destruction, still go on, Inhumanly ingenious to find out New pains for life, new terrors for the grave; Artificers of death! Still monarchs dream Of universal empire growing up From universal ruin. _Blast the design_, _Great God of Hosts! nor let thy creatures fall_ _Unpitied victims at Ambition's shrine_."--_Porteus_. LESSON IX.--FIGURES OF RHETORIC. FIGURE IX.--PERSONIFICATION. "Hail, sacred _Polity_, by _Freedom_ rear'd! Hail, sacred _Freedom_, when by _Law_ restrain'd! Without you, what were man? A grov'ling herd, In darkness, wretchedness, and want, enchain'd."--_Beattie_. "Let cheerful _Mem'ry_, from her purest cells, Lead forth a godly train of _Virtues_ fair, Cherish'd in early youth, now paying back With tenfold usury the pious care."--_Porteus_. FIGURE X.--EROTESIS. "He that chastiseth the heathen, shall not he correct? He that teacheth man knowledge, shall not he know?"--_Psalms_, xciv, 10. "Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his spots? then may ye also do good, that are accustomed to do evil."--_Jeremiah_, xiii, 23. FIGURE XI.--ECPHONESIS. "O that my head were waters, and mine eyes a fountain of tears, that I might weep day and night for the slain of the daughter of my people! O that I had in the wilderness a lodging place of way-faring men, that I might leave my people, and go from them!"--_Jeremiah_, ix, 1. FIGURE XII.--ANTITHESIS. "On this side, modesty is engaged; on that, impudence: on this, chastity; on that, lewdness: on this, integrity; on that, fraud: on this, piety; on that, profaneness: on this, constancy; on that, fickleness: on this, honour; on that, baseness: on this, moderation; on that, unbridled passion."--_Cicero_. "She, from the rending earth, and bursting skies, Saw gods descend, and fiends infernal rise; Here fix'd the dreadful, there the blest abodes; Fear made her devils, and weak hope her gods."--_Pope_. LESSON X.--FIGURES OF RHETORIC. FIGURE XIII.--CLIMAX. "Virtuous actions are necessarily approved by the awakened conscience; and when they are approved, they are commended to practice; and when they are practised, they become easy; and when they become easy, they afford pleasure; and when they afford pleasure, they are done frequently; and when they are done frequently, they are confirmed by habit: and confirmed habit is a kind of second nature."--_Inst._, p. 246. "Weep all of every name: begin the wo, Ye woods, and tell it to the doleful winds; And doleful winds, wail to the howling hills; And howling hills, mourn to the dismal vales; And dismal vales, sigh to the sorrowing brooks; And sorrwing brooks, weep to the weeping stream; And weeping stream, awake the groaning deep; And let the instrument take up the song, Responsive to the voice--harmonious wo!"--_Pollok_, B. vi, l. 115. FIGURE XIV.--IRONY. "And it came to pass at noon, that Elijah mocked them, and said, 'Cry aloud; for he is a god: either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is in [_on_] a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth, and must be awaked!' "--_1 Kings_, xviii, 27. "After the number of the days in which ye searched the land, even forty days, each day for a year, shall ye bear your iniquities, even forty years; and ye shall know my breach of promise."--_Numbers_, xiv, 34. "Some lead a life unblamable and just, Their own dear virtue their unshaken trust; They never sin--or if (as all offend) Some trivial slips their daily walk attend, The poor are near at hand, the charge is small, A slight gratuity atones for all."--_Cowper_. FIGURE XV.--APOPHASIS, OR PARALIPSIS. I say nothing of the notorious profligacy of his character; nothing of the reckless extravagance with which he has wasted an ample fortune; nothing of the disgusting intemperance which has sometimes caused him to reel in our streets;--but I aver that he has not been faithful to our interests,--has not exhibited either probity or ability in the important office which he holds. FIGURE XVI.--ONOMATOPOEIA. [Fist][The following lines, from Swift's Poems, satirically mimick the imitative music of a violin.] "Now slowly move your fiddle-stick; Now, tantan, tantantivi, quick; Now trembling, shivering, quivering, quaking, Set hoping hearts of Lovers aching." "Now sweep, sweep the deep. See Celia, Celia dies, While true Lovers' eyes Weeping sleep, Sleeping weep, Weeping sleep, Bo-peep, bo-peep." CHAPTER IV.--VERSIFICATION. Versification is the forming of that species of literary composition which is called _verse_; that is, _poetry_, or _poetic numbers_. SECTION I.--OF VERSE. Verse, in opposition to prose, is language arranged into metrical lines of some determinate length and rhythm--language so ordered as to produce harmony, by a due succession of poetic feet, or of syllables differing in quantity or stress. DEFINITIONS AND PRINCIPLES. The _rhythm_ of verse is its relation of quantities; the modulation of its numbers; or, the kind of metre, measure, or movement, of which it consists, or by which it is particularly distinguished. The _quantity_ of a syllable, as commonly explained, is the relative portion of time occupied in uttering it. In poetry, every syllable is considered to be either long or short. A long syllable is usually reckoned to be equal to two short ones. In the construction of English verse, long quantity coincides always with the primary accent, generally also with the secondary, as well as with emphasis; and short quantity, as reckoned by the poets, is found only in unaccented syllables, and unemphatical monosyllabic words.[483] The quantity of a syllable, whether long or short, does not depend on what is called the long or the short sound of a vowel or diphthong, or on a supposed distinction of accent as affecting vowels in some cases and consonants in others, but principally on the degree of energy or loudness with which the syllable is uttered, whereby a greater or less portion of time is employed. The open vowel sounds, which are commonly but not very accurately termed _long_, are those which are the most easily protracted, yet they often occur in the shortest and feeblest syllables; while, on the other hand, no vowel sound, that occurs under the usual stress of accent or of emphasis, is either so short in its own nature, or is so "quickly joined to the succeeding letter," that the syllable is not one of long quantity. Most monosyllables, in English, are variable in quantity, and may be made either long or short, as strong or weak sounds suit the sense and rhythm; but words of greater length are, for the most part, fixed, their accented syllables being always long, and a syllable immediately before or after the accent almost always short. One of the most obvious distinctions in poetry, is that of rhyme and blank verse. _Rhyme_ is a similarity of sound, combined with a difference: occurring usually between the last syllables of different lines, but sometimes at other intervals; and so ordered that the rhyming syllables begin differently and end alike. _Blank verse_ is verse without rhyme. The principal rhyming syllables are almost always long. Double rhyme adds one short syllable; triple rhyme, two. Such syllables are redundant in iambic and anapestic verses; in lines of any other sort, they are generally, if not always, included in the measure. A _Stanza_ is a combination of several verses, or lines, which, taken together, make a regular division of a poem. It is the common practice of good versifiers, to form all stanzas of the same poem after one model. The possible variety of stanzas is infinite; and the actual variety met with in print is far too great for detail. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--Verse, in the broadest acceptation of the term, is poetry, or metrical language, in general. This, to the eye, is usually distinguished from prose by the manner in which it is written and printed. For, in very many instances, if this were not the case, the reader would be puzzled to discern the difference. The division of poetry into its peculiar lines, is therefore not a mere accident. The word _verse_, from the Latin _versus_, literally signifies a _turning_. Each full line of metre is accordingly called a verse; because, when its measure is complete, the writer _turns_ to place another under it. A _verse_, then, in the primary sense of the word with us, is, "A _line_ consisting of a certain succession of sounds, and number of syllables."--_Johnson, Walker, Todd, Bottes_, and others. Or, according to _Webster_, it is, "A poetic _line_, consisting of a certain number of long and short syllables, disposed according to the rules of the species of poetry which the author intends to compose."--See _American Dict._, 8vo. OBS. 2.--If to settle the theory of English verse on true and consistent principles, is as difficult a matter, as the manifold contrarieties of doctrine among our prosodists would indicate, there can be no great hope of any scheme entirely satisfactory to the intelligent examiner. The very elements of the subject are much perplexed by the incompatible dogmas of authors deemed skillful to elucidate it. It will scarcely be thought a hard matter to distinguish true verse from prose, yet is it not well agreed, wherein the difference consists: what the generality regard as the most essential elements or characteristics of the former, some respectable authors dismiss entirely from their definitions of both verse and versification. The existence of quantity in our language; the dependence of our rhythms on the division of syllables into long and short; the concurrence of our accent, (except in some rare and questionable instances,) with long quantity only; the constant effect of emphasis to lengthen quantity; the limitation of quantity to mere duration of sound; the doctrine that quantity pertains to all _syllables_ as such, and not merely to vowel sounds; the recognition of the same general principles of syllabication in poetry as in prose; the supposition that accent pertains not to certain _letters_ in particular, but to certain _syllables_ as such; the limitation of accent to stress, or percussion, only; the conversion of short syllables into long, and long into short, by a change of accent; our frequent formation of long syllables with what are called short vowels; our more frequent formation of short syllables with what are called long or open vowels; the necessity of some order in the succession of feet or syllables to form a rhythm; the need of framing each line to correspond with some other line or lines in length; the propriety of always making each line susceptible of scansion by itself: all these points, so essential to a true explanation of the nature of English verse, though, for the most part, well maintained by some prosodists, are nevertheless denied by some, so that opposite opinions may be cited concerning them all. I would not suggest that all or any of these points are thereby made _doubtful_; for there may be opposite judgements in a dozen cases, and yet concurrence enough (if concurrence _can_ do it) to establish them every one. OBS. 3.--An ingenious poet and prosodist now living,[484] Edgar Allan Poe, (to whom I owe a word or two of reply,) in his "Notes upon English Verse," with great self-complacency, represents, that, "While much has been written upon the structure of the Greek and Latin rhythms, comparatively _nothing_ has been done as regards the English;" that, "It may be said, indeed, we are _without a treatise_ upon our own versification;" that "The very best" _definition_ of versification[485] to be found in any of "_our ordinary treatises_ on the topic," has "_not a single point_ which does not involve an error;" that, "A _leading deft_ in each of these treatises is the confining of the subject to mere _versification_, while metre, or rhythm, in general, is the real question at issue;" that, "Versification is _not_ the art, but the _act_'--of making verses;" that, "A correspondence in the _length_ of lines is by no means essential;" that "_Harmony_" produced "by the regular alternation of syllables differing in quantity," does not include "_melody_;" that "A _regular alternation_, as described, forms _no part_ of the principle of metre:" that "There is no necessity of _any regularity_ in the succession of _feet_;" that, "By consequence," he ventures to "dispute the _essentiality_ of any alternation, regular or irregular, of _syllables_ long and short:" that, "For _anything more intelligible_ or _more satisfactory_ than this definition [i. e., G. Brown's former definition of versification,] we shall look in vain in _any published_ treatise upon the subject;" that, "So general and _so total a failure_ can be referred only to some _radical misconception_;" that, "The word _verse_ is derived (through _versus_ from the Latin _verto, I turn_,) and * * * * it can be nothing but _this derivation_, which has led to _the error_ of our writers upon prosody;" that, "_It is this_ which _has seduced them_ into regarding the _line_ itself--the _versus_, or turning--as an essential, or principle of metre;" that, "Hence the term _versification_ has been employed as sufficiently general, or inclusive, for treatises upon rhythm in general;" that, "Hence, also, [comes] the precise catalogue of a few varieties of English _lines_, when these varieties are, in fact, almost without limit;" that, "_I_," the aforesaid Edgar Allan Poe, "_shall dismiss entirely_, from the consideration of the principle of _rhythm_, the idea of _versification_, or the construction of verse;" that, "In so doing, _we_ shall avoid _a world of confusion_;" that, "_Verse_ is, indeed, an _afterthought_, or an _embellishment_, or an _improvement_, rather than an element of rhythm;" that, "_This fact_ has induced the easy admission, into the realms of Poesy, of _such works_ as the 'Télémaque' of Fenelon;" because, forsooth, "In the elaborate modulation of their sentences, THEY FULFIL THE IDEA OF METRE."--_The Pioneer, a Literary and Critical Magazine_ (Boston, March, 1843,) Vol. I, p. 102 to 105. OBS. 4.--"Holding these things in view," continues this sharp connoisseur, "the prosodist who rightly examines that which constitutes the external, or most immediately _recognisable_, form of Poetry, will commence with the definition of _Rhythm_. Now _rhythm_, from the Greek [_Greek: arithmos_], _number_, is a term which, in its present application, very nearly _conveys its own idea_. No more _proper_ word could be employed to present _the conception intended_; for _rhythm_, in prosody, is, in its _last analysis_, identical with _time_ in music. _For this reason_," says he, "I have used, throughout this article, as synonymous with _rhythm_, the word _metre_ from [Greek: metron], _measure_. Either the one or the other may be defined as _the arrangement of words into two or more consecutive, equal, pulsations of time_. These pulsations are _feet_. Two feet, at least, are requisite to constitute a _rhythm_; just as, in mathematics, two units are necessary to form [a] _number_.[486] The syllables of which the foot consists, when the foot is not a syllable in itself, are subdivisions of the pulsations. No equality is demanded in these subdivisions. It is only required that, so far as regards two consecutive feet at least, the sum of the times of the syllables in one, shall be equal to the sum of the times of the syllables in the other. Beyond two pulsations there is no necessity for equality of time. All beyond is arbitrary or conventional. A third or fourth pulsation may embody half, or double, or any proportion of the time occupied in the two first. Rhythm being thus understood, the prosodist should proceed to define _versification_ as _the making of verses_, and _verse_ as _the arbitrary or conventional isolation of rhythm into masses of greater or less extent_."--_Ib._, p. 105. OBS. 5.--No marvel that all usual conceptions and definitions of rhythm, of versification, and of verse, should be found dissatisfactory to the critic whose idea of _metre_ is fulfilled by the pompous _prose_ of Fenelon's Télémaque. No right or real examination of this matter can ever make the most immediately _recognizable_ form of poetry to be any thing else than the form of _verse_--the form of writing in _specific lines_, ordered by number and chime of syllables, and not squared by gage of the composing-stick. And as to the derivation and primitive signification of _rhythm_, it is plain that in the extract above, both are misrepresented. The etymology there given is a gross error; for, "the Greek [_Greek: arithmos_], _number_," would make, in English, not _rhythm_, but _arithm_, as in _arithmetic_. Between the two combinations, there is the palpable difference of three or four letters in either six; for neither of these forms can be varied to the other, but by dropping one letter, and adding an other, and changing a third, and moving a fourth. _Rhythm_ is derived, not thence, but from the Greek [_Greek: rhythmos_]; which, according to the lexicons, is a primitive word, and means, _rhythmus, rhythm, concinnity, modulation, measured tune_, or _regular flow_, and _not "number_." OBS. 6.--_Rhythm_, of course, like every other word not misapplied, "conveys _its own idea_;" and that, not qualifiedly, or "_very nearly_," but _exactly_. That this idea, however, was originally that of arithmetical _number_, or is nearly so now, is about as fanciful a notion, as the happy suggestion added above, that _rhythm_ in lieu of _arithm_ or _number_, is the fittest of words, _because_ "rhythm in prosody is _time_ in music!" Without dispute, it is important to the prosodist, and also to the poet or versifier, to have as accurate an idea as possible of the import of this common term, though it is observable that many of our grammarians make little or no use of it. That it has some relation to _numbers_, is undeniable. But what is it? Poetic numbers, and numbers in arithmetic, and numbers in grammar, are three totally different sorts of things. _Rhythm_ is related only to the first. Of the signification of this word, a recent expositor gives the following brief explanation: "RHYTHM, _n._ Metre; verse; _numbers_. Proportion applied to any motion whatever."--_Bolles's Dictionary_, 8vo. To this definition, Worcester prefixes the following: "The consonance of measure and time in poetry, _prose composition_, and music;--also in dancing."--_Universal and Critical Dict._ In verse, the proportion which forms rhythm--that is, the chime of quantities--is applied to the _sounds_ of syllables. Sounds, however, may be considered as a species of _motion_, especially those which are rhythmical or musical.[487] It seems more strictly correct, to regard rhythm as a _property_ of poetic numbers, than to identify it with them. It is their proportion or modulation, rather than the numbers themselves. According to Dr. Webster, "RHYTHM, or RHYTHMUS, in _music_ [is] variety in the movement as to quickness or slowness, or length and shortness of the notes; or _rather_ the proportion which the parts of the motion have to each other."--_American Dict._ The "_last analysis_" of rhythm can be nothing else than the reduction of it to its _least parts_. And if, in this reduction, it is "identical with _time_," then it is here the same thing as _quantity_, whether prosodical or musical; for, "The _time_ of a note, or syllable, is called _quantity_. The time of a _rest_ is also called quantity; because _rests_, as well as notes are a constituent of rhythm."--_Comstock's Elocution_, p. 64. But rhythm is, in fact, neither time nor quantity; for the analysis which would make it such, destroys the relation in which the thing consists. SECTION II.--OF ACCENT AND QUANTITY. Accent and Quantity have already been briefly explained in the second chapter of Prosody, as items coming under the head of Pronunciation. What we have to say of them here, will be thrown into the form of _critical observations_; in the progress of which, many quotations from other writers on these subjects, will be presented, showing what has been most popularly taught. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--Accent and quantity are distinct things;[488] the former being the stress, force, loudness, or percussion of voice, that distinguishes certain syllables from others; and the latter, the _time_, distinguished as _long_ or _short_, in which a syllable is uttered. But, as the _great_ sounds which we utter, naturally take more time than the _small_ ones, there is a necessary connexion between quantity and accent in English,--a connexion which is sometimes expounded as being the mere relation of _cause and effect_; nor is it in fact much different from that. "As no utterance can be agreeable to the ear, which is void of proportion; and as _all quantity_, or proportion of time in utterance, depends upon a due observation of the _accent_; it is a matter of absolute necessity to all, who would arrive at a good and graceful delivery, to be master of that point. Nor is the use of _accent_ in our language confined to _quantity_ alone; but it is also the chief mark by which words are distinguished from mere syllables. Or rather I may say, it is the _very essence_ of words, which without that, would be only so many collections of syllables."--_Sheridan's Lectures on Elocution_, p. 61. "As no utterance _which is void of proportion_, can be agreeable to the ear; and as quantity, or proportion of time in utterance, _greatly_ depends _on_ a due _attention_ to the _accent_; it is _absolutely necessary for every person_, who would attain a _just_ and _pleasing_ delivery, to be master of that point."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 241; 12mo, 194. OBS. 2.--In the first observation on Prosody, at page 770, and in its marginal notes, was reference made to the fact, that the nature and principles of _accent_ and _quantity_ are involved in difficulty, by reason of the different views of authors concerning them. To this source of embarrassment, it seems necessary here again to advert; because it is upon the distinction of syllables in respect to quantity, or accent, or both, that every system of versification, except his who merely counts, is based. And further, it is not only requisite that the principle of distinction which we adopt should be clearly made known, but also proper to consider which of these three modes is the best or most popular foundation for a theory of versification. Whether or wherein the accent and quantity of the ancient languages, Latin and Greek, differed from those of our present English, we need not now inquire. From the definitions which the learned lexicographers Littleton and Ainsworth give to _prosodia_, prosody, it would seem that, with them, "the art of _accenting_" was nothing else than the art of giving to syllables their right _quantity_, "whether long or short." And some have charged it as a glaring error, long prevalent among English grammarians, and still a fruitful source of disputes, to confound accent with quantity in our language.[489] This charge, however, there is reason to believe, is sometimes, if not in most cases, made on grounds rather fanciful than real; for some have evidently mistaken the notion of concurrence or coincidence for that of identity. But, to affirm that the stress which we call accent, coincides always and only with long quantity, does not necessarily make accent and quantity to be one and the same thing. The greater force or loudness which causes the accented syllable to occupy more time than any other, is in itself something different from time. Besides, quantity is divisible,--being either _long_ or _short_: these two species of it are acknowledged on all sides, and some few prosodists will have a third, which they call "common." [490] But, of our English accent, the word being taken in its usual acceptation, no _such_ division is ever, with any propriety, made; for even the stress which we call _secondary accent_, pertains to _long_ syllables rather than to short ones; and the mere absence of stress, which produces short quantity, we do not call _accent_.[491] OBS. 3.--The impropriety of affirming _quantity_ to be the same as _accent_, when its most frequent species occurs only in the absence of accent, must be obvious to every body; and those writers who anywhere suggest this identity, must either have written absurdly, or have taken _accent_ in some sense which includes the sounds of our _unaccented_ syllables. The word sometimes means, "The _modulation_ of the voice in speaking."--_Worcester's Dict., w. Accent_. In this sense, the lighter as well as the more impressive sounds are included; but still, whether both together, considered as accents, can be reckoned the same as long and short quantities, is questionable. Some say, they cannot; and insist that they are yet as different, as the variable tones of a _trumpet_, which swell and fall, are different from the merely loud and soft notes of the monotonous _drum_. This illustration of the "easy Distinction betwixt _Quantity_ and _Accent_" is cited with commendation, in Brightland's Grammar, on page 157th;[492] the author of which grammar, _seems_ to have understood _Accent_, or _Accents_, to be the same as _Inflections_--though these are still unlike to quantities, if he did so. (See an explanation of Inflections in Chap. II, Sec. iii, Art. 3, above.) His exposition is this: "_Accent_ is the _rising_ and _falling_ of the Voice, above or under its usual _Tone_. There are three Sorts of Accents, an _Acute_, a _Grave_, and an _Inflex_, which is also call'd a _Circumflex_. The _Acute_, or _Sharp_, naturally _raises_ the Voice; and the _Grave_, or _Base_, as naturally _falls_ it. The _Circumflex_ is a kind of _Undulation_, or _Waving_ of the Voice."--_Brightland's Gram._, Seventh Ed., Lond., 1746, p. 156. OBS. 4.--Dr. Johnson, whose great authority could not fail to carry some others with him, too evidently identifies accent with quantity, at the commencement of his Prosody. "PRONUNCIATION is just," says he, "when every letter has its proper sound, and when every syllable has its proper accent, or which in English versification is _the same_, its proper quantity."-- _Johnson's Gram._, before Dict., 4to, p. 13; _John Burn's Gram._, p. 240; _Jones's Prosodial Gram._, before Dict., p. 10. Now our most common notion of _accent_--the sole notion with many--and that which the accentuation of Johnson himself everywhere inculcates--is, that it belongs _not_ to "_every syllable_," but only to some particular syllables, being either "a _stress of voice_ on a certain syllable," or a _small mark_ to denote such stress.--See _Scott's Dict._, or _Worcester's_. But Dr. Johnson, in the passage above, must have understood the word _accent_ agreeably to his own imperfect definition of it; to wit, as "_the sound given to the syllable pronounced_."--_Joh. Dict._ An _unaccented_ syllable must have been to him a syllable unpronounced. In short he does not appear to have recognized any syllables as being unaccented. The word _unaccented_ had no place in his lexicography, nor could have any without inconsistencey. [sic--KTH] It was unaptly added to his text, after sixty years, by one of his amenders, Todd or Chalmers; who still blindly neglected to amend his definition of _accent_. In these particulars, Walker's dictionaries exhibit the same deficiencies as Johnson's; and yet no author has more frequently used the words _accent_ and _unaccented_, than did Walker.[493] Mason's Supplement, first published in 1801, must have suggested to the revisers of Johnson the addition of the latter term, as appears by the authority cited for it: "UNA'CCENTED, _adj._ Not accented. 'It being enough to make a syllable long, if it be accented, and short, if it be _unaccented_.' _Harris's Philological Inquiries_."--_Mason's Sup._ OBS. 5--This doctrine of Harris's, that long quantity accompanies the accent, and unaccented syllables are short, is far from confounding or identifying accent with quantity, as has already been shown; and, though it plainly contradicts some of the elementary teaching of Johnson, Sheridan, Walker, Murray, Webster, Latham, Fowler, and others, in regard to the length or shortness of certain syllables, it has been clearly maintained by many excellent authors, so that no opposite theory is better supported by authority. On this point, our language stands not alone; for the accent controls quantity in some others.[494] G H. Noehden, a writer of uncommon ability, in his German Grammar for Englishmen, defines accent to be, as we see it is in English, "that _stress_ which marks a particular syllable in speaking;" and recognizing, as we do, both a full accent and a partial one, or "demi-accent," presents the syllables of his language as being of three conditions: the "_accented_," which "cannot be used otherwise than as _long_;" the "_half-accented_" which "must be regarded as ambiguous, or common;" and the "_accentless_," which "are in their nature _short_."--See _Noehden's Gram._, p. 87. His middle class, however, our prosodists in general very properly dispense with. In Fiske's History of Greek Literature, which is among the additions to the Manual of Classical Literature from the German of Eschenburg, are the following passages: "The _tone_ [i.e. accent] in Greek is placed upon short syllables as well as long; in German, it accompanies regularly only long syllables."--"In giving an accent to a syllable in an English word we _thereby_ render it a long syllable, whatever may be the sound given to its vowel, and in whatever way the syllable may be composed; so that as above stated in relation to the German, an English accent, or stress in pronunciation, accompanies only a long syllable."--_Manual of Class. Lit._, p. 437. With these extracts, accords the doctrine of some of the ablest of our English grammarians. "In the English Pronunciation," says William Ward, "there is a certain Stress of the Voice laid on some one syllable at least, of every Word of two or more Syllables; and that Syllable on which the Stress is laid may be considered _long_. Our Grammarians have agreed to consider this Stress of the Voice as _the Accent_ in English; and therefore the Accent and long Quantity coincide in our Language."--_Ward's Practical Gram._, p. 155. As to the vowel sounds, with the quantity of which many prosodists have greatly puzzled both themselves and their readers, this writer says, "they may be made as long, or as short, as the Speaker pleases."--_Ib._, p. 4. OBS. 6.--From the absurd and contradictory nature of many of the _principles usually laid down_ by our grammarians, for the discrimination of long quantity and short, it is quite apparent, that but very few of them have well understood either the distinction itself or their own rules concerning it. Take Fisher for an example. In Fisher's Practical Grammar, first published in London in 1753,--a work not unsuccessful, since Wells quotes the "_28th edition_" as appearing in 1795, and this was not the last--we find, in the first place, the vowel sounds distinguished as long or short thus: "_Q._ How many Sounds has a Vowel? _A._ Two in general, viz. 1. A LONG SOUND, When the Syllable ends with a Vowel, either in Monosyllables, or in Words of more Syllables; as, _t=ake, w=e, =I, g=o, n=il_; or, as, _N=ature, N=ero, N=itre, N=ovice, N=uisance_. 2. A SHORT SOUND, When the Syllable ends with a Consonant, either in Monosyllables, or others; as _H~at, h~er, b~it, r~ob, T~un_; or, as _B~arber, b~itten, B~utton_."--See p. 5. To this rule, the author makes needless exceptions of all such words as _balance_ and _banish_, wherein a single consonant between two vowels goes to the former; because, like Johnson, Murray, and most of our old grammarians, he divides on the vowel; falsely calls the accented syllable short; and imagines the consonant to be heard _twice_, or to have "_a double Accent_." On page 35th, he tells us that, "_Long and short Vowels_, and _long and short Syllables_, are _synonimous_ [--_synonymous_, from [Greek: synonymos]--] Terms;" and so indeed have they been most erroneously considered by sundry subsequent writers; and the consequence is, that all who judge by their criteria, mistake the poetic quantity, or prosodical value, of perhaps one half the syllables in the language. Let each syllable be reckoned long that "ends with a Vowel," and each short that "ends with a Consonant," and the decision will probably be oftener wrong than right; for more syllables end with consonants than with vowels, and of the latter class a majority are without stress and therefore short. Thus the foregoing principle, contrary to the universal practice of the poets, determines many _accented_ syllables to be "_short_;" as the first in "_barber, bitten, button, balance, banish_;--" and many _unaccented_ ones to be "_long_;" as the last in _sofa, specie, noble, metre, sorrow, daisy, valley, nature, native_; or the first in _around, before, delay, divide, remove, seclude, obey, cocoon, presume, propose_, and other words innumerable. OBS. 7.--Fisher's conceptions of accent and quantity, as constituting prosody, were much truer to the original and etymological sense of the words, than to any just or useful view of English versification: in short, this latter subject was not even mentioned by him; for prosody, in his scheme, was nothing but the right pronunciation of words, or what we now call _orthoëpy._ This part of his Grammar commences with the following questions and answers: "_Q._ What is the Meaning of the Word PROSODY? _A._ It is a Word borrowed from the Greek; which, in Latin, is rendered _Accentus_, and in English _Accent_. "_Q._ What do you mean by _Accent_? _A._ Accent originally signified a Modulation of the Voice, or chanting to a musical Instrument; but is now generally used to signify _Due Pronunciatian_, i.e. the pronouncing [of] a syllable according to its Quantity, (whether it be long or short,) with a stronger Force or Stress of Voice than the other Syllables in the same Word; as, _a_ in _able, o_ in _above_, &c. "_Q._ What is _Quantity_? _A._ Quantity is the different Measure of _Time_ in pronouncing Syllables, from whence they are called long or short. "_Q._ What is the _Proportion_ between a long and a short Syllable? _A._ Two to one; that is, a long Syllable is twice as long in pronouncing as a short one; as, _Hate, Hat_. This mark (=) set over a Syllable, shows that it is long, and this (~) that it is short; as, r=ecord, r~ecord. "_Q_. How do you _know_ long and short Syllables? _A_. A Syllable is long or short according to the Situation of the Vowel, i.e. it is generally long when it ends with a Vowel, and short when with a Consonant; as, _F=a_- in _Favour_, and _M~an_- in _Manner_."--_Fisher's Practical Gram._, p. 34. Now one grand mistake of this is, that it supposes syllabication to fix the quantity, and quantity to determine the accent; whereas it is plain, that accent controls quantity, so far at least that, in the construction of verse, a syllable fully accented cannot be reckoned short. And this mistake is practical; for we see, that, in three of his examples, out of the four above, the author himself misstates the quantity, because he disregards the accent: the verb _re-cord'_, being accented on the second syllable, is an _iambus_; and the nouns _rec'-ord_ and _man'-ner_, being accented on the first, are _trochees_; and just as plainly so, as is the word _f=av~our_. But a still greater blunder here observable is, that, as a "_due pronunciation_" necessarily includes the utterance of every syllable, the explanation above stolidly supposes _all_ our syllables to be _accented_, each "according to its Quantity, (whether it be long or short,)" and each "_with a stronger Force or Stress of Voice_, than _the other_ Syllables!" Absurdity akin to this, and still more worthy to be criticised, has since been propagated by Sheridan, by Walker, and by Lindley Murray, with a host of followers, as Alger, D. Blair, Comly, Cooper, Cutler, Davenport, Felton, Fowler, Frost, Guy, Jaudon, Parker and Fox, Picket, Pond, Putnam, Russell, Smith, and others. OBS. 8.--Sheridan was an able and practical teacher of _English pronunciation_, and one who appears to have gained reputation by all he undertook, whether as an actor, as an elocutionist, or as a lexicographer. His publications that refer to that subject, though now mostly superseded by others of later date, are still worthy to be consulted. The chief of them are, his Lectures on Elocution, his Lectures on the Art of Reading, his Rhetorical Grammar, his Elements of English, and his English Dictionary. His third lecture on Elocution, and many pages of the Rhetorical Grammar, are devoted to _accent_ and _quantity_--subjects which he conceived to have been greatly misrepresented by other writers up to his time.[495] To this author, as it would seem, we owe the invention of that absurd doctrine, since copied into a great multitude of our English grammars, that the accent on a syllable of two or more letters, belongs, _not to the whole of it, but only to some_ ONE LETTER; and that according to the character of this letter, as vowel or consonant, the same stress serves to lengthen or shorten the syllable's quantity! Of this matter, he speaks thus: "The _great distinction_ of our accent depends upon its _seat_; which may be either upon a vowel or a consonant. Upon a vowel, as in the words, glóry, fáther, hóly. Upon a consonant, as in the words, hab'it, bor'row, bat'tle. When the accent is on the vowel, the syllable is long; because the accent is _made by dwelling_ upon the vowel. When it is on the consonant, the _syllable is short_;[496] because the accent is _made by passing rapidly_ over the vowel, and giving a smart stroke of the voice to the following consonant. _Obvious as this point is_, it _has wholly escaped the observation of all our grammarians and compilers of dictionaries_; who, instead of examining the peculiar genius of our tongue, implicitly and pedantically have followed the Greek method of always placing the accentual mark over a vowel."--_Sheridan's Rhetorical Gram._, p. 51. The author's reprehension of the old mode of accentuation, is not without reason; but his "great distinction" of short and long syllables is only fit to puzzle or mislead the reader. For it is plain, that the first syllables of _hab'it, bor'row_, and _bat'tle_, are twice as long as the last; and, in poetry, these words are trochees, as well as the other three, _glo'ry, fa'ther_, and _ho'ly_. OBS. 9.--The only important distinction in our accent, is that of the _primary_ and the _secondary_, the latter species occurring when it is necessary to enforce more syllables of a word than one; but Sheridan, as we see above, after rejecting all the old distinctions of _rising_ and _falling, raising_ and _depressing, acute_ and _grave, sharp_ and _base, long_ and _short_, contrived a new one still more vain, which he founded on that of vowels and consonants, but "referred to _time_, or _quantity_." He recognized, in fact, a _vowel accent_ and a _consonant accent_; or, in reference to quantity, a _lengthening accent_ and a _shortening accent_. The discrimination of these was with him "THE GREAT DISTINCTION of our accent." He has accordingly mentioned it in several different places of his works, and not always with that regard to consistency which becomes a precise theorist. It led him to new and variant ways of _defining_ accent; some of which seem to imply a division of consonants from their vowels in utterance, or to suggest that syllables are not the least parts of spoken words. And no sooner has he told us that our accent is but one single mode of distinguishing a syllable, than he proceeds to declare it two. Compare the following citations: "As the pronunciation of English words is chiefly regulated by _accent_, it will be necessary to have a _precise idea_ of that term. Accent with us means _no more_ than _a certain stress_ of the voice upon _one letter_ of a syllable, which distinguishes it from all the _other letters_ in a word."--_Sheridan's Rhetorical Gram._, p. 39. Again: "Accent, in the English language, means _a certain stress_ of the voice upon _a particular letter_ of a syllable which distinguishes it from the rest, and, at the same time, _distinguishes the syllable itself_ to which it belongs from the others which compose the word."--_Same work_, p. 50. Again: "But as _our accent consists in stress only_, it can just as well be placed on a consonant as [on] a vowel."--_Same_, p. 51. Again: "By the word _accent_, is meant _the stress_ of the voice on _one letter_ in a syllable."--_Sheridan's Elements of English_, p. 55. Again: "The term [_accent_] with us has no reference to _inflexions_ of the voice, or musical notes, but only means _a peculiar manner of distinguishing one syllable of a word from the rest_, denominated by us accent; and the term for that reason [is] used by us in the singular number.--This distinction is made by us in _two ways_; either by _dwelling longer upon one syllable_ than the rest; or by _giving it a smarter percussion_ of the voice in utterance. Of the first of these, we have instances in the words, _gl=ory, f=ather, h=oly_; of the last, in _bat'tle, hab'it, bor'row_. So that accent, with us, is not referred to tune, but to _time_; to _quantity_, not quality; to the more _equable_ or _precipitate_ motion of the voice, not to the variation of notes or _inflexions_."--_Sheridan's Lectures on Elocution_, p. 56; _Flint's Murray's Gram._, p. 85. OBS. 10.--How "precise" was Sheridan's idea of accent, the reader may well judge from the foregoing quotations; in four of which, he describes it as "_a certain stress_," "_the stress_," and "_stress only_," which enforces some "_letter_;" while, in the other, it is whimsically made to consist in two different modes of pronouncing "_syllables_"--namely, with _equability_, and with _precipitance_--with "_dwelling longer_," and with "_smarter percussion_"--which terms the author very improperly supposes to be _opposites_: saying, "For the two ways of distinguishing syllables by accent, as mentioned before, are _directly opposite_, and produce _quite contrary effects_; the one, by _dwelling_ on the syllable, necessarily makes it long; the other, by the _smart percussion_--of the voice, as necessarily _makes it short_"--_Ib._, p. 57. Now it is all a mistake, however common, to suppose that our accent, consisting as it does, in stress, enforcement, or "percussion of voice," can ever _shorten_ the syllable on which it is laid; because what increases the quantum of a vocal sound, cannot diminish its length; and a syllable accented will always be found _longer_ as well as _louder_, than any unaccented one immediately before or after it. Though weak sounds may possibly be protracted, and shorter ones be exploded loudly, it is not the custom of our speech, so to deal with the sounds of syllables. OBS. 11.--Sheridan admitted that some syllables are naturally and necessarily short, but denied that any are naturally and necessarily long. In this, since syllabic length and shortness are relative to each other, and to the cause of each, he was, perhaps, hardly consistent. He might have done better, to have denied both, or neither. Bating his new division of accent to subject it sometimes to short quantity, he recognized very fully the dependence of quantity, long or short, whether in syllables or only in vowels, upon the presence or absence of accent or emphasis. In this he differed considerably from most of the grammarians of his day; and many since have continued to uphold other views. He says, "It is an _infallible rule_ in our tongue that no vowel ever has a long sound in an unaccented syllable."--_Lectures on Elocution_, p. 60. Again: "In treating of the simple elements or letters, I have shown that some, both vowels and consonants, are _naturally short_; that is, whose sounds _cannot possibly_ be prolonged; and these are the [short or shut] sounds of ~e, ~i, and ~u, of vocal sounds; and three pure mutes, k, p, t, of the consonant; as in the words _beck, lip, cut_. I have shown also, that the sounds of all the other vowels, and of the consonant semivowels, may be prolonged to what degree we please; but at the same time it is to be observed, that all these may also be reduced to a short quantity, and are capable of being uttered in as short a space of time as those which are naturally short. So that they who speak of syllables as absolutely in their own nature long, _the common cant of prosodians_, speak of a nonentity: for though, as I have shown above, there are syllables absolutely short, which cannot possibly be prolonged by any effort of the speaker, yet it is in his power to shorten or prolong the others to what degree he pleases."--_Sheridan's Rhetorical Gram._, p. 52. And again: "I have already mentioned that when the accent is on the vowel, it of course makes the syllable _long_; and when the accent is on the consonant, the syllable may be _either long or short_, according to the nature of the consonant, or _will of the speakers_. And as _all unaccented syllables are short_, the quantity of our syllables is adjusted by the easiest and simplest rule in the world, and in the exactest proportion."--_Lect. on Elocution_, p. 66. OBS. 12.--This praise of our rule for the adjustment of quantity, would have been much more appropriate, had not the rule itself been greatly mistaken, perplexed, and misrepresented by the author. If it appear, on inspection, that "_beck, lip, cut_," and the like syllables, are twice as long when under the accent, as they are when not accented, so that, with a short syllable annexed or a long one prefixed, they may form _trochees_; then is it _not true_, that such syllables are either always necessarily and _inherently_ short, or always, "by the smart percussion of the voice, as necessarily _made_ short;" both of which inconsistent ideas are above affirmed of them. They may not be so long as some other long syllables; but, if they are twice as long as the accompanying short ones, they are not short. And, if not short, then that remarkable distinction in accent, which assumes that they are so, is as needless as it is absurd and perplexing. Now let the words, _beck'on, lip'ping, cut'ter_, be properly pronounced, and their syllables be compared with each other, or with those of _lim'beck, fil'lip, Dr=a'cut_; and it cannot but be perceived, that _beck, lip_, and _cut_, like other syllables in general, are _lengthened_ by the accent, and shortened only in its absence; so that all these words are manifestly trochees, as all similar words are found to be, in our versification. To suppose "as many words as we hear accents," or that "it is the laying of an accent on _one_ syllable, which _constitutes a word_," and then say, that "no unaccented syllable or vowel is ever to be accounted long," as this enthusiastic author does in fact, is to make strange scansion of a very large portion of the trissyllables and polysyllables which occur in verse. An other great error in Sheridan's doctrine of quantity, is his notion that all monosyllables, except a few small particles, are _accented_; and that their quantity is determined to be long or short by the _seat_ or the _mode_ of the accent, as before stated. Now, as our poetry abounds with monosyllables, the relative time of which is adjusted by emphasis and cadence, according to the nature and importance of the terms, and according to the requirements of rhythm, with no reference to this factitious principle, no conformity thereto but what is accidental, it cannot but be a puzzling exercise, when these difficulties come to be summed up, to attempt the application of a doctrine so vainly conceived to be "the easiest and simplest rule in the world!" OBS. 13.--Lindley Murray's principles of accent and quantity, which later grammarians have so extensively copied, were mostly extracted from Sheridan's; and, as the compiler appears to have been aware of but few, if any, of his predecessor's errors, he has adopted and greatly spread well-nigh all that have just been pointed out; while, in regard to some points, he has considerably increased the number. His scheme, as he at last fixed it, appears to consist essentially of propositions already refuted, or objected to, above; as any reader may see, who will turn to his definition of accent, and his rules for the determination of quantity. In opposition to Sheridan, who not very consistently says, that, "_All_ unaccented syllables are _short_," this author appears to have adopted the greater error of Fisher, who supposed that the _vowel sounds_ called long and short, are just the same as the long and short _syllabic quantities_. By this rule, thousands of syllables will be called long, which are in fact short, being always so uttered in both prose and poetry; and, by the other, some will occasionally be called short, which are in fact long, being made so by the poet, under a slight secondary accent, or perhaps none. Again, in supposing our numerous monosyllables to be accented, and their quantity to be thereby fixed, without excepting "the _particles_, such as _a, the, to, in_, &c.," which were excepted by Sheridan, Murray has much augmented the multitude of errors which necessarily flow from the original rule. This principle, indeed, he adopted timidly; saying, as though he hardly believed the assertion true: "And _some writers assert_, that every monosyllable of two or more letters, has one of its letters thus distinguished."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 236; 12mo, 189. But still he _adopted_ it, and adopted it _fully_, in his section on Quantity; for, of his twelve words, exemplifying syllabic time so regulated, no fewer than nine are monosyllables. It is observable, however, that, in some instances, it is not _one_ letter, but _two_, that he marks; as in the words, "m=o=od, h=o=use."--_Ib._, p. 239; 12mo, 192. And again, it should be observed, that generally, wherever he marks accent, he follows the _old mode_, which Sheridan and Webster so justly condemn; so that, even when he is speaking of "the accent on the _consonant_," the sign of stress, as that of time, is set over a _vowel_: as, "Sádly, róbber."--_Ib._, 8vo, 240; 12mo, 193. So in his Spelling-Book, where words are often falsely divided: as, "Vé nice," for Ven'-ice; "Há no ver," for Han'o-ver; &c.--See p. 101. OBS. 14.--In consideration of the great authority of this grammarian, now backed by a score or two of copyists and modifiers, it may be expedient to be yet more explicit. Of _accent_ Murray published about as many different definitions, as did Sheridan; which, as they show what notions he had at different times, it may not be amiss for some, who hold him always in the right, to compare. In one, he describes it thus: "Accent signifies _that stress_ of the voice, which is laid on _one syllable_, to distinguish it from the rest."--_Murray's Spelling-Book_, p. 138. He should here have said, (as by his examples it would appear that he meant,) "on one syllable _of a word_;" for, as the phrase now stands, it may include stress on a _monosyllable in a sentence_; and it is a matter of dispute, whether this can properly be called accent. Walker and Webster say, it is emphasis, and not accent. Again, in an other definition, which was written before he adopted the notion of accent on consonants, of accent on monosyllables, or of accent for quantity in the formation of verse, he used these words: "Accent is _the laying of_ a peculiar stress of the voice on a certain _vowel_ or syllable in a word, that it may be better heard than the rest, or distinguished from them; as, in the word _presúme_, the stress of the voice must be on the second syllable, _súme_, which takes the accent."--_Murray's Gram., Second Edition_, 12mo, p. 161. In this edition, which was published at York, in 1796, his chief rules of quantity say nothing about accent, but are thus expressed: [1.] "A _vowel or syllable_ is long, when _the vowel or vowels contained in it_ are slowly joined in pronunciation with the _following letters_; as, 'F=all, b=ale, m=o=od, h=o=use, f=eature.' [2.] A syllable is short, when the vowel is quickly joined to the succeeding _letter_; as, '~art, b~onn~et, h~ung~er.'"--_Ib._, p. 166. Besides the absurdity of representing "_a vowel_" as having "_vowels_ contained in it," these rules are _made up_ of great faults. They confound syllabic quantities with vowel sounds. They suppose quantity to be, not the time of a whole syllable, but the quick or slow junction of _some_ of its parts. They apply to no syllable that ends with a vowel sound. The former applies to none that ends with one consonant only; as, "_mood_" or the first of "_feat-ure_." In fact, it does not apply to _any_ of the examples given; the final letter in each of the other words being _silent_. The latter rule is worse yet: it misrepresents the examples; for "_bonnet_" and "_hunger_" are trochees, and "_art_," with any stress on it, is long. OBS. 15.--In all late editions of L. Murray's Grammar, and many modifications of it, accent is defined thus: "Accent is _the laying of_ a peculiar stress of the voice, on a certain _letter_ OR _syllable_ in a word, that _it_ may be better heard than _the rest_, or distinguished from _them_; as, in the word _presúme_, the stress of the voice must be on the _letter u_, AND [the] _second syllable, sume_, which takes the accent."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 235; 12mo, 188; 18mo, 57; _Alger's_, 72; _Bacon's_, 52; _Comly's_, 168; _Cooper's_, 176; _Davenport's_, 121; _Felton's_, 134; _Frost's El._, 50; _Fisk's_, 32; _Merchant's_, 145; _Parker and Fox's_, iii, 44; _Pond's_, 197; _Putnam's_, 96; _Russell's_, 106; _R. O. Smith's_, 186. Here we see a curious jumble of the common idea of accent, as "stress laid on some particular _syllable_ of a _word_," with Sheridan's doctrine of accenting always "a particular _letter_ of a _syllable_,"--an idle doctrine, contrived solely for the accommodation of short quantity with long, _under the accent_. When this definition was adopted, Murray's scheme of quantity was also revised, and materially altered. The principles of his main text, to which his copiers all confine themselves, then took the following form: "The quantity of a syllable, is _that_ time which is occupied in pronouncing it. It is considered as LONG or SHORT. "A _vowel or syllable_ is long, when the accent is on the vowel; _which_ occasions it to be slowly joined in pronunciation with the following _letters_: as, 'F=all, b=ale, m=o=od, h=o=use, f=eature.' "A _syllable_ is short, when the accent is on the consonant; _which_ occasions the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding _letter_: as, '~ant, b=onn~et, h=ung~er.' "A long syllable generally requires double the time of a short one _in pronouncing it_: thus, 'M=ate' and 'N=ote' should be pronounced as slowly again as 'M~at' and 'N~ot.'"--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 239; 12mo, 192; 18mo, 57; _Alger's_, 72; _D. C. Allen's_, 86; _Bacon's_, 52; _Comly's_, 168; _Cooper's_, 176; _Cutler's_, 165; _Davenport's_, 121; _Felton's_, 134; _Frost's El._, 50; _Fisk's_, 32; _Maltby's_, 115; _Parker and Fox's_, iii, 47; _Pond's_, 198; _S. Putnam's_, 96; _R. C. Smith's_, 187; _Rev. T. Smith's_, 68. Here we see a revival and an abundant propagation of Sheridan's erroneous doctrine, that our accent produces both short quantity and long, according to its seat; and since none of all these grammars, but the first two of Murray's, give any _other_ rules for the discrimination of quantities, we must infer, that these were judged sufficient. Now, of all the principles on which any have ever pretended to determine the quantity of syllables, none, so far as I know, are more defective or fallacious than these. They are liable to more objections than it is worth while to specify. Suffice it to observe, that they divide certain accented syllables into long and short, and say nothing of the unaccented; whereas it is plain, and acknowledged even by Murray and Sheridan themselves, that in "_ant, bonnet, hunger_" and the like, the unaccented syllables are the _only short ones_: the rest can be, and here are, lengthened.[497] OBS. 16.--The foregoing principles, differently expressed, and perchance in some instances more fitly, are found in many other grammars, and in some of the very latest; but they are everywhere a _mere dead letter_, a record which, if it is not always untrue, is seldom understood, and never applied in any way to practice. The following are examples: (1.) "In a long syllable, the vowel is accented; in a short syllable [,] the consonant; as [,] _r=oll, p=oll; t~op, c~ut_."--_Rev. W. Allen's Gram._, p. 222. (2.) "A syllable _or word_ is long, when the accent is on the vowel: as n=o, l=ine, l=a, m=e; and short, when on the consonant: as n~ot, l~in, L~atin, m~et."--_S. Barrett's Grammar, ("Principles of Language,")_ p. 112. (3.) "A syllable is long when the accent is on the vowel, as, P=all, s=ale, m=o=use, cr=eature. A syllable is short when the accent is placed on the consonant; as great´, let´ter, mas´ter."--_Rev. D. Blair's Practical Gram._, p. 117. (4.) "When the stress is on the _vowel_, the measure of quantity is _long_: as, Máte, fáte, complàin, pláyful, un der míne. When the stress is on a _consonant_, the quantity is short: as, Mat´, fat´, com pel´, prog´ress, dis man´tle."--_Pardon Davis's Practical Gram._, p. 125. (5.) "The quantity of a syllable is considered _as long or short_. It is long when the accent is on the vowel; as, F=all, b=ale, m=ood, ho=use, f=eature. It is short when the accent is placed on the consonant; as, Mas´ter, let´ter."--_Guy's School Gram._, p. 118; _Picket's Analytical School Gram._, 2d Ed., p. 224. (6.) "A syllable is _long_ when the accent is on the vowel; and _short_, when the accent is on the consonant. A _long_ syllable requires twice the time in pronouncing it that a _short_ one does. Long syllables are marked thus =; as, t=ube; short syllables, thus ~; as, m~an."--_Hiley's English Gram._, p. 120. (7.) "When the accent is on a vowel, the syllable is generally long; as _=aleho=use, am=usement, f=eatures_. But when the accent is on a consonant, the syllable is mostly short; as, _h~ap'py, m~an'ner_. A long syllable requires twice as much time in the pronunciation, as a short one; as, _h=ate, h~at; n=ote, n~ot; c=ane, c~an; f=ine, f~in_."--_Jaudon's Union Gram._, p. 173. (8.) "If the syllable _be long_, the accent is on the vowel; as, in _b=ale, m=o=od, educ=ation; &c_. If _short_, the accent is on the consonant; as, in _~ant, b~onnet, h~unger_, &c."--_Merchant's American School Gram._, p. 145. The quantity of our unaccented syllables, none of these authors, except Allen, thought it worth his while to notice. But among their accented syllables, they all include _words of one syllable_, though most of them thereby pointedly contradict their own definitions of accent. To find in our language no short syllables but such as are accented, is certainly a very strange and very great oversight. Frazee says, "The pronunciation of an accented syllable _requires double the time_ of that of an unaccented one."--_Frazee's Improved Gram._, p. 180. If so, our poetical quantities are greatly misrepresented by the rules above cited. Allen truly says, "Unaccented syllables are generally short; as, _r~etúrn, túrn~er_."-- _Elements of E. Gram._, p. 222. But how it was ever found out, that in these words we accent only the vowel _u_, and in such as _hunter_ and _bluntly_, some one of the consonants only, he does not inform us. OBS. 17.--As might be expected, it is not well agreed among those who accent single consonants and vowels, _what particular letter_ should receive the stress and the mark. The word or syllable "_ant_," for example, is marked "an´t" by Alger, Bacon, and others, to enforce the _n_; "ant´" by Frost, Putnam, and others, to enforce the _t_; "~ant" by Murray, Russell, and others, to show, as they say, "_the accent on the consonant_!" But, in "A´NTLER," Dr. Johnson accented the _a_; and, to mark the same pronunciation, Worcester now writes, "~ANT´LER;" while almost any prosodist, in scanning, would mark this word "_~antl~er_" and call it a _trochee_.[498] Churchill, who is in general a judicious observer, writes thus: "The _leading feature_ in the English language, on which _it's_ melody both in prose and verse _chiefly depends_, is _it's accent_. Every word in it of _more than one syllable_ has one of _it's_ syllables distinguished by this from the rest; the accent being in some cases on the vowel, in others on the _consonant that closes the syllable_; on the vowel, when it has _it's_ long sound; on the consonant, when the vowel is short."--_Churchill's New Gram._, p. 181. But to this, as a rule of accentuation, no attention is in fact paid nowadays. Syllables that have long vowels not final, very properly take the sign of stress on or after a consonant or a mute vowel; as, =an´gel, ch=am´ber, sl=ay´er, b=ead´roll, sl=ea´zy, sl=e=ep´er, sl=e=eve´less, l=ive´ly, m=ind´ful, sl=ight´ly, sl=id´ing, b=old´ness, gr=oss´ly, wh=ol´ly, =use´less.--See _Worcester's Dict._ OBS. 18.--It has been seen, that Murray's principles of quantity were greatly altered by himself, after the first appearance of his grammar. To have a full and correct view of them, it is necessary to notice something more than his main text, as revised, with which all his amenders content themselves, and which he himself thought sufficient for his Abridgement. The following positions, which, in some of his revisals, he added to the large grammar, are therefore cited:-- (1.) "Unaccented syllables are generally short: as, '~admíre, bóldn~ess, sínn~er.' But to this rule there are _many_ exceptions: as, 'áls=o, éx=ile, gángr=ene, úmp=ire, f=oretáste,' &c. (2.) "When the accent is on the consonant, the syllable is often _more or less short_, as it ends with a _single consonant_, or with more than one: as, 'Sádly, róbber; persíst, mátchless.' (3.) "When the accent is on a semi-vowel, the time of the syllable may be protracted, by dwelling upon the _semi-vowel_: as, 'Cur´, can´, f~ulfil´' but when the accent falls on a mute, the syllable _cannot be lengthened in the same manner_: as, 'Búbble, cáptain, tótter.'"--_L. Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 240; 12mo, 193. (4.) "In this work, and in the author's Spelling-book, the vowels _e_ and _o_, in the first syllable of such words as, behave, prejudge, domain, propose; and in the second syllable of such as pulley, turkey, borrow, follow; are considered as _long vowels_. The second syllables in such words as, baby, spicy, holy, fury, are also considered as _long syllables_."--_Ib._, 8vo, p. 241. (5.) "In the words _scarecrow, wherefore_, both the syllables are _unquestionably long_, but not of equal length. We presume _therefore_, that the syllables under consideration, [i.e., those which end with the sound of _e_ or _o_ without accent,] may also be properly styled _long syllables_, though their length is not equal to that of some others."--_Murray's Octavo Gram._, p. 241. OBS. 19.--Sheridan's "_infallible rule_, that no vowel ever has a long sound in an unaccented syllable," is in striking contrast with three of these positions, and the exact truth of the matter is with neither author. But, for the accuracy of his doctrine, Murray appeals to "the authority of the judicious Walker," which he thinks sufficient to prove any syllable long whose vowel is called so; while the important distinction suggested by Walker, in his Principles, No. 529, between "the length or shortness of the vowels," and "that quantity which constitutes poetry," is entirely overlooked. It is safe to affirm, that all the accented syllables occurring in the examples above, are _long_; and all the unaccented ones, _short_: for Murray's long syllables vary in length, and his short ones in shortness, till not only the just proportion, but the actual relation, of long and short, is evidently lost with some of them. Does not _match_ in "_match´less_," _sad_ in "_sad´ly_," or _bub_ in "_bub´ble_," require more time, than _so_ in "_al´so_," _key_ in "_tur´key_," or _ly_ in "_ho´ly_"? If so, four of the preceding positions are very faulty. And so, indeed, is the remaining one; for where is the sense of saying, that "when the accent falls _on a mute_, the syllable cannot be lengthened by _dwelling upon the semi-vowel_"? This is an apparent truism, and yet not true. For a semivowel in the middle or at the beginning of a syllable, may lengthen it as much as if it stood at the end. "_Cur_" and "_can_," here given as protracted syllables, are certainly no longer by usage, and no more susceptible of protraction, than "_mat_" and "_not_," "_art_" and "_ant_," which are among the author's examples of short quantity. And if a semivowel accented will make the syllable long, was it not both an error and a self-contradiction, to give "_b~onnet_" and "_h~unger_" as examples of quantity _shortened_ by the accent? The syllable _man_ has two semivowels; and the letter _l_, as in "_ful fil´_," is the most sonorous of consonants; yet, as we see above, among their false examples of short syllables accented, different authors have given the words "_man_" and "_man´ner_," "_disman´tle_" and "_com pel´_," "_mas´ter_" and "_let´ter_," with sundry other sounds which may easily be lengthened. Sanborn says, "The _breve_ distinguishes a short syllable; as, _m~anner_."--_Analytical Gram._, p. 273. Parker and Fox say, "The Breve (thus ~) is placed over a vowel to indicate _its short sound_; as, St. H~elena."--_English Gram._, Part iii, p. 31. Both explanations of this sign are defective; and neither has a suitable example. The name "_St. H~l=e´n~a_," as pronounced by Worcester, and as commonly heard, is two trochees; but "_Hel´ena_," for _Helen_, having the penult short, takes the accent on the first syllable, which is thereby _made long_, though the vowel sound is _called short_. Even Dr. Webster, who expressly notes the difference between "long and short _vowels_" and "long and short _syllables_," allows himself, on the very same page, to confound them: so that, of his three examples of a _short syllable,--"th~at, not, m~elon,"_--all are erroneous; two being monosyllables, which any emphasis must lengthen; and the third,--the word "_m~el´on_,"--with the first syllable marked short, and not the last! See _Webster's Improved Gram._, p. 157. OBS. 20.--Among the latest of our English Grammars, is Chandler's new one of 1847. The Prosody of this work is fresh from the mint; the author's old grammar of 1821, which is the nucleus of this, being "confined to Etymology and Syantax." [sic--KTH] If from anybody the public have a right to expect correctness in the details of grammar, it is from one who has had the subject so long and so habitually before him. "_Accent_" says this author, "is _the_ stress on a syllable, _or letter_."--_Chandler's Common School Gram._, p. 188. Now, if our less prominent words and syllables require any force at all, a definition so loose as this, may give accent to some words, or to all; to some syllables, or to all; to some letters, or to all--except those which are _silent_! And, indeed, whether the stress which distinguishes some monosyllables from others, is supposed by the writer to be accent, or emphasis, or both, it is scarcely possible to ascertain from his elucidations. "The term _emphasis_," says he, "is used to denote a fuller sound of voice _after_ certain words that come in _antithesis_; that is, contrast. 'He can _write_, but he cannot _read_.' Here, _read_ and _write_ are _antithetical_ (that is, in contrast), and are _accented_, or _emphasized_."--P. 189. The word "_after_" here may be a misprint for the word _upon_; but no preposition really suits the connexion: the participle _impressing_ or _affecting_ would be better. Of _quantity_, this work gives the following account: "The _quantity_ of a _syllable_ is that time which is required to pronounce it. A syllable may be _long_ or _short_. _Hate_ is long, as the vowel _a_ is elongated by the final _e_; _hat_ is short, and requires about half the time for pronunciation which is used for pronouncing _hate_. So of _ate, at; bate, bat; cure, cur_. Though unaccented syllables are usually short, yet _many_ of those which are accented are short also. The following are short: _ád_vent, _sin´_ner, _sup´_per. In the following, the unaccented syllables are long: ál_so_, éx_ile_, gán_grene_, úm_pire_. It maybe remarked, that the quantity of a syllable is short when the accent is on a consonant; as, art´, bon´net, hun´ger. The _hyphen_ (-), placed over a syllable, denotes that it is long: n=áture. The breve (~) over a syllable, denotes that it is short; as, d~etr=áct."--_Chandler's Common School Gram._, p. 189. This scheme of quantity is truly remarkable for its absurdity and confusion. What becomes of the elongating power of e, without accent or emphasis, as in _jun´cate, pal´ate, prel´ate_? Who does not know that such syllables as "_at, bat_, and _cur_" are often long in poetry? What more absurd, than to suppose both syllables short in such words as, "_~advent, sin´ner, sup´per_," and then give "serm~on, f=ilt~er, sp=ir~it, g=ath~er," and the like, for regular trochees, with "the first syllable long, and the second short," as does this author? What more contradictory and confused, than to pretend that the primal sound of a vowel lengthens an unaccented syllable, and accent on the consonant shortens an accented one, as if in "_âl´so_" the first syllable must be short and the second long, and then be compelled, by the evidence of one's senses to mark "ech~o" as a trochee, and "détract" as an iambus? What less pardonable misnomer, than for a great critic to call the sign of long quantity a "_hyphen_"? OBS. 21.--The following suggestions found in two of Dr. Webster's grammars, are not far from the truth: "Most prosodians who have treated particularly of this subject, have been guilty of a fundamental error, in considering the movement of English verse as depending on long and short syllables, formed by long and short vowels. This hypothesis has led them into capital mistakes. The truth is, many of those syllables which are considered as _long_ in verse, are formed by the shortest vowels in the language; as, _strength, health, grand_. The doctrine that long vowels are necessary to form long syllables in poetry is at length exploded, and the principles which regulate the movement of our verse, are explained; viz. _accent_ and _emphasis_. Every emphatical word, and every accented syllable, will form what is called in verse, a long syllable. The unaccented syllables, and unemphatical monosyllabic words, are considered as short syllables."--_Webster's Philosophical Gram._, p. 222; _Improved Gram._, 158. Is it not remarkable, that, on the same page with this passage, the author should have given the first syllable of "_melon_" as an example of _short_ quantity? OBS. 22.--If the principle is true, which every body now takes for granted, that the foundation of versifying is some distinction pertaining to syllables; it is plain, that nothing can be done towards teaching the Art of Measuring Verses, till it be known _upon what distinction_ in syllables our scheme of versification is based, and by what rule or rules the discrimination is, or ought to be, made. Errors here are central, radical, fundamental. Hence the necessity of these present disquisitions. Without some effectual criticism on their many false positions, prosodists may continue to theorize, dogmatize, plagiarize, and blunder on, as they have done, indefinitely, and knowledge of the rhythmic art be in no degree advanced by their productions, new or old. For the supposition is, that in general the consulters of these various oracles are persons more fallible still, and therefore likely to be misled by any errors that are not expressly pointed out to them. In this work, it is assumed, that _quantity_, not laboriously ascertained by "a great variety of rules applied from the Greek and Latin Prosody," but discriminated on principles of our own--_quantity_, dependent in some degree on the nature and number of the letters in a syllable, but still more on the presence or absence of stress--is the true foundation of our metre. It has already been stated, and perhaps proved, that this theory is as well supported by authority as any; but, since Lindley Murray, persuaded wrong by the positiveness of Sheridan, exchanged his scheme of feet formed by quantities, for a new one of "feet formed by accents"--or, rather, for an impracticable mixture of both, a scheme of supposed "_duplicates_ of each foot"--it has been becoming more and more common for grammarians to represent the basis of English versification to be, not the distinction of long and short quantities, but the recurrence of _accent_ at certain intervals. Such is the doctrine of Butler, Felton, Fowler, S. S. Greene, Hart, Hiley, R. C. Smith, Weld, Wells, and perhaps others. But, in this, all these writers contradict themselves; disregard their own definitions of accent; count monosyllables to be accented or unaccented; displace emphasis from the rank which Murray and others give it, as "the great regulator of quantity;" and suppose the length or shortness of syllables not to depend on the presence or absence of either accent or emphasis; and not to be of much account in the construction of English verse. As these strictures are running to a great length, it may be well now to introduce the poetic feet, and to reserve, for notes under that head, any further examination of opinions as to what constitutes the _foundation_ of verse. SECTION III.--OF POETIC FEET. A verse, or line of poetry., consists of successive combinations of syllables, called _feet_. A poetic _foot_, in English, consists either of two or of three syllables, as in the following examples: 1. "C=an t=y | -r~ants b=ut | b~y t=y | -r~ants c=on | -qu~ered b=e?"--_Byron_. 2. "H=ol~y, | h=ol~y, | h=ol~y! | =all th~e | s=aints ~a | -d=ore th~ee."--_Heber_. 3. "And th~e br=eath | ~of th~e D=e | -~it~y c=ir | -cl~ed th~e ro=om."--_Hunt_. 4. "H=ail t~o th~e | chi=ef wh~o ~in | tr=i~umph ~ad |-v=anc~es!"--_Scott_. EXPLANATIONS AND DEFINITIONS. Poetic feet being arbitrary combinations, contrived merely for the measuring of verses, and the ready ascertainment of the syllables that suit each rhythm, there is among prosodists a perplexing diversity of opinion, as to the _number_ which we ought to recognize in our language. Some will have only two or three; others, four; others, eight; others, twelve. The dozen are all that can be made of two syllables and of three. Latinists sometimes make feet of four syllables, and admit sixteen more of these, acknowledging and naming twenty-eight in all. The _principal_ English feet are the _Iambus_, the _Trochee_, the _Anapest_, and the _Dactyl_. 1. The _Iambus_, or _Iamb_, is a poetic foot consisting of a short syllable and a long one; as, _b~etr=ay, c~onf=ess, d~em=and, ~intent, d~egr=ee_. 2. The _Trochee_, or _Choree_, is a poetic foot consisting of a long syllable and a short one; as, _h=atef~ul, p=ett~ish, l=eg~al, m=eas~ure, h=ol~y_. 3. The _Anapest_ is a poetic foot consisting of two short syllables and one long one; as, _c~ontr~av=ene, ~acqu~i=esce, ~imp~ort=une_. 4. The _Dactyl_ is a poetic foot consisting of one long syllable and two short ones; as, _l=ab~our~er, p=oss~ibl~e, w=ond~erf~ul_. These are our principal feet, not only because they are oftenest used, but because each kind, with little or no mixture, forms a distinct order of numbers, having a peculiar rhythm. Of verse, or poetic measure, we have, accordingly, four principal kinds, or orders; namely, _Iambic, Trochaic, Anapestic_, and _Dactylic_; as in the four lines cited above. The more pure these several kinds are preserved, the more exact and complete is the chime of the verse. But exactness being difficult, and its sameness sometimes irksome, the poets generally indulge some variety; not so much, however, as to confound the drift of the rhythmical pulsations: or, if ever these be not made obvious to the reader, there is a grave fault in the versification. The _secondary_ feet, if admitted at all, are to be admitted only, or chiefly, as occasional diversifications. Of this class of feet, many grammarians adopt four; but they lack agreement about the selection. Brightland took the _Spondee_, the _Pyrrhic_, the _Moloss_, and the _Tribrach_. To these, some now add the other four; namely, the _Amphibrach_, the _Amphimac_, the _Bacchy_, and the _Antibacchy_. Few, if any, of these feet are really _necessary_ to a sufficient explanation of English verse; and the adopting of so many is liable to the great objection, that we thereby produce different modes of measuring the same lines. But, by naming them all, we avoid the difficulty of selecting the most important; and it is proper that the student should know the import of all these prosodical terms. 5. A _Spondee_ is a poetic foot consisting of two long syllables; as, _c=old n=ight, p=o=or s=ouls, ~am~en, shr=ovet=ide._ 6. A _Pyrrhic_ is a poetic foot consisting of two short syllables; as, presumpt-|_~uo~us_, perpet-|_~u~al_, unhap-|_p~il~y_, inglo-|_r~io~us_. 7. A _Moloss_ is a poetic foot consisting of three long syllables; as, _De~ath's p=ale h=orse,--gre=at wh=ite thr=one,--d=eep d=amp v=a=ult._ 8. A _Tribrach_ is a poetic foot consisting of three short syllables; as, prohib-|_~it~or~y_, unnat-|_~ur~all~y_, author-|_~it~at~ive_, innum-|_~er~abl~e_. 9. An _Amphibrach_ is a poetic foot of three syllables, having both sides short, the middle long; as, _~impr=ud~ent, c~ons=id~er, tr~ansp=ort~ed._ 10. An _Amphimac, Amphimacer_, or _Cretic_, is a poetic foot of three syllables, having both sides long, the middle short; as, _w~ind~ingsh=eet, l=ife-~est=ate, s=oul-d~is~eased._ 11. A _Bacchy_ is a poetic foot consisting of one short syllable and two long ones; as, _th=e wh=ole w~orld,--~a gre=at v=ase,--=of p=ure g=old_. 12. An _Antibacchy_, or _Hypobacchy_, is a poetic foot consisting of two long syllables and a short one; as, _kn=ight-s=erv~ice, gl=obe-d=ais~y, gr=ape-flow~er, g=old-b=eat~er_. Among the variegations of verse, one emphatic syllable is sometimes counted for a foot. "When a single syllable is [thus] taken by itself, it is called a _Cæsura_, which is commonly a long syllable." [499] FOR EXAMPLE:-- "Keeping | _time, | time, | time_, In a | sort of | Runic | _rhyme_, To the | tintin| -nabu| -lation that so | musi| -cally | _wells_ From the | _bells, | bells, | bells, | bells, Bells, | bells, | bells._" --EDGAR A. POE: _Union Magazine, for Nov. 1849; Literary World_, No. 143. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--In defining our poetic feet, many late grammarians substitute the terms _accented_ and _unaccented_ for _long_ and _short_, as did Murray, after some of the earlier editions of his grammar; the only feet recognized in his _second_ edition being the _Iambus_, the _Trochee_, the _Dactyl_, and the _Anapest_, and all these being formed by _quantities_ only. This change has been made on the supposition, that accent and long quantity, as well as their opposites, nonaccent and short quantity, may oppose each other; and that the basis of English verse is not, like that of Latin or Greek poetry, a distinction in the _time_ of syllables, not a difference in _quantity_, but such a course of accenting and nonaccenting as overrides all relations of this sort, and makes both length and shortness compatible alike with stress or no stress. Such a theory, I am persuaded, is untenable. Great authority, however, may be quoted for it, or for its principal features. Besides the several later grammarians who give it countenance, even "the judicious Walker," who, in his Pronouncing Dictionary, as before cited, very properly suggests a difference between "_that quantity which constitutes poetry_," and the mere "_length or shortness of vowels_," when he comes to explain our English accent and quantity, in his "_Observations on the Greek and Latin Accent and Quantity_," finds "accent perfectly compatible with either long or short quantity;" (_Key_, p. 312;) repudiates that vulgar accent of Sheridan and others, which "is only a greater force upon one syllable than another;" (_Key_, p. 313;) prefers the doctrine which "makes the elevation or depression of the voice inseparable from accent;" (_Key_, p. 314;) holds that, "unaccented vowels are frequently pronounced long when the accented vowels are short;" (_Key_, p. 312;) takes long or short _vowels_ and long or short _syllables_ to be things everywhere tantamount; saying, "We have _no conception_ of quantity arising from any thing but the nature of the vowels, as they are pronounced long or short;" (_ibid._;) and again: "Such long quantity" as consonants may produce with a close or short vowel, "an English ear _has not the least idea of_. Unless the sound of the vowel be altered, we have _not any conception_ of a long or short syllable."--_Walker's Key_, p. 322; and _Worcester's Octavo Dict._, p. 935. OBS. 2.--In the opinion of Murray, Walker's authority should be thought sufficient to settle any question of prosodial quantities. "But," it is added, "there are some critical writers, who dispute the propriety of his arrangement."--_Murray's Octavo Gram._, p. 241. And well there may be; not only by reason of the obvious incorrectness of the foregoing positions, but because the great orthoëpist is not entirely consistent with himself. In his "_Preparatory Observations_," which introduce the very essay above cited, he avers that, "the different states of the voice," which are indicated by the comparative terms _high_ and _low, loud_ and _soft, quick_ and _slow, forcible_ and _feeble_, "may not improperly be called _quantities_ of sound."--_Walker's Key_, p. 305. Whoever thinks this, certainly conceives of quantity as arising from _several other things_ than "the nature of the vowels." Even Humphrey, with whom, "Quantity differs materially from time," and who defines it, "the weight, or aggregate quantum of sounds," may find his questionable and unusual "conception" of it included among these. OBS. 3.--Walker must have seen, as have the generality of prosodists since, that such a distinction as he makes between long syllables and short, could not possibly be the basis of English versification, or determine the elements of English feet; yet, without the analogy of any known usage, and contrary to our customary mode of reading the languages, he proposes it as applicable--and as the only doctrine conceived to be applicable--to Greek or Latin verse. Ignoring all long or short quantity not formed by what are called long or short vowels,[500] he suggests, "_as a last refuge_," (§25,) the very doubtful scheme of reading Latin and Greek poetry with the vowels conformed, agreeably to this English sense of _long_ and _short_ vowel sounds, to the ancient rules of quantity. Of such words as _fallo_ and _ambo_, pronounced as we usually utter them, he says, "_nothing can be more evident_ than the long quantity of the final vowel though without the accent, and the short quantity of the initial and accented syllable."--_Obs. on Greek and Lat. Accent_, §23; Key, p. 331. Now the very reverse of this appears to me to be "evident." The _a_, indeed, may be close or short, while the _o_, having its primal or _name_ sound, is _called_ long; but the first _syllable_, if fully accented, will have _twice the time_ of the second; nor can this proportion be reversed but by changing the accent, and misplacing it on the latter syllable. Were the principle _true_, which the learned author pronounces so "evident," these, and all similar words, would constitute _iambic feet_; whereas it is plain, that in English they are _trochees_; and in Latin,--where "_o_ final is _common_,"--either _trochees_ or _spondees_. The word _ambo_, as every accurate scholar knows, is always a _trochee_, whether it be the Latin adjective for "_both_," or the English noun for "_a reading desk_, or _pulpit_." OBS. 4.--The names of our poetic feet are all of them derived, by change of endings, from similar names used in Greek, and thence also in Latin; and, of course, English words and Greek or Latin, so related, are presumed to stand for things somewhat similar. This reasonable presumption is an argument, too often disregarded by late grammarians, for considering our poetic feet to be quantitative, as were the ancient,--not accentual only, as some will have them,--nor separately both, as some others absurdly teach. But, whatever may be the difference or the coincidence between English verse and Greek or Latin, it is certain, that, in _our_ poetic division of syllables, strength and length must always concur, and any scheme which so contrasts accent with long quantity, as to confound the different species of feet, or give contradictory names to the same foot, must be radically and grossly defective. In the preceding section it has been shown, that the principles of quantity adopted by Sheridan, Murray, and others, being so erroneous as to be wholly nugatory, were as unfit to be the basis of English verse, as are Walker's, which have just been spoken of. But, the puzzled authors, instead of reforming these their elementary principles, so as to adapt them to the quantities and rhythms actually found in our English verse, have all chosen to assume, that our poetical feet in general _differ radically_ from those which the ancients called by the same names; and yet the _coincidence_ found--the "_exact sameness of nature_" acknowledged--is sagely said by some of them _to duplicate each foot into two distinct sorts for our especial advantage_; while the _difference_, which they presume to exist, or which their false principles of accent and quantity would create, between feet quantitative and feet accentual, (both of which are allowed to us,) would _implicate different names_, and convert foot into foot--iambs, trochees, spondees, pyrrhics, each species into some other--till all were confusion! OBS. 5.--In Lindley Murray's revised scheme of feet, we have first a paragraph from Sheridan's Rhetorical Grammar, suggesting that the ancient poetic measures were formed of syllables divided "into _long_ and _short_," and affirming, what is not very true, that, for the forming of ours, "In English, syllables are divided into _accented_ and _unaccented_."--_Rhet. Gram._, p. 64; _Murray's Gram._, 8vo, 253; _Hart's Gram._, 182; and others. Now _some_ syllables are accented, and others are unaccented; but syllables singly significant, i.e., monosyllables, which are very numerous, belong to neither of these classes. The contrast is also comparatively new; our language had much good poetry, long before _accented_ and _unaccented_ were ever thus misapplied in it. Murray proceeds thus: "When the feet are formed by _accent on vowels_, they are _exactly of the same nature as ancient feet_, and have the same just quantity in their syllables. So that, in this respect, _we have all that the ancients had_, and something which they had not. We have in fact _duplicates of each foot_, yet with such a _difference_, as to fit them for _different purposes_, to be applied at our pleasure."--_Ib._, p. 253. Again: "_We_ have observed, that _English verse is composed of feet formed by accent_; and that when the accent falls on _vowels_, the feet are equivalent to those formed by quantity."--_Ib._, p. 258. And again: "From the preceding view of English versification, we may see _what a copious stock of materials_ it possesses. For _we are not only allowed the use of all the ancient poetic feet_, in our _heroic measure_, but we have, as before observed, _duplicates of each_, agreeing in movement, though differing in measure,[501] _and which_ make different impressions on the ear; _an opulence peculiar_ to our language, _and which_ may be the source of a boundless variety."--_Ib._, p. 259. OBS. 6.--If it were not dullness to overlook the many errors and inconsistencies of this scheme, there should be thought a rare ingenuity in thus turning them all to the great advantage and peculiar riches of the English tongue! Besides several grammatical faults, elsewhere noticed, these extracts exhibit, first, the inconsistent notion--of "_duplicates with a difference_;" or, as Churchill expresses it, of "_two distinct species of each foot_;" (_New Gram._, p. 189;) and here we are gravely assured withal, that these _different sorts_, which have no separate names, are sometimes forsooth, "_exactly of the same nature_"! Secondly, it is incompatibly urged, that, "English verse is _composed of feet formed by accent_," and at the same time shown, that it partakes largely of _feet "formed by quantity_." Thirdly, if "_we have all that the ancients had_," of poetic feet, and "_duplicates of each_," "_which they had not_" we are encumbered with an enormous surplus; for, of the twenty-eight Latin feet,[502] mentioned by Dr. Adam and others, Murray never gave the names of more than eight, and his early editions acknowledged _but four_, and these _single_, not "_duplicates_"--_unigenous_, not severally of "_two species_." Fourthly, to suppose a multiplicity of feet to be "_a copious stock of materials_" for versification, is as absurd as to imagine, in any other case, a variety of _measures_ to be materials for producing the thing measured. Fifthly, "_our heroic measure_" is _iambic pentameter_, as Murray himself shows; and, to give to this, "_all the ancient poetic feet_," is to bestow most of them where they are least needed. Sixthly, "feet _differing in measure_," so as to "_make different impressions on the ear_," cannot well be said to "_agree in movement_," or to be "_exactly of the same nature!_" OBS. 7.--Of the foundation of metre, _Wells_ has the following account: "The _quantity_ of a syllable is the relative time occupied in its pronunciation. A syllable may be _long_ in quantity, as _fate_; or _short_, as _let_. The Greeks and Romans based their poetry on the quantity of syllables; but modern versification depends chiefly upon accent, the quantity of syllables being almost wholly disregarded."--_School Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 185. Again: "_Versification_ is a measured arrangement of words[,] in which the _accent_ is made to recur at certain regular intervals. This definition applies only to modern verse. In Greek and Latin poetry, it is the regular recurrence of _long syllables_, according to settled laws, which constitutes verse."--_Ib._, p. 186. The contrasting of ancient and modern versification, since Sheridan and Murray each contrived an example of it, has become very common in our grammars, though not in principle very uniform; and, however needless where a correct theory prevails, it is, to such views of accent and quantity as were adopted by these authors, and by Walker, or their followers, but a necessary counterpart. The notion, however, that English verse has less regard to quantity than had that of the old Greeks or Romans, is a mere assumption, originating in a false idea of what quantity is; and, that Greek or Latin verse was less accentual than is ours, is another assumption, left proofless too, of what many authors disbelieve and contradict. Wells's definition of quantity is similar to mine, and perhaps unexceptionable; and yet his idea of the thing, as he gives us reason to think, was very different, and very erroneous. His examples imply, that, like Walker, he had "no conception of quantity arising from any thing but the nature of the vowels,"--no conception of a long or a short _syllable_ without what is called a long or a short _vowel sound_. That "the Greeks and Romans based their poetry on quantity" of that restricted sort,--on _such "quantity"_ as "_fate_" and "_let_" may serve to discriminate,--is by no means probable; nor would it be more so, were a hundred great modern masters to declare themselves ignorant of any other. The words do not distinguish at all the long and short quantities even of our own language; much less can we rely on them for an idea of what is long or short in other tongues. Being monosyllables, both are long with emphasis, both short without it; and, could they be accented, accent too would lengthen, as its absence would shorten both. In the words _phosphate_ and _streamlet_, we have the same sounds, both short; in _lettuce_ and _fateful_, the same, both long. This cannot be disproved. And, in the scansion of the following stanza from Byron, the word "_Let_" twice used, is to be reckoned a _long_ syllable, and not (as Wells would have it) a short one: "Cavalier! and man of worth! _Let_ these words of mine go forth; _Let_ the Moorish Monarch know, That to him I nothing owe: Wo is me, Alhama!" OBS. 8.--In the English grammars of Allen H. Weld, works remarkable for their egregious inaccuracy and worthlessness, yet honoured by the Boston school committee of 1848 and '9, the author is careful to say, "Accent should not be confounded with emphasis. _Emphasis_ is a stress of voice on a word in a sentence, to mark its importance. _Accent_ is a stress of voice on a syllable in a word." Yet, within seven lines of this, we are told, that, "A _verse_ consists of a certain number of _accented and unaccented syllables_, arranged according to certain rules."--_Weld's English Grammar_, 2d Edition, p. 207; "Abridged Edition," p. 137. A doctrine cannot be contrived, which will more evidently or more extensively confound accent with emphasis, than does this! In English verse, on an average, about three quarters of the words are monosyllables, which, according to Walker, "have no accent," certainly none distinguishable from emphasis; hence, in fact, our syllables are no more "divided into _accented_ and _unaccented_" as Sheridan and Murray would have them, than into _emphasized_ and _unemphasized_, as some others have thought to class them. Nor is this confounding of accent with emphasis at all lessened or palliated by teaching with Wells, in its justification, that, "The term _accent_ is also applied, in poetry, to _the_ stress laid on monosyllabic words."--_Wells's School Gram._, p. 185; 113th Ed., §273. What better is this, than to apply the term _emphasis_ to the accenting of syllables in poetry, or to all the stress in question, as is virtually done in the following citation? "In English, verse is regulated by the _emphasis_, as there should be one _emphatic_ syllable in every foot; for it is by the interchange of _emphatick_ and _non-emphatick_ syllables, that verse grateful to the ear is formed."--_Thomas Coar's E. Gram._, p. 196. In Latin poetry, the longer words predominate, so that, in Virgil's verse, not one word in five is a monosyllable; hence accent, if our use of it were adjusted to the Latin quantities, might have much more to do with Latin verse than with English. With the following lines of Shakspeare, for example, accent has, properly speaking, no connexion; "Good friend, thou hast no cause to say so yet; But thou shalt have; and creep time ne'er so slow, Yet it shall come, for me to do thee good. I had a thing to say,--But let it go."--_King John_, Act iii, Sc. 3. OBS. 9.--T. O. Churchill, after stating that the Greek and Latin rhythms are composed of syllables long and short, sets ours in contrast with them thus: "These terms are commonly employed also in speaking of English verse, though it is marked, _not by long and short_, but by accented and unaccented syllables; the accented syllables being _accounted_ long; the unaccented, short."--_Churchill's New Gram._, p. 183. This, though far from being right, is very different from the doctrine of Murray or Sheridan; because, in practice, or the scansion of verses, it comes to the _same results_ as to suppose all our feet to be "formed by quantity." To _account_ syllables long or short and not _believe_ them to _be_ so, is a ridiculous inconsistency: it is a shuffle in the name of science. OBS. 10.--Churchill, though not apt to be misled by others' errors, and though his own scanning has no regard to the principle, could not rid himself of the notion, that the quantity of a syllable must depend on the "vowel sound." Accordingly he says, "Mr. Murray _justly observes_, that our accented syllables, or those reckoned long:, may have either _a long or [a] short vowel sound_, so that we have _two distinct species_ of each foot."--_New Gram._, p. 189. The obvious impossibility of "two distinct species" in one,--or, as Murray has it, of "duplicates fitted for different purposes,"--should have prevented the teaching and repeating of this nonsense, propound it who might. The commender himself had not such faith in it as is here implied. In a note, too plainly incompatible with this praise, he comments thus: "Mr. Murray adds, that this is 'an opulence _peculiar_ to our language, and which may be the source of a boundless variety:' a point, on which, I confess, _I have long entertained doubts_. I am inclined to suspect that the English mode of reading verse _is analogous_ to that of the ancient Greeks and Romans. Dion. Hal., _de Comp., Verb_. §xi, speaks of the _rhythm of verse differing_ from the proper measure of the syllables, and often reversing it: does not this imply, that the ancients, contrary to the opinion of the learned author of Metronariston, read verse as we do?"--_Churchill's New Gram._, p. 393, note 329. OBS. 11.--The nature, chief sources, and true distinction of _quantity_, at least as it pertains to our language, I have set forth with clearness, first in the short chapter on Utterance, and again, more fully in this, which treats of Versification; but that the syllables, long and short, of the old Greek and Latin poets, or the feet they made of them, are to be expounded on precisely the same principles that apply to ours. I have not deemed it necessary to affirm or to deny. So far as the same laws are applicable, let them be applied. This important property of syllables,--their _quantity_, or relative time,--which is the basis of all rhythm, is, as my readers have seen, very variously treated, and in general but ill appreciated, by our English prosodists, who ought, at least in this their own province, to understand it all alike, and as it is; and so common among the erudite is the confession of Walker, that "the accent and quantity of the ancients" are, to modern readers, "obscure and mysterious," that it will be taken as a sign of arrogance and superficiality, to pretend to a very certain knowledge of them. Nor is the difficulty confined to Latin and Greek verse: the poetry of our own ancestors, from any remote period, is not easy of scansion. Dr. Johnson, in his History of the English Language, gave examples, with this remark: "Of the _Saxon_ poetry some specimen is necessary, though our ignorance of the laws of their metre and the quantities of their syllables, _which it would be very difficult, perhaps impossible, to recover_, excludes us from that pleasure which the old bards undoubtedly gave to their contemporaries." OBS. 12.--The imperfect measures of "the father of English poetry," are said by Dryden to have been _adapted to the ears_ of the rude age which produced them. "The verse of Chaucer," says he, "I confess, is not harmonious to us; but it is like the eloquence of one whom Tacitus commends, it was _auribus istius temporis accommodata_:' they who lived with him, and sometime after him, thought it musical; and it continues so even in our judgment, if compared with the numbers of Lidgate and Gower, his contemporaries: there is the rude sweetness of a Scotch tune in it, which is natural and pleasing, though not perfect. It is true, I cannot go so far as he who published the last edition of him; for he would make us believe that the fault is in _our ears_, and that there were really ten syllables in a verse where we find but nine: but this opinion is not worth confuting; it is so gross and obvious an error, that common sense (which is a rule in every thing but matters of faith and revelation) must convince the reader that equality of numbers in every verse, which we call Heroic, was either not known, or not always practised in Chaucer's age. It were an easy matter to produce some thousands of his verses, which are lame for want of half a foot, and sometimes a whole one, and which no pronunciation can make otherwise. We can only say, that he lived in the infancy of our poetry, and that nothing is brought to perfection at the first."--_British Poets_, Vol. iii, p. 171. OBS. 13.--Dryden appears to have had more faith in the ears of his own age than in those of an earlier one; but Poe, of our time, himself an ingenious versifier, in his Notes upon English Verse, conveys the idea that all ears are alike competent to appreciate the elements of metre. "Quantity," according to his dogmatism, "is a point in the investigation of which the lumber of mere learning may be dispensed with, if ever in any. _Its appreciation_" says he, "_is universal_. It appertains to no region, nor race, nor era in especial. To melody and to harmony the Greeks hearkened with ears precisely similar to those which we employ, for similar purposes, at present; and a pendulum at Athens would have vibrated much after the same fashion as does a pendulum in the city of Penn."--_The Pioneer_, Vol. i. p. 103. Supposing here not even the oscillations of the same pendulum to be more uniform than are the nature and just estimation of quantity the world over, this author soon after expounds his idea of the thing as follows: "I have already said that all syllables, in metre, are either long or short. Our usual prosodies maintain that a long syllable is equal, in its time, to two short ones; this, however, is but an approach to the truth. It should be here observed that the quantity of an English syllable _has no dependence upon_ the sound of its vowel or dipthong [diphthong], but [depends] chiefly upon _accentuation_. Monosyllables are exceedingly variable, and, for the most part, may be either long or short, to suit the demand of the rhythm. In polysyllables, the accented _ones_ [say, _syllables_] are always long, while those which immediately precede or succeed them, are always short. _Emphasis_ will render any short syllable long."--_Ibid._, p. 105. In penning the last four sentences, the writer must have had Brown's Institutes of English Grammar before him, and open at page 235. OBS. 14.--Sheridan, in his Rhetorical Grammar, written about 1780, after asserting that a distinction of accent, and not of quantity, marks the movement of English verse, proceeds as follows: "From not having examined the peculiar genius of our tongue, our Prosodians have fallen into a variety of errors; some having adopted the rules of our neighbours, the French; and others having had recourse to those of the ancients; though neither of them, in reality, would square with our tongue, on account of an essential difference _between them_. [He means, "_between each language and ours_," and should have said so.] With regard to the French, they measured verses by the number of syllables whereof they were composed, on account of a constitutional defect in their tongue, which rendered it incapable of numbers formed by poetic feet. For it has neither accent nor quantity suited to the purpose; the syllables of their words being for the most part equally accented; and the number of long syllables being out of all proportion greater than that of the short. Hence for a long time it was supposed, _as it is by most people at present_, that our verses were composed, not of feet, but syllables; and accordingly they _are denominated_ verses often, eight, six, or four syllables, _even to this day_. Thus have we lost sight of the great advantage which our language has given us over the French, in point of poetic numbers, by its being capable of a geometrical proportion, on which the harmony of versification depends; and blindly reduced ourselves to that of the arithmetical kind which contains no natural power of pleasing the ear. And hence like the French, our chief pleasure in verse arises from the poor ornament of rhyme."--_Sheridan's Rhetorical Gram._, p. 64. OBS. 15.--In a recent work on this subject, Sheridan is particularly excepted, and he alone, where Hallam, Johnson, Lord Kames, and other "Prosodians" in general, are charged with "astonishing ignorance of the first principles of our verse;" and, at the same time, he is as particularly commended of having "especially insisted on the subject of Quantity."--_Everett's English Versification, Preface_, p. 6. That the rhetorician was but slenderly entitled to these compliments, may plainly appear from the next paragraph of his Grammar just cited; for therein he mistakingly represents it as a central error, to regard our poetic feet as being "formed by quantity" at all. "Some few of our Prosodians," says he, "finding this to be an error, and that our verses were really composed of feet, not syllables, without farther examination, boldly applied all the rules of the Latin prosody to our versification; though scarce any of them answered exactly, and some of them were utterly incompatible with the genius of our tongue. _Thus because the Roman feet were formed by quantity, they asserted the same of ours, denominating all the accented syllables long; whereas I have formerly shewn, that the accent, in some cases, as certainly makes the syllable on which it is laid, short, as in others it makes it long_. And their whole theory of quantity, borrowed from the Roman, in which they endeavour to establish the proportion of long and short, as immutably fixed to the syllables of words constructed in a certain way, at once falls to the ground; when it is shewn, that the quantity of our syllables is _perpetually varying with the sense_, and is _for the most part regulated by_ EMPHASIS: which has been fully proved in the course of Lectures on the Art of reading Verse; where it has been also shewn, that _this very circumstance_ has given us an _amazing advantage over the ancients_ in the point of poetic numbers."--_Sheridan's Rhetorical Gram._, p. 64. OBS. 16.--The lexicographer here claims to have "_shewn_" or "_proved_," what he had only _affirmed_, or _asserted_. Erroneously taking the quality of the vowel for the quantity of the syllable, he had suggested, in his confident way, that short quantity springs from the accenting of _consonants_, and long quantity, from the accenting of _vowels_--a doctrine which has been amply noticed and refuted in a preceding section of the present chapter. Nor is he, in what is here cited, consistent with himself. For, in the first place, nothing comes nearer than this doctrine of his, to an "endeavour to establish the proportion of long and short, as immutably fixed to the syllables of words constructed in a certain way"! Next, although he elsewhere contrasts accent and emphasis, and supposes them different, he either confounds them in reference to verse, or contradicts himself by ascribing to each the chief control over quantity. And, lastly, if our poetic feet are not quantitative, not formed of syllables long and short, as were the Roman, what "advantage over the ancients," can we derive from the fact, that quantity is regulated by stress, whether accent or emphasis? OBS. 17.--We have, I think, no prosodial treatise of higher pretensions than Erastus Everett's "System of English Versification," first published in 1848. This gentleman professes to have borrowed no idea but what he has regularly quoted. "He mentions this, that it may not be supposed that this work is a compilation. It will be seen," says he, "how great a share of it is original; and the author, having deduced his rules from the usage of the great poets, has the best reason for being confident of their correctness."--_Preface_, p. 5. Of the place to be filled by this System, he has the following conception: "It is thought to supply an important desideratum. It is a matter of surprise to the foreign student, who attempts the study of English poetry and the structure of its verse, to find that _we have no work on which he can rely as authority on this subject_. In the other modern languages, the most learned philologers have treated of the subject of versification, in all its parts. In English alone, in a language which possesses a body of poetical literature more extensive, as well as more valuable than any other modern language, not excepting the Italian, _the student has no rules to guide him_, but a few meagre and incorrect outlines appended to elementary text-books." Then follows this singularly inconsistent exception: "We must except from this remark two works, published in the latter part of the sixteenth century. But as they were written before the poetical language of the English tongue was fixed, and as the rules of verse were not then settled, these works can be of little practical utility."--_Preface_, p. 1. The works thus excepted as of _reliable authority without practical utility_, are "a short tract by _Gascoyne_," doubtless _George Gascoigne's_ 'Notes of Instruction concerning the making of Verse or Rhyme in English,' published in 1575, and Webbe's 'Discourse of English Poetry,' dated 1586, neither of which does the kind exceptor appear to have ever seen! Mention is next made, successively, of Dr. Carey, of Dryden, of Dr. Johnson, of Blair, and of Lord Kames. "To these _guides_," or at least to the last two, "the author is indebted for many valuable hints;" yet he scruples not to say, "Blair betrays a paucity of knowledge on this subject;"--"Lord Kames has slurred over the subject of Quantity," and "shown an unpardonable ignorance of the first principles of Quantity in our verse;"--and, "Even Dr. Johnson speaks of syllables in such a manner as would lead us to suppose that he was in the same error as Kames. These inaccuracies," it is added, "can be accounted for only from the fact that Prosodians have not thought _Quantity_ of sufficient importance to merit their attention."--See _Preface_, p. 4-6. OBS. 18.--Everett's Versification consists of seventeen chapters, numbered consecutively, but divided into two parts, under the two titles Quantity and Construction. Its specimens of verse are numerous, various, and beautiful. Its modes of scansion--the things chiefly to be taught--though perhaps generally correct, are sometimes questionable, and not always consonant with the writer's own rules of quantity. From the citations above, one might expect from this author such an exposition of quantity, as nobody could either mistake or gainsay; but, as the following platform will show, his treatment of this point is singularly curt and incomplete. He is so sparing of words as not even to have given a _definition_ of quantity. He opens his subject thus: "VERSIFICATION is the proper arrangement of words in _a line_ according to _their quantity_, and the disposition of _these lines in_ couplets, stanzas, or in blank verse, in such order, and according to such rules, as are sanctioned by usage.--A FOOT is a combination of two or _more_ syllables, whether long or short.--A LINE is one foot, or more than one.--The QUANTITY of each _word_ depends on its _accent_. In words of more than one syllable, all accented syllables are long, and all unaccented syllables are short. Monosyllables are long or short, according to the following Rules:--1st. All Nouns, Adjectives, Verbs, and Participles are long.--2nd. The articles are always short.--3rd, The Pronouns are long or short, according to _emphasis_.--4th. Interjections and Adverbs are generally long, but sometimes _made short by emphasis_.--5th. Prepositions and Conjunctions are almost always _short_, but sometimes _made long by emphasis_."--_English Versification_, p. 13. None of these principles of quantity are unexceptionable; and whoever follows them implicitly, will often differ not only from what is right, but from their author himself in the analysis of verses. Nor are they free from important antagonisms. "Emphasis," as here spoken of, not only clashes with "accent," but contradicts itself, by making some syllables long and some short; and, what is more mysteriously absurd, the author says, "It _frequently happens_ that syllables _long by_ QUANTITY become _short by_ EMPHASIS."--_Everett's Eng. Versif._, 1st Ed., p. 99. Of this, he takes the first syllable of the following line, namely, "the word _bids_," to be an example: "B~ids m~e l=ive b~ut t=o h=ope f~or p~ost=er~it~y's pr=aise." OBS. 19.--In the American Review, for May, 1848, Everett's System of Versification is named as "an apology and occasion"--not for a critical examination of this or any other scheme of prosody--but for the promulgation of a new one, a rival theory of English metres, "the principles and laws" of which the writer promises, "at an other time" more fully "to develop." The article referred to is entitled, "_The Art of Measuring Verses_." The writer, being designated by his initials, "J. D. W.," is understood to be James D. Whelpley, editor of the Review. Believing Everett's principal doctrines to be radically erroneous, this critic nevertheless excuses them, because he thinks we have nothing better! "The views supported in the work itself," says his closing paragraph, "_are not, indeed, such as we would subscribe to, nor can we admit the numerous analyses of the English metres which it contains to be correct_; yet, as it is as complete in design and execution as anything that has yet appeared on the subject, and well calculated to excite the attention, and direct the inquiries, of English scholars, to the study of our own metres, we shall even pass it by without a word of criticism."--_American Review, New Series_, Vol. I, p. 492. OBS. 20.--Everett, although, as we have seen, he thought proper to deny that the student of English versification had any well authorized "rules to guide him," still argues that, "The laws of our verse are just as fixed, and may be as clearly laid down, if we but attend to the usage of the great Poets, as are the laws of our syntax."--_Preface_, p. 7. But this critic, of the American Review, ingenious though he is in many of his remarks, flippantly denies that our English Prosody has either authorities or principles which one ought to respect; and accordingly cares so little whom he contradicts, that he is often inconsistent with himself. Here is a sample: "As there are _no established authorities_ in this art, and, indeed, _no acknowledged principles_--every rhymester being permitted to _invent_ his own _method_, and write by _instinct_ or _imitation_--the critic feels quite at liberty to say just what he pleases, and _offer his private observations_ as though these were really of some moment."--_Am. Rev._, Vol. i, p. 484. In respect to writing, "_to invent_," and _to "imitate_," are repugnant ideas; and so are, _after a "method_," and "_by instinct_." Again, what sense is there in making the "liberty" of publishing one's "private observations" to depend on the presumed absence of rivals? That the author did not lack confidence in the general applicability of his speculations, subversive though they are of the best and most popular teaching on this subject, is evident from the following sentence: "We intend, also, that if these principles, with the others previously expressed, are true in the given instances, _they are equally true for all languages and all varieties of metre_, even to the denial that _any_ poetic metres, founded on other principles, can properly exist."--_Ib._, p. 491 OBS. 21.--J. D. W. is not one of those who discard quantity and supply accent in expounding the nature of metre; and yet he does not coincide very nearly with any of those who have heretofore made quantity the basis of poetic numbers. His views of the rhythmical elements being in several respects _peculiar_, I purpose briefly to notice them here, though some of the peculiarities of this new "_Art of Measuring Verses_," should rather be quoted under the head of _Scanning_, to which they more properly belong. "Of every species of beauty," says this author, "and more especially of the beauty of sounds, _continuousness_ is the _first element_; a succession of _pulses_ of sound becomes agreeable, only when the breaks or intervals cease to be heard." Again: "Quantity, or the _division into measures of time_, is a _second element_ of verse; each line must be _stuffed out with sounds_, to a certain fullness and plumpness, that will sustain the voice, and force it to dwell upon the sounds."--_Rev._, p. 485. The first of these positions is subsequently contradicted, or very largely qualified, by the following: "So, the line of significant sounds, in a verse, is also marked by _accents_, or _pulses_, and divided into portions called _feet_. These are necessary and natural for the very simple reason that _continuity by itself is tedious_; and the greatest pleasure arises from the union of continuity with _variety_. [That is, with "_interruption_," as he elsewhere calls it!] In the line, 'Full màny a tàle theír mùsic tèlls,' there are at least four accents or stresses of the voice, with faint _pauses_ after them, just enough to separate the continuous stream of sound into these four parts, to be read thus: Fullman--yataleth--eirmus--ictells,[503] by which, new combinations of sound are produced, of a singularly musical character. It is evident from the inspection of the above line, that the division of the feet by the accents is quite independent of the division of words by the sense. The sounds are melted into continuity, and _re-divided again_ in a manner agreeable to the musical ear."--_Ib._, p. 486. Undoubtedly, the due formation of our poetic feet occasions both a blending of some words and a dividing of others, in a manner unknown to prose; but still we have the authority of this writer, as well as of earlier ones, for saying, "Good verse requires to be read _with the natural quantites [sic--KTH] of the syllables_," (p. 487,) a doctrine with which that of the _redivision_ appears to clash. If the example given be read with any regard to the _cæsural pause_, as undoubtedly it should be, the _th_ of _their_ cannot be joined, as above, to the word _tale_; nor do I see any propriety in joining the _s_ of _music_ to the third foot rather than to the fourth. Can a theory which turns topsyturvy the whole plan of syllabication, fail to affect "the _natural quantities_ of syllables?" OBS. 22--Different modes of reading verse, may, without doubt, change the quantities of very many syllables. Hence a correct mode of reading, as well as a just theory of measure, is essential to correct scansion, or a just discrimination of the poetic feet. It is a very common opinion, that English verse has but few spondees; and the doctrine of Brightland has been rarely disputed, that, "_Heroic Verses_ consist of five _short_, and five _long_ Syllables _intermixt_, but not so very strictly as never to alter that order."--_Gram._, 7th Ed., p. 160.[504] J. D. W., being a heavy reader, will have each line so "_stuffed out with sounds_," and the consonants so syllabled after the vowels, as to give to our heroics three spondees for every two iambuses; and lines like the following, which, with the elisions, I should resolve into four iambuses, and without them, into three iambuses and one anapest, he supposes to consist severally of four spondees:-- "'When coldness wraps this suffering clay, Ah! whither strays the immortal mind?' [These are] to be read," according to this prosodian, "Whencoldn--esswrapsth--issuff'r--ingclay, Ah! whith--erstraysth'--immort--almind?" "The verse," he contends, "is perceived to consist of _six_ [probably he meant to say _eight_] heavy syllables, each composed of a vowel followed by a group of consonantal sounds, the whole measured into four equal feet. The movement is what is called spondaic, a spondee being a foot of two heavy sounds. The absence of short syllables gives the line a peculiar weight and solemnity suited to the sentiment, and doubtless prompted by it."--_American Review_, Vol. i, p. 487. Of his theory, he subsequently says: "It maintains that good English verse is as thoroughly quantitative as the Greek, though it be _much more heavy and spondaic_."--_Ib._, p. 491.[505] OBS. 23--For the determining of quantities and feet, this author borrows from some old Latin grammar three or four rules, commonly thought inapplicable to our tongue, and, mixing them up with other speculations, satisfies himself with stating that the "Art of Measuring Verses" requires yet the production of many more such! But, these things being the essence of his principles, it is proper to state them _in his own words_: "A short vowel sound followed by a double consonantal sound, usually makes a _long_ quantity;[506] so also does a long vowel like _y_ in _beauty_, before a consonant. The _metrical accents_, which _often differ from the prosaic_, mostly fall upon the heavy sounds; _which must also be prolonged in reading_, and never slurred or lightened, unless to help out a bad verse. In our language _the groupings of the consonants furnish a great number of spondaic feet_, and give the language, especially its more ancient forms, as in the verse of Milton and the prose of Lord Bacon, a grand and solemn character. One vowel followed by another, unless the first be _naturally made long_ in the reading, makes a short quantity, as in _th[=e] old_. So, also, a short vowel followed by a single short consonant, gives a short _time_ or _quantity_, as in _tö give_. [Fist] A great variety of rules for the detection of long and short quantities _have yet to be invented_, or applied from the Greek and Latin prosody. _In all languages they are of course the same_, making due allowance for difference of organization; but it is as absurd to suppose that the Greeks should have a system of prosody differing in principle from our own, as that their rules of musical harmony should be different from the modern. Both result from the nature of the ear and of _the organ of speech_, and are consequently _the same_ in all ages and nations."--_Am. Rev._, Vol. i, p. 488. OBS. 24.--QUANTITY is here represented as "_time_" only. In this author's first mention of it, it is called, rather less accurately, "_the division into measures of time_." With too little regard for either of these conceptions, he next speaks of it as including both "_time and accent_." But I have already shown that "_accents_ or _stresses_" cannot pertain to _short_ syllables, and therefore cannot be ingredients of quantity. The whole article lacks that _clearness_ which is a prime requisite of a sound theory. Take all of the writer's next paragraph as an example of this defect: "The two elements of musical metre, _time_ and _accent_, both together constituting _quantity_, are _equally_ elements of the metre of verse. Each _iambic_ foot or metre, is marked by a swell of the voice, concluding abruptly in an _accent_, or _interruption_, on the _last sound_ of the foot; or, [omit this 'or:' it is improper,] in metres of the _trochaic_ order, in such words as _dandy, handy, bottle, favor, labor_, it [the foot] begins with a heavy accented sound, and declines to a faint or light one at the close. The line is thus composed of a series of swells or waves of sound, _concluding and beginning alike_. The _accents_, or points at which the voice is most forcibly exerted in the feet, _being the divisions of time_, by which a part of its musical character is given to the verse, are _usually made to coincide_, in our language, with the accents of the words as they are spoken; which [coincidence] diminishes the musical character of our verse. In Greek hexameters and Latin hexameters, on the contrary, this coincidence is avoided, as tending to monotony and a prosaic character."--_Ibid._ OBS. 25.--The passage just cited represents "_accent_" or "_accents_" not only as partly constituting _quantity_, but as being, in its or their turn, "_the divisions of time_;"--as being also stops, pauses, or "_interruptions_" of sound else continuous;--as being of two sorts, "_metrical_" and "_prosaic_," which "usually coincide," though it is said, they "often differ," and their "interference" is "very frequent;"--as being "the points" of stress "in the _feet_," but not always such in "the _words_," of verse;--as striking different feet differently, "each _iambic_ foot" on the latter syllable and every _trochee_ on the former, yet causing, in each line, only such waves of sound as conclude and begin "_alike_;"--as coinciding with the long quantities and "_the prosaic accents_," in iambics and trochaics, yet not coinciding with these always;--as giving to verse "a part of its musical character," yet _diminishing_ that character, by their usual coincidence with "_the prose accents_;"--as being kept distinct in Latin and Greek, "_the metrical" from "the prosaic_" and their "coincidence avoided," to make poetry more poetical,--though the old prosodists, in all they say of accents, acute, grave, and circumflex, give no hint of this primary distinction! In all this elementary teaching, there seems to be a want of a clear, steady, and consistent notion of the things spoken of. The author's theory led him to several strange combinations of words, some of which it is not easy, even with his whole explanation before us, to regard as other than _absurd_. With a few examples of his new phraseology, Italicized by myself, I dismiss the subject: "It frequently happens that _word and verse accent_ fall differently."--P. 489. "The _verse syllables_, like _the verse feet_, differ _in the prosaic and_ [the] _metrical reading_ of the line."--_Ib._ "If we read it by _the prosaic syllabication_, there will be no possibility of measuring the quantities."--_Ib._ "The metrical are perfectly distinct from the _prosaic properties of verse_."--_Ib._ "It may be called _an iambic dactyl_, formed by the substitution of two short for one long time in the last portion of the foot. _Iambic spondees and dactyls_ are to be distinguished by the _metrical accent_ falling on the last syllable."--P. 491. SECTION IV.--THE KINDS OF VERSE. The principal kinds of verse, or orders of poetic numbers, as has already been stated, are four; namely, _Iambic, Trochaic, Anapestic_, and _Dactylic_. Besides these, which are sometimes called "_the simple orders_" being unmixed, or nearly so, some recognize several "_Composite orders_" or (with a better view of the matter) several kinds of mixed verse, which are said to constitute "_the Composite order_." In these, one of the four principal kinds of feet must still be used as the basis, some other species being inserted therewith, in each line or stanza, with more or less regularity. PRINCIPLES AND NAMES. The diversification of any species of metre, by the occasional change of a foot, or, in certain cases, by the addition or omission of a short syllable, is not usually regarded as sufficient to change the denomination, or stated order, of the verse; and many critics suppose some variety of feet, as well as a studied diversity in the position of the cæsural pause, essential to the highest excellence of poetic composition. The dividing of verses into the feet which compose them, is called _Scanning_, or _Scansion_. In this, according to the technical language of the old prosodists, when a syllable is wanting, the verse is said to be _catalectic_; when the measure is exact, the line is _acatalectic_; when there is a redundant syllable, it forms _hypermeter_. Since the equal recognition of so many feet as twelve, or even as eight, will often produce different modes of measuring the same lines; and since it is desirable to measure verses with uniformity, and always by the simplest process that will well answer the purpose; we usually scan by the principal feet, in preference to the secondary, where the syllables give us a choice of measures, or may be divided in different ways. A single foot, especially a foot of only two syllables, can hardly be said to constitute a line, or to have rhythm in itself; yet we sometimes see a foot so placed, and rhyming as a line. Lines of two, three, four, five, six, or seven feet, are common; and these have received the technical denominations of _dim'eter, trim'eter, tetram'eter, pentam'eter, hexam'eter_, and _heptam'eter_. On a wide page, iambics and trochaics may possibly be written in _octom'eter_; but lines of this measure, being very long, are mostly abandoned for alternate tetrameters. ORDER I.--IAMBIC VERSE. In Iambic verse, the stress is laid on the even syllables, and the odd ones are short. Any short syllable added to a line of this order, is supernumerary; iambic rhymes, which are naturally single, being made double by one, and triple by two. But the adding of one short syllable, which is much practised in dramatic poetry, may be reckoned to convert the last foot into an amphibrach, though the adding of two cannot. Iambics consist of the following measures:-- MEASURE I.--IAMBIC OF EIGHT FEET, OR OCTOMETER. _Psalm XLVII, 1 and 2_. "O =all | y~e p=eo | -pl~e, cl=ap | y~our h=ands, | ~and w=ith | tr~i=um | -ph~ant v=oi | -c~es s=ing; No force | the might | -=y power | withstands | of God, | the u | -niver | -sal King." See the "_Psalms of David, in Metre_," p. 54. Each couplet of this verse is now commonly reduced to, or exchanged for, a simple stanza of four tetrameter lines, rhyming alternately, and each commencing with a capital; but sometimes, the second line and the fourth are still commenced with a small letter: as, "Your ut | -most skill | in praise | be shown, for Him | who all | the world | commands, Who sits | upon | his right | -eous throne, and spreads | his sway | o'er heath | -en lands." _Ib._, verses 7 and 8; _Edition bound with Com. Prayer_, N. Y., 1819. _An other Example_. "The hour | is come | --the cher | -ish'd hour, When from | the bus | -y world | set free, I seek | at length | my lone | -ly bower, And muse | in si | -lent thought | on thee." THEODORE HOOK'S REMAINS: _The Examiner_, No. 82. MEASURE II.--IAMBIC OF SEVEN FEET, OR HEPTAMETER. _Example I.--Hat-Brims_. "It's odd | how hats | expand [ their brims | as youth | begins | to fade, As if | when life | had reached | its noon, | it want | -ed them | for shade." OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES: _From a Newspaper_. _Example II.--Psalm XLII_, 1. "As pants | the hart | for cool | -ing streams, | when heat | -ed in | the chase; So longs | my soul, | O God, | for thee, | and thy | refresh | -ing grace." EPISCOPAL PSALM-BOOK: _The Rev. W. Allen's Eng. Gram._, p. 227. _Example III.--The Shepherd's Hymn_. "Oh, when | I rove | the des | -ert waste, | and 'neath | the hot | sun pant, The Lord | shall be | my Shep | -herd then, | he will | not let | me want; He'll lead | me where | the past | -ures are | of soft | and shad | -y green, And where | the gen | -tle wa | -ters rove, | the qui | -et hills | between. And when | the sav | -age shall | pursue, | and in | his grasp | I sink, He will | prepare | the feast | for me, | and bring | the cool | -ing drink, And save | me harm | -less from | his hands, and strength | -en me | in toil, And bless | my home | and cot | -tage lands, and crown | my head | with oil. With such | a Shep | -herd to | protect, | to guide | and guard | me still, And bless | my heart | with ev | -'ry good, | and keep | from ev | -'ry ill, _Surely_ | I shall | not turn | aside, | and scorn | his kind | -ly care, But keep | the path | he points | me out, | and dwell | for ev | -er there." W. GILMORE SIMMS: _North American Reader_, p. 376. _Example IV.--"The Far, Far Fast."--First six Lines._ "It was | a dream | of earl | -y years, | the long | -est and | the last, And still | it ling | -ers bright | and lone | amid | the drear | -y past; When I | was sick | and sad | at heart | and faint | with grief | and care, It threw | its ra | -diant smile | athwart | the shad | -ows of | despair: And still | when falls | the hour | of gloom | upon | this way | -ward breast, Unto | THE FAR, | FAR EAST | I turn | for sol | -ace and | for rest." _Edinburgh Journal_; and _The Examiner_, _Example V.--"Lament of the Slave."--Eight Lines from thirty-four._ "Behold | the sun | which gilds | _yon heaven_, how love | -ly it | appears! And must | it shine | to light | a world | of war | -fare and | of tears? Shall hu | -man pas | -sion ev | -er sway | this glo | _-rious world_ | of God, And beau | -ty, wis | -dom, hap | -piness, | sleep with | the tram | -pled sod? Shall peace | ne'er lift | her ban | -ner up, | shall truth | and rea | -son cry, And men | oppress | them down | with worse | than an | -cient tyr | -anny? Shall all | the les | -sons time | has taught, | be so | long taught | in vain; And earth | be steeped | in hu | -man tears, | and groan | with hu | -man pain?" ALONZO LEWIS: _Freedom's Amulet_, Dec. 6, 1848. _Example VI.--"Greek Funeral Chant."--First four of sixty-four Lines._ "A wail | was heard | around | the bed, | the death | -bed of | the young; Amidst | her tears, | the Fu | _-neral Chant_ | a mourn | -ful moth | -er sung. 'I-an | -this dost | thou sleep?-- | Thou sleepst!-- | but this | is not | the rest, The breath | -ing, warm, | and ros | -y calm, | I've pil | -low'd on | my breast!'" FELICIA HEMANS: _Poetical Works_, Vol. ii, p. 37. Everett observes, "The _Iliad_ was translated into this measure by CHAPMAN, and the _�neid_ by PHAER."--_Eng. Versif._, p. 68. Prior, who has a ballad of one hundred and eighty such lines, intimates in a note the great antiquity of the verse. Measures of this length, though not very uncommon, are much less frequently used than shorter ones. A practice has long prevailed of dividing this kind of verse into alternate lines of four and of three feet, thus:-- "To such | as fear | thy ho | -ly name, myself | I close | -ly join; To all | who their | obe | -dient wills to thy | commands | resign." _Psalms with Com. Prayer: Psalm_ cxix, 63. This, according to the critics, is the most soft and pleasing of our lyric measures. With the slight change of setting a capital at the head of each line, it becomes the regular ballad-metre of our language. Being also adapted to hymns, as well as to lighter songs, and, more particularly, to quaint details of no great length, this stanza, or a similar one more ornamented with rhymes, is found in many choice pieces of English poetry. The following are a few popular examples:-- "When all | thy mer | -cies, O | my God! My ris | -ing soul | surveys, Transport | -ed with | the view | I'm lost In won | -der, love, | and praise." _Addison's Hymn of Gratitude_. "John Gil | -pin was | a cit | -izen Of cred | -it and | renown, A train | -band cap | -tain eke | was he Of fam | -ous Lon | -don town." _Cowper's Poems_, Vol. i, p. 275. "God pros | -per long | our no | -ble king, Our lives | and safe | -ties all; A wo | -ful hunt | -ing once | there did In Chev | -y Chase | befall," _Later Reading of Chevy Chase_. "Turn, An | -geli | -na, ev | -er dear, My charm | -er, turn | to see Thy own, | thy long | -lost Ed | -win here, Restored | to love | and thee." _Goldsmith's Poems_, p. 67. "'Come back! | come back!' | he cried | in grief, Across | this storm | -y wa_ter_: 'And I'll | forgive | your High | -land chief, My daugh | -ter!--oh | my daugh_ter_! 'Twas vain: | the loud | waves lashed | the shore, Return | or aid | prevent_ing_:-- The wa | -ters wild | went o'er | his child,-- And he | was left | lament_ing_."--_Campbell's Poems_, p. 110. The rhyming of this last stanza is irregular and remarkable, yet not unpleasant. It is contrary to rule, to omit any rhyme which the current of the verse leads the reader to expect. Yet here the word "_shore_" ending the first line, has no correspondent sound, where twelve examples of such correspondence had just preceded; while the third line, without previous example, is so rhymed within itself that one scarcely perceives the omission. Double rhymes are said by some to unfit this metre for serious subjects, and to adapt it only to what is meant to be burlesque, humorous, or satiric. The example above does not confirm this opinion, yet the rule, as a general one, may still be just. Ballad verse may in some degree imitate the language of a simpleton, and become popular by clownishness, more than by elegance: as, "Father | and I | went down | to the camp Along | with cap | -tain Goodwin, And there | we saw | the men | and boys As thick | as hast | -y pudding; And there | we saw | a thun | -dering gun,-- It took | a horn | of powder,-- It made | a noise | like fa | -ther's gun, Only | a na | -tion louder." _Original Song of Yankee Doodle_. Even the line of seven feet may still be lengthened a little by a double rhyme: as, How gay | -ly, o | -ver fell | and fen, | yon sports | -man light | is _dashing_! And gay | -ly, in | the sun | -beams bright, | the mow |--er's blade | is _flashing_! Of this length, T. O. Churchill reckons the following couplet; but by the general usage of the day, the final _ed_ is not made a separate syllable:-- "With _hic_ | and _hoec_, | as Pris | -cian tells, | _sacer | -dos_ was | de_cli | -n~ed_; But now | its gen | -der by | the pope | far bet | -ter is | de_fi | -n~ed_." _Churchill's New Grammar_, p. 188. MEASURE III.--IAMBIC OF SIX FEET, OR HEXAMETER. _Example I.--A Couplet_. "S~o v=a | _-r~y~ing still_ | th~eir m=oods, | ~obs=erv | -~ing =yet | ~in =all Their quan | -tities, | their rests, | their cen | -sures met | -rical." MICHAEL DRAYTON: _Johnson's Quarto Dict., w. Quantity_. _Example II.--From a Description of a Stag-Hunt_. "And through | the cumb | -rous thicks, | as fear | -fully | he makes, He with | his branch | -ed head | the ten | -der sap | -lings shakes, That sprink | -ling their | moist pearl | do seem | for him | to weep; When aft | -er goes | the cry, | with yell | -ings loud | and deep, That all | the for | -est rings, | and ev | -ery neigh | -bouring place: And there | is not | a hound | but fall | -eth to | the chase." DRAYTON: _Three Couplets from twenty-three, in Everett's Versif._, p. 66. _Example III.--An Extract from Shakespeare_. "If love | make me | forsworn, | how shall | I swear | to love? O, nev | -er faith | could hold, | if not | to beau | -ty vow'd: Though to | myself | forsworn, | to thee | I'll con | -stant prove; Those thoughts, | to me | like oaks, | to thee | like o | -siers bow'd. _St=ud~y_ | his bi | -as leaves, | and makes | his book | thine eyes, Where all | those pleas | -ures live, | that art | can com | -prehend. If knowl | -edge be | the mark, | to know | thee shall | suffice; Well learn | -ed is | that tongue | that well | can thee | commend; All ig | -norant | that soul | that sees | thee with' | _o~ut wonder_; Which is | to me | some praise, | that I | thy parts | admire: Thine eye | Jove's light | -ning seems, | thy voice | his dread | _-ful thunder_, Which (not | to an | -ger bent) | is mu | -sic and | sweet fire. Celes | -tial as | thou art, | O, do | not love | that wrong, To sing | the heav | -ens' praise | with such | an earth | -ly tongue." _The Passionate Pilgrim, Stanza IX_; SINGER'S SHAK., Vol. ii, p. 594. _Example IV.--The Ten Commandments Versified_. "Adore | no God | besides | me, to | provoke | mine eyes; Nor wor | -ship me | in shapes | and forms | that men | devise; With rev | 'rence use | my name, | nor turn | my words | to jest; Observe | my sab | -bath well, | nor dare | profane | my rest; Honor | and due | obe | -dience to | thy pa | -rents give; Nor spill | the guilt | -less blood, | nor let | the guilt | -y live;[507] Preserve | thy bod | -y chaste, | and flee | th' unlaw | -ful bed; Nor steal | thy neigh | -bor's gold, | his gar | -ment, or | his bread; Forbear | to blast | his name | with false | -hood or deceit; Nor let | thy wish | -es loose | upon | his large | estate." DR. ISAAC WATTS: _Lyric Poems_, p. 46. This verse, consisting, when entirely regular, of twelve syllables in six iambs, is the _Alexandrine_; said to have been so named because it was "first used in a poem called _Alexander_."--_Worcester's Dict._ Such metre has sometimes been written, with little diversity, through an entire English poem, as in Drayton's Polyolbion; but, couplets of this length being generally esteemed too clumsy for our language, the Alexandrine has been little used by English versifiers, except to complete certain stanzas beginning with shorter iambics, or, occasionally, to close a period in heroic rhyme. French heroics are similar to this; and if, as some assert, we have obtained it thence, the original poem was doubtless a French one, detailing the exploits of the hero "_Alexandre_." The phrase, "_an Alexandrine verse_," is, in French, "_un vers Alexandrin_." Dr. Gregory, in his Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, copies Johnson's Quarto Dictionary, which says, "ALEXANDRINE, a kind of verse borrowed from the French, first used in a poem called Alexander. They [Alexandrines] consist, among the French, of twelve and thirteen syllables, in alternate couplets; and, among us, of twelve." Dr. Webster, in his American Dictionary, _improperly_ (as I think) gives to the name two forms, and seems also to acknowledge two sorts of the English verse: "ALEXAN'DRINE, or ALEXAN'DRIAN, _n._ A kind of verse, consisting of twelve syllables, or of twelve and thirteen alternately." "The Pet-Lamb," a modern pastoral, by Wordsworth, has sixty-eight lines, all probably meant for Alexandrines; most of which have twelve syllables, though some have thirteen, and others, fourteen. But it were a great pity, that versification so faulty and unsuitable should ever be imitated. About half of the said lines, as they appear in the poet's royal octave, or "the First Complete American, from the Last London Edition," are as sheer prose as can be written, it being quite impossible to read them into any proper rhythm. The poem being designed for children, the measure should have been reduced to iambic trimeter, and made exact at that. The story commences thus:-- "The dew | was fall | -ing fast, | the stars | began | to blink; I heard | a voice; | it said, | 'Drink, pret | -ty crea | -ture, drink!' And, look | -ing o'er | the hedge, | before | me I | espied A snow | -white moun | -tain Lamb | w=ith =a M=aid | -en at | its side." All this is regular, with the exception of one foot; but who can make any thing but _prose_ of the following? "Thy limbs will shortly be twice as stout as they are now, Then I'll yoke thee to my cart like a pony in the plough." "Here thou needest not dread the raven in the sky; Night and day thou art safe,--our cottage is hard by." WORDSWORTH'S _Poems_, New-Haven Ed., 1836, p. 4. In some very ancient English poetry, we find lines of twelve syllables combined in couplets with others of fourteen; that is, six iambic feet are alternated with seven, in lines that rhyme. The following is an example, taken from a piece of fifty lines, which Dr. Johnson ascribes to the _Earl of Surry_, one of the wits that flourished in the reign of Henry VIII:-- "Such way | -ward wayes | hath Love, | that most | part in | discord, Our willes | do stand, | whereby | our hartes | but sel | -dom do | accord; Decyte | is hys | delighte, | and to | begyle | and mocke, The sim | ple hartes | which he | doth strike | with fro | -ward di | -vers stroke. He caus | -eth th' one | to rage | with gold | -en burn | -ing darte, And doth | allay | with lead | -en cold, | again | the oth | -er's harte; Whose gleames | of burn | -ing fyre | and eas | -y sparkes | of flame, In bal | -ance of | ~un=e | -qual weyght | he pon | -dereth | by ame." See _Johnson's Quarto Dict., History of the Eng. Lang._, p. 4. MEASURE IV.--IAMBIC OF FIVE FEET, OR PENTAMETER. _Example I.--Hector to Andromache._ "Andr=om | -~ach=e! | m=y s=oul's | f~ar b=et | -t~er p=art, _Wh=y w~ith_ | untime | -ly | sor | -rows heaves | thy heart? No hos | -tile hand | can an | -tedate | my doom, Till fate | condemns | me to | the si | -lent tomb. Fix'd is | the term | to all | the race | of earth; And such | the hard | conditi | -on of | our birth, No force | can then | resist, | no flight | can save; All sink | alike, | the fear | -ful and | the brave." POPE'S HOMER: _Iliad_, B. vi, l. 624-632. _Example II.--Angels' Worship._ "No soon | -er had | th' Almight | -y ceas'd | _but_ all The mul | -titude | of an | -gels with | a shout Loud as | from num | -bers with' | -out num | -ber, sweet As from | blest voi | -ces ut | _t~er ~ing j=oy_, | heav'n rung With ju | -bilee, | and loud | hosan | -nas fill'd Th' eter | -nal | re | -gions; low | -ly rev | -erent Tow'rds ei | -ther throne | they bow, | and to | the ground With sol | -emn ad | -ora | -tion down | they cast Their crowns | inwove | with am | -arant | and gold." MILTON: _Paradise Lost_, B. iii, l. 344. _Example III.--Deceptive Glosses_. "The world | is still | deceiv'd | with or | -nament. In law, | what plea | so taint | -ed and | corrupt, But, be | -ing sea | -son'd with | a gra | -cious voice, Obscures | the show | of e | -vil? In | _religi~on_, What dam |--n~ed er | -ror, but | some so | -ber brow Will bless | it, and | approve | it with | a text, _Hid~ing_ | the gross | -ness with | fair or | -nament?" SHAKSPEARE: _Merch. of Venice_, Act iii, Sc. 2. _Example IV.--Praise God_. "Ye head | -long tor | -rents, rap | -id, and | profound; Ye soft | -er floods, | that lead | the hu | -mid maze Along | the vale; | and thou, | majes | -tic main, A se | -cret world | of won | -ders in | thyself, Sound His | stupen | -dous | praise; | whose great | -er voice Or bids | you roar, | or bids | your roar | -ings fall." THOMSON: _Hymn to the Seasons_. _Example V.--The Christian Spirit_. "Like him | the soul, | thus kin | -dled from | above, Spreads wide | her arms | of u | -niver | -sal love; And, still | enlarg'd | as she | receives | the grace, Includes | cr~e=a | -tion in | her close | embrace. Behold | a Chris | -tian! and | without | the fires The found | -_~er ~of_ | that name | alone | inspires, Though all | accom | -plishment, | all knowl | -edge meet, To make | the shin | -ing prod | -igy | complete, Whoev | -er boasts | that name-- | behold | a cheat!" COWPER: _Charity; Poems_, Vol. i, p. 135. _Example VI.--To London_. "Ten right | -eous would | have sav'd | a cit | -y once, And thou | hast man | -y right | -eous.--Well | for thee-- That salt | preserves | thee; more | corrupt | -ed else, And there | -fore more | obnox | -ious, at | this hour, Than Sod | -om in | her day | had pow'r | to be, For whom | God heard | his Abr' | -ham plead | in vain." IDEM: _The Task_, Book iii, at the end. This verse, the iambic pentameter, is the regular English _heroic_--a stately species, and that in which most of our great poems are composed, whether epic, dramatic, or descriptive. It is well adapted to rhyme, to the composition of sonnets, to the formation of stanzas of several sorts; and yet is, perhaps, the only measure suitable for blank verse--which latter form always demands a subject of some dignity or sublimity. The _Elegiac Stanza_, or the form of verse most commonly used by elegists, consists of four heroics rhyming alternately; as, "Thou knowst | how trans | -port thrills | the ten | -der breast, Where love | and fan | -cy fix | their ope | -ning reign; How na | -ture shines | in live | -lier col | -ours dress'd, To bless | their un | -ion, and | to grace | their train." SHENSTONE: _British Poets_, Vol. vii, p. 106. Iambic verse is seldom continued perfectly pure through a long succession of lines. Among its most frequent diversifications, are the following; and others may perhaps be noticed hereafter:-- (1.) The first foot is often varied by a substitutional trochee; as, "_Bacchus_, | that first | from out | the pur | -ple grape _Crush'd the_ | sweet poi | -son of | mis-=us | -~ed wine, _After_ | the Tus | -can mar | -iners | transform'd, _Coasting_ | the Tyr | -rhene shore, | ~as th~e | winds list_~ed_, On Cir | -ce's isl | -and fell. | Who knows | not Cir_c~e_, The daugh | -ter of | the sun? | whose charm | -~ed cup Whoev | -er tast | -ed, lost | his up | -right shape, And down | -ward fell | _=int~o_ a grov | -elling swine." MILTON: _Comus; British Poets_, Vol. ii, p. 147. (2.) By a synæresis of the two short syllables, an anapest may sometimes be employed for an iambus; or a dactyl, for a trochee. This occurs chiefly where one unaccented vowel precedes an other in what we usually regard as separate syllables, and both are clearly heard, though uttered perhaps in so quick succession that both syllables may occupy only half the time of a long one. Some prosodists, however, choose to regard these substitutions as instances of trissyllabic feet mixed with the others; and, doubtless, it is in general easy to make them such, by an utterance that avoids, rather than favours, the coalescence. The following are examples:-- "No rest: | through man | _-y a dark_ | and drear | -y vale They pass'd, | and man | _-y a re_ | -gion dol | -orous, _O'er man_ | _-y a fro_ | -zen, man | _-y a fi_ | _-ery Alp_." --MILTON: _P. L._, B. ii, l. 618. "Rejoice | ye na | -tions, vin | -dicate | the sway Ordain'd | for com | -mon hap | -piness. | Wide, o'er The globe | terra | _-queous, let_ | Britan | _-nia pour_ The fruits | of plen | -ty from | her co | _-pious horn_." --DYER: _Fleece_, B. iv, l. 658. "_Myriads_ | of souls | that knew | one pa | -rent mold, See sad | -ly sev | er'd by | the laws | of chance! _Myriads_, | in time's | peren | _-nial list_ | enroll'd, Forbid | by fate | to change | one tran | _-sient glance!_" SHENSTONE: _British Poets_, Vol. vii, p. 109. (3.) In plays, and light or humorous descriptions, the last foot of an iambic line is often varied or followed by an additional short syllable; and, sometimes, in verses of triple rhyme, there is an addition of two short syllables, after the principal rhyming syllable. Some prosodists call the variant foot, in die former instance, an _amphibrach_, and would probably, in the latter, suppose either an _additional pyrrhic_, or an amphibrach with still a _surplus syllable_; but others scan, in these cases, by the iambus only, calling what remains after the last long syllable _hypermeter_; and this is, I think, the better way. The following examples show these and some other variations from pure iambic measure:-- _Example I.--Grief._ "Each sub | st~ance ~of | a grief | hath twen | -ty shad_~ows_, Which show | like grief | itself, | but are | not so: For sor | -row's eye, | gl=az~ed | with blind | -ing tears, Divides one thing | entire | to man |--y ob_j~ects_; Like per | -spectives, | which, right | -ly gaz'd | upon, Show noth | -ing but | confu | -sion; ey'd | awry, Distin | -guish form: | so your | sweet maj | -esty, Lo=ok~ing | awry | upon | your lord's | depart_~ure_, Finds shapes | of grief, | more than | himself, | to wail; Which, look'd | on as | it is, | is nought | but shad_~ows_." SHAKSPEARE: _Richard II_, Act ii, Sc. 2. _Example II.--A Wish to Please_. "O, that | I had | the art | of eas | -y _writing_ What should | be eas | -y read | -ing | could | I scale Parnas | -sus, where | the Mus | -es sit | in_diting_ Those pret | -ty po | -ems nev | -er known | to fail, How quick | -ly would | I print | (the world | de_lighting_) A Gre | -cian, Syr | -ian, or | Assy | -ian tale; And sell | you, mix'd | with west | -ern sen | -ti_mentalism_, Some sam | -ples of | the fin | -est O | -ri_entalism_." LORD BYRON: _Beppo_, Stanza XLVIII. MEASURE V.--IAMBIC OF FOUR FEET, OR TETRAMETER. _Example I.--Presidents of the United States of America_. "First stands | the loft | -y Wash | -ington, That no | -ble, great, | immor | -tal one; The eld | -er Ad | -ams next | we see; And Jef | -ferson | comes num | -ber three; Then Mad | -ison | is fourth, | you know; The fifth | one on | the list, | Monroe; The sixth | an Ad | -ams comes | again; And Jack | -son, sev | -enth in | the train; Van Bu | -ren, eighth | upon | the line; And Har | -rison | counts num | -ber nine; The tenth | is Ty | -ler, in | his turn; And Polk, | elev | -enth, as | we learn; The twelfth | is Tay | -lor, peo | -ple say; The next | we learn | some fu | -ture day." ANONYMOUS: _From Newspaper_, 1849. _Example II.--The Shepherd Bard_. "The bard | on Ett | -rick's moun | tain green In Na | -ture's bo | -som nursed | had been, And oft | had marked | in for | -est lone Her beau | -ties on | her moun | -tain throne; Had seen | her deck | the wild | -wood tree, And star | with snow | -y gems | the lea; In love | _-li~est c=ol_ | -ours paint | the plain, And sow | the moor | with pur | -ple grain; By gold | -en mead | and moun | -tain sheer, Had viewed | the Ett | -rick wav | -ing clear, Where shad | _-=ow=y fl=ocks_ | of pur | -est snow Seemed graz | -ing in | a world | below." JAMES HOGG: _The Queen's Wake_, p. 76. _Example III.--Two Stanzas from Eighteen, Addressed to the Ettrick Shepherd_. "O Shep | -herd! since | 'tis thine | to boast The fas | -cinat | -ing pow'rs | of song, Far, far | above | the count | -less host, Who swell | the Mus | -es' sup | -_pli~ant throng_, The GIFT | OF GOD | distrust | no more, His in | -spira | -tion be | thy guide; Be heard | thy harp | from shore | to shore, Thy song's | reward | thy coun | -try's pride." B. BARTON: _Verses prefixed to the Queen's Wake_. _Example IV.--"Elegiac Stanzas," in Iambics of Four feet and Three_. "O for | a dirge! | But why | complain? Ask rath | -er a | trium | -phal strain When FER | MOR'S race | is run; A gar | -land of | immor | -tal boughs To bind | around | the Chris | -tian's brows, Whose glo | _-rious work_ | is done. We pay | a high | and ho | -ly debt; No tears | of pas | -sionate | regret Shall stain | this vo | -tive lay; Ill-wor | -thy, Beau | -mont! were | the grief That flings | itself | on wild | relief When Saints | have passed | away." W. WORDSWORTH: _Poetical Works_, First complete Amer. Ed., p. 208. This line, the iambic tetrameter, is a favourite one, with many writers of English verse, and has been much used, both in couplets and in stanzas. Butler's Hudibras, Gay's Fables, and many allegories, most of Scott's poetical works, and some of Byron's, are written in couplets of this measure. It is liable to the same diversifications as the preceding metre. The frequent admission of an additional short syllable, forming double rhyme, seems admirably to adapt it to a familiar, humorous, or burlesque style. The following may suffice for an example:-- "First, this | large par | -cel brings | you _tidings_ Of our | good Dean's | eter | -nal _chidings_; Of Nel | -ly's pert | -ness, Rob | -in's _leasings_, And Sher | -idan's | perpet | -ual _teasings_. This box | is cramm'd | on ev | -ery side With Stel | -la's mag | -iste | -rial pride." DEAN SWIFT: _British Poets_, Vol. v, p. 334. The following lines have _ten syllables_ in each, yet the measure is not iambic of five feet, but that of four with hypermeter:-- "There was | ~an =an | -cient sage | phi_losopher_, Who had | read Al | -exan | -der _Ross over_."--_Butler's Hudibras_. "I'll make | them serve | for per | -pen_diculars_, As true | as e'er | were us'd | by _bricklayers_." --_Ib._, Part ii, C. iii, l. 1020. MEASURE VI.--IAMBIC OF THREE FEET, OR TRIMETER. _Example.--To Evening_. "Now teach | me, maid | compos'd To breathe | some soft | -en'd strain."--_Collins_, p. 39. This short measure has seldom, if ever, been used alone in many successive couplets; but it is often found in stanzas, sometimes without other lengths, but most commonly with them. The following are a few examples:-- _Example I.--Two ancient Stanzas, out of Many_, "This while | we are | abroad, Shall we | not touch | our lyre? Shall we | not sing | an ode? Shall now | that ho | -ly fire, In us, | that strong | -ly glow'd, In this | cold air, | expire? Though in | the ut | -most peak, A while | we do | remain, Amongst | the moun | -tains bleak, Expos'd | to sleet | and rain, No sport | our hours | shall break, To ex | -ercise | our vein." DRAYTON: _Dr. Johnson's Gram._, p. 13; _John Burn's_, p. 244. _Example II.--Acis and Galatea_. "For us | the zeph | -yr blows, For us | distils | the dew, For us | unfolds | the rose, And flow'rs | display | their hue; For us | the win | -ters rain, For us | the sum | -mers shine, Spring swells | for us | the grain, And au | -tumn bleeds | the vine." JOHN GAY: _British Poets_, Vol. vii, p. 376. _Example III.--"Mene, Mene, Tekel, Upharsin_." "The king | was on | his throne, The sa | -traps thronged | the hall; A thou | -sand bright | lamps shone O'er that | high fes | -tival. A thou | -sand cups | of gold, In Ju | -dah deemed | divine-- Jeho | -vah's ves | -sels, hold The god | -less Hea | -then's wine! In that | same hour | and hall, The fin | -gers of | a hand Came forth | against | the wall, And wrote | as if | on sand: The fin | -gers of | a man,-- A sol | -ita | -ry hand Along | the let | -ters ran, And traced | them like | a wand." LORD BYRON: _Vision of Belshazzar_. _Example IV.--Lyric Stanzas_. "Descend, | celes | -tial fire, And seize | me from | above, Melt me | in flames | of pure | desire, A sac | -rifice | to love. Let joy | and wor | -ship spend The rem | -nant of | my days, And to | my God, | my soul | ascend, In sweet | perfumes | of praise." WATTS: _Poems sacred to Devotion_, p. 50. _Example V.--Lyric Stanzas_. "I would | begin | the mu | -sic here, And so | my soul | should rise: O for | some heav'n | -ly notes | to bear My spir | -it to | the skies! There, ye | that love | my say | -iour, sit, There I | would fain | have place Amongst | your thrones | or at | your feet, So I | might see | his face." WATTS: _Same work_, "_Horæ Lyricæ_," p. 71. _Example VI.--England's Dead_. "The hur | -ricane | hath might Along | the In | -dian shore, And far, | by Gan | -ges' banks | at night, Is heard | the ti | -ger's roar. But let | the sound | roll on! It hath | no tone | of dread For those | that from | their toils | are gone;-- _There_ slum | -ber Eng | -land's dead." HEMANS: _Poetical Works_, Vol. ii, p. 61. The following examples have some of the common diversifications already noticed under the longer measures:-- _Example I.--"Languedocian Air_." "_L=ove ~is_ | a hunt | -er boy, Who makes | young hearts | his prey; _And in_ | his nets | of joy Ensnares | them night | and day. In vain | conceal'd | they lie, Love tracks | them ev' | -ry where; In vain | aloft | they fly, Love shoots | them fly | -ing there. But 'tis | his joy | most sweet, At earl | -y dawn | to trace The print | of Beau | -ty's feet, And give | the trem | -bler chase. And most | he loves | through snow To track | those foot | -steps fair, For then | the boy | doth know, None track'd | before | him there." MOORE'S _Melodies and National Airs_, p. 274. _Example II.--From "a Portuguese Air_." "Flow on, | thou shin | -ing _river_, But ere | thou reach | the sea, Seek El | -la's bower, | and _give her_ The wreaths | I fling | o'er thee. But, if | in wand' | -ring _thither_, Thou find | she mocks | my pray'r, Then leave | those wreaths | to _wither_ Upon | the cold | bank there." MOORE: _Same Volume_, p. 261. _Example III.--Resignation_. "O Res | -igna | -tion! yet | unsung, Untouch'd | by for | -mer strains; Though claim | -ing ev | -_ery mu_ | -se's smile, And ev | -_ery po_ | -et's pains! All oth | -er du | -ties cres | -cents are Of vir | -tue faint | -ly bright; The glo | -_rious con_ | -summa | -tion, thou, Which fills | her orb | with light!" YOUNG: _British Poets_, Vol. viii, p. 377. MEASURE VII.--IAMBIC OF TWO FEET, OR DIMETER. _Example--A Scolding Wife_. 1. "There was | a man Whose name | was Dan, Who sel | -dom spoke; His part | -ner sweet He thus | did greet, Without | a joke; 2. My love | -ly wife, Thou art | the life Of all | my joys; Without | thee, I Should sure | -ly die For want | of noise. 3. O, prec | -ious one, Let thy | tongue run In a | sweet fret; And this | will give A chance | to live, A long | time yet. 4. When thou | dost scold So loud | and bold, I'm kept | awake; But if | thou leave, It will | me grieve, Till life | forsake. 5. Then said | his wife, I'll have | no strife With you, | sweet Dan; As 'tis | your mind, I'll let | you find I am | your man. 6. And fret | I will, To keep | you still Enjoy | -ing life; So you | may be Content | with me, A scold | -ing wife." ANONYMOUS: _Cincinnati Herald_, 1844. Iambic dimeter, like the metre of three iambs, is much less frequently used alone than in stanzas with longer lines; but the preceding example is a refutation of the idea, that no piece is ever composed wholly of this measure, or that the two feet cannot constitute a line. In Humphrey's English Prosody, on page 16th, is the following paragraph; which is not only defective in style, but erroneous in all its averments:-- "Poems are never composed of lines of two [-] feet metre, in succession: they [combinations of two feet] are only used occasionally in poems, hymns, odes, &c. to diversify the metre; and are, in no case, lines of poetry, or verses; but hemistics, [_hemistichs_,] or half lines. The shortest metre of which iambic verse is composed, in lines successively, is that of three feet; and this is the shortest metre _which_ can be denominated lines, or verses; and _this is not frequently used_." In ballads, ditties, hymns, and versified psalms, scarcely any line is _more common_ than the iambic trimeter, here denied to be "frequently used;" of which species, there are about seventy lines among the examples above. Dr. Young's poem entitled "Resignation," has eight hundred and twenty such lines, and as many more of iambic tetrameter. His "Ocean" has one hundred and forty-five of the latter, and two hundred and ninety-two of the species now under consideration; i.e., iambic dimeter. But how can the metre which predominates by two to one, be called, in such a case, an occasional diversification of that which is less frequent? Lines of two iambs are not very uncommon, even in psalmody; and, since we have some lines _yet shorter_, and the lengths of all are determined only by the act of measuring, there is, surely, no propriety in calling dimeters "hemistichs," merely because they are short. The following are some examples of this measure combined with longer ones:-- _Example I.--From Psalm CXLVIII_. 1, 2. "Ye bound | -less realms | of joy, Exalt | your Ma | -ker's fame; His praise | your songs | employ Above | the star | -ry frame: Your voi | -ces raise, Ye Cher | -ubim, And Ser | -aphim, To sing | his praise. 3, 4. Thou moon, | that rul'st | the night, And sun, | that guid'st | the day, Ye glitt' | -ring stars | of light, To him | your hom | -age pay: His praise | declare, Ye heavens | above, And clouds | that move In liq | -uid air." _The Book of Psalms in Metre_, (_with Com. Prayer_,) 1819. _Example II.--From Psalm CXXXVI._ "To God | the might | -y Lord, your joy | -ful thanks | repeat; To him | due praise | afford, as good | as he | is great: For God | does prove Our con | -stant friend, His bound | -less love Shall nev | -er end."--_Ib._, p. 164. _Example III.--Gloria Patri_. "To God | the Fa | -ther, Son, And Spir | -it ev | -er bless'd, Eter | -nal Three | in One, All wor | -ship be | address'd; As here | -tofore It was, | is now, And shall | be so For ev | -ermore."--_Ib._, p. 179. _Example IV.--Part of Psalm III_. [O] "Lord, | how man | -y are | my foes! How man | -y those That [now] | in arms | against | me rise! _Many_ | are they That of | my life | distrust | -fully | thus say: 'No help | for him | in God | there lies.' But thou, | Lord, art | my shield | my glo_ry_; Thee, through | my sto_ry_, Th' exalt | -er of | my head | I count; Aloud | I cried Unto | Jeho | -vah, he | full soon | replied, And heard | me from | his ho | -ly mount." MILTON: _Psalms Versified, British Poets_, Vol. ii, p. 161. _Example V.--Six Lines of an "Air."_ "As when | the dove Laments | her love All on | the na | -ked spray; When he | returns, No more | she mourns, But loves | the live | -long day." JOHN GAY: _British Poets_, Vol. vii, p. 377. _Example VI.--Four Stanzas of an Ode_. "XXVIII. Gold pleas | -ure buys; But pleas | -ure dies", Too soon | the gross | fruiti | -on cloys: Though rapt | -ures court, The sense | is short; But vir | -tue kin | -dles liv | -ing joys: XXIX. Joys felt | alone! Joys ask'd | of none! Which Time's | and For | -tune's ar | -rows miss; Joys that | subsist, Though fates | resist, An un | -preca | -rious, end | -less bliss! XXX. The soul | refin'd Is most | inclin'd To ev | -_~er=y m=or_ | -al ex | -cellence; All vice | is dull, A knave's | a fool; And Vir | -tue is | the child | of Sense. XXXI. The vir | -_tuous mind_ Nor wave, | nor wind, Nor civ | -il rage, | nor ty | -rant's frown, The shak | -en ball, Nor plan | -ets' fall, From its | firm ba | -sis can | dethrone." YOUNG'S "OCEAN:" _British Poets_, Vol. viii, p 277. There is a line of five syllables and double rhyme, which is commonly regarded as iambic dimeter with a supernumerary short syllable; and which, though it is susceptible of two other divisions into two feet, we prefer to scan in this manner, because it usually alternates with pure iambics. Twelve such lines occur in the following extract:-- LOVE TRANSITORY "Could Love | for ev_er_ Run like | a riv_er_, And Time's | endeav_our_ Be tried | in vain,-- No oth | -er pleas_ure_ With this | could meas_ure_; And like | a treas_ure_ We'd hug | the chain. But since | our sigh_ing_ Ends not | in dy_ing_, And, formed | for fly_ing_, Love plumes | his wing; Then for | this rea_son_ Let's love | a sea_son_; But let | that sea_son_ Be on | -ly spring." LORD BYRON: See _Everett's Versification_, p. 19; _Fowler's E. Gram._, p. 650. MEASURE VIII.--IAMBIC OF ONE FOOT, OR MONOMETER. "The shortest form of the English Iambic," says Lindley Murray, "consists of an Iambus with an additional short syllable: as, Disdaining, Complaining, Consenting, Repenting. We have no poem of this measure, but it may be met with in stanzas. The Iambus, with this addition, coincides with the Amphibrach."--_Murray's Gram._, 12mo, p. 204; 8vo, p. 254. This, or the substance of it, has been repeated by many other authors. Everett varies the language and illustration, but teaches the same doctrine. See _E. Versif._, p. 15. Now there are sundry examples which may be cited to show, that the iambus, without any additional syllable, and without the liability of being confounded with an other foot, may, and sometimes does, stand as a line, and sustain a regular rhyme. The following pieces contain instances of this sort:-- _Example I.--"How to Keep Lent."_ "Is this | a Fast, | to keep The lard | -er lean And clean From fat | of neats | and sheep? Is it | to quit | the dish Of flesh, | yet still To fill The plat | -ter high | with fish? Is it | to fast | an hour, Or ragg'd | to go, Or show A down | -cast look | and sour? No:--'Tis | a Fast | to dole Thy sheaf | of wheat, And meat, Unto | the hun | -gry soul. It is | to fast | from strife, From old | debate, And hate; To cir | -cumcise | thy life; To show | a _heart_ | grief-rent; To starve | thy sin, Not _bin_: Ay, that's | to keep | thy Lent." ROBERT HERRICK: _Clapp's Pioneer_, p. 48. Example II.--"To Mary Ann." [This singular arrangement of seventy-two separate iambic feet, I find _without intermediate points_, and leave it so. It seems intended to be read in three or more different ways, and the punctuation required by one mode of reading would not wholly suit an other.] "Your face Your tongue Your wit So fair So sweet So sharp First bent Then drew Then hit Mine eye Mine ear Mine heart Mine eye Mine ear Mine heart To like To learn To love Your face Your tongue Your wit Doth lead Doth teach Doth move Your face Your tongue Your wit With beams With sound With art Doth blind Doth charm Doth rule Mine eye Mine ear Mine heart Mine eye Mine ear Mine heart With life With hope With skill Your face Your tongue Your wit Doth feed Doth feast Doth fill O face O tongue O wit With frowns With cheek With smart Wrong not Vex not Wound not Mine eye Mine ear Mine heart This eye This ear This heart Shall joy Shall bend Shall swear Your face Your tongue Your wit To serve To trust To fear." ANONYMOUS: _Sundry American Newspapers_, in 1849. _Example III.--Umbrellas._ "The late George Canning, of whom Byron said that 'it was his happiness to be at once a wit, poet, orator, and statesman, and excellent in all,' is the author of the following clever _jeu d' esprit_:" [except three lines here added in brackets:] "I saw | a man | with two | umbrellas, (One of | the lon |--gest kind | of fellows,) When it rained, M=eet =a | l=ady On the | shady Side of | thirty |-three, Minus | one of | these rain |-dispellers. 'I see,' Says she, 'Your qual | -ity | of mer | -cy is | not strained.' [Not slow | to comprehend | an inkling, His eye | with wag |-gish hu |-mour twinkling.] Replied | he, 'Ma'am, Be calm; This one | under | my arm Is rotten, [And can |-not save | you from | a sprinkling.] Besides | to keep | you dry, 'Tis plain | that you | as well | as I, 'Can lift | your cotton.'" See _The Essex County Freeman_, Vol. i, No. 1. _Example IV.--Shreds of a Song._ I. SPRING. "The cuck |--oo then, | on ev |--ery tree, Mocks mar |--ried men, | for thus | sings he, _Cuckoo'_; Cuckoo', | cuckoo',-- | O word | of fear, Unpleas |-ing to | a mar |-ried ear!" II. WINTER. "When blood | is nipp'd, | and ways | be foul, Then night | -ly sings | the star |-ing owl, _To-who_; To-whit, | to-who, | a mer | -ry note, While greas | -y Joan | doth keel | the pot." --SHAKSPEARE: _Love's Labour's Lost_, Act v, Sc. 2. _Example V.--Puck's Charm._ [_When he has uttered the fifth line, he squeezes a juice on Lysander's eyes_.] "On the ground, _Sleep sound_; I'll apply To your eye, Gentle | lover, | remedy. When thou wak'st, _Thou tak'st_ True delight In the sight Of thy | former | lady's eye." [508] IDEM: _Midsummer-Night's Dream_, Act iii, Sc. 2. ORDER II.--TROCHAIC VERSE. In Trochaic verse, the stress is laid on the odd syllables, and the even ones are short. Single-rhymed trochaic omits the final short syllable, that it may end with a long one; for the common doctrine of Murray, Chandler, Churchill, Bullions, Butler, Everett, Fowler, Weld, Wells, Mulligan, and others, that this chief rhyming syllable is "_additional_" to the real number of feet in the line, is manifestly incorrect. One long syllable is, in some instances, used _as a foot_; but it is one or more _short syllables_ only, that we can properly admit _as hypermeter_. Iambics and trochaics often occur in the same poem; but, in either order, written with exactness, the number of feet is always the number of the long syllables. _Examples from Gray's Bard._ (1.) "_Ruin | seize thee,| ruthless | king_! Confu | -sion on | thy ban |-ners wait, Though, fann'd | by Con | -quest's crim | -son wing. They mock | the air | with i | -dle state. _Helm, nor | hauberk's | twisted | mail_, Nor e'en | thy vir | -tues, ty | -rant, shall | avail." (2.) "_Weave the | warp, and | weave the | woof_, The wind | -ing-sheet | of Ed | -ward's race. Give am | -ple room, | and verge | enough, The char | -acters | of hell | to trace. _Mark the |year, and | mark the | night_, When Sev | -ern shall | re-ech | -o with | affright." "_The Bard, a Pindaric Ode_;" _British Poets_, Vol. vii, p. 281 and 282. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--Trochaic verse without the final short syllable, is the same as iambic would be without the _initial_ short syllable;--it being quite plain, that iambic, so changed, _becomes trochaic, and_ is iambic no longer. But trochaic, retrenched of its last short syllable, is trochaic still; and can no otherwise be made iambic, than by the prefixing of a short syllable to the line. Feet, and the orders of verse, are distinguished one from an other by two things, and in general by two only; the number of syllables taken as a foot, and the order of their quantities. Trochaic verse is always as distinguishable from iambic, as iambic is from any other. Yet have we several grammarians and prosodies who contrive to confound them--or who, at least, mistake catalectic trochaic for catalectic iambic; and that too, where the syllable wanting affects only the last foot, and makes it perhaps but a common and needful cæsura. OBS. 2.--To suppose that iambic verse may drop its initial short syllable, and still be iambic, still be measured as before, is not only to take a single long syllable for a foot, not only to recognize a pedal cæsura at the _beginning_ of each line, but utterly to destroy the only principles on which iambics and trochaics can be discriminated. Yet Hiley, of Leeds, and Wells, of Andover, while they are careful to treat separately of these two orders of verse, not only teach that any order may take at the end "an additional syllable," but also suggest that the iambic _may drop_ a syllable "from the first foot," without diminishing the number of feet,--without changing the succession of quantities,--without disturbing the mode of scansion! "Sometimes," say they, (in treating of iambics,) "a syllable is cut off from the first foot; as, Práise | to Gód, | immór |-tal práise, Fór | the lóve | that crówns | our dáys."[--BARBAULD.] _Hiley's E. Gram._, Third Edition, London, p. 124; _Wells's_, Third Edition, p. 198. OBS. 3.--Now this couplet is the precise exemplar, not only of the thirty-six lines of which it is a part, but also of the most common of our trochaic metres; and if this may be thus scanned into iambic verse, so may all other trochaic lines in existence: distinction between the two orders must then be worse than useless. But I reject this doctrine, and trust that most readers will easily see its absurdity. A prosodist might just as well scan all iambics into trochaics, by pronouncing each initial short syllable to be hypermeter. For, surely, if deficiency may be discovered at the _beginning_ of measurement, so may redundance. But if neither is to be looked for before the measurement ends, (which supposition is certainly more reasonable,) then is the distinction already vindicated, and the scansion above-cited is shown to be erroneous. OBS. 4.--But there are yet other objections to this doctrine, other errors and inconsistencies in the teaching of it. Exactly the same kind of verse as this, which is said to consist of "_four iambuses_" from one of which "a syllable _is cut off_," is subsequently scanned by the same authors as being composed of "_three trochees_ and an _additional_ syllable; as, 'Haste thee, | Nymph, and | bring with | _thee_ Jest and | youthful | Jolli |-_ty_.'--MILTON." _Wells's School Grammar_, p. 200. "V=it~al | sp=ark of | he=av'nly | _fl=me_, Q=uit ~oh | q=uit th~is | m=ort~al | _fr=ame_." [509][--POPE.] _Hiley's English Grammar_, p. 126. There is, in the works here cited, not only the inconsistency of teaching two very different modes of scanning the same species of verse, but in each instance the scansion is wrong; for all the lines in question are _trochaic of four feet_,--single-rhymed, and, of course, catalectic, and ending with a cæsura, or elision. In no metre that lacks but one syllable, can this sort of foot occur _at the beginning_ of a line; yet, as we see, it is sometimes _imagined_ to be there, by those who have never been able to find it _at the end_, where it oftenest exists! OBS. 5.--I have hinted, in the main paragraph above, that it is a common error of our prosodists, to underrate, by one foot, the measure of all trochaic lines, when they terminate with single rhyme; an error into which they are led by an other as gross, that of taking for hypermeter, or mere surplus, the whole rhyme itself, the sound or syllable most indispensable to the verse. "(For rhyme the _rudder_ is of verses, With which, like ships, they steer their courses.)"--_Hudibras._ Iambics and trochaics, of corresponding metres, and exact in them, agree of course in both the number of feet and the number of syllables; but as the former are slightly redundant with double rhyme, so the latter are deficient as much, with single rhyme; yet, the number of feet may, and should, in these cases, be reckoned the same. An estimable author now living says, "Trochaic verse, with an additional long syllable, is the same as iambic verse, without the initial short syllable."--_N. Butler's Practical Gram._, p. 193. This instruction is not quite accurate. Nor would it be right, even if there could be "iambic verse without the initial short syllable," and if it were universally _true_, that, "Trochaic verse may take an additional _long_ syllable."--_Ibid._ For the addition and subtraction here suggested, will inevitably make the difference of a foot, between the measures or verses said to be the same! OBS. 6.--"I doubt," says T. O. Churchill, "whether the _trochaic_ can be considered as a legitimate English measure. All the examples of it given by Johnson have an additional long syllable at the end: but these are _iambics_, if we look upon the additional syllable to be at the beginning, which is much more agreeable to the analogy of music."--_Churchill's New Gram._, p. 390. This doubt, ridiculous as must be all reasoning in support of it, the author seriously endeavours to raise into a general conviction _that we have no trochaic order of verse!_ It can hardly be worth while to notice here all his remarks. _"An additional long syllable"_ Johnson never dreamed of--"at the end"--"at the beginning"--or anywhere else. For he discriminated metres, not by the number of feet, as he ought to have done, but by the number of _syllables_ he found in each line. His doctrine is this: "Our _iambick_ measure comprises verses--Of four syllables,--Of six,--Of eight,--Of ten. Our _trochaick_ measures are--Of three syllables,--Of five,--Of seven. These are the measures _which are now in use_, and above the rest those of seven, eight and ten syllables. Our ancient poets wrote verses sometimes of twelve syllables, as Drayton's Polyolbion; and of fourteen, as Chapman's Homer." "We have another measure very quick and lively, and therefore much used in songs, which may be called the _anapestick_. 'May I góvern my pássion with ábsolute swáy, And grow wiser and bétter as life wears awáy.' _Dr. Pope_. "In this measure a syllable is often retrenched from the first foot, [;] as [,] 'When présent we lóve, and when ábsent agrée, I th'nk not of I'ris [.] nor I'ris of mé.' _Dryden_. "These measures are varied by many combinations, and sometimes by _double endings_, either with or without rhyme, as in the _heroick_ measure. ''Tis the divinity that stirs _within us_, 'Tis heaven itself that points out an _hereafter._.' _Addison_. "So in that of eight syllables, 'They neither added nor confounded, They neither wanted nor abounded.' _Prior_. "In that of seven, 'For resistance I could _fear none_, But with twenty ships had done, What thou, brave and happy _Vernon_, Hast achieved with six alone.' _Glover_. "To these measures and their laws, may be reduced every species of English verse."--_Dr. Johnson's Grammar of the English Tongue_, p. 14. See his _Quarto Dict._ Here, except a few less important remarks, and sundry examples of the metres named, is Johnson's _whole scheme_ of versification. OBS. 7.--How, when a prosodist judges certain examples to "have an additional long syllable at the end," he can "look upon the additional syllable to be at the beginning," is a matter of marvel; yet, to abolish trochaics, Churchill not only does and advises this, but imagines short syllables removed sometimes from the beginning of lines; while sometimes he couples final short syllables with initial long ones, to make iambs, and yet does not always count these as feet in the verse, when he has done so! Johnson's instructions are both misunderstood and misrepresented by this grammarian. I have therefore cited them the more fully. The first syllable being retrenched from an _anapest_, there remains an _iambus_. But what countenance has Johnson lent to the gross error of reckoning such a foot an anapest still?--or to that of commencing the measurement of a line by including a syllable not used by the poet? The preceding stanza from Glover, is _trochaic of four feet_; the odd lines full, and of course making double rhyme; the even lines catalectic, and of course ending with a long syllable counted as a foot. Johnson cited it merely as an example of "_double endings_" imagining in it no "additional syllable," except perhaps the two which terminate the two trochees, "fear none" and "Vernon." These, it may be inferred, he improperly conceived to be additional to the regular measure; because he reckoned measures by the number of syllables, and probably supposed single rhyme to be the normal form of all rhyming verse. OBS. 8.--There is false scansion in many a school grammar, but perhaps none more uncouthly false, than Churchill's pretended amendments of Johnson's. The second of these--wherein "the old _seven_[-]_foot iambic_" is professedly found in two lines of Glover's _trochaic tetrameter_--I shall quote:-- "In the anapæstic measure, Johnson himself allows, that a syllable is often retrenched from the first foot; yet he gives _as an example of trochaics with an additional syllable at the end of the even lines_ a stanza, which, by adopting the _same principle_, would be in the iambic measure: "For | resis- | tance I | could fear | none, But | with twen | ty ships | had done, What | thou, brave | and hap | py Ver- | non, Hast | achiev'd | with six | alone. In fact, _the second and fourth lines_ here stamp the character of the measure; [Fist] _which is the old seven[-]foot iambic broken into four and three_, WITH AN ADDITIONAL SYLLABLE AT THE BEGINNING."--_Churchill's New Gram._, p. 391. After these observations and criticisms concerning the trochaic order of verse, I proceed to say, trochaics consist of the following measures, or metres:-- MEASURE I.--TROCHAIC OF EIGHT FEET, OR OCTOMETER. _Example I.--"The Raven"--First Two out of Eighteen Stanzas_. 1. "Once up | -on a | midnight | dreary, | while I | pondered, | weak and | weary, Over | _m=any ~a_ | quaint and | _c=ur~io~us_ | volume | of for | -gotten | lore, While I | nodded, | nearly | napping, | sudden |-ly there | came a | tapping, As of | some one | gently | rapping, | rapping | at my | chamber | door. ''Tis some | visit |-or,' I | muttered, | 'tapping | at my | chamber | door-- Only | this, and |nothing | more." 2. Ah! dis |-tinctly | I re |-member | it was | in the | bleak De |-cember, And each | _s=ep~ar~ate_ | dying | ember | wrought its | ghost up |-on the | floor; Eager |-ly I | wished the | morrow; | vainly | had I | tried to | borrow From my | books sur |-cease of | sorrow--| sorrow | for the | lost Le |-nore-- For the | rare and | _r=ad~i~ant_ | maiden, | whom the | angels | name Le |-nore-- Nameless | here for | ever |-more." EDGAR A. POE: _American Review for February_, 1845. Double rhymes being less common than single ones, in the same proportion, is this long verse less frequently terminated with a full trochee, than with a single long syllable counted as a foot. The species of measure is, however, to be reckoned the same, though catalectic. By Lindley Murray, and a number who implicitly re-utter what he teaches, the verse of _six trochees_, in which are _twelve syllables_ only, is said "to be _the longest_ Trochaic line that our language admits."--_Murray's Octavo Gram._, p. 257; _Weld's E. Gram._, p. 211. The examples produced here will sufficiently show the inaccuracy of their assertion. _Example II.--"The Shadow of the Obelisk."--Last two Stanzas._ "Herds are | feeding |in the | Forum, | as in | old E | -vander's | time: Tumbled | from the | steep Tar |_-peian_ | _every_ | pile that | sprang sub |-lime. Strange! that | what seemed | most in |-constant | should the | most a | -biding | prove; Strange! that |what is | hourly | moving | no mu |-tation | can re |-move: Ruined | lies the | cirque! the | _chariots_, | long a |-go, have | ceased to | roll-- E'en the | Obe |-lisk is | broken |--but the | shadow | still is | whole. 9. Out a |--las! if | _mightiest_ | empires | leave so | little | mark be |-hind, How much | less must | heroes | hope for, | in the | wreck of | human | kind! Less than | e'en this | darksome | picture, | which I | tread be |-neath my | feet, Copied | by a | lifeless | moonbeam | on the | pebbles | of the | street; Since if | Cæsar's | best am |-bition, | living, | was, to | be re |-nowned, What shall | Cassar | leave be |-hind him, | save the | shadow | of a | sound?" T. W. PARSONS: _Lowell and Carter's "Pioneer,"_ Vol. i, p. 120. _Example III.--"The Slaves of Martinique."--Nine Couplets out of Thirty-six._ "Beams of | noon, like | burning | lances, | through the | tree-tops | flash and | glisten, As she | stands be | -fore her | lover, | with raised | face to | look and | listen. Dark, but | comely, | like the | maiden | in the | ancient | Jewish | song, Scarcely | has the | toil of | task-fields | done her graceful | beauty | wrong. He, the | strong one, | and the | manly, | with the | vassal's | garb and | hue, Holding | still his | spirit's | birthright, | to his | higher | nature | true; Hiding | deep the | _strengthening_ | purpose | of a | freeman | in his | heart, As the | Greegree | holds his | Fetish | from the | white man's | gaze a | -part. Ever | foremost | of the | toilers, | when the | driver's | morning | horn Calls a | -way to | stifling | millhouse, | or to | fields of | cane and | corn; Fall the | keen and | burning | lashes | never | on his | back or | limb; Scarce with | look or | word of | censure, | turns the | driver | unto | him. Yet his | brow is | always | thoughtful, | and his | eye is | hard and | stern; _Slavery's_ | last and | humblest | lesson | he has | never | deigned to | learn." "And, at evening | when his | comrades | dance be | -fore their | master's | door, Folding arms and | knitting | forehead, | stands he | silent | ever |-more. God be | praised for | every instinct | which re | -bels a | -gainst a | lot Where the | brute sur |-vives the | human, | and man's | upright | form is | not!" --J. G. WHITTIER: _National Era, and other Newspapers_, Jan. 1848. _Example IV.--"The Present Crisis"--Two Stanzas out of sixteen._ "Once to | _every_ | man and | nation | comes the | moment | to de |-cide, In the | strife of | Truth with | Falsehood, | for the | good or | evil | side; Some great | cause, God's | new Mes |-siah, | _offering_ | each the | bloom or | blight, Parts the | goats up | -on the | left hand, | and the | sheep up | -on the | right, And the | choice goes | by for | -ever |'twixt that | darkness | and that | light. Have ye | chosen, | O my | people, | on whose | party | ye shall | stand, Ere the | Doom from | _its_ worn | sandals | shakes the | dust a | -gainst our | land? Though the | cause of | evil | prosper, | yet the | Truth a | -lone is | strong, And, al | _beit she_ | wander | outcast | now, I | see a | -round her | throng Troops of | beauti | -ful tall | angels | to en | -shield her | from all | wrong." JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL: _Liberator_, September 4th, 1846. _Example V.--The Season of Love.--A short Extract_. "In the | Spring, a | fuller | crimson | comes up | -on the | robin's | breast; In the | Spring, the | wanton | lapwing | gets him | -self an | other | crest; In the | Spring, a | _livelier_ | iris | changes | on the | burnished | dove; In the | Spring, a | young man's | fancy | lightly | turns to | thoughts of | love. Then her | cheek was | pale, and | thinner | than should | be for | one so | young; And her | eyes on | all my | motions, | with a | mute ob | -servance, | hung. And I | said, 'My | cousin | Amy, | speak, and | speak the | truth to | me; Trust me, | cousin, | all the | current | of my | being | sets to | thee.'" _Poems by_ ALFRED TENNYSON, Vol. ii, p. 35. Trochaic of eight feet, as these sundry examples will suggest, is much oftener met with than iambic of the same number; and yet it is not a form very frequently adopted. The reader will observe that it requires a considerable pause after the fourth foot; at which place one might divide it, and so reduce each couplet to a stanza of four lines, similar to the following examples:-- PART OF A SONG, IN DIALOGUE. SYLVIA. "Corin, | cease this | idle | teasing; Love that's | forc'd is | harsh and | sour; If the | lover | be dis | -pleasing, To per | -sist dis | -gusts the | more." CORIN. "'Tis in | vain, in | vain to | fly me, _Sylvia_, | I will | still pur | -sue; Twenty | thousand | times de | -ny me, I will | kneel and | weep a | -new." SYLVIA. "Cupid | ne'er shall | make me | languish, I was | born a | -verse to | love; Lovers' | sighs, and | tears, and | anguish, Mirth and | pastime | to me | prove." CORIN. "Still I | vow with | patient | duty Thus to | meet your | proudest | scorn; You for | unre | -lenting | beauty I for | constant | love was | born." _Poems by_ ANNA L�TITIA BARBAULD, p. 56. PART OF A CHARITY HYMN. 1. "Lord of | life, all | praise ex | -celling, thou, in | glory | uncon | -fin'd, Deign'st to | make thy | humble | dwelling with the | poor of | humble | mind. 2. As thy | love, through | all cre | -ation, beams like | thy dif | -fusive | light; So the | scorn'd and | humble | station shrinks be | -fore thine | equal | sight. 3. Thus thy | care, for | all pro | -viding, warm'd thy | faithful | prophet's | tongue; Who, the | lot of | all de | -ciding, to thy | chosen | _Israel_ | sung: 4. 'When thine | harvest | yields thee | pleasure, thou the | golden | sheaf shalt | bind; To the | poor be | -longs the | treasure of the | scatter'd | ears be | -hind.'" _Psalms and Hymns of the Protestant Episcopal Church_, Hymn LV. A still more common form is that which reduces all these tetrameters to single rhymes, preserving their alternate succession. In such metre and stanza, is Montgomery's "Wanderer of Switzerland, a Poem, in Six Parts," and with an aggregate of eight hundred and forty-four lines. Example:-- 1. "'_Wanderer_, | whither | wouldst thou | roam? To what | region | far a | -way, Bend thy | steps to | find a | home, In the | twilight | of thy | day?' 2. 'In the | twilight | of my | day, I am | hastening | to the | west; There my | weary limbs | to lay, Where the | sun re | -tires to | rest. 3. Far be | -yond the At | -lantic | floods, Stretched be | -neath the | evening | sky, Realms of | mountains, | dark with | woods, In Co | -lumbia's | bosom | lie. 4. There, in | glens and | caverns | rude, Silent | since the | world be | -gan, Dwells the | virgin | Soli | -tude, Unbe | -trayed by | faithless | man: 5. Where a | tyrant | never | trod, Where a | slave was | never | known, But where | nature | worships | God In the | wilder | -ness a | -lone. 6. Thither, | thither | would I | roam; There my | children | may be | free; I for | them will | find a | home; They shall | find a | grave for | me.'" _First six stanzas of Part VI_, pp. 71 and 72. MEASURE II.--TROCHAIC OF SEVEN FEET, OR HEPTAMETER. _Example.--Psalm LXX,[510] Versified._ Hasten, | Lord, to | rescue | me, and | set me | safe from | trouble; Shame thou | those who | seek my | soul, re | -ward their | mischief | double. Turn the | taunting | scorners | back, who | cry, 'A | -ha!' so | loudly; Backward | in con | -fusion | hurl the | foe that | mocks me | proudly. Then in | thee let | those re | -joice, who | seek thee, | self-de | -nying; All who | thy sal | -vation | love, thy | name be | glory | -fying. So let | God be | magni | -fied. But | I am | poor and | needy: Hasten, | Lord, who | art my | Helper; | let thine | aid be | speedy. This verse, like all other that is written in very long lines, requires a cæsural pause of proportionate length; and it would scarcely differ at all to the ear, if it were cut in two at the place of this pause--provided the place were never varied. Such metre does not appear to have been at any time much used, though there seems to be no positive reason why it might not have a share of popularity. To commend our versification for its "boundless variety," and at the same time exclude from it forms either unobjectionable or well authorized, as some have done, is plainly inconsistent. Full trochaics have some inconvenience, because all their rhymes must be double; and, as this inconvenience becomes twice as much when any long line of this sort is reduced to two short ones, there may be a reason why a stanza precisely corresponding to the foregoing couplets is seldom seen. If such lines be divided and rhymed at the middle of the fourth foot, where the cæsural pause is apt to fall, the first part of each will be a trochaic line of four feet, single-rhymed and catalectic, while the rest of it will become an iambic line of three feet, with double rhyme and hypermeter. Such are the prosodial characteristics of the following lines; which, if two were written as one, would make exactly our full trochaic of seven feet, the metre exhibited above:-- "Whisp'ring, | heard by | wakeful | maids, To whom | the night | stars _guide_ | _us_, Stolen | walk, through | moonlight | shades, With those | we love | _beside_ | _us_"--_Moore's Melodies_, p. 276. But trochaic of seven feet may also terminate with single rhyme, as in the following couplet, which is given anonymously, and, after a false custom, erroneously, in N. Butler's recent Grammar, as "trochaic of _six feet, with an additional long syllable_:-- "Night and | morning | were at | meeting | over | Water | -loo; Cocks had | sung their | _earliest_ | greeting; | faint and | low they | crew." [511] In Frazee's Grammar, a separate line or two, similar in metre to these, and rightly reckoned to have _seven feet_, and many lines, (including those above from Tennyson, which W. C. Fowler erroneously gives for _Heptameter_,) being a foot longer, are presented as trochaics of _eight_ feet; but Everett, the surest of our prosodists, remaining, like most others, a total stranger to our octometers, and too little acquainted with trochaic heptameters to believe the species genuine, on finding a couple of stanzas in which two such lines are set with shorter ones of different sorts, and with some which are defective in metre, sagely concludes that all lines of more than "_six trochees_" must necessarily be condemned as prosodial anomalies. It may be worth while to repeat the said stanzas here, adding such corrections and marks as may suggest their proper form and scansion. But since they commence with the shorter metre of six trochees only, and are already placed under that head, I too may take them in the like connexion, by now introducing my third species of trochaics, which is Everett's tenth. MEASURE III.--TROCHAIC OF SIX FEET, OR HEXAMETER. _Example.--Health_. "Up the | dewy | mountain, | Health is | bounding | lightly; On her | brows a | garland, | twin'd with | richest | posies: Gay is | she, e | -late with | hope, and | smiling | sprighthly; Redder | is her | cheek, and | sweeter | than the | rose is." G. BROWN: _The Institutes of English Grammar_, p. 258. This metre appears to be no less rare than the preceding; though, as in that case, I know no good reason why it may not be brought into vogue. Professor John S. Hart says of it: "This is the _longest_ Trochaic verse that seems _to have been cultivated_."--_Hart's Eng. Gram._, p. 187. The seeming of its cultivation he doubtless found only in sundry modern grammars. Johnson, Bicknell, Burn, Coar, Ward, Adam,--old grammarians, who vainly profess to have illustrated "every species of English verse,"--make no mention of it; and, with all the grammarians who notice it, _one anonymous couplet_, passing from hand to hand, has everywhere served to exemplify it. Of this, "the line of six Trochees," Everett says: "This measure _is languishing_, and rarely used. The following example is often cited: 'On a | mountain, | stretched be | -neath a | hoary | willow, Lay a | shepherd | swain, and | view'd the | rolling | billow.'"[512] Again: "We have the following from BISHOP HEBER:-- 'H=ol~y, | h=ol~y | h=ol~y! | =all th~e | s=aints ~a | -d=ore th~ee, C=ast~ing | d=own th~eir | g=old~en | cr=owns ~a | -r=ound th~e | gl=ass~y | s=ea; Ch=er~u | -b=im ~and | s=er~a | -ph=im [~_are_,] | f=all~ing | d=own b~e | -f=ore th~ee, _Wh~ich_ w=ert, | ~and =art, | ~and =ev | -~erm=ore | sh~alt b=e! Holy, | holy, | holy! | though the | darkness | hide thee, Though the | eye of | sinful | man thy | glory | may not | see, Only | thou, [_O | God_,] art | holy; | there is | none be | -side thee, P=erf~ect | ~in p=ow'r, | ~in l=ove, | ~and p=u | -r~it=y.' Only the first _and the third_ lines of these stanzas are to our purpose," remarks the prosodist. That is, only these he conceived to be "lines of six Trochees." But it is plain, that the third line of the first stanza, having seven long syllables, must have seven feet, and cannot be a trochaic hexameter; and, since the third below should be like it in metre, one can hardly forbear to think the words which I have inserted in brackets, were accidentally omitted. Further: "It is worthy of remark," says he, "that the second line of each of these stanzas is composed of _six Trochees_ and an _additional long syllable_. As its corresponding line is an Iambic, and as the piece has some licenses in its construction, it is _far safer_ to conclude that this line is an _anomaly_ than that it forms a distinct species of verse. We must therefore conclude that the tenth [the metre of six trochees] is the longest species of Trochaic line known to English verse."--_Everett's Versification_, pp. 95 and 96. This, in view of the examples above, of our longer trochaics, may serve as a comment on the author's boast, that, "having deduced his rules from the usage of the great poets, he has the best reason for being confident of their correctness."--_Ibid._, Pref., p. 5. Trochaic hexameter, too, may easily be written with _single rhyme_; perhaps more easily than a specimen suited to the purpose can be cited from any thing already written. Let me try:-- _Example I.--The Sorcerer_. Lonely | in the | forest, | subtle | from his | birth, Lived a | necro | -mancer, | wondrous | son of | earth. More of | him in | -quire not, | than I | choose to | say; Nymph or | dryad | bore him-- | else 'twas | witch or | fay; Ask you | who his | father?-- | haply | he might | be Wood-god, | satyr, | sylvan; | --such his | pedi | -gree. Reared mid | fauns and | fairies, | knew he | no com | -peers; Neither | cared he | for them, | saving | ghostly | seers. Mistress | of the | black-art, | "wizard | gaunt and | grim," Nightly | on the | hill-top, | "read the | stars to | him." These were | welcome | teachers; | drank he | in their | lore; Witchcraft | so en | -ticed him, | still to | thirst for | more. Spectres | he would | play with, | phantoms | raise or | quell; Gnomes from | earth's deep | centre | knew his | potent | spell. Augur | or a | -ruspex | had not | half his | art; Master | deep of | magic, | spirits | played his | part; Demons, | imps in | -fernal, | conjured | from be | -low, Shaped his | grand en | -chantments | with im | -posing | show. _Example II.--An Example of Hart's, Corrected_ "Where the | wood is | waving, | _shady_, | green, and | high, Fauns and | dryads, | _nightly_, | watch the | starry | sky." See _Hart's E. Gram._, p. 187; or _the citation thence below_. A couplet of this sort might easily be reduced to a pleasant little stanza, by severing each line after the third foot, thus:-- Hearken! | hearken! | hear ye; Voices | meet my | ear. Listen, | never | fear ye; Friends--or | foes--are | near. Friends! "So | -ho!" they're | shouting.-- "Ho! so | -ho, a | -hoy!"-- 'Tis no | Indian, | scouting. Cry, _so | -ho_! with | joy. But a similar succession of eleven syllables, six long and five short, divided after the seventh, leaving two iambs to form the second or shorter line,--(since such a division produces different orders and metres both,--) will, I think, retain but little resemblance in rhythm to the foregoing, though the actual sequence of quantities long and short is the same. If this be so, the particular measure or correspondent length of lines is more essential to the character of a poetic strain than some have supposed. The first four lines of the following extract are an example relevant to this point:-- _Ariel's Song._ "C=ome ~un |-t=o´ th~ese | y=ell~ow | s=ands, And th=en | t~ake h=ands: Court'sied | when you | have and | kiss'd, (The wild | waves whist,) Foot it | featly | here and | there; And, sweet | sprites, the | burden | bear." SINGER'S SHAKSPEARE: _Tempest_, Act i, Sc. 2. MEASURE IV.--TROCHAIC OF FIVE FEET, OR PENTAMETER _Example I.--Double Rhymes and Single, Alternated_. "Mountain | winds! oh! | whither | do ye | call me? Vainly, | vainly, | would my | steps pur |-sue: Chains of | care to | lower | earth en |-thrall me, Wherefore | thus my | weary | spirit | woo? Oh! the | strife of | this di |-vided | being! Is there | peace where | ye are | borne, on | high? Could we | soar to | your proud | eyries | fleeing, In our | hearts, would | haunting | _m=em~or~ies_ | die?" FELICIA HEMANS: "_To the Mountain Winds:" Everet's Versif._, p. 95. _Example II--Rhymes Otherwise Arranged._ "Then, me |-thought, I | heard a | hollow | sound, _G=ath~er~ing_ | up from | all the lower | ground: _N=arr~ow~ing_ | in to | where they | sat as |-sembled, Low vo |_-l~upt~uo~us_ | music, | winding, | trembled." ALFRED TENNYSON: _Frazee's Improved Gram._, p. 184; _Fowler's_, 657. This measure, whether with the final short syllable or without it, is said, by Murray, Everett, and others, to be "_very uncommon_." Dr. Johnson, and the other old prosodists named with him above, knew nothing of it. Two couplets, exemplifying it, now to be found in sundry grammars, and erroneously reckoned to _differ as to the number of their feet_, were either selected or composed by Murray, for his Grammar, at its origin--or, if not then, at its first reprint, in 1796. They are these:-- (1.) "All that | walk on | foot or | ride in | _chariots_, All that | dwell in | pala |-ces or | garrets." _L. Murray's Gram._, 12mo, 175; 8vo, 257; _Chandler's_, 196; _Churchill's_, 187; _Hiley's_, 126; _et al._ (2.) "Idle | after | dinner, | in his | chair, Sat a | farmer, | ruddy, | fat, and | fair." _Murray, same places; N. Butler's Gr._, p. 193; _Hallock's_, 244; _Hart's_, 187; _Weld's_, 211; _et al._ Richard Hiley most absurdly scans this last couplet, and all verse like it, into "_the Heroic measure_," or a form of our _iambic pentameter_; saying, "Sometimes a syllable is cut off from the _first_ foot; as, =I |-dl~e =af |-t~er d=inn |-n~er =in | h~is ch=air [,] S=at | ~a f=ar |-m~er [,] r=ud |-dý, f=at, | =and f=air." _Hiley's English Grammar_, Third Edition, p. 125. J. S. Hart, who, like many others, has mistaken the metre of this last example for "_Trochaic Tetrameter_," with a surplus "syllable," after repeating the current though rather questionable assertion, that, "this measure is very uncommon," proceeds with our "_Trochaic Pentameter_," thus: "This species is likewise uncommon. It is composed of five trochees; as, =In th~e | d=ark ~and | gr=een ~and | gl=oom~y | v=all~ey, S=at~yrs | b=y th~e | br=ookl~et | l=ove t~o | d=all~y." And again: [[Fist]] "_The SAME with an ADDITIONAL accented syllable_; as, Wh=ere th~e | w=ood ~is | w=av~ing |gr=een ~and |_h=igh_, F=auns ~and | Dr=y~ads | w=atch th~e | st=arr~y | _sky._" _Hart's English Grammar_, First Edition, p. 187. These examples appear to have been made for the occasion; and the latter, together with its introduction, made unskillfully. The lines are of five feet, and so are those about the ruddy farmer; but there is nothing "_additional_" in either case; for, as pentameter, they are all _catalectic_, the final short syllable being dispensed with, and a cæsura preferred, for the sake of single rhyme, otherwise not attainable. "Five trochees" and a rhyming "syllable" will make trochaic _hexameter_, a measure perhaps more pleasant than this. See examples above. MEASURE V.--TROCHAIC OF FOUR FEET, OR TETRAMETER. _Example I.--A Mournful Song_. 1. "Raving | winds a | -round her | blowing, Yellow | leaves the | woodlands | strewing, By a | river | hoarsely | roaring, Isa | -bella | strayed de | -ploring. 'Farewell | hours that | late did | measure Sunshine | days of | joy and | pleasure; Hail, thou | gloomy | night of | sorrow, Cheerless | night that | knows no | morrow. 2. O'er the | past too | fondly | _wandering_, On the | hopeless | future | _pondering_, Chilly | grief my | life-blood | freezes, Fell de | -spair my | fancy | seizes. Life, thou | soul of | _every_ | blessing, Load to | _misery_ | most dis | -tressing, O how | gladly | I'd re | -sign thee, And to | dark ob | _-livion_ | join thee.'" ROBERT BURNS: _Select Works_, Vol. ii, p. 131 _Example II.--A Song Petitionary_. "_Powers ce_ | -lestial, | whose pro | -tection Ever | guards the | _virtuous_ | fair, While in | distant | climes I | wander, Let my | Mary | be your | care: Let her | form so | fair and | faultless, Fair and | faultless | as your | own; Let my | Mary's | kindred | spirit Draw your | choicest | _influence_ | down. Make the | gales you | waft a | -round her Soft and | peaceful | as her | breast; Breathing | in the | breeze that | fans her, Soothe her | bosom | into | rest: _Guardian_ | angels, | O pro | -tect her, When in | distant | lands I | roam; _To realms_ | _unknown_ | _while fate_ | _exiles me_, Make her | bosom | still my | home." BURNS'S SONGS, Same Volume, p. 165. _Example III.--Song of Juno and Ceres_. _Ju_. "Honour, | riches, marriage | -blessing, Long con | _-tinuance_, | and in | -creasing, Hourly | joys be | still up | -on you! Juno | sings her | blessings | on you." _Cer_. "Earth's in | -crease, and | foison | plenty; Barns and | garners | never | empty; Vines with | clust'ring | bunches | growing; Plants with | goodly | burden | bowing; Spring come | to you, | at the | farthest, In the | very | end of | harvest! Scarci | -ty and | want shall | shun you; Ceres' | blessing | so is | on you." SHAKSPEARE: _Tempest_, Act iv, Sc. 1. _Example IV.--On the Vowels_. "We are | little | airy | creatures, All of | diff'rent | voice and | features; One of | us in | glass is | set, One of | us you'll | find in | jet; T'other | you may | see in | tin, And the | fourth a | box with | -in; If the | fifth you | should pur | -sue, It can | never | fly from | you." SWIFT: _Johnson's British Poets_, Vol. v, p. 343. _Example V.--Use Time for Good_. "Life is | short, and | time is | swift; Roses | fade, and | shadows | shift; But the ocean | and the | river Rise and | fall and | flow for | ever; Bard! not | vainly | heaves the | ocean; Bard! not | vainly | flows the | river; Be thy | song, then, | like their | motion, Blessing | now, and | blessing | ever." EBENEZER ELLIOT: _From a Newspaper_. _Example IV.[sic for VI--KTH]--"The Turkish Lady"--First Four Stanzas_. 1. "'Twas the | hour when | rites un | -holy Called each | Paynim | voice to | pray'r, And the | star that | faded | slowly, Left to | dews the | freshened | air. 2. Day her | sultry | fires had | wasted, Calm and | sweet the | moonlight | rose; E'en a | captive's | spirit | tasted Half ob | -livion | of his | woes. 3. Then 'twas | from an | Emir's | palace Came an | eastern | lady | bright; She, in | spite of | tyrants | jealous, Saw and | loved an | English | knight. 4. 'Tell me, | captive, | why in | anguish Foes have | dragged thee | here to | dwell Where poor | Christians, | as they | languish. Hear no | sound of | sabbath | bell?'" THOMAS CAMPBELL: _Poetical Works_, p. 115. _Example VII.--The Palmer's Morning Hymn_. "Lauded | be thy | name for | ever, Thou, of | life the | guard and | giver! Thou canst | guard thy | creatures | sleeping, Heal the | heart long | broke with | weeping, Rule the | =ouphes ~and | =elves ~at | w=ill _Th~at v=ex_ | _th~e =air_ | _~or h=aunt_ | _th~e h=ill_, _~And =all_ | _th~e f=u_ | _-r~y s=ub_ | _-j~ect k=eep_ _~Of b=oil_ | _-~ing cl=oud_ | _~and ch=af_ | _-~ed d=eep!_ I h~ave | s=een, ~and | w=ell I | kn=ow ~it! Thou hast | done, and | Thou wilt | do it! God of | stillness | and of | motion! Of the | rainbow | and the | ocean! Of the | mountain, | rock, and | river! Blessed | be Thy | name for | ever! I have | seen thy | wondrous | might Through the | shadows | of this | night! Thou, who | slumber'st | not, nor | sleepest! Blest are | they thou | kindly | keepest! Spirits, | from the | ocean | under, Liquid | flame, and | levell'd | thunder, Need not | waken | nor a |-larm them-- All com |-bined, they | cannot | harm them. God of | evening's | yellow | ray, God of | yonder | dawning | day, Thine the | flaming | sphere of | light! Thine the | darkness | of the | night! Thine are | all the | gems of | even, God of | angels! | God of | heaven!" JAMES HOGG: _Mador of the Moor, Poems_, p. 206. _Example VIII--A Short Song, of Two Stanzas_. "Stay, my | charmer, | can you | leave me? Cruel, | cruel, | to de |-ceive me! Well you | know how | much you | grieve me: Cruel | charmer, | can you | go? Cruel | charmer, | can you | go? By my | love, so | ill re |-quited; By the | faith you | fondly plighted; By the | pangs of | lovers slighted; Do not, | do not | leave me | so! Do not, | do not | leave me | so!" ROBERT BURNS: _Select Works_, Vol. ii, p. 129. _Example IX.--Lingering Courtship_. 1. "Never | wedding, | ever | wooing, Still | lovelorn | heart pur |-suing, Read you | not the | wrong you're | doing, In my | cheek's pale | hue? All my | life with | sorrow | strewing, Wed, or | cease to | woo. 2. Rivals | banish'd, | bosoms | plighted, Still our | days are | disu |-nited; Now the | lamp of | hope is | lighted, Now half | quench'd ap | -pears, Damp'd, and | _wavering_, and be | -nighted, Midst my | sighs and | tears. 3. Charms you | call your | dearest | blessing, Lips that | thrill at | your ca | -ressing, Eyes a | _mutual_ soul con | -fessing, Soon you'll | make them | grow Dim, and | worthless | your pos | -sessing, Not with | age, but | woe!" CAMPBELL: _Everett's System of Versification_, p. 91. _Example X.--"Boadicea"--Four Stanzas from Eleven_. 1. "When the | British | warrior | queen, Bleeding | from the | Roman | rods, Sought, with | an in | -dignant | mien, Counsel | of her | country's | gods, 2. Sage be | -neath the | spreading | oak, Sat the | Druid, | hoary | chief; _Every_ burning | word he | spoke Full of | rage, and | full of | grief. 3. Princess! | if our | aged | eyes Weep up | -on thy | matchless | wrongs, 'Tis be | -cause re | -sentment | ties All the | terrors | of our | tongues. 4. ROME SHALL | PERISH-- | write that | word In the | blood that | she hath | spilt; Perish, | hopeless | and ab | -horr'd, Deep in | ruin | as in | guilt." WILLIAM COWPER: _Poems_, Vol. ii, p. 244. _Example XI--"The Thunder Storm"--Two Stanzas from Ten_. "Now in | deep and | dreadful | gloom, Clouds on | clouds por | -tentous | spread, Black as | if the | day of | doom Hung o'er | Nature's | shrinking | head: Lo! the | lightning | breaks from | high, God is | coming! |--God is | nigh! Hear ye | not his | _chariot_ | wheels, As the | mighty | thunder | rolls? Nature, | startled | Nature | reels, From the | centre | to the | poles: Tremble! | --Ocean, | Earth, and | Sky! Tremble! | --God is | passing | by!" J. MONTGOMERY: _Wanderer of Switzerland, and other Poems_, p. 130. _Example XII.--"The Triumphs of Owen," King of North Wales._[513] "Owen's | praise de | -mands my song, Owen | swift and | Owen | strong; Fairest | flow'r of | _Roderick's_ | stem, Gwyneth's | shield, and | Britain's | gem. He nor | heaps his | brooded | stores, Nor the | whole pro | -fusely | pours; Lord of | _every_ | regal | art, _Liberal_ | hand and | open | heart. Big with | hosts of | mighty | name, Squadrons | three a | -gainst him came; This the | force of | Eirin | hiding, Side by | side as | proudly | riding, On her | shadow | long and | gay, Lochlin | ploughs the | _watery_ | way: There the Norman | sails a | -far Catch the | winds, and | join the | war; Black and | huge, a | -long they | sweep, Burthens | of the | angry | deep. Dauntless | on his | native | sands, _The Drag | -on-son | of Mo | -na stands;[514] In glit | -tering arms | and glo | -ry drest_, High he | rears his | ruby | crest. There the | thundering | stroke be | -gin, There the | press, and | there the | din; Taly | -malfra's | rocky | shore _Echoing_ | to the | battle's | roar; Where his | glowing | eyeballs | turn, Thousand | banners | round him | burn. Where he | points his | purple | spear, Hasty, | hasty | rout is | there, Marking | with in | -dignant | eye Fear to | stop, and | shame to | fly. There Con | -fusion, | Terror's | child, Conflict | fierce, and | Ruin | wild, Ago | -ny, that | pants for | breath, _Despair_, | and HON | -OURA | -BLE DEATH." THOMAS GRAY: _Johnson's British Poets_, Vol. vii, p. 285. _Example XIII.--"Grongar Hill."--First Twenty-six Lines_. "Silent | Nymph, with | _curious_ | eye, Who, the | purple | eve, dost | lie On the | mountain's | lonely | van, _Beyond_ | _the noise_ | _of bus_ | _-y man_; Painting | fair the | form of | things, While the | yellow | linnet | sings; Or the | tuneful | nightin | -gale Charms the | forest | with her | tale; Come, with | all thy | various hues, Come, and | aid thy | sister | Muse. Now, while | Phoebus, | riding | high, _Gives lus_ | _-tre to_ | _the land_ | _and sky_, Grongar | Hill in | -vites my | song; Draw the | landscape | bright | and strong; Grongar, | in whose | mossy | cells, Sweetly | -musing | Quiet | dwells; Grongar, | in whose | silent | shade, For the | modest | Muses | made, _So oft_ | _I have_, | _the eve_ | _-ning still_, At the | fountain | of a | rill, Sat up | -on a | _flowery_ | bed, With my | hand be | -neath my | head, _While stray'd_ | _my eyes_ | _o'er Tow_ | _-y's flood_, Over | mead and | over wood, _From house_ | _to house_, | _from hill_ | _to hill_, _Till Con_ | _-templa_ | _-tion had_ | _her fill_." JOHN DYER: _Johnson's British Poets_, Vol. vii, p. 65. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--This is the most common of our trochaic measures; and it seems to be equally popular, whether written with single rhyme, or with double; in stanzas, or in couplets; alone, or with some intentional intermixture. By a careful choice of words and style, it may be adapted to all sorts of subjects, grave, or gay; quaint, or pathetic; as may the corresponding iambic metre, with which it is often more or less mingled, as we see in some of the examples above. Milton's _L'Allegro_, or _Gay Mood_, has one hundred and fifty-two lines; ninety-eight of which are iambics; fifty-four trochaic tetrameters; a very few of each order having double rhymes. These orders the poet has _not_--"very ingeniously _alternated_" as Everett avers; but has simply interspersed, or commingled, with little or no regard to alternation. His _Il Penseroso_, or _Grave Mood_, has twenty-seven trochaic tetrameters, mixed irregularly with one hundred and forty-nine iambics. OBS. 2.--Everett, who divides our trochaic tetrameters into two species of metre, imagines that the catalectic form, or that which is single-rhymed, "has a _solemn effect_,"--"imparts to all pieces _more dignity_ than any of the other short measures,"--"that no trivial or humorous subject should be treated in this measure,"--and that, "besides dignity, it imparts an air of _sadness_ to the subject."--_English Verses._, p. 87. Our "line of four trochees" he supposes to be "_difficult_ of construction,"--"not of very _frequent_ occurrence,"--"the most _agreeable_ of all the trochaic measures,"--"remarkably well adapted to lively subjects,"--and "peculiarly expressive of the eagerness and fickleness of the passion of love."--_Ib._, p. 90. These pretended metrical characteristics seem scarcely more worthy of reliance, than astrological predictions, or the oracular guessings of our modern craniologists. OBS. 3.--Dr. Campbell repeats a suggestion of the older critics, that gayety belongs naturally to all trochaics, as such, and gravity or grandeur, as naturally, to iambics; and he attempts to find a reason for the fact; while, perhaps, even here--more plausible though the supposition is--the fact may be at least half imaginary. "The iambus," says he, "is expressive of dignity and grandeur; the trochee, on the contrary, according to Aristotle, (Rhet. Lib. Ill,) is frolicsome and gay. It were difficult to assign a reason of this difference that would be satisfactory; but of the thing itself, I imagine, most people will be sensible on comparing the two kinds together. I know not whether it will be admitted as a sufficient reason, that the distinction into metrical feet hath a much greater influence in poetry on the rise and fall of the voice, than the distinction into words; and if so, when the cadences happen mostly after the long syllables, the verse will naturally have an air of greater gravity than when they happen mostly after the short."--_Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric_, p. 354. MEASURE VI.--TROCHAIC OF THREE FEET, OR TRIMETER. _Example I.--Youth and Age Contrasted_. "Crabbed | age and | youth Cannot | live to | -gether; Youth is | full of | pleasance, Age is | full of | care: Youth, like | summer | morn, Age, like | winter | weather; Youth, like | summer, | brave; Age, like | winter, | bare. Youth is | full of | sport, Age's | breath is | short, Youth is | nimble, | age is | lame; Youth is | hot and | bold, Age is | weak and | cold; Youth is | wild, and | age is | tame." _The Passionate Pilgrim_; SINGER'S SHAKSPEARE, Vol. ii p. 594. _Example II--Common Sense and Genius_. 3. "While I | touch the | string, Wreathe my | brows with | laurel; For the | tale I | sing, Has, for | once, a | moral! 4. Common | Sense went | on, Many | wise things | saying; While the | light that | shone, Soon set | Genius | straying. 5. One his eye ne'er | rais'd From the | path be | -fore him; T' other | idly | gaz'd On each | night-cloud | o'er him. 6. While I | touch the | string, Wreathe my | brows with | laurel; For the | tale I | sing, Has, for | once, a | moral! 7. So they | came, at | last, To a | shady | river; Common | Sense soon |pass'd Safe,--as | he doth | ever. 8. While the | boy whose | look Was in | heav'n that | minute, Never | saw the | brook,-- _But tum_ | _-bled head_ | _-long in it_." _Six Stanzas from Twelve_.--MOORE'S MELODIES, p. 271. This short measure is much oftener used in stanzas, than in couplets. It is, in many instances, combined with some different order or metre of verse, as in the following:-- _Example III.--Part of a Song_. "Go where | glory | waits thee, But while | fame e | -lates thee, _Oh! still | remem | -ber me_. When the | praise thou | meetest, To thine | ear is | sweetest, _Oh! then | remem | -ber me_. Other | arms may | press thee, Dearer | friends ca | -ress thee, All the | joys that | bless thee, Sweeter | far may | be: But when | friends are | nearest, And when | joys are | dearest, _Oh! then | remem | -ber me._ When, at | eve, thou | rovest, By the | star thou | lovest, _Oh! then | remem | -ber me_. Think when | home re | -turning, Bright we've | seen it | burning; _Oh! thus | remem | -ber me_. Oft as | summer | closes, When thine | eye re | -poses On its | ling'ring | roses, Once so | loved by | thee, Think of | her who | wove them, Her who | made thee | love them; _Oh! then | remem | -ber me_." MOORE'S _Melodies, Songs, and Airs_, p. 107. _Example IV.--From an Ode to the Thames_. "On thy | shady | margin, Care its | load dis | -charging, _Is lull'd | to gen | -tle rest_: Britain | thus dis | -arming, Nothing | her a | -larming, _Shall sleep on Cæ | -sar's breast_." See ROWE'S POEMS: _Johnson's British Poets_, Vol. iv, p. 58. _Example V.--"The True Poet"--First Two of Nine Stanzas_. 1. "Poet | of the | heart, Delving | in its | mine, From man | -kind a | -part, Yet where | jewels | shine; Heaving | upward | to the | light, Precious | wealth that | charms the | sight; 2. Toil thou | still, deep | down, For earth's | hidden | gems; They shall | deck a | crown, Blaze in | dia | -dems; _And when | thy hand | shall fall | to rest_, Brightly | jewel | beauty's | breast." JANE B. LOCKE: _N. Y. Evening Post; The Examiner, No. 98_. _Example VI.--"Summer Longings"--First Two of Five Stanzas_. "Ah! my | heart is | ever | waiting, Waiting | for the | May,-- Waiting | for the | pleasant | rambles Where the | fragrant | hawthorn | brambles, With the | woodbine | alter | -nating, Scent the | dewy | way. Ah! my | heart is | weary | waiting, Waiting | for the | May. Ah! my | heart is | sick with | longing, Longing | for the | May,-- Longing | to e | -scape from | study, To the | young face | fair and | ruddy, And the | thousand | charms be | -longing To the | Summer's | day. Ah! my | heart is | sick with | longing, Longing | for the | May." "D. F. M. C.:" _Dublin University Magazine; Liberator, No_. 952. MEASURE VII.--TROCHAIC OF TWO FEET, OR DIMETER. _Example I.--Three Short Excerpts._ 1. "My flocks | feed not, My ewes | breed not, My rams | speed not, All is | _amiss_: Love's de | -nying, Faith's de | -fying, Heart's re | -nying, Causer | _of this_." 2. "In black | mourn I, All fears | scorn I, Love hath | lorn me, Living | _in thrall_: Heart is | bleeding, All help | needing. (Cruel | speeding,) Fraughted | _with gall_." 3. "Clear wells | spring not. Sweet birds | sing not, Loud bells | ring not _Cheerfully_; Herds stand | weeping, Flocks all | sleeping, Nymphs back | creeping _Fearfully_." SHAKSPEARE: _The Passionate Pilgrim_. See Sec. xv. _Example II.--Specimen with Single Rhyme. "To Quinbus Flestrin, the Man-Mountain"_ A LILLIPUTIAN ODE I. "In a | -maze, Lost, I | gaze. Can our | eyes Reach thy | size? May my | lays Swell with | praise, Worthy | thee, Worthy | me! Muse, in | -spire All thy | fire! Bards of | old Of him | told, When they | said Atlas' | head Propp'd the | skies: See! and | _believe_ | _your eyes!_ II. "See him | stride Valleys | wide: Over | woods, Over | floods, When he | treads, Mountains' | heads Groan and | shake: Armies | quake, Lest his | spurn Over | -turn Man and | steed: Troops, take | heed! Left and | right Speed your | flight! Lest an | host _Beneath_ | _his foot_ | _be lost_. III. "Turn'd a | -side From his | hide, Safe from | wound, Darts re | -bound. From his | nose, Clouds he | blows; When he | speaks, Thunder | breaks! When he | eats, Famine | threats! When he | drinks, Neptune | shrinks! Nigh thy | ear, In mid | air, On thy | hand, Let me | stand. So shall | I (Lofty | poet!) touch the sky." JOHN GAY: _Johnson's British Poets_, Vol. vii, p. 376. _Example III.--Two Feet with Four._ "Oh, the | pleasing, | pleasing | anguish, When we | love, and | when we | languish! Wishes | rising! Thoughts sur | -prising! Pleasure | courting! Charms trans | -porting! Fancy | viewing Joys en | -suing! Oh, the | pleasing, | pleasing | anguish!" ADDISON'S _Rosamond_, Act i, Scene 6. _Example IV.--Lines of Three Syllables with Longer Metres_. 1. WITH TROCHAICS. "Or we | sometimes | pass an | hour Under | a green | willow, That de | -fends us | from the | shower, Making | earth our | pillow; Where we | may Think and | pray, B=e'fore | death Stops our | breath: Other | joys, Are but | toys, And to | be la | -mented." [515] 2. WITH IAMBICS. "What sounds | were heard, What scenes | appear'd, O'er all | the drear | -y coasts! Dreadful | gleams, Dismal | screams, Fires that | glow, Shrieks of | wo, Sullen | moans, Hollow | groans, And cries | of tor | -tur'd ghosts!" POPE: _Johnson's Brit. Poets_, Vol. vi, p. 315. _Example V.--"The Shower."--In Four Regular Stanzas_. 1. "In a | valley | that I | know-- Happy | scene! There are | meadows | sloping | low, There the | fairest | flowers | blow, And the | brightest | waters | flow. All se | -rene; But the | sweetest | thing to | see, If you | ask the | dripping | tree, Or the | harvest | -hoping | swain, Is the | Rain. 2. Ah, the | dwellers | of the | town, How they | sigh,-- How un | -grateful | -ly they | frown, When the | cloud-king | shakes his | crown, And the | pearls come | pouring | down From the | sky! They de | -scry no | charm at | all Where the | sparkling | jewels | fall, And each | moment | of the | shower, Seems an | hour! 3. Yet there's | something | very | sweet In the | sight, When the | crystal | currents | meet In the | dry and | dusty | street, And they | wrestle | with the | heat, In their | might! While they | seem to | hold a | talk With the | stones a | -long the | walk, And re | -mind them | of the | rule, To 'keep | cool!' 4. Ay, but | in that | quiet | dell, Ever | fair, Still the | Lord doth | all things | well, When his | clouds with | blessings | swell, And they | break a | brimming | shell On the | air; There the | shower | hath its | charms, Sweet and | welcome | to the | farms As they | listen | to its | voice, And re | -joice!" Rev. RALPH HOYT'S _Poems: The Examiner_, Nov. 6, 1847. _Example VI.--"A Good Name?"--Two Beautiful Little Stanzas_. 1. "Children, | choose it, Don't re | -fuse it, 'Tis a | precious | dia | -dem; Highly | prize it, Don't de | -spise it, You will | need it | when you're | men. 2. Love and | cherish, Keep and | nourish, 'Tis more | precious | far than | gold; Watch and | guard it, Don't dis | -card it, You will | need it | when you're | old." _The Family Christian Almanac, for 1850_, p. 20. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--Trochaics of two feet, like those of three, are, more frequently than otherwise, found in connexion with longer lines, as in some of the examples above cited. The trochaic line of three syllables, which our prosodists in general describe as consisting, not of two feet; but "of one Trochee and a long syllable," may, when it stands alone, be supposed to consist of one _amphimac_; but, since this species of foot is not admitted by all, and is reckoned a secondary one by those who do admit it, the better practice is, to divide even the three syllables into two feet, as above. OBS. 2.--Murray, Hart, Weld, and many others, erroneously affirm, that, "The _shortest_ Trochaic verse in our language, consists of one Trochee and a long syllable."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 256; _Hart's, First Edition_, p. 186; _Weld's, Second Edition_, p. 210. The error of this will be shown by examples below--examples of _true "Trochaic Monometer_," and not of Dimeter mistaken for it, like Weld's, Hart's, or Murray's. OBS. 3.--These authors also aver, that, "This measure is _defective in dignity_, and can seldom be used on serious occasions."--_Same places_. "Trochaic of _two feet_--is likewise so _brief_, that," in their opinion, "it is rarely used for any very serious purpose."--_Same places_. Whether the expression of love, or of its disappointment, is "any very serious purpose" or not, I leave to the decision of the reader. What lack of dignity or seriousness there is, in several of the foregoing examples, especially the last two, I think it not easy to discover. MEASURE VIII.--TROCHAIC OF ONE FOOT, OR MONOMETER. _Examples with Longer Metres_. 1. WITH IAMBICS. "Fr~om w=alk | t~o w=alk, | fr~om sh=ade | t~o sh=ade, From stream to purl | -ing stream | convey'd, Through all | the ma | -zes of | the grove, Through all | the ming | -ling tracks | I rove, Turning, Burning, Changing, Ranging, F=ull ~of | gri=ef ~and | f=ull ~of | l=ove." ADDISON'S _Rosamond_, Act I, Sc. 4: _Everett's Versification_, p. 81. 2. WITH ANAPESTICS, &c. "T~o l=ove ~and t~o l=angu~ish, T~o s=igh | ~and c~ompl=ain, H~ow cr=u~el's th~e =angu~ish! H~ow t~orm=ent | -~ing th~e p=ain! Suing, Pursuing, Flying, Denying, O the curse | of disdain! How torment | -ing's the pain!" GEO. GRANVILLE: _Br. Poets_, Vol. v, p. 31. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--The metres acknowledged in our ordinary schemes of prosody, scarcely amount, with all their "boundless variety," to more than one half, or three quarters, of what may be found in _actual use_ somewhere. Among the foregoing examples, are some which are longer, and some which are shorter, than what are commonly known to our grammarians; and some, also, which seem easily practicable, though perhaps not so easily quotable. This last trochaic metre, so far as I know, has not been used alone,--that is, without longer lines,--except where grammarians so set examples of it in their prosodies. OBS. 2.--"Trochaic of One foot," as well as "Iambic of One foot," was, I believe, first recognized, prosodically, in Brown's Institutes of English Grammar, a work first published in 1823. Since that time, both have obtained acknowledgement in sundry schemes of versification, contained in the new grammars; as in Farnum's, and Hallock's, of 1842; in Pardon Davis's, of 1845; in S. W. Clark's, and S. S. Greene's, of 1848; in Professor Fowler's, of 1850. Wells, in his School Grammar, of 1846, and D. C. Allen, in an other, of 1847, give to the _length of lines_ a laxity positively absurd: "_Rhymed_ verses," say they, "may consist of _any number_ of syllables."--_Wells_, 1st Ed., p. 187; late Ed., 204; _Allen_, p. 88. Everett has recognized "_The line of a single Trochee_," though he repudiates some long measures that are much more extensively authorized. ORDER III.--ANAPESTIC VERSE. In full Anapestic verse, the stress is laid on every third syllable, the first two syllables of each foot being short. The first foot of an anapestic line, may be an iambus. This is the most frequent diversification of the order. But, as a diversification, it is, of course, not _regular_ or _uniform_. The stated or uniform adoption of the iambus for a part of each line, and of the anapest for the residue of it, produces verse of the _Composite Order_. As the anapest ends with a long syllable, its rhymes are naturally single; and a short syllable after this, producing double rhyme, is, of course, supernumerary: so are the two, when the rhyme is triple. Some prosodists suppose, a surplus at the end of a line may compensate for a deficiency at the beginning of the next line; but this I judge to be an error, or at least the indulgence of a questionable license. The following passage has two examples of what may have been _meant_ for such compensation, the author having used a dash where I have inserted what seems to be a necessary word:-- "Apol | -lo smil'd shrewd | -ly, and bade | him sit down, With 'Well, | Mr. Scott, | you have man | -aged the town; Now pray, | copy less-- | have a lit | -tle temer | -_~it~y_-- [And] Try | if you can't | also man | -age poster | -_ity_. [For] All | you add now | only les | -sens your cred | -_it_; And how | could you think, | too, of tak | -ing to ed | -_ite?_'" LEIGH HUNT'S _Feast of the Poets_, page 20. The anapestic measures are few; because their feet are long, and no poet has chosen to set a great many in a line. Possibly lines of five anapests, or of four and an initial iambus, might be written; for these would scarcely equal in length some of the iambics and trochaics already exhibited. But I do not find any examples of such metre. The longest anapestics that have gained my notice, are of fourteen syllables, being tetrameters with triple rhyme, or lines of four anapests and two short surplus syllables. This order consists therefore of measures reducible to the following heads:-- MEASURE I.--ANAPESTIC OF FOUR FEET, OR TETRAMETER. _Example I.--A "Postscript."--An Example with Hypermeter._ "Lean Tom, | when I saw | him, last week, | on his _horse_ | _awry_, Threaten'd loud | -ly to turn | me to stone | with his _sor_ | -_cery_. But, I think, | little Dan, | that, in spite | of what _our_ | _foe says_, He will find | I read Ov | -id and his | Meta_mor_ | -_phoses_. For, omit | -ting the first, | (where I make | a com_par_ | -_ison_, With a sort | of allu | -sion to Put | -land or _Har_ | -_rison_,) Yet, by | my descrip | -tion, you'll find | he in _short_ | _is_ A pack | and a gar | -ran, a top | and a _tor_ | -_toise_. So I hope | from hencefor | -ward you ne'er | will ask, _can_ | _I maul_ This teas | -ing, conceit | -ed, rude, in | -solent _an_ | -_imal?_ And, if | this rebuke | might be turn'd | to his _ben_ | -_efit_, (For I pit | -y the man,) | I should | be glad _then_ | _of it_" SWIFT'S POEMS: _Johnson's British Poets_, Vol. v, p. 324. _Example II.--"The Feast of the Poets."--First Twelve Lines._ "T' other day, | as Apol | -lo sat pitch | -ing his darts Through the clouds | of Novem | -ber, by fits | and by starts, He began | to consid | -er how long | it had been Since the bards | of Old Eng | -land had all | been rung in. 'I think,' | said the god, | recollect | -ing, (and then He fell twid | -dling a sun | -beam as I | may my pen,) 'I think-- | let me see-- | yes, it is, | I declare, As long | ago now | as that Buck | -ingham there; And yet | I can't see | why I've been | so remiss, Unless | it may be-- | and it cer | -tainly is, That since Dry | -den's fine ver | -ses and Mil | -ton's sublime, I have fair | -ly been sick | of their sing | -song and rhyme.'" LEIGH HUNT: _Poems_, New-York Edition, of 1814. _Example III.--The Crowning of Four Favourites._ "Then, 'Come,' | cried the god | in his el | -egant mirth, 'Let us make | us a heav'n | of our own | upon earth, And wake, | with the lips | that we dip | in our bowls, That divin | -est of mu | -sic--conge | -nial souls.' So say | -ing, he led | through the din | -ing-room door, And, seat | -ing the po | -ets, cried, 'Lau | -rels for four!' No soon | -er demand | -ed, than, lo! | they were there, And each | of the bards | had a wreath | in his hair. Tom Camp | -bell's with wil | -low and pop | -lar was twin'd, And South | -ey's, with moun | -tain-ash, pluck'd | in the wind; And Scott's, | with a heath | from his old | garden stores, And, with vine | -leaves and jump | -up-and-kiss | -me, Tom Moore's." LEIGH HUNT: from line 330 to line 342. _Example IV.--"Glenara."--First Two of Eight Stanzas._ "O heard | ye yon pi | -broch sound sad | in the gale, Where a band | cometh slow | -ly with weep | -ing and wail! 'Tis the chief | of Glena | -ra laments | for his dear; And her sire, | and the peo | -ple, are called | to her bier. Glena | -ra came first | with the mourn | -ers and shroud; Her kins | -men, they fol | -lowed, but mourned | not aloud; Their plaids | all their bo | -soms were fold | -ed around; They marched | all in si | -lence--they looked | on the ground." T. CAMPBELL'S _Poetical Works_, p. 105. _Example V.--"Lochiel's Warning."--Ten Lines from Eighty-six._ "'Tis the sun | -set of life | gives me mys | -tical lore, And com | -ing events | cast their shad | -ows before. I tell | thee, Cullo | -den's dread ech | -oes shall ring With the blood | -hounds that bark | for thy fu | -gitive king. Lo! anoint | -ed by Heav'n | with the vi | -als of wrath, Behold, | where he flies | on his des | -olate path! Now, in dark | -ness and bil | -lows he sweeps | from my sight; Rise! rise! | ye wild tem | -pests, and cov | -er his flight! 'Tis fin | -ished. Their thun | -ders are hushed | on the moors; Cullo | -den is lost, | and my coun | -try deplores."--_Ib._, p. 89. _Example VI.--"The Exile of Erin."--The First of Five Stanzas._ "There came | to the beach | a poor Ex | -ile of E | -_r~in_, The dew | on his thin | robe was heav | -y and chill; For his coun | -try he sighed, | when at twi | -light repair | -_~ing_ To wan | -der alone | by the wind | -beaten hill. But the day | -star attract | -ed his eye's | sad devo | -_t~ion_, For it rose | o'er his own | native isle | of the o | -_c~ean_, Where once, | in the fire | of his youth | -ful emo | _t~ion_, He sang | the bold an | -them of E | -rin go bragh."--_Ib._, p. 116. _Example VII.--"The Poplar Field."_ "_The pop_ | -lars are fell'd, | _farewell_ | to the shade, And the whis | -pering sound | of the cool | colonnade; _The winds_ | play no lon | -ger and sing | in the leaves, _Nor Ouse_ | on his bo | -som their im | -age receives. _Twelve years_ | have elaps'd, | since I last | took a view Of my fa | -vourite field, | and the bank | where they grew; _And now_ | in the grass | _behold_ | they are laid, And the tree | is my seat | that once lent | me a shade. _The black_ | -bird has fled | to anoth | -er retreat, Where the ha | -zels afford | him a screen | from the heat, And the scene, | where his mel | -ody charm'd | me before, _Resounds_ | with his sweet | -flowing dit | -ty no more. _My fu_ | -gitive years | are all hast | -ing away, _And I_ | must ere long | lie as low | -ly as they, With a turf | on my breast, | and a stone | at my head, Ere anoth | -er such grove | shall arise | in its stead. 'Tis a sight | to engage | me, if an | -y thing can, _To muse_ | on the per | -ishing pleas | -ures of man; Though his life | be a dream, | his enjoy | -ments, I see, Have a be | -ing less dur | -able e | -ven than he." COWPER'S _Poems_, Vol. i, p. 257. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--Everett avers, that, "The purely Anapestic measure is more easily constructed than the Trochee, [Trochaic,] and of much more frequent occurrence."--_English Versification_, p. 97. Both parts of this assertion are at least very questionable; and so are this author's other suggestions, that, "The Anapest is [necessarily] the vehicle of _gayety and joy_;" that, "Whenever this measure is employed in the treating of _sad_ subjects, _the effect is destroyed_;" that, "Whoever should attempt to write an elegy in this measure, would be _sure to fail_;" that, "The words might express grief, but the measure _would express joy_;" that, "The Anapest should never be employed throughout a _long piece_;" because "buoyancy of spirits can never be supposed to last,"--"sadness _never leaves us_, BUT joy remains but for a moment;" and, again, because, "the measure is _exceedingly monotonous_."--_Ibid._, pp. 97 and 98. OBS. 2.--Most anapestic poetry, so far as I know, is in pieces of no great length; but Leigh Hunt's "Feast of the Poets," which is thrice cited above, though not a long _poem_, may certainly be regarded as "_a long piece_," since it extends through fifteen pages, and contains four hundred and thirty-one lines, all, or nearly all, of anapestic tetrameter. And, surely, no poet had ever more need of a metre well suited to his purpose, than he, who, intending a critical as well as a descriptive poem, has found so much fault with the versification of others. Pope, as a versifier, was regarded by this author, "not only as no master of his art, but as a very indifferent practiser."--_Notes on the Feast of the Poets_, p. 35. His "_monotonous and cloying_" use of numbers, with that of Darwin, Goldsmith, Johnson, Haley, and others of the same "school," is alleged to have wrought a general corruption of taste in respect to versification--a fashion that has prevailed, not temporarily, "_But ever since Pope spoil'd the ears of the town With his cuckoo-song verses, half up and half down_"--_Ib._ OBS. 3.--Excessive monotony is thus charged by one critic upon all verse of "the purely Anapestic measure;" and, by an other, the same fault is alleged in general terms against all the poetry "of the school of Pope," well-nigh the whole of which is iambic. The defect is probably in either case, at least half imaginary; and, as for the inherent joyousness of anapestics, that is perhaps not less ideal. Father Humphrey says, "Anapæstic and amphibrachic verse, being similar in measure and movement, are pleasing to the ear, and well adapted to cheerful and humourous compositions; and _sometimes to elegiac compositions_, and subjects important and solemn."--_Humphrey's English Prosody_, p. 17. OBS. 4.--The anapest, the dactyl, and the amphibrach, have this in common,--that each, with one long syllable, takes two short ones. Hence there is a degree of similarity in their rhythms, or in their several effects upon the ear; and consequently lines of each order, (or of any two, if the amphibrachic be accounted a separate order,) are sometimes commingled. But the propriety of acknowledging an order of "_Amphibrachic verse_," as does Humphrey, is more than doubtful; because, by so doing, we not only recognize the amphibrach as one of the principal feet, but make a vast number of lines ambiguous in their scansion. For our Amphibrachic order will be _made up_ of lines that are commonly scanned as anapestics--such anapestics as are diversified by an iambus at the beginning, and sometimes also by a surplus short syllable at the end; as in the following verses, better divided as in the sixth example above:-- "Th~ere c=ame t~o | th~e b=each ~a | p~oor Ex~ile | ~of Er~in The dew on | his thin robe | was heavy | and chill: F~or h~is co=un | -tr~y h~e s=ighed, | wh=en ~at tw=i | -l~ight r~ep=air | _-~ing_ To wander | alone by | the wind-beat | -en hill." MEASURE II.--ANAPESTIC OF THREE FEET, OR TRIMETER. _Example I.--"Alexander Selkirk."--First Two Stanzas._ I. "I am mon | -arch of all | I survey, My right | there is none | to dispute; From the cen | -tre all round | to the sea, I am lord | of the fowl | and the brute. O Sol | -itude! where | are the charms That sa | -ges have seen | in thy face? Better dwell | in the midst | of alarms, Than reign | in this hor | -rible place. II. I am out | of human | -ity's reach, I must fin | -ish my jour | -ney alone, Never hear | the sweet mu | -sic of speech, I start | at the sound | of my own. The beasts | that roam o | -ver the plain, My form | with indif | -ference see; They are so | unacquaint | -ed with man, Their tame | -ness is shock | -ing to me." COWPER'S _Poems_, Vol. i, p. 199. _Example II.--"Catharina."--Two Stanzas from Seven._ IV. "Though the pleas | -ures of Lon | -don exceed In num | -ber the days | of the year, Cathari | -na, did noth | -ing impede, Would feel | herself hap | -pier here; For the close | -woven arch | -es of limes On the banks | of our riv | -er, I know, Are sweet | -er to her | many times Than aught | that the cit | -y can show. V. So it is, | when the mind | is endued With a well | -judging taste | from above; Then, wheth | -er embel | -lish'd or rude, 'Tis na | -ture alone | that we love. The achieve | -ments of art | may amuse, May e | -ven our won | -der excite, But groves, | hills, and val | -leys, diffuse A last | -ing, a sa | -cred delight." COWPER'S _Poems_, Vol. ii, p. 232. _Example III.--"A Pastoral Ballad."--Two Stanzas from Twenty-seven._ (8.) "Not a pine | in my grove | is there seen, But with ten | -drils of wood | -bine is bound; Not a beech | 's more beau | -tiful green, But a sweet | -briar twines | it around, Not my fields | in the prime | of the year More charms | than my cat | -tle unfold; Not a brook | that is lim | -pid and clear, But it glit | -ters with fish | -es of gold. (9) One would think | she might like | to retire To the bow'r | I have la | -bour'd to rear; Not a shrub | that I heard | her admire, But I hast | -ed and plant | -ed it there. O how sud | -den the jes | -samine strove With the li | -lac to ren | -der it gay! Alread | -y it calls | for my love, To prune | the wild branch | -es away." SHENSTONE: _British Poets_, Vol. vii, p. 139. Anapestic lines of four feet and of three are sometimes alternated in a stanza, as in the following instance:-- _Example IV.--"The Rose."_ "The rose | had been wash'd, | just wash'd | in a show'r, Which Ma | -ry to An | -na convey'd; The plen | -tiful moist | -ure encum | -ber'd the flow'r, And weigh'd | down its beau | -tiful head. The cup | was all fill'd, | and the leaves | were all wet, And it seem'd | to a fan | -ciful view, To weep | for the buds | it had left, | with regret, On the flour | -ishing bush | where it grew. I hast | -ily seized | it, unfit | as it was For a nose | -gay, so drip | -ping and drown'd, And, swing | -ing it rude | -ly, too rude | -ly, alas! I snapp'd | it,--it fell | to the ground. And such, | I exclaim'd, | is the pit | -iless part Some act | by the del | -icate mind, Regard | -less of wring | -ing and break | -ing a heart Alread | -y to sor | -row resign'd. This el | -egant rose, | had I shak | -en it less, Might have bloom'd | with its own | -er a while; And the tear | that is wip'd | with a lit | -tle address, May be fol | -low'd perhaps | by a smile." COWPER: _Poems_, Vol. i, p. 216; _English Reader_, p. 212. MEASURE III.--ANAPESTIC OF TWO FEET, OR DIMETER. _Example I.--Lines with Hypermeter and Double Rhyme._ "CORONACH," OR FUNERAL SONG. 1. "He is gone | on the mount | -a~in He is lost | to the for | -~est Like a sum | -mer-dried foun | -ta~in When our need | was the sor | -~est. The font, | reappear | -~ing, From the rain | -drops shall bor | -r~ow, But to us | comes no cheer | -~ing, Do Dun | -can no mor | -r~ow! 2. The hand | of the reap | -~er Takes the ears | that are hoar | -~y, But the voice | of the weep | -~er Wails man | -hood in glo | -r~y; The au | -tumn winds rush | -~ing, Waft the leaves | that are sear | -~est, But our flow'r | was in flush | -~ing, When blight | -ing was near | -~est." WALTER SCOTT: _Lady of the Lake_, Canto iii, St. 16. _Example II.--Exact Lines of Two Anapests._ "Prithee, Cu | -pid, no more Hurl thy darts | at threescore; To thy girls | and thy boys, Give thy pains | and thy joys; Let Sir Trust | -y and me From thy frol | -ics be free." ADDISON: _Rosamond_, Act ii, Scene 2; _Ev. Versif._, p. 100. _Example III--An Ode, from the French of Malherbe_. "This An | -na so fair, So talk'd | of by fame, Why dont | she appear? Indeed, | she's to blame! Lewis sighs | for the sake Of her charms, | as they say; What excuse | can she make For not com | -ing away? If he does | not possess, He dies | with despair; Let's give | him redress, And go find | out the fair" "Cette Anne si belle, Qu'on vante si fort, Pourquoi ne vient elle? Vraiment, elle a tort! Son Louis soupire, Après ses appas; Que veut elle dire, Qu'elle ne vient pas? S'il ne la posséde, Il s'en va mourir; Donnons y reméde, Allons la quérir." WILLIAM KING, LL. D.: _Johnson's British Poets_, Vol. iii, p. 590. _Example IV.--'Tis the Last Rose of Summer_. 1. "'Tis the last | rose of sum | -_m~er_, Left bloom | -ing alone; All her love | -ly compan | -_i~ons_ Are fad | -ed and gone; No flow'r | of her kin | -_dr~ed_, No rose | -bud is nigh, To give | back her blush | -_~es_, Or give | sigh for sigh. 2. I'll not leave | thee, thou lone | _~one!_ To pine | on the stem! Since the love | -ly are sleep | -_~ing_, Go, sleep | thou with them; Thus kind | -ly I scat | -_t~er_ Thy leaves | o'er thy bed, Where thy mates | of the gar | -_d~en_ Lie scent | -less and dead. 3. So, soon | may I fol | -_l~ow_, When friend | -ships decay, And, from love's | shining cir | -_cl~e_, The gems | drop away; When true | hearts lie with | -_~er'd_, And fond | ones are flown, Oh! who | would inhab | -_it_ This bleak | world alone ?" T. MOORE: _Melodies, Songs, and Airs_, p. 171. _Example V.--Nemesis Calling up the Dead Astarte_. "Shadow! | or spir | -_~it!_ Whatev | -er thou art, Which still | doth inher | -_~it_ The whole | or a part Of the form | of thy birth, Of the mould | of thy clay, Which return'd | to the earth, Re-appear | to the day! Bear what | thou bor | -_~est_, The heart | and the form, And the as | -pect thou wor | -_~est_ Redeem | from the worm! Appear!--Appear!--Appear!" LORD BYRON: _Manfred_, Act ii, Sc. 4. _Example VI.--Anapestic Dimeter with Trimeter_. FIRST VOICE. "Make room | for the com | -bat, make room; Sound the trum | -pet and drum; A fair | -er than Ve | -nus prepares To encoun | -ter a great | -er than Mars. Make room | for the com | -bat, make room; Sound the trum | -pet and drum." SECOND VOICE. "Give the word | to begin, Let the com | -batants in, The chal | -lenger en | -ters all _glo | r~io~us_; But Love | has decreed, Though Beau | -ty may bleed, Yet Beau | -ty shall still | be vic_to | -r~io~us_." GEORGE GRANVILLE: _Johnson's British Poets_, Vol. v, p. 58. _Example VII.--Anapestic Dimeter with Tetrameter_. AIR. "Let the pipe's | merry notes | aid the skill | of the voice; For our wish | -es are crown'd, | and our hearts | shall rejoice. Rejoice, | and be glad; For, sure, | he is mad, Who, where mirth, | and good hum | -mour, and har | -mony's found, Never catch | -es the smile, | nor lets pleas | -ure go round. Let the stu | -pid be grave, 'Tis the vice | of the slave; But can nev | -er agree With a maid | -en like me, Who is born | in a coun | -try that's hap | -py and free." LLOYD: _Johnson's British Poets_, Vol. viii, p, 178. MEASURE IV.--ANAPESTIC OF ONE FOOT, OR MONOMETER. This measure is rarely if ever used except in connexion with longer lines. The following example has six anapestics of two feet, and two of one; but the latter, being verses of double rhyme, have each a surplus short syllable; and four of the former commence with the iambus:-- _Example I.--A Song in a Drama._ "Now, mor |-tal, prepare, For thy fate | is at hand; Now, mor |-tal, prepare, ~And s~urr=en |-d~er. For Love | shall arise, Whom no pow'r | can withstand, Who rules | from the skies T~o th~e c=en |-tr~e." GRANVILLE, VISCOUNT LANSDOWNE: _Joh. Brit. Poets_, Vol. v, p. 49. The following extract, (which is most properly to be scanned as anapestic, though considerably diversified,) has two lines, each of which is pretty evidently composed of a single anapest:-- _Example II.--A Chorus in the Same_. "Let trum |-pets and tym |-b~als, Let at~a |--bals and cym |-b~als, Let drums | and let haut |-boys give o |-v~er; B~ut l~et fl=utes, And l~et l=utes Our pas |-sions excite To gent |-ler delight, And ev |-ery Mars | be a lov |-~er." _Ib._, p. 56. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--That a single anapest, a single foot of any kind, or even a single long syllable, may be, and sometimes is, in certain rather uncommon instances, set as a line, is not to be denied. "Dr. Caustic," or T. G. Fessenden, in his satirical "Directions for _Doing_ Poetry," uses in this manner the monosyllables, "_Whew_," "_Say_," and "_Dress_" and also the iambs, "_The gay_" and, "_All such_," rhyming them with something less isolated. OBS. 2.--Many of our grammarians give anonymous examples of what they conceive to be "_Anapestic Monometer_," or "_the line of one anapest_," while others--(as Allen, Bullions, Churchill, and Hiley--) will have the length of two anapests to be the _shortest_ measure of this order. Prof. Hart says, "The shortest anapæstic verse is a _single_ anapæst; as, '~In =a sw=eet R~es~on=ance, ~All th~eir f=eet ~In th=e d=ance ~All th=e n=ight T~inkl~ed l=ight.' This measure," it is added, "is, however, _ambiguous_; for by laying an accent on the first, as well as the third syllable, we may generally make it a trochaic."--_Hart's English Gram._, p. 188. The same six versicles are used as an example by Prof. Fowler, who, without admitting any ambiguity in the measure, introduces them, rather solecistically, thus: "_Each_ of the following lines _consist_ of a single Anapest."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, 8vo, 1850, §694. OBS. 3.--Verses of three syllables, with the second short, the last long, and the first _common, or variable_, are, it would seem, _doubly doubtful_ in scansion; for, while the first syllable, if made short, gives us an anapest, to make it long, gives either an amphimac or what is virtually two trochees. For reasons of choice in the latter case, see Observation 1st on Trochaic Dimeter. For the _fixing of variable quantities_, since the case admits no other rule, regard should be had to the _analogy of the verse_, and also to the common principles of accentuation. It is doubtless possible to read the six short lines above, into the measure of so many _anapests_; but, since the two monosyllables "_In_" and "_All_" are as easily made long as short, whoever considers the common pronunciation of the longer words, "_Resonance_" and "_Tinkled_," may well doubt whether the learned professors have, in this instance, hit upon the right mode of scansion. The example may quite as well be regarded either as Trochaic Dimeter, cataletic, or as Amphimacric Monometer, acatalectic. But the word _resonance_, being accented usually on the first syllable only, is naturally a _dactyl_; and, since the other five little verses end severally with a monosyllable, which _can_ be varied in quantity, it is possible to read them all as being _dactylics_; and so the whole may be regarded as _trebly doubtful_ with respect to the measure. OBS. 4.--L. Murray says, "_The shortest anapæstic verse must be a single anapæst_; as, B~ut ~in v=ain They complain." And then he adds, "This measure is, however, ambiguous; for, by laying the stress of the voice on the first and third syllables, we _might make_ a trochaic. _And therefore_ the first and simplest form of our genuine Anapæstic verse, is made up of _two anapæsts_."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 257; 12mo, p. 207. This conclusion is utterly absurd, as well as completely contradictory to his first assertion. The genuineness of this small metre depends not at all on what may be made of the same words by other pronunciation; nor can it be a very natural reading of this passage, that gives to "_But_" and "_They_" such emphasis as will make them long. OBS. 5.--Yet Chandler, in his improved grammar of 1847, has not failed to repeat the substance of all this absurdity and self-contradiction, carefully dressing it up in other language, thus: "Verses composed of single Anapæsts _are frequently found_ in stanzas of songs; and the same is true of several of the other kinds of feet; _but we may consider the first_ [i.e., shortest] _form_ of anapæstic verse as consisting of _two_ Anapæsts."--_Chandler's Common School Gram._, p. 196. OBS. 6.--Everett, speaking of anapestic lines, says, "The first and shortest of these is composed of a _single Anapest following an Iambus_."--_English Versification_, p. 99. This not only denies the existence of _Anapestic Monometer_, but improperly takes for the Anapestic verse what is, by the statement itself, half Iambic, and therefore of the Composite Order. But the false assertion is plainly refuted even by the author himself and on the same page. For, at the bottom of the page, he has this contradictory note: "It has been remarked (§15) that though the Iambus with an additional short syllable _is the shortest line that is known_ to Iambic verse, _there are isolated instances of a single Iambus_, and even of a _single long syllable_. There are examples of _lines made up of a single Anapest_, as the following example will show:-- 'Jove in his chair, Of the sky lord mayor, With his nods Men and gods Keeps in awe; When he winks, Heaven shrinks; * * * * Cock of the school, He bears despotic rule; His word, Though absurd, Must be law. Even Fate, Though so great, Must not prate; His bald pate Jove would cuff, He's so bluff, For a straw. Cowed deities, Like mice in cheese, To stir must cease Or gnaw.' O'HARA:--_Midas_, Act i, Sc. 1."--_Everett's Versification_, p. 99 ORDER IV.--DACTYLIC VERSE. In pure Dactylic verse, the stress is laid on the first syllable of each successive three; that is, on the first, the fourth, the seventh, and the tenth syllable of each line of four feet. Full dactylic generally forms triple rhyme. When one of the final short syllables is omitted, the rhyme is double; when both, single. These omissions are here essential to the formation of such rhymes. Dactylic with double rhyme, ends virtually with a _trochee_; dactylic with single rhyme, commonly ends with a _cæsura_; that is, with a long syllable taken for a foot. Dactylic with single rhyme is the same as anapestic would be without its initial short syllables. Dactylic verse is rather uncommon; and, when employed, is seldom perfectly pure and regular. MEASURE I.--DACTYLIC OF EIGHT FEET, OR OCTOMETER. _Example.--Nimrod._ Nimrod the | hunter was | mighty in | hunting, and | famed as the | ruler of | cities of | yore; Babel, and | Erech, and | Accad, and | Calneh, from | Shinar's fair | region his | name afar | bore. MEASURE II.--DACTYLIC OF SEVEN FEET, OR HEPTAMETER. _Example.--Christ's Kingdom._ Out of the | kingdom of | Christ shall be | gathered, by | angels o'er | Satan vic | -torious, All that of |-fendeth, that | lieth, that | faileth to | honour his | name ever | glorious. MEASURE III.--DACTYLIC OF SIX FEET, OR HEXAMETER. _Example I.--Time in Motion._ Time, thou art | ever in | motion, on | wheels of the | days, years, and | ages; Restless as | waves of the | ocean, when | Eurus or | Boreas | rages. _Example II.--Where, is Grand-Pré?_ "This is the | forest pri | -meval; but | where are the | hearts that be | -neath it Leap'd like the | roe, when he | hears in the | woodland the | voice of the | huntsman? Where is the | thatch-rooféd | village, the | home of A | -cadian | farmers?" H. W. LONGFELLOW: _Evangeline_, Part i, l. 7--9. MEASURE IV.--DACTYLIC OF FIVE FEET, OR PENTAMETER. _Example.--Salutation to America._ "Land of the | beautiful, | beautiful, | land of the | free, Land of the | negro-slave, | negro-slave, | land of the | chivalry, Often my | heart had turned, | heart had turned, | longing to | thee; Often had | mountain-side, | mountain-side, | broad lake, and | stream, Gleamed on my | waking thought, | waking thought, | crowded my | dream. Now thou dost | welcome me, | welcome me, | from the dark | sea, Land of the | beautiful, | beautiful, | land of the | free, Land of the | negro-slave, | negro-slave, | land of the | chivalry." MEASURE V.--DACTYLIC OF FOUR FEET, OR TETRAMETER. _Example 1--The Soldier's Wife._ "Weary way |-wanderer, | languid and | sick at heart, Travelling | painfully | over the | rugged road, Wild-visaged | Wanderer! | God help thee, | wretched one! Sorely thy | little one | drags by thee | barefooted; Cold is the | baby that | hangs at thy | bending back, Meagre, and | livid, and | screaming for | misery. Woe-begone | mother, half | anger, half | agony, Over thy | shoulder thou | lookest to | hush the babe, Bleakly the | blinding snow | beats in thy | haggard face. Ne'er will thy | husband re | -turn from the | war again, Cold is thy | heart, and as | frozen as | Charity! Cold are thy | children.--Now | God be thy | comforter!" ROBERT SOUTHEY: _Poems_, Philad., 1843, p. 250. _Example II.--Boys.--A Dactylic Stanza_. "Boys will an | -ticipate, | lavish, and | dissipate All that your | busy pate | hoarded with | care; And, in their | foolishness, | passion, and | mulishness, Charge you with | churlishness, | spurning your pray'r." _Example III--"Labour."--The First of Five Stanzas_. "Pause not to | dream of the | future be | -fore us; Pause not to | weep the wild | cares that come | o'er us: Hark, how Cre | -ation's deep, | musical | chorus, Uninter | -mitting, goes | up into | Heaven! Never the | ocean-wave | falters in | flowing; Never the | little seed | stops in its | growing; More and more | richly the | rose-heart keeps | glowing, Till from its | nourishing | stem it is | riven." FRANCES S. OSGOOD: _Clapp's Pioneer_, p. 94. _Example IV.--"Boat Song."--First Stanza of Four._ "Hail to the | chief who in | triumph ad | -vances! Honour'd and | bless'd be the | ever-green | pine! Long may the | tree in his | banner that | glances, Flourish, the | shelter and | grace of our | line! Heaven send it happy dew, Earth lend it sap anew, Gayly to | bourgeon, and | broadly to | grow, While ev'ry | Highland glen Sends our shout | back agen, 'Roderigh Vich Alpine Dhu, ho! ieroe!'" WALTER SCOTT: _Lady of the Lake_, C. ii, St. 19. MEASURE VI.--DACTYLIC OF THREE FEET, OR TRIMETER. _Example.--To the Katydid._ "Ka-ty-did, | Ka-ty-did, | sweetly sing,-- Sing to thy | loving mates | near to thee; Summer is | come, and the | trees are green,-- Summer's glad | season so | dear to thee. Cheerily, | cheerily, | insect, sing; Blithe be thy | notes in the | hickory; Every | bough shall an | answer ring, Sweeter than | trumpet of | victory." MEASURE VII.--DACTYLIC OF TWO FEET, OR DIMETER. _Example I.--The Bachelor.--Four Lines from Many._ "Free from sa | -tiety, Care, and anx | -iety, Charms in va | -riety, Fall to his | share."--ANON.: _Newspaper_. _Example II.--The Pibroch.--Sixteen Lines from Forty._ "Pibroch of | Donuil Dhu, Pibroch of | Donuil, Wake thy wild | voice anew. Summon Clan | -Conuil. Come away, | come away! Hark to the | summons! Come in your | war-array, Gentles and | commons! "Come as the | winds come, when Forests are | rended; Come as the | waves come, when Navies are | stranded; Faster come, | faster come, Faster and | faster! Chief, vassal, | page, and groom, Tenant and | master."--W. SCOTT. _Example III.--"My Boy."_ _'There is even a happiness that makes the heart afraid.'_--HOOD. 1. "One more new | claimant for Human fra | -ternity, Swelling the | flood that sweeps On to e | -ternity; I who have | filled the cup, Tremble to | think of it; For, be it | what it may, I must yet | drink of it. 2. Room for him | into the Ranks of hu |-manity; Give him a | place in your Kingdom of | vanity! Welcome the | stranger with Kindly af |-fection; Hopefully, | trustfully, Not with de |-jection. 3. See, in his | waywardness How his fist | doubles; Thus pugi |-listical, Daring life's | troubles: Strange that the | neophyte Enters ex |-istence In such an | attitude, Feigning re |-sistance. 4. Could he but | have a glimpse Into fu |-turity, Well might he | fight against Farther ma |-turity; Yet does it | seem to me As if his | purity Were against | sinfulness Ample se |-curity. 5. Incompre |-hensible, Budding im |-mortal, Thrust all a |-mazedly Under life's | portal; Born to a | destiny Clouded in | mystery, Wisdom it |-self cannot Guess at its | history. 6. Something too | much of this Timon-like | croaking; See his face | wrinkle now, Laughter pro |-voking. Now he cries | lustily-- Bravo, my | hearty one! Lungs like an | orator Cheering his | party on. 7. Look how his | merry eyes Turn to me | pleadingly! Can we help | loving him-- Loving ex |-ceedingly? Partly with | hopefulness, Partly with | fears, Mine, as I | look at him, Moisten with | tears. 8. Now then to | find a name;-- Where shall we | search for it? Turn to his | ancestry, Or to the | church for it? Shall we en |-dow him with Title he |-roic, After some | warrior, Poet, or | stoic? 9. One aunty | says he will Soon 'lisp in | numbers,' Turning his | thoughts to rhyme, E'en in his | slumbers; Watts rhymed in | babyhood, No blemish | spots his fame-- Christen him | even so: Young Mr. | Watts his name." ANONYMOUS: _Knickerbocker_, and _Newspapers_, 1849. MEASURE VIII.--DACTYLIC OF ONE FOOT, OR MONOMETER. "Fearfully, Tearfully." OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--A single dactyl, set as a line, can scarcely be used otherwise than as part of a stanza, and in connexion with longer verses. The initial accent and triple rhyme make it necessary to have something else with it. Hence this short measure is much less common than the others, which are accented differently. Besides, the line of three syllables, as was noticed in the observations on Anapestic Monometer, is often peculiarly uncertain in regard to the measure which it should make. A little difference in the laying of emphasis or accent may, in many instances, change it from one species of verse to an other. Even what seems to be dactylic of two feet, if the last syllable be sufficiently lengthened to admit of single rhyme with the full metre, becomes somewhat doubtful in its scansion; because, in such case, the last foot maybe reckoned an _amphimac_, or _amphimacer_. Of this, the following stanzas from Barton's lines "to the Gallic Eagle," (or to Bonaparte on St. Helena,) though different from all the rest of the piece, may serve as a specimen:-- "Far from the | _battle's shock_, Fate hath fast | bound thee; Chain'd to the | _rugged rock_, Waves warring | round thee. [Now, for] the | _trumpet's sound_, Sea-birds are | shrieking; Hoarse on thy | _rampart's bound_, Billows are | breaking." OBS. 2.--This may be regarded as verse of the Composite Order; and, perhaps, more properly so, than as Dactylic with mere incidental variations. Lines like those in which the questionable foot is here Italicized, may be united with longer dactylics, and thus produce a stanza of great beauty and harmony. The following is a specimen. It is a song, written by I know not whom, but set to music by Dempster. The twelfth line is varied to a different measure. "ADDRESS TO THE SKYLARK." "Bird of the | wilderness, Blithesome and | cumberless, Light be thy | matin o'er | moorland and | lea; Emblem of | happiness, Blest is thy | dwelling-place; O! to a |-bide in the | desert with | thee! "Wild is thy | lay, and loud, Far on the | downy cloud; Love gives it | energy, | love gave it | birth: Where, on thy | dewy wing, Where art thou | journeying? Thy lay | is in heav |-en, thy love | is on earth. "O'er moor and | mountain green, O'er fell and | fountain sheen, O'er the red | streamer that | heralds the | day; Over the | cloudlet dim, Over the | rainbow's rim, Musical | cherub, hie, | hie thee a |-way. "Then, when the | gloamin comes, Low in the | heather blooms. Sweet will thy | welcome and | bed of love | be. Emblem of | happiness, Blest is thy | dwelling-place; O! to a |-bide in the | desert with | thee!" OBS. 3.--It is observed by Churchill, (_New Gram._, p. 387,) that, "Shakspeare has used the dactyl, as appropriate to mournful occasions." The chief example which he cites, is the following:-- "Midnight, as |-sist our moan, Help us to | sigh and groan Heavily, | heavily. Graves, yawn and | yield your dead, Till death be | uttered Heavily, | heavily."--_Much Ado_, V, 3 OBS. 4.--These six lines of Dactylic (or Composite) Dimeter are subjoined by the poet to four of Trochaic Tetrameter. There does not appear to me to be any particular adaptation of either measure to mournful subjects, more than to others; but later instances of this metre may be cited, in which such is the character of the topic treated. The following long example consists of lines of two feet, most of them dactylic only; but, of the seventy-six, there are twelve which _may_ be otherwise divided, and as many more which _must_ be, because they commence with a short syllable. "THE BRIDGE OF SIGHS."--BY THOMAS HOOD. "One more un |-fortunate, Weary of | breath, Rashly im |-portunate, Gone to her | death! Take her up | tenderly, Lift her with | care; Fashioned so | slenderly, Young, and so | fair! Look at her | garments Clinging like | cerements, Whilst the wave | constantly Drips from her | clothing; Take her up | instantly, Loving, not | loathing. Touch her not | scornfully; Think of her | mournfully, Gently, and | humanly; Not of the | stains of her: All that re |-mains of her Now, is pure | womanly. Make no deep | scrutiny Into her | mutiny, Rash and un |-dutifull; Past all dis |-honour, Death has left | on her Only the | beautiful. Still, for all | slips of hers,-- One of Eve's | family,-- Wipe those poor | lips of hers, Oozing so | clammily. Loop up her | tresses, Escaped from the comb,-- Her fair auburn tresses; Whilst wonderment guesses, Where was her | home? Who was her | father? Who was her | mother? Had she a | sister? Had she a | brother? Was there a | dearer one Yet, than all | other? Alas, for the rarity Of Christian charity Under the | sun! O, it was | pitiful! Near a whole | city full, Home she had | none. Sisterly, | brotherly, Fatherly, | motherly, Feelings had | changed; Love, by harsh |evidence, Thrown from its |eminence Even God's | providence Seeming e |-stranged. Where the lamps | quiver So far in the river, With many a light, From window and casement, From garret to basement, She stood, with amazement, Houseless, by | night. The bleak wind of March Made her tremble and shiver; But not the dark arch, Or the black-flowing river: Mad from life's | history, Glad to death's | mystery, Swift to be | hurled,-- Anywhere, | anywhere, Out of the | world! In she plung'd | boldly,-- No matter how coldly The rough | river ran,-- Over the | brink of it: Picture it, | think of it, Dissolute | man!" _Clapp's Pioneer_, p. 54. OBS. 5.--As each of our principal feet,--the Iambus, the Trochee, the Anapest, and the Dactyl,--has always one, and only one long syllable; it should follow, that, in each of our principal orders of verse,--the Iambic, the Trochaic, the Anapestic, and the Dactylic,--any line, not diversified by a secondary foot, must be reckoned to contain just as many feet as long syllables. So, too, of the Amphibrach, and any line reckoned Amphibrachic. But it happens, that the common error by which single-rhymed Trochaics have so often been counted a foot _shorter_ than they are, is also extended by some writers to single-rhymed Dactylics--the rhyming syllable, if long, being esteemed _supernumerary!_ For example, three dactylic stanzas, in each of which a pentameter couplet is followed by a hexameter line, and this again by a heptameter, are introduced by Prof. Hart thus: "The _Dactylic Tetrameter, Pentameter_, and _Hexameter_, with the _additional_ or _hypermeter syllable_, are all found combined in the following extraordinary specimen of versification. * * * This is the only specimen of Dactylic _hexameter_ or even _pentameter_ verse that the author recollects to have seen." LAMENT OF ADAM. "Glad was our | meeting: thy | glittering | bosom I | _heard_, Beating on | mine, like the | heart of a | timorous | _bird_; Bright were thine | eyes as the | stars, and their | glances were | radiant as | _gleams_ Falling from | eyes of the | angels, when | singing by | Eden's pur |-pureal | _streams._ "Happy as | seraphs were | we, for we | wander'd a | -_lone_, Trembling with | passionate | thrills, when the | twilight had | _flown_: Even the | echo was | silent: our | kisses and | whispers of | _love_ Languish'd un | -heard and un | -known, like the | breath of the | blossoming | buds of the | _grove._ "Life hath its | pleasures, but | fading are | they as the | _flowers_; Sin hath its | sorrows, and | sadly we | turn'd from those | _bowers_; Bright were the | angels be | -hind with their | falchions of | heavenly | _flame!_ Dark was the | desolate | desert be | -fore us, and | darker the | depth of our | _shame!_" --HENRY B. HIRST: _Hart's English Grammar_, p. 190. OBS. 6.--Of Dactylic verse, our prosodists and grammarians in general have taken but very little notice; a majority of them appearing by their silence, to have been utterly ignorant of the whole species. By many, the dactyl is expressly set down as an inferior foot, which they imagine is used only for the occasional diversification of an iambic, trochaic, or anapestic line. Thus Everett: "It is _never used_ except as a _secondary foot_, and then in the _first place_ of the line."--_English Versification_, p. 122. On this order of verse, Lindley Murray bestowed only the following words: "The DACTYLIC measure being very uncommon, we shall give only one example of one species of it:-- Fr=om th~e l~ow pl=eas~ures ~of th=is f~all~en n=at~ure, Rise we to higher, &c."--_Gram._, 12mo, p. 207; 8vo, p. 257. Read this example with _"we rise"_ for _"Rise we,"_ and all the poetry of it is gone! Humphrey says, "_Dactyle_ verse is seldom used, as remarked heretofore; but _is used occasionally_, and has three metres; viz. of 2, 3, and 4 feet. Specimens follow. 2 feet. Free from anxiety. 3 feet. Singing most sweetly and merrily. 4 feet. Dactylic measures are wanting in energy."--_English Prosody_, p. 18. Here the prosodist has made his own examples; and the last one, which unjustly impeaches all dactylics, he has made very badly--very prosaically; for the word "_Dactylic_," though it has three syllables, is properly no dactyl, but rather an amphibrach. OBS. 7.--By the Rev. David Blair, this order of poetic numbers is utterly misconceived and misrepresented. He says of it, "DACTYLIC verse consists of a _short syllable_, with one, two, or three feet, _and a long syllable_; as, 'D~istr=act~ed w~ith w=oe, 'I'll r=ush ~on th~e f=oe.' ADDISON."--_Blair's Pract. Gram._, p. 119. "'Y~e sh=eph~erds s~o ch=eerf~ul ~and g=ay, 'Wh~ose fl=ocks n~ev~er c=arel~essl~y r=oam; 'Sh~ould C=or~yd~on's h=app~en t~o str=ay, 'Oh! c=all th~e p=oor w=and~er~ers h=ome.' SHENSTONE."--_Ib._, p. 120. It is manifest, that these lines are not dactylic at all. There is not a dactyl in them. They are composed of iambs and anapests. The order of the versification is Anapestic; but it is here varied by the very common diversification of dropping the first short syllable. The longer example is from a ballad of 216 lines, of which 99 are thus varied, and 117 are full anapestics. OBS. 8.--The makers of school-books are quite as apt to copy blunders, as to originate them; and, when an error is once started in a grammar, as it passes with the user for good learning, no one can guess where it will stop. It seems worth while, therefore, in a work of this nature, to be liberal in the citation of such faults as have linked themselves, from time to time, with the several topics of our great subject. It is not probable, that the false scansion just criticised originated with Blair; for the Comprehensive Grammar, a British work, republished in its third edition, by Dobson, of Philadelphia, in 1789, teaches the same doctrine, thus: "Dactylic measure may consist of one, two, or three Dactyls, introduced by a feeble syllable, and terminated by a strong one; as, M~y | d=ear Ir~ish | f=olks, C=ome | l=eave ~off y~our | j=okes, And | b=uy ~up m~y | h=alfp~ence s~o | f=ine; S~o | f=air ~and s~o | br=ight, Th~ey'll | g=ive y~ou d~e | -l=ight: Ob | -s=erve h~ow th~ey | gl=ist~er ~and | sh=ine. SWIFT. A | c=obl~er th~ere | w=as ~and h~e | l=iv'd ~in ~a | st=all, Wh~ich | s=erv'd h~im f~or | k=itch~en, f~or | p=arl~our ~and | hall; N~o | c=oin ~in h~is | p=ock~et, n~o | c=are ~in h~is | p=ate; N~o ~am | -b=it~ion h~e | h=ad, ~and n~o | d=uns ~at h~is | g=ate." --_Comp. Gram._, p. 150. To this, the author adds, "Dactylic measure becomes Anapestic by setting off an Iambic foot in the beginning of the line."--_Ib._ These verses, all but the last one, unquestionably have an iambic foot at the beginning; and, for that reason, they are not, and by no measurement can be, dactylics. The last one is purely anapestic. All the divisional bars, in either example, are placed wrong. ORDER V.--COMPOSITE VERSE. Composite verse is that which consists of various metres, or different feet, combined,--not accidentally, or promiscuously, but by design, and with some regularity. In Composite verse, of any form, the stress must be laid rhythmically, as in the simple orders, else the composition will be nothing better than unnatural prose. The possible variety of combinations in this sort of numbers is unlimited; but, the pure and simple kinds being generally preferred, any stated mixture of feet is comparatively uncommon. Certain forms which may be scanned by other methods, are susceptible also of division as Composites. Hence there cannot be an exact enumeration of the measures of this order, but instances, as they occur, may be cited to exemplify it. _Example I.--From Swift's Irish Feast_. "O'Rourk's | noble fare | will ne'er | be forgot, By those | who were there, | or those | who were not. His rev |-els to keep, | we sup | and we dine On sev |-en score sheep, | fat bul |-locks, and swine. Usquebaugh | to our feast | in pails | was brought up, An hun |-dred at least, | and a mad |-der our cup. O there | is the sport! | we rise | with the light, In disor |-derly sort, | from snor |-ing all night. O how | was I trick'd! | my pipe | it was broke, My pock |-et was pick'd, | I lost | my new cloak. I'm ri |-fled, quoth Nell, | of man |-tle and kerch |-_er_: Why then | fare them well, | the de'il | take the search |-_er_." _Johnson's Works of the Poets_, Vol. v, p. 310. Here the measure is tetrameter; and it seems to have been the design of the poet, that each hemistich should consist of one iamb and one anapest. Such, with a few exceptions, is the arrangement throughout the piece; but the hemistichs which have double rhyme, _may_ each be divided into two amphibrachs. In Everett's Versification, at p. 100, the first six lines of this example are broken into twelve, and set in three stanzas, being given to exemplify "_The Line of a single Anapest preceded by an Iambus_," or what he improperly calls "The first and shortest species of Anapestic lines." His other instance of the same metre is also _Composite_ verse, rather than Anapestic, even by his own showing. "In the following example," says he, "we have this measure alternating with Amphibrachic lines:" _Example II.--From Byron's Manfred._ "The Captive Usurper, Hurl'd down | from the throne. Lay buried in torpor, Forgotten and lone; I broke through his slumbers, I shiv |-er'd his chain, I leagued him with numbers-- He's Ty |-rant again! With the blood | of a mill |-ion he'll an |-swer my care, With a na |-tion's destruc |-tion--his flight | and despair." --Act ii, Sc. 3. Here the last two lines, which are not cited by Everett, are pure anapestic tetrameters; and it may be observed, that, if each two of the short lines were printed as one, the eight which are here scanned otherwise, would become four of the same sort, except that these would each begin with an iambus. Hence the specimen _sounds_ essentially as anapestic verse. _Example III.--Woman on the Field of Battle_. "Gentle and | lovely form, What didst | thou here, When the fierce | battle storm Bore down | the spear? Banner and | shiver'd crest, Beside | thee strown, Tell that a |-midst the best Thy work was done! Low lies the | stately head, Earth-bound | the free: How gave those | haughty dead A place | to thee? Slumb'rer! thine | early bier Friends should | have crown'd, Many a |flow'r and tear Shedding | around. Soft voices, | dear and young, Mingling | their swell, Should o'er thy | dust have sung Earth's last | farewell. Sisters a |-bove the grave Of thy | repose Should have bid | vi'lets wave With the | white rose. Now must the | trumpet's note. Savage | and shrill, For requi'm | o'er thee float, Thou fair | and still! And the swift | charger sweep, In full | career, Trampling thy | place of sleep-- Why cam'st | thou here? Why?--Ask the | true heart why Woman | hath been Ever, where | brave men die, Unshrink |-ing seen. Unto this | harvest ground, Proud reap |-ers came, Some for that | stirring sound, A warr |-ior's name: Some for the | stormy play, And joy | of strife, And some to | fling away A wea |-ry life. But thou, pale | sleeper, thou, With the | slight frame, And the rich | locks, whose glow Death can |-not tame; Only one | thought, one pow'r, _Thee_ could | have led, So through the | tempest's hour To lift | thy head! Only the | true, the strong, The love | whose trust Woman's deep | soul too long Pours on | the dust." HEMANS: _Poetical Works_, Vol. ii, p. 157. Here are fourteen stanzas of composite dimeter, each having two sorts of lines; the first sort consisting, with a few exceptions, of a dactyl and an amphimac; the second, mostly, of two iambs; but, in some instances, of a trochee and an iamb;--the latter being, in such a connexion, much the more harmonious and agreeable combination of quantities. _Example IV.--Airs from a "Serenata."_ Air 1. "Love sounds | the alarm, And fear | is a-fly~ing; When beau |-ty's the prize, What mor |-tal fears dy |-~ing? In defence | of my treas |-~ure, I'd bleed | at each vein; Without | her no pleas |-ure; For life | is a pain." Air 2. "Consid |-er, fond shep |-h~erd, How fleet |-ing's the pleas |-~ure, That flat |-ters our hopes In pursuit | of the fair: The joys | that attend | ~it, By mo |-ments we meas |-~ure; But life | is too lit |-tle To meas |-ure our care." GAY'S POEMS: _Johnson's Works of the Poets_, VoL vii, p. 378. These verses are essentially either anapestic or amphibrachic. The anapest divides two of them in the middle; the amphibrach will so divide eight. But either division will give many iambs. By the present scansion, the _first foot_ is an iamb in all of them but the two anapestics. _Example V.--"The Last Leaf."_ 1. "I saw | him once | before As he pass |-~ed by | the door, And again The pave |-ment stones | resound As he tot |-ters o'er | the ground With his cane. 2. They say | that in | his prime, Ere the prun |-ing knife of Time Cut him down, Not a bet |-ter man | was found By the cri |-er on | his round Through the town. 3. But now | he walks | the streets, And he looks | at all | he meets So forlorn; And he shakes | his fee |-ble head, That it seems | as if | he said, They are gone. 4. The mos |-sy mar |-bles rest On the lips | that he | has press'd In their bloom; And the names | he lov'd | to hear Have been carv'd | for man |-y a year On the tomb. 5. My grand |-mamma | has said,-- Poor old La |-dy! she | is dead Long ago,-- That he had | a Ro |-man nose, And his cheek | was like | a rose In the snow. 6. But now | his nose | is thin, And it rests | upon | his chin Like a staff; And a crook | is in | his back And a mel |-anchol |-y crack In his laugh. 7. I know | it is | a sin For me [thus] | to sit | and grin At him here; But the old | three-cor |-ner'd hat, And the breech |-es, and | all that, Are so queer! 8. And if I | should live | to be The last leaf | upon | the tree In the spring,-- Let them smile, | as I | do now, At the old | forsak |-en bough Where I cling." OLIVER W. HOLMES: _The Pioneer_, 1843, p. 108. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--Composite verse, especially if the lines be short, is peculiarly liable to uncertainty, and diversity of scansion; and that which does not always abide by one chosen order of quantities, can scarcely be found agreeable; it must be more apt to puzzle than to please the reader. The eight stanzas of this last example, have eight lines of _iambic trimeter_; and, since seven times in eight, this metre holds the first place in the stanza, it is a double fault, that one such line seems strayed from its proper position. It would be better to prefix the word _Now_ to the fourth line, and to mend the forty-third thus:-- "And should | I live | to be"-- The trissyllabic feet of this piece, as I scan it, are numerous; being the sixteen short lines of monometer, and the twenty-four initial feet of the lines of seven syllables. Every one of the forty--(except the thirty-sixth, "_The_ last leaf"--) begins with a monosyllable which may be varied in quantity; so that, with stress laid on this monosyllable, the foot becomes an _amphimac_; without such stress, an _anapest_. OBS. 2.--I incline to read this piece as composed of iambs and anapests; but E. A. Poe, who has commended "the effective harmony of these lines," and called the example "an excellently well conceived and well managed specimen of versification," counts many syllables long, which such a reading makes short, and he also divides all but the iambics in a way quite different from mine, thus: "Let us scan the first stanza. 'I s=aw | h~im =once | b~ef=ore As h~e | p=ass~ed | b=y th~e | d=oor, And ~a- | g=ain Th~e p=ave- | m~ent st=ones | r~es=ound As h~e | t=ott~ers | =o'er th~e | gr=ound W=ith h~is c=ane.' This," says he, "is the general scansion of the poem. We have first three iambuses. The second line shifts the _rhythm_ into the _trochaic_, giving us three trochees, with a cæsura equivalent, in this case, to a trochee. The third line is a trochee and equivalent cæsura."--POE'S NOTES UPON ENGLISH VERSE: _Pioneer_, p. 109. These quantities are the same as those by which the whole piece is made to consist of iambs and amphimacs. OBS. 3.--In its _rhythmical effect_ upon the ear, a supernumerary short syllable at the end of a line, may sometimes, perhaps, compensate for the want of such a syllable at the beginning of the next line, as may be seen in the fourth example above; but still it is unusual, and seems improper, to suppose such syllables to belong to the scansion of the subsequent line; for the division of lines, with their harmonic pauses, is greater than the division of feet, and implies that no foot can ever actually be split by it. Poe has suggested that the division into lines may be disregarded in scanning, and sometimes must be. He cites for an example the beginning of Byron's "Bride of Abydos,"--a passage which has been admired for its easy flow, and which, he says, has greatly puzzled those who have attempted to scan it. Regarding it as essentially anapestic tetrameter, yet as having some initial iambs, and the first and fifth lines dactylic, I shall here divide it accordingly, thus:-- "Kn=ow y~e th~e | l=and wh~ere th~e | c=ypr~ess ~and | m=yrtl~e Ar~e =em | -bl~ems ~of d=eeds | th~at ~are d=one | ~in th~eir cl=ime-- Where the rage | of the vul | -ture, the love | of the tur | -tle, Now melt | into soft | -ness, now mad | -den to crime? Know ye the | land of the | cedar and | vine. Where the flow'rs | ever blos | -som, the beams | ever shine, And the light | wings of Zeph | -yr, oppress'd | with perfume, Wax faint | o'er the gar | -dens of Gul | in her bloom? Where the cit | -ron and ol | -ive are fair | -est of fruit, And the voice | of the night | -ingale nev | -er is mute? Where the vir | -gins are soft as the ros | -es they twine, And all, | save the spir | -it of man, | is divine? 'Tis the land | of the East- | 't is the clime | of the Sun-- Can he smile | on such deeds | as his chil | -dren have done? Oh, wild | as the ac | -cents of lov | -ers' farewell, Are the hearts | that they bear, | and the tales | that they tell." OBS. 4.--These lines this ingenious prosodist divides not thus, but, throwing them together like prose unpunctuated, finds in them "a regular succession of _dactylic rhythms_, varied only at three points by equivalent _spondees_, and separated into two distinct divisions by equivalent terminating _cæsuras_." He imagines that, "By all who have ears--not over long--this will be acknowledged as the true and the sole true scansion."--_E. A. Poe: Pioneer_, p. 107. So it may, for aught I know; but, having dared to show there is an other way quite as simple and plain, and less objectionable, I submit both to the judgement of the reader:-- "Kn=ow y~e th~e | l=and wh~ere th~e | c=ypr~ess ~and | m=yrtl~e ~are | =embl~ems ~of | d=eeds th~at ~are | d=one ~in th~eir | cl=ime wh~ere th~e | r=age ~of th~e | v=ult~ure th~e | l=ove ~of th~e | t=urtl~e n~ow | m=elt ~int~o | s=oftn~ess n~ow | madd~en t~o | _crime_. Kn=ow y~e th~e | l=and ~of th~e | c=ed~ar ~and | v=ine wh~ere th~e | fl=ow'rs ~ev~er | bl=oss~om th~e | b=eams ~ev~er | sh=ine wh~ere th=e | l=ight w~ings =of | z=eph=yr ~op | -pr=ess'd w~ith p~er | -_f=ume w=ax_ | f=aint ~o'er th~e | g=ard~ens ~of | G=ul ~in h~er | bl=oom wh~ere th~e | c=itr~on ~and | =oli~ve ~are | f=air~est ~of | fr=uit ~and th~e | v=oice ~of th~e | n=ight~ing~ale | n=ev~er ~is | m=ute wh~ere th~e | v=irg~ins ~are | s=oft ~as th~e | r=os~es th~ey | _tw=ine =and_ | =all s~ave th~e | sp=ir~it ~of | m=an ~is d~i- | v=ine 't~is th~e | l=and ~of th~e | E=ast 't~is th~e | cl=im~e ~of th~e | S=un c~an h~e | sm=ile ~on s~uch | d=eeds ~as h~is | ch=ildr~en h~ave | _d~one =oh_ w=ild ~as th~e | =acc~ents ~of | l=ov~ers' f~are- | w=ell ~are th~e | h=earts th~at th~ey | be=ar and th~e | t=ales th~at th~ey | _t=ell_."--_Ib._ OBS. 5.--In the sum and proportion of their quantities, the anapest, the dactyl, and the amphibrach, are equal, each having two syllables short to one long; and, with two short quantities between two long ones, lines may be tolerably accordant in rhythm, though the order, at the commencement, be varied, and their number of syllables be not equal. Of the following sixteen lines, nine are pure anapestic tetrameters; one _may_ be reckoned dactylic, but it may quite as well be said to have a trochee, an iambus, and two anapests or two amphimacs; one is a spondee and three anapests; and the rest _may_ be scanned as amphibrachics ending with an iambus, but are more properly anapestics commencing with an iambus. Like the preceding example from Byron, they lack the uniformity of proper composites, and are rather to be regarded as anapestics irregularly diversified. THE ALBATROSS. "'Tis said the Albatross never rests."--_Buffon_. "Wh~ere th~e f=ath | -~oml~ess w=aves | in magnif | -icence toss, H=omel~ess | ~and h=igh | soars the wild | Albatross; Unwea | -ried, undaunt | -ed, unshrink | -ing, alone, The o | -cean his em | -pire, the tem | -pest his throne. When the ter | -rible whirl | -wind raves wild | o'er the surge, And the hur | -ricane howls | out the mar | -iner's dirge, In thy glo | -ry thou spurn | -est the dark | -heaving sea, Pr=oud b=ird | of the o | -cean-world, home | -less and free. When the winds | are at rest, | and the sun | in his glow, And the glit | -tering tide | sleeps in beau | -ty below, In the pride | of thy pow | -er trium | -phant above, With thy mate | thou art hold | -ing thy rev | -els of love. Untir | -ed, unfet | -tered, unwatched, | unconfined, Be my spir | -it like thee, | in the world | of the mind; No lean | -ing for earth, | e'er to wea | -ry its flight, And fresh | as thy pin | -ions in re | -gions of light." SAMUEL DALY LANGTREE: _North American Reader_, p. 443. OBS. 6.--It appears that the most noted measures of the Greek and Latin poets were not of any simple order, but either composites, or mixtures too various to be called composites. It is not to be denied, that we have much difficulty in reading them rhythmically, according to their stated feet and scansion; and so we should have, in reading our own language rhythmically, in any similar succession of feet. Noticing this in respect to the Latin Hexameter, or Heroic verse, Poe says, "Now the discrepancy in question is not observable in English metres; where the scansion coincides with the reading, _so far as the rhythm is concerned_--that is to say, if we pay no attention to the _sense_ of the passage. But these facts indicate _a radical difference_ in the genius of the two languages, as regards their capacity for modulation. In truth, * * * the Latin is a far more _stately_ tongue than our own. It is essentially spondaic; the English is as essentially dactylic."--_Pioneer_, p. 110. (See the marginal note in §3d. at Obs. 22d, above.) Notwithstanding this difference, discrepance, or difficulty, whatever it may be, some of our poets have, in a few instances, attempted imitations of certain Latin metres; which imitations it may be proper briefly to notice under the present head. The Greek or Latin Hexameter line has, of course, six feet, or pulsations. According to the Prosodies, the first four of these may be either dactyls or spondees; the fifth is always, or nearly always, a dactyl; and the sixth, or last, is always a spondee: as, "L=ud~er~e | qu=æ v=el | -l=em c~al~a | -m=o p=er | -m=is~it ~a | -gr=est=i."--_Virg._ "Inf=an- | d=um, R=e | -g=in~a, j~u | -b=es r~en~o | -v=ar~e d~o | -l=or=em."--_Id._ Of this sort of verse, in English, somebody has framed the following very fair example:-- "M=an ~is ~a | c=ompl=ex, | c=omp=ound | c=omp=ost, | y=et ~is h~e | G=od-b=orn." OBS. 7.--Of this species of versification, which may be called Mixed or Composite Hexameter, the most considerable specimen that I have seen in English, is Longfellow's Evangeline, a poem of one thousand three hundred and eighty-two of these long lines, or verses. This work has found admirers, and not a few; for, of these, nothing written by so distinguished a scholar could fail: but, surely, not many of the verses in question exhibit truly the feet of the ancient Hexameters; or, if they do, the ancients contented themselves with very imperfect rhythms, even in their noblest heroics. In short, I incline to the opinion of Poe, that, "Nothing less than the deservedly high reputation of Professor Longfellow, could have sufficed to give currency to his lines as to Greek Hexameters. In general, they are neither one thing nor another. Some few of them are dactylic verses--English dactylics. But do away with the division into lines, and the most astute critic would never have suspected them of any thing more than prose."--_Pioneer_, p. 111. The following are the last ten lines of the volume, with such a division into feet as the poet is presumed to have contemplated:-- "Still stands the | forest pri | -meval; but | under the | shade of its | branches Dwells an | -other | race, with | other | customs and | language. Only a | -long the | shore of the | mournful and | misty At | -lantic Linger a | few A | -cadian | peasants, whose | fathers from | exile Wandered | back to their | native | land to | die in its | bosom. In the | fisherman's | cot the | wheel and the | loom are still | busy; Maidens still | wear their | Norman | caps and their | kirtles of | homespun, And by the | evening | fire re | -peat E | -vangeline's story, While from its | rocky | caverns the | deep-voiced, | neighbouring | ocean Speaks, and in | accents dis | -consolate | answers the | wail of the | forest." HENRY W. LONGFELLOW: _Evangeline_, p. 162. OBS. 8.--An other form of verse, common to the Greeks and Romans, which has sometimes been imitated--or, rather, which some writers have _attempted to imitate_--in English, is the line or stanza called Sapphic, from the inventress, Sappho, a Greek poetess. The Sapphic verse, according to Fabricius, Smetius, and all good authorities, has eleven syllables, making "five feet--the first a trochee, the second a spondee, the third a dactyl, and the fourth and fifth trochees." The Sapphic stanza, or what is sometimes so called, consists of three Sapphic lines and an Adonian, or Adonic,--this last being a short line composed of "a dactyl and a spondee." Example from Horace:-- "=Int~e | -g=er v=i | -tæ, sc~el~e | -r=isqu~e | p=ur~us Non e | -get Mau | -ri jacu | -lis ne | -qu' arcu, Nec ven | -ena | -tis gravi | -dâ sa | -gittis, Fusce, pha | -retra." To arrange eleven syllables in a line, and have half or more of them to form trochees, is no difficult matter; but, to find _rhythm_ in the succession of "a trochee, a spondee, and a dactyl," as we read words, seems hardly practicable. Hence few are the English Sapphics, if there be any, which abide by the foregoing formule of quantities and feet. Those which I have seen, are generally, if not in every instance, susceptible of a more natural scansion as being composed of trochees, with a dactyl, or some other foot of three syllables, at the _beginning_ of each line. The cæsural pause falls sometimes after the fourth syllable, but more generally, and much more agreeably, after the fifth. Let the reader inspect the following example, and see if he do not agree with me in laying the accent on only the first syllable of each foot, as the feet are here divided. The accent, too, must be carefully laid. Without considerable care in the reading, the hearer will not suppose the composition to be any thing but prose:-- "THE WIDOW."--(IN "SAPPHICS.") "Cold was the | night-wind, | drifting | fast the | snow fell, Wide were the | downs, and | shelter | -less and | naked, When a poor | Wanderer | struggled | on her | journey, Weary and | way-sore. Drear were the | downs, more | dreary | her re | -flections; Cold was the | night-wind, | colder | was her | bosom; She had no | home, the | world was | all be | -fore her; She had no | shelter. Fast o'er the | heath a | chariot | rattlee | by her; 'Pity me!' | feebly | cried the | lonely | wanderer; 'Pity me, | strangers! | lest, with | cold and | hunger, Here I should | perish. 'Once I had | friends,--though | now by | all for | -saken! 'Once I had | parents, | --they are | now in | heaven! 'I had a | home once, | --I had | once a | husband-- Pity me, | strangers! 'I had a | home once, | --I had | once a | husband-- 'I am a | widow, | poor and | broken | -hearted!' Loud blew the | wind; un | -heard was | her com | -plaining; On drove the | chariot. Then on the | snow she | laid her | down to | rest her; She heard a | horseman; | 'Pity | me!' she | groan'd out; Loud was the | wind; un | -heard was | her com | -plaining; On went the | horseman. Worn out with | anguish, | toil, and | cold, and | hunger, Down sunk the | Wanderer; | sleep had | seized her | senses; There did the | traveller | find her | in the | morning; God had re | -leased her." ROBERT SOUTHEY: _Poems_, Philad., 1843, p. 251. Among the lyric poems of Dr. Watts, is one, entitled, "THE DAY OF JUDGEMENT; _an Ode attempted in English Sapphic_." It is perhaps as good an example as we have of the species. It consists of nine stanzas, of which I shall here cite the first three, dividing them into feet as above:-- "When the fierce | North Wind, | with his | airy | forces, Rears up the | Baltic | to a | foaming | fury; And the red | lightning | with a | storm of | hail comes Rushing a | -main down; How the poor | sailors | stand a | -maz'd and | tremble! While the hoarse | thunder, | like a bloody | trumpet, Roars a loud | onset | to the | gaping | waters, Quick to de | -vour them. Such shall the | noise be, | and the | wild dis | -order, (If things e | -ternal | may be | like these | earthly,) Such the dire | terror, | when the | great Arch | -angel Shakes the cre | -ation."--_Horæ Lyricæ_, p. 67. "These lines," says Humphrey, who had cited the first four, "are good English Sapphics, and contain the essential traits of the original as nearly as the two languages, Greek and English, correspond to each other. This stanza, together with the poem, from which this was taken, may stand for a model, in our English compositions."--_Humphrey's E. Prosody_, p. 19. This author erroneously supposed, that the trissyllabic foot, in any line of the Sapphic stanza, must occupy the second place: and, judging of the ancient feet and quantities by what he found, or supposed he found, in the English imitations, and not by what the ancient prosodists say of them, yet knowing that the ancient and the modern Sapphics are in several respects unlike, he presented forms of scansion for both, which are not only peculiar to himself, but not well adapted to either. "We have," says he, "no established rule for this kind of verse, in our English compositions, which has been uniformly adhered to. The rule for which, in Greek and Latin verse, _as far as I can ascertain_, was this: = ~ | = = = | ~ ~ |= ~ | = = a trochee, a _moloss_, a _pyrrhic_, a trochee, and [a] _spondee_; and _sometimes, occasionally_, a trochee, instead of a spondee, at the end. But as our language is not favourable to the use of the spondee and moloss, the moloss is seldom or never used in our English Sapphics; but, instead of which, some other _trissyllable_ foot is used. Also, instead of the spondee, a trochee is commonly used; and sometimes a trochee instead of the pyrrhic, in the third place. As some prescribed rule, or model for imitation, may be necessary, in this case, I will cite a stanza from one of our best English poets, which may serve for a model. 'Wh=en th~e | fi=erce n=orth-w~ind, | w~ith h~is | =air~y | f=orc~es [,] R=ears ~up | th~e B=alt~ic | t~o ~a | f=oam~ing | f=ur~y; And th~e | r=ed l=ightn~ing | w~ith ~a | st=orm ~of | h=ail c~omes R=ush~ing | ~am=ain d=own.'--Watts."--_Ib._, p. 19. OBS. 12.--In "the Works of George Canning," a small book published in 1829, there is a poetical dialogue of nine stanzas, entitled, "The Friend of Humanity and the Knife-Grinder," said to be "a burlesque on Mr. Southey's Sapphics." The metre appears to be near enough like to the foregoing. But these verses I divide, as I have divided the others, into trochees with initial dactyls. At the commencement, the luckier party salutes the other thus:-- "'Needy knife | -grinder! | whither | are you | going? Rough is the | road, your | wheel is | out of | order-- Bleak blows the | blast;--your | hat has | got a | hole in't, So have your | breeches! 'Weary knife | -grinder! | little | think the | proud ones Who in their | coaches | roll a | -long the | turnpike-- Road, what hard | work 'tis, | crying | all day, | 'Knives and Scissors to | grind O!'"--P. 44. OBS. 13.--Among the humorous poems of Thomas Green Fessenden, published under the sobriquet of Dr. Caustic, or "Christopher Caustic, M. D.," may be seen an other comical example of Sapphics, which extends to eleven stanzas. It describes a contra-dance, and is entitled, "Horace Surpassed." The conclusion is as follows:-- "Willy Wagnimble dancing with Flirtilla, Almost as light as air-balloon inflated, Rigadoons around her, 'till the lady's heart is Forced to surrender. Benny Bamboozle cuts the drollest capers, Just like a camel, or a hippopot'mus; Jolly Jack Jumble makes as big a rout as Forty Dutch horses. See Angelina lead the mazy dance down; Never did fairy trip it so fantastic; How my heart flutters, while my tongue pronounces, 'Sweet little seraph!' Such are the joys that flow from contra-dancing, Pure as the primal happiness of Eden, Love, mirth, and music, kindle in accordance Raptures extatic."--_Poems_, p. 208. SECTION V.--ORAL EXERCISES. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE PROSODY, OR ERRORS OF METRE. LESSON I.--RESTORE THE RHYTHM. "The lion is laid down in his lair."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 134. [FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word "_lion_," here put for Cowper's word "_beast_" destroys the metre, and changes the line to prose. But, according to the definition given on p. 827, "Verse, in opposition to prose, is language arranged into metrical lines of some determinate length and rhythm--language so ordered as to produce harmony by a due succession of poetic feet." This line was composed of one iamb and two anapests; and, to such form, it should be restored, thus: "The _beast_ is laid down in his lair."--_Cowper's Poems_, Vol. i, p. 201.] "Where is thy true treasure? Gold says, not in me." --_Hallock's Gram._, 1842, p. 66. "Canst thou grow sad, thou sayest, as earth grows bright?" --_Frazee's Gram._, 1845, p. 140. "It must be so, Plato, thou reasonest well." --_Wells's Gram._, 1846, p. 122. "Slow rises merit, when by poverty depressed." --_Ib._, p. 195; _Hiley_, 132; _Hart_, 179. "Rapt in future times, the bard begun." --_Wells's Gram._, 1846, p. 153. "Is there not rain enough in the sweet heavens To wash it white as snow? Whereunto serves mercy, But to confront the visage of offence!" --_Hallock's Gram._, 1842, p. 118. "Look! in this place ran Cassius's dagger through." --_Kames, El. of Cr._, Vol. i, p. 74. "----When they list their lean and flashy songs, Harsh grate on their scrannel pipes of wretched straw." --_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 135. "Did not great Julius bleed for justice's sake?" --_Dodd's Beauties of Shak._, p. 253. "Did not great Julius bleed for justice sake?" --_Singer's Shakspeare_, Vol. ii, p. 266. "May I, unblam'd, express thee? Since God is light." --_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 290. "Or hearest thou, rather, pure ethereal stream!" --_2d Perversion, ib._ "Republics; kingdoms; empires, may decay; Princes, heroes, sages, sink to nought." --_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 287. "Thou bringest, gay creature as thou art, A solemn image to my heart." --_E. J. Hallock's Gram._, p. 197. "Know thyself presume not God to scan; The proper study of mankind is Man." --_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 285. "Raised on a hundred pilasters of gold." --_Charlemagne_, C. i, St. 40. "Love in Adalgise's breast has fixed his sting." --_Ib._, C. i, St. 30. "Thirty days hath September, April, June, and November, February twenty-eight alone, All the rest thirty and one." _Colet's Grammar, or Paul's Accidence_. Lond., 1793, p. 75. LESSON II.--RESTORE THE RHYTHM. "'Twas not the fame of what he once had been, Or tales in old records and annals seen." --_Rowe's Lucan_, B. i, l. 274. "And Asia now and Afric are explor'd, For high-priced dainties, and citron board." --_Eng. Poets: ib._, B. i, l. 311. "Who knows not, how the trembling judge beheld The peaceful court with arm'd legions fill'd?" --_Eng. Poets; ib._, B. i, l. 578. "With thee the Scythian wilds we'll wander o'er, With thee burning Libyan sands explore." --_Eng. Poets: ib._, B. i, l. 661. "Hasty and headlong different paths they tread, As blind impulse and wild distraction lead." --_Eng. Poets: ib._, B. i, l. 858. "But Fate reserv'd to perform its doom, And be the minister of wrath to Rome." --_Eng. Poets: ib._, B. ii, l. 136. "Thus spoke the youth. When Cato thus exprest The sacred counsels of his most inmost breast." --_Eng. Poets: ib._, B. ii, l. 435. "These were the strict manners of the man, And this the stubborn course in which they ran; The golden mean unchanging to pursue, Constant to keep the proposed end in view." --_Eng. Poets: ib._, B. ii, l. 580. "What greater grief can a Roman seize, Than to be forc'd to live on terms like these!" --_Eng. Poets: ib._, B. ii, l. 782. "He views the naked town with joyful eyes, While from his rage an arm'd people flies." --_Eng. Poets: ib._, B. ii, l. 880. "For planks and beams he ravages the wood, And the tough bottom extends across the flood." --_Eng. Poets: ib._, B. ii, l. 1040. "A narrow pass the horned mole divides, Narrow as that where Euripus' strong tides Beat on Euboean Chalcis' rocky sides." --_Eng. Poets: ib._, B. ii, l. 1095. "No force, no fears their hands unarm'd bear, But looks of peace and gentleness they wear." --_Eng. Poets: ib._, B. iii, l. 112. "The ready warriors all aboard them ride, And wait the return of the retiring tide." --_Eng. Poets: ib._, B. iv, l. 716. "He saw those troops that long had faithful stood, Friends to his cause, and enemies to good, Grown weary of their chief, and satiated with blood." --_Eng. Poets: ib._, B. v, l. 337. CHAPTER V.--QUESTIONS. ORDER OF REHEARSAL, AND METHOD OF EXAMINATION. PART FOURTH, PROSODY. [Fist][The following questions call the attention of the student to the main doctrines in the foregoing code of Prosody, and embrace or demand those facts which it is most important for him to fix in his memory; they may, therefore, serve not only to aid the teacher in the process of examining his classes, but also to direct the learner in his manner of preparation for recital.] LESSON I.--OF PUNCTUATION. 1. Of what does Prosody treat? 2. What is _Punctuation?_ 3. What are the principal points, or marks? 4. What pauses are denoted by the first four points? 5. What pauses are required by the other four? 6. What is the general use of the Comma? 7. How many rules for the Comma are there, and what are their heads? 8. What says Rule 1st of _Simple Sentences?_ 9. What says Rule 2d of _Simple Members?_ 10. What says Rule 3d of _More than Two Words?_ 11. What says Rule 4th of _Only Two Words?_ 12. What says Rule 5th of _Words in Pairs?_ 13. What says Rule 6th of _Words put Absolute?_ 14. What says Rule 7th of _Words in Apposition?_ 15. What says Rule 8th of _Adjectives?_ 16. What says Rule 9th of _Finite Verbs?_ 17. What says Rule 10th of _Infinitives?_ 18. What says Rule 11th of _Participles?_ 19. What says Rule 12th of _Adverbs?_ 20. What says Rule 13th of _Conjunctions?_ 21. What says Rule 14th of _Prepositions?_ 22. What says Rule 15th of _Interjections?_ 23. What says Rule 16th of _Words Repeated?_ 24. What says Rule 17th of _Dependent Quotations?_ LESSON II.--OF THE COMMA. 1. How many exceptions, or forms of exception, are there to Rule 1st for the comma? 2.--to Rule 2d? 3.--to Rule 3d? 4.--to Rule 4th? 5.--to Rule 5th? 6.--to Rule 6th? 7.--to Rule 7th? 8.--to Rule 8th? 9.--to Rule 9th? 10.--to Rule 10th? 11.--to Rule 11th? 12.--to Rule 12th? 13.--to Rule 13th? 14.--to Rule 14th? 15.--to Rule 15th? 16.--to Rule 16th? 17.--to Rule 17th? 18. What says the Exception to Rule 1st of a _Long Simple Sentence?_ 19. What says Exception 1st to Rule 2d of _Restrictive Relatives?_ 20. What says Exception 2d to Rule 2d of _Short Terms closely Connected?_ 21. What says Exception 3d to Rule 2d of _Elliptical Members United?_ 22. What says Exception 1st to Rule 4th of _Two Words with Adjuncts?_ 23. What says Exception 2d to Rule 4th of _Two Terms Contrasted?_ 24. What says Exception 3d to Rule 4th of a mere _Alternative of Words?_ 25. What says Exception 4th to Rule 4th of _Conjunctions Understood?_ LESSON III.--OF THE COMMA. 1. What rule speaks of the separation of _Words in Apposition?_ 2. What says Exception 1st to Rule 7th of _Complex Names?_ 3. What says Exception 2d to Rule 7th of _Close Apposition?_ 4. What says Exception 3d to Rule 7th of _a Pronoun without a Pause?_ 5. What says Exception 4th to Rule 7th of _Names Acquired?_ 6. What says the Exception to Rule 8th of _Adjectives Restrictive?_ 7. What is the rule which speaks of a finite _Verb Understood?_ 8. What says the Exception to Rule 9th of a _Very Slight Pause?_ 9. What is the Rule for the pointing of _Participles?_ 10. What says the Exception to Rule 11th of _Participles Restrictive?_ [Now, if you please, you may correct orally, according to the formules given, some or all of the various examples of _False Punctuation_, which are arranged under the rules for the Comma in Section First.] LESSON IV.--OF THE SEMICOLON. 1. What is the general use of the Semicolon? 2. How many rules are there for the Semicolon? 3. What are their heads? 4. What says Rule 1st of _Complex Members?_ 5. What says Rule 2d of _Simple Members?_ 6. What says Rule 3d of _Apposition, &c.?_ [Now, if you please, you may correct orally, according to the formules given, some or all of the various examples of _False Punctuation_, which are arranged under the rules for the Semicolon in Section Second.] LESSON V.--OF THE COLON. 1. What is the general use of the Colon? 2. How many rules are there for the Colon? 3. What are their heads? 4. What says Rule 1st of _Additional Remarks?_ 5. What says Rule 2d of _Greater Pauses?_ 6. What says Rule 3d of _Independent Quotations?_ [Now, if you please, you may correct orally, according to the formules given, some or all of the various examples of _False Punctuation_, which are arranged under the rules for the Colon in Section Third.] LESSON VI.--OF THE PERIOD. 1. What is the general use of the Period? 2. How many rules are there for the Period? 3. What are their heads? 4. What says Rule 1st of _Distinct Sentences?_ 5. What says Rule 2d of _Allied Sentences?_ 6. What says Rule 3d of _Abbreviations?_ [Now, if you please, you may correct orally, according to the formules given, some or all of the various examples of _False Punctuation_, which are arranged under the rules for the Period in Section Fourth.] LESSON VII.--OF THE DASH. 1. What is the general use of the Dash? 2. How many rules are there for the Dash? 3. What are their heads? 4. What says Rule 1st of _Abrupt Pauses?_ 5. What says Rule 2d of _Emphatic Pauses?_ 6. What says Rule 3d of _Faulty Dashes?_ [Now, if you please, you may correct orally, according to the formules given, some or all of the various examples of _False Punctuation_, which are arranged under the rules for the Dash in Section Fifth.] LESSON VIII.--OF THE EROTEME. 1. What is the use of the Eroteme, or Note of Interrogation? 2. How many rules are there for this mark? 3. What are their heads? 4. What says Rule 1st of _Questions Direct?_ 5. What says Rule 2d of _Questions United?_ 6. What says Rule 3d of _Questions Indirect?_ [Now, if you please, you may correct orally, according to the formules given, some or all of the various examples of _False Punctuation_, which are arranged under the rules for the Eroteme in Section Sixth.] LESSON IX--OF THE ECPHONEME. 1. What is the use of the Ecphoneme, or Note of Exclamation? 2. How many rules are there for this mark? 2. What are their heads? 4. What says Rule 1st of _Interjections?_ 5. What says Rule 2d of _Invocations?_ 6. What says Rule 3d of _Exclamatory Questions?_ [Now, if you please, you may correct orally, according to the formules given, some or all of the various examples of _False Punctuation_, which are arranged under the rules for the Ecphoneme in Section Seventh.] LESSON X.--OF THE CURVES. 1. What is the use of the Curves, or Marks of Parenthesis? 2. How many rules are there for the Curves? 3. What are their titles, or heads? 4. What says Rule 1st of _the Parenthesis?_ 5. What says Rule 2d of _Included Points?_ [Now, if you please, you may correct orally, according to the formules given, some or all of the various examples of _False Punctuation_, which are arranged under the rules for the Curves in Section Eighth.] LESSON XI.--OF THE OTHER MARKS. 1. What is the use of the Apostrophe? 2. What is the use of the Hyphen? 3. What is the use of the Diæresis, or Dialysis? 4. What is the use of the Acute Accent? 5. What is the use of the Grave Accent? 6. What is the use of the Circumflex? 7. What is the use of the Breve, or Stenotone? 8. What is the use of the Macron, or Macrotone? 9. What is the use of the Ellipsis, or Suppression? 10. What is the use of the Caret? 11. What is the use of the Brace? 12. What is the use of the Section? 13. What is the use of the Paragraph? 14. What is the use of the Guillemets, or Quotation Points? 15. How do we mark a quotation within a quotation? 16. What is the use of the Crotchets, or Brackets? 17. What is the use of the Index, or Hand? 18. What are the six Marks of Reference in their usual order? 19. How can references be otherwise made? 20. What is the use of the Asterism, or the Three Stars? 21. What is the use of the Cedilla? [Having correctly answered the foregoing questions, the pupil should be taught to apply the principles of punctuation; and, for this purpose, he may be required to read a portion of some accurately pointed book, or may be directed to turn to the _Fourteenth Praxis_, beginning on p. 821,--and to assign a reason for every mark he finds.] LESSON XII.--OF UTTERANCE. 1. What is _Utterance?_ 2. What does it include? 3. What is articulation? 4. How does articulation differ from pronunciation? 5. How does Comstock define it? 6. What, in his view, is a good articulation? 7. How does Bolles define articulation? 8. Is a good articulation important? 9. What are the faults opposite to it? 10. What says Sheridan, of a good articulation? 11. Upon what does distinctness depend? 13. Why is just articulation better than mere loudness? 13. Do we learn to articulate in learning to speak or read? LESSON XIII.--OF PRONUNCIATION. 1. What is pronunciation? 2. What is it that is called _Orthoëpy?_ 3. What knowledge does pronunciation require? 4. What are the just powers of the letters? 5. How are these learned? 6. Are the just powers of the letters in any degree variable? 7. What is quantity? 8. Are all long syllables equally long, and all short ones equally short? 9. What has stress of voice to do with quantity? 10. What is accent? 11. Is every word accented? 12. Do we ever lay two equal accents on one word? 13. Have we more than one sort of accent? 14. Can any word have the secondary accent, and not the primary? 15. Can monosyllables have either? 16. What regulates accent? 17. What four things distinguish the elegant speaker? LESSON XIV.--OF ELOCUTION. 1. What is elocution? 2. What does elocution require? 3. What is emphasis? 4. What comparative view is taken of accent and emphasis? 5. How does L. Murray connect emphasis with quantity? 6. Does emphasis ever affect accent? 7. What is the guide to a right emphasis? 8. Can one read with too many emphases? 9. What are pauses? 10. How many and what kinds of pauses are there? 11. What is said of the duration of pauses, and the taking of breath? 12. After what manner should pauses be made? 13. What pauses are particularly ungraceful? 14. What is said of rhetorical pauses? 15. How are the harmonic pauses divided? 16. Are such pauses essential to verse? LESSON XV.--OF ELOCUTION. 17. What are inflections? 18. What is called the rising or upward inflection? 19. What is called the falling or downward inflection? 20. How are these inflections exemplified? 21. How are they used in asking questions? 22. What is said of the notation of them? 23. What constitutes a circumflex? 24. What constitutes the rising, and what the falling, circumflex? 25. Can you give examples? 26. What constitutes a monotone, in elocution? 27. Which kind of inflection is said to be most common? 28. Which is the best adapted to strong emphasis? 29. What says Comstock of rules for inflections? 30. Is the voice to be varied for variety's sake? 31. What should regulate the inflections? 32. What is cadence? 33. What says Rippingham about it? 34. What says Murray? 35. What are tones? 36. Why do they deserve particular attention? 37. What says Blair about tones? 38. What says Hiley? LESSON XVI.--OF FIGURES. 1. What is a _Figure_ in grammar? 2. How many kinds of figures are there? 3. What is a figure of orthography? 4. What are the principal figures of orthography? 5. What is Mimesis? 6. What is an Archaism? 7. What is a figure of etymology? 8. How many and what are the figures of etymology? 9. What is Aphæresis? 10. What is Prosthesis? 11. What is Syncope? 12. What is Apocope? 13. What is Paragoge? 14. What is Diæresis? 15. What is Synæresis? 16. What is Tmesis? 17. What is a figure of syntax? 18. How many and what are the figures of syntax? 19. What is Ellipsis, in grammar? 20. Are sentences often elliptical? 21. What parts of speech can be omitted, by ellipsis? 22. What is Pleonasm? 23. When is this figure allowable? 24. What is Syllepsis? 25. What is Enallage? 26. What is Hyperbaton? 27. What is said of this figure? LESSON XVII.--OF FIGURES. 28. What is a figure of rhetoric? 29. What peculiar name have some of these? 30. Do figures of rhetoric often occur? 31. On what are they founded? 32. How many and what are the principal figures of rhetoric? 33. What is a Simile? 34. What is a Metaphor? 35. What is an Allegory? 36. What is a Metonymy? 37. What is Synecdoche? 38. What is Hyperbole? 39. What is Vision? 40. What is Apostrophe? 41. What is Personification? 42. What is Erotesis? 43. What is Ecphonesis? 44. What is Antithesis? 45. What is Climax? 46. What is Irony? 47. What is Apophasis, or Paralipsis? 48. What is Onomatopoeia? [Now, if you please, you may examine the quotations adopted for the _Fourteenth Praxis_, and may name and define the various figures of grammar which are contained therein.] LESSON XVIII.--OF VERSIFICATION. 1. What is _Versification_? 2. What is verse, as distinguished from prose? 3. What is the rhythm of verse? 4. What is the quantity of a syllable? 5. How are poetic quantities denominated? 6. How are they proportioned? 7. What quantity coincides with accent or emphasis? 8. On what but the vowel sound does quantity depend? 9. Does syllabic quantity always follow the quality of the vowels? 10. Where is quantity variable, and where fixed, in English? 11. What is rhyme? 12. What is blank verse? 13. What is remarked concerning the rhyming syllables? 14. What is a stanza? 15. What uniformity have stanzas? 16. What variety have they? LESSON XIX.--OF VERSIFICATION. 17. Of what does a verse consist? 18. Of what does a poetic foot consist? 19. How many feet do prosodists recognize? 20. What are the principal feet in English? 21. What is an Iambus? 22. What is a Trochee? 23. What is an Anapest? 24. What is a Dactyl? 25. Why are these feet principal? 26. What orders of verse arise from these? 27. Are these kinds to be kept separate? 28. What is said of the secondary feet? 29. How many and what secondary feet are explained in this code? 30. What is a Spondee? 31. What is a Pyrrhic? 32. What is a Moloss? 33. What is a Tribrach? 34. What is an Amphibrach? 35. What is an Amphimac? 36. What is a Bacchy? 37. What is an Antibachy? 38. What is a Cæsura? LESSON XX.--OF VERSIFICATION. 39. What are the principal kinds, or orders, of verse? 40. What other orders are there? 41. Does the composite order demand any uniformity? 42. Do the simple orders admit any diversity? 43. What is meant by _scanning_ or _scansion_? 44. What mean the technical words, _catalectic, acatalectic_, and _hypermeter_? 45. In scansion, why are the principal feet to be preferred to the secondary? 46. Can a single foot be a line? 47. What are the several combinations that form dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, pentameter, hexameter, heptameter, and octometer? 48. What syllables have stress in a pure iambic line? 49. What are the several measures of iambic verse? 50. What syllables have stress in a pure trochaic line? 51. Can it be right, to regard as hypermeter the long rhyming syllables of a line? 52. Is the number of feet in a line to be generally counted by that of the long syllables? 53. What are the several measures of trochaic verse? LESSON XXI.--OF VERSIFICATION. 54. What syllables have stress in a pure anapestic line? 55. What variation may occur in the first foot? 56. Is this frequent? 57. Is it ever uniform? 58. What is the result of a uniform mixture? 59. Is the anapest adapted to single rhyme? 60. May a surplus ever make up for a deficiency? 61. Why are the anapestic measures few? 62. How many syllables are found in the longest? 63. What are the several measures of anapestic verse? 64. What syllables have stress in a pure dactylic line? 65. With what does single-rhymed dactylic end? 66. Is dactylic verse very common? 67. What are the several measures of dactylic verse? 68. What is composite verse? 69. Must composites have rhythm? 70. Are the kinds of composite verse numerous? 71. Why have we no exact enumeration of the measures of this order? 72. Does this work contain specimens of different kinds of composite verse? [It may now be required of the pupil to determine, by reading and scansion, the metrical elements of any good English poetry which may be selected for the purpose--the feet being marked by pauses, and the long syllables by stress of voice. He may also correct orally the few _Errors of Metre_ which are given in the Fifth Section of Chapter IV.] CHAPTER VI.--FOR WRITING. EXERCISES IN PROSODY. [Fist] [When the pupil can readily answer all the questions on Prosody, and apply the rules of punctuation to any composition in which the points are rightly inserted, he should _write out_ the following exercises, supplying what is required, and correcting what is amiss. Or, if any teacher choose to exercise his classes _orally_, by means of these examples, he can very well do it; because, to read words, is always easier than to write them, and even points or poetic feet may be quite as readily named as written.] EXERCISE I.--PUNCTUATION. _Copy the following sentences, and insert the_ COMMA _where it is requisite_. EXAMPLES UNDER RULE I.--OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. "The dogmatist's assurance is paramount to argument." "The whole course of his argumentation comes to nothing." "The fieldmouse builds her garner under ground." EXC.--"The first principles of almost all sciences are few." "What he gave me to publish was but a small part." "To remain insensible to such provocation is apathy." "Minds ashamed of poverty would be proud of affluence." "To be totally indifferent to praise or censure is a real defect in character."--_Wilson's Punctuation_, p. 38. UNDER RULE II.--OF SIMPLE MEMBERS. "I was eyes to the blind and feet was I to the lame." "They are gone but the remembrance of them is sweet." "He has passed it is likely through varieties of fortune." "The mind though free has a governor within itself." "They I doubt not oppose the bill on public principles." "Be silent be grateful and adore." "He is an adept in language who always speaks the truth." "The race is not to the swift nor the battle to the strong." EXC. I.--"He that has far to go should not hurry." "Hobbes believed the eternal truths which he opposed." "Feeble are all pleasures in which the heart has no share." "The love which survives the tomb is one of the noblest attributes of the soul."--_Wilson's Punctuation_, p. 38. EXC. II.--"A good name is better than precious ointment." "Thinkst thou that duty shall have dread to speak?" "The spleen is seldom felt where Flora reigns." UNDER RULE III.--OF MORE THAN TWO WORDS. "The city army court espouse my cause." "Wars pestilences and diseases are terrible instructors." "Walk daily in a pleasant airy and umbrageous garden." "Wit spirits faculties but make it worse." "Men wives and children stare cry out and run." "Industry, honesty, and temperance are essential to happiness."--_Wilson's Punctuation_, p. 29. "Honor, affluence, and pleasure seduce the heart."--_Ib._, p. 31. UNDER RULE IV.--OF TWO TERMS CONNECTED. "Hope and fear are essentials in religion." "Praise and adoration are perfective of our souls." "We know bodies and their properties most perfectly." "Satisfy yourselves with what is rational and attainable." "Slowly and sadly we laid him down." EXC. I.--"God will rather look to the inward motions of the mind than to the outward form of the body." "Gentleness is unassuming in opinion and temperate in zeal." EXC. II.--"He has experienced prosperity and adversity." "All sin essentially is and must be mortal." "Reprove vice but pity the offender." EXC. III.--"One person is chosen chairman or moderator." "Duration or time is measured by motion." "The governor or viceroy is chosen annually." EXC. IV.--"Reflection reason still the ties improve." "His neat plain parlour wants our modern style." "We are fearfully wonderfully made." UNDER RULE V.--OF WORDS IN PAIRS. "I inquired and rejected consulted and deliberated." "Seed-time and harvest cold and heat summer and winter day and night shall not cease." EXERCISE II.--PUNCTUATION. _Copy the following sentences, and insert the_ COMMA _where it is requisite_. EXAMPLES UNDER RULE VI.--OF WORDS PUT ABSOLUTE. "The night being dark they did not proceed." "There being no other coach we had no alternative." "Remember my son that human life is the journey of a day." "All circumstances considered it seems right." "He that overcometh to him will I give power." "Your land strangers devour it in your presence." "Ah sinful nation a people laden with iniquity!" "With heads declin'd ye cedars homage pay; Be smooth ye rocks ye rapid floods give way!" UNDER RULE VII.--OF WORDS IN APPOSITION. "Now Philomel sweet songstress charms the night." "'Tis chanticleer the shepherd's clock announcing day." "The evening star love's harbinger appears." "The queen of night fair Dian smiles serene." "There is yet one man Micaiah the son of Imlah." "Our whole company man by man ventured down." "As a work of wit the Dunciad has few equals." "In the same temple the resounding wood All vocal beings hymned their equal God." EXC. I.--"The last king of Rome was Tarquinius Superbus." "Bossuet highly eulogizes Maria Theresa of Austria." "No emperor has been more praised than Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus." EXC. II.--"For he went and dwelt by the brook Cherith." "Remember the example of the patriarch Joseph." "The poet, Milton, excelled in prose as well as in verse." EXC. III.--"I wisdom dwell with prudence." "Ye fools be ye of an understanding heart." "I tell you that which you yourselves do know." EXC. IV.--"I crown thee king of intimate delights" "I count the world a stranger for thy sake." "And this makes friends such miracles below." "God has pronounced it death to taste that tree." "Grace makes the slave a freeman." UNDER RULE VIII.--OF ADJECTIVES. "Deaf with the noise I took my hasty flight." "Him piteous of his youth soft disengage." "I played a while obedient to the fair." "Love free as air spreads his light wings and flies." "Physical science separate from morals parts with its chief dignity." "Then active still and unconfined his mind Explores the vast extent of ages past." "But there is yet a liberty unsung By poets and by senators unpraised." EXC.--"I will marry a wife beautiful as the Houries." "He was a man able to speak upon doubtful questions." "These are the persons, anxious for the change." "Are they men worthy of confidence and support?" "A man, charitable beyond his means, is scarcely honest." UNDER RULE IX.--OF FINITE VERBS. "Poverty wants some things--avarice all things." "Honesty has one face--flattery two." "One king is too soft and easy--an other too fiery." "Mankind's esteem they court--and he his own: Theirs the wild chase of false felicities; His the compos'd possession of the true." EXERCISE III.--PUNCTUATION. _Copy the following sentences, and insert the COMMA where it is requisite._ EXAMPLES UNDER RULE X.--OF INFINITIVES. "My desire is to live in peace." "The great difficulty was to compel them to pay their debts." "To strengthen our virtue God bids us trust in him." "I made no bargain with you to live always drudging." "To sum up all her tongue confessed the shrew." "To proceed my own adventure was still more laughable." "We come not with design of wasteful prey To drive the country force the swains away." UNDER RULE XI.--OF PARTICIPLES. "Having given this answer he departed." "Some sunk to beasts find pleasure end in pain." "Eased of her load subjection grows more light." "Death still draws nearer never seeming near." "He lies full low gored with wounds and weltering in his blood." "Kind is fell Lucifer compared to thee." "Man considered in himself is helpless and wretched." "Like scattered down by howling Eurus blown." "He with wide nostrils snorting skims the wave." "Youth is properly speaking introductory to manhood." EXC.--"He kept his eye fixed on the country before him." "They have their part assigned them to act." "Years will not repair the injuries done by him." UNDER RULE XII.--OF ADVERBS. "Yes we both were philosophers." "However Providence saw fit to cross our design." "Besides I know that the eye of the public is upon me." "The fact certainly is much otherwise." "For nothing surely can be more inconsistent." UNDER RULE XIII.--OF CONJUNCTIONS. "For in such retirement the soul is strengthened." "It engages our desires; and in some degree satisfies them also." "But of every Christian virtue piety is an essential part." "The English verb is variable--_as love lovest loves_." UNDER RULE XIV.--OF PREPOSITIONS. "In a word charity is the soul of social life." "By the bowstring I can repress violence and fraud." "Some by being too artful forfeit the reputation of probity." "With regard to morality I was not indifferent." "Of all our senses sight is the most perfect and delightful." UNDER RULE XV.--OF INTERJECTIONS. "Behold I am against thee O inhabitant of the valley!" "O it is more like a dream than a reality," "Some wine ho!" "Ha ha ha; some wine eh?" "When lo the dying breeze begins to fail, And flutters on the mast the flagging sail." UNDER RULE XVI.--OF WORDS REPEATED. "I would never consent never never never." "His teeth did chatter chatter chatter still." "Come come come--to bed to bed to bed." UNDER RULE XVII.--OF DEPENDENT QUOTATIONS. "He cried 'Cause every man to go out from me.'" "'Almet' said he 'remember what thou hast seen.'" "I answered 'Mock not thy servant who is but a worm before thee.'" EXERCISE IV.--PUNCTUATION. I. THE SEMICOLON.--_Copy the following sentences, and insert the Comma and the SEMICOLON where they are requisite._ EXAMPLES UNDER RULE I.--OF COMPOUND MEMBERS. "'Man is weak' answered his companion 'knowledge is more than equivalent to force.'" "To judge rightly of the present we must oppose it to the past for all judgement is compartive [sic--KTH] and of the future nothing can be known." "'Contentment is natural wealth' says Socrates to which I shall add 'luxury is artificial poverty.'" "Converse and love mankind might strongly draw When love was liberty and nature law." UNDER RULE II.--OF SIMPLE MEMBERS. "Be wise to-day 'tis madness to defer." "The present all their care the future his." "Wit makes an enterpriser sense a man." "Ask thought for joy grow rich and hoard within." "Song soothes our pains and age has pains to soothe." "Here an enemy encounters there a rival supplants him." "Our answer to their reasons is; 'No' to their scoffs nothing." "Here subterranean works and cities see There towns aerial on the waving tree." UNDER RULE III.--OF APPOSITION. "In Latin there are six cases namely the nominative the genitive the dative the accusative the vocative and the ablative." "Most English nouns form the plural by taking _s_; as _boy boys nation nations king kings bay bays_." "Bodies are such as are endued with a vegetable soul as plants a sensitive soul as animals or a rational soul as the body of man." II. THE COLON.--_Copy the following sentences, and insert the Comma, the Semicolon, and the COLON, where they are requisite._ UNDER RULE I.--OF ADDITIONAL REMARKS. "Indulge not desires at the expense of the slightest article of virtue pass once its limits and you fall headlong into vice." "Death wounds to cure we fall we rise we reign." "Beware of usurpation God is the judge of all." "Bliss!--there is none but unprecarious bliss That is the gem sell all and purchase that." UNDER RULE II.--OF GREATER PAUSES. "I have the world here before me I will review it at leisure surely happiness is somewhere to be found." "A melancholy enthusiast courts persecution and when he cannot obtain it afflicts himself with absurd penances but the holiness of St. Paul consisted in the simplicity of a pious life." "Observe his awful portrait and admire Nor stop at wonder imitate and live." UNDER RULE III.--OF INDEPENDENT QUOTATIONS. "Such is our Lord's injunction 'Watch and pray.'" "He died praying for his persecutors 'Father forgive them they know not what they do.'" "On the old gentleman's cane was inscribed this motto '_Festina lente_.'" III.--THE PERIOD.--_Copy the following sentences, and insert the Comma, the Semicolon, the Colon, and the PERIOD, where they are requisite._ UNDER RULE I.--OF DISTINCT SENTENCES. "Then appeared the sea and the dry land the mountains rose and the rivers flowed the sun and moon began their course in the skies herbs and plants clothed the ground the air the earth and the waters were stored with their respective inhabitants at last man was made in the image of God" "In general those parents have most reverence who most deserve it for he that lives well cannot be despised" UNDER RULE II.--OF ALLIED SENTENCES. "Civil accomplishments frequently give rise to fame but a distinction is to be made between fame and true honour the statesman the orator or the poet may be famous while yet the man himself is far from being honoured" UNDER RULE III.--OF ABBREVIATIONS. "Glass was invented in England by Benalt a monk A D 664" "The Roman era U C commenced A C 1753 years" "Here is the Literary Life of S T Coleridge Esq" "PLATO a most illustrious philosopher of antiquity died at Athens 348 B C aged 81 his writings are very valuable his language beautiful and correct and his philosophy sublime"--See _Univ. Biog. Dict._ EXERCISE V.--PUNCTUATION. I. THE DASH.--_Copy the following sentences, and insert, in their proper places, the_ DASH, _and such other points as are necessary_. EXAMPLES UNDER RULE I.--OF ABRUPT PAUSES. "You say _famous_ very often and I don't know exactly what it means a _famous_ uniform _famous_ doings What does famous mean" "O why _famous_ means Now don't you know what _famous_ means It means It is a word that people say It is the fashion to say it It means it means _famous_." UNDER RULE II.--OF EMPHATIC PAUSES. "But this life is not all there is there is full surely another state abiding us And if there is what is thy prospect O remorseless obdurate Thou shalt hear it would be thy wisdom to think thou now nearest the sound of that trumpet which shall awake the dead Return O yet return to the Father of mercies and live" "The future pleases Why The present pains But that's a secret yes which all men know" II. THE EROTEME.--_Copy the following sentences, and insert rightly the_ EROTEME, _or_ NOTE OF INTERROGATION, _and such other points as are necessary_. UNDER RULE I.--OF QUESTIONS DIRECT. "Does Nature bear a tyrant's breast Is she the friend of stern control Wears she the despot's purple vest Or fetters she the freeborn soul" "Why should a man whose blood is warm within Sit like his grandsire cut in alabaster" "Who art thou courteous stranger and from whence Why roam thy steps to this abandon'd dale" UNDER RULE II.--OF QUESTIONS UNITED. "Who bid the stork Columbus-like explore Heav'ns not his own and worlds unknown before Who calls the council states the certain day Who forms the phalanx and who points the way" UNDER RULE III.--OF QUESTIONS INDIRECT. "They asked me who I was and whither I was going." "St. Paul asked king Agrippa if he believed the prophets? But he did not wait for an answer." "Ask of thy mother Earth why oaks are made Taller and stronger than the weeds they shade" III. THE ECPHONEME.--_Copy the following sentences, and insert rightly the_ ECPHONEME, _or_ NOTE OF EXCLAMATION, _and such other points as are necessary_. UNDER RULE I.--OF INTERJECTIONS. "Oh talk of hypocrisy after this Most consummate of all hypocrites After instructing your chosen official advocate to stand forward with such a defence such an exposition of your motives to dare utter the word hypocrisy and complain of those who charged you with it" _Brougham_ "Alas how is that rugged heart forlorn" "Behold the victor vanquish'd by the worm" "Bliss sublunary Bliss proud words and vain" UNDER RULE II.--OF INVOCATIONS. "O Popular Applause what heart of man Is proof against thy sweet seducing charms" "More than thy balm O Gilead heals the wound" UNDER RULE III.--OF EXCLAMATORY QUESTIONS. With what transports of joy shall I be received In what honour in what delightful repose shall I pass the remainder of my life What immortal glory shall I have acquired" _Hooke's Roman History_. "How often have I loiter'd o'er thy green Where humble happiness endear'd each scene" IV.--THE CURVES.--_Copy the following sentences, and insert rightly the CURVES, or MARKS OF PARENTHESIS, and such other points as are necessary_. UNDER RULE I.--OF THE PARENTHESIS. "And all the question wrangle e'er so long Is only this If God has plac'd him wrong" "And who what God foretells who speaks in things Still louder than in words shall dare deny" UNDER RULE II.--OF INCLUDED POINTS. "Say was it virtue more though Heav'n ne'er gave Lamented Digby sunk thee to the grave" "Where is that thrift that avarice of time O glorious avarice thought of death inspires" "And oh the last last what can words express Thought reach the last last silence of a friend" EXERCISE VI.--PUNCTUATION. _Copy the following MIXED EXAMPLES, and insert the points which they require._ "As one of them opened his sack he espied his money" "They cried out the more exceedingly Crucify him" "The soldiers' counsel was to kill the prisoners" "Great injury these vermin mice and rats do in the field" "It is my son's coat an evil beast hath devoured him" "Peace of all worldly blessings is the most valuable" "By this time the very foundation was removed" "The only words he uttered were I am a Roman citizen" "Some distress either felt or feared gnaws like a worm" "How then must I determine Have I no interest If I have not I am stationed here to no purpose" _Harris_ "In the fire the destruction was so swift sudden vast and miserable as to have no parallel in story" "Dionysius the tyrant of Sicily was far from being happy" "I ask now Verres what thou hast to advance" "Excess began and sloth sustains the trade" "Fame can never reconcile a man to a death bed" "They that sail on the sea tell of the danger" "Be doers of the word and not hearers only" "The storms of wintry time will quickly pass" "Here Hope that smiling angel stands" "Disguise I see thou art a wickedness" "There are no tricks in plain and simple faith" "True love strikes root in reason passion's foe" "Two gods divide them all Pleasure and Gain" "I am satisfied My son has done his duty" "Remember Almet the vision which thou hast seen" "I beheld an enclosure beautiful as the gardens of paradise" "The knowledge which I have received I will communicate" "But I am not yet happy and therefore I despair" "Wretched mortals said I to what purpose are you busy" "Bad as the world is respect is always paid to virtue" "In a word he views men as the clear sunshine of charity" "This being the case I am astonished and amazed" "These men approached him and saluted him king" "Excellent and obliging sages these undoubtedly" "Yet at the same time the man himself undergoes a change" "One constant effect of idleness is to nourish the passions" "You heroes regard nothing but glory" "Take care lest while you strive to reach the top you fall" "Proud and presumptuous they can brook no opposition" "Nay some awe of religion may still subsist" "Then said he Lo I come to do thy will O God" _Bible_ "As for me behold I am in your hand" _Ib._ "Can any hide himself in secret places that I shall not see him saith the Lord" _Jer_ xxiii 24 "Now I Paul myself beseech you" "Now for a recompense in the same I speak as unto my children be ye also enlarged" _2 Cor_ vi 13 "He who lives always in public cannot live to his own soul whereas he who retires remains calm" "Therefore behold I even I will utterly forget you" "This text speaks only of those to whom it speaks" "Yea he warmeth himself and saith Aha I am warm" "King Agrippa believest thou the prophets" EXERCISE VII.--PUNCTUATION. _Copy the following MIXED EXAMPLES, and insert the points which they require._ To whom can riches give repute or trust Content or pleasure but the good and just _Pope_ To him no high no low no great no small He fills he bounds connects and equals all _Id_ Reasons whole pleasure all the joys of sense Lie in three words health peace and competence _Id_ Not so for once indulged they sweep the main Deaf to the call or hearing hear in vain _Anon_ Say will the falcon stooping from above Smit with her varying plumage spare the dove _Pope_ Throw Egypts by and offer in its stead Offer the crown on Berenices head _Id_ Falsely luxurious will not man awake And springing from the bed of sloth enjoy The cool the fragrant and the silent hour _Thomson_ Yet thus it is nor otherwise can be So far from aught romantic what I sing _Young_ Thyself first know then love a self there is Of virtue fond that kindles at her charms _Id_ How far that little candle throws his beams So shines a good deed in a naughty world _Shakspeare_ You have too much respect upon the world They lose it that do buy it with much care _Id_ How many things by season seasoned are To their right praise and true perfection _Id_ Canst thou descend from converse with the skies And seize thy brothers throat For what a clod _Young_ In two short precepts all your business lies Would you be great--_be virtuous_ and _be wise Denham_ But sometimes virtue starves while vice is fed What then is the reward of virtue bread _Pope_ A life all turbulence and noise may seem To him that leads it wise and to be praised But wisdom is a pearl with most success Sought in still waters and beneath clear skies _Cowper_ All but the swellings of the softened heart That waken not disturb the tranquil mind _Thomson_ Inspiring God who boundless spirit all And unremitting energy pervades Adjusts sustains and agitates the whole _Id_ Ye ladies for indifferent in your cause I should deserve to forfeit all applause Whatever shocks or gives the least offence To virtue delicacy truth or sense Try the criterion tis a faithful guide Nor has nor can have Scripture on its side. _Cowper_ EXERCISE VIII.--SCANNING. _Divide the following_ VERSES _into the feet which compose them, and distinguish by marks the long and the short syllables_. _Example I.--"Our Daily Paths"--By F. Hemans_. "There's Beauty all around our paths, if but our watchful eyes Can trace it 'midst familiar things, and through their lowly guise; We may find it where a hedgerow showers its blossoms o'er our way, Or a cottage-window sparkles forth in the last red light of day." _Example II.--"Fetching Water"--Anonymous_. "Early on a sunny morning, while the lark was singing sweet, Came, beyond the ancient farmhouse, sounds of lightly-tripping feet. 'Twas a lowly cottage maiden, going,--why, let young hearts tell,-- With her homely pitcher laden, fetching water from the well." _Example III.--Deity_. Alone thou sitst above the everlasting hills And all immensity of space thy presence fills: For thou alone art God;--as God thy saints adore thee; Jehovah is thy name;--they have no gods before thee.--_G. Brown_. _Example IV.--Impenitence_. The impenitent sinner whom mercy empowers, Dishonours that goodness which seeks to restore; As the sands of the desert are water'd by showers. Yet barren and fruitless remain as before.--_G. Brown_. _Example V.--Piety_. Holy and pure are the pleasures of piety, Drawn from the fountain of mercy and love; Endless, exhaustless, exempt from satiety, Rising unearthly, and soaring above.--_G. Brown_. _Example VI.--A Simile_. The bolt that strikes the tow'ring cedar dead, Oft passes harmless o'er the hazel's head.--_G. Brown_. _Example VII.--A Simile_. "Yet to their general's voice they soon obey'd Innumerable. As when the potent rod Of Amram's son, in Egypt's evil day, Wav'd round the coast, up call'd a pitchy cloud Of locusts, warping on the eastern wind, That o'er the realm of impious Pharaoh hung Like night, and darken'd all the land of Nile."--_Milton_. _Example VIII.--Elegiac Stanza._ Thy name is dear--'tis virtue balm'd in love; Yet e'en thy name a pensive sadness brings. Ah! wo the day, our hearts were doom'd to prove, That fondest love but points affliction's stings!--_G. Brown_. _Example IX.--Cupid._ Zephyrs, moving bland, and breathing fragrant With the sweetest odours of the spring, O'er the winged boy, a thoughtless vagrant, Slumb'ring in the grove, their perfumes fling.--_G. Brown_. _Example X.--Divine Power._ When the winds o'er Gennesaret roar'd, And the billows tremendously rose, The Saviour but utter'd the word, They were hush'd to the calmest repose.--_G. Brown_. _Example XI.--Invitation._ Come from the mount of the leopard, spouse, Come from the den of the lion; Come to the tent of thy shepherd, spouse, Come to the mountain of Zion.--_G. Brown_. _Example XII.--Admonition_. In the days of thy youth, Remember thy God: O! forsake not his truth, Incur not his rod.--_G. Brown._ _Example XIII.--Commendation._ Constant and duteous, Meek as the dove, How art thou beauteous, Daughter of love!--_G. Brown._ EXERCISE IX.--SCANNING. _Mark the feet and syllables which compose the following lines--or mark a sample of each metre._ _Edwin, an Ode_. I. STROPHE. Led by the pow'r of song, and nature's love, Which raise the soul all vulgar themes above, The mountain grove Would Edwin rove, In pensive mood, alone; And seek the woody dell, Where noontide shadows fell, Cheering, Veering, Mov'd by the zephyr's swell. Here nurs'd he thoughts to genius only known, When nought was heard around But sooth'd the rest profound Of rural beauty on her mountain throne. Nor less he lov'd (rude nature's child) The elemental conflict wild; When, fold on fold, above was pil'd The watery swathe, careering on the wind. Such scenes he saw With solemn awe, As in the presence of the Eternal Mind. Fix'd he gaz'd, Tranc'd and rais'd, Sublimely rapt in awful pleasure undefin'd. II. ANTISTROPHE Reckless of dainty joys, he finds delight Where feebler souls but tremble with affright. Lo! now, within the deep ravine, A black impending cloud Infolds him in its shroud, And dark and darker glooms the scene. Through the thicket streaming, Lightnings now are gleaming; Thunders rolling dread, Shake the mountain's head; Nature's war Echoes far, O'er ether borne, That flash The ash Has scath'd and torn! Now it rages; Oaks of ages, Writhing in the furious blast, Wide their leafy honours cast; Their gnarled arms do force to force oppose Deep rooted in the crevic'd rock, The sturdy trunk sustains the shock, Like dauntless hero firm against assailing foes. III. EPODE. '0 Thou who sitst above these vapours dense, And rul'st the storm by thine omnipotence! Making the collied cloud thy ear, Coursing the winds, thou rid'st afar, Thy blessings to dispense. The early and the latter rain, Which fertilize the dusty plain, Thy bounteous goodness pours. Dumb be the atheist tongue abhorr'd! All nature owns thee, sovereign Lord! And works thy gracious will; At thy command the tempest roars, At thy command is still. Thy mercy o'er this scene sublime presides; 'Tis mercy forms the veil that hides The ardent solar beam; While, from the volley'd breast of heaven, Transient gleams of dazzling light, Flashing on the balls of sight, Make darkness darker seem. Thou mov'st the quick and sulphurous leven-- The tempest-driven Cloud is riven; And the thirsty mountain-side Drinks gladly of the gushing tide.' So breath'd young Edwin, when the summer shower, From out that dark o'erchamb'ring cloud, With lightning flash and thunder loud, Burst in wild grandeur o'er his solitary bower.--_G. Brown._ THE END OF PART FOURTH. KEY TO THE IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION, CONTAINED IN THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS, AND DESIGNED FOR ORAL EXERCISES UNDER ALL THE RULES AND NOTES OF THE WORK. [Fist][The various examples of error which are exhibited for oral correction, in the Grammar of English Grammars, are all here explained, in their order, by full amended readings, sometimes with authorities specified, and generally with references of some sort. They are intended to be corrected orally by the pupil, according to the formules given under corresponding heads in the Grammar. Some portion, at least, under each rule or note, should be used in this way; and the rest, perhaps, may be read and compared more simply.] THE KEY.--PART I.--ORTHOGRAPHY. CHAPTER I.--OF LETTERS. CORRECTIONS RESPECTING CAPITALS. UNDER RULE I.--OF BOOKS. "Many a reader of the _Bible_ knows not who wrote the _Acts_ of the _Apostles_"--G. B. "The sons of Levi, the chief of the fathers, were written in the book of the _Chronicles_."--ALGER'S BIBLE: _Neh._, xii, 23. "Are they not written in the book of the _Acts_ of Solomon?"--FRIENDS' BIBLE: I _Kings_, xi, 41. "Are they not written in the book of the Chronicles of the _Kings_ of Israel?"--ALGER CORRECTED: I _Kings_, xxii, 39. "Are they not written in the book of the _Chronicles_ of the _Kings_ of Judah."--See ALGER: _ib., ver_. 45. "Which were written in the law of Moses, and in the prophets, and in the _Psalms_."--ALGER, ET AL.: _Luke_, xxiv, 44. "The narrative of which maybe seen in Josephus's History of the _Jewish War_"--_Dr. Scott cor._ [Obs.--The word in Josephus is "_War_," not "_Wars_."--_G. Brown._] "This _History of the Jewish War_ was Josephus's first work, and published about A. D. 75."--_Whiston cor._ "'I have read,' says Photius, 'the Chronology of Justus of Tiberias.'"--_Id._ "_A Philosophical Grammar_, written by James Harris, Esquire."--_Murray cor._ "The reader is referred to Stroud's _Sketch_ of the _Slave Laws_"--_A. S. Mag. cor._ "But God has so made the _Bible_ that it interprets itself."--_Idem_. "In 1562, with the help of Hopkins, he completed the _Psalter_."--_Gardiner cor._ "Gardiner says this of Sternhold; of whom the _Universal Biographical Dictionary_ and the American _Encyclopedia_ affirm, that he died in 1549."--_G. B._ "The title of a book, to wit: 'English Grammar in _Familiar Lectures_,'" &c.--_Kirkham cor._ "We had not, at that time, seen Mr. Kirkham's 'Grammar in _Familiar_ Lectures.'"--_Id._ "When you parse, you may spread the Compendium before you."--_Id. right_.[516] "Whenever you parse, you may spread the _Compendium_ before you."--_Id. cor._ "Adelung was the author of a _Grammatical_ and _Critical Dictionary_ of the German _Language_, and other works." _Biog. Dict. cor._ "Alley, William, author of '_The Poor Man's Library_,' and a translation of the Pentateuch, died in 1570."--_Id._ UNDER RULE II.--OF FIRST WORDS. "Depart instantly;"--"_Improve_ your time;"--"_Forgive_ us our sins."--_Murray corrected_. EXAMPLES:--"Gold is corrupting;"--"_The_ sea is green;"--"_A_ lion is bold."--_Mur. et al. cor._ Again: "It may rain;"--"_He_ may go or stay;"--"_He_ would walk;;"--"_They_ should learn."--_Iidem_. Again: "Oh! I have alienated my friend;"--"_Alas_! I fear for life."--_Iidem._ See _Alger's Gram._, p. 50. Again: "He went from London to York;"--"_She_ is above disguise;" "_They_ are supported by industry."--_Iidem_. "On the foregoing examples, I have a word to say. _They_ are better than a fair specimen of their kind. _Our_ grammars abound with worse illustrations. _Their_ models of English are generally spurious quotations. _Few_ of their proof-texts have any just parentage. _Goose-eyes_ are abundant, but names scarce. _Who_ fathers the foundlings? _Nobody. Then_ let their merit be nobody's, and their defects his who could write no better."--_Author_. "_Goose-eyes_!" says a bright boy; "pray, what are they? _Does_ this Mr. Author make new words when he pleases? _Dead-eyes_ are in a ship. _They_ are blocks, with holes in them. _But_ what are goose-eyes in grammar?" ANSWER: "_Goose-eyes_ are quotation points. _Some_ of the Germans gave them this name, making a jest of their form. _The_ French call them _guillemets_, from the name of their inventor."--_Author_. "_It_ is a personal pronoun, of the third person singular."--_Comly cor._ "_Ourselves_ is a personal pronoun, of the first person plural."--_Id._ "_Thee_ is a personal pronoun, of the second person singular."--_Id._ "_Contentment_ is a _common noun_, of the third person singular."--_Id._ "_Were_ is a neuter verb, of the indicative mood, imperfect tense."--_Id._ UNDER RULE III.--OF DEITY. "O thou _Dispenser_ of life! thy mercies are boundless."--_Allen cor._ "Shall not the _Judge_ of all the earth do right?"--ALGER, FRIENDS, ET AL.: _Gen._, xviii, 25. "And the _Spirit of God_ moved upon the face of the waters."--SCOTT, ALGER, FRIENDS, ET AL.: _Gen._, i, 2. "It is the gift of _Him_, who is the great _Author_ of good, and the Father of mercies."--_Murray cor._ "This is thy _God_ that brought thee up out of Egypt."--FRIENDS' BIBLE: _Neh._, ix, 18. "For the LORD is our defence; and the _Holy One_ of Israel is our _King_."--_Psal._. lxxxix, 18. "By making him the responsible steward of _Heaven's_ bounties."--_A. S. Mag. cor._ "Which the Lord, the righteous _Judge_, shall give me at that day."--ALGER: _2 Tim._, iv, 8. "The cries of them ... entered into the ears of the Lord of _Sabaoth_."--ALGER, FRIENDS: _James_, v, 4. "In Horeb, the _Deity_ revealed himself to Moses, as the _Eternal_ 'I AM,' the _Self-existent One_; and, after the first discouraging interview of his messengers with Pharaoh, he renewed his promise to them, by the awful name, JEHOVAH--a name till then unknown, and one which the Jews always held it a fearful profanation to pronounce."--_G. Brown_. "And _God_ spake unto Moses, and said unto him, I am the LORD: and I appeared unto Abraham, unto Isaac, and unto Jacob, by the name of _God Almighty_; but by my name JEHOVAH was I not known to them."--SCOTT, ALGER, FRIENDS: _Exod._, vi, 2. "Thus saith the LORD[517] the _King_ of Israel, and his _Redeemer_ the LORD of hosts; I am the _First_, and I am the _Last_; and besides me there is no _God_."--See _Isa._, xliv, 6. "His impious race their blasphemy renew'd, And nature's _King_, through nature's optics view'd."--_Dryden cor._ UNDER RULE IV.--OF PROPER NAMES. "Islamism prescribes fasting during the month _Ramadan_."--_Balbi cor._ "Near _Mecca_, in _Arabia_, is _Jebel Nor_, or the _Mountain of Light_, on the top of which the _Mussulmans_ erected a mosque, that they might perform their devotions where, according to their belief, _Mohammed_ received from the angel _Gabriel_ the first chapter of the Koran."--_G. Brown_. "In the _Kaaba_ at _Mecca_ there is a celebrated block of volcanic basalt, which the _Mohammedans_ venerate as the gift of _Gabriel_ to _Abraham_, but their ancestors once held it to be an image of _Remphan_, or _Saturn_; so 'the image which fell down from _Jupiter_,' to share with _Diana_ the homage of the _Ephesians_, was probably nothing more than a meteoric stone."--_Id._ "When the _Lycaonians_ at _Lystra_ took _Paul_ and _Barnabas_ to be gods, they called the former _Mercury_, on account of his eloquence, and the latter _Jupiter_, for the greater dignity of his appearance."--_Id._ "Of the writings of the apostolic fathers of the first century, but few have come down to us; yet we have in those of _Barnabas, Clement_ of _Rome, Hermas, Ignatius_, and _Polycarp_, very certain evidence of the authenticity of the New Testament, and the New Testament is a voucher for the Old."--_Id._ "It is said by _Tatian_, that _Theagenes_ of _Rhegium_, in the time of _Cambyses, Stesimbrotus_ the _Thracian, Antimachus_ the _Colophonian, Herodotus_ of _Halicarnassus, Dionysius_ the _Olynthian, Ephorus_ of _Cumæ, Philochorus_ the _Athenian, Metaclides_ and _Chamæleon_ the _Peripatetics_, and _Zenodotus, Aristophanes, Callimachus, Crates, Eratosthenes, Aristarchus_, and _Apollodorus_, the grammarians, all wrote concerning the poetry, the birth, and the age of _Homer_."--See _Coleridge's Introd._, p. 57. "Yet, for aught that now appears, the life of _Homer_ is as fabulous as that of _Hercules_; and some have even suspected, that, as the son of _Jupiter_ and _Alcmena_ has fathered the deeds of forty other _Herculeses_, so this unfathered son of _Critheis, Themisto_, or whatever dame--this _Melesigenes, Mæonides, Homer_--the blind schoolmaster, and poet, of _Smyrna, Chios, Colophon, Salamis, Rhodes, Argos, Athens_, or whatever place--has, by the help of _Lycurgus, Solon, Pisistratus_, and other learned ancients, been made up of many poets or _Homers_, and set so far aloft and aloof on old _Parnassus_, as to become a god in the eyes of all _Greece_, a wonder in those of all _Christendom_."--_G. Brown_. "Why so sagacious in your guesses? Your _Effs_, and _Tees_, and _Ars_, and _Esses_?"--_Swift corrected_. UNDER RULE V.--OF TITLES. "The king has conferred on him the title of _Duke_."--_Murray cor._ "At the court of _Queen_ Elizabeth."--_Priestley's E. Gram._, p. 99; see _Bullions's_, p. 24. "The laws of nature are, truly, what _Lord_ Bacon styles his aphorisms, laws of laws."--_Murray cor._ "Sixtus the Fourth was, if I mistake not, a great collector of books."--_Id._ "Who at that time made up the court of _King_ Charles the _Second_"--_Id._ "In case of his _Majesty's_ dying without issue."--_Kirkham cor._ "King Charles the _First_ was beheaded in 1649."--_W. Allen cor._ "He can no more impart, or (to use _Lord_ Bacon's word) _transmit_ convictions."--_Kirkham cor._ "I reside at _Lord_ Stormont's, my old patron and benefactor." Better: "I reside _with Lord Stormont_, my old patron and benefactor."--_Murray cor._ "We staid a month at _Lord Lyttelton's_, the ornament of his country." Much better: "We stayed a month at _the seat of Lord Lyttelton, who is_ the ornament of his country."--_Id._ "Whose prerogative is it? It is the _King_-of-Great- Britain's;" [518]--"That is the _Duke_-of-Bridgewater's canal;"--"The _Bishop_-of-Landaff's excellent book;"--"The Lord _Mayor_-of-London's authority."--_Id._ (See Murray's Note 4th on his Rule 10th.) "Why call ye me, _Lord, Lord_, and do not the things which I say?"--_Luke_, vi, 46. "And of them he chose twelve, whom also he named _Apostles_."--ALGER, FRIENDS, ET AL.: _Luke_, vi, 13. "And forthwith he came to Jesus, and said, Hail, _Master_; and kissed him."--_Matt._, xxvi, 49. "And he said, Nay, _Father_ Abraham: but if one went unto them from the dead, they _would_ repent."--_Bible cor._ UNDER RULE VI.--OF ONE CAPITAL. "_Fallriver_, a village in Massachusetts, population (in 1830) 3,431."--_Williams cor._ "Dr. Anderson died at _Westham_, in Essex, in 1808."--_Biog. Dict. cor._ "_Madriver_, the name of two towns in Clark and Champaign counties, Ohio."--_Williams cor._ "_Whitecreek_, a town of Washington county, New York."--_Id._ "_Saltcreek_, the name of four towns in different parts of Ohio."--_Id._ "_Saltlick_, a town of Fayette county, Pennsylvania."--_Id._ "_Yellowcreek_, a town of Columbiana county, Ohio."--_Id._ "_Whiteclay_, a hundred of _Newcastle_ county, Delaware."-- _Id._ "Newcastle, _a_ town and _half-shire_ of Newcastle county, Delaware."--_Id._ "_Singsing_, a village of _Westchester_ county, New York, situated in the town of _Mountpleasant_."--_Id._ "_Westchester_, a county of New York: _East Chester and West Chester are towns_ in Westchester county."--_Id._ "_Westtown_, a village of Orange county, New York."--_Id._ "_Whitewater_, a town of Hamilton county, Ohio."--_Worcester's Gaz._ "_Whitewater_ River, a considerable stream that rises in Indiana, and flowing southeasterly unites with the Miami in Ohio."--See _ib._ "_Blackwater_, a village of Hampshire, in England, and a town in Ireland."--See _ib._ "_Blackwater_, the name of seven different rivers, in England, Ireland, and the United States."--See _ib._ "_Redhook_, a town of Dutchess county, New York, on the Hudson."--_Williams cor._ "Kinderhook, a town of Columbia county, New York, on the Hudson."--_Williams right_. "_Newfane_, a town of Niagara county, New York."--_Williams cor._ "_Lakeport_, a town of Chicot county, Arkansas."--_Id._ "_Moosehead_ Lake, the chief source of the Kennebeck, in Maine."--_Id._ (See _Worcester's Gaz._) "Macdonough, a county of Illinois, population (in 1830) 2,959."--_Williams's Univ. Gaz._, p 408. "_Macdonough_, a county of Illinois, with a _court-house_ at Macomb."--_Williams cor._ "_Halfmoon_, the name of two towns in New York and Pennsylvania; also of two bays in the West Indies."--_S. Williams's Univ. Gaz._ "_Leboeuf_, a town of Erie county, Pennsylvania, near a small lake of the same name."--See _ib._ "_Charlescity, Jamescity, Eiizabethcity_, names of counties in Virginia, not cities, nor towns."--See _Univ. Gaz._, p. 404.[519] "The superior qualities of the waters of the Frome, here called _Stroudwater_."--_Balbi cor._ UNDER RULE VII.--OF TWO CAPITALS. "The Forth rises on the north side of _Ben Lomond_, and runs easterly."--_Glasgow Geog._, 8vo, _corrected_. "The red granite of _Ben Nevis_ is said to be the finest in the world."--_Id._ "_Ben More_, in Perthshire, is 3,915 feet above the level of the sea."--_Id._ "The height of _Ben Cleagh_ is 2,420 feet."--_Id._ "In Sutherland and Caithness, are Ben Ormod, Ben Clibeg, Ben Grin, Ben Hope, and Ben Lugal."--_Glas. Geog. right_. "_Ben Vracky_ is 2,756 feet high; _Ben Ledi_, 3,009; and _Ben Voirloich_, 3,300."--_Glas. Geog. cor._ "The river Dochart gives the name of _Glen Dochart_ to the vale through which it runs."--_Id._ "About ten miles from its source, it [the Tay] diffuses itself into _Loch Dochart_."--_Glasgow Geog._, Vol. ii, p. 314. LAKES:--"_Loch Ard_, Loch Achray, Loch Con, Loch Doine, Loch Katrine, Loch Lomond, Loch Voil."--_Scott corrected_. GLENS:--"_Glen Finlas_, Glen Fruin, Glen Luss, _Ross Dhu, Leven Glen_, Strath Endrick, Strath Gartney. Strath Ire."--_Id._ MOUNTAINS:--"_Ben An, Ben Harrow, Ben Ledi_, Ben Lomond, _Ben Voirlich, Ben Venue_, or, (as some spell it,) _Ben Ivenew_."--_Id._[520] "Fenelon died in 1715, deeply lamented by all the inhabitants of the _Low Countries_."--_Murray cor._ "And _Pharaoh Necho_[521] made Eliakim, the son of Josiah, king."--See ALGER: _2 Kings_, xiii, 34. "Those who seem so merry and well pleased, call her _Good Fortune_; but the others, who weep and wring their hands, _Bad Fortune_."--_Collier cor._ UNDER RULE VIII.--OF COMPOUNDS. "When Joab returned, and smote Edom in the _Valley_ of _Salt_"--FRIENDS' BIBLE: _Ps_. lx, title. "Then Paul stood in the midst of _Mars Hill_, and said," &c.--_Scott cor._ "And at night he went out, and abode in the mount that is called the _Mount_ of Olives."--_Bible cor._ "Abgillus, son of the king of the Frisii, surnamed Prester John, was in the Holy _Land_ with Charlemagne."--_U. Biog. Dict. cor._ "Cape Palmas, in Africa, divides the Grain _Coast_ from the Ivory _Coast_."--_Dict. of Geog. cor._ "The North Esk, flowing from Loch _Lee_, falls into the sea three miles north of Montrose."--_Id._ "At Queen's _Ferry_, the channel of the Forth is contracted by promontories on both coasts."--_Id._ "The Chestnut _Ridge_ is about twenty-five miles west of the Alleghanies, and Laurel _Ridge_, ten miles further west."--_Balbi cor._ "Washington _City_, the metropolis of the United States of America."--_Williams, U. Caz._, p. 380. "Washington _City_, in the District of Columbia, population (in 1830) 18,826."--_Williams cor._ "The loftiest peak of the _White Mountains_, in New Hampshire, is called _Mount_ Washington."--_G. Brown_. "Mount's _Bay_, in the west of England, lies between the _Land's End_ and _Lizard Point_."--_Id._ "Salamis, an island of the Egean Sea, off the southern coast of the ancient Attica."--_Dict. of Geog_. "Rhodes, an island of the Egean _Sea_, the largest and most easterly of the Cyclades."--_Id. cor._ "But he overthrew Pharaoh and his host in the Red _Sea_."--SCOTT: _Ps_. cxxxvi, 15. "But they provoked him at the sea, even at the Red _Sea_."--ALGER, FRIENDS: _Ps_. cvi, 7. UNDER RULE IX.--OF APPOSITION. "At that time, Herod the _tetrarch_ heard of the fame of Jesus."--SCOTT, FRIENDS, ET AL.: _Matt._, xiv, 1. "Who has been more detested than Judas the _traitor?_"--_G. Brown_. "St. Luke the _evangelist_ was a physician of Antioch, and one of the converts of St. Paul."--_Id._ "Luther, the _reformer_, began his bold career by preaching against papal indulgences."--_Id._ "The _poet_ Lydgate was a disciple and admirer of Chaucer: he died in 1440."--_Id._ "The _grammarian_ Varro, 'the most learned of the Romans,'[522] wrote three books when he was eighty years old."--_Id._ "John Despauter, the great _grammarian_ of Flanders, whose works are still valued, died in 1520."--_Id._ "Nero, the _emperor_ and _tyrant_ of Rome, slew himself to avoid a worse death."--_Id._ "Cicero the _orator_, 'the Father of his Country,' was assassinated at the age of 64."--_Id._ "Euripides, the Greek _tragedian_, was born in the _island_ of Salamis, B. C. 476."--_Id._ "I will say unto God my _rock_, Why hast thou forgotten me?"--ALGER, ET AL.: _Ps_. xlii, 9. "Staten Island, an island of New York, nine miles below New York _city_."--_Williams cor._ "When the son of Atreus, _king_ of _men_, and the noble Achilles first separated."--_Coleridge cor._ "Hermes, his _patron-god_, those gifts bestow'd, Whose shrine with _weanling_ lambs he wont to load."--_Pope cor._ UNDER RULE X.--OF PERSONIFICATIONS. "But _Wisdom_ is justified of all her children."--FRIENDS' BIBLE: _Luke_, vii, 35. "Fortune and the _Church_ are generally put in the feminine gender: that is, when personified." "Go to your _Natural Religion_; lay before her Mahomet and his disciples."--_Bp. Sherlock_. "O _Death!_ where is thy sting? O _Grave!_ where is thy victory."--_Pope_: _1 Cor._, xv, 55; _Merchant's Gram._, p. 172. "Ye cannot serve God and Mammon."--_Matt._, vi, 24. "Ye cannot serve God and _Mammon_"--See _Luke_, xvi, 13. "This house was built as if _Suspicion_ herself had dictated the plan."--_Rasselas_. "Poetry distinguishes herself from _Prose_, by yielding to a musical law."--_Music of Nature_, p. 501. "My beauteous deliverer thus uttered her divine instructions: 'My name is _Religion_. I am the offspring of _Truth_ and _Love_, and the parent of _Benevolence, Hope_, and _Joy_. That monster, from whose power I have freed you, is called _Superstition_: she is called the child of _Discontent_, and her followers are _Fear_ and _Sorrow_.'"--_E. Carter_. "Neither _Hope_ nor _Fear_ could enter the retreats; and _Habit_ had so absolute a power, that even _Conscience_, if _Religion_ had employed her in their favour, would not have been able to force an entrance."--_Dr. Johnson_. "In colleges and halls in ancient days, There dwelt a sage called _Discipline_."--_Cowper_. UNDER RULE XI.--OF DERIVATIVES. "In English, I would have _Gallicisms_ avoided."--_Felton_. "Sallust was born in Italy, 85 years before the _Christian_ era."--_Murray cor._; "Dr. Doddridge was not only a great man, but one of the most excellent and useful _Christians_, and _Christian_ ministers."--_Id._ "They corrupt their style with untutored _Anglicisms_"--_Milton_. "Albert of Stade, author of a chronicle from the creation to 1286, a _Benedictine_ of the 13th century."--_Biog. Dict. cor._ "Graffio, a _Jesuit_ of Capua in the 16th century, author of two volumes on moral subjects."--_Id._ "They _Frenchify_ and _Italianize_ words whenever they can."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 86. "He who sells a _Christian_, sells the grace of God."--_Mag. cor._ "The first persecution against the _Christians_, under Nero, began A. D. 64."--_Gregory cor._ "P. Rapin, the _Jesuit_, uniformly decides in favour of the Roman writers."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 248. "The Roman poet and _Epicurean_ philosopher Lucretius has said," &c.--_Cohen cor._ Spell _"Calvinistic, Atticism, Gothicism, Epicurism, Jesuitism, Sabianism, Socinianism, Anglican, Anglicism, Anglicize, Vandalism, Gallicism_, and _Romanize_."--_Webster cor._ "The large _Ternate_ bat."--_Id. and Bolles cor._ "Church-ladders are not always mounted best By learned clerks, and _Latinists_ profess'd"--_Cowper cor._ UNDER RULE XII.--OF I AND O. "Fall back, fall back; _I_ have not room:--_O!_ methinks _I_ see a couple whom _I_ should know."--_Lucian_. "Nay, _I_ live as _I_ did, _I_ think as _I_ did, _I_ love you as _I_ did; but all these are to no purpose; the world will not live, think, or love, as _I_ do."--_Swift to Pope_. "Whither, _O!_ whither shall _I_ fly? _O_ wretched prince! _O_ cruel reverse of fortune! _O_ father Micipsa! is this the consequence of thy generosity?"--_Tr. of Sallust._ "When _I_ was a child, _I_ spake as a child, _I_ understood as a child, _I_ thought as a child; but when _I_ became a man, _I_ put away childish things."--_1 Cor._, xiii, 11. "And _I_ heard, but _I_ understood not; then said _I, O_ my Lord, what shall be the end of these things?"--_Dan._, xii, 8. "Here am _I_; _I_ think _I_ am very good, and _I_ am quite sure _I_ am very happy, yet _I_ never wrote a treatise in my life."--_Few Days in Athens_, p. 127. "Singular, Vocative, _O master!_ Plural, Vocative, _O masters!_"--_Bicknell cor._ "I, _I_ am he; _O_ father! rise, behold Thy son, with twenty winters now grown old!" --_Pope's Odyssey_, B. 24, l. 375. UNDER RULE XIII.--OF POETRY. "Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, _Lie_ in three words--health, peace, and competence; _But_ health consists with temperance alone, _And_ peace, O Virtue! peace is all thy own."--_Pope._ "Observe the language well in all you write, _And_ swerve not from it in your loftiest flight. The smoothest verse and the exactest sense _Displease_ us, if ill English give offence: _A_ barbarous phrase no reader can approve; _Nor_ bombast, noise, or affectation love. In short, without pure language, what you write _Can_ never yield us profit or delight. Take time for thinking; never work in haste; _And_ value not yourself for writing fast."--_Dryden._ UNDER RULE XIV.--OF EXAMPLES. "The word _rather_ is very properly used to express a small degree or excess of a quality; as, '_She_ is _rather_ profuse in her expenses.'"--_Murray cor._ "_Neither_ imports _not either_; that is, not one nor the other: as, '_Neither_ of my friends was there.'"--_Id._ "When we say, '_He_ is a tall man,'--'_This_ is a fair day,' we make some reference to the ordinary size of men, and to different weather."--_Id._ "We more readily say, 'A million of men,' than, '_A_ thousand of men.'"--_Id._ "So in the instances, '_Two_ and two are four;'--'_The_ fifth and sixth volumes will complete the set of books.'"--_Id._ "The adjective may frequently either precede or follow the verb: as, '_The_ man is _happy_;' or, '_Happy_ is the man;'--'The interview was _delightful_;' or, '_Delightful_ was the interview.'"--_Id._ "If we say, '_He_ writes a pen;'--'_They_ ran the river;'--'_The_ tower fell the Greeks;'--'Lambeth is Westminster _Abbey_;'--[we speak absurdly;] and, it is evident, there is a vacancy which must be filled up by some connecting word: as thus, 'He writes _with_ a pen;'--'_They_ ran _towards_ the river;'--'_The_ tower fell _upon_ the Greeks;'--'Lambeth is _over against_ Westminster _Abbey_.'"--_Id._ "Let me repeat it;--_He_ only is great, who has the habits of greatness."--_Id._ "I say not unto thee, _Until_ seven times; but, _Until_ seventy times seven."--_Matt._, xviii, 22. "The Panther smil'd at this; and, '_When_,' said she, 'Were those first councils disallow'd by me?'"--_Dryd. cor._ UNDER RULE XV.--OF CHIEF WORDS. "The supreme council of the nation is called the _Divan_."--_Balbi cor._ "The British _Parliament_ is composed of _King, Lords_, and _Commons._"--_Comly's Gram._, p. 129; and _Jaudon's_, 127. "A popular orator in the House of Commons has a sort of patent for coining as many new terms as he pleases."--See _Campbell's Rhet._, p. 169; _Murray's Gram._, 364. "They may all be taken together, as one name; as, '_The House of Commons._'"--_Merchant cor._ "Intrusted to persons in whom the _Parliament_ could confide."--_Murray cor._ "For 'The _Lords' House_,' it were certainly better to say, '_The House of Lords_;' and, in stead of 'The _Commons'_ vote,' to say. 'The _vote_ of the _Commons._'"--_Id. and Priestley cor._ "The _House_ of _Lords_ were so much influenced by these reasons."--_Iidem._ "Rhetoricians commonly divide them into two great classes; _Figures_ of _Words_, and _Figures_ of _Thought_. The former, _Figures_ of _Words_, are commonly called _Tropes_."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 337. "Perhaps, _Figures_ of _Imagination_, and _Figures_ of _Passion_, might be a more useful distribution."--_Ib._ "Hitherto we have considered sentences, under the heads of _Perspicuity, Unity_, and _Strength_."--See _Murray's Gram._, p. 356. "The word is then depos'd; and, in this view, You rule the _Scripture_, not the _Scripture_ you."--_Dryd. cor._ UNDER RULE XVI.--OF NEEDLESS CAPITALS. "Be of good cheer; _it_ is I; be not afraid."--FRIENDS' BIBLE, AND SCOTT'S: _Matt._, xiv, 27. "Between passion and lying, there is not a _finger's_ breadth."--_Mur. cor._ "Can our _solicitude_ alter the course, or unravel the intricacy, of human events?" "The last edition was carefully compared with the _original manuscript_."--_Id._ "And the governor asked him, saying, Art thou the _king_ of the Jews?"--SCOTT: _Matt._, xxvii, 11. "Let them be turned back for a reward of their shame, that say, Aha, _aha_!"--SCOTT ET AL.: _Ps._, lxx, 3. "Let them be desolate for a reward of their shame, that say unto me, Aha, aha!"--IIDEM: _Ps._, xl, 15. "What think ye of Christ? whose _son_ is he? They say unto him, The _son_ of David. He saith unto them, How then doth David in _spirit_ call him Lord?"--ALGER: _Matt._, xxii, 42, 43. "Among all _things_ in the _universe_, direct your _worship_ to the _greatest_. And which is that? _It_ is that Being _who manages_ and _governs_ all the rest."--_Collier's Antoninus cor._ "As for _modesty_ and _good faith, truth_ and _justice_, they have left this wicked _world_ and retired to _heaven; and_ now what is it that can keep you here?"--_Idem_. "If pulse of verse a nation's temper shows, In keen iambics English metre flows."--_Brightland cor._ PROMISCUOUS CORRECTIONS RESPECTING CAPITALS. LESSON I.--MIXED EXAMPLES. "Come, gentle _Spring, ethereal_ mildness, come."--_Thomson's Seasons_, p. 29. As, "He is the Cicero of his age;"--"_He_ is reading the _Lives_ of the Twelve Cæsars;"--or, if no particular book is meant,--"the _lives_ of the _twelve_ Cæsars;" (as it is in _Fisk's Grammar_, p. 57;) for the sentence, as it stands in Murray, is ambiguous. "In the _History_ of Henry the _Fourth_, by _Father_ Daniel, we are _surprised_ at not finding him the great man."--_Smollett's Voltaire_, Vol. v, p. 82. "Do not those same poor peasants use the _lever_, and the _wedge_, and many other instruments?"--_Harris and Mur. cor._ "Arithmetic is excellent for the gauging of _liquors; geometry_, for the measuring of _estates; astronomy_, for the making of _almanacs_; and _grammar_, perhaps, for the drawing of _bonds_ and _conveyances_."--See _Murray's Gram._, p. 288. "The [_History_ of the] _Wars_ of Flanders, written in Latin by Famianus Strada, is a book of some note."--_Blair cor._ "_William_ is a noun. _Why_? _Was_ is a verb. _Why_? _A_ is an article. _Why_? _Very_ is an adverb. _Why_?" &c.--_Merchant cor._ "In the beginning was the _Word_, and that _Word_ was with God, and God was that _Word_."--See _Gospel of John_, i, 1. "The _Greeks_ are numerous in _Thessaly, Macedonia, Romelia_, and _Albania_."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 360. "He [the Grand Seignior] is styled by the Turks, Sultan, Mighty, or Padishah, _Lord_."--_Balbi cor._ "I will ransom them from the power of the grave; I will redeem them from death. O _Death_! I will be thy _plague_; O _Grave_! I will be thy destruction."--_Bible cor._ "Silver and _gold_ have I none; but such as I have, give I [unto] thee."--See _Acts_, iii, 6. "Return, we beseech thee, O God of _hosts_! look down from heaven, and behold, and visit this vine."--See _Psalm_ lxxx, 14. "In the Attic _commonwealth_, it was the privilege of every citizen to rail in public."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 316. "They assert, that in the phrases, 'GIVE me _that_,'--'_This_ is John's,' and, '_Such_ were _some_ of you,'--the words in _Italics_ are pronouns; but that, in the following phrases, they are not pronouns: '_This_ book is instructive;'--'_Some_ boys are ingenious;'--'_My_ health is declining;'--'_Our_ hearts are deceitful.'"--_Murray partly corrected_.[523] "And the coast bends again to the northwest, as far as _Farout Head_."--_Geog. cor._ "Dr. Webster, and other makers of spelling-books, very improperly write _Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday_, and _Saturday_, without capitals."--_G. Brown_. "The commander in chief of the Turkish navy is styled the _Capitan Pacha_."--_Balbi cor._ "Shall we not much rather be in subjection unto the _Father_ of spirits, and live?"--ALGER'S BIBLE: _Heb._, xii, 9. "He [Dr. Beattie] was more anxious to attain the character of a _Christian_ hero."--_Murray cor._ "Beautiful for situation, the joy of the whole earth, is _Mount_ Zion."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 393. "The Lord is my _helper_, and I will not fear what man shall do unto me."--ALGER, FRIENDS, ET AL.: _Heb._, xiii, 6. "Make haste to help me, O LORD my _salvation_."--IIDEM: _Psalms_, xxxviii, 22. "The _city_ which _thou_ seest, no other deem Than great and glorious Rome, _queen_ of the _earth_." --_Paradise Regained_, B. iv. LESSON II.--MIXED EXAMPLES. "That range of hills, known under the general name of _Mount_ Jura."--_Account of Geneva_. "He rebuked the Red _Sea_ also, and it was dried up."--FRIENDS' BIBLE: _Ps_. cvi, 9. "Jesus went unto the _Mount_ of Olives."--_Bible cor._ "Milton's book in reply to the _Defence of the King_, by Salmasius, gained him a thousand pounds from the _Parliament_, and killed his antagonist with vexation."--_G. B_. "Mandeville, _Sir_ John, an Englishman famous for his travels, born about 1300, died in 1372."--_B. Dict. cor._ "Ettrick _Pen_, a mountain in Selkirkshire, Scotland, height 2,200 feet."--_G. Geog. cor._ "The coast bends from _Dungsby Head_, in a northwest direction, to the promontory of _Dunnet Head_."--_Id._ "General Gaines ordered a detachment of _nearly_ 300 men, under the command of Major Twiggs, to surround and take an Indian _village_, called _Fowltown_, about fourteen miles from _Fort_ Scott."--_Cohen Cor._ "And he took the damsel by the hand, and said unto her, 'Talitha, _cumi_.'"--_Bible Editors cor._ "On religious subjects, a frequent _adoption of Scripture_ language is attended with peculiar force."--_Murray cor._ "Contemplated with gratitude to their Author, the Giver of all _good_."--_Id._ "When he, the Spirit of _truth_, is come, he will guide you into all [the] truth,"--SCOTT, ALGER, ET AL.: _John_, xvi, 13. "See the _Lecture on Verbs, Rule XV, Note_ 4th."--_Fisk cor._ "At the commencement of _Lecture_ 2d, I informed you that Etymology treats, _thirdly_, of derivation."--_Kirkham cor._ "This 8th _Lecture_ is a very important one."--_Id._ "Now read the _11th_ and _12th_ lectures, four or five times over."--_Id._ "In 1752, he [Henry Home] was advanced to the bench, under the title of _Lord_ Kames."--_Murray cor._ "One of his maxims was, '_Know_ thyself.'"--_Lempriere cor._ "Good _Master_, what good thing shall I do, that I may have eternal life?"--FRIENDS' BIBLE: _Matt._, xix, 16. "His best known works, however, [John Almon's] are, '_Anecdotes_ of the _Life_ of the _Earl_ of Chatham,' 2 vols. 4to, 3 vols. 8vo; and '_Biographical, Literary_, and _Political Anecdotes_ of several of the _Most Eminent Persons_ of the _Present Age_; never before printed,' 3 vols. 8vo, 1797."--_Biog. Dict. cor._ "O gentle _Sleep_, Nature's soft nurse, how have I frighted thee?"--SHAK.: _Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. ii, p. 175. "And _peace, O Virtue!_ peace is all thy own."--_Pope et al. cor._ LESSON III.--MIXED EXAMPLES. "Fenelon united the characters of a nobleman and a _Christian_ pastor. His book entitled, 'An _Explication_ of the Maxims of the Saints, concerning the _Interior Life_,' gave considerable offence to the guardians of orthodoxy."--_Murray cor._ "When _Natural Religion_, who before was only a spectator, is introduced as speaking by the _Centurion's_ voice."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 347. "You cannot deny, that the great _Mover_ and _Author_ of nature constantly explaineth himself to the eyes of men, by the sensible intervention of arbitrary signs, which have no similitude to, or connexion with, the things signified."--_Berkley cor._ "The name of this letter is _Double-u_, its form, that of a double V."--_Dr. Wilson cor._ "Murray, in his _Spelling-Book_, wrote _Charlestown_ with a _hyphen_ and two capitals."--_G. Brown._ "He also wrote _European_ without a capital."--_Id._ "They profess themselves to be _Pharisees_, who are to be heard and not imitated."--_Calvin cor._ "Dr. Webster wrote both _Newhaven_ and _New York_ with single capitals."--_G. Brown_. "_Gay Head_, the west point of Martha's Vineyard."--_Williams cor._ "Write _Crab Orchard, Egg Harbour, Long Island, Perth Amboy, West Hampton, Little Compton, New Paltz, Crown Point, Fell's Point, Sandy Hook, Port Penn, Port Royal, Porto Bello_, and _Porto Rico_.'"--_G. Brown._ "Write the names of the months: _January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, December_."--_Id._ "Write the following names and words properly: _Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Saturn;--Christ, Christian, Christmas, Christendom, Michaelmas, Indian, Bacchanals;--East Hampton, Omega, Johannes, Aonian, Levitical, Deuteronomy, European_."--_Id._ "Eight _letters_ in some _syllables_ we find, And no more _syllables_ in _words_ are join'd."--_Brightland cor._ CHAPTER II.--OF SYLLABLES. CORRECTIONS OF FALSE SYLLABICATION. LESSON I.--CONSONANTS. 1. Correction of _Murray_, in words of two syllables: civ-il, col-our, cop-y, dam-ask, doz-en, ev-er, feath-er, gath-er, heav-en, heav-y, hon-ey, lem-on, lin-en, mead-ow, mon-ey, nev-er, ol-ive, or-ange, oth-er, pheas-ant, pleas-ant, pun-ish, rath-er, read-y, riv-er, rob-in, schol-ar, shov-el, stom-ach, tim-id, whith-er. 2. Correction of _Murray_, in words of three syllables: ben-e-fit, cab-i-net, can-is-ter, cat-a-logue, char-ac-ter, char-i-ty, cov-et-ous, dil-i-gence, dim-i-ty, el-e-phant, ev-i-dent, ev-er-green, friv-o-lous, gath-er-ing, gen-er-ous, gov-ern-ess, gov-ern-or, hon-est-y, kal-en-dar, lav-en-der, lev-er-et, lib-er-al, mem-or-y, min-is-ter, mod-est-ly, nov-el-ty, no-bod-y, par-a-dise, pov-er-ty, pres-ent-ly, prov-i-dence, prop-er-ly, pris-on-er, rav-en-ous, sat-is-fy, sev-er-al, sep-ar-ate, trav-el-ler, vag-a-bond;--con-sid-er, con-tin-ue, de-liv-er, dis-cov-er, dis-fig-ure, dis-hon-est, dis-trib-ute, in-hab-it, me-chan-ic, what-ev-er;--rec-om-mend, ref-u-gee, rep-ri-mand. 3. Correction of _Murray_, in words of four syllables: cat-er-pil-lar, char-i-ta-ble, dil-i-gent-ly, mis-er-a-ble, prof-it-a-ble, tol-er-a-ble;--be-nev-o-lent, con-sid-er-ate, di-min-u-tive, ex-per-i-ment, ex-trav-a-gant, in-hab-i-tant, no-bil-i-ty, par-tic-u-lar, pros-per-i-ty, ri-dic-u-lous, sin-cer-i-ty;--dem-on-stra-tion, ed-u-ca-tion, em-u-la-tion, ep-i-dem-ic, mal-e-fac-tor, man-u-fac-ture, mem-o-ran-dum, mod-er-a-tor, par-a-lyt-ic, pen-i-ten-tial, res-ig-na-tion, sat-is-fac-tion, sem-i-co-lon. 4. Correction of _Murray_, in words of five syllables: a-bom-i-na-ble, a-poth-e-ca-ry, con-sid-er-a-ble, ex-plan-a-to-ry, pre-par-a-to-ry;-- ac-a-dem-i-cal, cu-ri-os-i-ty, ge-o-graph-i-cal, man-u-fac-tor-y, sat-is-fac-tor-y, mer-i-to-ri-ous;--char-ac-ter-is-tic, ep-i-gram-mat-ic, ex-per-i-ment-al, pol-y-syl-la-ble, con-sid-er-a-tion. 5. Correction of _Murray_, in the division of proper names: Hel-en, Leon-ard, Phil-ip, Rob-ert, Hor-ace, Thom-as;--Car-o-line, Cath-a-rine, Dan-i-el, Deb-o-rah, Dor-o-thy, Fred-er-ick, Is-a-bel, Jon-a-than, Lyd-i-a, Nich-o-las, Ol-i-ver, Sam-u-el, Sim-e-on, Sol-o-mon, Tim-o-thy, Val-en-tine;--A-mer-i-ca, Bar-thol-o-mew, E-liz-a-beth, Na-than-i-el, Pe-nel-o-pe, The-oph-i-lus. LESSON II.--MIXED EXAMPLES. 1. Correction of _Webster_, by Rule 1st:--ca-price, e-steem, dis-e-steem, o-blige;--a-zure, ma-tron, pa-tron, pha-lanx, si-ren, trai-tor, tren-cher, bar-ber, bur-nish, gar-nish, tar-nish, var-nish, mar-ket, mus-ket, pam-phlet;--bra-ver-y, kna-ver-y, sla-ver-y, e-ven-ing, sce-ner-y, bri-ber-y, ni-ce-ty, chi-ca-ner-y, ma-chin-er-y, im-a-ger-y;--a-sy-lum, ho-ri-zon,--fin-an-cier, her-o-ism, sar-do-nyx, scur-ri-lous,--co-me-di-an, pos-te-ri-or. 2. Correction of _Webster_, by Rule 2d: o-yer, fo-li-o, ge-ni-al, ge-ni-us, ju-ni-or, sa-ti-ate, vi-ti-ate;--am-bro-si-a, cha-me-_le_-on, par-he-li-on, con-ve-ni-ent, in-ge-ni-ous, om-nis-ci-ence, pe-cu-li-ar, so-ci-a-ble, par-ti-al-i-ty, pe-cu-ni-a-ry;--an-nun-ci-ate, e-nun-ci-ate, ap-pre-ci-ate, as-so-ci-ate, ex-pa-ti-ate, in-gra-ti-ate, in-i-ti-ate, li-cen-ti-ate, ne-go-ti-ate, no-vi-ti-ate, of-fi-ci-ate, pro-pi-ti-ate, sub-stan-ti-ate. 3. Correction of _Cobb_ and _Webster_, by each other, under Rule 3d: "dress-er, hast-y, past-ry, seiz-ure, roll-er, jest-er, weav-er, vamp-er, hand-y, dross-y, gloss-y, mov-er, mov-ing, ooz-y, full-er, trust-y, weight-y, nois-y, drows-y, swarth-y."--_Webster_. Again: "east-ern, ful-ly, pul-let, ril-let, scant-y, need-y."--_Cobb._ 4. Correction of _Webster_ and _Cobb_, under Rule 4th: a-wry, a-thwart´, pros-pect´-ive, pa-ren´-the-sis, re-sist-i-bil´-i-ty, hem-i-spher´-ic, mon´-o-stich, hem´-i-stich, to´-wards. 5. Correction of the words under Rule 5th; Eng-land, an oth-er,[524] Beth-es´-da, Beth-ab´-a-ra. LESSON III.--MIXED EXAMPLES. 1. Correction of _Cobb_, by Rule 3d: bend-er, bless-ing, brass-y, chaff-y, chant-er, clasp-er, craft-y, curd-y, fend-er, film-y, fust-y, glass-y, graft-er, grass-y, gust-y, hand-ed, mass-y, musk-y, rust-y, swell-ing, tell-er, test-ed, thrift-y, vest-ure. 2. Corrections of _Webster_, mostly by Rule 1st: bar-ber, bur-nish, bris-ket, can-ker, char-ter, cuc-koo, fur-nish, gar-nish, guilt-y, han-ker, lus-ty, por-tal, tar-nish, tes-tate, tes-ty, trai-tor, trea-ty, var-nish, ves-tal, di-ur-nal, e-ter-nal, in-fer-nal, in-ter-nal, ma-ter-nal, noc-tur-nal, pa-ter-nal. 3. Corrections of _Webster_, mostly by Rule 1st: ar-mor-y, ar-ter-y, _butch-er-y_, cook-er-y, eb-on-y, em-er-y, ev-er-y, fel-on-y, fop-per-y, frip-per-y, gal-ler-y, his-tor-y, liv-er-y, lot-ter-y, mock-er-y, _mys-ter-y_,[525] nun-ner-y, or-rer-y, pil-lor-y, quack-er-y, sor-cer-y, witch-er-y. 4. Corrections of _Cobb_, mostly by Rule 1st: an-kle, bas-ket, blan-ket, buc-kle, cac-kle, cran-kle, crin-kle, Eas-ter, fic-kle, frec-kle, knuc-kle, mar-ket, mon-key, por-tress, pic-kle, poul-tice, pun-cheon, quad-rant, quad-rate, squad-ron, ran-kle, shac-kle, sprin-kle, tin-kle, twin-kle, wrin-kle. 5. Corrections of _Emerson_, by Rules 1st and 3d: as-cribe, blan-dish, branch-y, cloud-y, dust-y, drear-y, e-ven-ing, fault-y, filth-y, frost-y, gaud-y, gloom-y, health-y, heark-en, heart-y, hoar-y, leak-y, loun-ger, marsh-y, might-y, milk-y, naught-y, pass-ing, pitch-er, read-y, rock-y, speed-y, stead-y, storm-y, thirst-y, thorn-y, trust-y, vest-ry, west-ern, wealth-y. CHAPTER III.--OF WORDS. CORRECTIONS RESPECTING THE FIGURE, OR FORM, OF WORDS. RULE I.--COMPOUNDS. "Professing to imitate Timon, the _manhater_."--_Goldsmith corrected_. "Men load hay with a _pitchfork._"--_Webster cor._ "A _peartree_ grows from the seed of a pear."--_Id._ "A _toothbrush_ is good to brush your teeth."--_Id._ "The mail is opened at the _post-office_."--_Id._ "The error seems to me _twofold_."--_Sanborn cor._ "To _preëngage_ means to engage _beforehand_."--_Webster cor._ "It is a mean act to deface the figures on a _milestone_."--_Id._ "A grange is a farm, _with its farm- house_."--_Id._ "It is no more right to steal apples or _watermelons_, than [to steal] money."--_Id._ "The awl is a tool used by shoemakers and _harness-makers_."--_Id._ "_Twenty-five_ cents are equal to one quarter of a dollar."--_Id._ "The _blowing-up_ of the Fulton at New York, was a terrible disaster."--_Id._ "The elders also, and the _bringers-up_ of the children, sent to Jehu."--ALGER, FRIENDS, ET AL.: _2 Kings_, x, 5. "Not with _eyeservice_ as _menpleasers_."--_Col._, iii, 22. "A _good-natured_ and equitable construction of cases."--_Ash cor._ "And purify your hearts, ye _double-minded_."--_James_, iv, 8. "It is a _mean-spirited_ action to steal; i.e., To steal is a _mean-spirited_ action."--_A. Murray cor._ "There is, indeed, one form of orthography which is _akin_ to the subjunctive mood of the Latin tongue."--_Booth cor._ "To bring him into nearer connexion with real and _everyday_ life."--_Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 459. "The _commonplace_, stale declamation of its revilers would be silenced."--_Id. cor._ "She [Cleopatra] formed a very singular and _unheard-of_ project."--_Goldsmith cor._ "He [William Tell] had many vigilant, though _feeble-talented_ and _mean-spirited_ enemies."--_R. Vaux cor._ "These _old-fashioned_ people would level our psalmody," &c.--_Gardiner cor._ "This _slow-shifting_ scenery in the theatre of harmony."--_Id._ "So we are assured from Scripture _itself_."--_Harris cor._ "The mind, being disheartened, then betakes _itself_ to trifling."--_R. Johnson cor._ "_Whosesoever_ sins ye remit, they are remitted unto them."--_Bible cor._ "Tarry we _ourselves_ how we will."--_W. Walker cor._ "Manage your credit so, that you need neither swear _yourself_, nor seek a voucher."--_Collier cor._ "Whereas song never conveys any of the _abovenamed_ sentiments."--_Dr. Rush cor._ "I go on _horseback_."--_Guy cor._ "This requires purity, in opposition to barbarous, obsolete, or _new-coined words_."--_Adam cor._ "May the _ploughshare_ shine."--_White cor._ "_Whichever_ way we consider it."--_Locke cor._ "_Where'er_ the silent _e_ a _place_ obtains, The _voice_ foregoing, _length_ and softness gains."--_Brightland cor._ RULE II.--SIMPLES. "It qualifies any of the four parts of speech _above named_."--_Kirkham cor._ "After _a while_ they put us out among the rude multitude."--_Fox cor._ "It would be a _shame_, if your mind should falter and give in."--_Collier cor._ "They stared _a while_ in silence one upon _an other_."--_Johnson cor._ "After passion has for _a while_ exercised its tyrannical sway."--_Murray cor._ "Though set within the same _general frame_ of intonation."--_Rush cor._ "Which do not carry any of the natural _vocal signs_ of expression."--_Id._ "The measurable _constructive powers_ of a few associable constituents."--_Id._ "Before each accented syllable or emphatic _monosyllabic word_."--_Id._ "One should not think too favourably of _one's self_."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 154. "Know ye not your _own selves_, how that Jesus Christ is in you?"--_2 Cor._, xiii, 5. "I judge not my _own self_, for I know nothing of my _own self_."--See _1 Cor._, iv, 3. "Though they were in such a rage, I desired them to tarry _a while_."--_Josephus cor._ "_A, in stead_ of _an_, is now used before words beginning with _u_ long."--_Murray cor._ "John will have earned his wages _by_ next _new year's_ day."--_Id._ "A _new year's gift_ is a present made on the first day of the year."--_Johnson et al. cor._ "When he sat on the throne, distributing _new year's gifts_."--_Id._ "St. Paul admonishes Timothy to refuse _old wives' fables_."--See _1 Tim._, iv, 7. "The world, take it _all together_, is but one."--_Collier cor._ "In writings of this stamp, we must accept of sound _in stead_ of sense."--_Murray cor._ "A _male_ child, a _female_ child; _male_ descendants, _female_ descendants."--_Goldsbury et al. cor._ "_Male_ servants, _female_ servants; _male_ relations, _female_ relations."--_Felton cor._ "Reserved and cautious, with no partial aim, My muse e'er sought to blast _an other's_ fame."--_Lloyd cor._ RULE III.--THE SENSE. "Our discriminations of this matter have been but _four-footed_ instincts."--_Rush cor._ "He is in the right, (says Clytus,) not to bear _free-born_ men at his table."--_Goldsmith cor._ "To the _short-seeing_ eye of man, the progress may appear little."--_The Friend cor._ "Knowledge and virtue are, emphatically, the _stepping-stones_ to individual distinction."--_Town cor._ "A _tin-peddler_ will sell tin vessels as he travels."--_Webster cor._ "The beams of a _wooden house_ are held up by the posts and joists."--_Id._ "What you mean by _future-tense_ adjective, I can easily understand."--_Tooke cor._ "The town has been for several days very _well-behaved_."--_Spectator cor._ "A _rounce_ is the handle of a _printing-press_."--_Webster cor._ "The phraseology [which] we call _thee-and-thouing_ [or, better, _thoutheeing_,] is not in so common use with us, as the _tutoyant_ among the French."--_Walker cor._ "Hunting and other _outdoor_ sports, are generally pursued."--_Balbi cor._ "Come unto me, all ye that labor and are _heavy-laden_."--_Scott et al. cor._ "God so loved the world, that he gave his _only-begotten_ Son to save it."--See ALGER'S BIBLE, and FRIENDS': _John_, iii, 16. "Jehovah is a _prayer-hearing_ God: Nineveh repented, and was spared."--_Observer cor._ "These are _well-pleasing_ to God, in all ranks and relations."--_Barclay cor._ "Whosoever cometh _anything_ near unto the tabernacle."--_Bible cor._ "The words coalesce, when they have a _long-established_ association."--_Mur. cor._ "Open to me the gates of righteousness: I will go _into_ them."--MODERN BIBLE: _Ps_. cxviii, 19. "He saw an angel of God coming _in to_ him."--_Acts_, x, 3. "The consequences of any action are to be considered in a _twofold_ light."--_Wayland cor._ "We commonly write _twofold, threefold, fourfold_, and so on up to _tenfold_, without a hyphen; and, after that, we use one."--_G. Brown_. "When the first mark is going off, he cries, _Turn_! the _glassholder_ answers, _Done_!"--_Bowditch cor._ "It is a kind of familiar _shaking-hands_ (or _shaking of hands_) with all the vices."--_Maturin cor._ "She is a _good-natured_ woman;"--"James is _self-opinionated_;"--"He is _broken-hearted_."--_Wright cor._ "These three examples apply to the _present-tense_ construction only."--_Id._ "So that it was like a game of _hide-and-go-seek_."--_Gram. cor._ "That lowliness is young ambition's ladder, Whereto the _climber-upward_ turns his face."--_Shak._ RULE IV.--ELLIPSES. "This building serves yet for a _schoolhouse_ and a meeting-house."--_G. Brown_. "Schoolmasters and _schoolmistresses, if_ honest friends, are to be encouraged."--_Discip. cor._ "We never assumed to ourselves a _faith-making_ or a _worship-making_ power."--_Barclay cor._ "_Potash_ and _pearlash_ are made from common ashes."--_Webster cor._ "Both the _ten-syllable_ and the _eight-syllable_ verses are iambics."--_Blair cor._ "I say to myself, thou _say'st to thyself_, he says to _himself_, &c."--_Dr. Murray cor._ "Or those who have esteemed themselves _skillful_, have tried for the mastery in _two-horse_ or _four-horse_ chariots."--_Ware cor._ "I remember him barefooted and _bareheaded_, running through the streets."--_Edgeworth cor._ "Friends have the entire control of the _schoolhouse_ and _dwelling-house_." Or:--"of the _schoolhouses_ and _dwelling-houses_" Or:--"of the _schoolhouse_ and the _dwelling-houses_" Or:--"of the _schoolhouses_ and the _dwelling-house_." Or:--"of the _school_, and _of the dwelling-houses_." [For the sentence here to be corrected is so ambiguous, that any of these may have been the meaning intended by it.]--_The Friend cor._ "The meeting is held at the _first-mentioned_ place in _Firstmonth_; at the _last-mentioned_, in _Secondmonth_; and so on."--_Id._ "Meetings for worship are held, at the same hour, on _Firstday_ and _Fourthday_." Or:--"on _Firstdays_ and _Fourthdays_."--_Id._ "Every part of it, inside and _outside_, is covered with gold leaf."--_Id._ "The Eastern Quarterly Meeting is held on the last _Seventhday_ in _Secondmonth, Fifthmonth, Eighthmonth_, and _Eleventhmonth_."--_Id._ "Trenton Preparative Meeting is held on the third _Fifthday_ in each month, at ten o'clock; meetings for worship [are held,] at the same hour, on _Firstdays_ and _Fifthdays_."--_Id._ "Ketch, a vessel with two masts, a _mainmast_ and _a mizzenmast_."--_Webster cor._ "I only mean to suggest a doubt, whether nature has enlisted herself [either] as a _Cis-Atlantic_ or [as a] _Trans-Atlantic_ partisan."--_Jefferson cor._ "By large hammers, like those used for _paper-mills_ and _fulling-mills_, they beat their hemp."--_Johnson cor._ "ANT-HILL, or ANT-HILLOCK, n. A small _protuberance_ of earth, _formed_ by ants, _for_ their _habitation_."-- _Id._ "It became necessary to substitute simple indicative terms called _pronames_ or _pronouns_." "Obscur'd, where highest woods, impenetrable To _light of star or sun_, their umbrage spread."--_Milton cor._ RULE V.--THE HYPHEN. "_Evil-thinking_; a noun, compounded of the noun _evil_ and the imperfect participle _thinking_; singular number;" &c.--_Churchill cor._ "_Evil-speaking_; a noun, compounded of the noun _evil_ and the imperfect participle _speaking_."--_Id._ "I am a tall, _broad-shouldered_, impudent, black fellow."--_Spect_, or _Joh. cor._ "Ingratitude! thou _marble-hearted_ fiend."--_Shak_. or _Joh. cor._ "A popular _license_ is indeed the _many-headed_ tyranny."--_Sydney_ or _Joh. cor._ "He from the _many-peopled_ city flies."--_Sandys_ or _Joh. cor._ "He _many-languaged_ nations has surveyed."--_Pope_ or _Joh. cor._ "The _horse-cucumber_ is the large green cucumber, and the best for the table."--_Mort_. or _Joh. cor._ "The bird of night did sit, even at _noon-day_, upon the market-place."--_Shak_. or _Joh. cor._ "These make a general _gaol-delivery_ of souls not for punishment."--_South_ or _Joh. cor._ "Thy air, thou other _gold-bound_ brow, is like the first."--_Shak_. or _Joh. cor._ "His person was deformed to the highest degree; _flat-nosed_ and _blobber-lipped_."--_L'Estr._ or _Joh. cor._ "He that defraudeth the labourer of his hire, is a _blood-shedder_."--_Ecclus._, xxxiv, 22. "_Bloody-minded, adj._, from _bloody_ and _mind_; Cruel, inclined to _bloodshed_."--_Johnson cor._ "_Blunt-witted_ lord, ignoble in demeanour."--_Shak_. or _Joh. cor._ "A young fellow, with a _bob-wig_ and a black silken bag tied to it."--_Spect_. or _Joh. cor._ "I have seen enough to confute all the _bold-faced_ atheists of this age."--_Bramhall_ or _Joh. cor._ "Before _milk-white_, now purple with love's wound."--_Joh. Dict., w. Bolt_. "For what else is a _red-hot_ iron than fire? and what else is a burning coal than _red-hot_ wood?"--_Newton_ or _Joh. cor._ "_Poll-evil_ is a large swelling, inflammation, or imposthume, in the horse's poll, or nape of the neck, just between the ears."--_Far_. or _Joh. cor._ "Quick-witted, _brazen-fac'd_, with fluent tongues, Patient of labours, and dissembling wrongs."--_Dryden cor._ RULE VI.--NO HYPHEN. "From his fond parent's eye a _teardrop_ fell."--_Snelling cor._ "How great, poor _jackdaw_, would thy sufferings be!"--_Id._ "Placed, like a _scarecrow_ in a field of corn."--_Id._ "Soup for the almshouse at a cent a quart."--_Id._ "Up into the _watchtower_ get, and see all things despoiled of fallacies."--_Donne_ or _Joh. cor._ "In the _daytime_ she [Fame] sitteth in a _watchtower_, and flieth most by night."--_Bacon_ or _Joh. cor._ "The moral is the first business of the poet, as being the _groundwork_ of his instruction."--_Dryd._ or _Joh. cor._ "Madam's own hand the _mousetrap_ baited."--_Prior_ or _Joh. cor._ "By the sinking of the _airshaft_, the air _has_ liberty to circulate."--_Ray_ or _Joh. cor._ "The multiform and amazing operations of the _airpump_ and the loadstone."--_Watts_ or _Joh. cor._ "Many of the _firearms_ are named from animals."--_Johnson cor._ "You might have trussed him and all his apparel into an _eelskin_"--_Shak_. or _Joh. cor._ "They may serve as _landmarks_, to show what lies in the direct way of truth."--_Locke_ or _Joh. cor._ "A _packhorse_ is driven constantly in a narrow lane and dirty road."--_Locke_ or _Joh. cor._ "A _millhorse_, still bound to go in one circle."--_Sidney_ or _Joh. cor._ "Of singing birds, they have linnets, _goldfinches_, ruddocks, _Canary birds, blackbirds_, thrushes, and divers others."--_Carew_ or _Joh. cor._ "Cartridge, a case of paper or parchment filled with _gunpowder_; [or, rather, containing the _entire charge_ of a gun]."--_Joh. cor._ "Deep night, dark night, the silent of the night, The time of night when Troy was set on fire, The time when _screechowls_ cry, and _bandogs_ howl." SHAKSPEARE: _in Johnson's Dict., w. Screechowl_. PROMISCUOUS CORRECTIONS IN THE FIGURE OF WORDS. LESSON I.--MIXED EXAMPLES. "They that live in _glass houses_, should not throw stones."--_Adage_. "If a man profess Christianity in any manner or form _whatsoever_."--_Watts cor._ "For Cassius is _aweary_ of the world." Better: "For Cassius is _weary_ of the world."--_Shak. cor._ "By the _coming-together_ of more, the chains were fastened on."--_W. Walker cor._ "Unto the _carrying-away_ of Jerusalem captive in the fifth month."--_Bible cor._ "And the _goings-forth_ of the border shall be to Zedad."--_Id._ "And the _goings-out_ of it shall be at _Hazar Enan_."--See _Walker's Key_ "For the _taking-place_ of effects, in a certain particular series."--_West cor._ "The _letting-go_ of which was the _occasion_ of all that corruption."--_Owen cor._ "A _falling-off_ at the end, is always injurious."--_Jamieson cor._ "As all _holdings-forth_ were courteously supposed to be trains of reasoning."--_Dr. Murray cor._ "Whose _goings-forth_ have been from of old, from everlasting."--_Bible cor._ "_Sometimes_ the adjective becomes a substantive."--_Bradley cor._ "It is very plain, _that_ I consider man as visited _anew_."--_Barclay cor._ "Nor do I _anywhere say_, as he falsely insinuates."--_Id._ "_Everywhere, anywhere, elsewhere, somewhere, nowhere_"--_L. Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 115. "The world hurries off apace, and time is like a rapid river."--_Collier cor._ "But to _new-model_ the paradoxes of ancient skepticism."--_Dr. Brown cor._ "The _southeast_ winds from the ocean invariably produce rain."--_Webster cor._ "_Northwest_ winds from the _highlands_ produce cold clear weather."--_Id._ "The greatest part of such tables would be of little use to _Englishmen_."--_Priestley cor._ "The _ground-floor_ of the east wing of _Mulberry-street_ meeting-house was filled."--_The Friend cor._ "Prince Rupert's Drop. This singular production is made at the _glasshouses_."--_Barnes cor._ "The lights and shades, whose _well-accorded_ strife Gives all the strength and colour of our life."--_Pope_. LESSON II.--MIXED EXAMPLES. "In the _twenty-seventh_ year of Asa king of Judah, did Zimri reign seven days in Tirzah."--_Bible cor._ "In the _thirty-first_ year of Asa king of Judah, began Omri to reign over Israel."--_Id._ "He cannot so deceive himself as to fancy that he is able to do a _rule-of-three_ sum." Better--"_a sum in the rule of three_."--_Qr. Rev. cor._ "The best cod are those known under the name of _Isle-of-Shoals dun-fish_."--_Balbi cor._ "The soldiers, with _downcast eyes_, seemed to beg for mercy."--_Goldsmith cor._ "His head was covered with a coarse, _wornout_ piece of cloth."--_Id._ "Though they had lately received a reinforcement of a thousand _heavy-armed_ Spartans."--_Id._ "But he laid them by unopened; and, with a smile, said, 'Business _to-morrow_.'"--_Id._ "Chester _Monthly Meeting_ is held at _Moorestown, on_ the _Thirdday_ following the second _Secondday_"--_The Friend cor._ "Eggharbour _Monthly Meeting_ is held _on_ the first _Secondday_."--_Id._ "_Little-Eggharbour_ Monthly Meeting is held at Tuckerton on the second _Fifthday_ in each month."--_Id._ "At three o'clock, on _Firstday_ morning, the 24th of _Eleventhmonth_, 1834," &c.--_Id._ "In less than _one fourth_ part of the time usually devoted."--_Kirkham cor._ "The pupil will not have occasion to use it _one tenth_ part _so_ much."--_Id._ "The painter dips his _paintbrush_ in paint, to paint the carriage."--_Id._ "In an ancient English version of the _New Testament_."--_Id._ "The little boy was _bareheaded_."--_Red Book cor._ "The man, being a little _short-sighted_, did not immediately know him."--_Id._ "_Picture-frames_ are gilt with gold."--_Id._ "The _parkkeeper_ killed one of the deer."--_Id._ "The fox was killed near the _brickkiln_."--_Id._ "Here comes Esther, with her _milkpail_"--_Id._ "The _cabinet-maker_ would not tell us."--_Id._ "A fine _thorn-hedge_ extended along the edge of the hill."--_Id._ "If their private interests should be _everso_ little affected."--_Id._ "Unios are _fresh-water_ shells, vulgarly called _fresh-water_ clams."--_Id._ "Did not each poet mourn his luckless doom, Jostled by pedants out of _elbow-room_."--_Lloyd cor._ LESSON III.--MIXED EXAMPLES. "The captive hovers _a while_ upon the sad remains."--_Johnson cor._ "Constantia saw that the _hand-writing_ agreed with the contents of the letter."--_Id._ "They have put me in a silk _night-gown_, and a gaudy _foolscap_"--_Id._ "Have you no more manners than to rail at Hocus, that has saved that clod-pated, _numb-skulled ninny-hammer_ of yours from ruin, and all his family?"--_Id._ "A noble, (that is, six shillings and _eight pence_,) is [paid], and usually hath been paid."--_Id._ "The king of birds, _thick-feathered_, and with full-summed wings, fastened his talons east and west."--_Id._ "_To-morrow_. This--supposing _morrow_ to mean _morning_, as it did originally--is an idiom of the same kind as _to-night, to-day_."--_Johnson cor._ "To-day goes away, and to-morrow comes."--_Id._ "Young children, who are tried in _Gocarts_, to keep their steps from sliding."--_Id._ "Which, followed well, would demonstrate them but _goers-backward_"--_Id._ "Heaven's _golden-winged_ herald late he saw, to a poor Galilean virgin sent."--_Id._ "My _pent-house eyebrows_ and my shaggy beard offend your sight."--_Id._ "The hungry lion would fain have been dealing with good _horseflesh_."--_Id._ "A _broad-brimmed_ hat ensconsed each careful head."--_Snelling cor._ "With harsh vibrations of his _three-stringed lute_."--_Id._ "They magnify a _hundred-fold_ an author's merit."--_Id._ "I'll nail them fast to some _oft-opened_ door."--_Id._ "Glossed over only with _saintlike_ show, still thou art bound to vice."--_Johnson's Dict., w. Saintlike_. "Take of aqua-fortis two ounces, of _quicksilver_ two drachms."--_Id. cor._ "This rainbow never appears but when it rains in the _sunshine_."--_Id. cor._ "Not but there are, who merit other palms; Hopkins and _Sternhold_ glad the heart with _psalms_."--_Pope_. CHAPTER IV.--OF SPELLING. CORRECTIONS OF FALSE SPELLING. RULE I.--FINAL F, L, OR S. "He _will_ observe the moral law, in _his_ conduct."--_Webster corrected_. "A _cliff_ is a steep bank, or a precipitous rock."--_Walker cor._ "A needy man's budget is _full_ of schemes."--_Maxim cor._ "Few large publications, in this country, _will_ pay a printer."--_N. Webster cor._ "I _shall_, with cheerfulness, resign my other papers to oblivion."--_Id._ "The proposition _was_ suspended _till_ the next session of the legislature."--_Id._ "Tenants for life _will_ make the most of lands for themselves."--_Id._ "While every thing _is_ left to lazy negroes, a state _will_ never be _well_ cultivated."--_Id._ "The heirs of the original proprietors _still_ hold the soil."--_Id._ "Say my annual profit on money loaned _shall_ be six per cent."--_Id._ "No man would submit to the drudgery of business, if he could make money _as_ fast by lying _still_."--_Id._ "A man may _as well_ feed himself with a bodkin, _as_ with a knife of the present fashion."--_Id._ "The clothes _will_ be ill washed, the food _will_ be badly cooked; you _will_ be ashamed of your wife, if she _is_ not ashamed of herself."--_Id._ "He _will_ submit to the laws of the state while he _is_ a member of it."--_Id._ "But _will_ our sage writers on law forever think by tradition?"--_Id._ "Some _still_ retain a sovereign power in their territories."--_Id._ "They _sell_ images, prayers, the sound of _bells_, remission of sins, &c."--_Perkins cor._ "And the law had sacrifices offered every day, for the sins of _all_ the people."--_Id._ "Then it may please the Lord, they _shall_ find it to be a restorative."--_Id._ "Perdition is repentance put _off till_ a future day."--_Maxim cor._ "The angels of God, who _will_ good and cannot _will_ evil, have nevertheless perfect liberty of _will_."--_Perkins cor._ "Secondly, this doctrine cuts off the excuse of _all_ sin."--_Id._ "_Knell_, the sound of a bell rung at a funeral."--_Dict. cor._ "If gold with _dross_ or grain with _chaff_ you find, Select--and leave the _chaff_ and _dross_ behind."--_G. Brown_. RULE II.--OTHER FINALS. "The _mob_ hath many heads, but no brains."--_Maxim cor._ "_Clam_; to clog with any glutinous or viscous matter."--See _Webster's Dict._ "_Whur_; to pronounce the letter _r_ with too much force." "_Flip_; a mixed liquor, consisting of beer and spirit sweetened." "_Glyn_; a hollow between two mountains, a glen."--See _Walker's Dict._ "_Lam_, or _belam_; to beat soundly with a cudgel or bludgeon."--See _Red Book_. "_Bun_; a small cake, a simnel, a kind of sweet bread."--See _Webster's Dict._ "_Brunet_, or _Brunette_; a woman with a brown complexion."--See _ib._, and _Scott's Dict._ "_Wadset_; an ancient tenure or lease of land in the Highlands of Scotland."--_Webster cor._ "To _dod_ sheep, is to cut the wool away about their tails."--_Id._ "In aliquem arietare. _Cic._ To run full _butt_ at one."--_W. Walker cor._ "Neither your policy nor your temper would _permit_ you to kill me."--_Phil. Mu. cor._ "And _admit_ none but his own offspring to fulfill them."--_Id._ "The _sum_ of all this dispute is, that some make them Participles."--_R. Johnson cor._ "As the _whistling_ winds, the _buzz_ and _hum_ of insects, the _hiss_ of serpents, the _crash_ of falling timber."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 331. "_Van_; to winnow, or a fan for winnowing."--See _Scott_. "Creatures that _buzz_, are very commonly such as will sting."--_G. Brown_. "_Beg_, buy, or borrow; _but_ beware how yon find."--_Id._ "It is better to have a house to _let_, than a house to _get_." "Let not your tongue _cut_ your throat."--_Precept cor._ "A little _wit_ will save a fortunate man."--_Adage cor._ "There is many a _slip_ 'twixt the cup and the _lip_."--_Id._ "Mothers' darlings make but _milksop_ heroes."--_Id._ "One eye-witness is worth _ten_ hearsays."--_Id._ "The judge shall _job_, the bishop bite the town, And mighty dukes pack cards for half a crown." POPE: _in Johnson's Dict., w. Job_. RULE III.--DOUBLING. "Friz, to curl; _frizzed_, curled; _frizzing_, curling."--_Webster cor._ "The commercial interests served to foster the principles of _Whiggism_."--_Payne cor._ "Their extreme indolence _shunned_ every species of labour."--_Robertson cor._ "In poverty and _strippedness_, they attend their little meetings."--_The Friend cor._ "In guiding and _controlling_ the power you have thus obtained."--_Abbott cor._ "I began, Thou _begannest_ or _beganst_, He began, &c."--_A. Murray cor._ "Why does _began_ change its ending; as, I began, Thou _begannest_ or _beganst_?"--_Id._ "Truth and conscience cannot be _controlled_ by any methods of coercion."--_Hints cor._ "Dr. Webster _nodded_, when he wrote _knit, knitter_, and _knitting-needle_, without doubling the _t_."--_G. Brown_. "A wag should have wit enough to know when other wags are _quizzing_ him." "_Bonny_; handsome, beautiful, merry."--_Walker cor._ "_Coquettish; practising_ coquetry; after the manner of a jilt."--See _Worcester_. "_Pottage_; a species of food made of meat and vegetables boiled to softness in water."--See _Johnson's Dict._ "_Pottager_; (from _pottage_;) a porringer, a small vessel for children's food." "Compromit, _compromitted, compromitting_; manumit, manumitted, manumitting."--_Webster cor._ "_Inferrible_; that may be inferred or deduced from premises."--_Walker_. "Acids are either solid, liquid, or _gasseous_."--_Gregory cor._ "The spark will pass through the interrupted space between the two wires, and explode the _gasses_."--_Id._ "Do we sound gasses and _gasseous_ like _cases_ and _caseous_? No: they are more like _glasses_ and _osseous_."--_G. Brown_. "I shall not need here to mention _Swimming_, when he is of an age able to learn."--_Locke cor._ "Why do lexicographers spell _thinnish_ and _mannish_ with two Ens, and _dimmish_ and _rammish_ with one Em, each?"--_G. Brown._ "_Gas_ forms the plural regularly, _gasses_."--_Peirce cor._ "Singular, _gas_; Plural, _gasses_."--_Clark cor._ "These are contractions from _shedded, bursted_."--_Hiley cor._ "The Present Tense denotes what is _occurring_ at the present time."--_Day cor._ "The verb ending in _eth_ is of the solemn or antiquated style; as, He loveth, He walketh, He _runneth_."--_Davis cor._ "Thro' Freedom's sons no more remonstrance rings, Degrading nobles and controlling kings."--_Johnson_. RULE IV--NO DOUBLING. "A _bigoted_ and tyrannical clergy will be feared."--See _Johnson, Walker_, &c. "Jacob _worshiped_ his Creator, leaning on the top of his staff."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 165. "For it is all _marvellously_ destitute of interest."--See _Johnson, Walker_, and _Worcester_. "As, box, boxes; church, churches; lash, lashes; kiss, kisses; rebus, _rebuses_."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 40. "_Gossiping_ and lying go hand in hand."--See _Webster's Dict., and Worcester's, w. Gossiping_. "The substance of the Criticisms on the Diversions of Purley was, with singular industry, _gossiped_ by the present precious Secretary _at_ [of] war, in Payne the bookseller's shop."--_Tooke's Diversions_, Vol. i, p. 187. "_Worship_ makes _worshiped, worshiper, worshiping_; _gossip, gossiped, gossiper, gossiping_; _fillip, filliped, filliper, filliping_."--_Web. Dict._ "I became as _fidgety_ as a fly in a milk-jug."--See _ib._ "That enormous error seems to be _riveted_ in popular opinion." "Whose mind is not _biased_ by personal attachments to a sovereign."--See _ib._ "Laws against usury originated in a _bigoted_ prejudice against the Jews."--_Webster cor._ "The most _critical_ period of life is usually between thirteen and seventeen."--_Id._ "_Generalissimo_, the chief commander of an army or military force."--_Every Dict._ "_Tranquilize_, to quiet, to make calm and peaceful."--_Webster's Dict._ "_Pommelled_, beaten, bruised; having pommels, as a sword-hilt."--_Webster et al. cor._ "From what a height does a _jeweller_ look down upon his shoemaker!"--_Red Book cor._ "You will have a verbal account from my friend and fellow _traveller_."--_Id._ "I observe that you have written the word _counselled_ with one _l_ only."--_Ib._ "They were offended at such as _combated_ these notions."--_Robertson cor._ "From _libel_, come _libelled, libeller, libelling, libellous_; from _grovel, grovelled, groveller, grovelling_; from _gravel, gravelled_, and _gravelling_."--_Webster cor._ "_Woolliness_, the state of being woolly."--_Worcester's Dict._ "Yet he has spelled chapelling, bordeller, _medalist, metaline, metalist, metalize_, clavellated, etc, with _ll_, contrary to his rule."--_Webster cor._ "Again, he has spelled _cancellation_ and _snivelly_ with single _l_, and cupellation, pannellation wittolly, with _ll_."--_Id._ "_Oily_, fatty, greasy, containing oil, glib."--_Walker cor._ "_Medalist_, one curious in medals; _Metalist_, one skilled in metals."--_Walker's Rhym. Dict._ "He is _benefited_."--_Webster_. "They _travelled_ for pleasure."--_Clark cor._ "Without you, what were man? A _grovelling_ herd, In darkness, wretchedness, and want enchain'd."--_Beattle cor._ RULE V.--FINAL CK. "He hopes, therefore, to be pardoned by the _critic_."--_Kirkham corrected_. "The leading object of every _public_ speaker should be, to persuade."--_Id._ "May not four feet be as _poetic_ as five; or fifteen feet as _poetic_ as fifty?"--_Id._ "Avoid all theatrical trick and _mimicry_, and especially all _scholastic stiffness_."--_Id._ "No one thinks of becoming skilled in dancing, or in _music_, or in _mathematics_, or _in logic_, without long and close application to the subject."--_Id._ "Caspar's sense of feeling, and susceptibility of _metallic_ and _magnetic_ excitement, were also very extraordinary."--_Id._ "Authorship has become a mania, or, perhaps I should say, an _epidemic_."--_Id._ "What can prevent this _republic_ from soon raising a literary standard?"--_Id._ "Courteous reader, you may think me garrulous upon _topics_ quite foreign to the subject before me."--_Id._ "Of the _Tonic, Subtonic_, and _Atonic_ elements."--_Id._ "The _subtonic_ elements are inferior to the _tonics_, in all the _emphatic_ and elegant purposes of speech."--_Id._ "The nine _atonics_ and the three abrupt _subtonics_ cause an interruption to the continuity of the _syllabic_ impulse." [526]--_Id._ "On _scientific_ principles, conjunctions and prepositions are [_not_] one [and the same] part of speech."--_Id._ "That some inferior animals should be able to _mimick_ human articulation, will not seem wonderful."--_L. Murray cor._ "When young, you led a life _monastic_, And wore a vest _ecclesiastic_; Now, in your age, you grow _fantastic_."--_Denham's Poems_, p. 235. RULE VI.--RETAINING. "_Fearlessness_; exemption from fear, intrepidity."--_Johnson cor._ "_Dreadlessness_; _fearlessness_, intrepidity, undauntedness."--_Id._ "_Regardlessly_, without heed; _Regardlessness_, heedlessness."--_Id._ "_Blamelessly_, innocently; _Blamelessness_, innocence."--_Id._ "That is better than to be flattered into pride and _carelessness_."--_Id._ "Good fortunes began to breed a proud _recklessness_ in them."--_Id._ "See whether he lazily and _listlessly_ dreams away his time."--_Id._ "It maybe, the palate of the soul is indisposed by _listlessness_ or sorrow."--_Id._ "_Pitilessly_, without mercy; _Pitilessness_, unmercifulness."--_Id._ "What say you to such as these? abominable, accordable, _agreeable_, etc."-- _Tooke cor._ "_Artlessly_; naturally, sincerely, without craft."--_Johnson cor._ "A _chillness_, or shivering of the body, generally precedes a fever."--See _Webster_. "_Smallness_; littleness, minuteness, weakness."--_Walker's Dict., et al._ "_Galless, adj_. Free from gall or bitterness."--_Webster cor._ "_Tallness_; height of stature, upright length with comparative slenderness."--_Webster's Dict._ "_Willful_; stubborn, contumacious, perverse, inflexible."--See _ib._ "He guided them by the _skillfulness_ of his hands."--See _ib._ "The earth is the Lord's, and the _fullness_ thereof."--FRIENDS' BIBLE: _Ps_. xxiv, 1. "What is now, is but an _amassment_ of imaginary conceptions."--_Glanville cor._ "_Embarrassment_; perplexity, entanglement."--_Walker_. "The second is slothfulness, whereby they are performed slackly and _carelessly_."-- _Perkins cor._ "_Installment_; induction into office, part of a large sum of money, to be paid at a particular time."--See _Webster's Dict._ "_Inthrallment_; servitude, slavery, bondage."--_Ib._ "I, who at some times spend, at others spare, Divided between _carelessness_ and care."--_Pope cor._ RULE VII.--RETAINING. "_Shall_, on the contrary, in the first person, simply _foretells_."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 41; _Comly's_, 38; _Cooper's_, 51; _Lennie's_, 26. "There are a few compound irregular verbs, as _befall, bespeak_, &c."--_Ash cor._ "That we might frequently _recall_ it to our memory."--_Calvin cor._ "The angels exercise a constant solicitude that no evil _befall us_."--_Id._ "_Inthrall_; to enslave, to shackle, to reduce to servitude."--_Johnson_. "He makes resolutions, and _fulfills_ them by new ones."--See _Webster_. "To _enroll_ my humble name upon the list of authors on Elocution."--See _Webster_. "_Forestall_; to anticipate, to take up beforehand."--_Johnson_. "_Miscall_; to call wrong, to name improperly."--_Webster_. "_Bethrall_; to enslave, to reduce to bondage."--_Id._ "_Befall_; to happen to, to come to pass."--_Walkers Dict._ "_Unroll_; to open what is rolled or convolved."--_Webster's Dict._ "_Counterroll_; to keep copies of accounts to prevent frauds."--See _ib._ "As Sisyphus _uprolls_ a rock, which constantly overpowers him at the summit."--_G. Brown_. "_Unwell_; not well, indisposed, not in good health."--_Webster_. "_Undersell_; to defeat by selling for less, to sell cheaper than an other."--_Johnson_. "_Inwall_; to enclose or fortify with a wall."--_Id._ "_Twibill_; an instrument with two bills, or with a point and a blade; a pickaxe, a mattock, a halberd, a battleaxe."--_Dict. cor._ "What you _miscall_ their folly, is their care."--_Dryden cor._ "My heart will sigh when I _miscall_ it so."--_Shak. cor._ "But if the arrangement _recalls_ one set of ideas more readily than an other."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 334. "'Tis done; and since 'tis done, 'tis past _recall_ And since 'tis past _recall_, must be forgotten."--_Dryden cor._ RULE VIII.--FINAL LL. "The righteous is taken away from the _evil_ to come."--_Isaiah_, lvii, 1. "_Patrol_; to go the rounds in a camp or garrison, to march about and observe what passes."--See _Joh. Dic._ "_Marshal_; the chief officer of arms, one who regulates rank and order."--See _ib._ "_Weevil_; a destructive grub that gets among corn."--See _ib._ "It much _excels_ all other studies and arts."--_W. Walker cor._ "It is _essential_ to all magnitudes, to be in one place."--_Perkins cor._ "By nature I was thy _vassal_, but Christ hath redeemed me."--_Id._ "Some being in want, pray for _temporal_ blessings."--_Id._ "And this the Lord doth, either in _temporal_ or _in spiritual_ benefits."--_Id._ "He makes an _idol_ of them, by setting his heart on them." "This _trial_ by desertion serveth for two purposes."--_Id._ "Moreover, this destruction is both _perpetual_ and terrible."--_Id._ "Giving to _several_ men several gifts, according to his good pleasure." "_Until_; to some time, place, or degree, mentioned."--See _Dict._ "_Annul_; to make void, to nullify, to abrogate, to abolish."--See _Dict._ "Nitric acid combined with _argil_, forms the nitrate of _argil_."--_Gregory cor._ "Let modest Foster, if he will, _excel_ Ten metropolitans in preaching well."--_Pope cor._ RULE IX.--FINAL E. "Adjectives ending in _able_ signify capacity; as, _comfortable, tenable, improvable_."--_Priestly cor._ "Their mildness and hospitality are _ascribable_ to a general administration of religious ordinances."-- _Webster cor._ "Retrench as much as possible without _obscuring_ the sense."--_J. Brown cor._ "_Changeable_, subject to change; _Unchangeable_, immutable."--_Walker cor._ "_Tamable_, susceptive of taming; _Untamable_, not to be tamed."--_Id._ "_Reconcilable, Unreconcilable, Reconcilableness_; Irreconcilable, Irreconcilably, Irreconcilableness."--_Johnson cor._ "We have thought it most _advisable_ to pay him some little attention."-- _Merchant cor._ "_Provable_, that may be proved; Reprovable, _blamable_, worthy of reprehension."--_Walker cor._ "_Movable_ and Immovable, _Movably_ and Immovably, _Movables_ and Removal, _Movableness_ and Improvableness, _Unremovable_ and Unimprovable, _Unremovably_ and Removable, _Provable_ and Approvable, _Irreprovable_ and Reprovable, _Unreprovable_ and Improvable, _Unimprovableness_ and Improvably."--_Johnson cor._ "And with this cruelty you are _chargeable_ in some measure yourself."--_Collier cor._ "Mothers would certainly resent it, as _judging_ it proceeded from a low opinion of the genius of their sex."--_Brit. Gram. cor._ "_Tithable_, subject to the payment of tithes; _Salable_, vendible, fit for sale; _Losable_, possible to be lost; _Sizable_, of reasonable bulk or size."--See _Webster's Dict._ "When he began this custom, he was _puting_ and very tender."--_Locke cor._ "The plate, coin, revenues, and _movables_, Whereof our uncle Gaunt did stand possess'd."--_Shak. cor._ RULE X.--FINAL E. "_Diversely_; in different ways, differently, variously."--See _Walker's Dict._ "The event thereof contains a _wholesome_ instruction."--_Bacon cor._ "Whence Scaliger _falsely_ concluded that Articles were useless."--_Brightland cor._ "The child that we have just seen is _wholesomely_ fed."--_Murray cor._ "Indeed, _falsehood_ and legerdemain sink the character of a prince."--_Collier cor._ "In earnest, at this rate of _management_, thou usest thyself very _coarsely_."--_Id._ "To give them an _arrangement_ and a diversity, as agreeable as the nature of the subject would admit."--_Murray cor._ "Alger's Grammar is only a trifling _enlargement_ of Murray's little _Abridgement_."--_G. Brown_. "You ask whether you are to retain or _to_ omit the mute _e_ in the _words, judgement, abridgement, acknowledgement, lodgement, adjudgement_, and _prejudgement_."--_Red Book cor._ "Fertileness, fruitfulness; _fertilely_, fruitfully, abundantly."--_Johnson cor._ "_Chastely_, purely, without contamination; _Chasteness_, chastity, purity."--_Id._ "_Rhymester_, n. One who makes rhymes; a versifier; a mean poet."--_Walker, Chalmers, Maunder, Worcester_. "It is therefore a heroical _achievement_ to disposess [sic--KTH] this imaginary monarch."--_Berkley cor._ "Whereby is not meant the present time, as he _imagines_, but the time past."--_R. Johnson cor._ "So far is this word from affecting the noun, in regard to its _definiteness_, that its own character of _definiteness_ or _indefiniteness_, depends upon the name to which it is prefixed."--_Webster cor._ "Satire, by _wholesome_ lessons, would reclaim, And heal their vices to secure their fame "--_Brightland cor._ RULE XI.--FINAL Y. "Solon's the _veriest_ fool in all the play."--_Dryden cor._ "Our author prides himself upon his great _sliness_ and shrewdness."--_Merchant cor._ "This tense, then, _implies_ also the signification of _debeo_."--_R. Johnson cor._ "That may be _applied_ to a subject, with respect to something accidental."--_Id._ "This latter author _accompanies_ his note with a distinction."--_Id._ "This rule is defective, and none of the annotators have sufficiently _supplied its deficiencies_."--_Id._ "Though the _fancied_ supplement of Sanctius, Scioppius, Vossius, and Mariangelus, may take place."--_Ib._ "Yet, as to the commutableness of these two tenses, which is _denied_ likewise, they [the foregoing examples] are _all one_ [; i.e., _exactly equivalent_]"--_Id._ "Both these tenses may represent a futurity, _implied_ by the dependence of the clause."--_Id._ "Cry, cries, crying, cried, crier, decrial; Shy, _shier, shiest, shily, shiness_; Fly, flies, flying, flier, high-flier; Sly, _slier, sliest, slily, sliness_; Spy, spies, spying, spied, espial; Dry, drier, driest, _drily, driness_."--_Cobb, Webster, and Chalmers cor._ "I would sooner listen to the thrumming of a _dandizette_ at her piano."--_Kirkham cor._ "Send her away; for she _crieth_ after us."--_Matt._, v, 23. "IVIED, _a_. overgrown with ivy."--_Cobb's Dict._, and _Maunders_. "Some _drily_ plain, without invention's aid, Write dull receipts how poems may be made."--_Pope cor._ RULE XII.--FINAL Y. "The _gayety_ of youth should be tempered by the precepts of age."--_Murray cor._ "In the storm of 1703, two thousand stacks of _chimneys_ were blown down in and about London."--_Red Book cor._ "And the vexation was not abated by the _hackneyed_ plea of haste."--_Id._ "The fourth sin of our _days_ is lukewarmness."--_Perkins cor._ "God hates the workers of iniquity, and _destroys_ them that speak lies."--_Id._ "For, when he _lays_ his hand upon us, we may not fret."--_Id._ "Care not for it; but if thou _mayst_ be free, choose it rather."--_Id._ "Alexander Severus saith, 'He that _buyeth_, must sell; I will not suffer buyers and sellers of offices.'"--_Id._ "With these measures, fell in all _moneyed_ men."--See _Johnson's Dict._ "But rattling nonsense in full _volleys_ breaks."--_Murray's Reader, q. Pope_. "_Valleys_ are the intervals betwixt mountains."--_Woodward cor._ "The Hebrews had fifty-two _journeys_ or marches."--_Wood cor._ "It was not possible to manage or steer the _galleys_ thus fastened together."--_Goldsmith cor._ "_Turkeys_ were not known to naturalists till after the discovery of America."--_Gregory cor._ "I would not have given it for a wilderness of _monkeys_."--SHAK.: _in Johnson's Dict._ "Men worked at embroidery, especially in _abbeys_."--_Constable cor._ "By which all purchasers or mortgagees may be secured of all _moneys_ they lay out."--_Temple cor._ "He would fly to the mines _or_ the _galleys_, for his recreation."--_South cor._ "Here _pulleys_ make the pond'rous oak ascend."--_Gay cor._ ------"You need my help, and you say, Shylock, we would have _moneys_."--_Shak. cor._ RULE XIII.--IZE AND ISE. "Will any able writer _authorize_ other men to _revise_ his works?"--_G. B_. "It can be made as strong and expressive as this _Latinized_ English."--_Murray cor._ "Governed by the success or failure of an _enterprise_."--_Id._ "Who have _patronized_ the cause of justice against powerful oppressors."--_Id., et al_. "Yet custom _authorizes_ this use of it."--_Priestley cor._ "They _surprise_ myself, ****; and I even think the writers themselves will be _surprised_."--_Id._ "Let the interest _rise_ to any sum which can be obtained."--_Webster cor._ "To _determine_ what interest shall _arise_ on the use of money."--_Id._ "To direct the popular councils and check _any rising_ opposition,"--_Id._ "Five were appointed to the immediate _exercise_ of the office."--_Id._ "No man ever offers himself as a candidate by _advertising_."--_Id._ "They are honest and economical, but indolent, and destitute of _enterprise_."--_Id._ "I would, however, _advise_ you to be cautious."--_Id._ "We are accountable for what we _patronize_ in others."--_Murray cor._ "After he was _baptized_, and was solemnly admitted into the office."--_Perkins cor._ "He will find all, or most, of them, _comprised_ in the exercises."--_Brit. Gram. cor._ "A quick and ready habit of _methodizing_ and regulating their thoughts."--_Id._ "To _tyrannize_ over the time and patience of his readers."--_Kirkham cor._ "Writers of dull books, however, if _patronized_ at all, are rewarded beyond their deserts."--_Id._ "A little reflection will show the reader the reason for _emphasizing_ the words marked."--_Id._ "The English Chronicle contains an account of a _surprising_ cure."--_Red Book cor._ "_Dogmatize_, to assert positively; Dogmatizer, an _assertor_, a magisterial teacher."--_Chalmers cor._ "And their inflections might now have been easily _analyzed_."--_Murray cor._ "Authorize, _disauthorize_, and unauthorized; Temporize, _contemporize_, and extemporize."--_Walker cor._ "Legalize, _equalize, methodize_, sluggardize, _womanize_, humanize, _patronize_, cantonize, _gluttonize, epitomize_, anatomize, _phlebotomize, sanctuarize_, characterize, _synonymize, recognize_, detonize, _colonize_."--_Id. cor._ "This beauty sweetness always must _comprise_, Which from the subject, well express'd, will rise."--_Brightland cor._ RULE XIV.--COMPOUNDS. "The glory of the Lord shall be thy _rear-ward_."--SCOTT, ALGER: _Isa._, lviii, 8. "A mere _van-courier_ to announce the coming of his master."--_Tooke cor._ "The _party-coloured_ shutter appeared to come close up before him."--_Kirkham cor._ "When the day broke upon this _handful_ of forlorn but dauntless spirits."--_Id._ "If, upon a _plumtree_, peaches and apricots are engrafted, _nobody_ will say they are the natural growth of the _plumtree_.'--_Berkley cor._ "The channel between Newfoundland and Labrador is called the Straits of _Belleisle_."--_Worcester cor._ "There being nothing that more exposes to _the headache_:"--or, (perhaps more accurately,) "_headake_."--_Locke cor._ "And, by a sleep, to say we end the _heartache_:"--or, "_heartake_."--_Shak. cor._ "He that sleeps, feels not the _toothache_:"--or, "_toothake_."--_Id._ "That the shoe must fit him, because it fitted his father and _grandfather_."--_Phil. Museum cor._ "A single word _misspelled_ [or _misspelt_] in a letter is sufficient to show that you have received a defective education."--_C. Bucke cor._ "Which _misstatement_ the committee attributed to a failure of memory."--_Professors cor._ "Then he went through the _Banqueting-House_ to the scaffold."--_Smollet cor._ "For the purpose of maintaining a clergyman and _a schoolmaster_."--_Webster cor._ "They however knew that the lands were claimed by _Pennsylvania_."--_Id._ "But if you ask a reason, they immediately bid _farewell_ to argument."--_Barnes cor._ "Whom resist, _steadfast_ in the faith."--_Alger's Bible_. "And they continued _steadfastly_ in the apostles' doctrine."--_Id._ "Beware lest ye also fall from your own _steadfastness_."--_Ib._ "_Galiot_, or _Galliot_, a Dutch vessel carrying a main-mast and a _mizzen-mast_."--_Webster cor._ "Infinitive, to overflow; Preterit, overflowed; Participle, _overflowed_."--_Cobbett cor._ "After they have _misspent_ so much precious time."--_Brit. Gram. cor._ "Some say, 'two _handsful_;" some, 'two _handfuls_; and others, 'two _handful_.' The second expression is right."--_G. Brown_. "_Lapful_, as much as the lap can contain."--_Webster cor._ "_Dareful_, full of defiance."--_Walker cor._ "The road to the _blissful_ regions is as open to the peasant as to the king."--_Mur. cor._ "_Misspell_ is _misspelled_ [or _misspelt_] in every dictionary which I have seen."--_Barnes cor._ "_Downfall_; ruin, calamity, fall from rank or state."--_Johnson cor._ "The whole legislature _likewise_ acts _as_ a court."--_Webster cor._ "It were better a _millstone_ were hanged about his neck."--_Perkins cor._ "_Plumtree_, a tree that produces plums; _Hogplumtree_, a tree."--_Webster cor._ "_Trissyllables_ ending in _re_ or _le_, accent the first syllable."--_Murray cor._ "It happened on a summer's _holyday_, That to the greenwood shade he took his way."--_Dryden_. RULE XV.--USAGE. "Nor are the _moods_ of the Greek tongue more uniform."--_Murray cor._ "If we _analyze_ a conjunctive _preterit_, the rule will not appear to hold."--_Priestley cor._ "No landholder would have been at that _expense_."--_Id._ "I went to see the child whilst they were putting on its _clothes_."--_Id._ "This _style_ is ostentatious, and _does_ not suit grave writing."--_Id._ "The king of Israel and _Jehoshaphat_ the king of Judah, sat each on his throne."--_1 Kings_, xxii, 10; _2 Chron._, xviii, 9. "_Lysias_, speaking of his friends, promised to his father never to abandon them."--_Murray cor._ "Some, to avoid this _error_, run into _its_ opposite."--_Churchill cor._ "Hope, the balm of life _soothes_ us under every misfortune."--_Jaudon's Gram._, p. 182. "Any judgement or decree might be _heard_ and reversed by the legislature."--_N. Webster cor._ "A pathetic _harangue will screen_ from punishment any knave."--_Id._ "For the same _reason_ the _women_ would be improper judges."--_Id._ "Every person _is_ indulged in worshiping _as_ he _pleases_."--_Id._ "Most or all _teachers_ are excluded from genteel company."--_Id._ "The _Christian_ religion, in its purity, _is_ the best institution on _earth_."--_Id._ "_Neither_ clergymen nor human laws _have_ the _least_ authority over the conscience."--_Id._ "A _guild_ is a society, fraternity, or corporation."--_Barnes cor._ "Phillis was not able to _untie_ the knot, and so she cut it."--_Id._ "An _acre_ of land is the quantity of one hundred and sixty perches."--_Id._ "_Ochre_ is a fossil earth combined with the _oxyd_ of some metal."--_Id._ "_Genii_, when denoting _aërial_ spirits; _geniuses_, when signifying persons of genius."--_Murray cor._; also _Frost_; also _Nutting_. "Acrisius, king of Argos, had a beautiful daughter, whose name was _Danäe_."--_Classic Tales cor._ "_Phäeton_ was the son of Apollo and Clymene."--_Id._--"But, after all, I may not have reached the intended _goal_."--_Buchanan cor._ "'_Pittacus_ was offered a large sum.' Better: '_To Pittacus_ was offered a large sum.'"--_Kirkham cor._ "King _Micipsa_ charged his sons to respect the senate and people of Rome."--_Id._ "For example: '_Galileo_ greatly improved the telescope.'"--_Id._ "Cathmor's _warriors_ sleep in death."--_Macpherson's Ossian_. "For parsing will enable you to detect and correct _errors_ in composition."--_Kirkham cor._ "O'er barren mountains, o'er the flow'ry plain, Extends thy _uncontrolled_ and boundless reign."--_Dryden cor._ PROMISCUOUS CORRECTIONS OF FALSE SPELLING. LESSON I.--MIXED EXAMPLES. "A bad author deserves better usage than a bad _critic_."--_Pope (or Johnson) cor._ "Produce a single passage, _superior_ to the speech of Logan, a Mingo chief, to Lord Dunmore, _governor_ of this state."--_Jefferson's Notes_, p. 94. "We have none _synonymous_ to supply its place."--_Jamieson cor._ "There is a probability that the effect will be _accelerated_."--_Id._ "Nay, a regard to sound has _controlled_ the public choice."--_Id._ "Though learnt [better, _learned_] from the uninterrupted use of _guttural_ sounds."--_Id._ "It is by carefully filing off all roughness and _all inequalities_, that languages, like metals, must be polished."--_Id._ "That I have not _misspent_ my time in the service of the community."--_Buchanan cor._ "The leaves of _maize_ are also called blades."--_Webster cor._ "Who boast that they know what is past, and can _foretell_ what is to come."--_Robertson cor._ "Its tasteless _dullness_ is interrupted by nothing but its perplexities."--_Abbott, right_. "Sentences constructed with the Johnsonian _fullness_ and swell."--_Jamieson, right_. "The privilege of escaping from his prefatory _dullness_ and prolixity."--_Kirkham, right_. "But, in poetry, this _characteristic_ of _dullness_ attains its full growth."--_Id. corrected_. "The leading _characteristic_ consists in an increase of the force and fullness."--_Id cor._ "The character of this opening _fullness_ and feebler vanish."--_Id. cor._ "Who, in the _fullness_ of _unequalled_ power, would not believe himself the favourite of Heaven?"--_Id. right_. "They _mar_ one _an_ other, and distract him."--_Philol. Mus. cor._ "Let a deaf _worshiper_ of antiquity and an English prosodist settle this."--_Rush cor._ "This _Philippic_ gave rise to my satirical reply in self-defence."--_Merchant cor._ "We here saw no _innuendoes_, no new sophistry, no falsehoods."--_Id._ "A witty and _humorous_ vein has often produced enemies."--_Murray cor._ "Cry _hollo_! to thy tongue, I _pray thee_:[527] it _curvets_ unseasonably."--_Shak. cor._ "I said, in my _sliest_ manner, 'Your health, sir.'"--_Blackwood cor._ "And _attorneys_ also travel the circuit in _pursuit_ of business."--_Barnes cor._ "Some whole counties in Virginia would hardly _sell_ for the _value_ of the _debts due_ from the inhabitants."--_Webster cor._ "They were called the Court of Assistants, and _exercised_ all powers, _legislative_ and judicial."--_Id._ "Arithmetic is excellent for the _gauging_ of liquors."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 295. "Most of the inflections may be _analyzed_ in a way somewhat similar."--_Murray cor._ "To epithets allots emphatic state, _While_ principals, ungrac'd, like _lackeys_ wait." --_T. O. Churchill's Gram._, p. 326. LESSON II.--MIXED EXAMPLES. "Hence _less_ is a privative _suffix_, denoting destitution; as in _fatherless, faithless, penniless_."--_Webster cor._ "_Bay_; red, or reddish, inclining to a _chestnut colour_."--_Id._ "To _mimick_, to imitate or ape for sport; a _mimic_, one who imitates or mimicks."--_Id._ "Counterroll, a counterpart or copy of the rolls; _Counterrollment_, a counter account."--_Id._ "_Millennium_, [from _mille_ and _annus_,] the thousand years during which Satan shall be bound."--See _Johnson's Dict._ "_Millennial_, [like _septennial, decennial_, &c.,] pertaining to the _millennium_, or to a thousand years."--See _Worcester's Dict._ "_Thralldom_; slavery, bondage, a state of servitude."--_Webster's Dict._ "Brier, a prickly bush; Briery, rough, prickly, full of briers; _Sweetbrier_, a fragrant shrub."--See _Ainsworth's Dict., Scott's, Gobb's_, and others. "_Will_, in the second and third persons, barely _foretells_."--_Brit. Gram. cor._ "And _therefore_ there is no word false, but what is distinguished by Italics."--_Id._ "What should be _repeated_, is left to their discretion."--_Id._ "Because they are abstracted or _separated_ from material substances."--_Id._ "All motion is in time, and _therefore, wherever_ it exists, implies time as its _concomitant_."-- _Harris's Hermes_, p. 95. "And illiterate grown persons are guilty of _blamable_ spelling."--_Brit. Gram. cor._ "They _will_ always be ignorant, and of _rough_, uncivil manners."--_Webster cor._ "This fact _will_ hardly be _believed_ in the northern states."--_Id._ "The province, however, _was harassed_ with disputes."--_Id._ "So little concern _has_ the legislature for the interest of _learning_."--_Id._ "The gentlemen _will_ not admit that a _schoolmaster_ can be a gentleman."--_Id._ "Such absurd _quid-pro-quoes_ cannot be too strenuously avoided."--_Churchill cor._ "When we say of a man, 'He looks _slily_;' we signify, that he takes a sly glance or peep at something."--_Id._ "_Peep_; to look through a crevice; to look narrowly, closely, or _slily_"--_Webster cor._ "Hence the confession has become a _hackneyed_ proverb."--_Wayland cor._ "Not to mention the more ornamental parts of _gilding_, varnish, &c."--_Tooke cor._ "After this system of self-interest had been _riveted_."--_Dr. Brown cor._ "Prejudice might have prevented the cordial approbation of a _bigoted_ Jew."--_Dr. Scott cor._ "All twinkling with the _dewdrop_ sheen, The _brier-rose_ fell in streamers green."--_Sir W. Scott cor._ LESSON III.--MIXED EXAMPLES. "The infinitive _mood_ has, commonly, the sign _to_ before it."--_Harrison cor._ "Thus, it is _advisable_ to write _singeing_, from the verb to _singe_, by way of distinction from _singing_, the participle of the verb to _sing_."--_Id._ "Many verbs form both the _preterit_ tense and the _preterit_ participle irregularly."--_Id._ "Much must be left to every one's taste and _judgement_."--_Id._ "Verses of different lengths, intermixed, form a _Pindaric_ poem."--_Priestley cor._ "He'll _surprise_ you."--_Frost cor._ "Unequalled archer! why was this concealed?"-- _Knowles_. "So _gayly_ curl the waves before each dashing prow."--_Byron cor._ "When is a _diphthong_ called a proper _diphthong_?"--_Inf. S. Gram. cor._ "How many _Esses_ would _the word_ then end with? Three; for it would be _goodness's_."--_Id._ "_Qu_. What is a _triphthong_? _Ans_. A _triphthong_ is a _coalition_ of three vowels _in one syllable_."--_Bacon cor._ "The verb, noun, or pronoun, is referred to the preceding terms taken _separately_."--_Murray_. "The cubic foot of matter which occupies the _centre_ of the globe."--_Cardell cor._ "The wine imbibes _oxygen_, or the acidifying principle, from the air."--_Id._ "Charcoal, sulphur, and _nitre_, make _gunpowder_."--_Id._ "It would be readily understood, that the thing so _labelled_ was a bottle of Madeira wine."--_Id._ "They went their ways, one to his farm, an other to his _merchandise_."--_Matt._, xxii, 5. "A _diphthong_ is the union of two vowels, _both in one syllable_."--_Russell cor._ "The professors of the _Mohammedan_ religion are called Mussulmans."--_Maltby cor._ "This _shows_ that _let_ is not a _mere_ sign of the imperative mood, but a real verb."--_Id._ "Those _preterits_ and participles which are first mentioned in the list, seem to be the most eligible."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 107; _Fisk's_, 81; _Ingersoll's_, 103. "Monosyllables, for the most part, are compared by _er_ and _est_, and _dissyllables_, by _more_ and _most_."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 47. "This termination, added to a noun or _an_ adjective, changes it into a verb: as, _modern_, to _modernize_; a _symbol_, to _symbolize_."-- _Churchill cor._ "An _Abridgement_ of Murray's Grammar, with additions from Webster, Ash, Tooke, and others."--_Maltby's Gram._, p. 2. "For the sake of occupying the room more _advantageously_, the subject of Orthography is merely glanced at."--_Nutting cor._ "So contended the accusers of _Galileo_."--_O. B. Peirce cor._ Murray says, "They were _travelling post_ when _he_ met them."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 69. "They _fulfill_ the only purposes for which they were designed."--_Peirce cor._--See _Webster's Dict._ "On the _fulfillment_ of the event."--_Peirce, right_. "_Fullness_ consists in expressing every idea."--_Id._ "Consistently with _fullness_ and perspicuity."--_Peirce cor._ "The word _veriest_ is a _regular adjective_; as, 'He is the _veriest_ fool on earth.'"--_Wright cor._ "The sound will _recall_ the idea of the object."--_Hiley cor._ "Formed for great _enterprises_."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 113. "The most important rules and definitions are printed in large type, _Italicized_."--_Hart cor._ "HAMLETED, _a._, accustomed to a hamlet, countrified."--_Webster_, and _Worcester_. "Singular, _spoonful, cupful, coachful, handful_; plural, _spoonfuls, cupfuls, coachfuls, handfuls_."--_Worcester's Universal and Critical Dictionary_. "Between superlatives and following names, _Of_, by _grammatic_ right, a station claims."--_Brightland cor._ THE KEY.--PART II.--ETYMOLOGY. CHAPTER I.--PARTS OF SPEECH. The first chapter of Etymology, as it exhibits only the distribution of words into the ten Parts of Speech, contains no false grammar for correction. And it may be here observed, that as mistakes concerning the forms, classes, or modifications of words, are chiefly to be found in _sentences_, rather than in any separate exhibition of the terms; the quotations of this kind, with which I have illustrated the principles of etymology, are many of them such as might perhaps with more propriety be denominated _false syntax_. But, having examples enough at hand to show the ignorance and carelessness of authors in every part of grammar, I have thought it most advisable, so to distribute them as to leave no part destitute of this most impressive kind of illustration. The examples exhibited as _false etymology_, are as distinct from those which are called _false syntax_, as the nature of the case will admit. CHAPTER II.--ARTICLES. CORRECTIONS RESPECTING A, AN, AND THE. LESSON I.--ARTICLES ADAPTED. "Honour is _a_ useful distinction in life."--_Milnes cor._ "No writer, therefore, ought to foment _a_ humour of innovation."--_Jamieson cor._ "Conjunctions [generally] require a situation between the things of which they form _a_ union."--_Id._ "Nothing is more easy than to mistake _a u_ for an _a_."--_Tooke cor._ "From making so ill _a_ use of our innocent expressions."--_Penn cor._ "To grant thee _a_ heavenly and incorruptible crown of glory."--_Sewel cor._ "It in no wise follows, that such _a_ one was able to predict."--_Id._ "With _a_ harmless patience, they have borne most heavy oppressions."--_Id._ "My attendance was to make me _a_ happier man."--_Spect. cor._ "On the wonderful nature of _a_ human mind."--_Id._ "I have got _a_ hussy of a maid, who is most craftily given to this."--_Id._ "Argus is said to have had _a_ hundred eyes, some of which were always awake."--_Stories cor._ "Centiped, having _a_ hundred feet; centennial, consisting of a hundred years."--_Town cor._ "No good man, he thought, could be _a_ heretic."--_Gilpin cor._ "As, a Christian, an infidel, _a_ heathen."--_Ash cor._ "Of two or more words, usually joined by _a_ hyphen."--_Blair cor._ "We may consider the whole space of _a_ hundred years as time present."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 138. "In guarding against such _a_ use of meats and drinks."--_Ash cor._ "Worship is _a_ homage due from man to his Creator."--_Monitor cor._ "Then _a_ eulogium on the deceased was pronounced."--_Grimshaw cor._ "But for Adam there was not found _a_ help meet for him."--_Bible cor._ "My days are consumed like smoke, and my bones are burned as _a_ hearth."--_Id._ "A foreigner and a hired servant shall not eat thereof."--_Id._ "The hill of God is as the hill of Bashan; _a_ high hill, as the hill of Bashan."--_Id._ "But I do declare it to have been _a_ holy offering, and such _a_ one too as was to be once for all."--_Penn cor._ "A hope that does not make ashamed those that have it."--_Barclay cor._ "Where there is not _a_ unity, we may exercise true charity."--_Id._ "Tell me, if in any of these such _a_ union can be found?"--_Dr. Brown cor._ "Such holy drops her tresses steeped, Though 'twas _a_ hero's eye that weeped."--_Sir W. Scott cor._ LESSON II.--ARTICLES INSERTED. "This veil of flesh parts the visible and _the_ invisible world."--_Sherlock cor._ "The copulative and _the_ disjunctive conjunctions operate differently on the verb."--_L. Murray cor._ "Every combination of a preposition and _an_ article with the noun."--_Id._ "_Either_ signifies, 'the one or the other:' _neither_ imports, 'not either;' that is, 'not _the_ one nor the other.'"--_Id._ "A noun of multitude may have a pronoun or _a_ verb agreeing with it, either of the singular number or _of the_ plural."--_Bucke cor._ "_The principal_ copulative conjunctions are, _and, as, both, because, for, if, that, then, since_."--_Id._ "The two real genders are the masculine and _the_ feminine."--_Id._ "In which a mute and _a_ liquid are represented by the same character, _th_."--_Gardiner cor._ "They said, John _the_ Baptist hath sent us unto thee."--_Bible cor._ "They indeed remember the names of _an_ abundance of places."--_Spect. cor._ "Which created a great dispute between the young and _the_ old men."--_Goldsmith cor._ "Then shall be read the Apostles' or _the_ Nicene Creed."--_Com. Prayer cor._ "The rules concerning the perfect tenses and _the_ supines of verbs are Lily's."--_K. Henry's Gr. cor._ "It was read by the high and the low, the learned and _the_ illiterate."--_Dr. Johnson cor._ "Most commonly, both the pronoun and _the_ verb are understood."--_Buchanan cor._ "To signify the thick and _the_ slender enunciation of tone."--_Knight cor._ "The difference between a palatial and _a_ guttural aspirate is very small."--_Id._ "Leaving it to waver between the figurative and _the_ literal sense."--_Jamieson cor._ "Whatever verb will not admit of both an active and _a_ passive signification."--_Alex. Murray cor._ "_The_ is often set before adverbs in the comparative or _the_ superlative degree."--_Id. and Kirkham cor._ "Lest any should fear the effect of such a change, upon the present or _the_ succeeding age of writers."--_Fowle cor._ "In all these measures, the accents are to be placed on _the_ even syllables; and every line is, in general, _the_ more melodious, as this rule is _the_ more strictly observed."--_L. Murray et al. cor._ "How many numbers do nouns appear to have? Two: the singular and _the_ plural."--_R. C. Smith cor._ "How many persons? Three; the first, _the_ second, and _the_ third."--_Id._ "How many cases? Three; the nominative, _the_ possessive, and _the_ objective."--_Id._ "Ah! what avails it me, the flocks to keep, Who lost my heart while I preserv'd _the_ sheep:"--or, "_my_ sheep." LESSON III.--ARTICLES OMITTED. "The negroes are all _descendants_ of Africans."--_Morse cor._ "_Sybarite_ was applied as a term of reproach to a man of dissolute manners."--_Id._ "The original signification of _knave_ was _boy_."--_Webster cor._ "The meaning of these will be explained, for greater clearness and precision."--_Bucke cor._ "What sort of _noun_ is _man_? A noun substantive, common."--_Buchanan cor._ "Is _what_ ever used as three kinds of _pronoun_?"_--Kirkham's Question cor._ [Answer: "No; as a pronoun, it is either relative or interrogative."--_G. Brown_.] "They delighted in _having done it_, as well as in the doing of it."--_R. Johnson cor._ "_Both parts_ of this rule are exemplified in the following sentences."--_Murray cor._ "He has taught them to hope for _an other and better_ world."--_Knapp cor._ "It was itself only preparatory to a future, _better_, and perfect revelation."--_Keith cor._ "_Es_ then makes _an other and distinct_ syllable."--_Brightland cor._ "The eternal clamours of a _selfish and factious_ people."--_Dr. Brown cor._ "To those whose taste in elocution is _but little_ cultivated."--_Kirkham cor._ "They considered they had but a _sort of gourd_ to rejoice in."--_Bennet cor._ "Now there was _but one such bough_, in a spacious and shady grove."--_Bacon cor._ "Now the absurdity of this latter supposition will go a great way _towards making_ a man easy."--_Collier cor._ "This is true of _mathematics, with which taste_ has but little to do."--_Todd cor._ "To stand prompter to a _pausing yet ready_ comprehension."--_Rush cor._ "Such an obedience as the _yoked and tortured_ negro is compelled to yield to the whip of the overseer."--_Chalmers cor._ "For the gratification of a _momentary and unholy_ desire."--_Wayland cor._ "The body is slenderly put together; the mind, a rambling _sort of thing_."--_Collier cor._ "The only nominative to the verb, is _officer_."--_Murray cor._ "And though _in general_ it ought to be admitted, &c."--_Blair cor._ "Philosophical writing admits of a polished, _neat_, and elegant style."--_Id._ "But notwithstanding this defect, Thomson is a strong _and beautiful_ describer."--_Id._ "So should he be sure to be ransomed, _and many_ poor men's lives _should be_ saved."--_Shak. cor._ "Who felt the wrong, or feared it, _took alarm_, Appealed to law, and Justice lent her arm."--_Pope cor._ LESSON IV.--ARTICLES CHANGED. "To enable us to avoid too frequent _a_ repetition of the same word."--_Bucke cor._ "The former is commonly acquired in _a_ third part of the time."--_Burn cor._ "Sometimes _an_ adjective becomes a substantive; and, _like other substantives, it may have an_ adjective _relating_ to it: as, '_The chief good_.'"--_L. Murray cor._ "An articulate sound is _a_ sound of the human voice, formed by the organs of speech."--_Id. "A tense_ is _a_ distinction of time: there are six tenses."--_Maunder cor._ "In this case, _an_ ellipsis of the last article would be improper."--_L. Hurray cor._ "Contrast _always_ has the effect to make each of the contrasted objects appear in _a_ stronger light."--_Id. et al_. "These remarks may serve to _show_ the great importance of _a_ proper use of the _articles_."--_Lowth et al. cor._ "'Archbishop Tillotson,' says _the_ author of _a_ history of England, 'died in this year.'"--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Pronouns are used in stead of substantives, to prevent too frequent _a_ repetition of them."--_A. Murray cor._ "THAT, as a relative, seems to be introduced to _prevent_ too frequent _a_ repetition of WHO and WHICH."--_Id._ "A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun, to _prevent_ too frequent _a_ repetition of it."--_L. Murray cor._ "THAT is often used as a relative, to prevent too frequent _a_ repetition of WHO and WHICH."--_Id. et al. cor._ "His knees smote one against _the_ other."--_Logan cor._ "They stand now on one foot, then on _the_ other."--_W. Walker cor._ "The Lord watch between thee and me, when we are absent one from _the_ other."--_Bible cor._ "Some have enumerated ten parts of speech, making _the_ participle a distinct part."--_L. Murray cor._ "Nemesis rides upon _a_ hart because _the_ hart is a most lively creature."--_Bacon cor._ "The transition of the voice from one vowel of the diphthong to _the_ other."--_Dr. Wilson cor._ "So difficult it is, to separate these two things one from _the_ other."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Without _a_ material breach of any rule."--_Id._ "The great source of _looseness_ of style, in opposition to precision, is _an_ injudicious use of _what_ are termed _synonymous words_."--_Blair cor._; also _Murray_. "Sometimes one article is improperly used for _the_ other."--_Sanborn cor._ "Satire of sense, alas! can Sporus feel? Who breaks a butterfly upon _the_ wheel?"--_Pope cor._ LESSON V.--MIXED EXAMPLES. "He hath no delight in the strength of _a_ horse."--_Maturin cor._ "The head of it would be _a_ universal monarch."--_Butler cor._ "Here they confound the material and _the_ formal object of faith."--_Barclay cor._ "The Irish [Celtic] and _the Scottish_ Celtic are one language; the Welsh, _the_ Cornish, and _the_ Armorican, are _an_ other."--_Dr. Murray cor._ "In _a_ uniform and perspicuous manner."--_Id._ "SCRIPTURE, _n._ Appropriately, and by way of distinction, the books of the Old and _the_ New Testament; the Bible."--_Webster cor._ "In two separate volumes, entitled, 'The Old and New Testaments.'"--_Wayland cor._ "The Scriptures of the Old and _the_ New Testament, contain a revelation from God."--_Id._ "Q has _always a_ u after it; which, in words of French origin, is not sounded."--_Wilson cor._ "What should we say of such _a_ one? that he is regenerate? No."--_Hopkins cor._ "Some grammarians subdivide _the_ vowels into simple and compound."--_L. Murray cor._ "Emphasis has been _divided_ into the weaker and _the_ stronger emphasis."--_Id._ "Emphasis has also been divided into _the_ superior and the inferior emphasis."--_Id._ "Pronouns must agree with their antecedents, or _the_ nouns which they represent, in gender, number, and person."--_Merchant cor._ "The adverb _where_ is often used improperly, for _a_ relative pronoun and _a_ preposition": as, "Words _where_ [in which] the _h_ is not silent."--_Murray_, p. 31. "The termination _ish_ imports diminution, or _a_ lessening _of_ the quality."--_Merchant cor._ "In this train, all their verses proceed: one half of _a_ line always answering to the other."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "To _a_ height of prosperity and glory, unknown to any former age."--_L. Murray cor._ "_Hwilc_, who, which, such as, such _a_ one, is declined as follows."--_Gwilt cor._ "When a vowel precedes _the y, s_ only is required to form _the_ plural; as, _day, days_."--_Bucke cor._ "He is asked what sort _of word_ each is; whether a primitive, _a_ derivative, or _a_ compound."--_British Gram. cor._ "It is obvious, that neither the second, _the_ third, nor _the_ fourth chapter of Matthew, is the first; consequently, there are not '_four first_ chapters.'"--_Churchill cor._ "Some thought, which a writer wants _the_ art to introduce in its proper place."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Groves and meadows are _the_ most pleasing in the spring."--_Id._ "The conflict between the carnal and _the_ spiritual mind, is often long."--_Gurney cor._ "A Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and _the_ Beautiful"--_Burke cor._ "Silence, my muse! make not these jewels cheap, Exposing to the world too large _a_ heap."--_Waller cor._ CHAPTER III.--NOUNS. CORRECTIONS IN THE MODIFICATIONS OF NOUNS. LESSON I.--NUMBERS. "All the ablest of the Jewish _rabbies_ acknowledge it."--_Wilson cor._ "Who has thoroughly imbibed the system of one or other of our Christian _rabbies_."--_Campbell cor._ "The seeming _singularities_ of reason soon wear off."--_Collier cor._ "The chiefs and _arikies_, or priests, have the power of declaring a place or object taboo."--_Balbi cor._ "Among the various tribes of this family, are the Pottawatomies, the _Sauks_ and Foxes, or _Saukies_ and _Ottogamies_."--_Id._ "The Shawnees, Kickapoos, Menom'onies, _Miamies_, and Delawares, are of the same region."--_Id._ "The Mohegans and _Abenaquies_ belonged also to this family."--_Id._ "One tribe of this family, the _Winnebagoes_, formerly resided near lake Michigan."--_Id._ "The other tribes are the Ioways, the Otoes, the _Missouries_, the Quapaws."--_Id._" The great Mexican family comprises the Aztecs, the Toltecs, and the _Tarascoes_."--_Id._" The Mulattoes are born of negro and white parents; the _Zamboes_, of Indians and Negroes."--_Id._ "To have a place among the Alexanders, the Cæsars, the _Louises_, or the _Charleses_,--the scourges and butchers of their fellow-creatures."--Burgh cor." Which was the notion of the Platonic philosophers and the Jewish _rabbies_."--_Id._ "That they should relate to the whole body of _virtuosoes_."--_Cobbeti cor._" What _thanks_ have ye? for sinners also love those that love them."--_Bible cor._" There are five ranks of nobility; dukes, _marquises_, earls, viscounts, and barons."--_Balbi cor._" Acts which were so well known to the two _Charleses_."--_Payne cor._ "_Courts-martial_ are held in all parts, for the trial of the blacks."--_Observer cor._ "It becomes a common noun, and may have _the_ plural number; as, the two _Davids_, the two _Scipios_, the two _Pompeys_."--_Staniford cor._ "The food of the rattlesnake is birds, squirrels, _hares_, rats, and reptiles."--_Balbi cor._ "And let _fowls_ multiply in the earth."--_Bible cor._ "Then we reached the _hillside_, where eight _buffaloes_ were grazing."--_Martineau cor._ "CORSET, _n. a bodice_ for a woman."--_Worcester cor._ "As, the _Bees_, the _Cees_, the _Double-ues_."--_Peirce cor._ "Simplicity is the _mean_ between ostentation and rusticity."--_Pope cor._ "You have disguised yourselves like _tipstaffs_."--_Gil Bias cor._ "But who, that _has_ any taste, can endure the incessant quick returns of the _alsoes_, and the _likewises_, and the _moreovers_, and the _howevers_, and the _notwithstandings?_"--_Campbell cor._ "Sometimes, in mutual sly disguise, Let _ays_ seem _noes_, and _noes_ seem _ays_."--_Gay cor._ LESSON II.--CASES. "For whose _name's_ sake, I have been made willing."--_Penn cor._ "Be governed by your conscience, and never ask any _body's_ leave to be honest."--_Collier cor._ "To overlook _nobody's_ merit or misbehaviour."-- _Id._ "And Hector at last fights his way to the stern of _Ajax's_ ship."--_Coleridge cor._ "Nothing is lazier, than to keep _one's_ eye upon words without heeding their meaning."--_Museum cor._ "Sir William _Jones's_ division of the day."--_Id._ "I need only refer here to _Voss's_ excellent account of it."--_Id._ "The beginning of _Stesichorus's_ palinode has been preserved."--_Id._ "Though we have _Tibullus's_ elegies, there is not a word in them about Glyc~era."--_Id._ "That Horace was at _Thaliarchus's_ country-house."--_Id._ "That _Sisyphus's_ foot-tub should have been still in existence."--_Id._ "How everything went on in Horace's closet, and _Mecenas's_ antechamber."--_Id._ "Who, for elegant _brevity's_ sake, put a participle for a verb."--_W. Walker cor._ "The _country's_ liberty being oppressed, we have no more to hope."--_Id._ "A brief but true account of this _people's_ principles."--_Barclay cor._ "As, The _Church's peace_, or, _The peace_ of the Church; Virgil's _�neid_, or, _The �neid_ of Virgil."--_Brit. Gram. cor._ "As, Virgil's �neid, for, _The_ �neid of Virgil; _The Church's peace_, for, _The peace_ of the Church."--_Buchanan cor._ "Which, with Hubner's Compend, and _Well's_ Geographia Classica, will be sufficient."--_Burgh cor._ "Witness Homer's speaking horses, scolding goddesses, and Jupiter _enchanted_ with _Venus's_ girdle."--_Id._ "_Dr. Watts's_ Logic may with success be read to them and commented on."--_Id._ "Potter's Greek, and Kennet's Roman Antiquities, _Strauchius's_ and _Helvicus's_ Chronology."--_Id._ "SING. _Alice's_ friends, _Felix's_ property; PLUR. The Alices' friends, the Felixes' property."--_Peirce cor._ "Such as _Bacchus's_ company--at _Bacchus's_ festivals."--_Ainsworih cor._ "_Burns's_ inimitable _Tam o' Shanter_ turns entirely upon such a circumstance."--_Scott cor._ "Nominative, men; Genitive, [or Possessive,] _men's_; Objective, men."--_Cutler cor._ "_Men's_ happiness or misery is _mostly_ of their own making."--_Locke cor._ "That your _son's clothes_ be never made strait, especially about the breast."--_Id._ "_Children's_ minds are narrow and weak."--_Id._ "I would not have little children much tormented about _punctilios_, or niceties of breeding."--_Id._ "To fill his head with suitable ideas."--_Id._ "The _Burgusdisciuses_ and the Scheiblers did not swarm in those days, as they do now."--_Id._ "To see the various ways of dressing--a _calf's_ head!"--_Shenstone cor._ "He puts it on, and for _decorum's_ sake Can wear it e'en as gracefully as she."--_Cowper cor._ LESSON III.--MIXED EXAMPLES. "Simon the _wizard_ was of this religion too"--_Bunyan cor._ "MAMMODIES, n. Coarse, plain, India muslins."--_Webster cor._ "Go on from single persons to families, that of the _Pompeys_ for instance."--_Collier cor._ "By which the ancients were not able to account for _phenomena_."--_Bailey cor._ "After this I married a _woman_ who had lived at Crete, but a _Jewess_ by birth."--_Josephus cor._ "The very _heathens_ are inexcusable for not _worshiping_ him."--_Todd cor._ "Such poems as _Camoens's_ Lusiad, Voltaire's Henrinde, &c."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "My learned correspondent writes a word in defence of large _scarfs_."--_Sped. cor._ "The forerunners of an apoplexy are _dullness, vertigoes_, tremblings."--_Arbuthnot cor._" _Vertigo_, [in Latin,] changes the _o_ into _~in=es_, making the plural _vertig~in=es_:" [not so, in English.]--_Churchill cor._ "_Noctambulo_, [in Latin,] changes the _o_ into _=on=es_, making the plural _noctambul=on=es_:" [not so in English.]--_Id._ "What shall we say of _noctambuloes?_ It is the regular English plural."--_G. Brown_. "In the curious fretwork of rocks and _grottoes_."--_Blair cor._ "_Wharf_ makes the plural _wharfs_, according to the best usage."--_G. Brown_. "A few _cents'_ worth of _macaroni_ supplies all their wants."--_Balbi cor._ "C sounds hard, like _k_, at the end of a word or _syllable_."--_Blair cor._ "By which the _virtuosoes_ try The magnitude of every lie."--_Butler cor._ "_Quartoes, octavoes_, shape the lessening pyre."--_Pope cor._ "Perching within square royal _roofs_"--_Sidney cor._ "_Similes_ should, even in poetry, be used with moderation."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "_Similes_ should never be taken from low or mean objects."--_Id._ "It were certainly better to say, '_The House of Lords_,' than, '_The Lords' House_.'"--_Murray cor._ "Read your answers. _Units_' figure? 'Five.' _Tens_'? 'Six.' _Hundreds_'? 'Seven.'"--_Abbott cor._ "Alexander conquered _Darius's_ army."--_Kirkham cor._ "Three _days_' time was requisite, to prepare matters."--_Dr. Brown cor._ "So we say, that _Cicero's_ style and _Sallust's_ were not one; nor _Cæsar's_ and _Livy's_; nor _Homer's_ and _Hesiod's_; nor _Herodotus's_ and _Thucydides's_; nor _Euripides's_ and _Aristophanes's_; nor _Erasmus's_ and _Budæus's_."--_Puttenham cor._ "LEX (i.e., _legs_, a _law_,) is no other than our _ancestors'_ past participle _loeg, laid down_"--_Tooke cor._ "Achaia's sons at Ilium slain for the _Atridoe's_ sake."--_Cowper cor._ "The _corpses_ of her senate manure the fields of Thessaly."--_Addison cor._ "Poisoning, without regard of fame or fear; And spotted _corpses_ load the frequent bier."--_Dryden cor._ CHAPTER IV.--ADJECTIVES. CORRECTIONS IN THE FORMS OF COMPARISON, &c. LESSON I.--DEGREES. "I have the real excuse of the _most honest_ sort of bankrupts."--_Cowley corrected_. "The _most honourable_ part of talk, is, to give the occasion."--_Bacon cor._ "To give him one of the _most modest_ of his own proverbs."--_Barclay cor._ "Our language is now, certainly, _more proper_ and more natural, than it was formerly."--_Burnet cor._ "Which will be of the _greatest_ and _most frequent_ use to him in the world."--_Locke cor._ "The same is notified in the _most considerable_ places in the diocese."--_Whitgift cor._ "But it was the _most dreadful_ sight that ever I saw."--_Bunyan cor._ "Four of the _oldest_, soberest, and discreetest of the brethren, chosen for the occasion, shall regulate it."--_Locke cor._ "Nor can there be any clear understanding of any Roman author, especially of _more ancient_ time, without this skill."--_W. Walker cor._ "Far the _most learned_ of the Greeks."--_Id._ "The _more learned_ thou art, the humbler be thou."--_Id._ "He is none of the best, or _most honest_."--_Id._ "The _most proper_ methods of communicating it to others."--_Burn cor._ "What heaven's great King hath _mightiest_ to send against us."--_Milton cor._ "Benedict is not the _most unhopeful_ husband that I know."--_Shakspeare cor._ "That he should immediately do all the meanest and _most trifling_ things himself."--_Ray cor._ "I shall be named among the _most renowned_ of women."--_Milton cor._ "Those have the _most inventive_ heads for all purposes."--_Ascham cor._ "The _more wretched_ are the contemners of all helps."--_B. Johnson cor._ "I will now deliver a few of the _most proper_ and _most natural_ considerations that belong to this piece."--_Wotton cor._ "The _most mortal_ poisons practised by the _West Indians_, have some mixture of the blood, fat, or flesh of man."--_Bacon cor._ "He so won upon him, that he rendered him one of the _most faithful_ and _most affectionate_ allies the Medes ever had."--_Rollin cor._ "'You see before you,' says he to him, 'the most devoted servant, and the _most faithful_ ally, you ever had.'"--_Id._ "I chose the _most flourishing_ tree in all the park."--_Cowley cor._ "Which he placed, I think, some centuries _earlier_ than _did_ Julius Africanus afterwards."--_Bolingbroke cor._ "The Tiber, the _most noted_ river of Italy."--_Littleton cor._ "To _farthest_ shores th' ambrosial spirit flies."--_Pope_. ----"That what she wills to do or say, Seems wisest, _worthiest_, discreetest, best."--_Milton cor._ LESSON II.--MIXED EXAMPLES. "During the _first three or four_ years of its existence."--_Taylor cor._ "To the first of these divisions, my _last ten_ lectures have been devoted."--_Adams cor._ "There are, in the twenty-four states, not _fewer_ than sixty thousand common schools."--_J. O. Taylor cor._ "I know of nothing which gives teachers _more_ trouble, _than_ this want of firmness."--_Id._ "I know of nothing _else_ that throws such darkness over the line which separates right from wrong."--_Id._ "None need this purity and _this_ simplicity of language and thought, _more than does the instructor of a common school_."--_Id._ "I know of no _other_ periodical that is so valuable to the teacher, as the Annals of Education."--_Id._ "Are not these schools of the highest importance? Should not every individual feel _a deep_ interest in their character and condition?"--_Id._ "If instruction were made a _liberal_ profession, teachers would feel more sympathy for _one an other_."--_Id._ "Nothing is _more interesting to_ children, _than_ novelty, _or_ change."--_Id._ "I know of no _other_ labour which affords so much happiness as the teacher's."--_Id._ "Their school exercises are the most pleasant and agreeable _duties_, that they engage in."--_Id._ "I know of no exercise _more_ beneficial to the pupil _than_ that of drawing maps."--_Id._ "I know of nothing in which our district schools are _more_ defective, _than_ they are in the art of teaching grammar."--_Id._ "I know of _no other branch of knowledge_, so easily acquired as history."--_Id._ "I know of _no other school exercise_ for which pupils usually have such an abhorrence, as _for_ composition."--_Id._ "There is nothing _belonging to_ our fellow-men, which we should respect _more sacredly than_ their good name."--_Id._ "_Surely_, never any _other creature_ was so unbred as that odious man."--_Congreve cor._ "In the dialogue between the mariner and the shade of the _deceased_."--_Phil. Museum cor._ "These master-works would still be less excellent and _finished_."--_Id._ "Every attempt to staylace the language of _polished_ conversation, renders our phraseology inelegant and clumsy."--_Id._ "Here are a few of the _most unpleasant_ words that ever blotted paper."--_Shakespeare cor._ "With the most easy _and obliging_ transitions."--_Broome cor._ "Fear is, of all affections, the _least apt_ to admit any conference with reason."--_Hooker cor._ "Most chymists think glass a body _less destructible_ than gold itself."--_Boyle cor._ "To part with _unhacked_ edges, and bear back our barge undinted."--_Shak. cor._ "Erasmus, who was an _unbigoted_ Roman Catholic, was transported with this passage."--_Addison cor._ "There are no _fewer_ than five words, with any of which the sentence might have terminated."--_Campbell cor._ "The _ones_ preach Christ of contention; but the _others_, of love." Or, "The _one party_ preach," &c.--_Bible cor._ "Hence we find less discontent and _fewer_ heart-burnings, than where the subjects are unequally burdened."--_H. Home, Ld. Kames, cor._ "The serpent, _subtlest_ beast of all the field." --_Milton, P. L._, B. ix, l. 86. "Thee, Serpent, _subtlest_ beast of all the field, I knew, but not with human voice indued." --_Id., P. L._, B. ix, l. 560. "How much more grievous would our lives appear. To reach th' _eight-hundredth_, than the eightieth year!" --_Denham cor._ LESSON III.--MIXED EXAMPLES. "Brutus engaged with Aruns; and so fierce was the attack, that they pierced _each other_ at the same time."--_Lempriere cor._ "Her two brothers were, one after _the other_, turned into stone."--_Kames cor._ "Nouns are often used as adjectives; as, A _gold_ ring, a _silver_ cup."--_Lennie cor._ "Fire and water destroy _each other_"--_Wanostrocht cor._ "Two negatives, in English, destroy _each other_, or are equivalent to an affirmative."--_Lowth, Murray, et al. cor._ "Two negatives destroy _each other_, and are generally equivalent to an affirmative."--_Kirkham and Felton cor._ "Two negatives destroy _each other_, and make an affirmative."--_Flint cor._ "Two negatives destroy _each other_, being equivalent to an affirmative."--_Frost cor._ "Two objects, resembling _each other_, are presented to the imagination."--_Parker cor._ "Mankind, in order to hold converse with _one an other_, found it necessary to give names to objects."--_Kirkham cor._ "_Derivative_ words are _formed_ from _their primitives_ in various ways."--_Cooper cor._ "There are many _different_ ways of deriving words _one from an other_."--_Murray cor._ "When several verbs _have a joint construction_ in a sentence, the auxiliary is usually _expressed_ with the first _only_."--_Frost cor._ "Two or more verbs, having the same nominative case, and _coming in immediate succession_, are also separated by _the comma_."--_Murray et al. cor._ "Two or more adverbs, _coming in immediate succession_, must be separated by _the comma_."--_Iidem_. "If, however, the _two_ members are very closely connected, the comma is _unnecessary_."--_Iidem_. "Gratitude, when exerted towards _others_, naturally produces a very pleasing sensation in the mind of a _generous_ man."--_L. Murray cor._ "Several verbs in the infinitive mood, _coming in succession_, and having a common dependence, are also divided by commas."--_Comly cor._ "The several words of which it consists, have so near a relation _one to an other_."--_Murray et al. cor._ "When two or more verbs, or two or more adverbs,[528] _occur in immediate succession_, and have a common dependence, they must be separated by _the comma_."--_Comly cor._ "_One noun_ frequently _follows an other_, both meaning the same thing."--_Sanborn cor._ "And these two tenses may thus answer _each other_."--_R. Johnson cor._ "Or some other relation which two objects bear to _each other_."--_Jamieson cor._ "That the heathens tolerated _one an other_ is allowed."--_A. Fuller cor._ "And yet these two persons love _each other_ tenderly."--_E. Reader cor._ "In the six _hundred_ and first year."--_Bible cor._ "Nor is this arguing of his, _any thing_ but a _reiterated_ clamour."--_Barclay cor._ "In _several_ of them the inward life of Christianity is to be found."--_Ib._ "Though Alvarez, _Despauter_, and _others, do not allow it_ to be plural."--_R. Johnson cor._ "Even the most _dissipated_ and shameless blushed at the sight."--_Lempriere cor._ "We feel a _higher_ satisfaction in surveying the life of animals, _than_ [_in contemplating_] that of vegetables."-- _Jamieson cor._ "But this man is so _full-fraught_ with malice."--_Barclay cor._ "That I suggest some things concerning the _most proper_ means."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "So, hand in hand, they passed, the loveliest pair That ever _yet_ in love's embraces met."--_Milton cor._ "Aim at _supremacy_; without _such height_, Will be for thee no sitting, or not long."--_Id. cor._ CHAPTER V.--PRONOUNS. CORRECTIONS IN THE FORMS AND USES OF PRONOUNS. LESSON I.--RELATIVES. "_While_ we attend to this pause, every appearance of _singsong_ must be carefully avoided."--_Murray cor._ "For thou shalt go to all _to whom_ I shall send thee."--_Bible cor._ "Ah! how happy would it have been for me, had I spent in retirement these twenty-three years _during which_ I have possessed my kingdom."--_Sanborn cor._ "In the same manner _in which_ relative pronouns and their antecedents are usually parsed."--_Id._ "Parse or _explain_ all the other nouns _contained_ in the examples, _after the very_ manner _of_ the word _which is parsed for you_."--_Id._ "The passive verb will always _have_ the person and number that _belong_ to the verb _be_, of which it is in part composed."--_Id._ "You have been taught that a verb must always _agree in_ person and number _with_ it subject or nominative."--_Id._ "A relative pronoun, also, must always _agree in_ person, _in_ number, and even _in_ gender, _with_ its antecedent."--_Id._ "The _answer_ always _agrees_ in case _with the pronoun_ which asks the question."--_Id._ "_One_ sometimes represents an antecedent noun, in the definite manner of a personal pronoun." [529]--_Id._ "The mind, being carried forward to the time _at which the_ event _is to happen_, easily conceives it to be present." "SAVE and SAVING are [_seldom to be_] parsed in the manner _in which_ EXCEPT and EXCEPTING are [commonly explained]."--_Id._ "Adverbs qualify _verbs_, or modify _their_ meaning, _as_ adjectives _qualify_ nouns [and describe things.]"--_Id._ "The third person singular of verbs, _terminates in s_ or _es, like_ the plural number of nouns."--_Id._ "He saith further: that, 'The apostles did not baptize anew such persons _as_ had been baptized with the baptism of John.'"--_Barclay cor._ "For we _who_ live,"--or, "For we _that are alive_, are always delivered unto death for Jesus' sake."--_Bible cor._ "For they _who_ believe in God, must be careful to maintain good works."--_Barclay cor._ "Nor yet of those _who_ teach things _that_ they ought not, for filthy lucre's sake."--_Id._ "So as to hold such bound in heaven _as_ they bind on earth, and such loosed in heaven _as_ they loose on earth."--_Id._ "Now, if it be an evil, to do any thing out of strife; then such things _as_ are seen so to be done, are they not to be avoided and forsaken?"--_Id._ "All such _as_ do not satisfy themselves with the superfices of religion."--_Id._ "And he is the same in substance, _that_ he was upon earth,--_the same_ in spirit, soul, and body."--_Id._ "And those that do not thus, are such, _as_ the Church of Rome can have no charity _for_." Or: "And those that do not thus, are _persons toward_ whom the Church of Rome can have no charity."--_Id._ "Before his book, he _places_ a great list of _what_ he accounts the blasphemous assertions of the Quakers."--_Id._ "And this is _what_ he should have proved."--_Id._ "Three of _whom_ were at that time actual students of philosophy in the university."--_Id._ "Therefore it is not lawful for any _whomsoever_ * * * to force the consciences of others."--_Id._ "_Why were_ the former days better than these?"--_Bible cor._ "In the same manner _in which_"--or, better, "_Just as_--the term _my_ depends on the name _books_."--_Peirce cor._ "_Just as_ the term HOUSE depends on the [preposition _to_, understood after the _adjective_] NEAR."--_Id._ "James died on the day _on which_ Henry returned."--_Id._ LESSON II.--DECLENSIONS. "OTHER makes the plural OTHERS, when it is found without _its_ substantive."--_Priestley cor._ "But _his, hers, ours, yours_, and _theirs_, have evidently the form of the possessive case."--_Lowth cor._ "To the Saxon possessive cases, _hire, ure, eower, hira_, (that is, _hers, ours, yours, theirs_,) we have added the _s_, the characteristic of the possessive case of nouns."--_Id._ "Upon the name of Jesus Christ our Lord, both _theirs_ and _ours_."--_Friends cor._ "In this place, _His_ is clearly preferable either to _Her_ or _to Its_."--_Harris cor._ "That roguish leer of _yours_ makes a pretty woman's heart _ache_."--_Addison cor._ "Lest by any means this liberty of _yours_ become a stumbling-block."--_Bible cor._ "First person: Sing. I, _my or_ mine, me; Plur. we, _our or ours_, us."--_Wilbur and Livingston cor._ "Second person: Sing, thou, _thy or_ thine, thee; Plur. ye or you, _your or yours_, you."--_Iid._ "Third person: Sing, she, _her or hers_, her; Plur. they, _their or theirs_, them."--_Iid._ "So shall ye serve strangers in a land that is not _yours_."--ALGER, BRUCE, ET AL.; _Jer._, v, 19. "Second person, Singular: Nom. _thou_, Poss. _thy_ or _thine_, Obj. _thee_."--_Frost cor._ "Second person, Dual; Nom. Gyt, ye two; Gen. Incer, of _you_ two; Dat. Inc, incrum, to _you_ two; Acc. Inc, _you_ two; Voc. Eala inc, O ye two; Abl. Inc, incrum, from _you_ two."--_Gwilt cor._ "Second person, Plural: Nom. Ge, ye; Gen. Eower, of _you_; Dat. Eow, to _you_; Acc. Eow, _you_; Voc Eala ge, O ye; Abl. Eow, from _you_."--_Id._ "These words are, _mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs_, and _whose_."--_Cardell cor._ "This house is _ours_, and that is _yours. Theirs_ is very commodious."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 55. "And they shall eat up _thy_ harvest, and thy bread; they shall eat up thy flocks and _thy_ herds."--_Bible cor._ "_Whoever_ and _Whichever_ are thus declined: Sing. Nom. whoever, Poss. _whosever_, Obj. whomever; Plur. Nom. whoever, Poss. _whosever_, Obj. whomever. Sing. Nom. whichever, Poss. (_wanting_,) Obj. whichever; Plur. Nom. whichever, Poss. (_wanting_,) Obj. whichever."--_Cooper cor._ "The compound personal pronouns are thus declined: Sing. Nom. myself, Poss. (_wanting_,) Obj. myself; Plur. Nom. ourselves, Poss. (_wanting_,) Obj. ourselves. Sing. Nom. thyself or yourself, Poss. (_wanting_,) Obj. thyself, &c."--_Perley cor._ "Every one of us, each for _himself_, laboured to recover him."--_Sidney cor._ "Unless when ideas of their opposites manifestly suggest _themselves_."--_Wright cor._ "It not only exists in time, but is _itself_ time." "A position which the action _itself_ will palpably _confute_."--_Id._ "A difficulty sometimes presents _itself_."--_Id._ "They are sometimes explanations in _themselves_."--_Id._ "_Ours, Yours, Theirs, Hers, Its_."--_Barrett cor._ "_Theirs_, the wild _chase_ of false felicities; His, the composed possession of the true." --_Young, N. Th._, N. viii, l. 1100. LESSON III.--MIXED EXAMPLES. "It is the boast of Americans, without distinction of parties, that their government is the most free and perfect _that_ exists on the earth."--_Dr. Allen cor._ "Children _that_ are dutiful to their parents, enjoy great prosperity."--_Sanborn cor._ "The scholar _that_ improves his time, sets an example worthy of imitation."--_Id._ "Nouns and pronouns _that_ signify the same person, place, or thing, agree in case."--_Cooper cor._ "An interrogative sentence is one _that_ asks a question."--_Id._ "In the use of words and phrases _that_ in point of time relate to each other, _the order of time_ should be _duly regarded_."--_Id._ "The same observations _that show_ the effect of the article _upon_ the participle, appear to be applicable [also] to the pronoun and participle."--_Murray cor._ "The reason _why_ they have not the same use of them in reading, may be traced to the very defective and erroneous method in which the art of reading is taught."--_Id._ "_Ever since_ reason began to exert her powers, thought, during our waking hours, has been active in every breast, without a moment's suspension or pause."--_Id. et al. cor._ "In speaking of _such as_ greatly delight in the same."--_Pope cor._ "Except _him to whom_ the king shall hold out the golden sceptre, that he may live."--_Bible cor._ "But the same day _on which_ Lot went out of Sodom, it rained fire and brimstone from heaven, and destroyed them all."--_Bible cor._ "In the next place, I will explain several _constructions_ of nouns and pronouns, _that_ have not yet come under our notice."--_Kirkham cor._ "Three natural distinctions of time are all _that_ can exist."--_Hall cor._ "We have exhibited such only as are obviously distinct; and _these_ seem to be sufficient, and not more than sufficient."--_Murray et al. cor._ "_The parenthesis_ encloses a _phrase or clause that_ may be omitted without materially injuring the connexion of the other members."--_Hall cor._ "Consonants are letters _that_ cannot be sounded without the aid of a vowel."--_Bucke cor._ "Words are not _mere_ sounds, but sounds _that_ convey a meaning to the mind."--_Id._ "Nature's postures are always easy; and, _what_ is more, nothing but your own will can put you out of them."--_Collier cor._ "Therefore ought we to examine our _own selves_, and prove our _own selves_."--_Barclay cor._ "Certainly, it had been much more natural, to have divided Active verbs into _Immanent_, or _those whose_ action is terminated _within itself_, and _Transient_, or _those whose_ action is terminated in something without _itself_."--_R. Johnson cor._ "This is such an advantage _as_ no other lexicon will afford."--_Dr. Taylor cor._ "For these reasons, such liberties are taken in the Hebrew tongue, with those words _which_ are of the most general and frequent use."--_Pike cor._ "_While_ we object to the _laws which_ the antiquarian in language would impose on us, we must _also_ enter our protest against those _authors who_ are too fond of innovations."--_L. Murray cor._ CHAPTER VI.--VERBS. CORRECTIONS IN THE FORMS OF VERBS. LESSON I.--PRETERITS. "In speaking on a matter which _touched_ their hearts."--_Phil. Museum cor._ "Though Horace _published_ it some time after."--_Id._ "The best subjects with which the Greek models _furnished_ him."--_Id._ "Since he _attached_ no thought to it."--_Id._ "By what slow steps the Greek alphabet _reached_ its perfection."--_Id._ "Because Goethe _wished_ to erect an affectionate memorial."--_Id._ "But the Saxon forms soon _dropped_ away."--_Id._ "It speaks of all the towns that _perished_ in the age of Philip."--_Id._ "This _enriched_ the written language with new words."--_Id._ "He merely _furnished_ his friend with matter for laughter."--_Id._ "A cloud arose, and _stopped_ the light."--_Swift cor._ "She _slipped_ spadillo in her breast."--_Id._ "I _guessed_ the hand."--_Id._ "The tyrant _stripped_ me to the skin; My skin he _flayed_, my hair he _cropped_; At head and foot my body _lopped_."--_Id._ "I see the greatest owls in you, That ever _screeched_ or ever flew."--_Id._ "I _sat_ with delight, From morning till night."--_Id._ "Dick nimbly _skipped_ the gutter."--_Id._ "In at the pantry door this morn I _slipped_."--_Id._" Nobody living ever _touched_ me, but you."--_W. Walker cor._ "_Present_, I ship; _Preterit_, I shipped; _Perf. Participle_, shipped."--_A. Murray cor._ "Then the king arose, and _tore_ his garments."--_Bible cor._ "When he _lifted_ up his foot, he knew not where he should set it next."--_Bunyan cor._ "He _lifted_ up his spear against eight hundred, whom he slew at one time."--_Bible cor._ "Upon this chaos _rode_ the distressed ark."--_Burnet cor._ "On whose foolish honesty, my practices _rode_ easy."--_Shakspeare cor._ "That form of the first or primogenial Earth, which _rose_ immediately out of chaos."--_Burnet cor._ "Sir, how _came_ it, you have _helped_ to make this rescue?"--_Shak. cor._ "He _swore_ he _would_ rather lose all his father's images, than that table."--_Peacham cor._ "When our language _dropped_ its ancient terminations."--_Dr. Murray cor._ "When themselves they _vilified_."--_Milton cor._ "But I _chose_ rather to do thus."--_Barclay cor._ "When he _pleaded_ (or _pled_) against the parsons."--_Hist. cor._ "And he that saw it, _bore_ record." Or: "And he that saw it, _bare_ record."--_John_, xix, 35. "An irregular verb has one more variation; as, drive, drivest, [_driveth_,] drives, drove, _drovest_, driving, driven."--_Matt. Harrison cor._ "Beside that village, Hannibal _pitched_ his camp."--_W. Walker cor._ "He _fetched_ it from Tmolus."--_Id._ "He _supped_ with his morning-gown on."--_Id._ "There _stamped_ her sacred name."--_Barlow cor._ "_Fix'd_[530] on the view the great discoverer stood; And thus _address'd_ the messenger of good."--_Barlow cor._ LESSON II.--MIXED EXAMPLES. "Three freemen _were on trial_"--or, "_were receiving their trial_--at the date of our last information."--_Editor cor._ "While the house _was building_, many of the tribe arrived."--_Cox cor._ "But a foundation has been laid in Zion, and the church _is built_--(or, _continues to be built_--) upon it."--_The Friend cor._ "And one fourth of the people are _receiving education_."--_E. I. Mag. cor._ "The present [_tense_,] or that [_form of the verb_] which [_expresses what_] is now _doing_."--_Beck cor._ "A new church, called the Pantheon, is _about_ being completed, in an expensive style."--_Thompson cor._ "When I last saw him, he _had_ grown considerably."--_Murray cor._ "I know what a rugged and dangerous path I _have_ got into."--_Duncan cor._ "You _might_ as _well_ preach ease to one on the rack."--_Locke cor._ "Thou hast heard me, and _hast_ become my salvation."--_Bible cor._ "While the Elementary Spelling-Book _was preparing_ (or, _was in progress of preparation_) for the press."--_Cobb cor._ "Language _has_ become, in modern times, more correct."--_Jamieson cor._ "If the plan _has_ been executed in any measure answerable to the author's wishes."--_Robbins cor._ "The vial of wrath is still _pouring_ out on the seat of the beast."--_Christian Ex. cor._ "Christianity _had_ become the generally-adopted and established religion of the whole Roman Empire."--_Gurney cor._ "Who wrote before the first century _had_ elapsed."--_Id._ "The original and analogical form _has_ grown quite obsolete."--_Lowth cor._ "Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, _have_ perished."--_Murray cor._ "The poems _had_ got abroad, and _were_ in a great many hands."--_Waller cor._ "It is more harmonious, as well as more correct, to say, 'The bubble _is ready to burst._'"--_Cobbett cor._ "I _drove_ my suitor from his mad humour of love."--_Shak. cor._ "Se viriliter expedivit."--_Cic._ "He _has played_ the man."--_Walker cor._ "Wilt thou kill me, as thou _didst_ the Egyptian yesterday?"--_Bible cor._ "And we, _methought_, [or _thought I_] looked up to him from our hill"--_Cowley cor._ "I fear thou _dost_ not think _so_ much of _the_ best things as thou _ought_."--_Memoir cor._ "When this work was commenced."--_Wright cor._ "Exercises and _a_ Key to this work are _about_ being prepared."--_Id._ "James is loved by John."--_Id._ "Or that which is exhibited."--_Id._ "He was smitten."--_Id._ "In the passive _voice_ we say, 'I am loved.'"--_Id._ "Subjunctive Mood: If I _be_ smitten, If thou _be_ smitten, If he _be_ smitten."--_Id._ "I _shall_ not be able to convince you how superficial the reformation is."--_Chalmers cor._ "I said to myself, I _shall_ be obliged to expose the folly."--_Chazotte cor._ "When Clodius, had he meant to return that day to Rome, must have arrived."--_J. Q. Adams cor._ "That the fact has been done, _is doing_, or will be done."--_Peirce cor._ "Am I _to be_ instructed?"--_Wright cor._ "I _choose_ him."--_Id._ "John, who _respected_ his father, was obedient to his commands."--_Barrett cor._ "The region _echoes_ to the clash of arms."--_Beattie cor._ "And _sitst_ on high, and mak'st creation's top Thy footstool; and _beholdst_ below thee--all."--_Pollok cor._ "And see if thou _canst_ punish sin and let Mankind go free. Thou _failst_--be not surprised."--_Idem._ LESSON III--MIXED EXAMPLES. "What follows, _might better have been_ wanting altogether."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "This member of the sentence _might_ much better have been omitted altogether."--_Id._ "One or _the_ other of them, therefore, _might_ better have been omitted."--_Id._ "The whole of this last member of the sentence _might_ better have been dropped."--_Id._ "In this case, they _might_ much better be omitted."--_Id._ "He _might_ better have said 'the _productions_.'"--_Id._ "The Greeks _ascribed_ the origin of poetry to Orpheus, Linus, and Musæus."--_Id._ "It _was_ noticed long ago, that all these fictitious names have the same number of syllables."--_Phil. Museum cor._ "When I found that he had committed nothing worthy of death, I _determined_ to send him."--_Bible cor._ "I _would_ rather be a doorkeeper in the house of my God."--_Id._ "As for such, I wish the Lord _would open_ their eyes." Or, better: "_May_ the Lord _open_ (or, I _pray_ the Lord _to_ open) their eyes."--_Barclay cor._ "It would _have_ made our _passage_ over the river very difficult."--_Walley cor._ "We should not _have_ been able to _carry_ our great guns."--_Id._ "Others would _have_ questioned our prudence, if _we_ had."--_Id._ "Beware thou _be_ not BEC�SARED; i.e., Beware that thou _do_ not dwindle--or, _lest thou dwindle_--into a mere Cæsar."--_Harris cor._ "Thou _raisedst_ (or, familiarly, thou _raised_) thy voice to record the stratagems of needy heroes."--_Arbuthnot cor._ "Life _hurries_ off apace; thine is almost _gone_ already."--_Collier cor._ "'How unfortunate has this accident made me!' _cries_ such a one."--_Id._ "The muse that soft and sickly _woos_ the ear."--_Pollok cor._ "A man _might_ better relate himself to a statue."--_Bacon cor._ "I heard thee say but now, thou _liked_ not that."--_Shak. cor._ "In my whole course of wooing, thou _criedst_, (or, familiarly, thou _cried_,) _Indeed!_"--_Id._ "But our ears _have_ grown familiar with '_I have wrote_, '_I have drank_,' &c., which are altogether as ungrammatical."--_Lowth et al. cor._ "The court was _in session_ before Sir Roger came"--_Addison cor._ "She _needs_--(or, if you please, _need_,--) be no more with the jaundice _possessed_"--_Swift cor._ "Besides, you found fault with our victuals one day _when_ you _were_ here."--_Id._ "If spirit of other sort, So minded, _hath_ (or _has_) o'erleaped these earthy bounds."--_Milton cor._ "It _would_ have been more rational to have _forborne_ this."--_Barclay cor._ "A student is not master of it till he _has_ seen all these."--_Dr. Murray cor._ "The said justice shall _summon_ the party."--_Brevard cor._ "Now what _has_ become of thy former wit and humour?"--_Spect. cor._ "Young stranger, whither _wanderst_ thou?"--_Burns cor._ "SUBJ. _Pres._ If I love, If thou _love_, If he love. _Imp._ If I loved, If thou _loved_, If he loved."--_Merchant cor._ "SUBJ. If I do not love, If thou _do_ not love, If he _do_ not love."--_Id._ "If he _has_ committed sins, they shall be forgiven him."--_Bible cor._ "Subjunctive Mood of the verb _to call_, second person singular: If thou _call_, (rarely, If thou _do call_,) If thou _called_."--_Hiley cor._ "Subjunctive Mood of the verb _to love_, second person singular: If thou love, (rarely, If thou do love,) If thou _loved_."--_Bullions cor._ "I was; thou wast; he, she, or it, was: We, you or ye, they, were."--_White cor._ "I taught, thou _taughtest_, (familiarly, thou _taught_,) he taught."-- _Coar cor._ "We say, '_If it rain,' 'Suppose it rain?' 'Lest it rain,' 'Unless it rain._' This manner of speaking is called the SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD."--_Weld cor._ "He _has_ arrived at what is deemed the age of manhood."--_Priestley cor._ "He _might_ much better have let it alone."--_Tooke cor._ "He were better without it. Or: He _would be better_ without it."--_Locke cor._ "_Hadst_ thou not been by. Or: _If_ thou _hadst_ not been by. Or, in the familiar style: _Had_ not thou been by,"--_Shak. cor._ "I learned geography. Thou _learned arithmetic_. He learned grammar."--_Fuller cor._ "Till the sound _has_ ceased."--_Sheridan cor._ "Present, die; Preterit, died; Perf. Participle, _died_."--_Six English Grammars corrected_. "Thou _bow'dst_ thy glorious head to none, _fear'dst_ none." Or:-- "Thou _bowed_ thy glorious head to none, _feared_ none." --_Pollok cor._ "Thou _lookst_ upon thy boy as though thou _guess'd_ it." --_Knowles cor._ "As once thou _slept_, while she to life was formed." --_Milton cor._ "Who finds the partridge in the puttock's nest, But may imagine how the bird was _killed?_" --_Shak. cor._ "Which might have well _become_ the best of men." --_Idem cor._ CHAPTER VII.--PARTICIPLES. CORRECTIONS IN THE FORMS OF PARTICIPLES. LESSON I.--IRREGULARS. "Many of your readers have _mistaken_ that passage."--_Steele cor._ "Had not my dog of a steward _run_ away."--_Addison cor._ "None should be admitted, except he had _broken_ his collarbone thrice."--_Id._ "We could not know what was _written_ at twenty."--_Waller cor._ "I have _written_, thou hast _written_, he has _written_; we have _written_, you have _written_, they have _written_."--_Ash cor._ "As if God had _spoken_ his last words there to his people."--_Barclay cor._ "I had like to have _come_ in that ship myself."--_Observer cor._ "Our ships and vessels being _driven_ out of the harbour by a storm."--_Hutchinson cor._ "He will endeavour to write as the ancient author would have _written_, had he _written_ in the same language."--_Bolingbroke cor._ "When his doctrines grew too strong to be _shaken_ by his enemies."--_Atterbury cor._ "The immortal mind that hath _forsaken_ her mansion."--_Milton cor._ "Grease that's _sweated_ (or _sweat_) from the murderer's gibbet, throw into the flame."--_Shak. cor._ "The court also was _chidden_ (or _chid_) for allowing such questions to be put."--_Stone cor._ "He would have _spoken_."--_Milton cor._ "Words _interwoven_ (or _interweaved_) with sighs found out their way."--_Id._ "Those kings and potentates who have _strived_ (or _striven_.)"--_Id._ "That even Silence was _taken_."--_Id._ "And envious Darkness, ere they could return, had _stolen_ them from me."--_Id._ "I have _chosen_ this perfect man."--_Id._ "I _shall scarcely_ think you have _swum_ in a gondola."--_Shak. cor._ "The fragrant brier was _woven_ (or _weaved_) between."--_Dryden cor._ "Then finish what you have _begun_."--_Id._ "But now the years a numerous train have _run_."--_Pope cor._ "Repeats your verses _written_ (or _writ_) on glasses."--_Prior cor._ "Who by turns have _risen_."--_Id._ "Which from great authors I have taken."--_Id._ "Even there he should have _fallen_."--_Id._ "The sun has _ris'n_, and gone to bed. Just as if Partridge were not dead."--_Swift cor._ "And, though no marriage words are _spoken_, They part not till the ring is _broken_."--_Swift cor._ LESSON II.--REGULARS. "When the word is _stripped_ of all the terminations."--_Dr. Murray cor._ "Forgive him, Tom; his head is _cracked_."--_Swift cor._ "For 'tis the sport, to have the engineer _hoised_ (or _hoisted_) with his own petar."--_Shak. cor._ "As great as they are, I was _nursed_ by their mother."--_Swift cor._ "If he should now be _cried_ down since his change."--_Id. "Dipped_ over head and ears--in debt."--_Id._ "We see the nation's credit _cracked_."--_Id._ "Because they find their pockets _picked_."--_Id._ "O what a pleasure _mixed_ with pain!"--_Id._ "And only with her brother _linked_."--_Id._ "Because he ne'er a thought allowed, That might not be _confessed_."--_Id._ "My love to Sheelah is more firmly _fixed_."--_Id._ "The observations _annexed_ to them will be intelligible."--_Phil. Mus. cor._ "Those eyes are always _fixed_ on the general principles."--_Id._ "Laborious conjectures will be _banished_ from our commentaries."--_Id._ "Tiridates was dethroned, and Phraates was _reestablished_, in his stead."--_Id._ "A Roman who was _attached_ to Augustus."--_Id._ "Nor should I have spoken of it, unless Baxter had _talked_ about two such."--_Id._ "And the reformers of language have generally _rushed_ on."--_Id._ "Three centuries and a half had then _elapsed_ since the date,"--_Ib._ "Of such criteria, as has been _remarked_ already, there is an abundance."--_Id._ "The English have _surpassed_ every other nation in their services."--_Id._ "The party _addressed_ is next in dignity to the speaker."--_Harris cor._ "To which we are many times _helped_."--_W. Walker cor._ "But for him, I should have _looked_ well enough to myself."--_Id._ "Why are you _vexed_, Lady? why do frown?"--_Milton cor._ "Obtruding false rules _pranked_ in reason's garb."--_Id._ "But, like David _equipped_ in Saul's armour, it is encumbered and oppressed."--_Campbell cor._ "And when their merchants are blown up, and _cracked_, Whole towns are cast away in storms, and _wrecked_."--_Butler cor._ LESSON III.--MIXED EXAMPLES. "The lands are _held_ in free and common soccage."--_Trumbull cor._ "A stroke is _drawn_ under such words."--_Cobbett's Gr._, 1st Ed. "It is _struck_ even, with a strickle."--_W. Walker cor._ "Whilst I was _wandering_, without any care, beyond my bounds."--_Id._ "When one would do something, unless _hindered_ by something present."--_B. Johnson cor._ "It is used potentially, but not so as to be _rendered_ by these signs."--_Id._ "Now who would dote upon things _hurried_ down the stream thus fast?"--_Collier cor._ "Heaven hath timely _tried_ their growth."--_Milton cor._ "O! ye mistook, ye should have _snatched_ his wand."--_Id._ "Of true virgin here _distressed_."--_Id._ "So that they have at last come to be _substituted_ in the stead of it."--_Barclay cor._ "Though ye have _lain_ among the pots."--_Bible cor._ "And, lo! in her mouth was an olive leaf _plucked_ off."--_Scott's Bible, and Alger's_. "Brutus and Cassius _Have ridden_, (or _rode_,) like madmen, through the gates of Rome."--_Shak. cor._ "He shall be _spit upon_."--_Bible cor._ "And are not the countries so _overflowed_ still _situated_ between the tropics?"--_Bentley_. "Not _tricked_ and _frounced_ as she was wont, But _kerchiefed_ in a comely cloud."--_Milton cor._ "To satisfy his rigour, _Satisfied_ never."--_Id._ "With him there _crucified_."--_Id._ "Th' earth cumbered, and the wing'd air _darked_ with plumes."--_Id._ "And now their way to Earth they had _descried_."--_Id._ "Not so thick swarmed once the soil _Bedropped_ with blood of Gorgon."--_Id._ "And in a troubled sea of passion _tossed_."--_Id._ "The cause, alas! is quickly _guessed_."--_Swift cor._ "The kettle to the top was _hoised_, or _hoisted_."--_Id._ "In chains thy syllables are _linked_."--_Id._ "Rather than thus be _overtopped_, Would you not wish their laurels _cropped_."--_Id._ "The HYPHEN, or CONJOINER, is a little line _drawn_ to connect words, or parts of words."--_Cobbett cor._ "In the other manners of dependence, this general rule is sometimes _broken_."--_R. Johnson cor._ "Some intransitive verbs may be rendered transitive by means of a preposition _prefixed_ to them."--_Grant cor._ "Whoever now should place the accent on the first syllable of _Valerius_, would set every body _a laughing_."--_J. Walker cor._ "Being mocked, scourged, _spit upon_, and crucified."--_Gurney cor._ "For rhyme in Greece or Rome was never known, Till _barb'rous hordes those states had overthrown_."--_Roscommon cor._ "In my own Thames may I be _drowned_, If e'er I stoop beneath _the crowned_." Or thus:-- "In my own Thames may I be _drown'd dead_, If e'er I stoop beneath a crown'd head."--_Swift cor._ CHAPTER VIII.--ADVERBS. CORRECTIONS RESPECTING THE FORMS OF ADVERBS. "We can much _more easily_ form the conception of a fierce combat."--_Blair corrected_. "When he was restored _agreeably_ to the treaty, he was a perfect savage."--_Webster cor._ "How I shall acquit myself _suitably_ to the importance of the trial."--_Duncan cor._ "Can any thing show your Holiness how _unworthily_ you treat mankind?"--_Spect. cor._ "In what other, _consistently_ with reason and common sense, can you go about to explain it to him?"--_Lowth cor._ "_Agreeably_ to this rule, the short vowel Sheva has two characters."--_Wilson cor._ "We shall give a _remarkably_ fine example of this figure."--See _Blair's Rhet._, p. 156. "All of which is most _abominably_ false."--_Barclay cor._ "He heaped up great riches, but passed his time _miserably_."--_Murray cor._ "He is never satisfied with expressing any thing clearly and _simply_."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Attentive only to exhibit his ideas _clearly_ and _exactly_, he appears dry."--_Id._ "Such words as have the most liquids and vowels, glide the _most softly_." Or: "Where liquids and vowels most abound, the utterance is softest."--_Id._ "The simplest points, such as are _most easily_ apprehended."--_Id._ "Too historical to be accounted a _perfectly_ regular epic poem."--_Id._ "Putting after them the oblique case, _agreeably_ to the French construction."--_Priestley cor._ "Where the train proceeds with an _extremely_ slow pace."--_Kames cor._ "So as _scarcely_ to give an appearance of succession."--_Id._ "That concord between sound and sense, which is perceived in some expressions, _independently_ of artful pronunciation."--_Id._ "Cornaro had become very corpulent, _previously_ to the adoption of his temperate habits."--_Hitchcock cor._ "Bread, which is a solid, and _tolerably_ hard, substance."--_Day cor._ "To command every body that was not dressed as _finely_ as himself."--_Id._ "Many of them have _scarcely_ outlived their authors."--_J. Ward cor._ "Their labour, indeed, did not penetrate very _deeply_."--_Wilson cor._ "The people are _miserably_ poor, and subsist on fish."--_Hume cor._ "A scale, which I took great pains, some years _ago_, to make."--_Bucke cor._ "There is no truth on earth _better_ established _than_ the truth of the Bible."--_Taylor cor._ "I know of no work _more_ wanted _than_ the one _which_ Mr. Taylor has now furnished."--_Dr. Nott cor._ "And therefore their requests are _unfrequent_ and reasonable."--_Taylor cor._ "Questions are _more easily_ proposed, than answered rightly."--_Dillwyn cor._ "Often reflect on the advantages you possess, and on the source _from which_ they are all derived."--_Murray cor._ "If there be no special rule which requires it to be put _further forward_."--_Milnes cor._ "The masculine and _the_ neuter have the same dialect in all _the_ numbers, especially when they end _alike_."--_Id._ "And children are more busy in their play Than those that _wiseliest_ pass their time away."--_Butler cor._ CHAPTER IX.--CONJUNCTIONS. CORRECTIONS IN THE USE OF CONJUNCTIONS. "A _Verb_ is so called from the Latin _verbum_, a word."--_Bucke cor._ "References are often marked by letters _or_ figures."--_Adam and Gould cor._ (1.) "A Conjunction is a word which joins words _or_ sentences together."--_Lennie, Bullions and Brace, cor._ (2.) "A Conjunction is used to connect words _or_ sentences together."--_R. C. Smith cor._ (3.) "A Conjunction is used to connect words _or_ sentences."--_Maunder cor._ (4.) "Conjunctions are words used to join words _or_ sentences."--_Wilcox cor._ (5.) "A Conjunction is a word used to connect words _or_ sentences."--_M'Culloch, Hart, and Day, cor._ (6.) "A Conjunction joins words _or_ sentences together."--_Macintosh and Hiley cor._ (7.) "The Conjunction joins words _or_ sentences together."--_L. Murray cor._ (8.) "Conjunctions connect words _or_ sentences to each other."--_Wright cor._ (9.) "Conjunctions connect words _or_ sentences."--_Wells and Wilcox cor._ (10.) "The conjunction is a part of speech, used to connect words _or_ sentences."--_Weld cor._ (11.) "A conjunction is a word used to connect words _or_ sentences together."--_Fowler cor._ (12.) "Connectives are _particles that_ unite words _or_ sentences in construction."--_Webster cor._ "English Grammar is miserably taught in our district schools; the teachers know _little or nothing_ about it."--_J. O. Taylor cor._ "_Lest_, instead of preventing _diseases_, you draw _them_ on."--_Locke cor._ "The definite article _the_ is frequently applied to adverbs in the comparative _or the_ superlative degree."--_Murray et al. cor._ "When nouns naturally neuter are _assumed to be_ masculine _or_ feminine."--_Murray cor._ "This form of the perfect tense represents an action _as_ completely past, _though_ often _as done_ at no great distance _of time, or at a time_ not specified."--_Id._ "The _Copulative Conjunction_ serves to connect _words or clauses, so as_ to continue a sentence, by expressing an addition, a supposition, a cause, _or a consequence_."--_Id._ "The _Disjunctive Conjunction_ serves, not only to continue a sentence _by connecting its parts_, but also to express opposition of meaning, _either real or nominal_."--_Id._ "_If_ we open the volumes of our divines, philosophers, historians, or artists, we shall find that they abound with all the terms necessary to communicate _the_ observations and discoveries _of their authors._"--_Id._ "When a disjunctive _conjunction_ occurs between a singular noun or pronoun and a plural one, the verb is made to agree with the plural noun _or_ pronoun."--_Murray et al. cor._ "Pronouns must always agree with their antecedents, _or_ the nouns for which they stand, in gender and number."--_Murray cor._ "Neuter verbs do not _express action, and consequently do not_ govern nouns or pronouns."--_Id._ "And the auxiliary of the past imperfect _as well as of the_ present _tense_."--_Id._ "If this rule should not appear to apply to every example _that_ has been produced, _or_ to others which might be cited."--_Id._ "An emphatical pause is made, after something of peculiar moment has been said, on which we desire to fix the hearer's attention."--_Murray and Hart cor._ "An imperfect[531] phrase contains no assertion, _and_ does not amount to a proposition, or sentence."--_Murray cor._ "The word was in the mouth of every one, _yet_ its meaning may still be a secret."--_Id._ "This word was in the mouth of every one, _and yet_, as to its precise and definite idea, this may still be a secret,"--_Harris cor._ "It cannot be otherwise, _because_ the French prosody differs from that of every other European language."--_Smollet cor._ "So gradually _that it may be_ engrafted on a subtonic."--_Rush cor._ "Where the Chelsea _and_ Malden bridges now are." Or better: "Where the Chelsea _or the_ Malden _bridge_ now _is_."--_Judge Parker cor._ "Adverbs are words _added_ to verbs, _to_ participles, _to_ adjectives, _or to_ other adverbs."--_R. C. Smith cor._ "I could not have told you who the hermit was, _or_ on what mountain he lived."--_Bucke cor._ "AM _and_ BE (for they are the same _verb_) naturally, or in themselves, signify _being_."--_Brightland cor._ "Words are _signs, either oral or written_, by which we express our thoughts, _or_ ideas."--_Mrs. Bethune cor._ "His fears will detect him, _that_ he shall not escape."--_Comly cor._ "_Whose_ is equally applicable to persons _and to_ things"--_Webster cor._ "One negative destroys an other, _so that two are_ equivalent to an affirmative."--_Bullions cor._ "No sooner does he peep into the world, _Than_ he has done his do."--_Hudibras cor._ CHAPTER X.--PREPOSITIONS. CORRECTIONS IN THE USE OF PREPOSITIONS. "Nouns are often formed _from_ participles."--_L. Murray corrected_. "What tenses are formed _from_ the perfect participle?"--_Ingersoll cor._ "Which tense is formed _from_ the _present_, or root of the verb?"--_Id._ "When a noun or _a_ pronoun is placed before a participle, independently _of_ the rest of the sentence."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 348. "If the addition consists _of_ two or more words."--_Mur. et al. cor._ "The infinitive mood is often made absolute, or used independently _of_ the rest of the sentence."--_Lowth's Gram._, 80; _Churchill's_, 143; _Bucke's_, 96; _Merchant's_, 92. "For the great satisfaction of the reader, we _shall present a variety_ of false constructions."--_Murray cor._ "For your satisfaction, I _shall present you a variety_ of false constructions."-- _Ingersoll cor._ "I shall here _present [to] you a scale_ of derivation."-- _Bucke cor._ "These two manners of representation in respect _to_ number."--_Lowth and Churchill cor._ "There are certain adjectives which seem to be derived _from verbs, without_ any variation."--_Lowth cor._ "Or disqualify us for receiving instruction or reproof _from_ others."--_Murray cor._ "For being more studious than any other pupil _in_ the school."-- _Id._ "Misunderstanding the directions, we lost our way."--_Id._ "These people reduced the greater part of the island _under_ their own power."-- _Id._ "The principal accent distinguishes one syllable _of_ a word from the rest."--_Id._ "Just numbers are in unison _with_ the human mind."--_Id._ "We must accept of sound _in stead_ of sense."--_Id._ "Also, _in stead of consultation_, he uses _consult_."--_Priestley cor._ "This ablative seems to be governed _by_ a preposition understood."--_W. Walker cor._ "_Lest_ my father _hear of it_, by some means or other."--_Id._ "And, besides, my wife would hear _of it_ by some means."--_Id._ "For insisting _on_ a requisition so odious to them."--_Robertson cor._ "Based _on_ the great self-evident truths of liberty and equality."--_Manual cor._ "Very little knowledge of their nature is acquired _from_ the spelling-book."--_Murray cor._ "They do not cut it off: except _from_ a few words; as, _due, duly_, &c."--_Id._ "Whether passing _at_ such time, or then finished."--_Lowth cor._ "It hath disgusted hundreds _with_ that confession."--_Barclay cor._ "But they have egregiously fallen _into_ that inconveniency."--_Id._ "For is not this, to set nature _at_ work?"--_Id._ "And, surely, that which should set all its springs _at_ work, is God."--_Atterbury cor._ "He could not end his treatise without a panegyrie _on_ modern learning."--_Temple cor._ "These are entirely independent _of_ the modulation of the voice."--_J. Walker cor._ "It is dear _at_ a penny. It is cheap _at_ twenty pounds."--_W. Walker cor._ "It will be despatched, _on_ most occasions, without resting."--_Locke cor._ "_Oh_ the pain, the bliss of dying!"--_Pope_. "When the objects or the facts are presented _to him_."--_R. C. Smith cor._ "I will now present you a synopsis."--_Id._ "The disjunctive conjunction connects _words or_ sentences, _and suggests an_ opposition of meaning, _more or less direct_."--_Id._ "I shall now present _to_ you a few lines."--_Bucke cor._ "Common names, _or_ substantives, are those which stand for things _assorted_."--_Id._ "Adjectives, in the English language, _are not varied by_ genders, numbers, or cases; _their only inflection is for_ the degrees of comparison."--_Id._ "Participles are [little more than] adjectives formed _from_ verbs."--_Id._ "I do love to walk out _on_ a fine _summer_ evening."--_Id._ "_Ellipsis_, when applied to grammar, is the elegant omission of one or more words _of_ a sentence."--_Merchant cor._ "The _preposition to_ is generally _required_ before verbs in the infinitive mood, but _after_ the following verbs it is properly omitted; namely, _bid, dare, feel, need, let, make, hear, see_: as, 'He _bid_ me _do_ it;' not, 'He _bid_ me _to_ do it.'"--_Id._ "The infinitive sometimes follows _than, for the latter term of_ a comparison; as, ['Murray should have known _better than to write_, and Merchant, _better than to copy_, the text here corrected, or the ambiguous example they appended to it.']"--_Id._ "Or, by prefixing the _adverb more_ or _less, for_ the comparative, and _most_ or _least, for_ the superlative."--_Id._ "A pronoun is a word used _in stead_ of a noun."--_Id._ "From monosyllables, the comparative is regularly formed by adding _r_ or _er_."--_Perley cor._ "He has particularly named these, in distinction _from_ others."--_Harris cor._ "To revive the decaying taste _for ancient_ literature."--_Id._ "He found the greatest difficulty _in_ writing."--_Hume cor._ "And the tear, that is wiped with a little address, May be followed perhaps _by_ a smile."--_Cowper_, i, 216. CHAPTER XI.--INTERJECTIONS. CORRECTIONS IN THE USE OF INTERJECTIONS. "Of chance or change, _O_ let not man complain."--_Beattie's Minstrel_, B. ii, l. 1. "O thou persecutor! _O_ ye hypocrites!"--_Russell's Gram._, p. 92. "_O_ thou my voice inspire, Who _touch'd_ Isaiah's hallow'd lips with fire!"--_Pope's Messiah_. "_O happy we_! surrounded by so many blessings!"--_Merchant cor._ "_O thou who_ art so unmindful of thy duty!"--_Id._ "If I am wrong, _O_ teach my heart To find that better way."--_Murray's Reader_, p. 248. "Heus! evocate huc Davum."--_Ter_. "Ho! call Davus out hither."--_W. Walker cor._ "It was represented by an analogy (_O_ how inadequate!) which was borrowed from the _ceremonies_ of paganism."--_Murray cor._ "_O_ that Ishmael might live before thee!"--_Friends' Bible_, and _Scott's_. "And he said unto him, _O_ let not the Lord be angry, and I will speak."--_Alger's Bible_, and _Scott's_. "And he said, _O_ let not the Lord be angry."--_Alger; Gen._, xviii. 32. "_O_ my Lord, let thy servant, I pray thee, speak a word."--_Scott's Bible_. "_O_ Virtue! how amiable thou art!"--_Murray's Gram._, p. 128. "_Alas_! I fear for life."--See _Ib._ "_Ah_ me! they little know How dearly I abide that boast so vain!"--See _Bucke's Gram._, p. 87. "_O_ that I had digged myself a cave!"--_Fletcher cor._ "_Oh_, my good lord! thy comfort comes too late."--_Shak. cor._ "The vocative takes no article: it is distinguished thus: _O Pedro_! O Peter! _O Dios_! O God!"--_Bucke cor._ "_Oho_! But, the relative is always the same."--_Cobbett cor._ "_All-hail_, ye happy men!"--_Jaudon cor._ "_O_ that I had wings like a dove!'--_Scott's Bible_. "_O glorious_ hope! O _bless'd_ abode!"--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 304. "_Welcome_ friends! how joyous is your presence!"--_T. Smith cor._ "_O_ blissful days!--_but, ah_! how soon ye pass!"--_Parker and Fox cor._ "_O_ golden days! _O_ bright unvalued hours!-- What bliss, did ye but know that bliss, were yours!"--_Barbauld cor._ "_Ah_ me! what perils do environ The man that meddles with cold iron!"--_Hudibras cor._ THE KEY.--PART III.--SYNTAX. CHAPTER I.--SENTENCES. The first chapter of Syntax, being appropriated to general views of this part of grammar, to an exhibition of its leading doctrines, and to the several forms of sentential analysis, with an application of its principal rules in parsing, contains no false grammar for correction; and has, of course, nothing to correspond to it, in this Key, except the title, which is here inserted for form's sake. CHAPTER II.--ARTICLES. CORRECTIONS UNDER THE NOTES TO RULE I. UNDER NOTE I.--AN OR A. "I have seen _a_ horrible thing in the house of Israel."--_Bible cor._ "There is _a_ harshness in the following sentences."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 152. "Indeed, such _a_ one is not to be looked for."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "If each of you will be disposed to approve himself _a_ useful citizen."--_Id._ "Land with them had acquired almost _a_ European value."--_Webster cor._ "He endeavoured to find out _a_ wholesome remedy."--_Neef cor._ "At no time have we attended _a_ yearly meeting more to our own satisfaction."--_The Friend cor._ "Addison was not _a humorist_ in character."--_Kames cor._ "Ah me! what _a_ one was he!"--_Lily cor._ "He was such _a_ one as I never saw before"--_Id._ "No man can be a good preacher, who is not _a_ useful one."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "_A_ usage which is too frequent with Mr. Addison."--_Id._ "Nobody joins the voice of a sheep with the shape of _a_ horse."--_Locke cor._ "_A_ universality seems to be aimed at by the omission of the article."--_Priestley cor._ "Architecture is _a_ useful as well as a fine art."--_Kames cor._ "Because the same individual conjunctions do not preserve _a_ uniform signification."-- _Nutting cor._ "Such a work required the patience and assiduity of _a_ hermit."--_Johnson cor._ "Resentment is _a_ union of sorrow with malignity."--_Id._ "His bravery, we know, was _a_ high courage of blasphemy."--_Pope cor._ "HYSSOP; _an_ herb of bitter taste."--_Pike cor._ "On each enervate string they taught the note To pant, or tremble through _a eunuch's_ throat."--_Pope cor._ UNDER NOTE II.--AN OR A WITH PLURALS. "At a _session_ of the court, in March, it was moved," &c.--_Hutchinson cor._ "I shall relate my conversations, of which I kept memoranda."--_D. D'Ab. cor._ "I took _an other_ dictionary, and with a _pair of_ scissors cut out, for instance, the word ABACUS."--_A. B. Johnson cor._ "A person very meet seemed he for the purpose, _and about_ forty-five years old."--_Gardiner cor._ "And it came to pass, about eight days after these sayings."--_Bible cor._ "There were slain of them about three thousand men."--_1 Macc. cor._ "Until I had gained the top of these white mountains, which seemed _other_ Alps of snow."--_Addison cor._ "To make them satisfactory amends for all the losses they had sustained."--_Goldsmith cor._ "As a _first-fruit_ of many that shall be gathered."--_Barclay cor._ "It makes indeed a little _amend_, (or _some amends_,) by inciting us to oblige people."--_Sheffield cor._ "A large and lightsome _back stairway_ (or _flight of backstairs_) leads up to an entry above."--_Id._ "Peace of mind is an _abundant recompense_ for _any_ sacrifices of interest."--_Murray et al. cor._ "With such a spirit, and _such_ sentiments, were hostilities carried on."--_Robertson cor._ "In the midst of a thick _wood_, he had long lived a voluntary recluse."--_G. B_. "The flats look almost like a young _forest_."--_Chronicle cor._ "As we went on, the country for a little _way_ improved, but scantily."--_Freeman cor._ "Whereby the Jews were permitted to return into their own country, after _a captivity of seventy years_ at Babylon."--_Rollin cor._ "He did not go a great _way_ into the country."--_Gilbert cor._ "A large _amend_ by fortune's hand is made, And the lost Punic blood is well repay'd."--_Rowe cor._ UNDER NOTE III.--NOUNS CONNECTED. "As where a landscape is conjoined with the music of birds, and _the_ odour of flowers."--_Kames cor._ "The last order resembles the second in the mildness of its accent, and _the_ softness of its pause."--_Id._ "Before the use of the loadstone, or _the_ knowledge of the compass."--_Dryden cor._ "The perfect participle and _the_ imperfect tense ought not to be confounded."--_Murray cor._ "In proportion as the taste of a poet or _an_ orator becomes more refined."--_Blair cor._ "A situation can never be more intricate, _so_ long as there is an angel, _a_ devil, or _a_ musician, to lend a helping hand."--_Kames cor._ "Avoid rude sports: an eye is soon lost, or _a_ bone broken."--_Inst._, p. 262. "Not a word was uttered, nor _a_ sign given."--_Ib._ "I despise not the doer, but _the_ deed."--_Ib._ "For the sake of an easier pronunciation and _a_ more agreeable sound."--_Lowth cor._ "The levity as well as _the_ loquacity of the Greeks made them incapable of keeping up the true standard of history."-- _Bolingbroke cor._ UNDER NOTE IV.--ADJECTIVES CONNECTED. "It is proper that the vowels be a long and _a_ short one."--_Murray cor._ "Whether the person mentioned was seen by the speaker a long or _a_ short time before."--_Id. et al_. "There are three genders; _the_ masculine, _the_ feminine, and _the_ neuter."--_Adam cor._ "The numbers are two; _the_ singular and _the_ plural."--_Id. et al_. "The persons are three; _the_ first, _the_ second, and _the_ third."--_Iidem_. "Nouns and pronouns have three cases; the nominative, _the_ possessive, and _the_ objective."-- _Comly and Ing. cor._ "Verbs have five moods; namely, the infinitive, _the_ indicative, _the_ potential, _the_ subjunctive, and _the_ imperative."-- _Bullions et al. cor._ "How many numbers have pronouns? Two, the singular and _the_ plural."--_Bradley cor._ "To distinguish between an interrogative and _an_ exclamatory sentence."--_Murray et al. cor._ "The first and _the_ last of which are _compound_ members."--_Lowth cor._ "In the last lecture, I treated of the concise and _the_ diffuse, the nervous and _the_ feeble manner."--_Blair cor._ "The passive and _the_ neuter verbs I shall reserve for some future conversation."--_Ingersoll cor._ "There are two voices; the active and _the_ passive."--_Adam et al. cor._ "WHOSE is rather the poetical than _the_ regular genitive of WHICH."--_Johnson cor._ "To feel the force of a compound or _a_ derivative word."--_Town cor._ "To preserve the distinctive uses of the copulative and _the_ disjunctive conjunctions."--_Murray et al. cor._ "E has a long and _a_ short sound in most languages."--_Bicknell cor._ "When the figurative and _the_ literal sense are mixed and jumbled together."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "The Hebrew, with which the Canaanitish and _the_ Phoenician stand in connexion."--_Conant_ and _Fowler cor._ "The languages of Scandinavia proper, the Norwegian and _the_ Swedish."--_Fowler cor._ UNDER NOTE V.--ADJECTIVES CONNECTED. "The path of truth is a plain and safe path."--_Murray cor._ "Directions for acquiring a just and happy elocution."--_Kirkham cor._ "Its leading object is, to adopt a correct and easy method."--_Id._ "How can it choose but wither in a long and sharp winter?"--_Cowley cor._ "Into a dark and distant unknown."--_Dr. Chalmers cor._ "When the bold and strong enslaved his fellow man."--_Chazotte cor._ "We now proceed to consider the things most essential to an accurate and perfect sentence."--_Murray cor._ "And hence arises a second and very considerable source of the improvement of taste."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Novelty produces in the mind a vivid and agreeable emotion."--_Id._ "The deepest and bitterest feeling still is _that of_ the separation."--_Dr. M'Rie cor._ "A great and good man looks beyond time."--See _Brown's Inst._, p. 263. "They made but a weak and ineffectual resistance."--_Ib._ "The light and worthless kernels will float."--_Ib._ "I rejoice that there is an other and better world."--_Ib._ "For he is determined to revise his work, and present to the _public an other and better_ edition."--_Kirkham cor._ "He hoped that this title would secure _to_ him an ample and independent authority."--_L. Murray cor. et al_. "There is, however, _an other and more limited sense_."--_J. Q. Adams cor._ UNDER NOTE VI.--ARTICLES OR PLURALS. "This distinction forms what are called the diffuse _style_ and the concise."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Two different modes of speaking, distinguished at first by the denominations of _the Attic manner_ and _the Asiatic_."--_Adams cor._ "But the great design of uniting the Spanish and French monarchies under the former, was laid."--_Bolingbroke cor._ "In the solemn and poetic styles, it [_do_ or _did_] is often rejected."--_Allen cor._ "They cannot be, at the same time, in _both_ the objective _case_ and the nominative." Or: "They cannot be, at the same time, in _both_ the objective and the nominative _case_." Or: "They cannot be, at the same time, in the nominative _case_, and _also in the_ objective." Or: "They cannot be, at the same time, in the nominative and objective cases."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 148. Or, better: "They cannot be, at the same time, in _both_ cases, the nominative and _the_ objective."--_Murray et al. cor._ "They are named the positive, comparative, and superlative degrees."--_Smart cor._ "Certain adverbs are capable of taking an inflection; namely, that of the comparative and superlative degrees."--_Fowler cor._ "In the subjunctive mood, the present and imperfect tenses often carry with them a future sense."--_Murray et al. cor._ "The imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, and the first-future _tense_, of this mood, are conjugated like the same tenses of the indicative."--_Kirkham bettered_. "What rules apply in parsing personal pronouns of the second and third _persons_?"--_Id._ "Nouns are sometimes in the nominative or _the_ objective case after the neuter verb _be_, or after an active-intransitive or _a_ passive verb." "The verb varies its _ending_ in the singular, in order to agree with its nominative, in the first, second, and third _persons_."--_Id._ "They are identical in effect with the radical and the vanishing _stress_."--_Rush cor._ "In a sonnet, the first, _the_ fourth, _the_ fifth, and _the_ eighth line, _usually_ rhyme to _one an_ other: so do the second, third, sixth, and seventh _lines_; the ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth _lines_; and the tenth, twelfth, and fourteenth _lines_."--_Churchill cor._ "The iron and golden ages are run; youth and manhood are departed."--_Wright cor._ "If, as you say, the iron and the golden _age_ are past, the youth and the manhood of the world."--_Id._ "An Exposition of the Old and New _Testaments_."--_Henry cor._ "The names and order of the books of the Old and _the_ New Testament."--_Bible cor._ "In the second and third _persons_ of that tense."--_Murray cor._ "And who still unites in himself the human and the divine _nature_."--_Gurney cor._ "Among whom arose the Italian, Spanish, French, and English languages."--_Murray cor._ "Whence arise these two _numbers_, the singular and the plural."--_Burn cor._ UNDER NOTE VII.--CORRESPONDENT TERMS. "Neither the definitions nor _the_ examples are entirely the same _as_ his."--_Ward cor._ "Because it makes a discordance between the thought and _the_ expression."--_Kames cor._ "Between the adjective and _the_ following substantive."--_Id._ "Thus Athens became both the repository and _the_ nursery of learning."--_Chazotte cor._ "But the French pilfered from both the Greek and _the_ Latin."--_Id._ "He shows that Christ is both the power and _the_ wisdom of God."--_The Friend cor._ "That he might be Lord both of the dead and _of the_ living."--_Bible cor._ "This is neither the obvious nor _the_ grammatical meaning of his words."--_Blair cor._ "Sometimes both the accusative and _the_ infinitive are understood."--_Adam and Gould cor._ "In some cases, we can use either the nominative or _the_ accusative, promiscuously."--_Iidem_. "Both the former and _the_ latter substantive are sometimes to be understood."--_Iidem_. "Many _of_ which have escaped both the commentator and _the_ poet himself."--_Pope cor._ "The verbs MUST and OUGHT, have both a present and _a_ past signification."--_L. Murray cor._ "How shall we distinguish between the friends and _the_ enemies of the government?"--_Dr. Webster cor._ "Both the _ecclesiastical_ and _the_ secular powers concurred in those measures."--_Dr. Campbell cor._ "As the period has a beginning and _an_ end within itself, it implies an _inflection_."--_J. Q. Adams cor._ "Such as ought to subsist between a principal and _an_ accessory."--_Ld. Kames cor._ UNDER NOTE VIII.--CORRESPONDENCE PECULIAR. "When both the upward and the downward _slide_ occur in _the sound of one_ syllable, they are called a CIRCUMFLEX, or WAVE."--_Kirkham cor._ "The word THAT is used both in the nominative and _in the objective case_."--_Sanborn cor._ "But _in_ all the other moods and tenses, both of the active and _of the_ passive _voice_ [the verbs] are conjugated at large."--_Murray cor._ "Some writers on grammar, admitting the second-future _tense into_ the indicative mood, _reject it from the_ subjunctive."--_Id._ "_After_ the same conjunction, _to use_ both the indicative and the subjunctive _mood_ in the same sentence, and _under_ the same circumstances, seems to be a great impropriety."--_Id._ "The true distinction between the subjunctive and the indicative _mood_ in this tense."--_Id._ "I doubt of his capacity to teach either the French or _the_ English _language_."--_Chazotte cor._ "It is as necessary to make a distinction between the active-transitive and the active-intransitive verb, as between the active and _the_ passive."--_Nixon cor._ UNDER NOTE IX.--A SERIES OF TERMS. "As comprehending the terms uttered by the artist, the mechanic, and _the_ husbandman."--_Chazotte cor._ "They may be divided into four classes; the Humanists, _the_ Philanthropists, _the Pestalozzians_, and the _Productives_."--_Smith cor._ "Verbs have six tenses; the present, the imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, the _first-future_, and the _second-future_."--_Murray et al. cor._ "Is it an irregular _neuter_ verb [from _be, was, being, been_; found in] _the_ indicative mood, present tense, third person, and singular number."--_Murray cor._ "SHOULD GIVE is an irregular _active-transitive_ verb [from _give, gave, given, giving_; found] in the potential mood, imperfect tense, first person, and plural number."--_Id._ "US is a personal pronoun, _of the_ first person, plural number, _masculine gender_, and objective case."--_Id._ "THEM is a personal pronoun, of the third person, plural number, _masculine gender_, and objective case."--_Id._ "It is surprising that the Jewish critics, with all their skill in dots, points, and accents, never had the ingenuity to invent a point of interrogation, _a point_ of admiration, or a parenthesis."--_Dr. Wilson cor._ "The fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth _verses_." Or: "The fifth, _the_ sixth, _the_ seventh, and the eighth verse."--_O. B. Peirce cor_. "Substitutes have three persons; the First, _the_ Second, and the Third."--_Id._ "JOHN'S is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and possessive case: and _is_ governed by 'WIFE,' _according to_ Rule" [4th, _which says_, &c.]--_Smith cor_. "Nouns, in the English language, have three cases; the nominative, the possessive, and _the_ objective."--_Bar. and Alex. cor._ "The potential mood has four tenses; viz., the present, the imperfect, the perfect, and _the_ pluperfect."--_Ingersoll cor._ "Where Science, Law, and Liberty depend, And own the patron, patriot, and friend."--_Savage cor._ UNDER NOTE X.--SPECIES AND GENUS. "_The_ pronoun is a part of speech[532] put for _the_ noun."--_Paul's Ac. cor._ "_The_ verb is a part of speech declined with mood and tense."--_Id._ "_The_ participle is a part of speech derived _from the_ verb."--_Id._ "_The_ adverb is a part of speech joined to verbs, [participles, adjectives, or other adverbs,] to declare their signification."--_Id._ "_The_ conjunction is a part of speech that _joins words or_ sentences together."--_Id._ "_The_ preposition is a part of speech most commonly set before other parts."--_Id._ "_The_ interjection is a part of speech which _betokens_ a sudden _emotion_ or passion of the mind."--_Id._ "_The_ enigma, or riddle, is also a species of allegory."--_Blair and Murray cor._ "We may take from the Scriptures a very fine example of _the_ allegory."--_Iidem_. "And thus have you exhibited a sort of sketch of art."--_Harris cor._ "We may 'imagine a subtle kind of reasoning,' as Mr. Harris acutely observes."--_Churchill cor._ "But, before entering on these, I shall give one instance of _metaphor, very beautiful_, (or, one _very beautiful_ instance of metaphor,) that I may show the figure to full advantage."--_Blair cor._ "Aristotle, in his Poetics, uses _metaphor_ in this extended sense, for any figurative meaning imposed upon a word; as _the_ whole put for _a_ part, or a part for _the_ whole; _a_ species for the genus, or _the_ genus for a species."--_Id._ "It shows what kind of apple it is of which we are speaking."--_Kirkham cor._ "Cleon was _an other_ sort of man."--_Goldsmith cor._ "To keep off his right wing, as a kind of reserved body."--_Id._ "This part of speech is called _the_ verb."--_Mack cor._ "What sort of thing is it?"--_Hiley cor._ "What sort of charm do they possess?"--_Bullions cor._ "Dear Welsted, mark, in dirty hole, That painful animal, _the_ mole."--_Dunciad cor._ UNDER NOTE XI.--ARTICLES NOT REQUISITE. "Either thou or the boys were in fault."--_Comly cor._ "It may, at first view, appear to be too general."--_Murray et al. cor._ "When the verb has reference to future time."--_Iidem_. "No; they are the language of imagination, rather than of passion."--_Blair cor._ "The dislike of English Grammar, which has so generally prevailed, can be attributed _only_ to the intricacy of [our] syntax."--_Russell cor._ "Is that ornament in good taste?"--_Kames cor._ "There are not many fountains in good taste." Or: "Not many fountains are [ornamented] in good taste."--_Id._ "And I persecuted this way unto death."--_Bible cor._ "The sense of feeling can, indeed, give us a notion of extension."--_Addison, Spect._, No. 411. "The distributive _adjectives, each, every, either_, agree with nouns, pronouns, _or_ verbs, of the singular number only."--_Murray cor._ "Expressing by one word, what might, by a circumlocution, be resolved into two or more words belonging to other parts of speech."--_Blair cor._ "By certain muscles which operate [in harmony, and] all at the same time."--_Murray cor._ "It is sufficient here to have observed thus much in general concerning them."--_Campbell cor._ "Nothing disgusts us sooner than empty pomp of language."--_Murray cor._ UNDER NOTE XII.--TITLES AND NAMES. "He is entitled to the appellation of _gentleman_."--_G. Brown_. "Cromwell assumed the title of Protector"--_Id._ "Her father is honoured with the title of _Earl_."--_Id._ "The chief magistrate is styled _President_."-- _Id._ "The highest title in the state is that of _Governor_."--_Id._ "That boy is known by the name of _Idler_."--_Murray cor._ "The one styled _Mufti_, is the head of the ministers of law and religion."--_Balbi cor._ "Ranging all that possessed them under one class, he called that whole class _tree_."--_Blair cor._ "For _oak, pine_, and _ash_, were names of whole classes of objects."--_Id._ "It is of little importance whether we give to some particular mode of expression the name of _trope_, or of _figure_."--_Id._ "The collision of a vowel with itself is the most ungracious of all combinations, and has been doomed to peculiar reprobation under the name of _hiatus_."--_Adams cor._ "We hesitate to determine, whether _Tyrant_ alone is the nominative, or whether the nominative includes the _word Spy_."--_Cobbett cor._ "Hence originated the customary abbreviation of _twelve months_ into _twelvemonth_; of _seven nights_ into _sennight_; of _fourteen nights_ into _fortnight_."--_Webster cor._ UNDER NOTE XIII.--COMPARISONS AND ALTERNATIVES. "He is a better writer than reader."--_W. Allen_. "He was an abler mathematician than linguist."--_Id._ "I should rather have an orange than _an_ apple."--_G. Brown_. "He was no less able _as_ a negotiator, than courageous _as_ a warrior."--_Smollett cor._ "In an epic poem, we pardon many negligences that would not be permitted in a sonnet or _an_ epigram."--_Kames cor._ "That figure is a sphere, globe, or ball."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 357. UNDER NOTE XIV.--ANTECEDENTS TO WHO OR WHICH. "_The_ carriages which were formerly in use, were very clumsy."--_Key to Inst_. "The place is not mentioned by _the_ geographers who wrote at that time."--_Ib._ "Those questions which a person _puts to_ himself in contemplation, ought to be terminated _with_ points of interrogation."-- _Mur. et al. cor._ "The work is designed for the use of _those_ persons who may think it merits a place in their libraries."--_Mur. cor._ "That _those_ who think confusedly, should express themselves obscurely, is not to be wondered at."--_Id._ "_Those_ grammarians who limit the number to two, or three, do not reflect."--_Id._ "_The_ substantives which end in _ian_, are those that signify profession." Or: "_Those_ substantives which end in _ian_, are _such as_ signify profession."--_Id._ "To these may be added _those_ verbs which, among the poets, _usually_ govern the dative."--_Adam and Gould cor._ "_The_ consonants are _those_ letters which cannot be sounded without the aid of a vowel."--_Bucke cor._ "To employ the curiosity of persons _skilled_ in grammar:"--"of _those_ who are skilled in grammar:"--"of persons _that_ are skilled in grammar:"--"of _such_ persons _as_ are skilled in grammar:" or--"of _those_ persons _who_ are skilled in grammar."--_L. Murray cor._ "This rule refers only to _those_ nouns and pronouns which have the same bearing, or relation."--_Id._ "So that _the_ things which are seen, were not made of things _that_ do appear."--_Bible cor._ "Man is an imitative creature; he may utter _again_ the sounds which he has heard."--_Dr. Wilson cor._ "But _those_ men whose business is wholly domestic, have little or no use for any language but their own."--_Dr. Webster cor._ UNDER NOTE XV.--PARTICIPIAL NOUNS. "Great benefit may be reaped from _the_ reading of histories."--_Sewel cor._ "And some attempts were made towards _the_ writing of history."--_Bolingbroke cor._ "It is _an_ invading of the priest's office, for any other to offer it"--_Leslie cor._ "And thus far of _the_ forming of verbs."--_W. Walker cor._ "And without _the_ shedding of blood _there_ is no remission."--_Bible cor._ "For _the_ making of measures, we have the best method here in England."--_Printer's Gram. cor._ "This is really both _an_ admitting and _a_ denying at once."--_Butler cor._ "And hence the origin of _the_ making of parliaments."--_Dr. Brown cor._ "Next thou objectest, that _the_ having of saving light and grace presupposes conversion. But that I deny: for, on the contrary, conversion _presupposes the_ having _of_ light and grace."--_Barclay cor._ "They cried down _the_ wearing of rings and other superfluities, as we do."--_Id._ "Whose adorning, let it not be that outward adorning, of _the_ plaiting _of_ the hair, and of _the_ wearing of gold, or of _the putting-on_ of apparel."--_Bible cor._ "In _the_ spelling of derivative words, the _primitives_ must be kept whole."--_Brit. Gram. and Buchanan's cor._ "And the princes offered for _the_ dedicating of the altar."--_Numb. cor._ "Boasting is not only _a_ telling of lies, but also _of_ many unseemly truths."--_Sheffield cor._ "We freely confess that _the_ forbearing of prayer in the wicked is sinful."--_Barclay cor._ "For _the_ revealing of a secret, there is no remedy."--_G. Brown_. "He turned all his thoughts to _the_ composing of laws for the good of the State."--_Rollin cor._ UNDER NOTE XVI.--PARTICIPLES, NOT NOUNS. "It is salvation to be kept from falling into a pit, as truly as to be taken out of it after falling in."--_Barclay cor._ "For in receiving and embracing the testimony of truth, they felt their souls eased."--_Id._ "True regularity does not consist in having but a single rule, and forcing every thing to conform to it."--_Phil. Museum cor._ "To the man of the world, this sound of glad tidings appears only an idle tale, and not worth attending to."--_Say cor._ "To be the deliverer of the captive Jews, by ordering their temple to be rebuilt," &c.--_Rollin cor._ "And for preserving them from being defiled."--_Discip. cor._ "A wise man will _forbear to show_ any excellence in trifles."--_Kames cor._ "Hirsutus had no other reason for valuing a book."--_Johnson, and Wright, cor._ "To being heard with satisfaction, it is necessary that the speaker should deliver himself with ease." Perhaps better: "_To be_ heard, &c." Or: "_In order to be_ heard, &c."--_Sheridan cor._ "And, to the _end of_ being well heard and clearly understood, a good and distinct articulation contributes more, than _can even the greatest_ power of voice."--_Id._ "_Potential_ purports, _having power or will_; As, If you _would_ improve, you _should_ be still."--_Tobitt cor._ UNDER NOTE XVII.--VARIOUS ERRORS. "For the same reason, a neuter verb cannot become passive."--_Lowth cor._ "_A_ period is _a_ whole sentence complete in itself."--_Id._ "_A_ colon, or member, is a chief constructive part, or _the greatest_ division, of a sentence."--_Id._ "_A_ semicolon, or half-member, is a _smaller_ constructive part, or _a_ subdivision, of a sentence or _of_ a member."--_Id._ "A sentence or _a_ member is again subdivided into commas, or segments."--_Id._ "The first error that I would mention is, too general _an_ attention to the dead languages, with a neglect of our own _tongue_."--_Webster cor._ "One third of the importations would supply the demands of _the_ people."--_Id._ "And especially in _a_ grave _style_."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 178. "By too eager _a_ pursuit, he ran a great risk of being disappointed."--_Murray cor._ "_The_ letters are divided into vowels and consonants."--_Mur. et al. cor._ "_The_ consonants are divided into mutes and semivowels."--_Iidem_. "The first of these forms is _the_ most agreeable to the English idiom."--_Murray cor._ "If they gain, it is _at_ too dear _a_ rate."--_Barclay cor._ "A pronoun is a word used _in stead_ of a noun, to prevent too frequent _a_ repetition of it."--_Maunder cor._ "This vulgar error might perhaps arise from too partial _a_ fondness for the Latin."--_Ash cor._ "The groans which too heavy _a_ load extorts from her."--_Hitchcock cor._ "The numbers of a verb are, of course, _the_ singular and _the_ plural."--_Bucke cor._ "To brook no meanness, and to stoop to no dissimulation, are indications of a great mind."--_Murray cor._ "This mode of expression rather suits _the_ familiar than _the_ grave style."--_Id._ "This use of the word _best_ suits _a_ familiar and low style."--_Priestley cor._ "According to the nature of the composition, the one or _the_ other may be predominant."--_Blair cor._ "Yet the commonness of such sentences prevents in a great measure too early _an_ expectation of the end."--_Campbell cor._ "A eulogy or a philippic may be pronounced by an individual of one nation upon _a_ subject of _an_ other."--_J. Q. Adams cor._ "A French sermon is, for _the_ most part, a warm animated exhortation."--_Blair cor._ "I do not envy those who think slavery no very pitiable lot."--_Channing cor._ "The auxiliary and _the_ principal united constitute a tense."--_Murray cor._ "There are some verbs which are defective with respect to _the_ persons."--_Id._ "In youth, habits of industry are _the_ most easily acquired."--_Id._ "_The_ apostrophe (') is used in place of a letter left out."--_Bullions cor._ CHAPTER III.--CASES, OR NOUNS. CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE II; OF NOMINATIVES. "The whole need not a physician, but _they_ that are sick."--_Bunyan cor._ "He will in no wise cast out _whosoever_ cometh unto him." Better: "He will in no wise cast out _any that come_ unto him."--_Hall cor._ "He feared the enemy might fall upon his men, _who_, he saw, were off their guard."--_Hutchinson cor._ "_Whosoever_ shall compel thee to go a mile, go with him twain."--_Matt._, v, 41. "The _ideas_ of the author have been conversant with the faults of other writers."--_Swift cor._ "You are a much greater loser than _I_, by his death." Or: "_Thou art_ a much greater loser by his death than _I_."--_Id._ "Such _peccadilloes_ pass with him for pious frauds."--_Barclay cor._ "In whom I am nearly concerned, and _who_, I know, would be very apt to justify my whole procedure."--_Id._ "Do not think such a man as _I_ contemptible for my garb."--_Addison cor._ "His wealth and _he_ bid adieu to each other."--_Priestley cor._ "So that, 'He is greater than _I_,' will be more grammatical than, 'He is greater than _me_.'"--_Id._ "The Jesuits had more interests at court than _he_."--_Id. and Smollett cor._ "Tell the Cardinal that I understand poetry better than _he_."--_Iid._ "An inhabitant of Crim Tartary was far more happy than _he_."--_Iid._ "My father and _he_ have been very intimate since."--_Fair Am. cor._ "Who was the agent, and _who_, the object struck or kissed?"--_Mrs. Bethune cor._ "To find the person _who_, he imagined, was concealed there."--_Kirkham cor._ "He offered a great recompense to _whosoever_ would help him." Better: "He offered a great recompense to _any one who_ would help him."--_Hume and Pr. cor._ "They would be under the dominion, absolute and unlimited, of _whosoever_ (or _any one who_) might exercise the right of judgement."--_Haynes cor._ "They had promised to accept _whosoever_ (or _any one who_) should be born in Wales."--_Croker cor._ "We sorrow not as _they_ that have no hope."--_Maturin cor._ "If he suffers, he suffers as _they_ that have no hope."--_Id._ "We acknowledge that he, and _he_ only, hath been our peacemaker."--_Gratton cor._ "And what can be better than _he_ that made it?"--_Jenks cor._ "None of his school-fellows is more beloved than _he_."--_Cooper cor._ "Solomon, who was wiser than _they_ all."--_Watson cor._ "Those _who_ the Jews thought were the last to be saved, first entered the kingdom of God."--_Tract cor._ "A stone is heavy, and the sand weighty; but a fool's wrath is heavier than both."--_Bible cor._ "A man of business, in good company, is hardly more insupportable, than _she whom_ they call a notable woman."--_Steele cor._ "The king of the Sarmatians, _who_ we may imagine was no small prince, restored to him a hundred thousand Roman prisoners."--_Life of Anton. cor._ "Such notions would be avowed at this time by none but rosicrucians, and fanatics as mad as _they_."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 203. "Unless, as I said, Messieurs, you are the masters, and not _I_."--_Hall cor._ "We had drawn up against peaceable travellers, who must have been as glad as _we_ to escape."--_Burnes cor._ "Stimulated, in turn, by their approbation and that of better judges than _they_, she turned to their literature with redoubled energy."--_Quarterly Rev. cor._ "I know not _who_ else are expected."--_Scott cor._ "He is great, but truth is greater than _we_ all." Or: "He is great, but truth is greater than _any of us_."--_H. Mann cor._. "_He_ I accuse has entered." Or, by ellipsis of the antecedent, thus: "_Whom_ I accuse has entered."--_Fowler cor.; also Shakspeare._ "Scotland and _thou_ did each in other live."--_Dryden cor._ "We are alone; here's none but _thou_ and I."--_Shak. cor._ "_I_ rather _would_, my heart might feel your love, Than my unpleas'd eye see your courtesy."--_Shak. cor._ "Tell me, in sadness, _who_ is she you love?"--_Shak. cor._ "Better leave undone, than by our deeds acquire Too high a fame, when _he_ we serve's away."--_Shak. cor._ CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE III; OF APPOSITION. "Now, therefore, come thou, let us make a covenant, _thee_ and _me_."--_Bible cor._ "Now, therefore, come thou, we will make a covenant, _thou_ and _I_."--_Variation corrected_. "The word came not to Esau, the hunter, that stayed not at home; but to Jacob, the plain man, _him_ that dwelt in tents."--_Penn cor._ "Not to every man, but to the man of God, (i.e.,) _him_ that is led by the spirit of God."--_Barclay cor._ "For, admitting God to be a creditor, or _him_ to whom the debt should be paid, and Christ _him_ that satisfies or pays it on behalf of man the debtor, this question will arise, whether he paid that debt as God, or man, or both?"--_Penn cor._ "This Lord Jesus Christ, the heavenly Man, the Emmanuel, God with us, we own and believe in: _him_ whom the high priests raged against," &c.--_Fox cor._ "Christ, and _He_ crucified, was the Alpha and Omega of all his addresses, the fountain and foundation of his hope and trust."--_Exp. cor._ "Christ, and _He_ crucified, is the head, and the only head, of the church."--_Denison cor._ "But if Christ, and _He_ crucified, _is_ the burden of the ministry, such disastrous results are all avoided."--_Id._ "He never let fall the least intimation, that himself, or any other person _whosoever_, was the object of worship."--_View cor._ "Let the elders that rule well, be counted worthy of double honour, especially _them_ who labour in the word and doctrine."--_Bible cor._ "Our Shepherd, _he_ who is styled King of saints, will assuredly give his saints the victory."--_Sermon cor._ "It may seem odd, to talk of _us_ subscribers."--_Fowle cor._ "And they shall have none to bury them: _they_, their wives, nor their sons, nor[533] their daughters; for I will pour their wickedness upon them."--_Bible cor._ "Yet I supposed it necessary to send to you Epaphroditus, my brother, and companion in labour, and fellow-soldier, but your messenger, and _him_ that ministered to my wants."--_Bible cor._ "Amidst the tumult of the routed train, The sons of false Antimachus were slain; _Him_ who for bribes his faithless counsels sold, And voted Helen's stay for Paris' gold."--_Pope cor._ "See the vile King his iron sceptre bear-- His only praise attends the pious heir; _Him_ in whose soul the virtues all conspire, The best good son, from the worst wicked sire."--_Lowth cor._ "Then from thy lips poured forth a joyful song To thy Redeemer!--yea, it poured along In most melodious energy of praise, To God, the Saviour, _him_ of ancient days."--_Arm Chair cor._ CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE IV; OF POSSESSIVES. UNDER NOTE I.--THE POSSESSIVE FORM. "_Man's_ chief good is an upright mind."--_Key to Inst_. "The translator of _Mallet's_ History _has_ the following note."--_Webster cor._ "The act, while it gave five _years'_ full pay to the officers, allowed but one year's pay to the privates."--_Id._ "For the study of English is preceded by several _years'_ attention to Latin and Greek."--_Id._ "The first, the _Court-Baron_, is the _freeholders'_ or _freemen's_ court."--_Coke cor._ "I affirm that _Vaugelas's_ definition labours under an essential defect."--_Campbell cor.; and also Murray_. "There is a chorus in _Aristophanes's_ plays."--_Blair cor._ "It denotes the same perception in my mind as in _theirs_."--_Duncan cor._ "This afterwards enabled him to read _Hickes's_ Saxon Grammar."--_Life of Dr. Mur. cor._ "I will not do it for _ten's_ sake."--_Ash cor._ Or: "I will not _destroy_ it for _ten's_ sake."--_Gen._, xviii, 32. "I arose, and asked if those charming infants were _hers_."--_Werter cor._ "They divide their time between _milliners_' shops and _the_ taverns."--_Dr. Brown cor._ "The _angels_' adoring of Adam is also mentioned in the Talmud."--_Sale cor._ "Quarrels arose from the _winners_' insulting of those who lost."--_Id._ "The vacancy occasioned by Mr. _Adams's_ resignation."--_Adv. to Adams's Rhet. cor._ "Read, for instance, _Junius's_ address, commonly called his _Letter to the King_."--_Adams cor._ "A perpetual struggle against the tide of _Hortensius's_ influence."--_Id._ "Which, for _distinction's_ sake, I shall put down severally."--_R. Johnson cor._ "The fifth case is in a clause signifying the matter of _one's_ fear."--_Id._ "And they took counsel, and bought with them the _potter's_ field."--_Alger cor._ "Arise for thy _servants_' help, and redeem them for thy mercy's sake."--_Jenks cor._ "Shall not their cattle, their substance, and every beast of _theirs_, be _ours_?"--COM. BIBLE: _Gen._, xxxiv, 23. "_Its_ regular plural, _bullaces_, is used by Bacon."--_Churchill cor._ "Mordecai walked every day before the court of the _women's_ house."--_Scott cor._ "Behold, they that wear soft clothing, are in _kings_' houses."--_Alger's Bible_. "Then Jethro, _Moses's_ father-in-law, took Zipporah, _Moses's_ wife, and her two sons; and Jethro, _Moses's_ father-in-law, came, with his sons and his wife, unto Moses."--_Scott's Bible_. "King _James's_ translators merely revised former translations."--_Frazee cor._ "May they be like corn on _houses_' tops."--_White cor._ "And for his Maker's _image'_ sake exempt."--_Milton cor._ "By all the fame acquired in ten _years'_ war."--_Rowe cor._ "Nor glad vile poets with true _critics'_ gore."--_Pope cor._ "Man only of a softer mold is made, Not for his _fellows'_ ruin, but their aid."--_Dryden cor._ UNDER NOTE II.--POSSESSIVES CONNECTED. "It was necessary to have both the _physician's_ and the surgeon's advice."--_L. Murray's False Syntax_, Rule 10. "This _outside_ fashionableness of the _tailor's_ or _the tirewoman's_ making."--_Locke cor._ "Some pretending to be of Paul's party, others of _Apollos's_, others of _Cephas's_, and others, (pretending yet higher,) to be of Christ's."--_Wood cor._ "Nor is it less certain, that _Spenser and Milton's_ spelling agrees better with our pronunciation."--_Phil. Museum cor._ "Law's, _Edwards's_, and _Watts's Survey_ of the Divine Dispensations." Or thus: "_Law, Edwards_, and _Watts's_, Surveys of the Divine Dispensations."--_Burgh cor._ "And who was Enoch's Saviour, and the _prophets'_?"--_Bayly cor._ "Without any impediment but his own, his _parents'_, or his _guardian's_ will."--_Journal corrected_. "James relieves neither the _boy's_ nor the girl's distress."--_Nixon cor._ "John regards neither the _master's_ nor the pupil's advantage."--_Id._ "You reward neither the _man's_ nor the woman's labours."--_Id._ "She examines neither _James's_ nor John's conduct."--_Id._ "Thou pitiest neither the _servant's_ nor the master's injuries."--_Id._ "We promote _England's_ or Ireland's happiness."--_Id._ "Were _Cain's_ and Abel's occupation the same?"--_G. Brown_. "Were _Cain_ and Abel's occupations the same?"--_Id._ "What was _Simon_ and Andrew's employment?"--_Id._ "Till he can read _for_ himself _Sanctius's_ Minerva with _Scioppius's_ and Perizonius's Notes."--_Locke cor._ "And _love_ and friendship's finely-pointed dart Falls blunted from each indurated heart." Or:-- "And _love's_ and friendship's finely-pointed dart _Fall_ blunted from each indurated heart."--_Goldsmith cor._ UNDER NOTE III.--CHOICE OF FORMS. "But some degree of trouble is the portion _of all men_."--_L. Murray et al. cor._ "With the names _of his father and mother_ upon the blank leaf."--_Abbott cor._ "The general, in the name _of the army_, published a declaration."--_Hume cor._ "The vote _of the Commons_."--_Id._ "The _House of Lords_."--_Id._ "A collection of _the faults of writers_;"--or, "A collection _of literary faults_."--_Swift cor._ "After ten _years of_ wars."--_Id._ "Professing his detestation of such practices as _those of_ his predecessors."--_Pope cor._ "By that time I shall have ended my _year of_ office."--_W. Walker cor._ "For the sake _of Herodias_, the wife of _his brother Philip_."--_Bible and Mur. cor._ "I endure all things for _the sake of the elect_, that they may also obtain salvation."--_Bibles cor._ "He was _heir to the son of_ Louis the Sixteenth."--_W. Allen_. "The throne we honour is the _people's choice_."--_Rolla_. "An account of the proceedings of _Alexander's court_."--_Inst._ "An excellent tutor _for the child of a person of fashion_!"--_Gil Blas cor._ "It is curious enough, that this sentence of the _Bishop's_ is, itself, ungrammatical."--_Cobbett cor._ "The troops broke into the palace _of_ the _Emperor_ Leopold."--_Nixon cor._ "The meeting was called by desire _of_ Eldon the _Judge_."--_Id._ "The occupation _of Peter, John_, and _Andrew_, was that of fishermen."--_Murray's Key_, R. 10. "The _debility of_ the venerable president of the Royal _Academy_, has lately increased."--_Maunder cor._ UNDER NOTE IV.--NOUNS WITH POSSESSIVES PLURAL. "God hath not given us our _reason_ to no purpose."--_Barclay cor._ "For our _sake_, no doubt, this is written."--_Bible cor._ "Are not health and strength of body desirable for their own _sake_?"--_Harris and Murray cor._ "Some sailors who were boiling their _dinner_ upon the shore."--_Day cor._ "And they, in their _turn_, were subdued by others."--_Pinnock cor._ "Industry on our _part_ is not superseded by God's grace."--_Arrowsmith cor._ "Their _health_ perhaps may be pretty well secured."--_Locke cor._ "Though he was rich, yet for _your sake_ he became poor."--See _2 Cor._, viii, 9. "It were to be wished, his correctors had been as wise on their _part_."--_Harris cor._ "The Arabs are commended by the ancients for being most exact to their _word_, and respctful to their kindred."--_Sale cor._ "That is, as a reward of some exertion on our _part_."--_Gurney cor._ "So that it went ill with Moses for their _sake_."--_Ps. cor._ "All liars shall have their _part_ in the burning lake."--_Watts cor._ "For our own _sake_ as well as for thine."--_Pref. to Waller cor._ "By discovering their _ability_ to detect and amend errors."--_L. Murray cor._ "This world I do renounce; and, in your _sight_, Shake patiently my great affliction off."--_Shak. cor._ "If your relenting _anger_ yield to treat, Pompey and thou, in safety, here may meet."--_Rowe cor._ UNDER NOTE V.--POSSESSIVES WITH PARTICIPLES. "This will encourage him to proceed without acquiring the prejudice."--_Smith cor._ "And the notice which they give of an _action as_ being completed or not completed."--_L. Mur. et al. cor._ "Some obstacle, or impediment, that prevents _it from_ taking place."--_Priestley and A. Mur. cor._ "They have apostolical authority for so frequently urging the seeking of the Spirit."--_The Friend cor._ "Here then is a wide field for _reason to exert_ its powers in relation to the objects of taste."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Now this they derive altogether from their greater capacity of imitation and description."--_Id._ "This is one clear reason _why they paid_ a greater attention to that construction."--_Id._ "The dialogue part had also a modulation of its own, which was capable of being set to notes."--_Id._ "_Why are we so often_ frigid and unpersuasive in public discourse?"--_Id._ "Which is only a preparation for leading his forces directly upon us."--_Id._ "The nonsense about _which, as_ relating to things only, and having no declension, needs no refutation."--_Fowle cor._ "Who, upon breaking it open, found nothing but the following inscription."--_Rollin cor._ "A prince will quickly have reason to repent _of_ having exalted one person so high."--_Id._ "Notwithstanding _it is_ the immediate subject of his discourse."--_Churchill cor._ "With our definition of _it, as_ being synonymous with _time_."--_Booth cor._ "It will considerably increase _our danger of_ being deceived."--_Campbell cor._ "His beauties can never be mentioned without suggesting his blemishes also."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "No example has ever been adduced, of a _man_ conscientiously approving an action, because of its badness." Or:--"of a _man who_ conscientiously _approved_ of an action because of its badness."--_Gurney cor._ "The last episode, of the _angel_ showing to Adam the fate of his posterity, is happily imagined."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "And the news came to my son, _that he_ and the bride _were_ in Dublin."--_M. Edgeworth cor._ "There is no room for the _mind to exert_ any great effort."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "One would imagine, that these _critics_ never so much as heard _that Homer wrote_ first."--_Pope cor._ "Condemn the book, for not being a geography;" or,--"_because it is not_ a geography."--_Peirce cor._ "There will be in many words a transition from being the figurative to being the proper signs of certain ideas."--_Campbell cor._ "The doctrine _that the Pope is_ the only source of ecclesiastical power."--_Rel. World cor._ "This _was_ the more expedient, _because_ the work _was_ designed for the benefit of private learners."--_L. Murray cor._ "This was _done, because_ the _Grammar, being already in type, did not admit_ of enlargement."--_Id._ CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE V; OF OBJECTIVES. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.--THE OBJECTIVE FORM. "_Whom_ should I meet the other day but my old friend!"--_Spect. cor._ "Let not him boast that puts on his armour, but _him_ that takes it off."--_Barclay cor._ "Let none touch it, but _them_ who are clean."--_Sale cor._ "Let the sea roar, and the fullness thereof; the world, and _them_ that dwell therein."--_Ps. cor._ "Pray be private, and careful _whom_ you trust."--_Mrs. Goffe cor._ "How shall the people know _whom_ to entrust with their property and their liberties?"--_J. O. Taylor cor._ "The chaplain entreated my comrade and _me_ to dress as well as possible."--_World cor._ "And _him_ that cometh _to_ me, I will in no wise cast out."--_John_, vi, 37. "_Whom_, during this preparation, they constantly and solemnly invoke."--_Hope of Is. cor._ "Whoever or whatever owes us, is Debtor; _and whomever_ or whatever we owe, is Creditor."--_Marsh cor._ "Declaring the curricle was his, and he should have _in it whom_ he chose."--_A. Ross cor._ "The fact is, Burke is the only one of all the host of brilliant contemporaries, _whom_ we can rank as a first-rate orator."--_Knickerb. cor._ "Thus you see, how naturally the Fribbles and the Daffodils have produced the _Messalinas_ of our time."--_Dr. Brown cor._ "They would find in the Roman list both the _Scipios_."--_Id._ "He found his wife's clothes on fire, and _her_ just expiring."--_Observer cor._ "To present _you_ holy, and _unblamable_, and _unreprovable_ in his sight."--_Colossians_, i, 22. "Let the distributer do his duty with simplicity; the superintendent, with diligence; _him_ who performs offices of compassion, with cheerfulness."--_Stuart cor._ "If the crew rail at the master of the vessel, _whom_ will they mind?"--_Collier cor._ "He having none but them, they having none but him"--_Drayton cor._ "Thee, Nature, partial Nature, I arraign; Of thy caprice maternal I complain."--_Burns cor._ "_Nor weens he who it is, whose charms consume_ _His longing soul_, but loves he knows not _whom_"--_Addison cor._ UNDER NOTE I.--OF VERBS TRANSITIVE. "When it gives that sense, and also connects _sentences_, it is a conjunction."--_L. Murray cor._ "Though thou wilt not acknowledge _thyself to--be guilty_, thou canst not deny the fact _stated_."--_Id._ "They specify _some object_, like many other adjectives, and _also_ connect sentences."--_Kirkham cor._ "A violation of this rule tends so much to perplex _the reader_ and obscure _the sense_, that it is safer to err by _using_ too many short sentences."--_L. Murray cor._ "A few exercises are subjoined to each important definition, for him [the pupil] to _practise_ upon as he proceeds in committing _the grammar to memory._"--_Nutting cor._ "A verb signifying _an action directly transitive_, governs the accusative."--_Adam et al. cor._ "Or, any word _that can be conjugated_, is a verb."--_Kirkham cor._ "In these two concluding sentences, the author, hastening to _a close_, appears to write rather carelessly."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "He simply reasons on one side of the question, and then _leaves it._"--_Id._" Praise to God teaches _us_ to be humble and lowly ourselves."--_Atterbury cor._ "This author has endeavoured to surpass _his rivals._"--_R. W. Green cor._ "Idleness and _pleasure fatigue a man as_ soon _as business._"--_Webster cor._" And, in conjugating _any verb_,"--or, "And in _learning conjugations_, you must pay particular attention to the manner in which these signs are applied."--_Kirkham cor._ "He said Virginia would have emancipated _her slaves_ long ago."--_Lib. cor._ "And having a readiness"--or, "And holding ourselves in readiness"--or," And being in readiness--to revenge all disobedience."--_Bible cor._ "However, in these cases, custom generally determines _what is right._"--_Wright cor._ "In proof, let the following cases _be taken._"--_Id._ "We must _marvel_ that he should so speedily have forgotten his first principles."--_Id._ "How should we _wonder_ at the expression, 'This is a _soft_ question!' "--_Id._ "And such as prefer _this course_, can parse it as a possessive adjective."--_Goodenow cor._ "To assign all the reasons that induced _the author_ to deviate from other grammarians, would lead to a needless prolixity."--_Alexander cor._ "The Indicative Mood simply indicates or declares _a thing._"--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 63. UNDER NOTE II.--OF VERBS INTRANSITIVE. "In his seventh chapter _he expatiates_ at great length."--_Barclay cor._ "He _quarrels with me for adducing_ some _ancient_ testimonies agreeing with what I say."--_Id._ "Repenting of his design."--_Hume cor._ "Henry knew, that an excommunication could not fail _to produce_ the most dangerous effects."--_Id._ "The popular lords did not fail to enlarge on the subject,"--_Mrs. Macaulay cor._ "He is always master of his subject, and seems to _play_ with it:" or,--"seems to _sport himself_ with it."--_Blair cor._ "But as soon as it _amounts to real_ disease, all his secret infirmities _show_ themselves."--_Id._ "No man repented of his wickedness."--_Bible cor._ "Go one way or other, either on the right hand, or on the left,"--_Id._ "He lies down by the _river's edge._" Or: "He _lays himself_ down _on_ the _river's brink_"--_W. Walker cor._ "For some years past, _I have had an ardent wish_ to retire to some of our American plantations."--_Cowley cor._ "I fear thou wilt shrink from the payment of it."--_Ware cor._ "_We never retain_ an idea, without acquiring some combination."--_Rippingham cor._ "Yet more; the stroke of death he must abide, Then lies _he_ meekly down, fast by his brethren's side." --_Milton cor._ UNDER NOTE III.--OF VERBS MISAPPLIED. "_The_ parliament _confiscated the property of_ all those who had borne arms _against_ the king."--_Hume cor._ "The practice of _confiscating_ ships _that_ had been wrecked"'--_Id._ "The nearer his military successes _brought_ him to the throne." Or: "The nearer, _through_ his military successes, _he approached_ the throne."--_Id._ "In the next example, _'you' represents 'ladies;'_ therefore it is plural."--_Kirkham cor._ "The first _'its' stands for 'vale;'_ the second _'its'_ represents _'stream'_."-- _Id._ "Pronouns do not always _prevent_ the repetition of nouns."--_Id._ "Very is an adverb of _degree_; it _relates_ to the adjective _good_"--_Id._ "You will please to commit to _memory_ the following paragraph."--_Id._ "Even the Greek and Latin passive verbs _form_ some of their tenses _by means of auxiliaries._"--_L. Mur. cor._ "The deponent verbs in Latin _also employ auxiliaries_ to _form_ several of their tenses."--_Id._ "I have no doubt he made as wise and true proverbs, as any body has _made_ since."--_Id._ "_Monotonous delivery_ assumes as many set forms, as _ever_ Proteus _did of fleeting_ shapes."--_Kirkham cor._ "When words in apposition _are uttered_ in quick succession."--_Nixon cor._ "Where _many_ such sentences _occur in succession._"--_L. Mur. cor._ "Wisdom leads us to speak and _do_ what is most proper."--_Blair and L. Murray cor._ "_Jul._ Art thou not Romeo, and a Montague? _Rom._ Neither, fair saint, if either thee _displease._" Or:-- "Neither, fair saint, if either _thou_ dislike."--_Shak. cor._ UNDER NOTE IV.--OF PASSIVE VERBS. "_To us_, too, must be allowed the privilege of forming our own laws." Or: "_We_ too must _have_ the privilege," &c.--_L. Murray cor._ "For not only _is_ the use of all the ancient poetic feet _allowed_ [to] us," &c.--_Id. et al. cor._ "By what code of morals _is the right or privilege denied me_?"--_Bartlett cor._ "To the children of Israel alone, _has_ the possession of it been denied."--_Keith cor._ "At York, all quarter _was refused_ to fifteen hundred Jews."--_Id._ "He would teach the French language in three lessons, provided _there were paid him_ fifty-five dollars in advance."--_Prof. Chazotte cor._ "And when _it_ was demanded of _him by_ the Pharisees, when the kingdom of God should come." Or: "And when the _Pharisees demanded_ of him," &c.--_Bible cor._ "A book _has been shown_ me."--_Dr. Campbell cor._ "To John Horne Tooke _admission was refused_, only because he had been in holy orders."--_W. Duane cor._ "Mr. Horne Tooke having taken orders, admission to the bar was refused _him_."--_Churchill cor._ "Its reference to place is _disregarded_."--_Dr. Bullions cor._ "What striking lesson _is taught_ by the tenor of this history?"--_Bush cor._ "No less _a sum_ than eighty thousand pounds had been left _him_ by a friend."--_Dr. Priestley cor._ "Where there are many things to be done, _there_ must be allowed _to each_ its share of time and labour."--_Dr. Johnson cor._ "Presenting the subject in a far more practical form, than _has heretofore been given it_."--_Kirkham cor._ "If _to_ a being of entire impartiality should be shown the two companies."--_Dr. Scott cor._ "The command of the British army was offered _to him_."--_Grimshaw cor._ "_To whom_ a considerable sum had been unexpectedly left."--_Johnson cor._ "Whether such a privilege may be granted _to_ a maid or a widow."--_Spect. cor._ "Happily, _to_ all these affected terms, the public suffrage _has_ been denied."--_Campbell cor._ "Let the _parsing table_ next be _shown him_."--_Nutting cor._ "_Then_ the use of the _analyzing table_ may be _explained to him_."--_Id._ "_To_ Pittacus _there_ was offered a great sum of money."--_Sanborn cor._ "More time for study had been allowed _him_."--_Id._ "If a little care were _bestowed on the walks_ that lie between them."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 222. "Suppose an office or a bribe _be_ offered _me_."--_Pierpont cor._ "_Is then_ one chaste, one last embrace _denied_? Shall I not lay me by his clay-cold side?"--_Rowe cor._ UNDER NOTE V.--OF PASSIVE VERBS TRANSITIVE. "The preposition TO is _used_ before nouns of place, when they follow verbs _or_ participles of motion."--_Murray et al. cor._ "They were _not allowed to enter_ the house."--_Mur. cor._ "Their separate signification has been _overlooked_."--_Tooke cor._ "But, whenever YE is _used_, it must be in the nominative case, and _not_ in the objective."--_Cobbett cor._ "It is said, that more persons than one _receive_ handsome salaries, to see _that_ acts of parliament _are_ properly worded."--_Churchill cor._ "The following Rudiments of English Grammar have been _used_ in the University of Pennsylvania."--_Dr. Rogers cor._ "It never should be _forgotten_."-- _Newman cor._ "A very curious fact _has been noticed_ by those expert metaphysicians."--_Campbell cor._ "The archbishop interfered that Michelet's lectures might be _stopped_."--_The Friend cor._ "The disturbances in Gottengen have been entirely _quelled_."--_Daily Adv. cor._ "Besides those _which are noticed_ in these exceptions."--_Priestley cor._ "As one, two, or three auxiliary verbs are _employed_."--_Id._ "The arguments which have been _used_."--_Addison cor._ "The circumstance is properly _noticed_ by the author."--_Blair cor._ "Patagonia has never been taken _into possession_ by any European nation."--_Cumming cor._ "He will be _censured_ no more."--_Walker cor._ "The thing was to be _terminated_ somehow."--_Hunt cor._ "In 1798, the Papal Territory was _seized_ by the French."--_Pinnock cor._ "The idea has not for a moment _escaped the attention_ of the Board."--_C. S. Journal cor._ "I shall easily be excused _from_ the labour of more transcription."--_Johnson cor._ "If I may be allowed _to use_ that expression."--_Campbell cor._ "If without offence I may _make_ the observation."--_Id._ "There are other characters, which are frequently _used_ in composition."--_Mur. et al. cor._ "Such unaccountable infirmities might be _overcome_, in many cases, _and_ perhaps in most."--_Beattie cor._ "Which ought never to be _employed_, or _resorted to_."--_Id._ "That _care_ may be taken _of the widows_." Or: "That the widows may be _provided for_."--_Barclay cor._ "Other cavils will yet be _noticed_."--_Pope cor._ "Which implies, that _to_ all Christians _is_ eternal salvation _offered_."--_West cor._ "Yet even the dogs are allowed _to eat_ the crumbs which fall from their master's table."--_Campbell cor._ "For we say, the light within must be _heeded_."--_Barclay cor._ "This sound of _a_ is _noticed_ in Steele's Grammar."--_J. Walker cor._ "One came to _receive_ ten guineas for a pair of silver buckles."--_M. Edgeworth cor._ "Let therefore the application of the several questions in the table be carefully _shown_ [to] _him_."--_Nutting cor._ "After a few times, it is no longer _noticed_ by the hearers."--_Sheridan cor._ "It will not admit of the same excuse, nor _receive_ the same indulgence, _from_ people of any discernment."--_Id._ "Of inanimate things, property may be made." Or: "Inanimate things may be made property;" i.e., "may _become_ property."--_Beattie cor._ "And, when _some rival bids a higher_ price, Will not be sluggish in the work, _or_ nice."--_Butler cor._ UNDER NOTE VI.--OF PERFECT PARTICIPLES. "All the words _employed_ to denote spiritual _or_ intellectual things, are in their origin _metaphors_."--_Dr. Campbell cor._ "A reply to an argument commonly _brought forward_ by unbelievers."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "It was once the only form _used_ in the _past_ tenses."--_Dr. Ash cor._ "Of the points and other characters _used_ in writing."--_Id._ "If THY be the personal pronoun _adopted_."--_Walker cor._ "The Conjunction is a word _used_ to connect [words or] sentences."--_Burn cor._ "The points _which_ answer these purposes, are the four following."--_Harrison cor._ "INCENSE signifies _perfume_ exhaled by fire, and _used_ in religious ceremonies."--_L. Mur. cor._ "In most of his orations, there is too much art; _he carries it even to_ ostentation."--_Blair cor._ "To illustrate the great truth, so often _overlooked_ in our times."--_C. S. Journal cor._ "The principal figures _calculated_ to affect the heart, are Exclamation, Confession, Deprecation, Commination, and Imprecation."--_Formey cor._ "Disgusted at the odious artifices _employed_ by the judge."--_Junius cor._ "_All the_ reasons _for which there was allotted to us_ a condition out of which so much wickedness and misery would in fact arise."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "Some characteristical circumstance being generally invented or _seized upon_."--_Ld. Kames cor._ "And BY is likewise used with names that shew The method or the means of _what we do_."--_Ward cor._ UNDER NOTE VII.--OF CONSTRUCTIONS AMBIGUOUS. "Many adverbs admit of degrees of comparison, as _do_ adjectives."--_Priestley cor._ "But the author who, by the number and reputation of his works, _did_ more than any one _else, to bring_ our language into its present state, _was_ Dryden."--_Blair cor._ "In some states, courts of admiralty have no juries, nor _do_ courts of chancery _employ any_ at all."--_Webster cor._ "I feel grateful to my friend."--_Murray cor._ "This requires a writer to have _in his own mind_ a very clear apprehension of the object which he means to present to us."--_Blair cor._ "Sense has its own harmony, _which naturally contributes something to the harmony of_ sound."--_Id._ "The apostrophe denotes the omission of an _i_, which was formerly inserted, and _which gave to the word an additional_ syllable."--_Priestley cor._ "There are few _to whom_ I can refer with more advantage than _to_ Mr. Addison."--_Blair cor._ "DEATH, (in _theology_,) is a perpetual separation from God, a _state of_ eternal torments."--_Webster cor._ "That could inform the _traveller_ as well as _could_ the old man himself!"--_O. B. Peirce cor._ UNDER NOTE VIII.--OF YE AND YOU IN SCRIPTURE. "Ye daughters of Rabbah, gird _you_ with sackcloth."--SCOTT, FRIENDS, and the COMPREHENSIVE BIBLE: _Jer._, xlix, 3. "Wash _you_, make you clean."--SCOTT, ALGER, FRIENDS, ET AL.: _Isaiah_, i, 16. "Strip _you_, and make _you_ bare, and gird sackcloth upon your loins."--SCOTT, FRIENDS, ET AL.: _Isaiah_, xxxii, 11. "_Ye_ are not ashamed that _ye_ make yourselves strange to me."--SCOTT, BRUCE, and BLAYNEY: _Job_, xix, 3. "If _ye_ knew the gift of God." Or: "If _thou_ knew the gift of God."--See _John_, iv, 10. "Depart from me, ye workers of iniquity; I know _you_ not."--_Penington cor._ CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE VI; OF SAME CASES. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.--OF PROPER IDENTITY. "Who would not say, 'If it be _I_,' rather than, 'If it be _me_?"--_Priestley cor._ "Who is there? It is _I_."--_Id._ "It is _he_."--_Id._ "Are these the houses you were speaking of? Yes; they are _the same_."--_Id._ "It is not _I, that_ you are in love with."--_Addison cor._ "It cannot be _I_."--_Swift cor._ "To that which once was _thou_."--_Prior cor._ "There is but one man that she can have, and that _man_ is _myself_."--_Priestley cor._ "We enter, as it were, into his body, and become in some measure _he_." Or, better:--"and become in some measure _identified_ with him."--_A. Smith and Priestley cor._ "Art thou proud yet? Ay, that I am not _thou_."--_Shak. cor._ "He knew not _who_ they were."--_Milnes cor._ "_Whom_ do you think me to be?"--_Dr. Lowth's Gram._, p. 17. "_Who_ do men say that I, the Son of man, am?"--_Bible cor._ "But _who_ say ye that I am?"--_Id._ "_Who_ think ye that I am? I am not he."--_Id._ "No; I am in error; I perceive it is not the person _that_ I supposed it was."--_Winter in London cor._ "And while it is _He that_ I serve, life is not without value."--_Ware cor._ "Without ever dreaming it was _he_."--_Charles XII cor._ "Or he was not the illiterate personage _that_ he affected to be."--_Montgom. cor._ "Yet was he _the man_ who was to be the greatest apostle of the Gentiles."--_Barclay cor._ "Sweet was the thrilling ecstacy; I know not if 'twas love, or _thou_."--_J. Hogg cor._ "Time was, when none would cry, that oaf was _I_."--_Dryden cor._ "No matter where the vanquished be, _or who_."--_Rowe cor._ "No; I little thought it had been _he_."--_Gratton cor._ "That reverence, that godly fear, _which is ever due to_ 'Him who can destroy both body and soul in hell.'"--_Maturin cor._ "It is _we_ that they seek to please, or rather to astonish."--_J. West cor._ "Let the same be _her_ that thou hast appointed for thy servant Isaac."--_Bible cor._ "Although I knew it to be _him_."--_Dickens cor._ "Dear gentle youth, is't none but _thou_?"--_Dorset cor._ "Who do they say it is?"--_Fowler cor._ "These are her garb, not _she_; they but express Her form, her semblance, her appropriate dress."--_More cor._ UNDER NOTE I.--OF THE CASE DOUBTFUL. "I had no knowledge of _any connexion_ between them."--_Col. Stone cor._ "To promote iniquity in others, is nearly the same _thing_, as _to be_ the actors of it ourselves." (That is, "_For us_ to promote iniquity in others, is nearly the same _thing_ as _for us_ to be the actors of it _ourselves_.")--_Murray cor._ "It must arise from _a delicate_ feeling _in_ ourselves."--_Blair and Murray cor._ "_Because there has not_ been exercised a competent physical power for their enforcement."--_Mass. Legisl. cor._ "PUPILAGE, _n._ The state of a _pupil_, or scholar."--_Dictionaries cor._ "Then the other _part_, being the _definition, would include_ all verbs, of every description."--_Peirce cor._ "John's _friendship for me_ saved me from inconvenience."--_Id._ "William's _judgeship_"--or, "William's _appointment to the office of_ judge,--changed his whole demeanour."--_Id._ "William's _practical acquaintance with teaching_, was the cause of the interest he felt."--_Id._ "_To be_ but one among many, stifleth the chidings of conscience."--_Tupper cor._ "As for _the opinion that it is_ a close translation, I doubt not that many have been led into that error by the shortness of it."--_Pope cor._ "All presumption _that death is_ the destruction of living beings, must go upon _the_ supposition that they are compounded, and _therefore_ discerptible."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "This argues rather _that they are_ proper names."--_Churchill cor._ "But may it not be retorted, that _this gratification itself_, is that which excites our resentment?"--_Campbell cor._ "Under the common notion, _that it is_ a system of the whole poetical art."--_Blair cor._ "Whose _want of_ time, or _whose_ other circumstances, forbid _them to become_ classical scholars."--_Lit. Jour. cor._ "It would _prove him not to have been a mere_ fictitious personage." Or: "It would preclude the notion _that he was merely a_ fictitious personage."--_Phil. Mu. cor._ "For _heresy_, or under pretence _that they are_ heretics or infidels."--_Oath cor._ "We may here add Dr. Horne's sermon on _Christ, as being_ the Object of religious adoration."--_Rel. World cor._ "To say nothing of Dr. _Priestley, as being_ a strenuous advocate," &c.--_Id._ "_Through the agency of Adam, as being_ their public head." Or: "_Because Adam was_ their public head."--_Id._ "Objections against _the existence of_ any such moral plan as this."--_Butler cor._ "A greater instance of a _man_ being a blockhead."--_Spect. cor._ "We may insure or promote _what will make it_ a happy state of existence to ourselves."--_Gurney cor._ "_Since it often undergoes_ the same kind of unnatural treatment."--_Kirkham cor._ "Their _apparent_ foolishness"--"Their _appearance of foolishness_"--or, "_That they appear_ foolishness,--is no presumption against this."--_Butler cor._ "But what arises from _them_ as being offences; i.e., from their _liability_ to be perverted."--_Id._ "And he _went_ into _the_ house _of_ a certain man named Justus, one that _worshiped_ God."--_Acts cor._ UNDER NOTE II.--OF FALSE IDENTIFICATION. "But _popular_, he observes, is an ambiguous word."--_Blair cor._ "The infinitive mood, a _phrase, or a sentence_, is often _made the subject of_ a verb."--_Murray cor._ "When any person, in speaking, introduces his name _after the pronoun I_, it is _of_ the first person; as, 'I, James, of the city of Boston.'"--_R. C. Smith cor._ "The name of the person spoken to, is _of_ the second person; as, 'James, come to me.'"--_Id._ "The name of the person or thing _merely_ spoken of, or about, is _of_ the third person; as, 'James has come.'"--_Id._ "The passive verb _has no object, because_ its subject or nominative always represents _what is acted upon_, and the _object_ of a verb must needs be in the _objective_ case."--_Id._ "When a noun is in the nominative to an active verb, it _denotes_ the actor."--_Kirkham cor._ "And _the pronoun_ THOU _or_ YE, _standing for the name of_ the person _or persons_ commanded, is its nominative."--_Ingersoll cor._ "The first person is that _which denotes the speaker_."--_Brown's Institutes_, p. 32. "The conjugation of a verb is _a regular arrangement of_ its different variations or inflections throughout the moods and tenses."--_Wright cor._ "The first person is _that which denotes_ the speaker _or writer_."--G. BROWN: for the correction of _Parker and Fox, Hiley_, and _Sanborn_. "The second person is _that which denotes the hearer, or the person addressed_."--_Id._: for _the same_. "The third person is _that which denotes the person or thing merely_ spoken of."--_Id._: for _the same_, "_I_ is _of_ the first person, singular; WE, _of_ the first person, plural."--_Mur. et al. cor._ "THOU is _of_ the second person, singular; YE or You, _of_ the second person, plural."--_Iid._ "HE, SHE, or IT, is _of_ the third person, singular; THEY, _of_ the third person, plural."--_Iid._ "The nominative case _denotes_ the actor, _and is the_ subject of the verb."--_Kirkham cor._ "John is the actor, therefore _the noun_ JOHN is in the nominative case."--_Id._ "The actor is always _expressed_ by the nominative case, _unless the verb be passive_."--_R. C. Smith cor._ "The nominative case _does not_ always _denote an_ agent or actor."--_Mack cor._ "_In mentioning_ each name, tell the part of speech."--_John Flint cor._ "_Of_ what number is _boy_? Why?"--_Id._ "_Of_ what number is _pens_? Why?"--_Id._ "The speaker is _denoted by_ the first person; the person spoken to _is denoted by_ the second person; and the person or thing spoken of is _denoted by_ the third person."--_Id._ "What nouns are _of the_ masculine gender? _The names of_ all males are _of the_ masculine gender."--_Id._ "An interjection is a _word that is uttered merely to indicate some strong or_ sudden emotion of the mind."--_G. Brown's Grammars_. CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE VII; OF OBJECTIVES. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.--OF THE OBJECTIVE IN FORM. "But I do not remember _whom_ they were for."--_Abbott cor._ "But if you can't help it, _whom_ do you complain of?"--_Collier cor._ "_Whom_ was it from? and what was it about?"--_M. Edgeworth cor._ "I have plenty of victuals, and, between you and _me_, something in a corner."--_Day cor._ "The upper one, _whom_ I am now about to speak of."--_Leigh Hunt cor._ "And to poor _us, thy_ enmity _is_ most capital."--_Shak. cor._ "Which, thou dost confess, _'twere_ fit for thee to use, as _them_ to claim." That is,--"as _for them_ to claim."--_Id._ "To beg of thee, it is my more dishonour, than _thee_ of them." That is,--"than _for thee to beg_ of them."--_Id._ "There are still a few, who, like _thee_ and _me_, drink nothing but water."--_Gil Bias cor._ "Thus, 'I _shall_ fall,'--'Thou _shalt_ love thy neighbour,'--'He _shall_ be rewarded,'--express no resolution on the part of _me, thee_, or _him_." Or better:--"on the part of _the persons signified by the nominatives, I, Thou, He_."--_Lennie and Bullions cor._ "So saucy with the hand of _her_ here--what's her name?"--_Shak. cor._ "All debts are cleared between you and _me_."--_Id._ "Her price is paid, and she is sold like _thee_."--HARRISON'S _E. Lang._, p. 172. "Search through all the most flourishing _eras_ of Greece."--_Dr. Brown cor._ "The family of the _Rudolphs_ has been long distinguished."--_The Friend cor._ "It will do well enough for you and _me_."--_Edgeworth cor._ "The public will soon discriminate between him who is the sycophant, and _him_ who is the teacher."--_Chazotte cor._ "We are still much at a loss _to determine whom_ civil power belongs to."--_Locke cor._ "What do you call it? and _to whom_ does it belong?"--_Collier cor._ "He had received no lessons from the _Socrateses_, the _Platoes_, and the _Confuciuses_ of the age."--_Haller cor._ "I cannot tell _whom_ to compare them to."--_Bunyan cor._ "I see there was some resemblance betwixt this good man and _me_."--_Id._ "They, by those means, have brought themselves into the hands and house of I do not know _whom_."--_Id._ "But at length she said, there was a great deal of difference between Mr. Cotton and _us_."--_Hutch. Hist. cor._ "So you must ride on horseback after _us_."--_Mrs. Gilpin cor._ "A separation must soon take place between our minister and _me_,"--_Werter cor._ "When she exclaimed on Hastings, you, and _me_."--_Shak. cor._ "To _whom_? to thee? What art thou?"--_Id._ "That they should always bear the certain marks _of him from whom_ they came."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "This life has joys for you and _me_, And joys that riches ne'er could buy."--_Burns cor._ UNDER THE NOTE.--OF TIME OR MEASURE. "Such as almost every child, ten years old, knows."--_Town cor._ "_Four months' schooling_ will carry any industrious scholar, of ten or twelve years _of age_, completely through this book."--_Id._ "A boy of six years _of age_ may be taught to speak as correctly, as Cicero did before the Roman senate."--_Webster cor._ "A lad about twelve years old, who was taken captive by the Indians."--_Id._ "Of nothing else _than_ that individual white figure of five inches _in length_, which is before him."--_Campbell cor._ "Where lies the fault, that boys of eight or ten years _of age_ are with great difficulty made to understand any of its principles?"--_Guy cor._ "Where language three centuries old is employed."--_Booth cor._ "Let a gallows be made, of fifty cubits _in height_." Or: "Let a gallows _fifty cubits high_ be made."--_Bible cor._ "I say to this child, nine years old, 'Bring me that hat.' He hastens, and brings it me."--_Osborn cor._ "'He laid a floor, twelve feet long, and nine feet wide:' that is, _the floor was_ long _to_ the extent of twelve feet, and wide _to the extent_ of nine feet."--_Merchant cor._ "The Goulah people are a tribe of about fifty thousand _in strength_." Or: "The Goulah people are a tribe about fifty thousand strong."--_Examiner cor._ CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE VIII; NOM. ABSOLUTE. "_He_ having ended his discourse, the assembly dispersed."--_Inst. of E. G._, p. 190. "_I_ being young, they deceived me."--_Ib._, p. 279. "_They_ refusing to comply, I withdrew."--_Ib._ "_Thou_ being present, he would not tell what he knew."--_Ib._ "The child is lost; and _I_, whither shall I go?"--_Ib._ "_O_ happy _we!_ surrounded with so many blessings."--_Ib._ "'_Thou_ too! Brutus, my son!' cried Cæsar, overcome."--_Ib._ "_Thou!_ Maria! and so late! and who is thy companion?"--_Mirror cor._ "How swiftly our time passes away! and ah! _we_, how little concerned to improve it!"--_Greenleaf's False Syntax, Gram._, p. 47. "There all thy gifts and graces we display, _Thou_, only _thou_, directing all our way."--_Pope, Dunciad_. CHAPTER IV.--ADJECTIVES. CORRECTIONS UNDER THE NOTES TO RULE IX. UNDER NOTE I.--OF AGREEMENT. "I am not recommending _this_ kind of sufferings to your liking."--_Sherlock cor._ "I have not been to London _these_ five years."--_Webster cor._ "_Verbs of this kind_ are more expressive than their radicals."--_Dr. Murray cor._ "Few of us would be less corrupted than kings are, were we, like them, beset with flatterers, and poisoned with _those_ vermin."--_Kames cor._ "But it seems _these_ literati had been very ill rewarded for their ingenious labours."--_R. Random cor._ "If I had not left off troubling myself about _things of that kind_."--_Swift cor._ "For _things of this sort_ are usually joined to the most noted fortune."--_Bacon cor._ "The nature of _those_ riches and _that_ long-suffering, is, to lead to repentance."--_Barclay cor._ "I fancy _it is this_ kind of gods, _that_ Horace mentions."--_Addison cor._ "During _those_ eight days, they are prohibited from touching the skin."--_Hope of Is. cor._ "Besides, he had _but a small quantity of_ provisions left for his army."--_Goldsmith cor._ "Are you not ashamed to have no other thoughts than _those_ of amassing wealth, and of acquiring glory, credit, and dignities?"--_Murray's Sequel_, p. 115. "It _distinguishes_ still more remarkably the feelings of the former from _those_ of the latter."--_Kames cor._ "And _these_ good tidings of the reign shall be published through all the world."--_Campbell cor._ "_These_ twenty years have I been with thee."--_Gen. cor._ "In _this_ kind of expressions, some words seem to be understood."--_W. Walker cor._ "He thought _this_ kind of excesses indicative of greatness."--_Hunt cor._ "_This_ sort of fellows _is_ very numerous." Or thus: "_Fellows of this sort_ are very numerous."--_Spect. cor._ "Whereas _men of this sort_ cannot give account of their faith." Or: "Whereas _these men_ cannot give account of their faith."--_Barclay cor._ "But the question is, whether _those are_ the words."--_Id._ "So that _expressions of this sort_ are not properly optative."--_R. Johnson cor._ "Many things are not _such as_ they appear to be."--_Sanborn cor._ "So that _all_ possible means are used."--_Formey cor._ "We have strict statutes, and most biting laws, Which for _these_ nineteen years we have let sleep."--_Shak. cor._ "They could not speak, and so I left them both, To bear _these_ tidings to the bloody king."--_Shak. cor._ UNDER NOTE II.--OF FIXED NUMBERS. "Why, I think she cannot be above six _feet_ two inches high."--_Spect. cor._ "The world is pretty regular for about forty _rods_ east and ten west."--_Id._ "The standard being more than two _feet_ above it."--_Bacon cor._ "Supposing, among other things, _that_ he saw two suns, and two _Thebeses_."--_Id._ "On the right hand we go into a parlour _thirty-three feet_ by _thirty-nine_."--_Sheffield cor._ "Three _pounds_ of gold went to one shield."--_1 Kings cor._ "Such an assemblage of men as there appears to have been at that _session_."--_The Friend cor._ "And, truly, he _has_ saved me _from_ this _labour_."--_Barclay cor._ "Within _these_ three _miles_ may you see it coming."--_Shak. cor._ "Most of the churches, not all, had one _ruling elder or more_."--_Hutch. cor._ "While a Minute Philosopher, not six _feet_ high, attempts to dethrone the Monarch of the universe."--_Berkley cor._ "The wall is ten _feet_ high."--_Harrison cor._ "The stalls must be ten _feet_ broad."--_Walker cor._ "A close prisoner in a room twenty _feet_ square, being at the north side of his chamber, is at liberty to walk twenty _feet_ southward, not to walk twenty _feet_ northward."--_Locke cor._ "Nor, after all this _care_ and industry, did they think themselves qualified."--_C. Orator cor._ "No _fewer_ than thirteen _Gypsies_ were condemned at one Suffolk _assize_, and executed."--_Webster cor._ "The king was petitioned to appoint _one person or more_."--_Mrs. Macaulay cor._ "He carries weight! he rides a race! 'Tis for a thousand _pounds_."--_Cowper cor._ "They carry three _tiers_ of guns at the head, and at the stern, _two_ tiers"--_Joh. Dict. cor._ "The verses consist of two _sorts_ of rhymes."--_Formey cor._ "A present of forty _camel-loads_ of the most precious things of Syria."--_Wood's Dict. cor._ "A large grammar, that shall extend to every _minutia_"--_S. Barrett cor._ "So many spots, like næves on Venus' soil, One _gem_ set off with _many a glitt'ring_ foil."--_Dryden cor._ "For, _off the end, a double_ handful It had devour'd, it was so manful."--_Butler cor._ UNDER NOTE III.--OF RECIPROCALS. "That _shall_ and _will_ might be substituted _one for the other_."--_Priestley cor._ "We use not _shall_ and _will_ promiscuously _the one for the other_."--_Brightland cor._ "But I wish to distinguish the three high ones from _one an_ other also."--_Fowle cor._ "Or on some other relation which two objects bear to _each other_."--_Blair cor._ "Yet the two words lie so near to _each other_ in meaning, that, in the present case, _perhaps either_ of them would have been sufficient."--_Id._ "Both orators use great liberties _in their treatment of each other_."--_Id._ "That greater separation of the two sexes from _each other_."--_Id._ "Most of whom live remote from _one an other_."--_Webster cor._ "Teachers like to see their pupils polite to _one an other_"--_Id._ "In a little time, he and I must keep company with _each other_ only."--_Spect. cor._ "Thoughts and circumstances crowd upon _one an other_."--_Kames cor._ "They cannot _perceive_ how the ancient Greeks could understand _one an other_."--_Lit. Conv. cor._ "The poet, the patriot, and the prophet, vied with _one an other_ in his breast."--_Hazlitt cor._ "Athamas and Ino loved _each other_."--_C. Tales cor._ "Where two things are compared or contrasted _one with the other_." Or: "Where two things, are compared or contrasted with _each other_."--_Blair and Mur. cor._ "In the classification of words, almost all writers differ from _one an other_."--_Bullions cor._ "I will not trouble thee, my child. Farewell; We'll no more meet; _we'll_ no more see _each other_."--_Shak. cor._ UNDER NOTE IV.--OF COMPARATIVES. "_Errors_ in education should be less indulged than any _others_."--_Locke cor._ "This was less his case than any _other_ man's that ever wrote."--_Pref. to Waller cor._ "This trade enriched some _other_ people more than it enriched them."--_Mur. cor._ "The Chaldee alphabet, in which the Old Testament has reached us, is more beautiful than any _other_ ancient character known."--_Wilson cor._ "The Christian religion gives a more lovely character of God, than any _other_ religion ever did."--_Murray cor._ "The temple of Cholula was deemed more holy than any _other_ in New Spain."--_Robertson cor._ "Cibber grants it to be a better poem of its kind than _any other that_ ever was _written_"--_Pope cor._ "Shakspeare is more faithful to the true language of nature, than any _other_ writer."--_Blair cor._ "One son I had--one, more than all my _other_ sons, the strength of Troy." Or: "One son I had--one, _the most of all my sons_, the strength of Troy."--_Cowper cor._ "Now Israel loved Joseph more than all his _other_ children, because he was the son of his old age."--_Bible cor._ UNDER NOTE V.--OF SUPERLATIVES. "Of _all simpletons_, he was the greatest"--_Nutting cor._ "Of _all beings_, man has certainly the greatest reason for gratitude."--_Id._ "This lady is _prettier than any_ of her sisters."--_Peyton cor._ "The relation which, of all _the class_, is by far the most fruitful of tropes, I have not yet mentioned."--_Blair cor._ "He studied Greek the most of _all noblemen_."--_W. Walker cor._ "And indeed that was the qualification _which was_ most wanted at that time."--_Goldsmith cor._ "Yet we deny that the knowledge of him as outwardly crucified, is the best of all knowledge of him."--_Barclay cor._ "Our ideas of numbers are, of all _our conceptions_, the most accurate and distinct"--_Duncan cor._ "This indeed is, of all _cases, the one in which_ it _is_ least necessary to name the agent"--_J. Q. Adams cor._ "The period to which you have arrived, is perhaps the most critical and important moment of your lives."--_Id._ "Perry's royal octavo is esteemed the best of _all the pronouncing dictionaries_ yet known."--_D. H. Barnes cor._ "This is the tenth persecution, and, of all the _ten_ the most bloody."--_Sammes cor._ "The English tongue is the most susceptible of sublime imagery, of _all the languages_ in the world."--_Bucke cor._ "Of _all writers_ whatever, Homer is universally allowed to have had the greatest Invention."--_Pope cor._ "In a version of this particular work, which, _more than_ any other, seems to require a venerable, antique cast."--_Id._ "Because I think him the _best-informed_ naturalist _that_ has ever written."--_Jefferson cor._ "Man is capable of being the most social of _all animals_."--_Sheridan cor._ "It is, of all _signs_ (or _expressions_) that which most moves us."--_Id._ "Which, of all _articles_, is the most necessary."--_Id._ "Quoth he, 'This gambol thou advisest, Is, of all _projects_, the unwisest.'"--_S. Butler cor._ UNDER NOTE VI.--OF INCLUSIVE TERMS. "Noah and his family _were the only antediluvians_ who _survived_ the flood."--_Webster cor._ "I think it superior to any _other grammar_ that we have yet had."--_Blair cor._ "We have had no _other_ grammarian who has employed so much labour and _judgement_ upon our native language, as _has_ the author of these volumes."--_British Critic cor._ "_Those_ persons feel _most for_ the distresses of others, who have experienced distresses themselves."--_L. Murray cor._ "Never was any _other_ people so much infatuated as the Jewish nation."--_Id. et al. cor._ "No _other_ tongue is so full of connective particles as the Greek."--_Blair cor._ "Never _was sovereign_ so much beloved by the people." Or: "_Never was any other_ sovereign so much beloved by _his_ people."--_L. Murray cor._ "Nothing _else_ ever affected her so much as this misconduct of her child."--_Id. et al. cor._ "Of all the figures of speech, _no other_ comes so near to painting as _does_ metaphor."--_Blair et al. cor._ "I know _no other writer_ so happy in his metaphors as _is_ Mr. Addison."--_Blair cor._ "Of all the English authors, none is _more_ happy in his metaphors _than_ Addison."--_Jamieson cor._ "Perhaps no _other_ writer in the world was ever so frugal of his words as Aristotle."--_Blair and Jamieson cor._ "Never was any _other_ writer so happy in that concise _and_ spirited style, as Mr. Pope."--_Blair cor._ "In the harmonious structure and disposition of _his_ periods, no _other_ writer whatever, ancient or modern, equals Cicero."--_Blair and Jamieson cor._ "Nothing _else_ delights me so much as the works of nature."--_L. Mur. cor._ "No person was ever _more_ perplexed _than_ he has been to-day."--_Id._ "In _no other_ case are writers so apt to err, as in the position of the word _only_."--_Maunder cor._ "For nothing is _more_ tiresome _than_ perpetual uniformity."--_Blair cor._ "_Naught else sublimes the spirit, sets it free, Like_ sacred and soul-moving poesy."--_Sheffield cor._ UNDER NOTE VII.--EXTRA COMPARISONS. "How much _better are ye_ than the fowls!"--_Bible cor._ "Do not thou hasten above the Most _High_."--_Esdras cor._ "This word, PEER, is principally used for the nobility of the realm."--_Cowell cor._ "Because the same is not only most _generally_ received, &c."--_Barclay cor._ "This is, I say, not the best and most _important_ evidence."--_Id._ "Offer unto God thanksgiving, and pay thy vows unto the Most _High_."--_The Psalter cor._ "The holy place of the tabernacle of the Most _High_."--_Id._ "As boys should be educated with temperance, so the first _great_ lesson that should be taught them, is, to admire frugality."--_Goldsmith cor._ "More _general_ terms are put for such as are more restricted."--_Rev. J. Brown cor._ "This, _this_ was the unkindest cut of all."--_Enfield's Speaker_, p. 353. "To take the basest and most _squalid_ shape."--_Shak. cor._ "I'll forbear: _I have_ fallen out with my more _heady_ will."--_Id._ "The power of the Most _High_ guard thee from sin."--_Percival cor._ "Which title had been more _true_, if the dictionary had been in Latin and _Welsh_."--_Verstegan cor._ "The waters are frozen sooner and harder, than further upward, within the inlands."--_Id._ "At every descent, the worst may become more _depraved_."--_Mann cor._ "Or as a moat defensive to a house Against the envy of less _happy_ lands."--_Shak. cor._ "A dreadful quiet felt, and _worse by_ far Than arms, a sullen interval of war."--_Dryden cor._ UNDER NOTE VIII.--ADJECTIVES CONNECTED. "It breaks forth in its _highest, most energetic_, and _most impassioned_ strain."--_Kirkham cor._ "He has fallen into the _vilest and grossest_ sort of railing."--_Barclay cor._ "To receive that _higher and more general_ instruction which the public affords."--_J. O. Taylor cor._ "If the best things have the _best and most perfect_ operations."--_Hooker cor._ "It became the plainest and most elegant, the _richest_ and most splendid, of all languages."--_Bucke cor._ "But the _principal and most frequent_ use of pauses, is, to mark the divisions of the sense."--_Blair cor._ "That every thing belonging to ourselves is _the best and the most perfect_."-- _Clarkson cor._ "And to instruct their pupils in the _best and most thorough_ manner."--_School Committee cor._ UNDER NOTE IX.--ADJECTIVES SUPERADDED. "The Father is figured out as a _venerable old_ man."--_Brownlee cor._ "There never was exhibited _an other such_ masterpiece of ghostly assurance."--_Id._ "After the _first three_ sentences, the question is entirely lost."--_Spect. cor._ "The _last four_ parts of speech are commonly called particles."--_Al. Murray cor._ "The _last two_ chapters will not be found deficient in this respect."--_Todd cor._ "Write upon your slates a list of the _first ten_ nouns."--_J. Abbott cor._ "We have a few remains of _two other_ Greek poets in the pastoral style, Moschus and Bion."--_Blair cor._ "The _first nine_ chapters of the book of Proverbs are highly poetical."--_Id._ "For, of these five heads, only the _first two_ have any particular relation to the sublime."--_Id._ "The resembling sounds of the _last two_ syllables give a ludicrous air to the whole."--_Kames cor._ "The _last three_ are arbitrary."--_Id._ "But in the _sentence_, 'She hangs the curtains,' _hangs_ is an _active-transitive_ verb."--_Comly cor._ "If our definition of a verb, and the arrangement of _active-transitive, active-intransitive_, passive, and neuter verbs, are properly understood."--_Id._ "These _last two lines_ have an embarrassing construction."--_Rush cor._ "God was provoked to drown them all, but Noah and _seven other_ persons."--_Wood cor._ "The _first six_ books of the �neid are extremely beautiful."--_Formey cor._ "_Only_ a few instances _more_ can _here_ be given."--_Murray cor._ "A few years _more_ will obliterate every vestige of a subjunctive form."--_Nutting cor._ "Some define them to be verbs devoid of the _first two_ persons."--_Crombie cor._ "In _an other such_ Essay-tract as this."--_White cor._ "But we fear that not _an other such_ man is to be found."--_Edward Irving cor._ "_O for an other such_ sleep, that I might see _an other such_ man!" Or, to preserve poetic measure, say:-- "_O for such_ sleep _again_, that I might see _An other such_ man, _though but in a dream_!"--_Shak. cor._ UNDER NOTE X.--ADJECTIVES FOR ADVERBS. "_The_ is an article, relating to the noun _balm, agreeably_ to Rule 11th."--_Comly cor._ "_Wise_ is an adjective, relating to the noun _man's, agreeably_ to Rule 11th."--_Id._ "To whom I observed, that the beer was _extremely_ good."--_Goldsmith cor._ "He writes _very elegantly_." Or: "He writes _with remarkable elegance_."--_O. B. Peirce cor._ "John behaves _very civilly_ (or, _with true civility_) to all men."--_Id._ "All the sorts of words hitherto considered, have each of them some meaning, even when taken _separately_."--_Beattie cor._ "He behaved himself _conformably_ to that blessed example."--_Sprat cor._ "_Marvellously_ graceful."-- _Clarendon cor._ "The Queen having changed her ministry, _suitably_ to her wisdom."--_Swift cor._ "The assertions of this author are _more easily_ detected."--_Id._ "The characteristic of his sect allowed him to affirm no _more strongly_ than that."--_Bentley cor._ "If one author had spoken _more nobly_ and _loftily_ than an other."--_Id._ "Xenophon says _expressly_."-- _Id._ "I can never think so very _meanly_ of him."--_Id._ "To convince all that are ungodly among them, of all their ungodly deeds, which they have _impiously_ committed."--_Bible cor._ "I think it very _ably_ written." Or: "I think it written _in a_ very masterly _manner_."--_Swift cor._ "The whole design must refer to the golden age, which it represents _in a_ lively _manner_."--_Addison cor._ "_Agreeably_ to this, we read of names being blotted out of God's book."--_Burder et al. cor._ "_Agreeably_ to the law of nature, children are bound to support their indigent parents."--_Paley_. "Words taken _independently_ of their meaning, are parsed as nouns of the neuter gender."--_Maltby cor._ "Conceit in weakest bodies _strongliest_ works."--_Shak. cor._ UNDER NOTE XI.--THEM FOR THOSE. "Though he was not known by _those_ letters, or the name CHRIST."--_Bayly cor._ "In a gig, or some of _those_ things." Better: "In a gig, or _some such vehicle_."--_M. Edgeworth cor._ "When cross-examined by _those_ lawyers."--_Same_. "As the custom in _those_ cases is."--_Same_. "If you _had_ listened to _those_ slanders."--_Same_. "The old people were telling stories about _those_ fairies; but, to the best of my _judgement_, there is nothing in _them_."--_Same_. "And is it not a pity that the Quakers have no better authority to substantiate their principles, than the testimony of _those_ old Pharisees?"--_Hibbard cor._ UNDER NOTE XII.--THIS AND THAT. "Hope is as strong an incentive to action, as fear: _that_ is the anticipation of good, _this_ of evil."--_Inst._, p. 265. "The poor want some advantages which the rich enjoy; but we should not therefore account _these_ happy, and _those_ miserable."--_Inst._, p. 266. "Ellen and Margaret, fearfully, Sought comfort in each other's eye; Then turned their ghastly look each one, _That_ to her sire, _this_ to her son."--_Scott cor._ "Six youthful sons, as many blooming maids, In one sad day beheld the Stygian shades; _Those_ by Apollo's silver bow were slain, _These_ Cynthia's arrows stretch'd upon the plain."--_Pope cor._ "Memory and forecast just returns engage, _That_ pointing back to youth, _this_ on to age."--_Pope, on Man_. UNDER NOTE XIII.--EITHER AND NEITHER. "These make the three great subjects of discussion among mankind; _namely_, truth, duty, and interest: but the arguments directed towards _any_ of them are generically distinct."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "A thousand other deviations may be made, and still _any_ of _the accounts_ may be correct in principle; for _all_ these divisions, and their technical terms, are arbitrary."--_R. W. Green cor._ "Thus it appears, that our alphabet is deficient; as it has but seven vowels to represent thirteen different sounds; and has no letter to represent _any_ of five simple consonant sounds."--_Churchill cor._ "Then _none_ of these five verbs can be neuter."--_O. B. Peirce cor._ "And the _assertor_[534] is in _none_ of the four already mentioned."--_Id._ "As it is not in any of these four."--_Id._ "See whether or not the word comes within the definition of _any_ of the other three simple cases."--_Id._ "No one of the ten was there."--_Frazee cor._ "Here are ten oranges, take _any one_ of them."--_Id._ "There are three modes, by _any_ of which recollection will generally be supplied; inclination, practice, and association."--_Rippingham cor._ "Words not reducible to _any_ of the three preceding heads."--_Fowler cor._ "Now a sentence may be analyzed in reference to _any_ of these four classes."--_Id._ UNDER NOTE XIV.--WHOLE, LESS, MORE, AND MOST. "Does not all proceed from the law, which regulates _all the_ departments of the state?"--_Blair cor._ "A messenger relates to Theseus _all the_ particulars."--_Ld. Kames cor._ "There are no _fewer_ than twenty-_nine_ diphthongs in the English language."--_Ash cor._ "The Redcross Knight runs through _all the_ steps of the Christian life."--_Spect. cor._ "There were not _fewer_ than fifty or sixty persons present."--_Mills and Merchant cor._ "Greater experience, and _a_ more cultivated _state of_ society, abate the warmth of imagination, and chasten the manner of expression."--_Blair and Murray cor._ "By which means, knowledge, _rather_ than oratory, _has_ become the principal requisite."--_Blair cor._ "No _fewer_ than seven illustrious cities disputed the right of having given birth to the greatest of poets."--_Lempriere cor._ "Temperance, _rather_ than medicines, is the proper means of curing many diseases."--_Murray cor._ "I do not suppose, that we Britons _are more deficient_ in genius than our neighbours."--_Id._ "In which, he _says_, he has found no _fewer_ than twelve untruths."--_Barclay cor._ "The several places of rendezvous were concerted, and _all the_ operations _were_ fixed."--_Hume cor._ "In these rigid opinions, _all the_ sectaries concurred."--_Id._ "Out of whose modifications have been made _nearly all_ complex modes."--_Locke cor._ "The Chinese vary each of their words on no _fewer_ than five different tones."--_Blair cor._ "These people, though they possess _brighter_ qualities, are not so proud as he is, nor so vain as she."--_Murray cor._ "It is certain, _that_ we believe _our own judgements_ more _firmly_, after we have made a thorough inquiry into the _things_."--_Brightland cor._ "As well as the whole course and _all the_ reasons of the operation."--_Id._ "Those rules and principles which are of _the greatest_ practical advantage."--_Newman cor._ "And _all_ curse shall be _no more_."--_Rev. cor._--(See _the Greek_.) "And death shall be _no more_."--_Id._ "But, in recompense, we have _pleasanter_ pictures of ancient manners."--_Blair cor._ "Our language has suffered _a greater number of_ injurious changes in America, since the British army landed on our shores, than it had suffered before, in the period of three centuries."--_Webster cor. "All the_ conveniences of life are derived from mutual aid and support in society."--_Ld. Kames cor._ UNDER NOTE XV.--PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES. "To such as think the nature of it deserving _of_ their attention."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "In all points, more deserving _of_ the approbation of their readers."--_Keepsake cor._ "But to give way to childish sensations, was unbecoming _to_ our nature."--_Lempriere cor._ "The following extracts are deserving _of_ the serious perusal of all."--_The Friend cor._ "No inquiry into wisdom, however superficial, is undeserving _of_ attention."--_Bulwer cor._ "The opinions of illustrious men are deserving _of_ great consideration."--_Porter cor._ "And resolutely keep its laws. Uncaring _for_ consequences." Or:--"_Not heeding_ consequences."--_Burns cor._ "This is an item that is deserving _of_ more attention."--_Goodell cor._ "Leave then thy joys, unsuiting _to_ such age:"--Or, "Leave then thy joys _not suiting_ such an age, To a fresh comer, and resign the stage."--_Dryden cor._ UNDER NOTE XVI.--FIGURE OF ADJECTIVES. "The tall dark mountains and the _deep-toned_ seas."--_Dana_. "O! learn from him To station _quick-eyed_ Prudence at the helm."--_Frost cor._ "He went in a _one-horse_ chaise."--_David Blair cor._ "It ought to be, 'in a _one-horse_ chaise.'"--_Crombie cor._ "These are marked with the _above-mentioned_ letters."--_Folker cor._ "A _many-headed_ faction."--_Ware cor._ "Lest there should be no authority in any popular grammar, for the perhaps _heaven-inspired_ effort."--_Fowle cor. "Common-metre_ stanzas consist of four iambic lines; one of eight, and the next of six syllables. They were formerly written in two _fourteen-syllable_ lines."--_Goodenow cor. "Short-metre_ stanzas consist of four iambic lines; the third of eight, the rest of six syllables."--_Id._ "_Particular-metre_ stanzas consist of six iambic lines; the third and sixth of six syllables, the rest of eight."--_Id. "Hallelujah-metre_ stanzas consist of six iambic lines; the last two of eight syllables, and the rest of six."--_Id. "Long-metre_ stanzas are merely the union of four iambic lines, of ten syllables each."--_Id._ "A majesty more commanding than is to be found among the rest of the _Old-Testament_ poets."--_Blair cor._ "You, sulphurous and _thought-executed_ fires, _Vaunt-couriers_ to _oak-cleaving_ thunderbolts, Singe my white head! And thou, _all-shaking_ thunder, Strike flat the thick rotundity o' th' world!"--_Lear_, Act iii, Sc. 2. CHAPTER V.--PRONOUNS. CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE X AND ITS NOTES. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.--OF AGREEMENT. "The subject is to be joined with _its_ predicate."--_Wilkins cor._ "Every one must judge of _his_ own feelings."--_Byron cor._ "Every one in the family should know _his or her_ duty."--_Penn cor._ "To introduce its possessor into that way in which _he_ should go."--_Inf. S. Gram. cor._ "Do not they say, _that_ every true believer has the Spirit of God in _him_?"--_Barclay cor._ "There is none in _his_ natural state righteous; no, not one."--_Wood cor._ "If ye were of the world, the world would love _its_ own."--_Bible cor._ "His form had not yet lost all _its_ original brightness."--_Milton cor._ "No one will answer as if I were _his_ friend or companion."--_Steele cor._ "But, in lowliness of mind, let each esteem _others_ better than _himself_."--_Bible cor._ "And let none of you imagine evil in _his heart_ against his neighbour."--_Id._ "For every tree is known by _its_ own fruit."--_Id._ "But she fell to laughing, like one out of _his_ right mind."--_M. Edgeworth cor._ "Now these systems, so far from having any tendency to make men better, have a manifest tendency to make _them_ worse."--_Wayland cor._ "And nobody else would make that city _his_ refuge any more."--_Josephus cor._ "What is quantity, as it respects syllables or words? It is _the_ time which _a speaker occupies_ in pronouncing _them_."--_Bradley cor._ "In such expressions, the adjective so much resembles an adverb in its meaning, that _it is_ usually parsed as such."--_Bullions cor._ "The tongue is like a racehorse; which runs the faster, the less weight _he_ carries." Or thus: "The tongue is like a racehorse; the less weight _it_ carries, the faster _it_ runs."--_Addison, Murray, et al. cor._ "As two thoughtless boys were trying to see which could lift the greatest weight with _his_ jaws, one of them had several of his firm-set teeth wrenched from their sockets."--_Newspaper cor._ "Every body nowadays publishes memoirs; every body has recollections which _he thinks_ worthy of recording."--_Duchess D'Ab. cor._ "Every body trembled, for _himself_, or _for his_ friends."--_Goldsmith cor._ "A steed comes at morning: no rider is there; But _his_ bridle is red with the sign of despair."--_Campbell cor._ UNDER NOTE I.--PRONOUNS WRONG--OR NEEDLESS. "Charles loves to study; but John, alas! is very idle."--_Merchant cor._ "Or what man is there of you, _who_, if his son ask bread, will give him a stone?"--_Bible cor._ "Who, in stead of going about doing good, are perpetually intent upon doing mischief."--_Tillotson cor._ "Whom ye delivered up, and denied in the presence of Pontius Pilate."--_Bible cor._ "Whom, when they had washed _her_, they laid in an upper chamber."--_Id._ "Then Manasseh knew that the Lord was God."--_Id._ "Whatever a man conceives clearly, he may, if he will be at the trouble, put into distinct propositions, and express clearly to others."--See _Blair's Rhet._, p. 93. "But the painter, being entirely confined to that part of time which he has chosen, cannot exhibit various stages of the same action."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 195. "What he subjoins, is without any proof at all."--_Barclay cor._ "George _Fox's_ Testimony concerning Robert Barclay."--_Title cor._ "According to the _advice of the_ author of the Postcript [sic--KTH]."--_Barclay cor._ "These things seem as ugly to the eye of their meditations, as those Ethiopians _that were_ pictured _on Nemesis's_ pitcher."--_Bacon cor._ "Moreover, there is always a twofold condition propounded with _the Sphynx's enigmas_."--_Id._ "Whoever believeth not therein, shall perish."--_Koran cor._ "When, at _Sestius's_ entreaty, I had been at his house."--_W. Walker cor._ "There high on _Sipylus's_ shaggy brow, She stands, her own sad monument of wo."--_Pope cor._ UNDER NOTE II.--CHANGE OF NUMBER. "So will I send upon you famine, and evil beasts, and they shall bereave _you_."--_Bible cor._ "Why do you plead so much for it? why do _you_ preach it up?" Or: "Why do _ye_ plead so much for it? why do _ye_ preach it up?"--_Barclay cor._ "Since thou hast decreed that I shall bear man, _thy_ darling."--_Edward's Gram. cor._ "You have my book, and I have _yours_; i.e., _your_ book." Or thus: "_Thou hast_ my book, and I have _thine_; i.e., _thy_ book."--_Chandler cor._ "Neither art thou such a one as to be ignorant of what _thou_ art."--_Bullions cor._ "Return, thou backsliding Israel, saith the Lord, and I will not cause mine anger to fall upon _thee_."--_Bible cor._ "The Almighty, unwilling to cut thee off in the fullness of iniquity, has sent me to give _thee_ warning."--_Ld. Kames cor. "Wast_ thou born only for pleasure? _wast thou_ never to do any thing?"--_Collier cor._ "Thou shalt be required to go to God, to die, and _to_ give up _thy_ account."--_Barnes cor._ "And canst thou expect to behold the resplendent glow of the Creator? would not such a sight annihilate _thee_?"--_Milton cor._ "If the prophet had commanded thee to do some great thing, _wouldst thou_ have refused?"--_C. S. Journal cor._ "Art thou a penitent? evince _thy_ sincerity, by bringing forth fruits meet for repentance."--_Vade-Mecum cor._ "I will call thee my dear son: I remember all _thy_ tenderness."--_C. Tales cor._ "So do thou, my son: open _thy_ ears, and _thy_ eyes."--_Wright cor._ "I promise you, this was enough to discourage _you_."--_Bunyan cor._ "Ere you remark an other's sin, Bid _your_ own conscience look within."--_Gay cor._ "Permit that I share in thy wo, The privilege _canst thou_ refuse?"--_Perfect cor._ "Ah! Strephon, how _canst thou_ despise Her who, without thy pity, _dies_?"--_Swift cor._ "Thy verses, friend, are Kidderminster stuff; And I must own, _thou'st_ measured out enough."--_Shenst. cor._ "This day, dear Bee, is thy nativity; Had Fate a luckier one, she'd give it _thee_."--_Swift cor._ UNDER NOTE III.--WHO AND WHICH. "Exactly like so many puppets, _which_ are moved by wires."--_Blair cor._ "They are my servants, _whom_ I brought forth[535] out of the land of Egypt."--_Leviticus_, xxv, 55. "Behold, I and the children _whom_ God hath given me."--See _Isaiah_, viii, 18. "And he sent Eliakim, _who_ was over the household, and Shebna the scribe."--_Isaiah_, xxxvii, 2. "In a short time the streets were cleared of the corpses _which_ filled them."--_M'Ilvaine cor._ "They are not of those _who_ teach things _that_ they ought not, for filthy lucre's sake."--_Barclay cor._ "As a lion among the beasts of the forest, as a young lion among the flocks of sheep; _which_, if he go through, both treadeth down and teareth in pieces."--_Bible cor._ "Frequented by every fowl _which_ nature has taught to dip the wing in water."--_Johnson cor._ "He had two sons, one of _whom_ was adopted by the family of Maximus."--_Lempriere cor._ "And the ants, _which_ are collected by the smell, are burned _with_ fire."--_The Friend cor._ "They being the agents to _whom_ this thing was trusted."--_Nixon cor._ "A packhorse _which_ is driven constantly _one way and the other_, to _and from_ market."--_Locke cor._ "By instructing children, _whose_ affection will be increased."--_Nixon cor._ "He had a comely young woman, _who_ travelled with him."--_Hutchinson cor._ "A butterfly, _who_ thought himself an accomplished traveller, happened to light upon a beehive."--_Inst._, p. 267. "It is an enormous elephant of stone, _which_ disgorges from his uplifted trunk a vast but graceful shower."--_Ware cor._ "He was met by a dolphin, _which_ sometimes swam before him, and sometimes behind him."--_Edward's Gram. cor._ "That Cæsar's horse, _which_, as fame goes, Had corns upon his feet and toes, Was not by half so tender-hoof'd, Nor trod upon the ground so soft."--_Butler cor._ UNDER NOTE IV.--NOUNS OF MULTITUDE. "He instructed and fed the crowds _that_ surrounded him."--_Murray's Key_. "The court, _which_ gives currency to manners, ought to be exemplary." p. 187. "Nor does he describe classes of sinners _that_ do not exist."--_Mag. cor._ "Because the nations among _which_ they took their rise, were not savage."--_Murray cor._ "Among nations _that_ are in the first and rude periods of society."--_Blair cor._ "The martial spirit of those nations among _which_ the feudal government prevailed."--_Id._ "France, _which_ was in alliance with Sweden."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 97. "That faction, in England, _which_ most powerfully opposed his arbitrary pretensions."--_Ib._ "We may say, 'the crowd _which_ was going up the street.'"--_Cobbett's E. Gram._, ¶ 204. "Such members of the Convention _which_ formed this Lyceum, as have subscribed this Constitution."--_N. Y. Lyceum cor._ UNDER NOTE V.--CONFUSION OF SENSES. "_The name_ of the possessor shall take a particular form to show its case."--_Kirkham cor._ "Of which reasons, the principal one is, that no noun, properly so called, implies _the_ presence _of the thing named_."--_Harris cor._ "_Boston_ is a proper noun, which distinguishes _the city of Boston_ from other cities."--_Sanborn cor._ "_The word_ CONJUNCTION means union, or _the act of_ joining together. _Conjunctions are_ used to join or _connect_ either words or sentences."--_Id._ "The word INTERJECTION means _the act of throwing between. Interjections are_ interspersed among other words, to express _strong or sudden_ emotion."--_Id._ "_Indeed_ is composed of _in_ and _deed. The words_ may better be written separately, as they formerly were."--_Cardell cor._ "_Alexander_, on the contrary, is a particular name; and is _employed_ to distinguish _an individual only_."--_Jamieson cor._ "As an indication that nature itself had changed _its_ course." Or:--"that _Nature herself_ had changed her course."--_History cor._ "Of removing from the United States and _their_ territories the free people of colour."--_Jenifer cor._ "So that _gh_ may be said not to have _its_ proper sound." Or thus: "So that _the letters, g_ and _h_, may be said not to have their proper _sounds_."--_Webster cor._ "Are we to welcome the loathsome harlot, and introduce _her_ to our children?"--_Maturin cor._ "The first question is this: 'Is reputable, national, and present use, _which_, for brevity's sake, I shall hereafter simply denominate _good use_, always uniform, [i. e., undivided, and unequivocal,] in _its_ decisions?"--_Campbell cor._ "_In personifications_, Time is always masculine, on account of _his_ mighty efficacy; Virtue, feminine, _by reason of her_ beauty and _loveliness_."--_Murray, Blair, et al. cor._ "When you speak to a person or thing, the _noun or pronoun_ is in the second person."--_Bartlett cor._ "You now know the noun; for _noun_ means _name_."--_Id._ "_T_. What do you see? _P_. A book. _T_. Spell _book_."--_R. W. Green cor._ "_T_. What do you see now? _P_. Two books. _T_. Spell _books_."--_Id._ "If the United States lose _their_ rights as a nation."--_Liberator cor._ "When a person or thing is addressed or spoken to, the _noun or pronoun_ is in the second person."--_Frost cor._ "When a person or thing is _merely_ spoken of, the _noun or pronoun_ is in the third person."--_Id._ "The _word_ OX _also, taking_ the same plural termination, _makes_ OXEN."--_Bucke cor._ "Hail, happy States! _yours_ is the blissful seat Where nature's gifts and art's improvements meet."--_Everett cor._ UNDER NOTE VI.--THE RELATIVE THAT. (1.) "This is the most useful art _that_ men possess."--_L. Murray cor._ "The earliest accounts _that_ history gives us, concerning all nations, bear testimony to these facts."--_Blair et al. cor._ "Mr. Addison was the first _that_ attempted a regular inquiry into the pleasures of taste."--_Blair cor._ "One of the first _that_ introduced it, was Montesquieu."--_Murray cor._ "Massillon is perhaps the most eloquent _sermonizer that_ modern times have produced."--_Blair cor._ "The greatest barber _that_ ever lived, is our guiding star and prototype."--_Hart cor._ (2.) "When prepositions are subjoined to nouns, they are generally the same _that_ are subjoined to the verbs from which the nouns are derived."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 200. Better thus: "_The_ prepositions _which_ are subjoined to nouns, _are_ generally the same _that_," &c.--_Priestley cor._ "The same proportions _that_ are agreeable in a model, are not agreeable in a large building."--_Kames cor._ "The same ornaments _that_ we admire in a private apartment, are unseemly in a temple."--_Murray cor._ "The same _that_ John saw also in the sun."--_Milton cor._ (3.) "Who can ever be easy, _that_ is reproached with his own ill conduct?"--_T. à Kempis cor._ "Who is she _that_ comes clothed in a robe of green?"--_Inst._, p. 267. "Who _that_ has either sense or civility, does not perceive the vileness of profanity?"--_G. Brown_. (4.) "The second person denotes the person or thing _that_ is spoken to."--_Kirkham cor._ "The third person denotes the person or thing _that_ is spoken of."--_Id._ "A passive verb denotes action received, or endured by the person or thing _that is signified by_ its nominative."--_Id._ "The princes and states _that_ had neglected or favoured the growth of this power."--_Bolingbroke cor._ "The nominative expresses the name of the person or thing _that_ acts, or _that_ is the subject of discourse."--_Hiley cor._ (5.) "Authors _that_ deal in long sentences, are very apt to be faulty."--_Blair cor._ "Writers _that_ deal," &c.--_Murray cor._ "The neuter gender denotes objects _that_ are neither male nor female."--_Merchant cor._ "The neuter gender denotes things _that_ have no sex."--_Kirkham cor._ "Nouns _that_ denote objects neither male nor female, are of the neuter gender."--_Wells's Gram. of late_, p. 55. Better thus: "_Those_ nouns _which_ denote objects _that are_ neither male nor female, are of the neuter gender."--_Wells cor._ "Objects and ideas _that_ have been long familiar, make too faint an impression to give an agreeable exercise to our faculties."--_Blair cor._ "Cases _that_ custom has left dubious, are certainly within the grammarian's province."--_L. Murray cor._ "Substantives _that_ end in _ery_, signify action or habit."--_Id._ "After all _that_ can be done to render the definitions and rules of grammar accurate."--_Id._ "Possibly, all _that_ I have said, is known and taught."--_A. B. Johnson cor._ (6.) "It is a strong and manly style _that_ should chiefly be studied."--_Blair cor._ "It is this [viz., _precision] that_ chiefly makes a division appear neat and elegant."--_Id._ "I hope it is not I _that_ he is displeased with."--_L. Murray cor._ "When it is this alone _that_ renders the sentence obscure."--_Campbell cor._ "This sort of full and ample assertion, '_It is this that_,' is fit to be used when a proposition of importance is laid down."--_Blair cor._ "She is not the person _that_ I understood it to have been."--_L. Murray cor._ "Was it thou, or the wind, _that_ shut the door?"--_Inst._, p. 267. "It was not I _that_ shut it."--_Ib._ (7.) "He is not the person _that he_ seemed _to be_."--_Murray and Ingersoll cor._ "He is really the person _that_ he appeared to be."--_Iid._ "She is not now the woman _that_ they represented her to have been."--_Iid._ "An _only child_ is one _that_ has neither brother nor sister; a _child alone_ is one _that_ is left by itself, _or unaccompanied_."--_Blair, Jam., and Mur., cor._ UNDER NOTE VII.--RELATIVE CLAUSES CONNECTED. (1.) "A Substantive, or Noun, is the name of a thing; (i. e.,) of whatever we conceive to subsist, or of _whatever_ we _merely imagine_."--_Lowth cor._ (2.) "A Substantive, or Noun, is the name of any thing _which_ exists, or of which we have any notion."--_Murray et al. cor._ (3.) "A Substantive, or Noun, is the name of any person, place, or thing, that exists, or _that_ we can have an idea _of_."--_Frost cor._ (4.) "A noun is the name of any thing _which_ exists, or of which we form an idea."--_Hallock cor._ (5.) "A Noun is the name of any person, place, object, or thing, that exists, or _that_ we may conceive to exist."--_D. C. Allen cor._ (6.) "The name of every thing _which_ exists, or of which we can form a notion, is a noun."--_Fisk cor._ (7.) "An allegory is the representation of some one thing by an other that resembles it, and _that_ is made to stand for it."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 150. (8.) "Had he exhibited such sentences as contained ideas inapplicable to young minds, or _such as_ were of a trivial or injurious nature."--_L. Murray cor._ (9.) "Man would have others obey him, even his own kind; but he will not obey God, _who_ is so much above him, and who made him."--_Penn cor._ (10.) "But what we may consider here, and _what_ few persons have _noticed_, is," &c.--_Brightland cor._ (11.) "The compiler has not inserted _those_ verbs _which_ are irregular only in familiar writing or discourse, and which are improperly terminated by _t in stead_ of _ed_."--_Murray, Fisk, Hart, Ingersoll et al., cor._ (12.) "The remaining parts of speech, which are called the indeclinable parts, _and which_ admit of no variations, (or, _being words that_ admit of no variations,) will not detain us long."--_Dr. Blair cor._ UNDER NOTE VIII.--THE RELATIVE AND PREPOSITION. "In the temper of mind _in which_ he was then."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 102. "To bring them into the condition _in which_ I am at present."--_Add. cor._ "In the posture _in which_ I lay."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 102. "In the sense _in which_ it is sometimes taken."--_Barclay cor._ "Tools and utensils are said to be right, when they _answer well_ the uses _for which_ they were made."--_Collier cor._ "If, in the extreme danger _in which_ I now am," &c. Or: "If, in _my present_ extreme danger," &c.--_Murray's Sequel_, p. 116. "News was brought, that Dairus [sic--KTH] was but twenty miles from the place _in which_ they then were."--_Goldsmith cor._ "Alexander, upon hearing this news, continued four days _where_ he then was:" or--"_in the place in which_ he then was."--_Id._ "To read in the best manner _in which reading_ is now taught."--_L. Murray cor._ "It may be expedient to give a few directions as to the manner _in which_ it should be studied."--_Hallock cor._ "Participles are words derived from verbs, and convey an idea of the acting of an agent, or the suffering of an object, with the time _at which_ it happens." [536]--_A. Murray cor._ "Had I but serv'd my God with half the zeal _With which_ I serv'd my king, he would not _thus_, In age, have left me naked to _my foes_."--_Shak. cor._ UNDER NOTE IX.--ADVERBS FOR RELATIVES. "In compositions _that are not designed to be delivered in public_."--_Blair cor._ "They framed a protestation _in which_ they repeated their claims."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 133; _Murray's_, 197. "Which have reference to _inanimate_ substances, _in which_ sex _has no_ existence."--_Harris cor._ "Which denote substances _in which_ sex never had existence."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 26. "There is no rule given _by which_ the truth may be found out."--_W. Walker cor._ "The nature of the objects _from which_ they are taken."--_Blair cor._ "That darkness of character, _through which_ we can see no heart:" [i. e., generous emotion.]--_L. Murray cor._ "The states _with which_ [or _between which_] they negotiated."--_Formey cor._ "Till the motives _from which_ men act, be known."--_Beattie cor._ "He assigns the principles _from which_ their power of pleasing flows."--_Blair cor._ "But I went on, and so finished this History, in that form _in which_ it now appears."--_Sewel cor._ "By prepositions we express the cause _for which_, the instrument by which, _and_ the manner _in which_, a thing is done."--_A. Murray cor._ "They are not such in the language _from which_ they are derived."--_Town cor._ "I find it very hard to persuade several, that their passions are affected by words from _which_ they have no ideas."--_Burke cor._ "The known end, then, _for which_ we are placed in a state of so much affliction, hazard, and difficulty, is our improvement in virtue and piety."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "Yet such his acts as Greeks unborn shall tell, And curse the _strife in which_ their fathers fell."--_Pope cor._ UNDER NOTE X.--REPEAT THE NOUN. "Youth may be thoughtful, but _thoughtfulness in the young_ is not very common."--_Webster cor._ "A proper name is _a name_ given to one person or thing."--_Bartlett cor._ "A common name is _a name_ given to many things of the same sort."--_Id._ "This rule is often violated; some instances of _its violation_ are annexed."--_L. Murray et al. cor._ "This is altogether careless writing. _Such negligence respecting the pronouns_, renders style often obscure, and always inelegant."--_Blair cor._ "Every inversion which is not governed by this rule, will be disrelished by every _person_ of taste."--_Kames cor._ "A proper diphthong, is _a diphthong_ in which both the vowels are sounded."--_Brown's Institutes_, p. 18. "An improper diphthong, is _a diphthong_ in which only one of the vowels is sounded."--_Ib._ "Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and _the_ descendants _of Jacob_, are called Hebrews."--_Wood cor._ "In our language, _every word_ of more than one syllable, has one of _its syllables_ distinguished from the rest in this manner."--_L. Murray cor._ "Two consonants proper to begin a word, must not be separated; as, fa-ble, sti-fle. But when _two consonants_ come between two vowels, and are such as cannot begin a word, they must be divided, as, ut-most, un-der."--_Id._ "Shall the intellect alone feel no pleasures in its energy, when we allow _pleasures_ to the grossest energies of appetite and sense?"--_Harris and Murray cor._ "No man has a propensity to vice as such: on the contrary, a wicked deed disgusts _every one_, and makes him abhor the author."--_Ld. Kames cor._ "The same _grammatical properties_ that belong to nouns, belong also to pronouns."--_Greenleaf cor._ "What is language? It is the means of communicating thoughts from one _person_ to an other."--_O. B. Peirce cor._ "A simple word is _a word_ which is not made up of _other words_."--_Adam and Gould cor._ "A compound word is _a word_ which is made up of two or more words."--_Iid_. "When a conjunction is to be supplied, _the ellipsis_ is called Asyndeton."--_Adam cor._ UNDER NOTE XI.--PLACE OF THE RELATIVE. "It gives _to words a meaning which_ they would not have."--_L. Murray cor._ "There are in the English language many _words, that_ are sometimes used as adjectives, and sometimes as adverbs."--_Id._ "Which do not more effectually show the varied intentions of the mind, than do the _auxiliaries which_ are used to form the potential mood."--_Id._ "These _accents, which_ will be the subject of a following speculation, make different impressions on the mind."--_Ld. Kames cor._ "And others differed very much from the words _of the writers to whom_ they were ascribed."--_John Ward cor._ "Where there is in the sense _nothing which_ requires the last sound to be elevated, an easy fall will be proper."--_Murray and Bullions cor._ "In the last clause there is an ellipsis of the verb; _and_, when you supply _it_, you find it necessary to use the adverb _not, in lieu of no_."--_Campbell and Murray cor._ "_Study_ is _of the_ singular number, because _the_ nominative _I, with which_ it agrees, _is singular_."--_R. C. Smith cor._ "John is the _person who_ is in error, or thou art."--_Wright cor._ "For he hath made him, who knew no sin, to be sin for us."--_Harrison's E. Lang._, p. 197. "My friend, take that of _me, who_ have the power To seal th' accuser's lips."--_Shakspeare cor._ UNDER NOTE XII.--WHAT FOR THAT. "I had no idea but _that_ the story was true."--_Brown's Inst._, p. 268. "The postboy is not so weary but _that_ he can whistle."--_Ib._ "He had no intimation but _that_ the men were honest."--_Ib._ "Neither Lady Haversham nor Miss Mildmay will ever believe but _that_ I have been entirely to blame."--_Priestley cor._ "I am not satisfied but _that_ the integrity of our friends is more essential to our welfare than their knowledge of the world."--_Id._ "Indeed, there is in poetry nothing so entertaining or descriptive, but _that an ingenious_ didactic writer may introduce _it_ in some part of his work."--_Blair cor._ "Brasidas, being bit by a mouse he had catched, let it slip out of his fingers: 'No creature,' says he, 'is so contemptible but _that it_ may provide for its own safety, if it have courage.'"--_Ld. Kames cor._ UNDER NOTE XIII.--ADJECTIVES FOR ANTECEDENTS. "In narration, Homer is, at all times, remarkably concise, _and therefore_ lively and agreeable."--_Blair cor._ "It is usual to talk of a nervous, a feeble, or a spirited style; which _epithets_ plainly _indicate the_ writer's manner of thinking."--_Id._ "It is too violent an alteration, if any alteration were necessary, _whereas_ none is."--_Knight cor._ "Some men are too ignorant to be humble; _and_ without _humility_ there can be no docility."--_Berkley cor._ "Judas declared him innocent; _but innocent_ he could not be, had he in any respect deceived the disciples."--_Porteus cor._ "They supposed him to be innocent, _but_ he certainly was not _so_."--_Murray et al. cor._ "They accounted him honest, _but_ he certainly was not _so_."--_Felch cor._ "Be accurate in all you say or do; for _accuracy_ is important in all the concerns of life."--_Brown's Inst._, p. 268. "Every law supposes the transgressor to be wicked; _and_ indeed he is _so_, if the law is just."--_Ib._ "To be pure in heart, pious, and benevolent, (_and_ all may be _so_,) constitutes human happiness."--_Murray cor._ "To be dexterous in danger, is a virtue; but to court danger to show _our dexterity_, is _a_ weakness."--_Penn cor._ UNDER NOTE XIV.--SENTENCES FOR ANTECEDENTS. "This seems not so allowable in prose; which _fact_ the following erroneous examples will demonstrate."--_L. Murray cor._ "The accent is laid upon the last syllable of a word; which _circumstance_ is favourable to the melody."--_Kames cor._ "Every line consists of ten syllables, five short and five long; from which _rule_ there are but two exceptions, both of them rare."--_Id._ "The soldiers refused obedience, _as_ has been explained."--_Nixon cor._ "Caesar overcame Pompey--_a circumstance_ which was lamented."--_Id._ "The crowd hailed William, _agreeably to the expectations of his friends_."--_Id._ "The tribunes resisted Scipio, _who knew their malevolence towards him_."--_Id._ "The censors reproved vice, _and were held in great honour_."--_Id._ "The generals neglected discipline, which _fact_ has been proved."--_Id._ "There would be two nominatives to the verb _was, and such a construction_ is improper."--_Adam and Gould cor._ "His friend bore the abuse very patiently; _whose forbearance, however_, served _only_ to increase his rudeness; it produced, at length, contempt and insolence."--_Murray and Emmons cor._ "Almost all _compound_ sentences are more or less elliptical; _and_ some examples of _ellipsis_ may be _found_, under _nearly all_ the different parts of speech."--_Murray, Guy, Smith, Ingersoll, Fisk, et al. cor._ UNDER NOTE XV.--REPEAT THE PRONOUN. "In things of Nature's workmanship, whether we regard their internal or _their_ external structure, beauty and design are equally conspicuous."--_Kames cor._ "It puzzles the reader, by making him doubt whether the word ought to be taken in its proper, or _in its_ figurative sense."--_Id._ "Neither my obligations to the muses, nor _my_ expectations from them, are so great."--_Cowley cor._ "The Fifth Annual Report of the _Antislavery_ Society of Ferrisburgh and _its_ vicinity."--_Title cor._ "Meaning taste in its figurative as well as _its_ proper sense."--_Kames cor._ "Every measure in which either your personal or _your_ political character is concerned."--_Junius cor._ "A jealous _and_ righteous God has often punished such in themselves or _in their_ offspring."--_Extracts cor._ "Hence their civil and _their_ religious history are inseparable."--_Milman cor._ "Esau thus carelessly threw away both his civil and _his_ religious inheritance."--_Id._ "This intelligence excited not only our hopes, but _our_ fears likewise."--_Jaudon cor._ "In what way our defect of principle, and _our_ ruling manners, have completed the ruin of the national spirit of union."--_Dr. Brown cor._ "Considering her descent, her connexion, and _her_ present intercourse."--_Webster cor._ "His own and _his_ wife's wardrobe are packed up in a firkin."--_Parker and Fox cor._ UNDER NOTE XVI.--CHANGE THE ANTECEDENT. "The _sounds_ of _e_ and _o_ long, in _their_ due degrees, will be preserved, and clearly distinguished."--_L. Murray cor._ "If any _persons_ should be inclined to think," &c., "the author takes the liberty to suggest to _them_," &c.--_Id._ "And he walked in all the _way_ of Asa his father; he turned not aside from _it_."--_Bible cor._ "If ye from your hearts forgive not every one his _brethren their_ trespasses."--_Id._ "_None_ ever fancied _they_ were slighted by him, or had the courage to think _themselves_ his _betters_."--_Collier cor._ "And _Rebecca_ took _some very good clothes_ of her eldest son _Esau's_, which _were_ with her in the house, and put _them_ upon Jacob her younger son."--_Gen. cor._ "Where all the attention of _men_ is given to _their_ own indulgence."--_Maturin cor._ "The idea of a _father_ is a notion superinduced to _that of_ the substance, or man--let _one's idea of_ man be what _it_ will."--_Locke cor._ "Leaving _all_ to do as they _list_."--_Barclay cor._ "Each _person_ performed his part handsomely."--_J. Flint cor._ "This block of marble rests on two layers of _stones_, bound together with lead, which, however, has not prevented the Arabs from forcing out several of _them_."--_Parker and Fox cor._ "Love gives to _all our powers_ a double power, Above their functions and their offices." Or:-- "Love gives to every power a double power, _Exalts all_ functions and _all_ offices."--_Shak. cor._ CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE XI; OF PRONOUNS. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.--THE IDEA OF PLURALITY. "The jury will be confined till _they_ agree on a verdict."--_Brown's Inst._, p. 145. "And mankind directed _their_ first cares towards the needful."--_Formey cor._ "It is difficult to deceive a free people respecting _their_ true interest."--_Life of Charles XII cor._ "All the virtues of mankind are to be counted upon a few fingers, but _their_ follies and vices are innumerable."--_Swift cor._ "Every sect saith, 'Give _us_ liberty:' but give it _them_, and to _their_ power, _and they_ will not yield it to any body else."--_Cromwell cor._ "Behold, the people shall rise up as a great lion, and lift up _themselves_ as a young lion."--_Bible cor._ "For all flesh had corrupted _their_ way upon the earth."--_Id._ "There happened to the army a very strange accident, which put _them_ in great consternation."--_Goldsmith cor._ UNDER NOTE I.--THE IDEA OF UNITY. "The meeting went on _with its_ business as a united body."--_Foster cor._ "Every religious association has an undoubted right to adopt a creed for _itself_."--_Gould cor._ "It would therefore be extremely difficult to raise an insurrection in that state against _its_ own government."--_Dr. Webster cor._ "The mode in which a lyceum can apply _itself_ in effecting a reform in common schools."--_N. Y. Lyc. cor._ "Hath a nation changed _its_ gods, which yet are no gods?"--_Jer. cor._ "In the holy Scriptures, each of the twelve tribes of Israel is often called by the name of the patriarch from whom _it_ descended." Or better:--"from whom _the tribe_ descended."--_Adams cor._ UNDER NOTE II.--UNIFORMITY OF NUMBER. "A nation, by the reparation of _the wrongs which it has done_, achieves a triumph more glorious than any field of blood can ever give."--_Adams cor._ "The English nation, from _whom_ we descended, have been gaining their liberties inch by inch."--_Webster cor._ "If a Yearly Meeting should undertake to alter _its_ fundamental doctrines, is there any power in the society to prevent _it from_ doing so?"--_Foster's Rep. cor._ "There is[537] a generation that _curse_ their father, and _do_ not bless their mother."--_Bible cor._ "There is[537] a generation that are pure in their own eyes, and yet _are_ not washed from their filthiness."--_Id._ "He hath not beheld iniquity in Jacob, neither hath he seen perverseness in Israel: the Lord _their_ God is with _them_, and the shout of a king is among them."--_Id._ "My people _have_ forgotten me, they have burnt incense to vanity."--_Id._ "When a quarterly meeting _has_ come to a _judgement_ respecting any difference, relative to any monthly meeting belonging to _it_" &c.--_Discip. cor._ "The number of such compositions is every day increasing, and it _appears_ to be limited only by the pleasure or _the convenience_ of _writers_."--_Booth cor._ "The Church of Christ _has_ the same power now as ever, and _is_ led by the same spirit into the same practices."--_Barclay cor._ "The army, whom _their_ chief had thus abandoned, pursued meanwhile their miserable march." Or thus: "The army, _which its_ chief had thus abandoned, pursued meanwhile _its_ miserable march."--_Lockhart cor._ CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE XII; OF PRONOUNS. ANTECEDENTS CONNECTED BY AND. "Discontent and sorrow manifested _themselves_ in his countenance."--_Brown's Inst._, p. 146. "Both conversation and public speaking became more simple and plain, such as we now find _them_."--_Blair cor._ "Idleness and ignorance, _if they_ be suffered to proceed, &c."--_Johnson and Priestley cor._ "Avoid questions and strife: _they show_ a busy and contentious disposition."--_Penn cor._ "To receive the gifts and benefits of God with thanksgiving, and witness _them_ blessed and sanctified to us by the word and prayer, is owned by us."--_Barclay cor._ "Both minister and magistrate are compelled to choose between _their_ duty and _their_ reputation."--_Junius cor._ "All the sincerity, truth, and faithfulness, or disposition of heart or conscience to approve _them_, found among rational creatures, necessarily originate from God."--_Rev. J. Brown cor._ "Your levity and heedlessness, if _they_ continue, will prevent all substantial improvement."--_Brown's Inst._, p. 269. "Poverty and obscurity will oppress him only who esteems _them_ oppressive."--_Ib._ "Good sense and refined policy are obvious to few, because _they_ cannot be discovered but by a train of reflection."--_Ib._ "Avoid haughtiness of behaviour, and affectation of manners: _they imply_ a want of solid merit."--_Ib._ "If love and unity continue, _they_ will make you partakers of one an other's joy."--_Ib._ "Suffer not jealousy and distrust to enter: _they_ will destroy, like a canker, every germ of friendship."--_Ib._ "Hatred and animosity are inconsistent with Christian charity: guard, therefore, against the slightest indulgence of _them_."--_Ib._ "Every man is entitled to liberty of conscience, and freedom of opinion, if he does not pervert _them_ to the injury of others."--_Ib._ "With the azure and vermilion _Which are_ mix'd for my pavilion."--_Byron cor._ CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE XIII; OF PRONOUNS. ANTECEDENTS CONNECTED BY OR OR NOR. "Neither prelate nor priest can give _his_ [flock or] flocks any decisive evidence that you are lawful pastors."--_Brownlee cor._ "And is there a heart of parent or of child, that does not beat and burn within _him_?"-- _Maturin cor._ "This is just as if an eye or a foot should demand a salary for _its_ service to the body."--_Collier cor._ "If thy hand or thy foot offend thee, cut _it_ off, and cast _it_ from thee."--_Bible cor._ "The same might as well be said of Virgil, or any great author; whose general character will infallibly raise many casual additions to _his_ reputation."--_Pope cor._ "Either James or John,--one _or the other_,--will come."--_Smith cor._ "Even a rugged rock or _a_ barren heath, though in _itself_ disagreeable, _contributes_, by contrast, to the beauty of the whole."--_Kames cor._ "That neither Count Rechteren nor Monsieur Mesnager had behaved _himself_ right in this affair."--_Spect. cor._ "If an Aristotle, a Pythagoras, or a Galileo, _suffers_ for _his_ opinions, _he is a 'martyr.'_"--_Fuller cor._ "If an ox gore a man or a woman, that _he or she_ die; then the ox _shall surely_ be stoned."--_Exod. cor._ "She was calling out to one or an other, at every step, that a Habit was ensnaring _him_."--_Johnson cor._ "Here is a task put upon children, _which_ neither this author _himself_, nor any other, _has_ yet undergone."--_R. Johnson cor._ "Hence, if an adjective or _a_ participle be subjoined to the verb when _the construction is singular, it_ will agree both in gender and _in_ number with the collective noun."--_Adam and Gould cor._ "And if you can find a diphthong or a triphthong, be pleased to point _that_ out too."--_Bucke cor._ "And if you can find a trissyllable or a polysyllable, point _it_ out."--_Id._ "The false refuges in which the atheist or the sceptic _has_ intrenched _himself_."--_Chr. Spect. cor._ "While the man or woman thus assisted by art, expects _his_ charms _or hers_ will be imputed to nature alone."--_Opie cor._ "When you press a watch, or pull a clock, _it answers_ your question with precision; for _it repeats_ exactly the hour of the day, and tells you neither more nor less than you desire to know."--_Bolingbroke cor._ "Not the Mogul, or Czar of Muscovy, Not Prester John, or Cham of Tartary, _Is_ in _his mansion_ monarch more than I."--_King cor._ CHAPTER VI.--VERBS. CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE XIV AND ITS NOTES. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.--VERB AFTER THE NOMINATIVE. "Before you left Sicily, you _were reconciled_ to Verres."--_Duncan cor._ "Knowing that you _were_ my old master's good friend."--_Spect. cor._ "When the judge _dares_ not act, where is the loser's remedy?"--_Webster cor._ "Which extends it no farther than the variation of the verb _extends_."--_Mur. cor._ "They presently dry without hurt, as myself _have_ often proved."--_R. Williams cor._ "Whose goings-forth _have_ been from of old, from everlasting."--_Micah_, v, 2. "You _were_ paid to fight against Alexander, not to rail at him."--_Porter cor._ "Where more than one part of speech _are_ almost always concerned."--_Churchill cor._ "Nothing less than murders, rapines, and conflagrations, _employs_ their thoughts." Or: "_No less things_ than murders, rapines, and conflagrations, _employ_ their thoughts."--_Duncan cor._ "I wondered where you _were_, my dear."--_Lloyd cor._ "When thou most sweetly _singst_."--_Drummond cor._ "Who _dares_, at the present day, avow himself equal to the task?"--_Gardiner cor._ "Every body _is_ very kind to her, and not discourteous to me."--_Byron cor._ "As to what thou _sayst_ respecting the diversity of opinions."--_M. B. cor._ "Thy nature, Immortality, who _knows_?"--_Everest cor._ "The natural distinction of sex in animals, gives rise to what, in grammar, _are_ called genders."--_Id._ "Some pains _have_ likewise been taken."--_Scott cor._ "And many a steed in his stables _was_ seen."--_Penwarne cor._ "They _were_ forced to eat what never was esteemed food."--_Josephus cor._ "This that _you_ yourself _have_ spoken, I desire that they may take their oaths upon."--_Hutchinson cor._ "By men whose experience best _qualifies_ them to judge."--_Committee cor._ "He _dares_ venture to kill and destroy several other kinds of fish."--_Walton cor._ "If a gudgeon meet a roach, He _ne'er will_ venture to approach." Or thus: "If a gudgeon _meets_ a roach, He _dares_ not venture to approach."--_Swift cor._ "Which thou _endeavourst_ to establish to thyself."--_Barclay cor._ "But they pray together much oftener than thou _insinuat'st_."--_Id._ "Of people of all denominations, over whom thou _presidest_."--_N. Waln cor._ "I can produce ladies and gentlemen whose progress _has_ been astonishing."--_Chazotte cor._ "Which of these two kinds of vice _is the_ more criminal?"--_Dr. Brown cor._ "Every twenty-four hours _afford_ to us the vicissitudes of day and night."--_Smith's False Syntax, New Gram._, p. 103. Or thus: "Every _period_ of twenty-four hours _affords_ to us the vicissitudes of day and night."--_Smith cor._ "Every four years _add_ an other day."--_Smith's False Syntax, Gram._, p. 103. Better thus: "Every _fourth year adds_ an other day."--_Smith cor._ "Every error I could find, _Has_ my busy muse employed."--_Swift cor._ "A studious scholar _deserves_ the approbation of his teacher."--_Sanborn cor._ "Perfect submission to the rules of a school _indicates_ good breeding."--_Id._ "A comparison in which more than two _are_ concerned."--_Lennie's Gram._, p. 78. "By the facilities which artificial language _affords_ them."--_O. B. Peirce cor._ "Now thyself _hast_ lost both lop and top."--_Spencer cor._ "Glad tidings _are_ brought to the poor."--_Campbell cor._ "Upon which, all that is pleasurable or affecting in elocution, chiefly _depends._"--_Sher. cor._ "No pains _have_ been spared to render this work complete."--_Bullions cor._ "The United States _contain_ more than a twentieth part of the land of this globe."--_Clinton cor._ "I am mindful that myself _am_ strong."--_Fowler cor._ "Myself _am_ (not _is_) weak;"--"Thyself _art_ (not _is_) weak."--_Id._ "How pale each worshipful and reverend guest Rises from clerical or city feast!"--_Pope cor._ UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.--VERB BEFORE THE NOMINATIVE. "Where _were_ you born? In London."--_Buchanan cor._ "There _are_ frequent occasions for commas."--_Ingersoll cor._ "There necessarily _follow_ from thence these plain and unquestionable consequences."--_Priestley cor._ "And to this impression _contributes_ the redoubled effort."--_Kames cor._ "Or, if he was, _were_ there no spiritual men then?"--_Barclay cor._ "So, by these two also, _are_ signified their contrary principles."--_Id._ "In the motions made with the hands, _consists_ the chief part of gesture in speaking."--_Blair cor._ "_Dares_ he assume the name of a popular magistrate?"--_Duncan cor._ "There _were_ no damages as in England, and so Scott lost his wager."--_Byron cor._ "In fact, there _exist_ such resemblances."--_Kames cor._ "To him _give_ all the prophets witness."--_Acts_, x, 43. "That there _were_ so many witnesses and actors."--_Addison cor._ "How _do_ this man's definitions stand affected?"--_Collier cor._ "Whence _come_ all the powers and prerogatives of rational beings?"--_Id._ "Nor _do_ the scriptures cited by thee prove thy intent."--_Barclay cor._ "Nor _does_ the scripture cited by thee prove the contrary."--_Id._ "Why then _citest_ thou a scripture which is so plain and clear for it?"--_Id._ "But what _say_ the Scriptures as to respect of persons among Christians?"--_Id._ "But in the mind of man, while in the savage state, there _seem_ to be hardly any ideas but what enter by the senses;"--_Robertson cor._ "What sounds _has_ each of the vowels?"--_Griscom cor._ "Out of this _have_ grown up aristocracies, monarchies, despotisms, tyrannies."--_Brownson cor._ "And there _were_ taken up, of fragments that remained to them, twelve baskets."--_Bible cor._ "There _seem_ to be but two general classes."--_Day cor._ "Hence _arise_ the six forms of expressing time."--_Id._ "There _seem_ to be no other words required."--_Chandler cor._ "If there _are_ two, the second increment is the syllable next to the last."--_Bullions cor._ "Hence _arise_ the following advantages."--_Id._ "There are no data by which it can be estimated."--_Calhoun cor._ "To this class, _belongs_ the Chinese language, in which we have nothing but naked _primitives_."--_Fowler cor._ [[Fist] "Nothing but naked _roots_" is faulty; because no word is a _root_, except some derivative spring from it."--G. B.] "There _were_ several other grotesque figures that presented themselves."--_Spect. cor._ "In these _consists_ that sovereign good which ancient sages so much extol."--_Percival cor._ "Here _come_ those I have done good to against my will."--_Shak. cor._ "Where there _are_ more than one auxiliary." Or: "Where there _are_ more _auxiliaries_ than one."--_O. B. Peirce cor._ "On me to cast those eyes where _shines_ nobility." --_Sidney cor._ "Here _are_ half-pence in plenty, for one you'll have twenty." --_Swift cor._ "Ah, Jockey, ill _advisest_ thou. I wis, To think of songs at such a time as this." --_Churchill cor._ UNDER NOTE I.--THE RELATIVE AND VERB. "Thou, who _lovest_ us, wilt protect us still."--_A. Murray cor._ "To use that endearing language, 'Our Father, who _art_ in heaven.'"--_Bates cor._ "Resembling the passions that _produce_ these actions."--_Kames cor._ "Except _dwarf, grief, hoof, muff_, &c., which _take s_ to make the plural."--_Ash cor._ "As the cattle that _go_ before me, and the children, be able to endure."--_Gen. cor._ "Where is the man who _dares_ affirm that such an action is mad?"--_Dr. Pratt cor._ "The ninth book of Livy affords one of the most beautiful exemplifications of historical painting, that _are_ anywhere to be met with."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "In some studies, too, that relate to taste and fine writing, which _are_ our object," &c.--_Id._ "Of those affecting situations which _make_ man's heart feel for man."--_Id._ "We see very plainly, that it is neither Osmyn nor Jane Shore that _speaks_."--_Id._ "It should assume that briskness and ease which _are_ suited to the freedom of dialogue."--_Id._ "Yet they grant, that none ought to be admitted into the ministry, but such as _are_ truly pious."--_Barclay cor._ "This letter is one of the best that _have_ been written about Lord Byron."--_Hunt cor._ "Thus, besides what _were_ sunk, the Athenians took above two hundred ships."--_Goldsmith cor._ "To have made and declared such orders as _were_ necessary."--_Hutchinson cor._ "The idea of such a collection of men as _makes_ an army."--_Locke cor._ "I'm not the first that _has_ been wretched."--_Southern cor._ "And the faint sparks of it which _are_ in the angels, are concealed from our view."--_Calvin cor._ "The subjects are of such a nature, as _allows_ room (or, as to _allow_ room) for much diversity of taste and sentiment."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "It is in order to propose examples of such perfection, as _is_ not to be found in the real examples of society."--_Formey cor._ "I do not believe that he would amuse himself with such fooleries as _have_ been attributed to him."--_Id._ "That shepherd, who first _taught_ the chosen seed."--_Milton, P. L._, B. i, l. 8. "With respect to the vehemence and warmth which _are_ allowed in popular eloquence."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Ambition is one of those passions that _are_ never to be satisfied."--_Home cor._ "Thou wast he that _led_ out and _brought_ in Israel."--_Bible cor._ "Art thou the man of God, that _came_ from Judah?"--_Id._ "How beauty is excell'd by manly grace And wisdom, which alone _are_ truly fair."--_Milton cor._ "What art thou, speak, that on designs unknown, While others sleep, thus _roamst_ the camp alone?"--_Pope cor._ UNDER NOTE II.--NOMINATIVE WITH ADJUNCTS. "The literal sense of the words _is_, that the action had been done."--_Dr. Murray cor._ "The rapidity of his movements _was_ beyond example."--_Wells cor._ "Murray's Grammar, together with his Exercises and Key, _has_ nearly superseded every thing else of the kind."--_Murray's Rec. cor._ "The mechanism of clocks and watches _was_ totally unknown."--_Hume cor._ "The _it_, together with the verb _to be, expresses a state_ of being."--_Cobbett cor._ "Hence it is, that the profuse variety of objects in some natural landscapes, _occasions neither_ confusion nor fatigue."--_Kames cor._ "Such a clatter of sounds _indicates_ rage and ferocity."--_Gardiner cor._ "One of the fields _makes_ threescore square yards, and the other, only fifty-five."--_Duncan cor._ "The happy effects of this fable _are_ worth attending to."--_Bailey cor._ "Yet the glorious serenity of its parting rays, still _lingers_ with us."--_Gould cor._ "Enough of its form and force _is_ retained to render them uneasy."--_Maturin cor._ "The works of nature, in this respect, _are_ extremely regular."--_Pratt cor._ "No small addition of exotic and foreign words and phrases, _has_ been made by commerce."--_Bicknell cor._ "The dialect of some nouns _is noticed_ in the notes."--_Milnes cor._ "It has been said, that a discovery of the full resources of the arts, _affords_ the means of debasement, or of perversion."--_Rush cor._ "By which means, the order of the words _is_ disturbed."--_Holmes cor._ "The two-fold influence of these and the others, _requires_ the _verb_ to be in the plural form."--_Peirce cor._ "And each of these _affords_ employment."--_Percival cor._ "The pronunciation of the vowels _is_ best explained under the rules relative to the consonants."--_Coar cor._ "The judicial power of these courts _extends_ to all cases in law and equity."--_Hall and Baker cor._ "One of you _has_ stolen my money."--_Humorist cor._ "Such redundancy of epithets, in stead of pleasing, _produces_ satiety and disgust."--_Kames cor._ "It has been alleged, that a compliance with the rules of Rhetoric, _tends_ to cramp the mind."--_Hiley cor._ "Each of these _is_ presented to us in different relations."--_Hendrick cor._ "The past tense of these verbs, (_should, would, might, could_,) _is_ very indefinite with respect to time."--_Bullions cor._ "The power of the words which are said to govern this mood, _is_ distinctly understood."--_Chandler cor._ "And now, at length, the fated term of years The world's desire _hath_ brought, and lo! the God appears." --_Lowth cor._ "Variety of numbers still _belongs_ To the soft melody of _odes_, or _songs_." --_Brightland cor._ UNDER NOTE III.--COMPOSITE OR CONVERTED SUBJECTS. "Many are the works of human industry, which to begin and finish, _is_ hardly granted to the same man."--_Johnson cor._ "To lay down rules for these, _is_ as inefficacious."--_Pratt cor._ "To profess regard and act _injuriously, discovers_ a base mind."--_L. Murray et al. cor._ "To magnify to the height of wonder things great, new, and admirable, extremely _pleases_ the mind of man."--_Fisher cor._ "In this passage, '_according as_' _is_ used in a manner which is very common."--_Webster cor._ "A CAUSE DE, _is_ called a preposition; A CAUSE QUE, a conjunction."--_Webster cor._ "To these _it is_ given to speak in the name of the Lord."--_The Friend cor._ "While _wheat_ has no plural, _oats has_ seldom any singular."--_Cobbett cor._ "He cannot assert that _ll_ (i.e., _double Ell_) _is_ inserted in _fullness_ to denote the sound of _u_"--_Cobb cor._ "_Ch_, in Latin, _has_ the power of _k_."--_Gould cor._ "_Ti_, before a vowel, and unaccented, _has_ the sound of _si_ or _ci_."--_Id._ "In words derived from French, as _chagrin, chicanery_, and _chaise, ch is sounded_ like _sh_."--_Bucke cor._ "But, in the _words schism, schismatic_, &c., the _ch is_ silent."--_Id._ "_Ph_, at the beginning of words, _is_ always sounded like _f_."--_Bucke cor._ "_Ph has_ the sound of _f_ as in _philosophy_."--_Webster cor._ "_Sh has_ one sound only, as in _shall_."--_Id._ "_Th has_ two sounds."--_Id._ "_Sc_, before _a, o, u, or r, has_ the sound of _sk_."--_Id._ "_Aw has_ the sound of _a_ in _hall_."--_Bolles cor._ "_Ew sounds_ like _u_"--_Id._ "_Ow_, when both _vowels are_ sounded, _has_ the _power_ of _ou in thou_."--_Id._ "_Ui_, when both _vowels are_ pronounced in one syllable, _sounds_ like _wi short, as_ in _languid_."--_Id._ "_Ui_ three _other sounds at least expresses_, As _who hears_ GUILE, REBUILD, and BRUISE, _confesses_." --_Brightland cor._ UNDER NOTE IV.--EACH, ONE, EITHER, AND NEITHER. "When each of the letters which compose this word, _has_ been learned."--_Dr. Weeks cor._ "As neither of us _denies_ that both Homer and Virgil have great beauties."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Yet neither of them _is_ remarkable for precision."--_Id._ "How far each of the three great epic poets _has_ distinguished _himself_."--_Id._ "Each of these _produces_ a separate, agreeable sensation."--_Id._ "On the Lord's day, every one of us Christians _keeps_ the sabbath."--_Tr. of Iren. cor._ "And each of them _bears_ the image of purity and holiness."--_Hope of Is. cor._ "_Was_ either of these meetings ever acknowledged or recognized?"--_Foster cor._ "Whilst neither of these letters _exists_ in the Eugubian inscription."--_Knight cor._ "And neither of them _is_ properly termed indefinite."--_Dr. Wilson cor._ "As likewise of the several subjects, which have in effect _their several verbs_:" or,--"_each of which has_ in effect _its own verb_."--_Lowth cor._ "Sometimes, when the word ends in _s_, neither of the signs _is_ used."--_A. Mur. cor._ "And as neither of these manners _offends_ the ear."--_J. Walker cor._ "Neither of these two tenses _is_ confined to this signification only."--_R. Johnson cor._ "But neither of these circumstances _is_ intended here."--_Tooke cor._ "So that all are indebted to each, and each _is_ dependent upon all."--_Bible Rep. cor._ "And yet neither of them _expresses_ any more action in this case, than _it_ did in the other."--_Bullions cor._ "Each of these expressions _denotes_ action."--_Hallock cor._ "Neither of these moods _seems_ to be defined by distinct boundaries."--_Butler cor._ "Neither of these solutions _is_ correct."--_Bullions cor._ "Neither _bears_ any sign of case at all."--_Fowler cor._ "Each in _his_ turn, like Banquo's monarchs, _stalks._" Or:-- "_All_ in _their_ turn, like Banquo's monarchs, _stalk_."--_Byron cor._ "And tell what each _doth_ by _the_ other lose."--_Shak. cor._ UNDER NOTE V.--VERB BETWEEN TWO NOMINATIVES. "The quarrels of lovers _are but_ a renewal of love."--_Adam et al. cor._ "Two dots, one placed above the other, _are_ called _a Sheva."--Wilson cor._ "A few centuries more or less _are_ a matter of small consequence."--_Id._ "Pictures were the first step towards the art of writing; _hieroglyphics were_ the second step."--_Parker cor._ "The comeliness of youth _is_ modesty and frankness; of age, condescension and dignity." Or, much better: "The _great ornaments_ of youth are," &c.--_Murray cor._ "Merit and good works _are_ the end of man's motion."--_Bacon cor._ "Divers philosophers hold, that the lips _are_ parcel of the mind."--_Shak. cor._ "The clothing of the natives _was_ the skins of wild beasts." Or thus: "The _clothes_ of the natives _were_ skins of wild beasts."--_Hist. cor._ "Prepossessions in _favour_ of our _native_ town, _are_ not a matter of surprise."--_Webster cor._ "Two shillings and sixpence _are_ half a crown, but not a half crown."--_Priestley and Bicknell cor._ "Two vowels, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and uniting in one sound, _are_ called a _diphthong_."--_Cooper cor._ "Two or more sentences united together _are_ called a Compound Sentence."--_Day cor._ "Two or more words rightly put together, but not completing an entire proposition, _are_ called a Phrase."--_Id._ "But the common number of times _is_ five." Or, to state the matter truly: "But the common number of _tenses is six_."--_Brit. Gram. cor._ "Technical terms, injudiciously introduced, _are an other_ source of darkness in composition."--_Jamieson cor._ "The United States _are_ the great middle division of North America."--_Morse cor._ "A great cause of the low state of industry, _was_ the restraints put upon it."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 199; _Churchill's_, 414. "Here two tall ships _become_ the victor's prey."--_Rowe cor._ "The expenses incident to an outfit _are_ surely no object."--_The Friend cor._ "Perhaps their loves, or else their sheep, _Were_ all that did their silly thoughts so busy keep."--_Milt. cor._ UNDER NOTE VI.--CHANGE OF THE NOMINATIVE. "Much _care_ has been taken, to explain all the kinds of words."--_Inf. S. Gr. cor._ "Not _fewer_ [years] than three years, are spent in attaining this faculty." Or, perhaps better: "Not less than three _years' time, is_ spent in attaining this faculty." Or thus: "Not less _time_ than three years, _is_ spent," &c.--_Gardiner cor._ "Where this night are met in state Many _friends_ to gratulate His wish'd presence."--_Milton cor._ "Peace! my darling, here's no danger, Here's no _ox anear_ thy bed."--_Watts cor._ "But _all_ of these are mere conjectures, and some of them very unhappy ones."--_Coleridge cor._ "The old theorists' _practice_ of calling the Interrogatives and Repliers ADVERBS, is only a part of their regular system of naming words."--_O. B. Peirce cor._ "Where _several sentences_ occur, place them in the order _of the facts_."--_Id._ "And that _all the events_ in conjunction make a regular chain of causes and effects."--_Kames cor. "In regard to their_ origin, the Grecian and Roman republics, though equally involved in the obscurities and uncertainties of fabulous events, present one remarkable distinction."--_Adams cor._ "In these respects, _man_ is left by nature an unformed, unfinished creature."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "The _Scriptures_ are the oracles of God himself."--_Hooker cor._ "And at our gates are all _kinds_ of pleasant fruits."--_S. Song cor._ "The _preterits_ of _pluck, look_, and _toss_, are, in speech, pronounced _pluckt, lookt, tosst_."--_Fowler corrected_. "Severe the doom that days _prolonged impose_, To stand sad witness of unnumbered woes!"--_Melmoth cor._ UNDER NOTE VII.--FORMS ADAPTED TO DIFFERENT STYLES. _1. Forms adapted to the Common or Familiar Style._ "Was it thou[538] that _built_ that house?"--_Brown's Institutes_, Key, p. 270. "That boy _writes_ very elegantly."--_Ib. "Could_ not thou write without blotting thy book?"--_Ib. "Dost_ not thou think--or, _Don't_ thou think, it will rain to-day?"--_Ib. "Does_ not--or, _Don't_ your cousin intend to visit you?"--_Ib._ "That boy _has_ torn my book."--_Ib._ "Was it thou that _spread_ the hay?"--_Ib._ "Was it James, or thou, that _let_ him in?"--_Ib._ "He _dares_ not say a word."--_Ib._ "Thou _stood_ in my way and _hindered_ me."--_Ib._ "Whom _do_ I _see_?--Whom _dost_ thou _see_ now?--Whom _does_ he _see_?--Whom _dost_ thou _love_ most?--What _art_ thou _doing_ to-day?--What person _dost_ thou _see_ teaching that boy?--He _has_ two new knives.--Which road _dost_ thou _take_?--What child is he _teaching_?"--_Ingersoll cor._ "Thou, who _mak'st_ my shoes, _sellst_ many more." Or thus: "_You_, who _make_ my shoes, _sell_ many more."--_Id._ "The English language _has_ been much cultivated during the last two hundred years. It _has_ been considerably polished and refined."--_Lowth cor._ "This _style_ is ostentatious, and _does_ not suit grave writing."--_Priestley cor._ "But custom _has_ now appropriated _who_ to persons, and _which_ to things" [and brute animals].--_Id._ "The indicative mood _shows_ or _declares something_; as, _Ego amo_, I love; or else _asks_ a question; as, _Amas tu_? Dost thou love?"--_Paul's Ac. cor._ "Though thou _cannot_ do much for the cause, thou _may_ and _should_ do something."--_Murray cor._ "The support of so many of his relations, was a heavy tax: but thou _knowst_ (or, _you know_) he paid it cheerfully."--_Id._ "It may, and often _does_, come short of it."--_Murray^s Gram._, p. 359. "'Twas thou, who, while thou _seem'd_ to chide, To give me all thy pittance _tried_."--_Mitford cor._ 2. _Forms adapted to the Solemn or Biblical Style_. "The Lord _hath prepared_ his throne in the heavens; and his kingdom _ruleth_ over all."--_Psalms_, ciii, 19. "Thou _answeredst_ them, O Lord our God; thou _wast_ a God that forgave[539] them, though thou _tookest_ vengeance of their inventions."--See _Psalms_, xcix, 8. "Then thou _spakest_ in vision to thy Holy One, and _saidst_, I have laid help upon one that is mighty."--_Ib._, lxxxix, 19. "'So then, it is not of him that _willeth_, nor of him that _runneth_, but of God that _showeth_ mercy;' who _dispenseth_ his blessings, whether temporal or spiritual, as _seemeth_ good in his sight."--_Christian Experience of St. Paul_, p. 344; see _Rom._, ix, 16. "Thou, the mean while, _wast_ blending with my thought; Yea, with my life, and life's own secret joy."--_Coleridge cor._ UNDER NOTE VIII.--EXPRESS THE NOMINATIVE. "Who is here so base, that _he_ would be a bondman?"--_Shak. cor._ "Who is here so rude, _he_ would not be a _Roman_?"--_Id._ "There is not a sparrow _which_ falls to the ground without his notice." Or better: "_Not a sparrow_ falls to the ground, without his notice."--_Murray cor._ "In order to adjust them _in such a manner_ as shall consist equally with the perspicuity and the strength of the period."--_Id. and Blair cor._ "But sometimes there is a verb _which_ comes in." Better: "But sometimes there is a verb _introduced_."--_Cobbett cor._ "Mr. Prince has a genius _which_ would prompt him to better things."--_Spect. cor._ "It is this _that_ removes that impenetrable mist."--_Harris cor._ "By the praise _which_ is given him for his courage."--_Locke cor._ "There is no man _who_ would be more welcome here."--_Steele cor._ "Between an antecedent and a consequent, or what goes before, and _what_ immediately follows."--_Blair cor._ "And as connected with what goes before and _what_ follows."--_Id._ "No man doth a wrong for the wrong's sake."--_Bacon cor._ "All the various miseries of life, which people bring upon themselves by negligence _or_ folly, and _which_ might have been avoided by proper care, are instances of this."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "Ancient philosophers have taught many things in _favour_ of morality, so far at least as _it respects_ justice and goodness towards our fellow-creatures."--_Fuller cor._ "Indeed, if there be any such, _who_ have been, or _who_ appear to be of us, as suppose there is not a wise man among us all, nor an honest man, that is able to judge betwixt his brethren; we shall not covet to meddle in their _matters_."--_Barclay cor._ "There were _some_ that drew back; there were _some_ that made shipwreck of faith; yea, there were _some_ that brought in damnable heresies."--_Id._ "The nature of the cause rendered this plan altogether proper; and, _under_ similar _circumstances, the orator's method_ is fit to be imitated."--_Blair cor._ "This is an idiom to which our language is strongly inclined, and _which_ was formerly very prevalent."--_Churchill cor._ "His roots are wrapped about the heap, and _he_ seeth the place of stones."--_Bible cor._ "New York, Fifthmonth 3d, 1823. Dear friend, _I_ am sorry to hear of thy loss; but _I_ hope it may be retrieved. I should be happy to render thee any assistance in my power. _I_ shall call to see thee to-morrow morning. Accept assurances of my regard. A. B." "New York, May 3d, P. M., 1823. Dear sir, _I_ have just received the kind note _you_ favoured me with this morning; and _I_ cannot forbear to express my gratitude to you. On further information, _I_ find _I_ have not lost so much as _I_ at first supposed; and _I_ believe _I_ shall still be able to meet all my engagements. _I_ should, however, be happy to see you. Accept, dear sir, my most cordial thanks. C. D." See _Brown's Institutes_, p. 271. "Will martial flames forever fire thy mind, And _wilt thou_ never be to Heaven resign'd?"--_Pope cor._ UNDER NOTE IX.--APPLICATION OF MOODS. _First Clause of the Note.--The Subjunctive Present_. "He will not be pardoned unless he _repent_."--_Inst._, p. 191. "If thou _find_ any kernelwort in this marshy meadow, bring it to me."--_Neef cor._ "If thou _leave_ the room, do not forget to shut that drawer."--_Id._ "If thou _grasp_ it stoutly, thou wilt not be hurt:" or, (familiarly,)--"thou _will_ not be hurt."--_Id._ "On condition that he _come_, I will consent to stay."--_Murray's Key_, p. 208. "If he _be_ but discreet, he will succeed."--_Inst._, p. 280. "Take heed that thou _speak_ not to Jacob."--_Gen._, xxxi, 24. "If thou _cast_ me off, I shall be miserable."--_Inst._, p. 280. "Send them to me, if thou _please_."--_Ib._ "Watch the door of thy lips, lest thou _utter_ folly."--_Ib._ "Though a liar _speak_ the truth, he will hardly be believed."--_Bartlett cor._ "I will go, unless I _be_ ill."--_L. Murray cor._ "If the word or words understood _be_ supplied, the true construction will be apparent."--_Id._ "Unless thou _see_ the propriety of the measure, we shall not desire thy support."--_Id._ "Unless thou _make_ a timely retreat, the danger will be unavoidable."--_Id._ "We may live happily, though our possessions _be_ small."--_Id._ "If they _be_ carefully studied, they will enable the student to parse all the exercises."--_Id._ "If the accent _be_ fairly preserved on the proper syllable, this drawling sound will never be heard."--_Id._ "One phrase may, in point of sense, be equivalent to an other, though its grammatical nature _be_ essentially different."--_Id._ "If any man _obey_ not our word by this epistle, note that man."--_2 Thess._, iii, 14. "Thy skill will be the greater, if thou _hit_ it."--_Putnam, Cobb, or Knowles, cor._ "We shall overtake him, though he _run_."--_Priestley et al. cor._ "We shall be disgusted, if he _give_ us too much."--_Blair cor._ "What is't to thee, if he _neglect_ thy urn, Or without spices _let_ thy body burn?"--_Dryden cor._ _Second Clause of Note IX.--The Subjunctive Imperfect_.[540] "And so would I, if I _were_ he."--_Inst._, p. 191. "If I _were_ a Greek, I should resist Turkish despotism."--_Cardell cor._ "If he _were_ to go, he would attend to your business."--_Id._ "If thou _felt_ as I do, we should soon decide."--_Inst._, p. 280. "Though thou _shed_ thy blood in the cause, it would but prove thee sincerely a fool."--_Ib._ "If thou _loved_ him, there would be more evidence of it."--_Ib._ "If thou _convinced_ him, he would not act accordingly."--_Murray cor._ "If there _were_ no liberty, there would be no real crime."--_Formey cor._ "If the house _were_ burnt down, the case would be the same."--_Foster cor._ "As if the mind _were_ not always in action, when it prefers any thing."--_West cor._ "Suppose I _were_ to say, 'Light is a body.'"--_Harris cor._ "If either oxygen or azote _were_ omitted, life would be destroyed."--_Gurney cor._ "The verb _dare is_ sometimes used as if it _were_ an auxiliary."--_Priestley cor._ "A certain lady, whom I could name, if it _were_ necessary."--_Spect. cor._ "If the _e were_ dropped, _c_ and _g_ would assume their hard sounds."--_Buchanan cor._ "He would no more comprehend it, than if it _were_ the speech of a Hottentot."--_Neef cor._ "If thou _knew_ the gift of God," &c.--_Bible cor._ "I wish I _were_ at home."--_O. B. Peirce cor._ "Fact alone does not constitute right: if it _did_, general warrants were lawful."--_Junius cor._ "Thou _lookst_ upon thy boy, as though thou _guessed_ it."--_Putnam, Cobb, or Knowles, cor._ "He fought as if he _contended_ for life."--_Hiley cor._ "He fought as if he _were contending_ for his life."--_Id._ "The dewdrop glistens on thy leaf, As if thou _shed for me_ a tear; As if thou _knew_ my tale of grief, _Felt_ all my sufferings severe."--_Letham cor._ _Last Clause of Note IX.--The Indicative Mood_. "If he _knows_ the way, he does not need a guide."--_Inst._, p. 191. "And if there _is_ no difference, one of them must be superfluous, and ought to be rejected."--_Murray cor._ "I cannot say that I admire this construction though it _is_ much used."--_Priestley cor._ "We are disappointed, if the verb _does_ not immediately follow it."--_Id._ "If it _was_ they, _that_ acted so ungratefully, they are doubly in fault."--_Murray cor._ "If art _becomes_ apparent, it disgusts the reader."--_Jamieson cor._ "Though perspicuity _is_ more properly a rhetorical than a grammatical quality, I thought it better to include it in this book."--_Campbell cor._ "Although the efficient cause _is_ obscure, the final cause of those sensations lies open."--_Blair cor._ "Although the barrenness of language, or the want of words, _is_ doubtless one cause of the invention of tropes."--_Id._ "Though it _enforces_ not its instructions, yet it furnishes a greater variety."--_Id._ "In other cases, though the idea _is_ one, the words remain quite separate."--_Priestley cor._ "Though the form of our language _is_ more simple, and has that peculiar beauty."--_Buchanan cor._ "Human works are of no significancy till they _are_ completed."--_Kames cor._ "Our disgust lessens gradually till it _vanishes_ altogether."--_Id._ "And our relish improves by use, till it _arrives_ at perfection."--_Id._ "So long as he _keeps_ himself in his own proper element."--_Coke cor._ "Whether this translation _was_ ever published or not, I am wholly ignorant."--_Sale cor._ "It is false to affirm, 'As it is day, it is light,' unless it actually _is_ day."--_Harris cor._ "But we may at midnight affirm, 'If it _is_ day, it is light.'"--_Id._ "If the Bible _is_ true, it is a volume of unspeakable interest."--_Dickinson cor._ "Though he _was_ a son, yet learned he obedience by the things which he suffered."--_Bible cor._ "If David then _calleth_ (or _calls_) him Lord, how is he his son?"--_Id._ "'Tis hard to say, if greater want of skill _Appears_ in writing, or in judging, ill."--_Pope cor._ UNDER NOTE X.--FALSE SUBJUNCTIVES. "If a man _has built_ a house, the house is his."--_Wayland cor._ "If God _has required_ them of him, as is the fact, he has time."--_Id._ "Unless a previous understanding to the contrary _has been had_ with the principal."--_Berrian cor._ "O! if thou _hast hid_ them in some flowery cave."--_Milton cor._ "O! if Jove's will _has linked_ that amorous power to thy soft lay."--_Id._ "SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD: If thou love, If thou loved."--_Dr. Priestley, Dr. Murray, John Burn, David Blair, Harrison, and others_. "Till Religion, the pilot of the soul, _hath_ lent thee her unfathomable coil."--_Tupper cor._ "Whether nature or art _contributes_ most to form an orator, is a trifling inquiry."--_Blair cor._ "Year after year steals something from us, till the decaying fabric _totters_ of itself, and _at length crumbles_ into dust."--_Murray cor._ "If spiritual pride _has_ not entirely vanquished humility."--_West cor._ "Whether he _has_ gored a son, or _has_ gored a daughter."--_Bible cor._ "It is doubtful whether the object introduced by way of simile, _relates_ to what goes before or to what follows."--_Kames cor._ "And bridle in thy headlong wave, Till thou our summons answer'd _hast_." Or:-- "And bridle in thy headlong wave, Till thou _hast granted what we crave_."--_Milt. cor._ CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE XV AND ITS NOTE. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.--THE IDEA OF PLURALITY. "The gentry _are_ punctilious in their etiquette."--_G. B_. "In France, the peasantry _go_ barefoot, and the middle sort _make_ use of wooden shoes."--_Harvey cor._ "The people _rejoice_ in that which should cause sorrow."--_Murray varied_. "My people _are_ foolish, they have not known me."--_Bible and Lowth cor._ "For the people _speak_, but _do_ not write."--_Phil. Mu. cor._ "So that all the people that _were_ in the camp, trembled."--_Bible cor._ "No company _like_ to confess that they are ignorant."--_Todd cor._ "Far the greater part of their captives _were_ anciently sacrificed."--_Robertson cor._ "_More than_ one half of them _were_ cut off before the return of spring."--_Id._ "The other class, termed Figures of Thought, _suppose_ the words to be used in their proper and literal meaning."--_Blair and Mur. cor._ "A multitude of words in their dialect _approach_ to the Teutonic form, and therefore afford excellent assistance."--_Dr. Murray cor._ "A great majority of our authors _are_ defective in manner."--_J. Brown cor._ "The greater part of these new-coined words _have_ been rejected."--_Tooke cor._ "The greater part of the words it contains, _are_ subject to certain modifications _or_ inflections."--_The Friend cor._ "While all our youth _prefer_ her to the rest."--_Waller cor._ "Mankind _are_ appointed to live in a future state."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "The greater part of human kind _speak_ and _act_ wholly by imitation."--_Rambler_, No. 146. "The greatest part of human gratifications _approach_ so nearly to vice."--_Id._, No. 160. "While still the busy world _are_ treading o'er The paths they trod five thousand years before."--_Young cor._ UNDER THE NOTE.--THE IDEA OF UNITY. "In old English, this species of words _was_ numerous."--_Dr. Murray cor._ "And a series of exercises in false grammar _is_ introduced towards the end."--_Frost cor._ "And a jury, in conformity with the same idea, _was_ anciently called _homagium_, the homage, or manhood."--_Webster cor._ "With respect to the former, there _is_ indeed _a_ plenty of means."--_Kames cor._ "The number of school districts _has_ increased since the last year."--_Throop cor._ "The Yearly Meeting _has_ purchased with its funds these publications."--_Foster cor._ "_Has_ the legislature power to prohibit assemblies?"--_Sullivan cor._ "So that the whole number of the streets _was_ fifty."--_Rollin cor._ "The number of inhabitants _was_ not more than four millions."--_Smollett cor._ "The house of Commons _was_ of small weight."--_Hume cor._ "The assembly of the wicked _hath_ (or _has_) inclosed me."--_Psal. cor._ "Every kind of convenience and comfort _is_ provided."--_C. S. Journal cor._ "Amidst the great decrease of the inhabitants in Spain, the body of the clergy _has_ suffered no diminution; but _it_ has rather been gradually increasing."--_Payne cor._ "Small as the number of inhabitants _is_, yet their poverty is extreme."--_Id._ "The number of the names _was_ about one hundred and twenty."--_Ware and Acts cor._ CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE XVI AND ITS NOTES. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF--THE VERB AFTER JOINT NOMINATIVES. "So much ability and [so much] merit _are_ seldom found."--_Mur. et al. cor._ "The _etymology and syntax_ of the language _are_ thus spread before the learner."--_Bullions cor._ "Dr. Johnson tells us, that, in English poetry, the accent and the quantity of syllables _are_ the same thing."--_Adams cor._ "Their general scope and tendency, having never been clearly apprehended, _are_ not remembered at all."--_L. Murray cor._ "The soil and sovereignty _were_ not purchased of the natives."--_Knapp cor._ "The boldness, freedom, and variety, of our blank verse, _are_ infinitely more favourable to _sublimity of style_, than [are the constraint and uniformity of] rhyme."--_Blair cor._ "The vivacity and sensibility of the Greeks _seem_ to have been much greater than ours."--_Id._ "For sometimes the mood and tense _are_ signified by the verb, sometimes they are signified of the verb by something else."--_R. Johnson cor._ "The verb and the noun making a complete sense, _whereas_ the participle and the noun _do_ not."--_Id._ "The growth and decay of passions and emotions, traced through all their mazes, _are_ a subject too extensive for an undertaking like the present."--_Kames cor._ "The true meaning and etymology of some of his words _were_ lost."--_Knight cor._ "When the force and direction of personal satire _are_ no longer understood."--_Junius cor._ "The frame and condition of man _admit_ of no other principle."--_Dr. Brown cor._ "Some considerable time and care _were_ necessary."--_Id._ "In consequence of this idea, much ridicule and censure _have_ been thrown upon Milton."--_Blair cor._ "With rational beings, nature and reason _are_ the same thing."--_Collier cor._ "And the flax and the barley _were_ smitten."--_Bible cor._ "The colon and semicolon _divide_ a period; this with, and that without, a connective."--_Ware cor._ "Consequently, wherever space and time _are_ found, there God must also be."--_Newton cor._ "As the past tense and perfect participle of LOVE _end_ in ED, it is regular."--_Chandler cor._ "But the usual arrangement and nomenclature _prevent_ this from being readily seen."--_N. Butler cor._ "_Do_ and _did_ simply _imply_ opposition or emphasis."--_A. Murray cor._ "_I_ and _an other_ make the plural WE; _thou_ and _an other are equivalent to_ YE; _he, she_, or _it_, and _an other_, make THEY."--_Id._ "_I_ and _an other_ or _others are_ the same as WE, the first person plural; _thou_ and _an other_ or _others are_ the same as YE, the second person plural; _he, she_, or _it_, and _an other_ or _others, are_ the same as THEY, the third person plural."--_Buchanan and Brit. Gram. cor._ "God and thou _are_ two, and thou and thy neighbour are two."--_Love Conquest cor._ "Just as AN and A _have_ arisen out of the numeral ONE."--_Fowler cor._ "The tone and style of _all_ of them, particularly _of_ the first and the last, _are_ very different."--_Blair cor._ "Even as the roebuck and the hart _are_ eaten."--_Bible cor._ "Then I may conclude that two and three _do not make_ five."--_Barclay cor._ "Which, at sundry times, thou and thy brethren _have_ received from us."--_Id._ "Two and two _are_ four, and one is five:" i, e., "and _one, added to four, is five_."--_Pope cor._ "Humility and knowledge with poor apparel, _excel_ pride and ignorance under costly array."--See _Murray's Key_, Rule 2d. "A page and a half _have_ been added to the section on composition."--_Bullions cor._ "Accuracy and expertness in this exercise _are_ an important acquisition."--_Id._ "Woods and groves are of thy dressing, Hill and dale _proclaim_ thy blessing." Or thus:-- "Hill and _valley_ boast thy blessing."--_Milton cor._ UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.--THE VERB BEFORE JOINT NOMINATIVES. "There _are_ a good and a bad, a right and a wrong, in taste, as in other things."--_Blair cor._ "Whence _have_ arisen much stiffness and affectation."--_Id._ "To this error, _are_ owing, in a great measure, that intricacy and [that] harshness, in his figurative language, which I before _noticed_."--_Blair and Jamieson cor._ "Hence, in his Night Thoughts, there _prevail_ an obscurity and _a_ hardness _of_ style."--_Blair cor._ See _Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 167. "There _are_, however, in that work, much good sense and excellent criticism."--_Blair cor._ "There _are_ too much low wit and scurrility in Plautus." Or: "There _is, in Plautus_, too much _of_ low wit and scurrility."--_Id._ "There _are_ too much reasoning and refinement, too much pomp and studied beauty, in them." Or: "There _is_ too much _of_ reasoning and refinement, too much _of_ pomp and studied beauty, in them."--_Id._ "Hence _arise_ the structure and characteristic expression of exclamation."--_Rush cor._ "And such pilots _are_ he and his brethren, according to their own confession."--_Barclay cor._ "Of whom _are_ Hymeneus and Philetus; who concerning the truth have erred."--_Bible cor._ "Of whom _are_ Hymeneus and Alexander; whom I have delivered unto Satan."--_Id._ "And so _were_ James and John, the sons of Zebedee."--_Id._ "Out of the same mouth, _proceed_ blessing and cursing."--_Id._ "Out of the mouth of the Most High, _proceed_ not evil and good."--_Id._ "In which there _are_ most plainly a right and a wrong."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "In this sentence, there _are_ both an actor and an object."--_R. C. Smith cor._ "In the breastplate, _were_ placed the mysterious Urim and Thummim."--_Milman cor._ "What _are_ the gender, number, and person, _of the pronoun_[541] in the first _example_?"--_R. C. Smith cor._ "There _seem_ to be a familiarity and _a_ want of dignity in it."--_Priestley cor._ "It has been often asked, what _are_ Latin and Greek?"--_Lit. Journal cor._ "For where _do_ beauty and high wit, But in your constellation, meet?"--_Sam. Butler cor._ "Thence to the land where _flow_ Ganges and Indus."--_Milton cor._ "On these foundations, _seem_ to rest the midnight riot and dissipation of modern assemblies."--_Dr. Brown cor._ "But what _have_ disease, deformity, and filth, upon which the thoughts can be allured to dwell?"--_Dr. Johnson cor._ "How _are_ the gender and number of the relative known?"--_Bullions cor._ "High rides the sun, thick rolls the dust, And feebler _speed_ the blow and thrust."--_Scott cor._ UNDER NOTE I.--CHANGE THE CONNECTIVE. "In every language, there prevails a certain structure, _or_ analogy of parts, which is understood to give foundation to the most reputable usage."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "There runs through his whole manner a stiffness, _an_ affectation, which renders him [Shaftsbury] very unfit to be considered a general model."--_Id._ "But where declamation _for_ improvement in speech is the sole aim."--_Id._ "For it is by these, chiefly, that the train of thought, the course of reasoning, the whole progress of the mind, in continued discourse of _any kind_, is laid open."--_Lowth cor._ "In all writing and discourse, the proper composition _or_ structure of sentences is of the highest importance."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Here the wishful _and expectant_ look of the beggar naturally leads to a vivid conception of that which was the object of his thoughts."--_Campbell cor._ "Who say, that the outward naming of Christ, _with the sign of_ the cross, puts away devils."--_Barclay cor._ "By which an oath _with a_ penalty was to be imposed _on_ the members."--_Junius cor._ "Light, _or_ knowledge, in what manner soever afforded us, is equally from God."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "For instance, sickness _or_ untimely death is the consequence of intemperance."--_Id._ "When grief _or_ blood ill-tempered _vexeth_ him." Or: "When grief, _with_ blood ill-tempered, _vexes_ him"--_Shak. cor._ "Does continuity, _or_ connexion, create sympathy and relation in the parts of the body?"--_Collier cor._ "His greatest concern, _his_ highest enjoyment, was, to be approved in the sight of his Creator."--_L. Murray cor._ "Know ye not that there is[542] a prince, a great man, fallen this day in Israel?"--_Bible cor._ "What is vice, _or_ wickedness? No rarity, you may depend on it."--_Collier cor._ "There is also the fear _or_ apprehension of it."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "The apostrophe _with s_ (_'s_) is an abbreviation for _is_, the termination of the old English genitive."--_Bullions cor._ "_Ti, ce_, OR _ci_, when followed by a vowel, usually has the sound of _sh_; as in _partial, ocean, special_."--_Weld cor._ "Bitter constraint _of_ sad occasion dear Compels me to disturb your season due."--_Milton cor._ "_Debauch'ry, or_ excess, though with less noise, As great a portion of mankind destroys."--_Waller cor._ UNDER NOTE II.--AFFIRMATION WITH NEGATION. "Wisdom, and not wealth, _procures_ esteem."--_Inst., Key_, p. 272. "Prudence, and not pomp, _is_ the basis of his fame."--_Ib._ "Not fear, but labour _has_ overcome him."--_Ib._ "The decency, and not the abstinence, _makes_ the difference."--_Ib._ "Not her beauty, but her talents _attract_ attention."--_Ib._ "It is her talents, and not her beauty, _that attract_ attention."--_Ib._ "It is her beauty, and not her talents, _that attracts_ attention."--_Ib._ "His belly, not his brains, this impulse _gives_: He'll grow immortal; for he cannot live." Or thus:-- "His _bowels_, not his brains, this impulse give: He'll grow immortal; for he cannot live."--_Young cor._ UNDER NOTE III.--AS WELL AS, BUT, OR SAVE. "Common sense, as well as piety, _tells_ us these are proper."--_Fam. Com. cor._ "For without it the critic, as well as the undertaker, ignorant of any rule, _has_ nothing left but to abandon _himself_ to chance."--_Kames cor._ "And accordingly hatred, as well as love, _is_ extinguished by long absence'."--_Id._ "But at every turn the richest melody, as well as the sublimest sentiments, _is_ conspicuous."--_Id._ "But it, as well as the lines immediately subsequent, _defies_ all translation."--_Coleridge cor._ "But their religion, as well as their customs and manners, _was_ strangely misrepresented."--_Bolingbroke, on History_, Paris Edition of 1808, p. 93. "But his jealous policy, as well as the fatal antipathy of Fonseca, _was_ conspicuous."--_Robertson cor._ "When their extent, as well as their value, _was_ unknown."--_Id._ "The etymology, as well as the syntax, of the more difficult parts of speech, _is_ reserved for his attention at a later period."--_Parker and Fox cor._ "What I myself owe to him, no one but myself _knows_."--_Wright cor._ "None, but thou, O mighty prince! _can_ avert the blow."--_Inst., Key_, p. 272. "Nothing, but frivolous amusements, _pleases_ the indolent."--_Ib._ "Nought, save the gurglings of the rill, _was_ heard."--_G. B._ "All songsters, save the hooting owl, _were_ mute."--_G. B._ UNDER NOTE IV.--EACH, EVERY, OR NO. "Give every word, and every member, _its_ due weight and force."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 316. "And to one of these _belongs_ every noun, and every third person of every verb."--_Dr. Wilson cor._ "No law, no restraint, no regulation, _is_ required to keep him _within_ bounds."--_Lit. Journal cor._ "By that time, every window and every door in the street _was_ full of heads."--_Observer cor._ "Every system of religion, and every school of philosophy, _stands_ back from this field, and _leaves_ Jesus Christ alone, the solitary example." Or: "_All systems_ of religion, and _all schools_ of philosophy, _stand_ back from this field, and _leave_ Jesus Christ alone, the solitary example."--_Abbott cor._ "Each day, and each hour, _brings its_ portion of duty."--_Inst., Key_, p. 272. "And every one that was in distress, and every one that was in debt, and every one that was discontented, _resorted_ unto him."--_Bible cor._ "Every private Christian, _every_ member of the church, ought to read and peruse the Scriptures, that _he_ may know _his_ faith and belief _to be_ founded upon them."--_Barclay cor._ "And every mountain and _every_ island was moved out of _its place_."--_Bible cor._ "No bandit fierce, no tyrant mad with pride, No cavern'd hermit _rests_ self-satisfied."--_Pope_. UNDER NOTE V.--WITH, OR, &c., FOR AND. "The _sides_, A, B, _and_ C, compose the triangle."--_Tobitt, Felch_, and _Ware cor._ "The stream, the rock, _and_ the tree, must each of them stand forth, so as to make a figure in the imagination."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "While this, with euphony, _constitutes_, finally, the whole."--_O. B. Peirce cor._ "The bag, with the guineas and dollars in it, _was_ stolen."--_Cobbett cor._ "Sobriety, with great industry and talent, _enables_ a man to perform great deeds." Or: "Sobriety, industry, and talent, _enable_ a man to perform great deeds."--_Id._ "The _it_, together with the verb, _expresses a state_ of being."--_Id._ "Where Leonidas the Spartan king, _and_ his chosen band, fighting for their country, were cut off to the last man."--_Kames cor._. "And Leah also, and _her_ children, came near and bowed themselves."--_Bible cor._ "The First _and_ the Second will either of them, by _itself_, coalesce with the Third, but _they do_ not _coalesce_ with each other."--_Harris cor._ "The whole must centre in the query, whether Tragedy _and_ Comedy are hurtful and dangerous representations."--_Formey cor._ "_Both_ grief _and_ joy are infectious: the emotions _which_ they raise in the spectator, resemble them perfectly."--_Kames cor._ "But, in all other words, the _q and u_ are both sounded."--_Ensell cor._ "_Q and u_ (which are always together) have the sound of _kw_, as in _queen_; or _of k only_, as in _opaque_." Or, better: "_Q_ has always the sound of _k_; and the _u_ which follows it, that of _w_; except in French words, in which the _u_ is silent."--_Goodenow cor._ "In this selection, the _a and i_ form distinct syllables."--_Walker cor._ "And a considerable village, with gardens, fields, &c., _extends_ around on each side of the square."--_Lib. cor._ "Affection _and_ interest guide our notions and behaviour in the affairs of life; imagination and passion affect the sentiments that we entertain in matters of taste."--_Jamieson cor._ "She heard none of those intimations of her defects, which envy, petulance, _and_ anger, produce among children."--_Johnson cor._ "The King, Lords, and Commons, constitute an excellent form of government."--_Crombie et al. cor._ "If we say, 'I am the man who commands you,' the relative clause, with the antecedent _man, forms_ the predicate."--_Crombie cor._ "The spacious firmament on high, The blue ethereal _vault_ of sky, And spangled heav'ns, a shining frame, Their great Original proclaim."--_Addison cor._ UNDER NOTE VI.--ELLIPTICAL CONSTRUCTIONS. "There _are_ a reputable and a disreputable practice." Or: "There is a reputable, and _there is_ a disreputable practice."--_Adams cor._ "This _man_ and this _were_ born in her."--_Milton cor._ "This _man_ and that _were_ born in her."--_Bible cor._ "This and that man _were_ born there."--_Hendrick cor._ "Thus _le_ in _l~ego_, and _le_ in _l=egi_, seem to be sounded equally long."--_Adam and Gould cor._ "A distinct and an accurate articulation _form_ the groundwork of good delivery." Or: "A distinct and accurate articulation _forms_ the groundwork of good delivery."--_Kirkham cor._ "How _are_ vocal and written language understood?"--_Sanders cor._ "The good, the wise, and the learned man, _are ornaments_ to human society." Or: "The good, wise, and learned man is an ornament to human society."--_Bartlett cor._ "_In_ some points, the expression of song and _that of_ speech _are_ identical."--_Rush cor._ "To every room, there _were_ an open and _a_ secret passage."--_Johnson cor._ "There _are_ such _things as a true_ and _a_ false taste; and the latter _as_ often directs fashion, _as_ the former."--_Webster cor._ "There _are_ such _things_ as a prudent and an imprudent institution of life, with regard to our health and our affairs."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "The lot of the outcasts of Israel, and _that of_ the dispersed of Judah, however different in one respect, have in an other corresponded with wonderful exactness."--_Hope of Israel cor._ "On these final syllables, the radical and _the_ vanishing movement _are_ performed."--_Rush cor._ "To be young or old, _and to be_ good, just, or the contrary, are physical or moral events."--_Spurzheim cor., and Felch._ "The eloquence of George Whitfield and _that_ of John Wesley _were_ very different _in_ character each from the other."--_Dr. Sharp cor._ "The affinity of _m_ for the series _beginning with b_, and _that_ of _n_ for the series _beginning with t_, give occasion for other euphonic changes."--_Fowler cor._ "Pylades' soul, and mad Orestes', _were_ In these, if _right the Greek philosopher_." Or thus:-- "Pylades' and Orestes' soul _did pass To_ these, if we believe Pythagoras." Or, without ellipsis:-- "Pylades and Orestes' _souls_ did pass To these, if we believe Pythagoras."--_Cowley corrected._ UNDER NOTE VII.--DISTINCT SUBJECT PHRASES. "To be moderate in our views, and to proceed temperately in the pursuit of them, _are_ the best _ways_ to ensure success."--_L. Murray cor._ "To be of any species, and to have a right to the name of that species, _are both_ one."--_Locke cor._ "With whom, to will, and to do, _are_ the same."--_Dr. Jamieson cor._ "To profess, and to possess, _are_ very different things."--_Inst., Key_, p. 272. "To do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly with God, _are_ duties of universal obligation."--_Ib._ "To be round or square, to be solid or fluid, to be large or small, and to be moved swiftly or slowly, _are_ all equally alien from the nature of thought."--_Dr. Johnson._ "The resolving of a sentence into its elements, or parts of speech, and [_a_] stating [_of_] the accidents which belong to these, _are_ called PARSING." Or, according to Note 1st above: "The resolving of a sentence into its elements, or parts of speech, _with_ [a] stating [of] the accidents which belong to these, _is_ called PARSING."--_Bullions cor._ "To spin and to weave, to knit and to sew, _were_ once a girl's _employments_; but now, to dress, and _to_ catch a beau, _are_ all she calls _enjoyments_."--_Kimball cor._ CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE XVII AND ITS NOTES. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.--NOMINATIVES CONNECTED BY OR. "We do not know in what either reason or instinct _consists_."--_Johnson corrected._ "A noun or a pronoun joined with a participle, _constitutes_ a nominative case absolute."--_Bicknell cor._ "The relative will be of that case which the verb or noun following, or the preposition going before, _uses_ to govern:" or,--"usually _governs_."--_Adam, Gould, et al., cor._ "In the different modes of pronunciation, which habit or caprice _gives_ rise to."--_Knight cor._ "By which he, or his deputy, _was_ authorized to cut down any trees in Whittlebury forest."--_Junius cor._ "Wherever objects were named, in which sound, noise, or motion, _was_ concerned, the imitation by words was abundantly obvious."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "The pleasure or pain resulting from a train of perceptions in different circumstances, _is_ a beautiful contrivance of nature for valuable purposes."--_Kames cor._ "Because their foolish vanity, or their criminal ambition, _represents_ the principles by which they are influenced, as absolutely perfect."--_D. Boileau cor._ "Hence naturally _arises_ indifference or aversion between the parties."--_Dr. Brown cor._ "A penitent unbeliever, or an impenitent believer, _is a character nowhere_ to be found."--_Tract cor._ "Copying whatever is peculiar in the talk of all those whose birth or fortune _entitles_ them to imitation."--_Johnson cor._ "Where love, hatred, fear, or contempt, _is_ often of decisive influence."--_Duncan cor._ "A lucky anecdote, or an enlivening tale, _relieves_ the folio page."--_D'Israeli cor._ "For outward matter or event _fashions_ not the character within." Or: (according to the antique style of this modern book of proverbs:)--"_fashioneth_ not the character within."--_Tupper cor._ "Yet sometimes we have seen that wine, or chance, _has_ warmed cold brains."--_Dryden cor._ "Motion is a genus; flight, a species; this flight or that flight _is an individual_."--_Harris cor._ "When _et, aut, vel, sive_, or _nec, is repeated before_ different members of the same sentence."--_Adam, Gould, and Grant, cor._ "Wisdom or folly _governs_ us."--_Fisk cor._ "_A_ or _an is_ styled _the_ indefinite article"--_Folker cor._ "A rusty nail, or a crooked pin, _shoots_ up into _a prodigy_."--_Spect. cor._ "_Is_ either the subject or the predicate in the second sentence modified?"--_Prof. Fowler cor._ "Praise from a friend, or censure from a foe, _Is_ lost on hearers that our merits know."--_Pope cor._ UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.--NOMINATIVES CONNECTED BY NOR. "Neither he nor she _has_ spoken to him."--_Perrin cor._ "For want of a process of events, neither knowledge nor elegance _preserves_ the reader from weariness."--_Johnson cor._ "Neither history nor tradition _furnishes_ such information."--_Robertson cor._ "Neither the form nor _the_ power of the liquids _has_ varied materially."--_Knight cor._ "Where neither noise nor motion _is_ concerned."--_Blair cor._ "Neither Charles nor his brother _was_ qualified to support such a system."--_Junius cor._ "When, therefore, neither the liveliness of representation, nor the warmth of passion _serves_, as it were, to cover the trespass, it is not safe to leave the beaten track."--_Campbell cor._ "In many countries called Christian, neither Christianity, nor its evidence, _is_ fairly laid before men."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "Neither the intellect nor the heart _is_ capable of being driven."--_Abbott cor._ "Throughout this hymn, neither Apollo nor Diana _is_ in any way connected with the Sun or Moon."--_Coleridge cor._ "Of which, neither he, nor this grammar, _takes_ any notice."--_R. Johnson cor._ "Neither their solicitude nor their foresight _extends_ so far."--_Robertson cor._ "Neither Gomara, nor Oviedo, nor Herrera, _considers_ Ojeda, or his companion Vespucci, as the first _discoverer_ of the continent of America."--_Id._ "Neither the general situation of our colonies, nor that particular distress which forced the inhabitants of Boston to take up arms, _has_ been thought worthy of a moment's consideration."--_Junius cor._ "Nor war nor wisdom _yields_ our Jews delight, They will not study, and they dare not fight."--_Crabbe cor._ "Nor time nor chance _breeds_ such confusions yet, Nor are the mean so rais'd, nor sunk the great."--_Rowe cor._ UNDER NOTE I.--NOMINATIVES THAT DISAGREE. "The definite article, _the_, designates what particular thing or things _are_ meant."--_Merchant cor._ "Sometimes a word, or _several_ words, necessary to complete the grammatical construction of a sentence, _are_ not expressed, but _are_ omitted by ellipsis."--_Burr cor._ "Ellipsis, (better, _Ellipses_,) or abbreviations, _are_ the wheels of language."--_Maunder cor._ "The conditions or tenor of none of them _appears_ at this day." Or: "The _tenor or conditions_ of none of them _appear_ at this day."-- _Hutchinson cor._ "Neither men nor money _was_ wanting for the service." Or: "Neither _money nor men were_ wanting for the service."--_Id._ "Either our own feelings, or the representation of those of others, _requires_ emphatic distinction _to be frequent_."--_Dr. Barber cor._ "Either Atoms and Chance, or Nature, _is_ uppermost: now I am for the latter part of the disjunction."--_Collier cor._ "Their riches or poverty _is_ generally proportioned to their activity or indolence."--_Cox cor._ "Concerning the other part of him, neither _he nor you_ seem to have entertained an idea."--_Horne cor._ "Whose earnings or income _is_ so small."--_Discip. cor._ "Neither riches nor fame _renders_ a man happy."--_Day cor._ "The references to the pages always point to the first volume, unless the Exercises or Key _is_ mentioned." Or, better:--"unless _mention is made of_ the Exercises or Key." Or: "unless the Exercises or Key _be named_."--_L. Murray cor._ UNDER NOTE II.--COMPLETE THE CONCORD. "My lord, you wrong my father; _neither is_ he, nor _am_ I, capable of harbouring a thought against your peace."--_Walpole cor._ "There was no division of acts; _there were_ no pauses, or _intervals, in the performance_; but the stage was continually full; occupied either by the actors, or _by_ the chorus."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Every word ending in _b, p_, or _f, is_ of this order, as also _are_ many _that end_ in _v_."--_Dr. Murray cor._ "Proud as we are of human reason, nothing can be more absurd than _is_ the general system of human life and human knowledge."-- _Bolingbroke cor._ "By which the body of sin and death is done away, and we _are_ cleansed."--_Barclay_ cor. "And those were already converted, and regeneration _was_ begun in them."--_Id._ "For I am an old man, and my wife _is_ well _advanced_ in years."--_Bible cor._ "Who is my mother? or _who are_ my brethren?"--See _Matt._, xii, 48. "Lebanon is not sufficient to burn, nor _are_ the beasts thereof sufficient for a burnt-offering."-- _Bible cor._ "Information has been obtained, and some trials _have been_ made."--_Martineau cor._ "It is as obvious, and its causes _are_ more easily understood."--_Webster cor._ "All languages furnish examples of this kind, and the English _contains_ as many as any other."--_Priestley cor._ "The winters are long, and the cold _is_ intense."--_Morse cor._ "How have I hated instruction, and _how hath_ my heart despised reproof!"--_Prov. cor._ "The vestals were abolished by Theodosius the Great, and the fire of Vesta _was_ extinguished."--_Lempriere cor._ "Riches beget pride; pride _begets_ impatience."--_Bullions cor._ "Grammar is not reasoning, any more than organization is thought, or letters _are_ sounds."--_Enclytica cor._ "Words are implements, and grammar _is_ a machine."--_Id._ UNDER NOTE III.--PLACE OF THE FIRST PERSON. "_Thou or I_ must undertake the business."--_L. Murray cor._ "_He and I_ were there."--_Ash cor._ "And we dreamed a dream in one night, _he and I_."--_Bible cor._ "If my views remain the same as _his and mine_ were in 1833."--_Goodell cor._ "_My father and I_ were riding out."--_Inst., Key_, p. 273. "The premiums were given to _George and me_."--_Ib._ "_Jane and I_ are invited."--_Ib._ "They ought to invite _my sister and me_."--_Ib._ "_You and I_ intend to go."--_Guy cor._ "_John and I_ are going to town."--_Brit. Gram. cor._ "_He and I are_ sick."--_James Brown cor._ "_Thou and I_ are well."--_Id._ "_He and I are_."--_Id._ "_Thou and I are_."--_Id._ "_He, and I write_."--_Id._ "_They and I_ are well."--_Id._ "_She, and thou, and I_, were walking."--_Id._ UNDER NOTE IV.--DISTINCT SUBJECT PHRASES. "To practise tale-bearing, or even to countenance it, _is_ great injustice."--_Inst., Key_, p. 273. "To reveal secrets, or to betray one's friends, _is_ contemptible perfidy."--_Id._ "To write all substantives with capital letters, or to exclude _capitals_ from adjectives derived from proper names, may perhaps be thought _an offence_ too small for animadversion; but the evil of innovation is always something."--_Dr. Barrow cor._ "To live in such families, or to have such servants, _is a blessing_ from God."--_Fam. Com. cor._ "How they portioned out the country, what revolutions they experienced, _or_ what wars they maintained, _is_ utterly unknown." Or: "How they portioned out the country, what revolutions they experienced, _and_ what wars they maintained, _are things_ utterly unknown."--_Goldsmith cor._ "To speak or to write perspicuously and agreeably, _is an attainment_ of the utmost consequence to all who purpose, either by speech or _by_ writing, to address the public."--_Dr. Blair cor._ UNDER NOTE V.--MAKE THE VERBS AGREE. "Doth he not leave the ninety and nine, and _go_ into the mountains, and _seek_ that which is gone astray?"--_Bible cor._ "Did he not fear the Lord, and _beseech_ the Lord, and _did not_ the Lord _repent_ of the evil which he had pronounced?"--_Id._ "And dost thou open thine eyes upon such _a_ one, and _bring_ me into judgement with thee?"--_Id._ "If any man among you _seemeth_ to be religious, and bridleth not his tongue, but deceiveth his own heart, this man's religion is vain."--_Id._ "If thou sell aught unto thy neighbour, or _buy_ aught of thy neighbour's hand, ye shall not oppress one an other."--_Id._ "And if thy brother that dwelleth by thee, _become_ poor, and be sold to thee, thou shalt not compel him to serve as a bond-servant."--_Id._ "If thou bring thy gift to the altar, and there _remember_ that thy brother hath aught against thee," &c.--_Id._ "Anthea was content to call a coach, and _so to cross_ the brook." Or:--"and _in that she crossed_ the brook."--_Johnson cor._ "It is either totally suppressed, or _manifested only_ in its lowest and most imperfect form."--_Blair cor._ "But if any man _is_ a worshiper of God, and doeth his will, him he heareth." Or: "If any man _be_ a worshiper of God, and _do_ his will, him _will_ he _hear_."--_Bible cor._ "Whereby his righteousness and obedience, death and sufferings without, become profitable unto us, and _are made_ ours."--_Barclay cor._ "Who ought to have been here before thee, and _to have objected_, if they had _any thing_ against me."--_Bible cor._ "Yes! thy proud lords, unpitied land, shall see, That man _has_ yet a soul, and _dares_ be free."--_Campbell cor._ UNDER NOTE VI.--USE SEPARATE NOMINATIVES. "_H_ is only an aspiration, or breathing; and sometimes, at the beginning of a word, _it_ is not sounded at all."--_Lowth cor._ "Man was made for society, and _he_ ought to extend his good will to all men."--_Id._ "There is, and must be, a Supreme Being, of infinite goodness, power, and wisdom, who created, and _who_ supports them."--_Beattie cor._ "Were you not affrighted, and _did you not mistake_ a spirit for a body?"--_Bp. Watson cor._ "The latter noun or pronoun is not governed by the conjunction _than_ or _as_, but _it either_ agrees with the verb, or is governed by the verb or the preposition, expressed or understood."--_Mur. et al. cor._ "He had mistaken his true _interest_, and _he_ found himself forsaken."--_Murray cor._ "The amputation was exceedingly well performed, and _it_ saved the patient's life."--_Id._ "The intentions of some of these philosophers, nay, of many, might have been, and probably _they_ were, good."--_Id._ "This may be true, and yet _it_ will not justify the practice."--_Webster cor._ "From the practice of those who have had a liberal education, and _who_ are therefore presumed to be best acquainted with men and things."--_Campbell cor._ "For those energies and bounties which created, and _which_ preserve, the universe."--_J. Q. Adams cor._ "I shall make it once for all, and _I_ hope it will be remembered."--_Blair cor._ "This consequence is drawn too abruptly. _The argument_ needed more explanation." Or: "This consequence is drawn too abruptly, and _without sufficient_ explanation."--_Id._ "They must be used with more caution, and _they_ require more preparation."--_Id._ "The apostrophe denotes the omission of an _i_, which was formerly inserted, and _which_ made an addition of a syllable to the word."--_Priestley cor._ "The succession may be rendered more various or more uniform, but, in one shape or an other, _it_ is unavoidable."--_Kames cor._ "It excites neither terror nor compassion; nor is _it_ agreeable in any respect."--_Id._ "Cheap vulgar arts, whose narrowness affords No flight for thoughts,--_they_ poorly stick at words."--_Denham cor._ UNDER NOTE VII.--MIXTURE OF DIFFERENT STYLES. "Let us read the living page, whose every character _delights_ and instructs us."--_Maunder cor._ "For if it _is_ in any degree obscure, it puzzles, and _does_ not please."--_Kames cor._ "When a speaker _addresses_ himself to the understanding, he proposes the instruction of his hearers."--_Campbell cor._ "As the wine which strengthens and _refreshes_ the heart."--_H. Adams cor._ "This truth he _wraps_ in an allegory, and feigns that one of the goddesses had taken up her abode with the other."--_Pope cor._ "God searcheth and _understandeth_ the heart." Or: "God _searches_ and _understands_ the heart."--_T. à. Kempis cor._ "The grace of God, that _bringeth_ salvation, hath appeared to all men."--_Titus_, ii, 11. "Which things also we speak, not in the words which man's wisdom _teacheth_, but which the Holy Ghost teacheth."--_1 Cor._, ii, 13. "But he _has_ an objection, which he _urges_, and by which he thinks to overturn all."--_Barclay cor._ "In that it gives them not that comfort and joy which it _gives to_ them who love it."--_Id._ "Thou here misunderstood the place and _misapplied_ it." Or: "Thou here _misunderstoodst_ the place and _misappliedst_ it."--_Id._ Or: (as many of our grammarians will have it:) "Thou here _misunderstoodest_ the place and _misappliedst_ it."--_Id._ "Like the barren heath in the desert, which knoweth not when good _cometh_."--See _Jer._, xvii, 6. "It _speaks_ of the time past, _and shows_ that something was then doing, but not quite finished."--_Devis cor._ "It subsists in spite of them; it _advances_ unobserved."--_Pascal cor._ "But where is he, the pilgrim of my song?-- Methinks he _lingers_ late and tarries long."--_Byron cor._ UNDER NOTE VIII.--CONFUSION OF MOODS. "If a man _have_ a hundred sheep, and one of them _go_ (or _be gone_) astray," &c.--_Matt._, xviii, 12. Or: "If a man _has_ a hundred sheep, and one of them _goes_ (or _is gone_) astray," &c. Or: "If a man _hath_ a hundred sheep, and one of them _goeth_ (or _is gone_) astray," &c.--_Kirkham cor._ "As a speaker _advances_ in his discourse, and _increases_ in energy and earnestness, a higher and a louder tone will naturally steal upon him."--_Id._ "If one man _esteem one_ day above an other, and an other _esteem_ every day alike; let every man be fully persuaded in his own mind."--_Barclay cor._ See _Rom._, xiv, 5. "If there be but one body of legislators, it _will be_ no better than a tyranny; if there _be_ only two, there will want a casting voice."--_Addison cor._ "Should you come up this way, and I _be_ still here, you need not be assured how glad I _should_ be to see you."--_Byron cor._ "If he repent and _become_ holy, let him enjoy God and heaven."--_Brownson cor._ "If thy fellow approach thee, naked and destitute, and thou _say_ unto him, 'Depart in peace, be warmed and filled,' and yet _thou give_ him not those things _which_ are needful to him, what benevolence is there in thy conduct?"--_Kirkham cor._ "Get on your nightgown, lest occasion _call_ us, And _show_ us to be watchers."--_Singer's Shakspeare_. "But if it _climb_, with your assisting _hand_, The Trojan walls, and in the city _stand_."--_Dryden cor._ ----------------"Though Heaven's King _Ride_ on thy wings, and thou with thy compeers, Used to the yoke, _draw_ his triumphant wheels."--_Milton cor._ UNDER NOTE IX.--IMPROPER ELLIPSES. "Indeed we have seriously wondered that Murray should leave some things as he has _left them_."--_Reporter cor._ "Which they neither have _done_ nor can do."--_Barclay cor._ "The Lord hath _revealed_, and doth and will reveal, his will to his people; and hath _raised up_, and doth raise up, members of his body," &c.--_Id._ "We see, then, that the Lord hath _given_, and doth give, such."--_Id._ "Towards those that have _declared_, or do declare, themselves members."--_Id._ "For which we can _give_, and have given, our sufficient reasons."--_Id._ "When we mention the several properties of the different words in sentences, as we have _mentioned_ those of _the word William's_ above, what is the exercise called?"--_R. C. Smith cor._ "It is however to be doubted, whether this Greek idiom ever has _obtained_, or _ever_ will obtain, extensively, in English."--_Nutting cor._ "Why did not the Greeks and Romans abound in auxiliary words as much as we _do_?"--_Murray cor._ "Who delivers his sentiments in earnest, as they ought to be _delivered_ in order to move and persuade."--_Kirkham cor._ UNDER NOTE X.--DO, USED AS A SUBSTITUTE. "And I would avoid it altogether, if it could be _avoided_." Or: "I would avoid it altogether, if _to avoid_ it _were practicable_."--_Kames cor._ "Such a sentiment from a man expiring of his wounds, is truly heroic; and _it_ must elevate the mind to the greatest height _to which it can be raised_ by a single expression."--_Id._ "Successive images, _thus_ making deeper and deeper impressions, must elevate _the mind_ more than any single image can."--_Id._ "Besides making a deeper impression than can be _made_ by cool reasoning."--_Id._ "Yet a poet, by the force of genius alone, _may_ rise higher than a public speaker _can_." Or:--"than _can_ a public speaker."--_Blair cor._ "And the very same reason that has induced several grammarians to go so far as they have _gone_, should have induced them to go farther."--_Priestley cor._ "The pupil should commit the first section _to memory_ perfectly, before he _attempts_ (or _enters upon_) the second part of grammar."--_Bradley cor._ "The Greek _ch_ was pronounced hard, as we now _pronounce it_ in _chord_."--_Booth cor._ "They pronounce the syllables in a different manner from what they _adopt_ (or, in a _manner different_ from _that which_ they _are accustomed to use_) at other times."--_L. Murray cor._ "And give him the _cool and formal_ reception that Simon had _given_."--_Scott cor._ "I do not say, as some have _said_."--_Bolingbroke cor._ "If he suppose the first, he _may_ the last."--_Barclay cor._ "Who are now despising Christ in his inward appearance, as the Jews of old _despised_ him in his outward [advent]."--_Id._ "That text of Revelations must not be understood as he _understands_ it."--_Id._ "Till the mode of parsing the noun is so familiar to him that he can _parse_ it readily."--_R. C. Smith cor._ "Perhaps it is running the same course _that_ Rome had _run_ before."--_Middleton cor._ "It ought even on this ground to be avoided; _and it_ easily _may be_, by a different construction."--_Churchill cor._ "These two languages are now pronounced in England as no other nation in Europe _pronounces them_."--_Creighton cor._ "Germany ran the same risk that Italy had _run_."--_Bolingbroke, Murray, et al., cor._ UNDER NOTE XI.--PRETERITS AND PARTICIPLES. "The beggars themselves will be _broken_ in a trice."--_Swift cor._ "The hoop is _hoisted_ above his nose."--_Id._ "And _his_ heart was _lifted_ up in the ways of the Lord."--_2 Chron._, xvii, 6. "Who sin so oft have mourned, Yet to temptation _run_."--_Burns cor._ "Who would not have let them _appear_."--_Steele cor._ "He would have had you _seek_ for ease at the hands of Mr. Legality."--_Bunyan cor._ "From me his madding mind is _turned: He woos_ the widow's daughter, of the glen."--_Spenser cor._ "The man has _spoken_, and _he_ still speaks."--_Ash cor._ "For you have but _mistaken_ me all this while."--_Shak. cor._ "And will you _rend_ our ancient love asunder?"--_Id._ "Mr. Birney has _pled_ (or _pleaded_) the inexpediency of passing such resolutions."--_Liberator cor._ "Who have _worn_ out their years in such most painful labours."--_Littleton cor._ "And in the conclusion you were _chosen_ probationer."--_Spectator cor._ "How she was lost, _ta'en_ captive, made a slave; And how against him set that should her save."--_Bunyan cor._ UNDER NOTE XII.--OF VERBS CONFOUNDED. "But Moses preferred to _while_ away his time."--_Parker cor._ "His face shone with the rays of the sun."--_John Allen cor._ "Whom they had _set_ at defiance so lately."--_Bolingbroke cor._ "And when he _had sat down_, his disciples came unto him."--_Bible cor._ "When he _had sat down_ on the judgement-seat." Or: "_While_ he _was sitting_ on the judgement-seat."-- _Id._ "And, _they having kindled_ a fire in the midst of the hall and _sat_ down together, Peter sat down among them."--_Id._ "So, after he had washed their feet, and had taken his garments, and _had sat_ down again,[or, literally,'_sitting down again_,'] he said _to_ them, _Do_ ye _know_ what I have done to you?"--_Id._ "Even as I also overcame, and _sat_ down with my Father in his throne."--_Id._ Or: (rather less literally:) "Even as I _have overcome_, and _am sitting_ with my Father _on_ his throne."--_Id._ "We have such a high priest, who _sitteth_ on the right hand of the throne of the Majesty in the heavens."--_Id._ "And _is now sitting_ at the right hand of the throne of God."--_Id._ "He _set_ on foot a furious persecution."-- _Payne cor._ "There _lieth_ (or _lies_) an obligation upon the saints to help such."--_Barclay cor._ "There let him _lie_."--_Byron cor._ "Nothing but moss, and shrubs, and _stunted_ trees, can grow upon it."--_Morse cor._ "Who had _laid_ out considerable sums purely to distinguish themselves."-- _Goldsmith cor._ "Whereunto the righteous _flee_ and are safe."--_Barclay cor._ "He _rose_ from supper, and laid aside his garments."--_Id._ "Whither--_oh!_ whither--shall I _flee_?"--_L. Murray cor._ "_Fleeing_ from an adopted murderer."--_Id._ "To you I _flee_ for refuge."--_Id._ "The sign that should warn his disciples to _flee_ from _the_ approaching ruin."-- _Keith cor._ "In one she _sits_ as a prototype for exact imitation."--_Rush cor._ "In which some only bleat, bark, mew, _whinny_, and bray, a little better than others."--_Id._ "Who represented to him the unreasonableness of being _affected_ with such unmanly fears."--_Rollin cor._ "Thou _sawest_ every action." Or, familiarly: "Thou _saw_ every action."--_Guy cor._ "I taught, thou _taughtest_, or _taught_, he or she taught."--_Coar cor._ "Valerian was taken by Sapor and _flayed_ alive, A. D. 260."--_Lempriere cor._ "What a fine vehicle _has_ it now become, for all conceptions of the mind!"--_Blair cor._ "What _has_ become of so many productions?"--_Volney cor._ "What _has_ become of those ages of abundance and of life?"--_Keith cor._ "The Spartan admiral _had_ sailed to the Hellespont."--_Goldsmith cor._ "As soon as he _landed_, the multitude thronged about him."--_Id._ "Cyrus _had_ arrived at Sardis."--_Id._ "Whose year _had_ expired."--_Id._ "It _might_ better have been, 'that faction which,'" Or; "'That faction which,' _would_ have been better."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 157. "This people _has_ become a great nation."--_Murray and Ingersoll cor._ "And here we _enter_ the region of ornament."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "The ungraceful parenthesis which follows, _might_ far better have been avoided." "Who forced him under water, and there held him until _he was drowned_."--_Hist. cor._ "I _would_ much rather be myself the slave, And wear the bonds, than fasten them on him."--_Cowper cor._ UNDER NOTE XIII.--WORDS THAT EXPRESS TIME. "I _finished_ my letter _before_ my brother arrived." Or: "I _had finished_ my letter _when_ my brother arrived."--_Kirkham cor._ "I _wrote_ before I received his letter."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "From what _was formerly_ delivered."--_Id._ "Arts _were at length_ introduced among them." Or: "Arts _have been of late_ introduced among them."--_Id._ [But the latter reading suits not the Doctor's context.] "I am not of opinion that such rules _can be_ of much use, unless persons _see_ them exemplified." Or:--"_could be_," and "_saw_."--_Id._ "If we _use_ the noun itself, we _say_, (or _must say_,) 'This composition is John's.'" Or: "If we _used_ the noun itself, we _should say_," &c.--_L. Murray cor._ "But if the assertion _refer_ to something that _was transient_, or _to something that is not_ supposed to be _always the same_, the past tense must be preferred:" [as,] "They told him that Jesus of Nazareth _was passing_ by."--_Luke and L. Murray cor._ "There is no particular intimation but that I _have continued_ to work, even to the present moment."--_R. W. Green cor._ "Generally, as _has been_ observed already, it is but hinted in a single word or phrase."--_Campbell cor._ "The wittiness of the passage _has been_ already illustrated."--_Id._ "As was observed _before_."--_Id._ Or: "As _has been_ observed _already_"--_Id._ "It _has been_ said already in general _terms_."--_Id._ "As I hinted _before_."--_Id._ Or: "As I _have hinted already_."--_Id._ "What, I believe, was hinted once _before_."--_Id._ "It is obvious, as _was_ hinted formerly, that this is but an artificial and arbitrary connexion."--_Id._ "They _did_ anciently a great deal of hurt."-- _Bolingbroke cor._ "Then said Paul, I knew not, brethren, that he _was_ the high priest."--See _Acts_, xxiii, 5; _Webster cor._ "Most prepositions originally _denoted_ the _relations_ of place; and _from these_ they _were_ transferred, to denote, by similitude, other relations."--_Lowth and Churchill cor._ "His gift was but a poor offering, _in comparison with_ his _great_ estate."--_L. Murray cor._ "If he should succeed, and obtain his end, he _would_ not be the happier for it." Or, better: "If he _succeed_, and _fully attain_ his end, he will not be the happier for it."--_Id._ "These are torrents that swell to-day, and _that will_ have spent themselves by to-morrow."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Who have called that wheat _on one day_, which they have called tares _on the next_."--_Barclay cor._ "He thought it _was_ one of his tenants."--_Id._ "But if one went unto them from the dead, they _would_ repent."--_Bible cor._ "Neither _would_ they be persuaded, though one rose from the dead."--_Id._ "But it is while men _sleep_, that the arch-enemy always _sows_ his tares."--_The Friend cor._ "Crescens would not _have failed_ to _expose_ him."--_Addison cor._ "Bent _is_ his bow, the Grecian hearts to wound; Fierce as he _moves_, his silver shafts resound."--_Pope cor._ UNDER NOTE XIV.--VERBS OF COMMANDING, &C. "Had I commanded you to _do_ this, you would have thought hard of it."--_G. B_. "I found him better than I expected to _find_ him."--_L Murray's Gram._, i, 187. "There are several smaller faults which I at first intended to _enumerate_."--_Webster cor._ "Antithesis, therefore, may, on many occasions, be employed to advantage, in order to strengthen the impression which we intend that any object _shall_ make."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "The girl said, if her master would but have let her _have_ money, she might have been well long ago."--_Priestley et al. cor._ "Nor is there the least ground to fear that we _shall here_ be cramped within too narrow limits."--_Campbell cor._ "The Romans, flushed with success, expected to _retake_ it."--_Hooke cor._ "I would not have let _fall_ an unseasonable pleasantry in the venerable presence of Misery, to be entitled to all the wit that ever Rabelais scattered."--_Sterne cor._ "We expected that he _would arrive_ last night."--_Brown's Inst._, p. 282. "Our friends intended to _meet_ us."--_Ib._ "We hoped to _see_ you."--_Ib._ "He would not have been allowed to _enter_."--_Ib._ UNDER NOTE XV.--PERMANENT PROPOSITIONS. "Cicero maintained, that whatsoever _is_ useful _is_ good."--_G. B_. "I observed that love _constitutes_ the whole moral character of God."--_Dwight cor._ "Thinking that one _gains_ nothing by being a good man."--_Voltaire cor._ "I have already told you, that I _am_ a gentleman."--_Fontaine cor._ "If I should ask, whether ice and water _are_ two distinct species of things."--_Locke cor._ "A stranger to the poem would not easily discover that this _is_ verse."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, i, 260. "The doctor affirmed that fever always _produces_ thirst."--_Brown's Inst._, p. 282. "The ancients asserted, that virtue _is_ its own reward."--_Ib._ "They should not have repeated the error, of insisting that the infinitive _is_ a mere noun."--_Tooke cor._ "It was observed in Chap. III, that the distinctive OR _has_ a double use."--_Churchill cor._ "Two young gentlemen, who have made a discovery that there _is_ no God."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 206. CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE XVIII; INFINITIVES. INSTANCES DEMANDING THE PARTICLE TO. "William, please _to_ hand me that pencil."--_Smith cor._ "Please _to_ insert points so as to make sense."--_P. Davis cor._ "I have known lords _to_ abbreviate almost half of their words."--_Cobbett cor._ "We shall find the practice perfectly _to_ accord with the theory."--_Knight cor._ "But it would tend to obscure, rather than _to_ elucidate, the subject."--_L. Murray cor._ "Please _to_ divide it for them, as it should be _divided_"--_J. Willetts cor._ "So as neither to embarrass nor _to_ weaken the sentence."--_Blair and Mur. cor._ "Carry her to his table, to view his poor fare, and _to_ hear his heavenly discourse."--_Same_. "That we need not be surprised to find this _to_ hold [i.e., to find _the same to be true_, or to find _it so_] in eloquence."--_Blair cor._ "Where he has no occasion either to divide or _to_ explain" [_the topic in debate_.]--_Id._ "And they will find their pupils _to_ improve by hasty and pleasant steps."--_Russell cor._ "The teacher, however, will please _to_ observe," &c.--_Inf. S. Gr. cor._ "Please _to_ attend to a few rules in what is called syntax."--_Id._ "They may dispense with the laws, to favour their friends, or _to_ secure their office."--_Webster cor._ "To take back a gift, or _to_ break a contract, is a wanton abuse."--_Id._ "The legislature _has_ nothing to do, but _to_ let it bear its own price."--_Id._ "He is not to form, but _to_ copy characters."--_Rambler cor._ "I have known a woman _to_ make use of a shoeing-horn."--_Spect. cor._ "Finding this experiment _to_ answer, in every respect, their wishes."--_Day cor._ "In fine, let him cause his arrangement _to_ conclude in the term of the question."--_Barclay cor._ "That he permitted not the winds of heaven _To visit her_ too roughly." [Omit "_face_," to keep the measure: or say,] "That he _did never let_ the winds of heaven _Visit her face_ too roughly."--_Shak. cor._ CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE XIX.--OF INFINITIVES. Instances after Bid, Dare, Feel, Hear, Let, Make, Need, See. "I dare not proceed so hastily, lest I give offence."--See _Murray's Key_, Rule xii. "Their character is formed, and made _to_ appear."--_Butler cor._ "Let there be but matter and opportunity offered, and you shall see them quickly revive again."--_Bacon cor._ "It has been made _to_ appear, that there is no presumption against a revelation."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "MANIFEST, v. t. To reveal; to make appear; to show plainly."--_Webster cor._ "Let him reign, like good Aurelius, or let him bleed like _Seneca_:" [Socrates did not bleed, he was poisoned.]--_Kirkham's transposition of Pope cor._ "_Sing_ I could not; _complain_ I durst not."--_Fothergill cor._ "If T. M. be not so frequently heard _to_ pray by them."--_Barclay cor._ "How many of your own church members were never heard _to_ pray?"--_Id._ "Yea, we are bidden _to_ pray one for an other."--_Id._ "He was made _to_ believe that neither the king's death nor _his_ imprisonment would help him."--_Sheffield cor._ "I felt a chilling sensation creep over me."--_Inst._, p. 279. "I dare say he has not got home yet."--_Ib._ "We sometimes see bad men honoured."--_Ib._ "I saw him move"--_Felch cor._ "For see thou, ah! see thou, a hostile world its _terrors_ raise."--_Kirkham cor._ "But that he make him rehearse so."--_Lily cor._ "Let us rise."--_Fowle cor._ "Scripture, you know, exhorts us to it; It bids us 'seek peace, and ensue it.'"--_Swift cor._ "Who bade the mud from Dives' wheel _Bedash_ the rags of Lazarus? Come, brother, in that dust we'll kneel, Confessing heaven that ruled it thus."--_Christmas Book cor._ CHAPTER VII.--PARTICIPLES. CORRECTIONS UNDER THE NOTES TO RULE XX. UNDER NOTE I.--EXPUNGE OF. "In forming his sentences, he was very exact."--_L. Murray_. "For not believing which, I condemn them."--_Barclay cor._ "To prohibit his hearers from reading that book."--_Id._ "You will please them exceedingly in crying down ordinances."--_Mitchell cor._ "The warwolf subsequently became an engine for casting stones." Or:--"for _the_ casting of stones."--_Cons. Misc. cor._ "The art of dressing hides and working in leather was practised."--_Id._ "In the choice they had made of him for restoring order."--_Rollin cor._ "The Arabians exercised themselves by composing orations and poems."--_Sale cor._ "Behold, the widow-woman was there, gathering sticks."--_Bible cor._ "The priests were busied in offering burnt-offerings."--_Id._ "But Asahel would not turn aside from following him."--_Id._ "He left off building Ramah, and dwelt in Tirzah."--_Id._ "Those who accuse us of denying it, belie us."--_Barclay cor._ "And breaking bread from house to house."--_Acts_, iv, 46. "Those that set about repairing the walls."--_Barclay cor._ "And secretly begetting divisions."--_Id._ "Whom he has made use of in gathering his church."--_Id._ "In defining and distinguishing the _acceptations_ and uses of those particles."--_W. Walker cor._ "In _making this a crime_, we overthrow The laws of nations and of nature too."--_Dryden cor._ UNDER NOTE II.--ARTICLES REQUIRE OF. "The mixing _of_ them makes a miserable jumble of truth and fiction."--_Kames cor._ "The same objection lies against the employing _of_ statues."--_Id._ "More efficacious than the venting _of_ opulence upon the fine arts."--_Id._ "It is the giving _of_ different names to the same object."--_Id._ "When we have in view the erecting _of_ a column."--_Id._ "The straining _of_ an elevated subject beyond due bounds, is a vice not so frequent."--_Id._ "The cutting _of_ evergreens in the shape of animals, is very ancient."--_Id._ "The keeping _of_ juries without _meat_, drink, or fire, can be accounted for only on the same idea."--_Webster cor._ "The writing _of_ the verbs at length on his slate, will be a very useful exercise."--_Beck cor._ "The avoiding _of_ them is not an object of any moment."--_Sheridan cor._ "Comparison is the increasing or decreasing _of_ the signification of a word by degrees."--_Brit. Gram. cor._ "Comparison is the increasing or decreasing _of_ the quality by degrees."--_Buchanan cor._ "The placing _of_ a circumstance before the word with which it is connected is the easiest of all inversion."--_Id._ "What is emphasis? It is the emitting _of_ a stronger and fuller sound of voice," &c.--_Bradley cor._ "Besides, the varying _of_ the terms will render the use of them more familiar."--_A. Mur. cor._ "And yet the confining _of_ themselves to this true principle, has misled them."--_Tooke cor._ "What is here commanded, is merely the relieving _of_ his misery."--_Wayland cor._ "The accumulating _of_ too great a quantity of knowledge at random, overloads the mind _in stead_ of adorning it."--_Formey cor._ "For the compassing _of_ his point."--_Rollin cor._ "To the introducing _of_ such an inverted order of things."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "Which require only the doing _of_ an external action."--_Id._ "The imprisoning _of_ my body is to satisfy your wills."--_Fox cor._ "Who oppose the conferring _of_ such extensive command on one person."--_Duncan cor._ "Luxury contributed not a little to the enervating _of_ their forces."--_Sale cor._ "The keeping _of_ one day of the week for a sabbath."--_Barclay cor._ "The doing _of_ a thing is contrary to the forbearing of it."--_Id._ "The doubling _of_ the Sigma is, however, sometimes regular."--_Knight cor._ "The inserting _of_ the common aspirate too, is improper."--_Id._ "But in Spenser's time the pronouncing _of_ the _ed_ [as a separate syllable,] seems already to have been something of an archaism."--_Phil. Mu. cor._ "And to the reconciling _of_ the effect of their verses on the eye."--_Id._ "When it was not in their power to hinder the taking _of_ the whole."--_Dr. Brown cor._ "He had indeed given the orders himself for the shutting _of_ the gates."--_Id._ "So his whole life was a doing _of_ the will of the Father."--_Penington cor._ "It signifies the suffering or receiving _of_ the action expressed."--_Priestley cor._ "The pretended crime therefore was the declaring _of_ himself to be the Son of God."--_West cor._ "Parsing is the resolving _of_ a sentence into its different parts of speech."--_Beck cor._ UNDER NOTE II.--ADJECTIVES REQUIRE OF. "There is _no_ expecting _of_ the admiration of beholders."--_Baxter cor._ "There is no hiding _of_ you in the house."--_Shak. cor._ "For the better regulating _of_ government in the province of Massachusetts."--_Brit. Parl. cor._ "The precise marking _of_ the shadowy boundaries of a complex government."--_Adams cor._ "This state of discipline requires the voluntary foregoing _of_ many things which we desire, and _the_ setting _of_ ourselves to what we have no inclination to."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "This amounts to an active setting _of_ themselves against religion."--_Id._ "Which engaged our ancient friends to the orderly establishing _of_ our Christian discipline."--_Friends cor._ "Some men are so unjust that there is no securing _of_ our own property or life, but by opposing force to force."--_Rev. John Brown cor._ "An Act for the better securing _of_ the Rights and Liberties of the Subject."--_Geo. III cor._ "Miraculous curing _of_ the sick is discontinued."--_Barclay cor._ "It would have been no transgressing _of_ the apostle's rule."--_Id._ "As far as consistent with the proper conducting _of_ the business of the House."--_Elmore cor._ "Because he would have no quarrelling at the just condemning _of_ them at that day." Or:--"at _their just condemnation_ at that day."--_Bunyan cor._ "That transferring _of_ this natural manner will insure propriety."--_Rush cor._ "If a man were porter of hell-gate, he should have old [i.e., frequent] turning _of_ the key."--_Singer's Shakspeare cor._ UNDER NOTE II.--POSSESSIVES REQUIRE OF. "So very simple a thing as a man's wounding _of_ himself."--_Dr. Blair cor., and Murray_. "Or with that man's avowing _of_ his designs."--_Blair, Mur., et al. cor._ "On his putting _of_ the question."--_Adams cor._ "The importance of teachers' requiring _of_ their pupils to read each section many times over."--_Kirkham cor._ "Politeness is a kind of forgetting _of_ one's self, in order to be agreeable to others."--_Ramsay cor._ "Much, therefore, of the merit and the agreeableness of epistolary writing, will depend on its introducing _of_ us into some acquaintance with the writer."--_Blair and Mack cor._ "Richard's restoration to respectability depends on his paying _of_ his debts."--_O. B. Peirce cor._ "Their supplying _of_ ellipses where none ever existed; their parsing _of the_ words of sentences already full and perfect, as though depending on words understood."--_Id._ "Her veiling _of_ herself, and shedding _of_ tears, &c., her upbraiding _of_ Paris for his cowardice," &c.--_Blair cor._ "A preposition may be made known by its admitting _of_ a personal pronoun after it, in the objective case."--_Murray et al. cor._ "But this forms no just objection to its denoting _of_ time."--_L. Mur. cor._ "Of men's violating or disregarding _of_ the relations _in_ which God has _here_ placed them."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "Success, indeed, no more decides for the right, than a man's killing _of_ his antagonist in a duel."--_Campbell cor._ "His reminding _of_ them."--_Kirkham cor._ "This mistake was corrected by his preceptor's causing _of_ him to plant some beans."--_Id._ "Their neglecting _of_ this was ruinous."--_Frost cor._ "That he was serious, appears from his distinguishing _of_ the others as 'finite.'"--_Felch cor._ "His hearers are not at all sensible of his doing _of_ it." Or:--"_that he does_ it."--_Sheridan cor._ UNDER NOTE III.--CHANGE THE EXPRESSION. "An allegory is _a fictitious story the meaning of which is figurative, not literal_; a double meaning, or dilogy, is the saying _of_ only one thing, _when we have_ two in view."--_Phil. Mu. cor._ "A verb may generally be distinguished by _the sense which it makes_ with any of the personal pronouns, or _with_ the word TO, before it."--_Murray et al. cor._ "A noun may in general be distinguished by _the article which comes_ before it, or by _the sense which it makes_ of itself."--_Merchant et al. cor._ "An adjective may usually be known by _the sense which it makes_ with the word _thing_; as, a _good_ thing, a _bad_ thing."--_Iid._ "It is seen _to be_ in the objective case, _because it denotes_ the object affected by the act of leaving."--_O. B. Peirce cor._ "It is seen _to be_ in the possessive case, _because it denotes_ the possessor of something."--_Id._ "The _noun_ MAN is caused by the _adjective_ WHATEVER to _seem like_ a twofold _nominative, as if it denoted_, of itself, one person as the subject of the two remarks."--_Id._ "WHEN, as used in the last line, is a connective, _because it joins_ that line to the other part of the sentence."--_Id._ "_Because they denote_ reciprocation."--_Id._ "To allow them _to make_ use of that liberty;"--"To allow them _to use_ that liberty;"--or, "To allow them that liberty."--_Sale cor._ "The worst effect of it is, _that it fixes_ on your mind a habit of indecision."--_Todd cor._ "And you groan the more deeply, as you reflect that _you have not power to shake_ it off."--_Id._ "I know of nothing that can justify the _student in_ having recourse to a Latin translation of a Greek writer."--_Coleridge cor._ "Humour is the _conceit of_ making others act or talk absurdly."--_Hazlitt cor._ "There are remarkable instances _in which they do not affect_ each other."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "_That Cæsar was left out_ of the commission, was not from any slight."--_Life cor._ "Of the _thankful reception_ of this toleration, I shall say no more," Or: "Of the _propriety of_ receiving this toleration thankfully, I shall say no more."--_Dryden cor._ "Henrietta was delighted with Julia's _skill in_ working lace."--_O. B. Peirce cor._ "And it is _because each of them represents_ two different words, that the confusion has arisen."--_Booth cor._ "�schylus died of a fracture of his skull, caused by an eagle's _dropping of_ a tortoise on his head." Or:--"caused by _a tortoise which an eagle let fall_ on his head."--_Biog. Dict. cor._ "He doubted _whether they had_ it."--_Felch cor._ "_To make_ ourselves clearly understood, is the chief end of speech."--_Sheridan cor._ "_One cannot discover_ in their countenances any signs which are the natural concomitants of the feelings of the heart."--_Id._ "Nothing can be more common or less proper, than to speak of a _river as emptying itself_."--_Campbell cor._ "Our _non-use of_ the former expression, is owing to this."--_Bullions cor._ UNDER NOTE IV.--DISPOSAL OF ADVERBS. "To this generally succeeds the division, or the _laying-down_ of the method of the discourse."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "To the _pulling-down_ of strong holds."--_Bible cor._ "Can a mere _buckling-on of_ a military weapon infuse courage?"--_Dr. Brown cor._ "_Expensive_ and _luxurious_ living destroys health."--_L. Murray cor._ "By _frugal_ and _temperate_ living, health is preserved." Or: "By living frugally and temperately, _we preserve our_ health."--_Id._ "By the _doing-away_ of the necessity."--_The Friend cor._ "He recommended to them, however, the _immediate_ calling of--(or, _immediately to call_--) the whole community to the church."--_Gregory cor._ "The separation of large numbers in this manner, certainly facilitates the _right_ reading _of_ them."--_Churchill cor._ "From their _mere_ admitting of a twofold grammatical construction."--_Phil. Mu. cor._ "His _grave_ lecturing _of_ his friend about it."--_Id._ "For the _blotting-out_ of sin."--_Gurney cor._ "From the _not-using_ of water."-- _Barclay cor._ "By the gentle _dropping-in_ of a pebble."--_Sheridan cor._ "To the _carrying-on_ of a great part of that general course of nature."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "Then the _not-interposing_ is so far from being a ground of complaint."--_Id._ "The bare omission, (or rather, the _not-employing_,) of what is used."--_Campbell and Jamieson cor._ "The _bringing-together_ of incongruous adverbs is a very common fault."-- _Churchill cor._ "This is a presumptive proof _that it does_ not _proceed_ from them."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "It represents him in a character to which _any injustice_ is peculiarly unsuitable."--_Campbell cor._ "They will aim at something higher than _a mere dealing-out_ of harmonious sounds."-- _Kirkham cor._ "This is intelligible and sufficient; and _any further account of the matter_ seems beyond the reach of our faculties."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "Apostrophe is a _turning-off_ from the regular course of the subject."--_Mur. et al. cor._ "Even Isabella was finally prevailed upon to assent to the _sending-out_ of a commission to investigate his conduct."--_Life of Columbus cor._ "For the _turning-away_ of the simple shall slay them."--_Bible cor._ "Thick fingers always should command Without _extension_ of the hand."--_King cor._ UNDER NOTE V.--OF PARTICIPLES WITH ADJECTIVES. "Is there any Scripture _which_ speaks of the _light_ as being inward?"--_Barclay cor._ "For I believe not _positiveness_ therein essential to salvation."--_Id._ "Our _inability_ to act _a uniformly_ right part without some thought and care."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "_On the_ supposition _that it is reconcilable_ with the constitution of nature."--_Id._ "_On the ground that it is_ not discoverable by reason or experience."--_Id._ "_On the ground that they are_ unlike the known course of nature."--_Id._ "Our _power_ to discern reasons for them, gives a positive credibility to the history of them."--_Id._ "From its _lack of universality_."--_Id._ "That they may be turned into passive _participles_ in _dus_, is no decisive argument _to prove them_ passive."--_Grant cor._ "With the implied idea _that St. Paul was_ then absent from the Corinthians."--_Kirkham cor._ "_Because it becomes_ gradually weaker, until it finally dies away into silence."--_Id._ "Not without the author's _full knowledge_."--_Id._ "_Wit_ out of season is one sort of folly."--_Sheffield cor._ "Its _general susceptibility_ of a much stronger evidence."-- _Campbell cor._ "At least, _that they are_ such, rarely enhances our opinion, either of their abilities or of their virtues."--_Id._ "Which were the ground of our _unity_."--_Barclay cor._ "But they may be distinguished from it by their _intransitiveness_."--_L. Murray cor._ "To distinguish the higher degree of our persuasion of a thing's _possibility_."--_Churchill cor._ "_That he was_ idle, and dishonest too, Was that which caused his utter overthrow."--_Tobitt cor._ UNDER NOTE VI.--OF COMPOUND VERBAL NOUNS. "When it denotes _subjection_ to the exertion of an other."--_Booth cor._ "In the passive sense, it signifies _a subjection_ to the influence of the action."--_Felch cor._ "_To be_ abandoned by our friends, is very deplorable."--_Goldsmith cor._ "Without waiting _to be_ attacked by the Macedonians."--_Id._ "In progress of time, words were wanted to express men's _connexion_ with certain conditions of fortune."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Our _acquaintance_ with pain and sorrow has a tendency to bring us to a settled moderation."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "The chancellor's _attachment_ to the king, secured _to the monarch_ his crown."--_L. Murray et al. cor._ "The general's _failure_ in this enterprise occasioned his disgrace."-- _Iid._ "John's _long application to_ writing had wearied him."--_Iid._ "The sentence _may_ be, 'John's _long application_ to writing has wearied him.'"--_Wright cor._ "Much depends on _the observance of_ this _rule_."-- _L. Murray cor._ "He mentioned _that a boy had been_ corrected for his faults."--_Alger and Merchant cor._ "The boy's _punishment_ is shameful to him."--_Iid._ "The greater the difficulty of remembrance is, and the more important the _being-remembered_ is to the attainment of the ultimate end."--_Campbell cor._ "If the parts in the composition of similar objects were always in equal quantity, their _being-compounded_ (or their _compounding_) would make no odds."--_Id._ "Circumstances, not of such importance as that the scope of the relation is affected by their _being-known_"--or, "by the _mention of them_."--_Id._ "A passive verb expresses the receiving of an action, or _represents its subject as_ being acted upon; as, 'John is beaten.'"--_Frost cor._ "So our language has an other great advantage; namely, _that it is little_ diversified by genders."--_Buchanan cor._ "The _slander concerning Peter_ is no fault of _his_."--_Frost cor._ "Without _faith in Christ_, there is no _justification_."--_Penn cor._ "_Habituation_ to danger begets intrepidity; i.e., lessens fear."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "It is not _affection of any kind_, but _action that_ forms those habits."--_Id._ "In order _that we may be_ satisfied of the truth of the apparent paradox."--_Campbell cor._ "_A trope consists_ in _the employing of a word_ to signify something that is different from its original _or usual_ meaning."--_Blair, Jamieson, Murray, and Kirkham cor._; also _Hiley_. "The scriptural view of our _salvation_ from punishment."--_Gurney cor._ "To submit and obey, is not a renouncing _of_ the _Spirit's leading_."--_Barclay cor._ UNDER NOTE VII.--PARTICIPLES FOR INFINITIVES, &c. "_To teach_ little children is a pleasant employment." Or: "_The_ teaching _of_ little children," &c.--_Bartlett cor._ "_To deny_ or _compromise the_ principles of truth, is virtually _to deny_ their divine Author."--_Reformer cor._ "A severe critic might point out some expressions that would bear _retrenching_"--"_retrenchment_"--or, "_to be retrenched_."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Never attempt _to prolong_ the pathetic too much."--_Id._ "I now recollect _to have_ mentioned--(or, _that I_ mentioned--) a report of that nature."--_Whiting cor._ "Nor of the necessity which there is, for their _restraint_--(or, for _them to be_ restrained--) in them."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "But, _to do_ what God commands because he commands it, is obedience, though it proceeds from hope or fear."--_Id._ "Simply _to close_ the nostrils, does not so entirely prevent resonance."--_Gardiner cor._ "Yet they absolutely refuse _to do_ so."--_Harris cor._ "But Artaxerxes could not refuse _to pardon_ him."--_Goldsmith cor._ "_The_ doing _of_ them in the best manner, is signified by the _names_ of these arts."--_Rush cor._ "_To behave_ well for the time to come, may be insufficient."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "The compiler proposed _to publish_ that part by itself."--_Adam cor._ "To smile _on_ those _whom_ we should censure, is, _to bring_ guilt upon ourselves."--_Kirkham cor._ "But it would be great injustice to that illustrious orator, to bring his genius down to the same level."--_Id._ "_The doubt that_ things go ill, often hurts more, than to be sure they do."--_Shak. cor._ "This is called _the_ straining _of_ a metaphor."-- _Blair and Murray cor._ "This is what Aristotle calls _the_ giving _of_ manners to the poem."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "The painter's _entire confinement_ to that part of time which he has chosen, deprives him of the power of exhibiting various stages of the same action."--_L. Mur. cor._ "It imports _the retrenchment of_ all superfluities, and _a_ pruning _of_ the expression."--_Blair et al. cor._ "The necessity for _us to be_ thus exempted is further apparent."--_Jane West cor._ "Her situation in life does not allow _her to be_ genteel in every thing."--_Same_. "Provided you do not dislike _to be_ dirty when you are invisible."--_Same_. "There is now an imperious necessity for her _to be_ acquainted with her title to eternity."--_Same_. "_Disregard to_ the restraints of virtue, is misnamed ingenuousness."--_Same_. "The legislature prohibits _the_ opening _of shops on_ Sunday."--_Same_. "To attempt _to prove_ that any thing is right."--_O. B. Peirce cor._ "The comma directs _us to make_ a pause of a second in duration, or less."--_Id._ "The rule which directs _us to put_ other words into the place of it, is wrong."--_Id._ "They direct _us to_ call the specifying adjectives, or adnames, adjective pronouns."--_Id._ "William dislikes _to attend_ court."--_Frost cor._ "It may perhaps be worth while _to remark_, that Milton makes a distinction."--_Phil. Mu. cor._ "_To profess_ regard and _act injuriously, discovers_ a base mind."--_Murray et al. cor._ "_To profess_ regard and _act_ indifferently, _discovers_ a base mind."--_Weld cor._ "You have proved beyond contradiction, that _this course of action_ is the sure way to procure such an object."--_Campbell cor._ UNDER NOTE VIII.--PARTICIPLES AFTER BE, IS, &c. "Irony is _a figure in which the speaker sneeringly utters the direct reverse of what he intends shall be understood_."--_Brown's Inst._, p. 235. [Correct by this the four false definitions of "Irony" cited from _Murray, Peirce, Fisher_, and _Sanborn_.] "This is, in a great measure, _a_ delivering _of_ their own compositions."--_Buchanan cor._ "But purity is _a right use of_ the words of the language."--_Jamieson cor._ "But the most important object is _the_ settling _of_ the English quantity."--_Walker cor._ "When there is no affinity, the transition from one meaning to an other is a very wide step _taken_."--_Campbell cor._ "It will be _a loss of_ time, to attempt further to illustrate it."--_Id._ "This _leaves_ the sentence too bare, and _makes_ it to be, if not nonsense, hardly sense."--_Cobbett cor._ "This is _a_ requiring _of_ more labours from every private member."--_J. West cor._ "Is not this, _to use_ one measure for our neighbours and _an other_ for ourselves?"--_Same_. "_Do we_ not _charge_ God foolishly, when we give these dark colourings to human nature?"--_Same_. "This is not, _to endure_ the cross, as a disciple of Jesus Christ; but, _to snatch_ at it, like a _partisan_ of Swift's Jack."--_Same_. "What is spelling? It is _the_ combining _of_ letters to form syllables and words."--_O. B. Peirce cor._ "It is _the_ choosing _of_ such letters to compose words," &c.--_Id._ "What is parsing? (1.) It is _a_ describing _of_ the nature, use, and powers of words."--_Id._ (2.) "For Parsing is _a_ describing _of_ the words of a sentence as they are used."--_Id._ (3.) "Parsing is only _a_ describing _of_ the nature and relations of words as they are used."--_Id._ (4.) "Parsing, let the pupil understand and remember, is a _statement of_ facts concerning words; or _a_ describing _of words_ in their offices and relations as they are."--_Id._ (5.) "Parsing is _the_ resolving and explaining _of_ words according to the rules of grammar."--_Id._ Better: "Parsing is _the_ resolving _or_ explaining _of a sentence_ according to the _definitions and_ rules of grammar."--_Brown's Inst._, p. 28. (6.) "_The_ parsing _of_ a word, remember, is _an_ enumerating and describing _of_ its various qualities, and its grammatical relations to other words in the sentence."--_Peirce cor._ (7.) "For the parsing _of_ a word is _an_ enumerating and describing _of_ its various properties, and [_its_] relations to [_other words in_] the sentence."--_Id._ (8.) "_The_ parsing _of_ a noun is _an explanation_ of _its_ person, number, gender, and case; and also of its grammatical _relation_ in a sentence, with respect to _some_ other _word or_ words."--_Ingersoll cor._ (9.) "_The_ parsing _of_ any part of speech is _an explanation of_ all its properties and relations."--_Id._ (10.)" Parsing is _the_ resolving _of_ a sentence into its elements."--_Fowler cor._ "The highway of the _upright_ is, _to depart_ from evil."--_Prov._, xvi, 17. "Besides, the first step towards exhibiting _the_ truth, should be, _to remove_ the veil of error."--_O. B. Peirce cor._ "Punctuation is _the_ dividing _of_ sentences, and the words of sentences, by _points for_ pauses."--_Id._ "_An other_ fault is _the_ using _of_ the imperfect _tense_ SHOOK _in stead_ of the participle SHAKEN."--_Churchill cor._ "Her employment is _the_ drawing _of_ maps."--_Alger cor._ "_To go_ to the play, according to his notion, is, _to lead_ a sensual life, and _to expose one's_ self to the strongest temptations. This is _a_ begging _of_ the question, and _therefore_ requires no answer."--_Formey cor._ "It is _an_ overvaluing _of_ ourselves, to reduce every thing to the narrow measure of our capacities."--_Comly's Key, in his Gram._, p. 188; _Fisk's Gram._, p. 135. "What is vocal language? It is _speech_, or _the_ expressing of ideas by the human voice."--_C. W. Sanders cor._ UNDER NOTE IX.--VERBS OF PREVENTING. "The annulling power of the constitution prevented that _enactment from_ becoming a law."--_O. B. Peirce cor._ "Which prevents the _manner from_ being brief."--_Id._ "This close prevents _them from_ bearing forward as nominatives."--_Rush cor._ "Because this prevents _it from_ growing _drowsy_."--_Formey cor._ "Yet this does not prevent _him from_ being great."--_Id._ "To prevent _it from_ being insipid."--_Id._ "Or whose interruptions did not prevent its _continuance_." Or thus: "Whose interruptions did not prevent _it from_ being continued."--_Id._ "This by no means prevents _them from_ being also punishments."--_Wayland cor._ "This hinders _them_ not _from_ being also, in the strictest sense, punishments."--_Id._ "The noise made by the rain and wind, prevented _them from_ being heard."--_Goldsmith cor._ "He endeavoured to prevent _it from_ taking effect."--_Id._ "So sequestered as to prevent _them from_ being explored."--_Jane West cor._ "Who prevented her _from_ making a more pleasant party."--_Same_. "To prevent _us from_ being tossed about by every wind of doctrine."--_Same_. "After the infirmities of age prevented _him from_ bearing his part of official duty."--_R. Adam cor._ "To prevent splendid trifles _from_ passing for matters of importance."--_Kames cor._ "Which prevents _him from_ exerting himself to any good purpose."--_Beattie cor._ "The _nonobservance_ of this rule very frequently prevents _us from_ being punctual in the performance of our duties."--_Todd cor._ "Nothing will prevent _him from_ being a student, and possessing the means of study."--_Id._ "Does the present accident hinder _you from_ being honest and brave?"--_Collier cor._ "The _e_ is omitted to prevent two _Ees from_ coming together."--_Fowle cor._ "A pronoun is used for, or in place of, a noun,--to prevent _a repetition of_ the noun."--_Sanborn cor._ "Diversity in the style relieves the ear, and prevents _it from_ being tired with the frequent recurrence of the rhymes."--_Campbell cor._; also _Murray_. "Timidity and false shame prevent _us from_ opposing vicious customs."--_Mur. et al. cor._ "To prevent _them from_ being moved by such."--_Campbell cor._ "Some obstacle, or impediment, that prevents _it from_ taking place."--_Priestley cor._ "Which prevents _us from_ making a progress towards perfection."--_Sheridan cor._ "This method of distinguishing words, must prevent any regular proportion of time _from_ being settled."--_Id._ "That nothing but affectation can prevent _it from_ always taking place."--_Id._ "This did not prevent _John from_ being acknowledged and solemnly inaugurated Duke of Normandy." Or: "_Notwithstanding_ this, _John was_ acknowledged and solemnly inaugurated Duke of Normandy."--_Henry, Webster, Sanborn, and Fowler cor._ UNDER NOTE X.--THE LEADING WORD IN SENSE. "This would _make it impossible for a noun_, or any other _word_, ever _to be_ in the possessive case."--_O. B. Peirce cor._ "A great part of our pleasure arises from _finding_ the plan or story well conducted."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "And we have no reason to wonder _that this was_ the case."--_Id._ "She objected only, (as Cicero says,) to Oppianicus _as_ having two sons by his present wife."--_Id._ "_The subjugation of_ the Britons by the Saxons, was a necessary consequence of their _calling of_ these Saxons to their assistance."--_Id._ "What he had there said concerning the Saxons, _that they expelled_ the Britons, and _changed_ the customs, the religion, and the language of the country, is a clear and a good reason _why_ our present language _is_ Saxon, rather than British."--_Id._ "The only material difference between them, _except that_ the one _is_ short and the other _more_ prolonged, is, that a metaphor _is always explained_ by the words that are connected with it."--_Id. et Mur. cor._ "The description of _Death_, advancing to meet Satan on his arrival."--_Rush cor._ "Is not the bare fact, _that_ God _is_ the witness of it, sufficient ground for its credibility to rest upon?"--_Chalmers cor._ "As in the case of one _who is_ entering upon a new study."--_Beattie cor._ "The manner _in which_ these _affect_ the copula, is called the imperative _mood_."--_Wilkins cor._ "We are freed from the trouble, _because_ our nouns _have scarcely any_ diversity of endings."--_Buchanan cor._ "The verb is rather indicative of the _action as_ being doing, or done, than _of_ the time _of the event_; but indeed the ideas are undistinguishable."--_Booth cor._ "Nobody would doubt _that_ this _is_ a sufficient proof."--_Campbell cor._ "Against the doctrine here maintained, _that_ conscience as well as reason, _is_ a natural faculty."--_Beattie cor._ "It is one cause _why_ the Greek and English languages _are_ much more easy to learn, than the Latin."--_Bucke cor._ "I have not been able to make out a solitary instance _in which_ such _has been_ the fact."--_Lib. cor._ "An _angel_, forming the appearance of a hand, and writing the king's condemnation on the wall, checked their mirth, and filled them with terror."--_Wood cor._ "The _prisoners, in attempting_ to escape, aroused the keepers."--_O. B. Peirce cor._ "I doubt not, in the least, _that_ this _has_ been one cause of the multiplication of divinities in the heathen world."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "From the general rule he lays down, _that the verb is_ the parent word of all language."--_Tooke cor._ "He was accused of being idle." Or: "He was accused of _idleness_."--_Felch cor._ "Our meeting is generally dissatisfied with him _for_ so removing." Or: "with _the circumstances of his removal_."--_Edmondson cor._ "The spectacle is too rare, of _men_ deserving solid fame while not seeking it."--_Bush cor._ "What further need was there _that_ an other priest _should rise_?"--_Heb._, vii, 11. UNDER NOTE XI.--REFERENCE OF PARTICIPLES. "Viewing them separately, _we experience_ different emotions." Or: "_Viewed_ separately, _they produce_ different emotions."--_Kames cor._ "But, _this being left_ doubtful, an other objection occurs."--_Id._ "_As he proceeded_ from one particular to an other, the subject grew under his hand."--_Id._ "But this is still an interruption, and a link of the chain _is_ broken."--_Id._ "After some _days_' hunting,--(or, After some days _spent in_ hunting,)--Cyrus communicated his design to his officers."--_Rollin cor._ "But it is made, without the appearance of _being made_ in form."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "These would have had a better effect, _had they been_ disjoined, thus."--_Blair and Murray cor._ "_In_ an improper diphthong, but one of the vowels _is_ sounded."--_Murray, Alger, et al. cor._ "And _I_ being led to think of both together, my view is rendered unsteady."--_Blair, Mur., and Jam. cor._ "By often doing the same thing, _we make the action_ habitual." Or: "_What is_ often _done_, becomes habitual."--_L. Murray cor._ "They remain with us in our dark and solitary hours, no less than when _we are_ surrounded with friends and cheerful society."--_Id._ "Besides _showing_ what is right, _one may further explain_ the matter by pointing out what is wrong."--_Lowth cor._ "The former teaches the true pronunciation of words, _and comprises_ accent, quantity, emphasis, _pauses_, and _tones_."--_L. Murray cor._ "_A person may reprove others_ for their negligence, by saying, 'You have taken great care indeed.'"--_Id._ "The _word_ preceding and _the word_ following it, are in apposition to each other."--_Id._ "_He_ having finished his speech, the assembly dispersed."--_Cooper cor._ "Were the voice to fall at the close of the last line, as many a reader is in the habit of _allowing it to do_."--_Kirkham cor._ "The misfortunes of his countrymen were but negatively the effects of his wrath, _which only deprived_ them of his assistance."--_Kames cor._ "Taking them as nouns, _we may explain_ this construction thus."--_Grant cor._ "These have an active signification, _except_ those which come from neuter verbs."--_Id._ "From _its evidence_ not being universal." Or: "From the _fact that its evidence is not_ universal."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "And this faith will continually grow, _as we acquaint_ ourselves with our own nature."--_Channing cor._ "Monosyllables ending with any consonant but _f, l_, or _s_, never double the final consonant, _when it is preceded by a single vowel_; except _add, ebb_," &c.--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 23. Or: "_Words_ ending with any consonant except _f, l_, or _s_, do not double the final letter. Exceptions. Add, ebb, &c."--_Bullions's E. Gram._, p. 3. (See my 2d Rule for Spelling, of which this is a partial copy.) "The relation of _Maria as_ being the object of the action, is expressed by the change of the noun _Maria_ to _Mariam_;" [i. e., in the _Latin_ language.]--_Booth cor._ "In analyzing a proposition, _one must_ first _divide it_ into its logical subject and predicate."--_Andrews and Stoddard cor._ "In analyzing a simple sentence, _one_ should first _resolve it_ into its logical subject and logical predicate."--_Wells cor._ UNDER NOTE XII.--OF PARTICIPLES AND NOUNS. "The _instant discovery of_ passions at their birth, is essential to our well-being."--_Kames cor._ "I am now to enter on _a consideration of_ the sources of the pleasures of taste."--_Blair cor._ "The varieties in _the use of_ them are indeed many."--_Murray cor._ "_The_ changing _of_ times and seasons, _the_ removing and _the setting-up_ of kings, belong to Providence alone."--_Id._ "_Adherence_ to the partitions, seemed the cause of France; _acceptance of_ the will, that of the house of Bourbon."--_Bolingbroke cor._ "An other source of darkness in _composition_, is the injudicious introduction of technical words and phrases."--_Campbell cor._ "These are the rules of grammar; by observing which, you may avoid mistakes."--_L. Murray et al. cor._ "By observing the rules, you may avoid mistakes."--_Alger cor._ "By observing these rules, he succeeded."--_Frost cor._ "_The praise bestowed on him_ was his ruin."--_Id._ "_Deception_ is not _convincement_."--_Id._ "He never feared _the loss_ of a friend."--_Id._ "_The_ making _of_ books is his amusement."--_Alger cor._ "We call it _the_ declining--(or, _the declension_--) _of_ a noun."--_Ingersoll cor._ "Washington, however, pursued the same policy of neutrality, and opposed firmly _the_ taking _of_ any part in the wars of Europe."--_Hall and Baker cor._ "The following is a note of Interrogation, or _of a_ question: (?)."--_Inf. S. Gram. cor._ "The following is a note of Admiration, or _of_ wonder: (!)."--_Id._ "_The use or omission of_ the article A forms a nice distinction in the sense."--_Murray cor._ "_The_ placing _of_ the preposition before the word, _which_ it governs, is more graceful."--_Churchill cor._ (See _Lowth's Gram._, p. 96; _Murray's_, i, 200; _Fisk's_, 141; _Smith's_, 167.) "Assistance is absolutely necessary to their recovery, and _the_ retrieving _of_ their affairs."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "Which termination, [_ish_,] when added to adjectives, imports diminution, or _a_ lessening of the quality."--_Mur. and Kirkham cor._ "After what _has been_ said, will it be thought _an excess of refinement_, to suggest that the different orders are qualified for different purposes?"--_Kames cor._ "Who has nothing to think of, but _the_ killing _of_ time."--_West cor._ "It requires no nicety of ear, as in the distinguishing of tones, or _the_ measuring _of_ time."--_Sheridan cor._ "The _possessive case_ [is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which] denotes possession, or _the relation of property_."--_S. R. Hall cor._ UNDER NOTE XIII.--PERFECT PARTICIPLES. "Garcilasso was master of the language _spoken_ by the Incas."--_Robertson cor._ "When an interesting story is _broken_ off in the middle."--_Kames cor._ "Speaking of Hannibal's elephants _driven_ back by the enemy."--_Id._ "If Du Ryer had not _written_ for bread, he would have equalled them."--_Formey cor._ "Pope describes a rock _broken_ off from a mountain, and hurling to the plain."--_Kames cor._ "I have written, Thou hast written, He hath or has written; &c."--_Ash and Maltby cor._ "This was _spoken_ by a pagan."--_Webster cor._ "But I have _chosen_ to follow the common arrangement."--_Id._ "The language _spoken_ in Bengal."--_Id._ "And sound sleep thus _broken_ off with _sudden_ alarms, is apt enough to discompose any one."--_Locke cor._ "This is not only the case of those open sinners before _spoken_ of."--_Leslie cor._ "Some grammarians have written a very perplexed and difficult doctrine on Punctuation."--_Ensell cor._ "There hath a pity _arisen_ in me towards thee."--_G. Fox Jun. cor._ "Abel is the only man that has _undergone_ the awful change of death."--_De Genlis, Death of Adam_. "Meantime, on Afric's glowing sands, _Smit_ with keen heat, the traveller stands."--_Ode cor._ CHAPTER VIII.--ADVERBS. CORRECTIONS UNDER THE NOTES TO RULE XXI. UNDER NOTE I.--THE PLACING OF ADVERBS. "_Not_ all that is favoured by good use, is proper to be retained."--_L. Murray corrected._ "_Not_ everything favoured by good use, is on that account worthy to be retained."--_Campbell cor._ "Most men dream, but _not_ all."--_Beattie cor._ "By hasty composition, we shall _certainly_ acquire a very bad style."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "The comparisons are short, touching on _only_ one point of resemblance."--_Id._ "Having _once_ had some considerable object set before us."--_Id._ "The positive seems to be _improperly_ called a degree." [543]--_Adam and Gould cor._ "In some phrases, the genitive _only_ is used."--_Iid._ "This blunder is said to have _actually_ occurred."--_Smith cor._ "But _not_ every man is called James, nor every woman, Mary."--_Buchanan cor._ "Crotchets are employed for _nearly_ the same purpose as the parenthesis."--_Churchill cor._ "There is a _still_ greater impropriety in a double comparative."--_Priestley cor._ "We often have occasion to speak of time."--_Lowth cor._ "The following sentence cannot _possibly_ be understood."--_Id._ "The words must _generally_ be separated from the context."--_Comly cor._ "Words ending in _ator, generally_ have the accent on the penultimate."--_L. Mur. cor._ "The learned languages, with respect to voices, moods, and tenses, are, in general, constructed _differently_ from the English tongue."--_Id._ "Adverbs seem to have been _originally_ contrived to express compendiously, in one word, what must otherwise have required two or more."--_Id._ "But it is so, _only_ when the expression can be converted into the regular form of the possessive case."--_Id._ "'Enter _boldly_,' says he, 'for here too there are gods.'"--_Harris cor._ "For none _ever_ work for so little a pittance that some cannot be found to work for less."--_Sedgwick cor._ "For sinners also lend to sinners, to receive _again_ as much."--_Bible cor._ Or, as Campbell has it in his version:--"_that they may_ receive as much _in return_."--_Luke_, vi, 34. "They must be viewed in _exactly_ the same light."--_L. Murray cor._ "If he _speaks but_ to display his abilities, he is unworthy of attention."--_Id._ UNDER NOTE II.--ADVERBS FOR ADJECTIVES. "_Upward_ motion is commonly more agreeable than motion _downward_."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "There are but two _possible_ ways of justification before God."--_Cox cor._ "This construction sounds rather _harsh_."--_Mur. and Ing. cor._ "A clear conception, in the mind of the learner, of _regular_ and well-formed letters."--_C. S. Jour. cor._ "He was a great hearer of * * * Attalus, Sotion, Papirius, Fabianus, of whom he makes _frequent_ mention."--_L'Estrange cor._ "It is only the _frequent_ doing of a thing, that makes it a custom."--_Leslie cor._ "Because W. R. takes _frequent_ occasion to insinuate his jealousies of persons and things."--_Barclay cor._ "Yet _frequent_ touching will wear gold."--_Shak. cor._ "Uneducated persons frequently use an _adverb_ when they ought to use an _adjective_: as, 'The country looks _beautifully_;' in stead of _beautiful_." [544]-- _Bucke cor._ "The adjective is put _absolute_, or without its substantive."--_Ash cor._ "A noun or _a_ pronoun in the second person, may be put _absolute_ in the nominative case."--_Harrison cor._ "A noun or _a_ pronoun, when put _absolute_ with a participle," &c.--_Id. and Jaudon cor._ "A verb in the infinitive mood absolute, stands _independent_ of the remaining part of the sentence."--_Wilbur and Liv. cor._ "At my _late_ return into England, I met a book _entitled_, 'The Iron Age.'"--_Cowley cor._ "But he can discover no better foundation for any of them, than the _mere_ practice of Homer and Virgil."--_Kames cor._ UNDER NOTE III.--HERE FOR HITHER, &C. "It is reported, that the _governor_ will come _hither_ to-morrow."--_Kirkham cor._ "It has been reported that the _governor_ will come _hither_ to-morrow."--_Id._ "To catch a prospect of that lovely land _whither_ his steps are tending."--_Maturin cor._ "Plautus makes one of his characters ask _an other, whither_ he is going with that Vulcan shut up in a horn; that is, with a _lantern_ in his hand."--_Adams cor._ "When we left Cambridge we intended to return _thither_ in a few days."--_Anon. cor._ "Duncan comes _hither_ to-night."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 323. "They talked of returning _hither_ last week."--See _J. M. Putnam's Gram._, p. 129. UNDER NOTE IV.--FROM HENCE, &C. "Hence he concludes, that no inference can be drawn from the meaning of the word, that a _constitution_ has a higher authority than a law or statute,"--_Webster cor._ "Whence we may likewise date the period of this event."--_L. Murray cor._ "Hence it becomes evident that LANGUAGE, taken in the most comprehensive view, implies certain sounds, [or certain written signs,] having certain meanings."--_Harris cor._ "They returned to the city whence they came out."--_A. Murray cor._ "Respecting ellipses, some grammarians differ strangely in their ideas; and thence has arisen a very whimsical diversity in their systems of grammar."--_G. Brown_. "What am I, and whence? That is, What am I, and whence _am I_?"--_Jaudon cor._ UNDER NOTE V.--THE ADVERB HOW. "It is strange, _that_ a writer so accurate as Dean Swift, should have stumbled on so improper an application of this particle."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Ye know, _that_ a good while ago God made choice among us," &c.--_Bible cor._ "Let us take care _lest_ we sin; i.e.,--_that_ we _do not_ sin."--_Priestley cor._ "We see by these instances, _that_ prepositions may be necessary, to connect _such_ words _as_ are not naturally connected _by_ their _own_ signification."--_L. Murray cor._ "Know ye not your own selves, _that_ Jesus Christ is in you, except ye be reprobates?"--_Bible cor._ "That thou _mayst_ know _that_ the earth is the Lord's."--_Id._ UNDER NOTE VI.--WHEN, WHILE, OR WHERE. "ELLIPSIS is _the omission of some word or_ words _which are necessary to complete the construction, but not_ requisite to complete the sense."--_Adam, Gould, and Fisk, cor._ "PLEONASM is _the insertion of some word or words_ more than _are_ absolutely necessary _either to complete the construction, or_ to express the sense."--_Iid. cor._ "HYSTERON-PROTERON is a _figure in which_ that is put in the former part of the sentence, which, according to the sense, should be in the latter."--_Adam and Gould cor._ "HYSTERON-PROTERON is a rhetorical figure _in which_ that is said last, which was done first."--_Webster cor._ "A BARBARISM is a foreign or strange word, _an expression contrary to the pure idiom of the language_."--_Adam and Gould cor._ "A SOLECISM is _an impropriety in respect to_ syntax, _an absurdity or incongruity in speech_."--_Iid. cor._ "An IDIOTISM is _a_ manner of expression peculiar to one language _childishly transferred to an other_."--_Iid. cor._ "TAUTOLOGY is _a disagreeable repetition_, either _of_ the same words, or _of_ the same sense in different words."--_Iid. cor._ "BOMBAST, _or_ FUSTIAN, is _an inflated or ambitious style, in which high-sounding_ words are used, _with little or no_ meaning, or upon a trifling occasion."--_Iid. cor._ "AMPHIBOLOGY is ambiguity of construction, _phraseology which_ may be taken in two different senses."--_Iid. cor._ "IRONY is _a figure in which_ one means the contrary of what is said."--_Adam and Gould cor._ "PERIPHRASIS, _or_ CIRCUMLOCUTION, is _the use of_ several words, to express what might be _said_ in fewer."--_Iid. cor._ "HYPERBOLE is _a figure in which_ a thing is magnified above the truth."--_Iid. cor._ "PERSONIFICATION is _a figure which ascribes human_ life, sentiments, or actions, to inanimate beings, or to abstract qualities."--_Iid. cor._ "APOSTROPHE is a _turning from the tenor of one's_ discourse, _into an animated address_ to some person, present or absent, living or dead, or _to some object personified_."--_Iid. cor._ "A SIMILE is _a simple and express comparison; and is generally introduced by_ LIKE, AS, _or_ so."--_G. B., Inst._, p. 233; Kirkham cor.; also Adam and Gould. "ANTITHESIS is a placing of things in opposition, to heighten their effect by contrast."--_Inst._, p. 234; _Adam and Gould corrected_. "VISION, or IMAGERY, _is a figure in which what is present only to the mind, is represented as actually before one's eyes, and present_ to the senses."--_G. B.; Adam cor._ "EMPHASIS is a particular stress _of voice_ laid on some word in a sentence."--_Gould's Adam's Gram._, p. 241. "EPANORTHOSIS, or CORRECTION, is _the recalling or correcting by the speaker_, of what he last said."--_Ibid._ "PARALIPSIS, or OMISSION, is _the pretending_ to omit or pass by, what one at the same time declares."--_Ibid._ "INCREMENTUM, or CLIMAX in sense, is the _rising_ of one member above an other to the highest."--_Ibid._ "METONYMY is _a change of names: as when_ the cause is _mentioned_ for the effect, or the effect for the cause; the container for the thing contained, or the sign for the thing signified."--_Kirkham cor._ "_The_ Agreement _of words_ is _their similarity_ in person, number, gender, case, _mood, tense, or form_."--_Brown's Inst._, p. 104. "_The_ Government _of words is that power which one_ word has _over an other, to cause it to assume some particular modification_."--_Ib._ "Fusion is _the converting of_ some solid substance into a fluid by heat."--_G. B_. "A proper diphthong is _a diphthong in which_ both the vowels are sounded together; as, _oi_ in _voice, ou_ in _house_."--_Fisher cor._ "An improper diphthong is _a diphthong in which_ the sound of but one of the two vowels is heard; as, _eo_ in _people_."--_Id._ UNDER NOTE VII.--THE ADVERB NO FOR NOT. "An adverb is _added_ to a verb to show how, or when, or where, or whether or _not_, one is, does, or suffers."--_Buchanan cor._ "We must be immortal, whether we will or _not_."--_Maturin cor._ "He cares not whether the world was made for Cæsar or _not_."--_A. Q. Rev. cor._ "I do not know whether they are out or _not_."--_Byron cor._ "Whether it can be proved or _not_, is not the thing."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "Whether he makes use of the means commanded by God, or _not_."--_Id._ "Whether it pleases the world or _not_, the care is taken."--_L'Estrange cor._ "How comes this to be never heard of, nor in the least questioned, whether the Law was undoubtedly of Moses's writing or _not_?"--_Tomline cor._ "Whether he be a sinner or _not_, I _do not know_." Or, as the text is more literally translated by Campbell: "Whether he be a sinner, I know not."--_Bible cor._ "Can I make men live, whether they will or _not_?"--_Shak. cor._ "Can hearts not free, be _tried_ whether they serve Willing or _not_, who will but what they must?"--_Milton cor._ UNDER NOTE VIII.--OF DOUBLE NEGATIVES. "We need not, nor do _we_, confine the purposes of God." Or: "We need not, _and_ do not, confine," &c.--_Bentley cor._ "I cannot by _any_ means allow him that."--_Id._ "We must try whether or _not_ we _can_ increase the attention by the help of the senses."--_Brightland cor._ "There is nothing more admirable _or_ more useful."--_Tooke cor._ "And what in time to come he can never be said to have done, he can never be supposed to do."--_R. Johnson cor._ "No skill could obviate, no remedy dispel, the terrible infection."--_Goldsmith cor._ "Prudery cannot be an indication _either_ of sense _or_ of taste."--_Spurzheim cor._ "But _neither_ that scripture, nor _any_ other, speaks of imperfect faith."--_Barclay cor._ "But _neither_ this scripture, nor _any_ other, proves that faith was or is always accompanied with doubting."--_Id._ "The light of Christ is not, _and_ cannot be, darkness."--_Id._ "Doth not the Scripture, which cannot lie, give _some_ of the saints this testimony?"--_Id._ "Which do not continue, _and_ are not binding."--_Id._ "It not being perceived directly, _any_ more than the air."--_Campbell cor._ "Let us be no Stoics, _and_ no stocks, I pray."--_Shak. cor._ "Where there is no marked _or_ peculiar character in the style."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "There can be no rules laid down, nor _any_ manner recommended."--_Sheridan cor._ "_Bates_. 'He hath not told his thought to the king?' _K. Henry_. 'No; _and_ it is not meet he should.'" Or thus: "'No; nor _is it_ meet he should.'"--_Shak. cor._ UNDER NOTE IX.--EVER AND NEVER. "The prayer of Christ is more than sufficient both to strengthen us, be we _everso_ weak; and to overthrow all adversary power, be it _everso_ strong."--_Hooker cor._ "He is like to have no share in it, or to be _never_ the better for it." Or: "He is _not likely_ to have any share in it, or to be _ever_ the better for it."--_Bunyan cor._ "In some parts of Chili it seldom or _never_ rains."--_Willetts cor._ "If Pompey shall but _everso_ little seem to like it."--_W. Walker cor._ "Though _everso_ great a posse of dogs and hunters pursue him."--_Id._ "Though you be _everso_ excellent."--_Id._ "If you do amiss _everso_ little."--_Id._ "If we cast our eyes _everso_ little down."--_Id._ "A wise man scorneth nothing, be it _everso_ small or homely."--_M. F. Tupper cor._ "Because they have seldom _if_ ever an opportunity of learning them at all."--_Clarkson cor._ "We seldom or _never_ see those forsaken who trust in God."--_Atterbury cor._ "Where, playing with him at bo-peep, He solved all problems, _e'erso_ deep."--_S. Butler cor._ UNDER NOTE X.--OF THE FORM OF ADVERBS. "One can _scarcely_ think that Pope was capable of epic or tragic poetry; but, within a certain limited region, he has been outdone by no poet."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "I who now read, have _nearly_ finished this chapter."--_Harris cor._ "And yet, to refine our taste with respect to beauties of art or of nature, is _scarcely_ endeavoured in any seminary of learning."--_Kames cor._ "The numbers being confounded, and the possessives _wrongly_ applied, the passage is neither English nor grammar."--_Buchanan cor._ "The letter G is _wrongly_ named _Jee_."--_Creighton cor._ "_Lastly_, remember that in science, as in morals, authority cannot make right what in itself is wrong."--_O. B. Peirce cor._ "They regulate our taste even where we are _scarcely_ sensible of them."--_Kames cor._ "Slow action, for example, is imitated by words pronounced _slowly_."--_Id._ "_Surely_, if it be to profit withal, it must be in order to save."--_Barclay cor._ "Which is _scarcely_ possible at best."--_Sheridan cor._ "Our wealth being _nearly_ finished."--_Harris cor._ CHAPTER IX.--CONJUNCTIONS. CORRECTIONS UNDER THE NOTES TO RULE XXII. UNDER NOTE I.--OF TWO TERMS WITH ONE. "The first proposal was essentially different _from_ the second, and inferior _to it._"--_Inst_. "A neuter verb _expresses_ the state _which_ a subject is in, without acting upon _any other thing_, or being acted upon by an other."--_A. Murray cor._ "I answer, You _may use_ stories and anecdotes, and ought to _do_ so."--_Todd cor._ "ORACLE, _n._ Any person _from whom_, or place _at which_, certain decisions are obtained."--_Webster cor._ "Forms of government may, and _occasionally must, be_ changed."--_Lyttelton cor._ "I have _been_, and _I still_ pretend to be, a tolerable judge."--_Sped. cor._ "Are we not lazy in our duties, or _do we not_ make a Christ of them?"--_Baxter cor._ "They may not express that idea which the author intends, but some other which only resembles _it_, or is _akin_ to it."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "We may _therefore read them_, we ought to read them, with a distinguishing eye."--_Ib._ "Compare their poverty with what they might _possess_, and ought to possess."--_Sedgwick cor._ "He is much better _acquainted with grammar_ than they are."--_L. Murray cor._ "He was more beloved _than Cinthio_, but [he was] not so much admired."--_L. Murray's Gram._, i, 222. "Will it be urged, that the four gospels are as old _as tradition, and even_ older?"--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 207. "The court of chancery frequently mitigates and _disarms_ the common law."--_Spect. and Ware cor._ "Antony, coming along side of her ship, entered it without seeing _her_, or being seen by her."--_Goldsmith cor._ "_Into_ candid minds, truth _enters as_ a welcome _guest_."--_L. Murray cor._ "_There are_ many designs _in which_ we may succeed, _to our ultimate ruin_."--_Id._ "_From_ many pursuits _in which_ we embark with pleasure, _we are destined to_ land sorrowfully."--_Id._ "They _gain_ much _more_ than I, by this unexpected event."--_Id._ UNDER NOTE II.--OF HETEROGENEOUS TERMS. "Athens saw them entering her gates and _filling_ her academies."--_Chazotte cor._ "_Neither_ have we forgot his past _achievements_, nor _do we_ despair of his future success."--_Duncan cor._ "Her monuments and temples had long been shattered, or _had_ crumbled into dust."--_Journal cor._ "Competition is excellent; _it is_ the vital principle in all these things."--_Id._ "Whether provision should, or _should_ not, be made, _in order_ to meet this exigency."--_Ib._. "That our Saviour was divinely inspired, and _that he was_ endued with supernatural powers, are positions that are here taken for granted."--_L. Mur. cor._ "It would be much more eligible, to contract or enlarge their extent by explanatory notes and observations, than _to sweep_ away our ancient landmarks and _set_ up others."--_Id._ "It is certainly much better to supply defects and abridge superfluities by occasional notes and observations, than _to disorganize_ or _greatly alter_ a system which has been so long established."--_Id._ "To have only one tune, or measure, is not much better than _to have_ none at all."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Facts too well known and _too_ obvious to be insisted on."--_Id._ "In proportion as all these circumstances are happily chosen, and _are_ of a sublime kind."--_Id._ "If the description be too general, and _be_ divested of circumstances."--_Id._ "He gained nothing _but commendation_."--_L. Mur. cor._ "I cannot but think its application somewhat strained and _misplaced_."--_Vethake cor._ "Two negatives _standing_ in the same clause, or referring to the same thing, destroy each other, and leave the sense affirmative."--_Maunder cor._ "Slates are _thin plates of stone_, and _are often_ used to cover _the_ roofs of houses."--_Webster cor._ "Every man of taste, and _of_ an elevated mind, ought to feel almost the necessity of apologizing for the power he possesses."--_Translator of De Staël cor._ "They very seldom trouble themselves with _inquiries_, or _make any_ useful observations of their own."--_Locke cor._ "We've both the field and honour won; _Our foes_ are profligate, and run."--_S. Butler cor._ UNDER NOTE III.--IMPORT OF CONJUNCTIONS. "THE is sometimes used before adverbs in the comparative _or the_ superlative degree."--_Lennie, Bullions, and Brace cor._ "The definite article THE is frequently applied to adverbs in the comparative _or the_ superlative degree."--_Lowth. Murray, et al, cor._ "Conjunctions usually connect verbs in the same mood _and_ tense." Or, more truly: "Verbs connected by _a conjunction, are_ usually in the same mood _and_ tense."--_Sanborn cor._ "Conjunctions connect verbs in the same style, and usually in the same mood, tense, _and_ form." Or better: "Verbs connected by _a conjunction_, are usually _of_ the same mood, tense, _and_ form, _as well as_ style."--_Id._ "The ruins of Greece _or_ Rome are but the monuments of her former greatness."--_P. E. Day cor._ "It is not improbably, _that in many of these cases_ the articles were used originally."--_Priestley cor._ "I cannot doubt that these objects are really what they appear to be."--_Kames cor._ "I question not _that_ my reader will be as much pleased with it."--_Spect. cor._ "It is ten to one _that_ my friend Peter is among them."--_Id._ "I doubt not _that_ such objections as these will be made"--_Locke cor._ "I doubt not _that_ it will appear in the perusal of the following sheets."--_Buchanan cor._ "It is not improbable, that in time these different constructions maybe appropriated to different uses."--_Priestley cor._ "But to forget _and_ to remember at pleasure, are equally beyond the power of man."--_Idler cor._ "The nominative case follows the verb, in interrogative _or_ imperative sentences."--_L. Mur. cor._ "Can the fig-tree, my brethren, bear olive berries? _or_ a vine, figs?"--_Bible cor._ "Whose characters are too profligate _for_ the managing of them _to_ be of any consequence."--_Swift cor._ "You, that are a step higher than a philosopher, a divine, yet have too much grace and wit to be a bishop."--_Pope cor._ "The terms _rich and poor_ enter not into their language."--_Robertson cor._ "This pause is but seldom, _if_ ever, sufficiently dwelt upon." Or: "This pause is seldom _or never_ sufficiently dwelt upon."--_Gardiner cor._ "There would be no possibility of any such thing as human life _or_ human happiness."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "The multitude rebuked them, _that_ they should hold their peace."--_Bible cor._ UNDER NOTE IV.--THE CONJUNCTION THAN. "A metaphor is nothing _else than_ a short comparison." Or: "A metaphor is nothing _but_ a short comparison."--_Adam and Gould cor._ "There being no other dictator here _than_ use."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 364. "This construction is no otherwise known in English, _than_ by supplying the first or _the_ second person plural."--_Buchanan cor._ "Cyaxares was no sooner _on_ the throne, _than_ he was engaged in a terrible war."--_Rollin cor._ "Those classics contain little else _than_ histories of murders."--_Am. Mu. cor._ "Ye shall not worship any other _than_ God."--_Sale cor._ "Their relation, therefore, is not otherwise to be ascertained, _than_ by their place."--_Campbell cor._ "For he no sooner accosted her, _than_ he gained his point."--_Burder cor._ "And all the modern writers on this subject, have done little else _than_ translate them."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "One who had no other aim _than_ to talk copiously and plausibly."--_Id._ "We can refer it to no other cause _than_ the structure of the eye."--_Id._ "No more is required _than_ singly an act of vision."--_Kames cor._ "We find no more in its composition, _than_ the particulars now mentioned."--_Id._ "_He does not pretend_ to say, that it _has_ any other effect _than_ to raise surprise."--_Id._ "No sooner was the princess dead, _than_ he freed himself."--_Dr. S. Johnson cor._ "OUGHT is an imperfect verb, for it has no modification besides this one."--_Priestley cor._ "The verb is palpably nothing else _than_ the tie."--_Neef cor._ "Does he mean that theism is capable of nothing else _than_ of being opposed to polytheism or atheism?"--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Is it meant that theism is capable of nothing else _than of_ being opposed to polytheism or atheism?"--_L. Murray cor._ "There is no other method of teaching that of which any one is ignorant, _than_ by means of something already known."--_Ingersoll's Grammar, Titlepage: Dr. Johnson cor._ "O fairest flower, no sooner blown _than_ blasted!"--_Milton cor._ "Architecture and gardening cannot otherwise entertain the mind, than by raising certain agreeable emotions or feelings."--_Kames cor._ "Or, rather, they are nothing else _than_ nouns."--_Brit. Gram. cor._ "As if religion were intended For nothing else than to be mended."--_S. Butler cor._ UNDER NOTE V.--RELATIVES EXCLUDE CONJUNCTIONS. "To prepare the Jews for the reception of a prophet mightier than _himself, a teacher_ whose shoes he was not worthy to bear."--_Anon, or Mur. cor._ "Has this word, which represents an action, an object after it, on which _the action_ terminates?"--_Osborne cor._ "The stores of literature lie before him, from which he may collect for use many lessons of wisdom."-- _Knapp cor._ "Many and various great advantages of this grammar _over_ others, might be enumerated."--_Greenleaf cor._ "The custom which still prevails, of writing in lines from left to right, is said to have been introduced about the time of Solon, the Athenian legislator."--_Jamieson cor._ "The fundamental rule _for_ the construction of sentences, _the rule_ into which all others might be resolved, undoubtedly is, to communicate, in the clearest and most natural order, the ideas which we mean to _express_."--_Blair and Jamieson cor._ "He left a son of a singular character, who behaved so ill that he was put in prison."--_L. Murray cor._ "He discovered in the youth some disagreeable qualities which to him were wholly unaccountable."--_Id._ "An emphatical pause is made after something _of_ peculiar moment has been said, on which we _wish_ to fix the hearer's attention." Or: "An emphatical pause is made after something has been said _which is_ of peculiar moment, _and_ on which we _wish_ to fix the hearer's attention."--_Blair and Murray cor._ "But we have duplicates of each, agreeing in movement, though differing in measure, and _making_ different impressions on the ear,"--_Murray cor._ UNDER NOTE VI.--OF THE WORD THAT. "It will greatly facilitate the labours of the teacher, _and_, at the same time, it will relieve the pupil _from_ many difficulties."--_Frost cor._ "_While_ the pupil is engaged in the exercises just mentioned, it will be proper _for him_ to study the whole grammar in course."--_Bullions cor._ "On the same ground _on which_ a participle and _an_ auxiliary are allowed to form a tense."--_Beattie and Murray cor._ "On the same ground _on which_ the voices, moods, and tenses, are admitted into the English tongue."--_L. Murray cor._ "The five examples last mentioned, are corrected on the same principle that _is applied to the errors_ preceding _them_."--_Murray and Ingersoll cor._ "The brazen age began at the death of Trajan, and lasted till Rome was taken by the Goths."--_Gould cor._ "The introduction to the duodecimo edition is retained in this volume, for the same reason _for which_ the original introduction to the Grammar is retained in the first volume."--_L. Murray cor._ "The verb must also _agree in person with its subject or_ nominative."--_Ingersoll cor._ "The personal pronoun 'THEIR' is plural for the same reason _for which_ 'WHO' is plural."--_Id._ "The Sabellians could not justly be called Patripassians, in the same sense _in which_ the Noëtians were so called."--_R. Adam cor._ "This is one reason _why_ we pass over such smooth language without suspecting that it contains little or no meaning."--_L. Murray cor._ "The first place _at which the two_ armies came _within_ sight of each other, was on the opposite banks of the river Apsus."--_Goldsmith cor._ "At the very time _at which_ the author gave him the first book for his perusal."--_Campbell cor._ "Peter will sup at the time _at which_ Paul will dine."--_Fosdick cor._ "Peter will be supping _when_ Paul will enter."--_Id._ "These, _while_ they may serve as models to those who may wish to imitate them, will give me an opportunity to cast more light upon the principles of this book."--_Id._ "Time was, like thee, they life _possess'd_, And time shall be, _when_ thou shalt rest."--_Parnell cor._ UNDER NOTE VII.--OF THE CORRESPONDENTS. "Our manners should be _neither_ gross nor excessively refined."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 165. "A neuter verb expresses neither action _nor_ passion, but being, or a state of being."--_O. B. Peirce cor._ "The old books are neither English grammars, _nor in any sense_ grammars of the English language."--_Id._ "The author is apprehensive that his work is not yet _so_ accurate and _so_ much simplified as it may be."--_Kirkham cor._ "The writer could not treat some _topics so_ extensively as [it] was desirable [to treat them]."--_Id._ "Which would be a matter of such nicety, _that_ no degree of human wisdom could regulate _it_."--_L. Murray cor._ "No undertaking is so great or difficult, _that_ he cannot direct _it_."--_Duncan cor._ "It is a good which depends _neither_ on the will of others, nor on the affluence of external fortune."--_Harris cor._ "Not only his estate, _but_ his reputation too, has suffered by his misconduct."--_Murray and Ingersoll cor._ "Neither do they extend _so_ far as might be imagined at first view."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "There is no language so poor, but _that_ it _has_ (or, _as not to have_) two or three past tenses."--_Id. "So_ far as this system is founded in truth, language appears to be not altogether arbitrary in its origin."--_Id._ "I have not _such_ command of these convulsions as is necessary." Or: "I have not _that_ command of these convulsions _which_ is necessary."--_Spect. cor._ "Conversation with such _as_ (or, _those who_) know no arts _that_ polish life."--_Id._ "And which cannot be _either_ very lively or very forcible."--_Jamieson cor._ "To _such a_ degree as to give proper names to rivers."--_Dr. Murray cor._ "In the utter overthrow of such _as_ hate to be reformed."--_Barclay cor._ "But still so much of it is retained, _that it_ greatly injures the uniformity of the whole."--_Priestley cor._ "Some of them have gone to _such a_ height of extravagance, as to assert," &c.--_Id._ "A teacher is confined, not more than a merchant, and probably not _so_ much."--_Abbott cor._ "It shall not be forgiven him, neither in this world, _nor_ in the world to come." Or: "It shall not be forgiven him, _either_ in this world, _or_ in the world to come."--_Bible cor._ "Which _nobody_ presumes, or is so sanguine _as_ to hope."--_Swift cor._ "For the torrent of the voice left neither time, _nor_ power in the organs, to shape the words properly."--_Sheridan cor._ "That he may neither unnecessarily waste his voice by throwing out too much, _nor_ diminish his power by using too little."--_Id._ "I have retained only such _as_ appear most agreeable to the measures of analogy."--_Littleton cor._ "He is a man both prudent and industrious."--_P. E. Day cor._ "Conjunctions connect either words or sentences."--_Brown's Inst._, p. 169. "Such silly girls _as_ love to chat and play, Deserve no care; their time is thrown away."--_Tobitt cor._ "Vice is a monster of so frightful mien, _That_ to be hated _she_ but needs be seen."--_Pope cor._ "Justice must punish the rebellious deed; Yet punish so _that_ pity shall exceed."--_Dryden cor._ UNDER NOTE VIII.--IMPROPER ELLIPSES. "THAT, WHOSE, and AS, relate either to persons or _to_ things." Or better:--"relate _as well_ to persons _as to_ things."--_Sanborn cor._ "WHICH and WHAT, as adjectives, relate either to persons or _to_ things." Or better:--"relate to persons _as well as to_ things."--_Id._ "Whether of a public or _of a_ private nature."--_J. Q. Adams cor._ "Which are included _among both_ the public and _the_ private wrongs."--_Id._ "I might extract, both from the Old and _from the_ New Testament, numberless examples of induction."--_Id._ "Many verbs are used both in an active and _in a_ neuter signification." Or thus: "Many verbs are used _in both_ an active and _a_ neuter signification."--_Lowth, Mur., et al., cor._ "Its influence is likely to be considerable, both on the morals and _on the_ taste of a nation."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "The subject afforded a variety of scenes, both of the awful and _of the_ tender kind."--_Id._ "Restlessness of mind disqualifies us both for the enjoyment of peace, and _for_ the performance of our duty."--_Mur. and Ing. cor. "Pronominal adjectives_ are of a mixed nature, participating the properties both of pronouns and _of_ adjectives."--_Mur. et al. cor. "Pronominal adjectives_ have the nature both of the adjective and _of_ the pronoun."--_Frost cor._ Or: "[Pronominal adjectives] partake of the properties _of both_ adjectives _and_ pronouns."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 55. "Pronominal adjectives are a kind of compound part of speech, partaking the nature both of pronouns and _of_ adjectives."--_Nutting cor._ "Nouns are used either in the singular or _in the_ plural number." Or perhaps better: "Nouns are used _in either_ the singular or _the_ plural number."--_David Blair cor._ "The question is not, whether the nominative or _the_ accusative ought to follow the particles THAN and AS; but, whether these particles are, in such particular cases, to be regarded as conjunctions or _as_ prepositions"--_Campbell cor._ "In English, many verbs are used both as transitives and _as_ intransitives."--_Churchill cor._ "He sendeth rain both on the just and _on the_ unjust."--See _Matt._, v, 45. "A foot consists either of two or _of_ three syllables."--_David Blair cor._ "Because they participate the nature both of adverbs and _of_ conjunctions."--_L. Murray cor._ "Surely, Romans, what I am now about to say, ought neither to be omitted, nor _to_ pass without notice."--_Duncan cor._ "Their language frequently amounts, not only to bad sense, but _to nonsense_."--_Kirkham cor._ "Hence arises the necessity of a social state to man, both for the unfolding, and _for the_ exerting, of his nobler faculties."--_Sheridan cor._ "Whether the subject be of the real or _of the_ feigned kind."--_Dr. H. Blair cor._ "Not only was liberty entirely extinguished, but arbitrary power _was_ felt in its heaviest and most oppressive weight."--_Id._ "This rule is _also_ applicable both to verbal Critics and _to_ Grammarians."--_Hiley cor._ "Both the rules and _the_ exceptions of a language must have obtained the sanction of good usage."--_Id._ CHAPTER X.--PREPOSITIONS. CORRECTIONS UNDER THE NOTES TO RULE XXIII. UNDER NOTE I.--CHOICE OF PREPOSITIONS. "You have bestowed your favours _upon_ the most deserving persons."--_Swift corrected._ "But, to rise _above_ that, and overtop the crowd, is given to few."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "This [also is a good] sentence [, and] gives occasion _for_ no material remark."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 203. "Though Cicero endeavours to give some reputation _to_ the elder Cato, and those who were his _contemporaries._" Or:--"to give some _favourable account_ of the elder Cato," &c.--_Dr. Blair cor._ "The change that was produced _in_ eloquence, is beautifully described in the dialogue."--_Id._ "Without carefully attending to the variation which they make _in_ the idea."--_Id._ "All _on_ a sudden, you are transported into a lofty palace."--_Hazlitt cor._ "Alike independent of one _an other._" Or: "Alike independent _one of an other_."--_Campbell cor._ "You will not think of them as distinct processes going on independently _of_ each other."--_Channing cor._ "Though we say to _depend on, dependent on_, and _dependence on_, we say, _independent of_, and _independently of._"--_Churchill cor._ "Independently _of_ the rest of the sentence."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 80; _Buchanan's_, 83; _Bullions's_, 110; _Churchill's_, 348.[545] "Because they stand independent _of_ the rest of the sentence."--_Allen Fisk cor._ "When a substantive is joined with a participle, in English, independently _of_ the rest of the sentence."--_Dr. Adam cor._ "CONJUNCTION comes _from_ the two Latin words _con_, together, and _jungo_, to join."--_Merchant cor._ "How different _from_ this is the life of Fulvia!"--_Addison cor._ "LOVED is a participle or adjective, derived _from_ the word _love_."--_Ash cor._ "But I would inquire _of_ him, what an office is."--_Barclay cor._ "For the capacity is brought _into_ action."--_Id._ "In this period, language and taste arrive _at_ purity."--_Webster cor._ "And, should you not aspire _to_ (or _after_) distinction in the _republic_ of letters."--_Kirkham cor._ "Delivering you up to the synagogues, and _into_ prisons."--_Luke_, xxi, 12. "_He_ that is kept from falling _into_ a ditch, is as truly saved, as he that is taken out of one."--_Barclay cor._ "The best _of_ it is, they are but a sort of French Hugonots."--_Addison cor._ "These last ten examples are indeed of a different nature _from_ the former."--_R. Johnson cor._ "For the initiation of students _into_ the principles of the English language."--_Ann. Rev. cor._ "Richelieu profited _by_ every circumstance which the conjuncture afforded."--_Bolingbroke cor._ "In the names of drugs and plants, the mistake _of_ a word may endanger life."--_Merchant's Key_, p. 185. Or better: "In _naming_ drugs _or_ plants, _to mistake_ a word, may endanger life."--_L. Murray cor._ "In order to the carrying _of_ its several parts into execution."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "His abhorrence _of_ the superstitious figure."--_Priestley._ "Thy prejudice _against_ my cause."--_Id._ "Which is found _in_ every species of liberty."--_Hume cor._ "In a hilly region _on_ the north of Jericho."--_Milman cor._ "Two or more singular nouns coupled _by_ AND require a verb _or_ pronoun in the plural."--_Lennie cor._ "Books should to one of these four ends conduce, _To_ wisdom, piety, delight, or use."--_Denham cor._ UNDER NOTE II.--TWO OBJECTS OR MORE. "The Anglo-Saxons, however, soon quarrelled _among_ themselves for precedence."--_Const. Misc. cor._ "The distinctions _among_ the principal parts of speech are founded in nature."--_Webster cor._ "I think I now understand the difference between the active verbs and those _which are_ passive _or_ neuter."--_Ingersoll cor._ "Thus a figure including a space _within_ three lines, is the real as well as nominal essence of a triangle."--_Locke cor._ "We must distinguish between an imperfect phrase _and_ a simple sentence, _and between a simple sentence_ and a compound sentence."--_Lowth, Murray, et al., cor._ "The Jews are strictly forbidden by their law to exercise usury _towards one an_ other."--_Sale cor._ "All the writers have distinguished themselves among _themselves_."--_Addison cor._ "This expression also better secures the systematic uniformity _of_ the three cases."--_Nutting cor._ "When two or more _infinitives_ or clauses _are connected disjunctively as the subjects of an affirmation_, the verb must be singular."--_Jaudon cor._ "Several nouns or pronouns together in the same case, require a comma _after_ each; [except the last, which must sometimes be followed by a greater point.]"--_David Blair cor._ "The difference between _one vowel and an other_ is produced by opening the mouth differently, and placing the tongue in a different manner for each."--_Churchill cor._ "Thus feet composed of syllables, being pronounced with a sensible interval between _one foot and an other_, make a more lively impression than can be made by a continued sound."--_Kames cor._ "The superlative degree implies a comparison, _sometimes_ between _two, but generally among_ three or more."--_R. C. Smith cor._ "They are used to mark a distinction _among_ several objects."--_Lévizac cor._ UNDER NOTE III.--OMISSION OF PREPOSITIONS. "This would have been less worthy _of_ notice."--_Churchill cor._ "But I passed it, as a thing unworthy _of_ my notice."--_Werter cor._ "Which, in compliment to me, perhaps you may one day think worthy _of_ your attention."--_Bucke cor._ "To think this small present worthy _of_ an introduction to the young ladies of your very elegant establishment."-- _Id._ "There are but a few miles _of_ portage."--_Jefferson cor._ "It is worthy _of_ notice, that our mountains are not solitary."--_Id._ "It is _about_ one hundred feet _in_ diameter." [546]--_Id._ "Entering a hill a quarter or half _of_ a mile."--_Id._ "And herself seems passing to _an_ awful dissolution, whose issue _it_ is not given _to_ human foresight to scan."--_Id._ "It was of a spheroidical form, _about_ forty feet _in_ diameter at the base, and had been _about_ twelve feet _in_ altitude."--_Id._ "Before this, it was covered with trees of twelve inches _in_ diameter; and, round the base, _there_ was an excavation of five feet _in_ depth and _five in_ width."--_Id._ "Then thou _mayst_ eat grapes _to_ thy fill, at thine own pleasure."--_Bible cor._ "Then he brought me back _by_ the way of the gate of the outward sanctuary."--_Id._ "They will bless God, that he has peopled one half _of_ the world with a race of freemen."--_Webster cor._ "_Of_ what use can these words be, till their meaning is known?"--_Town cor._ "The tents of the Arabs now are black, or _of_ a very dark colour."--_The Friend cor._ "They may not be unworthy _of_ the attention of young men."--_Kirkham cor._ "The pronoun THAT is frequently applied to persons as well as _to_ things."--_Merchant cor._ "And '_who_' is in the same case that '_man_' is _in_."--_Sanborn cor._ "He saw a flaming stone, apparently about four feet _in_ diameter."--_The Friend cor._ "Pliny informs us, that this stone was _of_ the size of a cart."--_Id._ "Seneca was about twenty years of age in the fifth year of Tiberius, when the Jews were expelled _from_ Rome."--_L'Estrange cor._ "I was prevented _from_ reading a letter which would have undeceived me."--_Hawkesworth cor._ "If the problem can be solved, we may be pardoned _for_ the inaccuracy of its demonstration."--_Booth cor._ "The army must of necessity be the school, not of honour, but _of_ effeminacy."--_Dr. Brown cor._ "Afraid of the virtue of a nation in its opposing _of_ bad measures:" or,--"in its _opposition to_ bad measures."--_Id._ "The uniting _of_ them in various ways, so as to form words, would be easy."--_Gardiner cor._ "I might be excused _from_ taking any more notice of it."--_Watson cor._ "Watch therefore; for ye know not _at_ what hour your Lord _will_ come."--_Bible cor._ "Here, not even infants were spared _from_ the sword."--_M'Ilvaine cor._ "To prevent men _from_ turning aside to _false_ modes of worship."--_John Allen cor._ "God expelled them _from_ the garden of Eden."--_Burder cor._ "Nor could he refrain _from_ expressing to the senate the agonies of his mind."--_Hume cor._ "Who now so strenuously opposes the granting _to_ him _of_ any new powers."--_Duncan cor._ "That the laws of the censors have banished him _from_ the forum."--_Id._ "We read not that he was degraded _from_ his office _in_ any other way."--_Barclay cor._ "To all _to_ whom these presents shall come, greeting."--_Hutchinson cor._ "On the 1st _of_ August, 1834."--_Brit. Parl. cor._ "Whether you had not some time in your life Err'd in this point _on_ which you censure him."--_Shak. cor._ UNDER NOTE IV.--OF NEEDLESS PREPOSITIONS. "And the apostles and elders came together to consider this matter."--_Barclay cor._; also _Acts_. "Adjectives, in our language, have neither case, _nor_ gender, nor number; the only variation they have, is comparison."--_Buchanan cor._ "'It is to you that I am indebted for this privilege;' that is, 'To you am I indebted;' or, 'It is you to whom I am indebted.'"--_Sanborn cor._ "BOOKS is a _common_ noun, of the third person, plural number, _and_ neuter gender."--_Ingersoll cor._ "BROTHER'S is a common _noun_, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and possessive case."--_L. Murray cor._ "VIRTUE'S is a common _noun_, of the third person, singular number, [neuter gender,] and possessive case."--_Id._ "When the authorities on one side greatly preponderate, it is vain to oppose the prevailing usage."--_Campbell and Murray cor._ "A captain of a troop of banditti, had a mind to be plundering Rome."--_Collier cor._ "And, notwithstanding its verbal power, we have added the TO and other signs of exertion."--_Booth cor._ "Some of these situations are termed CASES, and are expressed by additions to the noun, _in stead of_ separate words:" or,--"_and not by_ separate words."--_Id._ "Is it such a fast that I have chosen, that a man should afflict his soul for a day, and bow down his head like a bulrush?"--_Bacon cor._ Compare _Isa._, lviii, 5. "And this first emotion comes at last to be awakened by the accidental _in stead of_ the necessary antecedent."--_Wayland cor._ "About the same time, the subjugation of the Moors was completed."--_Balbi cor._ "God divided between the light and the darkness."--_Burder cor._ "Notwithstanding this, we are not against outward significations of honour."--_Barclay cor._ "Whether these words and practices of Job's friends, _ought_ to be our rule."--_Id._ "Such verb cannot admit an objective case after it."--_Lowth cor._ "For which, God is now visibly punishing these nations."--_C. Leslie cor._ "In this respect, Tasso yields to no poet, except Homer."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Notwithstanding the numerous panegyrics on the ancient English liberty."--_Hume cor._ "Their efforts seemed to anticipate the spirit which became so general afterwards."--_Id._ UNDER NOTE V.--THE PLACING OF THE WORDS. "But how short _of_ its excellency are my expressions!"--_Baxter cor._ "_In_ his style, there is a remarkable union _of_ harmony with ease."--_Dr. H. Blair cor._ "It disposes _of_ the light and shade _in_ the most artificial manner, _that_ every thing _may be viewed_ to the best advantage."--_Id._ "_For_ brevity, Aristotle too holds an eminent rank among didactic writers."--_Id._ "In an introduction, correctness _of_ expression should be carefully studied."--_Id._ "_In_ laying down a method, _one ought_ above all things _to study_ precision."--_Id._ "Which shall make _on_ the mind the impression _of_ something that is one, whole, and entire."--_Id._ "At the same time, there are _in_ the Odyssey some defects which must be acknowledged." Or: "At the same time, _it_ must be acknowledged _that_ there are some defects in the Odyssey."--_Id._ "_In_ the concluding books, however, there are beauties _of_ the tragic kind."--_Id._ "These forms of conversation multiplied _by_ degrees, and grew troublesome."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 44. "When she has made her own choice, she sends, _for_ form's sake, a congé-d'élire to her friends."--_Ib._, ii, 46. "Let us endeavour to establish to ourselves an interest in him who holds _in_ his hand the reins of the whole creation."--_Spectator cor._; also _Kames_. "Next to this, the measure most frequent _in_ English poetry, is that of eight syllables."--_David Blair cor._ "To introduce as great a variety _of_ cadences as possible."-- _Jamieson cor._ "He addressed _to_ them several exhortations, suitable to their circumstances."--_L. Murray cor._ "Habits _of_ temperance and self-denial must be acquired."--_Id._ "In reducing _to_ practice the rules prescribed."--_Id._ "But these parts must be so closely bound together, as to make _upon_ the mind the impression _of_ one object, not of many."--_Blair and Mur. cor._ "Errors _with_ respect to the use of _shall_ and _will_, are sometimes committed by the most distinguished writers."--_N. Butler cor._ CHAPTER XI.--PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. CORRECTIONS OF THE PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES. LESSON I.--ANY PARTS OF SPEECH. "Such _a_ one, I believe, yours will be proved to be."--_Peet and Farnum cor._ "Of the distinction between the imperfect and the perfect _tense_, it may be observed," &c.--_L. Ainsworth cor._ "The subject is certainly worthy _of_ consideration."--_Id._ "By this means, all ambiguity and controversy _on this point are avoided_."--_Bullions cor._ "The perfect participle, in English, has both an active and _a_ passive signification." Better: "The perfect participle, in English, has _sometimes_ an active, and _sometimes_ a passive, signification."--_Id._ "The old house _has_ at length fallen down."--_Id._ "The king, the lords, and _the_ commons, constitute the English form of government."--_Id._ "The verb in the singular agrees with the person next _to_ it." Better: "The singular verb agrees _in_ person with _that nominative which is_ next _to_ it."--_Id._ "Jane found Seth's gloves in _James's_ hat."--_O. C. Felton cor._ "_Charles's_ task is too great."--_Id._ "The conjugation of a verb is the naming _of_ its several _moods_, tenses, numbers, and persons, _in regular order_."--_Id._ "The _long-remembered_ beggar was his guest."--_Id._ "Participles refer to nouns _or_ pronouns."--_Id._ "F has _a_ uniform sound, in every position, except in OF." Better: "F has _one unvaried_ sound, in every position, except in OF."--_E. J. Hallock cor._ "There are three genders; the masculine, the feminine, and _the_ neuter."--_Id._ "When SO _and_ THAT occur together, sometimes the particle SO is taken as an adverb."--_Id._ "The definition of the articles _shows_ that they modify [the import of] the words to which they belong."--_Id._ "The _auxiliary_, SHALL, WILL, or SHOULD, is implied."--_Id. "Single-rhymed_ trochaic omits the final short syllable."--_Brown's Inst._, p. 237. "_Agreeably_ to this, we read of names being blotted out of God's book."--_Burder, Hallock, and Webster, cor._ "The first person is _that which denotes the speaker_."--_Inst._, p. 32. "Accent is the laying _of_ a peculiar stress of the voice, on a certain letter or syllable in a word."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 235; _Felton's_, 134. "_Thomas's_ horse was caught."--_Felton cor._ "You _were_ loved."--_Id._ "The nominative and _the_ objective end _alike_."--_T. Smith cor._ "The _numbers_ of pronouns, like those of substantives, are two; the singular and the plural."--_Id._ "_I_ is called the pronoun of the first person, _because it represents_ the person speaking."--_Frost cor._ "The essential elements of the phrase _are_ an intransitive gerundive and an adjective."--_Hazen cor._ "_Wealth_ is no justification for such impudence."--_Id._ "_That he was_ a soldier in the revolution, is not doubted."--_Id._ "_Fishing_ is the chief employment of the inhabitants."--_Id._ "The chief employment of the inhabitants, is _the_ catching _of_ fish."--_Id._ "The cold weather did not prevent the _work from_ being finished at the time specified."--_Id._ "The _man's_ former viciousness caused _him to be_ suspected of this crime."--_Id._ "But person and number, applied to verbs, _mean_ certain terminations."--_Barrett cor._ "Robert _felled_ a tree."--_Id._ "Charles raised _himself_ up."--_Id._ "It might not be _a_ useless waste of time."--_Id._ "Neither will you have that implicit faith in the writings and works of others, which _characterizes_ the vulgar."--_Id._ "_I_ is _of_ the first person, because it denotes the speaker."--_Ib._ "I would refer the student to _Hedge's_ or _Watts's_ Logic."--_Id._ "Hedge's _Watts's_, Kirwin's, and Collard's Logic."--_Parker and Fox cor._ "Letters _that_ make a full and perfect sound of themselves, are called vowels." Or: "_The_ letters _which_ make," &c.--_Cutler cor._ "It has both a singular and _a_ plural construction."--_Id._ "For he _beholds_ (or _beholdeth_) thy beams no more."--_Id. Carthon._ "To this sentiment the Committee _have_ the candour to incline, as it will appear by their _summing-up_."--_Macpherson cor._ "This _reduces_ the point at issue to a narrow compass."--_Id._ "Since the English _set_ foot upon the soil."--_Exiles cor._ "The arrangement of its different parts _is_ easily retained by the memory."--_Hiley cor._ "The words employed are the most appropriate _that_ could have been selected."--_Id._ "To prevent it _from_ launching!"--_Id._ "Webster has been followed in preference to others, where _he_ differs from them." Or: "_Webster's Grammar_ has been followed in preference to others, where _it_ differs from them."--_Frazee cor._ "Exclamation and interrogation are often mistaken _the_ one _for the_ other."--_Buchanan cor._ "When all nature is hushed in sleep, and neither love nor guilt _keeps its_ vigils."--_Felton cor._ Or thus:-- "When all nature's hush'd asleep. Nor love, nor guilt, _doth_ vigils keep." LESSON II.--ANY PARTS OF SPEECH. "A _Versifier_ and _a_ Poet are two different things."--_Brightland cor._ "Those qualities will arise from the _well-expressing_ of the subject."--_Id._ "Therefore the explanation of NETWORK is _not noticed_ here."--_Mason cor._ "When emphasis or pathos _is_ necessary to be expressed."--_Humphrey cor._ "Whether this mode of punctuation is correct, _or_ whether it _is_ proper to close the sentence with the mark of admiration, may be made a question."--_Id._ "But not every writer in those days _was_ thus correct."--_Id._ "The sounds of A, in English orthoepy, are no _fewer_ than four."--_Id._ "Our present code of rules _is_ thought to be generally correct." Or: "_The rules in_ our present code are thought to be generally correct."--_Id._ "To prevent _it from_ running into _an other_"--_Id._ "_Shakspeare_, perhaps, the greatest poetical genius _that_ England has produced."--_Id._ "This I will illustrate by example; but, _before doing so_, a few preliminary remarks may be necessary."--_Id._ "All such are entitled to two accents each, and some of _them_ to two accents nearly equal."--_Id._ "But some cases of the kind are so plain, that no one _needs_ to exercise (or, need exercise) his _judgement_ therein."--_Id._ "I have _forborne_ to use the word."--_Id._ "The propositions, 'He may study,' 'He might study,' 'He could study,' _affirm_ an ability or power to study."--_E. J. Hallock cor._ "The divisions of the tenses _have_ occasioned grammarians much trouble and perplexity."--_Id._ "By adopting a familiar, inductive method of presenting this subject, _one may render it_ highly attractive to young learners."--_Wells cor._ "The definitions and rules of different grammarians were carefully compared with _one an_ other:" or--"_one_ with _an_ other."--_Id._ "So as not wholly to prevent some _sound from_ issuing."--_Sheridan cor._ "Letters of the Alphabet, not yet _noticed_."--_Id._ "'IT _is sad_,' 'IT _is strange_,' &c., _seem_ to express only that _the thing_ is sad, strange, &c."--_Well-Wishers cor._ "The winning is easier than the preserving _of_ a conquest."--_Same_. "The United States _find themselves_ the _owners_ of a vast region of country at the west."--_H. Mann cor._ "One or more letters placed before a word _are_ a prefix."--_S. W. Clark cor._ "One or more letters added to a word, _are_ a Suffix."--_Id._ "_Two thirds_ of my hair _have_ fallen off." Or: "My hair has, two thirds of it, fallen off."--_Id._ "'Suspecting' describes _us, the speakers_, by expressing, incidentally, an act of _ours_."--_Id._ "Daniel's predictions are now _about_ being fulfilled." Or thus: "Daniel's predictions are now _receiving their fulfillment_"--_Id._ "His _scholarship_ entitles him to respect."--_Id._ "I doubted _whether he had_ been a soldier."--_Id._ "_The_ taking _of_ a madman's sword to prevent _him from_ doing mischief, cannot be regarded as _a robbery_."--_Id._ "I thought it to be him; but it was not _he_."--_Id._ "It was not _I_ that you saw."--_Id._ "Not to know what happened before you _were_ born, is always to be a boy."--_Id._ "How long _were_ you going? Three days."--_Id._ "The qualifying adjective is placed next _to_ the noun."--_Id._ "All went but _I_."--_Id._ "This is _a_ parsing _of_ their own language, and not _of_ the author's."--_Wells cor._ "_Those_ nouns which denote males, are of the masculine gender." Or: "Nouns _that_ denote males, are of the masculine gender."--_Wells, late Ed._ "_Those_ nouns which denote females, are of the feminine gender." Or: "Nouns _that_ denote females, are of the feminine gender."--_Wells, late Ed._ "When a comparison _among_ more than two objects of the same class is expressed, the superlative degree is employed."--_Wells cor._ "Where _d_ or _t goes_ before, the additional letter _d_ or _t_, in this contracted form, _coalesces_ into one letter with the radical _d_ or _t_."--_Dr. Johnson cor._ "Write words which will show what kind of _house_ you live in--what kind of _book_ you hold in your hand--what kind of _day_ it is."--_Weld cor._ "One word or more _are_ often joined to nouns or pronouns to modify their meaning."--_Id._ "_Good_ is an adjective; it explains the quality or character of every person _to whom_, or thing to which, it is applied." Or:--"of every person or thing _that_ it is applied to."--_Id._ "A great public as well as private advantage arises from every one's devoting _of_ himself to that occupation which he prefers, and for which he is specially fitted."--_Wayland, Wells, and Weld, cor._ "There was a chance _for_ him _to recover_ his senses." Or: "There was a chance _that he might recover_ his senses."--_Wells and Macaulay cor._ "This may be known by _the absence of_ any connecting word immediately preceding it."--_Weld cor._ "There are irregular expressions occasionally to be met with, which usage, or custom, rather than analogy, _sanctions_."--_Id._ "He added an anecdote of _Quin_ relieving Thomson from prison." Or: "He added an anecdote of _Quin_ as relieving Thomson from prison." Or: "He added an anecdote of Quin's relieving _of_ Thomson from prison." Or better: "He _also told how Quin relieved_ Thomson from prison."--_Id._ "The daily labour of her hands _procures_ for her all that is necessary."--_Id._ "_That it is I, should_ make no change in your determination."--_Hart cor._ "The classification of words into what _are_ called the Parts of Speech."--_Weld cor._ "Such licenses may be explained _among_ what _are_ usually termed Figures."--_Id._ "Liberal, not lavish, is kind Nature's _hand_."--_Beattie_. "They fall successive, and successive _rise_."--_Pope_. LESSON III.--ANY PARTS OF SPEECH. "A Figure of Etymology is _an_ intentional deviation _from_ the usual form of a word."--_See Brown's Institutes_, p. 229. "A Figure of Syntax is _an_ intentional deviation _from_ the usual construction of a word."--_See Brown's Inst._, p. 230. "Synecdoche is _the naming_ of the whole of _any thing_ for a part, or a part for the whole."--_Weld cor._ "Apostrophe is a _turning-off_[547] from the regular course of the subject, to address some person or thing."--_Id._ "Even young pupils will perform such exercises with surprising interest and facility, and will unconsciously gain, in a little time, more knowledge of the structure of _language_, than _they_ can acquire by a drilling of several years in the usual routine of parsing."--_Id._ "A few _rules_ of construction are employed in this _part_, to guide _the pupil_ in the exercise of parsing."--_Id._ "The name of _any_ person, object, or thing, _that_ can be thought of, or spoken of, is a noun."--_Id._ "A dot, resembling our period, is used between every _two words_, as well as at the close of _each verse_."--_W. Day cor._ "_The_ casting _of_ types in matrices was invented by Peter Schoeffer, in 1452."--_Id._ "On perusing it, he said, that, so far [_was it_] _from_ showing the prisoner's guilt [that] it positively established his innocence."--_Id._ "By printing the nominative and verb in Italic letters, _we shall enable_ the reader to distinguish them at a glance."--_Id._ "It is well, no doubt, to avoid unnecessary words."--_Id._ "_I_ meeting a friend the other day, he said to me, 'Where are you going?'"--_Id._ "To John, apples _were_ first denied; then _they were_ promised _to him_; then _they were_ offered _to him_."--_Lennie cor._ "Admission was denied _him_."--_Wells cor._ "A pardon _was_ offered _to them_."--_L. Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 183. "A new _potato_ was this day shown me."--_Darwin, Webster, Frazee, and Weld, cor._ "_Those_ nouns or pronouns which denote males, are of the masculine gender."--_S. S. Greene, cor._ "There are three degrees of comparison; the positive, _the_ comparative, and _the_ superlative."--_Id._ "The first two refer to direction; the third _refers_ to locality."--_Id._ "The following are some of the verbs which take a direct and _an_ indirect object."--_Id._ "I was not aware _that he was_ the judge of the supreme court."--_Id._ "An indirect question may refer to _any_ of the five elements of a declarative sentence."--_Id._ "I am not sure that he will be present."--_Id._ "We left _New York_ on Tuesday."--_Id._ "He left _the city_, as he told me, before the arrival of the steamer."--_Id._ "We told him that he must leave _us_;"--_Id._ "We told him to leave _us_."--_Id._ "Because he was unable to persuade the multitude, he left _the place_, in disgust."--_Id._ "He left _the company_, and took his brother with him."--_Id._ "This stating, or declaring, or denying _of_ any thing, is called the indicative _mood_, or manner of speaking."--_Weld cor._ "This took place at our friend Sir Joshua _Reynolds's_."--_Id._ "The manner _in which_ a young _lady may employ_ herself usefully in reading, will be the subject of _an other_ paper."--_Id._ "Very little time is necessary for _Johnson to conclude_ a treaty with the bookseller."--_Id._ "My father is not now sick; but if he _were_, your services would be welcome."--_Chandler's Common School Gram., Ed. of 1847_, p. 79. "_Before_ we begin to write or speak, we ought to fix in our minds a clear conception of the end to be aimed at."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Length of days _is_ in her right hand; and, in her left hand, _are_ riches and honour."--See _Proverbs_, iii, 16. "The active and _the_ passive present express different ideas."--_Bullions cor._ "An _Improper Diphthong_, (_sometimes called a_ Digraph,) is a diphthong in which only one of the vowels _is_ sounded."--_Fowler cor._ (See G. Brown's definition.) "The real origin of the words _is_ to be sought in the Latin."--_Fowler cor._ "What sort of alphabet the Gothic languages possess, we know; what sort of alphabet they require, we can determine."--_Id._ "The Runic alphabet, whether borrowed or invented by the early Goths, is of greater antiquity than either the oldest Teutonic or the Moeso-Gothic _alphabet_."--_Id._ "Common to the masculine and neuter genders."--_Id._ "In the Anglo-Saxon, HIS was common to both the masculine and _the_ Neuter _Gender_."--_Id._ "When time, number, or dimension, _is_ specified, the adjective follows the substantive."--_Id._ "Nor pain, nor grief nor anxious fear, _Invades_ thy bounds."--_Id._ "To Brighton, the Pavilion lends a _lath-and-plaster_ grace."--_Fowler cor._ "From this consideration, _I have given to nouns_ but one person, the THIRD."--_D. C. Allen cor._ "For it seems to guard and cherish E'en the wayward dreamer--_me_."--_Anon. cor._ CHAPTER XII.--GENERAL REVIEW. CORRECTIONS UNDER ALL THE PRECEDING RULES AND NOTES. LESSON I.--ARTICLES. "And they took stones, and made _a_ heap."--ALGER'S BIBLE: _Gen._, xxxi, 46. "And I do know many fools, that stand in better place."--_Shak. cor._ "It is a strong antidote to the turbulence of passion, and _the_ violence of pursuit."--_Kames cor._ "The word NEWS may admit of either a singular or _a_ plural application."--_Wright cor._ "He has gained a fair and honourable reputation."--_Id._ "There are two general forms, called the solemn and _the_ familiar style." Or:--"called the solemn and familiar _styles_."--_Sanborn cor._ "Neither the article nor _the_ preposition can be omitted."--_Wright cor._ "A close union is also observable between the subjunctive and _the_ potential _mood_."--_Id._ "Should we render service equally to a friend, _a_ neighbour, and an enemy?"--_Id._ "Till _a_ habit is obtained, of aspirating strongly."--_Sheridan cor._ "There is _a_ uniform, steady use of the same signs."--_Id._ "A traveller remarks most _of the_ objects _which_ he sees."--_Jamieson cor._ "What is the name of the river on which London stands? _Thames_."--_G. B._ "We sometimes find the last line of a couplet or _a_ triplet stretched out to twelve syllables."--_Adam cor._ "_The_ nouns which follow active verbs, are not in the nominative case."--_David Blair cor._ "It is a solemn duty to speak plainly of _the_ wrongs which good men perpetrate."--_Channing cor._ "_The_ gathering of riches is a pleasant torment."--_L. Cobb cor._ "It is worth being quoted." Or better: "It is worth quoting."--_Coleridge cor._ "COUNCIL is a noun which admits of a singular and _a_ plural form."--_Wright cor._ "To exhibit the connexion between the Old _Testament_ and the New."--_Keith cor._ "An apostrophe discovers the omission of a letter or _of_ letters."--_Guy cor._ "He is immediately ordained, or rather acknowledged, _a_ hero."--_Pope cor._ "Which is the same in both the leading and _the_ following state."--_Brightland cor._ "Pronouns, as will be seen hereafter, have _three_ distinct _cases; the_ nominative, _the_ possessive, and _the_ objective."--_D. Blair cor._ "A word of many syllables is called _a_ polysyllable."--_Beck cor._ "Nouns have two numbers; _the_ singular and _the_ plural."--_Id._ "They have three genders; _the_ masculine, _the_ feminine, and _the_ neuter."--_Id._ "They have three cases; _the_ nominative, _the_ possessive, and _the_ objective."--_Id._ "Personal pronouns have, like nouns, two numbers; _the_ singular and _the_ plural;--three genders; _the_ masculine, _the_ feminine, and _the_ neuter;--_three_ cases; _the_ nominative, _the possessive_, and _the_ objective."--_Id._ "He must be wise enough to know the singular from _the_ plural"--_Id._ "Though they may be able to meet every reproach which any one of their fellows may prefer."--_Chalmers cor._ "Yet for love's sake I rather beseech thee, being such _a_ one as Paul the aged."--_Bible cor._; also _Webster_. "A people that jeoparded their lives unto death."--_Bible cor._ "By preventing too great _an_ accumulation of seed within too narrow _a_ compass."--_The Friend cor._ "Who fills up the middle space between the animal and _the_ intellectual nature, the visible and _the_ invisible world."--_Addison cor._ "The Psalms abound with instances of _the_ harmonious arrangement of words."--_Murray cor._ "On _an_ other table, were _a_ ewer and _a_ vase, likewise of gold."--_Mirror cor._ "TH is said to have two sounds, _a_ sharp and _a_ flat."--_Wilson cor._ "_The_ SECTION (§) is _sometimes_ used in _the_ subdividing of a chapter into lesser parts."--_Brightland cor._ "Try it in a dog, or _a_ horse, or any other creature."--_Locke cor._ "But particularly in _the_ learning of languages, there is _the_ least occasion _to pose_ children."--_Id._ "_Of_ what kind is _the_ noun RIVER, and why?"--_R. C. Smith cor._ "Is WILLIAM'S a proper or _a_ common noun?"--_Id._ "What kind of article, then, shall we call _the_?" Or better: "What then shall we call the article _the_?"--_Id._ "Each burns alike, who can, or cannot write, Or with a rival's, or _a_ eunuch's spite."--_Pope cor._ LESSON II.--NOUNS, OR CASES. "And there _are_ stamped upon their imaginations _ideas_ that follow them with terror and _affright_."--_Locke cor._ "There's not a wretch that lives on common charity, but's happier than _I_."--_Ven. Pres. cor._ "But they overwhelm _every one who_ is ignorant of them."--_H. Mann cor._ "I have received a letter from my cousin, _her_ that was here last week."--_Inst._, p. 129. "_Gentlemen's_ houses are seldom without variety of company."--_Locke cor._ "Because Fortune has laid them below the level of others, at their _masters_' feet."--_Id._ "We blamed neither _John's_ nor Mary's delay."--_Nixon cor._ "The book was written by order _of Luther_ the _reformer_."--_Id._ "I saw on the table of the saloon Blair's sermons, and _somebody's_ else, (I forget _whose_,) and [_about the room_] a set of noisy children."--_Byron cor._ "Or saith he it altogether for our _sake_?"--_Bible cor._ "He was not aware _that the Duke was_ his competitor."--_Sanborn cor._ "It is no condition of an adjective, that _the word_ must be placed before a noun." Or: "It is no condition _on which a word becomes_ an adjective, that it must be placed before a noun."--_Id., and Fowle cor._ "Though their reason corrected the wrong _ideas which_ they had taken in."--_Locke cor._ "It was _he that_ taught me to hate slavery."--_Morris cor._ "It is _he_ and his kindred, who live upon the labour of others."--_Id._ "Payment of tribute is an acknowledgement of _him as_ being King--(of _him as_ King--or, _that he is_ King--) to whom we think it due."--_C. Leslie cor._ "When we comprehend what _is taught us_."--_Ingersoll cor._ "The following words, and parts of words, must be _noticed_."--_Priestley cor._ "Hence tears and commiseration are so often _employed_."--_Dr. H. Blair cor._ "JOHN-A-NOKES, _n._ A fictitious name _used_ in law proceedings."--_A. Chalmers cor._ "The construction of _words denoting_ matter, and _the_ part _grasped_."--_B. F. Fisk cor._ "And such other names as carry with them the _idea_ of _something_ terrible and hurtful."--_Locke cor._ "Every learner then would surely be glad to be spared _from_ the trouble and fatigue."--_Pike cor._ "_It_ is not the owning of _one's_ dissent from _an other_, that I speak against."--_Locke cor._ "A man that cannot fence, will be more careful to keep out of bullies and _gamesters'_ company, and will not be half so apt to stand upon _punctilios_."--_Id._ "From such persons it is, _that_ one may learn more in one day, than in a _year's_ rambling from one inn to _an other_."--_Id._ "A long syllable is generally considered to be twice _as long as_ a short one."--_D. Blair cor._ "I is of the first person, and _the_ singular number. THOU is _of the_ second person singular. HE, SHE, or IT, is _of the_ third person singular. WE is _of the_ first person plural. YE or YOU is _of the_ second person plural. THEY is _of the_ third person plural."--_Kirkham cor._ "This actor, doer, or producer of the action, is _denoted by some word in_ the nominative _case_."--_Id._ "_Nobody_ can think, _that_ a boy of three or seven years _of age_ should be argued with as a grown man."--_Locke cor._ "This was in _the house of_ one of the Pharisees, not in Simon the leper's."--_Hammond cor._ "Impossible! it can't be _I_."--_Swift cor._ "Whose grey top shall tremble, _He_ descending."--_Milton, P. L._, xii, 227. "_Of_ what gender is _woman_, and why?"--_R. C. Smith cor._ "_Of_ what gender, then, is _man_, and why?"--_Id._ "Who is _this I; whom_ do you mean when you say _I_?"--_R. W. Green cor._ "It _has_ a pleasant air, but _the soil_ is barren."--_Locke cor._ "You may, in three _days'_ time, go from Galilee to Jerusalem."--_W. Whiston cor._ "And that which is left of the meat-offering, shall be Aaron's and his _sons'_."--FRIENDS' BIBLE. "For none in all the world, without a lie, Can say _of_ this, '_'T_is mine,' but _Bunyan_, I."--_Bunyan cor._ LESSON III.--ADJECTIVES. "When he can be their remembrancer and advocate _at all assizes_ and sessions."--_Leslie cor._ "DOING denotes _every_ manner of action; as, to dance, to play, to write, &c."--_Buchanan cor._ "Seven _feet_ long,"--"eight _feet_ long,"--"fifty _feet_ long."--_W. Walker cor._ "Nearly the whole of _these_ twenty-five millions of dollars is a dead loss to the nation."--_Fowler cor._ "Two negatives destroy _each_ other."--_R. W. Green cor._ "We are warned against excusing sin in ourselves, or in _one an_ other."--_Friend cor._ "The Russian empire is more extensive than any _other_ government in the world."--_Inst._, p. 265. "You will always have the satisfaction to think it, of all _your expenses_, the money best laid out."--_Locke cor._ "There is no _other_ passion which all mankind so naturally _indulge_, as pride."--_Steele cor._ "O, throw away the _viler_ part of it."--_Shak. cor._ "He showed us _an easier_ and _more agreeable_ way."--_Inst._, p. 265. "And the _last four_ are to point out those further improvements."--_Jamieson and Campbell cor._ "Where he has not clear _ideas_, distinct and different."--_Locke cor._ "Oh, when shall we have _an other such_ Rector of Laracor!"--_Hazlitt cor._ "Speech must have been absolutely necessary _previously_ to the formation of society." Or better thus: "Speech must have been absolutely necessary to the formation of society."--_Jamieson cor._ "Go and tell _those_ boys to be still."--_Inst._, p. 265. "Wrongs are engraved on marble; benefits, on sand: _those_ are apt to be requited; _these_, forgot."--_G. B._ "_None_ of these several interpretations is the true one."--_G. B._ "My friend indulged himself in some freaks _not befitting_ the gravity of a clergyman."--_G. B._ "And their pardon is all that _any_ of their impropriators will have to plead."--_Leslie cor._ "But the time usually chosen to send young men abroad, is, I think, of all _periods_, that _at_ which _they are_ least capable of reaping those advantages."--_Locke cor._ "It is a mere figment of the human imagination, a rhapsody of the _transcendently_ unintelligible."--_Jamieson cor._ "It contains a greater assemblage of sublime ideas, of bold and daring figures, than is perhaps _anywhere else_ to be met with."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "The order in which the _last two_ words are placed should have been reversed."--_Dr. Blair cor._; also _L. Murray_. "In Demosthenes, eloquence _shone_ forth with higher splendour, than perhaps in any _other_ that ever bore the name of _orator_."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "The circumstance of his _poverty_ (or, _that he is_ poor) is decidedly favourable."--_Todd cor._ "The temptations to dissipation are greatly lessened by his _poverty_."--_Id._ "For, with her death, _those_ tidings came."--_Shak. cor._ "The next objection is, that _authors of this sort_ are poor."--_Cleland cor._ "Presenting Emma, as Miss Castlemain, to these _acquaintances_:" or,--"to these _persons of her_ acquaintance."--_Opie cor._ "I doubt not _that_ it will please more _persons_ than the opera:" or,--"that it will be _more pleasing_ than the opera."--_Spect. cor._ "The world knows only two; _these are_ Rome and I."--_Ben Jonson cor._ "I distinguish these two things from _each_ other."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "And, in this case, mankind reciprocally claim and allow indulgence to _one an_ other."--_Sheridan cor._ "The _last six_ books are said not to have received the finishing hand of the author."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "The _best-executed_ part of the work, is the first six books."--_Id._ "To reason how can we be said to rise? So _hard the task for mortals to be_ wise!"--_Sheffield cor._ LESSON IV.--PRONOUNS. "Once upon a time, a goose fed _her_ young by a _pond's_ side:" or--"by a _pondside_."--_Goldsmith cor._ (See OBS. 33d on Rule 4th.) "If either _has_ a sufficient degree of merit to recommend _it_ to the attention of the public."--_J. Walker cor._ "Now W. _Mitchell's_ deceit is very remarkable."--_Barclay cor._ "My brother, I did not put the question to thee, for that I doubted of the truth of _thy_ belief."--_Bunyan cor._ "I had two elder brothers, one of _whom_ was a lieutenant-colonel."--_De Foe cor._ "Though James is here the object of the action, yet _the word James_ is in the nominative case."--_Wright cor._ "Here John is the actor; and _the word John_ is known to be _in_ the nominative, by its answering to the question, '_Who_ struck Richard?'"--_Id._ "One of the most distinguished privileges _that_ Providence has conferred upon mankind, is the power of communicating their thoughts to one _an other_."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "With some of the most refined feelings _that_ belong to our frame."--_Id._ "And the same instructions _that_ assist others in composing _works of elegance_, will assist them in judging of, and relishing, the beauties of composition."--_Id._ "To overthrow all _that_ had been yielded in favour of the army."--_Macaulay cor._ "Let your faith stand in the Lord God, who changes not, _who_ created all, and _who_ gives the increase of all."--_Friends cor._ "For it is, in truth, the sentiment of passion which lies under the figured expression, that gives it _all its_ merit."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Verbs are words _that_ affirm the being, doing, or suffering of a thing, together with the time _at which_ it happens."--_A. Murray cor._ "The _bias_ will always hang on that side _on which_ nature first placed it."--_Locke cor._ "They should be brought to do the things _which_ are fit for them."--_Id._ "_The_ various sources _from which_ the English language is derived."--_L. Murray cor._ "This attention to the several cases _in which_ it is proper to omit _or_ to redouble the copulative, is of considerable importance."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Cicero, for instance, speaking of the cases _in which it_ is lawful _to kill an other in self-defence_, uses the following words."--_Id._ "But there is no nation, hardly _are there_ any _persons_, so phlegmatic as not to accompany their words with some actions, _or_ gesticulations, _whenever_ they are much in earnest."--_Id._ "_William's_ is said to be governed by _coat_, because _coat_ follows _William's_" Or better:--"because _coat_ is the name of the thing possessed by William."--_R. C. Smith cor._ "In life, there are many _occasions on which_ silence and simplicity are _marks of_ true wisdom."--_L. Murray cor._ "In choosing umpires _whose_ avarice is excited."--_Nixon cor._ "The boroughs sent representatives, _according to law_."--_Id._ "No man believes but _that_ there is some order in the universe."--_G. B._ "The moon is orderly in her changes, _and_ she could not be _so_ by accident."--_Id._ "_The riddles of the Sphynx_ (or, The _Sphynx's_ riddles) are generally _of_ two kinds."--_Bacon cor._ "They must generally find either their friends or _their_ enemies in power."--_Dr. Brown cor._ "For, of old, _very many_ took upon them to write what happened in their own time."--_Whiston cor._ "The Almighty cut off the family of Eli the high priest, for _their_ transgressions."--_The Friend_, vii, 109. "The convention then resolved _itself_ into a committee of the whole."--_Inst._, p. 269. "The severity with which _persons of_ this denomination _were_ treated, appeared rather to invite _them to the colony_, than to deter them from flocking _thither_."--_H. Adams cor._ "Many Christians abuse the Scriptures and the traditions of the apostles, to uphold things quite contrary to _them_."--_Barclay cor._ "Thus, a circle, a square, a triangle, or a hexagon, _pleases_ the eye by _its_ regularity, _and is a_ beautiful _figure_."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Elba is remarkable for being the place to which Bonaparte was banished in 1814."--_Olney's Geog_. "The editor has the reputation of being a good linguist and critic."--_Rel. Herald_. "It is a pride _which_ should be cherished in them."--_Locke cor._ "And to restore _to_ us the _hope_ of fruits, to reward our pains in _their_ season."--_Id._ "The comic representation of Death's victim relating _his_ own tale."--_Wright cor._ "As for _Scioppius's_ Grammar, that wholly _concerns_ the Latin tongue."--_Wilkins cor._ "And chiefly _Thou_, O Spirit, _that_ dost prefer Before all temples _th'_ upright heart and pure, Instruct me, for Thou _knowst_."--_Milton, P. L._, B. i, l. 17. LESSON V.--VERBS. "And there _were_ in the same country shepherds abiding in the field."--_Friends' Bible_; also _Bruce's, and Alger's_. "Whereof every one _bears_ [or _beareth_] twins."--BIBLE COR.: _Song_, vi, 6. "He strikes out of his nature one of the most divine principles that _are_ planted in it."--_Addison cor._ "GENII [i.e., the _word_ GENII] _denotes aërial_ spirits."--_Wright cor._ "In proportion as the long and large prevalence of such corruptions _has_ been obtained by force."--_Halifax cor._ "Neither of these _is set before any_ word of a general signification, or _before a_ proper name."--_Brightland cor._ "Of which, a few of the opening lines _are_ all I shall give."--_Moore cor._ "The _wealth_ we had in England, was the slow result of long industry and wisdom." Or: "The _riches_ we had in England _were_," &c.--_Davenant cor._ "The following expression appears to be correct: 'Much _public gratitude_ is due.'" Or this: "'_Great public_ thanks _are_ due.'"--_-Wright cor._ "He _has_ been enabled to correct many mistakes."--_Lowth cor._ "Which road _dost_ thou take here?"--_Ingersoll cor._ "_Dost_ thou _learn_ thy lesson?"--_Id._ "_Did_ they _learn_ their pieces perfectly?"--_Id._ "Thou _learned_ thy task well."--_Id._ "There are some _who_ can't relish the town, and others can't _bear_ with the country."--_Sir Wilful cor._ "If thou _meet_ them, thou must put on an intrepid mien."--_Neef cor._ "Struck with terror, as if Philip _were_ something more than human."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "If the personification of the form of Satan _were_ admissible, _the pronoun_ should certainly have been masculine."--_Jamieson cor._ "If only one _follows_, there seems to be a defect in the sentence."--_Priestley cor._ "Sir, if thou _hast_ borne him hence, tell me where thou hast laid him."--_Bible cor._ "Blessed _are_ the people that know the joyful sound."--_Id._ "Every auditory _takes_ in good part those marks of respect and awe _with which a modest speaker commences a public discourse_."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Private causes were still pleaded in the forum; but the public _were_ no longer interested, nor _was_ any general attention drawn to what passed there."--_Id._ "Nay, what evidence can be brought to show, that the _inflections_ of the _classic_ tongues were not originally formed out of obsolete auxiliary words?"--_L. Murray cor._ "If the student _observe_ that the principal and the auxiliary _form but_ one verb, he will have little or no difficulty in the proper application of the present rule."--_Id._ "For the sword of the enemy, and fear, _are_ on every side."--_Bible cor._ "Even the Stoics agree that nature, _or_ certainty, is very hard to come at."--_Collier cor._ "His politeness, _his_ obliging behaviour, _was_ changed." Or thus: "His _polite_ and obliging behaviour was changed."--_Priestley and Hume cor._ "War and its honours _were_ their employment and ambition." Or thus: "War _was_ their employment; its honours _were their_ ambition."--_Goldsmith cor._ "_Do_ A and AN mean the same thing?"--_R. W. Green cor._ "When _several_ words _come_ in between the discordant parts, the ear does not detect the error."--_Cobbett cor._ "The sentence should be, 'When _several_ words _come_ in,' &c."--_Wright cor._ "The nature of our language, the accent and pronunciation of it, _incline_ us to contract even all our regular verbs."--_Churchill's New Gram._, p. 104. Or thus: "The nature of our language,--(_that is_, the accent and pronunciation of it,--) inclines us to contract even all our regular verbs."--_Lowth cor._ "The nature of our language, together with the accent and pronunciation of it, _inclines_ us to contract even all our regular verbs."--_Hiley cor._ "Prompt aid, and not promises, _is_ what we ought to give."--_G. B._ "The position of the several organs, therefore, as well as their functions, _is_ ascertained."--_Med. Mag. cor._ "Every private company, and almost every public assembly, _affords_ opportunities of remarking the difference between a just and graceful, and a faulty and unnatural elocution."--_Enfield cor._ "Such submission, together with the active principle of obedience, _makes_ up _in us_ the temper _or_ character which answers to his sovereignty."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "In happiness, as in other things, there _are_ a false and a true, an imaginary and a real."--_A. Fuller cor._ "To confound things that differ, and to make a distinction where there is no difference, _are_ equally unphilosophical."--_G. Brown_. "I know a bank wheron _doth_ wild thyme _blow_, Where oxlips and the nodding violet _grow_."--_Shak. cor._ LESSON VI.--VERBS. "Whose business or profession _prevents_ their attendance in the morning."--_Ogilby cor._ "And no church or officer _has_ power over _an other_."--_Lechford cor._ "While neither reason nor experience _is_ sufficiently matured to protect them."--_Woodbridge cor._ "Among the Greeks and Romans, _almost_ every syllable was known to have a fixed and determined quantity." Or thus: "Among the Greeks and Romans, _all syllables_, (or at least the far _greater_ number,) _were_ known to have _severally_ a fixed and determined quantity."--_Blair and Jamieson cor._ "Their vanity is awakened, and their passions _are_ exalted, by the irritation which their self-love receives from contradiction."--_Tr. of Mad. De Staël cor._ "_He and I were_ neither of us any great swimmer."--_Anon_. "Virtue, honour--nay, even self-interest, _recommends_ the measure."--_L. Murray cor._ (See Obs. 5th on Rule 16th.) "A correct plainness, _an_ elegant simplicity, is the proper character of an introduction."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "In syntax, there is what grammarians call concord or agreement, and _there is_ government."--_Inf. S. Gram. cor._ "People find themselves able, without much study, to write and speak English intelligibly, and thus _are_ led to think _that_ rules _are_ of no utility."--_Webster cor._ "But the writer must be one who has studied to inform himself well, _who_ has pondered his subject with care, and who addresses himself to our _judgement_, rather than to our imagination."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "But practice _has_ determined it otherwise; and has, in all the languages with which we are much acquainted, supplied the place of an interrogative _mood_, either by particles of interrogation, or by a peculiar order of the words in the sentence."--_Lowth cor._ "If the Lord _hath_ stirred thee up against me, let him accept an offering."--_Bible cor._ "But if the priest's daughter be a widow, or divorced, and have no child, and _she return_ unto her father's house, as in her youth, she shall eat of her father's meat."--_Id._ "Since we never have _studied, and never_ shall study, your sublime productions."--_Neef cor._ "Enabling us to form _distincter_ images of objects, than can be _formed_, with the utmost attention, where these particulars are not found."--_Kames cor._ "I hope you will consider _that_ what is _spoken_ comes from my love."--_Shak. cor._ "We _shall_ then perceive how the designs of emphasis may be marred."--_Rush cor._ "I knew it was Crab, and _went_ to the fellow that whips the dogs."--_Shak. cor._ "The youth _was consuming_ by a slow malady."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 64; _Ingersoll's_, 45; _Fisk_, 82. "If all men thought, spoke, and wrote alike, something resembling a perfect adjustment of these points _might_ be accomplished."--_Wright cor._ "If you will replace what has been, _for a_ long _time_ expunged from the language." Or: "If you will replace what _was_ long _ago_ expunged from the language."--_Campbell and Murray cor._ "As in all those faulty instances _which_ I have _just_ been giving."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "This mood _is_ also used _improperly_ in the following places."--_L. Murray cor._ "He seems to have been well acquainted with his own genius, and to _have known_ what it was that nature had bestowed upon him."--_Johnson cor._ "Of which I _have_ already _given_ one instance, the worst indeed that occurred in the poem."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "It is strange he never commanded you to _do_ it."--_Anon_. "History painters would have found it difficult, to _invent_ such a species of beings."--_Addison cor._ "Universal Grammar cannot be taught abstractedly; it must be _explained_ with referenc [sic--KTH] to some language already known."--_Lowth cor._ "And we might imagine, that if verbs had been so contrived as simply to express these, _no other tenses would have been_ needful."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "To a writer of such a genius as _Dean Swift's_, the plain style _is_ most admirably fitted."--_Id._ "Please _to_ excuse my son's absence."--_Inst._, p. 279. "Bid the boys come in immediately."--_Ib._ "Gives us the secrets of his pagan hell, Where _restless ghosts_ in sad communion dwell."--_Crabbe cor._ "Alas! nor faith nor valour now _remains_; Sighs are but wind, and I must bear my _chains_."--_Walpole cor._ LESSON VII.--PARTICIPLES. "Of which the author considers himself, in compiling the present work, as merely laying the foundation-stone."--_David Blair cor._ "On the raising _of_ such lively and distinct images as are here described."--_Kames cor._ "They are necessary to the avoiding _of_ ambiguities."--_Brightland cor._ "There is no neglecting _of_ it without falling into a dangerous error." Or better: "_None can neglect_ it without falling," &c.--_Burlamaqui cor._ "The contest resembles Don Quixote's fighting _of_ (or _with_) windmills."--_Webster cor._ "That these verbs associate with _other_ verbs in all the tenses, is no proof _that they have_ no particular time of their own."--_L. Murray cor._ "To justify _myself in_ not following the _track_ of the ancient rhetoricians."--_Dr. H. Blair cor._ "The _putting-together of_ letters, so as to make words, is called Spelling."--_Inf. S. Gram. cor._ "What is the _putting-together of_ vowels and consonants called?"--_Id._ "Nobody knows of their _charitableness_, but themselves." Or: "Nobody knows _that they are_ charitable, but themselves."--_Fuller cor._ "Payment was at length made, but no reason _was_ assigned for so long _a postponement of it_."--_Murray et al. cor._ "Which will bear _to be_ brought into comparison with any composition of the kind."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "To render vice ridiculous, is _to do_ real service to the world."--_Id._ "It is _a direct_ copying from nature, a plain rehearsal of what passed, or was supposed to pass, in conversation."--_Id._ "Propriety of pronunciation _consists in_ giving to every word that sound which the most polite usage of the language appropriates to it."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 200; and again, p. 219. "To occupy the mind, and prevent _us from_ regretting the insipidity of _a_ uniform plain."--_Kames cor._ "There are a hundred ways _in which_ any thing _may happen_."--_Steele cor._ "Tell me, _seignior, for_ what cause (or _why) Antonio sent_ Claudio to Venice yesterday."--_Bucke cor._ "As _you are_ looking about for an outlet, some rich prospect unexpectedly opens to view."--_Kames cor._ "A hundred volumes of modern novels may be read without _communicating_ a new idea." Or thus: "_A person may read_ a hundred volumes of modern novels without acquiring a new idea."--_Webster cor._ "Poetry admits of greater latitude than prose, with respect to _the_ coining, or at least _the_ new compounding, _of_ words."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "When laws were _written_ on brazen tablets, _and enforced_ by the sword."--_Pope cor._ "A pronoun, which saves the naming _of_ a person or thing a second time, ought to be placed as near as possible to the name of that person or thing."--_Kames cor._ "The using _of_ a preposition in this case, is not always a matter of choice."--_Id._ "To save _the_ multiplying _of_ words, I would be understood to comprehend both circumstances."--_Id._ "Immoderate grief is mute: _complaint_ is _a struggle_ for consolation."--_Id._ "On the other hand, the accelerating or _the_ retarding _of_ the natural course, excites a pain."--_Id._ "Human affairs require the distributing _of_ our attention."--_Id._ "By neglecting this circumstance, _the author of_ the following example _has made it_ defective in neatness."--_Id._ "And therefore the suppressing _of_ copulatives must animate a description."--_Id._ "If the _omission of_ copulatives _gives_ force and liveliness, a redundancy of them must render the period languid."--_Id._ "It skills not, _to ask_ my leave, said Richard."--_Scott cor._ "To redeem his credit, he proposed _to be_ sent once more to Sparta."--_Goldsmith cor._ "Dumas relates _that he gave_ drink to a dog."--_Stone cor._ "Both are, in a like way, instruments of our _reception of_ such ideas from external objects."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "In order to your proper handling _of_ such a subject."--_Spect. cor._ "For I do not recollect _it_ preceded by an open vowel."--_Knight cor._ "Such is _the setting up of_ the form above the power of godliness."--_Barclay cor._ "I remember _that I was_ walking once with my young acquaintance."--_Hunt cor._ "He did not like _to pay_ a debt."--_Id._ "I do not remember _to have seen_ Coleridge when I was a child."--_Id._ "In consequence of the dry _rot discovered in it_, the mansion has undergone a thorough repair."--_Maunder cor._ "I would not advise the following _of_ the German system _in all its parts_."--_Lieber cor._ "Would it not be _to make_ the students judges of the professors?"--_Id._ "Little time should intervene between _the proposing of them_ and _the deciding_ upon _them_."--_Verthake [sic--KTH] cor._ "It would be nothing less than _to find_ fault with the Creator."--_Lit. Journal cor._ "_That we were once friends_, is a powerful reason, both of prudence and _of_ conscience, to restrain us from ever becoming enemies."--_Secker cor._ "By using the word as a conjunction, _we prevent_ the ambiguity."--_L. Murray cor._ "He forms his schemes the flood of vice to stem, But _faith in Jesus has no part in_ them."--_J Taylor cor._ LESSON VIII.--ADVERBS. "Auxiliaries _not only can_ be inserted, but are really understood."--_Wright cor._ "He was _afterwards_ a hired scribbler in the Daily Courant."--_Pope's Annotator cor._ "In gardening, luckily, relative beauty _never need stand_ (or, perhaps better, _never needs to stand_) in opposition to intrinsic beauty."--_Kames cor._ "I _much_ doubt the propriety of the following examples."--_Lowth cor._ "And [we see] how far they have spread, in this part of the world, one of the worst languages _possible_"--_Locke cor._ "And, in this manner, _merely to place_ him on a level with the beast of the forest."--_R. C. Smith cor._ "_Whither_, ah! _whither_, has my darling fled."--_Anon_. "As for this fellow, we know not whence he is."--_Bible cor._ "Ye see then, that by works a man is justified, and not by faith only."--_Id._ "The _Mixed_ kind is _that in which_ the poet sometimes speaks in his own person, and sometimes makes other characters speak."--_Adam and Gould cor._ "Interrogation is _a rhetorical figure in which_ the writer or orator raises questions, and, _if he pleases_, returns answers."--_Fisher cor._ "Prevention is _a figure in which_ an author starts an objection which he foresees may be made, and gives an answer to it."--_Id._ "Will you let me alone, or _not_?"--_W. Walker cor._ "Neither man nor woman _can_ resist an engaging exterior."-- _Chesterfield cor._ "Though the cup be _everso_ clean."--_Locke cor._ "Seldom, or _never_, did any one rise to eminence, by being a witty lawyer." Or thus: "Seldom, _if ever, has_ any one _risen_ to eminence, by being a witty lawyer."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "The second rule which I give, respects the choice of _the_ objects from _which_ metaphors, and other figures, are to be drawn."--_Id._ "In the figures which it uses, it sets mirrors before us, _in which_ we may behold objects _reflected_ in their likeness."--_Id._ "Whose business _it_ is, to seek the true measures of right and wrong, and not the arts _by which he may_ avoid doing the one, and secure himself in doing the other."--_Locke cor._ "The occasions _on which_ you ought to personify things, and _those on which_ you ought not, cannot be stated in any precise rule."--_Cobbett cor._ "They reflect that they have been much diverted, but _scarcely_ can _they_ say about what."--_Kames cor._ "The eyebrows and shoulders should seldom or _never_ be remarked by any perceptible motion."--_J. Q. Adams cor._ "And the left hand or arm should seldom or never attempt any motion by itself."--_Id., right_. "_Not_ every speaker _purposes_ to please the imagination."-- _Jamieson cor._ "And, like Gallio, they care for none of these things." Or: "And, like Gallio, they care _little_ for _any_ of these things."--_S. cor._ "They may inadvertently be _used_ where _their_ meaning would be obscure."--_L. Murray cor._ "Nor _can_ a man make him laugh."--_Shak. cor._ "The Athenians, in their present distress, _scarcely_ knew _whither_ to turn."--_Goldsmith cor._ "I do not remember where God _ever_ delivered his oracles by the multitude."--_Locke cor._ "The object of this government is twofold, _outward_ and _inward_."--_Barclay cor._ "In order _rightly_ to understand what we read"--_R. Johnson cor._ "That a design had been formed, to _kidnap_ or _forcibly abduct_ Morgan."--_Col. Stone cor._ "But such imposture can never _long_ maintain its ground."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "But _surely_ it is _as_ possible to apply the principles of reason and good sense to this art, as to any other that is cultivated among men."--_Id._ "It would have been better for you, to have remained illiterate, and _even_ to have been hewers of wood."--_L. Murray cor._ "Dissyllables that have two vowels which are separated in the pronunciation, _always_ have the accent on the _first_ syllable."--_Id._ "And they all turned their backs, _almost_ without drawing a sword." Or: "And they all turned their backs, _scarcely venturing to draw_ a sword."--_Kames cor._ "The principle of duty _naturally_ takes _precedence_ of every other."--_Id. "Not_ all that glitters, is gold."--_Maunder cor._ "Whether now, or _everso_ many myriads of ages hence."--_Edwards cor._ "England never did, nor _ever_ shall, Lie at the proud foot of a conqueror."--_Shak. cor._ LESSON IX.--CONJUNCTIONS. "He readily comprehends the rules of syntax, their use in _the constructing of sentences_, and _their_ applicability _to_ the examples before him."--_Greenleaf cor._ "The works of �schylus have suffered more by time, than _those of_ any _other_ ancient _tragedian_."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "There is much more story, more bustle, and _more_ action, than on the French theatre."--_Id._ (See Obs. 8th on Rule 16th.) "Such an unremitted anxiety, _or such a_ perpetual application, as engrosses _all_ our time and thoughts, _is_ forbidden."--_Jenyns cor._ "It seems to be nothing else _than_ the simple form of the adjective."--_Wright cor._ "But when I talk of _reasoning_, I do not intend any other _than_ such as is suited to the child's capacity."--_Locke cor._ "Pronouns have no other use in language, _than_ to represent nouns."--_Jamieson cor._ "The speculative relied no farther on their own judgement, _than_ to choose a leader, whom they implicitly followed."--_Kames cor._ "Unaccommodated man is no more _than_ such a poor, bare, forked animal as thou art."--_Shak. cor._ "A Parenthesis is a _suggestion which is_ introduced into the body of a sentence obliquely, _and which_ may be omitted without injuring the grammatical construction."--_Mur. et al. cor. "The_ Caret (marked thus ^) is placed where _something that happened_ to be left out, _is to be put into_ the line."--_Iid. "When_ I visit them, they shall be cast down."--_Bible cor._ "Neither our virtues _nor our_ vices are all our own."--_Johnson and Sanborn cor._ "I could not give him _so early_ an answer as he had desired."--_O. B. Peirce cor._ "He is not _so_ tall as his brother."--_Nixon cor._ "It is difficult to judge _whether_ Lord Byron is serious or not."--_Lady Blessington cor._ "Some nouns are of _both_ the second and _the_ third declension."--_Gould cor._ "He was discouraged neither by danger _nor by_ misfortune."--_Wells cor._ "This is consistent neither with logic nor _with_ history."--_Dial cor._ "Parts of sentences are _either_ simple _or_ compound."--_David Blair cor._ "English verse is regulated rather by the number of syllables, than _by_ feet:" or,--"than by the number of feet."--_Id._ "I know not what more he can do, _than_ pray for him."--_Locke cor._ "Whilst they are learning, and _are applying_ themselves with attention, they are to be kept in good humour."--_Id._ "A man cannot have too much of it, nor _have it_ too perfectly."--_Id._ "That you may so run, as _to_ obtain; and so fight, as _to_ overcome." Or thus: "That you may so run, _that_ you may obtain; and so fight, _that_ you may overcome."--_Penn cor._ "It is the _artifice_ of some, to contrive false periods of business, _that_ they may seem men of despatch."--_Bacon cor._ "'A tall man and a woman.' In this _phrase_, there is no ellipsis; the adjective _belongs only to the former noun_; the quality _respects_ only the man."--_Ash cor._ "An abandonment of the policy is neither to be expected _nor to be_ desired."--_Jackson cor._ "Which can be acquired by no other means _than by_ frequent exercise in speaking."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "The chief _or_ fundamental rules of syntax are common to the English _and_ the Latin tongue." Or:--"are _applicable_ to the English as well as _to_ the Latin tongue."--_Id._ "Then I exclaim, _either_ that my antagonist is void of all taste, or that his taste is corrupted in a miserable degree." Or thus: "Then I exclaim, that my antagonist is _either_ void of all taste, or _has a taste that is miserably_ corrupted."--_Id._ "I cannot pity any one who is under no distress _either_ of body _or_ of mind."--_Kames cor._ "There was much genius in the world, before there were learning _and_ arts to refine it."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Such a writer can have little else to do, _than_ to _new-model_ the paradoxes of ancient scepticism."--_Dr. Brown cor._ "Our ideas of them being nothing else _than collections_ of the ordinary qualities observed in them."--_Duncan cor._ "A _non-ens_, or negative, can give _neither_ pleasure nor pain."--_Kames cor._ "So _that_ they shall not justle and embarrass one an other."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "He firmly refused to make use of any other voice _than_ his own."--_Murray's Sequel_, p. 113. "Your marching regiments, sir, will not make the guards their example, either as soldiers or _as_ subjects."--_Junius cor._ "Consequently they had neither meaning _nor_ beauty, to any but the natives of each country."--_Sheridan cor._ "The man of worth, _who_ has not left his peer, Is in his narrow house forever darkly laid."--_Burns cor._ LESSON X.--PREPOSITIONS. "These may be carried on progressively _beyond_ any assignable limits."--_Kames cor._ "To crowd different subjects _into_ a single member of a period, is still worse than to crowd them into one period."--_Id._ "Nor do we rigidly insist _on having_ melodious prose."--_Id._ "The aversion we have _to_ those who differ from us."--_Id._ "For we cannot bear his shifting _of_ the scene _at_ every line."--_Halifax cor._ "We shall find that we come by it _in_ the same way."--_Locke cor._ "_Against_ this he has no better _defence_ than that."--_Barnes cor._ "Searching the person whom he suspects _of_ having stolen his casket."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Who, as vacancies occur, are elected _by_ the whole Board."--_Lit. Jour. cor._ "Almost the only field of ambition _for_ a German, is science."--_Lieber cor._ "The plan of education is very different _from_ the one pursued in the sister country."--_Coley cor._ "Some writers on grammar have contended, that adjectives _sometimes_ relate to _verbs_, and modify _their_ action."--_Wilcox cor._ "They are therefore of a mixed nature, participating the properties both of pronouns and _of_ adjectives."-- _Ingersoll cor._ "For there is no authority which can justify the inserting _of_ the aspirate or _the_ doubling _of_ the vowel."--_Knight cor._ "The distinction and arrangement _of_ active, passive, and neuter verbs."-- _Wright cor._ "And see thou a hostile world spread its delusive snares."--_Kirkham cor._ "He may be precautioned, and be made _to_ see how those _join_ in the contempt."--_Locke cor._ "The contenting _of_ themselves in the _present_ want of what they wished for, is a _virtue_."-- _Id._ "If the complaint be _about_ something really worthy _of_ your notice."--_Id._ "True fortitude I take to be the quiet possession of a man's self, and an undisturbed doing _of_ his duty."--_Id._ "For the custom of tormenting and killing beasts, will, by degrees, harden their minds even towards men."--_Id._ "Children are whipped to it, and made _to_ spend many hours of their precious time uneasily _at_ Latin."--_Id. "On_ this subject, [the Harmony of Periods,] the ancient rhetoricians have entered into a very minute and particular detail; more particular, indeed, than _on_ any other _head_ that regards language."--See _Blair's Rhet._, p. 122. "But the one should not be omitted, _and the other retained_." Or: "But the one should not be _used without_ the other."--_Bullions cor. "From_ some common forms of speech, the relative pronoun is usually omitted."--_Murray and Weld cor._ "There are _very many_ causes which disqualify a witness _for_ being received to testify in particular cases."--_Adams cor._ "Aside _from_ all regard to interest, we should expect that," &c.--_Webster cor._ "My opinion was given _after_ a rather cursory perusal of the book."--_L. Murray cor._ "And, [_on_] the next day, he was put on board _of_ his ship." Or thus: "And, the next day, he was put _aboard_ his ship."--_Id._ "Having the command of no emotions, but what are raised by sight."--_Kames cor._ "Did these moral attributes exist in some other being _besides_ himself." Or:--"in some other being _than_ himself."--_Wayland cor._ "He did not behave in that manner _from_ pride, or [_from_] contempt of the tribunal."--_Murray's Sequel_, p. 113. "These prosecutions _against_ William seem to have been the most iniquitous measures pursued by the court."--_Murray and Priestley cor._ "To restore myself _to_ the good graces of my fair critics."--_Dryden cor._ "Objects denominated beautiful, please not _by_ virtue of any one quality common to them all."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "This would have been less worthy _of_ notice, had not a writer or two of high rank lately adopted it."--_Churchill cor._ "A Grecian youth, _of_ talents rare, Whom Plato's philosophic care," &c.--WHITEHEAD: E. R., p. 196. LESSON XI.--PROMISCUOUS. "To excel _has_ become a much less considerable object."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "My robe, and my integrity to _Heav'n_, are all I dare now call _my_ own."--_Enfield's Speaker_, p. 347. "_For_ thou the garland _wearst_ successively."--_Shak. cor._; also _Enfield_. "If _then_ thou _art_ a _Roman_, take it forth."--_Id._ "If thou _prove_ this to be real, thou must be a smart lad indeed."--_Neef cor._ "And _an other_ bridge of four hundred _feet_ in length."--_Brightland cor._ "METONYMY is _the_ putting _of_ one name for _an other_, on account of the near relation _which_ there is between them."--_Fisher cor._ "ANTONOMASIA is _the_ putting _of_ an appellative or common name for a proper name."--_Id._ "_That it is I, should_ make no difference in your determination."--_Bullions cor._ "The first and second _pages_ are torn." Or. "The first and _the_ second _page_ are torn." Or: "The first _page_ and _the_ second are torn."--_Id._ "John's _absence_ from home occasioned the delay."--_Id._ "His _neglect of_ opportunities for improvement, was the cause of his disgrace."--_Id._ "He will regret his _neglect of his_ opportunities _for_ improvement, when it _is_ too late."--_Id._ "His _expertness at dancing_ does not entitle him to our regard."--_Id._ "Cæsar went back to Rome, to take possession of the public treasure, which his opponent, by a most unaccountable oversight, had neglected _to carry away_ with him."--_Goldsmith cor._ "And Cæsar took out of the treasury, _gold_ to the amount of three thousand _pounds'_ weight, besides an immense quantity of silver." [548]--_Id._ "Rules and definitions, which should always be _as_ clear and intelligible as possible, are thus rendered obscure."--_Greenleaf cor._ "So much both of ability and _of_ merit is seldom found." Or thus: "So much _of both_ ability and merit is seldom found."[549]--_L. Murray cor._ "If such maxims, and such practices prevail, what _has_ become of decency and virtue?"[550]--_Murray's False Syntax_, ii, 62. Or: "If such maxims and practices prevail, what _will_ become of decency and virtue?"--_Murray and Bullions cor._ "Especially if the subject _does not require_ so much pomp."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "However, the proper mixture of light and shade in such compositions,--the exact adjustment of all the figurative circumstances with the literal sense,--_has_ ever been _found an affair_ of great nicety."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 151. "And adding to that hissing in our language, which is so much _noticed_ by foreigners."--_Addison, Coote, and Murray, cor._ "_To speak_ impatiently to servants, or _to do_ any thing that betrays unkindness, or ill-humour, is certainly criminal." Or better: "Impatience, unkindness, or ill-humour, is certainly criminal."--_Mur. et al. cor._ "_Here are_ a _fullness_ and grandeur of expression, well suited to the subject."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "I single _out_ Strada _from_ among the moderns, because he had the foolish presumption to censure Tacitus."--_L. Murray cor._ "I single him out _from_ among the moderns, because," &c.--_Bolingbroke cor._ "This _rule is not_ always observed, even by good writers, _so_ strictly as it ought to be."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "But this gravity and assurance, which _are_ beyond boyhood, being neither wisdom nor knowledge, do never reach to manhood."--_Pope cor._ "The regularity and polish even of a turnpike-road, _have_ some influence upon the low people in the neighbourhood."--_Kames cor._ "They become fond of regularity and neatness; _and this improvement of their taste_ is displayed, first upon their yards and little enclosures, and next within doors."--_Id._ "The phrase, '_it is impossible to exist_,' gives us the idea, _that it is_ impossible for men, or any body, to exist."--_Priestley cor._ "I'll give a thousand _pounds_ to look upon him."--_Shak. cor._ "The reader's knowledge, as Dr. Campbell observes, may prevent _him from_ mistaking it."--_Crombie and Murray cor._ "When two words are set in contrast, or in opposition to _each_ other, they are both emphatic."--_L. Murray cor._ "The number of _the_ persons--men, women, and children--who were lost in the sea, was very great." Or thus: "The number of persons--men, women, and children--_that_ were lost in the sea, was very great."--_Id._ "Nor is the resemblance between the primary and _the_ resembling object pointed out."--_Jamieson cor._ "I think it the best book of the kind, _that_ I have met with."--_Mathews cor._ "Why should not we their ancient rites restore, And be what Rome or Athens _was_ before?"--_Roscommon cor._ LESSON XII.--TWO ERRORS. "It is labour only _that_ gives relish to pleasure."--_L. Murray cor._ "Groves are never _more_ agreeable _than_ in the opening of spring."--_Id._ "His Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas _of_ the Sublime and _the_ Beautiful, soon made him known to the literati."--See _Blair's Lect._, pp. 34 and 45. "An awful precipice or tower _from which_ we look down on the objects which _are_ below."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "This passage, though very poetical, is, however, harsh and obscure; _and for_ no other cause _than_ this, that three distinct metaphors are crowded together."--_Id._ "I _purpose to make_ some observations."--_Id._ "I shall _here_ follow the same method _that_ I have all along pursued."--_Id._ "Mankind _at no other time_ resemble _one an_ other so much as they do in the beginnings of society."--_Id._ "But no ear is sensible of the termination of each foot, in _the_ reading _of a_ hexameter line."--_Id._ "The first thing, says he, _that_ a writer _either_ of fables or of heroic poems does, is, to choose some maxim or point of morality."--_Id._ "The fourth book has _always_ been most justly admired, and _indeed it_ abounds with beauties of the highest kind."--_Id._ "There is _in_ the poem no attempt towards _the_ painting _of_ characters."--_Id._ "But the artificial contrasting of characters, and the _constant_ introducing _of_ them in pairs and by opposites, _give_ too theatrical and affected an air to the piece."--_Id._ "Neither of them _is_ arbitrary _or_ local."--_Kames cor._ "If _the_ crowding _of_ figures _is_ bad, it is still worse to graft one figure upon _an other_."--_Id._ "The _crowding-together of_ so many objects lessens the pleasure."--_Id._ "This therefore lies not in the _putting-off of_ the hat, nor _in the_ making of compliments."--_Locke cor._ "But the Samaritan Vau may have been used, as the Jews _used_ the Chaldaic, both for a vowel and _for a_ consonant."--_Wilson cor._ "But if a solemn and _a_ familiar pronunciation really _exist_ in our language, is it not the business of a grammarian to mark both?"--_J. Walker cor._ "By making sounds follow _one an_ other _agreeably_ to certain laws."--_Gardiner cor._ "If there _were_ no drinking _of_ intoxicating draughts, there could be no drunkards."--_Peirce cor._ "Socrates knew his own defects, and if he was proud of any thing, it was _of_ being thought to have none."--_Goldsmith cor._ "Lysander, having brought his army to Ephesus, erected an arsenal for _the_ building of _galleys_."--_Id._ "The use of these signs _is_ worthy _of_ remark."--_Brightland cor._ "He received me in the same manner _in which_ I would _receive_ you." Or thus: "He received me _as_ I would _receive_ you."--_R. C. Smith cor._ "Consisting of _both_ the direct and _the_ collateral evidence."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "If any man or woman that believeth _hath_ widows, let _him_ or _her_ relieve them, and let not the church be charged."--_Bible cor._ "For _men's sake_ are beasts bred."--_W. Walker cor._ "From three _o'clock_, there _were_ drinking and gaming."--_Id._ "Is this he that I am seeking, or _not?_"--_Id._ "And for the upholding _of_ every _one's_ own opinion, there is so much ado."--_Sewel cor._ "Some of them, however, will _necessarily_ be _noticed_."--_Sale cor._ "The boys conducted themselves _very indiscreetly_."--_Merchant cor._ "Their example, their influence, their fortune,--every talent they possess,--_dispenses_ blessings on all _persons_ around them."--_Id. and Murray cor._ "The two _Reynoldses_ reciprocally converted _each_ other."--_Johnson cor._ "The destroying _of_ the _last two_, Tacitus calls an attack upon virtue itself."--_Goldsmith cor._ "_Moneys are_ your suit."--_Shak. cor._ "_Ch_ is commonly sounded like _tch_, as in _church_; but in words derived from Greek, _it_ has the sound of _k_."--_L. Murray cor._ "When one is obliged to make some utensil _serve for_ purposes to which _it was_ not originally destined."--_Campbell cor._ "But that a _baptism_ with water is a _washing-away_ of sin, thou canst not hence prove."--_Barclay cor._ "Being _spoken_ to _but_ one, it infers no universal command."--_Id._ "For if the _laying-aside of_ copulatives gives force and liveliness, a redundancy of them must render the period languid."--_Buchanan cor._ "James used to compare him to a cat, _which_ always _falls_ upon her legs."--_Adam cor._ "From the low earth aspiring genius springs, And sails triumphant _borne_ on _eagle's_ wings."--_Lloyd cor._ LESSON XIII.--TWO ERRORS "An ostentatious, a feeble, a harsh, or an obscure style, for instance, _is_ always _faulty_."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Yet in this we find _that_ the English pronounce _quite agreeably_ to rule." Or thus: "Yet in this we find the English _pronunciation_ perfectly agreeable to rule." Or thus: "Yet in this we find _that_ the English pronounce _in a manner_ perfectly agreeable to rule."--_J. Walker cor._ "But neither the perception of ideas, nor knowledge of any sort, _is a habit_, though absolutely necessary to the forming of _habits_."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "They were cast; and _a_ heavy fine _was_ imposed upon them."--_Goldsmith cor._ "Without making this reflection, he cannot enter into the spirit _of the author, or_ relish the composition."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "The scholar should be instructed _in relation_ to _the_ finding _of_ his words." Or thus: "The scholar should be _told how_ to _find_ his words."--_Osborn cor._ "And therefore they could neither have forged, _nor have_ reversified them."--_Knight cor._ "A dispensary is _a_ place _at which_ medicines are dispensed _to the poor_."--_L. Mur. cor._ "Both the connexion and _the_ number of words _are_ determined by general laws."--_Neef cor._ "An Anapest has the _first two_ syllables unaccented, and the last _one_ accented; as, c~ontr~av=ene, acquiésce."--_L. Mur. cor._ "An explicative sentence is _one in which_ a thing is said, _in a direct manner_, to be or not to be, to do or not to do, to suffer or not to suffer."--_Lowth and Mur. cor._ "BUT is a conjunction _whenever_ it is neither an adverb nor _a_ preposition." [551]--_R. C. Smith cor._ "He wrote in the name _of_ King _Ahasuerus_, and sealed _the writing_ with the king's ring."--_Bible cor._ "Camm and Audland _had_ departed _from_ the town before this time."--_Sewel cor._ "_Before they will relinquish_ the practice, they must be convinced."--_Webster cor._ "Which he had thrown up _before he set_ out."--_Grimshaw cor._ "He left _to him_ the value of _a_ hundred drachms in Persian money."--_Spect cor._ "All _that_ the mind can ever contemplate concerning them, must be divided _among_ the three."--_Cardell cor._ "Tom Puzzle is one of the most eminent immethodical disputants, of _all_ that _have_ fallen under my observation."--_Spect. cor._ "When you have once got him to think himself _compensated_ for his suffering, by the praise _which_ is given him for his courage."--_Locke cor._ "In all matters _in which_ simple reason, _or_ mere speculation is concerned."--_Sheridan cor._ "And therefore he should be spared _from_ the trouble of attending to anything else _than_ his meaning."--_Id._ "It is this kind of phraseology _that_ is distinguished by the epithet _idiomatical; a species that was_ originally the spawn, partly of ignorance, and partly of affectation."--_Campbell and Murray cor._ "That neither the inflection nor _the letters_ are such as could have been employed by the ancient inhabitants of Latium."--_Knight cor._ "In _those_ cases _in which_ the verb is intended to be applied to any one of the terms."--_L. Murray cor._ "But _these_ people _who_ know not the law, are accursed."--_Bible cor._ "And the magnitude of the _choruses has_ weight and sublimity."--_Gardiner cor._ "_Dares_ he deny _that_ there are some of his fraternity guilty?"--_Barclay cor._ "Giving an account of most, if not all, _of_ the papers _which_ had passed betwixt them."--_Id._ "In this manner, _as to both_ parsing and correcting, _should_ all the rules of syntax be treated, _being taken up_ regularly according to their order."--_L. Murray cor._ "_To_ Ovando _were_ allowed a brilliant retinue and a _body-guard_."--_Sketch cor._ "_Was_ it I or he, _that_ you requested to go?"--_Kirkham cor._ "Let _thee_ and _me_ go on."--_Bunyan cor._ "This I nowhere affirmed; and _I_ do wholly deny _it_."--_Barclay cor._ "But that I deny; and _it_ remains for him to prove _it_."--_Id._ "Our country sinks beneath the yoke: _She_ weeps, _she_ bleeds, and each new day a gash Is added to her wounds."--_Shak. cor._ "Thou art the Lord who _chose_ Abraham and _brought_ him forth out of Ur of the Chaldees."--_Bible and Mur. cor._ "He is the exhaustless fountain, from which _emanate_ all these attributes that _exist_ throughout this wide creation."--_Wayland cor._ "I am he who _has_ communed with the son of Neocles; I am he who _has_ entered the gardens of pleasure."--_Wright cor._ "Such _were_ in ancient times the tales received, Such by our good forefathers _were_ believed."--_Rowe cor._ LESSON XIV.--TWO ERRORS. "The noun or pronoun that _stands_ before the active verb, _usually represents_ the agent."--_A. Murray cor._ "Such _seem_ to _have been_ the musings of our hero of the grammar-quill, when he penned the first part of his grammar."--_Merchant cor._ "Two dots, the one placed above the other [:], _are_ called Sheva, and _are used to represent_ a very short _e_."--_Wilson cor._ "Great _have_ been, and _are_, the obscurity and difficulty, in the nature and application of them" [: i.e.--of natural remedies].--_Butler cor._ "As two _are_ to four, so _are_ four to eight."--_Everest cor._ "The invention and use of arithmetic, _reach_ back to a period so remote, as _to be_ beyond the knowledge of history."-- _Robertson cor._ "What it presents as objects of contemplation or enjoyment, _fill_ and _satisfy_ his mind."--_Id._ "If he _dares_ not say they are, as I know he _dares_ not, how must I then distinguish?"--_Barclay cor._ "He _had_ now grown so fond of solitude, that all company _had_ become uneasy to him."--_Life of Cic. cor._ "Violence and spoil _are_ heard in her; before me continually _are_ grief and wounds."--_Bible cor._ "Bayle's Intelligence from the Republic of Letters, which _makes_ eleven volumes in duodecimo, _is_ truly a model in this kind."--_Formey cor._ "Pauses, to _be rendered_ pleasing and expressive, must not only be made in the right place, but also _be_ accompanied with a proper tone of voice."--_L. Murray cor._ "_To oppose_ the opinions and _rectify_ the mistakes of others, is what truth and sincerity sometimes require of us."--_Locke cor._ "It is very probable, that this assembly was called, to clear some doubt which the king had, _whether it were lawful for the Hollanders to throw_ off the monarchy of Spain, and _withdraw_ entirely their allegiance to that crown." Or:--"About the lawfulness of the Hollanders' _rejection of_ the monarchy of Spain, and _entire withdrawment of_ their allegiance to that crown."--_L. Murray cor._ "_A_ naming _of_ the numbers and cases of a noun in their order, is called _the_ declining _of_ it, or _its declension_."--_Frost cor._ "The embodying _of_ them is, therefore, only _a_ collecting _of_ such component parts of words."--_Town cor._ "The one is the voice heard _when Christ was_ baptized; the other, _when he was_ transfigured."--_Barclay cor._ "_An_ understanding _of_ the literal sense"--or, "_To have understood_ the literal sense, would not have prevented _them from_ condemning the guiltless."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "As if this were, _to take_ the execution of justice out of the hands of God, and _to give_ it to nature."--_Id._ "They will say, you must conceal this good opinion of yourself; which yet is _an_ allowing _of_ the thing, though not _of_ the showing _of_ it." Or:--"which yet is, _to allow_ the thing, though not the showing _of_ it."--_Sheffield cor._ "So as to signify not only the doing _of_ an action, but the causing _of_ it to be done."--_Pike cor._ "This, certainly, was both _a_ dividing _of_ the unity of God, and _a_ limiting _of_ his immensity."--_Calvin cor._ "Tones being infinite in number, and varying in almost every individual, the arranging _of_ them under distinct heads, and _the_ reducing _of_ them to any fixed and permanent rules, may be considered as the last refinement in language."--_Knight cor._ "The fierce anger of the Lord shall not return, until he _hath_ done it, and until he _hath_ performed the intents of his heart."--_Bible cor._ "We seek for deeds _more_ illustrious and heroic, for events more diversified and surprising."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "We distinguish the genders, or the male and _the_ female sex, _in_ four different ways."--_Buchanan cor._ "Thus, _ch_ and _g_ are ever hard. It is therefore proper to retain these sounds in _those_ Hebrew names which have not been _modernized_, or changed by public use."--_Dr. Wilson cor._ "_A_ Substantive, or Noun, is the name of any thing _which is_ conceived to subsist, or of which we have any notion."--_Murray and Lowth cor._ "_A_ Noun is the name of any thing _which_ exists, or of which we have, or can form, an idea."--_Maunder cor._ "A Noun is the name of any thing in existence, or _of any thing_ of which we can form an idea."--_Id._ "The next thing to be _attended to_, is, to keep him exactly to _the_ speaking of truth."--_Locke cor._ "The material, _the_ vegetable, and _the_ animal world, receive this influence according to their several capacities."--_Dial cor._ "And yet it is fairly defensible on the principles of the schoolmen; if _those things_ can be called principles, which _consist_ merely in words."--_Campbell cor._ "Art thou so bare, and full of wretchedness, And _fearst_ to die? Famine is in thy cheeks, Need and oppression _starve_ in thy _sunk_ eyes."--_Shak. cor._ LESSON XV.--THREE ERRORS. "The silver age is reckoned to have commenced _at_ the death of Augustus, and _to have_ continued _till_ the end of Trajan's reign."--_Gould cor._ "Language _has indeed_ become, in modern times, more correct, and _more determinate_."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "It is evident, that _those_ words are _the_ most agreeable to the ear, which are composed of smooth and liquid sounds, _and in which_ there is a proper intermixture of vowels and consonants."--_Id._ "It would have had no other effect, _than_ to add _to_ the sentence _an unnecessary_ word."--_Id._ "But as rumours arose, _that_ the judges _had_ been corrupted by money in this cause, these gave _occasion_ to much popular clamour, and _threw_ a heavy odium on Cluentius."--_Id._ "A Participle is derived _from_ a verb, and partakes of the nature both of the verb and _of an_ adjective."--_Ash and Devis cor._ "I _shall_ have learned my grammar before you _will have learned yours_."--_Wilbur and Livingston cor._ "There is no _other_ earthly object capable of making _so_ various and _so_ forcible impressions upon the human mind, as a complete speaker."--_Perry cor._ "It was not the carrying _of_ the bag, _that_ made Judas a thief and _a_ hireling."--_South cor._ "As the reasonable soul and _the_ flesh _are_ one man, so God and man _are_ one Christ."--_Creed cor._ "And I will say to them _who_ were not my people, _Ye are_ my people; and they shall say, Thou art _our_ God."--_Bible cor._ "Where there is _in the sense_ nothing _that_ requires the last sound to be elevated or _suspended_, an easy fall, sufficient to show that the sense is finished, will be proper."--_L. Mur. cor._ "Each party _produce_ words _in which_ the letter _a_ is sounded in the manner _for which_ they contend."--_J. Walker cor._ "To countenance persons _that_ are guilty of bad actions, is scarcely one remove from _an actual commission of the same crimes_."--_L. Mur. cor._ "'To countenance persons _that_ are guilty of bad actions,' is a _phrase or clause_ which is _made_ the _subject of_ the verb 'is.'"--_Id._ "What is called _the_ splitting of particles,--_that is, the_ separating _of_ a preposition from the noun which it governs, is always to be avoided."--_Dr. Blair et al. cor._ (See Obs. 15th on Rule 23d.) "There is properly _but_ one pause, or rest, in the sentence; _and this falls_ betwixt the two members into which _the sentence_ is divided."--_Iid._ "_To go_ barefoot, does not at all help _a man_ on, _in_ the way to heaven."--_Steele cor._ "There is _nobody who does not condemn_ this in others, though _many_ overlook it in themselves."--_Locke cor._ "Be careful not to use the same word _in_ the same sentence _either_ too frequently _or_ in different senses."--_L. Murray cor._ "Nothing could have made her _more_ unhappy, _than to have married_ a man _of_ such principles."--_Id._ "A warlike, various, and tragical age is _the_ best to write of, but _the_ worst to write in."--_Cowley cor._ "When thou _instancest Peter's_ babtizing [sic--KTH] _of_ Cornelius."--_Barclay cor._ "To introduce two or more leading thoughts or _topics_, which have no natural _affinity_ or _mutual_ dependence."--_L. Murray cor._ "Animals, again, are fitted to one _an other_, and to the elements _or regions in which_ they live, and to which they are as appendices."--_Id._ "This melody, _however_, or so _frequent_ varying _of_ the sound of each word, is a proof of nothing, but of the fine ear of that people."--_Jamieson cor._ "They can, each in _its turn_, be _used_ upon occasion."--_Duncan cor._ "In this reign, lived the _poets_ Gower and Chaucer, who are the first authors _that_ can properly be said to have written English."--_Bucke cor._ "In translating expressions _of this_ kind, consider the [phrase] '_it is_' as if it were _they are_."--_W. Walker cor._ "The chin has an important office to perform; for, _by the degree of_ its activity, we disclose _either_ a polite or _a_ vulgar pronunciation."--_Gardiner cor._ "For no other reason, _than that he was_ found in bad company."--_Webster cor._ "It is usual to compare them _after_ the manner _of polysyllables_."--_Priestley cor._ "The infinitive mood is _recognized more easily_ than any _other_, because the preposition TO precedes it."--_Bucke cor._ "Prepositions, you recollect, connect words, _and so do_ conjunctions: how, then, can you tell _a conjunction_ from _a preposition_?" Or:--"how, then, can you _distinguish_ the _former_ from the _latter_?"--_R. C. Smith cor._ "No kind of work requires _a nicer_ touch, And, _this_ well finish'd, _none else_ shines so much." --_Sheffield cor._ LESSON XVI.--THREE ERRORS. "_On_ many occasions, it is the final pause alone, _that_ marks the difference between prose and verse: _this_ will be evident from the following arrangement of a few poetical lines."--_L. Murray cor._ "I shall do all I can to persuade others to take _for their cure_ the same measures _that_ I have _taken for mine_."--_Guardian cor._; also _Murray_. "It is the nature of extreme self-lovers, _that_ they will set _a_ house on fire, _as_ it were, but to roast their eggs."--_Bacon cor._ "Did ever man struggle more earnestly in a cause _in which_ both his honour and _his_ life _were_ concerned?"--_Duncan cor._ "So the rests, _or_ pauses, _which separate_ sentences _or_ their parts, are marked by points."--_Lowth cor._ "Yet the case and _mood are_ not influenced by them, but _are_ determined by the nature of the sentence."--_Id._ "_Through inattention_ to this rule, many errors have been committed: _several_ of which _are here_ subjoined, as a further caution and direction to the learner."--_L. Murray cor._ "Though thou _clothe_ thyself with crimson, though thou _deck_ thee with ornaments of gold, though thou _polish_ thy face with painting, in vain shalt thou make thyself fair." [552]--_Bible cor._ "But that the doing _of_ good to others, will make us happy, is not so evident; _the_ feeding _of_ the hungry, for example, or _the_ clothing _of_ the naked." Or: "But that, _to do_ good to others, will make us happy, is not so evident; _to feed_ the hungry, for example, or _to clothe_ the naked."--_Kames cor._ "There is no other God _than he_, no other light _than_ his." Or: "There is no God _but he_, no light _but_ his."--_Penn cor._ "How little reason _is there_ to wonder, that a _powerful_ and accomplished orator should be one of the characters that _are_ most rarely found."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Because they express _neither the_ doing nor _the_ receiving _of_ an action."--_Inf. S. Gram. cor._ "To find the answers, will require an effort of mind; and, when _right answers are_ given, _they_ will be the result of reflection, _and show_ that the subject is understood."--_Id._ "'The sun rises,' is _an expression_ trite and common; but _the same idea_ becomes a magnificent image, when expressed _in the language of_ Mr. Thomson."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "The declining _of_ a word is the giving _of its_ different endings." Or: "_To decline_ a word, is _to give_ it different endings."--_Ware cor._ "And so much are they for _allowing_ every _one to follow his_ own mind."--_Barclay cor._ "More than one overture for peace _were_ made, but Cleon prevented _them from_ taking effect."--_Goldsmith cor._ "Neither in English, _nor_ in any other language, is this word, _or_ that which corresponds to it in _meaning_, any more an article, than TWO, THREE, _or_ FOUR."--_Webster cor._ "But the most irksome conversation of all that I have met _with in_ the neighbourhood, has been _with_ two or three of your travellers."--_Spect. cor._ "Set down the _first two_ terms of _the_ supposition, _one under the other_, in the first place."--_Smiley cor._ "It is _a_ useful _practice_ too, to fix _one's_ eye on some of the most distant persons in the assembly."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "He will generally please _his hearers_ most, when _to please them_ is not his sole _or his_ chief aim."--_Id._ "At length, the consuls return to the camp, and inform _the soldiers, that_ they could _obtain for them_ no other terms _than those_ of surrendering their arms and passing under the yoke."--_Id._ "Nor _are_ mankind so much to blame, in _their_ choice thus determining _them_."--_Swift cor._ "These forms are what _are_ called _the Numbers_." Or: "These forms are called _Numbers_."--_Fosdick cor._ "In _those_ languages which admit but two genders, all nouns are either masculine or feminine, even though they designate beings _that_ are neither male _nor_ female."--_Id._ "It is called _Verb_ or _Word_ by way of eminence, because it is the most essential word in a sentence, _and one_ without which the other parts of speech _cannot_ form _any_ complete sense."--_Gould cor._ "The sentence will consist of two members, _and these will_ commonly _be_ separated from _each_ other by a comma."--_Jamieson cor._ "Loud and soft in speaking _are_ like the _fortè_ and _piano_ in music; _they_ only _refer_ to the different degrees of force used in the same key: whereas high and low imply a change of key."--_Sheridan cor._ "They are chiefly three: the acquisition of knowledge; the assisting _of_ the memory to treasure up this knowledge; _and_ the communicating _of_ it to others."--_Id._ "_This_ kind of knaves I know, _who_ in this plainness Harbour more craft, and _hide_ corrupter ends, Than twenty silly ducking observants."--_Shak. cor._ LESSON XVII.--MANY ERRORS. "A man will be forgiven, even _for_ great errors, _committed_ in a foreign language; but, in _the use he makes of_ his own, even the least slips are justly _pointed out_ and ridiculed."--_Amer. Chesterfield cor._ "LET expresses _not only_ permission, but _entreaty, exhortation, and command_."--_Lowth cor._; also _Murray, et al._ "That death which is our leaving _of_ this world, is nothing else _than the putting-off of_ these bodies."--_Sherlock cor._ "They differ from the saints recorded _in either_ the Old _or the_ New _Testament_."--_Newton cor._ "The nature of relation, _therefore_, consists in the referring or comparing _of_ two things to _each_ other; from which comparison, one or both _come_ to be denominated."--_Locke cor._ "It is not credible, that there _is_ any one who will say, that _through_ the whole course of _his life he_ has kept _himself entirely_ undefiled, _without_ the least spot or stain of sin."--_Witsius cor._ "If _to act_ conformably to the will of our Creator,--if _to promote_ the welfare of mankind around us,--if _to secure_ our own happiness, _is an object_ of the highest moment; then are we loudly called upon to cultivate and extend the great interests of religion and virtue." Or: "If, to act conformably to the will of our Creator, to promote the welfare of mankind around us, _and_ to secure our own happiness, _are objects_ of the highest moment; then," &c.--_Murray et al. cor._ "The verb being in the plural number, it is supposed, that _the officer and his guard are joint agents. But this_ is not the case: the only nominative to the verb is '_officer_.' In the expression, '_with his guard_,' the _noun 'guard' is_ in the objective case, _being_ governed by the preposition _with_; and _consequently it_ cannot form the nominative, or any part of it. The prominent subject _for the agreement_, the true nominative _to_ the verb, _or the term_ to which the verb peculiarly refers, is the _word 'officer.'_"--_L. Murray cor._ "This is _an other_ use, that, in my opinion, contributes to make a man learned _rather_ than wise; and is _incapable_ of pleasing _either_ the understanding or _the_ imagination."--_Addison cor._ "The work is a dull performance; and is _incapable_ of pleasing _either_ the understanding _or_ the imagination."--_L. Murray cor._ "I would recommend the 'Elements of English Grammar,' by Mr. Frost. _The_ plan _of this little work is similar to that of Mr. L. Murray's smallest Grammar_; but, _in order_ to meet the understanding of children, _its_ definitions and language _are_ simplified, _so_ far as the nature of the subject will admit. It also embraces more examples _for_ Parsing, than _are_ usual in elementary treatises."--_S. R. Hall cor._ "More rain falls in the first two summer months, than in the first two _months_ of winter; but _what falls_, makes a much greater show upon the earth, in _winter_ than in _summer_, because there is a much slower evaporation."--_L. Murray cor._ "They often contribute also to _render_ some persons prosperous, though wicked; and, _what_ is still worse, to _reward_ some actions, though vicious; and _punish_ other actions, though virtuous."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "Hence, to such a man, _arise_ naturally a secret satisfaction, _a_ sense of security, and _an_ implicit hope of somewhat further."--_Id._ "So much for the third and last cause of illusion, that was _noticed above; which arises_ from the abuse of very general and abstract terms; _and_ which is the principal source of the _abundant_ nonsense that _has_ been vented by metaphysicians, mystagogues, and theologians."--_Campbell cor._ "As to those animals _which are_ less common, or _which_, on account of the places they inhabit, fall less under our observation, as fishes and birds, or _which_ their diminutive size removes still further from our observation, we generally, in English, employ a single noun to designate both genders, _the_ masculine and _the_ feminine."--_Fosdick cor._ "Adjectives may always be distinguished by their _relation to other words: they express_ the quality, condition, _or number_, of whatever _things are_ mentioned."--_Emmons cor._ "_An_ adverb _is_ a word added to a verb, _a_ participle, _an_ adjective, or _an_ other adverb; _and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner_."--_Brown's Inst._, p. 29. "The _joining-together of_ two objects, _so_ grand, and the representing _of_ them both, as subject at one moment to the command of God, _produce_ a noble effect."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Twisted columns, for instance, are undoubtedly ornamental; but, as they have an appearance of weakness, they displease _the eye, whenever_ they are _used_ to support any _massy_ part of a building, _or what_ seems to require a more substantial prop."--_Id._ "_In_ a vast number of inscriptions, some upon rocks, some upon stones of a defined shape, is found an Alphabet different from the _Greeks', the Latins'_, and _the Hebrews'_, and also unlike that of any modern nation."--_W. C. Fowler cor._ LESSON XVIII.--MANY ERRORS. "The empire of Blefuscu is an island situated on the northeast side of Lilliput, from _which_ it is parted by a channel of _only_ 800 yards _in width_."--_Swift and Kames cor._ "The nominative case usually _denotes_ the agent or doer; and _any noun or pronoun which is_ the subject of a _finite_ verb, _is always in this case_."--_R. C. Smith cor._ "There _are, in_ his allegorical personages, an originality, _a_ richness, and _a_ variety, which almost _vie_ with the splendours of the ancient mythology."--_Hazlitt cor._ "As neither the Jewish nor _the_ Christian revelation _has_ been universal, and as _each has_ been afforded to a greater or _a_ less part of the world at different times; so likewise, at different times, both revelations have had different degrees of evidence."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "Thus we see, that, _to kill_ a man with a sword, _and to kill one_ with a hatchet, are looked upon as no distinct species of action; but, if the point of the sword first enter the body, _the action_ passes for a distinct species, called _stabbing_."--_Locke cor._ "If a soul sin, and commit a trespass against the Lord, and lie unto his neighbour _concerning_ that which was delivered him to keep, or _deceive_ his neighbour, or _find_ that which was lost, and _lie_ concerning it, and _swear_ falsely; in any of all these that a man doeth, sinning therein, then it shall be," &c.--_Bible cor._ "As, _to do_ and _teach_ the commandments of God, is the great proof of virtue; so, _to break_ them, and _to teach_ others to break them, _are_ the great _proofs_ of vice."--_Wayland cor._ "The latter simile, _in_ Pope's terrific maltreatment of _it_, is true _neither_ to _the_ mind _nor to the_ eye."--_Coleridge cor._ "And the two brothers were seen, transported with rage and fury, like Eteocles and Polynices, _each endeavouring_ to plunge _his sword_ into _the other's heart_, and to assure _himself_ of the throne by the death of _his_ rival."--_Goldsmith cor._ "Is it not plain, therefore, that neither the castle, _nor_ the planet, nor the cloud, which you _here_ see, _is that_ real _one_ which you suppose _to_ exist at a distance?"--_Berkley cor._ "I have often wondered, how it comes to pass, that every body should love _himself_ best, and yet value _his neighbours'_ opinion about _himself_ more than _his_ own."--_Collier cor._ "Virtue, ([Greek: Aretæ], _Virtus_,) as well as most of its species, _when sex is figuratively ascribed to it, is made_ feminine, perhaps from _its_ beauty and amiable appearance."--_Harris cor._ "Virtue, with most of its species, is _made_ feminine _when personified_; and so is Vice, _perhaps_ for being Virtue's opposite."--_Brit. Gram. cor._; also _Buchanan_. "From this deduction, _it_ may _easily_ be seen, how it comes to pass, that personification makes so great a figure in all compositions _in which_ imagination or passion _has_ any concern."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "An Article is a word _placed before a noun_, to point _it_ out _as such_, and to show how far _its_ signification extends."--_Folker cor._ "All men have certain natural, essential, and inherent rights;--among which are the _rights of_ enjoying and defending life and liberty; _of_ acquiring, possessing, and protecting property; and, in a word, of seeking and obtaining happiness."--_Const. of N. H. cor._ "From _those_ grammarians who form their ideas and make their decisions, respecting this part of English grammar, _from_ the principles and construction of _other_ languages,--_of languages_ which do not in these points _accord with_ our own, but _which_ differ considerably from it,--we may naturally expect grammatical schemes that _will be neither_ perspicuous nor consistent, and _that_ will tend _rather_ to perplex than _to_ inform the learner."--_Murray and Hall cor. "Indeed_ there are but very few who know how to be idle and innocent, or _who_ have a relish _for_ any pleasures that are not criminal; every diversion _which the majority_ take, is at the expense of some one virtue or _other_, and their very first step out of business is into vice or folly."--_Addison cor._ "Hail, holy Love! thou _bliss_ that _sumst_ all bliss! _Giv'st_ and _receiv'st_ all bliss; fullest when most Thou _giv'st_; spring-head of all felicity!"--_Pollok cor._ CHAPTER XIII--GENERAL RULE. CORRECTIONS UNDER THE GENERAL RULE. LESSON I.--ARTICLES. (1.) "_The_ article is a part of speech placed before nouns." Or thus: "_An_ article is a _word_ placed before nouns."--_Comly cor._ (2.) "_The_ article is a part of speech used to limit nouns."--_Gilbert cor._ (3.) "An article is a _word_ set before nouns to fix their vague signification."--_Ash cor._ (4.) "_The_ adjective is a part of speech used to describe _something named by a_ noun."--_Gilbert cor._ (5.) "A pronoun is a _word_ used _in stead_ of a noun."--_Id. and Weld cor.: Inst._, p. 45. (6.) "_The_ pronoun is a part of speech which is often used _in stead_ of a noun."--_Brit. Gram. and Buchanan cor._ (7.) "A verb is a _word_ which signifies _to be, to do_, or _to be acted upon_."--_Merchant cor._ (8.) "_The_ verb is a part of speech which signifies _to be, to act_, or _to receive an action_."--_Comly cor._ (9.) "_The_ verb is _the_ part of speech by which any thing is asserted."--_Weld cor._ (10.) "_The_ verb is a part of speech, which expresses action or existence in a direct manner."--_Gilbert cor._ (11.) "A participle is a _word_ derived from a verb, and expresses action or existence in an indirect manner."--_Id._ (12.) "_The_ participle is a part of speech derived from _the_ verb, and denotes being, doing, or suffering, and implies time, as a verb does."--_Brit. Gram. and Buchanan cor._ (13.) "_The_ adverb is a part of speech used to add _some modification_ to the meaning of verbs, adjectives, and participles."--_Gilbert cor._ (14.) "An adverb is an indeclinable _word_ added to a verb, [_a participle,] an_ adjective, or _an_ other adverb, to express some circumstance, _accident_, or manner of _its_ signification."--_Adam and Gould cor._ (15.) "An adverb is a _word added_ to a verb, an adjective, a participle, _or an_ other adverb, to express the circumstance of _time, place, degree, or manner_."--_Dr. Ash cor._ (16.) "An adverb is a _word added_ to a verb, _an_ adjective, _a_ participle, _or_, sometimes, _an_ other adverb, to express some _circumstance_ respecting _the sense_."--_Beck cor._ (17.) "_The_ adverb is a part of speech, which is _added_ to _verbs, adjectives, participles_, or to other _adverbs_, to express some modification or circumstance, quality or manner, of their signification."--_Buchanan cor._ (18.) "_The_ adverb is a part of speech _which we add_ to _the verb_, (whence the name,) _to the adjective or participle likewise_, and sometimes even to _an other adverb_."--_Bucke cor._ (19.) "A conjunction is a _word_ used to connect words _or_ sentences."--_Gilbert and Weld cor._ (20.) "_The_ conjunction is a part of speech that joins words or sentences together."--_Ash cor._ (21.) "_The_ conjunction is that part of speech which _connects_ sentences, or parts of sentences, or single words."--_D. Blair cor._ (22.) "_The_ conjunction is a part of speech that is used principally to connect sentences, so as, out of two, three, or more sentences, to make one."--_Bucke cor._ (23.) "_The_ conjunction is a part of speech that is used to connect _words or_ sentences _together; but_, chiefly, _to join_ simple sentences into _such as are_ compound."--_Kirkham cor._ (24.) "A conjunction is a _word_ which joins _words or_ sentences together, and _shows_ the manner of their _dependence, as they stand in connexion_."--_Brit. Gram. et al. cor._ (25.) "A preposition is a _word_ used to show the relation between other words, _and govern the subsequent term_."--_Gilbert cor._ (26.) "A preposition is a _governing word_ which serves to connect _other_ words, and _to_ show the relation between them."--_Frost cor._ (27.) "A preposition is a _governing particle_ used to connect words and show their relation."--_Weld cor._ (28.) "_The_ preposition is that part of speech which shows the _various positions_ of persons or things, _and_ the _consequent relations_ that _certain words bear_ toward _one an_ other."--_David Blair cor._ (29.) "_The_ preposition is a part of speech, which, being added to _certain_ other parts of speech, serves to _show_ their state _of_ relation, or _their_ reference to each other."--_Brit. Gram. and Buchanan cor._ (30.) "_The_ interjection is a part of speech used to express sudden passion or _strong_ emotion."--_Gilbert cor._ (31.) "An interjection is an _unconnected word_ used in giving utterance to some sudden feeling or _strong_ emotion."--_Weld cor._ (32.) "_The_ interjection is that part of speech which denotes any sudden affection or _strong_ emotion of the mind."--_David Blair cor._ (33.) "An interjection is _an independent word or sound_ thrown into discourse, and denotes some sudden passion or _strong_ emotion of the soul."--_Brit. Gram. and Buchanan cor._ (34.) "_The_ scene might tempt some peaceful sage To rear _a lonely_ hermitage."--_Gent. of Aberdeen cor._ (35.) "Not all the storms that shake the pole, Can e'er disturb thy halcyon soul, And _smooth unalter'd_ brow."--_Barbauld's Poems_, p. 42. LESSON II.--NOUNS. "The _throne_ of every monarchy felt the shock."--_Frelinghuysen cor._ "These principles ought to be deeply impressed upon the _mind_ of every American."--_Dr. N. Webster cor._ "The _words_ CHURCH and SHIRE are radically the same."--_Id._ "They may not, in their present form, be readily accommodated to every circumstance belonging to the possessive _case_ of nouns."--_L. Murray cor. "Will_, in the second and third _persons_, only _foretells_."--_Id.; Lowth's Gram._, p. 41. "Which seem to form the true distinction between the subjunctive and the indicative _mood_."--_L. Murray cor._ "The very general approbation which this performance of _Walker's_ has received from the public."--_Id._ "Lest she carry her improvements _of this kind_ too far." Or thus: "Lest she carry her improvements _in_ this way too far."--_Id. and Campbell cor._ "Charles was extravagant, and by _his prodigality_ became poor and despicable."--_L. Murray cor._ "We should entertain no _prejudice_ against simple and rustic persons."--_Id._ "These are indeed the _foundation_ of all solid merit."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "And his embellishment, by means of _figures, musical cadences_, or other _ornaments_ of speech."--_Id._ "If he is at no pains to engage us by the employment of figures, musical arrangement, or any other _ornament of style_."--_Id._ "The most eminent of the sacred poets, are, _David, Isaiah_, and the _author_ of the Book of Job."--_Id._ "Nothing in any _poem_, is more beautifully described than the death of old Priam."--_Id._ "When two vowels meet together, and are _joined in one syllable_, they are called _a diphthong_."--_Inf. S. Gram. cor._ "How many _Esses_ would _goodness'_ then end with? Three; as _goodness's_."--_Id. "Birds_ is a noun; it is the _common_ name of _feathered animals_."--_Kirkham cor._ "Adam gave names to _all_ living _creatures_." Or thus: "Adam gave _a name_ to every living creature."--_Bicknell cor._ "The steps of a _flight of stairs_ ought to be accommodated to the human figure." Or thus: "_Stairs_ ought to be accommodated to the _ease of the users_."--_Kames cor._ "Nor ought an emblem, more than a simile, to be founded on _a_ low or familiar _object_."--_Id._ "Whatever the Latin has not from the Greek, it has from the _Gothic_."--_Tooke cor._ "The _mint_, and _the office of the secretary of state_, are neat buildings."--_The Friend cor._ "The scenes of dead and still _existence_ are apt to pall upon us."--_Blair cor._ "And Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus, the angelical _doctor_ and the subtle, are the brightest stars in the scholastic constellation."--_Lit. Hist. cor._ "The English language has three methods of distinguishing the _sexes_."--_Murray et al. cor._; also _R. C. Smith_. "In English, there are the three following methods of distinguishing _the sexes_."--_Jaudon cor._ "There are three ways of distinguishing the _sexes_."--_Lennie et al. cor._; also _Merchant. "The sexes are_ distinguished in three ways."--_Maunder cor._ "Neither discourse in general, nor poetry in particular, can be called altogether an imitative _art_."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Do we for this the gods and conscience brave, That one may rule and _all_ the rest _enslave_?"--_Rowe cor._ LESSON III.--ADJECTIVES. "There is a deal _more_ of heads, than _of_ either heart or horns."--_Barclay cor._ "For, of all villains, I think he has the _most improper name_."--_Bunyan cor._ "Of all the men that I met in my pilgrimage, he, I think, bears the _wrongest_ name."--_Id._ "I am _surprised_ to see so much of the distribution, and _so many of the_ technical terms, of the Latin grammar, retained in the grammar of our tongue."--_Priestley cor._ "Nor did the Duke of Burgundy bring him _any_ assistance."--_Hume and Priestley cor._ "Else he will find it difficult to make _an_ obstinate _person_ believe him."--_Brightland cor._ "Are there any adjectives which form the degrees of comparison _in a manner_ peculiar to themselves?"--_Inf. S. Gram. cor._ "Yet _all_ the verbs are of the indicative mood."--_Lowth cor._ "The word _candidate_ is _absolute_, in the _nominative_ case."--_L. Murray cor._ "An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the _last_ accented."--_L. Murray, D. Blair, Jamieson, Kirkham, Bullions, Guy, Merchant_, and others. "A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the _last two [syllables_] unaccented."--_Murray et al. cor._ "It is proper to begin with a capital the first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or[553] other piece of writing."--_Jaudon's Gram._, p. 195; _John Flint's_, 105. "Five and seven make twelve, and one _more_ makes thirteen."--_L. Murray cor._ "I wish to cultivate a _nearer_ acquaintance with you."--_Id._ "Let us consider the means _which are proper_ to effect our purpose." Or thus: "Let us consider _what_ means _are_ proper to effect our purpose."--_Id._ "Yet they are of _so_ similar a nature as readily to mix and blend."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "The Latin is formed on the same model, but _is_ more imperfect."--_Id._ "I know very well how _great_ pains have been taken." Or thus: "I know very well how much _care has_ been taken."--_Temple cor._ "The management of the breath requires a _great_ deal of care."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Because the mind, during such a momentary stupefaction, is, in a _great_ measure, if not totally, insensible."--_Kames cor._ "Motives of reason and interest _alone_ are not sufficient."--_Id._ "To render the composition distinct in its parts, and on the whole _impressive_."--_Id._ "_A_ and _an_ are named _the Indefinite article_, because they denote _indifferently any_ one thing of a kind."--_Maunder cor._ "_The_ is named _the Definite article_, because it points out some particular thing _or things_."--_Id._ "So much depends upon the proper construction of sentences, that, in _any_ sort of composition, we cannot be too strict in our attention to it." Or:--"that, in _every_ sort of composition, we _ought to be very_ strict in our attention to it." Or:--"that, in _no_ sort of composition, _can we be_ too strict," &c.--_Dr. Blair cor._ "_Every_ sort of declamation and public speaking was carried on by them." Or thus: "All _sorts_ of declamation and public speaking, _were_ carried on by them."--_Id._ "The _former_ has, on many occasions, a sublimity to which the latter never attains."--_Id._ "When the words, _therefore, consequently, accordingly_, and the like, are used in connexion with conjunctions, they are adverbs."--_Kirkham cor._ "Rude nations make _few_ or no allusions to the productions of the arts."--_Jamieson cor._ "While two of her maids knelt on _each_ side of her." Or, if there were only two maids kneeling, and not four: "While two of her maids knelt _one_ on _each_ side of her."--_Mirror cor._ "The personal pronouns _of the third person_, differ from _one an_ other in meaning and use, as follows."--_Bullions cor._ "It was happy for the state, that Fabius continued in the command with _Minutius_: the phlegm _of the former_ was a check _on_ the vivacity _of the latter_."--_L. Murray and others cor._: see _Maunders Gram._, p. 4. "If it be objected, that the words _must_ and _ought_, in the preceding sentences, are _both_ in the present tense." Or thus: "If it be objected, that _in all_ the preceding sentences the words _must_ and _ought_ are in the present tense."--_L. Murray cor._ "But it will be well, if you turn to them now and then." Or:--"if you turn to them _occasionally_."--_Bucke cor._ "That every part should have a dependence on, and mutually contribute to support, _every_ other."--_Rollin cor._ "The phrase, '_Good, my lord_,' is not common, and _is_ low." Or:--"is _uncommon_, and low."--_Priestley cor._ "That brother should not war with brother, And _one_ devour _or vex an_ other."--_Cowper cor._ LESSON IV.--PRONOUNS. "If I can contribute to _our_ country's glory." Or:--"to _your glory_ and _that of my country_."--_Goldsmith cor._ "As likewise of the several subjects, which have in effect each _its_ verb."--_Lowth cor._ "He is likewise required to make examples _for_ himself." Or: "He _himself_ is likewise required to make examples."--_J. Flint cor._ "If the emphasis be placed wrong, _it will_ pervert and confound the meaning wholly." Or: "If the emphasis be placed wrong, the meaning _will be perverted_ and _confounded_ wholly." Or: "If _we place_ the emphasis wrong, we pervert and confound the meaning wholly."--_L. Murray cor._; also _Dr. Blair_. "It was this, that characterized the great men of antiquity; it is this, _that_ must distinguish the moderns who would tread in their steps."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "I am a great enemy to implicit faith, as well the Popish as _the_ Presbyterian; _for_, in that, _the Papists and the Presbyterians_ are _very_ much alike."--_Barclay cor._ "Will he thence dare to say, the apostle held _an other_ Christ than _him_ that died?"--_Id._ "_Why_ need you be anxious about this event?" Or: "What need _have_ you to be anxious about this event?"--_Collier cor._ "If a substantive can be placed after the verb, _the latter_ is active."--_A. Murray cor._ "_To see_ bad men honoured and prosperous in the world, is some discouragement to virtue." Or: "_It_ is some discouragement to virtue, _to see_ bad men," &c.--_L. Murray cor._ "It is a happiness to young persons, _to be_ preserved from the snares of the world, as in a garden enclosed."--_Id._ "_At_ the court of Queen Elizabeth, _where all_ was prudence and economy."--_Bullions cor._ "It is no wonder, if such a man did not shine at the court of Queen Elizabeth, who was _so remarkable_ for _her_ prudence and economy."--_Priestley, Murray, et al cor._ "A defective verb is _a verb_ that wants some parts. _The defective verbs_ are chiefly the _auxiliaries_ and _the_ impersonal verbs."--_Bullions cor._ "Some writers have given _to the_ moods a much greater extent than _I_ have assigned to them."--_L. Murray cor._ "The personal pronouns give _such_ information _as_ no other words are capable of conveying."--_M'Culloch cor._ "When the article _a, an_, or _the_, precedes the participle, _the latter_ also becomes a noun."--_Merchant cor._ "To some of these, there is a preference to be given, which custom and judgement must determine."--_L. Murray cor._ "Many writers affect to subjoin to any word the preposition with which it is compounded, or _that_ of which it _literally_ implies the idea."--_Id. and Priestley cor._ "Say, dost thou know Vectidius? _Whom_, the wretch Whose lands beyond the Sabines largely stretch?"--_Dryden cor._ LESSON V.--VERBS. "We _should_ naturally expect, that the word _depend_ would require _from_ after it."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 158. "A dish which they pretend _is_ made of emerald."--_L. Murray cor._ "For the very nature of a sentence implies _that_ one proposition _is_ expressed."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 311. "Without a careful attention to the sense, we _should_ be naturally led, by the rules of syntax, to refer it to the rising and setting of the sun."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "For any rules that can be given, on this subject, _must be_ very general."--_Id._ "He _would be_ in the right, if eloquence were what he conceives it to be."--_Id._ "There I _should_ prefer a more free and diffuse manner."--_Id._ "Yet that they also _resembled one an other, and agreed_ in certain qualities."--_Id._ "But, since he must restore her, he insists _on having an other_ in her place."--_Id._ "But these are far from being so frequent, or so common, as _they have_ been supposed _to be_."--_Id._ "We are not _led_ to assign a wrong place to the pleasant or _the_ painful feelings."--_Kames cor._ "Which are of greater importance than _they are_ commonly thought."--_Id._ "Since these qualities are both coarse and common, _let us_ find out the mark of a man of probity."--_Collier cor._ "Cicero did what no man had ever done before him; _he drew_ up a treatise of consolation for himself."--_Biographer cor._ "Then there can _remain_ no other doubt of the truth."--_Brightland cor._ "I have observed _that_ some satirists use the term." Or: "I have observed some satirists _to_ use the term."--_Bullions cor._ "Such men are ready to despond, or _to become_ enemies."--_Webster cor._ "Common nouns _are_ names common to many things."--_Inf. S. Gram. cor._ "To make ourselves _heard_ by one to whom we address ourselves."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "That, in reading poetry, he may be the better able to judge of its correctness, and _may_ relish its beauties." Or:--"and _to_ relish its beauties."--_L. Murray cor._ "On the stretch to keep pace with the author, and _comprehend his meaning_."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "For it might have been sold for more than three hundred pence, and _the money_ have been given to the poor."--_Bible cor._ "He is a beam that _has_ departed, and _has_ left no streak of light behind."--_Ossian cor._ "No part of this incident ought to have been represented, but _the whole should have been_ reserved for a narrative."--_Kames cor._ "The rulers and people debauching themselves, _a country is brought to ruin_." Or: "_When_ the rulers and people _debauch_ themselves, _they bring_ ruin on a country."--_Ware cor._ "When _a title_, (as _Doctor, Miss, Master_, &c.,) is prefixed to a name, the _latter only_, of the two words, is commonly _varied to form the_ plural; as, 'The _Doctor Nettletons_,'--'The two _Miss Hudsons_.'"--_A. Murray cor._ "Wherefore that field _has been_ called, '_The Field of Blood_,' unto this day."--_Bible cor._ "To comprehend the situations of other countries, which perhaps _it_ may be necessary for him to explore."--_Dr. Brown cor._ "We content ourselves now with fewer conjunctive particles than our ancestors _used_."--_Priestley cor._ "And who will be chiefly liable to make mistakes where others have _erred_ before them."--_Id._ "The voice of nature _and that of_ revelation _unite_." Or: "_Revelation and_ the voice of nature _unite_." Or: "The voice of nature _unites with revelation_." Or: "The voice of nature unites _with that of_ revelation."--_Wayland cor._ "This adjective, you see, we can't admit; But, changed to 'WORSE,' _the word is_ just and fit."--_Tobitt cor._ LESSON VI.--PARTICIPLES. "Its application is not arbitrary, _or dependent_ on the caprice of readers."--_L. Murray cor._ "This is the more expedient, _because the work is_ designed for the benefit of private learners."--_Id._ "A man, he tells us, ordered by his will, to have _a statue erected_ for him."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "From some likeness too remote, and _lying_ too far out of the road of ordinary thought."--_Id._ "In the commercial world, money is a _fluid, running_ from hand to hand."--_Dr. Webster cor._ "He pays much attention to _the_ learning and singing _of_ songs."--_Id._ "I would not be understood to consider _the_ singing _of_ songs as criminal."--_Id._ "It is a _case decided by Cicero_, the great master of writing."--_Editor of Waller cor._ "Did they ever bear a testimony against _the_ writing _of_ books?"-- _Bates's Rep. cor._ "Exclamations are sometimes _mistaken_ for interrogations."--_Hist. of Print, cor._ "Which cannot fail _to prove_ of service."--_Smith cor._ "Hewn into such figures as would make them _incorporate_ easily and firmly."--_Beat, or Mur. cor._ "_After_ the rule and example, _there_ are practical inductive questions."--_J. Flint cor._ "I think _it_ will be an advantage, _that I have_ collected _my_ examples from modern writings."--_Priestley cor._ "He was eager _to recommend_ it to his fellow-citizens."--_Id. and Hume cor._ "The good lady was careful _to serve_ me _with_ every thing."--_Id._ "No revelation would have been given, had the light of nature been sufficient, in such a sense as to render one _superfluous_ and useless."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "Description, again, is _a representation which raises_ in the mind the conception of an object, by means of some arbitrary or instituted symbols."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Disappointing the expectation of the hearers, when they look for _an end_." Or:--"for _the termination of_ our _discourse_."--_Id._ "There is a distinction, which, in the use of them, is _worthy_ of attention."-- _Maunder cor._ "A model has been contrived, which is not very expensive, and _which_ is easily managed."--_Ed. Reporter cor._ "The conspiracy was the more easily discovered, _because the conspirators were_ many."--_L. Murray cor._ "Nearly ten years _had_ that celebrated work _been published_, before its importance was at all understood."--_Id._ "_That_ the _sceptre is_ ostensibly grasped by a female hand, does not reverse the general order of government."--_West cor._ "I have hesitated _about_ signing the Declaration of Sentiments."--_Lib. cor._ "The prolonging of men's lives when the world needed to be peopled, and _the subsequent_ shortening _of_ them when that necessity _had_ ceased."--_Rev. John Brown cor._ "Before the performance commences, we _see_ displayed the insipid formalities of the prelusive scene."--_Kirkham cor._ "It forbade the lending of money, or _the_ sending _of_ goods, or _the_ embarking _of_ capital in anyway, in transactions connected with that foreign traffic."--_Brougham cor._ "Even abstract ideas have sometimes the same important _prerogative conferred_ upon them."--_Jamieson cor._ "_Ment_, like other terminations, changes _y_ into _i_, when _the y is preceded_ by a consonant."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 25. "The term PROPER is from the French _propre_, own, or the Latin _proprius_; and _a Proper noun_ is _so called, because it_ is peculiar to the individual _or family_ bearing the name. The term COMMON is from the Latin _communis_, pertaining equally to several or many; and _a Common noun_ is _so called, because it is common_ to every individual comprised in the class."--_Fowler cor._ "Thus oft by mariners are _showed_ (Unless the men of Kent are liars) Earl Godwin's castles _overflowed_, And palace-roofs, and steeple- spires."--_Swift cor._ LESSON VII.--ADVERBS. "He spoke to every man and woman _who was there_."--_L. Murray cor._ "Thought and language act and react upon each other."--_Murray's Key_, p. 264. "Thought and expression act _and react_ upon each other."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 356. "They have neither the leisure nor the means of attaining any knowledge, except what lies within the contracted circle of their several professions."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 160. "Before they are capable of understanding _much_, or indeed any thing, of _most_ other branches of education."--_Olney cor._ "There is _no_ more beauty in one of them, than in _an other_."--_L. Murray cor._ "Which appear to be constructed according to _no_ certain rule."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "The vehement manner of speaking became _less_ universal."--Or better:--"_less general_."--_Id._ "_Not_ all languages, however, agree in this mode of expression." Or: "This mode of expression, however, _is not common to all_ languages."--_Id._ "The great occasion of setting _apart_ this particular day."--_Atterbury cor._ "He is much more promising now, than _he was_ formerly."--_L. Murray cor._ "They are placed before a participle, _without dependence_ on the rest of the sentence."--_Id._ "This opinion _does not appear to have been_ well considered." Or: "This opinion appears to _have been formed without due consideration_."--_Id._ "Precision in language merits a full explication; and _merits it_ the more, because distinct ideas are, perhaps, _but rarely_ formed _concerning_ it."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "In the more sublime parts of poetry, he is _less_ distinguished." Or:--"he is not so _highly_ distinguished."--_Id._ "_Whether_ the author was altogether happy in the choice of his subject, may be questioned."--_Id._ "But, _with regard to this matter_ also, there is a great error in the common practice."--_Webster cor._ "This order is the very order of the human mind, which makes things we are sensible of, a means to come at those that are not _known_." Or:--"which makes things _that_ are _already known, its_ means _of finding out_ those that are not so."--_Foreman cor._ "Now, who is not discouraged, and _does not fear_ want, when he has no money?"--_C. Leslie cor._ "Which the authors of this work consider of little or no use."--_Wilbur and Liv. cor._ "And here indeed the distinction between these two classes begins to be _obscure_."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "But this is a manner which deserves to be _avoided_." Or:--"which _does not deserve_ to be imitated."--_Id._ "And, in this department, a person effects _very_ little, _whenever_ he attempts too much."--_Campbell and Murray cor._ "The verb that signifies _mere_ being, is neuter."--_Ash cor._ "I hope to tire _but little_ those whom I shall not happen to please."--_Rambler cor._ "Who were utterly unable to pronounce some letters, and _who pronounced_ others very indistinctly."--_Sheridan cor._ "The learner may point out the active, passive, and neuter verbs in the following examples, and state the reasons _for thus distinguishing them_." Or: "The learner may point out the active, _the_ passive, and _the_ neuter verbs in the following examples, and state the reasons _for calling them so_."--_C. Adams cor._ "These words are _almost_ always conjunctions."--_Barrett cor._ "_How glibly_ nonsense trickles from his tongue! How sweet the periods, neither said nor sung!"--_Pope cor._ LESSON VIII.--CONJUNCTIONS. "Who, at least, either knew not, _or did not love_ to make, a distinction." Or better thus: "Who, at least, either knew _no distinction_, or _did not like_ to make _any_."--_Dr. Murray cor._ "It is childish in the last degree _to let_ this become the ground of estranged affection."--_L. Murray cor._ "When the regular, _and when_ the irregular verb, is to be preferred [sic--KTH], p. 107."--_Id._ "The books were to have been sold this day." Or:--"_on_ this day."--_Priestley cor._ "Do, _an_ you will." Or: "Do, _if_ you will."--_Shak. cor._ "If a man had a positive idea _either_ of infinite duration or _of infinite_ space, he could add two infinites together." Or: "If a man had a positive idea of _what is_ infinite, either _in_ duration or _in_ space, he could," &c.--_Murray's proof-text cor._ "None shall more willingly agree _to_ and advance the same _than_ I."--_Morton cor._ "That it cannot _but_ be hurtful to continue it."--_Barclay cor._ "A conjunction joins words _or_ sentences."--_Beck cor._ "The copulative conjunction connects words _or_ sentences together, and continues the sense."--_Frost cor._ "The _copulative_ conjunction serves to connect [_words or clauses_,] _and_ continue a sentence, by expressing an addition, a cause, or a supposition."--_L. Murray cor._ "All construction is either true or apparent; or, in other words, _either literal or_ figurative."--_Buchanan and Brit. Gram. cor._ "But the divine character is such _as_ none but a divine hand could draw." Or: "But the divine character is such, _that_ none but a divine hand could draw _it_."--_A. Keith cor._ "Who is so mad, that, on inspecting the heavens, _he_ is insensible of a God?"--_Gibbons cor._ "It is now submitted to an enlightened public, with little _further_ desire on the part of the _author_, than for its general utility."--_Town cor._ "This will sufficiently explain _why_ so many provincials have grown old in the capital without making any change in their original dialect."-- _Sheridan cor._ "Of these, they had chiefly three in general use, which were denominated ACCENTS, the term _being_ used in the plural number."--_Id._ "And this is one of the chief reasons _why_ dramatic representations have ever held the first rank amongst the diversions of mankind."--_Id._ "Which is the chief reason _why_ public reading is in general so disgusting."--_Id._ "At the same time _in which_ they learn to read." Or: "_While_ they learn to read."--_Id._ "He is always to pronounce his words with _exactly_ the same accent that he _uses in speaking_."--_Id._ "In order to know what _an other_ knows, and in the same manner _in which_ he knows it."--_Id._ "For the same reason _for which_ it is, in a more limited state, assigned to the several tribes of animals."--_Id._ "Were there masters to teach this, in the same manner _in which_ other arts are taught." Or: "Were there masters to teach this, _as_ other arts are taught."--_Id._ "Whose own example strengthens all his laws; _Who_ is himself that great sublime he draws."--_Pope cor._ LESSON IX.--PREPOSITIONS. "The word _so_ has sometimes the same meaning _as_ ALSO, LIKEWISE, _or_ THE SAME."--_Priestley cor._ "The verb _use_ relates not to 'pleasures of the imagination;' but to the terms _fancy_ and _imagination_, which he was to employ as synonymous."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "It never can view, clearly and distinctly, _more than_ one object at a time."--_Id._ "This figure [Euphemism] is often the same _as_ the Periphrasis."--_Adam and Gould cor._ "All the _intermediate_ time _between_ youth and old age."--_W. Walker cor._ "When one thing is said to act _upon an other_, or do something to _it_."--_Lowth cor._ "Such a composition has as much of meaning in it, as a mummy has _of_ life." Or: "Such a composition has as much meaning in it, as a mummy has life."--_Lit. Conv. cor._ "That young men, from fourteen to eighteen _years of age_, were not the best judges."--_Id._ "This day is a day of trouble, and of rebuke, and _of_ blasphemy."--_Isaiah_, xxxvii, 3. "Blank verse has the same pauses and accents _that occur in_ rhyme."--_Kames cor._ "In prosody, long syllables are distinguished by _the macron_ (¯); and short ones by what is called _the breve_ (~)."--_Bucke cor._ "Sometimes both articles are left out, especially _from_ poetry."--_Id._ "_From_ the following example, the pronoun and participle are omitted." Or: "In the following example, the pronoun and participle are _not expressed_."--_L. Murray cor._ [But the example was faulty. Say.] "Conscious of his weight and importance,"--or, "_Being_ conscious of his own weight and importance, _he did_ not _solicit_ the aid of others."--_Id._ "He was an excellent person; _even in his_ early youth, a mirror of _the_ ancient faith."--_Id._ "The carrying _of_ its several parts into execution."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "Concord is the agreement which one word has _with_ an other, in gender, number, case, _or_ person."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 142. "It might perhaps have given me a greater taste _for_ its antiquities."--_Addison cor._ "To call _on_ a person, and to wait _on_ him."--_Priestley cor._ "The great difficulty they found in fixing just sentiments."--_Id. and Hume cor._ "Developing the _differences of_ the three."--_James Brown cor._ "When the singular ends in x, ch soft, sh, ss, or s, we add _es to form_ the plural."--_L. Murray cor._ "We shall present him a list or specimen of them." "It is very common to hear of the evils of pernicious reading, how it enervates the mind, or how it depraves the principles."--_Dymond cor._ "In this example, the verb _arises_ is understood before 'curiosity' and _before_ 'knowledge.'"--_L. Murray et al. cor._ "The connective is frequently omitted, _when_ several words _have the same construction_."--_Wilcox cor._ "He shall expel them from before you, and drive them _out from_ your sight."--_Bible cor._ "Who makes his sun _to_ shine and his rain to descend, upon the just and the unjust." Or thus: "Who makes his sun shine, and his rain descend, upon the just and the unjust."--_M'Ilvaine cor._ LESSON X.--MIXED EXAMPLES. "This sentence violates _an established rule_ of grammar."--_L. Murray cor._ "The words _thou_ and _shall_ are again reduced to _syllables of_ short _quantity_."--_Id._ "Have the _greatest_ men always been the most popular? By no means."--_Lieber cor._ "St. Paul positively stated, that 'He _that loveth an other, hath_ fulfilled the law.'"--_Rom._, xiii, 8. "More _organs_ than one _are_ concerned in the utterance of almost every consonant."--_M'Culloch cor._ "If the reader will pardon _me for_ descending so low."--_Campbell cor._ "To adjust them in _such a manner_ as shall consist equally with the perspicuity and the grace of the period." Or: "To adjust them so, _that they_ shall consist equally," &c.--_Dr. Blair and L. Mur. cor._ "This class exhibits a lamentable inefficiency, and _a great_ want of simplicity."--_Gardiner cor._ "Whose style, _in all its course_, flows like a limpid stream, _through which_ we see to the very bottom."--_Dr. Blair cor._; also _L. Murray_. "We _admit various ellipses_." Or thus: "An _ellipsis_, or _omission_, of some words, is frequently admitted."--_Lennie's Gram._, p. 116. "The ellipsis, of _articles may occur_ thus."--_L. Murray cor._ "Sometimes the _article a_ is improperly applied to nouns of different numbers; as, 'A magnificent house and gardens.'"--_Id._ "In some very emphatical expressions, _no_ ellipsis should be _allowed_."--_Id._ "_Ellipses_ of the adjective _may happen_ in the following manner."--_Id._ "The following _examples show that there may be an_ ellipsis of the pronoun."--_Id._ "_Ellipses_ of the verb _occur_ in the following instances."--_Id._ "_Ellipses_ of the adverb _may occur_ in the following manner."--_Id._ "The following _brief expressions are all of them elliptical_." [554]--_Id._ "If no emphasis be placed on any words, not only will discourse be rendered heavy and lifeless, but the meaning _will_ often _be left_ ambiguous."--_Id._; also _J. S. Hart and Dr. Blair cor._ "He regards his word, but thou dost not _regard thine_."--_Bullions, Murray, et al., cor._ "I have learned my task, but you have not _learned yours_."--_Iid._ "When the omission of a word would obscure the _sense_, weaken _the expression_, or be attended with impropriety, _no ellipsis_ must be _indulged_."--_Murray and Weld cor._ "And therefore the verb is correctly put in the singular number, and refers to _them all_ separately and individually considered."--_L. Murray cor._ "_He was to me the most intelligible_ of all who spoke on the subject."--_Id._ "I understood him better than _I did_ any other who spoke on the _subject_."--_Id._ "The roughness found on the entrance into the paths of virtue and learning _decreases_ as we advance." Or: "The _roughnesses encountered in_ the paths of virtue and learning _diminish_ as we advance."--_Id._ "_There is_ nothing _which more_ promotes knowledge, than _do_ steady application and _habitual_ observation."--_Id._ "Virtue confers _on man the highest_ dignity _of which he is capable; it_ should _therefore_ be _the chief object of_ his desire."--_Id. and Merchant cor._ "The supreme Author of our being has so formed _the human soul_, that nothing but himself can be its last, adequate, and proper happiness."--_Addison and Blair cor._ "The inhabitants of China laugh at the plantations of our Europeans: 'Because,' _say they_, 'any one may place trees in equal rows and uniform figures.'"--_Iid._ "The divine laws are not _to be reversed_ by those of men."--_L. Murray cor._ "In both of these examples, the relative _which_ and the verb _was_ are understood."--_Id. et al. cor._ "The Greek and Latin languages, though for many reasons they cannot be called dialects of one _and the same tongue_, are nevertheless closely connected."--_Dr. Murray cor._ "To ascertain and settle _whether_ a white rose or a red breathes the sweetest fragrance." Or thus: "To ascertain and settle which _of the two_ breathes the _sweeter_ fragrance, a white rose or a red _one_."--_J. Q. Adams cor._ "To which he can afford to devote _but little_ of his time and labour."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Avoid extremes; and shun the fault of such _As_ still are pleased too little or too much."--_Pope cor._ LESSON XI.--OF BAD PHRASES. "He _might as well_ leave his vessel to the direction of the winds."--_South cor._ "Without good-nature and gratitude, men _might as well_ live in a wilderness as in society."--_L'Estrange cor._ "And, for this reason, such lines _very seldom_ occur together."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "His _greatness_ did not make him _happy_."--_Crombie cor._ "Let that which tends to _cool_ your love, be judged in all."--_Crisp cor._ "It is _worth_ observing, that there is no passion in the mind of man so weak but it mates and masters the fear of death."--_Bacon cor._ "Accent dignifies the syllable on which it is laid, and makes it more _audible_ than the rest."--_Sheridan and Murray cor._ "Before he proceeds to argue on _either_ side."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "The _general_ change of manners, throughout Europe."--_Id._ "The sweetness and beauty of Virgil's numbers, _through all_ his works."--_Id._ "The French writers of sermons, study neatness and elegance in _the division of their discourses._"--_Id._ "This _seldom_ fails to prove a refrigerant to passion."--_Id._ "_But_ their fathers, brothers, and uncles, cannot, as good relations and good citizens, _excuse themselves for_ not standing forth to demand vengeance."--_Murray's Sequel_, p. 114. "Alleging, that their _decrial_ of the church of Rome, was a _uniting_ with the Turks."--_Barclay cor._ "To which is added the Catechism _by the_ Assembly of Divines."--_N. E. Prim. cor._ "This treachery was always present in _the thoughts of both of them_."-- _Robertson cor._ "Thus far their words agree." Or: "Thus far _the words of both_ agree."--_W. Walker cor._ "Aparithmesis is _an_ enumeration _of the_ several parts of what, _as a whole_, might be expressed in few words."--_Gould cor._ "Aparithmesis, or Enumeration, is _a figure in which_ what might be expressed in a few words, is branched out into several parts."--_Dr. Adam cor._ "Which may sit from time to time, where you dwell, or in the vicinity."--_J. O. Taylor cor._ "Place together a _large-sized animal and a small one_, of the same species." Or: "Place together a large and a small animal of the same species."--_Kames cor._ "The weight of the swimming body is equal to that of the quantity of fluid displaced by it."--_Percival cor._ "The Subjunctive mood, in all its tenses, is similar to the Optative."--_Gwilt cor._ "No feeling of obligation remains, except that of _an obligation to_ fidelity."--_Wayland cor._ "Who asked him _why_ whole audiences should be moved to tears at the representation of some story on the stage."--_Sheridan cor._ "_Are you not ashamed_ to affirm that the best works of the Spirit of Christ in his saints are as filthy rags?"--_Barclay cor._ "A neuter verb becomes active, when followed by a noun of _kindred_ signification."--_Sanborn cor._ "But he has judged better in _forbearing_ to repeat the article _the_."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Many objects please us, _and are thought_ highly beautiful, which have _scarcely any_ variety at all."--_Id._ "Yet they sometimes follow them."--_Emmons cor._ "For I know of nothing more _important_ in the whole subject, than this doctrine of mood and tense."--_R. Johnson cor._ "It is by no means impossible for an _error_ to be _avoided_ or _suppressed_."--_Philol. Museum cor._ "These are things of the highest importance to _children and youth_."--_Murray cor._ "He _ought to_ have omitted the word _many_." Or: "He _might_ better have omitted the word _many_."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Which _might_ better have been separated." Or: "Which _ought rather to_ have been separated."--_Id._ "Figures and metaphors, therefore, should _never_ be _used_ profusely."--_Id. and Jam. cor._ "Metaphors, _or_ other figures, should _never_ be _used in_ too _great abundance_."--_Murray and Russell cor._ "Something like this has been _alleged against_ Tacitus."-- _Bolingbroke cor._ "O thou, whom all mankind in vain withstand, _Who with the blood of each_ must one day stain thy hand!" --_Sheffield cor._ LESSON XII.--OF TWO ERRORS. "Pronouns sometimes precede the _terms_ which they represent."--_L. Murray cor._ "Most prepositions originally _denoted relations_ of place."--_Lowth cor._ "WHICH is applied to _brute_ animals, and _to_ things without life."--_Bullions cor._ "What _thing_ do they describe, or _of what do they_ tell the kind?"--_Inf. S. Gram. cor._ "Iron _cannons_, as well as brass, _are_ now universally cast solid."--_Jamieson cor._ "We have philosophers, _more_ eminent perhaps _than those of_ any _other_ nation."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "This is a question about words _only_, and _one_ which common sense easily determines."--_Id._ "The low pitch of the voice, is _that which_ approaches to a whisper."--_Id._ "Which, as to the effect, is just the same _as to use_ no such distinctions at all."--_Id._ "These two systems, therefore, _really_ differ from _each_ other _but_ very little."--_Id._ "It _is_ needless to give many instances, as _examples_ occur so often."--_Id._ "There are many occasions _on which_ this is neither requisite nor proper."--_Id._ "Dramatic poetry divides itself into two forms, comedy _and_ tragedy."--_Id._ "No man ever rhymed _with more exactness_ than he." [I.e., than Roscommon.]--_Editor of Waller cor._ "The Doctor did not reap from his poetical labours a _profit_ equal to _that_ of his prose."--_Johnson cor._ "We will follow that which we _find_ our fathers _practised_." Or: "We will follow that which we _find to have been_ our _fathers'_ practice."--_Sale cor._ "And I _should_ deeply regret _that I had_ published them."--_Inf. S. Gram. cor._ "Figures exhibit ideas _with more vividness and power_, than could be _given them_ by plain language."--_Kirkham cor._ "The allegory is finely drawn, _though_ the heads _are_ various."--_Spect. cor._ "I should not have thought it worthy _of this_ place." Or: "I should not have thought it worthy _of being placed_ here."--_Crombie cor._ "In this style, Tacitus excels all _other_ writers, ancient _or_ modern."--_Kames cor._ "No _other_ author, ancient or modern, possesses the art of dialogue _so completely as_ Shakspeare."-- _Id._ "The names of _all the things_ we see, hear, smell, taste, _or_ feel, are nouns."--_Inf. S. Gram. cor. "Of_ what number are _the expressions_, 'these boys,' 'these pictures,' &c.?"--_Id._ "This sentence _has faults_ somewhat _like those_ of the last."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Besides perspicuity, he pursues propriety, purity, and precision, in his language; which _qualities form_ one degree, and no inconsiderable one, of beauty."--_Id._ "Many critical terms have unfortunately been employed in a sense too loose and vague; none _with less precision_, than _the word_ sublime."--_Id._ "Hence no word in the language is used _with_ a more vague signification, than _the word_ beauty."--_Id._ "But still, _in speech_, he made use of general terms _only_."--_Id._ "These give life, body, and colouring, to the _facts recited_; and enable us to _conceive of_ them as present, and passing before our eyes."--_Id._ "Which carried an ideal chivalry to a still more extravagant height, than _the adventurous spirit of knighthood_ had _ever attained_ in fact."--_Id._ "We write much more supinely, and _with far less labour_, than _did_ the ancients."--_Id._ "This appears indeed to form the characteristical difference between the ancient poets, orators, and historians, _and_ the modern."--_Id._ "To violate this rule, as the English too often _do, shows_ great incorrectness."--_Id._ "It is impossible, by means of any _training_, to _prevent them from_ appearing stiff and forced."--_Id. "And it also gives to_ the speaker the disagreeable _semblance_ of one who endeavours to compel assent."--_Id._ "And _whenever_ a light or ludicrous anecdote is proper to be recorded, it is generally better to throw it into a note, than to _run the_ hazard _of_ becoming too familiar."--_Id. "It is_ the great business of this life, to prepare and qualify _ourselves_ for the enjoyment of a better."--_L. Murray cor. "From_ some dictionaries, accordingly, it was omitted; and in others _it is_ stigmatized as a barbarism."--_Crombie cor._ "You cannot see a thing, or think of _one, the name of which is not_ a noun."--_Mack cor. "All_ the fleet _have_ arrived, and _are_ moored in safety." Or better: "The _whole_ fleet _has_ arrived, and _is_ moored in safety."--_L. Murray cor._ LESSON XIII.--OF TWO ERRORS. "They have _severally_ their distinct and exactly-limited _relations_ to gravity."--_Hasler cor._ "But _where the additional s_ would give too much of the hissing sound, the omission takes place even in prose."--_L. Murray cor._ "After _o_, it [the _w_] is sometimes not sounded at all; _and_ sometimes _it is sounded_ like a single _u_."--_Lowth cor._ "It is situation chiefly, _that_ decides the _fortunes_ and characters of men."--_Hume cor._; also _Murray_. "The vice of covetousness is _that_ [vice] _which_ enters _more deeply_ into the soul than any other."--_Murray et al. cor. "Of all vices_, covetousness enters the _most deeply_ into the soul."--_Iid._ "_Of all the vices_, covetousness is _that which_ enters the _most deeply_ into the soul."--_Campbell cor._ "The vice of covetousness is _a fault which_ enters _more deeply_ into the soul _than_ any other."--_Guardian cor._ "WOULD primarily denotes inclination of will; and SHOULD, obligation: but _they_ vary their import, and are often used to express simple _events_." Or:--"but _both of them_ vary their import," &c. Or:--"but _both_ vary their import, and are used to express simple _events_."--_Lowth, Murray, et al. cor._; also _Comly and Ingersoll_; likewise _Abel Flint_. "A double _condition_, in two correspondent clauses of a sentence, is sometimes made _by the word_ HAD; as, '_Had_ he done this, he _had_ escaped.'"--_Murray and Ingersoll cor._ "The pleasures of the understanding are preferable to those of the imagination, _as well as to those_ of sense."--_L. Murray cor._ "Claudian, in a fragment upon the wars of the giants, has contrived to render this idea of their throwing _of_ the mountains, which in itself _has so much grandeur_, burlesque and ridiculous."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "To which not only no other writings are to be preferred, but _to which_, even in divers respects, _none are_ comparable."--_Barclay cor._ "To distinguish them in the understanding, and treat of their several natures, in the same cool manner _that_ we _use_ with regard to other ideas."--_Sheridan cor._ "For it has nothing to do with parsing, or _the_ analyzing _of_ language."--_Kirkham cor._ Or: "For it has nothing to do with _the_ parsing, or analyzing, _of_ language."--_Id._ "Neither _has_ that language [the Latin] _ever been_ so _common_ in Britain."--_Swift cor._ "All that I _purpose_, is, _to give_ some openings into the pleasures of taste."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "But the following sentences would have been better _without it_."--_L. Murray cor._ "But I think the following sentence _would_ be better _without it_." Or: "But I think it _should be expunged from_ the following sentence."-- _Priestley cor._ "They appear, in this case, like _ugly_ excrescences jutting out from the body."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "And therefore the fable of the Harpies, in the third book of the �neid, and the allegory of Sin and Death, in the second book of Paradise Lost, _ought not to have been inserted_ in these celebrated poems."--_Id._ "Ellipsis is an elegant suppression, or _omission_, of _some_ word or words, _belonging to_ a sentence."--_Brit. Gram. and Buchanan cor._ "The article A or AN _is not very proper_ in this construction."--_D. Blair cor._ "Now suppose the articles had not been _dropped from_ these passages."--_Bucke cor._ "To _have given_ a separate _name_ to every one of those trees, would have been an endless and impracticable undertaking."--_Blair cor._ "_Ei_, in general, _has_ the same _sound_ as long and slender _a_." Or better: "_Ei generally has_ the _sound of_ long _or_ slender _a_."--_L. Murray cor._ "When a conjunction is used _with apparent redundance, the insertion of it_ is called Polysyndeton."--_Adam and Gould cor._ "EACH, EVERY, EITHER, _and_ NEITHER, denote the persons or things _that_ make up a number, as taken separately or distributively."--_M'Culloch cor._ "The principal sentence must be expressed by _a verb_ in the indicative, imperative, or potential _mood_"--_S. W. Clark cor._ "Hence he is diffuse, where he ought to _be urgent_."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "All _sorts_ of subjects admit of _explanatory_ comparisons."--_Id. et al. cor._ "The present or imperfect participle denotes being, action, _or passion_, continued, _and_ not perfected."--_Kirkham cor._ "What are verbs? Those words which _chiefly_ express what _is said of things_."--_Fowle cor._ "Of all those arts in which the wise excel, _The very_ masterpiece is _writing-well_."--_Sheffield cor._ "Such was that muse whose rules and practice tell, _That art's_ chief masterpiece is _writing-well_."--_Pope cor._ LESSON XIV.--OF THREE ERRORS. "_From_ some words, the metaphorical sense has justled out the original sense altogether; so that, in respect _to the latter_, they _have_ become obsolete."--_Campbell cor._ "_Surely_, never any _other_ mortal was so overwhelmed with grief, as I am at this present _moment_."--_Sheridan cor._ "All languages differ from _one an_ other in their _modes_ of _inflection_."--_Bullions cor._ "_The noun_ and _the verb_ are the only indispensable parts of speech: the one, to express the subject spoken of; and the other, the predicate, or what is affirmed of _the subject_."--_M'Culloch cor._ "The words _Italicized in_ the _last three_ examples, perform the office of substantives."--_L. Murray cor._ "A sentence _so constructed_ is always _a_ mark of _carelessness in the writer_."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Nothing is more hurtful to the grace or _the_ vivacity of a period, than superfluous _and_ dragging words at the conclusion."--_Id._ "When its substantive is not _expressed with_ it, but _is_ referred to, _being_ understood."--_Lowth cor._ "Yet they _always_ have _substantives_ belonging to them, either _expressed_ or understood."--_Id._ "Because they define and limit the _import_ of the common _names_, or general _terms_, to which they refer."--_Id._ "Every new object surprises _them_, terrifies _them_, and makes a strong impression on their _minds_."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "His argument required _a_ more _full development_, in order to be distinctly apprehended, and to _have_ its due force."--_Id._ "_Those_ participles which are derived from _active-transitive_ verbs, will govern the objective case, as _do_ the verbs from which they are derived."--_Emmons cor._ "Where, _in violation of_ the rule, the objective case _whom_ follows the verb, _while_ the nominative _I_ precedes _it_."--_L. Murray cor._ "_To use, after_ the same conjunction, both the indicative and the subjunctive _mood_, in the same sentence, and _under_ the same circumstances, seems to be a great impropriety."--_Lowth, Murray, et al. cor._ "A nice discernment of _the import of words_, and _an_ accurate attention to the best usage, are necessary on these occasions."--_L. Murray cor._ "The Greeks and Romans, the former especially, were, in truth, much more musical than we _are_; their genius was more turned to _take_ delight in the melody of speech."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "_In general, if_ the sense admits it _early_, the sooner _a circumstance is introduced_, the better; that the more important and significant words may possess the last place, _and be_ quite disencumbered."--_Murray et al. cor._; also _Blair and Jamieson_. "Thus we find it in _both_ the Greek and _the_ Latin _tongue_."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "_Several_ sentences, constructed in the same manner, and _having_ the same number of members, should never be allowed to _come in succession_."-- _Blair et al. cor._ "I proceed to lay down the rules to be observed in the conduct of metaphors; and _these, with little variation, will be applicable to_ tropes of every kind."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "By _selecting_ words _with_ a proper _regard to their sounds_, we may _often imitate_ other sounds which we mean to describe."--_Dr. Blair and L. Mur. cor._ "The disguise can _scarcely_ be so perfect _as to deceive_."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "The sense _does not admit_ of _any_ other pause, than _one_ after the second syllable 'sit;' _this_ therefore must be the only pause made in the reading."--_Id._ "Not that I believe North America to _have been first_ peopled so _lately_ as _in_ the twelfth century, the period of Madoc's migration."--_Webster cor._ "Money and commodities _will_ always flow to that country _in which_ they are most wanted, and _in which they will_ command the most profit."--_Id._ "That it contains no visible marks of _certain_ articles which are _of_ the _utmost importance_ to a just delivery."--_Sheridan cor._ "And _Virtue_, from _her_ beauty, we call a fair and favourite maid."--_Mack cor._ "The definite article may _relate to_ nouns _of either_ number."--_Inf. S. Gram. cor._ LESSON XV.--OF MANY ERRORS. (1.) "Compound _words are_[, by L. Murray and others, improperly] included _among the derivatives_."--_L. Murray corrected._ (2.) "_The_ Apostrophe, _placed above the line_, thus ', is used to abbreviate or shorten _words. But_ its chief use is, to _denote_ the _possessive_ case of nouns."--_Id._ (3.) "_The_ Hyphen, _made_ thus -, _connects the parts of compound_ words. It is also used when a word is divided."--_Id._ (4.) "The Acute Accent, _made_ thus ´, _denotes the syllable on which stress is laid, and sometimes also, that the vowel is short_: as, '_Fáncy_.' The Grave _Accent, made_ thus `, _usually denotes, (when applied to English words,) that the stress is laid where a vowel ends the syllable_: as, '_Fàvour_.'"--_Id._ (5.) "The stress is laid on long _vowels or_ syllables, and on short _ones_, indiscriminately. In order to distinguish the _long or open vowels_ from the _close or short ones_, some writers of dictionaries have placed the grave _accent_ on the former, and the acute on the latter."--_Id._ (6.) "_The_ Diæresis, thus _made_ ¨, _is_ placed over one of two _contiguous_ vowels, _to show that they are not_ a diphthong."--_Id._ (7.) "_The_ Section, _made_ thus §, is _sometimes used to mark the subdivisions_ of a discourse or chapter."--_Id._ (8.) "_The_ Paragraph, _made thus_ ¶, _sometimes_ denotes the beginning of a new subject, or _of_ a _passage_ not connected with the _text preceding_. This character is _now seldom_ used [_for such a purpose_], _except_ in the Old and New Testaments." Or better:--"except in the _Bible_."--_Id._ (9.) "_The_ Quotation _Points, written thus_ " ", _mark_ the beginning _and the end_ of _what_ is quoted or transcribed from _some_ speaker or author, in his own words. In type, they are inverted commas at the beginning, _apostrophes_ at the conclusion."--_Id._ (10.) "_The_ Brace _was formerly_ used in poetry at the end of a triplet, or _where_ three lines _rhymed together in heroic verse; it_ also _serves_ to connect _several terms_ with one, _when the one is common to all_, and _thus_ to prevent a repetition _of the_ common term."--_Id._ (11.) "_Several_ asterisks _put together_, generally denote the omission of some _letters belonging to_ a word, or of some bold or indelicate expression; _but sometimes they imply a_ defect in the manuscript _from which the text is copied_."--_Id._ (12.) "_The_ Ellipsis, _made thus_ ----, _or thus_ ****, is used _where_ some letters _of_ a word, or some words _of_ a verse, are omitted."--_Id._ (13.) "_The_ Obelisk, which is _made_ thus [Obelisk]; and _the_ Parallels, _which are made_ thus ||; _and sometimes_ the letters of the alphabet; and _also the Arabic_ figures; are used as references to _notes in_ the margin, or _at the_ bottom, of the page."--_Id._ (14.) "_The_ note of interrogation should not be employed, where it is only said _that_ a question has been asked, and where the words are not used as a question; _as_, 'The Cyprians asked me why I wept.'"--_Id. et al. cor._ (15.) "_The note_ of interrogation is improper after _mere_ expressions of admiration, or of _any_ other emotion, _though they may bear the form of_ questions."--_Iid._ (16.) "The parenthesis incloses _something which is thrown_ into the body of a sentence, _in an under tone; and_ which affects neither the sense, nor the construction, _of the main text_."--_Lowth cor._ (17.) "Simple members connected by _a relative not used restrictively, or by a conjunction that implies comparison_, are for the most part _divided_ by _the_ comma."--_Id._ (18.) "Simple members, _or_ sentences, connected _as terms of comparison_, are for the most part _separated_ by _the_ comma."--_L. Murray et al. cor._ (19.) "Simple sentences connected by _a comparative particle_, are for the most part _divided_ by the comma."--_Russell cor._ (20.) "Simple sentences _or clauses_ connected _to form a comparison_, should generally be _parted_ by _the_ comma."--_Merchant cor._ (21.) "The simple members of sentences that express contrast or comparison, should generally be divided by _the_ comma."--_Jaudon cor._ (22.) "_The_ simple members of _a comparative sentence, when_ they _are_ long, are separated by a comma."--_Cooper cor._ (23.) "Simple sentences connected _to form a comparison, or_ phrases placed in opposition, or contrast, are _usually_ separated by _the comma_."--_Hiley and Bullions cor._ (24.) "On _whichever_ word we lay the emphasis,--whether on the first, _the_ second, _the_ third, or _the_ fourth,--_every change of it_ strikes out a different sense."--_L. Murray cor._ (25.) "To _say to_ those who do not understand sea phrases, 'We tacked to the larboard, and stood off to sea,' would _give them little or no information_."--_Murray and Hiley cor._ (26.) "Of _those_ dissyllables which are _sometimes_ nouns and _sometimes_ verbs, _it may be observed, that_ the verb _is_ commonly _accented_ on the latter _syllable_, and the noun on the former."--_L. Murray cor._ (27.) "And this gives _to_ our language _an_ advantage _over_ most others, in the poetical _or_ rhetorical style."--_Id. et al. cor._ (28.) "And this gives _to_ the English _language_ an advantage _over_ most _others_, in the poetical and _the_ rhetorical style."--_Lowth cor._ (29.) "The second and _the_ third scholar may read the same sentence; or as many _may repeat the text_, as _are_ necessary to _teach_ it perfectly to the whole _class_."--_Osborn cor._ (30.) "Bliss is the _same_, in subject, _or in_ king, In who obtain defence, or who defend." --_Pope's Essay on Man_, IV, 58. LESSON XVI.--OF MANY ERRORS. "The Japanese, the Tonquinese, and the _Coreans_, speak languages _differing_ from one _an other_, and from _that of_ the inhabitants of China; _while all_ use the same written characters, and, by means _of them_, correspond intelligibly with _one an_ other in writing, though ignorant of the language spoken _by their correspondents_: a plain proof, that the Chinese characters are like hieroglyphics, _and essentially_ independent of language."--_Jamieson cor._; also _Dr. Blair_. "The curved line, _in stead_ of _remaining_ round, is _changed to a_ square _one_, for the reason _before mentioned_."--_Knight cor._ "Every _reader_ should content himself with the use of those tones only, that he is habituated to in speech; and _should_ give _to the words no_ other emphasis, _than_ what he would _give_ to the same words, in discourse. [Or, perhaps the author meant:--and _should_ give _to the emphatic words no_ other _intonation, than_ what he would _give_, &c.] Thus, whatever he utters, will be _delivered_ with ease, and _will_ appear natural."--_Sheridan cor._ "_A stop_, or _pause, is_ a total cessation of sound, during a perceptible, and, in _musical or poetical_ compositions, a measurable space of time."--_ Id._ "Pauses, or rests, in speaking _or_ reading, are total _cessations_ of the voice, during perceptible, and, in many cases, measurable _spaces_ of time."--_L. Murray et al. cor._ "_Those derivative_ nouns which _denote_ small _things_ of the kind _named by their primitives_, are called Diminutive Nouns: as, lambkin, hillock, satchel, gosling; from lamb, hill, sack, goose."--_Bullions cor._ "_Why is it_, that nonsense so often escapes _detection, its character not being perceived either_ by the writer _or_ by the reader?"--_Campbell cor._ "An Interjection is a word used to express sudden emotion. _Interjections_ are so called, because they are generally thrown in between the parts of _discourse, and have no_ reference to the structure of _those_ parts."--_M'Culloch_ cor. "_The verb_ OUGHT _has no other inflection than_ OUGHTEST, _and this is nearly obsolete_."-- _Macintosh cor._ "But the _arrangement_, government, _and_ agreement _of words_, and _also their_ dependence upon _others_, are referred to our reason."--_Osborn cor._ "ME is a personal pronoun, _of the_ first person, singular _number_, and _objective_ case."--_Guy cor._ "The _noun_ SELF is _usually_ added to a pronoun; as, herself, himself, &c. _The compounds_ thus _formed are_ called reciprocal _pronouns_."--_ Id._ "One cannot _but think_, that our author _would have_ done better, _had he_ begun the first of these three sentences, with saying, '_It_ is novelty, _that_ bestows charms on a monster.'"--_Dr. Blair cor._ "The idea which they present to us, of _nature_ resembling art, of _art_ considered as an original, and nature as a copy, seems not very distinct, _or_ well _conceived_, nor indeed very material to our author's purpose."--_Id._ "_This faulty_ construction of the sentence, _evidently arose from haste and carelessness_."--_Id._ "Adverbs serve to modify _terms_ of action or quality, or to denote time, place, order, degree, _or_ some _other circumstance_ which we have occasion to specify."--_Id._ "We may naturally expect, _that_ the more any nation is improved by science, and the more perfect _its_ language becomes, _the_ more will _that language_ abound with connective particles."--_Id._ "Mr. Greenleaf's book is _far better_ adapted _to the capacity of_ learners, _than_ any _other_ that has yet appeared, on the subject."--_Feltus and Onderdonk's false praise Englished_. "Punctuation is the art of marking, in writing _or in print_, the several pauses, or rests, _which separate_ sentences, _or_ the parts of sentences; _so as to denote_ their proper quantity or proportion, as _it is exhibited_ in a just and accurate _delivery_."--_Lowth cor._ "A compound sentence must _generally_ be resolved into simple ones, and _these be_ separated by _the comma_." Or better: "A compound sentence _is generally divided_, by _the comma_, into _its_ simple _members_."--_Greenleaf and Fisk cor._ "Simple sentences should _in general_ be separated from _one an_ other by _the comma_, unless _a greater point is required_; as, 'Youth is passing away, age is approaching, and death is near.'"--_S. R. Hall cor._ "_V_ has _always_ one uniform sound, _which is that_ of _f flattened_, as in _thieve_ from _thief: thus v_ bears to _f_ the same relation _that b_ does to _p, d_ to _t_, hard _g_ to _k, or z_ to _s_."--_L. Murray and Fisk cor._; also _Walker_; also _Greenleaf_. "The author is explaining the _difference_ between sense and imagination, _as_ powers _of_ the human mind."--_L. Murray cor._ Or, if this was the critic's meaning: "The author is endeavouring to explain a very abstract point, the distinction between the powers of sense and _those of_ imagination, _as two different faculties of_ the human mind."--_ Id._; also _Dr. Blair cor._ "HE--(_from the_ Anglo-Saxon HE--) is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, _and_ nominative case. Decline HE."--_Fowler cor._ CORRECTIONS UNDER THE CRITICAL NOTES. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE I.--OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. "The passive voice denotes _an action received_." Or: "The passive voice denotes _the receiving of an action_."--_Maunder corrected_. "Milton, in some of his prose works, has _many_ very _finely-turned_ periods."--_Dr. Blair and Alex. Jam. cor._ "These will be found to be _wholly_, or chiefly, of that class."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "All appearances of an author's _affecting of_ harmony, are disagreeable."--_Id. and Jam. cor._ "Some nouns have a double increase; that is, _they increase_ by more syllables than one: as _iter, itin~eris_."--_Adam et al. cor._ "The powers of man are enlarged by _progressive_ cultivation."--_Gurney cor._ "It is always important to begin well; to make a favourable impression at _the first setting out_."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "For if one take a wrong method at _his first setting-out_, it will lead him astray in all that follows."--_ Id._ "His mind is full of his subject, and _all_ his words are expressive."--_ Id._ "How exquisitely is _all_ this performed in Greek!"--_Harris cor._ "How _unworthy_ is all this to satisfy the ambition of an immortal soul!"--_L. Murray cor._ "So as to exhibit the object in its _full grandeur_, and _its_ most striking point of view."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "And that the author know how to descend with propriety to the _plain style_, as well as how to rise to the bold and figured."--_ Id._ "The heart _alone_ can answer to the heart."--_ Id._ "Upon _the_ first _perception of it_." Or: "_As it is_ first perceived."--_Harris cor._ "Call for Samson, that he may make _sport for us_."--_Bible cor._ "And he made _sport before them_."--_ Id._ "The term '_to suffer_,' in this definition, is used in a technical sense; and means simply, _to receive_ an action, or _to be_ acted upon."--_Bullions cor._ "The text _only_ is what is meant to be taught in schools."--_Brightland cor._ "The perfect participle denotes action or _existence_ perfected or finished."--_Kirkham cor._ "From the intricacy and confusion which are produced _when they are_ blended together."--_L. Murray cor._ "This very circumstance, _that the word is_ employed antithetically renders it important in the sentence."--_Kirkham cor._ "It [the pronoun that,] is applied _both to_ persons and _to_ things."--_L. Murray cor._ "Concerning us, as being _everywhere traduced_."--_Barclay cor._ "Every thing _else_ was buried in a profound silence."--_Steele cor._ "They raise _fuller_ conviction, than any reasonings produce."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "It appears to me _nothing but_ a fanciful refinement." Or: "It appears to me _nothing_ more than a fanciful refinement"--_ Id._ "The regular _and thorough_ resolution of a complete passage."--_Churchill cor._ "The infinitive is _distinguished_ by the word TO, _which_ immediately _precedes it_."--_Maunder cor._ "It will not be _a gain of_ much ground, to urge that the basket, or vase, is understood to be the capital."--_Kames cor._ "The disgust one has to drink ink in reality, is not to the purpose, where _the drinking of it is merely figurative_."--_ Id._ "That we run not into the extreme of pruning so very _closely_."--See _L. Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 318. "Being obliged to rest for a _little while_ on the preposition itself." Or: "Being obliged to rest a _while_ on the preposition itself." Or: "Being obliged to rest [for] a _moment_ on the preposition _alone_."--_Blair and Jam. cor._ "Our days on the earth are as a shadow, and there is _no_ abiding."--_Bible cor._ "There _may be attempted_ a more particular expression of certain objects, by means of _imitative_ sounds."--_Blair, Jam., and Mur. cor._ "The right disposition of the shade, makes the light and colouring _the more apparent_."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "I _observe_ that a diffuse style _is apt to run into_ long periods."--_ Id._ "Their poor arguments, which they only _picked up in the highways_."--_Leslie cor._ "Which must be little _else than_ a transcribing of their writings."--_Barclay cor._ "That single impulse is a _forcing-out_ of almost all the breath." Or: "That single impulse _forces_ out almost all the breath."--_Hush cor._ "Picini compares modulation to the _turning-off_ from a road."--_Gardiner cor._ "So much has been written on and off almost every subject."--_Sophist cor._ "By _the_ reading _of_ books written by the best authors, his mind became highly improved." Or: "By _the study of the most instructive_ books, his mind became highly improved."--_L. Mur. cor._ "For I never made _a rich provision a_ token of a spiritual ministry."--_Barclay cor._ UNDER CRITICAL NOTE II.--OF DOUBTFUL REFERENCE. "However disagreeable _the task_, we must resolutely perform our duty."--_L. Murray cor._ "The formation of _all_ English verbs, _whether they be_ regular _or_ irregular, is derived from the Saxon _tongue_."--_Lowth cor._ "Time and chance have an influence on all things human, and nothing _do they affect_ more remarkably than language."--_Campbell cor._ "Time and chance have an influence on all things human, and on nothing _a_ more remarkable _influence_ than on language."--_Jamieson cor._ "_That_ Archytases, _who was_ a virtuous man, happened to perish once upon a time, is with him a sufficient ground." &c.--_Phil Mu. cor._ "He will be the better qualified to understand the meaning of _the_ numerous words _into_ which they _enter as_ material _parts_."--_L. Murray cor._ "We should continually have the goal in view, _that it may_ direct us in the race."--_ Id._ "But Addison's figures seem to rise of their own accord from the subject and constantly _to_ embellish it" Or:--"and _they_ constantly embellish it."--_Blair and Jam. cor._ "So far as _they signify_ persons, animals, and things that we can see, it is very easy to distinguish nouns."--_Cobbett cor._ "Dissyllables ending in _y_ or mute _e_, or accented on the _final_ syllable, may _sometimes_ be compared like monosyllables."--_Frost cor._ "_If_ the _foregoing_ objection _be admitted_, it will not overrule the design."--_Rush cor._ "These philosophical innovators forget, that objects, like men, _are known_ only by their actions."--_Dr. Murray cor._ "The connexion between words and ideas, is arbitrary and conventional; _it has arisen mainly from_ the agreement of men among themselves."--_Jamieson cor._ "The connexion between words and ideas, may in general be considered as arbitrary and conventional, _or as arising from_ the agreement of men among themselves."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "A man whose inclinations led him to be corrupt, and _who_ had great abilities to manage and multiply and defend his corruptions."--_Swift cor._ "They have no more control over him than _have_ any other men."--_Wayland cor._ "_All_ his old words are true English, and _his_ numbers _are_ exquisite."--_Spect. cor._ "It has been said, that _not Jesuits only_ can equivocate."--_Mur. in Ex. and Key, cor._ "_In Latin_, the nominative of the first _or_ second person, is seldom expressed."--_Adam and Gould cor._ "Some words _have_ the same _form_ in both numbers."--_Murray et al. cor._ "Some nouns _have_ the same _form_ in both numbers."--_Merchant et al. cor._ "Others _have_ the same _form_ in both numbers; as, _deer, sheep, swine_."--_Frost cor._ "The following list denotes the _consonant_ sounds, _of which there are_ twenty-two." Or: "The following list denotes the _twenty-two simple_ sounds of the consonants."--_Mur. et al. cor._ "And is the ignorance of these peasants a reason for _other persons_ to remain ignorant; or _does it_ render the subject _the_ less _worthy of our_ inquiry?"--_Harris and Mur. cor._ "He is one of the most correct, and perhaps _he is_ the best, of our prose writers."--_Lowth cor._ "The motions of a vortex and _of_ a whirlwind are perfectly similar." Or: "The motion of a vortex and _that of_ a whirlwind are perfectly similar."--_Jamieson cor._ "What I have been saying, throws light upon one important verse in the Bible; which _verse_ I should like to _hear some one read_."--_Abbott cor._ "When there are any circumstances of time, place, _and the like, by_ which the principal _terms_ of our sentence _must be limited or qualified_."--_Blair, Jam. and Mur. cor._ "Interjections are words _that_ express emotion, affection, or passion, and _that_ imply suddenness." Or: "Interjections express emotion, affection, or passion, and imply suddenness."--_Bucke cor._ "But the genitive _expressing_ the measure of things, is used in the plural number _only_."--_Adam and Gould cor._ "The buildings of the institution have been enlarged; _and an_ expense _has been incurred_, which, _with_ the increased price of provisions, renders it necessary to advance the terms of admission."--_L. Murray cor._ "These sentences are far less difficult than complex _ones_."--_S. S. Greene cor._ "Far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife _They_ sober _lived, nor ever wished_ to stray."--_Gray cor._ UNDER CRITICAL NOTE III.--OF DEFINITIONS. (1.) "A definition is a _short and lucid_ description of _a thing, or species, according to its nature and properties_."--G. BROWN: _Rev. David Blair cor._ (2.) "Language, in general, signifies the expression of our ideas by certain articulate sounds, _or written words_, which are used as the signs of those ideas."--_Dr. Hugh Blair cor._ (3.) "A word is _one or more syllables_ used by common consent as the sign of an idea."--_Bullions cor._ (4.) "A word is _one or more syllables_ used as the _sign of an idea, or of some manner_ of thought."--_Hazen cor._ (5.) "Words are articulate sounds, _or their written signs_, used to convey ideas."--_Hiley cor._ (6.) "A word is _one or more syllables_ used _orally or in writing_, to represent some idea."--_Hart cor._ (7.) "A word is _one or more syllables_ used as the sign of an idea."--_S. W. Clark cor._ (8.) "A word is a letter or a combination of letters, _a sound or a combination of sounds_, used as the sign of an idea."--_Wells cor._ (9.) "Words are articulate sounds, _or their written signs_, by which ideas are communicated."--_Wright cor._ (10.) "Words are certain articulate sounds, _or their written representatives_, used by common consent as signs of our ideas."--_Bullions, Lowth, Murray, et al. cor._ (11.) "Words are sounds _or written symbols_ used as signs of our ideas."--_W. Allen cor._ (12.) "Orthography _literally_ means _correct writing_"--_Kirkham and Smith cor._ [The word _orthography_ stands for different things: as, 1. The art or practice of writing words with their proper letters; 2. That part of grammar which treats of letters, syllables, separate words, and spelling.] (13.) "A vowel is a letter which _forms a perfect_ sound _when uttered alone_."--_Inst._, p. 16; _Hazen, Lennie, and Brace, cor._ (14-18.) "Spelling is the art of expressing words by their proper letters."--G. BROWN: _Lowth and Churchill cor._; also _Murray, Ing. et al._; also _Comly_; also _Bullions_; also _Kirkham and Sanborn_. (19.) "A syllable is _one or more letters_, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and constituting a word, or part of a word."--_Lowth, Mur., et al., cor._ (20.) "A syllable is a _letter or a combination of letters_, uttered in one complete sound."--_Brit. Gram. and Buch. cor._ (21.) "A syllable is _one or more letters representing_ a distinct sound, _or what is_ uttered by a single impulse of the voice."--_Kirkham cor._ (22.) "A syllable is so much of a word as _is_ sounded at once, _whether it_ be the whole _or a part_."--_Bullions cor._ (23.) "A syllable is _so many letters_ as _are_ sounded at once; _and is either_ a word, or a part of a word."--_Picket cor._ (24.) "A diphthong is _a_ union of two vowels _in one syllable_, as in _bear_ and _beat_."--_Bucke cor._ Or: "A diphthong is _the meeting_ of two vowels in one syllable."--_Brit. Gram._, p. 15; _Buchanan's_, 3. (25.) "A diphthong consists of two vowels _put together in_ one syllable; as _ea_ in _beat, oi_ in _voice_."--_Guy cor._ (26.) "A triphthong consists of three vowels _put together in_ one syllable; as, _eau_ in _beauty_."--_Id._ (27.) "But _a_ triphthong is the union of three vowels _in one syllable_."--_Bucke cor._ Or: "A triphthong is the meeting of three vowels in one syllable."--_British Gram._, p. 21; _Buchanan's_, 3. (28.) "What is a noun? A noun is the _name of something_; as, a man, a boy."--_Brit. Gram. and Buchanan cor._ (29.) "An adjective is a word added to _a noun or pronoun_, to describe _the object named or referred to_."--_Maunder cor._ (30.) "An adjective is a word _added_ to a noun _or pronoun_, to describe or define _the object mentioned_."--_R. C. Smith cor._ (31.) "An adjective is a word _which, without assertion or time, serves_ to describe or define _something_; as, a _good_ man, _every_ boy."--_Wilcox cor._ (32.) "_An_ adjective is _a word_ added to _a_ noun _or pronoun, and generally expresses a_ quality."--_Mur. and Lowth cor._ (33.) "An adjective expresses the quality, _not_ of the noun _or pronoun_ to which it is applied, _but of the person or thing spoken of_; and _it_ may generally be known by _the_ sense _which it thus makes_ in connexion with _its noun_; as, 'A _good_ man,' 'A _genteel_ woman.'"--_Wright cor._ (34.) "An adverb is a word used to modify the sense of _a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb_."--_Wilcox cor._ (35.) "An adverb is a word _added_ to a verb, _a participle_, an adjective, or an other adverb, to modify _the sense_, or denote some circumstance."--_Bullions cor._ (36.) "A substantive, or noun, is a name given to _some_ object which the senses can perceive, the understanding comprehend, or the imagination entertain."--_Wright cor._ (37-54.) "_Genders are modifications that_ distinguish _objects_ in regard to sex."--_Brown's Inst._, p. 35: _Bullions cor._: also _Frost_; also _Perley_; also _Cooper_; also _L. Murray et al_.; also _Alden et al_.; also _Brit. Gram., with Buchanan_; also _Fowle_; also _Burn_; also _Webster_; also _Coar_; also _Hall_; also _Wright_; also _Fisher_; also _W. Allen_; also _Parker and Fox_; also _Weld_; also _Weld again_. (55 and 56.) "_A_ case, _in grammar_, is the state or condition of a noun _or pronoun_, with respect to _some_ other _word_ in _the_ sentence."--_Bullions cor._; also _Kirkham_. (57.) "_Cases_ are modifications that distinguish the relations of nouns and pronouns to other words."--_Brown's Inst._, p. 36. (58.) "Government is the power which one _word_ has over an other, _to cause_ it to _assume_ some particular _modification_."--_Sanborn et al. cor._ See _Inst._, p. 104. (59.) "A simple sentence is a sentence which contains only one _assertion, command, or question_."--_Sanborn et al. cor._ (60.) "Declension means _the_ putting _of_ a noun _or pronoun_ through the different cases _and numbers_."--_Kirkham cor._ Or better: "The declension of a _word_ is a regular arrangement of its numbers and cases."--See _Inst._, p. 37. (61.) "Zeugma is a _figure in which_ two or more _words refer_ in common _to an other_ which _literally agrees with_ only one of them."--_B. F. Fish cor._ (62.) "An irregular verb is _a verb that does not form the preterit_ and the perfect participle _by assuming d_ or _ed_; as, smite, smote, smitten."--_Inst._, p. 75. (63). "A personal _pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is_."--_Inst._, p. 46. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE IV.--OF COMPARISONS. "_Our language abounds_ more in vowel and diphthong sounds, than most _other tongues_." Or: "We abound more in vowel and _diphthongal_ sounds, than most _nations_."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "A line thus accented has a more spirited air, than _one which takes_ the accent on any other syllable."--_Kames cor._ "Homer _introduces_ his deities with no greater ceremony, that [what] he uses towards mortals; and Virgil has still less moderation _than he_."--_Id._ "Which the more refined taste of later writers, _whose_ genius _was_ far inferior to _theirs_, would have taught them to avoid."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "_As a poetical composition_, however, the Book of Job is not only equal to any other of the sacred writings, but is superior to them all, except those of Isaiah alone."--_Id._ "On the whole, Paradise Lost is a poem _which_ abounds with beauties of every kind, and _which_ justly entitles its author to _be equalled in_ fame _with_ any poet."--_Id._ "Most of the French writers compose in short sentences; though their style, in general, is not concise; commonly less so than _that_ of _most_ English writers, whose sentences are much longer."--_Id._ "The principles of the Reformation were _too deeply fixed_ in the prince's mind, to be easily eradicated."--_Hume cor._ "Whether they do not create jealousy and animosity, more than _sufficient to counterbalance_ the benefit derived from them."--_Leo Wolf cor._ "The Scotch have preserved the ancient character of their music more entire, than _have the inhabitants of_ any other country."--_Gardiner cor._ "When the time or quantity of one syllable exceeds _that of_ the rest, that syllable readily receives the accent."--_Rush cor._ "What then can be more obviously true, than that it should be made as just as we can _make it_."--_Dymond cor._ "It was not likely that they would criminate themselves more than, they could _not_ avoid."--_Clarkson cor._ "_In_ their understandings _they_ were the most acute people _that_ have ever lived."--_Knapp cor._ "The patentees have printed it with neat types, and upon better paper than was _used_ formerly."--_John Ward cor._ "In reality, its relative use is not exactly like _that of_ any other word."--_Felch cor._ "Thus, _in stead_ of _having to purchase_ two books,--the Grammar and the Exercises,--the learner finds both in one, for a price at _most_ not greater than _that of_ the others."--_Alb. Argus cor._ "_They are_ not improperly regarded as pronouns, though they are less _strictly_ such than the others."--_Bullions cor._ "We have had, as will readily be believed, _a much better_ opportunity of becoming conversant with the case, than the generality of our readers can be supposed to have had."--_Brit. Friend cor._ UNDER CRITICAL NOTE V.--OF FALSITIES. "The long sound of _i_ is _like a very quick union_ of the sound of _a_, as heard in _bar_, and that of _e_, as heard in _be_."--_Churchill cor._ "The omission of a word necessary to grammatical propriety, is _of course an impropriety, and not a true_ ellipsis."--_Priestley cor._ "_Not_ every substantive, _or noun_, is _necessarily_ of the third person."--_A. Murray cor._ "A noun is in the third person, when the subject is _merely_ spoken _of_; and in the second person, when the subject is spoken _to_; _and_ in the first person, _when it names the speaker as such_."--_Nutting cor._ "With us, no nouns are _literally of the_ masculine _or the_ feminine gender, except the names of male and female creatures."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "_The_ apostrophe is a little mark, either _denoting the possessive case of nouns_, or signifying that something is shortened: as, '_William's_ hat;'--'the _learn'd_,' for 'the _learned_.'"--_Inf. S. Gram. cor._ "When a word beginning with a vowel coupled with one beginning with a consonant, the indefinite article must _not_ be repeated, _if the two words be adjectives belonging to one and the same noun_; thus, 'Sir Matthew Hale was _a_ noble and impartial judge;'--'Pope was _an_ elegant and nervous writer.'"--_Maunder cor._[555] "_W_ and _y_ are consonants, when they _precede a vowel heard in the same_ syllable: in every other situation, they are vowels."--_L. Mur. et al. cor._ See _Inst._, p. 16. "_The_ is _not varied_ before adjectives and substantives, let them begin as they will."--_Bucke cor._ "_A few English_ prepositions, _and many which we have borrowed from other languages_, are _often_ prefixed to words, in such a manner as to coalesce with them, and to become _parts of the compounds or derivatives thus formed_."--_Lowth cor._ "_H_, at the beginning of syllables not accented, is _weaker_, but _not_ entirely silent; as in _historian, widowhood_."--_Rev. D. Blair cor._ "_Not every_ word that will make sense with _to_ before it, is a verb; for _to_ may govern nouns, pronouns, or participles."--_Kirkham cor._ "_Most_ verbs do, in reality, express actions; but they are _not_ intrinsically the mere names of actions: _these must of course be nouns_."--_Id._ "The nominative _denotes_ the actor or subject; and the verb, the action _which is_ performed _or received_ by _this actor or subject_."--_Id._ "_But_ if only one creature or thing acts, _more than_ one action _may_, at the same instant, be done; as, 'The girl not only _holds_ her pen badly, but _scowls_ and _distorts_ her features, while she _writes_.'"--_Id._ "_Nor is each of these verbs of the singular number because it_ denotes but one action which the girl performs, _but because the subject or nominative_ is of the singular number, _and the words must agree_."--_Id._ "And when I say, '_Two men walk_,' is it not equally apparent, that _walk_ is plural because it _agrees with men_?"--_Id._ "The subjunctive mood is formed by _using the simple verb in a suppositive sense, and without personal inflection_."--_Beck cor._ "The possessive case _of nouns, except in instances of apposition or close connexion_, should always be distinguished by the apostrophe."--_Frost cor._ "'At these proceedings _of_ the Commons:' Here _of_ is _a_ sign of the _objective_ case; and '_Commons_' is of that case, _being_ governed _by this preposition_."--_A. Murray cor._ "Here let it be observed again, that, strictly speaking, _all finite_ verbs have numbers _and_ persons; _and so_ have _nearly all_ nouns _and_ pronouns, _even_ when they refer to irrational creatures and inanimate things."--_Barrett cor._ "The noun denoting the person or _persons_ addressed or spoken to, is in the nominative case independent: _except it be put in apposition with a pronoun of the second person_; as, 'Woe to _you lawyers_;'--'_You_ political _men_ are constantly manoeuvring.'"--_Frost cor._ "Every noun, when _used in a direct address and set off by a comma_, becomes of the second person, and is in the nominative case absolute; as, '_Paul_, thou art beside thyself."--_Jaudon cor._ "Does the conjunction _ever_ join words together? _Yes_; the conjunction _sometimes_ joins _words_ together, _and sometimes_ sentences, _or certain parts of sentences_."--_Brit. Gram. cor._; also _Buchanan_. "Every _noun of the possessive form_ has a _governing_ noun, expressed or understood: as, _St. James's_. Here _Palace_ is understood. _But_ one _possessive may_ govern an other; as, '_William's father's_ house.'"--_Buchanan cor._ "Every adjective (_with the exceptions noted under Rule_ 9th) belongs to a _noun or pronoun_ expressed or understood."--_L. Murray et al. cor._ "_Not_ every adjective qualifies a substantive, expressed or understood."--_Bullions cor._ "_Not_ every adjective belongs to _a_ noun expressed or understood."--_Ingersoll cor._ "Adjectives belong to nouns _or pronouns, and serve to_ describe _things_."--_R. C. Smith cor._ "_English_ adjectives, _in general, have no modifications in which they can_ agree with the nouns _to_ which they _relate_."--_Allen Fisk cor._ "The adjective, _if it denote unity or plurality_, must agree with its substantive in number."--_Buchanan cor._ "_Not_ every adjective and participle, _by a vast many_, belongs to some noun or pronoun, expressed or understood."--_Frost cor._ "_Not_ every verb of the infinitive mood, supposes a verb before it, expressed or understood."--_Buchanan cor._ "_Nor_ has every adverb its verb, expressed or understood; _for some adverbs relate to participles, to adjectives, or to other adverbs_."--_Id._ "_A conjunction that connects one_ sentence to _an other, is not_ always placed betwixt the two propositions or sentences which _it unites_."--_Id._ "The words _for all that_, are by no means 'low;' but the putting of this phrase for _yet_ or _still_, is neither necessary nor elegant."--_L. Murray cor._; also _Dr. Priestley_. "The reader or hearer then understands from AND, that _the author adds one proposition, number, or thing, to an other_. Thus AND _often, very often_, connects one thing with an other thing, _or_ one word with an other word."--_James Brown cor._ "'Six AND six _are_ twelve.' Here it is affirmed, that _the two sixes added together are_ twelve."--_Id._ "'John AND his wife _have_ six children.' This is an instance _in which_ AND _connects two nominatives in a simple sentence_. It is _not_ here affirmed that John has six children, and that his wife has six _other_ children."--_Id._ "That 'Nothing can be great which is not right,' is itself a _great falsity_: there are great blunders, great evils, great sins."--_L. Murray cor._ "The highest degree of reverence should be paid to _the most exalted virtue or goodness_."--_Id._ "There is in _all_ minds _some_ knowledge, _or_ understanding."--_L. Murray et al. cor._ "Formerly, the nominative and objective cases of our pronouns, were _more generally distinguished in practice_, than they now are."--_Kirkham cor._ "As it respects a choice of words and expressions, _the just_ rules of grammar _may_ materially aid the learner."--_S. S. Greene cor._ "_The name of_ whatever exists, or is conceived to exist, is a noun."--_Fowler cor._ "As _not all_ men are brave, _brave_ is itself _distinctive_."--_Id._ UNDER CRITICAL NOTE VI.--OF ABSURDITIES. (1.) "And sometimes two unaccented syllables _come together_."--_Dr. Blair cor._ (2.) "What nouns frequently _stand together_?" Or: "What nouns _are_ frequently _used one after an other_?"--_Sanborn cor._ (3.) "Words are derived from _other words_ in various ways."--_Idem et al. cor._ (4.) "_The name_ PREPOSITION _is_ derived from the two Latin words _præ_ and _pono_, which signify _before_ and _place_."--_Mack cor._ (5.) "He was _much_ laughed at for such conduct."--_Bullions cor._ (6.) "Every _pronominal adjective_ belongs to some noun, expressed or understood."--_Ingersoll cor._ (7.) "If he [Addison] fails in any thing, it is in strength and precision; _the want of_ which renders his manner not altogether a proper model."--_Dr. Blair cor._ (8.) "Indeed, if Horace _is_ deficient in any thing _his fault_ is this, of not being sufficiently attentive to juncture, _or the_ connexion of parts."--_Id._ (9.) "The pupil is now supposed to be acquainted with the _ten parts_ of speech, and their most usual modifications."--_Taylor cor._ (10.) "I could see, _feel_, taste, and smell the rose."--_Sanborn cor._ (11.) "The _vowels iou are_ sometimes pronounced distinctly in two syllables; as in _various, abstemious_; but not in _bilious_."--_Murray and Walker cor._ (12.) "The diphthong _aa_ generally sounds like _a_ short; as in _Balaam, Canaan, Isaac_; in _Baäl_ and _Gaäl_, we make no diphthong."--_L. Mur. cor._ (13.) "Participles _cannot be said to be_ 'governed by the article;' for _any_ participle, with _an_ article before it, becomes a substantive, or an adjective used substantively: as, _the learning, the learned_."--_Id._ (14.) "_From_ words ending with _y_ preceded by a consonant, _we_ form the plurals of nouns, the persons of verbs, _agent_ nouns, _perfect_ participles, comparatives, and superlatives, by changing the _y_ into _i_, and adding _es, ed, er, eth_, or _est_."--_Walker, Murray, et al. cor._ (15.) "But _y_ preceded by a vowel, _remains unchanged_, in the derivatives above named; as, _boy, boys_."--_L. Murray et al. cor._ (16.) "But when _the final y_ is preceded by a vowel, it _remains unchanged before an_ additional syllable; as, coy, _coyly_."--_Iid._ (17.) "But _y_ preceded by a vowel, _remains unchanged_, in _almost all_ instances; as, coy, _coyly_."--_Kirkham cor._ (18.) "Sentences are of _two kinds_, simple and compound."--_Wright cor._ (19.) "The neuter pronoun _it_ may be employed to _introduce a nominative_ of any person, number, or gender: as, '_It_ is _he_:'--'_It_ is _she_;'--'_It is they_;'--'_It_ is the _land_.'"--_Bucke cor._ (20 and 21.) "_It is_ and _it was_, are _always singular_; but they _may introduce words of_ a plural construction: as, '_It was_ the _heretics that_ first began to rail.' SMOLLETT."--_Merchant cor._; also _Priestley et al._ (22.) "_W_ and _y_, as consonants, have _each of them_ one sound."--_Town cor._ (23.) "The _word as_ is frequently a relative _pronoun_."--_Bucke cor._ (24.) "_From a series of_ clauses, the conjunction may _sometimes_ be omitted with propriety."--_Merchant cor._ (25.) "If, however, the _two_ members are very closely connected, the comma is unnecessary; as, 'Revelation tells us how we may attain happiness.'"--_L. Murray et al. cor._ (26-27.) "The mind has difficulty in _taking effectually_, in quick succession, so many different views of the same object."--_Dr. Blair cor._; also _L. Mur_. (28.) "_Pronominal adjectives_ are a kind of _definitives_, which _may either accompany their_ nouns, _or represent them understood_."--_Kirkham cor._ (29.) "_When the nominative or antecedent is a collective noun_ conveying _the idea of plurality, the_ verb or pronoun _must agree_ with it in the plural _number_."--_Id. et al. cor._ (30-34.) "A noun or _a_ pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the _name of the thing possessed_."-- _Brown's Inst._, p. 176; _Greenleaf cor._; also _Wilbur and Livingston_; also _Goldsbury_; also _P. E. Day_; also _Kirkham, Frazee, and Miller_. (35.) "Here the boy is represented as acting: _the word boy_ is therefore in the nominative case."--_Kirkham cor._ (36.) "_Do, be, have_, and _will_, are _sometimes_ auxiliaries, _and sometimes_ principal verbs."--_Cooper cor._ (37.) "_Names_ of _males_ are masculine. _Names_ of _females_ are feminine."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 10; _Beck cor._ (38.) "'To-day's lesson is longer than yesterday's.' Here _to-day's_ and _yesterday's_ are substantives."--_L. Murray et al. cor._ (39.) "In this example, _to-day's_ and _yesterday's_ are nouns in the possessive case."--_Kirkham cor._ (40.) "An Indian in Britain would be much surprised to _find by chance_ an elephant feeding at large in the open fields."--_Kames cor._ (41.) "If we were to contrive a new language, we might make any articulate sound the sign of any idea: _apart from previous usage_, there would be no impropriety in calling oxen _men_, or rational beings _oxen_."--_L. Murray cor._ (42.) "All the parts of a sentence should _form a consistent whole_."--_Id et al. cor._ (43.) "Full through his neck the weighty falchion sped, Along the pavement rolled the _culprit's_ head."--_Pope cor._ UNDER CRITICAL NOTE VII.--OF SELF-CONTRADICTION. (1.) "Though 'The king, _with_ the lords and commons,' _must have a singular rather than_ a plural verb, the sentence would certainly stand better thus: 'The king, the lords, _and_ the commons, _form_ an excellent constitution.'"--_Mur. and Ing. cor._ (2-3.) "_L_ has a soft liquid sound; as in _love, billow, quarrel_. _This letter_ is sometimes silent; as in _half, task [sic for 'talk'--KTH], psalm_."--_Mur. and Fisk cor._; also _Kirkham_. (4.) "The words _means_ and _amends_, though regularly derived from the singulars _mean_ and _amend_, are _not_ now, _even_ by polite writers, restricted to the plural number. Our most distinguished modern authors _often_ say, 'by _this means_,' as well as, 'by _these means_.'"--_Wright cor._ (5.) "A friend exaggerates a man's virtues; an enemy, his crimes."--_Mur. cor._ (6.) "The auxiliary _have, or any form of_ the perfect tense, _belongs not properly to_ the subjunctive mood. _We suppose past facts by the indicative_: as, If I _have loved_, If thou _hast loved_, &c."--_Merchant cor._ (7.) "There is also an impropriety in _using_ both the indicative and the subjunctive _mood_ with the same conjunction; as, '_If_ a man _have_ a hundred sheep, and one of them _is_ gone astray,' &c. [This is Merchant's perversion of the text. It should be, 'and one of them _go_ astray:' or, '_be gone_ astray,' as in Matt., xviii. 12.]"--_Id._ (8.) "The rising series of contrasts _conveys transcendent_ dignity and energy to the conclusion."--_Jamieson cor._ (9.) "A groan or a shriek is instantly understood, as a language extorted by distress, a _natural_ language which conveys a meaning that _words_ are _not adequate_ to express. A groan or _a_ shriek speaks to the ear with _a_ far more thrilling effect than words: yet _even this natural_ language of distress may be counterfeited by art."--_Dr. Porter cor._ (10.) "_If_ these words [_book_ and _pen_] cannot be put together in such a way as will constitute plurality, then they cannot be '_these words_;' and then, also, _one and one_ cannot be _two_."--_James Brown cor._ (11.) "Nor can the real pen and the real book be _added or counted together_ in words, in such a manner as will _not_ constitute plurality in grammar."--_Id._ (12.) "_Our_ is _a personal_ pronoun, of the possessive _case. Murray does not_ decline it."--_Mur. cor._ (13.) "_This_ and _that_, and their plurals _these_ and _those_, are _often_ opposed to each other in a sentence. When _this_ or _that_ is used alone, i.e., _without contrast, this_ is _applied_ to _what is_ present or near; _that_, to _what is_ absent or distant."--_Buchanan cor._ (14.) "Active and neuter verbs may be conjugated by adding their _imperfect_ participle to the auxiliary verb _be_, through all its variations."--"_Be_ is an auxiliary whenever it is placed before either the perfect _or the imperfect_ participle of an other verb; but, in every other situation, it is a principal verb."--_Kirkham cor._ (15.) "A verb in the imperative mood is _almost_ always of the second person."--"The verbs, according to a _foreign_ idiom, or the poet's license, are used in the imperative, agreeing with a nominative of the first or third person."--_Id._ (16.) "A personal _pronoun, is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what_ person _it is_."--"Pronouns of the first person do not _disagree_ in person with the nouns they represent."--_Id._ (17.) "Nouns have three cases; _the_ nominative, _the possessive_, and _the_ objective."--"Personal pronouns have, like nouns, _three_ cases; _the_ nominative, _the_ possessive, and _the_ objective."--_Beck cor._ (18.) "In _many_ instances the preposition suffers _a_ change _and_ becomes an adverb by its _mere_ application."--_L. Murray cor._ (19.) "Some nouns are used only in the plural; as, _ashes, literati, minutiæ_. Some nouns _have_ the same _form_ in both numbers; as, _sheep, deer, series, species_. Among the inferior parts of speech, there are some _pairs_ or _couples_."--_Rev. D. Blair cor._ (20.) "Concerning the pronominal adjectives, that may, _or_ may not, represent _their nouns_."--_O. B. Peirce cor._ (21.) "The _word a_ is in a few instances employed in the sense of a preposition; as, 'Simon Peter _saith unto them_, I go _a_ fishing;' i. e., I go _to_ fishing."--_Weld cor._ (22.) "So, _too_, verbs _that are commonly_ transitive, are used intransitively, when they have no object."--_Bullions cor._ (23.) "When first young Maro, in his boundless mind, A work t' outlast _imperial_ Rome design'd."--_Pope cor._ UNDER CRITICAL NOTE VIII.--OF SENSELESS JUMBLING. "_There are two numbers_, called the singular and _the_ plural, _which_ distinguish nouns as _signifying either_ one _thing_, or many of the same kind."--_Dr. H. Blair cor._ "Here James Monroe is addressed, he is spoken to; _the name_ is _therefore_ a noun of the second person."--_Mack cor._ "The number and _person_ of _an English_ verb can _seldom_ be ascertained until its nominative is known."--_Emmons cor._ "A noun of multitude, or _a singular noun_ signifying many, may have _a_ verb _or a_ pronoun agreeing with it in _either_ number; yet not without regard to the import of the _noun_, as conveying _the idea of_ unity or plurality."--_Lowth et al. cor._ "To _form_ the present _tense_ and _the_ past imperfect of our _active_ or neuter _verbs_, the auxiliary _do, and its preterit did, are sometimes_ used: _as_, I _do_ now love; I _did_ then love."--_Lowth cor._ "If these _be_ perfectly committed _to memory, the learner_ will be able to take twenty lines for _his second_ lesson, and _the task_ may be increased each day."--_Osborn cor._ "_Ch is_ generally sounded in the same manner _as if it were tch_: as in _Charles, church, cheerfulness_, and _cheese_. But, _in Latin or Greek_ words, _ch is_ pronounced like _k_: as in _Chaos, character, chorus_, and _chimera_. _And_, in _words_ derived from the French, _ch is_ sounded like _sh_: as _in Chagrin, chicanery_, and _chaise_."--_Bucke cor._ "Some _nouns literally_ neuter, are _made_ masculine or feminine by a figure of speech."--_L. Murray et al. cor._ "In the English language, words may be classified under ten general heads: the _sorts, or chief classes, of words_, are usually termed the ten parts of speech."--_Nutting cor._ "'Mercy is the true badge of nobility.' _Nobility_ is a _common_ noun, _of the_ third person, singular number, _neuter_ gender, and objective case; and is governed by _of_."--_Kirkham cor._ "_Gh is_ either silent, _as in plough_, or _has_ the sound of _f_, as in _laugh_."--_Town cor._ "Many _nations_ were destroyed, and as many languages or dialects were lost and blotted out from the general catalogue."--_Chazotte cor._ "Some languages contain a greater number of moods than others, and _each_ exhibits _its own as_ forms _peculiar to itself_."--_L. Murray cor._ "A SIMILE is a simple and express comparison; and is generally introduced by _like, as_, or _so_."--_Id._ See _Inst._, p. 233. "The word _what_ is sometimes improperly used for the conjunction _that_."--_Priestley, Murray, et al., cor._ "Brown makes _no_ ado _in condemning_ the _absurd_ principles of preceding works, in relation to the gender of pronouns."--_O. B. Peirce cor._ "The nominative _usually_ precedes the verb, and _denotes the agent of_ the action."--_Wm. Beck cor._ "Primitive _words_ are those which _are not formed from other words_ more simple."--_Wright cor._ "In monosyllables, the single vowel _i_ always preserves its long sound before a single consonant with _e_ final; as _in thine, strive_: except in _give_ and _live_, which are short; and in _shire_, which has the sound of long _e_."--_L. Murray, et al. cor._ "But the person or thing _that is merely_ spoken of, being _frequently_ absent, and _perhaps_ in many respects unknown _to the hearer_, it is _thought more_ necessary, that _the third person_ should be marked by a distinction of gender."--_Lowth, Mur., et al., cor._ "_Both vowels of every diphthong were_, doubtless, originally _vocal_. Though in many instances _they are_ not _so_ at present, _the_ combinations _in which one only is heard_, still retain the name of diphthongs, _being distinguished from others_ by the term _improper_."--_L. Mur., et al. cor._ "_Moods are different forms_ of the verb, _each of which expresses_ the being, action, or passion, _in some particular_ manner."--_Inst._, p. 33; _A. Mur. cor._ "The word THAT is a demonstrative _adjective, whenever_ it is followed by a _noun_ to which it refers."--_L. Mur. cor._ "The _guilty soul by Jesus wash'd_, Is future glory's deathless heir."--_Fairfield cor._ UNDER CRITICAL NOTE IX.--OF WORDS NEEDLESS. "A knowledge of grammar enables us to express ourselves better in conversation and in writing."--_Sanborn cor._ "And hence we infer, that there is no dictator here but use."--_Jamieson cor._ "Whence little is gained, except correct spelling and pronunciation."--_Town cor._ "The man who is faithfully attached to religion, may be relied on with confidence."--_Merchant cor._ "Shalt thou build me _a_ house to dwell in?" Or: "Shalt thou build _a_ house for me to dwell in?"--_Bible cor._ "The house was deemed polluted which was entered by so abandoned a woman."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "The farther he searches, the firmer will be his belief."--_Keith cor._ "I deny not that religion consists in these things."--_Barclay cor._ "Except the king delighted in her, and she were called by name."--_Bible cor._ "The proper method of reading these lines, is, to read them as the sense dictates."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "When any words become obsolete, or are used _only in_ particular phrases, it is better to dispense with their service entirely, and give up the phrases."--_Campbell and Mur cor._ "Those savage people seemed to have no element but war."--_L. Mur. cor._ "_Man_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case."--_J. Flint cor._ "The orator, as circumstances require, will employ them all."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "By deferring repentence [sic--KTH], we accumulate our sorrows."--_L. Murray cor._ "There is no doubt that public speaking became early an engine of government."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "The different _meanings_ of these two words, may not at first occur."--_Id._ "The sentiment is well expressed by Plato, but much better by Solomon."--_L. Murray et al. cor._ "They have had a greater privilege than we."--_L. Mur. cor._ "Every thing should be so arranged, that what goes before, may give light and force to what follows."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "So that his doctrines were embraced by great numbers."--_Hist. cor._ "They have taken _an other_ and shorter cut."--_South cor._ "The imperfect tense of a regular verb is formed from the present by adding _d_ or _ed_; as, _love, loved_."--_Frost cor._ "The pronoun _their_ does not agree in number with the noun '_man_', for which it stands."--_Kirkham cor._ "This mark [!] denotes wonder, surprise, joy, grief, or sudden emotion."--_Bucke cor._ "We all are accountable, each for himself."--_L. Mur. et al. cor._ "If he has commanded it, I must obey."--_R. C. Smith cor._ "I now present him a form of the diatonic scale."--_Barber cor._ "One after an other, their favourite rivers have been reluctantly abandoned." Or: "One after an other _of_ their favourite rivers have _they_ reluctantly abandoned."--_Hodgson cor._ "_Particular_ and _peculiar_ are words of different import."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Some adverbs admit of comparison; as, _soon, sooner, soonest_."--_Bucke cor._ "Having exposed himself too freely in different climates, he entirely lost his health."--_L. Mur. cor._ "The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person."--_Buchanan cor._ "Write twenty short sentences containing adjectives."--_Abbott cor._ "This general tendency of the language seems to have given occasion to a very great corruption."-- _Churchill's Gram._, p. 113. "The second requisite of a perfect sentence is _unity_."--_L. Murray cor._ "It is scarcely necessary to apologize for omitting their names."--_Id._ "The letters of the English alphabet are twenty-six."--_Id. et al. cor._ "He who employs antiquated or novel phraseology, must do it with design; he cannot err from inadvertence, as he may with respect to provincial or vulgar expressions."--_Jamieson cor._ "The vocative case, in some grammars, is wholly omitted; why, if we must have cases, I could never understand."--_Bucke cor._ "Active verbs are conjugated with the auxiliary verb _have_; passive verbs, with the auxiliary _am_ or _be_."--_Id._ "What then may AND be called? A conjunction."--_Smith cor._ "Have they ascertained who gave the information?"--_Bullions cor._ UNDER CRITICAL NOTE X.--OF IMPROPER OMISSIONS. "All _words signifying concrete_ qualities of things, are called adnouns, or adjectives."--_Rev. D. Blair cor._ "The _macron_ [[=]] signifies _a_ long or accented syllable, and the breve [[~]] indicates a short or unaccented syllable."--_Id._ "Whose duty _it_ is, to help young ministers."--_Friends cor._ "The passage is closely connected with what precedes and _what_ follows."--_Phil. Mu. cor._ "The work is not completed, but _it_ soon will be."--_R. C. Smith cor._ "Of whom hast thou been afraid, or _whom hast thou_ feared?"--_Bible cor._ "There is a God who made, and _who_ governs, the world."--_Bp. Butler cor._ "It was this _that_ made them so haughty."--_Goldsmith cor._ "How far the whole charge affected him, _it_ is not easy to determine."--_Id._ "They saw _these wonders of nature_, and _worshiped_ the God that made them."--_Bucke cor._ "The errors frequent in the use of hyperboles, arise either from overstraining _them_, or _from_ introducing them on unsuitable occasions."--_L. Mur. cor._ "The preposition _in_ is set before _the names of_ countries, cities, and large towns; as, 'He lives _in_ France, _in_ London, or _in_ Birmingham.' But, before _the names of_ villages, single houses, _or foreign_ cities, _at_ is used; as, 'He lives _at_ Hackney.'"--_Id. et al. cor._ "And, in such recollection, the thing is not figured as in our view, nor _is_ any image formed."--_Kames cor._ "Intrinsic _beauty_ and relative beauty must be handled separately."--_Id._ "He should be on his guard not to do them injustice by disguising _them_ or placing them in a false light."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "In _perusing_ that work, we are frequently interrupted by _the author's_ unnatural thoughts."--_L. Murray cor._ "To this point have tended all the rules _which_ I have _just_ given."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "To _this point_ have tended all the rules which have _just_ been given."--_L. Murray cor._ "Language, as written, or _as_ oral, is addressed to the eye, or to the ear."--_Journal cor._ "He will learn, Sir, that to accuse and _to_ prove are very different."--_Walpole cor._ "They crowded around the door so as to prevent others _from_ going out."--_Abbott cor._ "_A word denoting_ one person or thing, is _of the_ singular number; _a word denoting_ more than one person or thing: is _of the_ plural number."--_J. Flint cor._ "Nouns, according to the sense or relation in which they are used, are in the nominative, _the_ possessive, or _the objective_ case: thus, Nom. man. Poss. man's, Obj. man."--_Rev. D. Blair cor._ "Nouns or pronouns in the possessive case are placed before the nouns which govern them, _and_ to which they belong."--_Sanborn cor._ "A teacher is explaining the difference between a noun and _a_ verb."--_Abbott cor._ "And therefore the two ends, or extremities, must directly answer to the north and _the_ south pole."--_Harris cor._ "WALKS or WALKETH, RIDES or RIDETH, _and_ STANDS or STANDETH, are of the third person singular."--_Kirkham cor._ "I grew immediately roguish and pleasant, to a _high_ degree, in the same strain."--_Swift cor._ "An _Anapest_ has the first _two_ syllables unaccented, and the last _one_ accented."--_Rev. D. Blair cor._; also _Kirkham et al_.; also _L. Mur. et al_. "But hearing and vision differ not more than words spoken and _words_ written." Or: "But hearing and vision _do not differ_ more than _spoken words_ and written."--_Wilson cor._ "They are considered by some _authors to be_ prepositions."--_Cooper cor._ "When those powers have been deluded and _have_ gone astray."--_Phil Mu. cor._ "They will understand this, and _will_ like it."--_Abbott cor._ "They had been expelled _from_ their native country Romagna."--_Hunt cor._ "Future time is expressed _in_ two different ways."--_Adam and Gould cor._ "Such as the borrowing _of some noted event_ from history."--_Kames cor._ "Every _finite_ verb must agree with its nominative in number and person."--_Bucke cor._ "We are struck, we know not how, with the symmetry of any _handsome_ thing we see."--_L. Murray cor._ "Under this head, I shall consider every thing _that is_ necessary to a good delivery."--_Sheridan cor._ "A good ear is the gift of nature; it may be much improved, but _it cannot be_ acquired by art."--_L. Murray cor._ "'_Truth_' _is a common_ noun, _of the third person_, singular _number_, neuter _gender_, and nominative _case_."--_Bullions cor._ by _Brown's Form_. "'_Possess_' _is a regular_ active-transitive verb, _found in_ the indicative mood, present _tense_, third person, _and_ plural number."--_Id._ "'_Fear_' is a _common_ noun, _of the third person_, singular _number_, neuter _gender_, and nominative _case_: and is the subject of _is: according to the Rule which says, 'A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case.'_ Because the meaning is--'_fear is_.'"--_Id._ "'_Is_' is an irregular _neuter_ verb, _from be_, was, _being_, been; _found_ in the indicative _mood_, present _tense_, third person, _and_ singular _number_: and agrees with its nominative _fear_; _according to the_ Rule _which says_, '_Every finite_ verb _must agree with its subject, or nominative, in person and number_' Because the meaning is--'_fear is_.'"--_Id._ "_Ae in the word Gælic_, has the sound of long _a_."--_Wells cor._ UNDER CRITICAL NOTE XI.--OF LITERARY BLUNDERS. "Repeat some adverbs that are composed of the _prefix or preposition a_ and nouns."--_Kirkham cor._ "Participles are so called, because _they participate or partake the properties of verbs and of adjectives or nouns_. The Latin word _participium_, which signifies _a participle, is_ derived from _participo_, to partake."--_Merchant cor._ "The possessive _precedes_ an other noun, and is known by the sign _'s_, or by this ', the apostrophe only."--_Beck cor._ "Reciprocal pronouns, _or compound personal pronouns_, are formed by adding _self_ or _selves_ to the _simple_ possessives _of the first and second persons, and to the objectives of the third person_; as, _myself, yourselves, himself, themselves_."--_Id._ "The word SELF, and its plural SELVES, _when used separately as names_, must be considered as nouns; _but when joined to the simple pronouns, they are not nouns, but parts of the compound personal pronouns_."--_Wright cor._ "The _Spondee 'rolls round_,' expresses beautifully the majesty of the sun in his course."--_Webster and Frazee cor._ "_Active-transitive verbs_ govern the objective case; as, 'John _learned_ his _lesson_.'"--_Frazee cor._ "Prosody primarily signified _accent_, or _the modulation of the voice_; and, as the name implies, related _to poetry, or song_."--_Hendrick cor._ "On such a principle of forming _them_, there would be as many _moods_ as verbs; and, _in stead_ of four moods, we should have _four thousand three hundred_, which is the number of verbs in the English language, according to Lowth." [556]--_Hallock cor._ "The phrases, 'To let _out_ blood,'--'To go _a_ hunting,' are _not_ elliptical; for _out_ is needless, and _a_ is a preposition, governing _hunting_."--_Bullions cor._ "In Rhyme, the last syllable of every _line corresponds in_ sound _with that of some other line or lines_."--_Id._ "The possessive case plural, _where the nominative ends in s_, has the apostrophe _only_; as, '_Eagles'_ wings,'--'_lions'_ whelps,'--'_bears'_ claws.'"--_Weld cor._ "'_Horses-manes_,' plural, should be written _possessively, 'horses' manes_:'" [_one "mane"_ is never possessed by many "_horses_."]--_Id._ "W takes its _usual_ form from the union of two _Vees_, V being the _figure_ of the Roman capital letter which was anciently called _U_."--_Fowler cor._ "In the sentence, 'I saw the lady who sings,' what word _is nominative to_ SINGS?"--_J. Flint cor._ "In the sentence, 'This is the pen which John made,' what word _expresses the object of_ MADE?"--_Id._ "'That we fall into _no_ sin:' _no_ is a definitive or pronominal _adjective_, not compared, and relates to _sin_."--_Rev. D. Blair cor._ "'That _all_ our doings may be ordered by thy governance:' _all_ is a pronominal adjective, not compared, and relates to _doings_."--_Id._ "'Let him be made _to_ study.' _Why is_ the sign _to_ expressed before _study_? Because _be made_ is passive; and passive verbs do not take the infinitive after them without the preposition _to_."--_Sanborn cor._ "The following verbs have _both the preterit tense and the perfect participle like the present_: viz., Cast, cut, cost, shut, let, bid, shed, hurt, hit, put, &c."--_Buchanan cor._ "The agreement which _any_ word has with _an other_ in person, _number_, gender, _or_ case, is called CONCORD; and _the_ power which one _word_ has over _an other_, in respect to ruling its case, mood, or _form_, is called GOVERNMENT."--_Bucke cor._ "The word _ticks_ tells what the watch is _doing_."--_Sanborn cor._ "_The_ Breve ([~]) marks a short vowel or syllable, and the _Macron_ ([=]), a long _one_."--_Bullions and Lennie cor._ "'Charles, you, by your diligence, make easy work of the task given you by your preceptor.' The first _you_ is in the _nominative_ case, being the subject of the verb _make_."--_Kirkham cor._ "_Uoy_ in _buoy_ is a proper _triphthong; eau_ in _flambeau_ is an improper _triphthong_."--_Sanborn cor._ "'While I of things to come, As past rehearsing, sing.'--POLLOK. That is, 'While I sing of things to come, _as if I were rehearsing things that are_ past.'"--_Kirkham cor._ "A simple sentence _usually_ has in it but one nominative, and _but_ one _finite_ verb."--_Folker cor._ "An irregular verb is _a verb that does not form the preterit_ and _the_ perfect participle _by assuming d or ed_."--_Brown's Inst._, p. 75. "But, when the antecedent is used in a _restricted_ sense, a comma is _sometimes_ inserted before the relative; as, 'There is no _charm_ in the female sex, _which_ can supply the place of virtue.'"--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 273. Or: "But, when the antecedent is used in a _restricted_ sense, no comma is _usually_ inserted before the relative; as, 'There is in the female sex no _charm which_ can supply the place of virtue.'"--_Kirkham cor._ "Two capitals _used_ in this way, denote _different words_; but _one repeated, marks_ the plural number: as, L. D. _Legis Doctor_; LL. D. _Legum Doctor_."--_Gould cor._ "Was any person _present besides_ the mercer? Yes; his clerk."--_L. Murray cor._ "The word _adjective_ comes from the Latin _adjectivum_; and this, from _ad_, to, and _jacio_, I cast."--_Kirkham cor._ "Vision, or _Imagery_, is a figure _by which the speaker represents the objects of his imagination_, as actually before _his_ eyes, and _present to his senses_. Thus Cicero, in his fourth oration against Cataline: 'I seem to myself to behold this city, the ornament of the earth, and the capital of all nations, suddenly involved in one conflagration. I see before me the slaughtered heaps of citizens lying unburied in the midst of their ruined country. The furious countenance of Ceth[=e]'gus rises to my view, while with savage joy he is triumphing in your miseries.'"--_Dr. Blair cor._; also _L. Murray_. "When _two or more_ verbs follow the same nominative, _an_ auxiliary _that is common to them both or all_, is _usually expressed to_ the first, and understood to the rest: as, 'He _has gone_ and _left_ me;' that is, 'He _has gone_ and _has left_ me.'"--_Comly cor._ "When I use the word _pillar to denote a column that supports_ an edifice, I employ it literally."--_Hiley cor._ "_In poetry_, the conjunction _nor_ is often used for _neither_; as 'A stately superstructure, that _nor_ wind, Nor wave, nor shock of falling years, could move.'--POLLOK."--_Id._ UNDER CRITICAL NOTE XII--OF PERVERSIONS. "In the beginning God created the _heaven_ and the earth."--_Genesis_, i, 1. "Canst thou by searching find out _God_?"--_Job_, xi, 7. "Great _and marvellous are thy works_, Lord _God Almighty_; just and true are thy ways, thou King of saints."--_Rev._, xv. 3. "_Not_ every one that saith unto me, Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of heaven."--_Matt._, vii, 21. "Though he was rich, yet for _your_ sakes he became poor."--_2 Cor._, viii, 9. "Whose foundation was _overthrown_ with a flood."--SCOTT'S BIBLE: _Job_, xxii, 16. "Take my yoke upon _you, and learn of me_;" &c.--_Matt._, xi, 29. "I _go_ to prepare a place for you."--_John_, xiv, 2. "_And you_ hath he quickened, who _were_ dead _in_ trespasses _and sins_."--_Ephesians_, ii, 1. "Go, flee thee away into the land of _Judah_."--_Amos_, vii, 12; _Lowth's Gram._, p. 44. Or: "Go, flee away into the land of _Judah_."--_Hart cor._ "Hitherto shalt thou come, _but_ no _further_."--_Job_, xxxviii, 11. "The day is thine, the night also is thine."--_Psal._, lxxiv, 16. "_Tribulation_ worketh patience; and patience, experience; and experience, hope."--_Romans_, v, 4. "_Then_ shall the dust return to _the earth as it was_; and the _spirit shall return unto God_ who gave it."--_Ecclesiastes_, xii, 7. "_At the last_ it biteth like a serpent, and stingeth like an adder. _Thine eyes shall behold strange women_, and _thine heart shall_ utter perverse things: _Yea_, thou _shalt_ be _as he that_ lieth down in the midst of the sea."--_Prov._, xxiii, 32, 33, 34. "The memory of the just _is blessed_; but the name of the wicked shall rot."--_Prov._, x, 7. "He that is slow _to_ anger, is better than the mighty; _and_ he that ruleth his spirit, than he that taketh a city."--_Prov._, xvi, 32. "_For whom the Lord loveth_, he correcteth; _even_ as _a_ father the son in whom he delighteth."--_Prov._, iii, 12. "The _first-future_ tense _is that which expresses_ what _will_ take place hereafter."--_Brown's Inst. of E. Gram._, p. 54. "Teach me to feel another's woe, To hide _the fault_ I see."--_Pope's Univ. Prayer_. "Surely thou art one of them; for thou art a _Galilean_."--_Mark_, xiv, 70. "Surely thou also art one of them; for thy speech bewrayeth thee."--_Matt._, xxvi, 73. "Strait is the gate, and narrow _is_ the way, _which leadeth_ unto life."--_Matt._, vii, 14. "Thou buildest the wall, that thou _mayest_ be their king."--_Nehemiah_, vi, 6. "There is forgiveness with thee, that thou _mayest_ be feared."--_Psalms_, cxxx, 4. "But yesterday, the word _of Cæsar_ might Have stood against the world."--_Beauties of Shakspeare_, p. 250. "The North-East spends _his_ rage."--_Thomson's Seasons_, p. 34. "Tells how the drudging _goblin_ swet."--_Milton's Allegro_, l. 105. "And to his faithful _champion_ hath in place _Borne_ witness gloriously."--_Milton's Sam. Agon._, l. 1752. "Then, if thou _fall'st_, O Cromwell, Thou _fall'st_ a blessed martyr."--_Beauties of Shakspeare_, p. 173. Better: "Then, if thou _fall_, O Cromwell! thou _fallst_ a blessed martyr."--_Shak. and Kirk. cor._ "I see the dagger-crest of Mar, I see the _Moray's_ silver star, _Wave_ o'er the cloud of Saxon war, That up the lake _comes_ winding far!"--_Scott's Lady of the Lake_, p. 162. "Each _beast_, each insect, happy in its own."--_Pope, on Man_, Ep. i, l. 185. "_And he that is_ learning to arrange _his_ sentences with accuracy and order, _is_ learning, at the same time, to think with accuracy and order."--_Blair's Lect._, p. 120. "We, then, as workers together with _him_, beseech you also that ye receive not the grace of God in vain."--_2 Cor._, vi, 1. "And on the _boundless_ of thy goodness calls."--_Young's Last Day_, B. ii, l. 320. "Knowledge dwells In heads replete with thoughts of other men; Wisdom, in minds _attentive_ to their own."--_Cowper's Task_, B. vi, l. 90. "_O_! let me listen to the _words_ of life!"--_Thomson's Paraphrase on Matt_. vi. "Save that, from yonder ivy-mantled _tower_." &c.--_Gray's Elegy_, l. 9. "_Weighs_ the _men's_ wits against the _Lady's hair_."--_Pope's Rape of the Lock_, Canto v, l. 72. "_Till_ the publication of _Dr_. Lowth's _small Introduction_, the grammatical study of our language formed no part of the ordinary method of instruction."--_Hiley's Preface_, p. vi. "Let there be no strife, _I pray thee, between_ me and thee."--_Gen._, xiii, 8. "What! canst thou not _forbear_ me half an hour?"--_Shakspeare_. "Till then who knew the force of those dire _arms_?"--_Milton_. "In words, as fashions, the _same_ rule will hold; Alike fantastic, if too new or old: Be not the first by whom the new _are_ tried Nor yet the last to lay the old aside."--_Pope, on Criticism_, l. 333. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE XIII.--OF AWKWARDNESS. "They slew Varus, _whom_ I mentioned before."--_L. Murray cor._ "Maria rejected Valerius, _whom_ she had rejected before." Or: "Maria rejected Valerius _a second time_."--_Id._ "_In_ the English _language, nouns have_ but two different terminations for cases."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 64. "Socrates and Plato were _the wisest men, and_ the most eminent philosophers _in_ Greece."--_Buchanan's Gram._, Pref., p. viii. "Whether more than one were concerned in the business, does not yet appear." Or: "_How many_ were concerned in the business, does not yet appear."--_L. Murray cor._ "And that, consequently, the verb _or_ pronoun agreeing with it, _can never_ with propriety be used in the plural number."--_Id. et al. cor._ "A second help may be, _frequent_ and _free converse_ with _others_ of your own sex who are like minded."--_Wesley cor._ "Four of the _semivowels_, namely, _l, m, n_, and _r_, are _termed_ LIQUIDS, _on account of the fluency of_ their sounds."--See _Brown's Inst._, p. 16. "Some conjunctions _are used in pairs_, so that _one_ answers to _an other, as its regular_ correspondent."--_Lowth et al. cor._ "The mutes are those consonants whose sounds cannot be protracted; the _semivowels have imperfect_ sounds _of their own_, which can be continued at pleasure."--_Murray et al. cor._ "HE _and_ SHE _are_ sometimes used as _nouns_, and, _as such, are_ regularly declined: as, 'The _hes_ in birds.'--BACON. 'The _shes_ of Italy.'--SHAK."--_Churchill cor._ "The separation of a preposition from the word which it governs, is [censured by some writers, as being improper."--_C. Adams cor._ "The word WHOSE, _according to some critics, should_ be restricted to persons; but good writers _still occasionally_ use it _with reference to_ things."--_Priestley et al. cor._ "New and surpassing wonders present themselves to our _view_."--_Sherlock cor._ "The degrees of comparison are often _inaccurately_ applied and construed."--_Alger's Murray_. Or: "_Passages_ are often found in which the degrees of comparison _have not an accurate construction_."--_Campbell cor._; also _Murray et al_. "The _sign of possession_ is placed too _far from the name_, to _form a construction that is_ either perspicuous or agreeable."--_L. Murray cor._ "_The simple tenses_ are those which are formed _by_ the principal verb without an auxiliary."--_Id._ "The _more intimate_ men _are_, the more _they affect one another's happiness_."--_Id._ "This is the machine that he _invented_."--_Nixon cor._ "To give this sentence the interrogative form, _we must express it_ thus." Or: "This sentence, _to have_ the interrogative form, should be expressed thus."--_L. Murray cor._ "Never employ words _that are_ susceptible of a sense different from _that which_ you intend _to convey_."--_Hiley cor._ "Sixty pages are occupied in explaining what, according to the ordinary method, would not require more than ten or twelve."--_Id._ "The participle in _ing_ always expresses action, suffering, or being, as continuing, _or in progress_."--_Bullions cor._ "The _first_ participle of all active verbs, has _usually_ an active signification; as, 'James is _building_ the house.' _Often_, however, it _takes_ a passive _meaning_; as, '_The house is building_.'"--_Id._ "_Previously_ to parsing this sentence, the young pupil may be _taught to analyze_ it, by such questions as the following: viz."--_Id._ "_Since_ that period, however, attention has been paid to this important subject."--_Id. and Hiley cor._ "A definition of a word is _a brief_ explanation _of_ what _it means_."--G. BROWN: _Hiley cor._ UNDER CRITICAL NOTE XIV.--OF IGNORANCE. "What is _a verb_? It is _a word_ which signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_." Or thus: "What is an _assertor_? Ans. 'One who affirms positively; an affirmer, supporter, or vindicator.'--WEBSTER'S DICT."--_Peirce cor._ "Virgil wrote the _�neid_."--_Kirkham cor._ "Which, to a supercilious or inconsiderate _native of Japan_, would seem very idle and impertinent."--_Locke cor._ "Will not a look of disdain cast upon you throw you into a _ferment_?"--_Say cor._ "Though only the conjunction _if_ is _here set before_ the verb, there are several others, (as _that, though, lest, unless, except_,) which may be _used with_ the subjunctive mood."--_L. Murray cor._ "When proper names have an article _before_ them, they are used as common names."--_Id. et al. cor._ "When a proper noun has an article _before_ it, it is used as a common noun."--_Merchant cor._ "Seeming to _rob_ the death-field of its terrors."--_Id._ "For the same reason, we might, without any _detriment_ to the language, dispense with the terminations of our verbs in the singular."--_Kirkham cor._ "It _removes_ all possibility of being misunderstood."--_Abbott cor._ "Approximation to _perfection_ is all that we can expect."--_Id._ "I have often joined in singing with _musicians_ at Norwich."--_Gardiner cor._ "When not standing in regular _prosaic_ order." Or:--"in _the_ regular order _of prose_."--_O. B. Peirce cor._ "_Regardless_ of the dogmas and edicts of the philosophical umpire."--_Kirkham cor._ "Others begin to talk before their mouths are open, _prefixing_ the mouth-closing M to most of their words; as, '_M-yes_,' for '_Yes_.'"--_Gardiner cor._ "That noted close of his '_esse videatur_,' exposed him to censure among his _contemporaries_."--_Dr. Blair cor._ "A man's _own is_ what he _has, or possesses by right; the word own_ being a past participle of _the_ verb _to owe_, which formerly signified _to have or possess_."--_Kirkham cor._ "As requires so; expressing a comparison of _manner_; as, '_As_ the one dieth, _so_ dieth the other.'"--_L. Mur. et al. cor._ "To obey our parents, is _an obvious_ duty."--_Parker and Fox cor._ "_Almost_ all the political papers of the kingdom have touched upon these things."--_H. C. Wright cor._ "I shall take _the liberty_ to make a few observations on the subject."--_Hiley cor._ "His loss I have endeavoured to supply, _so_ far as _by_ additional vigilance and industry _I could_."--_Id._ "That they should make vegetation so _exuberant_ as to anticipate every want."--_Frazee cor._ "The _guillemets_, or _quotation points_, [""] denote that one or more words are extracted from an other author."--_P. E. Day cor._ "_Nineveh, the capital of_ Assyria, _was one_ of the most noted cities of ancient _times_."--_Id._ "It may, however, be rendered definite by _the mention of_ some _particular_ time; as, yesterday, last week, &c."--_Bullions cor._ "The last is called heroic measure, and is the same that is used by Milton, Young, _Thomson, Pollok_. &c."--_Id._ "_Perennial_ ones must be sought in the delightful regions above."--_Hallock cor._ "Intransitive verbs are those which are _inseparable_ from the effect produced." Or better: "Intransitive verbs are those which _express action without governing an object_."--_Cutler cor._ "_The Feminine_ gender belongs to women, and animals of the female kind."--_Id._ "_Wo_ unto you, scribes and _Pharisees_, hypocrites!"--ALGER'S BIBLE: _Luke_, xi, 44. "A _pyrrhic_, which has both its syllables short."--_Day cor._ "What kind of _jessamine_? A _jessamine_ in flower, or a flowery _jessamine_."--_Barrett cor._ "LANGUAGE, _a word_ derived from LINGUA, the tongue, _now signifies any series of sounds or letters formed into words, and used for the expression of thought_."--_Id._ See _this Gram. of E. Grammars_, p. 145. "Say '_none_,' not '_ne'er a one_.'"--_Staniford cor._ "'_E'er a one_,' [is sometimes used for '_any_'] or '_either_.'"--_Pond cor._ "Earth loses thy _pattern_ for ever and aye; O sailor-boy! sailor-boy! peace to thy soul." --_Dymond_. "His brow was sad; his eye beneath Flashed like a _falchion_ from its sheath." --_Longfellow's Ballads_, p. 129. [Fist] [The examples exhibited for exercises under Critical Notes 15th and 16th, being judged either incapable of correction, or unworthy of the endeavour, are submitted to the criticism of the reader, without any attempt to amend them, or to offer substitutes in this place.] PROMISCUOUS CORRECTIONS OF FALSE SYNTAX. LESSON I.--UNDER VARIOUS RULES. "_Why is_ our language less refined than that of Italy, Spain, or France?"--_L. Murray cor. "Why is_ our language less refined than _the French_?"--_Ingersoll cor._ "I believe your Lordship will agree with me, in the reason why our language is less refined than _that_ of Italy, Spain, or France."--_Swift cor._ "Even in this short sentence, 'why our language is less refined than _those_ of Italy, Spain, or France,' we may discern an inaccuracy; the _pronominal adjective 'those'_ is made plural, when the substantive to which it refers, or the thing for which it stands, 'the _language_ of Italy, Spain, or France,' is singular."--_Dr. H. Blair cor._ "The sentence _would_ have run much better in this way:--'why our language is less refined than the Italian, _the_ Spanish, or _the_ French.'"--_Id._ "But when arranged in an entire sentence, _as_ they must be to make a complete sense, they show it still more evidently."--_L. Murray cor._ "This is a more artificial and refined construction, than that in which the common connective is simply _used_."--_Id._ "_I_ shall present _to_ the reader a list of _certain_ prepositions _or prefixes_, which are derived from the Latin and Greek languages."--_Id. "A relative sometimes comprehends_ the meaning of a _personal_ pronoun and a copulative conjunction."--_Id._ "Personal pronouns, being used to supply the _places_ of nouns, are not _often_ employed in the same _clauses with_ the _nouns_ which they represent."--_Id. and Smith cor._ "There is very seldom any occasion for a substitute where the principal word is present."--_L. Mur. cor._ "We hardly consider little children as persons, because _the_ term _person_ gives us the idea of reason, _or intelligence_."--_Priestley et al. cor._ "The _occasions_ for exerting these _two_ qualities _are_ different."--_Dr. Blair et al. cor._ "I'll tell you _with whom_ time ambles withal, _with whom_ time trots withal, _with whom_ time gallops withal, and _with whom_ he stands still withal. I pray thee, _with whom_ doth he trot withal?"--_Buchanan's Gram._, p. 122. "By greatness, I mean, _not_ the bulk of any single object _only_ but the largeness of a whole view."--_Addison cor._ "The question may then be put, What _more_ does he than mean?"--_Dr. Blair cor._ "The question might be put, What more does he than mean?"--_Id._ "He is surprised to find himself _at_ so great a distance from the object with which he _set_ out."--_Id._; also _Murray cor._ "Few rules can be given which will hold _good_ in all cases."--_Lowth and Mur. cor._ "Versification is the arrangement of _words into metrical lines_, according to the laws _of verse_."--_Johnson cor._ "Versification is the arrangement _of words into rhythmical lines of some particular length, so as to produce harmony by the regular alternation of syllables differing in quantity_."--_L. Murray et al. cor._ "_Amelia's_ friend Charlotte, to whom no one imputed blame, was too prompt in her own vindication."--_L. Murray cor._ "Mr. Pitt's joining _of_ the war party in 1793, the most striking and the most fatal instance of this offence, is the one which at once presents itself."--_Brougham cor._ "To the framing _of_ such a sound constitution of mind."--_Lady cor._ "'I beseech you,' said St. Paul to his Ephesian converts, 'that ye walk worthy of the vocation wherewith ye are called.' "--See _Eph._, iv, 1. "So as to prevent _it from_ being equal to that."--_Booth cor._ "When speaking of an _action_ as being performed." Or: "When speaking of _the performance of an action_."--_Id._ "And, in all questions of _actions_ being so performed, _est_ is added _for_ the second person."--_Id._ "No account can be given of this, _but_ that custom has blinded their eyes." Or: "No _other_ account can be given of this, _than_ that custom has blinded their eyes."--_Dymond cor._ "Design, or chance, _makes_ others wive; But nature did this match contrive."--_Waller cor._ LESSON II.--UNDER VARIOUS RULES. "I suppose each of you _thinks_ it is _his_ own nail."--_Abbott cor._ "They are useless, _because they are_ apparently based upon this supposition."--_Id._ "The form, _or_ manner, in which this plan may be adopted is various."--_Id. "The_ making _of_ intellectual effort, and _the_ acquiring _of_ knowledge, are always pleasant to the human mind."--_Id._ "This will do more than the best lecture _that_ ever was delivered."--_Id. "The_ doing _of_ easy things is generally dull work."--_Id._ "Such _are_ the tone and manner of some teachers."--_Id._ "Well, the fault is, _that some one was_ disorderly at prayer time."--_Id._ "Do you remember _to have spoken_ on this subject in school?"--_Id._ "The course above recommended, is not _the_ trying _of_ lax and inefficient measures"--_Id._ "Our community _agree_ that there is a God."--_Id._ "It prevents _them from_ being interested in what is said."--_Id._ "We will also suppose that I call an other boy to me, _whom_ I have reason to believe to be a sincere Christian."--_Id._ "Five _minutes'_ notice is given by the bell."--_Id._ "The Annals of Education _give_ notice of it." Or: "The _work entitled_ 'Annals of Education' _gives_ notice of it."--_Id. "Teachers'_ meetings will be interesting and useful."--_Id._ "She thought _a_ half hour's study would conquer all the difficulties."--_Id._ "The difference between an honest and _a_ hypocritical confession."--_Id._ "There is no point of attainment _at which_ we must stop."--_Id._ "Now six _hours' service_ is as much as is expected of teachers."--_Id._ "How _many_ are seven times nine?"--_Id._ "Then the reckoning proceeds till it _comes_ to ten hundred."--_Frost cor._ "Your success will depend on your own exertions; see, then, that you _be_ diligent."--_Id._ "Subjunctive Mood, Present Tense: If I _be_ known, If thou _be_ known, If he _be_ known;" &c.--_Id._ "If I be loved, If thou be loved, If he be loved;" &c.--_Frost right._ "An Interjection is a word used to express sudden emotion. _Interjections_ are so called because they are generally thrown in between the parts of _discourse_, without any reference to the structure of _those_ parts."--_Frost cor._ "The _Cardinal numbers_ are those which _simply tell how many_; as, one, two, three."--_Id._ "More than one organ _are_ concerned in the utterance of almost every consonant." Or thus: "More _organs_ than one _are_ concerned in the utterance of almost _any_ consonant."--_Id._ "To extract from them all the terms _which_ we _use_ in our divisions and subdivisions of the art."--_Holmes cor._ "And there _were_ written therein lamentations, and mourning, and woe."--_Bible cor._ "If I were to be judged as to my behaviour, compared with that of _John_."--_Whiston's Jos. cor._ "The preposition _to_, signifying _in order to_, was anciently preceded by _for_; as, 'What went ye out _for to see?_'"--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 184. "This makes the proper perfect tense, which in English is always expressed by the auxiliary verb _have; as_, 'I have written.'"--_Dr. Blair cor._ "Indeed, in the formation of character, personal exertion is the first, the second, and the third _virtue_."--_Sanders cor._ "The reducing _of_ them to the condition of the beasts that perish."--_Dymond cor._ "Yet this affords no reason to deny that the nature of the gift is the same, or that both are divine." Or: "Yet this affords no reason to _aver_ that the nature of the gift is not the same, or that both are not divine."--_Id._ "If God _has_ made known his will."--_Id._ "If Christ _has_ prohibited them, nothing else can prove them right."--_Id._ "That the taking _of_ them is wrong, every man who simply consults his own heart, will know."--_Id._ "_From these evils the world_ would be spared, if one did not write."--_Id._ "It is in a great degree our own _fault_."--_Id._ "It is worthy _of_ observation, that lesson-learning is nearly excluded."--_Id._ "Who spares the aggressor's life, even to the endangering _of_ his own."--_Id._ "Who advocates the taking _of_ the life of an aggressor."--_Id._ "And thence up to the intentionally and _voluntarily_ fraudulent."--_Id._ "And the contention was so _sharp between_ them, that they departed asunder one from _the_ other."--SCOTT'S, FRIENDS', ALGER'S, BRUCE'S BIBLE, AND OTHERS: _Acts_, xv, 39. "Here the man is John, and John is the man; so the words are _imagination_ and _fancy; but THE imagination_ and THE fancy are _not words_: they are intellectual powers."--_Rev. M. Harrison cor._ "The article, which is here so emphatic in the Greek, is _quite forgotten_ in our translation."--_Id._ "We have no _fewer_ than _twenty-four_ pronouns."--_Id._ "It will admit of a pronoun joined to it."--_Id._ "From intercourse and from conquest, all the languages of Europe participate _one_ with _an_ other."--_Id._ "It is not always necessity, therefore, that has been the cause of our introducing _of_ terms derived from the classical languages."--_Id._ "The man of genius stamps upon it any impression that pleases _him_." Or: "any impression that he _chooses_."--_Id._ "The proportion of names ending in SON _preponderates_ greatly among the Dano-Saxon population of the North."--_Id._ "As a proof of the strong similarity between the English _language_ and the Danish."--_Id._ "A century from the time _when_ (or _at which_) Hengist and Horsa landed on the Isle of Thanet."--_Id._ "I saw the colours waving in the wind, And _them_ within, to mischief how combin'd."--_Bunyan cor._ LESSON III.--UNDER VARIOUS RULES. "A ship excepted: of _which_ we say, '_She_ sails well.'"--_Jonson cor._ "Honesty is reckoned _of_ little worth."--_Lily cor._ "Learn to esteem life as _you_ ought."--_Dodsley cor._ "As the soundest health is less perceived than the lightest malady, so the highest joy toucheth us less _sensibly_ than the smallest sorrow."--_Id._ "_Youth_ is no apology for _frivolousness_."--_Whiting cor._ "The porch was _of_ the same width as the temple."--_Milman cor._ "The other tribes contributed _neither_ to his rise _nor to his_ downfall."--_Id._ "His whole religion, _with all its laws_, would have been shaken to its foundation."--_Id._ "The English has most commonly been neglected, and children _have been_ taught only _in_ the Latin syntax."--_J. Ward cor._ "They are not _noticed_ in the notes."-- _Id._ "He walks in righteousness, doing what he would _have others do to him_."--_Fisher cor._ "They stand _independent_ of the rest of the sentence."--_Ingersoll cor._ "My uncle _and_ his son were in town yesterday."--_Lennie cor._ "She _and_ her sisters are well."--_Id._ "His purse, with its contents, _was_ abstracted from his pocket."--_Id._ "The great constitutional feature of this institution being, that directly _after_ the acrimony of the last election is over, the acrimony of the next begins."--_Dickens cor._ "His disregarding _of_ his parents' advice has brought him into disgrace."--_Farnum cor._ "Can you tell me _why_ his father _made_ that remark?"--_Id._ "_Why does_ our teacher _detain_ us so long?"--_Id._ "I am certain _that_ the boy said so."--_Id._ "WHICH means any thing or things before named; and THAT may represent any person or persons, thing or things, _that_ have been speaking, spoken to, or spoken of."--_Perley cor._ "A certain number of syllables _occurring in a particular order_, form a foot. _Poetic feet_ are so called because it is by their aid that the voice, as it were, steps along."--_L. Murray et al. cor._ "_Questions asked by_ a principal verb _only_--as, _'Teach I?' 'Burns he?'_ &c.,--are _archaisms_, and now _peculiar to the poets_."--_A. Murray cor._ "Tell whether the 18th, _the_ 19th, _the_ 20th, _the_ 21st, _the_ 22d, or _the_ 23d _rule is_ to be used, and repeat the rule."--_Parker and Fox cor._ "The resolution was adopted without much deliberation, _and consequently_ caused great dissatisfaction." Or: "The resolution, _which_ caused great dissatisfaction, was adopted without much deliberation."-- _Iid._ "The man is now much _noticed_ by the people thereabouts."--_Webb's Edward's Gram. cor._ "The sand prevents _them from_ sticking to one an other."--_Id._ "Defective verbs are those which are used only in some of _the_ moods and tenses."--_Greenleaf's Gram., p. 29; Ingersoll's, 121; Smith's, 90; Merchant's, 64; Nutting's, 68; L. Murray, Guy, Russell, Bacon, Frost, Alger, S. Putnam, Goldsbury, Felton, et al. cor._ "Defective verbs are those which want some of _the_ moods _or_ tenses."--_Lennie et al. cor._ "Defective verbs want some of _the_ parts _common to other verbs_."--_Bullions cor._ "A Defective verb is one that wants some of _the_ parts _common to verbs_."--_Id._ "To the irregular verbs _may_ be added the defective; which are not only irregular, but also wanting in some parts."--_Lowth cor._ "To the irregular verbs _may_ be added the defective; which are not only wanting in some parts, but are, when inflected, irregular."--_Churchill cor._ "When two or more nouns _occur together_ in the possessive case."--_Farnum cor._ "When several short sentences _come together_"--_Id._ "Words are divided into ten classes, called Parts of Speech."--_L. Ainsworth cor._ "A passive verb has its agent or doer always in the objective case, governed by a preposition."--_Id._ "I am surprised at your _inattention_."--_Id._ "SINGULAR: Thou lovest, _not_ You love. _You_ has always a plural verb."--_Bullions cor._ "How do you know that love is _of_ the first person? Ans. Because _we, the pronoun_, is _of_ the first _person_."--_Id. and Lennie cor._ "The lowing herd _winds_ slowly _o'er_ the lea."--_Gray's Elegy_, l. 2: _Bullions cor._ "Iambic verses have _their_ second, fourth, and other even syllables accented."--_Bullions cor._ "Contractions _that_ are not allowable in prose, are often made in poetry."--_Id._ "Yet to their general's voice they _soon obey'd_"-- _Milton_. "It never presents to his mind _more than_ one new subject at the same time."--_Felton cor._ "An _abstract noun_ is the name of some particular quality considered apart from its substance."--_Brown's Inst. of E. Gram._, p. 32. "_A noun is of_ the first person when _it denotes the speaker_."--_Felton cor._ "Which of the two brothers _is a graduate_?"-- _Hallock cor._ "I am a linen-draper bold, As all the world doth know."--_Cowper_. "_Oh_ the _pain_, the _bliss_ of dying!"--_Pope_. "This do; take _to_ you censers, _thou_, Korah, and all _thy_ company."--_Bible cor._ "There are _three_ participles; the _imperfect, the perfect_, and _the preperfect_: as, reading, read, having read. Transitive verbs have an _active and passive_ participle: that is, their form for the perfect is sometimes active, and sometimes passive; as, _read_, or _loved_."--_S. S. Greene cor._ "O _Heav'n_, in my connubial hour decree _My spouse this man_, or such a _man_ as he."--_Pope cor._ LESSON IV.--UNDER VARIOUS RULES. "The past tenses (of Hiley's subjunctive mood) represent conditional past _facts_ or _events_, of which the speaker is uncertain."--_Hiley cor._ "Care also should be taken that they _be_ not introduced too abundantly."--_Id._ "Till they _have_ become familiar to the mind." Or: "Till they _become_ familiar to the mind."--_Id._ "When once a particular arrangement and phraseology _have_ become familiar to the mind."--_Id._ "I have furnished the student with the plainest and most practical directions _that_ I could devise."--_Id._ "When you are conversant with the Rules of Grammar, you will be qualified to commence the study of Style."--_Id._ "_C before e, i, or y, always_ has a soft sound, like _s_."--_L. Murray cor._ "_G_ before _e, i, or y_, is _generally_ soft; as in _genius, ginger, Egypt_."--_Id._ "_C_ before _e, i, or y, always_ sounds soft, like _s_."--_Hiley cor._ "_G_ is _generally_ soft before _e, i, or y_; as in _genius, ginger, Egypt_."--_Id._ "A perfect alphabet must always contain _just_ as many letters as there are elementary sounds in the language: the English alphabet, _having fewer letters than sounds, and sometimes more than one letter for the same sound_, is both defective and redundant."--_Id._ "A common _noun is a name_, given to a whole class or species, and _is_ applicable to every individual of that class."--_Id._ "Thus an adjective has _usually_ a noun either expressed or understood."--_Id._ "Emphasis is _extraordinary force used in the enunciation of such words as we wish to make prominent in discourse_." Or: "Emphasis is _a peculiar stress of voice, used in the utterance of words specially significant_."--_Dr. H. Blair cor._; also _L. Murray_. "_So_ simple _a_ question as. 'Do you ride to town to-day?' is capable of _as many as_ four different acceptations, _the sense varying_ as the emphasis is differently placed."--_Iid._ "Thus, _bravely, for_ 'in a brave manner.' is derived from _brave-like_."--_Hiley cor._ "In _this_ manner, _several_ different parts of speech are _often_ formed from _one root_ by means of _different affixes_."--_Id._ "Words derived from _the same root_, are always more or less allied in signification."--_Id._ "When a noun of multitude conveys _the idea of unity_, the verb and pronoun should be singular; but when it conveys _the idea of plurality_, the verb and pronoun must be plural."--_Id._ "They have spent their whole time to make the sacred chronology agree with the profane."--_Id._ "I have studied my lesson, but you have not _looked at yours_."--_Id._ "When words _are connected_ in pairs, there is _usually_ a comma _after_ each pair."-- _Hiley, Bullions, and Lennie, cor._ "When words _are connected_ in pairs, the pairs should be marked by the comma."--_Farnum cor._ "His _book entitled_, 'Studies of Nature,' is deservedly a popular work."--_Biog. Dict. cor._ "Here _rests_ his head _upon the lap of earth_, A youth to Fortune and to Fame unknown."--GRAY. "'_Youth_,' here, is in the _nominative case_, (the verb '_rests_' being, in this instance, _transitive_,) and is _the subject of the sentence_. The meaning is, '_A youth here rests his head_,' &c."--_Hart cor._ "The pronoun _I, as well as_ the interjection _O_, should be written with a capital." Or: "The pronoun _I, and_ the interjection _O_, should be written with _capitals_"--_Weld cor._ "The pronoun _I_ should _always_ be written with a capital."--_Id._ "He went from _London_ to York."--_Id._ "An adverb is a _word added_ to _a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an_ other _adverb_, to modify _its_ meaning."--_Id._ (See Lesson 1st under the General Rule.) "SINGULAR signifies, '_expressing only one;' denoting but_ one person or thing. PLURAL, (Latin _pluralis_, from _plus_, more,) signifies, '_expressing_ more than one.'"--_Weld cor._ "When the present ends in _e, d_ only is added to form the imperfect _tense_ and _the_ perfect participle of regular verbs."--_Id._ "Synæresis is the contraction of two syllables into one; as, _seest_ for _seëst, drowned_ for _drown-ed_."--_Id._ (See _Brown's Inst_. p. 230.) "Words ending in _ee are often inflected by mere consonants, and without_ receiving an additional syllable beginning with _e_: as, _see, seest, sees; agree, agreed, agrees_."--_Weld cor._ "_In_ monosyllables, final _f, l_, or _s_, preceded by a single vowel, _is_ doubled; as in _staff, mill, grass_."--_Id._ "_Before ing_, words ending _in ie_ drop the _e_, and _change the i into y; as, die, dying_."--_Id._" One number may be used for _the_ other--_or, rather, the plural may be used for the singular_; as, _we_ for _I, you_ for _thou_."--_S. S. Greene cor._ "STR~OB'ILE, _n._ A pericarp made up of scales that lie _one over an other_."--_Worcester cor._ "Yet ever, from the clearest source, _hath run_ Some gross _alloy_, some tincture of the man."--_Lowth cor._ LESSON V.--UNDER VARIOUS RULES. "The possessive case is _usually_ followed by _a_ noun, _expressed or understood_, which is the name of the thing possessed."--_Felton cor._ "Hadmer of Aggstein was as pious, devout, and praying a Christian, as _was_ Nelson, Washington, or Jefferson; or as _is_ Wellington, Tyler, Clay, or Polk."--_H. C. Wright cor._ "A word in the possessive case is not an independent noun, and cannot stand by _itself_."--_J. W. Wright cor._ "Mary is not handsome, but she is good-natured; _and good-nature_ is better than beauty."--_St. Quentin cor._ "After the practice of joining _all_ words together had ceased, _a note_ of distinction _was placed_ at the end of every word."--_L. Murray et al. cor._ "Neither Henry nor Charles _dissipates_ his time."--_Hallock cor._ "'He had taken from the _Christians above_ thirty small castles.' KNOLLES:"--_Brown's Institutes_, p. 200; _Johnson's Quarto Dict., w. What._ "In _what_ character Butler was admitted, is unknown." Or: "In _whatever_ character Butler was admitted, _that character_ is unknown."--_Hallock cor._ "How _are_ the agent of a passive and the object of an active verb often left?"--_Id._ "By SUBJECT, is meant the word of _whose object_ something is declared." Or: "By SUBJECT, is meant the word _which has_ something declared of _the thing signified_."--_Chandler cor._ "Care should also be taken that _a transitive_ verb _be_ not used _in stead_ of a _neuter or intransitive_; as, _lay_ for _lie, raise_ for _rise, set_ for _sit_, &c."--_Id._ "On them _depends_ the duration of our Constitution and our country."--_Calhoun cor._ "In the present sentence, neither the sense nor the measure _requires_ WHAT."--_Chandler cor._ "The Irish thought themselves oppressed by the _law_ that forbid them to draw with their _horses' tails_."--_Brightland cor._ "_So and willingly_ are adverbs. _So_ is _an_ adverb of _degree_, and qualifies _willingly. Willingly_ is an adverb of _manner_, and qualifies _deceives_."--_Cutler cor._ "Epicurus, for _experiment's_ sake, confined himself to a narrower diet than that of the severest prisons."--_Id._ "Derivative words are such as are _formed from_ other words _by prefixes or suffixes_; as, _injustice, goodness, falsehood_."--_Id._ "The distinction here insisted on is as old as Aristotle, and should not be lost _from_ sight." Or: "and _it_ should _still_ be _kept in view_."--_Hart cor._ "The Tenses of the Subjunctive and Potential Moods." Or: "The Tenses of the Subjunctive and _the_ Potential Mood."--_Id._ "A triphthong is a union of three vowels, uttered _by a single impulse of the voice_; as, _uoy_ in _buoy_"--_Pardon Davis cor._ "A common _noun is_ the _name_ of a species or kind."--_Id._ "The superlative degree _implies_ a comparison _either_ between _two_ or _among_ more."--_Id._ "An adverb is a word serving to give an additional idea _to_ a verb, _a participle, an adjective_, or _an other_ adverb."--_Id._ "When several nouns in the possessive case _occur in succession_, each showing possession _of things_ of the same _sort_, it is _generally_ necessary to add the sign of the possessive case to _each of them_: as, 'He sells _men's, women's_, and children's shoes.'--'_Dogs', cats'_, and _tigers'_ feet are digitated.'"--_Id._ "'A _rail-road_ is _being made_,' should be, 'A _railroad_ is _making_;' 'A _school-house_ is _being built_,' should be, 'A _schoolhouse_ is _building_.'"--_Id._ "Auxiliaries _are_ of themselves verbs; _yet_ they resemble, in their character and use, those terminational or other inflections _which_, in other languages, _serve_ to express the action in the _mood_, tense, _person_, and _number_ desired."--_Id._ "Please _to_ hold my horse while I speak to my friend."--_Id._ "If I say, 'Give me _the_ book,' I _demand_ some particular book."--_Noble Butler cor._ "_Here_ are five men."--_Id._ "_After_ the active _verb_, the object may be omitted; _after_ the passive, the name of the agent may be omitted."--_Id._ "The Progressive and Emphatic forms give, in each case, a different shade of meaning to the verb."--_Hart cor._ "THAT _may be called_ a Redditive Conjunction, when it answers to so _or_ SUCH."--_Ward cor._ "He attributes to negligence your _want of success_ in that business."--_Smart cor._ "_Do_ WILL and GO express but _one_ action?" Or: "_Does_ '_will go_' express but _one_ action?"--_Barrett cor._ "Language is the _principal_ vehicle of thought."--_G. Brown's Inst., Pref._, p. iii. "_Much_ is applied to things weighed or measured; _many_, to those that are numbered. _Elder_ and _eldest_ _are applied_ to persons only; _older_ and _oldest_, to _either_ persons or things."--_Bullions cor._ "If there are any old maids still extant, while _misogynists_ are so rare, the fault must be attributable to themselves."--_Kirkham cor._ "The second method, used by the Greeks, has never been the practice of any _other people_ of Europe."--_Sheridan cor._ "Neither consonant nor vowel _is_ to be dwelt upon beyond _its_ common quantity, when _it closes_ a sentence." Or: "Neither _consonants_ nor _vowels_ are to be dwelt upon beyond their common quantity, when they close a sentence." Or, better thus: "Neither _a_ consonant nor _a_ vowel, when _it closes_ a sentence, _is_ to be _protracted_ beyond _its usual length_."--_Id._ "Irony is a mode of speech, in which what is said, is the opposite of what is meant."--_McElligott's Manual_, p. 103. "The _person_ speaking, _and the person or persons_ spoken to, are supposed to be present."--_Wells cor._; also _Murray_. "A _Noun_ is _a name_, a word used to express the _idea_ of an object."--_Wells cor._ "A syllable is _such_ a word, or _part_ of a word, as is uttered by one articulation."--_Weld cor._ "Thus wond'rous fair; thyself how wond'rous then! Unspeakable, who _sitst_ above these heavens."--_Milton_, B. v, l. 156. "And feel thy _sovran_ vital lamp; but thou _Revisitst_ not these eyes, that roll in vain."--_Id._, iii, 22. "Before all temples _th'_ upright _heart_ and pure."--_Id._, i, 18. "In forest wild, in thicket, _brake_, or den."--_Id._, vii, 458. "The rogue and fool by fits _are_ fair and wise; And e'en the best, by fits, what they despise."--_Pope cor._ THE KEY.--PART IV.--PROSODY. CHAPTER I.--PUNCTUATION. SECTION I.--THE COMMA. CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE I.--OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. "A short simple _sentence_ should _rarely_ be _divided_ by _the_ comma."--_Felton cor._ "A regular and virtuous education is an inestimable blessing."--_L. Mur. cor._ "Such equivocal expressions mark an intention to deceive."--_Id._ "They are _this_ and _that_, with their plurals _these_ and _those_."--_Bullions cor._ "A nominative and a verb sometimes make a complete sentence; as, He sleeps."--_Felton cor._ "TENSE expresses the action _as_ connected with certain relations of time; MOOD represents it as _further_ modified by circumstances of contingency, conditionality, &c."--_Bullions cor._ "The word _noun_ means _name_."--_Ingersoll cor._ "The present or active participle I explained then."--_Id._ "Are some verbs used both transitively and intransitively?"--_Cooper cor._ "Blank verse is verse without rhyme."--_Brown's Institutes_, p. 235. "A distributive adjective denotes each one of a number considered separately."--_Hallock cor._ "And may at last my weary age Find out the peaceful hermitage." --MILTON: _Ward's Gr._, 158; _Hiley's_, 124. UNDER THE EXCEPTION CONCERNING SIMPLE SENTENCES. "A noun without an _article_ to limit it, is taken in its widest sense."--_Lennie_, p. 6. "To maintain a steady course amid all the adversities of life, marks a great mind."--_Day cor._ "To love our Maker supremely and our neighbour as ourselves, comprehends the whole moral law."--_Id._ "To be afraid to do wrong, is true courage."--_Id._ "A great fortune in the hands of a fool, is a great misfortune."--_Bullions cor._ "That he should make such a remark, is indeed strange."--_Farnum cor._ "To walk in the fields and groves, is delightful."--_Id._ "That he committed the fault, is most certain."--_Id._ "Names common to all things of the same sort or class, are called _Common nouns_; as, _man, woman, day_."--_Bullions cor._ "That it is our duty to be pious, admits not of any doubt."--_Id._ "To endure misfortune with resignation, is the characteristic of a great mind."--_Id._ "The assisting of a friend in such circumstances, was certainly a duty."--_Id._ "That a life of virtue is the safest, is certain."--_Hallock cor._ "A collective noun denoting the idea of unity, should be represented by a pronoun of the singular number."--_Id._ UNDER RULE II.--OF SIMPLE MEMBERS. "When the sun had arisen, the enemy retreated."--_Day cor._ "If he _become_ rich, he may be less industrious."--_Bullions cor._ "The more I study grammar, the better I like it."--_Id._ "There is much truth in the old adage, that fire is a better servant than master."--_Id._ "The verb _do_, when used as an auxiliary, gives force or emphasis to the expression."--_P. E. Day cor._ "Whatsoever is incumbent upon a man to do, it is surely expedient to do well."--_Adams cor._ "The soul, which our philosophy divides into various capacities, is still one essence."--_Channing cor._ "Put the following words in the plural, and give the rule for forming it."--_Bullions cor._ "We will do it, if you wish."--_Id._ "He who does well, will be rewarded."--_Id._ "That which is always true, is expressed in the present tense."--_Id._ "An observation which is always true, must be expressed in the present tense."--_Id._ "That part of orthography which treats of combining letters to form syllables and words, is called SPELLING."--_Day cor._ "A noun can never be of the first person, except it is in apposition with a pronoun of that person."--_Id._ "When two or more singular nouns or pronouns refer to the same object, they require a singular verb and pronoun."--_Id._ "James has gone, but he will return in a few days."--_Id._ "A pronoun should have the same person, number, and gender, as the noun for which it stands."--_Id._ "Though he is out of danger, he is still afraid."--_Bullions cor._ "She is his inferior in sense, but his equal in prudence."--_Murray's Exercises_, p. 6. "The man who has no sense of religion, is little to be trusted."--_Bullions cor._ "He who does the most good, has the most pleasure."--_Id._ "They were not in the most prosperous circumstances, when we last saw them."--_Id._ "If the day continue pleasant, I shall return."--_Felton cor._ "The days that are past, are gone forever."--_Id._ "As many as are friendly to the cause, will sustain it."--_Id._ "Such as desire aid, will receive it."--_Id._ "Who gave you that book, which you prize so much?"--_Bullions cor._ "He who made it, now preserves and governs it."--_Id._ "Shall he alone, whom rational we call, Be pleas'd with nothing, if not _blest_ with all?"--_Pope_. UNDER THE EXCEPTIONS CONCERNING SIMPLE MEMBERS. "Newcastle is the town in which Akenside was born."--_Bucke cor._ "The remorse which issues in reformation, is true repentance."--_Campbell cor._ "Men who are intemperate, are destructive members of community."-- _Alexander cor._ "An active-transitive verb expresses an action which extends to an object."--_Felton cor._ "They to whom much is given, will have much, to answer for."--_L. Murray cor._ "The prospect which we have, is charming."--_Cooper cor._ "He is the person who informed me of the matter."--_Id._ "These are the trees that produce no fruit."--_Id._ "This is the book which treats of the subject."--_Id._ "The proposal was such as pleased me."--_Id._ "Those that sow in tears, shall reap in joy."--_Id._ "The pen with which I write, makes too large a mark."--_Ingersoll cor._ "Modesty makes large amends for the pain it gives the persons who labour under it, by the prejudice it affords every worthy person, in their favour."--_Id._ "Irony is a figure whereby we plainly intend something very different from what our words express."--_Bucke cor._ "Catachresis is a figure whereby an improper word is used in stead of a proper one."--_Id._ "The man whom you met at the party, is a Frenchman."--_Frost cor._ UNDER RULE III.--OF MORE THAN TWO WORDS. "John, James, and Thomas, are here: that is, John, _and_ James, and Thomas, are here."--_Cooper cor._ "Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 116. "To Nouns belong Person, Gender, Number, and Case."--_Id., ib._, p. 9. "Wheat, corn, rye, and oats, are extensively cultivated."--_Bullions cor._ "In many, the definitions, rules, and leading facts, are prolix, inaccurate, and confused."--_Finch cor._ "Most people consider it mysterious, difficult, and useless."--_Id._ "His father, and mother, and uncle, reside at Rome."--_Farnum cor._ "The relative pronouns are _who, which_, and _that_."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 23. "_That_ is sometimes a demonstrative, sometimes a relative, and sometimes a conjunction."--_Bullions cor._ "Our reputation, virtue, and happiness, greatly depend on the choice of our companions."--_Day cor._ "The spirit of true religion is social, kind, and cheerful."--_Felton cor._ "_Do, be, have_, and _will_, are sometimes principal verbs."--_Id._ "John, and Thomas, and Peter, reside at Oxford."--_Webster cor._ "The most innocent pleasures are the most rational, the most delightful, and the most durable."--_Id._ "Love, joy, peace, and blessedness, are reserved for the good."--_Id._ "The husband, wife, and children, suffered extremely."--_L. Murray cor._ "The husband, wife, and children, suffer extremely."--_Sanborn cor._ "He, you, and I, have our parts assigned us."--_Id._ "He moaned, lamented, tugged, and tried, Repented, promised, wept, and sighed."--_Cowper_. UNDER RULE IV.--OF ONLY TWO WORDS. "Disappointments derange and overcome vulgar minds."--_L. Murray cor._ "The hive of a city or kingdom, is in the best condition, when there is the least noise or buzz in it."--_Id._ "When a direct address is made, the noun or pronoun is in the nominative case, independent."--_Ingersoll cor._ "The verbs _love_ and _teach_, make _loved_ and _taught_, in the imperfect and participle."--_Id._ "Neither poverty nor riches were injurious to him."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 152. "Thou or I am in fault."--_Id._, p. 152. "A verb is a word that expresses action or being."--_P. E. Day cor._ "The Objective Case denotes the object of a verb or a preposition."--_Id._ "Verbs of the second conjugation may be either transitive or intransitive."--_Id._ "Verbs of the fourth conjugation may be either transitive or intransitive."--_Id._ "If a verb does not form its past indicative by adding _d_ or _ed_ to the indicative present, it is said to be _irregular_."--_Id._ "The young lady is studying rhetoric and logic."--_Cooper cor._ "He writes and speaks the language very correctly."--_Id._ "Man's happiness or misery is, in a great measure, put into his own hands."--_Mur. cor._ "This accident or characteristic of nouns, is called their _Gender_."--_Bullions cor._ "Grant that the powerful still the weak _control_; Be _man_ the _wit_ and _tyrant_ of the whole."--_Pope cor._ UNDER EXCEPTION I.--TWO WORDS WITH ADJUNCTS. "Franklin is justly considered the ornament of the New World, and the pride of modern philosophy."--_Day cor._ "Levity, and attachment to worldly pleasures, destroy the sense of gratitude to Him."--_L. Mur. cor._ "In the following Exercise, point out the adjectives, and the substantives which they qualify."--_Bullions cor._ "When a noun or pronoun is used to explain, or give emphasis to, a preceding noun or pronoun."--_Day cor._ "Superior talents, and _brilliancy_ of intellect, do not always constitute a great man."--_Id._ "A word that makes sense after an article, or _after_ the phrase _speak of_, is a noun."--_Bullions cor._ "All feet used in poetry, are reducible to eight kinds; four of two syllables, and four of three."--_Hiley cor._ "He would not do it himself, not let me do it."--_Lennie's Gram._, p. 64. "The old writers give examples of the subjunctive _mood_, and give other _moods_ to explain what is meant by the words in the subjunctive."--_O. B. Peirce cor._ UNDER EXCEPTION II.--TWO TERMS CONTRASTED. "We often commend, as well as censure, imprudently."--_L. Mur. cor._ "It is as truly a violation of the right of property, to take a little, as to take much; to purloin a book or a penknife, as to steal money; to steal fruit, as to steal a horse; to defraud the revenue, as to rob my neighbour; to overcharge the public, as to overcharge my brother; to cheat the post-office, as to cheat my friend."--_Wayland cor._ "The classification of verbs has been, and still is, a vexed question."--_Bullions cor._ "Names applied only to individuals of a sort or class, and not common to all, are called _Proper nouns_."--_Id._ "A hero would desire to be loved, as well as to be reverenced."--_Day cor._ "Death, or some worse misfortune, now divides them." Better: "Death, or some _other_ misfortune, _soon_ divides them."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 151. "Alexander replied, 'The world will not permit two suns, nor two sovereigns.'"--_Goldsmith cor._ "From nature's chain, whatever link you strike, Tenth, or _ten-thousandth_, breaks the chain alike."--_Pope_. UNDER EXCEPTION III.--OF AN ALTERNATIVE OF WORDS. "_Metre_, or _Measure_, is the number of poetical feet which a verse contains."--_Hiley cor._ "The _Cæsura_, or _division_, is the pause which takes place in a verse, and which divides it into two parts."--_Id._ "It is six feet, or one fathom, deep."--_Bullions cor._ "A _Brace_ is used in poetry, at the end of a triplet, or three lines which rhyme together."--_Felton cor._ "There are four principal kinds of English verse, or poetical feet."--_Id._ "The period, or full stop, denotes the end of a complete sentence."--_Sanborn cor._ "The scholar is to receive as many _jetons_, or counters, as there are words in the sentence."--_St. Quentin cor._ "_That_ [thing], or _the thing, which_ purifies, fortifies also the heart."--_O. B. Peirce cor._ "_That thing_, or _the thing_, which would induce a laxity in public or private morals, or indifference to guilt and wretchedness, should be regarded as the deadly Sirocco."--_Id._ "_What_ is, elliptically, _what thing_, or _that thing which_."--_Sanborn cor._ "_Demonstrate_ means _show_, or _point out precisely_."--_Id._ "_The_ man, or _that_ man, who endures to the end, shall be saved."--_Hiley cor._ UNDER EXCEPTION IV.--OF A SECOND COMMA. "That reason, passion, answer one great _aim_."--POPE: _Bullions and Hiley cor._ "Reason, virtue, answer one great aim."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 269; _Cooper's Murray_, 182; _Comly_, 145; _Ingersoll_, 282; _Sanborn_, 268; _Kirkham_, 212; _et al._ "Every good gift, and every perfect gift, is from above."--_James_, i, 17. "Every plant, and every tree, produces others after its kind."--_Day cor._ "James, and not John, was paid for his services."--_Id._ "The single dagger, or obelisk [Dagger], is the second."--_Id._ "It was I, not he, that did it."--_St. Quentin cor._ "Each aunt, each cousin, hath her speculation."--_Byron._ "'I shall see you _when_ you come,' is equivalent to, 'I shall see you _then_, or _at that time_, when you come.'"--_N. Butler cor._ "Let wealth, let honour, wait the wedded dame; August her deed, and sacred be her fame."--_Pope cor._ UNDER RULE V.--OF WORDS IN PAIRS. "My hopes and fears, joys and sorrows, centre in you."--_Greenleaf or Sanborn cor._ "This mood implies possibility or liberty, will or obligation."--_Ingersoll cor._ "Substance is divided into _body_ and _spirit_, into _extended_ and _thinking_."--_Brightland cor._ "These consonants, [_d_ and _t_,] like _p_ and _b, f_ and _v, k_ and hard _g_, and _s_ and _z_, are letters of the same organ."--_J. Walker cor._ "Neither fig nor twist, pigtail nor Cavendish, _has_ passed my lips since; nor ever shall again."--_Cultivator cor._ "The words _whoever_ or _whosoever, whichever_ or _whichsoever_, and _whatever_ or _whatsoever_, are called Compound Relative Pronouns."--_Day cor._ "Adjectives signifying profit or disprofit, likeness or unlikeness, govern the dative."--_Bullions cor._ UNDER RULE VI.--OF WORDS ABSOLUTE. "Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me."--_Psalm_ xxiii 4. "Depart, ye wicked."--_J. W. Wright cor._ "He saith unto his mother. Woman, behold thy son!"--_John_, xix, 26. "Thou, God, seest me."--_Bullions cor._ "John, write me a letter. Henry, go home."--_O. B. Peirce cor., twice_. "Now, G. Brown, let us reason together."--_Id._ "_Mr._ Smith, _you_ say, on page 11th, '_The_ objective case denotes the object'"--_Id._ "Gentlemen, will you always speak as you mean?"--_Id._ "John, I sold my books to William, for his brothers."--_Id._ "Walter, and Seth, I will take my things, and leave yours."--_Id._ "Henry, Julia and Jane left their umbrella, and took yours."--_Id._ "John, harness the horses, and go to the mine for some coal."--_Id._ "William, run to the store, for a few pounds of tea."--_Id._ "The king being dead, the parliament was dissolved."--_Chandler cor._ "Cease, fond Nature, cease thy strife, And let me languish into life." --_Pope, Brit. Poets_, vi, 317. "Forbear, great man, in arms renown'd, forbear." --_Hiley's Gram._, p. 127. "Eternal sunshine of the spotless mind! Each prayer accepted, and each wish resign'd." --_Pope, Brit. Poets_, vi, 335. UNDER RULE VII.--OF WORDS IN APPOSITION. "We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice," &c.--_Constit. of U. S._ "The Lord, the covenant God of his people, requires it."--_A. S. Mag. cor._ "He, as a patriot, deserves praise."--_Hallock cor._ "Thomson, the watchmaker and jeweller from London, was of the party."--_Bullions cor._ "Every body knows that the person here spoken of by the name of '_the Conqueror_,' is William, duke of Normandy."--_L. Mur. cor._ "The words _myself, thyself, himself, herself, itself_, and their plurals, _ourselves, yourselves_, and _themselves_, are called Compound Personal Pronouns."--_Day cor._ "For who, to dumb forgetfulness a prey, This pleasing, anxious being e'er resign'd, Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day Nor cast one longing, ling'ring look behind?"--GRAY: _Mur. Seq._ UNDER THE EXCEPTIONS CONCERNING APPOSITION. "Smith & _Williams's_ store; Nicholas the emperor's army."--_Day cor._ "He was named _William the Conqueror._"--_Id._ "John the Baptist was beheaded."--_Id._ "Alexander the coppersmith did me _much evil_."--_2 Tim._, iv, 14. "A nominative in immediate apposition: as, 'The boy _Henry_ speaks.'"--_Smart cor._ "A noun objective can be in apposition with some other; as, 'I teach the boy _Henry_.'"--_Id._ UNDER RULE VIII.--OF ADJECTIVES. "But he found me, not singing at my work, ruddy with health, vivid with cheerfulness; but pale," &c.--DR. JOHNSON: _Murray's Sequel_, p. 4. "I looked up, and beheld an inclosure, beautiful as the gardens of paradise, but of a small extent."--HAWKESWORTH: _ib._, p. 20. "_A_ is an article, indefinite, and belongs to '_book_.'"--_Bullions cor._ "The first expresses the rapid movement of a troop of horse over the plain, eager for the combat."--_Id._ "He [, the Indian chieftain, King Philip,] was a patriot, attached to his native soil; a prince, true to his subjects, and indignant of their wrongs; a soldier, daring in battle, firm in adversity, patient of fatigue, of hunger, of every variety of bodily suffering, and ready to perish in the cause he had espoused."--_W. Irving_. "For thee, who, mindful of th' unhonour'd dead, Dost in these lines their artless tale relate." --GRAY: _Mur. Seq._, p. 258. "Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest; Some Cromwell, guiltless of his country's blood." --GRAY: _Enf. Sp._, p. 245. "Idle after dinner [,] in his chair, Sat a farmer, ruddy, fat, and fair." --_Murray's Gram._, p. 257. UNDER THE EXCEPTION CONCERNING ADJECTIVES. "When an attribute becomes a title, or is emphatically applied to a name, it follows it: as, Charles the Great; Henry the First; Lewis the Gross."--_Webster cor._ "Feed me with food convenient for me."--_Prov._, xxx, 8. "The words and phrases necessary to exemplify every principle progressively laid down, will be found strictly and exclusively adapted to the illustration of the principles to which they are referred."--_Ingersoll cor._ "The Infinitive _Mood_ is that form of the verb which expresses _being or action_ unlimited by person or number."--_Day cor._ "A man diligent in his business, prospers."--_Frost cor._ "_Oh_ wretched state! oh bosom black as death!" --SHAK.: _Enfield_, p. 368. UNDER RULE IX.--OF FINITE VERBS. "The Singular denotes _one_; the Plural, _more_ than one."--_Bullions and Lennie cor._ "The _Comma_ represents the shortest pause; the _Semicolon_, a pause longer than the comma; the _Colon_, longer than the semicolon; and the _Period_, longer than the colon."--_Hiley cor._ "The Comma represents the shortest pause; the Semicolon, a pause double that of the Comma; the Colon, double that of the semicolon; and the Period, double that of the colon."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 266. "WHO is applied only to persons; WHICH, to animals and things; WHAT, to things only; and THAT, to persons, animals, and things."--_Day cor._ "_A_ or _an_ is used before the singular number only; _the_, before either singular or plural."--_Bullions cor._ "Homer was the greater genius; Virgil, the better artist."--_Day cor._; also _Pope_. "Words are formed of syllables; syllables, of letters."--_St. Quentin cor._ "The conjugation of an active verb is styled the ACTIVE VOICE; and that of a passive verb, the PASSIVE VOICE."--_Frost cor._; also _Smith: L. Murray's Gram._, p. 77. "The possessive is sometimes called the _genitive_ case; and the objective, the _accusative_."--_L. Murray cor._ "Benevolence is allied to few vices; selfishness, to fewer virtues."--_Kames cor._ "Orthography treats of Letters; Etymology, of words; Syntax, of Sentences; and Prosody, of Versification."--_Hart cor._ "Earth praises conquerors for shedding blood; Heaven, those that love their foes, and do them good."--_Waller_. UNDER RULE X.--OF INFINITIVES. "His business is, to observe the agreement or disagreement of words."--_Bullions cor._ "It is a mark of distinction, to be made a member of this society."--_Farnum cor._ "To distinguish the conjugations, let the pupil observe the following rules."--_Day cor._ "He was now sent for, to preach before the Parliament."--_E. Williams cor._ "It is incumbent on the young, to love and honour their parents."--_Bullions cor._ "It is the business of every man, to prepare for death."--_Id._ "It argued the sincerest candor, to make such an acknowledgement."--_Id._ "The proper way is, to complete the construction of the first member, and leave that of the second _elliptical_."--_Id._ "ENEMY is a name. It is a term of distinction, given to a certain person, to show the character in which he is represented."--_Peirce cor._ "The object of this is, to preserve the soft _sounds_ of _c_ and _g_."--_Hart cor._ "The design of grammar is, to facilitate the reading, writing, and speaking of a language."--_Barrett cor._ "Four kinds of type are used in the following pages, to indicate the portions that are considered more or less elementary."--_Hart cor._ UNDER RULE XI.--OF PARTICIPLES. "The chancellor, being attached to the king, secured his crown."--_Murray's Grammar_, p. 66. "The officer, having received his orders, proceeded to execute them."--_Day cor._ "Thus used, it is in the present tense."--_Bullions, E. Gr._, 2d Ed., p. 35. "The imperfect tense has three distinct forms, corresponding to those of the present tense."--_Bullions cor._ "Every possessive case is governed by some noun, denoting the thing possessed."--_Id._ "The word _that_, used as a conjunction, is [generally] preceded by a comma."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 114. "His narrative, being composed upon _so_ good authority, deserves credit."--_Cooper cor._ "The hen, being in her nest, was killed and eaten there by the eagle."--_Murray cor._ "Pronouns, being used _in stead_ of nouns, are subject to the same modifications."--_Sanborn cor._ "When placed at the beginning of words, they are consonants."--_Hallock cor._ "Man, starting from his couch, shall sleep no more."--_Young._ "_His_ and _her_, followed by a noun, are possessive pronouns; not followed by a noun, they are personal pronouns."--_Bullions cor._ "He, with viny crown advancing, First to the lively pipe his hand address'd."--_Collins_. UNDER THE EXCEPTION CONCERNING PARTICIPLES. "But when they convey the idea of many acting individually, or separately, they are of the plural number."--_Day cor._ "Two or more singular antecedents connected by _and_, [when they happen to introduce more than one verb and more than one pronoun,] require verbs and pronouns of the plural number."--_Id._ "Words ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant change _y_ into _i_, when a termination is added."--_N. Butler cor._ "A noun used without an article to limit it, is generally taken in its widest sense."--_Ingersoll cor._ "Two nouns meaning the same person or thing, frequently come together."--_Bucke cor._ "Each one must give an account to God for the use, or abuse, of the talents committed to him."--_Cooper cor._ "Two vowels united in one sound, form a diphthong."--_Frost cor._ "Three vowels united in one sound, form a triphthong."--_Id._ "Any word joined to an adverb, is a secondary adverb."--_Barrett cor._ "The person spoken _to_, is put in the _Second_ person; the person spoken _of_, in the _Third_ person."--_Cutler cor._ "A man devoted to his business, prospers."--_Frost cor._ UNDER RULE XII.--OF ADVERBS. "So, in indirect questions; as, 'Tell me _when_ he will come.'"--_Butler cor._ "Now, when the verb tells what one person or thing does to _an other, it_ is transitive."--_Bullions cor._ "Agreeably to your request, I send this letter."--_Id._ "There seems, therefore, to be no good reason for giving them a different classification."--_Id._ "Again, the kingdom of heaven is like unto a merchant-man seeking good pearls."--_Scott's Bible, Smith's, and Bruce's_. "Again, the kingdom of heaven is like unto a net that was cast into the sea."--_Same._ "_Cease_, however, is used as a transitive verb by our best writers."--_Webster cor._ "Time admits of three natural divisions; namely, Present, Past, and Future."--_Day cor._ "There are three kinds of comparison; namely, Regular, Irregular, and Adverbial"--_Id._ "There are five personal pronouns; namely, _I, thou, he, she_, and _it_."--_Id._ "Nouns have three cases: viz., the Nominative, _the_ Possessive, and _the_ Objective."--_Bullions cor._ "Hence, in studying Grammar, we have to study words."--_Frazee cor._ "Participles, like verbs, relate to nouns and pronouns."--_Miller cor._ "The time of the participle, like that of the infinitive, is estimated from the time of the leading verb."--_Bullions cor._ "The dumb shall sing, the lame his crutch forego, And leap exulting, like the bounding roe."--_Pope._ UNDER RULE XIII.--OF CONJUNCTIONS. "But he said, Nay; lest, while ye gather up the tares, ye root up also the wheat with them."--_Scott's Bible et al._ "Their intentions were good: but, wanting prudence, they missed the mark at which they aimed."--_L. Mur. cor._ "The verb _be_ often separates the name from its attribute; as, '_War_ is expensive.'"--_Webster cor._ "_Either_ and _or_ denote an alternative; as, 'I will take _either_ road at your pleasure.'"--_Id._ "_Either_ is also a substitute for a name; as, '_Either_ of the roads is good.'"--_Id._ "But, alas! I fear the consequence."--_Day cor._ "Or, if he ask a fish, will he for a fish give him a serpent?"--_Luke_, xi, 11. "Or, if he shall ask an egg, will he offer him a scorpion?"--ALGER'S BIBLE: _Luke, xi, 12_. "The infinitive sometimes performs the office of a nominative case; as, 'To enjoy is to obey.'--POPE."--_Cutler cor._ "The plural is commonly formed by adding _s_ to the singular; as, _book_, books."--_Bullions, P. Lessons_, p. 16. "As, 'I _were_ to blame, if I did it.'"--_Smart cor._ "Or, if it be thy will and pleasure, Direct my plough to find a treasure." UNDER RULE XIV.--OF PREPOSITIONS. "Pronouns agree with the nouns for which they stand, in gender, number, and person."--_Butler and Bullions cor._ "In the first two examples, the antecedent is _person_, or something equivalent; in the last [_one_], it is _thing_."--_N. Butler cor._ "In what character he was admitted, is unknown."--_Id._ "To what place he was going, is not known."--_Id._ "In the preceding examples, _John, Cæsar_, and _James_, are the subjects."--_Id._ "_Yes_ is generally used to denote assent, _in answer_ to a question."--_Id._ "_That_, in its origin, is the passive participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb _thean_, [_thegan, thicgan, thicgean_, or _thigan_,] _to take_."--_Id._ "But, in all these sentences, _as_ and _so_ are adverbs."--_Id._ "After an interjection or _an_ exclamatory sentence, is _usually_ placed the mark of exclamation."--_D. Blair cor._ "Intransitive verbs, from their nature, can have no distinction of voice."--_Bullions cor._ "To the inflection of verbs, belong Voices, Moods, Tenses, Numbers, and Persons."--_Id._ "_As_ and _so_, in the antecedent member of a comparison, are properly Adverbs." Better: "_As_ OR _so_, in the antecedent member of a comparison, _is_ properly _an adverb_."--_Id._ "In the following Exercise, point out the words in apposition."--_Id._ "In the following Exercise, point out the noun or pronoun denoting the possessor."--_Id._ "_Its_ is not found in the Bible, except by misprint."--_Brown's Institutes_, p. 49. "No one's interest is concerned, except mine."--_Hallock cor._ "In most of the modern languages, there are four concords."--_St. Quentin cor._ "In illustration of these remarks, let us suppose a case."--_Hart cor._ "On the right management of the emphasis, depends the life of pronunciation."--_J. S. Hart and L. Murray cor._ See _Blair's Rhet._, p. 330. UNDER RULE XV.--OF INTERJECTIONS. "Behold, he is in the desert."--_Friend's Bible_. "And Lot said unto them, Oh, not so, my Lord."--_Alger's Bible_. "Oh, let me escape thither, (is it not a little one?) and my soul shall live."--_Friend's Bible, and Alger's_. "Behold, I come quickly."--_Rev._, xxii, 7. "Lo, I am with you always."--_Day cor._ "And, lo, I am with you alway."--_Alger's Bible: Day cor._; also _Scott and Bruce_. "Ha, ha, ha; how laughable that is!"--_Bullions cor._ "Interjections of laughter; _ha, ha, Ha_."--_Wright cor._ UNDER RULE XVI.--OF WORDS REPEATED. "Lend, lend your wings!" &c.--_Pope._ "To bed, to bed, to bed. There is a knocking at the gate. Come, come, come. What is done, cannot be undone. To bed, to bed, to bed."--SHAKSPEARE: _Burghs Speaker_, p. 130. "I will roar, that the duke shall cry, Encore, encore, let him roar, let him roar, once more, once more."--_Id., ib._, p. 136. "Vital spark of heavenly flame! Quit, oh quit this mortal frame!"--_Pope_. "O the pleasing, pleasing anguish, When we love, and when we languish."--_Addison_. "Praise to God, immortal praise, For the love that crowns our days!"--_Barbauld_. UNDER RULE XVII.--OF DEPENDENT QUOTATIONS. "Thus, of an infant, we say, '_It_ is a lovely creature.'"--_Bullions cor._ "No being can state a falsehood in saying, '_I am_;' for no one can utter _this_, if it is not true."--_Cardell cor._ "I know they will cry out against this, and say, 'Should he pay,' means, 'If he should pay.'"--_O. B. Peirce cor._ "For instance, when we say, '_The house is building_,' the advocates of the new theory ask,--'building _what?_' We might ask in turn, When you say, 'The field _ploughs_ well,'--ploughs _what?_ 'Wheat _sells_ well,'--sells _what?_ If _usage_ allows us to say, 'Wheat _sells_ at a dollar,' in a sense that is not active; why may it not also allow us to say, 'Wheat is _selling_ at a dollar' in a sense that is not active?"--_Hart cor._ "_Man_ is accountable,' equals, '_Mankind_ are accountable.'"--_Barrett cor._ "Thus, when we say, 'He may be reading,' _may_ is the real verb; the other parts are verbs by name only."--_Smart cor._ "Thus we say, _an apple, an hour_, that two vowel sounds may not come together."--_Id._ "It would be as improper to say, _an unit_, as to say, _an youth_; to say, _an one_, as to say, _an wonder_."--_Id._ "When we say, 'He died for the truth,' _for_ is a preposition."--_Id._ "We do not say, 'I might go yesterday;' but, 'I might have gone yesterday.'"--_Id._ "By student, we understand, one who has by matriculation acquired the rights of academical citizenship; but, by _bursché_, we understand, one who has already spent a certain time at the university."--_Howitt cor._ SECTION II.--THE SEMICOLON. CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE I.--OF COMPLEX MEMBERS. "The buds spread into leaves, and the blossoms swell to fruit; but they know not how they grow, nor who causes them to spring up from the bosom of the earth."--_Day cor._ "But he used his eloquence chiefly against Philip, king of Macedon; and, in several orations, he stirred up the Athenians to make war against him."--_Bullions cor._ "For the sake of euphony, the _n_ is dropped before a consonant; and, because most words begin with a consonant, this of course is its more common form."--_Id._ "But if I say, 'Will _a_ man be able to carry this burden?' it is manifest the idea is entirely changed; the reference is not to number, but to the species; and the answer might be, 'No; but a horse will.'"--_Id._ "In direct discourse, a noun used by the speaker or writer to designate himself [in the special relation of speaker or writer], is said to be of the _first_ person; used to designate the person addressed, it is said to be of the _second_ person; and, when used to designate a person or thing [merely] spoken of, it is said to be of the _third_ person."--_Id._ "Vice stings us, even in our pleasures; but virtue consoles us, even in our pains."--_Day cor._ "Vice is infamous, though in a prince; and virtue, honourable, though in a peasant."--_Id._ "Every word that is the name of a person or thing, is a _noun_; because, 'A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing.'"--_Bullions cor._ "This is the sword with which he did the deed; And that, the shield by which he was defended."--_Bucke cor._ UNDER RULE II.--OF SIMPLE MEMBERS. "A deathlike paleness was diffused over his countenance; a chilling terror convulsed his frame; his voice burst out at intervals into broken accents."--_Jerningham cor._ "The Lacedemonians never traded; they knew no luxury; they lived in houses built of rough materials; they _ate_ at public tables; fed on black broth; and despised every thing effeminate or luxurious."--_Whelpley cor._ "Government is the agent; society is the principal."--_Wayland cor._ "The essentials of speech were anciently supposed to be sufficiently designated by the _Noun_ and the _Verb_; to which was subsequently added the _Conjunction_."--_Bullions cor._ "The first faint gleamings of thought in its mind, are but reflections from the parents' own intellect; the first manifestations of temperament, are from the contagious parental fountain; the first aspirations of soul, are but the warmings and promptings of the parental spirit."--_Jocelyn cor._ "_Older_ and _oldest_ refer to maturity of age; _elder_ and _eldest_, to priority of right by birth. _Farther_ and _farthest_ denote place or distance; _further_ and _furthest_, quantity or addition."--_Bullions cor._ "Let the divisions be _natural_; such as obviously suggest themselves to the mind; _such_ as may aid your main design; and _such as may_ be easily remembered."--_Goldsbury cor._ "Gently make haste, of labour not afraid; A hundred times consider what you've said."--_Dryden cor._ UNDER RULE III.--OF APPOSITION, &C. (1.) "Adjectives are divided [, in Frost's Practical Grammar,] into two classes; adjectives denoting _quality_, and adjectives denoting _number_."--_Frost cor._ (2.) "There are [, according to some authors,] two classes of adjectives; _qualifying_ adjectives, and _limiting_ adjectives."--_N. Butler cor._ (3-5.) "There are three genders; the _masculine_, the _feminine_, and the _neuter_."--_Frost et al. cor._; also _L. Mur. et al_.; also _Hendrick: Inst._, p. 35. (6.) "The Singular denotes _one_; the Plural, _more_ than one."--_Hart cor._ (7.) "There are three cases; viz., the Nominative, the Possessive, and the Objective."--_Hendrick cor._ (8.) "Nouns have three cases; the _nominative_, the _possessive_, and the _objective_."--_Kirkham cor._ (9.) "In English, nouns have three cases; the _nominative_, the _possessive_, and the _objective_."--_Smith cor._ (10.) "Grammar is divided into four parts; namely, Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, Prosody."--_Hazen_. (11.) "It is divided into four parts; viz., Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, Prosody."--_Mur. et al. cor._ (12.) "It is divided into four parts; viz., Orthography. Etymology, Syntax, Prosody."--_Bucke cor._ (13.) "It is divided into four parts; namely, Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody."--_Lennie, Bullions, et al_. (14.) "It is divided into four parts; viz., Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody."--_Hendrick cor._ (15.) "Grammar is divided into four parts; viz., Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody."--_Chandler cor._ (16.) "It is divided into four parts; Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody."--_Cooper and Frost cor._ (17.) "English Grammar has been usually divided into four parts; viz., Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody."--_Nutting cor._ (18.) "Temperance leads to happiness; intemperance, to misery."--_Hiley and Hart cor._ (19, 20.) "A friend exaggerates a man's virtues; an enemy, his crimes."--_Hiley cor._; also _Murray_. (21.) "Many writers use a plural noun after the second of two numeral adjectives; thus, 'The first and second _pages_ are torn.'"--_Bullions cor._ (22.) "Of these, [i. e., of _Cases_,] the Latin has six; the Greek, five; the German, four; the Saxon, six; the French, three; &c."--_Id._ "In _ing_ it ends, when doing is expressed; In _d, t, n_, when suffering's confessed."--_Brightland cor._ MIXED EXAMPLES CORRECTED. "In old books, _i_ is often used for _j; v_, for _u; vv_, for _w_; and _ii_ or _ij_, for _y_."--_Hart cor._ "The forming of letters into words and syllables, is also called _Spelling_."--_Id._ "Labials are formed chiefly by the _lips_; dentals, by the _teeth_; palatals, by the palate; gutturals, by the _throat_; nasals, by the _nose_; and linguals, by the _tongue_."--_Id._ "The labials are _p, b, f, v_; the dentals, _t, d, s, z_; the palatals, _g_ soft and _j_; the gutturals, _k, q_, and _c_ and _g_ hard; the nasals, _m_ and _n_; and the linguals, _l_ and _r_."--_Id._ "Thus, '_The_ man, _having finished_ his letter, will carry it to the _post-office_.'"--_Id._ "Thus, in the sentence, '_He_ had a dagger concealed under his cloak,' _concealed_ is passive, signifying _being concealed_; but, in the former combination, it goes to make up a form the force of which is active."--_Id._ "Thus, in Latin, '_He_ had concealed the dagger,' would be, '_Pugionem abdiderat_;' but, '_He_ had the dagger concealed,' would be, '_Pugionem abditum habebat_."--_Id._ "_Here_, for instance, means, 'in this place;' _now_, 'at this time;' &c."--_Id._ "Here _when_ both declares the _time_ of the action, and so is an adverb; and also _connects_ the two verbs, and so _resembles_ a conjunction."--_Id._ "These words were all, no doubt, originally other parts of speech; viz., verbs, nouns, and adjectives."--_Id._ "The principal parts of a sentence, are the subject, the attribute, and the object; in other words, the nominative, the verb, and the objective."--_Id._ "Thus, the adjective is connected with the noun; the adverb, with the verb or adjective; _the pronoun_, with _its antecedent_; &c." "_Between_ refers to two; _among_, to more than two."--_Id._ "_At_ is used after a verb of rest; _to_, after a verb of motion."--_Id._ "Verbs are of three kinds; Active, Passive, and Neuter."--_L. Murray_. [Active] "Verbs are divided into two classes; Transitive and Intransitive."--_Hendrick cor._ "The Parts of Speech, in the English language, are nine; viz., _the_ Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Interjection, and Conjunction."--_Bullions cor._ See _Lennie_. "Of these, the Noun, Pronoun, and Verb, are declined; the rest are indeclinable."--_Bullions, Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, p. 18. "The first expression is called 'the _Active_ form;' the second, 'the _Passive_ form.'"--_Weld cor._ "O, 'tis a godlike privilege to save; And he that scorns it, is himself a slave."--_Cowper cor._ SECTION III.--THE COLON. CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE I.--OF ADDITIONAL REMARKS. "_Of_ is a preposition: it expresses the relation between _fear_ and _Lord_."--_Bullions cor._ "Wealth and poverty are both temptations to man: _that_ tends to excite pride; _this_, discontentment."--_Id. et al cor._ "Religion raises men above themselves; irreligion sinks them beneath the brutes: _this_ binds them down to a poor pitiable speck of perishable earth; _that_ opens for them a prospect to the skies."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 189. "Love not idleness: it destroys many."--_Ingersoll cor._ "Children, obey your parents: 'Honour thy father and mother,' is the first commandment with promise."--_Bullions cor._ "Thou art my _hiding-place_ and my shield; I hope in thy _word_."--_Psalm_ cxix, 114. "The sun shall not smite _thee_ by day, nor the moon by night. The Lord _shall_ preserve _thee_ from _all_ evil: _he shall preserve thy_ soul."--_Psalm_ cxxi, 6. "Here _to_ Greece is assigned the highest place in the class of objects among which she is numbered--the nations of antiquity: she is one of them."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 114. "From short (as usual) and disturb'd repose, I wake: how happy they who wake no more!"--_Young, N. T._, p. 3. UNDER RULE II.--OF GREATER PAUSES. "A taste _of_ a thing, implies actual enjoyment of it; but a tase [sic--KTH] _for_ it, implies only capacity for enjoyment: as, 'When we have had a true taste _of_ the pleasures of virtue, we can have no relish _for_ those of vice.'"--_Bullions cor._ "The Indicative mood simply declares a thing: as, 'He _loves_;' 'He _is_ loved:' or it asks a question; as, '_Lovest_ thou me?'"--_Id. and Lennie cor._; also _Murray_. "The Imperfect (or Past) tense represents an action or event indefinitely as past; as, 'Cæsar _came_, and _saw_, and _conquered_:' or it represents the action definitely as unfinished and continuing at a certain time now entirely past; as, 'My father _was coming_ home when I met him.'"--_Bullions cor._ "Some nouns have no plural; as, _gold, silver, wisdom_: others have no singular: as, _ashes, shears, tongs_: others are alike in both numbers; as, _sheep, deer, means, news_."--_Day cor._ "The same verb may be transitive in one sense, and intransitive in an other: thus, in the sentence, 'He believes my story,' _believes_ is transitive; but, in this phrase, 'He believes in God,' it is intransitive."--_Butler cor._ "Let the divisions be _distinct_: one part should not include _an other_, but each should have its proper place, and be of importance in that place; and all the parts, well fitted together and united, should present a _perfect_ whole."--_Goldsbury cor._ "In the use of the transitive verb, there are always _three_ things implied; the _actor_, the _act_, and the _object_ acted upon: in the use of the intransitive, there are only _two_; the subject, or _the thing_ spoken of, and the _state_ or _action_ attributed to it."--_Bullions cor._ "Why labours reason? instinct were as well; Instinct, far better: what can choose, can err."--_Young_, vii, 622. UNDER RULE III.--OF INDEPENDENT QUOTATIONS. "The sentence may run thus: 'He is related to the same person, and is governed by him.'"--_Hart cor._ "Always remember this ancient proverb: 'Know thyself.'"--_Hallock cor._ "Consider this sentence: 'The boy runs swiftly.'"--_Frazee cor._ "The comparative is used thus: 'Greece was more polished than any other nation of antiquity.' The same idea is expressed by the superlative, when the word _other_ is left out: thus, 'Greece was the most polished nation of antiquity.'"--_Bullions and Lennie cor._ "Burke, in his speech on the Carnatic war, makes the following allusion to the well known fable of _Cadmus_ sowing dragon's teeth:--'Every day you are fatigued and disgusted with this cant: 'The Carnatic is a country that will soon recover, and become instantly as prosperous as ever.' They think they are talking to innocents, who believe that by the sowing of dragon's teeth, men may come up ready grown and ready made.'"--_Hiley and Hart cor._ "For sects he car'd not: 'They are not of us, Nor need we, brethren, their concerns discuss.'"--_Crabbe cor._ "Habit, with him, was all the test of truth: 'It must be right; I've done it from my youth.' Questions he answer'd in as brief a way: 'It must be wrong; it was of yesterday.'"--_Id._ MIXED EXAMPLES CORRECTED. "This would seem to say, 'I doubt nothing, save one thing; namely, that he will _fulfill_ his promise:' whereas that is the very thing not doubted."--_Bullions cor._ "The common use of language requires, that a distinction be made between _morals_ and _manners_: the former depend upon internal dispositions; the latter, _upon_ outward and visible accomplishments."--_Beattie cor._ "Though I detest war in each particular fibre of my heart, yet I honour the heroes among our fathers, who fought with bloody hand. Peacemakers in a savage way, they were faithful to their light: the most inspired can be no more; and we, with greater light, do, it may be, far less."--_T. Parker cor._ "The article _the_, like _a_, must have a substantive joined with it; whereas _that_, like _one_, may have it understood: thus, speaking of books, I may select one, and say, 'Give me that;' but not, 'Give me _the_;'--[so I may say,] 'Give me _one_;' but not, 'Give me _a_.'"--_Bullions cor._ "The Present tense has three distinct forms: the _simple_; as, I read: the _emphatic_; as, I do read: and the _progressive_; as, I am reading." Or thus: "The Present tense has three distinct forms;--the _simple_; as, 'I read;'--the _emphatic_; as, 'I do read;'--and the _progressive_; as, 'I am reading.'"--_Id._ "The tenses in English are usually reckoned six: the _Present_, the _Imperfect_, the _Perfect_, the _Pluperfect_, the _First-future_, and the _Second-future_."--_Id._ "There are three participles; the Present or Active, the Perfect or Passive, and the Compound Perfect: as, _loving, loved, having loved_." Or, better: "There are three participles from each verb; namely, the _Imperfect_, the _Perfect_, and the _Preperfect_; as, _turning, turned, having turned_."--_Murray et al. cor._ "The participles are three; the Present, the Perfect, and the Compound Perfect: as, _loving, loved, having loved_." Better: "The participles of each verb are three; the _Imperfect_, the _Perfect_, and the _Preperfect_: as, _turning, turned, having turned_."--_Hart cor._ "_Will_ is conjugated regularly, when it is a principal verb: as, present, I _will_; past, I _willed_; &c."--_Frazee cor._ "And both sounds of _x_ are compound: one is that of _gz_, and the other, that of _ks_."--_Id._ "The man is happy; he is benevolent; he is useful."--_L. Mur._, p. 28: _Cooper cor._ "The pronoun stands _in stead_ of the noun: as, 'The man is happy; _he_ is benevolent; _he_ is useful.'"--_L. Murray cor._ "A Pronoun is a word used _in stead_ of a noun, to _prevent_ too frequent _a_ repetition of it: as, 'The man is happy; _he_ is benevolent; _he_ is useful.'"--_Id._ "A Pronoun is a word used in the room of a noun, or as a substitute for one or more words: as, 'The man is happy; _he_ is benevolent; _he_ is useful.'"--_Cooper cor._ "A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things; as, _Animal, tree, insect, fish, fowl_."--_Id._ "Nouns have three persons; the _first_, the _second_, and the _third_."--_Id._ "_So_ saying, her rash hand in evil hour Forth reaching to the fruit, she pluck'd, she _eat_: Earth felt the wound; and _Nature_ from her seat, Sighing through all her works, gave signs of _woe_, That all was lost."--MILTON, P. L., Book ix, l. 780. SECTION IV.--THE PERIOD. CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE I.--OF DISTINCT SENTENCES. "The third person is the position of _a word by which an object is merely_ spoken of; as, 'Paul and Silas were imprisoned.'--'The earth thirsts.'--'The sun shines.'"--_Frazee cor._ "Two, and three, and four, make nine. If he were here, he would assist his father and mother; for he is a dutiful son. They live together, and are happy, because they enjoy each other's society. They went to Roxbury, and tarried all night, and came back the next day."--_Goldsbury cor._ "We often resolve, but seldom perform. She is wiser than her sister. Though he is often advised, yet he does not reform. Reproof either softens or hardens its object. He is as old as his classmates, but not so learned. Neither prosperity, nor adversity, has improved him. Let him that standeth, take heed lest he fall. He can acquire no virtue, unless he make some sacrifices."--_Id._ "Down from his neck, with blazing gems array'd, Thy image, lovely Anna! hung portray'd; Th' unconscious figure, smiling all serene, Suspended in a golden chain was seen."--_Falconer._ UNDER RULE II.--OF ALLIED SENTENCES. "This life is a mere prelude to _an other_ which has no limits. _It_ is a little portion of duration. As death leaves us, so the day of _judgement_ will find us."--_Merchant cor._ "He went from Boston to New York.--He went (I say) from Boston; he went to New York. In walking across the floor, he stumbled over a chair."--_Goldsbury corrected_. "I saw him on the spot, going along the road, looking towards the house. During the heat of the day, he sat on the ground, under the shade of a tree."--_Goldsbury corrected_. "'George came home; I saw him yesterday.' _Here_ the word _him_ can extend only to the individual George."--_Barrett corrected_. "Commas are often used now, where parentheses were [adopted] formerly. I cannot, however, esteem this an improvement."--_Bucke's Classical Grammar_, p. 20. "Thou, like a sleeping, faithless sentinel, Didst let them pass unnotic'd, unimprov'd. And know, for that thou _slumberst_ on the guard, Thou shalt be made to answer at the bar For every fugitive."--COTTON: _Hallock and Enfield cor._ UNDER RULE III.--OF ABBREVIATIONS. "The term _pronoun_ (Lat. _pronomen_) strictly means a word used _for_, or _in stead of_, a noun."--_Bullions corrected_. "The period is also used after abbreviations; as, A. D., P. S., G. W. Johnson."--_N. Butler cor._ "On this principle of classification, the later Greek grammarians divided words into eight classes, or parts of speech: viz., the Article, Noun, Pronoun, Verb, Participle, Adverb, Preposition, and Conjunction."-- _Bullions cor._ "'_Metre [Melody]_ is not confined to verse: there is a tune in all good prose; and Shakspeare's was a sweet one.'--_Epea Pter._, ii, 61. [_First American Ed._, ii, 50.] Mr. H. Tooke's idea was probably just, agreeing with Aristotle's; but [, if so, it is] not accurately expressed."-- _Churchill cor._ "Mr. J. H. Tooke was educated at Eton and at Cambridge, in which latter college he took the degree of A. M. Being intended for the established church of England, he entered into holy orders when young; and obtained the living of Brentford, near London, which he held ten or twelve years."--_Tooke's Annotator cor._ "I, nor your plan, nor book condemn; But why your name? and why A. M.?"--_Lloyd cor._ MIXED EXAMPLES CORRECTED. "If thou turn away thy foot from the sabbath," &c.--_Isaiah_, lviii, 13. "He that hath eeris of hervnge, _here he_."--WICKLIFFE: _Matt._, xi, 15. "See General Rules for Spelling, iii, v, and vii."--_N. Butler cor._ "False witnesses did rise up."--_Ps._, xxxv, 11. "An _explicative_ sentence is used for explaining; an _interrogative_ sentence, for inquiring; an _imperative_ sentence, for commanding."-- _Barrett cor._ "In October, corn is gathered in the field by men, who go from hill to hill with baskets, into which they put the ears.--Susan labours with her needle for a livelihood.--Notwithstanding his poverty, he is a man of integrity."--_Golds, cor._ "A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable; a word of two syllables, a dissyllable; a word of three syllables, a trissyllable; a word of four or more syllables, a polysyllable."--_Frazee cor._ "If I say, '_If it did not rain_, I would take a walk;' I convey the idea that it _does_ rain at the time of speaking. '_If it rained_,' or, '_Did it rain_,' in [reference to] the present time, implies _that_ it does _not_ rain. '_If it did not rain_,' or, '_Did it not rain_,' in [reference to the] present time, implies that it _does_ rain. Thus, in this peculiar _application_, an affirmative sentence always implies a negation; and a negative sentence, an affirmation."--_Id._ "'_If I were loved_' and, '_Were I loved_;' imply I am _not_ loved: '_If I were not loved_,' and, '_Were I not loved_,' imply I _am_ loved. A negative sentence implies an affirmation, and an affirmative sentence implies a negation, in these forms of the subjunctive."--_Id._ "What is Rule III?"--_Hart cor._ "How is Rule III violated?"--_Id._ "How do you parse _letter_ in the sentence, 'James writes a letter?' Ans. _Letter_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, _neuter_ gender, and objective case; and is governed by the verb _writes_, according to Rule III, which says, 'A transitive verb governs the objective case.'"--_Id._ "Creation sleeps. 'Tis as the gen'ral pulse Of life stood still, and nature made a pause; An awful pause! prophetic of her end. And let her prophecy be soon fulfill'd: Fate, drop the curtain; I can lose no more."--_Young_. SECTION V.--THE DASH. CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE I.--OF ABRUPT PAUSES. "And there is something in your very strange story, that resembles--Does Mr. Bevil know your history particularly?"--_Burgh's Speaker_, p. 149. "Sir,--Mr. Myrtle--Gentlemen--You are friends--I am but a servant--But--"--_Ib._, p. 118. "An other man now would have given plump into this foolish story; but I--No, no, your humble servant for that."--GARRICK, _Neck or Nothing_. "Do not plunge thyself too far in anger, lest thou hasten thy trial; which if--Lord have mercy on thee for a hen!"--SHAKSPEARE, _All's Well_. "But ere they came,--O, let me say no more! Gather the sequel by that went before."--IDEM, _Com. of Errors_. UNDER RULE II.--OF EMPHATIC PAUSES. "M,--Malvolio;--M,--why, that begins my name."--SINGER'S SHAK., _Twelfth Night_. "Thus, by the creative influence of the Eternal Spirit, were the heavens and the earth finished in the space of six days--so admirably finished--an unformed chaos changed into a system of perfect order and beauty--that the adorable Architect himself pronounced it _very good_, and _all the sons of God shouted for joy_."--_Historical Reader_, p. 10. "If I were an American, as I am an Englishman, while a foreign troop remained in my country, I never would lay down my arms--never, never, never."--_Pitt's Speech_. "Madam, yourself are not exempt in this,-- Nor your son Dorset;--Buckingham, nor you."--SHAK. UNDER RULE III.--OF FAULTY DASHES. "'You shall go home directly, Le Fevre,' said my uncle Toby, 'to my house; and we'll send for a doctor to see what's the matter; and we'll have an apothecary; and the corporal shall be your nurse: and I'll be your servant, Le Fevre.'"--_Sterne cor._ "He continued: 'Inferior artists may be at a stand, because they want materials.'"--_Harris cor._ "Thus, then, continued he: 'The end, in other arts, is ever distant and removed.'"--_Id._ "The nouns must be coupled with _and_; and when a pronoun is used, it must be plural, as in the example. When the nouns are _disjoined_, the pronoun must be singular."--_Lennie cor._ "_Opinion_ is a common noun, or substantive, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case."--_Wright cor._ "The mountain, thy pall and thy prison, may keep thee; I shall see thee no more, but till death I will weep thee." --_See Felton's Gram._, p. 93. MIXED EXAMPLES CORRECTED. "If to accommodate man and beast, heaven and earth--if this be beyond me, 'tis not possible.--What consequence then follows? Or can there be any other than this?--_if_ I seek an interest of my own, detached from that of others, I seek an interest which is chimerical, and can never have existence."--_Harris_. "Again: I must have food and clothing. Without a proper genial warmth, I instantly perish. Am I not related, in this view, to the very earth itself?--_to_ the distant sun, from whose beams I derive vigour?"--_Id._ "Nature instantly ebbed again; the film returned to its place; the pulse fluttered--stopped--went on--throbbed--stopped again--moved--stopped.-- Shall I go on?--No."--_Sterne cor._ "Write ten nouns of the masculine gender;--ten of the feminine;--ten of the neuter; ten indefinite in gender."--_Davis cor._ "The infinitive _mood_ has two tenses; the indicative, six; the potential, _four_; the subjunctive, _two_; and the imperative, one."--_Frazee cor._ "Now notice the following sentences: 'John runs.'--'Boys run.'--'Thou runnest.'"--_Id._ "The Pronoun sometimes stands for a name; sometimes for an adjective, a sentence, _or_ a part of a sentence; and, sometimes, for a whole series of propositions."--_Peirce cor._ "The self-applauding bird, the peacock, see; Mark what a sumptuous pharisee is he!"--_Cowper cor._ SECTION VI.--THE EROTEME. CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE I.--OF QUESTIONS DIRECT. "When will his ear delight in the sound of arms? When shall I, like Oscar, travel in the light of my steel?"--_Ossian_, Vol. i, p. 357. "Will Henry call on me, while he shall be journeying south?"--_Peirce cor._ "An Interrogative Pronoun is one that is used in asking a question; as, '_Who_ is he? and _what_ does he want?'"--_P. E. Day cor._ "_Who_ is generally used when we would inquire _about_ some unknown person or persons; as, '_Who_ is that man?'"--_Id._ "_Your_ fathers, where are they? and the prophets, do they live forever?"--_Zech._, i. 5. "It is true, that some of our best writers have used _than whom_; but it is also true that they have used _other_ phrases which we have rejected as ungrammatical: then why not reject this too?--The sentences in the exercises, with _than who_, are correct as they stand."--_Lennie cor._ "When the perfect participle of an active-intransitive verb is annexed to the neuter verb _to be_, what does the combination form?"--_Hallock cor._ "Those adverbs which answer to the question _where_? _whither_? or _whence_? are called adverbs of _place_."--_Id._ "Canst thou by searching find out God? canst thou find out the Almighty unto perfection? It is as high as heaven; what canst thou do? deeper than hell; what canst thou know?"--SCOTT, ALGER, BRUCE, AND OTHERS: _Job_, xi, 7 and 8. "Where, where, for shelter shall the wicked fly, When consternation turns the good man pale?"--_Young_. UNDER RULE II.--OF QUESTIONS UNITED. "Who knows what resources are in store, and what the power of God may do for thee?"--STERNE: _Enfield's Speaker_, p. 307. "God is not a man, that he should lie; neither the son of man, that he should repent: hath he said, and shall he not do it? or hath he spoken, and shall he not make it good?"--SCOTT'S BIBLE, ALGER'S, FRIENDS', BRUCE'S, AND OTHERS: _Numb._, xxiii, 19. "Hath the Lord said it, and shall he not do it? hath he spoken it, and shall he not make it good?"--_Lennie and Bullions cor._ "Who calls the council, states the certain day, Who forms the phalanx, and who points the way?"--_Pope's Essay_. UNDER RULE III.--OF QUESTIONS INDIRECT. "To be, or not to be;--that is the question."--_Shak. et al. cor._ "If it be asked, why a pause should any more be necessary to emphasis than to an accent,--or why an emphasis alone will not sufficiently distinguish the members of sentences from each other, without pauses, as accent does words,--the answer is obvious: that we are preacquainted with the sound of words, and cannot mistake them when distinctly pronounced, however rapidly; but we are not preacquainted with the meaning of sentences, which must be pointed out to us by the reader or speaker."--_Sheridan cor._ "Cry, 'By your priesthood, tell me what you are.'"--_Pope cor._ MIXED EXAMPLES CORRECTED. "Who else can he be?"--_Barrett cor._ "Where else can he go?"--_Id._ "In familiar language, _here, there_, and _where_, are used for _hither, thither_, and _whither_."--_N. Butler cor._ "Take, for instance, this sentence: 'Indolence undermines the foundation of virtue.'"--_Hart cor._ "Take, for instance, the sentence before quoted: 'Indolence undermines the foundation of virtue.'"--_Id._ "Under the same head, are considered such sentences as these: '_He_ that _hath ears to hear_, let him hear.'--'_Gad_, a troop shall overcome him.'"--_Id._ "Tenses are certain modifications of the verb, which point out the distinctions of time."--_Bullions cor._ "Calm was the day, and the scene, delightful."--_Id._ See _Murray's Exercises_, p. 5. "The capital letters used by the Romans to denote numbers, were C, I, L, V, X; which are therefore called Numeral Letters. I denotes _one_; V, _five_; X, _ten_; L, _fifty_; and C, _a hundred_."--_Bullions cor._ "'I shall have written;' viz., at or before some future time or event."--_Id._ "In Latin words, the liquids are _l_ and _r_ only; in Greek words, _l, r, m_, and _n_."--_Id._ "Each legion was divided into ten cohorts; each cohort, into three maniples; and each maniple, into two centuries."--_Id._ "Of the Roman literature previous to A. U. 514, scarcely a vestige remains."--_Id._ "And that which He delights in, must be happy. But when? or where? This world was made for Cæsar."--CATO. "Look next on greatness. Say where greatness lies. Where, but among the heroes and the wise?"--_Pope_. SECTION VII--THE ECPHONEME. CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE I.--OF INTERJECTIONS, &c. (1.) "O! that he were wise!"--_Bullions cor._ (2.) "O! that his heart _were_ tender!"--_See Murray's Ex._ or _Key_, under Rule xix. (3 and 4.) "Oh! what a sight is here!"--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 71; (§37;) _Pract. Les._, p. 82; _Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, p. 111. (5-9.) "O Virtue! how amiable thou art!"--_Farnum's Gram._, p. 12; _Bullions's Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, p. 111. (10.) "Oh! that I had been more diligent!"--_Hart cor._; and _Hiley_. (11.) "O! the humiliation to which vice reduces us!"--_Farnum_ and _Mur. cor._ (12.) "O! that he were more prudent!"--_Farnum cor._ (13 and 14.) "Ah me!"--_Davis cor._ (15.) "Lately, alas! I knew a gentle boy," &c.--_Dial cor._ (16 and 17.) "Wo is me, Alhama!"--_Byron's Poems: Wells cor._ UNDER RULE II.--OF INVOCATIONS. "Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, O maid of Inistore!"--_Ossian_. "Cease a little while, O wind! stream, be thou silent a while! let my voice be heard around. Let my wanderer hear me! Salgar! it is Colma who calls. Here is the tree, and the rock. Salgar, my love! I am here. Why delayest thou thy coming? Lo! the calm moon comes forth. The flood is bright in the vale."--_Id._, Vol. i, p. 369. "Ah, stay not, stay not! guardless and alone: Hector! my lov'd, my dearest, bravest son!"--_Pope_, II., xxii, 61. UNDER RULE III.--OF EXCLAMATORY QUESTIONS. "How much better is wisdom than gold!"--See _Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 272. "O Virtue! how amiable art thou!"--See _Murray's Grammar_, 2d Edition, p. 95. "At that hour, O how vain was all sublunary happiness!"--_Brown's Institutes_, p. 117; see _English Reader_, p. 135. "Alas! how few and transitory are the joys which this world affords to man!"--_P. E. Day cor._ "Oh! how vain and transitory are all things here below!"--_Id._ "And O! what change of state, what change of rank, In that assembly everywhere was seen!"--_Pollok cor._; also _Day_. MIXED EXAMPLES CORRECTED. "O _Shame_! where is thy blush?"--_Shak._[557] "_John_, give me my hat."--_Barrett cor._ "What! is Moscow in flames?"--_Id._ "_O_! what happiness awaits the virtuous!"--_Id._ "_Ah, welladay_! do what we can for him, said Trim, maintaining his point,--the poor soul will die."--_Sterne_ or _Enfield cor._; also _Kirkham_. "Will John return to-morrow?"--_Barrett cor._ "Will not John return to-morrow?"--_Id._ "John, return to-morrow."--_Id._ "Soldiers, stand firm."--_Id._ "If _mea_, which means _my_, is an adjective in Latin, why may not _my_ be so called in English? and if my is an adjective, why not _Barrett's_?"--_Id._ "O Absalom, my son!"--See _2 Sam._, xix, 4. "O star-eyed Science! whither hast thou fled?"--_Peirce cor._ "Why do you tolerate your own inconsistency, by calling it the present tense?"--_Id._ "Thus the declarative mood [i.e., the indicative mood] may be used in asking a question: as, '_What_ man _is_ frail?'"--_Id._ "What connection has motive, wish, or supposition, with the the term _subjunctive_?"--_Id._ "A grand reason, truly, for calling it a golden key!"--_Id._ "What '_suffering_' the man who can say this, must be enduring!"--_Id._ "What is Brown's Rule in relation to this matter?"--_Id._ "Alas! how short is life!"--_P. E. Day cor._ "Thomas, study your book."--_Id._ "Who can tell us who they are?"--_Sanborn cor._ "Lord, have mercy on my son; for he is lunatic, and sorely vexed."--See _Matt._, xvii, 15. "O ye wild groves! O where is now your bloom?"--_Felton cor._ "O who of man the story will unfold?"--_Farnum cor._. "Methought I heard Horatio say, To-morrow. Go to--I will not hear of it--to-morrow!"--COTTON. "How his eyes languish! how his thoughts adore That painted coat which Joseph never wore!" SECTION VIII.--THE CURVES. CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE I.--OF PARENTHESES. "_Another_ [, better written as a phrase, _An other_,] is composed of the indefinite article _an_, (which etymologically means _one_,) and _other_; and denotes _one other_."--_Hallock cor._ "Each mood has its peculiar Tense, Tenses, or Times."--_Bucke cor._ "In some very ancient languages, (as the Hebrew,) which have been employed chiefly for expressing plain sentiments in the plainest manner, without aiming at any elaborate length or harmony of periods, this pronoun [the relative] occurs not so often."--_L. Murray cor._ "Before I shall say those things, O Conscript Fathers! about the public affairs, which are to be spoken at this time; I shall lay before you, in few words, the motives of the journey and the return."--_Brightland cor._ "Of well-chose words some take not care enough, And think they should be, like the subject, rough."--_Id._ "Then, having _showed_ his wounds, he'd sit him down."--_Bullions cor._ UNDER RULE II.--OF INCLUDED POINTS. "Then Jael smote the nail into his temples, and fastened it _into_ the ground: (for he was fast asleep, and weary:) so he died."--SCOTT'S BIBLE: _Judges_, iv, 21. "Every thing in the Iliad has manners, (as Aristotle expresses it,) that is, every thing is acted or spoken."--_Pope cor._ "Those nouns that end in _f_, or _fe_. (except some few _which_ I shall mention presently,) form plurals by changing those letters into _ves_: as, thief, _thieves_: wife, _wives_."--_Bucke cor._ "_As_ requires _as_; (expressing equality _of degree_;) _thus_, 'Mine is _as_ good _as_ yours.' _As_ [requires] _so_; (expressing equality _or proportion_;) _thus_, '_As_ the stars, _so_ shall thy seed be.' _So_ [requires] _as_; (with a negative expressing inequality;) _as_, 'He is _not so_ wise _as_ his brother.' _So_ [requires] _that_; (expressing _a_ consequence:) _as_, 'I am _so_ weak _that_ I cannot walk.'" [558]--_Bullions cor._ "A captious question, sir, (and yours is one,) Deserves an answer similar, or none."--_Cowper cor._ MIXED EXAMPLES CORRECTED. "Whatever words the verb TO BE serves to unite, referring to the same thing, must be of the same case; (§61;) as, '_Alexander_ is a _student_.'"--_Bullions cor._ "When the objective is a relative _or_ [_an_] interrogative, it comes before the verb that governs it: (§40, Rule 9:) Murray's 6th rule is unnecessary."--_Id._ "It is generally improper, except in poetry, to omit the antecedent to a relative; and always, to omit a relative, when of the nominative case."--_Id._ "In every sentence, there must be a verb and a nominative or subject, expressed or understood."--_Id._ "Nouns and pronouns, and especially words denoting time, are often governed by prepositions understood; or are used to restrict verbs or adjectives, without a governing word: (§50, Rem. 6 and Rule:) as, 'He gave [to] me a full account of the affair.'"--_Id._ "When _should_ is used in stead of _ought_, to express _present_ duty, (§20, 4,) it may be followed by the present; as, 'You _should_ study that you _may_ become learned.'"--_Id._ "The indicative present is frequently used after the words _when, till, before, as soon as, after_, to express the relative time of a future action: (§24, I, 4;) as, 'When he _comes_, he will be welcome.'"--_Id._ "The relative is parsed, [_according to Bullions_,] by stating its gender, number, case, and antecedent; (the gender and number being always the same as those of the antecedent;) thus, 'The boy who'--'_Who_ is a relative pronoun, masculine, singular, the nominative; and refers to '_boy_' as its antecedent."--_Id._ "'Now, now, I seize, I clasp _thy_ charms; And now _you_ burst, ah cruel! from my arms.'--_Pope_. "Here is an unnecessary change from the second person singular to the second _person_ plural. _The text_ would have been better, thus:-- 'Now, now, I seize, I clasp _your_ charms; And now _you_ burst, ah cruel! from my arms.'"--_John Burn cor._ See _Lowth's Gram._, p. 35; _Churchill's_, 293. SECTION IX.--ALL POINTS. MIXED EXAMPLES CORRECTED. "The principal stops are the following: the Comma [,], the Semicolon [;], the Colon [:], the Period, or Full Stop [.], the Note of Interrogation [?], the Note of Exclamation [!], the Parenthesis [()], and the Dash [--]."--_Bullions cor._ "The modern punctuation in Latin is the same as in English. The _chief_ marks employed are the Comma [,], _the_ Semicolon [;], _the_ Colon [:], _the_ Period [.], _the Note of_ Interrogation [?], _the Note of_ Exclamation (!), _the Parenthesis_ [()], _and the Dash_ [--]."--_Id._ "Plato reproving a young man for playing at some childish game, 'You chide me,' says the youth, 'for a trifling fault.' 'Custom,' replied the philosopher, 'is no trifle.' 'And,' adds _Montaigne_, 'he was in the right; for our vices begin in infancy.'"--_Home cor._ "A merchant at sea asked the skipper what death his father died. 'My father,' says the skipper, 'my grandfather, and my great-grandfather, were all drowned.' 'Well,' replies the merchant, 'and are not you afraid of being drowned too?'"--_Id._ "The use of inverted commas derives from France, where one Guillemet was the author of them; [and,] as an acknowledgement for the improvement, his countrymen call them after his name, GUILLEMETS."--_Hist. cor._ "This, however, is seldom if ever done, unless the word following the possessive begins with _s_; thus, we do not say, 'the _prince_' feather;' but, 'the _prince's_ feather.'"--_Bullions cor._ "And this phrase must mean, '_the feather of the prince_;' but '_prince's-feather_,' written as one word, [and with both apostrophe and hyphen,] is the name of a plant, a species of amaranth."--_G. Brown_. "Boëthius soon had the satisfaction of obtaining the highest honours his country could bestow."--_Ingersoll cor._; also _L. Murray_. "When an example, a quotation, or a speech, is introduced, it is separated from the rest of the sentence either by a _comma_ or _by_ a colon; as, 'The Scriptures give us an amiable representation of the Deity, in these words: _God is love_.'"--_Hiley cor._ "Either the colon or _the comma_ may be used, [according to the nature of the case,] when an example, a quotation, or a speech, is introduced; as, 'Always remember this ancient maxim: _Know thyself_.'--'The Scriptures give us an amiable representation of the Deity, in these words: _God is love_.'"--_Bullions cor._ "The first word of a quotation introduced after a colon, or _of any sentence quoted_ in a direct form, must begin with a capital: as, '_Always_ remember this ancient maxim: _Know_ thyself.'--'Our great lawgiver says, _Take_ up thy cross daily, and follow me.'"--_Bullions and Lennie cor._; also _L. Murray_; also _Weld_. See _Luke_, ix, 23. "Tell me, in whose house do you live?"--_N. Butler cor._ "He that acts wisely, deserves praise."--_Id._ "He who steals my purse, steals trash."--_Id._ "The antecedent is _sometimes_ omitted; as, 'Who steals my purse, steals trash.'--[_Shak._] That is, '_He_ who,' or, 'The _person_ who.'"--_Id._ "Thus, 'Whoever steals my purse, steals trash;'--'Whoever does no good, does harm.'"--_Id._ "Thus, 'Whoever sins, will suffer.' This means, that any one, without exception, who sins, will suffer."--_Id._ "Letters form syllables; syllables, words; words, sentences; and sentences, combined and connected, form discourse."--_Cooper cor._ "A letter which forms a perfect sound when uttered by itself, is called a vowel; as, _a, e, i_."--_Id._ "A proper noun is the name of an individual, [or of a particular people or place]; as, John, Boston, Hudson, America."--_Id._ "Many men have been capable of doing a wise thing; more, a cunning thing; but very few, a generous thing."--_Davis cor._ "In the place of an ellipsis of the verb, a comma must be inserted."--_Id._ "A common noun unlimited by an article, is sometimes understood in its broadest acceptation: thus, '_Fishes_ swim,' is understood to mean _all_ fishes; '_Man_ is mortal,' _all_ men."--_Id._ "Thus, those sounds formed principally by the throat, are called _gutturals_; those formed principally by the palate, _palatals_; those formed by the teeth, _dentals_; those by the lips, _labials; and_ those by the nose, _nasals_."--_Davis cor._ "Some adjectives are compared irregularly: as, _Good, letter, best; Bad, worse, worst; Little, less, least_."--_Felton cor._ "Under the fourth head of grammar, therefore, four topics will be considered; viz., PUNCTUATION, ORTHOEPY [sic--KTH], FIGURES, and VERSIFICATION."--_Hart cor._ "Direct her onward to that peaceful shore, Where peril, pain, and death, are felt no more!"--_Falconer cor._ GOOD ENGLISH RIGHTLY POINTED. LESSON I.--UNDER VARIOUS RULES. "Discoveries of such a character are sometimes made in grammar also; and such, too, _are_ often their origin and their end."--_Bullions cor._ "TRAVERSE, [literally to _cross_,] To deny what the opposite party has alleged. To traverse an indictment, _or the like_, is to deny it."--_Id._ "The _Ordinal_ numerals denote the _order_, or _succession_, in which any number of persons or things _are_ mentioned; as, _first, second, third_, fourth, &c."--_Hiley cor._ "Nouns have three persons; _the_ First, _the_ Second, and _the_ Third. The First person is _that which denotes_ the speaker: the Second is _that which denotes the person or thing_ spoken to; the Third is _that which denotes_ the _person or thing merely_ spoken of."--_Hart cor._ "Nouns have three cases; _the_ Nominative, _the_ Possessive, and _the_ Objective. The _relations_ indicated by the _cases_ of a noun, _include_ three _distinct_ ideas; viz., those of subject, object, and ownership."--_Id._ "In speaking of animals that are of inferior size, or whose sex is not known or not regarded, _we_ often _treat them_ as without sex: thus, we say of a cat, '_It_ is treacherous;' of an infant, '_It_ is beautiful;' of a deer, '_It_ was killed.'"--_Id._ "When THIS _and_ THAT, or THESE _and_ THOSE, refer to a preceding sentence; THIS or THESE _represents_ the latter member or term, _and_ THAT or THOSE, the former."--_Churchill cor._; and _Lowth_. "The rearing of them became his first care; their fruit, his first food; and _the_ marking _of_ their kinds, his first knowledge."--_N. Butler cor._ "After the period used with abbreviations, we should employ other points, if the construction demands _them_; thus, after 'Esq.,' in the last example, there should be, besides _the_ period, a comma."--_Id._ "In the plural, the verb _has_ the same _form_ in all the persons; _but still_ the principle in _Rem._ 5, under Rule iii, that the first or second person takes precedence, is applicable to verbs, _in parsing_."--_Id._ "Rex and Tyrannus are of very different characters. The one rules his people by laws to which they consent; the other, by his absolute will and power: that _government_ is called freedom; this, tyranny."--_L. Murray cor._ "A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, _that_ can be known or mentioned: as, George, London, America, goodness, charity."--See _Brown's Institutes_, p. 31. "Etymology treats of the classification of words, their various modifications, and _their derivation_"--_P. E. Day cor._ "To punctuate correctly, implies a thorough acquaintance with the meaning of words and phrases, as well as _with_ all their corresponding connexions."--_W. Day cor._ "All objects _that_ belong to neither the male nor _the_ female kind, are said to be of the neuter gender, _except certain things personified_."--_Weld cor twice_. "The Analysis of the Sounds in the English language, presented in the preceding statements, _is_ sufficiently exact for the purpose in hand. Those who wish to pursue _the subject_ further, can consult Dr. Rush's admirable work, 'The Philosophy of the Human Voice.'"--_Fowler cor._ "Nobody confounds the name of _w_ or _y_ with _the_ sound _of the letter_, or _with its_ phonetic import."--_Id._ [[Fist] This assertion is hardly true. Strange as such a blunder is, it has actually occurred. See, in Orthography, Obs. 5, on the Classes of the Letters, at p. 156.--G. B.] "Order is Heav'n's first law; and, this _confess'd_, Some are, and must be, greater than the rest."--_Pope_. LESSON II--UNDER VARIOUS RULES. "_From_ adjectives of one syllable, _and some of two_, the comparative is formed by adding _r_ or _er_ to the positive; and the superlative, by adding _st_ or _est_: as, _sweet, sweeter, sweetest_; _able, abler, ablest_."--_Bullions cor._ "_From_ monosyllables, _or from dissyllables ending with a vowel or the accent_, the comparative is formed by adding _er_ or _r_ to the positive; and the superlative, by adding _est_ or _st_: as, _tall, taller, tallest_; _wise, wiser, wisest_; _holy, holier, holiest_; _complete, completer, completest_."--_Id._ "By this method, the confusion and unnecessary labour occasioned by studying grammars, in these languages, constructed on different principles, _are_ avoided; the study of one is rendered a profitable introduction to the study of an other; and an opportunity is furnished to the _inquiring_ student, of comparing the languages in their grammatical structure, and _of_ seeing at once wherein they agree, and wherein they differ."--_Id._ "No larger portion should be assigned for each recitation, than the class can easily master; and, till _the previous lessons are well learned_, a new portion should not be given out."--_Id._ "The acquisitions made in every new lesson, should be _riveted_ and secured by repeated revisals."--_Id._ "The personal pronouns may be parsed briefly, thus: '_I_ is a personal pronoun, _of_ the first _person_, singular _number_, masculine _gender_, (feminine, if the speaker is a female,) _and_ nominative _case_.' '_His is_ a personal pronoun, _of_ the third _person_, singular _number_, masculine _gender, and_ possessive _case_.'"--_Id._ "When the male and _the_ female are expressed by distinct terms, as, _shepherd, shepherdess_, the masculine term has also a general meaning, expressing both male and female; and is always to be used when the office, occupation, _or_ profession, and not the sex, of the individual, is chiefly to be expressed; the feminine term being used only when the discrimination of sex is indispensably necessary. Thus, when it is said, 'The poets of this country are distinguished _for_ correctness of taste,' the term 'poets' clearly includes both male and female writers of poetry."--_Id._ "Nouns and pronouns connected by conjunctions, must be in the same _case_"--_Ingersoll cor._ "Verbs connected by _and, or_, or _nor_, must _generally_ be in the _same mood_ and _tense_; and, when _the tense has different forms_, they must be in the same form."--_Id._ "This will habituate him to reflection; exercise his _judgement_ on the meaning of the author; and, without any great effort on his part, impress indelibly on his memory the rules which he is required to give. After the exercises under _any_ rule have been gone through, _agreeably to the direction_ in the note _at the bottom of_ page _88th_, they may be read over again in a corrected state, the pupil making an emphasis on the correction made; or they may be presented in writing, at the next recitation."--_Bullions cor._ "Man, but for that, no action could attend; And, but for this, _were active_ to no end."--_Pope_. LESSON III.--UNDER VARIOUS RULES. "'Johnson, the bookseller and stationer' indicates that _bookseller_ and _stationer_ are _terms_ belonging to the same person; 'the bookseller and the stationer,' would indicate that they belong to different persons."--_Bullions cor._ "_Past_ is [commonly] an adjective; _passed_, the past tense or perfect participle of the verb: and they ought not (as _they_ frequently _are_) to be confounded with each other."--_Id._ "Not only the nature of the thoughts and sentiments, but the very selection _or_ arrangement of the words, gives English poetry a character which separates it widely from common prose."--_Id._ "Men of sound, discriminating, and philosophical minds--men prepared for the work by long study, patient investigation, and extensive acquirements--have laboured for ages to improve and perfect it; and nothing is hazarded in asserting, that, should it be unwisely abandoned, it will be long before an other, equal in beauty, stability, and usefulness, _will_ be produced in its stead."--_Id._, on the common "system of English Grammar." "The article _the_, on the other hand, is used to restrict; and is therefore termed _Definite_. Its proper office is, to call the attention to a particular individual or class, or to any number of such; and _accordingly it_ is used with nouns _of_ either number, singular or plural."--_Id._ "Hence, also, the infinitive mood, a participle _with its adjuncts_, a member of a sentence, or a _whole_ proposition, forming the subject of discourse, or the object of a verb or preposition, and being the name of an act or circumstance, _is_, in construction, regarded as a _noun_; and _is_ usually called, 'a substantive phrase:' as, '_To play_, is pleasant.'--'_That he is an expert dancer_, is no recommendation.'--'Let your motto be, _Honesty is the best policy_.'"--_Id._ "In accordance with his definition, Murray has divided verbs into three classes: _Active, Passive_, and _Neuter_;--and _included_ in the first class transitive verbs only; and, in the last, all verbs used intransitively"--_Id._ "Moreover, as the name of the speaker or _that of_ the person spoken to is seldom expressed, (the _pronoun_ I being used _for the former_, and THOU _or_ YOU _for the latter_,) a noun is very _rarely_ in the first person; not often in the second; and _hardly ever_ in either, unless it _is_ a proper noun, or a common noun _denoting an object_ personified."--_Id._ "In using the _parsing_ exercises, it will save much time, (_and this saving_ is _all-important_,) if the pupil be taught to say _all things_ belonging to the noun, in the fewest words possible; and to say them always in the same order, _after the example_ above."--_Id._ "In any phrase or sentence, the adjectives qualifying a noun may generally be found by prefixing the phrase, 'What kind of,' to the noun, in the form of a question; as, 'What kind of horse?' 'What kind of stone?' 'What kind of way?' The word containing the answer to the question, is an adjective."--_Id._ "In the following exercise, let the pupil first point out the nouns, and then the adjectives; and tell how he knows them to be _such_."--_Id._ "In the following sentences, point out the improper _ellipses_; _show_ why _they are_ improper; and correct _them_."--_Id._ "SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. I am smitten, 1. We are smitten, 2. Thou art smitten, 2. You are smitten, 3. He is smitten; 3. They are smitten."--_Wright cor._ CHAPTER II.--UTTERANCE. The second chapter of Prosody, treating of articulation, pronunciation, elocution and the minor topics that come under Utterance, contains no exercises demanding correction in this Key. CHAPTER III.--FIGURES. In the third chapter of Prosody, the several Figures of speech are explained; and, as the illustrations embrace no errors for correction, nothing here corresponds to the chapter, but the title. CHAPTER IV.--VERSIFICATION. FALSE PROSODY, OR ERRORS OF METRE, CORRECTED. LESSON I.--RHYTHM RESTORED. "Where thy true treasure? Gold says, 'Not in me.'" --_Young_. "Canst thou grow sad, thou _say'st_, as earth grows bright." --_Dana_. "It must be so;--Plato, thou _reason'st_ well" --CATO: _Enfield_, p. 321. "Slow rises _worth_ by poverty depressed." --_Wells's Gram., Late Ed._, p. 211. "Rapt _into_ future times, the bard begun." --POPE.--_Ib._, p. 165. "Is there not rain enough in the sweet heavens To wash it white as snow? _Whereto_ serves mercy But to confront the visage of offence?" --_Shak., Hamlet_. "Look! in this place ran _Cassius_' dagger through." --_Id., J. Cæsar_. "_And_ when they list, their lean and flashy songs Grate on their scrannel pipes of wretched straw." --_Milton, Lycidas_. "Did not great Julius bleed for _justice'_ sake?" --_Dodd and Shak. cor._ "May I _express thee' unblam'd? since_ God is light" --_Milton_, B. iii, l. 3. "Or _hear'st_ thou rather pure ethereal stream?" --_Id._, B. iii, l. 7. "Republics, kingdoms, empires, may decay; _Great_ princes, heroes, sages, sink to nought." --_Peirce or La-Rue cor._ "Thou _bringst_, gay creature as thou art, A solemn image to my heart." --_Hallock cor._ "Know _then_ thyself, presume not God to scan; The proper study of mankind is Man." --_Pope, on Man_, Ep. ii, l. 1. "Raised on _pilasters high_ of _burnished_ gold." --_Dr. S. Butler cor._ "Love in _Adalgise_' breast has fixed his sting." --_Id._ "Thirty days _each have_ September, April, June, and _old_ November; _Each_ of the rest _has_ thirty-one, Bating February alone, Which has twenty-eight in fine, Till leap-year gives it twenty-nine." --_Dean Colet cor._ LESSON II.--RHYTHM RESTORED. "'Twas not the fame of what he once had been, Or tales in _records old_ and annals seen." --_Rowe cor._ "And Asia now and Afric are explored For high-priced dainties and _the_ citron board." --_Rowe cor._ "Who knows not how the trembling judge beheld The peaceful court with _arm~ed_ legions fill'd?" --_Rowe cor._ "With thee the Scythian wilds we'll wander o'er, With thee _the_ burning Libyan sands explore." --_Rowe cor._ "Hasty and headlong, different paths they tread, As _impulse blind_ and wild distraction lead." --_Rowe cor._ "But Fate reserv'd _him_ to perform its doom, And be the minister of wrath to Rome." --_Rowe cor._ "Thus spoke the youth. When Cato thus _express'd_ The sacred counsels of his inmost breast." --_Rowe cor._ "These were the _rigid_ manners of the man, This _was_ the stubborn course in which they ran; The golden mean unchanging to pursue, Constant to keep the _purpos'd_ end in view." --_Rowe cor._ "What greater grief can _on_ a Roman seize, Than to be forced to live on terms like these!" --_Rowe cor._ "He views the naked town with joyful eyes, While from his rage an _arm~ed_ people flies." --_Rowe cor._ "For planks and beams, he ravages the wood, And the tough _oak_ extends across the flood." --_Rowe cor._ "A narrow pass the horn~ed mole divides. Narrow as that where _strong Euripus_' tides Beat on Euboean Chalcis' rocky sides." --_Rowe cor._ "No force, no fears their hands _unarm~ed_ bear,"--or, "No force, no fears their hands unarm'd _now_ bear, But looks of peace and gentleness they wear." --_Rowe cor._ "The ready warriors all aboard them ride, And wait return of the retiring tide." --_Rowe cor._ "He saw those troops that long had faithful stood, Friends to his cause, and enemies to good, Grown weary of their chief, and _satiate_ with blood." --_Rowe cor._ END OF THE KEY. APPENDIX I. TO PART FIRST, OR ORTHOGRAPHY. OF THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. In the first chapter of Part I, the powers of the letters, or the elementary sounds of the English language, were duly enumerated and explained; for these, as well as the letters themselves, are few, and may be fully stated in few words: but, since we often express the same sound in many different ways, and also, in some instances, give to the same letter several different sounds,--or, it may be, no sound at all,--any adequate account of the powers of the letters considered severally according to usage,--that is, of the sound or sounds of each letter, with its mute positions, as these occur in practice,--must, it was thought, descend to a minuteness of detail not desirable in the first chapter of Orthography. For this reason, the following particulars have been reserved to be given here as an Appendix, pertaining to the First Part of this English Grammar. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--A proper discrimination of the different vowel sounds by the epithets most commonly used for this purpose,--such as _long_ and _short, broad_ and _slender, open_ and _close_, or _open_ and _shut_,--is made difficult, if not impossible, by reason of the different, and sometimes directly contradictory senses in which certain orthoepists [sic--KTH] have employed such terms. Wells says, "Vowel sounds are called _open_ or _close_, according to the _relative size of the opening_ through which the voice passes in forming them. Thus, _a_ in _father_, and _o_ in _nor_, are called _open_ sounds, because they are formed by a _wide opening_ of the organs of speech; while _e_ in _me_, and _u_ in _rule_, are called _close_ sounds, because the organs are _nearly closed_ in uttering them."--_School Grammar_, 1850, p. 32. Good use should fix the import of words. How does the passage here cited comport with this hint of Pope? "These equal syllables alone require, _Though oft the ear the open_ vowels tire." --_Essay on Criticism_, l. 344. OBS. 2.--Walker, too, in his Principles, 64 and 65, on page 19th of his Critical Pronouncing Dictionary, mentions a similar distinction of vowels, "which arises from _the different apertures_ of the mouth in forming them;" and says, "We accordingly find vowels denominated by the French, _ouvert_ and _fermé_; by the Italians, _aperto_ and _chiuso_; and by the English [,] _open_ and _shut_. But whatever propriety there may be in the use of these terms in other languages, it is certain they must be used with caution in English for fear of confounding them with _long_ and _short_. Dr. Johnson and other grammarians call the _a_ in _father_ the _open a_: which may, indeed, distinguish it from the _slender a_ in _paper_; but not from the _broad a_ in _water_, which is still more _open_. Each of these letters [the seven vowels] has a _short_ sound, which may be called a _shut_ sound; but the _long_ sounds cannot be so properly denominated _open_ as more or less _broad_; that is, the _a_ in _paper_, the slender sound; the _a_ in _father_, the broadish or middle sound; and the _a_ in _water_, the broad sound. The same may be observed of the _o_. This letter has three long sounds, heard in _move, note, nor_; which graduate from slender to broadish, and broad [,] like [those three sounds of] the _a_. The _i_ also in _mine_ may be called the broad _i_, and that in _machine_, the slender _i_; though each of them is equally _long_; and though these vowels that are _long_ [,] may be said to be more or less _open_ according to the different apertures of the mouth in forming them, yet the _short_ vowels cannot be said to be more or less _shut_; for as _short_ always implies _shut_ (except in verse,) though _long_ does not always imply _open_, we must be careful not to confound _long_ and _open_, and _close_ and _shut_, when we speak of the quantity and quality of the vowels. The truth of it is," continues he, "all vowels either terminate a syllable, or are united with a consonant. In the first case, if the accent be on the syllable, the vowel is _long_, though it may not be _open_: in the second case, where a syllable is terminated by a consonant, except that consonant be _r_, whether the accent be on the syllable or not, the vowel has its _short_ sound, which, compared with its long one, may be called _shut_: but [,] as no vowel can be said to be _shut_ that is not joined to a consonant, _all vowels that end syllables_ may be said to be _open_, whether the accent be on them or not."--_Crit. Pron. Dict._, New York, 1827, p. 19. OBS. 3.--These suggestions of Walker's, though each in itself may seem clear and plausible, are undoubtedly, in several respects, confused and self-contradictory. _Open_ and _shut_ are here inconsistently referred first to one principle of distinction, and then to another;--first, (as are "_open_ and _close_" by Wells,) to "the _relative size_ of the opening," or to "the _different apertures_ of the mouth;" and then, in the conclusion, to the _relative position_ of the vowels with respect to other letters. These principles improperly give to each of the contrasted epithets two very different senses: as, with respect to aperture, _wide_ and _narrow_; with respect to position, _closed_ and _unclosed_. Now, that _open_ may mean _unclosed_, or _close_ be put _for closed_, is not to be questioned; but that _open_ is a good word for _wide_, or that _shut_ (not to say _close_) can well mean _narrow_, is an assumption hardly scholarlike. According to Walker, "_we must be careful_ not to confound" _open_ with _long_, or _shut_ with _short_, or _close_ with _shut_; and yet, if he himself does not, in the very paragraph above quoted, confound them all,--does not identify in sense, or fail to distinguish, the two words in each of these pairs,--I know not who can need his "caution." If there are vowel sounds which graduate through several degrees of openness or broadness, it would seem most natural to express these by regularly comparing the epithet preferred; as, _open, opener, openest_; or _broad, broader, broadest_. And again, if "all vowels that end syllables may be said to be open," then it is not true, that "the long sounds" of _a_ in _paper, father, water_, cannot be so "denominated;" or that to "call the _a_ in _father_ the _open a_, may, indeed, distinguish it from the slender _a_ in _paper_." Nor, on this principle, can it be said that "the broad _a_ in _water_ is still _more open_;" for this a no more "ends a syllable" than the others. If any vowel sound is to be called the _open_ sound because the letter ends a syllable, or is not shut by a consonant, it is, undoubtedly, the _primal_ and _most usual_ sound, as found in the letter when accented, and not some other of rare occurrence. OBS. 4.--Dr. Perley says, "It is greatly to be regretted that the different sounds of a vowel should be called by the names _long, short, slender_, and _broad_, which convey no idea of the nature of the sound, for _mat_ and _not_ are as long in poetry as _mate_ and _note_. The first sound of a vowel[,] as [that of _a_ in] _fate_[,] may be called _open_, because it is the sound which the vowel generally has when it ends a syllable; the second sound as [that of _a_ in] _fat_, may be called _close_, because it is the sound which the vowel generally has when it is joined with a consonant following in the same syllable, as _fat-ten_; when there are more than two sounds of any vowel[,] they may be numbered onward; as 3 _far_, 4 _fall_."--_Perley's Gram._, p. 73. OBS. 5.--Walker thought a long or short vowel sound essential to a long or short quantity in any syllable. By this, if he was wrong in it, (as, in the chapter on Versification, I have argued that he was,) he probably disturbed more the proper distinction of quantities, than that of vowel sounds. As regards _long_ and _short_, therefore, Perley's regret seems to have cause; but, in making the same objection to "_slender_ and _broad_," he reasons illogically. So far as his view is right, however, it coincides with the following earlier suggestion: "The terms _long_ and _short_, which are often used to denote certain vowel sounds; being also used, with a different import, to distinguish the quantity of syllables, are frequently misunderstood; for which reason, we have substituted for them the terms _open_ and _close_;--the former, to denote the sound usually given to a vowel when it _forms_ or _ends_ an accented syllable; as, _ba, be, bi, bo, bu, by_;--the latter, to denote the sound which the vowel commonly takes when closed by a consonant; as, _ab, eb, ib, ob, ub_"--_Brown's Institutes_, p. 285. I. OF THE LETTER A. The vowel A has _four_ sounds properly its own; they are named by various epithets: as, 1. The English, open, full, long, or slender _a_; as in _aid, fame, favour, efficacious_. 2. The French, close, curt, short, or stopped _a_; as in _bat, banner, balance, carrying_. 3. The Italian, broadish, grave, or middle _a_; as in _far, father, aha, comma, scoria, sofa_. 4. The Dutch, German, Old-Saxon, or broad _a_; as in _wall, haul, walk, warm, water_. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--Concerning the number of sounds pertaining to the vowel _a_, or to certain other particular letters, and consequently in regard to the whole number of the sounds which constitute the oral elements of the English language, our educational literati,--the grammarians, orthoepists [sic--KTH], orthographers, elocutionists, phonographers, and lexicographers,--are found to have entertained and inculcated a great variety of opinions. In their different countings, the number of our phonical elements varies from twenty-six to more than forty. Wells says there are "_about forty_ elementary sounds."--_School Gram._, §64. His first edition was more positive, and stated them at "_forty-one_." See the last and very erroneous passage which I have cited at the foot of page 162. In Worcester's Universal and Critical Dictionary, there appear to be noted several _more_ than _forty-one_, but I know not whether this author, or Walker either, has anywhere told us how many of his marked sounds he considered to be severally different from all others. Sheridan and Jones admitted _twenty-eight_. Churchill acknowledges, as undisputed and indisputable, only _twenty-six_; though he enumerates, "Of simple vowel sounds, _twelve_, or _perhaps thirteen_" (New Grammar, p. 5,) and says, "The consonant sounds in the English language, are _nineteen_, or _rather twenty_."--P. 13. OBS. 2.--Thus, while Pitman, Comstock, and others, are amusing themselves with the folly of inventing new "Phonetic Alphabets," or of overturning all orthography to furnish "a character for each of the 38 elementary sounds," more or fewer, one of the acutest observers among our grammarians can fix on no number more definite or more considerable than _thirty-one, thirty-two_, or _thirty-three_; and the finding of these he announces with a "_perhaps_," and the admission that other writers object to as many as _five_ of the questionable number. Churchill's vowel sounds, he says, "may be found in the following words: 1. B_a_te, 2. B_a_t, 3. B_a_ll; 4. B_e_t, 5. B_e_; 6. B_i_t; 7. B_o_t, 8. B_o_ne, 9. B_oo_n; 10. B_u_t, 11. B_u_ll; 12. Lovel_y_; 13. _W_ool."--_New Grammar_, p. 5. To this he adds: "Many of the writers on orthoepy [sic--KTH], however, consider the first and fourth of the sounds above distinguished as actually the same, the former differing from the latter only by being lengthened in the pronunciation. They also reckon the seventh sound, to be the third shortened; the twelfth, the fifth shortened; and the eleventh, the ninth shortened. Some consider the fifth and sixth as differing only in length; and most esteem the eleventh and thirteenth as identical."--_Ib._ OBS. 3.--Now, it is plain, that these six identifications, or so many of them as are admitted, must diminish by six, or by the less number allowed, the thirteen vowel sounds enumerated by this author. By the best authorities, _W_ initial, as in "_W_ool." is reckoned a _consonant_; and, of course, its sound is supposed to differ in some degree from that of _oo_ in "B_oo_n," or that of _u_ in "B_u_ll,"--the ninth sound or the eleventh in the foregoing series. By Walker, Murray, and other popular writers, the sound of _y_ in "Lovel_y_" is accounted to be essentially the same as that of _e_ in "B_e_." The twelfth and the thirteenth, then, of this list, being removed, and three others added,--namely, the _a_ heard in _far_, the _i_ in _fine_, and the _u_ in _fuse_,--we shall have the _fourteen vowel sounds_ which are enumerated by L. Murray and others, and adopted by the author of the present work. OBS. 4.--Wells says, "_A_ has _six_ sounds:--1. Long; as in _late_. 2. Grave; as in _father_. 3. Broad; as in _fall_. 4. Short; as in _man_. 5. The sound heard in _care, hare_. 6. Intermediate between _a_ in _man_ and _a_ in _father_; as in _grass, pass, branch_."--_School Grammar_, 1850, p. 33. Besides these six, Worcester recognizes a seventh sound,--the "_A obscure_; as in _liar, rival_"--_Univ. and Crit. Dict._, p. ix. Such a multiplication of the oral elements of our first vowel.--or, indeed, any extension of them beyond four,--appears to me to be unadvisable; because it not only makes our alphabet the more defective, but is unnecessary, and not sustained by our best and most popular orthoepical [sic--KTH] authorities. The sound of _a_ in _liar_, (and in _rival_ too, if made "_obscure_") is a borrowed one, pertaining more properly to the letter _u_. In _grass, pass_, and _branch_, properly uttered, the _a_ is essentially the same as in _man_. In _care_ and _hare_, we have the first sound of _a_, made as slender as the _r_ will admit. OBS. 5.--Concerning his fifth sound of _a_, Wells cites authorities thus: "Walker, Webster, Sheridan, Fulton and Knight, Kenrick, Jones, and Nares, give _a_ in _care_ the _long_ sound of _a_, as in _late_. Page and Day give it the _short_ sound of _a_, as in _mat_. See Page's Normal Chart, and Day's Art of Elocution. Worcester and Perry make the sound of _a_ in _care_ a separate element; and this distinction is also recognized by Russell, Mandeville, and Wright. See Russell's Lessons in Enunciation, Mandeville's Elements of Reading and Oratory, and Wright's Orthography."--_Wells's School Grammar_, p. 34. Now the opinion that _a_ in _care_ has its long, primal sound, and is not properly "a separate element," is maintained also by Murray, Hiley, Bullions, Scott, and Cobb; and is, undoubtedly, much more prevalent than any other. It accords, too, with the scheme of Johnson. To count this _a_ by itself, seems too much like a distinction without a difference. OBS. 6.--On his sixth sound of _a_, Wells remarks as follows: "Many persons pronounce this _a_ incorrectly, giving it either the grave or the short sound. Perry, Jones, Nares, Webster, and Day, give to _a_ in _grass_ the grave sound, as in _father_; while Walker, Jamieson, and Russell, give it the short sound, as in _man_. But good speakers generally pronounce _a_ in _grass, plant_, etc., as a distinct element, intermediate between the grave and the short sound."--_School Gram._, p. 34. He also cites Worcester and Smart to the same effect; and thinks, with the latter, "_There can be no harm_ in avoiding the censure of both parties by _shunning the extreme_ that offends the taste of each."--_Ib._, p. 35. But I say, that a needless multiplication of questionable vowel powers difficult to be discriminated, _is_ "harm," or a fault in teaching; and, where intelligent orthoepists [sic--KTH] dispute whether words have "the _grave_ or the _short_ sound" of _a_, how can others, who condemn both parties, acceptably split the difference, and form "a distinct element" in the interval? Words are often mispronounced, and the French or close _a_ may be mistaken for the Italian or broadish _a_, and _vice versa_; but, between the two, there does not appear to be room for an other distinguishable from both. Dr. Johnson says, (inaccurately indeed,) "_A_ has _three_ sounds, the slender, [the] open, and [the] broad. _A_ slender is found in _most words_, as _face, mane_. _A_ open is the _a_ of the Italian, or nearly resembles it; as _father, rather, congratulate, fancy, glass_. _A_ broad resembles the _a_ of the German; as _all, wall, call_. [fist] The _short a_ approaches to the _a_ open, as _grass_."--_Johnson's Grammar, in his Quarto Dictionary_, p. 1. Thus the same word, _grass_, that serves Johnson for an example of "the _short a_" is used by Wells and Worcester to exemplify the "_a intermediate_;" while of the Doctor's five instances of what he calls the "_a open_," three, if not four, are evidently such as nearly all readers nowadays would call close or short! OBS. 7.--There are several grammarians who agree in ascribing to our first vowel _five_ sounds, but who nevertheless oppose one an other in making up the five. Thus, according to Hart, "A has five sounds of its own, as in fate, fare, far, fall, fat,"--_Hart's E. Gram._, p. 26. According to W. Allen, "A has five sounds;--the long or slender, as in _cane_; the short or open, as in _can_; the middle, as in _arm_; the broad, as in _all_; and the _broad contracted_, as in _want_."--_Allen's E. Gram._, p. 6. P. Davis has the same sounds in a different order, thus: "a [as in] mane, mar, fall, mat, what."--_Davis's E. Gram._, p. xvi. Mennye says, "A has five sounds; as, 1 fame, 2 fat, 3 false, 4 farm, 5 beggar."--_Mennye's E. Gram._, p. 55. Here the fifth sound is the seventh of Worcester,--the "_A obscure_." DIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH A. The only proper diphthong in which _a_ is put first, is the word _ay_, meaning _yes_: in which _a_ has its _middle_ sound, as in _ah_, and _y_ is like _open e_, or _ee_, uttered feebly--_ah-ee_. _Aa_, when pronounced as an improper diphthong, and not as pertaining to two syllables, usually takes the sound of _close a_; as in _Balaam, Canaan, Isaac_. In many words, as in _Baäl, Gaäl, Gaäsh_, the diæresis occurs. In _baa_, the cry of a sheep, we hear the Italian sound of _a_; and, since we hear it but once, one _a_ or the other must be silent. _�_, a Latin improper diphthong, common also in the Anglo-Saxon, generally has, according to modern orthoëpists, the sound of _open e_ or _ee_; as in _Cæsar, ænigma, pæan_;--sometimes that of _close_ or _short e_; as in _aphæresis, diæresis, et cætera_. Some authors, judging the _a_ of this diphthong to be needless, reject it, and write _Cesar, enigma_, &c. _Ai_, an improper diphthong, generally has the sound of _open_ or _long a_; as in _sail, avail, vainly_. In a final unaccented syllable, it sometimes preserves the first sound of _a_; as in _chilblain, mortmain_: but oftener takes the sound of _close_ or _short i_; as in _certain, curtain, mountain, villain_. In _said, saith, again_, and _against_, it takes the sound of _close_ or _short e_; and in the name _Britain_, that of _close_ or _short u_. _Ao_, an improper diphthong, occurs in the word _gaol_, now frequently written as it is pronounced, _jail_; also in _gaoler_, which may be written _jailer_; and in the compounds of _gaol_: and, again, it is found in the adjective _extraordinary_, and its derivatives, in which, according to nearly all orthoëpists, the _a_ is silent. The name _Pharaoh_, is pronounced _F=a'r=o_. _Au_, an improper diphthong, is generally sounded like _broad a_; as in _cause, caught, applause_. Before _n_ and an other consonant, it usually has the sound of _grave_ or _middle a_; as in _aunt, flaunt, gaunt, launch, laundry_. So in _laugh, laughter_, and their derivatives. _Gauge_ and _gauger_ are pronounced _gage_ and _gager_, and sometimes written so. _Aw_, an improper diphthong, is always sounded like _broad a_; as in _draw, drawn, drawl_. _Ay_, an improper diphthong, like _ai_, has usually the sound of _open_ or _long a_; as in _day, pay, delay_: in _sayst_ and _says_, it has the sound of _close_ or _short e_. TRIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH A. _Awe_ is sounded _au_, like _broad a_. _Aye_, an adverb signifying _always_, has the sound of _open_ or _long a_ only; being different, both in sound and in spelling, from the adverb _ay_, yes, with which it is often carelessly confounded. The distinction is maintained by Johnson, Walker, Todd, Chalmers, Jones, Cobb, Maunder, Bolles, and others; but Webster and Worcester give it up, and write "_ay_, or _aye_," each sounded _ah-ee_, for the affirmation, and "_aye_," sounded _=a_, for the adverb of time: Ainsworth on the contrary has _ay_ only, for either sense, and does not note the pronunciation. II. OF THE LETTER B. The consonant _B_ has but one sound; as in _boy, robber, cub_. _B_ is silent before _t_ or after _m_ in the same syllable; as in _debt, debtor, doubt, dumb, lamb, climb, tomb_. It is heard in _subtile_, fine; but not in _subtle_, cunning. III. OF THE LETTER C. The consonant _C_ has two sounds, neither of them peculiar to this letter; the one _hard_, like that of _k_, and the other _soft_, or rather _hissing_, like that of _s_. _C_ before _a, o, u, l, r, t_, or when it ends a syllable, is generally hard, like _k_; as in _can, come curb, clay, crab, act, action, accent, flaccid_. _C_ before _e, i_, or _y_, is always soft, like _s_; as in _cent, civil, decency, acid_. In a few words, _c_ takes the _flat_ sound of _s_, like that of _z_; as in _discern, suffice, sacrifice, sice_. _C_ before _ea, ia, ie, io_, or _eou_, when the accent precedes, sounds like _sh_; as in _ocean, special, species, gracious, cetaceous_. _C_ is silent in _czar, czarina, victuals, indict, muscle, corpuscle_, and the second syllable of _Connecticut_. _Ch_ is generally sounded like _tch_, or _tsh_, which is the same to the ear; as in _church, chance, child_. But in words derived from the learned languages, it has the sound of _k_; as in _character, scheme, catechise, chorus, choir, chyle, patriarch, drachma, magna charta_: except in _chart, charter, charity_. _Ch_, in words derived from the French, takes the sound of _sh_; as in _chaise, machine_. In Hebrew words or names, in general, _ch_ sounds like _k_; as in _Chebar, Sirach, Enoch_: but in _Rachel, cherub_, and _cherubim_, we have Anglicized the sound by uttering it as _tch_. _Loch_, a Scottish word, sometimes also a medical term, is heard as _lok_. "_Arch_, before a vowel, is pronounced _ark_; as in _archives, archangel, archipelago_: except in _arched, archer, archery, archenemy_. Before a consonant it is pronounced _artch_; as in _archbishop, archduke, archfiend_."--See _W. Allen's Gram._, p. 10. _Ch_ is silent in _schism, yacht_, and _drachm_. In _schedule_, some utter it as _k_; others, as _sh_; and many make it mute: I like the first practice. IV. OF THE LETTER D. The general sound of the consonant _D_, is that which is heard in _dog, eddy, did_. _D_, in the termination _ed_, preceded by a sharp consonant, takes the sound of _t_, when the _e_ is suppressed or unheard: as in _faced, stuffed, cracked, tripped, passed_; pronounced _faste, stuft, cract, tript, past. D_ before _ia, ie, io_, or _eou_, when the accent precedes, generally sounds like _j_; as in _Indian, soldier, tedious, hideous_. So in _verdure, arduous, education_. V. OF THE LETTER E. The vowel _E_ has _two_ sounds properly its own,--and I incline to think, _three_:-- 1. The open, long, full, or primal _e_; as in _me, mere, menial, melodious_. 2. The close, curt, short, or stopped _e_; as in _men, merry, ebony, strength_. 3. The obscure or faint _e_; as in _open, garden, shovel, able_. This third sound is scarcely perceptible, and barely sufficient to articulate the consonant and form a syllable. _E final_ is mute and belongs to the syllable formed by the preceding vowel or diphthong; as in _age, eve, ice, ore_. Except--1. In the words, _be, he, me, we, she_, in which it has the open sound; and the article _the_, wherein it is open before a vowel, and obscure before a consonant. 2. In Greek and Latin words, in which it has its open sound, and forms a distinct syllable, or the basis of one; as in _Penelope, Pasiphaë, Cyaneë, Gargaphië, Arsinoë, apostrophe, catastrophe, simile, extempore, epitome_. 3. In the terminations _ere, gre, tre_, in which it has the sound of _close_ or _curt u_, heard before the _r_; as in _acre, meagre, centre_. Mute _e_, after a single consonant, or after _st_ or _th_, generally preserves the open or long sound of the preceding vowel; as in _cane, here, pine, cone, tune, thyme, baste, waste, lathe, clothe_: except in syllables unaccented; as in the last of _genuine_;--and in a few monosyllables; as _bade, are, were, gone, shone, one, done, give, live, shove, love_. DIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH E. _E_ before an other vowel, in general, either forms with it an _improper_ diphthong, or else belongs to a separate syllable. We do not hear both vowels in one syllable, except perhaps in _eu_ or _ew_. _Ea_, an improper diphthong, mostly sounds like _open_ or _long e_; as in _ear, fear, tea_; frequently like _close_ or _curt e_; as in _head, health, leather_: sometimes, like _open_ or _long a_; as in _steak, bear, forswear_: rarely, like _middle a_; as in _heart, hearth, hearken. Ea_ in an unaccented syllable, sounds like _close_ or _curt u_; as _in vengeance, pageant_. _Ee_, an improper diphthong, mostly sounds like one _open_ or _long e_; as in _eel, sheep, tree, trustee, referee_. The contractions _e'er_ and _ne'er_, are pronounced _air_ and _nair_, and not like _ear_ and _near. E'en_, however, preserves the sound of _open e. Been_ is most commonly heard with the curt sound of _i, bin_. _Ei_, an improper diphthong, mostly sounds like the _primal_ or _long a_; as in _reign, veil_: frequently, like _open_ or _long e_; as in _deceit, either, neither, seize_: sometimes, like _open_ or _long i_; as in _height, sleight, heigh-ho_: often, in unaccented syllables, like _close_ or _curt i_; as in _foreign, forfeit, surfeit, sovereign_: rarely, like _close e_; as in _heifer, nonpareil_. _Eo_, an improper diphthong, in _people_, sounds like _open_ or _long e_; in _leopard_ and _jeopard_, like _close_ or _curt e_; in _yeoman_, according to the best usage, like _open_ or _long o_; in _George, Georgia, georgic_, like _close o_; in _dungeon, puncheon, sturgeon_, &c., like _close u_. In _feoff_, and its derivatives, the _close_ or _short_ sound of _e_ is most fashionable; but some prefer the long sound of _e_; and some write the word "_fief." Feod, feodal, feodary, feodatory_, are now commonly written as they are pronounced, _feud, feudal, feudary, feudatory_. _Eu_ and _ew_ are sounded alike, and almost always with the diphthongal sound of _open_ or _long u_; as in _feud, deuce, jewel, dew, few, new_. These diphthongs, when initial, sound like _yu_. Nouns beginning with this sound, require the article _a_, and not _an_, before them; as, _A European, a ewer_. After _r_ or _rh, eu_ and _ew_ are commonly sounded like _oo_; as in _drew, grew, screw, rheumatism_. In _sew_ and _Shrewsbury, ew_ sounds like _open o_: Worcester, however, prefers the sound of _oo_ in the latter word. _Shew_ and _strew_, having the same meaning as _show_ and _strow_, are sometimes, by sameness of pronunciation, made to be the same words; and sometimes distinguished as different words, by taking the sounds _shu_ and _stroo_. _Ey_, accented, has the sound of _open_ or _long a_; as in _bey, prey, survey_: unaccented, it has the sound of _open e_; as in _alley, valley, money. Key_ and _ley_ are pronounced _kee, lee_. TRIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH E. _Eau_, a French triphthong, sounds like _open o_; as in _beau, flambeau, portmanteau, bureau_: except in _beauty_, and its compounds, in which it is pronounced like _open u_, as if the word were written _buty_. _Eou_ is a combination of vowels sometimes heard in one syllable, especially after _c_ or _g_; as in _crus-ta-ceous, gor-geous_. Walker, in his Rhyming Dictionary, gives one hundred and twenty words ending in _eous_, in all of which he separates these vowels; as in _ex-tra-ne-ous_. And why, in his Pronouncing Dictionary, he gave us several such anomalies as _fa-ba-ce-ous_ in four syllables and _her-ba-ceous_ in three, it is not easy to tell. The best rule is this: after _c_ or _g_, unite these vowels; after the other consonants, separate them. _Ewe_ is a triphthong having the sound of _yu_, and forming a word. The vulgar pronunciation _yoe_ should be carefully avoided. _Eye_ is an improper triphthong which also forms a word, and is pronounced like _open i_, or the pronoun _I_. VI. OF THE LETTER F. The consonant _F_ has one unvaried sound, which is heard in _fan, effort, staff_: except _of_, which, when simple, is pronounced _ov_. VII. OF THE LETTER G. The consonant _G_ has two sounds;--the one _hard_, guttural, and peculiar to this letter; the other _soft_, like that of _j. G_ before _a, o, u, l, r_, or at the end of a word, is hard; as in _game, gone, gull, glory, grace, log, bog_; except in _gaol. G_ before _e, i_, or _y_, is soft; as in _gem, ginger, elegy_. Except--1. In _get, give, gewgaw, finger_, and a few other words. 2. When a syllable is added to a word ending in g: as, _long, longer; fog, foggy_. _G_ is silent before _m_ or _n_ in the same syllable; as in _phlegm, apothegm, gnaw, design. G_, when silent, usually lengthens the preceding vowel; as in _resign, impregn, impugn_. _Gh_ at the beginning of a word has the sound of _g hard_; as in _ghastly, gherkin, Ghibelline, ghost, ghoul, ghyll_: in other situations, it is generally silent; as in _high, mighty, plough, bough, though, through, fight, night, bought. Gh final_ sometimes sounds like _f_; as in _laugh, rough, tough_; and sometimes, like _g hard_; as in _burgh_. In _hough, lough, shough_, it sounds like _k_, or _ck_; thus, _hock, lock, shock_. VIII. OF THE LETTER H. The sound of the consonant _H_, (though articulate and audible when properly uttered,) is little more than an aspirate breathing. It is heard in _hat, hit, hot, hut, adhere_. _H_ at the beginning of a word, is always sounded; except in _heir, herb, honest, honour, hospital, hostler, hour, humble, humour_, with their compounds and derivatives. _H_ after _r_, is always silent; as in _rhapsody, rhetoric, rheum, rhubarb. H final_, immediately following a vowel, is always silent; as in _ah, Sarah, Nineveh, Shiloh_. IX. OF THE LETTER I. The vowel _I_ has three sounds, each very common to it, and perhaps properly its own:-- 1. The open, long, full, or primal _i_; as in _life, fine, final, time, bind, child, sigh, pint, resign_. This is a diphthongal sound, equivalent to the sounds of _middle a_ and _open e_ quickly united. 2. The close, curt, short, or stopped _i_; as in _ink, limit, disfigure, mimicking_. 3. The feeble, faint, or slender _i_, accentless; as in _divest, doctrinal, diversity_. This third sound is equivalent to that of _open e_, or _ee_ uttered feebly. _I_ generally has this sound when it occurs at the end of an unaccented syllable: except at the end of Latin words, or of ancient names, where it is _open_ or _long_; as in _literati, Nervii, Eli, Levi_. In some words, (principally from other modern languages,) _i_ has the full sound of _open e_, under the accent; as in _Porto Rico, machine, magazine, antique, shire_. Accented _i_ followed by a vowel, has its open or primal sound; and the vowels belong to separate syllables; as in _pliant, diet, satiety, violet, pious_. Unaccented _i_ followed by a vowel, has its feeble sound; as in _expatiate, obedient, various, abstemious_. DIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH I. _I_, in the situation last described, readily coalesces with the vowel which follows, and is often sunk into the same syllable, forming a proper diphthong: as in _fustian, quotient, question_. The terminations _cion, sion, and tion_, are generally pronounced _shun_; and _cious_ and _tious_ are pronounced _shus_. _Ie_ is commonly an improper diphthong. _Ie_ in _die, hie, lie, pie, tie, vie_, and their derivatives, has the sound of _open i. Ie_ in words from the French, (as _cap-a-pie, ecurie, grenadier, siege, bier_,) has the sound of _open e_. So, generally, in the middle of English roots; as in _chief, grief, thief_; but, in _sieve_, it has the sound of _close_ or _short i_. In _friend_, and its derivatives or compounds, it takes the sound of _close e_. TRIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH I. The triphthongs ieu and iew both sound like open or long u; as in lieu, adieu, view. The three vowels iou, in the termination ious, often fall into one syllable, and form a triphthong. There are two hundred and forty-five words of this ending; and more than two hundred deriva- tives from them. Walker has several puzzling inconsistencies in their pronunciation; such as fas-tid-i-ous and per-fid-ious, con-ta-gi-ous and sac-ri-le-gious. After c, g, t, or x, these vowels should coalesce: as in gra-cious, re-li-gious, vex-a-tious, ob-nox-ious, and about two hundred other words. After the other consonants, let them form two syllables; (except when there is a syn- seresis in poetry;) as in dw-bi-ou-s, o-di-ous, va-ri-ous, en-vi-ous. X. OF THE LETTER J. The consonant _J_, the tenth letter of the English alphabet, has invariably the sound of _soft g_, like the _g_ in _giant_, which some say is equivalent to the complex sound _dzh_; as, _jade, jet, jilt, joy, justice, jewel, prejudice_. XI. OF THE LETTER K. The consonant _K_, not silent, has uniformly the sound of _c_ hard; and occurs where _c_ would have its soft sound: as in _keep, looking, kind, smoky_. _K_ before _n_ is silent; as in _knave, know, knuckle_. In stead of doubling _c final_, we write _ck_; as in _lack, lock, luck, attack_. In English words, _k_ is never doubled, though two Kays may come together in certain compounds; as in _brickkiln, jackknife_. Two Kays, belonging to different syllables, also stand together in a few Scripture names; as in _Akkub, Bakbakkar, Bukki, Bukkiah, Habakkuk. Hakkoz, Ikkesh, Sukkiims_. _C_ before _k_, though it does not always double the sound which _c_ or _k_ in such a situation must represent, always shuts or shortens the preceding vowel; as in _rack, speck, freckle, cockle, wicked_. XII. OF THE LETTER L. The consonant _L_, the plainest of the semivowels, has a soft, liquid sound; as in _line, lily, roll, follow. L_ is sometimes silent; as in _Holmes, alms, almond, calm, chalk, walk, calf, half, could, would, should. L_, too, is frequently doubled where it is heard but once; as in _hill, full, travelled_. So any letter that is written twice, and not twice sounded, must there be once mute; as the last in _baa, ebb, add, see, staff, egg, all, inn, coo, err, less, buzz_. XIII. OF THE LETTER M. The consonant _M_ is a semivowel and a liquid, capable of an audible, humming sound through the nose, when the mouth is closed. It is heard in _map, murmur, mammon_. In the old words, _compt, accompt, comptroller_, (for _count, account, controller_,) the _m_ is sounded as _n. M_ before _n_, at the beginning of a word, is silent; as in _Mnason, Mnemosyne, mnemonics_. XIV. OF THE LETTER N. The consonant _N_, which is also a semivowel and a liquid, has two sounds;--the first, the pure and natural sound of _n_; as in _nun, banner, cannon_;--the second, the ringing sound of _ng_, heard before certain gutturals; as in _think, mangle, conquer, congress, singing, twinkling, Cen'chreä_. The latter sound should be carefully preserved in all words ending in _ing_, and in such others as require it. The sounding of the syllable _ing_ as if it were _in_, is a vulgarism in utterance; and the writing of it so, is, as it would seem by the usage of Burns, a Scotticism. _N final_ preceded by _m_, is silent; as in _hymn, solemn, column, damn, condemn, autumn_. But this _n_ becomes audible in an additional syllable; as in _autumnal, condemnable, damning_. XV. OF THE LETTER O. The vowel _O_ has _three_ different sounds, which are properly its own:-- 1. The open, full, primal, or long _o_; as in _no, note, opiate, opacity, Roman_. 2. The close, curt, short, or stopped _o_; as in _not, nor, torrid, dollar, fondle_. 3. The slender or narrow _o_, like _oo_; as in _prove, move, who, to, do, tomb_. _O_, in many words, sounds like _close_ or _curt u_; as in _love, shove, son, come, nothing, dost, attorney, gallon, dragon, comfit, comfort, coloration. One_ is pronounced _wun_; and _once, wunce_. In the termination _on_ immediately after the accent, _o_ is often sunk into a sound scarcely perceptible, like that of _obscure e_; as in _mason, person, lesson_. DIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH O. _Oa_, an improper diphthong, has the sound of _open_ or _long o_; as in _boat, coal, roach, coast, coastwise_: except in _broad_ and _groat_, which have the sound of _broad a_. _Oe_, an improper diphthong, when _final_, has the sound of _open_ or _long o_: as in _doe, foe, throe_: except in _canoe, shoe_, pronounced _canoo, shoo_. _OE_, a Latin diphthong, generally sounds like _open e_; as in _Antoeci, foetus_: sometimes, like _close_ or _curt e_; as in _foetid, foeticide_. But the English word _f~etid_ is often, and perhaps generally, written without the _o_. _Oi_ is generally a proper diphthong, uniting the sound of _close o_ or _broad a_, and that of _open e_; as in _boil, coil, soil, rejoice_. But the vowels, when they appear together, sometimes belong to separate syllables; as in _Stoic, Stoicism. Oi_ unaccented, sometimes has the sound of _close_ or _curt i_; as in _avoirdupois, connoisseur, tortoise_. _Oo_, an improper diphthong, generally has the slender sound of _o_; as in _coo, too, woo, fool, room_. It has, in some words, a shorter or closer sound, (like that of _u_ in _bull_,) as in _foot, good, wood, stood, wool_;--that of _close u_ in _blood_ and _flood_;--and that of _open o_ in _door_ and _floor_. Derivatives from any of these, sound as their primitives. _Ou_ is generally a proper diphthong, uniting the sound of _close_ or _curt o_, and that of _u_ as heard in _bull_,--or _u_ sounded as _oo_; as in _bound, found, sound, ounce, thou. Ou_ is also, in certain instances, an improper diphthong; and, as such, it has _six_ different sounds:--(l.) That of _close_ or _curt u_; as in _rough, tough, young, flourish_. (2.) That of _broad a_; as in _ought, bought, thought_. (3.) That of _open_ or _long o_; as in _court, dough, four, though_. (4.) That of _close_ or _curt o_; as in _cough, trough, lough, shough_: which are, I believe, the only examples. (5.) That of _slender o_, or _oo_; as in _soup, you, through_. (6.) That of _u_ in _bull_, or of _oo_ shortened; only in _would, could, should_. _Ow_ generally sounds like the proper diphthong _ou_,--or like a union of _short o_ with _oo_; as in _brown, dowry, now, shower_: but it is often an improper diphthong, having only the sound of _open_ or _long o_; as in _know, show, stow_. _Oy_ is a proper diphthong, equivalent in sound to _oi_; as in _joy, toy, oyster_. TRIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH O. _OEu_ is a French triphthong, pronounced in English as _oo_, and occurring in the word _manoeuvre_, with its several derivatives. _Owe_ is an improper triphthong, and an English word, in which the _o_ only is heard, and heard always with its long or open sound. XVI. OF THE LETTER P. The consonant _P_, when not written before _h_, has commonly one peculiar sound; which is heard in _pen, pine, sup, supper_. The word _cupboard_ is usually pronounced _kubburd_. _P_, written with an audible consonant, is sometimes itself silent; as in _psalm, psalter, pseudography, psychology, ptarmigan, ptyalism, receipt, corps_. _Ph_ generally sounds like _f_; as in _philosophy_. In _Stephen_ and _nephew, ph_ has the sound of _v_. The _h_ after _p_, is silent in _diphthong, triphthong, naphtha, ophthalmic_; and both the _p_ and the _h_ are silent in _apophthegm, phthisis, phthisical_. From the last three words, _ph_ is sometimes dropped. XVII. OF THE LETTER Q. The consonant _Q_, being never silent, never final, never doubled, and not having a sound peculiar to itself, is invariably heard, in English, with the power of _k_; and is always followed by the vowel _u_, which, in words _purely English_, is sounded like the narrow _o_, or _oo_,--or, perhaps, is squeezed into the consonantal sound of _w_;--as in _queen, quaver, quiver, quarter, request_. In some words of _French_ origin, the _u_ after _q_ is silent; as in _coquet, liquor, burlesque, etiquette_. XVIII. OF THE LETTER R. The consonant _R_, called also a semivowel and a liquid, has usually, at the beginning of a word, or before a vowel, a rough or pretty strong sound; as in _roll, rose, roam, proudly, prorogue_. "In other positions," it is said by many to be "smooth" or "soft;" "as in _hard, ford, word_."--_W. Allen_. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--The letter _R_ turns the tip of the tongue up against or towards the roof of the mouth, where the sound may be lengthened, roughened, trilled, or quavered. Consequently, this element may, at the will of the speaker, have more or less--little or nothing, or even very much--of that peculiar roughness, jar, or whur, which is commonly said to constitute the sound. The extremes should here be avoided. Some readers very improperly omit the sound of _r_ from many words to which it pertains; pronouncing _or_ as _awe, nor_ as _knaw, for_ as _faugh_, and _war_ as the first syllable of _water_. On the other hand, "The excessive _trilling_ of the _r_, as practised by some speakers, is a great fault."--_D. P. Page_. OBS. 2.--Dr. Johnson, in his "Grammar of the English Tongue," says, "_R_ has the same _rough snarling sound_ as in other tongues."--P. 3. Again, in his Quarto Dictionary, under this letter, he says, "_R_ is called the _canine letter_, because it is uttered _with some resemblance to the growl or snarl of a cur_: it has _one constant sound_ in English, such as it has in other languages; as, _red, rose, more, muriatick_." Walker, however, who has a greater reputation as an orthoepist [sic--KTH], teaches that, "There is a distinction in the sound of this letter, which is," says he, "in my opinion, _of no small importance_; and that is, the [distinction of] the rough and [the] smooth _r_. Ben Jonson," continues he, "in his Grammar, says, 'It is sounded firm in the beginning of words, and more liquid in the middle and ends, as in _rarer, riper_; and so in the Latin.' The rough _r_ is formed by jarring the tip of the tongue against the roof of the mouth near the fore teeth: the smooth _r_ is a vibration of the lower part of the tongue, near the root, against the inward region of the palate, near the entrance of the throat."--_Walker's Principles_, No. 419; _Octavo Dict._, p. 48. OBS. 3.--Wells, with his characteristic indecision, forbears all recognition of this difference, and all intimation of the quality of the sound, whether smooth or rough; saying, in his own text, only this: "_R_ has the sound heard in _rare_."--_School Grammar_, p. 40. Then, referring the student to sundry authorities, he adds in a footnote certain "quotations," that are said to "present a general view of the different opinions which exist among orthoepists respecting this letter." And so admirably are these authorities or opinions balanced and offset, one class against an other, that it is hard to tell which has the odds. First, though it is not at all probable that Wells's utterance of "_rare_" exhibits twice over the _rough snarl_ of Johnson's _r_, the "general view" seems intended to confirm the indefinite teaching above, thus: "'_R_ has one constant sound in English.'--_Johnson_. The same view is adopted by Webster, Perry, Kendrick, Sheridan, Jones, Jameson, Knowles, and others."--_School Grammar_, p. 40. In counterpoise of these, Wells next cites about as many more--namely, Frazee, Page, Russell, Walker, Rush, Barber, Comstock, and Smart,--as maintaining or admitting that _r_ has sometimes a rough sound, and sometimes a smoother one. XIX. OF THE LETTER S. The consonant _S_ has a sharp, hissing, or hard sound; as in _sad, sister, thus_: and a flat, buzzing, or soft sound, like that of _z_; as in _rose, dismal, bosom, husband. S_, at the beginning of words, or after any of the sharp consonants, is always sharp; as in _see, steps, cliffs, sits, stocks, smiths_. _S_, after any of the flat mutes, or at the end of words when not preceded by a sharp consonant, is generally flat; as in _eyes, trees, beds, bags, calves_. But in the English termination _ous_, or in the Latin _us_, it is sharp; as _joyous, vigorous, hiatus_. _Ss_ is generally sharp; as in _pass, kiss, harass, assuage, basset, cassock, remissness_. But the first two Esses in _possess_, or any of its regular derivatives, as well as the two in _dissolve_, or its proximate kin, sound like two Zees; and the soft or flat sound is commonly given to each _s_ in _hyssop, hussy, and hussar_. In _scissel, scissible_, and _scissile_, all the Esses hiss;--in _scissors_, the last three of the four are flat, like _z_;--but in the middle of _scissure_ and _scission_ we hear the sound of _zh_. _S_, in the termination _sion_, takes the sound of _sh_, after a consonant; as in _aspersion, session, passion, mission, compulsion_: and that of _zh_, after a vowel; as in _evasion, elision, confusion_. In the verb _assure_, and each of its derivatives, also in the nouns _pressure_ and _fissure_, with their derivatives, we hear, according to Walker, the sound of _sh_ for each _s_, or twice in each word; but, according to the orthoëpy of Worcester, that sound is heard only in the accented syllable of each word, and the vowel in each unaccented syllable is _obscure_. _S_ is silent or mute in the words, _isle, island, aisle, demesne, corps_, and _viscount_. XX. OF THE LETTER T. The general sound of the consonant _T_, is heard in _time, letter, set_. _T_, immediately after the accent, takes the sound of _tch_, before _u_, and generally also before _eou_; as in _nature, feature, virtue, righteous, courteous_: when _s_ or _x_ precedes, it takes this sound before _ia_ or _io_; as in _fustian, bastion, mixtion_. But the general or most usual sound of _t_ after the accent, when followed by _i_ and an other vowel, is that of _sh_; as in _creation, patient, cautious_. In English, _t_ is seldom, if ever, silent or powerless. In _depot_, however, a word borrowed from the French, we do not sound it; and in _chestnut_, which is a compound of our own, it is much oftener written than heard. In _often_ and _soften_, some think it silent; but it seems rather to take here the sound of _f_. In _chasten, hasten, fasten, castle, nestle, whistle, apostle, epistle, bustle_, and similar words, with their sundry derivatives, the _t_ is said by some to be mute; but here it seems to take the sound of _s_; for, according to the best authorities, this sound is beard twice in such words. _Th_, written in Greek by the character called _Theta_, ([Greek: th] or O capital, [Greek: th] or [Greek: th] small,) represents an elementary sound; or, rather, two distinct elementary sounds, for which the Anglo-Saxons had different characters, supposed by Dr. Bosworth to have been applied with accurate discrimination of "the _hard_ or _sharp_ sound of _th_," from "the _soft_ or _flat_ sound."--(See _Bosworth's Compendious Anglo-Saxon Dictionary_, p. 268.) The English _th_ is either sharp, as in _thing, ethical, thinketh_; or flat, as in _this, whither, thither_. "_Th initial_ is sharp; as in _thought_: except in _than, that, the, thee, their, them, then, thence, there, these, they, thine, this, thither, those, thou, thus, thy_, and their compounds."--_W. Allen's Grammar_, p. 22. _Th final_ is also sharp; as in _south_: except in _beneath, booth, with_, and several verbs formerly with _th_ last, but now frequently (and more properly) written with final _e_; as _loathe, mouthe, seethe, soothe, smoothe, clothe, wreathe, bequeathe, unclothe_. _Th medial_ is sharp, too, when preceded or followed by a consonant; as in _Arthur, ethnic, swarthy, athwart_: except in _brethren, burthen, farther, farthing, murther, northern, worthy_. But "_th_ between two vowels, is generally flat in words purely English; as in _gather, neither, whither_: and sharp in words from the learned languages; as in _atheist, ether, method_"--See _W. Allen's Gram._, p. 22. "_Th_, in _Thames, Thomas, thyme, asthma, phthisis_, and their compounds, is pronounced like _t_."--_Ib._ XXI. OF THE LETTER U. The vowel _U_ has three sounds which may be considered to be properly its own:-- 1. The open, long, full, primal, or diphthongal _u_; as in _tube, cubic, juvenile_. 2. The close, curt, short, or stopped _u_; as in _tub, butter, justice, unhung_. 3. The middle _u_, resembling a short or quick _oo_; as in _pull, pulpit, artful_. _U_ forming a syllable by itself or _U_ as naming itself is nearly equivalent in sound to _you_, and requires the article _a_, and not _an_, before it; as, _a U, a union_. _U_ sometimes borrows the sound of some other vowel; for _bury_ is pronounced _berry_, and _busy_ is pronounced _bizzy_. So in the derivatives, _burial, buried, busied, busily_, and the like. The long or diphthongal _u_, commonly sounded as _yu_, or as _ew_ in _ewer_,--or any equivalent diphthong or digraph, as _ue, ui, eu_, or _ew_.--when it follows _r_ or _rh_, assumes the sound of slender _o_ or _oo_; as in _rude, rhubarb, rue, rueful, rheum, fruit, truth, brewer_. DIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH U. _U_, in the proper diphthongs, _ua, ue, ui, uo, uy_, has the sound of _w_ or of _oo feeble_; as in _persuade, query, quell, quiet, languid, quote, obloquy_. _Ua_, an improper diphthong, has the sound--1. Of _middle a_; as in _guard, guardian_. 2. Of _close a_; as in _guarantee, piquant_. 3. Of _obscure e_; as in _victuals_ and its compounds or kindred. 4. Of _open u_; as in _mantuamaker_. _Ue_, an improper diphthong, has the sound--1. Of _open u_; as in _blue, ensue, ague_. 2. Of _close e_; as in _guest, guesser_. 3. Of _close u_; as in _leaguer_. _Ue final_ is sometimes silent; as in _league, antique_. _Ui_, an improper diphthong, has the sound--1. Of _open i_; as in _guide, guile_. 2. Of _close i_; as in _conduit, circuit_. 3. Of _open u_; as in _juice, sluice, suit_. _Uo_ can scarcely be called an improper diphthong, except, perhaps, after _q_ in _liquor, liquorice, liquorish_, where _uor_ is heard as _ur_. _Uy_, an improper diphthong, has the sound--1. Of _open y_; as in _buy, buyer_. 2. Of _feeble y_, or of _ee feeble_; as in _plaguy, roguy_. TRIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH U. _Uai_ is pronounced nearly, if not exactly, like _way_; as in _guai-a-cum, quail, quaint_. _Uaw_ is sounded like _wa_ in _water_; as in _squaw_, a female Indian. _Uay_ has the sound of _way_; as in _Par-a-guay_: except in _quay_, which nearly all our orthoepists pronounce _kee_. _Uea_ and _uee_ are each sounded _wee_; as in _queasy, queer, squeal, squeeze_. _Uoi_ and _woy_ are each sounded _woi_; as in _quoit, buoy_. Some say, that, as _u_, in these combinations, sounds like _w_, it is a consonant; others allege, that _w_ itself has only the sound of _oo_, and is therefore in all cases a vowel. _U_ has, certainly, in these connexions, as much of the sound of _oo_, as has _w_; and perhaps a little more. XXII. OF THE LETTER V. The consonant _V_ always has a sound like that of _f flattened_; as in _love, vulture, vivacious_. In pure English, it is never silent, never final, never doubled: but it is often doubled in the dialect of Craven; and there, too, it is sometimes final. XXIII. OF THE LETTER W. _W_, when reckoned a _consonant_, (as it usually is when uttered with a vowel that follows it,) has the sound heard at the beginning of _wine, win, woman, woody_; being a sound less vocal than that of _oo_, and depending more upon the lips. _W_ before _h_, is usually pronounced as if it followed the _h_; as in _what, when, where, while_: but, in _who, whose, whom, whole, whoop_, and words formed from these, it is silent. Before _r_, in the same syllable, it is also silent; as in _wrath, wrench, wrong_. So in a few other cases; as in _sword, answer, two_. _W_ is never used alone as a _vowel_; except in some Welsh or foreign names, in which it is equivalent to _oo_; as in "_Cwm Cothy_," the name of a mountain in Wales; "_Wkra_" the name of a small river in Poland.--See _Lockhart's Napoleon_, Vol. ii, p. 15. In a diphthong, when heard, it has the power of _u_ in _bull_, or nearly that of _oo_; as in _new, now, brow, frown_. _Aw_ and _ow_ are frequently improper diphthongs, the _w_ being silent, the _a_ broad, and the _o_ long; as in _law, flaw,--tow, snow_. _W_, when sounded before vowels, being reckoned a _consonant_, we have no diphthongs or triphthongs beginning with this letter. XXIV. OF THE LETTER X. The consonant "_X_ has a _sharp_ sound, like _ks_; as in _ox_: and a _flat_ one, like _gz_; as in _example_. _X_ is sharp, when it ends an accented syllable; as in _exercise, exit, excellence_: or when it precedes an accented syllable beginning with a consonant; as in _expand, extreme, expunge_. _X_ unaccented is generally flat, when the next syllable begins with a vowel; as in _exist, exemption, exotic_. _X initial_, in Greek proper names, has the sound of _z_; as in _Xanthus, Xantippe, Xenophon, Xerxes_"--See _W. Allen's Gram._, p. 25. XXV. OF THE LETTER Y. _Y_, as a _consonant_, has the sound heard at the beginning of _yarn, young, youth_; being rather less vocal than the feeble sound of _i_, or of the vowel _y_, and serving merely to modify that of a succeeding vowel, with which it is quickly united. _Y_, as a vowel, has the same sounds as _i_:-- 1. The open, long, full, or primal _y_; as in _cry, crying, thyme, cycle_. 2. The close, curt, short, or stopped _y_; as in _system, symptom, cynic_. 3. The feeble or faint _y_, accentless; (like _open e feeble_;) as in _cymar, cycloidal, mercy_. The vowels _i_ and _y_ have, in general, exactly the same sound under similar circumstances, and, in forming derivatives, we often change one for the other: as in _city, cities; tie, tying; easy, easily_. _Y_, before a vowel heard in the same syllable, is reckoned a _consonant_; we have, therefore, no diphthongs or triphthongs _commencing_ with this letter. XXVI. OF THE LETTER Z. The consonant _Z_, the last letter of our alphabet, has usually a soft or buzzing sound, the same as that of _s flat_; as in _Zeno, zenith, breeze, dizzy_. Before _u primal_ or _i feeble, z_, as well as _s flat_, sometimes takes the sound of _zh_, which, in the enumeration of consonantal sounds, is reckoned a distinct element; as in _azure, seizure, glazier; osier, measure, pleasure_. END OF THE FIRST APPENDIX. APPENDIX II. TO PART SECOND, OR ETYMOLOGY. OF THE DERIVATION OF WORDS. Derivation, as a topic to be treated by the grammarian, is a species of Etymology, which explains the various methods by which those derivative words which are not formed by mere grammatical inflections, are deduced from their primitives. Most of those words which are regarded as primitives in English, may be traced to ulterior sources, and many of them are found to be compounds or derivatives in the other languages from which they have come to us. To show the composition, origin, and literal sense of these, is also a part, and a highly useful part, of this general inquiry, or theme of instruction. This species of information, though insignificant in those whose studies reach to nothing better,--to nothing valuable and available in life,--is nevertheless essential to education and to science; because it is essential to a right understanding of the import and just application of such words. All reliable etymology, all authentic derivation of words, has ever been highly valued by the wise. The learned James Harris has a remark as follows: "How useful to ETHIC SCIENCE, and indeed to KNOWLEDGE in general, a GRAMMATICAL DISQUISITION into the _Etymology_ and _Meaning_ of WORDS was esteemed by the chief and ablest Philosophers, may be seen by consulting _Plato_ in his _Cratylus; Xenophon's Memorabilia_, IV, 5, 6; _Arrian. Epict._ I, 17; II, 10; _Marc. Anton_. III, 11;" &c.--See _Harris's Hermes_, p. 407. A knowledge of the _Saxon, Latin, Greek_, and _French_ languages, will throw much light on this subject, the derivation of our modern English; nor is it a weak argument in favour of studying these, that our acquaintance with them, whether deep or slight, tends to a better understanding of what is borrowed, and what is vernacular, in our own tongue. But etymological analysis may extensively teach the origin of English words, their composition, and the import of their parts, without demanding of the student the power of reading foreign or ancient languages, or of discoursing at all on General Grammar. And, since many of the users of this work may be but readers of our current English, to whom an unknown letter or a foreign word is a particularly uncouth and repulsive thing, we shall here forbear the use of Saxon characters, and, in our explanations, not go beyond the precincts of our own language, except to show the origin and primitive import of some of our definitive and connecting particles, and to explain the prefixes and terminations which are frequently employed to form English derivatives. The rude and cursory languages of barbarous nations, to whom literature is unknown, are among those transitory things which, by the hand of time, are irrecoverably buried in oblivion. The fabric of the English language is undoubtedly of _Saxon_ origin; but what was the particular form of the language spoken by the _Saxons_, when about the year 450 they entered Britain, cannot now be accurately known. It was probably a dialect of the _Gothic_ or _Teutonic_. This _Anglo-Saxon_ dialect, being the nucleus, received large accessions from other tongues of the north, from the _Norman French_, and from the more polished languages of _Rome_ and _Greece_, to form the modern _English_. The speech of our rude and warlike ancestors thus gradually improved, as Christianity, civilization, and knowledge, advanced the arts of life in Britain; and, as early as the tenth century, it became a language capable of expressing all the sentiments of a civilized people. From the time of _Alfred_, its progress may be traced by means of writings which remain; but it can scarcely be called _English_, as I have shown in the Introduction to this work, till about the thirteenth century. And for two or three centuries later, it was so different from the modern English, as to be scarcely intelligible at all to the mere English reader; but, gradually improving by means upon which we need not here dilate, it at length became what we now find it,--a language copious, strong, refined, impressive, and capable, if properly used, of a great degree of beauty and harmony. SECTION I.--DERIVATION OF THE ARTICLES. 1. For the derivation of our article THE, which he calls "_an adjective_," Dr. Webster was satisfied with giving this hint: "Sax. _the_; Dutch, _de_."--_Amer. Dict._ According to Horne Tooke, this definite article of ours, is the Saxon _verb_ "THE," imperative, from THEAN, to _take_; and is nearly equivalent in meaning to _that_ or _those_, because our _that_ is "the past participle of THEAN," and "means _taken_."--_Diversions of Purley_, Vol. ii, p. 49. But this is not very satisfactory. Examining ancient works, we find the word, or something resembling it, or akin to it, written in various forms, as _se, see, ye, te, de, the, thá_, and others that cannot be shown by our modern letters; and, tracing it as one article, or one and the same word, through what we suppose to be the oldest of these forms, in stead of accounting the forms as signs of different roots, we should sooner regard it as originating in the imperative of SEON, _to see_. 2. AN, our indefinite article, is the Saxon _oen, ane, an_, ONE; and, by dropping _n_ before a consonant, becomes _a_. Gawin Douglas, an ancient English writer, wrote _ane_, even before a consonant; as, "_Ane_ book,"--"_Ane_ lang spere,"--"_Ane_ volume." OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--The words of Tooke, concerning the derivation of _That_ and _The_, as nearly as they can be given in our letters, are these: "THAT (in the Anglo-Saxon Thæt, i.e. Thead, Theat) means _taken, assumed_; being merely the past participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb Thean, Thegan, Thion, Thihan, Thicgan, Thigian; sumere, assumere, accipere; to THE, to _get_, to _take_, to _assume_. 'Ill mote he THE That caused me To make myselfe a frere.'--_Sir T. More's Workes, pag._ 4. THE (our _article_, as it is called) is the imperative of the same verb Thean: which may very well supply the place of the correspondent Anglo-Saxon article Se, which is the imperative of Seon, videre: for it answers the same purpose in discourse, to say.... _see_ man, or _take_ man."--_Diversions of Purley_, Vol. ii, p. 49. OBS. 2.--Now, between _Thæt_ and _Theat_, there is a considerable difference of form, for _æ_ and _ea_ are not the same diphthong; and, in the identifying of so many infinitives, as forming but one verb, there is room for error. Nor is it half so probable that these are truly one root, as that our article _The_ is the same, in its origin, as the old Anglo-Saxon _Se_. Dr. Bosworth, in his Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, gives no such word as _Thean_ or _Thegan_, no such participle as _Thead_ or _Theat_, which derivative is perhaps imaginary; but he has inserted together "Thicgan, thicgean, thigan, _to receive, or take_;" and separately, "Theon, _to thrive, or flourish_,"--"Thihan, _to thrive_,"--and "Thion, _to flourish_;" as well as the preterit "Theat, _howled_," from "Theotan, _to howl_." And is it not plain, that the old verb "THE," as used by More, is from Theon, _to thrive_, rather than from Thicgan, _to take_? "Ill mote he THE"--"Ill might he _thrive_," not, "Ill might he _take_." OBS. 3.--Professor Hart says, "The word _the_ was originally _thæt_, or _that_. In course of time [,] it became abbreviated, and the short form acquired, in usage, a shade of meaning different from the original long one. _That_ is demonstrative with emphasis; _the_ is demonstrative without emphasis."--_Hart's E. Grammar_, p. 32. This derivation of _The_ is quite improbable; because the shortening of a monosyllable of five letters by striking out the third and the fifth, is no usual mode of abbreviation. Bosworth's Dictionary explains THE as "An indeclinable article, often used for all the cases of Se, seo, thæt, especially in adverbial expressions and in corrupt Anglo-Saxon, as in the _Chronicle_ after the year 1138." OBS. 4--Dr. Latham, in a section which is evidently neither accurate nor self-consistent, teaches us--"that there exist in the present English two powers of the word spelled _t-h-e_, or of the so-called definite article;" then, out of sixteen Anglo-Saxon equivalents, he selects two for the roots of this double-powered _the_; saying, "Hence the _the_ that has originated out of the Anglo-Saxon _thy_ is one word; whilst the _the_ that has originated out of the Anglo-Saxon _the_, [is] another. The latter is the common article: the former the _the_ in expressions like _all the more, all the better--more by all that, better by all that_, and the Latin phrases _eo majus, eo melius_."--_Latham's Hand-Book_, p. 158. This double derivation is liable to many objections. The Hand-Book afterwards says, "That the, in expressions like _all the more, all the better_, &c., is _no article_, has already been shown."--P. 196. But in fact, though _the_ before comparatives or superlatives be no article, Dr. Latham's etymologies prove no such thing; neither does he anywhere tell us what it is. His examples, too, with their interpretations, are all of them fictitious, ambiguous, and otherwise bad. It is uncertain whether he meant his phrases for counterparts to each other or not. If _the_ means "_by that_," or _thereby_, it is an _adverb_; and so is its equivalent "_eo_" denominated by the Latin grammarians. See OBS. 10, under Rule I. SECTION II.--DERIVATION OF NOUNS. In _English_, Nouns are derived from nouns, from adjectives, from verbs, or from participles. I. Nouns are derived from _Nouns_ in several different ways:-- 1. By the adding of _ship, dom, ric, wick, or, ate, hood_, or _head_: as, _fellow, fellowship; king, kingdom; bishop, bishopric; bailiff_, or _baily, bailiwick; senate, senator; tetrarch, tetrarchate; child, childhood; God, Godhead_. These generally denote dominion, office, or character. 2. By the adding of _ian_: as, _music, musician; physic, physician; theology, theologian; grammar, grammarian; college, collegian_. These generally denote profession. 3. By the adding of _r, ry_, or _ery_: as, _grocer, grocery; cutler, cutlery; slave, slavery; scene, scenery; fool, foolery_. These sometimes denote state or habit; sometimes, an artificer's wares or shop. 4. By the adding of _age_ or _ade_: as, _patron, patronage; porter, porterage; band, bandage; lemon, lemonade; baluster, balustrade; wharf, wharfage; vassal, vassalage_. 5. By the adding of _kin, let, ling, ock, el, erel_, or _et_: as, _lamb, lambkin; ring, ringlet; cross, crosslet; duck, duckling; hill, hillock; run, runnel; cock, cockerel; pistol, pistolet; eagle, eaglet; circle, circlet_. All these denote little things, and are called diminutives. 6. By the addition of _ist_: as, _psalm, psalmist; botany, botanist; dial, dialist; journal, journalist._ These denote persons devoted to, or skilled in, the subject expressed by the primitive. 7. By the prefixing of an adjective, or an other noun, so as to form a compound word: as, _foreman, broadsword, statesman, tradesman; bedside, hillside, seaside; bear-berry, bear-fly, bear-garden; bear's-ear, bear's-foot, goat's-beard_. 8. By the adoption of a negative prefix to reverse the meaning: as, _order, disorder; pleasure, displeasure; consistency, inconsistency; capacity, incapacity; observance, nonobservance; resistance, nonresistance; truth, untruth; constraint, unconstraint_. 9. By the use of the prefix _counter_, signifying _against_ or _opposite_: as, _attraction, counter-attraction; bond, counter-bond; current, counter-current; movement, counter-movement_. 10. By the addition of _ess, ix, or ine_, or the changing of masculines to feminines so terminating: as, _heir, heiress; prophet, prophetess; abbot, abbess; governor, governess; testator, testatrix; hero, heroine_. II. Nouns are derived from _Adjectives_ in several different ways:-- 1. By the adding of _ness, ity, ship, dom_, or _hood_: as, _good, goodness; real, reality; hard, hardship; wise, wisdom; free, freedom; false, falsehood_. 2. By the changing of _t_ into _ce_ or _cy_: as, _radiant, radiance; consequent, consequence; flagrant, flagrancy; current, currency; discrepant, discrepance_, or _discrepancy_. 3. By the changing of some of the letters, and the adding of _t_ or _th_: as, _long, length; broad, breadth; wide, width; high, height_. The nouns included under these three heads, generally denote abstract qualities, and are called abstract nouns. 4. By the adding of _ard_: as, _drunk, drunkard; dull, dullard_. These denote ill character. 5. By the adding of _ist_: as, _sensual, sensualist; separate, separatist; royal, royalist; fatal, fatalist_. These denote persons devoted, addicted, or attached, to something. 6. By the adding of _a_, the Latin ending of neuter plurals, to certain proper adjectives in _an_: as, _Miltonian, Miltoniana; Johnsonian, Johnsoniana_. These literally mean, _Miltonian things, sayings_, or _anecdotes_, &c.; and are words somewhat fashionable with the journalists, and are sometimes used for titles of books that refer to table-talk. III. Nouns are derived from _Verbs_ in several different ways:-- 1. By the adding of _ment, ance, ence, ure_, or _age_: as, _punish, punishment; abate, abatement; repent, repentance; condole, condolence; forfeit, forfeiture; stow, stowage; equip, equipage; truck, truckage_. 2. By a change of the termination of the verb, into _se, ce, sion, tion, ation_, or _ition_: as, _expand, expanse, expansion; pretend, pretence, pretension; invent, invention; create, creation; omit, omission; provide, provision; reform, reformation; oppose, opposition_. These denote either the act of doing, or the thing done. 3. By the adding of _er_ or _or_: as, _hunt, hunter; write, writer; collect, collector; assert, assertor; instruct, instructer_, or _instructor_. These generally denote the doer. To denote the person to whom something is done, we sometimes form a derivative ending in _ee_: as, _promisee, mortgagee, appellee, consignee_. 4. Nouns and Verbs are sometimes alike in orthography, but different in pronunciation: as, a _house_, to _house_; a _use_, to _use_; a _reb'el_, to _rebel'_; a _rec'ord_, to _record'_; a _cem'ent_, to _cement'_. Of such pairs, it may often be difficult to say which word is the primitive. 5. In many instances, nouns and verbs are wholly alike as to form and sound, and are distinguished by their sense and construction only: as, _love_, to _love; fear_, to _fear; sleep_, to _sleep_;--to _revise_, a _revise_; to _rebuke_, a _rebuke_. In these, we have but the same word used differently. IV. Nouns are often derived from _Participles_ in _ing_; as, a _meeting_, the _understanding, murmurings, disputings, sayings_, and _doings_: and, occasionally, one is formed from such a word and an adverb or a perfect participle joined with it; as, "The _turning-away_,"--"His _goings-forth_,"--"Your _having-boasted_ of it." SECTION III.--DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. In _English_, Adjectives are derived from nouns, from adjectives, from verbs, or from participles. I. Adjectives are derived from _Nouns_ in several different ways:-- 1. By the adding of _ous, ious, eous, y, ey, ic, al, ical_ or _ine_: (sometimes with an omission or change of some of the final letters:) as, _danger, dangerous; glory, glorious; right, righteous; rock, rocky; clay, clayey; poet, poetic_, or _poetical; nation, national; method, methodical; vertex, vertical; clergy, clerical; adamant, adamantine_. Adjectives thus formed, generally apply the properties of their primitives, to the nouns to which they relate. 2. By the adding of _ful_: as, _fear, fearful; cheer, cheerful; grace, graceful; shame, shameful; power, powerful_. These come almost entirely from personal qualities or feelings, and denote abundance. 3. By the adding of _some_: as, _burden, burdensome; game, gamesome; toil, toilsome_. These denote plenty, but do not exaggerate. 4. By the adding of _en_: as, _oak, oaken; silk, silken; wheat, wheaten; oat, oaten; hemp, hempen_. Here the derivative denotes the matter of which something is made. 5. By the adding of _ly_ or _ish_: as, _friend, friendly; gentleman, gentlemanly; child, childish; prude, prudish_. These denote resemblance. The termination _ly_ signifies _like_. 6. By the adding of _able_ or _ible_: as, _fashion, fashionable; access, accessible_. But these terminations are generally, and more properly, added to verbs. See Obs. 17th, 18th, &c., on the Rules for Spelling. 7. By the adding of _less_: as, _house, houseless; death, deathless; sleep, sleepless; bottom, bottomless_. These denote privation or exemption--the absence of what is named by the primitive. 8. By the adding of _ed_: as, _saint, sainted; bigot, bigoted; mast, masted; wit, witted_. These have a resemblance to participles, and some of them are rarely used, except when joined with some other word to form a compound adjective: as, _three-sided, bare-footed, long-eared, hundred-handed, flat-nosed, hard-hearted, marble-hearted, chicken-hearted_. 9. Adjectives coming from proper names, take various terminations: as, _America, American; England, English; Dane, Danish; Portugal, Portuguese; Plato, Platonic_. 10. Nouns are often converted into adjectives, without change of termination: as, _paper_ currency; a _gold_ chain; _silver_ knee-buckles. II. Adjectives are derived from _Adjectives_ in several different ways:-- 1. By the adding of _ish_ or _some_: as, _white, whitish; green, greenish; lone, lonesome; glad, gladsome_. These denote quality with some diminution. 2. By the prefixing of _dis, in_, or _un_: as, _honest, dishonest; consistent, inconsistent; wise, unwise_. These express a negation of the quality denoted by their primitives. 3. By the adding of _y_ or _ly_: as, _swarth, swarthy; good, goodly_. Of these there are but few; for almost all the derivatives of the latter form are adverbs. III. Adjectives are derived from _Verbs_ in several different ways:-- 1. By the adding of _able_ or _ible_: (sometimes with a change of some of the final letters:) as, _perish, perishable; vary, variable; convert, convertible; divide, divisible_, or _dividable_. These, according to their analogy, have usually a passive import, and denote susceptibility of receiving action. 2. By the adding of _ive_ or _ory_: (sometimes with a change of some of the final letters:) as, _elect, elective; interrogate, interrogative, interrogatory; defend, defensive; defame, defamatory; explain, explanatory_. 3. Words ending in _ate_, are mostly verbs; but some of them may be employed as adjectives, in the same form, especially in poetry; as, _reprobate, complicate_. IV. Adjectives are derived from _Participles_, not by suffixes, but in these ways:-- 1. By the prefixing of _un_, meaning _not_; as, _unyielding, unregarded, unreserved, unendowed, unendeared, unendorsed, unencountered, unencumbered, undisheartened, undishonoured_. Of this sort there are very many. 2. By a combining of the participle with some word which does not belong to the verb; as, _way-faring, hollow-sounding, long-drawn, deep-laid, dear-purchased, down-trodden_. These, too, are numerous. 3. Participles often become adjectives without change of form. Such adjectives are distinguished from participles by their construction alone: as, "A _lasting_ ornament;"--"The _starving_ chymist;"--"Words of _learned_ length;"--"With _counterfeited_ glee." SECTION IV.--DERIVATION OF THE PRONOUNS. I. The _English_ Pronouns are all of _Saxon_ origin; but, in them, our language differs very strikingly from that of the Anglo-Saxons. The following table compares the simple personal forms:-- Eng. I, My or Me; We, Our or Us. Mine, Ours, Sax. Ic, Min, Me or We, Ure or Us. Mec; User, Eng. Thou, Thy or Thee; Ye, Your You. Thine, or Yours, Sax. Thu, Thin, The or Ge Eower, Eow or Thec; Eowie. Eng. He, His Him; They, Their or Them. Theirs, Sax. He, His or Him or Hi or Hira or Heom or Hys, Hine; Hig, Heora, Hi. Eng. She, Her or Her; They, Their or Them. Hers, Theirs, Sax. Heo, Hire or Hi; Hi or Hira or Heom or Hyre, Hig, Heora, Hi. Eng. It, Its, It; They, Their or Them. Theirs, Sax. Hit, His or Hit; Hi or Hira or Heom or Hys, Hig, Heora, Hi. Here, as in the personal pronouns of other languages, the plurals and oblique cases do not all appear to be regular derivatives from the nominative singular. Many of these pronouns, perhaps all, as well as a vast number of other words of frequent use in our language, and in that from which it chiefly comes, were very variously written by the Middle English, Old English, Semi-Saxon, and Anglo-Saxon authors. He who traces the history of our language, will meet with them under all the following forms, (or such as these would be with Saxon characters for the Saxon forms,) and perhaps in more:-- 1. I, J, Y, y, i, ay, ic, che, ich, Ic;--MY, mi, min, MINE, myne, myn;--ME, mee, me, meh, mec, mech;--WE, wee, ve;--OUR or OURS, oure, ure, wer, urin, uren, urne, user, usse, usser, usses, ussum;--Us, ous, vs, uss, usic, usich, usig, usih, uz, huz. 2. THOU, thoue, thow, thowe, thu, tou, to, tu;--THY or THINE, thi, thyne, thyn, thin;--THEE, the, theh, thec;--YE, yee, yhe, ze, zee, ge, ghe;--YOUR or YOURS, youre, zour, hure, goure, yer, yower, yowyer, yorn, yourn, youre, eower;--You, youe, yow, gou, zou, ou, iu, iuh, eow, iow, geow, eowih, eowic, iowih. 3. HE, hee, hie, se;--His, hise, is, hys, ys, hyse, hus;--HIM, hine, hiene, hion, hen, hyne, hym, im;--THEY, thay, thei, the, tha, thai, thii, yai, hi, hie, heo, hig, hyg, hy;--THEIR or THEIRS, ther, theyr, theyrs, thair, thare, theora, hare, here, her, hir, hire, hira, hiora, hiera, heora, hyra;--THEM, thym, theym, thaym, thaim, thame, tham, em, hem, heom, hiom, eom, hom, him, hi, hig. 4. SHE, shee, sche, scho, sho, shoe, scæ, seo, heo, hio, hiu, hoo, hue;--HER, (possessive,) hur, hir, hire, hyr, hyre, hyra, hera;--HER, (objective,) hire, hyre, hur, hir, hi. The plural forms of this feminine pronoun are like those of the masculine _He_; but the "_Well-Wishers to Knowledge_," in their small Grammar, (erroneously, as I suppose,) make _hira_ masculine only, and _heora_ feminine only. See their _Principles of Grammar_, p. 38. 5. IT, yt, itt, hit, hyt, hytt. The possessive _Its_ is a modern derivative; _His_ or _Hys_ was formerly used in lieu of it. The plural forms of this neuter pronoun, _It_, are like those of _He_ and _She_. According to Horne Tooke, who declares _hoet_ to have been one of its ancient forms, "this pronoun was merely the past participle of the verb HAITAN, _hætan_, nominare," _to name_, and literally signifies "_the said_;" (_Diversions of Purley_, Vol. ii, p. 46; _W. Allen's Gram._, p. 57;) but Dr. Alexander Murray, exhibiting it in an other form, not adapted to this opinion, makes it the neuter of a declinable adjective, or pronoun, inflected from the masculine, thus: "He, heo hita, _this_"--_Hist. of Lang._, Vol. i, p. 315. II. The relatives and interrogatives are derived from the same source, the Anglo-Saxon tongue, and have passed through similar changes, or varieties in orthography; but, the common relative pronoun of the Anglo-Saxons being like their article _the_,--or, with the three genders, _se, seo, thæt_,--and not like our _who, which_, and _what_, it is probable that the interrogative use of these words was the primitive one. They have been found in all the following forms:-- 1. WHO, ho, hue, wha, hwa, hua, wua, qua, quha;--WHOSE, who's, whos, whois, whoise, wheas, quhois, quhais, quhase, hwæs;--WHOM, whome, quham, quhum, quhome, hwom, hwam, hwæm, hwæne, hwone. 2. WHICH, whiche, whyche, whilch, wych, quilch, quilk, quhilk, hwilc, hwylc, hwelc, whilk, huilic, hvilc. For the Anglo-Saxon forms, Dr. Bosworth's Dictionary gives "_hwilc, hwylc_, and _hwelc_;" but Professor Fowler's E. Grammar makes them "_huilic_ and _hvilc_."--See p. 240. _Whilk_, or _quhilk_, is a Scottish form. 3. WHAT, hwat, hwet, quhat, hwæt. This pronoun, whether relative or interrogative, is regarded by Bosworth and others as a neuter derivative from the masculine or femine [sic--KTH] _hwa_, who. It may have been thence derived, but, in modern English, it is not always of the neuter gender. See the last note on page 312. 4. THAT, Anglo-Saxon Thæt. Tooke's notion of the derivation of this word is noticed above in the section on Articles. There is no certainty of its truth; and our lexicographers make no allusion to it. W. Allen reaffirms it. See his _Gram._, p. 54. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--In the Well-Wishers' Grammar, (p. 39,) as also in L. Murray's and some others, the pronoun _Which_ is very strangely and erroneously represented as being always "of the _neuter_ gender." (See what is said of this word in the Introduction, Chap. ix, ¶ 32.) Whereas it is the relative most generally applied to _brute animals_, and, in our common version of the Bible, its application to _persons_ is peculiarly frequent. Fowler says, "In its origin it is a Compound."--_E. Gram._, p. 240. Taking its first Anglo-Saxon form to be "_Huilic_," he thinks it traceable to "_hwa_, who," or its ablative "_hwi_," and "_lie_, like."--_Ib._ If this is right, the neuter sense is not its primitive import, or any part of it. OBS. 2.--From its various uses, the word _That_ is called sometimes a pronoun, sometimes an adjective, and sometimes a conjunction; but, in respect to derivation, it is, doubtless, one and the same. As a relative pronoun, it is of either number, and has no plural form different from the singular; as, "Blessed is the _man that_ heareth me."--_Prov._, viii, 34. "Blessed are _they that_ mourn."--_Matt._, v, 4. As an adjective, it is said by Tooke to have been formerly "applied indifferently to plural nouns and to singular; as, 'Into _that_ holy orders.'--_Dr. Martin_. 'At _that_ dayes.'--_Id. 'That_ euyll aungels the denilles.'--_Sir Tho. More_. 'This pleasure undoubtedly farre excelleth all _that_ pleasures that in this life maie be obteined.'--_Id_."--_Diversions of Purley_, Vol. ii, pp. 47 and 48. The introduction of the plural form _those_, must have rendered this usage bad English. SECTION V.--DERIVATION OF VERBS. In English, Verbs are derived from nouns, from adjectives, or from verbs. I. Verbs are derived from _Nouns_ in the following different ways:-- 1. By the adding of _ize, ise, en_, or _ate_: as, _author, authorize; critic, criticise; length, lengthen; origin, originate_. The termination _ize_ is of Greek origin, and _ise_ is most probably of French: the former is generally preferable in forming English derivatives; but both are sometimes to be used, and they should be applied according to Rule 13th for Spelling. 2. Some few verbs are derived from nouns by the changing of a sharp or hard consonant to a flat or soft one, or by the adding of a mute _e_, to soften a hard sound: as, _advice, advise; price, prize; bath, bathe; cloth, clothe; breath, breathe; wreath, wreathe; sheath, sheathe; grass, graze_. II. Verbs are derived from _Adjectives_ in the following different ways:-- 1. By the adding of _ize_ or _en_: as _legal, legalize; immortal, immortalize; civil, civilize; human, humanize; familiar, familiarize; particular, particularize; deaf, deafen; stiff, stiffen; rough, roughen; deep, deepen; weak, weaken_. 2. Many adjectives become verbs by being merely used and inflected as verbs: as, _warm_, to _warm_, he _warms; dry_, to _dry_, he _dries; dull_, to _dull_, he _dulls; slack_, to _slack_, he _slacks; forward_, to _forward_, he _forwards_. III. Verbs are derived from _Verbs_ in the following modes, or ways:-- 1. By the prefixing of _dis_ or _un_ to reverse the meaning: as, _please, displease; qualify, disqualify; organize, disorganize; fasten, unfasten; muzzle, unmuzzle; nerve, unnerve_. 2. By the prefixing of _a, be, for, fore, mis, over, out, under, up_, or _with_: as, _rise, arise; sprinkle, besprinkle; bid, forbid; see, foresee; take, mistake; look, overlook; run, outrun; go, undergo; hold, uphold; draw, withdraw_. SECTION VI.--DERIVATION OF PARTICIPLES. All _English_ Participles are derived from _English_ verbs, in the manner explained in Chapter 7th, under the general head of Etymology; and when foreign participles are introduced into our language, they are not participles with us, but belong to some other class of words, or part of speech. SECTION VII.--DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. 1. In _English_, many Adverbs are derived from adjectives by the addition of _ly_: which is an abbreviation for _like_, and which, though the addition of it to a noun forms an adjective, is the most distinctive as well as the most common termination of our adverbs: as, _candid, candidly; sordid, sordidly; presumptuous, presumptuously_. Most adverbs of manner are thus formed. 2. Many adverbs are compounds formed from two or more English words; as, _herein, thereby, to-day, always, already, elsewhere, sometimes, wherewithal_. The formation and the meaning of these are, in general, sufficiently obvious. 3. About seventy adverbs are formed by means of the prefix, or inseparable preposition, _a_; as, _Abreast, abroach, abroad, across, afar, afield, ago, agog, aland, along, amiss, atilt_. 4. _Needs_, as an adverb, is a contraction of _need is; prithee_, or _pr'ythee_, of _I pray thee; alone_, of _all one; only_, of _one-like; anon_, of the Saxon _an on_; i.e., _in one_ [instant]; _never_, of _ne ever_; i.e., _not_ ever. Prof. Gibbs, in Fowler's Grammar, makes _needs_ "the Genitive case of the noun _need_."--P. 311. 5. _Very_ is from the French _veray_, or _vrai_, true; and this, probably, from the Latin _verus. Rather_ appears to be the regular comparative of the ancient _rath_, soon, quickly, willingly; which comes from the _Anglo-Saxon "Rathe_, or _Hrathe_, of one's own accord."--_Bosworth_. But the parent language had also "_Hrathre_, to a mind."--_Id._ That is, to _one's_ mind, or, perhaps, _more willingly_. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1.--Many of our most common adverbs are of Anglo-Saxon derivation, being plainly traceable to certain very old forms, of the same import, which the etymologist regards but as the same words differently spelled: as, _All_, eall, eal, or æll; _Almost_, ealmæst, or ælmæst; _Also_, ealswa, or ælswa; _Else_, elles; _Elsewhere_, elleshwær; _Enough_, genog, or genoh; _Even_, euen, efen, or æfen; _Ever_, euer, æfer, or æfre; _Downward_, duneweard; _Forward_, forweard, or foreweard; _Homeward_, hamweard; _Homewards_, hamweardes; _How_, hu; _Little_, lytel; _Less_, læs; _Least_, læst; _No_, na; _Not_, noht, or nocht; _Out_, ut, or ute; _So_, swa; _Still_, stille, or stylle; _Then_, thenne; _There_, ther, thar, thær; _Thither_, thider, or thyder; _Thus_, thuss, or thus; _Together_, togædere, or togædre; _Too_, tó; _When_, hwenne, or hwænne; _Where_, hwær; _Whither_, hwider, hwyder, or hwyther; _Yea_, ia, gea, or gee; _Yes_, gese, gise, or gyse. OBS. 2.--According to Horne Tooke, "_Still_ and _Else_ are the imperatives _Stell_ and _Ales_ of their respective verbs _Stellan_, to put, and _Alesan_, to dismiss."--_Diversions_, Vol. i, p. 111. He afterwards repeats the doctrine thus: "_Still_ is only the imperative _Stell_ or _Steall_, of _Stellan_ or _Steallian_, ponere."--_Ib._, p. 146. "This word _Else_, formerly written _alles, alys, alyse, elles, ellus, ellis, ells, els_, and now _else_; is, as I have said, no other than _Ales_ or _Alys_, the imperative of _Alesan_ or _Alysan_, dimittere."--_Ib._, p. 148. These ulterior and remote etymologies are perhaps too conjectural. SECTION VIII.--DERIVATION OF CONJUNCTIONS. The _English_ Conjunctions are mostly of Anglo-Saxon origin. The best etymological vocabularies of our language give us, for the most part, the same words in Anglo-Saxon characters; but Horne Tooke, in his _Diversions of Purley_, (a learned and curious work which the advanced student may peruse with advantage,) traces, or professes to trace, these and many other English particles, to _Saxon verbs_ or _participles_. The following derivations, so far as they partake of such speculations, are offered principally on his authority:-- 1. ALTHOUGH, signifying _admit, allow_, is from _all_ and _though_; the latter being supposed the imperative of Thafian or Thafigan, _to allow, to concede, to yield_. 2. AN, an obsolete or antiquated conjunction, signifying _if_, or _grant_, is the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb Anan or Unan, _to grant, to give_. 3. AND, [Saxon, And,] _add_, is said by Tooke to come from "An-ad, the imperative of Ananad, _Dare congeriem_."--_D. of P._, Vol. i, p. 111. That is, "_To give the heap_." The truth of this, if unapparent, I must leave so. 4. AS, according to Dr. Johnson, is from the Teutonic _als_; but Tooke says that _als_ itself is a contraction for _all_ and the original particle _es_ or _as_, meaning _it, that_, or _which_. 5. BECAUSE, from _be_ and _cause_, means _by cause_; the _be_ being written for _by_. 6. BOTH, _the two_, is from the pronominal adjective _both_; which, according to Dr. Alexander Murray, is a contraction of the Visigothic _Bagoth_, signifying _doubled_. The Anglo-Saxons wrote for it _butu, butwu, buta_, and _batwa_; i. e., _ba_, both, _twa_, two. 7. BUT,--(in Saxon, _bute, butan, buton_, or _butun_--) meaning _except, yet, now, only, else than, that not_, or _on the contrary_,--is referred by Tooke and some others, to two roots,--each of them but a conjectural etymon for it. "BUT, implying _addition_," say they, "is from Bot, the imperative of Botan, _to boot, to add_; BUT, denoting _exception_, is from Be-utan, the imperative of Beon-utan, _to be out_."--See _D. of P._, Vol. i, pp. 111 and 155. 8. EITHER, _one of the two_, like the pronominal adjective EITHER, is from the Anglo-Saxon �ther, or Egther, a word of the same uses, and the same import. 9. EKE, _also_, (now nearly obsolete,) is from "Eac, the imperative of Eacan, _to add_." 10. EVEN, whether a noun, an adjective, an adverb, or a conjunction, appears to come from the same source, the Anglo-Saxon word Efen or �fen. 11. EXCEPT, which, when used as a conjunction, means _unless_, is the imperative, or (according to Dr. Johnson) an ancient perfect participle, of the verb _to except_. 12. FOR, _because_, is from the Saxon preposition _For_; which, to express this meaning, our ancestors combined with something else, reducing to one word some such phrase as, _For that, For this, For this that_; as, "Fortha, Fortham, Forthan, Forthamthe, Forthan the."--See _Bosworth's Dict._ 13. IF, _give, grant, allow_, is from "Gif, the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon Gifan, _to give_."--_Tooke's Diversions_, Vol. i, p. 111. 14. LEST, _that not, dismissed_, is from "Lesed, the perfect participle of Lesan, _to dismiss_." 15. NEITHER, _not either_, is a union and contraction of _ne either_: our old writers frequently used _ne_ for _not_; the Anglo-Saxons likewise repeated it, using _ne--ne_, in lieu of our corresponsives _neither--nor_; and our modern lexicographers still note the word, in some of these senses. 16. NOR, _not other, not else_, is supposed to be a union and contraction of _ne or_. 17. NOTWITHSTANDING, _not hindering_, is an English compound of obvious formation. 18. OR, an alternative conjunction, seems to be a word of no great antiquity. It is supposed to be a contraction of _other_, which Johnson and his followers give, in Saxon characters, either as its source, or as its equivalent. 19. PROVIDED, the perfect participle of the verb _provide_, becomes occasionally a disjunctive conjunction, by being used alone or with the particle _that_, to introduce a condition, a saving clause, a proviso. 20. SAVE, anciently used with some frequency as a conjunction, in the sense of _but_, or except is from the imperative of the English verb _save_, and is still occasionally turned to such a use by the poets. 21. SEEING, sometimes made a copulative conjunction, is the imperfect participle of the verb _see_. Used at the head of a clause, and without reference to an agent, it assumes a conjunctive nature. 22. SINCE is conjectured by Tooke to be "the participle of Seon, _to see_," and to mean "_seeing, seeing that, seen that_, or _seen as_."--_Diversions of P._, Vol. i, pp. 111 and 220. But Johnson and others say, it has been formed "by contraction from _sithence_, or _sith thence_, from _sithe_, Sax."--_Joh. Dict._ 23. THAN, which introduces the latter term of a comparison, is from the Gothic _than_, or the Anglo-Saxon _thanne_, which was used for the same purpose. 24. THAT, when called a conjunction, is said by Tooke to be etymologically the same as the adjective or pronoun THAT, the derivation of which is twice spoken of above; but, in Todd's Johnson's Dictionary, as abridged by Chalmers, THAT, the _conjunction_, is referred to "_thatei_, Gothic;" THAT, the _pronoun_, to "_that, thata_, Gothic; _thæt_, Saxon; _dat_, Dutch." 25. THEN, used as a conjunction, is doubtless the same word as the Anglo-Saxon _Thenne_, taken as an illative, or word of inference. 26. "THOUGH, _allow_, is [from] the imperative Thaf, or Thafig, of the verb Thafian or Thafigan, _to allow_."--_Tooke's Diversions_, Vol. i, pp. 111 and 150. 27. "UNLESS, _except, dismiss_, is [from] Onles, the imperative of Onlesan, _to dismiss_."--_Ib._ 28. WHETHER, a corresponsive conjunction, which introduces the first term of an alternative, is from the Anglo-Saxon _hwæther_, which was used for the same purpose. 29. YET, _nevertheless_, is from "Get, the imperative of Getan, _to get_."--_Tooke_. SECTION IX.--DERIVATION OF PREPOSITIONS. The following are the principal _English_ Prepositions, explained in the order of the list:-- 1. ABOARD, meaning _on board of_, is from the prefix or preposition _a_ and the noun _board_, which here means "_the deck_ of a ship" or vessel. _Abord_, in French, is _approach, arrival_, or a _landing_. 2. ABOUT, [Sax. Abútan, or Abúton,] meaning _around, at circuit_, or _doing_, is from the prefix _a_, meaning _at_, and the noun _bout_, meaning a _turn_, a _circuit_, or a _trial_. In French, _bout_ means end; and _about, end_, or _but-end_. 3. ABOVE, [Sax. Abufan, Abufon, A-be-ufan.] meaning _over_, or, literally, _at-by-over_, or _at-by-top_, is from the Saxon or Old English _a, be_, and _ufa_, or _ufan_, said to mean "_high, upwards_, or _the top_." 4. ACROSS, _at cross, athwart, traverse_, is from the prefix _a_ and the word _cross_. 5. AFTER, [Sax. �fter, or �ftan,] meaning _behind, subsequent to_, is, in form, the comparative of _aft_, a word common to seamen, and it may have been thence derived. 6. AGAINST, _opposite to_, is probably from the Anglo-Saxon, Ongean, or Ongegen, each of which forms means _again_ or _against_. As prefixes, _on_ and _a_ are often equivalent. 7. ALONG, [i.e., _at-long_,] meaning _lengthwise of, near to_, is formed from _a_ and _long_. 8. AMID, [i. e., _at mid_ or _middle_,] is from _a_ and _mid_; and AMIDST [, i.e., _at midst_,] is from _a_ and _midst_, contracted from _middest_, the superlative of _mid_. 9. AMONG, _mixed with_, is probably an abbreviation of _amongst_; and AMONGST, according to Tooke, is from _a_ and _mongst_, or the older "Ge-meneged," Saxon for "_mixed, mingled_." 10. AROUND, _about, encircling_, is from _a_ and _round_, a circle, or circuit. 11. AT, _gone to_, is supposed by some to come from the Latin _ad_; but Dr. Murray says, "We have in Teutonic AT for AGT, touching or touched, joined, _at_."--_Hist. of Lang._, i, 349. 12. ATHWART, _across_, is from _a_ and _thwart_, cross; and this from the Saxon Thweor. 13. BATING, a preposition for _except_, is the imperfect participle of _bate_, to abate. 14. BEFORE, [i.e., _by-fore_,] in front of, is from the prefix _be_ and the adjective _fore_. 15. BEHIND, [i.e., _by-hind_,] in rear of, is from the prefix _be_ and the adjective _hind_. 16. BELOW, [i.e., _by-low_,] meaning _under_, or _beneath_, is from _be_ and the adjective _low_. 17. BENEATH [, Sax. or Old Eng. Beneoth,] is from _be_ and _neath_, or Sax. Neothe, _low_. 18. BESIDE [, i.e., _by-side_,] is probably from _be_ and the noun or adjective _side_. 19. BESIDES [, i.e., _by-sides_,] is probably from _be_ and the plural noun _sides_. 20. BETWEEN, [Sax. Betweonan, or Betwynan,] literally, _by-twain_, seems to have been formed from _be_, by, and _twain_, two--or the Saxon Twegen, which also means _two, twain_. 21. BETWIXT, meaning _between_, [Sax. Betweox, Betwux, Betwyx, Betwyxt, &c.,] is from _be_, by, and _twyx_, originally a "Gothic" word signifying "_two_, or _twain_."--See _Tooke_, Vol. i, p. 329. 22. BEYOND, _past_, [Sax. Begeond,] is from the prefix _be_, by, and _yond_, [Sax. Geond,] _past, far_. 23. BY [, Sax. Be, Bi, or Big,] is affirmed by Tooke to be "the imperative Byth, of the Anglo-Saxon verb Beon, _to be_."--_Diversions of P._, Vol. i, p. 326. This seems to be rather questionable. 24. CONCERNING, the preposition, is from the first participle of the verb _concern_. 25. DOWN, the preposition, is from the Anglo-Saxon Dune, down. 26. DURING, prep. of time, is from the first participle of an old verb _dure_, to last, formerly in use; as, "While the world may _dure_."--_Chaucer's Knight's Tale_. 27. ERE, _before_, prep. of time, is from the Anglo-Saxon �r, a word of like sort. 28. EXCEPT, _bating_, is from the imperative, or (according to Dr. Johnson) the ancient perfect participle of the verb _to except_; and EXCEPTING, when a preposition, is from the first participle of the same verb. 29. FOR, _because of_, is the Anglo-Saxon preposition For, a word of like import, and supposed by Tooke to have come from a Gothic noun signifying _cause_, or _sake_. 30. FROM, in Saxon, _Fram_, is probably derived from the old adjective Frum, _original_. 31. IN, or the Saxon In, is the same as the Latin _in_: the Greek is [Greek: en]; and the French, _en_. 32. INTO, like the Saxon Into, noting entrance, is a compound of _in_ and _to_. 33. MID and MIDST, as English prepositions, are poetical forms used for _Amid_ and _Amidst_. 34. NOTWITHSTANDING, _not hindering_, is from the adverb _not_, and the participle _withstanding_, which, by itself, means _hindering_, or _preventing_. 35. OF is from the Saxon Of, or Af; which is supposed by Tooke to come from a noun signifying _offspring_. 36. OFF, opposed to _on_, Dr. Johnson derives from the "Dutch _af_." 37. ON, a word very often used in Anglo-Saxon, is traced by some etymologists to the Gothic _ana_, the German _an_, the Dutch _aan_; but no such derivation fixes its meaning. 38. OUT, [Sax. Ut, Ute, or Utan,] when made a preposition, is probably from the adverb or adjective _Out_, or the earlier _Ut_; and OUT-OF, [Sax. Ut-of,] opposed to _Into_, is but the adverb _Out_ and the preposition _Of_--usually written separately, but better joined, in some instances. 39. OVER, _above_, is from the Anglo-Saxon Ofer, _over_; and this, probably, from Ufa, _above, high_, or from the comparative, Ufera, _higher_. 40. OVERTHWART, meaning _across_, is a compound of _over_ and _thwart_, cross. 41. PAST, _beyond, gone by_, is a contraction from the perfect participle _passed_. 42. PENDING, _during_ or _hanging_, has a participial form, but is either an adjective or a preposition: we do not use _pend_ alone as a verb, though we have it in _depend_. 43. RESPECTING, _concerning_, is from the first participle of the verb _respect_. 44. ROUND, a preposition for _about_ or _around_, is from the noun or adjective _round_. 45. SINCE is most probably a contraction of the old word _Sithence_; but is conjectured by Tooke to have been formed from the phrase, "_Seen as_." 46. THROUGH [, Sax. Thurh, or Thurch,] seems related to _Thorough_, Sax. Thuruh; and this again to Thuru, or Duru, a _Door_. 47. THROUGHOUT, _quite through_, is an obvious compond of _through_ and _out_. 48. TILL, [Sax. Til or Tille,] _to, until_, is from the Saxon Til or Till, _an end, a station_. 49. TO, whether a preposition or an adverb, is from the Anglo-Saxon particle To. 50. TOUCHING, _with regard to_, is from the first participle of the verb _touch_. 51. TOWARD or TOWARDS, written by the Anglo-Saxons _Toweard_ or _Toweardes_, is a compound of _To_ and _Ward_ or _Weard_, a guard, a look-out; "Used in composition to express _situation_ or _direction_."--_Bosworth_. 52. UNDER, [Gothic, Undar; Dutch, Onder,] _beneath, below_, is a common Anglo-Saxon word, and very frequent prefix, affirmed by Tooke to be "nothing but _on-neder_," a Dutch compound = _on lower_.--See _Diversions of Purley_, Vol. i, p. 331. 53. UNDERNEATH is a compound of _under_ and _neath_, low; whence _nether_, lower. 54. UNTIL is a compound from _on_ or _un_, and till, or _til_, the end. 55. UNTO, now somewhat antiquated, is formed, not very analogically, from _un_ and _to_. 56. UP is from the Anglo-Saxon adjective, "Up or Upp, _high, lofty_." 57. UPON, which appears literally to mean _high on_, is from two words _up_ and _on_. 58. WITH comes to us from the Anglo-Saxon With, a word of like sort and import; which Tooke says is an imperative verb, sometimes from "Withan, _to join_," and sometimes from "Wyrthan, _to be_."--See his _Diversions_, Vol. i, p. 262. 59. WITHIN [, i.e., _by-in_,] is from _with_ and _in_: Sax. Withinnan, Binnan, or Binnon. 60. WITHOUT [, i.e., _by-out_,] is from _with_ and _out_: Sax. Withútan, -úten, -úton; Bútan, Búton, Bútun. OBSERVATION. In regard to some of our minor or simpler prepositions, as of sundry other particles, to go beyond the forms and constructions which present or former usage has at some period given them as particles, and to ascertain their actual origin in something ulterior, if such they had, is no very easy matter; nor can there be either satisfaction or profit in studying what one suspects to be mere guesswork. "How do you account for IN, OUT, ON, OFF, and AT?" says the friend of Tooke, in an etymological dialogue at Purley. The substance of his answer is, "The explanation and etymology of these words require a degree of knowledge in all the _antient_ northern languages, and a skill in the application of that knowledge, which I am very far from assuming; and though I am almost persuaded by some of my own conjectures concerning them, I am not willing, by an apparently forced and far-fetched derivation, to justify your imputation of etymological legerdemain."--_Diversions_, Vol. i, p. 370. SECTION X.--DERIVATION OF INTERJECTIONS. Those significant and constructive words which are occasionally used as Interjections, (such as _Good! Strange! Indeed_!,) do not require an explanation here; and those mere sounds which are in no wise expressive of thought, scarcely admit of definition or derivation. The Interjection HEY is probably a corruption of the adjective _High_;--ALAS is from the French _Hélas_:--ALACK is probably a corruption of _Alas_;--WELAWAY or WELLAWAY, (which is now corrupted into WELLADAY,) is said by some to be from the Anglo-Saxon _Wá-lá-wá_, i.e., _Wo-lo-wo_;--"FIE," says Tooke, "is the imperative of the Gothic and Anglo-Saxon verb _Fian_, to hate;"--_Heyday_ is probably from _high day_;--AVAUNT, perhaps from the French _avant_, before;--LO, from _look_;--BEGONE, from _be_ and _gone_;--WELCOME, from _well_ and _come_;--FAREWELL, from _fare_ and _well_. SECTION XI--EXPLANATION OF THE PREFIXES. In the formation of English words, certain particles are often employed as prefixes; which, as they generally have some peculiar import, may be separately explained. A few of them are of Anglo-Saxon origin, or character; and the greater part of these are still employed as separate words in our language. The rest are Latin, Greek, or French prepositions. The _roots_ to which they are prefixed, are not always proper English words. Those which are such, are called SEPARABLE RADICALS; those which are not such, INSEPARABLE RADICALS. CLASS I--THE ENGLISH OR ANGLO-SAXON PREFIXES. 1. A, as an English prefix, signifies _on, in, at_, or _to_: as in _a-board, a-shore, a-foot, a-bed, a-soak, a-tilt, a-slant, a-far, a-field_; which are equal to the phrases, _on board, on shore, on foot, in bed, in soak, at tilt, at slant, to a distance, to the fields_. The French _à_, to, is probably the same particle. This prefix is sometimes redundant, adding little or nothing to the meaning; as in _awake, arise, amend_. 2. BE, as a prefix, signifies _upon, over, by, to, at_, or _for_: as in _be-spatter, be-cloud, be-times, be-tide, be-howl, be-speak_. It is sometimes redundant, or merely intensive; as in _be-gird, be-deck, be-loved, be-dazzle, be-moisten, be-praise, be-quote_. 3. COUNTER, an English prefix, allied to the French _Contre_, and the Latin _Contra_, means _against_, or _opposite_; as in _counter-poise, counter-evidence, counter-natural_. 4. FOR, as a prefix, unlike the common preposition _For_, seems generally to signify _from_: it is found in the irregular verbs _for-bear, for-bid, for-get, for-give, for-sake, for-swear_; and in _for-bathe, for-do, for-pass, for-pine, for-say, for-think, for-waste_, which last are now disused, the _for_ in several being merely intensive. 5. FORE, prefixed to a verb, signifies _before_; as in _fore-know, fore-tell_: prefixed to a noun, it is usually an adjective, and signifies anterior; as in _fore-side, fore-part_. 6. HALF, signifying _one of two equal parts_, is much used in composition; and, often, merely to denote imperfection: as, _half-sighted_, seeing imperfectly. 7. MIS signifies _wrong_ or _ill_; as in _mis-cite, mis-print, mis-spell, mis-chance, mis-hap_. 8. OVER denotes superiority or excess; as in _over-power, over-strain, over-large_. 9. OUT, prefixed to a verb, generally denotes excess; as in _out-do, out-leap, out-poise_: prefixed to a noun, it is an adjective, and signifies _exterior_; as in _out-side, out-parish_. 10. SELF generally signifies one's own person, or belonging to one's own person; but, in _self-same_, it means _very_. We have many words beginning with _Self_, but most of them seem to be compounds rather than derivatives; as, _self-love, self-abasement, self-abuse, self-affairs, self-willed, self-accusing_. 11. UN denotes negation or contrariety; as in _un-kind, un-load, un-truth, un-coif_. 12. UNDER denotes inferiority; as in _under-value, under-clerk, under-growth_. 13. UP denotes motion upwards; as in _up-lift_: sometimes subversion; as in _up-set_. 14. WITH, as a prefix, unlike the common preposition _With_, signifies _against, from_, or _back_; as in _with-stand, with-hold, with-draw, with-stander, with-holdment, with-drawal_. CLASS II.--THE LATIN PREFIXES. The primitives or radicals to which these are prefixed, are not many of them employed separately in English. The final letter of the prefix _Ad, Con, Ex, In, Ob_, or _Sub_, is often changed before certain consonants; not capriciously, but with uniformity, to adapt or assimilate it to the sound which follows. 1. A, AB, or ABS, means From, or Away: as, _a-vert_, to turn from, or away; _ab-duce_, to lead from; _ab-duction_, a carrying-away; _ab-stract_, to draw from, or away. 2. AD,--forming _ac, af, al, an, ap, as, at_,--means To, or At: as, _ad-vert_, to turn to; _ac-cord_, to yield to; _af-flux_, a flowing-to; _al-ly_, to bind to; _an-nex_, to link to; _ap-ply_, to put to; _as-sume_, to take to; _at-test_, to witness to; _ad-mire_, to wonder at. 3. ANTE means Fore, or Before: as, _ante-past_, a fore-taste; _ante-cedent_, foregoing, or going before; _ante-mundane_, before the world; _ante-date_, to date before. 4. CIRCUM means Round, Around, or About: as _circum-volve_, to roll round; _circum-scribe_, to write round; _circum-vent_, to come round; _circum-spect_, looking about one's self. 5. CON,--which forms _com, co, col, cor_,--means Together: as, _con-tract_, to draw together; _compel_, to drive together; _co-erce_, to force together; _col-lect_, to gather together; _cor-rade_, to rub or scrape together; _con-junction_, a joining-together. 6. CONTRA, or CONTRO, means Against, or Counter: as, _contra-dict_, to speak against; _contra-vene_, to come against; _contra-mure_, countermure; _contro-vert_, to turn against. 7. DE means Of, From, or Down: as, _de-note_, to be a sign of; _de-tract_, to draw from; _de-pend_, to hang down; _de-press_, to press down; _de-crease_, to grow down, to grow less. 8. DIS, or DI, means Away, or Apart: as, _dis-pel_, to drive away; _dis-sect_, to cut apart; _di-vert_, to turn away. 9. E, or Ex,--making also _ec, ef_,--means Out: as, _e-ject_, to cast out; _e-lect_, to choose out; _ex-clude_, to shut out; _ex-cite_, to summon out; _ec-stacy_, a raising out; _ef-face_, to blot out. 10. EXTRA means Beyond, or Out of: as, _extra-vagant_, syllabled _ex-trav'a-gant_, roving be-yond; _extra-vasate, ex-trav'a-sate_, to flow out of the vessels; _extra-territorial_, being out of the territory. 11. IN,--which makes also _il, im, ir_,--means In, Into, or Upon: as, _in-spire_, to breathe in; _il-lude_, to draw in by deceit; _im-mure_, to wall in; _ir-ruption_, a rushing in; _in-spect_, to look into; _in-scribe_, to write upon; _in-sult_, to jump upon. These syllables, prefixed, to English nouns or adjectives, generally reverse their meaning; as in _in-justice, il-legality, im-partiality, ir-religion, ir-rational, in-secure, in-sane_. 12. INTER means Between, or In between: as, _inter-sperse_, to scatter in between; _inter-jection_, something thrown in between; _inter-jacent_, lying between; _inter-communication_, communication between. 13. INTRO means In, Inwards, or Within: as, _intro-duce_, to lead in; _intro-vert_, to turn inwards; _intro-spect_, to look within; _intro-mission_, a sending-in. 14. OB,--which makes also _oc, of, op_,--means Against: as, _ob-trude_, to thrust against; _oc-cur_, to run against; _of-fer_, to bring against; _op-pose_, to place against; _ob-ject_, to cast against. 15. PER means Through or By: as, _per-vade_, to go through; _per-chance_, by chance; _per-cent_, by the hundred; _per-plex_, to tangle through, or to entangle thoroughly. 16. POST means After: as, _post-pone_, to place after; _post-date_, to date after. 17. PR�, or PRE, means Before: as, _pre-sume_, to take before; _pre-position_, a placing-before, or thing placed before; _præ-cognita_, things known before. 18. PRO means For, Forth, or Forwards: as, _pro-vide_, to take care for; _pro-duce_, to bring forth; _pro-trude_, to thrust forwards; _pro-ceed_, to go forward; _pro-noun_, for a noun. 19. PRETER means By, Past, or Beyond: as, _preter-it_, bygone, or gone by; _preter-imperfect_, past imperfect; _preter-natural_, beyond what is natural; _preter-mit_, to put by, to omit. 20. RE means Again or Back: as, _re-view_, to view again; _re-pel_, to drive back. 21. RETRO means Backwards, Backward, or Back: as, _retro-active_, acting backwards; _retro-grade_, going backward; _retro-cede_, to cede back again. 22. SE means Aside or Apart: as, _se-duce_, to lead aside; _se-cede_, to go apart. 23. SEMI means Half: as, _semi-colon_, half a colon; _semi-circle_, half a circle. 24. SUB,--which makes _suf, sug, sup, sur_, and _sus_,--means Under, and sometimes Up: as, _sub-scribe_, to write under; _suf-fossion_, an undermining; _sug-gest_, to convey under; _sup-ply_, to put under; _sur-reption_, a creeping-under; _sus-tain_, to hold up; _sub-ject_, cast under. 25. SUBTER means Beneath: as, _subter-fluous_, flowing beneath. 26. SUPER means Over or Above: as, _super-fluous_, flowing over; _super-natant_, swimming above; _super-lative_, carried over, or carrying over; _super-vise_, to overlook, to oversee. 27. TRANS,--whence TRAN and TRA,--means Beyond, Over, To another state or place: as, _trans-gress_, to pass beyond or over; _trans-cend_, to climb over; _trans-mit_ to send to an other place; _trans-form_, to change to an other shape; _tra-montane_, from beyond the mountains; i.e., _Trans-Alpine_, as opposed to _Cis-Alpine_. CLASS III.--THE GREEK PREFIXES. 1. A and AN, in Greek derivatives, denote privation: as, _a-nomalous_, wanting rules; _an-ony-mous_, wanting name; _an-archy_, want of government; _a-cephalous_, headless. 2. AMPHI means Two, Both, or Double: as, _amphi-bious_, living in two elements; _amphi-brach_, both [sides] short; _amphi-theatre_, a double theatre. 3. ANTI means Against: as, _anti-slavery_, against slavery; _anti-acid_, against acidity; _anti-febrile_, against fever; _anti-thesis_, a placing-against. 4. APO, APH,--From: as, _apo-strophe_, a turning-from; _aph-aeresis_, a taking from. 5. DIA,--Through: as, _dia-gonal_, through the corners; _dia-meter_, measure through. 6. EPI, EPH,--Upon: as, _epi-demic_, upon the people; _eph-emera_, upon a day. 7. HEMI means Half: as, _hemi-sphere_, half a sphere; _hemi-stich_, half a verse. 8. HYPER means Over: as, _hyper-critical_, over-critical; _hyper-meter_, over measure. 9. HYPO means Under: as, _hypo-stasis_, substance, or that which stands under; _hypo-thesis_, supposition, or a placing-under; _hypo-phyllous_, under the leaf. 10. META means Beyond, Over, To an other state or place: as, _meta-morphose_, to change to an other shape; _meta-physics_, mental science, as beyond or over physics. 11. PARA means Against: as, _para-dox_, something contrary to common opinion. 12. PERI means Around: as, _peri-phery_, the circumference, or measure round. 13. SYN,--whence _Sym, Syl_,--means Together: as, _syn-tax_, a putting-together; _sym-pathy_, a suffering-together; _syl-lable_, what we take together; _syn-thesis_ a placing-together. CLASS IV.--THE FRENCH PREFIXES. 1. A is a preposition of very frequent use in French, and generally means _To_. I have suggested above that it is probably the same as the Anglo-Saxon prefix _a_. It is found in a few English compounds or derivatives that are of French, and not of Saxon origin: as, _a-dieu_, to God; i.e., I commend you to God; _a-larm_, from _alarme_, i e., _à l'arme_, to arms. 2. DE means Of or From: as in _de-mure_, of manners; _de-liver_, to ease from or of. 3. DEMI means Half: as, _demi-man_, half a man; _demi-god_, half a god; _demi-devil_, half a devil; _demi-deify_, to half deify; _demi-sized_, half sized; _demi-quaver_, half a quaver. 4. EN,--which sometimes becomes em,--means In, Into, or Upon: as, _en-chain_, to hold in chains; _em-brace_, to clasp in the arms; _en-tomb_, to put into a tomb; _em-boss_, to stud upon. Many words are yet wavering between the French and the Latin orthography of this prefix: as, _embody_, or _imbody; ensurance_, or _insurance; ensnare_, or _insnare; enquire_, or _inquire_. 5. SUR, as a French prefix, means Upon, Over, or After: as, _sur-name_, a name upon a name; _sur-vey_, to look over; _sur-mount_, to mount over or upon; _sur-render_, to deliver over to others; _sur-feit_, to overdo in eating; _sur-vive_, to live after, to over-live, to outlive. END OF THE SECOND APPENDIX APPENDIX III TO PART THIRD, OR SYNTAX. OF THE QUALITIES OF STYLE. Style, as a topic connected with syntax, is the particular manner in which a person expresses his conceptions by means of language. It is different from mere words, different from mere grammar, in any limited sense, and is not to be regulated altogether by rules of construction. It always has some relation to the author's peculiar manner of thinking; involves, to some extent, and shows his literary, if not his moral, character; is, in general, that sort of expression which his thoughts most readily assume; and, sometimes, partakes not only of what is characteristic of the man, of his profession, sect, clan, or province, but even of national peculiarity, or some marked feature of the age. The words which an author employs, may be proper in themselves, and so constructed as to violate no rule of syntax, and yet his style may have great faults. In reviews and critical essays, the general characters of style are usually designated by such epithets as these;--concise, diffuse,--neat, negligent,--terse, bungling,--nervous, weak,--forcible, feeble,--vehement, languid,--simple, affected,--easy, stiff,--pure, barbarous,--perspicuous, obscure,--elegant, uncouth,--florid, plain,--flowery, artless,--fluent, dry,--piquant, dull,--stately, flippant,--majestic, mean,--pompous, modest,--ancient, modern. A considerable diversity of style, may be found in compositions all equally excellent in their kind. And, indeed, different subjects, as well as the different endowments by which genius is distinguished, require this diversity. But, in forming his style, the learner should remember, that a negligent, feeble, affected, stiff, uncouth, barbarous, or obscure style is always faulty; and that perspicuity, ease, simplicity, strength, neatness, and purity, are qualities always to be aimed at. In order to acquire a good style, the frequent practice of composing and writing something, is indispensably necessary. Without exercise and diligent attention, rules or precepts for the attainment of this object, will be of no avail. When the learner has acquired such a knowledge of grammar, as to be in some degree qualified for the undertaking, he should devote a stated portion of his time to composition. This exercise will bring the powers of his mind into requisition, in a way that is well calculated to strengthen them. And if he has opportunity for reading, he may, by a diligent perusal of the best authors, acquire both language and taste as well as sentiment;--and these three are the essential qualifications of a good writer. In regard to the qualities which constitute a good style, we can here offer nothing more than a few brief hints. With respect to words and phrases, particular attention should be paid to three things--_purity, propriety_, and _precision_; and, with respect to sentences, to three others,--_perspicuity, unity_, and _strength_. Under each of these six heads, we shall arrange, in the form of short precepts, a few of the most important directions for the forming of a good style. SECTION I.--OF PURITY. Purity of style consists in the use of such words and phrases only, as belong to the language which we write or speak. Its opposites are the faults aimed at in the following precepts. PRECEPT I.--Avoid the unnecessary use of foreign words or idioms: such as the French words _fraicheur, hauteur, delicatesse, politesse, noblesse_;--the expression, "He _repented himself_;"--or, "It _serves_ to an excellent purpose." PRECEPT II.--Avoid obsolete or antiquated words, except there be some special reason for their use: that is, such words as _acception, addressful, administrate, affamish, affrontiveness, belikely, blusterous, clergical, cruciate, rutilate, timidous_. PRECEPT III.--Avoid strange or unauthorized words: such as, _flutteration, inspectator, judgematical, incumberment, connexity, electerized, martyrized, reunition, marvelize, limpitude, affectated, adorement, absquatulate_. Of this sort is O. B. Peirce's "_assimilarity_," used on page 19th of his _English Grammar_; and still worse is Jocelyn's "_irradicable_," for _uneradicable_, used on page 5th of his _Prize Essay on Education_. PRECEPT IV.--Avoid bombast, or affectation of fine writing. It is ridiculous, however serious the subject. The following is an example: "Personifications, however rich the depictions, and unconstrained their latitude; analogies, however imposing the objects of parallel, and the media of comparison; can never expose the consequences of sin to the extent of fact, or the range of demonstration."--_Anonymous_. SECTION II.--OF PROPRIETY. Propriety of language consists in the selection and right construction of such words as the best usage has appropriated to those ideas which we intend to express by them. Impropriety embraces all those forms of error, which, for the purpose of illustration, exercise, and special criticism, have been so methodically and so copiously posted up under the various heads, rules, and notes, of this extensive Grammar. A few suggestions, however, are here to be set down in the form of precepts. PRECEPT I.--Avoid low and provincial expressions: such as, "Now, _says I_, boys;"--"_Thinks I to myself;"--"To get into a scrape_;"--"Stay here _while_ I come back;"--"_By jinkers;"--"By the living jingoes_." PRECEPT II.--In writing prose, avoid words and phrases that are merely poetical: such as, _morn, eve, plaint, corse, weal, drear, amid, oft, steepy;--"what time_ the winds arise." PRECEPT III.--Avoid technical terms: except where they are necessary in treating of a particular art or science. In technology, they are proper. PRECEPT IV.--Avoid the recurrence of a word in different senses, or such a repetition of words as denotes paucity of language: as, "His own _reason_ might have suggested better _reasons_."--"Gregory _favoured_ the undertaking, for no other reason than this; that the manager, in countenance, _favoured_ his friend."--"I _want_ to go and see what he _wants_." PRECEPT V.--Supply words that are wanting: thus, instead of saying, "This action increased his former services," say, "This action increased _the merit of_ his former services."--"How many [_kinds of_] substantives are there? Two; proper and common."--See _E. Devis's Gram._, p. 14. "These changes should not be left to be settled by chance or by caprice, but [_should be determined_] by the judicious application of the principles of Orthography."--See _Fowlers E. Gram._, 1850, p. 170. PRECEPT VI.--Avoid equivocal or ambiguous expressions: as, "His _memory_ shall be lost on the earth."--"I long since learned to like nothing but what you _do_." PRECEPT VII.--Avoid unintelligible, inconsistent, or inappropriate expressions: such as, "I have observed that the superiority among these coffee-house politicians proceeds from _an opinion_ of gallantry and fashion."--"These words do not convey even an _opaque_ idea of the author's meaning." PRECEPT VIII.--Observe the natural order of things or events, and do not _put the cart before the horse_: as, "The scribes _taught and studied_ the Law of Moses."--"They can neither _return to nor leave_ their houses."--"He tumbled, _head over heels_, into the water."--"'Pat, how did you carry that quarter of beef?' 'Why, I thrust _it through a stick_, and threw _my shoulder over it_.'" SECTION III.--OF PRECISION. Precision consists in avoiding all superfluous words, and adapting the expression exactly to the thought, so as to say, with no deficiency or surplus of terms, whatever is intended by the author. Its opposites are noticed in the following precepts. PRECEPT I.--Avoid a useless tautology, either of expression or of sentiment; as, "When will you return _again_?"--"We returned _back_ home _again_."--"On entering _into_ the room, I saw _and discovered_ he had fallen _down_ on the floor and could not _rise_ up."--"They have a _mutual_ dislike to each other."--"Whenever I go, he _always_ meets me there."--"Where is he _at? In_ there."--"His faithfulness _and fidelity_ should be rewarded." PRECEPT II.--Repeat words as often as an exact exhibition of your meaning requires them; for repetition may be elegant, if it be not useless. The following example does not appear faulty: "Moral _precepts_ are _precepts_ the reasons of which we see; positive _precepts_ are _precepts_ the reasons of which we do not see."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 165. PRECEPT III.--Observe the exact meaning of words accounted synonymous, and employ those which are the most suitable; as, "A diligent scholar may _acquire_ knowledge, _gain_ celebrity, _obtain_ rewards, _win_ prizes, and _get_ high honour, though he _earn_ no money." These six verbs have nearly the same meaning, and yet no two of them can here be correctly interchanged. PRECEPT IV.--Observe the proper form of each word, and do not confound such as resemble each other. "Professor J. W. Gibbs, of Yale College," in treating of the "Peculiarities of the Cockney Dialect," says, "The Londoner sometimes confounds two different forms; as _contagious_ for _contiguous; eminent_ for _imminent; humorous_ for _humorsome; ingeniously_ for _ingenuously; luxurious_ for _luxuriant; scrupulosity_ for _scruple; successfully_ for _successively_."--See _Fowler's E. Gram._, p. 87; and Pref., p. vi. PRECEPT V.--Think clearly, and avoid absurd or incompatible expressions. Example of error: "To pursue _those_ remarks, would, _probably_, be of no further _service_ to the learner than _that of burdening his memory_ with a catalogue of dry and _uninteresting_ peculiarities; _which may gratify curiosity_, without affording information adequate to the trouble of the perusal."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 122. PRECEPT VI.--Avoid words that are useless; and, especially, a multiplication of them into sentences, members, or clauses, that may well be spared. Example: "If one could _really_ be a spectator of what is passing in the world _around us_ without taking part in the events, _or sharing in the passions and actual performance on the stage; if we could set ourselves down, as it were, in a private box of the world's great theatre, and quietly look on at the piece that is playing, no more moved than is absolutely implied by sympathy with our fellow-creatures, what a curious, what an amusing_, what an interesting spectacle would life present."--G. P. R. JAMES: "_The Forger_," commencement of Chap. xxxi. This sentence contains _eighty-seven_ words, "of which _sixty-one_ are entirely unnecessary to the expression of the author's idea, if idea it can be called."--_Holden's Review_. OBSERVATION. Verbosity, as well as tautology, is not so directly opposite to precision, as to conciseness, or brevity. From the manner in which lawyers usually multiply terms in order to express their facts _precisely_, it would seem that, with them, precision consists rather in the use of _many_ words than of _few_. But the ordinary style of legal instruments no popular writer can imitate without becoming ridiculous. A terse or concise style is very apt to be elliptical: and, in some particular instances, must be so; but, at the same time, the full expression, perhaps, may have more _precision_, though it be less agreeable. For example: "A word of one syllable, is called a monosyllable; a word of two syllables, _is called_ a dissyllable: a word of three syllables, _is called_ a trisyllable: a word of four or more syllables, _is called_ a polysyllable."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 19. Better, perhaps, thus: "A word of one syllable is called a _monosyllable_; a word of two syllables, a _dissyllable_; a word of three syllables, a _trissyllable_; and a word of four or more syllables, a _polysyllable_."--_Brown's Institutes_, p. 17. SECTION IV.--OF PERSPICUITY. Perspicuity consists in freedom from obscurity or ambiguity. It is a quality so essential to every kind of writing, that for the want of it no merit of other name can compensate. "Without this, the richest ornaments of style, only glimmer through the dark, and puzzle in stead of pleasing the reader."--_Dr. Blair_. Perspicuity, being the most important property of language, and an exemption from the most embarrassing defects, seems even to rise to a degree of positive beauty. We are naturally pleased with a style that frees us from all suspense in regard to the meaning; that carries us through the subject without embarrassment or confusion; and that always flows like a limpid stream, through which we can "see to the very bottom." Many of the errors which have heretofore been pointed out to the reader, are offences against perspicuity. Only three or four hints will here be added. PRECEPT I.--Place adjectives, relative pronouns, participles, adverbs, and explanatory phrases near enough to the words to which they relate, and in a position which will make their reference clear. The following sentences are deficient in perspicuity: "Reverence is the veneration paid to superior sanctity, _intermixed_ with a certain degree of awe."--_Unknown_. "The Romans understood liberty, _at least_, as well as we."--See _Murray's Gram._, p. 307. "Taste was never _made to cater_ for vanity."--_J. Q. Adams's Rhet._, Vol. i, p. 119. PRECEPT II.--In prose, avoid a poetic collocation of words. For example: "Guard your weak side from being known. If it be attacked, the best way is, to join in the attack."--KAMES: _Art of Thinking_, p. 75. This maxim of prudence might be expressed more poetically, but with some loss of perspicuity, thus: "Your weak side guard from being known. Attacked in this, the assailants join." PRECEPT III.--Avoid faulty ellipses, and repeat all words necessary to preserve the sense. The following sentences require the words which are inserted in crotchets: "Restlessness of mind disqualifies us, both for the enjoyment of peace, and [_for_] the performance of our duty."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 166. "Double Comparatives and [_Double_] Superlatives should be avoided."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, 1850, p. 489. PRECEPT IV.--Avoid the pedantic and sense-dimming style of charlatans and new theorists, which often demands either a translation or a tedious study, to make it at all intelligible to the ordinary reader. For example: "RULE XL Part 3. An intransitive or receptive _asserter_ in the unlimited mode, depending on a word in the possessive case, may have, after it, a word in the subjective case, denoting the same thing: And, when it acts the part of an assertive name, depending on a relative, it may have after it a word in the subjective case. EXAMPLES:--John's being my _friend_, saved me from inconvenience. Seth Hamilton was unhappy in being a _slave_ to party prejudice."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, 1839, p. 201. The meaning of this _third part of a Rule_ of syntax, is, in proper English, as follows: "A participle not transitive, with the possessive case before it, may have after it a nominative denoting the same thing; and also, when a preposition governs the participle, a nominative may follow, in agreement with one which precedes." In doctrine, the former clause of the sentence is erroneous: it serves only to propagate false syntax by rule. See the former example, and a note of mine, referring to it, on page 531 of this work. SECTION V.--OF UNITY. Unity consists in avoiding needless pauses, and keeping one object predominant throughout a sentence or paragraph. Every sentence, whether its parts be few or many, requires strict unity. The chief faults, opposite to this quality of style, are suggested in the following precepts. PRECEPT I.--Avoid brokenness, hitching, or the unnecessary separation of parts that naturally come together. Examples: "I was, soon after my arrival, taken out of my Indian habit."--_Addison, Tattler_, No. 249. Better: "Soon after my arrival, _I_ was taken out of my Indian habit."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 326. "Who can, either in opposition, or in the ministry, act alone?"--_Ib._ Better: "Who can act alone, either in opposition, or in the ministry?"--_Ib._ "I, like others, have, in my youth, trifled with my health, and old age now prematurely assails me."--_Ib._, p. 327. Better: "Like others, I have trifled with my health, and old age now prematurely assails me." PRECEPT II.--Treat different topics in separate paragraphs, and distinct sentiments in separate sentences. Error: "The two volumes are, indeed, intimately _connected, and constitute_ one uniform system of English Grammar."--_Murray's Preface_, p. iv. Better thus: "The two volumes are, indeed, intimately connected. _They_ constitute one uniform system of English _grammar_." PRECEPT III.--In the progress of a sentence, do not desert the principal subjects in favour of adjuncts, or change the scene unnecessarily. Example: "After we came to anchor, they put me on shore, where I was welcomed by all my friends, who received me with the greatest kindness, which was not then expected." Better: "The vessel having come to anchor, I was put on shore; where I was unexpectedly welcomed by all my friends, and received with the greatest kindness."--See _Blair's Rhet._, p. 107. PRECEPT IV.--Do not introduce parentheses, except when a lively remark may be thrown in without diverting the mind too long from the principal subject. Example: "But (saith he) since I take upon me to teach the whole world, (it is strange, it should be so natural for this man to write untruths, since I direct my _Theses_ only to the Christian world; but if it may render me odious, such _Peccadillo's_ pass with him, it seems, but for _Piæ Fraudes_:) I intended never to write of those things, concerning which we do not differ from others."--_R. Barclay's Works_, Vol. iii. p. 279. The parts of this sentence are so put together, that, as a whole, it is scarcely intelligible. SECTION VI.--OF STRENGTH. Strength consists in giving to the several words and members of a sentence, such an arrangement as shall bring out the sense to the best advantage, and present every idea in its due importance. Perhaps it is essential to this quality of style, that there be animation, spirit, and _vigour of thought_, in all that is uttered. A few hints concerning the Strength of sentences, will here be given in the form of precepts. PRECEPT I.--Avoid verbosity; a concise style is the most favourable to strength. Examples: "No human happiness is so pure as not to contain _any_ alloy."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 270. Better: "No human happiness is _unalloyed_." "He was so much skilled in the exercise of the oar, that few could equal him."--_Ib._, p. 271. Better: "He was so _skillful at_ the oar, that few could _match_ him." Or thus: "At the oar, he was _rarely equalled_." "The reason why they [the pronouns] are considered separately is, because there is something particular in their inflections."-- _Priestley's Gram._, p. 81. Better: "The pronouns are considered separately, because there is something peculiar in their inflections." PRECEPT II.--Place the most important words in the situation in which they will make the strongest impression. Inversion of terms sometimes increases the strength and vivacity of an expression: as, "All these things will I give thee, if thou wilt fall down and worship me."--_Matt._, iv, 9. "Righteous art thou, O Lord, and upright are thy judgements."--_Psalms_, cxix, 137. "Precious in the sight of the Lord is the death of his saints."--_Ps._, cxvi, 15. PRECEPT III.--Have regard also to the relative position of clauses, or members; for a weaker assertion should not follow a stronger; and, when the sentence consists of two members, the longer should be the concluding one. Example: "We flatter ourselves with the belief that we have forsaken our passions, when they have forsaken us." Better: "When our passions have forsaken us, we flatter ourselves with the belief that we have forsaken them."--See _Blair's Rhet._, p. 117; _Murray's Gram._, p. 323. PRECEPT IV.--When things are to be compared or contrasted, their resemblance or opposition will be rendered more striking, if a pretty near resemblance in the language and construction of the two members, be preserved. Example: "The wise man is happy, when he gains his own approbation; the fool, when he recommends himself to the applause of those about him." Better: "The wise man is happy, when he gains his own approbation; the fool, when he gains the applause of others."--See _Murray's Gram._, p. 324. PRECEPT V.--Remember that it is, in general, ungraceful to end a sentence with an adverb, a preposition, or any inconsiderable word or phrase, which may either be omitted or be introduced earlier. "For instance, it is a great deal better to say, 'Avarice is a crime of which wise men are often guilty,' than to say, 'Avarice is a crime which wise men are often guilty of.'"--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 117; _Murray's Gram._, p. 323. END OF THE THIRD APPENDIX. APPENDIX IV. TO PART FOURTH, OR PROSODY. OF POETIC DICTION. Poetry, as defined by Dr. Blair, "is the language of passion, or of enlivened imagination, formed, most commonly, into regular numbers."--_Rhet._, p. 377. The style of poetry differs, in many respects, from that which is commonly adopted in prose. Poetic diction abounds in bold figures of speech, and unusual collocations of words. A great part of the figures, which have been treated of in one of the chapters of Prosody, are purely poetical. The primary aim of a poet, is, to please and to move; and, therefore, it is to the imagination, and the passions, that he speaks. He may also, and he should, have it in his view, to instruct and to reform; but it is indirectly, and by pleasing and moving, that such a writer accomplishes this end. The exterior and most obvious distinction of poetry, is versification: yet there are some forms of verse so loose and familiar, as to be hardly distinguishable from prose; and there is also a species of prose, so measured in its cadences, and so much raised in its tone, as to approach very nearly to poetic numbers. This double approximation of some poetry to prose, and of some prose to poetry, not only makes it a matter of acknowledged difficulty to distinguish, by satisfactory definitions, the two species of composition, but, in many instances, embarrasses with like difficulty the attempt to show, by statements and examples, what usages or licenses, found in English works, are proper to be regarded as peculiarities of poetic diction. It is purposed here, to enumerate sundry deviations from the common style of prose; and perhaps all of them, or nearly all, may be justly considered as pertaining only to poetry. POETICAL PECULIARITIES. The following are among the chief peculiarities in which the poets indulge, and are indulged:-- I. They not unfrequently omit the ARTICLES, for the sake of brevity or metre; as, "What dreadful pleasure! there to stand sublime, Like _shipwreck'd mariner_ on _desert_ coast!" --_Beattie's Minstrel_, p. 12. "_Sky lour'd_, and, muttering thunder, some sad drops Wept at _completing_ of the mortal sin." --_Milton, P. L._, B. ix, l. 1002. II. They sometimes abbreviate common NOUNS, after a manner of their own: as, _amaze_, for _amazement_; _acclaim_, for _acclamation_; _consult_, for _consultation_; _corse_, for _corpse_; _eve_ or _even_, for _evening_; _fount_, for _fountain_; _helm_, for _helmet_; _lament_, for _lamentation_; _morn_, for _morning_; _plaint_, for _complaint_; _targe_, for _target_; _weal_, for _wealth_. III. By _enallage_, they use verbal forms substantively, or put verbs for nouns; perhaps for brevity, as above: thus, 1. "Instant, without _disturb_, they took alarm." --_P. Lost: Joh. Dict., w. Aware._ 2. "The gracious Judge, without _revile_ reply'd." --_P. Lost, B. x, l. 118._ 3. "If they were known, as the _suspect_ is great." --_Shakspeare._ 4. "Mark, and perform it: seest thou? for the _fail_ Of any point in't shall be death." --_Shakspeare._ IV. They employ several nouns that are not used in prose, or are used but rarely; as, _benison, boon, emprise, fane, guerdon, guise, ire, ken, lore, meed, sire, steed, welkin, yore_. V. They introduce the noun _self_ after an other noun of the possessive case; as, 1. "Affliction's semblance bends not o'er thy tomb, Affliction's _self_ deplores thy youthful doom."--_Byron._ 2. "Thoughtless of beauty, she was beauty's _self._"--_Thomson._ VI. They place before the verb nouns, or other words, that usually come after it; and, after it, those that usually come before it: as, 1. "No jealousy _their dawn of love_ o'ercast, Nor _blasted_ were _their wedded days_ with strife." --_Beattie._ 2. "No _hive_ hast _thou_ of hoarded sweets." --_W. Allen's Gram._ 3. "Thy chain _a wretched weight_ shall prove." --_Langhorne._ 4. "Follows the loosen'd aggravated _roar._" --_Thomson._ 5. "That _purple_ grows _the primrose pale._" --_Langhorne._ VII. They more frequently place ADJECTIVES after their nouns, than do prose writers; as, 1. "Or where the gorgeous East, with richest hand, Show'rs on her kings _barbaric_, pearl and gold." --_Milton, P. L._, B. ii, l. 2. 2. "Come, nymph _demure_, with mantle _blue_." --_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 189. 3. "This truth _sublime_ his simple sire had taught." --_Beattie's Minstrel_, p. 14. VIII. They ascribe qualities to things to which they do not literally belong; as, 1. "The ploughman homeward plods his _weary way_." --_Gray's Elegy_, l. 3. 2. "Or _drowsy tinklings_ lull the distant folds." --_Ibidem_, l. 8. 3. "Imbitter'd more and more from _peevish day_ to day." --_Thomson_. 4. "All thin and naked, to the _numb_ cold _night_." --_Shakspeare_. IX. They use concrete terms to express abstract qualities; (i. e., adjectives for nouns;) as, 1. "Earth's meanest son, all trembling, prostrate falls, And on the _boundless_ of thy goodness calls." --_Young_. 2. "Meanwhile, whate'er of _beautiful_ or _new_, _Sublime_ or _dreadful_, in earth, sea, or sky, By chance or search, was offer'd to his view, He scann'd with curious and romantic eye." --_Beattie_. 3. "Won from the void and formless _infinite_." --_Milton_. 4. "To thy large heart give utterance due; thy heart Contains of _good, wise, just_, the perfect shape." --_Id., P. R._, B. iii, l. 10. X. They often substitute quality for manner; (i. e., adjectives for adverbs;) as, 1. ----"The stately-sailing swan Gives out his snowy plumage to the gale, And, arching _proud_ his neck, with oary feet, Bears forward _fierce_, and guards his osier isle." --_Thomson_. 2. "Thither _continual_ pilgrims crowded still." --_Id., Cos. of Ind._, i, 8. 3. "Level at beauty, and at wit; The fairest mark is _easiest_ hit." --_Butler's Hudibras_. XI. They form new compound epithets, oftener than do prose writers; as, 1. "In _world-rejoicing_ state, it moves sublime." --_Thomson_. 2. "The _dewy-skirted_ clouds imbibe the sun." --_Idem_. 3. "By brooks and groves in _hollow-whispering_ gales." --_Idem_. 4. "The violet of _sky-woven_ vest." --_Langhorne_. 5. "A league from Epidamnum had we sail'd, Before the _always-wind-obeying_ deep Gave any tragic instance of our harm." --_Shakspeare_. 6. "'_Blue-eyed, strange-voiced, sharp-beaked, ill-omened_ fowl, What art thou?' 'What I ought to be, an owl.'" --_Day's Punctuation_, p. 139. XII. They connect the comparative degree to the positive, before a verb; as, 1. "_Near and more near_ the billows rise." --_Merrick_. 2. "_Wide and wider_ spreads the vale." --_Dyer's Grongar Hill_. 3. "_Wide and more wide_, the overflowings of the mind Take every creature in, of every kind." --_Pope_. 4. "_Thick and more thick_ the black blockade extends, A hundred head of Aristotle's friends." --_Id., Dunciad_. XIII. They form many adjectives in _y_, which are not common in prose; as, The _dimply_ flood,--_dusky_ veil,--a _gleamy_ ray,--_heapy_ harvests,--_moony_ shield,--_paly_ circlet,--_sheety_ lake,--_stilly_ lake,--_spiry_ temples,--_steely_ casque,--_steepy_ hill,--_towery_ height,--_vasty_ deep,--_writhy_ snake. XIV. They employ adjectives of an abbreviated form: as, _dread_, for _dreadful_; _drear_, for _dreary_; _ebon_, for _ebony_; _hoar_, for _hoary_; _lone_, for _lonely_; _scant_, for _scanty_; _slope_, for _sloping_: _submiss_, for _submissive_; _vermil_, for _vermilion_; _yon_, for _yonder_. XV. They employ several adjectives that are not used in prose, or are used but seldom; as, _azure, blithe, boon, dank, darkling, darksome, doughty, dun, fell, rife, rapt, rueful, sear, sylvan, twain, wan._ XVI. They employ the personal PRONOUNS, and introduce their nouns afterwards; as, 1. "_It_ curl'd not Tweed alone, that _breeze_." --_Sir W. Scott_. 2. "What may _it_ be, the heavy _sound_ That moans old Branksome's turrets round?" --_Idem, Lay_, p. 21. 3. "Is it the lightning's quivering glance, That on the thicket streams; Or do _they_ flash on spear and lance, The sun's retiring _beams_" --_Idem, L. of L._, vi, 15. XVII. They use the forms of the second person singular oftener than do others; as, 1. "Yet I had rather, if I were to chuse, _Thy_ service in some graver subject use, Such as may make _thee_ search thy coffers round, Before _thou clothe_ my fancy in fit sound." --_Milton's Works_, p. 133. 2. "But _thou_, of temples old, or altars new, _Standest_ alone--with nothing like to thee." --_Byron, Pilg._, iv, 154. 3. "Thou seest not all; but piecemeal thou must break, To separate contemplation, the great whole." --_Id., ib._, iv, 157. 4. "Thou rightly deemst, fair youth, began the bard; The form then sawst was Virtue ever fair." --_Pollok, C. of T._, p. 16. XVIII. They sometimes omit relatives that are nominatives; (see Obs. 22, at p. 555;) as, "For is there aught in sleep can charm the wise?" --_Thomson_. XIX. They omit the antecedent, or introduce it after the relative; as, 1. "_Who_ never fasts, no banquet e'er enjoys, _Who_ never toils or watches, never sleeps." --_Armstrong_. 2. "_Who_ dares think one thing and an other tell, My soul detests _him_ as the gates of hell." --_Pope's Homer_. XX. They remove relatives, or other connectives, into the body of their clauses; as, 1. "Parts the fine locks, her graceful head _that_ deck." --_Darwin_. 2. "Not half so dreadful rises to the sight Orion's dog, the year _when_ autumn weighs." --_Pope, Iliad_, B. xxii, l. 37. XXI. They make intransitive VERBS transitive, changing their class; as, 1. ----"A while he stands, _Gazing_ the inverted landscape, half afraid To _meditate_ the blue profound below." --_Thomson_. 2. "Still in harmonious intercourse, they _liv'd_ The rural day, and _talk'd_ the flowing heart." --_Idem_. 3. ----"I saw and heard, for we sometimes Who _dwell_ this wild, constrain'd by want, come forth." --_Milton, P. R._, B. i, l. 330. XXII. They make transitive verbs intransitive, giving them no regimen; as, 1. "The soldiers should have _toss'd_ me on their pikes, Before I would have _granted_ to that act." --_Shakspeare_. 2. "This minstrel-god, well-pleased, amid the quire Stood proud to _hymn_, and tune his youthful lyre." --_Pope_. XXIII. They give to the imperative mood the first and the third person; as, 1. "_Turn we_ a moment fancy's rapid flight." --_Thomson_. 2. "_Be_ man's peculiar _work_ his sole delight." --_Beattie_. 3. "And what is reason? Be _she_ thus _defin'd_: Reason is upright stature in the soul." --_Young_. XXIV. They employ _can, could_, and _would_, as principal verbs transitive; as, 1. "_What_ for ourselves we _can_, is always ours." --_Anon_. 2. "Who does the best his circumstance allows, Does well, acts nobly; angels _could_ no _more_." --_Young_. 3. "What _would_ this man? Now upward will he soar, And, little less than angel, would be more." --_Pope_. XXV. They place the infinitive before the word on which it depends; as, 1. "When first thy sire _to send_ on earth Virtue, his darling child, _design'd_" --_Gray_. 2. "As oft as I, _to kiss_ the flood, _decline_; So oft his lips ascend, to close with mine." --_Sandys_. 3. "Besides, Minerva, _to secure_ her care, _Diffus'd_ around a veil of thicken'd air." --_Pope_. XXVI. They place the auxiliary verb after its principal, by hyperbaton; as, 1. "No longer _heed_ the sunbeam bright That plays on Carron's breast he _can_" --_Langhorne_. 2. "_Follow_ I _must_, I cannot go before." --_Beauties of Shakspeare_, p. 147. 3. "The man who suffers, loudly may complain; And _rage_ he _may_, but he shall rage in vain." --_Pope_. XXVII. Before verbs, they sometimes arbitrarily employ or omit prefixes: _as, bide_, or _abide_; _dim_, or _bedim_; _gird_, or _begird_; _lure_, or _allure_; _move_, or _emove_; _reave_, or _bereave_; _vails_, or _avails_; _vanish_, or _evanish_; _wail_, or _bewail_; _weep_, or _beweep_; _wilder_, or _bewilder_:-- 1. "All knees to thee shall bow, of them that _bide_ In heav'n, or earth, or under earth in hell." --_Milton, P. L._, B. iii, l. 321. 2. "Of a horse, _ware_ the heels; of a bull-dog, the jaws; Of a bear, the embrace; of a lion, the paws." --_Churchills Cram._, p. 215. XXVIII. Some few verbs they abbreviate: as _list_, for _listen_; _ope_, for _open_; _hark_, for _hearken_; _dark_, for _darken_; _threat_, for _threaten_; _sharp_, for _sharpen_. XXIX. They employ several verbs that are not used in prose, or are used but rarely; as, _appal, astound, brook, cower, doff, ken, wend, ween, trow_. XXX. They sometimes imitate a Greek construction of the infinitive; as, 1. "Who would not sing for Lycidas? he knew Himself _to sing_, and _build_ the lofty rhyme." --_Milton_. 2. "For not, _to have been dipp'd_ in Lethè lake, Could save the son of Thetis _from to die_." --_Spenser_. XXXI. They employ the PARTICIPLES more frequently than prose writers, and in a construction somewhat peculiar; often intensive by accumulation: as, 1. "He came, and, standing in the midst, explain'd The peace _rejected_, but the truce _obtain'd_." --_Pope_. 2. "As a poor miserable captive thrall Comes to the place where he before had sat Among the prime in splendor, now _depos'd, Ejected, emptied, gaz'd, unpitied, shunn'd_, A spectacle of ruin or of scorn." --_Milton, P. R._, B. i, l. 411. 3. "Though from our birth the faculty divine Is _chain'd_ and _tortured--cabin'd, cribb'd, confined_." --_Byron, Pilg._, C. iv, St. 127. XXXII. In turning participles to adjectives, they sometimes ascribe actions, or active properties, to things to which they do not literally belong; as, "The green leaf quivering in the gale, The _warbling hill_, the _lowing vale_." --MALLET: _Union Poems_, p. 26. XXXIII. They employ several ADVERBS that are not used in prose, or are used but seldom; as, _oft, haply, inly, blithely, cheerily, deftly, felly, rifely, starkly_. XXXIV. They give to adverbs a peculiar location in respect to other words; as, 1. "Peeping from _forth_ their alleys green." --_Collins_. 2. "Erect the standard _there_ of ancient Night" --_Milton_. 3. "The silence _often_ of pure innocence Persuades, when speaking fails." --_Shakspeare_. 4. "Where Universal Love _not_ smiles around." --_Thomson_. 5. "Robs me of that which _not_ enriches him." --_Shakspeare_. XXXV. They sometimes omit the introductory adverb _there_: as, "_Was_ nought around but images of rest." --_Thomson_. XXXVI. They briefly compare actions by a kind of compound adverbs, ending in _like_; as, "Who bid the stork, _Columbus-like_, explore Heavens not his own, and worlds unknown before?" --_Pope_. XXXVII. They employ the CONJUNCTIONS, _or--or_, and _nor--nor_, as correspondents; as, 1. "_Or_ by the lazy Scheldt _or_ wandering Po." --_Goldsmith_. 2. "Wealth heap'd on wealth, _nor_ truth, _nor_ safety buys." --_Johnson_. 3. "Who by repentance is not satisfied, Is _nor_ of heaven, _nor_ earth; for these are pleas'd." --_Shakspeare_. 4. "Toss it, _or_ to the fowls, _or_ to the flames." --_Young, N. T._, p. 157. 5. "_Nor_ shall the pow'rs of hell, _nor_ wastes of time, _Or_ vanquish, _or_ destroy." --_Gibbon's Elegy on Davies_. XXXVIII. They oftener place PREPOSITIONS and their adjuncts, before the words on which they depend, than do prose writers; as, "_Against_ your fame _with_ fondness hate _combines_; The rival batters, and the lover mines." --_Dr. Johnson_. XXXIX. They sometimes place a long or dissyllabic preposition after its object; as, 1. "When beauty, _Eden's bowers within_, First stretched the arm to deeds of sin, When passion burn'd and prudence slept, The pitying angels bent and wept." --_James Hogg_. 2. "The Muses fair, _these peaceful shades among_, With skillful fingers sweep the trembling strings." --_Lloyd_. 3. "Where Echo walks _steep hills among_, List'ning to the shepherd's song." --_J. Warton, U. Poems_, p. 33. XL. They have occasionally employed certain prepositions for which, perhaps, it would not be easy to cite prosaic authority; as, _adown, aloft, aloof, anear, aneath, askant, aslant, aslope, atween, atwixt, besouth, traverse, thorough, sans_. (See Obs. 10th, and others, at p. 441.) XLI. They oftener employ INTERJECTIONS than do prose writers; as, "_O_ let me gaze!--Of gazing there's no end. _O_ let me think!--Thought too is wilder'd here." --_Young_. XLII. They oftener employ ANTIQUATED WORDS and modes of expression; as, 1. "_Withouten_ that, would come _an_ heavier bale." --_Thomson_. 2. "He was, _to weet_, a little roguish page, _Save_ sleep and play, who minded nought at all." --_Id._ 3. "Not one _eftsoons_ in view was to be found." --_Id._ 4. "To number up the thousands dwelling here, _An_ useless were, and eke _an_ endless task." --_Id._ 5. "Of clerks good plenty here you _mote espy_." --_Id._ 6. "But these I _passen_ by with nameless numbers _moe_." --_Id._ THE END OF APPENDIX FOURTH INDEX TO THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [Asterism] _In the following Index, the_ page _of the Grammar is directly referred to_: Obs. _or_ N. _before a numeral, stands for_ Observation _or_ Observations, _or for_ Note _or_ Notes _of the text_: R. _after a reference, stands for_ RULE. _The small letter_ n., _with an asterisk or other mark affixed to it, relates to a_ footnote _with such mark in the Grammar. Occasionally_, t., m., _or_ b., _or_ u., _or_ l., _accompanies a reference, to indicate the_ top, middle, _or_ bottom, _or the_ upper _or the_ lower half, _of the page referred to. Few abbreviations are employed beyond those of the ordinary grammatical terms. The Index is not intended to supersede the use of the_ Table of Contents, _which stands after the Preface. It is occupied wholly with the matter of the_ Grammar _proper; hence there are in it no references to the_ Introduction Historical and Critical, _which precedes the didactic portion of the work. In the Table before-mentioned must be sought the general division of English grammar, and matters pertaining to praxis, to examination, and to the writing of exercises_. A. A, lett., names itself --its plur. --sounds properly its own --numb. of sounds pertaining to, orthoëpists differ concerning --diphthongs beginning with, --triphth. do. --its true sound to be carefully preserved at end of words, _A_, as prep, or prefix --before part, in _ing_. _A_ and _an_, in Gr. derivatives. _A_ or _an_, art., see _An, A_ _Abbreviations_, frequent in writt. lang. --rule of punct. for. C, M, D, &c., as numerals, see _Letters_. Needless abbreviations, to be avoided _Able, ible_, class of adjectives in, numerous in Eng.; difficulty with resp. to the prop. form and signif. of; to what _able_ most properly belongs --application of _able_ to nouns, its propriety doubtf. --_Able_ or _ible_, prop. application of, how far determined from Lat. etymol. --_Able_ and _ible_, words of the same meaning in, how formed from different roots, _About_, with infin., as substitute for Lat. fut. part, in _rus_ --_About_, with _of_ preced., ("OF ABOUT _one hundred feet_") --_About_, derivat. of, from Sax. _Abrupt_ transitions in the Bible _Absolute_, when, and in what _case_, a noun or a pron. is put --_Absol._, case, defect of the common rule for --in how many ways the nom. case is put --nom. case put, with part., to what often equivalent; what part. frequently understood after nouns put --case, its existence denied by what authors --words put, punct. of, _Abstract numbers_, synt. of the phraseology used in speaking of, ("_Twice two_ IS _four_," or "_Twice two_ ARE _four_") _Absurd_ or incompatible expressions, to be avoided _Absurdities_ of expression, Crit. N. concerning _Acatalectic_, when a line is said to be _Accent_ and quantity, critical observations on _Accent_, difficulty with respect to the import of the word --various definitions of, cited --_Accent_, confounded by some with _emphasis_ --defined, as commonly understood --chief or primary and secondary --_Accent_, by what regulated --compared with emphasis --as affected by do. --is distinct from quantity --as understood by DR. JOH. --SHERID. teachings concerning; mostly adopted by MURR. --what lett. of a word receives the mark of --stress on a monosyl. more properly _emphasis_ than --_Accents_, more than one on a word --DR. ADAM'S view of _Accentuation_, modern, of Gr. and Lat. words, by what regulated; SANCTIUS'S rule for, new vers. of _According to, as to_, resolved. _Accordingly_, whether may be said for the questionable _according_ _Accusative_ before infin., in Lat. and Gr., of what reckoned the subject --whether the construc. can in general be imitated in Eng. --who adopt the Lat. doctrine of --what our nearest approach to the Lat. construc. of _Active_, in reference to verbs, in what sense may be used _Active-transitive verb_, defined --_Act.-trans. verbs_ gov. obj. case --place of agent and object in respect to --_Act.-trans. verb_, or part., has some noun or pron. for its object --with two words in appos. ("_Proclaim_ THEE KING,") --with do., neither in appos. nor connected by conjunc., ("_I paid_ HIM _the_ MONEY,") --with redund. _me, thee, you_ --should not be used without an object --should not assume a governm. incompatible with its signif. _Active-intransitive verb_, defined --_Act.-intrans. verb_, with prep. and its object, put in the pass. form --in pass. form with neut. signif. ("_I_ AM COME,") --should not be used transitively _Addison_, undeservedly criticised by BLAIR, for his frequent use of _that_, as a relative _Addition, enumeration_, of numbers, by what _number_ of the verb to be expressed _Address_, ordinary fashion of, in Eng., the plur. numb. --has introduced the anomal. compound _yourself_ --_Address_, direct, nom. absol. by --terms of, _your Majesty, your Highness_, &c., in what construc. used --general usage of, in Fr.; in Span., Portug., or Germ. ADJECTIVES, Etymol. of --Classes of, named and defined --Modifications of --Comparison of, reg.; by adverbs; irreg. --_Adjectives_ in _able_ and _ible_, (see _Able, Ible_.) --_Adjectives_, number of, in Eng. --how have been otherwise called --how distinguished from nouns --other parts of speech may become --MURR., on nouns assuming the nature of --whether nouns plur. can assume the character of --_Adjectives_ that cannot be compared --that are compared by means of adverbs --(See _Comparison, Comparative Deg._, and _Superlative Deg._) --_Adjectives_ requiring the article _the_ --denoting place or situation, comparison of --become adverbs --use of, for adv., improper --with prep., ellipt., equivalent to adv. --poet., for nouns --do., for adverbs --_Adjectives_, Synt. of --do., in what consists --to what relate --substituted ellipt. for their abstr. nouns --relate to nouns or pronouns understood --used with def. art., ellipt., as nouns --two or more before a noun, order of --two, joined by hyphens --denoting unity or plurality, how agree with their nouns --connected, position of --differing in numb., connected without repetition of noun ("ONE _or more letters_,") --_much, little_, &c., preceded by _too, how_, &c., taken substantively --_Adjectives_, punct. of --derivation of, from nouns, from adjectives, &c. --poet. peculiarities in respect to --_Adjective_, taken abstractly with infin. or part. --following a finite verb, without a noun --do. an infin. or a part. --position of, in Eng. --when may either precede or follow its noun --Whether _adj._ or adv. is required, how determined --_Adjective_, one superadded to an other, without conjunc., position of --when the figure of, affects the sense, what to be done --should not be represented by a pronoun --ellipsis of, shown _Adjectives, common_, probable numb. of, in Eng. --enumeration of, according to their endings _Adjectives, compound_, analogies of their formation, traced --nouns derived from, generally disapproved _Adjectives, numeral_, kinds of, named --Cardinal numb. and its corresponding _numeral_, what denote --Construction and figure of the _numerals_ _Adjectives, participial_, what words to be referred to the class of --cannot be construed to govern obj. case _Adjectives, pronominal_, list of --which, sometimes used adverbially --which, sometimes used partitively, appar. as nouns --without nouns expressed, how parsed --distribution of, by CHURCH See _Other_, &c. _Adjectives, proper_, peculiarities of, considered --rule for initial capital in _Adjuncts_ of nominative in the agreement of a verb _Admitting, allowing_, &c., appar. independent, to what may relate ADVERBS, Etymol. of --_Adverb_, defined --_Adverbs_, serve to abbreviate expression --other classes of words sometimes take the nature of --appar. take the nat. of other parts of speech --how distinguished from adjectives --Classes of, named and defined --proper classification of, by what indicated --of time, place, and manner, with what connected; of degree, do. --_conjunctive_ (see _Conjunctive Adverb_:) --Modifications of --number of, in Eng. --Whether _adverb_ or adjective required, how determined --_Adverbs_, Synt. of --in what do. consists --to what relate --_Adverb_ before a prep. ("CONSIDERABLY _beyond_,") --_Adverbs_, whether sometimes qualify nouns --of participles which become nouns, how managed --_above, then_, &c., as relating directly to a noun, how parsed --_Adverbs_, of degree, to what adjectives not applicable --direct use of, for pronouns, inelegant --position of --needless use of, for adjectives --_hither_, &c., for _here_, &c., with verb of motion --_hence_, &c., with _from_ prefixed --_when_, &c., not to follow _is_ in a definition ("_Concord is_ WHEN," &c.,) --_ever_ and _never_, to be carefully distinguished --in _ly_, when preferable to other forms --_Adverb_, appar. made object of a prep. ("_At_ ONCE,") --emphatic, with verb of self-motion suppressed ("_I'll_ HENCE,") --_Adverb_ HOW, misuse of ("_He said_ HOW," &c.,) --NO, not to be used in reference to a verb or a part. --_Adverbial_ form or character, words of, how parsed --_Adverbs_, punct. of --_Adverb_, ellips. of, shown --_Adverbs_, derivation of, --many common Eng., of Anglo-Sax. origin --poet. peculiarities in the use of --peculiar use of those of two syllables in _ly_, by MILT. and his contemporaries --_Adverbial phrase_, a needless and improper designation in analysis _Affectation_ of fine writing, PREC. against _Ago_ and _since_, difference between AGREEMENT, of words, defined --with what synonymous --_Agreement_, how many of the parts of speech in Eng., incapable of; none necessary between words unrelated --as differing from relation --of words in the same construc., not easy to determine --rules of, as applied to articles, impertinent --_Agreements_, syntactical, in Eng., specified --_Agreement_, general principles of --figurative, of pronouns with antecedents _Ah_, sometimes departs from usage _Alexandrine verse_, description of _Alias_, for the equivocal _or_, use of, in judicial proceedings _All_, when may be reckoned a noun _Allegory_, defined --_Allegory_ includes most parables of Script., and some fables _Alphabet_, Eng., names and plur. numb. of the letters --Hebrew, names and characters of, given, --Greek, do. --Latin, names of the letters of, scarcely known even to the learned; account of its letters --A _perfect alphabet_ in Eng., what it would effect --Letters of the _alphabet_, when and how used in the sciences _Alphabetic writing_, its advantage over the syllabic _Ambiguous, construc._, with respect to the _class_ of a word --do., with resp. to the _case_ of a word --_expressions_, PREC. against _Amen_, use and import of _Among_ and _amongst, amid_ and _amidst_, different in sense and construc. from _between_ and _betwixt_ --incompatible with the distributive _one an other_ --derivation of, from Sax. _Amphibrach_, defined _Amphimac, amphimacer_, or _Cretic_, defined. _An_, conjunc., obsolete for _if_ ("_Nay_, AN _thou 'lt mouthe_," &c., SHAK.,) --derivation of, from Sax. _An, a_, art., one and the same --preferable form before a particular sound --_A_ or _an_ before _genus_ --how commonly limits the sense --belongs to sing. numb. only --with adjective of numb. --its effect upon proper and common nouns --is without agreem. --Whether _an_ is from _a_ or _a_ from _an_ --_An, a_, origin of --of proportion --with numerals --by what definitives superseded --implies unity; sometimes precedes collective noun conveying the idea of plurality --present usage of, how differs from that of ancient writers --use of, before _humble_, and its compounds and derivatives --erroneous use of, as relating to a plural --not to be used for _the_, to denote emphat. a whole kind _Analysis_, "to analyze a sentence," what --_Analysis_ of sentences shown in five different methods; which method BROWN calls "the best and most thorough" --_Analysis_, notices of the different methods of --importance of, in teaching grammar; the truest method of, _parsing_ _Anapest_, defined _Anapestic verse_, treated --what syll. of, has stress; first foot of, how may be varied --what variation of, produces composite verse --whether a surplus syll. in, may compensate for a deficient one --what number of syllables in the longest measure of --_Anapestic verse_ shown in its four measures --_Anapestic_, measures, why few --_poetry_, pieces in general short --(instance of a long piece, L. HUNT'S "Feast of the Poets,") _And_, discriminated from _or_ --when preferable to _with, or_, or _nor_ --whether emphatic of word or phrase following it ("_Part pays_, AND _justly_;" &c., POPE,) --derivation of, from Sax. _Anglo-Saxon_ dialect, and accessions thereto, as forming the modern Eng. lang. _An other_, see _Other_ _Antecedent_, proper sense of the term --sometimes placed after its pronoun --sometimes doubly restricted --of pron., applied figuratively --sing., with the adj. _many_, and a plur. pron. --suppressed --_Antecedents_ of different persons, numbers, and genders, disjunctively connected, how represented --joint, agreem. of pron. in ellipt. construct. of _Antibacchy_, or _hypobacchy_, defined _Antiquated_ words and modes of expression, more frequent in poetry than in prose _Antithesis_, defined _Aorist_, or indefinite, may be applied to imperf. tense pot. and subjunc. _Aphæresis_, defined _Apocope_, defined _Apophasis_, or _paralipsis_, explained _Apostrophe_, mark, what denotes; for what sometimes used --at what period introduced into the poss. case _Apostrophe_, figure, defined _Apposition_, Synt. --agreement between words in --_Apposition_, what, and from whom received this name --different from _same cases_ put after verbs and participles not trans.; false teachings of MURR. _et al_. hereon --the rule for, to _which_ apposed term applied; whether words in, should be parsed separately --common rule and definition of, wherein faulty --which word of, the _explanatory_ term; _when_ explan. word placed _first_ --in what case of, either word may be taken as the explan. term, --why two possessive words cannot be in --two or more nouns in, where sign of possession put --whether compat. with, to supply relative and verb between the apposed words --_Apposition_, appar., of noun without poss. sign, _with_ pron. possess. ("YOUR _success as an_ INSTRUCTER,") --noun or pron. emphat. repeated ("_Cisterns, broken_ CISTERNS," &c.,) --appar., of a noun to a sentence --of words differing in numb. ("_Go_ YE _every_ MAN,") --of proper nouns with appellatives ("_The river_ THAMES,") --act. verb followed by two words in --whether requires any other agreem. than that of cases --words in, punct. of --of a common with a prop. name, use of capital lett. _Archaism_, what _Aristotle_, division of the Greek letters --what neoterics wiser than; how considers the compounding or non-compounding of terms _Arithmetical_ numbers, relation of the terms in ARRANGEMENT of words, term defined --_Arrang_. of words, of what importance in synt.; whether it affects the method of parsing words ARTICLES, Etymol. of --_Article_, defined --_Article_, common noun without; Eng. nouns without, taken indefinitely partitive --words of mere _being_, used without --_Articles_, how often inserted --needless, to be omitted --Classes of, named and defined --Modificat. (_an_ short, to _a_, the only,) --_Articles_, the frequent use of; freq. misapplication of --to be distinguished from adjectives, and from each other --appar. used for adverbs --_Article_, Eng., its demonstrative character --do., compared with the Gr. def. art.; no rule for _agreement of_, appropriate in Eng. --use of, before names of rivers --_Articles_, Synt. of --to what RELATE --_Article_, with _the poss. and its governing noun_, only _one_, used --one noun admits of one, only; before an adj., relates to a noun understood --why not repeated, as in Fr., before every noun of a series; why the omission of, cannot constitute a proper ellips. --position of, with respect to its noun; ditto, with respect to an adj. and noun --relative position of, and adj., not a matter of indifference --excluded by certain pronom. adjectives; what ones precede it; its position in respect to an adj. of quality, limited by _too, so, as_, or _how_ --position of, when an adj. is preceded by another adv. than _too, so, as_, or _how_ --do., when an adj. follows its noun --whether the insertion or the omission of, can greatly affect the import of a sentence --_Article_, repetition of, with nouns connected --do. with adjectives connected, and, oppos. --added to each of two or more nouns sing., or a plural put ("THE _nominative and_ THE _objective_ CASE," or "THE _nominative and objective_ CASES,") --use of, in special correspondence of phrases --do., in correspondence peculiar --do., in a series of terms --erroneous use of, before the _species_, for THE; do., when the _species_ is said to be of the _genus_ ("A JAY _is a sort of_ A BIRD,") --not used before names of the virtues, vices, &c., before limited terms, and before nouns of definite signif. --do. before titles or names mentioned merely as such --do. before a part. not taken as a noun --insertion or omission of, with respect to a comparison or an alternation made with two nouns --required in the construc. which converts a part. into a verbal noun --_Articles_, what the false synt. of, includes --Ellips. of _article_, shown --_Articles_, derivation of --frequently omitted by the poets See also _Definite Article_, and _An, A_ _Articulate_ or _elementary sound_, nature of _Articulation_, as defined by COMST.; do. by BOLLES --_Articulation_, how differs from pronunciation --the principles of, what they constitute --a good one, what, in the view of COMST.; do., in what consists, according to SHERID.; do. importance of; do., how delivers words _As_, as subject or object of a verb, _its_ CLASS --with a clause or sentence as anteced., do. _As_, as _relative_, WEBST. absurd explanation of; CHAND. do.; BULL. denial --to what construc. limited --peculiarities with respect to position --declined --derivation of, from Teuton., DR. JOH. --_As follow, as follows_, &c., construction of; MURR., himself perplexed by TOOKE and CAMPB., delivers dubious instructions concerning --Opinion of NIX. and CROMB. concerning. _As_, as a conjunc., uniting words in appos. --between adj. or part. and its noun ("_Actions_ AS _such_") --with ellips. of latter term of comparison ("_For such_ AS HE") --_As_ and _than_, character and import of --words connected by, generally put in the same case --_As --as; as --so; so_ (preceded by a negative,) --_as; so --as_ (with an infin. following;) correspondents _Asking_ and _exclaiming_, simple and appropriate _names_ for _the marks of_, desirable _Aspirates_, see _Semivowels_ _Asterisk_, use of. _Asterism_, do. _Ate_, particular words ending in, peculiarities of _Auxiliary_, defined --_Auxiliary_, form of a verb, when preferable to the simp. --verbs, are mostly defective --do., are needful in the conjug. of English verbs --do., inflection of, shown --_Auxiliaries_ used as expletives --_Auxiliary_, poet. placed after verb _Averse, aversion_, whether to be construed with _from_ or _to_ _Avoiding_, verbs of, with part. in stead of infin. _Awkwardness, literary_, Crit. N. censuring _Ay, I_, assentive adv. --_Ay_, sometimes improp. written for _ah_ B. B, its name and plur. number --its sound --in what situations silent _Bacchy_, described BE, how varied --CONJUGATED, affirmat. --Use of the form _be_ for the pres. indic. --_Be_, ellips. of the infin. often needlessly supposed by ALLEN _et al._ --whether it should be inserted after the verb _make_ --_Is_, contracted, giving its nom. the same form as that of the poss. case ("_A_ WIT'S _a feather_," &c., POPE) _Become_, &c., whether they demand the auxiliary _am_ or _have_ _Besides_, prep., in what cases proper to be used after _else_ or _other_, in lieu of _than_ _Between_, cannot refer to more than two things --_Between_ or _betwixt_, how differs in use from _among_ or _amongst_ --_Between, betwixt_, derivation of, from Sax. _Bible, the Holy_, application of the name --what is shown by Italics in the text of --quotations in, how indicated --abrupt transitions in --its general accuracy of lang. --in the lang. of, _ye_ and _you_, in what constructions not found _Bid_, as commanding, or as promising, its construction with the infin. _Blair, Dr._, unjustly censures Addison's frequent use of _that_, as a relative _Blank verse_, as distinguished from rhyme _Blunders_, as readily copied, as originated, by makers of school-books --_literary_, Crit. N. concerning _Bombast_, as opposed to purity, PREC. against _Books_, mentioned by name, rule for capitals _Both_, as conjunc., corresponding to _and_ --as adj. --derivation of, acc. to DR. MURR. _Brace_, its purpose _Breve_, or _stenotone_, for what used _Brevity_ of expression, sought in the ordinary business of life _Brokenness_, or _hitching_, as a fault of style, PREC. censuring _But, save, as well as_, construc. of two nouns connected by --_But_, how has acquired the signif. of _only_ --in ambiguous construc. ("_There cannot be_ BUT _one_," &c., KAMES) --as used for _that_, contrary to its import --derivation of, from Sax. --_But_ and _save_, whether they ever govern the obj. case as prepositions --_Cannot but_, construc. and signif. of --_Not but_, to what equivalent, and the class of _but_ C. C, name and plur. numb. of --sounds of --where silent --with cedilla placed under (ç) --written for a number --_Ch_, sounds of --_Arch_, sound of, before a vowel, and before a conson. --_Ck_, final, for double _c_ _Cadence_, explained --faulty, precept against, by RIPP. --MURR. direction concerning _Cadmus_, carried the Phoenician alphabet into Greece _Cæsura_, signif. and application of --_Cæsural_ or _divisional pause_; _demi-cæsuras_, or _minor rests_; (see _Pauses_) _Can_, verb, varied --derivation and signif. of --_Can not_ and _cannot_, with what distinction used --_Cannot_, with a verb of _avoiding_, or with BUT --_Can, could, would_, as principal verbs, by poet. use _Capital letters, capitals_, for what used; how marked for the printer, in manuscript --what things are exhibited wholly in, --Rules for the use of, --use of, in comp. prop, names, --needless, --lavish use of, its effect, --discrepancies with respect to, abound in books. _Cardinal numeral_, distinguished from its corresponding ordinal, --should _follow_ the ordinal, in a specification of a part of a series, ("_The first_ TWO,"). _Caret_, in what used, and for what purpose. _Cases_, in grammar, what, --named and defined, --nom. and obj., alike in form, how distinguished, --on what founded, and to what parts of speech belong. --(See _Nominative Case_, &c.) --_Cases_, whether infinitives, participles, &c., can take the nature of, --what is the proper number of, to be assigned to Eng. nouns, --what authorities for the true doctrine of three, --discordant doctrine of sundry grammarians concerning the numb, of, --WEBST. and MURR. opposite instructions concerning do. --_Cases_, whether personal pronouns have two, only, --rules for the construc. of, --whether a noun may be in two, at once, --whether Eng. verbs govern two, --whether in Eng., as in Lat., when a verb governs two, the pass. retains the latter case. --_Cases, same_, (see _Same Cases_.) --_Cases_, what kinds of words take different, after them. --_Case_ of noun or pron. after part. governed by prep., whether undetermined; err. of SANB. and BULL. hereon expos.; GREE. false teaching, do., --_doubtful_, after participles, in what kind of examples found; canon concerning do. _Case_, technical term with printers, ("Letters of the _lower case_.") _Catachresis_, how commonly explained, and what sort of fig. _Catalectic_, when a measure is said to be. _Cedilla_, from whom borrowed, and how applied. _Change_, of numb. in the second pers., ineleg., --of the connective of two nominatives appar. requiring a plur. verb, canon concerning. --_Changing_ the scene, or deserting the principal subj., in a sent., PREC. against. _Chaucer's_ imperfect measures, DRYDEN'S remarks on. _Cherokee_ alphabet, some account of. _Cherubim_ and _seraphim_, Heb. plurals, sometimes mistaken for singulars. _Chief terms_, or _principal parts_, of a verb, necessary to be first ascertained. --_Chief words_ may be distinguished by capitals. _Circumflex_, inflection, (see _Inflection_,) --mark, use of. _Classes_ under the parts of speech, what meant by. _Classification_ of words, explanations to assist beginners in making, --DR. WILSON'S observations on. _Clause_, see _Member_. _Climax_, defined. _Cognomination_, relation of the article, in instances of, ("_Alexander the Great_"). _Collective noun_, defined. --_Collective nouns_, forms of, sing. and plur.; how understood, --gend. of, how determined, --by what relative represented. --_Collec. noun_, represented by plur. pron., --in what two ways may be taken, and with what accord of pron.; the plur. construc. of, under what fig. of synt. ranked by the old grammarians, --whether with a sing. definitive, admits a plur. verb or pronoun. --_Collec. nouns_ generally admit of plur. form. --_Collect. noun_, represented by sing. pron. neut., --uniformity of numb. to be preserved in words constructed with, --agreem. of verb with, --how determined whether it conveys the idea of plurality or not, --strictures on the rules of ADAM, LOWTH, _et. al._, concerning, --NIX. notion of the construc. of verb and. --_Coll. nouns_, partitive of plur., construc. of, --as expressing collections of persons, or coll. of things, which most often taken plurally, --when not plur. in form, whether it admits of plur. adj. before it. _Colon_, from what takes its name, --for what used, --in what year adopted in England, --its utility maintained against some objectors, --Rules for the use of, --used by some between numb. of chap. and that of verse, in quotations from the Bible. _Comma_, from what takes its name, --what denotes, --less common in Germ. than in Eng., --its ancient form, --Rules for the use of, --use of, in a series of words. _Commanding, desiring, expecting_, &c., verbs of, to what actions or events, refer. _Commandments_, the ten, how expressed as to _forms_ of verb, --by what points divided in books, --example of, versified in iamb. hexameter, by DR. WATTS. _Common gender_, unnecessary and improper term in Eng. gram. _Common noun_, defined, --when admits of no art., --with def. art. sometimes becomes proper, --by personif. often do. --_Common nouns_ include the classes, _collective, abstract_, and _verbal_. --_Common nouns_, their nature and numerical distribution, as distinguished from proper. _Comparative degree_, defined. --_Compar. degree_, why BROWN presents a new definit. of, in place of his former one, --true nature of --whether always required in a comparison of two objects --with what construc. proper in exclusive comparisons, canon of BROWN --_Comparatives_, certain, not construed with the conjunc. _than_ --double, how to be considered and treated --_Comparative_ terminations, to what adjectives not to be applied --_Compar. degree_ in Gr. and in Lat., construc. of --poet. connected to the positive _Comparison_, defined --_Comparison, degrees of_, named and defined --what adjectives admit not of --CHURCH. on the different, (and BROWN on CHURCH.) --character of BROWN'S definitions of; do. of those of MURR. _et al._, exhibited --MURR. definitions of, criticised --relative nature of --_Comparison_, regular --to what adjectives applicable --when preferable to the comparison by adverbs --_Comparison_, HARR. on the degrees of; the positive a _degree_ --(in oppos. to HARR. _et al._) --_Comparison of equality_, what; sometimes involves solec., ("_Nothing_ SO _uncertain_ AS,") --_Comparison of equality and of ineq._, canon on --_Comparison_, adaptation of the terms of, to the deg. to be expressed --belongs chiefly to comm. adjectives --_Comparis._, irregular --_Comparis._, whether to be mentioned in parsing adverbs --inclusive, and exclusive --_Comparisons, extra_, their impropriety --Crit. N. on, See also _Comparative Degree_, and _Superlative Degree_. _Comparison_ or _contrast_ of things, the resemblance or opposition how rendered more striking _Complex prepositions_, how may be formed _Composite orders_ of verse, what uniformity of construc. they require --_Composite verse_ --description of; why requires rhythm --kinds of, unlimited; which preferable --liable to doubtful scansion _Composition_, the frequent practice of, necessary, in order to acquire a good style, _Composition_ of language, two kinds of _Compound_ or _progressive form_ of verb, how made --exemplified in the verb READ, conjugated, what verbs do not admit of; what it implies --verbs of, having a pass. signif. _Compound word_, defined, _Compounds_, permanent, consolidated; temporary, formed by hyphen --_Comp. words_, not to be needlessly broken --two or more, not to be split --when to be written with hyphen; when without it --_Compounding of words_, unsettled usage respecting; manner of, in Lat. and Gr.; arbitrary practice of, in Eng., its effect --does not necessarily preclude their separate use --propriety of, sometimes difficult to decide --_Compounds_, orthog. of --_Compounding_ the words of a reg. phrase, its impropriety --_Compound adjectives_, see _Adjectives, Compound_. _Concord_, (see _Agreement_.) --_Concords_ and _governments_, examples of false ones from the grammarians --in Lat., diversely enumerated by the Lat. grammarians _Concrete _terms for abstract qualities, poet. use of _Confusion_ of senses, in use of pron., to be avoided _Conjugation_ of a verb, defined --what some teachers choose to understand by --Conjugating a verb, four ways of, named --_Conjugation_ of an Eng. verb, what the simplest form of --_Conjug._ of verbs, shown in five Examples --(See also _Compound_ or _Progressive_, &c.) --_Conjugat._ negative, how made, interrogative, do. --interrog. and negative, do. CONJUNCTIONS, Etymol. of --_Conjunction_, defined --_Conjunctions_, how differ from other connectives --nature and office of; R. F. MOTT quot. --nature of the connexions made by --how many in common use --how parsed --as "connecting the same moods, &c.," strictures on the doctrine of MURR. _et al._, concerning --_Conjunctions_, classes of, named and defined --(See _Copulative Conjunction, Disjunc. Conj._, and _Corresp. Conjunc.) --Conjunctions_, List of --appar. used as adverbs --peculiar phrases having the force of --importance of, as copulative or as disjunctive, to be carefully observed --_Conjunctions_, Synt. of --do., in what consists, (MURR. _et al._ teaching erron.) --what connect --declinable words connected by, why in the same case --power and position of those that connect sentences or clauses --absurd and contradictory notions concerning the office of, by LENN., BULL., _et al._ --two or three coming together, how parsed --_Conjunction_, followed by a phrase, and not a whole member --connecting two terms to one --do. two terms the same in kind or quality --_Conjunctions_, to be used with due regard to import and idiom --punct. of --ellips. of, shown --derivation of --are mostly of Anglo-Sax. origin --H. TOOKE'S derivations of, given --poet. usage of _or --or_, and _nor --nor_ _Conjunctive adverbs_, what office perform; what classes of words embrace --often relate equally to two verbs in different clauses --list of --_whence, whither_, &c., sometimes partake of the nature of pronouns _Connected terms_, two, limited by a third, what both must be --should be the same in kind or quality. _Connected_ adjectives, how should be placed. _Connective_ words, or connectives, kinds of, named --do., how may be distinguished _Consonants_, divisions and subdivisions of --properties of, as _sharp, flat, labial_, &c. _Construing_, whether differs from parsing _Continuance_ of action, see _Compound_ or _Progressive_ _Contractions_, in the orthog. and the pronunciation of words --ocular, in printing poetry, not important _Correlatives_, combinations of, ("_Father's son_,") how to be regarded _Corresponding_, or _corresponsive conjunctions_, in what manner used --named and exemplified in their several pairs --nature of the terms standing in the relat. of --the former of two, how parsed --CHURCH. canon on the use of --_Or_ --_or_, and _nor_ --_nor_, by poet. usage _Crotchets_, or _brackets_, how used --confused and inaccurate teaching of WEBST. _et al._, concerning _Cum_ with an ablative, Lat., ("_Dux_ CUM _aliquibus_," &c.,) the construc. imitated in Eng. --canon on do. _Curves_, or _marks of parenthesis_ --have been in use for centuries --the use of, not to be discarded --confused teaching of WEBST. _et al._, respecting do. --what used to distinguish --clause enclosed by, how to be uttered; pause of do. --Rules for the application of _Customary_ actions require to be expressed by indic. pres. D. D, name and plur. numb. --sounds of --written for a number _Dactyl_, defined _Dactylic verse_ --stress, on what syll. laid; what rhyme it generally forms --is not very common; seldom pure and regular --shown in its eight measures --has been but little noticed by prosodists and grammarians --misconceived and misrepresented Rev. D. BLAIR _Dare_, construc. with infin. foll. --Use of the form DARE for the third pers. sing. _Dash_, the mark, explanation of --LOWTH _et al._ make no mention of --Rules for the application of --_Dash_, needless, how to be treated --between quotation and name of the author --applied to side-title --used to signify omission _Dates_, ordinarily abbreviated; how best written --objectives in, without their prepositions _Dative case_, faulty relic, in Eng., of old Sax., ("_It ascends_ ME _into_," &c., SHAK.) _Days_ of the week, names of, to be reckoned prop. names, and written with capital _Deaf and dumb_ --The _deaf and dumb_, to whom the letters represent no sounds, learn to read and write; what inferred herefrom _Defective verb_, what verb so called --which tenses of, wanting --_Defective verbs_, whether they should be reckoned a distinct class --_may, can, must_, and _shall_, not to be referred to the class of --_will, beware_, &c., construc. and import of explained --_Defec. verbs_, List of _Definite article_, defined --_Definite art._, its demonstrative character --used before names of rivers --do. by way of eminence --no rule of agreem. for, in Eng. --prefixed as an adv., to comparatives and superlatives --repeated before every term in a series of adjectives used ellipt. as nouns --used for a poss. pron., ("_Full in_ THE _face_") --position with respect to its noun --required before antecedent to a restricted relative. See also _The_ _Definition_, defined --A _perfect definition_, what --_Definitions_, needful qualities of certain, in gram. --bad, peculiar vice of --Crit. N. on _Definitives_, what, in Eng., and how to be classed --example to show what is meant by --_Definitive_ word required before antecedent to restricted relative _Degrees of comparison_, see _Comparison_ _Deity_, names of, use of capitals in --in all languages, masc.; direct names of, do.. The sing. numb, universally employed in reference to the Supreme Being _Demonstratives_, from the class, pronominal adjectives _Derivation_, as a topic of gram., what explains --importance of --a knowledge of what languages will throw light on the subject of Eng. _Desiring_, verbs of; see _Commanding_ _Desisting_, verbs of; with part., in stead of infin. _Despauter_, (Despauterius Joannes,) grammarian, when died --his Lat. Gram. --his remark on the origin of using plur. pron. of second pers. for sing. --gives the rule that the _verb governs the nominative before it_ _Diæresis_, or _dialysis_, mark, place and use of --explained _Diesis_, or _double dagger_, for what purpose used. _Dimeter_, line, _iambic_, examples of --_trochaic_, do. --_anapæstic_, do. --_dactylic_, do. _Diphthong_, defined --_Diphthongs_, distinction of --enumeration and specification of the Eng. _Discourse_, or _narration_, its nature and requirements _Disjunctive conjunction_, defined --_Disjunctives_, List of --_Disjunctive_ OR, see _Or_ _Distance_, see _Time_, &c. _Distribution_, of words into classes, a matter of some difficulty; explanations concerning, for learners --of verbs in Lat., grammarians have disputed respecting _Distributives_, of the class _pronominal adjectives_ --_Distributive_ term sing. in apposit. with a plur. _Division, literary_, see _Literary Division_ _Do_, verb, how varied: --particular uses of --in what manner may be substituted for an other term _Double comparatives_ and _double superlatives_, how may be regarded; canon; (LATH. and CHILD) _Double negatives_, see _Negation_, and _Negatives_ _Doubling_ of the final consonant before additional syll.; not doubling, before do. --_Double_ letter retained --_Doubling_, certain letters incline to; others, do not _Doubtful case_ after a part., in what kind of examples found; the construc. to be avoided _Drink_, verb, grammarians greatly at variance respecting the pret. and the perf. part. of _Dual_ number, found in Gr. and in Arab., what denotes _Duplication_, see _Doubling_ _Du Vivier, G._, his _Grammaire des Grammaires_, and his _Traité des Participes_, a copious treatment of the Fr. participle E. E, (as A, O, I, and U,) self-naming: --how spoken and written --its plur. --sounds properly its own --final, mute, and to what belongs; exceptions --effect on preced. vowel, of _e_ mute after a sing. conson., or after _st_, or _th_ --diphthongs beginning with --triphthongs do. _Each_, pronom. adj., always of the third pers. sing.; its agreements. _Each other_, see _Other_ _Ecphoneme_, or note of exclamation --occasional introduction into the classics --diversely called by MURR. _et al._ --for what used, and of what a sign --Rules for the application of _Ecphonesis_, defined _Either_ and _neither_, pronom. adjectives, relate to two only --M. HARR. on the illegit. use of --their numb. and pers.; what agreements they require, when they are the leading words in their clauses --derivation of, from the Sax. _Either --or, neither --nor_, corresponsives: --transposed, with repeated disjunction or negat. _Elegiac stanza_, description of _Elementary sound_, or _elements of speech_, defined. See _Sounds_ _Ellipsis_, figure defined --either not defined by grammarians in general, or absurdly defined --frequent in comp. sentences --to be supplied in parsing --_supposed_, may change the construc. without affecting the sense --the principle of, as explaining several questionable but customary expressions, ("_Fair and softly_ GOES _far_") --MURR. on "THE _ellipsis_" --_Ellipsis supplied_, EXAMPLES of --Needless _ellipses_, the supposition of, to be avoided --_Ellipses_, faulty, as opposed to perspicuity, PREC. against. _Ellipsis_, or _suppression_, mark of, how figured, and what used to denote _Elliptical_ construction of nouns, ("_A horse, a horse_," &c., SHAK.) _Elocution_, defined _Else, other_, &c., with _than_, in exclusive comparisons --_Else_ or _other_, sometimes construed with _besides_ --_Else_, derivation of _Emphasis_, defined: --comparative view of accent and --as connected with quantity, MURR. --as affecting accent --what the guide to a right. --_Emphatic_ words, not to be multiplied _Enallage_, defined --signif. of the Gr. word --special application of the term --with what other terms synonymous --the most common forms of, in Eng. --examples of, how differ from solecisms --too much latitude was given to the fig. by Despauter, and by others _Enallixis_, see _Enallage_ _Ending_ of a sentence with an adv., a prep., or any inconsid. word or phrase, PREC. concerning _English Grammar_, see _Grammar_ _English language_, some account of its origin --its character --its simplicity and facility asserted by LOWTH --its chief defect, according to DR. JOH. _Enumeration_ of numbers, see _Addition_ _Epicene nouns_, see _Generic Names_ _Epithets_, new compound, poets frequently form _Equivalence_, the argument of, has often led into errors _Equivocal_, or _ambiguous construc._ of cases, to be avoided --of rel. pron., by misplacement --of prep. with converted part., how amended --of the word _but_, ("_There cannot be_ BUT _one_," &c.) --of words, leaving the classification doubtful, Crit. N. concerning --_Equiv._, or _ambig_. expressions, as opposed to propriety, PREC. against _Eroteme_, its form in Greek --derivation; fitness of the name --diversely called by MURR. _et al_. --its use --Rules for do. --its value as a sign of pause --retained by a quoted question _Erotesis_, explained _Errors, incorrigible_, Crit. N. concerning ETYMOLOGY --_Etymol._, of what treats --when and how should be taught --_figures of_, term defined; the principal do., named and defined --_Etymology_ and meaning of words, HARRIS on the usefulness of disquisitions into _Ever_, contrac., _e'er_; so in comp. rel. pronouns --_Ever a one_, contrac. by the comm. people into _e'er a one_ --_Ever_ and _never_, opposite to each other in sense, yet freq. confounded and misapplied; canon on the employment of --_Ever so_, (prop., _everso_,) signif. of --_Ever so wisely_, its propriety determined, against the false phraseology _never so wisely_ --_Ever_, derivation of, from Sax. _Example_, as used in teaching, meaning of --_Examples_, use of capitals in _Exception_, noun, and _except_, verb, whether more properly followed by _from_ or by _to_ _Exclamation_, note of, (see _Ecphoneme_) --_Exclamation_, nom. absolute by --the _case_ of nouns used in _Exclusive_ and _inclusive terms_ of a comparison _Exercise_, in grammar, what _Expecting_, &c., verbs of, see _Commanding_ _Extended_ compositions, gradation of the parts in F. F, its name and plur. numb. --final in monosyllables, to be doubled --formation of the plur. of nouns in, and in _ff_ --its sound _Fable_, how may be defined --What the term denotes in the Scriptures _Fall short of, make bold with_, &c., how the adjective in such phrases is to be explained in parsing _False identification_, (under synt. of SAME CASES,) Note exposing the error of _Falsities_ in sentences, Crit. N. directed against _Feel_, its construc. with the infin. _Few_ and _many_, form and construc. of. _Fewer_, see _Little_ FIGURES, treated --_Figure_, in gram., what --_Figures_, distinctive names of some; frequent occurrence of those of rhetoric --_Figure of words_, signif. of the term --_Figure of words_, Rules for --suggestions additional to do. --unsettled and variable usage in that which relates to --_Figure of orthog._, what; what the principal _figures of_ do. --_Figure of etymol._, what --_Figures of etymol._, the principal, named and defined --_Figure of synt._, what --_Figures of synt._, the principal, named and defined --_Figure of rhet._, what --_Figures of rhet._, why certain are called _tropes_ --on what mostly founded --the principal, named and defined --affect the agreem. of pronouns with their antecedents --_Figures_, how many BROWN deems it needful to define and illustrate --_Figures_, definitions of sundry, in the lang. of authors, _corrected_, KEY. _Figures_, Arabic, in what cases _pointed_ by some _Final f, l_, or _s_, in spelling; other finals than, in do. --_ck_ or _c_, use of --_ll_, to what confined --_e_ of a primitive, when omitted; when retained --_y_ of a prim. word before a terminat., how managed --_ise_ or _ize_, which termination to be taken --_Finals_, what letters may assume the position of; what may not, and why _Finite_ verbs, _agreem. of, with subjects_, a principle of Univ. Gram. --Rules concerning --_Fin. verb_ understood, punct. of _First words_, initial capital to --faulty practice of grammarians with respect to _Foot, poetic_, see _Poetic Feet_ _Foreign_ words or idioms, unnecessary use of, in opposition to purity _For_, with _all_, as equivalent to _although_ --_For as much as_, &c., having the nature of conjunctions --_For that_ --_For_, with perf. part., ("FOR _lost_") --with _ever_ --before TO _and infin._ --as introducing its object before an infin.. _For_, conj., _because_, from Sax.; anc. expressed _for that_ _Forever_, or _for ever_, its class _Former_ and _latter_, nature and applic. of _Forms of letters_, in type or character --_Forms_ OF VERBS, a knowledge of THE TRUE, nothing more important in gram. than _Forsooth_, signif. and use of _Friends_, the Society of; their employment, in familiar discourse, of the sing. pron. of the second pers. --generally neglect to compound their numeral names of the months and days --their misemployment of _thee_ for _thou_ --their manner of speaking, different from the solemn style --examples of their manner of forming the verb with the pron. _thou_; their simplificat. of the verb _From_, derivation of, from Sax. --_From forth, from out_, construc. of, explained --_Off from_, examp. of the use of _Full_, in permanent compounds, how written; in temporary do., do. --compounds in, (_spoonful, handful_, &c.,) how pluralized _Future, contingency_, how best expressed _Future tense_, FIRST, how formed, and what expresses --SECOND, do., do., and how varied _Futurity_, often denoted by the infin., ("_The world_ TO COME") G. G, its name and plur. --its sounds --when silent --_Gh_, sounds of, and silence _Gardiner, W._, his new analysis of the Eng. alphab., noticed _Genders_, term defined --_Genders_, the diff., named and defined --on what founded, and to what belong --_Gender_, inconsistent views of, as given by many of the grammarians; WELLS and MURR. criticised --confounded with _sex_ by some writers; others otherwise confuse the matter --_Common gender_, of the old grammarians, the term objectionable with respect to Eng. --_Gender_, how in many instances determined --figuratively ascribed, how indicated --denoted by _he_ and _she_ prefixed to nouns --denied by MURR. _et al_. to pronouns of the first and second persons --of pron., the _preference_ of, when joint antecedents are of different genders _General_ truths and customary actions, to be expressed by the indic. pres. _Generic_ names, sense and construc. of "_Genitives, double_," discovered by our grammarians, the true explanation of all such _Gentile names_, nature and construc. of _German language_, form of its type --use of the comma less freq. in, than in Eng. _Gerund_, Lat., explanation of --what form of an Eng. participle corresponds to --"Gerund in English," how becomes "a substantive," according to DR. ADAM _et al._, _Gerundives_, what _Giving, paying, procuring_, &c., verbs of, with ellips. of _to_ or _for_ before the objective of the person GOVERNMENT, of words, defined --to what parts of speech has respect --the rules of, whether to be applied to the governing or the governed words --do., how many in the best Lat. grammars; usual faults in the distribution of these --_Governments_ in Eng. synt. how many --false, examples of, cited from grammarians _Grecism_, literal, in Eng., ("_Before Abraham was_, I AM") comp. GRAMMAR, defined --An English Grammar, what professes to be --ENGLISH GRAMMAR, what in itself; what knowledge implies --when worthy to be named a science --_Grammar_, how to be taught, and its principles how made known --the true principles of, in whose possession --_a rule of_, what --_Grammar_, how divided; its parts, of what severally treat --what it requires --rightly learned, what ability it confers --what many vain pretenders to, have shown by their works --on questions of, the practice of authors should have more weight than the dogmatism of grammarians. _Grammars of different languages_, how far must needs differ; strictures on those of PROF. BULL., _A grammar designed for English_, the chief end of. _Grammatical doctrine_, the truth of, in what consists _Granting, supposing_, &c., see _Admitting_ _Grave accent_, as opposed to _acute_ --as preserving the vocality of _e_ _Greek_ alphabet, characters of, shown and named _Guillemets_, or _quotation points_, what words they distinguish --how applied to a quotation within a quotation --not used in our common Bibles; the defect in what measure relieved H. H, its name and plur. numb. --its sound --in what words silent --in what positions do. --_an_ used formerly before all words beginning with _Hand_, or _index_, use of _Handwriting_, script letters in _Harmonical pauses_, see _Pauses_ _Have_, verb, how varied --derivation of; with perf. part., import of the tense --_Had_, with _better, rather_, &c., before the infin. _He_ and _she_, sometimes used as nouns --as prefixed to nouns to denote gend. --whether to be connected by a hyphen to the nouns to which prefixed _Hear_, with objective, and an infin. without _to_ --with infin. alone, perhaps ellipt, ("_I_ HAVE HEARD TELL") --_Heard_, verb, why irregular --its pronunc. _Hebrew_ letters, some account of; names, characters, and significations of --whether they are, or are not, all consonants, long a subject of dispute --The _Hebrew_ names for the months, were prop. nouns --_Hebrew_, what pointing adopted in _Hence, thence, whence_, with _from_ prefixed. "_I'll_ HENCE," see _Adverbs_ _Heptameter_ line, _iambic_, examples of --_trochaic_, do --_dactylic_, do. _Here, there, where_, force of, when compounded with prepositions --with verb of motion, perh. allowable for _hither, thither, whither_. _Hereof, thereof, whereof_, placed after nouns, what to be called. _Herein, therein_, &c., their class and nature _Heroic verse_, see _Pentameter_ _Heterogeneous terms_, in general, two such not to be connected by a conjunc. _Hexameter_ line, _iambic_, examples of --_trochaic_, do --_dactylic_, do. _Hissing_ sounds, concurrence of, in forming the poss. case, how avoided _Hold_, noun, after _lay, take_, &c., whether preferably construed with _of, on_, or _upon_ _Hoping_, &c., verbs of, see _Commanding_ _How_, after nouns of manner, its nature --not to be used before _that_, or in stead of it --derivation of, from Anglo-Sax. _Hyperbaton_, explained --its frequency in poetry; how should be used --is diff. from synchysis _Hyperbole_, defined --_Hyperboles_, by what commonly expressed _Hypermeter_, meaning of, in scansion _Hyphen_, its uses --present use in compound names --Rules for the insertion of, in compounds --signif. of the name --_Hyphen_, abuse of --CHURCH, on the use of, in comp. words --in the _figure_ of an adj., with a change of the synt. and sense --necessary with a verbal noun and an adjunct --do. with comp. participles, converted _Hypobacchy_, or _antibacchy_, defined I. I, lett., self-naming; its plur. --its usual sounds --diphthongs beginning with; triphth. do., _I_, pron. with cap. lett., _I_, as written for a number. _I_, adv., see _Ay_ _Iambic verse_, treated --_Iamb. verse_, stress where laid in; effect of a short syll. added to a line of --shown in its eight measures --is seldom pure through a long succession of lines --some of its diversifications shown. See also _Dimeter, Trimeter_, &c. _Iambus_, or _iamb_, defined _Idea of unity_, and of _plurality_, how formed _Identity of words_, the principle of, considered --_Identity, proper_, RULE for, ("Same Cases.") _Identification_, false, N. concerning _Idioms_ or peculiarities of expression, when to be approved or valued _If_, the Biblical use of, to express an emphat. negation --its derivation from Sax. _Ignorance, literary_, Crit. N. concerning _Imagery_, or _Vision_, explained _Imperative mood_, defined --_Imperat. mood_, why so called; in what manner applied --its one tense, and the import of do --its inflection shown in the verb LOVE, conjugated --what nominatives only it takes --use of, in the Gr. lang.; do., in Lat., Ital., Fr., and Span --may have all the persons and numbers --poet. _Imperfect tense_, defined --_Imperf. tense_, the _form_, how far applicable to the Eng. tense so called --in its simple form is the _preterit_ --in the pot. and subj. moods, an aorist --of the indic. and the subj., how distinguished --of the sub., to express a mere supposition, with indef. time _Imperfect participle_, or _first part._, defined --its form --The _first part._, has been variously called --why rightly termed _imperfect participle_ --for what forms of the Lat. gram., stands --is applicable to time pres., past, or fut.; is not always active, even when derived from an act. verb --may be turned to a multiplicity of uses --appar. put absolute, (_Admitting, --Allowing_, &c.) --distinguished, with respect to governm., from a particip. noun --as equivalent to infin. mood; heads of regular equivalence --how compares with the Lat. gerund --its nature and construc. _Impersonal verbs_, so called, their peculiarity of use --called _monopersonal_ by some _Impropriety_ of language, what embraces _In_ and _into_, difference between; nature of the relation expressed by each; derivation of, from Sax. _Inclusive_ and _exclusive_ terms of a comparison _Incorrigible errors_, Crit. N. concerning _Indefinite article_, see _An, A_ _Indefinite pronouns_, of the class _pronom. adjectives_ _Independent_, see _Absolute_ _Index_, or _hand_, use of _Indicative mood_, defined --_Indic. mood_, why so called; its nature and use --use of its pres. tense --do. of its form of the pluperf. in lieu of the pot. pluperf. --wherein differs characteristically from the subj.; the two moods continually confounded by writers --_Indic. mood_, format, and inflec. of its tenses shown in the verb LOVE, conjug. --employed to express a conditional circumstance assumed as a fact _Inelegance_ of language, see _Awkwardness_. _Infinitive mood_, defined --_Infin. mood_, so called in oppos. to the other moods --usually distinguished by the prep. _to_ before it --its _pres._, the ROOT, or radical verb; what _time_ it expresses --archaic form in _en_ --its two tenses shown in the verb LOVE, conjug. --Synt. of --_Infin. mood_, by what governed; (see _To_:) --true construc. of, explained by the 18th Rule of the Synt. --why simple of solution in Eng.; whether ever governed by a prep, in Fr., Span., or Ital. --whimsical account of, given by NIX. --how expressed in the Anglo-Sax. of the 11th century --why may not, as some grammarians teach, be | considered a noun --DR. WILS. on the charac. and import of --to what other terms may be connected --what in its nature, and for what things chiefly may stand --taken abstractly, as subject of finite verb --Loose _infinitives_, improp. in precise language --_Infin. mood_, position of --misplacement of, to be avoided --distinction of voice in, often disregarded, ("_You are to_ BLAME;") hypercrit. teachings of SANB. and BLAIR hereon --_Infin._, after _bid, dare_, &c., without TO --whether used with TO after _have, help_, and _find_ --_Infin._, BY WHAT _governed_, often imposs. to say, according to the instructions of MURR. --_Infinitives_ connected, governed by one preposition --_Infinitive_, ellipsis of, after _to_, whether to be approved --sometimes doubtful whether transitive or intransitive --in pause, or in remote dependence, punct. of --poet. placing of --Greek construc. of, in poetic use _Inflections_, defined --rising and falling, explained; do., as applied to questions --_notation_ of, in writing and printing --the rising more numerous than the falling; predominance of the rising in oral lang.; the falling, for what used, COMST. --what kind of rules for, have been given by writers --the rising and the falling, to be used with prop. discrimination; what should determine the direction of --_Inflection_, what constitutes the _circumflex_ _Innovation_ extravagant, into the system of synt. or gram., a particular instance of, noticed _Inscriptions_ appear best in full capitals _Instead_, what reckoned, and how best written _Intending_, &c., verbs of, see _Commanding_. _Intensive_ nature of comparatives and superlatives, A. MURR. _Interrogative pronouns_, defined --what they severally demand --their use and construc. --in what differ from relatives --are always of the third pers. --declined --their place in a sentence --their construc. of cases, to what similar _Interrogative_ sentences, agreem. of verbs in INTERJECTIONS, Etymol. of --_Interjection_, defined --derivation and signif. of the term; LOWTH'S error in describing the _interjections_ --_Interjections_, numb. of, in common use --List of --_Interjections_, the frequent use of, an indication of thoughtlessness; expressiveness of some _interjections_ in earnest utterance, &c. --should be discriminatively used --chief characteristics of; referred to the class of _adverbs_ by the Gr. grammarians --significant words uttered as, ("_Out! out!_") --appar. taken substantively --Synt. of --absolute construc. of --have no construc. with cases, as in Lat. and Gr. --appar., sometimes connected to other words by a prep., or by _that_ --place of --punct. of --ellips. of, shown --derivation of --frequency of, in poet. lang. _Inversion_ of terms, sometimes of advantage, in respect to strength and vivacity of expression. _Irony_, figure explained _Is being_, with a perf. part., or the subject of the UNCO-PASSIVE _form of verbs_, canvassed _Ise_ or _ize_, which of these terminations to be taken in forming derivatives under Deriv. of Verbs _Ish_, termination, whether it may be accounted a degree of comparison _It_. its chief use --declined --to what creatures may be applied --put for the distance, ("_How far do you call_ IT?" &c., PRIESTL.,) --without definite reference to an anteced. --as explet., and referring to something expressed afterwards; faulty omission of, before verb, in such construc. --had formerly no variation of cases --its poss. form ITS, for _of it_, of recent origin, and not found in the text of the common Bible --wrongly excluded by some from the list of pers. pronouns: --its derivation from Sax., traced _Italic letters, Italics_, some account of --for what purpose used --how denoted in preparing manuscripts J. J, its name and plur. numb. --why never doubled --why never ends a word in Eng. --impropriety of dividing on the letter, in syllabication --sounds of, _Johnson, Dr. S._, his authority in Eng. orthography _Joint nominatives_, agreem. of verb with --whether words connected by _with_ can be used as. _Joint antecedents_, agreem. of pron. with --of different persons, agreem. of verb or pron. with, in ellipt. construc. _Jumbling_ together of the active voice and the passive, the manner of some --_Jumbling_, senseless, Crit. N. censuring K. K, its name and plur. --in general, not needed in words derived from the learned languages --its sounds --when silent --Two Kays standing together _Kind, sort_, with _these_ or _those_ improp. preceding L. L, its name and plur. numb. --of the class _liquids_ --final, monosyllables ending in --final double, to what words peculiar --its sound; in what words silent --where doubled --written for a number _Labial_ letters, how articulated _Language_, the primitive sense of the term, what embraced; signif. of do., as now used --in opposition to some grammarians, BROWN confines the term to speech and writing --loose explanations of the word by certain slack thinkers; WEBST. notion of --SHERID. idea of; KIRKH. wild and contradictory teachings concerning --_Language_, PROPRIETY of, in what consists; IMPROPRIETY of, what embraces --PRECISION of, in what consists; Precepts concerning its opposites --_Language_, Eng., (see _English Language_) --_Languages_, uniform SERIES OF GRAMMARS for teaching the Eng., Lat., and Gr., that of DR. BULL., noticed _Lay, pay_, and _say_, how written in the pret. and the perf. part. _Leading principles_ in the construc. of sentences, in what embraced in the Grammar _Least parts_ of language, as written, as spoken, &c., what constituents so called _Legal_ phraseology, in contrast with that of common life _Less_, improper use of, for _fewer_, ("_No_ LESS _than three dictionaries_," DR. WEBST.) _Lest_, use of, for THAT, without due regard to its import, ("_I feared_ LEST," &c.) --derivation of, from Sax. _Let_, verb, its construc, with an infin. following LETTERS, in the Eng. alphabet, numb. of, and numb. of sounds which they represent --a knowledge of, in what consists --infinite variety in, yet the letters always THE SAME --different sorts of types, or styles of, used in Eng. --names of, in Eng.; do., sing, and plur. --Classes of, named and defined --_powers_ of --the JUST POWERS of, (see _Power_) --Forms of, and their distinctions, in the Eng. lang. --different sorts of, to be kept distinct --slanting strokes of the Roman, described --_Italic_, chief use of --_capital_, employment of --_small_, do. --_Letters_, history of --the names of, are words of a peculiar kind --the names and powers of, not always identical --general neglect of learning to write the names of, in Eng. --importance of learning to write do. --erron. teaching with respect to certain names of --_Letters_ of the Heb. alphabet given, with their names, and the significations of do. --of the Gr. alphabet, with their names --of the Lat. alphab., their names nearly lost --of do., as now printed --_Letters_, the twenty-six, possible combinations and mutations of --of the alphab., _read by their names_, how taken --do., written _for numbers_, what their nature; omission of _period_ after such letters --DAY'S account of do. --_Letters_, the SOUNDS of, treated --_Letters_, the small, period of their adoption --used for references --_Letter_, definition of --_Letter_, the sound of, called its POWER; yet its _power_ not necessarily identified with its _sound_ --A _letter_, in what consists _Like, near, nigh_, appar., prepositions; why _not placed_ by BROWN with the prep. _Lily, W._, grammarian, his arrangement of Lat. syntax _Lines, poetic_, technical denominations of _Liquids_, what letters so called _Literary division_ of a work, common order of, downwards, and throughout; but all literary works not thus divided. _Literary blunders_, Crit. N. concerning --_awkwardness_, do. --_ignorance_, do. --_silliness_, do. _Little, lesser, less_, different uses and import of --_Little, much_, &c., preceded by _not, too_, or other such adv., how taken --_Less_, improp. used as an adj. of number; does not signify _fewer_; not to be used in the sense of do. --_Less, least_, adv., to be parsed separately, in the comparison of adjectives and adverbs LOVE, verb active-trans., CONJUGATED _affirmatively_ --BE LOVED, pass., do. --LOVE, conjug. negatively --do., interrogatively --do., interrogatively and negatively _Low_ and provincial expressions, use of, as opp. to purity, PREC. against _Ly_, most common terminal of Eng. adverbs; added to nouns to form adjectives (I,) u; 1055, b; 1053, L: --when adverbs ending in, are preferable to those of other forms. M. M, its name and plur. numb., --of the class _liquids_, --its sounds, --when silent, --as written for a number. _Macron_, or _macrotone_, mark, its use. _Make_, verb, whether _to_ should be suppressed, and _be_, inserted, after, ("MAKE _yourself_ BE _heard_," BLAIR,) --its construc. with infin. following. _Man_ and _woman_, comp. nouns in, (_man-servant, woman-servant_, &c.,) how pluralized. _Many a_, with noun sing. represented by a plur. pronoun. _Marks_, or _points_, used in literary composition, the principal; occasional. See _Punctuation_. _May_, verb, how varied, --derivation and uses of. _Mean, means_, use and construc. of. _Measure_, &c., see _Time. Measure, poetical_, see _Verse_. _Melody_ or beauty of a sentence, words necessary to, rarely to be omitted. _Member_, or _clause_, defined. --_Memb_. and _clause_, generally used as synonymous, are discriminated by some, --_Clause_ and _phrase_, confounded by some, --_Members_, simple, of a sent., punct. of, --complex, do., do., --_Members_ of a sentence, arrangem. of, as affecting STRENGTH. _Metaphor_, defined, --what commonly understood to be, --agreem. of pron. with antecedent in cases of. _Methinks_, explanation of; the lexicographers on the word. _Metonymy_, defined, --_Meton._, on what founded, --agreem. of pron. with its antecedent, in cases of. _Metres_, more found in actual use, than those acknowledged in the ordinary schemes of prosody. _Metre_, see _Verse_. _Milton_, MURR. proposed amendment of the "unintelligible" language of a certain passage of, criticised, --double solec. in a pass, of, noticed, --his poem, _L'Allegro_, what its versificat.; what the management of the orders of its verse, --do., _Il Penseroso_, what its extent and construction. _Miss_ or _Misses, Mr_. or _Messrs._, what the proper applicat. of, when _name and title_ are to be used together, in a plur. sense. _Mistaken, to be_, irregularity of the verb; its import as applied to persons, and as applied to things. _Mimesis_, explained; droll examples of. _Minus, plus, versus, viâ_, Lat., use of, in Eng., in partic. constructions. _Mixing_ of synt. with etymol., the manner of INGERS., KIRKH., _et al._, censured. _Mixture_ of the _forms_ of style, inelegance of. _Modifications_, defined, --sense of the term as employed by BROWN. _Moloss_, defined. _Monometer_, scarcely constitutes a line, yet is sometimes so placed. --_Monometer_ line, _iambic_, examples of, --_trochaic_, do., --_anapestic_, do., --_dactylic_, an examp. of. _Monopersonal_ verbs, see _Impersonal Verbs_. _Monotone_, what, and how produced in elocution. _Months and days_, names of, appar. proper names, and require capitals, --how best expressed in literary compositions. _Moods_ of a verb, term defined, --the five, named and defined, --_Mood_, or MODE, the name. See _Infinitive Mood, Indic. Mood_, &c. _More_ and _most_, in ambiguous construction, ("_Some people_ MORE _than them_," MURR.,) --how parsed in comparisons of adjectives and adverbs. _Moses_, in what characters, is supposed to have written. _Most_, for _almost_, by vulgarism. _Motion_, verbs of, with _hither_, &c., in stead of _here_. _Much, little, all_, &c., as nouns, --preceded by _not, too_, or other such adv., --_This much_, in stead of _thus much_, DR. BLAIR. _Mulkey, W._, strictures on his system of orthoëpy. _Multiplication_, subject of the verb in, see _Abstract Numbers_. _Multiplicative_ numerals, as running on in a series; how written above decuple or tenfold. _Multitude_, noun of, see _Collective Noun_. _Mute_ or _silent_, epithet applied to what letters. --_Mutes_, what so reckoned; of these, which imperfect. --Where a letter must be _once mute_. _My_ and _mine, thy_ and _thine_, as duplicate forms of the poss. case, use of. N. N, its name and plur. numb., --of the class _liquids_, --its sounds, --in what position silent. _Name and title_, see _Proper Names_. _Naming_ the letters of the alphab., importance of. _Narration_, see _Discourse_. _Nasals_, what consonants so called. _Near_ and _nigh_, see _Like_. _Need_, as an uninflected third pers. sing. of the verb, --has perh. become an _auxiliary_ of the pot. mood, --to what tenses must be understood to belong, if to be recognized as an auxil. of the pot. mood, --that good writers sometimes inflect the verb, and sometimes do not, and that they sometimes use _to_ after it, and sometimes do not, how may be accounted for --three _authorized_ forms of expression, with respect to the verb. _Needs_, as an adv., its composition _Needless_, mixing of characters in printing, bad effect of --capitals; effect of --articles, to be omitted --ellipses, the supposition of, a common error among grammarians --use of participles for nouns, or nouns for participles --words, ineleg. --possessive or art. before a part., how corrected --periods, or other points, after certain numeral expressions --abbreviations, offend against taste --dashes inserted, how to be treated _Negation_, expressed in the early Eng. by multiplied negatives; such manner of expression now obsolete and improper --Effect on a _negation_, of two negatives in the same clause _Negatives_, the comm. rule of the grammars, that "two negatives, in Eng., destroy each other, or &c.," whether a correct one _Neither_, see _Either_ _Neuter verb_, defined --_Neuter verbs_, the _active-trans_. verbs are so called in most grammars and dictionaries; the absurdity of this --extent of this class of verbs; their existence in any lang. denied by some grammarians --Neut. verb BE, conjugated --_Neuter verbs_, made from active-transitives, (_am come, is gone_, &c.;) these called by some, "neuter passives" --of passive form, (_am grown, are flown_, &c.,) as errors of conjugat., or of synt. --do., how may be distinguished from pass. verbs --do., DR. PRIESTL. mistaken notions concerning their nature and propriety --_Neut. verbs_, and their participles, take the same case after as before them --_Neuter verb_ between two nominatives, its agreem. _Nevertheless_, its composition and class _No_ or _none_, pronom. adj. _No_, as negative adj., "remarkable ambiguity in the use of," noticed by PRIESTL., ("_No laws are better than the English_;") how the ambiguity may be avoided --as a simple negation, its construc. --as an adv. of deg., relating only to comparatives, ("NO _more_," --"NO _better_") --set before a noun, is an adj., corresponding to Lat. _nullus_ --In the phrases, _no longer, no more, no where_, DR. JOH. appar. suggests wrongly the class; its true class according to its several relations --_No_, or an other independent negative, _repeated_, its effect --_No_, adv., not to be used with reference to a verb or part. --derivation of, from Anglo-Sax. _Nominative case_, defined --_Nom. case_, how distinguished from the objective in nouns --as subj. of a finite verb --different ways of using --_Nominative_ and verb, usual position of, and when varied --_Nom. case_ and _object._, at the same time, noun placed in the relation of --_Nom_. following a verb or part, with what must accord in signif. See also _Subject_, &c. _Nominative sentences_, examples of what MURR. erron. so terms; the prop. construc. shown _Nor_, see _Or_. _Not_, its place in negative questions --how spoken in grave discourse, and how ordinarily --vulg. contractions of, with certain verbs --used with other negatives --do. with _nor_ (in stead of _or_) following, whether correctly, or not --derivation of, from Anglo-Sax. _Not but_, how resolved. _Not only, not merely_, to what are correspondents _Notwithstanding_, import and construc. of; misunderstood by DR. WEBST. --formation and signif. of NOUNS, Etymol. of --_Noun_, defined --_Nouns_, Classes of, named and defined --Modifications of, named --Persons of, named and defined; (see _Persons_) --Numbers of, do.; (see _Plural Number_) --Genders of, do.; (see _Genders_) --Cases of, do.; (see _Cases_) --Declension of --_Nouns_, number of, in Eng. --the sense of, how made indefinitely partitive --examples of words commonly belonging to other classes, used as --_collective, abstract_, and _verbal_ or _participial_, included among common nouns; (see _Collective Noun_, and _Particip. Noun_) --proper, (see _Proper Names_) --_Nouns_, Synt. of --_Noun_, why may not be put in the relation of two cases at once --taken figuratively sing. for literally plur. --required to be repeated, or inserted, in stead of a pronoun --ellips. of, shown --_Nouns_ of _time, measure, distance_, &c., (see _Time_) --_Nouns_, derivation of, from nouns, adjectives, verbs, or participles --poet. peculiarities of _Numbers_, the distinction of, to what belongs, and how applied. (See _Plural Number_.) _Numbers_, cardinal, ordinal, &c., (see _Cardinal Numbers_, &c.) --_Numbers_, abstract, expressions of multiplication in, ("_Twice one_ IS _two_," --"_Twice two_ ARE _four_," &c.,) seven different opinions of grammarians respecting, examined by BROWN; who determines the prop. forms of expression --_Numbers_, expressed by letters, how to be considered; whether to be marked by the period --combined arithmetical, one adjective relating to an other _Numerals, numeral adjectives_, see _Adjectives, Numeral_. _Numerical figures_ used for references O. O, lett., as A, E, I, and U, self-naming --its plural --formation of the plur. of nouns in --sounds properly its own --where sounded as short _u_ --do. as obscure _e_ --diphthongs beginning with --triphth. do. _O_, interj., with cap. lett. --what emotion indicates --differs from _oh_ --as denoting earnestness, before nouns or pronouns put absol. by direct address; is no positive index of the vocative --_O_, &c., MURR., erron. doctrine concerning, to what teaching it has given rise --_O_, &c., with a case following, Lat. construc. of, examined --_O_, not unfreq. confounded with _oh_, even by grammarians. _Obelisk_, or _dagger_, as mark of reference. _Objective case_, defined --_Obj. case_, how distinguished from the _nom._ in nouns --before the infin. mood, how taken in Eng. --as governed by active-trans. verb or part. --"Active verbs govern the _obj. case_," MURR., defect of this brief assertion; its uselessness as a RULE for "the syntax of verbs." --_Obj. case_, of how many constructions susceptible --whether infinitives, participles, &c., can be in --two nouns in, after a verb, how parsed, --Whether any verb in Eng. governs _two objectives_ not coupled --_Obj. case_ as governed by passive verbs, erron. allowed by some --what verbs not to be employed without --_Obj. case_ as governed by prep. --"Prepositions gov. the _obj. case_," why the brief assertion is exceptionable, as the sole RULE, in parsing prep. _Obsolete_ or antiquated words, use of, as opposed to purity, PREC. against --_Things obsolete_ in Eng., DR. LATHAM'S attempts to revive. _Ocean_, figurative representation of, as uttering his voice in tones of varied quantity. _Octometer_ line, may be reduced to tetrameter --iambic, examples of --_trochaic_, do --dactylic, example of --_Octometer_, trochaic, rhyme and termination of; its pauses, and how may be divided; the most common form of. _Of_ and _on_ or _upon_, difference between. _Old English_, characters of its alphabet, shown --occasional use of do. _Omissions_ of words that are needful to the sense, Crit. N. against. _Omitting_, verbs of, with part. in stead of infin. _One_, employment of, as a noun or as a substitute for a noun; how classed by some grammarians --may be preceded by the articles, or by adjectives --like Fr. _on_ or _l'on_, used indef. for any person; in this sense preferable to a _pers._ pron. applied indefinitely --CHURCH., citation ridiculing the too frequent use of, for pers. pron. --as pronom. adj., requires verb and pron. in the third pers. sing. to agree with it. _One an other_, see _Other. One_, or _a unit_, whether it is a _number_. _Only_, derivation of; class and meaning of, in its several different relations --strictures on the instructions of grammarians respecting the classification and placing of --ambiguous use of, (as also of _but_,) --use of, for _but_, or _except that_, not approved of by BROWN --_Not only, not merely --but_, &c., correspondents. _Onomatopoeia_ described and exemplified (extr. from SWIFT.) _Or_, as expressing an alternation of terms, (Lat., _sive_.) --in Eng., is frequently equivocal; the ambiguity how avoided --_Or_, perh. contracted from _other_ --_Or_ and _nor_ discriminated --_Or, nor_, grammarians dispute which of these words should be adopted after an other negative than _neither_ or _nor_; MURR., following PRIESTL., teaches that either word may be used with equal propriety; BURN'S doctrine; BROWN, after revising CHURCH., attempts to settle the question, --_Or ever_, ("OR EVER _the earth was_,") the term explained. _Or_ or _our_, terminat., number of Eng. words in; how many of these may be written with _our_; BROWN'S practice and views in respect to this matter. _Oral_ spelling, the advantage of, to learners. _Order_ of things or events, the natural, PREC. directing the observance of, in the use of lang. _Orders of verse_, see _Verse_. _Ordinal_ numeral, (see _Numerals._) --_Ordinal_ adjectives may qualify card. numbers; cannot properly be _qualified by_ do. _Orthoëpy_, see _Pronunciation_. ORTHOGRAPHY --_Orthography_, of what treats --difficulties attending it in Eng. --DR. JOHNSON'S improvements in --DR. WEBSTER'S do., in a different direction --ignorance of, with respect to any word used, what betokens in the user (See also _Spelling._) _Orthography_, figures of, MIMESIS and ARCHAISM --its substantive or pronominal character; (with _one._) how classed by some; may be preceded by the articles --requires _than_ before the latter term of an exclusive comparison; yet sometimes perhaps better takes the prep. _besides. Each other one an other_, import and just application of, --misapplication of, frequent in books, --DR. WEBST. erron. explanation of _other_, as "a correlative to _each_," --_One_ and _other_, frequently used as terms relative and partitive, appar. demanding a plur. form, --_An other_, in stead of _another_. _Somehow_ or _other, somewhere_ or _other_, how _other_ is to be disposed of. _Ought_, principal verb, and not auxiliary, as called by MURR. _et al._, --originally part of the verb _to_ OWE; now used as defec. verb, --its tense, as limited by the infin. which follows. _Ourself_, anomalous form peculiar to the regal style, --peculiar construc. of. _Own_, its origin and import; its class and construc., --strangely called a _noun_ by DR. JOH. P. P, its name and plur. numb., --its sound, --when silent, --_Ph_, its sounds. _Pairs_, words in, punct. of. _Palatals_, what consonants so called. _Parables_, in the Scriptures, see _Allegory_. _Paragoge_, explained. _Paragraph_ mark, for what used. _Paralipsis_, or _apophasis_, explained. _Parallels_, as marks of reference. _Parenthesis_, signif. and twofold application of the term, --_Parenthesis_, marks of, (see _Curves_.) --What clause to be inclosed within the curves as a PARENTHESIS, and what should be its punct., --_Parentheses_, the introduction of, as affecting unity. _Parsing_, defined. --_Parsing_, its relation to grammar, --what must be considered in, --the distinction between etymological and syntactical, to be maintained, against KIRKH. _et al._, --character of the forms of etymological adopted by BROWN, --what implied in the right performance of, --whether different from analysis, --what to be supplied in. --_Parsing_, of a prep., how performed, --of a phrase, implies its separation, --the RULES OF GOVERNM., how to be applied in, --of words, is not varied by mere transposition. --_Parsing_, etymological and syntactical, in what order to be taken, --the SENSE, why necessary to be observed in; what required of the pupil in syntactical, --syntactical, EXAMPLE of. --_Parsing_ or CORRECTING, which exercise perh. the more useful. _Participial adjectives_, see _Adjectives, Participial_. _Participial_ or _verbal noun_, defined, --how distinguished from the participle. --_Participial noun_ and participle, the distinction between, ill preserved by MURR. and his amenders. --_Participial noun_, distinc. of VOICE in, sometimes disregarded, ("_The day of my_ BURYING,") --_with_ INFIN. _following_, strictures on MURR., LENN., and BULL., with respect to examples of. PARTICIPLES, Etymol. of. --_Participle_, defined. --_Participles_, whether they ought to be called verbs, --appropriate _naming_ of the kinds of, --often become adjectives, --become adjectives by composition with something not belonging to the verb, --number of, simp. and comp., --imply _time_, but do not divide it, --retain the _essential_ meaning of their verbs, but differ from them in the _formal_, --in Eng., from what derived, --H. TOOKE'S view of the time of; with whom BROWN differs. --_Participles_, Classes of, named and defined, --(See _Imperfect Participle_ and _Perfect Part_.) --_Participles_, grammarians differ in their opinion with respect to the time and voice of, --how have been called and treated by some, --explanation of the different, --how distinguished from particip. nouns, --elegantly taken as plur. nouns, ("_All his_ REDEEMED,") --appar. used for adverbs, --some become prepositions. --_Participle_ and ADJUNCTS, as forming "one name," and as such, _governing the poss._, whence the doctrine; PRIESTL. criticised; MURR. _et al_. adopt PRIESTL. doctrine, which they badly sustain; teachers of do. disagree among themselves, --governm. of possessives by, how BROWN generally disposes of; how determines with respect to such governm. --_Participles_, Synt. of, --regular synt. of, twofold; nature of the two constructions; OTHER _less regular_ constructions; which two constructions of all, are legitimate uses of the participle; which constructions are of doubtf. propriety. --_Participles_, to what RELATE, or in what state GOVERNED. --_Participle_, as relating to a phrase or sentence, --taken abstractly, --irregularly used in Eng. as substitute for infin. mood, --in irreg. and mixed construc. --_Participle_, transitive, what case governs, --nom. absol. with, to what equivalent, --each requires its appropriate FORM, --questionable uses of, admitted by MURR. _et al_.; why BROWN is disposed to condemn these irregularities. --_Participle_ and particip. noun, distinction between, with respect to governm. --_Participle_ in _ing_, multiplied uses of, lawful and forced, illustrated, --equivalence of do. to infin. mood, instances of, --every mixed construc. of, how regarded by BROWN, --the "double nature" of, CROMB. on; his views, how accord with those of MURR. _et al._, HILEY'S treatment of; BROWN'S strictures on do. --_Participles_, place of: --active, governm. of. --_Participle_, trans., converted to a noun: --converted, _when_ the expression should be changed: --followed by an adj., its conversion into a noun appar. improper: --comp. converted, how managed: --not to be used for infin., or other more appropriate term: --use of, for a nominative after _be, is, was_, &c., faulty: --following a verb of _preventing_, how to be managed. --_Participles_, converted, disposal of their adverbs: --must be construed with a regard to the leading word in sense: --should have a clear reference to their subjects: --needless use of, for nouns, to be avoided: --punct. of: --derivation of: --poet. peculiarities in the use of. _Parts of speech_, meaning of the term: --_Parts of speech_, named and defined: --what explanations may aid learners to distinguish the different: --why needful that learners be early taught to make for themselves the prop. distribution of: --WILS. on the distribution of: --the preferable _number_ with respect to; the office of, specifically stated. --The _parts of speech_, passage exemplifying all. --Examples of a partic. _part of speech_ accumulated in a sentence. --Etymol. and Synt. of the different _parts of speech_, see _Article, Noun, Adjective_, &c. _Passions_ of the mind, by what tones to be expressed. _Passive verb_, defined. --_Pass. verbs_ contrasted with active-trans, verbs, in respect to the object or the agent of the action; their compos, and construc.: --their FORM in Eng. --_Pass. verb_ BE LOVED, conjug. affirmatively. --_Pass. verbs_, how distinguished from neuters of the same form: --having active forms nearly equivalent to them, (_is rejoiced, rejoices_; _am resolved, know_, &c.,): --erroneously allowed by some to govern the obj. case in Eng.; CROMB. in this category, cited, canon, pseudo-canons. --_Pass. verb_, what should always take for its subj. or nom.: --takes the same case after as before it, when both words refer to the same thing: --between two nominatives, with which should be made to agree, ("_Words_ ARE wind,"). See _Unco-Passive_, &c. _Passive_ form of an active-intrans. verb followed by a prep. and its objective, ("_He_ WAS LAUGHED AT,"). _Passive_ sense of the act. form of the verb, ("_The books continue_ SELLING,"). _Past for future_, see _Prophecy_. _Pauses_, term defined. --_Pauses_, kinds of, named and explained: --the distinctive, duration of: --after what manner should be formed: --forced, unintentional, their effect: --emphatic or rhetorical, applicat. and office of: --harmonic, kinds of; these, essential to verse. --_Pauses_, abrupt, punct.: --emphatic, do. _Pedantic_ and sense-dimming style of charlatans &c., as offending against purity. _Pentameter_ line, _iambic_, examples of: --is the regular Eng. HEROIC; its quality and adaptation: --embraces the _elegiac stanza_: --_trochaic_, example of, said by MURR. _et al_. to be very uncommon; was unknown to DR. JOH. and other old prosodists: --the two examples of. in sundry grammars, whence came; a couplet of these scanned absurdly by HIL.; HART mistakes the metre of do.: --_dactylic_, example of, ("_Salutation to America_,"). _Perfect_, adj., whether admits of comparison; why its comparis. by adverbs not wholly inadmissible. _Perfect definition_, what. _Perfect participle_, or _second part._, defined: --its form: --how has been variously called: --its character and name as distinguished from the imperf. part: --why sometimes called the _passive part_.; why this name liable to objection: --how may be distinguished from the preterit of the same form: --should not be made to govern an objective term. ("_The characters_ MADE USE OF," MURR.,): --not to be used for the pret., nor confounded with the pres.: --what care necessary in the employment of; when to be distinguished from the preterits of their verbs. _Perfect tense_, defined. --_Perf. tense_ of indic., as referring to time relatively fut. _Period_, or _full stop_, its pause. --_Period_, or _circuit_, nature of. --_Period_, probably the oldest of the points; how first used: --how used in Hebrew: --what used to mark: --Rules for the use of: --not required when short sentences are rehearsed as examples: --whether to be applied to letters written for numbers: --with other points set after it: --whether proper after Arabic figures used as ordinals. --_Period of abbreviation_, whether always supersedes other points. _Permanent_ propositions, to be expressed in the pres. tense. _Permitting_, &c., verbs of, see _Commanding_. _Personal pronoun_, defined. --_Personal pronouns_, simple, numb, and specificat. of: --declension of: --often used in a reciprocal sense, ("_Wash_ YOU," &c.,). --(See also _It_.) --_Personal pronouns_, compound, numb. and specificat. of. 298: --explanat. and declension of: --CHURCH. account of: --of the first and second persons, placed before nouns to distinguish their persons. _Personification_, defined, --MURR. definition of, blamed, --what constitutes the purest kind of, --change of the gend. of inanimate objects by, --whether it always changes the gender of anteced. term, --agreem. of pronouns with their antecedents in cases of, --Rule for capitals in do., --comp., --_Personifications_, CHURCH, on the determination of gender in, --_Personified_ objects, names of, put in the second pers., and why, --how pronouns agree with, _Persons_, term defined, --_Persons_, named and defined, --the distinction of, on what founded, --_Persons, numbers_, &c., character of BROWN'S definitions of, --_Persons_, in gram., nature of; absurd teachings of some grammar-makers concerning, --distinctions of, in written lang., --_Person_ and _number_ of a verb, what, --_Persons_, second and third, of a verb, distinctive formations of, --do., in Lat., shown, --_Person_, nouns of the second, in Eng., in how many ways can be employed, --the _third_, put with the pron. _I_, by vulgarism, ("THINKS I _to myself_,") --the first, place of, --_Persons_, whether the imperat. mood may have three, --connected antecedents of different, agreem. of pron. with, --connected nominatives of different, agreem. of verb with, _Perspicuity_, as a quality of style, in what consists, --is essential in composition; BLAIR quoted, --the excellence of, --Precepts aiming at offences against, _Perversions of Eng. grammar_, the design, in part, of BROWN'S code of synt, is to make intelligent judges of, --_Perversions, literary_, Crit. N. concerning, _Phonetics, phonography, phonotopy_, BROWN'S estimate of; DR. JOH. cited, --account of, --TRENCH'S views of, --_Phonographic system_ of stenography, its practical value; _phonotopy_, to what may be advantageously applied, _Phrase_, defined, --_Phrase_ made the subject of a verb, how to be taken, --_Phrases_, distinct, conjunctively connected, agreem. of verb with, --distinct, disjunctively connected, do., --unconnected, do., --BAD _phrases_, examples of, from authors, --do., corrected, --_Phrases_ or _clauses_, ellips. of, shown, --_Adverbial phrase_, (so termed by some,) see _Adverb_. _Place_ or _position_ of the different parts of speech, see _Article, Noun, Adjective_, &c. _Pleonasm_, defined, --_Pleonasm_, when allowable with respect to a pron., --in what instances impressive and elegant; when, the vice of ill writing, --occurs sundry times in the Bible, _Pluperfect tense_, defined, --_Pluperf. tense_, what implies when used conditionally; what, in the negative form of supposition, --how formed in the indic. mood; do. in the potential, --indic. form of, put by enall. for pluperf. of the pot., --PLUPERFECT, signif. of the term; several innovators (as BULL., BUTL., _et al._) have been fain to discard it, _Plural number_, of nouns, how formed, --of most nouns in Eng., is simple and regular, --of nouns ending in a vowel preceded by a vowel, --of do. in _y_ preceded by a consonant, --of do. in _o_ preceded by a consonant, --construc. of, when several persons of the _same name_ are spoken of ("_The Stuarts_,") --of prop. names, its formation, --of nouns in _i, o, u_, or _y_, preceded by a consonant, --when _name_ and _title_ are to be used together, ("_The Miss Bells_,") --of nouns in _f_, --of nouns not formed in _s_ or _es_, --of compounds, --of certain compound terms, ("_Ave-Maries_," &c.,) --wanting to some nouns, --of nouns of multitude, --_Plural_, nouns made so by nature or art, --of foreign nouns, 253, --improperly formed by adding apostrophic _s_, --of mere characters, how denoted, _Plurality_, the idea of; see _Unity_, &c. _Poetic feet_, treated, --(See _Iambus, Trochee_, &c.) --_Poetic foot_, of what consists, --_Poet. feet_, number to be recognized in Eng., --principal Eng., named and defined, --kinds of, which form ORDERS OF VERSE, --what combinations of, severally form _dimeter, trimeter_, &c., --(See _Dimeter, Trimeter_, &c.) --_Poetic_ collocation of words, in prose, as offending against perspicuity, PREC. respecting, --_Poetic diction_, treated, --in what abounds, --_Poetical Peculiarities_, _Poetry_, as defined by BLAIR, --character of its style, --aim and end of, --exterior distinction of, --why difficult, by a definition, to be distinguished from prose, --inept directions of some grammatists respecting the parsing of, --_Poetry_, every line in, should begin with a capital, _Points_, or _stops_, the principal, named, and their forms shown, --the purpose of, --length of pauses denoted by, --often variously used in different editions of the same work, --origin of, See _Punctuation_. _Points_ of the compass, adjectives for; modes of varying them, _Possession_, relation of, see _Property_. _Possessive case_, defined, --_Poss. case_, how formed --disputes of the earlier grammarians respecting, --CARD. _et al._ attempt to revive exploded error concerning, --form of, --origin of, in Eng., --odd notions of some grammarians concerning the regular formation of --exceptions or irregularities in the formation of --_Poss. case_, PEI. on, criticised --ASH and PRIESTL. on the plur. --use of the two forms of, in pers. pronouns --_of the simp. pers. pronouns_, grammarians differ with respect to; should not be considered mere adjectives --are pronom. adjectives, according to DR. LOWTH and his followers, --whose doctrine BROWN canvasses, also, WEBSTER'S, WILSON'S, MURRAY'S --_Poss. case_, its equivalence to _of_ and the objective, not a _sameness of case_, (in oppos. to Nix.) --of pronouns, not to be written with apostrophe --of nouns in appos., application of the possessive sign to --by what _governed_ --whether the rule for, has true exceptions --appos. of one with an other, ("_For_ DAVID _my_ SERVANT'S _sake_,") the construc. examined --appar. in abstract construc., ("_All_ MINE _are_ THINE,") --as governed by a part, the construc. examined; COROL. --why the governm. of, should be limited to nouns only --whether before a real part., denotes the possession of something --_Possessive sign_, omission oL not a true ellips. --always implies a governing word, --how taken by compounds --liable to be added to adjunct of the former noun --whether it can be rightly added to separate adjectives, ("_The_ GUILTY'S _prayer_,") --_which_ noun of connected possessives takes --Poss. case, place and order of --generally equivalent to prep. _of_ and _the objective_, --governed by something not expressed, ("St. Paul's,") --_Possessives, connected_, how to be taken, --Poss. _singular_, with _s_ omitted, ("For CONSCIENCE' _sake_") --_Poss. case_ of nouns sing, in _ss_, false teaching of KIRKH. _et al._, respecting the formation of --MURR. rule for the construc. of, why objectionable, --compounds embracing, lack uniformity in writing, --peculiarity of, with respect to correlatives, ("Father's son,") --_Possessive_ relation between a portion of time and its correlative action, ("THREE YEARS' _hard work_" or, "_Three years_ OF HARD WORK,") --_Poss. case_, appropriate form of, to be observed, --plural, with a noun in forced agreem., ("For OUR PARTS,") ib., N. iv: --needless use of, before a participle, ("In THEIR _pronouncing the Greek_,") --_Possessive pronouns, my, thy, his_, &c., how often should be inserted, or repeated _Potential mood_, defined --_Potential mood_, why so called; by what _signs_ distinguished, --may, like the indic., be used in asking questions; why by some included in the subj. --in what tenses used; nature of the imperf. tense --formation and inflection of its tenses, shown in the verb LOVE, conjugated, _Power_ of a letter, the _powers_ of the letters, what meant by, when spoken of, --The _power_ of a letter is not its sound, as MURR. et al incorrectly teach --The _simple powers_ of the letters, many irreconcileable doctrines have been advanced thereon; GARDINER'S notions concerning, stated in brief, --RUSH'S explanations of, his pretentious scheme of the alphab. how estimated by BROWN --The _just powers_ of the letters, what, and how are to be learned, --_Powers_ of the letters, variable; how become so; WALK, cited _Praxis_, defined; lit. signif. of the word, as from the Gr. _Precision_, as a quality of style, in what consists, --Precepts aiming at offences against --conciseness, or brevity, as opposed to _Prefixes_, their management in syllabication, R.: --Explanation of --import and character of the particles used as, in Eng.; the _roots_ to which prefixed, not always proper Eng. words --_Prefixes_, ENG. or ANGLO-SAX., --_Prefixes_, poet, usage with respect to, _Preperfect participle_, defined --_Preperf. part._, its form --its nature and name, PREPOSITIONS, Etymol. of --_Preposition_ defined --importance of a right use, and a right explan. of --HARR. explanation of, as cited by LOWTH, stricture on HARR. --its simplicity among the parts of speech; how should be explained in parsing, --no sufficient RULE for the synt. of, in most of the Eng. grammars, _Prepositions_ and their objects, as preceding the words on which they depend, ("_Of man's first disobedience, &c., Sing_" MILC.,) --_Prepositions_, what it is, to find the terms of relations of; disput. text cited in illustration --the special _adaptation_ of; example of misuse by MURR., remarked on --HARR., on the purpose for which almost all _prepositions_ were orig. formed, and on the nature of their relations; his views controverted by BROWN, --Prepositions and their governed objects, the true determination of; examples of joint objects, and of joint antecedents, wrong views of MURR. and his followers concerning this matter. --_Prepositions_, two connected, for what different purposes used --two coming together, ("FROM AMONG the _just_,") --_Prepositions complex_, what their character, and how may be resolved; are occasionally compounded by the hyphen --_Prepositions_, how might be divided into classes; the inutility in parsing of the division into "_separable_ and _inseparable_;" HALL'S absurd idea of a divis., noticed --whether "two in immediate succession require a noun to be understood between them," (NUTT.) --words commonly reckoned, (_in, on, of_, &c.,) used after infinitives or participles, in adverbial construc., ("_Houses to eat and drink_ IN") --_Prepositions_, List of --grammarians differ considerably in their tables of; do. concerning the characteristics of; what BROWN supposes, in oppos. to the assertion that "Every _prep_. requires an obj. case after it" --LENN. and BULL. on "_prepositions becoming adverbs_," criticised --MURR. on "_prepositions_ appearing to be adverbs," criticised --_Preposition_, whether it can be justly said to take a sent. for its object --_Prepositions_, words in the list of, sometimes used as other parts of speech --extension of the list of --examples of the less usual, _a_, and others beginning with _a_ --do. of unusual ones beginning with _b, c_, or _d_ --_unusual_, quotations illustrating further the list of --_Preposition_, RULE of synt. for the _word governed by_ --_Prepositions_, in Eng., govern no other case than the obj.; most, may take the imperf. part. for their obj. --The brief assertion, that "_Prepositions_ govern the obj. case," wherein is exceptionable as the sole rule for both terms --_Prepositions_, ellipt. construc. of, with adjectives, (_in vain, in secret_, &c.) --sometimes appar. govern adverbs --_Preposition_, appar. governing a perf. part., ("_To give it up_ FOR LOST") --_Prepositions_, Synt. of --do., in what consists --what RELATIONS, show; (see _To_ and _For_) --the parsing of; why tolerable writers are liable to err most in their use of --_Preposition_, the true terms of the relat. of, how may be discovered --when beginning or ending a sent. or clause, what the construc. --the terms of relation of, what may be; both usually expressed --position of, with respect to the governed word --_Prepositions_, several, dependent on one anteced. term, ("_A declaration_ FOR _virtue and_ AGAINST _vice_," BUTL.) --two coming together between the same terms of relat.; do. in the same construc.; erron. remark of PRIESTL., MURR., _et al._, concerning the latter --_Preposition_, the separating of, from its noun, false doctrine of LOWTH, MURR., _et al._, concerning --_Prepositions_, prop, choice of --do., with respect to the allowable uses of --as adapted in meaning to _two_ objects, or to _more_ --_Preposition_, ellips. or omiss. of, where ineleg. --insertion of, when do. --_Prep. and its object_, position of, in respect to other words --do., punc. of --_Prep._, ellips. of, shown --_Prepositions_, derivation of --poet. usage with respect to _Present tense_, defined --_Pres. tense_, described --of the indic., used to express general truths --deceased authors spoken of in, and why --for the past, by Grecism; in animated narrative, for do., by enall. --of the indic. and the subj., when preceded by _as soon as_, &c., to what _time_, refers --of the infin., what time is expressed by; expedients used to express _fut_. time by --of the INFINITIVE, the ROOT, or RADICAL VERB --of the subj., its use, and how considered by some --_Pres. tense_, sometimes improp. with the conjunc. _that_, ("_Others said_, THAT _it is Elias_") _Preter, preterimperfect_, &c., disused terms for _past, imperfect_, &c. --_Preter_, prefix, its meaning _Preterit_, defined --_Preterit_, described --its form and variations --present tendency to a reg. orthog. of, to be encouraged --groundless rule of some, for forming second pers. of, when the pres. and the pret. are alike --not to be used in forming the comp. tenses of a verb _Preventing_, verbs of, with part., in stead of infin. --what construc. is proper for _Primitive word_, defined --_Primitive words_ regarded as such in Eng., may generally be traced to ulterior sources _Principal parts_, of a verb, (see _Chief Terms_) --of a sent., how many, and what _Priscian_, ancient grammarian, delivers the names of most of the Lat. letters _Progressive_ form of a verb, see _Compound_ &c. _Pronominal adjectives_, see _Adjectives, Pronominal_ PRONOUNS, Etymol. of --_Pronoun_, definition of --_Pronouns_ in Eng., number of, and their variations --nature of the representation by; are put substantively, relatively, or adjectively; difference in these three modes of substitution --Classes of, named, and defined; (see _Personal Pronoun, Relative Pron._, and _Interrogative Pron_.) --_Pronouns, compound_, constructional peculiarities of --_Pronouns_, faultiness and discordance of most Eng. grammars, with respect to the classification and treatment of; specification of different modes of distribution by diff. authors --Modifications of, named; these properties how distinguished in the personal pronouns; do. how ascertained in the relat. and interrog. pronouns --Declension of; simp. personals declined; comp. personals do.; comp. relatives do. --appar. used for adverbs --_Pronouns_, Synt. of --_Pronoun_, agreem. of, with its anteced. --do., with anteced. indefinite --plur., put by enall. for the sing., agreem. of --sometimes disagreeing with the anteced. in one sense, because taking it in an other --what the main point with respect to; what application of the rule of agreem., in parsing --_Pronouns_, agreem. of, with their antecedents, as affected by the figures of rhetoric --place of --_Pronoun_, as representing a phrase or sentence --under what circumstances can agree with either of two antecedents --the parsing of, commonly requiring the application of two rules --with suppressed anteced. --needless introduction of, ("PALLAS, HER _glass_," BACON) --with change of numb. in the second pers., or promisc. use of _ye_ and _you_ --must present the same idea as the anteced., and never confound the name with the thing signified --employment of _the same_, with respect to connected relative clauses --in what instances the _noun_ must be repeated, or inserted in stead of --should never be used to represent an adj., ("_Be_ ATTENTIVE; _without_ WHICH," &c.) --change of _anteced._ to accord with --agreem. with collective nouns --do. with joint antecedents --do. with connected antecedents in apposition --do. with connected antecedents emphat. distinguished --do. with connected antecedents preceded by _each, every_, or _no_ --do. with connected antecedents of different persons --agreeing with implied nominatives --agreem. with disjunct antecedents --what agreem. with disjunct. antecedents of different persons, numbers, and genders --do. with antecedents taken affirmatively and negatively --do. with two antecedents connected by _as well as_, &c. --ellips. of, shown --punct. of, without pause --_Pronouns_, derivation of, from Sax. --poet. peculiarities of _Pronunciation_, importance of an early habit of distinct --how best taught to children --_Pronunc._, as distinguished from elocution, what; how differs from articulation --_Pronunc._ of the Eng. lang., what knowledge requires; its difficulties; whether we have any system of, worthy to be accounted a STANDARD _Proof-texts_, not to be perverted in the quotation, Crit. N. --not _quoted_, but _invented_, by some, in their false illustrations of gram. _Proper names_ begin with capitals --_Comm._ and _proper name_ associated, how written --_Prop. names_, derivatives from, do. --(_Names_ of Deity, see _Deity_.) --_Prop. names_, application of rule concerning; distinc. between do. and common appellatives --of places, comparative difficulty of writing them --modern compound, sparing use of hyphen in --_Prop. names_, what their relative importance in lang. --structure and signif. of; how should be written --of plur. form, preceded by def. art. --_Prop. name_, with def. art., acquires the import of a comm. --_Proper_, from a comm. noun personified --_Prop. names_ of individuals, strictly used as such, have no plur.; _prop. name_, how made plur., and how then considered --when they form a plur., how form it --of persons, generally designate their sex --_Prop. name_, in appos. with an appellative --represented by _which_, ("_Herod_ --WHICH _is_," &c.) --_Prop. name_ and _title_, when taken together in a plur. sense, in what form to be written _Property_, the relation of, how may be otherwise expressed than by the poss. case _Prophecy_, the past tenses substituted for the fut., in the lang. of _Propositions_, permanent, in what tense should be expressed _Propriety_, as a quality of style, in what consists --its oppos., impropriety, what embraces --Precepts aiming at offences against _Prose_ and verse, in the composition of lang., how differ PROSODY --_Prosody_, of what subjects treats --etymol. and signif. of the word --_Prosody_, meagrely and immethodically treated in the works of many grammarians --undetermined usage as to what things belong to; how treated by some of the old prosodists; account of SMETIUS'S treatise of; do. GENUENSIS'S _Prosthesis_, explained _Proverbs_, their elliptical character _Provincial_ expressions, use of, as opposed to purity PUNCTUATION, arranged under the head of Prosody --_Punct._, what --principal marks of, named and shown; what they severally denote --RULES _of_: for Comma; for Semicolon; for Colon; for Period; for Dash; for Eroteme; for Ecphoneme; for Curves --description of the _other marks_ of --(See _Comma, Semicolon_, &c.) --_Punct._, the present system of, in Eng., common to many languages --why often found diverse, in diff. editions and diff. versions of the same work --duty of writers in respect to, and of publishers in reproducing ancient books --some account of the orig. and prog. of --"improvement" in, which is no improvement --confused and discordant explanations, by some, of certain of the marks of _Purity_, as a quality of style, in what consists --Precepts aiming at offences against _Pyrrhic_, defined Q. Q, its name and plur. numb. --has no sound peculiar to itself; its power --is always followed by _u_ _Quakers_, or Friends, their style of address, see _Friends_ _Qualities_ of style, treated --See _Style_ _Quantity_, or _time_ in pronunciation, explained --as defined by the lexicographers --its effect in the prolation of sounds --WALKER'S views of, unsatisfac. to BROWN --as regulated by emphasis, MURR. --_Quant_. of a syll., how commonly explained --by what marks may be indicated --_Quantities poetic_, how denominated, and how proportioned --What _quantity_ coincides with accent or emphasis --_Quantity_, on what depends --where variable, and where fixed, in Eng. --Crit. observations on accent and _quantity_ --_Quantity_, its distinction from _accent_ --Accent and _quantity_, differing views of authors relative to --_Quantity_, impropriety of affirming it to be the same as accent --DR. JOH. identification of accent with; such, also, that of others; (not so HARRIS;) NOEHD. rightly defines; so FISK, (in Eschenb. Man. Class. Lit.,) _et al_. --our grammarians seem not to have understood the distinc. of long and short, e. g., FISHER; so SHERID., WALK., MURR., _et al_. --CHAND. absurd and confused scheme of, noticed --suggestion of WEBST. on, approved _Questions_, can be asked only in the indic. or the pot. mood --direct, to be marked by the eroteme --united, how to be marked --indirect, do. --a series of, how may be united and marked --exclamatory, how to be marked --_Question, mentioned_ in due form, how marked --declaratively put, how uttered and marked --in _Spanish_, doubly marked, ("¿Quien llama?";) in Greek, how _Quite_, with art. and adj., construc. how differs according to position of art. _Quotation_, direct, first word of, written with capital --_Quotations_ of proof-texts, &c., should be literally given --dependent, separated from _say_, &c., by comma --indep., preceded by colon --_Quotat. within a quotat._, how usually marked _Quoth_ and _quod_, signif. and use of, in ludicrous lang. or in the old writers R. R, name and plur. numb. --of the class liquids --sound of; do., how can be varied in utterance --what faults to be avoided in do. --DR. JOH. account of; WALK. do. _Radicals_, separable and inseparable, what are so called in Eng. derivation _Rath_, adv., used only in the compar. deg. --_Rather_, with the exclusive term of comparis. introduced by _than_ --derivation of _Reading, to read_, in gram., what the signif. of --READ, verb, CONJUGATED _affirmatively_ in Comp. Form _Reciprocal terms, reciprocals_, what pronom. adjectives may be so termed --_Reciprocals_, EACH OTHER, ONE AN OTHER, their nature and import --misapplicat. of, frequent in books; WEBST. errs in the signif. and applicat. of _other_. See also _Other_ _Reciprocal_ or reflected verbs, constructions in imitation of the French _Recurrence_ of a word in different senses, a fault opposed to propriety _Redundant verb_, defined --_Redund. verbs_, why made a separate class --treated --List of _Reference_, marks of, ASTERISK, OBELISK, &c., shown; in what _order_ are introduced --what other signs of, may be used. _Reference, doubtful_, Crit. N. concerning _Reformers_ of the Eng. alphabet and orthog., some account of _Rejoice, resolve, incline_, &c., import of, in the pass. form _Relations_ of things, their infinitude and diversity; the nature of RELATION --_Relation of words_, what --is diff. from agreem., but may coincide with it --_Relation_ according to _the sense_, an important principle in Eng. synt.; what _rules_ of relation commonly found in the grammars --Simple _relation_, what parts of speech have no other syntact. property than; what simp. _relations_ there are in Eng. --_Relation_, with respect to a prep., _anteced. term_, what may be; _subseq._, do. --_Relation_, do., _terms_ of, to be named in parsing a prep.; how the terms may be ascertained by a learner --_terms of_, to a prep., may be transposed; are very various; both usually expressed _Relative pronouns_, defined --_Relative pronouns_, and their _compounds_, named; declined --chief constructional peculiarities of --two faulty special rules given by the grammarians, for construc. of, noticed --construc. of, with respect to CASE --ellips. of, in famil. lang., ("_The man I trust_;") do., poet. --_Relative_ and prep. governing it, when should not be omitted --_Relative pron._, place of --clauses, connected, employment of, with _same_ pron. in each --_Rel. pronouns_, exclude conjunctions --derivat. of, from Sax. --poet, peculiarities with respect to. See also _Who, Which_, &c. _Repetition_, of a noun or pronoun, what construc. it produces --of words, emphatic, punct. --of words, through paucity of lang.; against propriety --of do., as demanded by precision --_Repetitions_, see _Pleonasm_ _Restrictive_ and _resumptive_ senses of the rel. pronouns, distinc. between, expl. --_Restrictive, relation_, most approp. expressed by the pron. THAT --admits not a comma before the relative --adj., admits not a comma before it --part., do. _Rhetoric, figure of_, defined --Figures of _rhetoric_, see _Figures_ _Rhetorical pauses_, see _Pauses_ _Rhode Island_, the name how acquired; peculiarity of its application _Rhyme_, defined --_Rhyming_ syllables, their nature and quality _Rhythm_, of verse, defined --Fancifully explained by E. A. POE, (who without intelligence derives the term from [Greek: hurithmos]) --sense and signif. of the word _Roman letters_, some account of _Rules_, of RELATION, what, commonly found in grammars --of SYNT., those common in grammars ill adapted to their purpose; examples of such --of do., exposition of the faulty charac. of those in Eng. grammars --_Rules of grammar_, advantage of, in the written language _Rush, Dr. J._, his new doctrine of the vowels and consonants, in oppos. to the old, how estimated by BROWN --his doctrine of a duplicity of the vocal elements, perstringed --his strange division of the vowels "into two parts," and conversion of most of them into diphthongs; his enumeration and specification of the alphabetic elements S. S, its name and plur. numb. --final, in monosyllables, spell. --of the poss. case, occas. dropping of; the elis. how to be regarded, and when to be allowed --its sounds --in what words silent --_Ss_, sound of _S_ or _es_, verbal termin., DR. LOWTH'S account of _Sans_, from Fr., signif., and where read _Sabaoth_, see _Deity_ _Same cases_, construc. of --do., on what founded --what position of the words, admitted by the construc. --_Same case_, after _what verbs_, except those which are pass., taken --_Same cases_, notice of the faulty rules given by LOWTH, MURR., _et al._, for the construc. of _Sameness_ of signif., what should be that of the nom. following a verb or part. --_Sameness_ of words, see _Identity_ _Sapphic_, verse, described --_stanza_, composition of; examp. from HOR. --_Sapphic verse_, difficulty of; Eng. Sapphics few; scansion of; "The Widow," of SOUTHEY, scanned --_Eng. Sapphic_, DR. WATTS'S ode, (in part.) "The Day of Judgement," "_attempted in_" --HUMPH. on, cited --_Sapphics_, burlesque, examples of _Save, saving_, as denoting exception, class and construc. of --_Save_, derivation of _Saxon_, alphabet, some account of --lang., its form about the year 450; do. subsequently _Scanning_, or _scansion_, explained --Why, in _scanning_, the principal feet are to be preferred to the secondary --The poetry of the earliest Eng. poets, not easy of _scansion_ _Script letters_, the alphabet exhibited in --the _forms_ of, their adaptation to the pen _Scripture names_, many discrepancies in, found in different editions of the Bible. _Scriptures_, see _Bible_ _Section_, mark, uses of SEE, verb, irreg., act., CONJUGATED affirmatively --takes infin. without prep. TO --its construc. with infin. without _to_ _Seeing_ and _provided_, as connectives, their class _Seldom_, adv., its comparison; use of, as an adj. _Self_, in the format, of the comp. pers. pronouns --CHURCH. explan. of --signif. and use of --as an Eng. prefix --after a noun poss., in poet. diction _Self-contradiction_, Crit. N. respecting _Self-naming letters_ _Semicolon_, point --for what purpose used --from what takes its name --_when_ adopted in England --is useful and necessary, though discarded by some late grammarians --Rules for the use of _Semivowel_, defined --_Semivowels_ named; nature of _w_ and _y_; sound of certain, as aspirates _Sense_ and construc. to be considered, in joining together or writing separately words otherw. liable to be misunderstood --_Sense_ or meaning, necessary to be observed in parsing _Senseless jumbling_, Crit. N. concerning _Sentence_, defined --_Sentence_, its parts, principal and subordinate --_Sentences_, the two kinds of, named and defined --whether a tripartite distribut. of is expedient --_Simple sent._, false notions amongst grammarians of what constitutes one; _the parsing of words_ not affected thereby --_Sentences_, simp. and comp., DR. WILS. explanation of --component parts of, what these are --whether all, can be divided into clauses --in what FIVE WAYS, can be analyzed --_Sentences_, simp., punct. of, --distinct, do., --allied, do., --short, rehearsed in close succession, how pointed. _Series_, of terms, proper use of the _articles_ in, --of words, how to be commaed. _Set_ and _sit_, signif. and employment of. _Sex_, to what persons ascribed; why a young child may be spoken of without distinc. of, --whether animals may be represented as of no, --inanimate objects fig. represented as having. --_Sexes_, distinction of, by _words_, in diff. ways, --denoted by _terminat_. of words, --designated by _proper names_. _Shall_, verb, how varied, --original signif. of, --explet. use of. --_Shall_ and _will_, discriminative application of, in the fut. indic. _Sheridan, T._, actor and orthoëpist, his literary reputation; the worth of his writings. _Side_, noun, peculiarities of usage in regard to. _Silent_, or _mute_, when a letter is said to be. _Silliness, literary_, Crit. N. concerning. _Simile_, explained. _Since_, improp. use of, for _ago_, --derivation of, from Anglo-Sax. _Sit_ and _set_, use and signif. of. _So_, as expressing the sense of a preced. word or phrase, --derivation of, from Sax. --_So --as, as --so_, correspondents. _Soever_ or _soe'er_, whether a word or only a part of an other word; how explained by WEBST. _Solemn style_, as distinguished from the familiar, --should not be displaced from the paradigms in a grammar, --is not adapted to familiar discourse, --pres. and pret. terminations of, what, and how uttered, --examp. of, second pers. sing., negat., throughout the verb LOVE, conjugated. _Some_, classed, --vulg. used for _somewhat_, or _in some degree_, ("SOME _longer_," SANB.). _Somehow_ or _other, somewhere_ or _other_, what the construc. _Somewhere, nowhere, anywhere_, &c., their class, and how should be written. _Sort_, see _Kind_. _Sound_, of a letter, commonly called its _power_, --_elementary_, of the voice, defined. --_Sounds_, simp. or primary, numb. in Eng., --elementary, what meant by; are few in numb.; their _combinations_ may be innumerable. --_Vowel_ sounds, or vocal elements, how produced, and where heard; what those in Eng., and how may be modified in the format. of syllables; do., how may be written, and how uttered. --_Consonant sounds_, simp., in Eng., how many, and what; by what letters marked; in what words heard. --_Sounds_, long and short, SIGNS used to denote them. --_Sounds_, a knowledge of, how acquired, --importance of being early taught to pronounce those of one's native lang. --Passage exemplifying _all the letters_, and _all the_ SOUNDS, in Eng. --_Sounds of the Letters_, treated. _Speak, to speak_, what is meant by. _Speaker_, why often speaks of himself in the third pers., --represents himself and others by _we_, --in Eng., should mention himself last. --The _elegant speaker_, by what distinguished. _Species_ and _figure_ of words, what so called, --unsettled usage of the lang. with regard to what relates to the latter. _Species_ and _genus_ of things, how admits limitation by the article. SPELLING, defined. --_Spelling_, how to be acquired, --cause of the difficulty of its acquisition, --Rules for, --_usage_, as a law of, --uniformity and consistency in, how only can be attained. --The _right spelling_ of a word, what, PHILOLOG. Mus. --_Oral spelling_, how should be conducted. --Charac. of BROWN'S rules for _spelling_. _Spondee_, defined. _St_, unsyllab. suffix, whether, wherever found, is a modem contrac. of the syllable _est_. _Standards_ of English _orthog._, the books proposed as such, abound in errors and inconsistencies. --Whether we have a system of Eng. ORTHOEPY worthy to be accounted a STANDARD. _Stanza_, defined. --_Stanzas_, uniformity of, in the same poem, --varieties of, --_Elegiac stanza_, described. --_Stanzas, lyric_, examples of, --"A GOOD NAME," ("two beautiful little _stanzas_," BROWN). _Star_, or _asterisk_, use of. --_Three stars_, or _asterism_, _Stenotone_, or _breve_, for what used. _Stops_, in printing or writing, see _Points_. _Strength_, as a quality of style, in what consists, --essentials of, --Precepts aiming at offences against. _Strew_, whether, or not, an other mode of spelling _strow_; whether to be distinguished in utterance from do.; whether reg. or irreg. STYLE, qualities of, treated. --_Style_, as connected with synt., what, --differs from mere words and mere grammar; not regulated entirely by rules of construc., --what relation has to the author himself, and what shows, --general characters of, by what epithets designated. --What must be remembered by the learner, in forming his _style_; a good _style_ how acquired. --_Style, solemn, familiar_, &c., as used in gram., what meant by. --(See _Solemn Style_.) _Subaudition_, meaning of the term. _Subdisjunctive_ particle, of the Latins, expressed in Eng. by _or_ of alternat. _Subject_ of a finite verb, what, and how may be known, --must be the NOM. CASE, --what besides a noun or pronoun may be. --_Subject phrases_, joint, what agreements require. --_Subject_ and _predicate_, in analysis. See also _Nominative Case_. _Subjunctive mood_, defined. --_Subj. mood_, why so called; what denotes, --differing views of grammarians in regard to the numb. and form of its tenses. --The true _subj. mood_ rejected by some late grammarians; strictures on WELLS. --WELD'S erroneous teaching respecting the _subj._, noticed, --CHAND. do., do. --Chief characteristical diff. between the indic. and the _subj. mood_. --_Subj. mood_ described, --its two tenses do., and their forms shown, in the verb LOVE, conjugated, --whether ever put after a rel. pronoun, --proper limits of, --how properly employed. --_False subj_. --_Subj. mood_, not necessarily governed by _if, lest_, &c. _Such_, corresponding to _that_, with infin. foll., --with rel. _as_ following, in stead of _who_ or _which_. _Sui generis_, what thing is thus designated. _Superlative degree_, defined, --BROWN'S definit. of, and of the other degrees, _new_; the faulty charac. of those of MURR., shown, --the true nature of; how may be used; to what is applicable; the explanations of, by the copyists of MURR., criticised, --whether not applicable to _two_ objects, --_when employed_, what construc. of the latter term should follow. --_Double superlatives_, to be avoided. --_Superl. termination_, contractions of. _Supplied_, in parsing, what must be. See also _Ellipsis_. _Suppression_, mark of, see _Ellipsis_. _Syllabic_ writing, far inferior to the alphabetic, BLAIR. _Syllabication_, Rules of, --the doctrine of, why attended with difficulty, --object of; WALK. on; strictures on MULK. rules of, --which of the four purposes of, is preferable in spelling-books and dictionaries, --DR. LOWTH on, --nature of BROWN'S six Rules of; advantage of a system of, founded on the pronunciat., --LATH. and FOWL. fictitious dilemmas in. --_Syllabication_, erroneous, samples of, from MURR., WEBST., _et al_. SYLLABLES, treated. --_Syllable_ defined. --_Syllable_, cannot be formed without a vowel, --cannot be broken. --_Syllables_, numb. of, in a word, --words denominated from their numb. of, --the ear chiefly directs in the division of words into. --(See _Syllabication_.) --_Syllable_, its quantity in poetry, --do., on what depends. _Syllepsis_, explained, --literal signif. of the term; extended applicat. of do. by the grammarians and rhetoricians; BROWN, by his definition, gives it a more restricted applicat.; disapproves of WEBST. explanat. of the term, --what definition or what applicat. of the term is the most approp., has become doubtful. _Synæresis_, explained. _Synchysis_, what was so termed by some of the ancients; is different from _hyperbaton_; its import in gram.; its literal signif. _Syncope_, explained. _Synecdoche_, (comprehension,) explained. --_Synecd._, agreem. of pron. with anteced., in cases of. _Synonymous_, words so accounted, PREC. concerning the use of. _Syntactical parsing_, see _Parsing_. SYNTAX. --_Synt._, of what treats, --the _relation_ of words, the most important principle of; defects of the grammars in treating of do., --false exhibitions of grammarians with respect to the scope and parts of, --character of the rules of, found in most grammars, --divided by some grammarians into _concord_ and _governm._, and yet treated by them without regard to such division, --common fault of grammarians, noticed, of joining together diff. parts of speech in the same rule of, --do., of making the rules of, double or triple in their form, --whether the principles of etymol. affect those of. --All _synt._, on what founded. --Why BROWN deemed it needful to add to his code of _synt_. a GENERAL RULE and CRITICAL NOTES. Figures of _syntax_. T. T, name and plur. numb. of, --substitution of, for _ed_, how far allowable, --sounds of, --is seldom silent; in what words not sounded. _Th_, ([Greek: Th], [Greek: alt-th], or [Greek: alt2-th], Gr.,) what represents; how was represented in Anglo-Sax., and to what sounds applied; the two sounds of. _To a Tee_, the colloq. phrase, explained. _Tautology_ of expression or of sentiment, a fault opposed to precision. _Teacher_, what should be his aim with respect to gram. _Technical_ terms, unnec. use of, as opposed to propriety. _Technically_, words and signs taken, how to be construed. _Tenses_, term defined. --_Tenses_, the difierent, named and defined, --whether the names of, are approp., or whether they should be changed, --whether all express time with equal precision, --who reckon only _three_, and who _two_; who still differently and variously name their tenses, --_Tenses_, past and present, occurring together. See _Present Tense_, _Imperf. Tense_, &c. _Terminating_ a sentence with a prep. or other small particle _Terminations_, of words, separated in syllabicat. --of verbs, numb. of different, in each tense --of the Eng. verb; DR. A. MURR. account of --tendency of the lang. to lay aside the least agreeable --usage of famil. discourse in respect to those of second pers. sing. --verbal or particip., how are found written in old books --the only reg. ones added to Eng. verbs; utterance of _ed_ and _edst_ --_ed_, participial, and _n_, verbal, WALK. on the contrac. of --_Termination t_, for _ed_, forced and irreg. _Terms_ of relation, see _Relation_. _Tetrameter_ line, _iambic_, examples of --a favorite with many Eng. writers; BUTL. Hudib., GAY'S Fab., and most of SCOTT'S poems, writt. in couplets of this meas. --admits the doub. rhyme adapted to familiar and burlesque style --_trochaic_, examples of --character of do. --EVERETT'S fanciful notions about do. --_anapestic_, examples of --L. HUNT'S "Feast of the Poets," an extended examp. of do. --_dactylic_, examples of _Than, as_, with ellips. in latter term of comparison --character and import of --declinable words connected by, put in same case --_Than_ WHOM, as Gr. genitive governed by comparat., MILT. --what grammarians have _inferred_ from the phrase --MURR. expedient to dispose of do. --CHURCH. makes the rel. in do. "the obj. case absol.," --BROWN determines with respect to the construc. --_Than_, as demanded after _else, other_, &c., and Eng. comparatives --derivation of, from Goth. or Anglo-Sax. _That_, its class determined --its various uses --as REL. PRONOUN, to what applied --as used in anomalous construc., --its peculiarity of construc. as a relative --its especial use as the restrictive relative --the frequent employment of, by Addison, wrongly criticised by BLAIR --as a relative, in what cases more appropriate than _who_ or _which_ --_That_, ellipt., repeating the import of the preceding words, ("_And_ THAT," --[Greek: kai tauta],) --_That_, in the phrases _in that_, &c., how to be reckoned --_That_, as introducing a dependent clause, how to be ranked --as introducing a sent. made the subj. or obj. of a finite verb --its power at the head of a sent. or clause --its derivation _The_, before the species, what may denote --how commonly limits the sense --applied to nouns of either numb. --before what _adjectives_, required --distinctive use of ("_The Psalmist_") --as relating to comparatives and superlatives --used for poss. pron. --repetition of, how avoided --derivation of, from Sax. --pronunc. of _e_ in. See also _Definite Article_. _Them_, in vulg. use as an adj., for _those_ _Thence_, &c., with _from_ prefixed, whether allowable _There_, introductory and idiomatic, notions of grammarians concerning; its posit. and use; is a regular _adv. of place_, and not "without signification," --derivation of, from Anglo-Sax. --poet. omission of _They_, put indefinitely for _men_ or _people_ _This_ and _that_, as explained by CHURCH. --placed before conjoint singulars, ("THIS POWER AND WILL _do_," &c.,) --in contrasted terms _Three stars_, or asterism, use of _Time_, the order and fitness of, to be observed in constructions expressing it --nouns of, with adv. WHEN, as a special relative, following _Time, measure_, or _weight_, part made possessive of the whole, ("_An_ HOUR'S _time_") --noun of, not poss., immediately before an other, ("_A_ POUND WEIGHT,") _Time, place_, &c., the obj. case in expressions of, taken after the fashion of an adv. _Time, measure, distance_, or _value_, nouns of, their peculiarity of construc.; the parsing of _Time_, obj. noun of, qualifying a subsequent adj., ("A _child_ OF _ten years_ OLD,") _Four times, five times_, &c., how to be reckoned. TIMES, before an other noun, _by way of_ MULTIPLICATION, the nature and construc. of, discussed; decision. _Times_, in what construc. may be called the objective of _repetition_, or of _time repeated_. _Time_ in pronunciation, or _quantity_ _Titles_, of books, are printed in capitals --of office, &c., begin with do. --merely mentioned as such, are without art. --_Name and_ TITLE, (see _Proper Names_.) _Side-titles_, use of _dash_ in application to _Tmesis_, explained _To_, as governing infin. mood --do., variously explained by grammarians --is a sign of inf., but not a part of it --what BROWN claims for his RULE respecting the _infin. as gov. by the prep._ TO, &c.; he shows that the doctrine originated not with himself --TO _and the verb_, what FISHER (anno 1800) taught respecting; what, LOWTH, and what, absurdly, MURR., his copyist --_To_, as governing infin., traced from the Sax. to the Eng. of WICKL., --_To_, before infin., evasive teachings of the later grammarians concerning its class and construc. --do., how considered by most Eng. grammarians --do., how proved to be a prep. --do., preceded by _for_, anc. --after _what verbs_, omitted, --whether to be _repeated_ before infinitives in the same construe. --sometimes required, and sometimes excluded, after _than_ or _as_ --whether it may be _separated_ from its verb by an adv.; is placed more elegantly AFTER _an adv._, ("PROPERLY TO _respect_,") --in what cases has no prop, antec. term of relat. --_To_ suppressed and _be_ inserted after MAKE, whether correctly --_To_, prep, or adv., from Anglo-Sax. --_To_, as prefix to noun, (_to-day, to-night, to-morrow_,). _Tones_ of the voice, what; why deserving of j particular attention --what denominated by SHERID.; what should be their character --BLAIR'S remark on; HIL. do. --_Tones_ of the passions, WALK, observation on. _Topics_, different, to be treated in separate paragraphs, PREC. of _Unity_. _Transposition_, of the terms of relat., when a preposition begins or ends a sentence or clause --_rhetorical_, of words, or _hyperbaton_. _Tribrach_, defined. _Trimeter_ line, _iambic_, the measure seldom used alone; examples of, --and do., with diversifications --_trochaic_, examples of --_anapestic_, examples of --alternated with the tetram., examp., "The Rose," of COWP.; the same scanned --_dactylic_, examples of. _Triphthong_, defined --_proper_, do., the only, in Eng. --_improp._, do.; and the improp. _triphthongs_ named. _Trochaic verse_, treated --_Troch. verse_, the stress in --nature of the single-rhymed; error of MURR. _et al_. concerning the last syll. in --how may be changed to coincide with other measures; how is affected by retrenchment --confounded with _iambic_ by several gramm. and prosodists --Strictures on CHURCH., who doubts the existence of the _troch_. ord. of verse --_Troch. verse_ shown in its eight measures --_Trochaics_, Eng., the TETRAMETER the most common meas. of --DR. CAMPB. on --"_Trochaic_ of One foot," account of. _Trochee_, or _choree_, defined. _Tropes_, what figures of rhetoric are so called; signif. of the term. _Trow_, its signif., and where occurs; in what person and tenses read. _Truisms_ and senseless remarks, how to be dealt with in gram. _Tutoyant_, to what extent prevalent among the French. See _Youyouing_, &c. _Type_ or character, two forms of the letters in every kind of. U. U, lett., which (as A, E, I, or O) names itself --its plur. numb. --sounds properly its own --as self-naming, to what equivalent; requires art. _a_, and not _an_, before it --pronounced with borrowed sound --long or diphthongal sound, as _yu_; sound of slender _o_ or _oo_, after _r_ or _rh_. _Unamendable_ imperfections sometimes found in ancient writings, remarks in relation to. _Unauthorized_ words, use of, as opposed to purity, PREC. concerning. _Unbecoming_, adj., from participle compounded, error of using transitively words of this form; such error how corrected. _Uncertain_, the part of speech left, see _Equivocal_, &c. _Unco-passive_ voice, or form, of the verb, ("_Is being built_,") the use of. conflicts with the older and better usage of the lang. --the subject of, discussed by BROWN --the true principle with respect to, stated. _Underlining_ words, in preparing manuscripts, to denote Italics &c. _Understood_, words said, in technical phrase, to be, what such, (Lat., _subaudita_) _Ungrammatical_ language by which grammar itself is professedly taught, sample from MURR.; from PINNEO; _et al. e diversis_, Gram. of E. Gram., _passim_. _Unity_, as a quality of style, in what consists --required by every sentence --Precepts aiming at offences against. _Unity_, THE IDEA OF, how generally _determined_, in respect to a collect. noun, whether it conveys such idea or not. _Usage_, as a law of orthography for particular words --_Usage_, as it has been, and as it is, the advantage of an exhibition of, by the grammarian. _Useless_ words, employment of, as opposed to precision. UTTERANCE, treated --_Utterance_, what, and what includes. V. V, name and plur. of: --written for a number: --sound of, Value, &c., nouns of, see Time. Verbal or participial noun, (see Participial, &c.) --Verbal forms used substantively, by poet pecul. VERBS, Etymol. of; --Verb, defined: --why so called: --a perf. definition of, why difficult to form; --CHIEF TERMS, or PRINCIP. PARTS, of an Eng. verb, named and defined. --Verbs. Classes of, with respect to their FORM, named and defined: --do., with respect to their signif., do. --(See Active-Transitive Verb, &c.) _Verbs_, whole numb, of, in Eng.; the regular, far the most numerous; account of the others --how divided with respect to signif. in most grammars and dictionaries; BROWN'S division --divided by certain grammarians into act., pass., and neut. --MURR, on the distribution of --NIX. on do. --_Verbs_, in Lat., grammarians of old differed respecting the distribut. of --different methods of distribut. of, by several other authors, noticed --_Verbs_, most act., may be used either as trans. or as intrans. --some may be used either in an act. or a neut. sense --act. form of, used in a pass. sense; so also PART. in _ing_, ("_The books continue_ SELLING") --_Verbs_, Modifications of, named --Moods of, named and defined; (see _Infinitive Mood, Indic. Mood_, &c.) --Tenses of, named and defined; (see _Present Tense, Imperf. Tense_, &c.) --Persons and numbers of, what --Conjugations of --how principally conjugated --(See _Conjugation_) --_Verbs_, Irreg., List of --simp. irreg., numb. of; whence derived --Redundant, List of --Defective, do. --_Verbs irreg_. and _redund._, of what character all former lists of, have been --_Verbs_, of asking and teaching, construc. of --whether any, in Eng., can govern two cases --suppressed in exclamat. &c. --_Verbs_, Synt. of --_Verbs_ requiring a regimen, should not be used without an object --_Verb_, AGREEM. _of, with its subject_ --do., inferred --do., by sylleps., in plur., title of a book --do., in imperat. mood --_Verb_ of the third pers. sing. with a plur. noun of the neut. gend., the use of, a strange custom of the Greeks; such use not existent in Eng. --_Verb_, AGREEM. of, with infin. phrase or sentence as subject --do., with infin. subject limited, ("FOR MEN TO SEARCH _their own glory_, IS," &c.) --do., with a nom. in interrog. sentences --do., with a rel., according to the true anteced. of the pron.; (examp. of error from DR. BLAIR) --do., with a nom. limited by adjuncts --do., with composite or converted subjects --do., with _each, every, one_, &c., as leading words --do., by change of nominative --_Verb_, the _form of_, to be adapted to the style --when requires a separate nom. expressed --_Verb_, AGREEM. of, with a nom. noun collective --do., with joint nominatives --do., with two connected nominatives in appos. --do., with two conn. nominatives emphatically distinguished --do., with two conn. nominatives preceded by _each, every_, or _no_ --do., with nearest of connected nominatives, and understood to the rest; whether the usage is proper in Eng. --do., with connected nominatives of different persons --do., with connected subjects, one taken affirmat. and the other negat. --do., with two subjects connected by _as well as, but_, or _save_ --do., with connected subjects preceded by _each, every_, or _no_ --do., in ellipt. construc. of joint nominatives --do., with distinct subject phrases connected by _and_ --do., with disjunct. nominatives --do., with disagreeing nominatives connected disjunctively --do., when connected nominatives require different forms of the verb --do., with distinct phrases disjunct, connected --_Verbs_, connected by _and, or_, or _nor_, how must agree --discordant, how managed with respect to agreem. --_Verb_, mixture of the diff. styles of, ineleg. --diff. moods of, not to be used under the same circumstances --when two connected terms require diff. forms of, what insertion is necessary --_Verbs_ of _commanding, desiring, expecting_, &c., to what actions or events refer --of _desisting, omitting_, &c., with a part. following, rather than an infin. --of _preventing_, what should be made to govern --_Verb_, finite, punc. of --ellips. of, shown --derivation of, from nouns, adjectives, and verbs --poet. peculiarities in the use of _Verbosity_, as affecting strength _Verse_, in oppos. to prose, what --_Blank verse_, as distinguished from rhyme --_Verse_, general sense of the term; its derivation and literal signif.; the visible form of _verse_ --_Verse_, as defined by JOH., WALK., _et al_.; do. by WEBST. --_Verse_, Eng., the difficulty of treating the subject of, and from what this arises --A _verse_, or line of poetry, of what consists --_Verse_, or poetic measure, the kinds, or orders of, named; (see _Iambic Verse, Trochaic Verse_, &c.) --_Verse_, the proper reading of VERSIFICATION, treated --_Versification_, defined --_Versification_, POE'S (E. A.) notions concerning; his censure of BROWN'S former definition of; his rejection of the idea of versif. from the principle of rhythm; his unfortunate derivat. of _rhythm_ from [Greek: hurithmos,] and vain attempts to explain the term: the farrago summarily disposed of by BROWN --EVERETT'S "System of Eng. Versification," account of, and strictures on _Vision_, or _imagery_, explained _Vocative case_ of Lat. and Gr. gram., not known in Eng. _Voice_, ACTIVE, and PASSIVE, whether necessary terms in Eng. gram. _Vowel_, defined --_Vowels_ named --_W_ and _Y_, when vowels; comp. --_Vowel sounds_, or vocal elements, the different, how produced --what are those in Eng. --how each may be variously expressed by letters; notation of --_Vowels_, two coming together, where may be parted in syllabication. W. W, its name and plur. numb. --simpler term than _Double-u_ perhaps desirable; DR. WEBST. on the lett. --W, when a vowel --with vowel foll., sound of --before _h_, how pronounced --in Eng. never used alone as a vowel --no diphthongs or triphth. in Eng., beginning with. _Wages_, noun, plur. by formation; its construe, with a verb. _Walker, J._, estimate of his Critical Pronouncing Dictionary --in his lexicography how far followed DR. JOH. _Was_, contrary to usage preferred by some to _were_, in the imperf. sing, of the subj. _We_, plur., as representing the speaker and others; how sometimes used in stead of the sing.; sometimes preferred by monarchs to _I_. _Webster, Dr. N._, describes language as comprehending the voice of brutes --never named the Eng. letters rightly --his orthography as a _standard_; do. compared with that of DR. JOH. --the result to himself of his various attempts to reform our orthog.; the value of his _definitions_. _Weight, measure_, &c., see _Time_. _Wert_, as used in lieu of _wast_ --its mood not easy to determine; authorities for a various use of. _What_, its class and nature --to what usually applied; its twofold relat. explained --its numb.; example of solec. in the use of --as a mere adj., or as a pron. indef. --its use both as an adj. and as a relative at the same time; do. for _who_ or _which_, ludic. and vulg. --declined --how to be disposed of in etymolog. parsing; how to be parsed syntactically --how becomes an interj. --used appar. for an adv.; uttered exclamatorily before an adj., to be taken as an adj., ("WHAT PARTIAL _judges are our_," &c.,) --followed by _that_, by way of pleonasm, ("WHAT _I tell you in darkness_, THAT," &c.,) --with _but_ preceding, ("_To find a friend_, BUT WHAT" &c.,) --vulg. use of, for _that_ --derivation of, from Sax., shown. _Whatever_ or _whatsoever_, its peculiarities of construe., the same as those of _what_; its use in simp, relation --its construc. as a double relative; whether it may be supposed ellipt. --its declension. _When, where_, or _while_, in what instance not fit to follow the verb _is_ --_When, where, whither_, as partaking of the nature of a pron.; construc, of do., with antecedent nouns of time, &c., how far allowable --derivation of, from Anglo-Sax. _Whether_, as an interrog. pron.; as a disjunc. conjunc. --conjunc. corresponsive to _or_ --as do., its derivation from Sax. _Which_, relative --its former use; to what objects now confined --its use after a personal term taken by meton. for a thing; do., as still applicable to persons --is of all the genders, (in oppos. to MURR., WEBST., _et. al._,) --is less approp. than _who_, in all personifications --its construc. when taken in its discrim. sense, --how differs from the rel. _that_ --BLAIR'S incorrect remarks respecting --_Which_, as rel. or interrog., declined --_Which_, sometimes takes _whose_ for its poss., --represents a prop. name taken merely as a name, ("_Herod_ --WHICH _is but_," &c.,) --do. nouns of mult, expressing persons, when such are strictly of the neut. gend., ("The COMMITTEES WHICH" &c.,) --in what cases is less approp. than _that_ --does not fitly represent an indicative assertion, ('"Be ATTENTIVE, _without_ WHICH," &c.,) --its Sax. derivation shown --_The which_, obsol., --_Which_, interrog., what demands, --to what objects applied --now used for the obsol. _whether_. _Whichever, whichsoever_, signif. and construc. of --declension of. _Who_, relative --to what usually applied --has superseded _which_, formerly applied to persons, ("_Our Father_ WHO _art_" &c.,) --to be preferred to _which_, in all personifications --how differs from the rel. _that_ --_Who_, as rel. or interrog., declined, --_Whose_, use of, for the defec. poss., _of which_ --_Than whom_, (see _Than._) --_Who_, interrog., what demands --may be the anteced. of the rel. _that_ --_Who_, derivation of, from Sax. _Whoever_, and _whoso_ or _whosoever_, signif. and construc. of --declens. of --_Whoso_ and _whatso_, antiq., import and use of, _Whole_, improp. use of, for _all_. ("_Almost the_ WHOLE _inhabitants_," HUME.,). _Why_, after nouns of cause, (see _When_, &c.) --_Why, wherefore, therefore_, their class. _Will_, verb, how varied --use of, as a principal verb. _Wis_, verb, pret. _wist_, signif. and use of --_Had I wist_, _With_, for _and_, (see _Cum_:) --added to adv. of direc., with emphat. imperat. ("_Up_ WITH _it_"). _Withal_ its class and construc. _Without_, obsol. use of, for _unless_ or _except_. _Withouten_, paragog. and poet. form. _Withinside of_ _Won't_, whence formed; its pronunc. _Worcester, Dr. J. E._, his Universal and Critical Dictionary WORDS, treated. --_Word_, defined. --_Words_ distinguished, and the divisions of, defined. --(See _Compound Word_.) --_Words_, Rules for the figure of; --simp., _when_ compounding is to be avoided --when to be joined, or to be written separately --_Words_, the nature of, explained --the consid. of, as comm., and as prop., --brevity sought in the comm. use of --the identity of, in what consists --unsettled and variable usage with respect to the figure of --_Words_ that may constitute diff. parts of speech, their construc. not to be left doubtf. --the reference of, to other words, do. --senselessly jumbled, charac. of --entirely needless, how to be disposed of --unintelligently misapplied, what indicates, --_Words_, PUNCT. _of_: in pairs; alternated; put absol.; in appos.; repeated --_Words_, derivation of, treated --most of those regarded as primitives in Eng., may be traced to ulterior sources --the study of, its importance --how the knowledge of, may be promoted with respect to Eng. --_Words_, the use of, as affecting Purity --do., as affect. Propriety --do., as affect. Precision --do., as affect. Perspicuity --do., as affect. Strength _Worshiper_, whether properly written with a single or a double _p_ _Worth_, its class and construc. _Worthy_, admits not ellips. of prep, _of_ before obj. following _Writing, to write_, what meant by X. X, its name and plur. num. --format. of the plur. of nouns in --why never doubled --written for a number --its sounds Y. Y, its name and plur. numb.; --borrowed first by the Romans from the Greeks, by whom called Ypsilon --in Eng. is either a vowel or a conson. --classed with the semivowels --final, changed or unchanged before terminations --do., when, by former practice, retained in verbs ending in _y_, before conson. terminations --sounds of --in poet. format. of adjectives _Ye_, nom. plur., solemn style --its use as the obj. case --as a mere explet. in burlesque --its use in the lang. of tragedy --used for _thee_ --in the Eng. Bible not found in the obj. case --_Ye_ and _you_, promisc. use of, in the same case and the same style, ineleg. _Yes, yea_, in a simp. affirmation, construc. and class of --derivation of, from Anglo-Sax. _You_, use of, for thou --_You_, with _was_, ("YOU WAS BUILDING,") approved by DR. WEBST. _et al._, as the better form for the sing. numb. --_You_, and VERB PLUR., in reference to _one person_, how to be treated in parsing. _Your_, facet. in conversation, and how uttered ("_Dwells, like_ YOUR _miser_, sir," &c., SHAK.,) _Yourself_, its pecul. of construc. _Your Majesty, your Highness_, &c., see _Address_. _Youyouing_ and _theethouing_, history of Z. Z, its name and plur. --has been called by several names; WALK., on the name --peculiarity of its ordinary _form_ --its sounds described _Zeugma_, (i.e., JUGATIO, _vel_ CONNEXIO, _Sanct._,) the various forms of, were named and noticed, but not censured, by the ancient grammarians --constructions of _adjectives_, referred to the figure, ("ONE _or a_ FEW _judges_,"); do. of verbs, ("_But_ HE NOR I FEEL _more_," YOUNG,) THE END OF THE INDEX, AND OF THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. FOOTNOTES: [1] Ben Jonson's notion of grammar, and of its parts, was as follows: "Grammar is the art of true and well-speaking a language: the writing is but an accident. The Parts of Grammar are Etymology \ which is / the true notation of words, Syntaxe / \ the right ordering of them. A word is a part of speech or note, whereby a thing is known or called; and consisteth of one or more letters. A letter is an indivisible part of a syllable, whose prosody, or right sounding, is perceived by the power; the orthography, or right writing, by the form. Prosody, and Orthography, are not parts of grammar, but diffused, like blood and spirits, through the whole."--_Jonson's Grammar_, Book I. [2] Horne Tooke eagerly seized upon a part of this absurdity, to prove that Dr. Lowth, from whom Murray derived the idea, was utterly unprepared for what he undertook in the character of a grammarian: "Dr. Lowth, when he undertook to write his _Introduction_, with the best intention in the world, most assuredly sinned against his better judgment. For he begins most judiciously, thus--'Universal grammar explains the principles which are common to _all_ languages. The grammar of any particular language, _applies_ those common principles to that particular language.' And yet, with _this clear truth_ before his eyes, he boldly proceeds to give a _particular_ grammar; without being himself possessed of one single principle of universal grammar."--_Diversions of Purley_, Vol. 1, p. 224. If Dr. Lowth discredited his better judgement in attempting to write an English grammar, perhaps Murray, and his weaker copyists, have little honoured theirs, in supposing they were adequate to such a work. But I do not admit, that either Lowth or Murray "_begins most judiciously_," in speaking of Universal and Particular grammar in the manner above cited. The authors who have started with this fundamental blunder, are strangely numerous. It is found in some of the most dissimilar systems that can be named. Even Oliver B. Peirce, who has a much lower opinion of Murray's ability in grammar than Tooke had of Lowth's, adopts this false notion with all implicitness, though he decks it in language more objectionable, and scorns to acknowledge whence he got it. See his _Gram._, p. 16. De Suey, in his Principles of General Grammar, says, "All rules of Syntax relate to two things, _Agreement and Government_."--_Foxdick's Tr._, p. 108. And again: "None of these rules properly belong to General Grammar, as each language follows, in regard to the rules of Agreement and Government, a course peculiar to itself."--_Ibid._, p. 109." "It is with Construction [i.e., Arrangement] as with Syntax. It follows no general rule common to all languages."--_Ibid._ According to these positions, which I do not admit to be strictly true, General or Universal Grammar has no principles of _Syntax_ at all, whatever else it may have which Particular Grammar can assume and apply. [3] This verb "_do_" is wrong, because "_to be contemned_" is passive. [4] "A very good judge has left us his opinion and determination in this matter; that he 'would take for his rule in speaking, not what might happen to be the faulty caprice of the multitude, but the consent and agreement of learned men.'"--_Creighton's Dict._, p. 21. The "good judge" here spoken of, is Quintilian; whose words on the point are these: "Necessarium est judicium, constituendumque imprimis, id ipsum quid sit, quod _consuetudinem_ vocemus. * * * In loquendo, non, si quid vitiose multis insederit, pro regula sermonis, amplendum est. * * * Ergo consuetudinem sermonis, vocabo _consensum eruditorum_ sicut vivendi, consenum honorum."--_De Inst. Orat._, Lib. i. Cap. 6, p. 57. [5] "The opinion of plenty is amongst the causes of want; and the great quantity of books maketh a show rather of superfluity than lack; which surcharge, nevertheless, is not to be removed by making no more books, but by making more good books, which, as the serpent of Moses, might devour the serpents of the enchanters."--_Bacon_. In point of style, his lordship is here deficient; and he has also mixed and marred the figure which he uses. But the idea is a good one. [6] Not, "_Oldham_, in Hampshire," as the Universal Biographical Dictionary has it; for _Oldham_ is in _Lancashire_, and the name of Lily's birthplace has sometimes been spelled "_Odiam_." [7] There are other Latin grammars now in use in England; but what one is most popular, or whether any regard is still paid to the ancient edict or not, I cannot say. Dr. Adam, in his preface, dated 1793, speaking of Lily, says: "His Grammar was appointed, by an act _which is still in force_, to be taught in the established schools of England." I have somehow gained the impression, that the act is now totally disregarded.--_G. Brown_. [8] For this there is an obvious reason, or apology, in what his biographer states, as "the humble origin of his Grammar;" and it is such a reason as will go to confirm what I allege. This famous compilation was produced at the request of _two or three young teachers_, who had charge of a _small female school_ in the neighbourhood of the author's residence: and nothing could have been more unexpected to their friend and instructor, than that he, in consequence of this service, should become known the world over, as _Murray the Grammarian_. "In preparing the work, and consenting to the publicaton, he had no expectation that it would be read, except by the school for which it was designed, and two or three other schools conducted by persons who were also his friends."--_Life of L Murray_, p. 250. [9] Grammatici namque auctoritas per se nulla est; quom ex sola doctissimorum oraturum, historicorum, poetarum, et aliorum ideonorum scriptorum observatione, constet ortam esse veram grammaticam. _Multa dicenda forent, si grammatistarum ineptias refellere vellem_: sed nulla est gloria præterire asellos."--DESPAUTERII _Præf. Art. Versif._, fol. iii, 1517. [10] The Latin word for _participle_ is _participium_, which makes _participio_ in the dative or the ablative case; but the Latin word for _partake_ is _participo_, and not "_participio_."--G. BROWN. [11] This sentence is manifestly bad English: either the singular verb "_appears_" should be made plural, or the plural noun "_investigations_" should be made singular.--G. BROWN. [12] "What! a book have _no merit_, and yet be called for at the rate of _sixty thousand copies a year_! What a slander is this upon the public taste! What an insult to the understanding and discrimination of the good people of these United States! According to this reasoning, all the inhabitants of our land must be fools, except one man, and that man is GOOLD BROWN!"--KIRKHAM, _in the Knickerbocker_, Oct. 1837, p. 361. Well may the honest critic expect to be called a slanderer of "the public taste," and an insulter of the nation's "understanding," if both the merit of this vaunted book and the wisdom of its purchasers are to be measured and proved by the author's profits, or the publisher's account of sales! But, possibly, between the intrinsic merit and the market value of some books there may be a difference. Lord Byron, it is said, received from Murray his bookseller, nearly ten dollars a line for the Fourth Canto of Childe Harold, or about as much for every two lines as Milton obtained for the whole of Paradise Lost. Is this the true ratio of the merit of these authors, or of the wisdom of the different ages in which they lived? [13] Kirkham's real opinion of Murray cannot be known from this passage only. How able is that writer who is chargeable with the _greatest want_ of taste and discernment? "In regard to the application of the final pause in reading blank verse, _nothing can betray a greater want of rhetorical taste and philosophical acumen_, than the directions of Mr. Murray."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 145. Kirkham is indeed no judge either of the merits, or of the demerits, of Murray's writings; nor is it probable that this criticism originated with himself. But, since it appears in his name, let him have the credit of it, and of representing the compiler whom he calls "_that able writer_" and "_that eminent philologist_," as an untasteful dunce, and a teacher of _nonsense_: "To say that, unless we 'make every _line_ sensible to the ear,' we mar the melody, and suppress the numbers of the poet, is _all nonsense_."--_Ibid._ See Murray's Grammar, on "Poetical Pauses;" 8vo, p. 260; 12mo, 210. [14] "Now, in these instances, I should be fair game, were it not for the _trifling_ difference, that I happen to present the doctrines and notions of _other writers_, and NOT my own, as stated by my learned censor."--KIRKHAM, _in the Knickerbocker_, Oct. 1837, p. 360. If the instructions above cited are not his own, there is not, within the lids of either book, a penny's worth that is. His fruitful copy-rights are void in law: the "learned censor's" pledge shall guaranty this issue.--G. B. 1838. [15] I am sorry to observe that the gentleman, Phrenologist, as he professes to be, has so little _reverence_ in his crown. He could not read the foregoing suggestion without scoffing at it. Biblical truth is not powerless, though the scornful may refuse its correction.--G. B. 1838. [16] Every schoolboy is familiar with the following lines, and rightly understands the words "_evil_" and "_good_" to be _nouns_, and not _adjectives_. "The _evil_ that men do, lives after them; The _good_ is oft interred with their bones."--SHAKSPEARE. _Julius Cæsar, Act 3: Antony's Funeral Oration over Cæsar's Body._ Kirkham has vehemently censured me for _omitting the brackets_ in which he encloses the words that be supposes to be _understood_ in this couplet. But he forgets two important circumstances: _First_, that I was quoting, not the bard, but the grammatist; _Second_, that a writer uses brackets, to distinguish _his own_ amendments of what he quotes, and not those of an other man. Hence the marks which he has used, would have been _improper_ for me. Their insertion does not make his reading of the passage _good English_, and, consequently, does not avert the point of my criticism. The foregoing Review of Kirkham's Grammar, was published as an extract from my manuscript, by the editors of the Knickerbocker, in their number for June, 1837. Four months afterwards, with friendships changed, they gave, him the "justice" of appearing in their pages, in a long and virulent article against me and my works, representing me, "with emphatic force," as "_a knave, a liar, and a pedant_." The _enmity_ of that effusion I forgave; because I bore him no personal ill-will, and was not selfish enough to quarrel for my own sake. Its _imbecility_ clearly proved, that in this critique there is nothing _with which he could justly find fault_. Perceiving that no point of this argument could be broken, he _changed the ground_, and satisfied himself with despising, upbraiding, and vilifying the writer. Of what _use_ this was, others may judge. This extraordinary grammarian survived the publication of my criticism about ten years, and, it is charitably hoped, died happily; while I have had, for a period somewhat longer, all the benefits which his earnest "_castigation_" was fit to confer. It is not perceived, that what was written before these events, should now be altered or suppressed by reason of them. With his pretended "defence," I shall now concern myself no further than simply to deny one remarkable assertion contained in it; which is this--that I, Goold Brown, "at the funeral of Aaron Ely," in 1830, "praised, and _highly_ praised, this self-same Grammar, and declared it to be 'A GOOD WORK!'"--KIRKHAM, _in the Knickerbocker_, Oct., 1837, p. 362. I treated him always courteously, and, on this solemn occasion, walked with him without disputing on grammar; but, if this statement of his has any reasonable foundation, I know not what it is.--G. B. in 1850. [17] See _Notes to Pope's Dunciad_, Book II, verse 140. [18] A modern namesake of the Doctor's, the _Rev. David Blair_, has the following conception of the _utility_ of these speculations: "To enable children to comprehend the _abstract idea_ that all the words in a language consist but of _nine kinds_, it will be found useful to explain how _savage tribes_ WHO _having no language_, would first invent one, beginning with interjections and nouns, and proceeding from one part of speech to another, as their introduction might successively be called for by necessity or luxury."--_Blair's Pract. Gram., Pref._, p. vii. [19] "Interjections, I _shewed_, or passionate exclamations, were the _first elements_ of speech. Men laboured to communicate their feelings to one another, by those expressive cries and gestures which nature taught them."--_Dr. Hugh Blair's Lectures_, p. 57. [20] "It is certain that the verb was invented before the noun, in all the languages of which a tolerable account has been procured, either in ancient or modern times."--_Dr. Alex. Murray's History of European Languages_, Vol. I, p. 326. [21] The Greek of this passage, together with a translation not very different from the foregoing, is given as a marginal note, in _Harris's Hermes_, Book III, Chap. 3d. [22] The Bible does not say positively that there was no diversity of languages _before the flood_; but, since the life-time of Adam extended fifty-six years into that of Lamech, the father of Noah, and two hundred and forty-three into that of Methuselah, the father of Lamech, with both of whom Noah was contemporary nearly six hundred years, it is scarcely possible that there should have occurred any such diversity, either in Noah's day or before, except from some extraordinary cause. Lord Bacon regarded the multiplication of languages at Babel as a general evil, which had had no parallel but in the curse pronounced after Adam's transgression. When "the language of all the earth" was "confounded," Noah was yet alive, and he is computed to have lived 162 years afterwards; but whether in his day, or at how early a period, "grammar" was thought of, as a remedy for this evil, does not appear. Bacon says, "Concerning speech and words, the consideration of them hath produced the science of grammar. For man still striveth to redintegrate himself in those benedictions, of which, by his fault, he hath been deprived; and as he hath striven against the first general curse by the invention of all other arts, so hath he striven to come forth from _the second general curse, which was the confusion of tongues, by the art of grammar_; whereof the use in a mother tongue is small, in a foreign tongue more, but most in such foreign tongues as have ceased to be vulgar tongues, and are turned only to learned tongues."--See _English Journal of Education_, Vol. viii, p. 444. [23] It should be, "_to all living creatures_;" for each creature had, probably, but one name.--G. Brown. [24] Some recent German authors of note suppose language to have sprung up among men _of itself_, like spontaneous combustion in oiled cotton; and seem to think, that people of strong feelings and acute minds must necessarily or naturally utter their conceptions by words--and even by words both spoken and written. Frederick Von Schlegel, admitting "the _spontaneous origin_ of language generally," and referring speech to its "_original source_--a deep feeling, and a clear discriminating intelligence," adds: "The oldest system of writing _developed itself_ at the same time, and in the same manner, as the spoken language; not wearing at first the symbolic form, which it subsequently assumed in compliance with the necessities of a less civilized people, but composed of certain signs, which, in accordance with the simplest elements of language, actually conveyed the sentiments of the race of men then existing."--_Millington's Translation of Schlegel's �sthetic Works_, p. 455. [25] "Modern Europe owes a principal share of its enlightened and moral state to the restoration of learning: the advantages which have accrued to history, religion, the philosophy of the mind, and the progress of society; the benefits which have resulted from the models of Greek and Roman taste--in short, all that a knowledge of the progress and attainments of man in past ages can bestow on the present, has reached it through the medium of philology."--_Dr. Murray's History of European Languages_, Vol. II, p. 335. [26] "The idea of God is a development from within, and a matter of faith, not an induction from without, and a matter of proof. When Christianity has developed its correlative principles within us, then we find evidences of its truth everywhere; nature is full of them: but we cannot find them before, simply because we have no eye to find them with."--H. N. HUDSON: _Democratic Review, May_, 1845. [27] So far as mind, soul, or spirit, is a subject of natural science, (under whatever name,) it may of course be known naturally. To say to what extent theology may be considered a natural science, or how much knowledge of any kind may have been opened to men otherwise than by words, is not now in point. Dr. Campbell says, "Under the general term [_physiology_] I also comprehend _natural theology_ and _psychology_, which, in my opinion, have been most unnaturally disjoined by philosophers. Spirit, which here comprises only the Supreme Being and the human soul, is surely as much included under the notion of natural object as a body is, and is knowable to the philosopher purely in the same way, by observation and experience."--_Philosophy of Rhetoric_, p. 66. It is quite unnecessary for the teacher of languages to lead his pupils into any speculations on this subject. It is equally foreign to the history of grammar and to the philosophy of rhetoric. [28] "Except ye utter by the tongue words easy to be understood, how shall it be known what is spoken? for ye shall speak into the air. There are, it may be, so many kinds of voices in the world, and none of them is without signification. Therefore, if I know not the meaning of the voice, I shall be unto him that speaketh, a barbarian; and he that speaketh, shall be a barbarian unto me."--_1 Cor._, xiv. 9, 10, 11. "It is impossible that our knowledge of words should outstrip our knowledge of things. It may, and often doth, come short of it. Words may be remembered as sounds, but [they] cannot be understood as signs, whilst we remain unacquainted with the things signified."--_Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric_, p. 160. "Words can excite only ideas already acquired, and if no previous ideas have been formed, they are mere unmeaning sounds."--_Spurzheim on Education_, p. 200. [29] Sheridan the elecutionist makes this distinction: "All that passes in the mind of man, may be reduced to two classes, which I call ideas and emotions. By ideas, I mean all thoughts which rise, and pass in succession in the mind. By emotions, all exertions of the mind in arranging, combining, and separating its ideas; as well as the effects produced on all the mind itself by those ideas; from the more violent agitation of the passions, to the calmer feelings produced by the operation of the intellect and the fancy. In short, thought is the object of the one; internal feeling, of the other. That which serves to express the former, I call the language of ideas; and the latter, the language of emotions. Words are the signs of the one: tones, of the other. Without the use of these two sorts of language, it is impossible to communicate through the ear, all that passes in the mind of man."--_Sheridan's Art of Reading; Blair's Lectures_, p. 333. [30] "Language is _the great instrument_, by which all the faculties of the mind are brought forward, moulded, polished, and exerted."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. xiv. [31] It should be, "_These are_."--G. B. [32] It should be, "_They fitly represent_."--G. B. [33] This is badly expressed; for, according to his own deduction, _each part_ has but _one sign_. It should be, "We express _the several parts by as many several signs_."--G. Brown. [34] It would be better English to say, "the _instruments_ and _the_ signs."--G. Brown. [35] "Good speakers do not pronounce above three syllables in a second of time; and generally only two and a half, taking in the necessary pauses."--_Steele's Melody of Speech_. [36] The same idea is also conveyed in the following sentence from Dr. Campbell: "Whatever regards the analysis of the operations of the mind, _which is quicker than lightning in all her energies_, must in a great measure be abstruse and dark."--_Philosophy of Rhetoric_, p. 289. Yet this philosopher has given it as his opinion, "that we really _think by signs_ as well as speak by them."--_Ib._, p. 284. To reconcile these two positions with each other, we must suppose that thinking by signs, or words, is a process infinitely more rapid than speech. [37] That generalization or abstraction which gives to similar things a common name, is certainly no laborious exercise of intellect; nor does any mind find difficulty in applying such a name to an individual by means of the article. The general sense and the particular are alike easy to the understanding, and I know not whether it is worth while to inquire which is first in order. Dr. Alexander Murray says, "It must be attentively remembered, that all terms run from a general to a particular sense. The work of abstraction, the ascent from individual feelings to classes of these, was finished before terms were invented. Man was silent till he had formed some ideas to communicate; and association of his perceptions soon led him to think and reason in ordinary matters."--_Hist. of European Languages_, Vol. I, p. 94. And, in a note upon this passage, he adds: "This is to be understood of primitive or radical terms. By the assertion that man was silent till he had formed ideas to communicate, is not meant, that any of our species were originally destitute of the natural expressions of feeling or thought. All that it implies, is, that man had been subjected, during an uncertain period of time, to the impressions made on his senses by the material world, before he began to express the natural varieties of these by articulated sounds. * * * * * * Though the abstraction which formed such classes, might be greatly aided or supported by the signs; yet it were absurd to suppose that the sign was invented, till the sense demanded it."--_Ib._, p. 399. [38] Dr. Alexander Murray too, In accounting for the frequent abbreviation of words, seems to suggest the possibility of giving them the celerity of thought: "Contraction is a change which results from a propensity to make the signs _as rapid as the thoughts_ which they express. Harsh combinations soon suffer contraction. Very long words preserve only the principal, that is, the accented part. If a nation accents its words on the last syllable, the preceding ones will often be short, and liable to contraction. If it follow a contrary practice, the terminations are apt to decay."--History of European Languages, Vol. I, p. 172. [39] "We cannot form a distinct idea of any moral or intellectual quality, unless we find some trace of it in ourselves."--_Beattie's Moral Science, Part Second, Natural Theology_, Chap. II, No. 424. [40] "Aristotle tells us that the world is a copy or transcript of those ideas which are in the mind of the first Being, and that those ideas which are in the mind of man, are a transcript of the world. To this we may add, that words are the transcripts of those ideas which are in the mind of man, and that writing or printing _are_ [is] the transcript of words."--_Addison, Spect._, No. 166. [41] Bolingbroke on Retirement and Study, Letters on History, p. 364. [42] See this passage in "The Economy of Human Life," p. 105--a work feigned to be a compend of Chinese maxims, but now generally understood to have been written or compiled by _Robert Dodsley_, an eminent and ingenious bookseller in London. [43] "Those philosophers whose ideas of _being_ and _knowledge_ are derived from body and sensation, have a short method to explain the nature of _Truth_.--It is a _factitious_ thing, made by every man for himself; which comes and goes, just as it is remembered and forgot; which in the order of things makes its appearance _the last_ of all, being not only subsequent to sensible objects, but even to our sensations of them! According to this hypothesis, there are many truths, which have been, and are no longer; others, that will be, and have not been yet; and multitudes, that possibly may never exist at all. But there are other reasoners, who must surely have had very different notions; those, I mean, who represent Truth not as _the last_, but as _the first_ of beings; who call it _immutable, eternal, omnipresent_; attributes that all indicate something more than human."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 403. [44] Of the best method of teaching grammar, I shall discourse in an other chapter. That methods radically different must lend to different results, is no more than every intelligent person will suppose. The formation of just methods of instruction, or true systems of science, is work for those minds which are capable of the most accurate and comprehensive views of the things to be taught. He that is capable of "originating and producing" truth, or true "ideas," if any but the Divine Being is so, has surely no need to be trained into such truth by any factitious scheme of education. In all that he thus originates, he is himself a _Novum Organon_ of knowledge, and capable of teaching others, especially those officious men who would help him with their second-hand authorship, and their paltry catechisms of common-places. I allude here to the fundamental principle of what in some books is called "_The Productive System of Instruction_," and to those schemes of grammar which are professedly founded on it. We are told that, "The _leading principle_ of this system, is that which its name indicates--that the child should be regarded not as a mere recipient of the ideas of others, but as an agent _capable of collecting, and originating, and producing_ most of the ideas which are necessary for its education, when presented with the objects or the facts from which they may be derived."--_Smith's New Gram., Pref., p. 5: Amer. Journal of Education, New Series_, Vol. I, No. 6, Art. 1. It ought to be enough for any teacher, or for any writer, if he finds his readers or his pupils ready _recipients_ of the ideas which he aims to convey. What more they know, they can never owe to him, unless they learn it from him against his will; and what they happen to lack, of understanding or believing him, may very possibly be more his fault than theirs. [45] Lindley Murray, anonymously copying somebody, I know not whom, says: "Words derive their meaning from the consent and practice of those who use them. _There is no necessary connexion between words and ideas_. The association between the sign and the thing signified, is purely arbitrary."--_Octavo Gram._, Vol. i, p. 139. The second assertion here made, is very far from being literally true. However arbitrary may be the use or application of words, their connexion with ideas is so necessary, that they cannot be words without it. Signification, as I shall hereafter prove, is a part of the very essence of a word, the most important element of its nature. And Murray himself says, "The understanding and language have a strict connexion."--_Ib._, Vol. i, p. 356. In this, he changes without amendment the words of Blair: "Logic and rhetoric have here, as in many other cases, a strict connexion."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 120. [46] "The language which is, at present, spoken throughout Great Britain, is neither the ancient primitive speech of the island, nor derived from it; but is altogether of foreign origin. The language of the first inhabitants of our island, beyond doubt, was the Celtic, or Gælic, common to them with Gaul; from which country, it appears, by many circumstances, that Great Britain was peopled. This Celtic tongue, which is said to be very expressive and copious, and is, probably, one of the most ancient languages in the world, obtained once in most of the western regions of Europe. It was the language of Gaul, of Great Britain, of Ireland, and very probably, of Spain also; till, in the course of those revolutions which by means of the conquests, first, of the Romans, and afterwards, of the northern nations, changed the government, speech, and, in a manner, the whole face of Europe, _this tongue was gradually obliterated_; and now subsists only in the mountains of Wales, in the Highlands of Scotland, and among the wild Irish. For the Irish, the Welsh, and the Erse, are no other than different dialects of the same tongue, the ancient Celtic."--_Blair's Rhetoric_, Lect. IX, p. 85. [47] With some writers, the _Celtic_ language is _the Welsh_; as may be seen by the following extract: "By this he requires an Impossibility, since much the greater Part of Mankind can by no means spare 10 or 11 Years of their Lives in learning those dead Languages, to arrive at a perfect Knowledge of their own. But by this Gentleman's way of Arguing, we ought not only to be Masters of _Latin_ and _Greek_, but of _Spanish, Italian, High- Dutch, Low-Dutch, French_, the _Old Saxon, Welsh, Runic, Gothic_, and _Islandic_; since much the greater number of Words of common and general Use are derived from _those Tongues_. Nay, by the same way of Reasoning we may prove, that the _Romans_ and _Greeks_ did not understand their own Tongues, because they were not acquainted with _the Welsh, or ancient Celtic_, there being above 620 radical _Greek_ Words derived from _the Celtic_, and of the Latin a much greater Number."--_Preface to Brightland's Grammar_, p. 5. [48] The author of this specimen, through a solemn and sublime poem in ten books, _generally_ simplified the preterit verb of the second person singular, by omitting the termination _st_ or _est_, whenever his measure did not require the additional syllable. But his tuneless editors have, in many instances, taken the rude liberty both to spoil his versification, and to publish under his name what he did not write. They have given him _bad prosody_, or unutterable _harshness of phraseology_, for the sake of what they conceived to be _grammar_. So _Kirkham_, in copying the foregoing passage, alters it as he will; and alters it _differently_, when he happens to write some part of it twice: as, "That morning, thou, that _slumberedst_ not before, Nor _slept_, great Ocean! _laidst_ thy waves at rest, And _hushed_ thy mighty minstrelsy."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 203. Again: "That morning, thou, that _slumberedst_ not before, Nor _sleptst_, great Ocean, _laidst_ thy waves at rest, And _hush'dst_ thy mighty minstrelsy."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 44. [49] _Camenes_, the _Muses_, whom Horace called _Camænæ_. The former is an English plural from the latter, or from the Latin word _camena_, a muse or song. These lines are copied from Dr. Johnson's History of the English Language; their _orthography_ is, in some respects, _too modern_ for the age to which they are assigned. [50] The Saxon characters being known nowadays to but very few readers, I have thought proper to substitute for them, in the latter specimens of this chapter, the Roman; and, as the old use of colons and periods for the smallest pauses, is liable to mislead a common observer, the punctuation too has here been modernized. [51] Essay on Language, by William S. Cardell, New York, 1825, p. 2. This writer was a great admirer of Horne Tooke, from whom he borrowed many of his notions of grammar, but not this extravagance. Speaking of the words _right_ and _just_, the latter says, "They are applicable only to _man; to whom alone language belongs_, and of whose sensations only words are the representatives."--_Diversions of Purley_, Vol. ii, p. 9. [52] CARDELL: _Both Grammars_, p. 4. [53] "_Quoties dicimus, toties de nobis judicatur_."--Cicero. "As often as we speak, so often are we judged." [54] "Nor had he far to seek for the source of our impropriety in the use of words, when he should reflect that the study of our own language, has never been made a part of the education of our youth. Consequently, the use of words is got wholly by chance, according to the company that we keep, or the books that we read." SHERIDAN'S ELOCUTION, _Introd._, p. viii, dated "July 10, 1762," 2d Amer. Ed. [55] "To Write and Speak correctly, gives a Grace, and gains a favourable Attention to what one has to say: And since 'tis _English_, that an English Gentleman will have constant use of, that is the Language he should chiefly Cultivate, and wherein most care should be taken to polish and perfect his Stile. To speak or write better _Latin_ than _English_, may make a Man be talk'd of, but he would find it more to his purpose to Express himself well in his own Tongue, that he uses every moment, than to have the vain Commendation of others for a very insignificant quality. This I find universally neglected, and no care taken any where to improve Young Men in their own Language, that they may thoroughly understand and be Masters of it. If any one among us have a facility or purity more than ordinary in his Mother Tongue, it is owing to Chance, or his Genius, or any thing, rather than to his Education or any care of his Teacher. To Mind what _English_ his Pupil speaks or writes is below the Dignity of one bred up amongst _Greek_ and _Latin_, though he have but little of them himself. These are the learned Languages fit only for learned Men to meddle with and teach: _English_ is the Language of the illiterate Vulgar."--_Locke, on Education_, p. 339; _Fourth Ed., London_, 1699. [56] A late author, in apologizing for his choice in publishing a grammar without forms of praxis, (that is, without any provision for a stated application of its principles by the learner,) describes the whole business of _Parsing_ as a "dry and uninteresting recapitulation of the disposal of a few parts of speech, and their _often times told_ positions and influence;" urges "the _unimportance_ of parsing, _generally_;" and represents it to be only "a finical and ostentatious parade of practical pedantry."--_Wright's Philosophical Gram._, pp. 224 and 226. It would be no great mistake to imagine, that _this gentleman's system_ of grammar, applied in any way to practice, could not fail to come under this unflattering description; but, to entertain this notion of parsing in general, is as great an error, as that which some writers have adopted on the other hand, of making this exercise their sole process of inculcation, and supposing it may profitably supersede both the usual arrangement of the principles of grammar and the practice of explaining them by definitions. It is asserted in Parkhurst's "English Grammar for Beginners, on the Inductive Method of Instruction," that, "to teach the child a definition at the outset, is beginning at the _wrong end_;" that, "with respect to all that goes under the name of etymology in grammar, it is learned chiefly by practice in parsing, and scarcely at all by the aid of definitions."-- _Preface_, pp. 5 and 6. [57] Hesitation in speech may arise from very different causes. If we do not consider this, our efforts to remove it may make it worse. In most instances, however, it may be overcome by proper treatment, "Stammering," says a late author, "is occasioned by an _over-effort to articulate_; for when the mind of the speaker is so occupied with his subject as not to allow him to reflect upon his defect, he will talk without difficulty. All stammerers can sing, owing to the continuous sound, and the slight manner in which the consonants are touched in singing; so a drunken man can run, though he cannot walk or stand still."--_Gardiner's Music of Nature_, p. 30. "To think rightly, is of knowledge; to speak fluently, is of nature; To read with profit, is of care; but to write aptly, is of practice." _Book of Thoughts_, p. 140. [58] "There is nothing more becoming [to] a _Gentleman_, or more useful in all the occurrences of life, than to be able, on any occasion, to speak well, and to the purpose."--_Locke, on Education_, §171. "But yet, I think I may ask my reader, whether he doth not know a great many, who live upon their estates, and so, with the name, should have the qualities of Gentlemen, who cannot so much as tell a story as they should; much less speak clearly and persuasively in any business. This I think not to be so much their fault, as the fault of their education.--They have been taught _Rhetoric_, but yet never taught how to express themselves handsomely with their tongues or pens in the language they are always to use; as if the names of the figures that embellish the discourses of those who understood the art of speaking, were the very art and skill of speaking well. _This, as all other things of practice, is to be learned, not by a few, or a great many rules given; but by_ EXERCISE _and_ APPLICATION _according to_ GOOD RULES, _or rather_ PATTERNS, _till habits are got, and a facility of doing it well_."--_Ib._, §189. The forms of parsing and correcting which the following work supplies, are "_patterns_," for the performance of these practical "_exercises_;" and _such patterns_ as ought to be implicitly followed, by every one who means to be a ready and correct speaker on these subjects. [59] The principal claimants of "the Inductive Method" of Grammar, are Richard W. Green, Roswell C. Smith, John L. Parkhurst, Dyor H. Sanborn, Bradford Frazee, and, Solomon Barrett, Jr.; a set of writers, differing indeed in their qualifications, but in general not a little deficient in what constitutes an accurate grammarian. [60] William C. Woodbridge edited the Journal, and probably wrote the article, from which the author of "English Grammar on the Productive System" took his "_Preface_." [61] Many other grammars, later than Murray's, have been published, some in England, some in America, and some in both countries; and among these there are, I think, a few in which a little improvement has been made, in the methods prescribed for the exercises of parsing and correcting. In most, however, _nothing of the kind has been attempted_. And, of the formularies which have been given, the best that I have seen, are still miserably defective, and worthy of all the censure that is expressed in the paragraph above; while others, that appear in works not entirely destitute of merit, are absolutely _much worse_ than Murray's, and worthy to condemn to a speedy oblivion the books in which they are printed. In lieu of forms of expression, clear, orderly, accurate, and full; such as a young parser might profitably imitate; such as an experienced one would be sure to approve; what have we? A chaos of half-formed sentences, for the ignorant pupil to flounder in; an infinite abyss of blunders, which a world of criticism could not fully expose! See, for example, the seven pages of parsing, in the neat little book entitled, "A Practical Grammar of the English Language, by the Rev. David Blair: Seventh Edition: London, 1815:" pp. 49 to 57. I cannot consent to quote more than one short paragraph of the miserable jumble which these pages contain. Yet the author is evidently a man of learning, and capable of writing well on some subjects, if not on this. "Bless the Lord, O my soul!" Form: "_Bless_, a verb, (repeat 97); active (repeat 99); active voice (102); _infinitive mood_ (107); _third person, soul being the nominative_ (118); present tense (111); conjugate the verb after the pattern (129); its object is Lord (99)."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 50. Of the paragraphs referred to, I must take some notice: "107. The _imperative_ mood commands or orders or intreats."--_Ib._, p. 19. "118. The _second person_ is always the pronoun _thou_ or _you_ in the singular, and _ye_ or _you_ in the plural."--_Ib._, p. 21. "111. The _imperative_ mood has no distinction of tense: and the _infinitive_ has no distinction of persons."--_Ib._, p. 20. Now the author should have said: "_Bless_ is a redundant active-transitive verb, from _bless, blessed_ or _blest, blessing, blessed_ or _blest_; found in the _imperative_ mood, present tense, _second_ person, and singular number:" and, if he meant to parse the word _syntactically_, he should have added: "and agrees with its nominative _thou_ understood; according to the rule which says, 'Every finite verb must agree with its subject or nominative, in person and number.' Because the meaning is--_Bless thou_ the Lord." This is the whole story. But, in the form above, several things are false; many, superfluous; some, deficient; several, misplaced; nothing, right. Not much better are the models furnished by _Kirkham, Smith, Lennie, Bullions_, and other late authors. [62] Of Dr. Bullions's forms of parsing, as exhibited in his English Grammar, which is a modification of Lennie's Grammar, it is difficult to say, whether they are most remarkable for their deficiencies, their redundancies, or their contrariety to other teachings of the same author or authors. Both Lennie and Bullions adopt the rule, that, "An _ellipsis_ is _not allowable_ when it would obscure the sentence, weaken its force, or be attended with an impropriety."--_L._, p. 91; _B._, p. 130. And the latter strengthens this doctrine with several additional observations, the first of which reads thus: "In general, _no word should be omitted_ that is necessary to the _full and correct construction_, or even _harmony_ of a sentence."--_Bullions, E. Gr._, 130. Now the parsing above alluded to, has been thought particularly commendable for its _brevity_--a quality certainly desirable, so far as it consists with the end of parsing, or with the more needful properties of a good style, clearness, accuracy, ease, and elegance. But, if the foregoing rule and observation are true, the models furnished by these writers are not commendably brief, but miserably defective. Their brevity is, in fact, such as renders them all _bad English_; and not only so, it makes them obviously inadequate to their purpose, as bringing into use but a part of the principles which the learner had studied. It consists only in the omission of what ought to have been inserted. For example, this short line, "_I lean upon the Lord_," is parsed by both of these gentlemen thus: "_I, the first personal_ pronoun, masculine, or feminine, singular, _the_ nominative--_lean_, a verb, _neuter_, first person singular, present, indicative--_upon_, a preposition--_the_, an article, the definite--_Lord_, a noun, masculine, singular, the objective, (governed by _upon_.)"--_Lennie's Principles of English Gram._, p. 51; _Bullions's_, 74. This is a little sample of their etymological parsing, in which exercise they generally omit not only all the definitions or "reasons" of the various terms applied, but also all the following particulars: first, the verb _is_, and certain _definitives_ and _connectives_, which are "necessary to the full and correct construction" of their sentences; secondly, the distinction of nouns as _proper_ or _common_; thirdly, the _person_ of nouns, _first, second_, or _third_; fourthly, the words, _number, gender_, and _case_, which are necessary to the sense and construction of certain words used; fifthly, the distinction of adjectives as belonging to _different classes_; sixthly, the division of verbs as being _regular_ or _irregular, redundant_ or _defective_; seventhly, sometimes, (Lennie excepted,) the division of verbs as _active, passive_, or _neuter_; eighthly, the words _mood_ and _tense_, which Bullions, on page 131, pronounces "quite unnecessary," and inserts in his own formule on page 132; ninthly, the distinction of adverbs as expressing _time, place, degree_, or _manner_; tenthly, the distinction of conjunctions as _copulative_ or disjunctive; lastly, the distinction of interjections as indicating _different emotions_. All these things does their completest specimen of etymological parsing lack, while it is grossly encumbered with parentheses of syntax, which "_must be omitted_ till the pupil get the _rules_ of syntax."--Lennie, p. 51. It is also vitiated with several absurdities, contradictions, and improper changes of expression: as, "_His, the third personal pronoun_;" (B., p. 23;)--"_me, the first personal pronoun_;" (_Id._, 74;)--"_A_, The indefinite article;" (_Id._, 73;)--"_a_, an article, the indefinite;" (_Id._, 74;)--"When the _verb is passive_, parse thus: '_A verb active_, in the passive voice, _regular, irregular_,' &c."--_Bullions_, p. 131. In stead of teaching sufficiently, as elements of etymological parsing, the definitions which belong to this exercise, and then dismissing them for the principles of syntax, Dr. Bullions encumbers his method of syntactical parsing with such a series of etymological questions and answers as cannot but make it one of the slowest, longest, and most tiresome ever invented. He thinks that the pupil, after parsing any word syntactically, "_should be requested to assign a reason for every thing contained in his statement!_"--_Principles of E. Grammar_, p. 131. And the teacher is to ask questions as numerous as the reasons! Such is the parsing of a text-book which has been pronounced "superior to any other, for use in our common schools"--"a _complete_ grammar of the language, and _available for every purpose_ for which Mr. Brown's can possibly be used."--_Ralph K. Finch's Report_, p, 12. [63] There are many other critics, besides Murray and Alger, who seem not to have observed the import of _after_ and _before_ in connexion with the tenses. Dr. Bullions, on page 139th of his English Grammar, copied the foregoing example from Lennie, who took it from Murray. Even Richard Hiley, and William Harvey Wells, grammarians of more than ordinary tact, have been obviously misled by the false criticism above cited. One of Hiley's Rules of Syntax, with its illustration, stands thus: "In _the use of the different tenses_, we must particularly _observe to use that tense_ which clearly and properly conveys the sense intended; thus, instead of saying, 'After I _visited_ Europe, I returned to America;' we should say, 'After I _had visited_ Europe, I returned to America."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 90. Upon this he thought it needful to comment thus: "'After I _visited_ Europe, I returned to America;' _this sentence is incorrect_; _visited_ ought to be _had visited_, because the action _implied_ by the verb _visited_ WAS COMPLETED _before_ the other past action _returned_."--_Ib._, p. 91. See nearly the same thing in _Wells's School Grammar, 1st Edition_, p. 151; but his later editions are wisely altered. Since "_visited_ and _was completed_" are of the same tense, the argument from the latter, if it proves any thing, proves the former to be _right_, and the proposed change needless, or perhaps worse than needless. "I _visited_ Europe _before_ I _returned_ to America," or, "I _visited_ Europe, _and afterwards returned_ to America," is good English, and not to be improved by any change of tense; yet here too we see the _visiting_ "_was completed before_" the return, or HAD BEEN COMPLETED _at the time_ of the return. I say, "The Pluperfect Tense is that which expresses what _had taken_ place _at_ some past time mentioned: as, 'I _had seen_ him, _when_ I met you.'" Murray says, "The Pluperfect Tense represents a _thing_ not only as past, but also as prior to some _other point of time_ specified in the sentence: as, I _had finished_ my letter _before_ he arrived." Hiley says, "The _Past-Perfect_ expresses an action or event which _was past before_ some _other past action or event_ mentioned in the sentence, _and to which_ it refers; as, I _had finished_ my lessons _before_ he came." With this, Wells appears to concur, his example being similar. It seems to me, that these last two definitions, and their example too, are bad; because by the help of _before_ or _after_, "_the past before the past_" _may_ be clearly expressed by the _simple past tense_: as, "I _finished_ my letter _before_ he _arrived_."--"I _finished_ my lessons _before_ he _came_." "He _arrived_ soon _after_ I _finished_ the letter."--"Soon _after_ it _was completed_, he _came in_." [64] Samuel Kirkham, whose grammar is briefly described in the third chapter of this introduction, boldly lays the blame of all his philological faults, upon our noble _language itself_; and even conceives, that a well-written and faultless grammar cannot be a good one, because it will not accord with that reasonless jumble which he takes every existing language to be! How diligently he laboured to perfect his work, and with what zeal for truth and accuracy, may be guessed from the following citation: "The truth is, after all _which_ can be done to render the definitions and rules of grammar comprehensive and accurate, they will still be found, when critically examined by men of learning and science, _more_ or _less_ exceptionable. _These exceptions and imperfections_ are the unavoidable consequence of the _imperfections of the language_. Language as well as every thing else _of human invention_, will always be _imperfect_. Consequently, a perfect system of grammatical principles, _would not suit it_. A perfect grammar will not be produced, until some perfect being writes it for a perfect language; and a perfect language will not be constructed, until _some super-human agency_ is employed in its production. All grammatical principles and systems which are not _perfect_ are _exceptionable_."--_Kirkham's Grammar_, p. 66. The unplausible sophistry of these strange remarks, and the palliation they afford to the multitudinous defects of the book which contains them, may be left, without further comment, to the judgement of the reader. [65] The phrase _complex ideas_, or _compound ideas_, has been used for the notions which we have of things consisting of different parts, or having various properties, so as to embrace some sort of plurality: thus our ideas of _all bodies_ and _classes of things_ are said to be complex or compound. _Simple ideas_ are those in which the mind discovers no parts or plurality: such are the ideas of _heat, cold, blueness, redness, pleasure, pain, volition_, &c. But some writers have contended, that the _composition of ideas_ is a fiction; and that all the complexity, in any case, consists only in the use of a _general term_ in lieu of many particular ones. Locke is on one side of this debate, Horne Tooke, on the other. [66] Dilworth appears to have had a true _idea_ of the thing, but he does not express it as a definition; "Q. Is _an_ Unit of one, a Number? A. _An_ Unit is a number, _because it may properly answer the question how many!_"--_Schoolmaster's Assistant_, p. 2. A number in arithmetic, and a number in grammar, are totally different things. The _plural_ number, as _men_ or _horses_, does not tell _how many_; nor does the word _singular_ mean _one_, as the author of a recent grammar says it does. The _plural_ number is _one_ number, but it is not _the singular_. "The _Productive System_" teaches thus: "What does the word _singular_ mean? It means _one_."--Smith's New Gram., p. 7. [67] It is truly astonishing that so great a majority of our grammarians could have been so blindly misled, as they have been, in this matter; and the more so, because a very good definition of a Letter was both published and republished, about the time at which Lowth's first appeared: viz., "What is a letter? A Letter is the Sign, Mark, or Character of a simple or uncompounded Sound. Are Letters Sounds? No. Letters are only the Signs or Symbols of Sounds, not the Sounds themselves."--_The British Grammar_, p. 3. See the very same words on the second page of _Buchanan's "English Syntax_," a work which was published as early as 1767. [68] In Murray's octavo Grammar, this word is _the_ in the first chapter, and _their_ in the second; in the duodecimo, it is _their_ in both places. [69] "The _definitions_ and the _rules_ throughout the Grammar, are expressed with neatness and perspicuity. They are as short and comprehensive as the nature of the subject would admit: and they are well adapted both to the understanding and the memory of young persons."--_Life of L. Murray_, p. 245. "It may truly be said that the language in every part of the work, is simple, correct, and perspicuous."--_Ib._, p. 246. [70] For this definition, see _Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 40; _Duodecimo_, 41; _Smaller Gram._, 18; _Alger's_, 18; _Bacon's_, 15; _Frost's_, 8, _Ingersoll's_, 17; _A Teacher's_, 8; _Maltby's_, 14; _T. H. Miller's_, 20; _Pond's_, 18; _S. Putnam's_, 15; _Russell's_, 11; _Merchant's Murray_, 25; and _Worcester's Univ. and Crit. Dictionary_. Many other grammarians have attempted to define number; with what success a few examples will show: (1.) "Number is the distinction of one from many."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 40; _Merchant's School Gram._, 28; _Greenleaf's_, 22; _Nutting's_, 17; _Picket's_, 19; _D. Adams's_, 31. (2.) "Number is the distinction of one from more."--_Fisher's Gram._, 51; _Alden's_, 7. (3.) "Number is the distinction of one from several or many."--_Coar's Gram._, p. 24. (4.) "Number is the distinction of one from more than one."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 24; _J. Flint's_, 27; _Wells's, 52_. (5.) "Number is the distinction of one from more than one, or many."--_Grant's Latin Gram._, p. 7. (6.) "What is number? Number is the Distinction of one, from two, or many."--_British Gram._, p. 89; _Buchanan's_, 16. (7.) "You inquire, 'What is number?' Merely this: _the distinction_ of one from two, or many. Greek substantives have _three_ numbers."--_Bucke's Classical Gram._, p. 38. All these authors say, that, in English, "there are _two numbers_, the singular and the plural." According to their explanations, then, we have _two "distinctions of one from two, several, more, or many;"_ and the Greeks, by adding a dual number, have _three_! Which, then, of the two or three modifications or forms, do they mean, when they say, "Number is _the distinction_" &c.? Or, if none of them, _what else_ is meant? All these definitions had their origin in an old Latin one, which, although it is somewhat better, makes doubtful logic in its application: "NUMERUS est, unius et multorum distinctio. Numeri _igitur_ sunt _duo_; Singularis et Pluralis."-- _Ruddiman's Gram._, p. 21. This means: (8.) "Number is a distinction of one and many. The numbers _therefore_ are _two_; the Singular and the Plural." But we have yet other examples: as, (9.) "Number is the distinction of _objects_, as one or more."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 39. "The _distinction_ of _objects_ as _one_," is very much like "_the consideration_ of _an object_ as _more than one_." (10.) "Number distinguishes _objects_ as _one_ or more."--_Cooper's Murray_, p. 21; _Practical Gram._, p. 18. That is, number makes the plural to be either plural or singular for distinction's sake! (11.) "Number is the distinction of _nouns_ with regard to the _objects_ signified, _as one_ or more."--_Fisk's Murray_, p. 19. Here, too, number has "regard" to the same confusion: while, by a gross error, its "distinction" is confined to "_nouns_" only! (12.) "Number is _that property_ of a _noun_ by which it expresses _one_ or _more_ than one."--_Bullions's E. Gram._, p. 12; _Analyt. Gram._, 25. Here again number is improperly limited to "_a noun_;" and is said to be one sign of two, or either of two, incompatible ideas! (13.) "Number shows _how many_ are meant, whether one or more."--_Smith's new Gram._, p. 45. This is not a _definition_, but a false assertion, in which Smith again confounds arithmetic with grammar! _Wheat_ and _oats_ are of different numbers; but neither of these numbers "means _a sum that may be counted_," or really "shows _how many_ are meant." So of "_Man_ in general, _Horses_ in general, &c."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 77. (14.) "Number is _the difference_ in a _noun or pronoun_, to denote either a single thing or more than one."--_Davenport's Gram._, p. 14. This excludes the numbers of a _verb_, and makes the singular and the plural to be essentially one thing. (15.) "Number is a modification of nouns and verbs, &c. according as the thing spoken of is represented, as, _one_ or _more_, with regard to number."--_Burn's Gram._, p. 32. This also has many faults, which I leave to the discernment of the reader. (16.) "What is number? Number _shows the distinction_ of one from many."--_Wilcox's Gram._, p. 6. This is no answer to the question asked; besides, it is obviously worse than the first form, which has "_is_," for "_shows_." (17.) "What is Number? It is _the_ representation of _objects_ with respect to singleness, or plurality." --_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 34. If there are two numbers, they are neither of them properly described in this definition, or in any of the preceding ones. There is a gross misconception, in taking each or either of them to be an alternate representation of two incompatible ideas. And this sort of error is far from being confined to the present subject; it runs through a vast number of the various definitions contained in our grammars. (18.) "_Number_ is _the inflection_ of a _noun_, to indicate _one object or more than one_. Or, _Number_ is _the expression_ of unity or of more than unity."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 14. How hard this author laboured to _think what number is_, and could not! (19.) "Number is the distinction of _unity and plurality_."--_Hart's E. Gram._, p. 40, Why say, "_distinction_;" the numbers, or _distinctions_, being two? (20.) "Number is _the capacity of nouns_ to represent either one or more than one object."--_Barrett's Revised Gram._, p. 40. (21.) "Number is _a property_ of _the noun which_ denotes _one_ or _more_ than one."--_Weld's Gram._, 2d Ed., p. 55. (22.) "Number is _a property_ of the _noun or pronoun_ [,] _by which it_ denotes _one, or more_ than one."--_Weld's Gram., Abridged Ed._, p. 49. (23.) "Number is _the property_ that distinguishes _one from more_ than one."--_Weld's Gram., Improved Ed._, p. 60. This, of course, excludes the plural. (24.) "Number is _a modification of nouns_ to denote whether one object is meant, or more than one."--_Butler's Gram._, p. 19. (25.) "Number is _that modification_ of the _Noun_ which distinguishes one from more than one."--_Spencer's Gram._, p. 26. Now, it is plain, that not one of these twenty-five definitions comports with the idea that the singular is one number and the plural an other! Not one of them exhibits any tolerable approach to accuracy, either of thought or of expression! Many of the grammarians have not attempted any definition of _number_, or of _the numbers_, though they speak of both the singular and the plural, and perhaps sometimes apply the term _number_ to _the distinction_ which is _in each_: for it is the property of the singular number, to distinguish unity from plurality: and of the plural, to distinguish plurality from unity. Among the authors who are thus silent, are Lily, Colet, Brightland, Harris, Lowth, Ash, Priestly, Bicknell, Adam, Gould, Harrison, Comly, Jaudon, Webster, Webber, Churchill, Staniford, Lennie, Dalton, Blair, Cobbett, Cobb, A. Flint, Felch, Guy, Hall, and S. W. Clark. Adam and Gould, however, in explaining the properties of _verbs_, say: "_Number_ marks _how many_ we suppose to be, to act, or to suffer."--_A._, 80; _G._, 78. [71] These are the parts of speech in some late grammars; as, Barrett's, of 1854, Butler's, Covell's, Day's, Frazee's, Fowle's New, Spear's, Weld's, Wells's, and the Well-wishers'. In Frost's Practical Grammar, the words of the language are said to be "divided into _eight_ classes," and the names are given thus: "_Noun, Article, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, and Interjection_."--P. 29. But the author afterwards treats of the _Adjective_, between the _Article_ and the _Pronoun_, just as if he had forgotten to name it, and could not count nine with accuracy! In Perley's Grammar, the parts of speech are a different eight: namely, "_Nouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, Interjections_, and _Particles_!"--P. 8. S. W. Clark has Priestley's classes, but calls Interjections "Exclamations." [72] Felton, who is confessedly a modifier of Murray, claims as a merit, "_the rejection of several useless parts of speech_" yet acknowledges "_nine_," and treats of _ten_; "viz., _Nouns, Pronouns, Verbs, Participles, Prepositions, Adjectives_, [Articles,] _Adverbs, Conjunctions, Exclamations_."--_O. C. Felton's Gram._ p. 5, and p. 9. [73] Quintilian is at fault here; for, in some of his writings, if not generally, Aristotle recognized _four_ parts of speech; namely, verbs, nouns, conjunctions, and articles. See _Aristot. de Poetica_, Cap. xx. [74] "As there are ten different characters or figures in arithmetic to represent all possible quantities, there are also ten kinds of words or parts of speech to represent all possible sentences: viz.: article, noun, adjective, pronoun, verb, participle, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection."--_Chauvier's Punctuation_, p. 104. [75] _The Friend_, 1829, Vol. ii, p. 117. [76] _The Friend_, Vol. ii, p. 105. [77] See the Preface to my Compendious English Grammar in the American editions of _the Treasury of Knowledge_, Vol. i, p. 8. [78] Some say that Brightland himself was the writer of this grammar; but to suppose him the sole author, hardly comports with its dedication to the Queen, by her "most Obedient and Dutiful _Subjects_, the _Authors_;" or with the manner in which these are spoken of, in the following lines, by the laureate: "Then say what Thanks, what Praises must attend _The Gen'rous Wits_, who thus could condescend! Skill, that to Art's sublimest Orb can reach, Employ'd its humble Elements to Teach! Yet worthily Esteem'd, because we know To raise _Their_ Country's Fame _they_ stoop'd so low."--TATE. [79] Dr. Campbell, in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, page 158th, makes a difficulty respecting the meaning of this passage: cites it as an instance of the misapplication of the term _grammar_; and supposes the writer's notion of the thing to have been, "of grammar in the abstract, _an_ universal archetype by which the particular grammars of all different tongues ought to be regulated." And adds, "If this was his meaning, I cannot say whether he is in the right or in the wrong, in this accusation. I acknowledge myself to be entirely ignorant of this ideal grammar." It would be more fair to suppose that Dr. Swift meant by "_grammar_" the rules and principles according to which the English language ought to be spoken and written; and, (as I shall hereafter show,) it is no great hyperbole to affirm, that every part of the code--nay, well-nigh every one of these rules and principles--is, in many instances, violated, if not by what may be called _the language itself_, at least by those speakers and writers who are under the strongest obligations to know and observe its true use. [80] The phrase "_of any_" is here erroneous. These words ought to have been omitted; or the author should have said--"the least valuable of _all_ his productions." [81] This word _latter_ should have been _last_; for _three_ works are here spoken of. [82] With this opinion concurred the learned James White, author of a Grammatical Essay on the English Verb, an octavo volume of more than three hundred pages, published in London in 1761. This author says, "Our Essays towards forming an English Grammar, have not been very many: from the reign of Queen Elizabeth, to that of Queen Ann, there are but Two that the author of the Present knows of: one in English by the renown'd Ben Jonson, and one in Latin by the learn'd Dr. Wallis. In the reign of Queen Ann indeed, there seems to have arisen a noble Spirit of ingenious Emulation in this Literary way: and to this we owe the treatises compos'd at that period for the use of schools, by Brightland, Greenwood, and Maittaire. But, since that time, nothing hath appear'd, that hath come to this Essayist's knowledge, deserving _to be taken any notice of_ as tending to illustrate our Language by ascertaining the Grammar of it; except Anselm Bayly's Introduction to Languages, Johnson's Grammar prefix'd to the Abridgement of his Dictionary, and the late Dr. Ward's Essays upon the English Language.--These are all the Treatises he hath met with, relative to this subject; all which he hath perus'd _very_ attentively, and made the best use of them in his power. But notwithstanding all these aids, something still remains to be done, at least it so appears to him, _preparatory to attempting with success the Grammar of our Language_. All our efforts of this kind seem to have been render'd ineffectual hitherto, chiefly by the prevaliency of two false notions: one of which is, that our Verbs have no Moods; and the other, that our Language hath no Syntax."--_White's English Verb_, p. viii. [83] A similar doctrine, however, is taught by no less an author than "the Rev. Alexander Crombie, LL. D.," who says, in the first paragraph of his introduction, "LANGUAGE consists of intelligible signs, and is the medium, by which _the mind_ communicates _its thoughts_. It is either articulate, or inarticulate; artificial, or natural. The former is peculiar to man; the latter is _common to all animals_. By inarticulate language, we mean those instinctive cries, by which the several tribes of inferior creatures are enabled to express their sensations and desires. By articulate language is understood a system of expression, composed of simple _sounds_, differently modified by the organs of speech, and variously combined."--_Treatise on the Etymology and Syntax of the English Language_, p. 1. See the same doctrine also in _Hiley's Gram._, p. 141. The language which "is _common to all animals_," can be no other than that in which �sop's wolves and weasels, goats and grasshoppers, talked--a language quite too unreal for _grammar_. On the other hand, that which is composed of _sounds_ only, and not of letters, includes but a mere fraction of the science. [84] The pronoun _whom_ is not properly applicable to beasts, unless they are _personified_: the relative _which_ would therefore, perhaps, have been preferable here, though _whom_ has a better sound.--G. B. [85] "The great difference between men and brutes, in the utterance of sound by the mouth, consists in the power of _articulation_ in man, and the entire want of it in brutes."--_Webster's Improved Gram._, p. 8. [86] Strictly speaking, an _articulate sound_ is not a simple element of speech, but rather a complex one, whether syllable or word; for _articulate_ literally means _jointed_. But our grammarians in general, have applied the term to the sound of a letter, a syllable, or a word, indiscriminately: for which reason, it seems not very suitable to be used alone in describing any of the three. Sheridan says, "The essence of a syllable consists in _articulation only_, for every _articulate sound_ of course forms a syllable."--_Lectures on Elocution_, p. 62. If he is right in this, not many of our letters--or, perhaps more properly, none of them--can singly represent articulate sounds. The looseness of this term induces me to add or prefer an other. "The Rev. W. Allen," who comes as near as any of our grammarians, to the true definition of a _letter_, says: 1. "The sounds used in language are called _articulate sounds_." 2. "A letter is a character used in printing or writing, to represent an _articulate_ sound."--_Allen's Elements of E. Gram._, p. 2. Dr. Adam says: 1. "A letter is the mark of _a sound_, or of _an articulation of_ sound." 2. "A vowel is properly called a _simple sound_; and the sounds formed by the concourse of vowels and consonants, _articulate sounds_."--_Latin and English Gram._, pp. 1 and 2. [87] Of this sort of blunder, the following false definition is an instance: "A _Vowel_ is a letter, _the name of which_ makes a full open sound."--_Lennie's Gram._, p. 5; _Brace's_, 7; _Hazen's_, 10. All this is just as true of a consonant as of a vowel. The comma too, used in this sentence, defeats even the sense which the writers intended. It is surely no description either of a vowel or of a consonant, to say, that it is a letter, and that the name of a letter makes a full open sound. Again, a late grammarian teaches, that the names of all the letters are nothing but _Roman capitals_, and then seems to inquire which of _these names_ are _vowels_, thus: "_Q_. How many letters are in the alphabet? _A_. Twenty-six. _Q_. What are their names? _A_. A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z. _Q_. Which of _these_ are called _Vowels_?"--_Fowle's Common School Gram., Part First_, p. 7. If my worthy friend Fowle had known or considered _what are the names_ of the letters in English, he might have made a better beginning to his grammar than this. [88] By the colloquial phrase, "to a Tee" we mean, "to a _nicety_, to a _tittle_, a _jot_, an _iota_. Had the British poet Cawthorn, himself a noted schoolmaster, known how to write the name of "T," he would probably have preferred it in the following couplet: "And swore by Varro's shade that he Conceived the medal to a T."--_British Poets_, Vol. VII, p. 65. Here the name would certainly be much fitter than the letter, because the text does not in reality speak of the letter. With the names of the Greek letters, the author was better acquainted; the same poem exhibits two of them, where the characters themselves are spoken of: "My eye can trace divinely true, In this dark curve a little Mu; And here, you see, there _seems_ to lie The ruins of a Doric Xi."--_Ibidem_. The critical reader will see that "_seems_" should be _seem_, to agree with its nominative "_ruins_." [89] Lily, reckoning without the H, J, or V, speaks of the Latin letters as "_twenty-two_;" but _says nothing_ concerning their names. Ruddiman, Adam, Grant, Gould, and others, who include the H, J, and V, rightly state the number to be "_twenty-five_;" but, concerning their names, are likewise _entirely silent_. Andrews and Stoddard, not admitting the K, teach thus: "The letters of the Latin language are _twenty-four_. They _have the same names_ as the corresponding characters in English."--_Andrews and Stoddard's Latin Gram._, p. 1. A later author speaks thus: "The Latin Alphabet consists of _twenty-five_ letters, _the same in name_ and form as the English, but without the _w_."--_Bullions's Latin Gram._, p. 1. It would probably be nearer to the truth, to say, "The Latin Alphabet, _like the French_, has no W; it consists of twenty-five letters, which are _the same in name_ and form _as the French_." Will it be pretended that the French names and the English do not differ? [90] The Scotch _Iz_ and the Craven _Izzet_, if still in use anywhere, are names strictly local, not properly English, nor likely to spread. "IZZET, the letter Z. This is probably the corruption of _izzard_, the old and common name for the letter, though I know not, says _Nares_, on what authority."--_Glossary of Craven, w. Izzet._ "_Z z, zed_, more commonly called _izzard_ or _uzzard_, that is, _s hard_."--_Dr. Johnson's Gram._, p. 1. "And how she sooth'd me when with study sad I labour'd on to reach the final Zad."--_Crabbe's Borough_, p. 228. [91] William Bolles, in his new Dictionary, says of the letter Z: "Its sound is uniformly that of a _hard_ S." The _name_, however, he pronounces as I do; though he writes it not _Zee_ but zé; giving not the _orthography_ of the name, as he should have done, but a mere index of its pronunciation. Walker proves by citations from Professor Ward and Dr. Wallis, that these authors considered the _sharp_ or _hissing_ sound of _s_ the "_hard_" sound; and the _flat_ sound, like that of _z_, its "_soft_" sound. See his _Dictionary_, 8vo, p. 53. [92] Dr. Webster died in 1843. Most of this work was written while he was yet in vigour. [93] This old definition _John L. Parkhurst_ disputes:--says it "is _ambiguous_;"--questions whether it means, "that the _name_ of such a letter, or the _simple sound_," requires a vowel! "If the latter," says he, "_the assertion is false._ The simple sounds, represented by the consonants, can be uttered separately, distinctly, and perfectly. It can be done with the _utmost ease_, even by a little child."--_Parkhurst's Inductive Gram. for Beginners_, p. 164. He must be one of these modern philosophers who delight to _make mouths_ of these voiceless elements, to show how much may be done without sound from the larynx. [94] This test of what is, or is not, a vowel sound or a consonant sound, is often appealed to, and is generally admitted to be a just one. Errors in the application of _an_ or _a_ are not unfrequent, but they do not affect the argument. It cannot be denied, that it is proper to use _a_, and not proper to use _an_, before the initial sound of _w_ or _y_ with a vowel following. And this rule holds good, whether the sound be expressed by these particular letters, or by others; as in the phrases, "_a wonder, a one, a yew, a use, a ewer, a humour, a yielding temper_." But I have heard it contended, that these are vowel sounds, notwithstanding they require _a_; and that the _w_ and _y_ are always vowels, because even a vowel sound (it was said) requires _a_ and not _an_, whenever an other vowel sound immediately follows it. Of this notion, the following examples are a sufficient refutation: _an aëronaut, an aërial tour, an oeiliad, an eyewink, an eyas, an iambus, an oäsis, an o'ersight, an oil, an oyster, an owl, an ounce_. The initial sound of _yielding_ requires _a_, and not _an_; but those who call the _y_ a vowel, say, it is equivalent to the unaccented long _e_. This does not seem to me to be exactly true; because the latter sound requires _an_, and not _a_; as, "Athens, as well as Thebes, had _an Eëtion_." [95] Dr. Rush, in his Philosophy of the Human Voice, has exhibited some acuteness of observation, and has written with commendable originality. But his accuracy is certainly not greater than his confidence. On page 57th, he says, "The _m, n_, and _ng_, are _purely nasal_;" on page 401st, "Some of the tonic elements, and one of the subtonics, are made _by the assistance of the lips_; they are _o_-we, _oo_-ze, _ou_-r, and _m_." Of the intrinsic value of his work, I am not prepared or inclined to offer any opinion; I criticise him only so far as he strikes at grammatical principles long established, and worthy still to be maintained. [96] Dr. Comstock, by ¸enumerating as elementary the sound of the diphthong _ou_, as in _our_, and the complex power of _wh_, as in _what_, (which sounds ought not to be so reckoned,) makes the whole number of vocal elements in English to be "_thirty-eight_." See _Comstock's Elocution_, p. 19. [97] This word is commonly heard in two syllables, _yune'yun_; but if Walker is right in making it three, _yu'ne-un_, the sound of _y_ consonant is heard in it but once. Worcester's notation is "_y=un'yun_." The long sound of _u_ is _yu_; hence Walker calls the letter, when thus sounded, a "semi-consonant diphthong." [98] Children ought to be accustomed to speak loud, and to pronounce all possible sounds and articulations, even those of such foreign languages as they will be obliged to learn; for almost every language has its particular sounds which we pronounce with difficulty, if we have not been early accustomed to them. Accordingly, nations who have the greatest number of sounds in their speech, learn the most easily to pronounce foreign languages, since they know their articulations by having met with similar sounds in their own language."--_Spurzheim, on Education_, p. 159. [99] If it be admitted that the two semivowels _l_ and _n_ have vocality enough of their own to form a very feeble syllable, it will prove only that there are these exceptions to an important general rule. If the name of _Haydn_ rhymes with _maiden_, it makes one exception to the rule of writing; but it is no part of the English language. The obscure sound of which I speak, is sometimes improperly confounded with that of short _u_; thus a recent writer, who professes great skill in respect to such matters, says, "One of the most common sounds in our language is that of the vowel _u_, as in the word _urn_, or as the diphthong _ea_ in the word _earth_, for which we have no character. Writers have made various efforts to express it, as in _earth, berth, mirth, worth, turf_, in which all the vowels are indiscriminately used in turn. [Fist] _This defect has led_ to the absurd method of placing the vowel after the consonants, instead of between them, when a word _terminates with this sound_; as in the following, _Bible, pure, centre, circle_, instead of _Bibel, puer, center, cirkel_."--_Gardiner's Music of Nature_, p. 498. "It would be a great step towards perfection to spell our words as they are pronounced!"--_Ibid._, p. 499. How often do the reformers of language multiply the irregularities of which they complain! [100] "The number of simple sounds in our tongue is twenty-eight, 9 Vowels and 19 Consonants. _H_ is no letter, but merely a mark of aspiration."--_Jones's Prosodial Gram. before his Dict._, p. 14. "The number of simple vowel and consonant sounds in our tongue is twenty-eight, and one pure aspiration _h_, making in all twenty-nine."--_Bolles's Octavo Dict._, Introd., p. 9. "The number of _letters_ in the English language is twenty-six; but the number of _elements_ is thirty-eight."--_Comstock's Elocution_, p. 18. "There are thirty-eight elements in the English alphabet, and to represent those elements by appropriate characters, we should have thirty-eight letters. There is, then, a deficiency in our alphabet of twelve letters--and he who shall supply this imperfection, will be one of the greatest benefactors of the human race."--_Ib._, p. 19. "Our alphabet is both redundant and defective. _C, q_, and _z_, are respectively represented by _k_ or _s, k_, and _ks_, or _gz_; and the remaining twenty-three letters are employed to represent _forty-one_ elementary sounds."--_Wells's School Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 36. "The simple sounds were in no wise to be reckoned of any certain number: by the first men they were determined to no more than ten, as spine suppose; as others, fifteen or twenty; it is however certain that mankind in general never exceed _twenty_ simple sounds; and of these only five are reckoned strictly such."--_Bicknell's Grammar_, Part ii, p. 4. [101] "When these sounds are openly pronounced, they produce the familiar assent _ay_: which, by the old English dramatic writers, was often expressed by _I_."--_Walker_. We still hear it so among the vulgar; as, "_I, I_, sir, presently!" for "_Ay, ay_, sir, presently!" Shakspeare wrote, "To sleepe, perchance to dreame; _I_, there's the rub." --_Bucke's Classical Gram._, p. 143. [102] Walker pronounces _yew_ and _you_ precisely alike, "_yoo_;" but, certainly, _ew_ is not commonly equivalent to _oo_, though some make it so: thus Gardiner, in his scheme of the vowels, says, "_ew_ equals _oo_, as in _new, noo_."--_Music of Nature_, p. 483. _Noo_ for _new_, is a _vulgarism_, to my ear.--G. BROWN. [103] "As harmony is an inherent property of sound, the ear should he first called to the attention of _simple sounds_; though, in reality, all are composed _of three_, so nicely blended as to _appear_ but as one."--_Gardiner's Music of Nature_, p. 8. "Every sound is a mixture of three tones; as much as a ray of light is composed of three prismatic colours."--_Ib._, p. 387. [104] The titulary name of the sacred volume is "The Holy Bible." The word _Scripture_ or _Scriptures_ is a _common_ name for the writings contained in this inestimable volume, and, in the book itself, is seldom distinguished by a capital; but, in other works, it seems proper in general to write it so, by way of eminence. [105] "Benedictus es Domine Deus Israel patris nostri ab eterno in eternum."--_Vulgate_. "O Eternel! Dieu d'Israël, notre père, tu es béni de tout temps et à toujours."--_Common French Bible_. "[Greek: Eulogætos ei Kyrie ho theos Israel ho patær hæmon apo tou aionos kai heos tou aionos.]"--_Septuagint._ [106] Where the word "_See_" accompanies the reference, the reader may generally understand that the citation, whether right or wrong in regard to grammar, is not in all respects _exactly_ as it will be found in the place referred to. Cases of this kind, however, will occur but seldom; and it is hoped the reasons for admitting a few, will be sufficiently obvious. Brevity is indispensable; and some rules are so generally known and observed, that one might search long for half a dozen examples of their undesigned violation. Wherever an error is made intentionally in the Exercises, the true reading and reference are to be expected in the Key. [107] "Et irritaverunt ascendentes in mare, Mare rubrum."--_Latin Vulgate, folio, Psal._ cv, 7. This, I think, should have been "Mare Rubrum," with two capitals.--G. BROWN. [108] The printers, from the manner in which they place their types before them, call the small letters "_lower-case letters_," or "_letters of the lower case_." [109] I imagine that "_plagues_" should here be _plague_, in the singular number, and not plural. "Ero more ius, o mors; morsus tuus ero, inferne."--_Vulgate_. "[Greek: Pou hæ dikæ sou, thanate; pou to kentron sou, aidæ;]"--_Septuagint, ibid._ [110] It is hoped that not many persons will be so much puzzled as are Dr. Latham and Professor Fowler, about the application of this rule. In their recent works on The English Language, these gentlemen say, "In certain words of more than one syllable, _it is difficult to say_ to which syllable the intervening Consonant belongs. For instance, _does_ the _v_ in _river_ and the _v_ in _fever_ belong to the first or to the second syllable? Are the words to be divided thus, _ri-ver, fe-ver_? or thus, _riv-er_, _fev-er_?"--_Fowler's E. Gram._, 1850, §85; _Latham's Hand-Book_, p. 95. Now I suppose it plain, that, by the rule given above, _fever_ is to be divided in the former way, and _river_ in the latter; thus, _fe-ver_, _riv-er_. But this paragraph of Latham's or Fowler's is written, not to disembarrass the learner, but just as if it were a grammarian's business to confound his readers with fictitious dilemmas--and those expressed ungrammatically! Of the two Vees, so illogically associated in one question, and so solecistically spoken of by the singular verb "_does_," one belongs to the former syllable, and the other, to the latter; nor do I discover that "it is difficult to say" this, or to be well assured that it is right. What an admirable passage for one great linguist to _steal_ from an other! [111] "The usual rules for dividing [words into] syllables, are not only _arbitrary_ but false and absurd. They contradict the very definition of a syllable given by the authors themselves. * * * * A syllable in pronunciation is an _indivisible_ thing; and strange as it may appear, what is _indivisible_ in utterance is _divided_ in writing: when the very purpose of dividing words into syllables in writing, is to lead the learner to a just pronunciation."--_Webster's Improved Gram._, p. 156; _Philosophical Gram._, 221. [112] This word, like _distich_ and _monostich_, is from the Greek _stichos_, a verse; and is improperly spelled by Walker with a final _k_. It should be _hemistich_, with the accent on the first syllable. See _Webster, Scott, Perry, Worcester_, and others. [113] According to Aristotle, the compounding of terms, or the writing of them as separate words, must needs be a matter of great importance to the sense. For he will have the parts of a compound noun, or of a compound verb, to be, like other syllables, destitute of any distinct signification in themselves, whatever may be their meaning when written separately. See his definitions of the parts of speech, in his _Poetics_, Chapter 20th of the Greek; or Goulston's Version in Latin, Chapter 12th. [114] Whether _worshipper_ should follow this principle, or not, is questionable. If Dr. Webster is right in making _worship_ a _compound_ of _worth_ and _ship_, he furnishes a reason against his own practice of using a single _p_ in _worshiper, worshiped_, and _worshiping_. The Saxon word appears to have been _weorthscype_. But words ending in _ship_ are _derivatives_, rather than compounds; and therefore they seem to belong to the rule, rather than to the exception: as, "So we _fellowshiped_ him."--_Herald of Freedom: Liberator_, Vol. ix, p. 68. [115] When _ee_ comes before _e_, or may be supposed to do so, or when _ll_ comes before _l_, one of the letters is dropped that _three_ of the same kind may not meet: as, _free, freer, freest, freeth, freed_; _skill, skilless_; _full, fully_; _droll, drolly_. And, as _burgess-ship_, _hostess-ship_, and _mistress-ship_ are derivatives, and not compounds, I think they ought to follow the same principle, and be written _burgesship, hostesship, mistresship_. The proper form of _gall-less_ is perhaps more doubtful. It ought not to be gallless, as Dr. Webster has it; and galless, the analogical form, is yet, so far as I know without authority. But is it not preferable to the hyphened form, with three Ells, which has authority? "GALL-LESS, a. Without gall or bitterness. _Cleaveland_."--_Chalmers, Bolles, Worcester_. "Ah! mild and _gall-less_ dove, Which dost the pure and candid dwellings love, Canst thou in Albion still delight?"--_Cowley's Odes_. Worcester's Dictionary has also the questionable word _bellless_. _Treen_, for _trees_, or for an adjective meaning _a tree's_, or _made of a tree_, is exhibited in several of our dictionaries, and pronounced as a monosyllable: but Dr. Beattie, in his Poems, p. 84, has made it a dissyllable, with three like letters divided by a hyphen, thus:-- "Plucking from _tree-en_ bough her simple food." [116] _Handiwork, handicraft_, and _handicraftsman_, appear to have been corruptly written for _handwork, handcraft_, and _handcraftsman_. They were formerly in good use, and consequently obtained a place in our vocabulary, from which no lexicographer, so far as I know, has yet thought fit to discard them; but, being irregular, they are manifestly becoming obsolete, or at least showing a tendency to throw off these questionable forms. _Handcraft_ and _handcraftsman_ are now exhibited in some dictionaries, and _handiwork_ seems likely to be resolved into _handy_ and _work_, from which Johnson supposes it to have been formed. See _Psalm_ xix, 1. The text is varied thus: "And the firmament _sheweth_ his _handiwork_."--_Johnson's Dict._. "And the firmament _sheweth_ his _handy-work_."--_Scott's Bible_; _Bruce's Bible_; _Harrison's Gram._, p. 83. "And the firmament _showeth_ his _handy work_."--_Alger's Bible_; _Friends' Bible_; _Harrison's Gram._, p. 103. [117] Here a word, formed from its root by means of the termination _ize_, afterwards assumes a prefix, to make a secondary derivative: thus, _organ_, _organize, disorganize_. In such a case, the latter derivative must of course be like the former; and I assume that the essential or primary formation of both from the word _organ_ is by the termination _ize_; but it is easy to see that _disguise, demise, surmise_, and the like, are essentially or primarily formed by means of the prefixes, _dis, de_, and _sur_. As to _advertise, exercise, detonize_, and _recognize_, which I have noted among the exceptions, it is not easy to discover by which method we ought to suppose them to have been formed; but with respect to nearly all others, the distinction is very plain; and though there may be no _natural reason_ for founding upon it such a rule as the foregoing, the voice of general custom is as clear in this as in most other points or principles of orthography, and, surely, some rule in this case is greatly needed. [118] _Criticise_, with _s_, is the orthography of Johnson, Walker, Webster, Jones, Scott, Bolles, Chalmers, Cobb, and others; and so did Worcester spell it in his Comprehensive Dictionary of 1831, but, in his Universal and Critical Dictionary of 1846, he wrote it with _z_, as did Bailey in his folio, about a hundred years ago. Here the _z_ conforms to the foregoing rule, and the _s_ does not. [119] Like this, the compound _brim-full_ ought to be written with a hyphen and accented on the last syllable; but all our lexicographers have corrupted it into _brim'ful_, and, contrary to the authorities they quote, accented it on the first. Their noun _brim'fulness_, with a like accent, is also a corruption; and the text of Shakspeare, which they quote for it, is nonsense, unless _brim_, be there made a separate adjective:-- "With ample and _brimfulness_ of his force."--_Johnson's Dict._ _et al_. "With _ample_ and _brim fullness_ of his force," would be better. [120] According to Littleton, the _coraliticus lapis_ was a kind of Phrygian marble, "called _Coralius_ or by an other name _Sangarius_." But this substance seems to be different from all that are described by Webster, under the names of "_coralline_," "_corallinite_," and "_corallite_." See _Webster's Octavo Dict._ [121] The Greek word for _argil_ is [Greek: argilos], or [Greek: argillos], (from [Greek: argos], white,) meaning pure white earth; and is as often spelled with one Lamda as with two. [122] Dr. Webster, with apparent propriety, writes _caviling_ and _cavilous_ with one _l_, like _dialing_ and _perilous_; but he has in general no more uniformity than Johnson, in respect to the doubling of _l_ final. He also, in some instances, accents similar words variously: as, _cor'alliform_, upon the first syllable, _metal'liform_, upon the second; _cav'ilous_ and _pap'illous_, upon the first, _argil'lous_, upon the second; _ax'illar_, upon the first, _medul'lar_, upon the second. See _Webster's Octavo Dict._ [123] Perry wrote _crystaline, crystalize, crystalization, metaline, metalist, metalurgist_, and _metalurgy_; and these forms, as well as _crystalography, metalic, metalography_, and _metaliferous_, are noticed and preferred by the authors of the _Red Book_, on pp. 288 and 302. [124] "But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is on the preceding syllable, the consonant remains single: as, to toil, toiling; to offer, an offering."--_Murray's Octavo Gram._, p. 24; _Walker's Rhym. Dict._, Introd., p. ix. [125] Johnson, Walker, and Webster, all spell this word _sep'ilible_; which is obviously wrong; as is Johnson's derivation of it from _sepio_, to hedge in. _Sepio_ would make, not this word, but _sepibilis_ and _sepible_, hedgeable. [126] If the variable word _control, controul_, or _controll_, is from _con_ and _troul_ or _troll_, it should be spelled with _ll_, by Rule 7th, and retain the _ll_ by Rule 6th. Dr. Webster has it so, but he gives _control_ also. [127] _Ache_, and its plural, _aches_, appear to have been formerly pronounced like the name of the eighth letter, with its plural, _Aitch_, and _Aitches_; for the old poets made "_aches_" two syllables. But Johnson says of _ache_, a pain, it is "now _generally_ written _ake_, and in the plural _akes_, of one syllable."--See his _Quarto Dict._ So Walker: "It is now _almost universally_ written _ake_ and _akes_."--See _Walker's Principles_, No. 355. So Webster: "_Ake_, less properly written _ache_."--See his _Octavo Dict._ But Worcester seems rather to prefer _ache_.--G. B. [128] This book has, probably, more _recommenders_ than any other of the sort. I have not patience to count them accurately, but it would seem that _more than a thousand_ of the great and learned have certified to the world, that they never before had seen so good a spelling-book! With personal knowledge of more than fifty of the signers, G. B. refused to add his poor name, being ashamed of the mischievous facility with which very respectable men had loaned their signatures. [129] _Scrat_, for _scratch._ The word is now obsolete, and may be altered by taking _ch_ in the correction. [130] "_Hairbrained, adj._ This should rather be written _harebrained_; unconstant, unsettled, wild as a _hare._"--_Johnson's Dict._ Webster writes it _harebrained_, as from _hare_ and _brain_. Worcester, too, prefers this form. [131] "The whole number of verbs in the English language, regular and irregular, simple and compounded, taken together, is about 4,300. See, in Dr. Ward's Essays on the English language, the catalogue of English verbs. The whole number of irregular verbs, the defective included, is about 176."--_Lowth's Gram._, Philad., 1799, p. 59. Lindley Murray copied the first and the last of these three sentences, but made the latter number "about 177."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 109; _Duodecimo_, p. 88. In the latter work, he has this note: "The whole number of _words_, in the English language, is about thirty-five thousand."--_Ib._ Churchill says, "The whole number of verbs in the English language, according to Dr. Ward, is about 4,300. The irregulars, including the auxilaries [sic--KTH], scarcely exceed 200."--_New Gram._, p. 113. An other late author has the following enumeration: "There are in the English language about twenty thousand five hundred nouns, forty pronouns, _eight thousand verbs_, nine thousand two hundred adnouns, two thousand six hundred adverbs, sixty-nine prepositions, nineteen conjunctions, and sixty-eight interjections; in all, above forty thousand words."--_Rev. David Blair's Gram._, p. 10. William Ward, M. A., in an old grammar _undated_, which speaks of Dr. Lowth's as one with which the public had "_very lately_ been favoured," says: "There are _four Thousand and about Five Hundred Verbs_ in the English [language]."--_Ward's Practical Gram._, p. 52. [132] These definitions are numbered here, because each of them is the first of a series now begun. In class rehearsals, the pupils may be required to give the definitions in turn; and, to prevent any from losing the place, it is important that the numbers be mentioned. When all have become sufficiently familiar with the _definitions_, the exercise may be performed _without them._ They are to be read or repeated till faults disappear--or till the teacher is satisfied with the performance. He may then save time, by commanding his class to proceed more briefly; making such distinctions as are required in the praxis, but ceasing to explain the terms employed; that is, _omitting all the definitions, for brevity's sake._ This remark is applicable likewise to all the subsequent praxes of etymological parsing.] [133] The _modifications_ which belong to the different parts of speech consist chiefly of the _inflections_ or _changes_ to which certain words are subject. But I use the term sometimes in a rather broader sense, as including not only _variations_ of words, but, in certain instances, their _original forms_, and also such of their _relations_ as serve to indicate peculiar properties. This is no questionable license in the use of the term; for when the position of a word _modifies_ its meaning, or changes its person or case, this effect is clearly a grammatical _modification_, though there be no absolute _inflection_. Lord Kames observes, "_That quality_, which distinguishes one genus, one species, or even one individual, from an other, is termed a _modification_: thus the same particular that is termed a _property_ or _quality_, when considered as belonging to an individual, or a class of individuals, is termed a _modification_, when considered as distinguishing the individual or the class from an other."--_Elements of Criticism_, Vol. ii, p. 392. [134] Wells, having put the articles into the class of adjectives, produces authority as follows: "'The words _a_ or _an_, and _the_, are reckoned by _some_ grammarians a separate part of speech; but, as they in all respects come under the definition of the adjective, it is unnecessary, as well as _improper_, to rank them as a class by themselves.'--Cannon." To this he adds, "The articles are also ranked with adjectives by Priestley, E. Oliver, Bell, Elphinston, M'Culloch, D'Orsey, Lindsay, Joel, Greenwood. Smetham, Dalton, King, Hort, Buchanan, Crane, J. Russell, Frazee, Cutler, Perley, Swett, Day. Goodenow, Willard, Robbins, Felton, Snyder, Butler, S. Barrett, Badgley, Howe, Whiting, Davenport, Fowle, Weld, and others."--_Wells's School Gram._, p. 69. In this way, he may have made it seem to many, that, after thorough investigation, he had decided the point discreetly, and with preponderance of authority. For it is claimed as a "peculiar merit" of this grammar, that, "Every point of practical importance is _thoroughly investigated_, and reference is carefully made to the _researches_ of preceding writers, in all cases which admit of being determined by _weight of authority_."--WILLIAM RUSSELL, _on the cover_. But, in this instance, as in sundry others, wherein he opposes the more common doctrine, and cites concurrent authors, both he and all his authorities are demonstrably to the wrong. For how can they be right, while reason, usage, and the prevailing opinion, are still against them? If we have forty grammars which reject, the articles as a part of speech, we have more than twice as many which recognize them as such; among which are those of the following authors: viz., Adam, D. Adams, Ainsworth, Alden, Alger, W. Allen, Ash, Bacon, Barnard, Beattie, Beck, Bicknell, Bingham, Blair, J. H. Brown, Bucke, Bullions, Burn, Burr, Chandler, Churchill, Coar, Cobbett, Cobbin, Comly, Cooper, Davis, Dearborn, Ensell, Everett, Farnum, Fisk, A. Flint, Folker, Fowler, Frost, R. G. Greene, Greenleaf, Guy, Hall, Hallock, Hart, Harrison, Matt. Harrison, Hazen, Hendrick, Hiley, Hull, Ingersoll, Jaudon, Johnson, Kirkham, Latham, Lennie, A. Lewis, Lowth, Maltby, Maunder, Mennye, Merchant, T. H. Miller, Murray, Nixon, Nutting, Parker and Fox, John Peirce, Picket, Pond, S. Putnam, Russell, Sanborn, Sanders, R. C. Smith, Rev. T. Smith, Spencer, Tower, Tucker, Walker, Webber, Wilcox, Wilson, Woodworth, J. E. Worcester, S. Worcester, Wright. The articles characterize our language more than some of the other parts of speech, and are worthy of distinction for many reasons, one of which is the very great _frequency_ of their use. [135] In Murray's Abridgement, and in his "Second Edition," 12mo, the connective in this place is "_or_;" and so is it given by most of his amenders; as in _Alger's Murray_, p. 68; _Alden's_, 89; _Bacon's_, 48; _Cooper's_, 111; _A. Flint's_, 65; _Maltby's_, 60; _Miller's_, 67; _S. Putnam's_, 74; _Russell's_, 52; _T. Smith's_, 61. All these, and many more, repeat both of these ill-devised rules. [136] When this was written, Dr. Webster was living. [137] In French, the preposition _à, (to,)_ is always carefully distinguished from the verb _a, (has,)_ by means of the grave accent, which is placed over the former for that purpose. And in general also the Latin word _à, (from,)_ is marked in the same way. But, with us, no appropriate sign has hitherto been adopted to distinguish the preposition _a_ from the article _a_; though the Saxon _a, (to,)_ is given by Johnson with an acute, even where no other _a_ is found. Hence, in their ignorance, thousands of vulgar readers, and among them the authors of sundry grammars, have constantly mistaken this preposition for an article. Examples: "Some adverbs are composed of _the article a_ prefixed to nouns; as _a_-side, _a_-thirst, _a_-sleep, _a_-shore, _a_-ground, &c."--_Comly's Gram._, p67. "Repeat some [adverbs] that are composed of _the article a_ and nouns."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 89. "To go a fishing;" "To go a hunting;" i.e. "to go _on_ a fishing _voyage_ or _business_;" "to go _on_ a hunting _party_."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 221; _Fisk's_, 147; _Ingersoll's_, 157; _Smith's_, 184; _Bullions's_, 129; _Merchant's_, 101; _Weld's_, 192, _and others._ That this interpretation is false and absurd, may be seen at once by any body who can read Latin; for, _a hunting, a fishing_, &c., are expressed by the supine in _um_: as, "_Venatum ire_."--Virg. �n. I.e., "To go _a_ hunting." "_Abeo piscatum_."--Beza. I.e. "I go _a_ fishing."--_John_, xxi, 3. Every school-boy ought to know better than to call this _a_ an article. _A fishing_ is equivalent to the infinitive _to fish_. For the Greek of the foregoing text is [Greek: Hupágo hálieúein,] which is rendered by Montanus, "_Vado piscari_;" i.e., "_I go to fish_." One author ignorantly says, "The _article a_ seems to have _no particular meaning_, and is _hardly proper_ in such expressions as these. 'He went _a-hunting_,' She lies _a-bed_ all day.'"--_Wilcox's Gram._, p. 59. No marvel that he could not find the meaning of an _article_ in this _a!_ With doltish and double inconsistency, Weld first calls this "The _article a_ employed _in the sense_ of a _preposition_," (_E. Gram._, p. 177,) and afterwards adopts Murray's interpretation as above cited! Some, too, have an absurd practice of joining this preposition to the participle; generally with the hyphen, but sometimes without: thus, "A-GOING, In motion; as, to set a mill _agoing_."--_Webster's Dict._ The doctor does not tell us what part of speech _agoing_ is; but, certainly, "to set the mill _to_ going," expresses just the same meaning, and is about as often heard. In the burial-service of the Common Prayer Book, we read, "They are even as _asleep_;" but, in the ninetieth Psalm, from which this is taken, we find the text thus: "They are as _a sleep_;" that is, as a dream that is fled. Now these are very different readings, and cannot both he right. [138] Here the lexicographer forgets his false etymology of _a_ before the participle, and writes the words _separately_, as the generality of authors always have done. _A_ was used as a preposition long before the article _a_ appeared in the language; and I doubt whether there is any truth at all in the common notions of its origin. Webster says, "In the words _abed, ashore_, &c., and before _the_ participles _acoming, agoing, ashooting_, [he should have said, 'and _before participles_; as, _a coming, a going, a shooting_,'] _a_ has been supposed a contraction of _on_ or _at_. It may be so _in some cases_; but with the participles, it _is sometimes_ a contraction of the Saxon prefix _ge, and sometimes_ perhaps of the Celtic _ag_."--_Improved Gram._, p. 175. See _Philos. Gram._, p. 244. What admirable learning is this! _A_, forsooth, is a _contraction_ of _ge!_ And this is the doctor's reason for _joining_ it to the participle! [139] The following construction may he considered an _archaism_, or a form of expression that is now obsolete: "You have bestowed _a_ many _of_ kindnesses upon me."--_Walker's English Particles_, p. 278. [140] "If _I_ or _we_ is set before a name, it [the name] is of the first person: as, _I, N-- N--, declare; we, N-- and M-- do promise_."--_Ward's Gram._, p. 83. "Nouns which relate to the person or persons _speaking_, are said to be of the _first_ person; as, I, _William_, speak to you."--_Fowle's Common School Gram._, Part ii, p. 22. The first person of nouns is admitted by Ainsworth, R. W. Bailey, Barnard, Brightland, J. H. Brown, Bullions, Butler, Cardell, Chandler, S. W. Clark, Cooper, Day, Emmons, Farnum, Felton, Fisk, John Flint, Fowle, Frazee, Gilbert, Goldsbury, R. G. Greene, S. S. Greene, Hall, Hallock, Hamlin, Hart, Hendrick, Hiley, Perley, Picket, Pinneo, Russell, Sanborn, Sanders, Smart, R. C. Smith, Spear, Weld, Wells, Wilcox, and others. It is denied, either expressly or virtually, by Alger, Bacon, Comly, Davis, Dilworth, Greenleaf, Guy, Hazen, Ingersoll, Jaudon, Kirkham, Latham, L. Murray, Maltby, Merchant, Miller, Nutting, Parkhurst, S. Putnam, Rev. T. Smith, and others. Among the grammarians who do not appear to have noticed the persons of nouns at all, are Alden, W. Allen, D. C. Allen, Ash, Bicknell, Bingham, Blair, Buchanan, Bucke, Burn, Burr, Churchill, Coar, Cobb, Dalton, Dearborn, Abel Flint, R. W. Green, Harrison, Johnson, Lennie, Lowth, Mennye, Mulligan, Priestley, Staniford, Ware, Webber, and Webster. [141] Prof. S. S. Greene most absurdly and erroneously teaches, that, "When the speaker wishes to represent himself, _he cannot use his name_, but _must_ use some other word, as, _I_; [and] when he wishes to represent the hearer, he _must_ use _thou_ or _you_."--_Greene's Elements of E. Gram._, 1853, p. xxxiv. The examples given above sufficiently show the falsity of all this. [142] In _shoe_ and _shoes, canoe_ and _canoes_, the _o_ is sounded slenderly, like _oo_; but in _doe_ or _does, foe_ or _foes_, and the rest of the fourteen nouns above, whether singular or plural, it retains the full sound of its own name, _O_. Whether the plural of _two_ should be "_twoes_" as Churchill writes it, or "_twos_," which is more common, is questionable. According to Dr. Ash and the Spectator, the plural of _who_, taken substantively, is "_whos_."--_Ash's Gram._, p. 131. [143] There are some singular compounds of the plural word _pence_, which form their own plurals regularly; as, _sixpence, sixpences_. "If you do not all show like gilt _twopences_ to me."--SHAKSPEARE. "The _sweepstakes_ of which are to be composed of the disputed difference in the value of two doubtful _sixpences._"--GOODELL'S LECT.: _Liberator_. Vol. ix, p. 145. [144] In the third canto of Lord Byron's Prophecy of Dante, this noun is used in the singular number:-- "And ocean written o'er would not afford Space for the _annal_, yet it shall go forth." [145] "They never yet had separated for their daylight beds, without a climax to their _orgy_, something like the present scene."--_The Crock of Gold_, p. 13. "And straps never called upon to diminish that long whity-brown interval between shoe and _trowser_."--_Ib._, p. 24. "And he gave them _victual_ in abundance."--_2 Chron._, xi, 23. "Store of _victual_."--_Ib._, verse 11. [146] The noun _physic_ properly signifies medicine, or the science of medicine: in which sense, it seems to have no plural. But Crombie and the others cite one or two instances in which _physic_ and _metaphysic_ are used, not very accurately, in the sense of the singular of _physics_ and _metaphysics_. Several grammarians also quote some examples in which _physics, metaphysics, politics, optics_, and other similar names of sciences are used with verbs or pronouns of the singular number; but Dr. Crombie justly says the plural construction of such words, "is more common, and more agreeable to analogy."--_On Etym. and Syntax_, p. 27. [147] "Benjamin Franklin, following the occupation of a compositor in a printing-office, at a limited weekly _wage_," &c.--_Chambers' Edinburgh Journal_, No. 232. "WAGE, Wages, hire. The singular number is still frequently used, though _Dr. Johnson_ thought it obsolete."--_Glossary of Craven_. 1828. [148] Our lexicographers generally treat the word _firearms_ as a close compound that has no singular. But some write it with a hyphen, as _fire-arms_. In fact the singular is sometimes used, but the way of writing it is unsettled. Dr. Johnson, in his Dictionary, defines a _carbine_ as, "a small sort of _fire arm_;" Webster has it, "a short gun, or _fire arm_;" Worcester, "a small _fire-arm_;" Cobb, "a sort of small _firearms_." Webster uses "_fire-arm_," in defining "_stock_." [149] "But, soon afterwards, he made a glorious _amend_ for his fault, at the battle of Platæa."--_Hist. Reader_, p. 48. [150] "There not _a dreg_ of guilt defiles."--_Watts's Lyrics_, p. 27. [151] In Young's Night Thoughts, (N. vii, l. 475.) _lee_, the singular of _lees_, is found; Churchill says, (Gram., p. 211,) "Prior has used _lee_, as the singular of _lees_;" Webster and Bolles have also both forms in their dictionaries:-- "Refine, exalt, throw down their poisonous _lee_, And make them sparkle in the bowl of bliss."--_Young_. [152] "The 'Procrustean bed' has been a myth heretofore; it promises soon to be _a shamble_ and a slaughterhouse in reality."--_St. Louis Democrat_, 1855. [153] J. W. Wright remarks, "Some nouns admit of no plural distinctions: as, _wine, wood_, beer, _sugar, tea, timber, fruit, meat_, goodness, happiness, and perhaps all nouns ending in _ness_."--_Philos. Gram._, p. 139. If this learned author had been brought up in the _woods_, and had never read of Murray's "richer _wines_," or heard of Solomon's "dainty _meats_,"--never chaffered in the market about _sugars_ and _teas_, or read in Isaiah that "all our _righteousnesses_ are as filthy rags," or avowed, like Timothy, "a good profession before many _witnesses_,"--he might still have hewed the _timbers_ of some rude cabin, and partaken of the wild _fruits_ which nature affords. If these nine plurals are right, his assertion is nine times wrong, or misapplied by himself seven times in the ten. [154] "I will not suppose it possible for my dear James to fall into either the company or the language of those persons who talk, and even write, about _barleys, wheats, clovers, flours, grasses_, and _malts_."-- _Cobbett's E. Gram._, p. 29. [155] "It is a general rule, that all names of things measured or weighed, have no plural; for in _them_ not number, but quantity, is regarded: as, _wool, wine, oil_. When we speak, however, of different kinds, we use the plural: as, the coarser _wools_, the richer _wines_, the finer _oils_."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 41. [156] So _pains_ is the regular plural of _pain_, and, by Johnson, Webster, and other lexicographers, is recognized only as plural; but Worcester inserts it among his stock words, with a comment, thus: "Pains, _n._ Labor; work; toil; care; trouble. [Fist] According to the best usage, the word _pains_, though of plural form, is used in these senses as singular, and is joined with a singular verb; as, 'The pains they had taken _was_ very great.' _Clarendon_. 'No pains _is_ taken.' _Pope_. 'Great pains _is_ taken.' _Priestley_. '_Much_ pains.' _Bolingbroke_."--_Univ. and Crit. Dict._ The multiplication of anomalies of this kind is so undesirable, that nothing short of a very clear decision of Custom, against the use of the regular concord, can well justify the exception. Many such examples may be cited, but are they not examples of false syntax? I incline to think "the best usage" would still make all these verbs plural. Dr. Johnson cites the first example thus: "The _pains_ they had taken _were_ very great. _Clarendon_."--_Quarto Dict., w. Pain_. And the following recent example is unquestionably right: "_Pains have_ been taken to collect the information required."--_President Fillmore's Message_, 1852. [157] "And the _fish_ that _is_ in the river shall die."--_Exod._, vii, 18. "And the _fish_ that _was_ in the river died."--_Ib._, 21. Here the construction is altogether in the singular, and yet the meaning seems to be plural. This construction appears to be more objectionable, than the use of the word _fish_ with a plural verb. The French Bible here corresponds with ours: but the Latin Vulgate, and the Greek Septuagint, have both the noun and the verb in the plural: as, "The _fishes_ that _are_ in the river,"--"The _fishes_ that _were_," &c. In our Bible, _fowl_, as well _fish_, is sometimes plural; and yet both words, in some passages, have the plural form: as, "And _fowl_ that may fly," &c.--_Gen._, i, 20. "I will consume the _fowls_ of the heaven, and the _fishes_ of the sea."--_Zeph._, i, 3. [158] Some authors, when they give to _mere words_ the construction of plural nouns, are in the habit of writing them in the form of possessives singular; as, "They have of late, 'tis true, reformed, in some measure, the gouty joints and darning work of _whereunto's, whereby's, thereof's, therewith's_, and the rest of this kind."--_Shaftesbury_. "Here," says Dr. Crombie, "the genitive singular is _improperly_ used for the objective case plural. It should be, _whereuntos, wherebys, thereofs, therewiths_."-- _Treatise on Etym. and Synt._, p. 338. According to our rules, these words should rather be, _whereuntoes, wherebies_, _thereofs, therewiths_. "Any word, when used as the name of itself, becomes a noun."--_Goodenow's Gram._, p. 26. But some grammarians say, "The plural of words, considered as words merely, is formed by the apostrophe and _s_; as, 'Who, that has any taste, can endure the incessant, quick returns of the _also's_, and the _likewise's_, and the _moreover's_, and the _however's_, and the _notwithstanding's_?'--CAMPBELL."--_Wells's School Gram._, p. 54. Practice is not altogether in favour of this principle, and perhaps it would be better to decide with Crombie that such a use of the apostrophe is improper. [159] "The Supreme Being (_God, [Greek: Theos], Deus, Dieu_, &c.) is, in all languages, masculine; in as much as the masculine sex is the superior and more excellent; and as He is the Creator of all, the Father of gods and men."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 54. This remark applies to all the direct names of the Deity, but the abstract idea of _Deity itself_, [Greek: To Theion], _Numen, Godhead_, or _Divinity_, is not masculine, but neuter. On this point, some notions have been published for grammar, that are too heterodox to be cited or criticised here. See _O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 208. [160] That is, we give them sex, if we mean to represent them _as_ persons. In the following example, a character commonly esteemed feminine is represented as neuter, because the author would seem to doubt both the sex and the personality: "I don't know what a _witch_ is, or what _it_ was then."--_N. P. Rogers's Writings_, p. 154. [161] There is the same reason for doubling the _t_ in _cittess_, as for doubling the _d_ in _goddess_. See Rule 3d for Spelling. Yet Johnson, Todd, Webster, Bolles, Worcester, and others, spell it _citess_, with one _t_. "Cits and _citesses_ raise a joyful strain."--DRYDEN: _Joh. Dict._ [162] "But in the _English_ we have _no Genders_, as has been seen in the foregoing Notes. The same may be said of _Cases_."--_Brightland's Gram._, Seventh Edition, Lond., 1746, p. 85. [163] The Rev. David Blair so palpably contradicts himself in respect to this matter, that I know not which he favours most, two cases or three. In his main text, he adopts no objective, but says: "According to the _sense_ or _relation_ in which nouns are used, they are in the NOMINATIVE or [the] POSSESSIVE CASE, thus, _nom._ man; _poss._ man's." To this he adds the following marginal note: "In the English language, the distinction of the objective case is observable only in the pronouns. _Cases_ being nothing but _inflections_, where inflections do not exist, there can be no grammatical distinction of cases, for the terms _inflection_ and _case_ are _perfectly synonymous_ and _convertible_. As the English noun has _only one change_ of termination, _so no other case_ is here adopted. The _objective_ case is noticed in the _pronouns_; and _in parsing nouns_ it is easy to distinguish _subjects_ from _objects_. A noun which _governs the verb_ may be described as in the _nominative_ case, and one governed by the verb, or following a preposition, as in the _objective_ case."--_Blair's Practical Gram., Seventh Edition_, London, 1815, p. 11. The terms _inflection_ and _case_ are not practically synonymous, and never were so in the grammars of the language from which they are derived. The man who rejects the objective case of English nouns, because it has not a form peculiar to itself alone, must reject the accusative and the vocative of all neuter nouns in Latin, for the same reason; and the ablative, too, must in general be discarded on the same principle. In some other parts of his book, Blair speaks of the objective case of nouns as familiarly as do other authors! [164] This author says, "We choose to use the term _subjective_ rather than _nominative_, because it is shorter, and because it conveys its meaning by its sound, whereas the latter word means, indeed, little or nothing in itself."--_Text-Book_, p. 88. This appears to me a foolish innovation, too much in the spirit of Oliver B. Peirce, who also adopts it. The person who knows not the meaning of the word _nominative_, will not be very likely to find out what is meant by _subjective_; especially as some learned grammarians, even such men as Dr. Crombie and Professor Bullions, often erroneously call the word which is governed by the verb its _subject_. Besides, if we say _subjective_ and _objective_, in stead of _nominative_ and _objective_, we shall inevitably change the accent of both, and give them a pronunciation hitherto unknown to the words.--G. BROWN. [165] The authorities cited by Felch, for his doctrine of "_possessive adnouns_," amount to nothing. They are ostensibly two. The first is a remark of Dr. Adam's: "'_John's book_ was formerly written _Johnis book_. Some have thought the _'s_ a contraction of _his_, but improperly. Others have imagined, with more justness, that, by the addition of the _'s_, the substantive is changed into a possessive adjective.'--_Adam's Latin and English Grammar_, p. 7."--_Felch's Comp. Gram._, p. 26. Here Dr. Adam by no means concurs with what these "_others have imagined_;" for, in the very same place, he declares the possessive case of nouns to be their _only_ case. The second is a dogmatical and inconsistent remark of some anonymous writer in some part of the "_American Journal of Education_," a work respectable indeed, but, on the subject of grammar, too often fantastical and heterodox. Felch thinks it not improper, to use the possessive case before participles; in which situation, it denotes, not the owner of something, but the agent, subject, or recipient, of the action, being, or change. And what a jumble does he make, where he attempts to resolve this ungrammatical construction!--telling us, in almost the same breath, that, "The agent of a _nounal_ verb [i. e. participle] is never expressed," but that, "Sometimes it [the _nounal_ or _gerundial_ verb] is _qualified_, in its _nounal capacity_, by a possessive _adnoun_ indicative _of its agent_ as a verb; as, there is _nothing like one's_ BEING useful he doubted _their_ HAVING it:" and then concluding, "_Hence it appears_, that the _present participle_ may be used _as agent or object_, and yet retain its character as a verb."--_Felch's Comprehensive Gram._, p. 81. Alas for the schools, if the wise men of the East receive for grammar such utter confusion, and palpable self-contradiction, as this! [166] A critic's accuracy is sometimes liable to be brought into doubt, by subsequent alterations of the texts which, he quotes. Many an error cited in this volume of criticism, may possibly not be found in some future edition of the book referred to; as several of those which were pointed out by Lowth, have disappeared from the places named for them. Churchill also cites this line as above; (_New Gram._, p. 214;) but, in my edition of the Odyssey, by Pope, the reading is this: "By _lov'd Telemachus's_ blooming years!"--Book xi, L 84. [167] _Corpse_ forms the plural regularly, _corpses_; as in _2 Kings_, xix, 35: "In the morning, behold, they were all dead _corpses_." [168] Murray says, "An _adjective_ put without a substantive, with the definite article before it, _becomes a substantive in sense and meaning_, and is _written as a substantive_: as, 'Providence rewards _the good_, and punishes _the bad_.'" If I understand this, it is very erroneous, and plainly contrary to the fact. I suppose the author to speak of _good persons_ and _bad persons_; and, if he does, is there not an ellipsis in his language? How can it be said, that _good_ and _bad_ are here substantives, since they have a plural meaning and refuse the plural form? A word "_written as a substantive_," unquestionably _is_ a substantive; but neither of these is here entitled to that name. Yet Smith, and other satellites of Murray, endorse his doctrine; and say, that _good_ and _bad_ in this example, and all adjectives similarly circumstanced, "may be considered _nouns_ in parsing."--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 52. "An adjective with the definite article before it, becomes a _noun_, (of the third person, plural number,) and _must be parsed_ as such."--_R. G. Greene's Grammatical Text-Book_, p. 55. [169] Here the word _English_ appears to be used substantively, not by reason of the article, but rather because _it has no article_; for, when the definite article is used before such a word taken in the singular number, it seems to show that the noun _language_ is understood. And it is remarkable, that before the names or epithets by which we distinguish the languages, this article may, in many instances, be either used or not used, repeated or not repeated, without any apparent impropriety: as, "This is the case with _the_ Hebrew, French, Italian, and Spanish."--_Murray's Gram._, i, p. 38. Better, perhaps: "This is the case with _the_ Hebrew, _the_ French, _the_ Italian, and _the_ Spanish." But we may say: "This is the case with Hebrew, French, Italian, and Spanish." In the first of these forms, there appears to be an ellipsis of the plural noun _languages_, at the end of the sentence; in the second, an ellipsis of the singular noun _language_, after each of the national epithets; in the last, no ellipsis, but rather a substantive use of the words in question. [170] The Doctor may, for aught I know, have taken his notion of this "_noun_," from the language "of Dugald Dalgetty, boasting of his '5000 _Irishes_' in the prison of Argyle." See _Letter of Wendell Phillips, in the Liberator_, Vol. xi, p. 211. [171] Lindley Murray, or some ignorant printer of his octavo Grammar, has omitted this _s_; and thereby spoiled the prosody, if not the sense, of the line: "Of Sericana, where _Chinese_ drive," &c. --_Fourth American Ed._, p. 345. If there was a design to correct the error of Milton's word, something should have been inserted. The common phrase, "_the Chinese_," would give the sense, and the right number of syllables, but not the right accent. It would be sufficiently analogous with our mode of forming the words, _Englishmen, Frenchmen, Scotchmen, Dutchmen_, and _Irishmen_, and perhaps not unpoetical, to say: "Of Sericana, where _Chinese-men_ drive, With sails and wind, their cany _wagons_ light." [172] The last six words are perhaps more frequently pronouns; and some writers will have well-nigh all the rest to be pronouns also. "In like manner, in _the_ English, there have been _rescued_ from the adjectives, and classed with the pronouns, any, aught, each, every, many, none, one, other, some, such, that, those, this, these; and by other writers, all, another, both, either, few, first, last, neither, and several."--_Wilson's Essay on Gram._, p. 106. Had the author said _wrested_, in stead of "_rescued_," he would have taught a much better doctrine. These words are what Dr. Lowth correctly called "_Pronominal Adjectives_."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 24. This class of adjectives includes most of the words which Murray, Lennie, Bullions, Kirkham, and others, so absurdly denominate "_Adjective Pronouns_." Their "Distributive Adjective Pronouns, _each, every, either, neither_;" their "Demonstrative Adjective Pronouns, _this, that, these, those_;" and their "Indefinite Adjective Pronouns, _some, other, any, one, all, such_, &c.," are every one of them here; for they all are _Adjectives_, and not _Pronouns_. And it is obvious, that the corresponding words in Latin, Greek, or French, are adjectives likewise, and are, for the most part, so called; so that, from General Grammar, or "the usages of other languages," arises an argument for ranking them as adjectives, rather than as pronouns. But the learned Dr. Bullions, after improperly assuming that every adjective must "express _the quality of a noun_," and thence arguing that no such definitives can rightly be called _adjectives_, most absurdly suggests, that "_other languages_," or "_the usages of_ other languages," generally assign to these _English words_ the place of _substitutes_! But so remarkable for self-contradiction, as well as other errors, is this gentleman's short note upon the classification of these words, that I shall present the whole of it for the reader's consideration. "NOTE. The distributives, demonstratives, and indefinites, cannot strictly be called _pronouns_; since they never stand _instead_ of nouns, but always _agree_ with _a noun_ expressed or understood: _Neither can they be properly_ called _adjectives_, since they never express _the quality of a noun_. They are here classed _with pronouns_, in accordance with _the usages of other languages_, which _generally assign them this place_. All these, together with the _possessives_, in parsing, may _with sufficient propriety_ be termed _adjectives_, being _uniformly regarded as such_ in syntax."--_Bullions's Principles of English Gram._, p. 27. (See also his _Appendix_ III, E. Gram., p. 199.) What a sample of grammatical instruction is here! The pronominal adjectives "cannot properly _be called adjectives_," but "they may with sufficient propriety be _termed adjectives_!" And so may "_the possessives_," or _the personal pronouns in the possessive case_! "Here," i.e., in _Etymology_, they are all "_classed with pronouns_;" but, "in _Syntax_," they are "uniformly _regarded as adjectives_!" Precious MODEL for the "Series of Grammars, English, Latin, and Greek, all on THE SAME PLAN!" [173] _Some_, for _somewhat_, or _in some degree_, appears to me a vulgarism; as, "This pause is generally _some_ longer than that of a period."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 271. The word _what_ seems to have been used adverbially in several different senses; in none of which is it much to be commended: as, "Though I forbear, _what_ am I eased?"--_Job_, xvi, 6. "_What_ advantageth it me?"--_1 Cor._, xv, 32. Here _what_, means _in what degree? how much?_ or _wherein?_ "For _what_ knowest thou, O wife, whether thou shalt save thy husband?"--_1 Cor._, vii, 16. Here _how_ would have been better. "The enemy, having his country wasted, _what_ by himself and _what_ by the soldiers, findeth succour in no place."--_Spenser_. Here _what_ means _partly_;--"wasted _partly_ by himself and _partly_ by the soldiers." This use of _what_ was formerly very common, but is now, I think, obsolete. _What_ before an adjective seems sometimes to denote with admiration the degree of the quality; and is called, by some, an adverb; as, "_What partial_ judges are our love and hate!"--_Dryden_. But here I take _what_ to be an _adjective_; as when we say, _such_ partial judges, _some_ partial judges, &c. "_What_ need I be forward with Death, that calls not on me?"--_Shakspeare_. Here _what_ seems to be improperly put in place of _why_. [174] Dr. Blair, in his Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles-Lettres, often uses the phrase "_this much_;" but it is, I think, more common to say "_thus much_," even when the term is used substantively. [175] There seems to be no good reason for joining _an_ and _other_: on the contrary, the phrase _an other_ is always as properly two words, as the phrase _the other_, and more so. The latter, being long ago vulgarly contracted into _t'other_, probably gave rise to the apparent contraction _another_; which many people nowadays are ignorant enough to divide wrong, and mispronounce. See _"a-no-ther"_ in _Murray's Spelling-Book_, p. 71; and _"a-noth-er"_ in _Emerson's_, p. 76. _An_ here excludes any other article; and both analogy and consistency require that the words be separated. Their union, like that of the words _the_ and _other_, has led sometimes to an improper repetition of the article: as, "_Another_ such _a_ man," for, "An other such man."--"Bind my hair up. An 'twas yesterday? No, nor _the t'other_ day."--BEN JONSON: _in Joh. Dict._ "He can not tell when he should take _the tone_, and when _the tother_."--SIR T. MOORE: Tooke's D. P., Vol. 15, p. 448. That is--"when he should take _the one_ and when _the other_." Besides, the word _other_ is declined, like a noun, and has the plural _others_; but the compounding of _another_ constrains our grammarians to say, that this word "has no plural." All these difficulties will be removed by writing _an other_ as two words. The printers chiefly rule this matter. To them, therefore, I refer it; with directions, not to unite these words for me, except where it has been done in the manuscript, for the sake of exactness in quotation.--G. BROWN. [176] This is a misapplication of the word _between_, which cannot have reference to more than two things or parties: the term should have been _among_.--G. BROWN. [177] I suppose that, in a comparison of _two_, any of the degrees may be accurately employed. The common usage is, to construe the positive with _as_, the comparative with _than_, and the superlative with _of_. But here custom allows us also to use the comparative with _of_, after the manner of the superlative; as, "This is _the better of_ the two." It was but an odd whim of some old pedant, to find in this a reason for declaring it ungrammatical to say "This is _the best of_ the two." In one grammar, I find the former construction _condemned_, and the latter approved, thus: "This is the better book of the two. Not correct, because the comparative state of the adjective, (_better_,) can not correspond with the preposition, _of_. The definite article, _the_, is likewise improperly applied to the comparative state; the sentence should stand thus, This is the _best_ book of the two."--_Chandler's Gram._, Ed. of 1821, p. 130; Ed. of 1847, p. 151. [178] This example appears to have been borrowed from Campbell; who, however, teaches a different doctrine from Murray, and clearly sustains my position; "Both degrees are in such cases used _indiscriminately_. We say _rightly_, either 'This is the weaker of the two,' or--'the weakest of the two.'"--_Philosophy of Rhetoric_, p. 202. How positively do some other men contradict this! "In comparing _two_ persons or things, by means of an adjective, care must be taken, that the superlative state be not employed: We properly say, 'John is the _taller_ of the two;' but we _should not say_, 'John is the _tallest_ of the two.' The reason is plain: we compare but _two_ persons, and must _therefore_ use the comparative state."--_Wright's Philosophical Gram._, p. 143. Rev. Matt. Harrison, too, insists on it, that the superlative must "have reference to more than two," and censures _Dr. Johnson_ for not observing the rule. See _Harrison's English Language_, p. 255. [179] L. Murray copied this passage literally, (though anonymously,) as far as the colon; and of course his book teaches us to account "_the termination ish_, in some sort, _a degree of comparison_."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 47. But what is more absurd, than to think of accounting this, or any other suffix, "_a degree of comparison?_" The inaccuracy of the language is a sufficient proof of the haste with which Johnson adopted this notion, and of the blindness with which he has been followed. The passage is now found in most of our English grammars. Sanborn expresses the doctrine thus: "Adjectives terminating with _ish_, denote a degree of comparison less than the positive; as, _saltish, whitish, blackish_."--_Analytical Gram._, p. 87. But who does not know, that most adjectives of this ending are derived from _nouns_, and are compared only by adverbs, as _childish, foolish_, and so forth? Wilcox says, "Words ending in _ish_, generally express a slight degree; as, _reddish, bookish_."--_Practical Gram._, p. 17. But who will suppose that _foolish_ denotes but a slight degree of folly, or _bookish_ but a slight fondness for books? And, with such an interpretation, what must be the meaning of _more bookish_ or _most foolish_? [180] "'A rodde shall come _furth_ of the stocke of Jesse.' _Primer, Hen. VIII_."--_Craven Glossary_. [181] _Midst_ is a contraction of the regular superlative _middest_, used by Spenser, but now obsolete. _Midst_, also, seems to be obsolete as an adjective, though still frequently used as a noun; as, "In the _midst_."--_Webster_. It is often a poetic contraction for the preposition _amidst_. In some cases it appears to be an adverb. In the following example it is equivalent to _middlemost_, and therefore an adjective: "Still greatest he _the midst_, Now dragon grown."--_Paradise Lost_, B. x, l. 528. [182] What I here say, accords with the teaching of all our lexicographers and grammarians, except one dauntless critic, who has taken particular pains to put me, and some three or four others, on the defensive. This gentleman not only supposes _less_ and _fewer, least_ and _fewest_, to be sometimes equivalent in meaning, but actually exhibits them as being also etymologically of the same stock. _Less_ and _least_, however, he refers to three different positives, and _more_ and _most_, to four. And since, in once instance, he traces _less_ and _more, least_ and _most_, to the same primitive word, it follows of course, if he is right, that _more_ is there equivalent to _less_ and _most_ is equivalent to _least_! The following is a copy of this remarkable "DECLENSION ON INDEFINITE SPECIFYING ADNAMES," and just one half of the table is wrong: "_Some, more, most; Some, less, least_; Little, less, least; Few, fewer _or less_, fewest _or least; Several, more, most_; Much, more, most; Many, more most."--_Oliver B Peirce's Gram._, p. 144. [183] Murray himself had the same false notion concerning six of these adjectives, and perhaps all the rest; for his indefinite _andsoforths_ may embrace just what the reader pleases to imagine. Let the following paragraph be compared with the observations and proofs which I shall offer: "Adjectives that have in themselves a superlative signification, do not properly admit of the superlative or [the] comparative form superadded: such as, 'Chief, extreme, perfect, right, universal, supreme,' &c.; which are sometimes improperly written, 'Chiefest, extremest, perfectest, rightest, most universal, most supreme,' &c. The following expressions are therefore improper. 'He sometimes claims admission to the _chiefest_ offices;' 'The quarrel became _so universal_ and national;' 'A method of attaining the _rightest_ and greatest happiness.' The phrases, so perfect, so right, so extreme, so universal, &c., are incorrect; because they imply that one thing is less perfect, less extreme, &c. than another, which is not possible."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, Vol. i, p. 167. For himself, a man may do as he pleases about comparing these adjectives; but whoever corrects others, on such principles as the foregoing, will have work enough on his hands. But the writer who seems to exceed all others, in error on this point, is _Joseph W. Wright_. In his "Philosophical Grammar," p. 51st, this author gives a list of seventy-two adjectives, which, he says, "admit of _no variation of state_;" i. e., are not compared. Among them are _round, flat, wet, dry, clear, pure, odd, free, plain, fair, chaste, blind_, and more than forty others, which are compared about as often as any words in the language. Dr. Blair is hypercritically censured by him, for saying "_most excellent_," "_more false_," "the _chastest_ kind," "_more perfect_" "_fuller, more full, fullest, most full, truest_ and _most true_;" Murray, for using "_quite wrong_;" and Cobbett, for the phrase, "_perfect correctness_." "Correctness," says the critic, "does not admit of _degrees of perfection_."--_Ib._, pp. 143 and 151. But what does such a thinker know about correctness? If this excellent quality cannot be _perfect_, surely nothing can. The words which Dr. Bullions thinks it "improper to compare," because he judges them to have "an absolute or superlative signification," are "_true, perfect, universal, chief, extreme, supreme_, &c."--no body knows how many. See _Principles of E. Gram._, p. 19 and p. 115. [184] The regular comparison of this word, (_like, liker, likest_,) seems to be obsolete, or nearly so. It is seldom met with, except in old books: yet we say, _more like_, or _most like, less like_, or _least like_. "To say the flock with whom he is, is _likest_ to Christ."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. i, p. 180. "Of Godlike pow'r? for _likest_ Gods they seem'd."--_Milton, P. L._ B. vi, l. 301. [185] This example, and several others that follow it, are no ordinary solecisms; they are downright Irish bulls, making actions or relations reciprocal, where reciprocity is _utterly_ unimaginable. Two words can no more be "_derived from each other_," than two living creatures can have received their existence from each other. So, two things can never "_succeed each other_," except they alternate or move in a circle; and a greater number in train can "_follow one an other_" only in some imperfect sense, not at all reciprocal. In some instances, therefore, the best form of correction will be, to reject the reciprocal terms altogether--G. BROWN. [186] This doctrine of punctuation, if not absolutely false in itself, is here very badly taught. When _only two words_, of any sort, occur in the same construction, they seldom require the comma; and never can they need _more than one_, whereas these grammarians, by their plural word "_commas_," suggest a constant demand for two or more.--G. BROWN. [187] Some grammarians exclude the word _it_ from the list of personal pronouns, because it does not convey the idea of that personality which consists in _individual intelligence_. On the other hand, they will have _who_ to be a personal pronoun, because it is literally applied to _persons only_, or intelligent beings. But I judge them to be wrong in respect to both; and, had they given _definitions_ of their several classes of pronouns, they might perhaps have found out that the word _it_ is always personal, in a grammatical sense, and _who_, either relative or interrogative. [188] "_Whoso_ and _whatso_ are found in old authors, but are now out of use."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 76. These antiquated words are equivalent in import to _whosoever_ and _whatsoever_. The former, _whoso_, being used many times in the Bible, and occasionally also by the poets, as by Cowper, Whittier, and others, can hardly be said to be obsolete; though Wells, like Churchill, pronounced it so, in his first edition. [189] "'The man is prudent which speaks little.' This sentence is incorrect, because _which_ is a pronoun of the neuter gender."--_Murray's Exercises_, p. 18. "_Which_ is also a relative, but it is of [the] neuter gender. It is also interrogative."--_Webster's Improved Gram._, p. 26. For oversights like these, I cannot account. The relative _which_ is of all the genders, as every body ought to know, who has ever heard of the _horse which_ Alexander rode, of the _ass which_ spoke to Balaam, or of any of the _animals_ and _things_ which Noah had with him in the ark. [190] The word _which_ also, when taken in its _discriminative_ sense (i.e. to distinguish some persons or things from others) may have a construction of this sort; and, by ellipsis of the noun after it, it may likewise bear a resemblance to the double relative _what_: as, "I shall now give you two passages; and request you to point out _which_ words are mono-syllables, _which_ dis-syllables, _which_ tris-syllables, and _which_ poly-syllables."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 16. Here, indeed, the word _what_ might be substituted for _which_; because that also has a discriminative sense. Either would be right; but the author might have presented the same words and thoughts rather more accurately, thus: "I shall now give you two passages; and request you to point out which words are monosyllables; which, dissyllables; which, trissyllables; and which, polysyllables." [191] The relative _what_, being equivalent to _that which_, sometimes has the demonstrative word _that_ set after it, by way of pleonasm; as, "_What_ I tell you in darkness, _that_ speak ye in light, and _what_ ye hear in the ear, _that_ preach ye upon the house-tops."--_Matt._, x, 27. In _Covell's Digest_, this text is presented as "_false syntax_," under the new and needless rule, "Double relatives always supply two cases."--_Digest of E. Gram._, p. 143. In my opinion, to strike out the word _that_, would greatly weaken the expression: and so thought our translators; for no equivalent term is used in the original. [192] As for Butler's method of parsing these words by _always recognizing a noun as being_ "UNDERSTOOD" _before them_,--a method by which, according to his publishers notice, "The ordinary unphilosophical explanation of this class of words is discarded, and a simple, intelligible, common-sense view of the matter now _for the first time_ substituted,"--I know not what novelty there is in it, that is not also just so much _error_. "Compare," says he, "these two sentences: 'I saw _whom_ I wanted to see;' 'I saw what I wanted to see. If _what_ in the latter is equivalent to _that which_ or _the thing which, whom_, in the former is equivalent to _him whom_, or _the person whom_."--_Butler's Practical Gram._, p. 51. The former example being simply elliptical of the antecedent, he judges the latter to be so too; and infers, "that _what_ is nothing more than a relative pronoun, and includes nothing else."--_Ib._ This conclusion is not well drawn, because the two examples are _not analogous_; and whoever thus finds "that _what_ is nothing more than a relative," ought also to find it is something less,--a mere adjective. "I saw _the person whom_ I wanted to see," is a sentence that _can scarcely spare_ the antecedent and retain the sense; "I saw _what_ I wanted to see," is one which _cannot receive_ an antecedent, without changing both the sense and the construction. One may say, "I saw what _things_ I wanted to see;" but this, in stead of giving _what_ an _antecedent_, makes it an _adjective_, while it _retains the force of a relative_. Or he _may insert_ a noun before _what_, agreeably to the solution of Butler; as, "I saw _the things_, what I wanted to see:" or, if he please, both before and after; as, "I saw _the things_, what _things_ I wanted to see." But still, in either case, _what_ is no "simple relative;" for it here seems equivalent to the phrase, _so many as_. Or, again, he may omit the comma, and say, "I saw _the thing_ what I wanted to see;" but this, if it be not a vulgarism, will only mean, "I saw _the thing to be_ what I wanted to see." So that this method of parsing the pronoun what, is manifestly no improvement, but rather a perversion and misinterpretation. But, for further proof of his position, Butler adduces instances of what he calls "_the relative_ THAT _with the antecedent omitted_. A few examples of this," he says, "will help us to ascertain the nature of _what_. 'We speak _that_ we do know,' _Bible_. [_John_, iii, 11.] 'I am _that_ I am.' _Bible_. [_Exod._, iii, 14.] 'Eschewe _that_ wicked is.' _Gower_. 'Is it possible he should know what he is, and be _that_ he is?' Shakespeare. 'Gather the sequel by _that_ went before.' _Id._ In these examples," continues he, "_that_ is a relative; and is _exactly synonymous_ with _what_. No one would contend that _that_ stands for itself and its antecedent at the same time. The antecedent is omitted, _because it is indefinite_, OR EASILY SUPPLIED."--_Butler's Practical Gram._, p. 52; _Bullions's Analytical and Practical Gram._, p. 233. Converted at his wisest age, by these false arguments, so as to renounce and gainsay the doctrine taught almost universally, and hitherto spread industriously by himself, in the words of Lennie, that, "_What_ is a compound relative, including both the relative and the antecedent," Dr. Bullions now most absurdly urges, that, "The truth is, _what_ is a _simple_ relative, having, wherever used, _like all other relatives_, BUT ONE CASE; but * * * that it always refers to a _general antecedent, omitted_, BUT EASILY SUPPLIED _by the mind_," though "_not_ UNDERSTOOD, _in the ordinary sense_ of that expression."--_Analyt. and Pract. Gram._ of 1849, p. 51. Accordingly, though he differs from Butler about this matter of "_the ordinary sense_," he cites the foregoing suggestions of this author, with the following compliment: "These remarks appear to me _just_, and _conclusive on this point_."--_Ib._, p. 233. But there must, I think, be many to whon they will appear far otherwise. These elliptical uses of _that_ are all of them bad or questionable English; because, the ellipsis being such as may be supplied in two or three different ways, the true construction is doubtful, the true meaning not exactly determined by the words. It is quite as easy and natural to take "_that_" to be here a demonstrative term, having the relative _which_ understood after it, as to suppose it "a relative," with an antecedent to be supplied before it. Since there would not be the same uncertainty, if _what_ were in these cases substituted for _that_, it is evident that the terms are _not_ "_exactly synonymous_;" but, even if they were so, exact synonymy would not evince a sameness of construction. [193] See this erroneous doctrine in Kirkham's Grammar, p. 112; in Wells's, p. 74; in Sanborn's, p. 71, p. 96, and p. 177; in Cooper's, p. 38; in O. B. Peirce's, p. 70. These writers show a great fondness for this complex mode of parsing. But, in fact, no pronoun, not even the word _what_, has any double construction of cases from a real or absolute necessity; but merely because, the noun being suppressed, yet having a representative, we choose rather to understand and parse its representative doubly, than to supply the ellipsis. No pronoun includes "both the antecedent and the relative," by virtue of its own _composition_, or of its own derivation, as a word. No pronoun can properly be called "_compound_" merely because it has a double construction, and is equivalent to two other words. These positions, if true, as I am sure they are, will refute sundry assertions that are contained in the above-named grammars. [194] Here the demonstrative word _that_, as well as the phrase _that matter_, which I form to explain its construction, unquestionably refers back to Judas's confession, that he had sinned; but still, as the word has not the connecting power of a relative pronoun, its true character is _that_ of an adjective, and not _that_ of a pronoun. This pronominal adjective is very often mixed with some such ellipsis, and _that_ to repeat the import of various kinds of words and phrases: as, "God shall help her, and _that_ right early."--_Psal._, xlvi, 5. "Nay, ye do wrong, and defraud, and _that_ your brethren."--l Cor., vi, 8. "I'll know your business, _that_ I will."--_Shakespeare._ [195] Dr. Bullions has undertaken to prove, "That the word AS should not be considered a relative in any circumstances." The force of his five great arguments to this end, the reader may well conceive of, when he has compared the following one with what is shown in the 22d and 23d observations above: "3. As _can never be used as a substitute for another relative pronoun, nor another relative pronoun as a substitute for it_. If, then, it is a relative pronoun, it is, to say the least, a very unaccommodating one."--_Bullions's Analytical and Practical Gram. of_ 1849, p. 233. [196] The latter part of this awkward and complex rule was copied from Lowth's Grammar, p. 101. Dr. Ash's rule is, "_Pronouns_ must _always agree_ with the _nouns_ for which they _stand_, or to which they _refer_, in _Number, person_, and _gender_."--_Grammatical Institutes_, p. 54. I quote this _exactly as it stands_ in the book: the Italics are his, not mine. Roswell C. Smith appears to be ignorant of the change which Murray made in his fifth rule: for he still publishes as Murray's a principle of concord which the latter rejected as early as 1806: "RULE V. Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, RULE V. _Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand, in gender, number_, AND PERSON."--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 130. So _Allen Fisk_, in his "Murray's English Grammar Simplified," p. 111; _Aaron M. Merchant_, in his "_Abridgment_ of Murray's English Grammar, Revised, _Enlarged_ and Improved," p. 79; and the _Rev. J. G. Cooper_, in his "Abridgment of Murray's English Grammar," p. 113; where, from the titles, every reader would expect to find the latest doctrines of Murray, and not what he had so long ago renounced or changed. [197] L. Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 51; 12mo, 51; 18mo, 22; D. Adams's, 37; Alger's, 21; Bacon's, 19; Fisk's, 20; Kirkham's, 17; Merchant's Murray, 35; Merchant's American Gram., 40; F. H. Miller's Gram., 26; Pond's, 28; S. Putnam's, 22; Russell's, 16; Rev. T. Smith's, 22. [198] Dr. Crombie, and some others, represent I and thou, with their inflections, as being "masculine and feminine." Lennie, M'Culloch, and others, represent them as being "masculine or feminine." But, if either of them can have an antecedent that is _neuter_, neither of these views is strictly correct. (See Obs. 5th, above.) Mackintosh says, "We use _our, your, their_, in speaking of a thing or things belonging to plural nouns of any gender."--_Essay on English Gram._, p. 149. So William Barnes says, "_I, thou, we, ye_ or _you_, and _they_, are of _all_ genders,"-- _Philosophical Gram._, p. 196. [199] "It is perfectly plain, then, that _my_ and _mine_ are but different forms of the same word, as are _a_ and _an_. _Mine_, for the sake of euphony, or from custom, stands for the possessive case without a noun; but must be changed for _my_ when the noun is expressed: and _my_, for a similar reason, stands before a noun, but must be changed for _mine_ when the noun is dropped. * * * _Mine_ and _my, thine_ and _thy_, will, therefore, be considered in this book, as different forms of the possessive case from _I_ and _Thou_. And the same rule will be extended to _her_ and _hers, our_ and _ours, your_ and _yours, their_ and _theirs_."--_Barnard's Analytic Grammar_, p. 142. [200] It has long been fashionable, in the ordinary intercourse of the world, to substitute the plural form of this pronoun for the singular through all the cases. Thus, by the figure ENALLAGE, "_you are_," for instance, is commonly put for "_thou art_." See Observations 20th and 21st, below; also Figures of Syntax, in Part IV. [201] The original nominative was _ye_, which is still the only nominative of the solemn style; and the original objective was _you_, which is still the only objective that our grammarians in general acknowledge. But, whether grammatical or not, _ye_ is now very often used, in a familiar way, for the objective case. (See Observations 22d and 23d, upon the declensions of pronouns.) T. Dilworth gave both cases alike: "_Nom_. Ye _or_ you;" "_Acc._ [or _Obj._] Ye _or_ you."--His _New Guide_, p. 98. Latham gives these forms: "_Nom._ ye _or_ you; _Obj._ you or ye."--_Elementary Gram._, p. 90. Dr. Campbell says, "I am inclined to prefer that use which makes _ye_ invariably the nominative plural of the personal pronoun _thou_, and _you_ the accusative, when applied to an actual plurality."--_Philosophy of Rhetoric_, p. 174. Professor Fowler touches the case, rather blindly, thus: "Instead of the true nominative YE, we use, with few exceptions, _the objective case_; as, 'YOU _speak_;' 'YOU _two are speaking_.' In this we _substitute_ one case _for_ another."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, 8vo, 1850, §478. No other grammarian, however, discards _you_ as a nominative of "actual plurality;" and the present casual practice of putting _ye_ in the objective, has prevailed to some extent for at least two centuries: as, "Your change approaches, when all these delights Will vanish and deliver _ye_ to woe." --_Milton_, P. L., B. iv, l. 367. [202] Dr. Young has, in one instance, and with very doubtful propriety, converted this pronoun into the _second person_, by addressing himself thus:-- "O _thou, myself I_ abroad our counsels roam And, like ill husbands, take no care at home." --_Love of Fame_, Sat. II, l. 271. [203] The fashion of using the plural number for the singular, or _you_ for _thou_, has also substituted _yourself_ for _thyself_, in common discourse. In poetry, in prayer, in Scripture, and in the familiar language of the Friends, the original compound is still retained; but the poets use either term, according to the gravity or the lightness of their style. But _yourself_, like the regal compound _ourself_, though apparently of the singular number, and always applied to one person only, is, in its very nature, an anomalous and ungrammatical word; for it can neither mean more than one, nor agree with a pronoun or a verb that is singular. Swift indeed wrote: "Conversation is but carving; carve for all, _yourself is starving_." But he wrote erroneously, and his meaning is doubtful: probably he meant, "To carve for all, is, _to starve yourself_." The compound personals, when they are nominatives before the verb, are commonly associated with the simple; as, "I _myself_ also _am_ a man."--_Acts_, x, 16. "That _thou thyself art_ a guide."--_Rom._, ii, 19. "If it stand, as _you yourself_ still _do_"--_Shakspeare_. "That _you yourself_ are much condemned."--_Id._ And, if the simple pronoun be omitted, the compound still requires the same form of the verb; as, "Which way I fly is Hell; _myself am_ Hell."--_Milton_. The following example is different: "I love mankind; and in a monarchy myself _is_ all that I _can_ love."--_Life of Schiller, Follen's Pref._, p. x. Dr. Follen objects to the British version, "Myself _were_ all that I _could_ love;" and, if his own is good English, the verb _is_ agrees with _all_, and not with _myself_. _Is_ is of the third person: hence, "_myself is_" or, "_yourself is_," cannot be good syntax; nor does any one say, "_yourself art_," or, "_ourself am_," but rather, "_yourself are_:" as, "Captain, _yourself are_ the fittest."--_Dryden_. But to call this a "_concord_," is to turn a third part of the language upsidedown; because, by analogy, it confounds, to such extent at least, the plural number with the singular through all our verbs; that is, if _ourself_ and _yourself_ are singulars, and not rather plurals put for singulars by a figure of syntax. But the words are, in some few instances, written separately; and then both the meaning and the construction are different; as, "Your _self_ is sacred, profane _it_ not."--_The Dial_, Vol. i, p. 86. Perhaps the word _myself_ above ought rather to have been two words; thus, "And, in a monarchy, _my self is all_ that I can love." The two words here differ in person and case, perhaps also in gender; and, in the preceding instance, they differ in person, number, gender, and case. But the compound always follows the person, number, and gender of its first part, and only the case of its last. The notion of some grammarians, (to wit, of Wells, and the sixty-eight others whom he cites for it,) that _you_ and _your_ are actually made singular by usage, is demonstrably untrue. Do _we, our_, and _us_, become actually singular, as often as a king or a critic applies them to himself? No: for nothing can be worse syntax than, _we am, we was_, or _you was_, though some contend for this last construction. [204] _Whose_ is sometimes used as the possessive case of _which_; as, "A religion _whose_ origin is divine."--_Blair_. See Observations 4th and 5th, on the Classes of Pronouns. [205] After _but_, as in the following sentence, the double relative _what_ is sometimes applied to persons; and it is here equivalent _to the friend who_:-- "Lorenzo, pride repress; nor hope to find A friend, but _what_ has found a friend in thee."--_Young_. [206] Of all these compounds. L. Murray very improperly says, "They are _seldom used_, in modern style."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 54; also _Fisk's_, p. 65. None of them are yet obsolete, though the shorter forms seem to be now generally preferred. The following suggestion of Cobbett's is erroneous; because it implies that the shorter forms are innovations and faults; and because the author carelessly speaks of them as _one thing only_: "We _sometimes_ omit the _so_, and say, _whoever, whomever, whatever_, and even _whosever_. _It is_ a mere _abbreviation_. The _so_ is understood: and, it is best not to omit to write it."--_Eng. Gram._, ¶ 209. R. C. Smith dismisses the compound relatives with three lines; and these he closes with the following notion: "_They are not often used!_"--_New Gram._, p. 61. [207] Sanborn, with strange ignorance of the history of those words, teaches thus: "_Mine_ and _thine_ appear to have been formed from _my_ and _thy_ by changing _y_ into _i_ and adding _n_, and then subjoining _e_ to retain the long sound of the vowel."--_Analytical Gram._, p. 92. This false notion, as we learn from his guillemets and a remark in his preface, he borrowed from "Parkhurst's Systematic Introduction." Dr. Lowth says, "The Saxon _Ic_ hath the possessive case _Min; Thu_, possessive _Thin; He_, possessive _His_: From which our possessive cases of the same pronouns are taken _without alteration_."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 23. [208] Latham, with a singularity quite remarkable, reverses this doctrine in respect to the two classes, and says, "_My, thy, our, your, her_, and _their_ signify possession, because they are possessive cases. * * * _Mine, thine, ours, yours, hers, theirs_, signify possession for a different reason. They partake of the nature of _adjectives_, and in all the allied languages are declined as such."--_Latham's Elementary E. Gram._, p. 94. Weld, like Wells, with a few more whose doctrine will be criticised by-and-by, adopting here an other odd opinion, takes the former class only for forms of the possessive case; the latter he disposes of thus: "_Ours, yours, theirs, hers_, and generally _mine_ and _thine_, are POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS, used in either the _nominative or objective_ case,"--_Weld's Gram., Improved Ed._, p. 68. Not only denying the possessives with ellipsis to be instances of the possessive case, but stupidly mistaking at once two dissimilar things for a third which is totally unlike to either,--i. e., assuming together for _substitution_ both an _ellipsis_ of one word and an _equivalence_ to two--(as some others more learned have very strangely done--) he supposes all this class of pronouns to have forsaken every property of their legitimate roots,--their person, their number, their gender, their case,--and to have assumed other properties, such as belong to "the thing possessed!" In the example, "_Your_ house is on the plain, _ours_ is on the hill," he supposes _ours_ to be of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case; and not, as it plainly is, of the first person, plural number, masculine gender, and possessive case. Such parsing should condemn forever any book that teaches it. [209] This word should have been _numerals_, for two or three reasons. The author speaks of the _numeral adjectives_; and to say "the _numbers_ must agree in _number_ with their substantives," is tautological--G. Brown. [210] Cardell assails the common doctrine of the grammarians on this point, with similar assertions, and still more earnestness. See his _Essay on Language_, p. 80. The notion that "these _pretended possessives_ [are] uniformly used as _nominatives_ or _objectives_"--though demonstrably absurd, and confessedly repugnant to what is "_usually considered_" to be their true explanation--was adopted by Jaudon, in 1812; and has recently found several new advocates; among whom are Davis, Felch, Goodenow, Hazen, Smart, Weld, and Wells. There is, however, much diversity, as well as much inaccuracy, in their several expositions of the matter. Smart inserts in his declensions, as the only forms of the possessive case, the words of which he afterwards speaks thus: "The following _possessive cases_ of the personal pronouns, (See page vii,) _must be called_ PERSONAL PRONOUNS POSSESSIVE: _mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs_. For these words are always used _substantively_, so as to include the meaning of some noun in the third person singular or plural, in the nominative or the objective ease. Thus, if _we are speaking_ of books, and say [,] '_Mine_ are here,' _mine_ means _my books_, [Fist] and it must be deemed a personal pronoun _possessive_ in the _third_ person _plural_, and _nominative_ to the verb _are_."--_Smart's Accidence_, p. xxii. If to say, these "_possessive cases_ must be called a _class_ of _pronouns_, used _substantively_, and deemed _nominatives_ or _objectives_," is not absurd, then nothing can be. Nor is any thing in grammar more certain, than that the pronoun "_mine_" can only be used by the speaker or writer, to denote himself or herself as the owner of something. It is therefore of the _first_ person, _singular_ number, _masculine_ (or feminine) gender, and _possessive case_; being governed by the name of the thing or things possessed. This name is, of course, always _known_; and, if known and not expressed, it is "understood." For sometimes a word is repeated to the mind, and clearly understood, where "it cannot properly be" expressed; as, "And he came and sought _fruit_ thereon, and found _none_."--_Luke_, xiii, 6. Wells opposes this doctrine, citing a passage from Webster, as above, and also imitating his argument. This author acknowledges three classes of pronouns--"personal, relative, and interrogative;" and then, excluding these words from their true place among personals of the possessive case, absurdly makes them a _supernumerary class of possessive nominatives_ or _objectives_! "_Mine, thine, his_, _ours, yours_, and _theirs_, are POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS, used in construction either as _nominatives_ or _objectives_; as, 'Your pleasures are past, _mine_ are to come.' Here the word _mine_, which is used as a substitute for _my pleasures_, is _the subject_ of the verb _are_."--_Wells's School Gram._, p. 71; 113 Ed., p. 78. Now the question to find the subject of the verb _are_, is, "My _what_ are to come?" Ans. "_pleasures_." But the author proceeds to argue in a note thus: "_Mine, thine_, etc. are often parsed as pronouns in the possessive case, _and governed by nouns understood._ Thus, in the sentence, 'This book is mine,' the _word mine_ is said to _possess book_. That the word _book_ is _not here understood_, is obvious from the fact, that, when it is supplied, the phrase becomes not '_mine_ book,' but '_my_ book,' the pronoun being changed from _mine_ to _my_; so that we are made, by this practice, to parse _mine_ as _possessing a word_ understood, before which it cannot properly be used. The word _mine_ is here evidently employed as a substitute for the two words, _my_ and _book_."--_Wells, ibid._ This note appears to me to be, in many respects, faulty. In the first place, its whole design was, to disprove what is true. For, bating the mere difference of _person_, the author's example above is equal to this: "Your pleasures are past, _W. H. Wells's_ are to come." The ellipsis of "_pleasures_", is evident in both. But _ellipsis_ is not _substitution_; no, nor is _equivalence. Mine_, when it suggests an ellipsis of the governing noun, is _equivalent_ to _my and that noun_; but certainly, not "_a substitute for the two words_." It is a substitute, or pronoun, for the _name of the speaker or writer_; and so is _my_; both forms representing, and always agreeing with, that name or person only. No possessive agrees with what governs it; but every pronoun ought to agree with that for which it stands. Secondly, if the note above cited does not aver, in its first sentence, that the pronouns in question _are "governed by nouns understood_," it comes much nearer to saying this, than a writer should who meant to deny it. In the third place, the example, "This book is mine," is not a good one for its purpose. The word "_mine_" may be regularly parsed as a possessive, without supposing any ellipsis; for "_book_," the name of the thing possessed, is given, and in obvious connexion with it. And further, the matter affirmed is _ownership_, requiring _different cases_; and not the _identity_ of something under different names, which must be put in the _same case_. In the fourth place, to mistake regimen for possession, and thence speak of _one word "as possessing" an other_, a mode of expression occurring twice in the foregoing note, is not only unscholarlike, but positively absurd. But, possibly, the author may have meant by it, to ridicule the choice phraseology of the following Rule: "A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by _the noun it possesses_."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 181; _Frazee's_, 1844, p. 25. [211] In respect to the _numbers_, the following text is an uncouth exception: "Pass _ye_ away, _thou_ inhabitant of Saphir."--_Micah_, i, 11. The singular and the plural are here strangely confounded. Perhaps the reading should be, "Pass _thou_ away, _O_ inhabitant of Saphir." Nor is the Bible free from _abrupt transitions_ from one number to the other, or from one person to an other, which are neither agreeable nor strictly grammatical; as, "Brethren, if a man be overtaken in a fault, _ye which [who]_ are spiritual, restore such _an [a]_ one in the spirit of meekness; considering _thyself_, lest _thou_ also be tempted."--_Gal._, vi, 1. "_Ye_ that put far away the evil day, and cause the seat of violence to come near; that lie upon beds of ivory, and stretch _themselves_ upon _their_ couches," &c--_Amos_, vi, 9. [212] "The solemn style is used, chiefly, in the Bible and in prayer. The Society of Friends _retain it in common parlance_. It consists in using _thou_ in the singular number, and _ye_ in the plural, instead of using _you_ in both numbers as in the familiar style. * * * The third person singular [of verbs] ends with _th_ or _eth_, which affects only the present indicative, and _hath_ of the perfect. The second person, singular, ends with _st, est_, or _t_ only."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 58. "In [the] solemn and poetic styles, _mine, thine_, and _thy_, are used; and THIS _is the style adopted by the Friends' society_. In common discourse it appears very stiff and affected."--_Bartlett's C. S. Man'l_, Part II, p. 72. [213] "And of the History of his being _tost_ in a Blanket, _he saith_, 'Here, Scriblerus, _thou lessest_ in what _thou assertest_ concerning the blanket: it was not a blanket, but a rug.--Curlliad, p. 25."--_Notes to Pope's Dunciad_, B. ii, verse 3. A vulgar idea solemnly expressed, is ludicrous. Uttered in familiar terms, it is simply vulgar: as, "_You lie_, Scriblerus, in what _you say_ about the blanket." [214] "Notwithstanding these verbal mistakes, the Bible, for the size of it, is the most accurate grammatical composition that we have in the English language. The authority of several eminent grammarians might be adduced in support of this assertion, but it may be sufficient to mention only that of Dr. Lowth, who says, 'The present translation of the Bible, is _the best standard_ of the English language.'"--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 166. I revere the Bible vastly too much to be pleased with an imitation of its peculiar style, in any man's ordinary speech or writing.--G. BROWN. [215] "_Ye_, except in the solemn style, is _obsolete_; but it is used in the language of tragedy, to express contempt: as, 'When _ye_ shall know what Margaret knows, _ye_ may not be so thankful.' Franklin."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 57. "The second person plural had _formerly_ YE _both in the nominative and the objective._ This form is _now obsolete in the objective_, and nearly obsolete in the nominative."--_Hart's Gram._, p. 55. [216] So has Milton:-- "To waste it all myself, and leave _ye_ none! So disinherited how would _you_ bless me!"--_Par. Lost_, B. x, l. 820. [217] "The word _what_ is a _compound of two specifying adjectives_, each, of course, referring to a noun, expressed or understood. It is equivalent to _the which_; _that which_; _which that_; or _that that_; used also in the plural. At different periods, and in different authors, it appears in the varying forms, _tha qua, qua tha, qu'tha, quthat, quhat_, _hwat_, and _what_. This word is found in other forms; but it is needless to multiply them."--_Cardell's Essay on Language_, p. 86. [218] This author's distribution of the pronouns, of which I have taken some notice in Obs. 10th above, is remarkable for its inconsistencies and absurdities. First he avers, "Pronouns are _generally_ divided into three kinds, the _Personal_, the _Adjective_, and the _Relative_ pronouns. _They are all known by the lists._"--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 96. These short sentences are far from being accurate, clear, or true. He should have made the several kinds known, by a good definition of each. But this was work to which he did not find himself adequate. And if we look to his _lists_ for the particular words of each kind, we shall get little satisfaction. Of the _Personal_ pronouns, he says, "There are _five_ of them; _I, thou, he_, _she, it_."--_Ib._, p. 97. These are _simple_ words, and in their declension they are properly multiplied to forty. (See _Ib._, p. 99.) Next he seems to double the number, thus: "When _self_ is added to the personal pronouns, as himself, myself, itself, themselves, &c. _they_ are called _Compound Personal Pronouns_."--_Ib._, p. 99. Then he asserts that _mine_, _thine, his, hers, ours, yours_, and _theirs_, are compounds of _ne_ or _s_ with _mi, thi, hi_, &c.: that their application invariably "gives them a compound character:" and that, "They may, therefore, be properly denominated _Compound Personal Pronouns_."--_Ib._, p. 101. Next he comes to his _Adjective_ pronouns; and, after proving that he has grossly misplaced and misnamed every one of them, he gives his lists of the three kinds of these. His _Relative_ pronouns are _who, which_, and _that_. "_What_ is generally a _compound_ relative."--_Ib._, p. 111. The compounds of _who, which, and_ _what_, with _ever_ or _soever_, he calls "compound _pronouns_, but not compound relatives."--_Ib._, pp. 110 and 112. Lastly he discovers, that, "Truth and simplicity" have been shamefully neglected in this his third section of pronouns; that, "Of the words called '_relatives_,' _who_ only is a pronoun, and this is strictly _personal_;" that, "It ought to be classed with the personal pronouns;" and that, "_Which, that_, and _what_, are always adjectives. They _never stand for_, but always _belong to_ nouns, either expressed or implied."--_Ib._, p. 114. What admirable teachings are these! [219] "It is now proper to give some _examples of the manner_ in which the learners should be exercised, in order to improve their knowledge, and to render it familiar to them. This is called _parsing_. The nature of the subject, as well as the adaptation of it to learners, requires _that it should be divided_ into two parts: viz. parsing, as it respects etymology alone; and parsing, as it respects both etymology and syntax."--_Murray's Gram., Octavo_, Vol. 1, p. 225. How very little real respect for the opinions of Murray, has been entertained by these self-seeking magnifiers and modifiers of his work! What Murray calls "_Syntactical Parsing_" is sometimes called "_Construing_," especially by those who will have _Parsing_ to be nothing more than an etymological exercise. A late author says, "The practice of _Construing_ differs from that of parsing, in the extension of its objects. Parsing merely indicates the parts of speech and their accidents, but construing searches for and points out their syntactical relations."--_D. Blair's Gram._, p. 49. Here the distinction which Murray judged to be necessary, is still more strongly marked and insisted on. And though I see no utility in restricting the word _Parsing_ to a mere description of the parts of speech with their accidents, and no impropriety in calling the latter branch of the exercise "_Syntactical Parsing_;" I cannot but think there is such a necessity for the division, as forms a very grave argument against those tangled schemes of grammar which do not admit of it. Blair is grossly inconsistent with himself. For, after drawing his distinction between Parsing and Construing, as above, he takes no further notice of the latter; but, having filled up seven pages with his most wretched mode of "PARSING," adds, in an emphatic note: "_The Teacher should direct the Pupil to_ CONSTRUE, IN THE SAME MANNER, _any passage from_ MY CLASS-BOOK, _or other Work, at the rate of three or four lines per day_."--_D. Blair's Gram._, p. 56. [220] This is a comment upon the following quotation from Milton, where _Hers_ for _His_ would be a gross barbarism:-- "Should intermitted vengeance arm again _His_ red right hand to plague us."--_Par. Lost_, B. ii, l. 174. [221] The Imperfect Participle, _when simple_, or when taken as one of the four principal terms constituting the verb or springing from it, ends _always_ in _ing_. But, in a subsequent chapter, I include under this name the first participle of the passive verb; and this, in our language, is always a compound, and the latter term of it does not end in _ing_: as, "In all languages, indeed, examples are to be found of adjectives _being compared_ whose signification admits neither intension nor remission."--CROMBIE, _on Etym. and Syntax_, p. 106. According to most of our writers on English grammar, the Present or Imperfect Participle Passive is _always_ a compound of _being_ and the form of the perfect participle: as, _being loved, being seen_. But some represent it to have _two_ forms, one of which is always simple; as, "PERFECT PASSIVE, obeyed _or_ being obeyed."--_Sanborn's Analytical Gram._, p. 55. "Loved _or_ being loved."--_Parkhurst's Grammar for Beginners_, p. 11; _Greene's Analysis_, p. 225. "Loved, or, _being_ loved."--_Clark's Practical Gram._, p. 83. I here concur with the majority, who in no instance take the participle in _ed_ or _en_, alone, for the Present or Imperfect. [222] In the following example, "_he_" and "_she_" are converted into verbs; as "_thou_" sometimes is, in the writings of Shakspeare, and others: "Is it not an impulse of selfishness or of a depraved nature to _he_ and _she_ inanimate objects?"--_Cutler's English Gram._, p. 16. Dr. Bullions, who has heretofore published several of the worst definitions of the verb anywhere extant, has now perhaps one of the best: "A VERB is a word used to express the _act, being_, or _state_ of its subject. "--_Analyt. & Pract. Gram._, p. 59. Yet it is not very obvious, that "_he_" and "_she_" are here verbs under this definition. Dr. Mandeville, perceiving that "the usual definitions of the verb are extremely defective," not long ago helped the schools to the following: "A verb is a word which describes _the state or condition_ of a _noun or pronoun_ in relation to _time_,"--_Course of Reading_, p. 24. Now it is plain, that under this definition too, Cutler's infinitives, "to _he_ and _she_" cannot be verbs; and, in my opinion, very small is the number of words that can be. No verb "describes the state or condition of a _noun or pronoun_," except in some form of _parsing_; nor, even in this sort of exercise, do I find any verb "which describes the state or condition" of such a word "_in relation to time_." Hence, I can make of this definition nothing but nonsense. Against my definition of a verb, this author urges, that it "excludes neuter verbs, expresses _no relation_ to subject or time, and uses terms in a vague or contradictory sense."--_Ib._, p. 25. The first and the last of these three allegations do not appear to be well founded; and the second, if infinitives are verbs, indicates an excellence rather than a fault. The definition assumes that the mind as well as the body may "_act_" or "_be acted upon_." For this cause, Dr. Mandeville, who cannot conceive that "_to be loved_" is in any wise "_to be acted upon_," pronounces it "fatally defective!" His argument is a little web of sophistry, not worth unweaving here. One of the best scholars cited in the reverend Doctor's book says, "Of mental powers we have _no conception_, but as certain capacities of _intellectual action_." And again, he asks, "Who can be conscious of _judgment, memory_, and _reflection_, and doubt that man was made _to act_!"--EVERETT: _Course of Reading_, p. 320. [223] Dr. Johnson says, "English verbs are active, as _I love_; or neuter, as _I languish_. The neuters are formed like the actives. The passive voice is formed by joining the participle preterit to the substantive verb, as _I am loved_." He also observes, "Most verbs signifying _action_ may likewise signify _condition_ or _habit_, and become _neuters_; as, _I love_, I am in love; _I strike_, I am now striking."--_Gram. with his Quarto Dict._, p. 7. [224] The doctrine here referred to, appears in both works in the very same words: to wit, "English Verbs are either Active, Passive, or Neuter. There are two sorts of Active Verbs, viz. _active-transitive_ and _active-intransitive_ Verbs."--_British Gram._, p. 153; _Buchanan's_, 56. Buchanan was in this case the copyist. [225] "The distinction between verbs absolutely neuter, as _to sleep_, and verbs active intransitive, as _to walk_, though _founded_ in NATURE _and_ TRUTH, is of little use in grammar. Indeed it would rather perplex than assist the learner; for the difference between verbs active and [verbs] neuter, as transitive and intransitive, is easy and obvious; but the difference between verbs absolutely neuter and [those which are] intransitively active is not always clear. But however these latter may differ in nature, the construction of them both is the same; and grammar is not so much concerned with their _real_, as with their _grammatical_ properties."--_Lowth's Gram_; p. 30. But are not "TRUTH, NATURE, and REALITY," worthy to be preferred to any instructions that contradict them? If they are, the good doctor and his worthy copyist have here made an ill choice. It is not only for the sake of these properties, that I retain a distinction which these grammarians, and others above named, reject; but for the sake of avoiding the untruth, confusion, and absurdity, into which one must fall by calling all active-intransitive verbs _neuter_. The distinction of active verbs, as being either transitive or intransitive, is also necessarily retained. But the suggestion, that this distinction is more "_easy and obvious_" than the other, is altogether an error. The really neuter verbs, being very few, occasion little or no difficulty. But very many active verbs, perhaps a large majority, are sometimes used intransitively; and of those which our lexicographers record as being always transitive, not a few are occasionally found without any object, either expressed or clearly suggested: as, "He _convinces_, but he does not _elevate nor animate_,"--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 242. "The child _imitates_, and _commits_ to memory; whilst the riper age _digests_, and thinks independently."--_Dr. Lieber, Lit. Conv._, p. 313. Of examples like these, three different views maybe taken; and it is _very questionable_ which is the right one: _First_, that these verbs are here _intransitive_, though they are not commonly so; _Second_, that they are _transitive_, and have objects understood; _Third_, that they are used _improperly_, because no determinate objects are given them. If we assume the second opinion or the last, the full or the correct expressions may be these: "He convinces _the judgement_, but he does not elevate _the imagination_, or animate _the feelings_."--"The child imitates _others_, and commits _words_ to memory; whilst the riper age digests _facts or truths_, and thinks independently." These verbs are here transitive, but are they so above? Those grammarians who, supposing no other distinction important, make of verbs but two classes, transitive and intransitive, are still as much at variance, and as much at fault, as others, (and often more so,) when they come to draw the line of this distinction. To "_require_" an objective, to "_govern_" an objective, to "_admit_" an objective, and to "_have_" an objective, are criterions considerably different. Then it is questionable, whether infinitives, participles, or sentences, must or can have the effect of objectives. One author says, "If a verb has any objective case _expressed_, it is transitive: if it has none, it is intransitive. _Verbs which_ appear transitive in their nature, may frequently be used intransitively."-- _Chandler's Old Gram._, p. 32; his _Common School Gram._, p. 48. An other says, "A transitive verb _asserts_ action which does or can, terminate on some object."--_Frazee's Gram._, p. 29. An other avers, "There are two classes of verbs _perfectly distinct_ from each other, viz: Those which _do_, and those which _do not_, govern an objective case." And his definition is, "A _Transitive Verb_ is one which _requires_ an _objective case_ after it."--_Hart's E. Gram._, p. 63. Both Frazee and Hart reckon the _passive_ verb _transitive!_ And the latter teaches, that, "_Transitive_ verbs in English, are sometimes used _without an objective case_; as, The apple _tastes_ sweet!"--_Hart's Gram._, p, 73. [226] In the hands of some gentlemen, "the Principles of Latin Grammar," and "the Principles of English Grammar,"--are equally pliable, or changeable; and, what is very remarkable, a comparison of different editions will show, that the fundamental doctrines of a whole "Series of Grammars, English, Latin, and Greek," may so change in a single lustrum, as to rest upon authorities altogether different. Dr. Bullions's grammars, a few years ago, like those of his great oracles, Adam, Murray, and Lennie, divided verbs into "three kinds, _Active, Passive_, and _Neuter_." Now they divide them into two only, "_Transitive_ and _Intransitive_;" and absurdly aver, that "_Verbs in the passive form are really transitive as in the active form_."--_Prin. of E. Gram._, 1843, p. 200. Now, as if no verb could be plural, and no transitive act could be future, conditional, in progress, or left undone, they define thus: "A _Transitive_ verb expresses an _act done_ by one person or thing to another."--_Ib._, p. 29; _Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, 60; _Latin Gram._, 77. Now, the division which so lately as 1842 was pronounced by the Doctor to be "more useful than any other," and advantageously accordant with "most dictionaries of the English language," (see his _Fourth Edition_, p. 30,) is wholly rejected from this notable "_Series_." Now, the "_vexed question_" about "the classification of verbs," which, at some revision still later, drew from this author whole pages of weak arguments for his faulty _changes_, is complacently supposed to have been _well settled_ in his favour! Of this matter, now, in 1849, he speaks thus: "The division of verbs into transitive and intransitive has been so generally adopted and approved by the best grammarians, that any discussion of the subject is now unnecessary."--_Bullions's Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, p. 59. [227] This late writer seems to have published his doctrine on this point as a _novelty_; and several teachers ignorantly received and admired it as such: I have briefly shown, in the Introduction to this work, how easily they were deceived. "By this, that Question may be resolv'd, whether every Verb not Passive governs always an Accusative, at least understood: '_Tis the Opinion of some very able_ GRAMMARIANS, but for _our_ Parts _we_ don't think it."--_Grammar published by John Brightland_, 7th Ed., London, 1746, p. 115. [228] Upon this point, Richard Johnson cites and criticises Lily's system thus: "'A Verb Neuter endeth in _o_ or _m_, and cannot take _r_ to make _him_ a Passive; as, _Curro_, I run; _Sum_, I am.'--_Grammar, Eng_. p. 13. This Definition, is founded upon the Notion abovementioned, viz. That none but Transitives are Verbs Active, which is contrary to the reason of Things, and the common sense of Mankind. And what can shock a Child more, of any Ingenuity, than to be told, That _Ambuto_ and _Curro_ are Verbs Neuter; that is, to speak according to the common Apprehensions of Mankind, that they signifie neither to do, nor suffer."--_Johnson's Grammatical Commentaries_, 8vo, London, 1706, p. 273. [229] Murray says, "_Mood_ or _Mode_ is a particular form of the verb, showing the manner in which the being, action, or passion is represented."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 63. By many grammarians, the term _Mode_ is preferred to _Mood_; but the latter is, for this use, the more distinctive, and by far the more common word. In some treatises on grammar, as well as in books of logic, certain _parts of speech_, as _adjectives_ and _adverbs_, are called _Modes_, because they qualify or modify other terms. E.g., "Thus all the parts of speech are reducible to four; viz., _Names, Verbs, Modes, Connectives_."--_Enclytica, or Universal Gram._, p. 8. "_Modes_ are naturally divided, by their attribution to names or verbs, into _adnames_ and _adverbs_."--_Ibid._, p. 24. After making this application of the name _modes_, was it not improper for the learned author to call the moods also "_modes_?" [230] "We have, in English, no genuine subjunctive mood, except the preterimperfect, if I _were_, if thou _wert_, &c. of the verb _to be_. [See Notes and Observations on the Third Example of Conjugation, in this chapter.] The phrase termed _the subjunctive mood_, is elliptical; _shall, may_, &c. being understood: as, 'Though hand (shall) join in hand, the wicked shall not be unpunished.' 'If it (may) be possible, live peaceably with all.' Scriptures."--_Rev. W. Allen's Gram._, p. 61. Such expressions as, "If thou _do love_, If he _do love_," appear to disprove this doctrine. [See Notes and Remarks on the Subjunctive of the First Example conjugated below.] [231] "Mr. Murray has changed his opinion, as often as Laban changed Jacob's wages. In the edition we print from, we find _shall_ and _will_ used in each person of the _first_ and _second_ future tenses of the subjunctive, but he now states that in the second future tense, _shalt, shall_, should be used instead of _wilt, will_. Perhaps this is _the only improvement_ he has made in his Grammar since 1796."--_Rev. T. Smith's Edition of Lindley Murray's English Grammar_, p. 67. [232] Notwithstanding this expression, Murray did not teach, as do many modern grammarians, that _inflected_ forms of the present tense, such as, "If he _thinks_ so," "Unless he _deceives_ me," "If thou _lov'st_ me," are of the subjunctive mood; though, when he rejected his changeless forms of the other tenses of this mood, he _improperly_ put as many indicatives in their places. With him, and his numerous followers, the ending determines the mood in one tense, while the conjunction controls it in the other five! In his syntax, he argues, "that in cases wherein contingency and futurity do not occur, it is not proper to turn the verb from its signification of present time, _nor to vary_ [he means, _or to forbear to change_] its form or termination. [Fist] _The verb would then be in the indicative mood, whatever conjunctions might attend it_."--_L. Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 208: 12mo, p. 167. [233] Some grammarians--(among whom are Lowth, Dalton, Cobbett, and Cardell--) recognize only three tenses, or "_times_," of English verbs; namely, _the present, the past_, and _the future_. A few, like Latham and Child, denying all the compound tenses to be tenses, acknowledge only the first two, _the present_ and _the past_; and these they will have to consist only of the simple or radical verb and the simple preterit. Some others, who acknowledge six tenses, such as are above described, have endeavoured of late to _change the names_ of a majority of them; though with too little agreement among themselves, as may be seen by the following citations: (1.) "We have six tenses; three, the _Present, Past_, and _Future_, to represent time in a general way; and three, the _Present Perfect, Past Perfect_, and _Future Perfect_, to represent the precise time of _finishing_ the action."--_Perley's Gram._, 1834, p. 25. (2.) "There are six tenses; the _present_, the _past_, the _present-perfect_, the _past-perfect_, the _future_, and the _future-perfect_."--_Hiley's Gram._, 1840, p. 28. (3.) "There are six tenses; the _Present_ and _Present Perfect_, the _Past_ and _Past Perfect_, and the _Future_ and _Future Perfect_."--_Farnum's Gram._, 1842, p. 34. (4.) "The names of the tenses will then be, _Present, Present Perfect; Past, Past Perfect; Future, Future Perfect_. They are _usually_ named as follows: _Present, Perfect, Imperfect, Pluperfect, Future, Second Future_."--_N. Butler's Gram_, 1845, p. 69. (5.) "We have six tenses;--the _present_, the _past_, the _future_, the _present perfect_, the _past perfect_, and the _future perfect_."--_Wells's School Gram._, 1846. p. 82. (6.) "The tenses in English are six--the _Present_, the _Present-perfect_, the _Past_, the _Past-perfect_, the _Future_, and the _Future-perfect_."--_Bullions's Gram._, 1849. p. 71. (7.) "Verbs have _Six Tenses_, called the _Present_, the _Perfect-Present_, the _Past_, the _Perfect-Past_, the _Future_, and the _Perfect-Future_."--_Spencer's Gram._, 1852, p. 53. (8.) "There are six tenses: the _present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect_, and _future perfect_."--_Covell's Gram._, 1853, p. 62. (9.) "The tenses are--the _present_, the _present perfect_; the _past_, the _past perfect_; the _future_, the _future perfect_."--_S. S. Greene's Gram._, 1853, p. 65. (10.) "There are six tenses; _one present_, and _but one, three past_, and _two future_." They are named thus: "_The Present, the First Past, the Second Past, the Third Past, the First Future, the Second Future_."--"For the sake of symmetry, to call _two_ of them _present_, and _two_ only past, while _one_ only is _present_, and _three_ are _past_ tenses, is to sacrifice truth to beauty."--_Pinneo's Gram._, 1853, pp. 69 and 70. "The old names, _imperfect, perfect_, and _pluperfect_," which, in 1845, Butler justly admitted to be the _usual_ names of the three past tenses. Dr. Pinneo, who dates his copy-right from 1850, most unwarrantably declares to be "_now generally discarded_!"--_Analytical Gram._, p. 76; _Same Revised_, p. 81. These terms, still predominant in use, he strangely supposes to have been suddenly superseded by others which are no better, if so good: imagining that the scheme which Perley or Hiley introduced, of "_two present, two past_, and _two future_ tenses,"--a scheme which, he says, "has no foundation in truth, and is therefore to be rejected,"--had prepared the way for the above-cited innovation of his own, which merely presents the old ideas under new terms, or terms partly new, and wholly unlikely to prevail. William Ward, one of the ablest of our old grammarians, rejecting in 1765 the two terms _imperfect_ and _perfect_, adopted others which resemble Pinneo's; but few, if any, have since named the tenses as he did, thus: "_The Present, the First Preterite, the Second Preterite, the Pluperfect, the First Future, the Second Future_."--_Ward's Gram._, p. 47. [234] "The infinitive mood, as '_to shine_,' may be called the name of the verb; it carries _neither time nor affirmation_; but simply expresses that attribute, action, or state of things, which is to be the subject of the other moods and tenses."--_Blair's Lectures_, p. 81. By the word "_subject_" the Doctor does not here mean the _nominative to_ the other moods and tenses, but the _material of_ them, or that which is formed into them. [235] Some grammarians absurdly deny that persons and numbers are properties of verbs at all: not indeed because our verbs have so few inflections, or because these authors wish to discard the little distinction that remains; but because they have some fanciful conception, that these properties cannot pertain to a verb. Yet, when they come to their syntax, they all forget, that if a verb has no person and number, it cannot agree with a nominative in these respects. Thus KIRKHAM: "_Person_, strictly speaking, is a quality that belongs _not to verbs_, but to nouns and pronouns. We say, however, that the verb _must agree_ with its nominative in _person_, as well as in number."--_Gram. in Familiar Lect._, p. 46. So J. W. WRIGHT: "In truth, number and person _are not properties of verbs_. Mr. Murray grants that, 'in philosophical strictness, both number and person might (say, _may_) be excluded from every verb, as they are, in fact, the properties of substantives, not a part of the essence of the verb.'"--_Philosophical Gram._, p. 68. This author's rule of syntax for verbs, makes them agree with their nominatives, not in person and number, but in _termination_, or else in _nobody knows what_: "A verb _must vary its terminations_, so as to agree with the nominative to which it is connected."--_Ib._, p. 168. But Murray's rule is, "A verb must agree with its nominative case in _number and person_:" and this doctrine is directly repugnant to that interpretation of his words above, by which these gentlemen have so egregiously misled themselves and others. Undoubtedly, both the numbers and the persons of all English verbs might be abolished, and the language would still be intelligible. But while any such distinctions remain, and the verb is actually modified to form them, they belong as properly to this part of speech as they can to any other. De Sacy says, "The distinction of number _occurs_ in the verb;" and then adds, "yet this distinction does not properly _belong to_ the verb, as it signifies nothing which can be numbered."--_Fosdick's Version_, p. 64. This deceptive reason is only a new form of the blunder which I have once exposed, of confounding the numbers in grammar with numbers in arithmetic. J. M. Putnam, after repeating what is above cited from Murray, adds: "The terms _number_ and _person_, as applied to the verb are _figurative_. The properties which belong to one thing, for convenience' sake are ascribed to another."--_Gram._, p. 49. Kirkham imagines, if ten men _build_ a house, or _navigate_ a ship round the world, they perform just "_ten actions_," and no more. "Common sense teaches you," says he, "that _there must be as many actions as there are actors_; and that the verb when it has no form or ending to show it, is as strictly plural, as when it has. So, in the phrase, '_We walk_,' the verb _walk_ is [of the] first person, because it expresses the _actions_ performed by the _speakers_. The verb, then, when correctly written, always agrees, _in sense_, with its nominative in number and person."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 47. It seems to me, that these authors do not very well know what persons or numbers, in grammar, are. [236] John Despauter, whose ample Grammar of the Latin language appeared in its third edition in 1517, represents this practice as a corruption originating in false pride, and maintained by the wickedness of hungry flatterers. On the twentieth leaf of his Syntax, he says, "Videntur hodie Christiani superbiores, quam olim ethnici imperatores, qui dii haberi voluerunt; nam hi nunquam inviti audierunt pronomina _tu, tibi, tuus_. Quæ si hodie alicui monachorum antistiti, aut decano, aut pontifici dicantur aut scribantur, videbitur ita loquens aut scribens blasphemasse, et anathemate dignus: nec tamen Abbas, aut pontifex, tam ægrè feret, quam Malchi, aut famelici gnathones, his assistentes, et vociferantes, _Sic loqueris, aut scribis, pontifici?_ Quintilianus et Donatus dicunt barbarismum, aut soloecismum esse, siquis uni dicat. _Salvete._" The learned Erasmus also ridiculed this practice, calling those who adopted it, "_voscitatores_," or _youyouers_. [237] "By a _perversion of language_ the pronoun _you_ is almost invariably used for the second person singular, as well as plural; always, however, retaining the plural verb; as, 'My friend, _you write_ a good hand.' _Thou_ is confined to a solemn style, or [to] poetical compositions."--_Chandler's Grammar_, Edition of 1821, p. 41; Ed. of 1847, p. 66. [238] In regard to the inflection of our verbs, William B. Fowle, who is something of an antiquarian in grammar, and who professes now to be "conservative" of the popular system, makes a threefold distinction of style, thus: "English verbs have three _Styles_[,] or _Modes_,[;] called [the] _Familiar_, [the] _Solemn_[,] and [the] _Ancient_. The _familiar style_, or mode, is that used in common conversation; as, you _see_, he _fears_. The _solemn style_, or mode, is that used in the Bible, and in prayer; as, Thou _seest_, he _feareth_. The _ancient style_, or mode, now little used, _allows no change_ in the second and third person, [_persons_,] singular, of the verb, and generally follows the word _if_, _though, lest_, or _whether_; as, if thou _see_; though he _fear_; lest he _be_ angry; whether he _go_ or _stay_."--_Fowle's Common School Grammar_, Part Second, p. 44. Among his subsequent examples of the _Solemn style_, he gives the following: "Thou _lovest_, Thou _lovedst_, Thou _art_, Thou _wast_, Thou _hast_, Thou _hadst_, Thou _doest_ or _dost_, Thou _didst_." And, as corresponding examples of the _Ancient style_, he has these forms: "Thou _love_, Thou _loved_, Thou _or you be_, Thou _wert_, Thou _have_, Thou _had_, Thou _do_, Thou _did_."--_Ib._, pp. 44-50. This distinction and this arrangement do not appear to me to be altogether warranted by facts. The necessary distinction of _moods_, this author rejects; confounding the _Subjunctive_ with the _Indicative_, in order to furnish out this useless and fanciful contrast of his _Solemn_ and _Ancient styles_. [239] In that monstrous jumble and perversion of Murray's doctrines, entitled, "English Grammar on the Productive System, by Roswell C. Smith," _you_ is everywhere preferred to _thou_, and the verbs are conjugated _without the latter pronoun_. At the close of his paradigms, however, the author inserts a few lines respecting "_these obsolete conjugations_," with the pronoun _thou_; for a further account of which, he refers the learner, _with a sneer_, to the common grammars in the schools. See the work, p. 79. He must needs be a remarkable grammarian, with whom Scripture, poetry, and prayer, are all "_obsolete_!" Again: "_Thou_ in the singular _is obsolete_, except among the Society of Friends; and _ye_ is an _obsolete_ plural!"--_Guy's School Gram._, p. 25. In an other late grammar, professedly "constructed upon the _basis of Murray's_, by the _Rev. Charles Adams_, A. M., Principal of Newbury Seminary," the second person singular is everywhere superseded by the plural; the former being silently dropped from all his twenty pages of conjugations, without so much as a hint, or a saving clause, respecting it; and the latter, which is put in its stead, is falsely called _singular_. By his pupils, all forms of the verb that agree only with _thou_, will of course be conceived to be either obsolete or barbarous, and consequently ungrammatical. Whether or not the reverend gentleman makes any account of the Bible or of prayer, does not appear; he cites some poetry, in which there are examples that cannot be reconciled with his "System of English Grammar." Parkhurst, in his late "Grammar for Beginners," tells us that, "Such words as are used in the Bible, and not used in common books, are called _obsolete!_"--P. 146. Among these, he reckons all the distinctive forms of the second person singular, and all the "peculiarities" which "constitute what is commonly called the _Solemn Style_."--_Ib._, p. 148. Yet, with no great consistency, he adds: "This style _is always used_ in prayer, and _is frequently used_ in poetry."--_Ibid._ Joab Brace, Jnr., may be supposed to have the same notion of what is obsolete: for he too has perverted all Lennie's examples of the verb, as Smith and Adams did Murray's. [240] Coar gives _durst_ in the "Indicative mood," thus: "I durst, _thou durst_, he durst;" &c.--_Coar's E. Gram._, p. 115. But when he comes to _wist_, he does not know what the second person singular should be, and so he leaves it out: "I wist, ------, he wist; we wist, ye wist, they wist."--_Coar's E. Gram._, p. 116. [241] Dr. Latham, who, oftener perhaps than any other modern writer, corrupts the grammar of our language by efforts to revive in it things really and deservedly obsolete, most strangely avers that "The words _thou_ and _thee_ are, except in the mouths of Quakers, obsolete. The plural forms, _ye_ and _you_, have replaced them."--_Hand-Book_, p. 284. Ignoring also any current or "vital" process of forming English verbs in the second person singular, he gravely tells us that the old form, as "_callest_" (which is still the true form for the solemn style,) "is becoming obsolete."--_Ib._, p. 210. "In phrases like _you are speaking_, &c.," says he rightlier, "even when applied to a single individual, _the idea is really plural_; in other words, the courtesy consists in treating _one_ person as _more than one_, and addressing him as such, rather than in using a plural form in a singular sense. It is certain that, grammatically considered, _you=thou_ is a plural, since the verb with which it agrees is plural."--_Ib._, p. 163. If these things be so, the English Language owes much to the scrupulous conservatism of the Quakers; for, had their courtesy consented to the grammar of the fashionables, the singular number would now have had but two persons! [242] For the substitution of _you_ for _thou_, our grammarians assign various causes. That which is most commonly given in modern books, is certainly not the original one, because it concerns no other language than ours: "In order _to avoid the unpleasant formality_ which accompanies the use of _thou_ with a correspondent verb, its plural _you_, is usually adopted to familiar conversation; as, Charles, _will you_ walk? instead of--_wilt thou_ walk? _You read_ too fast, instead of--_thou readest_ too fast."--_Jaudon's Gram._, p. 33. [243] This position, as may be seen above, I do not suppose it competent for any critic to maintain. The use of _you_ for _thou_ is no more "contrary to grammar," than the use of _we_ for _I_; which, it seems, is grammatical enough for all editors, compilers, and crowned heads, if not for others. But both are _figures of syntax_; and, as such, they stand upon the same footing. Their only contrariety to grammar consists in this, that the words are not the _literal representatives_ of the number for which they are put. But in what a posture does the grammarian place himself, who condemns, as _bad English_, that phraseology which he constantly and purposely uses? The author of the following remark, as well as all who have praised his work, ought immediately to adopt the style of the Friends, or Quakers: "The word _thou_, in grammatical construction, is preferable to _you_, in the second person singular: however, custom has familiarized the latter, and consequently made it more general, though BAD GRAMMAR. To say, '_You are a man_.' is NOT GRAMMATICAL LANGUAGE; the word _you_ having reference to _a plural noun only_. It should be, '_Thou art a man_.'"--_Wright's Philosoph. Gram._, p. 55. This author, like Lindley Murray and many others, continually calls _himself_ WE; and it is probable, that neither he, nor any one of his sixty reverend commenders, _dares address_ any man otherwise than by the above-mentioned "BAD GRAMMAR!" [244] "We are always given to cut our words short; and, _with very few exceptions_, you find people writing _lov'd, mov'd, walk'd_; instead of _loved, moved, walked._ They wish to make the _pen_ correspond with the _tongue._ From _lov'd, mov'd, walk'd_, it is very easy to slide into _lovt, movt, walkt._ And this has been the case with regard to _curst, dealt, dwelt, leapt, helpt_, and many others in the last inserted list. It is just as proper to say _jumpt_, as it is to say _leapt_; and just as proper to say _walkt_ as either; and thus we might go on till the orthography of the whole language were changed. When the love of contraction came to operate on such verbs as _to burst_ and _to light_, it found such a clump of consonants already at the end of the words, that, it could add none. It could not enable the organs even of English speech to pronounce _burstedst, lightedst._ It, therefore, made really short work of it, and dropping the last syllable altogether, wrote, _burst, light_, [rather, _lit_] in the past time and passive participle."--_Cobbett's English Gram._, ¶ 169. How could the man who saw all this, insist on adding _st_ for the second person, where not even the _d_ of the past tense could he articulated? Am I to be called an innovator, because I do not like in conversation such _new_ and _unauthorized_ words as _littest, leaptest, curstest_; or a corrupter of the language, because I do not admire in poetry such unutterable monstrosities as, _light'dst, leap'dst, curs'dst_? The novelism, with the corruption too, is wholly theirs who stickle for these awkward forms. [245] "You _were_, not you _was_, for you _was_ seems to be as ungrammatical, as you _hast_ would be. For the pronoun you being confessedly plural, its correspondent verb ought to be plural."--_John Burn's Gram._, 10th Ed., P. 72. [246] Among grammarians, as well as among other writers, there is some diversity of usage concerning the personal inflections of verbs; while nearly all, nowadays, remove the chief occasion for any such diversity, by denying with a fashionable bigotry the possibility of any grammatical use of the pronoun _thou_ in a familiar style. To illustrate this, I will cite Cooper and Wells--two modern authors who earnestly agree to account _you_ and its verb literally singular, and _thou_ altogether erroneous, in common discourse: except that _Wells_ allows the phrase, "_If thou art_," for "_Common style_."--_School Gram._, p. 100. 1. Cooper, improperly referring _all_ inflection of the verb to the grave or solemn style, says: "In the colloquial or familiar style, we observe _no change_. The same is the case in the plural number." He then proceeds thus: "In the second person of the present of the indicative, in the _solemn style_, the verb takes _st_ or _est_; and in the third person _th_ or _eth_, as: _thou hast, thou lovest, thou teachest; he hath, he loveth, he goeth_. In the colloquial or _familiar style_, the verb _does not vary_ in the second person; and in the third person, it ends in _s_ or _es_, as: _he loves, he teaches, he does_. The indefinite, [i. e. the preterit,] in the second person singular of the indicative, in the _grave style_, ends in _est_, as: _thou taughtest, thou wentest_. [Fist] But, _in those verbs, where_ the sound of _st_ will unite with the last syllable of the verb, the vowel is omitted, as: _thou lovedst, thou heardst, thou didst_."--_Cooper's Murray_, p. 60; _Plain and Practical Gram._, p. 59. This, the reader will see, is somewhat contradictory; for the colloquial style varies the verb by "_s_ or _es_," and _taught'st may_ be uttered without the _e_. As for "_lovedst_," I deny that any vowel "_is omitted_" from it; but possibly one _may_ be, as _lov'dst_. 2. Wells's account of the same thing is this: "In the simple form of the present and past indicative, the second person singular of the _solemn style_ ends regularly in _st_ or _est_, as, thou _seest_, thou _hearest_, thou _sawest, thou heardest_; and the third person singular of the present, in _s_ or _es_, as, he _hears_, he _wishes_, and also in _th_ or _eth_, as, he _saith_, he _loveth_. In the simple form of the present indicative, the third person singular of the _common_ or _familiar style_, ends in _s_ or _es_; as, he _sleeps_; he _rises_. The first person singular of the _solemn style_, and the first and second persons singular of the _common style_, have _the same form_ as the three persons plural."--_Wells's School Grammar_, 1st Ed. p. 83; 3d Ed. p. 86. This, too, is both defective and inconsistent. It does not tell when to add _est_, and when, _st_ only. It does not show what the _regular preterit_, as _freed_ or _loved_, should make with _thou_: whether _freedest_ and _lovedest_, by assuming the syllable _est; fre-edst_ and _lov-edst_, by increasing syllabically from assuming _st_ only; or _freedst_ and _lov'dst_, or _lovedst_, still to be uttered as monosyllables. It absurdly makes "_s_ or _es_" a sign of two opposite styles. (See OBS. 9th, above.) And it does not except "_I am, I was, If I am, If I was, If thou art, I am loved_," and so forth, from requiring "the same form, [_are_ or _were_,] as the three persons plural." This author prefers "_heardest_;" the other, "_heardst_," which I think better warranted: "And _heardst_ thou why he drew his blade? _Heardst_ thou that shameful word and blow Brought Roderick's vengeance on his foe?"--_Scott_, L. L., C. v, st. 6. [247] Better, as Wickliffe has it, "the day _in which_;" though, after nouns of time, the relative _that_ is often used, like the Latin ablative _quo_ or _quâ_, as being equivalent to _in which_ or _on which_. [248] It is not a little strange, that some men, who _never have seen or heard_ such words as their own rules would produce for the second person singular of many hundreds of our most common verbs, will nevertheless pertinaciously insist, that it is wrong to countenance in this matter any departure from the style of King James's Bible. One of the very rashest and wildest of modern innovators,--a critic who, but for the sake of those who still speak in this person and number, would gladly consign the pronoun _thou_, and all its attendant verbal forms, to utter oblivion,--thus treats this subject and me: "The Quakers, or Friends, however, use _thou_, and its attendant form of the _asserter_, in conversation. FOR THEIR BENEFIT, _thou_ is given, in this work, in all the varieties of inflection; (in some of which it could not properly be used in an address to the Deity;) for THEY ERR MOST EGREGIOUSLY in the use of _thou_, with the form of the _asserter_ which follows _he_ or _they_, and are countenanced in their errors by G. Brown, who, instead of 'disburdening _the language_ of 144,000 useless _distinctions, increases_ their number just 144,000."--_Oliver B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 85 Among people of sense, converts are made by teaching, and reasoning, and proving; but this man's disciples must yield to the balderdash of a _false speller, false quoter_, and _false assertor!_ This author says, that "_dropt_" is the past tense of "_drop_;" (p. 118;) let him prove, for example, that _droptest_ is not a clumsy _innovation_, and that _droppedst_ is not a formal archaism, and then tell of the egregious error of adopting neither of these forms in common conversation. The following, with its many common contractions, is the language of POPE; and I ask this, or any other opponent of my doctrine, TO SHOW HOW SUCH VERBS ARE RIGHTLY FORMED, either for poetry or for conversation, _in the second person singular_. "It _fled_, I _follow'd_; now in hope, now pain; It _stopt_, I _stopt_; it _mov'd_, I _mov'd_ again. At last it _fix't_,'twas on what plant it _pleas'd_, And where it _fix'd_, the beauteous bird I _seiz'd_." --_Dunciad_, B. IV, l. 427. [249] The Rev. W. Allen, in his English Grammar, p. 132, says: "_Yth_ and _eth_ (from the Saxon lað [sic--KTH]) were formerly, _plural terminations_; as, 'Manners _makyth_ man.' William of Wykeham's motto. 'After long advisement, they _taketh_ upon them to try the matter.' Stapleton's Translation of Bede. 'Doctrine and discourse _maketh_ nature less importune.' Bacon." The use of _eth_ as a plural termination of verbs, was evidently earlier than the use of _en_ for the same purpose. Even the latter is utterly obsolete, and the former can scarcely have been _English_. The Anglo-Saxon verb _lufian_, or _lufigean_, to love, appears to have been inflected with the several pronouns thus: Ic lufige, Thu lufast, He lufath, We lufiath, Ge lufiath, Hi lufiath. The form in Old English was this: I love, Thou lovest, He loveth, We loven, Ye loven, They loven. Dr. Priestley remarks, (though in my opinion unadvisedly,) that, "Nouns of a plural form, but of a singular signification, require a singular construction; as, mathematicks _is_ a useful study. This observation will likewise," says he, "_in some measure_, vindicate the grammatical propriety of the famous saying of William of Wykeham, Manners _maketh_ man."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 189. I know not what _half-way_ vindication there can be, for any such construction. _Manners_ and _mathematics_ are not nouns of the singular number, and therefore both _is_ and _maketh_ are wrong. I judge it better English to say, "Mathematics _are_ a useful study."--"Manners _make_ the man." But perhaps both ideas may be still better expressed by a change of the nominative, thus: "The _study_ of mathematics _is_ useful."--"_Behaviour makes_ the man." [250] What the state of our literature would have been, had no author attempted any thing on English grammar, must of course be a matter of mere conjecture, and not of any positive "conviction." It is my opinion, that, with all their faults, most of the books and essays in which this subject has been handled, have been in some degree _beneficial_, and a few of them highly so; and that, without their influence, our language must have been much more chaotic and indeterminable than it now is. But a late writer says, and, with respect to _some_ of our verbal terminations, says wisely: "It is my _sincere conviction_ that fewer irregularities would have crept into the language had no grammars existed, than have been authorized by grammarians; for it should be understood that the first of our grammarians, finding that good writers differed upon many points, instead of endeavouring to reconcile these discrepancies, absolutely perpetuated them by _citing opposite usages, and giving high authorities for both_. To this we owe all the irregularity which exists in the personal terminations of verbs, some of the best early writers using them _promiscuously_, some using them _uniformly_, and others making _no use_ of them; and really _they are of no use_ but to puzzle children and foreigners, perplex poets, and furnish an awkward dialect to that exemplary sect of Christians, who in every thing else study simplicity."--_Fowle's True E. Gram._, Part II, p. 26. Wells, a still later writer, gives this unsafe rule: "_When the past tense is a monosyllable not ending in a single vowel_, the second person singular of the solemn style is generally formed by the addition of _est_; as _heardest, fleddest, tookest_. _Hadst, wast, saidst, and didst_, are exceptions."--_Wells's School Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 106; 3d Ed., p. 110; 113th Ed., p. 115. Now the termination _d_ or _ed_ commonly adds no syllable; so that the regular past tense of any monosyllabic verb is, with a few exceptions, a monosyllable still; as, _freed, feed, loved, feared, planned, turned_: and how would these sound with _est_ added, which Lowth, Hiley, Churchill, and some others erroneously claim as having pertained to such preterits anciently? Again, if _heard_ is a contraction of _heared_, and _fled_, of _fleed_, as seems probable; then are _heardst_ and _fledtst_, which are sometimes used, more regular than _heardest, fleddest_: so of many other preterits. [251] Chaucer appears not to have inflected this word in the second person: "Also ryght as _thou were_ ensample of moche folde errour, righte so thou must be ensample of manifold correction."--_Testament of Love_. "Rennin and crie as _thou were_ wode."--_House of Fame_. So others: "I wolde _thou were_ cold or hoot."--WICKLIFFE'S VERSION OF THE APOCALYPSE. "I wolde _thou were_ cold or hote."--VERSION OF EDWARD VI: _Tooke_, Vol. ii, p. 270. See Rev., iii, 15: "I would thou _wert_ cold or hot."--COMMON VERSION. [252] See evidence of the _antiquity_ of this practice, in the examples under the twenty-third observation above. According to Churchill, it has had some local continuance even to the present time. For, in a remark upon Lowth's contractions, _lov'th, turn'th_, this author says, "These are _still in use in some country places_, the third person singular of verbs in general being formed by the addition of the sound _th_ simply, not making an additional syllable."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 255 So the _eth_ in the following example adds no syllable:-- "Death _goeth_ about the field, rejoicing mickle To see a sword that so surpass'd his sickle." _Harrington's Ariosto_, B. xiii: see _Singer's Shak._, Vol. ii, p. 296. [253] The second person singular of the simple verb _do_, is now usually written _dost_, and read _dust_; being permanently contracted in orthography, as well as in pronunciation. And perhaps the compounds may follow; as, Thou _undost, outdost, misdost, overdost_, &c. But exceptions to exceptions are puzzling, even when they conform to the general rule. The Bible has _dost_ and _doth_ for auxilliaries, and _doest_ and _doeth_ for principal verbs. [254] N. Butler avers, "The only regular terminations added to verbs are _est, s, ed, edst_, and _ing_."--_Butler's Practical Gram._, p. 81. But he adds, in a marginal note, this information: "The third person singular of the present formerly ended in _eth_. This termination is still sometimes used in the solemn style. Contractions sometimes take place; as, _sayst_ for _sayest_."--_Ibid._ This statement not only imposes a vast deal of _needless irregularity_ upon the few inflections admitted by the English verb, but is, so far as it disagrees with mine, a causeless innovation. The terminations rejected, or here regarded as _irregular_, are _d, st_, _es, th_, and _eth_; while _edst_, which is plainly a combination of _ed_ and _st_,--the past ending of the verb with the personal inflection,--is assumed to be one single and regular termination which I had overlooked! It has long been an almost universal doctrine of our grammarians, that regular verbs form their preterits and perfect participles by adding _d_ to final _e_, and _ed_ to any other radical ending. Such is the teaching of Blair, Brightland, Bullions, Churchill, Coar, Comly, Cooper, Fowle, Frazee, Ingersoll, Kirkham, Lennie, Murray, Weld, Wells, Sanborn, and others, a great multitude. But this author alleges, that, "_Loved_ is not formed by adding _d_ to _love_, but by adding _ed_, and dropping _e_ from _love_."--_Butler's Answer to Brown_. Any one is at liberty to think this, if he will. But I see not the use of playing thus with _mute Ees_, adding one to drop an other, and often pretending to drop two under one apostrophe, as in _lov'd, lov'st_! To suppose that the second person of the regular preterit, as _lovedst_, is not formed by adding _st_ to the first person, is contrary to the analogy of other verbs, and is something worse than an idle whim. And why should the formation of the third person be called _irregular_ when it requires _es_, as in _flies, denies_, _goes, vetoes, wishes, preaches_, and so forth? In forming _flies_ from _fly_, Butler changes "_y_ into _ie_," on page 20th, adding _s_ only; and, on page 11th, "into _i_" only, adding _es_. Uniformity would be better. [255] Cooper says, "The termination _eth_ is _commonly_ contracted into _th_, to prevent the addition of a syllable to the verb, as: _doeth_, _doth_."--_Plain and Practical Gram._, p. 59. This, with reference to modern usage, is plainly erroneous. For, when _s_ or _es_ was substituted for _th_ or _eth_, and the familiar use of the latter ceased, this mode of inflecting the verb without increasing its syllables, ceased also, or at least became unusual. It appears that the inflecting of verbs with _th_ without a vowel, as well as with _st_ without a vowel, was more common in very ancient times than subsequently. Our grammarians of the last century seem to have been more willing to _encumber_ the language with syllabic endings, than to _simplify_ it by avoiding them. See Observations, 21st, 22d, and 23d, above. [256] These are what William Ward, in his Practical Grammar, written about 1765, denominated "the CAPITAL FORMS, or ROOTS, of the English Verb." Their number too is the same. "And these Roots," says he, "are considered as _Four_ in each verb; although in many verbs two of them are alike, and in some few three are alike."--P. 50. Few modern grammarians have been careful to display these Chief Terms, or Principal Parts, properly. Many say nothing about them. Some speak of _three_, and name them faultily. Thus Wells: "The three _principal parts_ of a verb are the _present tense_, the _past tense_, and the _perfect participle_."--_School Gram._, 113th Ed., p. 92. Now a whole "_tense_" is something more than one verbal form, and Wells's "perfect participle" includes the auxiliary "_having_." Hence, in stead of _write, wrote, writing, written_, (the true principal parts of a certain verb,) one might take, under Wells's description, either of these threes, both entirely false: _am writing, did write_, and _having written_; or, _do write, wrotest_, and _having written_. But _writing_, being the root of the "Progressive Form of the Verb," is far more worthy to be here counted a chief term, than _wrote_, the preterit, which occurs only in one tense, and never receives an auxiliary. So of other verbs. This sort of treatment of the Principal Parts, is a very grave defect in sundry schemes of grammar. [257] A grammarian should know better, than to exhibit, _as a paradigm_ for school-boys, such English as the following: "I do have, Thou dost have, He does have: We do have, You do have, They do have."--_Everest's Gram._, p. 106. "I did have, Thou didst have, He did have: We did have, You did have, They did have."--_Ib._, p. 107. I know not whether any one has yet thought of conjugating the verb _be_ after this fashion; but the attempt to introduce, "_am being, is being_," &c., is an innovation much worse. [258] Hiley borrows from Webster the remark, that, "_Need_, when intransitive, is formed _like an auxiliary_, and is followed by a verb, without the prefix _to_; as, 'He _need go_ no farther.'"--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 90; _Webster's Imp. Gram._, p. 127; _Philos. Gram._, p. 178. But he forbears to class it with the auxiliaries, and even contradicts himself, by a subsequent remark taken from Dr. Campbell, that, for the sake of "ANALOGY, '_he needs_,' _he dares_,' are preferable to '_he need_,' '_he dare_,'"--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 145; _Campbell's Rhet._, p. 175 [259] This grammarian here uses _need_ for the third person singular, designedly, and makes a remark for the justification of the practice; but he neither calls the word an auxiliary, nor cites any other than anonymous examples, which are, perhaps, of his own invention. [260] "The substantive form, or, as it is commonly termed, _infinitive mood_, contains at the same time the essence of verbal meaning, and the literal ROOT on which all inflections of the verb are to be grafted. This character being common to the infinitive in all languages, it [this mood] ought to precede the [other] moods of verbs, instead of being made to follow them, as is absurdly practised in almost all grammatical systems."--_Enclytica_, p. 14. [261] By this, I mean, that the verb in all the persons, both singular and plural, is _the same in form_. But Lindley Murray, when he speaks of _not varying_ or _not changing_ the termination of the verb, most absurdly means by it, that the verb _is inflected_, just as it is in the indicative or the potential mood; and when he speaks of _changes_ or _variations_ of termination, he means, that the verb _remains the same_ as in the first person singular! For example: "The second person singular of the imperfect tense in the subjunctive mood, is also _very frequently varied in its termination_: as, 'If thou _loved_ him truly, thou wouldst obey him.'"--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 209. "The auxiliaries of the potential mood, when applied to the subjunctive, _do not change_ the termination of the second person singular; as, 'If thou _mayst_ or _canst_ go.'"--_Ib._, p. 210. "Some authors think, that the termination of these auxiliaries _should be varied_: as, I advise thee, that thou _may_ beware."--_Ib._, p. 210. "When the circumstances of contingency and futurity concur, it is proper _to vary_ the terminations of the second and third persons singular."--_Ib._, 210. "It may be considered as a rule, that _the changes_ of termination _are necessary_, when these two circumstances concur."--_Ib._, p. 207. "It may be considered as a rule, that _no changes_ of termination _are necessary_, when these two circumstances concur."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 264. Now Murray and Ingersoll here _mean_ precisely the same thing! Whose fault is that? If Murray's, he has committed many such. But, in this matter, he is contradicted not only by Ingersoll, but, on one occasion, by himself. For he declares it to be an opinion in which he concurs. "That the definition and nature of the subjunctive mood, have _no reference_ to change of termination."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 211. And yet, amidst his strange blunders, he seems to have ascribed the _meaning_ which a verb has in this mood, _to the inflections_ which it receives _in the indicative_: saying. "That part of the verb which grammarians call the present tense of the subjunctive mood, has a future signification. _This_ is effected by _varying the terminations_ of the second and third persons singular of _the indicative_!"--_Ib._, p. 207. But the absurdity which he really means to teach, is, that the subjunctive mood _is derived from the indicative_,--the primitive or radical verb, _from it's derivatives or branches_! [262] _Wert_ is sometimes used in lieu of _wast_; and, in such instances, both by authority and by analogy, it appears to belong here, if anywhere. See OBS. 2d and 3d, below. [263] Some grammarians, regardless of the general usage of authors, prefer _was_ to _were_ in the singular number of this tense of the subjunctive mood. In the following remark, the tense is named "_present_" and this preference is urged with some critical extravagance: "_Was_, though the past tense of the indicative mood, expresses the _present_ of the hypothetical; as, 'I wish that I _was_ well.' _The use of this hypothetical form_ of the subjunctive mood, _has given rise to_ a form of expression _wholly unwarranted by the rules of grammar_. When the verb _was_ is to be used in the _present tense singular_, in this form of the subjunctive mood, the ear is often pained with a _plural were_, as, '_Were I_ your master'--'_Were he_ compelled to do it,' &c. This has become so common that some of the best grammars of the language furnish authority for the barbarism, and even in the second person supply _wert_, as a convenient accompaniment. If such a conjugation is admitted, we may expect to see Shakspeare's '_thou beest_' in full use."--_Chandler's Gram._, Ed. of 1821, p. 55. In "_Chandler's Common School Grammar_," of 1847, the language of this paragraph is somewhat softened, but the substance is still retained. See the latter work, p. 80. [264] "If I were, If _thou were_. If he were."--_Harrison's Gram._, p. 31. "If, or though, I were loved. If, or though, _thou were_, or _wert_ loved. If, or though, he were loved."--_Bicknell's Gram._, Part i, p. 69. "If, though, &c. I were burned, _thou were_ burned or you were burned, he were burned."--_Buchanan's Gram._, p. 53. "Though _thou were_. Some say, 'though thou _wert_.'"--_Mackintosh's Gram._, p. 178. "If or though I were. If or though _thou were_. If or though he were."--_St. Quentin's General Gram._, p. 86. "If I was, Thou wast, or You was or were, He was. Or thus: If I were, Thou wert, or you was or were, He were."--_Webster's Philosophical Gram._, p. 95; _Improved Gram._, p. 64. "PRESENT TENSE. Before, &c. I _be_; thou _beest_, or you _be_; he, she, or it, _be_: We, you or ye, they, _be_. PAST TENSE. Before, &c. I _were_; thou _wert_, or you _were_; he, she, or it, _were_; We, you or ye, they, _were_."--WHITE, _on the English Verb_, p. 52. [265] The text in Acts, xxii, 20th, "I also _was standing_ by, and _consenting_ unto his death," ought rather to be, "I also _stood_ by, and _consented_ to his death;" but the present reading is, thus far, a literal version from the Greek, though the verb "_kept_," that follows, is not. Montanus renders it literally: "Et ipse _eram astans, et consentiens_ interemptioni ejus, et _custodiens_ vestimenta interficientium illum." Beza makes it better Latin thus: "Ego quoque _adstabam_, et una _assentiebar_ cædi ipsius, et _custodiebam_ pallia eorum qui interimebant eum." Other examples of a questionable or improper use of the progressive form may occasionally be found in good authors; as, "A promising boy of six years of age, _was missing_ by his parents."--_Whittier, Stranger in Lowell_, p. 100. _Missing, wanting_, and _willing_, after the verb to be, are commonly reckoned participial _adjectives_; but here "_was missing_" is made a passive verb, equivalent to _was missed_, which, perhaps, would better express the meaning. _To miss_, to perceive the absence of, is such an act of the mind, as seems unsuited to the compound form, _to be missing_; and, if we cannot say, "The mother _was missing_ her son," I think we ought not to use the same form passively, as above. [266] Some grammarians, contrary to the common opinion, suppose the verbs here spoken of, to have, not a _passive_, but a _neuter_ signification. Thus, Joseph Guy, Jun., of London: "Active verbs often take a _neuter_ sense; as, A house is building; here, is _building_ is used in a _neuter_ signification, because it has no object after it. By this rule are explained such sentences as, Application is wanting; The grammar is printing; The lottery is drawing; It is flying, &c."--_Guy's English Gram._, p. 21. "_Neuter_," here, as in many other places, is meant to include the _active-intransitives_. "_Is flying_" is of this class; and "_is wanting_," corresponding to the Latin _caret_, appears to be neuter; hut the rest seem rather to be passives. Tried, however, by the usual criterion,--the naming of the "_agent_" which, it is said, "a verb passive necessarily implies,"--what may at first seem progressive passives, may not always be found such. "_Most_ verbs signifying _action_" says Dr. Johnson, "may likewise signify _condition_, or _habit_, and become _neuters_, [i. e. _active-intransitives_;] as _I love_, I am in love; _I strike_, I am now striking."--_Gram. before Quarto Dict._, p. 7. So _sell, form, make_, and many others, usually transitive, have sometimes an active-intransitive sense which nearly approaches the passive, and of which _are selling, is forming, are making_, and the like, may be only equivalent expressions. For example: "It is cold, and ice _forms_ rapidly--is _forming_ rapidly--or _is formed_ rapidly."--Here, with little difference of meaning, is the appearance of both voices, the Active and the Passive; while "_is forming_," which some will have for an example of "the _Middle_ voice," may be referred to either. If the following passive construction is right, _is wanting_ or _are wanting_ may be a verb of three or four different sorts: "Reflections that may drive away despair, _cannot be wanting by him_, who considers," &c.--_Johnson's Rambler_, No. 129: _Wright's Gram._, p. 196. [267] Dr. Bullions, in his grammar of 1849, says, "Nobody would think of saying, 'He is being loved'--'This result is being desired.'"--_Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, p. 237. But, according to J. W. Wright, whose superiority in grammar has sixty-two titled vouchers, this unheard-of barbarism is, for the present passive, precisely and solely what one _ought_ to say! Nor is it, in fact, any more barbarous, or more foreign from usage, than the spurious example which the Doctor himself takes for a model in the active voice: "I _am loving_. Thou _art loving_, &c; I _have been loving_, Thou _hast been loving_, &c."--_A. and P. Gr._, p. 92. So: "James _is loving_ me."--_Ib._, p 235. [268] "The predicate in the form, '_The house is being built_,' would be, according to our view, 'BEING BEING _built_,' which is manifestly an absurd tautology."--_Mulligan's Gram._, 1852, p. 151. [269] "Suppose a criminal to be _enduring_ the operation of binding:--Shall we say, with Mr. Murray,--'The criminal is binding?' If so, HE MUST BE BINDING SOMETHING,--a circumstance, in effect, quite opposed to the fact presented. Shall we then say, as he does, in the _present tense_ conjugation of his passive verb,--'The criminal is bound?' If so, the _action_ of binding, which the criminal is suffering, will be represented as completed, --a position which the _action its self_ will palpably deny." See _Wright's Phil. Gram._, p. 102. It is folly for a man to puzzle himself or others thus, with _fictitious examples_, imagined on purpose to make _good usage seem wrong_. There is bad grammar enough, for all useful purposes, in the actual writings of valued authors; but who can show, by any proofs, that the English language, as heretofore written, is so miserably inadequate to our wants, that we need use the strange neologism, "The criminal _is being bound_," or any thing similar? [270] It is a very strange event in the history of English grammar, that such a controversy as this should have arisen; but a stranger one still, that, after all that has been said, more argument is needed. Some men, who hope to be valued as scholars, yet stickle for an odd phrase, which critics have denounced as follows: "But the history of the language scarcely affords a parallel to the innovation, at once unphilosophical and hypercritical, pedantic and illiterate, which has lately appeared in the excruciating refinement '_is being_' and its unmerciful variations. We hope, and indeed believe, that it has not received the sanction of any grammar adopted in our popular education, as it certainly never will of any writer of just pretensions to scholarship."--_The True Sun_. N. Y., April 16, 1846. [271] Education is a work of continuance, yet completed, like many others, as fast as it goes on. It is not, like the act of loving or hating, so complete at the first moment as not to admit the progressive form of the verb; for one may say of a lad, "I _am educating_ him for the law;" and possibly, "He _is educating_ for the law;" though not so well as, "He _is to be educated_ for the law." But, to suppose that "_is educated_" or "_are educated_" implies unnecessarily a _cessation of the educating_ is a mistake. That conception is right, only when _educated_ is taken adjectively. The phrase, "those who _are educated_ in our seminaries," hardly includes such as _have been educated_ there in times past: much less does it apply to these exclusively, as some seem to think. "_Being_," as inserted by Southey, is therefore quite _needless_: so it is _often_, in this new phraseology, the best correction being its mere omission. [272] Worcester has also this citation: "The Eclectic Review remarks, 'That a need of this phrase, or an equivalent one, is felt, is sufficiently proved by the extent to which it is used by educated persons and respectable writers.'"--_Gram. before Dict._, p. xlvi. Sundry phrases, equivalent in sense to this new voice, have long been in use, and are, of course, still needed; something from among them being always, by every accurate writer, still preferred. But this awkward innovation, use it who will, can no more be justified by a plea of "_need_," than can every other hackneyed solecism extant. Even the Archbishop, if quoted right by Worcester, has descended to "uncouth English," without either necessity or propriety, having thereby only misexpounded a very common Greek word--a "perfect or pluperfect" participle, which means "_beaten, struck_, or _having been beaten_"--G. Brown. [273] Wells has also the following citations, which most probably accord with his own opinions, though the first is rather extravagant: "The propriety of these _imperfect passive tenses_ has been _doubted by almost all_ our grammarians; though I believe but few of them have written many pages without condescending to make use of them. Dr. Beattie says, 'One of the greatest defects of the English tongue, with regard to the verb, seems to be the want of an _imperfect passive participle_.' And yet he uses the _imperfect participle_ in a _passive sense_ as often as most writers."--_Pickbourn's Dissertation on the English Verb_. "Several other expressions of this sort now and then occur, such as the new-fangled and most uncouth solecism, 'is being done,' for the good old English idiomatic expression, 'is doing,'--an absurd periphrasis, driving out a pointed and pithy turn of the English language."--_N. A. Review_. See _Wells's Grammar_, 1850, p. 161. The term, "_imperfect passive tenses_," seems not a very accurate one; because the present, the perfect, &c., are included. Pickbourn applies it to any passive tenses formed from the simple "imperfect participle;" but the phrase, "_passive verbs in the progressive form_," would better express the meaning. The term, "_compound passive participle_," which Wells applies above to "_being built_," "_being printed_," and the like, is also both unusual and inaccurate. Most readers would sooner understand by it the form, _having been built, having been printed_, &c. This author's mode of naming participles is always either very awkward or not distinctive. His scheme makes it necessary to add here, for each of these forms, a third epithet, referring to his main distinction of "_imperfect_ and _perfect_;" as, "the compound _imperfect_ participle passive," and "the compound _perfect_ participle passive." What is "_being builded_" or "_being printed_," but "an _imperfect passive participle_?" Was this, or something else, the desideratum of Beattie? [274] _Borne_ usually signifies _carried_; _born_ signifies _brought forth_. J. K. Worcester, the lexicographer, speaks of these two participles thus: "[Fist] The participle _born_ is used in the passive form, and _borne_ in the active form, [with reference to birth]; as, 'He was _born_ blind,' _John_ ix.; 'The barren hath _borne_ seven,' I _Sam_. ii. This distinction between _born_ and _borne_, though not recognized by grammars, is in accordance with common usage, at least in this country. In many editions of the Bible it is recognized; and in many it is not. It seems to have been more commonly recognized in American, than in English, editions."--_Worcester's Universal and Critical Dict., w. Bear_. In five, out of seven good American editions of the Bible among my books, the latter text is, "The barren hath _born_ seven;" in two, it is as above, "hath _borne_." In Johnson's Quarto Dictionary, the perfect participle of _bear_ is given erroneously, "_bore_, or _born_;" and that of _forbear_, which should be _forborne_, is found, both in his columns and in his preface, "_forborn_." [275] According to Murray, Lennie, Bullions, and some others, to use _begun_ for _began_ or _run_ for _ran_, is improper; but Webster gives _run_ as well as _ran_ for the preterit, and _begun_ may be used in like manner, on the authority of Dryden, Pope, and Parnell. [276] "And they shall pass through it, hardly _bestead_, and hungry."--_Isaiah_, viii, 21. [277] "_Brake_ [for the preterit of _Break_] seems now obsolescent."--_Dr. Crombie, Etymol. and Syntax_, p. 193. Some recent grammarians, however, retain it; among whom are Bullions and M'Culloch. Wells retains it, but marks it as, "_Obsolete_;" as he does also the preterits _bare, clave, drove, gat, slang, spake, span, spat, sware, tare, writ_; and the participles _hoven, loaden, rid_ from _ride, spitten, stricken, and writ_. In this he is not altogether consistent. Forms really obsolete belong not to any modern list of irregular verbs; and even such as are archaic and obsolescent, it is sometimes better to omit. If "_loaden_," for example, is now out of use, why should "_load, unload_, and _overload_," be placed, as they are by this author, among "irregular verbs;" while _freight_ and _distract_, in spite of _fraught_ and _distraught_, are reckoned regular? "_Rid_," for _rode_ or _ridden_, though admitted by Worcester, appears to me a low vulgarism. [278] _Cleave_, to split, is most commonly, if not always, irregular, as above; _cleave_, to stick, or adhere, is usually considered regular, but _clave_ was formerly used in the preterit, and _clove_ still may be: as, "The men of Judah _clave_ unto their king."--_Samuel_. "The tongue of the public prosecutor _clove_ to the roof of his mouth."--_Boston Atlas_, 1855. [279] Respecting the preterit and the perfect participle of this verb, _drink_, our grammarians are greatly at variance. Dr. Johnson says, "preter. _drank_ or _drunk_; part. pass, _drunk_ or _drunken_." Dr. Webster: "pret. and pp. _drank_. Old pret. and pp. _drunk_; pp. _drunken_." Lowth: "pret. _drank_; part, _drunk_ or _drunken_." So Stamford. Webber, and others. Murray has it: "Imperf. _drank_, Perf. Part, _drunk_." So Comly, Lennie, Bullions, Blair, Butler. Frost, Felton, Goldsbury, and many others. Churchill cites the text, "Serve me till I have eaten and _drunken_;" and observes, "_Drunken_ is now used only as an adjective. The impropriety of using the preterimperfect [_drank_] for the participle of this verb is very common."--_New Gram._, p. 261. Sanborn gives both forms for the participle, preferring _drank_ to _drunk_. Kirkham prefers _drunk_ to _drank_; but contradicts himself in a note, by unconsciously making _drunk_ an adjective: "The men were _drunk_; i. e. inebriated. The toasts were _drank_."--_Gram._, p. 140. Cardell, in his Grammar, gives, "_drink, drank, drunk_;" but in his story of Jack Halyard, on page 59, he wrote, "had _drinked_:" and this, according to Fowle's True English Grammar, is not incorrect. The preponderance of authority is yet in favour of saying, "had _drunk_;" but _drank_ seems to be a word of greater delicacy, and perhaps it is sufficiently authorized. A hundred late writers may be quoted for it, and some that were popular in the days of Johnson. "In the choice of what is fit to be eaten and _drank_."--_Beattie's Moral Science_, Vol. 1, p. 51. "Which I had no sooner _drank_."--_Addison, Tattler_, No. 131. "Thy brother's blood the thirsty earth hath drank, Broach'd with the steely point of Clifford's lance."--_Shakspeare_. [280] "_Holden_ is not in general use; and is chiefly employed by attorneys."--_Crombie, on Etymology and Synt._, p. 190. Wells marks this word as, "Obsolescent."--_School Gram._, p. 103. L. Murray rejected it; but Lowth gave it alone, as a participle, and _held_ only as a preterit. [281] "I have been found guilty of killing cats I never _hurted_."--_Roderick Random_, Vol. i, p. 8. [282] "They _keeped_ aloof as they passed her bye."--_J. Hogg, Pilgrims of the Sun_, p. 19. [283] _Lie_, to be at rest, is irregular, as above; but _lie_, to utter falsehood, is regular, as follows: _lie, lied, lying, lied_. "Thus said, at least, my mountain guide, Though deep, perchance, the villain _lied_." --_Scott's Lady of the Lake_. [284] Perhaps there is authority sufficient to place the verb _rend_ among those which are redundant. "Where'er its cloudy veil was _rended_." --_Whittier's Moll Pitcher_. "Mortal, my message is for thee; thy chain to earth is _rended_; I bear thee to eternity; prepare! thy course is ended." --_The Amulet_. "Come as the winds come, when forests are _rended_." --_Sir W. Scott_. "The hunger pangs her sons which rended." --NEW QUARTERLY REVIEW: _Examiner_, No. 119. [285] We find now and then an instance in which _gainsay_ is made regular: as, "It can neither be _rivalled_ nor _gainsayed_."--_Chapman's Sermons to Presbyterians_, p. 36. Perhaps it would be as well to follow Webster here, in writing _rivaled_ with one _l_: and the analogy of the simple verb _say_, in forming this compound irregularly, _gainsaid_. Usage warrants the latter, however, better than the former. [286] "Shoe, _shoed_ or shod, shoeing, _shoed_ or shod."--_Old Gram., by W. Ward_, p. 64; and _Fowle's True English Gram._, p. 46. [287] "A. Murray has rejected _sung_ as the _Preterite_, and L. Murray has rejected _sang_. Each _Preterite_, however, rests on good authority. The same observation may be made, respecting _sank_ and _sunk_. Respecting the _preterites_ which have _a_ or _u_, as _slang_, or _slung, sank_, or _sunk_, it would be better were the former only to be used, as the _Preterite_ and Participle would thus be discriminated."--_Dr. Crombie, on Etymology and Syntax_, p. 199. The _preterits_ which this critic thus prefers, are _rang, sang, stung, sprang, swang, sank, shrank, slank, stank, swam_, and _span_ for _spun_. In respect to them all, I think he makes an ill choice. According to his own showing, _fling, string_, and _sting_, always make the preterit and the participle alike; and this is the obvious tendency of the language, in all these words. I reject _slang_ and _span_, as derivatives from _sling_ and _spin_; because, in such a sense, they are obsolete, and the words have other uses. Lindley Murray, _in his early editions_, rejected _sang, sank, slang, swang, shrank, slank, stank_, and _span_; and, at the same time, preferred _rang, sprang_, and _swam_, to _rung, sprung_, and _swum_. In his later copies, he gave the preference to the _u_, in all these words; but restored _sang_ and _sank_, which Crombie names above, still omitting the other six, which did not happen to be mentioned to him. [288] _Sate_ for the preterit of _sit_, and _sitten_ for the perfect participle, are, in my opinion, obsolete, or no longer in good use. Yet several recent grammarians prefer _sitten_ to _sat_; among whom are Crombie, Lennie, Bullions, and M'Culloch. Dr. Crombie says, "_Sitten_, though formerly in use, is now obsolescent. Laudable attempts, however, have been made to restore it."--_On Etymol. and Syntax_, p. 199. Lennie says, "Many authors, both here and in America, use _sate_ as the Past time of _sit_; but this is improper, for it is apt to be confounded with _sate_ to glut. _Sitten_ and _spitten_ are preferable [to _sat_ and _spit_,] though obsolescent."--_Principles of E. Gram._, p. 45. Bullions says, "_Sitten_ and _spitten_ are nearly obsolete, though preferable to _sat_ and _spit_."--_Principles of E. Gram._, p. 64. M'Culloch gives these verbs in the following form: "Sit, sat, sitten _or_ sat. Spit, spit _or_ spat, spit _or_ spitten."--_Manual of E. Gram._, p. 65. [289] "He will find the political hobby which he has _bestrided_ no child's nag."--_The Vanguard, a Newspaper_. "Through the pressed nostril, spectacle-_bestrid_."--_Cowper_. "A lank haired hunter _strided_."--_Whittier's Sabbath Scene_. [290] In the age of Pope, _writ_ was frequently used both for the participle and for the preterit of this verb. It is now either obsolete or peculiar to the poets. In prose it seems vulgar: as, "He _writ_ it, at least, published it, in 1670."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. i, p. 77. "He, who, supreme in judgement, as in wit, Might boldly censure, as he boldly _writ_."--_Pope, Ess. on Crit._ Dr. Crombie remarked, more than thirty years ago, that, "_Wrote_ as the Participle [of _Write_,] is generally disused, and likewise _writ_."--_Treatise on Etym. and Synt._, p. 202. [291] A word is not necessarily _ungrammatical_ by reason of having a rival form that is more common. The regular words, _beseeched, blowed, bursted, digged, freezed, bereaved, hanged, meaned, sawed, showed, stringed, weeped_, I admit for good English, though we find them all condemned by some critics. [292] "And the man in whom the evil spirit was, _leapt_ on them."--FRIENDS' BIBLE: _Acts_, xix, 16. In Scott's Bible, and several others, the word is "_leaped_." Walker says, "The past time of this verb is _generally_ heard with the diphthong short; and if so, it ought to be spelled _leapt_, rhyming with _kept_."--_Walker's Pron. Dict., w. Leap_. Worcester, who improperly pronounces _leaped_ in two ways, "l~ept or l=ept," _misquotes_ Walker, as saying, "it ought to be spelled _lept_."--_Universal and Critical Dict., w. Leap_. In the solemn style, _leaped_ is, of course, two syllables. As for _leapedst_ or _leaptest_, I know not that either can be found. [293] _Acquit_ is almost always formed regularly, thus: _acquit, acquitted, acquitting, acquitted._ But, like _quit_, it is sometimes found in an irregular form also; which, if it be allowable, will make it redundant: as, "To be _acquit_ from my continual smart."--SPENCER: _Johnson's Dict._ "The writer holds himself _acquit_ of all charges in this regard."--_Judd, on the Revolutionary War_, p. 5. "I am glad I am so _acquit_ of this tinder-box."--SHAK. [294] "Not know my voice! O, time's extremity! Hast thou so crack'd and _splitted_ my poor tongue?" --SHAK.: _Com. of Er._ [295] _Whet_ is made redundant in Webster's American Dictionary, as well as in Wells's Grammar; but I can hardly affirm that the irregular form of it is well authorized. [296] In S. W. Clark's Practical Grammar, first published in 1847--a work of high pretensions, and prepared expressly "for the education of Teachers"--_sixty-three_ out of the foregoing ninety-five Redundant Verbs, are treated as having no regular or no irregular forms. (1.) The following twenty-nine are _omitted_ by this author, as if they were _always regular_; belay, bet, betide, blend, bless, curse, dive, dress, geld, lean, leap, learn, mulet, pass, pen, plead, prove, rap, reave, roast, seethe, smell, spoil, stave, stay, wake, wed, whet, wont. (2.) The following thirty-four are _given_ by him as being _always irregular_; abide, bend, beseech, blow, burst, catch, chide, creep, deal, freeze, grind, hang, knit, lade, lay, mean, pay, shake, sleep, slide, speed, spell, spill, split, string, strive, sweat, sweep, thrive, throw, weave, weep, wet, wind. Thirty-two of the ninety-five are made redundant by him, though not so called in his book. In Wells's School Grammar, "the 113th Thousand," dated 1850, the deficiencies of the foregoing kinds, if I am right, are about fifty. This author's "List of Irregular Verbs" has forty-four Redundants, to which he assigns a regular form as well as an irregular. He is here about as much nearer right than Clark, as this number surpasses thirty-two, and comes towards ninety-five. The words about which they differ, are--_pen, seethe_, and _whet_, of the former number; and _catch, deal, hang, knit, spell, spill, sweat_, and _thrive_, of the latter. [297] In the following example, there is a different phraseology, which seems not so well suited to the sense: "But we _must be aware_ of imagining, that we render style strong and expressive, by a constant and multiplied use of epithets"--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 287. Here, in stead of "_be aware_," the author should have said, "_beware_," or "_be ware_;" that is, be _wary_, or _cautious_; for _aware_ means _apprised_, or _informed_, a sense very different from the other. [298] Dr. Crombie contends that _must_ and _ought_ are used only in the present tense. (See his _Treatise_, p. 204.) In this he is wrong, especially with regard to the latter word. Lennie, and his copyist Bullions, adopt the same notion; but Murray, and many others, suppose them to "have both a present and [a] past signification." [299] Dr. Crombie says, "This Verb, as an auxiliary, is _inflexible_; thus we say, 'he _will_ go;' and 'he _wills to_ go.'"--_Treatise on Etym. and Syntax_, p. 203. He should have confined his remarks to the _familiar style_, in which all the auxiliaries, except _do, be_, and _have_, are inflexible. For, in the solemn style, we do not say, "Thou _will_ go," but, "Thou _wilt_ go." [300] "HAD-I-WIST. A proverbial expression, _Oh_ that I had known. _Gower_."--_Chalmers's Dict._, also _Webster's_. In this phrase, which is here needlessly compounded, and not very properly explained, we see _wist_ used as a perfect participle. But the word is obsolete. "_Had I wist_," is therefore an obsolete phrase, meaning. If I had known, or, "_O_ that I had known." [301] That is, passive verbs, as well as others, have three participles for each; so that, from one active-transitive root, there come _six_ participles--three active, and three passive. Those numerous grammarians who, like Lindley Murray, make passive verbs a distinct class, for the most part, very properly state the participles of a _verb_ to be "_three_;" but, to represent the two voices as modifications of one species of verbs, and then say, "The Participles are _three_," as many recent writers do, is manifestly absurd: because _two threes should be six_. Thus, for example, Dr. Bullions: "In English [,] the _transitive_ verb has always _two voices_, the Active and [the] Passive."--_Prin. of E. Gram._, p. 33. "The Participles are _three_, [:] the Present, the _Perfect_, and the _Compound Perfect_."--_Ib._, p. 57. Again: "_Transitive_ verbs have two voices, called the _Active_ and the _Passive_."--_Bullions's Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, p. 66. "Verbs have _three_ participles--the _present_, the _past_, and the _perfect_; as, _loving, loved, having loved_, in the active voice: AND _being loved, loved, having been loved_, in the passive."--_Ib._, p. 76. Now either not all these are the participles of _one_ verb, or that verb has _more than three_. Take your choice. Redundant verbs usually have _duplicate forms_ of all the participles except the Imperfect Active; as, _lighting, lighted_ or _lit, having lighted_ or _having lit_; so again, _being lighted_ or _being lit, lighted_ or _lit, having been lighted_ or _having been lit_. [302] The diversity in the _application_ of these names, and in the number or nature of the participles recognized in different grammars, is quite as remarkable as that of the names themselves. To prepare a general synopsis of this discordant teaching, no man will probably think it worth his while. The following are a few examples of it: 1. "How many Participles, are there; There are two, the Active Participle which ends in (ing), as burning, and the Passive Participle which ends in (ed) as, burned."--_The British Grammar_, p. 140. In this book, the participles of _Be_ are named thus: "ACTIVE. Being. PASSIVE. Been, having been."--_Ib._, p. 138. 2. "How many _Sorts_ of Participles are there? _A_. Two; the Active Participle, that ends always in _ing_; as, _loving_, and the Passive Participle, that ends always in _ed, t_, or _n_; as, _loved, taught, slain_."--_Fisher's Practical New Gram._, p. 75. 3. "ACTIVE VOICE. _Participles_. Present, calling. Past, having called. Future, being about to call. PASSIVE VOICE. Present, being called. Past, having been called. Future, being about to be called."--_Ward's Practical Gram._, pp. 55 and 59. 4. ACT. "Present, loving; Perfect, loved; Past, having loved."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 39. The participles _passive_ are not given by Lowth; but, by inference from his rule for forming "the passive verb," they must be these: "Present, being loved; Perfect, loved, or been loved; Past, having been loved." See _Lowth's Gram._, p. 44. 5. "ACT. V. _Present_, Loving. _Past_, Loved. _Perfect_, Having loved. PAS. V. _Pres_. Being loved. _Past_, Loved. _Perf_. Having been loved."--_Lennie's Gram._, pp. 25 and 33; _Greene's Analysis_, p. 225; _Bullions's Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, pp. 87 and 95. This is Bullions's _revised_ scheme, and much worse than his former one copied from Murray. 6. ACT. "_Present._ Loving. _Perfect._ Loved. _Compound Perfect_, Having loved." PAS. "_Present._ Being loved. _Perfect or Passive._ Loved. _Compound Perfect._ Having been loved."--_L. Murray's late editions_, pp. 98 and 99; _Hart's Gram._, pp. 85 and 88; _Bullions's Principles of E. Gram._, pp. 47 and 55. No form or name of the first participle passive was adopted by Murray in his early editions. 7. ACT. "Present. Pursuing. Perfect. Pursued. Compound perfect. Having pursued." PAS. "_Present and Perfect_. Pursued, or being pursued. _Compound Perfect_. Having been pursued."--_Rev. W. Allen's Gram._, pp. 88 and 93. Here the first two passive forms, and their names too, are thrown together; the former as equivalents, the latter as coalescents. 8. "TRANSITIVE. _Pres._ Loving, _Perf._ Having loved. PASSIVE. _Pres._ Loved or Being loved, _Perf._ Having been loved."--_Parkhurst's Gram. for Beginners_, p. 110. Here the second active form is wanting; and the second passive is confounded with the first. 9. ACT. "_Imperfect_, Loving [;] _Perfect_, Having loved [.]" PAS. "_Imperfect_, Being loved [;] _Perfect_, Loved, Having been loved."--_Wells's School Gram._, pp. 99 and 101. Here, too, the second active is not given; the third is called by the name of the second; and the second passive is confounded with the _third_, as if they were but forms of the same thing. 10. ACT. "_Imperfect_, (_Present_,) Loving. _Perfect_. Having loved. _Auxiliary Perfect_, Loved." PAS. "_Imperfect_, (_Present_,) Being loved. _Perfect_, Having been loved. _Passive_, Loved."--_N. Butler's Pract. Gram._, pp. 84 and 91. Here the common order of most of the participles is very improperly disturbed, and as many are misnamed. 11. ACT. "Present, Loving [;] Perfect, Loved [;] Comp. Perf. Having loved [.]" PAS. "Present, Being loved [;] Perfect, Loved, or been loved [;] Compound Perfect, Having been loved."--_Frazee's Improved Gram._, 63 and 73. Here the second participle passive has two forms, one of which, "_been loved_," is not commonly recognized, except as part of some passive verb or preperfect participle. 12. ACT. V. "_Imperfect_, Seeing. _Perfect_, Seen. _Compound_, Having seen." PAS. V. "_Preterimperfect_, Being seen. _Preterperfect_, Having been seen."--_Churchill's New Gram._, p. 102. Here the chief and radical passive participle is lacking, and neither of the compounds is well named. 13. ACT. "_Present_, Loving, [;] _Past_, Loved, [;] _Com. Past_, Having loved." PAS. "_Present_, Being loved. [;] _Past_, Loved. [;] _Com. Past._ [,] Having been loved."--_Felton's Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, of 1843, pp. 37 and 50. 14. ACT. "Present. [,] Loving. [;] Perfect. [,] Loved. [;] Compound Perfect. [,] Having loved." PAS. "Perfect or Passive. Loved. Compound Perfect. Having been loved."--_Bicknell's Gram. Lond._, 1790, Part I, pp. 66 and 70; _L. Murray's_ 2d _Edition, York_, 1796, pp. 72 and 77. Here "_Being loved_," is not noticed. 15. "_Participles. Active Voice. Present._ Loving. _Past_. Loved, or having loved. _Participles. Passive Voice. Present._ Being loved. _Past_. Having been loved."--_John Burn's Practical Gram._, p. 70. Here the chief Passive term, "Loved," is omitted, and two of the active forms are confounded. 16. "_Present_, loving, _Past_, loved, _Compound_, having loved."--_S. W. Clark's Practical Gram._, of 1848, p. 71. "ACT. VOICE.--_Present_ ... Loving [;] _Compound_ [,] Having loved...... _Having been loving_."--_Ib._, p. 81. "PAS. VOICE.--_Present_..... Loved, or, being loved [;] _Compound_..... Having been loved."--_Ib._, p. 83. "The Compound Participle consists of _the_ Participle of a principal verb, added to the word _having_, or _being_, or to the two words _having been_. Examples--Having loved--_being loved_--having been loved."--_Ib._, p. 71. Here the second extract is _deficient_, as may be seen by comparing it with the first; and the fourth is _grossly erroneous_, as is shown by the third. The participles, too, are misnamed throughout. The reader may observe that the _punctuation_ of the foregoing examples is very discrepant. I have, in brackets, suggested some corrections, but have not attempted a general adjustment of it. [303] "The _most unexceptionable_ distinction which grammarians make between the participles, is, that the one points to the continuation of the action, passion, or state denoted by the verb; and the other, to the completion of it. Thus, the present participle signifies _imperfect_ action, or action begun and not ended: as, 'I am _writing_ a letter.' The past participle signifies action _perfected_, or finished: as, 'I have _written_ a letter.'--'The letter is written.'"--_Murray's Grammar_, 8vo, p. 65. "The first [participle] expresses a _continuation_; the other, a _completion_."--_W. Allen's Grammar_, 12mo, London, 1813. "The idea which this participle [e.g. '_tearing_'] really expresses, is simply that of the _continuance_ of an action in an _incomplete_ or _unfinished_ state. The action may belong to time _present_, to time _past_, or to time _future_. The participle which denotes the _completion_ of an action, as _torn_, is called the _perfect_ participle; because it represents the action as _perfect_ or _finished_."--_Barnard's Analytic Gram._, p. 51. Emmons stealthily copies from my Institutes as many as ten lines in defence of the term '_Imperfect_' and yet, in his conjugations, he calls the participle in _ing_, "_Present_." This seems inconsistent. See his "_Grammatical Instructer_," p. 61. [304] "The ancient termination (from the Anglo-Saxon) was _and_; as, 'His _schynand_ sword.' Douglas. And sometimes _ende_; as, 'She, between the deth and life, _Swounende_ lay full ofte.' Gower."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 88. "The present Participle, in Saxon, was formed by _ande, ende_, or _onde_; and, by cutting off the final _e_, it acquired a Substantive signification, and extended the idea to the agent: as, _alysende_, freeing, and _alysend_, a redeemer; _freonde_, loving or friendly, and _freond_, a lover or a friend."--_Booth's Introd. to Dict._, p. 75. [305] William B. Fowle, a modern disciple of Tooke, treats the subject of grammatical time rather more strangely than his master. Thus: "How many times or tenses have verbs? _Two_, [the] present and [the] _past_," To this he immediately adds in a note: "We _do not believe_ in a _past_ any more than a future tense of verbs."--_The True English Gram._, p. 30. So, between these two authors, our verbs will retain no tenses at all. Indeed, by his two tenses, Fowle only meant to recognize the two simple forms of an English verb. For he says, in an other place, "We repeat our conviction that no verb in itself expresses time of any sort."--_Ib._, p. 69, [306] "STONE'-BLIND," "STONE'-COLD," and "STONE'-DEAD," are given in Worcester's Dictionary, as compound _adjectives_; and this is perhaps their best classification; but, if I mistake not, they are usually accented quite as strongly on the latter syllable, as on the former, being spoken rather as two emphatic words. A similar example from Sigourney, "I saw an infant _marble cold_," is given by Frazee under this Note: "Adjectives sometimes belong to other adjectives; as, '_red hot_ iron.'"--_Improved Gram._, p. 141. But Webster himself, from whom this doctrine and the example are borrowed, (see his Rule XIX,) makes "RED'-HOT" but one word in his Dictionary; and Worcester gives it as one word, in a less proper form, even without a hyphen, "RED'HOT." [307] "OF ENALLAGE.--The construction which may be reduced to this figure in English, chiefly appears when one part of speech, is used with the power and effect of another."--_Ward's English Gram._, p. 150. [308] _Forsooth_ is _literally_ a word of affirmation or assent, meaning _for truth_, but it is now almost always used _ironically_: as, "In these gentlemen whom the world _forsooth_ calls wise and solid, there is generally either a moroseness that persecutes, or a dullness that tires you."--_Home's Art of Thinking_, p. 24. [309] In most instances, however, the words _hereof, thereof_, and _whereof_, are placed after _nouns_, and have nothing to do with any _verb_. They are therefore not properly _adverbs_, though all our grammarians and lexicographers call them so. Nor are they _adjectives_; because they are not used adjectively, but rather in the sense of a pronoun governed by _of_; or, what is nearly the same thing, in the sense of the possessive or genitive case. Example: "And the fame _hereof_ went abroad."--_Matt._, ix, 26. That is, "the fame _of this miracle_;" which last is a better expression, the other being obsolete, or worthy to be so, on account of its irregularity. [310] _Seldom_ is sometimes compared in this manner, though not frequently; as, "This kind of verse occurs the _seldomest_, but has a happy effect in diversifying the melody."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 385. In former days, this word, as well as its correlative _often_, was sometimes used _adjectively_; as, "Thine _often_ infirmities."--_1 Tim._, v, 23. "I hope God's Book hath not been my _seldomest_ lectures."--_Queen Elizabeth_, 1585. John Walker has regularly compared the adverb _forward_: in describing the latter L, he speaks of the tip of the tongue as being "brought a little _forwarder_ to the teeth."--_Pron. Dict., Principles_, No. 55. [311] A few instances of the _regular inflection_ of adverbs ending in _ly_, may be met with in _modern_ compositions, as in the following comparisons: "As melodies will sometimes ring _sweetlier_ in the echo."--_The Dial_, Vol. i, p. 6. "I remember no poet whose writings would _safelier_ stand the test."--_Coleridge's Biog. Lit._, Vol. ii, p. 53. [312] De Sacy, in his Principles of General Grammar, calls the relative pronouns "_Conjunctive Adjectives_." See _Fosdick's Translation_, p. 57. He also says, "The words _who, which_, etc. are not the only words which connect the function of a Conjunction with another design. There are Conjunctive _Nouns_ and _Adverbs_, as well as Adjectives; and a characteristic of these words is, that we can substitute for them another form of expression in which shall be found the words _who, which_, etc. Thus, _when, where, what, how, as_, and many others, are Conjunctive words: [as,] 'I shall finish _when_ I please;' that is, 'I shall finish _at the time at which_ I please.'--'I know not _where_ I am;' i.e. 'I know not _the place in which_ I am.'"--_Ib._, p. 58. In respect to the conjunctive _adverbs_, this is well enough, so far as it goes; but the word _who_ appears to me to be a pronoun, and not an adjective; and of his "_Conjunctive Nouns_," he ought to have given us some examples, if he knew of any. [313] "Now the Definition of a CONJUNCTION is as follows--_a Part of Speech, void of Signification itself, but so formed as to help Signification by making_ TWO _or more significant Sentences to be_ ONE _significant Sentence_."--_Harris's Hermes_, 6th Edition, London, p. 238. [314] Whether these, or any other conjunctions that come together, ought to ho parsed together, is doubtful. I am not in favour of taking any words together, that can well be parsed separately. Goodenow, who defines a phrase to be "the union of two or more words having the _nature and construcion [sic--KTH] of a single word_," finds an immense number of these unions, which he cannot, or does not, analyze. As examples of "a _conjunctional phrase_," he gives "_as if_ and "_as though_."--_Gram._, p. 25. But when he comes to speak of _ellipsis_, he says: "After the conjunctions _than, as, but_, &c., some words are generally understood; as, 'We have more than [_that is which_] will suffice;' 'He acted _as_ [_he would act_] _if_ he were mad.'"--_Ib._, p. 41. This doctrine is plainly repugnant to the other. [315] Of the construction noticed in this observation, the Rev. Matt. Harrison cites a good example; pronounces it elliptical; and scarcely forbears to condemn it as bad English: "_In_ the following sentence, the relative pronoun is three times omitted:--'Is there a God to swear _by_, and is there none to believe _in_, none to trust _to_?'--_Letters and Essays, Anonymous_. _By, in_, and _to_, as prepositions, stand alone, _denuded of the relatives_ to which they apply. The sentence presents no attractions worthy of imitation. It exhibits a license carried to the extreme point of endurance."--_Harrison's English Language_, p. 196. [316] "An ellipsis of _from_ after the adverb _off_ has caused the latter word sometimes to be inserted _incorrectly_ among the prepositions. Ex. 'off (from) his horse.'"--_Hart's Gram._, p. 96. _Off_ and _on_ are opposites; and, in a sentence like the following, I see no more need of inserting "_from_" after the former, than _to_ after the latter: "Thou shalt not come down _off_ that bed _on_ which thou art gone up."--2 _Kings_, i, 16. [317] "_Who consequently_ reduced the _greatest_ part of the island TO their own power."--_Swift, on the English Tongue_. "We can say, that _one nation reduces another_ TO _subjection_. But when _dominion_ or _power_ is used, we always, _as_ [so] far as I know, say, _reduce_ UNDER _their power_" [or _dominion_]--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 229. [318] "_O foy_, don't misapprehend me; I don't say so."--DOUBLE DEALER: _Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 305. [319] According to Walker and Webster, _la_ is pronounced _law_; and, if they are right in this, the latter is only a false mode of spelling. But I set down both, because both are found in books, and because I incline to think the former is from the French _la_, which is pronounced _lah_. Johnson and Webster make _la_ and _lo_ synonymous; deriving _lo_ from the Saxon _la_, and _la_ either from _lo_ or from the French _la_. "_Law_, how you joke, cousin."--_Columbian Orator_, p. 178. "_Law_ me! the very ghosts are come now!"--_Ibid._ "_Law_, sister Betty! I am glad to see you!"--_Ibid._ "_La_ you! If you speak ill of the devil, How he takes it at heart!"--SHAKESPEARE: _Joh. Dict., w. La._ [320] The interjection of interrogating, being placed independently, either after a question, or after something which it converts into a question, is usually marked with its own separate eroteme; as, "But this is even so: eh?"--_Newspaper_. "Is't not drown'd i' the last rain? Ha?"--_Shakespeare_. "Does Bridget paint still, Pompey? Ha?"--_Id._ "Suits my complexion--_hey_, gal? so I think."--_Yankee Schoolmaster_. Sometimes we see it divided only by a comma, from the preceding question; as, "What dost thou think of this doctrine, Friend Gurth, ha?"--SCOTT'S IVANHOE: _Fowler's E. Gram._, §29. [321] Though _oh_ and _ah_ are most commonly used as signs of these depressing passions, it must be confessed that they are sometimes employed by reputable writers, as marks of cheerfulness or exultation; as, "_Ah_, pleasant proof," &c.--_Cowper's Task_, p. 179. "Merrily _oh!_ merrily _oh!_"--_Moore's Tyrolese Song_. "Cheerily _oh!_ cheerily _oh!_"--_Ib._ But even if this usage be supposed to be right, there is still some difference between these words and the interjection _O_: if there were not, we might dispense with the latter, and substitute one of the former; but this would certainly change the import of many an invocation. [322] This position is denied by some grammarians. One recent author says, "The _object_ cannot properly be called one of the principal parts of a sentence; as it belongs only to some sentences, and then is dependent on the verb, which it modifies or explains."--_Goodenow's Gram._, p. 87. This is consistent enough with the notion, that, "An infinitive, with or without a substantive, may be _the object of a transitive verb_; as, 'I wish _to ride_;' 'I wish _you to ride_.'"--_Ib._, p. 37. Or, with the _contrary_ notion, that, "An infinitive may be _the object of a_ _preposition_, expressed or understood; as, 'I wish _for you to ride_.'"--_Ibid._ But if the object governed by the verb, is always a mere qualifying adjunct, a mere "explanation of the attribute," (_Ib._, p. 28,) how differs it from an adverb? "Adverbs are words _added to verbs_, and sometimes to other words, to _qualify_ their meaning."--_Ib._, p. 23. And if infinitives and other mere _adjuncts_ may be the objects which make verbs transitive, how shall a transitive verb be known? The fact is, that the _true_ object of the transitive verb _is one of the principal_ _parts_ of the sentence, and that the infinitive mood cannot properly be reckoned such an object. [323] Some writers distinguish sentences as being of _three_ kinds, _simple_, and _complex_, and _compound_; but, in this work, care has not in general been taken to discriminate between complex sentences and compound. A late author states the difference thus: "A sentence containing but one proposition is _simple_; a sentence containing two propositions, one of which modifies the other, is _complex_; a sentence containing two propositions which in no way modify each other, is _compound_."--_Greene's Analysis_, p. 3. The term _compound_, as applied to sentences, is not _usually_ so restricted. An other, using the same terms for a very different division, explains them thus: "A _Simple Sentence_ contains but one subject and one attribute; as, 'The _sun shines_.' A _Complex Sentence_ contains two or more subjects of the same attribute, or two or more attributes of the same subject; as, 'The _sun_ and the _stars_ shine.' 'The sun _rises_ and _sets_.' 'The _sun_ and the _stars rise_ and _set_.' A _Compound Sentence_ is composed of two or more simple or complex sentences united; as, 'The _sun shines_, and the _stars twinkle_.' 'The _sun rises_ and _sets_, as the _earth revolves_.'"--_Pinneo's English Teacher_, p. 10; _Analytical Gram._, pp. 128, 142, and 146. This notion of a _complex sentence_ is not more common than Greene's; nor is it yet apparent, that the usual division of sentences into two kinds ought to give place to any tripartite distribution. [324] The terms _clause_ and _member_, in grammar, appear to have been generally used as words synonymous; but some authors have thought it convenient to discriminate them, as having different senses. Hiley says, "Those parts of a sentence which are separated by commas, are called _clauses_; and those separated by semicolons, are called _members_."--_Hiley' s Gram._, p. 66. W. Allen too confines the former term to simple members: "A compound sentence is formed by uniting two or more simple sentences; as, Man is mortal, and life is uncertain. Each of these simple sentences is called a _clause_. When the _members_ of a compound sentence are complex, they are _subdivided_ into _clauses_; as, Virtue leads to honor, and insures true happiness; but vice degrades the understanding, and is succeeded by infamy."--_Allen's Gram._, p. 128. By some authors, the terms _clause_ and _phrase_ are often carelessly confounded, each being applied with no sort of regard to its proper import. Thus, where L. Murray and his copyists expound their text about "the pupil's composing frequently," even the minor phrase, "_composing frequently_," is absurdly called a _clause_; "an entire _clause_ of a sentence."--See _Murray's Gram._, p. 179; _Alger's_, 61; _Fisk's_, 108; _Ingersoll's_, 180; _Merchant's_, 84; _R. C. Smith's_, 152; _Weld's_, 2d Ed., 150. The term _sentence_ also is sometimes grossly misapplied. Thus, by R. C. Smith, the phrases "_James and William_," "_Thomas and John_," and others similar, are called "sentences."--_Smith's New Gram._, pp. 9 and 10. So Weld absurdly writes as follows; "A _whole sentence_ is frequently the object of a preposition; as, 'The crime of being a young man.' _Being a young man_, is the object of the preposition _of_."--_Weld's E. Gram._, 2d Edition, p. 42. The phrase, "_being a young man_," here depends upon "_of_;" but this preposition governs nothing but the participle "_being_." The construction of the word "_man_" is explained below, in Obs. 7th on Rule 6th, of Same Cases. [325] In the very nature of things, all _agreement_ consists in concurrence, correspondence, conformity, similarity, sameness, equality; but _government_ is direction, control, regulation, restrain, influence, authoritative requisition, with the implication of inequality. That these properties ought to be so far distinguished in grammar, as never to be supposed to co-exist in the same terms and under the same circumstances, must be manifest to every reasoner. Some grammarians who seem to have been not always unaware of this, have nevertheless egregiously forgotten it at times. Thus Nutting, in the following remark, expresses a true doctrine, though he has written it with no great accuracy: "A word _in parsing_ never governs the same word _which_ it qualifies, or with which it agrees."--_Practical Gram._, p. 108. Yet, in his syntax, in which he pretends to separate agreement from government, he frames his first rule under the better head thus: "The nominative case _governs_ a verb."--_Ib._ p. 96. Lindsey Murray recognizes no such government as this; but seems to suppose his rule for the agreement of a verb with its nominative to be sufficient for both verb and nominative. He appears, however, not to have known that a word does not agree syntactically with another that governs it; for, in his Exercises, he has given us, apparently from his own pen, the following _untrue_, but otherwise not very objectionable sentence: "On these occasions, the pronoun is governed by, _an consequently agrees with_, the preceding word."--_Exercises_, 8vo, ii, 74. This he corrects thus: On these occasions, the pronoun is governed by the preceding word, _and consequently agrees with it_."--_Key_, 8vo, ii, 204. The amendments most needed he overlooks; for the thought is not just, and the two verbs which are here connected with one and the same nominative, are different in form. See the same example, with the same variation of it, in _Smith's New Gram._, p. 167; and, without the change, in _Ingersoll's_, p. 233; _and Fisk's_, 141. [326] It has been the notion of some grammarians, that _the verb governs the nominative before it_. This is an old rule, which seems to have been very much forgotten by modern authors; though doubtless it is as true, and as worthy to be perpetuated, as that which supposes the nominative to govern the verb: "Omne verbum personale finiti modi regit ante se expresse vel subaudite ejusdem numeri et personæ nominativum vel aliquid pro nominativo: ut, _ego scribo, tu legis, ille auscultat_."--DESPAUTERII SYNT. fol. xvi. This Despauter was a laborious author, who, within fifty years after the introduction of printing, complains that he found his task heavy, on account of the immense number of books and opinions which he had to consult: "Necdum tamen huic operi ultimam manum aliter imposui, quam Apelles olim picturis: siquidem aptius exire, quum in multis tum in hac arte est difficillimum, _propter librorum legendorum immensitatem_, et opinionum innumeram diversitatem."--_Ibid., Epist. Apologetica_, A. D. 1513. But if, for this reason, the task was heavy _then_, what is it _now_! [327] Nutting's rule certainly implies that _articles_ may relate to _pronouns_, though he gives no example, nor can he give any that is now good English; but he may, if he pleases, quote some other modern grammatists, who teach the same false doctrine: as, "RULE II. _The article refers to its noun_ (OR PRONOUN) _to limit its signification_."--R. G. Greene's Grammatical Text-Book, p. 18. Greene's two grammars are used extensively in the state of Maine, but they appear to be little known anywhere else. This author professes to inculcate "the principles established by Lindley Murray." If veracity, on this point, is worth any thing, it is a pity that in both books there are so many points which, like the foregoing parenthesis, belie this profession. He followed here Ingersoll's RULE IV, which is this: "_The article refers to a noun_ OR PRONOUN, _expressed or understood, to limit its signification_."-- _Conversations on E. Gram._, p. 185. [328] It is truly a matter of surprise to find under what _titles_ or _heads_, many of the rules of syntax have been set, by some of the best scholars that have ever written on grammar. In this respect, the Latin and Greek grammarians are particularly censurable; but it better suits my purpose to give an example or two from one of the ablest of the English. Thus that elegant scholar the Rev. W. Allen: "SYNTAX OF NOUNS. 325. A verb agrees with its nominative case in number and person."--_Elements of E. Gram._, p. 131. This is in no wise the syntax of _Nouns_, but rather that of _the Verb_. Again: "SYNTAX OF VERBS. 405. Active Verbs govern the accusative case; as, I love _him_. We saw _them_. God rules the _world_."--_Ib._, p. 161. This is not properly the syntax of _Verbs_, but rather that of _Nouns_ or _Pronouns_ in the accusative or objective case. Any one who has but the least sense of order, must see the propriety of referring the rule to that sort of words to which it is applied in parsing, and not some other. Verbs are never parsed or construed by the latter of these rules nor nouns by the former. [329] What "the Series of Grammars, English, Latin, and Greek, ON THE SAME PLAN," will ultimately be,--how many treatises for each or any of the languages it will probably contain,--what uniformity will be found in the distribution of their several sorts and sizes,--or what _sameness_ they will have, except that which is bestowed by the binders,--cannot yet be stated with any certainty. It appears now, in 1850, that the scheme has thus far resulted in the production of _three remarkably different grammars_, for the English part of the series, and two more, a Latin grammar and a Greek, which resemble each other, or any of these, as little. In these works, abound changes and discrepances, sometimes indicating a great _unsettlement_ of "principles" or "plan," and often exciting our wonder at the extraordinary _variety_ of teaching, which has been claimed to be, "as nearly in the same words as the as the _genius of the languages_ would permit!" In what _should_ have been uniform, and easily _might_ have been so, these grammars are rather remarkably diverse! Uniformity in the order, number, or phraseology of the Rules of Syntax, even for our own language, seems scarcely yet to have entered this "SAME PLAN" at all! The "onward progress of English grammar," or, rather, of the author's studies therein, has already, within "fifteen years," greatly varied, from the _first model_ of the "_Series_," his own idea of a good grammar; and, though such changes bar consistency, a future progress, real or imaginary, may likewise, with as good reason, vary it yet as much more. In the preface to the work of 1840, it is said: "This, though _not essentially different_ from the former, is yet in some respects a new work. It has been almost _entirely rewritten_." And again: "The Syntax is _much fuller_ than in the former work; and though _the rules are not different_, they are arranged in a _different order_." So it is proved, that the model needed remodelling; and that the Syntax, especially, was defective, in matter as well as in order. The suggestions, that "_the rules are not different_," and the works, _"not essentially" so_, will sound best to those who shall never compare them. The old code has thirty-four chief, and twenty-two "special rules;" the new has twenty chief, thirty-six "special," and one "general rule." Among all these, we shall scarcely find _exact sameness_ preserved in so many as half a dozen instances. Of the old thirty-four, _fourteen only_ were judged worthy to remain as principal rules; and two of these have no claim at all to such rank, one of them being quite useless. Of the _twenty_ now made chief, five are new to "the Series of Grammars," and three of these exceedingly resemble as many of mine; five are slightly altered, and five greatly, from their predecessors among the old: one is the first half of an old rule; one is an old subordinate rule, altered and elevated; and _three are as they were before_, their numbers and relative positions excepted! [330] "The grammatical predicate is a verb."--_Butler's Pract. Gram._, 1845, p. 135, "_The grammatical predicate_ is a finite verb."--_Wells's School Gram._, 1850, p. 185. "The grammatical predicate is either a verb alone, or the copula _sum_ [some part of the verb _be_] with a noun or adjective."--_Andrews and Stoddard's Lat. Gram._, p. 163. "The _predicate_ consists of two parts,--the verb, or _copula_, and that which is asserted by it, called the _attribute_; as 'Snow _is white_.'"--_Greene's Analysis_. p. 15. "The _grammatical_ predicate consists of the _attribute_ and _copula_ not modified by other word."--_Bullions, Analyt, and Pract. Gram._, P. 129. "The _logical_ predicate is the grammatical, with all the words or phrases that modify it." _Ib._ p. 130. "The _Grammatical predicate_ is the word or words containing the simple affirmation, made respecting the subject."--_Bullions, Latin Gram._, p. 269. "Every proposition necessarily consists of these three parts: [the _subject_, the _predicate_, and the _copula_;] but then it is not alike needful, that they be all severally expressed in words; because the copula _is often included_ in the term of the predicate; as when we say, _he sits_, which imports the same as, _he is sitting_."--_Duncan's Logic_, p 105. In respect to this Third Method of Analysis. It is questionable, whether a noun or an adjective which follows the verb and forms part of the assertion, is to be included in "the grammatical predicate" or not. Wells says, No: "It would destroy at once all distinction between the grammatical and the logical predicate."--_School Gram._, p. 185. An other question is, whether the _copula_ (_is, was_ or the like,) which the _logicians_ discriminate, should be included as part of the _logical_ predicate, when it occurs as a distinct word. The prevalent practice of the _grammatical_ analyzers is, so to include it,--a practice which in itself is not very "logical." The distinction of subjects and predicates as "_grammatical_ and _logical_," is but a recent one. In some grammars, the partition used in logic is copied without change, except perhaps of _words_: as "There are, in sentences, a _subject_, a _predicate_ and a _copula_." JOS. R. CHANDLER, _Gram. of_ 1821, p. 105; _Gram. of_ 1847, p. 116. The logicians, however, and those who copy them, may have been hitherto at fault in recognizing and specifying their "_copula_." Mulligan forcibly argues that the verb of _being_ is no more entitled to this name than is every other verb. (See his _Exposition_," §46.) If he is right in this, the "_copula_" of the logicians (an in my opinion, his own also) is a mere figment of the brain, there being nothing that answers to the definition of the thing or to the true use of the word. [331] I cite this example from Wells, for the purpose of explaining it without the several errors which that gentleman's _"Model"_ incidentally inculcates. He suggests that _and_ connects, not the two relative _clauses_, as such, but the two verbs _can give_ and _can take_; and that the connexion between _away_ and _is_ must be traced through the former, and its object _which._ These positions, I think, are wrong. He also uses here, as elsewhere, the expressions, _"which relates it"_ and, _"which is related by,"_ each in a very unusual, and perhaps an unauthorized, sense. His formule reads thus: "_Away_ modifies _can take_; _can take_ is CONNECTED with _can give_ by _and_; WHICH is governed by CAN GIVE, and relates to _security_; _security_ is the object of _finding_, _which_ is RELATED BY _of_ to _conviction_; _conviction_ is the object of with, _which_ RELATES IT to _can look_; _to_ expresses the relation between _whom_ and _can look_, and _whom_ relates to _Being_, which is the subject of _is."_ --_Wells's School Gram._, 113th Ed., p. 192. Neither this nor the subsequent method has been often called _"analysis;"_ for, in grammar, each user of this term has commonly applied it to some one method only,--the method preferred by himself. [332] The possessive phrase here should be, "_Andrews and Stoddard's_," as Wells and others write it. The adding of the apostrophe to the former name is wrong, even by the better half of Butler's own absurd and self-contradictory Rule: to wit, "When two or more nouns in the possessive case are connected by _and_, the possessive termination _should be added to each of them_; as, 'These are _John's and Eliza's_ books.' But, if objects are possessed in common by two or more, and the nouns are closely connected without any intervening words, the possessive termination is _added to the last noun only_; as, 'These are _John and Eliza's_ books.'"--_Butler's_ _Practical Gram._, p. 163. The sign twice used implies two governing nouns: "John's and Eliza's books." = "John's books and Eliza's;" "Andrews' and Stoddard's Latin Grammar," = "Andrews' (or Andrews's) Latin Grammar and Stoddard's" [333] In Mulligan's recent "Exposition of the Grammatical Structure of the English Language,"--the work of an able hand,--this kind of "Analysis," being most improperly pronounced "_the chief business of the grammarian_," is swelled by copious explanation under minute heads, to a volume containing more than three times as much matter as Greene's; but, since school-boys have little relish for long arguments, and prolixity had here already reached to satiety and disgust, it is very doubtful whether the practical utility of this "Improved Method of Teaching Grammar," will be greater in proportion to this increase of bulk.--G. B., 1853. [334] "I will not take upon me to say, whether we have any Grammar that sufficiently instructs us by rule and example; but I am sure we have none, that in the manner here attempted, teaches us what is right, by showing what is wrong; though this perhaps may prove _the more useful and effectual method_ of Instruction."--_Lowth's Gram., Pref._, p. viii. [335] With the possessive case and its governing noun, we use but _one article_; and sometimes it seems questionable, to which of the two that article properly relates: as, "This is one of _the_ Hebrews' children."--_Exodus_, ii, 6. The sentence is plainly equivalent to the following, which has two articles: "This is one of _the_ children of _the_ Hebrews." Not because the one article is equivalent to the two, or because it relates to both of the nouns; but because the possessive relation itself makes one of the nouns sufficiently definite. Now, if we change the latter construction back into the former, it is the noun _children_ that drops its article; it is therefore the other to which the remaining article relates. But we sometimes find examples in which the same analogy does not hold. Thus, "_a summer's day_" means, "_a day of summer_;" and we should hardly pronounce it equivalent to "_the day of a summer_." So the questionable phrase, "_a three days' journey_," means, "_a journey of three days_;" and, whether the construction be right or wrong, the article _a_ cannot be said to relate to the plural noun. Possibly such a phrase as, "_the three years' war_," might mean, "_the war of three years_;" so that the article must relate to the latter noun. But in general it is the latter noun that is rendered definite by the possessive relation: thus the phrase, "_man's works_" is equivalent to "_the works_ of man," not to "_works of the man_;" so, "_the man's works_," is equivalent, not to "the works of man," but to "the works of _the_ man." [336] Horne Tooke says, "The _use_ of A after the word MANY is a corruption for _of_; and has _no connection_ whatever with the _article_ A, i. e. _one_."--_Diversions of Purley_, Vol. ii, p. 324. With this conjecture of the learned etymologist, I do not concur: it is hardly worth while to state here, what may he urged pro and con. [337] "Nothing can be more certain than that [in Greek syntax] all words used for the purpose of definition, either stand between the article and the noun, or have their own article prefixed. Yet it may sometimes happen that an apposition [with an article] is parenthetically inserted instead of being affixed."--J. W. DONALDSON: _Journal of Philology_, No. 2, p. 223. [338] _Churchill_ rashly condemns this construction, and still more rashly proposes to make the noun singular without repeating the article. See his _New Gram._, p. 311. But he sometimes happily forgets his own doctrine; as, "In fact, _the second and fourth lines_ here stamp the character of the measure."--_Ib._, p. 391. O. B. Peirce says, "'Joram's _second_ and _third daughters_,' must mean, if it means any thing, his _second daughters_ and _third daughters_; and, 'the _first_ and _second verses_.' if it means any thing, must represent the _first verses_ and the _second verses_."-- _Peirce's English Gram._, p. 263. According to my notion, this interpretation is as false and hypercritical, as is the rule by which the author professes to show what is right. He might have been better employed in explaining some of his own phraseology, such as, "the _indefinite-past and present_ of the _declarative mode_."--_Ib._, p. 100. The critic who writes such stuff as this, may well be a misinterpreter of good common English. It is plain, that the two examples which he thus distorts, are neither obscure nor inelegant. But, in an alternative of single things, the article _must be repeated_, and a plural noun is improper; as, "But they do not receive _the_ Nicene _or the_ Athanasian _creeds_."--_Adam's Religious World_, Vol. ii, p. 105. Say, "_creed_." So in an enumeration; as, "There are three participles: _the_ present, _the_ perfect, and _the_ compound perfect _participles_"--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 42. Expunge this last word, "_participles_." Sometimes a sentence is wrong, not as being in itself a solecism, but as being unadapted to the author's thought. Example: "Other tendencies will be noticed in the Etymological and Syntactical part."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, N. Y., 1850, p. 75. This implies, what appears not to be true, that the author meant to treat Etymology and Syntax _together_ in a single part of his work. Had he put an _s_ to the noun "part," he might have been understood in either of two other ways, but not in this. To make sure of his meaning, therefore, he should have said--"in the Etymological _Part_ and _the_ Syntactical." [339] Oliver B. Peirce, in his new theory of grammar, not only adopts Ingersoll's error, but adds others to it. He supposes no ellipsis, and declares it grossly improper ever to insert the pronoun. According to him, the following text is wrong: "My son, _despise not thou_ the chastening of the Lord."--_Heb._, xii, 5. See _Peirce's Gram._, p. 255. Of this gentleman's book I shall say the less, because its faults are so many and so obvious. Yet this is "_The Grammar of the English Language_," and claims to be the only work which is worthy to be called an English Grammar. "The first and only Grammar of the English Language!"--_Ib._, p. 10. In punctuation, it is a very _chaos_, as one might guess from the following Rule: "A _word_ of the _second person_, and in the _subjective_ case, _must have_ a _semicolon_ after it; as, John; hear me."--_Id._, p. 282. Behold his practice! "John, beware."--P. 84. "Children, study."--P. 80. "Henry; study."--P. 249. "Pupil: parse."--P. 211; and many other places. "Be thou, or do thou be writing? Be ye or you, or do ye or you be writing?"--P. 110. According to his Rule, this tense requires six semicolons; but the author points it with two commas and two notes of interrogation! [340] In Butler's Practical Grammar, first published in 1845, this doctrine is taught as a _novelty_. His publishers, in their circular letter, speak of it as one of "the _peculiar advantages_ of this grammar over preceding works," and as an important matter, "_heretofore altogether omitted by grammarians_!" Wells cites Butler in support of his false principle: "A verb in the infinitive is _often_ preceded by a noun or pronoun in the objective, which has _no direct dependence_ on any other word. Examples:--'Columbus ordered a strong _fortress_ of wood and plaster _to be erected_.'--_Irving_. 'Its favors here should make _us tremble_.'-- _Young_." See _Wells's School Gram._, p. 147. [341] "Sometimes indeed _the verb hath two regimens_, and then _the preposition is necessary_ to one of them; as, 'I address myself _to_ my judges.'"--_Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric_, p. 178. Here the verb _address_ governs the pronoun _myself_, and is also the antecedent to the preposition _to_; and the construction would be similar, if the preposition governed the infinitive or a participle: as, "I prepared myself _to_ swim;" or, "I prepared myself _for_ swimming." But, in any of these cases, it is not very accurate to say, "_the verb has two regimens_;" for the latter term is properly the regimen of the _preposition_. Cardell, by robbing the prepositions, and supposing ellipses, found _two regimens for every verb_. W. Allen, on the contrary, (from whom Nixon gathered his doctrine above,) by giving the "accusative" to the infinitive, makes a multitude of our active-transitive verbs "_neuter_." See _Allen's Gram._, p. 166. But Nixon absurdly calls the verb "active-transitive," _because it governs the infinitive_; i. e. as he supposes--and, except when _to_ is not used, _erroneously_ supposes. [342] A certain _new theorist_, who very innocently fogs himself and his credulous readers with a deal of impertinent pedantry, after denouncing my doctrine that _to_ before the infinitive is a _preposition_, appeals to me thus: "Let me ask you, G. B.--is not the infinitive in Latin _the same_ as in _the English?_ Thus, I desire _to teach Latin_--Ego Cupio _docere_. I saw Abel _come_--Ego videbam Abelem _venire_. The same principle is recognized by the Greek grammars and those of most of the modern languages."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 358. Of this gentleman I know nothing but from what appears in his book--a work of immeasurable and ill-founded vanity--a whimsical, dogmatical, blundering performance. This short sample of his Latin, (_with six puerile errors in seven words_,) is proof positive that he knows nothing of that language, whatever may be his attainments in Greek, or the other tongues of which he tells. To his question I answer emphatically, NO. In Latin, "One verb governs an other in the infinitive; as, _Cupio discere_, I desire _to_ learn."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 181. This government never admits the intervention of a preposition. "I saw Abel come," has no preposition; but the Latin of it is, "_Vidi Abelem venientem_," and not what is given above; or, according to St. Jerome and others, who wrote, "_Abel_," without declension, we ought rather to say, "_Vidi Abel venientem_." If they are right, "_Ego videbam Abelem venire_," is every word of it wrong! [343] Priestley cites these examples as _authorities_, not as _false syntax_. The errors which I thus quote at secondhand from other grammarians, and mark with double references, are in general such as the first quoters have allowed, and made themselves responsible for; but this is not the case in every instance. Such credit has sometimes, though rarely, been given, where the expression was disapproved.--G. BROWN. [344] Lindley Murray thought it not impracticable to put two or more nouns in apposition and add the possessive sign to each; nor did he imagine there would often be any positive impropriety in so doing. His words, on this point, are these: "On the other hand, the application of the _genitive_ sign to both or all of the nouns in apposition, would be _generally_ harsh and displeasing, and _perhaps in some cases incorrect_: as, 'The Emperor's Leopold's; King George's; Charles's the Second's; The parcel was left at Smith's, the bookseller's and stationer's."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 177. Whether he imagined _any of these_ to be "_incorrect_" or not, does not appear! Under the next rule, I shall give a short note which will show them _all_ to be so. The author, however, after presenting these uncouth fictions, which show nothing but his own deficiency in grammar, has done the world the favour not to pronounce them very _convenient_ phrases; for he continues the paragraph as follows: "The rules which _we_ have endeavoured to elucidate, will prevent the _inconveniences_ of both these modes of expression; and they appear to be _simple, perspicuous_, and _consistent_ with the idiom of the language.'--_Ib._ This undeserved praise of his own rules, he might as well have left to some other hand. They have had the fortune, however, to please sundry critics, and to become the prey of many thieves; but are certainly very deficient in the three qualities here named; and, taken together with their illustrations, they form little else than a tissue of errors, partly his own, and partly copied from Lowth and Priestley. Dr. Latham, too, and Prof. Child, whose erroneous teaching on this point is still more marvellous, not only inculcate the idea that possessives in form may be in apposition, but seem to suppose that two possessive endings are essential to the relation. Forgetting all such English as we have in the phrases, "_John the Baptist's head_,"--"_For Jacob my servant's sake_,"--"_Julius Cæsar's Commentaries_,"--they invent sham expressions, too awkward ever to have come to their knowledge from any actual use,--such as, "_John's the farmer's wife_,"--"_Oliver's the spy's evidence_,"--and then end their section with the general truth, "For words to be in apposition with each other, they must be in the same case."--_Elementary Grammar, Revised Edition_, p. 152. What sort of scholarship is that in which _fictitious examples_ mislead even their inventors? [345] In Professor Fowler's recent and copious work, "The English Language in its Elements and Forms," our present _Reciprocals_ are called, not _Pronominal Adjectives_, but "_Pronouns_," and are spoken of, in the first instance, thus: "§248. A RECIPROCAL PRONOUN is _one_ that implies the mutual action of different agents. EACH OTHER, and ONE ANOTHER, are our reciprocal forms, _which are treated exactly as if they were compound pronouns_, taking for their genitives, _each other's, one another's_. _Each other_ is properly used of _two_, and _one another_ of _more_." The definition here given takes for granted what is at least disputable, that "_each other_," or "_one another_," is not a phrase, but is merely "_one pronoun_." But, to none of his three important positions here taken, does the author himself at all adhere. In §451, at Note 3, he teaches thus: "'They love each other.' Here _each_ is in the nominative case in apposition with _they_, and _other_ is in the objective case. 'They helped one another.' Here _one_ is in apposition with _they_, and _another_ is in the objective case." Now, by this mode of parsing, the reciprocal terms "are treated," not as "compound pronouns," but as phrases consisting of distinct or separable words: and, as being separate or separable words, whether they be Adjectives or Pronouns, they conform not to his definition above. Out of the sundry instances in which, according to his own showing, he has misapplied one or the other of these phrases, I cite the following: (1.) "The _two_ ideas of Science and Art differ from _one another_ as the understanding differs from the will."--_Fowler's Gram._, 1850, §180. Say,--"from _each_ other;" or,--"_one_ from _the_ other." (2.) "THOU, THY, THEE, are etymologically related to _each_ other."--_Ib._, §216. Say,--"to _one an_ other;" because there are "_more_" than "_two_." (3.) "Till within some centuries, the Germans, like the French and the English, addressed _each_ other in familiar conversation by the Second Person Singular."--_Ib._, §221. Say,--"addressed _one an_ other." (4.) "Two sentences are, on the other hand, connected in the way of co-ordination [,] when they are not thus dependent one upon _an_other."--_Ib._, §332. Say,--"upon _each_ other;" or,--"one upon _the_ other;" because there are but two. (5.) "These two rivers are at a great distance from one _an_other."--_Ib._, §617. Say,--"from _each_ other;" or,--"_one from the_ other." (6.) "The trees [in the _Forest of Bombast_] are close, spreading, and twined into _each other_."--_Ib._, §617. Say,--"into _one an_ other." [346] For this quotation, Dr. Campbell gives, in his margin, the following reference: "Introduction, &c., Sentences, Note on the 6th Phrase." But in my edition of Dr. Lowth's Introduction to English Grammar, (a Philadelphia edition of 1799,) I _do not_ find the passage. Perhaps it has been omitted in consequence of Campbell's criticism, of which I here cite but a part.--G. BROWN. [347] By some grammarians it is presumed to be consistent with the nature of _participles_ to govern the possessive case; and Hiley, if he is to be understood _literally_, assumes it as an "_established principle_," that they _all_ do so! "_Participles govern_ nouns and pronouns in the possessive case, and at the same time, if derived from transitive verbs, _require_ the noun or pronoun following to be in the objective case, _without the intervention of the preposition of_; as 'Much depends on _William's observing the rule_, and error will be the consequence of _his neglecting it_;' or, 'Much _will_ depend on the _rule's being observed by William_, and error will be the consequence of _its being neglected_.'"--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 94. These sentences, without doubt, are _nearly_ equivalent to each other in meaning. To make them exactly so, "_depends_" or "_will depend_" must be changed in tense, and "_its being neglected_" must be "_its being neglected by him_." But who that has looked at the facts in the case, or informed himself on the points here in dispute, will maintain that either the awkward phraseology of the latter example, or the mixed and questionable construction of the former, or the extensive rule under which they are here presented, is among "the established principles and best usages of the English language?"--_Ib._, p. 1. [348] What, in Weld's "Abridged Edition," is improperly called a "participial _noun_," was, in his "original work," still more erroneously termed "a participial _clause_." This gentleman, who has lately amended his general rule for possessives by wrongfully copying or imitating mine, has also as widely varied his conception of the _participial_--"_object possessed_;" but, in my judgement, a change still greater might not be amiss. "The possessive is often governed by a participial clause; as, much will depend on the _pupil's_ composing frequently. _Pupil's_ is governed by the _clause_, '_composing frequently_.' NOTE.--The sign ('s) should be annexed to the word governed by the _participial clause_ following it."--_Weld's Gram._, 2d _Edition_, p. 150. Again: "The possessive is often governed by a participial _noun_; as, Much will depend on the _pupil's_ composing frequently. _Pupil's_ is governed by the participial _noun composing_. NOTE.--The sign ('s) should be annexed to the word governed by the participial _noun_ following it."--_Weld's Gram., Abridged_, p. 117. Choosing the possessive case, where, both by analogy and by authority, the objective would be quite as grammatical, if not more so; destroying, as far as possible, all syntactical distinction between the participle and the participial noun, by confounding them purposely, even in name; this author, like Wells, whom he too often imitates, takes no notice of the question here discussed, and seems quite unconscious that participles partly made nouns can _produce_ false syntax. To the foregoing instructions, he subjoins the following comment, as a marginal note: "_The participle used as a noun_, still _retains its verbal properties_, and may govern the objective case, or be modified by an adverb or adjunct, like the verb from which it is derived."--_Ibid._ When one part of speech is said to be _used as an other_, the learner may be greatly puzzled to understand _to which class_ the given word belongs. If "_the participle used as a noun_, still retains its verbal properties," it is, manifestly, not a noun, but a participle still; not a participial noun, but a _nounal participle_, whether the thing be allowable or not. Hence the teachings just cited are inconsistent. Wells says, "_Participles_ are often used _in the sense of nouns_; as, 'There was again the _smacking_ of whips, the _clattering_ of hoofs, and the _glittering_ of harness.'--IRVING."--_School Gram._, p. 154. This is not well stated; because these are participial _nouns_, and not "_participles_." What Wells calls "participial nouns," differ from these, and are _all_ spurious, _all_ mongrels, _all_ participles rather than nouns. In regard to possessives before participles, no instructions appear to be more defective than those of this gentleman. His sole rule supposes the pupil always to know when and why the possessive is _proper_, and only instructs him _not to form it without the sign!_ It is this: "When a noun or a pronoun, preceding a _participle used as a noun_, is _properly_ in the possessive case, the sign of possession should not be omitted."--_School Gram._, p. 121. All the examples put under this rule, are inappropriate: each will mislead the learner. Those which are called "_Correct_," are, I think erroneous; and those which are called "_False Syntax_," the adding of the possessive sign will not amend. [349] It is remarkable, that Lindley Murray, with all his care in revising his work, did not see the _inconsistency_ of his instructions in relation to phrases of this kind. First he copies Lowth's doctrine, literally and anonymously, from the Doctor's 17th page, thus: "When the thing to which _another is said to belong_, is expressed by a circumlocution, or by _many terms_, the sign of the possessive case _is commonly added to the last_ term: as, 'The _king of Great Britain's_ dominions.'"--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 45. Afterwards he condemns this: "The word in the genitive case is frequently PLACED IMPROPERLY: as, 'This fact appears from _Dr. Pearson of Birmingham's_ experiments.' _It_ should be, 'from the experiments of _Dr. Pearson_ of Birmingham.' "--_Ib._, p. 175. And again he makes it necessary: "A phrase in which the words are so connected and dependent, as to admit of no pause before the conclusion, _necessarily requires_ the genitive sign _at or near_ the end _of the phrase_: as, 'Whose prerogative is it? It is the _king of Great Britain's_;' 'That is the _duke of Bridgewater's_ canal;' " &c.--_Ib._, p. 276. Is there not contradiction in these instructions? [350] A late grammarian tells us: "_In_ nouns ending in _es_ and _ss_, the other _s_ is not added; as, _Charles'_ hat, _Goodness'_ sake."--_Wilcox's Gram._, p. 11. He should rather have said, "_To_ nouns ending in _es_ or _ss_, the other _s_ is not added." But his doctrine is worse than his syntax; and, what is remarkable, he himself forgets it in the course of a few minutes, thus: "Decline _Charles_. Nom. _Charles_, Poss. _Charles's_, Obj. _Charles_."--_Ib._, p. 12. See the like doctrine in Mulligan's recent work on the "_Structure of Language_," p. 182. [351] VAUGELAS was a noted French critic, who died in 1650. In Murray's Grammar, the name is more than once mistaken. On page 359th, of the edition above cited, it is printed "_Vangelas_"--G. BROWN. [352] Nixon parses _boy_, as being "in the possessive case, governed by distress understood;" and _girl's_, as being "coupled by _nor_ to _boy_," according to the Rule, "Conjunctions connect the same cases." Thus one word is written wrong; the other, parsed wrong: and so of _all_ his examples above.--G. BROWN. [353] Wells, whose Grammar, in its first edition, divides verbs into "_transitive, intransitive_, and _passive_;" but whose late edition absurdly make all passives transitive; says, in his third edition, "A _transitive verb_ is a verb that _has some noun or pronoun_ for its object;" (p. 78;) adopts, in his syntax, the old dogma, "Transitive verbs govern the objective case;" (3d Ed., p. 154;) and to this rule subjoins a series of remarks, so singularly fit to puzzle or mislead the learner, and withal so successful in winning the approbation of committees and teachers, that it may be worth while to notice most of them here. "REM. 1.--A sentence or phrase _often supplies the place_ of a noun or pronoun in the objective case; as, 'You see _how few of these men have returned.'"--Wells' s School Gram._, "Third Thousand," p. 154; late Ed. §215. According to this, must we not suppose verbs to be often transitive, when _not made so_ by the author's _definition_? And if _"see"_ is here transitive, would not other forms, such as _are told, have been told_, or _are aware_, be just as much so, if put in its place? "REM. 2.--An _intransitive_ verb may be used to _govern an objective_, when the verb and the noun depending upon it are of kindred signification; as, '_To live_ a blameless _life;'--'To run_ a _race.'"--Ib._ Here verbs are absurdly called "_intransitive_," when, both in fact and by the foregoing definition, they are clearly transitive; or, at least, are, by many teachers, supposed to be so. "REM. 3.--Idiomatic expressions sometimes occur in which _intransitive_ verbs are followed by _objectives depending upon them_; as, 'To _look_ the _subject_ fully in the face.'--_Channing_. 'They _laughed him_ to scorn.'--_Matt_. 9:24. 'And _talked_ the _night_ away.'--_Goldsmith_."-- _Ib._ Here again, verbs evidently _made transitive by the construction_, are, with strange inconsistency, called "_intransitive_." By these three remarks together, the distinction between transitives and intransitives must needs be extensively _obscured_ in the mind of the learner. "REM. 4.--Transitive verbs of _asking, giving, teaching_, and _some others_, are often employed to govern two objectives; as, '_Ask him_ his _opinion_;'--'This experience _taught me_ a valuable _lesson_.'--'_Spare me_ yet this bitter _cup.'--Hemans_. 'I thrice _presented him_ a kingly _crown_.'--_Shakspeare_."--_Ib._ This rule not only jumbles together several different constructions, such as would require different cases in Latin or Greek, but is evidently repugnant to _the sense_ of many of the passages to which it is meant to be applied. Wells thinks, the practice of supplying a preposition, "is, in many cases, arbitrary, and does violence to an important and well established _idiom_ of the language."--_Ib._ But how can any idiom be violated by a mode of parsing, which merely expounds its _true meaning_? If the dative case has the meaning of _to_, and the ablative has the meaning of _from_, how can they be expounded, in English, but by suggesting the _particle_, where it is omitted? For example: "Spare me yet [_from_] this bitter cup."--"Spare [_to_] me yet this joyous cup." This author says, "_The rule_ for the government of two objectives by a verb, without the aid of a preposition, is adopted by Webster, Murray, Alexander, Frazee, Nutting, Perley, Goldsbury, J. M. Putnam, Hamlin, Flower, Crane, Brace, and many others."--_Ib._ Yet, if I mistake not, the weight of authority is vastly against it. _Such a rule as this_, is not extensively approved; and even some of the names here given, are improperly cited. Lindley Murray's remark, "Some of our verbs appear to govern two words in the objective case," is applied only to _words in apposition_, and wrong even there; Perley's rule is only of "_Some_ verbs of _asking_ and _teaching_;" and Nutting's note, "It _sometimes happens_ that one transitive verb governs two objective cases," is so very loose, that one can neither deny it, nor tell how much it means. "REM. 5.--Verbs of _asking, giving, teaching_, and _some others_, are often employed in the passive voice _to govern_ a noun or pronoun; as, 'He _was asked_ his _opinion.'--Johnson_. 'He _had been refused shelter_.'-- _Irving_."--_Ib._, p. 155, §215. Passive _governing_ is not far from absurdity. Here, by way of illustration, we have examples of _two sorts_; the one elliptical, the other solecistical. The former text appears to mean, "He was asked _for_, his opinion;"--or, "He was asked _to give_ his opinion: the latter should have been, "_Shelter had been refused_ him;"--i.e., "_to_ him." Of the seven instances cited by the author, five at least are of the latter kind, and therefore to be condemned; and it is to be observed, that when they are _corrected_, and the right word is made nominative, the passive government, by Wells's own showing, becomes nothing but the ellipsis of a preposition. Having just given a _rule_, by which all his various examples are assumed to be regular and right, he very inconsistently adds this not: "_This form_ of expression is _anomalous_, and _might_, in many cases, be improved. Thus, _instead_ of saying, 'He was offered a seat on the council,' it would be preferable to say 'A seat in the council was offered [to] him.'"--_Ib._, p. 155, Sec. 215. By admitting here the ellipsis of the preposition _to_, he evidently refutes the doctrine of his own text, so far as it relates to _passive government_, and, by implication, the doctrine of his fourth remark also. For the ellipsis of _to_, before "_him_," is just as evident in the active expression, "I thrice _presented him_ a kingly crown," as in the passive, "A kingly crown _was thrice presented him_." It is absurd to deny it in either. Having offset _himself_, Wells as ingeniously balances his _authorities, pro and con_; but, the _elliptical_ examples being _allowable_, he should not have said that I and others "_condemn this usage altogether_." "REM. 6.--The passive voice of a verb is sometimes used in connection with a _preposition_, forming a _compound passive verb_; as 'He _was listened to_.'--'Nor is this _to be scoffed at_.'--'This is a tendency _to be guarded against_.'--'A bitter persecution _was carried on_.'--_Hallam_."-- _Ib._, p. 155, Sec. 215. The words here called "_prepositions_," are _adverbs_. Prepositions they cannot be; because they have no subsequent term. Nor is it either necessary or proper, to call them parts of the verb: "_was carried on_," is no more a "compound verb," than "_was carried off_," or "_was carried forward_," and the like. "REM. 7.--Idiomatic expressions sometimes occur in which a noun in the objective is preceded by a passive verb, and followed by _a preposition used adverbially_. EXAMPLES: 'Vocal and instrumental music _were made use of_.'--_Addison_. 'The third, fourth, and fifth, _were taken possession of_ at half past eight."--_Southey_. 'The Pinta _was soon lost sight of_ in the darkness of the night.'--_Irving_."--_Ib._, p. 155, Sec. 215. As it is by the manner of their use, that we distinguish prepositions and adverbs, it seems no more proper to speak of "_a preposition used adverbially_," than of "_an adverb used prepositionally_." But even if the former phrase is right and the thing conceivable, here is no instance of it; for "_of_" here modifies no verb, adjective, or adverb. The construction is an unparsable synchysis, a vile snarl, which no grammarian should hesitate to condemn. These examples may each be corrected in several ways: 1. Say--"_were used;"--"were taken into possession_;"--"_was soon lost from sight_." 2. Say--"_They_ made use of music, _both_ vocal and instrumental."--"Of the third, _the_ fourth, and _the_ fifth, _they took_ possession at half past eight."--"Of the Pinta _they_ soon list sight," &c. 3. Say--"Use _was also_ made of _both_ vocal and instrumental music."--"Possession of the third, _the_ fourth, and _the_ fifth, _was_ taken at half past eight."--"The Pinta soon _disappeared_ in the darkness of the night." Here again, Wells puzzles his pupil, with a note which half justifies and half condemns the awkward usage in question. See _School Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 147; 3d Ed., 156; late Ed., Sec. 215. "REM. 8.--There are _some_ verbs which may be used either transitively or intransitively; as, 'He _will return_ in a week,' 'He _will return_ the book.'"--_Ib._, p. 147; 156; &c. According to Dr. Johnson, this is true of "_most_ verbs," and Lindley Murray asserts it of "_many_." There are, I think, but _few_ which may _not_, in some phraseology or other, be used both ways. Hence the rule, "Transitive verbs govern the objective case," or, as Wells now has it, "Transitive verbs, in the active voice, govern the objective case," (Sec. 215,) rests only upon a distinction which _itself creates_, between transitives and intransitives; and therefore it amounts to little. [354] To these examples, Webster adds _two others_, of a _different sort_, with a comment, thus: "'Ask _him_ his _opinion_?' 'You have asked _me_ the _news_.' Will it be said that the latter phrases are elliptical, for 'ask _of_ him his opinion?' I apprehend this to be a mistake. According to the true idea of the government of a transitive verb, _him_ must be the _object_ in the phrase under consideration, as much as in this, 'Ask _him_ for a guinea;' or in this, 'ask him to go.'"--_Ibid, ut supra_; _Frazee's Gram._, p. 152; _Fowler's_, p. 480. If, for the reason here stated, it is a "mistake" to supply _of_ in the foregoing instances, it does not follow that they are not elliptical. On the contrary, if they are analogous to, "Ask him _for_ a guinea;" or, "Ask him _to go_;" it is manifest that the construction must be this: "Ask him [_for_] his opinion;" or, "Ask him [_to tell_] his opinion." So that the question resolves itself into this: What is the best way of _supplying the ellipsis_, when two objectives thus occur after ask?--G. BROWN. [355] These examples Murray borrowed from Webster, who published them, with _references_, under his 34th Rule. With too little faith in the corrective power of grammar, the Doctor remarks upon the constructions as follows: "This idiom is outrageously anomalous, but perhaps incorrigible."-- _Webster's Philos. Gram._, p. 180; _Imp. G._, 128. [356] This seems to be a reasonable principle of syntax, and yet I find it contradicted, or a principle opposite to it set up, by some modern teachers of note, who venture to justify all those abnormal phrases which I here condemn as errors. Thus Fowler: "Note 5. When a Verb with its Accusative case, _is equivalent to a single verb_, it may take this accusative after it in the passive voice; as, 'This _has been put an end to_.'"--_Fowler's English Language_, 8vo, §552. Now what is this, but an effort to teach bad English by rule?--and by such a rule, too, as is vastly more general than even the great class of terms which it was designed to include? And yet this rule, broad as it is, does not apply at all to the example given! For "_put an end_," without the important word "_to_," is not equivalent to _stop_ or _terminate_. Nor is the example right. One ought rather to say, "This has been _ended_;" or, "This has been _stopped_." See the marginal Note to Obs. 5th, above. [357] Some, however, have conceived the putting of the same case after the verb as before it, to be _government_; as, "Neuter verbs occasionally _govern_ either the nominative or [the] objective case, after them."--_Alexander's Gram._, p. 54. "The verb _to be, always governs_ a Nominative, unless it be of the Infinitive Mood."--_Buchanan's Gram._, p. 94. This latter assertion is, in fact, monstrously untrue, and also solecistical. [358] Not unfrequently the conjunction _as_ intervenes between these "same cases," as it may also between words in apposition; as, "He then is _as_ the head, and we _as_ the members; he the vine, and we the branches."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. ii, p. 189. [359] "'Whose house is that?' This sentence, before it is parsed, _should be transposed_; thus, 'Whose is that house?' The same observation applies to every sentence of a similar construction."--_Chandler's old Gram._, p. 93. This instruction is worse than nonsense; for it teaches the pupil to parse every word in the sentence _wrong_! The author proceeds to explain _Whose_, as "qualifying _house_, understood;" _is_, as agreeing "with its nominative, _house_;" _that_, as "qualifying _house_;" and _house_, as "nominative case to the verb, _is_." Nothing of this is _true_ of the original question. For, in that, _Whose_ is governed by _house; house_ is nominative after _is; is_ agrees with _house_ understood; and _that_ relates to _house_ understood. The meaning is, "Whose house is that house?" or, in the order of a declarative sentence, "That house is whose house?" [360] 1: In Latin, the accusative case is used after such a verb, because an other word in the same case is understood before it; as, "Facere quæ libet, ID est [_hominem_] esse _regem_."--SALLUST. "To do what he pleases, THAT is [for a _man_] to be a _king_." If Professor Bullions had understood Latin, or Greek, or English, as well as his commenders imagine, he might have discovered what construction of cases we have in the following instances: "It is an honour [for a _man_] to be the _author_ of such a work."--_Bullions's Eng. Gram._, p. 82. "To be _surety_ for a stranger [,] is dangerous."--_Ib._ "Not to know what happened before you were born, is to be always a _child_."--_Ib._ "Nescire quid acciderit antequam natus es, est semper esse _puerum_."--_Ib._ "[Greek: Esti tion aischron ...topon, hon hæmen pote kurioi phainesthai proiemenous]." "It is a shame to be seen giving up countries of which we were once masters."--DEMOSTHENES: _ib._ What support these examples give to this grammarian's new notion of "_the objective indefinite_" or to his still later seizure of Greene's doctrine of "_the predicate-nominative_" the learned reader may judge. All the Latin and Greek grammarians suppose an _ellipsis_, in such instances; but some moderns are careless enough of that, and of the analogy of General Grammar in this case, to have seconded the Doctor in his absurdity. See _Farnum's Practical Gram._, p. 23; and _S. W. Clark's_, p. 149. 2. Professor Hart has an indecisive remark on this construction, as follows: "Sometimes a verb in the infinitive mood has a noun after it without any other noun before it; as, 'To be a good _man_, is not so easy a thing as many people imagine.' Here '_man_' may be parsed as used _indefinitely_ after the verb _to be_. It is not easy to say in what _case_ the noun is in such sentences. The analogy of the Latin would seem to indicate the _objective_.--Thus, 'Not to know what happened in past years, is to be always a _child_,' Latin, 'semper esse puerum.' _In like manner_, in English, we may say, '_Its_ being _me, need_ make no change in your determination.'"--_Hart's English Gram._, p. 127. 3. These learned authors thus differ about what certainly admits of no other solution than that which is given in the Observation above. To parse the nouns in question, "_as used indefinitely_," without case, and to call them "_objectives indefinite_," without agreement or government, are two methods equally repugnant to reason. The last suggestion of Hart's is also a false argument for a true position. The phrases, "_Its being me_," and "_To be a good man_," are far from being constructed "_in like manner_." The former is manifestly bad English; because _its_ and _me_ are not in the _same case_. But S. S. Greene would say, "_Its being I_, is right." For in a similar instance, he has this conclusion: "Hence, in _abridging_ the following proposition, 'I was not aware _that it was he_,' we should say '_of its being he_,' not '_his_' nor '_him_.'"--_Greene's Analysis_, 1st Ed., p. 171. When _being_ becomes a noun, no case after it appears to be very proper; but this author, thus "_abridging_" _four syllables into five_, produces an anomalous construction which it would be much better to avoid. [361] Parkhurst and Sanborn, by what they call "A NEW RULE," attempt to determine the doubtful or unknown case which this note censures, and to justify the construction as being well-authorized and hardly avoidable. Their rule is this: "A noun following a neuter or [a] passive participial noun, is in the _nominative independent_. A noun or pronoun in the _possessive_ case, always precedes the participial noun, either _expressed_ or _understood_, signifying the same thing as the noun does that follows it." To this new and exceptionable' dogma, Sanborn adds: "This form of expression is one of the most common idioms of the language, and _in general composition_ cannot be well avoided. In confirmation of the statement made, various authorities are subjoined. Two grammarians only, to our knowledge, have remarked OH this phraseology: 'Participles are sometimes preceded by a possessive case and followed by a nominative; as, There is no doubt of _his_ being a great _statesman_.' B. GREENLEAF. 'We sometimes find a participle that takes the same case after as before it, converted into a verbal noun, and the latter word retained unchanged in connexion with it; as, I have some recollection of his _father's_ being a _judge_.' GOOLD BROWN."--_Sanborn's Analytical Gram._, p. 189. On what principle the words _statesman_ and _judge_ can be affirmed to be in the nominative case, I see not; and certainly they are not nominatives "_independent_" because the word _being_, after which they stand, is not itself independent. It is true, the phraseology is common enough to be good English: but I dislike it; and if this citation from me, was meant for a confirmation of the reasonless dogmatism preceding, it is not made with fairness, because my _opinion_ of the construction is omitted by the quoter. See _Institutes of English Gram._, p. 162. In an other late grammar,--a shameful work, because it is in great measure a tissue of petty larcenies from my Institutes, with alterations for the worse,--I find the following absurd "Note," or Rule: "An infinitive or participle is often followed by a substantive _explanatory_ of an _indefinite_ person or thing. The substantive is then in the _objective_ case, and may be called the _objective after the infinitive_, or _participle_; [as,] It is an honor to be the _author_ of such a work. His being a great _man_, did not make him a happy man. By being an obedient _child_, you will secure the approbation of your parents."--_Farnum's Practical Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 25. The first of these examples is elliptical; (see Obs. 12th above, and the Marginal Note;) the second is bad English,--or, at' any rate, directly repugnant to the rule for same cases; and the third parsed wrong by the rule: "_child_" is in the nominative case. See Obs. 7th above. [362] When the preceding case is not "_the verb's nominative_" this phrase must of course be omitted; and when the word which is to be corrected, does not literally follow the verb, it may be proper to say, "_constructively follows_," in lieu of the phrase, "_comes after_." [363] The author of this example supposes _friend_ to be in the nominative case, though _John's_ is in the possessive, and both words denote the same person. But this is not only contrary to the general rule for the same cases, but contrary to his own application of one of his rules. Example: "_Maria's_ duty, as a _teacher_, is, to instruct her pupils." Here, he says, "_Teacher_ is in the _possessive_ case, from its relation to the name _Maria_, denoting the same object."--_Peirce's Gram._, p. 211. This explanation, indeed, is scarcely intelligible, on account of its grammatical inaccuracy. He means, however, that, "_Teacher_ is in the possessive case, from its relation to the name _Maria's_, the two words denoting the same object." No word can be possessive "from its relation to the name _Maria_," except by standing immediately before it, in the usual manner of possessives; as, "_Sterne's Maria_." [364] Dr. Webster, who was ever ready to justify almost any usage for which he could find half a dozen respectable authorities, absurdly supposes, that _who_ may sometimes be rightly preferred to _whom_, as the object of a preposition. His remark is this: "In the use of _who_ as an interrogative, there is an _apparent deviation_ from regular construction--it being used _without distinction of case_; as, '_Who_ do you speak _to?_' '_Who_ is she married _to?_' '_Who_ is this reserved _for?_' '_Who_ was it made _by?_' This _idiom_ is not merely colloquial: it is found in the writings of our best authors."--_Webster's Philosophical Gram._, p. 194; his _Improved Gram._, p. 136. "In this phrase, '_Who_ do you speak _to?_' there is a _deviation_ from regular construction; but the practice of thus using _who_, in certain familiar phrases, seems to be _established_ by the best authors."--_Webster's Rudiments of E. Gram._, p. 72. Almost any other solecism may be quite as well justified as this. The present work shows, in fact, a great mass of authorities for many of the incongruities which it ventures to rebuke. [365] Grammarians differ much as to the proper mode of parsing such nouns. Wells says, "This is _the case independent by ellipsis_."--_School Gram._, p. 123. But the idea of _such_ a case is a flat absurdity. Ellipsis occurs only where something, not uttered, is implied; and where a _preposition_ is thus wanting, the noun is, of course, its _object_; and therefore _not independent_. Webster, with too much contempt for the opinion of "Lowth, followed by the _whole tribe of writers_ on this subject," declares it "a palpable error," to suppose "prepositions to be understood before these expressions;" and, by two new rules, his 22d and 28th, teaches, that, "Names of measure or dimension, followed by an adjective," and "Names of certain portions of time and space, and especially words denoting continuance of time or progression, are used _without a governing word_."--_Philos. Gram._, pp. 165 and 172; _Imp. Gram._, 116 and 122; _Rudiments_, 65 and 67. But this is no account at all of the _construction_, or of the _case_ of the noun. As the nominative, or the case which we may use independently, is never a subject of government, the phrase, "_without a governing word_," implies that the case is _objective_; and how can this case be known, except by the discovery of some "governing word," of which it is the _object?_ We find, however, many such rules as the following: "Nouns of time, distance, and degree, are put in the objective case without a preposition."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 100. "Nouns which denote time, quantity, measure, distance, value, or direction are often put in the objective case without a preposition."--_Weld's Gram._, p. 153; "Abridged Ed.," 118. "Numes signifying duration, extension, quantity, quality, and valuation, are in the objective case without a governing word."--_Frazee's Gram._, p. 154. _Bullions_, too, has a similar rule. To estimate these rules aright, one should observe how often the nouns in question are found _with_ a governing word. Weld, of late, contradicts himself by _admitting the ellipsis_; and then, inconsistently with his admission, most absurdly _denies the frequent use_ of the preposition with nouns of _time, quantity_, &c. "Before words of this description, the _ellipsis of a preposition is obvious_. But it is _seldom proper to use_ the preposition before such words."--_Weld's "Abridged Edition,"_ p. 118. [366] Professor Fowler absurdly says, "_Nigh, near, next, like_, when followed by the objective case, _may be regarded either_ as Prepositions or as Adjectives, _to_ being understood."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, 8vo, 1850, §458, Note 7. Now, "_to_ being understood," it is plain that no one of these words can be accounted a preposition, but by supposing the preposition to be complex, and to be partly suppressed. This can be nothing better than an idle whim; and, since the classification of words as parts of speech, is always positive and exclusive, to refer any particular word indecisively to "_either_" of two classes, is certainly no better _teaching_, than to say, "I do not know of which sort it is; call it what you please!" With decision prompt enough, but with too little regard to analogy or consistency, Latham and Child say, "The adjective _like governs a case_, and it is the only adjective that does so."--_Elementary Gram._, p. 155. In teaching thus, they seem to ignore these facts: that _near_, _nigh_, or _opposite_, might just as well be said to be an adjective governing a case; and that the use of _to_ or _unto_ after _like_ has been common enough to prove the ellipsis. The Bible has many examples; as, "Who is _like to_ thee in Israel?"--_1 Samuel_, xxvi, 15. "Hew thee two tables of stone _like unto_ the first."--_Exodus_, xxxiv, 1; and _Deut._, x, 1. But their great inconsistency here is, that they call the case after like "_a dative_"--a case unknown to their etymology! See _Gram. of E. Gram._, p. 259. In grammar, a _solitary_ exception or instance can scarcely be a _true one_. [367] The following examples may illustrate these points: "These verbs, and all others _like to_ them, were _like_ TIMAO."--_Dr. Murray's Hist. of Europ. Lang._, Vol. ii, p. 128. "The old German, and even the modern German, are much _liker to_ the Visigothic than they are to the dialect of the Edda."--_Ib._, i, 330. "Proximus finem, _nighest_ the end."--_Ib._, ii, 150. "Let us now come _nearer to_ our own language."--_Dr. Blair's Rhet._, p. 85. "This looks _very like_ a paradox."--BEATTIE: _Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 113. "He was _near_ [to] falling."--_Ib._, p. 116. Murray, who puts _near_ into his list of prepositions, gives this example to show how "_prepositions become adverbs!_" "There was none ever before _like unto_ it."--_Stone, on Masonry_, p. 5. "And earthly power doth then show _likest_ God's, When mercy seasons justice."--_Beauties of Shakspeare_, p. 45. [368] Wright's notion of this construction is positively absurd and self-contradictory. In the sentence, "My cane is worth a shilling," he takes the word _worth_ to be a noun "in _apposition_ to the word _shilling_." And to prove it so, he puts the sentence successively into these four forms: "My cane is _worth_ or _value_ for a shilling;"--"The _worth_ or _value_ of my cane is a shilling;"--"My cane is a _shilling's worth_;"--"My cane is _the worth of_ a shilling."--_Philosophical Gram._, p. 150. In all these transmutations, _worth_ is unquestionably a noun; but, in none of them, is it in apposition with the word _shilling_; and he is quite mistaken in supposing that they "indispensably prove the word in question to be a _noun_." There are other authors, who, with equal confidence, and equal absurdity, call _worth_ a _verb_. For example: "A noun, which signifies the price, is put in the objective case, without a preposition; as, 'my book is _worth_ twenty shillings.' _Is worth_ is a _neuter verb_, and answers to the _latin_ [sic--KTH] verb _valet_."--_Barrett's Gram._, p. 138. I do not deny that the phrase "_is worth_" is a just version of the verb _valet_; but this equivalence in import, is no proof at all that _worth_ is a verb. _Prodest_ is a Latin verb, which signifies "_is profitable to_;" but who will thence infer, that _profitable to_ is a verb? [369] In J. R. Chandler's English Grammar, as published in 1821, the word _worth_ appears in the list of prepositions: but the revised list, in his edition of 1847, does not contain it. In both books, however, it is expressly parsed as a preposition; and, in expounding the sentence, "The book is worth a dollar," the author makes this remark: "_Worth_ has been called an adjective by some, and a noun by others: _worth_, however, in this sentence expresses a relation by value, and is so far a preposition; and no ellipsis, which may be formed, would change the nature of the word, without giving the sentence a different meaning."--_Chandler's Gram._, Old Ed., p. 155; New Ed., p. 181. [370] Cowper here purposely makes Mrs. Gilpin use bad English; but this is no reason why a school-boy may not be taught to correct it. Dr. Priestley supposed that the word _we_, in the example, "_To poor we_, thine enmity," &c., was also used by Shakespeare, "in a droll humorous way."--_Gram._, p. 103. He surely did not know the connexion of the text. It is in "Volumnia's _pathetic_ speech" to her victorious son. See _Coriolanus_, Act V, Sc. 3. [371] Dr. Enfield misunderstood this passage; and, in copying it into his Speaker, (a very popular school-book,) he has perverted the text, by changing _we_ to _us_: as if the meaning were, "Making us fools of nature." But it is plain, that all "fool's of nature!" must be fools of nature's own making, and not persons temporarily frighted out of their wits by a ghost; nor does the meaning of the last two lines comport with any objective construction of this pronoun. See _Enfield's Speaker_, p. 864. [372] In Clark's Practical Grammar, of 1848, is found this NOTE: "The Noun should correspond in number with the Adjectives. EXAMPLES--A two feet ruler. A ten feet pole."--P. 165. These examples are wrong: the doctrine is misapplied in both. With this author, _a_, as well as _two_ or _ten_, is an _adjective_ of number; and, since these differ in number, what sort of concord or construction do the four words in each of these phrases make? When a numeral and a noun are united to form a _compound adjective_, we commonly, if not always, use the latter in its primitive or singular form: as, "A _twopenny_ toy,"--"a _twofold_ error,"--"_three-coat_ plastering," say, "a _twofoot_ rule,"--"a _tenfoot_ pole;" which phrases are right; while Clark's are not only unusual, but unanalogical, ungrammatical. [373] Certain adjectives that differ in number, are sometimes connected disjunctively by _or_ or _than_, while the noun literally agrees with that which immediately precedes it, and with the other merely by implication or supplement, under the figure which is called _zeugma_: as, "Two or more nouns joined together by _one_ or _more_ copulative conjunctions."-- _Lowth's Gram._, p. 75; _L. Murray's_, 2d Ed., p. 106. "He speaks not to _one_ or a _few_ judges, but to a large assembly."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 280. "_More_ than _one_ object at a time."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 301. See Obs. 10th on Rule 17th. [374] Double comparatives and double superlatives, such as, "The _more serener_ spirit,"--"The _most straitest_ sect,"--are noticed by Latham and Child, in their syntax, as expressions which "we occasionally find, even in good writers," and are truly stated to be "_pleonastic_;" but, forbearing to censure them as errors, these critics seem rather to justify them as pleonasms allowable. Their indecisive remarks are at fault, not only because they are indecisive, but because they are both liable and likely to mislead the learner.--See their _Elementary Grammar_, p. 155. [375] The learned William B. Fowle strangely imagines all pronouns to be _adjectives_, belonging to nouns expressed or understood after them; as, "We kings require _them_ (subjects) to obey _us_ (kings)."--_The True English Gram._, p. 21. "_They_ grammarians, [i. e.] _those_ grammarians. _They_ is an other spelling of _the_, and of course means _this, that, these, those_, as the case may be."--_Ibid._ According to him, then, "_them grammarians_," for "_those grammarians_," is perfectly good English; and so is "_they grammarians_," though the vulgar do not take care to _vary this adjective_, "as _the case_ may be." His notion of subjoining a noun to every pronoun, is a fit counterpart to that of some other grammarians, who imagine an ellipsis of a pronoun after almost every noun. Thus: "The personal _Relatives_, for the most part, _are suppressed_ when the Noun is expressed: as, Man (he) is the Lord of this lower world. Woman (she) is the fairest Part of the Creation. The Palace (it) stands on a Hill. Men and Women (they) are rational Creatures."--_British Gram._, p. 234; _Buchanan's_, 131. It would have been worth a great deal to some men, to have known _what an Ellipsis is_; and the man who shall yet make such knowledge common, ought to be forever honoured in the schools. [376] "An illegitimate and ungrammatical use of these words, _either_ and _neither_, has lately been creeping into the language, in the application of these terms to a plurality of objects: as, '_Twenty_ ruffians broke into the house, but _neither_ of them could be recognized.' 'Here are _fifty_ pens, you will find that _either_ of them will do.'"--MATT. HARRISON, _on the English Language_, p. 199. "_Either_ and _neither_, applied to any number more than _one_ of _two_ objects, is a mere solecism, and one of late introduction."--_Ib._, p. 200. Say, "_Either_ OR _neither_," &c.--G. B. [377] Dr. Priestley censures this construction, on the ground, that the word _whole_ is an "_attribute of unity_," and therefore improperly added to a plural noun. But, in fact, this adjective is not _necessarily_ singular, nor is _all_ necessarily plural. Yet there is a difference between the words: _whole_ is equivalent to _all_ only when the noun is singular; for then only do _entireness_ and _totality_ coincide. A man may say, "_the whole thing_," when he means, "_all the thing_;" but he must not call _all things, whole things_. In the following example, _all_ is put for _whole_, and taken substantively; but the expression is a quaint one, because the article and preposition seem needless: "Which doth encompass and embrace the _all_ of things."--_The Dial_, Vol. i, p. 59. [378] This is not a mere repetition of the last example cited under Note 14th above; but it is Murray's interpretation of the text there quoted. Both forms are faulty, but not in the same way.--G. BROWN. [379] Some authors erroneously say, "A _personal_ pronoun does not always agree in person with its antecedent; as, 'John said, _I_ will do it.'"--_Goodenow's Gram._ "When I say, 'Go, and say to those children, you must come in,' you perceive that the noun children is of the _third_ person, but the pronoun you is of the _second_; yet _you_ stands for _children_,"--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 54. Here are different speakers, with separate speeches; and these critics are manifestly deceived by the circumstance. It is not to be supposed, that the nouns represented by one speaker's pronouns, are to be found or sought in what an other speaker utters. The pronoun _I_ does not here stand for the noun _John_ which is of the third person; it is John's own word, representing himself as the speaker. The meaning is, _"I myself, John, of the first person, will do it."_ Nor does _you_ stand for _children_ as spoken _of_ by Ingersoll; but for _children_ of the _second person_, uttered or implied in the address of his messenger: as, "_Children_, you must come in." [380] The propriety of this construction is questionable. See Obs. 2d on Rule 14th. [381] Among the authors who have committed this great fault, are, Alden, W. Allen, D. C. Allen, C. Adams, the author of the British Grammar, Buchanan, Cooper, Cutler, Davis, Dilworth, Felton, Fisher, Fowler, Frazee, Goldsbury, Hallock, Hull, M'Culloch, Morley, Pinneo, J. Putnam, Russell, Sanborn, R. C. Smith, Spencer, Weld, Wells, Webster, and White. "_You is plural_, whether it refer to only one individual, or to more."--_Dr. Crombie, on Etym. and Synt._, p. 240. "The word _you_, even when applied to one person, is plural, and should never he connected with a singular verb."--_Alexander's Gram._, p. 53; _Emmons's_, 26. "_You_ is of the Plural Number, even though used as the Name of a single Person."--_W. Ward's Gram._, p. 88. "Altho' the Second Person Singular in both Times be marked with _thou_, to distinguish it from the Plural, yet we, out of Complaisance, though we speak but to one particular Person, use _the Plural you_, and never thou, but when we address ourselves to Almighty God, or when we speak in an emphatical Manner, or make a distinct and particular Application to a Person."--_British Gram._, p. 126; _Buchanan's_, 37. "But _you_, tho' applied to a single Person, requires a _Plural Verb_, the same as ye; as, _you love_, not _you lovest_ or _loves_; you _were_, not _you was_ or _wast_."--_Buchanan's Gram._, p. 37. [382] "Mr. Murray's 6th Rule is unnecessary."--_Lennie's English Gram._, p. 81; _Bullions's_, p. 90. The two rules of which I speak, constitute Murray's Rule VI; Alger's and Bacon's Rule VI; Merchant's Rule IX; Ingersoll's Rule XII; Kirkham's Rules XV and XVI; Jaudon's XXI and XXII; Crombie's X and XI; Nixon's Obs. 86th and 87th: and are found in Lowth's Gram., p. 100; Churchill's, 136; Adam's, 203; W. Allen's, 156; Blair's, 75; and many other books. [383] This rule, in all its parts, is to be applied chiefly, if not solely, to such relative clauses as are taken in the _restrictive_ sense; for, in the _resumptive_ sense of the relative, _who_ or _which_ may be more proper than _that_: as, "Abraham solemnly adjures his _most faithful_ servant, _whom_ he despatches to Charran on this matrimonial mission for his son, to discharge his mission with all fidelity."--_Milman's Jews_, i, 21. See Etymology, Chap. 5th, Obs. 23d, 24th, &c., on the Classes of Pronouns. [384] Murray imagined this sentence to be bad English. He very strangely mistook the pronoun _he_ for the object of the preposition _with_; and accordingly condemned the text, under the rule, "Prepositions govern the objective case." So of the following: "It is not I he is engaged with."--_Murray's Exercises_, R. 17. Better: "It is not I _that_ he is engaged with." Here is no violation of the foregoing rule, or of any other; and both sentences, with even Murray's form of the latter, are quite as good as his proposed substitutes: "It was not _with him_, that they were so angry."--_Murray's Key_, p. 51. "It is not _with me_ he is engaged."--_Ib._ In these fancied corrections, the phrases _with him_ and _with me_ have a very awkward and questionable position: it seems doubtful, whether they depend on _was_ and _is_, or on _angry_ and _engaged_. [385] In their speculations on the _personal pronouns_, grammarians sometimes contrive, by a sort of abstraction, to reduce all the persons to the _third_; that is, the author or speaker puts _I_, not for himself in particular, but for any one who utters the word, and _thou_, not for his particular hearer or reader, but for any one who is addressed; and, conceiving of these as persons merely spoken of by himself, he puts the verb in the third person, and not in the first or second: as, "_I is_ the speaker, _thou_ [_is_] the hearer, and _he, she_, or _it_, is the person or thing spoken of. All denote _qualities of existence_, but such qualities as make different impressions on the mind. _I is_ the being of _consciousness, thou_ [_is_ the being] of _perception_, and _he_ of _memory_."--_Booth's Introd._, p. 44. This is such syntax as I should not choose to imitate; nor is it very proper to say, that the three persons in grammar "denote _qualities_ of existence." But, supposing the phraseology to be correct, it is no _real_ exception to the foregoing rule of concord; for _I_ and _thou_ are here made to be pronouns of the _third_ person. So in the following example, which I take to be bad English: "I, or the person who speaks, _is_ the first person; you, _is_ the second; he, she, or it, is the third person singular."--_Bartlett's Manual_, Part ii, p. 70. Again, in the following; which is perhaps a little better: "The person '_I_' _is spoken of_ as acted upon."--_Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram._, 2d Edition, p. 29. But there is a manifest absurdity in saying, with this learned "Professor of Languages," that the pronouns of the different persons _are_ those persons: as, "_I is the first person_, and denotes the speaker. _Thou is the second_, and denotes the person spoken to."--_Ib._, p. 22. [386] (1.) Concerning the verb _need_, Dr. Webster has the following note: "In the use of this verb there is another irregularity, which is peculiar, the verb being _without a nominative_, expressed or implied. 'Whereof here _needs_ no account.'--_Milt., P. L._, 4. 235. There is no evidence of the fact, and there _needs_ none. This is an established use of _need_."--_Philos. Gram._, p. 178; _Improved Gram._, 127; _Greenleaf's Gram. Simp._, p. 38; _Fowler's E. Gram._, p. 537. "Established use?" To be sure, it is "an established use;" but the learned Doctor's comment is a most unconscionable blunder,--a pedantic violation of a sure principle of Universal Grammar,--a perversion worthy only of the veriest ignoramus. Yet Greenleaf profitably publishes it, with other plagiarisms, for "Grammar Simplified!" Now the verb "_needs_," like the Latin _eget_, signifying _is necessary_, is here not active, but neuter; and has the nominative set _after it_, as any verb must, when the adverb _there_ or _here_ is before it. The verbs _lack_ and _want_ may have the same construction, and can have no other, when the word _there_, and not a nominative, precedes them; as, "Peradventure _there shall lack five_ of the fifty righteous."--_Gen._, xviii, 28. There is therefore neither "_irregularity_," nor any thing "_peculiar_," in thus placing the verb and its nominative. (2.) Yet have we other grammarians, who, with astonishing facility, have allowed themselves to be misled, and whose books are now misleading the schools, in regard to this very simple matter. Thus Wells: "The _transitive_ verbs _need_ and _want_, are sometimes employed in a general sense, _without a nominative_, expressed or implied. Examples:--'There _needed_ a new dispensation.'--_Caleb Cushing_. 'There _needs_ no better picture.'--_Irving_. 'There _wanted_ not patrons to stand up.'--_Sparks_. 'Nor did there _want_ Cornice, or frieze.'--_Milton_."--_Wells's School Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 141: 113th Ed., p. 154. In my edition of Milton, the text is, "Nor did _they want_ Cornice or frieze."--_P. L._, B. i, l. 715, 716. This reading makes _want_ a "transitive" verb, but the other makes it neuter, with the nominative following it. Again, thus Weld: "_A verb in the imperative mode_, and the _transitive_ verbs _need, want_, and _require_, sometimes appear to be used indefinitely, _without a nominative_; as, _let_ there be light; There _required_ haste in the business; There _needs_ no argument for proving, &c. There _wanted_ not men who would, &c. The last expressions have an _active form with a passive sense_, and should perhaps rather be considered _elliptical_ than _wanting a nominative_; as, _haste is required, no argument is needed_, &c."--_Weld's English Grammar Illustrated_, p. 143. Is there anywhere, in print, viler pedantry than this? The only elliptical example, "_Let_ there be light,"--a kind of sentence from which the nominative is _usually suppressed_,--is here absurdly represented as being full, yet without a subject for its verb; while other examples, which are full, and in which the nominative _must follow_ the verb, because the adverb "_there_" precedes, are first denied to have nominatives, and then most bunglingly tortured with false ellipses, to prove that they have them! (3.) The idea of a command _wherein no person or thing is commanded_, seems to have originated with Webster, by whom it has been taught, since 1807, as follows: "In some cases, the imperative verb is used without a definite nominative."--_Philos. Gram._, p. 141; _Imp. Gram._, 86; _Rudiments_, 69. See the same words in _Frazee's Gram._, p. 133. Wells has something similar: "A verb in the imperative is sometimes used _absolutely_, having no direct reference to any particular subject expressed or implied; as, 'And God said, _Let_ there be light.'"--_School Gram._, p. 141. But, when this command was uttered to the dark waves of primeval chaos, it must have meant, "_Do ye let light be there._" What else could it mean? There may frequently be difficulty in determining what or who is addressed by the imperative _let_, but there seems to be more in affirming that it has no subject. Nutting, puzzled with this word, makes the following dubious and unsatisfactory suggestion: "Perhaps it may be, in many cases, equivalent to _may_; or it may be termed itself an _imperative mode impersonal_; that is, containing a command or an entreaty addressed to no particular person."--_Nutting's Practical Gram._, p. 47. (4.) These several errors, about the "Imperative used Absolutely," with "no subject addressed," as in "_Let there be light_," and the Indicative "verbs NEED and WANT, employed without a nominative, either expressed or implied," are again carefully reiterated by the learned Professor Fowler, in his great text-book of philology "in its Elements and Forms,"--called, rather extravagantly, an "English Grammar." See, in his edition of 1850, §597, Note 3 and Note 7; also §520, Note 2. Wells's authorities for "Imperatives Absolute," are, "Frazee, Allen and Cornwell, Nutting, Lynde, and Chapin;" and, with reference to "NEED and WANT," he says, "See Webster, Perley, and Ingersoll."--_School Gram._, 1850, §209. (5.) But, in obvious absurdity most strangely overlooked by the writer, all these blunderers are outdone by a later one, who says: "_Need_ and _dare_ are sometimes used in _a general sense without a nominative_: as, 'There _needed_ no prophet to tell us that;' 'There _wanted_ no advocates to secure the voice of the people.' It is better, however, to supply _it_, as a nominative, than admit an _anomala_. Sometimes, when intransitive, they have the _plural form_ with a singular _noun_: as, 'He need not fear;' 'He dare not hurt you.'"--_Rev. H. W. Bailey's E. Gram._, 1854, p. 128. The last example--"_He dare_"--is bad English: _dare_ should be _dares_. "He _need_ not _fear_," if admitted to be right, is of the potential mood; in which no verb is inflected in the third person. "_He_," too, is not a "_noun_;" nor can it ever rightly have a "_plural_" verb. "To supply _it_, as a nominative," where the verb is declared to be "_without a nominative_," and to make "_wanted_" an example of "_dare_" are blunders precisely worthy of an author who knows not how to spell _anomaly!_ [387] This interpretation, and others like it, are given not only by _Murray_, but by many other grammarians, one of whom at least was earlier than he. See _Bicknell's Gram._, Part i, p. 123; _Ingersoll's_, 153; _Guy's_, 91; _Alger's_, 73; _Merchant's_, 100; _Picket's_, 211; _Fisk's_, 146; _D. Adams's_, 81; _R. C. Smith's_, 182. [388] The same may be said of Dr. Webster's "_nominative sentences_;" three fourths of which are nothing but _phrases_ that include a nominative with which the following verb agrees. And who does not know, that to call the adjuncts of any thing "an _essential part_ of it," is a flat absurdity? An _adjunct_ is "something added to another, but _not essentially a part_ of it."--_Webster's Dict._ But, says the Doctor, "Attributes and other words often make an _essential part_ of the nominative; [as,] '_Our_ IDEAS _of eternity_ CAN BE nothing but an infinite succession of moments of duration.'--LOCKE. 'A _wise_ SON MAKETH a glad father; but a _foolish_ SON IS the heaviness of his mother.' Abstract the name from its attribute, and the proposition cannot always be true. 'HE _that gathereth in summer_ is a wise son.' Take away the description, '_that gathereth in summer_,' and the affirmation ceases to be true, or becomes inapplicable. These sentences or clauses thus _constituting_ the subject of an affirmation, may be termed _nominative sentences_."--_Improved Gram._, p. 95. This teaching reminds me of the Doctor's own exclamation: "What strange work has been made with Grammar!"--_Ib._, p. 94; _Philos. Gram._, 138. In Nesbit's English Parsing, a book designed mainly for "a Key to Murray's Exercises in Parsing," the following example is thus expounded: "The smooth stream, the serene atmosphere, [and] the mild zephyr, are the proper emblems of a gentle temper, and a peaceful life."--_Murray's Exercises_, p. 8. "_The smooth stream, the serene atmosphere, the mild zephyr_, is part of a sentence, _which_ is the _nominative case_ to the verb '_are_.' _Are_ is an irregular verb neuter, in the indicative mood, the present tense, the third person plural, and _agrees with the aforementioned part of a sentence_, as its nominative case."--_Introduction to English Parsing_, p. 137. On this principle of _analysis_, all the rules that speak of the nominatives or antecedents connected by conjunctions, may be dispensed with, as useless; and the doctrine, that a verb which has a phrase or sentence for its subject, must be _singular_, is palpably contradicted, and supposed erroneous! [389] "No Relative can become a Nominative to a Verb."--_Joseph W. Wright's Philosophical Grammar_, p. 162. "A _personal_ pronoun becomes a nominative, though a _relative_ does not."--_Ib._, p. 152. This teacher is criticised by the other as follows: "Wright says that 'Personal pronouns may be in the nominative case,' and that 'relative pronouns _can not be_. Yet he declines his relatives thus: 'Nominative case, _who_; possessive, _whose_; objective, _whom!"--Oliver B. Peirce's Grammar_, p. 331. This latter author here sees the palpable inconsistency of the former, and accordingly treats _who, which, what, whatever_, &c., as relative pronouns of the nominative case--or, as he calls them, "connective substitutes in the subjective form;" but when _what_ or _whatever_ precedes its noun, or when _as_ is preferred to _who_ or _which_, he refers both verbs to the noun itself, and adopts the very principle by which Cobbet and Wright erroneously parse the verbs which belong to the relatives, _who, which_, and _that_: as, "Whatever man will adhere to strict principles of honesty, will find his reward in himself."--_Peirce's Gram._, p. 55. Here Peirce considers _whatever_ to be a mere adjective, and _man_ the subject of _will adhere_ and _will find_. "Such persons as write grammar, should themselves be grammarians."--_Ib._, p. 330. Here he declares _as_ to be no pronoun, but "a modifying connective," i.e., conjunction; and supposes _persons_ to be the direct subject of _write_ as well as of _should be_: as if a conjunction could connect a verb and its nominative! [390] Dr. Latham, conceiving that, of words in apposition, the first must always be the leading one and control the verb, gives to his example an other form thus: "_Your master, I, commands you_ (not _command_)."--_Ib._ But this I take to be bad English. It is the opinion of many grammarians, perhaps of most, that nouns, which are ordinarily of the third person, _may be changed in person_, by being set in apposition with a pronoun of the first or second. But even if terms so used do not _assimilate_ in person, the first cannot be subjected to the third, as above. It must have the preference, and ought to have the first place. The following study-bred example of the Doctor's, is also awkward and ungrammatical: "_I, your master, who commands you to make haste, am in a hurry_."--_Hand-Book_, p. 334. [391] Professor Fowler says, "_One_ when contrasted with _other_, sometimes represents _plural nouns_; as, 'The reason why the _one_ are ordinarily taken for real qualities, and the _other_ for bare powers, seems to be.'--LOCKE.", _Fowler's E. Gram._, 8vo, 1850, p. 242. This doctrine is, I think, erroneous; and the example, too, is defective. For, if _one_ may be _plural_, we have no distinctive definition or notion of either number. "_One_" and "_other_" are not here to be regarded as the leading words in their clauses; they are mere adjectives, each referring to the collective noun _class_ or _species_, understood, which should have been expressed after the former. See Etym., Obs. 19, p. 276. [392] Dr. Priestley says, "It is a rule, I believe, in all grammars, that when a verb comes between two nouns, either of which may be understood as the subject of the affirmation, that it may agree with either of them; but some regard must be had to that which is more naturally the subject of it, as also to that which stands next to the verb; for if no regard be paid to these circumstances, the construction will be harsh: [as,] _Minced pies was_ regarded as a profane and superstitious viand by the sectaries. _Hume's Hist._ A great _cause_ of the low state of industry _were_ the restraints put upon it. _Ib._ By this term was understood, such _persons_ as invented, or drew up rules for themselves and the world."--_English Gram. with Notes_, p. 189. The Doctor evidently supposed all these examples to be _bad English_, or at least _harsh in their construction_. And the first two unquestionably are so; while the last, whether right or wrong, has nothing at all to do with his rule: it has but one nominative, and that appears to be part of a definition, and not the true subject of the verb. Nor, indeed, is the first any more relevant; because Hume's "_viand_" cannot possibly be taken "as _the subject_ of the affirmation." Lindley Murray, who literally copies Priestley's note, (all but the first line and the last,) rejects these two examples, substituting for the former, "His meat _was_ locusts and wild honey," and for the latter, "The wages of sin _is_ death." He very evidently supposes all three of his examples to be _good English_. In this, according to Churchill, he is at fault in two instances out of the three; and still more so, in regard to the note, or rule, itself. In stead of being "a rule in all grammars," it is (so far as I know) found only in these authors, and such as have implicitly copied it from Murray. Among these last, are Alger, Ingersoll, R. C. Smith, Fisk, and Merchant. Churchill, who cites it only as Murray's, and yet expends two pages of criticism upon it, very justly says: "To make that the nominative case, [or subject of the affirmation,] which happens to stand nearest to the verb, appears to me to be on a par with the blunder pointed out in note 204th;" [that is, of making the verb agree with an objective case which happens to stand nearer to it, than its subject, or nominative.]-- _Churchill's New Gram._, p. 313. [393] "If the excellence of Dryden's works was _lessened_ by his indigence, their number was increased."--_Dr. Johnson_. This is an example of the proper and necessary use of the indicative mood after an _if_, the matter of the condition being regarded as a fact. But Dr. Webster, who prefers the indicative _too often_, has the following note upon it: "If Johnson had followed the common grammars, or even his own, which is prefixed to his Dictionary, he would have written _were_--'If the excellence of Dryden's works _were_ lessened'--Fortunately this great man, led by usage rather than by books, wrote _correct English, instead of grammar_."-- _Philosophical Gram._, p. 238. Now this is as absurd, as it is characteristic of the grammar from which it is taken. Each form is right sometimes, and neither can be used for the other, without error. [394] Taking this allegation in one sense, the reader may see that Kirkham was not altogether wrong here; and that, had he condemned the _solecisms_ adopted by himself and others, about "_unity of idea_" and "_plurality of idea_," in stead of condemning the _things intended to be spoken of_, he might have made a discovery which would have set him wholly right. See a footnote on page 738, under the head of _Absurdities_. [395] In his _English Reader_, (Part II, Chap. 5th, Sec. 7th,) Murray has this line in its proper form, as it here stands in the words of Thomson; but, in his _Grammar_, he corrupted it, first in his _Exercises_, and then still more in his _Key_. Among his examples of "_False Syntax_" it stands thus: "What black despair, what horror, _fills_ his _mind_!" --_Exercises_, Rule 2. So the error is propagated in the name of _Learning_, and this verse goes from grammar to grammar, as one that must have a "_plural_" verb. See _Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 242; _Smith's New Gram._, p. 127; _Fisk's Gram._, p. 120; _Weld's E. Gram._, 2d Ed., p. 189; Imp. Ed., p. 196. [396] S. W. Clark, by reckoning "_as_" a "_preposition_," perverts the construction of sentences like this, and inserts a wrong case after the conjunction. See _Clark's Practical Grammar_, pp. 92 and 178; also _this Syntax_, Obs. 6 and Obs. 18, on Conjunctions. [397] Murray gives us the following text for false grammar, under the head of _Strength_: "And Elias with Moses appeared to them."--_Exercises_, 8vo, p. 135. This he corrects thus: "And _there appeared to them_ Elias with Moses."--_Key_, 8vo, p. 266. He omits the comma after _Elias_, which some copies of the Bible contain, and others do not. Whether he supposed the verb _appeared_ to be singular or plural, I cannot tell; and he did not extend his quotation to the pronoun _they_, which immediately follows, and in which alone the incongruity lies. [398] This order of the persons, is _not universally_ maintained in those languages. The words of Mary to her son, "Thy _father and I_ have sought thee sorrowing," seem very properly to give the precedence to her husband; and this is their arrangement in St. Luke's Greek, and in the Latin versions, as well as in others. [399] The hackneyed example, "_I and Cicero are well,"--"Ego et Cicero valemus_"--which makes such a figure in the grammars, both Latin and English, and yet is ascribed to Cicero himself, deserves a word of explanation. Cicero the orator, having with him his young son Marcus Cicero at Athens, while his beloved daughter Tullia was with her mother in Italy, thus wrote to his wife, Terentia: "_Si tu, et Tullia, lux nostra, valetix; ego, et suavissimus Cicero, valemus_."--EPIST. AD FAM. Lib. xiv, Ep. v. That is, "If thou, and Tullia, our joy, are well; I, and the sweet lad Cicero, are likewise well." This literal translation is good English, and not to be amended by inversion; for a father is not expected to give precedence to his child. But, when I was a boy, the text and version of Dr. Adam puzzled me not a little; because I could not conceive how _Cicero_ could ever have said, "_I and Cicero are well_." The garbled citation is now much oftener read than the original. See it in _Crombie's Treatise_, p. 243; _McCulloch's Gram._, p. 158; and others. [400] Two singulars connected by _and_, when they form a part of such a disjunction, are still equivalent to a plural; and are to be treated as such, in the syntax of the verb. Hence the following construction appears to be inaccurate: "A single consonant or _a mute and a liquid_ before an accented vowel, _is_ joined to that vowel"--_Dr. Bullions, Lat. Gram._ p. xi. [401] Murray the schoolmaster has it, "_used_ to govern."--_English Gram._, p. 64. He puts the verb in a _wrong tense_. Dr. Bullions has it, "_usually governs_."--_Lat. Gram._, p. 202. This is right.--G. B. [402] The two verbs _to sit_ and _to set_ are in general quite different in their meaning; but the passive verb _to be set_ sometimes comes pretty near to the sense of the former, which is for the most part neuter. Hence, we not only find the Latin word _sedeo, to sit_, used in the sense of _being set_, as, "Ingens coena _sedet_," "A huge supper _is set_," _Juv._, 2, 119; but, in the seven texts above, our translators have used _is set, was set, &c._, with reference to the personal posture of _sitting_. This, in the opinion of Dr. Lowth and some others, is erroneous. "_Set_," says the Doctor, "can be no part of the verb _to sit_. If it belong to the verb _to set_, the translation in these passages is wrong. For _to set_, signifies _to place_, but without any designation of the _posture_ of the person placed; which is a circumstance of importance, expressed by the original."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 53; _Churchill's_, 265. These gentlemen cite three of these seven examples, and refer to the other four; but they do not tell us how they would amend any of them--except that they prefer _sitten_ to _sat_, vainly endeavouring to restore an old participle which is certainly obsolete. If any critic dislike my version of the last two texts, because I use the present tense for what in the Greek is the first aorist; let him notice that this has been done in both by our translators, and in one by those of the Vulgate. In the preceding example, too, the same aorist is rendered, "_am set_," and by Beza, "_sedeo_;" though Montanus and the Vulgate render it literally by "_sedi_," as I do by _sat_. See _Key to False Syntax_, Rule XVII, Note xii. [403] Nutting, I suppose, did not imagine the Greek article, [Greek: to], _the_, and the English or Saxon verb _do_, to be equivalent or kindred words. But there is no knowing what terms conjectural etymology may not contrive to identify, or at least to approximate and ally. The ingenious David Booth, if he does not actually identify _do_, with [Greek: to], _the_, has discovered synonymes [sic--KTH] and cognates that are altogether as unapparent to common observers: as, "_It_ and _the_," says he, "when Gender is not attended to, are _synonymous_. Each is expressive of Being in general, and when used Verbally, signifies to _bring forth_, or to _add_ to what we already see. _The, it, and, add, at, to_, and _do_, are _kindred words_. They mark that an _addition_ is made to some collected mass of existence. _To_, which literally signifies _add_, (like _at_ and the Latin _ad_,) is merely a different pronunciation of _do_. It expresses the _junction_ of an other thing, or circumstance, as appears more evidently from its varied orthography of _too_."--_Introd. to Analyt. Dict._, p. 45. Horne Tooke, it seems, could not persuade this author into his notion of the derivation and meaning of _the, it, to_, or _do_. But Lindley Murray, and his followers, have been more tractable. They were ready to be led without looking. "To," say they, "comes from _Saxon and Gothic_ words, which signify action, effect, termination, to act, &c."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 183; _Fisk's_, 92. What an admirable explanation is this! and how prettily the great Compiler says on the next leaf: "Etymology, when it is guided by _judgment_, and [when] _proper limits_ are set to it, certainly merits great attention!"--_Ib._, p. 135. According to his own express rules for interpreting "a substantive _without any article to limit it_" and the "relative pronoun _with a comma before it_," he must have meant, that "_to_ comes from Saxon and Gothic words" _of every sort_, and that _the words of these two languages_ "signify action, effect, termination, to act, &c." The latter assertion is true enough: but, concerning the former, a man of sense may demur. Nor do I see how it is possible not to despise _such_ etymology, be the interpretation of the words what it may. For, if _to_ means _action_ or _to act_, then our little infinitive phrase, _to be_, must mean, _action be_, or _to act be_; and what is this, but nonsense? [404] So, from the following language of three modern authors, one cannot but infer, that they would parse the verb _as governed by the preposition_; but I do not perceive that they anywhere expressly say so: (1.) "The Infinitive is the form of the supplemental verb that always has, or admits, the _preposition_ TO before it; as, to _move_. Its general character is to represent the action in _prospect_, or _to do_; or in _retrospect_, as _to have done_. As a verb, it signifies _to do_ the action; and as _object of the preposition_ TO, it stands in the place of a noun for _the doing_ of it. The infinitive verb and its prefix _to_ are used much like a preposition and its noun object."--_Felch's Comprehensive Gram._, p. 62. (2.) "The action or other signification of a verb may be expressed in its widest and most general sense, without any limitation by a person or agent, but _merely as the end or purpose_ of some other action, state of being, quality, or thing; it is, from this want of limitation, said to be in the _Infinitive mode_; and is expressed by the verb with the _preposition_ TO before it, to denote _this relation of end or purpose_; as, 'He came _to see_ me;' 'The man is not fit _die_;' 'It was not right for him _to do_ thus.'"--_Dr. S. Webber's English Gram._, p. 35. (3.) "RULE 3. A verb in the Infinitive Mode, is _the object_ of the preposition TO, expressed or understood."--_S. W. Clark's Practical Gram._, p. 127. [405] Rufus Nutting, A. M., a grammarian of some skill, supposes that in all such sentences there was "_anciently_" an ellipsis, not of the phrase "_in order to_," but of the preposition _for_. He says, "Considering this mode as merely a _verbal noun_, it might be observed, that the infinitive, when it expresses the _object_, is governed by a _transitive_ verb; and, when it expresses the _final cause_, is governed by an _intransitive_ verb, OR ANCIENTLY, BY A PREPOSITION UNDERSTOOD. Of the former kind--'he learns _to read_.' Of the latter--'he reads _to learn_,' i. e. '_for_ to learn.'"--_Practical Gram._, p. 101. If _for_ was anciently understood in examples of this sort, it is understood now, and to a still greater extent; because we do not now insert the word _for_, as our ancestors sometimes did; and an ellipsis can no otherwise grow obsolete, than by a continual use of what was once occasionally omitted. [406] (1.) "La préposition, est un mot indéclinable, placé devant les noms, les pronoms, et les _verbes_, qu'elle _régit_."--"The preposition is an indeclinable word placed before the nouns, pronouns, and _verbs_ which it _governs_."--_Perrin's Grammar_, p. 152. (2.) "Every verb placed immediately after _an other verb_, or after _a preposition_, ought to be put in the _infinitive_; because it is then _the regimen_ of the verb or preposition which precedes."--See _La Grammaire des Grammaires, par Girault Du Vivier_, p. 774. (3.) The American translator of the Elements of General Grammar, by the Baron De Sacy, is naturally led, in giving a version of his author's method of analysis, to parse the English infinitive mood essentially as I do; calling the word _to_ a preposition, and the exponent, or sign, of a _relation_ between the verb which follows it, and some other word which is antecedent to it. Thus, in the phrase, "_commanding_ them _to use_ his power," he says, that "'_to_' [is the] Exponent of a relation whose Antecedent is '_commanding_,' and [whose] Consequent [is] '_use_.'"--_Fosdick's De Sacy_, p. 131. In short, he expounds the word _to_ in this relation, just as he does when it stands before the objective case. For example, in the phrase, "_belonging to him alone: 'to_,' Exponent of a relation of which the Antecedent is '_belonging_,' and the Consequent, '_him alone.'"--Ib._, p. 126. My solution, in either case, differs from this in scarcely any thing else than the _choice of words_ to express it. (4.) It appears that, in sundry dialects of the north of Europe, the preposition _at_ has been preferred for the governing of the infinitive: "The use of _at_ for _to_, as the sign of the infinitive mode, is Norse, not Saxon. It is the regular prefix in Icelandic, Danish, Swedish, and Feroic. It is also found in the northern dialects of the Old English, and in the particular dialect of Westmoreland at the present day."--_Fowler, on the English Language_, 8vo, 1850, p. 46. [407] Here is a literal version, in which two infinitives are governed by the preposition _between_; and though such a construction is uncommon, I know not why it should be thought less accurate in the one language than in the other. In some exceptive phrases, also, it seems not improper to put the infinitive after some other preposition than _to_; as, "What can she do _besides sing_?"--"What has she done, _except rock_ herself?" But such expressions, if allowable, are too unfrequent to be noticed in any general Rule of syntax. In the following example, the word _of_ pretty evidently governs the infinitive: "Intemperance characterizes our discussions, that is calculated to embitter in stead _of conciliate_."--CINCINNATI HERALD: _Liberator_, No. 986. [408] This doctrine has been lately revived in English by William B. Fowle, who quotes Dr. Rees, Beauzée, Harris, Tracy, and Crombie, as his authorities for it. He is right in supposing the English infinitive to be generally governed by the preposition _to_, but wrong in calling it a _noun_, or "the _name_ of the verb," except this phrase be used in the sense in which every verb may be the name of itself. It is an error too, to suppose with Beauzée, "that the infinitive never in any language _refers to a subject_ or nominative;" or, as Harris has it, that infinitives "_have no reference at all to persons or substances_." See _Fowle's True English Gram._, Part ii, pp. 74 and 75. For though the infinitive verb never _agrees_ with a subject or nominative, like a finite verb, it most commonly has a very obvious _reference_ to something which is _the subject_ of the being, action, or passion, which it expresses; and this reference is one of the chief points of difference between the infinitive and a noun. S. S. Greene, in a recent grammar, absurdly parses infinitives "_as nouns_," and by the common rules for nouns, though he begins with calling them _verbs_. Thus: "_Our honor is to be maintained. To be maintained_, is a _regular passive_ VERB, infinitive mode, present tense, and is _used as a_ NOUN _in the relation of predicate_; according to Rule II. A _noun or pronoun_ used with the copula to form the _predicate_, must be in the _nominative_ case."--_Greene's Gram._, 1848. p. 93. (See the Rule, ib. p. 29.) This author admits, "The '_to_' seems, like the preposition, to perform the office of a _connective_:" but then he ingeniously imagines, "The infinitive _differs from the preposition and its object_, in that the '_to_' is _the only preposition_ used with the verb." And so he concludes, "The _two_ [or more] _parts_ of the infinitive are taken together, and, _thus_ combined, may _become a_ NOUN _in any relation_."--_Ib._, 1st Edition, p. 87. S. S. Greene will also have the infinitive to make the verb before it _transitive_; for he says, "The only form [of phrase] used as the _direct object of a transitive verb_ is the _infinitive_; as, 'We intend (What?) _to leave_ [town] to-day:' 'They tried (What?) _to conceal_ their fears.'"--_Ib._, p. 99. One might as well find transitive verbs in these equivalents: "_It is our purpose to leave_ town to-day."--"They _endeavoured to conceal_ their fears." Or in this:--"They _blustered_ to conceal their fears." [409] It is remarkable that the ingenious J. E. Worcester could discern nothing of the import of this particle before a verb. He expounds it, with very little consistency, thus: "Tò, _or_ To, _ad_. A particle employed as the usual sign or prefix of the infinitive mood of the verb; and it might, in such use, be deemed _a syllable of the verb_. It is used _merely as a sign of the infinitive_, without having any distinct or separate meaning: as, 'He loves _to_ read.'"--_Univ. and Crit. Dict._ Now is it not plain, that the action expressed by "_read_" is "that _towards_ which" the affection signified by "_loves_" is directed? It is only because we can use no other word in lieu of this _to_, that its meaning is not readily seen. For calling it "a syllable of the verb," there is, I think, no reason or analogy whatever. There is absurdity in calling it even "a _part_ of the verb." [410] As there is no point of grammar on which our philologists are more at _variance_, so there seems to be none on which they are more at _fault_, than in their treatment of the infinitive mood, with its usual sign, or governing particle, _to_. For the information of the reader, I would gladly cite every explanation not consonant with my own, and show wherein it is objectionable; but so numerous are the forms of error under this head, that such as cannot be classed together, or are not likely to be repeated, must in general be left to run their course, exempt from any criticism of mine. Of these various forms of error, however, I may here add an example or two. (1.) "What is the meaning of the word _to?_ Ans. _To_ means _act_. NOTE.--As our verbs and nouns _are spelled in the same manner_, it was formerly _thought best_ to prefix the _word_ TO, to words _when used as verbs_. For there is no difference between the NOUN, _love_; and the VERB, _to love_; but what is shown by the _prefix_ TO, which signifies _act_; i. e. to _act_ love."--_R. W. Greene's Inductive Exercises in English Grammar_, N. Y., 1829, p. 52. Now all this, positive as the words are, is not only fanciful, but false, utterly false. _To_ no more "means _act_," than _from_ "means _act_." And if it did, it could not be a sign of the infinitive, or of a verb at all; for, "_act love_," is imperative, and makes the word "_love_" a _noun_; and so, "_to act love_," (where "_love_" is also a noun,) must mean "_act act love_," which is tautological nonsense. Our nouns and verbs are not, _in general_, spelled alike; nor are the latter, _in general_, preceded by _to_; nor could a particle which may govern _either_, have been _specifically intended_, at first, to mark their difference. By some, as we have seen, it is argued from the very sign, that the infinitive is always essentially a noun. (2.) "The _infinitive mode_ is the _root_ or _simple form_ of the verb, used to express an action or state _indefinitely_; as, _to hear, to speak_. It is generally distinguished by the sign _to_. When the particle _to_ is employed in _forming_ the infinitive, it is to be regarded as _a part of the verb_. In _every other case_ it is a _preposition_."--_Wells's School Grammar_, 1st Ed., p. 80. "A _Preposition_ is a word which is used to express the relation of a _noun_ or _pronoun_ depending upon it, to some other word in the sentence."--_Ib._, pp. 46 and 108. "The passive form of a verb is sometimes used in connection with a _preposition_, forming a _compound passive verb_. Examples:--'He _was listened to_ without a murmur.'--A. H. EVERETT. 'Nor is this enterprise _to be scoffed at_.'--CHANNING."--_Ib._, p. 146. "A verb in the infinitive _usually relates_ to some noun or pronoun. Thus, in the sentence, 'He desires to improve,' the verb _to improve_ relates to the pronoun _he_ while it is governed by _desires_."--_Ib._, p. 150. "'The _agent_ to a verb in the infinitive mode must be in the _objective_ case.'--NUTTING."--_Ib._, p. 148. These citations from Wells, the last of which he quotes approvingly, by way of authority, are in many respects self-contradictory, and in nearly all respects untrue. How can the infinitive be only "the _root_ or _simple form_ of the verb," and yet consist "generally" of two distinct words, and often of three, four, or five; as, "_to hear_,"--"_to have heard_,"--"_to be listened to_,"--"_to have been listened to_?" How can _to_ be a "_preposition_" in the phrase, "_He was listened to_," and not so at all in "_to be listened to_?" How does the infinitive "express an action or state _indefinitely_," if it "_usually relates to some noun or pronoun_?" Why _must_ its _agent_ "be in the _objective_ case," if "_to improve_ relates to the pronoun _he_?" Is _to "in every other case a preposition_," and not such before a verb or a participle? Must every preposition govern some "_noun or pronoun_?" And yet are there some prepositions which govern nothing, precede nothing? "The door banged _to_ behind him."--BLACKWELL: _Prose Edda_, §2. What is _to_ here? (3.) "The _preposition_ TO _before_ a verb is the sign of the Infinitive."--_Weld's E. Gram._, 2d Ed., p. 74. "The preposition is _a part of speech_ used to connect words, and show their relation."--_Ib._, p. 42. "The perfect infinitive is formed of the perfect participle and the auxiliary HAVE _preceded_ by the _preposition_ TO."--_Ib._, p. 96. "The infinitive mode _follows_ a _verb, noun_, or _adjective_."--_Ib._, pp. 75 and 166. "A verb in the Infinitive _may follow_: 1. _Verbs_ or _participles_; 2. _Nouns_ or _pronouns_; 3. _Adjectives_; 4. _As_ or _than_; 5. _Adverbs_; 6. _Prepositions_; 7. The _Infinitive_ is often used _independently_; 8. The Infinitive mode is often used in the office of a _verbal noun_, as the _nominative case_ to the verb, and as the _objective case_ after _verbs_ and _prepositions_."--_Ib._, p. 167. These last two counts are absurdly included among what "the Infinitive _may follow_;" and is it not rather queer, that this mood should be found to "_follow_" every thing else, and _not_ "the preposition TO," which comes "_before_" it, and by which it is "_preceded_?" This author adopts also the following absurd and needless rule: "The Infinitive mode has an objective case before it _when_ [the word] THAT _is omitted_: as, I believe _the sun_ to be the centre of the solar system; I know _him_ to be a man of veracity."--_Ib._, p. 167; _Abridged Ed._, 124. (See Obs. 10th on Rule 2d, above.) "_Sun_" is here governed by "_believe_;" and "_him_," by "_know_;" and "_be_," in both instances, by "the preposition TO:" for this particle is not only "the _sign_ of the Infinitive," but its _governing word_, answering well to the definition of a preposition above cited from Weld. [411] "The infinitive is sometimes governed by a preposition; as, 'The shipmen were _about to flee_.'"--_Wells's School Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 149; 3d Ed., p. 158. Wells has altered this, and for "_preposition_" put "_adverb_."--Ed. of 1850, p. 163. [412] Some grammatists, being predetermined that no preposition shall control the infinitive, avoid the conclusion by absurdly calling FOR, a _conjunction_; ABOUT, an _adverb_; and TO--no matter what--but generally, _nothing_. Thus: "The _conjunction_ FOR, is inelegantly used before verbs in the infinitive mood; as, 'He came _for_ to study Latin.'"--_Greenleaf's Gram._, p. 38. "The infinitive mood is sometimes _governed_ by _conjunctions_ or _adverbs_; as, 'An object so high _as to be_ invisible;' 'The army is _about to march_.'"--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 188. This is a note to that extra rule which Kirkham proposes for our use, "_if we reject the idea of government_, as applied to the verb in this mood!"--_Ib._ [413] After the word "_fare_," Murray put a semicolon, which shows that he misunderstood the mood of the verb "_hear_." It is not always necessary to repeat the particle _to_, when two or more infinitives are connected; and this fact is an other good argument against calling the preposition _to_ "a part of the verb." But in this example, and some others here exhibited, the repetition is requisite.--G. B. [414] "The Infinitive Mood is not confined to a trunk or nominative, and is always preceded by _to_, expressed or implied."--_S. Barrett's Gram._, 1854, p. 43. [415] Lindley Murray, and several of his pretended improvers, say, "The infinitive sometimes _follows_ the word AS: thus, 'An object so high _as to be_ invisible.' The infinitive occasionally _follows_ THAN _after_ a comparison; as, 'He desired _nothing more than to know_ his own imperfections.'"--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 184; _Fisk's_, 125; _Alger's_, 63; _Merchant's_, 92. See this second example in _Weld's Gram._, p. 167; _Abridg._, 124. Merchant, not relishing the latter example, changes it thus: "I wish _nothing more, than to know_ his fate." He puts a comma after _more_, and probably means, "I wish nothing _else_ than to know his fate." So does Fisk, in the other version: and probably means, "He desired nothing _else_ than to know his own imperfections." But Murray, Alger, and Weld, accord in punctuation, and their meaning seems rather to be, "He desired nothing _more heartily_ than [_he desired_] to know his own imperfections." And so is this or a similar text interpreted by both Ingersoll and Weld, who suppose this infinitive to be "_governed by another verb, understood_: as, 'He desired nothing _more than to see_ his friends;' that is, 'than he _desired_ to see,' &c."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 244; _Weld's Abridged_, 124. But obvious as is the _ambiguity_ of this fictitious example, in all its forms, not one of these five critics perceived the fault at all. Again, in their remark above cited, Ingersoll, Fisk, and Merchant, put a comma before the preposition "_after_," and thus make the phrase, "_after a comparison_," describe the place _of the infinitive_. But Murray and Alger probably meant that this phrase should denote the place of the conjunction "_than_." The great "Compiler" seems to me to have misused the phrase "_a comparison_," for, "_an adjective or adverb of the comparative degree_;" and the rest, I suppose, have blindly copied him, without thinking or knowing what he ought to have said, or meant to say. Either this, or a worse error, is here apparent. Five learned grammarians severally represent either "_than_" or "_the infinitive_," as being AFTER "a _comparison_;" of which one is the copula, and the other but the beginning of the latter term! Palpable as is the _absurdity_, no one of the five perceives it! And, besides, no one of them says any thing about the _government_ of this infinitive, except Ingersoll, and he supplies a _verb_. "_Than_ and _as_," says Greenleaf, "sometimes _appear to govern_ the infinitive mood; as, 'Nothing makes a man suspect _much more, than_ to know little;' 'An object so high _as_ to be invisible."--_Gram. Simp._, p. 38. Here is an other fictitious and ambiguous example, in which the phrase, "_to know little_," is the subject of _makes_ understood. Nixon supposes the infinitive phrase after _as_ to be always the subject of a finite verb _understood_ after it; as, "An object so high as to be invisible _is_ or, _implies_." See _English Parser_, p. 100. [416] Dr. Crombie, after copying the substance of Campbell's second Canon, that, "In doubtful cases _analogy_ should be regarded," remarks: "For the same reason, '_it needs_' and '_he dares_,' are better than '_he need_' and '_he dare._'"--_On Etym. and Synt._, p. 326. Dr. Campbell's language is somewhat stronger: "In the verbs _to dare_ and _to need_, many say, in the third person present singular, _dare_ and _need_, as 'he _need_ not go: he _dare_ not do it.' Others say, _dares_ and _needs_. As the first usage is _exceedingly irregular_, hardly any thing less than uniform practice could authorize it."--_Philosophy of Rhet._, p. 175. _Dare_ for _dares_ I suppose to be wrong; but if _need_ is an auxiliary of the potential mood, to use it without inflection, is neither "irregular," nor at all inconsistent with the foregoing canon. But the former critic notices these verbs a second time, thus: "'He _dare_ not,' 'he _need_ not,' may be justly pronounced _solecisms_, for 'he _dares_,' 'he _needs_.'"--_Crombie, on Etym. and Synt._, p. 378. He also says, "The verbs _bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, let_, are _not_ followed by the sign of the infinitive."--_Ib._, p. 277. And yet he writes thus: "These are truths, of which, I am persuaded, the author, to whom I allude, _needs_ not _to_ be reminded."--_Ib._, p. 123. So Dr. Bullions declares against _need_ in the singular, by putting down the following example as bad English: "He _need_ not be in so much haste."--_Bullions's E. Gram._, p. 134. Yet he himself writes thus: "A name more appropriate than the term _neuter, need_ not be desired."--_Ib._, p. 196. A school-boy may see the inconsistency of this. [417] Some modern grammarians will have it, that a participle governed by a preposition is a "_participial noun_;" and yet, when they come to parse an adverb or an objective following, their "_noun_" becomes a "_participle_" again, and _not_ a "_noun_." To allow words thus to _dodge_ from one class to an other, is not only unphilosophical, but ridiculously absurd. Among those who thus treat this construction of the participle, the chief, I think, are Butler, Hurt, Weld, Wells, and S. S. Greene. [418] Dr. Blair, to whom Murray ought to have acknowledged himself indebted for this sentence, introduced _a noun_, to which, in his work, this infinitive and these participles refer: thus, "It is disagreeable _for the mind_ to be _left pausing_ on a word which does not, by itself, produce any idea."--_Blair's Rhetoric_, p. 118. See Obs. 10th and 11th on Rule 14th. [419] The perfect contrast between _from_ and _to_, when the former governs the participle and the latter the infinitive, is an other proof that this _to_ is the common preposition _to_. For example, "These are the four spirits of the heavens, which go forth _from standing_ before the Lord of all the earth."--_Zech._, vi, 5. Now if this were rendered "which go forth _to stand_," &c., it is plain that these prepositions would express quite opposite relations. Yet, probably from some obscurity in the original, the Greek version has been made to mean, "going forth _to stand_;" and the Latin, "which go forth, _that they may stand_;" while the French text conveys nearly the same sense as ours,--"which go forth _from the place where they stood._" [420] _Cannot_, with a verb of _avoiding_, or with the negative _but_, is equivalent to _must_. Such examples may therefore be varied thus: "I _cannot but mention_:" i.e., "I _must_ mention."--"I _cannot help exhorting_ him to assume courage."--_Knox_. That is, "I _cannot but exhort_ him." [421] See the same thing in _Kirkham's Gram._ p. 189; in _Ingersoll's_, p. 200; in _Smith's New Grammar_, p. 162; and in other modifications and mutilations of Murray's work. Kirkham, in an other place, adopts the doctrine, that, "_Participles_ frequently govern nouns _and_ pronouns in the possessive case; as, 'In case of his _majesty's dying_ without issue, &c.; Upon _God's having ended_ all his works, &c.; I remember _its being reckoned_ a great exploit; At my _coming_ in he said, &c."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 181. None of these examples are written according to my notion of elegance, or of accuracy. Better: "In case his _Majesty die_ without issue."--"_God_ having ended all his works."--"I remember _it was_ reckoned a great exploit."--"At my _entrance_, he said," &c. [422] We have seen that Priestley's doctrine, as well as Lowth's, is, that when a participle is taken _substantively_, "it ought not to govern another word;" and, for the same reason, it ought not to have an _adverb_ relating to it. But many of our modern grammarians disregard these principles, and do not restrict their "_participial nouns_" to the construction of nouns, in either of these respects. For example: Because one may say, "_To read superficially_, is useless," Barnard supposes it right to say, "_Reading superficially_ is useless." "But the _participle_," says he, "will also take the adjective; as, '_Superficial reading_ is useless.'"--_Analytic Gram._, p. 212. In my opinion, this last construction ought to be preferred; and the second, which is both irregular and unnecessary, rejected. Again, this author says: "We have laid it down as a rule, that the possessive case belongs, like an adjective, to a _noun_. What shall be said of the following? 'Since the days of Samson, there has been no instance of _a man's_ accomplishing a task so stupendous.' The _entire clause_ following _man's_, is taken as a noun. 'Of a man's _success_ in a task so stupendous.' would present no difficulty. A part of a sentence, or even a single participle, _thus often_ stands _for a noun_. 'My going will depend on my father's giving his consent,' or 'on my father's consenting.' A participle _thus used_ as a noun, may be called a PARTICIPIAL NOUN."--_Ib._, p. 131. I dislike this doctrine also. In the first example, _man_ may well be made the leading word in sense; and, as such, it must be in the objective case; thus: "There has been no instance of a _man accomplishing_ a task so stupendous." It is also proper to say. "_My going_ will depend on my _father's consenting_," or, "on my _father's consent_." But an action possessed by the agent, ought not to be transitive. If, therefore, you make this the leading idea, insert _of_: thus, "There has been no instance of a _man's accomplishing of_ a task so stupendous." "My going will depend on my _father's giving of_ his consent."--"My _brother's acquiring [of_] the French language will be a useful preparation for his travels."--_Barnard's Gram._, p. 227. If participial nouns retain the power of participles, why is it wrong to say, "A superficial reading books is useless?" Again, Barnard approves of the question, "What do you think of my _horse's running to-day_?" and adds, "Between this form of expression and the following, 'What do you think of my _horse running_ to-day?' it is sometimes said, that we should make a distinction; because the former implies that the horse had actually run, and the latter, that it is in contemplation to have him do so. _The difference of meaning certainly exists_; but it would seem more judicious to treat _the latter_ as an improper mode of speaking. What can be more uncouth than to say, 'What do you think of _me_ going to Niagara?' We should say _my_ going, notwithstanding the ambiguity. We ought, _therefore_, to introduce something explanatory; as, 'What do you think _of the propriety_ of my going to Niagara?"--_Analytic Gram._, p. 227. The propriety of a past action is as proper a subject of remark as that of a future one; the explanatory phrase here introduced has therefore nothing to do with Priestley's distinction, or with the alleged ambiguity. Nor does the uncouthness of an objective pronoun with the leading word in sense improperly taken as an adjunct, prove that a participle may properly take to itself a possessive adjunct, and still retain the active nature of a participle. [423] The following is an example, but it is not very intelligible, nor would it be at all amended, if the pronoun were put in the possessive case: "I sympathize with my sable brethren, when I hear of _them being spared_ even one lash of the cart-whip."--REV. DR. THOMPSON: _Garrison, on Colonization_, p. 80. And this is an other, in which the possessive pronoun would not be better: "But, if the slaves wish, to return to slavery, let them do so; not an abolitionist will turn out to stop _them going_ back."--_Antislavery Reporter_, Vol. IV, p. 223. Yet it might be more accurate to say--"to stop them _from_ going back." In the following example from the pen of Priestley, the objective is correctly used with _as_, where some would be apt to adopt the possessive: "It gives us an idea of _him_, as being the only person to whom it can be applied."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 151. Is not this better English than to say, "of _his_ being the only person?" The following is from the pen of a good scholar: "This made me remember the discourse we had together, at my house, about _me drawing_ constitutions, not as proposals, but as if fixed to the hand."--WILLIAM PENN: _Letter to Algernon Sidney_, Oct. 13th, 1681. Here, if _me_ is objectionable, _my_ without _of_ would be no less so. It might be better grammar to say, "about _my drawing of_ constitutions." [424] Sometimes the passive form is adopted, when there is no real need of it, and when perhaps the active would be better, because it is simpler; as, "Those portions of the grammar are worth the trouble of _being committed_ to memory."--_Dr. Barrow's Essays_, p. 109. Better, perhaps:--"worth the trouble of _committing_ to memory:" or,--"worth the trouble _committing them_ to memory." Again: "What is worth being uttered at all, is worth _being spoken_ in a proper manner."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 68. Better, perhaps: "What is worth _uttering_ at all, is worth _uttering_ in a proper manner."--G. Brown. [425] "RULE.--When the participle expresses something of which the noun following is the DOER, it should have the article and preposition; as, 'It was said in _the hearing of_ the witness.' When it expresses something of which the noun following is _not the doer_, but the OBJECT, both should be omitted; as, 'The court spent some time in _hearing_ the witness.'"--BULLIONS, _Prin. of E. Gram._, p. 108; _Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, 181. [426] This doctrine is far from being true. See Obs. 12th, in this series, above.--G. B. [427] "Dr. Webster considers the use of _then_ and _above_ as ADNOUNS, [i. e., adjectives,] to be 'well authorized and very convenient;' as, the _then_ ministry; the _above_ remarks."--_Felch's Comp. Gram._, p. 108. Dr. Webster's remark is in the following words: "_Then_ and _above_ are often used as ATTRIBUTES: [i. e., adjectives; as,] the _then_ ministry; the _above_ remarks; nor would I prescribe this use. It is well authorized and very convenient."--_Philos. Gram._, p. 245; _Improved Gram._, p. 176. Of this use of _then_, Dr. Crombie has expressed a very different opinion: "Here _then_," says he, "the adverb equivalent to _at that time_, is solecistically employed as an adjective, agreeing with _ministry_. This error seems to gain ground; it should therefore be vigilantly opposed, and carefully avoided."--_On Etym. and Synt._, p. 405. [428] W. Allen supposes, "An adverb sometimes qualifies a whole sentence: as, _Unfortunately_ for the lovers of antiquity, _no remains of Grecian paintings have been preserved_."--_Elements of Eng. Gram._, p. 173. But this example may be resolved thus: "_It happens_ unfortunately for the lovers of antiquity, _that_ no remains of Grecian paintings have been preserved." [429] This assertion of Churchill's is very far from the truth. I am confident that the latter construction occurs, even among reputable authors, ten times as often as the former can be found in any English books.--G. BROWN. [430] Should not the Doctor have said, "_are_ there _more_," since "_more than one_" must needs be plural? See Obs. 10th on Rule 17th. [431] This degree of truth is impossible, and therefore not justly supposable. We have also a late American grammarian who gives a similar interpretation: "'_Though never so justly deserving of it_.' Comber. _Never_ is here an emphatic adverb; as if it were said, so justly _as was never_. Though well authorized, it is disapproved by most grammarians of the present day; and the word _ever_ is used instead of _never_."--_Felch's Comp. Gram._, p. 107. The text here cited is not necessarily bad English as it stands; but, if the commenter has not mistaken its meaning, as well as its construction, it ought certainly to be, "Though _everso justly_ deserving of it."--"_So justly as was never_," is a positive degree that is not imaginable; and what is this but an absurdity? [432] Since this remark was written, I have read an other grammar, (that of the "_Rev. Charles Adams_,") in which the author sets down among "the more frequent _improprieties_ committed, in conversation, '_Ary one_' for _either_, and '_nary one_' for _neither_."--_Adams's System of Gram._, p. 116. Eli Gilbert too betrays the same ignorance. Among his "_Improper Pronunciations_" he puts down "_Nary_" and "_Ary_" and for "_Corrections_" of them, gives "_neither_" and "_either_."--_Gilbert's Catechetical Gram._, p. 128. But these latter terms, _either_ and _neither_, are applicable only to _one of two_ things, and cannot be used where _many_ are spoken of; as, "Stealing her soul with _many_ vows of faith, And _ne'er_ a true one."--_Shakspeare_. What sense would there be in expounding this to mean, "And _neither_ a true one?" So some men both write and interpret their mother tongue erroneously through ignorance. But these authors _condemn_ the errors which they here falsely suppose to be common. What is yet more strange, no less a critic than Prof. William C. Fowler, has lately exhibited, _without disapprobation_, one of these literary blunders, with sundry localisms, (often descending to slang,) which, he says, are mentioned by "Mr. Bartlett, in his valuable dictionary [_Dictionary] of Americanisms_." The brief example, which may doubtless be understood to speak for both phrases and both authors, is this: "ARY = either."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, 8vo, N. Y., 1850, p. 92. [433] The conjunction _that_, at the head of a sentence or clause, enables us to assume the whole preposition as one _thing_; as, "All arguments whatever are directed to prove one or other of these _three things: that_ something is true; _that_ it is morally right or fit; or _that_ it is profitable and good."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 318. Here each _that_ may be parsed as connecting its own clause to the first clause in the sentence; or, to the word _things_ with which the three clauses are in a sort of apposition. If we conceive it to have no such connecting power, we must make this too an exception. [434] "Note. Then _and_ than are _distinct Particles_, but use hath made the using of _then_ for _than_ after a Comparative Degree at least _passable_. See _Butler's_ Eng. Gram. Index."--_Walker's Eng. Particles_, Tenth Ed., 1691, p. 333. [435] "When the relative _who_ follows the preposition _than_, it must be used as in the _accusative_ case."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 93. Dr. Priestley seems to have imagined the word _than_ to be _always a preposition_; for he contends against the common doctrine and practice respecting the case after it: "It is, likewise, said, that the nominative case ought to follow the _preposition than_; because the verb _to be_ is understood after it; As, _You are taller than he_, and not _taller than him_; because at full length, it would be, _You are taller than he is_; but since it is allowed, that the oblique case should follow _prepositions_; and since the comparative degree of an adjective, and the particle _than_ have, certainly, between them, the force _of a preposition_, expressing the relation of one word to another, _they ought to require the oblique case_ of the pronoun following."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 105. If _than_ were a preposition, this reasoning would certainly be right; but the Doctor begs the question, by assuming that it _is_ a preposition. William Ward, an other noted grammarian of the same age, supposes that, "ME _sapientior es_, may be translated, _Thou art wiser_ THAN ME." He also, in the same place, avers, that, "The best English Writers have considered _than_ as a Sign of an oblique Case; as, 'She suffers more THAN ME.' Swift, i.e. more than I suffer. 'Thou art a Girl as much brighter THAN HER, As he was a Poet sublimer THAN ME.' Prior. i.e. Thou art a Girl as much brighter _than she was_, as he was a Poet sublimer _than I am_."--_Ward's Practical Gram._, p. 112. These examples of the objective case after _than_, were justly regarded by Lowth as _bad English_. The construction, however, has a modern advocate in S. W. Clark, who will have the conjunctions _as, but, save, saving_, and _than_, as well as the adjectives _like, unlike, near, next, nigh_, and _opposite_, to be _prepositions_. "After a _Comparative_ the _Preposition than_ is commonly used. Example--Grammar is more interesting _than_ all my other studies."--_Clark's Practical Gram._, p. 178. "_As, like, than_, &c., indicate a relation of _comparison_. Example 'Thou hast been _wiser_ all the while _than me_.' _Southey's Letters._"--_Ib._, p. 96. Here correct usage undoubtedly requires _I_, and not _me_. Such at least is my opinion. [436] In respect to the _case_, the phrase _than who_ is similar to _than he, than they_, &c., as has been observed by many grammarians; but, since _than_ is a conjunction, and _who_ or _whom_ is a relative, it is doubtful whether it can be strictly proper to set two such connectives together, be the case of the latter which it may. See Note 5th, in the present chapter, below. [437] After _else_ or _other_, the preposition _besides_ is sometimes used; and, when it recalls an idea previously suggested, it appears to be as good as _than_, or better: as, "_Other_ words, _besides_ the preceding, may begin with capitals."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. i. p. 285. Or perhaps this preposition may be proper, whenever _else_ or _other_ denotes what is _additional_ to the object of contrast, and not exclusive of it; as, "When we speak of any _other_ quantity _besides_ bare numbers."--_Tooke's Diversions_, Vol. i, p. 215. "Because he had no _other_ father _besides_ God."--_Milton, on Christianity_, p. 109. Though we sometimes express an addition by _more than_, the following example appears to me to be _bad English_, and its interpretation still worse: "'The secret was communicated to _more men than him_.' That is, (when the ellipsis is duly supplied,) 'The secret was communicated to more _persons_ than _to_ him.'"--Murray's Key, 12mo, p. 61; his _Octavo Gram._, p. 215; _Ingersoll's Gram._, 252. Say rather,--"to _other_ men _besides_ him." Nor, again, does the following construction appear to be right: "Now _shew_ me _another_ Popish rhymester _but he_."--DENNIS: _Notes to the Dunciad_, B. ii, l. 268. Say rather, "Now _show_ me _an other_ popish rhymester _besides him_." Or thus: "Now show me _any_ popish rhymester _except_ him." This too is questionable: "Now pain must here be intended to signify something _else besides_ warning."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 121. If "warning" was here intended to be included with "something else," the expression is right; if not, _besides_ should be _than_. Again: "There is seldom any _other_ cardinal in Poland _but him_."--_Life of Charles XII_. Here "_but him_" should be either "_besides him_," or "_than he_;" for _but_ never rightly governs the objective case, nor is it proper after _other_. "Many _more_ examples, _besides_ the foregoing, might have been adduced."--_Nesbit's English Parsing_, p. xv. Here, in fact, no comparison is expressed; and therefore it is questionable, whether the word "_more_" is allowably used. Like _else_ and _other_, when construed with _besides_, it signifies _additional_; and, as this idea is implied in _besides_, any one of these adjectives going before is really pleonastic. In the sense above noticed, the word _beside_ is sometimes written in stead of besides, though not very often; as, "There are _other_ things which pass in the mind of man, _beside_ ideas."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 136. [438] A few of the examples under this head might be corrected equally well by some preceding note of a more specific character; for a general note against the improper omission of prepositions, of course includes those principles of grammar by which any particular prepositions are to be inserted. So the examples of error which were given in the tenth chapter of Etymology, might nearly all of them have been placed under the first note in this tenth chapter of Syntax. But it was thought best to illustrate every part of this volume, by some examples of false grammar, out of the infinite number and variety with which our literature abounds. [439] "The Rev. _Joab Goldsmith Cooper_, A. M.," was the author of two English grammars, as well as of what he called "A New and Improved Latin Grammar," with "An Edition of the Works of Virgil, &c.," all published in Philadelphia. His first grammar, dated 1828, is entitled, "_An Abridgment of Murray's English Grammar, and Exercises_." But it is no more an abridgement of Murray's work, than of mine; he having chosen to steal from the text of my Institutes, or supply matter of his own, about as often as to copy Murray. His second is the Latin Grammar. His third, which is entitled, "_A Plain and Practical English Grammar_," and dated 1831, is a book very different from the first, but equally inaccurate and worthless. In this book, the syntax of interjections stands thus: "RULE 21. The interjections _O, oh_ and _ah_ are followed by _the objective case_ of a noun or pronoun, as: 'O me! ah me! oh me!' In the second person, they are _a mark_ or _sign_ of an address, made to a person or thing, as: O thou persecutor! Oh, ye hypocrites! O virtue, how amiable thou art!"--Page 157. The inaccuracy of all this can scarcely be exceeded. [440] "_Oh_ is used to express the emotion of _pain, sorrow_, or _surprise_. _O_ is used to express _wishing, exclamation_, or a direct _address_ to a person."--_Lennie's Gram._, 12th Ed., p. 110. Of this distinction our grammarians in general seem to have no conception; and, in fact, it is so often disregarded by other authors, that the propriety of it may be disputed. Since _O_ and _oh_ are pronounced alike, or very nearly so, if there is no difference in their application, they are only different modes of writing the same word, and one or the other of them is useless. If there is a real difference, as I suppose there is, it ought to be better observed; and _O me!_ and _oh ye!_ which I believe are found only in grammars, should be regarded as bad English. Both _O_ and _oh_, as well as _ah_, were used in Latin by Terence, who was reckoned an elegant writer; and his manner of applying them favours this distinction: and so do our own dictionaries, though Johnson and Walker do not draw it clearly, for _oh_ is as much an "_exclamation_" as _O_. In the works of Virgil, Ovid, and Horace, we find _O_ or _o_ used frequently, but nowhere _oh_. Yet this is no evidence of their sameness, or of the uselessness of the latter; but rather of their difference, and of the impropriety of confounding them. _O, oh, ho_, and _ah_, are French words as well as English. Boyer, in his Quarto Dictionary, confounds them all; translating "O!" only by "_Oh!_" "OH! _ou_ HO!" by "_Ho! Oh!_" and "AH!" by "_Oh! alas! well-a-day! ough! A! ah! hah! ho!_" He would have done better to have made each one explain itself; and especially, not to have set down "_ough!_" and "_A!_" as English words which correspond to the French _ah!_ [441] This silence is sufficiently accounted for by _Murray's_; of whose work, most of the authors who have any such rule, are either piddling modifiers or servile copyists. And Murray's silence on these matters, is in part attributable to the fact, that when he wrote his remark, his system of grammar denied that nouns have any first person, or any objective case. Of course he supposed that all nouns that were uttered after interjections, whether they were of the second person or of the third, were in the nominative case; for he gave to nouns _two_ cases only, the nominative and the possessive. And when he afterwards admitted the objective case of nouns, he did not alter his remark, but left all his pupils ignorant of the case of any noun that is used in exclamation or invocation. In his doctrine of two cases, he followed Dr. Ash: from whom also he copied the rule which I am criticising: "The _Interjections, O, Oh_, and _Ah_, require the _accusative_ case of a pronoun in the _first_ Person: as, O _me_, Oh _me_, Ah _me_: But the _Nominative_ in the _second_: as, O _thou_, O _ye_."--_Ash's Gram._, p. 60. Or perhaps he had Bicknell's book, which was later: "The _interjections O, oh_, and _ah_, require the accusative case of a pronoun in the _first_ person after them; as, _O, me! Oh, me! Ah, me!_ But the nominative case in the _second_ person; as, _O, thou that rulest! O, ye rulers of this land!_"--_The Grammatical Wreath_, Part I, p. 105. [442] See _2 Sam._, xix, 4; also xviii, 33. Peirce has many times _misquoted_ this text, or some part of it; and, what is remarkable, he nowhere agrees either with himself or with the Bible! "O! Absalom! my son!"--_Gram._, p. 283. "O Absalom! my son, my son! would _to_ God I had died for thee."--_Ib._, p. 304. Pinneo also misquotes and perverts a part of it, thus: "Oh, Absalom! my son"--_Primary Gram._, Revised Ed., p. 57. [443] Of this example, Professor Bullions says, "This will be allowed to be _a correct English sentence_, complete in itself, and requiring nothing to be supplied. The phrase, '_being an expert dancer_,' is the subject of the verb '_does entitle_;' but the word '_dancer_' in that phrase is neither the subject of any verb, nor is governed by any word in the sentence."--_Eng. Gram._, p. 52. It is because this word cannot have any regular construction after the participle when the possessive case precedes, that I deny his first proposition, and declare the sentence _not_ "to be correct English." But the Professor at length reasons himself into the notion, that this indeterminate "_predicate_," as he erroneously calls it, "is properly in the _objective case_, and in parsing, may correctly be called the _objective indefinite_;" of which case, he says, "The following are also examples: '_He_ had the honour of being a _director_ for life.' 'By being a _diligent student, he_ soon acquired eminence in his profession.'"--_Ib._, p. 83. But "_director_" and "_student_" are here manifestly in the _nominative_ case: each agreeing with the pronoun _he_, which denotes the same person. In the latter sentence, there is a very obvious transposition of the first five words. [444] Faulty as this example is, Dr. Blair says of it: "Nothing can be more elegant, or more finely turned, than this sentence. It is neat, _clear_, and musical. We could hardly _alter one word_, or disarrange one member, without _spoiling_ it. Few sentences are to be found, more finished, or more happy."--_Lecture_ XX, p. 201. See the _six_ corrections suggested in my Key, and judge whether or not they _spoil_ the sentence.--G. B. [445] This Note, as well as all the others, will by-and-by be amply illustrated by citations from authors of sufficient repute to give it some value as a grammatical principle: but one cannot hope such language as is, in reality, incorrigibly bad, will always appear so to the generality of readers. Tastes, habits, principles, judgements, differ; and, where confidence is gained, many utterances are well received, that are neither well considered nor well understood. When a professed critic utters what is incorrect beyond amendment, the fault is the more noteworthy, as his professions are louder, or his standing is more eminent. In a recent preface, deliberately composed for a very comprehensive work on "English Grammar," and designed to allure both young and old to "a thorough and extensive acquaintance with their mother tongue,"--in the studied preface of a learned writer, who has aimed "to furnish not only a text-book for the higher institutions, but also a reference-book for _teachers_, which may give breadth and exactness to their views,"--I find a paragraph of which the following is a part: "Unless men, at least occasionally, bestow their attention upon the science and the laws of the language, they are in some danger, amid the excitements of professional life, of losing the delicacy of their taste and giving sanction to vulgarisms, or to what is worse. On this point, listen to the recent declarations of two leading men in the Senate of the United States, both of whom understand the use of the English language in its power: 'In truth, I must say that, in my opinion, the vernacular tongue of the country has become greatly vitiated, depraved, and corrupted by the style of our Congressional debates.' And the other, in courteous response remarked, 'There _is_ such a _thing_ as _an_ English and _a_ parliamentary _vocabulary_, and I have never heard _a worse_, when circumstances called it out, on this side [_of_] Billingsgate!'"--_Fowler's E. Gram._, 8vo. 1850, Pref., p. iv. Now of these "two leading men," the former was Daniel Webster, who, in a senatorial speech, in the spring of 1850, made such a remark concerning the style of oratory used in Congress. But who replied, or what idea the "courteous response," as here given, can be said to convey, I do not know. The language seems to me both unintelligible and solecistical; and, therefore, but a fair sample of the _Incorrigible_. Some intelligent persons, whom I have asked to interpret it, think, as Webster had accused our Congress of corrupting the English language, the respondent meant to accuse the British Parliament of doing the same thing in a greater degree,--of descending yet lower into the vileness of slang. But this is hardly a probable conjecture. Webster might be right in acknowledging a very depraving abuse of the tongue in the two Houses of Congress; but could it be "courteous," or proper, for the answerer to jump the Atlantic, and pounce upon the English Lords and Commons, as a set of worse corrupters? The gentleman begins with saying, "There _is_ such _a thing_"--as if he meant to describe some _one_ thing; and proceeds with saying, "as _an_ English _and a_ parliamentary vocabulary," in which phrase, by repeating the article, he speaks of _two "things"--two vocabularies_; then goes on, "and I have never heard _a worse_!" A worse _what_? Does he mean "_a worse vocabulary_?" If so, what sense has "_vocabulary_?" And, again, "a worse" _than_ what? Where and what is this "_thing_" which is so bad that the leading Senator has "never heard a worse?" Is it some "_vocabulary_" both "English and parliamentary?" If so, whose? If not, what else is it? Lest the wisdom of this oraculous "declaration" be lost to the public through the defects of its syntax,--and lest more than one rhetorical critic seem hereby "in some danger" of "giving sanction to" _nonsense_,--it may be well for Professor Fowler, in his next edition, to present some elucidation of this short but remarkable passage, which he values so highly! An other example, in several respects still more remarkable,--a shorter one, into which an equally successful professor of grammar has condensed a much greater number and variety of faults,--is seen in the following citation: "The verb is so called, because it means _word_; and as there can be no sentence without it, it is called, emphatically, _the word_."--_Pinneo's Analytical Gram._, p. 14. This sentence, in which, perhaps, most readers will discover no error, has in fact faults of so many different kinds, that a critic must pause to determine under which of more than half a dozen different heads of false syntax it might most fitly be presented for correction or criticism. (1.) It might be set down under my Note 5th to Rule 10th; for, in one or two instances out of the three, if not in all, the pronoun "_it_" gives not the same idea as its antecedent. The faults coming under this head might be obviated by three changes, made thus: "The verb is so called, because _verb_ means _word_; and, as there can be no sentence without _a verb, this part of speech_ is called, emphatically, _the word_." Cobbett wisely says, "Never put an _it_ upon paper without thinking well of what you are about."--_E. Gram._, ¶ 196. But (2.) the erroneous text, and this partial correction of it too, might be put under my Critical Note 5th, among _Falsities_; for, in either form, each member affirms what is manifestly untrue. The term "_word_" has many meanings; but no usage ever makes it, "_emphatically_" or otherwise, a name for one of the classes called "parts of speech;" nor is there nowadays any current usage in which "_verb_ means _word_." (3.) This text might be put under Critical Note 6th, among _Absurdities_; for whoever will read it, as in fairness he should, taking the pronoun "_it_" in the exact sense of its antecedent "_the verb_," will see that the import of each part is absurd--the whole, a two-fold absurdity. (4.) It might be put under Critical Note 7th, among _Self-Contradictions_; for, to teach at once that "_the verb_ is _so_ called," and "is called, emphatically," _otherwise_,--namely, "_the word_,"--is, to contradict one's self. (5.) It might be set down under Critical Note 9th, among examples of _Words Needless_; for the author's question is, "Why is the verb so called?" and this may be much better answered in fewer words, thus: "THE VERB is so called, because in French it is called _le verbe_ and in Latin, _verbum_, which means _word_." (6.) It might be put under Critical Note 10th, as an example of _Improper Omissions_; for it may be greatly bettered by the addition of some words, thus: "The verb is so called, because [in French] it [is called _le verbe_, and in Latin, _verbum_, which] means _word_: as there can be no sentence without _a verb, this_ [most important part of speech] is called, emphatically, [_the verb_,--q.d.,] _the word_." (7.) It might be put under Critical Note 11th, among _Literary Blunders_; for there is at least one blunder in each of its members. (8.) It might be set down under Critical Note 13th, as an example of _Awkwardness_; for it is but clumsy work, to teach _grammar_ after this sort. (9.) It might be given under Critical Note 16th, as a sample of the _Incorrigible_; for it is scarcely possible to eliminate all its defects and retain its essentials. These instances may suffice to show, that even gross errors of grammar may lurk where they are least to be expected, in the didactic phraseology of professed masters of style or oratory, and may abound where common readers or the generality of hearers will discover nothing amiss. [446] As a mere assertion, this example is here sufficiently corrected; but, as a _definition_, (for which the author probably intended it,) it is deficient; and consequently, in that sense, is still inaccurate. I would also observe that most of the subsequent examples under the present head, contain other errors than that for which they are here introduced; and, of some of them, the faults are, in my opinion, very many: for example, the several definitions of an _adverb_, cited below. Lindley Murray's definition of this part of speech is not inserted among these, because I had elsewhere criticised that. So too of his faulty definition of a _conjunction_. See the _Introduction_, Chap. X. paragraphs 26 and 28. See also _Corrections in the Key_, under Note 10th to Rule 1st. [447] In his explanation of _Ellipsis_, Lindley Murray continually calls it "_the_ ellipsis," and speaks of it as something that is "_used_,"--"_made use of_,"--"_applied_,"--"_contained in_" the examples; which expressions, referring, as they there do, to the mere _absence_ of something, appear to me solecistical. The notion too, which this author and others have entertained of the figure itself, is in many respects erroneous; and nearly all their examples for its illustration are either questionable as to such an application, or obviously inappropriate. The absence of what is _needless_ or _unsuggested_, is _no ellipsis_, though some grave men have not discerned this obvious fact. The nine solecisms here quoted concerning "_the ellipsis_," are all found in many other grammars. See _Fisk's E. Gram._, p. 144; _Guy's_, 91; _Ingersoll's_, 153; _J. M. Putnam's_, 137; _R. C. Smith's_, 180; _Weld's_, 190. [448] Some of these examples do, _in fact_, contain _more_ than two errors; for mistakes in _punctuation_, or in the use of _capitals_, are not here reckoned. This remark may also he applicable to some of the other lessons. The reader may likewise perceive, that where two, three, or more improprieties occur in one sentence, some one or more of them may happen to be such, as he can, if he choose, correct by some rule or note belonging to a previous chapter. Great labour has been bestowed on the selection and arrangement of these syntactical exercises; but to give to so great a variety of literary faults, a distribution perfectly distinct, and perfectly adapted to all the heads assumed in this digest, is a work not only of great labour, but of great difficulty. I have come as near to these two points of perfection in the arrangement, as I well could.--G. BROWN. [449] In Murray's sixth chapter of Punctuation, from which this example, and eleven others that follow it, are taken, there is scarcely a single sentence that does not contain _many errors_; and yet the whole is literally copied in _Ingersoll's Grammar_, p. 293; in _Fisk's_, p. 159; in _Abel Flint's_, 116; and probably in some others. I have not always been careful to subjoin the great number of references which might be given for blunders selected from this hackneyed literature of the schools. For corrections, or improvements, see the Key. [450] This example, or L. Murray's miserable modification of it, traced through the grammars of Alden, Alger, Bullions, Comly, Cooper, Flint, Hiley, Ingersoll, Jaudon, Merchant, Russell, Smith, and others, will be found to have a dozen different forms--all of them no less faulty than the original--all of them obscure, untrue, inconsistent, and almost incorrigible. It is plain, that "_a_ comma," or _one_ comma, cannot divide more than _two_ "simple members;" and these, surely, cannot be connected by more than _one relative_, or by more than _one_ "comparative;" if it be allowable to call _than, as_, or _so_, by this questionable name. Of the multitude of errors into which these pretended critics have so blindly fallen, I shall have space and time to point out only a _very small part_: this text, too justly, may be taken as a pretty fair sample of their scholarship! [451] The "_idea_" which is here spoken of, Dr. Blair discovers in a passage of Addison's Spectator. It is, in fact, as here "_brought out_" by the critic, a bald and downright absurdity. Dr. Campbell has criticised, under the name of _marvellous nonsense_, a different display of the same "_idea_," cited from De Piles's Principles of Painting. The passage ends thus: "In this sense it may be asserted, that in Rubens' pieces, Art is above Nature, and Nature only a copy of that great master's works." Of this the critic says: "When the expression is _stript_ of the _absurd meaning_, there remains nothing but balderdash."--_Philosophy of Rhet._, p, 278. [452] All his rules for the comma, Fisk appears to have taken unjustly from Greenleaf. It is a _double shame_, for a grammarian to _steal_ what is so _badly written_!--G. BROWN. [453] Bad definitions may have other faults than to include or exclude what they should not, but this is their great and peculiar vice. For example: "_Person_ is _that property_ of _nouns_ and _pronouns_ which distinguishes the speaker, the person or thing addressed, and the person or thing spoken of."--_Wells's School Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 51; 113th Ed., p. 57. See nearly the same words, in _Weld's English Gram._, p. 67; and in his _Abridgement_, p. 49. The three persons of _verbs_ are all improperly excluded from this definition; which absurdly takes "_person_" to be _one property that has all the effect of all the persons_; so that each person, in its turn, since each cannot have all this effect, is seen to be excluded also: that is, it is not such a property as is described! Again: "An _intransitive verb_ is a verb which _does not have_ a noun or pronoun for its object."--_Wells_, 1st Ed., p. 76. According to Dr. Johnson, "_does not have_," is not a scholarly phrase; but the adoption of a puerile expression is a trifling fault, compared with that of including here all passive verbs, and some transitives, which the author meant to exclude; to say nothing of the inconsistency of excluding here the two classes of verbs which he absurdly calls "intransitive," though he finds them "followed by objectives depending upon them!"--_Id._, p. 145. Weld imitates these errors too, on pp. 70 and 153. [454] S. R. Hall thinks it necessary to recognize "_four distinctions_" of "_the distinction_ occasioned by sex." In general, the other authors here quoted, suppose that we have only "_three distinctions_" of "_the distinction_ of sex." And, as no philosopher has yet discovered more than two sexes, some have thence stoutly argued, that it is absurd to speak of more than two genders. Lily makes it out, that in Latin there are _seven_: yet, with no great consistency, he will have _a gender_ to be _a_ or _the_ distinction of _sex_. "GENUS est sexus discretio. Et sunt genera numero septem."--_Lilii Gram._, p. 10. That is, "GENDER is the distinction of _sex_. And _the genders_ are _seven_ in number." Ruddiman says, "GENUS est, discrimen _nominis_ secundum sexum, vel _ejus_ in structurâ grammaticâ imitatio. Genera nominum sunt _tria_."--_Ruddimanni Gram._, p. 4. That is, "GENDER is the diversity of the _noun_ according to sex, or [it is] the imitation _of it_ in grammatical structure. The genders of nouns are _three_." These old definitions are no better than the newer ones cited above. All of them are miserable failures, full of faults and absurdities. Both the nature and the cause of their defects are in some degree explained near the close of the tenth chapter of my Introduction. Their most prominent errors are these: 1. They all assume, that _gender_, taken as one thing, is in fact two, three, or more, _genders_, 2. Nearly all of them seem to say or imply, that _words_ differ from one an other _in sex_, like animals. 3. Many of them expressly confine _gender_, or _the genders_, to _nouns_ only. 4. Many of them confessedly _exclude the neuter gender_, though their authors afterwards admit this gender. 5. That of Dr. Webster supposes, that words differing in gender never have the same "_termination_." The absurdity of this may be shown by a multitude of examples: as, _man_ and _woman, male_ and _female, father_ and _mother, brother_ and _sister_. This is better, but still not free from some other faults which I have mentioned. For the correction of all this great batch of errors, I shall simply substitute in the Key one short definition, which appears to me to be exempt from each of these inaccuracies. [455] Walker states this differently, and even repeats his remark, thus: "But _y_ preceded by a vowel is _never_ changed: as coy, coyly, gay, gayly."--_Walker's Rhyming Dict._, p.x. "Y preceded by a vowel is _never_ changed, as boy, boys, I cloy, he cloys, etc."--_Ib._, p viii. Walker's twelve "Orthographical Aphorisms," which Murray and others republish as their "Rules for Spelling," and which in stead of amending they merely corrupt, happened through some carelessness to contain _two_ which should have been condensed into _one_. For "words ending with y preceded by a consonant," he has not only the absurd rule or assertion above recited, but an other which is better, with an exception or remark under each, respecting "_y_ preceded by a vowel." The grammarians follow him in his errors, and add to their number: hence the repetition, or similarity, in the absurdities here quoted. By the term "_verbal nouns_," Walker meant nouns denoting agents, as _carrier_ from carry; but Kirkham understood him to mean "_participial nouns_," as _the carrying_. Or rather, he so mistook "that able philologist" Murray; for he probably knew nothing of Walker in the matter; and accordingly changed the word "_verbal_" to "_participial_;" thus teaching, through all his hundred editions, except a few of the first, that participial nouns from verbs ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant, are formed by merely "changing the _y_ into _i_." But he seems to have known, that this is not the way to form the participle; though he did not know, that "_coyless_" is not a proper English word. [456] The _idea of plurality_ is not "_plurality of idea_," any more than the _idea of wickedness_, or the _idea of absurdity_, is absurdity or wickedness of idea; yet, behold, how our grammarians copy the blunder, which Lowth (perhaps) first fell into, of putting the one phrase for the other! Even Professor Fowler, (as well as Murray, Kirkham, and others,) talks of having regard "_to unity or plurality of idea_!"--_Fowler's E. Gram._, 8vo. 1850, §513,--G. BROWN. [457] In the Doctor's "New Edition, Revised and Corrected," the text stands thus: "The _Present participle_ of THE ACTIVE VOICE has an active signification; as, James is _building_ the house. _In many of these_, however, _it_ has," &c. Here the first sentence is but an idle truism; and the phrase, "_In many of these_," for lack of an antecedent to _these_, is utter nonsense. What is in "the active voice," ought of course to be _active_ in "signification;" but, in this author's present scheme of the verb, we find "the active voice," in direct violation of his own definition of it, ascribed not only to verbs and participles either neuter or intransitive, but also, as it would seem by this passage, to "many" that are _passive!_--G. BROWN. [458] One objection to these passage is, that they are _examples_ of the very construction which they describe as a _fault_. The first and second sentences ought to have been separated only by a semicolon. This would have made them _"members"_ of one and the same sentence. Can it be supported that one _"thought"_ is sufficient for two periods, or for what one chooses to point as such, but not for two members of the same period?--G. BROWN. [459] (1.) "_Accent_ is the _tone_ with which one speaks. For, in speaking, the voice of every man is sometimes _more grave_ in the sound, and at other times _more acute_ or shrill."--_Beattie's Moral Science_, p. 25. "_Accent_ is _the tone_ of the voice with which a syllable is pronounced."--_Dr. Adam's Latin and English Gram._, p. 266. (2.) "_Accent_ in a peculiar _stress_ of the voice on some syllable in a word to distinguish it from the others."--_Gould's Adam's Lat. Gram._, p. 243. (3.) "The _tone_ by which one syllable is distinguished from another is the _accent_; which is a greater _stress and elevation_ of voice on that particular syllable."--_Bicknell's Eng. Gram._, Part II, p. 111. (4.) "_Quantity_ is the Length or Shortness of Syllables; and the Proportion, generally speaking, betwixt a long and [a] short Syllable, is two to one; as in _Music_, two _Quavers_ to one _Crotchet_.--_Accent_ is the _rising_ and _falling_ of the Voice, above or under its usual Tone, but an Art of which we have little Use, and know less, in the _English_ Tongue; nor are we like to improve our Knowledge in this Particular, unless the Art of _Delivery_ or _Utterance_ were a little more study'd."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 156. (5.) "ACCENT, s. m. (_inflexion_ de la voix.) Accent, _tone_, pronunciation."--_Nouveau Dictionnaire Universel_, 4to, Tome Premier, sous le mot _Accent_. "ACCENT, _subst._ (_tone_ or _inflection_ of the voice.) Accent, _ton_ ou _inflexion_ de voix."--_Same Work, Garner's New Universal Dictionary_, 4to, under the word _Accent_. (6.) "The word _accent_ is derived from the Latin language and signifies _the tone of the voice_."--_Parker and Fox's English Gram._, Part III, p. 32. (7.) "The unity of the word consists in the _tone or accent_, which binds together the two parts of the composition."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, §360. (8.) "The accent of the ancients is the opprobrium of modern criticism. Nothing can show more evidently the fallibility of the human faculties, than the _total ignorance_ we are in at present of the nature of the Latin and Greek accent."--_Walker's Principles_, No. 486; Dict., p. 53. (9.) "It is not surprising, that the accent and quantity of the ancients should be so obscure and mysterious, when two such learned men of our own nation as Mr. Foster and Dr. Gaily, differ about the very existence of quantity in our own language."--_Walker's Observations on Accent_, &c.; Key, p. 311. (10.) "What these accents are has puzzled the learned so much that they seem neither to understand each other nor themselves."--_Walker's Octavo Dict., w. Barytone_. (11.) "The ancients designated the _pitch_ of vocal sounds by the term _accent_; making three kinds of accents, the acute (é), the grave (è), and the circumflex (ê), which signified severally the rise, the fall, and the turn of the voice, or union of acute and grave on the same syllable."--_Sargent's Standard Speaker_, p. 18. [460] "Interrogatio, Græcè _Erotema_, Accentum quoque transfert; ut, Ter. _Siccine ais Parmenó?_ Voss. Susenbr."--_Prat's Latin Grammar_, 8vo, Part II, p. 190. [461] In regard to the admission of a comma before the verb, by the foregoing exception, neither the practice of authors nor the doctrine of punctuators is entirely uniform; but, where a considerable pause is, and must be, made in the reading, I judge it not only allowable, but necessary, to mark it in writing. In W. Day's "Punctuation Reduced to a System," a work of no inconsiderable merit, this principle is disallowed; and even when the adjunct of the nominative is a _relative clause_, which, by Rule 2d below and its first exception, requires a comma after it but none before it, this author excludes both, putting no comma before the principal verb. The following is an example: "But it frequently happens, that punctuation is not made a prominent exercise in schools; and the brief _manner_ in which the subject is there dismissed _has proved_ insufficient to impress upon the minds of youth a due sense of its importance."--_Day's Punctuation_, p. 32. A pupil of mine would here have put a comma after the word _dismissed_. So, in the following examples, after _sake_, and after _dispenses_: "The _vanity_ that would accept power for its own sake _is_ the pettiest of human passions."--_Ib._, p. 75. "The generous _delight_ of beholding the happiness he dispenses _is_ the highest enjoyment of man."--_Ib._, p, 100. [462] When several nominatives are connected, some authors and printers put the comma only where the conjunction is omitted. W. Day separates them all, one from an other; but after the last, when this is singular before a plural verb, he inserts no point. Example: "Imagination is one of the principal ingredients which enter into the complex idea of genius; but _judgment, memory, understanding, enthusiasm_, and _sensibility_ are also included."--_Day's Punctuation_, p. 52. If the points are to be put where the pauses naturally occur, here should be a comma after _sensibility_; and, if I mistake not, it would be more consonant with current usage to set one there. John Wilson, however, in a later work, which is for the most part a very good one, prefers the doctrine of Day, as in the following instance: "_Reputation, virtue_, and _happiness_ depend greatly on the choice of companions."--_Wilson's Treatise on Punctuation_, p. 30. [463] Some printers, and likewise some authors, suppose a series of words to require the comma, only where the conjunction is suppressed. This is certainly a great error. It gives us such punctuation as comports neither with the _sense_ of three or more words in the same construction, nor with the _pauses_ which they require in reading. "John, James and Thomas are here," is a sentence which plainly tells John that James and Thomas are here; and which, if read according to this pointing, cannot possibly have any other meaning. Yet this is the way in which the rules of _Cooper, Felton, Frost, Webster_, and perhaps others, teach us to point it, when we mean to tell somebody else that all three are here! In his pretended "Abridgment of Murray's English Grammar," (a work abounding in small thefts from Brown's Institutes,) Cooper has the following example: "John, James or Joseph intends to accompany me."--Page 120. Here, John being addressed, the punctuation is right; but, to make this noun a nominative to the verb, a comma must be put after _each of the others_. In Cooper's "Plain and Practical Grammar," the passage is found in this form: "John, James, or Joseph intends to accompany us."--Page 132. This pointing is doubly wrong; because it is adapted to neither sense. If the three nouns have the same construction, the principal pause will be immediately before the verb; and surely a comma is as much required by that pause, as by the second. See the Note on Rule 3d, above. [464] In punctuation, the grammar here cited is unaccountably defective. This is the more strange, because many of its errors are mere perversions of what was accurately pointed by an other hand. On the page above referred to, Dr. Bullions, in copying from Lennie's syntactical exercises _a dozen consecutive lines_, has omitted _nine needful commas_, which Lennie had been careful to insert! [465] Needless abbreviations, like most that occur in this example, are in _bad taste_, and _ought to be avoided_. The great faultiness of this text as a model for learners, compels me to vary the words considerably in suggesting the correction. See the _Key_.--G. B. [466] "To be, or not to be?--that's the question."--_Hallock's Gram._, p. 220. "To be, or not to be, that is the question."--_Singer's Shak._, ii. 488. "To be, or not to be; that is the Question."--_Ward's Gram._, p 160. "To be, or not to be, that is the Question."--_Brightland's Gram._, p 209. "To be, or not to be?"--_Mandeville's Course of Reading_, p. 141. "To be or not to be! That is the question."--_Pinneo's Gram._, p. 176. "To _be_--or _not_ to be--_that_ is the question--"--_Burgh's Speaker_, p. 179. [467] In the works of some of our older poets, the apostrophe is sometimes irregularly inserted, and perhaps needlessly, to mark a prosodial synsæresis, or synalepha, where no letter is cut off or left out; as, "Retire, or taste thy _folly'_, and learn by proof, Hell-born, not to contend with _spir'its_ of Heaven." --_Milton, P. L._, ii, 686. In the following example, it seems to denote nothing more than the open or long sound of the preceding vowel _e_: "That sleep and feeding may prorogue his honour, Even till a _lethe'd_ dulness." --_Singer's Shakspeare_, Vol. ii, p. 280. [468] The breve is properly a mark of _short quantity_, only when it is set over an unaccented syllable or an unemphatic monosyllable, as it often is in the scanning of verses. In the examples above, it marks the close or short power of the _vowels_; but, _under the accent_, even this power may become part of a _long syllable_; as it does in the word _rav´en_, where the syllable _rav_, having twice the length of that which follows, must be reckoned _long_. In poetry, _r=av-en_ and _r=a-ven_ are both _trochees_, the former syllable in each being long, and the latter short. [469] 1. The signs of long and short sounds, and especially of the former, have been singularly slow in acquiring _appropriate names_--or any appellatives suited to their nature, or such as could obtain the sanction of general use. The name _breve_, from the French _brève_, (which latter word came, doubtless, originally from the neuter of the Latin adjective _brevis_, short,) is now pretty generally applied to the one; and the Greek term _macron_, long, (also originally a neuter adjective,) is perhaps as common as any name for the other. But these are not quite so well adapted to each other, and to the things named, as are the substitutes added above. 2. These signs are explained in our grammars under various names, and often very unfit ones, to say the least; and, in many instances, their use is, in some way, awkwardly stated, without any attempt to name them, or more than one, if either. The Rev. T. Smith names them "Long (=), and Short (~)."--_Smith's Murray_, p. 72. Churchill calls them "The _long_ = and the _short_ ~."--_New Gram._, p. 170. Gould calls them "a horizontal line" and "a curved line."--_Gould's Adam's Gram._, p. 3. Coar says, "Quantity is distinguished by the characters of - long, and ~ short."--_Eng. Gram._, p. 197. But, in speaking of the _signs_, he calls them, "_A long syllable_ =," and "_A short syllable_ ~."--_Gram._, pp. 222 and 228. S. S. Greene calls them "the _long sound_," and "the _breve_ or _short sound_."--_Gram._, p. 257. W. Allen says, "The _long-syllable mark_, (=) and the _breve_, or _short-syllable mark_, (~) denote the quantity of _words_ poetically employed."--_Gram._, p. 215. Some call them "the _Long Accent_," and "the _Short Accent_;" as does _Guy's Gram._, p. 95. This naming seems to confound accent with quantity. By some, the _Macron_ is improperly called "a _Dash_;" as by _Lennie_, p. 137; by _Bullions_, p. 157; by _Hiley_, p. 123; by _Butler_, p. 215. Some call it "a _small dash_;" as does _Well's_, p. 183; so _Hiley_, p. 117. By some it is absurdly named "_Hyphen_;" as by _Buchanan_, p. 162; by _Alden_, p. 165; by _Chandler_, 183; by _Parker and Fox_, iii, 36; by _Jaudon_, 193. Sanborn calls it "the _hyphen_, or _macron_."--_Analyt. Gr._, p. 279. Many, who name it not, introduce it to their readers by a "_this_ =," or "_thus_ ~;" as do _Alger, Blair, Dr. Adam, Comly, Cooper, Ingersoll, L. Murray, Sanders, Wright_, and others! [470] "As soon as language proceeds, from mere _articulation_, to coherency, and connection, _accent_ becomes the guide of the voice. It is founded upon an obscure perception of symmetry, and proportion, between the different sounds that are uttered."--_Noehden's Grammar of the German Language_, p. 66. [471] According to Johnson, Walker, Webster, Worcester, and perhaps all other lexicographers, _Quantity_, in grammar, is--"The measure of _time_ in pronouncing a _syllable_." And, to this main idea, are conformed, so far as I know, all the different definitions ever given of it by grammarians and critics, except that which appeared in Asa Humphrey's English Prosody, published in 1847. In this work--the most elaborate and the most comprehensive, though not the most accurate or consistent treatise we have on the subject--_Time_ and _Quantity_ are explained separately, as being "_two distinct things_;" and the latter is supposed not to have regard to _duration_, but solely to the _amount_ of sound given to each syllable. This is not only a fanciful distinction, but a radical innovation--and one which, in any view, has little to recommend it. The author's explanations of both _time_ and _quantity_--of their characteristics, differences, and subdivisions--of their relations to each other, to poetic numbers, to emphasis and cadence, or to accent and non-accent--as well as his derivation and history of "these technical terms, _time_ and _quantity_"--are hardly just or clear enough to be satisfactory. According to his theory, "Poetic numbers are composed of _long_ and _short_ syllables alternately;" (page 5;) but the difference or proportion between the times of these classes of syllables he holds to be _indeterminable_, "because their lengths are various." He began with destroying the proper distinction of quantity, or time, as being _either long or short_, by the useless recognition of an indefinite number of "_intermediate lengths_;" saying of our syllables at large, "some are LONG, some SHORT, and some are of INTERMEDIATE LENGTHS; as, _mat, not, con_, &c. are short sounds; _mate, note, cone_, and _grave_ are long. Some of our diphthongal sounds are LONGER STILL; as, _voice, noise, sound, bound_, &c. OTHERS are seen to be of INTERMEDIATE _lengths_."--_Humphrey's Prosody_, p. 4. On a scheme like this, it must evidently be impossible to determine, with any certainty, either what syllables are _long_ and what _short_, or what is the difference or ratio between _any two_ of the innumerable "lengths" of that time, or quantity, which is _long, short, variously intermediate_, or _longer still_, and again _variously intermediate_! No marvel then that the ingenious author scans some lines in a manner peculiar to himself. [472] It was the doctrine of Sheridan, and perhaps of our old lexicographers in general, that no English word can have more than one _full accent_; but, in some modern dictionaries, as Bolles's, and Worcester's, many words are marked as if they had two; and a few are given by Bolles's as having three. Sheridan erroneously affirmed, that "_every word_ has an accent," even "all monosyllables, the particles alone excepted."--_Lecture on Elocution_, pp. 61 and 71. And again, yet more erroneously: "The _essence_ of English words consisting in accent, as that of syllables in articulation; we know that there are _as many syllables as we hear articulate sounds_, and _as many words as we hear accents_."-- _Ib._, p. 70. Yet he had said before, in the same lecture: "The longer polysyllables, have frequently _two accents_, but one is so much stronger than the other, as to shew that it is but one word; and the inferior accent is always less forcible, than any accent that is the single one in a word."--_Ib._, p. 31. Wells defines accent as if it might lie on _many_ syllables of a word; but, in his examples, he places it on no more than one: "_Accent_ is _the stress_ which is laid on _one or more syllables_ of a word, in pronunciation; as, re_ver_berate, under_take_."--_Wells's School Gram._, p. 185. According to this loose definition, he might as well have accented at least one other syllable in each of these examples; for there seems, certainly, to be some little stress on _ate_ and _un_. For sundry other definitions of accent, see Chap. IV, Section 2d, of _Versification_; and the marginal note referring to Obs. 1st on _Prosody_. [473] According to Dr. Rush, Emphasis is--"a stress of voice on one or more words of a sentence, distinguishing them by intensity or peculiarity of meaning."--_Philosophy of the Voice_, p. 282. Again, he defines thus: "Accent is the fixed but inexpressive distinction of syllables _by quantity and stress_: alike both in place and nature, whether the words are pronounced singly from the columns of a vocabulary, or connectedly in the series of discourse. _Emphasis_ may be defined to be the _expressive_ but occasional distinction of a syllable, and consequently of the whole word, by one or more of the specific modes of _time, quality, force_, or _pitch_."--_Ibid._ [474] 1. This doctrine, though true in its main intent, and especially applicable to the poetic quantity of _monosyllables_, (the class of words most frequently used in English poetry,) is, perhaps, rather too strongly stated by Murray; because it agrees not with other statements of his, concerning the power of _accent_ over quantity; and because the effect of accent, as a "regulator of quantity," _may_, on the whole, be as great as that of emphasis. Sheridan contradicts himself yet more pointedly on this subject; and his discrepancies may have been the efficients of Murray's. "The _quantity_ of our syllables is perpetually varying with the sense, and is _for the most part regulated by_ EMPHASIS."--_Sheridan's Rhetorical Gram._, p. 65. Again: "It is by the ACCENT _chiefly_ that the _quantity_ of our syllables is regulated."--_Sheridan's Lectures on Elocution_, p. 57. See Chap. IV, Sec. 2d, Obs. 1; and marginal note on Obs. 8. 2. Some writers erroneously confound _emphasis_ with _accent_; especially those who make accent, and not quantity, the foundation of verse. Contrary to common usage, and to his own definition of accent, Wells takes it upon him to say, "The term _accent_ is also applied, in poetry, to the stress laid on monosyllabic words; as, 'Content is _wealth, the riches of the mind.'--Dryden_." --_Wells's School Grammar_, p. 185. It does not appear that stress laid on monosyllables is any more fitly termed accent, when it occurs in the reading of poetry, than when in the utterance of prose. Churchill, who makes no such distinction, thinks accent essential alike to emphasis and to the quantity of a long vowel, and yet, as regards monosyllables, dependent on them both! His words are these: "Monosyllables are sometimes accented, sometimes not. This depends chiefly on _their_ being _more or less emphatic_; and on the vowel _sound_ being _long or short_. We cannot give _emphasis_ to any word, or it's [_its_] proper duration to a _long vowel_, without _accenting_ it."--_Churchill's New Gram._, p. 182. [475] Not only are these inflections denoted occasionally by the accentual marks, but they are sometimes expressly _identified with accents_, being called by that name. This practice, however, is plainly objectionable. It confounds things known to be different,--mere stress with elevation or depression,--and may lead to the supposition, that to accent a syllable, is to inflect the voice upon it. Such indeed has been the guess of many concerning the nature of Greek and Latin accents, but of the English accent, the common idea is, that it is only a greater force distinguishing some one syllable of a word from the rest. Walker, however, in the strange account he gives in his Key, of "what we mean by _the accent and quantity_ of our own language," charges this current opinion with error, dissenting from Sheridan and Nares, who held it; and, having asserted, that, "in speaking, the voice is continually _sliding_ upwards or downwards," proceeds to contradict himself thus: "As high and low, loud and soft, forcible and feeble, are comparative terms, words of one syllable pronounced alone, and without relation to other words or syllables, _cannot be said to have any_ ACCENT. The only distinction to which such words are liable, is an _elevation or depression_ of voice, when we compare the beginning with the end of the word or syllable. Thus a monosyllable, considered singly, rises from a lower to a higher tone in the question _Nó? which_ may therefore be called _the acute_ ACCENT: and falls from a higher to a lower tone upon the same word in the answer _Nò, which_ may therefore be called _the grave_ [ACCENT]."--_Walker's Key_, p. 316. Thus he tells of different accents on "_a monosyllable_," which, by his own showing, "cannot be said to have any accent"! and others read and copy the text with as little suspicion of its inconsistency! See _Worcester's Universal and Critical Dictionary_, p. 934. [476] In Humphrey's English Prosody, _cadence_ is taken for the reverse of _accent_, and is obviously identified or confounded with _short quantity_, or what the author inclines to call "_small_ quantity." He defines it as follows: "Cadence is the reverse or counterpart _to_ accent; a falling or depression of voice on syllables unaccented: _and by which_ the sound is shortened and depressed."--P. 3. This is not exactly what is generally understood by the word _cadence_. Lord Kames also contrasts _cadence_ with _accent_; but, by the latter term, he seems to have meant something different from our ordinary accent. "Sometimes to humour the sense," says he, "and sometimes the melody, a particular syllable is sounded _in a higher tone_; and this is termed _accenting a syllable_, or gracing it with an accent. Opposed to the accent, is the _cadence_, which I have not mentioned as one of the requisites of verse, because it is entirely regulated by the sense, and hath no peculiar relation to verse."--_Elements of Criticism_, Vol. ii, p. 78. [477] The Latin term, (made plural to agree with _verba, words_,) is _subaudita, underheard_--the perfect participle of _subaudio_, to _underhear_. Hence the noun, _subauditio, subaudition_, the recognition of ellipses. [478] "Thus, in the Proverbs of all Languages, many Words are usually left to be supplied from the trite obvious Nature of what they express; as, _out of Sight out of Mind; the more the merrier_, &c."--_W. Ward's Pract. Gram._, p. 147. [479] Lindley Murray and some others say, "As _the ellipsis occurs in almost every sentence in the English language_, numerous examples of it might be given."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 220; _Weld's_, 292; _Fisk's_, 147. They could, without doubt, have exhibited many true specimens of Ellipsis; but most of those which they have given, are only fanciful and false ones; and their notion of the frequency of the figure, is monstrously hyperbolical. [480] Who besides Webster has called syllepsis "_substitution_," I do not know. _Substitution_ and _conception_ are terms of quite different import, and many authors have explained syllepsis by the latter word. Dr. Webster gives to "SUBSTITUTION" two meanings, thus: "1. The act of putting one person or thing in the _place_ of another to _supply_ [his or] _its_ place.--2. In _grammar_, syllepsis, or the use of one word for another."--_American Dict._, 8vo. This explanation seems to me inaccurate; because it confounds both substitution and syllepsis with _enallage_. It has signs of carelessness throughout; the former sentence being both tautological and ungrammatical.--G. B. [481] Between Tropes and Figures, some writers attempt a full distinction; but this, if practicable, is of little use. According to Holmes, "TROPES affect only single _Words_; but FIGURES, whole _Sentences_."--_Rhetoric_, B. i, p. 28. "The CHIEF TROPES in Language," says this author, "are seven; a _Metaphor_, an _Allegory_, a _Metonymy_, a _Synecdoche_, an _Irony_, an _Hyperbole_, and a _Catachresis_."--_Ib._, p. 30. The term _Figure_ or _Figures_ is more comprehensive than _Trope_ or _Tropes_; I have therefore not thought it expedient to make much use of the latter, in either the singular or the plural form. Holmes's seven tropes are all of them defined in the main text of this section, except _Catachresis_, which is commonly explained to be "an _abuse_ of a trope." According to this sense, it seems in general to differ but little from impropriety. At best, a Catachresis is a forced expression, though sometimes, perhaps, to be indulged where there is great excitement. It is a sort of figure by which a word is used in a sense different from, yet connected with, or analogous to, its own; as, "And pity, like a naked new-born babe, Striding the blast, as heaven's cherubim _Hors'd_ upon the sightless _couriers_ of the air, Shall blow the horrid deed in every eye, That tears shall drown the wind."--_Shak., Macbeth_, Act i, Sc. 7. [482] Holmes, in his Art of Rhetoric, writes this word "_Paraleipsis_" retaining the Greek orthography. So does Fowler in his recent "English Grammar," §646. Webster, Adam, and some others, write it "_Paralepsis_." I write it as above on the authority of Littleton, Ainsworth, and some others; and this is according to the analogy of the kindred word _ellipsis_, which we never write either _ellepsis_, or, as the Greek, _elleipsis_. [483] To this principle there seems to be now and then an exception, as when a weak dissyllable begins a foot in an anapestic line, as in the following examples:-- "I think--let me see--yes, it is, I declare, As long _ago now_ as that Buckingham there."--_Leigh Hunt_. "And Thomson, though best in his indolent fits, Either slept himself weary, or blasted his wits."--_Id._ Here, if we reckon the feet in question to be anapests, we have dissyllables with both parts short. But some, accenting "_ago_" on the latter syllable, and "_Either_" on the former, will call "_ago now_" a bacchy, and "_Either slept_" an amphimac: because _they make them such_ by their manner of reading.--G. B. [484] "Edgar A. Poe, the author, died at Baltimore on Sunday" [the 7th].--_Daily Evening Traveller_, Boston Oct. 9, 1849. This was eight or ten months after the writing of these observations.--G. B. [485] "Versification is the art of arranging words into lines of correspondent length, so as to produce harmony by the regular alternation of syllables differing in quantity"--_Brown's Institutes of E. Gram._, p. 235. [486] This appears to be an error; for, according to Dilworth, and other arithmeticians, "_a unit is a number_;" and so is it expounded by Johnson, Walker, Webster, and Worcester. See, in the _Introduction_, a note at the foot of p. 117. Mulligan, however, contends still, that _one is no number_; and that, "to talk of the _singular number_ is absurd--a contradiction in terms;"--because, "in common discourse," a "_number_" is "always a _plurality_, except"--when it is "_number one_!"--See _Grammatical Structure of the E. Language_, §33. Some prosodists have taught the absurdity, that two feet are necessary to constitute _a metre_, and have accordingly applied the terms, _monometer, dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, pentameter_, and _hexameter_,--or so many of them as they _could so misapply_,--in a sense very different from the usual acceptation. The proper principle is, that, "One foot constitutes a metre."--_Dr. P. Wilson's Greek Prosody_, p. 53. And verses are to be denominated _Monometer, Dimeter, Trimeter_, &c., according to "THE NUMBER OF FEET."--See _ib._ p. 6. But Worcester's Universal and Critical Dictionary has the following not very consistent explanations: "MONOMETER, _n._ One metre. _Beck_. DIMETER, _n._ A poetic measure of _four feet_; a _series of two_ meters. _Beck_. TRIMETER, _a_. Consisting of three poetical _measures_, forming an _iambic_ of _six feet_. _Tyrwhitt_. TETRAMETER, _n._ A Latin or Greek verse consisting of _four feet_; a series of four metres. TETRAMETER, _a_. Having _four_ metrical _feet_. _Tyrwhitt_. PENTAMETER, _n._ A Greek or Latin verse of _five feet_; a series of five metres. PENTAMETER, _a_. Having _five_ metrical _feet_. _Warton_. HEXAMETER, _n._ A verse or line of poetry, having _six feet_, either dactyls or spondees; the heroic, and most important, verse among the Greeks and Romans;--a rhythmical series of six metres. HEXAMETER, _a_. Having _six_ metrical _feet_. _Dr. Warton_." According to these definitions, Dimeter has as many feet as Tetrameter; and Trimeter has as many as Hexameter! [487] It is common, at any rate, for prosodists to speak of "the _movement_ of the voice," as do Sheridan, Murray, Humphrey, and Everett; but Kames, in treating of the Beauty of Language from Resemblance, says "There is _no resemblance_ of sound to motion, nor of sound to sentiment."--_Elements of Criticism_, Vol. ii, p. 63. This usage, however, is admitted by the critic, had cited to show how, "causes that have no resemblance may produce resembling effects."--_Ib._ 64. "By a number of syllables in succession, an emotion is sometimes raised extremely similar to that raised by successive motion: which may be evident even to those who are defective in taste, from the following fact, that the term _movement_ in all languages is equally applied to both."--_Ib._ ii. 66. [488] "From what has been said of accent and quantity in our own language, we may conclude them to be essentially distinct _and perfectly separable_: nor is it to be doubted that they were _equally separable_ in the learned languages."--_Walkers's Observations on Gr. and Lat. Accent and Quantity_, §20; Key, p. 326. In the speculative essay here cited, Walker meant by _accent_ the rising or the falling _inflection_,--an upward or a downward _slide_ of the voice: and by _quantity_, nothing but the open or close sound of some vowel; as of "the _a_ in _scatter_" and in "_skater_," the initial syllables of which words be supposed to differ in quantity as much as any two syllables can!--_Ib._, §24; Key, p. 331. With these views _of the things_, it is perhaps the less to be wondered at, that Walker, who appears to have been a candid and courteous writer, charges "that excellent scholar Mr. Forster--with a _total ignorance_ of the accent and quantity of his own language," (_Ib., Note on §8_; Key, p. 317;) and, in regard to accent, ancient or modern, elsewhere confesses his own ignorance, and that of every body else, to be _as_ "_total_." See marginal note on Obs. 4th below. [489] (1.) "We shall now take a view of sounds when united into _syllables_. Here a beautiful variation of _quantity_ presents itself as the next object of our attention. The knowledge of _long_ and _short_ syllables, is the most excellent and most neglected quality in the whole art of pronunciation. The disputes of our modern writers on this subject, have arisen chiefly from an absurd notion that has long prevailed; viz. that there is no difference between the _accent_ and the _quantity_, in the English language; that the accented syllables are always _long_, and the unaccented always _short_. An absurdity so glaring, does not need refutation. Pronounce any one line from Milton, and the ear will determine whether or not the accent and quantity always coincide. Very seldom they do."--HERRIES: _Bicknell's Gram._, Part ii, p. 108. (2.) "Some of our Moderns (especially Mr. _Bishe_, in his _Art of Poetry_) and lately Mr. _Mattaire_, in what he calls, _The English Grammar_, erroneously use _Accent_ for _Quantity_, one signifying the Length or Shortness of a Syllable, the other the raising or falling of the Voice in _Discourse_."--_Brightland's Gram._, London, 1746, p. 156. (3.) "Tempus cum accentu a nonnullis malè confunditur; quasi idem sit acui et produci. Cum brevis autem syllaba acuitur, elevatur quidem vox in eà proferendà, sed tempus non augetur. Sic in voce _hominibus_ acuitur _mi_; at _ni_ quæ sequitur, æquam in efferendo moram postulat."--_Lily's Gram._, p. 125. Version: "By some persons, _time_ is improperly confounded with _accent_; as if to acute and to lengthen were the same. But when a short syllable is acuted, the voice indeed is raised in pronouncing it, but the time is not increased. Thus, in the word _hominibus, mi_ as the acute accent; but _ni_, which follows, demands equal slowness in the pronunciation." To English ears, this can hardly seem a correct representation; for, in pronouncing _hominibus_, it is not _mi_, but _min_, that we accent; and this syllable is manifestly as much longer than the rest, as it is louder. [490] (1.) "Syllables, with respect to their _quantity_, are either _long, short_, or _common_."--_Gould's Adam's Lat. Gram._, p. 243. "Some syllables are _common_; that is, sometimes long, and sometimes short."--_Adam's Lat. and Eng. Gram._, p. 252. _Common_ is here put for _variable_, or _not permanently settled in respect to quantity_: in this sense, from which no third species ought to be inferred, our language is, perhaps, more extensively "_common_" than any other. (2.) "Most of our Monosyllables either take this Stress or not, according as they are more or less emphatical; and therefore English Words of one Syllable may be considered as _common_; i.e. either as long or short in certain Situations. These Situations are chiefly determined by the Pause, or Cesure, of the Verse, and this Pause by the Sense. And as the English abounds in Monosyllables, there is probably no Language in which the Quantity of Syllables is more regulated by the Sense than in English."--_W. Ward's Gram._, Ed. of 1765, p. 156. (3.) Bicknell's theory of quantity, for which he refers to Herries, is this: "The English _quantity_ is divided into _long, short_, and _common_. The longest species of syllables are those that end in a vowel, and are under the accent; as, _mo_ in har_mo_nious, _sole_ in con_sole_, &c. When a monosyllable, which is unemphatic, ends in a vowel, it is always short; but when the emphasis is placed upon it, it is always long. _Short_ syllables are such as end in any of the six mutes; as cu_t_, sto_p_, ra_p_i_d_, ru_g_ge_d_, lo_ck_. In _all such syllables_ the sound cannot be lengthened: they are necessarily and invariably _short_. If another consonant intervenes between the vowel and mute, as re_nd_, so_ft_, fla_sk_, the syllable is rendered _somewhat longer_. The other species of syllables called _common_, are such as terminate in a half-vowel or aspirate. For instance, in the words ru_n_, swi_m_, cru_sh_, pu_rl_, the concluding sound can be continued or shortened, as we please. This scheme of quantity," it is added, "is founded on fact and experience."--_Bicknell's Gram._, Part ii, p. 109. But is it not a _fact_, that such words as _cuttest, stopping, rapid, rugged_, are _trochees_, in verse? and is not _unlock_ an _iambus_? And what becomes of syllables that end with vowels or liquids and are not accented? [491] I do not say the mere absence of stress is _never_ called _accent_; for it is, plainly, the doctrine of some authors that the English accent differs not at all in its nature from the accent of the ancient Greeks or Romans, which was distinguished as being of three sorts, _acute, grave, inflex_; that "the stronger breathing, or higher sound," which distinguishes one syllable of a word from or above the rest, is _the acute accent_ only; that "the softer breathing, or lower sound," which belongs to an _unacuted_ (or _unaccented_) syllable, is _the grave accent_; and that a combination of these two sounds, or "breathings," upon one syllable, constitutes the _inflex or circumflex accent_. Such, I think, is the teaching of Rev. William Barnes; who further says, "English verse is constructed upon sundry orders of _acute and grave accents_ and matchings of rhymes, while the poetic language of the Romans and Greeks is formed upon rules of the sundry clusterings of _long and short syllables_."--_Philological Grammar_, p. 263. This scheme is not wholly consistent, because the author explains accent or accents as being applicable only to "words of two or more syllables;" and it is plain, that the accent which includes the three sorts above, must needs be "some other thing than what we call accent," if this includes only the acute. [492] Sheridan used the same comparison, "To illustrate the difference between the accent of the ancients and that of _ours_" [our tongue]. Our accent he supposed, with Nares and others, to have "no reference to _inflections_ of the voice."--See _Art of Reading_, p. 75; _Lectures on Elocution_, p. 56; _Walker's Key_, p. 313. [493] (1.) It may in some measure account for these remarkable omissions, to observe that Walker, in his lexicography, followed Johnson in almost every thing but pronunciation. On this latter subject, his own authority is perhaps as great as that of any single author. And here I am led to introduce a remark or two touching _the accent and quantity_ with which he was chiefly concerned; though the suggestions may have no immediate connexion with the error of confounding these properties. (2.) Walker, in his theory, regarded the _inflections_ of the voice as pertaining to _accent_, and as affording a satisfactory solution of the difficulties in which this subject has been involved; but, as an English orthoëpist, he treats of accent in no other sense, than as _stress laid on a particular syllable of a word_--a sense implying contrast, and necessarily dividing all syllables into accented and unaccented, except monosyllables. Having acknowledged our "_total ignorance_ of the nature of the Latin and Greek accent," he adds: "The accent of the English language, which is constantly sounding in our ears, and every moment open to investigation, seems _as much a mystery_ as that accent which is removed almost two thousand years from our view. Obscurity, perplexity, and confusion, run through every treatise on the subject, and nothing could be so hopeless as an attempt to explain it, did not a circumstance present itself, which at once accounts for the confusion, and affords a clew to lead us out of it. Not one writer on accent has given such a definition of the voice as acquaints us with its essential properties. * * * But let us once divide the voice into its rising and falling inflections, the obscurity vanishes, and accent becomes as intelligible as any other part of language. * * * On the present occasion it will be sufficient to observe, that _the stress we call accent_ is as well understood as is necessary for the pronunciation of single words, which is the object of this treatise."--_Walker's Dict._, p. 53, _Princip._ 486, 487, 488. (3.) Afterwards, on introducing _quantity_, as an orthoëpical topic, he has the following remark: "In treating this part of pronunciation, it will not be necessary to enter into the nature of _that quantity which constitutes poetry_; the quantity here considered will be that which relates to words taken singly; and this is _nothing more than the length or shortness of the vowels_, either as they stand alone, or as they are differently combined with the vowels or consonants." _Ib._, p. 62, _Princip._ 529. Here is suggested a distinction which has not been so well observed by grammarians and prosodists, or even by Walker himself, as it ought to have been. So long as the practice continues of denominating certain mere _vowel sounds_ the _long_ and the _short_, it will be very necessary to notice that these are not the same as the _syllabic quantities_, long and short, which constitute English verse. [494] (1.) In the Latin and Greek languages, this is not commonly supposed to be the case; but, on the contrary, the quantity of syllables is professedly adjusted by its own rules independently of what we call accent; and, in our English pronunciation of these languages, the accentuation of all long words is regulated by the quantity of the last syllable but one. Walker, in the introduction to his Key, speaks of "The English pronunciation of Greek and Latin [as] injurious to quantity." And no one can deny, that we often accent what are called short syllables, and perhaps oftener leave unaccented such as are called long; but, after all, were the quantity of Latin and Greek syllables always judged of by their actual time, and not with reference to the vowel sounds called long and short, these our violations of the old quantities would be found much fewer than some suppose they are. (2.) Dr. Adam's view of the accents, acute and grave, appears to be peculiar; and of a nature which may perhaps come nearer to an actual identity with the quantities, long and short, than any other. He says, "1. The _acute_ or _sharp_ accent raises the voice in pronunciation, and is thus marked [´]; _prófero, prófer_. [The English word is written, not thus, but with two Effs, _proffer_.--G. B.] "2. The _grave_ or _base_ accent depresses the voice, or keeps it in its natural tone; and is thus marked [`]; as, doctè. [Fist] _This accent properly belongs to all syllables which have no other_. "The accents are hardly ever marked in English books, except in dictionaries, grammars, spelling-books, or the like, where the acute accent only is used. The accents are likewise seldom marked in Latin books, unless for the sake of distinction; as in these adverbs, _aliquò, continuò, doctè, unà_, &c."--_Adam's Latin and English Grammar_, p. 266. (3.) As stress naturally lengthens the syllables on which it falls, if we suppose the grave accent to be the opposite of this, and to belong to all syllables which have no peculiar stress,--are not enforced, not acuted, not circumflected, not emphasized; then shall we truly have an accent with which our short quantity may fairly coincide. But I have said, "the mere absence of stress, which produces short quantity, we do not call _accent_;" and it may be observed, that the learned improver of Dr. Adam's Grammar, B. A. Gould, has totally rejected all that his predecessor taught concerning _accent_, and has given an entirely different definition of the thing. See marginal notes on page 771, above. Dr. Johnson also cites from _Holder_ a very different explanation of it, as follows: "_Accent_, as in the Greek names and usage, seems to have regarded the tune of the voice; the acute accent, raising the voice in some certain syllables, to a higher, (_i.e._ more acute) pitch or tone; and the grave, depressing it lower; [Fist] _and both having some emphasis_, i.e. _more vigorous pronunciation_. HOLDER."--_Johnson's Quarto Dict., w. Accent_. [495] (1.) "Amongst them [the ancients,] we know that accents were marked by certain _inflexions_ [inflections] of the voice like musical notes; and the grammarians to this day, with great formality inform their pupils, that the acute accent, is the raising [of] the voice on a certain syllable; the grave, a depression of it; and the circumflex, a raising and depression both, in one and the same syllable. _This jargon they constantly preserve_, though they have no sort of ideas annexed to these words; for if they are asked to shew how this is to be done, they cannot tell, and their practice always belies their precept."--_Sheridan's Lectures on Eloc._, p. 54. (2.) "It is by the accent chiefly that the quantity of our syllables is regulated; but not according to the _mistaken rule_ laid down by _all who have written_ on the subject, that the accent _always makes the syllable long_; than which _there cannot be any thing more false_."--_Ib._, p. 57. (3.) "And here I cannot help taking notice of a circumstance, which shews in the strongest light, the _amazing deficiency_ of those, who have hitherto employed their labours on that subject, [accent, or pronunciation,] _in point of knowledge_ of the true genius and constitution of our tongue. Several of the compilers of dictionaries, vocabularies, and spelling books, have undertaken to mark the accents of our words; but so _little acquainted_ were they with the nature of our accent, that they thought it necessary only to mark _the syllable_ on which the stress is to be laid, without marking the _particular letter_ of the syllable to which the accent belongs."--_Ib._, p. 59. (4.) "The mind thus taking a bias under the prejudice of false rules, never arrives at a knowledge of the true nature of _quantity_; and accordingly we find that _all attempts hitherto_ to settle the prosody of our language, have been vain and fruitless."--_Sheridan's Rhetorical Gram._, p. 52. [496] In the following extract, this matter is stated somewhat differently: "The _quantity_ depends upon the seat of the accent, whether it be on the vowel or [on the] consonant; if on the vowel, the syllable is necessarily long: as it makes the vowel long; if on the consonant, _it may be either long or short_, according to the nature of the consonant, or _the time taken up_ in dwelling upon it."--_Sheridan's Lectures on Eloc._, p. 57. This last clause shows the "distinction" to be a very weak one.--G. BROWN. [497] "If the consonant be in its nature a short one, the syllable is necessarily short. If it be a long one, that is, one whose sound is capable of being lengthened, it _may be long or short_ at the will of the speaker. By a short consonant I mean one whose sound cannot be continued after a vowel, such as c or k p t, as ac, ap, at--whilst that of long consonants _can_, as, el em en er ev, &c."--_Sheridan's Lectures on Elocution_, p. 58. Sheridan here forgets that "_bor'row_" is one of his examples of short quantity. Murray admits that "accent on a _semi-vowel_" may make the syllable long; and his semivowels are these: "_f, l, m, n, r, v, s, z, x_, and _c_ and _g_ soft." See his _Octavo Gram._, p. 240 and p. 8. [498] On account of the different uses made of the breve, the macron, and the accents, one grammarian has proposed a new mode of marking poetic quantities. Something of the kind might be useful; but there seems to be a reversal of order in this scheme, the macrotone being here made light, and the stenotone dark and heavy. "Long and short syllables have _sometimes_ been designated by the same marks _which_ are used for accent, tones, and the quality of the vowels; but it will be better[,] to prevent confusion[,] to use different marks. This mark º may represent a long syllable, and this · a short syllable; as, · · ° · · ° · · ° · ° 'At the close of the day when the hamlet is still.'" --_Perley's Gram._, p. 73. [no · over 'let', sic--KTH] [499] _Dr. Adam's Gram._, p. 267; _B. A. Gould's_, 257. The Latin word _cæsura_ signifies "_a cutting_, or _division_." This name is sometimes Anglicized, and written "_Cesure_." See _Brightland's Gram._, p. 161; or _Worcester's Dict., w. Cesure_. [500] "As to the long quantity arising from the succession of two consonants, which the ancients are uniform in asserting, if it did not mean that the preceding vowel was to lengthen its sound, _as we should do_ by pronouncing the _a_ in _scatter_ as we do in _skater_, (one who skates,) _I have no conception of what it meant_; for if it meant that only the _time of the syllable_ was prolonged, the vowel retaining the same sound, I must confess as ut er [sic--KTH] an inability of _comprehending this source_ of quantity in the Greek and Latin as in English."--_Walker on Gr. and L. Accent_, §24; Key, p. 331. This distinguished author seems unwilling to admit, that the consonants occupy time in their utterance, or that other vowel sounds than those which _name_ the vowels, can be protracted and become long; but these are _truths_, nevertheless; and, since every letter adds _something_ to the syllable in which it is uttered, it is by consequence a "_source of quantity_," whether the syllable be long or short. [501] Murray has here a marginal note, as follows: "Movement and measure are thus distinguished. _Movement_ expresses the progressive order of sounds, whether from strong to weak, from long to short, or vice versa. _Measure_ signifies the proportion of time, both in sounds _and pauses_."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 259. This distinction is neither usual nor accurate; though Humphrey adopts it, with slight variations. Without some species of _measure_,--Iambic, Trochaic, Anapestic, Dactylic, or some other,--there can be no regular _movement_, no "progressive _order_ of sounds." Measure is therefore too essential to movement to be in contrast with it. And the movement "from _strong_ to _weak_, from _long_ to _short_," is but one and the same, a _trochaic_ movement; its reverse, the movement, "_vice versa_," from _weak_ to _strong_, or from _short_ to _long_, is, of course, that of _iambic_ measure. But Murray's doctrine is, that _strong_ and _long, weak_ and _short_, may be separated; that _strong_ may be _short_, and _weak_ be _long_; so that the movement from _weak_ to _strong_ may be from _long_ to _short_, and _vice versa_: as if a trochaic movement might arise from iambic measure, and an iambic movement from trochaic feet! This absurdity comes of attempting to regulate the _movement_ of verse by accent, and not by quantity, while it is admitted that quantity, and not accent, forms the _measure_, which "signifies _the proportion of time_." The idea that _pauses belong to measure_, is an other radical error of the foregoing note. There are more pauses in poetry than in prose, but none of them are properly "_parts_" of either. Humphrey says truly, "_Feet_ are the _constituent parts_ of verse."--_English Prosody_, p. 8. But L. Murray says, "_Feet and pauses_ are the constituent parts of verse."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 252. Here Sheridan gave bias. Intending to treat of verse, and "the pauses peculiarly belonging to it," the "_Cæsural_" pause and the "_Final_," the rhetorician had _improperly_ said, "The constituent _parts_ of verse are, feet, and pauses."--_Sheridan's Rhetorical Gram._, p. 64. [502] "But as many Ways as Quantities may be varied by Composition and Transposition, so many different Feet have the _Greek_ Poets contriv'd, and that under distinct Names, from two to six Syllables, to the Number of 124. But it is the Opinion of some Learned Men in this Way, that Poetic Numbers may be sufficiently explain'd by those of two or three Syllables, into which the rest are to be resolv'd."--_Brightland's Grammar_, 7th Ed., p. 161. [503] "THE BELLS OF ST. PETERSBURGH." "Those ev'ning bells, those ev'ning bells, _How_ many a tale their music tells!"--_Moore's Melodies_, p. 263. This couplet, like all the rest of the piece from which it is taken, is iambic verse, and to be divided into feet thus:-- "Those ev' | -ning bells, | those ev' | -ning bells, How man | -y a tale | their mu | -sic tells!" [504] Lord Kames, too, speaking of "English Heroic verse," says: "Every line consists of ten syllables, _five short and five long_; from which [rule] there are but two exceptions, both of them rare."--_Elements of Criticism_, Vol. ii, p. 89. [505] "The Latin is a far more _stately_ tongue than our own. It is essentially _spondaic_; the English is as essentially _dactylic_. The _long_ syllable is the spirit of the Roman (and Greek) verse; the _short_ syllable is the essence of ours."--_Poe's Notes upon English Verse; Pioneer_, Vol. i, p. 110. "We must search for _spondaic words_, which, in English, are rare indeed."--_Ib._, p. 111. [506] "There is a rule, in Latin prosody, that a vowel _before two consonants_ is long. We moderns have not only no such rule, but profess inability to comprehend its _rationale_."--_Poe's Notes: Pioneer_, p. 112. [507] The opponents of capital punishment will hardly take this for a fair version of the sixth commandment.--G. B. [508] These versicles, except the two which are Italicized, are _not iambic_. The others are partly trochaic; and, according to many of our prosodists, wholly so; but it is questionable whether they are not as properly amphimacric, or Cretic. [509] See exercises in Punctuation, on page 786, of this work.--G. B. [510] The Seventieth Psalm is the same as the last five verses of the Fortieth, except a few unimportant differences of words or points. [511] It is obvious, that these two lines may easily be reduced to an agreeable stanza, by simply dividing each after the fourth foot--G. B. [512] In Sanborn's Analytical Grammar, on page 279th, this couplet is ascribed to "_Pope_;" but I have sought in vain for this quotation, or any example of similar verse, in the works of that poet. The lines, one or both of them, appear, _without reference_, in _L. Murray's Grammar, Second Edition_, 1796, p. 176, and in subsequent editions; in _W. Allen's_, p. 225; _Bullions's_, 178; _N. Butler's_, 192; _Chandler's New_, 196; _Clark's_, 201; _Churchill's_, 187; _Cooper's Practical_, 185; _Davis's_, 137; _Farnum's_, 106; _Felton's_, 142; _Frazee's_, 184; _Frost's_, 164; _S. S. Greene's_, 250; _Hallock's_, 244; _Hart's_, 187; _Hiley's_, 127; _Humphrey's Prosody_, 17; _Parker and Fox's Gram._, Part iii, p. 60; _Weld's_, 211; _Ditto Abridged_, 138; _Wells's_, 200; _Fowler's_, 658; and doubtless in many other such books. [513] "Owen succeeded his father Griffin in the principality of North Wales, A. D. 1120. This battle was fought near forty years afterwards. North Wales is called, in the fourth line, '_Gwyneth_;' and 'Lochlin,' in the fourteenth, is Denmark."--_Gray_. Some say "Lochlin," in the Annals of Ulster, means Norway.--G. B. [514] "The red dragon is the device of Cadwallader, which all his descendants bore on their banners."--_Gray_. [515] This passage, or some part of it, is given as a trochaic example, in many different systems of prosody. Everett ascribes it entire to "_John Chalkhill_;" and Nutting, more than twenty years before, had attached the name of "_Chalkhill_" to a part of it. But the six lines "of three syllables," Dr. Johnson, in his Grammar, credits to "_Walton's Angler_;" and Bicknell, too, ascribes the same to "_Walton_." The readings also have become various. Johnson, Bicknell, Burn, Churchill, and Nutting, have "_Here_" for "_Where_" in the fifth line above; and Bicknell and Burn have "_Stop_" in the eighth line, where the rest read "_Stops_." Nutting has, for the ninth line, "_Others'_ joys," and not, "_Other_ joys," as have the rest.--G. B. [516] OBS.--Of this, and of every other example which requires no amendment, let the learner simply say, after reading the passage, "This sentence is correct as it stands."--G. BROWN. [517] OBSERVATION.--In the Bible, the word LORD, whenever it stands for the Hebrew name JEHOVAH, not only commences with a full capital, but has small or half capitals for the other letters; and I have thought proper to print both words in that manner here. In correcting the last example, I follow Dr. Scott's Bible, except in the word "_God_," which he writes with a small _g_. Several other copies have "_first_" and "_last_" with small initials, which I think not so correct; and some distinguish the word "_hosts_" with a capital, which seems to be needless. The sentence here has eleven capitals: in the Latin Vulgate, it has but six, and one of them is for the last word, "_Deus_," God.--G. B. [518] OBS.--This construction I dislike. Without hyphens, it is improper; and with them it is not to be commended. See Syntax, Obs 24th on Rule IV.--G. B. [519] On the page here referred to, the author of the Gazetteer has written "_Charles city_," &c. Analogy requires that the words be compounded, because they constitute three names which are applied to _counties_, and not to _cities_. [520] OBS.--The following words, _as names of towns_, come under Rule 6th, and are commonly found correctly compounded in the books of Scotch geography and statistics; "Strathaven, Stonehaven, Strathdon, Glenluce, Greenlaw, Coldstream, Lochwinnoch, Lochcarron, Loehmaber, Prestonpans, Prestonkirk, Peterhead, Queensferry, Newmills," and many more like them. [521] Section OBS.--This name, in both the Vulgate and the Septuagint, is _Pharao Nechao_, with two capitals and no hyphen. Walker gives the two words separately in his Key, and spells the latter _Necho_, and not _Nechoh_. See the same orthography in _Jer._, xlvi, 2. In our common Bibles, many such names are needlessly, if not improperly, compounded; sometimes with one capital, and sometimes with two. The proper manner of writing Scripture names, is too little regarded even by good men and biblical critics. [522] "[Marcus] Terentius Varro, vir Romanorum eruditissimus."--QUINTILIAN. Lib. x, Cap. 1, p. 577. [523] NOTE.--By this amendment, we remove a multitude of errors, but the passage is still very faulty. What Murray here calls "_phrases_," are properly _sentences_; and, in his second clause, he deserts the terms of the first to bring in "_my_," "_our_," and also "_&c._," which seem to be out of place there.--G. BROWN. [524] _An other_ is a phrase of two words, which ought to be written separately. The transferring of the n to the latter word, is a gross vulgarism. Separate the words, and it will be avoided. [525] _Mys-ter-y_, according to Scott and Cobb; _mys-te-ry_, according to Walker and Worcester. [526] Kirkham borrowed this doctrine of "Tonics, Subtonics, and Atonies," from Rush: and dressed it up in his own worse bombast. See Obs. 13 and 14, on the Powers of the Letters.--GB. [527] There is, in most English dictionaries, a contracted form of this phrase, written _prithee_, or _I prithee_; but Dr. Johnson censures it as "a familiar _corruption_, which some writers have _injudiciously_ used;" and, as the abbreviation amounted to nothing but the slurring of one vowel sound into an other, it has now, I think, very deservedly become obsolete.--G. BROWN. [528] This is the doctrine of Murray, and his hundred copyists; but it is by no means generally true. It is true of adverbs, only when they are connected by conjunctions; and seldom applies to _two_ words, unless the conjunction which may be said to connect them, be suppressed and understood.--G. BROWN. [529] Example: "Imperfect articulation comes not so much from bad _organs_, as from the abuse of good ones."--_Porter's Analysis_. Here _ones_ represents _organs_, and prevents unpleasant repetition.--G. BROWN. [530] From the force of habit, or to prevent the possibility of a false pronunciation, these ocular contractions are still sometimes carefully made in printing poetry; but they are not very important, and some modern authors, or their printers, disregard them altogether. In correcting short poetical examples, I shall in general take no particular pains to distinguish them from prose. All needful contractions however will be preserved, and sometimes also a capital letter, to show where the author commenced a line. [531] The word "_imperfect_" is not really necessary here; for the declaration is true of _any phrase_, as this name is commonly applied.--G. BROWN. [532] A _part of speech_ is a _sort of words_, and not _one word only_. We cannot say, that every pronoun, or every verb, is _a part of speech_, because the parts of speech are _only ten_. But every pronoun, verb, or other word, is _a word_; and, if we will refer to this genus, there is no difficulty in defining all the parts of speech in the singular, with _an_ or _a_: as, "A _pronoun_ is _a word_ put for _a noun_." Murray and others say, "_An Adverb_ is _a part of speech_," &c., "A _Conjunction_ is _a part of speech_," &c., which is the same as to say, "_One adverb_ is _a sort of words_," &c. This is a palpable absurdity.--G. BROWN. [533] The propriety of this conjunction, "_nor_," is somewhat questionable: the reading in both the Vulgate and the Septuagint is--"_they, and_ their wives, _and_ their sons, _and_ their daughters." [534] All our lexicographers, and all accurate authors, spell this word with an _o_; but the gentleman who has furnished us with the last set of _new terms_ for the science of grammar, writes it with an _e_, and applies it to the _verb_ and the _participle_. With him, every verb or participle is an "_asserter_;" except when he forgets his creed, as he did in writing the preceding example about certain "_verbs_." As he changes the names of all the parts of speech, and denounces the entire technology of grammar, perhaps his innovation would have been sufficiently broad, had he for THE VERB, the most important class of all, adopted some name which he knew how to spell.--G. B. [535] It would be better to omit the word "_forth_," or else to say--"whom I _brought forth from_ the land of Egypt." The phrase, "_forth out of_," is neither a very common nor a very terse one.--G. BROWN. [536] This _doctrine_, that participles divide and specify time, I have elsewhere shown to be erroneous.--G. BROWN. [537] Perhaps it would be as well or better, in correcting these two examples, to say, "There _are_ a generation." But the article _a_, as well as the literal form of the noun, is a sign of unity; and a complete uniformity of numbers is not here practicable. [538] Though the pronoun _thou_ is not much used in _common discourse_, it is as proper for the grammarian to consider and show, what form of the verb belongs to it _when it is so used_, as it is for him to determine what form is adapted to any other pronoun, when a difference of style affects the question. [539] "_Forgavest_," as the reading is in our common Bible, appears to be wrong; because the relative _that_ and its antecedent _God_ are of the third person, and not of the second. [540] All the corrections under this head are directly contrary to the teaching of William S. Cardell. Oliver B. Peirce, and perhaps some other such writers on grammar; and some of them are contrary also to Murray's late editions. But I am confident that these authors teach erroneously; that their use of indicative forms for mere suppositions that are contrary to the facts, is positively ungrammatical; and that the potential imperfect is less elegant, in such instances, than the simple subjunctive, which they reject or distort. [541] This is what Smith must have _meant_ by the inaccurate phrase, "_those_ in the first." For his first example is, "He went to school;" which contains only the _one_ pronoun "He."--See _Smith's New Gram._, p. 19. [542] According to modern usage, _has_ would here be better than _is_,--though _is fallen_ is still allowable.--G. BROWN. [543] From this opinion, I dissent. See Obs. 1st on the Degrees of Comparison, and Obs. 4th on Regular Comparison, in the Etymology of this work, at pp. 279 and 285.--G. BROWN. [544] "The country _looks beautiful_;'" that is, _appears_ beautiful--_is_ beautiful. This is right, and therefore the use which Bucke makes of it, may be fairly reversed. But the example was ill chosen; and I incline to think, it may also be right to say, "The country _looks beautifully_;" for the _quality_ expressed by _beautiful_, is nothing else than the _manner_ in which the thing _shows_ to the eye. See Obs. 11th on Rule 9th.--G. BROWN. [545] Many examples and authorities may be cited in favour of these corrections; as, "He acted independently _of_ foreign assistance."-- _Murray's Key, Gram._, Vol. ii, p. 222. "Independently _of_ any necessary relation."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. i. p. 275. "Independently _of_ this peculiar mode of construction."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 473. "Independent _of_ the will of the people."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 13. "Independent one _of_ an other."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 84. "The infinitive is often independent _of_ the rest of the sentence."--_Lennie's Gram._, p. 85. "Some sentences are independent _of_ each other."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 277. "As if it were independent _of_ it"--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 186. "Independent of appearance and show."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 13. [546] The preposition _of_ which Jefferson uses before _about_, appears to me to be useless. It does not govern the noun _diameter_, and is therefore no substitute for the _in_ which I suppose to be wanting; and, as the preposition _about_ seems to be sufficient between _is_ and _feet_, I omit the _of_. So in other instances below.--G. BROWN. [547] Murray, Jamieson, and others, have this definition with the article "a," and the comma, but without the hyphen: "APOSTROPHE is _a turning off_ from the regular course," &c. See errors under Note 4th to Rule 20th. [548] This sentence may be written correctly in a dozen different ways, with precisely the same meaning, and very nearly the same words. I have here made the noun _gold_ the object of the verb _took_, which in the original appears to govern the noun _treasure_, or _money_, understood. The noun _amount_ might as well be made its object, by a suppression of the preposition _to_. And again, for "_pounds' weight_," we may say, "_pounds in_ weight." The words will also admit of many other positions.--G. BROWN. [549] See a different reading of this example, cited as the first item of false syntax under Rule 16th above, and there corrected differently. The words "_both of_," which make the difference, were probably added by L. Murray in some of his _revisals_; and yet it does not appear that this popular critic ever got the sentence _right_.--G. BROWN. [550] "If such maxims, and such practices prevail, what _has become_ of national liberty?"--_Hume's History_. Vol. vi, p. 254; _Priestley's Gram._, p. 128. [551] According to my notion, _but_ is never a preposition; but there are some who think otherwise.--G. BROWN. [552] "Cùm vestieris te coccino, cùm ornata fueris monili aureo, et _pinxeris stibio oculos tuos_, frustra componêris."--_Vulgate_. "[Greek: Eàn peribálæ[i] kókkinon, kaì kosm'æsæ[i] kósmw[i] chrys~w[i]· eàn egchrísæ[i] stíbi toùs ophthalmoús sou eìs mátaion wraïsmós sou.]"--_Septuagint_. "Quoique tu te revêtes de pourpre, que tu te pares d'ornemens d'or, et _que tu te peignes les yeux avec du fard_, tu t'embellis en vain."--_French Bible_. [553] The word "_any_" is here omitted, not merely because it is _unnecessary_, but because "_every any other piece_,"--with which a score of our grammarians have pleased themselves,--is not good English. The impropriety might perhaps be avoided, though less elegantly, by _repeating the preposition_, and saying,--"or _of_ any other piece of writing."--G. BROWN. [554] This correction, as well as the others which relate to what Murray says of the several forms of ellipsis, doubtless conveys the sense which he intended to express; but, as an assertion, it is by no means true of all the examples which he subjoins, neither indeed are the rest. But that is a fault of his which I cannot correct.--G. BROWN. [555] The article _may_ be repeated in examples like these, without producing _impropriety_; but then it will alter the construction of the adjectives, and render the expression more formal and emphatic, by suggesting a repetition of the noun.--G. BROWN. [556] "The whole number of verbs in the English language, regular and irregular, simple and compounded, taken together, is about 4300."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 59; _Murray's_, 12mo, p. 98; 8vo, p. 109; _et al._ [557] In Singer's Shakspeare, Vol. ii, p. 495, this sentence is expressed and pointed thus: "O, shame! where is thy blush?"--_Hamlet_, Act III, Sc. 4. This is as if the speaker meant, "O! it is a shame! where is thy blush?" Such is not the sense above; for there "_Shame_" is the person addressed. [558] If, in each of these sentences, the colon were substituted for the latter semicolon, the curves might well be spared. Lowth has a similar passage, which (bating a needful variation of guillemets) he pointed thus: "_as_ ----, _as_; expressing a comparison of equality; '_as_ white _as_ snow:' _as_ ----, _so_; expressing a comparison sometimes of equality; '_as_ the stars, _so_ shall thy seed be;' that is, equal in number: but" &c.--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 109. Murray, who broke this passage into paragraphs, retained at first these semicolons, but afterwards changed them _all_ to colons. Of later grammarians, some retain the former colon in each sentence; some, the latter; and some, neither. Hiley points thus: "_As_ requires _as_, expressing equality; as, 'He is _as_ good _as_ she.'"--_Hiley's E. Gram._, p. 107.